bulletin of the psychonomic society , ( ), - aesthetic preference and resemblance of viewer's personality to paintings blair alexander and lawrence e. marks yale university and john b. pierce foundation laboratory, new haven, connecticut we investigated the hypothesis that the degree to which a viewer likes a painting is related to the similarity between the attributes the viewer perceives in the painting and the attributes the viewer perceives in his or her own personality. this relation may reveal itself not only in terms of resemblance to the person's image of real self, but also in terms of resemblance to ideal self, the self the person would like to be. to test these hypotheses, subjects ( ) rated how much they liked each of paintings, and ( ) rated the same paintings, their "real" selves, and their "ideal" selves on identical sets of bipolar adjectives. the results showed a clear rela- tion between liking and similarity to ideal self, and a weaker, although also reliable, relation be- tween liking and similarity to real self. individuals differ in their preferences for works of art. the notion that personality characteristics may bear upon these differences in aesthetic preference not only carries some intuitive credibility, but also has received empirical support. several studies (e.g_, burt, ; juhasz & paxson, ; knapp, ; tobacyk, bailey, & myers, ) suggest that individuals with particular personality "types" prefer characteristic genres or sub- ject matters in paintings. several of the relationships demonstrated in these studies appear to be self-referential; that is, subjects seem to like those paintings with charac- teristics that in some way resemble their own person- alities. we will use the expression "self-reference" to refer to the hypothesis that people tend to prefer paint- ings that have qualities similar to those qualities per- ceived in their own personality. although the studies mentioned above either implicitly or explicitly addressed this hypothesis, their design required the experimenter or an expert to define and designate the salient qualities of the paintings and/or personality (e.g_, juhasz & paxson judged cubist works to be "highly controlled"; knapp's subjects were labeled as "dionysian," "pytha- gorean," or "apollonian" personality types). untested was the question whether-or how-the subjects them- selves perceived the qualities of the paintings. we designed the study reported here to investigate the relationship between personality and aesthetic pref- erence without requiring the experimenter to label characteristics of either paintings or personalities. we propose that the extent to which a viewer likes a given painting correlates with the extent to which the painting is seen by the viewer to embody certain qualities this paper is based on a senior essay submitted by the senior author to the department of psychology, yale university; it grew out of earlier work by drew leder, jay stern, and blair alexander. requests for reprints should be addressed to lawrence e. marks, john b. pierce foundation laboratory, congress avenue, new haven, connecticut . that the viewer believes himself or herself to possess: the greater the similarity (implicitly) perceived, the more the painting is liked_ a second possibility exists, one that appears not hitherto investigated: people may tend to judge a paint- ing in regard to "ideal" rather than "real" (actual) self and thus to admire the painting to the extent that it is seen to embody those attributes held as a personal goal. therefore, we propose that the greater the simi- larity between perception of a given painting and the ideal self, the more the painting will be liked. we de- signed this experiment to test directly the role of self- reference in preference for paintings: each subject rated both his/her personality and a set of paintings with respect to descriptive qualities, thus providing a cogni- tively /emotionally immediate measure of similarity (without asking subjects to judge similarity directly) between perceived qualities of paintings and correspond- ing qualities of real and ideal selves. method subjects thirty-two undergraduate students ( women and men) participated as part of a course requirement. in order to avoid any effects of knowledge about the paintings and artists, eligi- bility was restricted to those who had taken no more than one course in art history_ materials twelve color slide reproductions of paintings constituted stimulus materials. they were : a portrait of paul revere by john s. copley ; stoke-by-nayland by john constable; the annunciation by the master of moulins; the bathers by william a. bouguereau; the obelisk by hubert robert; dancing girl by paul klee; genuflexion of the bishop by jean dubuffet; annette. by alberto giacometti; the golden wall by hans hofmann; the waterfall by henri rousseau; in the third sleep by kay sage; and still life; fruits and flowers by juan van der hamen. in choosing the paintings, we attempted to obtain a repre- sentative sample of art from the th to the th centuries, in- copyright psychonomic society, inc. aesthetic preference and personality eluding abstract, "primitive," surreal, and traditional repre- sentative styles, portraiture, and nudes. again, lest knowledge about and familiarity with the paintings and artists affect the judgments, we chose relatively unfamiliar paintings. artists' signatures were removed from the slides, which were projected onto a smooth, white surface. the sizes, brightnesses, and satura- tions of the reproductions were, of course, presumably not identical to those of the originals; the originals were not being rated, however, and we assumed that the subjects were respond- ing to the slide presentations as pieces of art in themselves. the questionnaire on the paintings contained bipolar scales, each scale composed of a pair of words or phrases. one pole (an adjective or phrase) was labeled " ," the other " ." the pairs of adjectives (or adjectival phrases) were culled from lists of personality attributes presented by allport ( ), cattell ( , ), guilford ( ), osgood, suci, and tannenbaum ( ), and thurstone ( , ). we appropri- ated the most frequently appearing personality attributes and avoided those that appeared on few lists or that could not be rendered applicable to both paintings and personality without profound modification. the pairs were: overly self-confident/ under self-confident; easy to comprehend/difficult to compre- hend; aloof/warm; joyous/sad; agitated/placid; inhibited/ume- strained; sentimental/hard; gregarious/solitary; practical/imag- inative; dominating/meek; and childish/mature. in addition to these pairs, another, denoted "little liking/great liking," appeared on the painting questionnaire. for self-rating, the questionnaire was divided according to "real" self ("myself") and "ideal" self ("the person i'd like to be"). this questionnaire contained the same bipolar scales of adjectives, but omitted the pair denoting liking. several differ- ent forms of both questionnaires were used, varying the order of adjectives to minimize sequential biases. procedure the subjects were run in groups of four to seven. they were told that the study concerned individual differences in art preference. the subjects received the painting questionnaire with written instructions to rate, on a scale from - , each painting on each bipolar scale. the experimenter projected the slides one at a time, and the subjects proceeded to rate each painting. once they had finished rating the paintings, the subjects re- ceived the second questionnaire, together with written instruc- tions directing them to use the same procedure to rate their "real" selves and their realistic aspirations for their "ideal" selves. although they had known that they were to rate them- selves in some fashion, only at this moment did the subjects learn that the ratings of self would employ the same adjectives used with the paintings. in order to obtain a measure of reliability, of the subjects returned approximately month later, and the procedure de- scribed above was repeated. eight men and seven women partici- pated in this second session, for which they were paid. order of presentation of the slides was varied from group to group in both sessions. (varying order is critical; lindauer & dintruff, , for example, demonstrated substantial effects of order of presentation on aesthetic preference. they found that subjects reported greater liking for a piece of traditional art if it followed another piece of traditional art. subjects reported less liking for an abstract work if it followed traditional art than if that abstract work followed another abstract work.) within a testing group, we varied the order of adjectives by giving sub- jects different forms of each questionnaire; moreover, for each subject, the order of adjectives differed on the painting question- naire and self-questionnaire within a single run, and on the two separate runs. results to assess the relation between the degree to which the subjects liked the paintings and the similarity of per- ceived self to paintings, we performed correlations sepa- rately for each subject, using data from the paintings he or she had rated. we first calculated correlations between the degree to which the subjects had liked the paintings and the similarity of perceived actual self to the paintings. the former score-liking-was a straight- forward matter, consisting of the subject's rating of the painting on the -point scale. the latter score-simi- larity-was obtained for each adjective by taking the absolute size of the difference between the subject's rating of the painting and the subject's rating of real self. such a measure-of difference or dissimilarity-was then transformed into a measure of similarity by sub- tracting the dissimilarity score from . this inversion was performed as a matter of convenience, so that the predicted correlations would be positive rather than negative. (the absolute sizes of the correlations are not affected by the inverse transformation.) for each paint- ing rated by a given subject, the similarity scores were summed across adjectives and the total score was cor- related with the subject's reported liking for the paint- ing. the correlation was thus calculated using pairs of scores; this process yielded correlations, one for each subject. there proved to be a small, but statistically reliable, relation between the subjects' liking for the paintings and the "perceived" resemblance of paintings to real self [mean r = . , t( ) = . , p = . ]. following the same analytic procedure for ratings of ideal self rather than real self, a highly reliable and stronger relation appeared [mean r = . , t( ) = . , p < . ]. the statistical manipulations used to arrive at these values are based upon a "city block" model, in which overall dissimilarity equals the sum of the absolute sizes of the component differences. similarity can also be measured using a "pythagorean" model, taking the square root of the summed squares of the component differences. correlations between preference and simi- larity based on the "pythagorean" model emerged as somewhat stronger than those of the "city block" model [for real self, mean r = -. , t( ) = . , p = . ; and for ideal self, mean r = -. , t( ) = . , p < . ]. the correlations are negative here because the dissimi- larity scores cannot be inversely transformed as they were in the "city block" model. test-retest reliabilities over the two sessions were respectable [r( ) = . , p < . i, for ratings of liking; r( ) = . , p < . , for real self; and r( ) = . , p < . , for ideal self] . particularly interesting is the reliability of individual correlations between liking of paintings and similarity of paintings to self: with regard to ideal self, individual subjects were consistent [r( ) = . , p < . ]; for real self, however, the (typically small) relationship between liking and sum- larity itself fluctuated considerably more over time [r( ) = . , p :: . ]. discussion the data support the general notion that aesthetic preference alexander and marks is in part self-refcrential, but only, or at least primarily, if refer- ence is to ideal self. in other words, the subjects liked a painting to the extcnt that the painting was seen to share those qualities that constituted the subjects' ideal. however, although the correlations were highly reliable, they were not extraordinarily strong; an average correlation of . accounts for only % of the total variance. the postulated connection between the degree of liking for a painting and its resemblance to real self was supported as well, although the correlation is so small as to be of little predictive value. given that the studies mentioned above have strongly implied such a relationship, it is not clear why similarity to real self did not predict liking very well. in knapp's ( ) study, subjects who preferred abstract expressionist art tended to be uninhibited, emotional, and imaginative ("dionysian"); those most attracted to geometric paintings tended to be restrained, intellectual, and systematic ("pythagorean"); and those who preferred realistic works manifested attributes of practicality and simplicity ("apollonian"). juhasz and paxson ( ) showed that subjects who posited an internal locus of control preferred cubism (a genre that the experimenters considered "highly controlled "), whereas subjects who posited an external locus of control preferred surrealism ("more uncontrolled"). burt's ( ) study revealed that emotionally stable people preferred paintings depicting calm subjects; emotionally unstable people preferred ones depicting dramatic subjects. finally, tobacyk et al. ( ) found that, for example, "reserved, de- tached, and cool" subjects preferred "cool, calm, tensionless" paintings, and that "imaginative" subjects preferred abstract (as opposed to representational) art. these experimenters ap- parently did not obtain a measure of ideal self; if they had, perhaps they would have found an even stronger correlation be- tween preference and similarity to ideal. i reexamination of the data subject by subject and adjective by adjective revealed a tendency that could have held the corre- lations between liking and self to relatively low levels. the sub- jects generally showed large correlations across paintings on only one or two adjectives, with weaker correlations on the other adjectives. perhaps in the formation of aesthetic preference, only one or two dimensions are "important" to each subject. if we take each subject's single highest correlation between liking and ideal self and average across subjects, we arrive at an absolute value of r = . (compared with . or . when we base each subject's correlation on all adjectives). although the value . is probably somewhat an overestimate, its size nevertheless suggests that a small number of adjectives accounts for much ~f the self-referential relationship. a better method to test this possibility would be to determine in advance the adjectival dimension that is "important" to each subject and only then to calculate a correlation between liking for a painting and the similarity of that painting to the subject's ideal self. moreover, one could ask whether viewers themselves actually acknowledge the similarity between perceived qualities of paint- ings and of self. in the present study, we derived-in fact, we defined- similarity scores from the subjects' judgments of the paintings and of their selves. whether the subjects actually per- ceived these similarities as we defined them, we do not know. of course, it is perfectly possible that an implicit similarity, of which the viewer is not aware, can influence aesthetic preference. in sum, the present study indicates that a subject's aesthetic preference is positively related to the similarity between qualities the viewer sees in the painting and those the viewer sees in his or her ideal self; the direction of causality is, of course, strictly a matter of conjecture. hom the observation that only one or two adjectival dimensions are "important" to each subject, it may prove profitable in the future to attempt to locate the par- ticular dimensions that matter to each person's formation of aesthetic preference. references allport, g. w. personality; a psychological interpretation. new york: holt, . burt, c. the factorial analysis of emotional traits. character and personality, , , - . cattell, r. b. description and measurement of personality. new york: world, . cattell, r. b. the scientific analysis of personality. chicago: adeline, . guilford. j. p. personality. new york: mcgraw-hili, . juhasz, j., & paxson, l. personality and preference for painting style. perceptual and motor skills, , , - . knapp, r. h. an experimental study of a triadic hypothesis con- cerning the sources of aesthetic imagery. journal of projective techniques and personality assessment, . , - . lindauer, m., & dintruff, d. contrast effects in response to art. perceptual and motor skills, , , - . osgood, c. e., suci, g. j., & tannenbaum, p. h. the measure- ment of meaning. urbana: university of illinois press, . thurstone, l. l. thurstone temperament schedule. chicago: science research associates, . thurstone, l. l. the dimensions of temperament. psychomet- rika, , . - . tobacyk, j., bailey, l., & meyers. h. preference for paint- ings and personality traits. psychological reports, , , - . notes i . these two points give rise to the question of whether ideal self is the crucial factor in self-reference-mediated preference; perhaps the correlation with real self actually reflec~s the ~e~~ee to which real self is similar to ideal self. to assess this possibility for each subject, we obtained two values: (i) the difference be- tween the correlation of liking with real self and liking with ideal self, and ( ) the correlation between the judgments of the two selves (eliminating values above . , since these necessarily and spuriously raise the correlation) . the correlation over sub- jects between these two derived values was negligible. th.us, there seems to be little support for the view that the correlation between real and ideal selves accounts for the correlation be- tween liking and real self. . of the bipolar adjectives used in this experiment, no single adjective could be isolated as an effective predictor of liking. taking correlations separately for each subject and for each adjective and averaging across subjects, the dimension "child- ish/mature" proved to be the strongest [mean r = . , ( ) = . , p = . , for ideal self; but mean r = . , t( ) = . , p = . , for real self]. given such low average correlations for single adjectives, it seems unlikely that refinement of the ~d!ec­ tive list will yield a single, consistently good predictor of hkmg, but, rather, that the subjects vary idiosyncratically in the dimen- sions that matter to "self-reference." 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<feff c a e f d e f e a c a ee e f e d d f d e c f e f d e c f f f f e e c f e> /rus <feff f e b c d f c b f e d e a c d e f c f e e f b f d d e e f e c e f d d e a c d e e e d d b e a c d b c e d e e a b c c f e b c f f f e b e e b f e d e> /sky <feff f e e c fa e e e e f b d e f f f d e f c b f e fa f e e e f e c e a f a f e c d f f e fd f b d e f e f e e f b d e f f d e a d f e e e f f f d f f d f c a e c f e f a e> /slv <feff e f a a e a f b d e f f c d e a a e c a f c e b e a f c f e f b d e f e a e f b d e a d f f d f f d f d f e f e e f a d e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f f d f b d e a c a f b f b a f a e c f e e e e d e a c f d e e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d f c c f c c e e f b e f b d e e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /tur <feff f c c c c c e fc e c e d f fc e fc c e d e a c d e e f c c f c f d b e e c b c c e e e f c f c e f c f f e f e b fc fc d c c e c c e> /ukr <feff a e e f c b f e d d f e a c d f c f d d b f d d e e f b f a b e e a c d e e d d e a c d c e d a e f e c e e e f e c f f e f d e> /enu <feff a f f f e f f c c e e e d f c f f e c e e d e d c d > >> >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice norms, culture and economic performance: cae working paper # - teacher truancy in india: the role of culture, norms and economic incentives by kaushik basu january . january , teacher truancy in india the role of culture, norms and economic incentives kaushik basu professor of economics and c. marks professor of international studies and director of the program on comparative economic development department of economics uris hall cornell university ithaca, new york u.s.a fax: email: kb @cornell.edu [this is text of the vera anstey memorial lecture, delivered by the author at the th annual conference of the indian economic association in visakhapatnam, on december ]. acknowledgements: i am grateful to the indian economic association for the invitation to deliver the vera anstey lecture and to ashok mathur for helpful and insightful comments and suggestions following my lecture. teacher truancy in india the role of culture, norms and economic incentives . culture i shall use the occasion of the vera anstey memorial lecture to address a neglected theme in the study of economic efficiency and economic progress, namely, the role of culture and social norms. my aim is to first discuss this in general terms and then illustrate it in the context of contemporary india and, in particular, the widely-discussed problem of teacher absenteeism. given vera anstey’s unwavering interest in india and the broad inter-disciplinary view that she took of economics, my choice of topic, i hope, is apt. the laity, unlike professional economists, has long recognized the role of norms and culture. thus people talk of how certain groups do well economically because they have a ‘culture of hard work’ or are endowed with the ‘protestant ethic’. it is often maintained that nations or peoples that are characterized by a culture of trust and so have an inclination to honour contracts and not break promises at will are the ones that do better (fukuyama, ). max weber, having toured the u.s. in , was impressed by the economic success of the protestant sects and the impact of this on the whole country; and he put this down to the fact that, as swedberg ( , p. ) notes, “the members of the sects were seen as absolutely trustworthy and honest—two qualities that greatly facilitated doing business in a huge country such as the united states.” there are two reasons why economists have ignored these factors. first, by virtue of being non-economic variables they have been perceived as lying beyond the ambit of their expertise. second, it is often presumed that, even if norms and culture can make a difference, there is not much we can do with this information. the mention of culture easily evokes a sense of fait accompli. indeed, “a policy for changing culture” has a slightly absurd ring to it. however, it is arguable that both these presumptions are erroneous. with the rise of strategic analysis and game theory, economics – at least in terms of methodology – can contribute to the study of the role of culture that goes beyond intuition and beyond what the other social sciences can give us. not surprisingly, there is now a small literature rooted in game theory that does try to grapple with culture and social norms. but there is still a great distance to go. as for policy, it turns out there is a lot that we can do when we are informed about the interconnections between social norms and economic performance. this is for two reasons. first, while i believe norms and culture are important determinants of economic well-being, i do not believe they are immutable. cultures change, respond to education and advertising and, in fact, economics. i have elsewhere (basu, ) discussed how in the s koreans were described as lacking in industry and having cultural mores that were doomed to economic failure, which is of course completely contrary to how we think about koreans today. now, while those descriptions may have been inspired, in part, by superciliousness, they also reflect how people’s mores and cultures can change. stressing again the malleability of cultural mores and their connection to economic development, geertz ( , p. ) observes, “[it] has become more and more apparent that tokugawa japan, pre- russia, and the england of were not merely periods of quiet, unchanging stability before a sudden cataclysm of economic revolution, but rather periods of widespread intellectual and social ferment, in which crucial social relationships and cultural values were being altered in such a way as to allow an eventual large-scale reorganization of productive activities” (italics added). all this suggests that we can try to eliminate or modify cultural traits that have harmful consequences on the economy and encourage the ones that aid efficiency and progress. and even though it is true that, at this stage, we do not fully understand what causes culture and social norms to change, the mere recognition that they do change and can potentially respond to policy is important and can help set up a useful research agenda exploring the link between various policies and what they do to our mores. secondly, even when our norms and culture are fixed, knowing how they intertwine with economic variables, enables us to think of new policy interventions and assess more see, for instance, kreps ( ), sethi and somanathan ( ), young ( ), basu ( ), fehr and fischbacher ( ), rao and walton ( ), sen ( ). accurately the costs and benefits of interventions. i shall illustrate this with a formal model in section , below. . india there can be no denying that the indian economy stands on the brink of big changes. over the last decade or two it has grown at rates that were once unthinkable and, by contemporary global comparison, quite outstanding. india’s current foreign exchange balance of $ billion makes it a country with the fifth highest foreign reserves in the world. this is a far cry from the early s when her coffers were all but empty. it is this same fact that makes it surprising that indian companies are becoming global players, with acquisitions occurring all around the world. in the software sector and, increasingly, in pharmaceuticals and steel india is becoming a global player. yet one has to be blind not to notice that much is wrong. india is home to the world’s largest number of poor people – those who earn less than $ a day. its global corporations may be known for their culture of efficiency and clean business, but it is a country of seething corruption, of small companies that double deal and cheat, of a bureaucracy that is grindingly slow and callous. to start a business in singapore it takes days to get the requisite bureaucratic clearances; in india it takes days. the time it takes to resolve insolvency procedures for firms facing closure is months in singapore and months in india. many a ceo can well expect to exit the earth sooner than his firm is allowed to exit the industry. indian teacher absenteeism in government-run schools is reaching epidemic proportions and this problem is representative of much that is wrong with the bureaucracy. several studies show that, when it comes to playing truant from school, indian teachers are very good match for their students (probe, ; rana, rafique and sengupta, ). a multi-country study in which researchers made surprise visits to government-run primary schools shows that in terms of teacher truancy, india is second only to uganda and the defeat is by no means ignominious (kremer et al, ). at any time, % of teachers are found missing from government-run schools in india; the figure for uganda is %. kremer et al ( ) in fact found that only % of the teachers in india were actually teaching at the time of the surprise visits. it is not surprising that, while in terms of higher education india compares well even with industrialized nations many times richer than india, in terms of basic literacy india is at the bottom end of global charts, trailing behind several much poorer sub-saharan african nations. what should be done? for nearly forty years after india’s independence a large number of indian economists felt that large-scale planning, the public sector and government can solve all our problems. what is remarkable is that we are beginning to show the same kind of naiveté once again as a number of economists argue that leaving it all to the market and government making itself scarce can take care of all our problems. the truth is that an economy is an extremely complex organism that requires plenty of abstract analysis, ample statistical information and a handsome dose of policy intuition. markets, individual enterprise and incentives, the ability to write all kinds of contracts are crucial ingredients for an economy’s success. but none of this can function unless government provides the requisite institutional structure (for one, the legal setting for effective and quick contract enforcement) and basic infrastructure. in addition government has to ensure that basic living standards are met and a safety net is provided for the poor and underprivileged. at the same time there is no point in crying hoarse about how our government and the politicians are worthless because government is, in turn, a product of the economy and society. fortunately, there is growing sophistication about the management of the economy and so there is hope that we will not keep swinging between all-government and markets-alone economics, as indian economists have tended to do in the past. where we have not shown sophistication – and this is true not just for india but for the profession of economics generally – is in realizing that much of economic behavior is embedded in social norms, culture and polity – as sociologists have long recognized . let us consider the problem of teacher truancy in india. why does it happen and how should one cure it? in answering such questions we have typically looked for economic variables. this can be very useful. we now know what effect sudden inspections have. we have some idea of the role of salaries on such behavior. analysts see weber ( ), granovetter ( ), granovetter and soong ( ), nee and ingram ( ), swedberg ( , chapter ). have rightly stressed the role of incentives – both carrots and sticks – in creating greater work discipline among the teachers. however, i believe that much of the problem is rooted in culture and social norms. economists assume that, once we cite culture, we are basically planning to do a disappearing act in a welter of words and vague generalities. but that need not be so. it is possible to give rigorous shape to cultural explanations. i shall illustrate this with the example of the teacher truancy problem. but i believe similar cultural explanations are possible for many of the more vexing problems of the indian economy, such as the sluggish and hindering bureaucracy, the problem of ubiquitous corruption, and also matters like workplace sloth. . model that there is more to teacher truancy or absenteeism from school than matters of economic incentives is suggested by the fact that there is an enormous variation in behavior patterns across states. the best state is maharashtra with an absenteeism rate of . % and the worst is jharkhand with a rate of . % (see kremer et al, ). other states are distributed between these two extremes, with, for instance, kerala at . %, west bengal . %, punjab . % and bihar %, no doubt relieved that jharkhand is not a part of it any more. given that teacher salaries (in government-run schools) are standardized across the country and rules of reward and punishments are also fairly uniform across the states (and, i may add, close to zero), clearly a study of teacher truancy that bases itself solely on economic variables would be missing something important. i believe that the missing element here is the fact that human beings are social entities. they rely a lot on society’s approval and try to stay away from behavior that meets with social stigma. it will be shown here that introducing a tiny element of this ‘social’ aspect can enormously enrich our understanding of the homo economicus. i can make no claims to originality in the model that follows. it draws on existing ideas and the only novelty is applying it to the problem of teacher truancy. its importance derives from the fact that a similar reasoning underlies a lot of india’s problems with bureaucracy and labor, in general. consider an economy with a set, n, of teachers, where },..., , { tn ≡ . so there is a total of t teachers. let rs. w be the teacher’s salary. let rs. f be the fine a teacher has to pay if caught absenting himself from school without a valid reason. this is meant to be a summary measure of all the negative consequences that can occur because of truancy. the teacher may lose his job, not get an otherwise-expected raise in salary and so on. instead of detailing such punishments i simply assume that there is a total fine of f. and let p be the probability of being found out when a teacher plays truant. hence pf is the expected economic cost of truancy. since all teachers face the same economic environment, there is no reason to put a teacher subscript to these variables. let z(i) be the benefit that teacher i gets by being truant from school. thus z(i) could be her income at her other job or the rupee-equivalent of the joys of sleep during the daytime. it will be assumed, without any loss of generality, that j > i implies ).()( izjz ≤ now, let me turn to the social variables. assume that teachers, like all human beings, are moral creatures and get satisfaction from knowing that their teaching confers benefit to society. let the value of this be v. in reality, the valuation of this benefit will vary from person to person and should be written as v(i). but for algebraic simplicity, i will assume that this is constant across teachers. finally, a teacher who plays truant suffers social criticism. let s denote this ‘stigma’ cost of truancy. clearly there is a cultural element in this. if lots of teachers are truant, this becomes acceptable behavior; and so in such a society, s will be small. on the other hand, if very few teachers are truant, s will be larger. so if n is the number of teachers, who play truant, we can think of the stigma cost being a function of this. it could be written as s(n), where s’(n) < . this feature of stigma was used by lindbeck, nyberg and weibull ( ) to understand variations in swedish unemployment . let us now consider a teacher ni∈ and see how he will decide whether or not to be truant. suppose that he expects that n teachers will be truant. so, if i is a ‘diligent teacher’--let this be our term for someone who does not give in to truancy--, then his benefit is w + v. if he is truant, his benefit is w + z(i) – pf – s(n). hence, i will choose to be truant if and only if vwnspfizw +≥−−+ )()( ( ) or pfvnsiz ++≥ )()( ( ) by using ( ) for different i’s we can in fact find out how many teachers will choose to play truant. this can be seen clearly using a diagram. let the horizontal axis in figure represent teachers, from to t. the figure shows the graph of the z(i)-function. now, suppose n is the believed or expected level of teacher truancy. given n, calculate s(n) + v + pf and draw a horizontal line in the same figure where the line occurs at a height of this value. this line is shown by ab. what we can assume is that oa in the figure is equal to s(n) + v + pf. it is obvious that every teacher, i, to the left of m will be truant. this follows from ( ). hence, the number of teachers who will play truant is m. mathematically, m is that element of n such that pfvnsmz ++= )()( ( ) equation ( ) defines m implicitly. it says that, if n teachers are expected to be truant, then m teachers, where m is given by ( ), will in fact be truant. figure . z(i) a b io m see, also, besley and coate ( ), lopez-calva ( ). clearly, if then this cannot be an equilibrium, because people will gradually realize that their initial expectation of the incidence of truancy was wrong. as they adjust their beliefs, their behavior will change. we will have an equilibrium when we find an expectation of truancy that gets corroborated by the behavior that is generated by that expectation. ,nm ≠ in order to say this a bit more formally, let me rewrite equation differently, where m is explicitly a function of n. this may be written as ),,( pfvnm φ= ( ) in other words, φ is defined such that, for all n, v, pf, .)()),,(( pfvnspfvnz ++=φ since, s’(n) < , and z’(m) < , it is obvious that ),,( > ∂ ∂ n pfvnφ ( ) hence as n increases, φ will increase. now, we can define an equilibrium. given v, pf, we shall say that n* is an equilibrium level of teacher truancy if and only if ).,,( ** pfvnn φ= figure illustrates an equilibrium. in that figure, i have drawn the graph of a possible φ -function. since this is upward-sloping (in n) and is obviously bounded from above, the case illustrated is a plausible one. in this economy, there are three equilibria, with teacher truancy levels in equilibrium being at n , n and n . figure . ° φ(n, v, pf) n n n n this shows that an economy can have multiple equilibria. two economies that are identical ex ante with identical economic environments (that is, with w, p and f identical) can exhibit very different kinds of behavior ex post, meaning after the equilibrium is established. we can now see why jharkhand and maharashtra can have such different levels of teacher absenteeism, despite the standardization of economic incentives across the nation. it is simply that the two places have developed different cultures of what constitutes acceptable behavior. but acceding significance to culture does not mean that the role of economic policy becomes any less significant. but it does mean that economic variables may work differently than what standard textbooks tell us. and this is indeed the value of this kind of analysis, since it takes us closer to how people behave in reality. first of all, economists attach too little importance to the role of direct social education and other attempts to alter social norms. it is known that people can learn to be social. this can be in the sense of people learning to use a sense of fairness and justice to select among multiple equilibria, as modeled by myerson ( ); and this has deep implications for understanding institutions of justice. but it can also be so in the sense of altering our preferences. human beings can, for instance, be taught to be altruistic and they can be persuaded to be more trustworthy. countries have been known to witness changes in the habits of its citizenry, such as the habit of littering the streets or smoking in public or unmentionables in public. it is true that the process through which these changes occur and the stimulus that causes these changes are not adequately understood. but we know, in principle, that it is possible to change these norms and preferences. in the present context it means, for instance, that it is possible to raise the value of v or raise the stigma-function upwards, which would, in turn, encourage teachers to do their work more diligently. but this is not the line that i shall pursue here. what i will show here is that, even if our preferences and values remain unaltered, behavior can be changed by the use of standard economic interventions; but these interventions can be made extra effective by using the leverage of their connection with the stigma variable. let me make a small assumption. if the φ -function moves up and down a little, let us assume that the selected equilibrium remains in the vicinity of the original equilibrium, that is, it does not ‘jump’ to another far away equilibrium. now suppose an economy is at n in figure . it is easy to check if the economic punishment for truancy is raised, that is, pf is raised, then the graph of the φ -function will move down. hence, equilibrium truancy will go down by a small amount. in traditional analysis, without social variables entering the picture, we would rightly suppose that if we wanted truancy to drop a lot, that is, to go to n , we would need a large increase in pf, roughly proportionately to what was needed for the small change. but notice what happens in this model. as pf is raised steadily, suddenly the high- truancy equilibrium vanishes and the only existing equilibrium will be close to n , in fact, to the left of n (since the graph of the φ -function would have shifted) . suppose we hold the economy there for a while, that is, keep pf raised as much as needed to make the high-truancy equilibrium disappear. after a while, if we set pf back to where it originally was, so that the φ -function returns to where it is in figure , the economy will now remain at n . in other words, no permanent policy changes are needed to alter economic behavior. a temporary policy can achieve permanent changes in this is the same kind of argument that was used in the celebrated paper by schelling ( ) on segregated housing. behavior. this is, of course, a consequence of there being a multiplicity of equilibria , which, in turn, occurs in this model because of the role played by social stigma. . conclusion the model was meant to be an illustration of the possibilities that open up once we make room for sociological variables. it can be extended in different directions. if, for instance, the size of stigma to person i, si, depends not just on the total number of people in the economy who choose to be truant, but to the number of people who choose to be truant in i’s community, the results would change . this could mean the emergence of community level differences. one group can exhibit a significantly higher level of truancy than another. this, in turn, can create feedbacks whereby persons of one community are favored over another for jobs and other responsibilities. in such a model the community-based preferences need not be caused by any ex ante racism, but is a concomitant of equilibrium, an ex post feature of the equilibrium. but, of course, it can be as repressive as innate racism. cultural models can shed light on other areas of concern to india’s policy makers, such as bureaucratic behavior, corruption and labor market inefficiencies. in trying to improve labor market performance and the welfare of the workers themselves, we usually recommend changes in india’s labor laws and regulation (papola, ; basu, ). but a lot of what happens in the labor market happens with no reference to the law. this happens both because so much of the labor market in developing countries lies outside the formal sector (see ghose, , pp. - ) and because we often collectively overlook the law . hence, outcomes are much more dependent on norms and mores of the labor market than economists have typically acknowledged (see singh, , for discussion). and, therefore, if we want to improve labor market functioning, we need to pay more attention on how to influences these norms and the culture of the workplace. a similar policy problem, where a temporary intervention could have permanent effect was studied in the context of child labor by basu and van ( ). ‘community’ here can refer to a racial group, a caste category, i’s co-religionists and so on. hence, the model can be taken the route of membership-based theories of economic behavior (see, for example, banerjee and munshi ; durlauf, ; basu, genicot and stiglitz, ). moving away further from the formal model, one can speculate about what influences our moral and cultural preferences. for instance, it is known that the aesthetics of one’s environment matters in determining how one behaves. people, who live in graffiti-scarred, bottle-littered neighborhoods, develop a sense of failure and resignation; and so cleaning up an area can be a first step in controlling gang violence, for instance. indian bureaucratic offices are often maintained poorly, with litter and the cubism of discarded furniture piled high. it is easy to feel resigned to lower standards in such an environment and not strive to realize one’s better self. economists, being professionally trained to looking at prices and resources, incomes and wages, and pecuniary incentives, tend to dismiss cultural explanations as vague and useless. but if we take serious stock of the success we have had (very little) in controlling corruption, absenteeism at work and bureaucratic red tape, we will realize that culture may at least be worth a try. interestingly, the informal sector can actually expand during a crisis (see islam et al, , in the context of indonesia), thereby making greater room for fugitives from the labor law. references banerjee, a. and munshi, k. ( ), ‘how efficiently is capital allocated? evidence from the knitted garment industry in tirupur’, review of economic studies, vol. . basu, k. ( ), prelude to political economy: a study of the social and political foundations of economics, new york and oxford: oxford university press. basu, k. ( ), ‘the indian economy: up to and since,’ in k. basu (ed.), india’s emerging economy: problems and prospects in the s and beyond, cambridge, ma: mit press. basu, k. ( ), ‘labor laws and labor welfare in the context of the indian experience,’ in a. de janvry and r. kanbur (eds.), poverty, inequality and development: essays in honor of erik thorbecke, new york: springer. basu, k., genicot, g. and stiglitz, j. ( ), ‘minimum wage laws and unemployment benefits when labor supply is a household decision,’ in k. basu, p.b. nayak and r. ray (eds.), markets and governments, new delhi: oxford university press. basu, k. and van, p.h. ( ), ‘the economics of child labor’, american economic review, vol. besley, t. and coate, s. ( ), ‘understanding welfare stigma: tax payer resentment and statistical discrimination,’ journal of public economics, vol. . durlauf, s. ( ), ‘the membership theory of poverty: the role of group affiliations in determining socioeconomic outcomes’, in s. danziger and r. haveman (eds.), understanding poverty in america, cambridge, ma: harvard university press. fehr, e. and fischbacher, u. ( ), ‘social norms and human capital,’ trends in cognitive sciences, vol. , - . fukuyama, f. ( ), trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity, new york: free press. geertz, c. ( ), peddlers and princes, chicago: chicago university press. ghose, a. k. ( ), jobs and incomes in a globalizing world, geneva: ilo. granovetter, m. ( ), ‘economic action and social structure: the problem of embeddedness,’ american journal of sociology, vol. , - . granovetter, m. and soong, r. ( ), ‘threshold models of diffusion and collective behavior,’ journal of mathematical sociology, vol. , - . islam, r. et al ( ), ‘the economic crisis: labor market challenges and policies in indonesia,’ in betcherman, g. and islam, r. (eds.), east asian labor markets and the economic crisis, washington: world bank, and geneva: ilo. kremer, m., muralidharan, k., chaudhury, n., hammer, j. and halsey rogers, f. ( ), ‘teacher absence in india: a snapshot,’ journal of european economic association, forthcoming. kreps, d. ( ), ‘corporate culture and economic theory,’ in j. alt and k. shepsle (eds.), perspectives on positive political economy, cambridge: cambridge university press. lindbeck, a., nyberg, s. and weibull. j. ( ), ‘social norms and economic incentives in the welfare state,’ quarterly journal of economics, vol. , - . lopez-calva, l.-f. ( ), ‘social norms, coordination and policy issues in the fight against child labor,’ in k. basu, h. horn, l. romain and j. shapiro (eds.), international labor standards, oxford: blackwell publishing. myerson, r. ( ), ‘justice, institutions and multiple equilibria’, chicago journal of international law, vol. , - . nee, v. and ingram, p. ( ), ‘embeddedness and beyond: institutions, exchange and social structure,’ in m. brinton and v. nee (eds.), the new institutionalism in sociology, new york; russell sage foundation. papola, t. s. ( ), ‘structural adjustment, labor market flexibility and employment,’ indian journal of labour economics, vol. . probe ( ), public report on basic education in india, new delhi: oxford university press. rana, k., rafique, a., and sengupta, a. ( ), the pratichi education report: the delivery of primary education, new delhi: the pratichi india trust. rao, v. and walton, m. ( ), culture and public action, stanford: stanford university press. schelling, t. ( ), ‘the process of residential segregation: neighborhood tipping,’ in a. pascal (ed.), racial discrimination in economic life, lexington ma: lexington books. sen, a. ( ), the argumentative indian: writings on indian history, culture and identity, new york: farrar, straus and giroux. sethi, r. and somanathan, e. ( ), ‘the evolution of social norms in common property resource use,’ american economic review, vol. , - . singh, j. ( ), some aspects of industrial and labour markets in india; perspectives from law and economics, phd thesis, delhi school of economics, delhi university. swedberg, r. ( ), principles of economic sociology, princeton: princeton university press. weber, m. ( ), the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, new york: scribner’s [published ]. young, p. ( ), individual strategy and social structure, princeton: princeton university press. 	january , 	the role of culture, norms and economic incentives 	kaushik basu 	the role of culture, norms and economic incentives 	 . .pdf 	page editorial organised sound ( ): – © cambridge university press. printed in the united kingdom. doi: . /s editorial this issue of organised sound explores the many facets of sound installation. personally, i have been working in this area for about ten years, during which time i have been increasingly interested in ascertaining a broad, generic definition of the practice, both for my own edification and as a means to better communicate and promote the value of sound installation practice as an important and established contemporary art form. an increasing proportion of sound installations use technology for playback and sensing. be they inter- active or not, it seems appropriate to ask about their value: • what do we take away from them? • how do they enrich our understanding of the world? • do we continue to think about the experience afterwards, thereby developing a deeper apprecia- tion of the ways in which that experience reflects upon our own lives as one does long after viewing a good film or attending a great concert? i do not pretend that my own work has these out- comes, although, like many other installation artists, i strive to create work that will facilitate these out- comes. as is true of other computer-mediated art, new media art is nowhere near its zenith – there is much work to be done in developing a language that communicates clearly and is sufficiently varied to accommodate the many individual artists working in the medium, while maintaining continuity and homogeneity. i ask myself if the experience of these works is simply one of mapping the development of the art form, and in turn the evolution of the technologies, or an unbridled expression of artistic intent. we are lucky enough at this point in the development of new media art to experience both; however there are still many works, even at prestigious festivals, that communicate little more that a technical achievement, and indeed the challenge of writing articles like those in this issue of organised sound is to go beyond the technological developments and communicate something about the artistic intention. if new media art, including interactive sound instal- lation, is to be taken seriously as an art form with the capacity to communicate something of the existential, we need to lose the technology, the technology that makes the work possible, the hours, weeks, months of programming, the innovative technical development. these aspects of the work, which are often revered as great achievements, need to be transparent, conspicu- ous by their absence. the visitor/user/spectator should, in my view, be unaware and unconcerned with the technology creating the experience, feeling a symbiotic relationship with the work that permits a real sense of freedom of interpretation and allows an apparently infinite scope for self-expression and exploration. although technology has developed in leaps and bounds in the last decade, affordable computing power has only recently become sufficient for real- time interactivity. the current state of technology is encouraging for the development of this kind of work; we are living at a time that supports real-time data- driven sound synthesis through fast computing and excellent software tools. the value of sound installation practice can be gauged, not only by the number of pieces on exhibition around the globe at any one time, but in the degree to which the use of sound has permeated the broader realms of installation and fine art. major exhibitions such as sonic boom and the continuing development of sound culture and the interest shown in sound installation by major annual exhibitions/forums, including isea, ars electronica and the new york digital salon, all indicate this slow and quiet evolu- tion. of course this is by no means an exhaustive list, but it does indicate a growing strength in both the levels of interest, the broad support for sound instal- lation, and the depth of practice in the area. the con- tinued strength of these high-profile programmes of exhibition and the ever-increasing depth of writings on sound installation stand as witness to its significance in contemporary cultural practice. given this increase in exploration and exhibition of sound installation works, it is strange that there are sonic boom was curated by david toop and occurred at the hayward gallery, london, in . see http://www.soundculture.org https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core editorial only a small number of books that endeavour to define the genre. one such book is ros bandt’s sound sculp- ture, intersections in sound and sculpture in australia ( , fine art publishing, sydney), reviewed herein by david worrall. one of the challenges of defining the genre is that every work by every artist appears to develop alter- native approaches, methodologies, technologies and outcomes. the idiosyncratic nature of sound instal- lation works makes it difficult to find commonality within the body of works that are understood to form the genre. it is in this context that i have often asked myself, what defines sound installation practice? in terms of interactive, generative, and other tem- porally fluid forms, we can examine each work’s char- acteristics and write at length about the techniques involved in its making: • the loudspeaker placement, • the mappings employed between the input and the sound outcomes, • the relationship between site and design, • the software design, • the sound synthesis algorithms, and so on. if the work uses pre-recorded content then the format of delivery might be discussed, compact disc, multi- channel tape, multi-channel hard disk playback, flash ram or other proprietary technologies; however, the relationship between the format as a mechanism for delivery and the artist’s methodology is a more fruitful area of exploration. the work may employ a strategy of silent tracks to create a slipping synchronisation of the various tracks, or perhaps a level of triggering of sound files rather than allowing them simply to play. alternatively, the sound output may be generated using real-time synthesis techniques, based on any number of data input streams, mapped directly to synthesis variables, or themselves driving higher-order generative processes. all of the above are established techniques, regu- larly applied where appropriate. what stands out from even a cursory survey of sound installation works is that most sound installation artists have used all of the above-mentioned techniques, that no matter how dif- ferent the pieces may seem on the surface, fundamen- tally, only a small range of pragmatic techniques are applied. a list of these techniques might account for about twenty. there certainly are not more than fifty primary methodologies, but such a list of techniques does not of course define sound installation practice. it seems timely to consider a full definition of sound installation practice that pays due respect and consid- eration to the plethora of approaches and idiosyn- cratic characteristics indicative of this body of work. one approach would be to look at other well estab- lished art forms. for instance, is painting all about the use of paint? do lists of techniques for the application of paint define the genre? is a painting defined by the paint or its application? if the painting is not about the pragmatics of paint, what constitutes painting as a practice? what is it that binds the users of paint into a community of practitioners, that allows the use of a generic term for the definition, all be it a loose one, of an area of artistic practice? the broadest definition seems to be independent of style, that is, it applies equally, but not exclusively, to styles as diverse as surrealism, abstractionism, impressionism, cubism, realism, landscape, portraiture and even anti-art. the challenge, then, is to uncover a definition of sound installation that can be applied as broadly as the designation painting, unconstrained by style. the australian sound design project is one inter- esting attempt to answer some of these questions. whilst working as a research assistant at the inception of this project, i was involved with dr ros bandt in developing a data model to represent the many forces influencing the development of a sound installation work. this model (see figure) was developed as a way of determining what data should be collected from participants in the project. it was necessary to examine the various stakeholders acting upon each work, and the many facets of developing and executing a sound installation. the work itself was considered central to all the relationships. for instance, it can be seen that the same methodology may be applied to several works; indeed the same conceptual framework may find its fulfilment in a number of different works. for instance, if the central concept is an exploration of the sonification of naturally occurring phenomena, then the artist may develop several installation works as a result of their exploratory journey. the nature of the singular and plural relationships forms one of the most fascinating aspects of the model – that there are so few singular relationships was a surprise; it stands to reason that each presentation of the work has a singu- lar duration, and that each site can have only one acoustic space; however, almost every other relation- ship in the model is dualistic. this was surprising, illustrating the complexity inherent in the task of developing a generic definition of sound installation practice. this model may act as a useful foundation for the consideration of the articles herein. the articles range from a consideration of space, both in terms of the landscape (wright/cook, paine), to the built environment (rudi, giomi/meacci/ schwoon) and more specifically the resonance of architectural built spaces, to the phenomenology of sound= time=space (bain). other articles explore the virtual space of the computer game (schütze), or its current director dr ros bandt established the australian sound design project at the beginning of with the assistance of a large australian research council (arc) grant. the project seeks to document the work of australian sound designers, thereby encouraging discourse in the field. the project can be found at the following url: http://www.sounddesign.unimelb.edu.au/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core editorial space as performance (rebelo), or as a combination of architectural space and human interaction, the cre- ation of what klein terms ‘sound situations’. bandt brings us back to the indigenous practices of listening to the land through her survey of australian aeolian practices, while in stark contrast, davis takes us on a journey through the works of alvin lucier and the concept of the ‘theatricality of minimalism’. schäfer and krebs put forward a typology of sound instal- lation, which is seen here for the first time in english, having been translated and extended through the application of the typology to other artists’ works by john dack and ralf nuhn. we present therefore two models that may assist the reader in developing a more cohesive description of sound installation as a practice. this issue is rounded out with reviews by leigh landy of three books addressing sound installation works, published by kehrer verlag, heidelberg. they address the works of felix hess: light as air; robin minard: silent music – between sound art and acous- tic design; and christina kubisch: klangraumzeit- licht, as well as the above-mentioned worrall review of the bandt publication. the tribute to luciano berio, written by his col- league francesco giomi, is imperative in an edition that contains a discussion of the great master’s work. it celebrates an area to which berio contributed a great deal. the spatialisation and composition work at centro tempo reale is an acknowledgement of berio’s vision and passion. we acknowledge his passing with sadness and with great gratitude to his substantial contribution to the sonic arts, most par- ticularly, the application of technology to the making of new sounds. brief summaries of the articles follow: wright and cook outline their project arbol: deer- b-gone, an outdoor sound installation that proposes a guerrilla approach to sound installation art by focus- ing on low-tech concepts and supplies, displaying an ‘irreverence for mainstream consumerism, created something like a disney world theme park gone awry’. the installation took place in a back yard in princeton, new jersey, usa. paine’s article outlines a large responsive sound installation, reeds, which used two weather stations to generate eight channels of music in real time based on current meteorological conditions. the sounds figure. the data model from the australian sound design project. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core editorial emanated from twenty-one fabricated pods of river reeds floating on the ornamental lake in the royal botanic gardens in melbourne, australia. reeds acted as an interface to auralise the internal activity of the plant, the photosynthesis, nutrient gathering and other activities excited by the weather characteristics being measured, invisible to the eye, but sufficiently powerful to break open seemingly impervious built surfaces, roads and buildings. the aesthetic inspira- tion for the project was the imaginary sound one would hear by placing your ear against a plant, but it was also sensitive to the sounds of the environment, wildlife, sounds of traffic, aircraft, etc., and considered the layout of the site through spatialisation making the sounds dynamic in a d space. rudi outlines a large sound installation, norge – et lydrike, norway remixed, undertaken in collabora- tion with norwegian broadcasting corporation (nrk) and norwegian network for technology, acoustic and music (notam) for the ultima con- temporary music festival in olso, norway. it is a fascinating approach to drawing the entire country together by transmitting sound from many locations in norway to a central listening space. the work raises some interesting questions about sound object as har- binger of both nationality and belonging – something that would no doubt generate passionate discussion amongst the sound ecology fraternity, but makes for interesting consideration of the ability of sound to carry environmental characteristics and imply cultural activity or sensibilities. these second- and third-order levels of communication are of particular relevance to sound installation practitioners. giomi, meacci and schwoon outline a large electroacoustic installation conceived and directed by luciano berio for renzo piano’s auditorium in rome. it is especially timely, given berio’s recent pass- ing, to celebrate his extraordinary vision and passion for electroacoustic music, amply illustrated in this project by both technical innovation, typical of centro tempo reale’s consummate technical and aesthetic awareness, and berio’s ongoing passion to promote electroacoustic music to the wider public. the article discusses the many challenges of making sound respond to a large modern architectural space, a process that required some careful sound design and spatialisation techniques. bain presents a thoughtful exploration of the phenomenology of the temporal nature of sound as a representation of three-dimensional space. bain is interested in ‘transducing architecture’, which he describes as ‘driving the space with external influences of a vibro-kinetic nature’. he achieves this by attach- ing transducers to the structure and foundation of architectural structures, running impulses through the structure which creates both sound and structural vibrations in relation to the size, design and construc- tion materials of the space. the structure becomes resonant, inducing sympathetic vibrations, in effect, tuning the building. bain professes an interest in applying these vibrational structures to induce an evolutionary process that binds the human and tech- nological time scale, an ‘art of the future where the body along with the mind is driven through intensify- ing experiences and provoked into new territories in reference to the self, to others and to machines’. schütze is the lead audio designer for blue tongue software in melbourne, australia and was responsible for the sound design for the xboxtm game, jurassic park – operation genesis. his article provides an interesting exploration of the ‘next generation’ gam- ing console as a virtual site for sound installations, and elucidates the many considerations a sound designer has to ponder when creating a surround sound envi- ronment for a computer game, where some events are predictable and some are not. the surround sound aspects of the audio design exposes the remarkable hardware capabilities these new gaming engines have, being able to mix sixty-four d sounds in real time, and allocating priority mixing when the demand exceeds specification. the gaming engine must surely deserve some serious consideration by sound instal- lation artists as a real-time, interactive base for spatialised sound. rebelo discusses the idea of performance, that is engagement and interaction, as a design approach to the creation of interactive digital environments, which he considers as ‘user-spaces; a condition which replaces the art object with a configuration of inter- actions’. the idea of performance defines the ‘inhabit- ant’ as a full participant, a user, a performer of space. this idea is illustrated by two interactive installations by the author, and raises the interesting hypothesis that space is defined by our interaction with it, creating a momentary, multi-modal installation space. klein outlines his approach to placing sound in space, extending guy debord’s ‘conscious creation of situations’ to what klein calls ‘sound situations’. for klein, ‘sound situations’ refers to a particularly focused approach to the relationship between musical space and architectural space. he illustrates this approach through his work ‘transitions – berlin junc- tion’, a public sound installation that uses both acous- tic and built space (in this case the large steel sculpture berlin junction by new york sculptor richard serra), responding to moment by triggering specific sound and speech transformations, emphasising the moment of passage. bandt’s article ‘aeolian sound practices in austra- lia’ addresses not only the placement of sound in the landscapes, but also the reverse, that is, the applica- tion of environmental phenomena to the creation of sound. bandt draws our attention to the existence of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core editorial such practices in traditional australian aboriginal instruments such as the bullroarer (kallingooroo) and then proceeds to provide a detailed survey of australian practices in the area from alan lamb’s long-distance telegraph wire installations to john rose’s recent work recording outback australian fences, percy grainger’s various aeolian inspirations, and chris cree brown’s aeolian harp inspired by a recent antarctic residency. randal davis provides a thorough survey of the work of alvin lucier. he explores the dynamic between his concert and installation works, and extends the journey by discussing the ‘theatricality of minimalism’. randal davis discusses michael fried’s term ‘literalist art’, which became a central element in thinking about installation work, and contrary to my own desire, davis concludes that a precise morphology of installation will remain elusive’. schäfer and krebs put forward a theoretical struc- ture derived from their own practice and encapsulated in a typology of five installation types. they are con- cerned with creating an architectonic space that is ‘not only meant to give an intensive spatial experience’, but ‘also becomes an experience of shaping time acousti- cally and artistically’. the article is translated from the original german by john dack and ralf nuhn, and contextualised by them through the application of the schäfer/krebs typologies to the works of other artists. the article makes a thoughtful contribution to both a generic theoretical base and its application. garth paine guest editor https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pii: - ( ) - advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. espacio americano y teoría europea. diálogos en literatura y pintura cristina elgue-martini resumen en un primer momento, el artículo se aproxima a la poética de alejo carpentier entendida como resultado de procesos de transculturación que consideran los contactos transoceánicos del escritor con las vanguardias europeas, en especial, con el movimiento surrealista francés, y con la antropología. en un segundo momento del análisis, se consideran las pinturas de wilfredo lam de los ’s desde los postulados de “lo real-maravilloso” de carpetier y se las hace dialogar asimismo con la obra de jackson pollock producida en las décadas de y . tanto la obra de lam como la de pollock manifiestan procesos de transculturación en las que la psicología profunda de carl jung constituye un elemento insoslayable, lo mismo que el surrealismo y el cubismo. palabras clave: ​alejo carpentier - wilfredo lam - jackson pollock - espacio americano - teoría europea abstract primarily, the article approaches alejo carpentier’s poetics understood as the result of processes of transculturation that incorporate the author’s transoceanic contacts with the european avant garde movements, mainly french surrealism, and anthropology. secondly, the analysis considers the paintings produced by wilfredo lam in the ’s following the principles of carpentier’s magic realism and next compares them with jackson pollock’s production of the ’s and ’s. both lam’s and pollock’s work shows processes of transculturation in which carl jung’s deep psychology, as well as surrealism and cubism, are essential constitutive elements. keywords: ​alejo carpentier - wilfredo lam - jackson pollock – american space – european theory introducción en esta presentación, aspiro, en un primer momento, a realizar una aproximación a la poética de alejo carpentier, entendida como resultado de procesos de transculturación que consideran los contactos transoceánicos del escritor con las vanguardias europeas, en especial con el movimiento surrealista francés, y con la antropología. en un segundo momento del análisis, me propongo considerar las pinturas de lam de los años desde los postulados de “lo real-maravilloso” de carpentier y hacerlas dialogar, asimismo, con la obra de jackson pollock, producida en las décadas de y . tanto la obra de lam como la de pollock manifiestan procesos de transculturación en las que la psicología profunda de carl jung constituye un elemento insoslayable, igual que el surrealismo y el cubismo. -el campo literario alejo carpentier ( - ) revista de culturas y literaturas comparadas. volumen - año esta obra está bajo una licencia creative commons atribución – no comercial – sin obra derivada . internacional. aunque ​el reino de este mundo​ ( )​ es uno de los primeros relatos mágico-realistas que adquirieron valor paradigmático, más que al relato mismo, quiero dedicarme al análisis del prólogo, debido a que, en él, carpentier define la nueva estética. comienza por caracterizar "lo real-maravilloso" en los siguientes términos: lo maravilloso comienza a serlo de manera inequívoca cuando surge de una inesperada alteración de la realidad (el milagro), de una revelación privilegiada de la realidad, de una iluminación inhabitual o singularmente favorecedora de las inadvertidas riquezas de la realidad, de una ampliación de las escalas y categorías de la realidad percibidas con particular intensidad en virtud de una exaltación del espíritu que lo conduce a un modo de "estado límite”. ( ) carpentier señala, en esta definición, dos fuentes en la gestación de "lo real-maravilloso": la realidad y la exaltación del espíritu, que remiten, respectivamente, al objeto y al sujeto. consideremos primero el objeto. según el autor, la realidad americana tiene carácter maravilloso tanto en su geografía y en su historia, como en la mentalidad de sus pueblos; pero ¿qué entiende carpentier por una realidad maravillosa? aplicado a la geografía, el epíteto alude a la "magia de la vegetación tropical, la desenfrenada creación de formas de nuestra naturaleza -con todas sus metamorfosis y simbiosis" ( ); con respecto a la historia, "lo real-maravilloso se encuentra a cada paso en las vidas de los hombres que inscribieron fechas en la historia del continente" ( ); referido finalmente a la mentalidad de los pueblos hispanoamericanos, lo maravilloso apunta a lo que los antropólogos, a falta de mejor denominación, llamaron por esa época "mentalidad primitiva" o "arcaica". en otras palabras, la realidad del escritor mágico-realista no es ya la realidad de cuño positivista. se trata ahora de una realidad mágica, pero mágica no en el sentido con que el término había sido utilizado por los críticos europeos de la década del veinte -para aludir a una cualidad espiritual o ideal de la realidad-, sino específicamente con el significado que le atribuyen los antropólogos al describir la mentalidad primitiva. brevemente, y basándome en lucien lévy-bruhl , la magia surge del carácter "místico" de este tipo de mentalidad, debiendo entenderse por "mística", "la croyance à des forces, à des influences, à des actions imperceptibles aux sens, et cependant réelles" ( ) . para el primitivo, toda realidad está penetrada de misticismo y en virtud de la ​ley de participación​ , que rige los vínculos de sus representaciones colectivas, en estas representaciones colectivas de la mentalidad primitiva, "les objets, les êtres, les phénomènes peuvent être, d'une façon incompréhensible pour nous, à la foi eux-mêmes et autre chose qu'eux-mêmes" ( ). esta es la llamada participación vivida, a la que sucede la participación representada, estadio en el que, según lévy-bruhl, las fuerzas místicas se encarnan en seres más o menos divinos, surgiendo de esta manera los mitos y los símbolos. este carácter "mágico" o "místico" de la mentalidad primitiva desde la que se aprehende la realidad es lo que permite dar cuenta de las principales características del "realismo mágico americano", donde el milagro en el desarrollo de las acciones, la presencia de una naturaleza mimética y orgánica donde se confunden orden y grado de aunque en sus ensayos carpentier no hace referencia a lévy-bruhl, teniendo en cuenta el interés del escritor cubano por los temas antropológicos y que su estadía en parís transcurre entre y , no debe descartarse la posibilidad de que conociera la obra del sociólogo y antropólogo francés. resulta claro que el adjetivo no está utilizado con el contenido adjudicado al misticismo religioso de nuestras sociedades. cristina elgue-martini los objetos, plantas, animales y seres humanos se explica no en términos de una "desrealización", sino como consecuencia de la realidad antropológica del referente. en efecto, en lo que respecta a la concepción y valoración del mundo natural, la naturaleza distinta y antagonista del hombre de la novela realista-naturalista americana se transforma en un mundo animado, esencial y afectivamente unido al hombre. en lo que se refiere al desarrollo de las acciones, el milagro, que había sido eliminado por la novela naturalista, encuentra ahora un lugar privilegiado. claro que empleo "milagro" desde la perspectiva racional occidental, ya que, considerado desde la mentalidad del hombre de esta narrativa, el milagro tiene una explicación antropológica. como lo indica carpentier en el prólogo de ​el reino de este mundo​ "pisaba yo una tierra donde millares de hombres ansiosos de libertad creyeron en los poderes licantrópicos de mackandal, a punto de que esa fe colectiva produjera un milagro el día de su ejecución" ( ). también, la realidad antropológica del referente explica la presencia del mito y el símbolo -correspondientes al estadio de la participación representada, según lévy-bruhl-, que en la narrativa mágico-realista sustituyen a la alegoría del realismo-naturalismo. dije que "lo real-maravilloso" tiene dos fuentes: el objeto, al que acabo de referirme, y el sujeto. con respecto al segundo, según carpentier, para percibir "las inadvertidas riquezas de la realidad" es necesaria "una exaltación del espíritu": "la sensación de lo maravilloso presupone una fe" ( ). ahora bien, la fe que les permitió captar esa "inesperada alteración de la realidad (el milagro)" no se manifestó espontáneamente en los escritores hispanoamericanos de la generación de carpentier; fue, por el contrario, en gran medida, el fruto de medulosas investigaciones acerca de "las realidades sincréticas" de la américa mestiza y, al mismo tiempo, de la experiencia surrealista. a pesar de que el prólogo de ​el reino de este mundo​ es acerbamente crítico del movimiento de bretón, carpentier nunca dejó de reconocer la importancia que tuvo el surrealismo en su formación intelectual y artística. recordemos que fue miembro del grupo surrealista desde su llegada a parís en y que, aunque en se unió a los disidentes que firmaron el virulento manifiesto contra bretón, la ruptura con la escuela no significó para carpentier el rechazo de sus postulados. los artículos sobre pintores vanguardistas -francis picabia, alberto martini, per krogh, giorgio de chirico- que escribió para la revista ​social de la habana durante su estada en parís muestran ya un explícito reconocimiento al movimiento, ya influencias ideológicas o estéticas del mismo. mucho más tarde, en una entrevista de luis harss, carpentier expresa su deuda para con el surrealismo. así registra harss la evaluación que carpentier realizaba en los a propósito de la época de su estada en parís: lo carcomía el deseo de expresar el mundo de américa, de hacer que sus riachuelos perdidos afluyeran a la mar. agradece a los surrealistas su despertar del sueño milenario ; ellos le revelaron su verdadera imagen. los que habían viajado a américa, a méxico en particular, habían vuelto con flamantes noticias de las viejas civilizaciones. acaso el interés que sentían por lo primitivo no tardó en convertirse en una afectación, pero en él desencadenó un impulso atávico. (harss, ) la expresión es de carpentier, "problemática de la actual novela latinoamericana" en ​tientos y diferencias​ , buenos aires, calicanto, , p. . el énfasis es mío. revista de culturas y literaturas comparadas. volumen - año las teorías de bretón, la convivencia con el grupo surrealista en parís y, sobre todo, la vivencia del objeto surrealista dejaron profundas huellas en carpentier. al volver a américa, no solo le permitió percibir "escalas y categorías de la realidad" que habían permanecido antes ocultas, sino que le brindó los medios expresivos para plasmarlas artísticamente y superar así el nativismo de su primera novela , erigiéndose en "cronista de indias" de su continente, tal la función que el autor cubano asignaba al escritor hispanoamericano. en un trabajo publicado en analicé ​los manifiestos surrealistas de bretón con vistas a considerar su presencia en carpentier y llegué a la conclusión de que lo maravilloso surrealista puede ser considerado como punto de partida de lo real-maravilloso porque: ) el significado del término maravilloso en la estética de carpentier es el mismo que en los manifiestos de bretón; ) si bien en carpentier hay una mayor ponderación de la realidad, el mejor surrealismo no rechazó la realidad empírica sino que intentó superarla, revelando sus aspectos mágicos, su misterio; ) la revelación, tan importante para el escritor mágico-realista, era función esencial del poeta surrealista; ) aunque carpentier rechazó el método surrealista de acceso a la supra-realidad, descubrió las "inadvertidas riquezas de la realidad" americana a través de una percepción estética agudizada por la experiencia surrealista; ) la fe que supone la sensación de lo maravilloso para carpentier fue, también, un rasgo distintivo de la doctrina de bretón; ) la fe de carpentier, lo mismo que la de bretón, opera en un universo mágico donde las leyes de la lógica discursiva han perdido su vigencia (elgue ); ) el humor negro que aparece, por ejemplo, como estrategia discursiva en la primera página de ​el reino de este mundo, poniendo en relación las cabezas de cera que adornan la tienda del peluquero y las cabezas de terneros de la tripería contigua, fue un recurso utilizado por los surrealistas para criticar el mecanismo mental convencional, otorgando al contexto un carácter grotesco y alucinante que contribuye a la desrealización momentánea del objeto. para cerrar este primer apartado, quisiera citar a roberto gonzález echeverría, cuya opinión resulta esclarecedora de mi posicionamiento. escribe el crítico cubano-estadounidense: "hay dos vertientes del realismo mágico, a veces distinguibles por (…) dos rúbricas (…). la primera, realismo mágico, que surge del libro de roh, es la fenomenológica; la segunda, lo real maravilloso, de ascendencia surrealista, es la ontológica" ( ). -el campo de la pintura wilfredo lam ( - ) desde mi experiencia perceptiva, uno de los pintores cuya obra expresa con mayor cercanía la vivencia y la estética de lo real-maravilloso de carpentier es la de wilfredo lam. en efecto, su estilo híbrido está caracterizado, como expresé al referirme a “lo real-maravilloso”, por “la presencia de una naturaleza mimética y orgánica donde se confunden orden y grado de los objetos, plantas, animales y seres humanos”. lam nació en sagua la grande, una ciudad de provincia en el norte de la isla de cuba. su padre era un inmigrante chino y su madre era hija de un mulato cubano y de se trata de ​ecué-yamba-o​ , publicada en madrid en . a propósito de ella diría carpentier "al cabo de veinte años de investigaciones acerca de las realidades sincréticas de cuba, me di cuenta de que todo lo hondo, lo verdadero, lo universal, del mundo que había pretendido pintar en mi novela había permanecido fuera del alcance de mi observación". "problemática de la actual novela latinoamericana", p. y . cristina elgue-martini una congolesa que había sido esclava. su infancia se desarrolló, entonces, en un medio en el predominaba la etnia africana y la hibridación religiosa. a través de su madrina, que era una reconocida curadora y sacerdotisa de la santería, conoció de niño los ritos orishas africanos, que constituyeron un importante elemento en las primeras etapas de su construcción identitaria, que se expresaría, luego, fuertemente en su arte. establecido en la habana, lam estudió en la escuela de bellas artes y de allí pasó a madrid en , donde fue discípulo de fernando Álvarez de sotomayor, maestro de salvador dalí y, por entonces, director del museo del prado. en la década del , era ya evidente la impronta surrealista en la pintura de lam, pero también las huellas de matisse y de torres garcía, quien, a partir de , había entrado en contacto con las vanguardias, sobre todo a través del rafael barradas, cuyo “vibracionismo” ha sido considerado como variante del futurismo (battegazzore, ). por esa época, torres garcía estaba nuevamente en europa después de pasar casi dos años en nueva york y, entre y , ensayaría su “constructivismo temprano” (battegazzore, ), nuevo componente de esa conciencia en red de la europa vanguardista. en , una exposición itinerante de picasso fue inspiradora para lam, tanto estética como políticamente. establecido en parís ese mismo año, tuvo el apoyo de picasso a través de quien revalorizó su temprana vivencia del arte y la cultura africana. como en el caso de carpentier, entonces, la experiencia europea confirmó su vocación americana. en el mismo año, lam viajó a méxico donde estableció contactos con frida kahlo y diego rivera. por ese entonces se convirtió en artista consagrado. tuvo una exposición individual en la galerie pierre loeb de paris en y, el mismo año, su trabajo se expuso junto al de picasso en las paris galleries de nueva york. por efecto de la segunda guerra mundial, un importante diálogo estético-cultural tuvo como escenario al caribe. participaron de él claude levi-strauss, andré masson y andré bretón, cuyo poema “fata morgana”, escrito en marsella en , ilustró wilfredo lam. lam volvió a cuba a comienzos de la década de y leyó las teorías de carl jung, que se integraron como nuevo componente de su identidad americana. produjo, entonces, una de sus composiciones más destacadas, “la jungla” ( ), seguida de otras muy significativas como “la presencia eterna” y “arpa cardinal”. vemos en estas composiciones la "magia de la vegetación tropical, la desenfrenada creación de formas de nuestra naturaleza—con todas sus metamorfosis y simbiosis". estoy citando a carpentier cuando en el prólogo del ​reino de este mundo​ , caracteriza la maravillosa geografía americana. en una entrevista realizada en por el crítico max-pol fouchet, lam se expresó en términos que también recuerdan la necesidad que experimentaba carpentier por expresar su américa. decía lam en esa oportunidad: "quería de todo corazón pintar el drama de mí país y expresar en detalle el espíritu negro y la belleza del arte de los negros. de esta manera podía actuar como un caballo de troya del cual saldrían figuras alucinantes, capaces de sorprender y perturbar los sueños de los explotadores" (ctdo. en vicente n/a). la exposición retrospectiva de su obra organizada por el centro pompidou y la tate confirma que su arte es un componente ineludible del modernismo. conforme ​más de obras -pinturas, dibujos, fotografías, además de revistas y libros- integran la muestra que fue presentada entre septiembre de y febrero de en el centro pompidou de parís, que actualmente se expone en el reina sofía de madrid​ ​( de abril- de agosto de ) y será luego recibida por la tate modern de londres ​ ​( de septiembre al de enero de ) (“retrospectiva de lam en tres de los museos más importantes del mundo”). revista de culturas y literaturas comparadas. volumen - año explica catherine david, la curadora de la retrospectiva, ​el aporte de lam al modernismo “consistió en integrar a un espacio moderno que contribuyó a abrir -fue un formidable inventor de formas- una cantidad de elementos que nunca hubiesen entrado por sí solos: referencias a la cultura caribeña y figuras híbridas sumamente complejas” (“retrospectiva de lam en tres de los museos más importantes del mundo”). jackson pollock ( - ) quiero, ahora, establecer un diálogo entre las imágenes míticas pintadas por lam a su regreso a cuba con las producidas por jackson pollock por la misma época. pollock saltó a la fama con el famoso ​mural de - para peggy guggenheim. el mural revela las influencias más importantes de la formación del pintor hasta ese momento: los ritmos del pintor regionalista thomas hart benton, el trabajo de los muralistas mexicanos, la pintura sobre arena de los indios navajos, el psicoanálisis de jung -a quien pollock frecuentó a través de su psiquiatra joseph l. henderson-, el automatismo surrealista, a través sobre todo de joan miró e, indudablemente, la abstracción de pablo picasso, nunca demasiado alejada de lo figurativo. como en carpentier y lam, américa es un componente fundamental del arte de pollock. en , expresaba en una entrevista: siempre me ha impresionado la calidad plástica del arte de los indios americanos. los indígenas lograron la verdadera aproximación pictórica con su capacidad de lograr las imágenes apropiadas, y con su entendimiento de lo que constituye la verdadera materia objeto de la pintura. su color es esencialmente el oeste, su visión tiene la universalidad básica del verdadero arte. (emmerling ) me interesa detenerme en el concepto de “la universalidad básica del verdadero arte”. en los tres artistas objeto de mi análisis, el “universalismo” fue incorporado, sin duda, por la teoría y práctica de los surrealistas; pero en lam y pollock, este concepto se enriqueció a través de sus lecturas de jung. en el campo de la psicología, el referente tanto de lam como de pollock no fue freud, sino jung y su teoría de los arquetipos. en este sentido, el juicio de emmerling a propósito de pollock que cito a continuación, podría aplicarse también a lam: en el caso de pollock, al interés por la psicología profunda de jung se sumó su fascinación por cuadros que representan la unión anímica entre el ser humano y el animal. también en ese sentido, las características del arte de los indios del norte y centroamérica cobran una gran relevancia. desde el principio, pollock (…) se interesó por el papel del chamán, que sirve de mediador entre las esferas animal y humana. la grave, casi mortal enfermedad que debe padecer y de la que sale iluminado, lo capacita para tomar contacto con las dos esferas y transmitir una sabiduría más humana. la teoría de jung, según la cual un chamán experimenta uno o varios ciclos de nacimiento, muerte y reencarnación, fue uno de los pocos aspectos que pollock discutió con sus terapeutas ​. ( ) cabría señalar, para una mejor comprensión de los conceptos desarrollados, que, conforme a jung, los arquetipos universales son disposiciones preconscientes que permiten al ser humano reaccionar de una manera humana. al entrar en el campo de la conciencia, los potenciales creativos se actualizan como cristina elgue-martini el ​mural​ significó un cambio fundamental en la pintura estadounidense; para el crítico de arte clement greenberg “era lo más grande que los estados unidos habían producido hasta ese momento” (ctdo. en adams n/a). tanto la pintura de caballete como los conceptos de fondo y forma pertenecían definitivamente al pasado, según lo entenderían los miembros de la escuela de nueva york. de la misma época del ​mural es ​composition with pouring ii ( ), en la que pollock introduce una técnica: el ​pouring​ , que, si bien ya había sido utilizada por otros pintores, picabia por ejemplo, se volvería internacionalmente famosa, junto con el dripping​ , a través de sus composiciones. al tiempo que introducía estas técnicas, pollock ubicó sus lienzos en el suelo para poder derramar la pintura moviéndose alrededor de ellos. ​gothic ( ) es otra muestra interesante del nuevo arte abstracto del pintor, al que greenberg calificó como “aterrador, mórbido y extremo”, en referencia directa al título de esta obra (ctdo. en emmerling ). siguió la serie de los ​sonidos en el pasto y en un hito: ​full fathom five​ , cuyo título, que proviene de la canción de ariel de ​la tempestad, le fue sugerido por un vecino de long island, ralph manheim, traductor de carl gustav jung. según emmerling, “la creación del cuadro se suele relacionar a menudo con el libre fluir del inconsciente” ( ). ​cathedral y ​comet ( ) siguen la misma línea. ​ritmos de otoño ( ), en la que dominan los matices marrones, grises, negros y blancos, marca otro momento significativo. la década del no fue propicia para pollock. en la apreciación del público y de la crítica, su arte no habría superado los logros de la década anterior. el pintor murió en un accidente automovilístico en . conducía borracho. debía realizar una exposición individual en el moma, lo que se había transformado en una presión intolerable, ya que la inspiración parecía agotada y el oficio anulado por el alcoholismo. la muestra se transformó finalmente en retrospectiva. a manera de conclusión los diálogos transoceánicos planteados en el tratamiento de los textos de carpentier, lam y pollock han develado complejos procesos de transculturación, en los que las vanguardias europeas -especialmente el surrealismo-, la antropología y la psicología profunda resultan elementos insoslayables como potenciadores del distintivo carácter americano de las obras. obras citadas adams, henry. “decoding jackson pollock. did the abstract expressionist hide his name amid the swirls and torrents of a legendary mural?” en smithsonian magazine​ . nov. .​ ​digital. battegazzore, miguel, a. ​j. torres-garcía. la trama y los signos​ . montevideo: impresora gordon, . bretón, andré. ​manifiestos del surrealismo​ . madrid: guadarrama, . carpentier, alejo. ​el reino de este mundo​ . buenos aires: quetzal, . imágenes. se trata de “imágenes arquetípicas”. si bien hay muy pocos arquetipos básicos a nivel inconsciente, las imágenes que se conectan con estos arquetipos son infinitas. los arquetipos nos ligan con la especie, mientras que las imágenes arquetípicas a nivel consciente se relacionan con la cultura. revista de culturas y literaturas comparadas. volumen - año ______________. "problemática de la actual novela latinoamericana" en ​tientos y diferencias​ . buenos aires: calicanto, . - . elgue de martini, cristina. “andré bretón en dos narradores hispanoamericanos: alejo carpentier y enrique molina” en trinidad blanco de garcía ​et al. modernidad y literatura​ . córdoba, arg.: escuela de letras, facultad de filosofía y humanidades, universidad nacional de córdoba, . - . emmerling, leonhard. ​jackson pollock. - ​ . köln: taschen, . gonzález echeverría, roberto. "alejo carpentier" en roy, joaquín (comp). ​narrativa y crítica de nuestra américa​ . madrid: castalia, . - . harss, luis. ​los nuestros​ . buenos aires: sudamericana, . lévy-bruhl​,​ lucien. ​les fonctions mentales dans les sociétés inférieures​ . paris: librairie félix alcan, . vicente, Álex. "redescubrir a wilfredo lam". ​el país. ​ / / . digital “retrospectiva de lam en tres de los museos más importantes del mundo” en ​martí. arte y cultura​ . septiembre , . digital. cristina elgue-martini vis comput doi . /s - - - o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey jinwei ye · jingyi yu © springer-verlag berlin heidelberg abstract a pinhole camera collects rays passing through a common d point and its image resembles what would be seen by human eyes. in contrast, a non-pinhole (multi- perspective) camera combines rays collected by different viewpoints. despite their incongruity of view, their images are able to preserve spatial coherence and can depict, within a single context, details of a scene that are simultaneously inaccessible from a single view, yet easily interpretable by a viewer. in this paper, we thoroughly discuss the design, modeling, and implementation of a broad class of non- pinhole cameras and their applications in computer graphics and vision. these include mathematical (conceptual) cam- era models such as the general linear cameras and real non-pinhole cameras such as catadioptric cameras and pro- jectors. a unique component of this paper is a ray geometry analysis that uniformly models these non-pinhole cameras as manifolds of rays and ray constraints. we also model the thin lens as a ray transform and study how ray geometry is changed by the thin lens for studying distortions and defo- cusing. we hope to provide mathematical fundamentals to satisfy computer vision researchers as well as tools and al- gorithms to aid computer graphics and optical engineering researchers. keywords camera models · ray geometry · thin lens · catadioptric imaging · computer vision · computer graphics · computational photography j. ye (�) · j. yu university of delaware, newark, usa e-mail: jye@cis.udel.edu introduction a pinhole camera collects rays passing through a common d point, which is called the center-of-project (cop). con- ceptually, it can be effectively viewed as a light-proof box with a small hole in one side, through which light from a scene passes and projects an inverted image on the opposite side of the box as shown in fig. . the history of pinhole cameras can be traced back to mo jing, a mohist philoso- pher in the fifth century bc in china who described a similar design using a closed room and a hole the wall. in the th century, persian scientist ibn al-haytham (alhazen) wrote about naturally occurring rudimentary pinhole cameras. in , niepce managed to take the first photograph using the pinhole camera obscura via lithography. today, the pinhole camera is serving as the most common workhorse for gen- eral imaging applications. the imaging quality of a pinhole camera relies heavily on choosing the proper sized pinhole: a small pinhole produces a sharp image but the image will be dimmer due to insuf- ficient light whereas a large pinhole generates brighter but blurrier images. to address this issue, lenses have been used for converging lights. the goal is to replace the pure pin- hole model with a pinhole-like optical model that can admit more light while maintaining image sharpness. for example, a thin, convex lens can be placed at the pinhole position with a focal length equal to the distance to the film plane in or- der to take pictures of distant objects. this emulates opening up the pinhole significantly. we refer to this thin lens-based pinhole approximation as pinhole optics. in computer vision and graphics, pinhole cameras are dominating imaging model for two main reasons. first, pin- hole geometry is rather simple. each pinhole camera can be uniquely defined by only three parameters (the position of cop in d). the pinhole imaging process can be decom- posed into two parts: projecting the scene geometry into rays mailto:jye@cis.udel.edu j. ye, j. yu fig. (a) a pinhole camera collects rays passing through a common d point (the cop). (b) an illustration of the pinhole obscura and mapping the rays onto the image plane and they can be uniformly described by the classic × pinhole camera matrix [ ]. under homogeneous coordinates, the imaging process is linear. second, in bright light, the human eyes act as a virtual pinhole camera where the observed images ex- hibit all characteristics as a pinhole image, e.g., points map to points, lines map to lines, parallel lines converge at a van- ishing point, etc. pinhole cameras are therefore also referred to as perspective cameras in the graphics and vision litera- ture. the pinhole imaging model, however, is rare in insect eyes. compound eyes, which may consist of thousands of individual photoreceptor units or ommatidia are much more common. the image perceived is a combination of in- puts from the numerous ommatidia (individual “eye units”), which are located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions. compound eyes hence possess a very large view angle and greatly help detect fast move- ment. notice that rays collected by a compound eye will no longer follow pinhole geometry. rather, they follow multi- viewpoint or multi-perspective imaging geometry. the idea of non-pinhole imaging model has been widely adopted in art: artists, architects, and engineers regularly draw using non-pinhole projections. despite their incon- gruity of views, effective non-pinhole images are still able to preserve spatial coherence. pre-renaissance and post- impressionist artists frequently use non-pinhole models to depict more than can be seen from any specific view point. for example, the cubism of picasso and matisse [ ] can depict, within a single context, details of a scene that are simultaneously inaccessible from a single view, yet easily interpretable by a viewer. the goal of this survey is to carry out a comprehensive review on non-pinhole imaging models and their applications in computer graphics and vision. scope on the theory front, this survey presents a unique approach to systematically study non-pinhole imaging mod- els in the ray space. specifically, we parameterize rays to a d ray space using the two-plane parametrization ( pp) [ , ] and then study geometric ray structures of non- pinhole cameras in the ray space. we show that common non-perspective phenomenon such as reflections, refractions and defocus blurs can all be viewed as ray geometry trans- formations. further, commonly used non-pinhole cameras can be effectively modeled as special (planar) d manifold in the ray space. the ray manifold model also provides fea- sible solutions for the forward projection problem, i.e., how to find the projection from a d point to its corresponding pixel in a non-pinhole imaging system. on the application sides, we showcase a broad range of non-pinhole imaging systems. in computer vision, we dis- cuss state-of-the-art solutions that apply non-pinhole cam- eras for stereo matching, multi-view reconstruction, shape- from-distortion, etc. in computational photography, we dis- cuss emerging solutions that use the non-pinhole camera modelings for designing catadioptric cameras and projectors to acquire/project with a much wider field-of-view (fov) as well as various light field camera designs to directly acquire the d ray space in a single image. in computer graphics, we demonstrate using non-pinhole camera mod- els for generating panoramas, creating cubism styles, ren- dering caustics, faux-animations from still-life scenes, ren- dering beyond occlusions, etc. this survey is closely related to recent surveys on multi- perspective modeling and rendering [ ] and computational photography [ ]. yu et al. [ ] provides a general overview of multi-perspective cameras whereas we provide a compre- hensive ray-space mathematical model for a broader class of non-pinhole cameras. raskar et al. [ ] focuses mostly on computational photography whereas we discuss the use of conceptual and real non-pinhole cameras for applications in computer vision and computer graphics. further, our unified ray geometry analysis may fundamentally change people’s view on cameras and projectors. pinhole optics pinhole cameras predate modern history. geometrically, a pinhole camera collects rays passing through the cop. each pinhole camera, therefore, can be uniquely defined by only ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey three parameters (the position of cop). the pinhole imag- ing process can be decomposed into two parts: projecting the scene geometry into rays and mapping the rays onto the image plane. we refer to the first part as projection and the second as collineation. it has been shown that the projec- tion and collineation can be uniformly described by the clas- sic × pinhole camera matrix [ ], which combines six extrinsic and five intrinsic camera parameters into a single operator that maps homogeneous d points to a d image plane. these mappings are unique up to a scale factor, and similar models can be applied to describe orthographic cam- eras. in this section, we revisit the pinhole imaging process via a ray-space analysis. . pinhole in ray space . . ray space we use the two-plane parametrization ( pp) that is widely used in light field [ ] and lumigraph [ , ] for representing rays, as shown in fig. (a). under pp, a ray in free space is defined by its intersections with two parallel planes (Πuv and Πst ). usually, Πuv is chosen as the aperture plane (z = ) whose origin is the origin of the coordinate system. Πst is placed at z = and chosen to be the default image plane. all rays that are not parallel to Πuv and Πst will intersect the two planes at [u, v, ] and [s, t, ], respectively, and we use [u, v, s, t] for parameterizing each ray. . . pinhole ray geometry let us consider the pinhole model in ray space. by def- inition, all rays in a pinhole camera pass through a com- mon d point, i.e., the cop ċ = [cx , cy , cz]. for each ray r = [u, v, s, t], there exist some λ that satisfies λ[s, t, ] + ( − λ)[u, v, ] = [cx , cy , cz] ( ) we have λ = cz and{ czs + ( − cz)u = cx czt + ( − cz)v = cy ( ) this indicates that rays in a pinhole camera obey two linear constraints, one in s and u and the other in t and v. we call them the pinhole ray constraints. if we divide both sides of eq. ( ) by cz and let ċ go to infinity, we have { s − u = dx t − v = dy ( ) i.e., all rays have identical direction [dx , dy , ] and the cam- era degenerates to an orthographic camera. we call eq. ( ) the orthographic ray constraints; they are also linear in s − u and t − v. the pinhole and orthographic models have many nice properties that are useful to computer graphics and com- puter vision applications. for instance, all lines in the scene are projected to lines on the image. similarly, a triangle in d space is projected as a triangle on the pinhole or ortho- graphic image. thus, by representing the scene geometry using triangles, one can efficiently render the entire scene by projecting the triangles onto the image plane and then rasterizing the triangles in the image space. . . slit ray geometry more general ray configurations, however, do not pass through a common d point. to relax the pinhole con- straints, we study rays that pass through a line or slit l. we consider the following two cases: ( ) if l is parallel to Πuv and Πst , we can represent it with a point ṗ = [px , py , pz] on l and its direction [dx , dy , ]. if a ray r = [u, v, s, t] intersects l, there exist some λ and λ that satisfy λ [s, t, ] + ( − λ )[u, v, ] = [px , py , pz] + λ [dx , dy , ] ( ) it is easy to see that λ = pz and we can obtain a linear constraint in [u, v, s, t] as − pz dx u − − pz dy v + pz dx s − pz dy t + py dy − px dx = ( ) yu and mcmillan [ ] show that it is equivalent to a general linear constraint au + bv + cs + dt + e = where a/b = c/d. we call this parallel slit constraint. ( ) if l is not parallel to Πuv and Πst , it then can be di- rectly parameterized by a ray under pp as [u , v , s , t ]. all rays r = [u, v, s, t] that intersect with l should satisfy λ [s, t, ] + ( − λ )[u, v, ] = λ [s , t , ] + ( − λ )[u , v , ] ( ) we have λ = λ and s − s t − t = u − u v − v ( ) this is a bilinear constraint that we call non-parallel slit con- straint. in the following sections, we will use the parallel and non-parallel slit constraints to model a broad class of non- pinhole imaging systems. j. ye, j. yu fig. (a) two-plane parametrization: a ray is parameterized by its intersections with two parallel planes Πuv (z = ) and Πst (z = ). (b) ray transformation after passing through a thin lens: the thin lens works as a shearing operator . the thin lens operator recall that practical pinhole cameras are constructed by us- ing a thin lens in order to collect more lights. although real lenses are typically a complex assembly of multiple lenses, they can still be effectively modeled using the thin lens equation: a + b = f ( ) where a is the object distance; b is the image distance and f is the thin lens focal length. the thin lens can be viewed as a workhorse that maps each incident ray r = [u, v, s, t] approaching the lens to the exit ray r′ = [u′, v′, s′, t ′] towards the sensor. ng [ ] and ding et al. [ ] separately derived the thin lens opera- tor (tlo) to show how rays are transformed after passing through a thin lens. by choosing the aperture plane as Πuv at z = and the image sensor plane as Πst at z = , we have u′ = u, v′ = v. using eq. ( ), it can be shown that the thin lens operator l transforms the ray coordinates as [ u ′ , v ′ , s ′ , t ′] = l([u, v, s, t]) = [ u, v, s − f u, t − f v ] ( ) this reveals the thin lens l behaves as a linear, or more precisely, shear operator on rays, as shown in fig. (b). for a toy case study, let us investigate how a thin lens transforms a set of incident rays that follow pinhole ge- ometry. assume the incident rays originate from the cop ċ = [cx , cy , cz]. by applying tlo (eq. ( )) to the pinhole constraints (eq. ( )), we obtain a new pair of constraints for the exiting rays [u′, v′, s′, t ′] as ⎧⎨ ⎩ czs ′ + ( − cz + cz · f )u′ = cx czt ′ + ( − cz + cz · f )v′ = cy ( ) if ċ does not lie on the focal plane Πl− of the lens at the world side (cz �= −f ), then eq. ( ) can be rewritten as⎧⎨ ⎩ f cz f +cz s ′ + ( − f cz f +cz )u ′ = f cx f +cz f cz f +cz t ′ + ( − f cz f +cz )v ′ = f cy f +cz ( ) therefore, the exiting rays follow a new set of pinhole con- straints with the new cop at f f +cz [cx , cy , cz]. if ċ lies on Πl− (cz = −f ), then eq. ( ) degenerate to the orthographic constraints:⎧⎨ ⎩ s − u = − cx f t − v = − cy f ( ) in this case, all exiting rays correspond to an orthographic camera with direction [− cx f , − cy f , ]. the results derived above are well-known as they can be directly viewed as the image of a d point through the thin lens. nevertheless, for more complex cases when the inci- dent rays do not follow pinhole geometry, the tlo analysis is crucial for modeling the exit ray geometry [ ]. this case study also reveals that all rays emitting from a d scene point ċ will generally converge at a different d point ċ′ through the thin lens. the cone of rays passing through ċ′ will therefore spread onto a disk of pixels on the sen- sor. this process is commonly described using the point spread function (psf), i.e., the mapping from a d point to a disk of pixels. as shown in fig. , assuming that the sensor moves Δz away from z = c′z and the lens has circu- lar aperture with diameter d, then the psf is a disk of size dp = d |Δz|c′z . non-pinhole imaging models more general camera models do not follow pinhole camera geometry, i.e., not all rays collected by the camera need to pass through a common point. such cameras are often re- ferred to as non-pinhole cameras. in contrast to pinhole and ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey orthographic cameras, which can be uniformly described us- ing the × camera matrix, non-pinhole camera models are defined less precisely. in practice, many non-pinhole camera models are defined by constructions. by this we mean that a system or process is described for generating each specific class but there is not always a closed-form expression for the projection transformation. in this section, we apply pinhole constraints and slit constraints (parallel and non-parallel) to study the ray properties in various non-pinhole camera mod- els. . classical non-pinhole cameras pushbroom cameras, consisting of a linear sensor, are rou- tinely used in satellite imagery [ ]. the pushbroom sensor is mounted on a moving rail, and as the platform moves, the view plane sweeps out a volume of space and forms a push- broom image on the sensor. rays collected by a pushbroom camera should satisfy two constraints: ( ) the slit constraint, where the slit is the motion path of the pushbroom sensor; ( ) all the sweeping rays are parallel to some plane that is perpendicular to the slit. assume the common slit is par- allel to Πuv and Πst and we parameterize it with a point [x , y , z ] on the slit and the slit’s direction [dx , dy , ], the two constraints for all rays [u, v, s, t] captured by a pushb- room camera can be formulated as ⎧⎨ ⎩ −z dx u − −z dy v + z dx s − z dy t + y dy − x dx = [s − u, t − v, ] · [dx , dy , ]t = ( ) fig. the thin lens maps a d scene point ċ to ċ′. by moving the sensor Δz away from z = c′z, ċ′ spreads onto a psf with size dp where the first constraint is the parallel slit constraint and the second corresponds to the parallel sweeping planes, both lin- ear. in practice, a pushbroom image can be synthesized by moving a perspective camera along a linear path and assem- bling the same column of each perspective image as shown in fig. (a) and (b). another popular class of non-pinhole cameras are the xslit cameras. an xslit camera has two oblique (neither parallel nor coplanar) slits in d space. the camera col- lects rays that simultaneously pass through the two slits and projects them onto an image plane. if we choose the parametrization plane parallel to both slits, rays in an xs- lit camera will then satisfy two parallel slit constraints, i.e., two linear constraints. similar to pushbroom images, xslit images can also be synthesized using images captured by a moving pinhole camera. zomet et al. [ ] generated xslit images by stitching linearly varying columns across a row of pinhole images, as shown in fig. (c) and (d). . general non-pinhole cameras the analysis above reveals that pinhole, orthographic, push- broom, and xslit all correspond to d manifolds in the ray space (since they are subject to two linear ray constraints). this is not surprising as a general imaging process entails mapping d geometry onto a d manifold of rays, i.e., each pixel [x, y] maps to a ray. therefore a general non-pinhole camera can be viewed as a d ray manifold Σ : Σ(x, y) = [u(x, y), v(x, y), s(x, y), t (x, y)] ( ) to analyze ray geometry, one then approximate the local behavior of the rays by computing the tangent plane about any specified ray r . the tangent plane can be expressed as two spanning vectors d and d by taking the partial deriva- tives of [u, v, s, t]: d = [ux , vx , sx , tx ], d = [uy , vy , sy , ty ] ( ) this is analogous to modeling a curved d surface us- ing local tangent planes. a local ray tangent plane hence can then be modeled by three generator rays: r , r + d and r + d . fig. pushbroom and xslit. (a) the stationary column sampling routine for synthesizing a pushbroom panorama (b). (c) the linearly varying column sampling routine for synthesizing an xslit panorama (d) (courtesy of steve seitz) j. ye, j. yu table characterizing general linear cameras by characteristic equation characteristic equation solutions solution solution ∞ solutions a �= xslit pencil/pinholea bilinear ∅ a = ∅ pushbroom twisted/ortho.a epi aa glc satisfying edge-parallel condition is pinhole (a �= ) or orthographic (a = ) fig. general linear camera models. (a) a pinhole camera. (b) an orthographic camera. (c) a pushbroom. (d) an xslit camera. (e) a pencil camera. (f) a twisted orthographic camera. (g) a bilinear camera. (h) an epi camera. see sect. . . for detailed discussions on each glc . . general linear cameras (glc) to study ray geometry of local ray tangent plane, yu and mcmillan [ ] developed a new camera model called the general linear camera (glc). glcs are d planar ray manifolds which can apparently describe the traditional pin- hole, orthographic, pushbroom, and xslit cameras. a glc is defined as the affine combination of three gen- erator rays ri = [ui , vi , si , ti ], i = , , : r = α[u , v , s , t ] + β[u , v , s , t ] + ( − α − β)[u , v , s , t ] ( ) for example, in the ray tangent plane analysis, the three ray generators are chosen as r , r + d and r + d . to determine the type of the non-pinhole camera for any glc specification, they further derived a ray characteris- tic equation that computes how many singularities (lines or points) that all rays in the glc can pass through: ∣∣∣∣∣∣ λ · s + ( − λ) · u λ · t + ( − λ) · v λ · s + ( − λ) · u λ · t + ( − λ) · v λ · s + ( − λ) · u λ · t + ( − λ) · v ∣∣∣∣∣∣ = ( ) equation ( ) yields a quadratic equation of the form aλ + bλ + c = where a = ∣∣∣∣∣∣ s − u t − v s − u t − v s − u t − v ∣∣∣∣∣∣ , c = ∣∣∣∣∣∣ u v u v u v ∣∣∣∣∣∣ , b = ∣∣∣∣∣∣ s − u v s − u v s − u v ∣∣∣∣∣∣ − ∣∣∣∣∣∣ t − v u t − v u t − v u ∣∣∣∣∣∣ ( ) an edge parallel condition is defined to check if all three pairs of the corresponding edges of the u − v and s − t tri- angles formed by the generator rays are parallel: si − sj ti − tj = ui − uj vi − vj i, j = , , and i �= j ( ) given three generator rays, its glc type can be de- termined by the a coefficient and the discriminant Δ = b − ac of its characteristic equation and the edge par- allel condition, shown in table . yu and mcmillan [ ] have shown that there are precisely eight types of glc as shown in fig. : in a pinhole camera, all rays pass through a single point; in an orthographic camera, all rays are parallel; ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey fig. curved line images on specular window surfaces: the two images of . m × m near-flat windows are captured from m away. images of straight lines far away form interesting conic patterns table conic types observed in general linear cameras glc type pinhole ortho. xslit pushbroom pencil twisted bilinear determinant Δ = Δ = Δ > Δ > Δ = Δ = Δ < conic type line line hyperbolae hyperbolae parabola parabola ellipse in a pushbroom camera [ ], all rays lie on a set of parallel planes and pass through a line; in an xslit camera [ ], all rays pass through two non-coplanar lines; in a pencil cam- era, all coplanar rays originate from a point on a line and lie on a specific plane through the line; in a twisted ortho- graphic camera, all rays lie on parallel twisted planes and no rays intersect; in a bilinear camera [ ], no two rays are coplanar and no two rays intersect; and in an epi camera, all rays lie on a d plane. to find the projection of a d point in a glc, one can combine the glc constraints with pinhole constraints. for example, considering an xslit camera that obeys two paral- lel slit constraints (eq. ( )) derived in sect. . . . rays pass- ing through the d point obeys another two pinhole linear constraints (eq. ( )). we therefore can uniquely determine the ray from the xslit that passes through the d point. to calculate the projection of a d line in the xslit camera, one can compute the projection of each point on the line. ding et al. [ ] show that line projections can only be lines or con- ics, as shown in fig. . the complete classification of conics that can be observed by each type of glc is enumerated in table . . . case study : reflection on curved mirrors to demonstrate how to use the glc analysis to model general non-pinhole cameras, let us look at a special non- pinhole camera, a catadioptric camera that combines a pin- hole camera and a curved mirror. given the camera position and the mirror surface, we can map each reflected ray into the ray space as [u, v, s, t]. assuming the d surface is of form z(x, y), the reflected ray in [u, v, s, t] can be computed via the reflection constraint: r = i − (n̂ · i)n̂ ( ) where r = [rx , ry , rz] is the reflected ray; i is the incident ray and n̂ is unit normal that can be computed by normaliz- ing [−zx , −zy , ]. if we choose Πuv (z = ) to contain the surface point (x, y, z(x, y)) and tangential to the surface and set Πst as z = , we obtain [u, v, s, t] of the reflected ray as [u, v, s, t] = [ x − z · rx rz , y − z · ry rz , x − (z − ) · rx rz , y − (z − ) · ry rz ] ( ) all variables r , z, u, v, s and t are functions in x and y, hence, the set of reflection rays from the d surface form a d parametric ray manifold in x and y. we can then use the tangent glc analysis (sect. . . ) to determine the type of local non-pinhole camera model. using this approach, yu and mcmillan [ ] have shown that all local reflections ob- served by a pinhole or an orthographic camera can be char- acterized as only be xslit, pushbroom, pinhole, or ortho- graphic, all are special cases of xslit. the two slits corre- spond to the two reflection caustic surfaces and provide a special set of rulings on the surface. these rulings deter- mine which rays lie on the local tangent glc and the local distortions seen in the reflection. . . case study : d surfaces it is also possible to convert a d surface to a d ray man- ifold. yu et al. [ ] proposed a normal-ray model to repre- sent surfaces that locally parameterize the surface about its normal based on focal surface approximation, as shown in fig. (a)–(d). given a smooth surface s(x, y), at each ver- tex ṗ , we orient the local frame to align z = with the tan- gent plane at ṗ . we further assume ṗ is the origin of z = plane and set Πuv , Πst at z = and z = , respectively. under this parametrization, normal rays can be mapped as n = [u, v, s, t]. the tangent plane can then be represented by a glc with three rays: n, n + nx and n + ny . by using the glc analysis, one can compute the two slits for each normal ray glc from the characteristic equation. yu et al. [ ] have shown that the two slits are perpendicular j. ye, j. yu fig. estimating focal meshes using the normal ray model. (a) we orient the local frame to align Πuv (z = ) with the surface tangent plane at ṗ . (b) we choose the second plane Πst to be z = . each neighboring normal ray can be parameterized by as [u, v, s, t]. (c) fo- cal surfaces (curve) formed by the foci of the normal rays of a parabolic surface. (d) neighboring normal rays are constrained by the slits (red) that rule the focal surfaces (blue). (e) the color-coded mean curvature image illustrates that the normal ray model (right) is less sensitive to mesh connectivity than [ ] (left), especially shown on the wings of the gargoyle model. (f) left: the estimated min principal curvature di- rection using normal ray model. right: compare the normal ray model with [ ] on different parts of the model to each other and rule the focal surfaces. swept by the loci of the principal curvatures’ radii, the focal surfaces encapsulate many useful geometric properties of the corresponding ac- tual surface. for example, normals of the actual surface are tangent to both focal surfaces and the normal of each focal surface indicates a principle direction of the corresponding point on the original surface. in fact, each slit is tangential to its corresponding focal surface. since the two focal sur- faces are perpendicular to each other, one slit is parallel to the normal of the focal plane that the other slit corresponds to. therefore, the two slits give us the principal directions of the original surface. besides, the depths of the slits/focal sur- faces, computed as the roots of the characteristic equation, represent the principle curvatures of the surface. in fig. (e) and (f), we shows two results of estimated mean curvature and min principle curvature using normal ray model, com- paring to the voronoi-edge algorithm [ , ]. non-pinhole camera through the thin lens next, we review how ray geometry transforms through the thin lens. a typical example is reflections observed by a camera with a wide aperture. . glc through a thin lens ding et al. [ ] studied the transformation for glcs through a thin lens. to reiterate, recall that a glc defined by the affine combination of three generator rays and the thin lens operator l(◦) is a linear operator, therefore the affinity of the glc will be preserved under the thin lens operator, i.e., l(r) = l(αr + βr + ( − α − β)r ) = αl(r ) + βl(r ) + ( − α − β)l(r ) ( ) equation ( ) reveals that the exit rays form a new glc where the three new generator rays are l(r ), l(r ), and l(r ). . slit-direction duality to determine the type of exit glcs transformed by thin lens, it is important to investigate the duality between slits and directions, which can be derived by applying tlo (eq. ( )) on the slit ray constraint (parallel or non-parallel). if the slit does not lie on the focal plane Πl− (z = −f ) of the lens at the world side, we consider the incident rays in the following two cases: ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey fig. slit-direction duality. (a) a pushbroom camera with a slit at focal length transforms to another pushbroom camera with a different slit at focal length. (b) a pencil camera transforms to twisted orthographic camera table general linear camera transformations through a thin lens incident glc exit glc xslit: all rays passing through two slits l and l l or l lies on Πl−: pushbroom neither slits lies on Πl−: xslit pushbroom: collect rays parallel to some plane Π and passing through a slit l l lies on Πl−: pushbroom l does not lie on Πl−: xslit pinhole: all rays passing through cop ċ ċ lies on Πl−: orthographic ċ does not lie on Πl−: pinhole pencil: collect rays on a set of non-parallel planes that share a line l l lies on Πl−: twisted orthographic l does not lie on Πl−: pencil bilinear bilinear orthographic pinhole twisted orthographic pencil ( ) the slit parallel to Πl− is parameterized by a point [px , py , pz] and direction [dx , dy , ]. since pz �= −f one can combine the parallel slit ray constraint (eq. ( )) with tlo as − p ′z dx u ′ − − p ′ z dy v ′ + p ′ z dx s ′ − p ′ z dy t ′ + p ′y dy − p ′ x dx = ( ) where [p ′x , p ′y , p ′z] = ff +pz [px , py , pz]. therefore all exit rays pass through a new slit parameterized by [p ′x , p ′y , p ′z] and its direction [dx , dy , ]. ( ) the slit is not parallel to Πl−. in this case, one can apply the tlo on the bilinear non-parallel slit ray constraint (eq. ( )) to obtain a new constraint for [u′, v′, s′, t ′] as u′ − u v′ − v = s′ − s + u f t ′ − t + v f ( ) which is also bilinear constraint that indicates that all exit rays will pass through another slit [u , v , s − u f , t − v f ]. these derivations show that all rays that pass through a slit not lying on Πl− will be mapped to exit rays through a new slit at the other side of the lens. we call it the slit-slit duality(see fig. (a)). if the slit lies on Πl− (pz = −f ), the linear slit con- straint can be reformulated as the following by applying tlo: [ s ′ − u′, t ′ − v′, ] · [−f dy , f dx , py dx − px dy ]t = ( ) it reveals that all exit rays are orthogonal to a vector n = [−f dy , f dx , py dx − px dy ], which is the normal direction of the plane formed by the slit and the lens optical center. therefore, for rays passing through a slit lying on Πl−, exit rays correspond to directions. we call it the slit-direction duality, as shown in fig. (b). as a reciprocity of the analysis for incident rays through a slit lying on Πl−, for those rays parallel to some plane Π through the lens optical center, all exit rays will pass through a slit parallel to pp and lying on the focal plane Πl+ of the lens at the sensor side. furthermore, the slit can be found by intersecting Π with Πl+. this is called the direction- slit duality. the complete glc transformations are listed in table . . case study : defocus analysis in catadioptric cameras based on the glc-tlo analysis, ding et al. [ ] show- cased using the theory for characterizing and compensating catadioptric defocusing. they use the ray spread function (rsf) to describe how a general set of incident rays spread to pixels on the sensor. the classical psf is a special case of the rsf when the incident rays are from a pinhole camera. j. ye, j. yu fig. the formation of rsf in a catadioptric imaging system: light from a scene point is reflected off the mirror, truncated by the thin lens aperture, and finally received by the sensor forming the rsf assume a scene point ṗ and a curved mirror surface z(x, y), the rsf of ṗ is formed by rays emitting from ṗ reflected off the mirror, then transmitted through the lens and finally received by the sensor, as shown in fig. . they then formulate the rsf by composing the thin lens operator l(◦), the aperture operator a(◦), and the reflection operator r(z(x, y), ṗ ). notice the order between l(◦) and a(◦) is interchangeable: rsf(ṗ ) := k(s, t) = l(a(r(z(x, y), ṗ ))) = a(l(r(z(x, y), ṗ ))) = a(l(u(s, t), v(s, t))) = { nil, g(u(s, t), v(s, t)) > l(u(s, t), v(s, t)), g(u(s, t), v(s, t)) ≤ ( ) where u(s, t) and v(s, t) are determined by the mirror geom- etry, and g(u, v) = u + v − d corresponds to a circular aperture of diameter d. using the reflection analysis in sect. . . , one can de- compose each local reflection patch as an xslit camera. it is particulary useful to analyze the rsf of an xslit glc. according to the glc-tlo transformation, the exit glc is also an xslit with two slits l and l lying on z = λ and z = λ , respectively. to simplify the analysis, let us consider the special case when the two slits are orthogonal to each other. one can further rotate the coordinate system such that the slit directions are aligned with the u, v axis. the two slits constraints can then be rewritten as { ( − λ )u′ + λ s′ = ( − λ )v′ + λ t ′ = =⇒ ⎧⎨ ⎩ u′ = s′ − λ v′ = t ′ − λ ( ) substituting eq. ( ) into the aperture constraint g(u, v), we have ( s′ λ − ) + ( t ′ λ − ) ≤ ( d ) ( ) equation ( ) indicates that the rsf of a glc is of ellip- tical shape and the major and minor radii of the ellipse are | λ − | and | λ − |. the specific shape and orientation of the ellipse varies along with the depths of the two slits λ and λ . various cases for different λ and λ combinations are now enumerated and shown in fig. : . when λ λ λ +λ > , the major radius is | λ − | · d , and the major axis is parallel to the direction of the slit l . . when λ = , the minor radius | λ − | · d = , i.e., the rsf degenerates into a line segment parallel to slit l , and the length of the line segment is | λ − | · d . . when λ λ λ +λ = , the rsf shape degenerates into a cir- cular disk, and the radius of the circle is | λ −λ λ +λ | · d . . when λ λ λ +λ < , the major radius is | λ − | · d , and the major axis is parallel to the direction of the slit l . . when λ = , the minor radius | λ − | · d = , i.e., the rsf degenerates into a line segment parallel to the slit l , and the length of the segment is | λ − | · d . the analysis reveals that the rsf caused by a d point in a catadioptric mirror can only be an ellipse, a circle, or a line segment. furthermore, the shape of the rsf depends on the location of the scene point, size of the aperture and the camera’s focus setting. applications of synthetic non-pinhole cameras although many of the non-pinhole cameras discussed above are synthetic models, they have broad applications in graph- ics and vision. ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey fig. various rsf shapes: the rsf shape depends on the distance w between the aperture and the sensor planes fig. multi-perspective panorama from disney’s pinocchio (courtesy of disney) . synthesizing panoramas a non-pinhole camera can combine patches from multi- ple pinhole cameras into a single image to overcome the fov limits. in image-based rendering, pushbroom and xs- lit panoramas can be synthesized by translating a pinhole camera along the image plane and then stitching specific columns from each perspective image. pushbroom image assembles the same column [ ] whereas the xslit lin- early varies the column [ ]. the synthesized panoramas can exhibit image distortions such as apparent stretching and shrinking, and even duplicated projections of a single point [ , ]. to alleviate the distortions, agarwala et al. [ ] constructed panorama using arbitrarily shaped regions of the source images taken by a pinhole camera moving along a straight path, instead of selecting simple strips. the re- gion shape in each perspective image is carefully chosen by using markov random field (mrf) optimization based on various properties that the panorama desires. instead of translating the camera planarly, shum and szeliski [ ] cre- ated panorama on a cylindrical manifold by panning a pin- hole camera around its optical center. they project the per- spective images to a common cylinder to combine the final panorama. peleg et al. [ ] proposed a mosaicing method for more general camera motion. they first determine the projection manifolds according to the camera motion and then warp the source images onto the manifolds to stitch the panorama. non-pinhole camera models are also widely used for cre- ating computer generated panoramas. the disney an- imation pinocchio [ ] opens with a virtual camera flying over a small village. instead of traditional panning, the cam- era rotates at the same time, creating astonishing d ef- fect via d painting. in fact, the shot was made by drawing a panoramic view with “warped perspective” as shown in fig. and then showing only a small clip at a time. wood et al. [ ] proposed to create similar cel animation effect from d models. they combined elements of multiple pin- hole strips into a single image using a semi-automatic im- age registration process. their method relies on optimization techniques as well as optical flow and blending transitions between views. popescu et al. [ ] proposed the graph camera for gen- erating a single panoramic image that simultaneously cap- tures/renders regions of interest of a d scene from dif- ferent perspectives. conceptually, the graph camera is a combination of different pinhole cameras that sample the scene. a non-perspective panorama can then be generated j. ye, j. yu fig. non-perspective images. (a) nusch eluard by pablo picaso. (b) a multi-perspective image rendered using glc framework [ ]. (c) extracted images from a faux-animation generated by [ ]. the source images were acquired by rotating a ceramic figure on a turntable. multi-perspective renderings were used to turn the head and hind quarters of the figure in a fake image-based animation by elaborately stitching the boundary of multiple pinhole images. the viewing continuity with minimum redundancy is achieved through a sequence of pinhole frustum bending, splitting and merging. the panoramic rendering can then be used in d scene exploration, summarization and visualiza- tion. . non-photorealistic rendering rendering perspectives from multiple viewpoints can be combined in ways other than panoramas. by making sub- tle changes in viewing direction across the imaging plane it is possible to depict more of scene than could be seen from a single point of view. such images differ from panoramas in that they are intended to be viewed as a whole. neo-cubism is an example. many of the works of picasso are examples of such non- perspective images. figure (a) and (b) compare one of picasso’s paintings with an image synthesized using the glc framework [ ]. starting from a simple layout, it achieves similar multi-perspective effects. it is also possible to use multi-perspective rendering to create fake or faux- animations from still-life scenes. this is particularly useful for animating image-based models. figure (c) show three frames from a synthesized animation, each of which cor- responds to a multi-perspective image rendered from a d light field. zomet [ ] used a similar approach by using a single xslit camera to achieve rotation effects. mei et al. [ ] defined an occlusion camera that can sam- ple visible surfaces as well as occluded ones in the refer- ence view, to allow re-rendering new views with correct oc- clusions. their occlusion camera bends the rays towards a central axis (the pole) to sample the hidden surfaces in the reference view. a d radial distortion centered at the pole allows the occlusion camera to see around occluders along the pole. such distortion pulls out hidden samples according to their depth: the larger the depth, the larger the sample will be displaced. therefore, samples that are on the same ray in a conventional perspective camera are separated to different locations in the distorted occlusion camera image according to their depth. in this way, hidden samples that are close to the silhouette becomes visible in the occlusion camera ref- erence image. hsu et al. [ ] recently proposed a multi-scale render- ing framework that can render objects smoothly at multiple levels of details in a single image. they set up a sequence of pinhole cameras to render objects at different scales of interest and use a user-specified mask to determine regions to be displayed in each view. the final multi-scale image is rendered by reprojecting the images of multi-scale cameras to the one with the largest scale and use bezier curve-based non-linear ray casting to ensure coherent transition between each scale view. their technique can achieve focus plus con- text visualization and is useful in scientific visualization and artistic rendering. . stereo and d reconstruction traditional stereo matching algorithms for pinhole cam- eras have also been extended to non-pinhole geometry. seitz [ ] and pajdla [ ] independently studied all possi- ble non-pinhole camera pairs that can have epipolar geome- try. their work suggests that only three varieties of epipo- ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey fig. epsilon stereo matching on two xslit cameras. from top to bottom: (a) shows one of the two xslit images; (b) shows the ground truth depth map; (c) shows the recovered disparity map by treating the two images as a stereo pair and applying the graph cut algorithm; (d) shows the horizontal disparity map recovered by the epsilon stereo mapping algorithm lar geometry exist: planes, hyperboloids, and hyperbolic- paraboloids, all corresponding to doubly ruled surfaces. pe- leg et al. [ ] stitched the same column of images from a rotating pinhole camera to form a circular pushbroom. they then fused two oblique circular pushbrooms to synthesize a stereo panorama. feldman et al. [ ] proved that a pair of xslit cameras can have valid epipolar geometry if they share a slit or the slits intersect in four pairwise distinct points. however, seitz and pajdla’s results also reveal that very few varieties of multi-perspective stereo pairs exist. ding and yu [ ] introduced a new near stereo model, which they call epsilon stereo pairs. an epsilon stereo pair consists of two non-pinhole images with a slight vertical parallax. they have shown that many non-pinhole camera pairs that do not satisfy the stereo constraint can still form epsilon stereo pairs. they then have introduced a new ray-space warping algorithm to minimize stereo inconsistencies in an epsilon pair using non-pinhole collineations (homograph) which makes epsilon stereo model a promising tool for synthesiz- ing close-to-stereo fusions from many non-stereo pairs, as shown in fig. . most recently, kim et al. [ ] presented a method for generating near stereoscopic view by cutting the light field. they compute the stereoscopy as the optimal cut through the light field under the depth budget, maximum disparity gradient, and desired stereoscopic baseline. a special class of non-pinhole cameras are reflective and refractive surfaces. one can then view the surface recon- struction problem as the camera calibration problem. ding et al. [ , ] proposed a shape-from-distortion framework for recovering specular (reflective/refractive) surfaces by an- alyzing the local reflection glcs and curved line images. in [ ], they focused on recovering a special type of sur- face: near-flat surfaces such as the windows and relatively flat water surfaces. such surfaces are difficult to model be- cause lower-order surface attributes provide little informa- tion. they divide the specular surface into piecewise trian- gles and estimate each local reflection glcs for recovering high-order surface properties such as curvatures. in [ ], the authors have further shown how to analyze the curving of lines to recover the glc parameters and then the surface attributes. j. ye, j. yu fig. (a) a typical catadioptric image with wide fov. (b) forward projection: given a scene point p , the mirror surface and the camera, find its projection in the viewing camera after reflection. it is crucial to find the reflection point on the mirror surface q real non-pinhole imaging systems in previous sections, we have discussed many conceptual non-pinhole camera models. in this section, we discuss a number of real non-pinhole cameras that are constructed by modifying a commodity camera using special optical units. . general catadioptric cameras as mentioned above, the most commonly used class of “real” non-pinhole/multi-perspective cameras are catadiop- tric cameras. these cameras put a regular pinhole camera in front of a curved mirror for acquiring images with a much wider fov, as shown in fig. (a). a large fov can benefit many applications such as video surveillance, autonomous navigation, obstacle avoidance and panoramic image acqui- sition. the core problem in catadioptric cameras is to solve for forward projection, i.e., given the view camera (a pinhole), the curved mirror, and a d scene point, how to find the projection of the point in the view camera, as shown in fig. (b). to resolve this problem, it is crucial to find the re- flection point on the mirror in order to trace the ray path from the scene point to the cop of the pinhole camera. this is a classical inverse problem and for complex catadioptric sys- tems with multiple viewpoints, closed-form solution does not exist. we review recent attempts to address the forward projection problem using ray geometry analysis. centric catadioptric cameras the simplest catadioptric cameras are designed to maintain a single viewpoint, i.e., all the projection rays intersect at one common point (the effective viewpoint), in order to generate perspectively cor- rect images from sections of the acquired image. such sys- tems are commonly referred to centric catadioptric cameras. since all projection rays from scene points form a same pin- hole camera about the effective viewpoint before reflection, we can easily resolve the forward projection problem by projecting the d point in the virtual pinhole camera. nayar and baker [ , ] analyzed all possible classes of centric catadioptric systems. they derived a fixed viewpoint constraint that requires all projection rays passing through the effective pinhole of the camera (after reflection) would have passed through the effective viewpoint before reflected by the mirror surface. since the mirror is rotationally sym- metric, one can then consider this problem in d by tak- ing a slice across the central axis. assuming that the ef- fective viewpoint is at origin [ , ]; the effective pinhole is at [ , c] and the mirror surface is of form z(r) = z(x, y), where r = √ x + y , the constraint can then be written as a quadratic first-order ordinary differential equation: r(c − z) ( dz dr ) − (r + cz − z ) dz dr + r( z − c) = ( ) the solution to eq. ( ) reveals that only d mirrors swept by conic sections around its central axis can satisfy the fixed viewpoint constraint, therefore, maintaining a single viewpoint. they have further shown two practical setups of centric catadioptric cameras: ( ) positioning a pinhole cam- era at the focal point of a hyperboloidal mirror; and ( ) ori- enting an orthographic camera (realized by using a tele-lens) towards the rotational axis of a paraboloidal mirror. both de- signs, however, require highly accurate alignment and pre- cise assembly of the optical components. non-centric catadioptric cameras relaxing the single viewpoint constraint allows more general but non-centric catadioptric cameras. in a non-centric catadioptric camera, the loci of virtual viewpoints form the caustic surfaces of the mirror. the centric catadioptric camera is a special case with its caustic being a point. swaminathan et al. [ – ] proposed to use the envelop of these reflection rays for computing the caustic surface. yu and mcmillan [ ] in- stead decompose the mirror surface into piecewise triangle patches and model each reflection patch as a glc, as shown in sect. . . . recall that local reflection ray geometry observed by a pinhole or an orthographic camera can only ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey fig. solving for forward projection using glc decomposition. (a) we can decompose a curved mirror image using piecewise glcs. (b) a multi-resolution hierarchy can be created for querying the image of a d point algorithm . : mirror_glcforwardprojection(glc, ṗ ) procedure getray(const glc &glc, const point d &ṗ ) p[u, v] ← glc.project(ṗ ); if p[u, v] /∈ glc.triangle then { return (false) if isleaf(glc) then { return (p[u, v]) else ⎧⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨ ⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎩ bnotfind ← true; while bnotfind do ⎧⎪⎪⎨ ⎪⎪⎩ x ← glc.subglcs.getnext(); q[u , v ] ← x.project(ṗ ); if q[u , v ] ∈ x.triangle then { bnotfind ← false; return (getray(x, ṗ )) be one of the four types of glc: xslit, pushbroom, pinhole, or orthographic, all can be viewed as special cases of xslit cameras: when the two slits intersect, it transforms into a pinhole camera; when one of the slits goes to infinity, the xslit transforms into a pushbroom; and when both slits go to infinity, it transforms into an orthographic camera. . solutions to the forward projection problem glc approximation the key advantage of using this glc approximation is that it provides a closed-form solution to the forward projection problem: one can decompose the mir- ror into piecewise glcs, project the d point into each glc, and verify if the projection location lies inside the glc [ ]. the result apparently is an approximation to the real solution and the accuracy depends on the fineness of triangulation. to improve both efficiency and accuracy, they have further developed a dynamic tessellation scheme similar to the level-of-detail (lod) technique in computer graphics. they first tessellate the reflection surface using a coarse set of glcs and then perform standard -to- subdi- vision and store the subdivision in a quad tree as shown in fig. . to forward project a d point ṗ to the camera, they start from the top level glcs and compute the image of ṗ ’s projection. they then determine which glc contains the fi- nal projection and repeat the search on its children glcs. the search stops until it reaches the leaf nodes. the detailed forward projection steps are shown in algorithm . . axial cameras the forward projection problem can also be addressed using special catadioptric cameras such as the axial camera. the axial camera is an intermediate class of cameras that lies between centric and non-centric ones. in an axial camera, all the projection rays are constrained to pass through a common axis but not a d point. one such model is a rotationally symmetric mirror with a pinhole camera viewing from its rotation axis, as shown in fig. (a). axial cameras are easier to construct than the centric catadioptric ones. for example, in a centric hyperbolic cata- dioptric camera, the optical center of the view camera has to be placed precisely at the mirror’s foci whereas in an ax- ial camera the optical center can be placed anywhere on the mirror axis to satisfy the axial geometry. the fact that all reflection rays passing through the rotation axis reveals that local glcs will map all reflection patches to a group of xs- lit cameras that share a common slit, i.e., the rotation axis. ramalingam et al. [ ] proposed a generic calibration al- gorithm for axial cameras by computing projection rays for each pixel constrained by the mirror axis. agrawal et al. [ ] further provided an analytical solution for forward projec- tion for axial cameras. given the viewpoint and a mirror, they compute the light path from a scene point to the viewing camera by solving a closed-form high-order forward pro- jection equation. conceptually, this can be done by exhaus- tively computing the projection for each centric ring of the virtual camera. for spherical mirror, they derived that the projection equation is reduced to th degree. this closed- form solution can be used to effectively compute the epipo- lar geometry to accelerate catadioptric stereo matching and to compose multiple axial camera images for forming a per- spective one [ ]. another special class of axial cameras is the radial cam- era proposed by kuthirummal and nayar [ ]. their goal is to strategically capture the scene from multiple viewpoints within a single image. a radial camera consists of a conven- tional camera looking through a hollow rotationally sym- metric mirror polished on the inside, as shown in fig. (b). the fov of the camera is folded inwards and consequently the scene is captured both directly and from virtual view- points after reflection by the mirror, as shown in fig. (c). by using a single camera, the radiometric properties are the same across all views. therefore, no synchronization or cal- ibration is required. the radial imaging system can also be viewed as a special axial camera that has a circular locus of virtual viewpoints. similar to the regular axial camera, closed-form solution can be derived for computing the for- ward projection. further, this camera has the same epipolar j. ye, j. yu fig. two examples of axial camera. (a) rotationally symmetric mirror with a viewing camera lying on the rotation axis. (b) a radial catadioptric camera can capture the same d point from different perspectives in a single image. (c) a multi-perspective image captured by (b) (courtesy of shree nayar) fig. top: a panoramic catadioptric projector system that combines a regular projector with curved plastic mirror. bottom: the final projection uses the projector’s full resolution ( × ) and displayed on a m × m wall geometry as the cyclographs [ ] and therefore can be ef- fectively used for omni-directional d reconstruction, ac- quiring d textures, sampling and estimating the surface reflectance properties such as the bidirectional reflectance distribution functions (brdf). . catadioptric projectors finally, one can replace the viewing pinhole camera with a projector. ding et al. [ ] proposed the catadioptric projec- tor by combining a digital commodity projector with spe- cially shaped reflectors to achieve an unprecedented level of flexibility in aspect ratio, size, and fov, as shown in fig. . their system assumes unknown reflector geometry and does not require accurate alignment between the projector and the optical units. they then use the inverse light transport tech- nique to correct geometric distortions and scattering. the main difference between the catadioptric camera and catadioptric projector is that the camera uses a near-zero aperture whereas the projector requires a wide aperture to achieve bright projections. however, the wide aperture may cause severe defocus blurs. due to the non-pinhole nature of reflection rays, the defocus blurs are much more com- plicated, e.g., the blur kernels are spatial-varying and non- circular shaped. therefore, traditional image precondition- ing algorithms are not directly applicable. the analysis in sect. . shows that the catadioptric de- focus blur can range from an ellipse to a line segment, de- pending on the aperture setting and the projector focal depth. to compensate for defocus blurs, ding et al. [ ] adopt a hardware solution: they change the shape of the aper- ture to reduce the average size of the defocus blur kernel. conceptually, one can use a very small aperture to emulate pinhole-type projection. however, small apertures block a large amount of light and produce dark projections. their so- lution is then to find the appropriate aperture shape that can effectively reduce the blurs without sacrificing the bright- ness in projection. in their approach, they first estimate the blur kernel by projecting a dotted pattern onto the wall and fit an ellipse to each captured dot. they then compute the average major and minor radii across all dots as a′ and b′. using the analysis in sect. . , they prove that the major and ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey fig. different light field camera designs. lenslet-based light field camera places the lenslet array on the image plane of the main lens. (a) in lytro [ ], the sensor is located at the focal plane of the mi- crolenses. (b) in lumsdaine et al. [ ], the microlenses focus on the sensor to trade angular resolution for spatial resolution. (c) the het- erodyne light field camera puts a narrowband d cosine mask near the sensor (courtesy of ramesh raskar). (d) catadioptric light field camera uses a view camera facing an array of mirrors (courtesy of yuichi taguchi) minor radii a and b of the optimal aperture should produce a circular shaped defocus kernel. they have shown that the optimal aperture should be an ellipse with a = d √ a′ b′ and b = d √ b′ a′ , where d is the diameter of the actual aperture. . d ray sampler: light field cameras the most general non-pinhole should be able to sample the complete d ray space and then reconfigure the rays at will. this requires using the generalized optics that treats each optical element as a d ray-bender that modifies the rays in a light field [ , , ]. the collected ray bundles can then be regrouped into separate measurements of the plenoptic func- tion [ , ]. the most straightforward scheme is to move a camera along a d path to sample the d ray space [ , ]. although this method is simple and easy to implement, it is only suitable for acquiring static scenes. wilburn et al. [ ] instead built a camera array to capture the light field. constructing such a light field camera array, however, is ex- tremely time and effort consuming and requires substantial amount of engineering. the latest developments are the light field cameras. lenslet based light field camera recent advances in op- tics manufacturing has enabled the light field to be captured using a single camera in one shot. ng [ ] designed a hand- held plenoptic camera to record the light field within a single shot by placing a lenslet array in front of the camera sensor to separate converging rays. each microlens focuses at the main aperture plane. since the size of the main lens is sev- eral magnitude larger than the lenslet, it can be treated as infinity to the lenslet. the sensor is placed at the focal plane of the lenslet array for simplification. in ng’s design, the f- numbers of the main lens and each microlens are matched to avoid cross-talk among microlens images. by parameter- izing the in-lens light field with a pp of Πuv at the main aperture and Πst at the lenslet array, the acquired ray space is uniformly sampled. this design has led to the commercial light field camera, lytro [ ], as shown in fig. (a). lumsdaine et al. [ ] introduced a slightly different de- sign by focusing the lenslet array on a virtual plane inside camera. in this case each microlens image will capture more spatial samples but less angular samples on the focused vir- tual plane. this design is capable of producing higher reso- lution results when focusing near the sampled image plane. however, the lower angular resolution leads to more se- vere ringing artifacts at the out-of-focus regions, as shown in fig. (b). mask based light field camera instead of using a lenslet ar- ray to separate light arriving at the same pixel from different directions, veeraraghavan et al. [ ] used a non-refractive patterned attenuation mask to modulate the light field in the frequency domain. by placing the mask on the light path between the lens and sensor, it attenuates light from differ- j. ye, j. yu ent directions accordingly, as shown in fig. (c). consid- ering the process in the frequency domain, we can view it as heterodyning the incoming light field. the attenuation mask needs to be reversible to ensure that demodulation can be performed. to recover the light field, they first transform the captured d image into fourier domain and then rearrange the tiles of the d fourier transform into d space. finally, the light field of the scene is computed by taking the inverse d fourier transform. further, they can insert the mask at different location along the optical path of the camera to achieve dynamic frequency modulation. however, the mask partially blocks out the incoming light and greatly reduces light efficiency. mirror based light field camera it is also possible to ac- quire the light field using a catadioptric mirror array, as shown in fig. (d). unger et al. [ ] combined a high res- olution tele-lens camera and an array of spherical mirrors to capture the incident light field. the use of mirror arrays in- stead of lenslet arrays has its advantages: it avoids chromatic aberrations caused by refraction, it does not require elabo- rate calibration between the lenslet array and the sensor, it captures images at a wide fov, and it is less expensive and reconfigurable. the disadvantages are two-fold. first, each mirror image is non-pinhole and therefore requires conduct- ing forward projection for associating the reflection rays with d points. second, the sampled the light field is non- uniform. two notable examples of these systems are the spherical mirror arrays by ding et al. [ ] and taguchi et al. [ ]. in [ ], the authors applied the glc-based forward projection (sect. . ) on multi-view space carving for reconstructing the d scene. taguchi et al. [ ] developed both a mirror ar- ray and a refractive sphere array and applied the axial cam- era formulation (sect. . ) to compute the closed forward projection. they have shown various applications including distortion correction and light field rendering. light field probes analogous to catadioptric cameras vs. catadioptric projectors, the duality to the light field camera is the light field probe, i.e., replacing the sensor with a pro- jector. the real light field probe has been implemented by using a backlight, diffuser, pattern, and a single or array of lenslet, as shown in fig. . similar to lytro, the pattern is placed at the focal plane of the lenslet array to simulate an array of projectors projecting towards infinity. the light field probe is apparently a multi-view display. it is also particu- larly useful for acquiring transparent surfaces. notice that the light field probe can directly estimate ray–ray correspon- dences as the view camera can associates each pixel to a ray. ye et al. [ ] used a single lens probe (a bokode [ ]) for recovering dynamic fluid surfaces. they presented a robust feature matching algorithm based on the active appearance fig. light field probes. (a) a light field probe combines a lenslet array and a special projection pattern. (b) similar to lytro, each lenslet acts as a view-dependent pixel model (aam) to robustly establishing ray–ray correspon- dences. the ray–ray correspondences then directly provide the surface normal and they derive a new angular-domain surface integration scheme to recover the surface from the normal field. wetzstein et al. [ , ] also used the light field probe for reconstructing complex transparent objects. they encode both spatial and angular by using specially de- signed color pattern. specifically, they use gradients of dif- ferent color channels (red and blue) to encode the d inci- dent ray direction and the green channel to encode the d (vertical) spatial location of the pattern. the second (hori- zontal) spatial location can be recovered through geometric constraints. their approach is able to achieve highly accu- rate ray–ray correspondences for reconstructing surface nor- mals of complex static objects. future directions there are several directions for future research related to non-pinhole cameras. the ray geometry theory may lead to new acquisition de- vices for many image-based rendering (ibr) and compu- tational photography applications. for example, it will be useful to design specially curved mirrors that can efficiently capture the light field. the pinhole-based and mirror-based light field cameras have provided one way to sample the ray space. the current spherical mirror array suffers from arti- facts such as non-uniform sampling and image distortions. alternatively, special-shaped mirrors may be able to more evenly sample the ray space, e.g., via a different type of ray subspace (e.g., using the glc-type mirrors). in addition to non-pinhole cameras, one can potentially develop non-pinhole light sources by replacing the viewing camera in a catadioptric camera with a point light source. ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey previous image-based relighting, surface reflectance sam- pling, and shape recovering algorithms are restricted by ge- ometric constraints of the light source. by strategically de- vising a different type of lighting condition, one can im- prove the way for measuring and sampling the radiance off the surface. in addition, a non-pinhole light source will cast special-shaped shadows. in particular, the shadow of a d line segment can be a curve under a non-pinhole light source. this may lead to the development of new shape- from-shadow algorithms which determine the depth of the object by analyzing the shape of the shadow at the silhou- ettes. finally, it is possible to develop a new theoretical frame- work based on computational and differential geometry to characterize and catalog the structures of ray space. for ex- ample, it can be highly useful to model the algebraic ray subspaces (e.g., ray simplices) and analyze how ray geome- tries are related to specific types of non-pinhole distortions. further, by correlating the geometric attributes of the re- flector/refractor surface with these distortions, we can ex- plore novel shape-from-caustics, shape-from-distortion, or depth-from-defocus algorithms for recovering highly com- plex specular surfaces. references . adelson, e.h., bergen, j.r.: the plenoptic function and the ele- ments of early vision. in: computational models of visual pro- cessing, pp. – ( ) . adelson, e., wang, j.: single lens stereo with a plenoptic camera. ieee trans. pattern anal. mach. intell. 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( ), – ( ) jinwei ye received her b.e. de- gree from the department of elec- trical engineering, huazhong uni- versity of science and technologry in . she is now a ph.d. student at the department of computer and information sciences, university of delaware. her research interests in- clude computational photography, and ray geometry. jingyi yu is an associate profes- sor at computer and information science department at the univer- sity of delaware. he received his b.s. from caltech in and m.s. and ph.d. degree in eecs from mit in . his research interests span a range of topics in computer graphics, computer vision, and im- age processing, including computa- tional photography, medical imag- ing, nonconventional optics and camera design, tracking and surveil- lance, and graphics hardware. 	ray geometry in non-pinhole cameras: a survey 	abstract 	introduction 	scope 	pinhole optics 	pinhole in ray space 	ray space 	pinhole ray geometry 	slit ray geometry 	the thin lens operator 	non-pinhole imaging models 	classical non-pinhole cameras 	general non-pinhole cameras 	general linear cameras (glc) 	case study : reflection on curved mirrors 	case study : d surfaces 	non-pinhole camera through the thin lens 	glc through a thin lens 	slit-direction duality 	case study : defocus analysis in catadioptric cameras 	applications of synthetic non-pinhole cameras 	synthesizing panoramas 	non-photorealistic rendering 	stereo and d reconstruction 	real non-pinhole imaging systems 	general catadioptric cameras 	centric catadioptric cameras 	non-centric catadioptric cameras 	solutions to the forward projection problem 	glc approximation 	axial cameras 	catadioptric projectors 	 d ray sampler: light field cameras 	lenslet based light field camera 	mask based light field camera 	mirror based light field camera 	light field probes 	future directions 	references ayalagen resonance ! october general ! article in , theodosius dobzhansky addressed the convention of the national association of biology teachers on the theme “nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolu- tion”. the title of that address (published in the american biology teacher, vol. , pp. - ) might serve as an epigram of dobzhansky’s worldview and life, although it is limited in scope, for dobzhansky believed and propounded that the impli- cations of biological evolution reach much beyond biology into philosophy, sociology, and even socio-political issues. the place of biological evolution in human thought was, according to dobzhansky, best expressed in a passage that he often quoted from pierre teilhard de chardin: “(evolution) is a general postulate to which all theories, all hypotheses, all systems must hence forward bow and which they must satisfy in order to be thinkable and true. evolution is a light which illuminates all facts, a trajectory which all lines of thought must follow – this is what evolution is”. the modern synthesis of evolutionary theory theodosius dobzhansky was one of the most influential scien- tists of the twentieth century: he also was one of the most prolific. his first publication appeared in when dobzhansky was years old. the list of his publications at the time of his death contains titles, including more than a dozen books; and he left several manuscripts in the press or at various stages of preparation. the gamut of subject matters is enormous: results of experimental research in various biological disci- plines, works of synthesis and theory, essays on humanism and philosophy, and others. the incredibly numerous and diversi- fied published works of dobzhansky are nevertheless unified – biological evolution is the theme that threads them together. (reference to dobzhansky’s publications can be found in the theodosius dobzhansky: a man for all seasons francisco j ayala in writing this feature, i have d r a w n e x t e n s i v e l y f r o m t w o previous publications of mine: nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution, the journal of heredity, : - , ; a n d t h e o d o s i u s d o b z h a n s k y - , b i o - graphical memoirs, national academy of sciences usa, : - , . francisco j ayala obtained his ph d with theodosius dobzhansky in the s and is presently the donald bren professor of biological sciences at the university of california, irvine and a member of president clinton’s committee of advisors on science and technology. he is a member of the u s national academy of sciences and has been president and chairman of the board of the american association for the advancement of science. he has worked extensively on the population ecology and evolutionary genetics of drosophila species. resonance ! october general ! article detailed bibliography prepared by f j ayala, biographical mem- oirs, national academy of sciences usa, : - , .) theodosius dobzhansky ( - ) was a key author of the synthetic theory of evolution, also known as the modern synthesis of evolutionary theory, which embodies a complex array of biological knowledge centered around darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection couched in genetic terms. the epithet ‘synthetic’ primarily alludes to the artful combination of darwin’s natural selection with mendelian genetics, but also to the incorporation of relevant knowledge from biological disci- plines. in the s and s several theorists had developed mathematical accounts of natural selection as a genetic process. dobzhansky’s genetics and the origin of species, published in refashioned their formulations in language that biologists could understand, dressed the equations with natural history and experimental population genetics, and extended the synthe- sis to speciation and other cardinal problems omitted by the mathematicians. the current synthetic theory has grown around that original synthesis. it is not just one single hypothesis (or theory) with its corroborating evidence, but a multidisciplinary body of knowl- edge bearing on biological evolution, an amalgam of well estab- lished theories and working hypotheses, together with the ob- servations and experiments that support accepted hypotheses (and falsify rejected ones), which jointly seek to explain the evolutionary process and its outcomes. these hypotheses, ob- servations and experiments often originate in disciplines such as genetics, embryology, zoology, botany, paleontology, and molecular biology. currently, the ‘synthetic’ epithet is often omitted and the compilation of relevant knowledge is simply known as the theory of evolution. this is still expanding, just like one of those ‘holding’ business corporations that have grown around an original enterprise, but continue incorporat- ing new profitable enterprises and discarding unprofitable ones. darwin summarized the theory of evolution by natural selection theodosius dobzhansky ( - ) was a key author of the synthetic theory of evolution, also known as the modern synthesis of evolutionary theory, which embodies a complex array of biological knowledge centered around darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection couched in genetic terms. resonance ! october general ! article in the origin of species ( ) as follows: “as many more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must in every case be a struggle for existence, either one individual with another of the same species, or with the individuals of distinct species, or with the physical condi- tions of life …can it, then, be thought improbable, seeing that variations useful to man have undoubtedly occurred, that other variations, useful in some way to each being in the great and complex battle of life, should sometimes occur in the course of thousands of generations? if such do occur, can we doubt (remembering that many more individuals are born than can possibly survive) that individuals having any advantage, how- ever slight, over others, would have the best chance of surviving and of procreating their kind? on the other hand, we may feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed. this preservation of favorable variations and the rejection of injurious variations, i call natural selection”. darwin’s argument is that natural selection emerges as a neces- sary conclusion from two premises: (i) the assumption that hereditary variations useful to organisms occur, and (ii) the observation that more individuals are produced than can possi- bly survive. the most serious difficulty facing darwin’s evolu- tionary theory was the lack of an adequate theory of inheritance that would account for the preservation through the generations of the variations on which natural selection was supposed to act. theories of ‘blending inheritance’ then current proposed that offspring merely struck an average between the characteristics of their parents. as darwin became aware, blending inheritance could not account for the conservation of variations, because differences among variant offspring would be halved each gen- eration, rapidly reducing the original variation to the average of the preexisting characteristics. the missing link in darwin’s argument was provided by men- delian genetics. about the time the origin of species was pub- lished, the augustinian monk gregor mendel was performing a darwin’s argument is that natural selection emerges as a necessary conclusion from two premises: (i) the assumption that hereditary variations useful to organisms occur, and (ii) the observation that more individuals are produced than can possibly survive. resonance ! october general ! article long series of experiments with peas in the garden of his monas- tery in brünn, austria–hungary (now brno, czech republic). mendel’s paper, published in , formulated the fundamental principles of a theory of heredity that accounts for biological inheritance through particulate factors (now called ‘genes’) in- herited one from each parent, which do not mix or blend but segregate in the formation of the sex cells, or gametes. mendel’s discoveries, however, remained unknown to darwin and, indeed, did not become generally known until , when they were simultaneously rediscovered by several scientists. in the meantime, darwinism in the latter part of the th century faced an alternative evolutionary theory known as neo-lama- rckism. this hypothesis shared with lamarck’s original theory the importance of use and disuse in the development and oblit- eration of organs, and it added the notion that the environment acts directly on organic structures, which explained their adap- tation to the ways of life and environments of each organism. adherents of this theory rejected natural selection as an expla- nation for adaptation to the environment. the rediscovery of mendel’s theory of heredity in led to an emphasis on the role of heredity in evolution. in the nether- lands, hugo de vries ( ) proposed a new theory of evolution known as mutationism, which essentially did away with natural selection as a major evolutionary process. according to de vries (joined by other geneticists such as william bateson in en- gland), there are two kinds of variation in organisms. one is the ‘ordinary’ variation observed among individuals of a species, which is of no lasting consequence in evolution because, accord- ing to de vries, it could not “lead to a transgression of the species border even under conditions of the most stringent and contin- ued selection”. the other consists of the changes brought about by mutations, spontaneous alterations of genes that yield large modifications of the organism and give rise to new species: according to de vries, a new species originates suddenly, pro- duced by the existing one without any visible preparation and without transition. according to de vries, a new species originates suddenly, produced by the existing one without any visible preparation and without transition. resonance ! october general ! article mutationism was opposed by many naturalists, and in particular by the so-called biometricians, led by the briton karl pearson, who defended darwinian natural selection as the major cause of evolution through the cumulative effects of small, continuous, individual variations (which the biometricians assumed passed from one generation to the next without being subject to mendel’s laws of inheritance). the controversy between mutationists (also referred to at the time as mendelians) and biometricians approached a resolution in the s and ‘ s through the theoretical work of several geneticists (provine ). these studies used mathematical arguments to show, first, that continuous variation (in such characteristics as size, number of eggs laid, and the like) could be explained by mendel’s laws; and second, that natural selection acting cumulatively on small variations could yield major evolu- tionary changes in form and function. distinguished members of this group of theoretical geneticists were r a fisher and j b s haldane in britain and sewall wright in the united states (fisher ; haldane ; wright ). their work contrib- uted to the downfall of mutationism and, most importantly, provided a theoretical framework for the integration of genetics into darwin’s theory of natural selection. yet their work had a limited impact on contemporary biologists because it was for- mulated in a mathematical language that most of them could not understand; because it was almost exclusively theoretical, with little empirical corroboration; and because it was limited in scope, largely omitting many issues, like speciation, that were of great importance to evolutionists. dobzhansky’s genetics and the origin of species advanced a rea- sonably comprehensive account of the evolutionary process in genetic terms, laced with experimental evidence supporting the theoretical arguments. it had an enormous impact on natural- ists and experimental biologists, who rapidly embraced the new understanding of the evolutionary process as one of genetic change in populations. interest in evolutionary studies was dobzhansky’s genetics and the origin of species advanced a reasonably comprehensive account of the evolutionary process in genetic terms, laced with experimental evidence supporting the theoretical arguments. resonance ! october general ! article greatly stimulated, and contributions to the theory soon began to follow, extending the synthesis of genetics and natural selec- tion to a variety of biological fields. the main writers who, together with dobzhansky, may be considered the architects of the synthetic theory were the zoolo- gists ernst mayr ( ) and julian huxley ( ), the paleon- tologist george g simpson ( ), and the botanist g ledyard stebbins ( ). these researchers contributed to a burst of evolutionary studies in the traditional biological disciplines and in some emerging ones – notably population genetics and, later, evolutionary ecology. by , acceptance of darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection was universal among biologists, and the synthetic theory had become widely adopted. the line of thought of genetics and the origin of species is surprisingly modern – in part, no doubt, because it established the pattern that successive evolutionary investigations and trea- tises largely would follow. dobzhansky writes in the preface: “the problem of evolution may be approached in two different ways. first, the sequence of the evolutionary events as they have actually taken place in the past history of various organisms may be traced. second, the mechanisms that bring about evolution- ary changes may be studied. the present book is dedicated to a discussion of the mechanisms of species formation in terms of the known facts and theories of genetics”. the book starts with a consideration of organic diversity and discontinuity. succes- sively, it deals with mutation as the origin of hereditary varia- tion, the role of chromosomal rearrangements, variation in natural populations, natural selection, the origin of species by polyploidy, the origin of species through gradual development of reproductive isolation, physiological and genetic differences between species, and the concept of species as natural units. the book’s organization was largely preserved in the second ( ) and third ( ) editions, and in genetics of the evolutionary process (dobzhansky ), published in , a book that dobzhansky thought of as the fourth edition of the earlier one, “the problem of evolution may be approached in two different ways. first, the sequence of the evolutionary events as they have actually taken place in the past history of various organisms may be traced. second, the mechanisms that bring about evolutionary changes may be studied. the present book is dedicated to a discussion of the mechanisms of species formation in terms of the known facts and theories of genetics”. dobzhansky in “genetics and the origin of species” resonance ! october general ! article but had changed too much for publication under the same title. human evolution and human individuality near the end of the origin of species, darwin wrote that “much light will be thrown [by this theory] on the origin of man”. in the descent of man ( ) darwin showed mankind as the outcome of biological evolution and thus kin to all life. like- wise, dobzhansky extended the synthesis of mendelism and darwinism to the understanding of human nature in mankind evolving ( ), a book that many consider to be as important as genetics and the origin of species. mankind evolving remains an unsurpassed synthesis of genetics, evolutionary theory, anthropology, and sociology. dobzhansky expounded that human nature has two dimensions: the biologi- cal, which mankind shares with the rest of life, and the cultural, which is exclusive to humans. these two dimensions result from two interconnected processes, biological evolution and cultural evolution: “the thesis to be set forth in the present book is that man has both a nature and a ‘history’. human evolution has two compo- nents, the biological or organic, and the cultural or superorganic. these components are neither mutually exclusive nor indepen- dent, but interrelated and interdependent. human evolution cannot be understood as a purely biological process, nor can it be adequately described as a history of culture. it is the interaction of biology and culture. there exists a feedback between biologi- cal and cultural processes” (mankind evolving, p. ). two principal topics of mankind evolving are the interrelated concepts of human diversity and race. dobzhansky’s first major publication on these topics was heredity, race, and society ( ), a book co-authored with l c dunn that was translated into many languages and sold more than one million copies. dobzhansky set forth that the individual is not the embodiment of some ideal type or norm, but rather a unique and unrepeatable dobzhansky extended the synthesis of mendelism and darwinism to the understanding of human nature in mankind evolving ( ), a book that many consider to be as important as genetics and the origin of species. resonance ! october general ! article realization in the field of quasi-infinite possible genetic combi- nations. the pervasiveness of genetic variation provides the biological foundation of human individuality; dobzhansky elu- cidated that it also leads to demystification of the much-abused concept of race. he emphasized that populations or groups of populations differ from each other in the frequencies of some genes. these differences may be recognized by distinguishing populations of a given species as races. the number of races and the boundaries between them are largely arbitrary because rarely if ever are populations of the same species separated by sharp discontinuities in their genetic make-up. most important is the fact that races are polymorphic for the same genetic variants that may be used to distinguish one race from another. there is more genetic variation within any human race than there are genetic differences between races. it follows, as dobzhansky saw it, that individuals should be evaluated by what they are, not by the race to which they belong. dobzhansky considered human diversity a fact belonging to the realm of observable natural phenomena: “people are innately, genetically, and therefore irremediably diverse and unlike” (ge- netic diversity and human equality, p. ). biological distinctive- ness is not, however, a basis for inequality. equality – as in equality in law and equality of opportunity – “pertains to the rights and the sacredness of life of every human being” (loc. cit.). dobzhansky pointed out that equality in law and equality of opportunity are the best strategy to maximize the benefits of human biological diversity. “denial of equality of opportunity stultifies the genetic diversity with which mankind became equipped in the course of its evolutionary development. in- equality conceals and stifles some people’s abilities and dis- sembles the lack of abilities in others. conversely equality permits an optimal utilization of the wealth of the gene pool of the human species” (mankind evolving, p. ). dobzhansky had little patience with racial prejudice or social injustice, and castigated those who pretended to base them on what he called the “bogus ‘science’ of race prejudice”. there is more genetic variation within any human race than there are genetic differences between races. it follows, as dobzhansky saw it, that individuals should be evaluated by what they are, not by the race to which they belong. resonance ! october general ! article dobzhansky’s lasting interest in the relevance of biology, and particularly evolutionary theory, to human affairs is evident in the many scores of articles that he wrote on the subject and in the titles of some of his books: heredity, race, and society ( ), evolution, genetics, and man ( ), the biological basis of hu- man freedom ( ), radiation, genes, and man ( , with b wallace), mankind evolving ( ), heredity and the nature of man ( ), the biology of ultimate concern ( ), and genetic diversity and human equality ( ). a scientist – and a humanist and philosopher dobzhansky’s interest in the interface between biology and human problems was expressed in numerous publications that flow as a continuous stream since the mid- s. his concern was probably kindled by several convergent influences. one factor was the race bigotism that contributed in europe to triggering world war ii; another, lysenko’s suppression of genetics and geneticists in the ussr; a third, his association as a colleague and intimate friend with l c dunn, whose compas- sion for the human predicament was much revered by dobzhansky, and who was greatly involved in providing shelter in the united states for scientists fleeing from nazi persecution. dobzhansky was concerned with the role of religion in human life and explored the evolutionary basis of religion in several articles in the s and s, and in his the biology of ultimate concern ( ). dobzhansky often expressed his frustration at the limited influ- ence of biology on the thinking of philosophers. he saw that evolutionary biology raises new philosophical problems and throws light on old ones. he wrote several essays on philosophi- cal questions, such as the concepts of determinism and chance, transcendent phenomena, organismic, or compositionist, ap- proaches in the philosophy of biology, and the ‘creative’ charac- ter of biological evolution. dobzhansky often expressed his frustration at the limited influence of biology on the thinking of philosophers. he saw that evolutionary biology raises new philosophical problems and throws light on old ones. resonance ! october general ! article a scientist and a teacher dobzhansky was an excellent teacher and distinguished educa- tor of scientists. throughout his academic career he had more than graduate students and an even greater number of postdoctoral and visiting associates, many of them from foreign countries. some of the most distinguished geneticists and evolutionists in the united states and abroad are his former students. dobzhansky spent long periods of time in foreign academic institutions, and was largely responsible for the estab- lishment or development of genetics and evolutionary biology in various countries, notably brazil, chile, and egypt. dobzhansky gave generously of his time to other scientists, particularly to young ones and to students. but he resented time spent in committee activities, which he shunned as often as he reasonably could. throughout his academic career, he avoided administrative posts, alleging, perhaps correctly, that he had neither temperament nor ability for management. most cer- tainly, he preferred to dedicate his working time to research and writing, rather than to administration. a short sketch of a long life theodosius dobzhansky was born on january , , in nemirov, a small town km southeast of kiev in the ukraine. he was the only child of sophia voinarsky and grigory dobrzhansky (precise transliteration of the russian family name includes the letter ‘r’ ), a teacher of high school mathematics. in the family moved to the outskirts of kiev, where dobzhansky lived through the tumultuous years of world war i and the bolshevik revolution. in those times the family was often beset by various privations, including hunger. in his unpublished autobiographical reminiscences for the ‘oral history project’ of columbia university, dobzhansky states that his decision to become a biologist was made in about . through his early high school years, dobzhansky became an dobzhansky gave generously of his time to other scientists, particularly to young ones and to students. but he resented time spent in committee activities, which he shunned as often as he reasonably could. resonance ! october general ! article avid butterfly collector. a school teacher gave him access to a microscope that dobzhansky used particularly during the long winter months. in the winter of - , he met victor luchnik, a -year-old college drop-out, who was a dedicated entomologist specializing in coccinellidae beetles. luchnik convinced dobzhansky that butterfly collecting would not lead anywhere and that he should become a specialist. dobzhansky chose to work with ladybird beetles, which would be the subject of his first scientific publication in . dobzhansky graduated in biology from the university of kiev in . before his graduation, he was hired as an instructor in zoology at the polytechnic institute in kiev. he taught there until , when he became an assistant to yuri filipchenko, head of the new department of genetics at the university of leningrad. filipchenko was familiar with morgan’s work in the united states and had started a drosophila laboratory, where dobzhansky was encouraged to investigate the pleiotropic ef- fects of genes. in , dobzhansky obtained a fellowship from the interna- tional education board (rockefeller foundation) and arrived in new york on december to work with thomas hunt morgan at columbia university. in the summer of he followed morgan to the california institute of technology, where dobzhansky was appointed assistant professor of genetics in , and professor of genetics in . in he returned to new york as professor of zoology at columbia university, where he remained until , when he became professor at the rockefeller institute (renamed rockefeller university in ) also in new york. on july , , dobzhansky became profes- sor emeritus at rockefeller university; in september , he moved to the department of genetics at the university of california, davis, where he was adjunct professor until his death in . on august , , dobzhansky married natalia (natasha) sivertzev, a geneticist in her own right, who was at the time through his early high school years, dobzhansky became an avid butterfly collector. a school teacher gave him access to a microscope that dobzhansky used particularly during the long winter months. resonance ! october general ! article working with the famous russian biologist i i schmalhausen in kiev. natasha was dobzhansky’s faithful companion and occa- sional scientific collaborator until her death from coronary thrombosis on february , . dobzhansky himself died of heart failure on the morning of december , . the previ- ous day, he had been working in the laboratory. dobzhansky was a world traveller and an accomplished linguist able to fluently speak six languages and to read several more. he was a good naturalist, and never lacked time for a hike in the california sierras, the new england forests, or the amazon jungles. he loved horseback riding but practised no other sports. dobzhansky’s interests included the visual arts, music, history, russian literature, cultural anthropology, philosophy, religion, and, of course, science. his artistic preferences were unsystematic and definitely traditional. his favourite composer was beethoven followed by bach and other baroques; he loved italian operas, but had little appreciation for most twentieth century music and a definite distaste for atonalism (of elec- tronic and computer-composed music, he said that it is fit only for computers to listen to it). in art, dobzhansky admired the italian renaissance painters as well as the dutch and spanish masters of the seventeenth century; he appreciated the french impressionists but detested cubism and all subsequent styles and schools of modern art. dobzhansky’s obvious personality traits were magnanimity and expansiveness. he recognized and generously praised the achievements of other scientists; he admired the intellect of his colleagues, even when admiration was alloyed with disagree- ment. he made many long-lasting friendships, usually started by professional interaction. many of dobzhansky’s friends were scientists younger than himself, who had either worked in his laboratory as students, postdoctorals, or visitors, or had met him during his travels. he was conspicuously affectionate and loyal toward his friends; he expected affection and loyalty in return. dobzhansky’s exuberant personality was manifest not only in dobzhansky’s obvious personality traits were magnanimity and expansiveness. he recognized and generously praised the achievements of other scientists; he admired the intellect of his colleagues, even when admiration was alloyed with disagreement. resonance ! october general ! article his friendships but also in his antipathies, which he was seldom able, or often willing, to hide. dobzhansky was a religious man, although he apparently re- jected fundamental beliefs of traditional religion, such as the existence of a personal god and of life beyond physical death. his religiosity was grounded on the conviction that there is meaning in the universe. he saw that meaning in the fact that evolution has produced the stupendous diversity of the living world and has progressed from primitive forms of life to man- kind. dobzhansky held that, in man, biological evolution has transcended itself into the realm of self-awareness and culture. he believed that somehow mankind would eventually evolve into higher levels of harmony and creativity. he was a meta- physical optimist. address for correspondence francisco j ayala department of ecology and evolutionary biology university of california irvine, ca - , usa. email: fjayala@uci.edu francisco jose ayala – a many faceted personality ayala was born in spain, got his undergraduate degree in physics, followed by a doctorate in theology with a dissertation written in latin. he was a dominican priest and was pursuing graduate studies in genetics when dobzhansky met him in madrid in the early s. dobzhansky was impressed and persuaded ayala to join him at columbia university for a ph d. after finishing his ph d, ayala did not want to return to spain as he was opposed to franco’s rule. he taught for several years at the providence college, rhode island (a dominican college). by this time dobzhansky had moved to rockefeller university. ayala, by now disenchanted not only with spain, but also the dominicans and the catholic church hierarchy, joined dobzhansky as research associate. finally, he moved as associate professor to uc davis in , with part of the deal being that the now retired dobzhansky would come along with him. in the s, ayala moved to uc irvine, where he is now donald bren professor. most of what is true of dobzhansky is also true of ayala. ayala, too, influenced people on several continents, especially spain and latin america. his graduate students include some of the best known evolutionary geneticists and ecologists (especially drosophilists) in the - year old age group. ayala has been a prolific writer of scientific papers, textbooks and ‘general’ articles. he has also been an active defender of evolution from creationist attacks with the added advantage that he too can quote the bible chapter and verse back at them. although english is not his native tongue, his writing is extremely clear and elegant. ayala’s work has been an elegant blend of theoretical approaches, rigorous laboratory experimentation and field studies, a combination not often seen in one person’s work. presently, he is one of the most distinguished living evolutionary geneticists, and certainly the most illustrious of dobzhansky’s students. amitabh joshi edinburgh research explorer review: javier barón (ed.), el greco & la pintura moderna, exhibition catalogue, madrid, museo nacional del prado, june–october . citation for published version: hopkins, c , 'review: javier barón (ed.), el greco & la pintura moderna, exhibition catalogue, madrid, museo nacional del prado, june–october .', bulletin of spanish studies, vol. , no. . https://doi.org/ . / . . digital object identifier (doi): . / . . link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: peer reviewed version published in: bulletin of spanish studies general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the edinburgh research explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the university of edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that edinburgh research explorer content complies with uk legislation. if you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. download date: . apr. https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/review-javier-baron-ed-el-greco--la-pintura-moderna-exhibition-catalogue-madrid-museo-nacional-del-prado-juneoctober- (c f c- e b- c f- e e- dcfccffc d).html review: javier barón (ed.), el greco & la pintura moderna , exhibition catalogue, madrid, museo nacional del prado, june–october . by claudia hopkins the exhibition el greco y la pintura moderna, curated by javier barón at the prado earlier this year in commemoration of el greco’s th anniversary, celebrated el greco as an essential source of inspiration for nineteenth and twentieth-century painters. the display of works by el greco with paintings by modern artists offered a truly visual feast that invited the viewer to see the old master through the varied lenses of modern artists, ranging from eduard manet through to the luminaries of twentieth-century art, such as pablo picasso, jackson pollock and francis bacon. what emerged was a complex web of rich and diverse interpretations of el greco, which showed that the revolution of modern art did not begin at zero but had its roots in the art of the past: el greco’s somber portraits of toledan nobleman find different adaptations in portraits by artists as diverse as madrazo, picasso or modigliani; a comparison of cézanne’s bathers with two small sculptures of the resurrected christ by el greco reveal striking similarities. el greco—a highly individualist artist in his own time—prompted many modern artists, searching for their own paths, to identify with him. “yo, el greco” wrote picasso on an early sketch of el greco-like heads with pointed beards. chagall found in el greco formal and spiritual inspiration, as exemplified by his self- portrait in vitsep, a city referred to as the ‘russian toledo’ for its christian and jewish elements. for the spanish artist zuluoga el greco became an obsession. as is well known, his acquisition of el greco’s the vision of st. john turned out to be vital to picasso’s demoiselles d’avignon, which signaled the birth of cubism. el greco’s impact on cubism was shown in the exhibition through smaller works by picasso and his followers. perhaps the exhibition’s most spectacular and challenging section was the display of monumental works by el greco, such as the laocoonte and the vision of saint john, in dialogue with expressionism, abstract expressionism, surrealism and new figurative art. in order to understand the process by which el greco’s work was assimilated and ‘translated’ into modern languages of art, we need to turn to the exhibition catalogue. this well-researched and multi-authored publication includes two essays by javier barón, and one essay by each of the following scholars: leticia ruiz gómez, pedro j. martínez plaza, veronika schroeder, jeffrey schrader and javier portús. barón’s introductory essay is followed by ruiz gómez’ rich analysis of the pictorial development of el greco from his cretan origins to his last works in toledo, which highlights the formal aspects that so appealed to the modern eye: his energetic brushwork, expressivity of form and colour, and innovative organization of space. in turn, martínez plaza offers new insights into the presence of el greco’s works in private and public collections as a factor contributing to his fame both in and outside spain. an important issue—difficult to transmit through the exhibition— concerns the importance of art historians, curators and critics, who presented el greco in modernist terms to their audiences. as barón explains, el greco’s status as a precursor of cézanne, the father of modern art, was a powerful construct. the parallels that critics detected in cézanne’s and el greco’s works were repeated over and over again, leading to a topos that stands at the basis of the modern fascination with el greco. as schroeder argues, the german critic julius meier-graefe—the ‘apostle of el greco’—presented el greco with such enthusiasm and conviction through his travelogue die spanische reise ( ) that it was his vision of el greco that was adopted. german expressionists, who in the pre-war years wished to turn their back on materialism and build a life based on spirit and soul, found in meier-graefe’s el greco a rich visual vocabulary— ethereal figures, vaguely defined nocturnal landscapes, anti-natural colours, monochrome greys etc.—which helped them to visualize their existentialist identity. artists in north america were also drawn to el greco—one artist who had seen el greco’s view of toledo at the knoedler galleries in , judged this work as “more provocative” (p. ) than the armory show of —but el greco’s perceived modernity had different repercussions in north america than in europe. the north american fascination was bound up, at first, with regionalism and formalism, and then with abstraction. thomas hart benton’s chilmark, a quintessential american landscape with spiritual overtones, takes inspiration from the undulating lines of el greco’s agony. pollock, following benton’s example, made small drawings after el greco’s resurrection from a black and white reproduction, but unlike benton, emphasised the expressive potential of the figures. as schrader’s nuanced essay reveals, pollock’s interest in el greco was often mediated via other el greco-influenced artists, such as orozco or picasso. hence, the alignment pollock-el greco is not always obvious. comparisons between abstract expressionists and el greco were often made by gallery owners and curators in the s. later on artistic interest in el greco waned due to the rise of pop and other movements, but the idea of el greco’s vital role to modern art still had currency in when even roy lichtenstein talked of a direct lineage from el greco to abstract expressionism. the final chapter by portús reveals the diverse responses to el greco by surrealists and later figurative artists in spain, france and britain. the importance of art writing surfaces again. the complex debates about el greco led to a kaleidoscopic vision of the artist, which also found its echoes in art. for example, roger fry’s evaluation of el greco as baroque and anti-classical made him palatable to british artists like henry moore, who considered him as an artist with an inner vision. other critics looked at el greco in terms of mysticism or eroticism, which in turn attracted surrealists like oscar domínguez who explored the erotic potential of the old master. the reception of el greco in modern times is not a new topic. the prado exhibition builds on two previous ones: el greco. su revalorización por el modernismo catalan, in barcelona, , and el greco and modernism (which focused on german expressionism) in düsseldorf, . however, the prado exhibition and its accompanying catalogue are unprecedented in their sheer scope and firmly place el greco in a wide international arena of modern art. pii: - ( ) - advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. the kenner-davenport era the kenner-davenport era denis donoghue the hopkins review, volume , number , summer , pp. - (article) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /thr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /thr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ © johns hopkins university press denis donoghue the kenner-davenport era it is a delight to see two scholars sharing their scholarship, and now we have the record of a remarkably fruitful correspondence, from to about with snippets thereafter till , between hugh kenner and guy davenport, different minds concentrated on the quandaries of modern literature. hugh kenner ( – ) i knew well enough, guy davenport ( – ) not at all. kenner came to dublin fairly often during the years in which i lived there and while my name was not italicized, i feel sure, on his visiting list, our paths crossed easily in that gregarious city. i assumed he came to familiarize himself again with joyce’s streets and on the off chance of meeting someone whose father or grandfa- ther might have seen joyce “walking into eternity along sandymount strand.” kenner brought his camera with him, and snapped the crampton monument, thomas moore’s right index finger, and the bust of demosthenes in trinity college’s library, photographs he was to offer to readers of joyce’s voices ( ). a few of his visits have stayed in my mind; one, when i brought him to dinner at the king sitric restau- rant in howth, and the head waiter steered him unerringly to the most expensive dishes on the menu. i recall nothing further of that evening, either what kenner or i said. ezra pound’s companion olga rudge told guy davenport that kenner was “a wonderful raconteur.” he did not have that reputation in dublin or in howth. i can only suppose that in italy and at pound’s table in sant’ambrogio he raised his game in the hope of enticing the silent poet to speak. a year or two later, kenner was again among us. someone arranged a lunch at bernardo’s, and a round tableful of bookish folk assembled the hopkins review with kenner the guest of honor. donald davie was there, seán white, and if my approximate memory holds, father roland burke savage, the editor of studies. what i mainly remember is that the lunch had hardly begun before kenner started urging davie and me to give up our jobs in dublin and remove ourselves to the university of california at santa barbara. kenner was the most eminent member of the english faculty there. he said he had a plan, that we would join with him, marvin mudrick, and other gifted colleagues and exert a “cultural heave from the west,” as he memorably phrased it, to dislodge the rascals who were running the literary show in new york. i didn’t take this notion seriously, but davie did, at least to the partial extent of arranging a year’s sabbatical leave from trinity college and spending it, indeed, in santa barbara, where, however, he did not remain. two or three years later, kenner was yet again in dublin, and this time he and i conducted, if that is the right verb, a graduate seminar in trinity on marianne moore’s poem “virginia britannia.” i recall little of that occasion except that kenner kept emphasizing that pound was the first poet who wrote his poems directly to a typewriter and passed that practice on to marianne moore and william carlos williams. i found the point more persuasive in kenner’s the counterfeiters, where he shows how swiftly williams moved, writing “at the bar” from one draft to the next until he got it right. he could not have made those changes as painlessly with pen or pencil. the last time i saw kenner was at a pound conference in hailey, idaho, in, i think, . i gave a lecture called “a packet for ezra pound,” the title and probably much else taken from yeats. kenner did me the honor of attending it, staying awake for its minutes and then leaving without saying yea or nay. that was fine by me. kenner’s knowledge of pound’s work exceeded mine by a factor of or . i could not have delivered to him one iota of news. some months later i read of his death. hk and gd came together as scholars of pound. they met for the first time at a gathering of the english institute at columbia university denis donoghue in september . the letters began with one of march , from kenner inviting davenport to think of taking a job at santa barbara, kenner being then chairman of the english department. davenport was a southerner, south carolina born. he took his undergraduate degree rather unhappily at duke and went to harvard and oxford for graduate work on ulysses. harry levin supervised him at harvard, hugo dyson was one of his supervisors at oxford. back in america, gd got a temporary job at haverford. he married martha farrow on august , : they were divorced in december . in “on reading” he recalled that the conditions under which he made his way through the iliad in greek were “the violence and paralyzing misery of a dis- integrating marriage, for which abrasion, nevertheless, the meaning of the poem was the more tragic.” if that marriage was a mistake, he was willing to try again, but this time the woman, a roman catholic, “mary ann of the flashing eyes,” “refused to marry a divorced man.” that was that. in the event, davenport did not achieve professional stability until august when he was appointed professor of english in the university of kentucky at lexington. on may , he reported to kenner that a woman named bonnie jean cox—“straw blonde, green eyes, episcopalian, virginia family, set. xx”—had entered his life. she stayed there, lived six blocks away from him, and was available for meals, minor outings, and large travels—amsterdam, copenhagen, paris, and other cities. he claimed that he hated travel, never owned a car or a driving license, but bonnie jean cox persuaded him. the letters begin, as if randomly, with talk of jobs, the possibility that kenner might go to rice—he didn’t—talk of beckett, kenner about to publish his samuel beckett: a critical study ( ), more talk of books, reviews, pound, charles babbage, and murmurs of davenport’s trans- lation of archilochos. kenner had a certain amount of greek, enough to manage liddell and scott. davenport’s greek was much stronger and in seven greeks ( ) rose to the challenges of sappho, archilochos, alkman, anakreon, herakleitos, diogenes, and herondas. sometimes the hopkins review a reviewer corrected a phrase. william arrowsmith rejected a type- script on meleager because he thought it “no good.” but davenport persisted and made an extended career for himself with translations from the most esoteric greek poets. sometimes, before or after gossip, kenner inserted a sentence or two worth thinking about, as having referred to pound’s “hit-and-miss scholarship,” he went on to a lively perception: the origin, here, of his taste for fragments heavy with unfor- mulated meaning? one feels from time to time in his transla- tions that it is when he does not know and does not think he knows his original’s full range of meaning that he is driven to crested heights by sheer respect for its mysteriousness. crested heights: there we have kenner’s free-lancing intelligence enjoying itself. in a letter of may , , he urged davenport not to worry about being definitive in his translations of sappho; instead, he should offer “stereoscopic views” of her poems “by juxtaposing highly finished alternative versions, as many as three at times, of at least some poems.” then he thought of eliot, calling him, as usual, possum: it would be, among other things, a tacit challenge to the notion that versions are in competition, were you to offer an array of views rather than finalities. fallacy finality, even on possum’s view that there is a finality for a given age; by which possum appears to mean simply that the ultimate li po for is sim- ply the best style of english poem achievable. possum was never sufficiently aware of a style as a system of equipoises within which one manoeuvres; he always thinks of an impulse, person or period, exhausting itself; the exhaustion is the finality. but versions are, i’m afraid, in competition. if davenport were to lay out two or three versions of a poem by sappho beside his own, he would be saying, in effect, look at these idiots and then celebrate the best me. denis donoghue meanwhile kenner was developing his own method of criticism, a peculiar one. if he were writing about, say, william carlos williams, he would try to find a typical passage of wcw’s writing, bring it to memory, and allow this trace to lodge in his own style to the point of silently imitating the original. “my fundamental principle,” he said, is that “one writes about them in their own voices.” not surprisingly, this practice of secret quotation did not always work, kenner’s own voice being an insistent instrument, trumpet or bassoon. some writers, like wyndham lewis, could not be assimilated, as kenner admitted, referring to “infection as usual from l’s own style.” frank kermode, reviewing samuel beckett: a critical study, disapproved of the method: the truth is that this critic does much more absorbing and con- verting than explaining. his prose is a twitch with the exertion of wit and intellect and it has a narcissistic glow. “all beckett’s writings bring some sustained formal element to the service of some irreducible situation round which the lucid sentences defile in baffled aplomb.” this is useless. sometimes there is a disastrous self-admiring joke . . . how “lucudow” “lucid sentences” disclose “baffled aplomb,” kenner did not say. davenport rarely offered paragraphs of such weight, but he had an ear for them in others. after a lunch with beckett in paris, he made a note of the great man’s remarking of the joyce of finnegans wake: “the fall of man and the fall of a leaf were the same to him. he saw everything in everything else.” davenport accepted that kenner was the major figure. his letters to hk are full of praise for this “great writer, great stylist.” only once have i found gd asserting himself. kenner wanted to begin the pound era with a resounding sentence, jamesian because for some obscure reason he wanted the whole first chapter to be jamesian. the excuse for this decision was that pound met james and his niece—brother william’s daughter—strolling in chelsea one evening. kenner sent the resounding prose to davenport, expecting nothing but appreciation. the sentence was “to be rolled about on the tongue”: the hopkins review toward the evening of the gone world, the light of its last sum- mer pouring into a chelsea street found and suffused the red waistcoat of henry james, lord of decorum, en promenade, expos- ing his young niece to the tone of things. davenport, admittedly in low spirits, replied: gone world? what’s that mean? i simply would not begin that way. a later chapter, perhaps, but not the prow of the book. i admire your writing more than any other of our time, but i think fatigue and pressure have nudged your aim here. found is so far from its subject light that the matter between sags like a ham- mock. . . . all nieces are young. the dying light? one thing that’s running static into “gone world” is that that phrase now means (and for how long?) a world hep and with it, “gone scene,” “flipped crowd.” the light of the last summer of the world . . . build on that: it has transistor power to amply in the head. gd was wrong about the distance between found and light. h said he would think about gd’s complaint, and he did, but only to the extent of changing “the gone world” to “a gone world,” and “his young niece” to “his boston niece.” sometimes hk corrected himself. in the poetry of ezra pound, he saw imagism as the destined context of those poems. later he came to think that imagism was only a name for hilda doolittle, a paren- thesis, a side issue. the real force of literary culture in those years was vorticism, even though that, too, was swept away by the war. so the letters proceeded. kenner was far more interested than davenport in ideological forces at work; most of the ringing generalizations, and the asperities, came from him. davenport was a remarkably gifted essay- ist, a master illustrator of kenner’s books; he saw objects, things in the world, more clearly than kenner did. he was also more learned than kenner in architecture and film: his reviews of those disciplines had wider implication. but if kenner wanted to assert, as he did, that the history of modern fiction in english did not need to consider the works of virginia woolf, d. h. lawrence, or vladimir nabokov, davenport was not impelled to object. denis donoghue so we think of these two remarkable men, each in his own place, lexington and santa barbara, as if neither of them would ever move, but that is not the case. davenport stayed in lexington, but kenner moved from santa barbara, even though the move entailed giving up the house he loved and the geodesic dome he had built in his back garden at la espada drive. on november , he wrote to davenport to say that johns hopkins had made him an offer: hopkins have come through with their written offer, and we shall spend the weekend reading the fine print. i think chances are now % that we will take it, painful though it would be to part with this house. i see long dark years for calif, under endless pressure to justify the taxpayer’s contribution to the inordinate expense by upping teaching hours and playing down research. also existence of highpriced profs (such as me) is starting to be manipulated into public scandal. the state has discovered the usefulness of quoting random salaries, esp. in the medical school, to make taxpayers feel indignant. he went to johns hopkins early in , stayed there until he made his final move, to the university of georgia at athens, georgia in , where he remained till he retired in . davenport won a macarthur fellowship in july , whereupon he retired from teaching. the pound era ( ) made a crucial difference to kenner’s life. guest lectureships filled his calendar. in april he turned down an invita- tion from columbia to take up the chair of the retiring lionel trilling, and a similar one from yale to take the retiring cleanth brooks’s chair. too late: he had committed himself to johns hopkins. after the publi- cation of the pisan cantos in , it was no longer decent to claim that pound was an ignoramus or, as william empson put it, that “he actu- ally hadn’t to do any conscious thinking for fifty years or so.” kenner’s study of his poetry ( ) established the scale and seriousness of pound’s enterprise. the pound era raised and answered a question: what would modern poetry in english look like if you were convinced that pound was its great enabler? kenner’s answer was that pound’s the hopkins review work made possible the tradition we call objectivism: made possible, that is, the poetry of marianne moore, william carlos williams, george oppen, carl rakosi, louis zukofsky, and other poets only less known. the best chapters in the pound era are “the invention of language,” “words set free,” “the invention of china,” and the persistent east.” years before, pound advised kenner to get to know the great men of his time (not mentioning the great women). kenner nearly fol- lowed that advice. the great men, in his estimate, were joyce, pound, eliot, wyndham lewis, marianne moore (an exceptional woman), buckminster fuller, frank lloyd wright, william carlos williams, and beckett. if joyce had lived or years after , kenner would have sought him out and cherished him, or most of him. he might have dis- puted finnegans wake, having found no cause to change the opinion of that book he was to confide to the pound era, “the mind of europe in shock, babbling a long dream, stirring, swooning.” davenport added charles ives and eudora welty to the list. eliot was hard to place: not by any stretch of definition an objectivist. kenner placed him in the only silly chapter of the book, a description of the great poet giv- ing kenner lunch in the garrick club and fidgeting with the cheeses. yeats? if he had lived another years after , i don’t think kenner would have sought him out, yeats was not poundian enough, despite his having spent those winters with pound in stone cottage. besides, hk always sold yeats short and got him wrong. in the pound era he says that after the war ( ) yeats wrote “as if nothing had occurred but irish troubles.” not true: “leda and the swan,” the two byzantine poems, and many more of yeats’s best later poems have nothing to do with ireland’s troubles. edmund m. burns, impeccable editor, raises a question: why did this correspondence between hk and gd end, or peter out when it did? gd’s letter of december , notes, accurately, “we, you and i, are beginning to drift out of synchronicity.” there was a time when a letter received by either man in the morning was answered that denis donoghue afternoon, even if a trip to the library was necessary, over lunchtime, to check a detail. professor burns does not claim to have an answer, but he thinks that hk may have got tired of recognizing—or pretend- ing not to recognize—gd’s bisexuality. maybe, or rather, probably. hk was a family man, father of seven children, a convert to roman catholicism; he had heard the rumor, long rampant in lexington, that professor davenport was inordinately fond of good-looking young men. i suggest a further consideration, some of davenport’s fiction. davenport wrote three kinds of fiction. in one, he turned an early meeting, often a meeting in the greek classics, into a modern story. that was fine. a second kind was cubist, featuring a determination to give his fiction the freedoms the cubist painters took. this fiction challenged the assumption that the values claimed by common sense and realism are self-evident, they are their own proof. suppose they were not. suppose they had “won” only through the force of local resemblance, itself a dubious piece of evidence. then the appeal to self- evidence could be said to be hypocritical. in an essay on the poetry of jack sharpless, davenport quoted a few of his lines and said: “we can detect a cubist strategy, wherein fractal notations function as complete images (lines across a circle for a guitar, jour for le journal), but the trouble with this sentence is that it merely postpones the moment in which we decide that we see a guitar. cubism is more dramatic than that: we are reading a cubist painting badly if we translate certain lines and shapes into a guitar or indeed anything else. but the question of cubism was common to hk and gd. in kenner revised an early essay on joyce’s a portrait of the artist as a young man mainly to change its title from “the portrait in perspective” to “the cubist portrait.” his reason: the laws of perspective place painter and subject in a fixed geo- metrical relation to one another, in space and by analogy in time. here [in the portrait] both of them are moving, one twice as fast as the other. joyce’s portrait may be the first piece of cubism in literary history. the hopkins review many—too many—of gd’s stories amount to a boys’ own erotic dream. i assume that hk read these quickly, once, and put them aside. i don’t believe he spent much time over “gunnar and nikolai.” the kenners liked “the aeroplanes at brescia,” a beautiful piece of cool narrative,” as hk wrote gd to say: like the warhol which requires that one know the existence of brillo boxes in the real world, it exists by virtue of one’s faith/ knowledge that it is true. thus an invented encounter between fk [kafka] and lw [wittgenstein]—merely an encounter, not an imaginary conversation—would be of no interest whatever. “history” and the daily paper also depend on one’s trust, but their aim is a soporific fidelity. yours is like trompe l’oeil, a hal- lucinatory vividness imparted to the forgotten actual. not entirely accurate. the “forgotten actual” refers only to a small piece of “the aeroplanes at brescia,” the fact that kafka and two friends went to see the experimental flights there. what they saw there, felt, and said to one another: these are gd’s invention. so is the end of the story, which hk doesn’t mention: franz! max said before he considered what he was saying, why are there tears in your eyes? i don’t know, kafka said. i don’t know. in a more-or-less realistic story, this counts as a suspension of real- ism. we have no idea what kind of tears these are. nor has max. nor, probably, has franz. there is no immediate cause. blériot is piloting the plane up and down over brescia. there is no crisis. a page or two back we have this sentence: “the man named wittgenstein was again holding his left wrist, massaging it as if it were in pain.” another sus- pension of the realist style: no reason is given. it is as if a cubist line were drawn, without explanation or apology. back to franz’s tears: i vote for tears of joy. in the later letters pound is replaced to some extent by beckett. it was difficult to approach pound between his wife dorothy and com- denis donoghue panion olga. even in st. elizabeth’s there were miscellaneous visitors. hk and gd felt, i think, that on pound they had said their full. new themes were arising, mostly from gd’s exertions on greek literature. one was the fragment. so many greek poems reached scholars in broken lines. what was a scholar to do, looking at a papyrus? kenner was immensely interested in these questions, but there are signs that they reduced him to the condition of an amateur. not a condition he enjoyed. still, the letters are a treasure. transcurssive logic as method international journal of research & methodology in social science vol. , no. , p. (jul. – sep. ). issn - (online) www.socialsciencepublication.com the map and the universe the work of maurits cornelis escher from a cultural-historical approach gustavo a. masera, maría gabriela vasquez, and dante r. salatino about the author(s)  gustavo a. masera, multidisciplinary institute of contemporary social studies (imesc- idehesi), faculty of philosophy and letters, national university of cuyo. email for correspondence: gustavo.masera@gmail.com  maría gabriela vasquez, multidisciplinary institute of contemporary social studies (imesc- idehesi), faculty of philosophy and letters, national university of cuyo. email for correspondence: mariagabrielavasquez@yahoo.com.ar dante roberto salatino is a researcher of the institute of philosophy and of the institute of linguistics - lecturer in the general psychology department - faculty of philosophy and letters - teacher and researcher in artificial intelligence in the mechatronics career - faculty of engineering - national university of cuyo - email for correspondence: dantesalatino@gmail.com abstract the purpose of this work is to investigate the use of mathematics in the work of maurits cornelis escher ( - ). from a cultural-historical approach, a periodization is proposed; it consists of four phases, each of which reveals the different conceptions that the artist assumed in the application of mathematics for the elaboration of his engravings, woodcuts and drawings: in the form of a utility instrument; in as much principle ordaining / syntactic; as a germ of the artistic form; and as the main means of representation. this classification is a contribution, as it offers a look at his creative life through a sense approximation. it incorporates a section with an examination about the meaning of the images and artistic objects from the transcurssive logic (lt). finally, we presented some emerging discussions and final reflections. keyword: escher, mathematics, art, cultural history, transcurssive logic citation: masera, g.a., vasquez, m.g., and salatino, d. r. ( ). “the map and the universe: the work of maurits cornelis escher from a cultural-historical approach.” inter. j. res. methodol. soc. sci., vol., , no. : pp. – . (jul. – sep. ); issn: - . mailto:gustavo.masera@gmail.com mailto:mariagabrielavasquez@yahoo.com.ar mailto:dantesalatino@gmail.com international journal of research & methodology in social science vol. , no. , p. (jul. – sep. ). issn - (online) www.socialsciencepublication.com tyger, tyger, burning bright, in the forests of the night; what immortal hand or eye, could frame thy fearful symmetry?’ william blake. songs of experience ( ) . maps and territories walter benjamin ( ) maintained in his childhood memories that the best way to know a city was to get lost in it. some people, he adds, even if they do not have an accurate map of the labyrinth, glimpsed clues that allow them to reconstruct the path of the urban forest. in a similar way, from ancient times, the sages tried not to wander blindly. to locate themselves and understand their position (egyptians, chaldeans, hindus, etc.), they analyzed the regular movement of the stars. subsequently, in the cultural environment of classical rational thought, the early greek philosophers deployed arguments about the fundamental principle of all elements. the pythagoreans, for example, argued that the number was the key to the regular harmony of the universe, where each figure corresponded to a musical note (gomperz, , martinez, ). subsequently, alfred korzybski ( ), conceived the idea that the map is not the territory, just as a word is not the object it represents. in his semantic analysis, he identified three additional features: ) a map cannot represent the whole territory but only a parcel of it; ) each map also includes everything that helps the mapping of a territory, including the analysis of psychology and the philosophical and ideological substratum of the map maker (his assumptions and presumptions, his technical skills, his vision of the world, etc.). ); ) maps have the feature of being self-reflective, since as an "ideal" one should include a map of the map, in a successive and infinite fractal repetition. in addition, he argued that languages, as systems of formulation, are maps and only maps of what they pretend to represent (korzybski, : xvii). this awareness led to the three premises of general semantics that can be extended to various languages (artistic, mathematical, etc.). from the perspective of cultural history (bonnell and hunt, ; hunt, ), escher's work, in a metaphorical sense, is an attempt to aesthetically represent, through symbols, allegories and artifacts, the map of the universe. in this sense, his engravings, drawings and woodcuts are beautiful reflections, at times disturbing, of the geometric order that is imposed on the perception of a subject immersed in that complex reality - although not irrational - that he tries to represent and understand. the concept of culture includes the study of mentalities, ideologies, symbols and rituals, in relation to both the high culture and the popular. the system of symbolic and linguistic representation of a society is understood through culture. we must add that the theme of "representation" has long been recognized as the central problem of cultural history. one of its questions can be posed in the following way: what is the relation between a work of art (painting, novel, etc.) and the world it pretends to represent? (bonnell and hunt, : preface; hunt, , - ). . art and mathematics: an approach to escher mathematics is a formal science, with an ambiguous relation to the world. it begins and develops in its early stages with exclusively practical purposes: counting, measuring, arithmetic operations. however, it is later discovered that they also facilitate the systematic study of natural phenomena (berlinghoff and gouvea, ) and provide models of representation of emerging patterns in nature (novak, ). while sciences would be impossible to imagine without the support of mathematics in its formalization, there is no general agreement on the epistemological condition of mathematics. it is so that many schools of thought have reached different conclusions, mainly on the correspondence between mathematical entities and objects of the universe. are these mathematical entities real or ideal, empirical or the result of our mental operations, proper to intuitions and potential human international journal of research & methodology in social science vol. , no. , p. (jul. – sep. ). issn - (online) www.socialsciencepublication.com cognition or simple fictions? for example, for kant, it is our very perception that structures reality in this way. in other words, only what is reflected as reality in our mind obeys the mathematical rules; but nothing can be known from the outside world, only some phenomenal aspects, always insufficient, partial and scarce (eilenberger, ). however, since pythagoras, as an emblematic figure of geometric knowledge, mathematics has become one of the highest expressions of human imagination in the effort to understand the ultimate structure of reality (cucker, ). it is clear from the reference made by iamblichus ( ) that at its deepest level, reality is of mathematical nature. for pythagoras the first essence was the nature of numbers and proportions which extend through all things, according to which everything is harmoniously disposed and properly ordered. other authors have insisted on the aesthetic dimension of mathematics, perhaps due to the inherent harmony emanating from the construction of axiomatic systems, theorems, and demonstrations. it has even been claimed that the precision of formal definitions and deductions carry some beauty. in the words of gian-carlo rota ( ), the conquest of beauty distinguishes mathematics from the rest of the sciences. robert kaplan and ellen kaplan ( ) are a key reference on intellectual and aesthetic pleasure in mathematics, since they published on the discovery of zero and the finding of irrational (algebraic / transcendent) numbers. besides, h.s. coxeter ( ) should be remembered for the diffusion of his essays on the perfection of geometry; to heinz-otto peitgen and peter ritcher ( ) for his analysis of the quasi-perfection of fractals in complex dynamical systems and to ulianov montano ( ), who developed an aesthetic theory of mathematics. we must also mention the influence of scientists henri poincaré and geoffrey hardy on the artistic world, especially the first, since escher used the ‘poincaré disk model’ of hyperbolic geometry to establish the patterns of his series ‘circle limit’ (dunham, ; coxeter, ). the arts have frequented and used, since ancient times, tools related to mathematics (cucker, , capecchi et al., ). as lynn gamwell ( ) points out, mathematicians and artists have long sought an understanding of the physical world presented to them and abstract objects they know only with thought. a broader work would require a reference to the philosophical ideas that drive the discipline (platonic idealism, intuitionism, constructivism, structuralism, etc.) and of a cultural and intellectual history, in order to recover the semantic itinerary of mathematical concepts and socio-historical contexts in which they have been expressed by artists (measure, proportions, perspective, infinity, fractal dimensions, symmetry, geometric configurations). the relationship between mathematics and the arts can be seen from the 'inspiration of two- way'. for instance, the link between geometrician h.s. coxeter and artist escher shows a reciprocal influence and fertile combinations of complementary perspectives (coxeter, ; ). undoubtedly, mathematics have encouraged the development of the arts in various ways. the visual arts, on the other hand, have collaborated in the generation of mathematical formulations through the aesthetic representation of theoretical and instrumental paths, and even, they have advanced with their intuitions to the proposal of new scientific hypotheses. for example, relations between relativistic physics, deep psychology, and art (cubism, surrealism, etc.) are notorious. an example of the synergy between science and art is revealed by escher, who was one of the plastic creators, designer and illustrator, who has better graphically reflected modern mathematical and topological thinking. the mathematical interest of escher, leads the artist to discover in the mathematics the ultimate structure of reality. the dutch artist intuitively agreed to some mathematical ideas that aesthetically seduced him and allowed him to understand the logic of patterns, regularities, symmetries, and repetition of motifs, as he observed them in the intricate euclidean plane of mosaics and tessellations of granada (schattschneider and emmet, ; critchlow, ). the impact of islamic culture on escher cannot be overemphasized. although he had already traveled the peninsula during the s, it was during his trip to granada in , stopping several days to contemplate the wonders of andalusí art, that escher was excited by majolica of the alhambra and the set of the nazari palaces, all of international journal of research & methodology in social science vol. , no. , p. (jul. – sep. ). issn - (online) www.socialsciencepublication.com which generated a permanent effect on his work, particularly on his tessellations. (abas, ). this aesthetic discovery will allow you to move from the elaboration of natural panoramas and mountainous villages to mental landscape. . phases in the work of escher there are a lot of studies on escher, who stop with fascination in the analysis of their skill in drawing or of their skills in engraving. schattschneider ( ) asks: "how (escher) did it?", and with this question tries to reproduce the attitude that arises with all plainness and disbelief before the astonishment that produces his work. however, this work has already been developed by many authors especially by geometers who have sought to elucidate the scientific foundations of their work (abas, , coxeter , emmer , hart, and schattschneider ; ; schattschneider and emmer, ). for this reason, the contribution of the present article is to inquire on the orientation and reasons of such a trajectory. the different perceptions on the artistic production of escher raise the problem of the "reception" of the works of art. we argue that excessive emphasis has been placed on its use of geometric techniques and on mathematics as an instrument. according to bruno ernst ( ), escher employs figures of mathematical inspiration in three primordial areas: a) the structure of space (landscapes, world comprehension, mathematical bodies and abstract forms); b) the structure of the surface (metamorphosis, interlaced figures of birds and fish, cycles and approaches to infinity); c) the projection of three-dimensional space in the plane (traditional pictorial representation, perspective and impossible figures). another classification of his work, indicates that the evolution in the tracing of escher's creative production comprises the following stages: i - realistic phase or mathematics as an instrument ( - ) it is characterized by the representation of landscapes, still lifes and self-portraits. it starts with panoramas of small towns in italy and mediterranean coasts, and then revives them at various times. the most famous works are: “castrovalva” ( ), lithograph representing a small city of abruzzo; “still life with mirror” ( ); “hand with reflecting sphere” ( ), “three spheres ii” ( ), and “three worlds” ( ). in these works, m. c. escher uses mathematics as an instrument because the mathematical mechanisms allow him to reproduce, alter and falsify perspectives, depths and proportions. in this, the uses of geometry applied since giotto ( - ) are carried to an end. here, the instrument refers to the set of techniques that allow you to do the works you imagine. he becomes a good craftsman. he has learned from piero della francesca, giotto, and the architectural master alberti, etc. escher enlists the help of mathematics and strength until he finds the forms he seeks. but the conception of the work appears as prior to the application of the mathematical device. mathematics is definitely outside the work of art, like the other utensils used in its design and elaboration. ii - phase of metamorphosis or mathematics as pragmatic ( - ) the essence of representations is the transformation of the two-dimensional into three-dimensional, of figures that change in other figures, of optical and geometrical illusions. the more representative works of this period are: “metamorphosis i” ( ), “day and night” ( ), “doric columns” ( ), “magic mirror” ( ), “drawing hands” ( ). escher begins to use mathematics to dictate the syntax of works and generates the contents with formulas: appear repetitions, iterations, conversions, mutations. the artist has become a mathematical researcher (schattschneider, ). it seems to interpret, in an embryonic way, galileo's statement that nature is written in mathematical language. this conception leads him as an artist to precision, being carried away by the dictates of mathematics. this means, in addition, that the initial concept is executed according to an imposed international journal of research & methodology in social science vol. , no. , p. (jul. – sep. ). issn - (online) www.socialsciencepublication.com logic, in which the author relies blindly. in the construction of the artistic object, escher accepts the mathematical mandate, so that the forms, dyes and relations between the represented entities respond to an external and rigorous pragmatics. iii - phase of dichotomies or mathematics as metaphysics ( - ) escher explores unconventional points of view and experiments with new methods and techniques to represent perspectives, depths, vanishing points and convergence, mainly in prints in fractal dimensions and with perspectives. the parallel existence of physical and abstract objects evidences the dichotomy that the artist discovers between manifest reality and mental constructs. in escher’s paintings and drawings many abstract entities, purely mathematical and dissociated from the representations of reality emerge. escher is again one, but now the conflict is between modes of representation. it does not reach a synthesis, and it is forced to look for new (non-conventional) points of view. without systematic philosophy, though he thinks through visual images, the artist discovers that there are entities that can be and are fully described by mathematics. the works representative of this phase are “other world” ( ), “smaller and smaller” ( ), “gallery” ( ), “crystal” ( ), “stars” ( ),”convex and concave” ( ), “print gallery” ( ), “ascending and descending” ( ), “waterfall” ( ); and a series of moebius tapes, etc. iv - phase of approximations to infinity or mathematics as universe-world ( - ) these works use a concept of hyperbolic geometry and fractal principles. it can be seen that the more escher immerses in technical problems, each work tends to reveal the more from the artifices of its construction. thus, the work flows from formal norms and rules, from the mathematical recipe that sustains it, and reality (what the artist once considered to be real) vanishes. escher asks himself: "... this work belongs to the realm of mathematics, or to the realm of art?" the answer is in his works. he is no longer interested in using mathematics to do his work, and he does not want to express himself in mathematics; the universe (and not just its world, the restricted world of its art) is mathematical, mathematics is the ultimate reality. significant works of the period are “three spheres i” ( ), the series of circle limit, in particular “circle limit iii” ( ), “path of life iii” ( ), “metamorphosis iii” ( ). the creativity in the work of escher according to the transcurssive logic according to transcurssive logic, human creativity emerges from the common substrate that constitutes the fundamental aspects that underpin subjective reality. this 'universal language' indicates: what are the aspects of behavior that once integrated by the cognitive, appear on the surface as a determined behavior (salatino, , p. ). in turn, creativity can be equated with a true language, where the 'universal language' of frank biological rootedness would behave as its 'syntactic aspect'. a natural language (salatino, ) that characterizes the affections that strengthen both the volitional and the cognitive in our psyche, would act as a 'semantic aspect'. finally, a conventional language enabled for communication in the sociocultural environment, would support its 'pragmatic aspect'. the 'backbone' of generic language representing creativity lies in the close relationship that exists between the deep elements of its three components (salatino, , pp. - ). that is, experiencing or the visceral organization of knowledge through the ‘universal language.’ the intuition or affective integration of the three basic elements through the ‘natural language’, and ‘creating’ or social projection of feelings and motivations are combined with the help of conventional language. figure records this subjective approach and its application to the stages of escher's artistic production international journal of research & methodology in social science vol. , no. , p. (jul. – sep. ). issn - (online) www.socialsciencepublication.com fig. - pau of creativity in escher. references: s: subject – lc: conventional language – ln: natural language – lu: universal language . discussions on the escher's last phase in the last stage of escher's work, mathematics no longer only facilitates the representation of reality but became the substantial structure of the universe as a reflection of an "implicate order" (in the semantics of david bôhm, ). escher's works anticipate theories such as max tegmark's 'mathematical universe hypothesis' ( ), which plainly states: “our external physical reality is a mathematical structure” and present some unknowing resonance with the perspective on the 'universe geometric 'of penrose (see huggett, ). whatever the descendants or the coincidences of their legacy, escher's vision is a return to neo-pythagorean conceptions (perhaps with neoplatonic components). here infinity is a plausible idea, although it is never reached in phenomenal reality. with these concepts closes the cycle initiated by the school of crotona centuries ago, where it is affirmed that there is nothing that is not mathematics. or perhaps, better expressed: everything that exists can be thought with mathematical methods. thus, it can be said that the ultimate purpose of his works was to expand the 'doors of perception' (aldous huxley), to model aesthetic expressions that represent the mathematical mapping of the universe. but, escher goes even further. the artist has seen the higher order of the universe, he has glimpsed the key of that knowledge, the figure of the structure. the pictorial works of this phase are an attempt to capture the "truth" of this vision. in part, it is the symbolic dichotomy presented by danto ( ), between artworks and real things. escher expresses this contradiction through aesthetic language, despite understanding (or precisely because of) that the senses perceive always partial and laboriously. as blake wrote: “in the infinite void, but tied to the earth by its narrow perceptions.” (william blake. the book of urizen: chapter ix, v. four). escher intuited - in the lexicon of alfred korzybski - that the map, that is, the language (artistic or mathematical) is not the territory, it's just a representation of it. for these reasons, the work of art, although it reaches the canons of beauty, is ultimately a "failure." at this point, a deeper philosophy is accessed, as the author becomes aware of the limits imposed by external physical reality to language and cognitive ability (penrose, ). . conclusion i. an approach to escher's work from cultural history facilitates the reconstruction of the process by which mathematical ideas intertwine with the visual arts. this approach also international journal of research & methodology in social science vol. , no. , p. (jul. – sep. ). issn - (online) www.socialsciencepublication.com reflects the possibilities of a "reasoned" history by identifying the intersections between geometric objects, mathematical concepts, works and philosophical genealogies. ii. escher's artistic production combines a set consisting of impossible constructions, geometrical paradoxes, space structure, imaginary worlds, metamorphoses, symmetries and tessellations, etc. these areas are reflected in a series of disturbing beauty, which allow the author not only to play with optical illusions but to challenge the usual modes of representation. iii. escher 'transfigured the commonplace' (danto, ), by illustrating with (from) his artistic images that the structure of reality is deeper, complex and diverse than that which is imprinted by the 'veracity' of sensory processes and the "normal" discernment of the outside world. iv. escher's relationship with mathematics changed in the different phases of his work, from a period where they play an instrumental role to another where they are the key to make the essential order of the cosmos intelligible. escher intuited the mathematical structure of the universe and tried to represent this idea through his artistic production. in its last stage, mathematics (the map) constitutes the ultimate structure of reality (the universe). v. from the perspective of the tl, escher's work interpellates: what is actually perceived? moreover, how does the subject perceive and represent the reality (geometrical) in which he is immersed (and at the same time trying to understand)? from this point of view, the creativity that in escher is an eminent manifestation, gives answer to these questions from the intuition and the experience of life. references abas, s. j. 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( ). ‘mathematics and art. so many connections’. math awareness month. recurso digital obtenible en link permanente: http://www.mathaware.org/mam/ /essay .html http://www.d.umn.edu/~ddunham/isis /section .html http://www.mathaware.org/mam/ /essay .html international journal of research & methodology in social science vol. , no. , p. (jul. – sep. ). issn - (online) www.socialsciencepublication.com schattschneider, d. ( ). “the mathematical side of m.c. escher.” notices of the ams, vol. , n. , pp. - . shapiro, s. ( ). philosophy of mathematics: structure and ontology. oxford: oxford university press. smit, b. de and h. lenstra ( ). “the mathematical structure of escher’s print gallery.” notices of the ams, v. , n. : - . tegmark, m. ( ). our mathematical universe: my quest for the ultimate nature of reality. new york, knopf. jdiq - - a challenge for long-term knowledge base maintenance christan earl grant and daisy zhe wang, university of florida categories and subject descriptors: h. . [systems]: query processing general terms: design, algorithms, performance additional key words and phrases: knowledge base, probabilistic knowledge base, inference, entity resolu- tion, databases acm reference format: christan earl grant and daisy zhe wang. . a challenge for long-term knowledge base maintenance. acm j. data inf. qual. , – , article (june ), pages. doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . / . introduction knowledge bases (kbs) are repositories of interconnected facts with an inference en- gine. companies are increasingly populating kbs with facts from disparate sources to create a central repository of information to provide users with a richer and more integrated user experience [herman and delurey ]. additionally, inference over the constructed kb can produce new facts not specifically mentioned in the kb. google is now employing kbs to surface additional information for user search [dong et al. a]. manually constructed kbs, such as yago [hoffart et al. ] and dbpedia [auer et al. ], are increasingly being used as the gold standard and ground truth of newer kbs [dong et al. b]. however, the growing number of kbs inside an organi- zation require a sufficiently high level of quality and must be meticulously maintained. both yago and dbpedia were constructed based on data from wikipedia. within wikipedia, the medium lag between the occurrence of a notable event and the addition of the event was measured at days [frank et al. ]. this fact spurred many efforts to discover methods to automatically build, extend, and clean kbs [frank et al. ; ellis et al. ; ji et al. ; surdeanu and ji ]. in these contests, teams build systems to explore the creation of web-scale kbs; however, by and large, these contests stop short of designing systems for deployment in a production system. we believe that there are two main questions that are wholly understudied across research communities: in kbs, over time, ( ) what stale information needs to be cleaned? and ( ) when should this information be updated? this work was partially supported by darpa under fa - - - - (deft/cubism) and nsf grad- uate research fellowship grant dge- . authors’ address: c. e. grant, e - computer and information science and engineering department, university of florida, gainesville, fl ; email: cgrant@cise.ufl.edu; d. z. wang, e computer and information science and engineering department, university of florida, gainesville, fl ; email: daisyw@cise.ufl.edu. permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies show this notice on the first page or initial screen of a display along with the full citation. copyrights for components of this work owned by others than acm must be honored. abstracting with credit is permitted. to copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, to redistribute to lists, or to use any component of this work in other works requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. permissions may be requested from publications dept., acm, inc., penn plaza, suite , new york, ny - usa, fax + ( ) - , or permissions@acm.org. c© acm - / / -art $ . doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . / acm journal of data and information quality, vol. , no. – , article , publication date: june . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / : c. e. grant and d. z. wang in this article, we present a challenge to the information quality community to develop techniques that support the long-term support and maintenance of critical, rapidly growing kbs. we follow this challenge with two notable papers that make strides in this direction. we end this group of papers with a discussion of three research questions in response to this challenge. . related work yahoo! recently released a description of woo [bellare et al. ], which is their internal system for managing entity resolution over the growing number of entities across the web. as new information is ingested into woo, it uses a custom search engine to find candidate entities and enqueues them for possible updates. the woo paper is focused on the synthesis of kbs from existing sources; it does not fully explore inference for growing the kb. growing kbs using inference over the existing facts, although helpful, can introduce difficult errors and is mostly avoided by woo. this type of kb expansion exacerbates the need for innovative quality control methods. the never ending language learner (nell) continuously builds and expands knowledge bases through information extraction and inference [carlson et al. ]. part of the growth of nell is the development of innovative techniques to continuously review and validate existing information. the challenge that we pose is to investigate nell-style systems inside enterprise kbs, where system management is critical. . challenge and research direction we present a challenge for the information quality community to integrate the in- formation quality pipeline into large-scale kbs. solutions to the research challenges presented next will help kbs to continue to grow rapidly while ensuring that they are suited for an organization’s business usage. there are three general areas that we believe can receive immediate return from the information quality community: —probabilistic kbs: many organizations prefer that their active data stores contain only pristinely maintained information. expanding kbs using inference can intro- duce many types of errors. naturally, organizations are averse to the more aggressive yet noisy growth strategies. one promising approach to this problem is to maintain the provenance and confidence of each fact and extraction [wang et al. ]. infor- mation cleaning using these types of probability-aware kbs can provide a powerful kb that allows users to supply thresholds on the facts that they trust. —scheduling quality audits: aging kbs will inevitably contain information that ex- pires, becomes invalid, or simply is proven inaccurate. monitoring kbs for entities, relationships, and facts with questionable quality is required to maintain kb qual- ity. over time, the existence of bad data is extremely elusive. crowdsourcing (adding a human in the loop) to validate facts is a leading approach to ensure clean facts in kbs. although accurate, crowdsourcing is more expensive and slower than au- tomated methods. an interesting direction is deciding how to schedule kb quality audits in an organization kb in accord with varying time, confidence, and probability budgets. an initial approach is to use the popularity of existing facts in addition to calculating the uncertainty to prioritize updates. —incremental kb maintenance: speedy extraction of facts from a data source presup- poses the need for rapid and incremental methods for updating kbs. incremental or streaming techniques require focused computation to meet demanding rates of change. however, for long streams of updates, simply storing results in memory is too expensive. an interesting research direction is to investigate the trade-offs between online, batch, or query-driven techniques for computing kb updates, inferences, and validation. acm journal of data and information quality, vol. , no. – , article , publication date: june . a challenge for long-term knowledge base maintenance : references sören auer, christian bizer, georgi kobilarov, jens lehmann, richard cyganiak, and zachary ives. . dbpedia: a nucleus for a web of open data. in proceedings of the th international semantic web conference and nd asian semantic web conference (iswc’ /aswc’ ). – . kedar bellare, carlo curino, ashwin machanavajihala, peter mika, mandar rahurkar, and aamod sane. . woo: a scalable and multi-tenant platform for continuous knowledge base synthesis. proceedings of the vldb endowment , , – . andrew carlson, justin betteridge, bryan kisiel, burr settles, estevam r. hruschka jr., and tom m. mitchell. . toward an architecture for never-ending language learning. in proceedings of the th aaai conference on artificial intelligence. xin dong, evgeniy gabrilovich, geremy heitz, wilko horn, ni lao, kevin murphy, thomas strohmann, shaohua sun, and wei zhang. a. knowledge vault: a web-scale approach to probabilistic knowledge fusion. in proceedings of the th acm sigkdd international conference on knowledge discovery and data mining (kdd’ ). acm, new york, ny, – . xin luna dong, evgeniy gabrilovich, geremy heitz, wilko horn, kevin murphy, shaohua sun, and wei zhang. b. from data to knowledge fusion. proceedings of the vldb endowment , , – . joe ellis, xuansong li, kira griffitt, stephanie m. strassel, and jonathan wright. . linguistic resources for knowledge base population evaluations. in proceedings of the text analysis conference (tac’ ). john r. frank, max kleiman-weiner, daniel a. roberts, feng niu, ce zhang, christopher ré, and ian soboroff. . building an entity-centric stream filtering test collection for trec . in proceedings of the st text retrieval conference (trec’ ). mark herman and michael delurey. . the data lake: taking big data beyond the cloud. retrieved may , , from http://www.boozallen.com/media/file/ta_datalake.pdf. johannes hoffart, fabian m. suchanek, klaus berberich, and gerhard weikum. . yago : a spatially and temporally enhanced knowledge base from wikipedia. artificial intelligence , – . heng ji, hoa trang dang, joel nothman, and ben hachey. . overview of tac-kbp entity discovery and linking tasks. in proceedings of the text analysis conference (tac’ ). mihai surdeanu and heng ji. . overview of the english slot filling track at the tac knowledge base population evaluation. in proceedings of the text analysis conference (tac’ ). daisy zhe wang, yang chen, sean goldberg, christan grant, and kun li. . automatic knowledge base construction using probabilistic extraction, deductive reasoning, and human feedback. in proceedings of the joint workshop on automatic knowledge base construction and web-scale knowledge extraction. – . received november ; revised february ; accepted february acm journal of data and information quality, vol. , no. – , article , publication date: june . http://www.boozallen.com/media/file/ta_datalake.pdf of literature that martin seems to favor. some- times an allusion is to a phrase used earlier in a conversation between two people, so unless we were to extend literature to such instances, even the revised definition would come up short. still, martin is right to pinpoint literature as the term whose meaning i had to leave un- questioned so that i could explore the mean- ings of allusion. however insufficiently defined in the essay, literature was far from impensé as i wrote. if my attempt to define allusion in a thirty-thousand-word essay did not prove en- tirely satisfactory, i might well tremble to define literature within the thousand-word limit of this response. but i do not hesitate to covenant with any knowing reader that for some years yet i may go on trust toward the payment of a work addressing this issue. cultures generally hold some set of texts worthy of preservation and dissemination (a collection that in western culture went until recently by the term litera­ ture, though we may not quite have a word for it now), and allusions are to this body of texts, whatever we might wish to call it. while it was indeed my premise that if i got the words right we might have a more depend- able way to discuss one literary reality, i confess that i honestly cannot understand why martin defines context as intrinsically antithetical to lexicographical initiative. are there no histori- cal circumstances in which any people are ever motivated to adopt a particular terminology for a particular kind of intellectual work? but if, after all of martin’s reservations, a blindness early in my article is regarded as hav- ing produced insight later on, i shall steer right onward, content though blind. so much the rather thou, celestial light, shine inward. gregory machacek marist college ruskin, turner, and modernism to the editor: w h i le r achel teu kolsk y ’s “moder nist rusk in, victoria n baudelaire: rev isioning nineteenth-century aesthetics” ( [ ]: – ) may reflect an understanding of fred- ric jameson’s “brief ” essay and charles baude- laire’s “anglophilia” or his “love of the elitist dandy,” it is uncertain what the article is saying about john ruskin or about modernism ( ). throughout the essay, there seems to be an in- sufficient distinction among terms like mod­ ernism, modernity, and the relative modern. there is passing recognition, early in the essay, of some of the things that modernism implies (“avant-garde experiments in high-art formal- ism and abstraction, leading to cubism, abstract expressionism, and more radical adventures in literary form” [ ]). but the title “modernist ruskin, victorian baudelaire,” though smart, is not justif ied by much of what teukolsky discusses, limited as her article is to volume of ruskin’s modern painters and an essay by baudelaire. in fact, she concludes that both of these two texts might be called “eminently” and “very” victorian ( , ). it ends up that jameson is wrong about baudelaire’s anticipa- tion of the postmodernist sensibility (e.g., ) and that baudelaire’s and ruskin’s judgments suffer from unwitting “confusions” (e.g., ). putting such points aside, there are two crucial omissions in the essay. the most serious gap is its failure to show the relevance of j. m. w. turner’s later style to a major shift in modes of aesthetic representa- tion during the victorian period. in this context (unless one looks only at turner’s early, “pictur- esque,” style), it is at best inaccurate to describe turner’s paintings as merely “vivid” and his kind of art as something that “faithfully reproduced a divinely ordered natural world . . . [his] painting and landscape [providing] mirrorlike proofs . . .” ( , ). it is more seriously dismissive of turner to conclude that “while ruskin wants to ameliorate conditions for the modern worker, his social vision is fundamentally conserva- tive and upholds social hierarchies and class divisions, especially in the elevation of turner above other spectators” ( ; my emphasis). a non sequitur like the following further indicates deprecation or disregard of turner: “yet ruskin . ] forum cannot escape the modernity he critiques. even while he assails mechanical reproduction, he . . . reproduces images of turner’s paintings in all the volumes of modern painters” ( ). rather, it is an opposite quality that is turn- er’s innovative legacy, what ruskin admired and defended, what makes turner a precursor of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century modernist trends in art and literature. turner’s career, like the period over which ruskin’s mod­ ern painters was written, is long. turner drasti- cally changed his rendering of landscape toward the end of his career, something that displeased most contemporaneous commentators, who wanted to remain faithful to the traditional no- tion that painting should reproduce what one sees exactly, that it be “mirrorlike.” nathaniel haw thorne, t y pif y ing this puzzlement, de- scribed turner’s later paintings as “blotches of color, and dabs of the brush, meaning nothing.” he could not comprehend them as “pictures” nor guess if they “purported to represent earth, sea, or sky”: “i mean to buy ruskin’s pamphlet at my next visit, and look at them through his eyes. but i do not think i can be driven out of the idea that a picture ought to have something in common with what the spectator sees in na- ture” (english notebooks, ed. randall stewart [new york: mla, ] ). others, however, like herman melville, an admirer of hawthorne and himself a protomodernist, found the same turner paintings suggestive and inspiring. more i mp or t a nt ly, teu kol s k y ’s e s s ay does not mention one key concept in ruskin’s works—namely, his definition of the grotesque. ruskin designates this concept as the last of the three true or “noble” ideals in art and defends it against earlier assumptions, such as burke’s that the grotesque consists merely of “fanciful and terrible ideas” incapable of producing a serious effect. the true or noble grotesque, as opposed to the “ignoble” grotesque, is an appropriately “imperfect” mode. it gains significance crucial to the essence of modernism from a positive kind of imaginative “confusion” in the pres- ence of truths difficult to grasp or represent, resulting in the juxtaposition of symbols and of “gaps” in “bold and fearless connection . . . left for the beholder to work out.” ruskin is describ- ing an “abstract” quality—abstract being a less accessible term then, though ruskin uses it in- cidentally in this context (works : , , [my emphasis], ). (on the grotesque, see the whole of ch. , “of the true ideal: grotesque,” in vol. [ – ] and ch. in vol. [ – ]. modern painters runs from vol. to in the works of john ruskin, ed. e. t. cook and al- exander wedderburn, vols. [london: allen, – ].) some of ruskin’s examples (albrecht dü­rer, hans holbein, david teniers) suggest that this grotesque also deforms humanity in order to portray its reality. similarly, in land- scape observation, scenes that have the quality of “unsightliness” could produce a strange kind of pleasure, thus modifying the classical prin- ciples of “beauty” (e.g., works : ; : – ). also, turner himself was largely responsible for resurrecting british interest in giambattista piranesi, whose obsessive maze-like scenes in- dicate a representational mode that achieves its effect not by exact imitation but through hazi- ness and obscurity into which are built hints and suggestions. (for an important study of this concept, see geoffrey galt harpham’s on the grotesque: strategies of contradiction in art and literature [princeton: princeton up, ].) certainly ruskin can be contradictory. in particular, what would contradict his “modern- ism” and his admiration of the later turner is his insistence on the need for historical “associ- ation,” tradition and ruins, in the landscape—a kind of leftover “picturesque” requirement that made him dismiss the “new” american land- scape as inferior to europe’s. at the same time, we should read what he says that is relevant to what is being discussed, as well as give suffi- cient consideration to other works by the same writers and by other writers and artists, which, whether written before or after the two texts considered, whether classif ied as romantic or victorian or gothic or art-for-art’s-sake or whatever, somehow paved the way for the dis- satisfaction with traditional aesthetics and the development of new modes of representation, as forum [ p m l a in turner’s late paintings, that become charac- teristic of modernism. basem l. ra’ad al-quds university and lebanese american university reply: basem l. ra’ad is right to suggest that my essay is less interested in reading john ruskin into the explicit styles of twentieth-centur y modernism than in recuperating a more ca- pacious vision of victorianism, one that lo- cates more relativistic and destabilized modes of thinking than the stereotype of the period would allow. the overarching goal, which i ar- ticulated in the essay’s subtitle, was to “revision . . . nineteenth-century aesthetics.” yet since ra’ad raises the question of rus- kin’s ties to twentieth-century aesthetics, i will take the opportunity to pursue his theme. ra’ad argues that ruskin is modernist because turner is: in defending turner, ruskin embraces the “abstract” style that was characteristic of turn- er’s late-career paintings, thus eschewing any “mirrorlike” visual investments. this claim, unfortunately, is simply untrue. ruskin was a staunch supporter not only of turner but also of the pre-raphaelites, whose style in the s entailed a supersharp, almost photographic representation of v isua l detai l. and in t he s, ruskin accused whistler of “flinging a pot of paint in the public’s face” with his proto- modernist nocturnes (works : ). so it was not turner’s abstract brushwork that ruskin was espousing. in fact, the modernism of turn- er’s painting is a different issue than the mod- ernism of ruskin’s writing; it is fuzzy thinking to conflate the two. a careful reader of ruskin will observe that his claims are often at vari- ance with the images he ostensibly describes. this was the case with many victorian art writ- ers, who appropriated controversial artworks to debate cultural questions beyond the strict bounds of art history or criticism. in my recently completed book manuscript on victorian aesthetics, i analyze the question of ruskin’s modernism using the lens of the first volume of modern painters. published in , this text responds most directly to the firestorm in the british press that was being generated by turner’s provocative late style. far from promoting abstraction, however, modern painters i aspires to be a natural-history treatise of landscape painting: the book contains chap- ters on the “truths” of natural features such as mountains, trees, and clouds. combining lock- ean empiricism with a stern evangelical vision of nature, ruskin analyzes landscape paintings as an encyclopedia of natural forms, a catalog of the immutable object world of god’s creation. in art and illusion, e. h. gombrich pinpoints the “vast treatise” of ruskin’s modern painters as “perhaps the last and most persuasive book in the tradition that starts with pliny and va- sari in which the history of art is interpreted as progress toward visual truth” ( nd ed. [new york: pantheon, ] ). ruskin writes, “and let not arguments respecting the sublimity or fidelity of impression be brought forward here. . . . i am not talking about what is sublime, but about what is true” (works : ). ruskin’s fierce dedication to a singular truth in the ob- ject world, which he pursued in studies of nat- ural history and earth science throughout his life, contrasts sharply with the visual impres- sionism that french painters were later to find so compelling in turner’s works. rather than dismiss ruskin’s mimetic ideal as outmoded, however, i would suggest that it can also be found in modernism, in the poetic desire to escape from the suffocating enclosure of personality. appearing under the rubric of classicism or impersonality, t his modernist strain of utopian poetics aimed to escape the human, subjective qualities of language, often invoking a “picture” or “image” to figure its cold, impersonal qualities. ezra pound sounds like ruskin when he theorizes imagism in as a new poetry that “will be as much like gran- ite as it can be, its force will lie in its truth, in its interpretive powers” (“prologomena” [sic], po­ etry review . [ ]: ). in “romanticism and classicism,” t. e. hulme desires a language that . ] forum playing with creativity across the lifespan: a conversation with dr. sandra russ column: rethinking technology & creativity in the st century playing with creativity across the lifespan: a conversation with dr. sandra russ shagun singha & melissa warr & punya mishra & danah henriksen & the deep-play research group # association for educational communications & technology “play is a creative product.” - dr. sandra russ “a little magic can take you a long way” - roald dahl in this article, we continue with our series exploring crea- tivity and its relationship with technology and learning. as part of the series, we have interviewed scholars who approach creativity from psychological (richardson et al. ), social (keenan-lechel et al. ), humanist (mehta et al. ), neuro-biological (mehta et al. ), as well as a range of other disciplinary perspectives and lenses. we have also spo- ken with researchers who study creativity as it presents in different domains and contexts: as writers (cain et al. ), musicians (warr et al. ), designers (henriksen et al. ), dramatic artists (richardson et al. ), and dancers (warr et al. ). through these conversations, we have attempted to create a rich and nuanced picture of the vibrancy of current creativity research. we seek to add to that picture here through an exploration of creativity and play. our most recent conversation was with dr. sandra russ, a creativity and play expert, and interim dean of the college of arts and sciences and professor of psychology in the department of psychological sciences at case western reserve university. in this conversation, we explored her re- search on pretend play and creativity and the importance of nurturing play and creativity across the lifespan. we also ex- amined the role of play and creativity during crisis situations such as the covid- pandemic. dr. russ is a distinguished scholar and an expert in the field of creativity and play. her current role as interim dean in- volves furthering faculty scholarship, including providing fac- ulty with a supportive research environment to explore their interests and inquiries through meaningful work. she carries the title of distinguished university professor as well as a louis d. beaumont university professor and is a recipient of the rudolf arnheim award for outstanding achievement in psychology and the arts. dr. russ offers an interdisciplinary perspective on the study and measurement of affect and creativity. she is perhaps best known for her foundational measure, the affect in play scale, that is used to measure imagination and emotional ex- pression in pretend play (russ et al. ). she is also the author of a number of books that discuss the role of affect and play in creativity (e.g., russ , ). trained as a clinical psychologist, dr. russ works primar- ily with children. it is no surprise, then, that a significant focus of her research centers on developing a better understanding of the role of pretend play in child development and psycho- therapy. she approaches this work from a cognitive, affective, and developmental perspective which she refers to as psychodynamic-developmental (russ ). she has ex- plored the relationship between pretend play and areas of adaptive functioning such as creativity, coping, and emotional understanding (russ ) and she is currently exploring the role of affect in the creative process. * punya mishra punya.mishra@asu.edu shagun singha ssing @asu.edu melissa warr mcwarr@asu.edu danah henriksen danah.henriksen@asu.edu arizona state university, tempe, az, usa https://doi.org/ . /s - - - published online: may techtrends ( ) : – http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:punya.mishra@asu.edu play as a creative product dr. russ described creativity as “the ability to come up with original ideas; to put ideas or images or experiences together in new ways” and “synthesizing in an original way using fantasy.” this description is similar to existing definitions of creativity, particularly the emphasis on novelty—but it also contrasts with many characterizations of creativity which ad- ditionally include a type of usefulness or effectiveness criteria. the so-termed ‘standard definition’ of creativity espoused by creativity scholars (runco and jaeger ) implies a two-part definition of creativity: creativity requires both novelty (or originality) and usefulness (or effectiveness). in this series we have also spoken of mishra et al.’s ( ) new definition of creativity, i.e. a creative product is novel, effective, and whole. the standard definition accounts for creativity in value- driven or outcome-bounded contexts, in which utility and col- lective value judgments of effectiveness matter significantly. for instance, a performance might be deemed creative if it has elements of novelty and if audiences or critics find it to be effective, enjoyable, cohesive, engaging, thought provoking, etc. (i.e. effective). or, in the sciences, a new discovery could be creative if it offers new knowledge or an inventive scien- tific solution (i.e., something useful that works well). runco ( ) raised the possibility of diverging from the standard definition and only considering originality, but novelty and effectiveness still reign supreme in definitions. but with the standard definition, what are we to do with more personal creativity which does not sit easily with an obvious ‘effective- ness’ judgment? or, related to dr. russ’s work, what of chil- dren’s creativity which includes elements of imagination or novel thinking but does not fit on a typical scale of usability or effectiveness? dr. russ, while sensitive to other definitions of creativity, believes that, for children, the criteria of usefulness cannot be the most important. this is because for children, play is the creative product. as she explained, play is “an output of how [children] think and how they feel.” in other words, play as a creative product has intrapersonal value, i.e., it is inherently meaningful to the person doing the playing. viewing play as a creative product provides insight into the relationship between play, creativity, and emotion. dr. russ ( ) views pretend play as a vehicle for creative expression and an opportunity for a child to generate new ideas. this allows children to synthesize images or experiences together in whole and original ways. children, she suggests, come up with and process new ideas through play and fantasy. notably, vygotsky ( , ) focused on this element of creativity through imagination and fantasy as central to children’s learn- ing and development. he believed that creativity develops in three stages: creative imagination begins in childhood, then proceeds into adolescence, where imagination comes together with thought, and finally moves into adulthood, where expe- rienced creativity is directed and used with purpose. he de- scribed children’s figurative play as a catalyst for creative imagination. thus, imagination and fantasy, which are some- times dismissed as ‘child’s play,’ are central to how people develop creatively throughout life. like creativity, play is often novel, surprising, and original. for example, dr. russ described how a child might transform objects like legos into something else entirely. children prac- tice divergence in play. she explained how they might “gen- erate different ideas, make up creative stories ... incorporate different images like going to the moon, and use fantasy.” children are creative both in and through play, and signif- icant empirical evidence supports a relationship between play and creativity (lieberman ; russ ). for example, hoffmann and russ ( ) found pretend play to be positive- ly correlated with divergent thinking, storytelling, and emotional regulation. russ et al. ( ) discovered that the relationship between play and divergent thinking holds across time—in their study, children’s play ability scores predicted their divergent thinking scores four years later. clearly, play and creativity both include characteristics of divergent thinking, but how else might play and creativity be related? we argue that dr. russ’s view of play as a creative product brings a new meta-level meaning to the “effective- ness” criteria common in other definitions of creativity. toward that argument, it may be important to ask “effective for whom?” is it for broader society and culture, for smaller interpersonal contexts, or for the individual? the complexity of value judgments has been an ongoing conundrum in creativity literature, and it highlights the perspectival nature of creative outcomes and products (e.g. who judges and why? and who judges the judges?) (runco and jaeger ). beghetto and kaufman ( b) addressed this dilemma by describing a spec- trum of creativity in their -c creativity model: big-c, little-c, pro-c, and mini-c. big-c creativity is landmark work. its scope changes a field or the world—for example, the invention of cubism by picasso and braque, the development of the theory of relativity by einstein, or the invention of the personal comput- er by jobs, gates, and others. little-c creativity, in contrast, is smaller in scope but just as important in our lives. it describes “everyday creativity that may make a solid contribution” (p. ). it might include a piece of art made for others or a new process that makes the workplace more efficient. little-c creativity does not have the same scale as big-c, but it has interpersonal value and is additive and cumulative in its effects on people and soci- ety. “pro-c involves relevant types of experts’ creativity or in- sights that are useful and critical in professional domains. the outputs of pro-c creativity may not change the field, but they still make a difference. for example, in education, this might be seen in the pioneering idea of the flipped classroom from bergmann and sams ( ). finally, “mini-c” is “intrapersonal creativity that is part of the learning process” (p. ). in other techtrends ( ) : – words, mini-c creativity holds value for the individual and is interpretative and often relevant in classrooms (e.g. a nd grader’s insight about how to solve a math problem). beghetto and kaufman ( a) described how “all levels of creative per- formance follow a trajectory that starts with novel and personally meaningful interpretations” (p. ) and develops into interper- sonal expressions. this broadened spectrum of creative scope suggests that labeling the criterion of effectiveness is highly sub- jective and situated. it reflects stein’s ( ) work distinguishing between the internal and external frames of reference that might be used when considering and judging creativity. from this perspective, the creativity inherent in pretend play is highly effective: it supports children in working out ideas and expressing themselves. in other words, play is how children learn. as maria montessori famously said, “play is the work of the child.” the process and product of play are inherently novel and effective. pretend play is also an affective process that sup- ports “both the ability to think about affect-laden fantasy and the capacity to experience emotion” (russ , pp. – ). play, as a creative product, can effectively help children think, feel, and process information. from an evolutionary perspective, it sup- ports learning that connects with and influences thinking. play provides an effective foundation that is unparalleled by less joy- ful and more rote forms of learning (pellegrini et al. ). although we have emphasized the differences between chil- dren’s pretend play and adult creativity, mini-c creativity and play are not reserved for children alone. adults also benefit from play and other forms of mini-c creativity; they can work through challenges and express emotions through mini-c creativity. this is where our conversation with dr. russ went next. nurturing creativity and play for all ages play not only helps children (and adults) process challenges and emotions but also supports other (little-c and perhaps evenbig-c) forms of creativity. dr. russ believes that effec- tive play in childhood leads to increased creativity in adults, but she also accepts that this can be hard to scientifically prove. returning to vygotsky’s ( , ) theoretical work, play is indeed developmental in certain ways that ex- pand and extend across the lifespan. given his assertion that children’s figurative play catalyzes creative imagination, vygotsky proposed that creativity was an intentionally ac- quired mental ability. people apply play and creative thinking to modify and combine ideas in context, generating unique, beautiful, and useful discoveries. as dr. russ notes, however, finding clear empirical evidence of the link between childhood play and adult creativity requires longitudinal studies, and identifying creativity in adults can be difficult because many adults have limited opportunities to express creativity. nonetheless, she argues that play and creativity have clear mental health benefits and should be nurtured and encouraged across the lifespan—and this is certainly grounded in founda- tional educational psychology. young children simply need to play, and, for the most part, nurturing children’s creativity can be as easy as ensuring they have the time and space to do so. in the evolution of childhood, melvin konner ( ) emphasized the value and necessity of play for learning, noting that among juveniles of any age group, play is a core activity. yet there is also a great energy expenditure that comes from play, including increased food requirements and risk. the skill would not have evolved without significant adaptive value. konner noted that you can watch children of any age engage in “rough and tumble play” and see that it is quite different from the aggressive action of real fighting—yet the play builds physical, developmental, and motor skills. even beyond the important development of physical coordination and motor skills, play of all kinds helps humans and other species learn to account for and handle unexpected events, establish and practice social relationships, self-assess and consider risks, stimulate mental development, and practice imagination and creative adaptation. some children, however, struggle with play. in these cases, dr. russ notes that guided play can help them develop crea- tive potential and imaginative skills. for example, she de- scribed hoffmann’s (hoffman & russ ) research on play interventions. hoffman worked with groups of st and nd grade girls. each group included two girls that scored low on pre-assessments of pretend play ability as well as two girls who scored higher. during the interventions, hoffmann sup- ported the students in making up imaginative stories. after six -min sessions, students who originally scored low on pre- assessments and participated in the intervention showed a sig- nificant increase in pretend play, positive affect, creativity, and divergent thinking compared to the control group. play becomes less frequent as children grow. that, howev- er, does not mean that play loses significance. dr. russ argues that teenagers should also be encouraged to practice creative expression, particularly by following developing interests. teenagers can participate in arts programs—drama, music, dance, visual arts—as well as practice creativity in academic subjects through activities such as science projects or creative writing. in terms of beghetto and kaufman’s ( b) creativ- ity model, teenagers can be encouraged in both intrapersonal (mini-c) creativity and interpersonal expression (little-c crea- tivity). creativity provides teenagers opportunities to problem-solve and encourages growth across domains. this is even more important for underprivileged students who rely on schools to provide creative opportunities that they might not have access to at home. when asked to summarize the implications of her scholar- ship for educational policy makers, dr. russ explained: [essentially] you have to find a way to look at the indi- vidual child throughout the whole years that they’re techtrends ( ) : – in an educational system and focus on nurturing the development of that child. so, keep the continuity there. .. [provide] as many creative activities as possible in those early years, give them the opportunity to explore music, dance, science so that they start to see what they enjoy and what they’re good at, so that they can start to gravitate to areas that they really like and that they have talent in. adults, she argued, also need opportunities to be creative and play. although many adults do not have opportunities for big-c creativity in the workplace, they are still capable of participating in little-c and mini-c creativity. and, according to dr. russ, play and creative expression are important for the mental and emotional health of all ages—particularly during difficult situations, like the covid- pandemic. play and creativity during a pandemic we talked with dr. russ over video chat in late march , just as countries in asia, europe, and north america were shutting down to control the spread of covid- . the recent changes in our work and lifestyle were at the forefront of our minds and we naturally gravitated to discussing the shifts we were seeing around us as school closed and more people worked from home. this context provided an opportunity to dig deeper into the es- sential elements of play and the role play has in the lives of both children and adults during crises. much of our discussion cen- tered on whether new technologies can support play and creativ- ity, particularly when children must stay at home. during the pandemic, children are limited in their ability to physically play with friends, but many have access to video games. here, technology can potentially be a conduit for play when other circumstances are more limited. dr. russ believes video games can support play and creativity but emphasized that the central requirement for pretend play is for the play to be open-ended. thus, games that are flexible and allow chil- dren to use their imaginations can support play and creativity. for example, minecraft provides a platform for children (and adults) to create new worlds. dr. russ also discussed the potential for conducting play interventions over video platforms. dimitropoulos et al. ( ) reported on a telehealth play intervention for children with prader-willi syndrome, a rare developmental disorder similar to autism. in play sessions, interventionists supported children in creating stories about emotions and problems. throughout the process, the interventionists modeled play behaviors. for example, dr. russ explained, “one child following a story need- ed to get milk for a baby but said that there’s no milk bottle. and so, the researcher could just pick up a lego and say, well, this could be a milk bottle. it’s modeling that you can use an object to be something else.” even though the interventionist and child were in different physical locations with different toys, the inter- ventionist could still support the child in working out problems in pretend play. this suggests that play is not limited or fully bound by physical spaces, and during times of crisis and isolation, the connectivity supported by digital technologies can afford creative play. at the time of the interview, we were also observing some positive outcomes of the pandemic: adults stuck at home were spending more time with creative activities, and many children had more time to play. dr. russ described how parents had been observing children participating in pretend play with the virus. she was recently interviewed by the atlantic (cray ) where she explained that play of this nature was a natural way for children to process what was going on in their world. in fact, it could be argued that it is not just children who are processing trauma through play. adults are also processing emotion through play and creativity, as evidenced by humorous songs, comedy shows produced via video conference, and arts-based benefit specials, all focusing on our shared experience with covid- . as human beings, we are programmed to use play and cre- ative expression to connect and work through difficulties. creativity is not just about finding solutions to problems; it is about expressing emotion and processing change. forgeard’s ( ) work on creativity and mental health has shown that engaging in creative activities can provide people with noticeable improvements to their mental health and overall wellbeing. indeed, many clinicians report that people receiving treatment for both mild and severe mental health issues experience signif- icant therapeutic benefits and inspiration from creative hobbies and habits. while the medical community has begun to recognize the value of creativity for mental health through programs for arts-based activities such as visual arts, music, drama, dance, poetry, writing or other forms of creative play there is also an accessible value to these expressions, in that they can be engaged and indulged in our personal spaces and lives. this brings us again to the personal value of mini-c creativity and the ways in which play can move us and help us to expand, learn, heal, and grow over the lifespan. conclusion our conversation with dr. russ meandered through a range of topics about play, creative expression, emotion, and how we as humans cope with challenges. it highlighted how important play and creative expression are in difficult times, begging the question of how we can support children in developing the habits and abilities of play and creativity from childhood. dr. russ believes that it is simpler than we might think: it’s a matter of nurturing joy. so, what i say to parents is––enjoy them. enjoy the play with your three, four, or five-year-old’s. play with them and enjoy the play. with techtrends ( ) : – older children, you may stay out of it, but make sure they have time and space and appropriate toys. there are so many ways you can nurture this and then it will take care of itself. if there is one takeaway from our conversation with dr. russ, it is that play and creativity are effective tools for supporting mental and emotional health, something particu- larly critical during crises such as the covid- pandemic. play and creative expression can help us cope with an uncer- tain world, which is always the world we face looking ahead into the future. references beghetto, r. a., & kaufman, j. c. 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( ). creativity and culture. journal of psychology, , – . vygotsky, l. s. ( ). imagination and its development in childhood. in l.v. (ed.), the development of higher mental function (pp. – ). izdatel'stvo academii pedagogicheskikh nauk rsfsr: moscow. vygotsky, l. s. ( ). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge: harvard university press. warr, m., henriksen, d., mishra, p., & the deep-play research group. ( ). creativity and flow in surgery, music, and cooking: an in- terview with neuroscientist charles limb. techtrends, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /s - - - . warr, m., henriksen, d., mishra, p., & the deep-play research group. ( ). creativity and expressive arts, performance, physicality and wellness: a conversation with dr. paula thomson and dr. victoria jaque. techtrends, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / s - - - . publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic- tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. techtrends ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - -z https://doi.org/ . /s - - -z https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /cad. https://doi.org/ . /s crj _ https://doi.org/ . /s crj _ https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - 	playing with creativity across the lifespan: a conversation with dr. sandra russ 	play as a creative product 	nurturing creativity and play for all ages 	play and creativity during a pandemic 	conclusion 	references rev-sinclair/harris.indd notices of the ams volume , number explore or forge connections between mathematics and art. in many educational settings, art is used as a motivational context in which to attract the attention of learners so that they might compare some ratios (alberti’s perspective drawing) or cal- culate some areas (mondrian’s geometric abstrac- tion), just to name some popular examples. one consequence of these well-meaning approaches is that they endorse the belief that mathematics itself is an aesthetically sterile domain or at least one whose potentialities are realised only through engagement with external domains of interest. the mathematicians videotaped by depardon and nou- garet insist otherwise, and the situations shown in the second room provide at least some visual insight into the compelling patterns and structures that mathematicians work with. but i had hoped that this meeting of art with mathematics would have more provocatively, subtly, and perhaps even uncomfortably transformed the viewer’s way of thinking of mathematics. i wonder whether the framing of the exhibit— at least the top floor—in terms of gromov’s four mysteries started things off on the wrong foot. art tends to be good when it evokes mysteries for the viewer or nudges the viewer toward mysteries otherwise overlooked, but when it ear- nestly points them out, the viewer is left with little more than a fact. references gilles châtelet, les enjeux du mobile: mathématiques, physique, philosophie, seuil, paris, . brian rotman, signifying nothing: the semiotics of zero, st. martin’s press, new york, . a. whitehead, science and the modern world, macmillan, new york, . choreography. the film shows a closeup of villani presenting cercignani’s conjecture on a black- board. in the previous room he had already es- tablished this perennial tool of the mathematical lecture room as a kind of right arm, an extension of himself he could use to communicate his ideas. (in fact, despite the growing use of computers by mathematicians—and not just the experimental mathematics community—this digital tool seems to remain here in the closet.) the film begins with a large shot of the blackboard, with villani pacing back and forth in front of it. then it zooms in as he raises his chalk and makes a few marks, as if warming up. then he lets loose on a dazzling array of points, lines, curves, all in a rhythm of an- ticipation. he looked like a conductor goading his mathematical objects along. the viewer watches the performance but feels that the substantial practice and repetition involved in the dance of the chalk is somehow overshadowed by a sense of immediacy, persuasiveness, and seeming newness. i was reminded of gilles châtelet’s ( ) assertion of the intimate link between gestures and diagrams in mathematics and, especially, the gesture as the locus of mathematical inventiveness. this small film seemed to be the most compelling example to me of mathematics and art and of mathemat- ics as art. in the last large room stood a comparatively lonely aluminum sculpture by hiroshi sugimoto of a surface of revolution of constant negative cur- vature. apparently, the extreme tip—the gesture to a point at infinity—is so small that the artist required modern robotics to fashion it. on art and mathematics there are many conferences, books, courses, and classroom activities that try, in various ways, to sudden disorientation in a paris museum michael harris at least one french journalist is convinced that the message of the exhibition that opened last october in paris at the fondation cartier for contemporary art is that alexander grothendieck has now been “rehabilitated”. maybe she reached this conclu- sion because the exhibition, a collaborative effort involving (among others) nine artists, eight math- ematicians, and a large hadron collider—more on them later—is entitled mathématiques, un dépay- sement soudain, a quotation from grothendieck’s unclassifiable and (so far) unpublishable -page memoir récoltes et sémailles. who was the first to realize grothendieck was in need of rehabilitation? it wasn’t a mathematician: though those who knew him continue to regret his decision to abandon his position at the center of algebraic geometry in the early s on political grounds, his influence has only grown in the intervening years, and he is now regularly listed as one of the greatest mathemati- cians of the twentieth century, occasionally as the greatest of all. that grothendieck might need rehabilitation and that his time has now come sounds like an idea hatched by the french public relations industry, known in france as communications or just com, always alert to the question of what is appropriate to believe about any subject of importance—and michael harris is professor of mathematics at ufr de mathématiques, université paris-diderot paris . his email address is harris@math.jussieu.fr. doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /noti for example, at this site: http://blog.tanyakhovanova. com/?p= . http://blog.tanyakhovanova.com/?p= http://blog.tanyakhovanova.com/?p= june/july notices of the ams protegé initiative. the luxury industry (espace cardin and lvmh in paris, fondazione prada in venice) is well represented among the branded art exhibition spaces that have proliferated in recent decades, alongside insurance (the generali foun- dation in vienna), banking, shopping (selfridge’s), and com itself (the saatchi gallery in london). damien hirst, hardly the most high-minded of the young british artists, once said, …“i’m not charles saatchi’s barrel-organ monkey. …he only recognises art with his wallet …he believes he can affect art values with buying power, and he still believes he can do it.” years before the fonda- tion cartier moved into its jean nouvel-designed exhibition space on boulevard raspail—of which eric hazan wrote that it “at least has the merit of having preserved chateaubriand’s cedar tree”— alain-dominique perrin, then, as now, president of the fondation cartier, wrote candidly about the goals of art sponsorship: “patronage of the arts is not only a formidable public relations [i.e., com- munications] tool, it’s much more than that; it’s a tool to seduce public opinion.” the strategic goal, wrote perrin, is to “neutralize criticism”. echoing situationist guy debord but from the other side of the barricades, so to speak, perrin added, “the efficacy of this pr strategy is not lim- ited to creating the event…patronage is…a medium that makes use of the other media.” media coverage of a beautiful elsewhere has indeed been massive, including an entire special issue of the monthly popular science magazine sciences et avenir (with the cartier logo on the front cover), an ad campaign that plastered every corner of the french capital with billboards, and of course a few brief articles in the daily and weekly press. i ought to stress that i’m not opposed to private philanthropy or even corporate sponsorship per se. i have benefited from the former both person- ally and as an organizer of conferences, and in any case there’s no way to work these days as a math- ematician, much less as an artist, without coming to some arrangement with private funding sources. i ran across perrin’s remarks in a conversa- tion between radical conceptual artist hans haacke and sociologist pierre bourdieu. haacke’s projects in the s included a collage (cowboy with ciga- rette) in the style of picasso as a reaction to philip in france mathematics is such a subject. by turn- ing his back on prestige, going so far as to refuse the crafoord prize in , grothendieck broke with acceptable public opinion, expressing ideas potentially subversive to the social order. but now he can be forgiven. if grothendieck’s ideas are no longer dangerous, it’s not only because his public statements over the last twenty years or so have become increasingly bizarre, culminating with his insistence in that all copies of his work be removed from librar- ies and destroyed. ideas like grothendieck’s have in any case lost their relevance to opinion makers. the evolution was symbolized by the election of french president nicolas sarkozy in on a platform of argent décomplexé, relaxed money. sarkozy’s supporters called upon the rich not to be ashamed of their wealth, and the president himself was notorious for his fascination with symbols of affluence: yachts, expensive restaurants, and es- pecially the rolex. jacques séguéla, com champion closely associated with the (opposition) french socialist party, was perplexed when the press kept writing about the rolex: “si à ans, on n’a pas une rolex, on a raté sa vie” [if you don’t have a rolex by the time you’re , you’ve wasted your life]. nowadays dépaysement is a commodity french travel agents market to busy professionals looking for novel vacation experiences, the prepackaged unfamiliarity of an unfamiliar sun, an unfamiliar landscape, a (slightly) unfamiliar cuisine, compa- rable to the english “change of scene” rather than to a beautiful elsewhere, the cartier exhibition’s official english title. but the word literally refers to the state of not being in one’s hometown, and its alternative meaning of “disorientation” is by far the better translation in reference to grothendieck. imagine club med offering a one-way ticket to the middle of a war zone in a foreign country where you are at constant risk of deportation and death. that profoundly disorienting experience, still on offer in many parts of the world, was grothen- dieck’s as a teenager during the second world war. the experience one takes home from a beautiful elsewhere is not of comparable intensity. the fondation cartier is the creation of rolex’s rival, the french jeweler and watchmaker cartier. i’m no expert in the semiotics of luxury timekeep- ing and can’t tell you where rolex stands relative to cartier—official purveyor in times past to such kings as carlos i of portugal, peter i of serbia, fouad i of egypt, and zog i of albania—on the scale of prestige vs. vulgarity. what i do know is that if i were cartier, i would be jealous of the lineup rolex has assembled, both for its gravitas (hans magnus enzensberger! toni morrison!) and for its hipness (brian eno!! kate valk!!) in its annual mentor and or so it seemed when the exhibition was planned, before the surprising events of . for banking: the deutsche bank collection in frankfurt, new york, and around the world, and the bank austria kunstforum in vienna. to this list we might add the for- mer collaboration between philip morris and the whitney museum of american art in new york. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/ /nov/ / arts.artsnews. this year saatchi himself observed ( guardian, december ) that “being an art buyer these days is comprehensively and indisputably vulgar.” quoted in p. bourdieu and h. haacke, libre-échange, paris: seuil ( ), pp. – , . http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/ /nov/ /arts.artsnews http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/ /nov/ /arts.artsnews notices of the ams volume , number a collaboration of filmmaker david lynch and punk rock icon patti smith with geometer misha gromov. the laws of physics, life, the human brain, and mathematical structure are the mysteries in question. perfectly innocent when gromov listed them a few years ago in a popular book about mathematicians entitled les déchiffreurs, in the hands of the cartier exhibition’s curators these mysteries acquire the metaphysical urgency of the “mysteries of isis” to which tamino is promised after his successful passage through the “temple of tests” in mozart’s magic flute. and one must indeed walk through a colonnade in order to enter the library, on one of whose walls a selection of books, chosen by gromov for the light they at- tempt to shed on the four mysteries, thunder down from the zenith against the background of a handheld impending storm in a recognizably lynchian night. david foster wallace wrote that an academic definition of lyn- chian might be that the term “refers to a particular kind of irony where the very macabre and the very mundane combine in such a way as to reveal the former’s perpetual containment within the latter”. irony being altogether absent at the fondation cartier and in the exhibition catalogue, it would be better to say that the books in the library are framed by a parody of the lynchian night. other images are occasionally projected on the wall: when a white sheep appears against a neutral back- ground, patti smith’s voice recites “baa baa black sheep” (“yes, sir” is translated “oui monsieur”). later in the cycle, her face materializes, swaying on the library ceiling (“in the shape of a zero”), blurring and fading as she sings an excerpt from swinburne’s loch torridon: all above us, the livelong night, shadow, kindled with sense of light; all around us, the brief night long, silence, laden with sense of song. the next space is called the room of the four mysteries and features one exhibit for each mys- tery on gromov’s list, plus a few bonus items. a collage by beatriz milhazes entitled o paraiso (paradise) represents the mystery of life as a kind of club med travel poster to a tropically chaotic world of fluid dynamics and diffusion reactions, morris sponsorship of a exhibit on early cubism and an exploration, modeled on jewelers’ window displays, of cartier’s links with apartheid south africa. but haacke himself has works in the generali foundation collection, and who can blame him? the ihes is no less brilliant a center of research since the creation a few years ago of the axa chair for mathematics. but any occupant of the chair has to know that, as far as the insurance company is concerned, he or she is now wearing the axa jersey. no such branding accompanied the unveiling in october of a plaque at the École normale supéri- eure thanking the fondation jean-luc lagardère for the renovation of the département des mathé- matiques et applications. there is no mention of the event on the lagardère or eads websites. nor did the weekly magazine m—le monde’s answer to the new york times’ t—refer to the ens in its cover story, published in october, on “the dream life of [the late jean-luc’s son] arnaud lagardère,” who “reigns over arms and media, aviation and publishing.” this is a bit strange, since ens is in the center of paris and is much better known than the ihes. grothendieck may be indirectly responsible for this discretion. although the lagardère con- glomerate is mainly active in publishing and media, it is “a major shareholder in eads…the leading aeronautics, space and defence group in europe and the second largest in the world…and exercises joint control over the company.” grothendieck, the “great thinker, unknown outside theoretical cliques,” is mentioned several times in the exhibi- tion catalogue—astrophysicist michel cassé, one of the exhibition’s three curators, even dedicates his catalogue contribution to grothendieck—but there’s not a word to explain his absence from the community of researchers. his resignation in from the ihes is mentioned cryptically in the introduction to the special issue of sciences et avenir on the cartier exhibition. you’ll have to turn to the notices of the ams to learn that his departure was precipitated by his “conflict with the founder and director of the ihes…over military funding for the institute.” visitors arriving at a beautiful elsewhere are first directed to the library of mysteries, fruit of a move that brings no material advantage to its holder but instead allows the ihes to use his or her salary to invite additional visitors. see www.axa-research.org/sites/dev/files/u/ video/axa_institutionnel_rework.flv. information from www.lagardere.com. along with ihes director jean-pierre bourguignon and hervé chandes, director general of the fondation cartier. from allyn jackson’s article comme appelé du né ant— as if summoned from the void: the life of alexandre grothendieck, part , notices of the ams, november , p. . alternating with a nervous blood red and a steady sky blue. the library includes works by poincaré, helmholtz, heraclitus, archimedes, darwin, galileo, and many others, including grothendieck’s récoltes et sémailles. edifying excerpts are projected helpfully onto the wall, translated into french and english. in “david lynch keeps his head”, premiere, september . http://www.axa-research.org/sites/dev/files/u/video/axa_institutionnel_rework.flv http://www.axa-research.org/sites/dev/files/u/video/axa_institutionnel_rework.flv http://www.lagardere.com june/july notices of the ams tickets and those who thought that any widely publicized event that brings mathematics to the attention of the general public deserves the benefit of the doubt. what i haven’t heard from french colleagues who have been to the show are thoughts about the relations, if there are any, between art and mathematics. no one seems to have noticed what a paradox it is to hear mathematicians claim without hesitation that beauty is the object of their work—not that it’s so easy to attribute a precise meaning to this claim, and in a technical sense it’s pretty clear that gromov, lynch, and smith were aiming at the sublime—in an institution “for con- temporary art” where that sort of talk is generally considered to be beside the point. notices readers don’t need to be told that the word “art” in the contemporary world is extraordinarily inclusive, but it seems to me that what it designates needs at a minimum to be capable of being incorporated in some sort of dialogue with traditional and histori- cal uses of the word. if such a dialogue is under way at the fondation cartier, i was unable to detect it, and i am tempted to define com as precisely the form of dialogue in which opinions travel in one direction only. the exhibition continues downstairs with a sculpture of a surface of constant negative curva- ture by hiroshi sugimoto, culminating at its apex in what is supposed to represent a singularity at infinity, spectacular but somehow pointless, enormous and yet much too small for the room in which it is displayed. jean-michel alberola’s contributions are especially unconvincing: a mural representing a conceptual map of poincaré’s work and yet another film of hands writing equations, belonging this time to villani. if you look elsewhere than in a beautiful else- where you can easily find evidence that alberola is in fact an interesting artist, like the others par- ticipating in this cross-cultural experiment, and you are likely to wonder about a quite different mystery: how the collaboration of so many undeni- ably talented people, artists and mathematicians alike, gave rise to such an exercise in futility. could it be as simple as this, that the relations between mathematics and the arts (such as they are) do not develop in interesting directions when com is the catalyst? my thoughts returned to grothen- dieck, whose story is an extraordinary gift from mathematics to world culture that remains to be unwrapped. i used to think that david lynch would be just the right artist to find the images to go along with words like these: peu à peu au cours de la réflexion se révèle ce qui, dans ma vie, a été comme le “noyau dur”, le centre red- outable de ce mystère, comme le coeur même de “l’énigme du mal” : la violence qu’on peut appeler “gratuite”, ou “sans cause”, la violence pour le seul plaisir, featuring a jaguar, a red parrot, a peacock, fire, and an enormous wave, each tagged by the rel- evant equation. lynch offers a high-contrast handheld brooding film of the glowing hands of bruno mansoulié, a physicist at cern, drawing feynman diagrams, punctuated by occasional real-time interruptions by an instrument panel at the large hadron collider (the very small) or the planck satellite (the very large): the laws of phys- ics. when mansoulié has finished his lecture, patti smith’s off-camera voice recites gromov’s text on the four mysteries; the “mother courage of rock” (as luc sante called her recently in the new york review of books) adds poetry as her own choice for fifth on the list. the mystery of the brain is displayed in the form of “artificial curiosity”, a “tribe of young robotic creatures” modeling gro- mov’s concept of an ergosystem. the creatures are meant to interact with spectators and learn in the process, “an experiment” (the press packet informs us) “that will allow the […] scientists [from inria and the université de bordeaux] to advance even further in their revolutionary research program.” this mystery, unlike the first two mentioned, is actually quite entertaining —the ninth graders visiting with their math class told me it was what they liked best—but its only obvious connection with contemporary art is the plastic head designed by lynch, reminiscent of the skull of the baby in eraserhead, topping each of the artificially curi- ous robots. the week the exhibition opened was a special one, with a six-page spread on grothendieck in the french edition of gq and recent fields medalist cédric villani identifying himself as “the lady gaga of mathematics” in the weekly middlebrow culture magazine télérama. the interview mentioned vil- lani’s participation in the cartier exhibition, but like most of the press coverage, had very little to say about what was on display. for this you have to read the blogs, where comments like this one are typical: en effet, une expo très décevante! ar- tistiquement rien de plus que décora- tive et mathématiquement totalement superficielle, une imposture qui cultive le mysticisme autour des maths.…ne perdez pas votre temps à y aller. mathematicians were divided between those so put off by the com style of the exhibition’s promo- tion that they threw away their complementary as is the infographic display in the same room that projects a sampling of the mystery of mathematical structure (penrose tilings, euclidean geometry, ulam’s spiral of prime numbers, calculations in the symbolism of traditional chinese and japanese mathematics) in brilliant colors at dizzying speed. but when art meets mathematics, why does the result resemble nothing so much as high- tech advertising? notices of the ams volume , number of the four mysteries is not even worth mention- ing), the sensitivity to the uncanny one expected from david lynch. i was particularly impressed by villani’s segment—he displays a real sense of dramatic timing in explaining how he rediscovered the triangles of his adolescence after two decades of mathematical research—and by gromov’s para- doxical observation that mathematical thinking and biological evolution move in opposite direc- tions. but the speakers were uniformly thoughtful, articulate, and appealing; the film, in which the presence of the artists is reduced to a bare mini- mum, almost redeems the exhibition. it’s probably pointless to ask pedro almodóvar to film grothendieck’s life. if you’ve seen al- modóvar’s talk to her, you’ll remember the scene where caetano veloso delivers an indescribably beautiful rendition of a mexican folk song in an improbably beautiful private garden to a select group of impossibly beautiful “beautiful people”. if i’ve learned anything from the exhibit at fonda- tion cartier, it’s that such scenes take place in real life as well. but i learned that indirectly by reading an article published in le monde’s magazine m. on the friday following the opening, patti smith read swinburne’s loch torridon, accompanied by david lynch on electric piano, before a select group of guests sitting on the floor of the fondation cartier—probably in the basement room where the depardon-nougaret interviews are projected during the day. m ’s reporter “had the impression of attending a proof in situ of the theorem [sic] on two parallel lines that never meet.” attending were actress isabelle huppert, actor vincent lindon, filmmaker agnès varda, and a scattering of local celebrities, but whether or not any of the math- ematical stars of un dépaysement soudain was considered beautiful enough to number among the two-hundred guests and to join them for the after party at club silencio, none was beautiful enough to merit mention in le monde. a few years ago i saw another film by depardon and nougaret in that same basement room. en- titled donner la parole, translated as “hear them speak”, practically the same length as bonheur des maths, the film consisted of monologues by people from literally all over the world, describing in their own languages their cultures and ways of life, all threatened with extinction. i hope it was a coincidence. acknowledgment my thanks to nathalie sinclair and vladimir tasić for their insightful comments on a first draft of this article, to gaël octavia for playing the devil’s advocate, and to jean-michel kantor for more rea- sons than i can mention. dirait-on, de blesser, de nuire ou de dévaster—une violence qui jamais ne dit son nom, feutrée souvent, sous des airs d’ingénuité innocente et affable, et d’autant plus efficace à toucher et à ravager—la “griffe dans le velours”, délicate, vive et sans merci. but now i’m not so sure. it’s a long way from club med to club silencio, the iconic theater of guilty conscience that marks the tremulous pas- sage between two worlds (or two mysteries, if you prefer) in lynch’s mulholland drive. or maybe not such a long way: only a half-hour metro trip from the fondation cartier to lynch’s new paris night- club, also called club silencio. all of the artists represented in a beautiful elsewhere have worked with the fondation cartier previously, in some cases more than once. those who don’t live in town presumably have their reasons to come to paris. lynch, “based off and on…for the last four years” in paris, according to a recent guardian interview, is an officier de la légion d’honneur; smith was named commandeur de l’ordre des arts et lettres, in part for her appreciation for rimbaud. nobody seems to have been inconvenienced by cartier’s dépaysement ; it’s even mentioned as a footnote to the guardian article, which focuses on lynch’s new cd, crazy clown time, and on his enthusiasm for transcendental meditation: “légion d’honneur! légion d’honneur!” grothendieck was shouting from the back of the auditorium, waving a paper facsimile of the légion d’honneur cross. …grothendieck then mounted the podium and began speaking against nato support for the conference. the final basement room is devoted to a - minute documentary, entitled au bonheur des maths (the joy of math?), by raymond depar- don and claudine nougaret, consisting of eight -minute interviews, each devoted to one (or in one case two) of the participating mathematicians: sir michael atiyah, jean-pierre bourguignon, alain connes, nicole el karaoui, carolina canales gonza- les and giancarlo lucchini, misha gromov, cédric villani, don zagier. the mathematicians, mostly shown in extreme closeup against neutral back- grounds, bookshelves, or blackboards, say what’s on their minds with the authenticity one expected from patti smith, the humor one expected from takeshi kitano (whose contribution to the room récoltes et sémailles, p. . from allyn jackson’s notices article, already cited. the scene was the antwerp summer school on modular functions, and grothendieck was interrupting jean-pierre serre, who had recently been named to the légion d’honneur. it was one of his last appearances at a mathematics conference. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ < db e bcaec a e > 수번호 : # - 수일자 : 년 월 일 심사완료일 : 년 월 일 교신 자 : 김석호, e-mail : ssuko@hanmail.net 큐비즘적 요소를 응용한 도자 조형 the formative ceramic arts by applying expression of cubism 김석호̇ * , 김승연 ** , 김승만 ** 목원 학교 미술 학 * , 홍익 학교 교양학부 ** seok-ho kim(ssuko@hanmail.net) * , seung-yeon kim(uli @hanmail.net) ** , seung-man kim(ksm @naver.com) ** 요약 의 도자 조형은 순수 조형사고에 의해 보다 신선하고 개성 인 조형물의 개념으로 넓게 확장되어가 고 있으며 다양한 요구에 의해 개성과 취향을 만족시킬 수 있는 디자인 개발이 이루어지고 있다. 이에 따라 본 연구에서는 우리의 생활 반에 정서 인 기여를 할 수 있는 조형물을 제시하고자 입체주의의 표 양상을 도입하는 과정에서 주어진 상을 복수시 으로 감지하고도 차원 인 평면에 표 한 입체주의 시 회화의 한계를 넘어 입체감과 공간감의 표 을 해 조형 측면에서 근하여 제작하 다. 따라서 연구자는 작품을 제작하기에 앞서 c 미술계의 커다란 환 이었던 입체주의의 표 양상과 도 의 역확장에 한 선이해가 요하다고 단되어 이에 한 근을 시도하 다. 의 연구를 통하여 기존개념에서 탈피해 새로운 에서 근해보니 창의 이며 실용성을 겸비한 개성 인 조형물로서 새 로운 가능성이 엿보 다. 이는 생활 속의 술로 도자 조형의 역을 확 시켜 연구 상으로서 도 의 한 분야가 될 수 있으리라 생각된다. ■ 중심어 :∣입체주의∣도자조형∣ abstract modern figurative work is designed to have more creativity and characteristic traits by pure thought of the formative ceramic arts. in compliance with the demand which is various the design development could be satisfied an individuality and a taste is become accomplished. in this view, this study looks over expressive aspect of cubism to present partition as a independent formative ceramic arts is able to contribute emotionally to our whole lives. in this procedure, this work is produced to express a three-dimensional effect and a spatial effect, approaching a figurative side. this is to overcome the limitation of cubism art expressed in a two-dimensional surface in spite of its multi-dimensional observation of a given object. accordingly, this study tries approaching pre-understanding of expressive aspect of cubism which was the important turning-point in c art and expansion of the modern ceramic art field before producing the work. this study shows the possibility to become a creative and practical ceramic art work, approaching the new point of view breaking from the established conception. consequently, the field of ceramic art could be expanded to a part of modern ceramic art as an object of study in art of life. ■ keyword : ∣cubism∣multi-dimensional observation∣formative ceramic∣ 큐비즘적 요소를 응용한 도자 조형 Ⅰ. 서 론 . 연구목적 는 산업의 고도화로 인한 량생산체제하에서 획일 이며 비개성 인 환경의 지배를 받고 있다. 이러 한 에서 볼 때 인간성의 회복과 정서 환경을 조 성하기 한 방법으로써 인간과 한 계에 있는 실 내 환경은 보다 개성 이면서 정신 인 여유와 안락함 을 수 있도록 조성되어야 한다. 이러한 시 에서 입 체주의 시 회화의 자유롭고 활달한 감성을 도입하여 인의 다양한 표 욕구에 부응할 수 있는 새로운 디자인 모티 를 제시하고자 한다. 이 과정에서 주어진 상을 복수시 으로 감지하고도 차원 인 평면에 표 한 입체주의 시 회화의 한계를 넘어서 입체감과 공 간감을 지닌 도재 조형물을 제작하여 다양한 각도에서 변화를 주고자 하는데 목표를 두고 있다. 본 연구에서 는 입체주의 작품의 표 양상을 도 의 표 역으로 끌어들여 작품창작에 한 가능성을 살펴보고 작품을 제작해 으로써 그 발 방향을 모색해보고 개발 연구 하고자한다. . 연구 방법 및 범위 본 연구는 문헌 조사를 통한 이론 배경연구와 그것 을 토 로 한 작품제작으로 구성되었다. 이론 배경으 로는 각종 문헌과 선행연구 결과물들을 통해 큐비즘의 개념과 문헌자료 그리고 박물 개인소장품으로 해 지는 실증 인 자료를 통해 큐비즘 회화의 선이나 구도 등 조형 인 특징을 분석하여 그 표 양상을 살펴보고 미술에 끼친 향까지 고찰해 보았다. 사람의 얼굴 형상을 주 소재로 하여 빠른 시각 인 달을 해 그 색상은 백매트유, 흑매트유. 투명유, 꽃유 그리고 벌화장토를 사용하여 간결하고 세련된 이미지를 표 하 다. 그리고 아래 부분에 구멍을 뚫어 철제 구조물 을 끼워 넣음으로써 다른 재료와의 조합도 함께 시도해 보았다. Ⅱ. 작품형성의 이론적 배경 . 입체주의의 개념과 표현 가. 입체주의의 개념과 의의 c 미술계의 커다란 환 이었던 입체주의(큐비즘 cubism)는 년부터 년 까지 랑스 리를 심으로 하여 유럽지역에 된 미술 신운동이다. 이 명칭은 년 마티스(henri matisse)가 라크 (georges braque)의 연작인 「에스타크 풍경」<도 >이라는 입체주의 인 풍경화를 평가하면서 “이것은 작은 입방체(cube)일 뿐이다”라고 말한 것에서 연유했 다. 즉 큐비즘이란 용어는 인상주의를 비롯한 근 의 신운동이 일반에게 인정받지 못하자 그로 인한 경멸 이나 비난의 의미로 사용되었다. 입체주의는 세잔(paul cézanne)의 통 원근법의 무시와 상의 해부학 인 분해에서 아 리카 조각의 상징 인 단순화와 조형상 의 자율성을 그들의 서구 인 인식 안에서 수용하고 이시켰던 회화 명에서 비롯되었다. 년 칸트 (immanuel kant)는 그의 서 ‘순수이성비 ’에서 공 간과 시간의 정의를 엄격하게 규정지으면서 이를 철학 으로 규명하기 시작하 다. 그는 어떠한 직 이라도 모두 시간을 선험 조건으로 제하므로 시간이 공간 보다 우선한다고 하 다. 즉 공간을 생각할 수 없는 곳 에서는 시간은 폐지된다고 주장하 다. 략 ~ 년의 짧은 시간에 유럽에서 일어난 문화 사회 상황 은 빠른 속도로 변화하고 있었다. 그 에서도 년 아인슈타인(albert einstein)은 비공간의 시간 은 끝났다고 보는 특수상 성이론을 발표하여 칸트의 철학 인 연구 안을 자연과학 으로 해석함으로써 뒷 받침해 주었다. 그 원리에 의하면 천문학 거리를 포함 하는 공간속에서는 시간과 공간이 서로의 함수이며 시 간이 공간의 차원에 포함된다고 하는 것이다. 공간 요소를 이루는 조형 술은 작품과 람자의 만남에서 형성되는 심리 시간성, 작품자체의 고유한 시간 그리 고 작품과 작가의 사이에서 일차 으로 끝나 버릴 수 있는 창조행 등 시간과 매우 한 계를 가지고 있기 때문에 공간과 시간을 분리하여 생각할 수 없다 [ ]. 차원의 정 인 개념에 시간이 부가된 차원의 개 념은 입체 를 형성했으며, 유럽회화를 르네상스 이래 의 사실주의 통에서 해방시킨 회화 명으로 지칭되 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. 고 있다. 나. 입체주의 작품의 표현 양상 c말 이후로 격히 변화한 회화공간은 c 큐비 즘의 태동과 함께 그 모습이 새로워졌다. 큐비즘 회화 태동은 그 기원을 세잔과 흑인 술에 두고 시작되었으 며 그 어떤 시 의 회화공간과 차별화된 획기 인 공간 의 표 을 시도하 다. 미술사에서 세기 원근법을 제 의 명이라 한다면 제 의 명은 c 큐비즘이라 할 수 있다. 르네상스 이래로 서구 회화의 바탕이 되어온 원근법은 차원인 평면에 차원의 물체를 그리는 기본이었다. 하지만 세 잔은 평면의 존재를 자연에서의 깊이와 질량에 한 자 신의 감각과 조화시키려고 하 고 그 결과 원근법의 괴가 수반되었다. 즉 큐비즘은 공간 악에 있어서 르 네상스 원근법이 무 지는 계기를 마련해 주었다[ ]. 다른 특징은 상을 바라보는 시 의 복수화를 통한 분 해이다. 복수시 이란 방향성의 상실 즉, 여러 시 이 동시에 상을 악한다는 것으로 어떠한 시 도 인 시 이 될 수 없다는 제하에 상의 체 인 실체를 악하려 하 다. 시 의 다양성은 화면의 평면성을 강조한다. 그 결과 주어진 상을 복수시 으로 감지하고도 차원 인 평 면에 유기 으로 통합된 차원성을 표 하고자 할 때 에는 그 상은 왜곡되고 분해될 수밖에 없다. 즉 큐비 즘의 변형 수법은 이 게 필연 으로 이루어진 것이 다. 입체 는 사물을 단편으로 분할하여 면을 확장시키 는 방법을 사용하 는데 이 단편들은 화면의 수직면에 약간의 각도로 기울어져 수평, 사선, 수직의 기하학 형태로 결정화 된다. 그리고 이러한 단편들이 첩되고 공통 으로 첩된 부분을 양보하지 않으려 할 때 공간 차원의 모순에 직면하게 된다. 이를 해소하기 해 능동 으로 투명성이 부여되거나 단편들의 모서리가 서로 유출되어 해체됨으로써 불투명성을 띄기도 한다. 여기까지는 사물을 기하학 으로 표 한 분석 큐비 즘시 이며 지 까지 배제되었던 색채가 다시 사용되 어 평면 인 색면 구성과 사실 인 상 는 화면에 악보, 신문지, 벽지 등의 인쇄물을 붙이는 콜라주 (college), 피에콜 (papiercolle) 기법이 사용된 종합 큐비즘시 가 형성되었다. 즉 분석 형태를 재구성 하여 상을 좀 더 알아보기 쉽도록 색 면으로 넓게 나 타내어 단순성과 역동성을 표 하 다. . 현대미술과 입체주의 가. 입체주의가 현대미술에 끼친 영향 리에서 시작된 입체주의는 유럽 체, 심지어 러시 아 회화에까지 되어 나갔다. 유럽에서 수많은 작가들이 이 양식으로 그림을 그리기 시작했고, 랑스 에서 발원한 입체주의를 기 로 새로운 양식들을 이끌 어냈다. 이러한 상은 회화에서만 나타난 것이 아니라 조각. 나아가 기하학 기본도형에 의존해서 건물을 지 었던 건축 부문에도 어느 정도 해당되었다. 입체주의 회화가 등장하고 곧바로 입체주의 조각도 함께 개되 었다. 입체주의 조각은 피카소의 조형 실험을 그 출발 으로 삼았다. 피카소는 스스로 화가라고 생각하고 있 었음에도 불구하고 계속 조각 작업에도 몰두했다. 피카 소는 이후 수년 동안 회화의 형상언어를 새롭게 발 시 키려 노력한 결과 콜라주를 생각해 냈는데 그 연장선상 에서 새로운 조형작품이 만들어지게 된다. 컨 캔버 스에 종이 조각을 붙이는 것 자체가 이미 평면 인 회 화의 차원성을 넘어서는 일이다. 피카소는 다양한 소 재들을 사용하여 부조작품을 제작하 는데 이러한 발 은 당연한 논리 결과 다.<도 , >피카소에게 새로운 자극을 받은 것은 특히 이미 리 입체주의 내 에서 활동하고 있던 조각가들이었다. 그 에서 이몽 뒤샹-비용(raymond duchamp-villon)은 양감과 부피 에 변화를 으로써 역학과 움직임이라는 새 주제들을 취해 역동성과 리듬감이 배어나오도록 하고 있다. <도 > 아르키펭코(alexandr porfiryevich archipenko)는 세기 작가들 가운데 가장 신 인 인물에 속한다. 그는 입체주의 단상들을 흡수하여 이것을 기 로 회화 와 조각의 결합체 즉 입체회화라는 분야를 발 시켰다. <도 , >입체 와 거의 동시에 리에 모습을 드러 낸 움베르토 보umberto boccion( ~ ) 이탈리아, 조각가 ․ 화가 니(umberto boccioni)와 같은 미 큐비즘적 요소를 응용한 도자 조형 래 작가들 역시 조각 작업을 했고 그들의 주제인 움 직임ㆍ리듬ㆍ역학 들을 묘사하기 해 동시성이 스며 든 새로운 양태의 작품을 만들었다. 그러나 이들이 설 정한 목표는 상당히 달랐다. 미래 작가들은 애 부터 사회 통과 상아탑 인 것 일체와 싸우기 해 나섰 다.<도 >[ ] 이와 같은 담한 요구를 조형 으로 실 한 작품들이 속속 뒤따랐으며 세기의 구성 조 형이라 불리는 경향은 미술의 새로운 이해의 길을 마련 해 오늘날에 이르게 했다. 참고도판 <도판 > 브라크,「에스타크풍경」, <도판 > 보초니, 「공간속에서 일회적으로 지나가는 연속 형태물」, <도판 > 뒤샹-비용 「거대한 말」, <도판 > 피카소 「압생트 술잔」, <도판 > 피카소 「구성:바이올 린」, <도판 > 아르키펭코 「권투시합」, <도판 > 아르키펭코 「두 여인」, 나. 현대 도예개념의 변화 도 의 양상은 한 지역에만 국한된 것이 아니라 반 인 경향이라고 할 수 있으며 크게 세부분으로 나 수 있다. 통 인 방법으로 작업하고 실생활에 활 용되는 실용 이고 기능 인 도자, 통 인 방법으로 작업하고 있으나 기능 인 면보다 장식 인 면에 우 를 둔 독특하고 섬세한 도자 그리고 기물의 형태를 벗 어나 조각화한 역으로 토가 표 의 상 수단이 되고 형태에 인 개념을 부가하여 시각 인 조형 물로 인식되는 도자이다[ ]. 이러한 도 의 발생 과 형성에 지배 향력을 끼친 사건으로 크게 세 가 지가 있다. 빅토리아 시 의 미술공 운동, 버나드 리치 (bernard howell leach)에 의한 국과 일본의 미술공 철학의 향 그리고 ~ 년 미국을 심으로 발표된 순수 술의 형식으로서의 도 를 들 수 있다[ ]. 특히 도자 술의 진 인 환기로 도자 술을 순수 술 역으로 규정지을 수 있는 본격 인 양상들은 년에서부터 년까지로 본다. 이 시 의 작품들 은 도자 조각이 주된 경향을 이루면서 통 인 제작방 식과는 다른 새로운 창작의 시발 이 되는 시기이다. 먼 미국에서는 추상표 주의 도 가들이 심이 되 었으며, 유럽에서는 조각가, 화가들이 공방 도 가들과 업을 통해 작품을 제작했고, 일본에서는 도 가 들이 출연하 다. 미국, 유럽, 일본에서 개된 도자 술의 진 변환은 문화 시 배경이 다른 지역 인 차이 을 보이지만 공통 으로 통을 극복하여 새 로운 양식을 추구하는 양상으로 개된다. 세기 반에 이르자 술가들은 유행처럼 도 작 업에 빠져들었고 이 의 단순한 근에서 벗어나 토 를 이용하여 다양한 실험을 하는 등 보다 극 인 시 도를 하게 되었다. 피카소의 유희정신을 바탕으로 한 도 작품<도 >, 샤갈(marc chagall)의 몽상 이며 시 인 도자<도 >, 제의 기계시 의 미학을 통 한 도자 조각과 부조<도 >, 폰타나(lucio fontana)의 공간개념을 바탕으로 한 도자 오 제<도 >, 미로(joan miró)의 조각 오 제와 특유의 기호 와 선으로 장식된 도자벽화<도 >, 그리고 실험 술집단인 코 라(cobra)그룹의 표 주의 이고 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. 실주의 인 도자기 오 제<도 > 등 많은 술가들 이 그들의 개성 미의식이 투 된 도 작품을 남겼다. 이것은 통을 극복하고 자신의 양식을 추구하려는 의 도 가들에게 큰 호응을 얻었다[ ]. 참고도판 <도판 > 후앙 미로 「다색의 얼굴」, <도판 > 파블로 피카소 「콘도르」, <도판 > 페르낭 레제 「노란사과」, <도판 > 아스거 요른 「무제」, <도판 > 마르크 샤갈 「여인과 꽃」, <도판 > 루치오 폰타나 「무제」, 년 는 미국 회화와 같이 미국 도자에서도 추상 미술의 향으로 인한 신의 시기 다. 이 기간은 오 랫동안 미국 도 가들이 유럽의 도자와 디자인의 양식 과 가치에 속박되었던 구속을 탈피하여 자체 내의 역량 을 발견하고 키워나간 시기 다. 새로운 통을 수립 하고자하는 모색기에 국의 도 가인 버나드 리치는 동서양의 안내자로 불릴 정도로 서로 간에 도자 술의 조화와 결합을 해 노력한 도 작가이다. <도 > 그는 과거로부터 이어져 내려오는 미에 한 일 된 기 을 지니지 못하는 서구의 새로운 통을 수립하기 해서는 동서 문화를 통합시키는 일이 실히 요청된다 고 주장하 다[ ]. 리치의 이론에 힘입어 더욱 보편화된 공방도 는 년 후반에 이르러 두 가지 방향으로 개되었다. 하나는 리치의 향력에 힘입은 실용도자 기들로 도공의 장인 통에 을 둔 것이고 다른 하나는 피카소와 같은 술가들의 도 작품과 그 향 을 받아 실험 이고 창의 으로 근하여 조각 성격 이 강한 작품들이다[ ]. 도 태동은 로스앤젤 스 의 피터 볼커스(peter voulkos)의 자유분방한 지도하에 발생한 오티스 그룹(otis art institute)을 통해 나타나 고 있으며 이들은 도자의 개념에 한 변역을 시도하 다. 참고도판 <도판 > 버나드 리치 「전투」, <도판 > 피터 볼커스 「 , 피트」, <도판 > 피터 볼커스 「갈라스 바위」 - <도판 > 루디 오티오 「구성」, <도판 > 존 메이슨 「창 형태」, <도판 > 케네스 프라이스 「메아리」, 이후 피터 볼커스<도 , >, 존 메이슨(john mason)<도 >, 루디 오티오(rudy autio)<도 >, 네스 라이스(kenneth preiss)<도 >등이 큐비즘적 요소를 응용한 도자 조형 주축이 되어 자신의 도자언어를 성숙시키면서 이때에 이르러 미국 도자는 새로운 면모의 발 기로 어들게 된다. 이들이 공통 으로 추구했던 것은 공 에 한 습으로부터 자유로워진 해방감과 자유에 의한 창작 활동이었다. 표면처리에서 나타나는 유희성, 그리고 형 태와 색체, 직업자체의 유희는 그들 작품의 근본미 학이라 할 수 있으며 이들의 사고를 이어 받은 도 가 들에게 계속해 이어져 오고 있다. 조각 인 표 을 한 토의 응용에 해 새로운 세계를 개척해나가던 볼 커스는 년부터 어셈블리지의 개념과 방법들을 수 용하 고 에폭시(epoxy)를 사용하여 분리된 유니트 (unit)들로 용기들을 조립하기 시작했다. 결국 형태 인 면에 있어서 담을 수 있는 공간의 역할을 하는 볼륨으 로서의 항아리를 덜 다루게 되었고 주로 매스로서의 항 아리를 제작하 다[ ]. 이러한 과정들을 통하여 알 수 있는 것은 토의 개념 혹은 도자의 개념에 한 완 한 변화를 추구하는 가운데 나타나고 있는 새로운 방식 에 의한 제작방법들이다. Ⅲ. 작품연구 . 디자인의도 사람의 얼굴 형상을 주 소재로 하여 빠른 시각 인 달을 해 간결하게 이미지화하 다. 여기에 시 의 복수화를 통해 상을 분해한 입체주의의 표 양상을 도입하여 신선하고 지루하지 않도록 유도하 다. 하지 만 주어진 상을 복수시 으로 감지하고도 차원 인 평면에 표 한 입체주의 시 회화와는 달리 입체감과 공간감을 지닌 조형물로 제작하여 다양한 각도에서 변 화를 주고자하 으며 표면처리도 다양한 색상을 사용 한 입체주의시 회화와 같이 밝고 화려하게 연출하 다. 기존에는 도자의 회화 인 표 을 해 주로 도 에 그림을 그리는 소극 인 방법이 선택되었다. 여기에 서 토는 주원료라기보다 회화에서의 캔버스의 역할 을 신할 뿐이었다. 하지만 본인은 붓 없이도 도자의 주원료인 토를 붓으로 용하여 극 인 방법으로 마치 그림을 보는듯한 효과를 주고자한다. . 제작과정 곡선이 많은 본인의 작품에는 내구성이 강하고 력 이 뛰어나 다양한 형태로 성형하기 용이한 조합토가 합하 다. 성형과정에서 도 으로 일부분을 막아 투시 와 비투시의 공간 비 효과를 의도하여 차원 인 평 면을 차원 인 공간감을 가진 덩어리 형태로 입체 으로 보이도록 유도하 다. 건조시에는 이어붙인 부분 을 비닐로 워 건조시간을 다른 부분보다 비교 오래 걸리게 함으로써 그 문제를 해결할 수 있었다. 거친 표 면과 그 표면에 유약 착을 해 차 소성 후 작품의 표면에 벌화장토를 스펀지로 두드려 발라주고 백매 트유, 흑매트유. 투명유, 꽃유를 분무기로 뿌려 시유 하 다. 건조시킨 작품은 . 루베 기 가마에서 시간 동안 ℃로 차 소성하 다. 시유단계를 거친 후 ℃로 시간 동안 차 소성하 으며 일부작품은 차 소성까지 하 다. 마지막으로 철 에 산볼트를 안 하게 용 시킨 후 미리 뚫어 작품 하단의 구멍에 맞춰 트로 고정시켜주었다. . 작품사진 작품명 작품사진 he is 조합토, 흑매트유, ℃ 산화( 차소성), × × mm she is 조합토, 눈꽃유, ℃ 산화 ( 차소성), × × mm 소년.. 소녀를 만나다 조합토, 백매트유+안료, ℃ 산화 ( 차소성), × × mm 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. 작품명 작품사진 꿈꾸는 여인 조합토, 백매트유+안료, ℃ 산화 ( 차소성), × × mm coffee & wine 조합토, 초벌화장토, 투명유+안료, ℃ 산화 ( 차소성), × × mm my parents 조합토, 초벌화장토, 흑유, ℃ 산화 ( 차소성), × × mm we're the one 조합토, 백매트유, 던컨유, ℃ 산화소성, × × (mm) Ⅳ. 결론 본 연구에서 연구자는 작품 표 방법에 있어서 개인 인 독창성과 표 성을 불어넣어 술성을 가미하 다는 에서 새로운 도자조형 소재로서의 가능성을 제 시하고자 하 다. 형태를 변화시켜 무한한 조형성을 추 구하 고 다양한 기능을 할 수 있도록 그 의미를 확 해석해 보았으며 환경과의 조화 역시 작품 디자인에 있 어서 주요 건이었다. 첫째, 티션은 본래 공간을 차 단하고 구획하는 본연의 역할에서 꽂이나 선반으로의 부가 인 역할을 함으로써 그 개념의 의미가 확장, 통 합되었다. 둘째, 티션을 제작함에 환경과의 조화가 가 장 요하 으며 그 이 작품 디자인에 있어서의 큰 어려움이었다. 셋째, 흙의 내열성과 소성과정에의 문제 로 인해 형 티션 제작에의 어려움은 분리하여 소성 한 후 산 볼트로 이어 그 규모를 크게 제작하여 해결 책을 찾을 수 있었다. 넷째, 아쉬운 은 이동을 해 작품을 분리할 때 손의 험이 크며 산볼트에 고정 시키는 과정이 번거롭다는 이었다. 이는 앞으로 연구 개발을 통해 개선되어야 할 문제 이다. 이상에서와 같이 본 연구는 우리의 생활 환경 곳곳에 조형물을 제작하여 그 안에서 생활하는 사람들로 하여 이제껏 경험하지 못했던 새로운 미 즐거움을 주는 것이 주된 목 이다. 작품 제작에 있어서 기존개념에서 탈피한 새로운 에서의 근은 기발하고 창의 인 작품의 개발로 이어지고 그 발 가능성은 무궁무진하 다. 그 결과 탄생한 작품들이 각박하고 고단한 사 회를 살아가는 우리들에게 미 즐거움과 기능 편리 함을 제공하기를 기 한다. 참 고 문 헌 [ ] 김 숙, 「모더니즘에 나타난 시간성과 공간성」, 충남 학교 학원 석사학 논문, . [ ] 신상호 『 도 -미래를 향한 움직임』, 홍익 학교 도 연구소, . [ ] 안연희, 『 미술사 』, 서울: 미진사, . [ ] 오 수, 『서양근 회화사』, 서울: 일지사, 큐비즘적 요소를 응용한 도자 조형 [ ] 임두빈, 『한 권으로 보는 서양미술사 이야기』, 서울: 가람기획, [ ] clark, garth. 신 석 역, 『도자 술의 새로운 시 각』, 서울: 미진사, . [ ] cooper, emmanuel. ten thousand years of pottery. pennysylvania university of pennysylvania press, . [ ] cox, neil. 천수원 역,『입체주의』, 주: 한길아 트, . [ ] de waal, edmund. activist th century ceramics, new york: thames & hudson ltd, . [ ] duchting, hajo. 김재웅 역, 『(어떻게 이해할 까?) 입체주의』, 서울: 미술문화, . [ ] durozoi, gerard. 곽동 역, 『세계 미술사 』, 지편, . [ ] e.h, gombrich. 백승길ㆍ이종숭 역, 『서양미술 사』, 서울: 경, . [ ] gleize, albert. 『큐비즘』, 서울: 과학기술, . [ ] golding, john. 황지우 역, 『큐비즘』, 서울: 열 화당, . [ ] hh, arnason.『 미술사』,형설출 사, . [ ] naylor, gillian. 박연실 역,『미술공 운동』, 서 울: 창미, . [ ] strickland, carol. 김호경 역, 『클릭, 서양미술 사』, 서울: 경, . [ ] 강재 , 「 도 의 장르 해체 경향에 한 연 구」, 홍익 학교 학원 석사학 논문, . [ ] 모인순, 『 토 명- 술언어로의 환』, 보문 당, . [ ] 김문정, 「후기 도 의 탈근 주의 시각 과 기표해체에 한 연구」, 홍익 학교 학원 석사학 논문, . [ ] 박승순, 「큐비즘이 미술에 끼친 향」, 홍 익 학교교육 학원 석사학 논문, . [ ] 엄 용, 「추상 표 주의 도조의 미술사 , 환경 동인과 특성에 한 연구」, 원 학교 학 원 박사학 논문, . [ ] 이인숙, 「피카소의 입체주의 특성에 한 연 구」, 홍익 학교교육 학원 석사학 논문, . [ ] 정계옥, 「 블로 피카소의 회화에 한 연구」, 홍익 학교교육 학원 석사학 논문, . [ ] 정담순, 「 토조형물에서 추상성 연구」, 단국 학교 논문집, [ ] 홍 숙, 「 c 조각에 있어서의 입체주의」, 홍익 학교 학원 석사학 논문, 저 자 소 개 김 석 호(seok-ho kim) 정회원 ▪ 년 월 : 홍익 학교 학원 미술학석사 ▪ 년 월 ～ 재 : 목원 학 교 디자인학부 도자디자인과 교 수 < 심분야> : 제품디자인, 공 문화 마 김 승 연(seung-yeon kim) 정회원 ▪ 년 월 : 홍익 학교 산업 학원(미술학석사) ▪ 년 ～ 재 : 홍익 학교 교 양학부 강사 < 심분야> : 제품디자인, 공 문화 마 김 승 만(seung-man kim) 정회원 ▪ 년 월 : 단국 학교 디자인 학원 미술학석사 ▪ 월 ～ 재 : 홍익 학교 교양학부 강사 < 심분야> : 제품디자인, 공 문화 마 << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - 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australian and new zealand general works - colonial period - victorian period - australian impressionist school - modernism - contemporary - collections - australian landscape - cross - cultural influence - survey works photography art education women and art art market contemporary art australian art and design history prepared by professor peter mcneil - relating to interiors, furniture, decorative arts and crafts, published pre , including certain primary sources oral histories theses and unpublished manuscripts thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography art historiographical anderson, jaynie, ‗smith of the antipodes‘, modern painters, : , , - . anderson, jaynie, ‗in homage to ursula hoff on her ninetieth birthday‘, art in australia, : , , - . anderson, jaynie, ‗art history‘s history in melbourne: franz philipp in correspondence with arthur boyd‘, australian and new zealand journal of art, : , , - . anderson, jaynie, ‗ursula hoff, - ‘, art and australia, : , spring , . anderson, jaynie, ‗interrogating joe burke and his legacy‘, joseph burke lecture , published in melbourne art journal, , , - . beilharz, paul, ‗bernard smith – imagining the antipodes‘, thesis eleven: critical theory and historical sociology, , may , - . bradley, anthony and smith, terry, australian art and architecture: essays presented to bernard smith, melbourne: oup, . butler, rex, a secret history of australian art, st. leonards: craftsman house, . butler, rex, ed, what is appropriation?: an anthology of critical writings on australian art in the „ s and „ s, sydney: power publications and institute of modern art, . butler, rex, ed, radical revisionism: an anthology of writings on australian art, fortitude valley: institute of modern art, . butler, rex, and donaldson, a.d.s., ‗outside in: against a history of reception‘, art and australia, : , autumn , - . course, laurence, professor emeritus sir joseph burke, kbe: foundation professor of the herald chair of fine arts at the university of melbourne, - , melbourne: victorian artists‘ society, . eichberger, dagmar, ‗ursula hoff: a tribute‘, melbourne art journal, , , - . galbally, ann and plant, margaret, ed, studies in australian art, melbourne: department of fine arts, university of melbourne, . hoff, ursula, ‗comments on the london art scene‘, lecture delivered at the national gallery of victoria, melbourne, august . hoff, ursula, ‗observations on art history in melbourne - ‘, australian journal of art, , , - . holden, colin, ‗insights from ursula hoff‘s diaries while felton bequest adviser‘, melbourne art journal, , , - . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography holden, colin, the outsider: a portrait of ursula hoff, melbourne: australian scholarly publishing, . keith, hamish, the big picture: a history of new zealand art from , auckland: godwit, . lausch, monica, ‗franz philipp and the vienna school of art history in australia‘, melbourne art journal, , , - . lingard, bob and cramer, sue, eds, institute of modern art: a documentary history - , brisbane: institute of modern art, . mccaughey, patrick, the bright shapes and the true names: a memoir, melbourne: the text publishing company, . mcqueen, humphrey, ‗critic and community, some recent writings of bernard smith‘, meanjin, : , may , - . macdonald, j.s., ‗bernard hall and the victorian national gallery school‘, art in australia, : , october-november , - . minchin, jan, ‗basil burdett‘, art and australia, : , winter , - . missingham, hal, they‟ll kill you in the end, pymble: angus and robertson, . moore, william, the story of australian art – from the earliest known art of the continent to the art of to-day, , sydney: angus and robertson, (first published ). moore, william, the story of australian art: from the earliest known art of the continent to the art of to-day, , sydney: angus and robertson, (first published ). palmer, sheridan, ‗dr ursula hoff: museology and masterpieces‘, australian and new zealand journal of art, : , , . palmer, sheridan, ‗ursula hoff and the german tradition‘, melbourne art journal, , , - . palmer, sheridan, centre of the periphery: three european art historians in melbourne, north melbourne: australian scholarly press, . palmer, sheridan, ‗the importance of being bernard smith, art and australia, : , winter , - . philipp, franz and stewart, june, eds, in honour of daryl lindsay: essays and studies, melbourne: oxford university press, . plant, margaret, ‗professor joseph burke - ‘, art monthly australia, , june , . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography slater, john, through artists‟ eyes: australian suburbs and their cities - , melbourne: melbourne university publishing, . smith, bernard, place, taste and tradition: a study of australian art since , melbourne: oxford university press, (first published ). smith, bernard, ‗modernism and post-modernism: neo-colonial viewpoints – concerning the sources of modernism and post-modernism in the visual arts‘, thesis eleven, , may , - . smith, bernard, a pavane for another time, melbourne: macmillan, . smith, bernard, ‗on writing art history in australia‘, thesis eleven, , august , - . smith, terry, ‗writing the history of australian art: its past, present and possible future‘, australian journal of art, , , - . smith, terry, constructing the history of australian art: eight critiques, sydney: power institute of fine arts, university of sydney, . thomas, benjamin, ‗caught on film: the story of melbourne‘s original visual archive‘, melbourne: emaj: online journal of art, , . thomas, benjamin, joe burke‟s legacy: the history of art history in melbourne, exhibition catalogue, melbourne: university of melbourne, . zdanowicz, irene, ‗ursula hoff, ao, obe, - ‘, art bulletin of victoria , melbourne: national gallery of victoria, , . individual artists, patrons, collectors – biography/ monographic studies bradley, anthony, the art of justin o‟brien, sydney: craftsman‘s press, . burke, joseph, the paintings of russell drysdale, sydney: ure smith, . catalano, gary, the solitary watcher: rich amor and his art, melbourne: melbourne university press, . eagle, mary, the oil paintings of arthur streeton in the national gallery of australia, canberra: national gallery of australia, . eagle, mary and minchin, jan, the george bell school: students, friends, influences, melbourne: deutscher art publications; sydney: resolution press, . eagle, mary, the art of rupert bunny in the national gallery of australia, canberra: national gallery of australia, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography eagle, mary, rupert bunny: an australian in paris: an australian national gallery exhibition, canberra: national gallery of australia, . eagle, mary, the oil paintings of e. phillips fox in the national gallery of australia, canberra: national gallery of australia, . eagle, mary, the oil paintings of tom roberts in the national gallery of australia, canberra: national gallery of australia, . eagle, mary, the oil paintings of charles conder in the national gallery of australia, canberra: national gallery of australia, . eagle, mary, peter purves smith: a painter in peace and war, roseville: beagle press, . fry, gavin, rick amor, roseville: beagle press, (first published ). fry, gavin, albert tucker, roseville: beagle press, (first published ). galbally, ann, the art of john peter russell, south melbourne: sun books, . galbally, ann, frederick mccubbin, melbourne: hutchinson publishing, (first published ). galbally, ann, charles conder: the last bohemian, melbourne: melbourne university press, . galbally, ann, a remarkable friendship: vincent van gogh and john peter russell, melbourne: melbourne university publishing, . helmer, june, george bell: the art of influence, melbourne: greenhouse publications, . hoff, ursula, charles conder: his australian years, melbourne: national gallery society of victoria, . hoff, ursula, charles conder, melbourne: lansdowne press, . holden, colin, lionel lindsay in spain: an antipodean abroad, melbourne: miegunyah press, . johnson, heather, 'manifestations of sydney modernism: the later australian work of roy de maistre - ', australian journal of art, , , - . johnson, heather, roy de maistre. the australian years - , roseville: craftsman house, . klepac, lou, james gleeson: landscape out of nature, roseville: beagle press, . klepac, lou, judy cassab: artists and friends, roseville: beagle press, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography klepac, lou, nora heysen, roseville: beagle press, . klepac, lou, kenneth jack: printmaker, roseville: beagle press, . klepac, lou, ed, australian painters of the twentieth century, roseville: beagle press, . klepac, lou, wach, ken, free, renee and james, bruce, with selected writing by gleeson, james, james gleeson, roseville: beagle press, . klepac, lou, horace trenerry, roseville: beagle press, . kolenberg, hendrik, lloyd rees: etchings and lithographs, roseville: beagle press, . maskill, david, ‗imperial lines: harold wright ( - ): printmaking and collecting at the end of empire‘, melbourne art journal, / , - , . mccaughey, patrick, ‗fred williams and the pilbara series‘, studio international, : , , - . mccaughey, patrick, voyage and landfall: the art of jan senbergs, melbourne: melbourne university publishing, . mccaughey, patrick, fred williams, millers point: murdoch books, (first published ). mclean, ian and bennett, gordon, the art of gordon bennett, roseville: craftsman house, . mcqueen, humphrey, tom roberts, sydney: macmillan, . mendelssohn, joanna, the life and work of sydney long, cremorne: copperfield, . mendelssohn, joanna, the art of sir lionel lindsay: volume . woodcuts, brookvale, copperfield, . mendelssohn, joanna, the art of sir lionel lindsay: volume . etchings, brookvale: copperfield, c. . mendelssohn, joanna, lionel lindsay: an artist and his family, london: chatto and windus, . mendelssohn, joanna, letters & liars: norman lindsay and the lindsay family, pymble: angus and robertson, . minchin, jan, haese, richard, nolan, sidney nolan: the city and the plain, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography mollison, james, a singular vision: the art of fred williams, canberra: australian national gallery, c. . mollison, james, minchin, jan, albert tucker: a retrospective, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . mulvaney, john, and calaby, john, ‗so much that is new‟: baldwin spencer - : a biography, melbourne: melbourne university press, . pearce, barry, jeffrey smart, roseville: beagle press, . peers, juliette, ‗violet teague – a life for art‘, in felicty druce and jane sutherland, violet teague, roseville: beagle press, . philipp, franz, arthur boyd, london: thames and hudson, . pierse, simon, ‗sir kenneth clark: deus ex machina of australian art‘, melbourne art journal, / , - , - . plant, margaret, john perceval, melbourne: lansdowne, . rees, jancis and alan, lloyd rees: a source book, roseville: beagle press, . rothenstein, john, the life and death of conder, london: dent, . sayers, andrew, barry humphries, sara engledow, the world of thea proctor, st. leonards: craftsman house, . smith, bernard, noel counihan: artist and revolutionary, melbourne: oxford university press, . thannhauser, henry, ‗van gogh and john russell: some unknown letters and drawings‘, the burlington magazine for connoisseurs, : , september , - , - . thomas, daniel, sali herman, melbourne: georgian house, . thomas, daniel, grace cossington smith, sydney: art gallery of new south wales, . thomas, daniel, grace cossington smith: a life: from drawings in the collection of the national gallery of australia, canberra: national gallery of australia, c. . topliss, helen, tom roberts, - : a catalogue raisoneé, melbourne: oxford university press, . underhill, nancy, making australian art - : sydney ure smith: patron and publisher, melbourne: oxford university press, . underhill, nancy and barrett reid, eds, letters of john reed: defining australian cultural life - , ringwood: viking, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography wheatley, sarah, charles conder - : a biographical sketch, moorebank: mallard, . zdanowicz, irena, ‗paintings from the inside out: fred williams‘ travels and his relationship to the european tradition‘, melbourne art journal, , , - . zubans, ruth, e. phillips fox: his life and art, melbourne: miegunyah press, . indigenous art - australian and new zealand adam, leonhard, introduction, primitive art exhibition, melbourne: public library, museums and national gallery of victoria, . adam, leonhard, ‗has australian aboriginal art a future?‘, angry penguins, , - . allen, lindy, ‗the early collection and exhibition of art work by aboriginal artists‘, in c. rasmussen, ed, a museum for the people, melbourne: scribe publications, , - . brown, deidre and ellis, ngarino (eds), te puna: mãori art from te tai tokerau northland, auckland: reed, . corbally stourton, patrick and corbally stourton, nigel, ed, songlines and dreamings: contemporary australian aboriginal painting: the first quarter-century of papunya tula, london: lund humphries, . cramer, sue, ed, postmodernism: a consideration of the appropriation of aboriginal imagery: forum papers, brisbane: institute of modern art, . de lorenzo, catherine, and dysart, dinah, a changing relationship: aboriginal themes in australian art c. - , sydney: s.h. ervin gallery, june-july . inglis, alison and barclay lloyd, joan, ‗mosaic dreaming: materiality, migration and memory‘, in j. anderson, ed, crossing cultures: conflict, migration and convergence: the proceedings of the nd congress of the history of art, melbourne: miegunyah press, , - . isaacs, jennifer, aboriginality: contemporary aboriginal paintings & prints, st. lucia: university of queensland press, (first published ). isaacs, jennifer, spirit country: contemporary australian aboriginal art, exhibition catalogue of an exhibition held in the san francisco museum of modern art, south yarra: hardie grant, . isaacs, jennifer, hernmannsburg potters: aranda artists of central australia, st. leonards: craftsman house, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography isaacs, jennifer, ‗international exposure of aboriginal art - ‘, art and australia, : , , - . isaacs, jennifer, australian aboriginal paintings, sydney: new holland, (first published ). j.l.m., ‗melbourne national gallery and national museum of victoria: primitive art exhibition, ‘, man, , july-august, , . leslie, donna, aboriginal art: creativity and assimilation, south yarra: macmillan art publishing, . leslie, donna, ‗sacred country: ancient footprints, new pathways‘, crossing cultures: conflict, migration and convergence: the proceedings of the nd congress of the history of art, jaynie anderson, ed, melbourne: miegunyah press, , - . lock-weir, tracy, the art of arnhem land s- s, adelaide: art gallery of south australia, . lowish, susan, ‗european vision and aboriginal art: blindness and insight in the work of bernard smith‘, thesis eleven: critical theory and historical sociology, , august , - . mclean, ian, white aborigines: identity politics in australian art, melbourne: cambridge university press, . mclean, ian, how aborigines invented the idea of contemporary art: an anthology of writing on aboriginal art - , sydney: power publications, . mane-wheoki, jonathan, '"wakas on the grand canal!" contemporary new zealand maori artists at venice', sean cubitt, jonathan mane-wheoki, brett graham, rachael rakena, alice hutchinson, eds, aniwaniwa: brett graham, rachael rakena, aotearoa new zealand, wellington, published on the occasion of the nd international art exhibition la biennale di venezia, , - . mane-wheoki, jonathan, te tai tokerau and the contemporary maori art movement' in deidre brown and ngarino ellis, eds, te puna: mãori art from te tai tokerau northland, auckland: reed, , - . mane-wheoki, jonathan, 'ralph hotere: te hono ki muriwhenua', ngahiraka mason, ed, turuki! turuki! paneke! paneke! when maori art became contemporary, auckland: auckland art gallery, , - . mane-wheoki, jonathan, 'introduction, indigeneity/aboriginality, art/culture and institutions', crossing cultures: conflict, migration and convergence: the proceedings of the nd congress of the history of art, jaynie anderson, ed, melbourne: miegunyah press, , - . maynard, margaret, ‗grassroots style: re-evaluating australian fashion and aboriginal art in the s and s‘, journal of design history, : , , - . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography michaels, eric, bad aboriginal art: tradition, media and technological horizons, st. leonards: allen and unwin, . morphy, howard, aboriginal art, london: phaidon, . neich, roger, painted histories: early maori figurative painting, auckland: auckland university press, . philp, angela, ‗life and art? relocating aboriginal art and culture in the museum‘, paper presented at the collecting for a nation symposium, canberra: national museum of australia, march . preston, margaret, ‗the indigenous art of australia‘, art in australia, rd series, , march , np. preston, margaret, ‗the application of aboriginal designs‘, art in australia, rd series, , march , np. preston, margaret, ‗aboriginal art of australia‘, art of australia, - , new york: museum of modern art, , - . ryan, judith, paint up big: warlpiri women‟s art of lajamanu, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . ryan, judith, spirit in land: bark paintings from arnhem land in the national gallery of victoria, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . ryan, judith and akerman, kim, images of power: aboriginal art of the kimberley, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . ryan, judith, indigenous australian art: in the national gallery of victoria, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . ryan, judith, colour power: aboriginal art post in the collection of the national gallery of victoria, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . sayers, andrew, with a foreword by lin onus and a chapter by carol cooper, aboriginal artists of the nineteenth century, melbourne: oxford university press in association with the national gallery of australia, canberra, . smith, terry, ‗public art between cultures: the ―aboriginal memorial,‖ aboriginality, and nationality in australia‘, critical inquiry, : , summer , - . thomas, daniel, ‗aboriginal art as art‘, art and australia, : , january-march, , - . tuckson, tony, ‗aboriginal art and the western world‘, in berndt, r., australian aboriginal art, sydney: ure smith, , - . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography general works - colonial period appleyard, ron, fargher, barbara, radford, ron, s.t. gill, the south australian years - , adelaide: art gallery of south australia, . inglis, alison, ‗aestheticism and empire: the grosvenor gallery intercolonial art exhibition‘, in seize the day: exhibitions, australia and the world, sydney: monash university e-books, , . - . . jordan, caroline, ‗progress versus the picturesque: white women and the aesthetics of environmentalism in colonial australia - ‘, art history, : , september, , - . jordan, caroline, picturesque pursuits: colonial women artists and the amateur tradition, melbourne: melbourne university press, . jordan, caroline, ‗mrs macpherson in the ―blacks‘ camp‖ and other australian interludes: a scottish lady artist‘s tour in new south wales in - ‘, in j. pomeroy, ed, intrepid women: victorian women artists travel, aldershot: ashgate, . mcculloch, alan, artists of the australian gold rush, melbourne: lansdowne, . pound, francis, frames on the land: early landscape painting in new zealand, auckland: collins, . radford, ron, and hylton jane, australian colonial art: - , adelaide: art gallery board of south australia, . turnbull, clive, ‗early colonial art‘, jubilee exhibition of australian art, commonwealth jubilee celebrations committee, , - . general works - victorian period astbury, leigh, ‗george folingsby and australian subject painting‘ in ann galbally and margaret plant, eds, studies in australian art, melbourne: department of fine arts, university of melbourne, , - . inglis, alison, ‗cultural acclimatization: imperial perspectives on art in nineteenth-century australia‘ in j. anderson, ed, the cambridge companion to australian art, cambridge: cambridge university press, . jordan, caroline, ‗fletcher‘s of collins street: melbourne‘s leading nineteenth century art dealer, alexander fletcher‘, la trobe journal, , autumn, , - . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography jordan, caroline, ‗buying in the boom: george folingsby and victoria‘s nineteenth-century regional art galleries‘, art and australia, : , , - . perry, peter and sinclair, beth, r.w. sturgess, water-colourist, - , castlemaine: castlemaine art gallery and historical museum, . general works - australian impressionist school astbury, leigh, ‗the art of frederick mccubbin and the impact of the first war‘, la trobe library journal, frederick mccubbin issue, : , october , - . astbury, leigh, city bushmen: the heidelberg school and the rural mythology, melbourne: oxford university press, . astbury, leigh, sunlight and shadow: australian impressionist painters - , sydney: bay books, . astbury, leigh, ‗memory and desire: box hill - ‘, in terrence lane, ed, australian impressionism, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, , - , . astbury, leigh, ‗tom roberts‘ the breakaway: myth and history‘, bulletin of the art gallery of south australia, , , - . astbury, leigh, ‗the heidelberg school and the popular image‘, art and australia, : , march , - . galbally, ann, ‗mythmaking in australian art‘, la trobe library journal, frederick mccubbin issue, : , october , - . lane, terrance, australian impressionism, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . mcculloch, alan, the golden age of australian painting: impressionism and the heidelberg school, melbourne: lansdowne, melbourne, (first published ). manton, jack, and mccaughey, patrick, australian painters of the heidelberg school: the jack manton collection, melbourne: oxford university press, . mcneil, peter, ‗family ties: the creation of frederick mccubbin‘s reputation, - ‘, la trobe journal, , spring, , - . topliss, helen, mcdonald, frank, ed, the artists‟ camp: “plein air” painting in australia, alphington: hedley australian publications, . general works thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography - modernism borlase, nancy, ‗three decades of the contemporary art society‘, art and australia, : , june , - . butler, rex, and donaldson, a.d.s., ‗douglas cooper: cubism and australian art history‘, contemporary visual art & culture broadsheet, : , , - . chanin, eileen and miller, steven, degenerates and perverts: the herald exhibition of french and british contemporary art, melbourne: miegunyah press, . eagle, mary, phipps, jennifer, eds, australian modern painting between the wars - , sydney: bay books, . haese, richard, rebels and precursors: the revolutionary years of australian art, melbourne: penguin books, . harding, lesley and cramer, sue, cubism & australian art, melbourne: miegunyah press, . henderson, alan, ‗contemporary art advances‘, art in australia, : , august , - . lock-weir, tracy, ed, misty moderns: australian tonalists - , adelaide: art gallery of south australia, . mcqueen, humphrey, the black swan of trespass: the emergence of modernist painting in australia to , sydney: alternative publishing cooperative, . preston, margaret, ‗why i became a convert to modern art‘, home, : , june , . proctor, thea, ‗modern art in sydney, art in australia, : , november , - . smith, bernard, ‗the new realism in australian art‘, meanjin, : , autumn , - . stephen, ann, mcnamara and andrew, goad, philip, eds, modernism & australia: documents on art, design and architecture - , melbourne: miegunyah press, . stephen, ann, mcnamara and andrew, goad, philip, eds, modern times: the untold story of modernism in australia, melbourne: miegunyah press, . topliss, helen, modernism and feminism: australian women artists, - , roseville east: craftsman house, . wakelin, roland, ‗recollections of a post-impressionist‘, art and australia, : , march , - . zander, alleyne, ‗modern art: an historical explanation‘, manuscripts, , - . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography general works - contemporary bradley, anthony, ed, contemporary art: a bibliography of publications by members of the power institute - , sydney: power institute of fine arts, . butler, rex, an uncertain smile: australian art in the „ s, artspace visual arts centre, wooloomooloo, . catalano, gary, the years of hope: australian art and criticism, - , melbourne: oxford university press, . caughey, elizabeth and gow, john, contemporary new zealand art, , auckland: david bateman, . caughey, elizabeth and gow, john, contemporary new zealand art, , auckland: david bateman, . caughey, elizabeth and gow, john, contemporary new zealand art, , auckland: david bateman, . caughey, elizabeth, art new zealand today: sixty exhibiting new zealand artists, auckland: saint publishing, . caughey, elizabeth and gow, john, contemporary new zealand art, , auckland: david bateman, . caughey, elizabeth and gow, john, contemporary new zealand art, , auckland: david bateman, . chanin, eileen, ed, contemporary australian painting, roseville: craftsman house, . dixon, christine and smith, terry, aspects of australian figurative painting - : dreams, fears and desires, sydney: power institute of fine arts, university of sydney in association with the biennale of sydney, . green, charles, peripheral vision: contemporary australian art, - , roseville east: craftsman house, . green, charles, the third hand: collaboration in art from conceptualism to postmodernism, sydney: university of new south wales, . green, charles, ‗the global significance of western desert painting‘, aborigena, a.b. oliva, ed, milan: electa, , - . green, charles, ed, fieldwork: australian art - , melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography green, charles and barker, heather, ‗bernard smith, cold warrior‘, thesis eleven: critical theory and historical sociology, , august , - . green, charles, ed, contemporary commonwealth, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . green, charles, ed, australian culture now, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . heathcote, christopher, a quiet revolution: the rise of australian art - , melbourne: text publishing, . mccaughey, patrick, australian abstract art, melbourne: oxford university press, . mcneil, peter, ‗gary carsley: looking at works of art in the light of other works of art‘, artspace projects , sydney: artspace , - . scott, sarah, ‗imaging a nation: australia‘s representation at the venice biennale, ‘, in richard nile, ed, grit: journal of australian studies, , st. lucia: university of queensland press, . smith, terry, transformations in australian art, st. leonards: craftsman house, . smith, terry, ‗contemporary art and contemporaneity‘, critical inquiry, : , summer , - . smith, terry, what is contemporary art, chicago: university of chicago press, . wakelin, roland, ‗contemporary art‘, jubilee exhibition of australian art, commonwealth jubilee celebrations committee, , - . waterlow, nick, ‗the creation of contemporary australian art‘, art and australia, : , winter , - . general works - collections aitken, richard, astbury, leigh, crawford, ashley, davidson, graeme, niall, brenda, the art of the collection: state library of victoria pictures collection, melbourne: melbouren university press, . burdett, basil, the felton bequests: an historical record, - , melbourne: felton bequests‘ committee, . burdett, basil, ‗art in australia: the national gallery of victorian in melbourne‘, apollo, : , september , - . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography carmody, shane, ‗history through art: paintings at the state library‘, la trobe journal, , autumn , - . cox, leonard, the national gallery of victoria, to : a search for a collection, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . churcher, betty, selected works from the howard hinton collection at kelvin grove college of advanced education, brisbane: kelvin grove college of advanced education, . downer, christine, ‗notes on barry and the origins of the picture collection‘, la trobe journal, , autumn , - . galbally, ann, the collections of the national gallery of victoria, melbourne: oxford university press, . galbally, ann and inglis, alison, the first collections: the public library and the national gallery of victoria in the s and s, melbourne: university gallery, university of melbourne museum of art, . galbally, ann, ‗sculpture and casts‘ in a. galbally and a. inglis, the first collections: the public library and the national gallery of victoria in the s and s, melbourne: university gallery, university of melbourne museum of art, . galbally, ann, ‗collecting constable and plein air painting in australia‘, in constable: impressions of land, sea and sky, canberra: national gallery of australia, , - . gott, ted, benson, laurie and matthiesson, sophie, eds, modern britain - : masterworks from australian and new zealand collections, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . hoff, ursula, ed, masterpieces of the national gallery of victoria, melbourne, london: f.w. cheshire, . hoff, ursula and plant, margaret, national gallery of victoria: painting, drawing, sculpture, melbourne: f.w. cheshire, . hoff, ursula, with an introduction by eric westbrook, the national gallery of victoria, london: thames and hudson, . hoff, ursula, the felton bequest: its founder and its advisers, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . inglis, alison and poynter, john, ‗desirable things: the private collections of alfred felton‘, art bulletin of victoria, , alfred felton centenary issue, , - . inglis, alison, ‗the allure of albion: collecting british art in adelaide‘, art monthly australia, , july , - . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography inglis, alison, ‗the gift of john connell to the national gallery of victoria‘ in g. vaughan and a. grimwade, eds, great philanthropists on trial: the art of the bequest, melbourne: miegunyah press in association with the national gallery of victoria, , - . inglis, alison, ‗alfred felton as a collector of art‘ in g. vaughan and a. grimwade, eds, great philanthropists on trial: the art of the bequest, melbourne: miegunyah press in association with the national gallery of victoria, , - . kirker, anne and tomory, peter, british painting, - : in australian and new zealand public collections, sydney: beagle press in conjunction with the british council, . lindsay, daryl, the felton bequest: an historical record, - , melbourne: oxford university press, . macdonald, james stuart, ‗purchasing for the felton bequest‘, art in australia, , december , np. macgeorge, norman, ‗the new london buyer for the felton bequest‘, art in australia, : , october-november , . marshall, christopher, a deep sonorous thing: the newman college collection of art, melbourne: newman college, university of melbourne, . paffen, paul, ‘everard studley miller and his bequest to the national gallery of victoria’, art bulletin of victoria, , , - . poynter, john, mr felton‟s bequests, melbourne: miegunyah press, . radford, ron, th-century australian art: m.j.m. carter collection, art gallery of south australia, adelaide: art gallery board of south australia, . smith, bernard, two centuries of australian art: from the collection of the national gallery of victoria, melbourne; thames and hudson in association with the national gallery of victoria, . thomas, daniel, outlines of australian art: the joseph brown collection, south melbourne: macmillan, (first published c. ). ure smith, sydney, ‗advisor to the felton bequest: a vacancy of national importance‘, art in australia, : , may , - . vaughan, gerard and grimwade, andrew, eds, great philanthropists on trial: the art of the bequest, melbourne: miegunuyah press in association with the national gallery of victoria, . watson, michael, ‗james stewart macdonald, sir sydney cockerell and the felton recommendations‘, art and australia, : , summer , - . westbrook, eric, birth of a gallery, melbourne: macmillan australia, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography general works - australian landscape „you-beaut country‟: australian landscape painting - , melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . bonyhady, tim, images in opposition: australian landscape painting - , melbourne: oxford university press, (first published ). catalano, gary, an intimate australia: the landscape & recent australian art, sydney: hale and iremonger, . mccaughey, patrick, vision and experience in the australian landscape, christensen lecture, , perth: christensen fund, . missingham, hal, the australian landscape in oils and watercolour, sydney: john brackenreg for australian artists editions, . radford, ron, our country: australian federation landscapes - , adelaide: art gallery of south australia, . radford, ron, ocean to outback: australian landscape painting - , canberra: national gallery of australia, . reed, john, australian landscape painting, melbourne: longmans, . general works - cross-cultural influence anderson, jaynie, ed, crossing cultures: conflict, migration and convergence: the proceedings of the nd congress of the history of art, melbourne: miegunyah press, , - . smith, bernard, ‗european vision and the south pacific‘, journal of the warburg and courtauld institutes, : / , , - . smith, bernard, ‗coleridge‘s ancient mariner and cook‘s second voyage‘, journal of the warburg and courtauld institutes, : / , , - . smith, bernard, european vision and the south pacific, new haven: yale university press, (first published ). general works - survey works thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography anderson, jaynie, ed, the cambridge companion to australian art, cambridge: cambridge university press, . brown, gordon and keith, hamish, an introduction to new zealand painting, - , auckland, london: collins, . brown, gordon, new zealand painting - : traditions and departures, wellington: queen elizabeth ii arts council of new zealand, . brown, gordon, new zealand painting - : adaption and nationalism, wellington: queen elizabeth ii arts council of new zealand, . brown, gordon, new zealand painting - : conformity and dissension, wellington: queen elizabeth ii arts council of new zealand, . burke, joseph, some aspects of the study of tasmanian art in the colonial phase, hobart: tasmanian museum, . churcher, betty, understanding art, adelaide: rigby, . churcher, betty, the art of war, melbourne: melbourne university press, . collett, dennice, and riddle, margaret, changing hemispheres: two eras of australian art abroad, melbourne: university gallery, university of melbourne, . eagle, mary and jones, john, a story of australian painting, sydney: macmillan, c. genocchio, benjamin, the art of persuasion: australian art criticism - , st. leonards: craftsman house, . gott, ted, backlash: the australian drawing revival - , melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . haworth, jennifer, the art of war: new zealand war artists in the field, - , christchurch: hazard press, . kerr, joan, ed, the dictionary of australian artists: painters, sketchers, photographers and engravers to , melbourne: oxford university press, . kirker, anne, new zealand women artists: a survey of years, tortola, bvi: craftsman house, . mccaughey, patrick, the pyramid in the waste: the search for meaning in australian art, melbourne: deakin university, . mcculloch, alan, mcculloch, susan and mcculloch childs, emily, eds, the new mcculloch‟s encyclopedia of australian art, melbourne: miegunyah press in association with aus art editions, (first published ). thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography pound, francis, the invention of new zealand: art and national identity, - , auckland: auckland: university press, . radford, ron, rap: recent australian painting: a survey - , art gallery of south australia, adelaide: art gallery board of south australia, . riddle, margaret, renaissance references in australian art, melbourne: university gallery, university of melbourne, . sayers, andrew, years of australian drawing, sydney: bay books, . sayers, andrew, drawings in australia: drawings, water-colours, pastels and collages from the s to the s, melbourne: oxford university press in association with the national gallery of australia, . sayers, andrew, australian art, oxford: oxford university press, . smith, bernard, with additional chapters by terry smith and christopher heathcote, australian painting, - , melbourne: oxford university press, (first published ). thomas, daniel, and radford, ron, et. al., creating australia, years of art - , adelaide: international cultural corporation of australia and art gallery board of south australia, . ure smith, sydney, and lindsay, lionel, the exhibition of australian art in london : a record of the exhibition held at the royal academy and organised by the society of artists, sydney: art in australia, . photography cato, jack, the story of the camera in australia, melbourne: institute of australian photography, . crombie, isobel, athol smith, photographer, melbourne: schwartz publishing, . crombie, isobel, susan van wyk, nd sight: australian photography in the national gallery of victoria, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . crombie, isobel, body culture: max dupain, photography and australian culture, - , musgrave: images publishing group in association with the national gallery of victoria, . davies, alan, and peter stanbury, with assistance from con tanra, the mechanical eye in australia: photography - , melbourne: oxford university press, . davies, alan, an eye for photography: the camera in australia, sydney: state library of new south wales, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography davies, alan, sydney exposures: through the eyes of sam hood and his studio, - , sydney: state library of new south wales, . ennis, helen, with contributions from kate davidson and kylie scroope, photography – years - , canberra: national gallery of australia, . ennis, helen, man with a camera: frank hurley overseas, canberra: national library of australia, . ennis, helen, in a new light: australian photography s- s, canberra: national library of australia, . ennis, helen, intersections: photography, history and the national library of australia, canberra: national library of australia, ennis, helen, photography and australia, london: reaktion books, art market huda, shireen, pedigree and panache: a history of the art auction in australia, canberra: australian national university e press, . johnson, heather, the sydney art patronage system - , grey‘s point: bungoona technologies, . ruhen, carl, the auctioneers. lawson's - the first years, sydney: ayers and james heritage books, . thomas, benjamin, ‗purveyor of taste: w.r. sedon and melbourne‘s sedon galleries‘, la trobe journal, , december , - . van den bosch, annette, the australian art world: aesthetics in a global market, crows nest: allen and unwin, . art education bouhton, doug, ‗the changing face of australian art education: new horizons or sub- colonial politics‘, studies in art education, : , summer , - . burke, joseph, ‗what is art training worth?‘, australian artist, : , autumn , - . burke, joseph, ‗alfred felton and his bequest‘, meanjin, : , winter , - . burke, joseph, ‗art and the australian community‘, in b. smith, education through art in australia, melbourne: melbourne university press, , - . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography burke, joseph, ‗some aspects of the debate on art education in australia‘, studies in art education, : , spring , - . burke, joseph, ‗some recollections of the post-war years in australian painting: a lesson for the future‘, the sixth sir william dobell memorial lecture, sir william dobell art foundation, . lindsay, daryl, ‗art education and the national gallery of victoria‘, in b. smith, education through art in australia, melbourne: melbourne university press, , - . medley, john, ‗a chair of fine arts‘, society of artists book, - , sydney: ure smith, - . morphy, howard, ‗audiences for art‘, in a. curthoys, a. martin, t. rouse, eds, australians: a historical library, , ‗australians from ‘, broadway: fairfax, syme & weldon associates, , - . philipp, franz, ‘university research in the history of art’, in a. grenfell price, ed, the humanities in australia, sydney: angus and robertson, , - . smith, bernard, ‗the art museum to-day‘, meanjin, : , autumn , - . smith, bernard, education through art in australia, melbourne: melbourne university press, . smith, terry, ed, art & language: australia , balmain: art & language press, . women and art hyde, melissa and milam, jenifer, eds, women, art and the politics of identity in eighteen- century europe, ashgate: aldershot, . kerr, joan, ed, heritage: the national women‟s art book, works by australian women artists from colonial times to , roseville east: art and australia, distributed by craftsman house, . kerr, joan and holder, jo, eds, past present: the national women‟s art anthology, north ryde, craftsman house, . kerr, joan, a singular voice: essays on australian art and architecture, bruce, candice, dysart, dinah and holder, jo, eds, sydney: power publications, . mcneil, peter, ‗‘designing women‘: gender, sexuality and the interior decorator, c - ‘, art history, : , - . mcneil, peter, ‗doing women and design history‘, in women of influence, sydney: ivan dougherty gallery, college of fine arts, university of new south wales, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography menzies, jackie, ‗never the twain shall meet: australian artists and the orient‘, art and australia, , winter , - . peers, juliette, more than just gumtrees: a personal, social and artistic history of the melbourne society of women painters and sculptors, melbourne: melbourne society of women painters and sculptors in association with dawn revival press, . speck, catherine, painting ghosts: australian women artists in wartime, melbourne: craftsman house, . australian art and design history texts relating to interiors, furniture, decorative arts and crafts; texts published pre , including certain primary sources prepared by professor peter mcneil art association of australia newsletter, -present. art deco society newsletter, -present. art and design, ure smith, st no., . art and industry. australian number, london, the studio, february . art in australia, sydney, : , -august [until published by angus and robertson, then until by art in australia ltd., and from november sydney morning herald]. the australasian antique collector, , november - ; then the australian antique collector, th ed., -present. australia beautiful: the home pictorial annual, sydney,' -october [four issues in , then twice yearly]. australia. national journal, ure smith, : , july-august – : , october . the home, sydney, , february - : , september [prior to july quarterly, to january bi-monthly, then monthly; sydney ure smith an editor until : , november ]. the home annual, sydney, october - [continues australia beautiful; sydney ure smith an editor until october ]. abbott, j. h. m., et al., the macquarie book: the life and times of governor lachlan macquarie, sydney: art in australia, . albrecht, kurt, nineteenth century australian gold and silver smiths, richmond: hutchinson, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography ambrus, caroline, australian women artists. first fleet to : history, hearsay and her say, woden: irrepressible press, . apperly, richard e., review, 'australian architecture - : sources of modernism, donald leslie johnson, sydney: sydney university press, ', jrahs, : , december , - . apperly, richard, irving, robert and reynolds, peter, a pictorial guide to identifying australian architecture. styles and terms from to the present, sydney: angus and robertson, sydney, . archer, john, building a nation. a history of the australian house, sydney: william collins, . aronson, f. b. [zara baar], xxth century cooking and home decoration, sydney: william brooks, . balmford, peter and o'brien, j.l., 'dating houses in victoria', historical studies, : , , - . beiers, george, houses of australia. a survey of domestic architecture, sydney: ure smith, . bogle, michael, 'tony fry, design history australia' [review], fabrications, , , - . bogle, michael, 'australian furniture: in part', australian antique collector, th edition, jan- jun , - . boyd, robin, the australian ugliness, melbourne: f.w. cheshire, . boyd, robin, australia's home. its origins, builders and occupiers, melbourne: melbourne university press, ; australia's home. why australians built the way they did, nd edition, harmondsworth: penguin, ; australia's home. its origins, builders and occupiers, new edition, melbourne: melbourne university press, . bradley, anthony and smith, terry, eds, australian art and architecture. essays presented to bernard smith, melbourne: oxford university press, , - . broadbent, james, et al., for the public good. crimes, follies and misfortunes. demolished houses of new south wales, sydney: historic houses trust, . brodsky, isadore, the streets of sydney, sydney: old sydney free press, . brodsky, isadore, sydney's little world of woolloomooloo, sydney: old sydney free press, . bromfield, david, ed, aspects of perth modernism - , perth: university of western australia, centre for fine arts, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography brown, erica, sixty years of interior design. the world of mcmillen, new york: viking, . bunning, walter, homes in the sun. the past, present and future of australian housing, sydney: w. j. nesbit, . bures, susan, the house of wunderlich, kenthurst: kangaroo press, . burn, ian, et al., the necessity of australian art. an essay about interpretation, sydney: university of sydney, power publications, . burn, ian, dialogue. writings in art history, north sydney: allen and unwin, . cannon, michael, ed, australia's upper middle class in the edwardian age, volumes [facsimile of our beautiful homes. new south wales, n.d.; victoria's representative men at home by 'lauderdale', melbourne, punch, n.d.], melbourne: today's heritage, n.d. [ s?]. cochrane, grace, the crafts movement in australia: a history, kensington: university of new south wales press, . craig, clifford, fahy, kevin and robertson, e. graeme, early colonial furniture in new south wales and van diemen's land, melbourne: georgian house, . crittendon, victor, a history of australian gardening books and a bibliography - , canberra: cae library, . cuffley, peter and carney, kevin, a catalogue and history of cottage chairs in australia, lilydale: pioneer design studio, . davidson, rodney, ed, historic houses, canberra: australian council of national trusts, [combined edition of historic public buildings of australia, and historic houses of australia, ]. dearing, tyrone, 'art deco in australia', australian antique collector, th edition, jan-jun , - . deutscher, chris, et al., thea proctor. the prints, sydney: resolution press, . dobrez, patricia, 'martin boyd's aestheticism: a late victorian legacy', australasian victorian studies association, brisbane conference papers, august , - . dungavell, ian, 'moly-sabata dangar. the pottery of anne dangar', ceramics: art and perception, , , - . dupain, max et al., georgian architecture in australia. with some examples of buildings of the post-georgian period, sydney: ure smith, . dutton, geoffrey, the innovators. the sydney alternatives in the rise of modern art, literature and ideas, crows nest: macmillan, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography eagle, mary, phipps, jennifer, ed, australian modern painting between the wars - , sydney: bay books, . earnshaw, john, early sydney cabinet-makers - . a directory with an introductory survey, surry hills: wentworth books, edwards, deborah et al., australian decorative arts, sydney: art gallery of new south wales, c. . evans, ian, restoring old houses, south melbourne: macmillan, [reprinted , revised , reprinted with new directory]. evans, ian, the australian home, glebe: flannel flower press, . evans, ian, furnishing old houses. a guide to interior restoration, south melbourne: macmillan, . evans, ian, lucas, clive and stapleton, ian, colour schemes for old australian houses, glebe: flannel flower press, . evans, ian, the federation house. a restoration guide, glebe: flannel flower press, glebe, . fahy, kevin, 'federation furniture. an australian book of designs', australian antique collector, th ed, jan-jun , - . fahy, kevin, simpson, christina and simpson, andrew, nineteenth century australian furniture, sydney: david ell, . falkiner, suzanne, ed, leslie wilkinson. a practical idealist, woollahra: valadon publishing, . forge, suzanne, victorian splendour. australian interior decoration - , melbourne: oxford university press, . fraser, hugh and joyce, ray, the federation house. australia's own style, sydney: weldon, [first edition, landsdowne, ]. freeland, j.m., architecture in australia. a history, hannondsworth: penguin, . freeland, j. m., review, 'the glebe: portraits and places, freda macdonnell, ure smith, sydney, ', jrahs, : , december , - . freestone, robert, ''the new idea': the garden city as an urban environmental ideal - ', jrahs, : , october , - . fry, tony, design history australia. a source text in methods and resources, sydney: hale and iremonger, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography fry, tony, old worlds. new visions, sydney: hale and iremonger, . galbally, ann and plant, margaret, eds, studies in australian art, melbourne: department of fine arts, university of melbourne, , - . gilbert, alan, 'the roots of anti-suburbanism in australia', australian cultural history, , , - . grassick, patricia, 'interiors in australian painting in the s', art and australia, : , autumn , - . gray, s., ‗mixing it up; david mcdiarmid, peter tully and the ecstatic space of the paradise garage‘ in adamson, glenn, and pavitt, jane, eds, postmodernism: style and subversion - , london: victoria & albert, . gray, s., ‗america and the queer diaspora: the case of artist david mcdiarmid‘ in deacon, desley, woollacott, angela, and russell, penny, eds, looking out: australian lives in the world, canberra: anu e press, . gray, s., ‗crafting hip and cool: david mcdiarmid‘s handcrafted lamb suede dancefloor outfits, - ‘, the journal of modern craft, : march , - . gray, s., ‗reinterpreting a textile tradition – david mcdiarmid;s klub kwilt‘, textile history, the journal of the pasold research fund, : november , - . hamann, conrad, 'nationalism and reform in australian architecture - ', historical studies, : , april , - . harding, warren t. and lorimer, david c., australian decor, melbourne: thomas nelson, . hasluck, paul n., ed, house decoration comprising whitewashing, paperhanging, painting, etc. with numerous engravings and diagrams, melbourne, sydney, adelaide: cole's useful books, n.d. [late th century?] mitchell library (sydney) . / . herman, morton, the early australian architects and their work, sydney: angus and robertson, . hoff, ursula, 'observations on art history in melbourne - ', australian journal of art, , , - . hoorn, jeanette, 'misogyny and modernist painting in australia: how male critics made modernism their own', journal of australian studies, , march , - . howe, renate, ed, new houses for old. fifty years of public housing in victoria - , melbourne: ministry of housing and construction, . hughes, robert, the art of australia, harmondsworth: penguin, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography ingram, terry, a question of polish. the antique market in australia, sydney: collins, . ioannou, noris, the culture brokers: towards a redefinition of australian contemporary craft, netley: state publishing, . ioannou, noris, ed, craft in society. an anthology of perspectives, south fremantle: fremantle arts centre press, . irving, robert, ed, the history and design of the australian house, melbourne; oxford university press, . johnson, donald leslie, 'the beginning of an australian domestic architecture', art and australia, : , oct-dec , - . johson, donald leslie, the architecture of walter burley griffin, south melbourne: macmillan, . johnson, donald leslie, 'bauhaus, breuer, seidler: an australian synthesis', australian journal of art, , , - . johnson, donald leslie, australian architecture - . sources of modernism, sydney: sydney university press, . johnson, heather, 'manifestations of sydney modernism: the later australian work of roy de maistre - ', australian journal of art, , , - . johnson, heather, roy de maistre. the australian years - , roseville: craftsman house, . johnson, r.n., 'leslie wilkinson and his architecture', art and australia, : , jul-sep , - . johnston, george, my brother jack, london: collins, . jose, a. w., pioneer builders of australia, sydney, . kelly, max, ed, sydney: city of suburbs, kensington: new south wales university press, . lane, terence, one hundred modern chairs, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . lane, terence, formed in wood. australian furniture from early colonial times to the present day, heidelberg: banyule gallery, . lane, terence, from robert adam to biltmoderne. the architect as designer, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . lane, terence, featherston chairs, melbourne: national gallery of victoria, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography lane, terence and serle, jessie, australians at home. a documentary history of australian domestic interiors from to , melbourne: oxford university press, . latta, david, lost glories. a memorial to forgotten australian buildings, sydney: angus and robertson, . leary, frank and judith, colonial heritage. historic buildings of new south wales, sydney: angus and robertson, . lewis, edna horton, furnishing on a budget, melbourne: georgian house, , mitchell library (sydney) /l. lord, margaret, interior decoration. a guide to furnishing the australian home, sydney: ure smith, . lord, margaret, a decorator's world. living with art and international design, sydney: ure smith, . macintyre, clement, " ... now you're in the family zone': housing and domestic design in australia', journal of australian studies, , september , - . maslen, geoffrey, for pleasure and profit. a guide to collecting in australia, south melbourne: brooks waterloo, . mcneil, peter, 'decorating the home. australian interior decoration between the wars', art and australia quarterly journal, : , , - . mcneil, peter, ‗rarely looking in: the writing of australian design history c - ‘, in bogle, michael, ed, designing australia: readings in the history of design, sydney: pluto press australia, , - . mcneil, peter, ‗decorating the home. australian interior decoration between the wars‘, in bogle, michael, ed, designing australia: readings in the history of design, sydney: pluto press australia, , - . mcphee, john, australian decorative arts in the australian national gallery, canberra: australian national gallery, . mcphee, john, 'australian decorative arts in the australian national gallery', australian antique collector, january-june , - . mcphee, john, 'clifford craig - historian and collector', australian antique collector, november , - . mcqueen, humphrey, the black swan of trespass. the emergence of modernist painting in australia to , sydney: alternative publishing cooperative, . mcqueen, humphrey, suburbs of the sacred, ringwood: penguin, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography melman, billie, women and the popular imagination in the twenties: flappers and nymphs, london: macmillan, . menz, christopher, ed, australian decorative arts - , canberra: australian national gallery, . merewether, charles, art and social commitment. an end to the city of dreams - , sydney: art gallery of new south wales, . moncrieffe, mona, the magic of colour harmony in dress, sydney: bebarfald's, . mourot, suzanne, this was sydney. a pictorial history from to the present time, sydney: ure smith, . murphy, john and norris, kathryn, the most useful art [sic]: architecture in australia, - , sydney: mitchell library, state library of new south wales, august - march . nelson, robert, toward a philosophy of furniture, melbourne: department of industrial design, monash university, [circulated in mimeo by the department]. nelson, robert, grounds for change. expressions of purpose in australian design, melbourne: department of industrial design, monash university, [circulated in mimeo by the department]. neutze, max, 'city, country, town: australian peculiarities', australian cultural history, , , - . newton, gael, et al., shades of light. photography and australia - , canberra: australian national gallery and william collins, . pearl, cyril, hardy wilson and his old colonial architecture, melbourne: thomas nelson, . philipp, f.a. 'notes on the study of australian colonial architecture', historical studies, : , may , - . phillips, john, 'in search of a modem idiom for australian architecture: the flat-roofed houses of george sydney jones', fabrications, , , - . proudfoot, helen, 'captain piper and henrietta villa', jrahs, : , september , - . proudfoot, p. r., 'the development of architectural education in sydney, - ', historical studies, : , october , - . proudfoot, p. r., 'arcadia and the idea of amenity', jrahs, : , june , - . reekie, gail, temptations. sex, selling and the department store, sydney: allen and unwin, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography reiger, kerreen m., the disenchantment of the home. modernizing the australian family - , melbourne: oxford university press, . rickard, john, 'cultural history: the "high" and the "popular" ', australian cultural history, , , - . robertson, e. graeme, victorian heritage. ornamental cast iron in architecture, melbourne: georgian house, . rowley, sue (convener), interventions. a conference on craft theory and exhibition, university of wollongong, - july , programme. ruhen, carl, the auctioneers. lawson's - the first years, sydney: ayers and james heritage books, . saunders, david, ed, historic buildings of victoria, brisbane: jacaranda press, . saunders, david, ed, a manual of architectural history sources in australia in volumes, adelaide: university of adelaide, department of architecture, . schofield, anne and fahy, kevin, australian jewellery. th and early th century, sydney: david ell, . shapiro, andrew, 'searching for tomorrow's australiana', australian antique collector, rd edition, january-june , - . sharp, barry, a pictorial history of sydney's suburban cinemas, , sydney: barry sharp, . sherington, geoffrey, 'm. kelly, ed, sydney city of suburbs ... ... & frances pollon, the book of sydney suburbs ... ' [review], jrahs, : , december , - . simpson, caroline, 'eryldene, gordon, new south wales. a house and garden designed for professor and mrs e. g. waterhouse by wilson, neave and berry', an and australia, : , , - . simpson, caroline, et al., william hardy wilson: a twentieth-century colonial - , sydney: national trust of australia (new south wales), . smith, bernard, 'architecture in australia' [review of j. m. freeland, architecture in australia, ], historical studies, : , october , - . smith, bernard and kate, the architectural character of glebe, sydney, sydney: university co- operative bookshop, . smith, bernard, the antipodean manifesto. essays in art and history, melbourne: oxford university press, . smith, terry, 'writing the history of australian art: its past, present and possible future', thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography australian journal of art, , , - . smith, terry, ed, constructing the history of australian art: eight critiques, sydney: power institute occasional paper, , may . spearritt, peter, sydney since the twenties, sydney: hale and iremonger, . stapleton, ian, how to restore the old aussie house, sydney: sydney morning herald and national trust of australia (new south wales), . stapleton, maisy, ed, historic interiors; a collection of papers, sydney: sydney college of the arts press, nd [ ]. stapleton, maisy and stackhouse, jennifer, eds, the decorated wall. eighty years of wallpaper in australia cl - , nd edition, sydney: historic houses trust of new south wales, . stephen, ann, 'margaret preston's second coming', art network, , spring , - . sumner, ray, the tropical bungalow-the search for an indigenous australian architecture', australian journal of art, , , - . tanner, howard, cox, philip, bridges, peter and broadbent, james, restoring old australian houses and buildings. an architectural guide, south melbourne: macmillan, . tanner, howard, ed, architects of australia, south melbourne: macmillan, . thomas, daniel, 'art deco in australia', art and australia, : , march , - . thomas, daniel, ed, creating australia. years of art - , adelaide: international cultural corporation of australia and art gallery board of south australia, . toy, ann, et al., hearth and home. women's decorative arts and crafts - , sydney: historic houses trust of new south wales, . underhill, nancy d. h., making australian art - . sydney ure smith patron and publisher, melbourne: oxford university press, . ure smith, sydney and stevens, bertram, the charm of sydney, sydney: angus and robertson, nd [ ]. ure smith, sydney and stevens, bertram, eds, domestic architecture in australia. special number of an in australia, sydney: angus and robertson, . ure smith, sydney et al., a new approach to textile designing by a group of australian artists, sydney: ure smith, . valentine, james, then and now. historic roads round sydney, sydney: new century press, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography walker, david, 'introduction: australian modem: modernism and its enemies - ', journal of australian studies, , march , - . white, richard, inventing australia. images and identity - , sydney: allen and unwin, . willis, anne-marie, picturing australia. a history of photography, sydney: angus and robertson, . willis, anne-marie, illusions of identity. the art of nation, sydney: hale and iremonger, . wilson, hardy, the cow pasture road, sydney: art in australia, . wilson, hardy, old colonial architecture in new south wales and tasmania, sydney: union house, . oral histories burke, prof. joseph, interview with james mellon, january , melbourne: state library of victoria, oral history section. ——, interview with anthea burke, [undated] , melbourne: privately held. hoff, dr. ursula, interview with amy mcgrath, july , canberra: national library of australia. ——, interview with richard haese, march , melbourne: state library of victoria, oral history section. lindsay, daryl, interview with hazel de berg, august , hazel de berg collection, canberra: national library of australia. lindsay, joan interview with john taylor, , videos on australian writers: archival writers series ii, the australian council for the arts. murdoch, dame elisabeth, interview by peter struthers, [undated] , melbourne: national trust of australia (victoria). smith, prof. bernard, interview with richard haese, january , melbourne: state library of victoria, oral history section. smith, prof. bernard, interview with james mellon, august , melbourne: state library of victoria, oral history section. thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography theses and unpublished manuscripts astbury, leigh, heidelberg and beyond: a study of late nineteenth century australian art and its legacy, phd thesis, melbourne: monash university, . boag, a., modernism in melbourne in the s: foundations and responses, ba (hons) thesis (fine arts), melbourne: melbourne university, . gardner, anthony, the convergence of virtuality and digitality in contemporary australian art and architectural representation, ma thesis, melbourne: school of fine arts, classical studies and archaeology, university of melbourne, . galbally, ann, john peter russell ( - ) and his circle, phd thesis, melbourne: university of melbourne, . inglis, alison, the decorative works of sir edward poynter and their critical reception, phd thesis, melbourne: school of fine arts, classical studies and archaeology, university of melbourne, . harding, lesley, the first australian modernists: tempe manning, norah simpson and grace cossington smith: gender, myth and art criticism during the first world war, ma thesis, melbourne: department of fine arts, university of melbourne, . hudson, hugh, frank rinder and the felton bequest - : international acquisition policy, postgraduate diploma thesis (fine arts), melbourne: melbourne university, . hudson, hugh, re-examining van eyck: a new analysis of the ince hall virgin and child, ma thesis (fine arts), melbourne: melbourne university, . johnson, heather, art patronage in sydney, - , ma thesis, sydney: university of sydney, . judd, craig, aspects of the art of adrian feint, - , ba (hons) thesis, melbourne: department of fine arts, university of melbourne, . kelly, bryan, divided houses: the art societies of new south wales and victoria in the context of australian art - , ma thesis, sydney: university of sydney, . lee, t., australian furniture to about , ba (hons) thesis, sydney: university of sydney, . lindsay, eloise, an art of disjunction: australian art in the s and s, phd thesis, sydney: department of art history and theory, university of sydney, . lloyd, a., early modernist landscape painting in melbourne, ma thesis (fine arts), melbourne: melbourne university, . macneil, d., a history of the contemporary arts society of melbourne - , ba (hons) thesis (fine arts), melbourne: melbourne university, . thomas and mcneill australian and new zealand art historiography bibliography mitchell, avenel, thea proctor ( - ): aspects of elitism to , ba (hons) thesis, sydney: university of sydney, . palmer bull, sheridan, intersecting cultures: european influences in the fine arts: melbourne - , phd thesis, school of art history, cinema, classics and archaeology, melbourne: university of melbourne, . pattenden, rodney, images of religious significance in recent australian art, ma thesis, sydney: department of art history and theory, university of sydney, . pattenden, rodney, visual discernment: religion and spirituality in contemporary australian art, phd thesis, sydney: department of studies in religion, university of sydney, . ramage, bruce, a gallery within a department store - origins and development of david jones' art gallery, sydney, dissertation, sydney: fine arts iv, university of sydney, . richards, michaela, making the modern interior: marion hall best and australian interior design - , ma thesis, canberra: department of art history, australian national university, . stephen, ann, consuming images: advertising and the manufacture of consumption in australia, s- s, ma thesis, sydney: university of sydney, . snowden, betty, policies, personalities and politics: modern french art and the national gallery of victoria, - , phd thesis, sydney: university of nsw, . thomas, benjamin, daryl lindsay: a vision for australian art, phd thesis, melbourne: school of culture and communication, university of melbourne, . vaughan, gerard, maurice denis: his place in the parisian milieu and some sources for his imagery, - , ma thesis, melbourne: university of melbourne, . wilson-anastasios, meaghan, art at auction: price formation and the creation of superstars in the australian art auction market, phd thesis, melbourne: school of culture and communication, university of melbourne, . wookey, a., cultural diffusions of the s: a study of the impact on artistic style of the london cultural experience, as reflected in the australian art collection at the national gallery of victoria, postgraduate diploma thesis (fine arts), melbourne: melbourne university, . zubans, ruth, emanuel phillips fox ( - ): the development of his art, - , phd thesis, melbourne: university of melbourne, . swing low, sweet chariot: kinetic sculpture and the crisis of western technocentrism arts , , - ; doi: . /arts arts issn - www.mdpi.com/journal/arts essay swing low, sweet chariot: kinetic sculpture and the crisis of western technocentrism g. w. smith space machines corporation, esplanade avenue, suite , new orleans, la , usa; e-mail: gsmith@space-machines.com; tel.: - - academic editor: andres pardey received: july / accepted: may / published: july abstract: beginning with the chariot as an ancient and pan-cultural example of the way in which art has humanized technology, this essay explores the limited role which modern art has thus far played in dealing with the current crisis of technocentrism. it does so by bringing to bear on the subject a newly-promulgated theory of the development of modern art which focuses on the absence therein of an evolved kinetic sculpture. keywords: kinetic sculpture; kinetic art; technocentrism yet the relative aesthetic failure of kinetic art is significant in itself since the desire to make art kinetic is one of the prime artistic urges of the present century; to misrepresent this is to reject the direction to which western art has committed itself. jack burnham, beyond modern sculpture . introduction the chariot, as a straight-forward application of the wheel and axle, might be said to represent humankind’s first sophisticated mechanical technology, as opposed to simple machines such as the hand axe (i.e., the wedge) and the digging stick (i.e., the lever). given the cultural conservatism which often distances itself from the new and sophisticated, it is therefore remarkable that the chariot appears nearly everywhere in early indo-european art (figure ) and literature, whether vedic, hellenic, celtic, or germanic [ , ]; and equally remarkable—given the ironclad physics of the wheel and axle— open access arts , is the fact that the chariot has taken on the role of mystical conveyance, and has been so apotheosized in the famous african-american spiritual [ ]. figure . trundholm sun chariot, c. bc. bronze, × × cm. national museum of denmark, copenhagen. image © gianni dagli orti/corbis. the key point, in respect to western culture, is as follows: almost as soon as there is technology, we find the arts engaged with it, and to the benefit of both—art finds fresh stimulation, and the technology itself is integrated into the landscape of the human psyche. this virtuous cycle appears, at present, to be inoperative. on the one hand, there is a universal unease with the ever-increasing degree to which our lives seem to revolve about technology, but which technology seems to do little to ease our burdens. the visual arts, on the other hand—as per the example of the renaissance, that sector of the arts most capable of assimilating and entering into a fruitful dialogue with science and technology—are currently pre-occupied, under the aegis of “post-modernism”, with that which is difficult to characterize as anything other than ephemeral. at the very moment when we are depending upon the visual arts to create a mature vision of man and machine—and here we think of monet setting up his easel at the gare st. lazare, or rivera laboring over his man at the crossroads—we are offered ball bearings and slabs of black felt strewn petulantly across the floors of the whitney museum, or a cargo cult tribute to the apollo missions at the park avenue armory. in attempting to account for this state of affairs, and without wishing to over-simplify—we are dealing here with something which is but part of a far larger and more complex stage in human evolution—it may be useful to consider a newly-promulgated theory of the evolution of modern art [ – ]. like many such theories, it is a distillation of previous thinking, and in this case that of jack burnham [ ]; it is a theory which represents a radical re-interpretation of said evolution, and not least in placing kinetic sculpture on center stage; and it is a theory which, in its focus on the actual sinews of culture, may be likened to the vector analysis of physics—a vector having both force and direction. one must be careful, however, to distinguish between a theory and its expression. the exposition presented here is the work of a practicing kinetic sculptor [ ] as opposed to an art historian; and although the sculptor in question is in fact one of the architects of the aforementioned theory—and although his research is clearly substantial, and his writing cloaked in academic garb complete with footnotes—his exposition nonetheless bears the inevitable marks of the artistic temperament: wide-ranging in scope; mercurial in transition; bold in declaration; and passionate in advocacy for a arts , particular approach, and equally scornful of alternatives. indeed, it is part manifesto [ ]; but let us hope that such extravagance of expression will not obscure for the reader a possible kernel of truth. . regarding the crisis of technocentrism the idea that we are becoming the slaves of our machines—or, stated in a slightly more plausible manner, the idea that we are becoming nothing more than a layer of connective tissue for our various technologies—has been so frequently touched upon in the mass media and popular culture, but with so little substance, that it has seemed worthwhile to go beyond the headlines to some recent history [ , ], and to find there a practical measuring rod—the length of the work week—with which to quickly survey the dimensions of the crisis. it was recognized as early as the s that our increasingly automated factories would allow us to enjoy a comfortable standard of living while permitting a continuous reduction in the length of the work week; and indeed, a u.s. senate subcommittee predicted a st century work week of hours. technology has kept its part of the bargain: the worker of today is many-fold more productive than the worker of ; yet even those few countries which have dared to introduce a work week less than the forty hours established by the u.s. fair labor standards act of find their policies under attack. certainly, the stability of the work week over this period reflects in part the achieving of a certain equilibrium in releasing human psychic energy—though perhaps not in an optimum fashion; and no doubt a tendency towards even longer working hours reflects an intoxication with both the incredible resources which technology has placed at our disposal, and the incredible goals which it has placed within our reach: if i myself were a member of one of the jpl teams driving a rover on the surface of mars, i, too, would be working hour weeks. however—make no mistake—there has also been at work a more systemic and worrisome aspect of that same technology; and here we must return to the historical record. if the automated factories of the industrialists threatened, by their very efficiency, to provide a modest but universal standard of living in combination with equally modest working hours—but also, of course, with a leveling-off in the growth of profits—then the solution for the industrialists was obvious: a plethora of new products, to afford which the worker was willing to spend more time in his machine-like factory, and many of which were themselves machines: dish washers; mixers; toasters; toaster ovens; blenders; waffle makers; electric ice cream makers; hot plates; electric crock pots; electric carving knives; electric rotisseries; pasta makers; vacuum cleaners; ceiling fans; box fans; table fans; attic fans; air conditioners; hair dryers; hair clippers; hair curlers; electric tooth brushes; electric bathroom scales; vaporizers; de-humidifiers; electric clothes lines; lawn mowers; edge trimmers; tillers; chain saws; electric winches; hand drills; orbital sanders; electric buffers; paint sprayers; pressure washers; heat guns; electric soldering guns; electric pencil sharpeners; radios; record players; televisions; self-rotating tv antennas; hi-fis; stereos; model gasoline airplanes; model electric railroads; rock tumblers; aquarium pumps; motorcycles; scooters; go-karts; golf carts; power boats; private aircraft—and so on [ ]. thus was born the mindless american “consumer society”—an effect of the twinned desires of the industrialist to keep his mechanized factory running at full capacity, and of the consumer to keep arts , himself entertained. were it not for their environmental implications, these would seem to be harmless enough motives; but can we not already detect therein a tendency for humankind to become swept up in a culture of relentless, machine-mediated activity [ ]? moreover, can we not also hear a distant echo of homer’s warning that “there is a force in iron which lures men on” [ ]? distant echo, indeed. in anticipation of our reinterpretation of th century art history, we have deliberately confined our examples to the artifacts of that era; and if even then there were indications of mankind falling under the sway of a technological demiurge, is there not even greater reason for concern in the present day, which, with its electronic machines of gigahertz-scale activity, is in some sense as far removed from as is from ancient greece [ ]? if these machines are our servants, why are all of us—chained to our computer screens—working harder and more desperately than ever [ ]? yet there can be no turning back. machine begets machine; and on our near horizon are the android, the drone, artificial intelligence, and nanotechnology—and these with all of the even more dire warnings which come in their wake [ ]. . regarding the virtuous cycle as with our consideration of the crisis of technocentrism, we shall tarry here only as long as necessary; but if we are soon destined to live in a technological oz, it is perhaps well to briefly review what we mean by saying that “art can integrate technology into the landscape of the human psyche”—and our starting point must be to present, as a corrective to the previous section, a more balanced view of technology. the fact of the matter is that no can one predict the outcome of our ever-accelerating rush into its embrace—teilhard de chardin used the analogy of a whirlpool into which we are being swept [ ]; and so i am not suggesting that we relax our vigilance. at the same time (and please forgive me for stating the obvious, but the obvious is what we tend to overlook) it is worth remembering that humankind—homo faber—is a technological species; that the machine, though perhaps now emerging as a threat, can also be a marvelous and inspiring thing, as exemplified by those rovers on the martian surface; and that our virtuous cycle is one of the most definite and characteristic features of western culture, and one in which art plays a critical and complementary role in respect to technology. in regard to that role, the operative term is assimilation: not the mere referencing of science and technology, but their complete transubstantiation—and there is no better example in all of western art history than the famous kritios boy (figure ). we shall have more of substance to say about him later; the goal at present is simply to emphasize—if emphasis is necessary—the startling contrast which that work represents between a vital science and technology, and the even more vital power of art. the connection with greek science, in the twin forms of the accurate anatomical observation and mathematically-tuned proportions at work in the kritios boy, is well understood. perhaps not so well understood is the connection with technology—but that is only because we have come to associate technology with rapid change and progress, and have thus lost sight of the dominant role that stone and stonemasonry have played in human technological history. the olduwan chipped pebble technology arts , reigned supreme for no less than one million years; and stone itself was not displaced as the premier building material until , when gustave eiffel’s iron tower wrested away from the masonry washington monument the title of the world’s tallest man-made structure. indeed, we are dealing with a quite impressive phenomenon in terms of both quality and quantity: in quality, there is a certain magic in the process of quarrying and dressing stone which seems to have attracted humans of all cultures and climes [ ]; in quantity, countless blocks of stone—the great pyramid of cheops alone requiring . million—were being constantly shuttled about the ancient world during the four millennia bracketing the appearance of the kritios boy, and perhaps reminding us of the blocks of data being currently shuttled between the nodes of the internet. yet—this almost a matter of definition—technology always comes up short in respect to the deepest yearnings of the human psyche. stone can be a maddeningly uniform material; and the vast majority of those blocks were destined to become lintels, thresholds, horse troughs. figure . kritios boy, c. bc. marble, cm. acropolis museum, athens. not until a supremely talented artist got hold of one of them do we have the kritios boy—perhaps the first sculpture in western history to truly shatter the limits of what could be imagined as emerging from a block of stone. whenever we fall into despair regarding the continuing relevance of art in a world gone mad with technology, we must gaze upon him again, and remind ourselves not only of the visual perfection which was to serve as a sculptural model for the next two thousand years, but to remind ourselves as well that the same relaxed pose which worked so effectively at the level of arts , aesthetics also served to make the work a spiritual dynamo; for was it not the first sculpture to express that attitude which has become the hallmark of the greek legacy: a sense of man’s confidence regarding his place in the universe? [ ]. hence it is (fast-forward to the early st century) that we welcome two new and related artistic movements—“techno art” and “sci art”, respectively—which show great promise in restoring to the aesthetic realm not only a substantive engagement with science and technology, but also a focus on the visual as opposed to the anecdotal. this the former accomplishes by taking advantage of the incredible power of electronic/computer media (and thus also known as “new media art”), and the latter by realizing the incredible expressive power of the latest scientific imagery. nor are these initiatives unaccompanied by that which is the sine qua non of a revolutionary art—i.e., the brash, new journal—and among which might be mentioned caldaria [ ] and sciart in america [ ]. however—as we are reminded by joseph nechvatal—art cannot follow an agenda [ ]. if the young artists of today set out with the mere goal of “humanizing technology”, they will make a terrible mess of things. they must work, rather, as artists have always worked—in the grip of an aesthetic frenzy; and here another lesson of the kritios boy: notwithstanding its poise and studied articulation, there can be no doubting the eros under whose influence it was created. yet even an economy of the ecstatic must admit the possibility of a missing factor. despite the talent and energy and exuberance being poured into techno art and sci art, and despite the immensely pregnant situation represented by our technocentric society, must we not admit that at present there are few signs of the rumblings which must have accompanied the birth of, say, impressionism—that impression which, though not so far removed from us in time, and under the quite comparable circumstances of europe’s rapid industrialization and urbanization, yet held aloft a universal vision of beauty, and of a coherent human society (figure )? figure . la place de l’europe, by gustave caillebotte, . oil on canvas, × cm. art institute of chicago. in short—with impressionism and cubism and constructivism towering behind us—do not many of us sense that there is something missing at the very core of our own endeavors? must we not also suspect that this missing element might have been in part responsible for the futility of post-modernism and conceptualism? arts , it is the thesis of this essay, and of the art-historical theory which it seeks to summarize, that the visual arts may well be suffering under the effects of an evolutionary misadventure which occurred at a precise point in the th century—and the possibility of which misadventure has not to this day been widely acknowledged, much less addressed. . a new look at the evolution of th century art a brief outline of the history of th century art in accordance with our subject theory must seem to us as strange as it is familiar—but such is the inevitable effect of being aroused from a sleep of years: . . destiny if it was the destiny of greek art to assimilate both early observational science and stonemasonry; if it was likewise the destiny of renaissance art to assimilate the vast new perspectives revealed by contemporary science and exploration; and if impressionism was destined to assimilate the new theories of color vision and the new technology of photography, and also to acknowledge in its subject matter the reality of industrialization and urbanization—then the destiny of th century art was quite clear: to assimilate the machine. that technology had reached a high point with charles lindbergh’s flight across the atlantic in his “spirit of st. louis”, at the conclusion of which lindbergh became overnight the most celebrated individual on the planet, and his quickly-written account of the mission, we—the title referring to lindbergh and the aircraft itself—a best-selling hymn to the partnership between man and machine [ ]. the art world, moreover, was paying attention: for much of the important art work of this period, it is likely to be more difficult to establish the absence, as opposed to the presence, of a machine-influenced aesthetic (figure ). figure . le canigou, by juan gris, . oil on canvas, × cm. albright-knox art gallery, buffalo. . . the pioneers a moment’s reflection will demonstrate that an uncompromising pursuit of an art of the machine must culminate in a machine-based kinetic sculpture; and although mainstream art history has failed to arts , connect the dots, we can note in retrospect that several prominent figures of the early th century experimented with, or envisioned, a mechanical art: brancusi, with his polished bronze pieces rotated by hidden motors [ , ]; tatlin, with his dynamic monument to the third internationale [ ]; gabo, with his kinetic construction, and his planned monument for the institute of physics and mathematics; and duchamp with his bicycle wheel and roto-reliefs [ ]. . . the chosen son although the influence of these pioneers remained largely theoretical, following in their wake was a young sculptor seemingly destined by history to preside over the triumphant marriage of art and the machine—the son and grandson of sculptors, but also a mechanical engineering graduate of the stevens institute of technology; one of those clever americans, therefore, but working at the time in paris, where he could absorb the technocentric influences of constructivism, futurism, and the bauhaus; and who, as a private citizen, had been one of the multitude present at le bourget to welcome his countryman lindbergh [ ]. we should not be surprised, therefore, to recollect that this artist mounted in “the first entirely kinetic exhibition in the history of western art” [ ], and at which exhibition fully half of the pieces were motorized (figure ) [ ]. (einstein himself is later said to have spent forty minutes observing the complete cycle of one such work [ ].) figure . a universe, by alexander calder, . pipe, motor, wire, wood and string, × cm. museum of modern art, new york. what should surprise us—and what has been totally ignored by art history—is the fact that this artist was shortly thereafter to retreat from his encounter with the machine in favor of a suspended, decorative art form which, though quite sophisticated in appearance, was actually of a simple construction that had nothing whatsoever to do with the technology of the early th century; and although this art form was indeed kinetic, its reliance on random wind currents completed the severing of his commitment to the dependable machines which modern humanity had been at such pains to forge—and one of which had carried lindbergh safely across the atlantic. the artist in question is, of course, alexander calder; and the suspended art form of course the mobile [ ]. arts , . . post-mortem a post-mortem must presume that, in their attempts to create a true art of the machine, calder and his fellow pioneers had encountered some sort of barrier, the nature of which is revealed in a key passage from burnham: as rickey has observed, perhaps in years to come calder’s stunning success with the mobile, coupled with a dearth of research by younger artists into the possibilities of mechanical motion, will appear as some curious breach in the plastic evolution of this century. calder’s early overwhelming success with quasi-random motion convinced almost all observers that attempts to produce a machine-driven deterministic art [italics added for emphasis] would be clumsy by comparison [ ]. the machine, in other words, can be a breath-taking thing when seen speeding through the skies—but when made to operate in the confines of an art gallery or museum, its repetitive, sisyphean nature must become evident. we may therefore posit a “spectre of determinism”, and in reference to which the later trajectory of th century kinetic sculpture can be easily decoded: calder, desperate to move forward with his innovations, “invents” the wind-driven mobile as the ideal antidote to the machine’s determinism; george rickey and lin emery, finding themselves with a “latent affection for the machine” [ ], endow their kinetic works with metal bodies and precision bearings, but continue to depend on the liberating effects of wind power [ , ]; and jean tinguely and nicolas schöffer— finding themselves with not only a latent affection for the machine, but also for its beating heart of an engine—discover that the inclusion of seemingly random mechanical elements will keep determinism at bay, and thus allow them to return to the practice of building motorized works of art (figure ) [ , ]. figure . hannibal ii, by jean tinguely, . steel, motor, pulleys, black paint, × × cm. museum tinguely, basel. note, in particular, the dangling chain. more recently, there have been several kinetic sculptors—arthur ganson chief among them—who have gone over to the dark side of the force, i.e., who have embraced the depiction of the sisyphean struggle, but with the result that they have been able to create some marvelously active and exact machines, and, in particular, the humming but very much geared-down motor which will never discover that the shaft which it is attempting to turn is in fact embedded in concrete [ ]. not to this arts , day, however, has a kinetic sculptor established a major reputation by creating works in which the deterministic aspect of the machine is treated in parallel with the dynamic and heroic, i.e., in which the machine is treated on its own terms. there is, moreover, an unfortunate corollary: filled with spectacular machines, the smithsonian’s air and space museum is the world’s second most visited; yet the machine as the “precise and splendid instrument of human aspiration” [ ] remains little known to art. . . aftermath the handful of kinetic sculptors just mentioned—and some not mentioned—have nonetheless kept open a vital artery; but that century which had begun with a determination to re-connect art and engineering had now not only run headlong into the very real challenges of an art of the machine, but had also found itself further disoriented by the attempt to substitute for it calder’s colorful mobile: the whimsical, romantic spirit of calder’s art, with its affinity to the paintings of arp and miro, is quite independent of the spirit of constructivism. and it was constructivist principles that formed the core of modernist abstract sculpture, including kinetic sculpture. [ ]. the larger myth of the mobile is that it represents the triumph of kinetic sculpture, when in reality the mobile was as different as one could imagine from the original vision: passive rather than active; not at all mechanical; and random rather than directed in its motion. indeed, the mobile drew upon none of the incredible technical resources of the twentieth century, the appropriation of which had of course been the principal inspiration of the original kineticists [ ]. the aberration of which we speak directly affected only sculpture; but as an art of physical presence, sculpture of course has a great psychic impact on its sister art of painting. (whence impressionism without rodin? whence cubism without brancusi?) the entire enterprise of art was thus affected—cut off from an authentic engagement with the machine, which should have been its source of vitality, and encouraged by the mobile to substitute style for substance. to be sure, there remained some important experiments in extending the limits of a traditional sculpture and painting, as highlighted by the work of giacometti [ ] and diebenkorn among many others; and for one shining moment in the early s it even seemed as if the art world was on the verge of whole-heartedly embracing the mechanical experiments of tinguely, and the public on the verge of embracing tinguely himself (figure ) as the new embodiment of the artist: we are reminded [by the new museum tinguely catalog] that exhibitions of tinguely’s work typically drew record crowds to the galleries and museums; and we are further reminded that, in the summer of , there were no less than two tinguely-like characters on the screens of american movie theaters [ ]. yet the name of warhol was surfacing at precisely this same time, and it is of course his work that was to mark the end of a modernism to which the term “heroic” could be easily and often applied, and that was also to set the pattern for the rest of the century: all that was necessary was to do arts , something “new” and obviously “modern”, and thus provide fodder for the insatiable th century media—a substantive technique and the continuity of western art be damned [ ]; and all of this the precise rap which can be lodged against the mobile. how tempting it is—and how easy—to connect this calderian misadventure with most of the subsequent woes of modern art; but as the th century has passed into the st, one thing can be said with confidence: if art brings to the consideration of things a certain maturity, a certain intensity, and a certain vision, then it must be clear that art has not occupied its strategic and traditional position in respect to our technocentric society. yes, we have art a-plenty in which science and technology serve as window-dressing [ ], medium, and source of imagery. contemporary art has essentially failed, however, to come to terms with the machine as entity [ ]—and it is as entity that we shall surely re-encounter the machine in the very near future. figure . jean tinguely in his atelier in . martha rocher/museum tinguely, basel. . discussion the above account raises at least three important questions—and these with some clear implications attendant upon the answers to them: the first question, as always, is “who is to blame?”; and here we must exercise compassion: working at the exact midpoint of the unsettling interlude between the first and second world wars—and somehow conscious of the burden which history had placed on his shoulders—it is no wonder that calder attempted to pull a rabbit out of the hat: and though it is absurd, and even grossly unfair, to think that things might have been different had calder succeeded in in creating a true art of the machine, the fact remains that the machine continued as the near exclusive property of the industrialists and the generals—and so began the steady march to world war ii, stalin’s “war of motors”. if artists did not know what to do with the machine, the generals did! [ ]. in terms of misappropriating technology, however, the united states would of course put the european combatants to shame, demonstrating at war’s end the capability of ending civilization itself, and in the process killing tens of thousands of japanese civilians; all of which i mention only by way of emphasizing two related points: first, that calder’s evolutionary misadventure takes on added arts , significance in being to some extent the result of historical forces as opposed to chance occurrence; and second, that the subject of an art of the machine was not—at least at that time—one of rarified aesthetics. but perhaps it has become so; i.e., perhaps we have entered an age in which the art object has finally and truly become passé. under the heading of “the machine”, i have in this essay conflated the mechanical with the electronic; and although the computer is indeed a machine, it has become so sophisticated as to have helped make possible a virtual universe—and which universe, it might be argued, has become the preferred venue for the creative spirit. thus our second question: does there remain any value in a physical art of the machine? foolish, indeed, the occasional writer on art who would attempt to present a definitive answer to this question, with its far larger implications. let him, rather, present a series of observations which demonstrate that the field of the mechanical has enjoyed a symbiotic relationship with the electrical and electronic, and thus continues to evolve in spectacular fashion—and to surround us everywhere: • the silent, compact electric motor—which has been, and will continue to be, the motive element of choice for a progressive kinetic sculpture—is only now about to enter its own golden age, and this by virtue of replacing the internal combustion engine in hundreds of millions of automobiles. • were your own computer under threat, it is the electro-mechanical disc drive which you would hope to rescue—a device, moreover, powered by that same electric motor, and as much responsible for the explosive growth of the internet as is the purely electronic microprocessor. • another electro-mechanical device—the android—is without doubt this century’s equivalent of the once unimaginable flying machine: it can walk, and talk—and if given the key to one’s apartment, let itself in—and it is just around the corner. we have here, in short, an arena in which art must not only retain the presence captured for it by the exertions of the pioneer kineticists—it is an arena above which must soar the engine of a fully-evolved kinetic sculpture (figure ). figure . wave, by lin emery, . polished hollow aluminum forms mounted on precision, all-weather steel bearings, × cm. new orleans museum of art. arts , hence our third, and final, question—and one which might be equated with lenin’s “what is to be done?”: no matter how much we might wish to create an art of the machine, are we not facing the “spectre of determinism”, i.e., are we not dealing with a tautology—the ideal machine as relentless and unvarying as possible, and the ideal work of art expressive of a sense of freedom and possibility? to claim that it is therefore impossible to create a true art of the machine is, of course, precisely the type of challenge upon which art depends for its existence; and is this not, after all, the point of all art—to animate the lifeless, to infuse substance with spirit, to “forge out of the sluggish matter of the earth a new soaring, impalpable imperishable being” [ ]? even more to the point, have we not here stumbled upon the very subject and question which have become the universal focus of modern inquiry: the subject of emergent phenomenon—and the question of how consciousness has emerged from deterministic matter [ ]? we have also strayed, however, into the often fruitless realm of philosophy. as artists, let us rather continue our inquiry within the realm of the concrete—and what could be more concrete than the marble kritios boy? it may be supposed that, having established this greek masterpiece as an exemplar of the virtuous cycle at work, we return to it now only to address our final question—and this will indeed come to pass in the few words remaining to us. as i have attempted to indicate throughout this essay, however, art cannot be reduced to a formula. if consciousness is the great enigma of the universe, then art is the great enigma of consciousness; and although we presume to have already placed the kritios boy under consideration, the fact of the matter is that this compact figure—re-discovered on the acropolis in , beneath the rubble of the persian wars—has for western cultural history no less revolutionary significance than henri becquerel’s small mass of uranium salts has had for the history of western science, and thus defies adequate assessment. we have already alluded, for example, to the stringent circumstances of its genesis; but could we not go so far as to say that a block of fine-grained marble is no less deterministic, in its own way, than an ingot of steel; and as evidence of this refractory quality, could we not cite the fact that previous generations of greek sculptors, working to the egyptian model, had been able to wrest from such blocks nothing more than their rigid and lifeless kouroi? yet before us stands the kritios boy—and who, in merely standing, has brought into being a universe of possibilities for western humanity. to this, also, we have already alluded; but again, there is always more to be said: his contrapposto position a model throughout not only the classic and neo-classic periods, but also for rodin’s thoroughly modern age of bronze of ; the emphasis placed by a modern source on that same contrapposto pose as the first exposition of the human form as system—and thus the possibility of seeing the kritios boy in surprisingly contemporary terms [ ]; and finally this summary statement by kenneth clark in which is established no less than an ethical dimension: in comparison to the soft figures of indian art, greek bodies have structure, depicting a humanity capable of endurance, effort, accomplishment, sacrifice [ ]. an astounding legacy, and one which certainly banishes the spectre of an impregnable determinism; but there is also a quite unexpected lesson for those who would take up the challenge of an art of the arts , machine: the phenomenon of the kritios boy utterly transcends what might be considered even the most expansive bounds of an artistic practice. yes, great art is characterized by the longevity of its influence; and yes, the author of this work was no doubt aware that it represented some daring innovations; that same author, however, could have had no inkling whatsoever of the degree to which those innovations would continue to resonate for two millennia. we are dealing here, in other words, with a phenomenon on the order of magellan’s miraculous circumnavigation of the globe, or pasteur’s miraculous cure of the viral disease rabies; i.e., we are dealing here with the mysterious creative power of the universe itself: another parable put he forth unto them, saying, the kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mustard seed, which a man took and sowed in his field; which indeed is the least of all seeds; but when it is grown, it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof [ ]. . conclusions therefore think not, young sculptor, that you are going to waltz into your studio and create the definitive work of mechanical art, and so help launch the new “poetic-mythic-scientific renaissance” [ ]. retain, nonetheless, your youthful passion. know also that the wind is at your back, and that society is massing its forces behind you, in the forms of a computing infrastructure which has for the first time made it possible to share videos and animations of your designs with those of like mind [ ]; a technological infrastructure which caters increasingly to the artist [ ]; and a commercial infrastructure which looks increasingly to the arts for direction. know this, as well: the cosmos is said to be nothing more than a vast mechanism, and therefore indifferent to your existence—yet it has endowed a much suppressed people with an unsurpassed musical genius, and has placed in their throats this vision of a quite beautiful and personal machine: swing low, sweet chariot, comin’ for to carry me home! acknowledgments the author would like to acknowledge taney roniger and her editorial dedication in caldaria to the subject of kinetic sculpture. conflicts of interest the author declares no conflict of interest. references and notes . wikipedia: trundholm sun chariot. available online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trundholm_sun_chariot (accessed july ). arts , . burrough hill archaeologists find iron age chariot remains. bbc, october . available online: http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-leicestershire- (accessed on november ). note that this was apparently a ceremonial, artistically-enhanced chariot. . willis, w. swing low, sweet chariot. composed prior to . available online as performed by the dutch vocal group call: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wj dswxnzqy (accessed on august ). . smith, g.w. lin emery by philip palmedo: a review by g. w. smith. caldaria, september . available online: http://www.caldaria.org/ / /lin-emery-by-philip-palmedo-review- by.html (accessed on july ). see, in particular, the last twelve paragraphs. . palmedo, p. chapter vii, the historical context and beyond. in lin emery, hudson hills press: new york, ny, usa, . . smith, g.w.. aesthetic wilderness: a brief personal history of the meeting between art and the machine, - . birds-of-the-air press: new orleans, la, usa, . . burnham, j. beyond modern sculpture: the effects of science and technology on the sculpture of this century. george braziller: new york, ny, usa, . my epigraph is taken from page of this book. . see http://www.space-machines.com/ for the author's portfolio; http://www.space- machines.com/smith_ _cv.pdf for his cv; and http://artent.net/ / / /art-and-artificial- intelligence-by-g-w-smith/ for an autobiographical sketch (all accessed on may ). . there are affirmative precedents for the question of whether or not such material belongs in a scholarly journal of the arts; see, for example, this recent, idiosyncratic, and in some ways quite aggressive essay by karen schiff in art journal: schiff, k. l. connecting the dots/hijacking typography. art journal, spring, . available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/ . / . . (accessed on may ). it could be argued, of course, that a warning of the polemical nature of ms. schiff's contribution is implicit in its not having been presented in academic format; but the author feels that the declarations in the last paragraph of his introduction decisively accomplish this same goal. this is, in short, an essay with footnotes. . grevatt, m. workers need -hour week more than ever. workers world. available online: http://www.workers.org/ /us/flint- / (accessed on april ). . hunnicutt, b.k. the end of shorter hours. labor history, , , - . available online: http://www.jhemingway.net/ _mats/ _readings/hunnicutt_end_shorter_hours.pdf (accessed on may ). . the middle class family in which i grew up during the s and s possessed, at one time or another, at least one example of most of these devices, including the private aircraft – my father owned a one-third interest in an aeronca chief. . "it has dawned on many thoughtful persons today that while we started out to make mass production a means for a better human life, the means have become transformed into ends. as emerson put it, 'things are in the saddle and ride mankind.'" erich fromm, from his foreword to looking backward by bellamy, e. new american library: new york, ny, usa. ; p. . . homer. the odyssey; rieu, e.v., translators; penguin books: london, uk, ; p. . arts , . humanity is characterized by its capacity to deal with information in abstract form; and although the invention of the printing press automated the distribution of such information, the vastly greater undertaking of its collection and indexing remained a strictly manual task prior to the circa introduction of the computer. regarding the computer itself, a later section of this essay will consider it in more detail as a type of machine – the point at the moment being that the computer and its electronic brethren can be regarded as a continuation and intensification of twentieth century machine culture. . kolbert, e. no time. the new yorker, may , . available online: http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/ / / / crbo_books_kolbert (accessed on may ). . joy, b. why the future doesn't need us. wired, april . available online: http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/ . /joy.html (accessed on july ). . teilhard de chardin, p. the future of man; norman, d., translators; harper & row: new york, ny, usa, ; p. . . as is well known, the yap islanders at one time made -mile round-trip expeditions by sail to palau to quarry their stone "money discs". . smith ( ), p. . . caldaria. available online: http://www.caldaria.org/ (accessed on july ). . sciart in america. available online: http://www.sciartinamerica.com/ (accessed on july ). . nechvatal, j. aesthetic states of frenzy. caldaria, june . available online: http://www.caldaria.org/ / /aesthetic-states-of-frenzy-by-joseph.html (accessed on july ). . lindbergh, c. we. putnam: new york, ny, usa, . . "brancusi introduced one more important innovation to twentieth-century sculpture – mechanical movement. not all of his bases are movable but for some he has constructed turntables which slowly rotate the sculpture before the observers' eyes." ritchie, a.c. sculpture of the twentieth century. the museum of modern art: new york, ny, usa, ; p. . . "a peep into brancusi's studio, with its extraordinary collection of tools and instruments, reveals certain points of contact between even work of so timeless a quality as his and the field of modern inventions. brancusi's preference for showing his sculpture on revolving turn-tables, and his claim that films are the only adequate means of illustrating it, provide pertinent cases in point." giedion-welcker, c. contemporary sculpture: an evolution in volume and space. george wittenborn: new york, ny, usa, , p. . . tatlin, v. monument to the third international. available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlwdejiv ti (accessed on august ). . duchamp, m. rotorelief. available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zx -sdvvdiw (accessed on august ). . simon, j.; leal, b.; bajac, q.; cohen-solal, a.; karmel, p.; mancusi-ungaro, c.; nagy, e.; petroski, h.; pierre, a.; rower, a.s.c. alexander calder: the paris years, - . yale university press: new haven, cn, usa, ; p. . . ibid. p. . arts , . calder, a. a universe. available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=srdbum w kk (accessed on august ). . lemon, r. the soaring art of alexander calder. the saturday evening post, feb. , , p. . available online: http://artmobiles.blogspot.com/ / /alexander-calder-art-mobiles-in- .html (accessed on july ). . a quite interesting article in caldaria suggests that calder's mobile anticipates fractal geometry, and thus the more open-ended outlook of modern science. if so, it was a "bridge too far". sun, w. calder's fractals. caldaria, march . available online: http://www.caldaria.org/ / /calder-fractals-by-werner-sun.html (accessed on july ). . burnham ( ), p. . . smith ( ), p. . . rickey, g. untitled. available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ae er nc_oy (accessed on august ). . emery, l. wave. available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ride n jj (accessed on august ). . tinguely, j. available online: http://vimeo.com/ (accessed on august ). . schöffer, n. chronos . available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jh zmrupixg (accessed on august ). . ganson, a. machine with concrete. available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= q- bh-tvxeg (accessed on july ). . smith ( ), p. . . palmedo ( ), p. . . smith ( ), p. . . giacometti, of course, created his own tribute to the chariot. salmon, f. the not so special hundred-million-dollar giacometti. the new yorker, november, . available online: http://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/the-hundred-million-dollar-giacometti (accessed on november ). . smith, g.w. battlestar galactica. caldaria, june . available online: http://www.caldaria.org/ / /battlestar-galactica-by-g-w-smith.html (accessed on july ). . "the increasing diversity, inventiveness, and popularity of kinetic sculpture in the mid- s came face-to-face with upheavals in the concept of what constituted art. post-vietnam disillusionment crushed the art object under the heavy antiart weight of conceptual postmodernism." palmedo ( ), p. . . saltz, j. clusterfuck esthetics. the village voice, nov. , . available online: http://www.villagevoice.com/ - - /art/clusterfuck-aesthetics/ (accessed on july ). . "the sole purpose of the arts is neither description nor imitation, but the creation of unknown beings from elements which are always present but not apparent." raymond duchamp-villon, as quoted in: hamilton, g.h.; agee, w. raymond duchamp-villon. walker & co.: new york, ny, usa, ; p. . as to my own contention that modern art has not addressed the machine as entity, the industrial paintings of charles sheeler might be proposed as a counterexample; but rarely, if ever, does sheeler present a complete, functioning machine – his interest, rather, is in arts , the machine as a formal compositional element. for an example of art in which a non-human subject is treated as an agent of some gravity, one might turn instead to the nineteenth century animal sculpture of antoine-louis bayre and emmanuel frémiet. . smith ( ), p. . . ibid. p. . . nagel, t. mind and cosmos: why the materialist neo-darwinian conception of nature is almost certainly false. oxford university press: oxford, uk, . . wikipedia: kritios boy. available online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kritios_boy (accessed on july ). . clark, k. the nude: a study in ideal form. pantheon: new york, ny, usa, . . the gospel of matthew (king james version), chapter , verses - . . nechvatal, j.; perret, c. our digital noology: catherine perret in conversation with joseph nechvatal. scan journal of media arts culture. available online: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://scan.net.au/scan/magazine/display.php?journ al_id= (accessed on september ). . as of july , a youtube search for "kinetic sculpture" yielded , results. cited following are a few examples of the most substantial such work: lilly, anne. flower theorem. http://vimeo.com/ (accessed on august ); schülke, björn. space observer. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= idrysiuzb (accessed on august ); townley, jennifer. schaak. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fzfbapfvlii (accessed on august ); woodward, laura. shallows. http://vimeo.com/ (accessed on august ). . one example is the italian electronics manufacturer arduino. arduino. available online: http://www.arduino.cc/ (accessed on may ). © by the authors; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). microsoft word - cover_art_style_final_ .docx art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ montage and assemblage: an aesthetic shock dominique berthet abstract the notions of montage and assemblage applied to the field of art can appropriately be applied to collage. at the beginning of the twentieth century, cubism, italian and russian futurism, dadaism, and surrealism, each with distinct aesthetic objectives, practiced collage; this was in order, for example, to deconstruct object and space or for political and ideological purposes, with the aim of impacting social reality. the practice of collage 'exploded' the classical aesthetic based on mimesis. in an unpredictable diversity of practices, collage allows for the creation of gaps, giving access to a multitude of possibilities and opening on unsuspected artistic horizons. collages, montages, and assemblages have been so widely represented in the artistic practices of the twentieth century that they appear inseparable from artistic modernity. however, these practices are not limited to western art - they can also be observed in other cultures, with different objectives. as contemporary art can be seen as an extension and deepening of modern art and as its realization , the practices of the twentieth century were prolonged into, and developed at, the beginning of the twenty-first century, even as other concepts were introduced and new practices emerged. christ dominique berthet, “montage and assemblage: an aesthetic shock,” art style, art & culture international magazine, no. (december , ): - , doi: http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ montage and cinema excerpts from glumov's diary is eisenstein's first film, . screenshot by christiane wagner. creative commons attribution license (reuse allowed). montage (editing), in general, is associated with cinema. anne souriau indicates that in cinema, montage is, “a material operation [allowing one] to adjust together strips made separately, to form the final band [...]. montage is essential to the cinematographic aesthetic, since it is this that regulates the sequences, the effects determined by the passage from one scene to another, the rhythms, and the correspondences between image and sound.” montage is, therefore, the organizing of different shots to form sequences. dominique chateau, in 'contribution à l'histoire du concept de montage' (contribution to the history of the concept of montage) tried to show how montage (editing) has transitioned from concept to concept; in the writings of young soviet filmmakers, who themselves produced a theory of cinema, montage (editing) becomes one of the essential concepts of film theory. the book reminds us that it is lev kuleshov to whom we owe, from around , revival of the french word montage; this he appropriates and transforms into a concept (the concept of film montage), that is to say, that it loads of rich theoretical content. the montage praised by chateau is related to cinema both in technique and concept. it is defined by kuleshov in , in his article 'the art of photography,' as the thing that characterizes cinema . in , kuleshov presented montage in the following way: "the essence of cinematographic art [...] rests entirely on the composition. to make a film, the director must combine different filmed, unordered, and unrelated fragments into a whole and juxtapose the different moments in the most advantageous, the most coherent and the best rhythmic order [...]" . montage thus comes from the collage, according to a certain order, of filmed fragments. the sequence of these fragments contributes to producing art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ an artistic impression. what is interesting to observe is that behind this reflection on montage and assemblage of fragments, there is a political approach, a militant slogan. for kuleshov, the function of cinema was to “break through the gaps." there is in montage court (short editing) a search for narrative efficiency. with montage, everything becomes possible. dominique chateau ( ) explains that by the method of montage, we can create a semblance of heterogeneous elements of reality; the efficiency of this mode of composing is the fact that the spectator "sees what the montage suggests." montage is thus strategic. fragments are not elements derived from a kind of database, but must be created from the perspective of their assemblage. this is equivalent to saying: "the filming of fragments anticipates the whole [...]." cinema is not reality but produces the illusion of reality. it creates a simulation of reality. effective montage gives the impression that what in reality is feasible and achievable is improbable and impracticable: “what characterizes cinema is not the restitution of reality, but its production," states dominique chateau ( ). the montage, as presented by kuleshov, makes it possible to assemble “parallel and simultaneous actions" and to interweave them, to create what exists nowhere else. in the words of dominique chateau, kuleshov, through montage, is a “creator of the world". it should be noted that the contradictory debates between kuleshov, pudovkin, vertov, and eisenstein on the subject of montage must be seen in the context in which they were born - that is, the soviet union of - . montage assumes the selection of fragments, their combination (approximation), and the construction of a set. it makes it possible to join what is disjointed, to build a whole from disparate fragments. thus, it supposes the discontinuity of elements and aims at an internal continuity. montage reduces gaps and produces rhythms. it breaks with the mere recording of raw reality. excerpts from glumov's diary is eisenstein's first film, . screenshot by christiane wagner. creative commons attribution license (reuse allowed). art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ excerpts from glumov's diary is eisenstein's first film, . screenshot by christiane wagner. creative commons attribution license (reuse allowed). dziga vertov, an author of a documentary, and an experimental, militant form of cinema sees the camera as a "cine-eye”(kino-eye) - more sophisticated than the human eye, that requires emancipation from the habit of servile reproduction: "now we release the camera and run it in the opposite direction, away from the copy," he writes. it is for him to create a "new perception of the world. this is why i am deciphering, in a new way, a world that is unknown to you." for vertov, cinema was an instrument of knowledge. after his report and documentary, he embarked on creating a poetic form of cinema, moving from the idea of randomness through a montage of film pieces into control of the image sequence, developing a theory of intervals in an analogy with music. the intervals are presented as "passages from one movement to another" that "lead to action as kinetic outcome;" in addition to movement, the intervals are also concerned with time and space, as well as "all kinds of visual parameters." dominique chateau indicates that the notion of the interval "is at the same time gap, correlation, and transition, that is to say, work on images which, based on their fragmentation, seeks to establish between them semantic-visual links inscribed in the overall dynamics of the work." in what vertov calls the "battle of montage," this is about playing on the gap between two images to create a link between them. for him, it is the binding of fragments. montage is an addition, an aggregation of fragments in response to particular modalities and objectives. the various theoretical differences between soviet filmmakers all indicate the aim of reception, on the part of the spectator, of a particular purpose and art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ effectiveness in the goal. eisenstein, speaking of the "montage of attractions," declared: "you must not create a work; you must mount it with ready-made pieces, like a machine. montage is a beautiful word: it means putting together pieces that are there ready" . however, this montage of pieces must be made according to a certain method and a certain objective, according to the filmmakers. thus, we find ourselves at the heart of the debate on the form- content relationship. montage, in general, is the active appropriation of fragments, in combinations producing dynamic oppositions, stimulating contrasts, and fertile disjunctions. sometimes unexpected links are created between heterogeneous elements that were not intended to meet. contacts are formed, and new relationships occur. montage makes it possible to organize chaos, to invent new relationships, to shape "augmented realities" - to increase. from a technical point of view, the linking of two or more elements, either of the same nature or alien to each other, produces effects not present in the original items. eisenstein said of montage that it is an "idea born of the clash between two independent fragments." in this space of shocks and tensions, filmmakers can create anachronistic links. montage allows approximations, joinings, connections. this process opens on a multiplicity of possibilities and an infinity of results. excerpts from vertov's three songs of lenin ( ). screenshot by christiane wagner. public domain. art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ excerpt from vertov's three songs of lenin ( ). screenshot by christiane wagner. public domain. art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ montage: an aesthetic and political challenge if montage is in general associated with cinema, it naturally concerns other fields such as painting, collage, photomontage, installation, happenings, theater, dance, poetry, literature, music, and so on. in the past, the question of montage has given rise to quarrels between authors in the marxist sphere, such as georg lukács, bertolt brecht, walter benjamin, ernst bloch, theodor w. adorno, and herbert marcuse. in the twentieth century, jean-marc lachaud, in ‘collages, montages, assemblages’ , analyzed these divergent conceptions. lukács, for example, considers montage as 'foreign' fragments, "torn from their context," assembled together. in his opinion, it is a technical subterfuge inadequate to the task of showing objective reality.” avant-garde works are, in his eyes, incapable of representing real social relations. his taste for tradition and deep sense of the futility of the artistic avant-garde show his inability to grasp the importance and value of new technology in undermining the foundations of capitalist society. he even considers these novelties as an expression of literary and artistic decadence. while lukács condemns innovative works as being antirealist, brecht, in contrast, defends innovative practices because they "favor the transformations of the social function of art that the triumphant revolution will concretize," writes jean- marc lachaud. brecht's position on realism is radically different from that of lukács. the dramaturge thinks that realism must be "cleaned up before use, as old notions, many of which have already been used and abused for too many and diverse purposes." brecht favored a theatrical novelty, and new form, considering the installation a challenge to the idea of a harmonious and closed form. the old forms are no longer of interest because they are no longer effective. we must innovate and experiment with new forms. adorno, in 'aesthetic theory', and especially in the pages concerning "the crisis of the senses," also deals with the issue of montage. first, it is worth recalling an advanced idea at the beginning of the book, that "if art is opposed to empirical reality by the time of the art form - and the mediation of form and content cannot be understood without their distinction - this mediation must be [...] sought in the fact that the aesthetic form is sedimented content." this idea is fundamental, notably in being opposed to other marxist positions, in which the form must be at the service of the idea, the (revolutionary) content. here, in contrast, the process of formatting asserts itself as an opposition to established reality, and art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ art, by its very existence, is critical vis-à-vis existing reality, manifesting itself as a resistance to, and negation of, this reality. it is the manifestation of freedom. adorno saw in less realistic works (less realistic socialist works), or those less accessible and less explicit, the mark of the most effective critical power. its enigmatic aspect makes the work irreducible to a closed interpretation; as such, it resists what tries to define it, or to recover it for ideologically integration. modernist works show the "signs of dislocation." "works of art that negate meaning are also necessarily dislocated in their unity," writes adorno. on the function of montage, he goes on: "… just as it disavows unity by the apparent disparity of the parties, [it] contributes as a formal principle to its restoration." montage is thereby both the disavowal of the unit and the reconstruction of it. thus, adorno saw the artist of modernity grappling with a kind of oscillation, between a desire to put in crisis unity and sense, while working for their reconstruction. for the author, even that which stands against the cohesion of meaning nevertheless produces meaning. adorno distinguished "authentic art, which takes care of the crisis of meaning," and the art of "resignation," in which the negation of meaning "adapts to contingencies." the author goes on to say: "the principle of montage, as an action directed against organic unity obtained surreptitiously, was based on shock." when the shock dulls or disappears, the interest of the montage is neutralized. adorno thinks of the work of art as a process, as a phenomenon in the making, "essentially concerning the parties at all." for him, a work of art is neither "stable" nor "definitive" but "in motion." the parties are not; they are neither inert or dynamic. they are "centers of forces tending to totality." montage, modernity, assemblage anne souriau defines montage as: “the action of assemblage, or the way in which are assembled, to form a whole, parts first made up separately. [...] in general, and in all fields, a montage is an aesthetic fact, since one is an editor of an overall form and influences the aspects that the different parts adopt to each other's elements." montage, therefore, consists of putting together heterogeneous elements of various origins, to obtain a particular result, employing adapted techniques. art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ moreover, as already discussed, montage is based on the shock of fragments, themselves linked to artistic modernity, which is the manifestation. adorno stated that, "according to its microstructure, all new art should be called montage" insofar as it uses the montage process, jean-paul olive writes: "any modern work can only be conceived if in response to the shock phenomena characteristic of the modern era. to the exploded experience of modernity [...], to this experience of flying, corresponds an art that breaks, and can no longer - and no doubt no longer wants to - resolve to a unified appearance." assemblage, for its part, supposes a non-homogeneity of the work, an interruption of the spatial continuity. it involves the juxtaposition, the superposition, the simultaneity of various structures and materials. it also affirms a break with the illusionist conception of art. it disrupts traditional artistic codes, ignores conventions, and produces displacements, disturbances, the unpredictable, the unexpected, the strange. it is in total rupture with the partitioning intrinsic to classical aesthetics. it is a work of construction that passes through choices and which refers to the intention of the artist who relates heterogeneous elements. it is about creating relationships and encounters, producing echoes, shocks, tensions. the artwork is constructed as and when dialogue is established between the fragments. through assemblage, the artist explores areas of coexistence and encounter, organizing the heteroclite, arranging the varied, bringing together fragments to produce connections. in short, it is part of a poetics of encounter and relationship. the artist is thus reshaping the boundaries of art by creating new geographies. in these fortuitous, unexpected encounters, in these outbursts of unexpectedness, in these impulses that invent a whole, the gaps are reduced and ever new universes arise. assemblage allows for displacements, permanent changes, combinations ever fruitful for the artist and unpredictable for the spectator. the assemblage of the various gives a place to open works, which also belong to an aesthetic of meeting. through montage and assemblage, art breaks with the obligation to represent, to represent reality. in 'still life with chair caning' ( ), pablo picasso revealed that the artist no longer represents the real. however, artists present art through a collage of oilcloth pieces in painting compositions and a piece of rope forming a kind of frame. the cubist collages, dadaist and surrealist photomontages, assemblies (combined paintings) of rauschenberg, tinguely, and many others, offer diversions, deviations. these gaps and ruptures open up new horizons to new possibilities, new realities. art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ the fragment it is naturally impossible to speak of montage and assemblage without evoking the mounted and assembled elements that are the fragments. montage and assemblage use various fragments, pieces of the world, of reality, that the artist then combines, associates, and organizes to evoke surprise, astonishment, the unknown. the purpose of these processes is to bring out the unusual, the unexpected. these combined fragments are, in the eyes of the defenders of classical aesthetics, a symbol of impurity, regrettable intrusion, discrepancy, and dislocation; they are therefore the antithesis of harmony, unity, coherence, and everything they defend. the assembly of fragments is thus the mark of refusal and emancipation vis-à-vis representation, déjà-vu, of the established order. the fragment appeals to a particular thought - that of the diverse, the exploded, of discontinuity, loss, tension. it announces the irruption of the unexpected, of uncertainty, of instability. it is a rebellion against totality, harmony, unity. the fragment is the result of dislocation, bursting, fracture, tearing, breaking, cutting. it symbolizes violence. it is a break with continuity, the disappearance of everything, the defection of coherence and annihilation of a whole. the separation of the fragment leads to the destruction of the totality. it is indicative of a crisis of unity. the fragment also suggests the absence - what is missing. it is what is missing that gives rise to the sense of no more unity; hence the feeling of incompleteness. it refers to incompleteness, but the fragment is fundamentally ambiguous. in its incompleteness, it can be self-sufficient and establish itself as a homogeneous whole. this is how the german romantics of the school of jena envisioned seeing the fragment as a totality. as alain brunn says, the fragment “is both unfinished completeness and finished incompleteness." the fragment is not inert or frozen. in work, articulated with other fragments, it imposes itself by its dynamism. it is also the germ of work to come. it has its energy detached. it throbs with internal dynamism. besides, fragments interact together in their implementation and create a dynamic in their relationship with other elements. in the space of the work, the fragments are put in tension, create echoes, friction, articulations, dialogues. the gathering and organization of fragments that pass through the work of montage and assemblage allow for constitution of a new whole. the fragment no longer appears as a reminder of a lost unit, as the debris of the world, as a residue of the real, but as part of a new whole. the association of heterogeneous fragments contributes to the development of a homogeneous whole. fragments appear as moments before possible encounters. in the context art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ of the work, they are at once lonely and in solidarity. assembled, they have a strength, a form, producing meaning. brutal connections, tensions, telescoping between fragments, surprise the viewer. these assemblages can confuse, disturb, disrupt, destabilize. the assemblage produces transgressions. montage and assemblage are at the origin of an art form which reveals other realities, ferments of possible. jean-marc lachaud brings together these practices of collagists, “montagists,” and “assemblagists” under the term “aesthetics of non- coherence”, having “to do with a concrete utopia, thus with the prospect of emancipation (individual and collective)." this aesthetics of non-coherence, which is also an aesthetic of the encounter, is part of what adorno called a “frightening process” of the arts. in july , he began his speech at the berlin academy of arts with the following words: “in the most recent evolution, the boundaries between artistic genres flow into each other, or more precisely: their lines of demarcation are frightening." the process that adorno was already observing in cubists was seen to develop throughout the twentieth century. in the twenty-first century, contemporary art has been characterized by a limitless hybridization of artistic practices, with extra- artistic domains as varied and unusual as genetics, robotics, and computer science, offering works that question, sometimes fascinate or discourage, but do not leave indifferent. author biography dominique berthet is a university professor, he teaches aesthetics and art criticism at the university of the french antilles (ua). founder and head of cereap (center for studies and research in aesthetic and plastic arts). founder and director of the magazine recherches en esthétique (research in aesthetics). member of crillash (center for interdisciplinary research in literature, languages, arts, and humanities, ea ). associate researcher at acte institute (université paris panthéon-sorbonne). art critic, member of aica-france (international association of art critics). exhibition curator. his research focuses on contemporary and comparative aesthetics, contemporary art, caribbean art, and surrealism. he has directed more than volumes, published more than articles and ten books among which: hélénon, “lieux de peinture” (monograph), (preface Édouard glissant), hc Éditions, ; andré breton, l’éloge de la rencontre. antilles, amérique, océanie, hc Éditions, ; ernest breleur (monograph), hc Éditions, ; pour une critique d’art engagée, l’harmattan, . art style | art & culture international magazine ______ ______ notes . catherine millet in french: “l’art […] est devenu contemporain quand il a commencé, d’une certaine façon à réaliser le projet moderne au sens où l’entendait baudelaire” and “j’ai suggéré d’entrée que l’art contemporain était une réalisation de la modernité. plus exactement, il réalise le programme de la modernité”, in “l’art contemporain. histoire et géographie” (paris, flammarion, coll. “champs arts” ), and . . anne souriau (dir.), in Étienne souriau, “vocabulaire d’esthétique” (paris, puf, coll. quadrige, ), . . dominique chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage. kouléchov, poudovkine, vertov et eisenstein (paris, l’harmattan, coll. champs visuels, ). . in french: “le mot “montage” a été utilisé ici depuis les premiers jours de l’existence du cinéma russe. on ne sait pas qui l’a prononcé le premier – évidemment un des opérateurs français qui vinrent en russie. mais c’est moi qui ai défini le “montage” comme une propriété spécifique du cinéma dans mes articles et dans le livre l’art du cinema”, interview by lev kuleshov with “film culture au printemps , in chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . kuleshov, in french: “l’essence de l’art cinématographique […] repose entièrement sur la composition. pour faire un film, le réalisateur doit combiner différents fragments filmés, non ordonnés et non reliés en un tout, et juxtaposer les différents moments dans l’ordre le plus avantageux, le plus cohérent et le mieux rythmé […]”, in chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . kuleshov, in french: “percer une brèche dans les esprits”, in chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . kuleshov in chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . dziga vertov in chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . vertov in chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . vertov in chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . in french “l’intervalle, c’est l’utilisation de l’écart sur le plan du référent entre deux images pour constituer un lien sémantico-visuel entre elles sur la base d’un ou de plusieurs paramètres visuels et en vue de participer à la dynamique du discours qu’ils actualisent ponctuellement”, chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, - . . sergueï mikhaïlovitch eisenstein in chateau, contribution à l’histoire du concept de montage, . . eisenstein in aumont, “montage eisenstein” (paris, images modernes, ), . . jacques aumont and alain bergala, esthétique du film (paris, nathan, coll. arts université, ), . . jean-marc lachaud, collages, montages, assemblages au xxe siècle, vol. l’art du choc ; vol. le fragment à l’œuvre (paris, l’harmattan, ). . lukács in lachaud, “collages, montages, assemblages”, vol. , . . lachaud, “collages, montages, assemblages”, vol. , . . bertolt brecht, “popularité et réalisme.” in Écrits sur la littérature et l’art , trans. a. gisselbrecht (paris, l’arche, ), . . theodor w. adorno, théorie esthétique, trans. marc jimenez (paris, klincksieck, ), . . adorno, théorie esthétique, . . in french: “[…] il est impossible de penser une œuvre d’art qui, tout en intégrant en soi l’hétérogène et en se tournant contre la cohésion propre de son sens, ne produise pas malgré tout du sens.” theodor w. adorno, l’art et les arts, trans. jean lauxerois (paris, desclée de brouwer, coll. arts et esthétique, ), . . adorno, théorie esthétique, . . adorno, théorie esthétique, . . adorno, théorie esthétique, . . adorno, théorie esthétique, . . anne souriau, “vocabulaire d’esthétique”, . . adorno, théorie esthétique, . . jean-paul olive, “fragments épars, fragments dynamiques”, in amey and olive (dir.), “fragment, montage-démontage, collage-décollage, la défection de l’œuvre ?”, coll. arts (paris, l’harmattan, ), . . alain brunn, “fragment”, “dictionnaire des notions” (paris, encyclopædia universalis, ), . . lachaud, collages, montages, assemblages, vol. , . . adorno, l’art et les arts, . vol. , no. , may , pp. ∼ new physics: sae mulli, doi: . /npsm. . implications of the relationship between science and art in the twentieth century for science education hunkoog jho∗ center of general education, dankook university, cheonan - , korea (received march : revised april : accepted april ) this study aims to discuss the shared background between the theory of relativity in physics and surrealism in art and to elucidate the scientific features presented in paintings from the twentieth century. regarding historical background, both physics and art were influenced by modernism which denies absolute truth for many reasons: high interest in psychoanalysis, socio-economic inequity and contempt of life. art rejected perspectives about and concentrated on expression of given phenomena (cubism and surrealism), and science reached the conclusion that time is inseparable from space and that every motion or event is relative (theory of relativity). many artists were interested in the theory of relativity and tried to apply scientific theories in their paintings through direct and/or indirect interactions with scientists. paintings by surrealists and cubists showed the relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction and curvature of space-time. the cases shown in this study will be used to discuss pedagogical ways of teaching physics with art. pacs numbers: . .fk keywords: physics and art, theory of relativity, surrealism, cubism :gm� vês �vrËt�Â]ØÊÝ q�ønÚ ý å¾Ë � ý ÀxØ ýõu§ ��Þ�x¢ ÊÝ]k¡w��Õ×;c ��x¢ s���xìÈ �Ðgy@v��∗ éß�²dg@/�<Æ�§ �§�ª�l��í�§¹¢¤"é¶, ��;îß� - ( �̧� �z { � ~ÃÎ £§, �̧� �z { � ú&ñ �:r ~ÃÎ £§, �̧� �z { � >�f� sx�&ñ ) �:r ���½̈��h [jl� �©�@/$í s��:r_� òøÍÒqtõ� �í�&³z�́ÅÒ_� p�Õüt_� òøÍÒqt c��â �̀¦ ¶ú�(r�Ð�¦, {©�r� p�Õüt ���¾¡§ �̀¦ �©�@/$í s��:r_� �'a&h�\�"f ì�r$ �
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��¦�� ô�Ç r��̧�Ð+� �Ð�� ���ª�ô�Ç r�@/_� p�Õüt�� �̧ü< õ��<Æs� "f�Ð #qb�g>� ������÷&#q e����ht� ¶ú�(r �§Ü¼�Ð +� �<ÆÒqt[þt_� Óüto� �<Æ_þv\� @/ô�Ç <ɪp�ü< >h¥Æ� s�k� £x����̀¦ l�@/½+É Ãº e���̀¦ �.���s	כ new physics: sae mulli, vol. , no. , may references [ ] b. s. baigrie, picturing knowledge: historical and philosophical problems concerning the use of art in science (university of toronto press, toronto, ), chap. . [ ] a. i. miller, imagery in scientific thought creating th-century physics (birkhauser, boston, ), chap. . [ ] i. galili, sci. & educ. , ( ). [ ] j. k. gilbert, visualization in science education (springer, dordrecht, ), chap. . [ ] d. f. treagust and j. k. gilbert, multiple represen- tations in science education (springer, dordrecht, ), chap. . [ ] p. m. harman, energy, force and matter (cam- bridge university press, new york, ). 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[ ] t. kang, h. jeong, h. min, s. kim and j. yoon et al., art, truth, science (jaewon, seoul, ), pp. - . implications of the relationship between science and art in the twentieth century· · · – hunkoog jho∗ · �̧��³²dg [ ] e. loran, cezanne’s composition : an analysis of his form with diagrams and photographs of his motifs (university of california press, berkeley, ). [ ] j. s. ryu and c. o. oh, j. korean soc. des. sci. , ( ). [ ] u. kraus, eur. j. phys. , ( ). [ ] h. jho, new phys.: sae mulli , ( ). [ ] s. im and j. kim, new phys.: sae mulli , ( ). meyer schapiro, the language of forms: lectures on insular manuscript art. foreword by charles e. pierce jr. introduction by jane e. rosenthal. new york: pierpont morgan library, . paper. pp. vii, ; black-and-white and color figures. edinburgh research explorer the language of forms: lectures on insular manuscript art citation for published version: pulliam, h , 'the language of forms: lectures on insular manuscript art', speculum, vol. , no. , pp. - . https://doi.org/ . /s digital object identifier (doi): . /s link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: publisher's pdf, also known as version of record published in: speculum publisher rights statement: copyright © the medieval academy of america, . pulliam, h. ( ). the language of forms: lectures on insular manuscript art. speculum-a journal of medieval studies, ( ), - doi: . /s general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the edinburgh research explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the university of edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that edinburgh research explorer content complies with uk legislation. if you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. download date: . apr. https://doi.org/ . /s https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-language-of-forms-lectures-on-insular-manuscript-art(c c a e - - e -bf b- f ab c).html discusses strategies of richard and the appellants in the case of appeals against brembre, and she devotes chapter to bills, libels, and petitions in cases dealing with lollards, the oldcastle rebellion, jack cade, william de la pole, and, finally, “clamour” in yorkist and early tudor england. throughout her analyses scase is careful to identify the means by which “clamour” tradi- tions were appropriated and built upon in the development of a popular literature of clamor. in several instances open letters and bills were circulated by yorkist lords who “were them- selves responsible for recycling the texts” (p. ). her concluding chapter brings her findings to bear on the literature of complaint in the ars dictaminis tradition, with examples of episto- lary writing by chaucer, hoccleve, and christine de pisan. “judicial plaint offers all of the authors . . . , from the thirteenth-century poet to the reformation pamphleteer, a framework within which to create a literature of complaint” (p. ). students of literature and history will be in scase’s debt for generations to come for her gather- ing of archival materials in support of her argument—nearly four dozen manuscripts and docu- ments from the public record office, the british library, the bodleian and magdalen college libraries in oxford, cambridge university library, and the library of trinity college dublin. given the range and depth of her archival work it is easy to forgive her for not including more acknowledgment of classical literary traditions of epistolary and petition literature, which in the eyes of medieval writers served as a means of social commentary and political protest. and it seems odd to me that she virtually ignores the writings of john gower, who, with his legal back- ground and keen interest in linguistic protest, used legal formulas throughout his writing, frequently featuring embedded letters of complaint, petitions, and appeals within his narratives. as the principal vox clamantis poet of the fourteenth century, gower understood the voicing of clamor and used it in all his works, whether in french, latin, or english. scase views her book as a beginning study. perhaps work on gower will be in her future plans. it might also be of interest to see how her arguments could be brought to bear on early english drama, where strongly voiced protest often works in and around legal issues contested in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. russell a. peck, university of rochester meyer schapiro, the language of forms: lectures on insular manuscript art. foreword by charles e. pierce, jr. introduction by jane e. rosenthal. new york: pierpont morgan library, . paper. pp. vii, ; black-and-white and color figures. doi: . /s this volume presents a series of public lectures on insular manuscript illumination given by meyer schapiro at the pierpont morgan library. published nine years after his death and thirty-seven years after they were first delivered, the lectures provide unique insights not only into their stated subject but also into a single, dramatic moment in the history of the- oretical and art-historical studies. while the foreword proclaims the lectures to be “time- less,” part of their attraction is that they are so clearly of a specific time and place and per- son: schapiro, in new york, in the late s. although schapiro delivered the lectures extemporaneously, they were recorded at the time, and he had begun editing the transcripts before his death. jane rosenthal has completed the task, taking great care to stay as close to the original transcripts as possible. although it lacks the extensive footnotes that schapiro had intended, the book is beautifully presented. upon first inspection, schapiro’s purpose seems dated. at the time of the lectures, insular (then “hiberno-saxon”) works had been largely dismissed as barbaric and degenerate, and schapiro’s response—evident throughout the book—was to justify the study and appreciation of insular objects as “art.” the lectures make frequent, anachronistic-sounding appeals to reviews “taste,” arguing that insular illumination is not “banal” or “obvious” but complex, sophisti- cated, and indicative of “extraordinary skill.” in places, the text could almost be a passionate appeal to ruskin himself. it is worth bearing in mind, however, that even today insular objects make only the briefest appearance in art-historical surveys, glossy history-of-art series, and ma- jor art exhibitions. additionally, relatively few academic institutions offer upper-level and graduate courses on insular material. in light of this, ruskin’s scorn and schapiro’s defense may not be as outmoded as they first appear. the book’s six chapters follow schapiro’s six lectures. the first chapter demonstrates how the figures and details of well-known images “have qualities that we associate with reality, nature, and the empirical world: articulation, organic continuity, and subdivision, response of objects to their surroundings—the interplay of neighboring parts.” the second chapter examines the “ex- pressive qualities” of insular carpet pages and display script, effectively appropriating terminol- ogy and methodologies from music and literary studies but also from cubism and abstract expressionism. in the third chapter, schapiro notes that the frames in insular manuscripts, un- like those from the late renaissance onwards, were created in conjunction with and as an inte- gral part of the artwork. the fourth and fifth chapters suggest that art historians examine the transformation of models by moving beyond investigations of “the genealogy of a single motif” to consider instead features of composition and syntax such as the relationship between the figure and the frame or between the parts and the whole. in the final chapter, “the religious and secular grounds of insular art,” schapiro states that he will attempt to explain the causes behind insular art. the title and schapiro’s claim are somewhat misleading as the chapter in- stead asserts the status and intellect of insular artists while providing an overview of the various cultural prejudices and diversity at work within insular objects and their study. until the publication of these lectures, many art historians had only glimpsed schapiro’s ap- proach to insular manuscripts, either via fragments gleaned from his other publications or through the works of those whom he had taught. even so, the methodology that is so clearly set out in this text has indirectly influenced contemporary approaches to early-medieval art, especially in terms of incorporating the vital but neglected components of frame, field, script, and layout into the discussion of these works. unfortunately, schapiro’s examination of the “grammar” of the page is not applied to the manuscript as a whole, and pages are treated as isolated entities with little to no consideration of the image and decoration of the facing recto or verso. ironically, schapiro chose to dissociate the visual from the verbal in these lectures, only rarely addressing the relationship of the image to the textual content present either on the page itself or in surrounding folios. in some places, the experience of reading schapiro’s incredibly detailed visual analysis while looking in parallel at the equally intricate images is sim- ilar to that of reading subtitles while watching a foreign film, but the book’s sumptuous illus- tration helps and incorporates a number of visual experiments to good effect. several of the comparative images are not placed together in the same opening, which is rather surprising considering the otherwise lavish illustrations and layout. schapiro’s approach in these lectures is essentially a master class in looking—closely and freshly—in a way that attempts to permit forms to speak for themselves and in their own lan- guage, as much as such a thing is possible. its formal analysis stands at odds with the current focus upon context through the use of exegetical tracts, historical documents, material culture, and the liturgy. the book presents an almost closed system, treating the insular object as “art for art’s sake,” divorced from its moorings of meaning and intent. while in part this reflects the methodology current at the time the lectures were delivered, it also enables those of us not for- tunate enough to have been taught by meyer schapiro to experience his technique. like the best of teachers, he offers a new way of looking and of knowing, acting as a guide who points to the mountain peak but steps back so as to allow others to venture forth and claim the best view. heather pulliam, university of edinburgh reviews editor's perspectives - july lable at sciencedirect international journal of surgery ( ) e contents lists avai international journal of surgery journal homepage: www.journal-surgery.net editorial editor's perspectives e july is medicine an art or a science? this is a question i often ponder. years ago i met a fascinating modern renaissance surgeon in his home city of san francisco. leonard shlain. he had just published a book entitled “art and physics” (morrow- ) which he gave to me, suitably inscribed, after we had discussed the art and science in surgery. it still remains one of the most remarkable books i have ever read. leonard posed the following question to himself e is there a connection between the inscrutability of modern art and the impenetrability of the new physics? each chapter is fascinating but i especially enjoyed the ones on cubism and space and new- ton's apples and cezanne's apples. it would appear that art and science continued through the ages on parallel tracks and it was only with leonardo da vinci that these tracks merged. shlain suggested that leonardo could integrate the two halves of his divided psyche, i.e. integrating the two hemi- spheres of his brain. i cannot remember how he responded to my question to him on medicine being an art or science as we became so enwrapped in art and science. however, i feel sure he agrees with me that surgery is both art and science, but with the advance of technology science has taken the major role. it was easy once to diagnose death, yet now we know there are cases of “the locked in syndrome” which can be recognized by advanced investigatory tools. in days of yore there was a definite art in making a diagnosis based on deductive thinking and experience. nowadays, blood tests and scanning have made making a diagnosis much more of a sci- ence. i still remember my professor of medicine asking me why i had performed a serum calcium without reason when i was his intern and unwittingly diagnosed hyperparathyroidism. now over % of cases of hyperparathyroidism are picked up by chance screening. so is there any art left in surgery. i still like to teach my students that diagnosis is like working out a detective novel. make it from taking a careful history if that is possible; if not then from a thor- ough examination and more often than not that is all that is required and investigations confirm your diagnosis. in technical surgery, routine technical procedures are more and more science based with robots, intra-operative ultra-sound, mri or endoscopy. however, when things are not straightforward or often in the emer- gency situation, that is when art comes in to play in my opinion. i recall the quote “his surgery was poetry in motion” e what an acco- lade which comes from the art as well as the science of surgery in my opinion. half this issue deals with gastro-intestinal/hepato-biliary clin- ical articles. the other half is a great mix of historical pathology/or- thopaedic fracture surgery/experimental research/oncology and a cardiac paper. it seems right somehow to commence with the his- torical review of lung cancer cell carriage. the nigerian authors reviewed most of the th century medical literature on the http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ijsu. . . - /© surgical associates ltd. published by elsevier ltd. all rights reserved anomalous phenomenon that these cancer cells failed to cross the midline to the other lung, despite it being the most eligible of sites. whilst on pathology i thought the comparative study from israel on different methods to retrieve lymph nodes post gastrectomy is not only important but all surgeons should coerce their histopa- thologists into using the acetone clearing technique. turning to the orthopaedic articles both address trauma and both come from china. the first compares primary and delayed wound closure after severe open tibial fractures showing no signif- icant differences in outcome, whilst the second studied cases of mid-clavicular fractures treated by a minimally invasive technique using a locking reconstruction plate which seems to be a good procedure. it is always satisfying to include experimental research papers. i thought the last word had been written on adhesions; however, from turkey there is a study on heparin use to diminish adhesions in the rat model which they postulate is by an anti-thrombotic ac- tivity that can be abolished by the addition of protamine. from taiwan there is a clinical research article on the tert promoter mu- tation in resectable hepato-cellular cancer which is associated with hepatitis c infection but absent with hepatitis b. tert is frequently found in malignant melanoma and other malignancies but un- known in hcc. we do not receive that many cardiac papers, so it is pleasing to include the paper from brazil on the patency of skeletonized vs pedicled internal thoracic artery use in coronary artery bypass sur- gery. they reviewed studies with over patients and showed there was no difference in terms of patency. it is rare also to publish a paper on endoscopy especially from the endoscopist's safety point of view. our turkish authors performed a study on physicians and nurse endoscopists with respect to how adequately they protected themselves against infection. most did not effectively apply the universal precautions against infectious risks and had not received basic training. brazil and turkey also provide the next papers i wish to mention. an observer-blind randomized trial between electrocautery and a conventional scalpel with respect to surgical site infection was carried out in women following gynaecological operations. there was no difference in infection rates so the brazilian authors state this does not justify a surgeon opting to use a scalpel. however, i must point out my own experimental work many years ago showing that diathermy delayed healing. the other turkish paper demonstrates the impact of primary tumour resection in colo-rectal cancer patients with unresectable distant metastases. there is a definite survival benefit without increasing post-operative mortality. turning to the upper gastro-intestinal tract, it was interesting to read from china that there were no significant differences in com- plications or mortality following different pancreatico-enteric . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.ijsu. . . &domain=pdf www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.journal-surgery.net http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ijsu. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ijsu. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ijsu. . . editorial / international journal of surgery ( ) e reconstructions following pancreatico-duodenectomy when they reviewed the medical literature. also from china there is an impor- tant paper on early post-operative feeding following laparoscopic distal gastrectomy. hospital stay was reduced and the time till flatus passed decreased. from korea we learn following a survey performed years after total gastrectomy that this operation does not result in living a carefree state in terms of quality of life. patients still needed extended care due to symptomatic behaviou- ral and financial consequences. moving back to south america, there is a paper from chile on uncomplicated liver hydatid cysts; risk factors include age and cyst location. europe also provides contributions with an important randomized controlled trial between toupet and dor anti-reflux procedures following heller's myotomy for achalasia. the toupet partial posterior fundoplication had better outcomes with respect to oesophageal emptying and functional scales scores, but other- wise there were no differences noted. our french colleagues reviewed day case appendicectomy in adults. they analysed the re- sults from studies ( retrospective, prospective and case controlled) comprising patients of who ( %) were dis- charged within h, ( %) within h and ( %) between and h. their conclusions are that day case appendicectomy is feasible but more prospective studies are needed. my unan- swered comment about this paper is that there is no indication as to whether the operations were performed by an open or laparo- scopic approach. the last articles are all on aspects of gall stone surgery. the first i shall mention as to whether crp is a useful adjunct in select- ing patients for emergency cholecystectomy by predicting severe/ gangrenous cholecystitis comes from the uk. it seems that crp on its own has a high predictive value in predicting gangrenous cholecystitis. the next paper, also from the uk, is a meta-analysis of comparative studies between laparoscopic ultra-sound vs. intra-operative cholangiogram for the detection of cbd stones at laparoscopic choleycstectomy. there were no significant differ- ences in pooled sensitivity or specificity between the two investiga- tions. the authors conclude operative u/s is a useful imaging modality to confirm the absence of cbd calculi without the need for cannulation or radiation. however they do not address its avail- ability, the learning curve for accurate interpretation or time taken. finally from china there is a paper on laparoscopic cbd exploration with primary closure of the choledochotomy incision after failed endoscopic sphincterotomy with attempted clearance. patients failed stone extraction and underwent laparoscopic cbde the following day. there were conversions for impacted stones and bile leaks occurred but all resolved spontaneously. excellent re- sults with no mortality or other morbidity. from these world wide contributions i feel the answer to my earlier question has been vindicated e surgery is a wonderful mix still of art and science. we can debate the percentages in future issues. r. david rosin, professor university of the west indies, barbados e-mail address: rdavidrosin@gmail.com. available online june mailto:rdavidrosin@gmail.com 	editor's perspectives – july time present and time past: the art of john everett millais (review) time present and time past: the art of john everett millais (review) jason edwards journal of victorian culture, volume , number , spring , pp. - (review) published by edinburgh university press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /jvc. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /jvc. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ faulk in his nomination of a bourgeois class fraction of cultural gatekeepers as ideologically autonomous, whereas platt demonstrates how a cadre of cultural producers thrived through their collusive exploitation of a redefined hegemony. of the two monographs, platt’s is the more satisfactory for its greater attention to social and historical context, still too often absent or scanted in cs, or in literary studies claiming its kudos. peter bailey paul barlow, time present and time past: the art of john everett millais (aldershot: ashgate, ), ix + pages, illustrated, hardback, £ (isbn ). nostalgic lists are currently very fashionable in the british media. in any account of the greatest victorian paintings, judged by criteria such as tate britain’s best selling postcards or the number of reproductions of an individual canvas in contemporary coffee-table surveys, one would expect to find at least four of john everett millais’ early oils featured prominently. these are isabella ( ), christ in the house of his parents ( - ), mariana ( ), and ophelia ( ). each is deservedly famous in its own right, and is characterised by a meticulously-detailed pre-raphaelite surface, by the emotional intensity and complexity of its principal protagonists, by a sophisticated play of realism and iconogra- phy and of two and three dimensions, and by subject matter deriving from either the bible or mainstream british literary history. further down the same list, one might be similarly surprised if millais’ portrait of john ruskin did not figure alongside two of millais’ more melancholy subject pictures, the blind girl ( - ) and autumn leaves ( ). cherry ripe ( ) and bubbles ( ) are perhaps less palatable to contemporary sensibilities, but would probably also merit a mention. given millais’ continuing popularity, it is perhaps remarkable that only four book-length accounts of the painter’s work have appeared in the last decade. millais’ scholarly neglect is, of course, part of a broader trend within art history, in which victorian painting has been habitu- ally passed over in favour of french art of the same period. indeed, the historiography of modern art is widely presumed to bypass almost entirely british art movements, such as pre-raphaelitism, in favour of a sequence of ‘isms’ – realism, impressionism, symbolism, cubism, futurism, dada, surrealism and abstract expressionism – that orig- inated in paris and new york rather than london. what might come as more of surprise to victorianists of a more literary bent, however, whose research is characterised by a tradition of rigorous, contextualised close reviews mary botto muse_logo reading, is how little attention some of their art historical peers have paid to the formal and material qualities of the victorian painting they discuss. paul barlow’s remarkable and ambitious time present and time past: the art of john everett millais ( ) poses a significant and success- ful challenge to all of that. barlow wisely begins his book with an account of some of the per- ceived problems with millais from a contemporary art historiographical perspective still dominated by presuppositions derived from modern- ism. (modernism is here to be understood both in thematic and formal terms, as art engaging with the most contemporary issues, with the particular problems and possibilities inherent in its preferred media, and that sought to be avant-garde, rather than revivalist or retardaire in idiom.) with these still dominant criteria in mind, barlow frankly acknowledges the apparent discrepancy between millais and his more conventionally modernist peers. for example, barlow documents how many of millais’ french contemporaries, such as courbet, manet and monet, were rebelling against the social and pictorial expectations of traditional art institutions, such as the paris salon, and focussing their energies upon developing new visual idioms to engage with the unprecedented forms of modernity then emerging in the most recently constructed neighbourhoods in paris. at the same moment, barlow reveals, millais was abandoning his early, more vanguard pre-raphaelite credentials to become a royal academician, simultaneously turning his attention to aristocratic portraiture and crowd-pleasing pictures of little girls in mob cabs. one of these, bubbles, was later successfully employed in a pears soap advertising campaign. as barlow concisely puts it on the first page of time present, and in terms implicitly deriving from clement greenberg’s still influential accounts of abstract expressionist painting, if manet and monet are undoubtedly ‘modern’ according to most con- temporary art historians, in the eyes of a significant number of millais’ contemporaries and our own, the painter’s work was pre-eminently ‘kitsch’, which is to say, ‘finicky, prissy’, and ‘literary’ ( ). time present also does not shy away from including two oft-repeated anecdotes relating to millais’ private life and professional self-assess- ment which seem at first to bear out this negative critical assessment. in the first, we find the painter marrying ruskin’s ex-wife, effie, and raising together eight children, causing him to abandon his earlier pre-raphaelitism in order to come to terms with the debasing but financially necessary requirements of patrons aristocratic, popular, sentimental and imperial. in the second, we find millais bursting into disillusioned tears on seeing the juxtaposition of his later and earlier work at his grosvenor gallery retrospective ( , ). reviews barlow acknowledges the seductive appeal of these myths of millais’s professional fate as a sort of victorian ‘morality story’ ( ). however, time present significantly rejects this caricature of the painter’s biogra- phy and returns millais’ complex canvases to centre stage, making them newly appealing to an early twenty-first-century audience. like many contemporary historians of victorian art, barlow does so by suggesting that millais was a modernist avant-la-lettre, demonstrating how the painter’s ‘insubordinate’ works challenge both ‘social and artistic hierarchies’ ( , ). for example, time present demonstrates that millais shared with a wide range of high modernist artists a passion for the kinds of pictorial flatness and insistent facture so adored by greenberg’s still influential generation, but whose taste for such formal features did not appear ex nihilo in second-empire paris or post-war new york, as one might have imagined from modernist critical rhetoric, but could also be found in the work of velazquez, gainsborough and reynolds ( , ). barlow’s discriminating account of millais’ facture does not, however, simply reduce the painter’s interest in the surface of his work to a proto- modernist idea that the purity of the medium was the most appropriate message. instead, time present provides a detailed account of the formal and thematic significance of the wide range of paint-marks on display in millais’ work, differentiating helpfully between the painter’s more ‘forceful brushwork’ and his ‘experiments with blocking, flattening and dissolving of objects’ in line with contemporary understandings of the spirit world ( , ). in his account of other works, barlow also describes millais’ more ‘aesthetic’ emphasis’ on the ‘calligraphic rapidity of painting’ and the more general and productive tension, in individual canvases and across the painter’s oeuvre, between ‘violent and decorative’ paint-marks ( , ). in so doing, time present returns repeatedly to millais’ complex understanding of the nature of painting as a medium existing on the ‘border between solidity and fragmen- tation, solid modelling’ and decorative surface ( - ). barlow is equally careful in his account of millais’ relationship with aestheticism: a vanguard late-victorian art movement concerned with promoting formal and physical perfection at the expense of thematic, political, didactic or moral content. for example, time present finds in millais a useful candidate to challenge the repeated leftist critique of aestheticism as an elitist, hedonistic movement troublingly preoccu- pied with the objectification of the adolescent body. that is because barlow successfully reveals the ways in which millais’ was an ‘ironic exploration of the new pictorial sensualism’ promoted by some aesthetes, a painterly preoccupation with the particularities of his reviews medium that nevertheless sought to integrate ‘inclusive humanist values’, and an aesthetic project in which viewers, far from being offered adolescent bodies for their erotic delectation, are never allowed to forget the ‘struggle between vitality and decay’ ( , , ). aestheticism studies have also recently been focussed on the move- ment’s significance for straight women and queer subjects of both genders. and perhaps with elizabeth prettejohn’s witty, recent obser- vation of the unexpected marginalisation of some straight male aesthetes, time present powerfully reconceptualises millais’ landscapes as more ‘masculine version[s] of the whistlerian nocturne’, focussed on scenes in which millais was as adept with a gun as a brush. in so doing, barlow allows millais a certain comical machismo, a ‘virility and vitality’, ‘wilderness and masculinity’, perhaps designed to appeal to those art historians who remain enamoured with the macho values emblematised by rodin, picasso or pollock’s brands of modernism ( , , - , ). in addition, time present also successfully demonstrates that central to much of millais’ supposedly sentimental work is an insistence upon the inevitably alienating ‘tension’ and ‘awkwardness’ that are encountered in any intimate relationship ( , ). and, like the significantly better respected dickens, who millais knew well, barlow understands millais’ art to be ‘accommodating’, ‘inclusive’, and complex, so that its obvious ‘popular appeal’ does not necessarily preclude its ‘aesthetic sophistica- tion’ ( , , ). rather than seeing millais’ work as part of a common, supposedly pre-raphaelite project, time present also successfully exca- vates from millais’ canvasses the painter’s own particular subjectivity. barlow’s readers thus learn much of the painter’s complex relationships with predecessors such as rembrandt and turner, and peers such as holman hunt and leighton ( , , ). in demonstrating the ways in which millais’ work ‘seems to satisfy most of the traditional “formalist” criteria’ for avant-garde art, then, time present is, as i have already noted, representative of an exciting, historiographically ambitious, current wave of revisionist victorian art history ( ). and like many of his peers, barlow makes a strong case for millais’ art in relation to international modernism. in so doing, time present further upends the supposedly ‘opposed realms of avant- garde and kitsch’ which so consistently structured accounts of victorian art across much of the twentieth century ( ). perhaps more significant still, however, is the way in which barlow interprets millais’ work in the light of the culture in which the painter ‘so fully and energetically participated’ ( ). indeed, one of the most praiseworthy aspects of time present is the way in which it is embedded reviews in its nineteenth-century material. the overall argument moves effortlessly and swiftly between analyses at a near microscopic level to interpretations from an ambitiously global perspective; from detailed accounts of millais’s individual pentimenti to contexualisations of his work in relation to the then furthest reaches of the victorian empire. if anything can dislodge the so-called ‘horror victorianorum’ that was one of the ‘triumphs of modernism’, it will be such visually, imaginatively, intellectually and emotionally compelling research ( ). towards the end of time present, barlow observes that millais’ work often hovers on the ‘brink of several different possibilities’ ( ). now that the presumptions of modernism are finally starting to be over- turned, and the new history of victorian art that emerged in its wake is fast becoming mainstream, what future challenges might millais’ work pose for art historians? perhaps for reasons of economy or copyright, perhaps because they are a hostage to modernist fortune, neither bubbles nor cherry ripe are reproduced in time present. nor are they fully analysed in barlow’s otherwise near exhaustive account of the canvasses that he mentions. in spite of the sophisticated work of carol mavor on the eroticism of childhood and adolescence in victorian photography, time present perhaps suggests that the time may not yet be right for the detailed analysis of apparent childhood eroticism in millais’ work. however, until that conceptual space can be carefully and self- consciously opened up, i would suggest, our understandings of millais’ historiography, of the painter’s popular appeal amongst his peers, and of the kinds of queasiness some of his works generate amongst our own, will remain an unfinished project. jason edwards endnotes . clement greenberg, ‘avant-garde and kitsch’ ( ) and ‘modernist painting’ ( - ), in charles harrison, paul wood and jason geiger (eds), art in theory - : an anthology of changing ideas (oxford: blackwell, ), - ; - . . elizabeth prettejohn, ‘introduction’, after the pre-raphaelites: art and aestheticism in victorian britain (manchester: manchester university press, ), . . for example, see elizabeth prettejohn, ‘the modernism of frederic leighton’, in david peters corbett and lara perry (eds), english art - : modern artists and identity (manchester: manchester university press, ); and david j. getsy, body doubles: sculpture in britain, - (new haven and london: yale university press, ). . for example, see carol mavor, pleasures taken: performances of sexuality and loss in victorian photographs (durham: duke university press, ), and becoming: the photographs of clementina, viscountess hawarden (durham: duke university press, ). reviews Études photographiques, | novembre Études photographiques  | novembre l'« âge d'or » revisité/alentours de bayard la photographie au service du simultanisme l’utilisation de l’image de mode par sonia delaunay cécile godefroy Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ issn : - Éditeur société française de photographie Édition imprimée date de publication : novembre pagination : - isbn : - - - issn : - référence électronique cécile godefroy, « la photographie au service du simultanisme », Études photographiques [en ligne], | novembre , mis en ligne le septembre , consulté le décembre . url : http:// journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ ce document a été généré automatiquement le décembre . propriété intellectuelle http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ la photographie au service du simultanisme l’utilisation de l’image de mode par sonia delaunay cécile godefroy note de l’Éditeur cécile godefroy a rédigé en une maîtrise d’histoire de l’art sur les photographies de mode du fonds delaunay. elle poursuit son enquête en thèse, sous la direction de serge lemoine (université paris iv). l’auteur remercie vivement sylvie aubenas et marie-cécile miessner, conservatrices au département des estampes et de la photographie de la bnf, pour leur aimable concours ainsi que serge lemoine et françoise ducros, professeurs à paris iv-sorbonne, pour avoir suivi ses recherches de maîtrise. l’auteur et la rédaction remercient l & m services pour leur autorisation de reproduire les photographies de mode du fonds delaunay de la bnf. en , sonia delaunay faisait don à la bibliothèque nationale de france de l’essentiel de ses archives et de son fonds photographique . parmi cet ensemble, quelque deux cents photographies de mode réalisées entre et témoignent de l’aventure de sonia delaunay dans le domaine spécifique de la mode . réalisés par des photographes professionnels, des artistes, des amateurs ou des amis, ces clichés s’inscrivent dans cette période charnière, longtemps restée obscure, où la photographie de mode commence timidement à s’affirmer comme un art à part entière. exécutées par une trentaine de photographes, ces images font toutefois apparaître un seul et même style. pendant plus de vingt ans, sonia delaunay aura utilisé la photographie de mode à des fins aussi bien commerciales qu’artistiques, faisant du médium un des outils de promotion les plus tangibles du simultanisme . l’expérience de sonia delaunay dans la mode s’est construite en plusieurs temps et son usage de la photographie de mode a évolué en conséquence. effectivement, on relève trois grandes périodes durant lesquelles le type de photographie utilisé par sonia la photographie au service du simultanisme Études photographiques, | novembre delaunay pour garder trace de ses créations vestimentaires s’est peu à peu transformé. lorsque l’artiste réalise ses premiers vêtements simultanés autour de , elle cherche avant tout à s’amuser. cette création témoigne de son attachement pour les arts appliqués et détermine sa volonté de briser toute hiérarchie des genres. le port de l’habit simultané, construit à partir de chutes de tissus de matières et de coloris variés, récupérées chez le tailleur de robert, son époux, choque les foules et enthousiasme le groupe d’artistes et d’intellectuels qui gravitent autour des delaunay dans les années . dès cette époque, sonia delaunay pose seule ou avec ses amis, habillés eux aussi en vêtements simultanés pour l’occasion (fig. ). en , les delaunay se réfugient au portugal puis en espagne. pour des raisons financières, sonia delaunay ouvre sa première boutique de mode et de décoration intérieure à madrid . la production de vêtements s’élargit au domaine de la décoration intérieure. sonia delaunay emploie des ouvriers et des ouvrières. elle continue à poser elle-même devant l’objectif, habillée de ses premières tenues commerciales, faisant très rarement appel à des mannequins professionnels. des amis et des célébrités apparaissent également sur les clichés habillés par la “casa sonia”. marque un changement significatif dans l’usage de la photographie de mode. en effet, à compter de l’ouverture de la boutique parisienne , sonia delaunay se consacre entièrement à la production de tissus, de vêtements et d’accessoires ainsi qu’à la réalisation de projets d’aménagement d’intérieur. elle se retrouve à la tête d’une véritable entreprise, s’associant avec de grandes maisons de couture comme celle de jacques heim par exemple. l’artiste prend conscience de l’importance et de la nécessité du médium photographique dans la diffusion de son travail. si sonia delaunay et ses amis figurent toujours en tenues simultanées sur les clichés, la plupart des photographies présentant les vêtements de la boutique sont désormais des photographies de mode pour lesquelles posent des mannequins professionnels ; ces clichés font l’objet d’un travail systématique, avec des visées mercantiles. jusqu’à la fermeture de la boutique en , la photographie accompagne chaque nouvelle création de sonia delaunay. cette dernière réalise un inventaire de chaque vêtement en conservant les clichés dans des albums de grand format . malgré l’importance croissante de la photographie de mode au fil des années, nous remarquons que le portrait de mode reste essentiel dans cette production d’images de à . ce constat est symptomatique d’une époque où la photographie de mode reste dépendante du portrait de mode et dans le cas présent, il fait aussi la preuve de l’appartenance de sonia delaunay à une élite artistique et intellectuelle internationale (fig. ), donnant immédiatement une valeur avant-gardiste à l’ensemble de sa production de vêtements et d’arts appliqués. le rôle du photographe a aussi évolué en fonction du statut des créations de sonia delaunay. jusqu’à l’ouverture de la maison sonia en , l’artiste fait peu appel à des professionnels. puis elle coopère avec au moins une trentaine de photographes différents qui vont de l’ami(e) au portraitiste de quartier. deux cas de figure dominent dans ce choix de photographes. soit sonia delaunay, réputée pour accueillir le tout- paris et aider les artistes étrangers qui viennent de s’installer, fait appel à ses ami(e)s photographes de passage dans son appartement. commande sérieuse ou simple échange d’artiste à artiste, elle collabore le temps d’une prise de vue avec l’américaine thérèse bonney en , l’allemande germaine krull en et la française florence henri en . l’artiste collabore de même avec des photographes et des studios de photographes professionnels. la plupart d’entre eux travaillent pour des revues de mode telles que la photographie au service du simultanisme Études photographiques, | novembre fémina, l’art et la mode, l’illustration des modes, l’officiel de la mode et certaines revues spécialisées étrangères comme women’s wear dealy . ces photographes et studios de photographes sont reconnus comme des professionnels mais ne comptent pas parmi les photographes de mode célèbres à paris qui travaillent pour les deux principales revues spécialisées de l’époque, vogue et le jardin des modes. souvent ils se présentent comme portraitistes d’art et ne pratiquent la photographie de mode qu’en activité subsidiaire . ceci laisse planer une interrogation sur cet apparent refus de sonia delaunay de faire appel à ces professionnels de la mode, tel albin-guillot, scaïoni, d’ora ou les frères lipnitzky qui signent à cette époque les clichés les plus célèbres dans les revues de mode internationales, mais surtout de ne pas chercher à privilégier une collaboration unique. ce choix de travailler avec autant de photographes de style et de formation différents peut ainsi paraître hasardeux . cette observation n’exclut aucunement la part de créativité des photographes, mais sonia delaunay ne semble pas avoir recherché particulièrement cette participation active du photographe. d’autres couturiers de mode tel paul poiret se sont intéressés dès le début des années aux nouvelles possibilités de la photographie, collaborant avec de grands photographes de mode, tels steichen puis man ray. sonia delaunay, toujours en quête de modernité et en relation étroite avec des artistes photographes comme krull et henri, semble avoir volontairement nié les enjeux de la photographie de mode naissante des années . nous savons que l’artiste n’utilise pas elle-même l’appareil photographique ; cependant, il est fort probable qu’elle assiste et contrôle systématiquement chacune des prises de vue. or après avoir observé les images, il apparaît qu’une grande partie de l’intérêt de ces clichés réside dans le contenu de l’image : la lisibilité du vêtement, le lieu et le décor de la prise de vue, trois domaines dans lesquels sonia delaunay peut intervenir directement. l’étude des lieux et des décors choisis pour présenter les créations vestimentaires de sonia delaunay permet de distinguer deux types de photographies de mode. il existe une photographie de mode réalisée dans un cadre arbitraire, qui reste fortement liée au portrait photographique : studio de photographe, faux décors d’extérieur reconstitués (fig. ), demeures de particuliers et champs de course parisiens servent à cette date de lieux communs pour la réalisation des portraits et des photographies de mode. ces clichés signés henri manuel, les frères manuel, studio iris et paul géniaux non dénués d’originalité, mettent l’accent avant tout sur la clarté du produit présenté. le fonds révèle ensuite un autre type de photographies de mode réalisées dans un lieu correspondant à l’art « visuel et constructif » de son temps : la rue mallet-stevens inaugurée en (fig. ) comme le paquebot, un des emblèmes de la modernité technologique du xxe siècle en france (fig. ), offrent un cadre singulier aux vêtements de la maison “sonia”. de même, l’exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes de plante un décor moderne, géométrique, abstrait et parfois mobile (fig. ) autour des tenues coloristes de l’artiste, légitimant dans un même temps l’appartenance des delaunay à cette nouvelle esthétique moderne des années . en outre, de nombreuses photographies sont réalisées dans des décors aménagés par l’artiste elle-même : environnements de tissus juxtaposés mêlant les arts plastiques et la mode (voir fig. ), stands de mode ou salon de l’appartement-boutique au , boulevard malesherbes, ces environnements constitués par sonia delaunay servent très la photographie au service du simultanisme Études photographiques, | novembre souvent de décor pour les prises de vue des photographies de mode. la boutique située dans l’appartement des delaunay est le lieu idéal pour présenter simultanément mode et arts appliqués : les murs du salon sont tapissés d’une toile géométrique réalisée d’après un dessin de l’artiste, les tapis, les rideaux, le tissu recouvrant les fauteuils dessinés par sonia, les coussins, des châles et des sacs posés sur les meubles et les paravents, des aquarelles et des photographies de mode témoignent de la multiplicité du travail de l’artiste. l’appartement entier est simultané. les mannequins qui présentent les tissus et les vêtements de la boutique se fondent dans le décor environnant (voir fig. ). comme les portraits de l’artiste de , ces photographies de mode présentent clairement les créations de la maison “sonia” et témoignent dans le même temps des correspondances existantes entre mode, arts appliqués et arts plastiques au sein même de l’œuvre simultanée. par cette assimilation complète entre vêtements, tissus, peinture et arts appliqués, l’idée d’une œuvre d’art totale est ici pleinement suggérée. photographies de mode ou images simultanées ? la destination des clichés dans la presse nous aide à déterminer le statut de ces images. les albums de presse montés par l’artiste rendent compte de l’importance des publications françaises et étrangères issues de la boutique simultanée. ils permettent aussi de distinguer les deux types de photographies qui coexistent dans le fonds delaunay. d’une part, une photographie de mode documentaire réalisée par des professionnels, souvent portraitistes d’art de métier, travaillant dans leur propre studio et usant d’une technique du xixe siècle ; cette catégorie de clichés montre les vêtements créés par sonia delaunay de façon statique, dans un studio neutre ou décoré par le photographe, comme si l’on montrait le vêtement d’un autre couturier. reproduites dans les revues minerva, fémina, l’excelsior-mode ou encore le petit bleu ..., ces photographies sont soit détourées pour les besoins de la mise en pages, soit bordées d’un cadre dessiné par la rédaction duquel dépassent souvent un bras, une main, le haut d’un chapeau ou le pied du mannequin. le format de ces images est généralement réduit. peu de clichés sont publiés en pleine page dans les revues féminines de l’époque. la photographie de mode se cantonne à illustrer un article ou à combler une mise en pages. en outre, il apparaît un autre type de photographie qui assimile le vocabulaire plastique avant-gardiste et dans lequel sonia delaunay intervient directement ; ce second type d’image est diffusé dans la grande presse et au sein des revues modernistes françaises et étrangères qui mêlent art et mode, soignant la qualité de reproduction des images et leur attribuant une place de choix dans la mise en pages. en effet, depuis , la presse présente le travail des delaunay, peinture et arts appliqués confondus. les premières photographies publiées montrent sonia delaunay en robe simultanée, avec quelques- uns de ses travaux d’arts appliqués et les premières toiles abstraites de robert delaunay. ces photographies ne sont d’aucun caractère commercial mais font état de la pluralité d’expression du simultanisme. par exemple, un journal français consacre en un article au “cubisme industriel”, reproduisant simultanément deux gravures de sonia delaunay vêtue de sa première robe simultanée, d’après photographies, et la reproduction de la sculpture cheval de robert delaunay présentée au salon d’automne de berlin en . la même année, paraît un article dans le journal montjoie ! intitulé “de la mode esthétique vivante” : edmond courtot constate que les « robes pures » de sonia delaunay s’appliquent si bien au « nouvel art décoratif qu’elles semblent se la photographie au service du simultanisme Études photographiques, | novembre fondre avec le décor dans lequel on les présente ». mode, arts appliqués et peinture des delaunay sont défendus au sein des mêmes articles de presse. pendant la première guerre mondiale, les journaux espagnols encensent cette jeune artiste étrangère que tout le monde appelle simplement “sonia”. robert delaunay est reconnu en espagne comme un peintre d’avant-garde et les créations de son épouse pour la boutique sont directement assimilées à ses toiles et aux projets de décoration monumentale du couple . par exemple, en , joan sacs écrit un article sur “le simultanisme de m. et mme delaunay ” et ramón gomez de la serna publie en un article dans el fígaro intitulé : “une visite aux époux delaunay. le simultanisme. m. robert delaunay et mme sonia terk ”. si la photographie de mode acquiert un trait nettement plus commercial, étant désormais liée à l’existence de la boutique de mode, son utilisation reste encore spontanée et aléatoire et elle souligne avant tout l’origine plastique des créations vestimentaires. À compter de l’ouverture de la boutique parisienne, les nombreux clichés de mode commandés par sonia delaunay sont publiés dans la presse féminine, au sein de réclames et d’articles spécialisés, tandis que la grande presse et la presse artistique du monde entier continuent de publier les photographies et les portraits de mode dans des articles faisant immédiatement référence à la totalité de l’œuvre des delaunay (fig. ). pendant une vingtaine d’années, sonia delaunay bénéficie d’un solide appui de la presse, quotidienne, spécialisée et artistique, française et étrangère, selon deux axes distincts : une presse féminine qui, dès l’ouverture de la première boutique de mode en espagne, publie les photographies de mode des créations de sonia. ces clichés relèvent essentiellement du document de mode. par ailleurs, et ce dès , la grande presse et la presse artistique diffusent des images de l’artiste puis de mannequins en tenues simultanées dans des environnements correspondant à l’esthétique simultaniste, ou publient dans les mêmes pages des reproductions de peintures et d’arts appliqués. le souci des delaunay d’élargir le simultanisme au domaine de la vie, sans hiérarchie des genres, est ainsi promu par la presse dès le début des années . l’utilisation de la photographie de mode par sonia delaunay nous est dévoilée par l’étude des images et des revues de presse. là où un premier type de photographies se limite à une utilisation purement commerciale, livrant en outre plusieurs images d’un intérêt multiple et considérable, le second type d’images, auquel se rattache l’ensemble des portraits de sonia delaunay et de « gens à la mode simultanée », apparaît aussi comme un acte de revendication artistique, assimilant le langage plastique du simultanisme et son application dans le cadre de vie : peinture, mode et plus largement arts appliqués révèlent, grâce à l’image de mode, la quête à laquelle se livrent les delaunay, et plus particulièrement sonia depuis , d’un art total (fig. et ). la photographie de mode diffusée dans la presse internationale promeut ainsi les multiples pratiques du mouvement simultaniste auprès d’un public averti et aussi auprès d’un large public, essentiellement féminin, jusqu’alors ignoré. plus que la mode de sonia delaunay, réservée à une certaine élite, la photographie de mode diffuse à grande échelle et de manière efficace l’idée d’un art pour tous, d’un art dans la vie. derrière l’acte commercial, le portrait de mode comme la photographie de mode auraient ainsi servi d’instrument d’autopromotion, revendiquant l’extension maximale du simultanisme dans le cadre de vie. la photographie au service du simultanisme Études photographiques, | novembre notes . voir le catalogue de l’exposition sonia et robert delaunay, paris, bnf, . . bnf/département des estampes, fonds delaunay (donation ), photographies de mode (cote oa- - ( - ) pet. fol.) et portraits de mode montrant l’artiste ou des amis de l’artiste portant les habits simultanés de sonia delaunay. microfilms (cote mf r. . ; bobine ). une cinquantaine de photographies de mode et une centaine de plaques de verre sont également conservées au mnam/cgp, provenant de la donation de charles delaunay de (documentation du mnam/photothèque, boîte n° ). . voir l’ouvrage d’andré lhote, sonia delaunay, ses objets, ses tissus simultanés, ses modes ; poèmes de cendrars, delteil, tzara, soupault, paris, librairie des arts décoratifs, . . au sujet du simultanisme, voir les études de pascal rousseau, notamment le chapitre “visions simultanées. l’optique de robert delaunay”, in robert delaunay. - , de l’impressionnisme à l’abstraction (cat. exp.), paris, centre georges-pompidou, mnam, été , p. - . . cf. sonia delaunay, nous irons jusqu’au soleil, paris, robert laffont, , chap. , “voulez-vous jouer à la vie ?”, p. - . . “casa sonia”, boutique de couture et de décoration, calle de columela, madrid. voir le chapitre de rosa m. martÍn i ros, “la casa sonia y la obra textil y decorativa de sonia delaunay- terk entre y ”, robert y sonia delaunay, barcelone, museu picasso y museu textil i d’indumentaria, - . . boutique de mode et de décoration d’intérieur. créations de modèles. enseigne “sonia”, , boulevard malesherbes, paris viiie. cf. annette malochet, atelier simultané di sonia delaunay - , milan, boyer, patricia eckert, . . les photographies étaient rangées dans de grands albums, parfois légendées par sonia delaunay, indiquant le nom du photographe ou du studio de photographie, de la personne photographiée, la date et plus rarement le type du modèle présenté. peu avant la donation, l’artiste a découpé les pages de ses albums de mode. néanmoins la plupart des clichés sont restés contrecollés sur leurs cartons d’origine. . voir par exemple les portraits de claire et yvan goll ( ), rené crevel ( ), nell walden ( ), golfinger ( ), nelly et théo van doesburg (ca ), sophie taueber-arp et jean arp, fonds delaunay, bnf. . parmi les photographes et studios de photographes identifiés figurent paul berger, thérèse bonney, luigi diaz, paul géniaux, florence henri, lucie isabey, germaine krull, manuel frères, henri manuel, henryka philipp, photos presse paris, studio rep, studio iris, studio landau. pour la liste complète, voir c. godefroy, “images simultanées. les photographies de mode de germaine krull commandées par sonia delaunay”, histoire de l’art, n° , juin , p. . les professionnels ayant photographié l’artiste ou les amis de l’artiste en tenue simultanée sont inclus dans cette liste, ce qui explique la présence de photographes comme florence henri qui a réalisé des portraits de sonia et de robert delaunay mais aucune photographie de mode. un tiers des clichés restent à ce jour anonymes. . cf. c. g odefroy, “liste des revues de presse et documents illustrés dans lesquels ont été publiées les photographies de mode commandées par sonia delaunay”, mémoire de maîtrise, op. cit., t. , p. - . . une exception doit être faite pour luigi diaz, puisque ce dernier travaille pendant les années pour le jardin des modes avant de collaborer à vogue (paris) au cours des années . . de fait, le point commun entre tous ces photographes semble être celui d’habiter à proximité du boulevard malesherbes : diaz réside dans le ixe arrondissement de paris, comme géniaux, berger, les frères joaillier, henri manuel et l’agence wide world. dans le viiie arrondissement, la photographie au service du simultanisme Études photographiques, | novembre quartier de la madeleine, se situent les ateliers des frères manuel, matthès, philipp, rené et celui du studio piaz. . sonia delaunay, “les artistes et l’avenir de la mode”, revue de jacques heim, n° , paris, septembre . . bnf/département des estampes, fonds delaunay (donation ) : albums de presse de sonia delaunay, contenant toutes les coupures de presse recueillies par l’artiste sur robert et elle- même entre et . microfilms (cote yb /fol. - m -m ). . cf. c. godefroy, op. cit. . edmond courtot, “de la mode esthétique vivante”, montjoie !, n° - - , avril-mai-juin , p. - . cité par pascal rousseau, “la mode simultaniste ou les couleurs de la modernité. la parisienne de robert delaunay”, in robert delaunay (cat. exp.), saint-tropez, musée de l’annonciade, , p. - . . ainsi, la décoration du petit casino à madrid, conçue par sonia delaunay en , a rendu le couple très célèbre dans tout le pays espagnol. . joan sacs, “el simultanisme del senyor i la senyora delaunay”, vell i nou, barcelone, décembre , n° , p. - . . ramón gomez de la serna, “una visita a los esposos delaunay. el simultanismo. m. roberto delaunay y mme sonia terk”, el fígaro, octobre , p. . . les photographies prises à l’occasion de spectacles, de bals costumés, de défilés, de théâtres et de tournages cinématographiques, mettant en situation réelle ou mondaine les vêtements et tissus de l’artiste, se rattachent à l’ensemble de ces images simultanées. voir par exemple les photogrammes du film vertige de marcel l’herbier et du p’tit parigot, film de rené le somptier ( ) bnf/département des arts du spectacle, fonds delaunay. la photographie au service du simultanisme Études photographiques, | novembre 	la photographie au service du simultanisme international journal of soft computing and engineering international journal of recent technology and engineering (ijrte) issn: - , volume- issue- , september published by: blue eyes intelligence engineering & sciences publication retrieval number c / ©beiesp doi: . /ijrte.c .  resume- in the article, social consciousness is considered as a reality that has sociocratic properties, and the sociocrativity of social consciousness is analyzed by dividing it into directions that have subjective properties. also, the sociocratic influence of social consciousness on human activities, its relationship with society is highlighted, its influence on the formation of civil society is especially deeply studied. keywords: civil society, social consciousness, consciousness, sociocratic, social reality, knowledge, worldview, national mentality, sociocultural wealth and values, transcendental ideal, cognitive research and creativity, individual consciousness, transformation. i. introduction the interest of appropriate peculiarities of social development and the creativity of social intellect is increased in the civil society. “i” and its “importance of myself” in consciousness cannot improve itself, but it needs social environment and social position. at this point “i” and its “importance of myself” is harmonized with inventive, creative and imaginative features. the peculiarities of social intellect demand creative and inventive approach to the point of view of social benefits and social development. we call it “sociocreative”. the word “creative” came from latin word “creature” and it means “to create” or “creator”. “sociocreative” it is the sign of the useful action for government, people and society in order to create of social intellect. social intellect is not a simple model of imagination, knowledge and views, which are formed in social environment and social condition; it has an opportunity to change the life of society and social relationships. when human interacts with society and social world, he follows and accepts its formed rules, regularity and ethics. in this way, he shows himself as an object that is related to the certain ethnocratic place and nationality. the adaptation requires for human being in order to develop as a social entity, but consciousness does not want assimilation and it means it does not absorb in their stereotypes, conditions and places. it revised version manuscript received on may, . sukhrob dusmuratovich narkulov, the doctor of science (dsc), head of social sciences chair, tashkent medical academy, tashkent uz, uzbekistan. atamuratova feruza sadullaevna, doctor of philosophy (phd), dosent of social sciences chair, tashkent medical academy, tashkent uz, uzbekistan. farida saidkarimovna umarova, independent researcher, “national ideology” academic department, faculty of social sciences of national university of uzbekistan, tashkent, uzbekistan strives with the whole power and ability to develop acquired laws, regularity and behavior norms. in addition, it tries to join something suitable for their inner “me”. the sociocreative features of social intellect are appeared when the inner "me" is actively related with the outer world and social existence, but it is happened subjectively. it can be explored by this approaches: knowing, the eagerness of studying, widening outlook, national mentality, socio-cultural properties, values, transstendental ideal, cognitive research and creativity. the interest of knowing the world and life is the characteristic feature of mankind. people invented svilization as a subject of socio-historical process due to the feature of generalizing gnoseological practice and using them for changing the surroundings. these procedures are connected with mind, knowing, keening on learning. professor n.a. shermukhamedova mentioned that "we can certainly feel the existence of mind in the private and social practice, we also feel physiologically the results of the influence on mind itself, other people and the whole society. nevertheless, the mind itself does not seem in the process. we can see events, which are happened in the world, but it is impossible to observe the mind. unlike material phenomena, one can observe the mind as long as it is outside the boundaries of time and space. the function of gnoseology is to perceive the mind, to identify the connection between things and world and to make it a subject of research. "[ : - p. .] thus, "empiricism, which denotes our experience in practice and rationalism that denies it," is also the result of a person's desire for knowledge and learning. [ .] usually, knowing is daily experience or according to the mind of b. russell it includes "individual practice and scientific knowledge" [ : c- .]. n.a. shermukhamedova summarized geneseologic experience and identified forms of it. [ : - p. - .] so, human mind has unlimited and various eagerness for learning the world and gaining the knowledge. sometimes, it is based on personal experience, but is transformed into scientific knowledge by passing social experience and contributing to the development of society. when applying this postulate to civil society it becomes necessary to take into account the daily experience, the relationship between individual knowledge, social experience and scientific knowledge. since “it is considered the impact of the process of civil society development of the creative feature of social intellect sukhrob dusmuratovich narkulov, atamuratova feruza sadullaevna, farida saidkarimovna umarova the impact of the process of civil society development of the creative feature of social intellect published by: blue eyes intelligence engineering & sciences publication retrieval number c / ©beiesp doi: . /ijrte.c . that personal mind is the basis of all knowledge, with it we understand that there are no other ways to rely on common sources for many observations.”[ : - p. .] when civil society is emphasized people and human benefits, this personal experience, motive and human mind will be noted. any personal experience, human mind and motive is valuable for civil society. however, these phenomena should not deny the existence of society and social interests, but must conciliate with them and serve society's development. civil society has a humanistic and universal function, because individual consciousness and personal interest are interconnected with dialectical, social and social interests of society. the motivation of knowing and learning is the main creative peculiarity of the mind. however, a person must connect his individual interests and aspirations with the requirements of progress in order to be important of this character. in this case, knowing, learning to gain knowledge is the importance of sociocreative. apparently, there is no evidence to prove the process of absolute learning, which is an egoistic reality, that does not have a profound personal interest or social character. sometimes, they give nigilistic ideas and thoughts as examples. we think that it is not enough. in science, even the most irrational, paradoxical mind can be justified. [ .] initially, the creative researches of people, ideas in the mind, thoughts and approaches should not be against for themselves as well as should not lead to spiritual and moral degradation or decline. when civil society can give an opportunity for human to create an independent research, they will not consider the destructive forces. civil society is the place where it puts the responsibility and duty infront of human. these values are composed of its social intellect and lead its behaviour through subjective impact. as social intellect demands knowing the civil society laws, personal intellect should respond these requirements adequately, which means to lead in accordance with the requirements of social development, behaviour and individual activity. social intellect “is an acquired phenomenon of the evolution synthesis, which goes on millions years”[ : - p. .] and unexpectedly, it cannot be as an unnatural and inhumane form. but it is the function of svilization and society of leading it to the constructive and creative side. sociocreative features of social intellect are appeared from human outlook and the existence of meaning and scientific, theoretical-philosophical approach. in fact, social intellect is the outcome of this world outlook, because social intellect is a reflection of certain knowledge, surroundings, the universe and the existence. “outlook,- mentioned z.freid, - is the intellectual system of finding solution to all problems in the world. it has an important role of tackling issues and problems that are related to our interests. people, who has wide outlook, feel necessity for the life, know how to use thier motivate, interests and affects according to the aims. [ : - p. .] outlook is developed under the scientific and experimental basis. but sometimes pratice, theory and fundament is not adequate. outlook has transstendental feature and make people think strange things. the most surprising thing is that sometimes groups, the whole team, society even public and nation may accept the transstendental idea as outlook. [ : - p. .] so, we should distinguish the peculiarities of outlook and the signs of social approaches. outlook is more wide concept than daily transstendental ideas, it is the system of tested ideas of practice, trial and social intellect. the idea, mind and concept which are not passed from life experience, scientifical observations and tests, are mostly unsuitable and unimportant production of individual society and they have inner conflicts too. social intellect is also influenced on these approaches, but it does not abandon its substantial basis and adaptation principles with the benefits of social development. globalization is a reaction to the existing social-political system, social governance, and global change. socio-historical processes, the role of a person in history and their impact on the state and society, are also related to the issues of outlook. in short, the approach of a person to the state and society in the context of certain theoretical concepts that expresses his outlook. in some experiments, econimics is considered as the only factor to widen outlook. the given attention to the independent economics is the cause of creation of this concept. z. freid suspected to the main role of this factor. [ : – p. .] he could not forget the inner, psychological, spiritual and cognitive effects as the expert on human psychology and consciousness. but this approach was related to the concept of the libido, even though z.freid states that "psychotropic cannot create a special worldview, it is part of a scientific outlook." the outlook on social consciousness is not ordinary imaginations, hypotheses, prophecies, but subjective reality, which is based on scientific findings, which is consistent with the laws of social development and expresses them in ideas. if outlook is connected with social world laws, it supports people to live with socium and society. or else, there are conflicts between society and people. human society supplies with the object and structure of scientific research and it increases the results of social intellect and the importance of sociocreative minds. civil society is interested in science, technology, and rational research, which wants to create a scientific, critical worldview in the minds of every member of society. since scientific-critical outlook observes the ways of strategic purpose of achievements and it assesses rationally the progresses and omissions that have been achieved. in a society where there is no such approach, autocracy, dogmaism, and worship is appeared, contrary to the essence of civil society is came across. the improvement of outlook is the function of scientific and pedagogical institutions. therefore, civil society tries to productively use the chances and opportunities of scientific and pedagogical institutions. for this purpose, it envisages increasing the scientific potential, introducing new pedagogical methods in social and educational complexes. national mentality is a consequence of the factors that lead to the formation of a person in a particular cultural-enlightenment. this consciousness, including the social intellect and it is the result of the etnouhitic influence. international journal of recent technology and engineering (ijrte) issn: - , volume- issue- , september published by: blue eyes intelligence engineering & sciences publication retrieval number c / ©beiesp doi: . /ijrte.c . there is a direct connection national mentality and social intellect with sociocreative features. ethnopsychological and ethnocultural research shows that a person finds himself easier to speak with people in the surrounding space, in the environment, and feels free in his actions. this demonstrates the conditions and places of acquired ethnocultural properties. if people are at a strange place and condition, they will try to return their initial social position, role as well as will try to change streotype of social intellect and will have to adapt to the new place and situation. if people are at a strange place or condition, they will try to return their intial social position and role, have to change stereotype views in social intellect and tempt to adapt to the requirements of new place and environment. so, people at a certain ethnic environment enhance "personal modality" or "personal basis system". [ : - p. .] exactly, these personal peculiarities belong to national mentality and they illustrate the ethnocultural signs of people. social intellect and national mentality are not the same events. we think that social intellect is wider concept than national intellect. it includes national symbols and it socializes or internationalizes. national intellect relates to the specific nation and it expresses attitudes towards the surroundings, the world and itself too. social intellect synthesizes these signs and makes it its own attribution. sometimes, it is difficult to feel and notice this transformation because social intellect may turn into regulator. national intellect controls the behaviour, thoughts and attitudes of people in the monoethnic environment. civil society is considered as polyethnic social sphere and equal living in different nationalities, equal rights of interrelationships, mutual cooperations and living in peace is received. but the problem of national mentality can be solved by looking at hypothetical issues. in the western countries, where civil society has gained some historical experience, national-ethnic problems are not fully solved. although ethnoculturalism is aimed at promoting interethnic accord in the country and creating the necessary conditions for the development of national cultures, in some ethnic groups, some of their representatives are dissatisfied with peace and stability. in that case, this is not necessary to happen with the result of the effects of internal factors, but there may be the impact of conflicts in international life, conflicts, international extremism, terrorist threats, movies and tv shows that are aggressive on tv. so, social intellect forms and transforms not only under the influence of inner factor but also international factors can impact it. sociocreative nature of social intellect is a positive development in the national mentality, supporting the democratic development and shaping minds, thoughts and an ideological immunity. in this case, considering aims and functions of the social intellect from national ideas has an essential role. intellect is the complex event that it is impossible to see, to hold and it is difficult to measure and to compare with objects. but it is impossible not to see the results of it. such results of social intellect reflect in social properties, values and ethnoculture. originally, creativity is the mind or idea that is expressed its freshness by new things or creations. the objections of social intellect in social values, values, and ethnoculturalism makes the important subjective phenomenon for the people. in fact, it is impossible to assess the subjective phenomenon without having to imagine human activity as a whole, and to find its social significance correctly. in short, the sociocreative feature of social intellect is to make people keen on inventing socio-cultural wealth their activity. sociocultural wealth is composed of the surroundings, necessary artifacts for people and the productions, which are cane from human activity. these properties have values, assence and function in the society as the activity production of wise people. even the most frivolous syurrealistic, hyperperrealistic, or abstract artifacts are also aesthetically compatible with a particular group of people. for instance, we give a sample of the outstanding representative of syurrealistism s. daly's masterpieces. there are wonderful mixture of ghosts, ghostly eyes, abrupt abdomen, enormous human beings, big arms, ugly faces, gigant birds in dream and awe-inspiring ghosts. in his own words, "a paranoid-critical method of analysis" [ : - p. .] impresses the mind which are adapted intellect to realism and rationalism. soon, this non-happiness and non- existent images came to mind in uzbek artists. there are many masterpieces of b. djalolov, j. umarbekov, m. kagarov, М.fozilov, А.nur who are inspired by syurrealism. nowadays, there are not any artists or sculptors who are not encouraged by syurrealism, abstractionism, cubism, or modernism in the field of fine arts. once upon a time, there was k. malevich's "black square" and his denial of nature, a beautiful woman, the perspective, the horizon, the nature, and the academic style was rejected. [ : - p. .] apparently, there is nothing but a black square in "black square". it is impossible to believe that intelligent and bright artist may show it at the gallery. “venera melosskaya is a good example of degredation" таназзулнинг ёрқин намунаси”, “miceloangelo davidi – ugliness”, are the agitation of k.malevich to reject the great titsian and renaissance period intelligences.[ : – p. .] the most surprising thing is that, this nigilism and increase in keen on being non-exsistent is rebuilt and it has value as sociocultural wealth. thus, current rejection of the intellect, research, and thought can be aporeciated tomorrow, and, on the contrary, what is respected today, can be lost its value, significance, relevance and importance while passing the time. however, the socio-historical development, the civilizations history shows that the property, the mind, the thought, the research of the universe, which are aimed at human's creativity, are eternal. the social positive intellect and sociocreative power then is that. the hidden peculiarity of the mind, the unability of scientific research to find it, the unability to make rational research and change invisibly, come across transforming, rejection itself and turn into an absolutely different relationship as a result of it gives irrationality, transcendence, non-existent and intuition. exploring the intelligence with wise and rational research methods has never led to expected results, such studies have ended with the recognition of irrationality and transcendent. nobel laureate, famous philosopher b. russell wrote a beautiful piece of paper, the impact of the process of civil society development of the creative feature of social intellect published by: blue eyes intelligence engineering & sciences publication retrieval number c / ©beiesp doi: . /ijrte.c . which cinsists of pages, on the subject "human knowledge" ("chelovecheskoe poznanie"). but he did not mention intellect problem, he explored the procedure of knowing that is related to the intellect. irrationality makes the object search not only in experience and the universe but also the outer of the universe and practice. especially, this object is the only god. according to the essence of social intellect, it is necessary to study the interests of objects of social existence and observe corresponding to their developmental requirements. nevertheless, it is difficult to imagine the social life and ideal world, that people wanted, without religion and without god. even the lessons of the developed countries' schools are composed of specific religious curricula and it reveals that transdental views and religion has an important role in the social intellect. z. freid has suggested that religion is came due to the inability of people to the natural world, can not cope with and use their intelligence. [ : – p. .] as a consequence, instead of confronting counterfeiters in the fear of man, the man has erased his intelligence and rationality so that the irrational, transcendental power that human beings can not reach is appeared . [ .] the point is that at present, there is no need to repeat this pastor, the moral and spiritual impact of the religion, and the experience of influencing the minds of the religion can be regarded as a sociocreative incident. as social consciousness addresses the religious experience and its sociocreative methods, it also becomes a force for human existence. it is the exact point of the connection transstendent, god, religion with social intellect. the most sophisticated thing is that the importance of the religion came from regardless of whether it is a god or a phenomenon under the mind, has the highest power in human beings and the belief in the highest ideal as mentioned k. yung and e. fromm. [ : - p. .] ii.test & results social intellect really mm mdislikes orthodox views of the religion due to its flexibility, tendency to transformation and the influence of outer factors. social intellect is based on novelty through innovation, change, evolution, and religion is based on dogma. centuries need to change religious values, customs and traditions, such approach in the social intellect is observed as conservatism and stability. therefore, when social intellect addresses the transcendental idea, it implies not only the use of orthodox views and conservative traditions in the society, but also the use of sociocreative experiments and tactics in the religion, thus promoting the spiritual and spiritual abilities and power of man. today, transstendent, religion, and god are needed to restore historical and cultural heritage, to educate a perfect man who is searching for our great ancestors, and to direct human sociocreative, sociocultural, social and cultural forces to the interests of development. people, who do not believe their sociocreative power, cannot make through transstendent, god, religion true. transcendental ideal should elevate the spirituality of a person to a new level and encourage him to create humanistic values. social intellect connects with cognitive reserches of human and works. it is the apparently one appearance of the dialectical connection with social intellect and personal intellect. human knowledge, inner condition through intellect, finds the psychological mechanisms of managing and directing his inner spiritual state, external behaviors. the cognitive research can lead individuals to the societal perception of the knowledge, information and experiences they have acquired, depending on their individual - psychological nature. thus, cognitive research is not merely a matter of knowledge and information, but the ability to direct them to social interests and the external life of students is considered. from the point of view of the genesis and the essence of the spiritual pursuit of one's personality and social existence can not remain narrowly, personal interests in the context of the environment is not left. human, who understand this law, their mind try to find the way of socializing. cognitive research and human works of social intellect can be seen in all spiritual spheres. it is impossible to imagine literature, art, science, intellectual activity and social control without cognitive researches and creative approaches. as long as a person deals with a social existence, it is impossible for them to be psychologically and internally influenced by these relationships. in this cognitive process, he seeks to transform, refresh, and enrich something from the imagination, the ideal thoughts that he has formed, and to say in the phrase of e. fromm, "man needs to increase from his self-interest." this is often the case when applying the duplicating conclusion to the civil society: ) social mind; ) social relationships; ) social action (activity) may be seen in this system. social mind expresses precisely the social intellect and it is considered both substantial and appearance in a purely subjective manner. through social thought, we identify people's perceptions of society, existence, system, surrounding events, their positions and ideal. through social minds we can identify the society if people, the universe, system, the imagination of surrounding incidents, ideals and life positions. the pure subjective attribute of the idea is the fact that the knowledge, the outlook, the mentality, the ideal and the cognitive research of the person are subjective reality. public opinion is based on these links which creates the next stage - social relationships. while social relationships are composed of the needs and interests of the people, they are subjective reality. since, social relationships consist of intergovernmental and among people contracts, collectives, institutional, intellectual and communicative connections. in the capitalism, commercial relations have subjective peculiarity and it is also the production of social relatiobships. it is important for us to understand that social relations are a phenomenon that has been institutionalized by the social intellect, which is a way of development and covers all aspects of social life. we summarize about the system that is stable in the society, social management, purposes and benefits. the social intellect of the social activity is considered as the objection of actions and high position. sociocreative peculiarity of the social intellect is appeared in this stage. truely, there is a creative search for creativity in social thought and social relationships, but practical work is not only the expression of social international journal of recent technology and engineering (ijrte) issn: - , volume- issue- , september published by: blue eyes intelligence engineering & sciences publication retrieval number c / ©beiesp doi: . /ijrte.c . consciousness, but also the criterion and the norm. for instance, social control. control is the system of experience and certain actions. on the one hand, it contains a subjective characteristic of the social intellect, and on the other hand, it monitors, examines and corrects the activity of one or another object in accordance with the adopted laws. the most important institution of social management is social control in the civil society. effective organization of social control gives an opportunity to identify the condition of society, to control rationally the activity of institutions and to direct them correctly to strategic aims. the norms formed in the social intellect and the ideals serve as the norm and the principle of social control. just here the social intellect is a sociocreative attribute of social activity. the adoption of special laws on social control and social partnership in uzbekistan indicates that social intellect is a crucial phenomenon for the development of civil society. taking all into consideration, the sociocreative peculiarities of social intellect require to be correspond with the development purposes of the relationships between society and human as well as government and creator. encouraging personal and public interests in the process of strengthening and expanding existing human rights and freedoms in civil society is an issue. civil society wants to support human with creativity, and the creator is absolutely free to choose methods, approaches, and subjects. however, sociocreative peculiarity and function of social intellect expresses transformation process. reforms in these transformation processes are rapidly gaining momentum in all social domains, society and human beings. human cognitive research seeks to create an environment that has been created from space, from the established order, to new things, and even to new artefacts. civil society cannot bother to these researches, expressing its own cretivity and positive power is regarded as the constitutional human rights. personally cognitive research influences the social ideal, the social-moral norms formed in the intellect, the expression of the emperor, the quality of perceptions, and others this impact itself has features and substant. reference shermukhamedova n.А. gnoseology – theory of knowing. –tashkent: editor, . – p. . that page. Рассель Б. Человеческое познание. Его сфера и границы. –Москва: Ин.лит-ры, . – С. . shermukhammedova n.А. gnoseology – theory of knowing. –tashkent: editor, . – p. - . russell b. human cognition. its scope and boundaries. –moscow: foreign., . - p. . misguided mind? diversity beyond scientific knowledge. –moscow: politizdat, ; nisker v. mad wisdom. - spb .: “peter”, . anokhin p.k. philosophical aspects of the theory of a functional system. - moscow: ast. astrel, , - p. . freud z. introduction to psychoanalysis. lectures. - moscow: science, . - p. . the same resourse. – p. . the same resource. – p. . kasyanova k. national character and social archetype // ethnopsychological problems yesterday and today. - minsk: harvest, . - p. . dali s. diary of a genius. –moscow: eksmo-press, . - p. . malevich К. black square. - spb .: abc, . - p. . the same. – p. . fromm e. humanistic psychoanalysis – spb.: “peter”, . – p. . the same place. the same book. - p. . . sayı.indd görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında kolaj tekniğinden yararlanılması: eylem araştırması* görkem utku alparslan**, Ümran bulut*** Öz araştırmanın amacı, görsel sanatlar öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında, kolaj tekniğinin katkısını ortaya koymaktır. araştırma nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden eylem araştırması biçiminde desenlenmiştir. araştırma sekiz hafta süresince yürütülmüştür. araştırmanın verileri, öğrenci günlükleri ve öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi, uygulama sırası ve uygulama sonrası yaptıkları resimler, dpa (dereceli puanlama anahtarı, rubric) ile ölçülerek toplanmış ve değerlendirilmiştir. araştırmada, öğrencilerin kolaj tekniğiyle yaptıkları resimlerin dpa değerlendirmeleri sonucunda modern resmi düşünsel ve biçimsel yönden yansıtma açısından gelişme kaydettikleri ortaya çıkmış ve nitel verilerin betimsel çözümlemesi sonucunda öğrencilerin modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel temelleri ile kolaj tekniği hakkında farkındalıklarının arttığı bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. araştırmanın sonucunda öğrencilerin çalışmalarında modern resmi ifade etme beceri düzeylerinde artış gözlemlenmiş ve öğrenciler modern resmin ve kolaj tekniğinin biçimsel, düşünsel yapısına yönelik farkındalıklarının özgünlük, eleştirellik ve yaratıcılık çerçevesinde arttığı belirlenmiştir. anahtar sözcükler: kolaj tekniği, modern resim, asamblaj use of collage technique in modern art perceptions of visual arts teacher candidates: action research abstract the purpose of the research is to demonstrate the contribution of the collage technique to modern art perceptions of visual arts teacher candidates. research has been designed in the form of an action research from qualitative research methods. the study was conducted for eight weeks. the data of the study, the student journals and the pictures of the students before, during and after the application were collected and evaluated by rubric. in the study, it was found that students 'pictures of rubbing their images with rubbing techniques developed as a result of modern formal intellectual and formative reflection and as a result of the descriptive analysis of qualitative data, students' awareness of modern visual intellectual and formal foundations and collage technique increased. as a result of the research, the level of skill of expressing modern formal expression was observed in the students' work and it was determined that the awareness of students about the formal and intellectual structure of modern picture and collage technique increased in the frame of originality, criticism and creativity. key words: collage technique, modern painting, assemblage * bu çalışma, görkem utku alparslan’ın prof. dr. Ümran bulut danışmanlığında yürüttüğü “görsel sanatlarda anlatım yöntemi olarak kolaj tekniğinin modern resim uygulamalarına etkisi” başlıklı doktora tezinden alınmıştır. bu çalışma, eylül – ekim tarihleri arasında cead . uluslararası Çağdaş eğitim araştırmaları kongresi’nde sunulmuştur. ** arş. gör., pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, denizli. e-posta: gorkemutku@gmail.com *** prof. dr., marmara Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi. İstanbul, e-posta: umranbulut@gmail.com is sn - p ri n t / - o n lin e © p am u kk al e Ü n iv er si te si e ğ it im f ak ü lt es i h tt p :/ /d x. d o i.o rg / . /p u je pau egit fak derg, ( ): - gönderme tarihi: . . kabul tarihi: . . araştırma makalesi/ research article t pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) görkem utku alparslan, Ümran bulut giriş modern resim ile kolaj tekniği arasındaki düşünsel ve biçimsel ilişkiyi ortaya koymadan önce modernlik kavramını tanımlamamız gerekmektedir. samir amin’e göre modernlik en temel anlamda “gelenekten kopuş” anlamına gelir ve “insanların bireysel ve kolektif olarak kendi tarihlerini yaptıkları ilkesine dayanır” (amin’den aktaran helvacıoğlu, , s. ). bu bağlamda; modern resmin “gelenekten kopuş” ilkesi temelinde bilimsel veriler ışığında gerçekliği yansıtma ilkesi çerçevesinde biçimlendiği söylenebilir. modern resim özünde varlığın özünün araştırılması ve görselleştirilmesi çabası vardır. İki ana akıma ayrılır: olgucu akımlar ve dışavurumcu akımlar. olguculuktan etkilenen en bilinen resim akımı izlenimciliktir. İzlenimcilik varlığı duyumlar bireşimi olarak görür. dışavurumcu akımlar ise fizikötesidir; soyutlayıcı akımlar ve gerçeküstücü akımlar olmak üzere kendi içinde ikiye ayrılır. vincent van gogh ( – ) ile başlayan görüngüden kurtulma hareketi kübizm akımında nihai ereğine ulaşır: varlığın mantıksal özüne inme. soyutlayıcı akımlar, varlığı geometrik - mantıksal biçimler olarak görürler. usdışı akımlar ise – gerçeküstücülük gibi – varlığı saçma, usdışı biçimlerde ararlar (tunalı, ). bu ifadelerden sonra tek tek düşünürlerin modern resme etkileri incelenebilir. modern resmi düşünsel açıdan etkileyen birçok düşünür vardır. bunların önde gelenleri david hume ( - ), immanuel kant ( – ) ve paul cezanne ( – ) olarak sıralanabilir. david hume, deneyimciliğin yol açtığı güçlük ya da sorunsallarla uğraşmak suretiyle modern düşün dünyasına çok önemli katkılarda bulunmuş İngiliz düşünürüdür (cevizci, , s. ). olgucu felsefenin oluşmasında önemli bir yeri olan “izlenim” kavramını felsefi alan yazına etkili bir biçimde kazandıran İskoç filozof david hume’un bilgi bilimsel bu görüşleri; kendisinden sonra ortaya çıkacak olan izlenimcilik akımını derinden etkilemiştir. İzlenim (impression) kavramı, felsefede ilk olarak david hume ile önem kazanmıştır. hume, izlenim kavramını, bilgimizin en temel ve en özgün taşıyıcısı olarak anlamaktadır. bilincimizi ve tasavvurlarımızı izlenimlerimiz, duyumlarımız oluşturur. ancak bu duyumlar salt duyu organlarımız ile duyumsadıklarımız değil; aynı zamanda iç duyumuz yani psikolojik içeriklerimizdir (tunalı, ). bu bağlamda hume’un temel düşüncesi olan; “gerçekliğe ancak ve ancak duyumlarla varılabilir” düşüncesi modern resmi izlenimcilik akımı bağlamında etkilemiştir diyebiliriz. modern dönem ressamları, izlenimcilik akımından sonra düşün dünyalarına dönüş eğilimi göstermişlerdir. bu eğilimin, sanayi devrimi sonrası ortaya çıkan üretim ilişkileri ve savaşların sonucunda, insanların ve özellikle ressamların düşün dünyasına yönlenmeleri biçiminde ortaya çıktığı söylenebilir. bu dönemin resim dünyasını derinden etkileyen düşünce akımı alman idealizmidir. düşünce tarihinin en önemli figürlerinden olan alman idealist filozof kant, düşün dizgesinde ağırlıkla bilgi ve ahlak konuları üzerine eğilmiştir. ona göre bilgimizin nesnelere uymasıyla ilgili geleneksel kabul geçersizdir: nesneler bilgimize ya da zihinsel yapımıza uymak zorundadırlar. kant kavramın deneyim ve bilginin önkoşulu olduğunu savunmuştur (cevizci, ). kavramın deneyim ve bilginin ön koşulu olma ilkesi, modern sanat yapıtlarının önemli bir bölümünün özünü oluşturur: kavram ressamlığı. kavram ressamlığı dediğimiz şey, nesnelerin dış görünüşünü değil, özünü, değişmeyen yapısını yansıtmaktır (İpşiroğlu, ). bu biçemin düşünsel temeli kant felsefesinde yatmaktadır. kant felsefesinden etkilenen kübizm, modern sanatta gerçek bir kırılma yaratmıştır. bilinen doğa-nesne taklitçiliği parçalanmıştır. kübizm bu parçalanmanın en önemli aşamasıdır. kübizm akımında imge; sanatçı tarafından, düşünce temelli, yeniden oluşturulmuştur. analitik kübizm imgeyi parçalarken, sentetik kübizm parçalardan yeni bir bütün oluşturur. sentetik kübizm akımının başlıca resim tekniklerinden olan kolaj tekniği çeşitli kağıt ya da gazete parçalarının bir araya getirilerek yeni bir biçim oluşturma anlayışıdır. Öncüleri pablo picasso ( – ) ve georges braque’dır ( – ) (antmen, ). kübist ressamların alman idealist düşünceden pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında kolaj tekniğinden yararlanılması: eylem araştırması etkilendiğini gösteren önemli bir yapıt, georges braque’ın ( – ) – tarihleri arasında yaptığı mandora adlı çalışmadır. Çalışmada yapılan çalgı, birçok açıdan resmedilmiştir. bu anlayışın temeli, duyuların yanıltıcı olduğu, bu bağlamda duyularla algıladığımız dünyanın gerçekliği yansıtmadığı düşüncesidir. söz konusu çalgı da duyuların algıladığı çerçevede değil, zihnin algıladığı çerçevede bilinen perspektif kuralları aşılarak, tek bakış açısı kırılarak, yansıtılmıştır. resim : georges braque, mandora, - . tuval Üzerine yağlıboya, , x , cm. modern ressamlara yeni ufuklar açan bir diğer kişi, fransız ressam paul cezanne’dır ( – ). cezanne, ürettikleri ile modern sanat’ı derinden etkilemiştir. Öğrencisi emile bernard’a yazdığı “doğayı, silindir, koni ve küre gibi ele al ve bütünü öyle doğru bir perspektif içine koy ki, bir nesnenin, bir düzlemin her yanı bir merkez noktasına götürsün” sözleri yapıtlarında doğanın duyumsallıktan düşünselliğe doğru bir yol aldığını bize göstermektedir. artık doğa duyusal değil, kurgusal – düşünseldir. yapıtlara doğanın anlamı yansır. bu anlam düşüncede somutlaşır. böyle bir anlamın varlığı haline gelen sanat da duyusal doğanın karşıtı bir konuma yerleşir. cezanne’ın sarf ettiği şu anıtsal söz modern resme ve kübist resme derinden işlemiştir: “sanat doğaya koşut olan bir armonidir” (tunalı, , s. – ). cezanne’ın bu görüşleri modern resmin kavram ressamlığına giden yolda önemli bir kilometre taşıdır denilebilir. modern resmi düşünsel açıdan genel anlamda değerlendirdiğimizde; sanayi devrimi’nin de etkisiyle ve bilimin gelişmesiyle kavramsallığı ve gerçekliği; bilimi de kullanarak, özgür ifade olanaklarıyla yansıtmış, resim bilinen resim kavramını aşmıştır. kolaj tekniği de bu bağlamda modern resmin önemli ifade yöntemlerindendir. kolaj, bir resmin bünyesine uygun olarak yapıştırılan çeşitli kâğıt parçaları ya da buna benzer gereçlerle yapılan yapıttır. Çeşitli çağlardan kalan iki yapının birbirlerine uygun biçimde bir araya getirilmesi olarak tanımlanır (turani, ). günümüzde kolaj tekniği, elde bulunan her tür basılı, çizili ya da fotografik malzemeyi, bir yüzey üzerine (veya üç boyutlu bir şekilde) yeni bir kompozisyon oluşturacak şekilde yapıştırılması anlamına gelmektedir (eroğlu’ndan aktaran kaplanoğlu, , s. ). kolaj tekniği eski bir teknik olmasına karşın, sanatsal anlamda ilk olarak kübistler tarafından kullanılmıştır. kolaj tekniği, modern resmin özsel anlamda yansıtılmasında düşünsel ve biçimsel açıdan önem taşımaktadır. Şair guillaume apollinaire ( – ) modern bir kent insanının yaşantısını anlatmak için kolajın önemli bir teknik olduğu görüşündedir. Özellikle picasso’nun kolaj tekniği hem düşünsel açıdan hem de biçimsel açıdan sade bir biçimde modern resmin büyük oranda özelliklerini taşımaktadır. düşünsel açıdan kolaj tekniği zihinsel dünya tasarımı olarak, biçimsel açıdan ise biçimsel yapının kavramı ve gerçekliği güçlendirmeye hizmet etmektedir. picasso, kübist kolaj tekniği ile yaptığı – tarihli Şişe, bardak ve keman adlı yapıtındaki kemanın bir bölümü, bir gazete parçasına ve resmin yüzeyi olan bir kağıda karakalemle çizilmiş, öteki bölümü de ahşap görünümlü bir biçimle yapıştırılarak oluşturulmuştur. onun hemen yanında keman çizgilerini belirten başka bir gazete parçasının üzerinde bardak işareti vardır. solda bulunan şişe ise bir gazeteden kesilmiş, “journal” sözcüğünün harfleri de ayrıca resme yapıştırılmıştır (lynton, ). bu bağlamda kolaj tekniği ile oluşturulan bu resimde sezinleme yoluyla da olsa fizik bilimi ile ilişki kurulduğu görülebilir. Şöyle ki; atomun parçalanması ve genel görelilik kuramı dünyanın gördüğümüz anlamda olmadığını bizlere göstermektedir. böylelikle kolaj tekniği ile oluşturulan bireşimci kübist resimler sezgi ile de olsa modern fizikten etkilendiği düşünülmektedir. pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) görkem utku alparslan, Ümran bulut resim : pablo picasso, Şişe, bardak ve keman, - , kolaj ve karakalem, x cm, modern müze, stockholm. kolaj tekniğinin önemli uygulayıcılarından kurt schwitters ( – ), modern akımın en önemli yenilikçilerindendi. buluşu olan “merzyapısı” resimden ve yontudan ayrı olan yeni bir sanat kategorisine doğru atılmış önemli bir adım olarak ifade edilebilir. söz konusu “merzyapıları” uzamsal yanılsama olarak ifade edilen resim ile formların boşluk içinde kapladığı yerle ifade edilen yontudan ayrık olarak cisimlerin öz yapılarından gelen özelliklerle ilgili bir ifadedir. merz, bu bağlamda yeni formları yeni biçimlendirme yöntemleriyle bir araya getirme olarak belirtilebilir (thompson, ). bu bağlamda dada içine de sokulabilen schwitters, kolaj tekniğini öncü anlayışı için araç olarak kullandığı söylenebilir. ressam, yapıtı ile bilinen resim anlayışını yıkarak, tepkisel olarak, gerçekliği karmaşa olarak yansıtmakta ve bilinen resmin gerçekliği yansıtmada eksik kalacağını vurgulamaktadır. resim : kurt schwitters, merz, resim b, aşk planı, - , kağıt Üzerine karışık teknik, x , cm, metropolitan sanat müzesi, new york. max ernst’in ( – ) kolaj tekniği, bir resim ya da bir çizime yapıştırılmış fotografik öğe, bir fotoğrafın üzerine eklenen resim ya da çizim öğesi, kesilip başka bir tabloya ya da resme yerleştirilmiş bir resim ve fotoğraf yoluyla anlaşılmaz kılınmış nesnelerden oluşmuş bir düzenlemenin yalın ve katıksız fotoğrafına dayanmaktadır (aragon, ). ernst, resim – romanlarında bilinen resme karşı savaş açarak yeni bir kurgusal dil oluşturuyordu. bu bağlamda ernst’in kolajlarının bilinçaltı kaynaklı bir gerçeklik peşinde olduğu söylenebilir. modern resmin tüm bu bilgiler ışığında “gerçekliği yansıtma çabası güden ve bu çabası bağlamında düşünceyi güçlendirmek adına yeni malzemeler kullanan resim üretme etkinliği” olduğu ifade edilebilir. kolaj tekniği de bu çabanın en göze çarpan yanıdır ve bu araştırmada da kullanılan temel modern sanat tekniğidir. araştırmanın amacı, görsel sanatlar öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında, kolaj tekniğinin katkısını ortaya koymaktır. araştırmanın alt problemleri şöyledir: . etkinliğin, öğrencilerin modern resimden yararlanan çalışmalar üretmelerine etkisi ne olmuştur? . etkinliğin, modern resim ile ilgili öğrencilerin farkındalık düzeylerine katkısı ne olmuştur? . etkinliğin öğrencilerin kolaj tekniği ile ilgili farkındalıklarına katkısı ne olmuştur? araştırmanın sınırlılıkları; zaman açısından, – eğitim – öğretim yılı ile, konu açısından çalışma grubunun picasso’nun kolaj tekniği üzerine modern resim uygulamalarıyla, çalışma grubu açısından, denizli ili, pamukkale Üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi güzel sanatlar eğitimi bölümü resim – İş Öğretmenliği anabilim dalı anasanat atölye . sınıf sayısı ile sınırlıdır. yöntem görsel sanatlar öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında, kolaj tekniğinin katkısını ortaya koymayı amaçlayan araştırma, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden eylem araştırması biçiminde desenlenmiştir. eylem araştırması, bir program, örgüt ve topluluktaki özel pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında kolaj tekniğinden yararlanılması: eylem araştırması sorunsalları çözmeyi amaç edinir (patton, ). bu amaç ışığında eylem araştırması, bir okulda çalışan öğretmen, yönetici, eğitim uzmanı ya da başka kurumlarda çalışan mühendis, yönetici, planlamacı ve insan kaynakları uzmanı gibi bizzat uygulamanın içinde olan uygulayıcının doğrudan kendisinin ya da bir araştırmacı ile birlikte uygulama sürecine ilişkin sorunların ortaya çıkarılması ya da mevcut bulunan bir sorunu anlama ve çözüm bulmaya yönelik sistematik veri toplamayı ve analiz etmeyi içeren bir araştırma türüdür (yıldırım ve Şimşek, ). bu çalışmada eylem araştırmasının uygulanmasının nedeni öğrencilerle birebir etkileşim içinde olmak ve her ders sonunda onlardan dönüt almaktır. Çalışma grubu araştırma pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi güzel sanatlar eğitimi bölümü resim – İş eğitimi anabilim dalı’nda – eğitim – Öğretim yılı bahar dönemi .sınıf resim anasanat atölye dersinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. resim anasanat atölye, resim – İş eğitimi anabilim dalı’nda anasanat atölye seçimleri sonunda yerleşen öğrencilerin ., . ve . sınıflarda almak zorunda oldukları bir derstir. . sınıfta saat kuramsal ve saat uygulama olmak üzere toplam haftada saat işlenen resim anasanat atölye kredilik bir derstir. Çalışmada, amaçlı örnekleme türlerinden durum örneklemesi kullanılmıştır. bu örnekleme yöntemi araştırmaya hız kazandırmaktadır. Çünkü bu yöntemde araştırmacı erişilmesi kolay durumu seçer (yıldırım ve Şimşek, , s. ). Çalışma grubu belirlenirken, her öğrencinin adları yerine kodlar kullanılmıştır. bu kodlama, öğrencinin ilk üç harfi “ÖĞr” ile ’den ’e kadar olan sayıların birleştirilmesi biçiminde belirlenmiştir. Öğrencilerin, birinci öğrenciden on birinci öğrenciye kadar olan kodlamalarının örneği şöyledir: ÖĞr , ÖĞr , vb. bu araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, – eğitim Öğretim yılı, . sınıfta görülen anasanat atölye dersini alacak olan pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi güzel sanatlar eğitimi bölümü resim – İş eğitimi anabilim dalı öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. araştırmada öğrenciler arasında on bir kişiden oluşan gönüllü bir grup oluşturulmuş ve öğrenci günlükleri ve program değerlendirme formu yöntemleriyle bu öğrencilerden veri alınmıştır. veri toplama araçları nitel veri toplama araçları; öğrenci günlüğü, görüşme, çalışma grubunun tasarım uygulamalarını değerlendirme formu, program değerlendirme formu olarak belirlenmiştir. Öğrenci günlükleri, ders sonunda öğrencilere gönderilen bazı sorulara öğrencilerin verdikleri yanıtlardan oluşmaktadır. görüşme, yapılandırılmış görüşme tekniği ile yürütülmüştür. yapılandırılmış görüşme, araştırmacı tarafından belirlenmiş soruların ilgili kişiye kısa bir zaman içinde sorulmasıdır (sönmez ve alacapınar, ). Çalışma grubunun tasarım uygulamalarını değerlendirme formu (dpa), araştırmacı tarafından uzman görüşü alınarak oluşturulmuştur. dpa, öğrenci durumunun belirlenmesinde ve izlenmesinde kullanılan puanlama kılavuzu olarak tanımlanır (goodrich’ten aktaran parlak ve doğan, , s. ). program değerlendirme formu ise öğrencilere etkinlikle ilgili sorulan sorulardan oluşmaktadır. verilerin toplanması tablo ’de görüleceği üzere; uygulama sekiz hafta ile sınırlıdır. uygulama .sınıf anasanat atölye vi dersinde atölye ortamında yürütülmüştür. uygulama ortamı soldan ışık almaktadır. atölyedeki şövaleler halka biçiminde dizilmiştir. ayrıca atölyede yansıtım cihazı mevcuttur. uygulama sonunda öğrencilerden, modern sanatı ifade edebilen yapıtlar ortaya koyabilmeleri beklenilmiştir. pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) görkem utku alparslan, Ümran bulut tablo: . görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının kolaj tekniği aracılığıyla modern resmi İfade becerilerine yönelik olan etkinlik programı etkİnlİk programi dersİn uygulanacaĞi ÖĞrencİ grubu pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi güzel sanatlar eğitimi bölümü resim – İş Öğretmenliği anabilim dalı resim asa . sınıf Öğrencileri uygulama sÜresİ hafta haftalik ders uygulama sÜresİ haftada ders saati (İlk hafta, haftada saat kuramsal, son hafta uygulamalı) dersİn genel amaci Öğrencilerin modern sanata, kolaj tekniği aracılığıyla düşünsel ve biçimsel olarak öykünmelerini sağlamak dersİn genel ÖĞrenİm Çiktilari Öğrenciler kolaj tekniği aracılığıyla modern sanatı yansıtan yapıtlar ortaya koyabileceklerdir. dersİn yÖntemİ kuramsal ve uygulamalı uygulama yÖntemİ eylem araştırması yöntemlerine uygun olarak esnek, öğrenci performansı verileri doğrultusunda yenilenebilir haftalık çalışma dilimlerinin eğitsel düzenlemesi gerçek- leştirilecektir. sekiz haftalık etkinlik programında öğrencilere ilk altı hafta sunu yoluyla kuramsal bilgi verilmiştir. anlatılan kuramsal bilgiler modern sanatın düşünsel ve biçimsel temelleri, kolaj tekniğinin düşünsel ve biçimsel temelleri ve picasso’nun kolaj tekniği ile modern resmin ilişkisi üzerinedir. her ders sonunda öğrenciler öğrenci günlüklerini doldurmuşlardır. dördüncü hafta işlenen ders sonunda bir “uygulama içi” çalışma ödevi yapmışlardır. yedinci hafta “aydınlanma” konulu uygulama sonrası çalışması için eskiz çalışmadı yapmışlar, sekizinci hafta da uygulama sonu çalışmalarını yapmışlardır. atrıca, sekizinci haftada program değerlendirme formunu doldurmuşlardır. bunların yanında öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi, uygulama içi ( . hafta) ve uygulama sonu ortaya koydukları aydınlanma konulu kolaj çalışmaları dereceli puanlama anahtarı ile değerlendirilmiştir. geçerlikler, lawshe tekniği ile incelenmiştir. lawshe tekniği, altı aşamadan oluşmaktadır: alan uzmanlarının belirlenmesi, dpa formlarının hazırlanması, uzman görüşlerinin alınması, maddelere ilişkin kapsam geçerlik oranlarının ortaya konması, ölçeğe ilişkin kapsam geçerlik dizinlerinin elde edilmesi, kapsam geçerlik oranları dizini ölçütlerine göre gerçek formun oluşturulması (lawshe’den aktaran, yurdugül, , s. ). tablo . dereceli puanlama anahtarı (dpa) güvenilirlik sonuçları uzman araştırmacı kendall’stau_b uzman r , , ** p . , n araştırmacı r , ** , p , . n tablo incelendiğinde dereceli puanlama anahtarı uzman ve araştırmacı değerlendir- mesine göre iki uygulayıcı arasındaki uyum katsayısı görülmektedir. bu doğrultuda iki uy- gulayıcı arasındaki uyum katsayısı . şeklinde belirlenmiştir. pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında kolaj tekniğinden yararlanılması: eylem araştırması tablo . dpa geçerlik hesaplaması gereklİ yararli/yetersİz gereksİz kapsam geÇerlİk orani .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , uzman sayısı kapsam geçerlik dizini , tablo incelendiğinde dereceli puanlama anahtarının kapsam geçerlilik hesaplamaları görülecektir. bu bağlamda toplam uzmandan elde edilen kapsam geçerlilik dizini , şeklinde belirlenmiştir. tablo . Öğrenci günlüğü geçerlik hesaplaması kazanimlar gereklİ yararli/yetersİz gereksİz kapsam geÇerlİk orani .hafta .madde , .madde , .hafta .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .hafta .madde , .madde , .hafta .madde , .madde , .hafta .madde , .madde , .hafta .madde , .hafta .madde , .hafta .madde , .madde , uzman sayısı kapsam geçerlik dizini , tablo incelendiğinde öğrenci günlüklerinin kapsam geçerlilik değerinin ise uzman doğrultusunda , şeklinde olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) görkem utku alparslan, Ümran bulut tablo . program değerlendirme formu geçerlik hesaplaması sorular gereklİ yararli/yetersİz gereksİz kapsam geÇerlİk orani .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , .madde , uzman sayısı kapsam geçerlik dizini , tablo incelendiğinde program değerlendirme formunun kapsam geçerliliğinim , olduğunu söylenebilir. araştırmacı, uygulama sürecinin doğrudan yürütücüsü konumundadır. uygulama ortamını düzenleme, sunu yöntemiyle kuramsal bilgi verme ve resim uygulamalarını araştırmacı doğrudan yürütmüştür. verilerin analizi veriler çözümlenirken araştırmacı ve bir uzman, ayrı ayrı verileri çözümlemişlerdir. Öğrenci günlüğü ve program değerlendirme formunda araştırmacı ve bir uzmanın ortak betimsel analizleri yazılmıştır. dpa değerlendirmelerinde de yine aynı şekilde araştırmacı ve bir uzman öğrencilerin çalışmalarını değerlendirmiş ve iki değerlendirme tutarlı çıkmıştır. bulgular sekiz haftalık ders programı süresince öğrenci günlüklerinden edinilen veriler ışığında öğrencilerin modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel temelleri ve kolaj tekniği hakkında farkındalık edindikleri ortaya çıkmıştır. edindikleri bu farkındalık yaptıkları resim çalışmalarına da yansımıştır. etkinliğin Öğrencilerin modernizmden etkilenerek resim Üretmelerine etkisi Çalışma grubuna sekiz haftalık ders anlatımı öncesi, sırasında ve sonrasında “aydınlanma” konulu, picasso’ya öykünecekleri biçimde kolaj çalışmaları yaptırılmıştır. tablo ’te de görüleceği gibi öğrencilerin uÖ (uygulama Öncesi) zamanındaki çalışmalarının tamamı “baŞarisiz” iken, ÖĞr dışında diğer öğrencilerin uİ (uygulama İçi) ve us (uygulama sonrası) zamanlarındaki çalışmaları “baŞarili”dır. söz konusu dpa sonuçları kolaj tekniği temelli ders programının öğrencilerin modern sanata öykünen çalışmalar ortaya koymalarında yararlı olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. uygulamadan altı ay sonra yapılan kalıcılık uygulaması sonucunda da ortaya konulan yapıtların yapılan dpa değerlendirmesi sonucunda kalıcı bir biçimde modern resmi ifade eden yapıtlar olduğu ortaya konulmuştur. tablo . dpa sonuçlarının sınıflandırılması baŞarisiz vasat baŞarili – , – , – . tablo ’da görüleceği üzere dpa sonuçları “başarısız”, “vasat” ve “başarılı” şeklinde sınıflandırılmıştır. pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında kolaj tekniğinden yararlanılması: eylem araştırması tablo . Çalışma grubunun kolaj uygulamalarını değerlendirme sonuçları ÖĞrencİ kodu uygulama zamani puani baŞari derecesİ ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , vasat ÖĞr us , vasat ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili ÖĞr uÖ , baŞarisiz ÖĞr uİ , baŞarili ÖĞr us , baŞarili dpa ölçümünün yanında bu çalışmada öğ- renci günlükleri ve program değerlendirme formu de kullanılmıştır. Öğrencilerin günlük- lere verdikleri yanıtlar “kolaj tekniği öğretim etkinliğinin onların bakış açılarını, imgelem güçlerini, eleştirel becerilerini geliştirdiği ve yaratıcılıklarını arttırdığı yönündedir. etkinliğin modern resmin biçimsel ve dü- şünsel yapısına yönelik farkındalığa katkısı modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel yapı- sı temasına bağlı olarak öğrencilere günlük formlarında . . tarihinde “İşlenen dersin modern sanatın düşünsel temellerine yönelik olarak farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?”, . . tarihinde “İşlenen ders, modern sanat ile klasik sanat arasındaki biçimsel farklılığa yönelik farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” ve yine aynı ta- rihte “İşlenen ders, modern sanat ile klasik pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) görkem utku alparslan, Ümran bulut sanat arasındaki biçimsel farklılığa yönelik farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” sorusu sorulmuştur. Öğrencilerin verdikleri yanıtlardan vurgulu olanlar seçilmiş ve aşağıda sıralanmıştır. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , Öğrenci günlüğü ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, modern sanat ve felsefenin iç içe olduğunun ayırtına vardığını ifade etmiştir. bu bağlamda modern resmin felsefe ile derin ilişkisinin önemini kavradığı ifade edilebilir. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , Öğrenci günlüğü ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, modern sanatın klasik sanattan farklı olarak düşünce-kavram ressamlığı olduğunun ayırtına vardığını ifade etmiştir. bu bağlamda ÖĞr kodlu öğrencinin modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel yapısı hakkında belirli bir farkındalığa vardığını ifade edebiliriz. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , Öğrenci günlüğü ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, modern sanatın biçimsel yapısını “doğanın kavram-düşünce” hizmetinde olduğunu ifade ederek biçimsel yapı hakkında farkındalığını ifade etmiştir. Öğrencilerin . . tarihinde bireysel görüşmelerdeki “gördüğünüz derslerin modern sanatın düşünsel ve biçimsel yapısına yönelik farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” sorusuna verdikleri yanıtlar aşağıdaki gibidir. daha yaratıcı düşünmemi sağladı. Özgünlüğüme katkı sağladı. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , bireysel görüşme ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci söz konusu derslerin yaratıcılığına ve özgünlüğüne katkı sağladığını ifade etmiştir. daha farklı düşünmemi sağladı. bence modern sanatın bi- çimsel yapısı daha düşündürücü, yorumlamaya daha çok açık. düşünsel yapısı düşünceyi yansıtmaya yönelik. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , bireysel görüşme ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, modern sanata daha farklı bakmaya başladığını ve düşünsel yapısının zihinselliği yansıtma çerçevesinde olduğunun ayırtına vardığını ifade etmiştir. pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında kolaj tekniğinden yararlanılması: eylem araştırması evet oldu diyebilirim. Çünkü bir resme baktığımda onu o şekilde incelemiyordum. direk bana ne hissettirdiğini bakıyordum. hisset- tirmiyorsa “ya bu ne?” diyebiliyordum. ama artık biçimsel olarak da teknik ve malzeme hakkında farkındalığım arttı. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , bireysel görüşme ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, modern resmin malzeme kullanımı ve düşünsel yapısı hakkındaki farkındalığının arttığını ifade etmiştir. etkinliğin kolaj tekniğine yönelik farkındalığa katkısı picasso’nun kolaj tekniği ve imgelem gücü temasına bağlı olarak öğrencilere günlük formunda . . tarihinde “İşlenen dersin picasso’nun kolaj anlayışına yönelik farkındalığınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” sorusu sorulmuştur. bu soruya günlük formlarında verilen yanıtlardan seçilenler aşağıdaki gibidir. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , Öğrenci günlüğü ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci kolaj tekniğinin düşünce ve içsellik yansıtımı olduğunu ifade etmiştir. bunun yanında kolaj tekniğinin düşünceyi yansıtmada önemli bir araç olduğunun ayırtında olduğu verdiği yanıtlardan anlaşılmaktadır. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , Öğrenci günlüğü ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci . . tarihli etkin- lik programında, picasso’nun kolaj anlayışını etkinlik programından sonra daha iyi kavradı- ğını ifade etmiştir. alıntı: . ÖĞr , . . , Öğrenci günlüğü pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) görkem utku alparslan, Ümran bulut ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, . . tarihli etkinlik programında picasso’nun kolaj tekniğini öğrendiğini ve bu öğrendiklerinin kendisinin resim yapma etkinliğini etkilediğini ifade etmiştir. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , Öğrenci günlüğü ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, picasso’nun kolaj tekniğinin imgelem gücünü zenginleştiren bir araç olduğunu ifade etmiştir. Öğrencilere program değerlendirme formunda . . tarihinde “programın sizlerin modern sanatı biçimsel ve düşünsel açıdan kavramanıza etkisi olmuş mudur? neden?” ve aynı tarihte “programın modern sanata yönelik eleştirel bakışınıza ne gibi bir etkisi olmuştur?” soruları sorulmuştur. eleştirellik, yaratıcılık ve özgünlük temalarına bağlı olarak verilen yanıtlardan seçilenler aşağıdaki gibidir. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , program değerlendirme formu ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, düşünsel açıdan daha eleştirel ve özgün yapıtlar yapmaya başladığını ifade etmiştir. alıntı : ÖĞr , . . , program değerlendirme formu ÖĞr kodlu öğrenci, etkinlik programının eleştirel bakışını geliştirdiğini ifade etmiştir. yukarıdaki ifadeler göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, öğrencilerin modern resmin biçimsel ve düşünsel yapısına yönelik farkındalıkları artmıştır. Öğrenciler picasso’nun kolaj tekniğine yönelik artan farkındalıklarının imgelem güçlerini arttırdığını ifade etmişler, bunların yanında işlenen derslerin, eleştirel, yaratıcı ve özgünlük yönlerine katkı sağladığını belirtmişlerdir. tartışma araştırmanın amacı, görsel sanatlar öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında, kolaj tekniğinin katkısını ortaya koymaktır. bu amaç doğrultusunda yapılan çalışmada, kolaj tekniği temelli atölye etkinliğinin; öğrencilerin eleştirellik, yaratıcılık ve özgünlük yönlerini geliştirdiği yönünde dönütler alınmıştır. araştırmanın birinci amaç sorusuna yönelik bulgularda öğrencilerin etkinlik sonunda, modern resme yönelik algılama ve yansıtma becerileri kazandıkları ortaya çıkmıştır. araştırmanın ikinci amaç sorusuna ilişkin bulgulardan çıkan sonuç, öğrencilerin modern resmin düşünsel ve biçimsel boyutlarına yönelik farkındalığın arttığına yöneliktir. araştırmanın üçüncü amaç sorusuna ilişkin bulgulardan çıkan sonuç ise öğrencilerin kolaj tekniği ile ilgili farkındalıklarının arttığı yönündedir. bunların yanında işlenen derslerin genel olarak; imgelem güçlerine, yaratıcılıklarına ve eleştirel becerilerine katkı sağladığını ifade etmişlerdir. pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında kolaj tekniğinden yararlanılması: eylem araştırması kolaj tekniği ve modern resim konusunda alan yazın incelemesi yaptığımızda erdoğan’ın ( ) ve yaşar’ın ( ) çalışmaları dikkat çekmektedir. erdoğan, ilköğretim okullarında kolaj tekniğinin eğitime katkısını araştırdığı çalışmasında kolaj tekniğinin yaratıcılığa ve özgünlüğe katkı sağladığını savunmuştur. bu çalışma, erdoğan’ın çalışmasıyla bu açıdan örtüşmektedir. yaşar ise çalışmasında görsel sanatlarda anlatım biçimi olarak kolaj tekniğinin yunan mitolojisinden musalara öykünmeye etkisini araştırmıştır. Çalışmasında kolaj tekniğinin anlatımı güçlendirici etkisi olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. bu çalışma da yaşar’ın çalışmasında olduğu gibi, modern anlatımı güçlendirici bir araç olarak kolaj tekniğini görmektedir. modern resim, sanatın geçirdiği evrimin bir sonucudur. bu evrimin toplumsal, felsefi, bilimsel vb. kaynakları vardır. söz konusu evrim, sanat tekniklerinde de evrime yol açmıştır. kolaj tekniği de bu evrimin sonucudur. bu teknik ile yapılan resimler modern resmin kavranmasına yardımcı olmaktadır. bu bağlamda modern resmi özgürleşen ifade yoluyla gerçekliği yansıtma çabası olarak ifade edebilir, kolaj tekniğini bu yansıtma çabasının önemli bir aracı olarak ele alabiliriz. kolaj tekniği ve modern resim arasındaki düşünsel ve biçimsel bağ hakkında kapsamlı bir çalışma bulunmamaktadır. yalnızca modern resim ya da yalnızca kolaj tekniği üzerine çalışmalar bulunmaktadır. bir sanat çağı olan modernizm ile bir teknik olan kolajın aralarındaki önemli bağlar bulunmaktadır. bu bağların sanat eğitimine katkısı önemsenmesi gereken bir olgudur. bu araştırma söz konusu durumu ortaya çıkarmaya çalışmıştır. söz konusu çalışma; kolaj tekniğinin, öğrencilerin eleştirel becerilerini geliştirdiği gibi, özgünlüklerine, hayal güçlerine ve yaratıcılıklarına katkı sağlamakta olduğunu göstermektedir. bunun yanında uygulama etkinliğinin, öğrencilerin modern resmi ifade etmelerine önemli katkı sağladığı ortaya çıkmıştır. bu katkı dpa ile ortaya konmuştur. sonuç olarak kolaj tekniği temelli anasanat atölye öğretiminin öğrencilerin modern resme öykünen yapıtlar ortaya koymasında etkin olduğu görülmektedir. ayrıca kolaj tekniğinin, çalışma grubunun eleştirel bakış ve imgelem gücü gibi becerilerine olumlu katkı sağladığı izlenmiştir. modern resim ile kolaj tekniği arasındaki sağlam ilişki, modern resme sanat eğitimi gören öğrencilerin öykünmesini sağlamada dikkate alınması gereken bir olgudur. bu bağlamda lisans öğrenimini gören öğretmen adaylarının anasanat atölye derslerinde kolaj tekniğinden yararlanmaları önem arz etmektedir. araştırmacılara, kolaj tekniği aracılığıyla modern resme öykünmenin ilişkisinin ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim ölçekli olarak da araştırılabileceği önerilebilir. kaynakÇa antmen, a ( ). . yüzyıl batı sanatında akımlar. İstanbul: sel. ashton, d. ( ). picasso konuşuyor. mehmet yılmaz ve nahide yılmaz (Çev.). ankara: Ütopya. batur, e. ( ). modernizmin serüveni. İstanbul: yapı kredi. baudelaire, c. ( ). modern hayatın ressamı. ali berktay (Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim. berger, j. ( ). picasso’nun başarısı ve başarısızlığı. yurdanur salman ve müge gürsoy sökmen (Çev.). İstanbul: metis. beyoğlu, a. ( ). sanat eğitiminde kolaj tekniği ve richard hamilton’un eser örneğinin incelenmesi. ege eğitim dergisi, ( ), - . cevizci, a. ( ). felsefe sözlüğü. İstanbul: say. erdoğan, f. n. ( ). İlköğretim okullarında ( ., . ve . sınıflarda) kolaj tekniğinin eğitime katkısı. (yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). marmara Üniversitesi/eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, İstanbul. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezgoster?key=wbmnpkqc nhi nlw e -dn ovrogzkzgdv_qqn pqczycnxcs zxaa_zbpshyvf gombrich, e. h. ( ). sanatın öyküsü. erol erduran (Çev.). İstanbul: remzi. helvacıoğlu, e. ( ). modernite sahibini arıyor. bilim ve gelecek dergisi, , - . pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) görkem utku alparslan, Ümran bulut İpşiroğlu, n. ve İpşiroğlu, m. ( ). sanatta devrim. İstanbul: hayalbaz. kaplanoğlu, l. ( ). sanatsal bir değer olarak “kolaj”. sanat dergisi, , - . klee, p. ( ). bauhaus ders notları ve yazılar. ulu emre Özdil (Çev.). İstanbul: hayalbaz. lynton, n. ( ). modern sanatın öyküsü. cevat Çapan ve sadi Öziş (Çev.). İstanbul: remzi. patton, m. q. ( ). nitel araştırma ve değerlendirme yöntemleri. mesut bütün ve ahmet selçuk demir (Çev. ). ankara: pegem. parlak, b. doğan, n. ( ). dereceli puanlama anahtarı ve puanlama anahtarından elde edilen puanların uyum düzeyleri. hacettepe Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, ( ), - . sönmez, v. alacapınar, f. g. ( ). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: anı. sözen, m. tanyeli, u. ( ). sanat kavramı ve terimleri sözlüğü. İstanbul: remzi. thompson, j. ( ). modern resim nasıl okunur. firdevs candil Çulcu (Çev.). İstanbul: hayalperest. tunalı, İ. ( ). felsefenin ışığında modern resim. İstanbul: remzi. tunalı, İ. ( ). sanat ontolojisi. İstanbul: İnkilap. yıldırım, a. Şimşek, h. ( ). nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin. yaşar, t. ( ). görsel sanatlarda anlatım biçimi olarak kolaj tekniği ve yunan mitolojisinden öykünmeler: musalar. (yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). süleyman demirel Üniversitesi/ güzel sanatlar enstitüsü, isparta. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezgoster?key= xpj kkqhkugntkuiko kavxfp tc npxyjleqcqagq ubf uue i va -ydxr yurdugül, h. ( ). Ölçek geliştirme çalışmalarında kapsam geçerliği için kapsam geçerlik indekslerinin kullanılması. xiv. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kongresi. pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi. denizli. summary introduction the xix and xx centuries became a century of great change and transformations in science, philosophy, production relations, and social structures. these changes and transformations also seriously affected the art. this transformation demolished the classical concept of art, revealing a whole new form of understanding. this formal understanding is, of course, not independent of thought. intellectual storms in the world led to serious breaks in art. a period of thought and concept painting in the art has begun. cubism has created a real break in modern art. known natural object imitation is fragmented. cubism is the most important phase of this fragmentation. in cubism, the image is reconstructed by the artist, based on thought. while analytic cubism shreds the image, synthetic cubism creates a new whole from the pieces. the collage technique, one of the main artistic techniques of the synthetic cubism movement, is an understanding of creating a new form by combining various pieces of paper or newspaper. its predecessors are pablo picasso ( - ) and georges braque ( - ). from picasso started to print fabrics and paper on his paintings. the fact that collage becomes so active in xx.th century is the widespread use of mass cultural products such as newspapers, posters, postcards. the technique of collage is a technique that is like a quotation from the point of view of modern painting and intellectual and formal. it is expressed by louis aragon, who reflects the modern image of the collage. therefore, this technique is important for students who are studying arts to adopt modern art. methodology the research aimed to measure the “effect of the collage technique in improving the skills of the students in painting education to improve modern picture-painting skills” was designed in the form of research on action from qualitative research methods. research t.r. pamukkale university faculty of education, fine arts education department of art education department in - academic year, rd year painting workshop was held on the course. the study group of pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) görsel sanatlar Öğretmen adaylarının modern resmi algılamalarında kolaj tekniğinden yararlanılması: eylem araştırması this research is composed of students from pamukkale university fine arts education department painting education department who will take the “art workshop” course seen in the - education year, rd class. in the study, a group of eleven volunteers was formed and data were collected from these students by the method of student diaries. findings the study group was given collage work on “enlightenment” before, during and after the eight-week lecture in a way that would emulate picasso. as can be seen in table , all of the students’ “pre-practice” time-outs are “failed”, while the other students in the “in-practice” and “post-practice” times are “successfull”. the rubric results suggest that collage technique based course observation is useful for students to demonstrate empirical studies on modern art. in addition to rubric measurement, qualitative data collection tools such as student logs and weekly course evaluation form were also used in this study. the responses of the students to the diary; the collage technique has developed their gaze, imagination, critical skills, and creativity. discussion the work of erdoğan ( ) and yaşar ( ) is remarkable when we examine the literature in the field of collage technique and modern painting. erdoğan argued that collage technique contributed to creativity and originality in his study of primary education schools in the educational contribution of collage technique. this study overlaps with erdoğan’s work in this respect. yaşar investigated the effect of collage technique as a form of narration in visual arts in his work on fictional emulation of greek mythology. in his work, he revealed that the collage technique is the empowering effect of narration. this work sees the collage technique as a means of reinforcing modern expression, as it is in yaşar’s work. as a result, it is seen that the mainstream workshop based on the collage technique is effective for the students to reveal the emulate modern paintings. it has also been observed that the collage technique contributes positively to the working group such as critical vision and imagination. in addition to this, it is determined by the fact that this technique is written by the students in the diary, which makes it beneficial for the creativity and access to the material of the students. thus, this is the technique that will contribute to the creativity of low income students. classification of oil painting using machine learning with visualized depth information jihoon kim , ji young jun , minki hong , hyeseung shim , jaehong ahn ∗ graduate school of culture technology korea advanced institute of science technology (kaist) daejeon, republic of korea-(kjih , hs.shim, jiyoungjun, ahnjh)@kaist.ac.kr culture technology research institute korea advanced institute of science technology (kaist) daejeon, republic of korea-minki.hong@kaist.ac.kr commission ii, wg ii/ key words: machine learning, visualized depth information, rti, painting analysis, artist classification abstract: in the past few decades, a number of scholars studied painting classification based on image processing or computer vision technolo- gies. further, as the machine learning technology rapidly developed, painting classification using machine learning has been carried out. however, due to the lack of information about brushstrokes in the photograph, typical models cannot use more precise inform- ation of the painters painting style. we hypothesized that the visualized depth information of brushstroke is effective to improve the accuracy of the machine learning model for painting classification. this study proposes a new data utilization approach in ma- chine learning with reflectance transformation imaging (rti) images, which maximizes the visualization of a three-dimensional shape of brushstrokes. certain artist’s unique brushstrokes can be revealed in rti images, which are difficult to obtain with regular photographs. if these new types of images are applied as data to train in with the machine learning model, classification would be conducted including not only the shape of the color but also the depth information. we used the convolution neural network (cnn), a model optimized for image classification, using the vgg- , resnet- , and densenet- architectures. we conducted a two-stage experiment using the works of two korean artists. in the first experiment, we obtained a key part of the painting from rti data and photographic data. in the second experiment on the second artists work, a larger quantity of data are acquired, and the whole part of the artwork was captured. the result showed that rti-trained model brought higher accuracy than non-rti trained model. in this paper, we propose a method which uses machine learning and rti technology to analyze and classify paintings more precisely to verify our hypothesis. . introduction in recent years, as the art database expands rapidly, automatic painting classification based on color and morphological fea- tures have been gaining much attention (berns, ) (barni et al., ). various computational methods are used to al- low experts to analyze and evaluate different characteristics of paintings in a quantitative way which are difficult to be judged by the naked eye (berezhnoy et al., ) (berezhnoy et al., ). in order to classify paintings, the image processing tech- nique has been studied to extract the characteristics of paintings such as the shape, directions, and the pattern of brushstrokes (li et al., ). in addition to image processing, machine learning techniques have been actively studied. painting classification studies are proceeding from the classical support vector ma- chine (svm) method to convolution neural network (cnn), which is optimized for image learning (cortes, vapnik, ) (krizhevsky et al., ). artists’ brushstroke is one of the characteristics which reflects their unique painting styles (li et al., ). it contains a com- bination of color, pattern, and texture, and the collaboration of each characteristic element shows much information in oil paintings with pigments (berezhnoy et al., ) (johnson et al., ). nevertheless, the shape and thickness of the brush- strokes are not represented clearly in typical photographs. it ∗corresponding author is a significant drawback to the cnn model, which learns the particular properties from the training image set (krizhevsky et al., ) (zeiler, fergus, ). in order to overcome the lim- itation, the size of brushstrokes can be measured and used for analysis with technologies which can capture three-dimensional ( d) geometric data such as d scanning or photogrammetry (elkhuizen et al., ). however, previous studies show that it is difficult to extract the depth information of the individual brushstrokes (breuckmann, ) (abate et al., ). we also confirmed through experiments that it is time-consuming and hard to acquire d data of brushstrokes with d scanning or photogrammetry. our hypothesis is that if the depth informa- tion of brushstroke is visualized and used as a training image set, it is effective to improve the accuracy of the machine learn- ing model. we investigate three machine learning architecture for the paint- ing classification task, which uses the rti images as a training image set. we also present the result of the accuracy and visu- alize learning process. the goal of this paper is to verify our hypothesis by comparing the results when rti and non-rti images are used for painting classification with three different machine learning architectures. in order to capture and visualize the depth of brushstroke, we use reflectance transformation imaging (rti) technology. rti is a computational technique that captures the surface shape and the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th cipa international symposium “documenting the past for a better future”, – september , Ávila, spain this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. color of the subject and allows to re-illuminate the subject in any direction (cultural heritage imaging, ). it captures the painting’s surface with very high resolution and extracts depth information from the captured images (cultural heritage ima- ging, ). the enhancement functions of rti can reveal each brushstroke that is not disclosed under a direct empirical ex- amination of the physical object (cultural heritage imaging, ). this study proposes a new approach to use visualized depth information of paintings as additional input data for ma- chine learning algorithms. it is possible to use an existing ma- chine learning architecture that uses two-dimensional images as the input data. . related works as the technology of computer vision advanced, high-resolution images of paintings have been used for analysis. there are sev- eral studies to extract the features of fine art using digital im- age processing and apply them to classification (barni et al., ). in the early stages of painting classification using im- age processing, color and texture processing techniques such as complementary colors and gabor filtering based on rgb val- ues of a picture were studied (berezhnoy et al., ) (berezh- noy et al., ). in the case of the rgb-value-based research, there is a limit that the result is different according to the qual- ity of the input data for the image processing. berezhnoy et al. extract the artist’s brushstroke from the paintings automat- ically (berezhnoy et al., ). johnson et al. classify the pic- tures using wavelets and brush strokes to extract the features of the artist (johnson et al., ).those researches use only the plane shape information of the brushstrokes, not the three- dimensional information. with the rapid development of computing power, machine learn- ing has been applied to the classification of artwork. support vector machine (svm), which has been extensively used in the field of machine learning, was used (cortes, vapnik, ). arora et al. classified paintings into genres- renaissance, baroque, impressionism, cubism, abstract, expressionism, and pop art, using svm (arora, elgammal, ). khan et al. clas- sified artists and styles of works in digitized databases to help manage them focus on both artist and style categorization prob- lems (khan et al., ). these painting classification studies using svm have attempted to improve the classification accur- acy of various characteristics of paintings. in the case of ma- chine learning, much data is necessary. in response to the de- mand, in , khan et al. released ’painting- ’ data set con- sisting of , pictures of different painters (khan et al., ). using the ’painting- ’ dataset, a deep-learning model convolutional neural networks (cnn) which specializes in image classification, was attempted to apply artwork classific- ation (khan et al., ) (krizhevsky et al., ). folego et al. find the way of using the patch with the highest confid- ence scores turned out to be better than the traditional voting method (folego et al., ). nanni et al. studied cases in which artistic style, artist, and architectural style classification are performed using various features in several layers of cnn instead of using features extracted from only the top layer of cnn (nanni et al., ). peng et al. performed the figure ana- lysis using plural cnns in order to extract multi-scale features (peng, chen, ). numerous studies have transformed the cnn model to be optimized for artwork data. however, there is no research on how to enhance classification accuracy by ac- quiring and using rich data that has more information about the painter’s style. rti has been applied to many useful applications on a wide range of cultural heritage domain such as condition monitor- ing, treatment documenting, and surface analyzing. with its mathematical enhancement function, observing features inter- actively that are difficult to see with naked eyes is possible (manrique tamayo et al., ) (giachetti et al., ) (clar- ricoates, kotoula, ). in recent research, pamart, a., et al. developed an integrated tool to cross-reference qualitative depth information of rti and quantitative depth information of pho- togrammetry (pamart et al., ). they suggest that qualitat- ive depth information of rti should be supplemented when the purpose is a precise analysis. ponchio et al. propose that qual- itative depth information can be used to classification problems based on machine learning (ponchio et al., ). they studied the automatic classification of cuneiform using images captured by the rti in the machine learning algorithm. they mainly use partial information, especially the surface normal vector at rap- idly changing regions for the analysis of cuneiform. unlike cuneiform, oil paintings have depth variance distributed in the whole part. this research considered the whole region of the rti image in order to improve classification accuracy. . methods as seen in figure , it is necessary to build an rti image for ex- tracting data from oil paintings which depicts the brushstrokes cleary with a proper rendering mode. the image set is used as input data to the residual network (resnet) architecture of convolutional neural network (cnn) (he et al., ) (kr- izhevsky et al., ). the optimizer uses adam(adaptive mo- ment estimation), and the resnet architecture is customized to x pixel size, which is the size of our data (kingma, ba, ). . dataset acquisition by rti from paintings in the first stage, to acquire the image dataset, rti images are built for each part of the painting. when the white light leds of the dome illuminate one by one, photos are taken. then a single polynomial texture mapping (ptm) file is built by com- bining photos using the rti builder (cultural heritage ima- ging inc., usa). it can depict clear brushstrokes with a proper rendering mode. the ptm was rendered with static multi-light, which applies optimal light direction on each tile of the image to maximize the contrast of shading. unlike other rendering methods that manually control the light direction, static multi- light rendering enhances detail information without manipulat- ing controller. it makes a combination of racking light images with only controlling sharpness of images. . applying machine learning in the second stage, the two different image datasets from rti are applied to cnn architectures. we implemented the model in keras, and an open-source deep-learning package based on tensorflow (chollet et al., ). all the cnn architectures that we used received images of x pixels as input data. therefore, we crop the rti data and non-rti data obtained from the first stage respect of the input size. % of all datasets except the test set are randomly extracted and used as a valid- ation set, and % is used as a train set. the number of cnn model layers, the fully connected layer, the output layer, the optimizer, and the loss function is set equal for both data sets. parameters for fine-tuning the cnn model such as batch size, learning rate, and epoch are optimized for each data set because the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th cipa international symposium “documenting the past for a better future”, – september , Ávila, spain this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. figure . pipeline of this research for oil painting classification using depth information. there is a difference between rti data and non-rti data con- taining depth information. finally, cnn layer visualization is conducted to investigate the learning process depending on the characteristics of the data set. . experiments of painting analysis using depth information figure . rti dome setting with the railed installation we used a dome rti system for the experiments as shown in figure . the dome is a plastic hemisphere with m in diameter and an external frame with rail and wheels for easy transport- ation of the system over a target object. a camera is fixed at the top of the dome, facing the center of the dome. with the mm lens, the camera captures x cm of the paintings at once. it contains three different types of led lights, which are white light, uv and ir, and lights per each type. in this re- search, we only used white light leds. the position of leds was calibrated to set up the light position file before capturing the paintings. two experiments were designed to verify our hypothesis: experiment is a pilot study to see proof that the depth-visualized images improve the result of painting classi- fication with machine learning, and in experiment , the num- ber of training data was increased and the classification classes were enlarged. the results were also compared when three dif- ferent cnn architectures and were used to see the accuracy of classification according to cnn’s layer depth. . experiment as shown in figure , we tested eight oil paintings by jiho lee as our datasets. paintings used in the experiment were grouped into two groups according to her painting period. group a shows a landscape view that was created in , while group b shows a more abstract environmental view using dark and thin brush strokes, which were her recent works in . (a) (b) figure . (a) group a (b) group b the different groups of paintings by jiho lee. . . dataset of experiment ptm files were built by using a dome-rti system with the nikon d dslr camera. due to the limitation of the domes size, we captured several different parts with x cm size. we choose the parts where the brushstrokes were well revealed. rti image set was captured in jpeg format of x res- olution from the ptm files under static multi light rendering. the non-rti images were captured at the same spot with the same resolution under the natural light. . . categorization the dataset among various classifications, binary classification was pro- ceeded because the style of paintings was divided into two groups. we focused on the areas where the brushstrokes were prominent because th e goal was to investigate the difference in the clas- sification accuracy between rti data and non-rti data, and the learning process in cnn layer. about . partial artwork the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th cipa international symposium “documenting the past for a better future”, – september , Ávila, spain this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. figure . a painting by jiho lee. in experiment , we captured key parts of each painting, not the whole part. images per work in average were acquired from both datasets [figure ]. one image from each group was separated for the use as a test set. the cnn architecture used in experiment was resnet- (he et al., ). it took a x pixel size image as input. when resizing the full size of the artwork directly, a large number of features that can be learned in cnn, such as stroke, overall shape, and rgb value can be distorted or disap- pear. due to the reason, both rti data and non-rti data were cropped into x pixels, and to cropped images per image were acquired. % of the cropped data was used as a train set to learn the cnn model, and % was used as a data set for validation of the model accuracy. the data images were randomly separated when they were divided into a test set and validation set. for rti data, , data were chosen for the train set, , data for the validation set, and , data for the test set. for non-rti data, , data sets were chosen for the train set, , data for the validation set, and , data for the test set. the pre-trained model uses imagenet, which divides . mil- lion pieces of data into categories (deng et al., ). since the machine learning model used in experiment should perform binary classification, we used sigmoid as an activa- tion function and binary cross-entropy as a loss function in the output layer. the optimizer used adam, and the fully connected layer was customized for resnet- (kingma, ba, ). layer visualization was conducted by activating the first, the second, and the third layers of the convolution layer. as the convolution layer moves to the upper layer, the informa- tion about the visual content of the image gradually decreases, and the information about the image class gradually increases (zeiler, fergus, ) (yosinski et al., ). besides, it be- comes increasingly more abstract and more difficult to under- stand from a human perspective as it goes to the upper layers of the layer (zeiler, fergus, ) (yosinski et al., ). there- fore, in this paper, only two layers that can be understood by human perception are shown as a result. . . results & discussion the model that was trained with the rti data (rti-data model) showed the accuracy of . % and the model trained with the non-rti data (non-rti-data model) showed . %. the (a) (b) figure . (a) cropped data of rti (b) cropped data of non-rti result shows that the accuracy of the model which learned the depth-visualized data is . % higher. (a) visualization of first convolution layer using (a) in figure . (b) visualization of first convolution layer using (b) in figure . (c) visualization of second convolution layer using (a) in figure . (d) visualization of second convolution layer using (b) in figure . figure . the results of visualization from convolution layers when the convolution layer is activated, there is a clear dif- ference between the data, as shown in figure using the data [figure ]. the non-rti-data model learned the shape such as line or color, on the other hand, the rti-data model learned the depth information in addition to the shape. moreover, the number of deactivated filters in the cnn model was less in the non-rti-data model. there is an empty filter represented in fig. as black. this filter appears in both rti data and non- rti data. it shows that the deeper the layer, the more deactivate the filter appeared. this indicates that the pattern encoded in the filter does not appear in the input image. however, when comparing the same layers, the rti data is less deactivated than the non-rti data. in other words, this means that rti data is rich in information, and cnn is learning the properties appro- priately. when the learning process is visualized by layer, it is well observed that rti data actively learns various data more than non-rti data. . experiment in experiment , we tested paintings by wi hyeok son. there are three different styles painted in the same period ( ). we categorized into three groups by different brush strokes styles for the analysis as seen in figure . group a’ includes paintings with wet and clear brushstrokes, which are more vivid and bold the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th cipa international symposium “documenting the past for a better future”, – september , Ávila, spain this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. vgg nonrti vgg rti resnet non-rti resnet rti densenet non-rti densenet rti group a’ . . . . . . group b’ . . . . . . group c’ . . . . . . table . the table shows each accuracy between non-rti and rti datasets for classifying with group a, b, and c. compared to the paintings in other groups. group c’ shows dry brush strokes using dried pigments, which is difficult to re- cognize the outline of each brushstroke. group b’ includes the paintings in which different styles of brush strokes are mixed. figure shows the details of the style difference of each group. (a) group a’ (b) group b’ (c) group c’ figure . rti data examples of three different groups. (a) group a’ (b) group b’ (c) group c’ figure . cropped parts of rti data from figure of each group. . . dataset of experiment the rti and non-rti data were acquired at x resol- ution with sony a r iii camera. other processes were the same as experiment . . . categorization the dataset we tested three different architectures of the cnn model - vgg- ( layers), resnet- ( layers) and densenet- ( layers) to see whether the simple cnn model or the complex model is efficient by increasing the layer from a rel- atively low-layered architecture (simonyan, zisserman, ) (he et al., ) (huang et al., ). since the paintings in experiment were grouped into three classes, categorical was used as the loss function of the outlayer, and softmax as the activation function. the fully-connected layer has also been modified for the three classes. six artworks in group a’, three in group b’, and two in group c’ were chosen as a train set and a validation set. one artwork of each group was separated to be used as a test set. % of the dataset except the test set was used as a train set to learn the cnn model and % was used as a data set for validation of the model accuracy. the data were randomly separated when they were divided into a test set and a validation set. as a result, , data were chosen as a train set, , data as a validation set, and , data as a test set for non-rti data. for rti data, , data were chosen as a train set, , data as a validation set, and , data as a test set. vgg- , resnet- , densenet- models were pre-trained with imagenet (deng et al., ). . . results & discussion the results in table shows that rti-data model is more ac- curate than non-rti-data model except group a’. the group a’ with wet and clear brushstrokes does not show thick brush- strokes compared to group b’ and group c’ (fig ). that is, the difference between the rti data and the non-rti data in group a’ is not so apparent. other groups explicitly show the differ- ence in brushstrokes between rti and non-rti data. group b’ with mixed brush strokes has the lowest accuracy among the three groups of rti trained models. the total cropped image from rti data of group b’ used as a test set in vgg- model was , . the prediction results as groups a’, b’ and c’ were , ( . %), , ( . %), , ( . %) each (rounded to one decimal places). we consider that accuracy was low be- cause both types of brush strokes are observed at the same time in a picture. the results also show that accuracy does not always increase as the layer becomes deeper through experiments. in the case of group a, vgg- with non-rti dataset, group b, densenet- with rti dataset, and group c’, resnet- with rti dataset showed the best performance. this result suggests that there is a need for future research to develop more suit- able machine learning architectures and optimizers for utilizing rti data. in experiment , more data was acquired than ex- periment , but most data were classified into group a’. this imbalance should be compensated to obtain better results. the disadvantage of machine learning is that it requires many data, and in most cases, the data must be labeled. the developer of the generative adversarial network (gan), lan goodfellow, said that at least , learning data per category is required for acceptable performance and at least one million learning examples are needed to match or exceed human performance (goodfellow et al., ). in the field of machine learning, data issues have always existed. this study suggests the possibil- ity of using rti data that visualizes depth information which can increase accuracy in painting classification where dataset acquisition is limited. . conclusion in this paper, a new type of dataset for automatic oil painting style classification using machine learning was presented and evaluated. we hypothesized that the visualized depth inform- ation of brushstroke would be useful to improve the accuracy of the machine learning model for painting classification. rti technology was applied to extract and visualize the depth in- formation of brushstrokes in paintings. in experiment , the performance of binary classification obtained by learning rti data was compared with non-rti data. in experiment , clas- sifying three classes using more artworks. since this study only performed data validation, we used a basic cnn model and an optimizer. according to the results, when performing machine learning using the rti dataset, improved classification accuracy can be obtained compared to the general photography dataset. the results of experiments validated our hypothesis. however, we did not attempt to categorize various shapes, in- cluding sizes, angles, or area of brush strokes, as shown in each canvas. indeed, the results of irregular accuracy in experiment the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th cipa international symposium “documenting the past for a better future”, – september , Ávila, spain this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. allows us to rebuild in terms of setting dataset for the on-going project in the future work, and also it means the importance of classification dependant on which and how much data will be given for us is important to analyze images for the next step. for improving this gap between different styles of paintings, it is necessary for testing a variety of paintings to compare and classify them, not only in the number of paintings or styles but also in various artists. besides, an optimized model for machine learning is needed, especially in a developed architecture apply- ing rti technology for future work. through this approach, it provides us to widen the area of art classification in machine learning, and further, it can provide a sophisticated tool to aid painting classification and appraisal. in the following research, we will expand the dataset with dif- ferent styles of artists and paintings, and divide them into the brush strokes of different objects included in the artwork. it is necessary to develop a model and optimizers suitable for the rti data of the artwork to improve the performance of the paint- ing classification. acknowledgement this research is supported by ministry of culture, sports and tourism (mcst), korea creative content agency (kocca) in the culture technology (ct) research development program , the national research foundation of korea (nrf), grant funded by the korea government (msit) (no. r c b ), and korea arts management ser- vice. references abate, d., menna, f., remondino, f., gattari, m., . d painting documentation: evaluation of conservation conditions with d imaging and ranging techniques. international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing & spatial information sciences, . arora, r. s., elgammal, a., . towards automated classific- ation of fine-art painting style: a comparative study. proceed- ings of the st international conference on pattern recogni- tion (icpr ), ieee, pp. – . barni, m., pelagotti, a., piva, a., . image processing for the analysis and conservation of paintings: opportunities and challenges. ieee signal processing magazine, ( ), pp. – . berezhnoy, i. e., postma, e. o., van den herik, h. j., . automatic extraction of brushstroke orientation from paintings. machine vision and applications, ( ), pp. – . berezhnoy, i. e., postma, e. o., van den herik, j., . com- puterized visual analysis of paintings. int. conf. association for history and computing, pp. – . berezhnoy, i., postma, e., van den herik, j., . computer analysis of van goghs complementary colours. pattern recog- nition letters, ( ), pp. – . berns, r. s., . the science of digitizing paintings for color- accurate image archives: a review. journal of imaging science and technology, ( ), pp. – . breuckmann, b., . -dimensional digital fingerprint of paintings. th european signal 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a., . from impressionism to expressionism: automatically identifying van gogh’s paint- ings. ieee international conference on image processing (icip), ieee, pp. – . giachetti, a., ciortan, i., daffara, c., pintus, r., gobbetti, e. et al., . multispectral rti analysis of heterogeneous art- works. goodfellow, i., bengio, y., courville, a., . deep learning. mit press. he, k., zhang, x., ren, s., sun, j., . deep residual learn- ing for image recognition. proceedings of the ieee conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. – . huang, g., liu, z., van der maaten, l., weinberger, k. q., . densely connected convolutional networks. proceedings of the ieee conference on computer vision and pattern re- cognition, pp. – . johnson, c. r., hendriks, e., berezhnoy, i. j., brevdo, e., hughes, s. m., daubechies, i., li, j., postma, e., wang, j. z., . image processing for artist identification. ieee signal processing magazine, ( ), pp. – . khan, f. s., beigpour, s., van de weijer, j., 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transcribing complex writings through rti. ieee th international congress on information science and technology (cist), ieee, pp. – . simonyan, k., zisserman, a., . very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. arxiv preprint arxiv: . . yosinski, j., clune, j., nguyen, a., fuchs, t., lipson, h., . understanding neural networks through deep visualiza- tion. arxiv preprint arxiv: . . zeiler, m. d., fergus, r., . visualizing and understanding convolutional networks. european conference on computer vision, springer, pp. – . revised may the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th cipa international symposium “documenting the past for a better future”, – september , Ávila, spain this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. < d f f f d cbe f e f e f f f eee e e e ede e e c f f ede ebe f f e eae e b e f > «СОЕДИНЕННОШТАТОВЕЦ»: УИЛЬЯМ КАРЛОС УИЛЬЯМС В ПОИСКАХ «АМЕРИКАНСКОЙ РЕАЛЬНОСТИ» О.Ю. Панова Московский государственный университет им. М.В. Ломоносова Воробьевы горы, -й корпус гуманитарных факультетов, ауд. , Москва, Россия, Фигура Уильяма Карлоса Уильямса рассматривается в контексте эпохи, его мировоззрение и творчество сопоставляется со взглядами его современников — единомышленников и противни- ков. Своеобычное понимание Уильямсом американской истории и будущего Америки, его утопи- ческое видение Нового Света внесли важный вклад в формирование мирочувствования американско- го модернизма, который предстает как масштабный проект национально-культурного строительства Ключевые слова: американский модернизм, американский язык, американский объект, амери- канская реальность, самобытный, локальное, новосветная утопия. Уильям Карлос Уильямс (william carlos williams, — ) всегда остро ощущал свою принадлежность к Новому Свету — «новому миру», «расовому ви- негрету», в котором выплавляется будущее человечество. «О смешанное проис- хождение! — пишет он в одной из своих заметок. — С раннего детства я знал, что только Америку я могу назвать своим родным домом. Я чувствовал, что от- крыта она был специально для меня и что главная задача моей жизни — овладеть ею» [ . c. ]. Полукровка Уильямс был сыном чистокровного англичанина и пу- эрториканки. В его семье говорили на двух языках — английском и испанском. Благодаря родителям Уильямс рано осознал единство всех американских куль- тур — англо-, франко- и испаноязычных. В Пенсильванском университете, куда Уильямс поступил учиться на врача, он познакомился с Эзрой Паундом, худож- ником Чарльзом Демутом и двумя ученицами колледжа Брин Мор — юными по- этессами Хильдой Дулитл и Мэриан Мур. Под влиянием «высоколобого окруже- ния» Уильямс подражает своему любимому Китсу, делает вольные переводы ис- панских романсов. Однако вскоре Китса потеснил Уолт Уитмен. Здесь Уильямс разошелся во мне- ниях со своим другом Паундом: ценитель античной и провансальской лирики на- ходил «коренного американского поэта» вульгарным, отталкивающим, грубым. Для Уильямса Уитмен был пионером, открывшим подлинно американскую по- эзию. Уитмен презрел рифму как устаревшую условность, сделал главным «рит- мическое единство», ориентируя свой стих на естественное звучание устной разго- ворной речи. Уильямс на протяжении всей жизни постоянно возвращался к фигуре «американского патриарха» — начиная со статьи «Америка, Уитмен и искусство поэзии» (america, whitman, and the art of poetry, ) и до поздней работы «Эссе о «Листьях травы» (an essay on “leaves of the grass”, ). Как проницательно подметил исследователь американского модернизма, «Уильямс немало потрудился для того, чтобы задним числом выдумать уитменовскую „американскую тради- Вестник РУДН, серия Литературоведение. Журналистика, , № цию“, так как ощущал, что его собственной версии «американского модерниз- ма» недостает устойчивости, которую дает традиция, и завидовал такой устой- чивости у модернистов-космополитов Паунда и Элиота» [ . c. ]. По мнению Уильямса, Уитмен навсегда покончил с застывшими, подражательными (т.е. евро- пейскими) формами, которые мертвым грузом тяготели над становящейся молодой американской литературой. Этот истинно американский гений сумел найти «аме- риканское время» (american moment) и заложить основы «американского языка» (american idiom). Именно встреча с Уитменом помогла Уильямсу ощутить себя американцем и заняться «поиском корней». Уильямс настаивал на существовании особого «аме- риканского языка» (american idiom), не английского, адекватного реалиям Нового Света: «Американский язык» — «это язык, на котором мы говорим в Америке... новый и неслыханный прежде язык, окрепший благодаря мощи наших уитменов, которых вдохновила на этот путь гордость новой, поднимающейся расы» [ . c. ]. В английском языке существуют речевые условности, формулы, которые ограничивают и искажают мышление, привязывая американцев к мировидению, религии и ритуалам Старого Света. Поднимающаяся молодая нация сможет тво- рить свою историю и созидать самобытную культуру, только решительно отка- завшись от заимствованных и окостеневших форм — иначе ей не достичь ду- ховной свободы и самости. «Американский стих» противостоит «аристократическому» британскому стиху с его жесткими правилами. Американский стих должен быть «материален», а об- разы «абсолютно конкретны, иначе они будут течь сквозь пальцы, как песок», элементы не должны быть «жестко связаны друг с другом»; новая поэтическая форма будет отличаться «простотой и цельностью» и вместе с тем, пластично- стью [ ]. Вслед за своими друзьями — Паундом, Х.Д., в — гг. Уильямс едет в Европу — Германию, Англию, Францию, Италию, общается с европейскими авангардистами и американскими экспатриантами. Он с энтузиазмом принимает три постулата имажистов: « . Прямое изображение „вещи“, субъективное или объ- ективное; . Ни одного лишнего слова, ненужного для представления „вещи“; . В отношении ритма: сочинять, следуя принципу музыкальной фразы, а не прин- ципу метронома» [ . c. ]. Эти поэтические принципы Уильямс ощущал как глу- боко органичные и не изменял им никогда. Не случайно уже в -е гг. Уильямс сотрудничает с «объективистами» — группой американских поэтов, в которую входили Луис Зукофски, Бэзил Бантинг, Джордж Оппен, Карл Ракоши, Чарльз Рез- никоф. Уильямс считал, что они развивают до логического предела плодотворные идеи раннего имажизма. Как известно, участок пути, пройденный им вместе с имажистами, был недолгим — Уильямс вскоре вернулся на родину, расстав- шись со своими друзьями, выбравшими судьбу экспатриантов: «Я ушел из ис- ключительного мира Х.Д. и Эзры Паунда. Поэзию нужно нести в мир, где мы живем, она не должна быть потаенной, отделенной от людей» [ . c. ]. По возвращении домой Уильямс посещает знаменитую выставку «Армори Шоу», тесно сближается с молодыми американскими художниками из окружения Панова О.Ю. «Соединенноштатовец»: Уильям Карлос Уильямс в поисках «американской реальности» А. Штиглица — Чарльзом Демутом, Джоном Мариным, Дж. Тернером. О влиянии их идей на Уильямса написано немало [ ; ; ]. В кружке Штиглица полагали, что интеллектуализм — помеха для художника, стремящегося схватить и выра- зить суть вещей. Игровой подход к реальности подходит для утонченной и пресы- щенной Европы; американский художник, которому слишком недавно открылась «американская реальность», занимается ее созерцанием. Фотографии Штиглица, акварели Демута, урбанистические виды Марина объединяет стремление открыть самую суть «американской реальности» через упрощение, выделение главного. Вещь, объект предстает в этой живописи эквивалентом эмоции, соединяя объ- ективное («американскую реальность») и субъективное (переживание художника). Так оформляется еще одно ключевое для Уильямса понятие — «американский объект» (american object) и убеждение в том, что основой подлинно американ- ского мироощущения должно стать чувство реальной вещи, материальности, весомости, конкретности мира. Эти идеи подкрепляет и его близкое знакомство в г. с американским литературным кубизмом — группой А. Креймборга, объ- единившейся вокруг журнала «others». Чувство «объекта» должно отличать нарождающееся самобытное искусство Нового Света от подражательной «квазиамериканской» словесности xix в., почти лишенной оригинальности и основанной на европейских образцах. По мнению Уильямса, главный порок искусства Старого Света — утрата связи с реальностью, «материальным миром», создание литературы о литературе. За это Уильямс кри- тикует своих современников англичан — Р. Олдингтона и Д.Г. Лоуренса, чьи военные стихи — «пустая ерунда, никак не привязанная ни к месту, ни ко вре- мени, к условиям, в которых они были написаны; они вообще не существуют» [ . c. ]. Художник и литератор должны назубок знать тот мир, в котором они живут, подмечать все детали. В стихотворениях Уильямса — -х гг. главная за- дача — открытие реальности, установление контакта между материальным окру- жением и своим внутренним миром. Это живопись словом, натюрморты, воспро- изводящие «американские объекты» и позволяющие прикоснуться к «американ- ской реальности», как, к примеру, в стихотворении: so much depends Так много зависит upon от a red wheel красной barrow тачки glazed with rain в глазури дождевой water воды beside the white за белыми chickens. курами. (the red wheelbarrow) («Красная тачка») (Подстрочник наш. — О.П.) Первый сборник стихов, где отразились новые идеи Уильямса, — «¡al que quiere!» («Тому, кто хочет!», ). Обширное использование в сборнике «аме- Вестник РУДН, серия Литературоведение. Журналистика, , № риканского» испанского (второго родного языка Уильямса) сам поэт объяснял тем, что этот язык нравится ему своей цельностью и мудрой простотой — «как китайские статуи, вырезанные из цельного камня» [ . c. ]. Тяготение к при- митиву определяет «мультикультурный спектр» и следующих сборников — «Кис- лый виноград» (sour grapes, ), «Весна и все остальное» (spring and all, ). В этих ранних сборниках Уильямс впервые начинает использовать диалект и об- ращается к локальному, местному колориту. В сборнике «Весна и все остальное», посвященном Чарльзу Демуту, способом приближения к «американской реально- сти» становится комбинирование стихотворного и прозаического текста. Уильямс использует коллаж, создавая коллекцию различных мыслей, выраженных в раз- ных формах — ученых рассуждениях, обрывочных записях, лозунгах, афоризмах. Прозаические фрагменты сборника представляют собой отклик на идеи имажи- стов, кружков Штиглица, Креймборга, из которых складывалось собственное ми- ровидение Уильямса. Прием, опробованный в «Весне...», будет доведен до совер- шенства в монументальном сочинении Уильямса «Патерсон» (paterson, — ), также построенном на комбинировании прозы и стиха. -е годы иногда называют «неоязыческим» периодом в творчестве Уиль- ямса. Первая прозаическая книга «Кора в преисподней» (kora in hell, ), как видно из названия, — фантазия на тему языческих мифов о Деметре и ее дочери, богине весны Коре, ставшей после похищения супругой Гадеса и царицей под- земного мира Персефоной. Как и в прозаических фрагментах «Весны...», Уиль- ямс стремится здесь отыскать «подлинно американский способ художественного самовыражения». «Кора» воспринималась и самим автором, и его современни- ками — критиками, читателями, как «антипуританская книга». Решительное, даже агрессивное отстаивание экспериментального, свободного, радикально ново- го письма содержится в «Прологе» к книге: Уильямс пишет о новой американ- ской литературе, этом «весеннем искусстве», разрушающем «наследие пуритан- ства» — жесткие нормативы, искусственные ограничения и условности. Книга состоит из «импровизаций» — свободного потока впечатлений и вспышек фан- тазии. Автор, по собственному признанию, писал «все, что приходило в голову... не переправляя ни слова» [ . c. ]. Такое дадаистско-сюрреалистическое письмо было необходимой стадией в становлении «американского поэтического языка», плодотворным хаосом, дающим рождение новому космосу. Это «весеннее» время, время обновления, пробуждения богов, плодовитости и щедрости. В конце -х гг. появляется роман Уильямса с выразительным названием «Плавание в языческие земли» (voyage to pagany, ). Автобиографичный пер- сонаж доктор Эванс, американский врач и биолог, угнетенный рутиной, скукой, упадком «пуританской Америки» отправляется в Европу, которая представляется ему языческим краем: там он сможет прикоснуться к древнему искусству, созда- вавшемуся, когда боги еще жили рядом с людьми, там он увидит пластическую, чувственную красоту старинной архитектуры и живописи. Однако Европа его разочаровывает: застывшее, мертвенное совершенство ее красот заставляет Эванса размышлять о реабилитации телесного начала (этому учит его профессия врача) Панова О.Ю. «Соединенноштатовец»: Уильям Карлос Уильямс в поисках «американской реальности» и о творчестве, которое бы соединяло медицину (тело), религию (дух) и рождало бы искусство (красоту). Таким — свободным, органичным, новым — должно быть искусство Нового Света. Настоящее, самобытное американское искусство еще не появилось — его только предстоит создать. В начале двадцатых, размышляя об «американскости», Уильямс создает «литературную шутку», в которой, однако, поднимаются весьма серьезные и даже трагические вопросы, — повесть «Великий американский ро- ман» (the great american novel, ). «Я новичок, я только начинаю, — заяв- ляет рассказчик. — Я — американец. Соединенноштатовец». (i am a beginner. i am an american. a united stateser). Явные уитменовские аллюзии подвергаются здесь жестокой травестии: собственно, все произведение подано как ряд неудачных попыток автора начать произведение — Великий Американский роман. Автор жа- луется: слишком много вокруг «людей и вещей, развитие которых остановилось, и причиной остановки были невежество или злоба» [ . c. , ]. Автор буду- щего Великого Американского романа страдает от нехватки слов. Когда европей- ские мореплаватели и конкистадоры — Колумб, Кортес и прочие — прибыли в Америку, они сочли ее «Новым Светом», однако не было изобретено новых слов, нового языка, чтобы адекватно описать местную, не европейскую реальность. В итоге Америка стала бесформенной «мякотью», «желе», «чувствительной пла- стиной, готовой воспроизвести любой отпечаток на своей поверхности». «Каждое произносимое нами слово должно быть вырвано из европейской массы. Я касаюсь слов, и они застят мне свет, я мысленно перебираю их, рассматриваю, и мне ясно: они мало что значат. На них налипла грязь европейских городов, этих авгиевых конюшен» [ . c. ]. Так «Великий Американский роман» грозит обернуться великой американской неудачей, неспособностью создать самобытную культу- ру, обладающей при этом мировым значением. Новому Свету грозит страшная участь — стать скверной копией Старого Света: «К чему мы идем, куда катимся? Неужели мы обречены? Неужели мы должны стать второй Европой или второй Японией... еще одной ублюдочной страной в этом ублюдочном мире?» Спасение сочинитель романа видит только в одном — понять, что «Америка ведет начало не из Европы, но из Америки» [ . c. , ]. Для Уильямса миссия писателя в том, чтобы «помочь окружающей жизни выразить себя» [ . c. ] и обрести неповторимое своеобразие — «американ- скость». В своих взглядах Уильямс был не одинок — вопрос о самобытной аме- риканской культуре был важнейшим для художников и критиков, входивших в объединение seven arts («Семь искусств»), сложившееся вокруг одноименного журнала. В группу входили американские критики и литераторы Джеймс Оп- пенхейм, Уолдо Франк, Рэндольф Борн, Ван Вик Брукс, Пол Розенфельд. Все эти люди предпочли жить в Америке — таков был их сознательный выбор, и все они верили в потенциальное богатство американской почвы Уильямс разделял мнение участников seven arts group, полагавших, что на- зрела необходимость ясно, отчетливо выразить в искусстве американскую само- бытность — дать описание национального характера, ценностей, обычаев и т.д. Вестник РУДН, серия Литературоведение. Журналистика, , № В году Ван Вик Брукс выдвинул задачу отыскать «полезное прошлое» (usable past), которое бы сконцентрировало в себе квинтэссенцию американского опыта. Джеймс Оппенхейм, главный редактор журнала seven arts считал, что Америка нуждается в великих людях, которые зримо воплощали бы американский характер. Уильямс живо откликается на эти призывы: он открывает «полезное про- шлое» и «дает великих людей» в своей книге «В американском духе» (in the ame- rican grain, ), посвященной Новому Свету и его героям. Он выступает здесь и как поэт, и как историк, цель которого — «постараться залезть в головы неко- торых американских первооткрывателей и героев... через изучение оставленных ими записок» [ . c. ]. Первые две главы книги посвящены плаваниям древних скандинавов в Америку и Христофору Колумбу. Рассказчик в первой главе — Эй- рик Рыжий, который представлен как грубый и жестокий дикарь. Уильямс стили- зует эту главу под исландскую сагу, используя «стиль дикий и примитивный»: здесь описываются необузданные аффекты, свирепые нравы и жестокие поступки. Америка как новый, неизведанный мир не интересует Эйрика, в главе нет никаких описаний новых земель. По сути, скандинавы не открыли Америку, даже не за- метили, что попали в новый мир. Колумб для Уильямса — подлинный первооткрыватель: он понимает, что перед ним невиданная, полная чудес новая земля. Длинные восторженные описа- ния, приводимые из дневника Колумба, представляют Америку как совершенно новый мир, для описания которого не хватает слов: «Я видел много деревьев, со- вершенно не похожих на наши. Ветви отходят от одного ствола, но все они раз- ные, все сучки разной формы — такое разнообразие поистине величайшее чу- до!... Рыбы так не похожи на наших, что это просто чудо...» [ . c. ]. Поэт в душе, Колумб наивно и утопически верит, что здесь он найдет земной рай, вечное блаженство и всеобщую любовь. Так постепенно на страницах книги возникает образ «трех Америк»: идеаль- ной страны-утопии, райского края; практичной, приземленной «реальной Амери- ки» и, наконец, загадочной, так и не открытой истинной Америки. Все герои, пер- вопроходцы и основатели, имеют отношение к одной из трех Америк и также раз- деляются на три типа. Первый — тип завоевателя, конкистадора, разрушителя нового, так и непонятого мира. Это Кортес, де Леона, разрушившие цивилизации Нового Света — Теночтитлан и культуры Вест-Индии. Разрушителями были и колонисты-пуритане, и их наследники — Франклин и Гамильтон, препятство- вавшие развитию оригинального и свободного американского духа. Уильямс объ- ясняет жестокость и слепоту пуритан их религиозным фанатизмом, который сде- лал их невосприимчивыми к новому: «Если бы „пуританин“ в них умер, когда они ступили на берег Нового Света и сразу начался бы процесс изменения и роста... все было бы по-другому». «Вместо того, чтобы прикоснуться к этой земле, ко- торую они искали, увидеть ее потрясающую новизну, довериться своим ощуще- ниям, они положили в основу своего существования потусторонний мир своей ре- лигии. Они не могли по-настоящему УВИДЕТЬ индейцев. Индеец для них был „сырьем для будущего пуританина“» [ . c. , ]. Панова О.Ю. «Соединенноштатовец»: Уильям Карлос Уильямс в поисках «американской реальности» Идеалисты — второй тип американских героев. Среди них — Колумб, де Со- то, Рейли. Они влюблены в свою мечту об Америке. Эти утописты создали миф о Новом Свете как волшебном крае счастья, радости, довольства. Третий тип — любимые герои Уильямса, редкие люди, сумевшие прикоснуться к подлинной Америке, разглядеть ее такой, какая она есть на самом деле. Даниэль Бун, Эдгар По, Уитмен приняли и поняли новый, своеобычный мир, девственную американ- скую природу, ее жителей — индейцев. Создавая свою книгу, Уильямс давал читателям возможность взглянуть на свою страну как на молодую, еще только ожидающую подлинного открытия. Уильямс мыслил себя в качестве такого же неутомимого искателя новых земель, как и его любимые герои — Колумб, Бун, де Сото. В книге он рисует свой автопортрет: врач, помогающий своим пациентам-неграм. Негры — «новая раса», какой были когда-то индейцы для европейских пришельцев. Это «свободные, естественные, новые существа, полные жизни, повинующиеся безотчетным импульсам: сопри- косновение с ними благотворно для художника» [ . c. ]. В главе, посвящен- ной американским неграм, Уильямс много места уделяет их особому наречию — «негритянскому английскому», колоритному варианту «американского» «мест- ного» языка: «Язык рождается прямо здесь, на этих смеющихся губах... Говорить с ним (с негром. — О.П.) — словно пить свежую весеннюю воду. Стоило бы написать книгу об этом импровизированном жаргоне» [ . c. — ]. Уильямс восхищался индейской культурой (свою поэму «Патерсон» он срав- нил с каменной ацтекской статуэткой), постоянно возвращался к теме уничтоже- ния исконно американской цивилизации. Важная роль индейского прошлого Аме- рики для нынешних ее обитателей, по мнению Уильямса, заключается в эстетиче- ском наслаждении, которое способно дарить соприкосновение с ее памятниками. Если ощутить это прошлое как свое, принять его, то оно позволит нынешним аме- риканцам прикоснуться к подлинной Америке, отличной от Европы и открыть особый мир Нового Света. Художник для Уильямса — пионер, первооткрыватель, использующий авто- хтонный, примитивный, «локальный» материал, ибо только через местное можно прийти ко всеобщему. «Для постижения универсального нужно прежде постичь смысл местного. Местное — единственный путь к универсальному... Классика — это полностью реализованное местное, слова, взятые из конкретной местности» [ . c. , ]. Этот принцип роднит Уильямса со многими авторами ХХ в. (Фолкнером, Маркесом и др.), сумевшими придать местному мифу универсальный смысл. Уильямс, сознательно отказавшийся от судьбы экспатрианта, разделял мнение Ван Вик Брукса и группы seven arts: он также полагал, что американский художник не может состояться в отрыве от своих корней. С годами его позиция стала бо- лее жесткой и определенной: если в -е гг. он не доверял Т.С. Элиоту с его «англофилией», то в -е гг., после выхода «Бесплодной земли» Уильямс, го- воря о растущей славе Элиота, употребил выражение «элиотова катастрофа» [ . c. ]: благодаря авторитету мэтра поэтического модернизма американская лите- ратура снова оказывалась обречена разговаривать на чужом — английском, бри- Вестник РУДН, серия Литературоведение. Журналистика, , № танском языке. Уильямс счел предательством со стороны Паунда его сближение с Элиотом: Паунд стал печататься в criterion, а Элиот благодаря Паунду — в poetry. Размышляя об «американском языке, Уильямс однажды сказал, что Эзра Паунд — „лучший враг соединенноштатовского стиха“». Отталкиваясь от местного, специфического, «локального», поэт занимается «изобретением», открытием Нового Света, который зиждется на синтезе рас, язы- ков, культур. Венцом такого синтетизма, передающего, по мысли Уильямса, дух Нового Света, стало его монументальное творение — эпическая поэма «Патерсон», в которой Уильямс стремился запечатлеть американскую историю, постоянно соприсутствующую в современности. Видение своей страны как юной, стоящей у начала истории, поиск самобытного «американского языка», своеобразной «аме- риканской реальности», попытка нащупать точки соприкосновения с иноязычным американским миром роднит Уильямса с американскими негритянским авторами Гарлемского Ренессанса, с Шервудом Андерсоном, У. Франком. Как и они, Уиль- ямс был убежден, что качество «локальности» не сводится к фиксации местных особенностей и «местного колорита». Жизнь — это неоформленный поток бытия, она поставляет «сырой материал», который поэт должен творчески переработать, видоизменить — часто до полной неузнаваемости, чтобы родилось произведе- ние искусства, появился смысл, возникло эстетическое переживание. ЛИТЕРАТУРА [ ] dijskra b. the hieroglyphics of a new speech: cubism, stieglitz and the early poetry of william carlos williams. princeton (n.j.), [ ] guimond j. the art of william carlos williams. a discovery of america. urbana-chicago- london.: univ. of chicago press, . [ ] macgowan ch. j. william carlos williams’ early poetry: the visual arts background. ann arbor (mich), [ ] sayre h.m. the visual text of william carlos williams. chicago; urbana, [ ] tapscott s. american beauty: william carlos williams and the modernist whitman. n.y., [ ] williams w.c. america, whitman and the at of poetry. the poerty. journal viii, (no- vember ), pp. — . [ ] williams w.c. the autobiography of william carlos williams. n.y., random house, . [ ] williams w.c. collected early poems. n.y., new directions books, , vol. ( — ). [ ] williams w.c. dewey americanism and localism. the dial, lxviii (june ), pp. — . [ ] williams w.c. four foreigners. the little review, vi, (september ), pp. — . [ ] williams w.c. the great american novel. great american short novels, pp. — . ed. r.p. blackmur. n.y., thomas y. crowell co., . [ ] williams w.c. i wanted to write a poem: the autobiography of the works of a poet. bos- ton. beacon press. . [ ] williams w.c. in the american grain. norfolk (conn.), new directions, . [ ] williams w.c. the selected essays. ed. j.thirlwall. n.y.: macdowell obolensky. . [ ] williams w.c. the selected letters of william carlos williams. ed. john c.thirlwall. n.y., macdowell, obolensky, . Панова О.Ю. «Соединенноштатовец»: Уильям Карлос Уильямс в поисках «американской реальности» “a united stateser”: william carlos williams’ quest for the “american reality” o.yu. panova lomonosov moscow state university humanities building, room # , vorobyovy gory, moscow, russia, william carlos williams’ works and ideas are viewed as a part of the epoch and are juxtaposed to the attitudes of his contemporaries — both his allies and adversaries. his views of american past and future, his utopic vision of the new world civilization contributed a lot in the american modernist sen- sibility and cultural nationalism. key words: american modernism, american idiom, american object, american reality, indige- nous, the local, new world utopia. detecting people in cubist art shiry ginosar, daniel haas, timothy brown, and jitendra malik university of california berkeley abstract. most evaluations of object detection methods focus on ro- bustness to natural form deformations such as people’s pose changes. however, the human visual system is surprisingly robust to artificial distortions as well. for example, cubist paintings contain forms of man- made deformation to which human vision is tolerant such as perspective manipulation and, in particular, part-reorganization. we ask how would current object detection methods perform on these distorted images, and present an evaluation comparing human annotators to four state- of-the-art object detectors on cubist paintings. our results demonstrate that while human perception significantly outperforms current methods in object detection, human perception and part-based models exhibit a similarly graceful degradation in performance as objects become in- creasingly deformed, thus corroborating the theory of part-based object representation in the brain. keywords: recognition, deformations, paintings, cubism, perception introduction in visual fine arts, such as painting and sculpture, artists often distort reality. in abstract art these distortions push the envelope of human perception while (usually) still containing figures that are recognizable by the viewer. since these art forms characterize perception at its limit, we can use them to test computer vision methods for whether they achieve human-like performance and to design methods that mimic human vision. this stands in stark contrast to the common practice of evaluating computer vision models on datasets consisting only of camera snapshots. more abstract, artistic images often contain elements that the human vision system recognizes and interprets despite the lack of realism. this suggests that a corresponding computer vision method should have certain characteristics that enable it to mimic the recognition of these elements. as an example, we ask in this paper whether the characteristics of certain methods align well with the properties of human vision that enable the recognition of distortions found in cubist art. cubist paintings depict objects as if they were seen from many viewpoints at once, breaking them into medium sized parts that appear out of their natural ordering and do not conform to the rules of perspective [ ]. because the deformed objects present in cubist art are not normally seen in nature, the human visual shiry ginosar, daniel haas, timothy brown, and jitendra malik system must strain to recognize them. since humans are usually still able to identify the depicted object, cubism shows us that human perception does not rely on exact geometry and is tolerant to a rearrangement of mid-level object parts. however, findings from neuroscience show that this ability degrades as images become more scrambled or abstract [ ][ ]. if a method mimics human perceptual performance well, then it should behave similarly in the extreme conditions present in cubist art. we aim to test whether there are computational systems that behave like human vision in the face of extreme form deformation. we choose to focus on part-based methods that permit rearrangements of medium-complexity parts as they have been proven to do well at representing naturally occurring form deformations [ ]. here, we ask how they would perform in the face of abstract man-made distortions, and whether they would mimic human object detection performance better than object-level methods. we note that this is in itself a contribution, as there is little research into how current systems would react in novel circumstances. to this end, we compare human an- notations of person figures in picasso paintings to the detections of several object detection methods. moreover, in order to chart the performance of the methods as human vision approaches its limit, we ask participants to divide the paint- ings into subsets according to the level of their abstractness and compare the performance of the humans and detection methods on each subset. our results show that ( ) existing part-based methods are relatively successful at detecting people even in distorted images, ( ) that there is a natural correspondence be- tween user ratings of image distortion and part-based method performance, and ( ) that these properties are not nearly as evident in non-part-based methods. by demonstrating that part-based methods mimic human performance, we both show that these methods are valuable for object recognition in non-traditional settings, and corroborate the theory of part-based object representation in the brain. related work since in most tasks the human visual system serves as an upper bound bench- mark for computer vision, some studies focus on characterizing its capabilities at the limit. for instance, sinha and torralba examined face detection capabilities in low resolution, contrast negated and inverted images [ ]. in other cases, com- putational models are used to test the validity of theories from neuroscience [ ]. we take inspiration from these studies and evaluate human object detection in man-made art in order to provide a less restrictive benchmark of robustness to deformation than natural images. by using this benchmark we hope to discover parallels between the characteristics of human and algorithmic object detection. from research in neuroscience, we know that the human visual system can detect and recognize objects even when they are deformed in various ways [ ]. for instance, humans are able to recognize inverted objects, although their perfor- mance is degraded, especially when the objects are faces or words [ ][ ]. similar results were obtained when comparing scrambled images to non-scrambled ones, leading to a theory of object-fragments rather than whole-object representations detecting people in cubist art in the brain [ ][ ]. this theory is strengthened by recordings from neurons in the macaque middle face patch that indicate both part-based and holistic face detection strategies [ ]. thus, although humans are capable of recognizing im- ages distorted by scrambling, they are less adept at doing so. by analogy, we might expect methods trained on natural images to suffer a similar degradation in the face of the reorganization of object parts. object detection is one of the prominent unsolved problems in computer vi- sion. traditionally, object detection methods were holistic and template-based [ ], but recent successful detection methods such as poselets [ ][ ] and deformable part-based models [ ] have focused on identifying mid-level parts in an appropri- ate configuration to indicate the presence of objects. other part-based methods discover mid-level discriminative patches in an unsupervised way [ ][ ], use visual features of intermediate complexity for classification [ ], or rely on distinc- tive sparse fragments for recognition [ ]. finally, a model inspired by cubism itself that assembles intermediate-level parts even more loosely has shown success in detecting objects [ ]. another approach to detection that has recently shown remarkable detection results is based on convolutional neural networks [ ][ ]. we discuss the methods that we have chosen to benchmark in more detail in section . cubist ‘fragments of perception’ while there are many kinds of visual deformation to which human vision is robust, we choose to focus on the part-reorganization exhibited by cubist paint- ings as it has an appealing correlation with the strengths of part-based detection methods. cubism is an art movement that peaked in the early th century with the work of artists such as picasso and braque. cubist painters moved away from the two-dimensional representation of perspective characteristic of realism [ ]. instead, they strove to capture the perceptual experience of viewing a three di- mensional object from a close distance where in order to perceive an object, the viewer is forced to observe it part by part from different directions. cu- bist painters collapsed these ‘fragments of perception’ onto one two-dimensional plane, distorting perspective so that the whole object can be viewed simulta- neously. despite the deformation of form, the original object is often readily detectable by the viewer as the parts chosen to represent it are naturalistic enough and discriminative enough to allow for the recognition of the object as a whole. however, this becomes harder with the degree of deformation and abstractness [ ]. the fact that humans can detect distorted objects in cubist paintings with- out prior training makes these paintings well-suited to benchmark robustness to deformation in detection methods trained on natural images. in order to provide intuition that part-based models will be able to perform well on this task, we pro- vide some initial evidence that computer vision methods can successfully identify key parts in the cubist depictions of objects. we train an unsupervised discov- ery method of mid-level discriminative patches on the pascal “person” class images [ ][ ][ ], and compare the part-detector activations on natural shiry ginosar, daniel haas, timothy brown, and jitendra malik fig. : heat maps showing the discriminative patches activations on a natural training image (left) and “girl before a mirror ”, a picasso cubist painting (right). the color palette correlates with confidence score and ranges from blue (lowest) to red (highest). in both cases the most discriminative patches for class person are parts of faces and upper bodies, suggesting that computer vision methods are able to identify the key parts of human figures even when they are split into ‘fragments of perception’ in cubist paintings. training images and cubist paintings by picasso in figures and . despite the difference in low-level image statistics, the detectors are able to discover the patches that discriminate people from non-people in both image domains. in the rest of the paper, we build on these results to test whether part-based object models can use the detected parts in order to recognize the depicted objects as a whole. object detection methods in comparison we compare four state-of-the-art person detectors on cubist paintings, presented in the time ordering in which they were proposed: one holistic template-based method, one part-based model where the parts are learned automatically, one part-based model where the parts are learned from human annotations and the most recent deep learning method. here we discuss the details of each one. dalal and triggs: object appearance in images can be characterized by histograms of orientations of local edge gradients binned over a dense image grid (hog) [ ]. the dalal and triggs (d&t) method trains an object-level hog template for detection using bounding box annotations. since the features are binned, the detector is robust only to image deformation within the bins. deformable part models: a holistic hog template cannot recognize ob- jects in the face of non-rigid deformations such as varied pose, which result in a rearrangement of the limbs versus the torso. therefore, the deformable part- based models detection method (dpm) represents objects using collections of part models [ ]. these can be arranged with respect to the root part, repre- senting the full object, in deformable configurations that can be characterized by spring-like connections between certain pairs of parts. in practice, the model trained on natural images often learns sub-part models (such as half a face). for each detector, the most confident activations are taken from the test set of paintings and presented by decreasing confidence, excluding lower confidence dupli- cates of % overlap or more. detectors are sorted by the average score of their top activations, excluding detectors where over / of activations are duplicates of activations from higher rated detectors. detecting people in cubist art fig. : computer vision methods trained on natural images are able to detect discriminative parts of person figures in cubist paintings. (left) each row dis- plays the top ten discriminative patches activations . the leftmost column shows the top activation on the training data. most of the detectors find corresponding face parts in the natural and painting images, although many are false positives. the fourth patch-detector from the top detects patches with little visual con- sistency on the paintings as well as the training data (a). some false positive activations (b)(bottom) seem more similar to true positives (b)(top) in hog- gles space [ ] (b)(middle) than in hog (b)(right) or the original rgb (left, marked in green) spaces. poselets: poselets is a similar part-based model that considers extra human supervision during training[ ][ ]. here, parts are not discovered but learned from body-part annotations. poselets do not necessarily correspond to anatomi- cal body parts like limbs or torsos as these are often not the most salient features for visual recognition. in fact, a highly discriminative poselet for person detection corresponds to “half of a frontal face and a left shoulder”. r-cnn: r-cnn replaces the earlier rigid hog features with features learned by a deep convolutional neural network [ ][ ]. while r-cnn does not have an explicit representation of parts, it is trained under a detection objective to be invariant to deformations of objects by using a large amount of data. deep meth- ods outperform previous algorithms by a large margin on natural data. here we compare this state-of-the-art method to other methods and human perception on abstract paintings. experimental setup we compare the above methods to human perception in two ways. first, we study the human and algorithm performance on person detection over a cor- pus of cubist paintings. second, we examine the degradation in performance of human perception and detectors as the distortion of person figures in the paint- ings increases. we conduct all comparisons using the pascal voc evaluation shiry ginosar, daniel haas, timothy brown, and jitendra malik mechanism, in which true positives are selected based on a % overlap between detection and ground truth bounding box [ ]. . picasso dataset in the experiments described below we used a set of picasso paintings, which have a title indicating that they depict people, as our test data. these ranged from naturalistic portraits to abstract depictions of people as a collection of distorted parts. the set of paintings we used is highly biased in comparison to pascal person class images [ ]. given the nature of the art form, cu- bist paintings usually depict people in full frontal or portrait views. since in a pascal-style evaluation true positives are selected based on a % overlap, this results in higher average precision scores. for example, portrait paintings devote most of the canvas area to the torso of a person. in such paintings, a random detection that contains over % of the image would count as a true positive. this issue exists in any pascal voc evaluation, but it is especially pronounced in this case. . human perception study setup we conducted two experiments as part of our perception study. first, we recorded human detections of person figures in cubist paintings. second, we asked partic- ipants to bucket the paintings by the degree to which the figures in them were deformed compared to photorealistic depictions of people. for each painting, raters were asked to pick a classification on a -point likert scale, where cor- responded to “the figures in this painting are very lifelike” and corresponded to “the figures in this painting are not at all lifelike”. participants we recruited eighteen participants to partake in our perception study. sixteen participants were undergraduate students at our institution, one was a graduate student and one a software engineering professional. seventeen participants were male and one was female. mechanism participants completed the study on their personal laptops using an online graphical annotation tool we wrote for the purpose. each participant spent an hour on the study and received a compensation of $ . each participant annotated randomly chosen paintings out of the total , so that every painting was annotated by - unique participants. . detector study setup we compare the human recognition performance we measured during the per- ception study to four object detection methods. we train all methods using the pascal “person” class training and validation images [ ]. we train the detecting people in cubist art methods using natural images so that they do not enjoy an advantage over hu- mans by training on the paintings. however, some research suggests that human recognition in cubist paintings does improve with repeated exposures [ ]. we set all parameters in all four methods to the same settings used in the original papers, except for the poselets detection score which we set to . based on cross validation on the training data. . ground truth because picasso did not explicitly label the human figures in his paintings, there is no clear cut gold standard for human figure annotations in our image corpus. as a result, we rely on our human participants to form a ground truth annotation set. we do so by capturing the average rater annotation as follows. since each painting might have more than one human figure, we use k-means clustering to group annotations by the human figure they correspond to. for each cluster, we obtain a ground truth bounding box by taking the median of each corner of the bounding boxes in that cluster along every dimension. this yields one ground truth bounding box per human figure per image, which we can now use to evaluate both human and detector annotations. there is one subtlety omitted in the above description: since it would be unfair to allow a human rater’s annotations to influence ground truth when evaluating that rater, for each human rater we construct a modified leave-one-out ground truth from the annotations of all other raters, withholding the annotations of the rater we intend to evaluate. when evaluating detectors, however, we include annotations from all human raters in the ground truth. it is worth noting that since humans themselves are error-prone (especially when recognizing objects in more abstract paintings), our ground truth cannot be a perfect oracle. rather, all evaluation is comparing performance to the average, imperfect human. from this perspective, our evaluation of human raters can be seen as a measure of their agreement, and our evaluation of detectors can be seen as a measure of similarity to the average human. . evaluating humans and detectors unlike detectors, humans provide only one annotation per figure without confi- dence scores, so we cannot compute average precision. our primary metric for humans is the f-measure (f score), which is the harmonic mean of precision and recall. in order to combine the f-measures of all participants, we consider both (qualitatively) the shape of the distribution of the scores, and (quantitatively) the mean f-measure. to compare detectors with humans, we pick the point on the methods’ precision-recall curve that optimizes f-measure, and return the precision, re- call, and f-measure computed at this point. this is generous to the detectors but captures their performance if they were well tuned for this task. shiry ginosar, daniel haas, timothy brown, and jitendra malik fig. : frequency distribution of human f-measure scores for recognizing per- son figures in all cubist paintings against the leave-one-out ground truth bounding boxes. due to the small number of participants, the curve has been smoothed for clarity. detection performance on the picasso dataset in the first part of the comparison we evaluate the performance of the humans and the four methods at detecting human figures in picasso paintings. . human performance on the picasso dataset first, we evaluate our human participants against the leave-one-out ground truth to determine how effective people are at recognizing human figures in cubist art. figure displays the distribution of human f-measures for this task. qualita- tively, we see that humans perform quite well, as the distribution has its peak around . , and there is little variance among the scores. it is worth noting the bump in the distribution around . —there were a few raters whose annotations were significantly different from the ground truth annotation. this may have been due to either failure to recognize the images, or a misunderstanding of the annotation interface and instructions. quantitatively, the first row of the ta- ble in figure (right) shows the mean human precision, recall, and f-measure. these numbers confirm our impressions of the distribution–humans score high on average when detecting human figures in the paintings. . detector performance on the picasso dataset qualitative results part-based models trained purely on photographs per- formed surprisingly well when tested against the picasso data. as can be seen in figures and figure , poselets and dpms successfully produce bounding boxes for figures in the paintings, though they have their fair share of false positives and misses. we additionally note semantically significant poselet activations as well as false positives in tricky cases where non-human image elements take on human shapes–an expected consequence of the complexity of the paintings (fig- ure ). the non-part-based methods do not perform as well, as is evident in figure where each row displays the top ten detections of a method over the entire painting dataset, sorted by each method’s confidence score. detecting people in cubist art fig. : (left) dpm detects one of the two viewpoints of the split face, resulting in a shifted localization of the person as a whole. (right) the dpm model trained on natural images learns sub-face parts in three different scales. this provides insight as to why dpm is able to detect a split-face patch resulting in the bounding box detection on the left. fig. : the poselets method is able to find person-parts in cubist paintings and use them to detect person figures as a whole. (left) poselet bounding box detections in picasso’s “girl before a mirror ” with a false positive detection in the center. (middle) a true positive poselet activation on the painting together with the corresponding poselet activation on the training data. in both image domains the poselet detects a downward-angled face in profile. (right) the false positive activation that results in the incorrect bounding box detection on the left. here the poselet falsely detects an away-facing back, shoulders, and head in the painting. quantitative results figure (right) displays the precision-recall curves for each method when evaluated on all paintings. there is a clear ordering in accu- racy: dpm performs the best by far, poselets and rcnn come next, and dalal and triggs, though characterized by high recall, has extremely low precision, leading to terrible performance. in general, all of the methods achieve recall of up to . , which implies that they are capable of recognizing most human figures in the image. however, dpm is the only method which can maintain a reasonable precision as recall increases, which explains its significantly greater ap. the table in figure (right) confirms these insights. dpm’s performance on this task is quite encouraging, as its ap ( . ) is not too far off from its performance on undistorted pascal photographs ( . without context rescoring) although the actual number may be higher in practice as the pascal test dataset, unlike ours, includes many images that do not contain people [ ]. shiry ginosar, daniel haas, timothy brown, and jitendra malik fig. : top ten detections for each method according to confidence from left to right. first row: dpm. second row: poselets. third row: r-cnn. fourth row: d&t. false positives are marked in blue. qualitatively, it is evident that part- based models outperform the other approaches. . comparing human and detector performance as is clear from the graphical and tabular data in figure , humans are far better than detectors at recognizing person figures in picasso paintings. the green dot in the upper right corner of the graph shows human precision and recall to be far higher than the orange dot of dpm, the highest-performing method. . discussion of performance on the picasso dataset the comparison between the human participants and four methods on the task of detecting person figures in picasso paintings demonstrates clearly that hu- mans are highly skilled at this task, and that detectors are much less effective but can still achieve results within an order of magnitude of their detection per- formance on undistorted images. among algorithms, part-based object detection methods perform better than object-level methods on distorted images. dpm and poselets, our two part-based methods, demonstrate the best performance on the object detection task. this is likely due to the fact that part-based meth- ods are able to recognize medium-level parts that remain intact even in cubist paintings where standard human body parts are highly distorted. we emphasize the part-based approach here, as we have no reason to believe that the hog features used by both dpm and poselets carry any advantage over other image features organized in a part-based model. given its success in object detection on natural images, it is interesting that r-cnn does not perform well on this task. one reason for this could be that r-cnn is not a part-based model, however this is only partly true because the detecting people in cubist art annotator precision recall f-measure ap human . . . n/a dpm . . . . poselets . . . . rcnn . . . . d&t . . . . fig. : performance comparison via precision-recall curves (left) and tabular data (right). in both the plot and the table: for detectors, precision, recall, and f-measure are the maxima over the entire precision-recall curve. for humans, these numbers are averages across the raters. while dpm outperforms other methods, none of the methods reach human performance in person detection in cubist paintings. convolutional filters can be thought of as parts, and the max pooling as perform- ing deformations. a second factor might be the fact that r-cnn over fits to the natural visual world and fails at adapting to the domain of paintings. there has been little research into how cnn-based networks perform on deformed images, but an initial investigation suggests that tiny changes to an image may cause drastic changes to their output [ ]. performance degradation with increased deformation in the second part of the comparison we study the degradation of performance of humans and methods with increased painting abstractness. . classifying images by degree of deformation in our user study (described in section . ), each rater labeled images on a scale from (the figures in this painting are very lifelike) to (the figures in this painting are not at all lifelike). by taking the rounded average of user labels for each image, we divide the images into five ‘deformation buckets’ in order to evaluate object detection performance as image distortion increases. an example of a painting with an average rating of is picasso’s “seated woman ”‘, and an example of a painting with an average rating of is picasso’s “nude and still life ” (copyrighted paintings not reproduced in this text). the histogram of the number of images in each bucket is shown in figure (top left). . human performance degradation figure (top right) demonstrates the impact of deformation on human object detection performance. as the images become more distorted, the distribution shiry ginosar, daniel haas, timothy brown, and jitendra malik f-measure n or m al iz ed fr eq ue nc y fig. : impact of increasing image distortion on object detection performance. bucket contains images that appear most natural, and bucket contains images that appear most distorted. (top left) a histogram showing the number of images per bucket. (top right) human f-measure distributions by distortion bucket. because there were a small number of human raters, the curves have been smoothed for clarity. (bottom left) dpm precision-recall curves by distortion bucket. (bottom right) comparing humans and methods by bucket. here, part- based models show a similar degradation behavior to human performance as the distortion of the image increases. of human f-measures shifts clearly to the left. this indicates that human per- formance worsens on more deformed human figures, which is consistent with previous results [ ][ ]. as noted in section , there are a few annotators with low f-measures in each of the curves, which implies that these raters’ errors are independent of image distortion. this supports the theory that they are due to a failure to follow the instructions rather than an inability to recognize objects. . detector performance degradation qualitative results in figure we compare the top detections per method on paintings from bucket versus bucket . the top discriminative-patches ac- tivations on these two buckets (right) help visualize the difficulty in detecting meaningful mid-level parts as the paintings become more abstract. detecting people in cubist art fig. : the degradation in performance with image difficulty. top five detections per method (rows correspond to: dpm, poselets, r-cnn, d&t) on images from bucket (left) and bucket (middle). false positives are marked in blue. this comparison shows that all detection methods perform worse on more distorted images. (right) the degradation in performance is also evident in the detection of the parts in isolation. top discriminative patches activations for images of bucket and bucket , with corresponding activations on pascal images. all top activations on bucket are true positives compared to only one from bucket (in green). quantitative results figure (bottom left) shows the precision recall curves for the dpm method with varying distortion buckets. as with human perfor- mance, increasing the image distortion causes a pronounced decrease in method performance. the overlap between the curves for buckets and may be due to variance as a consequence of the low number of images in those two buckets (see figure (top left)). . comparing human and detector degradation figure (bottom right) shows the f-measures for humans and each method with varying distortion buckets. this figure shows that detector performance degrades in a similar pattern to human performance as images become increasingly dis- torted. a closer look at the degradation patterns reveals that the part-based methods follow the human pattern most closely, which matches our intuition about the similarities between part-based object detection and the human vi- sual system. in contrast, the template-based dalal and triggs method abruptly breaks down after bucket . . discussion of degradation with increased deformation as we have demonstrated, part-based models for object detection show a smooth degradation in precision and recall as the distortion of the images increases. this is consistent with results from neuroscience, which indicate that humans are capable of detecting objects cut into parts, but that their ability degrades shiry ginosar, daniel haas, timothy brown, and jitendra malik significantly when the parts are scrambled. the correspondence between human and computational method performance on this task suggests that a part-based object representation might be a good approximation for the mechanisms of ob- ject detection in the human brain. the ability to model these mechanisms com- putationally further corroborates the neuroscience theory of part-based object detection strategies. this is encouraging, even though current methods cannot yet perform at the level of human vision. we note that the correspondence between part-based models and human perception is a somewhat surprising one. at their core, the methods we used are based on hog features that we expected to be highly dependent on image statistics. it was pleasantly surprising to observe the correlation between these methods, trained on natural images, and human perception on cubist paintings with completely different statistics. we believe that better performance could be achieved using part-based models that rely on higher level features than hog. conclusion since human perception acts as a natural benchmark for computer vision, we should strive to understand its performance at its limits. in this paper, we have argued that object detection under form deformation is an example of a challeng- ing perception task that existing image benchmarks do not properly evaluate. we have proposed the use of cubist paintings as a more appropriate benchmark, as they contain rearranged object parts that are nevertheless recognizable as whole objects. using this benchmark, our evaluation comparing human performance to that of various object detection methods demonstrates that part-based mod- els are a step in the right direction for modeling human robustness to object deformation, since their performance degrades comparably to humans as the ab- stractness in images increases. by showing that these models can be trained on photographic data yet still perform on abstract data we demonstrate that they are less over-fit to the natural world than template-based and deep models. part-reorganization in cubism is one example that pushes the envelope of human perception, but there are other artistic movements with characteristic deformations, such as the use of blurring in impressionism, that would provide rich grounds for study. future work in the design of computer vision methods should be cognizant of the limitations of traditional camera snapshot datasets and look for complementary resources when evaluating computational methods’ ability to mimic the wide range of human perception. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank mark lescroart for his guidance and advice throughout this project and bharath hariharan, carl doersch and katerina fragkiadaki for their insightful comments. this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation graduate research fellowship under grant no. dge . detecting people in cubist art references . laporte, p.m.: cubism and science. the journal of aesthetics and art criticism ( ) ( ) pp. – . wiesmann, m., ishai, a.: training facilitates object recognition in cubist paintings. frontiers in human neuroscience ( ) . ishai, a., fairhall, s.l., pepperell, 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( ) guest column—on disciplinary finitude guest column on disciplinary finitude jeffrey t. schnapp jeffrey t. schnapp holds the carl a. pes co so lido chair in romance languages and literatures and comparative lit- erature at harvard university, where he serves as faculty director of metalab (at) harvard and faculty codirector of the berk man klein center for internet and society. his most recent book is futur- piaggio: six italian lessons on mobility and modern life (rizzoli international, ). t he year was one of fruitful disjunctions. i spent the fall teaching at stanford but commuting to the university of california, los angeles, to cochair the inaugural mellon semi- nar in digital humanities. during the same period, i was curating— at the canadian center for architecture, in montreal—an exhibition devised to mark the centenary of the publication of “he founding manifesto of futurism,” by filippo tommaso marinetti. whereas other centennial shows (at the centre pompidou, in paris, and at the palazzo reale, in milan) sought to celebrate the accomplishments and legacies of marinetti’s avant- garde, the canadian exhibition, speed limits, was critical and combative in spirit, more properly fu- turist (though thematically antifuturist). it probed the frayed edges of futurism’s narrative of modernity as the era of speed to relect on the social, environmental, and cultural costs. an exhibition about limits, it looked backward over the architectural history of the twen- tieth century to look forward beyond the era of automobility. my commitments, two pedagogical, the other curatorial, seemed fated to collide. and collide they did in the form of a document i ini- tially drated as an insider joke during the forty- ive minutes i spent in the jet stream between san francisco and los angeles: “a digital humanities manifesto.” i had nurtured a fondness for the bluster of the manifesto genre since high school days, and digital humanists had jested about belonging to some sort of avant- garde. so, i asked myself, why not stir the pot by writing a manifesto that indulged in some academic politicking and philosophizing with a hammer while concluding with a call to transcend the digital humanities? in the inal version of the manifesto, the valediction “let’s get our hands dirty” hovers over a fourfold repetition of john heartfield’s five fingers has the hand ( ), a photograph famously employed in . ] © jeffrey t. schnapp pmla . ( ), published by the modern language association of america a electoral poster reveling in the power of manual labor (digital humanities mani- festo . ). he original drat was animated by enough philofuturist nose thumbing to whip up a dust storm or two once it was placed in circulation and would undergo two collab- orative rewritings: collaborative to the degree that the inal document includes the voices of dozens of coauthors. but amid the ludic pos- turing, one provocation hasn’t abandoned me over subsequent years of work at the conines of the arts and humanities: a section devoted to the question of disciplinary initude. do disciplines end, or do they just adapt, ab- sorb, and mutate? what are their ends, in the sense of boundaries but also in the sense of their ability to undergo knowledge transfers? what, if anything, comes ater or lies beyond disciplinarity: new disciplines? new disci- plinary containers? always- shiting interdis- ciplinary grounds? disciplina (or in the old french, de ce- pline) is a word with a complex classical and medieva l christian lineage. whereas the classical meaning emphasizes the objects of instruction and cognition, the medieval christian meaning focuses on the means of enforcing the successful transmission of a teaching through penance or punishment. both meanings were already present in the greek term παιδεία (paideia). as the two merge and assume the sorts of secular in- stitutional forms that proliferated in nine- teenth- and twentieth- century universities, they associate a given corpus of knowledge and set of standardized procedures and rou- tines for its acquisition and performance with a social hierarchy and system of control, even a system of rewards and punishments. he above may sound like the beginnings of a complaint against disciplinarity. but, if anything, it is the opposite. before graduate school, my interpretive engagements with modern and contemporar y literature and art came a bit too efortlessly (and were thus less than deep or satisfactor y). i devoted those early years to swimming in the stream of contemporary art as a wannabe abstract painter and to studying classical and mod- ern languages, as well as nineteenth- and twentieth- century french and spanish litera- ture. what drew me more meaningfully into the academy, like a time- tested armchair that gradually and gratifyingly engulfs your body, releasing you only ater strenuous efort, was a longing for something more challenging and exacting: not freedom but constraint. brilliant teachers who served up a fore- taste of the feast that awaits the fully disci- plined led me to fall in love with the rigors of thirteenth- century texts that played by alien cultural rules; with the endless puzzles posed by codicology and paleography; with the de- mands of reconstructing a cultural record reduced to fragments by time’s depredations; and with the strange beauty of parchment and inks made of gum and gall, colored with lampblack or iron salts. here was a galaxy of knowledge forms pulsating with learned ref- erence works that could be marshaled to de- fend this or that position, a universe made up of vast silences as well as hot zones animated by multicentury stratigraphies of commen- tary, annotation, and emendation. and here was a world of inquir y where interpreta- tion was never a given but rather the result of arduous reconstruction. sometimes these reconstructions required near lifetimes of devotion, prompting equations (fair or not) between the asceticism of the philological method and monastic forms of piety. he deining experiences of my academic life were training for, becoming part of, and participating in this disciplinary community. hey have remained so, even as the compass of my research and teaching, as well as the worldly commitments to which both led, mi- grated from medieval italian literary history to twentieth- century cultural history (media, architecture, and design) and then to twenty- irst- century technologies (interaction design, data science, and—most recently—artiicial guest column [ p m l a intelligence and robotics). the passage was hardly frictionless, and medieval studies was, like any enduring and tightly woven disci- plinary domain, not always irenic. here were clan rivalries, battles over everything from the macro to the micro level (from models, methods, and masters to textual cruxes), ef- forts to police the discipline’s boundaries or to enforce orthodoxies that had run their course, and clashes between disciplinary generations. eventually, i found some of the wellsprings that had initially nourished me running dry and encountered unexpected resistances: to theoretical engagements, to personal re- search interests in transversal literary- or art- historical ties, to excursuses into the an- thropology of everyday medieval life and ma- terial culture. but, amid the contentiousness and the (oten fruitful) frictions, i did more than chafe: i acquired a knowledge base, a corpus of procedures, and a sense of crat, not to mention what i’d describe as a disciplin- ary imagination, which has served me well in subsequent trans- or extradisciplinary per- egrinations: whether as a twentieth- century cultural historian, a curator involved in the design and development of experimental his- tory museums like the trento tunnels, or an experimentally minded humanist engaged in the forms of experimental work that i have come to deine as knowledge design. so the question of disciplinary initude that i am posing here is less concerned with why or when disciplines close up shop or come under threat—worthy topics of con- cern, to be sure—than with how disciplines spill over into other disciplinary, institutional, cultural, or social realms. otherwise phrased, i’m wondering about the nature of disci- plinary innovation and the ability of skills, knowledge, and experience that are based and bound in a discipline: from an intramural perspective, it’s the question of cross-, inter-, or transdisciplinarity; from an extramural one, it’s that of applicability or extensibility— the ability of a given skill and knowledge base to interoperate with disconnected domains, vocational or other. both are familiar ques- tions to researchers and educators; in neither case are the answers simple or ready at hand. cross- disciplinarity, interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity: these terms surely igure among the most inelegant of academic neolo- gisms. yet all have become the familiar ban- ners of change during the past half century as disciplines have grown beyond their existing confines; as novel domains of research and teaching have sought recognition; and as new challenges and demands have been posed by shifting socioeconomic, cultural, political, and technological circumstances. whether in the humanities or in the sciences, rare is the ield that hasn’t experienced an upheaval cast in this sort of mold. the reason seems straightforward (and well- acknowledged at least since the seminal relections of homas s. kuhn on the nature of scientific revolu- tions). change that gradually bubbles up from within a given disciplinary domain is unlikely to rattle that domain’s foundations. but extra- neous models, unanticipated collisions and combinations, disciplinary invasions from the outside, can efect momentous transfor- mations. hink of the impact of evolutionary biology on debates over literary stemmatics in the development of nineteenth- century textual criticism. or consider the sudden emergence of ields like bioinformatics, built around the use of computational techniques in the analysis and interpretation of biological data, or cultural analytics ( well- documented in the special feature on franco moretti in this issue), which mines cultural data sets on varying scales using computational meth- ods and visualization tools. in such cases and most others, exogenous tools and tech- niques (network analysis, data visualization, machine vision, artiicial intelligence) arise and come into dialogue with endogenous ob- jects of analysis that become available under new conditions or on altered scales (dna se- quencing, genomics, digital text repositories, . ] guest column and image databases), giving birth to a new domain. (and to plenty of polemics.) far from resolving the question of dis- ciplinarity, cross- fertilization, interchange, and transmutations pose the question afresh. for a new disciplinary domain may indeed spring forth from an exogenous- endogenous collision or even, as it were, from the brow of zeus. more likely, the outcome is evolution- ary, not revolutionary, and has consequences with respect to institutional arrangements. interdisciplinary programs are the standard institutional expression of cross-, inter-, and transdisciplinary change in universities today, just as departments are the classic expression of a consecrated, historically sustained disci- pline. interdisciplinary programs are charac- teristically more fragile and less well funded than departments, relying heavily on depart- mental labor and resources. most are built on top of departments, operating as shared platforms, junction boxes that extend depart- ments’ reach. his reach reasserts itself at key moments of hiring, promotion, and evalua- tion, for disciplines possess well- established, if sometimes contested, standards of quality, depth, and rigor, whereas emergent interdisci- plinary domains tend by their nature to be un- stable and ill- deined: all the more so ones that diverge from established disciplinary norms. he foregoing argues for a more trenchant distinction: between modes of cross-, inter-, and transdisciplinarity that explore disciplin- ary conjunctions or adjust their contours, leaving largely intact the shapes that research, training, and publication assume, and modes that are resolutely experimental, revolution- ary (not evolutionary), imposing different professional language, altered research pro- tocols, new models of teaching and training, and alternative methods of dissemination. during the past decades, the revolutionary, higher- risk approach has shaped a growing array of ventures that include speclab and the scholars’ lab, at the university of virginia; humlab, at umeå university; humanities + design and the literary lab, at stanford uni- versity; mcgill’s .txtlab; maryland institute for technology in the humanities (mith), at the university of maryland; and the group for experimental methods in the humanities, at columbia university, to name only a few. ex- perimentation was and remains the ethos of the stanford humanities laboratory, which i directed from to , and of metalab (at) harvard, which i’ve directed since . he experimental initiatives just adum- brated suggest that an expanded notion of cross-, inter-, or transdisciplinarity—call it what you will—requires a diferent sort of in- stitutional container than a department or an interdisciplinary program. to my mind, that container is the laboratory. when, in , i had the good fortune to be asked by stan- ford’s leadership to develop a visionary ven- ture in the arts and humanities, the apparent challenge was to build bridges between the disciplines in question and the cultural and technical revolution that was under way in the silicon valley, perhaps along the same lines as t he productive entanglements of the counterculture with cyberculture in the s and s (turner). i felt well- enough- equipped to do so, hav ing tinkered w it h mainframe computing in high school and having served as the on- campus director for the irst digital pilot project of the national endowment for the humanities: the dart- mou th dante project—a database of the seven centuries of line- by- line commentaries on dante’s divine comedy, from boccaccio to the present. but technology per se was never the object (note the absence of digital from any of the cited lab titles). a survey of knowledge production and training practices in other ields and schools, accompanied by an infor- mal poll regarding the dreams that my most adventurous colleagues aspired to realize but couldn’t under current conditions, conirmed that new tools, technologies, and media were only one means, however powerful and laden with potential, to a greater end: to expand the guest column [ p m l a compass, impact, appeal, scope, and scale of humanistic work; to complement individual- ized models of training and scholarship with collaborative, project- based, hands- on models similar to those encountered in the experi- mental sciences; to test and model alternatives to the current knowledge- distribution system in the arts and humanities. laboratoria are places of labor; they are workshops where an infrastructure made up of facilities, tools, instruments, and knowl- edge resources support the integrated, col- laborative production of k nowledge in a hierarchica lly structured communit y. as bruno latour and steve woolgar long ago observed with respect to the research labo- ratories of the industrial era, laboratory pro- ductivity has long been measured in scholarly writing. but what is learned writing? where does such writing start, and where does it end? is it restricted to the creation of schol- arly books, monographs, and journal essays disseminated as industrialized print artifacts? surely not: such a notion would have struck our eighteenth- and nineteenth- century pre- decessors as unduly limiting, even as stiling. in sketching out an institutional blue- print for humanities innovation, i found myself thinking a great deal about the labo- ratories of the avant- garde, from construc- tivism and the bauhaus to black mountain college. but most of all, i found my mind repairing back, time and again, to the me- dieval predecessors of latour and woolgar’s laboratories: scriptoria. scriptoria, like the sixth- century renowned ones found at cas- siodorus’s vivarium in squillace or bene- dict of norcia’s monastery of monte cassino, combined research, study, and contemplation with functions that we’d associate today with the art studio, the maker space, the chemis- try lab, the model farm, and the publishing house. hey were sites of gathering, hands- on teaching, and collaborative fabrication, animated appendages to libraries where the arts of the hand and the life of the mind were understood as one. writing in scriptoria was an encompassing—today, we’d say a transme- dia—activity that included copying, index- ing, annotation, and commentary, across the full disciplinary grid, as well as decoration, layout, illustration, and bookbinding. writ- ing was discovery, preservation, and explora- tion, and, as scribes are wont to remind us in their marginalia, it was also hard labor to the drip, drip, drip of water clocks. at the stanford humanities laboratory, laboratory connoted the belief that “some cru- cial questions—about what it is to be human, about experience in a connected world, about the boundaries of culture and nature—tran- scend old divisions between the arts, sciences, and humanities; between the academy, indus- try, and the cultural sphere.” his copy, com- posed in for the lab’s home page with my archaeologist colleague michael shanks, now feels a bit dated and overreaching. it went on to state: “we engage in experimental projects with a ‘laboratory’ ethos—collab- orative, co- creative, team- based—involving a triangulation of arts practice, commentary/ critique, merging research, technology, peda- gogy, outreach, publication, and practice.” overreaching or not, pedagogy loomed large in the lab’s collaborative universe. proj- ects spanned from an experiment in the mul- timedia capture of the entire life cycle of a theater performance (dpresearch) to an art in- stallation for the san josé public library (he rosetta screen) to a “big humanities” project (crowds) to a christian- jewish- islamic web resource on the spanish middle ages (medi- eval spains) to a mapping platform (temporal topographies berlin). hey typically involved recurring course or seminar components that allowed students from all disciplinary walks of the university to learn “not only by study- ing existing k nowledge in the traditional manner, but also by producing knowledge: by being assigned responsibility for the realiza- tion of a piece of research within a larger re- search mosaic, overseen (as in natural science . ] guest column laboratory settings) by an experienced senior researcher.” here were deadlines and deliv- erables in the form of web sites, databases, sotware, interactive media, gallery installa- tions, book chapters, archival interventions, physical reconstructions, wall labels for mu- seum exhibitions, or curated virtual galleries. student work carried out beyond the walls of the classroom was paid: undergraduates were paid by the hour; graduate students received honoraria for assuming leadership roles. he lab did some things well and other things not so well. eforts to seed a multitude of projects soon stretched the lab’s leader- ship team beyond the limit: a disproportion- ate share of energies and resources was being devoted to supporting the exploratory work of others rather than to modeling the trans- disciplinary future that brought us within the lab’s fold. some projects were overly am- bitious; most were underfunded. grant writ- ing absorbed more and more creative juices. an industrial- ailiates program failed to in- spire warm and fuzzy feelings in the upper administration. at times, the pressure to de- liver research on time while training students on the job yielded work of uneven quality. attempts to crat and then support a digital humanities minor across all the literature departments emerged as an additional time sink and encountered resistance from many senior faculty members. once the lab moved to the school of humanities and sciences and no longer reported to the provost and presi- dent, its days seemed numbered: momentum became harder to sustain, resources became tighter, internal reviews were contentious. he competition became departments, cen- ters, and institutes: units with a more easily identifiable disciplinary terrain and firmer bases of faculty support. he harvard metalab arose not out of the ashes of the stanford humanities labora- tory but as a second cross-, inter-, or trans- disciplinarity chapter. hat chapter is being written in diferent times—digital humani- ties is now less the unkempt upstart than a force to be contended with in the academy— and under altered circumstances: metalab didn’t have to start from scratch because it found an ideal, ready- at- hand institutional home in the thriving and highly variegated intellectual community of the berkman klein center for internet and societ y. like the stanford humanities laboratory, metalab is a small community of scholars, designers, thinkers, and creative technologists working on a portfolio of projects that share a com- mitment to experimentalism, teamwork, and project- based pedagogy designed to promote students’ translational skills. unlike the stan- ford humanities laboratory, metalab does not aspire (at least for the moment) to build an academic program. it’s a lean and scrappy entrepreneurial operation, physically hosted in harvard’s graduate school of design. in the absence of words like digital and humanities in its title, metalab describes it- self as an “idea foundry, a knowledge- design lab, and a production studio” whose aim is to model (not just theorize) answers to the question of what shapes knowledge could or should assume in the twenty- irst century. those answers include experiments in cre- ative coding and multimedia scholarship, critical and expressive data use, exhibition design and curation as ty pes of extended scholarly practice, and print publications that have a digital component and that span ev- erything from design- driven scholarly books (the publication series metalabprojects) to critical editions (the expanded reprint of blueprint for counter education). when it comes to sotware projects, metalab’s man- tra is modest: prototype rather than perfect. it approaches questions of knowledge design not just from the perspective of so- called con- tent but also from that of knowledge contain- ers: the design of future libraries, museums, and archives remains an abiding concern: no less so than curricular data sets, rare- book inventories, or collections databases. guest column [ p m l a i may seem to have strayed far from my initial questions regarding the powers and limits of disciplines by describing two personal chapters, among the many being authored by creative colleagues throughout the world, from a collective work in progress dedicated to experimentation in the humani- ties. in so doing, my aim has been to circle back to the second extramural question posed earlier—that of disciplinary extensibility or the aptitude of a given skill set and knowl- edge base to prove efective in a distant do- main—from the perspective of the sorts of cross-, inter-, or transdisciplinary ventures just evoked. it’s a question of pedagogical, cognitive, and epistemological consequence, too complex to adequately address in these brief closing thoughts. as the faculty director of a research and training initiative, i am led to ask: what sort of students should we seek to educate, train, and involve in the life of the lab? how to balance disciplinary depth with interdisciplinary reach, rigor with imagina- tion? as the leader of a robotics startup, i am prompted to extend those same questions out into the work world: what sort of employees do we wish to hire when it comes to taking on complex, collaborative, real- world tasks for which the training received in university classrooms can never be adequate? how to balance expertise with ingenuity? irrespective of which side of the fence i’m standing on, for me the answer remains the same: disciplinary homelessness is like a meal without textures, smells, or lavors. in- novators need to come from somewhere to go somewhere beyond. but to thrive, disciplinar- ity requires a counterforce, and such coun- terforces are fed, in turn, by discipline- based modes of inquiry. he paradox is irresolvable because it’s productive: whether in the class- room, the laboratory, or the workplace, depth plus reach equals greater mental agility than either pursued in isolation can hope to pro- vide. disciplines may come and go, they may rejuvenate from within or without, but the great mosaics of twenty- irst- century knowl- edge will be built from the tesserae of domain expertise, not from a scattering of skills. notes . he two main redactions of the text—with signiicant contributions by todd presner, my faculty collaborator at the university of california, los angeles, and by fellow mellon seminar presenters johanna drucker and peter lu- nen feld, along with paragraph- by- paragraph reader com- mentary and criticism—are available on the web (“digital humanities manifesto”; “digital humanities manifesto . ”). he inalized version, with images, is available as a pdf (digital humanities manifesto . ). the manifesto prompted the writing of a collaborative book (burdick et al.). . he bibliography on discipline is vast, extending from overall accounts of the foundations of western pedagogy, like jaeger’s paideia, to foucault’s discipline and punish, in which associations between schooling practices and the structure of correctional institutions are a recurring topic. . he trento tunnels, known as le gallerie di piedi- castello, are a six- thousand- square- meter pair of highway tunnels in the northern italian city of trent repurposed as an experimental history museum. hey were featured in the italian pavilion of the venice biennale of ar- chitecture; for more on the tunnels, see la biennale. i irst articulated the notion of knowledge design in a keynote address i gave in december for the herrenhausen conference (digital) humanities revisited—challenges and opportunities in the digital age. he talk was pub- lished in the pamphlet knowledge design (schnapp). . his list should surely be ampliied with references to media studies and history centers like the signallabor and medienarchäologischer fundus, of the media studies program at the humboldt university of berlin, or media archeology lab, at the university of colorado, denver. . the dartmouth dante project (dante .dartmouth .edu/) was founded a nd led by rober t hol la nder at prince ton but run out of dartmouth because of dart- mouth’s advanced computing infrastructure. today the project remains one of the deining reference works in the ield of dante studies. . he debate over the value of digital in the phrase dig- ital humanities is long- standing. he digital humanities manifesto . embraced it only for reasons of “strategic essentialism”: “we wave the banner of ‘digital humani- ties’ for tactical reasons . . . not out of a conviction that the phrase adequately describes the tectonic shits embraced in this document. but an emerging transdisciplinary do- main without a name runs the risk of inding itself deined less by advocates than by critics and opponents, much as . ] guest column cubism became the label associated with the pictorial ex- periments of picasso, braque, and gris” ( ). for thought- ful relections on the debate, see the essays in gold and klein, particularly the contribution by jentery sayers. . he best overall introduction to medieval scriptoria remains reynolds and wilson. . in his famous account of the virtues of scribal activ- ity, cassiodorus writes: “we have not allowed you to be ig- norant in any way of the measurement of time which was invented for the great use of the human race. i have, there- fore, provided a clock for you which the light of the sun marks, and another, a water clock which continually indi- cates the number of the hours by day and night, because on those days when the brightness of the sun is missing, the water traces marvelously on earth the course that the iery power of the sun runs on its path above. hus, things which are divided in nature, men’s art has made to run together; in these devices the trustworthiness of events stands with such truth that their harmonious function seems to be arranged by messengers” (sec. , par. ). . all quotations about the lab appeared on the now- defunct stanford humanities laboratory web site, circa , and are taken from the author’s personal archives. two linear feet and . gigaby tes of materials docu- menting the history of the lab are present in the special collections of the stanford university libraries; for more information, see search works (searchworks .stanford .edu/ view/ ). internet archive (archive.org) also contains ample documentation, particularly regarding the lab’s work in interactive media and machinima. . see metalab (metalabharvard .github.io/). . he harvard university press series metalabproj- ect has published six titles to date, including presner et al. and drucker. stein and miller’s seminal work of radi- cal pedagogy is supported by the web site blueprint for counter education (blueprintforcountereducation .com/). works cited la biennale de venezia: xii. mostra internazionale di ar­ chi tet tura. jefreyschnapp .com/ wp - content/ uploads/ / / deinitivo .pdf. accessed june . burdick, anne, et al. digital_ humanities. mit p, . cassiodorus. institutiones. translated by james w. hal- porn and barbara halporn, bk. , faculty .georgetown .edu/ jod/ inst- trans .html. accessed may . “a digital humanities manifesto.” a digital humanities manifesto, dec. , manifesto .humanities .ucla .edu/ / / /digital- humanities- manifesto/. “he digital humanities manifesto . .” a digital human­ ities manifesto, may , manifesto . humanities .u c l a . e d u / / / / t h e - d i g i t a l - hu m a n i t i e s - manifesto - /. he digital humanities manifesto . . www . humanitiesblast .com/ manifesto/ manifesto_v .pdf. accessed  june . drucker, johanna. graphesis. harvard up, . foucault, michel. discipline and punish: he birth of the prison. translated by alan sheridan, vintage books, . gold, matthew k., and lauren f. klein, editors. debates in the digital humanities, . u of minnesota p, , dhdebates.gc.cuny .edu/ debates/ . jaeger, werner. paideia: the ideals of greek culture. translated by gilbert highet, oxford up, .  vols. kuhn, homas s. he structure of scientiic revolutions. rd ed., u of chicago p, . latour, bruno, and steve woolgar. laboratory life: he construction of scientiic facts. princeton up, . presner, todd, et al. hypercities: hick mapping in the digital humanities. harvard up, . reynolds, leighton durham, and nigel guy wilson. scribes and scholars: a guide to the transmission of greek and latin literature. clarendon press, . schnapp, jefrey t. knowledge design. volkswagen stif­ tung, , www .volkswagenstitung.de/en/news -press/ publications/ details - publications/ news/ detail/ artikel/ herrenhausen - lecture - knowledge - design/ marginal/ .html. pdf download, accessed  may . stein, maurice, and larry miller. blueprint for counter education. . inventory books, . turner, fred. from counterculture to cyberculture: stew­ art brand, the whole earth network, and the rise of digital utopianism. u of chicago p, . guest column [ p m l a found phys ( ) : – doi . /s - - -z j.r. leibowitz: hidden harmony. the connected worlds of physics and art. the johns hopkins university press, . isbn- : - - - - , isbn- : - - - . pages, hardcover, colour pictures, black-and-white figures, . × . × . inches sebastian de haro · thomas van lier received: february / accepted: february / published online: february © the author(s) . this article is published with open access at springerlink.com abstract the book hidden harmony—the connected worlds of physics and art by j.r. leibowitz is critically reviewed. the book is intended for a general audience and does not assume prior knowledge of physics or the arts. keywords art and philosophy · science in art · art and science · analytical cubism · symmetry breaking · form and balance · conservation laws much has been written on, and speculated about, the connection between physics and art, the role of perception and the psychological and social factors influencing both fields. attempts at connecting developments in physics such as albert einstein’s formulation of the special theory of relativity and the simultaneous development of cubism by pablo picasso appear to be no more than suggestive proposals. despite much research, it has not proved possible to firmly establish such claims of historical connections. what, if anything, is left to be said on the “physics and art” front? j.r. leibowitz, in hidden harmony—the connected worlds of physics and art, studies the role of form in physics and in the visual arts. physics and art geniuses both apply aesthetical categories and criteria to their work. leibowitz tries to identify the influence of those criteria in the artist’s and the physicist’s work. he then explains how their separate criteria are mutually connected. by displaying the developments as a creative process, he finds a number of elements that play an important role in the see for instance arthur i. miller, einstein, picasso: space, time, and the beauty that causes havoc, basic books, . s. de haro (�) · t. van lier institute for theoretical, physics and spinoza institute, utrecht university, leuvenlaan , td utrecht, the netherlands e-mail: s.deharo@uu.nl t. van lier e-mail: t.j.m.vanlier@students.uu.nl mailto:s.deharo@uu.nl mailto:t.j.m.vanlier@students.uu.nl found phys ( ) : – birth of a physical theory as well as in what makes a piece of art “work”. a few of these elements are: symmetry and its breaking; balance and rebalance; conservation; and coherence and unity. in a number of examples from physics and in a selection of paintings, he illustrates how these elements are a key to making great works. in the first and last chapters, leibowitz poses the problem of how physics and art are connected, and stresses the importance of form in his answer to this question. in the eight remaining chapters he analyzes, in alternating groups of two chapters, the developments in the histories of physics and art. the chapters dealing with physics will not give the working physicist any new information; they rather provide the au- thor’s own vision on a number of developments in the history of physics; as such they are a nice read. the first two chapters on physics explain the concepts of conserved quantity, sym- metry, and symmetry breaking, illustrating them with examples from nature and cos- mology. leibowitz discusses the wave- and particle-character of light in the double- slit experiment as well as planck’s quantization condition. he stresses the relation between symmetry and information: the breaking of symmetry allows determining the properties of a particle and restores its defining information. the next two physics chapters attempt at explaining parts of maxwell’s theory and the special theory of relativity but fall short in a number of points. leibowitz shows the importance of charge conservation in the formulation of the maxwell equations. thanks to the additional term c de dt on the right-hand side of the ampère-maxwell law, maxwell’s equations describe electric and magnetic fields as waves propagating at the speed of light. but leibowitz fails to justify his emphasis on the way the equa- tions look. maxwell’s equations, placed in a frame which is supposed to remind the reader of a painting, are regarded as “icons” of a composition. at this point the au- thor gives in to a popularizing kind of prose at the expense of clarity. this chapter is apparently aimed at a public of non-scientists, but they will find it difficult to follow the explanation of the symbols. the explanation of concepts such as time dilation and the impossibility of simul- taneity contained in the chapter on special relativity will once again be opaque to the non-physicist. nevertheless this chapter contains a few interesting points. enlight- ening is his discussion of observer-independence. leibowitz argues that relativism, in the sense of an unwarranted dependence on the existence of a special observer, lurks in the concept of the ether and hence in maxwell’s description of electro- magnetism. according to leibowitz, einstein does away with physics relativism by introducing—or rather, restoring—observer relativity and demanding that physics be independent of the observer. lorentz transformations thus restore the broken symme- try. in this way, the path that starts from newton and continues via faraday, ampère and maxwell, leading to einstein, can be regarded as a process of initial symmetry, its subsequent breaking and finally its restoration: galilean invariance is replaced by lorentz invariance. four chapters on the visual arts deal with the concepts of balance and restoration of balance, coherence and unity, symmetry, and broken symmetry. leibowitz mentions a few factors that may contribute to these. balance, for instance, can be achieved by using form, stressing some elements more than others. he illustrates this in the sculpture of the american artist david smith ( – ). by bringing one form to found phys ( ) : – the foreground and letting it dominate another, hierarchy arises. in order not to distort the coherence with other forms, the artist uses other means, as leibowitz explains in another painting of the nineteenth-century painter edouard manet. besides form, color also plays an important part in achieving unity and coherence. in the old guitarist by pablo picasso, for instance, the guitar is central in the com- position. since picasso did not want to emphasize it, he gave it a rather neutral color, such that the man playing it comes to the foreground. a similar effect takes place in the the arnolfini wedding by jan van eyck ( – ), where the bride’s colorful dress does not misbalance the composition thanks to the strip of light in the lower left corner of the painting. in the chapter on impressionism a few things remain unclear. leibowitz first men- tions the way that the same colors and hues appear in different places of the painting, creating an impression of unity. later on, the texture of brush is also seen to add to unity, but he does not explain in what way and why. even less clear is the example of van gogh’s wheatfields with cypresses ( ). unity is in this case achieved by the distribution of related colors, but in this case the texture mainly expresses emotion. chapter nine, on cézanne and analytical cubism, is the most clarifying one, not because the author successfully shows how certain principles from science are also present in cubist art, but because he shows how cézanne and his followers no longer try to imitate nature; rather, they pursue an autonomous work of art with its own (aesthetic) laws. and with that the formalist approach of art, so characteristic of lei- bowitz, is born. when he discusses the concepts such as unity, coherence and (restored) symmetry in current art, things are more complicated. are these also applicable to performance art, installation art and video art? leibowitz has made a choice of modern art where such principles still play a role. but that suggests that the argued connections between physics and art may not hold for all art, but mainly for the art that the author selected. the very small amount of source material and references used give the impression that his story on art is mainly based on personal interpretations lacking a serious attempt to justify them. nevertheless it is a surprising view on art, as long as one doesn’t ask too many questions. leibowitz offers an original perspective on the relation between physics and art and in that sense the book is worth reading. he avoids speaking of content, perception and representation, which would require a much longer book. the concentration on form allows him to identify a number of elements which contribute to the harmony of a work of art and of a physical theory. herein lays its strength but also its weakness: the emphasis on the formal elements make the argument and the author’s intentions become enigmatic at times. he does not mention how far analogies between physics and art can be pushed, or whether they point to a deeper relationship between both. on the one hand leibowitz suggests the existence of parallels in the histories of physics and the arts; on the other hand he dismisses the suggestion of clear causal connections. can the analogy be explained from the way great minds work, both in the natural sciences and in the arts? does the connection between physics and the visual arts bear a special status, or can it be found between physics and other forms of artistic or media-expression as well? or between the visual arts and other natural sciences? the lack of a theory of representation and the focus on form leaves these questions unanswered. found phys ( ) : – open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution noncom- mercial license which permits any noncommercial 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e e f c c f e c c e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f f c a e e f d e f f e e f d e f f d e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f f d f b d e a c a f b f b a f a e c f e e e e d e a c f d e e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d f c c f c c e e f b e f b d e e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu <feff a f f f e f f c c e e d f c f f e c e e d e d c d d d c f e e f e c f a f f f f e e e e f d d f e c f e c e f f c f f f f e c e f f c e f c f a f d f e e> >> >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice .고귀한( - ).hwp journal of the korean institute of interior design vol. no. serial no. _ . 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 리처드 마이어 건축에 표현된 바로크적 특성 연구 * a study on the baroque characteristics expressed in architecture by richard meier author 한명식 han, myoung-sik / 정회원, 대구한의대학교 실내건축학과 부교수 abstract baroque is fundamentally in contrast with renaissance style classicism, which attempted to fix a world view itself as the value of perpetuity. furthermore, it is interpreted as a topic of incompletion or transformation that is not defined or is not exemplary and which may be enjoyed by people in the classical life, which requires a microscopic concept in contrast with dualism, the central axis of western civilization, namely, rational lucidity. also, such characteristics are estimated to serve as a lubricant in life while going beyond the formal aesthetic level of art even from a contemporary perspective, and to play a productive role and to have potential. consequently, this paper assumed that the concepts expressed by the th century us contemporary architect richard meier of a complex space, namely architectural formative vocabularies such as overlapping, interpenetration, collision, and collage style mixture created by a layered structure, in his architecture are in common with the double surface technique and juxtaposition of a flat structure of baroque architecture. then, the paper analyzed and considered the characteristics. the paper considered the following two issues: such baroque style formal principle is reinterpreted against a backdrop in which his architectural flow based on the domino theory of le corbusier became established as his own unique architectural feature, and it may be proposed as one big flow that enables us to seek again modernistic architecture that attempts to make an architectural space absolute as an atypical formal contour. keywords 바로크, 리차드 마이어, 복합공간 baroque, richard meier, complex space . 서론 . . 연구의 목적과 방법 에우헤니오 도르스(eugenio d’ors)는 바로크를 일컬 어 시대와 장소를 막론하고 언제든 다시금 나타날 수 있 는 보편적 경향으로써 문화의 새로운 참조 틀이 될 수 있음을 피력 하였다. ) 이는 바로크가 세기라는 일정 시대의 문화적 현상으로써의 양식적, 예술사적 의미를 넘어서, 그것 자체로서 하나의 정신적 자유의지를 내포 하며, 예술분야뿐만 아니라 인간 본성의 총체적인 문제 와 연결될 수 있는 하나의 철학적 담론의 틀로서 해석될 수 있음을 시사한다. 또한 그는 바로크를 일컬어 ‘인간의 부분적 자화상’이라고 하며, 자기 존재의 속박과 제약으 로 부터의 해방을 지향함으로써 궁극적으로는 예술의 사 회적 기능과 개인적 향유사이의 미학적 내면화에 접근  * 이 논문은 년도 대구한의대학교 기린연구비 지원에 의한 것임. 할 수 있음을 강조하였다. 즉 존재의 심연에서 솟구치는 원시적 생명력, 인간의 정념이 도달할 수 있는 광란의 극한, 충동적인 움직임, 자유를 향한 몸부림, 카오스적인 혼돈 등을 역설적인 알레고리로 채택함으로서 시대적 공 허함을 진통시키고자 했던 예술가들의 의지가 바로크 미 학을 형성시키는 데에 중요한 배경으로 작용하였다는 것 이다. ) 이처럼 바로크는 세계관 자체를 영원불멸의 가치로 고 정시키려한 르네상스적 고전주의와는 근본적으로 대비되 는 개념으로 이해 될 수 있다. 아울러 서구 문명의 중심 축이었던 이원론과도 대립되는 미시적 개념, 즉 이성적 명징함이 요구되는 고전적인 삶 속에서 인간이 누릴 수 있는 규명되거나 모범적이지 않은 미완성, 또는 변형이 라는 주제로 해석되었다. 이러한 특성은 바로크 옹호주 의자들로부터 ) 예술의 형식미학적 차원에서 탈피하여 ) eugenio d'ors, le baroque, barcelona, tecnoc, , p. ) 도르스를 비롯한 뵐플린(heinrich woelfflin)과 구를리트(cornelius 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 삶에 윤활유와 같은 개념으로 작용하고, 생산적 역할과 가능성을 가진다고 평가되었다. ) 이른바 바로크의 가치 를 정형화되지 않은 틀 속에서 상대적이고 유동적인 형 태미학으로 활용할 수 있다고 간주 하였다. 격변하는 현 재의 삶 속에서 사회와 문화적 변위성을 충족시키기 위 한 수단으로서의 바로크가 유용할 수 있으며, 그리고 그 자체가 완전함으로 고정된 세계가 아니라. 자연과 인류 문명의 유동적인 흐름처럼 본연의 리듬으로서 그 질서를 패턴화 할 수 있다는 개념이다. 따라서 본 논문은 미국을 대표하는 세대 건축가 리처 드 마이어(richard meier)가 그의 건축에서 표현하였던 겹 구조에 의한 중첩, 상호관입, 충돌, 꼴라주적인 혼성 등과 같은 건축적 조형어휘가 바로크 건축의 이중 표피 기법, 평면구조의 병치기법 등과 공통점이 있음을 상정 하고 그 특징에 대하여 고찰할 것이다. 모더니즘 이후, 현대 건축의 표현기법 중에서 바로크 적인 특성이라고 볼 수 있는 사례들은 리처드 마이어뿐 만 아니라 많은 건축가들로 부터 다양하게 시도되었다. 하지만 그의 건축처럼 단일한 공간속에서 복합적으로 구 성된 것이 아니라 일부의 조형 요소로써 표현되고 적용 된 수준이었다. 따라서 본 논문은 그러한 개연성을 연구의 주제로 상정 하고 리처드 마이어 건축에서 나타나는 조형어휘와 바로 크 건축의 형태적 상관관계를 분석할 것이다. 이를 위하여 그의 건축프로젝트에 대한 이미지 자료들을 살펴보고 바 로크적인 어휘가 그의 건축 속에 어떠한 방법으로 구체화 되어 나타나는지를 확인해 봄으로써 조형적, 구조적 측면 에서 리처드 마이어 건축의 특징을 규명 할 것이다. 그리 고 이러한 특징들의 변화과정을 살피며, 이것이 실제 프 로젝트에서 어떻게 표현되는지를 알아 볼 것이다. 연구는 먼저 세기 바로크시대의 사회적 철학적 배경 과, 인식론적 개념에 근거하여 당시대 건축에 반영된 조 형 어휘들을 분석할 것이다. 또한 리처드 마이어가 그의 건축에 적용하는 조형 요소들이 바로크 건축과 어떠한 상관관계를 가지는지를 고찰할 것이다. 그 대상은 그의 전 작품이 범위에 포함되나, 가능한 실현된 프로젝트위 주로 이루어진다. . 바로크와 바로크 건축 . . 르네상스와의 비교를 통한 공간 개념 알베르티(leon battista alberti)는 본성 상 사물을 아 름답게 해 주는 특질이 무엇인가 라는 물음에 ‘수(數)의 gurlitt), 바이스바흐(werner weisbach), 크로체(benedetto croce), 하우젠슈타인(wilhelm hausenstein), 포시용(henri focillon) ) 김영방, 바로크, 한길아트, 서울, , p. 유형화’라고 답하였다. 그는 수야 말로 형태의 마무리와 배열이라고 주장하며, 그것은 다른 부분들의 접속과 결 합에서 생겨나서 전체에 미와 우아함을 부여하고 조화시 킨다 하였다. 우아하고 멋진 모든 것들의 원형이 수라는 무형의 질서에서 비롯된다는 의미다. 이른바 조화의 본 성자체가 서로 다른 구성원들을, 하나의 아름다운 전체 로 형성하는데 힘을 모을 수 있는 정신의 시각화라는 개 념으로 풀이 될 수 있다. 아울러 뒤러(albrecht dürer)도 수학적 법칙이 자신의 회화에서 재현의 정확성과 시각적 질서나 조화 간의 화해를 목표로 한다고 말하며, 미가 양극단 사이의 중용에 위치한다고 하였다. 그래서 유용 성은 궁극적으로 미의 일부이며, 조화를 통해서 아름다 워지고, 조화가 결여되면 아름답지 않다고 하였다. ) 진정 한 조화는 서로 다른 사물들을 결합시킨다는 알베르티의 주장과 일치하는 대목이다. 또한 슐츠(n. schultz)가 언급했던 ‘르네상스의 우주적 질서의 가시화와 그것들의 종합적 포괄이 바로크이다‘ ) 라는 논리에 주목해보면 르네상스인은 질서화한 우주와 자연 속에서 신성한 완전의 존재를 확고하게 믿었고, 신 학적 사유 안에서 이루어지던 우주와 자연의 질서가 관 찰과 실험을 통하여 탐구됨으로서 형이상학적인 관념의 허울이 벗겨지고 자연을 있는 그대로 인식하게 되었다는 것이다. 그래서 그들의 이러한 자연에 대한 인식과 해석 은 논리적인 수학에 의한 기하학적 질서의 이론으로 체 계화됨과 동시에 건축에 있어서는 형태의 완성이 기능적 의미를 대체하는 결과로 이어진다. 요컨대, 모든 미학의 기본이 되는 통일성의 원리, 통일 적 공간감정, 비례의 통일적 기준, 하나의 모티브에 집중 된 묘사의 제한, 한눈으로 파악할 수 있는 구조의 통일 적 종합을 합리주의라는 방향으로 이끌어 낸 것이다. ) 반면, 바로크 건축은 르네상스에 비하여 공간의 구축 요소와 방법이 포괄적으로 나타난다. 이는 르네상스의 우주적 질서로서의 기하개념과 매너리즘의 역동적 변형 의 동적인 조형원리가 체계적으로 결합되는 양태로 이해 될 수 있는데 ) 르네상스와 매너리스트의 건축적 경험과 기하개념이 어느 것도 제외되지 않고 복합적으로 표현되 는 방식이다. 즉 바로크 건축은 두 가지의 궁극적인 힘 에 의하여 구성되고, 이는 바로크 공간의 전체를 지배하 는 중앙의 개념과 무한한 연속적 리듬으로 공간의 경계 를 지워서 과장된 형식의 효과를 가져 온다. 표현의 극 대화를 위한 조형적 요소로써 르네상스적인 개념이 전자 ) http://blog.naver.com ) c. n. schultz, baroque architecture, harry n. abrams, new york, . p. ) 아르놀트 하우저, 문학과 예술의 사회사 , 백낙청 역, 문학과 지성 사, 서울, p. ) c. n. schultz, op. cit., pp. - 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > basilica di san lorenzo plan, <그림 > dome of the wieskirche, dominikus zimmermann, 의 중앙이라면 리듬감과 연장, 그리고 조형적요소가 후 자의 변형이 되는 것이다. 이렇듯 바로크의 공간원리는 역동성과 상호관입으로 설명될 수 있다. 하지만 여기에서 논의되는 바로크 공간 의 역동성은 고딕건축과는 다른 방식의 개념으로 설명될 수 있다. 고딕건축에서는 건물구조의 표면상에 있는 선 들의 작용에 의해 확립된 투시도의 암시들이 차원적으 로 사용되지만, 바로크 건축에서는 전체적인 벽이 파상 을 이루며 굽어져 흐르고 마침내 그것이 시각적으로 움 직이며 역동적인 형태로 나타난다. 그리고 이러한 역동 성은 공간의 시각적인 연속성으로 이어진다. 완성이 아 니라 완성되어가는 진행형의 상태, 즉 전체 속에서 공간 들끼리의 상호 명확한 분할과 단절을 피하며 상호 유기 적 개념의 관계를 이루어 나가는 역동성이다. 그래서 바로크 건축의 공간은 형성되고 있는 그 무엇, 생성과정에 포착된 것 내지는 일종의 기능으로 파악된 다. 예컨대 회화를 보면, 공간의 깊이를 강화시키기 위하 여 전경을 과도하게 크게 그리고 전경의 인물들을 보는 사람의 바로 눈앞에 돌출하도록 하며 배경의 사물은 원 근법적으로 급격하게 축소시키는데 이것은 공간을 그 자 체가 움직이고 있는 것이라는 인상을 들게 하며, 보는 사람은 화면에 극히 가까운 시점이 주어짐으로써 공간이 자기 자신에게 종속되어 있고 자신에게 의존하고 있으 며, 자신에 의하여 만들어진 존재라는 느낌을 갖게 한다. 하지만 절대적 전형성을 상대적으로, 또한 엄격한 것을 자유스러운 것으로 대체하려는 바로크의 경향을 가장 뚜 렷하게 나타내는 것은 비 건축적 형식의 개방성이다. 르 네상스적인 구도에서는 공간에 표현된 것은 이미 그 자체 로서 한계 지어진 현상이요 이를 구성하는 모든 요소는 서로 의존하고 있거나 관련되어 있지만, 바로크는 불완전 하고 분열적이며, 어디서나 다시 시작될 것만 같고 자신 을 초월하여 무엇인가를 지향하고 있다는 인상을 준다. 이에 대하여 뵐플린은 궁극적으로 바로크가 지향하는 공 간은 그 자체로서 독립적으로 구축하게 하는 것이 아니 라, 우연히 스쳐지나가는, 그러나 관람객이 한순간이나마 머물렀다는 영광을 느끼게 하는 것이라고 피력하였다. ) . . 바로크 건축의 조형성 앞에서 살펴본 바, 르네상스적인 기하개념과 매너리즘 의 역동성이 결합되는 양태로써, 르네상스와 매너리스트 의 건축적 경험과 기하개념이 합일되는 힘으로써, 바로 크 공간의 중앙 개념과 공간의 경계를 지우는 탈 영역적 효과를 짐작할 수 있다. 따라서 본 장에서는 이러한 무한성의 의지가 건축공간 ) 하인리히 뵐플린, 미술사의 기초개념, 박지형 역, 시공사, 서울, , pp. - 에서는 평면성의 극복으로 이어진다고 상정하고 사례들 을 분석, 그 유형들을 정리해 볼 것이다. ( ) 병치(倂置) 바로크 건축에서 가장 뚜렷하게 나타나는 구조적 특징 중 하나는 구조체들과 세부적 형태요소들의 지속적인 중 첩에 있다. 즉 벽 앞에 벽, 형태 앞에 또 형태, 겹쳐진 것 앞에 지속적인 겹침으로서 공간의 깊이감이 가중된 다. 그리고 이것은 특정 시점에서 고정되어 나타나는 것 이 아니라, 진입공간부터 출발하여 과정적 공간을 거쳐 목적 공간으로 이어지도록 유도된다. 예를 들어 구아리니가 설계한 산로렌조(basilica di san lorenzo) 성당의 평면을 보면 조직적으로 짜여 진 네트워크와 같 은 기하학적 체계들이 공간의 내부 와 외부를 연결하고 있다. 그리고 그것이 박동하듯 병치되고 물결 같 은 곡선의 벽을 따라 흐르다가, 어 느 순간. 교묘하게 우리의 시각적 인 관심이 사라지는 내벽 뒤쪽으로 숨겨지기도 한다. 무엇보다 이러한 효과는 돔에서 들어오는 빛을 통하 여 더욱더 감지하기 어려운 상태가 되어, 공간의 깊이감을 가중시킨다. 이처럼 기하학적인 원의 중심을 통하여 시작되는 도형 들의 반복, 그리고 타원이나 기타 도형을 탄생시키기 위 한 기하학적 작도행위는 무수한 원들을 생성시키고, 이 들의 중첩을 통하여 생겨진 교차점들은 평면상에서 공간 들의 네트워크를 형성하는 기준으로 작용한다. 구조들의 중첩과 건축 요소들의 체계적인 상호작용과 공간에서의 구조적 연계성을 서로에게 부여함으로써 르네 상스적인 타원과 원들을 적극적으로 서로 맞물리게 하고, 상호 관입되도록 하여 바로크의 병치구조로 형성된다. ( ) 탈 경계 눈으로 감지되는 사물의 형태는 일반적으로 외곽의 모 양이나 입체적인 윤곽을 통하여 이루어지는데, 전자는 테두리의 경계로써 사물 형태를 파악하는 소묘적 방법이 다. 르네상스의 그림과 건축에서처럼 관찰자의 시선이 형상의 외곽선을 중심으로 파악되 는 개념이다. 그래서 형상자체가 전반적으로 평면적이며 볼륨이 안 정되어 보이며, 건물은 그 윤곽의 양감이 외부 지향적인 특성을 가 진다. 하지만 바로크는 형태의 윤 곽보다는 전체적인 덩어리의 체계 를 인식하게 하여 윤곽선에 대한 주목을 약화 시킨다. <그림 >을 보더라도 천장과 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > church of st john of nepomuk, <그림 > cathedral st. carlos, francesco borromini, 산 로렌쪼 산타 신도네 앵발리드 성 네포묵 하부의 입체적인 곡선구조가 상부 돔에서 유입되는 빛으로 인하여 극 명한 조형요소로 부각됨 중간층 돔의 측면 에서 유입되는 빛 으로 깊이감이 고 조되어 보이며, 최 상층부의 부유가 돋보임 내부에 비해 외부 에서 보이는 돔의 높이가 과장되어 보이며 최상부에 숨겨진 통로를 통 해 빛이 유입됨 돔 표면의 완만한 곡선과 볼륨 패턴 으로 인하여 상부 돔에 유입된 빛 내,외부 돔의 대비 감이 강조됨 <표 > 돔의 중표피 구조단면 사례 벽면이 만나는 지점에 대한 경계의 윤곽선의 파악이 어 렵게 표현되어있고, 기둥을 통하여 인지될 수 있는 천장 과 벽의 경계점의 엔터블러처(entablature) 부분도 일차 적으로는 끝부분처럼 보이지만, 실상은 또 다른 수직면 의 시작이다. 천장과의 명확한 경계를 설정해 주지 못하 는 상태로 표류하다가 애매하게 종결되는 것이다. 그것 은 구조체간의 경계나 형상을 파악할 수 있는 경계점이 전체적으로 애매한 볼륨으로 이루어져있기 때문이다. 또한 <그림 >의 돔은 전체적 으로 별 모양의 오각형 큐폴라가 비교적 단순한 볼륨으로 돔을 형 성하고 그 위로 또 다른 오각형 형태의 돔이 있는데, 돔의 모서리 부분에는 외부의 빛을 유입시키는 개구부가 있어서 아래의 돔과 위의 돔이 강하게 대조된다. 여기에서 아래의 돔의 배경 면은 별 모양을 형성하는 모서리를 기점으로 각이진 볼록한 볼륨의 선이 방사형으로 밖으로 퍼져 나가지만, 내부의 돔은 안으로 모 이는 것 같은 모티브의 볼륨이 전체적으로는 하나의 하나 인 것처럼 보인다. 그래서 경계가 시각적인 것과 심리적인 것의 상충을 불러와서 관찰자의 지각을 교란시고 공간적으 로는 원근감까지도 잠재시키는 효과를 불러일으킨다. 특히 천장의 돔을 중으로 구성한 후 외표피의 개방 상태와 내 표피의 개방상태 사이의 관계를 적절히 조작 하여 실내의 빛을 인위적으로 조작하는 중 표피기법 은, ) 공간속에서 또 다른 천장이 부유하는 것처럼 보이 ) 임석재, 미니멀리즘과 상대주의 공간, 시공사, 서울, , p. 게 하여 마치 다른 세계가 존재하 는 것 같은 착각을 유도 한다. 공 간을 형성하는 구조적 요소들의 전형적이고 관념적 경계가 사라지 거나 형태적으로 교란되어 보이는 개념이다. 바로크 돔의 유형별 단 면구조를 <표 >과 같이 정리하 였다. ( ) 연속과 순간 건축에서의 연속성은 물결치듯 구부러져있거나 중첩, 반복을 통한 공간구성과 구조요소들이 그 자체로서 조형적인 운동성 을 가지는 특성을 말한다. 구조체가 일련의 완성체로서의 정지되는 것이 아니라, 완성해나가려는 진행형의 속성을 가지는 것이다. 르네상스의 고전성이 현재 상태에서 변화 되지 않아야 하는 필연적 속성이라면 바로크 공간은 이와 는 구별되는 비구축적 의지이다. 의미의 여운을 남기고 미적인 묘연함을 대상 속에 포 함시킴으로서 완성과 종결로써 중단되지 않고 스스로 내 적인 충동을 유발하고 그것을 항구적으로 지속시키도록 하는 것, 그래서 건축가는 공간을 그 자체로 존재하는 독립적 세계가 아니라 그저 스쳐 지나가는 순간성을 통 해, 관찰자가 우연히 그 순간을 목격하고 있다는 느낌이 들도록 유도하였다. 즉 공간의 융합이나 서로간의 관입, 측방향을 확장하여 경계의 윤곽을 지우고 점증되는 반복 과 공간들 사이의 모순된 구조와 변형으로서 감성이 즉 각적으로 결론내릴 수 없는 모호함을 이끌어 내었다. 그리고 기능과 프로그램을 연결하는 동선으로서의 공 간체계보다는 각 공간의 구성적 특징을 반영하는 운동감 과 이로 인한 세부공간과 전체공간을 형성시키며 공간의 연속성이 일정의 논리를 가지고 전개되는 것처럼 유도하 였다. 이것은 합리적인 순환개념으로써의 운동성이 공간 의 심연성에 작용하는 측면이지만 회화에서와 같이 형태 적 운동성이 시간적 연속성으로 대체되는 개념과는 다른 차원, 즉 미술에서는 그 시간적 연속성이 직선적이라면 건축에서는 그것이 순환적 개념으로 표현되었다. . 리처드 마이어와 바로크 건축 . . 리처드 마이어 건축의 배경 코넬 대학(cornell university)에서 건축교육을 받은 리처드 마이어는 개월간의 유럽여행을 통해 건축의 미 학적 개념을 싹틔우고, 그때 르 꼬르뷔지에 )를 직접 만 나는 기회를 가진다. 여기에 대해 그는 르 꼬르뷔지에가 ) 질 들뢰즈는 그의 저서<주름, p. >에서 르 꼬르뷔지에의 건축적 영감의 원재료를 바로크의 정신으로 상정하기도 하였다. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > the atheneum, 없었다면 자신의 건축물은 없었을 것이라고 스스로 말하 며 공간을 창조하는 방식에서 많은 영향을 받았음을 고 백한다. ) 년 뉴욕의 근대미술관(museum of modern art)에서 열린 르 꼬르뷔제 작품 전시회는 리처드 마이 어뿐만 아니라 그의 건축적 구심점이었던 뉴욕 파이브건 축 ) 멤버 전체에게 많은 영향을 주었으며, 자신의 건축 사무소를 개설하는 계기가 된다. 그래서 그의 작품에는 르 꼬르뷔지에(le corbusier)나 프랭크 로이드 라이트(frank lloyd wright), 미스 반 데 로에(mies van der rohe)의 개념과, 루이스 칸(louis kahn), 알바 알토(hugo alvar henrik aalto), 에로 사리 넨(eero saarinen) 등 세대 건축가들로부터 받은 형태 와 빛에 대한 영향이 축적되어 있으며, 이를 배경으로 큐비즘(cubism), 데스틸(de still) 같은 형식적인 모티브 가 공간에 적용되기에 이른다. ) . . 건축언어와 바로크의 재해석 본 연구의 주제인 바로크적 공간개념이 리처드 마이어 작품 전반에 재해석되어 있음을 상정하고, 그의 건축 전 체를 거시적 관점으로 고찰해 보면 궁극적으로 공간을 형성시키는 중요한 맥락이 유추된다. 그것은 단일한 공 간속에서 복합적으로 가해지는 다양한 바로크적 조형기 법, 즉 공간의 병치수법, 탈 경계, 조형요소의 순간성 등 으로써 공간의 구조요소들이 기하학적으로 서로 반복되 거나 대립, 또는 충돌하는 개념인데, 공간은 전형적인 구 조체계에서 벗어나 자유롭고 유동적인 체계가 된다. 즉 앞에서 살펴본 바로크의 시각적 공간과 심리적 공간이 조형적으로 상충되는 개념이다. 일반적으로 건축공간의 천장은 벽에 의하여 물리적으 로 지지되며, 각각의 구조부재들은 서로간의 작용으로 이루어지는데 반하여, 마이어 건축에서는 기둥 열과 그 사이의 비내력 벽들이 마치 도미노처럼 ) 자유롭게 겹쳐 지거나 개방된 구성으로서 이루어진다. 따라서 관람자가 건축공간속에서 기대할 수 있는 육면체의 기본적 구조 ) 사상적인 혹은 관념적인 면에서 르 꼬르뷔지에를 따랐다기보다는 형태와 공간 구성에 있어서 그가 제시했던 대안들을 더욱 조형적 으로 더욱더 공고히 하고, 당시의 상황과 다양한 요구, 개인적인 건축논리에 따라 재구성하였다. 이는 단순한 모방과 계승이 아닌 재해석의 차원에서 마이어를 비롯한 후대건축가들의 건축적 구심 점으로 인식된다. ) 리처드 마이어를 비롯한 그레이브스(m. graves) 아이젠만(p. eisenman) 이 주 멤버가 되어, team 이나 c.i.a.m과 같은 토론을 통한 그룹 인 case(conference of architects for the study of the environment)의 전시회를 가졌는데, 이때 과스메이(gwathmey)와 헤이덕(hejduk)이 초대되어 인 건축가로 그들을 뉴욕 (new york five)라고 명명된다. 초기 작품들에서 보여지는 백색의 입방체가 르 꼬르뷔지에의 그것을 연상시킨다하여 neo corbusian 혹은 white파 new york five라고 하는 그룹차원으로 불려졌다. ) 김태윤, 리처드 마이어 건축의 다양성에 관한 연구, 경북대 석론, , p. ) 임석재, 신추상과 코르뷔지안 건축, 북하우스, 서울, , pp. - 관념, 즉 모서리가 직각으로 닫혀있는 폐쇄성을 와해시 키는 특성으로 이어지고 이것은 공간에서의 조형적 갈등 을 생성시키는 원인이 된다. 이와 같은 공간의 갈등구조는 르 꼬르뷔지에가 제시한 최적 해법이라는 기계미학적 강령에서, 독자적인 건축관 으로 변화하는 리처드 마이어 건축의 구축점이라 할 수 있다. 요컨대, 최적해법의 기본인 조화로운 총합을 조형 적으로 그 가능성을 제한하는 장애요소로 받아들이고 이 를 타파하려는 건축적 의지로 발동되는 것이다. 그리고 이러한 복합공간의 형성은 건축의 구조체들과 세부형태요소들의 지속적인 중첩, 겹침으로 인하여 공간 의 깊이감이 더해지는 바로크 건축의 병치기법과 조형적 인 상관관계를 가진다. 특정 시점에서 고정되지 않고, 진 입 공간, 과정적 공간, 목적 공간으로 이어지는 순환적 프로그램을 통하여 바로크 공간의 운동성과 이로 인한 시각적인 연속성, 심연성의 측면을 엿볼 수 있는 것이다. . . 복합공간의 유형 앞에서 살펴보았듯이 리처드 마이어 건축은 기본적으 로 여러 겹으로 형성되는 공간구조 속에서 다양한 기학조 작을 이용하여 자유형태의 기본공간을 비정형적으로 구성 하는 개념이다. 이는 복합적 조형개념이라는 동의적 기법 을 구현하기 위한 그의 건축적 이념이기도 하다. 본 절에 서는 이러한 건축 어휘가 실제 작품에서 어떻게 표현되 고 나타나는지를 주요 사례들을 통하여 살펴 볼 것이다. ( ) 아테네움(the atheneum) 년대 작품인 아테네움은 기둥열주에 의한 그리드로 형성되었다. 따라서 벽체가 비교적 자유롭게 구성된 형 식이지만, 그리드의 패턴을 상당부분 의식한 듯, 벽체의 분할이 기둥 배열의 종속에서 완전하게 벗어나지는 못하 고 있다. 하지만 본체에서 분절 된 구조요소들이 옥외의 영역으 로 확장되면서 실내영역과 실외 영역이 모호한 구조로서 기하학 적인 병치를 이룬다. 실내에서 분절된 구조요소가 외부에서 비 균질적으로 파열됨으로써 본체 영역의 경계가 측정될 수 없는 막연한 영역감을 형성시키고, 전 면 유리를 통해 투명하게 비치는 실내영역과 가벽 스크린에 의하여 형성되는 옥외영역이 불규칙적이지만 연속적으로 병치되면서 전체적으로는 겹 공간의 구조를 형성하는 것이다. 그래서 건물의 전체 형 태가 공간의 구조가 완성된 상태로 구체화되기 이전의 단계인 영역 암시의 개념으로 머물러있는 것처럼 보인 다. 바로크 건축에서 나타나는 연속성과 순간성의 개념 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > church of the jubilee, <그림 > exhibition and assembly building at ulm, <그림 > museum of barcelona, 이 현대적 조형기법으로 재해석된 사례라 할 수 있다. ( ) 울름전시관(exhibition and assembly building at ulm) 년에 완공된 이 작품은 르 꼬르뷔지에의 도미노 모델을 기본 조형 원리로 하여 겹구조에 의한 복합 공간 의 원리가 잘 나타나 있다. 그는 여기에서 공간이 가진 최대한의 가능성을 극대화하기 위하여 기둥과 벽, 사적 영역과 공적영역, 빈 공간 부분과 그 내부를 가로 지르 는 계단, 경사로, 복도, 발코니, 또는 건물본체와 이것을 감싸는 가벽, 투명체와 불투명체, 직선과 곡선 등과 같은 여러 가지의 쌍 개념들로써 겹공간을 구성하였다. 그리 고 이 과정에서 전체 공간을 구성하는 점, 선, 면, 입체 의 기하요소를 분리, 분해, 삽입, 격자와 같은 조형적 조 작을 하였고, 건물공간의 복합성이 형성되도록 하면서 이 영역들 사이에 중첩이나 상호관입, 충돌 같은 혼성적 인 결과를 이끌어 내었다. ) 또한 백색의 채색과 함께, 계산된 빛의 유입으로 공간을 묘 연함과 함께 그 영역적인 한계가 초월되는, 느낌을 한층 강화시켜 주었다. 이는 바로크 건축의 지 속적인 구조체의 중첩에 의한 연 속성과 일시성, 그리고 돔의 중 표피기법으로 인한 수직적 깊이 감이 수평적 개념의 조형조작으 로 응용, 표현되어 나타난 결과 라 할 수 있다. ( ) 바르셀로나 미술관(museum of barcelona) 바르셀로나 미술관은 그의 건축들 중에서도 바로크 건 축에서 나타나는 탈 경계와 이중표피 개념과의 구조적인 유사점이 많은 사례로 분석된다. 우선 건물의 외관을 살 펴보면 본체에 붙어있는 것처럼 보이는 다양한 크기의 직사각형 요소들이 그리드 패턴과 창호 틀에서 구속되지 않은 상태로 자유롭게 구성되어 있다. 건축의 외형을 이 루는 표피자체가 조형적으로 부유한 것처럼 인식되어서 형태의 필수요소인 체적감이 과장되거나 또는 와해된 상 태로 보여 지는 것이다. 본체와 가벽과의 구조적인 관계, 그리고 본체 자체의 또 다른 가벽화, 이런 상충된 모순 들이 시각적으로 명확하게 판단 될 수 없는 바로크적 심 연성을 불러온다. 이 효과는 미술 관 내부에서도 이어 진다. 순백색의 웨 이브 벽체는 기하학 적으로도 구심점이 없고 모서리가 없는 상태로 물결치듯 굴 ) 임석재, op. cit., pp. - 곡 되어 나타난다. 그리고 천장과의 이격과 그 틈으로부 터 유입되는 간접 빛과 백색의 반사 때문에 시각적인 모 호함을 가중시켜 공간의 환각적인 효과를 가중시킨다. ( ) 쥬빌리 교회(church of the jubilee) 비교적 최근 작품에 속하는 이 건물은 같은 반경의 곡 선 쉘 세 개가 서로 다른 높이로 나란히 서있는 구조로 이루어져 있다. 이는 상징적으로는 성삼위일체를 표현하 고, 기능적으로는 내부 공간을 나누는 기능을 한다. 공간 은 전체적으로 세계의 쉘 중 중 바깥쪽의 두 구조물은 사이드 채플과 세례당을 감싸며 안쪽의 가장 큰 구조물 은 주예배당을 감싸는 형식이다. 그리고 각각의 구조물 사이에는 슬릿창이 있어서 풍부한 자연광이 내부로 유입 된다. 하지만 여기에서는 가로와 세로의 구조체가 충돌하거나, 쌍 개념의 구조적 특징은 없고, 대신 수평적 구조의 겹공간이 연속적 으로 나타나는 형식이다. 바로크 건축에서 나타나는 중 표피에 의한 구조적 이격과 이로 인한 자연광의 유입으로 그 특성이 강 조되어 나타나는 조형 원리와 부 다. 합되는 개념이다. 무엇보다 그러한 요소들이 물속에 잠겨있는 상태에서 일부만 솟아올라있는 것처럼 인식되어 형태상의 경계가 지하의 영역까지 연장되어 있는 것만 같은 인상을 심어 준다. 바로크건축의 총체적인 특성인 연속성과 순간성이 추상적, 현대적으로 재해석된 개념이다. 이상 분석한 바에 의하면, 리처드 마이어 건축은 전체 적으로 겹구조에 의한 복합공간이라는 조형관을 추구하 기 위하여, 원, 직선, 정사각형, 직사각형, 자유곡선과 같은 기하요소를 조형적으로 조작하는 것을 기본으로 하였다. 그리고 이것을 중첩, 상호관입, 충돌시키는 동시에 콜라주 적 혼성을 가미하였다. 이는 앞에서도 살펴보았듯이 르 꼬르뷔지에의 도미노 이론에 입각한 건물외피를 구조로부 터 분리시키는 개념을 배경으로 하는 것이었다. 하지만, 점차적으로 규칙적인 모듈체계에서 자유로운 형식으로 변 화하고 조형조작의 독자성도 높아져서 활동기의 중반에 이르러서는 자신만의 고유한 건축모델로 정착하였다. 따라서 초창기 르 꼬르뷔지에의 원리를 차용하는 단계 와 이것에 대한 조형 조작과 응용을 통하여 자신만의 고 유한 건축 모델로 형성되어 나가는 일련의 과정을 <표 >와 같이 정리하여 건축 속에 적용된 표현요소들의 경 향을 분석하였다. 그리고 <표 >은 리처드 마이어 건축과 바로크 건축 의 특징을, 형태적으로 유사한 조형어휘로 분류, 비교한 것이다. 이때 리처드 마이어의 ‘관입, 충돌’, 그리고 바로 크의 ‘연속, 순간’은 형태적으로 동일한 특징의 조형어휘 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 구분 사례 완공 시점 조형요소 중 첩 관 입 충 돌 꼴라주 주택 smith house ○ ○ ○ ◐ 주택 saltzman house ○ ◐ ○ ◐ 주택 old westbury ○ ○ ○ ○ 주택 douglas house ◐ ○ ◐ ◐ 주택 shamberg house ◐ ○ ○ ◐ 공공건물 bronz developmental center ◐ ○ ◐ ○ 공공건물 the atheneum ◐ ● ● ● 공공건물 hartford seminary ◐ ● ● ◐ 공공건물 clifty creek elementary ◐ ● ● ◐ 주택 giovannitti house ● ◐ ● ◐ 박물관 high museum of art ● ● ● ◐ 박물관 museum for applied arts ● ◐ ◐ ◐ 공공건물 bridgeport center ◐ ◐ ◐ ○ 공공건물 the weishaupt forum ● ● ● ● 공공건물 canal+ headquarters ◐ ◐ ◐ ◐ 공공건물 exhibition & assembly ● ◐ ◐ ◐ 공공건물 the hague city hall ◐ ◐ ◐ ○ 공공건물 museum of barcelona ● ◐ ◐ ● 박물관 museum of tv & radio ● ● ● ● 공공건물 jubilee church ● ◐ ◐ ● ∙ 적용정도: ○낮음 ◐중간 ●높음 <표 > 조형요소의 표현 경향 리차드 마이어 건축 바로크 건축 중첩 병치 museum of barcelona museum of tv & radio jubilee church st. giovanni scala reggia, vaticano st. peters square 건물의 외피와 내피의 가벽을 구조로부터 분리시킴으로서 전체적으 로 자유롭고 인지도가 높은 공간 구성 체계를 보이고 있음 기하도형의 작도에 의한 도형들의 반복을 통하여 건축 요소들의 체계 적인 상호작용과 공간의 구조적인 연계성을 서로에게 부여함 관입 충돌 탈경계 beach house high museum of art the weishaupt forum luca e martina, pietro da cortona most sublime church in rome stupinigi hunting lodge 구조부재에서 분리된 외피와 내피가 영역적인 한계를 넘나들며 관입 되고 충돌하며 공간의 유동성을 극대화하고 있음 주로 벽과 천방부의 모호한 경계설정으로 인하여 공간의 윤곽을 소멸 시켜 전체적인 양감을 높임으로서 시각적인 깊이감을 확대함 꼴라쥬 연속 순간giovannitti house museum for applied arts the atheneum hamburg's st. michael's church st. andrea al quirinale versailles palace chapel 주로 자유곡선 벽면을 이용한 가벽이 건물의 직선적 패턴과 상충적 인 관계로 구성되어 관찰자의 유동적인 시선을 유도함 곡면의 부재가 중첩, 반복되면서 공간자체와 요소들이 그 자체로서 조형적인 운동성을 가지게 하여 시각적인 여운을 남기게 됨 <표 > 리차드 마이어와 바로크의 조형 구조 특성 비교 인바 하나의 항목으로 묶었으며, 조형요소의 표현경향이 많은 작품을 대상으로 하였다. . 결론 바로크 건축은 궁극적으로 플라톤식의 조화체계에서 벗어나 라이프니츠의 생성철학에 그 바탕을 두고 있으 며, 이는 공간의 구조미학 자체가 전체의 형태본성을 강 조하고 포괄적인 조형원리로 구축되는 데에 중요한 배경 이 되어 주었다. 따라서 바로크 건축가들은 전체 속에서 형태의 질서와 일관성을 이끌어낼 수 있는 문제를 해결하기 위해 비선 형적이고 비물리적인 조형체계를 공간 구축의 원리로 이 용하였고, 르네상스의 자연적 질서체계를 기하학적으로 형태화한 조형원리와 매너리즘적 역동성을 결합시켜, 르 네상스와 매너리즘이라는 두 힘으로부터 표출된 무한함 과 과장됨의 결과를 건축의 형태로 이끌어내었다. 그리 고 이것은 공간의 구성요소인 구조체들의 병치, 탈 경계, 연속과 순간성이라는 조형개념을 통하여 공간의 평면성 을 극복시켜 지속적인 운동성으로 나타났다. 따라서 도미노이론에 근거한 그의 건축적 흐름이 자신 만의 건축적 고유성으로 정착되게 된 배경에 이러한 바 로크적 형태원리가 재해석되어 있음은, 비정형적 형태윤 곽으로 건축공간을 절대화하려는 모더니즘 건축을 다시 금 모색하는 하나의 큰 흐름으로서 제시될 수 있다고 사 료된다. 이에 대하여 본 연구는 그의 건축 속에 표현된 바로크적 표현과 이것의 특징을 도출하며 다음과 같은 결과에 이른다. 첫째, 바로크 공간을 형성하는 조형적 원리는 데카르 트의 기계론적 세계관이 라이프니츠를 통한 생성 철학으 로 선회함으로서 존재의 개념이 유연해짐과 동시에 상호 작용을 통한 항구적인 연속성과 그의 구조적 알레고리에 근거 한다. 따라서 실제 건축에서는 단순한 물리적 범위 를 넘어서 관찰자의 개별적인 조건에 따라서 다르게 형 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 성되는 유동성의 개념으로 가시화 된다. 그리고 바로크 공간에서 나타나는 유동성의 구체적인 조형요소는 구조 체들의 기하학적 패턴체계에 의한 병치, 반복과 이로 인 한 공간 경계의 와해, 연속성과 순간성에서 비롯된다. 둘째, 리처드 마이어 건축의 조형성은 바로크 건축의 선례와 비교될 수 있는 바, 그의 건축에서 나타나는 복 합적인 조형요소, 즉 중첩은 바로크의 병치로부터, 관입 과 충돌은 탈경계, 그리고 꼴라주의 비선형적 혼용은 연 속과 순간의 개념에서 그 조형적인 맥락을 같이한다. 하 지만 이러한 요소가 직접적으로 상호 비교 될 수는 없으 며, 궁극적으로는 건축 공간의 유동성이라는 큰 주제를 뒤따르는 세부요소의 개념으로 이해 될 수 있다. 또한 바로크의 조형은 비교적 대칭적이며 균질적 성격 의 기하조작방법인데 반하여 리처드 마이어 건축에서 나 타나는 공간 구성방법은 비대칭적 자유구조의 성격을 나 타낸다. 셋째, 바로크 건축의 구조체에서 나타나는 비선형적 개념은 차원적인 가소성의 입체조형으로 표현되지만, 그의 건축에서는 기본적으로 차원적인 평면에 의한 단 순 곡면의 특징으로 나타난다. 즉 순백색의 웨이브 벽체 는 기하학적으로 구심점이 없으며, 모서리가 없는 상태 로 물결치듯 굴절되어 나타난다. 넷째, 바로크공간은 기본적으로 기하학적 체계를 통하 여 천문학적 순환계도의 질서를 표현하였다면 리처드 마 이어는 물리적이고 효율적인 공간 네트워크를 설정하기 위하여 기하학적 작도행위를 통한 관입과 충돌을 활용하 였다. 그리고 기하학의 표현에 있어서도 바로크는 순수 기하 도형을 차적으로 활용하였지만 그는 차적 변형을 통하여 기하도형을 추상화시키는 방법을 채택하였다. 다섯째, 빛의 활용에 의한 공간 효과의 증폭에 있어서 도 바로크 건축은 본체 위에 형성된 중 표피 돔의 측면 부분에서 유입됨으로서 공간의 상, 하부의 물리적 공간 체계가 모호한 조형성을 가지는데 반하여, 리처드 마이 어 건축에서는 구조체의 접합점인 슬릿창을 통하여 유입 된 빛이 백색의 벽면을 따라 흘러내려, 시각적으로 육면 체 자체의 구조적인 묘연함을 가중시키는 개념으로 나타 난다. 이상 살펴 본 바와 같이, 리처드 마이어 건축에 나타 난 바로크적 공간 표현은 현대건축의 비정형과 최소 또 는 최대한계를 긍정적으로 제시함으로써 지나치게 무질 서하거나 절대적인 조형관에서 파생될 수 있는 관념적인 건축관에 대한 조율을 시도하였다고 볼 수 있다. 그리고 그것은 생산성과 조형성 사이의 균형에 대한 건축적 사 유를 일깨우는 방향성을 제시해준다. 참고문헌 . 길성호, 현대건축 사고론, 시공사, 서울, . 김영방, 바로크, 한길아트, 서울, . 김용규 역, charles jencks, late-modern architecture, 건우사, 서울, . 윤재희, 건축의 공간과 형태, 세진사, 서울, . 이정우, 접힘과 펼쳐짐, 거름, 서울, . 이정우, 주름 갈래 울림, 출판사거름, 서울, . 이찬웅 역, 질 들뢰즈, 주름 라이프니츠와 바로크, 문학과 지성 사, 서울, . 임석재, 미니멀리즘과 상대주의 공간, 시공사, 서울, . 임석재, 신추상과 코르뷔지안 건축, 북하우스, 서울, . 최정은, 보이지 않는 것과 말할 수 없는 것, 한길아트, . bill risebero, 서양건축이야기, 오덕성 역, 한길아트, 서울, . christian norberg-schulz, 건축의 의미와 장소성, 이정국 외 역, spacetime, 서울, . ducasse pierre. les grandes philosophies, puf, paris, . eugenio d'ors, le baroque, tecnoc, barcelona, . gilles deleuze, plieugue, paidos, barcelona, . rolf toman, baroque, konemann, . 김태윤, 리처드 마이어 건축의 다양성에 관한 연구, 겅북대 석 사논문, . 송주영, 바로크건축에 적용된 공간의 깊이감에 관한 연구, 건국 대 석사논문, . 윤창의, 바로크 건축의 공간구성에 관한 연구, 서울대 석사논 문, . 한명식, 뉴욕 건축과 바로크건축에 나타난 공간특성에 관한 연 구, 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호, . . http://blog.naver.com [논문접수 : . . ] [ 차 심사 : . . ] [ 차 심사 : . . ] [ 차 심사 : . . ] [게재확정 : . . ] j. fash. bus. vol. , no. : - , jun. issn - (print) http://dx.doi.org/ . /jfb. . . . issn - (online) 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구: s/s - s/s 파리컬렉션을 중심으로 최예리 · 최정욱⁺ 경희대학교 아트퓨전디자인대학원 패션아트학과, 경희대학교 의류학과⁺ a study on cubism fashion style appearing in modern fashion: focused on the s/s- s/s paris collection choi yeree · choi jeongwook⁺ dept. of fashion art graduate school of art fusion design, kyung hee university dept. ofclothing & textile design, kyung hee university⁺ abstract this study analyzed the group of experts who were related to cubism, selected among th e works of ~ paris collection based on f.g.r.(focus group research). according to the results of this study, there were appeared first, ‘a one-piece dress’ second, ‘h silh ouette’ third, ‘cotton’, in case of item distribution and frequency. the analysis was done b y using the manner of expression, cubical expression, exaggeration, distortion, dismantleme nt, geometrical division of face, mix-match look, wraparound·repetition, asymmetric structur e, etc. based on the outcomes of the analysis on figurative design elements, this study ad justed three manners appearing on cubism fashion style. first, it was ‘avant garde manner’ of constitution or ‘dismantlement’ which was compiled into multi-view representations of ov erlaps and viewpoints by repetitive use of color tone·trimming·detail. second, it was ‘geom agnetic block placement’ which expresses cubism with geometric partitioning of surface an d separation of panel by cutting·disintegration. finally, it was ‘distortion and simplification of silhouette’ which is a distortion created by constitution-line pressed thin with silhouette. it maximizes the beauty of human body outline, which was distorted by three-dimensional- manipulation, and simplified by ellipsis for another shape for the extension or expansion of detail trimming. ted corresponding author: choi jeongwook , tel. + - - - , fax. + - - - e-mail: jwchoi@khu.ac.kr this research is a part of master's thesis. 최예리 · 최정욱 / 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구 key words : cubism(큐비즘), distortion of silhouette(실루엣의 왜곡), geomagnetic(지오메틱), transposition(전위성) Ⅰ. 서 론 최근 패션계에서는 획일적이고 평범한 스타일은 지양되고 실험적인 디자인이 많이 시도되고 있으며 소비자들의 요구 또한 기능성과 같은 보편적이고 실 용적인 목적보다는 장식성·독창성·심미성 등에 더 많은 관심을 갖게 되었다. 세기에 등장한 예술 운 동 중 하나인 큐비즘은 지속적으로 패션 디자이너들 에 의해 지속적인 영감의 원천으로 해석되어 왔다 (sung, ). 세기 미술 사조의 변혁이었던 큐 비즘은 입체적 표현의 새로운 시도였으며, 기존의 원근법을 부정하는 동시표현의 방법을 시도하였고 차원의 평면 위에 차원적인 공간 감각을 추구하며 예술영역의 확대에 큰 영향을 주었다. 예술사에서 세기 원근법을 제 의 혁명이라 한다면 그 이후 제 의 혁명은 세기 초 큐비즘이라 할 정도로 현 대의 추상예술을 잉태시킨 큐비즘이 차지하는 위치 는 지대하다(yoon, ). 또한 현대미술의 저류가 된 큐비즘이 근대 복식을 벗어나 모더니즘으로 향하 는 세기 현대 패션에 미친 영향은 지대한 것으로 표현영역에서 상호간의 일치성을 나타내는 부분이 있다고 할 수 있다(d. lee, ). 이에 본 연구에서는 큐비즘이 패션디자인에 어떠 한 방식으로 영향을 끼쳤는지 알아보기 위해 큐비즘 패션 스타일의 조형적 디자인 요소를 분석하고 이를 통해 큐비즘스타일패션의 특성을 정리해보고자 하였 다. 큐비즘과 패션과의 연관성에 관한 연구를 살펴보 면, 대부분이 문헌연구에 기초한 미학적 연구이거나, 주관적 해석을 통한 작품 디자인을 제안한 연구가 대부분으로 큐비즘과 패션에 대한 객관적 연구는 미 비한 실정이다. 이에 본 연구는 전문적이고 객관적 인 방법을 통해 현대 패션 디자인에서 나타난 큐비 즘적 디자인 요소를 분석하고, 큐비즘과 현대 패션 과의 연관성을 정리하고자 한다. 본 연구는 객관적이고 논리적인 절차를 통해 큐비 즘적 패션 스타일을 규명하고, 이를 하나의 패션 스 타일로 확립하는 데 목적이 있다. 이를 통해 세기 미술의 신호탄이 된 큐비즘이 패션 디자인 영역에서 큐비즘스타일패션으로 발전해 갈 가능성을 제안하고 현대 패션에 나아갈 방향을 제시하는데 의의가 있 다. Ⅱ. 이론적 배경 . 큐비즘의 개념 및 발생배경 큐비즘은 세기 초 야수파 운동과 전후해서 프랑 스를 중심으로 년부터 년 사이에 일어났던 파리의 아방가르드 미술운동으로서 실험적인 운동이 었다. 매년 가을에 개최되는 프랑스 미술 단체 전시 회인 살롱도톤(salon d'automne)에 년 출품된 브라크의 「레스타크의 집들」이란 연작에 대해 심 사위원장이었던 마티스(henri matisse, - ) 가 '조그만 입체(큐브)의 덩어리’라고 말한 데서 유 래되었다(edward, ). 큐비즘이 발생하기 전인 제 차 세계 대전 직전의 년 간 파리는 사치와 향락의 본거지로서의 역할도 하였지만 경제 붐을 주도하던 자본주의의 역학에 따 라 사회 불평등이 더욱 심화되었고, 이에 따라 사회 주의, 노동자 계층과 페미니즘 운동의 거센 저항에 부딪치게 되었다. 이후 년의 세계대전이 발생하 였으며 이 복잡하고 역동적인 사회 안에서 다양한 예술적 아방가르드 공동체가 형성되었다. 큐비즘 회화는 이전 회화 기법과 달리 불안정한 구조와 공간 배열 및 최소한의 색채사용을 하였다. 뿐만 아니라, 작품 속 인물이 투과되거나 뒤섞여 정 물이나 풍경을 구분할 수 없도록 함으로써 유머러스 한 표현을 보여주었다. 게다가 르네상스 미술에 대 한 그들의 도전은, 그들의 작품이 근본적으로 같아 보이지는 않더라도 전통적인 회화와 조각에 대한 지 패 션 비 즈 니 스 제 권 호 식을 바탕으로 한 것에 의해 적당히 완화되었다. 즉, 입체주의는 미술 작품이 또 다른 공간으로의 창문 역할을 한다는 평범한 개념을 거부하고, 세상을 보 고 앎으로써 미술이 진정으로 ‘있는 그대로의’ 세상 을 다룰 수 있다고 주장하였다(neil, ). . 패션에 있어서의 큐비즘 현대패션과 미술사조는 서로 장르는 다르지만, 창 작세계 안에서 추구하는 바가 일맥상통한다. 현대미 술의 저류가 된 큐비즘이 근대복식을 벗어나 모더니 즘으로 향하던 세기 현대패션에 미친 영향은 지대 하였으며 현대패션의 표현영역에서 상호 간의 일치 성을 나타낸다고 할 수 있다(yu & kim, ). 세기 초반 패션은 기능주의와 더불어 직선형 실 루엣이 시도되어 인체의 자연미가 추구되며 복식에 많은 영향력을 발휘하였으며, 모드는 이러한 기능주 의의 영향으로 합리적인 의상이 전개되는 모던 스타 일이 정착되기 시작하였다. 큐비즘의 영향을 받은 패션 디자인은 합리성과 구조적인 기능성을 강조한 간결미를 추구하였으며 명쾌한 색채와 기하학적인 문양 그리고 단순한 실루엣의 형태를 추구하였다. 아르누보의 과잉장식인 s-curve 스타일에서 벗어나 완전히 원통형의 단순한 실루엣을 발표하는 등 이러 한 요소들은 큐비즘의 기하학적 단순미와 밀접한 관 계가 있다(chae, ). 이브 생 로랑은 년 s/s 컬렉션의 테마로 큐비즘을 도입하여 화제를 불 (year) name shapes (physical beauty) dismantlement & reconstitution overlap multi-view (simultaneity) reality sung, p. ( ) o song, a. ( ) o o o o o lee, d. ( ) o kang, k. ( ) o o table . cubism fashion’s formativeness based on preceding studies 러일으켰다. 그는 피카소와 더불어 큐비즘을 창시한 프랑스의 거장 브라크의 그림을 그대로 정교하게 수 놓은 입체화된 패션을 선보였다. 큐비즘이 패션에 미친 영향은 단순성, 실용성, 기능성 등 큐비즘의 표현기법 뿐만 아니라, 큐비즘이 사물을 분해시키고 재구성하여 사물의 본질을 찾고자 했던 것처럼 패션 도 좀 더 내면적인 면을 추구하게끔 영향을 끼쳤고 큐비즘의 조형적 특징은 현대 패션의 새로운 방향을 제공하였다고 볼 수 있다(e. lee, ). table 의 큐비즘에 관련된 선행 연구를 살펴보 면, sung( )은 분석적 큐비즘 단계의 기하학적 형태미를 연구하고, 이를 응용한 패션디자인 사례를 분석하여 큐비즘 시대의 풍부한 기하학적 조형성을 의상에 응용한 디자인을 제안하였다. song( )은 큐비즘 패션 디자인을 사실성, 동시성, 도형성, 해체 와 재구성, 중첩성으로 분석하였으며 큐비즘이 활용 된 큐비즘 패션의 조형성을 파악한 후, 그 안에 내 재된 조형미를 도출하여 작품을 제작·제안하였다. d. lee( )는 큐비즘 회화의 조형성을 분석하고 현대 패션 디자인에 표현된 큐비즘의 조형적 특성들 을 분류·분석하였고 이를 바탕으로 새로운 디자인 모티브를 제시하였다. kang( )은 큐비즘의 흐름 을 살펴보고 현대 회화와 패션과의 관계를 분석하였 으며, 그중에서도 피카소의 큐비즘 작품을 분석하여 복식디자인에 응용하여 표현하였다. 위의 선행 연구 에서 살펴본 큐비즘 패션의 조형성을 자세히 살펴보 면 다음과 같다. 최예리 · 최정욱 / 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구 ) 도형성 큐비즘 회화에서 보이는 선의 기하학적 조형미와 다채로운 화면의 분할은 편안하고 자연스럽게 인체 에 밀착되면서 단순한 실루엣을 원하는 현대의 트렌 드에 부합하며 패션에 변화를 줄 수 있는 디자인 요 소로 현대 패션 디자인에 다양한 모습으로 적용되고 있다(ju, ). 서로 다른 크기의 도형들이 점진적인 강조로 시선 을 유도하여 착시현상을 일으킴으로써 인체의 특정 부위를 부각하거나, 톤 온 톤(tone on tone) 배색을 통한 평면 공간의 입체감 부여, 인체에 둘러지면서 인체를 따라 생기는 표면의 나선이나 율동으로 인해 유연한 실루엣으로 바뀌어 이지적인 이미지로 만들 기도 한다. 또한, 서로 크기가 다른 개체를 점증적 으로 반복, 배열함으로써 시선을 확장시키고 비대칭 과 사선의 움직임을 통한 기하학 도형의 대비와 움 직임에 따른 역동성이 도형성 안에 포함될 수 있다. ) 해체와 재구성 큐비즘 패션의 해체와 재구성은 형태요소 중 가장 기본적인 선, 면, 아이템의 형태에 대한 조화를 파 괴하여 해체하고 불규칙하게 재구성하여 새롭고 다 양한 형태로 나타난다. 즉, 큐비즘 회화에서 선이 대상을 분해하여 새롭게 구성하는 매개로 사용되는 것처럼 패션에서 선은 의복구성의 패턴을 해체해 재 구성하는 용도로 절개선, 혹은 여러 가지 재료를 사 용한 장식 선으로 표현되어 단조로운 실루엣에 변화 를 주고 시선을 끄는 효과를 낸다. 또한, 다채로운 화면의 분할은 패션에 변화를 줄 수 있는 디자인 요 소로써 현대 패션 디자인에 다양한 모습으로 적용되 고 있다. 선에 의한 해체와 재구성을 살펴보면 장식 선을 활용하여 다양한 사선에 의해 분할된 면을 사 선과 바탕의 색대비로 인하여 선을 강조시키거나, 의복구성 시 서로 다른 색상의 패널들을 재구성하여 명도 대비에 의한 시각적 즐거움을 준다. 이러한 해 체와 왜곡은 단순히 디자인 요소와 패턴에만 한정되 는 것이 아니라 다양한 소재의 믹스매치를 통해서도 정형화되지 않게 변화를 주고 재구성하여 생동감과 자유로움을 느끼게 한다. ) 중첩성 큐비즘 패션에서의 중첩성은 기하학형 도형을 크 기의 변화를 주어 도형들을 연속적으로 반복, 중첩 하거나 동일한 소재에 상이한 컬러의 아이템을 중첩 시켜 다른 아이템을 입고 있는 것처럼 과장된 실루 엣을 만들 수 있다. 또한 동일한 컬러, 소재의 러플 을 중첩할 수 있으며 여러 아이템을 여러 층으로 겹 겹이 쌓아올려 부풀려서 실루엣을 만들 수도 있다. 이처럼 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘의 두드러진 특징 은 의상의 전체적인 외형에 있어 형태의 변형과 왜 곡에 있으며, 이것은 구성에 있어 기존의 규칙을 버 리고 더욱 기초적인 조형방법으로 구성해나가 기하 학적인 형태에 의해 실현되고 있다(e. lee, ). ) 동시성 큐비즘 회화에서의 동시성은 현대패션에서 인체에 대한 고정적 관념, 즉 인간이 만들어 놓은 아름다운 신체에 대한 전통의 미학적 가치를 거부하며 세기 전반까지 신체의 보호와 미적 기능을 목적으로 하였 던 전통의 관습적 편견들을 해체하고자 하였다 (park, ). 큐비즘 패션에 나타난 동시성은 시점의 각도에 따라 아이템이나 디자인 요소가 갖고 있는 다양한 기능을 변형시키는 방식으로, 앞여밈이 항상 정면에 있어야 하는 정형화 된 셔츠와 재킷의 착장 방식을 부정하여 앞여밈을 어깨 쪽으로 구성하여 시선을 집 중시켜 아이템 형태의 상상을 할 수 있도록 시각적 재미를 나타내기도 하고, 재킷 위에 원피스를 겹쳐 입은 듯 한 느낌을 주면서 왜곡되어 나타나며 원피 스는 재킷의 패널에 의해 마치 원피스 위에 재킷을 입은 듯 한 시각적 착각을 주며 한 벌에 두 가지의 아이템이 동시에 관찰되게 표현하기도 하였다. ) 사실성 큐비즘 패션에서의 사실성은 일상생활에서의 재료 패 션 비 즈 니 스 제 권 호 로서 성질과 본질을 지닌 전혀 왜곡된 재료가 아님 에도 불구하고 그 재료를 의상에 도입하여 모호하게 왜곡되어 전위적인 조형미로 나타났다(song, ). 다른 용도로 쓰이는 의외의 소재를 왜곡하여 사용하 기도 하며, 특이한 소재를 새로운 기법으로 패션에 전위적으로 표현하기도 한다. 이러한 새롭고 실험적 인 제 의 소재 도입으로 인해 의외성과 부조화를 유 발하는 동시에 유희적인 일종의 그로테스크를 나타 내었다(chae, ). 재료로는 인공물, 동물, 자연물 등의 다양한 종류 가 사용되고 있는데 인공물의 금속 재료를 이용한 디자인 사례를 보면 금속으로 바디스(badies)를 성 형하고 씨퀸으로 장식한 팔, 다리는 빛의 명암효과 로 인해 관능적인 이미지를 주며 관찰자의 시선을 바디스(badies)쪽으로 집중시켜 점차적으로 씨퀸으 로 장식된 팔, 다리 쪽으로 시선을 이동시켜 시각적 확장을 유도하기도 한다. Ⅲ. 연구방법 및 절차 본 연구는 큐비즘스타일패션 선정을 위한 차 f.g.r. 연구와 큐비즘스타일패션의 조형적 디자인 요소 분석을 위한 차 f.g.r. 연구로 나누어 진행되 었다. . 큐비즘스타일패션 선정을 위한 연구 ( 차 f.g.r.) 본 연구는 년 월 일부터 년 월 일까지 기간 중 일 동안 실시되었으며, 연구범위 는 년 s/s부터 년 s/s까지 파리 컬렉션에 발표된 모든 작품을 대상으로 하였다. 자료의 출처 는 패션 정보 사이트 firstviewkorea.com에서 제공 되는 컬렉션 사진을 중심으로 진행되었으며, 분석 자료는 년여 동안 회 파리 컬렉션에 나타난 총 명의 디자이너의 , 점의 작품 전체를 대상 으로 하였다. 년 s/s부터 년 s/s까지의 파리 컬렉션을 선정한 이유는 연구시점에서 최근 컬 렉션에 나타난 큐비즘 적 동향을 알아보기 위함이 고, 세계 대 컬렉션인 파리컬렉션, 밀라노 컬렉션, 뉴욕 컬렉션, 런던 컬렉션 중에서 파리 컬렉션을 선 택한 이유는 대 컬렉션 중 가장 큐비즘 적 성향이 두드러지게 나타나 연구에 적합하다고 판단하여 결 정하게 되었다. 컬렉션 작품 중 큐비즘과 관련성이 있는 패션스타 일을 큐비즘스타일패션으로 선정하기 위해 f.g.r.을 실시하였다. 이는 보다 전문적이고 객관적인 판단을 통해 결과에 대한 신뢰도를 높이기 위함이다. f.g.r.에 참여한 전문가는 의류디자인학을 전공한 석사학위 이상인 자로, 연구 및 실무경력 년 이상 되는 전문가 명으로 구성하였다. 본 연구는 컬렉션에 나타난 패션스타일 중 큐비즘 에 영향을 받은 스타일을 추출해내기 위해 전문가 집단을 대상으로 , 개의 컬렉션 사진을 보여주 고 각각의 스타일에 대해 큐비즘과의 관련성 정도를 점 리커드 척도로 판단하게 하였다. f.g.r.의 진행 은 정해진 시간에 명의 구성원이 한자리에 모여 모 니터 상에 제시되는 패션 스타일에 대해 리커드 척 도에 따른 점수를 무기명으로 각각 평가하도록 하였 다. 집중도를 높이기 위해 동일 장소에 모여 진행하 되, 서로 간 상의과정 없이 비밀평가 방식으로 유도 진행 하였다. . 큐비즘스타일패션의 조형적 디자인 요소 분석을 위한 연구 ( 차 f.g.r.) 본 연구는 년 월 일부터 월 일까지 일 간에 걸쳐 실시되었으며, 연구범위는 선행된 차 f.g.r.을 통해 큐비즘스타일패션으로 분석·선정된 명의 디자이너, 점의 큐비즘스타일패션을 대상 으로 하였다. 차 f.g.r.에서 선정된 점의 큐비즘스타일패션 에 대한 전·후·측면 및 디테일 사진을 연구대상으로 하였다. 이들 개 스타일의 조형적 디자인 요소를 분석하고자 아이템, 실루엣, 색상, 배색, 소재, 디테 일, 트리밍 등 개 요소를 분석 변수로 사용하였다. 개 요소 각각의 세부항목은 요소별로 수를 달리하 여 총 개의 항목을 통해 해당 사항 여부를 분석하 였다. 색상의 경우에는 pantone textile 컬러칩 최예리 · 최정욱 / 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구 을 사용하여 정확한 색상분석을 시도하였다. 보다 전문적이고 객관적인 평가를 통해 결과에 대 한 신뢰도를 높이기 위해 차 연구와 마찬가지로 차 연구에서도 f.g.r.을 실시하였다. f.g.r.의 구성 은 의류디자인학을 전공한 석사학위 이상인 자로, 연구 및 실무경력 년 이상의 전문가 명을 선정 하였다. Ⅳ. 연구 결과 및 고찰 . 큐비즘스타일 선정을 위한 연구 결과 f.g.r.의 구성원인 패션 전문가 인에게 년 s/s부터 년 s/s까지 파리컬렉션에 발표된 총 , 점 전체 작품을 대상으로 각 작품에서 보이 는 큐비즘 관련 정도를 리커드 척도로 표시하도록 하여 분석한 결과는 다음과 같다. 먼저 연구범위의 시즌별 빈도수를 살펴보면, s/s ( , . %), f/w( , . %)이다. s/s 컬렉션의 작품 수가 f/w 컬렉션의 작품 수 보다 많 게 조사되었으며 각 연도별 빈도수를 분석해본 결과 년( , . %), 년( , . %), 년( , . %), 년( , . %) 순으 로 나타났다. 년에서 년까지 파리 컬렉션 에 참여한 디자이너에 대해 조사한 결과, 총 명 인 것으로 나타났으며 이들 디자이너 중 조사범위 동안 매회 컬렉션에 빠짐없이 참여한 디자이너는 명인 것으로 분석되었다. f.g.r.의 구성원인 전문가 명에게 , 점의 파리 컬렉션 작품 각각에 대한 큐비즘과의 관련성을 점 리커드 척도를 통해 평가하도록 하였으며 이때 검사자 간 평가결과의 신뢰도를 알아보기 위하여 상 관분석을 실시하였다. 분석결과 평가자 부터 평가 자 까지 모두 각각 유의수준 . 하에서 상관관계 가 존재함을 알 수 있었으며 이를 통해 평가자들 간 의 응답 경향이 비슷함을 알 수 있고, 평가자들 간 의 응답을 신뢰할 수 있다고 판단할 수 있었다. 큐비즘스타일의 시즌 분포를 살펴보면 s/s( , . %)와 f/w( , . %)가 거의 같은 정도로 나타났는데, 이는 파리 컬렉션에서 시즌에 상관없이 큐비즘스타일이 선보여진 것으로 분석되었다. 다음 으로 큐비즘스타일의 연도별 출현 빈도를 분석한 결 과 전반적으로 매해 출현 빈도가 유사하였으나 년도의 경우 빈도가 높게 나타났다. 즉, 년도 ( , . %)에 비해 년도( , . %)에 눈에 띄게 큐비즘스타일이 많이 선보여진 것으로 나 타났다. 이는 년도에 전 세계적으로 불어 닥친 경제적 불황이 끼친 영향이라 분석할 수 있다. 즉, 불황일수록 디자이너들의 발명 및 창작에 대한 요구 가 커진다는 분석에 근거하듯, 년 불황기에 새 로운 것에 대한 열망이 커진 디자이너들이 년 부터 조심스럽게 예견되는 경기 회복의 기미를 발판 으로 긍정적이고 경쾌한 분위기를 디자인한 것으로 해석할 수 있다. 즉, 년 f/w 시즌에는 안정과 현실의 기반 위에 새로운 변화와 재미를 추구하는 시즌이었으며 생각지 못한 방식과 결합으로 세련된 창조물을 만들어내기 시작한 것으로 볼 수 있다(inte rnet site, firstviewkorea). 그 결과 큐비즘스타일패 션과 같은 새로운 스타일이 많이 선보여지게 된 것 으로 사료된다. 큐비즘스타일을 제안한 디자이너를 조사한 결과 전체 디자이너 명 중 명으로 전체의 . % 에 해당하였다. 이들 디자이너 중 큐비즘스타일의 디자인을 매년 출현 빈도가 이상으로 제작한 디 자이너로는, 꼼 데 가르송( , . %), 알렉산더 맥퀸( , . %), 매니쉬 아로라( , . %), 빅터 앤 롤프( , . %), 메종 마틴 마르지엘라와 파코 라반( , . %), 아마야 아르주아가( , . %), 티에리 뮈글러( , . %), 페드로 로렌코( , . %), 아르주 캐프롤과 릭 오웬스( , . %), 파티 마 로페즈, 가레스 푸, 이세이 미야케( , . %), 이상봉( , . %), 발렌시아가( , . %) 순으로 나타났다. 이들 중 아시아계 디자이너로 꼼 데 가르 송의 레이 가와쿠보와 이세이 미야케가 있으며, 특 히 한국계 디자이너로는 이상봉, 문영희 등이 큐비 즘스타일패션 디자이너로 분류되었음을 알 수 있다. . 큐비즘스타일패션의 조형적 디자인 요소 분석을 위한 연구 결과 ( 차 f.g.r.) 패 션 비 즈 니 스 제 권 호 차 f.g.r.을 통해 큐비즘과의 관련성에서 점 이상의 점수를 받은 개의 큐비즘스타일 작품 중 다시 . 점 이상의 점수를 받은 개의 작품만을 선별하여 이들 작품의 전·후·측면 및 디테일 사진을 면밀히 분석하였다. 이때 사용된 변수 개의 조형적 디자인 요소를 기 준으로 개 세부항목에 따라 분석하였다. 보다 전 문적이고 객관적인 판단을 통해 결과에 대한 신뢰도 를 높이기 위해 차 연구와 마찬가지로 차 연구에 서도 f.g.r.을 실시하였다. f.g.r.의 구성은 의류디 자인학을 전공한 석사학위 이상인 자로, 연구 및 실 무경력 년 이상의 전문가 명을 선정하여 진행하 였다. 앞서 설명한 바, 조형적 디자인 요소 분석을 위해 차 f.g.r.의 평가 결과에서 . 점 이상의 점수를 받은 개의 작품을 큐비즘스타일패션으로 정하고 이들의 조형적 디자인 요소를 분석하였다. 평가자 평균점수가 점 이상인 경우는 ( . %), . 점 이상인 경우는 ( . %), . 점 이상인 경우는 ( . %), . 점 이상인 경우는 ( . %), 점 이상인 경우는 ( . %)로 나타났다. 이에 평가 값 . 이상인 작품 점을 본 논문의 차 연 구 대상으로 선정하였다. 큐비즘스타일패션에 나타난 아이템의 종류를 살펴 본 결과, 원피스( , . %), 재킷( , . %) 순으로 높게 나타났으며 롱 슬랙스, 블라우스/셔츠, 드레스, 코트 등 여개의 다양한 아이템이 출현한 것으로 조사되었다. 원피스의 출현 빈도가 가장 많 은 이유는 실루엣을 통한 형태 표현이나 입체적 디 테일을 통한 큐비즘적 표현이 용이한 아이템이기 때 문으로 생각된다. 다음으로 큐비즘스타일패션의 실루엣 분포를 살펴 본 결과, h 실루엣( , . %), o 실루엣( , . %), a 실루엣( , . %), y or t 실루엣( , . %) 순이었다. 이 중에서 h 실루엣이나 o 실루 엣이 높은 빈도로 나타난 것은 심플하고 기하학적 형태로 표현되는 큐비즘 성향과 일치한다고 사료된 다. 뿐만 아니라, x 실루엣( , . %)의 빈도가 가 장 낮게 나타난 이유는 x 실루엣이 여성적이고 곡선 적인 느낌이 강한 실루엣이므로 큐비즘의 심플하고 기하학적인 스타일과 대치되기 때문으로 분석되었 다. 큐비즘스타일패션의 각 스타일마다 사용된 색상을 모두(중복응답) 분석한 결과, 총 가지의 색상이 사용되었음을 알 수 있었다. 주로 사용된 색상은 레 드 계열, 옐로우 계열, 블루 계열 색상 정도로 국한 되었으며 저채도나 무채색의 빈도가 높은 것으로 분 석되었다. 큐비즘스타일패션에 나타난 배색 방법을 분석한 결과, 솔리드(solid)( , . )%가 과반 수 이상으 로 가장 많이 응답하였고, 톤 인 톤(tone in tone)( , . %), 톤 온 톤(tone on tone)( , . %), 세퍼레이트(separate)( , . %) 순으로 나타났 다. 솔리드가 많이 사용된 것은 심플하고 입체적인 형태 표현을 주로 하는 큐비즘적 성향을 표현하기에 솔리드가 적합한 배색 방법이기 때문인 것으로 사료 되었다. 즉, 직선적, 곡선적 혹은 입체적으로 실루엣 이나 디테일을 강조하는 경우, 색상에 의한 표현을 절제해야 하는 디자인 원리를 활용하기 때문인 것으 로 생각되었다. 큐비즘스타일패션에 사용된 소재의 분포를 살펴보 면, 면( , . %), 새틴( , . %), 메탈릭( , . %), 가죽( , . %), 실크( , . %), 쉬폰( , . %), 펠트( , . %), 모( , . %), 벨벳( , . %), 저지( , . %), 니트( , . %), 에나멜( , . %), t/c( , . %), 패딩( , . %), 마( , . %), 비닐( , . %), 퍼와 레이스( , . %), 코듀로이( , . %), 진( , . %)으로 나타났다. 이를 통해 알 수 있는 바, 큐비즘스타일패션에는 면, 새틴, 가죽, 실크 등 표면 요철감이 적은 플랫한 소재들이 많이 사용되었고, 특히 가죽이나 메탈릭 등의 빈도가 높게 나타난 것은 큐비즘의 기하학적· 도형적·매니쉬한 느낌을 표현하는데 용이한 까닭으 로 사료된다. 디테일이 큐비즘적 스타일을 표현하기 위해 다양 하게 사용되었는데 이를 살펴본 결과, 입체적 표현( , . %), 과장·확대·연장( , . %), 왜곡( , . %), 해체·전치·도치( , . %), 기하학적 면 분할( , . %), 소재 믹스매치( , . %), 최예리 · 최정욱 / 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구 겹침·반복( , . %), 비대칭적 구조( , . %), 라운드 커팅( , . %), 드레이프( , . %), 레이 어드( , . %), 아웃 커팅( , . %), 기하학적 프린팅( , . %), 구김( , . %), 패치워크( , . %), 묶음·엮음( , . %), 누빔(패딩)( , . %), 페이크(fake)( , . %), 없음( , . %), 추 상적 프린팅( , . %) 순으로 나타났다. 즉, 큐비 즘스타일패션을 표현하는데 있어 ‘입체적 표현’, ‘과 장·확대·연장’, ‘왜곡’, ‘해체·전치·도치’ 등의 디테일 표현방법이 주로 사용된 것으로 분석되었다. 마지막으로 큐비즘스타일패션에 사용된 트리밍의 종류를 분석한 결과, 없음( , . %)이 과반 이 상으로 가장 높게 나타났으며, 다음으로 벨트( , . %), 기타 구조물, 주머니( , . %) 순으로 분 석되었다. 이 결과, 큐비즘스타일패션은 부가적인 트리밍 장식보다 실루엣이나 전체적인 디테일 변화 를 통해 표현하고 있음을 알 수 있었다. figure . cubism fashion’s characteristics based on detail manner of expressions . 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구 앞서 f.g.r.을 통해 큐비즘스타일패션의 조형적 디 자인 요소를 종합하여 살펴본 결과, 큐비즘스타일패 션의 특성은 figure 과 같이 추출되었다. 큐비즘스 타일패션을 표현하는데 있어 디테일 표현방법이 가 장 두드러지게 나타나 이를 바탕으로 큐비즘스타일 패션을 도출하였다. 선행연구와 디테일의 표현방법을 분석한 결과 큐비 즘스타일패션은 다음의 세 가지로 정의해 볼 수 있다. ) 전위적인 구성 방법 먼저 큐비즘스타일패션은 “전위적인 구성 방법”의 성향을 띄는데, 이러한 특성은 ‘중첩’, ‘해체’등의 표 현기법을 통해 보인다. ‘중첩’이란 디테일 또는 색상 을 거듭하여 겹쳐 나타내는 방법으로 반복·방사·그 패 션 비 즈 니 스 제 권 호 라데이션 등의 방법을 통해 연속적 혹은 규칙적인 배열을 보여주는 경우를 말한다. ‘해체’란 원래 있어 야 하는 자리에 없게 하여 흩어지게 하거나 분해하 는 것을 의미하는 것으로, 전치·도치와 같이 원래 위치해야 하는 곳에 위치하지 않고 위치를 바꿈으로 써 기대와 예측을 바꾸는 것을 말한다. 본 연구의 대상인 큐비즘스타일패션의 경우, ‘중첩’을 사용한 디테일의 표현은 색상의 반복, 트리밍의 반복, 디테 일의 반복 등을 통해 표현되고 있었다. 이를 좀 더 자세히 살펴보면 먼저, 중첩 기법 중 에서도 색상을 반복적으로 사용하여 나타낸 것으로 인도의 디자이너 매니쉬 아로라(manish arora)의 년 f/w 작품 figure 를 들 수 있다. figure 는 블루, 오렌지, 레드 등 비비드한 색상 사이에 블 랙과 화이트를 매치하여 나머지 색들을 돋보이게 하 는 세퍼레이션 배색 기법을 반복적으로 사용한 것으 로, 특히 엉덩이 부분에 사선의 형태로 반복 배치하 는 동시에 입체감을 주어 밋밋할 수 있는 색채 중첩 기법에 리듬감을 더하였다. 조쉬 구트(josh goot)는 년 s/s 컬렉션에서 figure 의 작품을 통해 기 하학적 패턴 배치에 모노톤의 그라데이션 효과를 사 용한 색상 배치를 한 바 있다. 그라데이션 색상의 반복을 기하학적 패턴 안에서 표현함으로써 큐비즘 적 스타일을 잘 나타내고 있다. 다음으로 트리밍의 반복을 통해 표현한 중첩 기법 을 사용한 예로, 빅터 앤 롤프(viktor & rolf)의 년 s/s 컬렉션에서는 figure 와 같이 색색깔 의 쉬폰(chiffon)과 튤(tulle)을 사용하여 옷 자체의 실루엣이 주는 단조로움을 깨고 자잘한 프릴을 여러 겹으로 겹쳐 차원적인 형태로 나타내어 입체감을 더했다. 빅터 앤 롤프는 년 f/w 컬렉션 figure 에서 빳빳한 소재를 사용하여 플리츠를 과장하고 반복적으로 덧붙임으로써 실루엣의 과장 및 확대까 지 보여주었다. 또한 슬리브와 어깨의 연결 부위에 반복적인 주름을 직각으로 세워 어깨를 강조하고 스 커트는 라운드 컷팅 된 조각을 스파이럴 형태로 반 복 배치함으로써 각진 상의와 부드러운 하의 간의 상반된 느낌을 대치시켜 표현하였다. 디테일의 반복을 통해 표현된 중첩의 예로는, 빅 터 앤 롤프의 년 s/s 컬렉션을 들 수 있다. figure 은 슬리브와 커프스를 과장하고 반복시킴으 로써 독특한 조형적 표현을 보여준 원피스이다. 꼼 데 가르송(comme des garcons)은 figure 에서 기존 의복이 갖고 있는 내부의 디테일 선을 모두 생 략하고 최소한의 절개를 통해 심플한 실루엣을 기하 학적 형태로 표현한 후, 오브제로 사용한 꽃을 여러 개 중첩시킴으로써 독창적이며 입체적인 느낌을 강 조하였다. 다음으로 ‘해체’ 기법을 통해 표현된 큐비즘스타일 패션을 살펴보면, 먼저 분해 및 재조립을 통한 해체 에서, figure 의 꼼 데 가르송은 년 s/s 컬렉 션에서 외투의 슬리브가 있을 자리에 또 다른 형태의 코트를 비대칭적으로 배치하여 기이한 실루엣을 만들 어냄으로써 의복의 구조를 완전히 왜곡시켜 새로운 형태로 재탄생시켰다. 년 s/s 컬렉션 figure 에서는 어깨 부분의 볼록한 부분을 가슴 쪽으로 전치 시킴으로써 있어야 할 자리가 아닌 새로운 곳에 특정 형태를 두어 구조적인 형태의 변형을 꾀했다. 다음으로 착장 방법의 무시를 통한 해체의 예를 살펴보면, figure 은 꼼 데 가르송의 년 s/s 컬렉션으로 재킷의 한쪽 혹은 뒤쪽에 또 다른 재킷 을 덧붙임으로써 입는 재킷이 아닌 걸쳐진 형태의 재킷을 통해 착장 방법에 의한 해체를 보여주고 있 다. 다음으로 figure 은 서로 다른 두 가지의 외 투를 연결하여 원피스를 입은 후 상의에 착장하지 않고 목에 두름으로써 기존 의복의 착장 방법을 무 시하고 새로운 형태로 표현하였다. 마지막으로 다시점 표현에 의한 해체 표현에 관해 살펴보면, 큐비즘 회화에서의 동시성과 관련성이 있 다. 큐비즘 패션에서의 동시성이 가지는 의미는 다 시점에서 본 형태들을 동시에 패션에 표현되어 나타 난 것이라 할 수 있겠다. 즉 아이템의 디테일을 해 체해 정형화된 시각에서 벗어나 다양한 시점을 지닌 과장된 형태로 왜곡되어 나타난다. 이는 일반적인 옷의 형태와 착장 방법을 정형화된 실루엣들 사이에 비정형화된 사고의 차이를 통해 본질을 부각하는 시 각적 효과다. 이러한 동시성은 정형화된 패션의 스 타일이 아니라 다양한 시점의 변화를 줌으로써 시선 을 확장하며, 이러한 시각의 확장은 양적인 미적확 장 뿐만 아니라 의외성을 갖는 유희적 수단으로서 활용된다. 그 실례로 로미오 피레(romeo pires)의 년 s/s 컬렉션 작품을 들 수 있다. 측면에 위 치해야 하는 정형화된 셔츠의 소매 위치를 figure 처럼 앞 중심 쪽으로 구성하여 다양한 시점에서 최예리 · 최정욱 / 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구 본 패션의 형태를 표현함으로써 패션의 표현 영역을 확장시켰다. 또한 꼼 데 가르송은 figure 에서와 같이 재킷을 스커트로 사용하여 햄 라인에 라펠과 figure . manish arora f/w rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . josh goot s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . viktor & rolf s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . viktor & rolf f/w rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . viktor & rolf s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . romeo pires s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com 슬리브가 위치하도록 배치함으로써 다각도 시점에서 본 새로운 형태를 제안하여 의복구성의 본질적 질서 를 부정한 유니크한 원피스를 선보였다. 패 션 비 즈 니 스 제 권 호 ) 지오메틱한 블록 배치 다음으로 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 에서는 컷팅·분해, 프린트, 패치워크 등의 기법을 통 해 기하학적인 면 분할이 많이 나타났으며 다양한 형태의 독특한 오브제를 통한 입체적 표현이 자주 보였는데, 이러한 특성을 ‘지오메틱한 블록 배치’로 정리하였다. 먼저 ‘기하학적 면 분할’을 통한 표현을 살펴보 면, 재단 등에 의해 나누어진 패턴·패널을 기하학적 인 형태로 다채롭게 분할함으로써 다양한 모습으로 패션에 적용하였다. 특히 컷팅, 프린트, 패치워크 등 의 기법을 사용하였는데, 먼저 컷팅·분해를 통한 패 널 분리의 예로는 페드로 로렌코(pedro lourenco) 의 년 s/s 컬렉션의 작품 figure 로 기하학 적 커팅을 사용하여 패널을 분리하여 표현함으로써 고스적인 분위기를 큐비즘적으로 해석·표현하였다. 꼼 데 가르송은 figure 에서 기하학적 면 분할로 나누어진 각각의 패널에 이질적 소재를 믹스매치하 고, 각각의 패널에 라운드 컷팅함으로써 이질적 소 재의 대비를 극대화시켰다. 스테피 크리스티안 (steffie christiaens)은 figure 에서 기하학적인 컷팅으로 패널을 분리시키고 부분적으로 천을 덧붙 여 입체적으로 표현하였다. figure . pedro lourenco s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons f/w rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . steffi chrishan s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . issey miyake f/w rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com 다음으로 프린트를 이용하여 지오메틱한 블록 배 치를 표현한 작품을 살펴보면, figure 의 이세이 미야케 작품에서는 지그재그와 하운드 투스 패턴을 상·하의에 각각 배치하여 써피스 프린트하여 표현하 였으며, 입체적인 칼라가 드레이프로 연출되는 베스 트를 착장함으로써 큐비즘적 느낌을 강조하였다. 한 편, figure 에서 보여지듯이 알렉산더 맥퀸은 파 충류나 바다생물이 떠올려지는 추상적인 문양을 대 칭으로 배치하여 디지털 프린팅 하였는데, 이는 에 어리한 소재와 함께 조화롭게 연출되었다. 패치워크로 표현된 면 배치의 예로, 매니쉬 아로 라의 년 f/w 컬렉션에서 선보인 작품 figure 는 다양한 컬러로 면 분할된 원피스 위에 입체적 인 형태의 패치워크 볼레로를 더해 큐비즘적 패션을 완성하였다. 다음으로 ‘오브제에 의한 입체적 표현’을 통한 큐 비즘스타일패션을 살펴보면, figure 에서 꼼 데 가르송은 외투를 페티코트 형태의 오브제로 사용하 면서 페티코트 골격 형태를 그대로 겉으로 드러내고 슬리브 등의 디테일을 생략함으로써 충격적인 실루 엣을 만들어냈다. figure 은 아르주 캐프롤(arzu kaprol)의 f/w 컬렉션 작품으로, 입체적인 원 통형의 상의에 스터드 등의 메탈 소재 트리밍을 빽 빽하게 달아 오브제를 사용한 입체적인 표현을 잘 나타낸 작품이다. 최예리 · 최정욱 / 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구 figure . alexander mcqueen s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . manish arora f/w rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . arzew kefrol f/w rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . hussein chalayan f/w rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . maison martin margiela s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . viktor & rolf s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . viktor & rolf s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . comme des garcons f/w rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . viktor & rolf s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . rick owens s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com figure . blythe damis emi s/s rtw - www.firstviewkorea.com 패 션 비 즈 니 스 제 권 호 ) 실루엣의 왜곡 및 단순화 마지막으로 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 은 여성의 인체가 갖고 있는 고유의 곡선미를 부정 하고 평면적 혹은 차원적으로 조작·왜곡하여 실루 엣을 생략·단순화 시키거나 기존의 디테일을 확대· 연장함으로써 ‘실루엣의 왜곡 및 단순화’를 통해 표 현되었다. ‘왜곡’이란, 예술에서 원형과 그 표상 간 의 의도적이거나 비의도적으로 나타나는 차이를 가 리키는 용어로써(“glossary of world art,” ), 미술용어사전에 나타난 왜곡에 대한 용어 정의는 다 양하지만 패션에 있어서 왜곡의 개념은 인체의 이상 적 형태를 이탈해 만들어진 것, 즉 강조와 과장, 확 대 등의 방법으로 인체의 자연적 비례를 무시한 복 식으로 정의할 수 있다(kim, ). ‘단순화’는 복잡 하지 않고 간단하며 단조롭게 만들어지는 형태로 인 체의 실루엣이나 의복의 구조를 단순화시켜 왜곡되 어 표현한 것을 말한다. 이러한 특성은 평면적 혹은 차원적으로 왜곡시키거나 실루엣의 단순화 혹은 디 테일·트리밍의 확대 및 연장에 의해 표현되는 것으 로 나타났다. 먼저 ‘평면적 왜곡’을 표현한 예를 살펴보면, 후 세인 샬라얀(hussein chalayan)은 figure 에서 여성 인체 곡선미를 철저히 부정하고 직사각형의 플 랫한 형태의 실루엣으로 표현하였으며, 메종 마틴 마르지엘라(maison martin margiela)는 figure 에 서 트렌치 코트가 그려진 빳빳한 종이를 어깨에 걸 친 듯한 평면적인 직사각형 실루엣을 표현하였다. 다음으로 ‘ 차원적 조작’ 기법의 예로, figure 에서 빅터 앤 롤프는 차원적으로 면을 마치 전기톱 으로 잘라낸 듯한 독창적인 컷팅감이 돋보이는 드레 스를 선보였다. figure 는 튤 소재로 만든 드레스 의 중간을 뻥 뚫어서 안이 보이게 하는 드레스로, 소재의 특성을 적극 이용하여 차원적인 왜곡·조작 을 진행하였다. 다음으로 ‘실루엣의 생략’을 통한 큐비즘스타일패 션의 표현 사례를 살펴보면, 년 f/w 꼼 데 가 르송의 ‘미래는 평면적이다.’라는 컨셉을 가진 컬렉 션을 볼 수 있다. figure 에서는 실루엣을 단순화 시켜 생략시킴과 동시에 과장되게 표현한 평면적 디 자인을 전개하였으며 단순화한 실루엣의 오버사이즈 의상으로 패션에 대한 고정관념을 무너뜨렸다. 뿐만 아니라 단추와 지퍼 없이 단순한 형태들로 만들어 새로운 의복의 개념을 정립하였으며, 인체의 실루엣 을 생각하지 않고 단순화시킨 표현이 마치 종이 인 형 같은 인상을 주었다. 마지막으로 ‘디테일·트리밍을 확대하고 연장’함으 로써 큐비즘스타일패션을 표현하였는데, figure 에서 빅터 앤 롤프는 얇은 소재를 여러 겹으로 겹쳐 차원적인 도형의 형태를 어깨와 스커트에 어시매트 릭(asymmetric)하게 배치하고, 이를 사선으로 다시 잘라 마치 인체가 도형 안에 들어가 있는 느낌을 연 출하였다. figure 은 릭 오웬스(rick owens)의 작품으로 재킷의 한쪽 칼라만 지오메트릭한 도형의 형태로 확대시켜 어시매트릭하게 표현하였다. 다음 으로 브라이스 다미스 에미(bryce damice aime)의 figure 에서는 베스트 어깨를 입체적인 실루엣으 로 확대시켜 공작새 느낌을 주었고, 스커트는 패널 을 기하학적으로 재단하여 입체적인 요철감을 표현 하였다. Ⅴ. 결론 및 제언 본 연구는 년- 년 파리 컬렉션 작품 중 f.g.r. 분석을 통해 객관적인 방법으로 큐비즘과 관 련 깊은 패션스타일을 선정하고, 선정된 큐비즘스타 일패션의 조형적 디자인 요소를 분석함으로써 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션의 특성을 분석하는 것을 목적으로 하였으며 연구의 결과는 다음과 같 다. 아이템 분포의 경우 ‘원피스’가 가장 많은 것으로 분석되었고, ‘h 실루엣’이 주를 이루었으며 ‘면’ 소 재의 사용빈도가 높은 것으로 나타났다. 색상의 경 우, 주로 사용된 색상은 ‘레드, 옐로우, 블루 계열’ 정도로 국한되었으며 ‘저채도와 무채색’의 빈도가 높은 것으로 분석되었다. 배색은 ‘솔리드’가 대부분 이었으며, 트리밍은 거의 사용하지 않는 것으로 보 였다. 디테일 표현방법의 경우, 큐비즘스타일패션은 입체적 표현, 과장·확대·연장, 왜곡, 해체·전치·도치, 최예리 · 최정욱 / 현대 패션에 나타난 큐비즘스타일패션 연구 기하학적 면 분할 등을 통해 의복 디테일의 변화를 보여주는 것을 알 수 있었다. 이외에도 소재 믹스매 치, 겹침·반복, 비대칭적 구조 등의 표현 방식이 사 용된 것으로 분석되었다. 이상의 결과는 큐비즘적 성향 표현에 있어 용이하기 때문인 것으로 사료되었 다. 즉, 기하학적이고 심플하며 입체적인 디테일 표 현을 주로 하는 큐비즘적 성향을 표현하는데 이와 같은 디자인 요소의 조건이 적합한 것으로 나타났 다. 이상의 실증적 자료의 분석 결과를 통해 큐비즘스 타일패션에 나타난 여러 가지의 표현 방식들을 종합 하고 정리하여 세 가지 특성을 도출할 수 있다. 먼저, '전위적인 구성 방법'이다. 현대 패션에서 색상·트리밍·디테일의 반복적 사용을 통한 ‘중첩’기 법의 빈번한 활용이 큐비즘적 스타일로 연결되었으 며 의복 구성을 위한 여러 디테일 요소를 분해한 후 다시 재조립, 기존의 착장 방법에서 벗어난 착장의 형태를 보여주거나 보는 각도에 따라 다르게 보이는 여러 형태의 집약된 형태로 제시되는 다시점 표현을 통해 집대성된 ‘해체’기법의 표현이 전위적인 구성 형태로 나타나 큐비즘스타일패션을 표현하는 것으로 보여 졌다. 다음으로 '지오메틱한 블록 배치'이다. 컷팅·분해 등을 이용한 물리적 조작에 의한 패널 분리나 프린 트 혹은 패치워크 기법을 이용하여 기하학적 면 분 할을 통해 큐비즘적 느낌을 표현하였다. 뿐만 아니 라, 입체적인 오브제를 사용함으로써 큐비즘적 느낌 을 강조하였다. 마지막으로 '실루엣의 왜곡 및 단순화'이다. 인체 의 윤곽선의 미를 극대화시키기 위해 사용되는 의복 의 구성선 및 실루엣을 평면적으로 납작하게 눌러 왜곡하거나 차원적인 조작을 통한 왜곡, 전혀 다른 형태로 생략하여 단순화시키거나 세부 디테일 트리 밍을 확대 혹은 연장 하는 형태로 표현하는 방법을 통해 큐비즘적 스타일을 나타내고 있었다. 본 연구는 세기에 등장한 예술 운동 중 가장 실 험적이고 새로운 모더니즘의 시작이라 칭해지며 현 대 디자인에 큰 영향을 미친 예술양식인 큐비즘을 살펴보고 현대 패션 디자인에서 나타난 큐비즘적 디 자인 요소를 분석하여 큐비즘적 패션 스타일을 규명 하고 이를 하나의 패션 스타일로 확립하려 하였다. 나아가 패션 디자인 영역에서 큐비즘패션스타일로서 의 자리를 확립하는 가능성을 제시하는데 일조할 수 있으리라 기대한다. 본 연구에서는 현대 패션 디자인에서 나타난 큐비 즘적 요소를 분석하여 큐비즘적 패션 스타일을 규명 하는데 그쳤지만, 후속 연구에서는 큐비즘스타일을 다양하게 다루어 큐비즘 패션 디자인으로 제시하는 연구가 되길 기대한다. references chae g. 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( , dec ember - , march ). firstviewkorea, r etrieved from http://www.firstviewkorea.com received(january , ) revised(march , ) accepted(june , ) transatlantica, | transatlantica revue d’études américaines. american studies journal  | benjamin franklin / richard powers eudora welty as photographer, photographs by eudora welty, edited by pearl amelia mchaney with contributions by sandra s. phillips and deborah willis, up of mississippi, louis mazzari Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/ doi : . /transatlantica. issn : - Éditeur afea référence électronique louis mazzari, « eudora welty as photographer, photographs by eudora welty, edited by pearl amelia mchaney with contributions by sandra s. phillips and deborah willis, up of mississippi, », transatlantica [en ligne], | , mis en ligne le janvier , consulté le septembre . url : http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/ ; doi : https://doi.org/ . /transatlantica. ce document a été généré automatiquement le septembre . transatlantica – revue d'études américaines est mis à disposition selon les termes de la licence creative commons attribution - pas d'utilisation commerciale - pas de modification . international. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / eudora welty as photographer, photographs by eudora welty, edited by pearl amelia mchaney with contributions by sandra s. phillips and deborah willis, up of mississippi, louis mazzari eudora welty as photographer is part of a growing appreciation for her achievements as an artist in two fields, rather than an admired writer who also took pictures. it is a new collection whose forty-three prints from the mid- and late- s, and critical essays written for this volume, advocate for welty as an important photographer whose work can stand alongside dorothea lange, walker evans, and other new-deal documentary artists. these photos selected by welty scholar pearl mchaney, editor of a writer’s eye: collected book reviews, are founded on formal balance and the play of shape and light and texture. but welty’s love of these elements never overpowers her eye for the detail that opens to the mystery of humanity—or, as welty saw it—the “fullness and emptiness of this stranger’s life.” ( ) they exhibit a strong sense of compositional formalism often softened by the small, tender gestures of humanity in the slouch of a sharecropper’s schoolboy, in a fortune-teller’s mystic gaze, in a woodchopper’s enduring stance. many of the images in this collection show modernist artistic preoccupations and perspective, sharing some of the characteristics of surrealism, cubism, and expressionism within a context of everyday life. mchaney ends the volume, for instance, with a shot of a cow in a field crowned by a beautiful formation of clouds rising as though from her mind in a mist of grandeur and absurdity, comedy and pathos —a surrealistic dreamscape stamped onto a naturalistic and quotidian scene. eudora welty as photographer, photographs by eudora welty, edited by pearl am... transatlantica, | somehow, though, welty manages to find a hinge for these photos that often allows the mystery of lives and scenes to also function as a documentary. as mchaney recounts in her introductory essay, welty was rejected in her application for work under the renowned farm security administration (fsa) photographic project to document rural life in the south and throughout the country. welty had intended her own work to capture the warmth of dorothea lange’s fsa photographs, in particular. eudora welty as photographer reveals that concern. welty is closer here to lange than to walker evans, for example, in the sense of closeness and affection for the folk she portrays. evans brilliantly illuminated the lives of people. welty illuminated the people themselves. welty’s goal was, in a sense, supra-historical. not so much documenting historical circumstances, but arresting a particular moment of human life within its blazing and tender immediacy. mchaney offers welty’s description of her own conception of her work. “framing a few square inches of space for the fraction of a second, the photographer may capture—rescue from oblivion—fellow human beings caught in the act of living. he is devoted to the human quality of transience. here lies whatever value his picture-taking has.” ( ) welty claimed her photography, “was ‘personal and particular’ rather than ‘phenomenal,’ that is to say, neither social realism nor documentation.” ( ) mchaney’s selection calls attention to this orientation. her essay makes a case for welty’s attitude of professionalism, her strong ambition for her photography, and her accomplishments. in her biographical sketch, mchaney writes of welty’s love for and practice of the visual arts. mchaney presents a welty who was running on two tracks simultaneously— writing and photography—and with equal emphasis. as a child, welty always played with the visual arts, drawing and sketching. at the university of wisconsin in the late s, she studied art and design, as well as literature. (early escapades, by patti carr black, up of mississippi , reprints a number of welty’s first cartoons and other visual work). and afterwards, while at home during the early s, welty shot fashion photos and newspaper advertisements, while also editing radio news and writing human interest stories for a jackson newspaper. she applied to the new yorker and to national geographic, but she also applied to study with preeminent new york photographer berenice abbott at the new school of social research. and as a young adult, she learned the craft of photography from her father, who had helped open jackson’s first camera shop, and she shot fashion photography for a living. welty bought herself a developer from the mississippi highway department and installed it in the family kitchen. her application to the fsa was rejected, but she did join the wpa as a junior publicity agent, during which time she both wrote and took photos. the work allowed welty to see and reveal with both pen and camera what she called “the real state of mississippi, not the abstract state of the depression.” ( ) eudora welty as photographer consists mostly of photos shown in exhibitions in jackson, chapel hill, and new york city in the mid- s. some of the photos in this selection were chosen from previously unpublished contact prints. a number of books of welty’s photos have been published since ’s now-legendary one time, one place: mississippi in the depression: a snap-shot album. two subsequent collections were published by small presses before the university press of mississippi collected more than two hundred images in photographs in . mississippi’s department of archives and history published two small collections during the s, the state historical museum eudora welty as photographer, photographs by eudora welty, edited by pearl am... transatlantica, | published eudora welty: other places in , and the museum of art published a collection in . the university of mississippi press has published each of the three subsequent collections, country churchyards, in , some notes on river country, in , and now, eudora welty as photographer. a more comprehensive chronology of welty’s notable writing and photographic dates is included in the volume. however, there is no mention of how or why these particular photos are being published now. what is the organizing principle behind the publication of these various books of welty photographs? what were the criteria for choosing these particular images? for readers just coming to welty’s photography, there is no help in knowing where this collection fits into welty’s body of work and why these prints are being published now. in terms of the presentation of the images, mchaney has created page spreads that combine similar elements, approaches, and themes. “the photographs are paired to contrast and to complement,” mchaney writes, “to surprise and to suggest, to please and to challenge.” (vi) photos strongly based on geometry and bold patterns of light and shade are fit together. photos strong in human detail are paired. those with a sense of narrative are combined. nature scenes face nature scenes. this kind of pairing makes the case that welty strove to explore several different modes of photography. indeed, some of this collection is documentary, other photos border on abstraction, while others are extraordinarily painterly. the dramatic light and shadow of the potter at work, “potter,” ( ) for example, is as beautifully accomplished as caravaggio. the two additional essays sandra s. phillips, chief curator at the san francisco museum of modern art, has written on other photographers, including helen levitt, who shared an attraction to the spontaneous moment. welty used the word “snapshot” in reference to her work, and phillips takes up the term in defining welty’s as a personal, warm, and informal expression. and there’s a similar sense, between welty’s work and the colloquial snapshot, of the intimacy of private intentions. phillips recognizes that welty’s compositions are too carefully composed to be true snapshots. but if welty’s resembled snapshot photographs, it was because, as phillips writes, “they offer a world of particulars and of memory that was appealing and useful to her.” ( ) she observes the simultaneous sense of work that “is gently personal, always observant, full of fellow feeling.” ( ) the formal quality of welty’s work combined with the sense of the passing human moment results in a profound moment on each page. “the human face and the human body are eloquent in themselves,” phillips quotes welty as saying, “and stubborn and wayward, and a snapshot is a moment’s glimpse (as a story may be a long look, a growing contemplation) into what never stops moving, never ceases to express for itself something of our common feeling.” ( ) phillips sees welty’s later photos as moving toward peculiar angles of vision, “imparting a certain unreality to the subject, even an unintended surrealism,” ( ) and cites a dreamlike arrangement of lines and figures in the construction of a circus sideshow and a parader blowing his trumpet into the clouds over his head. to this eudora welty as photographer, photographs by eudora welty, edited by pearl am... transatlantica, | viewer the surrealism seems highly intentional. you see that in the way she crops these photos with an eye toward geometry and odd juxtapositions. deborah willis, a historian of african american photography, wrote a short essay about the egalitarianism with which welty met the black mississippians she photographed. few white southerners through the s had such intimate access to the unguarded emotions of black southerners. these photos of welty’s are startling in the strength of their respect for their subjects. unlike the fsa photographers that she unsuccessfully tried to join, welty was actually an insider among those she photographed. an unobtrusive local, she was a known quantity, rather than a stranger with a camera. “i was never questioned, or avoided,” willis quotes her as explaining. “there was no self- consciousness on either side. i just spoke to persons on the street and said, ‘do you mind if i take this picture?’ and they didn’t care. there was no sense of violation of anything on either side.’” ( ) indeed, in welty, there is never a sense of violation. she never pushes herself on her subjects. never intrudes on those whose moment she is sharing. look on page , for instance, “tomato packers on a break,” at the way she photographs and crops the twenty or so tomato pickers taking a break from their work. at first glance, she is as interested in the bright sun in the field outside the shed in which the packers gather as she is in their moment of rest. she is outside this group of men, who are grouped in the shade, apart from her. but while she keeps a physical distance from their circle, her sharp eye captures in their expressions the communion of relief they are sharing. welty shows us, in this moment, the packers’ immediate past and present, as well. here, as elsewhere throughout this collection, she is both inside and outside her subjects’ lives, and welty simultaneously reveals and shares the immediate moment and the longer day, the fellow feeling among the group and her awareness of the larger world, intimate and broadminded, at once. index thèmes : recensions, trans’arts auteur louis mazzari bogazici university, istambul eudora welty as photographer, photographs by eudora welty, edited by pearl am... transatlantica, | 	eudora welty as photographer, photographs by eudora welty, edited by pearl amelia mchaney with contributions by sandra s. phillips and deborah willis, up of mississippi, pii: - ( ) - computers math. applic. vol. , no. - , pp. - , - / $ . + . printed in great britain. all rights reserved copyright © pergamon press plc m o d e r n s y m m e t r y a. hill department o f mathematics, university college london, gower street, l o n d o n w c i e bt, england abstract--in previous studies [ , ], the a u t h o r - - w r i t i n g primarily as a geometric abstract a r t i s t - - h a s attempted an approach to symmetry/asymmetry from a phenomenological point of view taking mathematics to be regarded as " . . . the theoretical phenomenology of structure" [ ]. t h e main ideas o f what is accepted as the m a t h e m a t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f s y m m e t r y have an extremely long history. it is not even clear that the study originates with the ancient greeks; suffice to say it can be loosely regarded as a p a r t o f g e o m e t r y an d as such is t h erefo re one o f the earliest forms o f " s c i e n c e " we can find. w h a t we can say is th at so far the earliest example o f a " s y s t e m " remains the b o o k s o f euclid, a n d it is generally accepted t h at the priority here was the m e t h o d o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n the individual theorems. h o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h research m a y change this, " e u c l i d " is a c o r n e r s t o n e in western mathematics, a n d the " e l e m e n t s " include topics n o t restricted to q u an - titative a n d " m e t r i c a l " geometry. as a system or b r a n c h o f m a t h e m a t i c s the p a r t we call plane g e o m e t r y is closed, there are n o m o r e t h e o r e m s to be discovered therein. h o w e v e r , this is n o t true o f m a n y topics we can regard as initiated by " e u c l i d " such as projective g e o m e t r y an d p o l y t o p e theory. i f o n e is interested in symmetry, the implications o f the "classical c o n c e p t " , we find t h at m at h em at i ci an s an d also physical s c i e n t i s t s - - p a r t i c u l a r l y c h e m i s t s - - w e r e initiating a m o r e ab st ract c o n c e p t o f s y m m e t r y which nevertheless could be seen as the result o f c o n t e m p l a t i n g f u n d a m e n t a l features o f very simple " s t r u c t u r e s " . it is tempting to call this c o n c e p t topological symmetry, b u t the t erm has n o t gained a n y c u r r e n c y despite the fact that the argum en t , i f naive, is neither illogical n o r a solecism. t h e n o t i o n will suggest that what is called s y m m e t r y a n d a s y m m e t r y can exist as features o f a co n n ect ed structure which remain invariant u n d e r certain simple d e f o r m a t i o n s such t h at the feature t h en can be regarded as strictly qualitative and i n d e p e n d e n t o f q u an t i t at i v e considerations, thus belonging to the elastic g e o m e t r y - - " e l a s t i c lines" as in " r u b b e r sheet" geometry, as t o p o l o g y is o ft en described in the literature o f popularizing (science a n d mathematics). w h a t are k n o w n as the five platonic solids were generally conceived as literal "so l i d s", the fo rm s k n o w n as the t e t r a h e d r o n , cube, o c t a h e d r o n , d o d e c a h e d r o n , icosahedron, m o s t generally conceived as crystallographic o r volumic " s c u l p t u r a l " forms. essentially o f course they can be seen as a n o t h e r set o f forms, and p e r h a p s the earliest well-known examples are the drawings o f l e o n a r d o d a vinci in which they a p p e a r as " s k e l e t a l " forms. these representations were the step which led to the g e o m e t r y o f the solids being represented " s c h e m a t i c a l l y " so t h at the prism-shaped " l i m b s " ( " e d g e s " ) o f l e o n a r d o ' s "closed lattices" cou l d be replaced b y the lines ( " w i r e s " in the case o f a model) or the pencil lines o n p a p e r o f the linear models. t h e final stage in this d e v e l o p m e n t h ad to wait for the spirit o f the m o d e r n / a b s t r a c t way o f conceiving s t r u c t u r e s - - w e finally arrive at the schlegel d i a g r a m in which the lengths o f the lines a n d the area o f the faces n o longer c a r r y o v er the " s y m m e t r y " o f the figures represented. finally it becomes immaterial w h et h er the "l i n es" follow a n y regular feature, i.e. they need n o t be " s t r a i g h t " , an d in drawing them with " c u r v e s " these curved lines m a y in fact be uniquely different. w e have " j o i n e d u p " o r c o n n e c t e d a set o f points just as we please, a n d what is d r a w n can still be regarded as pertaining to some f o r m o f physical structure; the w a y w a r d paths o r " c o n n e c t i v e s " can be " s e e n " as elastic strings each o f which seems to have u n d e r g o n e a unique d e f o r m a t i o n as if the "el ast i ci t y " o f each line were intrinsically different or unique. it is often p o i n t e d out as strange that the ancient g reek s did n o t notice the f u n d a m e n t a l qualitative law which holds between the relation o f the dimensional elements o f a p o l y h e d r a l structure, n o w referred to as points (zero-d i m en si o n al )---"co rn ers"; lines ( o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l ) - - " e d g e s " ; and p o l y g o n s (two-dimensional) o r " f a c e s " . it seems descartes was almost able to grasp camwa / - ---p a. hill the n o t i o n but it was euler by whose n a m e the fam o u s t h e o r e m is k n o w n , n o t surprisingly since euler was a f o u n d i n g father o f t o p o l o g y a n d with his t h e o r e m a vast edifice o f t h eo rem s having to do with connectivity was initiated. i f we l o o k at the newer f o r m o f g e o m e t r y as the study o f structural features o f " a m o r p h o u s " o r informal linear structures, schematic diagrams o f degrees o f connectivity, what we t h en say o f the five platonic structures is that each o f the respective sets o f elements is unidentifiable, interchangeable; we have a structure o f u t m o s t r e g u l a r i t y - - a n d r e d u n d a n c y - - b e l o n g i n g to the set o f regular coverings in two-dimensional space: plane tessellations either i n f i n i t e - - t h e three lattices m a d e respectively f r o m three-, four- a n d six-sided cells o r p o l y g o n s - - o r closed, as in the five closed systems which exhaust the possibilities f o r a closed system. w h e n we ask: w h at else is there? the answer is that we can exhibit structures all o f whose respective elements are distinguishable an d permit no interchanging. such structures are described as asymmetric. finally we show t h at a structure m a y have some o f its respective elements interchangeable while some remain identifiable; we d o n ' t call these " b o t h symmetric and a s y m m e t r i c " b u t say t h at they are symmetric b y virtue o f exhibiting some symmetries. it was only in the last c e n t u r y t h a t the d a u n t i n g task o f e n u m e r a t i n g all possible p o l y h e d r a l structures a t t r a c t e d the a t t e n t i o n o f mathematicians. while m u c h has been learnt between the first efforts a n d t o d a y , n o - o n e is very confident t h a t the p r o b l e m is going to suddenly b e c o m e easy an d in due course solved. f r o m the point o f view o f s y m m e t r y we discover t h a t when we ask a b o u t the possibilities the answer is that p o l y h e d r a with a n y s y m m e t r y at all fade o u t o f the " c a t a l o g u e " as the " s i z e " gets greater, i.e. as the n u m b e r o f vertices (points o r corners), edges (or lines) a n d faces increases. so, nearly all p o l y h e d r a are asymmetric! t h e r e are t h en three sets o f symmetric polyhedra: the f a m o u s platonics, a mere five; the n o less f a m o u s aristotelian solids exhibiting an almost equally high degree o f symmetry, o f which there are , a n o t h e r set revered, an d rightly so, by the ancient greeks; and lastly an infinite b u t diminishing set which struggle fo r existence, as one might p u t it, exhibiting various "degrees o f s y m m e t r y " . by c o n t r a s t we can c o n s t r u c t (or " e x h i b i t " ) a family o f linear structures which, conversely, are linear all symmetric. this family did n o t " e x i s t " until it was " i n v e n t e d " at the t u rn o f the century. t h e family or f o r m is k n o w n as a tree a n d we can confidently a d d t h at it was there all the time b u t had n o t been l o o k e d at mathematically. a tree, like the schlegel diagram and maps, is a topologically linear structure, one-dimensional since it consists o f lines a n d points, b u t so c o n n e c t e d t h a t there are n o closed a r e a s - - l o o p s , polygons, circuits, f a c e s . . . t h e e n u m e r a t i o n o f classes o r families o f trees has been solved a l t h o u g h the overall p r o b l e m c o n t i n u e d to l o o k r a t h e r intractable until recently. a m o n g s t symmetric trees there is one special family or species which can be defined such that, h o w ev er large, they will always be symmetric. such trees, while being quite simple structures, have as yet n o simple short n am e and are k n o w n as homeomorphically irreducible. t h e instruction goes like this: y o u r tree m u st n o t c o n t a i n points o f degree two, which means th at each p o i n t connects at least three lines o r only one line, the latter being called the terminal points o f the tree. f o r example, some capital letters o f the r o m a n a l p h a b e t are trees o f this k i n d - - t , y, x, g , h , k - - w h i l e others are not, having points o f degree t w o - - a , e, f, l, m, n, v, w, z. let us l o o k at the following question o f " p a t t e r n m a k i n g " - - i t can be l o o k e d u p o n as purely m a t h e m a t i c a l or as belonging to gestalt t h e o r y o r even aesthetics: we wish to p a r t i t i o n circles with h o m e o m o r p h i c a l l y irreducible t r e e s - - w e will call t h em hitrees. i f we take each hitree in t u rn and fig. modern symmetry fig. use it as a f o r m o f p a r t i t i o n we s o o n discover t h a t we can o b t ai n several distinguishable partititions f r o m the same hitree. in m a t h e m a t i c a l terms we say t h at a tree m a y take a distinct n u m b e r o f embeddings a n d this is a feature o f its symmetry. t h u s a tree m a y p erm i t o n l y o n e embedding, as shown in fig. (and here we keep to hitrees). while others will clearly allow m o r e t h a n one (see fig. ). i f we were to exhaust all such p a t t e r n s o r partitions, u p t o say hitrees with lines, we would s o o n discover t h a t an increasing n u m b e r o f th em would be asymmetric despite the fact t h at all o f the hitrees e m p l o y e d a n d all t h a t we m a y ch o o se are symmetric. n o w it should c o m e as n o surprise t h a t each p a t t e r n (or partition) is in fact a rep resen t at i o n o f a p o l y h e d r o n , if we replace the circle by a p o l y g o n so t h at the terminal points o f the hitress are joined by straight lines o r edges we have ch an g ed n o t h i n g b u t the new " d i a g r a m " o r " f i g u r e " can be t a k e n as a schlegel diagram. thus, there exists a species o f p o l y h e d r o n generated in this manner: m a t h e m a t i c a l l y they would be described as having a homeomorphically irreducible spanning t r e e . r e t u r n i n g to o u r plane patterns o r partitions (or maps) we could ask t h a t the circle be replaced by a r e c t a n g l e - - f o r example a square; let us also specify t h a t the lines o f the tree p art i t i o n i n g o u r square are to be parallel with its sides. o u r p a t t e r n consists o f h o r i z o n t a l an d vertical lines only, thus the cells or areas o f the p a r t i t i o n will be "rect an g l es". in this special family o f partitions the recognizable (but n o t topologically) distinct partitions o f the circle with " o r t h o g o n a l l y e m b e d d e d " trees p r o d u c e s m a n y m o r e possibilities and these are o f course increased w h en the circle is replaced by the square (see fig. ). whereas we can find o n l y two for one o f o u r trees when the s u r r o u n d is a circle, as so o n as the circle is replaced by the square it becomes obv i o u s t h at the n u m b e r is m o r e t h a n d o u b l e a n d the reader can see t h a t it is n o t h a r d to r e p r o d u c e the o t h e r four. elsewhere i have discussed the fact that these o r t h o g o n a l partitions constitute the m o s t characteristic c o m p o s i t i o n a l schemes o f the ab st ract paintings o f pier m o n d r i a n , certainly between the years - . t h e c o m p u t e r scientist f r i e d e r n a k e [ ] a n d i were able t o p r o p o s e h o w to e n u m e r a t e all possible " m o n d r i a n s " in the rect an g u l ar fo rm at . this can be extended t o deal with the lozengical f o r m a t which m o n d r i a n frequently a d o p t e d , a n d this in t u rn comes u p with some surprising results. t h e example on the right-hand side is in fact the scheme chosen fo r w h at m u st be one o f m o n d r i a n ' s m o s t strikingly simple c o m p o s i t i o n s as the painting consists o f just the two intersecting black lines (or in the hitree) o n a white lozengical format. o f co u rse w h at the viewer is c o n f r o n t e d fig. a. hill fig. with contains many other features, the lozenge appears not to be a perfect square, the lines are not o f exactly the same thickness, and when we examine the resulting polygons it is clear that even if the lines were of the same thickness the arrangement has no metrical symmetry, the two areas adjacent to the two sides of the triangular area are not of the same size, and it follows that the remaining area is not "symmetric". bisecting the triangle and extending the "axis" helps one see this to be the case. one need hardly add that depending where the point o f intersection o f the lines (the four degree node o f the tree) is placed the artist could choose a great number o f possibilities by which he could in this manner partition the lozenge. despite his importance for m o d e m art as one of the most respected "geometric" abstract painters and a founder o f abstract art, mondrian took no interest or inspiration in any aspect of mathematics, not the time-honoured golden section nor any other formula; the idea o f calculation was inimical to him; his works, although extremely rigorous and perfectionist, resemble more the free toccata than the canonical fugue. it is often stressed in art historical exegesis that he belonged to the mystical and spiritual stream; whatever truth there may be in that his essential importance is that o f a radical plastician, perhaps the very last painter, a constructive painter no longer relating to la belle peinture and the continuous rhetoric of painting as it had been from lascaux to van gogh. his ideas o f space, time, surface, structure came out o f cubism and took painting--as with other great innovators of the time--to the position o f the tableau object, the autonomous plastic art work. for the initiated modem artist there is no turning back from this arrival point: it is the watershed. to the artists who followed in the wake o f neo-plasticism (mondrian and the group known as de stijl)--pioneer constructivism, and the less messianic formalism inaugurated by jakobson and his school, it is indeed the sciences and mathematics, although not exclusively, which provide a continuing inspiration and link with the scientific ethos as opposed to movements which seek for an identity in such areas a "automatism", the mystic, the unconscious, all somehow part of the modernist thrust along with the ubiquitous expressionism, not to mention the stereotypic "humanism" which is set to optimize the conventional image and icon which characterize the work of the work-a-day artist. essentially modernism is not wholly identified with the formalist direction, it indeed recognizes its complement viz. the irrational, the subversive and anarchistic as best demonstrated by the iconoclastic dadaists and the montage pieces by the constructivists. it sees an end to the slothful conventions whereby art is to be equated with what is generally accepted as being such if only because it is done in artists' studios, old conventions jacked up by the inclusion of some modern terms o f plastic grammar and syntax, the attempt to project a modern art in the terms of the old--all of this can safely be abandoned. the modem artist has within his grasp modern science, modem mathematics, modem concepts due to various other disciplines, and by relating to these things--although this ensures no guarantee--he continues, paradoxically if you like, the tradition whereby the artist while being an individual (perhaps even a solipsist) works in a context a large part of which parallels and reflects the thinking of the new age. no longer is he the servant of the church, nor need he replace church by state (marxism), but equally no longer is he trapped in the labyrinth of egotistic romanticism which leads to excesses such as self-expressionism, nor of course need he mock the artists o f the past by peddling an uncountable variety of "modernistic" modern symmetry f o r m u l a t i o n s o f the secular traditions in art; p o r t r a i t u r e , " l a n d s c a p e " , "still l i f e " - - a l l destined t o be a d e c a d e n t c h a r a d e which all t o o easily finds admirers. some a b s t r a c t artists have f a v o u r e d s y m m e t r y an d m a d e great w o rk s which espouse the notion; one thinks o f brancusi's e n d l e s s c o l u m n . others, like m o n d r i a n , have strenuously av o i d ed symmetry. t h e y m a y n o t have k n o w n o f the words o f the celebrated f r e n c h biologist claude bernard which can be r e n d e r e d as: " i t is the asymmetric t h at creates life." t h e idea o f a s y m m e t r y has t o o often been relegated to the areas o f the n o n - i m p o r t a n t , the non-beautiful, even if it is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t in n a t u r e perfect s y m m e t r y is never to be f o u n d , only some f o r m o f a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the m a t h e m a t i c a l ideal. clearly the artist is free to c h o o s e - - t h e r e is b o t h s y m m e t r y an d asymmetry. h o w e v e r , let us end by stating t h a t in a s y m m e t r y the idea o f an a p p r o x i m a t i o n is r a t h e r meaningless. t o p u t it technically, if a c o n n e c t e d structure has an a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p characterized as being the identity class this means t h a t it has the feature t h a t all its elements are distinguishable; this is a special an d m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n - - c e r t a i n l y if regarded f r o m the p o i n t o f view o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h eo ry , it represents an " a b s o l u t e " as s o o n as this can be d e m o n s t r a t e d . w h a t is fascinating is t h a t n o algorithms exist for determining w h e t h e r a given structure is asymmetric o r not. in the case o f large structures it becomes necessary to painfully ap p l y the p ro ced u res to determine the a u t o m o r p h i s m number. significantly it is in chemistry that such i n f o r m a t i o n m a y p r o v e crucial, an d m u c h effort has gone into the research, also u n d e r t a k e n by mathematicians. t o t h a t extent the p r o b l e m remains one o f a series t h a t have yet to be solved; the answer will have practical rewards a n d n o less in m a t h e m a t i c s a m o s t p r o f o u n d step will also have been taken. which subsumes which, the d e m o n s t r a b l e metric c o n c e p t o f s y m m e t r y / a s y m m e t r y o r the " a b s t r a c t " c o n c e p t o f the a u t o m o r p h i s m grou p ? t h e latter is equally d e m o n s t r a b l e an d in o r d e r to furnish a p r o o f one is forced to state a piecemeal a c c o u n t o f the " n e i g h b o u r h o o d s i t u a t i o n " o f every p o i n t a n d this has to be d o n e by a sequence o f simple observations; it is a giant piece o f " m i c r o - c h e c k i n g " , as one might p u t it, a l t h o u g h o n e is n o t dealing in the real micro-world, just the zero-dimensional implications o f a strucutre o f at m o s t three dimensions. g e n e r a l i z a t i o n being one o f the key strategies in m a t h e m a t i c s - - " g e n e r a l i z e it u p to the next d i m e n s i o n " - - o n e can quickly grasp t h a t the c o n c e p t o f s y m m e t r y / a s y m m e t r y poses m a n y difficult questions. some we m a y require for solving recondite problems, others remain m o r e like n i g h t m are chess problems. it is unlikely t h a t art can c o n t r i b u t e to this d a u n t i n g area, as it once did in the renaissance, b u t there is no " l o g i c a l " reason why n o t since the n o t i o n s o f s y m m e t r y / a s y m m e t r y belong, in a sense, to b o t h science a n d art. r e f e r e n c e s . a. hill, art and mathesis--mondrian's structures. leonardo , ( ). . a. hill, program:paragram:structure data--directions in art, theory and aesthetics. faber & faber, london ( ). . p. bernays, comments on wittgenstein's philosophy o f mathematics. ratio ii no. i ). . f. nake, asthetik als informations-ferarbeitung. . . mondrian struktureli-topologisch. springer, new york ( ). mon. not. r. astron. soc. , – ( ) doi: . /j. - . . .x probing the nuclear and circumnuclear activity of ngc in the infrared� a. alonso-herrero, †‡ m. sánchez-portal, c. ramos almeida, , m. pereira-santaella, , p. esquej, , , s. garcı́a-burillo, m. castillo, o. gonzález-martı́n, , n. levenson, e. hatziminaoglou, j. a. acosta-pulido, , j. i. gonzález-serrano, m. pović, c. packham and a. m. pérez-garcı́a , instituto de fı́sica de cantabria, csic-uc, avenida de los castros s/n, santander, spain herschel science centre, insa/esac, e- villanueva de la cañada, madrid, spain instituto de astrofı́sica de canarias, c/vı́a láctea s/n, la laguna, tenerife, spain departamento de astrofı́sica, universidad de la laguna, la laguna, tenerife, spain centro de astrobiologı́a, inta-csic, madrid, spain istituto di astrofisica e planetologia spaziali, inaf-iaps, via fosso del cavaliere , rome, italy departamento de fı́sica moderna, universidad de cantabria, avenida de los castros s/n, santander, spain observatorio astronómico nacional (oan)-observatorio de madrid, alfonso xii , madrid, spain gemini observatory, casilla , la serena, chile european southern observatory, karl-schwarzschild-str. , garching bei münchen, germany instituto de astrofı́sica de andalucı́a, iaa-csic, c/ glorieta de la astronomı́a s/n, granada, spain astronomy department, university of florida, bryant science center, po box , gainesville, fl - , usa accepted june . received june ; in original form march a b s t r a c t we present new far-infrared ( – µm) herschel photodetector array camera and spec- trometer (pacs) and spectral and photometric imaging receiver (spire) imaging obser- vations as well as new mid-ir gemini/thermal-region camera spectrograph imaging ( . and . µm) and spectroscopy of the inner lindblad resonance (ilr) region (r < . kpc) of the spiral galaxy ngc . we complemented these observations with archival spitzer imaging and spectral mapping observations. the ilr region of ngc contains a seyfert . nucleus and a ring of star formation with an approximate diameter of kpc. the strong star formation activity in the ring is resolved by the herschel/pacs imaging data, as well as by the spitzer µm continuum emission, [ne ii] . µm line emission, and . and . µm pah emission. the active galactic nucleus (agn) is the brightest source in the central regions up to λ ∼ µm, but it becomes increasingly fainter in the far-infrared when compared to the emis- sion originating in the infrared clusters (or groups of them) located in the ring. we modelled the agn unresolved infrared emission with the clumpy torus models and estimated that the agn contributes only to a small fraction (∼ per cent) of the infrared emission produced in the inner ∼ kpc. we fitted the non-agn – µm spectral energy distribution of the ilr region and found that the dust temperatures and mass are similar to those of other nuclear and circumnuclear starburst regions. finally we showed that within the ilr region of ngc , most of the ongoing star formation activity is taking place in dusty regions as probed by the µm emission. key words: galaxies: evolution – galaxies: individual: ngc – galaxies: nuclei – galaxies: seyfert – galaxies: structure – infrared: galaxies. � herschel is an esa space observatory with science instruments provided by european-led principal investigator consortia and with important partic- ipation from nasa. †augusto gonzález linares senior research fellow. ‡e-mail: aalonso@ifca.unican.es i n t r o d u c t i o n the fueling of the nuclear and circumnuclear activity of galaxies has been a topic of extensive discussion. such activity includes not only the accretion of matter on to a supermassive black hole with the accompanying active galactic nucleus (agn), but also the presence of intense nuclear and circumnuclear starbursts. both c© the authors monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ a. alonso-herrero et al. types of activity require gas to be transported from the host galaxy on physical scales of a few kiloparsecs down to less than one kiloparsec for the nuclear starburst activity and even further in for the nuclear activity. interactions, mergers and large-scale bars, among others, have been proposed as possible mechanisms to transport gas from kiloparsec scales to the nuclear and circumnuclear regions (see the review by jogee , and references therein). in isolated galaxies with a large-scale bar, the gas is believed to flow inwards between corotation and the inner lindblad resonance (ilr). indirect evidence of this is the presence of star formation rings and hot spots near the ilr of barred galaxies (see the review of buta & combes ). the direction of the flows inside the ilr is generally outwards. this implies the existence of a gravity torque barrier at this resonance. however, if there is a ‘spatially extended’ ilr region, this translates into the existence of an inner ilr (iilr) and outer ilr (oilr). numerical simulations predict that in this case, a gas ring can be formed in between these two resonances. fur- thermore, in the scenario of a double ilr, the dynamical decoupling of an embedded nuclear bar can drive the gas further in (shlosman, frank & begelman ; hunt et al. ; garcı́a-burillo et al. ). the combined action of gravity torques due to embedded structures (bars-within-bars) and viscous torques could be a viable mechanism to drive the gas to the inner few parsecs and feed the agn (garcı́a-burillo et al. ; hopkins & quataert ). ngc is a giant isolated barred galaxy at a distance of . mpc (lindblad , therefore arcsec = pc). this galaxy hosts a seyfert . nucleus (schulz et al. ). jungwiert, combes & axon ( ) showed that in ngc , there is also a nu- clear bar (r < arcsec) embedded in the the large-scale bar (r ∼ arcsec). lindblad, lindblad & athanassoula ( ) used hydrodynamical simulations to reproduce the kinematics and the offset dust lanes along the large-scale bar of this galaxy with an outer ilr at a radius of roilr = arcsec = . kpc. there is also an inner ilr at a radius of riilr ∼ . kpc. henceforth, we refer to the ilr region as the region interior to the oilr of ngc . as predicted by simulations, there is a ring of star formation inside the ilr region of this galaxy. the star formation activity in the central regions of ngc has been revealed by the presence of hot spots (sérsic & pastoriza ), intense hα emission (alloin et al. ; kristen et al. ), non- thermal radio continuum sources associated with h ii regions and supernova remnants (sandqvist, jörsäter & lindblad ; forbes & norris ), large amount of molecular gas (sakamoto et al. ) and point-like and diffuse extended x-ray emission not asso- ciated with the agn (wang et al. ). moreover, there is evidence that a significant fraction of the circumnuclear star formation ac- tivity might be obscured based on the prominent dust lane crossing the nuclear region (see fig. , right-hand panel) and the bright and extended mid-infrared (mid-ir) emission in this region (telesco, dressler & wolstencroft ; galliano et al. ). in this paper, we present new far-infrared (far-ir) imaging ob- servations of ngc performed with the esa herschel space observatory (pilbratt et al. ) and new mid-ir imaging and spec- troscopy obtained with the camera/spectrograph thermal-region camera spectrograph (t-recs; telesco et al. ) instrument on the gemini-south telescope. the herschel images were obtained using the photodetector array camera and spectrometer (pacs; poglitsch et al. ) and the spectral and photometric imaging receiver (spire; griffin et al. ) instruments. we also use archival spitzer data taken with the infrared array camera (irac; fazio et al. ), the multi-band imaging photometer for spitzer (mips; rieke et al. ) and the infrared spectrograph (irs; houck et al. ) instruments. using ir observations to study the nuclear and circumnuclear activity in the ilr region of ngc is crucial because the central region is crossed by a prominent dust lane that obscures from our view in the optical, a significant fraction figure . herschel/pacs µm image (left-hand panel) of ngc . the image is shown in a square root intensity scale. the displayed fov is arcsec × arcsec and matches that of the optical image shown in the right-hand panel. the latter reproduces the bvr image shown in fig. of elmegreen, galliano & alloin ( ) (reproduced by permission of the aas) for an easy comparison of the large-scale optical and far-ir morphologies. the square shows an fov = arcsec × arcsec as in fig. . the small ellipse on the optical image represents the approximate size of the ilr region studied in this work, whereas the large ellipse shows the corotation radius. the horizontal bar represents kpc. for both images, orientation is north up, east to the left. c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ the activity of ngc in the infrared of emission produced there. this paper is organized as follows. we describe the observations in section . we analyse the agn ir emission and the spatially resolved ir emission in sections and , respectively, and we summarize our conclusions in section . o b s e rvat i o n s . herschel/pacs and spire imaging we obtained herschel far-ir imaging observations of ngc using pacs at , and µm and spire at , and µm. the data are part of the guaranteed time programme entitled ‘herschel imaging photometry of nearby seyfert galaxies: testing the coexistence of agn and starburst activity and the nature of the dusty torus’ (pi: m. sánchez-portal). the pacs observations were carried out using the standard scan map mode that takes two concatenated scan line maps at ◦ and ◦ (in array coordinates), at a speed of arcsec s− , each one with lines of arcmin length and cross-scan step of arcsec. this mode produces a rather homogeneous exposure map within a square region of about arcmin × arcmin. the set of maps were duplicated to observe through both the µm (‘blue’) and µm (‘green’) filters. therefore, the galaxy was observed twice through the µm (‘red’) filter. with the spire photometer, we observed the three available bands simultaneously using the ‘large map’ mode, with two nearly orthogonal scan maps (two scan lines each), at a scan speed of arcsec s− , and three repetitions. the homogeneous exposure area for scientific use is approximately arcmin × arcmin. table gives the summary of the observations. we reduced the data with the herschel interactive processing environment (hipe) v . . and scanamorphos (roussel ) v . for the pacs instrument, we used hipe and the calibration database v to build level products. these included detecting and flag- ging bad pixels, converting the analog to digital units readings to flux units (jy/pixel) and adding the pointing information. we did not attempt to perform deglitching at this stage to prevent the bright agn nucleus to be affected by the multi-resolution median trans- form deglitching process. the final maps were built from the level products using scanamorphos, which performs a baseline sub- traction, correction of the striping effect due to the scan process, removal of global and individual pixel drifts, and finally the map as- sembly using all the nominal and cross-direction scans. for spire, we used the standard (small) map script and calibration database v . . the processing included detection of thermistor jumps in the time line, frame deglitching, low-pass filter correction, conversion of readings to flux units (jy/beam), temperature drift and bolome- ter time response corrections, and addition of pointing information. we built the final maps using the ‘naive’ scan mapper task. colour corrections (for pacs, see poglitsch et al. ; please refer to the observer’s manual for the spire ones) are small for blackbodies at the expected temperatures (e.g. pérez garcı́a & rodrı́guez espinosa table . summary of herschel photometry observations. obsid instrument bands start time duration (µm) (utc) (s) spire-p , , - - : : . pacs-p , - - : : . pacs-p , - - : : . pacs-p , - - : : . pacs-p , - - : : . ) and have been neglected. more details on the processing of herschel data are given in sánchez-portal et al. (in preparation). fig. shows the fully reduced pacs µm image of ngc together with the optical bvr image from elmegreen et al. ( ). fig. shows the pacs images together with the spire µm with a field of view (fov) covering the approximate extent of the ilr region of ngc (see also section . ). we performed aperture photometry on all the herschel images using two different radii, r = and arcsec. the latter encompasses the ilr region, whereas the former includes mostly the ring of star formation. table lists the measured flux densities. . gemini/t-recs imaging and spectroscopy we obtained mid-ir imaging of ngc using t-recs on the gemini-south telescope on september and as part of proposal gs- b-q- (pi: n. levenson). we used the si- (λc = . µm) and the qa (λc = . µm) filters and mid- ir standard observation techniques. the plate scale of the t- recs imaging observations is . arcsec/pixel with a fov of . arcsec × . arcsec. the total integration times (on-source) were and s in the si- and qa filters, respectively. the qa filter observations were split between the two nights, whereas those in the si- filter were done on the second night. we observed stan- dard stars immediately before or after the science observations in the same filters, to both flux-calibrate the galaxy observations and to estimate the unresolved nuclear emission (see below). the ob- servations were diffraction limited, with a full width half-maximum (fwhm) of . arcsec in the si- filter and . – . arcsec in the qa filter, as measured from the standard star observations. we reduced the imaging data using the canaricam data reduction pack- age redcan (gonzález-martı́n et al., in preparation). we refer the interested reader to this work and ramos almeida et al. ( b) for details. fig. shows the fully reduced t-recs qa image resulting from the combination of the data taken during the two observing nights. the t-recs . µm image (not shown here) shows a similar morphology. we also retrieved archival t-recs spectroscopic observations in the n band (∼ − µm) using a . arcsec slit width as part of proposal gs- b-q- (pi: m. pastoriza). the total on-source integration time was s. we reduced the galaxy and correspond- ing standard star observations using the redcan package following the steps described in alonso-herrero et al. ( ). finally, we extracted the nuclear spectrum as a point source. to estimate the nuclear unresolved emission from the mid-ir imaging data, we followed the point spread function (psf) scaling technique implemented by ramos almeida et al. ( , b). this unresolved emission is assumed to represent the torus emis- sion (see section . ). to do so, we scaled the observation of the corresponding standard star to the peak of the nuclear emission of the galaxy in each of the two filters. this represents the maximum contribution of the unresolved source ( per cent), whereas the residual of the total emission minus the scaled psf accounts for the extended emission. in both filters, we found that a per cent psf scaling provided a realistic estimate of the extended emission. the estimated errors in the t-recs unresolved flux densities reported in table are and per cent in the si- and qa filters, respec- tively, and account for both the flux calibration and psf subtraction uncertainties (see ramos almeida et al. , for more details). the unresolved . µm emission computed this way is in good agree- ment with the flux density at the same wavelength obtained from the t-recs nuclear spectrum. c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ a. alonso-herrero et al. figure . ir view of the approximate extent of the ilr region of ngc . we show the spitzer/irac images at . , . , . and µm, the spitzer/mips image at µm, the herschel/pacs , and µm images and the herschel/spire image at µm. we mark as filled stars the positions of the brightest mid-ir clusters (m , m , m , m , m ; see the text for more details and also fig. ) detected from the ground by galliano et al. ( ), the position of the agn as a filled dot, and the position of the l hα hotspot from alloin et al. ( ) as a filled square (see table ). orientation is north up, east to the left. the images are shown in a square root intensity scale. . archival spitzer/irac and mips imaging we retrieved from the spitzer archive imaging data of ngc observed with all four irac bands ( . , . , . and µm) and with mips at µm (programme id: , pi: j. mazzarella). these observations were part of the great observatories all-sky lirg survey (goals; see armus et al. ). we retrieved the basic calibrated data (bcd) from the spitzer archive. the bcd processing includes corrections for the instrumental response (pixel response linearization, etc.), flagging of cosmic rays and saturated pixels, dark and flat fielding corrections, and flux calibration based on standard stars. we combined the bcd images into mosaics us- ing the mosaicker and point source extractor (mopex) software provided by the spitzer science center using the standard parame- ters. the final mosaics were repixeled to half of the original pixel size of the images, that is, the irac mosaics have . arcsec/pixel, whereas the mips µm mosaic has . arcsec/pixel. in fig. we show the spitzer images with an fov covering the approximate extent of the ilr region, as done with the pacs images and the spire µm image. the angular resolutions of the irac images are between . and arcsec (fwhm) and that of the mips µm is . arcsec. c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ the activity of ngc in the infrared table . mid- and far-ir aperture photometry of the central region of ngc . instrument λc pixel size fwhm f ν (r = arcsec) f ν (r = arcsec) (µm) (arcsec) (arcsec) (jy) (jy) mips . . . . pacs . . . . pacs . . . . pacs . . . . spire . . . . spire . . . . spire . . – . note. the reported values of the fwhm are the nominal values. the errors in the aperture photometry are dominated by the photometric calibration uncertainty of the instruments that is typically per cent. figure . gemini/t-recs image of the central region of ngc in the qa (λc = . µm) filter. the image has been rotated to the usual orientation of north up, east to the left, and smoothed with a gaussian function. we mark the positions of the agn (filled dot) as well as the mid-ir clusters (star symbols) identified by galliano et al. ( ). table . agn emission. wavelength f ν method (µm) (mjy) . ± imaging (unresolved) . ± spectroscopy . ± imaging (unresolved) + − bc fit + − bc fit + − bc fit < bc fit note. the quoted uncertainties for the bc fit fluxes are the ± σ uncertainties, as discussed in sec- tions . and . . . archival optical ground-based imaging we retrieved from the european southern observatory (eso) archive optical images obtained with the wide field imager in- strument on the mpg/eso . m telescope using the narrow-band halpha/ filter (λc = . å, fwhm = å) obtained as part of proposal .n- (pi: f. bresolin). we combined a total of six images, each of them with a s exposure. the plate scale of the images is . arcsec/pixel. the filter contains the hα and [n ii] emission lines plus adjacent continuum. since we use this image for morphological purposes only, we did not attempt to either subtract the continuum or calibrate it photometrically. the positions of the hα hot spots identified by alloin et al. ( ) in the central region of ngc are displayed in fig. (upper panel). . alignment of the images the alignment of the spitzer/irac and the gemini/t-recs images is straightforward because the agn and the mid-ir clusters detected by galliano et al. ( ) are clearly identified in all these images. the agn is also bright in the optical image and therefore we used it as our reference. in fig. , we present a close-up of the ilr region in the irac µm band and the optical narrow-band hα image. we marked the positions of the bright (designated as m , m and m ) and faint mid-ir (designated as m , m , m and m ) clusters and the nucleus using the relative positions given by galliano et al. ( ). we also indicated the positions of radio sources and hα sources (see section . ). although the spitzer/mips µm image has a poorer angular resolution when compared to that of irac, the agn is still sufficiently bright at µm that can be distinguished from the mid-ir clusters. the alignment of the herschel/pacs images is not as simple because the agn does not appear to be a bright source in the far-ir. we used the astrometry information in the herschel image headers and the optical position of the nucleus of ngc given by sandqvist et al. ( ): ra (j ) = h m .s and dec. (j ) = − ◦ ′ .′′ for the initial alignment. these coordinates placed the agn to the southwest of the bright source detected in the pacs images and in the mips µm image that appears to coincide with the region containing clusters m , m and m . additionally we compared the morphologies of the pacs µm and the mips µm images as they have similar angular resolutions (see table ). we used the mid-ir source located ∼ ′′ n, ′′ e of the agn identified in the irac and mips images and also seen in the pacs and µm images for a finer alignment. this source appears to be coincident with the l h ii region or hα hotspot (see fig. and table ) identified by alloin et al. ( ) and also seen in our archival hα image. the pacs µm image was aligned relative to the other pacs images with the astrometry information in the headers. finally since the bright mid-ir clusters cannot be resolved in the spire µm image, we placed the centre of image at the position of the agn. we note that the alignment of the pacs images in figs and is only good to within pixel in each band. since the main goal of this work is to study the processes giving rise to the c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ a. alonso-herrero et al. figure . close-ups of the inner arcsec × arcsec region showing the location of the agn (filled dot), the mid-ir clusters m ...m (filled star symbols) of galliano et al. ( ), the radio sources (open circles) of sandqvist et al. ( ) and the hα hot spots (filled squares) of alloin et al. ( ) and kristen et al. ( ). the upper panel is the optical eso halpha/ narrow-band image, the middle panel is the irac µm image and the lower panel the pacs µm image. the beam of the images is shown on the lower left-hand corner of each image, approximated as the fwhm of a gaussian function. table . summary of sources in the circumnuclear region. name spectral rel., position ref. range (arcsec), (arcsec) m , l mid-ir, hα − . , − . , m , l mid-ir, hα − . , − . , , m , d mid-ir, radio . , . , m , e, l mid-ir, radio, hα . , . , , m , g mid-ir, radio . , . , m , h mid-ir, radio ∗ , m , l mid-ir, hα ∗ , l hα , l hα , a radio − . , − . the positions are relative to that of the agn and correspond to those of the first listed source. ∗the positions shown in figs and are estimated from the mid-ir images of galliano et al. ( ). references: ( ) galliano et al. ( ); ( ) kristen et al. ( ); ( ) alloin et al. ( ); ( ) sandqvist et al. ( ). ir emission within the ilr region of ngc , in fig. we show the aligned ir images with an fov covering the approximate extent of this region. we do not show the spire and µm images because of the small number of pixels covering the ilr region of ngc . . spitzer/irs spectral mapping we retrieved from the spitzer archive low spectral resolution (r ∼ − ) observations (programme id: , pi: j. gallimore) of ngc obtained with the spectral mapping capability of irs. these observations were part of the spitzer study of the spectral energy distributions (sed) of the µm sample of active galaxies (gallimore et al. ). the observations were obtained with the short-low (sl ; . – . µm and sl ; . – . µm) and long- low (ll ; . – . µm and ll ; . − . µm) modules. the plate scales of the sl and ll modules are . and . arcsec pixel− , respectively. the data were processed using the spitzer irs pipeline. the irs data cubes were assembled using cubism (the cube builder for irs spectra maps; smith et al. a) v . from the individual bcd spectral images obtained from the spitzer archive. cubism also provides error data cubes built by standard error propagation, using, for the input uncertainty, the bcd-level uncertainty estimates produced by the irs pipeline from deviations of the fitted ramp slope fits for each pixel. we used these uncertainties to provide error estimates for the extracted spectra, and the line and continuum maps (see smith et al. a, for full details) discussed in the next two sections. . . extraction of the d spectra we used cubism to extract spectra of regions of interest using small apertures taking advantage of the angular resolution of the spec- tral mapping observations obtained with the sl +sl modules (∼ arcsec fwhm; see pereira-santaella et al. b). we used square or rectangular apertures in the original orientation of the sl data cubes with sizes of two or three pixels (see table for the extraction apertures used for each region). the selected regions include the agn, and the regions containing the m +m , m and m +m mid-ir clusters (see fig. for the positions) identified by galliano et al. ( ). we note that we did not attempt to apply c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ the activity of ngc in the infrared table . measurements from the spitzer/irs sl +sl spectra. region extraction . µm pah feature . µm pah feature [ne ii] . µm ssi pah . pah . aperture (arcsec− ) flux ew flux ew flux g l agn . × . . . . . . − . . . m +m . × . . . . . . − . . . m . × . . . . . . − . . . m +m . × . . . . . . − . . . integrated . × . . . . . . − . . . note. fluxes (observed, not corrected for extinction) are in units of × − erg cm− s− and ew in units of µm for measurements done with gaussian profiles. the typical errors are per cent for the fluxes and . µm for the ew. ssi is the strength of the silicate feature (see section . . for the definition). the ratio of the . µm pah flux to the . µm pah feature flux is given for fits to the features done with gaussians (g) and lorentzian (l) profiles (see section . . for more details). figure . spitzer/irs sl +sl − µm spectra of selected regions (see table ) normalized at µm. the spectrum of the agn has been shifted up for clarity. the most prominent spectral features are marked. a point source correction to the sl . arcsec × . arcsec spec- trum of the agn because we are mostly interested in the extended features, that is, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) fea- tures and the [ne ii] . µm fine structure line. fig. shows the sl +sl spectra of the selected regions normalized at µm. fi- nally we extracted the integrated spectrum of the region covered by the observations, i.e. the central . arcsec × . arcsec. we measured the fluxes and the equivalent widths (ew) of the [ne ii] . µm emission line and the . and . µm pah fea- tures fitting gaussian profiles to the lines and lines to the local continuum. our measurements of the [ne ii] flux for clusters m , m and m are in good agreement with those reported by galliano et al. ( a) from ground-based high angular resolution observa- tions. since the pah features are broad, it has been noted in the literature that gaussian profiles might not be appropriate to mea- sure their flux because a large fraction of the energy in these bands in radiated in the wings. a lorentzian profile might be a better approximation (see galliano et al. b) to measure their flux, and therefore we repeated the line fits with this method. table lists the measurements for the extracted spectra for the gaussian profiles. to illustrate the effect of using different profiles, in this table we give the measured . to . µm pah ratio for the two profiles and the selected regions. . . spectral maps we used cubism to construct spectral maps of the most prominent features in the sl data cubes, namely, the . and . µm pah figure . spitzer/irs observed (not corrected for extinction) spectral maps built with cubism from the sl data cubes. the maps of the . µm pah feature (lower-left), . µm pah feature (upper-right) and [ne ii] . µm (lower-right) are in units of − w m− sr− , and the . µm continuum map (upper-left) in units of mjy sr− . only pixels with relative errors of less than per cent are displayed. the position of the agn (filled dot) was made to coincide with the peak of the . µm continuum emission. the positions of the m ...m mid-ir clusters (filled star symbols) of galliano et al. ( ) are also plotted. orientation is north up, east to the left. the apparently faint . µm pah emission in the region of clusters m , m and m is due to foreground extinction (see also the left-hand panel of fig. , and sections . and . ). features, and the [ne ii] . µm fine structure line. the technique used here was very similar to that of alonso-herrero et al. ( ) and involves integrating the line flux over the user-defined emis- sion line regions. note that unlike the line measurements in the previous section, the features are not actually fitted with gaussian or lorentzian profiles, and therefore these maps are only used for morphological purposes. since cubism does not fit or deblend emis- sion lines, the sl [ne ii] . µm map includes some contribution from the . µm pah feature. we also built a continuum map at . µm. the spitzer/irs sl spectral maps shown in fig. were trimmed and rotated to the usual orientation of north up, east to the c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ a. alonso-herrero et al. figure . spitzer/irs spectral maps of the strength of the silicate feature ssi (left-hand panel) and the observed (not corrected for extinction) ratio of the . to the . µm pah feature emission (right-hand panel). negative values of ssi indicate that the feature is observed in absorption. orientation is north up, east to the left. symbols are as in fig. . left. we used the associated uncertainty maps produced by cubism to compute the relative errors of the spectral maps. finally we constructed the map of the silicate feature, which is shown in fig. , following the technique of pereira-santaella et al. ( b). briefly, it involves fitting the silicate feature from d spectra extracted in pixel × pixel boxes from the irs sl data cubes. the map is then constructed by moving by pixel in the x and y directions until the fov of the irs sl data cubes is completely covered. we measured the apparent strength of the silicate feature in the irs spectra following spoon et al. ( ): ssi = ln f ν (obs)/f ν (cont), where f ν (obs) is the flux density at the feature and f ν (cont) is the flux density of the underlying continuum. the latter was fitted as a power law between . and µm. we evaluated the strength of the silicate feature at µm. when the silicate strength is negative, the silicate feature is in absorption, whereas a positive silicate strength indicates that the feature is seen in emission. the uncertainties of the measured strengths in the spectral map and the extracted d spectra of the previous section are ± . . ag n i r e m i s s i o n a number of works have studied in detail the mid-ir emission of the agn hosted by ngc using high angular resolution obser- vations, including imaging, spectroscopy and interferometry. our t-recs nuclear (∼ . arcsec) mid-ir spectrum of ngc (see fig. ) is an almost featureless continuum with no clear evidence of the presence of the . µm silicate feature or pah features (see also siebenmorgen, krügel & spoon ; tristram et al. ). by contrast, the spectrum integrated over several arcseconds is rich in spectral features related to star formation activity, such as pah features and the [ne ii] line (see fig. ). tristram et al. ( ) mod- elled mid-ir interferometric observations of the nuclear region and derived a size (diameter) of . – . pc for the µm emitter. up until now, there has been no estimates of the far-ir emission arising from the agn of ngc , and thus the main goal of this section is to provide such an estimate. on scales of a few arcseconds, the agn of ngc is sur- rounded by a number of mid-ir bright clusters and extended and diffuse emission (see figs and , and section ). moreover, in the far-ir, agn emission becomes less luminous for increasing wave- lengths when compared to that of the clusters (see fig. ). this together with the limited angular resolution of the pacs images (i.e. the best angular resolution is fwhm ∼ . arcsec at µm) prevents us from doing aperture photometry on the pacs images to figure . best fit to the nuclear sed (blue dots) and mid-ir spectroscopy (blue line) of ngc (map and median fits are the solid and dotted lines, respectively) using the clumpy torus models (including an agn component). the shaded region represents the range of acceptable models with a per cent confidence level. the inset shows the spectral region around the . µm silicate feature. table . parameters of the clumpy torus models. parameter interval torus radial thickness y [ , ] torus angular width σ torus (deg) [ , ] number clouds along an equatorial ray n [ , ] index of the radial density profile q [ , ] viewing angle i (deg) [ , ] optical depth per single cloud τ v [ , ] derive the far-ir flux densities of the agn. instead, in this section, we estimate the agn emission by both fitting the nuclear near- and mid-ir sed with torus models and doing a spectral decomposition of the spitzer/irs nuclear spectrum. . fit to the nuclear sed and mid-ir spectrum using clumpy torus models clumpy torus models (e.g. hönig et al. ; schartmann et al. ) and in particular the nenkova et al. ( a,b) models (also known as clumpy models) have been shown to fit well the near and mid-ir seds and spectroscopy of seyfert galaxies (mason et al. ; nikutta, elitzur & lacy ; ramos almeida et al. , b; alonso-herrero et al. ; sales et al. ; lira et al. ). the clumpy torus models are described by six parameters to account for the torus geometry and the properties of the dusty clouds (see table ). the geometry of the torus is defined with the torus radial thickness y , which is the ratio between the outer and inner radii of the torus y = ro/rd, and the width of the angular distribution of the clouds σ torus, that is, the angular size of the torus the inner radius of the torus in these models is set by the dust sublimation temperature, which is assumed to be t sub ∼ k, and the agn bolo- metric luminosity lbol(agn). then, the dust sublimation radius in pc is rd = . lbol(agn) . , where the agn bolometric luminosity is in units of erg s− . c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ the activity of ngc in the infrared as measured from its equator. the clouds have an optical depth τ v and are arranged with a radial distribution expressed as a declining power law with index q (∝ rq), with n giving the mean number of clouds along a radial equatorial ray. the last parameter is the viewing angle to the torus i. we refer the reader to the sketch of the clumpy model geometry in fig. of nenkova et al. ( a). we updated the fit of ramos almeida et al. ( b) with two main differences. first, we used the higher angular resolution mid-ir unresolved flux densities inferred in section . and also included the t-recs mid-ir spectrum for the fit. secondly, this galaxy is classified as a seyfert . (it shows a broad component in hβ; schulz et al. ) and therefore there is an unobscured view to the agn. to account for it, we added an agn component to the resulting torus model (see below) and allowed for a small amount of foreground extinction (av < mag; see alloin et al. ), to redden the fitted models. we also included in the nuclear sed the hst/nicmos . µm unresolved flux (carollo et al. ). similarly to our previous work (alonso-herrero et al. ; ramos almeida et al. b), we took a bayesian approach to both fit the torus models to the data and derive meaningful con- fidence levels for the fitted parameters. to this end, we used the bayesclumpy (bc) fitting routine, an interpolated version of the clumpy models (asensio ramos & ramos almeida ). the new version of bc allows us to fit both photometric points and spectra. for the modelling, we used the whole range of parameters probed by the clumpy models. we list them in table . unlike in some of our previous work, here we allowed for the torus extent to vary in the range y = – , instead of restricting the models to small tori. this is because larger tori may be required to reproduce the far-ir emission of agn (ramos almeida et al. a). in addition to the six torus model parameters to be fitted plus the foreground extinction, there is an extra parameter to account for the vertical displacement needed to match the fluxes of a given model to the ob- servations. this vertical shift, which we allow to vary freely, scales with the agn bolometric luminosity (see nenkova et al. b). we assumed uniform distributions in the ranges given in table for the prior distributions of the torus model parameters. the bc fitting routine translates the probability distributions of the fitted torus model parameters into two model spectra. the first corresponds to the maximum a posteriori (map) values that rep- resent the best fit to the data, while the second is the model pro- duced with the median value of the probability distribution of each parameter. fig. shows the best fit to the nuclear near- and mid- ir sed and the mid-ir spectrum of the ngc agn. we also plot in this figure the range of acceptable torus models at the per cent confidence level. as can be seen from this figure, the fit to the photometric and spectroscopic data is very good. specifically, the clumpy models reproduce well the flat silicate feature at around . µm (see nenkova et al. b, their figs and ). we can now compare the inferred torus model parameters with observations. we start with the agn bolometric luminosity. as explained above, we chose to keep the scaling of the torus mod- els to the observations as a free parameter. because the scaling is proportional to the agn bolometric luminosity, when compared with the observations it provides information about the goodness of the fit (see alonso-herrero et al. , for more details). the derived agn bolometric luminosity from our fit is lbol(agn) = . ± . × erg s− . risaliti et al. ( ) inferred a − kev luminosity in the range . − . × erg s− (corrected for the assumed distance in this work). our derived agn bolometric lu- minosity is consistent with the values from x-rays after applying a bolometric correction. we can also compare the torus radius ro = + . − pc and torus angular width σtorus = + − deg from the modelling with obser- vations. the width of the angular distribution of the clouds in the torus is related to the opening angle of the ionization cones, with some dependence on the geometry of the gas (see the discus- sion in alonso-herrero et al. ). the half opening angle of the ngc ionization cone modelled by lindblad ( ) is 	cone = ◦ (measured from the pole), which is compatible with the derived angular size of the torus. the size (diameter) of the µm emitting source inferred from the modelling of the mid-ir interferometric observations of this galaxy is s µm = . − . pc (tristram et al. ). we note that the size of the µm emitting source, which traces the warm dust within the torus, is expected to be smaller than the true size of the torus. this is because the µm emission is rather insensitive to cooler material further from the nucleus (see the discussion in alonso-herrero et al. ). given the good agree- ment with the observations, we conclude that the fitted torus model provides a good representation of the agn torus emission. . agn torus emission in the far-ir to estimate the agn far-ir flux density in the pacs bands, we extrapolated the fitted torus model beyond ∼ µm. as can be seen from fig. , the torus model flux density peaks at – µm and falls off rapidly at longer wavelengths. this is similar to the results for other agn (see e.g. mullaney et al. ). in table , we list the extrapolated agn far-ir flux densities together with those in the mid-ir from the t-recs imaging and spectroscopy. the ranges given in this table for the far-ir fluxes from the bc fit of the ngc take into account the ± σ confidence region of the fitted clumpy torus models. a quick comparison between the extrapolated agn far-ir fluxes and the aperture photometry of the central regions (table ) clearly shows that the agn contribution at these wavelengths is small and decreases for increasing wavelengths. within the central . kpc (r = arcsec), the agn is predicted to contribute per cent (+ per cent, − per cent) of the total µm emission. at µm, the agn accounts for at most per cent of the emission in the same region and less than per cent at and µm. using the flux densities measured for r = arcsec and the following equation from dale & helou ( ): l − µm = . νlν ( µm) + . νlν ( µm) + . νlν ( µm), ( ) we estimate a – µm luminosity within the ilr region of ∼ × l�. the ratio between the agn bolometric luminosity and the ir luminosity of this region is then . ± . . this is in good agreement with findings for the majority of lirgs hosting an agn (alonso-herrero et al. ). s pat i a l ly r e s o lv e d i r e m i s s i o n i n t h e i l r r e g i o n . morphology the central region of ngc is a bright source of mid- and far-ir emission (see e.g. telesco et al. ; galliano et al. ; wiebe et al. ), although its contribution to the integrated emission of the galaxy decreases significantly at longer wavelengths. the mid-ir morphology, especially in the irac . and µm and in the t-recs images, resembles that of a circumnuclear ring of star c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ a. alonso-herrero et al. formation with a diameter of approximately . kpc (see figs and ). the agn and the bright mid-ir clusters m , m and m identified (see table ) by galliano et al. ( ) out to λ ∼ µm are also clearly identified in the gemini/t-recs image at . µm (see fig. ). the region to the southwest of the agn is more diffuse and similar to the hα morphology (see fig. , upper panel). we do not, however, identify any bright compact sources there. this diffuse emission is reminiscent of the optical morphology of the region containing superstar clusters ssc and ssc along with a number of less luminous optical clusters (kristen et al. ; lindblad ). in the spitzer/mips µm image, the emission from the agn is still differentiated from that of the mid-ir clusters, although the latter are not resolved individually because of the decreased angular resolution. the herschel observations of ngc show that the far-ir agn emission becomes faint when compared to that of the clusters. this is not only because the clusters in the central region of ngc are still intrinsically bright in the far-ir, but also because in general the agn emission is observed to fall steeply in the far-ir (see e.g. netzer et al. ; mullaney et al. , and ref- erences therein). moreover, in general, the far-ir emission of agn appears to be dominated by a starburst component (hatziminaoglou et al. ). it is also apparent from fig. that the group of clusters m ...m are brighter than the group of m and m in the far-ir, as is also the case in the mid-ir. this implies, as will be discussed further in section . , that the obscured star formation rate (sfr) is higher in the former group than in the latter. moreover, the morphol- ogy of the sfr tracers (e.g. the , and µm emissions) is similar to that of the molecular gas, especially that of the rare c o(j = − ) isotope (sakamoto et al. ), where a ‘twin-peak’ mor- phology is observed. such molecular gas twin peaks are observed in barred galaxies (kenney et al. ) and are formed where dust lanes intersect nuclear rings of star formation, as is the case of ngc . we can also compare the ir morphology, in particular at , and µm, of the ilr region with that of hα. since all these emissions probe the sfr in galaxies (kennicutt ; alonso-herrero et al. ; calzetti et al. ; kennicutt et al. ; rieke et al. ; li et al. ), a good morphological correspondence on scales of hundreds of parsecs is expected. fig. indeed shows that the hα hot spots in the ilr region (table , and also alloin et al. ; kristen et al. ) are clearly associated with ir emitting regions (compare with the irac µm image as it has the best angular resolution). this seems to be the case out to λ = µm. at longer wavelengths, the decreased angular resolution of the herschel images does not allow us to compare the morphologies. the opposite is not necessary true because the hα emission is strongly affected by extinction caused by the prominent dust lane crossing the ilr region. mid-ir clusters m and m appear to be detected in the hα image, but they are very faint. this is because they are in one of the regions with the highest extinction, as we will see in more detail in section . . the spitzer/irs map of the [ne ii] . µm emission covering the central . kpc of ngc is shown in fig. . this emission line is a good tracer of the current sfr because its luminosity is proportional to the number of ionizing photons (roche et al. ; ho & keto ). the [ne ii] emission appears as a partial ring and it is enhanced in the mid-ir clusters. its morphology is similar to note that the hα+[n ii] image shown in fig. has not been continuum subtracted, and thus we restrict our discussion to the hα bright hot spots identified by other works (e.g. alloin et al. ; kristen et al. ). the pacs µm morphology and the co ‘twin peaks’ discussed by sakamoto et al. ( ). the agn of ngc , on the other hand, is not a bright [ne ii] . µm source, as found for other active galaxies (see e.g. pereira-santaella et al. a). analogously to other sfr indicators, namely the and µm emissions, the region to the northeast of the agn (clusters m , m and m ) is brighter in [ne ii] than the region of clusters m and m . the regions containing these bright mid-ir clusters account for approximately − per cent of the total [ne ii] . µm emission in the central . kpc (see table ). note, however, that the emission from the clusters is unresolved at the spitzer/irs sl angular resolution and we did not apply a correction for unresolved emission. therefore, this contribution from the clusters should be taken as a lower limit. fig. also shows the maps of the . and the . µm pah fea- tures. both features probe mostly the emission from b stars rather than that from massive ongoing star formation (o stars; see peeters, spoon & tielens ). the . µm pah morphology is very sim- ilar to [ne ii], whereas the . µm pah map appears to have a deficit of emission in the region to the northeast of the agn. the map of the ratio between these two features is in fig. . although several works found variations in the pah ratios of galaxies not ex- plained by changes in the extinction (see e.g. galliano et al. a; pereira-santaella et al. b), in the case of the central region of ngc it might be entirely due to extinction. the . to . µm pah ratio is strongly increased in the region enclosing clusters m , m and m , which is also the region suffering the highest extinc- tion (see section . and fig. ). since the relative absorption at . µm is higher than at . µm (see e.g. table in brandl et al. ), correcting the . µm pah map for extinction would pro- duce a morphology similar to that of the . µm pah map. the measured ew and pah ratios of the regions not affected by strong extinction are similar to those measured in other starburst galaxies (see e.g. brandl et al. ; spoon et al. ; sales et al. ). we conclude that the star formation activity inside the ilr region of ngc has been taking place for at least a few tens of million years, as the pah features trace the emission from b stars (peeters et al. ), and is taken place currently because of the bright [ne ii] . µm emission requires the presence of young ionizing stars. . extinction: silicate feature the circumnuclear region of ngc is crossed by a promi- nent dust lane entering the ring (see lindblad , and references therein, and also figs and ). this dust lane is still apparent in the shortest wavelength irac bands and can be seen passing between clusters m and m at . µm (see fig. ). the brightest mid-ir clusters m , m and m are located at the edge of the dust features where the bar dust lane enters the ilr region to the northeast of the agn (elmegreen et al. , and also figs and ). mid-ir clus- ters m and m to the southwest of the nucleus are in a region less affected by extinction and are likely to be associated with optical super-star clusters and optically detected h ii regions (kristen et al. ; sakamoto et al. ). the broad feature at ∼ µm is believed to be produced by amor- phous silicate grains and in normal star-forming galaxies is observed in mild absorption (roche et al. ; smith et al. b). in the simplest dust geometry of a purely absorbing foreground screen, the observed apparent depth of this feature is proportional to the optical extinction. the general variation of the obscuration inside the ilr region of ngc revealed by the optical imaging can be traced with the spectral map of the silicate feature. as can be seen from fig. , the apparent strength of the silicate feature is high (in c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ the activity of ngc in the infrared absorption) in the region encompassing clusters m , m and m to the northeast of the agn, almost zero at the location of the agn, and intermediate (also in absorption) around clusters m and m . in table , we list the strength of the silicate feature measured in the sl d spectra of selected regions. assuming a foreground screen of dust and adopting the rieke & lebofsky ( ) extinction law (av /ssi = . ), the observed apparent depths of the star-forming regions in the circumnuclear region of ngc imply values of the visual extinction of between av ∼ ± mag and av ∼ ± mag for the regions of clusters m +m , and m +m +m , respectively. the high value of the extinction derived for the latter region is entirely consistent with the values derived by galliano et al. ( a) for the individual clusters using hydrogen recombination lines. our value of the extinction in the region containing m and m is higher than the optical estimate for the l and l h ii regions from kristen et al. ( ). the apparent strength of the silicate feature of the agn measured from the spitzer/irs sl spectrum is ssi = − . ± . (table ) indicating that the feature is present slightly in absorption. this value, however, is contaminated by extended emission as is apparent from the µm image (see fig. ) and the presence of pah features in the irs nuclear spectrum (fig. ). indeed, the gemini/t-recs high angular resolution spectrum of the agn is mostly a featureless continuum with no evidence of pah feature emission (fig. ). finally, the relatively moderate strength of the silicate feature of the integrated ∼ arcsec ∼ . kpc central region (ssi = − . ± . , table ) of ngc is typical of the observed nuclear silicate strengths measured in other lirgs (pereira-santaella et al. b; alonso-herrero et al. ) and indicates an average visual extinction in this region of av ∼ ± mag. . dust colour temperatures the herschel images can be used to trace the spatial variations of the temperature of the dust inside the ilr region of ngc . if we assume that the far-ir emission of a galaxy can be approxi- mated with a modified blackbody, then in the case of optically thin emission the flux density can be expressed as fν ∝ νβ b(ν, tdust), ( ) where b(ν, t dust) is the blackbody function for a dust temperature of t dust and β is the dust emissivity. in the simplest approximation, we can calculate the colour temperature t c of the dust using the ratio of the surface brightness at two wavelengths with the following equation expressed in terms of wavelengths: fν (λ ) fν (λ ) = ( λ λ ) +β ( ehc/λ ktc − ehc/λ ktc − ) . ( ) we chose to construct a map of the pacs µm to the pacs µm ratio as these two wavelengths provide the best angular resolutions with herschel. we rebinned the pacs µm image to the pixel size of the pacs µm image. we matched the psf of the two images by smoothing the µm with a gaussian function, although this may introduce some artefacts (see e.g. bendo et al. , ). we then calculated the dust colour temperature by solving equation ( ). we fixed the value of the dust emissivity β = , as is found to fit well the integrated seds of lirgs (dunne & eales ). the – µm ir luminosity of this galaxy is log (lir/l�) = . using the iras flux densities from sanders et al. ( ). figure . the colour map is the herschel/pacs µm to herschel/pacs µm ratio. the displayed range corresponds to dust temperatures of ap- proximately between k (high value of the ratio) and k (low value of the ratio). the contours are those of the pacs µm image in a square root intensity scale as in fig. . the fov and symbols are also as in fig. . the map of the pacs µm to µm ratio of the in- ner ∼ arcsec is shown in fig . the observed range of fν ( µm)/fν ( µm) in the central region translates into values of the dust colour temperature of between tc( µm/ µm) ∼ k and tc( µm/ µm) ∼ k. within the ilr region of ngc , the highest tc( µm/ µm) colour temperatures correspond to regions actively forming stars, that is, the regions containing the mid-ir star clusters and the l hα hotspot. these bright star-forming regions have colour temperatures similar to, al- though slightly higher than, those of h ii regions in the spiral arms. the regions with the coldest tc( / µm) in the ilr region might be associated with some of the foreground dust features seen in the optical images (see fig. ). finally, the region of the agn does not appear different in terms of the colour temperature when com- pared to the bright star-forming regions. this is probably because the agn is faint in the far-ir (see the next section) coupled with the relatively coarse angular resolution of this map (i.e. that of the pacs µm). . dust properties in this section, we study the properties of the dust in the ilr re- gion of ngc , particularly the dust heated by processes other than the agn. to do so, we first subtracted the agn emission (see table ) from the observed fluxes in the spitzer/mips µm band and all the herschel bands. we then fitted the observed non-agn mid- and far-ir sed using a combination of two modified black- bodies following dunne & eales ( ) and clements, dunne & eales ( ): fν = nwνβ b(ν, tw) + ncνβ b(ν, tc), ( ) where nw and nc are the relative masses of the warm and cold dust components and t c and t w are their temperatures. as done in section . , we fixed the dust emissivity β = and then used a standard χ minimization technique to fit the two dust temperatures and the relative masses of the two dust components. for the fit, we used the fluxes measured through an r = arcsec aperture, and c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ a. alonso-herrero et al. figure . best fit (solid line) to the agn-subtracted sed of the ir emis- sion in the ilr region of ngc (r = arcsec, filled dots). the best fit was achieved using two modified blackbodies with temperatures t c = k and t w = k (dashed lines). the dotted lines are fits done by varying t c by ± k, and keeping the temperature of the warm dust fixed. normalized them to that at µm. for the spitzer/mips µm flux density, we added in quadrature the photometric error and the uncertainty associated with subtracting the agn component at this wavelength to a total error budget of ∼ per cent. for the herschel data points because the agn emission in the far-ir is very small compared to the total emission inside the ilr region, the dominant source of error is that associated with the photometric calibration of the data: ∼ per cent. fig. shows the best fit to the agn-subtracted sed of the ilr region of ngc , which was obtained with t c = k and t w = k, and relative masses of cold to warm dust of nc/nw ∼ . it is worth noting that the fit using two modified blackbodies is formally better than a fit to the far-ir data (i.e. excluding the µm data point) using a single modified blackbody. this can be explained because there is a non-negligible contribution from the warm dust component to the herschel pacs µm flux density, as found for the integrated emission of other nearby galaxies (see, e.g., bendo et al. ; smith et al. ). however, the temperature of the warm component is not tightly constrained since varying the warm dust temperature by as much as ± k produces statistically similar good fits (χ ≤ χ min). this is because the peak of this component at around µm is not well sampled with the present data and the mass contribution of the warm component is small. the temperature of the cold component, on the other hand is well constrained. to get an estimate of the uncertainties on the fitted cold dust temperature, we changed it while fixing the temperature of the warm component. as can be seen from fig. , cold dust temperatures in the range t c = ± k provide acceptable fits to the sed. previous works showed that the integrated mid-ir and far-ir seds of seyfert galaxies could be fitted with a combination of vari- ous dust temperatures probing different heating mechanisms. these include warm dust associated with the agn torus, cold dust similar to that observed in starburst galaxies and very cold dust at tem- peratures characteristic of dust heated by the interstellar medium (pérez garcı́a & rodrı́guez espinosa ; spinoglio, andreani & malkan ). with the superior angular resolution of the herschel observatory, we can now obtain spatially resolved observations of nearby seyfert galaxies and star-forming galaxies. the dust tem- perature of the ring of star formation in ngc is similar to that of other nuclear and circumnuclear starbursts with or without an agn with similar ir luminosities and physical sizes, for instance, the ring of ngc (ramos almeida et al. a) and the nu- clear region of m (foyle et al. ). on the other hand, the dust of mrk , which is part of our survey of seyfert galaxies, has a considerably higher dust temperature of t = ± k, probably due to the smaller size of the ir-emitting region of this galaxy and higher ir luminosity (esquej et al. ). we calculated the dust mass (mdust) within the ilr region of ngc using the following equation from clements et al. ( ) (adapted from hildebrand ): mdust = fν d κdust(ν) × ( nc b(ν, tc) + nw b(ν, tw) ) , ( ) where f ν is the observed flux density, d is the luminosity distance, b(ν, t ) is the blackbody emission for the best-fitting dust tem- peratures, and κ d(ν) is the dust absorption coefficient. as done by esquej et al. ( ), we evaluated this expression at µm using an absorption coefficient of κdust( µm) = . cm g− , as inter- polated from the dust model of li & draine ( ). we derived a dust mass in the ilr region of mdust(ilr) = . × m�, which accounts for approximately per cent of the total dust mass of this galaxy mdust(total) = × m�. the latter estimate is from wiebe et al. ( ) but recalculated for the absorption coefficient used in this work. . star formation rate the ages and masses of the mid-ir clusters (∼ – myr and ∼ m�, galliano et al. a) and the large amount of molec- ular gas available in the central regions of this galaxy (sakamoto et al. ) indicate that there is intense ongoing star formation activity there. we can use the ir observations of ngc to esti- mate the obscured sfr in the ilr region, and compare it with the unobscured sfr. as discussed by kennicutt et al. ( ), a combi- nation of the observed (not corrected for extinction) hα luminosity and a mid-ir monochromatic luminosity (preferably µm) will provide the best estimate of the total sfr in a moderately obscured environment (see section . ), such as the ilr region of ngc . we note that this empirically calibrated recipe includes contribu- tions from dust heating from all stars and not only the youngest (see kennicutt et al. , for a full discussion). using the hα flux of förster schreiber et al. ( ) for a -arcsec-diameter aper- ture and our µm flux (after subtracting the agn component), we estimated a total sfr within the ilr region (inner ∼ . kpc, r = arcsec) of ngc of sfr = . m� yr− for a salpeter initial mass function (imf). approximately per cent of this sfr is contributed by the µm emission, and thus it originates from dust-obscured star-forming regions. most of the ir emission in the ilr region comes from the star formation ring containing the bright mid-ir clusters identified by galliano et al. ( ). indeed, we estimate that within the inner . kpc, the total sfr is . m� yr− . this has been calculated using the agn-subtracted µm flux density (r = arcsec) and the -arcsec-diameter aperture hα flux from förster schreiber et al. ( ). this corresponds to a sfr surface density in the ring of �sfr = . m� yr− kpc− , for a ring radius of pc. this value of the sfr density is similar to those of other circumnuclear starbursts (kennicutt ) and is expected to be larger by factors of − compared to the disc of the galaxy (elmegreen ). c© the authors, mnras , – monthly notices of the royal astronomical society c© ras at c s ic on d ecem ber , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ the activity of ngc in the infrared s u m m a r y a n d c o n c l u s i o n s in this paper, we have studied the ir emission associated with the star formation activity in the ilr region of ngc , as well as the ir emission of the agn. to this end, we have analysed new far-ir ( – µm) herschel/pacs and spire imaging, and high angular resolution (∼ . arcsec) gemini/t-recs mid-ir imaging and spectroscopy of this galaxy. we have also made use of archival spitzer/irac and mips imaging and irs spectral mapping data. our main findings for the inner d ∼ kpc region of ngc are as follows. (i) the new herschel pacs imaging data at , and µm reveal that the ring of star formation in the ilr region is bright in the far-ir. the agn is the brightest mid-ir source in the inner kpc up to λ µm, but it becomes increasingly fainter in the far-ir when compared with the mid-ir clusters or groups of them in the ring. (ii) the and µm emissions as well as the [ne ii] . µm line and pah features trace the star-forming ring in the ilr region and have morphologies similar to the co ‘twin peaks’. this all indicates that there is intense ongoing star formation taking place in the inner few kpc of ngc . (iii) the unresolved near- and mid-ir nuclear emission and mid- ir spectrum (i.e. agn-dominated emission) of ngc are well reproduced with a relatively compact torus (outer radius of ro = + . − pc) with an opening angle of σtorus = + − deg, and an agn bolometric luminosity lbol(agn) = . ± . × erg s− using the clumpy torus models. these parameters are in good agreement with independent estimates in the literature. (iv) using the fitted torus model, we quantified the agn emis- sion in the far-ir. the agn only contributes at most per cent of the µm emission within the inner . kpc (r = arcsec), and less than per cent at longer wavelengths. at µm, the agn accounts for ∼ per cent of the emission in the same region. we estimated that the agn bolometric contribution to the – µm luminosity in the inner . kpc is approximately per cent. (v) the non-agn – µm sed of the ilr region (inner . kpc) of ngc is well fitted with a combination of two modified blackbodies with warm and cold temperatures of and k, respectively. however, the cold dust component accounts for most of total dust mass inferred in this region (mdust(ilr) = × m�) and has a temperature similar to that of other nuclear and circumnuclear starbursts of similar sizes and ir luminosities. (vi) from the comparison between the sfr from hα (unob- scured) and the sfr from µm (obscured), we infer that up to ∼ per cent of the ongoing sfr inside the ilr region of ngc is taking place in dust-obscured regions in the ring of star formation. ac k n o w l e d g m e n t s we are grateful to b. elmegreen and e. galliano for providing us with the bvr map of ngc shown in the right-hand panel of fig. . we also thank andrés asensio ramos for developing the bayesclumpy fitting routine. we thank an anonymous referee for comments that helped improve the paper. aa-h, mp-s and pe acknowledge support from the spanish plan nacional de astronomı́a y astrofı́sica under grant aya - -e. aa-h also acknowledges support from the universidad de cantabria through the augusto gonzález linares programme and aya - -c - . cra acknowledges the spanish ministry of science and innovation (micinn) through project consolider- ingenio program grant csd - : first science with the gtc (http://www.iac.es/consolider-ingenio-gtc/) and the span- ish plan nacional grant aya - -c . . mp acknowl- edges the junta de andalucı́a and the spanish ministry of science and innovation through projects po -tic- and aya - , respectively. herschel is an esa space observatory with science instruments provided by european-led principal investigator consortia and with important participation from nasa. pacs has been developed by a consortium of institutes led by mpe (germany) and including uvie (austria); ku leuven, csl, imec (belgium); cea, lam (france); mpia (germany); inaf-ifsi/oaa/oap/oat, lens, sissa (italy); iac (spain). this development has been supported by the funding agencies bmvit (austria), esa-prodex (bel- gium), cea/cnes (france), dlr (germany), asi/inaf (italy) and cicyt/mcyt (spain). spire has been developed by a con- sortium of institutes led by cardiff univ. (uk) and including univ. lethbridge (canada); naoc (china); cea, lam (france); ifsi, univ. padua (italy); iac (spain); stockholm observatory (swe- den); imperial college london, ral, ucl-mssl, ukatc, univ. sussex (uk); and caltech, jpl, nhsc, univ. colorado (usa). this development has been supported by national funding agencies: csa (canada); naoc (china); cea, cnes, cnrs (france); asi (italy); mcinn (spain); snsb (sweden); stfc, uksa (uk); and nasa (usa). based on observations obtained at the gemini observatory, which is operated by the association of universities for research in as- tronomy, inc., under a cooperative agreement with the nsf on behalf of the gemini partnership: the national science foundation (usa), the science and technology facilities council (uk), the national research council (canada), conicyt (chile), the aus- tralian research council (australia), ministério da ciéncia, tec- nologia e inovação (brazil) and ministerio de ciencia, tecnologı́a e innovación productiva 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"a enfermeira — sabes o que é medo? o hierofante — É o sentimento inaugural" (oswald de andrade — a morta, .° quadro) alguns t ê m a volúpia e a coragem do zero, do de onde se começa. pau brasil, primeiro caderno do aluno de poesia oswald de andrade, marco zero. são os criadores originais, radicais, de uma linguagem nova, i r r e v e r s í v e l aos termos de u m regime anterior, ininteligível mesmo em meio a uma l i n - guagem p r é - e x i s t e n t e j á estratificada em código. por isso mesmo que exige uma nova meta-linguagem crítica mais adequada à sua análise e a p r e e n s ã o . quando o setor é o da literatura, e o país, brasil; e quando o poeta-inventor se en- coraja a t é à audaciosa e surpreendente veleidade de pensar, propondo projetos gerais de criação e cultura, é quase certo que venha a ser isolado como u m corpo estranho ou u m en- clave exótico, que o organismo procura ignorar para poder suportar. e' o caso de j o s é oswald de sousa andrade. É o caso do seu h o m ô n i m o do século passado, joaquim de s o u s â n d r a d e , "exótico", i . é, internacional, abstruso demais para o bom an- damento evolutivo de nossa h i s t ó r i a l i t e r á r i a — e, pois, sim- plesmente excluído dela, como u m intruso a que o tempo, mecanicamente, se encarregou de fazer justiça, anulando-o. . língua, linguagem; evolução, revolução normalmente, e insensivelmente, a crítica costuma ana- lisar a obra l i t e r á r i a segundo o parti pris da l í n g u a . e assim, o maior elogio que se pode fazer a u m autor se refere ao seu domínio da língua, tal como nietszche elogiava heine (e se — — elogiava). deste ponto de vista, a obra de oswald de andra- de é tachada de " f r a g m e n t á r i a " , "desigual". t a m b é m assim são estudados os influxos, as s e m e l h a n ç a s , os paralelismos en- tre obras de dois ou mais escritores — o que pode conduzir a rompantes definitivos e bizarros, como o que me manifes- tou, h á alguns anos, o folclorista alceu maynard de a r a ú j o (e não sem certo desdém) "oswald está em j u ó bananerei" ( ) . a graça da tirada é que ela poderia ser oswaldiana... não que a abordagem dentro dessa faixa seja de somenos — espe- cialmente quando o estudioso se chama haroldo de campos ou antônio c â n d i d o . o preciso cotejo de certos aspectos das obras de oswald e mário de andrade, por exemplo, efetuado por haroldo de campos ( ) põe em relevo s e m e l h a n ç a s evi- dentemente menos casuais do que os sobrenomes dos estuda- dos. e aí está: semelhanças, isto é, r e d u n d â n c i a s de dicção e mesmo de processos j á catalogados ou tradicionais (a paródia, por exemplo). mas só o enfoque do ponto de vista da lingua- gem pode detectar as diferenças reais, objetivas — as dife- r e n ç a s que, no caso, estabelecem a informação nova, a o r i g i - nalidade de oswald de andrade. em verdade, essa dualida- de de enfoque é mais, bem mais, do que uma comodidade ana- lítica: resulta necessariamente de uma profunda contradição gerada no bojo da arte c o n t e m p o r â n e a , em função da revo- lução industrial — mas não é o momento de nos determos neste tópico. observe-se, apenas, que a linha que se pode t r a ç a r entre macunaíma e grande sertão: veredas, por exem- plo, é uma linha evolutiva que penetra sem maiores tropeços na "literatura", isto é, no sistema estante de incorporação e tradição l i t e r á r i a s . mas a linha que vai da poesia de oswald de andrade, de seus manifestos e das memórias sentimentais de joão miramar à poesia concreta, é uma linha revolucioná- ( ) — pseudônimo de alexandre marcondes — "eu iniciara em dialeto ítalo- paulista as "cartas d'abaxo piques" que encontraram um sucessor em juó bananere" — oswald de andrade, um homem sem profissão — memórias e confissões — vol. , sob as ordens de mamãe — livraria josé olympio editora, , pág. . ( ) — miramar e macunaíma — supl. lit. "o estado de s. paulo", - e - - . — — ria, anti-"literatura". a primeira está do lado da l í n g u a ; a segunda, da linguagem. as a u t ê n t i c a s vanguardas a r t í s t i c a s c o n t e m p o r â n e a s t ê m - se caracterizado por sua "anti-arte", desde o "rien ou pres- que nu art", de m a l l a r m é , passando pelo movimento dada e por oswald de andrade, a t é à poesia concreta, o atual mo- vimento da pop art norte-americana (setor das artes visuais) e o desenho industrial (forma do produto). paulo prado, pre- faciando os poemas pau-brasil, chegou a p e r c e b ê - l o : " a poesia "pau-brasil"' é o ôvo de colombo ( ) . deus nos l i v r e ( ) de todos os "ismos"? parasitas das idéias novas, e sobretudo das duas inimigas do verdadeiro sentimento p o é - tico — a literatura e a filosofia" . É s t e ser anti-arte está intimamente vinculado ao estabe- lecimento de uma linguagem, de um projeto geral — ou de um roteiro, para utilizar u m termo oswaldiano. envolve, em ú l t i m a instância, um problema de comunicação, e de comu- nicação com a massa por via imediata e direta; em oposição, portanto, ao sistema vigente de a d m i n i s t r a ç ã o da cultura (com- plexo editorial, ensino, museus, exposições, concertos e t c ) , que é de natureza consumista, impondo os ditames de seus interesses às fontes de criação a r t í s t i c a . o quixotismo, em to- da vanguarda genuína, é um risco — se o fôr — n e c e s s á r i o . . . e a l i m e n t í c i o . . marginalização pelo realismo: o poeta iminente oswald de andrade, antropófago p r a g m á t i c o e internacio- nal, nada tem a ver com o suposto problema de forjar uma "língua brasileira" — p r e o c u p a ç ã o de m á r i o de andrade e ou- tros. Ê l e não utiliza a falação altissonante (machado penum- bra) ou os malapropismos (minão da silva), ou os documen- tos dos primeiros cronistas como "recursos" para efeitos lite- r á r i o s — mas simplesmente os utiliza e/ou transcreve. sem mais nada. sem ilações. exposição do sentido puro mediante a inocência construtiva, conforme diz no "manifesto da poesia pau brasil" ( ): ( ) — revista do livro — min. ed. e cult., n.° — dez. . — — " a poesia existe nos fatos. ( ) o lado doutor, o lado citações, o lado autores conhecidos. comovente. rui bar- bosa: uma cartola na s e n e g â m b i a . tudo revertendo em riqueza. a riqueza dos bailes e das frases feitas. negras de j ó q u e i . odaliscas no catumbi. falar difícil. ( ) a contribuição milionária de todos os erros. como falamos. como somos". ezra pound afivelava m á s c a r a s , personae: guido caval- cânti, p r o p é r c i o , arnaut daniel. fernando pessoa, h e t e r ô n i - mos. as p e r s o n a e - h e t e r ô n i m o s de oswald: machado penum- bra, minão da silva, rui barbosa, o canibal, qualquer autor de u m "secretário de amantes" qualquer. assim como, pela teoria da informação e da comunicação, todo ato criativo ou decisório se faz por probabilidade e seleção — chance & choice — o processo criativo de oswald consiste basicamente num processo de seleção do j á existente, no momento ou na m e m ó - r i a . recorte, colagem, montagem. a n t i - l i t e r à r i a m e n t e . o pro- cesso d o c u m e n t á r i o . "no jornal anda todo o presente". mário de andrade não entendeu a profundidade e/ou n ã o quis comprometer-se com a radicalidade de oswald de andra- de, embora temesse e julgasse imitá-lo em macunaíma, onde, de fato, a d i l u i u e distorceu, com sua " l í n g u a brasileira", uma certa moral oportunista e "sem c a r á t e r " , a aplicação decora- tiva de motivos i n d í g e n a s e l í n g u a i n d í g e n a , para efeitos de uma cosmologia mítico-folclórico-moderna. bem vistas as coi- sas, juntou suas águas a uma diluição anterior: a do grupo " a n t a " . uma corrente de incompreensões e equívocos t e r r í - veis, que acabou desaguando na moral "bom tom" do "homem cordial" e submergindo o projeto oswaldiano original, a pon- to de êle p r ó p r i o , oswald de andrade, acabar quase por i m i - tar seus pseudo-imitadores, em marco zero: seu verdadeiro marco zero, êle o chantara vinte anos antes! de fato, na d é - cada de , quando desceram os "búfalos do nordeste trazen- do nos cornos a q u e s t ã o social", abandona a "pesquisa alta", esmagado por "uma espécie de sentimento de culpa" — con- forme seu depoimento a heráclio salles, no ano de sua morte — — ( ) . na entrevista, usa o " n ó s " , incluindo m á r i o de andrade, de quem declara ter nascido, e dizendo-se inferior, como poe- ta, aos que se lhe seguiram... o propalado "indianismo" ou "neo-indianismo" de os- wald nada tem de "indianista". o selvagem significou para ê l e o que confúcio significou para pound: a visão de uma no- va moral, não-cristã, e de uma nova linguagem, direta, ideo- g r â m i c a . nunca esteve interessado no aproveitamento da lín- gua ou da literatura t u p i para efeitos estilísticos ou formais: só se lhe conhece a t r a n s c r i ç ã o de uma breve p e ç a t u p i , no manifesto antropófago. quem, como oswald de andrade, n ã o distingue entre v i - ver e criar, vive e cria em estado de iminência, em estado de réplica sobrevivencial a desafios que considera fatais. como u m organismo que cria e se cria para poder viver; que é obri- gado a pensar e pensar-se, para não perecer. não come r o t i - neiramente: seu roteiro é o já-e-aqui — devora. organismo em pânico permanente, agressivo contra o habitat do homem histórico — a sociedade. como diz a n t ô n i o cândido, no "pre- fácio i n ú t i l " às m e m ó r i a s oswaldianas ( ): "um escritor que fêz da vida romance e poesia, e íêz do romance e da poesia um apêndice da vida, publica as suas m e m ó r i a s . vida ou romance? ambos, certamente, pois em oswald de andrade nunca estiveram separados, e a única maneira correta de entender a sua vida, a sua obra e estas memórias, é considerá-los deste modo. ( ) por isto, as memórias esclarecem a aventura lírica de oswald de andrade, gordo quixote procurando conformar a rea- lidade do sonho. daí a rebeldia dos que não aceitam a ordenação m é d i a dos atos pela sociedade, que criou em torno dele, como r e p r e s á l i a , a aura do maluco atirado contra tudo, contra todos. visto de dentro, p o r é m , como o vemos neste l i v r o , é antes o menino inconsolável em fa- ce do mundo, onde não cresceu segundo a dimensão do i m a g i n á r i o . de um i m a g i n á r i o que fosse o modelo real das coisas". ( ) — diário de notícias, rio de janeiro, - - . ( ) — op. cit. — — o poeta iminente oswald de andrade, por isso mesmo, nunca se mostrou capaz de carreira l i t e r á r i a , nunca se mos- t r o u capaz de programar o êxito cumulativamente, por acres- centamento de obra — a ponto de despertar a suspeita de ama- dorismo ("tem o t ú m u l o de tutan-kamen sob as areias dum aparente amadorismo" — ribeiro couto). este amadorismo é o estigma da marginalização, fruto "poético" forçoso da des- cida às raízes, do realismo crítico-criativo. a posição inaugu- ral é uma posição crítica, implica em desvendamento, revela- ção, invenção e em violenta desidentificação (desalienação) com o sistema vigente — e abrindo-se para a ação de m u d a n ç a do estado de coisas. a d e n ú n c i a de u m sistema artístico vem de par com a d e n ú n c i a da infra-estrutura social — e a desiden- tificação ideológica ocorre com a mesma brutalidade. em os- wald de andrade, ambos os "desencostos" se deram em luta acesa entre si e constituem o cerne de sua vida e de sua obra. este fenômeno ajuda a compreender o rictus clownesco que vinca tanto uma como outra: quando quer falar " s é r i o " , os- w a l d alça o tom do discurso, entremostrando o fácies de u m machado penumbra-rui barbosa sem alegria. nisto, foi cruel- mente mal entendido por carlos drummond de andrade — não falemos de outros — numa croniqueta-elogio f ú n e b r e , que lá está em fala, amendoeira. drummond, afinal, se desenvolveu num processo bastante semelhante, como tentei mostrar em s i - tuação atual da poesia no brasil (relatório-tese apresentado ao i i congresso de crítica e história l i t e r á r i a , assis, ) ( ) ; sempre teve vias de acesso ao sistema e, por ocasião da morte de oswald, se encontrava no ponto mais lamentavelmente bai- xo de sua capacidade criativa. na década de , a tentativa de oswald de andrade de co- dificar a antropofagia em termos marxistas redundou em fra- casso (não sem brilho — veja-se o seu teatro). a desidentifi- cação com o stalinismo n ã o lhe foi menos dolorosa, no ime- diato a p ó s - g u e r r a . em o homem e o cavalo, de , pela boca do personagem-cineasta eisenstein, julgou ter dado cabo da ma- ( ) — anais — fac. fil. ciências e letras de assis, , e revista invenção, n.° , lº trimestre , são paulo. — — gia; durante o processo de auto-desestalinização — mais u m au- to-da-fé purificador de que foi p r ó d i g a a sua e x i s t ê n c i a — a ela retornou, sob a d e n o m i n a ç ã o de "sentimento órfico", que aca- bou por identificar n ã o tanto com o absurdo existencial, mas com o ú l t i m o r e d u t o - n ú c l e o insolúvel, inexplicável, intransfe- rível, i n t r o d u z í v e l , irracional, do homem. fiel a si mesmo, po- r é m , ainda empreendeu uma ú l t i m a cr . algada quixotesc, apon- tando, com a lança t r ê m u l a , para uma constelação de utopias. . brevíssima montagem d a d a "je ne veux m ê m e pas savoir s'il y a eu des hommes avant m o i " — descartes ( ) "un soir, trois autos s ' a r r ê t è r e n t devant le cabaret. inva- sion inattendue: une douzaine de jeunes gens a c c o m p a g n é s de quelques professeurs viennois é t a i e n t v é n u s nous é t u d i e r . carnets en main, ces disciples de jung et de adler p r i r e n t des notes sur notre cas: Étions-nous des schizoïdes ou bien nous fichions-nous de leur tête? la soirée t e r m i n é e , nous nous as- sîmes à boire un verre et à leur exposer notre credo, notre foi dans l'instinct c r é a t e u r en un art dire te, magique, organi- que comme celui des p r i m i t i f s et des enfants. ils se j e t è r e n t des regards singuliers, puis, saisis de peur, mirent bas leur crayons et prirent la fuite". ( ) "die kunst ist tot es lebe die neue maschinenkunst tatlins" ( ) ( " a arte morreu v i v a a nova arte maquinal de t a t l i n " ) "le cubisme construit une c a t h é d r a l e en p â t é de foie ar- tistique que fait dada? ( ) — dada , zurique, — in dada — monografia de um movimento, wil- ly verkauf — arthur niggli verlag — suíça, — edição trilingue (alemão, inglês, francês). ( ) — willy verkauf, op. cit. — versão francesa de alegra sotiapira. ( ) — id. ibd. — foto onde aparecem george grosz e john heartfield segurando um cartaz — berlim, . — — l'expressionnisme empoisonne les sardines artistiques que fait dada? le s i m u l t a n é i s m e en est encore à sa p r e m i è r e communion artistique que fait d a d a ? le futurisme veut monter dans un lyrisme-ascenseur ar- tistique que fait dada? l'unanimisme embrasse le toutisme et p ê c h e à la ligne artistique que fait dada? le néo-classicisme d é c o u v r e les bienfaits de l'art artistique que fait dada? le paroxysme fait le trust de tous les fromages artistiques que fait d a d a ? l'ultraisme recommende la m é l a n g e de choses artistiques que fait dada? le créacionisme le vorticisme l'imagisme proposent aussi quelques recettes artistiques que fait dada? francs de r é c o m p e n s e à celui qui trouve le moyen de nous expliquer dada ( ) méfiez-vous des contrefaçons! les imitateurs de d a d a veulent vous p r é s e n t e r d a d a sous une forme artistique q u ' i l n'a jamais eu ( ) l'diotle pure r é c l a m é e par d a d a " ( ) . o cadáver renitente "horácio — insensato! poeta! g u a r d a r - t e - ã o para sempre os dentes fechados da morte!" ( a morta — f i m do .° quadro) ( ) — id. ibd. — — descobrir a mensagem original, primeira, de oswald de andrade, u m meio ao r u í d o , ao entulho e ao silêncio com que tentam sufocá-la, n ã o é apenas tarefa de paciência justiceira. para tanto, é preciso uma identidade de propósitos e u m en- tendimento do papel significante das pontas de l a n ç a da arte — as vanguardas — que constituem, em nossa época, uma his- t ó r i a l i t e r á r i a paralela à h i s t ó r i a oficial. a linhagem da l i n - guagem. tem-se uma idéia clara da situação oswaldiana quan- do se v ê que as suas obras não são reeditadas; a ú l t i m a obra que dele se editou — o volume de m e m ó r i a s — data de h á anos. e ainda a questão dos inéditos, em particular de seu diá- rio confessional. toda vez que vem à tona, o c a d á v e r de oswald de andra- de assusta. e sempre aparece u m p r á t i c o disposto a conjugar o cachopo minaz. recentemente, num artigo equívoco — a co- m e ç a r pelo título: "o neo-indianismo de oswald de andrade" — cassiano ricardo induziu-se nos erros de praxe. salvam-no, talvez, a l e m b r a n ç a de u m fato e uma o b s e r v a ç ã o . o fato, pa- lavras textuais do articulista: "o grupo anta se opôs ao pau brasil alegando que em- bora oswald preconizasse uma "poesia de e x p o r t a ç ã o " , o seu experimento — sob o aspecto formal (ou informal?) — não estava sendo mais que a " i m p o r t a ç ã o " do d a d a í s m o f r a n c ê s . . . " ( ) ora, acontece que, rigorosamente falando, n ã o existe "da- d a í s m o " . o que existe é dada, tabula rasa de ismos, de v a l i - dade internacional. nasceu na suíça antes da i guerra m u n - dial e fêz mancha de óleo no a p ó s - g u e r r a : f r a n ç a , alemanha, estados u n i d o s . . . e brasil. ao c o n t r á r i o do que se possa pen- sar, quando se leva em conta a p r e c e d ê n c i a da paulicéia des- vairada, a verdade é que oswald de andrade captara a infor- m a ç ã o certa, a compreendera, assimilara e transfundira para nosso roteiro e uso. como super-arma de "uma civilização o r i - ginal, em estado de legítima defesa" (observação de cassiano ricardo). sim, foi oswald, n ã o foi outro: nem m á r i o de a n - ( ) — supl. lit. "o estado de s. paulo" — - - . — — drade, nem outros menos sapientes, como os do grupo anta, que soltaram o manifesto nhengaçu verde amarelo ( ), con- trafação tupi-nacionalista dos manifestos oswaldianos, que re- dundou n u m "patriotismo a-priori", por mais que o negasse p l í n i o salgado, j á em ( ). ao se declararem contra os ismos, os grupos anta e verde-amarelo decerto n ã o sabiam que estavam importando e imitando dada, súcubo incômodo e des- conhecido que acabou degenerando em discurso patafísico: "e' velho refrão, desde o dadaísmo, que a arte cor- responde a um estado de e s p í r i t o . acredito que nós, bra- sileiros, temos o nosso estado de espírito, que n ã o é o da- d a í s t a " . ( ) resultado: o verde-amarelo v i r o u verde-amarelismo... os- wald não gerou nenhum ismo. n ã o se fale sequer em "con- cretismo": o que existe é poesia concreta, literatura concreta. quando cassiano ricardo declara, no artigo citado, que o g r u - po anta se opôs ao pau-brasil "mais pelo prazer do debate do que por antagonismo", sente-se, quem sabe, movido por uma vontade de c o m p r e e n s ã o e apaziguamento — mas que n ã o con- diz com os fatos. o antagonismo era evidente. ambas as po- sições predispunham e incitavam à ação: l i t e r á r i a , cultural, ideológica, política. ambas representavam a tomada de cons- ciência do pragmatismo brasileiro, cuja bifurcação f o i tanto mais clara quanto i n e v i t á v e l : de oswald, nasce o pragmatismo brasileiro de esquerda; da anta, o de direita. m á r i o de a n - drade: no meio, a v i r t u d e . . pobre obra depois de s o u s â n d r a d e , revolução clandestina, tivemos em nossa literatura a revolução manifesta (depois diluída e aba- fada) de oswald de andrade. dois roteiros-manifestos, dois volumes-cadernos de poemas e u m l i v r i n h o de prosa consubs- tanciam, basicamente, a r e v o l u ç ã o . s e q ü e l a s , auto-diluições, ( ) — revista do livro — n.° citado. ( ) — antologia do ensaio paulista, josé aderaldo castelo — conselho esta- dual de cultura, comissão de literatura — são paulo, pág. s. ( ) — id. ibd., pág. . — — recuperações parciais, desforços, contradições, confusão de ca- minhos e desalento se dispersam nas demais. : oswald na europa, às v é s p e r a s do início do movimen- to dada e do primeiro conflito mundial. o que mais de perto tocou oswald n ã o foi isto nem aquilo da literatura: foi o cubis- mo — e isto é fundamental para entender-se a prosa-lingua- gem de memórias sentimentais de joão miramar. a guerra mundial revoluciona por dentro a neutralidade suíça de dada inicial, conferindo-lhe os c o n t e ú d o s violentos da rebeldia aber- ta contra a "arte", os chamados valores espirituais eram zero face à irracionalidade material; a arte, o bôbo-da-côrte. o bo- neco-de-molas de uma civilização voraz e idiota. dada parte para o centro internacional de paris, para o epicentro dos grandes choques e cataclismas. em , u m ano após a se- mana de a r t e moderna e o l a n ç a m e n t o da paulicéia desvairada, oswald volta à europa, à cata de novos v í v e r e s e confrontos (trouxera futurismo e cubismo na primeira viagem) e trava conhecimento com dada — n ã o se sabe como, ao certo, por meio de que contactos e leituras. t a m b é m não se sabe se bo- tou os olhos no ulysses, de joyce, publicado em paris, em . o certo é que na riviera italiana, em , escreveu o seu joão miramar, prosa sintética inovadora inclusive em re- lação ao p r ó p r i o ulysses, naquilo que tem de pura estrutura descritiva aberta, sem alusões e arcaísmos, naquilo que tem de estatística da m e m ó r i a , onde as l e m b r a n ç a s selecionadas são fragmentos montados que se transitavam uns aos outros, coisas e fatos acionando diretamente outras coisas e fatos, nu- ma nova d i n â m i c a da p e r c e p ç ã o e da l e m b r a n ç a — prosa cubis- ta que somente a t r a v é s de uma mirada superficial pode ser confundida com uma certa prosa surrealista: "fordes quilometraram açafrões de ocaso" ( ) "vinham motivos como gafanhotos para eu e célia comermos amoras em moitas de bocas" ( ) ( ) — memórias sentimentaes de joão miramar — edição do autor, são paulo. , pág. . ( ) — id. ib., pág. . — — "rosas vermelhas buscaram madama rocambola na gase cautelosa do b r á s " ( ) "levaram-me para uma casa velha que fazia doces e nos mudamos para a sala do quintal onde tinha uma f i - gueira na janela" ( ) mário de andrade, "o homem que sabia j a v a n ê s " do mo- dernismo — deitou falação para explicar a "simultaneidade" ( ), citando um magote de autores s e c u n d á r i o s de suporte, elevando luís aranha a paradigma " s i m u l t a n e í s t a " , metendo tudo no saco do subconsciente, amarrando-o com u m precon- ceito musical acadêmico — e i n j u s t i ç a n d o clamorosamente a oswald de andrade. mário de andrade era o homem dos dis- tinguos embasbacantes: simultaneidade/polifonia, simultaneida- de real/simultaneidade psicológica. expressionista que sempre foi, tudo, para êle, se resolvia em psicologia. ignorava as ar- tes visuais, e descartava o futurismo, e passava por cima da poe- sia espacial (sem falar na t é c n i c a a f i m de evitar tropeços à sua discreteação: "a não ser m ú s i c a e mímica, nenhuma outra arte realiza realmente a simultaneidade". sobre o cubismo — referindo-se à t e n d ê n c i a de despojamento que, segundo êle, estaria caracterizando a decoração teatral: " a influência cubis- ta — a mais torta tolice a que poderia atingir uma o r i e n t a ç ã o direita". u m polígrafo, u m p o l í g r a f o ! . . . a poesia de oswald de andrade é a poesia da posse con- tra a propriedade. poesia por contacto direto. sem explica- ções, sem andaimes, sem p r e â m b u l o s ou p r e n ú n c i o s , sem poeti- zações. com versos que não eram versos. poesia em versos pondo em crise o verso: u m prosaísmo deliberado que é uma s á t i r a c o n t í n u a ao p r ó p r i o verso, l i v r e ou preso. aliás, nunca se colocou tal problema, de verso l i v r e ou metrificado. sua poesia é um realismo auto-expressivo. alguns poemas são sim- ples transcrições de a n ú n c i o s da é p o c a . destacados do contex- ( ) — id. ibd., pág. . ( ) — id. ibd., pág. . ( ) — antologia do ensaio paulista. observação. não ocorreu a mário de an- drade que o trocadilho e a palavra-montagem constituem realmente fenô- menos de simultaneidade na palavra escrita e falada, correspondentes ao acorde musical. — — to, os textos adquirem novo c o n t e ú d o : de lugares-comuns se transformam em lugares-incomuns. exatamente como acontece com a atual pop art norte-americana ( t a m b é m batizada de "neo- dadaista"...) — o primeiro movimento de vanguarda a u t ê n t i c o dos estados unidos para o mundo: t a m b é m uma rebelião con- tra a cultura e u r o p é i a . uma arte a n t r o p ó f a g a . lembrar que a capa da primeira edição da poesia pau brasil, , trazia a r e p r o d u ç ã o de uma bandeira brasileira, sem mais nada. jas- per johns, pop-artist pinta bandeiras norte-americanas, tais quais. anos depois de oswald. algumas manifestações da pop art são chamadas de "happenings": na hora se faz, na ho- ra existe como arte — e f i m . claes oldenburg reproduz, em papier mâché, sorvetes e bolos — fac-símiles únicos de coisas produzidas em quantidade. somos concretistas, diz oswald, em seu manifesto canibal. a coisa, n ã o a idéia da coisa. o f i m da arte de r e p r e s e n t a ç ã o , o começo da arte de signos. realis- mo sem tema ou t e m á t i c a realista: apenas transplante do exis- tente. os ready-made, de man ray, na época dada. a poesia de oswald de andrade é uma poesia ready-made. faz e s t a t í s - tica, copia nomes de casas comerciais — e eis o poema nova iguaçu. j á é a teoria do texto, que max bense e os poetas con- cretas desenvolveram. o sentido puro, a que se referia oswald, e que em dada era a idiotie pure. textos — n ã o l i t e r a t u r a . o cartão postal como arte. o clichê do clichê como arte. o pro- blema do kitsch, a chamada pseudo-arte (como a chamou o prof. anatol rosenfeld, que inaugurou a q u e s t ã o entre nós) ( ), a chamada arte de mau gosto." abrimos caminho para uma coisa que n ã o existia a t é e n t ã o entre n ó s : uma literatura de pobres. nunca tivemos uma literatura de pobres" ( ). pop art: arte popular, arte de estalo, "espocarte". os poemas de oswald de andrade, da década de , formam u m e x e m p l á - rio d i d á t i c o . didática que, depois, drummond, j o ã o cabral de melo neto e os poetas concretos da primeira fase ( ) pas- saram a limpo, fenomenològicamente, com poemas sobre o ( ) — no reino da pseudo-arte — supl. lit. "o estado de s. paulo", - - . ( ) — depoimento citado a heráclio salles. ( ) — noigandres — poesia concreta — edição dos autores, s. paulo, . — — poema. apenas, os dois primeiros não conseguiram superar essa fase, nem o verso, nem o discurso. a poesia concreta cor- tou as amarras em ( ), retomou oswald e deu mais uns passos adiante, rumo a u m novo salto radical. suas mais recentes realizações — a serem dadas a público ainda este ano — envolvem a criação de novos alfabetos, novos léxicos, nova sintaxe e novos c o n t e ú d o s . . antropofagia: confrontos curiosos jacopetti, em seu filme d o c u m e n t á r i o "mondo cane", mos- tra o sucedido numa ilha de aborígenes, quando lá se instalou um moderno campo de a v i a ç ã o . os selvagens iam ver. no alto de um acolina, c o n s t r u í r a m u m simulacro de avião e de pis- ta de pouso: para que os deuses se dessem conta da injustiça e do engano e ali fizessem aterrissar a estranha ave que, por direito de terra, lhes pertencia — e n ã o aos brancos. a antro- pofagia de oswald de andrade teve antecessores em dada — e u m sucessor em m a r i n e t t i . para u m espetáculo dada, paris, , o pintor francis picabia preparou o texto e a música de u m "manifeste cannibale dans l ' o b s c u r i t é " , lido por a n d r é bre- ton, acompanhado ao piano por m l l e . marguerite buffet ( ). em ii club dei simpatici, de (hodierna editrice, paler- mo), m a r i n e t t i p r o p õ e uma nova moral canibal. o magistra- do paranza e outros membros do clube propugnador dirigem- se, de hidroavião, a uma ilha canibal. depois de uma identi- ficação geral de pontos de vista, os selvagens totemizam o apa- relho, devorando-o: (o canibal curreno:) —stiamo allargando alie macchine europee la nostra morale a n t r o p ó f a g a . a d d e n t e r ò , dopo le ali, i l carbura- tore che, spero, t r a s m e t t e r à la sua capacita vorace al mio stomaco imperfeito. tokkamatok lavorava coi denti nella carlinga, s t r i l - lando: ( ) — noigandres — poesia concreta — edição dos autores, s. paulo, . ( ) — willy verkauf — op. cit. — — — cosa ne dici, paranza saggissimo, della mia idea di mangiare lo stabilizzatore ser equilibrare i l mio corpo che oscilla troppo quando bevo sangue fermentato?" (pág. ). s o u s â n d r a d e , oswald de andrade, o grande pintor v o l p i e os poetas concretos n ã o ficaram esperando pelo beneplácito dos deuses da cultura mundial para produzir obras originais destinadas ao confronto e ao julgamento internacional: deglu- t i r a m o avião, anticolonialmente. . poesia de exportação está-se cumprindo o roteiro de oswald de andrade. n ã o mais como produto exótico-subsidiário, mas como idéia atuan- te e influente, a poesia concreta brasileira e s t á nas revistas l i t e r á r i a s suíças, a l e m ã s , francesas, japonesas, escocesas, por- tuguesas, espanholas, checas. n ã o falemos em valor — e sim na comprovação da validez do roteiro oswaldiano. são paulo, maio de . piet mondrian: the evolution of his neo-plastic aesthetic - . by ian hugh wallace b.a., university of british columbia, a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of masters of arts in the department of fine arts we accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard the university of british_j llumbia april, . in p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , i a g r e e t h a t t h e l i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . i f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e head o f my d e p a r t m e n t o r by h i s r e p r e s e n - t a t i v e s . i t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . d e p a r t m e n t o f the u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a v a n c o u v e r , c a n a d a d a t e t \ p ^ l f l ^ „ | ^ abstract one of the most decisive careers i n the history of twentieth- century painting i s that of piet mondrian. not only did he singularly commit himself to the development of non-figurative art and take this development further than any contemporary, but he also was able to formulate an articulate theoretical program upon which his aesthetic decisions were founded. the neo-plastic art by which mondrian i s best known, executed between and his death i n , i s only the climax of a long development which began with his break away from a regional landscape painting about , and crystalized i n the formulation of his neo- plastic aesthetic between and . this essay w i l l trace this development i n an effort to reconstruct the impulses, the decisions, and the resolutions which led to the birth of a pure non-figurative painting. the impulse of this evolution i s rooted i n mondrian's personal, obsessive search for the unity of a philosophical and formal ideal. about , he f e l t the need to express a philosophic ideal, or a •content' which was incompatable with his early regional style. this led him to move at f i r s t hesitantly, then with complete freedom, into contemporary developments i n abstraction i n the search for a form which would satisfy the demands of a content. as he expanded upon the formal innovations of cubism from to , he began to realize a totally unique mode of picture-building which would not 'express' the content but 'be' the content:- not only the physical embodiment, but also the creative function of the philosophic ideal. this ideal began with theosophy, but married to his art, i t became neo-plasticism. this evolution of form, which this essay will concentrate upon, was achieved essentially through the development within the medium of painting itself, and through the recognition of the absolutely essential, non-arbitrary, non-metaphorical comrjonents of a painting. the 'content' becomes implicit through the concentrated but intuitive ordering of these components according to both the plastic laws of the universe and the plastic laws pf the medium itself. despite the theoretical and philosophical inclinations shown in his abundant writings, he was above a l l a painter, and his most immediate concern was always to come to terms with the means of expression. when his painting began to take upon an abstraction that could almost be considered as being non-art, his theorizing took on a greater importance as a philosophical substantiation for an unfamiliar non-figurative image. his neo-plastic philosophy, fully articulated by , recognized above a l l the plastic laws of painting, and thus the non-figurative image, but i t also kept within this formal exing- ency that ideal residing outside and beyond art which has guided ar- tists throughout history:- the recognition of the universal laws of creation. the uncoranromising nature that led mondrian to a perfected art, an u l t i m a t e and c o m p l e t e s y n t h e s i s o f f o r m and c o n t e n t , f o r c e d him t o e l i m i n a t e t h e most s a n c t i f i e d t r a d i t i o n s o f a r t . but r a t h e r t h a n d e s t r o y a r t , he gave i t a new l i f e . he r e v e a l e d an a r e n a o f e x p r e s s i o n t h a t had n e v e r been a p p a r e n t o r p o s s i b l e t o a r t i s t s o f any p r e v i o u s age, and w h i c h i s t h e h e r i t a g e o f contemporary a r t t o d a y . w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s e s s a y , a s t u d y i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f form, i t m i g h t seem i r r e l e v a n t t o comment upon m a t t e r s o f t a s t e , something w h i c h m o n d r i a n h i m s e l f c o n s i d e r e d i r r e l e v a n t t o h i s immediate a i m s , b u t now t h a t h i s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t and h i s t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s a r e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d , i t i s mandatory t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s work n o t be o v e r l o o k e d . he w i l l be remembered i n t h e f u t u r e n o t so much f o r t h e f a c t t h a t he was a p i o n e e r o f n o n - f i g u r a t i v e a r t , s o m e t h i n g u l t i m a t e l y i m p o r t a n t o n l y f o r h i s own g e n e r a t i o n , but r a t h e r f o r t h e power o f b e a u t y he evoked w i t h i n an i m a g e r y t h a t c l a i m s n o t h i n g more t h a n an a b s o l u t e l y e x c l u s i v e p e r f e c t i o n , a s e n s i b i l i t y r a r e i n any p e r i o d o f a r t h i s t o r y and w h i c h he s h a r e s i n t h i s c e n t u r y w i t h g i o r g i o m o r a n d i , b a r n e t t newman and ad r e i n h a r d t . not a l l o f h i s work i s s u c c e s s f u l . m o n d r i a n was a t h i s b e s t when he worked i n d e p t h w i t h a p r e o r d a i n e d , s e l f - e f f a c i n g system, n o t when he was w o r k i n g w i t h forms t h a t demanded a c a p r i c i o u s sense o f i n v e n t i o n . he was a p e n e t r a t o r , n o t an expander; h i s sense o f form was analytical, not synthetic. when he strayed away from an art that expressed his innate sensibility for form into an area where form is sacrificed for the idea, such as happened in his 'stylist' period of , his work was considerably weakened. also less successful are his earliest cubist pictures, awkward in the new style, and the 'plus-minus' pictures of - , which attempt an expression of space which cubism could never handle. the majority of his works, however, are unqualified master- pieces, and one feels the temptation to view him as a twentieth- century vermeer. this leads one to sense that the spiritual power that lurks within the constructive obviousness of mondrian's art, lurks, with equal strength, within the prosaic realism of vermeer's art. both artists are concerned ultimately with a sense of order which finds its metaphysical source in the physical world, and both communicate this sense of order through an expression of tensions of space. table of contents i. abstract ii. table of contents iii. list of illustrations iv. text chapter i: the early years - page chapter ii: the search for a style, an experiment with fauve expressionism, symbolism and stylism, - page chapter iii: cubism in paris, the development of form - page chapter iv: the evolution of neo-plasticism, the means becomes the ends h- page v. footnotes page . vi. bibliography page vii. chronology page l i s t of illustrations page f i g u r e c h a p t e r i i . w i n d m i l l i n s u n l i g h t , . o i l on canvas, / x ki i n . . the red t r e e , . o i l on canvas, / x i n . c h a p t e r i i i . chrysanthemum, , p e n c i l d r a w i n g , ll£ x g i n . . s t i l l l i f e w i t h g i n g e r p o t i i , , o i l on canvas. x i n . . a p p l e t r e e s i n bloom , o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n i n g r e y - b l u e , . o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n ( t a b l e a u i ) , . o i l on canvas, x i n . . o v a l c o m p o s i t i o n ( t a b l e a u i i i ) , . o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n i n b l u e , grey and p i n k , . o i l on canvas, i x i i n . c h a p t e r iv . p i e r and ocean, . crayon, p e n c i l , goache on b u f f p a p e r x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h l i n e s , . o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h c o l o u r p l a n e s on w h i t e ground - a, . o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n i n c o l o u r - b, . o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n i i i w i t h c o l o u r p l a n e s , . o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n : l i g h t c o l o u r p l a n e s w i t h grey l i n e s , . o i l " on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h red, b l u e , b l a c k and y e l l o w - g r e e n , . o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h red, y e l l o w and b l u e , . o i l on canvas, x i n . . c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h red, y e l l o w and b l u e , . o i l on canvas, ? x | i n . . broadway boogie-woogie, - . o i l on canvas, x i n . chapter i: the early years. - . - - mondrian's reputation, and a l l that his work stands for, is based upon the paintings that he did after the f i r s t mature neo-plastic works of . yet in mondrian was already forty-eight, and had been painting steadily for about thirty years. it is an extremely unusual situation that an artist mature so late in his l i f e , and doubly so when, at such a late point in his career, he evolved from what was a fairly conservative style to what might be called the most radical work of his generation. for this reason mondrian does not f i t easily into a general- ized account of the artistic movements of the early decades of the century. he is a unique figure who consistently followed his own path and in doing so opened avenues of expression that declared a definite, uncompromising view of the world. although mondrian's mature painting involves a direct repudiation of both the style and the content of what preceded i t , his early work and the transitional period between the two stages of his l i f e are very import- ant for an understanding of not only the measure of mondrian's final hypothesis but also the evolution and implications of the phenomenon of the appearance of non-figurative art in the period - . mondrian*s early years were quite unremarkable. he received his f i r s t painting lessons from his uncle, fritz mondrian, who was himself a well-known painter of landscapes and interiors. fritz had studied at one time under willem maris, who stood above a l l for the regional tendancies of dutch art in the 'ŝ " following his father's wishes that he become a teacher, mondrian received in his diploma to teach drawing in - - elementary schools. he received a second diploma for teaching in secondary schools in , but mondrian at this time seems to have decided to devote his whole l i f e to paintings and not teaching. late in his l i f e mondrian described the situation as thus: when i t became clear that i wanted to devote my l i f e to art, my father tried to discourage me. he lacked the money to pay for my studies and he wanted me to get a job. but i clung to my art ambitions, and that was my father's sorrow. another man paid for my studies for three years. . this extra three years of schooling was spent at the amsterdam academy of fine arts between and . the director and teacher of the academy was august allebe, an academic painter who was nevertheless sympathetic to some of the more moderate aspects of modernism in painting, notably impressionism, and who encouraged his students to assert their own individuality. during this time, in the early 's, amsterdam painters were splitting into two camps; both fostering from allebe's studio: a group of restrained impressionists, painting with a freer brush than the older the hague realists, yet using their earth colours; and a group of stylists who were moving towards an expressionistic abstractionism. the f i r s t group, which included mondrian, turned their attention towards elaborating upon traditional pictorial problems and using the regional rural and urban landscape for a subject matter. the second group were more interested in expressing the new spiritualism and internationalism which was sweeping europe in the wake of literary symbolism and abstract- ionism in painting which had overtaken impressionism by the 's. much later mondrian himself was to embrace symbolist stylism, but in this early period he was more influenced by the hague realism and the urban realism of - - george henri breitner . in an autobiographical essay written i n , towards the true vision of reality, mondrian gives us a description of his early style. i preferred to paint landscapes and houses seen i n grey, dark weather or i n very strong sunlight, when the density of atmosphere obscures the details and accentuates the large outlines of objects. i often sketched by moonlight - cows resting or standing immobile on f l a t dutch meadows, or houses with dead, blank windows. i never painted these things romantically, but from the very beginning, i was always a r e a l i s t . . this question of realism and romanticism i s d i f f i c u l t yet important, for this dualism was a problematic feature of his art u n t i l i t was f i n a l l y resolved i n his neo-plasticism after about . the hage painters, who analytically yet sympathetically studied an unglorified world i n the tradition of gustave courbet, identified themselves thus as being 'real- ists' . the s t y l i s t s , who were abstracting and transforming the subjects of their paintings according to their emotional and spiritual moods, were identified with a neo-romanticism which was sweeping europe i n the form of symbolism after , and which was a reaction against realism i n both literature and art. the problem i s that although mondrian identified him- self with realism and an analytical view of the world, i n the early land- scape painting ̂ he also possesed a strong romantic and emotional attachment to his subject matter. the realist predeliction of the hague painting expressed i t s e l f i n two directions. one direction was that of social realism, the image of the common man i n both the urban and rural scene. breitner's urban realism - - i s reflective of the work of degas while the rural realism of joseph israels and vincent van gogh (in his brabant period, - ), who had worked with breitner i n the hague, followed the example of millet and courbet. the other direction of realism was constuctive' realism, that i s , a relatively impersonal treatment of the subject matter i n favour of a detatched compositional structuring of picture elements^. mondrian had paid l i t t l e attention to social realism. in fact, he rarely included people i n his compositions and he wouldn't even paint the urban enviro n- ment which gained both fame and notoriety for his friend breitner. instead, he ostensibly focused his attention to p i c t o r i a l composition, and i t was i n this area that breitner was able to influence mondrian. in the milieu of representational painting, two areas of freedom that the a r t i s t has i n structuring his composition are i n framing the view and i n balancing tonal weights. it i s highly probable, but cert- ainly not inevitable, that breitner instructed mondrian i n the original use of both techniques. breitner would often cut off figures at the waist at the bottom of the picture i n a manner similar to, but not necessarily influenced by, degas, i n order to achieve a striking composition. he would also group different objects of a dark tonality against objects of a light tonality (often snow), creating exciting outlines and shapes of light/dark areas . details were often overlooked i n favour of general masses and contours. mondrian applied this compositional interest to rural land- scape subjects by playing dark masses of trees against a light evening sky, or i n a motif and a manner that was a favorite with mondrian and the hague - - r e a l i s t s as a whole, the w i n d f a l l t h r u s t i n g i t s t h i c k body and long t h i n angular arms above the pervading f l a t n e s s of the horizon (s. ) . at the same time that mondrian was seemingly p a i n t i n g these landscapes i n a d i s i n t e r e s t e d compositional manner, hence from the viewpoint of s t r u c t u r a l r e a l i s m , an element of romanticism entered the p i c t u r e i n the sense of mood that often f i l l e d mondrian's e a r l y landscapes. although i t was not as obviously c u l t i v a t e d as the emot- i o n a l , transcendental and l i t e r a r y romanticism of the s t y l i s t s , the l y r i c a l and ' p o e t i c ' moodiness of mondrian's e a r l y work c e r t a i n l y appears romanticised when i t i s compared to the landscapes of the french i m p r e s s i o n i s t s . there i s something very personal and sentim- e n t a l about the m i l l which r i s e s both p a t h e t i c a l l y and h e r o i c a l l y alone, from the dark, bleak landscape, black against the moon, or as rembrandt once painted i t , with the arms l i t by the l a s t rays of the s e t t i n g sun. again, t h i s romantic undertone i s f e l t even more s t r o n g l y i n such a p a i n t i n g as farm near duivendrecht ( s . ) where the twisted branches of trees set against the stark l i g h t of the moon remind us of the work of the german romantic p a i n t e r caspar david f i e d r e i c h ( - ) . there i s , i n e f f e c t , a rather happy balance between the poetic f e e l i n g that mondrian has f o r h i s s u b j e c t s , and the more detatched i n t e r e s t i n creating an i n t e r e s t i n g and balanced composition, a balance which would soon be upset when mondrian turned h i s a t t e n t i o n to the occult s p i r i t u a l - ism of the theosophical movement and towards the more aggressive and emotive stylisms of the modern movements coming out of p a r i s , chapter ii: the search for a style, an experiment with fauve expressionism, symbolism and stylism. - . - - in his autobiographical essay, toward the true vision of reality, mondrian relates how, around , the f i r s t major changes towards 'modernism' began to enter his painting. after several years my work unconsciously began to deviate more and more from the natural aspects of reality. experience was my only teacher; i knew l i t t l e of the modern art movement. when i f i r s t saw the work of the impressionists, van gogh, van dongen and the fauves, i admired i t . but i had to seek the true way alone. the f i r s t thing to change in my painting was the colour. i forsook natural colour for pure colour. i had come to feel that the colours of nature cannot be reproduced on the canvas. instinctively, i felt that painting had to find a new way to express the beauty of nature. . colour was something that painters a l l over europe were discovering around ; the fauves in france, the russians kandinsky and jawlensky, the die brucke painters and individuals such as emile nolde. it is difficult to judge the degree to which mondrian's colour changes were influenced by these other activities, but seems certain that news of these new movements must have reached him through his friend conrad kickert, a painter and critic who was in close touch with paris, and through men such as jan sluyters who had visited paris in when the talk of the art world at the time was the fauve painters, matisse, derain and vlaminck . furthermore, van dongen, the first dutchman since van gogh to make any kind of impression in parisian avant-guard circles was exhibiting and painting with the fauves. mondrian's essentially region- alist and conservative character, however, was not easily moved even by the excitement of this incipient modernism, not even when one of the - - inspirations for the new colouristic expressionism was the dutchman vincent van gogh. until he discovered cubism in , mondrian's development was a slow give-and-take compromise between the new and old. the quality of mondrian's conservatism in his early work and its effect upon his f i r s t attempts at 'modernism' can be indicated by a comparison between mondrian and the dutch symbolists in their inter- pretation of the work of vincent van gogh. in , when mondrian was a twenty-year-old art school student, amsterdam hosted the first retrospective exhibition of the work of vincent van gogh, who had died two years previously. van gogh's early work, before he went to paris in , was very similar to that of the hague realist group. he used the same earth colours and the same parochial, bucolic subject matter, yet with the more direct, cruder brushwork of a more impetuous personality. young mondrian was impressed with the directness of the early work of van gogh, as was breitner, who also had a strong influence upon mondrian at this time^. but van gogh's later work, after his introduction to pointillism and impressionism in paris and his subsequent development of a highly emotive colouristic expressionism, had an effect upon another group of young dutch artists, who were interested in the international art nouveau movement, and who saw van gogh's late period as the essential dutch ingredient in this international movement. these artists, who were later to be quite influential in the dutch symbolist movement, jan toorop, thorn prikker, and richard roland-hoist, inter- - - preted van gogh from a symbolist point-of-view. the catalogue cover of the van gogh exhibition, designed by roland-hoist, showed a drooping sunflower with a halo around the stem and a sunset in the background^. in , this identification of van gogh's later mature style with the symbolist aesthetic, must have caused mondrian, who aligned himself quite closely with the sober colouring of the hague realists at this time, to shy away from such stormy and emotive colouring. it was not until much later, about , when the symbolist and art nouveau movements had almost spent themselves, that mondrian, after a lengthy exposure to the ideas of the theosophical movement̂ , began to bring some symbolist elements into his pictures. and the f i r s t indication of this entry of an emotive symbolism in his canvases, was the sudden introduction into his work of the same kind of intense colouring that he had shied away from earlier. in contrast to the ethic of the the hague realists, whose paintings were tonally modelled in olives and browns and whose subjects conveyed a nostalgic feeling for the earthly splendor of the dutch countryside, the spirt of theoso- phy pulled mondrian closer to the transcendental, spiritual values of the symbolist aesthetic, which was distinctly religious and international in its outlook. despite the fact that the 'style' most closely associated with theosophy, which was only one of a number of occult religions which sprang up in europe in the 's, was the art nouveau, jugenstil, nabi or symbolist 'style', a l l abstracting from natural appearances in order to reveal subliminal or transcendental truths, mondrian hesitated to do - - a complete about-face from the hague realism to symbolist s t y l i s m . instead, he turned to the intense colouring of van gogh's l a t e period (one ingredient from which the s t y l i s t s themselves had departed) as a g meanse of i n t e n s i f y i n g the f e e l i n g i n h i s landscapes . between and , therefore, colour became mondrian's device f o r rendering a greater i n t e n s i t y of s p i r i t u a l f e e l i n g t o h i s pictures while remaining f a i r l y f a i t h f u l to natural appearances. this i s an important point, f o r of a l l the c o l o u r i s t s at t h i s time, mondrian was p r a c t i c a l l y the only p a i n t e r who didn't d i s t o r t the form or shape of r e a l i t y as w e l l , and t h i s i s a measure of both h i s conservatism and h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y . the entry of theosophical ideas i n t o mondrian's l i f e had the i n i t i a l e f f e c t of confusing h i s a r t i s t i c aims and f o r c i n g him to break away from dutch regionalism although i n the end i t enriched his creative and conceptual f a c u l t i e s . just to record s e n s i t i v e l y the s u b t i l i t i e s of the surface appearances of nature was no longer enough f o r mondrian. he wanted to get to the forces that l a y beneath the appearances of nature and to a more i n c l u s i v e and s p e c i f i c conceptual meaning that a mere a t t e n t i o n to appearances could give. but i n order to grasp t h i s new conceptual yearning i n h i s work he had to begin to a l t e r the v i s u a l approach to p a i n t i n g that he had developed over about f i f t e e n years . i t was about the time of h i s v i s i t to domberg i n the summer of that a d i s t i n c t i v e new f e e l i n g enters h i s p a i n t i n g . domberg was a rather i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e on the i s l a n d of walcheren i n zeeland, the - - south-west comer of the netherlands. the high dunes that bordered the open expanse of the north sea lent a definite 'spiritual flavour to the setting which stood in contrast to the more domestic feeling of the populated lowlands around amsterdam which formed the setting for his earlier work. also at domberg that summer was jan toorop and a small group of followers. as we have seen, toorop was one of the leading members of the group of dutch symbolists who came to prominence just before the turn of the century and who combined an art nouveau linearity with a crude pointillism as a vehicle for a very literary and allusive symbolical painting"^. for the most part, however, i t was toorop's mystical frame of mind which gained him his following, and i t was this quality of toorop's character which interested mondrian. despite the fact that up to this point mondrian was not sympath- etic to the abstract stylism of toorop, there was an aspect of toorop's symbolism which now directly concerned mondrian. for mondrian, who had been studying theosophy casually since (he didn't become an official member of the society until ), toorop s ability to incorp- orate his mystical philosophy directly into his art must certainly have provided mondrian a strong stimulus to do likewise. although toorop's mystical philosophy was similar to theosophy (he was ordained into the rose-et-croix society by sar peladan in ), the older artist's narrative stylizations could not have interested mondrian; he had to find his own way. i - - in the phase of h i s a r t following the summer at domberg i n , mondrian underwent a slow disengagement from the p i c t o r i a l concerns of h i s e a r l i e r landscape painting. the f i r s t painting which heralds mondrian's new colourism i s the l a r g e ( by inches) landscape, woods near oele (s. ) which was probably executed i n , although i t was f i r s t exhibited i n may, ^". the brushwork i s very f r e e , a l t e r n a t i n g between long s w i r l i n g strokes and short blocky accents, often with the raw canvas exposed between strokes . a pulsating yellow sun hangs above the horizon behind a screen of carmine and deep blue trees, creating vibrant i n t e r v a l s of hot and cool colours. a sympathetic c r i t i c reviewing the e x h i b i t i o n described the painting as representing the " v i c t o r y of the cosmic forces of l i g h t over those of f e a r and darkness" and mondrian wrote back to the c r i t i c thanking him f o r h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and i n d i c a t e d that he was undergoing a major evolution of h i s s t y l e . the subject i t s e l f was t y p i c a l of h i s e a r l i e r , more conservative s t y l e , but the expressive colouring and brushwork e f f e c t i v e l y communicated a new f e e l i n g f o r a more d i r e c t symbolic content. another group of paintings from t h i s period, a s e r i e s of hay- stacks (w. ), u t i l i z e s a technique more obviously derived from p o i n t - i l l i s m , where intense reds, yellows and blues are a p p l i e d i n short, blocky brush strokes which are more c o n t r o l l e d and l e s s 'expressive' than those i n woods near oele. the f e e l i n g of these p i c t u r e s , l i k e the s i m i l a r windmill i n sunlight (s. ) of the same year, , i s - - that mondrian i s attempting to r e t a i n the regional subject matter of the the hague r e a l i s t s , while imparting a transcendental meaning.to these motifs through an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of colouring. however impressive these paintings might be, they are u l t i m a t e l y a h a l f - r e a l i z e d compromise between a t r a d i t i o n a l and a contemporary point-of-view. another painting i n t h i s s t r i k i n g group of works done i n (or before may, , when they were exhibited i n the amsterdam s t e d e l i j k exhibition) i s the red tree (s. "̂ *'. the most impressive change i n t h i s painting i s the way that mondrian has f l a t t e n e d out the space by p l a c i n g the r e t i c u l a r network of convoluted branches against an almost monochromatic blue background. instead of moving back through an open space, as has been c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of mondrian's work up to now, the eye i s forced to remain on the surface of the configuration of t w i s t - ing branches. furthermore, we sense very l i t t l e tonal modelling i n t h i s p i c t u r e , something which was present i n the previous p i c t u r e s , despite the i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of colour. the emphasis upon two-dimensional space, unnatural colouring, and an absence of t o n a l modelling takes mondrian's s t y l e c l o s e r to that of the dutch s t y l i s t s and toorop, although the subject matter again maintains mondrian*s strong l i n k s with t r a d i t i o n a l motifs. another s e r i e s of paintings, water colours and drawings of t h i s period were centered around flower studies. structured s i m i l a r l y to the red tree, the flowers were almost always done as s i n g l e items set - - against a monochromatic background. the singularity of the flowers allowed mondrian to penetrate as never before into the detailed structure of the subject. every petal, every twist of the stem and the structural tension of the whole system were intimately recorded in these works. yet none can really be called academic studies. as a series, and as individual works, they a l l seem to be a pains- taking attempt to capture the inner being of the personae of the subject through its physical structure^. nor does i t end here. these flower studies offer the most convincing testimony that mondrian at this time was attempting to introduce or at least experiment with a more obviously literary symbolism in his work, something which he had assiduously avoided up to this time. the flower as a symbolist device was a favorite motif in symbolist literature and painting of the late nineteenth century. an example, already cited, was the dying sunflower used as the cover design for the van gogh retrospective in amsterdam in . the dying flower has also entered mondrian's repertory, both as a dying chrysan- themum and a dying sunflower, and both rather naively empathetic. an illustration of the kind of empathetic imagination that mondrian is putting into these flowers is offered in one of his own descriptions of a painting of a dying chrysanthemum (s. ). he relates that he wanted to convey the idea of l i f e and death through a great white fading crysanthemum seen against a bright background near a black curtain. the flower was like a ghostly corpse in silhouette,, withered, with green leaves hanging down like the bony arms of a skeleton. . - - the obvious literary effects explored in this piece are paralleled by his evolution tryptich of (s. ). evolution stands as one of the most unusual accomplishments of mondrian's oeuvre . by far the largest work that he had ever done, i t consists of three panels, each almost six feet by three feet, and since the nude female figure on each panel is cut off at the thighs and f i l l s the whole painting, they are almost twice l i f e size. in this overpowering scale and in their s t i f f , symmetrical and frontal pose, the figures have the static monumentality of egyptian sculpture. on the shoulders of each of the figures stand simple geometric occult symbols which seem to have intimate significance in relation to his theosophical beliefs. the only pictures that this painting relates to are a large painting of a red mill executed in (s. , w. ) and, to a lesser extent, a painting of a church facade at domberg (s. ) probably done at the same time, although seuphor dates i t at . these three pictures are particularly interesting because they reveal a strange mixture of proto-cubism and the monumental stylisms of jan toorop, or more specifically, they look as though edvard munch's madonna were painted by ferdinand hodler. carefully articulated planes and an unusually shallow space refer to his slight awareness of cubism but these paintings are equally or more so involved with dutch stylism, which was the opposing camp to realism . besides the monumental size, the colours also relate to the decadent stylists of the time. evolution is dominantly mauve and the domberg church (s. ) is lavender, pink and turquoise. unlike the fauve and pointillist works that characterized mondrian's 'modern' works - ^ up to this time, these paintings have none of the striking oppositions of hot and cool colouring nor the rough and spontaneous brushwork. the colour is applied flatly, with a relative lack of modulation. the pictures are finished off with a severe emphasis of the outlines of the structures, which destroys the loose atmospheric qualities of the fauve paintings. mondrian is now far from his the hague realist style; especially in evolution, where he comes closest to the feeling of the fin-de-siecle symoblists, a feeling which is by , sadly outmoded and indicates mondrian's basic naivity and confusion as to how to create a satisfactory harmony of form and content, a problem which he is to solve gradually in the next two major evolutions of his style; from cubism to neo-plasticism. in mondrian's friend and admirer, conrad kickert, an influential art critic, founded the circle of modern art (modem kunstkring) in which mondrian, toorop, sluyters and kickert were members of the managing committee. when the first exhibition was held in amsterdam in october, , i t was in honour of paul cezanne and featured twenty-eight of his canvases, along with works by george braque and picasso, who carried cezanne's discoveries into cubism, and andre derain, raoul dufy and vlamnick, who by this time had begun to move away from the colourism of their fauve period. it is incon- ceivable that for this important exhibition mondrian would have selected anything less than those pictures which, in his mind, were the most important of his whole career. the titles of the six pictures which he - - exhicited were: flowers, landscape of dunes. dunes. mill. church. and evolution . it i s highly likely that the mill and church are those just discussed and the presence of evolution, which of a l l his major paintings is the most isolated, shows that he regarded at this time that his recent symbolist and stylist direction to be the most viable. he was aware in a superficial way of the contemporary importance of cubism but his increasing yearning for a more conceptual rather than a visual art kept him at f i r s t from exploring fully the possibilities of cubism. when mondrian thought of a conceptual style he naturally thought in terms of the literary stylisations of toorop, but we have seen that he even attempted to compromise this by stylizing his traditional subject matter to give i t more iconological significance, and thus the result was somewhat hybrid and unresolved. but direct contact with the cubist works by braque and picasso in this moderne kunstkring exhibition convinced him that he was on the wrong track. he saw that the cubist handling of space and structure was more than a new variation upon an old theme - i t signified a totally new approach to the essential act of picture-making, an approach which devalued both iconology and appearance of the world and concentrated a l l of its energies upon the organization of pictorial elements for their own sake. and from this realization mondrian was finally able to evolve a concept- ual art that did not rely upon iconology or symbolism; rather i t rested only upon the organization of the mechanics of image-construction accord- ing to pre-determined, universal laws. this realization came to fruition a few years later when he evolved his theories of neo-plasticism. but - - n e o - p l a s t i c i s m d i d n o t s u d d e n l y a p p e a r t o t h e a r t i s t i n a v i s i o n . i t was t h e r e s u l t o f an e m p i r i c a l s t u d y o f cubism wedded w i t h a h e i g h t e n e d sense o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l g o a l s o f h i s a r t . chapter i i i : cubism in paris, the development of form ( - ). - - the next phase of mondrian*s development, from the f a l l of to the spring of , most of which was spent in paris, witnessed the dramatic turn of his art from stylism to cubist abstraction. after seeing his work stand next to the cubist works of braque, picasso and their predessessor, cezanne, in the moderne kunstkring exhibition of , mondrian turned wholeheartedly to a disciplined and exhaustive study of cubism. to do this he realized that he would have to move to paris, where the f i r s t stage of cubist experiment, analytical cubism was, in , almost at its f u l l maturity. mondrian, however, didn't wait until he arrived in paris before he began his cubist experiments. between the moderne kunstkring of october, and his arrival in paris in late winter or early spring of , he embarked suddenly upon some cubist studies that were directly influenced by the paintings by braque and picasso (in a l l likelyhood their 'hollow' cubist works of to rather their more recent flatter analytical works of ) in the show, giving up the symbolist and stylist direction that he was following. most important, from this point on, mondrian's work had a steadily evolving but thoroughly consistent and singular direction which reintegrated his work after the rather spotty character i t displayed in the few years after / . this singularity of purpose was to place his work as one of the major accomplishments of modern art. the most important factor about cubism that affected mondrian's art is the fact that rather than interpret reality in terms of the mean- ing of the outside world, i t interpreted reality in terms of art - - - specifically painting. expanding upon cezanne's innovations, the cubists braque and picasso in began to reconstruct their motifs into an order which recognized the primacy of the flatness of the canvas support. beginning in with modelled 'cubic' forms in a 'hollow' space, they increasingly brought their depicted forms into unity with the flatness of the canvas support, and by the illusionistic space in their works was considerably contracted"''. braque and picasso 'composed' their works by freely altering the shape of reality rather than by carefully positioning realistically- rendered objects in a realistically-ordered space, which was the french tradition of manet and degas, and which found a counterpart in holland with breitner and mondrian himself. while i t i s true that the dutch stylists, especially the mural painters associated with a.p. berlage, were approaching abstracted pictorial design in terms of the flat surface of the wall or picture support, these-designs were almost always dependant upon an inconological significance apart from the design itself; something that mondrian had reacted against until his short-lived stylist works of and which he would again react against when he turned to cubism . mondrian's training, his early influence by the hague school and his basic anti-literary sensibility (confused, as we have seen, by the literary leanings of theosophy) had conditioned his way of (seeing in the visually realistic miliou of atmospheric impressionism. so even though cubism was approaching the act of painting and the flat surface of the support from a purely abstracted and structural point-of-view, the fact that - - i t was without literary overtones made i t more accessible to mondrian's sensibility. furthermore, the subjects of the cubist works by braque and picasso, the s t i l l - l i f e s and the landscapes, the same order of subject matter that had absorbed mondrian a l l his l i f e . the composit- ional interpretation of these motifs from a purely abstract rather than a strictly visual or impressionistic manner must have interested mondrian as being a fruitful direction which he had not yet explored^. it would also be f a i r to add that mondrian's sudden attraction to cubism was quite likely stimulated by a desire to free himself from what he had come to realize was an archaic pictorial and artistic out- look, and assume a modern artistic position. so long as he was isolated in the dutch landscape tradition this was not important to him but as his intellectual horizons broadened and he came into contact with the modern spirit that motivated the international art nouveau style (encountered through his friendship with toorop) and the avant-guard in paris (encountered through the art critic conrad kickert), modern- ism and the approach of a new age was an increasing preoccupation with mondrian. above a l l , his committment to theosophy in these years also committed him to the theosophical premise that there is an evolution of the consciousness of mankind through an increasing mastery over the environment . when mondrian speaks of progress he always means i t in this larger sense that he as an artist had to improve his karma, and that of general mankind, by propelling the progress of consciousness through his art. it is with this missionary zeal that he applied - - himself to his role as an artist, a role towards which he concentrated a l l of his energies a l l of his l i f e . the point of departure for mondrian's cubist period is unanimously taken to be the s t i l l - l i f e , ginger pot i (s. ). although this painting is inspired by cubism, the actual understanding of the formal inventions of cubism in this picture is quite superficial. apart from the accent upon line and planar structure which gives i t a psuedo- cubist appearance, i t is in fact a reaffirmation of the kind of open, volumetric, atmospheric space which characterized his early period. instead of reconstructing the visual fact into a pictorial fact he has resolutely maintained the visual order of things in this picture, an order in which the eye understands a logical displacement of objects in space. in seme ways, particularly in the handling of the drapery in the foreground, this picture is closer in feeling to cezanne than i t is to braque and picasso, but i t would not be long before mondrian was able to make the transition from this protocubism to the more advanced cubism of the parisian avant-guard. the structuring of the more abstract background into rectangular compartments bordered by horizontals and verticals hints at what was to come. the second version of this s t i l l - l i f e , ginger pot> ii (s. ), did not immediately follow the f i r s t version which seems to have been done in holland prior to his departure for paris. for on august , , when mondrian was in paris, he sent a letter to conrad kickert - - stating that he was s t i l l at work on the s t i l l - l i f e . the latter was most likely the second version and was completed by october of the same year and included in the modern kunstkring show in amsterdam. several months, therefore, f a l l in between the two pictures. a comparison of the two pictures shows the advances that mondrian had made in this relatively short span of time. although the turquoise of the ginger pot remains in the second pot, the overall colour scheme of the second pot is much more subdued, tinted out with whites and umbers and ochres, the standard cubist palette at this time. but the most striking and crucial change comes in the handling of space. mondrian had abstracted to the point that there are almost no recog- nizable objects in the pictures at a l l . except for the gingerpot, which is only hinted at, the rest of the elements in the s t i l l l i f e arrangement are reduced to geometrical stylizations which have only the barest resemblance to their original structure. instead of the hollowed spacial structure of the f i r s t s t i l l - l i f e , the second has been flattened to a considerable degree, although not as much as others in the same period which will be discussed later. instead of depending upon the broad, virtuoso strokes of the f i r s t version, in the second picture mondrian has drawn, redrawn and drawn again, establishing the lines that he wants to keep, then f i l l i n g in the spaces with colour. this had tended to create a schematized molecular structure of rect- angular or wedge-shaped compartments which are frontally aligned, and - - thus show l i t t l e feeling for stereometric projection back into space. this tendancy was to become a feature of his paris paintings for the next two years, and we shall see that a few months later, in the spring of , mondrian will begin to use the motif of the facade, which could be easily adapted to a two-dimentional compartmentaliz- ation. these s t i l l - l i f e s , then, do not really represent the motifs that were to play a significant part in his cubist paintings. much more important were the series of apple trees (single or in groves), facades and scaffoldings which gave a stronger feeling of a geomet- rically-ordered surface, with strong vertical and horizontal align- ments, and in the case of the facades, a literally flat surface which required l i t t l e spacial illusionism. this subject matter which has a flatness to i t to begin with, in contrast to the 'hollow' space (the space between things) of the s t i l l - l i f e motif that contradicts the flatness of the analytical cubist method, dominated his paintings until he returned to domberg in . the fact that there the 'hollow' space of the seascape forced him to break up the flatness of his parisian works only goes to illustrate the importance that the motif of the facade played in conditioning the formal structure of his art. the translation of the facades, for instance blue facade of / (w. ), into the two-dimentional schema of the cubist composition was a fairly simple task, and the choice of this kind of subject matter primarily for its conduciveness to a two-dimensional outlook is implied - - in the symbolic neutrality of these pieces . the cityscape of facades is essentially a field of molecular units of horizontal and vertical forces. coincidentally, this was also the basic 'look' of the / cubist works of picasso and braque and also such mannered cubist works of gleizes, gris and delaunay. mondrian, whose works prior to were compositions of monumental images fielded against empty space (e.g. the red mill of or evolution of ), seems to have immediately identified the 'over- a l l ' molecular look of horizontal-vertical stresses with subject matter that easily adapted to this pictorial look with a minimum distortion of the native structure and appearance of the motif. from / we notice that he uses the motif of the trees, two- dimensional yet familiar to his earlier work, then after he is confidently settled into his new style by / , he begins to use buildings and facades. among the earliest of the abstracted tree paintings is apple trees in bloom (s. cat. ), which was included in the moderne kunstkring exhibition along with s t i l l - l i f e with ginger pot ii. and thus falls in between his arrival in paris in the spring of and the f a l l show in amsterdam . there is a more painterly version of this subject titled grey tree (w. ,) which is the precident, and which ties the more abstract version to the source of this motif, found in the fauvist red tree (s. ) of . this piece was one of mondrian's f i r s t explorations with shallow space, for the blue - - backdrop to the tortured branches of the red tree acts more as a flat screen than endless space. similarly, in grey tree the spaces between the branches seem to be as dense a material as the branches themselves. the background then, i s almost on a plane equal to the tree, or, depending upon how one looks at the picture, the tree seems to be inscribed into the background. the necessary provisions are therefore set up for the more radical and abstract design of apple trees in bloom, and a similar painting, flowering trees (s. ). the lineage between apple trees in bloom. flowering trees. grey tree and the more representational red tree of , is most clearly evident in the curvilinear rhythms of the branches and, in fact, the tensions of this linear matrix remains the only contact the painting has had with the original subject. when we look at the paint- ing, apple trees in bloom (s. cat. ), the formal linear structure is built up in terms of the horizontal and vertical linear tensions which form a greek cross in the center of the picture. the subject is organic, so that the lines tend to be more scalloped than strictly geometric, although there is an underlying matrix of geometric lines which accent the predominant motif of the organic curve (the cubist organic curve is fractured, unlike the sinuous organic curve of the art nouveau style). in later paintings using the motif of the facade, where the inorganic geometric matrix is predominant, the curve or short diagonal serves as the accent. in flowering trees (s. ), roughly contemporary to apple trees in bloom, the organic curve seems more in conflict than in harmony with the underlying analytical - - - - geometric matrix . the gradual shift of mondrian's sensibility from the organic to the geometric was not without its problems and doubts, yet the amazing sense of control which enters into every stage of this metamorphosis speaks again for the measure of order which is the cornerstone of mondrian*s temperament. one characteristic of mondrian*s work that is evident from the very beginning is its thorough sense of order. his painting is anything but impulsive. moreover, in the process of ordering the original subject onto the canvas he inevitably reduces i t to its basic components. we have already noticed his tendancy to generalize shapes in the early landscapes and now we notice that this tendancy towards reduction and generalization is also manifested in the cubist works. there i s , however, a major point of difference. in the early landscapes and the 'symbolist* works after he grouped his details into tonal masses, while in the cubist works his sensitivity towards a reductive order is expressed in terms of breaking down structures into their basic linear tensions. the former expresses volumetric and atmospheric 'landscape* space, while the latter expresses a schematization of this space into the analyt- ical two-dimensional medium of the graph paper. the difference is interesting. in the landscapes the ordering tends to be much simpler since i t entails fewer compostional elements, since i t is limited by the logic of appearances and since the landscape motif itself, apart from the ordering of the composition, carries much of the interest in the picture. in the cubist pictures, however, he had many more components which to order. the molecular units defined by the linear tensions require a far more premeditated and subtle ordering, without the visual motif, since the whole interest of the picture is in this ordering of parts. on the other hand, without the limitation imposed by the logic of appearances, mondrian was much freer to let his compositional elements, primarily line, speak for themselves^". this movement towards a greater independance from the logic of appearances and a greater dependance upon the ordering of linear tensions as an end in themselves was the direction which was to lead mondrian into his neo-plastic 'faith , which was essentially a philos- ophy built around the determination of meaningful relations between the 'means' of art, the compositional elements, devoid of any metaph- orical significance. mondrian's moves towards non-figurative abstraction, between his arrival in paris and the winter of / , were inspired not only by the logical development of his own formal sensibility, but also by the increasingly daring abstractions by other artists involved with cubism. by there were already several different camps of cubists in paris, each with its own position: picasso and braque, gleizes and metzinger and the section d'or group, including the puteaux group centered around the duchamp brothers, the 'orphic' cubists ranging from robert delaunay to marc chagall, and amongst others, individuals such as juan gris, louis marcoussis and marie laurencin . they certainly ^ - were not a l l tinited in their understanding of what cubism actually- signified. picasso and braque did l i t t l e prosetylizing, theorizing or exhibiting. this is unusual in view of the fact that there had been a tradition of carefully expounded manifestos accompanying avant-guard movements in painting. there were two groups, however, which took a more theoretic- ally aggressive position towards the new cubist abstractionism. the f i r s t wave of theorizers were the futurists, who had their f i r s t major paris exhibition in february, , about the time mondrian had arrived in the city. the futurists combined some of the formal innovations of cubism with a vitalist, dynamic concept of art and l i f e . the anarchistic, militant tone of futurist art was somewhat alien to the contemplative temperament of mondrian. however, the aesthetics of one of the leading futurists, umberto boccioni, who attempted to express modes of feeling and energy through the unity of a l l objects within an overriding scheme of 'lines of force', might have earned the sympathy of mondrian, or perhaps even inspired him, since in his tree abstractions beginning in the spring of (e.g. flowering trees, s. ) he was also underscoring his motifs with horizontal-vertical 'lines of force' . a second wave of prosetylizing manifested itself in the activ- ities of the section d'or group, which held its f i r s t exhibition in october, . the section d'or was a loose association of artists working in a generally cubistic technique, and who were entertaining - - th e thought of wedding the quasi-geometric character of cubist painting to a more refined aesthetic of pure line and proportion. mondrian, as we have seen, was preoccupied with a similar aim, that i s , reinterpreting a purely formal innovation in terms of an estab- lished set of aesthetic values. the tradition of the theoretical thinking of this group lay in the nabi school, in the writings of serusier and denis and so they were more interested in publicising their ideas, unlike braque and picasso who were more empirical and less given to theorizing ^. the group in consisted of the duchamp brothers; raymond, jacques and marcel, robert delaunay, leger, gleizes, metzinger, kupka, le fauconnier, picabia, lhote, la fresnay, marcoussis and juan gris. picasso and braque, who only exhibited at kahnweiler's gallery were not included in the exhibition. mondrian was not yet recognized by cubist circles since, by october, , he had only been in paris for six months and did not speak french . the significance of the section d'or exhibition is the fact that, with its publicity build-up, i t was the show that established cubism in the public eye and exposed a second flow of cubists, a group who took the ideas of pictorial structure pioneered by picasso and braque and came to their own conclusions about i t in the face of the silence of the latter artists. mondrian, a recent initiate to cubism, is exactly in this position. in this context, the exhibition had a great deal of meaning to mondrian, and i t is inconceivable that he would not = - have followed the l i t e r a t u r e accompanying i t . in a magazine t i t l e d la section d ' o r , published during the e x h i b i t i o n , the c r i t i c marcel raynal gives a sympathetic a p p r a i s a l of some of the p r i n c i p l e s underlying the section d'or a e s t h e t i c . what f i n e r i d e a can there be than t h i s conception of a pure p a i n t i n g , which s h a l l i n consequence be neither d e s c r i p t i v e , nor anecdotal, nor psych- o l o g i c a l , nor moral, nor sentimental, nor educat- i o n a l , nor ( l a s t l y ) decorative? i am not saying that these l a t t e r ways of understanding p a i n t i n g are n e g l i g a b l e , but i t i s incontestable that they are hopelessly i n f e r i o r . p a i n t i n g , i n f a c t , must be nothing but an a r t derived from a d i s - i n t e r e s t e d study of forms: that i s , f r e e from any of the u l t e r i o r purposes i have j u s t ment- i o n e d . . here we have the f i r s t c l e a r e x p l i c a t i o n of the concept of ' p u r e ' p a i n t i n g which had been hovering i n the a i r since the f s, when maurice denis wrote under the t i t l e d e f i n i t i o n of n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l i s m : remember that a p i c t u r e before i t i s a war horse, a naked woman, o r some anecdote, i s e s s e n t i a l l y a f l a t surface covered with colours arranged i n a c e r t a i n order. . gleizes and metzinger, two f a i r l y established a r t i s t s , and members of the section d ' o r group, published a book t i t l e d du cubism a few weeks before the e x h i b i t i o n . this book was to serve as a general d e c l a r a t i o n of p r i n c i p l e s of the group as a whole. in t h e i r book, gleizes and metzinger substantiated these ideas with comments that would l a t e r prove to be more relevant to mondrian's development of cubism than t h e i r own. - - they emphasis the importance of realism to modern painting (we remember that mondrian considered himself a r e a l i s t from the beginning of h i s career), p a r t i c u l a r l y the stream of realism running from courbet through manet to cezanne. this realism i s the "radient r e a l i t y " inherent i n the " p o t e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s enclosed i n the most ordinary objects" . but t h i s r e a l i t y i s not n e c e s s a r i l y the v i s u a l or r e t i n a l q u a l i t i e s of objects; rather i t i s the "luminous s p i r i t - u a l i t y " of the primordial structures and r e l a t i o n s of objects understood by the probing mind of the a r t i s t and revealed i n h i s a r t . their b e l i e f that a r t i s r e a l i t y as understood by the conceptual f a c u l t i e s and not the v i s u a l f a c u l t i e s i s quite i n s i s t e n t , the " v i s u a l world only becomes the r e a l world by the operation of thought" . conceptual a r t i n the past had always been l i n k e d i n the past with l i t e r a r y modes of thinking, since l i t e r a t u r e i s the most s p e c i f i c means of communicating ideas. what gleizes and metzinger have i n mind, however, concerns not so much ideas of things, but rather things which express t h e i r own 'idea' or p l a t o n i c prototype, through t h e i r p h y s i c a l presence. a painting, according to these men, r e f e r s to no u l t e r i o r frame of reference: a painting c a r r i e s within i t s e l f i t s raison d'etre... let the painting imitate nothing and l e t i t present nakedly i t s raison d'etre] ... ... p a i n t i n g i s not - or i s no longer - the a r t of i m i t a t i n g an object by means of l i n e s and colours, but the a r t of g i v i n g to our i n s t i n c t a p l a s t i c consciousness. . these l i n e s sound almost i d e n t i c a l , i n both conception and terminology to ideas formulated i n mondrian's w r i t i n g of a few years l a t e r . - - bat the section d'or cubists never actually allowed their painting to go as far as their theorizing. instead of discarding the l i t e r a l reference to reality altogether they temper the radical- ness of most of the book with one sentence which reveals the fear they felt about the thought of a completely non-figurative art: nevertheless, let us admit that the reminiscence of natural forms cannot be absolutely banished; as yet, at a l l events. an art cannot be raised a l l at once to the level of a pure effusion. . this contradiction of aims and practical results is probably why mondrian complained that the cubists "did not accept the logical consequences of their own discoveries" . although of this group kupka had begun painting non-figurative works as early as and delaunay his simultaneous discs by , i t was not really until mondrian evolved his neo-plastic style that the theories of the section d'or cubists were consistently fulfulled, and even the works of and was far more advanced towards a pure painting than the mannered cubism of the section d'or or although he received scant attention in paris. in the spring of mondrian exhibited at the twenty-ninth a . salon des independants . guillaume appolinaire, reviewing the exhibition for mont .joie, wrote: the very abstract cubism of mondrian - he is dutch (cubism, as we know, has made its entrance into the amsterdam museum; while here the young painters are jeered, there the works of george braque, picasso, etc. are exhibited with rembrandts); now mondrian, off-spring of cubism does not imitate the cubists. he seems to have been particularly influenced by picasso, but his personality remains - -. entirely his own. his trees and his portrait of a woman show a sensitive intellectualism. this cubism has taken a different path from the one that braque and picasso seem to be taking, with their interesting present explorations. . in this article apollinaire not only notices that mondrian's work already proclaims an advanced and individual kind of abstraction, but he also notices that this abstraction was moving in quite a different direction than that of picasso and braque . the sensitive intellect- ualism which apollinaire picks out as a dominating quality would seem to describe the rigorous order and organization by which mondrian reduces his subjects to their essential elements. this, we have noticed, has been a remarkable characteristic of his / tree paintings. however, the reference to a portrait of a woman, which probably refers to the nude of (s. ), is an example of mondrian's "intellect- ualism" at i t s weakest. the handling of the eyes and the mouth is a retrograde stylization which refers back to the stylistic abstractions of the evolution panels of . the linear matrix of this painting, unlike the tree or facade works, has only the slightest reference to the structure of the original motif, and thus appears rather astringently manneristic, with an arbitrary underscoring of the subject in order to achieve the appearance of a cubist canvas. this feeling always remained as long as mondrian maintained the explicite reference to the original subject. once the subject is discarded, and the subject begins to disappear in the spring of , the 'checkerboard' scoring of lines across the surface of the canvas makes more sense in relation to its own rationale. - - by he called his pictures 'compositions', thus removing the representative function of the picture further from the function of the subject and closer to the fact of the pictorial construction itself, and in doing so moved much closer to the concept of 'pure' painting propounded by the section d'or group . yet mondrian was s t i l l concerned with the shape of outer reality, no matter how far from reality these pictures may seem. his interpretations were not what one would call an expressive order, of the nature of such a man as vlaminck, or even the free contructive direction picasso finally took. they are cool, objective, almost painfully objective studies of the quintessence of natural forces distilled through the process of art, specifically painting. the same subjects, by increasingly based upon facades and buildings, are incessantly repeated, becoming more and more dominated by an intellectual filtering of the original visual impression. the loosely conceived curvelinear schema which in flowering trees of verged upon being fractured arabesques, now become more regularized half-circles (e.g. in s. , ), and serve more as a means of accenting the dominant horizontal-vertical linearity. there are a group of tree compositions executed in the spring of , for example oval composition with trees (s. , w. ), which mark a point of transition between theorganic and the geometric, between the representative and the abstract, and more important, between mondrian the mature follower of braque and picasso and mondrian the innovator in his own right. oval composition with trees exposes - - . composition (tableau i ) , . o i l on canvas, x i n s . - the filtering process between mondrian's interest in the structure of the original subject and his totally free inventiveness of linear play. the business of the branches of the original subject (s. cat. ) are certainly matched by the business of the linear structure in this painting, but the activity of the lines are less concerned with the logic of trunks and branches than they are with their own inner logic as scrambled ziggurat-formations. moreover, the colour in this painting is much lighter than preceeding works and applied in a much looser manner, freeing the linear structure from any implication of tonal space. the next phase of his development, the one which begins to show mondrian as an innovator, is exemplified by composition xiv (w. ), which was probably executed in the summer of . the original motif of trees now is almost completely obscured, betrayed only by the scattering of scalloped lines. the linear network is now free of the logic of the subject, yet at the same time i t is taking upon itself an even stricter order from an independant source. instead of following a free descriptive role, as in the 'liberated' line of kandinsky, mondrian's line takes upon itself new responsibilities of delineating regularized units of surface space . it does not act so much on its own initiative as i t functions as an activator of contained and open areas; that i s , the incisive instrument of a search for order. this shows to be particularly true of the paintings of facades that follow this painting in the summer or f a l l of . blue facade (w. ) - - and oval composition with bright colours (s. ) are almost exclusively composed of horizontal-vertical lines accented very sparsely with inclining or curving lines, a situation easily explained when we realize that they derive from architectural motifs. yet again, like the tree abstractions, these motifs are present in the paintings only through the ideosyncrasies of design such as the v-shaped configuration in top half of oval composition with bright colours and the symmetrically paired blocks in the bottom of blue facade (the derivation of these blocks from the original subject is indicated in a preliminary sketch (w. figure ). otherwise the spacing of the lines follows ein intuitive feeling for the tensions of open and compressed spaces on the surface area of the canvas. these paintings have also gotten away from the tightness of molecular structure of his earlier cubist works, and work with a more looser and broadly organized interplay of areas of compressed spaces carefully balanced by areas of fluid, open spaces. the paintings of mondrian's 'mature' period, executed over the winter of / and the spring of , developed into a figur- atively abstract and an almost virtual two-dimensional format. these paintings, of which composition (s. w. ) and composition (s. ) might be considered typical, differs from works of the previous year in two ways. they eliminate any remaining references to tonal modelling which are s t i l l a part of works like composition xiv (w. ) or tableau (s. ). this asserts the two-dimensionality of the image and releases the linear structure to act purely as line in - -, itself rather than line as descriptive border to a structured object. secondly, these works are much more tightly and self-consciously ordered than the loose, transparent quality of earlier works such as oval composition with bright colours (s. ). this indicates that mondrian was beginning to give his attention more seriously to the ordering and balancing of the rectangular compartments rather than concentrating upon the linear tensions of the motif. this is an important change of attitude, one that is particularly manifest in composition , yet i t would not be completely resolved for a few more years. the main issue with the parisian pictures, then, is the degree of freedom from which mondrian can release the rationale of his compositions from the rationale of the world of depicted objects. there remains one area of structural consideration to be resolved i f the image is to be totally free from a metaphorical reference to 'depicted' forms and a world outside the fact of the picture itself. this refers to the necessary virtual identification of the image with the surface of the canvas support. in his paris pictures, for example composition # . mondrian seems to have created a completely non-figurative image. this picture even at f i r s t sight looks like his later completely non-figurative paintings of / such as composition with grey and light brown (w. a) or composition in grey (s. ). the fact that the space of the image is separated from the virtual surface of the canvas by a peripheral - - fuzz, however, implies that the image is metaphorical, i t relates to a point of reference that is other than the fact of the canvas as an object in itself. since the image, so to speak, 'blooms' in the center of the picture field, i t is other than the picture field when the latter is recognized as a flat, physical rectangle. in this sense the image is figurative and not actual; the distance implied in the image related to the support is visual rather than physical. one s t i l l looks into these pictures rather than onto them, and as long as this condition holds true, mondrian's abstraction s t i l l has its basis in the world of depicted forms. it would not be until , with the canvas composition; colour planes with grey contours (w. ), that mondrian was to annihilate a l l illusionistic, visual space by extending the lines of the grid to the edges of the picture field, and thus render the space of the image virtually identical to the surface of the canvas. for the time being, however, the freshness of this new abstraction, albeit approximate, satisfied mondrian's tendancy towards 'pure' painting. furthermore, mondrian's theorizing had not yet developed to a point where i t would reveal the contradictions of this approximation, and force him into a completely concrete, non-figurative construction. linked with this question of the identification of the image with the virtual surface of the canvas, is the question of picture 'gravity' and its relation to visual painting. mondrian's development from to is a classic example of the evolution of picture gravity from a visual mode of painting towards a concrete constructive mode of - - painting. picture 'gravity' is the sense that the depicted image makes in terms of the world of objects resting in visual space. the visual mode of seeing, of course, recognizes the existence of an 'up' and a 'down' as the condition of the world of l i t e r a l experience. and i t is our experience in the world of literal objects that gives us our sense of balance. when we depict the visual order of reality in paintings we demand a gravitational center in the image in order to remind us of the force of gravity operating in the visual order of things. for the concrete constructed image, however, gravity within the image is irrelevant, because the image is a part of the physical being of the canvas, which of course hangs on the wall or sits on the easel. in the concrete painting one does not react to the gravity operating within the frame of the picture, but rather one is satisfied by the position of the canvas as a complete object, of which the image is an integral part. but we have already noticed how the periph- eral fuzzing tended to breed a distinction between the image and the canvas as an object, and thus destroy the concrete unity. therefore there was s t i l l needed an image which has its own gravitational logic. sure enough, when we study even one of the most extreme abstract- ions of the early parisian pictures, composition . we find that there is a very subtle horizontal weight just below center. the composition at f i r s t glance seems to be without a central locus, i t seems to be floating somewhere behind the surface of the canvas. but under closer observation we find that the top half of the picture is comprised - - - - of staggered but fairly evenly spaced compartments, the majority being square. the bottom third of the compostion is comprised of vertically-aligned and vertically 'stacked rectangular compartments. the middle section has a strength of character which the other sections lack. here we find very definitely horizontally-aligned tensions, strengthened by a sense of uniqueness given to the individual propor- tions of the compartments. the central horizontal compartment, the largest and the longest in the composition, has an unusual 't' formation projecting up into its belly. above i t is an odd arrange- ment of a rectangle symmetrically framed by two horizontally-bisected squares. below and right of center is a long, narrow horizontal rectangle with some vertical abutments at the right end and a tiny ochre square just under the left tip. it is in the eccentric tensions of this middle section that the structural rationale of the whole composition is located, and this location is the conventional gravit- ational focus of visual painting. this centrally-located tension of forces places composition within the tradition of conventional figurative painting, despite the extreme abstraction and the apparent randomness of composition. thus the paris pictures, even though they do not look figurative and visual, they in fact are, even i f i t means that they only recognized metaphorical gravity. by cubism had taken painting further away from a traditional pictorial space than any other move- ment in painting, but the fact that i t s t i l l maintained a metaphorical space kept i t within the traditional realm of painting as a metaphorical - - medium. the logical consequences of the theories of gleizes and metzinger and others who advocated a 'pure' painting which expresses its own integral raison d'etre, remained unfulfilled. mondrian s own painting, which had become more abstract that the majority of the cubists, excepting delaunay and kupka, had nevertheless reached a strange impasse, an impasse created by the fact that his work s t i l l incorporated metaphorical space. this meant that the lines and colours, the 'means* of his art, could not be handled directly, and in a purely constructive manner because they had not yet become independant from a visual system which exists outside the fact of the picture as an end in itself. but in the experiments of the next few years, mondrian was to evolve past the cubist metaphorical space to a treatment of space which would be identical to that of the surface of the canvas. chapter iv: the evolution of neo-plasticism, the means becomes the ends. u - q . - - in the spring of mondrian left for holland to visit his dying father. he then spent the summer months at the dutch beaches of domberg and sheveningen. there is no doubt that he had planned to return soon to his studio in paris where he had l e f t a l l of his work behind in a crucial stage of development, but the sudden out- break of war in august trapped him in neutral holland. between this f i r s t summer of the war and mondrian's return to paris in february, , the character of his paintings and his ideas underwent a decisive evolution. the essence of this evolution lies in the integration of his theosophical beliefs with the formal character of his painting. researches into theosophy and related beliefs were always of prime importance to mondrian^". we can be sure that the absence of a direct involvement of these beliefs, which were focussed upon a basic principle of l i f e , from his role as an artist towards which he directed a l l of his energies a l l of his l i f e , would have meant that both his art and his l i f e would have been incomplete. we have seen how mondrian had attempted to link his theosophical beliefs with the subjects of his painting in the period extending approximately from to u, particularly in the evolution triptych of . sensing the weak- nesses of the basically literary interpretation of these paintings, mondrian turned to the essentially anti-literary formalism of cubism in the period extending from f a l l of to spring of . in this cubist period we see no direct involvement of theosophy and its - - principles i n his painting. this does not mean that he ceased to think about theosophy. rather, he separated i t from his art. he developed his art from within i t s e l f instead of directing i t from a point of reference outside the formal exingencies of the painting. the painting, from the classic cubist point-of-view, i s at i t s purest when i t expresses i t s own 'raison d'etre' rather than an u l t e r i o r content. in effect, this meant that the painting would cease to have any representative function. that this was the direction i n which mondrian was pushing his painting, i s evident from the consistent removal of a l l links that the f i n a l painting might have with the original motif from which i t was born. this reductive process reached a climax i n the abstractions done i n paris i n the spring of . at the same time, however, this process of reduction was creating an ever-widening gap between any possible synthesis of form and content i n the conventional l i t e r a r y sense. i f his art was to have a completeness that would include as a part of i t s meaning the philosophical principles that guided his daily l i f e , yet not compromise the l o g i c a l evolution of his means of expression, mondrian had to recognize and develop a category of meaning and representation other than the l i t e r a r y . during his two-year period of intense activity i n paris, the rapid and exciting development of the formal aspects of his art quite l i k e l y distracted him from seriously broaching the question of content. but l e t us imagine him now, i n the summer of , return- ing after a two-year absence to the expansive coastal beaches of his - - homeland, to domberg, where i n he f i r s t began to bring theosophy to the foreground of his art. cut off from his studio and the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the parisian art world, yet f u l l of the experience of the past few years spent i n paris, we can imagine him coming face-to-face with the question of content, of the harmony between man and the universe. in fact, one might even say that the conflict between his immediate desire to 'express' the feeling of the beaches and the inadequacy of the kind of art that he had developed i n paris to do so, provided him with the shock that caused him to bend his attention to the question of the synthesis of form and content for the rest of his l i f e . the f i r s t direct indication of this awareness of the need f o r a synthesis of form and content, a bridging of the gap between the world of s p i r i t u a l meditation and the formal evolution of art, comes i n the notes he jotted down alongside sketches of the sea i n his sketchbooks of . an artist who bends his art to the service of doctrinal instruction, he writes, w i l l find that his art w i l l degenerate. on the other hand, the a r t i s t must not lack s p i r i t u a l enterprise. but when the two paths j o i n , that i s to say, when the a r t i s t finds himself on that plane of evolution where conscious and direct s p i r i t u a l a c t i v i t y becomes possible, we are i n the presence of ideal art. . mondrian knew i n what he had to work f o r , but as yet he was s t i l l searching for the proper appearance that this 'ideal art' had to take. the immediate p i c t o r i a l reaction to the change of environ- ment between paris and holland was quite naturally reflected i n a return to the theme of the sea, but even i n these works we see a more analytical and penetrating view of nature that stands i n contrast to the emotional colouring of marine paintings done before his move to paris. despite the great feeling of s p i r i t u a l release which mondrian f e l t upon his return to the beaches of domberg, his experience with cubism i n paris led him to search for the essential structural principles of nature i n the s p i r i t of objective analysis rather than subjective interpretation. in his autobiographical essay written i n , toward the true vision of reality, this feeling i s quite obvious. observing sea, sky and stars, i sought to indicate their plastic function through a multiplicity of crossing verticals and horizontals. impressed by the vastness of nature, i was trying to express i t s expansion rest and unity. . as this statement indicates, the change of environment con- stituted a change of space. from the beginning of this series of drawings and paintings related to the ocean, the problems encountered by this dramatic change of space eventually forced him to abandon nature as an inceptive motif for his art, and base his work entirely upon the underlying operations of nature and art rather than the appearances of nature and art. in the city of paris mondrian had come into contact with the = - material world of things, of objects, of surfaces, of those structures that were close to the eye and comprehended particle by particle. if we recall the kind of subject matter that formed the basis of the paris pictures; the trees, the facades and the scaffoldings, we cannot f a i l to notice that they are a l l composed of surfaces; f l a t , reticular and rather close to the eye. by early we noticed that this surface, through abstraction from the original sketches, was brought almost, but not quite, as close to the viewer as the surface of the canvas i t s e l f . on the whole, the kind of cubism which mondrian had evolved by , the division of the surface of the canvas into a molecular grid, bears a direct and harmonious relationship to the subject matter of this period. however, once out of the compact and physical city of paris mondrian was suddenly struck by the limitless expanse of ocean, dunes and sky. on the beach of domberg he was i n a world where everything i s distant, where space i s expanding volumes rather than limited surfaces, and therefore must be comprehended at once as a unified and total feeling. the space of the beaches i s hollow, characterless and general:- the exact antithesis of the specific and physical space of the c i t y . yet i n terms of his art, mondrian, fresh out of the cubist atmosphere of paris, s t i l l carried over his habit of depicting nature i n terms of this molecular vision of multiplicity. with these two important factors i n mind; the f i r s t being mondrian's awareness of the need to equate his art with the structural principles of nature, that i s , to cease to represent nature but rather to be guided by the principle operations of nature; the second being the inherent contradiction between the space of the domberg landscape and the flat molecular grid of his cubist technique, let us invest- igate his pier and ocean drawings of . there is one major change in appearance between the pier and ocean drawings of - and the paris paintings of early . the tightness of the interlocking lines that served to delineate flat enclosed rectangles in the paris works had become loosened in the dutch works. the horizontals and the verticals were freed from each other. instead of the verticals crossing the horizontals at the ends of the lines as in the paris paintings, the verticals now move across the horizontals in a more haphazard fashion, usually near the center, giving the familiar 'plus-minus or cruciform shapes that characterize these drawings. the lines now float in a looser spacial relationship instead of being tied to the surface of the canvas, and to each other. whereas in the parisian paintings the reticular configurations of lines were the result of a structural analysis of an actual structural concrete surface, we find that in these seascape drawings mondrian is s t i l l describing the visual situation in terms of the linear network (albeit looser) even though the seascape offers no actual structural surface that would justify such a linear analysis. it would seem, therefore, that the linear network now has nothing to do with the structure of appearances, but instead is an elemental part of his artistic vocabulary; a means with its own justification apart from the visual situation which i t is supposed to be describing. this of course brings us to the crucial question of content. mondrian does in fact introduce another function to this cruciform network of lines, a symbolic function, which is mentioned retrospectively in the passage quoted above and contemporaneously in his notebooks of * he assigns a masculine positive significance to the vertical element and a feminine negative significance to the horizontal element, exemplified by the horizontal line of the sea. alone, each of these elements brings about imbalance and thus unhappiness. together, they cancel the dynamic force of each other's singularity, bringing about repose, asexuality and happiness. these notions are the germ of his more mature reflections and will be discussed in more detail in a following argument. the cruciform shape at this time, more accurately serves a formal rather than a symbolic function, as we shall see. these drawings can be said to be more visually oriented than his late parisian pictures, and therefore a slight step backwards i f we agree (this was mondrian's final conclusion) that mondrian's logical development is towards a complete repudiation of visually-based representative art. although the lines carry the all-over effect, they are as a group given tensions, through the length of lines, tightness of inter-linear structure, and the compactness of lines, that end up describing the subject in a visual, indeed impressionistic, manner^. the pier and ocean drawings especially carry this impressionistic =- - feeling. mondrianls sketches were always visually representative, while the final painting was usually extremely abstract. but the • final painting (w. a) that marked the culmination of these sketches is almost more visually-oriented than the preparatory sketches. given the t i t l e , pier and ocean the natural instinct is to try and see these things in the drawing. we do not see a rendering of things in terms of their outlines but instead, like the cubist trees of , we read the shape of things through their linear tensions. we can see that the bottom two-thirds of the picture has more widely spaced crosses than the top, which is somewhat darker in tone because of the more compact placement of lines. the division between these two areas indicates the horizon line between sea and sky. furthermore, at the bottom center running up to the horizon, the vertical lines are longer and thus have more thrust than vertical lines elsewhere in the composition. this, of course, represents the pier. what makes these seascape drawings even more visually-oriented is the fact that he has moved even more emphatically back towards an up-down natural gravity. when he loosened up the rectangular structure of his lines in order to accomodate a more hollow spacial feeling, mondrian was confront- ed with a problem regarding colour. since the lines no longer formed an integral rectangular unit, the integrity of the colour areas, the ability to hold their own shape, was threatened. the colour planes, deprived of their linear boundaries, bleed into and overlap each other, creating an ambiguous, fluctuating surface, alternating in feeling - - . pier and ocean, . crayon, pencil, goache on buff paper x ins. . composition with lines, . oil on canvas, x ins. - - between flat surface and hollow space. this characteristic of undefined colour areas in mondrian's work has already been seen in the peripheral fuzzing of his mature parisian cubist works and in a series of facade paintings executed in - (s. ) where this ambiguity crosses the whole image. for the moment this colour problem was avoided by creating monochromatic paintings. at least the lines floated above a flat, even, non-illusionistic surface, so that the pictorial illusion of the drawings is carried solely by the tensions of the lines as i t is done in conventional drawing. in a painting titled composition and dated , and which is the final outcome of a long series of studies of the facade of the domberg church , colour returns. as hinted in the previous para- graph, the colour bleeds through the openings of the linear network and the lines seem to be floating above a pulsating, changing, illusionistic, volumetric space formed by the various tonal distances of the colours. this loose, metaphorical handling of space is again, like the visual gravity and impressionistic feeling of the pier and ocean pictures, a step back from the logical and final evolution of his style. and with less reason, for the original subject for composition. was a facade proclaiming surface space rather than the hollow space of the seascapes. composition is an important transitional picture proceeding his departure from the painterly picture in , something that makes his loose painterly colouring - - here seem a l l the more archaic. what i t heralds is both a move away from up-down gravity and concentric gravity. despite a slight peripheral fuzzing (this is so slight that mondrian has painted over onto the wooden frame), there is practically no center of interest in this picture, i t seems to have an equal weight dist- ribution of tensions across the surface of the canvas. the fluct- uating tonal distances of the 'floating' colour patches contradicts this lack of centralized tension in the oveiwxll matrix of lines and colours, a factor that emphasises the surface of the canvas rather than drawing the image back into space. it is the last picture that can be described as painterly, and thus i t was probably done just prior to his meeting in with bart van der leek who was working at the same time with hard-edge and flat unmodulated areas of pure hues, and who influenced mondrian to move in the same direction. like the use of colour in composition . the linear structure, s t i l l in the cruciform pattern developed in the summer of , is also incongruous with an emphasis upon the surface of the canvas. we have noted that his lines assumed this cruciform shape in for two basic reasons: the expediency of depicting hollow space and express- ing the neutralization of masculine and feminine forces. the f i r s t , a formal function, is no longer necessary in when his motif is a flat facade. the second, which brings us back to the question of content, has undergone a slight qualification by after mondrian's meeting with dr. m.h.j. schoenmaekers in . - - in the summer of mondrian settled in the artist's colony of laren, just outside of amsterdam. there mondrian met schoenmaekers, a philosopher-mystic who wrote about theosophy and by had already published three books: the new man's faith ( ), the new image of the world ( ), and plastic mathematics ( ). needless to say, mondrian spent long hours in discussion with schoenmaekers, although i t seems that the philosopher's eccentric personality was often at odds with the even, reserved temperament of mondrian . dr. h.l.c. jaffe, in his book de sti. l , documents at length the debts that mondrian's later writings owe, both in terminology and ideas to schoenmaeker's books, particularly plastic mathematics and the new image of the world. despite the seemingly overwhelming evidence that mondrian's ideas originated in plastic mathematics, i t should be remembered that mondrian had already begun formulating the crux of his thought about art in his notebooks of , before he had met schoenmaekers. the most that schoenmaekers did was sharpen his logic and provide him with a clearer terminology. the "plastic mathematics" or "positive mysticism" of schoen- maekers' was a philosophical synthesis of nineteenth century positivism, with its adherance to the primal fact of the physical world, and a unique blend of catholic and theosophical mysticism. it is important to remember here that this synthesis of the inner and outer world, of mind and matter, of form and content is exactly the synthesis that mondrian is trying to achieve in his own art. http://sti. l - > in the new image of the world. schoenmaekers wrote: we now learn to translate reality in our imagination into constructions which are controlled by reason, in order to recover these same constructions later in (given) natural reality, thus penetrating nature by means of plastic vision. . this concept, already outlined by gleizes and metzinger in du cubisme where they spoke of "giving to our instinct a plastic consciousness", is surprisingly similar to, and in the case of gleizes and metzinger, derives directly from, symbolist aesthetics of the late nineteenth century, particularly as found in the poetry of the period. it was the poets even more than the artists who had the most powerful influence in shaping the trends towards occult religions of the time, among them the theosophical movement and the rose-et-croix society. the nabi painters such as paul serusier, maurice denis and emile bernard were intricately involved with these movements along with a return to catholicism, and these men, as art teachers around the turn of the century, inspired the members of the later section d'or group to seek a synthesis of this mystical idealism and the formal evolution of art. mondrian also came into contact with these forces, but because he was always isolated from group efforts (at least until ) his solutions had a more individualistic character. the core of the symbolist aesthetic lies in the notion that a material object can be given a spiritual or transendental significance through fracturing of the poetic syntax whereby the meaning of the object becomes divorced from the natural context and aspired to the level of a - - pure 'idea', an 'idea' that is at the same time substantial, that has a point of reference in the real world yet i s not of i t ^ . schoenmaekers, with his more empirical turn of mind, notably substitutes the term 'constructions' for 'symbol', but the essence of the concept, that pure thought, in order that i t perpetuate itself, requires a reflection of itself in the material world, are the same. jaffe, anxious to establish schoenmaekers as a forerunner of the de sti. l group, attempts to show that the philosopher's descriptions of the relationships of horizontals and verticals that a l l manifest- ations of reality conditioned mondrian's own thinking and had a direct influence upon his art. jaffe quotes schoenmaekers from the new image of the world: the two fundamental, complete contraries which shape our earth and a l l that is of the earth, are: the horizontal line of power, that is the course of the earth around the sun and the vertical, profoundly spacial movement of rays that originates in the center of the sun. . and again from plastic mathematics: the figure, which objectivates the conception of a pair of absolute entities of the f i r s t order, is that of the absolute rectangular construction: the cross. it is the figure that represents the ray-and-line, reduced to an absoluteness of the f i r s t order. . the similarities of this platonic mode of thought to mondrian's own ideas seem obvious at f i r s t glance, especially in view of what we have seen of mondrian's own selection of the cross as being the essential shape that gives meaning and absolute order to the changing appearances http://sti. l - - of nature. but i f we consider that schoenmaekers is a theologian, given to simplifying and condensing a vast and complex philosophical concept, and mondrian is an painter who has to make this concept function as an image on a canvas, we shall see that their application of this concept was not the same. it is not likely that mondrian would have fundamentally disagreed with schoenmaekers. but for mondrian these principles were meant to be applied directly to l i f e through his art, and schoenmaekers could teach him nothing about his art. for schoenmaekers the cross is an image which symbolizes an absolute order, and this cross as an image is directly related to the hierarchic imagery of occult science. the function of this symbol, as we have already noted, is to give the vast, ambiguous scope of the 'spirit* and the imagination a concrete form which can be apprehended a l l at once. but for mondrian, the cross is not a symbol in its own right but rather the result of the operation of the forces of assertion and negation, of the neutralization of a dynamic singular force with its contrary force, in terms of lines on the surface of a canvas. the resulting image is not an end in itself, but rather the result of the creative act brought to the condition of repose. it is true that in his notes mondrian attaches a masculine positive significance to the vertical line and a feminine negative significance to the horizontal line, but this was only for the purpose of analogy, and he carried i t no further than that. -r; - in essence, mondrian s use of these principles is 'construct- ive' in the purest sense. using the language of art, specifically the lines and colours of painting, an image is 'constructed' according to the most general, absolute and essential laws of nature in operation, and not according to the appearances of nature or the appearances of any preconceived symbol. appearances in themselves are particular forms; thus when the artist utilizes a predetermined appearance he is manifesting a personal choice reflecting a ultimately arbitrary subjective judgement rather than absolute universal laws. in , however, mondrian had s t i l l not refined his painting to the point where the constructive functioning of his lines and colours was com- pletely clear to him, and until this does become clear, when he formulates his neo-plasticism by , his theories are not f u l f i l l e d . when he returned to holland in he had dropped the logical formal direction of his cubist abstractions to concentrate upon the new space of the seascape in his painting. together with the hollow, expanding spaee of the seascape he briefly f l i r t s with the idea of entering content into the picture in the form of a plus-^ninus cruciform symbol. by , perhaps inspired by the ideas of schoenmaekers concerning the manifestation of universal laws in the material world, mondrian begins to reapply himself to the problem of developing the formal aspect of his painting. this actually meant reducing the means of his painting to the very basic element of line in itself, straight and without tension; and of colour in itself, without expressive - - implications that so often dominate colour, and of shape in itself the rectangle, which is the result of the interaction of the vertical and horizontal line. this meant eliminating any arbitrary element of his painting and effectively neutralizing as a force in themselves any of the means which he did choose to use. one of the f i r s t arbitrary elements that were to go during this period of experiment in was the painterliness that had characterized his work from the very beginning . mondrian met bart van der leek at the hague in the summer of . a few weeks later they met again at laren where mondrian had previously met schoenmaekers. van der leek had been painting in a two-dimensional figurative style since about . he was one of the stylists grouped around derkinderen and he did murals for the architect a.p. berlage. in compliance with berlage's insistence upon the moral and functional integrity of the wall as a flat surface, van der leek gradually eliminated a l l perspective forshortening, creating flat, two-dimensional images that had clean edges and a reduced colour scheme based upon the three primaries: red, yellow and blue. although his paintings became progressively abstract towards , he always maintained a figurative narrative content consisting of themes of contemporary l i f e and society, themes that reflected a renewed concern amongst the symbolist and stylist factions in holland about society in the modern world, a concern that reflected a major facet of the jugendstil and art nouveau sensib- i l i t y " ^ - . this same feeling was to become manifest in the avid prosetyl- izing of the de sti.jl group, who were mainly artists and architects - - directly influenced by the ideas of berlage, mondrian being the exception. bart van der leek's non-painterly, calculated and tight lines appealed to mondrian, whose attachment to painterly qualities in a picture is the one direct line that runs right through his development from the very beginning, when he was f i r s t influenced by the painterly technique of breitner, van gogh and the hague school. although there were precidents of hard-edge painting before , most obviously art nouveau design and more immediately the work of franc kupka which mondrian must have seen in the section d'or exhibition in the f a l l of , i t was not until he saw the work of bart van der leek in that mondrian became aware of the limitations and arbitrary decisions involved in his painterly approach. later, mondrian described this influence. i arrived at suppressing the closed effect of abstract form, expressing myself exclusively by means of the straight line in rectangular opposition; thus by rectangular planes of colour with white grey and black. at that time, i encountered artists of approximately the same spirit. first van der leek, who, though s t i l l figurative, painted in compact planes of pure colour. my more or less cubist technique - in consequence s t i l l more or less picturesque - underwent the influence of his exact technique. . mondrian realized that the painterly qualities of his cubist paintings, the multiple modulations of colour and line, gave them 'atmosphere', and through this they became 'picturesque', that i s , an interpretation of reality from a visual point-of-view. the mistiness - - of these paintings tended to breed a separation between the viewer and the image that could only be bridged by sentiment and subject- ivity. it was this very subjective bridge between the viewer and the painting that mondrian wanted to eliminate, mondrian wanted to eliminate the 'impressionist feeling in both senses of the term. in his autobiography he describes the impressionist point-of-view as expressing "particular feelings, not pure reality" ^. in this case, the image is a second degree removed from the original situation. it represents a feeling about something filtered through a matrix of personal emotions, rather than the recognition of the fact of the object in itself. the picture becomes an interpretation of an original situation rather than its own original situation . the impressionist point-of-view also implies an atmospheric or visual record of this situation which, since the impressionists running back through delacroix to rubens, has been linked with the painterly picture. by sharpening the focus of his image, so to speak, mondrian not only eliminated the sentimental and subjective distance of his image, but he also moved toward eliminating the implied atmos- pheric space between the image and the surface of the canvas, his last link with traditional painting. this last change did not come immed- iately after he sharpened his edges as we shall see, but i t was a necessary prerequisite for his ultimately two-dimensional works begin- ning in . - - the insistence upon an absolute purity of form which we have already noticed in mondrian*s reduction of line to nothing other than horizontals and verticals, is also the major impetus for an abandonment of the 'painterly picture. mondrian did not eliminate painterliness and traces of fabrication just because he wanted a nice neat picture. it was the creation of a totally new concept of art which required that the constructive elements of the picture be absolutely pure. for example, a line must only be a line; any aberration of its direction, of its edge, or of its surface would turn i t into something else . absolute purity of image is imposs- ible when i t has to be painted on canvas, a mechanical, manual oper- ation, but the fabrication of the image must intervene as l i t t l e as possible in the quality of the final image. the ideal, of course, would be to have some magical machine which would execute the perfect picture. that this thought actually passed through mondrian's mind is a measure of how conscious he was of the radicalness of his position on this point, something that crops up more than once in his / essay built around a trialogue titled natural reality and abstract reality . it is precisely to make i t something different that neo-plasticism is looking for a different technique and a different method of work.(s. page ) the new art requires a new technique: exact plasticism requires machines that are exact. and what is more exact than a machine-made material? (s. page ) you see that the hand of the artist is not absolutely indespensable. (s. page ) - - wouldn't i t be marvellous to discover a machine to which the composer, the true artist, could confide a l l the physical part of his work? (s. page ) the notion that the artist is better off painting with a machine is as heretical a notion today as i t was f i f t y years ago, but for mondrian, art as an absolute and totally committed activity had no room for any arbitrary mystique about the hand of the creator. as these quotations clearly indicate, the crux of mondrian's evolution after , and the hard-edge image is only one of the more obvious manifestations of this evolution, i s the dramatic shift from his role as an artist who interprets the world and transforms i t according to his subjective genius to his role as an artist who manifests (makes obvious) certain self-evident and objective truths of the world that l i e outside the personal and emotional domain of the individual human mind. if by the term "expressionistic" we imply that the artists expresses himself, his own feelings and tastes, in terms of a direct involvement with the materials of expression, we can say that mondrian's attitude is anti- expressionistic. he submits himself to the fundamental laws of picture- making, rather than using the materials of picture-making as an expression of any personal vision . it was in the years to that mondrian spent a l l of his energies discovering and formulating the essential laws of picture-making and finally bridging the gap between the two major phases of his career, between his essentially cubist works and his neo-plastic works. - - although for a l l intensive purposes mondrian ceased to use the visual world as a basis for his art from on, the transition to a totally non-object-art was not as abrupt as i t might have been. there is no doubt that since he now was aware that his goal was, in schoenmaekers words, "to translate reality in our minds into constructions which can be controlled by reason" , i t became evident that merely eliminating the 'impressionistic' and subjective paint- erliness of his earlier work was not enough. in fact, in his earliest 'hard-edge' works of , the invisible brushwork and the sharp edges of the lines and shapes tended to make them seem to 'float' in an illusionistic space that seemed hollower than even his painterly works this presented him with the f i r s t formal problem of this period. it seems most likely that the pictures which followed composition were composition with lines; (s. cat. ), composition with colour planes a and b (s. cat. and ). even in the f i r s t picture, composition with lines , the lines, which resemble the earlier cruciform drawings, have lost the painterly quality that was mondrian's forte up to this point. these same loosely arranged blocky lines are mingled with coloured rectangles in the other two pictures in this group. walsh (p. ) notes that these two pictures must derive directly from composition because like the earlier picture, the colour planes overlap in a way that turns the flat space into a definite volumetric illusionism. but the central feeling of the volumetric space of these pictures gives them more in common with the kind of space experienced - - in the pier and ocean series than in composition . they are the last pictures which are to be based upon sketches taken from nature, i f walsh is right in his estimation that a charcoal drawing (w. ) serves as a preparatory sketch for them . at the same time, or shortly thereafter, mondrian executed five painting consisting of hard-edge colour rectangles, very flatly painted in pastel shades of pink, blue and ochre, similar to the colour rectangles in composition with colour planes a and b. the differences, however, are striking. in composition # with colour planes (w. ). the colour planes no longer overlap, thus making them more consistent with the surface of the canvas; there are no isolated lines present, thus the two-dimensional rectangular shape makes itself more power- fully felt; and there is no center or compositional focal point as in the previously mentioned pictures. in fact the arrangement of the coloured rectangles, although they are fairly uniform in keeping with his elimination of diagonal lines, seems to follow an almost random order. the spacing is irregular and the horizontal-vertical tensions are continually interrupted. the irregular spacing of the rectangles had the effect of accentuating the sense of volume, of infinite space expressed by the white field, and thus making the rectangles 'float'. in his autobiography toward the true vision of reality mondrian articulates quite clearly that the rectangles are "never an aim in themselves but a logical consequence of their determining lines... they appear spontaneously through the crossing of horizontal and vertical - - l i n e s " . in these paintings i n question, however, the ueterm- i n i n g ' l i n e s which create the rectangular shape are absent, and, as mondrian says himself, the rectangles " s t i l l appeared as detached forms against a background" . i t i s r e a l l y only at t h i s time that mondrian begins t o understand the subtle differences between form and space and i t s r e l a t i o n to p a i n t i n g . in the world of v i s u a l apprehension form i s seen as something that i s opposed t o space. when t h i s v i s u a l experience i s transferred to the p a i n t i n g the r e s u l t i s l i k e w i s e , shapes are treated as p a r t i c u l a r forms f l o a t i n g i n an i l l u s i o n i s t i c space. in doing so, the a r t i s t c a r r i e s the f a l l i b i l i t y of human, hence personal and subjective, v i s i o n i n t o h i s a r t , something that mondrian was consciously attempting to eliminate. mondrian was probably quite aware now that as soon as the a r t i s t places a mark upon h i s canvas he sets i n t o being a form that i s opposed t o space, and thus a depicted image, or i n mondrian's terms, a ' p a r t i c u l a r form . up to t h i s point mondrian had e f f e c t - i v e l y n e u t r a l i z e d and eliminated a l l aspects of ' p a r t i c u l a r i t y ' of form from h i s images ( t h i s i s evident when we compare these colour rectangle pictures with the fauve paintings of ) except f o r the one c r u c i a l f a c t o r : that being the opposition of form to space. whether or not an understanding of t h i s f a c t o r was an e x p l i c i t part of h i s ideo- logy i n i s quite uncertain, but much l a t e r , i n retrospect, mondrian i s able to w r i t e : a c t u a l l y a l l i s space, form as w e l l as what we see as empty space. to create unity, a r t has to follow not nature's aspect but what nature r e a l l y i s . appearing i n oppositions, nature i s •= - u n i t y : form i s l i m i t e d space concrete o n l y through i t s d e t e r m i n a t i o n . a r t has to determine space as w e l l as form and t o c r e a t e the equivalence of these two f a c t o r s . . the answer t o t h e problem o f t h e appearance o f the c o l o u r e d r e c t a n g l e s as p a r t i c u l a r forms f l o a t i n g i n space, and thus opposed t o space, i s met i n e x a c t l y these terms i n one of the most important p i c t u r e s of h i s c a r e e r , composition; colour planes w i t h grey contours of (w. , s. c a t . ) . when we compare t h i s p a i n t i n g t o composition w i t h c o l o u r planes of we can see what a v a s t d i f f e r e n c e such a s u b t l e change can make. the w h i t e ' n e g a t i v e ' space o f the l a t t e r p a i n t i n g has been f i l l e d i n and space shares a common determining l i n e w i t h the c o l o u r r e c t a n g l e s , the forms. now, i n s t e a d of ' f l o a t i n g ' i n space, the forms operate on the same plane as space - t h e s u r f a c e o f the canvas. the determining l i n e s , the grey c o n t o u r s , form a m a t r i x t h a t runs unmodulated i n c o l o u r o r tone across the whole s u r f a c e o f the canvas. i n a s s e r t i n g the i n t e g r i t y of the p i c t u r e p l a n e , these l i n e s serve a l s o t o keep the w h i t e and grey r e c t a n g l e s , denoting space, and the c o l o u r r e c t a n g l e s , d e n o t i n g f o r m , i n u n i t y w i t h the p i c t u r e p l a n e . i n s t e a d of d e p i c t i n g forms i n space, mondrian now determines areas o f form and space. this c r u c i a l p i c t u r e which we have j u s t been d i s c u s s i n g , c o m p o s i t i o n : colour planes w i t h grey contours, c e r t a i n l y stands as a major r e s o l u t i o n of m o n d r i a n ' s d r i v e i n the past few y e a r s towards a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l equivalence of form and space, but i t s t i l l l e a v e s open - - a broader question: how are these modules of form and space to be ordered? mondrian has progressively eliminated a l l components of painting that seemed to him to be arbitrary and i f he was to be consistent in,the application of the principles of reduction to the contructive elements of painting i t was mandatory that he eliminate a l l arbitrariness in the ordering of the final image. the ordering of the colour planes in this painting in question has essentially the same quality of apparent randomness that we have already noted in the compostions with colour planes of . although the colour planes in the painting are a l i t t l e more uniform than in earlier compositions, they are s t i l l stacked in a loose and irregular manner. like the earlier colour plane compositions post-dating composition with colour planes a and b there i s no dominating center of interest although mondrian does tend to emphasis ever so slightly a feeling of tension at a point just above and to the left of center, an almost unconsciously 'natural' tendancy that appears in compositions a l l through his career. at this point, in , this composing, balancing and relating of the constructive elements, space and form (i.e. the coloured modules and the monochromatic modules), is the only intuitive or subjective field of activity left in his art. since he has stringently reduced the means of his art to line, colour and area, the only source of variability in his imagery comes from composition. in his first article for the newly-founded magazine de s t i j l . appearing in october, , mondrian expresses a concern, not without - - confusion, for the part that intuition and subjectivity must play in an aesthetic system that is becoming more and more positivistic, universalized and objective. composition allows the artist the greatest possible freedom, so that his subjectivity can express itself, to a certain degree, for as long as needed. the rhythm of relations of colour and size makes the absolute appear in the relativity of time and space. in terms of composition the new plasticism is dualistic. through the exact reconstruction of cosmic relations i t is a direct expression of the universal; by its rhythm, by the mat- erial reality of i t s plastic form, i t expresses the artist's individual subjectivity. it thus unfolds before us a whole world of universal beauty without thereby renouncing the human element. . although mondrian's neo-plasticism pretends to a state of total universalism and objectivity, there i s a sense in which i t i s an art of pure intuition. the means of his art is neutral and universal in the purist sense but the exact ordering of these component parts requires the participation of the sensitivity of the artist towards feelings of dynamic tension. and i t is this ordering of parts, of determining (i.e. bringing into play) certain dynamic relationships between form and space, and between the forms themselves passing across space, upon which he concentrated the next major stage of his art, extending from to . - - following composition; colour planes with grey contours of we come to a series of painting which follow quite logically behind this major canvas yet are amongst the most unique of his whole oeuvre, and thus contain elements that are most inexplicable. the ordering of the following group of paintings executed in - is only conjectural, but the probable situation was that mondrian saw the need to give the arrangement of the rectangles a more logical and controlled structure of relationships, and therefore he f i r s t dropped the problem of colour and concentrated for a time upon the linear grid. this move gave rise to the lozenge grid painting of (w. ) which has eight modules to a side and the rectangular painting of the same year, composition with grey and light brown (w. a), which is based upon an invisible grid of sixteen modules to a side, each module preserving the shape of the canvas as a whole. in both paintings, the modules, delineated by weak lines, are gathered into larger groups or clusters of modules that are delineated by stronger lines of black or grey. the denseness of the clustering of the modules ranges from groups of six, which give the feeling of the most open and empty space, to individual modules which give the feeling of con- stricted space. the spread of these clusters is fairly even over the whole picture field so that again, there is no aggressively dominant point of focal tension in any one place. with the size of the basic module in mind the eye scans the field collecting and measuring the / 'weight' of each rectangle for its modular count. the lozenge just referred to has both grids (the modular grid and the clustering - - grid) so close in linear weight that they are very difficult to distinguish but similar lozenge-shaped paintings executed in (s. , w, b) are much clearer to read. for instance, composition in diamond shape (w. b) has three clusters of six modules, eleven clusters of four modules, nine clusters of two modules and ten individ- ual modules. of the clusters of two modules only three are aligned in a horizontal direction, the rest are vertically aligned. but in a fashion that very subtly balances this vertical tension, we find that the clusters of six modules are arranged so that there are two horizont- ally aligned formations, one above the other, separated by a six-module formation which is vertically aligned, tipping on the upper left-hand corner of the lower horizontal formation. the upper edge of the vert- ically aligned six-module formation is separated from the upper horizontal six-module formation by exactly one module component. if there is a critical tension in the picture, i t exists in this space of separation, of which we only become aware when we are sensitive to dynamic relationships between bodies of similar and dissimilar modular weights. while the relationships of that crucial painting of , composition: colour planes with grey contours were, as we noted, seem- ingly random and intuitive arrangements, these modular frameworks quite markedly point towards an attempt on mondrian's part to make these dynamic relationships of parts, of form and space, more apparently measurable and thus more objective and comprehensible. the fourth lozenge of this period (s. ) also has a light tinting of colour but the configurations of the pattern, although i t i s based upon the same - - modular grid, are somewhat different from the others. the rect- angles in i t are aligned along a stronger vertical 'stacking than the others, and thus is more closely related to the rectangular paintings of to which have a similar vertical stacking of rectangles. the unusual composition; checkerboard. light colours (s. ) and checkerboard. dark colours (s. cat. ) were probably done just after the previous grid pictures and act as a study in order to introduce colour back into the reinvigorated linear grid. the colours of composition; checkerboard. light colours are stronger than in any other painting since the scaffolding series of - , which in turn was the brightest since he left the fauve colouring in . the yellow ochre has changed to a lemon yellow and there are now three shades of grey as well as white, but the pink is s t i l l to become red and there are not as yet any rectangles of pure black in the composition. these checkerboard paintings have a regular grid of sixteen modules to a side, but unlike previous modular pictures the lines of these modules are of even weight and the grid line is not erased within clusters of a similar colour. the changes that occur between these checkerboard paintings of and the final group of paintings extending between and that lead to the 'classic' neo-plastic paintings beginning in are only changes in general appearances, and do not involve any alteration - - of purpose. they are, in fact, a clarification and intensification of the integrity of the picture plane and the laws of dynamic equilibrium which he had been exploring in the immediately preceeding group of paintings. the differences in appearance, however, are important. the main difference is the fact that beginning with a composition done in (s. cat. ) there is a progressive simplification and generalization of the rectangular matrix. in contrast to the immediately preceeding group of paintings, especially the checkerboard paintings which have an extremely 'busy' articulation and no feeling of a compositional center, these late paintings elim- inate the modular grid and enlarge the rectangles. there is a prog- ressive spacing of colour areas so that each coloured 'form' is separated from another coloured 'form' by a white, black or grey 'space . this leads to a much clearer articulation of dynamic weights, because as the space between forms becomes more obvious, the 'coalescing value of individual form-areas, differentiated from the space-areas by their chromatic character, becomes more intense and thus the impact of the dynamic equilibrium of the image is much stronger. this signifies a definite move away from the 'all-over' molecular space which had dominated his work since his early cubist paintings towards an image of a less homogenous character where value-contrasts are more monumental. this monumentalization of the image continues through to the 'classic' mondrian paintings of to , which are dominated by a large rectangle (usually in the upper right-hand corner). a reverse process, the discussion of which is outside the scope of this essay, takes place . composition w i t h red, blue, black and yellow-creen, . o i l on canvas ( x i n s ) . ' . composition with red, yellow and blue, . o i l on canvas, x i n s . . composition with red, yellow and blue, . oil on canvas, x f ins. . broadway boogie-woogie, - . oil on canvas, $ x ins. a • • m^mm—mm • . • • • • • • • - • • • • i • i • • • • • • • ______ • • • : r • • • • i • • • • • • ^m m mm • pi • • - • n • • • m • • ,m • • • ! m m m „ • - • • . . • • • • • • • • • i mw m mm m • • • • • • • — i — i —a — i _. mm mm • • • • • • • i • • • •• • "m" m • • • • • • * • • • • • m - - between and his death in , when he left unfinished his new york city (s. cat. ), a painting composed not of coloured rectangles, but rather a complicated matrix of interlocking coloured lines. by we find that mondrian had solved a l l of the problems concerning form, content, space and order which had consumed his energies since he f i r s t broke away from his regional the hague landscape painting about . this last change, towards monument- alization of the image in / , was merely the elimination of one of the last links with representative painting, the cubistic molecularization of a natural motif. he now has a completely concrete neo-plastic, no-objective image. but strangely enough, when we recognize that the basis of neo-plasticism is the balancing of unequal forces within a compositional framework, we find that in this mature work he has come the f u l l circle back to his early dutch landscapes prior to , where also he focussed his attention upon balancing of dark landmasses with the light sky, of vertical windmills, masts and trees with the horizontal horizon. the only difference, a major one in terms of appearance but not purpose, is that neo-plasticism limits itself to the basic constructive elements, line and colour, while the landscape paintings concentrated upon motifs provided by the dutch countryside. the overall evolution of mondrian's career, therefore takes a rather curious course when seen in this light. beginning with the assymetrical compositions of his early landscape paintings ( - - - ) he turns to a static singular image imbued with a l i t e r a r y symbolism ( - ), followed by the over-all molecularized linear structure of his cubist period ( - ) which eventually formed into an assymetrical balancing of abstract forms according to the universal laws of dynamic equilibrium. the accomplishments of a decade of rigorous experiment and a shifting of his frame of reference from the visual world to the non-objective world, did not repudiate his early period of landscape painting as much as i t served to take the creative essence of that period, the organization of dynamic forces into a balanced but l i v i n g unity, and make i t the sole concern of his art. the 'content' of neo-plastic art, as well as mondrian's landscapes, manifests i t s e l f only during the creative process, and not i n the f i n a l product. i t i s only i n the measuring of the various choices and discriminating action made during the creative process that the true scope of feeling i n mondrian's art becomes evident. this i s why the symbolist works of - , where he attempts to make content explicable i n terms of the f i n a l image, are generally unsuccessful. the creative process i s a private one, especially for mondrian, who lived and painted without an audience, and when this creative process sublimates a l l personal and arbitrary feelings beneath an order of absolute perfection, i t i s not f e l t so much i n a single work as i t i s i n the over-all scope of the artist's career. - - footnotes: chapter i . will em maris ( -=, ) was the youngest of the three maris brothers, the other two being jacob and mathijs. these men were leading members of the school of the hague, a group of dutch painters working i n the hague, who, inspired by courbet, millet and the barbizon painters, turned their attention to the dutch landscape with an eye to truth of detail and an absence of the heroic. when this group of artists were at their height i n the *s and 's they were a single creative force i n vivifying painting i n holland, but by the 's when other movements, more international and intellectual i n appeal, such as symbolism and the art nouveau style i n general, began penetrating holland, the hague realism became identified with a d i s t i n c t l y provincial outlook, not only i n subject matter but also i n attitude. . quoted i n michel seuphor, piet mondrian: life and work. new york, harry n. abrahms, , p. . . breitner ( - ) studied under willem maris, joseph israels and anton mauve i n the hague, where he met vincent van gogh. in breitner moved to amsterdam and concen- trated upon urban subject matter. during the 's breitner and mondrian were close friends. . piet mondrian, 'toward the true vision of reality', plastic art and pure plastic art and other essays, ed. robert motherwell, new york, wittenborn schultz inc., , p. . . this term only applies i n a relative sense. actually the hague 'realism' was tinted with barbizon romanticism and a frequent sentimental eulogizing of nature that was typical of an essentially urbane outlook. . this constructive 'realism' i s what mondrian eventually found i n cubism. . for examples of breitner s work and late nineteenth century dutch painting i n general see h. gerson, zes eewen nederlandse schilderkunst. contact/amsterdam, , and the commemorative catalogue of the exhibition of dutch art ... burlington house tl )v london. oxford university press, . p. to . - - . mondrian's early painting of windmills were almost identical i n mood and technique to paintings of wind- mills by the hague a r t i s t s . compare m i l l on river (s. ) by mondrian to the four mills by mathijs maris (commemorative catalogue ... burlington house ( ). plate xc iv). a l l plate references for mondrian's work are taken from michel seuphor piet mondrian: l i f e and work and robert walsh, piet mondrian: - * references to seuphor are designated by (s. - ), i f i t i s taken from the body of the text and refers to the page number. if taken from the catalogue raisence i n the appendix, the designation w i l l be (s. cat. - ) . references to walsh w i l l be designated by (w. -) and refers to the plate number, . the motif of dark buildings and trees set against pale moonlight was also richly developed by johan barthold jongkind ( - ), and a good deal of mondrian's early works bear very close resemblance to this early practitioner of plein-air painting. - - footnotes: chapter ii . piet mondrian, 'toward the true vision of reality', plastic art and pure plastic art and other essays, ed. robert motherwell, wittenborn schultz inc., p. . . jan sluyters studied at amsterdam academy and won the prix de rome in . when he returned to holland in his style had been affected by gauguin and matisse. the 'fauvist' touch that marked sluyters new style might have had an affect upon mondrian's own change of style in , although there is no specific evidence. see michel seuphor, piet mondrian. p. . in mondrian, sluyters and an older artist c.r.h. spoor held a retrospective exhibition at the stedelijk museum in amsterdam. . in vincent van gogh worked in the studio of his cousin, anton mauve, who was one of the leading painters of the the hague school. . the loose brushstroke was a timid step towards a 'modern- looking' canvas without actually sacrificing traditional pictorial values. . see martin james, 'mondrian and the dutch symbolists', the art journal. vol. xxiii (winter - ), p. . . the theosophical society was founded in by madame h.p* blavatsky and by the turn of the century had gained a very large following in europe and america although madame blavatsky's reputation became discredited and the society broke into several splinter groups. the essential beliefs of the movement are two-fold. one is that a man attains to a higher primordial consciousness and spiritual power by being initiated into the knowledge of the secret doctrine, an occult source of ancient knowledge madame blavatsky claimed to have divined from india. secondly this evolution to a higher consciousness is paralleled by an evolution in form as man becomes more and more aware of the primordial truths in the physical world. it is this latter ideal that has the closest parallel with mondrian's own theories. see h.p. blavatsky, the key to theosophy. the theosophy company, los angeles, . - - . stylism and realism are antithetical modes. style transforms the world into a system of expressive conventions while realism accepts the world of objects as i t i s and observes i t analytically and detatched. cubism was r e a l i s t i c i n that i t recognized the canvas as an object but i t bordered on stylism when used for an expressionistic point-of-view, as i t was with many of the minor cubists and futurists. mondrian, however, recognized i t s t r i c t l y as being a r e a l i s t i c mode and eventually turned 'cubism* into a completely concrete and r e a l i s t i c mode by making the image completely non-figurative. . the bold colouring of the red tree of (s. ) has at f i r s t glance much i n common with the late work of vincent van gogh, whose second major retrospective i n amsterdam was held i n . . by conceptual i mean the role of the rational and intellectual faculties i n the creative act. conceptual meaning tends to be l i t e r a r y or 'poetic', and since i t s source i s the mind, i t leans towards abstraction and iconic stylization. visual art i s based primarily upon the rule of sight, of the eye and of the object world outside the intelligence. placed into the context of painting i n , conceptual art i s associated with symbol- i s t stylism, which i s actually a poetic intellectualism, and visual art i s associated with impressionism and the hague realism. mondrian's sensibility had been directed visually throughout his early development, although i t sometimes took on a 'poetic' touch, but once the question of intelligence and philosophy entered his concerns, he had to begin to modify this visuality i n order to accommodate a new content. . for examples of toorop's work see h. gerson, zes eeuwen nederlandse schilderkunst. contact/amsterdam, , plates , . . seuphor dates this picture . for the justification of a date see robert walsh, piet mondrian: - . toronto, art gallery of ontario, , p. . walsh's study i s much more thoroughly researched and consequently more reliable. this thesis therefore uses walsh as an authority i n a l l cases of dispute. - - . this is a significant change in technique. previously mondrian worked in broad masses of pigment and generalized tonal areas now he builds a picture from a massing of individual linear elements. the implications of this become more apparent when we look at his cubist works. . robert walsh, loc. cit. . ibid., p. . see seuphor, p. , , . . in this attention to detail we see a reversal of the general- izing process which we noted in his earlier landscapes. in the oils such as woods near oele, windmill in sunlight and the haystacks, the new linear freedom of the brush already was declaring this move away from organized masses towards a loose 'molecular' structure. the motif of the flower offered a ready-made linear, molecular structure. consequently the rendering holds true to the detailed appearance of the orig- inal motif, and the linearity is analytical and descriptive, rather than freely 'constructive' as in the fauve works of the same period. . quoted by martin s. james in 'mondrian and the dutch symbol- ists', the art journal. vol. xxiii (winter - ), p. . . mondrian had been working on similar but inconsequential versions as early as . see michel seuphor, piet mondrian, cat. , , . . from the through mondrian carried the technique of the free, broken 'fauvist' brushstroke even further than in the pictures. this is especially evident in the - series of the westkapelle lighthouse (s. cat. - ). but the flat unmodulated brushwork of the domberg church in question (s. ) has much more in common with the works. the colouring also has the adulterated quality which i t shares with evolution and which separates i t from the pure primaries of the 'fauve' works of - . . see footnote . the realists working in a visual and impress- ionistic mode, naturally depicted objects in 'hollow' space. the abstraction of the stylists had, since the 's become increasingly two-dimensional. there were many reasons for this, but there is one which is especially pertinant to dutch - - stylism. the dutch stylists as a whole were more (contd.) inspired by the public socialism of william morris than the private aesthetism of the french symbolists. this led them to the public medium of mural art, already pioneered in the stylized religious murals of anton derkinderen ( - ). coincidentally, the arch- itect a.p. berlage had in finished the amsterdam stock exchange where the walls were left as an un- obstructed flat surface. commissions for murals were given by berlage to the prominent stylists such as jan toorop, willem van konijnburg, and bart van der leek, whom mondrian would meet in . the arch- itectural context of stylism, especially in the case of berlage's architecture, demanded that the socialist motifs of these murals be sublimated to the flatness of the wall while maintaining the monumentality of spirit. this naturally strengthened the stylist tendancy towards two-dimensional abstraction. , michel seuphor, piet mondrian, p. . - - footnotes: chapter iii . unlike the dutch stylists, whose abstraction was expressionistic and conceptual and whose monumental, two-dimensional imagery was conditioned by architect- ure (see footnote , chapter ii), the flatness of braque and picasso's cubism in had evolved from the visual painting of cezanne, and was essentially a •constructive' art building its compositions in terms of the format of the canvas support. in mondrian was approaching stylism but the sudden appearance of the powerful, visually-based abstractions of braque and picasso, which was closer to mondrian's sensibility than conceptual stylism, offered mondrian an altern- ative which he took. . see footnote , chapter ii. as an example of how adament berlage was about the integrity of the unadorned flat surface of the wall he writes: "above a l l we should show the naked wall in its sleek beauty ... pillars and columns should have no project- ing capitals: the joint should be fused with the flat surface of the wall." see sigfried giedion, space. time and architecture. cambridge, mass., harvard university press, , p. . . atmospheric impressionism here refers to the kind of visual painting which has the painterly quality of the impressionists rather than the linear and sculptural quality of academic painting. . both impressionism and cubism have a common endj the construction of a satisfying composition, and both achieve this with molecular elements, free chunks of colour in the case of impressionism and chunks of matter in the case of cubism. mondrian's early landscapes were compositionally constructive but with a broader, more generalized organ- ization of large masses. however, his 'fauve' period with its free divisionist brushwork took his constructivism into a more molecular mode, which prepared him for cubism. this transition took him from the use of the depicted object as a constructive element where the means itself (i.e. paint on canvas) is invisible; to the blocks of freely brushed colour as a constructive element, where the means itself is acknowledged; then finally to cubism and neo-plasticism where the means itself is again invis- ible, but constructive elements are planes and lines as an end in themselves, rather than depicted objects. - - . theosophy always emphasised the necessity of control which man's intelligence must hold over his environment and which was obtained through an understanding of the cosmic forces latent in the world. man's spiritual evolution was seen to be paralleled by a corresponding technological and social evolution. see footnote , chapter ii. . robert walsh, piet mondrian; - , toronto, art gallery of toronto, , p. . . as subject matter in themselves, the facades, and the majority of mondrian*s motifs, have absolutely no iconological importance to the painting. since the motif has no meaning, the interest of the picture is in the formal treatment. the subject, then, is chosen for its conduciveness to a certain type of formal treatment. . as we noted in chapter i, george henri breitner made frequent use of facades in his cityscapes. mondrian, between and made many studies of church facades, but rarely facades of an urban nature. . the exact date of mondrian's arrival in paris is problem- atic. he left his amsterdam address on december , , but he received mail there as late as january , . he registered in paris in may. see robert walsh, piet mondrian, p. . however, since he exhibited in the salon des independ- antes in march, , i t seems likely that he would have arrived in paris in time to catch the exhibition. he might even have arrived early enough to see the highly-publicised futurist exhibition which opened in the galerie bernheim on february , . . these motifs of blossoming trees indicate that they might have been done in the spring, but this does not necessarily hold true. the organic curve of flowering trees is reminiscent of the futurist dynamic spiral and gives rise to possibilities that mondrian had seen the futurist exhibition in february, or at least was affected by the controversial ideas that came out of this show. . actually there is less interest in line itself than in the spacial compartments which the line defines, or in the tensions set up by sets of lines. - - . the focus of attention i n was on the futurists and futurist-inspired works. the impact of futurism was f e l t i n russia, i n germany (e.g. franz marc of the blue rider group), i n america (joseph stella and john marin), and to a lesser^acknowledged degree i n paris, where the cubists saw themselves i n competition with the futurists. the dynamism of robert delaunay's fenetres and simultaneous discs was openly sympathetic to futurism. marcel duchamp's nude descending the staircase, which was completed i n january, , just before the futurist exhibition, was withdrawn from the march, , salon des independantes because i t appeared to be too f u t u r i s t i c , something which annoyed geizes and metzinger. picasso and braque were quietly working on the side with their new papier colles, soon to take cubism i n a new direction towards synthetic cubism. . see footnotes , , and . for general references to the futurist background see raffaele carrieri, futurism. edizioni del milione, milan. . moreover, denis' theories - was published i n and provided a further theoretical basis for abstract art. denis and serusier, who were impressed i n the 's by gaug- uin's synthetism, the s c i e n t i f i c aesthetic of charles henri and georges seurat, and i n the 's by byzantine art and the cabbalistic mysticism of the beuron monks, were influen- t i a l teachers after the turn of the century when the golden section cubists were attending art school. as for picasso and braque, they offered no manifesto, although they were closely associated with l i t e r a r y circles, and were close friends of such writers as max jacob, andre salmon and guillaume apollinaire. . see michel seuphor, piet mondrian, p. . . quoted i n edward fry, cubism, london, mcgraw-hill, , p. . . elizabeth g. holt, a documentary history of art. vol. i l l , garden city, doubleday, , p. . this essay was included i n maurice denis' theories; - . which was published i n . . albert gleizes and jean metzinger, du cubisme, translated i n f u l l i n robert l. herbert, modern artists on art. p. . loc. c i t robert herbert, ibid., p. . see mondrian s discussion of art and reality i n his notebooks of (seuphor, piet mondrian. p. ), and his f i r s t article i n the f i r s t issue of de sti.jl i n october, (seuphor, ibid.. p. ). robert herbert, op. c i t . . p. . piet mondrian, 'towards the true vision of reality', plastic art ... and other essays. p. . mondrian had also shown i n the salon des independantes of and . michel seuphor, piet mondrian.p. . picasso and braque i n began to move away from the molecular structure of 'analytical' cubism to the generalized planes of 'synthetic' cubism. this i s a major point-of-difference between the non- figurative art of kandinsky and mondrian. kandinsky used l i n e i n an expressive function and descriptive manner, while mondrian gave l i n e an analytical function of space determination, the line having no expressive value i t s e l f . - - f o o t n o t e s : c h a p t e r i v . a c c o r d i n g t o seuphor, m o n d r i a n spoke v e r y l i t t l e o f theosophy a f t e r h i s r e t u r n t o p a r i s i n f e b r u a r y , , and t h e f e e l i n g i s t h a t theosophy as a p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s t o h i s work had by been r e p l a c e d by t h e b u i l t - i n p h i l o s - o p h i c a l p r e m i s i s o f n e o - p l a s t i c i s m . see m i c h e l seuphor, p i e t m o n d r i a n p. . m o n d r i a n was, however, an a v i d r e a d e r o f t h e o s o p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e a l l t h r o u g h h i s l i f e . among t h e few books f o u n d i n h i s p o s s e s s i o n a t h i s d e a t h were a new image o f t h e w o r l d by dr. m.h.j. schoenmaekers, a speech by r u d o l f s t e i n e r and a book by k r i s h n a m u r t i . seuphor, i b i d . . p. . quoted i n m i c h e l seuphor, p i e t m o n d r i a n ; l i f e and work. new y o r k , h a r r y n. abrahms, , p. . . p i e t m o n d r i a n , p l a s t i c a r t and p u r e p l a s t i c a r t and o t h e r e s s a y s , ed. r o b e r t m o t h e r w e l l , new y o r k , w i t t e n b o r n s c h u l t z i n c . , , p. . . the use o f t h e t e r m ' i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c ' h e r e d e s c r i b e s a m o l e - c u l a r complex o f l i n e s w h i c h make v i s u a l sense when s e e n as a whole. m o n d r i a n u s e s a ' d i v i s i o n i s m ' o f l i n e s j u s t as t h e p o i n t i l l i s t s and i m p r e s s i o n i s t s u s e d a ' d i v i s i o n i s m ' o f c o l o u r . . r o b e r t p. w a l s h , p i e t m o n d r i a n : - . t o r o n t o , a r t g a l l e r y o f o n t a r i o , , p. . see w a l s h , and seuphor, . . i n t h e ' p i e r and ocean' s e r i e s t h e convergence o f l i n e a r t e n s i o n j u s t above c e n t e r gave t h e e f f e c t o f a space t h a t i s s t r e t c h e d back f r o m t h e p i c t u r e p l a n e . there i s no s u c h t e n s i o n i n c o m p o s i t i o n (w. , s. ) and t h i s h e r a l d s a r e t u r n t o t h e f l a t n e s s o f works such as c o m p o s i t i o n ( s . ). . m i c h e l seuphor, p i e t m o n d r i a n . p. . h.l.c. j a f f e , de sti. l: - : the d u t c h c o n t r i b u t i o n t o modern a r t . london, a l e x t i r a n t i , . . i b i d . , p. . http://sti. l - - , see a.g. lehmann, the symbolist aesthetic i n france. - . oxford, . , jaffe, de sti. l. p. . , loc. c i t . . mondrian had never before given his works a slick f i n i s h . he had always acknowledged the surface as being paint; he never made his means 'invisible', and indeed, his attraction to the texture of paint and the obvious brushstroke, has the a i r of the mystique of the maker, something which mondrian scorned i n his later years. . see chapter ii, footnote , and chapter iii, footnote . for examples of bart van der leek's work see seuphor, piet mondrian. p. . . michel seuphor, piet mondrian. p. . . piet mondrian, 'towards the true vision of reality', plastic art ... and other essays. p, . . later mondrian wrote: "in plastic art i t i s necessary to choose constructive means which are of one piece with that which one wants to express" (plastic art and pure plastic art, translated i n robert herbert, modern artists on art, p. ). mondrian looked askance at subjectivity which was inherent i n the image, but he recognized the direct confrontation of the viewer's subjectivity with an objective, concrete image that had no subjective distance beyond i t s e l f . . mondrian was adament that the line, the means, be absolutely neutral and do absolutely nothing other than determine units of space. he also saw that this neutral, straight line would have an eternal, unchanging, perfectability (natural reality and abstract reality, quoted i n michel seuphor, piet mondrian, p. . this essay i s printed i n f u l l i n michel seuphor, piet mondrian p. - . http://sti. l - - th e terms 'expressive 'expressionistic• etc., are at best only approximate and i t cannot be denied that mondrian 'expressed' himself and his attitudes towards l i f e i n his art. the fundamental uniqueness of mondrian»s aesthetic, however, i s that the a r t i s t takes his inner vision from the plastic laws of the outer world, and his inner vision only asserts i t s e l f during the act of creation when the a r t i s t i n t u i t i v e l y organizes his constructive elements according to the fundamental plastic laws of painting, the discovery of which i s the basis of his formal evolution from cubist works to the neo-plasticism of . see piet mondrian, plastic art and pure plastic art i n robert herbert, modern artists on art. see footnote . a similar effect of hard-edge forms floating through l i m i t - less space can be seen i n the 'supermatist' works of kasimir malevich, a russian who was developing his abstractions at the same time as mondrian. robert walsh, piet mondrian. p. . piet mondrian, 'towards the true vision of reality', plastic art ... and other essays. p. . loc. c i t . this term can have distinct but closely-related meanings. as used here i t refers to a depicted image which i s isolated i n a f i e l d of space. it can also refer to forms which have a static, individualistic and monolithic character and thus sets up an unequivalent or 'tragic' situation. "i saw the tragic i n a wide horizon or a high cathedral", loc. c i t . . in either case the image i s not absorbed and neutralized into a larger, universal f i e l d . loc. c i t . see w. and s. cat. - . michel seuphor, piet mondrian. p. . - - selected bibliography . writings by mondrian m o n d r i a n , p i e t . le n e o - p l a s t i c i s m . p a r i s , e d i t i o n s de ' e f f o r t moderne, . . n a t u r a l r e a l i t y and a b s t r a c t r e a l i t y / . p u b l i s h e d i n m i c h e l seuphor, p i e t m o n d r i a n : l i f e and work. new y o r k , h a r r y n. abrahms, , p. - . . p l a s t i c a r t and p u r e p l a s t i c a r t and o t h e r e s s a y s . ed. r o b e r t m o t h e r w e l l , new y o r k , w i t t e n b o r n s c h u l t z i n c . , . . ' p l a s t i c a r t and p u r e p l a s t i c a r t , c i r c l e . london, . t h i s e s s a y i s a l s o p u b l i s h e d i n r o b e r t l. h e r b e r t , modern a r t i s t s on a r t . englewood c l i f f s , n.j. p r e n t i c e - h a l l , , p. - . . l e t t e r t o james johnson sweeney, f a l l , . p u b l i s h e d i n james johnson sweeney, 'mondrian t h e d u t c h and de s t i j l ' , a r t news, (summer ), p. . ' d e l ' a r t a b s t r a i t , c a h i e r s d ' a r t . v o l . ( ), p. . i i . writings on mondrian banhan, reyner. 'mondrian and t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f modern d e s i g n ' , a r c h i t e c t u r a l review. v o l . ( o c t o b e r ), p. - . h o l t y , c a r l . 'mondrian i n new y o r k j a memoir', a r t s , v o l . xxxi ( ), p. . h u n t e r , sam. m o n d r i a n , new y o r k , h a r r y n. abrahms, . james, m a r t i n s. 'mondrian and t h e dutch s y m b o l i s t s ' , a r t j o u r n a l . v o l . ( w i n t e r - ), p. . . 'the r e a l i s m b e h i n d m o n d r i a n * s geomerty', a r t news. v o l . (december ), p. . - - kramer, h i l t o n . ' c o n s t r u c t i n g the a b s o l u t e , a r t s . v o l . (may i ), p. - . l e v i , a l b e r t v/. 'mondrian as m e t a p h y s i c i a n ' , the kenyon review, summer , p. . l e w i s , d a v i d . m o n d r i a n . new y o r k , geo. w i t t e n b o r n i n c . rosenblum, r o b e r t . 'mondrian and r o m a n t i c i s m ' , a r t news, v o l . ( f e b r u a r y ), p. . s c h m i d t , georg. p i e t m o n d r i a n , b a s e l , g a l e r i e b e l e y e r , . seuphor, m i c h e l . p i e t m o n d r i a n : l i f e and work. new y o r k , h a r r y n. abrahms, . . 'mondrian en schoenmaekers', werk. v o l . (september ), p. . s m i t h , brydon. 'more about m o n d r i a n ' , c a n a d i a n a r t . v o l . ( o c t o b e r ), p. . sweeney, james johnson. ' p i e t m o n d r i a n ' , museum o f modern a r t b u l l e t i n , v o l . x i i ( s p r i n g ), p. . , . 'mondrian, t h e dutch and de s t i j l ' , a r t news, summer, , p. . s y l v e s t e r , d a v i d . ' t u l i p w i t h w h i t e l e a v e s , an e s s a y on m o n d r i a n ' , s t u d i o i n t e r n a t i o n a l . v o l . (december ), p. . walsh, r o b e r t . p i e t m o n d r i a n : - . t o r o n t o , a r t g a l l e r y o f t o r o n t o , . . 'the growing i n f l u e n c e o f p i e t m o n d r i a n ' , c a n a d i a n a r t , v o l . ( j a n u a r y ), p. . . 'landscape i n t o m u s i c ' , a r t s . v o l . ( f e b r u - a r y ), p. . wiegand, charmion. 'the meaning o f m o n d r i a n ' , the j o u r n a l o f a e s t h e t i c s and a r t c r i t i c i s m , v o l . ( f a l l ), p. . - - iii. auxiliary sources and related material bal.jeu, joost. 'the problem of reality with suprematism, constructivism, proun, neo-plasticism and elementarism', the lugano review . # , , p. . barr, alfred h. de sti.jl. new york, museum of modern art. battcock, gregory. the new art: a critical anthology. new york, e.p. dutton, . blavatsky, h.p. the key to philosophy. los angeles, the theosophical society, . carrier!, raphaelli. futurism, milan, edizioni del milioni. ernest, j. 'constructivism and content', studio internat- ional, vol. (april ), p. . fry., edward. cubism. london, mcgraw-hill, . gerson, h. zes eeuwen nederlandse schilderkunst. amsterdam, contact/amsterdam, . giedion, sigfried. space. time and architecture. cambridge, mass., harvard university press, . golding, john. cubism: a history and an analysis. - . london, . gordon, donald e. 'on the origin of the word 'expression' , journal of the warburg and courtauld institutes. vol. ), p. . greenshields, e.b. landscape painting and modern dutch artists. new york, baker and taylor, . hart, w.s. lawren harris: theory and practice of abstract art. vancouver, seymour press, . hess, thomas j. 'the dutch: this century', art news, vol. (january ), p. . holt, elizabeth g. a documentary history of art. vol. i l l : from the classicists to the impressionists. garden city, new york, doubleday, . - - jaffe, h.l.c, de sti.jl: the dutch contribution to modern art, - , london, alex tiranti, . kandinsky, wassily. concerning the spiritual in art. new york, george wittenborn. kanrow, allan. 'impurity', art news, vol. (january ), p. . konigsberger, hans. modern dutch painting: an introduction. new york, the netherlands,information service. lehmann, a.g. the symbolist aesthetic in france, - . oxford, oxford university press, . london, commemorative catalogue of the exhibition of dutch a r t . b u r l i n g t o n house ( ). london. oxford university press, . pevsner, nikolas. pioneers of modern design. new york, the museum of modem art, . rheims, maurice. l'art . paris, art et metiers graphiques, . ringbom, susan. 'art in the epoque of the great spiritual journal of the warburg and courtauld institutes. vol. ( ), p. . sandberg, w., and jaffe, h.l.c. pioneers of modem art in the museum of the city of amsterdam, amsterdam, sedelijk museum, . thomson, d. croal. the brothers maris: james. matthew. william. london, special issue of studio magazine, summer . van gelder, dr. h.e. kunstgeschiedenis der nederlanden vol. ii, amsterdam, . - - chron l gy born on march , in amersfoot, utrecht. his father is the headmaster of the amersfoot calvinist primary school. begins training himself for a career as an artist and is tutored by his father and his uncle, fritz mondriaan, who was a member of the hague school. receives certificate to teach primary school drawing. enters the academy of fine art in amsterdam. vincent van gogh retrospective exhibition in the amsterdam museum. joins arti et amicitiae. first exhibition with the arti. exhibits at arti where he is praised as "most promising exhibitor" (walsh, p. ). disqualified for final prix de rome competition. brief trips to england and spain with simon maris, son of the hague painter willem maris. wins a prize at the arti exhibition. paints in isolation at uden (january , - january , ). rents a studio in amsterdam in february and works in the area to . second vincent van gogh retrospective in amsterdam. in paris, matisse, derain, vlaminck, braque, dufy and the dutchman van dongen create a sen- sation at the salon d'automne and are labelled 'fauves'. picasso paints les demoiselles d'avignon, and in the following year he and george braque begin their cubist experiments. - - v i s i t s domberg on the zeeland coast i n september. fauve and p o i n t i l l i s t influences appear i n works such as the red tree. january retrospective exhibition i n the stedelijk museum i n amsterdam with c.r.h. spoor ( - ) and jan sluyters ( - ). joins theosophical society i n may. returns to domberg i n june. serves as a member of the selection jury for the st. lucas jury. helps found moderne kunstkring with conrad kickert, jan toorop and jan sluyters. exhibits i n spring salon des independants i n paris. exhibits i n domberg with jan toorop. his works of this period, such as evolution, show a strong tendancy towards stylism. exhibits i n october moderne kunst- kring exhibition, which features twenty-eight canvases by cezanne, and cubist works by braque and picasso. gives up amsterdam address december , but receives mail in amsterdam to january , . begins cubist- inspired works such as s t i l l life with ginger pot i. arrives i n paris i n late winter or early spring. exhibits i n salon des independants i n march. f i r s t paris futurist exhibition on february . f i r s t exhibition of the section d'or group i n october. gleizes and metzinger publish du cubism. he works i n a cubist style derived from braque and picasso, and his work becomes increasingly two-dimensional and abstract through - . takes french lessons during the winter of - . exhibits i n the salon des independants. apollinaire, writing i n mont .joie. remarks that mondrian's cubism i s "very abstract". he returns to holland i n august, just before war broke out. v i s i t s amsterdam and domberg. begins pier and ocean series, commonly known as the 'plus-minus' pictures. settles in laren, an artist's colony outside of amsterdam i n the summer and meets dr. schoenmaekers. meets theo van doesberg and bart van der leek. - - exhibits earliest non-figurative 'hard-edge' pictures such as composition in colour - b in the hollansche kunstenaarskring exhibition in may in amsterdam. publishes first article in first issue of de sti.jl in october. first use of the term 'neo-plasticism' (nieuwe beeldung). signs de sti.jl group manifesto in november. paints f i r s t completely two-dimensional, non figurative image, composition; colour planes with grey contours. returns to paris in february. continues lozenge- shaped and checkerboard works. begins developing his compositions from a molecular to a simpler, more monumental spacing. publishes le neo-plasticism in paris and writes a long trialogue, natural reality and abstract reality. publishes plastic art and pure plastic art in circle, a london art and architecture magazine edited by naum gabo and ben nicholson. moves to london. moves to new york. i after he had begun a new stylistic evolution signified by the return to a molecular composition in broadway boogie-woogie ( / ) and victory boogie-woogie ( ). he died of pneumonia on february , pii: - ( ) -x advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. transfer points: artistic intersections and cultural transitions in john dos passos’s fiction of the s robert mcparland abstract john dos passos conveyed multiple intersections of art and culture and the spirit of the s in his prose. his novel manhattan transfer is characterized by intermediality: a combination of theatre, film, and visual art. with this novel, dos passos became a chronicler of american life. a passionate critique of modern society runs through manhattan transfer. the city is presented in this novel as a site of cultural intersections and transition and this focus is matched by the fragmentary qualities of the text. from his war novel three soldiers through his city novel manhattan transfer, dos passos places his readers in the swirl of the human currents of his time and argues for the human spirit against the forces of a mechanistic world that would crush them. the harshness of the vibrant city is illustrated through the strivings and affairs of these immigrants, broadway stage performers, journalists, and business aspirants. the relationships between dos passos’ experimental fiction and modern art and film are explored, along with the cultural transition of the american s. keywords: john dos passos, fiction, art, culture john dos passos’s manhattan transfer ( ) presents the modern city as a complex, fragmented point of convergence. here meet the arts, textuality, and lives engaged in the difficult art of living in the modern world. jazz age modernism, exemplified by dos passos’s text, is characterized by intermediality: the innovative work of writers who drew upon and interconnected many of the arts. visual art and film influenced john dos passos’s approach to manhattan transfer ( ). the novel suggests how american culture in the s emerged at a transfer point; shedding its victorian ghosts, it stood on a platform overlooking the wasteland, and then plunged into cities of ferocious motion, advertising and credit, passing into a new era. dos passos caught a glimpse of this new world. professor, phd. department of english, felician university of new jersey, usa, mcparlandr@felician.edu cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s manhattan transfer is not a novel of narrative order. the fragmented nature of this work reflects the simultaneity of cubism and montage. there are juxtapositions and structural schemes and images. this novel gathers fragments of news clippings, voices, songs, and the elements of popular culture. dos passos’s notebooks show that the sections of his novel were written separately. he intentionally broke sections of his work into parts and then edited them, as a filmmaker would do. in dos passos’s novel we can see a mechanical world spilling forth immigrant energy, people caught in urban industrial life, seeking love and meaning in the web-like cables of bridges and the shadows of skyscraper aspirations. dos passos rejects modern systems that depersonalize and overwhelm people. he seeks to reshape words and form, to humanize, to find power again in words, to affirm the human spirit, to save humanity. to accomplish this, he reinvents the novel. he is interested in innovating and utilizing cinematic techniques, to attempt to grasp human consciousness fully alive. his art engages a radical politics and theatre and in manhattan transfer a nation is reflected in a city mirror. for d. h. lawrence, this novel was a very complex film of new york city ( : ). it was also a precursor to dos passos’s u.s.a. trilogy, in which he further developed his artistic and filmic techniques. through fiction, dos passos provided his readers with a sociological and historical rendering of his culture. he commented: “the business of the novelist is, in my opinion, to create characters first and foremost and then set them in the swirl of the human currents of his time, so that there results an accurate and permanent record of a place in history” (business ). as a critic of his time, dos passos was particularly incited about the effects of modern systems, from politics to corporate business to warfare, upon the individual. his emphasis upon visual and structural techniques in his fiction may suggest that he increasingly distrusted words (nanney : ). against the mechanistic forces that would crush him, the fragmented world of the individual must be given voice or be newly formulated. the novel itself would be a new construction, an architecture that would involve the reader in a visual aesthetic and in the new rhythms and patterns of a changing world. the fragmented individual would find integrity within the diverse features of this world. in dos passos’s view, no mechanistic ideologies or empty rhetoric should manipulate the person or deny the individual’s hope. this vision was, in part, forged on the battlefields of europe in the first world war, when dos passos was an ambulance driver. it was also cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s informed by modern art, which he had studied while at harvard and further discovered while in europe. dos passos’s search for form, from his earliest novels, one man’s initiation and three soldiers, to manhattan transfer, was a sign of the times. when readers first encountered the impressionism of his character john andrews in three soldiers, dos passos had begun painting quite seriously. he returned to europe after the first world war and he also lived in greenwich village in new york city. there he had started writing experimental drama for theatre, creating plays like the moon is a gong, later called the garbage man, and he sought to integrate themes, characters, and style. as a writer and painter, dos passos developed a synaesthesia, drawing upon many of the arts. dos passos’s art developed a uniquely spatial sense, as well as a curiosity about time. world war i confined space into a broken field: a muddy, blasted zone of territorial combat. paul fussell has written of the “gross dichotomies” of safety in the trenches and “no man’s land” ( : ). officers attempted to control time in coordinated movements of troops. however, an individual’s personal experience of time, or durée, was quite something else, as proust, or bergson would show. time was indeed out of joint. post-war writers like joyce, faulkner, dos passos, and woolf would explore the simultaneity of events within consciousness. space and time were reconstituted in visual art by the cubists. paul cezanne worked to redefine ways of seeing and imagining landscapes and space. cubism emerged from his innovations. these cubist painters would present multiple angles of vision simultaneously along a series of planes. the changing view emphasized subjectivity. writers like dos passos were drawn to cubism in developing their styles. three soldiers by dos passos would attempt to reflect a convergence of simultaneous happenings and, in this respect, would be a precursor to his more developed cubist style in manhattan transfer and his u.s.a. trilogy. the “impressionistic” technique used by stephen crane in the red badge of courage preceded dos passos’s three soldiers. crane records the impressions or sensory moments of henry fleming’s experience of battle as they occur. dos passos works similarly, moving into the consciousness of each soldier and placing them in juxtaposition to suggest simultaneous experiences. the sensory experiences of these soldiers intersect with each other. as gertrude stein claimed, the war advanced cubism and reflected fragmentation ( ). the works of pablo picasso and juan gris were a visual complement to the experimental tendencies in john dos passos. for cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s dos passos, visual art informed his seriously playful encounter with words and ideas. affected by his experience of the great war, he challenged society with his art. in dos passos’s war fiction the war brings a shattering. this account of war offers us dos passos’s imaginative extension of his first-hand experience. dos passos became a member of the norton harjes ambulance corps in . his background was somewhat unique among the drivers. he was a multi-talented artist who had attended harvard and he could work in several media, including painting, theatrical scene design, and poetry. in three soldiers the military machine tears through the loire valley, betraying the artistic beauty of the place. the world can no longer express “an ideal state of wholeness” or provide “a basis for… a faith in man” (three soldiers ). as john andrews is arrested, a windmill positioned against the sky is “turning, turning,” like a circular machine: a wheel of fortune gone awry. john andrews searches for meaning amid the disintegration of values. fuselli comes from san francisco and chrisfield comes from the midwest. john andrews is a musician from virginia who, like dos passos himself, has gone to harvard. their war is one of mechanism and devastating irony, much like we see in stanley kubrick’s film paths of glory. h.l. mencken applauded dos passos’s three soldiers as the best of the war novels to appear soon after the war. about three to four thousand copies were distributed and they sold well. in three soldiers ( ), we see john andrews in a hospital, thinking about the disintegration of all that people value; all that has been preserved in intellectual tradition has been shattered. andrews muses: “there must be something more in the world than greed and hatred and cruelty” ( ). the wisdom of “democritus, socrates, epicurus, christ” seems to have been devoured. the culture that matthew arnold once prized, that of the best that has been thought, has been turned into empty clichés. andrews imagines that he might turn misery into music, recalling the rebellious john brown in a composition he will title “the body and soul of john brown.” for how else, he wonders, can a man find meaning when he is trapped in mechanism in which past values no longer seem to matter? dos passos’s readers encountered his arguments against dehumanization. the individual, lying in a hospital bed, has been subjected to formation in “making the mould” and has been blasted by a cruel war of “machines,” “rust,” and “under the wheels.” in his introduction to the reprinting cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s of one man’s initiation, , dos passos called woodrow wilson’s change from american neutrality to involvement in the war “a bitter disappointment” that turned him toward socialism. for, it soon became clear that “war was the greatest evil” (fourteenth - ). three soldiers cuts through the mythology of glory and contrasted with the image of american participation in the great war as glorious. this was controversial and raised the ire of those who disagreed with dos passos’s perspective. dos passos made use of several perspectives, as would a painter, to show these issues of war and western civilization from a variety of angles. the novel was not universally accepted. conigsby dawson criticized the novel in the new york times book review for its “calculated sordidness” and “blind whirlwind of rage”, adding that it was either “a base lie or a hideous truth” (critical heritage ). harold norman denny, writing in the same newspaper section two weeks later, rejected dos passos’s portrayal of soldiers, asserting that he had never seen any soldiers like that during his time of service (critical heritage ). norman shannon hall, in foreign service, simply called dos passos a liar. however, several critics applauded the novel, which just goes to show the variety of reading responses that any work can generate. heywood broun in the bookman called the novel “honest” and he wrote: “it represents deep convictions and impressions eloquently expressed” (critical heritage ). james sibley watson, writing as w.c. blum, noticed the novel’s “well-chewed rage” (critical heritage ) and henry seidel canby recognized in it “sufficient passion and vividness of detail to count as literature” (critical heritage ). sales suggest that many common readers also embraced the novel, or at least were curious enough about it to buy it. one veteran wrote: “this is the truest damn book ever written” (carr : ). “it is magnificent,” a. hamilton gibbs told carl brandt, he found in dos passos’s book “a combination of barbusse and sassoon and frankau, an extraordinary mixture of poetry and terrible prose pictures, one after the other without a thought for sequence or so-called rules” ( ). gibbs’s comment reveals that he perceived in three soldiers dos passos’s gradually emerging methods of fragmentation and montage, which anticipated his later work in manhattan transfer and u.s.a. manhattan transfer was begun upon a return from europe and it was further developed during another trip overseas and there is a clear through-line from scenes of destruction and concern for civilization in the cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s early novels to those in manhattan transfer. in manhattan transfer the turbulent life of new york is seen through the minds of dozens of people. the text shifts focus rapidly. the centre of focus is a vignette that proceeds for a few pages - a love affair, a business deal - only to shift into some other focus. the stories of ellen thatcher and jimmy herf and bud korpening are loosely held together in a cityscape where people enter our awareness and then exit. there is motion and fragmentation: reflections in a revolving door, passengers entering and exiting trains at rush hour. manhattan transfer is the novel in which dos passos’s artistic style of quick juxtapositions begins to appear. it also extended his criticism of elements of the modern world. in his review in the new york times book review, henry longan stuart contrasted john dos passos’s narrative technique with that of james joyce. he viewed dos passos’s image of new york as more pessimistic than it need have been. dos passos was called one of those young writers who experience “the challenge of new york to their imaginations and descriptive powers.” stuart’s own descriptive writing filled much of his review. new york, he wrote, “a piled-up mass of humanity, amorphous and heterogeneous at one and the same time, is a storehouse of impressions…” (critical heritage ). dos passos’s novel offered impressions, scenes, and sharp glances of light off of the towers of the city. he showed that there was much energy in the small space of manhattan. stuart saw in the novel “no vestige of a plot” but recognized that “one story runs through it” (critical heritage ). dos passos later noted, in his essay “what makes a novelist,” that he had given attention to “reportage” of new york city. when he had arrived back to new york from his time in europe and the mideast, he wrote in “best times,” “new york was a continent in itself” (best times ). his novel painted images and summoned up voices of the many lives that made up that continent. when dos passos arrived in manhattan on a boat via havana he described the city as “like a badly drawn cartoon” (carr : ). dos passos found in new york city a theme of fragmentation. he jotted in his notes a series of descriptive words: “skies-buildings-garbage cans” ( ). he began to write manhattan transfer, the novel that lionel trilling would call “an epic of disintegration.” in writing manhattan transfer, dos passos pursued something organic, voicing humanity in a s culture of billboards, ads, subways, and times square. the centre of his novel is the city itself: its movement and the people who live and work in its busy swirl of activity. dos passos sensed that visual art and the written word might cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s capture a sense of consciousness and the cultural energy in new york city in the first decades of the twentieth century. with manhattan transfer, dos passos abandoned traditional storytelling methods and chronology. he saw around him a polyglot city of tumultuous motion and to convey his sense of this, he juxtaposed scenes and joined several shots to create a single image. dos passos made use of fragmentation in manhattan transfer and then he learned to control this to a greater degree in his subsequent novel, nd parallel. it has often been noted that dos passos’s manhattan transfer suggests filmic qualities, although it was written prior to his exposure to the work of russian filmmaker sergei eisenstein. in his introduction to the novel, sinclair lewis observed the filmic quality of dos passos’ transitions. “it is indeed the technique of the movie, the flashes, its cutbacks, its speed,” he wrote. more than any other writer of his generation dos passos used these techniques, lewis added (critical heritage ). in his film intolerance, d.w. griffith had introduced montage experiments while telling four stories: the fall of babylon, crucifixion, the st. bartholomew’s day massacre, and a strike in a modern setting. eisenstein’s work would contribute the development of montage. critics have considered dos passos’s novel alongside the films of v.i. pudovkin and sergei eisenstein, in which pieces are linked and each visual shot is like a cell that collides with other cells. there is in dos passos’s novel, as in those films, a montage of parallels that intercut each other. dos passos’s initial inspiration for this technique came from visual art rather than from film. the fragmentation and intercutting emerged from movements he knew well in painting: cubism and futurism. dos passos sought the simultaneity of cubism and montage. dos passos could see a similar technique at work in the poetry of t. s. eliot and ezra pound. the verbal fragmentation in his text further emphasized his sense of the machine age and a splintering of the self in the modern city. his exposure to russian film later underscored this perception. he would capture the world moment to moment, frame by frame, as a motion picture would record it. dos passos was a consummate combiner of the verbal and the visual arts: an artist of intermediality. he drew upon cubism, futurism, the motion of narrative, and the techniques of film and experimental theatre with a sharp awareness of modernist trends. in film, a contemporary parallel with manhattan transfer is the charles sheeler and paul strand creation manhatta, an abstract film of new cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s york city which introduces subtitles from the poetry of walt whitman. manhattan transfer appears as filmic at a time when dos passos, whose primary inspiration was from modern art, was just beginning to explore the medium of film and images of the city like those in manhatta. in the s, the city was a principal subject for painters, like charles sheeler in aucassin and nicollette, charles demuth in machinery ( ), and george ault’s brooklyn ice house ( ). in drawing upon cubism, futurism, and the motion of narrative, dos passos investigated a theme of fragmentation. dos passos rendered a picture of the jazz age- its social fragmentation, its energy and life- as social criticism, providing us with a complex image of the times. manhattan transfer begins by evoking the city’s power in sections called metropolis, dollars, tracks, and steamroller. next, fragments of communication are introduced: nursery rhymes, slogans, newspaper clippings. there are sound bites that appear in rapid succession. the narrative of the final section of the novel moves into a biblical tone, suggesting apocalypse. there is nikelodean, revolving door, skyscraper, and the birth of nineveh. throughout the text, dos passos gives us a sense of the city as a place of collision and opposition. joseph warren beach saw in manhattan transfer “an atomistic world, a moral chaos” ( : ). blance gelfant has asked whether we can identify with these characters: have we any emotional engagement with these readers or do we simply observe them? ( : ) it is fairly clear that we do, if we happen to read our own human vulnerability and dreams alongside theirs. the lives of jimmy herf and ellen thatcher are at the centre of manhattan transfer. we discover their histories and emotions and how they respond to the city and a corrupted ideal of success. ellen learns how to dance in an effort to capture her father’s affection. she becomes a dancer and actress, a fashion periodical editor, and a superficial success. jimmy, returning from abroad with his mother, sees the statue of liberty in the harbour. he wants to join the th of july celebration and waves his little flag, disembarking near the immigrants who are arriving in america. as an adult he decides that will not enter the family banking firm and its version of new york and success. he refuses to be caught in a revolving door, or to be grinded out like meat (mt - ). ellen marries john oglethorpe, gets into the theatre in musicals, and advances her career by flirting with theatre producers and rich men. she falls for stan emery, who commits suicide and leaves ellen pregnant with cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s his child. she then conveniently marries jimmy herf. but they divorce. jimmy is a news reporter. in this role he sees urban corruption and collects bits of news stories. we see ellen’s distance, her loss of humanity in a “metal green evening dress” and hear of her “dollself” and loss of authenticity (mt ). jimmy herf becomes disillusioned with his news work and with his profession’s uses of language. reporters are “parasites on the drama of life,” he asserts (mt ). news reporting has become dehumanizing work in which he feels like “a traveling dictograph” and “an automatic writing machine” (mt ). with jimmy herf’s disillusionment, the novel carries a critique of the public press and journalism. in contrast with the quick, ephemeral words of journalism are “the old words” of immigrants, american ideals, and something that lives above technology and machines. jimmy herf symbolizes america as he questions values and the fate of america. the foundational formulations of are what he deems important, not superficial materialism. amid the skyscrapers, jimmy seeks to reclaim “the old world. /”typewriters rain confetti in his ears.” he says, “if only i had faith in words” (mt - ). he imagines finding a way to get out of the city machine to become whole again. as dos passos creates a narrative voice that tells jimmy herf’s story, he introduces other fragmented individuals. he uses cubism to recognize simultaneity in time and the variety of city life: something not static but always in motion. in the novel’s first section, steamroller, we witness the human confrontation with deterministic forces. ellen is obviously ambitious. she travels with oglethorpe to atlantic city for a honeymoon. she discovers that he is bisexual. they change trains at manhattan transfer: a railway station in new jersey, where trains run on electric power. ellen’s associates see right through her ambitions. to get ahead “she’d marry a trolley car” says an actress of ellen (mt ). her goal is to be “glamorous.” jimmy herf’s story and ellen’s story are brought together across time shifts and cuts as the novel brings us other disturbing characters. broken people meet a broken textual landscape. bud korpenning from cooperstown, for example, appears in the first five chapters. he goes to new york to be “at the centre of things” ( ). he is exploited and cheated and lives in a flophouse, unable to sleep. a bowery bum tells him to get out of the city while he can (mt ). but he was the victim of domestic abuse. he walks over the brooklyn bridge, “a spider work of cables” (mt ). this is a callous city and his death comes from this. cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s while some readers saw pessimism in the novel, others found abundant energy. in his introduction to manhattan transfer ( ), alfred kazin commented on how dos passos’s prose rhythms and images had captured the rhythm and energy of twentieth century america. in this sense, he recognized one of the key features of dos passos’s fiction: to express the voice of the people had become central to the work of john dos passos. he once described his project as one of an effort to take in his times, across the broad range of life (vii). he wished to close the distance between high culture and popular culture. in manhattan transfer, dos passos attempted to make his novel’s action objective while experimenting with fragmented structures. as a painter, dos passos was keenly aware of innovations in visual art during his time. he wished to apply this to fiction. he was involved with experimental theatre for several years and critic edmund wilson remarked that this had much to do with shaping the style of dos passos in his u.s.a. trilogy (looking back). the new art of film caught dos passos’ interest. in , he visited the soviet union to look at the moscow theatre and the work of dramatist v.e. meyerhold. he became interested in sergei eisenstein’s technique of montage and synthesizing and became aware of vertov’s concept, the kino-eye. in his u.s.a. trilogy “camera eye” becomes the viewer, much like one who is watching a film (fourteenth ). dos passos was an intermedial artist: one who combines artistic techniques across a variety of media. attention to dos passos, the artist, is sometimes overshadowed by comment about dos passos’s politics. the political perspective of dos passos shifted across his long career. in the s he was a liberal voice in fiction and experimental theatre for “industrial and white-collar working classes” (carr : ). later, dos passos was a conservative. in the s, he was a writer who was interested in socialism, although he remained independent of the communist party and eventually became suspicious of it. he set manhattan transfer in the thriving city of working people and new immigrants. his theme was human freedom and authenticity. his works announced the human struggle against institutions which de- humanized people. in the mid- s, dos passos participated in developing set designs for the stage. at the same time that manhattan transfer was being published, an article by dos passos, “is the realistic theatre obsolete” appeared in vanity fair, suggesting alternatives to broadway theatre. for the new masses, dos passos wrote “toward a revolutionary theatre” (december ), in which he discussed the limits cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s of iconoclasm in political theatre, and “did the new playwrights theatre fail?” ( ). he gained exposure to the music of igor stravinsky while assisting with set construction for a production. he was fascinated with daighilev’s choreography of dancers. this awareness of the arts of music and dance is not often discussed in dos passos criticism, which tends to devote attention to painting. as donald pizer points out, most studies focus upon a single modernist strain such as film or visual art ( : ). however, dos passos was an intermedial artist who drew upon various art forms and upon the new technologies of film, radio, and the phonograph. rhythm and sound are conspicuous in manhattan transfer. in the novel we discover an art that is abstract and sensuous. manhattan transfer offers a verbal dance that moves amid an intercutting of images and voices and sounds. a bakhtinian heteroglossia is in evidence in this play of voices throughout dos passos’s novel. the city jostles life; it blares forth sound; it dances. during this time of modernist experimentation, poetry and painting dissolved representation content and brought colours, sound, motion, in a movement toward abstraction. dos passos participates in this movement. he also brings tensions to this many voiced, often disrupted text, offering a verbal parallel to harmonically unresolved music. stravinsky once asserted that music is most interesting when it encounters tensions, dissonance, and harmonic conflict. this is dos passos’s city. it is a symphony embodying disorder. stravinsky gave his audience sonic terror, musical ambiguity in which the tension between music and noise was an affront to their expectations. stravinsky’s music was provocative: breaking patterns, incorporating folk songs, threshing out harmony like he was putting chords through “a cubist machine,” as jonah lehrer has put it ( ). likewise, dos passos broke with convention, as he had earlier done with his manipulation of point of view and challenge to myths of victory in three soldiers. in his fiction, john dos passos placed fiction and history in dynamic connection. he worked through an individual’s perspective to comment on history’s changes. the media of his day - newspapers, advertisements, radio, and film - became central to this project. in , manhattan transfer made a start in this direction. however, it was in the s and after, in the u.s.a. trilogy, that dos passos’s new style came into its own. “newsreel” scatters fragments of headlines, news stories, tabloid announcements and pop songs across the page. “camera eye” provides slices of life, angles of cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s vision. the result is a montage of items that might be likened to our evening news: a collection of images, sound bites, and news stories. the first novel of the trilogy, nd parallel looks at the years before world war i and american culture at the beginning of the war period. women had recently won the right to vote, yet, in dos passos’s view they were still under the control of cultural forces that hearkened back to the victorian era of the late nineteenth century. in his character ellen thatcher in manhattan transfer, sex appeal was a form of power, something she could use to manipulate her way toward the kind of success she dreamed of. ellen substituted a notion of sex and power for real relationships. her dreams were ones of shallow materialism seeking respectability. yet, the alternative was obscurity and vulnerability to the large forces of a male- dominated world. dos passos argued that the modern world made mechanical beings of people. in the mad rush along the road of modern life civility seemed to break down. in nd parallel, “mac” mccreary, a printer, enters the politics of unions and the labour movement. mac is working man, who might suggest today’s middle-class worker waving an occupy wall street sign. monopoly capitalism is emerging and mac feels troubled by it. mac is also a fenian, an irish nationalist, a man with an immigrant background looking back at his heritage. however, his feisty spirit of reform faces harsh forces of nature and culture that limit him. he has sought the promise of an american dream but soon retreats from it and from participation in the labour unions. in contrast with working class men like mccreary and with the middle class are wall street tycoons like j. ward moorehouse. he has gained success in manipulating sales images. in his view, the first world war is america’s “great opportunity” for economic advancement ( nd parallel ). dos passos portrays moorehouse as a seeker of power and wealth who cares much about profits and little about the patriotism of the young men who have fought overseas. he represents a betrayal of the principles of america’s founding fathers. he reflects the politician who seeks power rather than liberty, justice, and freedom for people he is supposed to represent. dos passos’s critique goes further, as the story unfolds moorehouse’s affairs. material success is seductive for janey and eleanor. janey is a secretary in a washington law firm, who becomes the executive assistant to moorehouse. eleanor is an interior designer who cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s seeks taste, culture and prestige; she is quite opportunistic, and she exploits her relationship with moorehouse. the roots of this social critique can be found in dos passos’s early novels, where his fiction objected to a mechanistic culture that undercut authenticity and vitality in human beings. he equated this with the dehumanization that he had perceived in the first world war. the proletarian lives of jimmy herf, bud korpening, and thousands of other people appeared to be held down by this mechanization and by pretentious and self-serving individuals who held the means of production. dos passos asserted that this created alienation and fragmentation. jimmy herf’s complaints about the newspaper he works for echoes dos passos’s own concerns about the theatre becoming an entertainment machine more than a social organ of cultural expression, critique, and community. berthold brecht had challenged such conventionality in the theatre, insisting that the stage be made available for ideas. a similar concern would later be articulated by arthur miller. while dos passos makes use of snippets of popular songs in manhattan transfer, the novel suggests a breakdown of musical culture, which parallels the criticism of capitalism in the cultural observations of theodor adorno and max horkheimer. for dos passos, art got lost in this situation. jimmy herf becomes increasingly detached from the work that he produces. he is among dos passos’s characters who are caught in a system that exploits their work. from this arises the city. they face a world in which someone like ellen becomes false and loses all authenticity in order to get what she wants. they become socially determined and conditioned characters who are not free. in the third part of the novel american flags, representing freedom, fly from windows over fifth avenue. “dollars whine on the radio, all the cables tap out dollars… in the subway their eyes pop as they spell out apocalypse, typhus, cholera, shrapnel, insurrection…” (mt ). jimmy says, “well, there’s the statue of liberty” (mt ). one may wonder where liberty is amid chains of economic and social oppression. dos passos protests a condition that is antithetical to american principles and the hopes of america’s founding fathers. the politically minded artist protests through modernist style. yet, the theme is one that dos passos developed in novels and essays that led to manhattan transfer and that continued afterwards. in “a humble protest”, he wrote: “has not the world today somehow got itself enslaved by this immense machine, the industrial system?” ( : ) cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s when he observed the textile mills strike in paterson and passaic new jersey in , john dos passos was uneasy to be a “privileged outsider,” says his biographer townsend ludington ( ). he wrote in new masses, june , about the struggle of the workers. that concern filtered into his subsequent novels in which his experimental techniques grew in force. through techniques drawn from modern visual art, film, dance, music, and design, john dos passos built drama into his narratives. in this work we see john dos passos’s unique way of constructing stories. however, by looking at his experimental fiction we can also see tendencies in modernist practice as a whole. in , dos passos recalled this early period of his work: “some of the poets who went along with the cubism of the painters of the school of paris had talked about simultaneity. there was something about rimbaud’s poetry that tended to stand up off the page…” (what makes a novelist ). then he expressed what he believed was the fashion in which the modern artist ought to present his perspective to the world: “the artist must record the fleeting world the way the motion picture film has recorded it” (what makes a novelist ). the new technique was built upon his sense of the motion of modern society and his deep working familiarity with modern art. this multi-faceted intermedial synthesis was john dos passos’s creative contribution. it is not for his politics, his shifting views across the years, for which he ought to be remembered but for his art, his social panoramas, and his commitment to upholding human dignity. references beach, j. w. . american fiction, - . new york: russell and russell, . broun, h. . the bookman. vol. (august ): . broun, h. / . “a group of books worth reading” the bookman, (december ), john dos passos: the critical heritage, ed. barry maine. london: routledge. canby, h. s. . “human nature under fire,” new york evening post literary review (october ). carr, v. s. . john dos passos: a life. evanston: northwestern university press. carver, c. “the newspaper and other sources of manhattan transfer,” studies in american fiction - . clark, m. . dos passos’ early fiction, - . cranbury: associated university presses. cowley, m. . “dos passos and his critics,” new republic ( ): - . cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s cummings, e.e. . the enormous room ( ) new york: penguin, . davis, r. g. . john dos passos. american writers . minneapolis: university of minnesota press. dawson, conigsby. . new york times book review ( ). denny, h. n. . “one soldier on three soldiers,” new york times book review ( ). dos passos, j. . streets of the night, new york: george doran. dos passos, j. . “a humble protest,” harvard monthly (june ): - . dos passos, j. . “against american literature,” new republic (october , ): - . dos passos, j. . one man’s initiation. new york: george doran. dos passos, j. three soldiers. new york: george doran. dos passos, j. . a pushcart at the curb. new york: george doran. dos passos, j. . rosinante, on the road again. new york: george doran. dos passos, j. . the garbage man: a parable of singing (the moon is a gong). dos passos, j. . “is the realistic theatre obsolete?” vanity fair (may ): , . dos passos, j. . “ new york agitators reach passaic,” new masses (june ): . dos passos, j. “toward a revolutionary theatre,” new masses (december ). dos passos, j. “did the new playwrights theatre fail?” new masses (august ). dos passos, j. . the nd parallel. new york: george doran. dos passos, j. . “the business of a novelist,” book review of the shadow before by william rollins, jr. in the new republic , no. (april , ). dos passos, j. . “what makes a novelist,” new york: george doran. dos passos, j. . fourteenth chronicle: letters and diaries of john dos passos. ed. townsend ludington. boston: gambit. dos passos, j. . major non-fiction prose. ed. donald pizer. detroit: wayne state university press. dos passos, j. manhattan transfer, new york: george doran, rpt. boston: houghton mifflin. foster, g. “john dos passos use of film technique in manhattan transfer and the nd parallel,” film/literature quarterly vol. , is. (september , ): - . fussell, p. . the great war and modern memory. oxford: oxford university press. gelfant, b. . “the search for identity in the novels of john dos passos.” pmla . ( ): - . hall, n. s. . “john dos passos lies!” foreign service, vol. (november ): - . cultural intertexts year vii volume ( ) the roaring ( ) s hicks, g. . the great tradition. new york: macmillan. kazin, a. . introduction to manhattan transfer. new york: new american library. kubrick, s. (dir.). . paths of glory, mgm. lawrence, d.h. . “the calendar of modern letters” (april ): - . lewis, s. . “manhattan at last,” saturday review (december ). ludington, t. . john dos passos: a twentieth century odyssey. new york: e.p. dutton. maine, b. / . john dos passos: the critical heritage. london and new york: routledge. nanney, l. . john dos passos revisited. new york: twayne. pizer, d. . toward a modernist style. new york: bloomsbury, . sanders, d. j. dos passos. . the paris review interview . the art of fiction (spring ). stein, g. . “memories of picasso.” writings, - , vol. . new york: library of america. stuart, h. l. “manhattan transfer,” new york times book review (november , ). trilling, l. . the liberal imagination. new york: viking. wagner, l. w. . dos passos: artist as american. austin: university of texas press. watson, j. s. (w.c. blum). . review of three soldiers. the dial (october ). microsoft word - _eekhout_ _.doc challenging glass – conference on architectural and structural applications of glass, bos, louter, veer (eds.), tu delft, may . copyright © with the authors. all rights reserved. transparent cubical glass building in madrid mick eekhout chair of product development, faculty of architecture, tu delft, octatube international bv, delft, the netherlands, m.eekhout@octatube.nl, www.mickeekhout.nl, www.octatube.nl luis weber octatube international bv, delft, the netherlands, l.weber@octatube.nl, www.octatube.nl an ultimately transparent glass building in almost cubical form of x x m, to function as the future entrance building of the santander bancopolis complex southwest of madrid. conceptual design by architect alfonso millanes and structural design by octatube. the structure is composed of ultra slender cable stayed tubular columns and trusses placed in a grid of m and cladded with insulated glass made from fully tempered outer panels and heat strengthened laminated inner panels. size of all glass panels is . x . m². the insulated glass ensures additional stabilisation of the overall enveloping structure. the roof panels are partly twisted to obtain a fluent slope for drainage. the roof gutters are positioned at . m from the roof edge, thus creating a free glass edge. the side walls of the gutters are made of insulated glass panels. the glass type chosen is ‘extra-white’, emphasizing the glass cube as a sparkling crystal in the landscape. keywords: quattro nodes, insulated glass, tensile structural systems . introduction this paper describes the gradual and steady development in different areas of expertise in two decades, which has lead to the current state of the art building fabrication techniques for glass structures.. . . history of design of different glass cubes in the history of the design & build company octatube of delft nl we have designed, co-designed and engineered, produced and built a number of cubical glass volumes. the cube is a prime and basic symbol if geometry in architecture, very recognizable ,but difficult to make in glass, especially in the larger volumes as construction (the way you put things together) and structure (the way loadings are forwarded from the glass panels to mother earth). we have designed these glass cubes as architects, structural engineers and industrial designers integrally in one. the prehistory of the galss cube entrance in madrid started decades before. the use of cubes in art and architecture refers back one century to one of the first ‘cubist’ paintings by pablo picasso: les demoiselles d’avignon’ ( ). it shows a primary geometrical influence of the work of paul cézanne, who defended in his life compositions made entirely of simple geometrical forms, like cubes, cylinders, cones. it was picasso, who took up this inspiration and challenging glass used them for around a decade in a style which was called by art-critics as ‘cubism’. around that time he started to paint elevations combined with side elevations in detail. a front body and a side head, trying to make the d painting -dimensional. it took up to the s before architects took up that idea in the so-called ‘de-constructivism’, in which buildings seem to have been formed from exploded parts of recognizable building segments, put together in a non-logical way. coop himmelb(l)au realized one of their first roof top office buildings in the flackestrasse in vienna in and in the groninger museum. currently their design for the musée des confluences in s under construction, an architectonic variation on the cubist style of picasso and georges bracque one century before. cubes can go form simple cubes to complex assemblies of cubes and cubical segments. as a structure and a construction the lessons have to start form the simple cube, leaving the more complicated cubical arrangements for the higher classes of enlightenment. figure : design proposal for the european business school in wiesbaden by structural designer mick eekhout and sculptor marijke de goey as a composition of tumbling cubes. . glass cube in goor the smallest cube measures x x mm and is composed of mm thick fully tempered glass panels, where the vertical corners are held together by glued stainless steel rods x mm . the upper panel is just glued on top of the wall panels. this cube houses a piece of art, in this case a neon sculpture designed by artist marijke de goey. this prototype was part of a series in glass cubes with different neon glass sculptures in the town hall of the dutch town of goor. the beauty was in the corner detail. the stainless steel rod was strengthening the cube against vandalism (fig. ). figure : glass cube in goor. transparent cubical glass building in madrid . glass cube proposal for the centraal museum in utrecht and the flower shop in rotterdam in cubical glass pavilions were designed by architect wiek röling and structural mick eekhout as pavilions for a dutch museum in utrecht. the project was not realised. just before we had that developed a method in which we could joint x panels into one big glass panel. our target at the time was a stable glass plane of x m , structurally bonded together by connectors, cables and compression rods. the fist step was not even prototyped properly when the idea came up to make a d cubical pavilion. however, we did not know how to do it. from the drawings one could analyse that the corners, where the roof plane would lay upon the wall elements and the corner between two vertical walls were not solved. how to introduce larger forces from one plane into another? we did not know, years ago (fig. ). hardly one year later architect kas oosterhuis came to octatube and together we conceived a glass flower shop on the famous lijnbaan, where the problem of the connection between roof plane on the wall plane and the wall-to-wall connection was neatly solved as a separate cubical tubular structure was safely introduced. the cube measured x x m in height and was subdivided into units we knew of x m , weach composed of x or x panels. the design drawing indicated that the roof panels were . x . m , smaller that the maximum panels available form the industry of . x . m . we were not sure structurally. but the ambition, the dream was on the table. this structure was conceived in single glass panels, fully tempered. also this structure was not realised, but their publication in a book as the starting point of dutch glass structures [ref. : stressed glass, zappi or product development for the nai.] served its purpose (fig. ). figure : glass cube proposal for the centraal museum in utrecht. figure : flower shop on the famous lijnbaan in rotterdam. . glass music hall in the exchange of berlage, amsterdam in mick eekhout designed the structural scheme for an all-glass envelope for architect pieter zaanen to house the concert and rehearsal hall for the chamber music orchestra of the nedpho, the dutch philharmonic orchestra. pieter came to mick after a modest publication of the study model of rik grashoff, one of mick’s early students at civil engineering. the model was built for a boosting publication [ref. : tussen traditie en experiment].(fig. ). challenging glass figure experimental model of glass. structural glass panels . this hall had to measure x m in plan and around m in height. architectonically, built inside of the famous exchange building of dr.h.p.berlage from , it had to be a built volume completely independent of the existing building. also maximum transparency was required. built on separate piles driven through the cellar floor, the concrete floor structure would enable a completely independent glass box, a reversed giant glass battery box. during a number of design brainstorms with pieter zaanen, the idea came up to have one of the two walls not parallel, to improve the acoustics as flutter would be minimised. the structural system of tiny cables or tensile rods and short compression studs was designed pre-stressed between the roof and concrete floor structure. figure model of glass music hall, amsterdam. it was not the floor, but the roof structure that gave the greatest worries. parallel to the glass flower shop in rotterdam, the first idea was to make a tubular structure in the ribs, but the fire brigade officer did not allow for a structural glass roof, without abundant experiences or self-confidence proven or engineered. they were right, one could add later. so the roof structure was taken as an ordinary space frame structure, stiff, supported on six columns only, stabilised with wind bracings and covered with laminated glass panels. opened in , it was the first structural glass building in the netherlands. all glass panels were suspended vertically form one another. so the highest glass panels, mm thin and fully tempered, carried the dead weight of the lower panels and the vertical trusses of mm rods stabilised the facades horizontally, against leaning architects, as there was not much wind to be analysed, apart form the overpressure of the air-conditioning. that was the invention. it was a giant step forward. a book was written about this adventure [ref. : product development in glass structures]. transparent cubical glass building in madrid figure : glass music hall, amsterdam. figure : interior view. . glass roof on brick cubes in hulst nl however, the roof, built as a conventional space frame, was a source of annoyance. a few months after the design was approved by the fire brigade a young belgian / dutch architect, walter lockefeer came to octatube to co-design a glass roof in a double cubical pavilion with dimensions, derived from the golden rule: . x . x . m. the walls, in his architectural philosophy, were overruling and the roof was unimportant. so the roof had to be invisible and made of glass, preferably without any steel. so he stimulated the development of the first glass panel roof, stabilised as a bicycle wheel with vertical compression studs and tensile cables underneath the glass panels. the first dutch tensile stabilised roof had been realised. the roof was composed of double glass panels with laminated lower panes. all glass plates were fully tempered. the stainless steel connectors on the lower side of the roof panels were glued between roof panel and connector. in this case the deadweight was more than the eventual uplift, so even a glued connector without glue would have worked, as the panels were fixed horizontally between the roof edges. this experiment gave us enough confidence that a tensile under-spanned structure would work, even if a surrounding steel tubular steel frame balanced the tensile cables. the second profit was the glued experiment. it was just a project invention, nothing more. the pavilion was published in colour and attracted much interests [ref. ]. the roof leaked for a number of years, but the cause was in the surrounding brickwork. the silicone sealant worked quite satisfactorily for a roof with a pitch of only one single degree (fig. , ). figure and : flower shop in hulst. challenging glass . prinsenhof glass museum hall in delft the next step was, of course, to make a completely chemically bonded system. the glued connection was developed initially for roofs, where the tangential loads were restricted and uplift could be avoided by choosing thicker and heavier glass panels, the first one in a court of justice in maastricht, . (fig. ) figure : court of justice in maastricht. figure : prinsenhof glass museum hall in delft the first frameless façade was built in the prinsenhof glass museum hall in delft one year later, in . the extra problems structurally for the glued connections were the vertical deadweight of the glass panels and the quite large distances between the panels and the quattro nodes. in first instance the distance were too large, causing large bending moments in the connection bolts. a number of panels broke during the initial installation. soon enough it was discovered that the cause of breakage was mainly in the diagonally stressed wind bracings, as a result of which the quattro nodes were not accurately positioned. it was mid winter, her majesty the queen came for the inauguration and the installation was too hastily done. for security reason the deadweight of the glass saddles, fixed on the quattro nodes, carried the panels. in other vertical facades, the distance s between the glass panels ant the quattro nodes were held as short as possible. glass panels in their glued connections can take as large an amount of compression as (roughly) as tension and shear, but glass panels are only capable of carrying % of these forces in bending (fig. ). . glass cube of museon in tel aviv in this short history of incremental product development successively the material glass, single panels and laminated and double panels, the quattro nodes, welded and later stainless steel, the tensile trusses form mm in amsterdam to a heavily typhoon loaded project in hongkong x mm, the glued connections and the architectural detailing were developed to the current level of design perfection. the entrance cube of the museum of modern art of tel aviv offered the opportunity to make single span cube with only the tubular compression frame elements in the corners. the size is roughly x x m . the system worked, be it here in single laminated glazing and a little building physical problem with the abundant solar radiation coming into the building part, in the israeli desert climate. (fig. , ). transparent cubical glass building in madrid figure and : entrance cube of the museum of modern art of tel aviv . glass cube hall of the synagoge, the hague nl the synagogue of the liberal jewish community in the hague was built in the midst of the th century and is regarded as a monument. the synagogue complex needed an extension between the street front ‘gracht’house and the hidden synagogue with a glass hall for social gatherings and festivities. mick eekhout was invited as the architect and he designed a cubical glass construction with an apex almost as high as the existing synagogue monument. the structure is a tubular structure, covered with a glass roof and glass façades. the legs stand alone in the ground floor level, connected to the walls and of the premises by an acoustically perforated flat metal roof. the glass cube embraces, as it were, the front part of the synagoge monument. the new technology embracing the classical building with respect. figure : interior of the glass cubical hall for the synagogue in the hague . the santander glass cube of madrid the apotheosis of this contribution, and its main subject is the cubical glass building serving as the entrance building for the santander ‘bancopolis’ in boadilla del monte, near madrid. the bank town has been designed by years old kevin roche from new york, pritzker architectural award winner . in a m diameter circular glass roof was deigned by his office and detailed and realised by octatube. the structure was post-stressed pieces of bicycle wheel principle with multiple compression studs and stainless steel tensile rods of mm diameter. it opened the eye of the client for lightweight tender structures. some years later he issued an order for a cubical glass building as the entrance cathedral for the bang premises as a maximally glass building. challenging glass madrid architect alfonso millanes was the architect who developed the cube, much in the line of the above-described know-how with the engineering office of typsa and octatube. the predominant features of this building are: overall size x m floor plan, , m height; large insulation glass units (igu), , x , m ; large custom designed quattro® nodes x mm; compression tube grid of x m; integrated wind braces- glass supporting structure; mechanical connection of glass to nodes through the inner plate of each igu; twisted roof panels; insulated glass roof gutter; integrated water drainage system. figure and : design of the glass cube by architect millanes and engineers typsa and octatube. integration of several functions into the components comprising the structure of this particular cube was imperative to reach the accomplished transparency level. for instance, the wind bracings of the main structure not only serve to stabilize the structure against horizontal external forces, but are also designed to support the glass panels of the façade. figure : installation of the glass cube the roof has also a unique feature: a completely flat roof can only exist in theory; when put into practice, rainwater needs to be drained to prevent stains on the glass, or even worse, excessive accumulation of water on the surface of the roof. the roof is designed to drain water to the gutter running on all four sides, thus raising the central point. the glass panels of the roof are twisted to avoid the use of triangular glass panels. the glass gutter is positioned directly above one of the compression tubes of the main steel structure. this not only disguises the gutter, but also leaves the corner of the roof-façade connection to be very transparent as well; no structure other than a mechanical glass-on- transparent cubical glass building in madrid glass connection is used to support this corner. the vertical corners of the cube are designed in a similar fashion; the main difference being a vertical corner profile is used to support the weight of the glass panels (another example of integration of functions). although here the profile has a different function, it can be compared with the corner profile of the x x mm glass cubes in goor described earlier. figure : inside view figure : glass cube santander bank, madrid in true octatube style, the structure is prefabricated to the maximum possible extent in the factory in holland. this, together with the just-in-time arrival of components on the building site leads to a short and effective assembly. this also applies to the glass panels; freights of glass are called to arrive on site with little advance to minimize the risks of damage during storage on the building site. this approach results is the total assembly of all glass panels ( in total) without any damage. figure - : details of the glass cube. challenging glass . conclusion the santander glass cube in madrid is an example of high tech know-how on different levels that has been obtained grossly on a project-to-project base. this careful incremental approach took place on different scale levels: • glass and glass panels • connections glass to quattro nodes • tensile structural systems • refinement of constructions • industrialisation/prefab components. at the engineering department there is a general feeling that the resulting glass cube structure is the about lightest possible. next step could be to use glass panels also to function as shear force holders in the plane of the façade and the roof and or to have the glass panels provided with internal tubes so that vertical pre-stressed cables could be inserted through the panes to stabilize the façade against wind pressures. it is yet a few steps from the ideals that are put by the cubism of pablo picasso and the contemporary translations of painters’ cubism into architects’ cubism like coop himmelb(l)au. but ambitions show the direction to be followed. . references [ ] eekhout, m., ‘stressed glass, zappi or product development for the nai’, nai publishers, . isbn: - - -x. [ ] westra, j.(eds.),’tussen traditie en experiment’, publisher, rotterdam, . isbn: - - - . [ ] eekhout, m., ‘product development in glass structures’, publisher, rotterdam, . isbn: - - - . journal of art historiography number december grappling with the grotesque review of: frances s. connelly, the grotesque in western art and culture: the image at play, cambridge: cambridge university press, , pp., b & w illus., £ . hdbk, isbn jenny anger frances s. connelly’s deceptively slight volume, the grotesque in western art and culture: the image at play, is a book teeming with fresh ideas. in this age of specialization, it is increasingly rare for one scholarly study to dare to address a topic as broad as that announced by this one’s title, yet connelly’s erudition and openness to the flux required by her theme combine to make a rewarding experience for the reader—as well as to challenge some fundamental underpinnings of the discipline of art history. this book sullies traditional borders between periods and aesthetic categories and insists on the ethical dimensions of art and its histories. as such, it exemplifies the grotesque that is its subject. it is a wise book, remaining empathetic, humble, and playful all the while. in short, connelly’s the grotesque in western art and culture is a prodigious accomplishment, which this review assesses in general before addressing individual chapters. the book ends with an analysis of the kantian sublime in contrast with john ruskin’s notion of the ‘noble grotesque’, which connelly rechristens the ‘profound grotesque’. the neat comparison also illuminates her approach to the material at hand, so i quote at length: the pleasure in the sublime, as [immanuel] kant understood, is in our mastery of it. ours is the mastering gaze of the wanderer, challenged by the world but transcending it through our intellectual prowess. there are no such absolutes for the boundary creature that is the grotesque. ruskin conceptualized the profound grotesque as an exalted but partial vision. the profound grotesque is a work of art ‘arising from the confusion of the imagination by the presence of truths which it cannot wholly grasp.’ even after its maker wrestles these ‘appalling and eventful’ truths into imagistic form, its meaning in this connelly surpasses the already considerable breadth of her earlier, groundbreaking study of the ‘primitive,’ the sleep of reason: primitivism in european art and aesthetics, - , university park: pennsylvania state university press, . john ruskin, the works of john ruskin, library edition, edited by e. t. cook and alexander wedderburn, vols., including appendix, london: george allen, - , : . jenny anger grappling with the grotesque is left for each ‘beholder to work out’—no single, unchanging vision, but each one of us making the connections and grappling with the ambiguities and contradictions within the grotesque spielraum [room to play] in our own way. there is a deep humility to this refusal to claim the fiction of fixed, absolute truths, embracing instead the concrete realities of life as we experience it. the sublime pictures the natural world as wordless and inchoate without a mastering vision imposed upon it; but as we see here, the grotesque leans in close, to listen and observe its breathtaking diversity, and to seek meaning in its particular incarnations. the most noble of grotesques do not seek mastery over the living and dying world; rather, they belong to it, and seek revelation within it and through it. ( ) this ‘lean[ing] in close, listen[ing] and observ[ing]’, points to a productive paradox for all of us who are interested in the particular address and potential of visual art. connelly argues that the power of the grotesque resides in its visuality, which is to say its near untranslatability into text. at the same time, this visuality is never a pure, disembodied visuality familiar (at least in theory) especially to modernist scholars. one thinks, for example, of clement greenberg’s restriction of proper aesthetic appreciation to ‘eyesight alone’. no, the grotesque is a visual modality that affects the viewer viscerally; it produces an emphatically embodied visuality. in short, the grotesque addresses one through visual means, but one must grapple with it with one’s entire self, with physical, emotional, and mental responses. the latter are, in turn, embedded in everyone’s deeply rooted sociality, requiring that decisions about the grotesque are profoundly ethical as well. the articulation of this non-textual, embodied, ethical visuality is a central contribution of this book. connelly makes a convincing case for the source of this simultaneously inclusive and expansive grotesque in horace’s ars poetica (circa bce). the classic source of ut pictura poesis (poetry is like painting) metamorphoses, in connelly’s rereading, into a powerful argument for the pictura that is not at all like poesis. horace presents us with what connelly calls a ‘combinatory grotesque’ ( ). the roman muses: ‘suppose: a painter starts from a human head, he joins to it a horse’s neck, he inserts a variety of feathers on limbs assembled from any and everywhere, and so, repulsively, a woman of appealing form above ends in a black fish…. [c]ould you, my friends…refrain from laughing?’ connelly answers for horace, quoting him further: ‘a poet might imagine such things, but these ridiculous monstrosities are like a “sick man’s dreams [aegri somnia]…empty of substance, no single form relating head and foot” ( - )’ ( ). she explains that ‘horace’s see caroline a. jones’s magisterial study, eyesight alone: clement greenberg’s modernism and the bureaucratization of the senses, chicago: university of chicago press, . horace, ‘the art of poetry: a prose translation,’ trans. james hynd, in horace: the art of poetry, ed. burton raffel, albany, ny: suny press, , - . jenny anger grappling with the grotesque condemnation of the outlandish hybrid has been read primarily as a warning against artistic license’ ( ). but connelly recognizes it as something more, namely, ‘a powerful aversion to mixtures’ ( ). indeed, she finds warnings about the purported dangers of mixing throughout ars poetica, and she links them to horace’s concern about the ‘debasement of roman culture’ ( ). in his words: ‘once there existed men of wisdom with the power and insight to separate public from private things, sacred from profane, to prevent marriage with aliens, to give rights to husbands, to build cities, to engrave laws in wood’ ( - ). in connelly’s judgment: ‘reading this last passage against the grain reveals that the grotesque exemplifies for horace the threat posed by the profane, the alien, the feminine and the wild’ ( ). connelly explains how vitruvius, in his de architectura ( ce), carried such fear of the other and/or excess into the art of architecture. for him ornament must remain subservient to structure—that is, it must stay in its proper place—or it subverts the structure itself. whence this subversive power? connelly sees it clearly: ornament and the grotesque were ‘engines of persuasion because they moved their audience— not by logical argument but by their appeal to the senses…’ ( ). their sensual appeal is bodily; it does not allow comfortable distance but keeps us enmeshed in the material of life and death. in short: underlying horace’s ridicule of the feathered mermaid is perhaps a far deeper fear of an image that is out of the control of language and resistant to reason. adding in his strictures against intermixtures makes it clear that the grotesque threatens boundaries of all sorts and, in doing so, opens up possibilities that undermine the status quo and those who benefit from its stasis. ( ) connelly’s own willingness ‘to lean in close’, to remain immanent to the visual forms at hand, opens her—and us—to renewed appreciation of works long understood otherwise, as well as to the changing meanings of the term, ‘grotesque’. the author resists an identification of the ‘true’ grotesque, which some historians identify with sixteenth-century ornamentation (such as raphael’s vatican loggie of ), which had been inspired by the late fifteenth-century rediscovery of grottesche in nero’s domus aurea in rome ( - ). in the first place, renaissance artists were ‘no slaves to archaeological accuracy’, as connelly points out; they creatively mixed found motifs with imaginative designs of their own. in the second, she contends, ‘grotesques are by their nature intermixed, unresolved, and impure…and to represent them as fixed entities misses their most salient feature’ ( ). addressing changing meanings of the word ‘grotesque’ itself, connelly declares: it is not our role to decide whether these shifting attributions are correct. rather than dismiss as misguided the contemporaries of jacques callot, who here she also addresses ornament in classical rhetoric. jenny anger grappling with the grotesque described his caricatured figures as grotesque (to take just one example), it is far more fruitful to explore the new possibilities created by the collapse of boundaries between grottesche and caricature. ( ) one such intriguing discovery is that the general shift from a more ornamental to a more figurative, carnivalesque grotesque, signaled by callot, also suggests a continuity. in brief, the overt social transgression of the latter was not new to the grotesque but rather a revelation of what had been latent, or covert, in earlier forms (as connelly’s interpretation of horace’s ars poetica confirms). of course, such openness also risks complete dissolution of boundaries—a threat of the abject grotesque, discussed in chapter —but connelly admirably identifies ‘strands’ or ‘streams’ ( ) that constitute her book’s chapters. they develop more or less chronologically, though connelly—again, like the grotesque— maintains a certain porousness, never allowing her themes to harden into impermeable categories. she is able to retain this flexible structure by means of some chronological overlap between chapters, occasional repetition of images, and carefully placed comparisons backward and forward in the text. these comparisons, as well as her dependably close descriptions of images, contribute considerable pleasure—and revelation—to the reader willing to follow their directions, to stay with the pages, immanent to the book as it unfolds and folds back upon itself. the book develops as follows. somewhat unorthodoxly, connelly identifies her ‘introduction’ already as chapter . the oddity stays with the reader until one realizes that one is already entering the space of the grotesque. put another way, there is no objective vantage point outside the grotesque; a traditional introduction preceding the first chapter would make no sense. the introduction’s subtitle, ‘entering the spielraum’, underscores this point. connelly clarifies her use of the german word (itself, notably, a combination of two words, spiel and raum): …if we understand that the grotesque ruptures the boundaries of disparate realities, then the contested space created between the two is where the grotesque creates meaning. this is the “gap” that the viewer must bridge, the circuit he or she must complete. the operations of the grotesque pry open what we shall provisionally describe as a spielraum, creating “elbow room” or “room to play”. ( ) connelly’s explicit culprit in this regard is philipe morel, whose les grotesques: les figures de l’imaginaire dans la fin de la renaissance, paris: flammarion, , is said to provide ‘an indispensable study of the italian grottesche…. morel’s methodology is perfectly suited to a deep period study but, in my view, oversteps when it dismisses grottesche ‘contaminated’ by flemish art or removes the work of bosch, arcimboldo (morel later reversed this judgment on arcimboldo), and callot from the grotesque because of their indifference to the classical models’ ( n ). jenny anger grappling with the grotesque connelly explains that the term gained parlance in the social sciences—she cites erik erikson ( ) —and points out subsequently that ‘the role of the liminal in defining and reaffirming cultural norms has been the focus of a number of cultural anthropologists, including [claude] lévi-strauss, victor turner, and mary douglas’ ( ). here she signals that she will draw from sources well beyond the traditional boundaries of ‘art history’, including but not limited to the writings of sigmund freud, mikhail bakhtin, georges bataille, and julia kristeva. in this ‘introduction’, which opens with the image of a grotto—the mistaken namesake of the grotesque (since the domus aurea ruins were underground, its discoverers associated it with grottoes) ( - )—connelly reveals that she will pull anything useful to her project into its mysterious depths. again, this approach partakes of the operations of the grotesque. strangely enough, given the visuality of the grotesque, previous studies of it have been in literature; connelly notes those of wolfgang kayser, frances barasch, and geoffrey harpham in particular ( ). although there are some art historians who have addressed aspects of the grotesque—scholarship on the erik erikson, ‘play and actuality,’ in maria w. piers, ed., play and development, new york: norton, , . connelly finds lévi-strauss’s notion of bricolage to be ‘extremely useful for explaining the process by which cultures create new meaning from the fragments of the old’ ( ). see lévi- strauss, the savage mind, chicago: university of chicago press, . connelly cites many texts by victor turner, beginning with the forest of symbols: aspects of ndembu ritual, ithaca: cornell university press, . ‘essential’ reading on the liminal, connelly notes ( n ), is still mary douglas, purity and danger: an analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo, london: routledge and kegan paul, . connelly is drawn to freud’s links between jokes and dreams—especially ‘condensation, incongruity, unexpected shifts’ ( )—for the grotesque in general and to his essays on the uncanny and fear of castration for the traumatic grotesque (chapter ). see sigmund freud, ‘jokes and their relation to the unconscious’ [ ], ‘the uncanny’ [ ], and ‘medusa’s head’ [ ] in the standard edition of the complete psychological works of sigmund freud, trans. james strachey, london: hogarth press, . essential for the carnivalesque in chapter is mikhail bakhtin, rabelais and his world, trans. helene iswolsky, cambridge, ma: mit press, . bataille and kristeva prove most pertinent to the traumatic grotesque of chapter . connelly employs two texts by bataille: georges bataille, letter, september , ‘the ascent of mount aetna,’ trans. annette michelson, october ( ): ; ‘informe,’ in ‘dictionnaire,’ documents (december ): ; and the now classic text on the abject, julia kristeva, powers of horror, trans. leon s. roudiez, new york: columbia university press, . a ‘very helpful study that traces the meanings of the word ‘grotesque’ through the centuries’ ( n ) is frances barasch, the grotesque: a study in meanings, the hague: mouton, . kayser and harpham’s books also remain ‘essential reading’ ( ), but— despite their titles’ claims—focus predominantly on literature, in connelly’s account. see wolfgang kayser, the grotesque in art and literature [ ], trans. ulrich weisstein, new york: columbia university press, , and geoffrey harpham, on the grotesque: strategies of contradiction in art and literature, princeton: princeton university press, . jenny anger grappling with the grotesque sixteenth century, connelly notes, has been especially rich ( ) —there has been no ‘overarching history of the grotesque visual tradition’ ( ) until now. connelly explains that her own anthology about post- examples, modern art and the grotesque ( ), ‘was sparked by the striking discontinuity between the pervasiveness of grotesque imagery in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and the dearth of scholarship on the grotesque itself’ ( ). one learns, thus, that the author has been grappling with the grotesque for some time; coming from within, she becomes a trusted guide to its spielraum. chapter , ‘improvisation i: grottesche’, addresses the grotesque as ‘sophisticated play and inspired artifice, linked closely to ornament’ ( ). although this strand is least familiar to us today, it represents the earliest understanding of the grotesque. it is here that connelly rereads ars poetica and argues for the specifically visual power of the grotesque ( - ). turning to images, connelly moves from raphael’s loggie and other italian, graphic inventions to northern prints and pattern books, which brought native traditions of drollery into the mix. connelly’s description of an etching by lucas kilian from augsburg in exemplifies both the unrestrained, far less classical grotesque of the north as well as her own willingness to ‘lean in close’, adopting the playful wit of the work in her own prose. she writes, ‘on either side, just above midpoint, reversed figures work in tandem to render each other’s efforts pointless. the one below sprouts a long curving neck, leading to a bird, or dragon-shaped head, topped by a lighted lamp. this flame, so flamboyantly displayed, is promptly extinguished by a well-aimed fart emitted by his counterpart, strategically positioned above’ ( ). looking closely at the print, and encouraging her readers to do the same, connelly also moves deftly between works. in this case she turns back to an earlier, italian example (giovanni da brescia’s engraving after an ornamental panel by nicoletto da modena, circa ): ‘a quick comparison with da brescia’s engraving, where classical putti sit placidly on tendrils, demonstrates how much more distortion and exaggeration play a role in northern grotesques’ ( ). the grotesque as a sign of inventive freedom emerged again in italy, however, this time as a full-fledged aesthetic principle far outreaching its early designation of ornament. giorgio vasari’s hugely influential history, lives of the most excellent painters, sculptors, and architects ( ), positions michelangelo as the greatest artist because, as vasari claimed, ‘the license he allowed himself has served as a great encouragement to others to follow his example; and subsequently we have seen the creation of new kinds of fantastic ornamentation containing more of the grotesque than of rule or reason’ ( ). connelly’s description—too rich to summarize ( - )—of michelangelo’s jonah on the sistine chapel ceiling ( - ) re-illuminates the extraordinary virtuosity of that canonical site through the provocative lens of the grotesque. the mannerism connelly enumerates pertinent studies, too numerous to cite here. frances s. connelly, ed., modern art and the grotesque, cambridge: cambridge university press, . jenny anger grappling with the grotesque that michelangelo inspired was discouraged by the end of the sixteenth century, however; chapter closes with counter-reformation suspicion of the ornamental grotesque as a return to horatian arguments about the necessity of stable boundaries. chapter , ‘improvisation ii: arabesques’, follows the reemergence of the grotesque at the end of the seventeenth century and well into the twentieth. ‘arabesque’ and ‘moresque’ are introduced. connelly explains that they became the more common terms used ‘to denote this nonfigurative ornament, [but] they were almost immediately confused and simply intermixed with “grotesque” ornament’ ( - ). a helpful distinction between the previous chapter and this is that ‘mannerist artists saw the grotesque and capriccio as a form of extreme play with the conventions of style, but it would be safe to characterize eighteenth-century arabesques more as stylish’ ( ). connelly points out, however, that the rococo—the eighteenth-century style most closely associated with the arabesque—challenges accepted boundaries in another way: ‘the arabesque and caprice constituted one of the principle boundaries through which a growing array of exotic others first found their way into the margins of european artistic expression’ ( ). chinoiserie and turquerie, for example, began to flourish. connelly is refreshingly nuanced in her assessment of the ‘other’ in and through the grotesque. there are, of course, representations of offensive, european projection onto racial others, but the embrace of the exotic provides for the appearance, at least, of ‘others’; a space in which europeans could challenge their own curiosities and prejudices; and, eventually, a realm in which ‘others’ began to disrupt the status quo themselves. the arabesque as a space for imaginative play, then, opens the exotic from geographical others to historical others (e.g., the excavations at herculaneum [ ] and pompeii [ ], which inspired robert adam’s designs at osterley park [ - ]); indeed, it ventures to imagine interstellar others. the suite of engravings by filippo morghen, titled collection of the most remarkable views of the gentleman wild scull and of mr. hire on their famous trip to the surface of the moon (circa - ), exemplifies the latter. connelly writes of one: ‘here we see the moon’s inhabitants, who appear to be equal parts native american and chinese, living on a watery planet in their floating, pumpkin-like houses’ ( ). connelly revels in this impure, playful mix as much as she is moved by giambattista piranesi’s very different prints, beginning with the antichità romane ( ). she points out that his images of ‘mottled and scarred magnificence’ are not of ruins alone. rather, ‘piranesi surrounds these monuments of the majestic past with beggars, washerwomen, and other marginal types’ ( ). thus, connelly understands that the ‘other’ has always included a broad swath of society at home as well as in exotic and imagined lands; in fact, we become ‘other’ as we try to traverse piranesi’s still darker architectural concoctions in the carceri d’invenzione ( ). the grotesque disturbs at the same time it opens a space for empathy. the enlightenment is known for clarity and logic, but piranesi was not alone in his deep skepticism of both, and attention to the arabesque reveals that the jenny anger grappling with the grotesque enlightenment already harbored signs of romanticism to come. connelly counters the classically ‘enlightenment’ thought of john locke, who abhorred ornamental speech, with that of giambattista vico—whose la scienza nuova ( ) links, in her account, the earliest peoples’ ‘combinatory imagery to symbolic expression’ ( )— and friedrich schlegel—whose gespräch über die poesie ( - ) claims the arabesque, in his words, as ‘the oldest and most original form of human imagination’ ( ). this emphasis on symbolism’s emanating from the earliest times coalesced, with the romantics, into a profound appreciation for what connelly calls a ‘vital primitivity’ ( ). philipp otto runge exemplifies this primitivist strand in germany; his unfinished tageszeiten series ( ), which he called arabesques, mixed classical, christian, and mystical (böhmean) iconography with the symbolism of colors, times of day, seasons, and plants ( - ). although the clear symmetry and articulation of figures may strike us today as restrained, no less a figure than johann wolfgang von goethe is said to have observed, ‘just look at it: it’s enough to make you crazy, beautiful and mad at the same time…. [i]t wants to embrace everything, and so loses itself in the elemental; still, there are infinite beauties in the details…’ ( ). in the hands of the french, the romantic arabesque embraced the occult. in this context, connelly describes victor hugo’s marvelous drawing, octopus with the initials vh (circa ): ‘the creature hovers in the watery formlessness of the ink wash, its tentacles flaring out to fill the page, while also forming the initials of the author’ ( - ). such interfusion and mutability are also the material of artists as diverse as grandville, odilon redon, and hector guimard—whose entrances to the parisian métropolitain, connelly suggests, update the grotto for modern city dwellers ( ). connelly closes chapter with a critical assessment, which warrants attention, of the position of the arabesque in the twentieth century. connelly breaks from her chronological development to observe: ‘the manifold relationship between the formal invention and individual virtuosity of twentieth-century modernism and that of sixteenth-century mannerism has scarcely been addressed in art history or criticism’ ( ). she then makes an audacious claim: ‘if we focus on the grotesque in modernism, we will see that it infiltrates and unravels not only the established conventions of representation, but also our own conventions of thinking about modernism’ ( ). to bolster her case, connelly reminds us that early twentieth-century german art theorists recognized a fundamental connection between mannerism (especially figured by el greco) and connelly cites john locke, ‘on the abuse of words,’ in an essay on human understanding, london: t. longman, ; rpt. , vol. , book , ch. , ; giambattista vico, the new science of giambattista vico, trans. t. g. bergin and m. h. fisch, ithaca: cornell university press, , , ; friedrich schlegel, kritische friedrich-schlegel ausgabe, ed. e. behler, munich: , : . as related by s. boisserée, ‘letter of may , ,’ trans. john gage, in goethe on art, london: scolar press, , - . jenny anger grappling with the grotesque modern art. carl justi identified el greco as the ‘prophet of the modern’ already in , and in , julius meier-graefe claimed el greco, with admiration, as an expressionist artist. artists of the blaue reiter group in munich assimilated these ideas; in the blaue reiter almanac of , franz marc hailed the ‘mystical inner construction’ that he recognized in el greco (as well as paul cézanne). although connelly ends the chapter with a lovely, representative arabesque by fellow blaue reiter painter paul klee ( - ), she concludes this discussion of early twentieth- century german theory rather abruptly: ‘we have seen grotesque invention characterized as illegitimate and promiscuous, but as horst bredekamp has shown, critics of modern art and mannerism increasingly accused those artists of degeneracy, and their attacks took on more sinister racial overtones’ ( ). of course, connelly, following bredekamp, is right, but one is left wondering how much that despicable legacy is responsible for the continued centrality of france, not germany, in histories of modernism. in other words, connelly has unearthed a trove of engagement with the grotesque in german modernist writing and art. if the grotesque is as critical to modernism as she claims, then should not this german concentration at least de-centre the conventional francophile narrative, as the grotesque has the power to do? connelly remains true to her promise to rethink conventional modernism by debunking cubism as ‘a paragon of intellectual and formalist art. viewed from the perspective of the grotesque’, she writes, ‘it is equally true that cubism should be understood to be the ultimate in wit and virtuosity, in the best tradition of the improvisational grotesque’ ( ). her compelling reading of a collage by pablo picasso ( - ) supports her point, but it leaves predominantly french cubism (regardless of picasso’s actual catalonian heritage) entrenched at the centre of modernism. or does it? perhaps the ultimate closure of chapter with a look at klee is actually an opening, a gap that invites historians to reconsider this and other conventions of modernism as well. welcome to the spielraum! chapter , ‘subversion: the carnivalesque body’, returns to the sixteenth century to follow another strand of the grotesque. connelly neatly summarizes: ‘far from classically based grottesche with their witty improvisations upon artistic convention, carnivalesque imagery provokes raucous, often ribald laughter as it mocks and subverts social convention, individual pretension, and hierarchies of all kinds’ ( ). this strand is emphatically public, and, ‘[b]roadly speaking, the issues addressed by the carnivalesque are more often social and ethical than aesthetic’. compare another volume published in , el greco and modernism, ed. beat wismer and michael scholz-hänsel, ostfildern: hatje cantz, . carl justi, velázquez und sein jahrhundert [ ], bonn: f. cohen, , and julius meier- graefe, spanische reise, berlin: fischer, . franz marc, ‘spiritual treasures,’ trans. h. falkenstein, in the blaue reiter almanac [ ], new york: viking press, , - , emphasis in the original. horst bredekamp, ‘der manierismus der moderne: zur problematik einer kunsthistorischen erfolgsgeschichte,’ in das ende des xx. jahrhunderts: standepunkte zur kunst in deutschland, cologne: dumont, , - . jenny anger grappling with the grotesque further, ‘the carnivalesque body can also function as the quintessential voice of the outsider, its satire and transgression serving as a powerful agent of change’ ( ). as such, it picks up on the potential of the exotic other in chapter . this chapter makes productive use especially of bakhtin’s seminal study, rabelais and his world, to investigate the very bodily experience of the carnivalesque (the root of which, connelly notes, is carne). connelly’s inspired description of pieter bruegel the elder’s engraving, the big fish eat the little fish ( ), convinces of that fleshiness. before addressing details, she writes: ‘nearly every fish has another in its mouth, one meal within another and one death within another, a blurred cycle of death and regeneration’ ( ). connelly then moves nimbly from bruegel to callot, domenico tiepolo, william hogarth, francisco goya, and james ensor. in the twentieth century, picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon ( ) is exemplary of the caricature as grotesque. for connelly, it is ‘the ultimate women on top, usurping the power of the gaze, mocking classical beauty by deforming it in every possible respect, masking so as to reveal and rebuff the viewer’s desire’ ( ). addressing the allusions to african masks, connelly writes: ‘as patricia leighten has shown, picasso’s subversive antics took aim beyond aesthetic issues, as typical of the carnivalesque. anticolonialist and anarchist, his demoiselles call into question the presumptions of civilized european society’ ( ). not allowing her text to be too triumphant, however, connelly—thankfully—interrupts herself: ‘and yet picasso’s image contradicts all that, painting female sexuality as deviant and diseased. his disfigurement of women who do not stay in their place follows a well- traveled road in western art’ ( ). this example underscores how the exploration of ‘others’ in the grotesque can be reprehensible or liberating or, perhaps at its most intense, both at once. connelly closes with a painting by otto dix and writes, ‘the emphasis on such hybrids—fusions of races, genders, species, and bodies merged with machines—embraced by the german dadaists, and hannah höch in particular, violently subverted the growing cultural clamor for racial purity’ ( ). connelly introduces chapter , ‘trauma: the failure of representation’, with characteristic clarity, so i quote: the abject, the monstrous, and the demonic are the expressions that contemporary viewers most readily associate with the grotesque. while on this point, connelly cites the important essay, anna chave, ‘new encounters with les demoiselles d’avignon: gender, race, and the origins of cubism,’ art bulletin , no. (december ): - . patricia leighten, re-ordering the universe: picasso and anarchism, - , princeton: princeton university press, . one wishes that such an endorsement of höch were accompanied by an analysis of one of her images, but a footnote directs the reader to the ‘seminal essay’ in connelly’s earlier anthology: maria makela, ‘grotesque bodies: weimar-era medicine and the photomontages of hannah höch,’ in connelly, ed., modern art and the grotesque, - , as well as to other excellent sources on höch. jenny anger grappling with the grotesque improvisational and subversive grotesques challenge accepted conventions, both social and aesthetic, this strand makes visual what is most threatening, inspiring fear and repulsion as it tears at the ultimate boundary between self and oblivion. ( ) as noted above, freud, bataille, and kristeva prove helpful in traversing this territory. after touching on late fifteenth and early sixteenth examples of monstrosity (in particular, a work by hieronymous bosch), connelly moves to the baroque, reminding the reader that the period ‘constituted a breaking point in the ornamental strand of the grotesque’ ( ), but suggesting that it contributed to the grotesque with new abject realism. she mentions the canonic painting, caravaggio’s david and goliath, but her—if i may say—penetrating reading of his incredulity of saint thomas ( - ), is breathtaking. connelly explains that jesus, returned to life, ‘instructs thomas not to rely upon sight alone, but to actually touch the wounds in his hands and side. to read this text is one thing; to witness it in all its strange and squeamish reality [which she proceeds to describe] is quite another’ ( - ). connelly’s presentation of this painting, more than any other, convinced this reader that the visual, rather than the textual, is essential to the grotesque, but also that its attendant responses are visceral indeed. this chapter, further, makes some of the most compelling and unexpected comparisons in the book. connelly’s assessment of hair and abjection in peter paul rubens’s the head of the medusa (circa ) ( - ), followed some pages later by an analysis thereof in frida kahlo’s self-portrait with cropped hair ( ) ( - ) is richly suggestive. here, too, she retains an openness to conflicting interpretations, writing: on one level, kahlo mutilates and debases the hair (that [diego] rivera ostensibly loved). on another, she sets it free to writhe and spawn (and here the work has an interesting resonance with the medusa story and rubens’s painting discussed earlier). embracing the mortal frailty of the body, in defiance of social conventions, frida kahlo opened a fertile new direction of the traumatic grotesque. ( ) it appears that the abject, finally, is the strand of the grotesque that has proved most appealing to women, queer, and/or other minority artists, in order ‘to wound the gaze that would make them monstrous’ ( ). in this context, connelly cites the work of ana mendieta, kiki smith, mona hatoum, andres serrano, and robert gober ( , ). one wishes that any of these contemporary artists’ works were illustrated and discussed, especially in order to explore the feminized grotesque in the hands of more female and feminized artists. fortunately, connelly’s anthology, following such analyses, the reader is entirely convinced of connelly’s critique ( - ) of yve-alain bois and rosalind krauss’s unfortunate exclusion of the abject grotesque from their somewhat rarefied notion of l’informe. cf. yve-alain bois and rosalind krauss, formless: a user’s guide, new york: zone books, . jenny anger grappling with the grotesque modern art and the grotesque, fills some of these lacunae and should function as a companion piece to this volume. chapter , ‘revelation: profound play’, is, at twelve pages, the book’s shortest chapter, its conclusion, and also an invitation to further study. connelly writes: ‘the grotesque is rooted in the sensate body and in the earthly world it inhabits. yet through this immanent and immediate reality, artists have created works of profound power’. she explains that the revelatory grotesque exists in each of the strands addressed thus far: ‘it does not comprise a strand in itself, but the extreme limits of existing ones, pushed to the breaking point in an effort to express a profound truth’ ( ). it is here that connelly explores ruskin’s thought on the grotesque, as discussed above ( - ). she reminds the reader of earlier references, e.g., michelangelo’s jonah on the sistine ceiling ( ), and introduces new ones, from matthias grünewald’s crucifixion (circa - ) to arnold böcklin’s the silence of the sea ( ). the bizarre sea creatures of the latter remind one of horace’s injunction against mer-creatures and make one long for more of these full-bloodied monstrosities. as connelly writes, ‘it is as if we are given a vision of an alternate, completely convincing universe, or perhaps a glimpse of the vital forces of life as ancient peoples might have seen then. our mundane, functional existence is thin gruel compared with this robust stew’ ( ). and yet, as connelly also reports, meier-graefe nearly wrote böcklin out of art history, because the latter appeared to him as ‘an embarrassing misstep on the road to [purely formal, abstract] modernism’ ( ). in this important book, however, frances connelly grapples with the art that grapples with the grotesque, concocting her own robust stew that will nourish art history for years to come. jenny anger teaches twentieth- and twenty-first-century european art history and theory at grinnell college in grinnell, iowa. she is especially interested in de- and re-constructions of modernism. she published paul klee and the decorative in modern art with cambridge university press in . she has recently completed her second book manuscript, ‘metaphors of modernism: der sturm and the société anonyme’, which she plans to publish soon. anger@grinnell.edu this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution- noncommercial . international license. see christine ross, ‘redefinitions of abjection in contemporary performances of the female body,’ in connelly, ed., modern art and the grotesque, - , and noël carroll, ‘the grotesque today: preliminary notes toward a taxonomy,’ in connelly, ed., modern art and the grotesque, - . the key text is julius meier-graefe, der fall böcklin und die lehre von den einheiten (julius hofmann, ), which has yet to be translated into english. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / picasso for preaching: the demand and possibility of a cubist homiletic religions article picasso for preaching: the demand and possibility of a cubist homiletic sunggu yang christian ministries, george fox university, newberg, or , usa; syang@georgefox.edu received: april ; accepted: may ; published: may ���������� ������� abstract: the purpose of this article is to propose a cubist homiletic based on the picasso-originated art movement known as cubism. to that end, i explore the twofold question: what is cubist preaching, and why do we need it today? it is a critical inquiry into a theology and methodology of cubist preaching and its contextual rationale. in particular, i adopt cubism’s artistic-philosophical routine of transcendental deconstruction and multi-perspectival reconstruction as the key hermeneutical and literary methodology for cubist preaching. this cubist way of preaching ultimately aims for the listener to encounter the sacred in what i call an ubi-ductive way—a neologism made by conjoining the two terms, ubiquitous and -ductive, beyond what is possible through conventional inductive and deductive preaching. keywords: cubism; picasso; preaching; homiletic; deconstruction; multiperspectival; ubi-ductive . prelude to cubism and preaching one of persistent tendencies in current preaching practice, if not a problem, is its strife for rationalistic or literary completeness of the sermon, as ronald allen has realized. this is quite evident whether the sermon is delivered in the inductive or deductive way. each sermon attempts to represent itself as wholly complete with a strict structure, a key message, and an underlying logic. the result is the well-calculated or “perfectly controlled” sermon for a desired outcome. more often than not, this rationalistic practice of preaching encloses the sermon within its own world rather than rendering it open-ended or fluid, which i think is more appropriate to convey the ultimate or ultimately unfathomable transcendental wisdom or truth. while acknowledging the strong merits of current preaching practice (see footnote for many different literary patterns of the sermon), this article proposes a cubist homiletic as an alternative pattern or a third way of sermonic communication. it accepts the sermon’s wide open-endedness and even “incompleteness” as a finest reflection of the ongoing and surprising revelation of the divine. for ronald allen, this rationalistic tendency begins with the problem of the conventional homiletic interpretation of the text, which is the springboard for the sermon construction in most cases. he states that “much traditional exegesis is one dimensional. it focuses on the rational element in the text and attempts to answer questions like ‘what did this text mean in its ancient context?’ even synchronic exegesis tends to be highly analytical and to discuss the text as if it were an inert object of research.” for allen, “a major purpose of exegesis” is “to let us enter the world of the text on its own terms.” allen ( ), contemporary biblical interpretation, . later in this chapter, cubist hermeneutic is introduced as one of the ways of entering the world of the text on its own terms, from which cubist preaching arises, a preaching form that allows more open-endedness and meaningful literary incompleteness. in the modern and postmodern homiletics, these two—inductive and deductive—seem to be the two overarching methodological categories that encompass most of available sermon forms. see the excellent survey of current sermon forms or patterns studied in ronald allen ed., patterns of preaching: a sermon sampler (allen ), o. wesley allen, determining the form: structures for preaching (allen ), and lucy atkinson rose, sharing the word: preaching in the roundtable church (rose ). a major denominator that most, if not all, of sermon forms studied in these sources share is the agreement on the literary structural coherency or completeness of the sermon with one central message. religions , , ; doi: . /rel www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /rel http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions religions , , of one may wonder what cubism and preaching could possibly have in common for us to consider a cubist homiletic. the question sounds reasonable enough, for there seems to be no apparent relation between the two different fields of ( ) the art of painting; and ( ) the word of god embodied and proclaimed, namely preaching. contrary to that immediate intuitive response, the two fields actually have much in common, and this commonality can help preaching to renew itself through the cubist perspective. their first commonality is in the domain of (constructive) theology. clearly, cubism itself is neither a stream of theology nor does it explicitly discuss any form of theology in its artistic productions. however, as discussed below, cubism as spiritual art conveys theological riches, which can be a useful dialogical partner in preaching practice. the second commonality is the communicative nature of both cubism and preaching. cubism, like preaching, formulates its own message and communicates it, particularly, in the sense of transcendental deconstruction and multi-perspectival communication. this unique cubist way of communication has a strong potential to illuminate how preaching can be more meaningful and effective in its message making and communication. another general commonality is the artistic or aesthetic dimension of cubism and preaching. cubism is an art form, obviously, and preaching, in recent decades, has earned the esteemed epithet the art of preaching as its phenomenological manifesto—meant either figuratively or literally. exploring the first two commonalities in particular will help achieve the purpose of this article: the proposal of a cubist homiletic. in so doing, i will define such cubist preaching as the generative act of an aesthetic matrix of ultimate spiritual meanings via the dual, open-ended sermonic process of transcendental deconstruction and multi-perspectival reconstruction. i begin with a brief introduction to cubism. . what is cubism? cubism is an artistic product of the early twentieth-century’s shifting philosophical thoughts and its resulting aesthetic innovations. at the turn of the twentieth century, paris, then one of the “guernica,” one of the most representative cubist works by picasso, can be seen at https://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/ collection/artwork/guernica (accessed on december ). paul tillich once called the art work “a most protestant painting.” paul tillich ( ), “protestantism and the contemporary style in the visual arts,” the christian scholar, vol. , no. (dec. ), p. . admittedly, cubism represents more than an art movement in painting alone. architecture, poetry, literature, music, dance, etc. also absorbed and contributed to the cubist movement. yet cubism did begin with painting, and painting is still considered to have initiated the movement, picasso and braque being the earliest cubist painters. note that this article focuses on analytic cubism, rather than on synthetic cubism, the latter being the further development of the former years, which included collage and papier collé. for more discussion on the analytic and synthetic, see paul waldo schwartz, cubism (schwartz ), pp. – . regarding the spiritual or theological nature of arts in general, roman catholic theologian karl rahner contends that “theology cannot be complete until it appropriates these arts as an integral moment of itself and its own life, until arts become an intrinsic moment of theology itself.” karl rahner, “theology and the arts” in theological aesthetics: a reader, ed. gesa elsbeth theissen (grand rapids, mi: eerdmans, theissen , p. ). we will see later that cubism, as one of the most significant artistic movements of the twentieth century and beyond, is no exception in this integral relationship between arts and theology. many homileticians agree with and promote this aesthetic nature of preaching in their influential publications. they include: jana childers, performing the word: preaching as theatre (childers ); jana childers and clayton j. schmit, performance in preaching: bringing the sermon to life (childers and schmit ); eugene l. lowry, the homiletical plot: the sermon as narrative art form (lowry ); henry h. mitchell, black preaching: the recovery of a powerful art (mitchell ); olin p. moyd, the sacred art: preaching & theology in the african american tradition (moyd ); leonora tubbs tisdale, preaching as local theology and folk art (tisdale ); and thomas h. troeger, imagining a sermon (troeger ). this last commonality is indeed the very ground upon which my article builds. yet, due to the given universal perception of preaching amongst homileticians at least, i will not devote much attention this third commonality here, but simply assume it. since the early twentieth century, cubism has engendered, or at least contributed to, almost every single modern art movement. futurism, suprematism, dadaism, de stijl, surrealism, modern architecture, etc., all owe their initial development to cubism in spite of the latter’s relatively short life span ( – ). john richardson, a life of picasso: volume , the painter of modern life, – (richardson ), p. . art historians and critics do not dispute this statement. see neil cox’s art movement chart that traces cubism’s influence on most of the twentieth-century art movements. neil cox, cubism (cox ), https://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/collection/artwork/guernica https://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/collection/artwork/guernica religions , , of most influential centers in the western thought, considered cartesian philosophy and its aesthetics obsolete (or boring). cartesian philosophy was an attempt to attain objective-rationalistic knowledge of the world by a subject who has successfully detached her- or himself from the surrounding material or affective environment. this detached subject is also the disembodied subject because, in order to attain purely objective and complete knowledge of the observed, the subject (or the res cogitans) must overcome one’s own body, which is attached to the external world (or the res extransa). this bodiless and rationalistic subject tends to observe and analyze the res extransa from a distance through objective-scientific and logical methodologies. up until the twentieth century—from the pre-cartesian renaissance to post-impressionism— aesthetics of the day, especially the art of painting, had absorbed and applied this cartesian epistemology in its practice. thus, most paintings were produced with scientific precision, as if painters were photographing their subjects exactly as they were, their eyes being mere detecting lens or providing a single inspection perspective. thus, “art was judged by its ability to objectively, accurately, and realistically depict [the observed].” in these artworks, therefore, time and space are fixed. each artwork represents a scene or object that happens to exist only in a certain time and space that is scientifically observable and measurable. thus, creating an art piece in which the sense of time is overlapped—that is, where past, present, and future, exist simultaneously—is not only undesirable but impossible in a cartesian framework. only exact representational art is acceptable. at the beginning of the twentieth century there appeared a new movement to contest cartesian aesthetics: phenomenological aesthetics, which insisted that it was not possible to detach the subject from the rest of the world. its adherents insisted that a subject had to be involved in its environment. as heidegger states, human subjects can never be merely disinterested spectators of the world. they are always the ones who act and invest in it. thus, lived holistic experience of the world or the external object claims priority over distanced rationalistic-scientific observance of it. accordingly, multi-perspectival knowledge is preferred over that of a single fixed perspective because now human eyes are not considered mere analytic lenses examining a neutral world, but lively interpreters of the ever-changing multivalent world. in this sense, time and space is considered to be a free flux, not firmly fixed, in the process of knowledge creation. the present moment in which the subject beholds the object suddenly falls into the past moment, and opens up the possibility of the immediate future. additionally, the space where the subject is involved in the object goes through constant changes as the p. . in this sense, cubism still lives through and dictates many art styles of the twenty-first century that are progenies of the modern art innovations recounted above. this indicates that postmodern or modernist people’s lives are, by and large, being influenced by cubist thinking imbedded in most contemporary art forms. thus, it is no wonder that many museums and art galleries around the world still display the works of picasso and braque—the originators of cubism—almost every season as a source of continued artistic inspiration. edward f. fry sees – as the period of cubism’s seminal development and – as a further development of cubism, yet without that latter period showing any real innovation or renovation. edward f. fry, cubism (fry ), p. . douglas cooper shares almost the same periodization in his the cubist epoch. he sees – as the era of “early cubism” when picasso and braque were inventing the cubist way of painting and – as the era of “high cubism” when juan gris became prominent. finally, cooper designates – as the era of “late cubism” or the last phase of cubism. douglas cooper, the cubist epoch (cooper ). read the following, especially the last sentence, from rené descartes himself in discours de la méthode, in oeuvres de descartes, ed. charles adam and paul tannery (descartes ), vol. , p. : “next, i examined attentively what i was. i saw that while i could pretend that i had no body and that there was no world and no place for me to be in, i could not for all that pretend that i did not exist. i saw on the contrary that from the mere fact that i thought of doubting the truth of other things, it followed quite evidently and certainly that i existed . . . from this i knew i was a substance whose whole essence or nature is simply to think, and which does not require any place, or depend on any material thing, in order to exist” (as translated by pau pedragosa in his article (pedragosa ), “multiple horizons: phenomenology, cubism, architecture,” the european legacy, , vol. , no. : – ). mines, cubism, . martin heidegger, sein und zeit, gesammtausgabe , ed. friedrich wilhelm von herrmann (heidegger ), p. . religions , , of time flows. one cannot have complete knowledge of the observed. as edmund husserl points out, one must instead continue gathering partialities of the pursued knowledge. cubist artists found comfort and a strong philosophical alliance in phenomenology. they wanted to observe and analyze the object from multiple perspectives to attain holistic knowledge or a holistic picture of it. for them, cartesian painting was too flat and strictly fixed in terms of time and space. they considered it impossible to attain true knowledge from only one perspective. they regarded cartesian single-perspective painting as more abstract than the multi-perspectival cubist painting because, as the designation implies, the former depicts only one perspectival view of the object while the latter provides a much more holistic multi-dimensional view of it, one that more aptly reflects human experience and observation. for cubists, time and space are in constant flux. they are not linear or fixed but can be freely overlapped, moved backward, or even bent and skewed in artwork as well as in real life experiences. last but not least, phenomenology helped cubists contend that there is always more to something than what a person can observe or paint on the canvas. this transcendent or even spiritual acknowledgment was inevitable. cubists believe that human knowledge is always partial; time and space is always in flux and the self-observing self is in its own state of constant change. if this is so, then what (or who) is orchestrating all this constant change in the world? what does the end of this process look like? and how is it even possible? if complete knowledge exists, what would it look like? these philosophical or spiritual inquiries that cubism conveys and elicits cannot help but invite critical theological responses. cézanne initially practiced this artistic tactic in a limited representational sense. yet it was picasso and braque who revolutionized and extended cézanne’s pre-cubist method in a non-representational sense. aesthetically speaking, four or five intersecting artistic principles characterize the cubism they practiced: ( ) geometrical deconstruction and incomplete reconstruction, ( ) simultaneity, ( ) multiple perspectives, ( ) transparency, and ( ) non-representation (yet not total abstraction). briefly defined then, cubist painting is the product of the dual, open-ended aesthetic process of optimal deconstruction and multi-perspectival reconstruction of the observed. typically, deconstruction and reconstruction of the object and the space around it is done by the use of many geometrical cylinders, spheres, cones, cubes, and lines. the aesthetic result of this cubist innovation is the simultaneous presentation of multiple facets of the subject from multiple perspectives (e.g., les demoiselles d’avignon and the guitarist by picasso). now, the art viewer can see the object not only inside-out and outside-in, but from above and below as well as left and right—all at the same time. in other words, in cubist arts, the viewer can see all possible facets of the observed simultaneously. however, such simultaneity is an optical illusion because physiologically human eyes cannot observe all aspects of the object at the same time. one can only see one facet at a time. thus, cubism presupposes the overlapping of multiple times “at the same time.” that is, multiple facets observed at different times appear in the same space as if they are available to see simultaneously. this is why many viewers find cubism confusing and think it is abstract, surrealistic, or symbolic, but certainly not for instance, imagine a busy street being painted onto a canvas over a certain period of time. when the painter comes back next day or even just after lunch to finish the painting, because of the changed light the street’s color and its occupants have changed. given that reality, how is it be possible to have an objective and unchanging view of the street as cartesian methodology insists? edmund husserl, ideen zu einer reinen phänomenologie und aphänomenologischen philosophie, band i, in gesammelte werke, husserliana / , ed. karl schuhmann (husserl ), pp. – . there is a well-known story regarding picasso’s view of reality. one day, picasso was on a train when a fellow passenger who had known picasso’s cubist works approached him and asked why he depicted the reality only through complex distortion, not exactly as it was. picasso then asked him what exact reality would look like. the man pulled a photograph of his wife from this wallet, showed it to picasso, and confidently declared that the picture was what the reality was like. after taking a look at it and turning it around in his hand, picasso finally said, “she is too small. and flat.” as narrated and quoted in mike huggins and mike o’mahony, the visual in sport (huggins and o’mahony ), pp. – . cooper, the cubist epoch, pp. – . religions , , of realistic. however, cubists contend that phenomenologically cubism is actually more realistic and more “representational” thanks to its non-representational display. cubism attempts to show all possible facets, thus coming closer to an entirety of the observed. cubists realized that this is how human eyes actually perceive the external world with “free and mobile perspective.” that is, human eyes, as lively interpretive organs, observe the same object within a period of time from multiple angles and eventually help the brain create the object’s multi-faceted image in the human mind. thus, “picasso and braque believed their reassembled versions [of the observed] more accurately reflected what the mind (rather than the eyes) perceived [as the observed] existed in space and over time,” which made cubism “known as an intellectual, rather than emotional or realistic, approach to art.” cubism is not actually interested in capturing all dimensions or the entirety of the subject. rather, by opening up the possibility of overlapping time and space, it admits the possibility of transcendence penetrating the observed, which is not readily observable or detectable by human physicality. thus, any argument that complete knowledge or perfect observation is possible (whether represented in art or elsewhere) is simply nonsense. cubism emphasizes the relational and holistic observation of the subject and its unfathomable complexity, which cubists believe makes the cubist observation superior to its single perspectival cartesian counterpart. ultimately, the object’s innate complexity ends up with friendly otherness to the object deconstructed and reconstructed in its cubist artwork. the artwork is friendly because it is the product of the artist’s active involvement and investment in the reality shared by the viewer, yet at the same time it is felt as other because it conveys the aesthetic sense of the transcendent or the unknown. this is why cubism continues to be relevant in today’s world, thanks to both its mundane and transcendent qualities—precisely the qualities common to religious experience. . a theology of cubism the iconography of religious art had nothing to do with cubism, of course, and the narrative element was quite opposed to cubist precepts, yet in its devotion to harmonics and revelations beyond personality, cubism might be thought of as a religious art without religious doctrine. a discussion about a theology of cubism ought to begin with cubism’s perception of reality, for theology itself is a discourse on mundane reality in relation to transcendental reality and vice versa. in the first place, cubism gives more attention to “the reality of insight” than to “the reality of sight.” the rational reality of sight is too flat and too fixed. thus it cannot capture a complete picture of the reality observed. in contrast, the reality of insight made possible by the cubist approach is much more holistic and fluid. it opens up the possibility of the unknown or the transcendent, beyond and within the reality observed. mecislas goldberg once said, “[cubism] becomes like the whirling of a luminous point, a vertigo of lines; the body turns into an ellipse, cylinder or circle. some have seen in this method an attempt to pile on effects, but to us it is a rare, persuasive and real manifestation of certain maurice raynal once said, looking at juan gris’ man in a café, “we never, in fact, see an object in all its dimensions at once. therefore what has to be done is to fill in the gap[s] in our seeing. conception gives us the means. conception makes us aware of the objects that we should not be able to see . . . and so, if the painter succeeds in rendering the object in all its dimensions, he [sic] achieves a work of method which is of a higher order than one painted according to the visual dimension only.” quoted in david cottington, cubism (cottington ), p. . ibid., p. . imagine a person observing rodin’s the thinker for five minutes by moving around it and creating a multi-dimensional image of it in mind. mines, cubism, p. . this is why many cubist adherents—painters as well as poets, novelists, mathematicians, and the like—were drawn into the fourth dimension argument, which was more than simply aesthetical and instead religious. for more discussions on this subject, see linda dalrymple henderson ( ), “the image and imagination of the fourth dimension in twentieth-century art and culture,” configurations, vol. , no. – , (winter): – and schwartz, cubism, p. . schwartz, cubism, p. . michael austin, explorations in art, theology, and imagination (austin ), p. . religions , , of immaterial qualities of things.” by “immaterial qualities of things,” he is referring to the imagined reality of the unknown and transcendent in cubist art. yet cubism is neither an abstract art nor is it abstractionism that tends to create arts completely unknowable—thus, utterly transcendent—to the viewer. cubism is still rooted in concrete reality, and is still “visibly” imbued with the sense of the transcendent. this is why cubism “works” for christians, why they can understand it. any good christian theology or spirituality is a product of in-betweenness. that is, theology is created through the tension between the concrete (sinful or unidealistic) reality/present and the hopeful-transformed (that is, eschatological or idealistic) reality/future. cubism conveys this crucial sense of in-betweenness and the resultant transcendence that guillaume apollinaire calls “the grandeur of metaphysical forms.” he continues, “this is why [cubism], even if it does not directly stem from specific religious beliefs, nonetheless possesses some of the characteristics of great, that is to say religious art.” this real-life transcendence should be the starting point of any theology of cubism. for cubism, the very first step in the creation of in-betweenness or transcendence is deconstruction—a cubist form of negative theology accompanied by a sense of “theology on the move.” cubism deconstructs the observed subject in order to strip off the seemingly fixed, conventional, flat, or false perception of it. this does not imply that cubism destroys things violently or whimsically. rather, its deconstruction is a productive process, one that helps persons see the object outside-in and inside-out, from the front and the back, the left and the right, as well as from above and below. in this respect, deconstruction itself is a process of discovery of fresh or hidden insights about the world and even the divine mystery in the universe. deconstruction can also entail a process of liberation from the shackling conventionality of the surrounding system and self-closed individualistic consciousness. such liberation leads to an opening up of the self to the boundless possibilities of life, the dynamic action and activism of liberation. thus, derrida is right when he observes that “deconstruction [is] a way to keep the event of tradition going, to keep it on the move, so that it can be continually translated into new events, continually exposed to a certain revolution in a self-perpetuating auto-revolution.” in this sense, cubism’s construction or negative theology is what mark c. taylor would call “nonnegative negative theology.” the negativity of deconstruction is diminished by the inherent positivity carried deep inside of negativity itself, bringing that positivity from shade to light. this is like in mathematics where a plus (+) is generated when a minus (-) is multiplied by another minus (-). it is no wonder then that many cubists enjoyed mathematical geometry and mathematical symbolism. by its chaos, uncertainty, fragmentation, ugliness, violence, and by conveying a feeling of death, deconstruction shows what is absent—and thus what should be present. in this sense, deconstruction is largely eschatological. when cubism shifts from deconstruction to reconstruction (or reassembly), it does not depict a complete or finished reconstruction but an incomplete or unfinished one. it is as if reconstruction is still “on the move” or on a journey; that is, deconstruction “affirm[s] what is to come.” this is always a good theology. the new heaven and new earth remains unfinished in human history, even though the foretaste of it is always available and sweetens the human imagination. cubism achieves this (feeling of) incompleteness by depicting multiple perspectives and dimensions. ultimately, the deconstructed subject is reconstructed by the same deconstructive cubist materials (i.e., geometrical figures), which creates the multi-perspectival view of the reconstructed. the genius of multi-perspectivalness is its attempt to penetrate the mysterious depth of the observed—all its mecislas golberg, la morale des lignes (the moral philosophy of lines) (golberg ), p. . translated and quoted in fry, cubism, p. . guillaume apollinaire, “the cubist painters,” in theories of modern art: a source book by artists and critics., ed. herschel b. chipp with contributions by peter selz and joshua c. taylor (apollinaire ), p. . ibid. quoted in john d. caputo, ed., deconstruction in a nutshell: a conversation with jacques derrida (caputo ), p. . mark c. taylor, the picture in question: mark tansey and the ends of representation (taylor ), p. . john d. caputo, ed., deconstruction in a nutshell: a conversation with jacques derrida (caputo ), p. . religions , , of possibilities, seen and unseen—and its representation of otherness encountered in the holistic-cubic depiction of the observed. in this sense, cubism achieves both transparency and transcendence at the same time, which is both truthful and ironic. in theological language, this means that cubism achieves both the immanence and transcendence of the divine entangled in the fabric of the universe. by encountering the interlocked dual-dynamic of immanence and transcendence, the viewer of cubist work is led into the active interpretive process of meaning making. each viewer will eventually take a different meaning from the same cubist art because ( ) there is plenty of room for interpretation due to the incompleteness and multi-perspectivalness; and ( ) by choosing such incompleteness, the artist chooses not to divulge the complete meaning of the reconstructed. there can and should be multiple meanings of the reconstructed for different viewers approaching from multiple directions. thus, the thoughtful viewer is no longer a passive by-stander or simple grantee in front of the art, but a courageous navigator of the (divine) mystery or transcendental meanings of the reconstructed and a thoughtful contributor to the possible completion of incompleteness of it. figuratively speaking, the viewer completes the incomplete story by their own incomplete retelling of it. there are thus several notable theological characteristics of cubism: ( ) it presents the eschatological reality of insight as a more truthful holistic perception of reality; ( ) it offers a non-negative negative—or liberating—deconstruction of the observed; ( ) it presents a multi-perspectival reconstruction that creates room for the divine mystery; and ( ) it enlists the viewer’s role as a dynamic creator of new transcendental meanings of incomplete stories. most noteworthy is the multi-perspectival incompleteness of the reconstructed that encourages the viewer’s ongoing engagement with it. since the artwork itself is incomplete, it cannot have a single complete or fixed message. however, the incomplete multi-perspectival artwork opens up a space of hidden truths or a transcendental aesthetical matrix of diversified meanings into which each viewer walks with fascination and encounters a secretive revelation of life or the divine. this wide-openness of the human encounter with the divine mystery is easily justifiable. for once the divine mystery is “mastered” by a complete understanding of it, it is no longer a mystery but a god boxed and fixed in the mind of the res cogitans. cubist theology ingeniously overcomes this. . cubist preaching: three theological-homiletic fundamentals if preaching is fundamentally a theological activity, as richard lischer states, then every sound theology has the potential to contribute to homiletical theoretical endeavors. cubist theology is not only a good candidate for this cause, but appears to be a great fit for the twenty-first century with its theological depth and epistemological relevancy. this section explores three ways in which the cubist aesthetic, epistemology, and theology translates into homiletical construction, eventually toward what i call a cubist homiletic. . . multiperspectival dual-constructive hermeneutic cubism seems to be one of the finest biblical hermeneutical apparatuses available today for two reasons. to begin with, the scripture itself can be considered a cubist composition of many pieces of god’s revelation. scripture never gives us a full picture of god; but when people force it to, the scripture becomes a rule book or an idol. the scripture helps us to see many facets or dimensions of god, but never all of them. in the scripture, there is always room for transparency and transcendence. second, postmodern literary critics have discovered that a text, whether religious or secular, does not exert a single meaning from it. rather, a text, as a product of multiple intertextuality and social interactions (e.g., the book of genesis as a creative product of multiple intertextuality of richard lischer, a theology of preaching: the dynamics of the gospel (lischer ), pp. – . lischer writes, “preaching is the final expression of theology. it has been toward preaching that theology has been tending. after the exegete has told us what the text once meant . . . the preacher to borrow ebeling’s phrase, executes the text by helping it to speak to a particular time, situation, and people. the majority of christians encounter theology only in this, its final form, preaching. ibid., . religions , , of various ancient near eastern political and religious mythologies), carries within and in depth of itself multiple stories, viewpoints, and meanings. “we know now,” thus roland barthes says, “that a text is not a line of words releasing a single ‘theological’ meaning (the ‘message’ of the author-god) but a multi-dimensional space in which a variety of writings, none of them original, blend and clash.” cubism seems to best capture this ontological ethos of multivalent human knowing and have a capacity to provide an artistic tool of hermeneutical navigation over the complex text. in general, preaching begins with textual interpretation and a resulting key message. cubist preaching is no exception, yet it undertakes this task in a novel fashion. in a nutshell, it will deconstruct and then reconstruct—thus, dual-constructive—the text through a multi-perspectival, holistic, and transcendental interpretive process. first, deconstructive interpretation in a multi-perspectival sense means the dissolution of the text or its assumed meaning in its fullest sense. this radical dissolution is possible and done by adopting multiple points-of-view—hence, multi-perspectival—vis-à-vis the text. a point of view is a particular epistemological self-conscious engagement with the text. therefore, when an exegete gets involved with the text, or enter the textual world to borrow allen’s language, through multiple points-of-view, her engagement with the text becomes multidimensional or multi-faceted in terms of ( ) finding the text’s (hidden) social, cultural, and literary construction and ( ) encountering various meanings of the same text. here is an example of how this multi-perspectival engagement with the text is performed. the self-conscious preacher may imagine herself as if she stood in the text, outside of the text, above the text, and beneath the text all at the same time. that is, the preacher may engage the text in four different yet interrelated perspectival ways simultaneously. i would call these numinous, prosaic, theo-symbolic, and anamnestic ways in order. numinous engagement of the text entails “becoming lost” in the mythic world of the text in unspeakable awe—famously known as mysterium tremendum by rudolf otto. the interpreter encounters the most fundamental pathos or existential thrust of the text simply yet profoundly by being exposed to the “raw” biblical-textual reality. this passionate experience of the text is largely deconstructive in that the experience is far deeper than any presumed meaning of the text; thus the presumed meaning is deconstructed by such a numinous engagement with it. prosaic engagement is a polar opposite of numinous engagement for it emphasizes human reasoning as a primary agency for textual encounter. in this engagement, the interpreter conducts an anatomic, observational analysis of the text, which further helps deconstruct the text through the engagement’s demythologizing ethos and its resulting challenge of textual authenticity. theo-symbolic deconstructive engagement is a kind of poetic-metaphoric engagement. this textual encounter is mostly about the interpreter exploring the text’s centrifugal relation to the larger theological world in a symbolic or poetic-metaphoric sense. why is this termed symbolic or poetic-metaphoric? john s. mcclure calls various these textual viewpoints and meanings “permutations” (or “other origins or goals” of permutations) in his levinisian deconstructive understanding of the scripture. while his approach to and application of deconstruction has a more ethical emphasis (i.e., seeing and hearing “others” in the text), my approach is more literary that is a multi-perspectival endeavor to expose and explore multilayered meanings and transcendence of the text. john s. mcclure, other-wise preaching: a postmodern ethic for homiletics (mcclure ), p. . roland barthes, image, music, text, trans. stephen heath (barthes ), p. . i am merely adopting his language and its functional nature. buttrick does not argue for multiple points of views executed over the text. rather, he prefers that one point of view be used for each “move.” david g. buttrick, homiletic: moves and structures (buttrick ), pp. – . see footnote . for otto, mysterium tremendum refers to the “determinate affective state” of the human mind or feeling gripped or stirred by that which is a mystery inexpressible and above all creatures. rudolf otto, the idea of the holy: an inquiry into the non-rational factor in the idea of the divine and its relation to the rational, trans. john w. harvey (otto ), pp. – . otto devises the term “numinous” in order to name a particular state of the mind experiencing numen. the numinous state or status of the mind cannot be taught or learned; “it can only be evoked, awakened in the mind; as everything that comes of the spirit must be awakened.” the mysterium tremendum is the fundamental nature and manifestation of being numinous, especially in terms of “feeling.” ibid., , pp. – , – . one example of the preacher’s mysterium experience is provided in my other article, “homiletic aesthetics: a paradigmatic proposal for a holistic experience of preaching,” theology today , no. : – . religions , , of because any text, originally limited in its own composition time and space, can only relate to others from different times and spaces (e.g., by asking, how is the old testament relevant to the new testament?) in symbolic, poetic, or metaphoric ways. the interpreter’s primary task here is to capture the metaphoric theological thrust of the given text, which makes possible both the text’s internal coherence and external relationality. this task should be ongoing or unending, as in general any symbol, poem, or metaphor denies or deconstructs any fixed interpretation of itself. the interpreter is ever in the process of getting close to something incomprehensible. lastly, in an anamnestic encounter of the text or standing beneath the text the interpreter looks up to the text as dear memory through the interpretive window of the ecclesial tradition. the text thus ultimately dictates the tradition and the tradition-cherishing interpreter. this is reverse deconstruction. the text as the spirit-breathing subject, not as the mere deadened object, deconstructs both human tradition and the interpreter’s ideologies, perceptions, hopes, etc., shaping and transforming them through the text’s timeless revelatory power. all these four engagements of the text combined together will make a fine multi-perspectival encounter of the divine’s transparent and transcendent presence in and around the text. however, this is only one example of cubist hermeneutic. there could be many other ways that we can think of for the cubist engagement of the text. whatever cubist method of textual engagement is chosen, the goal is the same; namely encountering and experiencing the text as much multi-perspectivally, holistically, transparently, and transcendently as possible. eventually, this cubist mode of engaging with the text should lead to the disruptive, yet holistic, and transcendental hermeneutical re-assembly of the text’s meaning(s) at the next stage of sermon composition. . . beyond inductive or deductive: toward ubi-ductive in cubist preaching, a thesis-based composition of the sermon is put aside. since the emergence of the new homiletic movement in s, two homiletic methods of sermon composition have dominated the north american pulpit: the inductive and the deductive. by and large, both methods support the idea that the sermon is written around one central thesis arising from biblical exegesis. this central thesis approach does not seem to fit cubist preaching—for two immediately obvious reasons. first, the key thesis approach contradicts the aforementioned multiperspectival dual-constructive hermeneutic, through which the main content of the sermon arises. in other words, the multiperspectival, holistic, and transcendental encounter of the text denies the text’s reduction to one single thesis. the cubist exegetical encounter could produce many different angles or even multiple theses of the given text. in their study of metaphor par excellence, george lakoff and mark johnson shows how metaphors in people’s ordinary lives as well as in language and text. basically, they realize that without metaphors human communication would be very limited in its meaning making and conveyance. more importantly, metaphors in communication creates large space for different interpretations of the same situation and the same text. this situation may sound quite devastating as if “genuine” communication is impossible. at the same time, however, metaphoric language allows us wide-open room for creative and radical—which i would call “multi-perspectival theo-symbolic” in the context of preaching—perceptions and interpretations of the text. george lakoff and mark johnson, metaphors we live by (lakoff and johnson ), pp. – . here i intentionally do not use the phrase “understanding the text” as that phrase more often than not prioritizes logical-rationalistic or scientific-naturalistic reasoning. i prefer “encountering the text,” and find it to be more holistic, for it suggests the text encountered by all human epistemological faculties of mind, spirit, and body. for example, see eugene lowry, the homiletical plot (lowry ), fred b. craddock, preaching (craddock ), thomas g. long, the witness of preaching, rd ed. (long ), and paul scott wilson, the practice of preaching, rev. ed. (wilson ). it is true that inductive or deductive preachers may practice the multiperspectival hermeneutic during their textual interpretation process. yet, in their final presentation of the sermon, typically they retreat to the one-thesis or one-focus, if not one-dimensional, method of preaching; that is, “one central message for one sermon.” biblical scholars like gary d. martin indirectly support the multi-angle cubist approach to textual interpretation by pointing out the multiple origins of many parts of the scripture. for him, as individual texts went through various stages of composition—that is, multiple sources added to and deleted from same texts—it is unjust to claim only one interpretation of those texts. multiple interpretations of those texts are possible, and thus multiple or different meanings may arise from same text. see gary d. martin, multiple originals: new approaches to hebrew bible textual criticism (martin ). religions , , of furthermore, the single thesis approach relies on cartesian epistemology, which freezes the living subject of the holy text and, inevitably, renders it a fixed (and dead) object. this object (i.e., the text) is forever detached from the rationalistic subject (i.e., the exegete) who seeks a single definite idea or thesis from it. the text is no longer a lively conversation partner whose boundless wisdom and insights spark the exegete’s ongoing imagination. instead, it becomes the cradle of a cold thesis. by contrast, the cubist approach revives the text’s own status as a living interlocutor whose innate multi-faceted, transcendental wisdom speaks for itself—if only we will listen. second, cubist preaching circumvents the presumed time-linear literary consciousness of the mind upon which both inductive and deductive methods rely. in these methods, the sermon flows in time and follows the basic literary structure of introduction, body, and conclusion. in deductive preaching, a key thesis is given immediately in the sermon’s introduction, which the rest of the sermon then attempts to explain or prove. in inductive preaching, as fred b. craddock contends, the preacher “travels [in time]” with the listener throughout the sermon toward the ultimate “aha” moment—the hidden desired outcome that the preacher has for the listener—at the end. an inevitable theological result of both of these methods is this: the revelatory nature of the sacred text is constrained or even controlled by literary logic and the limit of linear time. it is as if sermonic meaning-making is impossible without the reliance on logic and time. however, kairos, rather than chronos, seems to be the fundamental nature of god’s revelatory scriptures, or god’s existence itself, from which any and all sermon messages arise. thus, when constrained in time and logic, the sermon message contradicts the very nature of the holy text. in cubist preaching, however, time stops or, rather, overlaps. transparency as well as transcendence take the place of the closed literary logic. thus, cubist preaching does not necessarily flow in time; rather it happens within (many) revelatory moments, and stirs the ever-floating consciousness of the human mind at any given second. with this in mind we can now further define cubist preaching as the generative act of an aesthetic matrix of ultimate spiritual meanings via the dual, open-ended sermonic process of transcendental deconstruction and multi-perspectival reconstruction. cubist preaching does not attempt to prove a central thesis, but rather formulates an aesthetic matrix of theses or meanings of the text into which the listener is invited. be aware that this matrix is not a composite of abstract deconstructive ideas or statements. concrete, reconstructive encounters of compelling theses and meanings of the text (should) happen there. in this matrix, the preacher and the listener participate together in the mutual multi-perspectival meaning-making process, at the end of which each listener receives or creates a customized textual revelation. as this hermeneutical matrix participation is non-linear but rather spatial and multidimensional, any labeling of it as inductive or deductive would not do justice to this cubist methodology. a new concept, one that i call “ubi-ductive,” may serve better. ubi-ductive is a neologism made by conjoining the two terms, ubiquitous and -ductive. it indicates that the textual meaning can happen anywhere and everywhere, not necessarily at the beginning (deductive) nor at the end (inductive) of the sermon. furthermore, multiple meanings of the same craddock admits that even his inductive sermon is not totally open-ended (which is supposed to be). his sermon already has—that is, before the message is delivered—a certain desired result that should happen in the listener’s mind. fred b. craddock, as one without authority (craddock ), pp. – . in a similar vein, long uses the terms “focus” and “function” to refer to the promotion of only one message for a single sermon. long, the witness, pp. – . see detailed arguments of lowry’s “loop,” mcclure’s “sequence,” buttrick’s “move,” and michelle’s “move.” in all those examples, the sermon is time- and logic-constrained. david g. buttrick, homiletic: moves and structures (buttrick ), eugene lowry, the homiletical plot: the sermon as narrative art form (lowry ), john s. mcclure, the four codes of preaching: rhetorical strategies (mcclure ), and henry h. mitchell, black preaching: the recovery of a powerful art (mitchell ). just to mention two more problematic features of deductive and inductive preaching among many: deductive preaching more often than not tends to abstraction by its emphasis on one single message from one text, while inductive preaching relies heavily on human experience thus losing sight of the transcendental nature of the encounter with the divine. for more detailed discussions on this, see chaps. and of lucy atkinson rose, sharing the word: preaching in the roundtable church (rose ). religions , , of text can be presented, rather than a central meaning or thesis. therefore, the conventional sermon shape of introduction and conclusion is incompatible with cubist preaching. cubist sermons can be heard as a continuation of the main body of the sermon that is engineered to create a multi-perspectival matrix of meanings. by its very nature the cubist sermon grants the listener a generic feeling of being lost in time through its theo-symbolic and anamnestic nature. every cubist sermon as a whole is incomplete because of its dual-constructive nature and wide-open potential for the listener’s own meaning-taking. this incompleteness of preaching is just fine, or better, even. the preacher cannot (and should not try to) calculate or control the listener’s meaning-making nor, fundamentally, her revelatory encounter with the sacred. so, the cubist sermon is always incomplete. god is free from any control or calculation and so is the listener. this revelatory incompleteness adds to the ubi-ductive character of cubist preaching. . . communication in cubist preaching it is not only meaning-making that is participatory in cubist preaching: so too is communication itself. the preacher no longer delivers something definite to the passive listener. for that something—i.e., the presumed central message—is ever in flux and ever multivalent. there should not be the message or one message that the preacher communicates unilaterally. thus, the preacher functions as the creative communicative agent who, like an artist presenting various perspectives on something, invites the listener into the cubist matrix of textual meanings (for instance, textual meanings found by numinous, prosaic, theo-symbolic, and anamnestic encounters as discussed above). in this respect, such conventional designations of the preacher as herald (prophet), pastor, storyteller/poet, and witness may not work in cubist preaching. instead, the cubist preacher should be recognized as the communicative agent who functions as the mediator between the text and the listener. the preacher is not a simple agent between the two subjects, but the creative (or cubist) agent who is both in charge of matrix generation and also participates in the matrix along with the listener. that is, alongside the listener, the preacher—through mutual participation—not only propounds but also encounters fresh meanings of the text. the agent-preacher’s language or message will always be indirect, invitational, and allusive yet highly impactful for the participating listener—both intellectually and emotionally. once the preacher’s invitation to the listener to enter into the textual matrix is successful, the listener, like the preacher, will have an opportunity to encounter the sublime mysterium of the divine in the same matrix space. in this sense, the designation of “listener” is somehow misleading. what actually happens phenomenologically is that the listener participates in the textual matrix. participation is the desired end result. therefore, i propose the participant as an alternative designation of the listener in cubist preaching. in summary, communication in cubist preaching is participatory and multilateral. all three key players of preaching—text, preacher, and participant—are in flux. the ever-changing textual matrix long expounds upon the four most generic “images” of the preacher people tend to have in mind. the herald is the one who delivers the sacred word from god (directly) to the listening body, while the pastor is the one who formulates the contextual or situational message best fitting for the particular congregation. the storyteller/poet is the one who through literary qualities of the message helps people widen their imagination of the divine. finally, the witness, by oscillating between the roles of the herald and the pastor, is the one whose first-hand encounter and interpretation of god’s word plays a major role in the production of sermon message. while all these images of the preacher still have much merit and should be taken into consideration, there seem to be some areas in cubist preaching that these images cannot fill. long, the witness, pp. – . cognitive psychologists have shown that “subliminal contents, analogous to the picasso imagery, can often be discerned by the viewer, unconsciously [that is, indirectly or allusively]. by unconsciously, it is meant that the subliminal or latent contents are not available to the viewer’s introspective, phenomenal awareness, but nevertheless exert an ongoing, tangible, and measurable effect on both intellectual and emotional responsivity.” tom ettinger ( ), “picasso, cubism and the eye of the beholder: psychoanalysis and cognitive psychology,” american imago , no. : . as the most distinguished characteristic of the postmodern era, jean-françois points out “incredulity towards metanarratives.” jean-françois lyotard, the postmodern condition: a report on knowledge, trans. geoff bennington and brian massumi (lyotard ), p. xxiv. in other words, lyotard knows that no longer a unified, complete, and universal story or truth claim would get people’s attention and consensus; all the story or the truth claim is partial at its best. this notion of the metanarrative’s absence can be easily applied to the textual interpretation. no longer is there the absolute authoritative hermeneutical principle, under which each textual interpretation is framed (toward only a certain result) and conducted. religions , , of created by all three involved encourages both the preacher and the participant to open themselves fully to ever-unfolding meanings of the text and, eventually, the revelation of the divine eternal. neither the text, nor the preacher, nor the participant can or should constrain the eternal and universal nature of god. one way to avoid that pitfall in preaching is to be ever-participatory and ever-multilateral. cubist preaching rightly aims for that. . conclusions cubist preaching is a critical response to the given (cubist) era’s demand for fresh religious artistic communication. cubist preaching and its hermeneutic may fundamentally serve as the best platform for preaching the scripture. for the scripture itself seems to be a cubist composite of many fragments of god’s revelation. the scripture never gives us a complete picture of god; rather, it helps us to see many facets or dimensions of god. that is, in the scripture we do not have a flat, two-dimensional realistic photograph of god, but a puzzling, mysterious, and multifaceted pictorial story of god. this is truly a cubist god. thus, cubist preaching finds its own legitimate place in the field of homiletics and in the practice of preaching. indeed, we are already late in proposing a cubist homiletic. after all, cubism appeared in the early twentieth century, and has shaped people’s philosophical, aesthetic, and religious epistemology ever since. yet, we are not too late. while cubism and a cubist approach to preaching still sounds unfamiliar in the church and the pulpit, i expect it to increase. as it does, this article will be one attempt to prepare us for that upcoming demand. funding: this research received no external funding. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references allen, o. wesley. . determining the form: structures for preaching. minneapolis: fortress press. allen, ronald j. . patterns of preaching: a sermon sampler. st. louis: chalice press. allen, ronald j. . contemporary biblical interpretation. valley forge: judson press. apollinaire, guillaume. . the cubist painters. in theories of modern art: a source book by artists and critics. edited by herschel b. chipp. contributions by peter selz and joshua c. taylor. berkeley: university of california press, pp. – . austin, michael. . explorations in art, theology, and imagination. london: equinox pub. barthes, roland. . image, music, text. translated by stephen heath. new york: hill and wang. buttrick, david. . homiletic: moves and structures. philadelphia: fortress press. caputo, john d., ed. . deconstruction in a nutshell: a conversation with jacques derrida. new york: fordham niversity press. childers, jana, and clayton j. schmit. . performance in preaching: bringing the sermon to life. grand rapids: baker academic. childers, jana. . performing the word: preaching as theatre. nashville: abingdon press. cooper, douglas. . the cubist epoch. london: phaidon in association with the los angeles county museum of art & the metropolitan museum of art. cottington, david. . cubism. cambridge: cambridge university press. cox, neil. . cubism. london: phaidon. craddock, fred b. . as one without authority. nashville: abingdon press. craddock, fred b. . preaching. nashville: abingdon press. now, ways of the textual interpretation are wide-open, and so are their possible results. a step further, the receiver of the textual interpretation by someone else is free to put a hold on that interpretation and to do her own interpretation of the interpretation. conversely, the text, as a live subject (no longer as a mere object), is freed to interpret the interpreter and the receiver of the interpretation. this whole situation puts all the text, the interpreter (the preacher), and the receiver/interpreter (the participant) in great hermeneutical flux. religions , , of descartes, rené. . discours de la méthode. in oeuvres de descartes. edited by charles adam and paul tannery. paris: vrin, vol. . ettinger, tom. . picasso, cubism and the eye of the beholder: psychoanalysis and cognitive psychology. american imago : – . [crossref] fry, edward f. . cubism. new york: mcgraw-hill. golberg, mecislas. . la morale des lignes (the moral philosophy of lines). paris: l. vanier. heidegger, martin. . sein und zeit, gesammtausgabe . edited by friedrich wilhelm von herrmann. frankfurt am main: vittorio klostermann gmbh. henderson, linda dalrymple. . the image and imagination of the fourth dimension in twentieth-century art and culture. configurations : – . [crossref] huggins, mike, and mike o’mahony. . the visual in sport. london: routledge, pp. – . husserl, edmund. . ideen zu einer reinen phänomenologie und aphänomenologischen philosophie. in gesammelte werke. edited by karl schuhmann. den haag: martinus nijhoff, vol. i. lakoff, george, and mark johnson. . metaphors we live by. chicago: university of chicago press. lischer, richard. . a theology of preaching: the dynamics of the gospel. eugene: wipf & stock. long, thomas g. . the witness of preaching, rd ed. louisville: westminster john knox press. lowry, eugene. . the homiletical plot: the sermon as narrative art form. louisville: westminster john knox press. lyotard, jean-françois. . the postmodern condition: a report on knowledge. translated by geoff bennington, and brian massumi. minneapolis: univ. of minnesota press. martin, gary d. . multiple originals: new approaches to hebrew bible textual criticism. leiden: brill. mcclure, john s. . other-wise preaching: a postmodern ethic for homiletics. st. louis: chalice press. mcclure, john s. . the four codes of preaching: rhetorical strategies. louisville: westminster john knox press. mitchell, henry h. . black preaching: the recovery of a powerful art. nashville: abingdon press. moyd, olin p. . the sacred art: preaching & theology in the african american tradition. valley forge: judson press. otto, rudolf. . the idea of the holy: an inquiry into the non-rational factor in the idea of the divine and its relation to the rational. translated by john w. harvey. new york: oxford university press. pedragosa, pau. . multiple horizons: phenomenology, cubism, architecture. the european legacy : – . [crossref] richardson, john. . a life of picasso: volume , the painter of modern life, – . new york: random house. rose, lucy atkinson. . sharing the word: preaching in the roundtable church. louisville: westminster john knox press. schwartz, paul waldo. . cubism. new york: praeger. taylor, mark c. . the picture in question: mark tansey and the ends of representation. chicago: university of chicago press. theissen, gesa elsbeth. . theological aesthetics: a reader. grand rapids: eerdmans. tillich, paul. . protestantism and the contemporary style in the visual arts. the christian scholar : – . tisdale, leonora tubbs. . preaching as local theology and folk art. minneapolis: fortress press. troeger, thomas h. . imagining a sermon. nashville: abingdon press. wilson, paul scott. . the practice of preaching, rev. ed. nashville: abingdon press. © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /aim. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /con. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	prelude to cubism and preaching 	what is cubism? 	a theology of cubism 	cubist preaching: three theological-homiletic fundamentals 	multiperspectival dual-constructive hermeneutic 	beyond inductive or deductive: toward ubi-ductive 	communication in cubist preaching 	conclusions 	references fertilization: a sticky sperm protein in plants current biology vol no r . lukinavicius, g., lavogina, d., orpinell, m., umezawa, k., reymond, l., garin, n., gonczy, p., and johnsson, k. ( ). selective chemical crosslinking reveals a cep -cep -cep centrosomal complex. curr. biol. , – . . habedanck, r., stierhof, y.d., wilkinson, c.j., and nigg, e.a. ( ). the polo kinase plk functions in centriole duplication. nat. cell biol. , – . . bettencourt-dias, m., rodrigues-martins, a., carpenter, l., riparbelli, m., lehmann, l., gatt, m.k., carmo, n., balloux, f., callaini, g., and glover, d.m. ( ). sak/plk is required for centriole duplication and flagella development. curr. biol. , – . . cottee, m.a., muschalik, n., wong, y.l., johnson, c.m., johnson, s., andreeva, a., oegema, k., lea, s.m., raff, j.w., and van breugel, m. ( ). crystal structures of the cpap/stil complex reveal its role in centriole assembly and human microcephaly. elife , e . . sonnen, k.f., schermelleh, l., leonhardt, h., and nigg, e.a. ( ). d-structured illumination microscopy provides novel insight into architecture of human centrosomes. biol. open , – . . leidel, s., delattre, m., cerutti, l., baumer, k., and gonczy, p. ( ). sas- defines a protein family required for centrosome duplication in c. elegans and in human cells. nat. cell biol. , – . . kitagawa, d., vakonakis, i., olieric, n., hilbert, m., keller, d., olieric, v., bortfeld, m., erat, m.c., fluckiger, i., gonczy, p., et al. ( ). structural basis of the -fold symmetry of centrioles. cell , – . . van breugel, m., hirono, m., andreeva, a., yanagisawa, h.a., yamaguchi, s., nakazawa, y., morgner, n., petrovich, m., ebong, i.o., robinson, c.v., et al. ( ). structures of sas- suggest its organization in centrioles. science , – . . strnad, p., leidel, s., vinogradova, t., euteneuer, u., khodjakov, a., and gonczy, p. ( ). regulated hssas- levels ensure formation of a single procentriole per centriole during the centrosome duplication cycle. dev. cell , – . . pines, j. ( ). cubism and the cell cycle: the many faces of the apc/c. nat. rev. mol. cell biol. , – . . kumar, a., girimaji, s.c., duvvari, m.r., and blanton, s.h. ( ). mutations in stil, encoding a pericentriolar and centrosomal protein, cause primary microcephaly. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . marthiens, v., rujano, m.a., pennetier, c., tessier, s., paul-gilloteaux, p., and basto, r. ( ). centrosome amplification causes microcephaly. nat. cell biol. , – . umr , cnrs- institut curie, rue lhomond, , paris, france. *e-mail: renata.basto@curie.fr http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.cub. . . fertilization: a sticky sperm protein in plants during fertilization in eukaryotes, gametes of the opposite sex undergo a complex series of interactions that culminate in cell fusion. a new study on gamete interaction in plants has identified the first protein in multicellular organisms shown by gene disruption to be essential for gamete membrane adhesion. thomas dresselhaus ,* and william j. snell fusion of the plasma membranes of gametes is among the most species-specific events in evolution and is likely an important component of speciation. fusion of lipid bilayers is not a simple task and the evidence to date indicates that nature has invented membrane fusion only a limited number of times [ ]. so many species, so few fusion proteins! discerning the evolutionary solution to this conundrum has been difficult because of the dearth of proteins shown by gene disruption to be essential for gamete fusion. only two metazoan proteins have been shown by in vitro assays to be involved directly in sperm egg plasma membrane interactions and by gene disruption to be essential for fertilization: the hydrophobic tetraspanin family member cd that is expressed on mouse eggs (and several other cell types) [ – ] and the plasma membrane protein izumo expressed on mouse sperm [ ]. cd likely plays a relatively non-specific, facilitative role in fusion, and the step in the membrane fusion reaction that requires izumo (whose presence is limited to vertebrates) is uncertain [ ]. the identification a few years ago of the broadly conserved generative cell specific /hapless (gcs / hap ) family of gamete-specific proteins finally offered a potential solution to the above puzzle. hap / gcs , first reported as a male sterility gene, encodes a sperm protein essential for fertilization in arabidopsis [ , ]. studies of fertilization in two protists that also express hap /gcs , chlamydomonas and plasmodium demonstrated that gamete membrane adhesion and membrane fusion are distinct molecular events in the membrane fusion reaction. moreover, it was shown that species specificity during fertilization in the two unicellular organisms derived from species-specific membrane adhesion [ , ]. hap /gcs is essential for gamete fusion at a step after membrane adhesion in both organisms. exciting new work published recently in current biology has now shown that gametes in hap /gcs mutants of arabidopsis are fully capable of membrane adhesion [ ]. moreover, studies on mutants defective in the sperm protein gex showed that it is involved in membrane adhesion, thus becoming the first protein in multicellular organisms shown by gene disruption to function in gamete interactions before membrane merger, and showed that it indeed undergoes rapid evolution. in contrast to most metazoans and protists, fertilization in flowering plants (angiosperms) seems almost unduly complicated. first, the sperm are immotile, and must be delivered to the female ovule by the pollen tube. and, plants actually do it in duplicate. pollen tubes deliver a pair of sperm cells inside each ovule, and each ovule contains two female gametes. the outcome is a double fertilization event. thus, tightly coordinated gamete interaction mechanisms are required to ensure fusion of one sperm cell with the egg cell and fusion of the second sperm cell with the central cell [ , ]. in spite of this complexity, and in spite of the major challenges to investigating plant gamete interactions in vitro, our understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of plant fertilization has begun to mature in the past few years, and now surpasses that of metazoans. for example, although hap /gcs was known to be essential for sperm egg fusion in arabidopsis, it was not clear how it could function in the membrane fusion reaction, as hap /gcs in sperm in the pollen tube is sequestered in the endomembrane system and mailto:renata.basto@curie.fr http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.cub. . . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.cub. . . &domain=pdf gex -dependent adhesion gamete activation gamete activation gex -dependent adhesion egg cell sperm cell egg cell sperm cell egg cell sperm cell gex hap /gcs membrane fusion reaction current biology ec figure . possible schemes and order of events during gamete interactions in the model plant arabidopsis. (top) gex could participate in the initial adhesion ( ) that triggers female gamete activation ( ) and ec release ( ) inducing sperm activation ( ) leading to exposure of gcs /hap on dispatch r cytoplasmic vesicles (figure ). a report last year resolved this seeming paradox and also uncovered a unifying theme in fertilization — sprunck and colleagues showed that sperm arrival in the vicinity of both female gametes triggered the egg cell to secrete a set of ec proteins, which in turn activated the sperm to expose their previously cryptic hap /gcs at the cell surface [ ]. thus, as in metazoans and protists, initial interactions between gametes are required to render the gametes competent for cell cell fusion. in another demonstration of the likely conservation of fertilization mechanisms, members of the tetraspanin family (tet), which are characterized by four transmembrane domains and two extracellular loops, might also be implicated in gamete interaction in plants. tet and tet localize to the sperm cell plasma membrane and tet was detected recently in the plasma membrane of both the egg and central cell [ , ], raising the possibility that they may function as facilitators of the membrane fusion reaction similar to the proposed function of mammalian cd . the members of the arabidopsis tetraspanin family, however, are expressed throughout the organism and gene disruption studies have not been reported yet. in this new report, mori and colleagues [ ] present yet another major advance for the field. in a screen for plants defective for double fertilization, they uncovered a male sterile mutant gene whose disruption interfered with fertilization. several hours after pollination of wild-type ovules with wild-type pollen, the egg and central cell become fertilized by the sperm pairs, and no free sperm pairs are detectable. in the new mutant, however, sperm cell pairs remained visible between the egg and central cell well after pollination. genetic mapping and mutant rescue experiments showed that the mutation was in gamete expressed (gex ; at g ), the sperm surface. (middle) gex might alternatively be accessible on the cell surface only after gamete activation and function ( ) in post-activation adhesion ( ) as part of (bottom) the membrane fusion reaction ( ). numbers indicate order of events and black boxes represent unknown receptors and cell surface interactors. current biology vol no r previously identified as an arabidopsis sperm-specific homologue of a maize sperm gene of unknown function [ ]. the wild-type gex gene encodes a single-pass transmembrane protein of amino acid residues containing two filamin repeat domains and a carboxy-terminal transmembrane domain. thus, it is likely that almost the entire protein is exposed on the surface of (activated) sperm cells. importantly, gex gfp rescues fertilization in the mutant. gfp imaging studies showed membrane localization, with some associated with the plasma membrane and substantial amounts internally surrounding the nucleus. using a novel cell adhesion assay in which cell wall material was digested in situ to generate round gamete protoplasts and in which markers were used to visualize cell boundaries, mori and colleagues [ ] then showed that in some cases one, and in some cases both, gex mutant sperm failed to attach to the egg and central cell protoplasts. this result was in striking contrast to the fusion-defective hap / gcs mutant, in which both sperm bound to female gamete protoplasts. thus, the authors concluded that hap /gcs is required for a step after adhesion and that gex functions in sperm egg and sperm central cell adhesion. as the authors indicate, the finding that disruption of gex does not completely block gamete adhesion and fusion indicates that the protein likely acts redundantly with other gene products. moreover, the authors’ bioinformatic analyses uncovered intriguing properties of gex . the ratio between the number of non-synonymous substitutions per non-synonymous site and the number of synonymous substitutions per synonymous site (ka/ks), which is a measure of the rate of evolution, showed that gex was diverging more rapidly than hap /gcs . thus, as in protists, this higher plant gamete adhesion protein likely confers species specificity to sperm egg/central cell interactions. the most rapidly evolving region of gex proteins from different arabidopsis species turned out to be in the ectodomain in the first filamin repeat domain, which is predicted to form immunoglobulin-like folds found in many cell adhesion proteins [ ]. in another nod to conserved features of fertilization, mammalian izumo also possesses an immunoglobulin-like domain in its predicted ectodomain [ ], and the fus protein in chamydomonas also contains an amino-terminal, filamin-like domain in its predicted ectodomain [ ]. fus is the species-specific protein expressed only on plus gametes of chlamydomonas that is essential for the membrane adhesion step in the chlamydomonas gamete membrane fusion reaction. these exciting findings have generated a number of new questions. is gex a bona fide adhesion molecule that directly binds to egg cell surface proteins, or does it facilitate the adhesion activity of other as yet unidentified proteins? which additional proteins are responsible for the residual gamete adhesion observed in the gex mutants? at which step in gamete interactions does gex act — does it act in the initial interactions that trigger egg activation, or does gex act later and become exposed on the sperm surface after gamete activation similar to gcs / hap (figure )? it can also not be excluded that gex plays a late role in the membrane fusion reaction. it should be straightforward to test whether ec is released upon contact with gex mutant sperm and if hap / gcs is sequestered or located on the surface of gex sperm. the ability to isolate living sperm and female gametes either by facs or manually [ , ] also now makes in vitro experiments possible in arabidopsis to investigate the specificity and strength of the interaction. finally, the major task for the future is the identification of the gex interaction partner(s) at the egg and central cell surfaces. references . jahn, r., lang, t., and südhof, t.c. ( ). membrane fusion. cell , – . . kaji, k., oda, s., shikano, t., ohnuki, t., uematsu, y., sakagami, j., tada, n., miyazaki, s., and kudo, a. ( ). the gamete fusion process is defective in eggs of cd -deficient mice. nat. genet. , – . . le naour, f., rubinstein, e., jasmin, c., prenant, m., and boucheix, c. ( ). severely reduced female fertility in cd -deficient mice. science , – . . miyado, k., yamada, g., yamada, s., hasuwa, h., nakamura, y., ryu, f., suzuki, k., kosai, k., inoue, k., ogura, a., et al. ( ). requirement of cd on the egg plasma membrane for fertilization. science , – . . inoue, n., ikawa, m., isotani, a., and okabe, m. ( ). the immunoglobulin superfamily protein izumo is required for sperm to fuse with eggs. nature , – . . inoue, n., hamada, d., kamikubo, h., hirata, k., kataoka, m., yamamoto, m., ikawa, m., okabe, m., and hagihara, y. ( ). molecular dissection of izumo , a sperm protein essential for sperm-egg fusion. development , – . . mori, t., kuroiwa, h., higashiyama, t., and kuroiwa, t. ( ). generative cell specific is essential for angiosperm fertilization. nat. cell biol. , – . . von besser, k., frank, a.c., johnson, m.a., and preuss, d. ( ). arabidopsis hap (gcs ) is a sperm-specific gene required for pollen tube guidance and fertilization. development , – . . misamore, m.j., gupta, s., and snell, w.j. ( ). the chlamydomonas fus protein is present on the mating type plus fusion organelle and required for a critical membrane adhesion event during fusion with minus gametes. mol. biol. cell , – . . liu, y., tewari, r., ning, j., blagborough, a.m., garbom, s., pei, j., grishin, n.v., steele, r.e., sinden, r.e., snell, w.j., et al. ( ). the conserved plant sterility gene hap functions after attachment of fusogenic membranes in chlamydomonas and plasmodium gametes. genes dev. , – . . mori, t., igawa, t., tamiya, g., miyagishima, s., and berger, f. ( ). gamete attachment requires gex for successful fertilization in arabidopsis. curr. biol. , – . . dresselhaus, t., and franklin-tong, n. ( ). male-female crosstalk during pollen germination, tube growth and guidance, and double fertilization. mol. plant , – . . hamamura, y., nagahara, s., and higashiyama, t. ( ). double fertilization on the move. curr. opin. plant biol. , – . . sprunck, s., rademacher, s., vogler, f., gheyselinck, j., grossniklaus, u., and dresselhaus, t. ( ). egg cell-secreted ec triggers sperm cell activation during double fertilization. science , – . . boavida, l.c., qin, p., broz, m., becker, j.d., and mccormick, s. ( ). arabidopsis tetraspanins are confined to discrete expression domains and cell types in reproductive tissues and form homo- and heterodimers when expressed in yeast. plant physiol. , – . . engel, m.l., holmes-davis, r., and mccormick, s. ( ). green sperm. identification of male gamete promoters in arabidopsis. plant physiol. , – . . aricescu, a.r., and jones, e.y. ( ). immunoglobulin superfamily cell adhesion molecules: zippers and signals. curr. opin. cell biol. , – . . borges, f., gomes, g., gardner, r., moreno, n., mccormick, s., feijo, j.a., and becker, j.d. ( ). comparative transcriptomics of arabidopsis sperm cells. plant physiol. , – . . ingouff, m., rademacher, s., holec, s., soljic, l., xin, n., readshaw, a., foo, s.h., lahouze, b., sprunck, s., and berger, f. ( ). zygotic resetting of the histone variant repertoire participates in epigenetic reprogramming in arabidopsis. curr. biol. , – . cell biology and plant biochemistry, biochemie-zentrum regensburg, university of regensburg, universitätsstraße , regensburg, germany. department of cell biology, university of texas southwestern medical school, dallas, tx , usa. *e-mail: thomas.dresselhaus@ur.de http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.cub. . . mailto:thomas.dresselhaus@ur.de http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.cub. . . 	fertilization: a sticky sperm protein in plants 	references transposition, | transposition musique et sciences sociales  | séductions musicales esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne et les avant-gardes paris, Éditions de l’École de hautes études en sciences sociales, coll. enquête vol. , , p. igor contreras zubillaga Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/transposition/ doi : . /transposition. issn : - Éditeur cral - centre de recherche sur les arts et le langage référence électronique igor contreras zubillaga, « esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne et les avant-gardes », transposition [en ligne], | , mis en ligne le mai , consulté le septembre . url : http://journals.openedition.org/transposition/ ; doi : https://doi.org/ . /transposition. ce document a été généré automatiquement le septembre . la revue transposition est mise à disposition selon les termes de la licence creative commons attribution - partage dans les mêmes conditions . international. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/transposition/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/ . / esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne et les avant-gardes paris, Éditions de l’École de hautes études en sciences sociales, coll. enquête vol. , , p. igor contreras zubillaga rÉfÉrence esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne et les avant- gardes, paris, Éditions de l’École de hautes études en sciences sociales, coll. enquête vol. , , p. cet ouvrage porte derrière lui une longue histoire. ses premières pages se chargent de l’expliciter en revenant de façon détaillée sur ses origines et ses motivations. comme l’annonce l’avant-propos, ce volume est issu des travaux réalisés dans le cadre du séminaire « réévaluation de l’art moderne et des avant-gardes », tenu à l’ehess entre et sous la direction du philosophe rainer rochlitz et l’historien de l’art georges roque. inscrite dans le sillage des débats sur le postmodernisme, cette rencontre scientifique avait pour vocation une interrogation sur le sens et la valeur que pouvaient avoir, à la lumière des toutes les connaissances actuelles, les avant-gardes historiques, ainsi que la modernité dans son ensemble. pour cela, le texte de présentation du séminaire – reproduit partiellement dans les pages de cet ouvrage –, invitait à une « recontextualisation » des œuvres et à une « reconceptualisation » des changements que la modernité et les avant-gardes avaient apportés relativement aux techniques, aux sujets et aux contenus intellectuels des productions artistiques. deux interrogations clôturaient l’argumentaire : « […] comment ces œuvres peuvent-elles être comprises et défendues de nos jours ? l’histoire de l’art moderne ne devrait-elle pas être à même de rendre compte de la place et de la force des œuvres sans entériner les discours qui les ont esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne e... transposition, | entourées et souvent encensées, et sans les rejeter du fait d’un désaccord avec ces discours ? » (p. - ). le résultat de ce séminaire fut un espace de dialogue qui réunit spécialistes des arts plastiques, de la photographie, de la musique, de la littérature ou de l’esthétique. le projet cependant se vit tristement marqué par le décès brutal de rochlitz survenu en décembre . ce livre rassemble quelques-unes des contributions de cette rencontre scientifique et rend hommage au philosophe disparu avec la publication, à titre posthume, de sa toute dernière communication qui y fut donnée. la riche introduction du volume se charge préalablement de nous livrer quelques éléments à propos de son parcours intellectuel : spécialiste de la pensée de walter benjamin, traducteur et commentateur de jürgen habermas, observateur et acteur au sein du camp des « moderniste » dans « la querelle de l’art contemporain » qui, à la fin des années , faisait rage en france. dans sa communication « art moderne et société moderne » reconstituée à partir du manuscrit, rochlitz propose d’établir un lien fort entre l’histoire de la démocratisation des sociétés occidentales et l’apparition des avant- gardes, s’interrogeant par la suite sur l’empreinte laissée par leurs productions artistiques sur la société et les individus : « […] est-il possible de définir […] la contribution spécifique des arts modernes au développement des sociétés modernes ? autrement dit, s’il n’y avait eu les arts modernes et les avant-gardes […] peut-on dire en quoi les sociétés modernisées, les sociétés actuelles seraient différentes et en quoi nous serions des personnes différentes ? » (p. - ). ces questionnements, témoignage précieux des dernières préoccupations du philosophe, laissent la place à une étude dans laquelle la problématique de la « réévaluation » est traitée comme une question éminemment historiographique – une démarche qu’il aurait peut-être été utile de rendre explicite dans le titre de l’ouvrage telle qu’on peut la lire en effet dans l’avant-propos : « il ne s’agit pas de proposer une nouvelle évaluation du phénomène avant-gardiste, mais de tenter de saisir la dynamique historique et conceptuelle de pratiques de sa réévaluation » (p. ). ainsi, à travers ce retour réflexif sur les manières de « faire de l’histoire », les contributions du volume analysent de près, preuves empiriques à l’appui, toute une pragmatique de l’évaluation où l’on voit se déployer des opérations complexes qui, tout en demeurant historiquement variables, croisent l’idéologie, le goût personnel, les idées reçues et qui, à terme, informent les perceptions des générations successives, aussi bien des spécialistes que des « amateurs d’art ». georges roque inaugure cette démarche prospective en interrogeant à nouveaux frais les rapports historiques entre abstraction et modernisme. au point de départ, l’auteur constate l’existence d’une lecture courante qui associe ces deux termes. ainsi, certains feront de l’art abstrait le plus beau fleuron du modernisme, tandis que pour d’autres cette alliance sera l’une des raisons pour la critiquer. dans sa contribution, roque tente de remettre en question cette vision qui lie abstraction et modernisme en réexaminant la position de deux critiques américains qui ont joué un rôle de premier plan dans la promotion de l’art abstrait : alfred barr jr. et clement greenberg. le premier – fondateur en du célèbre musée d’art moderne de new york (moma) et pionnier dans orientation aux États-unis de la compréhension de l’art abstrait dans le sens d’une approche formelle –, ne semblait pas considérer l’art abstrait comme l’accomplissement de l’art moderne mais plutôt comme une impasse (d’après roque les raisons qui avaient poussé barr à organiser l’exposition cubism and abstract art de esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne e... transposition, | étaient d’ordre politique, cherchant à pointer le rejet de l’art abstrait par des régimes politiques comme le nazisme et le stalinisme). quant à greenberg, roque soutient que son discours en faveur de l’art abstrait se fondait sur des raisons historiques et non pas ontologiques comme en témoignent les phrases conclusives de son célèbre texte « vers un nouveau laocoon » ( ) : « ma propre expérience de l’art m’a forcé à accepter la plupart des standards de goût dont dérive l’art abstrait, mais je ne prétends pas que ce sont les seuls standards valables pour l’éternité. je trouve simplement que ce sont les plus valables en ce moment. je ne doute pas qu’ils seront remplacés dans le futur par d’autres standards. » et plus loin : « il me semble que le vœu d’un retour à l’imitation de la nature en art n’a pas reçu plus de justifications que le désir de certains partisans de l’art abstrait de légiférer en vue de sa permanence » (p. ). la réévaluation des avant-gardes est inaugurée par valérie pozner avec une étude sur les changements de regards portés sur les avant-gardes russes et soviétiques. À travers un bilan des principaux ouvrages parus en russie depuis l’ouverture des archives en , pozner dresse le tableau d’une discipline de l’histoire de l’art dans laquelle co- existent des lectures bien plus diverses et nuancées que les seules visions dichotomiques qui font de l’avant-garde russe soit un complice du régime soviétique, soit un martyr que la montée du stalinisme aurait d’abord écarté et méprisé pour finalement l’écraser. le texte de nadia podzemskaia publié dans ce volume constituerait en ce sens un bon exemple de ce renouvellement historiographique analysé par pozner. sa contribution porte sur la constitution en d’une science de l’art au sein de l’académie d’État des sciences de l’art soviétique. ce projet, antérieur à la révolution d’octobre et basé sur le modèle de la kunstwissenschaft allemande, réunit à moscou des philosophes, des artistes, des historiens et des théoriciens provenant de la littérature, des arts plastiques, de la musique, du théâtre et du cinéma et développe, jusqu’en , des recherches dans les domaines physico-psychologique, sociologique et philosophique. podzemskaia reconstruit l’activité de cette institution prêtant attention aux formulations théoriques basées sur la notion humboldtienne de « forme interne » qui aboutirent à une pensée synthétique des arts. son texte contribue ainsi à combler une lacune de l’histoire culturelle soviétique des années ouvrant par la même occasion un questionnement méthodologique sur l’objet « avant-garde » lui- même. ainsi podzemskaia soutient que : « le temps est venu de proposer une recherche en profondeur privilégiant les découpages transversaux et des analyses comparés par rapport aux débats les plus importants de l’époque, comme ceux sur la construction et la composition, sur l’image et la représentation […], sur la forme, etc. une telle approche permettra d’obtenir une vision d’ensemble plus cohérente et harmonieuse, et de réévaluer la place qui revient aux avant- gardes » (p. ). les avant-gardes mais, cette fois-ci, celles de l’argentine des années sont aussi l’objet d’étude de la contribution d’annick louis, élargissant ainsi la perspective de la réévaluation historiographique à d’autres contextes géographiques et faisant entrer au sein du paradigme « avant-garde » – associé généralement au contexte européen en ce qui concerne la première moitié du xxe siècle – d’autres histoires de l’art. dans son article l’auteure constate un enjeu paradoxal dans le processus de réévaluation des avant-gardes historiques argentines : apparues comme un phénomène limité au niveau de leur ambition esthétique et de leur impact culturel et social et ayant acquis une dimension internationale grâce aux contacts établis avec un certain nombre de mouvements d’avant-garde des pays européens et hispano-américains, les avant-gardes sont relues en argentine comme ayant marqué l’entrée du pays dans la modernité. esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne e... transposition, | dans ces conditions, les lectures modernistes de l’épisode avant-gardiste ont cherché à montrer en quoi il représentait une alternative à la culture officielle mise en place par les gouvernements autoritaires et militaires successifs, et en quoi il constituait, après la chute de la dernière dictature, un élément décisif de la constitution de l’identité nationale. le texte de louis analyse en détail les enjeux idéologiques de cette relecture en se penchant au passage sur deux phénomènes qui, selon l’auteure, n’ont été signalés par la critique que pour proposer une vision héroïque de ces mouvements avant- gardistes : leur politisation et leur recyclage par les médias populaires. esteban buch partage cet intérêt pour les façons de « faire de l’histoire » avec une contribution sur les manières courantes d’écrire l’histoire de la musique du xxe siècle. pour l’auteur, cette histoire reste marquée par le paradigme avant-gardiste et produit un récit dominant qui : « pour l’essentiel, lie la chair musicale du xxe siècle à une colonne vertébrale allant de la « dissolution de la tonalité » au dépassement du sérialisme, une sorte de geste héroïque dont les figures principales s’insèrent le long d’un axe unissant schönberg à boulez » (p. ). le succès d’une telle lecture de l’histoire de la musique du xxe siècle serait redevable à un mode socialement efficace d’articuler les œuvres, les discours et les institutions. face à cela, buch constate que la critique anti-avant-gardiste n’est pas parvenue à articuler une séquence alternative pour rendre compte des transformations techniques de la création musicale. son texte se termine avec un retour sur deux des présupposés les plus fréquents dans l’écriture de l’histoire de la musique du xxe siècle : le postulat évolutionniste et l’idée de l’autonomie de l’art, objet d’une déconstruction remarquable de la part de l’auteur. À ce propos, buch invite les historiens de la musique à : « envisager une histoire de la musique qui, au lieu de présenter l’autonomie comme une catégorie descriptive ou comme une revendication identitaire, soit capable de saisir la problématique historique des prétentions à l’autonomie – celle des genres comme celle des institutions, celle des personnes comme celle des œuvres » (p. ). les textes de philippe roussin et denys riout portent sur deux mouvements artistiques étroitement liés entre eux. roussin réalise une intelligente mise en perspective entre l’esprit nouveau et le surréalisme à l’époque du « retour à l’ordre », autour des notions comme l’utilité ou le fonctionnalisme. il montre ainsi comment, après et par étapes successives, cette opposition entre le corbusier et breton a été repensée entre autres par l’internationale situationniste, avec sa théorie de l’urbanisme unitaire. de son côté, riout étudie les rapports entre le dadaïsme et le néodadaïsme dans une relation qui ne s’exerce pas dans un sens unique comme le voudrait une compréhension strictement chronologique de l’histoire. au contraire, riout soutient que les développements à partir de la fin des années d’un néodadaïsme rapidement devenu protéiforme ont rendu essentiel de porter une attention renouvelée au mouvement dada lui-même. considérant le cas étudié comme symptomatique d’un phénomène plus général, l’auteur en conclut que les effets de rétroaction du présent sur le passé imposent d’imaginer de nouveaux récits toujours susceptibles d’être révisés : « À quelque époque que nous vivions, nos attentes sont façonnées par notre expérience, vécue au présent par définition, et nous revisitions le passé en fonction de nos besoins. ainsi, tant que l’art reste vivant, son histoire doit sans cesse être réécrite » (p. ). les études de cas présentées par yann rocher et michel frizot fournissent également des perspectives fort intéressantes sur la problématique de la réévaluation de l’art moderne et des avant-gardes. À travers l’analyse des réponses à une enquête de la esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne e... transposition, | revue l’esprit nouveau où il est question de la nécessité ou non de brûler le louvre, rocher revient sur ce qui sans doute est l’un des mythes fondamentaux des avant- gardes : la destruction du musée, c’est-à-dire, la rupture avec l’art du passé comme condition d’un renouvellement et d’un commencement radical. À partir de la variété d’arguments fournie par les réponses à l’enquête – qu’il s’agisse de conserver le musée, de le réformer ou de le détruire –, rocher montre la manière dont les représentants des avant-gardes construisent eux-mêmes leurs rapports à l’histoire selon un régime énonciatif qui, comme est signalé dans l’avant-propos du livre, tout en étant interne à la sphère de l’art, résonne aussi largement au-delà de ses limites. quant à frizot, il analyse les déplacements ou les repositionnements du régime pictural que les déterminants spécifiques du récent régime photographique ont provoqué chez les artistes plastiques issus des avant-gardes de l’extrême fin du xixe siècle comme degas, kirchner ou munch qui, justement, s’étaient initiés dans la pratique amateur de ce nouveau médium. du point de vue méthodologique, l’approche originale de frizot peut être vue comme une invitation à reconsidérer les liens entre histoire des arts et histoire des techniques. le texte de jean-pierre cometti – publié également dans un numéro de la revue rue descartes dédié aux avant-gardes ( rue descartes / (n o ), p. - ) – clôture le volume en se penchant sur les conditions qui on contribué à forger la fin proclamée des avant-gardes. l’auteur place cette affirmation sur le fond des philosophies de la « fin » ainsi que sur celui d’un mouvement qui a massivement contesté les convictions les plus significatives et le projet même de la modernité. le texte revient sur certains des traits de l’art moderne et des avant-gardes – le rôle joué par l’hégélianisme, le prix accordé au futur et la dévalorisation du passé, le culte de l’originalité ou le pari d’un commencement radical – et confronte leur vision de l’histoire avec le type d’historicité dans lequel la postmodernité tend à les enfermer. cometti pointe enfin, comment l’un des traits dominants de la période qui a succédé à la modernité est aussi d’avoir redonné sa légitimité à une définition de l’art et d’avoir favorisé à nouveau le souci d’une telle définition et, en guise de conclusion ouverte, il invite à dépasser les attitudes qui s’en tiennent à une ou deux possibilités tenues pour exclusives et en imaginer d’autres : « aucune explication, au demeurant, ne vaut achèvement. les bonnes explications sont celles qui s’ouvrent sur d’autres voies, d’autres possibilités, au moins sur le mode de l’expérience et de l’exploration, c’est-à-dire de l’imagination et du risque. […] que vaut un diagnostic qui laisse tout en l’état et tient le corps souffrant pour défunt ? quelle que soit leur philosophie, quelle que soit la sympathie qu’elle inspire, entre ceux pour qui l’art s’est réfugié dans le passé et ceux qui font de la postmodernité une sorte d’acmé, il n’y a qu’une différence d’appréciation ou, si l’on veut, une façon différente de placer la clôture » (p. ). ce livre riche et passionnant ouvre ainsi des perspectives théoriques et méthodologiques nouvelles sur les rapports entre l’art, la société et le politique. il ne fait aucun doute que cette proposition d’une nouvelle approche historiographique autour des modes d’attribution de sens et de valeur à l’art moderne et aux avant-gardes historiques saura susciter l’intérêt du milieu scientifique donnant des résultats féconds à l’avenir. esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne e... transposition, | auteurs igor contreras zubillaga igor contreras zubillaga rédige actuellement une thèse à l’ehess sur l’avant-garde musicale espagnole sous le régime de franco, sous la direction d’esteban buch. il a publié des articles sur le sujet dans plusieurs ouvrages collectifs consacrés à l’histoire culturelle et à la musique espagnole du xxe siècle, ainsi que dans des revues scientifiques de musicologie et d’histoire. par ailleurs, il est co-éditeur des ouvrages collectifs le son des rouages. représentations musicales des rapports homme-machine au xxe siècle (éditions delatour france, , avec sara iglesias), et À l’avant-garde ! art et politique dans les années et (peter lang, , avec malika combes et perin emel yavuz). esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne e... transposition, | 	esteban buch, denys riout, philippe roussin (dir.), réévaluer l’art moderne et les avant-gardes okumuş & yavan / geçmişte ve günümüzde seramiğin kullanım alanları journal of arts e-issn: - cilt: , sayı: , vol: , issue: , http://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index modada kÜbİzm etkİlerİ effects of cubism in fashion dr. Öğr. Üyesi başak boĞday sayĞili atılım Üniversitesi, güzel sanatlar tasarım ve mimarlık fakültesi, moda ve tekstil tasarımı bölümü, İstanbul/tÜrkİye e-mail. basakbs@gmail.com İngilizce Özet makale geçmişi: geliş: eylül kabul: ekim günümüzün felsefi, bilimsel sosyolojik yaklaşımların temellerinin atıldığı sanayi devrimi ile yaşanan sosyal olaylar ve teknolojik gelişmeler, estetik anlayışın değişmesine neden olmuştur. estetik anlayışın değişimi ile sanat anlayışı da değişime uğramıştır. . yüzyılın sonu “moda” kavramının oluştuğu ve “modern sanat”ın oluştuğu dönemdir. bu araştırmanın amacı; sanat akımlarından biri olan kübizm sanat akımının etkilerinin görülmeye başlandığı ‘lerin başından günümüze kadar olan modadaki etkilerini örneklerle açıklamaya çalışmaktır. araştırma, nitel bir araştırmadır. veri toplama tekniği olarak belgesel tarama yöntemi kullanılmıştır. elde edilen bulgular, görseller ile desteklenmiştir. araştırmanın sonucunda, modanın kübizm sanat akımından nasıl etkilendiği ortaya konulmuştur. anahtar kelimeler: moda, sanat, kübizm, moda tarih doi: . /arts. article info abstract article history: received: september accepted: october the social revolution and technological developments that have taken place with the industrial revolution that the foundations of today's philosophical, scientific sociological approaches have taken place have caused a change in aesthetic understanding. with the change of aesthetic understanding, the understanding of art has also changed. the end of the th century is the period of "fashion" and "modern art". the purpose of this research; cubism, one of the artistic trends, is trying to explain with examples the effects of the s, from the beginning of the effects of the art flow to the day-to-day fashion. research is a qualitative research. documentary screening method was used as data collection technique. obtained findings were supported by visuals. as a result of the research, it has been revealed how fashion is influenced by cubism art movement. keywords: fashion, art, cubism, fashion history doi: . /arts. .gİrİŞ sanayi devrimiyle birlikte yaşanan gelişmeler, toplum düzeninde köklü değişimler ortaya çıkarırken, sanat dünyasında da önemli değişimlere neden olmuştur. sanat, sanayi devriminin ardından modern sanat olarak nitelendirilmeye başlamıştır. modern sanat tarihçileri, modernizmin temel eğilimini genellikle soyutlamaya yönelik olduğunu belirtmektedirler. İlk soyut resmin kim tarafından yapıldığı bilinmemekle birlikte, http://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index mailto:basakbs@gmail.com boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - cézanne’nin “yıkananlar” isimli tablosu ilk örneklerden biri olarak gösterilebilir (lynton; : ). modern sanatın gündeme geldiği . yüzyılın başından günümüze pek çok yeni akım ortaya çıkmıştır. modern sanattın ana akımları “fovizm, kübizm, fütirizm, ekspresyonizm, sürrealizm”dir. bu akımlardan biri olan “kübizm” akımını, modern sanatın babası olarak kabul edilen cezanne’ın, küçük yüzeyleri yan yana getirerek, belirgin özellikleri bir mozaik gibi yerleştirmesinden etkilenen sanatçılar başlatmışlardır (lynton; : ). endüstri dönemi olan xx. yüzyılda sadece duygu ve coşkularla çığır açan bir sanat yapılamayacağını savunan (İpşiroğlu; : ) kübizm, - yılları arasında pablo picasso ve georges braque’ın ortaya atmış oldukları resim stiline verilen isimdir. soyut sanatın başlangıcını işaret eden kübizm, iki boyutlu resim yüzeyi üzerinde, birden çok bakış açısını kullanarak üç boyutlu bir etki yaratmaktadır (ocvirk, stinson, wigg, bone, cayton; : ). bu iki isim dışında o dönemde pek çok sanatçı tarafından kübizim benimsenmiştir. toplumların zaman içinde geçirdiği politik, ekonomik, sosyolojik, kültürel vb. değişimler, sanatın; akımlar, eğilimler, ekoller üzerinden sürekli değişimi ile doğru orantılıdır (Şenel, karaoğlu; : ). benzer biçimde, doğasında yenilenme etkisi barındıran modanın sürekli değişimi de bu toplumsal durum değişikliklerinden bağımsız düşünülemez. moda tasarımcısı schiaparelli’den günümüze moda sektöründe tasarımcılar koleksiyonlarında daha yaratıcı ve özgün olmak için bir konsept üzerinde çalışmaktadırlar (koca, koç, kaya; : ). Çalıştıkları konseptlerden biri olan sanat akımları, sanatçıların fikirlerini yansıtma biçimi, tanımından yola çıkarak, modada da tasarımcıların ve kullanıcıların fikir ve düşüncelerini yansıtma biçimi giysidir. tasarım ve sanatı aynı ortak paydada birleştiren bir diğer nokta, her iki alanın sonunda estetik bir ürün yaratma çabasıdır. sanat, tasarımcılara ilham veren ilk kaynaklardan biri olmasından dolayı, tasarımcılar için sonsuz bir araştırma alanıdır (varol; ). faith popcorn ( ), kültürel hedef kitleye göre moda trendlerinin, • yüksek kültür: güzel sanatlar ve performans sanatlarından; • düşük kültür: yerel olarak takip edilen faaliyetlerden; • popüler kültür: reklam, film, televizyon, dergi, kutlama haberlerinden ortaya çıktığını belirtmektedir. yüksek kültür genellikle modacıları ve yüksek dikiş yapan hazır giyim firmalarını etkilemektedir. Örneğin yves saint laurent, piet mondrian’dan etkilenerek sonbahar koleksiyonunu tasarlamıştır. oscar de la renta’nın koleksiyonunda pablo picasso’nun kübist resimlerinin etkileri görülmektedir (brannon, divita; : ). ’den ’lerin başlarına kadar modanın kübizmden etkilenmesi için kritik zamanlardı. o kritik dönemden sonra yaşanılan politik, ekonomik ve sosyal şartların da etkisiyle moda kübizmden oldukça etkilenmiştir (martin; ). kübizm, moda için yaratıcı bir araştırma alanı olmasının yanı sıra iki boyutlu olan tekstil yüzeyini insan vücudunu saran üç boyutlu giysiye dönüştürme aşamasında da (kalıp) kullanmaktadır. kübizmin ortaya çıktığı ’den günümüze pek çok tasarımcı giysilerini tasarlama aşamasında kübizmden yararlanmıştır. tasarımcılar ya giysinin tekstil yüzeyinde, ya biçiminde ya da kalıbında kübizmden yararlanmıştır. böylelikle kübizm sadece resimde değil, modanın yapısına uygunluğu nedeniyle modada da sürekli kendini göstermektedir. hanse’nin modayı batının kapitalist sisteminde, geçmiş ve gelecekte giysi stillerinde değişim ve yenilikler olarak gördüğünü (hansen; ) ve baudrillard’ın modanın zaman zaman geriye dönerek, “eski” ve “yeni” tasarımlarda, zamanın eski ve yeni anlayışlarını aynı anda üreterek çelişkili bir durum yarattığını (baudrillard; ) aktaran Şahin, bu noktadan sonra giysinin bir ürün olduğunu vurgulamaktadır (Şahin; : ). Ürün olarak giysinin moda soyut kavramı içerisinde tasarlanma sürecinde eskilerin yenilenerek, yeni zamanın boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - şartlarına uygun olarak tasarlanma sürecinde tasarım araştırmalarının önemli bir alanı olan sanattan da ilham alarak tasarlanan ve modada kübizmi yansıtan giysiler bu araştırmanın konusu olmuştur. .yÖntem moda tasarımcılarının kübizm sanat akımından etkilenerek tasarlamış oldukları giysilerin kübizm sanat akımının başlangıcından günümüze kadar ulaşılabilen belgeler doğrultusunda incelenmesi amacıyla yapılan bu nitel araştırmada; belgesel tarama yöntemi kullanılmıştır. araştırmanın evrenini, kübizmden etkilenerek tasarlanmış tüm giysiler oluşturmaktadır. araştırma örneklemini ise; kübizmin temel etkilerine dayanılarak tasarlanmış olduğu düşünülen ulaşılabilen giysilerin görselleri oluşturmaktadır. . bulgular ’de ilk kübizm resimleri ortaya çıkmaya başladığından günümüze pek çok moda tasarımcısı kübizmden etkilenmiştir. birden çok bakış açısını kullanarak iki boyutlu bir malzemeyi üç boyutlu göstermeyi hedefleyen kübizm sanat akımı, moda tasarımcıları için çok iyi bir kaynak olmuştur. moda tasarımcıları fikirlerini modanın hammaddesi olan tekstil yüzeyini üç boyutlu giysiye dönüştürmede, bol kesikli ve keskin hatları kullanarak ve giysiyi oluşturan tekstil yüzeylerinde kübizmden faydalanmışlardır. - yıllarında kübizmin etkileri modada görülmeye başlansa da asıl etki daha sonrasında gerçekleşmiştir. kübizm, modayı özgünlüğü, bir bütünün parçalara bölünmüş hali olması nedeniyle, bir giysinin insan vücudunu saran parçalı bir bütün olduğu düşünüldüğünde prensipte çok yakın çalışma alanları olduğu söylenebilir. kübizm akımı modayı etkilemesi ile akım daha çok çevrelerce görülür ve fark edilir olmuştur (martin; : ). resim . resim . resim . kaynak.https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=fq rbm d ckc&pg=pa &lpg=pa &dq=leneif+ fashion&source=bl&ots=lepcgdwt &sig=bw xrhacmcgadsufv drhmtlhmg&hl=tr&sa=x &ved= ahukewjkjivb_ _cahvfj okhxd bbkq aewcxoecakqaq#v=onepage&q=leneif% fashion&f=false https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=fq rbm d ckc&pg=pa &lpg=pa &dq=leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=lepcgdwt &sig=bw xrhacmcgadsufv drhmtlhmg&hl=tr&sa=x&ved= ahukewjkjivb_ _cahvfj okhxd bbkq aewcxoecakqaq#v=onepage&q=leneif% fashion&f=false https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=fq rbm d ckc&pg=pa &lpg=pa &dq=leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=lepcgdwt &sig=bw xrhacmcgadsufv drhmtlhmg&hl=tr&sa=x&ved= ahukewjkjivb_ _cahvfj okhxd bbkq aewcxoecakqaq#v=onepage&q=leneif% fashion&f=false https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=fq rbm d ckc&pg=pa &lpg=pa &dq=leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=lepcgdwt &sig=bw xrhacmcgadsufv drhmtlhmg&hl=tr&sa=x&ved= ahukewjkjivb_ _cahvfj okhxd bbkq aewcxoecakqaq#v=onepage&q=leneif% fashion&f=false https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=fq rbm d ckc&pg=pa &lpg=pa &dq=leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=lepcgdwt &sig=bw xrhacmcgadsufv drhmtlhmg&hl=tr&sa=x&ved= ahukewjkjivb_ _cahvfj okhxd bbkq aewcxoecakqaq#v=onepage&q=leneif% fashion&f=false boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - kübizmin modadaki ilk ve uzun süre öncülüğünü yapan gabrielle chanel’dir. chanel ve picasso’nun ilk birbirlerinin işlerinden etkilenmesi, chanel’in, picasso’nun dekorasyonunu yaptığı “antigone” adlı oyuna kostümler tasarlaması ile olmuştur. chanel ilk kareli palto stilini yaratmış, tül kafesli dar kreptöşin elbisesi moda dergilerinde haber olmuştur (dereboy; : ). chanel hem yüzey tasarımında, hem form, hem de biçim tasarımında kübizmden etkilenerek giysiler tasarlamıştır. desenleri parçalamış tekrar birleştirmiştir (resim - ). ’lerde pariste önemli bir moda evi olan leneif’te kübizmden etkilenenlerdendi. leneif, resim ’te görüldüğü gibi form, biçim ve renk bakımından kübizmden faydalandığı görülmektedir. resim . resim . resim . kaynak. https:// thcenturydesignersfinalproject.weebly.com/jean-patou.html http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/o /evening-dress-paul-poiret/ https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-caroline-reboux- .html jean patou’nun ’li yılların spor giysisinde (resim ) köşeler, kareler, kesikler ve parçalar görülmektedir. paul poiret’in ’e ait krem ve yeşil renkli parçalı gece elbisesinin de (resim ) kübizm etkisinde hazırlandığını söyleyebiliriz. caroline reboux’un, ’lerde tasarlamış olduğu kap, kübist hareketin etkilerini taşımaktadır (resim ). https:// thcenturydesignersfinalproject.weebly.com/jean-patou.html http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/o /evening-dress-paul-poiret/ https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-caroline-reboux- .html boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - resim . resim . resim . kaynak.https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/ / / /new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne-lanvin-in-paris/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/les-couturiers/madeleine-vionnet http://www.vogue.it/en/news/encyclo//designers/v/madeleine-vionnet jeanne lanvin’in de ’li yıllarda tasarlamış olduğu giysilerde kübizmin etkisi görülmektedir (resim ). madeleine vionnet; kübizmden etkilenerek pek çok giysi tasarlamıştır. tasarlamış olduğu özellikle eteklerde kübizmin etkileri belirgin bir şekilde görülmektedir (resim ). yılında tasarlamış olduğu gece elbisesi ise, biçim bakımından kübizmden faydalanarak, giysinin kalıbı hazırlanırken bütün keskin hatlarla parçalanarak oluşturulmuştur. renkler yine kübizmin renkleridir (resim ). resim . resim . kaynak. https://vintagedancer.com/ s/ s-ladies-workwear-clothes/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior- granville https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/ / / /new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne-lanvin-in-paris/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/les-couturiers/madeleine-vionnet http://www.vogue.it/en/news/encyclo/designers/v/madeleine-vionnet https://vintagedancer.com/ s/ s-ladies-workwear-clothes/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior-granville https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior-granville boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - ’lı yıllara gelindiğinde . dünya savaşı nedeniyle kadın giysilerinin formu erkek giysilerine daha çok benzemiştir. artık kadınlar çalışma hayatında daha çok yer almaktadır. bu nedenle daha rahat giysilere ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. savaşın varlığı giysilere askeri tarzı yansıtmıştır. bu dönemde kalıpsal olarak daha keskin hatlı giysiler kullanılmıştır (resim ). ’de christian dior’un “new look” koleksiyonuyla kadınlara toplum içindeki yeri yeniden hatırlatılarak, kadın giysileri vücut hatlarını yeniden ortaya çıkaran ancak herşeye rağmen keskin hatlardan ve kübizm etkisiyle hazırlanan giysilerde çok kullanılan pili ve piliselerden yine de vazgeçilmeyen giysiler tasarlanmıştır (resim ). resim . kaynak. http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/ sclothes.html ’lerin sonunda kareli kumaşlar yeniden moda sayfalarında kendini gösterirken hem yapısal hem de yüzey desenlerinde kübizm etkileri görülmektedir. o dönemde bu etkilerinin görülmesi sadece sanatsal etki değil, aynı zamanda dönemin politik, ekonomik, zorlu ve kesin kurallı dönemleri olmasının da etkisi büyüktür (resim ). resim . resim . resim . kaynak. https://vogue.com.tr/haber/yves-saint-laurentin-modaya-yon-verdigi-ikonik-anlar/ https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-paco-rabanne- .html http://uk.fashionnetwork.com/news/paco-rabanne-styles-sexy-aliens-for-spring, .html#.w k_tizydu http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/ sclothes.html https://vogue.com.tr/haber/yves-saint-laurentin-modaya-yon-verdigi-ikonik-anlar/ https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-paco-rabanne- .html http://uk.fashionnetwork.com/news/paco-rabanne-styles-sexy-aliens-for-spring, .html#.w k_tizydu boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - yves saint laurent’in mondrian’dan esinlenerek hazırlamış olduğu koleksiyon ’lı yıllara damgasını vurmuştur ki mondrian’ın da kübistlerden çok etkilendiği bilinmektedir (resim ). ’lı yıllara damgasını vuran bir başka isim paco rabanne’dir. paco rabanne de bütünü parçalayarak kübizm etkili giysiler tasarlamıştır (resim ). metal elbisesi hem ’ların uzay ruhunu yansıtmaktadır hem de kübizmi yansıtmaktadır. paco rabanne ’li yıllarda bile hala kübizmin etkisini modada hissettiren yegâne markadır (resim ). resim . resim . resim . kaynak. https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/op-art-sanat-akimi.html https://trendychicvintage.wordpress.com/ / / /op-art/ https://www.accessoriesmagazine.com/breaking-trends-spring- -optical-prints/ ’lı yıllarda optik resim olarak bilinen op-art sanatı gündeme gelmiştir. op-artta, kübizmdeki gibi bütün parçalara bölünür ve sürrealizmde olduğu gibi göz yanılsamalarına neden olur. bu sanat akımı; kübizmin ve sürrealizmin etkilerini ve öğelerini aynı anda kullanılarak yeni bir sanat akımı oluşturulmuştur (resim ). resim . resim kaynak. https://auntiefashion.wordpress.com/ / / /oscar-de-la-renta-resort- / http://www.kaluginastyle.com/en/how-to-choose-your-summer-skirt/ https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/op-art-sanat-akimi.html https://trendychicvintage.wordpress.com/ / / /op-art/ https://www.accessoriesmagazine.com/breaking-trends-spring- -optical-prints/ https://auntiefashion.wordpress.com/ / / /oscar-de-la-renta-resort- / http://www.kaluginastyle.com/en/how-to-choose-your-summer-skirt/ boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - ’lardan sonra kübizmin etkileri daha çok op-art sanatı ile görülse de ’lere gelindiğinde kübizmin modadaki etkileri hem biçim, hem form hem tekstil yüzeyi hem de renk olarak görülmektedir (resim ). ’li yıllarda giysilerin etek uçlarında keskin köşeli hatlar oluştuğu görülmektedir (resim ). giysilerde çok parçalılık ve bu çoklu parçaların belirginleştiği görülmektedir. bu çok parçalılık op-art’a gönderme yapsa da temelinde kübizim yer almaktadır. aynı zamanda kübizmin renkleri olan siyahlar, bejler, toprak tonları ile ’li yıllarda çok karşılaşılmaktadır. . sonuÇ sanayi devriminin ardından . yüzyılla birlikte başlayan modern sanatın ilk akımlarından biri olan kübizmin öncüleri, ceazanne’ın resimlerinden etkilenen picasso ve braque’tır. picasso, braque ve akımın diğer sanatçılarının eserleri moda dünyası için ilham kaynağı olmuştur. Özellikle - yıllarında modada kübizmin ilk tohumları atılmış, - yılları arasında ise moda da kübizm büyük bir yükseliş yaşamıştır. ’larda modada yeniden doğan kübizm, daha sonra op-art sanatı olarak modada devam etmiştir. ’li yıllara gelindiğinde kübizm yeniden modada hayat bulmaya başlamıştır. bütünün parçalara bölünmesi ile ifade edilen kübizmde koyu renkler ve toprak tonları tercih edilmiştir. Öncelikle kübizmin renklerinden etkilenen moda, daha sonra bütünün parçalanmasından faydalanılarak iki boyutlu olan kumaşı üç boyutlu insan yüzeyini kaplamak için faydalanmış ve giysilerin kalıplarında kullanmıştır. daha az kumaş harcayarak vücudu saracak giysiler oluşturulmasında ve bu parçalanmanın kübist resimlerde olduğu gibi kesin hatlarla tasarlandığı görülmüştür. moda da kübizmden ilham alan tasarımcılar ve moda evleri; gabrielle chanel, leneif, jean patou, paul poiret, caroline reboux, jeanne lanvin, jean paquin, madeleine vionnet, christian dior, yves saint laurent, paco rabanne’dir sanat akımları, belirli bir dönem başlayıp bitmezler. sanatçılar ve tasarımcılar için sanat akımları her daim araştırma kaynağı olabilecek bir alandır. kübizmde bu akımlardan biridir ve bu akımı moda, kendi alt alanlarında dönem dönem ilham almaktadır. boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - kaynakÇa brannon, e. l.; dİvİta, l., ( ), fashion forecasting, fourt edition, fairchild books, bloomsbury publishing, new york, london. dereboy, j.,( ), moda ve yılın moda tasarımcıları, Özel güzel sanatlar stilistlik- moda ltd. Şti., ankara. İpŞİroĞlu, n.; İpŞİroĞlu, m.,( ), oluşum süreci İçinde sanatın tarihi, hayalperest yayınevi, İstanbul. koca, e.; koÇ, f.;kaya, Ö.,yöresel dokumaları güncel tasarımlarda yorumlamak “kargı bezi Örneği, the journal of academic social science yıl: , sayı: , mart , s. - . lynton, n.,( ), modern sanatın Öyküsü, (Çev.;prof. dr. cevat Çapan, prof. dr. sadi Öziş), remzi kitapevi a.Ş., İstanbul. martİn, r.,( ), cubism and fashion, metropolitan museum of art, new york. ocvİrk, o.g.; stİnson, r.e.; wİgg p.r.,; robert o., b.; cayton, d.l., ( ), sanatın temelleri-teori ve uygulama, editör:nazlı eda noyan, Çeviri:nur balkır kuru, ali kuru, karakalem kitapevi yayınları, İzmir. Şahİn, y., ( ), geleneksel türk giyim kültürü ve . yüzyıl modasının kesişme noktası: geometrik kesim, sdÜ art-e güzel sanatlar fakültesi sanat dergisi, mayıs/haziran , cilt: , sayı: , s: - , issn - . Şenel, e., karoĞlu, h.,( ), postmodern dönemde estetik ve tüketim kavramları açısından sanat ve moda etkileşimi, ulakbilge . , - . varol, e.; , “the relationship of fashion and art and art literacy of the students of the department of fashion design”, global journal on humanities social sciences,vol: no: ,s: - . görsel kaynaklar resim . . .https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=fq rbm d ckc&pg=pa &lpg=pa & dq=leneif+fashion&source=bl&ots=lepcgdwt &sig=bw xrhacmcgadsufv d rhmtlhmg&hl=tr&sa=x&ved= ahukewjkjivb_ _cahvfj okhxd bbkq aewc xoecakqaq#v=onepage&q=leneif% fashion&f=false resim . https:// thcenturydesignersfinalproject.weebly.com/jean-patou.html resim . http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/o /evening-dress-paul-poiret/ resim . https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-caroline-reboux- .html resim . https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/ / / /new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne- lanvin-in-paris/ resim . https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/les-couturiers/madeleine-vionnet resim . http://www.vogue.it/en/news/encyclo//designers/v/madeleine-vionnet resim . https://vintagedancer.com/ s/ s-ladies-workwear-clothes/ resim . https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee- christian-dior-granville https:// thcenturydesignersfinalproject.weebly.com/jean-patou.html http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/o /evening-dress-paul-poiret/ https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-caroline-reboux- .html https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-caroline-reboux- .html https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/ / / /new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne-lanvin-in-paris/ https://meganinsaintemaxime.com/ / / /new-fashion-exhibition-jeanne-lanvin-in-paris/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/les-couturiers/madeleine-vionnet http://www.vogue.it/en/news/encyclo/designers/v/madeleine-vionnet https://vintagedancer.com/ s/ s-ladies-workwear-clothes/ https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior-granville https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/blogs/dior-the-new-look-revolution-at-musee-christian-dior-granville boĞday sayĞili / modada kübizm etkileri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - resim . http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/ sclothes.html resim . https://vogue.com.tr/haber/yves-saint-laurentin-modaya-yon-verdigi-ikonik-anlar/ resim . https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-paco-rabanne- .html resim .http://uk.fashionnetwork.com/news/paco-rabanne-styles-sexy-aliens-for- spring, .html#.w k_tizydu resim . https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/op-art-sanat-akimi.html resim . https://trendychicvintage.wordpress.com/ / / /op-art/ resim . https://www.accessoriesmagazine.com/breaking-trends-spring- -optical-prints/ resim . https://auntiefashion.wordpress.com/ / / /oscar-de-la-renta-resort- / resim . http://www.kaluginastyle.com/en/how-to-choose-your-summer-skirt/ http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/ sclothes.html https://vogue.com.tr/haber/yves-saint-laurentin-modaya-yon-verdigi-ikonik-anlar/ https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-paco-rabanne- .html https://theredlist.com/wiki- - - - -view- s-profile-paco-rabanne- .html https://www.arthipo.com/artblog/sanat-tarihi/op-art-sanat-akimi.html https://trendychicvintage.wordpress.com/ / / /op-art/ https://www.accessoriesmagazine.com/breaking-trends-spring- -optical-prints/ https://auntiefashion.wordpress.com/ / / /oscar-de-la-renta-resort- / http://www.kaluginastyle.com/en/how-to-choose-your-summer-skirt/ expt . _f _ - _poesio.indd © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, doi: . / x experiment ( ) - brill.nl/expt experiment ɗɄɋɉȿɊɂɆȿɇɌ a man for all seasons: enrico cecchetti and the ballets russes giannandrea poesio university of bedfordshire, bedford, uk giannandrea.poesio@beds.ac.uk abstract this article investigates the relationships between italian ballet master enrico cecchetti and diaghilev’s ballets russes by drawing upon a number of rare and hitherto unpublished sources. keywords enrico cecchetti; sergej diaghilev; léonide massine; italian ballet; ballets russes; carlo blasis; ballet mime according to a number of sources, ) serge diaghilev asked enrico cec- chetti’s opinion about le sacre du printemps just after the ballet’s notori- ously stormy premiere. the sixty-three-year-old ballet master answered: i think the whole thing has been done by four idiots. first: m. stravinsky, who wrote the music. second: m. roerich, who designed the scenery and the costumes. third: m. nijinsky who composed the dances. fourth: m. diaghi- lev, who wasted money on it. ) ) see the sources cited in the following note as well as luigi rossi, enrico cecchetti: il maestro dei maestri (milan: edizioni della danza, ), p. ; jean-marie montalto, “cec- chetti!!!”, le ballet, autumn , , p. . ) cyril w. beaumont, enrico cecchetti, a memoir (london: c. w. beaumont, ), pp. - . see also olga racster, the master of russian ballet (london: hutchinson, ), p. . in ractser, however, the anecdote reads: “i think the whole thing has been made by four idiots. first m. stravinsky, who wrote the music. second: m. bakst, who did the g. poesio / experiment ( ) - given that accounts such as olga racster’s the master of russian bal- let and cyril w. beaumont’s enrico cecchetti, a memoir were mostly, if not exclusively based on cecchetti’s personal recollections, it is possible that the amusing anecdote was made up by the man himself, not unlike other stories perpetuated, rather naively, by other historians. cecchetti’s critical view of the “modernism” of the ballets russes, however, is cor- roborated by another, less known anecdote, found in an interview with his son grazioso: [. . .] in , during a matinee, diaghilev invited my father and me to accom- pany him for a cup of coffee and a cigarette outside the theater. i noticed that, during the conversation the famous impresario kept looking at the time. eventually he said, “well, it is over, we can go back.” the invitation outside had simply been a ruse to keep my father away from the theater during nijin- sky’s l’après-midi d’un faune, which, as diaghilev knew far too well, my father hated despite his immense love and affection for vaslav. ) finally, sounder, more reliable evidence of cecchetti’s negative opinion about the diaghilevians’ radical move toward modernism, is found in a letter he wrote to léonide massine: to my excellent pupil and friend leonid [sic] massine, as it is very frequently the case in the arts world, the passing of time pla- cates, tempers, and even changes what once were feisty youthful passions and ideals. futurism, cubism, and all the artistic decadence that surrounds us today, will soon make room for a rebirth of classicism; as a great man from the past used to say: “do you want something beautiful, something good, something truly modern? go back to the past, go back to antiquity.” one day, re-reading this book will remind you of our good classes. . . . read it, read it now and then, as, above all, it will remind you of your old friend, maestro enrico cecchetti ) décor. third: m. nijinsky, who is the choreographist. fourth: m. diaghilev, who has put so much money into it!” ) in livia brillarelli, quaderni cecchettiani (civitanova marche), no. ( ). ) draft, in italian, undated. g. poesio / experiment ( ) - although undated, the letter was almost certainly written in , since it was intended to accompany the recently published manual of the theory and the practice of classical theatrical dancing (méthode cecchetti). ) by that time cecchetti had been teaching artists of the legendary ballets russes for fourteen years and had created roles in successful works such as carnaval ( ), schéhérazade ( ), firebird ( ), petrouchhka ( ), le coq d’or ( ), the good-humoured ladies ( ), la boutique fan- tasque ( ), and pulcinella ( ). groundbreaking as those works may have been, they were not as radical as l’après-midi d’un faune, le sacre du printemps, or parade, works that heralded and marked major changes in ballet aesthetics and history. indeed, vaslav nijinsky had conceived the role of ancestor in sacre for cecchetti, but the italian artist did not appear in the production of this controversial work. probably the utter subversion of the classical formulas did not suit the old ballet master, whose attachment to well-established performing tenets had found a suitable context in the less extreme though still modern titles mentioned above. even so, it would be historically misguided to assume that modernist dance makers drew on those skills, and cecchetti’s mime abilities in particular, simply because they represented a colorful and slightly nostalgic echo of a bygone era. contrary to what many dance writ- ers continue to argue, nineteenth-century ballet mime was everything but a strictly prescriptive sign language that left little or no creative freedom to the interpreter. cecchetti had studied mime acting both with his father, a popular mime dancer hailing from the late romantic era, and with teachers such as the highly regarded mime marino legittimo, with whom he had worked privately at giovanni lepri’s school in florence. thus, from a very early age he had learned the significance of silent acting, by performing in works that relied heavily on that idiom, in line with the italian tradition of coreodramma, or choreodrama, which originated in the early nineteenth-century works of salvatore viganò. ) ) cyril beaumont and stanislas idzikowski, a manual of the theory and the practice of classical theatrical dancing (méthode cecchetti) (london: c. w. beaumont, ). ) the genre of the coreodramma is associated with the creative genius of salvatore viganò, who gave new vital impulses to the renewal of theater dance in italy during the first decade of the nineteenth century. in coreodramma the rhythmic use of mime gestures was accorded greater prominence than pure dancing, which occurred only intermittently in what could be regarded as a gigantic mime drama performance. g. poesio / experiment ( ) - at the time of cecchetti’s debut as primo ballerino assoluto in florence, ) the standard structure of every italian ballet company was still character- ized by a division between ballerini di rango italiano or “dancers of italian rank” and ballerini di rango francese or “dancers of french rank.” regard- less of the actual geographical provenance of the artists, the former cate- gory encompassed those who excelled as mime artists, thus perpetuating the “italian” coreodramma tradition. dancers of the “french rank” were those who had developed their skills in line with the principles of the french danse académique,” which, contrary to what is generally believed, had been imported to italy by the likes of carlo blasis. ) although dancers of the “italian rank” relied on gestural codes stem- ming from commedia dell’arte traditions of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, they also had a personal repertoire of visually effective narrative poses and gestures, derived from subjective adapta- tions of those same codes. enrico cecchetti too, like his father cesare, had learned how to break free from the constraints of the old formulas and captivate audiences with his unique repertoire of expressive movements, which he combined with his equally dazzling technical dancing skills. indeed, much of his success in the second half of the nineteenth century depended on the fact that he was one of the first, if not the very first, to cross the boundaries between one category and the other, thus being a mime and a pure dancer at the same time. interestingly, it was not long after he started touring italy as a primo ballerino assoluto that the old divi- sion between dances of the “italian” and “french” ranks disappeared alto- gether from posters, programs, and librettos. such artistic versatility proved a winning card for cecchetti when he toured abroad and gave him an unusual freedom to migrate and fit within diverse choreographic contexts. he thus moved easily from one artistic ) the first time cecchetti was billed as primo ballerino assoluto was at the teatro borgog- nissanti in florence in , not at milan’s la scala theater in , as stated by most dance historians. ) blasis, the alleged “father” of modern ballet, has been wrongly credited by several gen- erations of historians with creating the so-called “italian school.” trained in france, blasis imported the principles of that school to italy, where he taught for several decades. for a re-appraisal of the birth of the italian school see flavia pappacena, dance in italy: from the th century to the present day (roma: gremese, ) and carlo blasis’ treatise on dance (rome: libreria musicale italiana, ). g. poesio / experiment ( ) - epoch to another, creating ballets by marius petipa as well as by michel fokine, the choreographer who had proposed a less prescriptive and con- straining approach to ballet mime than the traditional nineteenth-century one in his famous letter to the times. ) for innovative dance makers such as fokine and massine, therefore, cecchetti was more just than a colorful link with the past—as some have claimed—for his presence in any of the works mentioned above was fully justified by his evergreen, almost “modern,” chameleonic adaptability as well as by his interpretative bravura. works such as l’après-midi d’un faune, le sacre du printemps, and, above all, the cubist parade, did not leave much space for that versatility or for the dance artist’s traditional interpretative input. it is not surprising, therefore, that cecchetti disap- proved of those works, because he saw them as a threat to his profession, and, on a more personal level, he felt cast aside. while most of fokine’s and massine’s works drew upon values in which cecchetti firmly believed, radical creations such as sacre and parade totally subverted those values, thus drawing the criticism and the derision of a man who, at his age, was not prepared to accept the any radical rethinking of his long held artistic creed. the overt attack on cubism betrays clearly the effect a work such as parade must have had on cecchetti. as an expressive dancer-mime, he must have regarded the obliteration of any subjective interpretative free- dom caused by some of picasso’s sculpture-like costumes as unacceptable symptoms of the “decadence” that he mentions in the letter. likewise, there is little doubt that the reference to futurism was prompted by gia- como balla’s feu d’artifice, in which the blazing set constituted the ballet’s sole action. similar ideas to those expounded in the draft of his letter to massine are reiterated in the draft of the dedication that cecchetti wrote for the copy of the manual that probably accompanied the letter: to my dearest friend leonid [sic] massine, read, read this book, as it will remind you of our classes. most of all it will be good for you with your exces- sive love for everything modern as it will calm down your youthful futuristic ) michel fokine, “the new russian ballet. conventions in dancing. m. fokine’s principles and aims” [letter to the editor], the times, july , p. . g. poesio / experiment ( ) - fantasies, with a reminder of the old, everlasting classicism. read it often, it will also remind you of your old friend maestro enrico cecchetti. ) once again, futursim, an art movement created by his own compatriots, comes under fire—unsurprisingly, given that in the manifesto della danza futurista giacomo balla and other futurists advocated a radical and somewhat comically irreverent revision of the art of ballet. cecchetti’s stern opposition to futurism and to other modernist currents, however, should not be regarded as synonymous with the blinkered conservatism of the diehard supporter of the old tradition. the ballets russes experi- ence had indeed been an eye-opener for him, as highlighted by a brief passage in a letter that he wrote in french to one of his first english pupils, molly lake. boulevard de capucines pension guinot paris sunday, december my dear molly, i have received your letter, and i thank you for your lovely enthusiasm and for the news you give me. i want to say « bravo » for your tenacity and your commitment to work. and i want to say « bravo » also to all the girls who keep constantly working, especially marguerite [possibly margaret craske] and orsoline [ursula moreton]. i would also like to thank you for the good wishes for madame cecchetti, which we reciprocate with wishes from the depth of our hearts and which we extend to your mother and to all our students. as for us, we do not have very good news. the sea journey was marred by a horrible storm; everyone was sick, and i more than anyone else. just imag- ine that the nervous reaction paralyzed my legs! for a good two hours after arriving i could not move my legs. at the moment, everything is better, thank god, and we have already started work- ing; every morning the regular classes, every day the rehearsals, and both katherine [unknown] and errol [addison] rehearse everyday, as they appear in every ballet. ) draft, in french, undated. g. poesio / experiment ( ) - our opening was magnificent, with great success; even the ballets i did not believe to be successful met with appraisal, for example la boutique fan- tasque, which was liked a lot. how the taste of the public changes. . . . for the last few days we have not been working as the opéra [. . .] is affected by the strike of the musicians and the stagehands, and god knows when they will reach an agreement! ) the remarks on la boutique fantasque and on the public’s taste are quite revealing, for they are symptomatic of a somewhat surprisingly open- minded attitude toward the changes that had transformed, in less than eleven years, the art of ballet. massine’s creation could be regarded as the last of a long stream of ballets revolving around dolls coming to life. its plot was very similar to that of the fairy doll, a popular and fashion- able prerevolutionary ballet, adapted from the old viennese ballet die puppenfee ( ) and first staged in st. petersburg by sergei and nikolai legat at the hermitage theater in . cecchetti’s doubts are likely to have been prompted by the fact that the ballet was, in his eyes, too “retro” for a public that had been carefully brought up and spoiled with modernist exploits of a different, radical, and even scandalous nature. in admitting that he did not believe that parisian audiences, always looking for the new and the radical, would have liked massine’s creation, cecchetti confessed, more or less implicitly, to having accepted—implicitly, at least—diaghilev’s aesthetic credo. the remark casts significant light on the man’s artistic sensibility and on his enlight- ened flexibility—typical of an artist who accepts change in the name of his art. in line with his witty persona, the then seventy-year-old artist adds a slightly ironic remark on the ever-changing, unpredictable taste of the public. the sentence ends with a cleverly placed ellipsis, as if to say that after all he was right in believing that, because of that unpredictability, the novelties were unlikely to stand the test of time, and only the centu- ries old, “classical” tradition would ultimately survive. it is difficult to ascertain whether the classicism that cecchetti invoked was the same classicism that had inspired carlo blasis almost a century ear- lier—namely a mid-to-late eighteenth-century reinterpretation of ancient ) in french, letters cecchetti/beaumont, theatre and performance collection, victoria and albert museum, london. g. poesio / experiment ( ) - aesthetics—or the rather different notion of classicism that informed the late nineteenth-century danse classique in western europe and russia. what is certain is that in promoting a return to the classical forms the old ballet master was, more or less unconsciously, invoking artistic principles similar to those that would shortly inform george balanchine’s choreog- raphy and twentieth-century neoclassical ballet in general. cecchetti’s bitter criticism makes one wonder why he had agreed to work with a company that was innovative and revolutionary from the out- set. at the same time, one also wonders why diaghilev did everything in his power to keep such a die-hard representative of all that he and his collaborators were questioning, challenging, and ultimately fighting against. despite their different artistic views, the two men had a great deal in common, and their relationship went far beyond mutual professional admiration and respect, as the following telegrams—the originals of which are all in french—indicate. london, december, how [is] health maestro if work [does not] tire could you take classes [at] montecarlo [ from] fifteenth january [to] first may. telegraph [ your] conditions [with] friendship. diaghilev savoy london, december happy [to have received] your telegram accept [ francs] classes [will] start [on] january embrace you both—diaghilev london, december your announced return [has been] received with enthusiasm by company that wishes you happy festivities—diaghilev cecchetti’s departure from london in had, among other things, deprived the company of a significant artistic point of reference in the english capital, which by then had become almost a second home for the ballets russes. fortunately, turin, where cecchetti resided before assum- ing the directorship of la scala ballet school in , was not far from monte carlo, where the company had its headquarters. like many close friends of the cecchettis, diaghilev could hardly believe that the old maestro would have truly enjoyed the idleness of retirement and did g. poesio / experiment ( ) - all he could to secure the continued collaboration of the irreplaceable ballet master. not even the prestigious appointment at la scala deterred the russian impresario from inviting cecchetti to teach. aware of the time constraints imposed by the maestro’s new post, he found all possible expedients to have the maestro look after at least the company’s new rising male star, serge lifar. grand hotel paris boulevard de capucines paris, june my good maestro and dear friend, you can hardly imagine the joy of receiving your letter. i am sure that [the time in venice] will be more [a time of ] rest for you. you will only have to give one daily class to that petite canaille serge lifar, who is already indebted to you for the start of his brilliant career. i have only one request to you, namely to accept , francs instead of the , you have asked me for, and, obviously, travel [expenses for] two. i really want you to spend the month of august lacking for nothing, and i think the sum mentioned above will cover better your stay and necessities. i will inform you of the exact date of your arrival in la bella venezia. i am fairly sure that the date will be august st. we love you very much, and it will be a real joy to be able to spend together the short time of your well-deserved holiday.  with all my friendship,  serge de diaghilev p.s. i will leave saturday to go to london where my address will be his majesty’s theatre. ) hotel de l’europe venice august ) the original of this and the diaghilev letters that follow are in french. g. poesio / experiment ( ) - my good maestro and dear friend, i have sent you a telegram because they told me that you have gone to the seaside. i will thus do my best to convince you to change seaside and come to visit us for three weeks in venice. last year you suffered greatly from the heat and the bad food at the lido. this year the time of unbearable heat has ended; it is cool and pleasant, and we are not at the lido, but in venice, where the food is excellent and cheap. given that your engagement at la scala will not start until september , i wonder whether you could make another sacrifice for me and spend the last three weeks of your holidays with me and, in that time, give daily classes to lifar, who is getting bored and truly needs [ your classes]. you cannot imagine to what extent i miss you during our seasons and how impatiently i look forward to your telling la scala to go to hell!  i embrace you both with deep affection,   serge diaghilev i did not write before as the doctor prescribed total rest for lifar during his first month of holidays. hotel de l’europe venice august my dear and much beloved maestro, how is your health? are you doing anything nice? when are you going to start again at la scala? serge lifar wrote to you twice. did you receive his letters, together with the check and the programs? he really longs to have news of you. should you go back to la scala he would really like to start working with you again at the end of september for one month. you know how good is for him to work with you and how much he loves it. if, by any chance, you have taken time off in turin, would there be any chance for him to take class with you there? we have been informed of the brilliant results of your students at the yearly exams, and we congratulate you with all our hearts. g. poesio / experiment ( ) - do please give us news of you, as i will be here for two more weeks.   believe me, dear maestro in my profound and old friendship.    serge diaghilev. beyond the sly and flattering prose that diaghilev used to convince cec- chetti to give lifar private classes, there is a clear sense of close camara- derie and friendship. in the letter dated june , for instance, the impresario refers in a rather informal and even, intimate way to lifar, the last premier danseur ) of his company with whom he had an affair. such informality and the fact that toward the end diaghilev switches from the first person singular to “we” and “us,” seems to indicate a strong and unpretentious bond between cecchetti and diaghilev. a similar tone and a similar theme are found in the letter dated august , in which diaghilev refers to lifar’s boredom. yet it is the generous offer that the great impresario makes cecchetti, together with the apparently sincere expressions of care, love, and friendship that leave no doubt about the closeness between diaghilev and cecchetti—a proximity that justifies the maestro’s unabashedly critical remark about sacre quoted earlier. such closeness surely stemmed from a shared and multifarious experi- ence of the rich history of the ballets russes. according to cyril w. beau- mont, it was tamara karsavina who first asked diaghilev to engage the maestro, for she did not [. . .] wish to interrupt the lessons she was receiving from cecchetti [in st. petersburg]; the same reason was pleaded when diaghilev sought to obtain the services of other dancers. this decided him to ask cecchetti to join his company, for he would then not only secure the dancers he required, but also a maitre de ballet and mime of genius. ) the invitation to become part of the ballets russes arrived in , when diaghilev set up the company as an independent entity and severed for good most links with the imperial ballet. cecchetti, however, had been invited to work with diaghilev’s dancers the previous year, for the second paris dance season, during which he had created three memorable and truly ) as sjeng scheijen refers to him in diaghilev, a life (london: profile books, ). ) beaumont, enrico cecchetti, pp. - . g. poesio / experiment ( ) - diverse roles—pantalon in carnaval, the chief eunuch in schéhérazade, and kotschei in firebird. it was probably seeing the old artist both on stage and in the studio that convinced diaghilev that there was more to engaging maestro cecchetti than just providing the company with stylistic and technical consistency. indeed, the maestro’s classes were never just a drearily repetitive set of empty exercises, for both the adagio and the allegro sections were struc- tured in a way that aimed at refining and enhancing the artistry of the dancers—not just their technique. ) those classes, together with the liv- ing example provided by cecchetti on stage, were an immense inspiration for the dancers and other performance-makers, even after cecchetti him- self had left the ballets russes. there was yet another affinity between the impresario and the maestro: both had clashed with the masters of russia’s arts bureaucracy. like diag- hilev, who was fired and ultimately barred from working in the imperial theaters, cecchetti was often at odds with the imperial ballet, ostracized by colleagues and the object of bitter rivalries: marius petipa, for example, disliked him intensely. cecchetti was an unusual artist in that he could be both mime and pure dancer. as a primo ballerino assoluto, he surprised ballet-goers all over europe by lacking the prescribed physique du rôle. indeed, all the parts he created had to be devised especially to accom- modate his unusual non-danseur noble body and his irresistible combina- tion of mime and technical skills. even the famous blue bird pas de deux in act iii of marius petipa’s the sleeping beauty ( ) was originally con- ceived as a “character” role, becoming a “classical” role only when georgii kiaksht took over the part from cecchetti and had the choreography changed. as a choreographer, cecchetti was also very much the odd one out. the first creation of his performed in russia, a duet based on a balleticized version of an italian popular dance that he performed with his sister pia in , was described by the puzzled critic of a st petersburg newspaper as a “modern dance,” being different from everything to which russian ballet-goers were accustomed. ) later, after he joined the imperial ballet, ) see toby bennett and giannandrea poesio, “mime in cecchetti’s method,” dance research, , no. (summer ), pp. - . ) anon., “echo of the theaters,” peterburgskaia gazeta, may , p. . g. poesio / experiment ( ) - his stagings of nineteenth-century classics such as caterina, la fille du bandit, and coppélia, as well as his choreographic contributions to cinder- ella were often bitterly criticized for being too radically removed from the era’s staging and choreographic canons. such alleged “modernism” turned him into an outsider, though a much respected and revered one. in this he was not dissimilar to diaghilev, and it is significant that both were compelled to leave the constraining environment of the imperial theaters to pursue their careers either abroad or in russia, but outside govern- ment-run institutions. thus, despite differences in age and views, the two men had more in common than has been generally thought. finally, cecchetti was the man responsible for the artistic and technical development of the three male stars with whom diaghilev was involved in multiple ways—vaslav nijinsky, léonide massine, and serge lifar. as revealed by the interview with grazioso cecchetti quoted above, cec- chetti was particularly fond of nijinsky, the dancer able to dazzle audi- ences in the same way as the teacher had done a few decades earlier. likewise, his relationship with massine was based on mutual admiration and father-like care on the maestro’s part, as the letter reproduced earlier indicates. finally, lifar, like all talented artists, gave cecchetti a great deal of satisfaction. given that lifar was not very popular in diaghilev’s circle, the great impresario must have cherished the old pedagogue’s affection for his favorite. hence the reiterated requests for private classes and the fairly relaxed way that diaghilev talked about his protégé, using at times pronouns such as “we” and “us” in his letters to cecchetti. ) according to cyril w. beaumont, cecchetti’s association with diaghilev lasted some fifteen years in all. during this time he maintained the company’s technique at a high standard, so that its members should be fitted to meet the demands made upon them in turn by fokine, nijinsky, massine, nijinska and balanchin [sic]. he strengthened muscles and joints that had become weak through over-use, and those who could barely rise from the ground he taught to fly. ) ) despite being a man of the theater, cecchetti merely tolerated homosexual behaviour and displays of effeminacy, as stated by one of his last pupils, ria teresa legnani, in an interview with the author. see giannandrea poesio, “il maestro e i trentadue giretti— conversazione con ria teresa legnani,” la danza, spring , pp. - . ) beaumont, enrico cecchetti, p. . g. poesio / experiment ( ) - it is difficult to ascertain in retrospect what were the secret ingredients of maestro’s teaching. difficult, because the publication of the manual, as it is generally called, has led many to believe that the exercises of the cecchetti method were the same as those he taught the artists of the bal- lets russes. this assumption has been disproved by conversations that this author has conducted in the recent and not so recent past with for- mer ballets russes dancers such as dame alicia markova, dame ninette de valois, serge lifar, and laura wilson. according to their recollections and those of non-ballets russes artists such as ria teresa legnani, cec- chetti’s classes for the ballets russes dancers differed considerably from those so carefully codified in the manual. laura wilson, for instance, claimed that some company classes were structured around either a spe- cific choreography or around a specific star—so that there was, for exam- ple, a karsavina class and a pavlova one. both dame ninette de valois and dame alicia markova insisted, moreover, that company classes differed greatly from the ones maestro created for a particular dancer, generally a principal one, or a select group. in spite of possible differences, all cecchetti’s classes shared a well- conceived, cogent structural framework that helped dancers cope with a variety of choreographic demands and styles, something that other sys- tems could not boast at that time. whether that system was fully repro- duced in the codified method or not is up to other dance scholars to prove. what is certain is that enrico cecchetti was not only an artist but also a teacher for all seasons. cgf_ _hr doi: . /j. - . . .x computer graphics forum volume ( ), number pp. – computer assisted relief generation—a survey j. kerber , , m. wang ,∗, j. chang , j. j. zhang , a. belyaev and h.-p. seidel , mpi informatik, saarbrücken, germany saarland university, saarbrücken, germany {kerber; hpseidel}@mpi-inf.mpg.de northwest a&f university, yangling, china meili @gmail.com ncca the media school, bournemouth, uk {jchang; jzhang}@bournemouth.ac.uk heriot-watt university, edinburgh, uk a.belyaev@hw.ac.uk abstract in this paper, we present an overview of the achievements accomplished to date in the field of computer-aided relief generation. we delineate the problem, classify different solutions, analyse similarities, investigate developments and review the approaches according to their particular relative strengths and weaknesses. moreover, we describe remaining challenges and point out prospective extensions. in consequence, this survey is addressed to both researchers and artists, through providing valuable insights into the theory behind the different concepts in this field and augmenting the options available among the methods presented with regard to practical application. keywords: digital relief, shape processing, computer art acm ccs: i. . [computing methodologies]: computer graphics computational geometry and object mod- elling i. . [computing methodologies]: computer graphics applications j. [computer applications]: arts and humanities fine arts. . introduction reliefs belong to a category of art that bridges the gap between two-dimensional painting and three-dimensional sculpting. they have a long history, as they occur in vary- ing nature and scales on diverse materials and for numerous intentions through almost all epochs of mankind. we distin- guish four main forms: • high reliefs: plastics that elevate perceptibly from a surface. • bas-reliefs: only rise to a minimal extent from a back- ground. • mid-reliefs: occupy a position in between bas- and high reliefs. ∗ corresponding author. • sunken reliefs: are carved into the upper layers of a material. starting in primitive times, storytellling reliefs were carved in stone as a type of cave art. later on, they were used as an adornment of religious sites and monuments throughout all cultures and served as decorations for furniture and pottery in the ancient world. from the last few centuries until today, they occur, e.g. in the form of engravings on metal and glass and find application in the embossment of coins or medals. in the digital era, we find them applied in adorning virtual shapes or characters and assisting in designing jewelery, in- dustrial packaging or modern pieces of art, e.g. with the help of d printers. figure shows a variety of examples. crafting reliefs is a labourious, challenging and time con- suming process that has the drawbacks of lacking a preview option and being hard to correct or replicate with regard to large-scale manufacturing. there are numerous ways to reach c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. published by blackwell publishing, garsington road, oxford ox dq, uk and main street, malden, ma , usa. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey figure : examples of different types of reliefs: (a) marmoreal greek high relief, (a) wood carving, (c) bas-relief on a roman silver plate, (d) sunken relief in granite on an egyptian temple, (e) mid-relief on a byzantine ivory casket (e). the same goals more easily with the help of computers, e.g by providing simple editing operations to save the designers effort. we classify the approaches in three different categories with respect to their input: • modelling: interactive and from scratch. • image based: using a d image as template. • shape based: taking d geometry as input. . . human visual perception the task in generating a relief is to dupe the human eye by creating a complanate representation of a three-dimensional scene and, at the same time, conveying the look of fully extended objects. this effect can be achieved by inducing shadowing and shading in such a way that a difference is hard or impossible to discover as long as an observer con- templates the relief from a certain perspective. there exist several deformed modifications of a model whose appear- ance is almost indistinguishable from that of the initial shape. this phenomenon of human perception is known as the bas- relief ambiguity and was investigated in [bky ]. to be exact, the authors describe a -parameter family of trans- formations that distorts the shape. for given illumination conditions, they demonstrate that these parameters can be found such that shadowing and shading only change negligi- bly. in other words, multiple differently formed shapes can create the same impression to the human eye. small motions of the viewer or slight tilting of the relief maintain the sug- gestion, but if an off-axis vantage point is taken, the illusion is revealed. the advantage of this ambiguity is that it allows the arti- ficial creation of nearly planar variations of d objects for which the depth impression does not suffer. this fact has been known and exploited by artists for a long period. the downside of this phenomenon is that algorithms which try to reconstruct shapes from a given image, as they are explained in section , or related research areas like stereo vision, en- counter the drawback that their solutions are not unique in general, unless assumptions about the camera setup, lighting conditions, the type of model, surface reflectance properties or even depth information can be included to resolve the ambiguity [ckk ] [amk ] [tmq* ]. edges along silhouettes and occlusion boundaries as well as large jumps on a surface are not visible from an orthog- onal vantage point and only indicate low frequency transi- tions between distinct elements or height levels by casting a shadow. nevertheless, they occupy a lot of unused depth range. these areas are characterized as local gradient extrema of the shape. for a human observer, the visually important information about the constitution of a surface is contained in its ridges and valleys [obs ]. the specular reflection along those suggestive crease lines is remarkably high, as they correspond to curvature extrema. the goal is, therefore, to derive a flat representation which mimics a fully extended scene and visibly preserves salient details. the problem of transforming a shape into a more pla- nar representation can be regarded as a geometric analogue to the tasks in high dynamic range imaging (hdr). in hdr a very large luminance interval has to be compressed without compromising visually significant features like contrast and fine details. this act is also known as tone mapping. for relief generation, this corresponds to squeezing the depth interval range of a scene and preserving the perceptibility of ridges, valleys and low- and high-frequency structures on surfaces at the same time. because image and shape features are of very different natures, a straightforward adaption of hdr meth- ods is not possible. moreover, hdr produces d results for which the viewpoint of an observer does not matter, which is in contrast to the inherently d reliefs. nevertheless, most algorithms presented in section are variants of, or at least inspired by solutions from tone mapping. for deeper insight into this related research topic we refer the reader to [dr ]. . . content we outline several modeling tools and image based methods in sections and . these sections are kept brief because all of the presented methods can be used, but only a few of them are intentionally designed, for generating reliefs. the main emphasis of this survey is placed upon the latter, shape based approaches explained in section . they are among the most recent methods which deal with the specific problem of relief generation, whereas the majority of them are aimed at bas-reliefs. aside from a deeper analysis and c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey comparison, we also discuss directions for future research. in section relief extraction methods are investigated. we then conclude in section . multiple modern image pro- cessing tools contain plug-ins to add pseudo-relief effects to images. the same holds for bump mapping, which can achieve a false impression in the rendering of surfaces by manipulating the normal directions. we restrict ourselves to present methods which yield proper shape information as out- put, and hence do not cover those well-understood methods here. . modelling tools obviously, one way to achieve a relief is to directly model it. common d modeling software ( ds max, maya, catia, sketchup) allows a user to create, combine, manipulate and edit surfaces. in general, this modelling is a labourious and time consuming process that requires one to manually adjust many control points or vertices directly, to adapt the height level in certain areas. it usually requires experience on the part of the user to achieve visually pleasing results from scratch, because the control points depend on each other and their appropriate setting in sensitive regions is crucial for the overall impression. such computer-aided design tools serve more general needs rather than being especially developed for artistic purposes. by way of comparison, computer-aided manufacturing software (artcam, jdpaint, type , design) provides spe- cial tools or templates which tend to assist in the construction of a relief-like geometry. most programs offer editing and de- formation operations through numerous virtual implements. some of them provide layer dialogs and also allow one to use clues from an additional picture to guide an artist during the interactive design. this lets the entire process slide into the area of image based modelling [ocdd ], where different regions of a d input are manually assigned a depth order to reconstruct the underlying geometry. interactive virtual sculpting is a discipline in computer art which models a variety of tools like hammers, prickers, carv- ing knives or differently shaped gouges and their particular impact on virtual surfaces in multiple different ways. the work of [coq ] proposes to use freeform defor- mations of lattices to manipulate an underlying shape. in [wk ] a solid material block and multiple tools are rep- resented on a discrete voxel grid, and the deformations are considered as boolean operations. in the real-time system presented in [mot ], the initial material is a wooden block described as a constructive solid geometry. the tools are represented as ellipsoids and an artist can individually steer their elongation. the carving takes place at intersections of material and tool in d space. as an application, the au- thors demonstrate how a woodcut can be used as a printing block to do virtual printmaking of the afore-designed carv- ing. besides carving, all sculpting methods above can attach figure : results of (a) free form embossment on a metallic sheet and (b) carving on a wooden surface. material as well, by using each operation inversely, which marks a drastic improvement over manual crafting. a sculpting framework which introduces digital clay was developed in [pf ]. the key ingredient to model the be- haviour is the concept of adaptively sampled distance fields [fprj ]. this efficient representation is a scalar field which contains information about signed distances between points and a shape. many samples are taken in detailed regions and a coarser sampling is applied in smooth areas. hence, the necessary memory usage is reduced without compromising the precision. an additional organization into an octree data structure further accelerates operations and rendering. the system also accepts d models and range scanner data as input. in this case, an adaptively sampled distance field is derived first before manipulations can be applied. in [sou a] and [sou b] the surface and the tools are described in an algebraic way [pass ]. modifications like undercuts or bulges and their transitions are represented as boolean shape operations. in contrast to the above-mentioned sculpting systems which start with a solid block of material, the author focuses on flat sheets of metal or wood to produce virtual pieces of art through freeform carving and emboss- ment. two results of these interactive approaches are shown in figure . . . gist all results in this section are manually designed directly in d space. the advantage over manual crafting is that the virtual tools allow one to undo modifications that were already made and that it is easy to edit and combine intermediate results or to replicate a final outcome. c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey figure : (a) automatically extracted normal map, (b) nor- mal map after user editing and (c) the reconstructed surface. most of the presented tools allow a user to influence the rendering of a prototype by changing textures, colours and reflectance properties in different areas individually. the drawback that all methods mentioned in this section have in common is that the entire production process is time- consuming and needs close user intervention. the quality of the outcomes heavily depends on the skills, experience, creativity and imaginativeness of the artist. . image-based algorithms reconstructing a surface given a single d image is an ill- posed problem in general. one reason for this is the bas-relief ambiguity as explained above. in some cases, researchers have to resort to human observation and knowledge to guide the generation of a suitable surface. to overcome the ambi- guities, additional information is required and some assump- tions have to be made by providing visual cues or classifying the image content beforehand [tb ]. one scientific dis- cipline which has intensively studied the problem is called shape from shading. [hb ] were among the first to propose the brightness equation to formulate an early and simple solution for shape from shading problems. in [zmqs ], the authors propose an interactive approach that efficiently resolves the bas-relief ambiguity by adopting human knowledge. their method re- quires a user to set a reasonable surface normal first. shape from shading is then applied locally to reconstruct each sur- face patch, and the local solutions are then combined to form a smooth global surface. [wsts ] presented an interactive system for reconstructing surface normals from a single im- age. they firstly improve the previous shape-from-shading algorithms by reconstructing a faithful normal for local im- age regions. then, they correct low frequency errors using a simple markup procedure. the results shown in figure demonstrate that shape from shading can in general be used for relief generation. traditional shape from shading methods are not suitable for relief generation purposes because they tend to recon- struct fully extended objects for which the proportions are correct in d. although it is not intentionally designed for it, additional user interaction, as in the methods described above, can assist in retrieving flat representations of the shapes in a given image. however, there is a high require- ment for intervention to achieve results of reasonable quality. another limitation is the fact that it only works well for ob- jects of simple materials. it manifests problems when using coloured images as input, or those which contain a complex texture. furthermore, the luminance entry in an image usually does not correspond to geometric shape properties. for more detailed information about shape from shading methods in general we refer to [ztcs ]. the automatic approach presented in [am ] follows a converse idea. instead of making sure that a relief looks faith- ful under constant lighting conditions, they investigate how to design it in such a way that the appearance differs when it is illuminated from different directional light sources (which are known in advance). they achieve this goal by placing small pyramids at the centre of each image pixel and deform- ing them according to the desired reflectance properties. the algorithm is capable of producing bas-reliefs which contain information about a pair of input images in one single piece of art. moreover, it can also transfer the colour information of a given image to the relief representation if directional colour light sources are applied. this method is the first one which exploits the nature of reliefs and their ambiguity to use them as a type of display. a related, traditional type of art, known as choshi, is pre- sented in [tmh ]. given a coloured input image, it is first segmented in same-colour patches, and then the algorithm yields templates for cutting several differently coloured lay- ers of paper and explains how to overlay them to create a rep- resentation with a stylized yet similar impression. although this method produces very coarse cartoons which omit de- tails, it can be very useful for relief generation purposes, because the different layers can be regarded as a counterpart to discrete iso-height levels. arranging multiple materials with differing colours and reflectance properties according to this algorithm could lead to interesting results, especially because the small steps at transitions between scene segments further emphasize their discrepancy. a very interesting reverse engineering problem for the purpose of cultural heritage was investigated in [lwym ]. given a single imprint, the goal is to reconstruct the chis- elled relief that was used as the stamp. to achieve the rough structure, the authors detect object contours first, and then extract their skeleton. the height at these locations is esti- mated by taking into account the local extension. after that, the information is transferred to a mesh representation. a diffusion between the values at the skeleton and the back- ground concludes the low frequency base layer. the high frequency details are directly contained in the initial image and are added to the low frequency part to assemble the final c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey relief. aside from virtual imprints, the method is capable of computing stamps from arbitrary pictures. . . sketch-based approaches rather than using complete pictures to reconstruct a sur- face, the research field of sketch-based modelling [ossj , ca ] uses, among other things, sparse hand-drawn line de- lineations as input. related methods can be used for relief mapping. two ways to derive d offset functions given simple d contours are described in [pss ]. one idea is to convert an implicit polygon sketch to a monotone formula. this is achieved by composing the descriptions of convex and con- cave polygon parts in a set theoretic manner. the second way is to convert a scattered line drawing with varying grey scales to a depth function by approximating it using finite element methods. the resulting formulas can then be evaluated and a relief can then be mapped on an arbitrary surface by displac- ing vertices along their normal. their results show that these methods are only useful for non-complex reliefs. recently, [klst ] provided a semi-automatic tool that processes line drawings for mapping reliefs to a base surface. first, they extract curves from the input [ste ] and detect junctions and margins from them. a graph based approach is used to determine the height levels at transitions between adjacent elements. the laplacian of the relief layer is used to reconstruct the entire relief by smoothly fitting it on the base shape. the authors describe an additional manual fine-tuning step for post-processing the automatically generated result to fix misinterpreted curves. . . gist all algorithms in this section aim to reverse-engineer a d surface that has produced a given d input. because the scene is already given, no further artistic skills and imaginativeness are necessary. image based relief generation techniques are either semi- or fully automatic, but user assistance can sometimes be necessary to increase the quality of the outcomes. shape from shading is not intended, but can be used, for this purpose. . shape-based algorithms in this section we present techniques that are, without excep- tion, designed for relief generation, whereas most of them are specifically focusing on bas-reliefs. the concepts mainly differ in their domain. one class manipulates the behaviour of differential properties (gradient domain), others operate directly on the shape (range domain) and a third category uses both types of information (hybrid) to achieve the de- sired goal. in general, it is mandatory to influence the proportions of a given d scene for applications like engraving or coinage, for example. in such cases the available material depth is usually very limited and in the range of a few millimetres or less. the aim is therefore to reduce the depth interval size much more strongly than the other extensions. the same holds for relief mapping on virtual surfaces [poc , ltlz ] for which the thickness of the applied re- lief has to adapt to the proportions of the base shape. the task is to preserve small yet visually important features through- out the compression process and to ensure their perceptibility in the flattened result. the existing algorithms differ mainly in the way this crucial feature-aware compression is attained. to the best of our knowledge, there is no impartial mea- sure for the quality or correctness of reliefs. the judgement is always in the eye of the beholder. nevertheless, there are a couple of criteria which can be considered to review and compare the results of the methods detailed below: does the relief look plausible, lifelike and three dimensional at all? are the most salient attributes of the original model visibly contained in the flattened outcome? is their appearance sharp, blurred, noisy or exaggerated? is the perceptibility of fine de- tails and coarse structures about the same, or is one of them impaired? is the depth order of scene elements correct? are transitions and occlusion boundaries clearly visible? aside from the quality, we take into account the usability and effi- ciency of the methods to rate them. before discussing the compression techniques in detail, let us briefly introduce some basic concepts that most methods for relief generation have in common. . . basic tools . . . height field rather than processing given meshes directly, the input to most methods presented in this section is a height field, also called range image or depth map. this representation encodes shape information by distance entries based on a regular two-dimensional grid and makes it possible to exploit the achievements from d image processing techniques for the purpose of an inherently three-dimensional problem. the representation of all results we show in this section are renderings of d triangular meshes for which the x- and y-position of each vertex coincide with the pixels’ locations in the height field. the displacement in the z-direction is affected by the corresponding entries. . . . unsharp masking a well known feature enhancement technique in image and geometry processing is unsharp masking [lcd , rsi* ]. it aims to split a given signal into low frequency and high c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey frequency parts and change their relative importance. in our case, a height field is convolved with a low pass kernel to get a smooth version of the input. subtracting both leads to a high frequency image that containing peaks at small scale details. these fine structures are then boosted by adding a multiple of them back to the coarser component. the intention of this sharpening is to preserve the visual presence of small features even after a strong compression is applied. most of the existing methods in this section rely on this concept. . . . gradient-domain filtering if algorithms modify differential properties of a given depth map, then in general the new derivatives are not integrable anymore. let g denote the new gradient field. to get back to the range domain, it is therefore necessary to compute a height field f for which its gradient deviates minimal from g. this problem leads us to the partial differential poisson equation: �f = ∇g the solution to describe this diffusion is well studied and requires solving a sparse system of linear equations with respect to the boundary conditions in g. . . compression techniques . . . naı̈ve approaches given a height field, the first intuitive approach to compress its depth interval size would be a uniform linear rescalling of all entries. this works only as long as the compression ratio is not high. as soon as a significant shrinking is required, the visibility of fine features suffers considerably. for bas-reliefs, where a compression to only a small fraction of the initial spatial extent is necessary, the naı̈ve approach fails because aside from the contours and some extreme discontinuities on the surface, everything appears to be flat because fine details are not perceivable anymore. the pioneering work of [cms ] came up with the idea of using a height field by projecting the geometry of a scene to the viewing plane. the authors distinguish the depth map pixels according to their saliency wrt. the current vantage point. they apply a compression function which is inversely proportional to the height value. this results in a higher compression for scene elements which are far away from an observer and has less effect on the more salient parts. in other words, regions at a similar depth level are treated the same way, regardless of what type of feature they belong to. in case of high reliefs, it is proposed to first decompose the scene into a near and a far region. then the more distant parts are compressed as described above and added back to the unmodified foreground layer. this has the benefit that changes in the viewing angle on the relief can make hidden or partly occluded objects visible. this cannot be achieved if only one layer is taken into account. although this idea works well for slight compression ra- tios, in terms of the visibility of fine details, this method hardly does better than linear rescaling in the case of bas- reliefs. the authors note that such perspective foreshortening even relatively enlarges edges on a surface, and so a signif- icant amount of the depth range remains wasted if these regions are not specifically treated. this observation marks a significant contribution for the subsequent research in this field. . . . gradient domain techniques instead of projecting the shape to the viewing plane (to cap- ture a height field), the approach by [sbs ] first measures the saliency on the surface of a given mesh [lvj ] un- der a certain viewpoint and then describes the obtained and projected saliency values in differential coordinates. they subsequently use unsharp masking with a gaussian kernel to enhance fine features, followed by a poisson reconstruction to get the result. a finalizing linear rescaling is applied to achieve the desired depth range. [sbs ] were the first to investigate the importance of derivatives for bas-relief gener- ation to distinguish between large and small surface features. nevertheless, on balance their method in general appears slightly complicated and their results do not look lifelike enough to justify this effort. the work of [kbs ] adapts the idea to operate in the gra- dient domain. the authors perform a thresholding to elim- inate extraordinarily large gradients as they appear on sil- houettes and along occlusion boundaries. this results in flat but obvious transitions that encircle and emphasize differ- ent areas in the scene but no longer occupy unused depth range. unsharp masking with a gaussian filter is applied to enhance small and visually important features contained in the high frequency parts of the partial derivatives. after such strengthening, their perceptibility is preserved even for very high compression ratios. this approach is very simple, fast and produces results of reasonable quality for bas-reliefs. nevertheless the results tend to appear unnaturally exag- gerated. therefore, an improved version with an additional attenuation (explained below in section . . ) and a detailed analysis is presented in [ker ]. the method described in [wcpz ] occupies an inter- mediate position between image based and shape based techniques. given an input image, the authors convert it to greyscale and regard the pixel luminance values as entries of a height field. after that, they proceed as [ker ] to pro- duce a feature-preserving three-dimensional bas-relief. in- stead of a final linear rescaling, they propose to apply gamma correction to further equalize the visibility of features in c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey areas of different depth levels. the method is limited to im- ages with a low texture complexity, because varying colours can lead to undesired distortions in the outcome. gaussian blurring in the unsharp masking process, as ap- plied above, leads to a smearing along sharp edge-like fea- tures and so causes false responses in the high-frequency image, which then produce slightly exaggerated reliefs because these undesired peaks are overemphasized. this problem can be solved if a more elaborate filtering is applied. [wdb* ] make use of a silhouette preserving diffusion fil- ter which ensures preservation of the sharpness at gradient discontinuities. the authors propose a multi-scale approach that enables an artist to steer the relative importance of fea- tures at different frequency bands. besides offering more artistic freedom, this makes it pos- sible to selectively suppress noise. they also analyse the in- terplay between the material properties and the compression ratio with respect to the perceptibility of features in a bas- relief. this approach successfully produces results of high quality in terms of sharpness, precision, richness of detail and naturalness. the quality and flexibility of this method are attained at the cost of user-friendliness and performance. it requires much intervention, as there are many (sometimes non-intuitive and model dependent) parameters to be set. in addition, it actually requires several minutes to compute a result. this can make the production of satisfying reliefs a very time-consuming process, unless an experienced user is involved. in their subsequent work [ktz* ] focus on simplicity and user-friendliness. they restrict themselves to a single scale approach for unsharp masking, during which a bilat- eral filter is used to smooth the gradient signal. a bilateral filter is known for its edge preserving nature. when being applied to a gradient field, it ensures sharpness of curvature extrema as they appear at ridges and valleys. this conse- quently marks an improvement over their earlier work, and it turns out to be a good compromise in comparison to the more complex yet more precise filter used by [wdb* ]. regarding the application aspect, they demonstrate how an- other local smoothing can be used to produce seamless reliefs when stitching together multiple height fields, for example to generate a geometric collage or a cubism-like piece of art which merges multiple perspectives of the same shape in one single relief. the small compromises in this approach lead to a noticeable reduction of user-defined parameters, and it is much simpler and faster than the previous approaches, without sacrificing the quality and variety of features in the outcome too much. thus, the time required to generate a visually pleasing and faithful relief drops significantly even for an untrained user. later on, they exploited the highly parallel nature of the un- derlying problem by implementing the algorithm on graphics hardware and added a user interface to further improve the ease of use [ktz* ]. this results in a real-time application which allows one to witness the effects of changing param- eters or the viewpoint on the fly. it is the first approach that permits generation of dynamic reliefs, e.g. given animated models or a moving camera. the system presented in [zl ] is concurrent to the real- time approach in [ktz* ]. it manipulates the height field gradients by applying a non-linear global compression tech- nique based on the arc tangent (see section . . ). the au- thors do not split the signal into a coarse and fine layer, and thus they omit an enhancement step. nevertheless, their re- sults look convincing, but such a restriction will make itself felt in the case of more complex scenes with multiple ob- jects of different natures. the tool is implemented on the gpu such that the effect of parameter adjustments and view- point changes becomes apparent without delay. they leave the handling of animated models for future work. . . . range domain methods besides their gradient domain approach, [ktz* ] also de- scribe a variant which operates directly on the depth map. therefore, the signal is split into three different layers. a rough and piecewise almost constant base layer which de- scribes the overall shape is extracted using a bilateral fil- ter. the remaining detail layer is further decomposed into coarse and fine features on the surface using a modified edge- respecting laplacian diffusion. in unsharp masking manner, the result is reassembled by changing the relative importance of these three parts. this range domain technique produces reasonable results for high- and mid-reliefs in real time but, unlike its gradient domain counterpart, in terms of feature preservation it becomes less effective if the compression ra- tio is too high. in [llzx ], the authors act similarly. the visible part of a d model is decomposed into three components using the laplace operator. a base layer and two components of different frequency bands are compressed with an individ- ual compression function before they are reassembled to the result. the technique recently presented in [lll ] is based on manifold harmonics spectral analysis. discrete mesh vertices are transformed into the frequency domain and split into a high frequent, a low frequent and a noisy part. the noise is ignored and the other frequencies are each compressed in a different way. mapping the modified frequencies back to the range domain, via reverse manifold harmonics transforma- tion, results in the desired relief. the work of [wkcz ] focuses on the generation of sunken reliefs. motivated by ancient chiselled exemplars, the authors generate a suggestive stylization of a scene. first, they derive a binary line drawing from a given d model c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey [rdf ]. repeated morphological operations are proposed to clear the image from small undesired edges. alternatively, a smoothing of the initial mesh can be used to get rid of too- high-frequency responses. after producing a tidy line image, they project it on a planar mesh and set undercuts at the ap- propriate locations. the method is intuitive and demonstrates that, for a not-too-complex scene, a reduction to just a few coarse feature strokes is sufficient for producing suggestive sunken reliefs. this approach contrasts with the other tech- niques in that it does not aim at achieving highly detailed and curvy results. although a restriction to a binary relief leads to reasonable results, this concept could easily be extended by yielding lines on multiple different discrete iso-levels ac- cording to their connectivity or saliency. . . . hybrid algorithms recently, in [wckz ] an algorithm was presented that ex- tends the work of [wkcz ] and bridges the gap between different representations of the model for the purpose of sunken relief generation. in addition to the projected line drawing which extracts features directly from the d representation, a depth map ( . d) is generated from the same viewpoint. this depth map is compressed by attenuating its gradients in a nonlinear way (see section . . ) and acts as a base layer. finally, an additional d image of the model with a lambertian surface is rendered. if a single light source coincides with the camera position, the resulting image allows tracking the behaviour of the surface normal. hence, it contains information about very smooth yet visually important and view-dependent transi- tions that help to recover the height deviation. the knowledge from d, . d and d is then assembled using a weighted energy minimization approach. the observation that geomet- ric contours and visual cues have to be extracted and treated in different ways allows adding more suggestive power, be- cause a larger variety of features is contained in a particular outcome. the fact that the depth information is taken into account here leads to a curved surface in areas where no lines were detected. their results look promising and appear much more plastic and convincing than the sunken reliefs produced by [wkcz ]. the bas-relief generation method presented in [srml ] operates directly on the height field but uses gradient infor- mation for additional re-weighting during the compression. it makes it possible to distinguish features on multiple scales and relies on the concept of adaptive histogram equaliza- tion (ahe) [paa* ] primarily used for local contrast en- hancement in images. the algorithm is suitable for bas-relief generation and produces very natural, sharp and detailed re- sults competitive to other methods. unfortunately, ahe is computationally expensive and their initial implementation is very time-consuming. in addition, a user can influence the outcome by adjusting up to six parameters, but almost every one of them requires an entire re-computation. the authors suggest several optimizations and accelerations which could help to overcome this issue and to make this hybrid tech- nique a practical and useful alternative to its gradient domain counterparts. the algorithm presented in [bh ] uses both domains as well. it triangulates the height field first and then applies a smoothing on the derived mesh to extract the details by subtracting both surfaces [kcvs ]. these details are then described in laplacian coordinates and stored for later reuse [scol* ]. afterwards, the gradient field of the smoothed surface is computed and compressed using a non-linear map- ping. this function is explained and compared in more detail in section . . . using poisson reconstruction, the manip- ulated gradients lead to a new thin height field. the previ- ously extracted small and high-frequency features can then be transferred back to the surface. the motivation for this hybrid approach is to ensure that details remain completely unchanged, rather than being boosted to visually survive the gradient compression, as was done by other approaches. on the other hand, it makes the method more vulnerable to noise in the initial height field. finally, the authors describe how laplacian sharpening, as an optional post-processing step, can be used to further emphasize details in the generated relief. . . . attenuation functions several approaches apply an additional non-linear attenua- tion function to the gradient field. this achieves a higher compression for large entries than for small values and hence leads to a relative enhancement of fine details. among other factors, the described methods differ a lot in this crucial step, which is reflected in the various appearances of the outcomes. kerber et al. opted for a polynomial attenuation function originally used in [flw ] for hdr purposes: f (x) = x · ( a x · ( x a )b) = x b ab− ∂f ∂x = b ab− · xb− where a marks the value which remains unchanged. it is de- rived adaptively as a fragment of the gradient mean value. entries below a are slightly enhanced and those above are compressed according to exponent < b < . it has the ad- vantage that small scale details are boosted even further (if noise is present, this may be undesired). the downside is that the function flattens out slowly. this attenuation func- tion finds application in [ker ], [ktz* ] and is also used in [wcpz ] and [wckz ]. c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey figure : (a) three different gradient attenuation functions and (b) their respective derivatives. in [wdb* ] a logarithmic rescaling is applied: f (x) = α log( + α · x) ∂f ∂x = + α · x where α > steers the compression ratio. note that it com- presses all entries and the attenuation linearly becomes stronger for larger gradients. aside from [wdb* ], this function was also used by [srml ]. finally, [bh ] use a mapping based onthe arc tangent: f (x) = arctan (α · x) α ∂f ∂x = + (α · x) with α > . this function affects large entries much more strongly because its derivative exhibits a quadratic drop-off, which means that gradient values in a wider range are almost equalized. the mapping used in [zl ] is comparable but uses two different parameters for the numerator and denom- inator. figure (a) shows a plot of the these attenuation functions and their particular derivatives (b). we want to stress that the parameters have been chosen such that the asymptotic behaviour becomes obvious (a = . , b = . , α = ) and that other settings may have been applied in practice. in figure we show multiple results for the lucy model. the first one (a) is achieved without any attenuation, followed by reliefs for which the above-mentioned functions have been applied. as a common basis, we have used an implementation of [ktz* ]. all depth intervals are shrunken such that they range from to units and they are rendered under the same lighting conditions and in the same position. a difference is hard to see in this side-by-side comparison. therefore, the images in the second row indicate the difference between (a) and each of the other results. figure : multiple reliefs achieved with different attenuations: (a) without, (b) using function f , (c) applying f and (d) f . the lower row displays the height differences: (b)–(a), (c)–(a) and (d)–(a); note the different scales. c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey figure : a comparison of reliefs for the cinderella castle model generated by different types of approaches. the regions around the leg and the robe exhibit the great- est differences in all cases because this is where the larger gradients at the wrinkles are situated. those have been af- fected most. the individual effects become apparent by the colour distribution at the contours of the wings, the face and the rock. the difference between (a) and the results achieved with f and f look similar, but note that the different scale illustrates the stronger compression. . . results we show some of the result figures exactly as they occur in the particular publications whereas other figures are re- produced by ourselves or provided as additional material by the respective authors. this is why the perspectives on the scenes, the depth interval sizes and the materials may differ slightly. figure (a), (b) and (c) contain the particular reliefs achieved by [ktz* ], [wdb* ] and [bh ] for the cinderella castle model. as mentioned above, among other things the differing nature of the additional compression functions, shown in figure , contributes to the visual differ- ences. please note that in (c) no detail transfer or additional sharpening has been used. in figure (d) we show the result of [srml ] which is at least comparable to (b) and recall that the same attenuation function has been used. outcomes generated by [kbs ] (e) and the range domain method of [ktz* ] in (f) appear clean and sharp but lack the d expression which is achieved by the other techniques. this demonstrates that a nonlinear compression function is the key ingredient to high quality reliefs because the latter two examples were achieved by algorithms that do not contain an additional attenuation step. figure demonstrates how the relief generation techniques have evolved. we use the armadillo model and show the resulting reliefs of a naı̈ve linear rescaling (a), the method of [sbs ] (b), the approach by [ker ] (c), followed by outcomes of [srml ] (d), the range domain method of [ktz* ] (e) and [bh ] (f). in (b) the inner parts on the lower legs and the heels appear to melt with the background. the jaw is hard to see and all in all it does not look very plausible. in (c) the contours of the head and the transitions of the teeth could not be preserved. the results in (d) and (e) are comparably sharp and detailed but the breast muscles in (d) are more curved and lead to a more plastic impression. in (f) detail transfer and laplacian sharpening were used. here, the perspective differs noticeably from the one of other examples. in figure the development from the first[wkcz ] to the second [wckz ] approach in sunken relief generation is shown. note that more features are contained in the latter result and that e.g. the shoulders and cheeks are curved and obvious rather than being evenly flat. c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey figure : reliefs of the armadillo model achieved with different methods in chronological order. . . gist the advantage of the presented shape based techniques over image based methods and modeling tools is that the fully extended d scene is already given virtually. this allows arbitrary changes of perspective on a scene and requires nei- ther much imagination nor additional practical skills from the user. only the steering of parameters may take some experience. in general, the timings for all methods described in this section are independent of the scene complexity and only linearly scale with the resolution of the height field. . . . directions for future research developing sophisticated algorithms for digital shape based relief generation is a relatively young research area (starting in ). nevertheless, the problem of compressing the depth interval size of a given height field in a feature preserving way has been well investigated and already successfully addressed in multiple different ways. the shape based methods differ mainly in user friendli- ness, speed and visual quality wrt. detail preservation, sharp- ness and depth impression. all in all, it is not surprising that intricate algorithms with much flexibility, artistic freedom, a high demand for user intervention and high computation times yield the most impressive results. the faster, more user friendly methods apply simpler but slightly inaccurate filters figure : sunken reliefs of a horse model achieved by (a) only taking the line drawing into account and (b) including visual cues as well as the basic shape. and are limited to one or two frequency bands, which saves parameters but prevents artistic operations like stop band filtering, which is possible e.g. in [wdb* ]. in the future, the task will be to overcome these com- promises and restrictions by developing efficient methods with intuitive user interfaces. this should be achieved with- out compromising sharpness, richness of detail or artistic effects, such that even untrained enthusiasts can successfully produce visually pleasing and complex reliefs. a consequent application would be a simple web dialog that extends the service of a publicly available shape database by allowing easy generation of reliefs from the models contained within. in line with these goals, we are convinced that the use of more c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey recent and advanced edge aware image filtering techniques like [phk ], [go ] and [xlxj ] in an enhancement step will further improve the relation between achievable precision, ease of use and required computation time. so far, all relief generations methods are semi-automatic. adaptive parameters for the entire pipeline in combination with achievements from research on good view selection [slf* ] could make the entire process become fully auto- matic. besides this core problem, there are a some interesting possible extensions. the very important role and the in- fluence of the perspective has not attracted much interest yet, aside from some cubism-like examples. future exten- sions could use more advanced camera models for capturing the height field like [ym ], which would even be capable of yielding panoramic reliefs [rl ]. additional achieve- ments from non-photorealistic rendering [gg ] and ele- ments from anamorphosis would further increase the artistic possibilities and stress the relativity of perspective by creat- ing multi-perspective, ambiguous or ”impossible” reliefs. so far, none of the shape based works has investigated how multiple layers of materials with different textures and reflectance properties in one single relief could enrich the overall impression. manual post-processing operations need to attract more notice to round out this area of research. the editing and the coloration of an already attained relief would be two examples. the advent of low-cost real-time range sensors and the ongoing development in this area together with the increas- ing availability of animated d models enriches the options and applications for relief generation methods in future. one prospective consequence is the demand for processing entire videos to add relief-like effects on virtual characters. another more challenging scenario is to directly process the stream of a range sensor. the aim could be a completely interactive art installation that immediately reacts with a dynamically changing real-world environment and e.g. instantly displays the relief of a moving actor. for these challenges, real-time solutions are essential. so far, only two publications focus on the speed and make use of the gpu. more development in this direction is mandatory to face these upcoming challenges. . relief extraction a very different yet related way to obtain a relief is to detach it from the input. if shape or a scan of a real world object contains a relief on its surface, there are algorithms specif- ically designed to analyse, edit, segment and isolate it from its background. a segmentation method for reliefs on triangle meshes is presented in [lmlr ]. they start with a rough hand-drawn polygon on the surface and contract it until it coincides with the boundary of the relief. if the underlying surface is not smooth but textured, the extraction becomes more challenging. two remedies for this case are presented in [lmlr b]. snake-like approaches, like the above ones, are able to adapt to concave sculptures but they fail to detect the back- ground within a relief if the foreground surrounds it. this problem is dealt with in [lmlr a]. first, a continuous background is estimated by fitting a b-spline surface patch to the area surrounding the relief. then, a support-vector- machine is used for refinement. thus, a distinction between the relief and the surface becomes possible everywhere. in their follow up project [lmlr c], the authors demon- strate how to decompose regular patterns into small elemen- tary building blocks. to do so, a user is asked to mark rough initial correspondences on the extracted relief. their relative positioning is refined and a third instance is automatically derived. a finalizing icp step helps to precisely localize the transition areas between adjacent repeat units. an alternative way to decouple a base layer and a height function defining the relief is described in [zts ]. first, an adaptive gaussian low pass filtering is applied to the surface normals, and then the corresponding base layer is estimated from these new normals. after that, the relief offset function is computed by solving a global minimization problem. a thresholding is used to assign regions to foreground or back- ground. in the end, a refinement step is proposed to overcome issues introduced by noise or very sharp edges. in [ccl* ], the authors propose a different way to detach a relief from a background. they make use of differential coordinates. the underlying smooth and continuous surface is fitted by reconstructing it from the given normals, whereas those with significant changes (along a boundary) are re- estimated such that all normals in a local neighbourhood share a common orientation. this idea marks an improvement compared to the previ- ous approach, where differently oriented normals have con- tributed to the result. furthermore, the authors demonstrate that editing operations like global transformations or local deformations of the relief can be performed directly. in this case, such modifications directly benefit from the represen- tation in differential coordinates. . conclusion in this paper we presented a survey of different approaches for relief generation. we distinguished the different types and described the corresponding phenomenon of human per- ception as well as the resulting issues and possibilities. the methods were classified in entirely interactive tools, algo- rithms with a d input and those operating on d (or . d) models. the pros and cons of each class were investigated to provide an overall picture. c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. j. kerber et al./computer assisted relief generation—a survey . . prospects in concluding, we may say that progress in one single cate- gory will only lead to slight improvements. we are convinced that a breakthrough in this area could be achieved if the advantages of all fields were linked comprehensively, e.g. a shape based tool which uses additional information from one or more rendered images and allows for easy manual fine-tuning and coloration as a post-processing step. (this has recently been realized in part in [wckz ]) one possible and challenging scenario to which all types of approaches could contribute is the design of a large scale multi-colour art installation on the inside of a dome or a hemisphere. in that case, the relief could provide a surround view. for the purpose of storytelling, different scenes could appear when a spectator is moving or the lighting is changed. the ensemble of approaches presented here would be capable of accomplishing such a goal at least virtually. acknowledgements all images used in figure are openly available on wikipedia, and the pictures in figure are courtesy of alexei sourin. the d models of the lucy statue (figure ), the castle (figure ) and the armadillo (figure ) were pro- vided by google d warehouse and the stanford d scan- ning repository. we would like to thank the groups of tim weyrich and zhe bian for granting access to additional ma- terial. this work was made possible in part by the cluster of excellence ‘multimodal computing and interaction’at saar- land university, the max-planck society, the fundamental research funds(*zd ** *) of northwest a&f uni- versity and the media school at bournemouth university. references [am ] alexa m., matusik w.: reliefs as images. in acm siggraph papers ( ), siggraph ’ , acm, pp. – . 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(december ), : – : . c© the authors computer graphics forum c© the eurographics association and blackwell publishing ltd. pluralism, the lucas critique, and the integration of macro and micro� peter skotty february , abstract mainstream macroeconomics has pursued �micro founded�models based on the explicit optimization by representative agents. the result has been a long and wasteful detour. but elements of the lucas critique are rele- vant, also for heterodox economists. challenging common heterodox views on microeconomics and formalization, this paper argues that (i) economic models should not be based purely on empirically observed regularities, (ii) heterodox economists must be able to tell an integrated story about goal-oriented micro behavior in a speci�c macro environment, and (iii) relatively simple analytical models have an essential role to play. jel codes: e , b key words: micro foundations, pluralism, old keynesian theory, kaleck- ian investment function. �this paper is based on a presentation at the icape conference, umass, amherst, november . i wish to thank paul auerbach and the participants at the conference for helpful comments. ydepartment of economics, university of massachusetts amherst; pskott@econs.umass.edu introduction there can be no single, correct theory or model of �the economy�. the economy is not a well-de�ned object and �even if it were �a theory does not aim to provide a complete picture of reality. as joan robinson noted, a map on a scale of one to one would be useless. models and theories simplify and focus attention on speci�c aspects. equally self-evident, it seems to me, is the claim that there can be no single, correct method for gaining insights into the operation of the economy. we need broad historical analysis, detailed case studies, institutional work, data collec- tion, statistical analysis, mathematical models, experimental evidence, and com- puter simulations, to mention just some of the useful ingredients. researchers focus on di¤erent issues, approach them from di¤erent angles and employ dif- ferent tools. the internal consistency of their work must be checked and its relevance, importance and implications should be debated. i am not sure whether these views qualify as pluralism, or if so, what kind of pluralism. in fact, the merits of some kinds of pluralism seem questionable. surely, not any school of thought should be considered legitimate. should we welcome, in the name of pluralism, chicago-school views of unemployment as the voluntary choice of workers to go on vacation when wages are low? to take an example outside economics, should we welcome creationism as an alternative to evolution? more generally, what do we do if di¤erent theories make mutually inconsistent claims about the same phenomenon? �diversity pluralism�, more- over, seems to go hand in hand with a clubbiness that can be quite disturbing (or in some cases almost hilarious if one is in that mood). the manifestations include argument by authority and the insistent self-labeling and demarcation vis-a-vis other schools. the upshot can be to close o¤ debate. a general methodological discussion of pluralism is beyond my expertise, however. this note has a more limited purpose: i want to discuss �micro- economic foundations�and make a plea for pluralism (or eclecticism) in this particular area. heterodox economists are united in the rejection of the main- stream approach to micro foundations, but some of the problems and divisions that characterize heterodox macro derive from the same questions that derailed the mainstream: the role of goal oriented behavior and the connection between micro and macro. a related, but separate controversy concerns the use of formal methods. macroeconomics contemporary, mainstream macroeconomics is guided by its quest for micro- economic foundations. older style keynesian macroeconomics, it is claimed, failed in this respect, and the lucas critique demonstrates the implications of see e.g. dow ( ), sent ( ), king ( ), freeman and kliman ( ), and davis ( , ). this failure: reliable theory and empirical work must be based on structurally invariant parameters that can only come from explicit micro foundations. essentially, the lucas critique has three elements: � the claim that economic behavior is goal oriented, has an intertempo- ral dimension, and is in�uenced by expectations; household consumption, for instance, depends on expected future income; �rms�investment on expected future demand. � the argument that reduced-form equations that link current decisions to observable variables will re�ect the expectations (as well as the underlying goals) of the decision makers; shifts in expectations �induced, for instance, by changes in economic policy �will therefore a¤ect the equations and render them unstable. � the recommendation that in the face of these instability problems, eco- nomic models should be based on explicit microeconomic optimization since, unlike reduced-form equations, structural elements like preference orderings and production functions are invariant to changes in policy regimes. the attempt to implement the recommendation (the third element) has led to the sorry state of macro with its suggestion that modern economies should be analyzed through the lens of an in�nitely-lived, utility maximizing represen- tative household. this suggestion is peculiar, to say the least. goal-oriented behavior is not the same as the full intertemporal utility maximization with per- fect foresight (or rational expectations). moreover, even if individual preferences could be taken as well-de�ned, exogenous and stable over time, microeconomic rationality imposes very weak constraints on the properties of aggregate excess demand functions. the use of a representative agent "is not simply an analytical convenience as often explained, but is both unjusti�ed and leads to conclusions which are usually misleading and often wrong" (kirman, , p. ). one may note in particular that if the behavior of the representative agent is to describe aggregate outcomes, the appropriate de�nition of the agent will itself typically depend on the policy regime. thus, the representative-agent mod- els are themselves subject to the lucas critique. in short, the lucas inspired research program has been a failure. the problems with the suggested solution do not, however, invalidate the �rst two claims. in fact discussions of the importance of expectations and the potential instability of behavioral relations �the second claim �are ubiquitous with the additional recommendations that economic modelers impose rational expecta- tions and that policy makers follow predictable rules. one can debate whether the recommendations should be included as part of the critique. however, it is mainly the perceived implications �the recommendations �that distinguish the lucas critique from similar arguments about the potential breakdown of empirical regularities (e.g. �goodhart�s law�). skott and davis ( ) discuss these issues in relation to the use of representative agent models for the evaluation of climate change. in the heterodox literature and this claim should not be contentious. heterodox positions with respect to the �rst claim seem more mixed or ambiguous. there are clearly exceptions but heterodox economists often play down the role of goal oriented behavior. dutt ( ), for example, describes the "neostructuralist" approach as de�ned by ( ) starting with some basic and commonly used accounting identi- ties; ( ) adding simple rules of behavior of individuals or groups de- rived from detailed empirical investigation; and ( ) examining their consequences to analyze the performance and evolution of the system (p. ) the second step in his description is the crucial one. this is where behavior enters, and the emphasis is on simple rules and empirical investigation. there is no mention of any kind of goal orientation. in fact, the neostructuralist approach is explicitly contrasted with an approach based on optimizing agents which, dutt argues, characterizes both walrasian and post walrasian theories. the term heterodox is used to describe contributions "that do not invoke the optimizing agent (even in the sense of bounded rationality)" (p. ). thus, according to dutt the use of goal oriented behavior �optimization with imperfections and bounded rationality �seems to fall squarely within mainstream economics. another strand of literature discards macroeconomic modeling and insists that the behavior of aggregate economies re�ects the emergent properties of an underlying agent-based system. this strand can be seen as a reaction to the central role of the representative agent in the mainstream model but agent- based models also tend to eschew optimization, being populated by agents that typically follow simple rules of thumb. goal oriented behavior the shortcomings of mainstream macroeconomics do not imply that goal ori- ented behavior does not exist. nor that behavioral considerations �including goal orientation �are irrelevant for macroeconomic models. on the contrary, it would seem desirable to make the behavioral assumptions explicit and then to try to exclude models based on implausible assumptions. this argument may davis ( ) makes a similar point, consider, for example, the theory of choice as a core doctrine. behavioural economists think the theory of choice in economics is wrong, but rather than abandon the theory of choice altogether, they want to revise it. most heterodox economists, however, simply believe the theory of choice should be abandoned for non-individualistic conceptualisations of the economic process that have more in common with other social sciences. colander �one the proponents of this approach �views the agent-based approach as part of a new post walrasian economics or complexity economics (colander, ; holt et al., ). seem su¢ ciently vague to be unobjectionable. in my view, however, the debate on the modeling of investment shows that it has bite. . investment functions like other post-keynesian theories, the kaleckian growth model regards the rate of capital utilization as a key determinant of accumulation. as a simple formalization, let g = f(u;z); fu > ( ) where g is the rate of growth of the capital stock (the rate of net accumulation), u denotes the utilization rate, fu is the partial derivative with respect to u, and z is a vector of other variables that may in�uence investment (the pro�t share, for instance, or autonomous elements of �animal spirits�). the distinctive kaleckian assumption is a low sensitivity of investment to changes in utilization. if s is the average rate of saving out of income, it is assumed that fu < s y k ( ) where y=k is the output-capital ratio. this �keynesian stability condition�is critical for the properties of the model. the average saving rate may itself depend on other variables, including the pro�t share and household wealth. empirically, however, the gross saving rate in most advanced countries lies between . and . . with an output-capital ra- tio of about . , the sensitivity fu is therefore restricted to be less than . . this restriction would not be objectionable for short run analysis. but the kaleck- ian models extend the restriction to the long-run e¤ects of a permanent rise in utilization. the extension implies shocks to aggregate demand - a change in saving rates, for instance - can lead to permanent and quantitatively signi�cant changes in the rate of capital utilization. indeed these large induced changes in utilization provide the mechanism behind the celebrated �stagnationist�results. consider a simple example. suppose a �rm has seen the demand for its output grow at a constant rate of percent a year and that to meet the demand, it has been accumulating capital at the same rate, keeping the utilization rate of its capital stock at a constant rate, say percent. now suppose that the growthofdemandslowsdowntoabout percentayear. the restrictionfu < : implies (convergence to) a utilization rate below percent. and had the growth of demand dropped by another percentage points, the �rm would continue to accumulate capital at the rate of at least percent, despite having a utilization rate that converges to zero. a sustained change of percentage points in the growth rate may seem large for an economy as a whole, although not unprecedented (as illustrated by the japanese economy). for individual industries and �rms, however, the sustained changes are often much larger than that. utilization rates, by contrast, �uctuate recent contributions include hein et al. ( ) and skott ( ). around a fairly constant rate. there is a simple explanation for this observed regularity: a pro�t-oriented �rm only invests if the increase in the capital stock raises the expected future pro�ts. why invest in more machines if the �rm already has an abundance of unused capacity? . limitations of empirical evidence this issue, it could be argued, should not be decided on a priori grounds but on the basis of empirical evidence (cf. dutt�s appeal to empirical investigation as the basis for behavioral equations). the evidence, in fact, does not support the kaleckian position. moreover, a purely empirical approach runs into problems: the lucas critique correctly identi�es pitfalls in the interpretation of reduced- form regressions. consider two economies. in economy a output �uctuates randomly around a constant growth trend, logyt = 
t+"t ( ) where "t is a random shock. the constant long-run rate of growth could be the result of policy intervention and labor constraints (the labor force growing at the rate 
); for present purposes, however, the mechanism behind ( ) does not matter. economy b is not anchored in this way; its growth rate follows a random walk, �logyt = �logyt� +�t ( ) assume that �rms adjust their capital stock based on the expected growth of demand and the current deviations from desired utilization: logkt+ � logkt = �logkt = gt = 
et +�(logut � logu �) ( ) where 
e is the expected growth rate of demand. the growth of demand follows very di¤erent stochastic processes in the two economies and, by assumption, has been following these processes for a long time. one does not have to be a chicago economist to believe that the di¤er- ences will a¤ect expectations. consider the simple case in which all �rms in an economy experience the same shocks; that is, equations ( ) and ( ) describe the experience of individual �rms in the two economies. in this case it seems plausi- ble to assume that �rms in economy a will recognize the long-run constancy of an interesting paper by nikiforos ( ) points out that standard measures of utilization may show no trend by construction. given the scale of the variation in utilization rates predicted by the kaleckian analysis the measurement problems are insigni�cant for present purposes. nikiforos�s own theoretical analysis of the endogenous determination of the desired utilization provides no support for the kaleckian position. the study by lavoie et al. ( ) is �awed and o¤ers no support for the kaleckian position (see skott ). schoder ( ) �nds some evidence of path dependency in the utilization rate, but quantitatively it is small and the estimated model violates the kaleckian restrictions; skott and zipperer ( ) reject the kaleckian restrictions. kaleckians may reject this assumption (or argue that the desired utilization rate is path dependent). this disagreement is irrelevant for present purposes: the point of the example is not to �nd to the �correct�investment function but to illustrate the regime-dependence of the reduced-form investment function. the average growth rate and base their expectations on that. firms in economy b, by contrast, are likely to realize that their growth rate of demand has a lot of persistence. thus, as a simplifying assumption 
et = 
 in economy a �logyt� in economy b ( ) substituting ( ) into ( ) and ( ), we get two di¤erent reduced-form investment functions. in economy a, gt = a+ but ( ) where a = 
 �� logu� and b = �: in economy b, �gt = a+ but + cut� ( ) where a = �� logu�;b = +� and c = � . empirical estimatesof the investment functioncomes fromadvancedeconomies with relatively stable trend rates of growth, that is, from economies that may look roughly like economy a. the benchmark kaleckian model, however, de- scribes a dual economy in which a shock to the saving rate shifts the long-run rate of growth; in other words, an economy that is more like economy b. and here is the nub: reduced-form regressions based on economy a are biased in favor of �nding kaleckian results, but these estimates say little about the de- terminants of investment in a regime in which the long-run rate of growth is variable �or even about the e¤ect of a one-o¤, persistent change to a new long- run rate of growth. the reduced-form equation ( ) is valid only as long as the expected growth of demand remains constant. it may seem surprising, in the light of this analysis, that estimated invest- ment functions do not favor the kaleckian speci�cation. the reason, however, may be quite intuitive: although the average growth rate in advanced economies may have a fairly stable trend, this is not the case for individual �rms. firms make the investment decisions, and the shocks to the growth of demand for a single �rm can be quite persistent, even if not quite the random walk posited by the simple economy b. these are the �rational expectations�. there is no justi�cation for the imposition of rational expectations at all times, as in most mainstream models, but that does not mean that rational expectations are never justi�ed. persistent and signi�cant expectational mistakes are implausible in hypothetical economies that follow well-de�ned stable growth paths. this statement should not be controversial (harrod�s warranted growth path is a trajectory of this kind, as are joan robinson�s mythical ages). the general point, which requires neither steady growth nor rational expectations, is simply that the properties of the economy in which agents operate will in�uence the way they form expectations. from ( ) and ( ) it follows that gt � gt� = �logyt� � �logkt� + �(logut � logu�) = �logut� + �(logut � logu�) = �� logu� + ( + �)logut � logut� to illustrate, let the aggregate growth rate follow ( ) but assume that �rm- level expectations are governed by 
ei;t = 
 +�(�logyi;t� �
) ( ) where the subscript i denotes �rm level, 
 is the trend growth of aggregate demand (cf. equation ( )), and � captures the persistence of the deviations of �rm-level from aggregate growth. the idiosyncratic �rm-level shocks cancel out in aggregation and, using ( ) and ( ), aggregate investment can be written as gt = 
( ��)�� logu� +(�+�) logut �� logut� +�gt� ( ) this equation can be used to �nd a long-run between utilization and accumu- lation: setting gt = gt� = g and ut = ut� = u, we get g = 
 + � �� (logu� logu�) ( ) according to this equation a sustained increase in g requires an increase in u; the long-run sensitivity of accumulation to a change in utilization is �=( ��): this estimate may violate the kaleckian restriction even if � < s. but in fact the regression underestimates the true long-run sensitivity. a permanent rise in the aggregate growth rate of demand will a¤ect the formation of expectations: once the parameter 
 in ( ) equals the new aggregate growth rate, the accumulation rate will adjust without any increase in utilization. the examples are special and stylized but they carry two important �much more general �lessons: � while rejecting lucas�s recommmendations, the �rst �rst two elements of the lucas critique are relevant, also for heterodox models; we should not build economic models purely on empirically observed regularities. � aggregate outcomes are not decided by a representative �rm whose de- mand follows the same process as aggregate demand. . historical context and uncertainty post-keynesians and other heterodox macro economists are well aware that the investment function (and other behavioral equations) may be unstable. in dutt�s words, the behavioral relations "are context and time dependent, which means that the same model cannot necessarily be used for all economies" ( , p. ). ina similarvein, davis ( , p. )argues that"individuals are socially embedded rather than atomistic", and numerous authors have made the point that profound uncertainty and animal spirits a¤ect investment decisions and may lead to instability. this point is related to the phelps-lucas analysis of island economies and the di¢ culty of disentangling ideosyncratic and general shocks. i have no disagreement with these arguments. one can accept, �rst, the con- text dependence, the social embeddedness, and the importance of uncertainty and animal spirits without abandoning the notion that �rms are goal oriented. in fact, the pro�t motive and the very existence of capitalist �rms are examples of social and historical contingency, and clearly for many purposes the analy- sis can and should be re�ned to include additional context-speci�c elements; changes in the �nancial sphere, for instance, may a¤ect the ability of small �rms to obtain �nance. goal orientation, second, has important implications for economic processes, as exempli�ed by the investment example. it is true, of course, that because of uncertainty the �desired rate of utilization�may not be sharply de�ned. but the notion that �rms will keep investing at a constant rate, even as utilization rates go to zero, fails the test of behavioral plausibility. goal oriented behavior does not account for all shifts in reduced-form relations. some shifts can be hard to explain, even ex post. but the presence of exogenous shocks does not imply that no shifts can be explained. constrained optimization and formal model- ing goal oriented behavior is often formalized mathematically as constrained op- timization. part of the objection to micro foundations may have to do with this formalization. dow ( ), among others, de�nes the divide between main- stream and heterodox schools primarily in terms of mathematical formalism: orthodoxy "being de�ned by mathematical formalism" and heterodoxy by the "adoption of di¤erent methodological approaches" (p. ). mathematical formalism is distinct from goal oriented behavior. in the pre- vious section i did use mathematical equations to describe key elements in the argument but the equations merely served to clarify the reasoning. there was no need to present �rms�goal orientation in the form of explicit maximization programs. formalization of this kind could potentially yield more precise im- plications (which would of course be contingent on the particular assumptions used in the formalizations). but formalization was not required to present a general argument about the behavioral plausibility of the kaleckian investment function when �rms are goal oriented and try to maximize pro�ts. dow�s argument, it seems to me, is setting up a straw man. most mainstream economists believe mathematical tools are immensely useful but i know of no mainstream economist who would claim "the su¢ ciency of mathematical formalism as a methodological approach" (p. ). fgure : piero della francesca, "baptism of christ", c. - . to underline the distinction between goal orientation and formalization, con- sider an example from a completely di¤erent arena. the art historian baxandall ( ) has suggested that paintings (and other works of art) be viewed as "solu- tions to problems in situations" (p. ). the jargon is di¤erent but solutions to problems in situations would seem to translate into �constrained optimization� in economese. i bring this up, not to advocate a becker-like imperialism but to suggest, in some ways, precisely the opposite. the argument that typically agents behave in a goal oriented manner does not imply that the standard mathematical formalism will always be useful. us- ing one of baxandall�s examples, the italian renaissance painter piero della francesca was commissioned to paint his �baptism of christ�by "men with complicated �fteenth-century needs embodied in subtly and implicitly de�ned �fteenth-century genres" (p. ). piero brought to this task a set of histori- cally and culturally speci�c skills, including a thorough knowledge of pictorial perspective, and the �nished picture represents his solution to this constrained optimization problem. an attempt to formalize the process and the solution mathematically �replete with utility function, technological and budget con- straints �makes no sense. but that does not mean that no insights can be gained from looking at the painting as the result of an intentional process. thus, the example may illustrate the potential fruitfulness of thinking in terms of goal orientation as well as the context speci�city of behavior and the limitations of formalization. having stressed the limitations of formalization, let me add that in my view some common claims about these limitations are unfounded. dow ( ) links a rejection of mathematical formalism and optimizing behavior to the openness of the economic system: open systems, which allow for human agency (creativity, the non- deterministic exercise of choice, etc.) and the (indeterminate) evolu- tion of the institutional structure within which individuals exercise agency, do not have the invariant kind of causal mechanisms which yield up laws, and allow instead for a plurality of explanations and modes of explanation (p. ) i �nd these arguments confusing. of course the economic system is �open�. but as hodgson ( , p. ) puts it, "the policy towards science must be plu- ralistic and tolerant, but science itself must be intolerant of what it regards as falsehood". the openness of the system does not imply that falsehoods should be tolerated and that a plurality of explanations of the same phenomenon is in- trinsically good. moreover, the openness of the system and the complexities of the dynamic interactions do not eliminate or reduce the need for formalization. on the contrary, dynamic interactions make it almost impossible to achieve progress without formalization (which needless to say is not to claim that for- mal models are su¢ cient for progress). it may be di¢ cult to keep track of simultaneous interactions without formalization and dynamic interactions only serves to compound those di¢ culties. a valid point may remain. a heavy emphasis on formal modeling techniques involves signi�cant dangers. worswick ( , p. ) commented that it is sometimes thought that the objection to the use of mathematics in economics is that it is too hard. the more serious objection, however, is that it is much too easy. the ease of mathematical manipulation may lead to a neglect of those issues that are hard to formalize or, equally dangerous, to a distortion in the way we look at those problems that are being analyzed. formal mathematical analysis may also lead to a focus on mathematical elegance and a refusal to deal with the messiness of real history. these dangers of a �xation on formal techniques notwithstanding, a refusal to formalize arguments that can be formalized carries its own dangers, and arguably these dangers are equally serious. concluding remarks following the lucas critique, mainstream macro has pursued �micro founded� models based on the explicit optimization by representative agents. the result see also chick and dow ( ). has been a long and wasteful detour with enormous costs, both in terms of the loss of knowledge in the profession and, more importantly, mistaken policy. heterodox macro is in a better state than its mainstream counterpart (which does not say much) but also has its problems. having been critical of old keynesians (who were often indiscriminately la- beled as neoclassical or bastard keynesians) and having rightly rejected the chicago inspired shifts in mainstream macro, the heterodox tradition has bi- furcated. some strands of heterodox macro emphasize structural and macro constraints to such an extent that micro behavior is almost forgotten; other strands disaggregate completely and view the macro as the emergent proper- ties of an agent-based system with agents that follow simple behavioral rules. important insights may come from both of these di¤erent approaches. purely structuralist analyses of macro systems can highlight important interactions, and computer-based methods allow us to examine interactions of a complexity that go beyond what traditional techniques can provide. but in their rejection of the �micro foundations�of mainstream macro, the heterodox traditions are in danger of throwing out the baby with the bath water. methodologically, keynes and the �old keynesians�got it about right (and whatever methodological di¤erences existed between keynes and the �old key- nesians�, it is their similarities that seem striking compared to the contemporary mainstream). keynes and keynesians like tobin and solow were keenly aware that good macroeconomics requires an understanding of the behavior of indi- vidual �rms and households and they rightly insisted that this behavior is to a large extent goal oriented. they also realized that the implications of goal ori- entation are not always straightforward and transparent. the step from micro to macro is complicated, both because of technical aggregation issues �which imply that the aggregate behavior cannot be derived from the optimization of an invariant representative agent �and because the goals and the constraints under which individual agents pursue these goals depend on the historical and institutional context. i am not advocating a return to the keynesian economics that dominated the �eld until the mid s. the old models had many problems: they largely ignored distributional issues, for instance, and the dynamics was weakly devel- oped. we should draw an all the techniques and insights that have emerged over the last years, both from heterodox economics and from the post walrasian developments discussed by colander ( ). but a broad vision is needed to hold together and help interpret the �ndings from these diverse techniques. holt et al. ( , p. ) seem to question the need for an anchor of this kind. the post walrasian vision, they argue, sees the economy as so complicated that simple analytical models of the aggregate economy� models that can be speci�ed in a set of analytically solvable equations� are not likely to be helpful in un- derstanding many of the issues that economists want to address. ... we have to go into the trenches, and base our analysis on experi- mental and empirical data. from there we build up, using whatever analytic tools we have available. this is di¤erent from the old vision where economists mostly did the opposite of starting at the top and then built down. it is never a question of only "building up" or only "building down"; all would agree on that, i expect. but i do worry about too much "building up". dutt raised a related issue in his comments on colander ( ) arguing that "the contributions he describes as post walrasian do not amount to an approach to economics but really constitute a collection of more or less interesting ap- proaches" and that these approaches "are unlikely to coalesce to form a challenge to neoclassical orthodoxy" (p. ) . figure : pablo picasso, "violin and grapes", . let me try to illustrate the need for an anchor using another simple example from the art world. painters have been struggling with the problem of how to present a three dimensional world �with time as a fourth, irreversible dimen- sion �on a �at canvas. many di¤erent solutions have been suggested; piero�s use of perspective is one example. cubism o¤ered another approach. like a pluralist economist who recognizes that there is no single correct theory, a cu- bist painter tries to represent di¤erent views within the same frame. but as noted by gombrich ( , p. ), the cubist method of building up the image has a problem of which the originators of cubism were very well aware. it can be done only with more or less familiar forms. those who look at the picture must know what a violin looks like to be able to relate the various fragments of the picture to each other. eclectic or pluralist macroeconomists face a similar problem. the frag- mented inputs from the large range of possible neostructuralist �closures�and post walrasian models can be illuminating, but the partial insights that they o¤er must come together as elements of a larger picture. methodologically the traditional keynesian approach o¤ers a good starting point for this larger pic- ture. the lucas prescriptions are mistaken but macroeconomists need to take seriously the implications of goal oriented behavior at the micro level: they must be able to tell an integrated story about goal-oriented micro behavior in a spe- ci�c macro environment, and it can be useful to lay out this story in relatively simple analytical models. references [ ] baxandall, m. ( ) patterns of intention. new haven: yale university press. [ ] chick, v. and dow, s. ( ) "formalism, logic and reality: a keynesian analysis". cambridge journal of economics, , pp. - . [ ] colander, d.( ) "post walrasian macroeconomics and heterodoxy: thinking outside the heterodox box". international journal of political economy, vol. , no. , pp. - . [ ] davis, j.b. ( ) �why is economics not yet a pluralistic sci- ence?�, post-autistic economics review, issue no. , pp. - , http://www.paecon.net/paereview/issue /davis .htm [ ] davis, j.b. ( ) "the turn in recent economics and return of orthodoxy". cambridge journal of economics, , pp. � . [ ] dow, s.c. ( ) "methodological pluralism and pluralism of method". in a. salanti and e. screpanti (eds), pluralism in economics: new per- spectives in history and methodology. cheltenham, uk and northampton, ma.: elgar. [ ] dow, s. ( ) "variety of methodological approach in economics". journal of economic surveys, ( ), pp. - . [ ] dutt, a.k. ( ) "on post walrasian economics, macroeconomic policy, and heterodox economics". international journal of political economy, vol. , no. , pp. - . [ ] freeman, a. and kliman, a. ( ) �beyond talking the talk: towards a critical pluralist practice�. post-autistic economics review, issue no. , , article , pp. - , http://www.paecon.net/paereview/issue /freemankliman .pdf [ ] gombrich, e.h. ( ) the story of art, th ed. oxford: phaidon press. [ ] hein, e., lavoie, m. , van treeck, t. ( ): �some instability puzzles in kaleckian models of growth and distribution: a critical survey�, metroeco- nomica, ( ), pp. - . [ ] hodgson, g. m. ( ) how economics forgot history: the problem of historical speci�city in social science. london and new york: routledge. [ ] holt, r.p.f, rosser, j. b. and colander, d. ( ) �the complexity era in economics�. middlebury college economics discussion paper - . [ ] king, j.e. �three arguments for pluralism in eco- nomics�, post-autistic economics review, issue no. , http://www.btinternet.com/~pae_news/review/issue .htm [ ] kirman, a.p. ( ), "whom or what does the representative individual represent?" journal of economic perspectives , pp. - . [ ] lavoie, m., rodriguez, g., seccareccia, m. ( ): "similarities and dis- crepancies in post-keynesian and marxist theories of investment: a theo- retical and empirical investigation". international review of applied eco- nomics, , pp. - . [ ] nikiforos, m. ( ) "on the desired rate of capacity utilization". new school for social research, mimeo. [ ] schoder, c. ( ) "hysteresis in the kaleckian growth model". new school for social research, mimeo. [ ] sent, e.-m. ( ) �pleas for pluralism�, post-autistic economics review, issue no. ,. http://www.btinternet.com/~pae_news/review/issue .htm [ ] skott, p. ( ) "theoretical and empirical shortcomings of the kaleckian investment function". metroeconomica, ( ), pp. - . [ ] skott, p. and l. davis ( ), �distributional biases in the evaluation of climate change�. working paper - , university of massachusetts amherst, ma. [ ] skott, p. and zipperer, b. ( ) "an empirical evaluation of three post- keynesian models". working paper - ,.university of massachusetts amherst. [ ] worswick, g.d.n. ( ) �mrs. robinson on simple accumulation: a com- ment with algebra�. oxford economic papers, , pp. - . microsoft word - v - .doc abstract—this paper focuses upon three such painters working in france from this time and their representations both of their host country in which they found themselves displaced, and of their homeland which they represent through refracted memories from their new perspective in europe. what is their representation of france and china／taiwan? is it otherness or an origin? this paper also attempts to explore the three artists’ diasporic lives and to redefine their transnational identities. hou chin-lang, the significance of his multiple-split images serve to highlight the intricate relationships between his work and the surrounding family, and to reveal his identity of his taiwan “homeland”. yin xin takes paintings from the western canon and subjects them to a process of transformation through chinese imagery. in the same period, lin li-ling, transforms the transnational spirit of yin xin to symbolic codes with neutered female bodies and tatoos, thus creates images that challenge the boundaries of both gender and nationality. keywords—body codes, chinese french, diasporic discourse, identity i. introduction "where are you from?", "which country are you from?" these simple words have become conversation starter for two strangers in today’s society. indeed, the advancement of information technology, globalization, and the disappearing of ethnic boundaries make personal identity has become the most vague and essential topic. the situation of transnational economy or globalization of networks as criterion, and the breakthrough of dualistic framework of "center", "marginal" or differentiation of global and local cultures, have caused and re-defined the meaning of global population movement. american scholar aihua ong proposed "flexible citizenship" among chinese in north america. she advocated that the accumulation of capital is caused by the market and the dominance of the field regardless of individuality or politics. when the situation permits, the individual identity of nation has become "flexible" in the globalization setting. such ambiguity removes cultural boundaries, "emergence groups". their personal cultural identity, which is wavering between globalization and localization, prompted the elimination of territory between the relationship of nation and ethnic groups. similarly, many issues arise if the concept is placed in the wen-hui chang, phd candidate, graduate institute of comparative literature, fu jen university.(address: f., no. , minquan st., taishan relationships of chinese-french identity. first of all, can these "flexible citizenships" be regarded as "diaspora”? were they forced to "drift" to a foreign land? or did they take the initiative to move abroad to pursuit their dreams? in fact, scholars have expressed different views of the phenomenon of "diaspora". some views were too loose, leading to over usage of the term, and some ere too conservative and cautious, such as that "diaspora" is limited only to the jewish or african population. therefore, the conception of “diaspora” among chinese-french needs to be defined. however, how do the chinese-french artists look at "themself"? how do they, through painting, reproduce their immigrant identity? how do the memories give meaning to themself? how does the involvement of the body present a new aspect? this paper is intended to use jing-lang hou’s " a duet of life" (hou jing-lang exhibition, ), xin yin’s “metamorphoses” (xin yin exhibition, ), and" mole and tattoo" (lin li-ling exhibition , ), to discuss the portrayal of the body in the paintings. first of all, using the three artists’ "diaspora" status as a starting point for a preliminary discussion of the diasporic process of chinese in france. second, it analyzes how they crossed the east and west boundaries by the representations of "body codes ” which portray their memories, sexuality, national race, and personal identity. finally, the paper will attempt to break the conception of the geographical circle, connecting different parts of the artist's identity; and hopefully the taiwan artists will learn from them and find their own position. ii. re -definition: diasporic discourse and chinese –french study in the western context, the word "diaspora" is a metaphor saying: "a group of entities spread out in all directions" (disperse). it refers to the diaspora phenomenon of the jews before and after the rise of christianity, and the prototype of "diaspora" is exile. exile, often with a derogatory meaning - it is the act of expulsion as a punishment (banishment, exile); it also means self- banishment, or a resistant act of individuals to choose to exile. generally, the modern usage of exile refers to township, taipei county , taiwan (r.o.c). email: vivianne @yahoo.com.tw, @mail.fju.edu.tw.) mieke bal, a structural art history scholar, expressed her view on the definition of codes said: "... that the outcome is meaning, that is functions by way of discrete visible elements called signs to which meanings are attributed; that such attributions of meaning, or interpretations, are regulated by rules, named codes; and that the subject or agent of this attribution, the reader or viewer, is a decisive element in the process "(bal ). wen-hui chang diasporic discourse and body codes: transnational identities in three representative chinese-french artists world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/diasporic-discourse-and-body-codes:transnational-identities-in-three-representative-chinese-french-artists/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / one leaves one’s home country for a long period of time due to the stressful environment. exiling makes the intellectuals live in a mixture of cultures. this challenge makes one feel alienated due to the separation from one’s homeland politics and traditional cultures and the presence. in a sense, exile, following the peripheral, is the remodeling of collective experience. other than the jews, the afro-ethnic group is frequently described as “diaspora”, and they have appealed to use the word “drifter”. colonial leads to regional re-location (replaced placehood), is also a shift (displace), is a relative relationship of the position in space. a post-colonial person has a strong self- consciousness and a sense of loneliness due the ever-changing language of narrative strategy. it is manifested in the cultural roots of anxiety, identity of ruminating, the difference of respect and recognition further exile the spirit. as a person under colonization, especially when creators (writers, artists, etc.) try to regain cultural pride from historical amnesia, colonial trauma, suppression of culture and loss of their mother tongues, their establishment of the text is often a metaphor for reconstruction of the world, in which is from the patchwork of memory and historical trauma is often the theme of the text. as for chinese community and "diaspora", that began with the early chinese immigrants in san francisco when large number of chinese immigrants coming for mining. this group of chinese-americans recorded their homesickness and concerns for their homeland through texts. the writer maxine hong kingston (maxine hong kingston, -)'s "woman warrior" for example, through the context of (contextualization) the special techniques to re-engrave the history of chinese immigrants in black and white, creating the literature of "real". the great- grandfather, in “jinshan warriors”, a symbolic figure who first started the acts, said, " there’s never been the kind of custom ...... that's what we’ve created. we can create custom, because we are the ancestors who have laid the foundation of this land" [ ] ; this "create" the concept of "woman warrior" and has transformed into legendary writing: a text is written by word of mouth of original legends through two ways, "realness" and "imagination". with many tests and challenges in the process of personal growth, appreciating the traditional attitudes and behavior, and leading to the discovery of cultural identity. the nostalgia of chinese-american immigrants, wavered between trueness and realness, which showed a unique style in their literatures. however, over the years, the chinese communities were influenced by the needs and desires of the mainstream culture in the united states. in the mid-nineteenth century, most of american culture portrayed china in the negative light. "exposure to that kind of orientalism, are those who were similar to maxine hong kingston, born and raised in china and united states, able to extricate oneself from the burden of orientalism in the discussion or position of their works?” caught between the united states and china, chinese-american writers were neither chinese writer, nor american writers. facing such a mixture of the plight, scholars termed it as "diaspora literature". therefore, compare to afro- americans, chinese-american's "diasporaness" are more hybridity, meaning that, "in post-colonial hybridity, the diaspora is extremely painful. through a variety of cultural relics and traces to form oneself, hence, the principal is not unified, stable, and the final is always caught in conflict and division, which one is unable to extricate themselves " [ ]. oppositely, the chinese-french has "diasporaness" movement to those chinese americans, the chinese-french mostly initiated the migration to france in order to work or study. in the work of professor shumei shi’s "feminist writing of diaspora culture " which analyzed the raise and development of post-colonial theory, mentioning the borderline culture of non-western diaspora to the center in the twentieth century. it is gradually becoming a perspective of a critique. " in the occasion of post-colonialism in the third world, the focus of colonial cultural critique and criticism has moved outside the united states, thus eliminating the critics of " internal colonization "(internal colonialism), it is necessary for the united states mainstream society to dominate the ethnic minorities "[ ]. the new generation of asian-american scholars, under the influence of globalization and transnational culture, think that diaspora culture is no longer limited to country, and one should look at it as a whole. in a relevant work of minh-ha trinh t., he described the painfulness of diaspora body incisively and vividly: “asian female immigrants in the united states are not only a suppressor in a patriarchal society but also a native in the third world, and so she has initiative ” [ ]. other than in the united states, there is no doubt that the chinese-french has the same emotions of "losing root”. these people were neither insider nor able to return to their home country, but they were not completely considered as an outsider, they were not part of the home country after immigration. this increases insecurity due to moving from places to places that causes material and mental problems and become dynamic sources for artistic creations. therefore, the author in this article will categorize the chinese -french artists in the same "diaspora" group as the chinese -american. iii. the pursuit of art: the chinese french artist’s progress before world war ii, france had been the center of western art, and also the holy land for foreign art students. the chinese students abandoned japan, a “paraphraser” of western art, and chose france. during this period, many people studied in france, including hsun-chin pang, yu chang, yu-liang pan, shu-hung chang, feng-mian lin, bei-hong xu, da-yu wu, and some other well-known artists, who sought through the study of western art to resolve difficulties faced in chinese painting, especially feng-mian lin’s and bei-hong xu’s contributions were the most important in the recent china modern art. in the mid- th century, chinese-french artists, te-chun chu, wu-ji zhao, da-yu wu, ping-ming hsiung, shi-cong fang, and other representatives, were studying painting in france, and constantly studying the essence of western art. they also felt more deeply for the broad chinese culture that reveals the convergence of east and west cultures in their works. in the world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/diasporic-discourse-and-body-codes:transnational-identities-in-three-representative-chinese-french-artists/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / early period, this group of chinese -french painters embraced the dream to study art in france, however, when the war broke out, most of them were forced to stay in france for at least or years. they only could show their homesickness and attachment to home and country through painting their feelings of regret and diaspora on the canvases. in recent years, many chinese -french artists were from taiwan, such as yin-xiong zhang, yuan-heng li, shu-huang yang, are quite famous in the french art community. after taiwan's white terror period, jin- lang hou, because of brain disease, he switched to his left hand to paint his perception of the world, and created a multi-cut style. similar to chen-wang wei’s portrait, ri-wen wu created different type of human faces by making use of large screen space with ink and paint, also he sketched, daubed and cutshis work. shi-zhen liao is a new generation of painter in france. his works include garden series, the four seasons, richness of the sea series, still life series. li-ling lin and bai-rei wang are representatives of taiwan's contemporary chinese -french woman artists. li-ling lin lived in france for years, she focus mainly on western nudity, and her works are fine bold, and unique with her own style. nudity is an important study in the history of western painting, but li-ling lin’s works emit an oriental flavor. unlike li-ling lin’s nudity works, bai-rei wang focus on still life paintings, using western painting techniques. although the contemporary chinese-french artists were not troubled by war, political barriers, differences in intellectual level but many chinese- french artists were forced to stay in france for a long time, even though the country is quite different from the diaspora jewish and the early united states. due to the political diaspora, today' –chinese-french protest with more "free consciousness". using self-diaspora as globalization is frustrating and pragmatic. through the process of diaspora, the chinese -frenc painters have been facing identity and status problems due to influence of east-west artistic skills. the painters develop the perception of alienation and their own bodies. these produce two different levels and judgments of internal and external boundaries, but also identify issues that are beyond body codes. iv. recover images from the memory: jin- lang hou's multi-split most people may not know jin- lang hou, a taiwanese painter, but he is a reputable the scholar and renowned artists in france. as an artist, he is inclined to fauvism and cubism styles, using vivid color to split screen; in academic, he is a researchers of french national scientific research (cnrs), and studied chinese folk religion and chinese painting, at the same time, he also engaged in research works at the french institute of advanced research laboratory (l'ecole pratique des hautes etudes), french national guimet museum (musee guimet), french national library (bibliotheque nationale) and other research institutions; on the level of individual consciousness, although he was in paris, he was actively promoting and participating in taiwan's democracy movement. he experienced the transfer of political power in taiwan after japanese occupation as well as the white terror period following the event of , jin-lang hou witnessed the historical unfortunates in taiwan. he once recalled: " incident, i was ten years old, there were sheep outside that day and i saw five trucks loaded with “taiwanese soldiers” armed with pistol or rifle, the adults of the village were scared, and hide in the nearby sugar cane plantations, only i was not afraid, and ran to see ... ... " [ ]. taiwanese society was in conflict and confusion at that time, jin lang hou was traumatized and had written a poem, "reading the ancient map of taiwan at night" which expresses condolence over taiwan's colonial history. disappointed with taiwan's politics, jin- lang hou decided to study painting in france. just as his careers of research and painting were at the peak, jin lang hou, unfortunately, was diagnosed with brain tumors. after several operations, he was still partially paralyzed, unable to move his right half of his body. he did not give up painting under the torments of the illness. oppositely, he started to learn to use his left hand to paint, and created a "human partition" style. jin- lang hou’s works are mainly portraits, ranging from individual to group portraits. each body can be split into two or three faces with different expressions to convey a person's outer and inner worlds, and he used the color technique, in particular, the contrasting colors highlight the multi-layers of the character and physical. "the human body deformation, since after was a series of brilliant experiment, from the usage of partial cubist cutting structure in the beginning to gradually developed a unique beginning part of the recourse began to deformation of the cutting, after which the body gradually developed a multi-head structure, which symbolized the multi layers of the spiritual content and timing, at the same time, constituted the dynamic activity of space” [ ]. characters in the paintings often reflect the writer's own interpretation of life. for example, the painting of “hospitals” [ ] , has two patients’ heads in the center, visitors chit- chatting on both sides. jin- lang hou practiced the cutting technique of cubist to deform his body by blurring visual perception; he broke away from the traditional cubist cutting technique and innovated his style of multi-body structure with the use of color, giving new life to the human body, so that a group of unrelated visitors appears to be in harmony. “share those concerns” [ ] has a strong vibrant color. mr. yinngde chen has said: men and women dressed in large tracts of dark red and almost black to show contrasts, while the main character on the right side of the work wore a little light yellow and light purple, so the painting is utterly simple and displays unparalleled brilliance ... ... to cubism, fauves deformation and color contrasts, were in his early paintings, but by this time these elements have been infiltrated freely by many artists, which developed a jin-lang hou’s style [ ]. jin-lang hou’s original partition style, not only highlights the painfulness of his disease, but also expresses his homesickness for taiwan through multi-structure technique. in , in his works of “vulnearability of democracy protestors” [ ], “anti-nuclear protest” [ ] …etc, highlighted the people's pursuit for democracy and the struggle with external rebellion world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/diasporic-discourse-and-body-codes:transnational-identities-in-three-representative-chinese-french-artists/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / through physical conflict and the body's double-sided cutting. the previous paintings, the figure dresses in green clothes. his eyes are covered by a pair of hands. in the front, there is a blue arm, suppressing the green clothed character’s right chest. in the center, there appear a few characters with black and white faces. the painter used colors and segmentation to show irony of democracy and it also reflects the artist's ongoing concern and disappointment with taiwan's society. in addition to ridicule politics, jin-lang hou always worried about the situation in his hometown in southern taiwan. “kite- flying” [ ] depicts a mother who takes a little boy to fly kite. it’s a seemingly mundane subject, but it‘s the painter’s favorite activity since childhood. in the painting, the mother also has two faces, one side is a kind face with a faint trace of sadness, gazing the little boy on left side. the other side is the green-brown face with chin slightly up, black eyes, watching viewer helplessly that appears to have the desire to reveal some secret to the viewer. let’s take a look at another painting “the woman who wears caoli” [ ], the woman in the painting seems to be the same as in the previous painting. thin, also wearing a white dress, but through careful observation, there’s another character in black clothes is wearing a purple caoli and standing behind the woman who wears the yellow caoli. the two female characters’ heads and bodies overlapped. the woman who wears the yellow caoli, her body was in the front and her head was in the back, showing only half of the face; on the contrary, the woman who wears the purple caoli, her head is leaning forward and divided into two sides, while her body is in the back. the screen presents three split faces. the brightest face is on the left, the darkest face in the middle. the painter used dark red to highlight a down expression. however, the face on the left and right sides looks at the viewers with one eye, so the viewers could feel inexplicable sadness from two sorrowful eyes. such "gaze", based on the mental analysis is a way to build self-identity, through "recognition of “he” or “she” who were being stared at" to understand that oneself may have been followed, and this has become part of self -identity. lacan (jacques lacan), using the “mirror” point of view, explained that the self in the mirror cannot mediate self- division but only able to see their own self through “others”. therefore, “gazing” brought out “i”, and self named “male” or “female”, that is the “main body” or the “self”. these subjects could include “gazing” or “re- emergence of the main body” [ ]. jin-lang hou combined eye gazes, character segmentation, time and space. the dark side is of him in the innermost world, his experience of illness, and his homesickness for his hometown: the bright side is his external self, what everyone could, and what his desire to present to others. the contradiction between a positive and negative, the cross- usage of color and structure, jin-lang hou was able to connect memory with reality. his taiwan childhood memories and his time spent lyinng in his hospital bed in france were in two different regions, times and spaces, which condensed in his paintings, for example, “artist and childhood playmates” [ ]. the artist is split into half from head to toe. everyone could see his enjoyment of his childhood as his left face is blue green color with bright yellow clothing and an innocent white lamb is in the lower left corner; in contrast, his true self was suffering from the pain as a foreigner is shown on his right red face with closed eyes, clenched lips, and dark yellow clothing. in his self- portrai “the blue memory” [ ], one can discover his past was dark left part when he was mobile, and that’s what he remembered of himself. however, the immobile right side was what others see, the real him lyinng in the hospital in france. jean-paul desroches, the director of the french ministry of cultural heritage stones, thought that: "... ... but he insisted these memories associated with today's fight, faces were split into two parts, faces were repeated several times, he drew figures often with stiffed and crooked right forearm like himself. he even wore white clothing in self-portraits, painting himself standing with the same right arm paralyzed. in this, he has no doubt for his existence ... ... "[ ] . “the death and life” [ ], which was his memories of . at that time, he was experiencing the risk of post-operation period. he was uncertain about his life, thus he expressed the complexity of internal and external emotions by changing the human body, from the top to bottom, into multiple or double deformation. showing more faces is a way to reveal family's anxiety and waiting, and the helplessness reality and past nostalgia. past / present, memory / reality, taiwan / france, a bizarre juxtaposition, all condensed in the canvas to reproduce his double "flexible" identities. paralyzed, he cannot move freely. he expressed his attachment to taiwan through paintings. at the same time, he reflected his existence through characters and color partition, combining "diaspora" with dark colors. then, using eye gazes "tell" the viewers his most profound words. v. variations of the human body: xin yin’s painting of deformation jin-lang hou’s unique splitting style of the human body emphasizes the double identity issue by contrasting internal / external and past / present self through the deformation of character and usage of color. in the paintings of xin yin, a chinese- french painter, show such an intense and conflicted dualistic identification model. similar to jin-lang hou’s diaspora political background, xin yin, in xinchieng, china, amended the western painting skills and “transforms” a western character into an asian, so the asian characters and western background will co-exist in painting. jin-lang hou’s "distortion" is segmentation of the human body. on the other hand, xin yin expresses multiple identities through displacement of body parts. he deliberately arranges the body codes in a strange way, and uses the incompatibility of "deformation" to change to another heterogeneous space. xin yin was born in xinchieng, kashigeer. in , he admitted to the department of xi'an academy of fine arts and, after graduation she started to teach in the xinchieng arts institute. he went to australia in to study at royal melbourne institute of technology university (rmit). in , he moved to france and has been living since then. xin yin grew up in china but also lived in australia and france for a while. he was able to create art concepts by appreciating world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/diasporic-discourse-and-body-codes:transnational-identities-in-three-representative-chinese-french-artists/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / western art with his chinese perspectives as he was under the influence of different cultures and religious beliefs, and he was very cheerful and tolerant. xin yin studied th and th century traditional painting for years, and was fascinated by the fusion of chinese and western cultures, which were brought by policies opening to the outside world in the chinese history. the above two factors were key to arouse his unrestrained and never-ending ideas. his "mita mofo si" exhibition is "metamorphoses" in french, meaning deformation, metamorphism. he had been having the idea for more than years. he bought a number of nineteenth-century paintings from the antique and flea market in europe. these paintings were dilapidated due to poor preservation, therefore, he thought of adding new elements at restoration, enabling the ancient works to come alive again. xin yin mainly picked up nineteenth century paintings centering the lifestyles, portraits, and romantic with rococ classicism styles of religion, nobility and high society themes. in the re-creation process, xin yin has also chosen chinese characters and scenery in the nineteenth century. the nineteenth century, during the late qing dynasty, china opened the door to western trade and western culture was introduced to china. it was the moment of intersection and collisions of chinese and western cultures. during this period, chinese people began to do oil painting. the early chinese oil painters were selling their oil paintings abroad, while western oil painters were painting oriental theme during this period, therefore, xin yin deliberately kept the works with the atmosphere of commerce in china’s late qing dynasty. these works not only appears to be like a western painter’s painting a chinese theme but also liked like a chinese painter’s painting that was traded to foreign land. xin yin made use of his skilful painting techniques to transform ancient paintings. he would scrape off some oil paint, and then he carefully painted his ideas by adding embellishment and also cautiously repairing the artwork. the process blends the old and new elements together. sometimes, he gives the figure a face-lift, sometimes he changes the character’s clothing into chinese style clothes. through different body codes and under xin yin’s transformation, napoleon iii has become the last emperor pu yin in the “emperor” [ ]; french heroine has become china's heroine xiu-yinng zhou in the “knife meet - xiu-yinng zhou” [ ] ; ambassador's wife's lace collar has become a the traditional chinese traditional qi pao in the “ambassador's wife” [ ] ; virgin mary has turned into a rural chinese woman in the “mary” [ ]. his work “mother and child” [ ] reflects gentle and obedient chinese women's personality and boundless maternal as the chinese women is looking down at the quiet and peaceful child in her arms. the pure black background and a strong brightness contrast seem to celebrate the great maternal love, enveloping the entire works in a sacred atmosphere. xin yin wrote "mother and child" in the upper corner of the painting to highlight the relationship between the people; “the last supper” [ ]is an imitation folk art that is transformed into a gathering among the chinese women which plays down its religious overtones; there is a female portrait painted copy “women dressed in black” [ ]. another xin yin’s work is “the lost colonel” [ ]. the original painting is a french officer, wearing a feathered cap, a saint-cyr uniform with badges of legion of honor and st. louis emblem on his chest. xin yin selectively changed the background of the painting into beijing's ancient buildings, but he didn't change the character’s face and expression of the character. he retained the lost expression of the original character- his eyes make us reminisced grief, guilt and helplessness brought about by aggression. courbert of french fine arts museum commented, "he catered to the late painter’s performance in the subject... crossing space and time, the works came into contact were alive again. this life, he made the works become chinese, with deep and sharp feelings without losing humor. he adjusted according to the character’s clothing and surviving attitude. under his transformation, everyone get to live again... " [ ]. as a xinchieng and french- chinese, xin yin made use of changing old paintings method to transform conflicted east- west theme into oriental nature, so all the western ancient paintings are reborn in the east, also he put the essence of a “diaspora” chinese artist into practice. if compare western original work with xin yin’s work, one will find differences and similarities between chinese and western cultures. however, every old painting, after transforming by xin yinn, the original work no longer exists, and this is why xin yin’s works are so controversial. most of these paintings came from anonymous painters, even though some works have signature, but it’s very difficult to find their identity; there were also some copy paintings that were placed on the shelves of antique markets. some art critics thought that xin yin rescued these abandoned and neglected works; but other suggested that it’s disrespectful and embezzling to make changes on other artists’ works. moreover, these nineteenth century paintings were of historical significance. it is sad to lose them, just like the modern artist marcel duchamp added beard on the "mona lisa smile," even it was only on an imitation. however, as the ancient art historian louise d'argencour assessed on xin yin’s works, "although the content is personal, spreading expressive modern attitude, but xin yinn's work is deeply rooted in his country's tradition" [ ]. xin yin uses a variety of body codes to instill oriental perspectives to western artworks to reproduce traditional chinese images. it also shows his diaspora identity in a subtle way. vi. codes for body creation: li-ling lin's cross-gender technique jin-lang hou applies melancholy, dark eyes to gaze at the viewers; xin yin employs deformation of ancient paintings mode to infuse east and west elements, such visual communication can found in chinese -french painter, li-ling lin, who uses cross- gender point of view change into strong body codes. in comparison to xin yin’s border origin and jin- lang hou’s experience of taiwan reformation period, li-ling lin was born in and lived in france for nearly years. she, an enthusiastic native born, grew up in tainan county and went to france to pursue the emancipation of painting. unlike world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/diasporic-discourse-and-body-codes:transnational-identities-in-three-representative-chinese-french-artists/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / jin-lang hou’s immobility and political stance of "diaspora", li-ling lin is more in line with the aforementioned "free consciousness" diaspora. she is a practitioner of "flexible citizens" who has lived in france as taiwan- chinese and separated from her homeland for a long time. her works are nothing more than the bodies of asians and her style is bold but shy and mysterious at the same time. she combined the symbolic tattoos of the east with nudity of the west on a human body. she injected oriental elements by the use of body codes (tattoos, moles, buddha bead, etc.) to make her works with unique oriental flavor. meanwhile, she focused her creations on western nude painting while she was receiving art education in france. under the influence of western arts, her paintings impacted the viewer mentally and emotionally. hence, she becomes the system maker for dual “diaspora” identities restrained. in li-ling lin’s "mole and tattoo" series of works, all the characters have single- eichhornia, thin eyebrows except the male characters have a slightly bushier eyebrows. you can clearly see the character differences in “red beads ” and “white dragon. majority of li-ling lin’s characters have modern short chinese black hair differ from the traditional bun, except “girls”, is the only painting consists of female with long hair. yet, she painted the characters with straight black hair, instead of painting them with westerner’s blonde curly hair. moreover, the male and some female characters wear the traditional hairstyle called the “suit hairstyle" that is styled by parting the hair into sections. such traditional hairstyle could be seen in “phoenix tattoos” and “green silk scarf”. li-ling lin may appear to look like a typical chinese, but in fact she is rebellion against the tradition. she used the "neutral" posture of a woman to challenge the male-dominated traditional society. regardless of nature differences or social construction, women have been attached to male art history. qian-hui gao, while analyzing latin american female artists, mentioned: "where there is no equality in education, the development of female artists almost relies on the opposite sex for enlightenment. it’s not that there is no great female artists in the history, but for a longest time, there is no to accommodation for female artists to develop their skills" [ ]. yin- ren hou, in the article of "turn to the other side of the art history – the need and significance of taiwan’s art development for female artist", disclosed: "before feminism, women often have to stand in neutral and create non-feminine works, hoping to survive in the men’s society " [ ]. taiwan's economic take-off since the s, the art market has gradually become more active. in s, there’s a dramatic increase of young women engaged to becoming professional artists. their styles break away from the feminine “lady art” and head towards the development of a wide range of personal character. li-ling lin adopted "neutral" female nude painting to criticize the masculine male-dominated society. the women in her paintings are less gentle and the li- ling lin’s paintings, that were mentioned in this article were from the art album “mole and tattoos” and were not coded because there is no label of code on the album. graceful: “fullness”, a picture of fat body, “tiger tattoos” consists of deformed and bloated fingers, and many of her artworks include moles on white etc… art critic, hsun chiang commented on li-ling lin's works: "... ... however, li-ling’s nude paintings are very oriental. the characters have single eyelid with hanging eyes that were innocent yet luring. the mole on the white skin is to show the immovable mistakes, like it is a witness of one’s crime (hsun chiang art album)”. li-ling lin deliberately highlighted the above shortcomings and broke the chinese traditions of female "perfect" image, showing the desire and pursuit of western "freedom of consciousness". li-ling lin’s works express western "sense of freedom" in the oriental appearance. other than revealing imperfect female body, the “invisible clothes” in addition to reproduction in the female body is not perfect, their nude paintings in the "invisible clothes" - moles, tattoos and other marks which actually carry her memories in taiwan and her life which she collides with the western culture in france. "recently, when i was in studio by the seine, using the most thorough western techniques and injecting passion in the important subject of western painting history: being naked, i couldn’t help to think about friends from taiwan two decades ago, the beautiful body, and the mysterious and seductive body of moles and tattoos " [ ]. if one takes a closer look at the artwork, there’s only one main naked character in the painting. the character, on one hand, appears seductively, on the other hand, gazes at the viewers. regardless of any actions or eye contacts, all of them points towards the body "codes". these codes of the body, the paintings of the core issues for the li-ling lin, in the same series of nude paintings, her tattoos with a different mark, as the title of each piece of art in order to suggestive symbols, emphasized her multiple identities. first, “dragon tattoos - ” depicts a oriental woman with a red long dragon tattoo printed from her right chest to her right thigh; “dragon tattoo - ” depicts an oriental man has a green dragon tattoo printed from his left shoulder to his left arm, and he has peony flower tattoo on right thigh. "dragon" is the symbol of imperial and men’s authority. two of same title of li-ling lin’s paintings, a man and a woman have "dragon tattoo" on them. the contrasting of the body sides and the color of the tattoos echoed gender equality. traditional weak women were tattooed with "dragon", the authority imprint; the same time, western nude painting often stippling codes with strong "oriental "meaning. such painting technique and artist memory of taiwan inspired the infusion of works. similar tattoo technique was showed in the “phoenix tattoos” and “tiger tattoos” that present irony. the former painting, the male has a flying phoenix on his left side of the body; the latter painting, the female has a ferocious tiger on her right shoulder. "phoenix" represents woman in chinese tradition, and "tiger" has the meaning of masculinity. the codes were oppositely imprinted on the man’s and the woman’s body. this broke away from the traditional gender framework through staggering of body codes to illustrate the artist’s cross-gender perspective. the master of western feminism, bell hooks once said: "to those who were oppressed, exploited and colonized, it is important for them to interpret marginal as the position and location of resistance. if world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/diasporic-discourse-and-body-codes:transnational-identities-in-three-representative-chinese-french-artists/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / we only consider the edge as a despair symbol, then, the nihilism will destruct the foundation of our existence. in this despair, our creativity, our imaginations are at stake, our hearts are completely colonized, and our desires for freedom are lost" [ ]. li-ling lin, didn't rejects the western influence fully, started at the foundation of western painting to fight for woman’s right to speak in taiwan. at the same time, she used dragon, phoenix and tiger tattoos, with the buddha beads worn by the woman in “red beads”, the scarf worn by the woman in “green silk scarf”, the "protective shield" worn by the aboriginal woman and other body codes that carried past memories, the body codes. all of these tell the story about the oriental woman’s hometown. li-ling lin mentioned in the foreword of her art album: "i have left taiwan for years and drawn in paris for more than ten years. the conflicted themes in my paintings were like having a chinese identity in the western world. the situation was embarrassed and complex, always in different directions, and tough to intercept each other" [ ]. as a french- taiwanese female artist, li-ling lin does not confine herself to a single identity of taiwan. each asian faces on the canvas revealed the pursuit of western freedom. she transcends traditional concept of women by revealing women’s imperfections like curvy body and moles. in the mid of rebelling traditional gender concept, she express her memory of hometown, taiwan through the use of symbolic animal tattoos and accessories. li-ling lin combined western painting brush strokes with oriental body symbols to show the interception of france and taiwan “diaspora” and create the most “flexible” model in her unique statement. some said that in the men’s dominated art world, taiwan women are unwilling to indulge in the social framework to multiple, but to use "flexibility" method to integrate of portraits of the west and image of the east that define one’s value and status. viii. where my home is: implementation and practice of "flexible" status jin-lang hou, xin yin and li-ling lin are three chinese-french artists who have not been through the baptism of french art. like other overseas chinese artists, they were constantly looking for a place to settle down. because of politics, jin- lang hou and xin yin drifted to france respectively. they employed the "deformed" body codes to express their dual identity. the former artist applied his memory of taiwan, segmented human body, combined dark with bright colors, contrasted the present mental state from the past mental state, and utilized eye gazes to convey his inner self; the latter artist, also practiced body deformation, changed western character’s look of the original work to chinese single- eichhornia, straight black hair, flat nose, and adopted body codes replacement, so the east and west cultures coexist at the same time. to extend jin-lang hou and xin yin’s concept of body deformation, li-ling lin, a female painter from taiwan, through another kind of "cross-gender" perspective, transformed traditional women's thin body into voluptuous, “neutral” body. li-ling lin made use of exposing woman’s imperfection: a mole on silky white skin and layers of fat around the waist, so to get rid the oriental tradition of ladylike by applying western perspective to the gender inequality society. however, the imperfection of the body is not confined to criticism of the traditional concepts, li-ling lin painted tattoos of symbolic figures like dragon, phoenix, tigers, with oriental ornaments in western nude artwork to strengthen the oriental imagery codes. at the same time, her distinctive method of cross- gender (male has phoenix tattoo, female has tiger tattoo) that escapes from the conventional framework to express cross- border painting through her french/taiwan diaspora identity. "people use culture to define themselves. it will change according to “the demands of individual and social groups” in a post-modern world, cross-cultural channel will be an important tool"[ ]. the three chinese-french artist learn from their diaspora experiences. they began from the relationship of self and other characters portraits to mastering the body codes- eyes, hair, tattoos, moles and outlining the "other" out of "him". regardless the maturity of vocabulary of different characters, they were still able to reflect the reality through their oriental self-reflection. "globalization should not be regarded as a homogenization practice of different cultures, but it is a combination of different strategies, with its own plan and purpose. hence, it is so full of contradictions and conflicts" [ ]. under the influence of western culture, the three chinese-french artists were able to use multiple perspectives to explain the meaning of alien paintings, cross territory and space, showing inclusive segmentation, deformation screen, and cross-gender misplaced symbols, to validate the "flexible" identity under globalization. he reflected true self through the diaspora society (jin-lang hou), she attempted to breakthrough gender stereotype (li-ling lin), or his imaginary works echoed to him (xin yin). the three artists begin to appear and identify self, through painting, to describe their past experience while the image of the symbol is a portrayal of returning to self and it further provides an open space for dialogue. references [ ] bal mieke, generations and geographies in the visual arts: feminist readings. london: routledge, . [ ] chien ying-ying, identity, difference, subjectivity. taipei: new century, pp. - , 簡瑛瑛編。 《認同、差異、主體性》。 台北：立緒， ，pp. - 。 [ ] fu juan. <patrimoine of the age>. chung-wai literary monthly. : = , pp. . 傅雋。<現在的遺產：奈波爾與全球化>。中外文學 : = (民 . ), pp. 。 [ ] gao qian-hui, <lonly maze>. lion art, , pp. .高千惠。<孤獨的迷 宮-拉丁美洲女性藝術家的鏡像>。«雄獅美術»，第 期，pp. 。 [ ] gu yan-ling, canon on feminism. taipei: women culture, , pp. , .顧燕翎。«女性主義經典»。台北：女書文化， 。 ，pp. 。 [ ] hou jing-lang, a duet of life:hou jing-lang exhibition. taipei: national history museum, , pp. - , - , - , , , , , , , , , . 侯錦郎。«生命二重奏-旅法畫家侯錦郎紀 念展»。台北：國立歷史博物館， ，pp. - , - , - , , , , , , , , , 。 world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/diasporic-discourse-and-body-codes:transnational-identities-in-three-representative-chinese-french-artists/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / [ ] hou yin-ren, <turn on the new page of art history>. lion art, , pp. . 侯宜人。<翻開藝術史的另一面-女性藝術在台灣發展的意義和必要性 >。«雄獅美術»，第 期，pp. 。 [ ] lin li-ling, mole and tattoo: lin li-ling exhibition. taipei: boss art gallery , . 林麗玲。«黑痣與刺青畫集»。台北：東家畫廊， 。 [ ] maxine hong-kingston, the woman warrior. london:vintage, , pp. . [ ] nicholas mirzoeff., an introduction to visual culture. london: routledge , , pp. , , [ ] yin xin, metamorphoses: xin yin exhibition, shanhai: shanhai art museum, , pp. , , , , , , , , - , - 。 尹 欣 。 « 美 達 摩 佛 斯 » 。 上 海 ： 上 海 美 術 館 ， ， pp. , , , , , , , , - , - 。. world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/diasporic-discourse-and-body-codes:transnational-identities-in-three-representative-chinese-french-artists/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / contents a editorial board a highlights of this issue editorials interconnected or disconnected? promotion of mental health and prevention of mental disorder in the digital age j. f. hayes, d. l. maughan and h. grant-peterkin psychotherapies should be assessed for both benefit and harm j. scott and a. h. young iatrogenic harm from psychological therapies – time to move on g. d. parry, m. j. crawford and c. duggan the babadook – psychiatry in the movies jayesh busgeet review articles psychological interventions for adults with bipolar disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis m. oud, e. mayo-wilson, r. braidwood, p. schulte, s. h. jones, r. morriss, r. kupka, p. cuijpers and t. kendall from greek tragedy to a psychiatry lexicon – in words john h. m. crichton anxiety and new onset of cardiovascular disease: critical review and meta-analysis n. m. batelaan, a. seldenrijk, m. bot, a. j. l. m. van balkom and b. w. j. h. penninx papers premature mortality in autism spectrum disorder t. hirvikoski, e. mittendorfer-rutz, m. boman, h. larsson, p. lichtenstein and s. bölte differences in cancer stage, treatment and in-hospital mortality between patients with and without schizophrenia: retrospective matched-pair cohort study h. ishikawa, h. yasunaga, h. matsui, k. fushimi and n. kawakami the effect of experimentally induced sedentariness on mood and psychobiological responses to mental stress r. endrighi, a. steptoe and m. hamer the effect of flexible cognitive–behavioural therapy and medical treatment, including antidepressants on post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in traumatised refugees: pragmatic randomised controlled clinical trial c. b. buhmann, m. nordentoft, m. ekstroem, j. carlsson and e. lykke mortensen patient experience of negative effects of psychological treatment: results of a national survey m. j. crawford, l. thana, l. farquharson, l. palmer, e. hancock, p. bassett, j. clarke and g. d. parry night visit – poems by doctors ann lilian jay evaluation of cumulative cognitive deficits from electro- convulsive therapy g. g. kirov, l. owen, h. ballard, a. leighton, k. hannigan, d. llewellyn, v. escott-price and m. atkins comparison of antidepressant classes and the risk and time course of suicide attempts in adults: propensity matched, retrospective cohort study r. j. valuck, a. m. libby, h. d. anderson, r. r. allen, i. strombom, l. b. marangell and d. perahia mechanical ventilation as an indicator of somatic severity of self-poisoning: implications for psychiatric care and long-term outcomes e. baer, c. barré, c. fleury, c. de montchenu, j.-b. garré, n. lerolle and b. gohier needs and fears of young people presenting at accident and emergency department following an act of self-harm: secondary analysis of qualitative data c. owens, l. hansford, s. sharkey and t. ford an th-century view of demonomania. : vampirism – introduction – psychiatry in history fiona subotsky substance misuse in life and death in a -year cohort of suicides k. galway, d. gossrau-breen, s. mallon, l. hughes, m. rosato, j. rondon-sulbaran and g. leavey columns correspondence contents of bjpsych advances ten books . . . chosen by iain mcclure book reviews contents of the american journal of psychiatry kaleidoscope from the editor’s desk cover picture portrait of cathy with a cat (c. ) by stanley lench ( – ) stanley lench taught himself to paint as a teenager and excelled, holding an exhibition at the beaux art gallery in london in that helped him secure a place in the stained glass department of the royal college of art. inspired by ancient cultures, cubism and the stars of silent film, lench studied during the emergence of pop art, from to . after graduating from the royal college of art, lench enjoyed some commercial success, selling work to dame edith sitwell, and a portrait of actress pola negri to the museum of modern art, new york. throughout his career, lench experienced periods of great artistic creativity interspersed with periods of introspection and seclusion, and was treated on a number of occasions at bethlem royal hospital and the maudsley hospital. lench worried about his career as an artist, and felt rejected by the art world he continued to support through frequenting exhibitions and later working at the tate. despite concerns about his career, lench succeeded in forging a strong aesthetic and thematic style that was grounded in art history and bound up in his own interests and ideas. in doing this, lench left a collection of artwork for posterity that is both beautiful and didactic. image: stanley lench b bethlem museum of the mind. we are always looking for interesting and visually appealing images for the cover of the journal and would welcome suggestions or pictures, which should be sent to dr allan beveridge, british journal of psychiatry, prescot street, london e bb, uk or bjp@rcpsych.ac.uk. march vol no a downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core ica-template-v art and cartography as a critique of borders daniel melo ribeiroa a communication and semiotics, pontifical catholic university of são paulo, brazil. danielmeloribeiro@gmail.com abstract: this study focuses on the relationship between art and cartography. the main objective is to analyze how contemporary art uses maps to criticize borders. inspired by the arguments raised by the critical cartography against the false neutrality of maps, we emphasize the potential of artworks to communicate different insights about how we experience and live the contemporary space. in that sense, art plays an important role not only to discuss the articulation of power and knowledge in cartography, but also to propose other categories of thought. considering that borders are one of the most relevant visual elements on a map, we propose the following question: how the intersection between art and cartography can improve the critical thinking about borders? by questioning borders, art underlines that physical world is characterized by liminal spaces, not by absolute or strict separations. we briefly analyzed some examples of artworks that deal with political issues regarding this topic. our findings suggest that art could reveal the impact of imposing borders in a space, whose arbitrary delimitation reflects power relations. keywords: cartography, borders, liminal spaces, threshold, art . introduction “the border was all in my mind” (popescu , ix). in a certain regard, borders are contradictory. they are one of the most visible elements on a map: through these lines, readers can easily identify countries and states. in that sense, borders are essential to put some order in a space. on the other hand, the real space is naturally borderless. it is common to physically cross some borders with-out noticing any particular explicit division. however, we know that borders are real: if it is indicated on a map, the border must be there. when it comes to globalization, the contradiction of borders appears more clearly. mobility and telecommunication supposedly could trespass these separations, shortening distances and connecting places. nevertheless, it seems that contemporary society does not wish to remove borders. instead, even more separations between places are being erected: walls, surveillance apparatus, passports, immigration rules. and all these strategies are mostly unequally applied, according to political and economic interests. thus, borders are conventions. they are social constructions that reflect power relations. borders do not represent a natural division of spaces, but a political rule that artificially imposes separation in a space that was originally more fluid. therefore, borders are able to change our own perception of the space, creating places instead of just representing them. from that perspective, borders and maps communicate and attest these conventions. historically, maps are recognized as an effective communication device that consolidate (or contest) power relations. for example, supported by scientific cartography standards, maps became instruments of national states. however, the power of maps can be challenged. in the hands of contemporary artists, maps are being completely distorted, an attitude that stimulates a critical thinking about the role of the cartography. considering this artistic approach against carto-graphic conventions, it is more evident that maps are not neutral: there are always implicit intentions behind maps. besides that, the distortion of maps for aesthetic purposes could reveal other perspectives of the space, particularly the way we perceive borders. therefore, this idea leads to the main question of this study: how the intersection be-tween art and cartography can improve the critical thinking about borders? in order to understand how contemporary artworks could stimulate a critical approach about borders, it is essential to remember some basic points about the critical cartography. it is also relevant to mention how the critical cartography sees art as an encouraging field to propose alternative points of view about the space. by questioning borders, we suggest that art shows that physical world is characterized by liminal spaces, not by absolute or strict separations. with regard to liminal spaces, there will be recovered some thoughts about the notion of thresholds, a concept that was developed by walter benjamin. anticipating some characteristics of the postmodernism, benjamin alerted, in the first decades of the th century, that our society are becoming poor in threshold experiences. this means that areas of transition are being overcome by rigorous separations. however, liminal spaces could reveal interesting features about our relation with spaces. they represent a kind of resistance against the authority of borders. therefore, the main objective of this study is to analyze how contemporary art uses maps to criticize borders. for that, there will be investigated some artworks. recovering critical cartography investigations to support discussions about borders in arts, this study also raise questions about the arbitrary delimitation of spaces that proceedings of the international cartographic association, , . this contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/ . /ica-proc- - - | © authors . cc by . license. of are other-wise composed by diversity, power relations and conflict. . the critical cartography: alternative ways of mapping spaces in the context of the debates raised both by the postmodernity (jameson ; harvey ) and the spatial turn (soja ), a group of geographers began to question the apparent neutrality of the scientific cartography. these authors wanted to rethink the mapping activity, both from a professional and an academic point of view. this movement is known as the critical cartography and the main researchers associated with this trend are j. b. harley, denis wood, jeremy crampton, john pickles, among others. according to harley ( ), the scientific cartography assumes that spatial reality could be represented in mathematical terms. implicit in this assumption, there is the notion of a cartographical truth, which could only be achieved by empirical observation and measurement. under these circumstances, the map is considered an instrument that claims a rigorous correspondence with the territory. the cartographer becomes a technician who strives to develop an increasingly "neutral" interface based on strict conventions. from this perspective, the map seeks to communicate geographical aspects accurately, such a road or a border for example. therefore, the scientific cartography emphasizes functional aspects of the map, its reliability and its effectiveness. however, the main argument of the critical cartographers is that maps are not neutral. in fact, maps are far from being a transparent window to the world. harley advises that every map must be interpreted as a political discourse that imposes a certain construction of the reality, expressing relations of power and cultural values. like any other document, maps are full of intentions and propositions. accordingly, they should not be understood as a plain re-flection of the territory, but rather as a kind of socially constructed image that refracts a certain point of view. therefore, a critical approach of the cartography recognizes that a map - a visual communication device created by men to give meaning to the world - will never be able to neutrally represent reality. in that sense, maps are intentionally rhetorical. this discursive characteristic of maps also make them a powerful vehicle for transferring authority over territory (wood ). an example of how power relations are expressed in maps can be found in the way cartography have been historically exploited by state authorities as instruments of nationalism. particularly in the context of the colonialism, maps were broadly used to legitimate imperial conquests, as well as to claim borders and possession over disputed lands (harley ; pickles ). thus, revealing such power relations behind maps constitutes an essential step to criticize cartography. but, what does the notion of criticism exactly mean in the critical cartography? according to crampton ( ), the original sense of the concept refers to philosophy. supported by foucault, kant, and other philosophers from the frankfurt school, crampton emphasizes that criticism is not a deliberate attempt to find a fault in an argument and neither a disapproving judgment. instead, the criticism is an examination of premises and foundations of a certain field of knowledge. it is a philosophical approach that, from a historical perspective, investigates the relation-ship between power and knowledge. “in other words, critique is a political practice of questioning and resisting what we know in order to open up ways of knowing” (crampton , ). considering this philosophical ground, it becomes clear how the critical cartography reviews the nature of maps. mapping is not a simple reflection of the spatial reality, but a way of producing knowledge. under this perspective, some questions regarding maps could be proposed, such as: what criteria define a map as right or wrong? who classifies maps as good or bad? what authority has been assigned to these people to judge maps? are there other map-ping strategies? what would these alternative mapping strategies review? this critical attitude towards maps helps to disclose the relations of power embedded in the scientific cartography. it also encourages the creation of alternative ways of mapping space, embracing non-western and non-traditional mapping practices. among these different mapping practices, this study focus on the alternative perspectives provided by arts. we support the idea that contemporary art plays an important role not only to discuss the relationship between power and knowledge in cartography, but also to propose other categories of thought. . art and cartography: a critical approach towards mapping from the early decades of the th century, the contemporary art turned into an appealing field to criticize standards and conventions in society. artistic movements such as surrealism, dadaism and cubism assumed a political attitude, based on a radical disruption with the traditional artistic values, an approach that definitely changed the meaning of art in the following years. these artistic movements deeply influenced artists to create new practices of map art. according to denis wood ( ), the creative power of maps was inspired by techniques of collages and montages promoted both by dada-ism and surrealism. since then, artists began to extensively use maps and cartographic elements. employing several techniques like painting, sculpture, engraving, photography, collage, drawing, performance and installation, these artists play with maps in a prolific way: cutting it, folding it, burning it, wearing it or even tattooing it (harmon & clemans ). one of the most significant impacts of map art is the explicit message against the false neutrality of the formal cartography. accentuating aesthetic purposes, artists clearly distort cartographic conventions. paul Éluard’s le monde au temps des surréalistes and joaquín torres proceedings of the international cartographic association, , . this contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/ . /ica-proc- - - | © authors . cc by . license. of garcía’s américa invertida are examples of artworks that question cartographic standards. playing with scales and inverting traditional orientations, these maps encourage a political reading about society. therefore, this study emphasizes the potential of artworks to communicate different insights about how we experience and live the contemporary society. since art does not fit into the constraints of the formal disciplines such as cartography, it could suggest other mapping practices, expanding our understanding about space. from this perspective, we propose that art can be a provocative strategy to criticize cartography. particularly, we will focus on the following question: how the intersection between art and cartography can improve the critical thinking about borders? but, before that, it is important to mention what border is, as well as its relationship with maps. . border: an arbitrary line in a map among several map properties, there is a crucial visual element: the representation of borders, understood here as an arbitrary delimitation of a certain space. according to popescu ( ), borders are usually conceived as lines that set up limits on a space, carrying a sense of division or separation. borders are essential to attribute a practical meaning to spaces. “borders are discontinuities in space that render space meaningful by compartmentalizing it in- to distinctive units” (popescu , ). however, such strict division is not natural: borders are rules that artificially establish a way of controlling movement in space. in general, the creation of borders are based on political decisions, often involving tensions and power dispute. it is a procedure that inscribes a clear difference in space, a traditional instrument of ordering society. in that sense, borders are historically defined to “mediate between the familiar of here and the unfamiliar of there” (popescu , ). a border regulates what should come and go, as well as who is part of my group, and who is either a stranger or an outsider. borders are conventions that must be clearly communicated to avoid unintended transgression. therefore, borders are also discourses: they must be constantly reinforced, in order to keep their message strong. although borders could be visually identified using different strategies - such a wall, a fence, a sign, a checkpoint, a national flag, a police booth, a bridge - the way a border is clearer expressed is through a line in a map. when it comes to national affairs, maps are certainly one of the most powerful ways of imposing borders over a territory. as we mentioned, a map does not simply reproduces the world: it builds and naturalizes certain cultural achievements. it is through maps that national borders are born (carou, ). essentially, borders are also lines. according to pickles ( , ), “the drawing of lines is a fundamentally geo- graphical and spatial act”. lines are the basic principle behind cartography: drawing and interpreting them constitutes a fundamental skill that creates and domesticates the world, originating more complex categories of thought, such as classifications, hierarchies and taxonomies. in that sense, lines in a map also contribute to create identities and a sense of belonging. “we have lived within the lines we have traced and been made the subjects we have be-come.” (pickles , ). however, people’s perception of the real space could not exactly correspond to this rigid definition. a line in a map creates a dichotomic separation that could be totally distinct of a physical experience of crossing a border. although some borders could correspond to more obvious physical delimitation such rivers or mountains, it does not exclude the existence of liminal spaces (carou ), or spaces of transition. . liminal spaces, threshold experiences some concepts could be used to define spaces of transition that lies between borders. for example, the notion of borderlands “reveal a more gradual transition in space from one state territory to another, rather than a sharp and swift encounter as border lines would have it” (popescu , ). according to popescu, borderlands does not correspond to abstract spaces: in contrast with borders, borderlands are places where people could live, blurring the artificial sense of separation. as examples of borderlands, popescu mentions some parts of the us- mexico frontier and pakistan’s northwest territories. the concept of frontier also assumes a particular meaning. it suggests contact, a sort of physical touch that could allow some communication between two entities. from a geopolitical perspective, frontiers “incorporated a significant mixture of populations and cultures, were loosely controlled by their political centers, and provided a gradual transition from one state to another” (popescu , ). according to carou ( ), the concept of frontier could also be interpreted as a synonym of borderlands: an area in which some communities interpenetrate mutually, share experiences and have frequent contacts. apart from this geopolitical perspective, the topic of liminal spaces also instigated a philosophical criticism. for example, walter benjamin - a german philosopher - contrasted the concepts of border and threshold. as we mentioned, the notion of border claims a clear delimitation of space, frequently imposed by arbitrary rules which cannot be illegally trespassed. on the other hand, the notion of threshold not only indicates the separation of two ambiences, but also includes aspects of transition, gradual change, movement. therefore, this is a concept that connects space and time, allowing a transition between two points, experiencing limits, testing forces, leaving the comfort zone, risking new approaches. this interpretation of threshold can be used as a metaphor to describe walter benjamin’s critical thought: a philosopher who dared to support the experience of uncertainty and deviation (barrento , gagnebin ). benjamin suggests that “we have grown very poor in threshold experiences” (benjamin & tiedemann , ). in this fragment, benjamin says that “transitions are becoming even more unrecognizable and impossible to proceedings of the international cartographic association, , . this contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/ . /ica-proc- - - | © authors . cc by . license. of experience in modern life” (ibid., ). focusing on small and despised features of the society that lies in thresholds, benjamin indicates his own research method: the knowledge that appears in-between, contrasting here and there. ac-cording to jennings ( , ), one of the main aspects of the benjamin’s theory of criticism is the conviction that truth “is present to the modern world in hidden and fragmentary form”. and this truth could be reached through threshold experiences in the liminal spaces. nevertheless, how the discussions about liminal spaces could be useful to criticize borders? we suggest that one of the roles of visual arts is conceiving critical experiences about the space in contemporary society. by confronting borders, we believe that the art is able to show that real spaces are characterized by thresholds, not by absolute or strict separations. . criticizing borders through map art the figure shows a photograph of an installation art called area restringida (restricted area), created by mateo maté, an artist from madrid. in this artwork, there is a continuous black ribbon, supported by white poles, which draw a closed shape. in a corner of the room, outside the shape, there is a person sitting on a chair, watching three monitors. a surveillance camera can also be seen on the wall. like a map, this shape represents the territorial limits of the whole american continent. the black ribbons sup- ported by the white poles are actually queue organizers, or stanchions. these stanchions are typically used to control the flow of people in places such as airports, banks, museums, amusement parks, and public offices. however, the shape does not offer any entrance to the visitor, so it is impossible to cross these borders. on purpose, the artist erected these borders and blocked the access, forcing visitors to circulate outside. besides preventing people to cross the borders of this territory, the artist included a surveillance system, with cameras and security agents: one of them carefully watches monitors, while the other stands right in front of the door. in this artwork, mateo maté incites discussions about surveillance and migration, crucial issues in contemporary society. using these stanchions as a metaphor of the contemporary borders, the artist causes an immediate feeling of prohibition and arbitrariness. the title of the work itself reinforces the message of an enclosed space, whose ac-cess is not authorized to any strange visitor. in addition, the disturbing presence of the surveillance apparatus stresses the punishing presence of the law. thus, the image does not appear as a simple map of the continent. it connects our previous cartographic knowledge with several situations in which we were prevented from moving through such artificial divisions. therefore, it is an artwork that induces a critical analysis about borders. fig. . Área restringida, mateo maté. sala de arte siqueiros, méxico d.f. (source: artist’s website. available in: http://www.mateomate.com/area-restringida/. accessed feb ) the second artwork in the figure is called upotia, created by nicolas desplats. these are six closed buckets, typical paint cans used on walls and other surfaces. each bucket contains a label that covers the whole side surface. these labels show the title of the artwork in large characters, as well as other explanatory texts. the lid of each bucket shows map images, with common cartographic elements such as meridian and parallel lines, roads, city names, and borders. these buckets appear to be tightly closed, not showing any sign that they might have been opened. each bucket also contains names of islands that are situated between the cities of marseille (where the art-ist lives) and toulon, where the exhibition took place (monsaingeon ). the title upotia comes from a combination of the words pot and utopia. in that sense, the artist refers to the famous concept of utopia, which means a non-place (u- topos), a place that either does not exist or is inaccessible. utopia would be a perfect society, a model of justice, equality and happiness for its inhabitants. nowadays, the word utopia has come to mean a kind of impossible dream, an illusion that does not find support in reality (claeys ). in this artwork, irony is evident. upotia represents the canned dream of a perfect cartography. it would allow the cartographer to fulfill his desire to draw the ideal border and to delimit space according to his will. inside each buck-et, we would find the promise of a new place, covering the imperfections of our reality and renewing our hopes for a better future. another insight that could emerge from this artwork is that maps are seen as a kind of commercial product sold on shelves, a ready-made solution to reveal truths about our world. thus, the impossibility of achieving utopia is revealed by the promise of a fake product that ensures miraculous effects. proceedings of the international cartographic association, , . this contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/ . /ica-proc- - - | © authors . cc by . license. of fig. . upotia: les îles de paca, nicolas desplats. mappamundi exposition, hôtel des arts, toulon, france, . (source: http://documentsdartistes.org/artistes/desplats/repro - .html. accessed feb ) the third example comes from francis alÿs, a belgian artist that proposed performances in two of the most controversial borders worldwide: the us-mexico border and the green line in israel. in , alÿs was invited to join the insite exhibition held in the san diego-tijuana border region. for this exhibition, alÿs prepared a performance called the loop: his purpose was to travel from tijuana to san diego without crossing the us- mexico border. in order to accomplish this long and expensive journey, alÿs did a circumnavigation around the pacific ocean (figure ). his itinerary comprised the following cities: tijuana, mexico city, panama city, santiago, auckland, sydney, singapore, bangkok, rangoon, hong kong, shanghai, seoul, anchorage, vancouver, los angeles, and finally san diego. with this performance - an extravagant and wasteful trip - alÿs criticizes the economic and political obstacles that mexicans are facing. therefore, crossing that border is privilege that is allowed only for few people. fig. . francis alÿs itinerary in the loop, . (source: http://pietmondriaan.com/tag/francis-alys/. accessed feb ) the other artwork is called the green line and it refers to a demarcation created in due to an armistice agreement between israel and its neighbors. the line was drawn by a military commander, using a green pencil on a map (harmon & clemans ), and it separated some disputed palestinian territories in the west bank. this demarcation had an extensive impact in local population. from both sides, their lives were affected by administrative, cultural, religious and security issues. although that demarcation line was officially removed some decades later, its effects are still present. since then, the line became a clear example of how an artificial decision on a map could impose power relations over a territory. fig. . the green line. francis alÿs. jerusalem . (source: artist’s website. available in: http://francisalys.com/the-green- line/. accessed feb ) in , alÿs proposed the following performance: he walked the region affected by the green line, spilling a green paint on the ground behind him . a video was recorded during his performance along a distance of km. in a general sense, his walking performance shows the contrast between conceiving a border on a map and physically perceiving it in a real place. besides that, the political aspect of borders is emphasized in this artwork: tracing a line on a piece of paper could be a gesture that causes a huge impact in people’s life. it is not coincidence that similar decisions based on arbitrary lines also happened in other key historical situations. we could mention the treaty of tordesillas - a political agreement that divided the world between spain and portugal at the end of the th century. or even the trace of the berlin wall, another arbitrary division with a deep political and social consequences. all these examples demonstrate how strong borders are. nevertheless, alÿs’ work also shows that it is possible to con-test these decisions, and one of the ways to resist is through art. in his own words, “sometimes doing something poetic can become political. and sometimes doing something political can become poetic” (alÿs ). . conclusions the intersection between cartography and art reveals a fruitful ambient for expanding the limits of established mapping techniques. in order to inspire aesthetic experiences, artists plays with cartographic conventions, disclosing hidden features of the space. this approach a similar proposal was created by the artist alban biaussat in , with an artwork called the gren(er) side of the line (harmon & clemans, ). proceedings of the international cartographic association, , . this contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/ . /ica-proc- - - | © authors . cc by . license. of purposely disturbs our beliefs, suggesting alternatives that challenge traditional notions of space. supported by that characteristic, art becomes a field that embraces and welcomes political and critical messages about rules in society. our findings also suggest that art could show the impact of imposing borders in a space, whose arbitrary delimitation reflects power relations. when these relations are exposed, people are more likely to think critically about the impact of borders in their lives. it is also worth mentioning that, although the representation of borders plays a key role in maps, its arbitrariness may hide an essential feature: the pertinence and the value of the liminal spaces. . acknowledgements we are grateful to the professor sébastien caquard and the geomedia lab researchers at the concordia university in montréal/ca. this work is funded under grants from the cnpq brazil and global affairs canada elap pro-gram. . references alÿs, f. ( ). the green line: video documentary. artist’s website. available in: http://francisalys.com/the-green-line/ barrento, j. ( ). limiares em walter benjamin. florianópolis: edufsc. benjamin, w., & tiedemann, r. ( ). the arcades project. harvard university press. cairo carou, h. ( ). territorialidad y fronteras del estado-nación: las condiciones de la política en un mundo fragmentado. polí-tica y sociedad, ( ), - . claeys, g. ( ). utopia: a história de uma ideia. são paulo: edições sesc sp. crampton, j. w. ( ). mapping: a critical introduction to cartography and gis (vol. ). chichester, uk: john wiley & sons. gagnebin, j. m. ( ). limiar, aura e rememoração: ensaios sobre walter benjamin. são paulo: ed. . harmon, k., & clemans, g. ( ). the map as art: contemporary artists explore cartography. princeton architectural press. harley, j. b. ( ). the new nature of maps: essays in the history of cartography. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. harvey, d. ( ). condição pós-moderna: uma pesquisa sobre as origens da mudança cultural. são paulo: edições loyola. jameson, f. ( ). pós-modernismo: a lógica cultural do capitalismo tardio. são paulo: Ática. jennings, m. w. ( ). dialectical images: walter benjamin's theory of literary criticism. cornell university press. monsaingeon, g. ( ). mappamundi: art et cartographie. parenthèses. pickles, j. ( ). a history of spaces: cartographic reason, mapping, and the geo-coded world. new york: routledge. popescu, g. ( ). bordering and ordering the twenty- first century: understanding borders plymouth, uk: rowman & littlefield. soja, e. ( ). geografias pós-modernas: a reafirmação do espaço na teoria social crítica. rio de janeiro: zahar. wood, d. ( ). rethinking the power of maps. new york: guilford press. proceedings of the international cartographic association, , . this contribution underwent single-blind peer review based on submitted abstracts | https://doi.org/ . /ica-proc- - - | © authors . cc by . license. 	art and cartography as a critique of borders 	 . introduction 	 . the critical cartography: alternative ways of mapping spaces 	 . art and cartography: a critical approach towards mapping 	 . border: an arbitrary line in a map 	 . liminal spaces, threshold experiences 	 . criticizing borders through map art 	 . conclusions 	 . acknowledgements 	 . references j. fash. bus. vol. , no. : - , jul. issn - (print) http://dx.doi.org/ . /jfb. . . . issn - (online) . introductionⅠ modern societies have been diversified owing corresponding author: kim eunsil, + - - - , fax. + - - - e-mail: @naver.com drastic changes of cultures, technologies, and information; modern people provide internal satisfaction through visual enjoyment to relieve study on analyses of pleasure trends and aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture design - focused on haute couture collections from s/s to s/s - wang ling · kim eunsil * · lee misuk ** master course, dept. of clothing and textiles, chonnam national university instructor, dept. of clothing and textiles, chonnam national university * professor, dept. of clothing & textiles, chonnam national university, human ecology research institute, chonnam national university ** abstract this study supplements clothes by studying pleasure shown in accessories of haute couture designers and finds out pleasant characteristics represented in items which play an important role in producing personalities through collections, so the study aims at prospecting design development directions accessories henceforth. for the study period and methods, photo materials were analyzed being judged to show pleasure centered on mode et mode, representative fashion magazine, from s/s paris haute couture collections to s/s paris haute couture collections. at this time, the photos analyses were conducted and selected by two experts (ph. d holders majored in fashion design) through two times. after analyzing pleasure features represented in fashion collection focused on haute couture accessories, i could know that surrealistic pleasure, anonymity-expressing pleasure, natural pleasure, and exaggerative pleasure were shown. the pleasure, as element that supplements and emphasizes clothes, has had an effect on bringing laughs characteristically. key words : pleasant characteristics, haute-couture designers, accessories, collections wang ling · kim eunsil · lee misuk / study on analyses of pleasure trends and aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture design heaviness and stresses so that they actively cope with these changes. ) as these show diversification·individualization times clearly, differentiation and personality of other people are expressed by pursuing own enjoyment, freshness, particularity, and so on. these characteristics of modern societies are presented with new expression methods by various designers, and accessories are more recognized as necessities in fashion coordination than any other time. ) accessories created by fashion designers are made in a practical aspect and also play a role of an aesthetic medium which fashion designers try to express. ) that is to say, we wear clothes for body protection, self-satisfaction, status symbol, and so on and use supplement elements of clothes such as shoes, purses, hats, sunglasses, and so on. therefore, accessories not only supplement merely clothes themselves, but also express works trends of fashion designers and present fresh shocks to watchers. changes of western fashion world happened in the past mostly ruled at couturiers or fashion designers who created new styles and these new styles were manufactured in proper time when societies change. especially, if accessories had not been affected in their important roles, a lot of styles among these styles would not have succeeded. ) if we see previous studies, huh ( ) ) studied modern values of fashion accessories, kim ( ) ) researched kitsch features expressed in contemporary fashion accessories, and cho ( ) ) implemented a study on chanel accessories. min ( ) ) studied on modern costume jewelry, lim ( ) ) studied on chanel costume jewelry, kim ( ) ) studied formative features of jewelry seen through modern clothes, and park ( ) ) researched formation and prospect of costume jewelry in century. kim ( ) ) studied on the formative relationship of betwen costume and make-up in christian dior collection. also, though kim ( ) ) studied pleasure shown in the haute couture collections, this was limited to clothes, so studies on pleasure do not exist. thus, this study supplements clothes by studying pleasure shown in accessories of haute couture designers and finds out pleasant characteristics represented in items which play an important role in producing personalities through collections, so the study aims at prospecting design development directions of accessories henceforth. for the study period and methods, photo materials were analyzed judged to show pleasure centered on mode et mode, representative fashion magazine, from s/s paris haute couture collections to s/s paris haute couture collections. at this time, the photos analyses were conducted and selected by two experts (ph. d holders majored in fashion design) through two times. primarily, they selected sheets and then finally selected sheets except sheets which were determined inappropriate. accessories is the key role in the complementary elements of clothing and the completeness of styles. so, this study is to investigate pleasure characteristics of accessories design which is present fresh shocks to watchers. therefore, the significance of this study see through works trends of fashion designers and recognize the importance of fashion accessories. journal of fashion business vol. , no. . modern time ( ~ now)Ⅱ accessories in haute couture fashion in all cultures from primitive times, accessories had a role of expressing the status symbols by wearing methods as well as qualities of accessories. in century’s europe and usa, limitation was followed in clothes and wearing accessories. women in a high-class society learned how to walk quietly wearing narrow slippers. simultaneously, maintaining virtuous walking, they learned how to use folding fans, handbags or purses, bouquets putting on bouquet supports, and chatelaines hanging keys, and handkerchiefs freely. strict rules were applied to gloves kinds which should be worn every time, jewelry kinds which unmarried women can use, and so on. ) thus, diverse codes were shown clearly by adding their own ‘languages’ in folding fans’ using methods, a symbol of floral decoration, wearing methods of shawls. nowadays, though these strict rules seem to disappear, relation of clothes and accessories still has an interrelationship. especially, as haute couture designers having high-degree technologies are people who try to create arts going beyond over simple designers, ) whatever styles can be tried through always new modes’ creation, new materials studies, and firm technologies development. fashion accessories designed by these haute couture designers as small cosmos roles are indispensable items in total fashion coordination concepts. therefore, this chapter examines accessory designs’ trends that haute couture designers’ works world are reflected by dividing the first half and the second half of century. . the first half of century exoticism which was started after rousseau ballet troupe visited paris is shown diversely in accessory designs of paul poiret. especially, since the eastern style turban hat which he designed was matched with an artistic dress, a rubber band’s use of the upper part of the turban which looks like being borrowed from harem-style pants seems to prove this fact <figure >. chanel, who started as milliner from s and acted vigorously in s, making silver tone metals along with imitation pearls into diverse lengths, they were matched with chanel’s simple silk frocks. especially, she showed purses using quilts first in ; the original style recently shown in quilt purses was published in . in s, she brought black butterfly ribbons and two-tone shoes into vogue, using a completion point of formal wears by using black nets with silk-made ribbon ornaments which were matched with chanel’s little black dresses and tweed jackets. besides, she added new decoration elements to intrinsic items like hanging chains on quilt handbags, or designing buttons which the overlapped c letters were inscribed. ) and, these ornamental elements were used pleasurably in the late th century. in addition to chanel, a designer who dominated s was elsa schiaparelli. particularly, elsa schiaparelli was a leader in accessory designs. she designed hats with a shape of shoes, nails parts with red colored gloves shapes, clip-on earrings and brooches having springs used by circus acrobats into the form of circus performer clips, and a veil reminiscent of a snake like <figure >, or showed a insect necklace like <figure >. elsa schiaparelli’s works were influenced by wang ling · kim eunsil · lee misuk / study on analyses of pleasure trends and aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture design surrealism and sometimes worked together with surrealistic artists. the container design of “shocking” of her perfumes ) is a body form and showed fashionably torso shapes shown in de chirico and magritte’s paintings. she designed black gloves whose design was hands’ shape having red color in the nails parts in . this design was similar to gloves on ‘les mins peintes’ by painted man ray in . particularly, the most influenced painter was salvador dali, and dali’s works show pleasure on accessories as well as a dress like a ‘drawer suit’ of schiaparelli. among accessories of schiaparelli, hats are mainly items which scales were transformed, and especially miniaturized hats were preferred by her reducing the scales. also, as shapes of wearing on foreheads or leaning to one side, hats were all amazing and fun-bringing works like a big spoon shape, a head shape of a boat, a hat having a shade of a helicopter’s wings, and so on. ) but, as silhouettes of clothes came to be different due to the world war , newⅡ accessories were necessary. christian dior who appeared making a sensation in thought hats as a necessary element in expressing perfect ensembles. and, he showed different hats by each dress by manufacturing them particularly from a hat manufacturer. a new looking suit composed of padded jackets on hips and abundantly biswing skirts were shown with a wide-shade black hat directed by dior. the brim of the hat was slightly collapsed shape. along with this, black gloves goffered on the wrists and pumps whose heels were dealt with a curve were coordinated. also, like <figure >, by using organdy, while showing a pleasurable design which was directed like dust of a plane seems to be stuck, he presented various accessories. additionally dior in s, cristóbal balenciaga designed accessories using dramatic elements showing moving buildings’ images. though balenciaga did not adorn diverse kinds of accessories from his first collection, he has used accessories as aids to express clothes perfectly. balenciaga often used a heart shape using gold leaves ornaments of baroque style and fake diamond, turkey stones on accessory jewelry ornamentation. as balenciaga’s accessory designs came to change formatively, they came to be influenced less of victorianism. especially, by matching various and weird hats to dresses designed by balenciaga, these hats looked a piece of flower or veils, and there were hats having a same shape of a big felt hat. in materials decorating these hats, not only extremely smooth like feathers, organza, and tulle but also extremely hard things like enamel leather, straws, suede were used. besides, dramatic effects were attempted using fantastic materials. ) also, like <figure >, showing a pillbox looking a horse tail, humorousness was brought also. moreover, givenchy, representative designer in s, represented surrealistic trompe-l'oeil technique on accessories. particularly, in the debut collection held in , enjoyment was given from special and extraordinary shapes of hats such as a chinese long plaited pigtail, a pea pod or a marten tail, a base shape or a cone shape of roses made of silk, a geometric shape in <figure >, and so on. ) like these, in the first half of the century, fashion and fashion accessories were taken lead in by haute couture designers like paul poiret, chanel, schiaparelli, christian dior, and givenchy. and, as exotic fashion, cubism, and surrealism are rampant, fantasmo and exotic journal of fashion business vol. , no. shapes’ accessories, especially the millinery were made an entrance a lot. especially, owing to the fantasmo shapes, by using gaudy colors affecting as points to watchers and diverse materials which have a maintenance power of its shape besides pelt or cloths, surrealistic depaysement technique was used a lot and enjoyment was given due to this. . the second half of century comfortable silhouettes and space looks are shown in fashion in s. pierre cardin showed <figure > turban, paul poiret - the couture accessory, p. . <figure > snake-shape nets, , schiaparelli - the couture accessory, p. . <figure > insect necklace, , schiaparelli - the th century, p. . <figure > a plane-dust-shape hat of material organdy, , christian dior - the couture accessory, p. . <figure > a humorous pillbox looking like a horsetail, , balenciaga - the couture accessory, p. . <figure > a geometric shape hat, , givenchy - the couture accessory, p. . fashion and accessories having sculptural atmosphere and designed comfortable silhouettes. coming into s, while space looks were presented in earnest, expressing jump suits and boots, helmets, knit tights, tops and belt skirts made of vinyl; fitting with these, scallops, zigzag-type brooches, geometric-arrangement accessories applying eyes of bulls were matched. coming into s, by yves saint laurent showing atmosphere of expressing his youth, while succeeding on dior house, he described the fashion world using all hats, jewelry, gloves, and scarps. laurent who was born in designed wang ling · kim eunsil · lee misuk / study on analyses of pleasure trends and aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture design dresses in cooperation with sculptor claude lalanne; he showed ‘belts’ and ‘brooches’ too tightening. in addition, a lot of collections of saint laurent, namely, his aesthetic discernment are shown clearly in rousseau ballet troupe, carmen, empire china, cubism, and morocco. the features were shown, applying special decorative components like ornaments made of decorative braids to his preferred items such as corset belts, dress shoes having ankle strings, platform shoes, high heel boots, small shoulder bags, bags holding under arms, fringe shawls, pillboxes, berets, straw hats, and long neck gloves. also, tassels made of metal threads, braids made of metal threads or leather, decoration buttons made of cut gemstones, metals and leather, strings, mixture of woods, big chokers, bracelets for cuffs, and earrings. <figure > is pierre cardin's works formed plastic shoes. like these, though formed-type works were shown a lot, futuristic boots that andre courrgegs designed to mary quant are giving dliltingness as fashion item matching miniskirts. karl lagerfeld who slugged in s designed remembering past atmosphere and showed a humorous design which appliqued a card on white short gloves also. later, lagerfeld represented the best collection in among collections which he designed for chole; it was also a show that capacities of colorful accessories were exposed by representing ornaments using beads for embroidery, brooches, and pearls and rhinestones-hung -styled earrings. moreover, lagerfeld showed ultimate of pleasure by showing embroidered clothes applying surrealistic trompe-l'oeil technique such as scissors penetrated a mask, pin cushion for a brooch and bracelets and a head ornament, a needle shape brooch pulling thread, etc. as well as a tool-shape accessory. <figure > is a chair-shape hat of lagerfeld and can be an example of applying the surrealistic trompe-l'oeil technique. this can be an example showing surrealistic features by not being positioned on its original place but located on an inordinate head. in s, not only lagerfeld but also by designers like christian lacroix and jean paul gaultier, it is the time when diverse accessory designs were shown. christian lacroix represented various accessory designs adding fanciness and peculiar accessories with loud colors and a retro tendency. like using a rose ornament, ruff, fur, embroidery, shirring, and patchwork on clothes, ) they were applied on hat ornaments intactly too. by adorning these ornaments on handbag strings, it was designed that a sense of unity of clothes and accessories was directed. <figure > is a bicorn hat made of straws in modern times and a work that even liltingness can be felt by adding a black bow ornament on the corn part of each side. besides, by hanging a cross on a black velvet choker or doing silk floral adornment on gloves, it was made to be more attractive. above this, metallic handmade curved arabesque patterns of rococo style opened a new prospect in gem techniques. also, paul gaultier was a pioneer of experimental design, not the exception of accessory design. he applied fashion and accessories under the themes of androgynous and fetishism. ) by introducing the retro style associating a boat decoration of the rococo age like <figure > or showing hair ornament accessories using oriental folding fans like <figure >, orientalism which is got from his works can be felt. also, like <figure >, here karl lagerfeld decorates his monochrome glassess with the chanel insignia. journal of fashion business vol. , no. eventually, designers use accessories to complete total looks. although there are a lot of accessories made of precious and expensive materials, they stake their all on peculiar accessories giving off special attraction. <figure > plastic shoes, , pierre cardin - the th century, p. . <figure > a chair-shape hat, , karl lagerfeld - the couture accessory, p. . <figure > bicorn hat, christian lacroix - the couture accessory, p. . <figure > ship hat, jean paul gaultier - the couture accessory, p. . <figure > fan headdress, jean paul gaultier - the couture accessory, p. . <figure > monochrome glasses with the chanel insignia, , chanel - chanel(the couturiere at work) p. . . analyses of pleasure trends andⅢ aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture designers in this chapter, all photo materials were analyzed judged to show pleasure centered on mode et mode, representative fashion magazine, from s/s paris haute couture collections to wang ling · kim eunsil · lee misuk / study on analyses of pleasure trends and aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture design s/s paris haute couture collections. at this time, photos analyses were conducted and selected by two experts (ph. d holders majored in fashion design) through two times. primarily, they selected sheets and then finally selected sheets except sheets which were determined inappropriate. in this study, the first, photoes were selected being judged to show pleasure and fresh shocks by two experts. through this, it was classified with four characteristics in surreallistic pleasure, anonymity-expressig pleasure, natural pleasure, exaggerative pleasure. photoes were analyzed focused on the trend of pleasure except photoes which is ambiguous. <table > pleasure of accessory trends in haute couture collections characteristics collection surrealistic pleasure anonymity-ex pressing pleasure natural pleasure exaggerative pleasure total s/s - f/w s/s - f/w s/s - f/w s/s - f/w s/s - f/w s/s - f/w s/s - f/w s/s - f/w s/s total . analyses of accessory trends in haute couture collections as we can see <table >, if we look into frequency rates by aesthetic features, the surrealistic pleasure shown the highest trend in s/s and the anonymity-expressing pleasure shown the highest trend in - f/w. also, the natural pleasure shown the highest trend in - f/w and the highest trend of the exaggerative pleasure can be seen in s/s and s/s. overall, the pleasurable features can be seen high value in s/s. <figure > arranged the contents of <table >well. journal of fashion business vol. , no. <figure > the trends of pleasure from to . pleasurable characteristics of accessories expressed in haute couture collections after analyzing pleasure features represented in fashion collection focused on haute couture accessories, four large characteristics could be classified such as surrealistic pleasure, anonymity -expressing pleasure, natural pleasure, and exaggerative pleasure. ) surrealistic pleasure the surrealistic means generally grotesquely created works, as an aesthetic expression method based on unconsciousness to overcome actual limit. ) therefore, the surrealistic pleasure can show enjoyment by trying creative and transformed methods, overturning general characters of some objects. so, in accessories, the surrealistic pleasure can give fresh shocks and laughs by borrowing totally different objets through mainly hats, necklaces, handbags, etc. in <figure >, the handbag that the model comes out with when the model is on the catwalk is a same shape of a chain hammer like whipping slaves in the roman era, and it represents an emphatic function of somewhat different feelings from a chic and dandy atmosphere. the model expresses pleasure of subculture like attacking someone instantly with the chain hammer by showing an abnormal- mode atmosphere from the mohican hair. <figure > is a thing that can feel pleasure like protecting a neck as a new necklace type worn on the neck naturally harmonized, changing their original locations of hands and wings. in <figure >, the color sense decorated on model’s waist as a new hat type which is worn on a head by changing its original location of a pallet can feel pleasure like water colors flowing out of the pallet. <figure > is a shoes-type hat design that pleasure can be felt by shoes being located on a head through use change, namely the surrealistic depaysement technique. <figure > is applied from the hands of salvador dali as representative artist of surrealism and even can be felt a feature of trompe-l'oeil like real hands covering hands on the head. wang ling · kim eunsil · lee misuk / study on analyses of pleasure trends and aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture design figure collection costume accessary characteristics figure ' s/s shape of the chain hammer emphatic function is shown pleasure of subcultural atmosphere is represented figure ' s/s changing the locations of hands and wings feeling of enjoyment like protecting a neck figure ' f/w change of the pallet location the color sense of the waist is like water colors flown out of the pallet figure ' f/w shape of ballet shoes change of use figure ' f/w trompe-l'oeil feature can be felt like real hands covering <table > surrealistic pleasure shown in accessories ) anonymity-expressing pleasure as modern societies become diverse and characterized, anonymity factors are expressed in diverse ways. particularly, as the anonymity is a feature that post modernism is derived from ‘de-constructivism’, by covering faces, not men nor women, as deconstructing sexes or previous ideas impossible for nobody to predict, pleasure out of the stereo type is expressed. past modernism-perspective seriousness was substituted by parody, sarcastic anonymity, and nihilism, and boundaries among genres were fragmented. ) journal of fashion business vol. , no. therefore, the pleasure expressing the anonymity can secure the anonymity by covering or adorning faces, and curiosities can be aroused by watchers by using a transparent material. it is to be seen that a half of the face is killed using nets through <figure >, and <figure > shows extremity of the anonymity by covering the whole face using the transparent material. namely, the deconstruction of sexes, furthermore, the work is hard to find out vague lives or not, even hard to know humans or not. <figure > arouses curiosities and laughs by figure collection costume accessary characteristics figure ' s/s a half of the face is killed using nets through figure ' s/s covering the whole face using the transparent material and extremity of the anonymity is shown figure ' f/w using a material like chiffon, feeling of triviality for shapes, and arousing of curiosity and laughs figure ' f/w attachment of a material like lace <table > anonymity-expressing pleasure shown in accessories even expressing shape’s mystery penetrating a diaphanous material like chiffon, <figure > is a work expressing the anonymity by attaching a material like lace. ) natural pleasure the natural pleasure is to give pleasure by configurating nature objects such as fruit, seafood, sun, sea, etc. including plants like trees, flowers morphologically and expressing them. while aspects of modern arts have new material views called liberation of materials, wang ling · kim eunsil · lee misuk / study on analyses of pleasure trends and aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture design based on fabric materials, they can express natural shapes by using various materials such as metals, paper, leather, film, and so on. ) <figure > expresses as a handbag like tying shapes of a palm tree or grass leaves together in a primitive jungle. <figure > is a work showing a pineapple shape as hair adornment, figure collection costume accessary characteristics figure ' s/s showing primitive jungle’s palm tree or grass leaves, feeling of naturalism figure ' s/s showing the shape of a pineapple, association with a palm tree of a primitive jungle, feeling of naturalism figure ' s/s the shape of a sea shell, feeling of naturalism figure ' f/w same shape of a blue crab, feeling of naturalism figure ' s/s same shape of bamboo, feeling of naturalism <table. > natural pleasure expressed in accessories and the hair adornment is a figure that can be associated with a palm tree in the primitive jungle, also along with a natural direction of a cut skirt in clothes. <figure > described a shell into a handbag. the handbag using a lustrous material with a material of the clothes make us feel naturalism. in <figure >, a shape journal of fashion business vol. , no. of a blue crab living in the sea was used into a hair adornment. by <figure > expressing a hair adornment into a bamboo tree, through a natural material exuding orientalism, enjoyment was given. ) exaggerative pleasure the change of scale gives dramatic effect by designing big or small of accessories ) . the exaggerative pleasure is to give laughs by previous sizes becoming large scalization or the previous sizes exaggerating excessively. <figure > directed a straw material into a three-dimensional toque hat, a three- dimensional and glossing shape felt in the upper clothes was described overly in a hat. as several head can be put in the hat, the scale was manufactured exaggeratingly. <figure > is giving enjoyment by expressing overly while the shape of an informal and bur-like hat are realizing similarity with a shape of a skirt. in <figure >, the size of a parasol was exaggerated excessively, it sometimes reminds us of a parasol of the rococo age. pleasure is felt by scaling the exaggerated size of the parasol as a use of shading a sun light into a degree of a length covering the whole upper body. also, <figure and > show exaggerative pleasure through scaling hair. <figure > is taking eyes while the highly erected style in a fontange style of modern ages is harmonizing with dresses, and in wearing a bulky-style wig of <figure >, as the hair size looks bigger than the face size, pleasure from the exaggeration is expressed. especially, it can be said to be similar to the original form of a turtle shell of its waist. . conclusionⅣ in modern times, as accessories of haute couture came to be profitable products of the couture house, accessories play a role of an engine in a car called a couture business. new essential items sometimes revive unequally under the name of past designers. also, recently accessories change their concepts newly of not only wearing to but also collecting. in addition, to modern people feel stresses or heaviness, while new novel accessories reflect the works world of designers and create humorous pleasurable atmospheres, they perform an import role in total looks. accordingly, centered on haute couture accessories, the results after analyzing the pleasurable characteristics are like these. first, the surrealistic pleasure was known to give fresh shocks and laughs by borrowing totally different objets through the chain hammer-type handbag, hand-shape necklace, pallet hat, ballerina’s shoes-like hat, hat of trompe-l'oeil, and so on. second, the anonymity-expression pleasure secures the anonymity by covering or adorning faces and also even arouses curiosities to watchers by using transparent materials. especially, using see-through materials like net, chiffon, lace, the anonymity is expressed arousing mysteries and simultaneously curiosities and laughs. third, the natural pleasure gives pleasure by configurating and describing nature objects such as fruit, seafood, sun, sea, and so on including plants like trees, flowers, and so on like primitive jungle’s palm tree hair adornment or grass leaves-type handbag, pineapple-style hair adornment, shell-type handbag, blue crab hair adornment, etc. wang ling · kim eunsil · lee misuk / study on analyses of pleasure trends and aesthetic characteristics of accessories of haute couture design <table > exaggerative pleasure shown in accessories figure collection costume accessary characteristics figure ' s/s direction of a three dimensional toque hat into a hat with a straw material figure ' s/s an informal and bur-like shape of a hat figure ' s/s association of the parasol of the rococo age, excessiveness of the parasol figure ' f/w showing an exaggerative pleasure through scaling of hair, the fontange style of modern ages figure ' s/s showing exaggerative pleasure through the hair scalization, and the hair size looks bigger than the face size forth, the exaggerative pleasure was known to bring fresh laughs, by scaling of previous sizes or exaggerating a straw torque hat, a thorny hat, an excessive parasol, scalization of hair, and so on. this study is expected to be the basic data that fashion accessories can be utilized in the complementary item of clothing and the emphasis in aspect of coordination. besides, pleasure trends of accessories gives to us fresh shocking and catharsis. journal of fashion business vol. , no. reference ) kim hyunjung( ), "a studay on the playing characteristics found on the fashion show window displays", sook myung wome's univercity master's dissertation, p. . ) lim kyungsun, ryu songok( ), "the study of chanel in coutume jewelry", the korean society of costume, ( ), p. . ) caroline rennold milbank( ), the couture accessory, new york: harry n. abrams, inc., publishers, p. . ) lbid., p. . ) heo jieun, kim kyungmin, kim jiyoung( ), "modern values on fashion accessories: focused on women's shoes and bags", joumal of life science, ( ), pp. - . ) kim suyoung( ), "kitsch features expressed in contemporary fashion accessories", hanyang university master's dissertation. ) cho malhee( ), "a study on chanel accessory", the korean society of knit design, ( ). pp. - . ) min wonkyung( ), "the study of costume jewelry in modern", hongik university master's dissertation. ) lim kyungsoon, yu songuk( ), "the study of chanel in coutume jewelry", the journal of the korean society of costumes, ( ), pp. - . ) kim juae( ), "formative characteristics of jewelry in the early modern costume", korean design forum in korean, , pp. - . ) park joono( ), "the study on formation of th century costume jewelry", the korea society of crafts, ( ), pp. - . ) kim eunsil( ), "a study on the formative relationship of between costume and make-up in christian dior collection", the korean society of cosmetology, ( ), pp. - . ) kim sunyoung ( ), "a study of playfulness shown in the haute couture collections - mainly focused on works after the year ", the research journal of the costume culture, ( ), pp. - . ) kim sunyoung ( ), op.cit., p. . ) kang kyungja, kim mioeg ( ), "a study on the role of haute-couture", journal of natural science, , p. . ) caroline rennold milbank( ), op.cit., p. . ) lbid., p. . ) lbid., p. . ) lbid., p. . ) lbid., p. . ) lbid., p. . ) lbid., p. . ) cho minjung, li fung korea( ), "a study on surrealism expressed in jean paul gaultier's works", journal of the korean society of fashion & beauty, ( ), p. . ) jeong hyunsook( ), "a study of postmodernism expressed in fashion", sook myung women's university, doctor's dissertation, p. . ) jeong jieun( ), "the study on the art to wear focused on motives from natural images", sang-myung university, master's dissertation, p. . ) kim eunsil( ), " a study on hat design and analysis of the formative relationship between clothing and hats", chonnam national university, doctor's dissertation, p. . received (jun. , ) revised (jun. , , jul. , ) accepted (jul. , ) proceedings , , ; doi: . /proceedings www.mdpi.com/journal/proceedings proceedings new images. imagination in the process of aesthetic practice—the process of collage † michael renner visual communication institute, the basel school of design hgk fhnw, basel, switzerland; michael.renner@fhnw.ch; tel.: + - - - † presented at the international and interdisciplinary conference immagini? image and imagination between representation, communication, education and psychology, brixen, italy, – november . published: november abstract: this paper provides a brief discussion of ideas taken from the history of western thought on the topic of inventing the new. the aims of the design methods movement of the s are contraposed to an in-depth reading of concrete processes conducted in the context of practice-led iconic research. the distinction of imagination versus configuration leads to the second part of the paper, in which experimental arrangements are analyzed and their connection to a collective archive of images is established. in a third section, an artistic process of developing painterly collages is evaluated in respect to its methodology of developing unseen images. keywords: new images; design process; imagination; configuration; collage; archive; image schema; practice-led iconic research . introduction—inquiry into design processes vs. design methods “if i knew where my ideas come from, i‘d go there” [ ] was the title of thomas demand’s lecture on imagination at a conference in basel in the autumn of . this may sound tongue-in-cheek at first glance, but it reminds us that this inquiry into the processes of visual innovation is not going to be unveiled by mere formulas. the core of creating new images is elusive [ ]. while contemporary aesthetic practice hesitates to reflect on its processes on a scientific level and, therefore, fails to explain its impact, the history of western thought offers a number of descriptions directly related to the creative process. the idea of an individual’s talent or disposition being responsible for the creative capacity reappears in different contexts. in these descriptions, the faculty of an individual’s imagination is either a result of godly influence [ ], of genius [ ], or of social interaction [ ], depending on the status of the individual in respect to divine powers, to an autonomous constitution, or social interaction. instead of elaborating the numerous references the humanities provide for a discussion of imagination [ ], my contribution will start with a prominent attempt to reflect the processes of design in the middle of the th century. in the design methods movement, which started with a conference at the london imperial college held from september to september , an interdisciplinary field of inquiry into the processes of design was initiated. the protagonists of the movement extended the field of design from a process of aesthetic decision-making to a science of decision-making for the development of a better future of society. the aim was to bring together a variety of scientific disciplines such as engineering, architecture, urban planning, and design in order to describe their processes of invention [ ]. this often led to flow chart-like descriptions of generalized problem-solving processes intended to provide a guideline for systematic steps of planning. in retrospect, we can state that—for the sake of being scientific in the post-war context of economical growth and optimism— the intuitive search for an unknown visual solution was neglected [ ]. even the founders of the movement critically commented on the outcome of their previous intentions. the following statement proceedings , , of of by christopher alexander, one of the founders of the design methods movement, can be used in support of the analysis of practical design processes but also to critically assess the proposed analysis of design processes in the following part of this contribution: since the book was published [in ], a whole academic field has grown up around the idea of the leading exponents of these so-called design methods. i am very sorry this has happened and want to state publically that i reject the whole idea of design methods as a subject of study, since i think it is absurd to separate the study of designing from the practice of design. [ ] we may argue that the proposed field of inquiry into the design processes in the context of practice-led iconic research [ ] is an attempt to involve the existing competence of the practice in order to avoid a discourse detached from the practice of visual communication. on the other hand, we may also interpret alexander’s statement as a statement against any kind of scientific reflection on design processes and on design in general. the inquiry into design processes by the design methods movement of has been characterized by three layers which, according to john langrish, have all failed: . a general all-purpose optimistic zeitgeist that saw the world as getting better than it had been. . a belief that the process of designing had an important part to play in this ‘getting better’. . a belief that the design process could itself be made better through becoming more scientific. [ ] in opposition to the above described aims of the design methods movement, this contribution and its analysis of image generation avoids these pitfalls in the following manner: . only in one respect does the inquiry into the design process after the iconic turn [ ] attempt to “change the world” by implying that the understanding of images is a crucial part of information dissemination in a society which is based on democratic principles. . the importance of design in improving the world is shared until this day, but, following the iconic turn, the inquiry into the design process aims, more than anything else, at providing evidence that the practice of design actually does have an impact on society. . at their core, practical design processes will not be improved by means of scientific inquiry. but research will provide the means to conceptually frame the processes in new ways and help to further develop the design practice, the educational design principles, and the knowledge about images. in due consideration of the declared differences from the design methods movement, the inquiry into the design process suggested by practice-led iconic research places the practical procedures of image generation at the centre of its attention. the processes are executed and recorded for the purpose of a later comparative analysis. if we return now to the humanities and their discourse on imagination, we can start with the etymological aspect and emphasize the close relationship between the term of “image” and that of “imagination”. as the term suggests, imagination is closely related to images and consists of the ability to form new ones [ ]. kant has described the necessity of imagination to form sensuous experiences out of a schema and sensuous stimuli. to him, everybody has the faculty of imagination, but only a genius is able to use it to achieve beauty in art [ ]. in opposition to the faculty of imagination, there is the idea that nothing is truly new. all that we hold to be new can be either something that may already exist but of which we are simply not aware or something which is the result of a re-configuration of existing elements. an early source of this position can be found in plato’s meno (b.c.e. ) [ ]. in their dialogue, meno and socrates declare that any inquiry into a subject is merely pure recollection. beyond this view, the terminology of configuration grants the existence of new occurrences but only under the aspect of a reconfiguration of existing elements. while imagination is closely related to the processes of an emerging image and, therefore, to experience, configuration is related to the processes of conceptual abstraction through words in language [ ]. proceedings , , of in accordance with the philosophical debate on the schema [ ] and the use of the term of image schema [ ] in the cognitive sciences [ ], the concept prevails that our memory holds condensed and generalized records of past experiences, which are constantly interacting with the signals perceived by our senses [ ]. with this structure in mind, the creation of images and their perception depends on the memorized experiences of their designers as well as their beholders. both hold an archive of images and their generalization in their mind. yet, every image we perceive can be seen as a constant reconfiguration of the rules defining a class of memorized experiences in a condensed form and below the threshold of consciousness. the image schemas appear to be organized by categories that are not equal in their likelihood to be recalled. in contrast to the philosophical positions addressed above, the main focus of this paper is based on a close reading of practical design processes. following the dichotomy of imagination and configuration, the starting point could be the analysis of drawing processes, which are closely related to the idea of imagination [ ]. however, in the following part, i shall focus on the analysis of concrete processes of collage, which are directly related to the concept of configuration, by using already existing photographic images. . processes of configuration i—arrangements and archive the following image combinations were created in an experimental setting selected and arranged from a pool of images representing products on the amazon web site (figure ). (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) figure . (a–e) arrangements and their meaning, a matter of arrangements, pauline guex, ma thesis, . archive visual communication institute, the basel school of design hgk fhnw. we can distinguish different levels emerging in the process of perceiving the compositions. at first, there is an overall evaluation of the plane. on the second level, one starts to recognize the single objects represented photographically and, in a last step, we are comparing the objects in search of the reason for their combination. even though the examples selected show a small range of possible options, each of the compositions addresses a specific message through the placement of the objects within the format. on the first level of interpretation, the composition on the left suggests that we compare the two objects (figure a). the three objects in the second composition from the left are suggesting a spatial situation (figure b). the objects seem to sit on the ground. due to the difference in the size of the objects, they are not asking for a one-on-one comparison. perhaps, they are to be understood as telling the story of an accidental arrangement encountered when setting up a gallery exhibition. the middle composition (figure c) is providing each object with a comparable space and, because of the closeness of the objects, we are requested to draw conclusions from the similarities and differences of the objects depicted. it is hard to isolate one object from another, and the objects are competing with each other for attention. both compositions on the right (figure d,e) present the objects with more space around them. this leads to an orderly and structured impression, within which each object is placed according to a systematic evaluation. we know these systematic arrangements shown in figure d and e from biological collections or archaeological surveys of artefacts, from displays of collections in general, from museums and archives. specific objects or their images are presented to the beholder in a grid-like arrangement that emphazises the intentionality of the selection. each arrangement could consist of many more images, but we see only a small selection of the endless amount of images we can imagine. therefore, beholders are requested through the arrangement to find a motivation of the proceedings , , of presented selection. this interpretation of the arrangement and of collage is based on the concept that there is an individual archive of images we hold in our memory. what gilles deleuze describes for the painter can be transferred to the creator of arrangements and collages, their beholders, the curators of an archive, or the visitors of a collection: it is a mistake to think that the painter works on a white surface. the figurative belief follows from this mistake. if the painter were before a white surface, he- or she- could reproduce on it an external object functioning as a model. but such is not the case. the painter has many things in his head, or around him, or in his studio. now everything he has in his head or around him is already in the canvas, more or less virtually, more or less actually, before he begins his work. they are all present in the canvas as so many images, actual or virtual, so that the painter does not have to cover a blank surface, but rather would have to empty it out, clear it, clean it. [ ] the “figurative belief” as a belief in the mimetic relationship between an object and its representation on a canvas is criticized by deleuze. in his understanding, the relationship occurs between the images the painter holds in his memory and their representation as traces on a canvas. the distinction between figuration and figurative is made by deleuze by attributing the figurative to a concrete narrative situation, whereas figuration is a composition, in which the elements are taken out of context, but indicate through their composition their dependence on invisible forces [ ]. in this sense, the collage can also be seen as the result of emptying out, of clearing and cleaning and, therefore, the request of finding the criteria guiding the process. even more than the individual archive held in the painter’s memory, the collage/arrangement of existing images depends on a collectively negotiated archive. the photographs used in a collage have often been made by someone else and were selected for publication in a magazine by a group of editors. the photographs used in the case of the discussed arrangements were taken and selected for an optimum representation of products on a commercial web site. also, in the new context, they carry traces of the value system of a specific time in a specific culture. in this sense, and in reference to the discourse on the archive, we can see the discussed collages/arrangements as the result of invisible forces, rules, and value judgements which enable the visibility of objects and images [ ]. we can refer to the concept of the archive developed by giorgio agamben, who—in a critical approach—described the archive as a collection of testimonies representing the relationship between the said and the unsaid [ ]. transferring this idea to the collage/arrangement, we can claim that the discussed configurations and collages in general represent the relationship between the visible and the invisible following an underlying system of value judgments. collages can follow collective rules in selecting and positioning images according to conventions. or the selection and combination of the images works against the expected and experienced combination we know from former instances of perception and social exchange. clement greenberg’s famous analysis of collage in cubism ( ) [ ] describes the unexpected juxtaposition of the image plane with the three-dimensional space developed around by braque and picasso. also, the representation and actual objects such as wall papers, newspapers, or wood panels and any painted representation of reality were perceived at the time as unconventional. the shocking effect of the collage was explored more decisively later on by protagonists of dadaism and surrealism. to this very day, to see combinations of images that we do not usually experience next to each other and that we do not connect in the archive of image schemas evokes a puzzling effect. proceedings , , of . processes of configuration ii—collage and image schemas on the level of the individual objects represented in the arrangements discussed above, we can highlight the doormat with the diagonal pattern. the doormat does not belong to the image archive of art nouveau or to a collection of objects of an african culture, the context of board games, or to beekeeping. but the arrangements lead us to believe that the doormat belongs to these categories of objects. this exemplifies the flexibility with which we are adapting the core structure of an image-schema to a context. the specific diagonal pattern of the doormat is not part of the rule defining what a doormat is. it could be any kind of textile decoration. therefore, we can bend the meaning of the diagonals in many directions, supported by the overall reading of the objects thus arranged. the pattern lies within the boundaries of the generalized rules describing the essence of a doormat. with the following arrangements combining shoes, baby seats, and baby carriages, we can experience the matching process within an image-schema (figure a–c). what makes us recognize a shoe and what do we need to relinquish the expectation of seeing an arrangement that only consists of shoes? in the combinations of shoes, baby carriages, and baby seats, we are at first scanning the outlines of the object and consider them to be similar enough to belong to the same set of rules defining the schema [ ] of shoes, the schema of baby seats, or the schema of baby carriages. by a closer look at the interior structure of the images, we are able to distinguish the objects. (a) (b) (c) figures . (a–c) triggering schemas beyond similarity of form, a matter of arrangements, pauline guex, ma thesis, . archive visual communication institute, the basel school of design hgk fh. besides, the example of arrangements of similar shapes representing vacuum cleaners and the empire state building (figure ) is a confusing experience. given the formal similarity of the silhouette and the absence of scale, we can see all of the objects as vacuum cleaners or as high rises. even though the photographic image is not as ambiguous as drawn images, the ornamental repetition of the objects and their formal similarity let us change our point of view and attribute a new meaning to the process of perception. in addition, the clash of meanings between a daily household item and a landmark of national importance triggers a series of associations. they are evoked by the perception of formal similarity and by the experience of misinterpretation either of the vacuum cleaners or the landmark. the shock in this case is evoked, on the one hand, by the clash of confronting two or more images contradicting the order of values of our culturally determined archive, juxtaposing the landmark to the banal household object. on the other hand, both surprise and insecurity are evoked by the ambiguity of the interpretation. this example can be used to demonstrate a model-like situation in which the transfer from a preconceived first idea to a new interpretation can happen in a beholder as well as in the designer who is creating the collage. proceedings , , of to see “something as something else” is an aspect of visual perception which cannot be transferred to a translation in language. we see the similarity of the vacuum cleaner and the empire state building only because of the congruence of their silhouette. the analogy in language “the empire state building is a vacuum cleaner” does not evoke the same effect [ ]. figure . “seeing as”, a matter of arrangements, pauline guex, ma thesis, . archive visual communication institute, the basel school of design hgk fhnw. if we go one step further and alter the photographic representations to high-contrast silhouettes and simplify them even further, the ambiguity of the shapes is even stronger (figure ). by leaving the mimetic quality of the photograph behind, we are approaching a purely ornamental arrangement. this is most effective in triggering a long process of matching elements of the material image with the archive of image schemas. on the other hand, the ambiguity of the silhouettes in all the compositions of figure does not lead to the “seeing as” effect which we have described with the vacuum cleaner and the empire state building. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) figures . (a–f) a: eliminating the mimetic quality of the vacuum cleaners and the empire state building. (b–f) altering the shapes from simplification (b) to the deconstruction of the mimetic resemblance (f). a matter of arrangements, pauline guex, ma thesis, . archive of the visual communication institute, the basel school of design hgk fhnw. in contrast to the cubistic collage, which triggers the ambiguity between space and image plane as well as reality and representation, the example of the arrangement of images triggers an experience of ambiguity as to photographic images. in the process of drawing or painting, the strokes, lines, and blotches are set on the image plane leading from an open, tentative composition to a more defined stage of the image. ambiguity is inherent in this process of hand drawing and painting. the arrangement/collage with photographic images does not start with such an ambiguous situation. proceedings , , of the photographs of the commercial website are taken in order to represent the qualities of the products as clearly as possible. the irritation is due to the congruence of a dominant indication for the quality of an object, the silhouette line which is contradicted in a second step by perceiving more descriptive details of the images. we have now defined the process of making a collage as a combination of existing images. the experimental arrangements have indicated, firstly, the dependence of the image combination from the individual memory of a designer that is in correlation with the value system held in the collective memory of a society. secondly, the relationship between the shown objects does not exclusively develop a striking effect by combining images with the aim to contradict the order of our value system. there are many ways and processes the combination of images may affect a beholder. the comparison of the processes of cubism, dadaism, political activism, and the experiment of arrangements discussed above, support the claim that the process of collage stands for a variety of procedures of combining, integrating, and juxtaposing images. while the arrangements discussed have been purely focusing on composing existing images, the cubist collage is first of all a painterly process in which existing image elements are integrated after being placed onto the image plane. how the alteration of an image-generation process can lead to new images in an actual context is evaluated in the following example. . processes of configuration iii—collage with a painterly approach in contrast to the above discussed experimental arrangements, designed by pauline guex in order to inquire into the process of arranging, the following process is conducted in the context of artistic image generation. since , sabine hertig has been developing a collage design process using existing photographs from magazines found in thrift stores and second-hand book stores. the early examples of her collages often evoke the “seeing as” ambiguity described above (figures and ). the images are selected and carefully merged in order to achieve a balance of at least two different spatial interpretations. figure . sabine hertig, untitled , analogue collage on paper. . × cm, archive no. . proceedings , , of figure . sabine hertig, untitled , analogue collage on paper × ccm, archive no. . the processes of her more recent, large-scale landscape series are beginning with a painted ground in which a spatial situation is indicated through loose brush strokes in various shades of grey (figure a). landscape , developed from february until september , began by painting a spatial description connecting the three separate vertical panels. within the rectangular shape of the canvas, a smaller horizontal rectangle is established with a lighter grey, indicating a stage-like situation. a plane leads from the bottom of the canvas to the box. (a) (b) (c) (d) proceedings , , of figures . (a–d). sabine hertig, four steps in the development of landscape , february until september, analogue collage on canvas, × cm, . in this open setting of grey values, sabine hertig is placing photographic images from her collection of magazines and fits them to the existing grounding (figure b,c). she has a big pile of magazine clippings on the floor of her studio and calls this her palette. the grey value of the photograph taken from the pile is the most important criterion of selection. as we can see in the development to the final stage of the collage, the grounding is merely used as a starting point. the spatial perception of the overall composition is changing throughout the process and remains the guiding principle to form the overall composition. beyond the grey value of the selected photograph, it is in a later stage of the process also the structural quality of the photographs which is important for the representation of the three-dimensional space of the landscape. the same as in a drawing or painting, repetitive lines can be used in order to describe the direction of a represented surface. the textural quality of some photographs are suited to trigger the beholders’ imagination and represent material qualities. in the process, the canvas develops from the painterly grounding into an assembly of images, leading to a spatial organization of images with different layers of perception. these layers, established in the final collage (figure ), depend on a beholder’s distance to the canvas. from a large distance, the canvas presents an overview and scope we do not usually experience when walking through a landscape. it is a gaze coming from nowhere. the beholder is suspended in the air and looks down into a valley. the landscape is full of dense textures. rock formations, landslides, and dense vegetation are some of the interpretations, which we can infer from the textural information. we can imagine a waterfall indicated by the vertical white elements dropping from the top edge of the canvas slightly to the left of the middle of the composition. the water collects in a roaring basin and flows out of the frame in an s-curve. on the next level, closer to the canvas, some of the magazine photographs reveal their content. we see a person, hands or parts of a body separating itself from other elements, which were not recognizable at first glance. we see people crushed by the dynamic masses of material indicated by the overall composition and are reminded of apocalyptic images. the last level of viewing the composition is achieved close to the canvas, which forces us to see a selected part of the whole image. we can now see the single images which are assembled on the canvas. we can see that they are all representing situations on a different scale and from different angles. some are showing unrecognizable textures and, all of a sudden, we see an identifiable object explaining other elements in the context and forming a description of a scene. figure . sabine hertig. landscape , , analogue collage on canvas, × cm, composed of three panels, . proceedings , , of . conclusions with the described effect of the large-scale landscape collages of sabine hertig, we have addressed a novel and, therefore, surprising effect of these images on their beholder. in respect to the process of their generation, we have described a procedure that combines painterly aspects in the grounding of the composition but also and foremost in the selection of the photographs based on the grey value and structure. in this regard, sabine hertig’s process is opposed to the above described processes of arrangement and different to the expected process of collage in general. in opposition to the cubist collages of the early th century, the landscapes described are not surprising by the juxtaposition of the flat canvas and the three-dimensional space, or the confrontation of a representation with the real. the discussed landscape surprises its beholders by a three-fold experience of “seeing as”. this experience starts with the overall impression of a vast amount of undefined elements seen as a landscape. on a second level, the overall interpretation is contradicted by recognizing some of the elements of the collage as representations. and a third experience is provided by a close-up view seeing the constitution of the illusion perceived beforehand. if we now return to the question of how new images occur, we are unable to infer a general principle to evoke a new image from the discussed examples. a flow chart-like process similar to the ones developed by the design methods movement, contradicts the described findings. in opposition to a determined set of decisions which have to be made, the described procedure of sabine hertig’s landscape collages and the experimental study on arrangement by pauline guex support the claim that the observation and alteration of design processes is a way to overcome one’s own preconceptions. combining a painterly process with the process of collage in the described landscape images has led to hitherto unseen results. in this sense, our imagination is stimulated by the material and sensuous processes of image generation and reflects upon the decisions employed as well as upon the outcome of the processes. in these material processes, the experimental procedures bear the potential to go beyond the predictable set of images guided by the collective archive. this is how far we can locate the occurrence of new images. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references . conference imagination. suchen und finden, eikones, swiss national center of competence in iconic research, october . available online: https://archiv.eikones.ch/nc/veranstaltungen/detail/?tx_cheikonesevent_pi % buid% d= &chash=b b b fcec ca fb (last visited september th, ). . derrida, j. memoirs of the blind: the self-portrait and other ruins, th ed.; translated by brault, p.a., naas, m.; (originally published as mémoirs d’aveugle, l’autoportrait et autres ruines, Éditions de la réunion des musées nationaux, paris, france, ), ( st english edition ); chicago university press ltd.: london, uk, ; p. . . assmann, j. kosmogonie, schöpfung und kreativität im alten Ägypten. in mythen der kreativität, st ed.; krüger, o., sariönder, r., deschner, a., eds.; verlag otto lembeck: frankfurt, germany, ; pp. – . . kant, i. the critique of judgment, ; § . available online: http://denisdutton.com/kant_third_critique.htm (accessed on september ). . latour, b. reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network-theory, st ed.; oxford university press: oxford, uk, ; pp. – . . it is not possible to go into all the details of these theories here. terms such as abduction (pierce), impulsion (dewey), tacit knowing (polanyi), and serendipity (rheinberger) could be considered here as well. . mareis, c. design als wissenskultur, interferenzen zwischen design-und wissensdiskursen seit , st 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[ ] proceedings , , of . renner, m. practice-led iconic research. in diid, disegno industriale; rdesignpress: roma, italy, ; number , pp. – . renner, m. practice-led iconic research; towards a research methodology of visual communication. in poetry of the real, st ed.; langkilde, k.m., ed.; christoph merian verlag: basel, switzerland, ; pp. – . . [ ] (p. ) . the terms “iconic turn” (boehm ) and “pictorial turn” (mitchell ) were coined in the middle of the ’s in the context of art history in order to describe the observation of a flood-like increase of image production and dissemination caused by digitalization. both authors claimed the lack of scientific knowledge on how images generate meaning in comparison to language, which has been a topic of critical reflection since antiquity. y boehm, g.; der bilder, d.w. was ist ein bild? nd ed.; boehm, g., ed.; wilhelm fink verlag: paderborn, germany, / ; pp. – . mitchell, t.w.j. the pictorial turn. in picture theory, essays on verbal and visual representation, nd ed.; mitchell, t.w.j., ed.; chicago university press: chicago, il, usa, / ; pp. – . . boehm, g.; aloa, e.; budelacci, o.; wildgruber, g. imagination. suchen und finden, st ed.; wilhelm fink verlag: paderborn, germany, ; pp. – . . genius is the talent (or natural gift) which gives the rule to art. since talent, as the innate productive faculty of the artist, belongs itself to nature, we may express the matter thus: genius is the innate mental disposition (ingenium) through which nature gives the rule to art. kant, i. the critique of judgment, ; § . available online: http://denisdutton.com/kant_third_critique.htm (accessed on september ). . plato, meno, translated by benjamin jowett, b.c.e. available online: http://classics.mit.edu/plato/meno.html (accessed on september ). . mersch, d. medialität und kreativität. zur frage der künstlerischen produktivität. in bild und einbildungskraft, st ed.; hüppauf, b., wulff, c., eds., wilhelm fink verlag: paderborn, germany, ; pp. – . . martin heidegger describes the schema in reference to kant’s metaphysics as the rule derived from generalization of experiences. the schema-bild is the generalized image attached to the schema: heidegger, m. kant und das problem der metaphysik. in martin heidegger gesamtausgabe, i. abteilung: veröffentlichte schriften – , nd ed.; von herrmann, f.w., ed., vittorio klostermann verlag: frankfurt, germany, / ; volume , § – , pp. – . heidegger refers with his explanation to kant’s critique of pure reason: kant, i. the critique of pure reason; translated by j.m.d. meiklejohn, (ebook # ), / , . available online: www.gutenberg.org (accessed on september ). . the term of image schema again appears in recent philosophical positions informed by cognitive science: “an image schema is a dynamic, recurring pattern of organism-environment interactions. as such, it will reveal itself in the contours of our basic sensorimotor experience. consequently, one way to begin to survey the range of image schemas is via a phenomenological description of the most basic structures of all human bodily experience”. johnson, m. the meaning of the body. aesthetics of the human mind, st ed.; chicago university press: chicago, il, usa, ; p. . . lakoff, g.; johnson, m. philosophy in the flesh. the embodied mind and its challenge to western thought, st ed.; basic books: new york, ny, usa, , pp. – . johnson, m. the meaning of the body. aesthetics of the human mind, st ed.; chicago university press: chicago, il, usa, ; p. . fauconnier, g.; turner, m. the way we think, st ed.; basic books: new york, ny, usa, . proceedings , , of . “the image space is that in which images of all sensory types occur explicitly. ...the dispositional space is that in which dispositions contain the knowledge base and the mechanisms with which images can be constructed from recall, with which movements can be generated, and with which the processing of images can be facilitated”. damasio, a. the feeling of what happens. body and emotion in the making of consciousness, st ed.; houghton mifflin harcourt publishing company: orlando, fl, usa, ; p. . . renner, m. die stumme bildkritik des entwurfs—the mute iconic criticism of design. in rheinsprung . zeitschrift für bildkritik; volume , basel , pp. – . available online: https://rheinsprung .unibas.ch/fileadmin/documents/edition_pdf/ausgabe /ausgabe_ .pdf renner, m. die zeichnerische geste. soziale bedingung und individuelle ausprägung in der praxis des zeichnens. in bild und geste. figurationen des denkens in philosophie und kunst, st ed.; richtmeyer, u., goppelsröder, f., hildebrandt, t., eds., transcript: bielefeld, germany, ; pp. – . . deleuze, g. francis bacon: the logic of sensation; translated by smith, d.w.; continuum: new york, ny, usa, / ; (originally published: francis bacon: logique de la sensation, editions de la difference: paris, france, ). . meier, c.j. die dichotomie abstraktion und figuration in der deutschen kunst von bis , st ed.; epuli gmbh: berlin, germany, ; p. . . foucault, m. the archeology of knowledge; translated by smith, a.s., pantheon books: new york, ny, usa, ; (originally published: l’archéologie du savoir, Édition gallimard: paris, ), pp. – . . agamben, g. remnants of auschwitz: the witness and the archive; translated by heller-roazen, d., (originally published: quel che resta di auschwitz, bollati boringhieri, turin, italy, ); zone books: new york, ny, usa, , pp. – . . clement greenberg. collage . available online: http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/collage.html (accessed on september ). . mersch, d. kunst und wissensproduktion, lecture manuscript . available online: https://blog.zhdk.ch/kidb/files/ / / -mersch_kunst-und-wissensproduktion.pdf (accessed on september ). © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). 입체주의 표현기법을 활용한 아트 마스크 융합 디자인 박리라 중앙대학교 예술대학원 패션예술학과 art mask converged design based on an expression method of cubism li-la park dept. of fashion and arts, graduated school of arts in chung-ang university 요 약 의 아트메이크업은 미를 목 으로 하는 인간의 원 욕망이나 욕구의 논리 사고에서 벗어나 개성 화 차별화의 추세에 따라 폭넓게 개되어지고 있으며 고객의 니즈(needs)에 맞게 다양하게 융합 목되어지고 있 다. 세기 미술사조의 심이 되는 입체주의는 아트메이크업을 표 하는데 있어 창의성을 기반으로 하는 좋은 소 재가 된다. 이에 본 연구는 입체주의 표 기법을 아트메이크업에 융합시켜 아트마스크에 제시함으로써 새로운 디자 인 발상과 표 역을 창출해내는 데 있다. 연구방법은 선행연구와 인터넷 자료, 문서 등을 토 로 입체주의와 아트메이크업에 한 고찰 후, 입체주의 표 기법을 크게 복수시 , 형태의 분할, 콜라주로 나 어 피카소의 작품을 모티 로 아트마스크에 융합 디자인한다. 이러한 연구 결과, 입체주의 표 기법이 아트메이크업에도 용 가능하게 나타났으며 창의 인 아트메이크업 융합 디자인을 도출해내어 제시할 수 있었다. 향후 이에 따른 연구가 활발히 이루어지기를 기 해보며 본 연구가 아트메이크업 디자인 개발에 도움이 되길 바란다. • 주제어 : 융합, 입체주의, 피카소, 아트메이크업, 아트마스크 abstract contemporary art make-up is being widely developed in line with the trends of individualization and differentiation departing from basic desires or logical thinking about the desires of human beings who ultimately pursue beauty and experiencing diversified convergence and integration befitting customer needs. cubism that has been playing a central role at the center of art history in the th century can act as a good material based on creativity with regard to expression of the art make-up. in this regard, the study was focused on creating new concepts of design and novel areas of expression by combining expressive methods of cubism with art make-up to suggest an art mask. as for a method of the study, cubism and art make-up were examined based on preceding studies, internet data and technical books, and the expression method of cubism was divided into plural points of view, partition of shape and collage and motivated the works of picasso for the purpose of art mask-converged design. as a result of the study, it was found out that the expression method of cubism was applicable to the art make-up, and creative art make-up converged design could be generated to make a suggestion. in this regard, it is hoped that further studies will be facilitated and that this study can be instrumental in developing art make-up design. • key words : convergence, cubism, picasso, art make-up, art mask *corresponding author : 박리라(dalki @hanmail.net) received march , revised april , accepted april , published april , journal of the korea convergence society vol. . no. , pp. - , https://doi.org/ . /jkcs. . . . 한국융합학회논문지 제 권 제 호 . 서론 . 연구목적 지 이 시 의 사회는 각종 매스 미디어의 보 으로 쏟아지는 수많은 정보를 쉽게 받아들일 수 있다. 매체에 의한 정보 달은 을 자극하여 고조시키기도 하며, 그 향력을 행사하여 창의 아이디어의 원천이 되기도 한다. 서양미술에 면 신을 가져온 입체주의 한 매스 미디어의 보 으로 건축, 패션, 디자인 등 다양한 술 역과 서로 향을 주고받으면서 폭넓게 융합되어 근되어지고 있다. 융합산업은 범 하고 다양하게 발 되고 있으며, 기술 산업 간 융 복합화를 통해 제 의 산업 등장 신부가가치 창출로 이어질 수 있다[ ]. 한 통 산업을 부활시키고 다양한 사회 수요에 한 해결수단 으로 기 되고 있다[ ]. 입체주의는 기존의 양식에서 벗어나 창조 가치를 높이고 활동 역을 확 시키는 것에서 아트메이크업과 같은 맥락으로 풀이된다. 한 아트메이크업을 표 하는 데 있어 폭넓은 창작의 소재로 활용되어지고 있다. 련 선행연구를 살펴보면, 이규리[ ]는 입체주의 콜라주 특성을 응용하여 아트메이크업 작품 제작하 으 며 이경미[ ]는 photoshop을 이용하여 피카소 큐비즘 표 을 아트메이크업 작품 제작하 다. 최은화[ ]는 콜라 주 기법의 다양성, 무채색의 변용, 탈 구성면 에서 아 트메이크업 분석, 작품 제작 등 아트 메이크업의 표 역이 인체에 제한되어 있었으며 아트마스크에 제작된 사 례는 없었다. 아트마스크는 아트메이크업의 제안 창 의 표 역으로 각 받고 있으며 각종 페스티벌이나 콘테스트에서 하나의 종목으로 지정되어 있을 만큼 차 요시되며 확 되어가고 있다. 이에 본 연구는 다른 연구와 차별성이 있다고 보여지 며 아트메이크업의 새로운 디자인 발상과 새로운 표 역을 새로이 조명해보고 넓히는데 그 목 을 둔다. . 연구방법 본 연구는 년 월 일부터 년 월 일까지 인터넷 사이트(http://www.daum.net)와 선행연구, 문 서 등을 토 로 입체주의와 아트메이크업에 한 이론 고찰을 진행하 다. 고찰한 내용을 토 로 입체주의 표 기법을 창의 발상이 돋보이는 아트메이크업에 융 합시켜 총 작품 제작하 다. 조형 으로 제작된 아트마 스크에 작품 제작함으로써 아트메이크업의 새로운 디자 인 발상과 다양한 표 역을 창출해내고자 하는 것이다. . 이론적 배경 . 입체주의 개념 및 시대적 특성 입체주의(cubism)는 세기 미술에 지 한 향을 끼 친 미술 신 운동으로 년부터 년 사이에 리 를 기 으로 유럽 역으로 된 미술양식이다. 입체주의(cubism)의 큐 (cube)란 정육면체라는 뜻으 로 년 라크의 < 스타크의 풍경>이라는 연작을 본 어느 비평가가 조그만 입체덩어리(cube)라고 비평한 데에서 유래된 명칭이다. 입체 는 세잔느의 회화가 추 구한 조형 인 방법에 근거를 두고 출발하여 조르쥬 라크(georges braque, - )와 블로 피카소 (pablo picasso, - )를 심으로 형성된다. 그들 은 모두 통 인 원근화법과 삼차원 인 환 을 버리고 이를 더 훨씬 얕은 회화 공간으로 체시켰으며 단단 한 형태들의 집합으로 배열하여 새로운 구성으로 표 했 다[ ]. 리에서 시작된 입체주의는 유럽 체, 심지어 러 시아 회화까지 되어 나갔다. 유럽에서 수많은 작 가들이 이 양식으로 그림을 그리기 시작했고, 랑스에 서 발원한 입체주의를 기 로 새로운 양식들을 이끌어냈 다[ ]. 입체주의를 시 흐름으로 나 어보면 기 입체주 의( - ), 분석 입체주의( - ), 종합 입체주 의( - ) 단계로 개된다. . . 초기 입체주의 기 입체주의는 기하학 인 시각을 받아들이는 세잔 느의 향 아래 ‘세잔느풍의 입체주의’라고도 한다. “모든 물체는 원기둥, 원 축, 구 등의 기하학 형태로 환원이 가능하다.”는 원리를 수용한 세잔의 향을 받았 던 시기로 여기서 피카소와 라크는 사물의 본질 인 모습을 세잔의 이론을 심화하는 작업을 하게 된다. 상 의 자연 형태를 요약, 단순화시켰으며, 원근시 이 아닌 복수시 을 이용해 사물의 본질 인 형태를 화면에 구축[ ]하 다. . . 분석적 입체주의 피카소와 라크 등의 표 인 입체주의 화가들은 입체주의 표현기법을 활용한 아트 마스크 융합 디자인 상을 다시 으로 인식하 고 화면의 평면화, 빛의 평 등한 분산, 주제의 일 성 등으로 그 실천 성과가 더욱 견고해졌다[ ]. 상은 완 히 기하학 인 단 로 해체되 어 다시 화면 에서 재구성 되었으며 색채는 단순해졌 으며 명도는 낮아졌다. 화면은 입체감이 나타나지 않으 며, 상의 형태를 인식하기 어렵게 된다[ ]. . . 종합적 입체주의 종합 입체주의에는 지 까지 배제되었던 색채가 다 시 사용되어 평면 인 색면 구성과 사실 인 상 는 화면에 악보, 신문지, 벽지 등의 인쇄물을 붙이는 콜라주 (college), 피에 콜 (papiercolle)기법을 사용하는 시 가 형성되었다[ ]. 이러한 표 기법을 통하여 공간 인 깊이감, 물체의 질감을 더욱 강조함으로서 회화가 잃어 버린 구체 인 이미지를 회복시킴과 동시에 더욱 풍부한 표 의지를 표출하는 공간 인 조형언어를 성립시켰다 [ ]. 피카소는 원근법과 명암법을 사용하던 과거 작가들 과는 다른 방법으로 상과 리얼리티를 재 해 내 는 방법을 발명해 낸 것[ ]이며 이러한 구성의 새로운 방법은 세기 미술의 흐름을 주도하 다. 입체주의 특성에 한 선행연구를 살펴보면, 문철[ ] 은 공간 구축 방식, 복수시 , 형태의 단편화와 분할로 나 었으며, 최은화[ ]는 다시 , 재구성, 제한된 색채, 콜라 주 기법으로 나 었다. 김성 [ ]은 다시 , 콜라주, 형태 의 겹침, 선의 강조, 반복에 의한 리듬으로 나 어 분석하 다. 본 연구자는 선행연구에서 많이 나타난 복수시 , 형태의 분할, 콜라주 기법으로 나 어 고찰하고자 한다. . 입체주의 표현기법 . . 복수시점 입체주의의 가장 두드러지는 표 기법으로 한 화면에 다양한 측면들을 동시에 보여주는 기법이다. 입체 작가들은 완 한 이미지를 얻기 해 형식 이고 구조 인 특징들을 이지 으로 첨가시켰다. 정면, , 측면에서 본 모든 들을 병치함으로써 스스로 미 가치를 지닌 그러나 동시에 상을 분석 으로 묘사 한 형식 인 구조에서 생긴 윤곽선을 결합함으로서 동시 인 에서 상을 재 하 다[ ]. [fig. ]은 하나의 상이 개의 면, 얼굴의 면과 정면이 동시에 나타나 있으며 등, 가슴, 머리를 동시에 묘사하고 있는 다양한 시 을 통합하는 동시성[ ]을 보여주며, [fig. ]는 여성의 몸에서 체 인 비 칭 조형의 형태를 보여 다. [fig. ] les demoiselles d'avignon, [fig. ] woman with fan, . . 형태의 분할 표 상이 본질 인 형태에서 벗어나 기하학 인 형 태와 면으로 분할하여 화면 안에 재구성되는 기법이다. 상을 단순한 원통, 원추, 구 등 입방체인 형태로 분 석하 으며 이러한 도형성은 도형의 가장 기본인 선에 의한 평면의 단순함과 원보다는 타원에 가까운 곡선을 지향하는 경향을 보 다[ ]. [fig. ], [fig. ]는 불규칙 한 도형과 입방체, 여러 각도의 단면으로 분할되어 재구 성되었다. [fig. ] girl with a mandolin, [fig. ] portrait of ambroise vollard, . . 콜라주 콜라주(collage)란 본래 랑스어 coller에서 유래된 말로 ‘풀칠’, ‘바르기’의 의미 으나 용되어 화면에 오 제 일부를 붙여서 구성하는 회화 기법이다[ ]. 콜라주는 일상생활에 사용되고 있는 재료를 통해 창조성과 독창성 을 표 하고 있으며 그 속에는 공간 요소의 장식과 더 불어 술의 다양한 역 혼합을 통한 새로운 역의 확장 한 드러나 있다[ ]. 피카소의 첫 번째 콜라주 작 품인 [fig. ]는 둘 를 밧 로 감아 놓았는데, 테이블 테 한국융합학회논문지 제 권 제 호 두리를 속인 신주로 마감한 것을 우회 으로 표 한 것[ ]이며, 인쇄된 천을 붙이고 유리잔, 담배 등의 사물 을 그려 넣었다. [fig. ]은 콜라주의 일종인 피에 꼴 로 각종 인쇄물을 붙여 평면 구성 속에 제작된 통 인 회화 방식의 틀을 깬 작품이다. [fig. ] still life with a rattan chair, [fig. ] the guitar, . 아트메이크업의 개념 및 표현재료 아트메이크업은 단순히 미의 목 으로 활용되고 있는 뷰티메이크업에서 나아가 독창 이고 창의 인 술세 계를 표출하며 차 표 역이 확 되고 있다. 아티스 트의 술 감성이 깃든 메이크업으로 어떠한 형식과 틀에 구애받지 않아 감성시 의 들에게 뜨거운 심 을 도모함으로써 술의 한 분야로 자리매김하고 있 다. 다양한 작품 형태로 활용되고 있으며, 메이크업에서 요한 부분을 차지하고 있다[ ]. 인체에 해가 되지 않는 모든 재료는 아트메이크업에 표 가능하며 아티스트의 발상을 뒷받침해 다. 크게 수 성물감과 유성물감으로 분류되며 그 내용을 아래와 같다. . . 수성물감 수성물감은 물에 쉽게 지워지며 건조시 피부 당김과 균열이 있는 단 이 있으나 색의 표 범 가 넓고 표 방법이 용이한 장 이 있다. 수성물감에는 일반물감과 uv발 물감, 에어 러시물감이 있으며 uv발 물감은 블랙라이트(black light)에 의해 색이 형 으로 투명하게 발 된다. 독특하고 환상 인 색감 연출로 개성이 표출 되는 뷰티메이크업에서도 많이 활용되어지고 있다. uv 발 물감을 사용하여 페인 할 때는 작업 이 물감에 한 성질과 효과를 미리 확인하고 무 의 크기와 모델 의 활동 범 , 블랙라이트가 작품에 반응되는 거리를 잘 악하여 작업에 임해야 아티스트가 표 하고자 하는 작 품을 연출할 수 있다[ ]. 에어 러시물감은 수성이긴하 나 액체타입으로 건과 콤 샤(compressor)를 통해 채 색이 이루어진다. 러시로 하는 작업에 비해 자연스러 운 명암표 과 시간단축, 스텐실효과까지 얻을 수 있어 활발히 사용되어지고 있다. . . 유성물감 유성물감은 물을 사용하지 않는 제품으로 유분이 함 유되어있어 부드러운 질감을 갖고 있다. 농도가 짙어 피 부에 해가 되지 않는 소재와의 결합으로 다양한 질감 표 이 가능하다. 건조가 되지 않아 쉽게 묻어나는 단 이 있으나 우더나 도우를 얹으면 매트한 효과를 주어 지속력과 발색력을 높일 수 있다. 오늘날 제품의 다양화와 고 화에 집 되어 다양한 제품이 쏟아져 나오면서 작품의 컨셉과 디자인의 흐름에 따라 표 의 방법은 범 하게 확 되고 있다. . 작품제작 본 연구는 세기 미술사조를 표하는 입체주의에 한 고찰 후, 표 기법에 따른 피카소 작품을 선정하 다. 선정된 피카소의 작품을 그래픽 모티 로 리디자인 한 후, 아트메이크업 표 기법을 융합시켜 아트 마스크 디자인에 용. 제작하 다. 입체주의 표 기법을 복수시 , 형태의 분할, 콜라주로 나 었으며 각 작품, 총 작품 제작하 다. 작품 재료는 아트메이크업의 주재 료이며 구나 손쉽게 다룰 수 있는 수성물감과 유성물 감을 사용하 다. <table > comprehensive analysis of production expression technique motive material multiple viewpoint oil paints segmentation of forms water-based paints collage water-based paints, yarn, rope 입체주의 표현기법을 활용한 아트 마스크 융합 디자인 . 작품Ⅰ 작품Ⅰ은 입체주의의 복수시 표 기법을 활용한 작 품으로 피카소의 <아비뇽의 여인들>을 모티 로 하여 제작하 다. 다양한 각도에서 바라본 여인들의 거치게 왜곡된 얼굴을 뒤섞어 원근법의 기본원리를 배시켜 한 화면에 각각 디자인하 으며 농도가 짙은 유성물감을 사 용하여 두께감 있는 거친 느낌이 들도록 표 하 다. <table > multiple viewpoint motive work color scheme material oil paints . 작품Ⅱ 작품Ⅱ은 입체주의의 형태의 분할 표 기법을 활용한 작품으로 피카소의 <만돌린을 든 여자>를 모티 로 하 여 제작하 다. 단순화된 여인의 얼굴과 기타의 형태를 해체하여 불규칙한 형태의 다양한 도형과 입방체, 세분 화된 단면의 반복에 의한 구조로 각각 디자인하 다. 수 성물감을 사용하 으며 유사한 톤으로 이루어진 배색의 조화로 서정 인 감성이 깃든 작품을 제작하 다. <table > segmentation of forms motive work color scheme material water-based paints . 작품Ⅲ 작품Ⅲ은 입체주의의 콜라주 표 기법을 활용한 작품 으로 피카소의 <등나무의자가 있는 정물>을 모티 로 하여 제작하 다. 체 으로 수성물감을 사용하여 표 하 으며 그 에 실로 짜인 오 제와 밧 의 결합으로 의외성에 기반을 둔 작업방식으로 제작하 다. 아트마스 크의 이목구비를 그 로 살렸으며, 체 인 색상배색과 구성방식에서 괴상하고 기이한 분 기가 느껴지는 작품 이다. <table > collage motive work color scheme material water-based paints, yarn, rope . 결론 사회의 우리는 독창성과 창의성이 요시되고 있 는 시 에 살고 있다. 내재된 잠재능력을 끌어주는 술 은 우리 삶을 풍요롭고 가치 있게 만들어주며 인들 의 분출구로서 자리매김하고 있다. 모든 술은 한 연 성을 지니고 있으며 특히, 미술과 메이크업은 그 속 성이 유사하다. 최근 다양한 장르와의 융합으로 표 되 는 역이 범 해지면서 미술사조는 풍부한 소재가 되 어 다양한 역에서 활발히 융합 목되어지고 있다. 아 트메이크업에서도 그 요성이 강조되어 융합되어지고 있는데, 이에 본 연구는 세기 미술사조의 심이 되는 입체주의를 복수시 , 형태의 분할, 콜라주 표 기법으로 나 어 피카소의 작품을 모티 로 아트마스크에 융합 디 자인하 다. 본 연구의 수행 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 이론 고찰을 통하여 입체주의의 복수시 , 형 태의 분할, 콜라주 표 기법은 아트메이크업에 활용 가 능한 주제로 나타났다. 둘째, 아트메이크업에 사용되는 수성물감, 유성물감의 특성을 살펴본 결과, 입체주의 표 기법에도 용될 수 있는 방법론을 제시할 수 있었다. 셋째, 입체주의의 표 기법을 활용한 아트메이크업 융 합디자인을 아트마스크에 제작함으로써 창의 인 디자 한국융합학회논문지 제 권 제 호 인 발상과 새로운 표 역을 제시할 수 있었다. 본 연구는 미술과 메이크업분야가 융합 목될 수 있 는 기반을 마련하여 술분야의 표 역을 넓히는 데 방향성을 제시하 으며 아트메이크업의 창조 인 디자 인 발상을 한 지침이라는 에서 그 학술 의의와 연 구가치가 크다. 한 아트마스트에 작품 제작함으로써 새로운 표 역을 창출해내어 아트메이크업의 문화 다양화에 기여했다는 의의를 가진다. 향후 아트메이크업 이 술 학문 으로 더욱 발 할 수 있도록 폭넓은 연 구와 교류가 지속 이루어지기를 바라며 아트마스크가 하나의 아트메이크업 표 분야로 자리매김하길 기 한다. references [ ] e. y. park, d. g. kwag, “the study on the market competitiveness reinforcement for convergence industry”, journal of the korea convergence society, vol. , no. , pp. - , . 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[ ] d. y. gang, “korea makeup art”, seoul: giindang. . 저자소개 박 리 라(li-la park) [정회원] • 년 월 : 앙 학교 술 학원 패션 술학과(패션 술학석 사) • 년 월 ～ 년 월 : 명지 문 학교 뷰티아트과 빙교수 < 심분야> : 미술, 메이크업 neohel_ ( ) _chap .vp speculum leo rafolt america and the non-european world in the plays of josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” josip kosor’s dramatic work is well known to both croatian and european readership and theatre public. first of all, common reader is well acquainted with the author’s so called ‘rural dramatic cycle’ – especially his most ‘specific’ and the most appreciated modernis- tic play, flame of passion. this paper will try to interpret – using the critical concepts of literary anthropology, intercultural studies and theatre sociology – the so called ‘parisian phase’ of his literary work, his intercultural dramas in café du dôme and rotonda. after positioning his dramas in their cultural, historical and literary context, after analyzing their performative background, we will try to ( ) discover the so called ‘extraliterary alusiveness’ that is present in kosor’s dramatic cycle, ( ) read out some of the concepts of social, gender and, especially, ethnic stratification, as well as their function in producing cultural stereotypes about american and non-european, especially far-eastern world of the early twentieth century. i among josip kosor’s plays flame of passion and reconciliation are often mentioned as paradigmatic. unlike these plays, bluntly naturalistic, with some elements of the expressionist dramaturgy, but with utterly rural themes, theatre pieces of the kosor’s so-called parisian period are characterised by certain metropolitan liveliness, interna- tional spirit and an interest for the exotic, “for the black africa, yellow east, india, ja- pan, china, babylon, greece, mysticism, philosophy, esoterica, old aristocratic europe faced with a mythic phenomenon – america, and its main greatest asset – cap- – /$ . akadémiai kiadó, budapest © akadémiai kiadó, budapest springer, dordrecht neohelicon xxxiii ( ) , – it should be mentioned that flame of passion was written in german during the author’s stay in vienna. the play was first published in munich in . it was published in croatian in , shortly after its first performance in the croatian national theatre on the th august . first german performances also took place in the same year, in mannheim and munich. in kosor’s reconciliation was premièred in the same theatre, but it was not published until . leo rafolt, department of croatian language and literature, faculty of social sciences and hu- manities, university of zagreb, ivana luciha , zagreb. e-mail: leo.rafolt@zg.t-com.hr leo rafolt ital.” of course, these are the plays in café du dôme and rotonda. the first was published in zagreb in , premièred the same year in the then national theatre for dalmatia and it was directed by rade pregarc. on the other hand, rotonda was pub- lished in and has not been staged so far. our primary interest here will be the author’s dramaturgical shaping of the picture of “the other”, that is the characters that come from the american continent, india and far east. one should briefly present the basic plot characteristics in kosor’s plays. café du dôme is a two-act play that takes place in a parisian café of the same name, on the day when “the germans were pushed further back from marne”, that is on septem- ber , . the play begins with an empty conversation among several bohemians and their sporadic skirmishes with the waiters. almost simultaneously, on the other end of the café, djem, a rich american entrepreneur, is courting a lady whose name is not mentioned. she rejects him at first, indeed, she mocks him for his rude material- ism. after one of the bohemians steals djem’s wallet, the american threatens them with a gun. the climax of the play, needless to say, is a fight among the apaches, who have attacked the american and thus protected the bohemians. however, such a course of action is interrupted by the lady who persuades djem to test his boxing skills in a match on the corner at rotonda. if he wins, of course, she will be his and go to america with him. the end of the play is marked by the american’s symbolic en- trance into the café, accompanied by the sound of bizet’s toreador’s march. namely, djem wins the boxing match and takes the lady to america. on the other hand, kosor’s rotonda has a much more complicated plot. in four acts, the playwright introduces a whole range of characters onto the scene, members of various ranks of society, and with various cultural and geographical backgrounds. miss mathilda dormeck, a whimsical daughter of an extremely rich mr. dormeck, does not want to marry a rich american businessman, but “searching for compensa- tion, she connects with a potent jockey, a don quixotic grotesque poseur hern max von poser”. the first act of the play is a lament of three bohemians who notice the dif- ferences between the rotunda before the war and after the war. at the moment when the three policemen burst into the café in order to arrest the bohemians, a fakir enters the stage. namely, the fakir begins to levitate, “begins to raise and flies high in the air” ( ), that creates panic not only in the whole café, but in the whole montparnasse as well. furthermore, max von poser tries to win mathilda’s hand, her money as a matter of fact, but she says she will say yes if he wins the race in saint claude. after poser’s paljetak ( ), . branko hehimovih points out that this so-called international period of the playwrights includes three plays, in café du dôme, rotonda and humanity. cf. hehimovih ( ). on the critical reception of these plays cf. hehimovih ( ), jelcih ( ) and paljetak ( ). paljetak ( ), . all quotations come from the new edition of kosor’s plays in café du dôme / rotonda, zagreb . therefore the numbers in brackets come from this edition. failure to do that, mathilda does not want him any more and the main action of the play switches to “quat’z – arts”, a big ball under masks with artists in the amusement park in montparnasse. miss dormeck is there, says one of the participants, … in a modest, human and all-social way in front of the board of the ‘quat’z-arts ball’ – has a phenomenal million-dollar check written out for the poor bohemian artists, and that causes the most shaking and dramatic cyclone of elation in the very rich hall, that my words are unable to convey, perhaps only inspire pious awe!... ( ). such an ecstatic mood is suddenly interrupted by a stultifying shot. the patron has, completely unexpectedly, not being able to bare such (class) humiliation, shot himself with a gun, symbolically – at the moment when the second floor starts to resound with “black melodies” and while “the hungry russian jew (howls accompanied by a jazz band): u u u u u u!...” ( ). we see that the plots of kosor’s plays are completely simplified. the playwright’s intention was symbolical portrayal of pre- and post-war atmosphere in a european capital. however, the author displays favouritism in these symbolical layers at the same time, the layers are in the so-called foreground and it frequently seems that the characters’ rebuttals are utterly overdone and artificial, totally in the function of the playwright’s thesis. but it is exactly this structure of the kosor’s text that supports our reading. namely, every type of culturally (or anthropologically) directed reading aims at reading those elements out of a play’s text (and performance) that represent moments of its (and the playwright’s) out-of-the-literary allusiveness. a wide spec- trum of characters in these plays is, of course, symptomatic. namely, a reader or viewer of kosor’s theatrical pieces cannot avoid noticing some kind of cultural disin- tegration present in the dramatic tissue of café and rotonda. following duvignaud’s statement about a theatre as a certain harnessing of the social act, we tried to under- stand the constructive elements of the kosor’s imaging of america and of the non-eu- ropean world. ii kosor placed the action of his two plays in the real historical time of the twentieth cen- tury. luko paljetak mentions that “the first one (in café du dôme) was marked by the beginning, and the second (rotonda) by the euphoric ending of world war i, so that is the thing that differentiates them when it comes to the atmosphere and theme, which is, since the setting is the same – montparnasse – the same only at first glance.” fur- thermore, the space between the two cafés, represented in the very title, is also a real historical space. namely, centres of parisian cultural life during and after world war i were its cafés, especially those in monparnasse, that is – café du dôme, rotonda and la coupole. one should also mention that, of course, the playwright’s stays in paris, josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” cf. duvignaud ( ). paljetak ( ), . first in and later in , influenced a great deal his shaping of the atmosphere present in the above mentioned dramatic cafés. boško tokin mentions that “beside trotsky and other less important russians” rotonda was also frequented by ... a proud mexican ortiz de zarate, a japanese fuzita […] modiliani, one of the most beauti- ful people, a strange russian mark talof, a christianized jew, who slept in ‘rotonda’ and used to say in his exceptional russian accent ‘i am catholic vu save’, and maks jacob, pi- casso, salmon, carlo, lipshiic, kissling, shanna orlof, fels, vlamenk, deren, together with a whole army of models led by a black woman aisha, then the scandinavians, americans etc. […] everything under the receptive eye of the owner libion, and the waiters, among whom andre was very nice, who was able to judge a situation right away asking if we wanted our coffee ‘avec sukup’ which meant if wanted to pay some right away or some other time when we would have the money. […] the whole ‘rotonda’ was like a happy family and everyone, so to speak, at least then shared the good and the bad. we realize that a café over time became a style of living, a special semantic field, a meeting point for different classes and ethnic groups. it should be noted in the begin- ning that a café is a sociopetal space, or – totally simplified – a space for the socializa- tion of more characters. in the opening scene of the first act kosor describes the inte- rior of café du dôme like this: at some round and square tables in the colour of stone, on sofas and chairs, sit several fantas- tic guys – future artists – lounging with the ladies of the night. at a small round table by the window that overlooks the noisy street sits a rich american around the age of , who came to paris to ‘let himself go’. ( ) namely, it is a parisian café, rotonda or café du dôme, that will become the main space for the writing of history into a dramatic text. naturally, the “big” history is not the only semantic field in which a drama can be completely exhausted, but it enters the play in various ways, mostly allusively through replicas, one could say, of the marginalized social groups. thus, the bohemians speak about historical changes that grasped the atmosphere of parisian cafés: besides, ‘rotonda’ became a fornicating house of international pervert junk from the whole country… of everything that escapes the horrible impact of laws in its own country, that es- capes to paris and chooses ‘rotonda’ for the favourite place to spend time. what a shame for the tradition of the generations of artists from montparnasse… ( – ) or enthusiastically shout revolutionary slogans: the café returns to life, people cough, laugh, pleasant tensions becomes stronger, they whis- per, there’s murmur, live gestures. –the waiter and a friend bring champagne to his “future ones”, corks fly, the air is filled with shouts: ‘long live the porridge! allons enfants. ( ) leo rafolt tokin ( ), – for a short history of european cafés cf. cindrih ( ). for the notions of socipetality and sociofugality in theatrical proxemics see elam ( ). it is interesting that in such a symbolic cry artistic, ideological and political move- ments (otherwise related anyway) are semantically aligned, but ironically too of course. “long live cubism, futurism and bolshevism!” ( ) this ironical approach is completely justified also since many members of the al- ready mentioned political and avant-garde movements, like trotsky or lenin, really frequented parisian cafés in montparnasse. on the other hand, the time of “great war” (as well as the after-war crisis) regularly creates apathy and pessimism in kosor’s drama characters. one of the bohemians de- scribes the unenviable position of an artist at the onset of world war i: you have explained to me precisely why a man in these times is unfit to work: pro primo, dev- astating moral depression. secondly, there is no prospect of selling an artist’s work, since the squares of europe are vanishing perfectly in the black blizzard of war… thirdly, physical ex- haustion caused by lack of food, and fourthly, something is in the air, something bacillic, un- predictable and cruel, something that strangles and does not allow to breathe. influenza! in shakespeare’s ‘macbeth’, at the point when macbeth murders king duncan, it is said that macbeth does murder sleep, chief nourisher in life’s feast, great nature’s second course, and this war, europe and its rotten world, murders the divinely oxygen, the food of all food and of all the lives of our planet!… ( – ) the after-war period is, although in a much more condensed manner, described in the same way, with strength and symbolism. the character, a member of the same so- cial rank, a bohemian from rotonda, exclaims the following: “our époque has gone crazy!…” ( ) the reasons for such pessimistic visions of the modern capitalist society need to be looked for in the previous époque. that is to say, as we perceive the era of globalisation as represented by liberal capitalism, so did the culture of the twenties differentiate its time from the previous periods exactly by its definition through capitalist way of manufacture and distribution, that is, by manifestations that have a recognisable dependence with this definition: by the condensing of social life in large cities, by the swing of industry and technological development or by the forms of social stratification characteristic to bourgeois society. michael north, for example, notes that in a great number of contemporary theoreti- cal discussions the guilt for the collapse of modernism as an, in habermassian words, josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” cvijeta pavloviæ mentions that kosor’s characters in their frequent slogans cry out and repeat the names of the following movements – impressionism, cubism, dadaism, bolshevism, social- ism – but expressionism only once. it is interesting that the playwright’s dramaturgy, stylistically totally heterogeneous, is perhaps closest to the expressionist poetics. cf. pavlovih ( ), – . kravar ( a), – . incomplete project is blamed on technology, liberal democracy, cultural modernism and other attainments of enlightenment. in the aftermath of such contemplative resis- tance certain forms of political aesthetic emerge, that is, specific forms of artistic (aesthetic) modernism that can be defined precisely by their antagonism to other ele- ments of modernity, such as rationalism, capitalism and material progress and the like. furthermore, although it seems to us as semantically extremely closed and to a cer- tain degree homogenous, the café area, such as that of rotonda, is clearly stratified. what we see on the stage is actually the lower floor of the café, the area that takes over the largest part of the plot and within which coexist a multitude of most varied drama entities. if we count up only some, for example, – a lady, an american, bohemians, half ladies, apaches, waiters (in café du dôme) americans and english ladies, fa- kir, hindi, indian, japanese, chinese, blacks, algerians, perverted types (rotonda), we shall realise that there is a completely specific type of stratification at work here. we could, of course, conclude that the author’s intercultural matrix in the choice of characters creates three basic types of stratifications. we could call the first stratification a social one. mate ujeviæ points out that dur- ing the performance of café in split “the hungrier part of the audience applauded when [kosor] beat capitalism, and the fuller part of the audience – philistine-bour- geois seated in the mezzanine – when he stressed that the solution lay in compro- mise”. in one scene of the play one of the bohemians says that “it is in the spirit of the time that all social and material values become equal” ( ). but such view can, of course, be held by a member of a bohemian stratum, that is – an extremely anarchic social phenomenon that considers capitalism to be its most extreme adversary. thus, robbing djem, the american, means to resist, to take revenge on “beastly capitalist america” ( ). the primary initiator of social stratification within the plays is, of course, money. at one point, at the peak of the act of asking in marriage, the american from the café defines a specific power of money as “an agency of divine power and universal powers of the cosmic laws on our planet!…” ( ) on the other hand, the characters of patron or the manager from rotonda are members of the newly formed middle-class that has made its fortune quickly, mainly during the war, and that is trying to keep that economically above all favourable status. for example, at one point the manager talks of “poverty that is the worst vice, it is the axiom of mil- lions!…” ( ) a second type of stratification we could call gender stratification. although, spe- cifically, there are some indications of the author’s specific sexually-discriminatory viewpoint, we shall be interested in the way in which the sexual (gender) perspective shifts the acting lines of force within the play, or more precisely how it affects the other types of stratification. the most dominant female character in café is lady, de- scribed in the index of names as “a beauty, years old” ( ), alongside café characters leo rafolt see north ( ) and kravar ( ). ujevih ( ), . of female bohemians, zaneta and suzeta. the lady is at the onset an extreme oppo- nent of the rigid materialist philosophy of life embodied by america, and a fierce ad- vocate of the european cultural heritage. finally, she nevertheless goes to america to the estate of a rich entrepreneur, symbolically reconciling eternally opposed poles of idealism and materialism. let the opposed poles reconcile in front of my tearful eyes, the poles that hate each other and fight one another from primordial times: materialism and idealism, reality and dream, blood and soul, since there is no life for one without the other!… (groaning): oh, oh, there is no life without a compromise, without a little shame! there is no home for a pitiful soul without a body!… nature, you ancient ruffian, damned be you!… ( ) apart form the already mentioned lady who creates the basic twist of café du dôme, and miss mathilda dormeck, her symbolic counterpart from rotonda, over the stage of the parisian café life a whole set of female characters passes, but the civic demi-mondes are the ones who contribute the most to the wanton atmosphere of play, dancing in delirium, spitting and raising their skirts at the slightest sign of verbal con- flict or a fight. female characters are therefore the basic plot factors present in both plays. both in café du dôme and in rotonda the female characters are active partici- pants in a multitude of sexual intrigues (lady and djem, mathilda and poser), thefts (zaneta and suzeta), verbal and physical conflicts. we could observe the aforementioned stratification strategies from a completely different viewpoint. at this moment, an imperative question arises: what are the fun- damental differences between critical allusions to modern liberal and capitalist soci- ety, whether direct or indirect, that the characters of rotonda and café produce? for instance, lady’s incessant emphasizing of a specific american cultural handicap pos- sesses a completely different meaning from the one, of course, capitalist aspect of mo- dernity given by the bohemians. conservative attacks on the so-called capitalist mod- ernism are, of course, directed at the past, and are visible in almost all of lady’s repli- cas that tend to defend something we could call culture or even heritage. to djem’s constant proposals of love she once replies: you are an indian, a redskin! your soul is dying with hunger cramps right next to full plates of rich, most fluid, aromatic eatables! go to the notre dame and if you possess an atom of sense for the grandeur of human spirit, race, époques, you will become aware that only one ‘no- tre-dame’ is more valuable, by all standards, from all of america, with all its goldmines and spiritually limited dollar billionaires!… even if france did not have a napoleon, a molière, a victor hugo, a maupassant, etc. but only cathedrals à la notre-dame, they alone would make france great! ( ) furthermore, the sharpest criticisms of the poorer aspects of a capitalist economy as well as the liberal model, both in rotonda and café, are given by the members of josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” in stage directions we regularly learn that demi-mondes “rub their chests […], splash, lift their skirts, rub thighs” and let out inarticulate noises: “brrr, brrr!” ( ) bohemian (cultural) milieu. on one occasion, at the climax of the play and immedi- ately before a physical showdown with djem, the absolute representative of the so called “vampire soul” ( ) of capitalism, the bohemians symbolically define their role in society: do you know that if there was no us, the humanity would rot in soul and waste away in over-satiety, inveteracy and muddy materialism, and you attack us so viciously, you- […] do you know that we are to human society what air, azure, light and saint are to a man!… […] do you know that we open the eyes of the stupid masses, and particularly of the capitalism animalized from over-satiety, to its daft vampire soul we present divine thoughts, images and symbols!… so the sleepy loafer in him awakens and the vampire regains consciousness and opens its eyes to the daylight, and you- […] do you know that if there was no us, that the man would remain equal to a common beast, he would not know how to think, how to speak or how to express himself about the day, the sun, the night and the star!… we are the ones who gave the language, pathos and the passion!… he would remain primeval and would eat food four legged like a dog with its snout, like a bear with its paw, like a bird of pray with its claws, and you low creature – […] ( – ) of course, the reader is perfectly aware that their basic intention is passively to wait for what they advocate. they talk of class, totality, of a kind of a better world “with a healthy currency” ( – ). although their periodical and unmotivated proclamation of revolutionary slogans, followed by their verbal, but also physical (alongside a group of apache indians) showdown with the american boxing champion djem, from whom “truculently sprays […] poisonous capitalism!…” ( ), sometimes seems humorous and to no purpose, the characters of the bohemians do actually power a cer- tain mechanism of social critique. they are actually representatives of some type of undeveloped, illusionary and (auto)ironic pre-marxist thought. in one of the first scenes of café the author directly, of course, through lady’s mouth, lucidly describes them as “the disinherited children of the fateful step-mother’s art” ( ). patron and the manager, the central characters of kosor’s rotonda, in one of their interesting conver- sations sort the bohemian clientele in the following manner, “perverse types”, “me- nagerie”, and then “café-crèmians” and “bockblondians”, mostly by the type of cheap drinks they order. and what is with the café-crèmians and blockbondians, did the number of their fatal visits to the café decrease? i cannot tell you, manager, how much they hurt my eyes and how i suffer from nervousness, since they constantly stink and rot in ‘rotonda’. ( ) the final triumph of the bohemians is, of course, initiated by the political authori- ties. the city has decided that tonight the bohemians should not be expelled! asked by the manager to leave the premises of the café, “since the patron is in dangerous state” ( ), the bohemians defy him with words: “did you not hear that the republic and paris are on our side tonight?! i command you [the jazz-band], be loud!” ( ) leo rafolt so there are two basic types of the so called political aesthetics of kosor’s parisian plays. the author on one side dramatises the whole set of forms of extra-literary (di- rect and indirect) allusiveness, of which the most dominant model is the one aimed at so-called capitalist modernism. on the other hand, such type of direct communication with a socio-political context produces a completely specific model of stereotyping, mostly nationally (ethnically) conditioned. we will, in the following chapters, be pri- marily interested in the so-called ethnical stratification present in kosor’s “parisian” plays, of course – not without the insight into the social background of such authorical strategy. we shall bear in mind also to an extent separate entities of such stratification – the members of the american continent on the one side and the rest of non-european world on the other. iii the american world of café du dôme is presented through the character of djem. he is a character who simply is in that café, but does on no account belong there. it is per- fectly clear that it is djem who is a member of a completely different semantic field, in itself a specific newly-determined (capital) that is trying by all might to force itself un- der the roof of the old determiner (pre-war café). he regularly tends to pay in large bank notes of one hundred francs to show his material advantage in these café sur- roundings. furthermore, the bohemians and the café ladies, not aware of his real name, often call him the all-american name sam. just look how ugly this sam is. americans are usually pretty people, prettier than the stunted spaniards, italians or the french, but this horse thief from the prairie is ugly. […] he looks like he’s not even from america but from new zealand and belongs to a wild tribe of canni- bals, just look at those cheek bones and the jaw: he could surely bite through a piece of ele- phant meat. ( ) and while the parisian lady rejects him at the beginning and figuratively calls him an indian, the bohemians describe his initial courtship in the following manner: as if a beast from a primeval forest will throw itself onto a wild horse to fly like a thunder down the prairie!… […] his nostrils shiver like those of a stallion and wide-open mouth lust- fully slurp the perfume of her divine tan and ‘lusciously’ rustling dresses… […] his knees tremble with passion, the fingers cramp like predator’s claws clinching its prey… […] animal thrill bends his spine… it seems that the beast is perverse… […] all-antediluvian man, a liv- ing example of an ape disguised as a man… when, all hot and blinded with passion, moves closer to the female whose scent he detected… yuck, to hell, nature is disgusting… ( ) josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” i took the concept of political aesthetic from michael north who uses the said term in his analy- sis of literary opus of w. b. yeats, t. s. elliot and e. l. pound. see north ( ). this is an excellent example of the linguistic or, more precisely, onomastic founded stereotyp- ing. first and foremost symptomatic is the scene in which the american manages to ask for the lady’s hand in marriage. at the same time he asks the waiter for the receipt. the symbolism of this simultaneous intervention (money for the drinks, hand in mar- riage for the money!) cannot be resisted by the bohemians who comment: “do not interrupt this pure ceremonial moment with a banal receipt!…” ( ) the treatment of the american world in rotonda is, of course, quite similar, if not identical to the one in café. the central character of those post-war capitalist sur- roundings is miss mathilda dormeck, “american billionaire” who is “taking in mar- riage, you understand me, is not being given in marriage, but is taking in marriage a horse-riding teacher from zürich, whose entire estate is one old mare” ( ). it is the american women, of course, who disrupt the civic hypocrisy of europe. for example, one of them enters a café without a hat, which invokes a turbulent reaction with the manager since “a visit of a lady to ‘rotonda’ with a hat on is the custom” ( ): “if our patron was to see this, he’d have a stroke, totally stressed-out and shaken up that he is!… ( ); to what the american man that is accompanying the lady lucidly answers, provoking a storm of approval with the strangers present in the café: “well, a hat does not cover the prostitutions of paris, nor the prostitutions of europe!…” ( ) one of the interesting characters in café rotonda, who is from a non-european re- gion, is most certainly the industrialist mr. dormeck, mathilda’s father. in scene eight of the second act he confronts his daughter’s husband-to-be, herr von poser, with threats: “you will first work in american mines as the lowest worker, a few meters below ground, so you’d get to know life, its astringency and bitterness. all you did through all of your life must have been riding?” ( ) this confrontation marks the end of the second act, but at the same time initiates a specific turn in the author’s treatment of the american world. john schwartzmantel, for instance, points out that the american socio-political model [after the revolution] is extremely individual, and within it “everyone can, and really should, dedicate them- selves to work, commerce and profit. […] politics was considered, as an instrument, the means for advocating the search for personal interests that are common to all citi- zens. the republic and the consumer society went hand in hand.” the aforemen- tioned form of capitalist individualism had to be a specific novum in the atmosphere of the european (as well as parisian) after-war period, and, in that way, invoke some re- actions in bohemian, idealism inclined, circles. leo rafolt schwarzmantel ( ), . it is worth mentioning here the often stated theory on the conflict of opposite sexes, idealism and materialism, and the final compromise of the aforementioned, as a central resolution moment of the analysed dramas. see hehimovih ( ), jelcih ( ), jezih ( ), etc. non-european, mainly far-eastern world in kosor’s plays is presented with a wide palette of characters. in café, for example, only four apache indians are mentioned, while in rotonda fakir, hindi, indian, japanese, chinese, blacks and algerians all take part. the characters of the apache indians in café du dôme enter not until scene three of the second act, of course, with a sole intention to partake in the physical con- flict with djem. their part is reduced to partaking in the scenes of mass bar brawls and, to an extent, in the denouement of the play. they shout out revolutionary slogans when they read a news story on “catastrophe of the german army”: “vive le socialisme et l’anarchisme!…” ( ) in rotonda, on the other hand, the non-european, far-eastern world enters through eurocentric replies of the waiter, the manager and patron. japanese or even chinese customers in the café regularly talk in a “dry, slightly parrot-like” voice, producing extremely unarticulated, almost animal sounds, for example, “pih, cik, keko- kiki-kikikikiriki!” ( ). entering rotonda, tall and slim hindi “rises and holds his arms up,” saying: and a white elephant, divine visionary miracle of ceylon and all india flies in triumph gallop- ing, along scented leopard jungles, crystally magically and abundantly intertwined with sound of bird throats… he flies to adam’s hill carrying a large buddha, to receive the announcement of krishna, vishna and all immortal gods and make an agreement with eternity and nirvana about the fate of the earth and the humanity!… hahaha! ( ) limping indian adds to that: “python wraps himself in circles of wisdom around the tree of all knowledge… he will wrap himself in circles of horror around your degenerate, beastly soul!… ( ) the previously mentioned fakir, probably preparing for his magic act, “makes large signs in the air to invisible ghosts by twisting his face into an incredible expres- sion” ( ). it is interesting that it is just the character of fakir that becomes a certain threat to the economic stability of the café, jeopardizing with his esotericism café profit, therefore the basic principles of european capitalism. but just as interesting is the way in which the patron describes him, articulating his views completely in accor- dance with the oriental stereotyping of the time: and if we, to a certain extent, have to believe in his magical powers, it is said, that these sons of the jungle, buddha and nirvana, in their dark mystical power are capable, focusing all their hellish will – god knows after how many and what type of dark psychic exercises – of killing a man on the spot with a single, like a serpent’s sting ice-cold dirty look!… […] you will find him in some cavern, where he drinks a stale stinking beer with yellow, ghostly, white- dress-clad mohammedans from algiers!… ( – ) edward w. said notes that the orient has always “been a european invention and from the ancient times has been a place of romance, exotic creatures, memories and landscapes that haunt like ghosts, a place of unique experiences”. for said, the di- rection of imperial power, and by that a direction of stereotyping, is perfectly clear josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” said ( ), . since, of course, orientalism exists, but the occidentism does not. therefore, every in- vestment into orient or, for instance, an attempt of narrative definition, is necessarily discriminative. such orient is actually orientised and mediated by a string of occiden- tal paradigms – it can by no means be presented by pure knowledge, but only func- tionally represented and marked by a particular manipulative reading and con- textualisation strategy. exceptionally interesting scene of the fourth, final act of rotonda is the one in which, in the middle of carnival madness quart’z arts ball, hindi and indian talk about their material poverty, but at the same time give a strong critique of a dominant euro- pean and capitalist society. their critique is theoretically organised completely eco- logically. the indian within the same scene says that “not by an atom can the nature or cosmos be fooled! […] an atom punishes and rewards an atom…” hindi adds to that: all nature is damaged and the earth in its axis is dangerously upset from the war carnival of massive death, slaughter, annihilation, earthquakes, explosions and general poisoning, and a grave moral insult has been made… […] and the humanity insults, maims a weak one, lames and blinds nature itself… morally, psychically and chemically!… so that she, at the end, like an abused tiger, lion or an elephant, enrages and returns the favour in the form of earthquakes, volcanoes, cyclones, floods, geological reformations and even a perfect catastrophe of planet!… ( ) we realise that in the final scenes of the play the critical meaning turns around somewhat. now the non-european world will become the lens of mediation of truth about the corruption of europe, america and the western system of values. they are – all they want is to stretch out in a bar like pigs – for pleasure and debauchery, and to think that enjoy their nature and question through their prism the universal divinity, not a bit about that!… […] they are only for consummation: hap, hap, and then into the bed with a woman, and: hup, hup, hup!… ( – ) at this moment we should ask ourselves: in what way does the world outside eu- rope penetrate the tissue of the drama text? firstly, it is completely clear that the drama characters and the corresponding replicas are the basic carriers of the problem. on the other hand, some of the philosophical thoughts that the bohemians speak out are of eastern origin. furthermore, some of the performance elements, e.g. music, dance, apache-indian battle with knives or fakir’s magic act, also belong to that cli- mate. what, then, are the basic mechanisms of the manufacture of stereotypes that are present in kosor’s international plays? patrice pavis, a well known french theoreti- cian of performing arts, notes that the intercultural theory paradigm should not be used for the purpose of comparing cultural identities, differences, common motifs and such like, but solely for interpreting specific cultural transpositions of performance such as, for instance, brook’s production of the exotic mahabharata or barba’s faust for indian and japanese actors and dancers. on the contrary, we hold the opinion that in our case exactly such theoretic strategy would be truly useful since, for exam- leo rafolt see pavis ( a). ple, the characters of fakir, hindi, indian, algerians, japanese and chinese, the most dominant drama characters in the performance, bringing their own performance cus- toms into the play, at the same time change the entire cultural field of performance. thus, more strategies of the so-called stereotype production are at work, all connected into a sort of a circle of theatrical representation. that circle could be defined with the help of three key moments: ( ) taking possession, ( ) adaptation and ( ) irony. the first is created at the moment when one of the elements of the so called cultural field “two,” such as the language of the japanese, the magic of fakir, philosophical thought of india is taken, brought into the text. then that same element is adapted to the new, european cultural field, for instance, bohemians speak out to the wise indian sayings that, when spoken by their mouths, sound banal or semantically empty; and there is an attempt to banish the fakir from paris, and if not, then to try create a source of income out of him as a circus attraction. of course, such a discriminative position of the european world is at the end skilfully made ironic by the author through a com- promise solution in café or perhaps by a triumphant orgy, as well as through a specific class and ethnic melting pot in rotonda. kosor’s view of “the other” is extremely ex- ceptional. he uses the symbolic inventory of the culture of the other – their tradition, that what other characters make a mockery or a parody out of – but by such action of the author, the discriminative viewpoint of the dominant culture is being stripped down. therefore, the introduction of “the other” as well as “the culture of the other” is dramaturgically completely motivated. it is exactly by that procedure that all the para- doxes of euro-centrism are theatrized and one totally outstanding colonial viewpoint is revealed. iv if we at this point examine closely some key performance moments of the two of kosor’s plays, we shall realise that they to a large extent contribute to the representa- tional strategy we tried to interpret in the previous chapters. the area of the café is clearly defined by meaning. it is an extremely illusory area, sort of a theatre within theatre, within which “future artists”, bohemians, ladies of a questionable morale, rich entrepreneurs and others meet. the author constantly reminds us by the means of closed dramaturgy that café du dôme is one particular semantic field within the area of the city. the american, for instance, observes the outcomes of diseases, war and human poverty through the window of the café: “hearse passes in front of the window, rattling along with black undertakers and a black cof- fin.” ( ) his obvious uneasiness (and intention to leave the café) is lucidly commented on by the waiter in the following manner: josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” see pavis’ appropriation, ibid. but if you are leaving just because of that, because the dead make you feel uneasy, you are gravely mistaken that you’ll escape them on the outside. from every street, at all the cross- roads, a black hearse and the dead will block your way… ( ) café area keeps its autonomy even after the scene of mass fight when it is, of course, expected that some of the partakers of the conflict will leave the scene. instead of that, instead of the expected denouement, the author strives to retain the proxemic autonomy of the café by specific simultaneous invasions on stage. almost at the same time into the café “enters a lovely lady and, having observed the scene, raises her arm in horror”, and then – “[i]nstantly everything dies down, stiffens and goes quiet.” ( ), and a boy brings the newspaper with the news of the german military catastrophe, at which point “everyone grabs a newspaper, […] passionately read, cramp, exclaim with hands in the air: vive la france! vive la france! vive la monde!…” ( ) in rotonda, the scene is also completely closed. specifically, the first, second and fourth acts take place in the café, while the third is moved to a horseracing track in saint cloud. at the beginning of the play, in its introductory stage directions, the au- thor describes the interior of the café in the following manner: café ‘rotonda‘ on montparnasse in paris. on the walls, pictures by impressionist, cubist and futurist artists. in front, varlaine’s bust. the space is divided into three parts. to the right, a buffet, to the left, the café, at the back, on the left, stairs rise up to the restaurant. sofas on both sides against the wall, in front of them tightly placed tables, down the middle another set of tightly placed tables... ( ) at this moment it is important to point out that the complex and multi-meaning proxemics of café rotonda are marked by two opposing scenes: the first, in the fore- front, downstairs, where most of the play takes place, and the second, in the back- ground, on the second floor, from which the sounds of “black melodies” of a jazz band, or the music of a “russian jew” can be heard. the performance simultaneity is often suggested in stage directions: all guest rise to their feet. a mutiny. [this refers to the lower floor]. on the first floor, the dancing to the wild jazz band is more and more passionate, accompanied by the murmur of voices and screams: hip, hip, hip, hip! in one place in kosor’s rotonda the café’s “upstairs” is defined as “hell, where syphilis, cancer and scrofula swirl around”, a place where its characters find their “oblivion” in “other person’s fog of alcohol and blunt drunkenness of miracle, in two-step, foxtrot, tango and chimic strokes” ( ). café atmosphere soon becomes pars pro toto of the whole montparnasse. and so the manager at one point adds: “montparnasse n’est pas plus que la mont des tipes perverses!…” ( ) the racetrack on which the plot of the third act takes place totally takes over the se- mantics of the café. in that place, all lines of force of the conflict that the reader (spec- tator) is already familiar with from the café are reactivated. only the scene of the race- track in saint cloud is presented in absentia, “forwards over the audience, invisible” leo rafolt ( ). the atmosphere, all social conflicts and almost all ethnic elements present in cafes are here only proxemically dis-placed, by no means moved, neither physically or symbolically. the last act also confirms this, the grand return to rotonda, which “bathes in white electric light”, and from which the café masses “observe [costumed and stylised] guests of honour and visitors of quart’z-arts ball” ( ). the last act of rotonda completely drains itself in wanton carnival lunacy. exactly for the reason of a specific predominance of preformed over spoken it is possible to read a whole string of sign-systems present in the described scenes. during the quart’z-arts ball, throughout the café spreads “commotion, nervousness, murmur, wave, abundance, light, flash. waves of light, the clamour and scream of the masses hit the room from the outside” ( ). and while the waiters “haul different drinks; all over the place there is toasting, drinking, shouting, singing, yelling” ( ) and one bo- hemian, “all in feathers, steps out with a guitar in hand into the centre of the café and, accompanied by strings, sings. […] all of a sudden, the jazz band roars from the above. demi-mondes, half naked or naked but scarcely protected in certain parts, fan- tastically stylised, descend down the stairs into the café and form a long row of pairs. all of the café jumps to their feet and all of a sudden there is patron on the stairs, naked but for the required parts; he put some shaggy black leather on the front, and on the back, a peacock’s tail that spreads, rises, lowers, wiggles with him in all directions. behind him roars the jazz band. all of the café bursts into thundering shouting, screaming, clapping, giggling, into an earthquake: ‘bravo patron, bravo patron!’ an immense curious crowd breaks in from the balcony through the door to watch, flap their arms, kick their legs and suffocate with laughter. a little space opens in the mid- dle of the café, the jazz band strokes some black melodies, and the patron dances some sensual belly dance, bending, grotesquely kicking his feet and wiggling the peacock’s tail in all directions and sweeping the floor with it. the whole place roars with ap- proval and laughter” ( – ). it is completely clear that auditory signs dominate the play, primarily the background music of the jazz band, then the atonal singing of the “russian jew” and the howling, screams, shouts and yelps of the drunken café masses. but, on the other hand, the system of lightning is of great importance to the café space. described in detail in stage directions and, in that way, compositionally clearly motivated, it is primarily in the function of enhancing audiovisual moments of play. at the moment when, for instance, djem the american threatens the bohemians with a gun “the doors suddenly open and in flies a fluttering flash of gunfire, explosion and thunder of bombed buildings” ( ). such instantaneous so-called lateral lighting, rhythmically interrupted, definitely contributes to the dramatic tension, creating at the same time a particular dramaturgy of light. josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” in the scenes so called informal scenes dominate, the ones that act extremely cohesively on actors and audience. scene distance between the actors in the final scenes of the drama is completely in- timate, and this contributes to already noticed sociopeality of the scene. see elam ( ). for the systematic overview of scene signs see elam ( ) and fischer-lichte ( ). the already mentioned patrice pavis talks comprehensively about this and notes that it is the lighting that is often responsible for more or less rational interpretation of events by the audience. see pavis ( ), – . at this moment a question arises: in what way can the so-called semiotic research of the author’s play settings make our interpretation of the picture of the non-euro- pean or american worlds complete? that is, most of the semiotic systems present on the scene are on non-european origin, most often colonial, and therefore completely stylised: i.e. fashionable parisian dances, black music upstairs, carnival mimicry of the patron, etc. at one moment in café, the lady says the following: “your [american] talent for art only came to light when you, together with red, meaty eng- lish, looted black melodies and now dance ‘cancan’ to them!…” ( ) furthermore, branko hehimovih notes that these two of kosor’s plays could have been created by looking up to some form of the so-called musical theatre, for example opera or ballet, as most of the multimedia elements within the performance would suggest. this is particularly so during the final intonation of the aria from carmen in café du dôme (sung by toreador, after beating the bull, and returning to carmen… [ ]) or the previously mentioned black music in rotonda. however, we are of the opinion that the listed audiovisual signs, mimicry, gesture, different dance sections, as well as extreme artificiality of the acting expression, carnivalisation of ritual behav- iour and such like, primarily in function of clear staging in previous chapters of ana- lysed cultural stereotypes. mathilda dormeck, having selflessly drafted a million dollar cheque for the benefit of parisian bohemians, becomes a goddess in their eyes, “a grand woman”. one of them describes mathilda’s carnival state in the last scene of the play in the following way: and she wept and wept the tears of prayer, flexibility, fertility and inspiration, until at the end she fell into a hysterical, religious cramp and started dancing some devout black and indian dances to the sun, the matriarch of all-life, while here all-too-lovely moves, twists and jumps, spilling enormous, stupefiable luxury, intoxicating scent of tan and charm – she gave a warm intimate stroke all of, with beauty and sweet pain a drunken jungle buddha old indian hall of quart’z-arts ball!… ( – ) from all that was said it can be deduced that the basic procedure that the author uses for the building of his drama tissue is a sort of an assembly. kosor’s dramaturgy is extremely discontinuous, that is to say, it is put together from a string of scene pic- tures, simultaneous scenes and powerful audiovisual invasions, which have as a basic aim the removal of the drama subject, dispersion of the centre of performance and leo rafolt see hehimovih ( ). it is worth noting at this point that the colonial viewpoint of the twenties of the last century today, albeit with a different meaning, shows through within the phenomenon postcolonial and intercultural theatre, such as the one of peter brook, eugenio barba or ariane mnouchkine, as well as in more and more present interest for the so called world music move- ment. at this moment we need not talk about the importance of dance and music in the ritual theatres of africa, india, etc. complete destabilisation of meaning. it seems to us that the characters in rotonda and café are just dramaturgy possibilities, therefore – the representative, symbols or embryos of meaning of some more solid social phenomena. v by interpreting the model of social and ethnic stratification, therefore the strategies that are also all-present in kosor’s plays, we tried to interpret some of the key models of the so-called extra-literary allusiveness. duvignaud’s claim about (necessary) comparative history of literature, theatre and social occurrences was to us, of course, the guiding thought. theory paradigms of the american new historicism or british cultural materialism, which were completely established in the eighties of the twenti- eth century, are witness to the so-called new actuality of thesis of the mentioned french sociologist. in our interpretation of cultural imagology of american and non-european world in kosor’s plays of “parisian phase” we primarily delved in the types of production, writing, and finally theatralisation (or staging) of omnipresent cultural, political and many other stereotypes. the social projects of modernism, and then capitalism, and early liberalism were broken up into a number of levels in the in- terpreted drama texts, but author’s allusions acquired the markings of the already mentioned pre-marxist thought with time. that is to say, older marxist theories inter- pret capitalism (or even capitalist modernism) as the organisation of production or the resultant of the relations between the two opposing dominant economic classes – bourgeois (which owns the means for production) and the proletariat (which pos- sesses only their personal ability to work). the characters we find inside the two pa- risian cafés are mostly clearly defined by class, but – of course – the mentioned social stratification is by no means all-present or the only valid one. we are, however, of the opinion that the author’s critical allusiveness does go in that direction. however, it is extremely hard to interpret the meaning of such underlying concept of thought, and the complete auto-ironisation contributes to that, but the author’s direct advocacy of the communist ideology in humanity, the play that was created almost during the same period, supports our claim. furthermore, there are two very powerful performance moments present in both of kosor’s plays, two sides of modern capitalist society, the revolution and carnival. the ideas of revolution, political or artistic avant-garde of the twentieth century – “im- pressionism! futurism! cubism! dadaism! bolshevism! socialism! anarchy!” – in josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” listed markings elinor fuchs connects to the so called aesthetics of absence in theatre of the eighties of the twentieth century. we hold the opinion that such embryo of new theatrical textuality should be be looked for in the avant garde. see fuchs ( ). see edgar/sedgwick ( ). see hehimovih ( ), . kosor’s plays assume the markings of great meta-stories, absolute truths that are made ironic and semantically completely empty in the mouths of bohemians. carnival and wanton atmosphere of rotonda, on the other hand, represents a final abolition of all social customs, ethic, relational and class. i am sober from hashish and opium, into whose intoxicating dreams a thought of tonight’s great celebration had taken me!… after him! my soul freezes in horrific fear at any thought!… […] carnival, carnival, carnival!… prince carnival speeds on the apparition of ash wednesday!… but quickly after him, after him! ( ) in the carnival fever the hidden historic constant that all social classes are equal “does not succumb to periodical resurrection”. carnival modus operandi is focused “against every withdrawal of borders, for instance, between art and life or between partakers and the observers, regardless to which period this demarcation belonged”. heterogeneous identities, ethnic, political, economic or cultural, in the final scenes of kosor’s parisian plays are unified in the rottenness of human nature – in the symbolic wedding compromise between the idealism and materialism, culture and capital (in café du dôme) or within bestial orgies and café’s melting pot (rotonda). “all life and world – is a spectacle, last night’s night a miraculous chaotic spectacle and everything is a multicoloured spectacle.” ( ) bibliography biti, vladimir ( ) pojmovnik suvremene knjizevne teorije, zagreb. cindrih, velimir ( ) “srednjoeuropska kavana kao stil zivljenja”, in: hrvatska, . duvignaud, jean ( ) sociologija pozorišta. kolektivne senke, belgrade. edgar, andrew – sedgwick, peter (eds.) ( ) key concepts in cultural theory, london–new york. elam, keir ( ) the semiotics of theatre and drama, london. fischer-lichte, erika ( ) the semiotics of theatre, bloomington–indianapolis. fuchs, elinor ( ) “prisutnost i osveta teksta (ponovno razmišljajuhi o tekstu nakon derride)”, in: novi prolog, – . hehimovih, branko ( ) “hrvatska dramska knjizevnost izmeðu dva rata”, in: rad jazu, , zagreb. hehimovih, branko ( ) “istina i mit o dramskom djelu josipa kosora”, in: hrvatskih dramatihara. od vojnoviha do krlezina doba, zagreb. jelcih, dubravko ( ) strast avanture ili avantura strasti, zagreb. jezih, slavko ( ) hrvatska knjizevnost od pohetka do danas ( – ), zagreb. kravar, zoran ( ) antimodernizam, zagreb. kravar, zoran ( a) “znaci vremena u hrvatskoj knjizevnosti dvadesetih godina prošloga stoljeha”, in: dani hvarskog kazališta, xxix, zagreb–split. leo rafolt biti ( ), ibid. north, michael ( ) the political aesthetic of yeats, eliot and pound, cambridge. paljetak, luko ( ) “pariške drame josipa kosora”, in: kosor, josip, u café du dôme / rotonda, zagreb. pavis, patrice ( ) (ed.) “introduction”, in: an intercultural performance reader, london–new york. pavis, patrice ( a) l’analyse des spectacles: théâtre, mime, danse, danse-théâtre, cinéma, paris. pavlovih, cvijeta ( ) “josip kosor u pariškim kavanama”, in: dani hvarskog kazališta, xxvii, zagreb–split. said, edward w. ( ) orijentalizam, zagreb. schwarzmantel, john ( ) the age of ideology. political ideologies from the american revolu- tion to postmodern times, new york. tokin, boško ( ) “za spas duše tina ujeviha”, in: letopis matice srpske, . ujevih, mate ( ) “josip kosor: u caffé du dôme”, in: jadran, . williams, raymond ( ) drama od ibsena do brehta, belgrade. translated by kristijan nikolih josip kosor’s “parisian cycle” games:science:science_magazine_ - :root:data:science_ - :pdf: _v _n :p _ .pdf [ganino] ganino user tools 	register 	log in site tools search tools show pagesource old revisions backlinks recent changes media manager sitemap register log in > 	recent changes 	media manager 	sitemap trace: games:science:science_magazine_ - :root:data:science_ - :pdf: _v _n :p _ .pdf this topic does not exist yet you've followed a link to a topic that doesn't exist yet. if permissions allow, you may create it by clicking on create this page. page tools 	show pagesource 	old revisions 	backlinks 	back to top issn - / towards which representation? roberto de rubertis it was impor tant for the first focus of the uid convention in naples to be centered on the theme of the identity of drawing in terms of temporal evolution. it is the first reflection that we par ticipants are called to face and that we “must” know how to deal with. the first question we ask ourselves, coherently with what is requested of us, is, in fact, how we stand today in the context of an evolution that has impor tant repercussions even on teaching –if there has actually been an evolu- tion– and how we relate to its undeniable metamorpho- ses or, more properly, “mutations” as darwin would call them. perhaps the question must be dealt with in a more specific way than has been done up to now, in par ticular as regards the ways in which man took his first steps on the path of communication through images; a path which also in this case (it’s better to say it right away) was long and blind, like the work of richard dawkins’ watchma- ker [dawkins ]. therefore, a glance at history must be given, even if briefly, star ting from very long ago; that is to say when, with the first hominids in the caves of the paleolithic era, experiments of graphic or engraved decoration were begun and the similarity was noticed of natural or engraved marks on the walls of the caves with the visual appearances of the world: animals, actions, perhaps thoughts. but the figurative analogy, while clear- ly revealing how flat images can perceptively reproduce three-dimensionality, hardly shed light on what immense advantages would be derived by the first users for their https://doi.org/ . /disegno. . . articolo a invito per inquadramento del tema del focus, non sottoposto a revisione anonima, pubblicato con responsabilità della direzione. / graffiti or engravings existed much earlier than the ability to prefigure, through images, the concrete realization of what is represented. it is significant that the traces of me- asurements made on half-finished building materials date from before the use of these materials incorporated into functional systems: construction was first done with mo- dules and sequences of determined physical quantities, before being based on ultimate images of their overall figurative outcomes. the marks were, in fact, initially used to shape basic, rather than anticipatory components to represent the final product [inglese, pizzo ]. in primi- tive design thinking, the stone comes before the column and the column before the temple. with the progress of civilization and of culture, oppor- tunities grew for eliciting those stimuli and those oppor- tunities of communication which extended the practice of representation to all human activities, especially those related to the use of the image as a specific objective of aesthetic communication and information, as well as a tool for designing all sor ts of ar tifacts. together with the ability of “making” increasingly complex, more per- fect and more useful things, the need grew for “teaching how to make them” and thus schools were born, with teachers who traced the paths and students who were able to learn their skills. as a result, along with the pro- gress of techniques and methods, the great epics of ar t and graphics in all their forms ensued. being able to re- own survival. the appropriation of the techniques of re- presentation was, in fact, very slow and gradual: it did not last less than a few tens of millennia. subsequently, op- por tunities began to appear which better revealed their usefulness, especially of those used essentially for signi- fying and ordering the various actions of daily life [hauser - ]; and therefore those good for planning hun- ting forays. the ways in which these came to take shape as real, intelligent plans for creating collective strategies cer tainly required the prolonged length of time neces- sary for the slow modification of the acts and objectives of human activity. but it was not the result of conscious ameliorative intentions to determine these changes, but occasional events and for tuitous circumstances to trigger them [gould, vrba ]. this had already been demonstrated by the similarity of accidental spots or marks with the shapes of animals; and proven even more by the very origin of the physiological ability to represent things, which was favored by the skillful use of the hand, freed now from its locomotor function following the assumption of an upright posture (fig. ). only much later did occasions occur in which the use- fulness of also representing things that had to do with places of habitation became evident. but above all, it was the intention of making use of representations to plan the realization of habitable constructions to be late in manifesting itself. in fact, the ability to make drawings, fig. . rupestrian painting in tassili n’ajjer, sahara, algiers. gruban photography (ccby-sa . ): <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:algerien_ _ . jpg> (accessed , march ). fig. . nabuaplaiddina relief found under the pavement of the ebabbar sippar. london, british museum: <http://unvasopienodiparole.blogspot.it/ / /i- babilonesi-periodo-cassita-il-rilievo_ .html> (accessed , march ). / present became an essential tool for becoming aware of the varied and marvelous multiplicity of the world. just as “knowing how to teach how to make it” was essential to being able to give the world an appearance, that is, to be able to communicate, in an appropriate manner, the awareness of its existence, its epochal characteristics and its identity in every respect. but also the awareness of one’s own existence and of one’s role in its respect: what others would then define as “the image of the world” [schrödinger ]. drawing, as well as every figurative ar t, especially in that par t of the world which in classical times was to become the cradle of mediterranean culture, played an essential role in acquiring this awareness, and cer tainly this was their golden age, during which often sublime works were conceived and realized (figs. - ). all united by the desire to capture the essential features of what was gradually becoming the common human habitat, with all the mea- nings that culture was beginning to attribute to it. indeed, it was culture itself that assigned human values to the world and it was culture that made the figurative qualities of space inseparable from the values that man himself attributed to it. the world was becoming the theater of human history, configuring itself as a physical, moral and spiritual construction of its life, in the way that thought itself was shaping it. thus a new concreteness was born, which could be formalized in the figurative aspects of the world in relation to the meanings that were gradually attributed to it. now, thanks to the possibility of capturing and fixing the morphological aspects of evolution, every change could be recognized and dated with new para- meters, including figurative ones, capable of measuring and evaluating the passage of time (figs. - ). it was therefore becoming possible to connect forms, and the actions necessary to configure them, not only to space but also to time, that is, once again, to the charac- teristics of the ongoing evolutionary phase. an evolutionary phase in which it was making more sen- se to speak of quality, taste and fashion not only in the context of the ephemeral but also with reference to the most essential aspects of life and the behavioral attitudes that derive from it. in this way, representation also channeled itself into more codified teaching paths, linked to the renewal of ways to produce and transmit images. at the same time, its infi- nite expressive possibilities were becoming defined and differentiated. and, while the irrepressible development fig. . the great sphinx. egypt, necropolis of giza. fig. . hunting scene in the marsh, th century a.c. tomb of nebamon, valley of the king in thebes, egypt. london, british museum: <https://commons. wikimedia. org/wiki/file:tombofnebamun- .jpg> (accessed , march ). fig. . the lion gate, a symbolic expression of the monumental entrance of the citadel of mycenae in the nd millennium b.c. / fig. . the spectacular construction of the image of the world in the full expressiveness of the palace of knossos, th century b.c., here in a demonstrative reconstruction. fig. . synthesis of expression and functionality of greek art of the th century b.c. in the erechtheum of the acropolis of athens. fig. . the first experiments of perspective illusionism borne witness to by the fourth pompeian style in the st century a.d. fig. . the apollo of the belvedere, roman reproduction of a greek sculpture. vatican city, vatican museum. image by livioandronico (cc by-sa . ): <https:// commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid= > (accessed , march ). / fig. . giotto, lamentation over the dead christ, - . padua, chapel of the scrovegni. fig. . domenico ghirlandaio, expulsion of joachim from the temple, - . florence, firenze, church of santa maria novella, cappella tornabuoni chapel. fig. . pietro longhi, the little concert (the family concert), - . milan, pinacoteca di brera. fig. . alfons mucha, rêverie (f. champenois), . detail. richard fuxa foundation, foto © richard fuxa foundation: <http://www.artemagazine.it/mostre/arte-moderna/ item/ -milano-alfons-mucha-e-l-art-nouveau> (accessed , march ). / fig. . gambey’s compass. from clerc . fig. . steering wheel. from clerc . fig. . marly’s machine. from clerc . of progress was oriented according to divergent ten- dencies, various figurative and behavioral modes became active, converging into just as many schools of thought which progressively nourished the various styles and the numerous “-isms” of culture, at first humanistic, later bou- rgeois and romantic, finally proletarian and, today, global. many aspects of ar t and taste characterized the different attitudes, and not only outwardly, in the alternation of figurative languages, but above all for the symbolic me- anings and for the social and moral contents associated with them (figs. - ). over time, and without profoundly modifying the ways of transmitting knowledge, the image explored the main paths of creation and communication of forms, avoiding the many epochal cataclysms that involved, in other re- / spects, politics and economics; in this way it overcame its “developmental crises.” in the course of half a millennium, within the respective operational reference areas, aesthetic, figurative and de- sign research, as well as the most advanced experimen- tation, retained a substantial linguistic homogeneity that today, in the light of the revolutions that stir the world of communication in images, appear almost static. even in the world of technology and science the transmission of knowledge continued to reinforce its inclination to act as a stable common language (figs. - ). a language that, although influenced by dated models, began to manifest the tendency for the widespread use of iconic commu- nication that would soon begin to elevate the image to the rank of a diffused figurative language, to some extent also universal. but perhaps in the world of images, not yet well-perceived ferments of unrest had been active for some time. if this were not so, there would have been no room for the fla- ring up of those sparks of innovation that ignited the minds of enlightened avant-gardes and that stimulated, during the nineteenth century, outstanding artists to push the fron- tiers of representation toward never-before-explored ter- ritories. on the threshold of the so-called “short century,” linguistic mutations became overwhelming and, between the contestation of the old and the uncertainty of the new, they assumed the role of signs of change. the alternation of fashions became more and more rapid and frequent. consequently, inventing, producing and transmitting ima- ges, but perhaps even more, teaching how to do so, beca- me a crucial issue involved in producing culture. i again ask myself if this sign of change is also a sign of evolution for civilization and perhaps even for the image. i therefore think of the main objective of this note, in which i would like to distinguish the sense of evolution as “progress,” in the sense of an advancement towards the best, which would require a qualitative judgment, from the sense of evolution in the true darwinian meaning of the term, that is, the simple replacement of previous models with other more recent ones. assuming that this change, while being implicit (and necessary) for the ef- fectiveness of the substitution, does not necessarily imply the conscious intentionality of the goal. and at this point, i would ask myself more precisely: is there a substantial “improvement,” over time, of the methods of represen- tation and the ways of teaching it, or is it just a matter of technical innovations, not concerning the meaning and the profound objectives of the procedure? to put it sim- ply, as an example, and with the benefit of hindsight, can we consider perspective an evolution in a progressive sense, therefore intentionally improving representation, or only an evolution in the darwinian sense, and there- fore a simple, circumstantially advantageous instrumental mutation? we know today that, in light of the reflections offered to us by cubism, the question is open. not only, but we are consolidating the cer tainty that we can never talk about “better” or “worse” ways of expres- sing ourselves with images, but perhaps only of which circumstances have caused the success or the decline of par ticular representative models, possibly never determi- ned by deliberate and conscious intentions, but only by the accidental mutations of trends. it will not, in any case, be the problem of the finaliza- tion, or not, of the evolution of the image to affect the profound meanings of evolutionism, but the question is cer tainly impor tant. for those involved in representation, it is not irrelevant to know whether the changes that characterize it today are par t of the flow of events that testify to a great epochal, decisive and “wanted” event, or whether they are to be counted among the occasional fig. . in the illustration of “la macchina del dott. musgrave” (“dr. musgrave’s machine”) there are depicted, without any ironic intention, epochal attitudes. from clerc . / fig. . the bilderatlas mnemosyne shows with which attitude, at the end of the th century, we began to re-evaluate how the images of the past had been able to capture and transmit the immense complexity of events, testimonies and reflections, which characterized the times past. and temporary mutations that can be fully evaluated only in retrospect. in other words, the question is not terminological, but substantial: it is perhaps the first time that one wonders about the evolution of the image, calling into question its epochal mutations and then subjecting even the evo- lution of its models of reference to criticism, in tr ying to make sense of what we do. for this reason, we give great attention to the comparison of our behavior with that of those who preceded us, even in representing the world: aby warburg with his bilderatlas mnemosyne has offered a famous example (fig. ). today we study the ways in which, in the past, we have represented life, we investigate how we studied the environment and by which interests or curiosities we were driven. in doing so, we focus not only on how these were different from today’s, but above all, on how different we were then, as we recorded them and therefore, what the obser- vations we made were. were we more merciless, more permissive, more superficial? in the dark ages were we too severe when we condemned the past, or were we too lenient when, with ingenious nineteenth-centur y triumphalism, we welcomed the new and exalted the “magnificent and progressive destiny” of the future? evidence of these various judgments that remains fixed by images, mirror of reality, is the most authentic testi- mony and the most precious measure of the time past. we well know the allure and complacency aroused by the exploration, sometimes fascinating, sometimes critical or ironic, of the differences between current models of life and those, for example, of the s. to compare them stimulates transversal reflections and moral judgments whose transience and fallacy can lead to our questioning the validity and universality of what we consider today the most essential values of life, that is to say, what it is right or wrong to do, both socially and morally. the surprising mutation (figs. , ) sustained today by inhabited and lived-in places, cer tainly the most radical in the history of humanity, requires us to not defer the que- stion confronting us: that is, how we must orient oursel- ves in guiding the changes in modes of communication. naturally in the context of the figurative tools within our competence, if it is possible to do so. in fact, while the great megacities present a picture of a living environment in which almost nothing of what be- longs to normal language is fully recognizable, even repre- sentation opens abysses of unpredictability. are other ho- rizons really opening for other objectives or is there the fear that the new chances for understanding the world are just new myths? i refer mainly to the disponibility of images to be mani- pulated with the new information systems, with virtual experiences, with augmented reality and with the simula- tions of every order and degree that storm the world of communications and which promise, or perhaps only claim to offer, more fruitful perspectives for knowing and doing. we ask ourselves if the race toward the new forms and the new contents of representation has been a useful / fig. . congested space in new york city: <http://wallpaperswide. com/aerial_view_of_new_york_city-wallpapers.html> (accessed , march ). fig. . vision of a megalopolis: <https://pixabay.com/it/edifici-grattacielocielo- nuvole- /> (accessed , march ). fig. . the coliseum: augmented reality (armedia d tracker): https://www. archeomatica.it/ict-beni-culturali/armedia- d-tracker-nuova-applicazione-per- ibeni-culturali-in-realta-aumentata (accessed , march ). fig. . bim application obtained using autodesk revit: <https://www. autodesk.com/solutions/bim/hub/what-is-bim> (accessed , march ). race or just a senseless flight toward an alternative world that in many respects was proving to be a failure. we had thought of perhaps taking a journey alongside a friendly avatar to be sent ahead to probe the unknown results of technical, social, economic and behavioral experiments of a renewal that, basically, was not sought and, rather, who- se consequences were feared. now we go back to asking ourselves if the new instru- ments of representation and knowledge of that hopefully better world will be effective for understanding it, at first, but then for living there, using and perhaps enhancing and loving it. so not just to exorcise it, reducing the distance that separates us from it, but to grasp its mutability and to give it a current meaning, in the footsteps of what / author roberto de rubertis, sapienza university of rome, roberto.derubertis@uniroma .it reference list clerc, a. ( ). fisica popolare. milano: e. sonzogno. dawkins, r. ( ). l’orologiaio cieco. milano: rizzoli. gould, s.j., vrba, e.s. ( ). exaptation. il bricolage dell’evoluzione. pie- vani, t. (eds.). torino: bollati boringhieri. hauser, a. ( - ). storia sociale dell’arte. vol. . torino: einaudi. inglese, c., pizzo, a. ( ). i tracciati di cantiere di epoca romana. pro- getti, esecuzioni e montaggi. roma: gangemi. schrödinger, e. ( ). l’immagine del mondo. tor ino: p. bor in- ghier i. warburg, a. ( ). mnemosyne-bilderatlas. zur ausstellung im kun- sthaus hamburg. hamburg: dolling und galitz verlag. aby warburg did in the last century. in this sense, the current increase in studies on the representation of the environment and the landscape is a good sign. new and updated operational tools are being made available to us for establishing a conscious and intense connection with the globality of the contemporary world and with the continuity we wish to maintain with the past (figs. , ). here we come back to our initial question: is this a gene- rically explorative phase or are we par ticipating in a con- scious epochal evolution from which we can expect the hoped-for better future? some predictions, or perhaps only some hypotheses, attribute representation with a more secure capacity of control and completeness with respect to the falsifiability of the word. it seems that the image can offer greater guarantees of correspondence to the truth, but perhaps it itself could be thwar ted by the pervasion of the illusion, deception, error and falsity, or at least of the superficiality, neither more nor less, of the way it has been up to now. the question is of the utmost impor tance: in our hands, as teachers, do we perhaps hold an instrument of truth? we know that representation is a solid and lasting thing, but we ignore the extent to which iconic language can productively substitute alphanumeric language. we are cer tainly flattered to be protagonists of this essential mu- tation of the role of the image and we can be confident that it is an impor tant evolution, but this time, not only in the darwinian sense, that is, not only as a succession of mutations that “ex post,” accidentally, prove to be ad- vantageous, but in the sense of intentional and conscious refinement of communication, oriented to transmit truer truths. and therefore we would like to think that the ima- ge, as a renewed and more effective means of communi- cating “just” thought, will become a more authentic lan- guage, capable of transmitting, perhaps more than words, messages of truth. will we witness, or rather, actually par ticipate in its “gui- ded” genetic mutation? it would be a decisive step on the path of evolution and could perhaps trigger that spark of lucid intuition, a conscious promoter of perfection, whose existence is so intensely opposed by the most intransi- gent evolutionism. darwin held that just one of these sparks would under- mine the entire castle of his theory, and i, myself, (si par va licet…) must agree. it would be a beautiful adventure of thought to take par t in a process of “purification” of the image, transformed from a messenger of lies to a repo- sitory of truth. may we all –members of the uid, its guardians– share in this hope. 	 - _de rubertis_eng_ reviews on hungarian influence on austrian civilization, not merely on hungary's contri- butions from a treasure house of naturvolk. because the hungarians have a large "diaspora" of a pluralistic character, their influence on contemporary civilizations can be highly pertinent to diffusional studies. inquiries into hungarian intel- lectual influences (ady's and attila jozsef's, for example) in slovak, croatian, and rumanian literatures probably exist, but buried in learned journals. given the large number of americans of east european background, it is also pertinent to ask about hungarian influence on american literature, a topic recently raised in college english (march ), by rose mary prosen. in a contemporary con- text, a study such as this is meaningful when focused on genuine interaction—in this case, the ability of hungarian civilization to be creative when receiving out- side influences in its own environment or when encountering new environments. a n t o n n. nyerges eastern kentucky university a d i c t i o n a r y o f s l a v i c w o r d f a m i l i e s . compiled and edited by louis jay herman. new york and london: columbia university press, . xvi, pp. $ . . a unique cross between a root lexicon and a polyglot dictionary with prominent characteristics of an etymological dictionary, herman's work is a comparative display of the vocabulary structure of the four major slavic languages. each of the two hundred articles is headed by a list of the various russian, polish, czech, and serbo-croatian allomorphs of a particular slavic root. the most important or interesting derivatives of the root are then listed in columns according to lan- guage so that morphologically identical words line up horizontally. english- language glosses are supplied for every derivative, and the semantic differences and similarities among cognates are immediately apparent. after the tabular listings, notes are provided which point out salient facts concerning the origin, form, and meaning of particular words. for example, the article for clias is structured as follows (only one of herman's thirty derivatives is copied here) : ^ac czas, czes cas cas l a c : hour czas: time; cas: time; cas: hour; weather; weather; moment, (gram.) (gram.) instant tense tense [r] [ p ] [cz] [ s - c ] notes for the article on chas point out the basic meaning of the root ( t i m e ) , the parallelism with other european languages in usage of the same word for both "time" and "weather," the rationale behind such far-removed derivatives as polish caasoivnik ( v e r b ) , russian chasovnia (chapel), and the origins of caiques like polish csasopismo (magazine, periodical), on german zeitschrift. the value of root lexicons has long been recognized for advanced vocabu- lary study of russian (compare the lexicons of wolkonsky and poltoratzky, george z. patrick, and worth, kozak, and johnson). herman's book recognizes slavic review the need for similar expositions of the vocabulary structure of other slavic lan- guages, and provides a useful tool for pinpointing translator's "false friends"— for example, russian otperet' (to unlock), polish odeprzec (to repel), czech odepfiti (to refuse), serbo-croatian odaprijeti (to open)—for linguistic study of the routes of semantic or phonetic change, or for moments of pleasant and use- ful browsing. p h i l i p j. regier university of southern california r u s s i a n c u b o - f u t u r i s m , - . by vahan d. barooshian. the hague and p a r i s : mouton, . pp. literature on futurism—as a movement both in literature and in the other arts— has grown considerably during the last decade. while russian futurism was virtually unknown to western readers (except a small group of specialists) some ten or fifteen years ago, they now have available a number of monographs, trans- lations, reproductions of original materials, and so forth. vladimir markov's russian futurism: a history has competently documented and put in perspective the main phenomena of the movement in russia, and thus has laid the ground- work for further studies of specific groups, or of individual contributions. barooshian's study, entitled russian cubo-futurism, - , is, in effect, a presentation of the five major members of the so-called "gileia" group. that these members were khlebnikov, mayakovsky, burliuk, kruchenykh and kamen- skii should not be questioned, although it might be noted that contributions by some other artists, especially benedikt livshits and elena guro, could have been afforded at least a brief subchapter to make the picture more complete. the presentations of the five artists are quite lucid and well documented. they are preceded by a brief introductory chapter, "the background of early russian cubo-futurism in brief historical perspective." perhaps because the perspective is so "brief," the triangle symbolism-cubism-futurism appears a little too idyllic and too "equilateral." it is true that cubism made itself felt in russia earlier, but the question of the role of cubism in the program of the russian futurists could have been afforded a little more discussion. on the other hand, the chapter entitled "french surrealism and russian futurism" tends to con- centrate, at times, on some less "intrinsic" aspects; it assigns too much impor- tance to the french artists' ideological declarations. the interesting chapter on "futurism in the post-revolutionary period" contributes some valid remarks, al- though in some places a slight uncertainty in delineating the subject is evident. at one point, for example, the author speaks of "the avant-garde which included the russian cubo-futurists" (p. ), and on the next page of "the avant-garde and the cubo-futurists" (p. ). on the whole, this study is a valuable piece of research. it is a welcome addi- tion to the body of "futurisiana." z. f o l e j e w s k i university of british columbia full page photo advances in language and literary studies vol. no. ; january copyright © australian international academic centre, australia culture shock angela khristin brown e-mail: brownlas @aol.com doi: . /aiac.alls.v. n. p. received: / / url: http://dx.doi.org/ . /aiac.alls.v. n. p. accepted: / / abstract the migration of blacks in north america through slavery became united. the population of blacks past downs a tradition of artist through art to native born citizens. the art tradition involved telling stories to each generation in black families. the black culture elevated by tradition created hope to determine their personal freedom to escape from poverty of enslavement and to establish a way of life through tradition. a way of personal freedoms was through getting a good education that lead to a better foundation and a better way of life. with regard to all historic migrations (forced and voluntary), the african union defined the african diaspora as "[consisting] of people of african origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the african union." its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the african diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the african union." keywords: literature concepts, african american abstracts the origin of african american language originated in the dominican islands. slaves were brought to the islands before being slaves in america. in the islands, american slaves were able to communicate because of the tribes from africa spoke the same language. the dialect was easy to conduct everyday communication through common phrases. the language spoken was broken english. phrases like, where are you going, i already been there were used in daily conversation. some of the language from africa is used in american dialect. words like banana and voodoo are a part of the english language. it is wonderful that some of the spirituality in language was shared amongst african traditions implementing culture passed down upon generation of slaves. communication is a valued source of maintaining universal relationships. african folk tales is a form of storytelling used by slaves as a form of entertainment. african folk tales were heroic tales used by slaves. the folk tales had a hero like the road runner and the coyote reflected in the loony toons cartoons. the stories used animals as characters. the hero of the tales, were weak animals who fought over stronger animals like the lion or the bear. the format of the stories was to tell a story of how slaves were to overcome slavery or to tell how the weak could triumph over evil. african slaves believed that someday they would be free. the folk tales were an inspiration that there was hope of obtaining their freedom from slavery. paul dunbar’s poems are about his experiences to slavery. dunbar contrast in his writing about the feelings of being a slave. dunbar expresses the pain of being a slave. his experience entails the hardship of the instability to do as willed. he explains in his poems that the slave felt inferior to the slave owner. dunbar expresses the slaves were put in a position where they were treated less than nature and that the slaves had to keep in their true feelings of pain as a mask they carried. the slaves were very unhappy because they did not want to be slaves and they preferred their lives as free tribes in africa. what it meant to be captive is like a caged bird. that is the way things were and you were forced to live in that condition. a good slave would do what he was told to do in order to survive of face the consequences. there were restrictions on being a slave. as dunbar put it, the painful relationship of being contained is the discipline of change. dunbar spoke of racial justice of the american slave. dunbar wants his voice heard. the songs that slaves sung were about the sorrow and pain of slavery. gospel music is songs written about a spiritual journey to reach salvation. gospel songs speak of hope and disparity of the black race. fredrick douglas found this in the songs about slavery. douglas went north to find freedom and found disparity and sadness of his people. gospel music can be sad to listen to because of the mourning rituals it expresses in its music. music has transformed from work songs, field hollers, and spirituals, to that would leave a powerful imprint on later forms of american music: on gospel, ragtime, jazz, rhythm and blues, rock and roll, and rap. how the genre changed the message remains the same of hope and content. in order to understand the songs you must identify with the content and anguish of black’s suffering. the important theme of louis armstrong’s songs “go down moses” and “swing low, sweet chariot” is asking god to grant their freedom from slavery. the words: let my people go and carry me home sweet chariot speak of the words of slaves of jews. the timeline in which the poems were written were taken from the bible. the poem, “go down moses,” refers to moses asking the heroes to release the slaves from bondage. the final miracle from god, moses was to kill the youngest boy of the pharos. the song “swing low, sweet chariot,” refers to releasing the slaves from israel as well. alls ( ): - , each poem speaks of justice that black slaves can relate to wanting their freedom from slavery as well. at the end of the poem the song is spiritual in that it states that after they get their freedom they will help others get theirs as well. armstrong expresses in his poems that he may not know what freedom is like; but the feeling of what it may be like is worth the risk. armstrong’s poems state that heaven may be the answer from bondage. the trickster tales are a remarkable abstract story about stability of the black race from oppression. the tales are often clever display of hope and wit. the tales speak of the black race as strong and heroic. the tales give insight to overcome oppression from slavery. the tales uses strong characters that build hope for the black slave. the tales are funny. the characters in the tales are reflective throughout history of the stereotypes of black people as being inferior to the white race and uneducated. humor was used in the tales to enlighten circumstance to be overcome with spirituality and love. the experimentation of stereotypes in the tale allows an understanding of how race is perceived. the tales talk about the struggle of slaves in how racism becomes an understatement in how society dictates inequality. african american toast to tradition is a collection of poem of rural louisiana which is poems about traditional african experience. the poems are reflective of heroic wit of the black man in how he overcomes racism. “shine and the titanic,” is a toast poem using the wit of the african american. the poem reflects on the black porter is clever in how he escapes the ship from sinking. the titanic was a ship during that did not allow blacks on board cruisers. despite the antics of the time that blacks should just sit and do what they are told, the porter uses his instinct and swims to the port as the ship sinks. toast poems are similar to folk tales because the weak can overcome obstacles of oppression. the slave trade had been predicated to the institution of labor to southern plantation for sugar, rice and later cotton. ely whitley, a yale graduate, invented the cotton gin to reduce slavery. instead, slavery increased because of the demand for cotton in the market. at one time there were more slaves than slave owners. due to the cotton gin, more indian land was purchased to grow cotton. cotton was later noted for destroying the soil witch later effect the production and sale of it. after the industrial revolution, there were over , freed slaves. it was a time where there was a demand for education. during this time, slaves competed for remedial work with the white men. slavery decreased in number to per southern plantation. the emancipation proclamation was radiated to free slaves. because of the use of technology, the southern plantation had no longer a need for slaves. lucy terry’s “bars fight”, poem is a eulogy of the american indian in discretion. americans took the native indian for granted when they took over their land. a lot of people died over the possession of land. the native indians felt the land is free to man and should not be taken for granted. in terry’s poem, she speaks out for the cost of war is too great to lose human life. this poem gives a feeling of redemption towards slavery. wheatley speaks of the pain to be taken from africa to an unknown land bitter and cold in which blacks do not understand. slaves, who were christians, did not understand why they were pitied with scornful eyes of deception. slaves prayed a guardian would protect them for such travesty. claude mckay was born in – . he was college educated. he studied agriculture. he worked several jobs including dining cart waiter and editor. he was born in jamaica and migrated to america to continue writing poetry. he held an interest in arts and politics and was involved with the jamaica socialist party and he served as a founder of the negrotude movement. (a long way from home ( ). claude mckay lived in a time where poor black people were not treated fairly and segregation was tolerated. blacks were looked as second class citizens. blacks were considered separate but equal and if blacks retaliated against the opposition, as a result they were lynched. there was an inflammation of riots in the united states in called the red scare. claude defies the traditional role of the black man at this time by creating a sentiment of pride in his poems. claude explains in his poem that the black man must not die in vain. claude explains in his poem there are historic reasons why the black man must defend himself for a good cause so he can die in peace. (marcellus blount. columbia university press. ) “if we must die,” is a poem about the reformation of the black man. in this poem claude speaks of the disparity of hope that the black man be remembered for his bravery. claude mckay is a historic figure known for his poems which challenged the white intellectual on racism in ’s during the harlem renaissance. claude mckay wrote about how he coped with a racist society. (poetry foundation) mckay's pride in african culture and racial self-consciousness helps stimulate african american literary expression. the sonnet, “if we must die,” was read by british prime minister winston churchill to the british people during world war ii. (new york: columbia university press, ). there is a relationship between modernism and modernity. modernism characteristic of present culture, while modernity is the formality of change in a society. modernism and modernity is influenced by a behavior. the behavior is relative to an emotion felt during a specific time. modern literature is reflective of time period spanning from the th century to the present. during this time spanned the conscience of cultural movement in art and literature. the moral culture of the renaissance was to be in touch with the love of religion. the imagist felt they needed to express what they envisioned in the art. cubism and dadaism was an art movement often protesting fear and denial. modernism is a reflective of productivity. since the renaissance period, there was the industrial revolution and two world wars. the renaissance was the end of slavery and the beginning of the industrial revolution. people wanted to understand life and so they wrote what mattered to them most. they wrote their feelings about love. the industrial revolution came at a time where technology was replacing man labor. it was a time of invention. people wrote about alls ( ): - , how their relativity would replace their purpose to technology. during world war i and world war ii, was a time of reason. not being able to relate to war, writers wrote about what they could not come to reason. literature became distorted and disconnected. the way people saw the world was changing. the conscious began to experiment with reason. moral structure became the meaning of expression during modernism. “the heart of darkness “symbolized racism of the congo slave trade. “the station of the metro” illustrated how illusion became an abstract symbol. “the wasteland” is a poem depicting the sorrow embedded in pain which is the primary reason for human need. “the second coming” is the passion in fear of the resurrection or the end of the world. the british consider this period of time as the, “lost generation.” it is a time where people want to understand what is going on in their present lives. it is a time to find comfort in what they have become, not knowing who they really are, hoping that change will come. there is an artistic journey through time with each movement. through each art movement you are seeing the artist reaching the audience by conveying messages through imagery. the imagery can be about an emotion reflective of the living condition. the image can be happy or sad, anger or glee, confused or mortified. the relationship between the artist and his art is determined by attitude. the artist interaction with his audience is a connection to real life events. “farewell to arms,” is a story about real life experience with war. the great depression was a time in america where people felt alienated and desperate. people were unemployed at a time where technology previously increased. it was a time during the world war i. people wanted to find a since of solidarity through hemmingway. stein wrote about having a gay relationship, which was found shocking during the time of dadaism. modernism is the center of content. it is a time where everything is centered on the evolution of human thought. people were searching for empathic reason. there was a lot of conflict and out of conflict there were protest for liberalization. freedom of the speech led to civil disobedience when the literature art movement became popular. it was a time of woman’s suffrage and the harlem renaissance influenced by the civil rights movement. modernism is the foundation of an art movement. art is the expression of how it is conceived or interpreted. art is an emotion embedded in pain, anger and deserted thoughts used to entertain or arouse those of interest. modernism is a political assessment influenced by society issues. modernism is the exploration of human evolution. modernism is how we perceive the culture which surrounds us in time. modernism is written history. conclusion why must man live in captivity? why is there so much poverty and violence in society? why must we isolate ourselves with hatred predicated to violence? why do we live in isolation of so much distrust? this is a test to prepare us for our future. if we could see our own faults of the condition we are in, we can see man is not free. we must tolerate our condition to allow change. i believe that all men should be created equal. all people should sustain life in a healthy environment. i believe that in this era, change has come our way and as we strive as a people we will overcome obstacles to learning to a utopia of freedom. references okpewho, i. & nzegwu, n ( ). the new african diaspora. indiana university press. isbn - - - - . olaniyan, t.s & james, h ( ). the african diaspora and the disciplines. indiana university press. isbn - - - - . hine, d.c., danielle, k., trica; s.s .( ). black europe and the african diaspora. university of illinois press. isbn - - - - . davies, c. ( ). encyclopedia of the african diaspora: origins, experiences and culture, volume . santa barbara, calif: abc-clio. isbn - - - - . wisdom, t; puplampu, korbla p ( ). the african diaspora in canada: negotiating identity hyperlink "http://books.google.ca/books?id=qpoxptjz sc&lpg=pp &dq=the% african% diaspora% in% canada% a % negotiating% identity% % % belonging&pg=pp "& hyperlink "http://books.google.ca/books?id=qpoxptjz sc&lpg=pp &dq=the% african% diaspora% in% canada% a % negotiating% identity% % % belonging&pg=pp " belonging. university of calgary press. isbn - - - . olliz-boyd, a.. ( ). the latin american identity and the african diaspora: hyperlink "http://books.google.ca/books?id=hccmb_ i suc&lpg=pp &dq=african% diaspora&pg=pp "ethnogenesis hyperlink "http://books.google.ca/books?id=hccmb_ i suc&lpg=pp &dq=african% diaspora&pg=pp " in context. cambria press. isbn - - - - . carter, d.l. ( ). navigating the african diaspora: the anthropology of invisibility. university of minnesota press. isbn - - - - . conyers, j., & james, l/ ( ). racial structure and radical politics in the african diaspora. london: transaction. isbn - - - . curry, d., duke, d., eric, d & smith, m.a. ( ). extending the diaspora: new histories of black people. university of illinois press. isbn - - - - . arthur, j.a. ( ). the african diaspora in the united states and europe: the ghanaian experience. ashgate. isbn - - - - . education sciences article machine-assisted learning in highly-interdisciplinary media fields: a multimedia guide on modern art elena chatzara, rigas kotsakis, nikolaos tsipas, lazaros vrysis and charalampos dimoulas * multidisciplinary media and mediated communication (m c) research group, aristotle university of thessaloniki, thessaloniki, greece * correspondence: babis@eng.auth.gr received: june ; accepted: july ; published: july ���������� ������� abstract: art and technology have always been very tightly intertwined, presenting strong influences on each other. on the other hand, technological evolution led to today’s digital media landscape, elaborating mediated communication tools, thus providing new creative means of expression (i.e., new-media art). rich-media interaction can expedite the whole process into an augmented schooling experience though art cannot be easily enclosed in classical teaching procedures. the current work focuses on the deployment of a modern-art web-guide, aiming at enhancing traditional approaches with machine-assisted blended-learning. in this perspective, “machine” has a two-folded goal: to offer highly-interdisciplinary multimedia services for both in-class demonstration and self-training support, and to crowdsource users’ feedback, as to train artificial intelligence systems on painting movements semantics. the paper presents the implementation of the “istoriart” website through the main phases of analysis, design, development, and evaluation, while also answering typical questions regarding its impact on the targeted audience. hence, elaborating on this constructive case study, initial hypotheses on the multidisciplinary usefulness, and contribution of the new digital services are put into test and verified. keywords: modern-art; multimedia guide; painting-movements recognition; blended learning; technology-enhanced learning; machine learning . introduction there is no doubt that technological evolution has always affected society and everyday human activities at multiple levels, i.e., communicational, professional, educational, etc. following the rapid advancement of information and communication technologies (icts) that have been conducted during the last two decades, a new trend, which is referred to as industry . , aims at further revolutionizing digital processes through end-to-end automation mechanisms. amongst others, the media landscape has been already transformed into a new digital experience (and continues to elaborate constantly), bringing modern tools forward that accelerate mediated communication, i.e., thru easy multimedia production and sharing, sophisticated content documentation and management, semantic interpretation and conceptualization of data (and meta-data), information recognition, and retrieval. while these fresh services offer innumerous capabilities in both ends of media production and consumption, they also raise multiple concerns, uncertainties, and hesitations regarding how to exploit the released capacities without being exposed to ethical, privacy, and security risks or dangerous pathways [ – ]. clearly, the frequently immature and unstable character of the lately launched assets/facilities, along with the lack of related operational knowledge and experience, are listed among the foremost causes that deteriorate fast adoption and utilization of pioneering machinery [ – ]. nonetheless, contemporary educ. sci. , , ; doi: . /educsci www.mdpi.com/journal/education http://www.mdpi.com/journal/education http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /educsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/education https://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= educ. sci. , , of forms of human creative and communicative expressions (artistic, cultural, social, etc.) require a highly multidisciplinary approach, in which stem skillsets (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) need to be combined with humanities and sociological disciplines [ – ]. hence, the usefulness of ict toolsets in the media environment and, especially for the training demands, has two-folded merit: firstly, to expedite the learning process by deploying digital assets for better content demonstration and enhancement purposes and, secondly, to organize dedicated coaching sessions, as to support the proper use of tools and overall technology. in all cases, it is vital to prepare fertile ground for embracing and exploiting cutting-edge progress and brand-new developments. . background—review or related work extending the above, it is apparent that we are living in a world of data, where ict devices and computing terminals are literally everywhere. new terms (and trends), like ambient-media, have been invented and unveiled to describe the pervasive nature of information exchange and communication that have become commonplace in today’s digital and ubiquitous society [ , ]. novel genres, i.e., mobile, multimedia and data journalism, have also launched to support the required non-linear dataflows, seeking audience engagement through enhanced storytelling with multiple augmentation layers [ – , – ]. however, the development of such software/multimedia services requires highly interdisciplinary production teams, which could serve the associated aesthetic, operational, communicational, and computational specifications, without disregarding the desired content and its accessing/browsing functionalities. the latter is usually dependent on the nature of the specific topic and the selected presentation, which is also known as the “education” approach, being deployed by the collaboration of the instructional designer with the subject matter expert(s). these specialties must cooperate with the graphic designers, the software engineers and programmers, the content creation teams, the media/communication advisors, and many others, who all need to have some common background and use the corresponding terminology properly [ – ]. undoubtedly, the procedures of web/multimedia authoring, and generally the development of human-computer interaction (hci) software, are considered to be extremely multidisciplinary, especially when it comes to rich-media presentation of informatory data. such conditions are encountered in the processes of creative production and education, in which suitable material should be digitized, properly formed, and finally assembled to user-friendly integrated environments for entertainment, infotainment, or learning purposes. aiming at serving such demands at a schooling level, a related interdisciplinary, interdepartmental post-graduate program has been formed and it has operated for nearly fifteen years in the aristotle university of thessaloniki, offering master-degree studies on “advanced computing and communication systems”. among the available pathways, the specialization of “audio-visual technologies in production and education” combines disciplines from engineering and media departments, both in terms of academic staff and preferable graduation of applicants (e.g., school of electrical and computer engineering, school of journalism and mass communication, school of musical studies, etc.). the utmost target is to bring the different sectors closer, to combine the various talents and backgrounds, and to cultivate some mutual skills and interests in all of the aspects of technology-assisted (audiovisual) creation and learning (technological, artistic, aesthetic, ethical, functional, etc.). the paper describes technology-enhanced learning (tel) strategies for one of the highly interdisciplinary courses, which deals with the history of audiovisual artistic expressions to end up in the thorough presentation of important art movements. the primary motive starts on the basis that it is rather tough to enclose art in classical rule-based teaching guides, especially for students presenting a stem or media background, who are seeking to obtain expertise on advanced computing and communication systems. hence, the idea was to construct a multimedia/web guide on modern-art painting styles, for both in-class demonstration and self-training support. this project started as a diploma thesis undertaking [ ], which investigated the impact of different e-learning methods, to indicate, shape, and assemble the applicable hci interfaces into an integrated browsing educ. sci. , , of experience. the present paper extends development and evaluation perspectives, assessing the educational challenges of content/coaching augmentation and audience engagement following the codes and values of blended learning [ ]. multimedia elements, interaction mechanisms, and gaming components are combined and tested in the current multidisciplinary schooling scenario, following the so-called lucid principles (logical user-centered interactive design) [ – ]. apart from the design itself (and its evaluation), the deployed interactive implementation offers valuable insights for the impact of technology-assisted media tutoring. specifically, the initial hypotheses can be examined by answering specific questions on user experience (ux) achievements, thus retrieving vital feedback. this latest feature stands as the outmost target, not only for improving the fabricated services and their utilities, but also for adopting the best practices, arriving at useful conclusions that could be used as representative use-case scenarios and featured studies in other classes (i.e., in projects of the laboratory course multimedia production that is also offered in the same program, supporting most of the discussed viewpoints). the above-listed exploration perspectives extend the scopes of the present work to broader research considerations on professional media training and digital literacy support. . research aims and project motivation the current work demonstrates the implementation of a web/multimedia guide on modern art, following the structure and the appropriate development models that are usually adopted in related projects [ ]. in the same context, principal values of blended learning [ ] are considered for the in-class utilization of the targeted tools, incorporating modalities that would expedite interactivity with rich user experience, intensifying audience engagement (i.e., gaming elements, simulation examples, etc. [ , ]). furthermore, algorithmic recognition of those painting styles offers another technological domain when considering that classification of significant art movements is included in the syllabus and goals of the selected/demanding course, whereas smart systems could be used as assistive training machines. artificial intelligence does represent a cutting-edge topic that is essential for many higher education programs [ , ], ranging from standard stem subjects to broader multidisciplinary studies, which is also the current use-case scenario. hence, machine learning (ml) modules can be tested for their contribution as schooling material, i.e., to make the teaching procedure more appealing for students having loose relation to artistic/social sciences. at the same time, such a type of exercising could force digital literacy support for less digitally oriented audience, providing applied tutoring on core functional/algorithmic features, for many of the presently elaborating/upcoming trends in our ubiquitous information society (i.e., semantic web, internet of things, big data, etc.). extending the above, these processes are also suitable for obtaining useful feedback and crowdsourcing-driven indirect annotation that could further propel artificial art recognition projects [ , ]. even if these perspectives are considered somewhat beyond the main scope of tel, the associated efforts are thought as being amongst the most challenging and trendy examples of inter-sectoral research [ – ], fueling cross-domain collaboration and knowledge exchange. overall, the paper attempts to investigate and thoroughly analyze the potential advantages of tel services in the media business, detecting the difficulties and needs that are associated with the interdisciplinary nature of this area, while stressing out convincing answers and prosperous solutions. specifically, apart from the presentation material used in class, the idea was to develop an online guide, holding all of the necessary information that someone would request concerning this course and broadly this topic. the effort was directed in the examination of related examples on other languages since there was not available such an integrated site for the history of art in greek, following the principles of exploratory development and throwaway prototyping (i.e., selecting/implementing the useful parts/utilities, while removing/replacing the ones seem to be problematic) [ – , – ]. as the next section explains, the name istoriart was chosen after the greek word history (iστoρἰα = istoria) and the global term art (i.e., history of art in greek). thus, adopting the main phases of software engineering encountered in web-/multimedia-authoring, the current work pursues best-practices on the design, application, and evaluation of tel resources, emphasizing the interdisciplinary nature educ. sci. , , of of contemporary media services. the deployed interactive prototyping model put targeted users on the center of the design (lucid framework), aiming at obtaining valuable feedback concerning the wanted tools and their utilization. usability assessment is employed at almost all the phases of project evolution, while a focused investigation on small-grouped training sessions is proposed to test the accomplishment of the set goals. in this context, the paper deals with the aspects of technology-enhanced (and on-demand) media learning, having a two-folded intention. firstly, to review the istoriart agile development case-study, aiming at concluding the adoption of best-practices, which are suitable for the current scenario and broader usage. secondly, to validate specific hypotheses, which are related to the wanted educatory character and impact, by answering the corresponding research questions. based on the above analysis and given as granted that contemporary media paradigms feature many teaching difficulties for learners with different scientific background [ , , , ], the hypotheses besides the conducted research are stated, as follows: rh : a properly organized multimedia guide could facilitate the process of media learning, both for enhancing the in-class teaching experience and for offering self-training support. rh : if specific modalities are selected and appropriately assembled, online training services can propel audience engagement (even if the presented topics are different from their core disciplines, thus posing comprehension difficulties). moreover, targeted audience (i.e., students, trainees) can provide valuable feedback, helping to improve the teaching experience (in multiple levels), while also promoting digital literacy support, for both the involved topics and broader media processes during the implementation of tel services. in this context, risen research questions accommodated to the listed hypotheses are as follows: rq : are the targeted users (media students/trainees) interested in using interactive multimedia applications in media learning topics? rq : what is the impact of technology-enhanced learning resources in supporting a specific highly multidisciplinary media subject (i.e., modern art), prioritizing audience engagement? extending the above, representative users of the targeted audience can actively participate in the implementation of such tel services, providing valuable feedback to indicate the different problems, issues, and challenges that media training is facing nowadays, caused, amongst others, by its rapidly evolving multidisciplinary nature. specifically, the current work aims at enlightening various diverse perspectives, which are related to the rapid prototyping procedures of project implementation. close collaboration between experts of different backgrounds and skills has been forced (including the authors of this paper) to indicate the advantageous tel values for confronting the demanding nature of the discussed cross-domain subject. broader conclusions and the adoption of best-practices are targeted to promote digital literacy support, for both the involved topics and wider media processes. . materials and methods as already stated, the implementation model follows the principles of human-centered design. starting with the initial idea, the phases of analysis, design, development, and evaluation are successively repeated in a spiral model. hence, functional requirements and implementation details are continually refined and elaborated until the targeted criteria are finally met [ – ]. in this context, risk assessment and reduction procedures are engaged at every iteration/cycle, which ensures the desired communication and collaboration with the targeted audience (that is very important in the current case). from a different perspective, the component-based software engineering (cbse) model is also involved, which allows for existing material to be part of the process (e.g., user interfaces, multimodal content/assets, applicable/already available code, etc.). the main concept is gradually transformed to crisper functional requirements and specifications, in which the analysis of related web applications educ. sci. , , of and users’ preferences guide the structure and the aesthetics of the entailed prototypes. gaming components, interactive multimedia presentations, and simulations are then imposed, which measure the offered functionalities against the computation and communication load demands. usability evaluation and ux analysis are also repeatedly deployed, taking valuable feedback for the accurate direction of the next design steps. project completion takes place with the integration of all the produced or refactored components, which triggers the final evaluation within and outside the production team (alpha/beta testing). the associated stress-tests are executed in typical/simulated learning sessions, which are aimed at validating the initially stated hypotheses by answering the risen questions. . . analysis the goal of analysis is to elaborate the initial idea, to examine the demands and preferences of the targeted audience, and to formulate the first list of functional (and non- functional) specifications. there are two main procedures that are deployed in this phase, namely, to review the related applications and to investigate the needs of selected/representative users. the first process was executed in parallel by the members of the production team (including authors of this article), leading to a brainstorming discussion group, where all of the findings were inspected in the viewpoint of exploratory development and throwaway prototyping (mentioned above). therefore, a list with related services and their qualitative evaluation was formed to highlight the interesting ideas, usable features, and possible best practices to adopt. table contains the results of the top-ranked applications/webpages on modern art, synopsizing favorite elements and characteristics that are to be considered during the subsequent design steps. table . review/qualitative evaluation of related applications (mostly websites on modern art) [ ]. name url address comments wikipaintings www.wikiart.org clear navigation, good aesthetics, precise art-movements classification wikipedia www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ modern_art poor aesthetics, crisp texts artcyclopedia www.artcyclopedia.com no aesthetic pleasure, disorienting navigation structure googleartproject www.artsandculture.google.com good aesthetics, rich visual content, options to create personal collections tate-modern www.tate.org.uk/visit/tate-modern good aesthetics, rich visual content, inspiring confidence, browsing flaws (missing return/back options) greek arts museum www.greekstatemuseum.com/kmst/ index.html good aesthetics, clear navigation, rich visual content theartstory www.theartstory.org clear and pleasant navigation, concise summaries with options for further/extensive information lookup, satisfactory visual content, crisp/salient texts, inspiring confidence moma www.moma.org bright aesthetics, rich content, pleasant navigation, crisp texts national gallery of art (nga) www.nga.gov user-friendly, rich in content, good aesthetics, inspiring confidence guggenheim museum www.guggenheim.org rich in visual content, accurate descriptions, clear and pleasant navigation, concise summaries with options for further/extensive information lookup, bright aesthetics the second important analysis task, monitoring of users’ preferences, was conducted through an empirical survey, with the help of a corresponding questionnaire. the answers of forty-seven ( ) www.wikiart.org www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/modern_art www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/modern_art www.artcyclopedia.com www.artsandculture.google.com www.tate.org.uk/visit/tate-modern www.greekstatemuseum.com/kmst/index.html www.greekstatemuseum.com/kmst/index.html www.theartstory.org www.moma.org www.nga.gov www.guggenheim.org educ. sci. , , of individuals were finally selected (out of ) to balance the diversity of the sample (therefore, the statistical reliability of the approach), which featured age ranging between thirty and fifty years, with interests and professional occupations in the domains of art and education (that was evaluated as positive). in addition, the majority of the participants attended a university program and/or they were interested in post-graduate studies (> %), with only a small percentage posing a post-graduate degree (~ %), while most of them had frequent access to the internet and, in many cases, via multiple devices (desktop/laptop pc, smartphone, tablet, etc.). finally, although the majority was interested in modern art, there were significant variations regarding specific preferences (i.e., period or species) and pre-existed knowledge. more detailed information regarding this survey is provided, along with the assessment outcomes in the associated results section. at this moment, it is important to maintain that the selected group matches the set goal, while considering that the guide is primarily intended to support a post-graduate interdisciplinary course (and broader related master pathways) that deals with media, artistic expressions, and overall creative communication. the initial analysis resulted in the description of some basic requirements and guidelines to be used in the remaining design iterations. specifically, it validated the informative and educational character of the targeted guide, positing a modular structure with articles on painting movements, artists, timelines, and game components. the enhancement of the visual element and the incorporation of featured photo-galleries was also decided, prejudging a “chic & simple” aesthetical approach. while the main purpose was to have the material available online, the necessity to be able to work without internet connection was also pointed out (using a copy of “downloaded site”), so as to adapt in the various teaching conditions. this last remark rather excludes some easy-to-use live web authoring tools and associated generic-purpose cms tools (content management systems), hence, custom-made solutions had to be deployed, without disregarding the needs for central managing and updating mechanisms. finally, attention was paid to maintain low computation and communication load, thus to expedite fast browsing experience, without unnecessary interruptions and delays. overall, the analysis outcomes include the findings of the survey (discussed in the related results section), as well as the extracted specifications that were evaluated and verified with the users that were involved in the lucid process (especially for the parts dealing with functional and content-wise attributes). . . design taking the deliverables of the analysis cycles as the inputs, low-fidelity prototyping iterations were deployed during this phase (mock-up design), which refined the structure of the web-guide and the overall navigation experience (figure a). specifically, many features of “theartstory.org” were indicated as the most appropriate to be adopted in the current approach, aspiring to be the respective greek point-of-reference for modern art and principally painting movements. the main screens of the corresponding thematic categories were sketched, while the istoriart logo ideas were brought into the table and refined during the successive spiral design (figure b,c). color pallet, chromatic code, and page composition were decided for the entire site, providing some initial high-fidelity prototype illustrations (figure d). apart from the “painting movements” and the “artists” themes, in which popular styles and painters would be listed and linked to featured pages, further elements (i.e., timelines, games) were implanted to augment interaction, which targeted rich-media experience and audience engagement. hence, the first two items of the navigation bar point to the primary learning resources, which might also form the syllabus of a related class (like the post-graduate course of the working scenario), while the rest of them offer enhanced ways of accessing and interacting. timelines were again inspired by “theartstory.org” to draw infographic visualizations, which highlighted key-events and generally temporal style elaboration. in this view, alternative schemes for information organization and presentation are offered, facilitating various filtering, searching, or indexing mechanisms, which can be adapted to the (self-) instructing preferences of both in-class students and distant trainees. such exploratory capabilities are additionally supported with the “links” section, which directs users to selected external sites. multimedia quizzes, photo-galleries, and puzzles were lastly considered as the educ. sci. , , of entertaining components, which aimed to stimulate engaging schooling activities through educational games. all of these processes and their outcomes were systematically discussed and evaluated with the participating users, to come to the final decisions. figure . design of the proposed istoriart web guide [ ]: (a) organization and navigation structure (proposed sitemap); (b) low-fidelity prototype (mock-up design); (c) alternative logo suggestions; and, (d) illustration of a high-fidelity prototype. recalling the analysis and design conclusions, the goal for istoriart was to develop an interactive environment that would be accessible through any computing device (smartphones, tablets, laptop, and desktop computers). a static site was advocated based on the stateless web development example to achieve this goal, allowing for the consumption of interactive contents by clients with and without internet connectivity. a significant advantage of the chosen stateless development model is the fact that there is no shared state between the servers (e.g., a database), which simplifies the scaling of the application, thus allowing it to serve high volumes of traffic [ , , ]. a computational architecture was also designed, which incorporated all of the stated specifications and requirements into the blueprinted diagram of figure . the docker-based containerization approach allows for achieving isolation between different services running on the server, also simplifying the authoring/programming and deployment workflow. specifically, a docker image is generated and pushed to a repository, containing the apache web-server and istoriart content. a virtualization layer on top of hardware resources, as supplied by okeanos cloud platform, is employed for the hosts running the containerized application. along with these technological suggestions, it was also decided that istoriart would be delivered as an additional microservice through the “arutv.ee.auth.gr” domain, educ. sci. , , of in the url address http://arutv.ee.auth.gr/istoriart/. the reason behind this choice is two-folded: (a) arutv is an interactive-tv effort that started within the same post-graduate program, which often served as a repository of other audiovisual and multimedia products, and (b) this repository is engaged in the educational activities of some other classes, including the mentioned courses of “modern art” and “multimedia production” [ , , ]. figure . the blueprinted back-end/computing architecture of istoriart web guide: the various layers comprising the full tech stack are presented. . . development in many aspects, the design and development processes co-exist within the iterative spirals, so the main distinction is the heavier production and programming, deployed during content/media assets construction and authoring. hence, the project continues to actually implement the adopted aesthetic and functional plan that has been already presented in the previous section. however, some strategic decisions are clarified in this section, which are mostly related to the aims of providing additional interactions, so as to engage the audience from all of the different/targeted disciplines. as already implied, photo-galleries and puzzles (jigsaw, slide) have been incorporated as interactive/entertaining components (figure a). these elements allow for users to browse through various collections of pictures, which are categorized in different movements, thus to become more familiarized with the visual features of the similar styles. moreover, students (or trainees) and professionals working on related projects can organize their own digital painting collections that would be later utilized in the processes of gaming. coming to the perspective of educators, various experiential teaching activities could be organized and directed within the physical or electronic classes (i.e., classify the image to the proper style, group alike examples, recognize a specific artwork to retrieve further information or historical details, etc.). these elements were created in adobe flash (continued as adobe animate) and then extracted as swf files, taking advantage of previous experience, the offered authoring capabilities, and the availability of related/original code, which could be elaborated to adapt to any specific needs of the project, according to cbse model [ . while it was already known that this option would exclude the possibility of reproducing these services on mobile devices, it was a conscious decision to proceed with the choice that was made for two main reasons. first, the combination of the offered interactivity/scripting and the associated design tools were advantageous when compared to the alternatives, especially if the working environment and the back-end components had to be presented and explained in a multidisciplinary audience (i.e., within the teaching activities of the mentioned post-graduate program, for instance, in the “multimedia production” class). second, the specific limitation of not playing these utilities in mobile devices was actually a desired feature, since high size and resolution screens or projections are preferred (for obvious reasons). http://arutv.ee.auth.gr/istoriart/ educ. sci. , , of figure . examples of the gaming components in the istoriart web guide [ ]: (a) interactive galleries and puzzles (organize pictures in related movement folders); and, (b) knowledge and image-recognition quizzes (following the movement-recognition exercise, a subsequent question is shown, requesting to justify the initial classification decision, i.e., based on colors, shapes, thematic content, intuition). another kind of educational gaming was attempted with the implementation of quizzes, asking general knowledge questions and/or focusing on the recognition of specific visual artworks (figure b). such tools could be exploited as self-testing material and for triggering group discussion in a classroom. the utilization of swf format (and adobe flash) was again decided, based on the justification that was provided in the previous paragraph, as well as to serve seamless engineering and maintenance (i.e., not to search and cope with another technology, only for questions that do not contain images). while modern art paintings cannot easily be attached with strict style recognition rules, an effort was put in that direction to help, challenge, and engage the audience (i.e., especially the technologically-oriented students coming from stem disciplines). particularly, a two-step questioning dialogue was decided, which asked participants/players to indicate the reason of their movement classification response (through a list of choices, as shown in figure b), regardless of whether their answer was right or wrong (a “checking the right answer possibility” is available in down-left green button of figure b). therefore, erroneous and correct replies could be massively selected and associated with the different categories in order to extract empirical rules and knowledge for types or specific examples posing recognition complexity/difficultness. anonymous submission of the game results was set, with a randomization engine generating different questions, so that users would not face the exact same content each time they would play the game. all of these features could be easily handled within adobe flash, without deviating from the initial requirement for web content portability and offline reproduction. returning to the educational perspectives and the offered capabilities, the introduced “learning by example” concept can be inducted in the goals of blended learning, thus giving the opportunity to schedule physical- and/or distant-communication teaching (synchronous or asynchronous). in addition, this new approach is closer to the training of artificial intelligence systems, i.e., through the paradigms of machine and deep learning (ml/dl) [ , , – ]. inspired by this, a painting movement recognition modality was examined (already implied), which offered an alternative/opposite viewpoint, where humans guide the machines. figure presents the envisioned tel framework behind the conducted work, which included already running services and future perspectives, while also demonstrating the two-folded orientation of the proposed “machine-assisted learning”. when considering the intensiveness of present-day research projects that were related to art recognition and attendance [ – , , ], such labors require interdisciplinary workforce and associative media training that cannot be left out of the scope of this work. specifically, while mobile devices are not compatible with the offered gaming utilities (as already explained), there was an effort to engage smartphones and tablets in educative exercises educ. sci. , , of on artificial art recognition. the utmost target is to be able to combine such intelligent ml systems with augmented reality (ar) modules [ ], i.e., to recognize an artwork through the mobile camera, retrieving and displaying further information on the screen. therefore, while taking advantage of previous successful implementations for crowdsourcing audio semantics [ , ], the idea was to extend such strategies in the discussed example, i.e., enabling users to validate the movement recognition results by providing semi-automated annotation feedback. a proof of concept attempt was made in algorithmic level even if such demanding/generic purpose solutions are not technically feasible yet, investigating the potential visual parameters to be used in various modern-art classification schemes [ , ]. for instance, visual features that were extracted and ranked for their descriptive saliency in the discrimination of the different painting classes could be more easily understood and comprehended to some teaching groups. clearly, this approach can be thought of as more suitable and challenging to technologists, post-graduate students, or academics, who are (/willing to be) involved in such types of multidisciplinary research. in this case, istoriart can also provide the necessary creative or artistic background to fill in the gap in media literacy from an art perspective. finally, the games and the targeted ar services could both propel the gradual construction of large-volume ground-truth repositories, appropriate to advance future works on dl, not only for media and art, but also for broader collaborations on demanding multimedia semantics. figure . the envisioned bundle of technology-enhanced services within the istoriart framework. advanced movement recognition modalities attempt to further propel machine-driven training. when considering the diversification of modern-art styles and even inner-class dissimilarities of artists under the same trend, it would be beneficial to provide an educational map for the implicated painting movements, where visual content withholds large amounts of information (colors, textures, etc.). initial experiments were conducted for the potential discrimination of patterns through machine learning. the whole classification task is quite demanding due to the heterogeneity of the art styles, as well as the personalized characteristics of representative artists. imaging properties had to be imprinted/reflected into mathematical expressions, transforming empirical observations or intuitions into relevant visual parameters. in the current case, the feature extraction and ranking procedures were conducted with the close collaboration of different groups of expertise within the discussed post-graduate program, i.e., in the classes of related courses and as a part of master/doctoral theses [ , ]. figure shows the implicated processes, along with the triggered tel activities and the associated services. as it is further discussed in the results and discussion sections, the overall cooperation experience was found exciting, enjoyable, and engaging by the different participants, while educ. sci. , , of the preliminary performance outcomes of the trained models per se, seem to be very encouraging, making a strong proof of concept. . . evaluation assessment is considered to be an essential procedure in multimedia production and broadly in system engineering projects, especially if rapid prototyping and human-centered design are involved (as in the current work). overall, different types of evaluation can be conducted in qualitative and/or quantitative terms throughout all of the development phases. the main scope is to indicate likely flaws, imperfect behavior, or unjustified deviations from the blueprinted plan when such analyses are deployed in parallel with the project execution, providing useful feedback for course rectification (formative evaluation). a respective small panel of multi-domain experts was formed for this purpose, including representative users of the targeted istoriart audience along with authors of this paper. specifically, individuals coming from the sectors of education ( ), audiovisual industries, artistic, or creative media ( ), were assembled with technologists, web programmers, and software engineers ( ) to cover all of the necessary appraising perspectives. most of the participants had an associated degree and related experience in the field, while the students of the relevant post-graduate program were listed among the contributors. experimental/inspection sessions and associated discussion groups were organized to uncover and shape the required curative actions. testing and validation mechanisms were emanated from the favorite rules and principles, i.e., the nielsen metrics and the so-called “five es of usability” (effectiveness, efficiency, engagement, error tolerance, ease of learning), which highlighted the desired application attributes [ , – , – ]. these codes were adapted to the characteristics of the intended istoriart functionalities and the aimed end-users. formative evaluation was decided to mainly proceed in qualitative terms, even if bigger teams were sometimes involved in the process (i.e., focused post-graduate classes). apart from the above formative procedure, a final assessment session was employed at project completion with the help of a different board of evaluators. this analysis mainly incorporates subjective/empirical observations and suggestions that, except for their qualitative nature, were supplemented with a related quantification approach. the central aim was to estimate the succeeded achievements, to indicate proper use of the offered tel services in broader learning/training scenarios in the highly multidisciplinary media sector, and to unveil the potential future deployment and elaboration directions. a different kind of evaluation was employed for the case of the artificial movement recognition utilities, i.e., to stress the performance and the expected generalization accuracy of the trained modalities. more details regarding all of these processes are provided in the corresponding results section. . results elaborating on the previous paragraph, the qualitative and quantitative results, as presented in this section, can be divided into three major categories: (a) the implemented guide and the offered services; (b) the analysis and usability evaluation outcomes; and, (c) the deployed pattern classification schemes with the associated performance scores. . . implemented guide and offered services the implemented modern art guide with its featured multimedia elements and the associated tel perspectives are listed among the undeniably positive results of the work. the delivered services managed to fill the gap in the availability of related tools, especially for the greek language. figure presents views of the istoriart site. the starting screen contains a tag-cloud animation with direct access to the most popular movements. the horizontal menu that follows is present in all browsing instances, offering site-map guidance, thus allowing for quick navigation to each thematic page. a short welcome text completes the composition of the introduction message, providing primary project identity information, while overall maintaining a “chic and simple” design. all of the internal educ. sci. , , of nodes open in the main window (_iframe), while external sites open to new tabs (_blank). in this context, users and especially students/trainees can safely explore the informatory data needed during an educational exercise or activity, without worrying about possible disorientation or misplacing (i.e., to get lost). figure . the implemented istoriart web-guide: (a) start page, containing a tag-cloud animation with links to the most popular modern-art movements, followed by the horizontal navigation bar and the welcome text; (b) an artist page (degas) with his identity data and timeline, representative/favorite artworks, abstract section (in bluish color) and lookup mechanisms (links/pop-up windows) for finding further information on related art movements. in both screens, project-identity links are given in the right-top corner, while the istoriart logo is placed an instance below, in the opposite side (left -top). the horizontal menu is always present (just below the logo) to facilitate easy access to all the browsing nodes/pages. . . analysis and usability evaluation results empirical surveys were conducted during the rapid prototyping processes to serve the analysis and evaluation tasks. qualitative observations and feedback were received by various experts through interview and lab inspection approaches, while a broader audience anonymously selected the quantitative responses. a properly formed questionnaire was used during analysis to collect the answers of potential end-users (target group) and to reveal key characteristics for the subsequent development. the questions were related to the users’ knowledge and interests, either in art generally or exclusively in modern-contemporary art, their preferences in different artistic kinds, their needs/willingness to utilize online material (and how often) for retrieving interesting information (artistic or not), and their language preferences (english, greek). the elaborated queries were posed to assess the availability and importance of educational platforms/web-guides on modern art, especially for the greek language. the participants were asked to state their opinions about the appropriateness and effectiveness of the advocated guide modalities (image, audio, video) and the preferred accessing modes (online/offline with downloadable material provisions). several demographic variables (gender, age, profession) were also recorded, along with technology familiarity metrics to extract the correlation outcomes and meaningful conclusions (i.e., estimated level of competency/engagement in digital literacy and web technologies, device preferences during navigation, etc.). table depicts the analytic structure of the questionnaire. educ. sci. , , of table . the analysis questionnaire. # question (indicative answers—range) a gender (male, female) b age (intervals: < , – , > ) c education (secondary, university, master) d profession related to (multimedia, art, education, other) e technology familiarity (low, medium, high) f place for computer utilization (home, work, both, other) g use of internet frequency ( – ) h device preference (desktop computer, laptop, mobile, tablet) i knowledge of differences between modern and contemporary art (yes, no, not sure) j do you want to know more about modern art? ( – ) k do you search on the web for art-related information? ( – ) l do you search on the web for modern art related information ( – ) m main interest in art (painting, music, literature, theater, dancing) n do you search on the web for general information? ( – ) o would you read an english text for information acquirement? ( – ) p do you know any featured multimedia guide for modern art in greek language? ( – ) q would you be interested in a modern art guide in greek language? ( – ) r should a modern art guide involve multimodal content (audio, video etc.)? ( – ) s importance of downloadable content of the guide, i.e., offline mode ( – ) t main interest in modern art (historical data, movements, artists, creations, all, none) u a multimedia modern-art guide should involve (extended textual descriptions, basic information, concise summaries with options for further/extensive information lookup) questions that were related to modern art and istoriart aspects (initial knowledge, suggested modalities, anticipated usefulness, etc.) were structured in a categorical form of potential answers, with five-point likert scales ( – , from “totally disagree” to “totally agree” or from “not at all” to “very often”). binary values (i.e., gender) and higher-dimension lists were also involved. a reliability test was conducted in the formulated questionnaire via cronbach’s alpha estimation before proceeding into an extensive correlation analysis between the various factors, which revealed a value of . , thus ensuring the reliability of the test. a primal statistical analysis was made with the exploitation of chi-squared tests, taking into consideration the categorical nature of the involved answers, based on the calculation of pearson correlation coefficient with % confidence level (as compared to . threshold value). the items were divided in two subsets, with the former involving basic characteristics/demographics of the users (questions a-h) and the latter containing their art-related answers (questions i-u). the correlation matrix from the chi-square tests presents the p-values for the combinations of row/column elements, which were compared to the . threshold of statistically significant correlations (marked as green for values below . , as depicted in figure ). statistical differentiations in the answers of male/female users for their interests in a on modern-art guide (like istoriart) and the preferred multimedia elements were found. the diversified professional orientation revealed statistical correlation to the anticipated services and the internet utilization. educ. sci. , , of table . evaluation questions adapted to the nielsen metrics and the five es of usability [ , – ]. # usability criteria crisp and simple navigation use of correct language—terminology visibility of system status effective presentation flexibility and efficiency of (multimedia) use information retrieval (recognition rather than recall) aesthetic and minimalistic design multimedia interaction/user control alternative navigation routes/user freedom help and documentation support figure . p-values for the questioned items (the green-highlighted cells indicated statistical difference between the associated factors, as presented in table . regarding usability evaluation, apart from the formative feedback that was received in all the corresponding phases of the iterative design (low-/high fidelity prototypes, midway deliverables, etc.), the final assessment derived from five ( ) experts, specialized in the following domains: (a) education and technology, (b) creative expressions, graphics and arts, (c) game development, (d) software engineering, web authoring and management, and (e) audiovisual signal processing and multimedia. the goal (in all phases) was to receive timely feedback regarding the inspection of functional errors, misleading content, ineffective design, etc., targeting to drive the subsequent optimization process. for this reason, a short list of questions was adapted to the associated nielsen rules and the five es of usability [ , – ], inquiring discussion regarding ten ( ) different multimedia perspectives of istoriart to match the specific analysis needs in the current scenario (i.e., to form the variables presented in table ). the interviewed experts’ team had to respond with a likert-like score from to , to each of the properties, which are exhibited in table . figure presents the statistical results of the respective scores. the mean values were in all cases around . , which point to the high-quality and functional design of the application, while the tiny deviations declare the homogeneity in the answers of the implicated experts. despite that this outcome relies on a small group, it is essential to note the agreement from all the different angles of expertise, without any diversifications between educational, creative, and technological disciplines. educ. sci. , , of figure . statistics (mean, standard deviation) of the final istoriart evaluation, using the modified usability assessment criteria, as presented in table . regarding the formed metrics and the absence of some popular/key parameters (i.e., error rate/presence—prevention and recovery; formal documentation), formative feedback pointed out that the deployed architecture and the simplicity of the back-end design resulted in the abstain of related navigation errors. for this reason, it was decided to exclude “error queries”, while also considering that, at some point, these aspects were somewhat projected in the “navigation, visibility, and control” views. in the same context, the missing of formal documentation was noticed, though, it was admitted that helping notes and supporting material adequately covered this necessity (also reflected in the variables of table ). in qualitative terms, small concerns were further expressed regarding the use of *.swf files and popup windows, justified on the expected difficulties and incompatibilities when executed on mobile devices. thus, the incorporation of alternative future implementations was prompted. the possibility of a search bar was finally mentioned, realizing the subsequent/unwanted increase of complexity, with the additional risk to distract or disorient users (students/trainees) in their educational tasks. despite the above optional points, all of the reviews were intensely positive, thinking of the stated minor flaws as insignificant, especially for the current phase and the set aims, thus agreeing that the project accomplished the vast majority of its targets. the positive remarks were also validated and verified in qualitative terms by different groups of evaluators, i.e., students that were enrolled in the referred post-graduate media courses, multi-domain researchers participating in the training of the machine-driven movement recognition system (presented next), etc. it has to be noted that this last assessment was deployed to test the initial/stated hypotheses of the tel-contributions and not for evaluative purposes per se. nevertheless, in-class triggered discussions and feedback is collected for a potential future release of a next istoriart version (optimized with augmented features), whereas the additional statistics and solid results could be extracted (considered out of the scope of the current work). . . machine-driven movement recognition: classification schemes and performance evaluation as already pointed out, this experimentation was decided to meet the highly multi-domain nature of the media education scenarios, as well as to trigger audience engagement and experiential learning activities. initial classification schemes were set, which involved the following eight styles: impressionism, meta-impressionism, fauvism, expressionism, abstract expressionism, cubism, futurism, and surrealism. the most famous/representative artists and artworks of each movement were included for training and testing purposes (the associated numbers of painting samples per class educ. sci. , , of are given in table ). lossless compression image files (i.e., *.png format) were retrieved from web sources in different dimensions/resolutions; hence, a preprocessing step was necessary for smoothening this heterogeneity. specifically, each picture was rescaled to the same horizontal dimension ( pixels), which analogously accommodated the vertical size, for the avoidance of distortion/disproportion problems. thereafter, a set of features was extracted as related to color components, texture properties, and spatial shape detection, representing the inputs to feed system training. table . painting collections of the different genres used for the machine-driven art recognition. # movement number of paintings impressionism meta-impressionism fauvism expressionism abstract expressionism cubism futurism surrealism sum specifically, basic statistical variables, i.e., mean value, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, and entropy, were computed for the grayscale images (with gray-levels, i.e., -bit quantization). these parameters were combined to form structural descriptors that could aid in mining and assigning rules for each category. moreover, color transformations into different models were deployed since color information is essential in modern-art style discrimination (i.e., rgb, hsv, ycbcr, liq) and the above statistics were again calculated to contribute tp a combined color-structure identification perspective. similarly, typical filters (i.e., edge detectors) were utilized to reveal shape characteristics, i.e., through the number of edges, corners and lines. in purely technical terms, contrast/dynamic range processing were applied, along with corner/node detection techniques (i.e., eigenvalues, harris methods) and their elaborated edge estimation counterparts in the extracted binary versions (i.e., canny, sobel, prewitt, roberts, laplace-gaussian, zero-crossing). furthermore, continuous lines of pixels were located and quantified via the hough-transform, which configured the minimum line-length threshold values through trial and error testing (a number of consecutive active pixels turned to be a good compromise). an alternatively texture discovery approach was attempted with a more sophisticated property set (i.e., via the computation of the haralick coefficients, deriving from the respective co-occurrence matrices), while empirical mode decomposition (emd) transforms were also included to indicate salient spectral/scaling attributes. overall, a feature vector of visual parameters was formed for each image, using the matlab computer vision toolbox [ , , ]. the last two paragraphs might seem entirely unfitting to the main concept of the paper, especially for average readers without an essential technological and algorithmic background. however, this is the exact point when it comes to highly interdisciplinary studies, as presented in this paper. on the one hand, creative media and communication disciplines are needed to provide the human experience in classifying modern-art painting movements, as to suggest the accompanying discrimination rules. clearly, the interested users of this domain would be fascinated with the idea of using a machine-driven recognition guide (and the respective tel scenarios that are listed in figure ). on the other hand, scientists and researchers from the computer vision perspective bring the skillsets and assets to train such smart systems through ml and dl techniques into the table. in this context, multi-domain audience is strongly engaged in the tel processes and urged to close collaboration with the co-mates. in fact, this was the case during the ml sessions, presented here, where post-graduate students and researchers/phd candidates were collaborating towards the construction of the ground-truth dataset (i.e., image-samples annotated with movement labels) to train and test the artificial recognition modules [ , ]. table lists the different categories/classification schemes that were formed in order educ. sci. , , of to verify the initial proof of concept (i.e., to estimate the algorithmic style detection performance) and the associated evaluation metrics/results. the ratio of the correctly classified samples to the total population is defined as the pattern recognition accuracy (pr), while partial scores (pri = a,b,c) refer to the intrinsic measures within each one of the classes i (=a, b, c). table . overall (pr%) and partial (pri %) performance rates of the various classification schemes. # class a pra class b prb class c prc pr surrealism . fauvism . futurism . surrealism . . meta-impressionism . cubism . . impressionism . fauvism . . meta-impressionism . futurism . . abstract expressionism . surrealism . . cubism . expressionism . . fauvism . cubism . . meta-impressionism . surrealism . . meta-impressionism . surrealism . futurism . . fauvism . impressionism . surrealism . . fauvism futurism . cubism surrealism . . expressionism impressionism abstract expressionism meta-impressionism . cubism . . several machine-learning techniques were applied and compared (support vector machines, k-nearest neighbors, regressions, etc.), which balanced the overall and partial accuracies, before concluding to the utilization of neural network models. after iterative trial and error tests, the final neural structure that was involved the input layer (i.e., system input), one intermediate/hidden layer (with neurons and sigmoid trigger functions), and a linear output layer (adapted to the number of classes). the standard k-fold validation method (k = ) was adopted, which divided the input samples into k clusters; k- groups were used for model training and the remaining one for estimating the system generalization performance, which measured the classification scores in all of the formed k-combinations. based on the data depicted in table , high recognition rates have succeeded in quite a few schemes, while the overall preliminary results seem to be very encouraging (also accounting the difficulty of the problem and the small dataset used for training). elaborating on this initial experimentation, useful insights have been highlighted and further discussed in the next section, which indicated potential future directions of machine-assisted art recognition and their implication in demanding media learning scenarios. . limitations the current project has some unique characteristics that cannot be easily accommodated to other studies. nevertheless, technological and methodological principles concerning the engaging aspects of the pursued tel services could be propagated to the broader media training domain. in the same context, multidisciplinary demands may be significantly different in other challenging/real-world scenarios, so that the deployed modalities and solutions might not be so applicable. however, best practices can be extracted and tested in other/linked disciplines and related research collaborations. concerning the two main set goals, i.e., the implementation of the multimedia guide to augment the learning experience and the machine-assisted art recognition approach for stimulating interdisciplinary engagement; both undertakings feature certain difficulties and limitations. thus, formative and final evaluation outcomes need to be enhanced with the participation of wider audiences, by massively educ. sci. , , of deploying the developed utilities in featured classrooms and/or as self-learning toolsets. enlarging the received feedback would provide more concrete and reliable assessment insights, thus eliminating the associated design uncertainties during system maintenance. regarding the anticipated ar modalities that rely on artificial movement detection, as already stated, the purpose was to make an initial proof of concept. the limited number of training samples and the formed classification schemes need to be elaborated with further experiments and more sophisticated analysis. these limitations do not affect the targets stated in this study in all cases, while future research directions can be listed based on this first experimentation, as discussed in the following section. . discussion starting with the stated hypotheses and questions, the conducted analysis verified that the targeted audience approves the art-guide idea of istoriart with the envisioned tel services. specifically, most of the participants answered that they would be interested in extending their knowledge on the topic (> %), seeing the usefulness of such an environment as very important (> %). these percentages are incredibly high, even if the associated results for web searching and retrieval (of art and modern-art information) have significantly lower levels ( % and %, respectively). the majority is positive on the multimedia character of the webpage (~ %), as well as in the offline browsing option, although with some small variation ( % thinks of this facility as very important, % as important, and the remaining % as irrelevant). the above findings become even more significant when combined with the query on the availability of similar applications in the greek language (the % is certain or almost certain that such a site is missing, while a % declares ignorance). despite the restricted sample of participants, the preliminary statistical values revealed correlations between the users’ gender, professions, and their interests/expectations about istoriart. overall, the achieved integration and evaluation results point in the direction that the project succeeded in combining many of the wanted/positive attributes that have been analyzed during the review of related works (table ). these initial conclusions will be further investigated, aiming to optimize the platform modalities for supporting the suitable and effective adaptation to users’ characteristics (art background, media literacy, technology familiarity, etc.), thus facilitating pleasant navigation with engaging interactions and an overall rich user experience. the bundle of the implemented tel services can be utilized for forming innovative education activities, both for in-class tutoring and self-training support, through the use of comprehensive material (e.g., showing items of specific movements, artists, artworks, their temporal evolution/timelines, etc.). hence, the values of blended learning [ ] are extended with the incorporation of representative examples, experiential assignments, simulations, and exercises that can be addressed to individuals or as team-work projects, thus transforming the schooling routine into an augmented interactive experience [ , , – ]. specifically, photo galleries can be used to highlight the resemblances and dissimilarities of the different species; quizzes can examine the levels of understanding and knowledge, triggering class discussion; puzzles can be exploited to organize personal collections and team-contests [ – ]. gaming components can also provide indications of the salient visual parameters that facilitate artwork recognition, which urge trainees to get involved in associated ar-driven tel services [ , , – ] (i.e., to identify the parts of the paintings, the revealing of which triggers higher/empirical cognition, thus helping to detect the descriptive features behind the different styles and their classification properties). feedback queries allow for the harvesting of users’ responses (while playing the corresponding movement recognition games), thus receiving useful insights on subjective discrimination difficulties, which could help to better adapt and direct the teaching procedures. at the same time, a dedicated repository is constructed and annotated with the necessary meta-information, which can be further elaborated through semi-automated crowdsourcing processes. these labelled datasets could be valuable in the direction of learning by example, both for humans and machines (i.e., use the associated samples as inputs in sophisticated ml/dl artificially-trained recognition systems, as it was attempted in the current project, making the first proof of concept). educ. sci. , , of extending the above, it is essential to evaluate the achieved audience engagement perspectives, which form the second research question to be answered. based on the usability assessment outcomes and the associated qualitative validation sessions, which were conducted in featured target groups and related post-graduate classes, the received feedback verifies the powerfully engaging character of the istoriart tel services. excluding all of the above-stated advantages, it worth elaborating on the example of the ml-training procedures. the corresponding research was deployed with the close collaboration of multi-domain authorities, which revealed the highly multidisciplinary nature of the undertaking. specifically, subject-matter experts from the broader area of audiovisual industries, who had previous knowledge and/or interests in modern art, cooperated with technologists, specialists on signal processing, and artificial intelligence. the common targets were to form the initial dataset with representative painting styles and to detect the applicable visual properties for their automated discrimination. the classification schemes, as presented in table , were investigated and finally formed based on the joint empirical observations of the involved teams. it should be noted that direct movement recognition experiments were initially attempted, which aimed at separating all of the samples in each painting category at once, but reduced performance rates were achieved, which pointed out the increased complexity of the problem [ , ]. this was a good “lesson” for media disciplines to comprehend that ml algorithms cannot provide any solution by their own, an experience that can be portrayed on similar trendy topics (i.e., semantic web, internet of things, big data applications in media/communications). in this context, their digital literacy was expanded in practice, which allowed for them to contribute the team effort, i.e., by participating in the investigation and configuration of the remaining tasks of visual feature extraction and ranking. on the other hand, technologists took the opportunity to exploit istoriart resources, to get basic training on the necessary artistic background. overall, both teams were attracted by the mutual challenge and they enjoyed their active engagement in such a demanding project. in future perspectives, the conducted semantic analysis could be reinforced/optimized with the collection of extended ground-truth data (for more adequate movement representation), or even with the integration of hierarchical modules, which support the classification process in sequential layers of coarse/hybrid schemes. in all cases, this style recognition approach serves as an introductory guide and a key element for istoriart, fulfilling educational purposes either for art related users or technology-oriented ones, while addressing the wanted interdisciplinary skillset. furthermore, the extracted conclusions regarding movement discrimination and the explicitly-described ml know-how could initiate interesting discussions in media classes, motivating the collaborative actions between the co-mates. finally, the already-trained modules can be exploited, along with the istoriart gaming components, to enhance the initially constructed repository, which could propel future dl/ml works, targeting significantly improved generalization performance. when such mature solutions become broadly available, more sophisticated tel services (like the augmented-reality painting recognition of figure ) would further heighten the schooling procedures to even higher levels of audience excitement and engagement. such systems seem among the few prosperous solutions to support digital literacy and life-long learning in the dizzying media society transformation, where unawareness and the uncertainty of the technological capacities are dominant to considerable amounts of population. . conclusions summarizing the above observations, someone would argue with confidence about the strong impact of technology-enhanced learning in supporting highly multidisciplinary topics, prioritizing audience engagement. based on the feedback that was received during the implementation of the istoriart case-study, the adopted practices can help to improve the teaching experience (in multiple levels), promoting digital literacy support, for both the specific topic and broader training processes. more specifically, the engaging, experiencing, and innovative tel aspects can be ingested within the international theoretical framework regarding highly multidisciplinary/demanding fields. as already stated, we are living in a world of data, in which the pervasive nature of information exchange and educ. sci. , , of communication have dominated today’s ubiquitous society. the media landscape has drastically altered during the last years, while it continues to elaborate with strong dependencies on the use of technology. in this context, the previously mentioned contemporary trends of the semantic web and big data are considered as the next big thing in the media world and require the close collaboration of multi-domain experts. hence, following the experience gained in this project, tel services could propel such cooperative models, in favor of all the involved parties. author contributions: conceptualization, e.c. and c.d.; methodology, e.c. and c.d.; software, n.t. and l.v.; validation, r.k., investigation, e.c.; data curation, r.k., l.v. and n.t.; writing—original draft preparation, e.c., r.k. and c.d.; writing—review and editing, l.v., n.t. and c.d.; visualization, n.t. and c.d.; supervision, c.d. funding: this research received no external funding. acknowledgments: the authors acknowledge the valuable contribution and guidance of g. paschalidis, during the methodological preparation and implementation of the conducted work. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . dimoulas, c.; veglis, a.; kalliris, g. semantically enhanced authoring of shared media. in encyclopedia of information science and technology, th ed.; khosrow-pour, m., ed.; igi global: hershey, pa, usa, . . spyridou, l.p.; matsiola, m.; veglis, a.; kalliris, g.; dimoulas, c. journalism in a state of flux: journalists as agents of technology innovation and emerging 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[crossref] . vrysis, l.; vryzas, n.; sidiropoulos, e.; avraam, e.; dimoulas, c.a. jreporter: a smart voice-recording mobile application. in proceedings of the audio engineering society convention , dublin, ireland, – march . . mathworks. computer vision toolbox: user’s guide. . available online: mathworks.com/help/pdf_ doc/vision/vision_ug.pdf (accessed on may ). © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://search.lib.auth.gr/record/ikee- http://dx.doi.org/ . /jaes. . mathworks.com/help/pdf_doc/vision/vision_ug.pdf mathworks.com/help/pdf_doc/vision/vision_ug.pdf http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	background—review or related work 	research aims and project motivation 	materials and methods 	analysis 	design 	development 	evaluation 	results 	implemented guide and offered services 	analysis and usability evaluation results 	machine-driven movement recognition: classification schemes and performance evaluation 	limitations 	discussion 	conclusions 	references international journal of social science, innovation and educational technologies (online) - issn: - vol: , issue: pp: - jel codes: z , z jun m. ( ) “contemporary art characteristics of original costume design” vol: , issue: pp: - keywords: original costume design; characteristics of contemporary art; design ideas; the new generation of designers article type review article contemporary art characteristics of original costume design arrived date accepted date published date . . . . . . meng jun abstract like artistic creativity, original costume, as a microcosm of culture, embodies the cutting-edge thoughts of the times. the new generation of original costume designers becomes more and more like artists, and costume design has become a tool for designers to explain their personal ideas. instead of collective consciousness, they focus more on their own position and experience in daily life. collection of original costume design shows the characteristics of contemporary art that are anti-rational, anti-centered, and experimental, and focus on local traditional culture. the basic characteristics of contemporary art having been influenced by modernism and postmodernism since the s, thoughts in art finally fall into contemporary art. contemporary art① has integrated various art forms including modernism, structuralism, cubism, dadaism, and surrealism, as well as traditional chinese culture. croce, an italian philosopher who has profoundly influenced contemporary art, denied that art was form of practical activity and pointed out that art was purely intuition. croce once said, “art was not a physical fact, or a utilitarian, moral, conceptual, logical activity...art focuses on the human spirit and soul. [ ] this account has relieved the cultural burden and shadow of traditions on art, and driven contemporary art towards highly free and personal expression. american scholar fredric jameson, who has a great impact on postmodernism, also believes that contemporary art is a state of decentralization and fragmentation of the subject and focuses more on self-entertainment and free release of feelings. [ ] contemporary art has shifted from focusing on collective consciousness to on artists’ personal position and experience in daily life, and then entered into the public eye with a comprehensive characteristic of being close to life, pleasing mind, and enjoying a high degree of freedom. as the epitome of the culture, art, and thoughts of the times, costume design bears a close relation to artistic trends and social development. especially the new generation of original costume designers②, the most forefront representatives of social thoughts of art, is sensitive to art just like contemporary artists, and their works represent the sensitivity of the times. such group of designers roughly emerged in china in the early s, and was also impacted by the storms of modernism, postmodernism and varied artistic styles with a time gap with western clothing development③. the st century has seen a new generation of original fashion designers whose works oppose rationality, centrality, and secular aesthetic experience, pay attention to local traditional culture and art, and choose materials and ways to express through experiments, all of which are distinctive features of contemporary art. anti-rational and anti-central inclination of original costume design no cultural burden and shadow of traditions contemporary art does not have explicit artistic propositions or distinctive forms of art, as its very sichuan university of arts and science/china https://orcid.org/ - - - open concepts have led to its diversified forms. contemporary art creations completely break the boundaries of cultures and discard the burden of traditions. any former artistic style could be seen as the elements of contemporary art. for new original fashion designers, holding on dreams of creativity by sticking to a certain art form or reviving a certain culture may not be the focus of their design activities. they often place themselves in an ambiguous state between the past and the future, aggressiveness and convention, centrality and marginality, and rationality and irrationality, and tap into greater artistic possibilities by dissolving artistic styles and themes. [ ] all forms of art at all times and in all over the world are elements for their creativity. compared with collective dream for creativity, they more value their own ideas. figure shangguan zhe’s collection of spring/summer men’s brand show at london fashion week④ figure zhou xiangyu’s collection in the london fashion week autumn/winter ⑤ as a new domestic fashion designer and founder of sankuanz, shangguan zhe's works have their own special traits. his design highlights his subtle feelings of life, and the capture of momentary emotions, and is full of a strong sense of mixed styles. “bohemian” is often used to describe shangguan's design, and his intrinsic love for “ego” is reflected in the ample visual and language elements he employs. elements such as indian braids, blazing patterns of popular art, sports, dolls, aliens, and chinese characters could be mixed up and appear. any cultural icons and design elements can be designed in his works in a relaxing and harmonious way. zhou xiangyu is another typical designer who perfectly knows that he uses clothes as a medium of values and self-expression. he associates design with the lifestyle of today’s young people, so what they like and what they think is cool are very important to zhou. zhou excels at taking the all kinds of elements in culture and life that he has encountered as design elements in his works. he states, “design is international, and designers should not be constrained by their nationality.” ⑥ for the new generation of original fashion designers, culture or tradition is part of what they concern, but is definitely not a design guide. besides, cultural boundaries do not exist, and cultural elements of different styles are often found in the work of the same designer. a wide range of elements are combined at random, and the design activity itself has also become a means for designers to materialize their own concepts of art and express their experience. oppose secular aesthetic experience and emphasize innovation compared with a certain noble meaning and content, creativity is so important to the new generation of fashion designers, and ability to create has gained great attention and recognition from them. croce said that “art is a liberator.” as a state or a mindset of the new designers, creativity is more significant than anything for them. design activities gradually change from serious and rational activities to a relaxing game which is just aimed at creating a new style. the materials for creativity can be diverse. styles, cultures, and even any symbols in life at any time and in any nation can be put into the design of garment. having left behind former serious culture, philosophy and logics, original design activities put more emphasis on free expression and self-entertainment. it is a game of chance to determine decorative elements and styles. the decorative elements, forms, and structures of clothing are constantly changing during creation, and the materials, techniques, and shapes are also full of uncertainties. figure wan yifang’s collection of industrial revolution and fashion⑦ in , in the graduation collection at the central saint martins, the cradle of modern fashion designers, the rising star wan yifang won the attention of worldwide fashion media with a set of design works called industrial revolution and fashion. her design works dismiss traditional standards of fashion aesthetics, and look neither elegant nor exquisite. oversized and simple, her clothes are made from plain fabrics. stereoscopic huge wooden decorations are her design’s impressive part. later in an interview, wan said, “the problem i will meet is innovation. the so-called innovation is unprecedented.” ⑧ focus on personal position, experience in life, and high degree of freedom in general, contemporary original costume design features great personality and liberty, which is consistent with the frontier of contemporary art. li xianting pointed out, “contemporary art is above all an artistic attitude and cultural standpoint. the priority of contemporary art is to really face current experience and feelings of life and living environment. [ ] the new designers put a high value on their own position and life situation, and their design activities on the combination of culture and experience, instead of previous collective consciousness of aesthetics. from initial design concept to selection of materials and color combinations, from structure and overall shape to selection of patterns and processing methods, his expression methods and designs always keep emerging, revealing the highly free creative state of contemporary original costume design. for designer wang yiyang (one of china's most prestigious designers and the founder of women's fashion brand zuczug), his inspiration comes directly from daily life. wang is a designer with novel ideas. he once led his design team to visit vegetable markets in shanghai where they collected common symbols such as fish, kitchen knives, carrots, cabbage, various fruits and vegetables as well as pig trotters and hanging ducks which have presented as design elements in his collection of vegetable market and vegetable market . in addition, wang published the tea mug collection based on life in the s, and the barbershop collection inspired by street barber shops. in an interview, wang said, “i observe daily life in china and then think about how to apply it to fashion design.” ⑨ figure collection of vegetable market ⑩ figure barbershop collection focus on local traditional culture and art a feature of contemporary art is that traditional art elements [ ] get attention, presented in the focus on expression of traditional chinese art and of “chinese style” in western art forms. this is the same as the new original clothing design. recreating china’s local cultural elements in a western design style has become a hot spot. ji cheng, a representative designer of the group, is the founder of jicheng, and a china’s local designer rooted in shanghai. her designs often upend the traditional chinese style and mix chinese elements with elegance and hippie. in , ji released a fashion item crane shadow which adopted the traditional pattern of crane’s wings together with embroidery and three-dimensional feather-like decorations in the hoodie design. ji said, “i think perhaps only those in a quiet world can feel the frequency of vibrations at the moment crane's wings spread out gently.” the oriental mythological animals, such as suanni, bi’an, kylin, and qiuniu, were displayed through traditional embroidery and three-dimensional tailoring in her collection called mythological animals on mountains. in october , her collection dancing phoenix in garden adopted a three-dimensionally embroidered phoenix totem with metallic color. ji incorporates obvious traditional cultural elements and likes to reinterpret the traditional culture in a destructive way. for example, the decoration of phoenix tail, facial makeup in beijing opera, and the shape of goldfish tail in traditional paintings all present in clothes in an innovative way. her design deconstructs traditional chinese symbols, and at the same time features a clear style of western design. western tailoring coupled with ji’s unique understanding of chinese elements is typical chinese style, but not traditional one. hu sheguang is another representative who focuses on local traditional culture. in march , he released the autumn/winter collection with the theme of cotton-padded jackets of northeast china. the wonderful contrast between red and green prints has strong local features, and is highly recognizable. his innovation and mash-up can also be seen in the models’ look and makeup on the scene. with the expression of fashion, he infused cotton-padded jackets, the soul of northeast china, with a new life of fashion. hu said, “i use a fairly grounded inspiration to show people’s emotions. this is also a release of my own feudal thinking as a child. the fabrics, colors, and patterns are all very traditional but displayed in a very different way.” figure hoodie in crane shadow figure hu sheguang’s collection in autumn/winter show experiments in materials and ways to express another important feature of contemporary art is experimental, which is in tune with that of original clothing design. experiment guarantees innovation. more and more like artists, the new designers spend more time in the laboratory to tirelessly do various experiments on fabric effects, printing patterns, structure, and appearance. a very important factor of the quality of contemporary fashion designs is materials that decide the success of a design work. therefore, designers have a keen interest in trying different materials and doing innovative experiments. many designers are committed to experimenting with various materials, which involves not only quality, texture, and patterns but basic constituents, approaches to decoration, effect of expression of materials. the continuous experiments of materials provide designers with a constant stream of design elements, and fresh inspirations that in turn will propel designers to continue their experiments on materials to seek new materials. [ ] liu qingyang, the founder of an original clothing brand chictopia, is a representative in clothing material innovation. she is very bold in the use of colors. the patterns and color combination in her design works are featured by art deco. chictopia spring/summer collection was inspired by the pioneering art style of the s, and combined geometric abstraction, cubism, and art deco. liu’s designs are filled with big eye patterns, huge abstract half a face patterns, as well as asymmetric tailoring and simple geometric shapes. besides, the breakthroughs of structure and abstract patterns combine with a deviant visual effect, emanating a strong experimental sense. as high-tech technology is constantly updated and applied, clothing materials can produce more novel visual effects to present more diversified features, and make materials more artistic. the use of new materials can reflect various changes of design in details, so using novel materials means that a good design is half done. in order to create fashionable designs and keep them cutting-edge, contemporary designers are interested in pursuing visual effects and attributes of new materials. in recent years, the application designers have drawn inspiration from a collection of many innovations, such as composite scuba knitting fabric and its updating, application of d printing technology, three-dimensional texture fabrics, avant-garde luster, and fashionable sense of straightness. masha ma, a new original fashion designer, uses obvious fashionable fabrics in her designs, and is not limited in any form or material. she hopes to find a new way to express “modernity” ─ a sense of texture but not luxury. figure autumn/winter collection of masha ma figure qiu hao’s collection in autumn/winter show the experimental feature of original clothing is also prominently manifested in shapes and structure which are the most crucial factors apart from novel materials and pattern designs. creating a seemingly casual and stylish structure is also important in the experiments by original clothing designers. practical and creative shapes can bring sense of fashion. asymmetric design, misplaced structure, exaggerated sections or decorative details are common tactics that original designers employ. they always make various attempts to seek new forms to break former aesthetic concept. qiu hao, the founder of qiu hao, is good at design and tailoring of oversized clothes. his effort in structure can be seen all over his works, such as jointed cloth scraps, hyperbolic sleeves, details of binding, and huge collars. qiu has always been designing fashionable clothes in experimental methods in hope of finding something different. conclusion original costume design is facing the collapse of the traditional aesthetic order. as with contemporary art, all the old experience in aesthetics in clothing design is broken up, and the criterion for collective aesthetics of clothing are deliberatively cast away by the new generation of original clothing designers. designers regard fashion design as a means of expressing design ideas. and original designers use it to express an individualized attitude about fashion that focuses on personal growth experience and details in daily life. anti-centrality, anti-rationality, and the use of experimental methods are the characteristics of the new fashion designers’ creation. elements of different cultures are employed as they please, and new forms and technologies are constantly springing up. for original clothing designers, new and more personalized aesthetic standards are taking shape. more like artists, the new generation of original costume designers interprets costume design with contemporary artistic creation, and costume trends in modern times in a more free and personalized way. about the author:, meng jun, associate professor, sichuan university of arts and science acknowledgment: this paper is the teaching reform project of sichuan university of arts and sciences in : a study on the classroom teaching mode of art creation and its teaching effect evaluation system, subject number: jy research results. references: meng jun. reflections on the role of college art design studios in improving students' practical ability [j]. literary life, ( ), pp. - liang jun. research on the teaching mode of costume design studio [j]. journal of northeast university of electric power (social science edition), ( ), - huang yongli. discussion on the types of the construction of clothing design studios in higher vocational colleges [j], research on vocational education, ( ), pp. - yu yinghong. exploration of practical fashion design studio teaching mode [j], art of design (journal of shandong institute of arts and crafts), ( ), pp. - zhou lulu. research on practice teaching and training of skilled talents in fashion design studios [j], beauty and times, ( ), - jin chenyi. exploration and practice of clothing design innovation education mode based on studio project practice teaching [j], journal of hangzhou normal university (natural science edition), ( ) proceedings , , ; doi: . /proceedings www.mdpi.com/journal/proceedings proceedings textual images and visual texts. comparative languages † maria linda falcidieno dipartimento architettura e design, scuola politecnica, università degli studi di genova, genova, italy; falcidieno@arch.unige.it; tel.: + - - - † presented at the international and interdisciplinary conference immagini? image and imagination between representation, communication, education and psychology, brixen, italy, – november . published: november abstract: this paper intends to propose some reflections on an ongoing research-starting some years ago- at the architecture and design department at the university of genoa, by some professors of representation. the focus is identifiable in the concept of overriding the meaning of writing and representation: to interpret writing as a visual sign, and thus as an image, and, on the contrary, the image as a narration, without the help of words. the opportunity arose when the graphics lab of the ‘degree in design’ has been the subject of sharing for students of the master of science in information and publishing; this has led to the development of activities aimed at the training of those who mainly deal with texts, to direct and involve them in the acquisition of critical reading skill tools, without losing sight of the primary purpose of the original course. keywords: translations; perception; accessibility; communication; methodology . introduction in order to be able to put the study briefly in a cultural context and to clarify the link among the purpose and meaning of this work and the main references to what has already been subjected to critical analyzes and readings, it is necessary to subdivide research areas and, in the first approximation, to treat separately texts and images; the method here presented is the summa of experiences, analysis, examples repertoires made during several years and has been object of publications and, in particular, subject of congress speech, sponsored research reports and books where you can find the specific bibliography about the themes here presented [ , ]. as for the texts, their figurative value is always present, even in the most spontaneous cases of writing, as it is merely a matter of being perceived and visually experienced. this value is emphasized and, therefore, perfectly clear and immediately recognizable, in the aulic forms of transcription even of the past: miniature codes, monograms, autograph transcripts in “calligraphy” are but some of the possible examples we all have as a reference and which are now part of the collective imagination (figure a,b). here the text, while retaining its main role as a narrative vehicle, is connoted as a peculiar and significant element of the editorial apparatus, a true perceptive fulcrum for the reader. however, even in the current practice, there is a clear search for those graphic elements that make the word an ‘image’ and even in this case the story of the representation is full of references: the studies of the possible geometries of the alphabets, as well as the idea of real figured letters well identify this learning strand. graphics, considered as a discipline generically keeping to designing, representing and communicating for signs, is then continually concerned with achieving written forms (and, consequently, alphabets) that can make the task of reading as easy as possible, up to relate in the projects of the typographic choice and its composition, a ‘medium’ and recipient of communication. proceedings , , of (a) (b) figure . (a,b) book of prayers made by ingeborg, xiii century. please note that the figurative/decorative apparatus is not bound to the letter, nevertheless there is a corniche that includes all the composition, this scheme defines the first letter as an iniziale figurata. no less incisive and interesting is the role played by the cultural models of the historical period where recurring elements are also found in the typographical design; this is clearly shown by the researches carried out in this field by the avant-gardes, as it is equally relevant, on quite different plans, the economic reflection with the benefits that the designer receives from the design of alphabetical forms that are widely spread, even in the public of not ‘professionals’. equally vast and articulated is the reference to images that have a prevalent narrative function that runs out in the image itself and spans within the world of graphics-certainly—but in an equally clear and incisive way in visual art with two-dimensional perception; here a sharp but synthetic discussion is evidently complex, precisely because the areas are so vast and articulated within themselves. here, however, we will try to give at least one indicative track of a possible critical reading. first of all, art. it is intuitive and indisputable that any painting, belonging to any historical moment and realized with any technique, is an image that contains a narration; a narration that ends in that particular image, since everything has to be explained and resolved at that particular moment, fixed by the author and explained to the observer in the manner considered the ‘optimum’ in relation to the cultural and social context, as well as in relation to the foreseen purpose. in this sense, therefore, the differences must be found in the ways in which the work is performed, not so much in the techniques employed, but rather in the will to render the static, fixed, or, on the contrary, moving story; this means reading and recognizing in these works a temporal succession that leads to a narration developed through several "events". this linguistic research was carried into effect both in the insertion of different moments within the same image, and by using several sequential images, spatially organized as if they were only one. the immediate reference in this sense is given by the polyptych structure of the image, which is composed of several relatively independent parts, and which has spread widely in the west since the th century, but which remains until the contemporary time, as attested by the works of authors such as pellizza da volpedo, g. balla, h. matisse, r. magritte, f. bacon. if, on the one hand, even in the refined linguistic research, the choice of introducing multiple images in sequence to represent a “continuous” tale—introducing to some extent the concept of movement within the image—is undoubtedly the most logical and immediate answer as for the resolution of the above-mentioned question, on the other hand, the desire to condense in one single image the flowing of the time and the consequent change of situations and actions is highly represented in the history of art. we can remember, for example, braque and picasso's researches that, through cubism, come to visualize and theorize the possibility of simultaneous viewing from different points of view and, consequently, of multiple situations within a single image. proceedings , , of many similarities arise among the above-written notes in relation to the image in art and what happens in graphics, so that some contemporary authors have been dealing with both painting and graphics and not by chance a ‘manifesto’—a graphic product par excellence—can also be defined as a “story”; even if, in a ‘manifesto’, the presence of textual elements and visual elements is common, and it often happens that all the narration takes place only for images, with the only textual note is represented by the name/brand of the customer (figure ). figure . mercedes advertising on newspapers. in this case the text assumes the role of image. . materials and methods the research theme, therefore, has developed and continues to develop through the creation of a repertoire in a continuous updating of study materials suited to the identification—on one side of the structural constants of visual communication, substantially invariant, although modifiable in composition and, on the other side, of the mechanisms of ideation and design, always up to date. the methods are those of the critical reading of examples and editing of synthetic prospects that tend to analyze individual elements for the purpose of knowledge, comparison and operation. the graphic material was divided into the main products: starting from the ‘logo’/brand, the manifesto, the packaging graphics, the coordinated image, up to the web communication interface were examined, and for each one of these elements a reading of components was made. of course, the product that is evidently more complex from the point of view of visual implications is the manifesto, which can therefore be considered paradigmatic for the continuation of work. the manifesto, in fact, usually encloses the image (visual), the text (the headline and the payoff), and the logo/brand name (potentially both text and image), that is it reproduces the imaging system and text dealt at the beginning. however, it is clear that there is an additional component, often not perceptible in a declared way, that is that of the graphic signs or of those elements, belonging to the image and text world, which however have a different role in relation to the others; moreover, in critically reading a poster (or an editorial page), the role played by the composite grid can not be avoided as it underpins and governs all the perception and fruition of the product. proceedings , , of ultimately, the essential components of a graphic for communication are text, image, and graphic accessory sign, which are not always explicitly understood: the narration role can, in fact, be given to the image, without any support of the word, so as the word can be considered a single component, enhancing its visual potentiality. naturally, in the graphics for communication, the presence of the message promoter, whether public or private, for commercial purposes or public utility, will however be inevitable. a clarification and an example is deserved by the accessory sign, intended as a guide and support to the understanding of the message and the fruition of the product. in this sense, the reference to the page number of a publication is emblematic: number, certainly, yet special, not so much for its form or meaning, but rather its position within its composition. what, in fact, means numbering the pages? it means not only giving a quantitative consistency, but it also means giving the reader the opportunity to find new parts, to mark the suspension point, to move quickly from the index to what is sought and this is achieved by always placing the number at the same point. here, therefore, the sign-up graphic support and simplification to the enjoyment of an editorial product is the position within the layout. starting from the foregoing, the critical reading, pre-requisite to the acquisition of project skills, allows to deal with the operation with not only technical method and competence: in fact, both the text, the images and the graphic signs are no longer untied and separated as different categories, but are organically correlated and mutually incisive. . results these previous notes about the acquisition of theoretical and methodological informations pertaining to the field of visual and text, have led necessarily, by comparison, to critical considerations and a differentiation of subjects and content on which to experiment them. all this allowed us to define some fundamentals of general validity that support what stated in the title of this contribution, namely to investigate—to make-images as texts and texts as images, separating those applications that should reflect specificity and peculiarities. these are the main points of contact among visual and textual narrations. • the essential components of communication, that can be reduced to large areas of text, visual and graphic accessory sign, are unchanged; • relationships and interrelations among components take on similar connotations, but specialize in the two different narrative forms; • similarities are also found in the determination of theoretical-applicative criteria for the project. of course, the basis for these considerations is the determination of some essential features for an effective communication, which is also the subject of researches and publications, of which only a brief start is given, quoting, in particular, the presence of a unicity of meaning (and perhaps above all, obtained through the report of the sign-both verbal and visual-with the context understood as the recipient's ability to understand the message transmitted through their skills, leading to the exclusion of any interpretative ambiguity); the essentiality and readability, which lead to the facilitation of the immediate comprehension of the message; the effectiveness of the design choice, which implies easy memorization of both the sign and its contents. to this end, further necessary premises are those of the identification, of the explanations -and through exemplifications-of the sharing of the concepts of “icon”, “symbol”, “model”, “stereotype”, and also of the main enunciations of the meanings of “language” and “translation “. parallelisms have taken place among oral, written and visual narratives, with particular attention to genre hybridization phenomena, including acting experiences with audiovisual media, graphic novels, and so on. also for these premises, please refer to the detailed discussion of the reasoning and of the critical readings that led to their formulation, contained within volumes and conference proceedings. as for the third identified component, or the accessory graphic sign, a separate discourse is necessary for the color within the communication products, examined in its various meanings, but above all for its role of fundamental help and support to the understanding of what is displayed. proceedings , , of again, chromatic variations can be related to predominantly iconic or symbolic meanings, and can also intervene heavily in the structuring of reference models, real functional parts of the project itself; this is clearly highlighted in some cases, for example, that of the “yellow” color to identify a well-defined literary genre, first an iconic referring to the color of the covers of mondadori of publications to police content but, later on, a code, corresponding to the specific narrative category in the broad sense, whether it is literary, whether cinematic or theatrical. in conclusion, it is critical to read the potentialities and limitations of communication, seen in its possible and recurrent structuring, from the assertion (partially verifiable, partly provocative) that the image is potentially an universal language, while the language is, for itself, not unifying: texts and signs often coexist, sometimes destroy one another, but always constitute visual and narrative forms of well-sighted languages. knowing how to propose “right” images to understand what is being proposed is a solid foundation for a conscious, targeted, accessible and shared communication project, an indispensable element for improving the quality of contemporary life. the reduced use of written information, for example, reduces the margins of isolation and marginalization of those who are unable to understand the language as best as possible and help the sharing of visual models. . discussion an acquired awareness in the use of texts and images depending on the purpose of the communication, the reference context, and the target destination leads to a reading of the technical elements substantially different from the traditional one, based on the object's objective structure. in this sense, the notions will no longer be “memorized”, but will be remembered for their perceptive meaning, with a greater guarantee of the information permanence; the typographical characters identified by name leave room for the definition of their “family” of belonging, the composition of the text is linked to the general layout, the use of the communication gives valuable information about the proportioning and readability. in addition, the subdivision into text, image and accessory graphic sign clarifies many design potentials and paves the way for interesting experiments (figure ). figure . g. cruikshank, , royal hobbies, the image has a structure as a modern cartoon. interestingly, however, it seemed to reason on hybrid transmission patterns of narratives, in which text and image are both necessary to understanding the meaning; in this sense, the world of publications with a set of separately illustrated tables and referring to the text appears at the same time continuous and far: encyclopedias, luxury volumes, great classics, but also school texts and texts dedicated to childhood have been and continue to be compounded in this way, by repeating sentences or words inside the volume to visually zoom in on a concept, a situation, a character. proceedings , , of certainly also choices that are functional to the technical capabilities of the historical period of belonging or for reasons of economy and maximum performance of color images, for example, but can also be a well-defined design choice; over time, in fact, it has been attempted to solve the question of the verbally explained image by organizing a single space and, at the same time, in the contemporary there have been perpetuated choices such as those described above for repetition and explanatory caption, even in prestigious works (figure a–f). (a) (b) (c) (d) proceedings , , of (e) (f) figure . (a–f) la divina commedia illustrata, edited by nuages, all the illustration are made by famous graphic –illustrators: (a,b) l. mattotti, canto i, inferno; (c,d) m. glazer, canto ii, purgatorio, (e,f) moebius, canto v, paradiso. it is enough to remember a single example for each design choice, starting from what it is termed as an ancestor of the modern cartoon, namely the annunciation of ambrogio lorenzini and, conversely, the case of the divine comedy illustrated several times, edited both with tables inserted and endowed with repetition of the reference track with the function of reference and caption, certainly carried out in epochs away from ours (all the dorè edition), but also at contemporary time (the interesting work carried out by the editions nuages with the assignment of each of the three parts-inferno, purgatory and heaven- to as many art charts as mattotti, glaser and moebius). finally, interesting and intriguing is the use of textual elements written in different shapes within the same text to make some information superfluous and/or to express in an effective and strong way an attitude of the subject at that time protagonist: different chromaticities clarify the reference point of the action (red and green colors to identify the world of men respectively from fantasy in the book “the never ending story” of m. ende), typographical families identify the interlocutor (for example in the book “l’élegance du hérrison” by m. barbery) and different treatments of the phrases mimic the physical attitude (the reiteration of the phrase is better? that becomes highlighted in italics and then in italics and uppercase in the book “high fidelty” of n. hornby). finally, text made with iconic visual forms suggests reference images, word meanings, character behaviors, as well as emphasize the book that narrates the adventures of alice and the composition of the text increasingly increasingly rarefied and incomprehensible contained within the “very strong, incredibly close” volume by j. safran foer, which gives the exact perception of what is happening within the brain of a person suffering from mental illness (figure ). proceedings , , of (a) (b) figure . l. carroll “alice in wonderland” the text’s composition creates the image of the mause tail. n. hornby “high fidelity”, in this case the change of letters style-up to capital letters-underlines the emphasys of the words; m. ende, “never ending story” in this case the colour is used as an additional graphic sign in order to distinguish different realities. proceedings , , of . conclusions what has so far been exposed has allowed a “visual culture” to be promoted even in subjects not directly involved in the representation, but however involved as experts in the writing of communicative texts; in short, scholars and professionals who work side by side with visuals and who, consequently, must have some technical knowledge and, above all, a critical conscience about the composition system of a message. in a similar way, also image editors must have the same methodological tools of understanding and awareness of the link between the word and the sign. the logic of approach to the diffusion of research was precisely that of the overturning of the meaning of writing and representation, accompanied by a reversal of the design logic. the proposed operating technique was that of developing activities increasingly aimed at the training of those who deal mainly with texts, to direct them and involve them in the acquisition of critical reading tools, as well as—on the contrary—for those who are accustomed to reason only in perceptual terms, to make them understand the bond and the consequent consistency that has to link the stylistic textual choices with the visual ones; an essential constraint not to lose sight of the primary purpose of the study program. the products obtained are very interesting: a personal search of only visual narratives and of images made only with texts; the ability to make text perceptibly imminent, albeit long and technical, by introducing graphic support aids for reading, such as bold, spacing, and lists; working with typographical characters to animate the tale and get an immediate and intuitive understanding of the roles played by the protagonists; translating informations and writing information into images, and so on. ultimately, we have tried to emphasize how the ability to understand the image as a text also leads to establishing a connection between “creativity”, written composition and visual elements, with the consequent discovery of communicative languages; emblematic, in this sense, the case of icons and pictograms that, for example, in signposts, translate the word into sign, using both visual realistic languages—even if simplified and stereotyped languages—as well as codes. the representation therefore changes its substance, no longer technical, nor support, nor just foundation, but an actual downright project. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references . falcidieno, m.l. parola disegno segno, st ed.; alinea: firenze, italy, ; pp. – , isbn . . falcidieno, m.l. comunicazione—rappresentazione; alinea: firenze, italy, , pp. – , isbn . © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). enhancing security of image by steganography using reversible texture synthesis enhancing security of image by steganography using reversible texture synthesis aparna vinod sony p department of computer engineering assistant professor college of engineering department of computer engineering college of engineering chengannur, alappuzha, india abstract— steganography is a method of information hiding. in this paper, introduce a novel approach for enhancing the security of an image by steganography using reversible texture synthesis. the texture synthesis process produces an arbitrary large and similar looking new texture from a small texture image. this algorithm conceals the source texture and embeds the secret image through the process of texture synthesis. so we can extract the secret image and the source texture from a stego synthetic texture. this method offers four distinct advantages. first, the embedding capacity is proportional to the size of the stego synthetic texture image. second, it is very difficult for a steganalytic algorithm to defeat this steganography method. third, recovery of the source texture from the stego image is done. fourth, prevent loss of information due to the mirroring operation. the proposed algorithm is secure and robust against an rs steganalysis attack. keywords— data embedding, reversible, steganography, texture synthesis. i. introduction digital technology gives us new ways to apply steganographic techniques, including one of the most intriguing-that of hiding information in digital images. steganography is the art and science of hiding communication. it hides the very existence of the message by embedding it inside a carrier file of some type. the most important requirement of steganography is detectability; the concealed messages should be perfectly disguised under all statistical and visual analysis. a typical steganographic application includes covert communications between two parties whose existence is unknown to a possible attacker and whose success depends on detecting the existence of this communication [ ]. the main categories of file formats that can be used for steganography are: text steganography, image steganography, audio steganography, and protocol steganography. a large number of image steganographic algorithms have been investigated with the increasing popularity and use of digital images. most of the image steganographic algorithms use an existing image as the cover medium. so embedding secret image into this cover image will result image distortion in the stego image. this leads to two drawbacks. first, size of the cover image is fixed, if add more data then image distortion will occur. consequently, there is a compromise reached between the embedding capacity and the image quality. second, if a stego image contains some distortion, and regardless of how minute it is, this will interfere with the natural features of the cover image. image steganalysis is an approach used to detect secret messages hidden in the stego image. an image steganalytic algorithm can easily defeat the image steganography and then reveal the hidden image is being conveyed in a stego image. to overcome the above drawbacks, a new approach for steganography using reversible texture synthesis is proposed. a texture synthesis process produces an arbitrary large and similar looking new texture from a small texture image. weave the texture synthesis process into steganography concealing secret messages as well as the source texture. algorithm conceals the source texture and embeds the secret image through the process of texture synthesis. so we can extract the secret messages and the source texture from a stego synthetic texture. steganography also takes advantage of the reversibility through the texture synthesis. this approach offers four advantages. first, due to the capability of texture synthesis method, it can synthesize an arbitrary size of texture images. thus embedding capacity is proportional to the size of the stego texture image. secondly, it is very difficult for a steganalytic algorithm to defeat this steganography method. since the stego texture image is composed of a source texture instead of modifying the existing image contents. third, the reversible capability. because we can recover source texture from stego synthetic texture. recovered source texture is exactly the same as the original source texture. it can be also used for the steganography of the second round of secret message if needed. this algorithm can provide a wide range of embedding capacities, produce visually believable texture images, and also recover the source texture. ii. literature survey steganography is the art of hiding secret information inside an image. the purpose of steganography is covert communication to hide the existence of a message from a third party. the major applications of the system included in military area and banking. reversible data embedding algorithm [ ], which embed a large amount of data while keeping a very high visual quality for all natural images. recover original image from the marked image after the hidden data have been extracted. it utilizes the zero or the minimum point of the histogram and slightly modifies the pixel gray scale values to embed data. chengannur, alappuzha, india international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , august - the number of bits that can be embedded into an image equals to the number of pixels which are associated with the peak point. the computation is quite simple and the execution time is rather short. in line-based cubism method [ ] combining art image generation and data hiding to enhance the camouflage effect for various information hiding applications. data hiding with the minimal distortion is carried out during the process of recolouring the regions in the generated art image by shifting the pixels’ colours for the minimum amount of ± while keeping the average colours of the regions unchanged. also attract people by the artistic content of the cubism-like image, gives the data hiding technique a camouflage effect which arouses no suspicion from hackers. data hiding technique is very suitable for use in covert communication or secret keeping. in reversible data hiding in encrypted image [ ] method provide novel reversible data hiding scheme for encrypted image, which is made up of image encryption, data embedding and data-extraction image-recovery phases. the data of original image are entirely encrypted by a stream cipher. according to the data-hiding key, with the aid of spatial correlation in natural image, the embedded data can be correctly extracted while the original image can be perfectly recovered. the reversible watermarking of [ ] is very efficient. here investigates the use of local ls prediction in de reversible watermarking. the basic idea is to compute, for each pixel, a distinct ls predictor on a block centred on the pixel. the same predictor is recovered at detection, avoiding the need of embedding a large amount of additional information. for the actual cases of least square predictors with identical context because the median edge detector, gradient-adjusted predictor or the easy parallelogram neighbourhood, the native prediction-based reversible watermarking clearly outperforms the progressive schemes supported the classical counterparts. the histogram-shifting-based reversible data hiding [ ] provide a general framework to construct hs-based rdh. according to the framework, to obtain a rdh algorithm, one just needs to define the shifting and embedding functions. this method will facilitate the design of rdh. the framework has a potential to provide excellent rdh algorithms. iii. scope most of the steganographic algorithms adopt an existing image as cover medium. the embedding of secret message into the cover image can lead to image distortion in stego image. so image steganalytic algorithm can easily defeat the image steganography. for avoiding the above disadvantage introduce a novel algorithm that can provide various numbers of embedding capacities, produces reasonable texture images and recover the source texture. reversible texture synthesis is the approach for retrieving secret image and source texture from stego image. iv. methodology the basic unit used for the steganographic texture synthesis referred as a “patch”. it represents an image block of a source texture. the size of the patch is user-specified. patch contains the central part and an outer part. central part is referred to as the kernel region with size of kw × kh. the part surrounding the kernel region is referred to as the boundary region with the depth (pd). we take source texture. size of the source texture is denoted by its width (sw) and its height (sh). subdivide the source texture image into a number of nonoverlapped kernel blocks, each with the size of kw × kh. then expand a kernel block with the depth pd at each side to produce a source patch. the expanding process will overlap its neighbour block. a. image embedding procedure image embedding involves index table generation, composition image generation, encryption and image oriented texture synthesis. here we hide an image in a texture image through the process of texture synthesis. steganalytic algorithm cannot find any difference in the stego image. fig. . image embedding procedure. ) index table generation process the first process is the index table generation. here we produce an index table to record the location of the source patch set sp in the synthetic texture. the index table allows us to access the synthetic texture and retrieve the source texture completely. the index table has the initial values of − for each entry, which indicate that the table is blank. then re-assign these values according to the source patch id distribute in the synthetic texture. use a random seed for patch id distribution, which increases the security of the steganographic algorithm. it is difficult for steganalytic algorithm to extract the source texture. because the index table will be scattered with different values. the entries with non-negative values indicate the corresponding source patch id subdivided in the source texture. the entries with the value of − represent that the patch positions will be synthesized by referring to the secret message in the international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , august - message-oriented texture synthesis. entries with non negative values represent the source patch id. ) patch composition process here we paste the source patches into a workbench to produce a composition image. for this, first establish a blank image as the workbench. the size of the workbench is same as the size of the synthetic texture. then paste the source patches into the workbench according to the source patch ids stored in the index table. during the pasting process, source patches directly paste into the workbench when there is no overlapping of the source patches is encountered. if any overlapping of source patches occur, then use the image quilting technique [ ] to reduce the visual artefact on the overlapped area. ) conversion the third process is conversion. here take a secret image for embedding. if the chosen secret image is not binary, then convert the secret image into binary image for effectiveness of the image hiding. ) encryption here the binary image is encrypted using a key. binary image can be encrypted by applying the bitwise xor operator to every pixel using a given key. the key stream is generated by a pseudo-random number generator. same key is used in the encryption and decryption phase. ) image oriented texture synthesis process in this process, embed the secret image via image oriented texture synthesis to produce final stego image. proposed method uses pixel based texture synthesis [ ] rather than base paper texture synthesis process. in the base paper texture synthesis process generate a set of candidate patches from the source texture. then compute the mean square error (mse) of the overlapped region between the synthesized area and the candidate patch. after computing rank of all the candidate patches, further rank these candidate patches according to their mses. once the ranks of all candidate patches are determined, select the candidate patch where its rank equals the decimal value of an n-bit secret message. in this way, a segment of the n-bit secret message has been concealed into the selected patch to be pasted into the working location. however, if pasting locations cause the source patches to overlap each other, we employ the image quilting technique [ ] to reduce the visual artifact on the overlapped area.if a kernel block is located around the boundary of a source texture, operate the boundary mirroring using the kernel block’s symmetric contents to produce the boundary region. due to the mirroring operation, synthetic images can be broken down. by comparing the similarity of an expanded boundary area with an inside boundary area, search patches in the synthetic image and identify the patches coming from the four corners and boundaries of source image. it leads to loss of information. so it is insecure. for gaining more security proposed method uses pixel based texture synthesis. this class of methods adopts the strategy of copying one pixel at a time. loosely, it loops over the set of unknown pixels which are adjacent to known pixel values. for each unknown pixel in this set, it finds the set of all matching pixel neighbourhoods from the original image. use a gaussian-weighted sum-of-squared-difference (ssd) score to measure the match between the template and a patch in the image. arrange the matching neighbourhoods in ascending order of the ssd value. then check the secret binary image pixel value. if the binary image value is then chosen the first matching neighbourhood value to substitute unknown pixel otherwise choose the second matching neighbourhood. in this manner secret image embedded in the synthesised image. embedding completed, but till some pixel have unknown value. in this case randomly picks a matching neighbour to fill in the current unknown pixel. it demonstrated power of probability sampling by synthesizing high quality results for a broad range of texture samples. b. image extraction and authentication procedure the message extracting for the receiver side involves generating the index table, retrieving the source texture, performing the texture synthesis, extracting and authenticating the secret image concealed in the stego synthetic texture and decryption to get hidden secret image. fig. . message extracting procedure. given the secret key held in the receiver side, the same index table as the embedding procedure can be generated. second process is source texture recovery. each kernel region with the size of kw × kh and its corresponding order with respect to the size of sw×sh source texture can be retrieved by referring to the index table with the dimensions tpw×tph. then arrange kernel blocks based on their order, thus retrieving the recovered source texture which will be exactly the same as the source texture. in the composition image generation phase, paste the source patches into a workbench to produce a composition image by referring to the index table. this generates a composition image that is identical to the one produced in the embedding procedure. in image extraction and authentication phase, same procedure in embedding is performed to find the matching neighbourhood of the unknown pixel from the source texture. for this calculate the ssd score. arrange the matching neighbourhood in the ascending order of the ssd score. at the extraction and authentication phase, consider the unknown pixel in composition image. then find a pixel which corresponds to the unknown pixel at the same position in synthetic texture. then compare the pixel value with first international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , august - matching neighbourhood, if they match then embedded bit is . otherwise check the pixel value with second matching neighbourhood, if they match embedded bit is . extract the embedded pixel value in this manner. however, if cannot disclose such a exact match it means that the stego kernel region has been tampered with, leading to a failure of the image authentication. in this way, authenticate and extract the secret image that is concealed in the stego synthetic texture pixel by pixel. choose the same key in encryption to decrypt the image. image can be decrypted by reapplying the bitwise xor operator to every pixel using a given key. the key stream is generated by a pseudo-random number generator. appropriate modulation v. conclusion image steganography is the way of secret communication through the digital images. in this project introduces a novel approach for steganography using reversible texture synthesis. given an original source texture, this scheme can produce a large stego synthetic texture concealing secret image. in this method, weave the steganography into a pixel based texture synthesis. the secret image is encrypted before it embedding into the synthetic texture. the texture synthesis process resamples a smaller texture image, which synthesizes a new texture image with a similar local appearance and an arbitrary size. it provides reversibility to retrieve the original source texture from the stego synthetic textures, making possible a second round of texture synthesis if needed. it offers some advantages such as the embedding capacity that is proportional to the size of the stego texture image, a steganalytic algorithm is not likely to defeat the steganographic approach, the reversible capability of texture synthesis provide the functionality to allows recovery of the source texture and avoid loss of information due to the boundary mirroring operation. the presented algorithm is secure and robust against an rs steganalysis attack. vi. references [ ] z. ni, y.-q. shi, n. ansari, and w. su, “reversible data hiding,”ieee trans. circuits syst. video technol., vol. , no. , pp. – ,mar. . [ ] s.-c. liu and w.-h. tsai, “line-based cubism-like image—a new type of art image and its application to lossless data hiding,” ieee trans. inf. forensics security, vol. , no. , pp. – , oct. . [ ] xinpeng zhang,”reversible data hiding in encrypted image, ” ieee signal process let., vol. , no. , aprl [ ] i.-c. dragoi and d. coltuc, “local-prediction-based difference expansion reversible watermarking,” ieee trans. image process., vol. , no. , pp. – , apr. . [ ] x. li, b. li, b. yang, and t. zeng, “general framework to histogram shifting-based reversible data hiding,” ieee trans. image process., vol. , no. , pp. – , jun. . [ ] a. a. efros and w. t. freeman, “image quilting for texture synthesis and transfer,” in proc. th annu. conf. comput. graph. interact. techn., , pp. – . [ ] a. a. efros and t. k. leung, “ texture synthesis by non-parametric sampling”, in proc. th ieee int. conf. comput. vis., – , . [ ] kuo-chen wu and chung-ming wang, ”steganography using reversible texture synthesis”, ieee trans.imageprocess, vol. , no. ,jan . international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , august - microsoft word - jamcmahon j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . pre-print of jennifer a. mcmahon: perceptual constraints and perceptual schemata: the possibility of perceptual style. the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . . introduction if we assembled a group of visual artists, limited them to the same materials, say oil paint and brushes, and asked them to paint a picture of a model placed in front of them, they would each produce a unique version of the same model. this is not very surprising; but it should be. it is not surprising because we have become accustomed to the endless variety of pictorial representations possible of any one object. from the different versions of the bowl of flowers produced by a children's art class to the conscious development of ways of representing which constitute art movements in the art world, variety is what popularly defines artistic endeavour. furthermore, within any artistic movement, even when the artists involved treat the same subject matter and proclaim to share the same artistic aims, they will each portray individual differences in their method of depiction. this should be surprising, because all the objects depicted by artists generate standard concepts common to all of us who are able to communicate verbally with each other about them. that is, we communicate about these objects in ways which assume that we all share a common concept of the object. in addition, we all recognise the object as though we all have a common schema for the object in long term memory. how is it possible then to have endless varieties of pictorial representations of the same object/concept? whether or not a resulting pictorial representation is the result of lack of skill in drawing or painting, the fact remains that j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . the unskilled drawing represents a pictorial possibility in terms of a particular use and combination of pictorial elements as do more skilled drawings. it is also the case that any particular pictorial representation reflects the possibilities allowed by the medium used but the interest of this author does not extend in that direction. the significance system that i will be employing as my framework involves the ways in which visual elements can be selected, represented and combined; and the determination of these various possibilities by the constraints of the human perceptual apparatus. that such a significance system is significant, i will not argue here. suffice it to point to my motivation which is the belief that the perceptual aspect of art works is the key to understanding the pleasure which is peculiar to the aesthetic realm. in this paper i will carve out a space between the concept of "the object" and the seemingly endless ways in which "the object" can be represented pictorially. i will call the aspect of the pictorial representation which is made possible by this space, the pictorial representation's "style". i will explore this space by drawing upon theories of pictorial representation, leaving out, for the sake of my purposes here, a consideration of the artist's intention. that an attribution of "style" can be comprehensive while leaving out a consideration of artists' intentions, i will argue by adopting the conceptual framework of paul thom's theory of interpretation. before embarking on my project, i begin with a brief overview of the rather slippery notion of "style". . the concept of style the notion of "style" is central to art history practice; if not to the philosophy of art history. this may seem like a safe place to start when examining the meaning of "style" but unfortunately it is about the only uncontroversial statement that one can make concerning the concept of "style". consider that at one time "style" referred only j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . to an artwork's compositional structure. "style" was considered only one of a set of elements which together constituted an artwork. according to raymond macdonald , the th century painter nicolas poussin analysed what he called the grand manner of painting into subject matter, thought, structure and style; the action of the subject matter being the most central feature. this analysis of an artwork into its conceptual elements originates in aristotle's poetics, where tragedy is divided into plot, character, thought, style, spectacle, and song. in these authors, as in cicero's de oratore, quintilian's institutes, horace's ars poetica, longinus's on the sublime, and st. augustine's on christian doctrine, macdonald argues that "style" is treated as a process rather than an entity. that is, it picks out the "how" of an art work rather than also the "what", "why", "when" and "where". in more recent times, "style" has been transformed into the central concept of classification through which an artwork is perceived, understood and interpreted. as such, the concept of "style" subsumes many aspects of the art work from the artist's intentions, historical context, subject matter, choice of art/perceptual elements, compositional structure and so on. according to macdonald, "style" has been so employed in art history since the art historian j. j. winckelmann treated "style" in this broad manner in his history of ancient art ( ). however, this broadening of the meaning of "style" has fractured the use of the term into a number of uses, some of which are overlapping, while others are incompatible. in some contexts the term is meant to refer to all the artistic aspects of an artwork, in other contexts it is used more exclusively. consider that "style" can be used to mean alternatively: (i) a period in history like the early or high renaissance; (ii) an artistic movement like mannerism or futurism; j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . (iii) various developmental stages in an artist's oeuvre; (iv) the artist's point of view which may be ascertained from other than discernible properties in the artwork ; and (v) a set of formal characteristics which cuts across periods, movements and individual oeuvres. at a coarse-grained level, these formal characteristics might be grouped as a general class such as expressionist, realist, formalist, conceptual etc. but more typically, this notion of "style" is more fine-grained level. the formal characteristics perceived as a "style" can differentiate one artist's "style" from another within a more general class, such as the formal features which differentiate one artist's version of say expressionism from another. some of the "style" names can be used in more than one of the above categories of "style", but used in a different sense in each case. for example, there is the german expressionism movement (early to mid s), the expressionist phase in kandinsky's work, and the expressionism which is a "persisting tendency peculiarly characteristic of nordic and germanic art from the middle ages until today." while the first four uses require a consideration of historical context and artists' intentions in order to classify a given art work according to a particular style, the usage described in (v) does not. the fifth usage is ahistorical in that it does not treat the work as an historical artefact. to do so would involve only attributing a style to a work which could have been so attributed by the artist who made the work. on the other hand, the fifth usage of "style" could be said to be historical in that it recognizes that a perceiver's grasp of an art work will be shaped by their canonic schema which they have formed in long term memory presumably during their own life time and hence determined by the ideas, theories, conceptions of art history and so on to which they have been exposed. for example, a perceiver of frans hals, gericault and daumier might classify them all as expressionists in the light of german expressionism and more j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . contemporary but isolated expressionist movements around the world since . if i were to leave the conception of "style" in the fifth sense there, i would view this meaning of "style" as weighted more towards an historical understanding of the art work, though based upon the perceiver's history rather than the artist's. however, the other aspect of "style" in the fifth sense, is its reference to the selection, treatment and various combinations of perceptual elements. to detect these selections, treatments and combinations of perceptual elements, we do not need to address what is alleged to have been the explicit aims of the artist. furthermore, while we can develop habits of perceiving artworks which may involve combining some perceptual elements in certain ways and not others, the possibilities that define this use of "style" are constrained by the human perceptual apparatus rather than political or cultural contexts. it is in this sense, that the fifth usage of "style" can be claimed to be ahistorical. i will refer to the fifth usage of "style," which is the meaning of style that i adopt, as perceptual style. the idea is that perceptual style can be attributed to art works in retrospect. this is at odds with the notion of what constitutes a good interpretation of an artwork. when interpreting an artwork it is commonly argued that one cannot attribute to the work a meaning that could not have been a part of the cognitive stock of the artist. by "cognitive stock" is meant the art theories, histories, ideas and conceptions of art history available to the artist at the time of the artwork's creation. this is to count as necessary to an interpretation of an artwork, a consideration of the artist's intentions. noel carroll argues that this understanding of what constitutes a good interpretation of an art work, which he and arthur danto (among others) endorse, is inconsistent with holding that an attribution of "style" need not involve a consideration of artistic intentions; at which point he parts company with danto. carroll recognizes that the extent to which j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . artistic intentions are relevant to an account of stylistic features will vary according to the nature of the account. for example, when the account is of the relation between the stylistic features of various art works within a particular period, carroll thinks that a consideration of artistic intentions may be less important than other perceptual features but he does not rule out the relevance of artistic intentions completely even in this case. it is unclear to me on what grounds it is argued that the attribution of style to a work must bear the same constraints as the construction of an interpretation of an artwork. carroll claims that to attribute a style to a work in retrospect is to suggest the possibility of backward causation. the answer to this objection is two-pronged. on the one hand it involves exploring the constraints of perceptual processes and the extent to which such constraints can be assumed to have operated in the same way in the creation of art works regardless of the “cognitive stock” of the artist. on the other hand, it involves the extent to which a particular engagement in art from any period can be recognized to be embedded in the interests and passions of the culture of the perceiver. these two sides of the answer will be explored in sections and respectively. in doing so, the question i will be pitching back to the intentionalists, and attempting to answer, will be: "could it not be possible that there is more than one set of features that can be selected from the art work to act as the object of interpretation?" in the case of perceptual style attribution, this set might be constrained in such a way that artists' intentions are not included; and this might be a comprehensive selection of features of the artwork within the significance system of perceptual strategies and standard denotational schema. i will argue this point by demonstrating that the artwork can be represented in more than one way and that it is the “artwork-as-represented-as-canonic- j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . schema-and-perceptual-form” which is categorised according to perceptual style rather than the “artwork-as-historical artefact”. . the "artwork-as-represented." to draw this distinction between the object of style attribution and the object of interpretation as it is conceived by carroll and danto, i draw upon paul thom's theory of interpretation ( ). thom’s broad understanding of what constitutes "interpretation" can subsume style attribution as i will demonstrate, but his conceptual framework also allows the distinction between perceptual style attribution in my sense and artistic interpretation a la carroll and danto to be maintained. thom conceptualises "interpretation" according to three terms: the "object-of-interpretation", the "object-as-represented" and the "governing concept". the "object-of-interpretation" is the object in its original state, understood, as far as possible, according to the significance system within which it was created. the “object-as-represented” refers to what one takes to be the relevant and salient features of the object within a particular significance system. this may be selective, according to thom, but as long as the interpreter is aiming for a comprehensive representation of the object and one that imbues the object with significance within a particular significance system, then the grounds for a successful interpretation are laid. the last term in thom’s trilogy, the "governing concept", is the concept under which the “object-as-represented” is subsumed in order to make sense of it (in the sense that the meaning is uncovered) or in order to give the object meaning (in the sense that the meaning is invented). thom is a classicist regarding the stability of the object of interpretation, and a post-structuralist regarding what counts as interpretation. accordingly, he must admit the possibility that any one object of interpretation, stable though it be, can have j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . multiple (yet possibly incommensurable) successful interpretations; some of which may feature the artist's cognitive stock as central and some which may not. i am not attempting here to treat the attribution of perceptual style as synonymous with interpretation, even though according to the first four usages of "style" outlined in the previous section, "style" attribution is indeed treated as encompassing many of the broader aspects of the artwork relevant to its interpretation. instead, perceptual style attribution is a subset of interpretation. perceptual style denotes the "how" of the perceptual processing of the artwork and as such represents a return to understanding "style" as just one of a number of "guiding concepts" under which an artwork can be interpreted. as such, in the attribution of perceptual style, the “artwork-as-represented” (derived from the second term in thom's conceptual framework), consists of a more rigidly defined selection of base features from the “original artwork” (derived from the first term in thom's framework) than would an interpretation which sought to subsume the “original artwork” under the “guiding concept” of historical artefact. within the significance system of perceptual style, this more limited selection of relevant features is comprehensive even though it leaves out original context and artist's intentions. on the face of it, this may read like a circular argument for the possibility of perceptual style. however, my characterisation of perceptual style is not stipulative, but rather an accurate description of how the term "style" is employed in many art theory/historical texts. it also captures a way of talking by artists themselves about the "style" of their own work and the "style" of the work of their contemporaries. the "original artwork", then, is represented according to a perceptual representational system. because such systems are a description of, or a consequence of, a system which is a natural kind (the human perceptual apparatus), a definition of "style" which flows j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . from it is not circular. furthermore, the explanatory framework for perceptual style which such systems provide, grounds this conception of style independently of any historical considerations. as an example, take van gogh's study of his bedroom at arles. the "artwork-as- represented" when the "guiding concept" is historical artefact is the painting that van gogh painted in with the cognitive stock available to him including familiarity with the work of artists like frans hals, gericault, daumier, manet, monet, gauguin, and a particular fascination with japanese prints. he had as part of his art theory the idea that painting styles were established largely by convention and that he need not be constrained by the convention of realism or romanticism. he also conceived of painting as a very different enterprise than was the conception of photography at the time (the latter was very constrained by the time lapses required to capture an image). given his historical context, i think we can safely say that the brute conscious fact of self- expression would not have guided his choice of colours, subject matter, arrangement or treatment of visual elements. this is why he is normally classed as a post- impressionist. his perceptual style would not have been possible before impressionism that is certain. but his work became more appreciated in the light of the kind of perceptual style of painting which followed it and was inspired by it. it is only in this light that he came to be perceived as an expressionist. without the experience of the expressionism which followed in his wake, his work may never have been raised to the high level in the public's estimation that it now enjoys. from his letters to his brother theo we can derive the fact that van gogh understood himself to be attempting to capture (usually unsuccessfully in his own view) the essence of nature through colour and line. he believed not that the correct depiction j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . of nature was beautiful but that a depiction which was beautiful was also correct. his discussion of frans hals, delacroix and daumier suggest that he believed painting should reflect a passion for one's subject. and in this one can identify his point of departure from impressionism proper. the "artwork (van gogh's bedroom at arles) -as-represented" when the process which it initiates is the attribution of perceptual style, is an artwork defined by his choice of colours and subject matter, and his arrangement and treatment of visual elements like colour, line, shape, form and texture. these features of the object would fit nicely under the "guiding concept" of expressionism; categorizing the "artwork-as- represented" as the expression of the artist's feelings toward his subject matter results in an appreciation of the agitated lines, brilliant contrast of colour and distorted perspective. choosing another guiding concept for this last step in the process, say the attribution of the perceptual style realism, would result in a less appreciative response by the viewer. the exclusion of the artist's intention in the attribution of style is valid because when considering the work according to perceptual style, we seek to categorize the work according to: (i) the selection, treatment and combination of visual elements; and (ii) the matching of subject matter with the canonic schema available to the perceiver at a particular point in history. attributing perceptual style to the work, then, is treating the work as a living, dynamic artwork which is acting upon the perceiver. this acknowledges the fact that to aesthetically experience an artwork, the artwork needs to have the kind of perceptual properties which will engage a perceiver in the kind of involvement which is peculiarly aesthetic. to consider how certain art works might achieve this, we will start with a theory of pictorial representation. j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . . the "artwork-as-represented" according to the selection, treatment and combination of visual elements. john willats' analysis of the range of pictorial representational systems available to us, given our perceptual apparatus, provides an example of the kind of explanatory framework necessary for identifying the basis of an attribution of perceptual style. willats draws a distinction between drawing systems (mapping spatial relations) and denotational systems (mapping scene primitives onto picture primitives). spatial relations are described in terms of various kinds of perspective while scene primitives are understood to be the basic elements of form recognition such as silhouettes, stick figures and volumetric primitives. drawing systems are analysed further into primary (optical) and secondary (artificial) geometry. primary geometry is explained in terms of the kind of visual elements which constrain, within the human perceptual system, the perception of space in the world, even though it can include both the kind of geometry which is orthogonal (object-centred) as well as perspectival (viewer-centred). secondary geometry is a consequence of primary geometry and is explained in terms of the most elementary but general types of spatial properties such as touching, separation, spatial order and enclosure. such spatial properties can be combined in ways which violate what would be possible according to primary geometry. naïve perspective as is typically found in the drawings of young adolescents; and inverted perspective as seen in van gogh's chair, many of cezanne's tables, and the thrones and altars in byzantine art, can be described using the terms of secondary geometry but not according to the terms of primary geometry. in this distinction between primary and secondary geometry, willats has provided a basis for describing style which does not involve a j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . consideration of the artist's intentions but focuses only on what is evident in the artwork in terms of representational systems. willats analysis suggests that there is a natural connection between a pictorial representation having the form that it has and the way perceptual processes operate in the course of perceiving objects in the world. just how fine-grained our exploitation of perceptual processes can be in the creation and perception of art works depends on the flexibility of the perceptual system. david marr's evolutionary argument from good design and the persistence of perceptual illusion (noted by fodor and others) suggest that early perceptual processing is modular; albeit in marr's case, made up of a series of smaller modules. according to fodor's theory, early vision which consists of the processing of visual elements like colour, line, shape, form and texture is not penetrable by high level systems. on the face of it, this leads to a notion of early vision which is not conducive to variations in pictorial representations. however, according to more recent descendants of marr's theory of vision, this modularity is weak in the sense that perceptual processing does involve feedback loops from higher to lower perceptual operations. the coarse grain of visual processing is the level at which edges, shapes, textures, colour and information from other perceptual systems (including feedback from motor systems) are combined to construct a form within a spatial layout. the fine grain of visual processing is the processing of the elements themselves, such as edges, shape from shading, texture from shade/light density gradients, depth from binocular disparity and shape from movement (parallax). the coarse grain of visual processing is weakly modular and can be influenced by expectation and cultural learning. the fine grain of visual processing is strongly modular in the sense that the processing of each visual element operates independently of other modules and the only learning that can j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . influence this processing is learning that occurs through the specialised perceptual channels (which limits learning to changes in the system due to interaction with the physical properties of the world). this distinction roughly corresponds to willats' distinction between secondary and primary geometry. secondary geometry can exploit, distort and violate the natural combinations of these visual elements. secondary geometry is a result of feedback systems within the visual system while primary geometry is constrained by the strong modularity of fine-grained visual processes. another way to point to the distinction i am attempting to make is between the processing of global visual stimuli as defined by patricia churchland et al ( ) as "broad regions of the visual field" as opposed to the processing of "local" factors, defined as " very small regions such as the receptive fields of cells in the parafoveal region of v … or v ". these small regions process the visual elements as listed above. churchland et al employ the term "top-down processing" to mean the processing of "broad regions of the visual field" rather than to mean the implementation of explicit theory (cultural knowledge). however, according to churchland et al's theory of interactive vision, learned expectations and memory play a role in determining what we see because there are richly recurrent networks instead of a rigid hierarchy. churchland et al do point out, however, that there is evidence from neuroanatomy which is consistent with a loose, interactive hierarchy . this finding vindicates the distinction between coarse and fine-grained visual processing (or secondary and primary geometry). the processing of the finest grained visual elements may be impenetrable to top- down influences, but this does not preclude the possibility that they can be selected and j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . combined variously. this is the kind of perceptual flexibility postulated by churchland et al, and it is the kind of perceptual flexibility sufficient to account for the possibility of multifarious artistic styles. i will use the term "perceptual strategy" to refer to pictorial elements which deploy secondary geometry (coarse-grained perceptual constructs) and "perceptual elements" to refer to visual elements, the processing of which, deploy primary geometry. accordingly, perceptual strategies consist of various combinations of visual elements. the idea of perceptual style is that the perception of certain configurations involves the deployment of various perceptual strategies in the perceiver. for example, a perceptual strategy deployed by van gogh's bedroom at arles is inverted perspective; another is the treatment of surface as volume and texture; another is the treatment of edges as lines; and the description of changes in surface orientation in terms of lines; yet another is the use of saturated local colour in place of colour effected by light and shade. all of these strategies rupture the immediate perceptual process of object recognition, where we would simply content ourselves with engaging in the literal meaning conveyed by the work. this rupture directs our attention instead to the pictorial elements and, ipso facto, to the perceptual strategies deployed in us by the perception of the work. a perceptual strategy is then, a non-typical deployment of visual processes. the suggestion underlying the possibility of perceptual style is that when these perceptual strategies (visual processes deployed in non-typical ways for normal perception) are deployed in the perceiver, our ordinarily purposeful attention is arrested so that we become aware of perception itself. the idea is that in the course of normal perception, our attention is automatically drawn to the literal meaning of a work or j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . object. when, on the other hand, perceptual strategies are exploited within an art work, our attention can be drawn to a focus on what seems like visual phenomena as an end in itself. certain artists may unwittingly exploit these perceptual possibilities for their own sake. for example, jackson pollock's abstract expressionism phase can be understood as an exploitation of the human perceptual apparatus's propensity for picking out fractal patterns, even though pollock himself did not have such an explanation at his disposal. when artists concentrate on structure at the expense of texture, or shading instead of line, or colour at the expense of form, or they juxta-pose colour in their complementary pairs to create the illusion of receding planes as cezanne does; what the artist is doing is isolating one or a few perceptual processes of the perceptual system. in a nice twist to the usual ‘artistic creation verses scientific explanation’ polemic, we can understand artistic creation, in some cases, to be about isolating principles that underpin perception, and consequently principles that underpin what we take to be the world (given that perception has evolved under adaptive pressures imposed by the environment on the human perceptual system). artists who exploit perceptual strategies and contrive perceptual manoeuvres can be understood as exercising a kind of meta- perception; which in turn can induce such a mental state in the perceiver. to demonstrate the way an artist might unwittingly exploit such normally unconscious perceptual operations consider, in terms of perceptual strategies, the sculpture recumbent figure by twentieth century english sculptor henry moore. consider that when the "guiding concept" is historical artefact, the "artwork-as- represented" is embedded in formalist theories of art such as clive bell's and roger fry's notion of "significant form". when, on the other hand, the "guiding concept" is perceptual form, the "artwork-as-represented" consists of the sculpture's undulating j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . surfaces and occluding contours from whose curved outlines, varying volumes are suggested. these outlines and volumes change as one moves around the sculpture. intermittently one mentally constructs a dominant axis which runs through the length of the various shapes in spite of the fact that some of these shapes have unexpected hollows. the axis is mentally constructed in order to create a mental description of the object which is not viewer-centred, otherwise we would not be able to form the kind of description to which a concept can be applied. but this object-centred description is constructed via a series of viewer-centred frames. normally, in day-to-day object recognition, we are not aware of these viewer-centred frames; we are only conscious of the object via its object-centred description. but the subtle distortions and unexpected violations of moore's sculpture deploys our perceptual processes in such a way that normal perceptual imperatives are suspended; and we are inclined to focus on what each viewer-centred frame affords us. each frame provides an array of variously curved surfaces which define solids, hollows, gentle dints and occasionally pronounced bulbous spheres. the perception of the sculpture involves an intensity of processes not normally called into play in such rapid succession in normal perception. the sculpture represents a figure and this representation, in the context of a perceptual focus on the part of the perceiver, gives rise to the experience of aesthetic ideas, the notion of which will be explained more fully in the next two sections. had the sculpture not represented the kind of object for which we have a rich storage of associations in memory, the sculpture would have succeeded only to tantalise perceptually. the concomitant experience of aesthetic ideas usually results in a more moving and satisfying experience; and this is what i turn to now. j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . . the "artwork-as-represented" according to the canonic schema available to the perceiver at a particular point in history. when robert solso discusses the development and use of art schema, the mechanics of which he eloquently explains through connectionist networks, he explains that when we store information in long term memory (ltm) we organise it according to structure, scenes and/or ideas. for example, when we look at a street scene we activate our "street schema" in ltm which informs us of the features we might expect to see and how they interact. he then applies this to art styles. we become accustomed to various stylistic details grouped together and when we perceive, for example egyptian art, our "egyptian art schema" is activated. accordingly, we expect to see "lack of linear perspective, unique eyes, faces drawn in profile, and hieroglyphics in the background". ruben's art will activate our baroque schema. this might consist of figures "shown well muscled and in agonising poses" according to solso, and typically depicting religious themes. renoir's schema activates our impressionism schema with its "feeling of vibrancy and intimacy"; its "dreamlike, florid" mood with "a hint of fantasy." andy warhol activates our pop schema with his multiple copies and so on. the schema idea is that over time we form units of information in ltm. a unit of information is a set of related facts, images and responses which we have experienced together a number of times. this then becomes a unit such that when certain combinations of elements present in the unit find a match in the external stimulus, the unit as a whole comes into play and directs action or recognition, saving time and neuronal space. presumably the contents of such units are also influenced by the collective interests and passions of particular cultures. such units or schema speed the process of recognition and response in day-to-day life by applying expectations to what j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . is being viewed. now, this suggests that only the details of a scenario which fit the particular schema activated, will be noticed. this is the interpretation solso supports. he provides the results of an experiment which involved college students who were led through a university professor's office and then asked to list what they had seen. he reports that they listed what they expected to see in a university professor's office whether it was there or not. while this finding supports his application of the schema idea, we also need to know whether the college students noticed anything incongruous with the idea of the contents of a professor's office. according to theories of information processing, we will notice in our environment the very things which are unexpected. these are the items which are high in information content because they do not comply with the perceiver's current schema. an egg beater on a university professor's desk should be recalled sooner than a stack of papers piled beside it. if the application of schema to art as solso explains it were the whole story, the recognition of art styles would make most art redundant after a short time. there would be nothing to arrest our attention. furthermore, if the artists did the unexpected only in terms of incongruent objects, this would also quickly pall after familiarity with the art work in question. some art does pall; but there is art whose fascination for us endures and this incorrigibility is not explained by solso's canonic schema theory or information - processing theory. i am suggesting here that perceptual style attribution involves not just a process of recognition, which solso's theory would explain, but also an aesthetic involvement on the part of the perceiver. solso explains that the representations in an image activate canonic representations which are stereotypical images abstracted from a number of exemplars of various instantiations of an object with their particular peculiarities. this means that j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . it is the idealised image, or prototype that is stored in our ltm. solso claims that there are visual and conceptual prototypes: our memory for a person, say a woman, is not based on a series of "cerebral snapshots" of women we have neatly filed away in memory stores, but on salient and meaningful features of women that are stored, in memory, as an abstract representation of that class. for each person these storage systems contain some unique elements, but there are remarkable similarities between people. your cerebral woman and mine are not identical but are probably very similar. even picasso's cubist work, according to solso, abounds with basic, canonic forms. solso thinks that regardless of the distortions introduced by picasso, there remains a theme that holds the entire picture together. he says that our collective memory is of the most representative form, which embodies all of our impressions. i think solso's explanation of canonic forms in ltm is very relevant to "style" recognition when style is understood according to the first four usages of style (see section of this paper) but it is not the whole story for the attribution of perceptual style. if the unproblematic matching of picasso's forms with our canonic forms were the dominant process activated in us by the perception of a picasso cubist painting, as solso suggests, then his painting would be very dull. it suggests that we simply engage with the work according to the schema that we have formed around picasso's style (or any one of a number of styles in which he painted). this is probably what we do when we are categorising art work according to established norms of art categorisation. but this does not constitute an aesthetic engagement with the work. on the contrary, the excitement, torment or intrigue of picasso's synthetic cubist works seem to me to have a j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . lot to do with the violation of the canonical images of everyday-objects that we have in ltm. picasso provides enough triggers to stimulate such canonic memories but not enough for a flattering match. we are thrown around in a turbulent swirl, mixing and matching but in a way that is never permanently resolved. when we come back to such a picasso the process starts over such is the incorrigible nature of our real-world based schema. this is the very basis of picasso's allure. we don't tire of his images because they violate (synthetic cubism), sometimes flatter through epitomising stereotypes (his classical figures) and at other times achieve a canonic form through ways unprecedented in the world and hence perennially new to our perceptual apparatus (analytical cubism). it is this rupture with real-world schema that puts our engagement with the representational content off-line and sets our experience of perceptual strategies on- line. perceptual style attribution, then, would involve different mental processes than "style" recognition in the first four senses. solso adds to this idea of the canonic schema, the notion of aesthetic ideas which he claims are aroused by an image. he uses a connectionist network to explain how the semantic content of an image can trigger multifarious associations, nuances and ideas which he refers to as the hidden content of art. there is a common input (proximal stimulus) and a common output (schema) but in between the connections trigger multifarious associations peculiar to the perceiver's own background knowledge, memory and sensitivities. this is distinct from the kind of reasoned thinking that might follow on from and include the output. solso writes: artists do not invent art, but find expressions of reality that are compatible with basic structures of the mind …art, physics, physiology, and even scientific psychology are worlds waiting to be j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . discovered by a mind. and valid discoveries (in art, science, and psychology) are those that are exquisitely calibrated to stimulate the human neural system in ways consistent with its sensory/cognitive architecture, acquired through the course of evolution. according to solso, the human brain has a proclivity to organise information in terms of categories, prototypes, and schemata. he refers to this proclivity as contributing the hidden content of art because the multifarious ideas are stored with these schemata. this is a kantian account of aesthetic ideas given a connectionist framework. however, while kant explains why this experience is prompted by aesthetic perception (the free play of the imagination and understanding), solso does not. if one were to seriously consider the possibility of aesthetic ideas, one would need to explain what it is about the perception of an artwork which prompts an experience of aesthetic ideas considering that they are not prompted by more literally minded mental states. one avenue to explore might be the possibility, as outlined in the previous section in relation to moore's sculpture, that once an art work's perceptual style arrests one's attention to itself, this state of "meta-perception" provides the cognitive space for the retrieval from memory of the kinds of associations, nuances and intimations not normally brought to consciousness in the normal course of perception. . perceptual style now with the concept of the "artwork-as-represented" in mind, let us choose a hard case to test the usefulness of this idea of perceptual style. art works which exaggerate and distort lend themselves easily to a selection of features relevant to the attribution of perceptual style as was evidenced in the henry moore example. what can we say j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . though about the perceptual style of art works which achieve a realistic rendition of some object or scene in the world? is realism in pictorial representation a matter of deploying all the perceptual processes that we would normally deploy in the course of viewing the scene in the world? well possibly. but think about the variation of interest and attention aroused by different paintings of equal realism. some are of interest simply because they depict an interesting topic, so that all attention is drawn to the literal level of engagement. one can imagine a painting say of one's favourite public figure or actor arousing interest regardless of artistic style, just as the most unremarkable photograph of her/him might interest simply for voyeuristic reasons. this is not an example of the exploitation of perceptual strategies; it is rather an exploitation of other human susceptibilities not of concern here. another reason a realistic type of art work might arouse interest is because of admiration for the artist’s skill, but this is akin to the kind of attention we might pay to athletic prowess – nothing to do with perceptual proclivities in the sense meant here. consider the case of pieter de hooch, a dutch painter of interiors in the s, and a contemporary of jan vermeer. he enjoyed considerable popularity which did not survive his epoch while vermeer, who also painted dutch interiors, has enjoyed an increasing and enduring popularity. both painted in what is categorised as dutch baroque realism. baroque represents the epoch, while realism represents the artistic movement characteristic of seventeenth century dutch painting. it was a movement in as much as it involved the kind and manner of depiction favoured by the new and rising middle classes. i will attempt to show, however, that de hooch and vermeer did not both paint in the same perceptual style. if we examine the perceptual style of both j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . works, we find that vermeer achieves a coherence of form, not present in de hooch's work. according to vision scientists glyn humphreys et al , there are principles of coherence which the visual system employs to detect whether the relationship between visual elements indicates that these elements cohere within the one form or whether the elements belong to separate objects. this can be understood as an explanatory framework for the idea of gestalt principles. to cut a long story short, the visual system detects the relations which hold within objects, and processes these relations quite separately from the relations which hold between objects (different specialised cells for each). the actual processes involved in each are also understood quite differently. the idea is that once the one form description of an object (consisting of within- object relations) is constructed and then stored in memory, it can be drawn upon to recognise the particular object from any angle (this is the idea of an object-centred description discussed previously). the detection of ‘between-object-relations’, on the other hand, is viewer dependent in the sense that only what the eye receives from the particular view at any one time is relevant. that is, each new view requires a separate description. for between-object relations, no construction involving the components of the space is necessary; nor the processing of the spaces as they would look from any other angle. consequently we can think of what goes on, when ‘between-object relations’ are detected, as something like a calculation regarding the kind of information we need in order for us to get around in the world without bumping into things. by comparison, the recognition of a form does require a construction from visual elements. j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . now, what if some realistic painters contrived unwittingly to reproduce the kind of relations between objects that are normally reserved for within objects, such that the art work portrayed an overall cohesiveness which in the perception of the world is normally reserved for individual objects. in this manner, the painting would stand apart quite distinctly from the scene it depicts. it would exploit perceptual strategies in such a way that our attention would be arrested away from object recognition and directed instead towards the relations which hold within the picture. take the painting by vermeer sometimes known as the milkmaid. in this painting there are gentle tensions between light and dark, cool and warm colours. the minutely detailed food-laden table on the bottom left-hand side is contrasted diagonally with the relatively large expanse of clear, bright flat colour on the top right side. the carefully defined, small but rather sullen looking wooden box on the bottom right side is diagonally opposed to the rough textured but tightly woven wicker basket hanging on the wall on the top left hand side. the copper pot hanging behind the basket is echoed in the similar shape and orientation of the wooden box. the central and dominating vertical of the work consists of the rounded bulky forms of the woman in the centre. the curve of the woman's once starched headdress is echoed throughout her form, from her round broad forehead, the firm wholesome rotund shapes of her shoulders and breasts to the curves of folded drapery in her top skirt. it is further continued in the strong line created by the movement of her arms towards the jug, which is held by both hands. in the dark round hollow of the jug the movement is temporarily stopped so that for a moment all is completely still: silent and empty. then we enter back into the rhythms of the work through the light that cascades over the crisp and grainy bread. finally the yellow glow of light typical of vermeer’s work gently gradates around and j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . over the forms, falling into dark shadows here and great flat expanses of light there. its source is a window on the left whose pane is broken up into small regular rectangles in the manner of lead light windows. the forms and the relations between them, as discussed above, can all be expressed in terms of principal axes, volumetric primitives and shape primitives. the global axis unites the elements of the picture: and in a gradual descent into the finer scaled levels, the subsidiary axes are detected in relation to the global axis. the volumetric and surface primitives involve a range of kinds: elliptical, circular, rectangular, hollow and solid forms of varying sizes. most of the primitives are solids and this is perhaps partly why the hollow of the milk jug arrests our attention for a moment. the painting is so designed that axes can be detected which connect one side of the work with the other. that is, we detect principal axes (unconsciously and automatically) through the spaces between the objects depicted in the work. when this occurs between the components of our world, we perceive the components as making up a discrete object. yet in the painting, we recognise distinct objects while still experiencing the total as the kind of unity which in the world is reserved for objects. the arrangement of forms within the work, suggests that their axes connect to the one global axis. for example, there is a dominant axis that runs parallel to the picture plane behind the woman's back, from the wicker breadbasket to the wooden mousetrap. then an axis which originates on the same plane as this one, runs from the top of the woman's head, curving down through her upper torso, round through her arms into and along the table. this creates a curved axis that swings dynamically towards the viewer through a j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . number of planes, effectively defining a broad sweep through three-dimensional space. another less dominant axis runs from the inwardly sloping window to the inwardly sloping plane created by the woman's upper torso and face. these all connect up at a point behind the woman’s abdomen. here is an example perhaps in which, the way the perceptual strategies are deployed in the course of perceiving the painting, leads the viewer to construct the one form-description for the painting, even though on a literal level, the painting represents many discrete forms such as a jug, a person and so on. this constitutes an unusual deployment of perceptual strategies. perhaps that explains why the painting has endured many cultural shifts and fashions and continues to engage the attention of the layman, artists and philosophers alike. in this case, our canonic schemas are not the source of the perceptual disruption, but the spatial relations represented in the picture are. this disruption leads to a heightened perceptual awareness, and this conceptual space, if you like, leaves room for the experience of the kind of nuance and feelings that characterise what kant (and solso) referred to as an experience of aesthetic ideas. for example, the thoughts that flood my mind when contemplating this painting relate to servitude, resignation to one's lot, idealisations of honest physical toil, simple rewards, the solace of hard work, traditional female roles, and the security and certainty of older cultures weighed against their rigidity and emphasis on conformity. at the same time this painting conjures up feelings and memories associated with home-baked food, cold crisp air, hand-woven cloth, the smell of damp stone, and the clatter of wooden shoes on terracotta floors. here i have listed these thoughts and feelings one by one as complete separate thoughts and feelings but this is not how they are experienced as aesthetic ideas. as aesthetic ideas they are experienced partially, simultaneously flooding j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . together, such that the ideas experienced are different from simply the sum of these stated thoughts and feelings. there is an intensity, a sense of experiencing something fundamental: a sense of the richness of felt experience, such that one has an overwhelming sense of engaging with the object of the painting. the intensity seems to originate in the way the various thoughts and feelings interact, so that the thoughts and feelings which emerge are altered, fuller, more fertile somehow. the phenomenology of aesthetic ideas in this case is that they (i) occur all at once, overlapping; (ii) cannot be captured adequately by verbal description; and (iii) arouse an unusually intense sense of engagement with the object of contemplation. the analysis of an artwork according to perceptual style, leaves room for an explanation of the possibility of aesthetic ideas. aesthetic ideas are made possible by the suspension of a literal involvement in the work which a focus on perceptual style allows. according to this explanatory framework, in de hooch’s paintings by comparison, the various objects and their relations to each other more closely mimic the difference between "within-object perceptual relations" and "between-object perceptual relations" as we apply them in our perception of the world. this might explain why the reception of de hooch's work since his own epoch has been limited mainly to historical interest. on this score, his work does not arrest our attention any more than the actual scene would in the world (apart from its historical interest and possibly some admiration for his ability to portray the structural description of objects). the painting, then, does not encourage anything but a literal engagement with it. it may be that vermeer's popularity is due to stimulating a kind of meta- perception (through activating predominantly "where" systems in the visual brain at the j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . expense of the "what" systems in the visual brain). de hooch's work by comparison might activate the "what" system in the visual brain, which possibly precludes the experience of aesthetic ideas because once this literal focus is taken, access to aesthetic ideas are thwarted (neuronal competition). de hooch’s success in his own day might have been based on other than perceptual factors. his contemporaries were perhaps flattered by the subject matter, painting as he did the trappings of their successful trade and travels. his popularity need not be despised, however. it is simply an example of the many extra-perceptual roles that art can fulfil and against which it can be judged to be good according to the cultural interests of the time. the comparison between vermeer and de hooch may also highlight the fact that once cultural interests and passions cannot be relied upon to recommend an art work, what is left are perceptual interests (apart from anthropological and historical ones). conclusion: a prediction and a recommendation perception has evolved to recognize objects and allow us to get around in the world without bumping into things. the processes that the system has evolved are rich in various operations which can be selected, combined and exploited in various ways in the perception of art works. there is a sense in which the perceptual style of an artwork, as explained in this paper, can be understood to be about the possibilities and constraints of perceptual processes. in discovering new ways of deploying perceptual strategies by combining visual elements in new and unusual ways, it may be that this sets up habits of perceiving (strengthens certain neural connections) which then influence perception in the day-to-day. this would suggest that over a life time, perception can develop not only a set of canonic schematic forms in long term memory, but also new perceptual strategies which combine visual elements and j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . construct form in new ways. on the other hand, perhaps only those with certain perceptual sensitivities to begin with can be so affected at least to significant degrees. after all, if art could affect us all so powerfully, the art lover should be able to forego the art gallery (except for historical purposes) in favour of more mundane scenes like demolition or construction sites or any mundane object for that matter. art lovers, with their art induced perceptual strategies, should be able to see as the artist sees and create van goghs when looking at their bedrooms or pollocks when looking up at fractal patterns in dense overlapping branches. perhaps, to some extent, this is what occurs in the appropriately sensitive and perceptive experienced perceiver of art. if the possibility of perceptual style leads to the above prediction, then the fact of its multifariousness, leads to a recommendation. the more plastic perception is, the more conducive it is to variations in perceptual style. consequently, the existence of multifarious perceptual styles look good for theories of interactive vision such as the one proposed by churchland et al. in sum, configurational aspects of artworks constitute perceptual style. this understanding of style necessarily involves the notion of a dynamic perceptual involvement on the part of the perceiver. the perceptual style attributed to an artwork will reflect an interaction between the perceiver's perceptual apparatus, with its own cultural history, and the objective properties of the artwork. this is not backward causation in the case of perceiving art works from earlier periods. this is human perception at work in all its glorious richness and variety. the variety of perceptual styles of pictorial representations can be explained by the apparently endless ways in which perceptual strategies can be exploited. j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . even the examples of analytical cubism by georges braque and picasso which at first look identical, can, with some familiarity with their work, be told apart on the basis of differences in methods of composition. a parallel treatment of style in music can be found in leonard b. meyer, "toward a theory of style" in berel lang ( ), the concept of style, university of pennsylvania press. paul thom ( ). making sense. a theory of interpretation. lanham: rowman & littlefield. i refer to arthur danto's philosophy of art history according to which, art history has ended. see his "the transfiguration of the commonplace", journal of aesthetics and art criticism, , . raymond a. macdonald ( ). "the styles of art history: entities or processes? the journal of speculative philosophy, vol.vii: , pp. - . arthur danto, op.cit. for a helpful discussion of this aspect of danto's philosophy of art see noel carroll, "essence, expression, and history: arthur danto's philosophy of art" in mark rollins (ed.) ( ), danto and his critics. oxford: blackwell. pp. - . harold osborne (ed), the oxford companion to twentieth century art ( ), oxford university press; - . ibid, p. . schema is used, not in the philosophical sense of an established inference, but in the related psychological sense of an internal model or representation of a unit of knowledge which corresponds, roughly, to a domain of interaction with the world. these units might include objects in the usual sense, but also other things "from some attention-riveting detail of an object all the way up to some sophisticated domain of social or linguistic interaction for purposeful beings." richard l. gregory (ed) ( ). the oxford companion to the mind. oxford: oxford university press. p. . these units encompass related knowledge to a given context or purpose such that our knowledge storage and retrieval can be as economical as possible, in terms of real time and use of neurons. this means that we store units of related knowledge which when triggered by related items in the environment set off prescriptions for responses. this is what is meant by the claim that expectations and prior learning will influence what you notice and how you respond. every artistic community probably has their equivalent to the young roar studio painters of melbourne from whom a collective roar of colour and animation burst forth for a limited time in the early 's before they were picked up and tamed by more mainstream art world practices. w. k. wimsatt and m. c. beardsley wrote a very influential article entitled "the intentional fallacy", in which they argued that the intention of the artist was irrelevant to an interpretation of an art work (published in morris weitz (ed) ( ), problems in aesthetics, new york: macmillan). after much published debate, beardsley conceded that intentions which were explicit and visible in the art work were relevant to the art work's interpretation. see mary mothersill ( ) for a summary of the debate (beauty restored, oxford : clarendon press pp. - ). this debate, while timely in the face of formalist theories of art, is superseded in the light of ready-mades like duchamp's fountain which danto responded to with his theory of indiscernibles according to which the artist's intentions, and the art world's readiness to accept a particular object as an art work, is what defines an object as an art work. see arthur danto "the artistic enfranchisement of real objects: the artworld" in george dickie, r. j. sclafani (eds) ( ), aesthetics: a critical anthology. new york : st. martin's press. pp. - . this is danto's theory of a style matrix. for carroll's argument that danto is inconsistent in holding that artists' intentions are relevant to interpretation while not to attribution of style, see noel carroll ( ), "danto, style, and intention", the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : summer, pp. - . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . the letters of vincent van gogh, edited by mark roskill ( ), london: flamingo. john willats ( ). art and representation. princeton: princeton university press. david marr ( ). vision. new york: w. h. freeman & co. jerry fodor ( ). the modularity of mind. cambridge, ma: mit press. marr op.cit. and see the various perceptual strategies explored in richard gregory, john harris, priscilla heard and david rose (eds) ( ), the artful eye, oxford university press. another way to make this distinction is between structural (primary) and denotational (secondary) descriptions; only the latter involves semantic content. see j.a. mcmahon (forthcoming) “an j. a. mcmahon the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, : , summer, , pp. - . explanation for normal and anomalous drawing ability and some implications for perception and imagery” in visual arts research. patricia s. churchland, v. s. ramachandran, & t. j. sejnowski ( ). "a critique of pure vision" in c. koch & j. davis eds. large-scale neuronal theories of the brain. cambridge ma: mit press. p. . churchland et al, op.cit. p. . that such a separation of the visual experience from semantic content is possible see m.a. peterson, j.f. kihlstrom, p. rose & m.l. glisky ( ), ‘mental images can be ambiguous: reconstruals and reference-frame reversals’, memory and cognition, : - this paper began as a response to mark rollins suggestion that the perception of certain artworks might, in effect, isolate, select and combine perceptual strategies in various ways. see mark rollins ( ), ‘the invisible content of visual art’, jaac : , - , p. . richard p. taylor, adam p. micolich & david jonas ( ). "using science to investigate jackson pollock's drip paintings", journal of consciousness studies, vol. , no. / , pp. - . viewer-centred means that our focus is centred on just the particular view we have at any one moment. it is like framing the particular view that you have and noticing the relations between objects just as much as the shape of the objects themselves. object-centred means that you bring to bear all the assumptions you have about the solidity of objects, and the fact that there are relatively few connected surfaces, and you register the shapes you perceive as connected variously sized volumes ipso facto objects. see marr op.cit. for a more detailed explanation. or for a very introductory text see part ii of ilona roth and vicki bruce ( ), perception and representation. philadelphia: open university press. robert l. solso ( ). cognition and the visual arts. cambridge (ma); bradford, mit press. ch. & . ibid. p. . ibid. ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . solso writes: "artists throughout the ages have chosen to emphasize one or another aspect of the rules of visual perception in the way they portray their impression of the world and its people"(p. ). his examples: peter max: illumination, colors, and a hint of visual perspective; roy lichtenstein: linear perspective, occluded objects, diminishing size; m.c.escher: shadows, linear perspective, exploits the saccadic nature of our eye movement during visual perception, and top-down expectations; picasso: (analytical cubism) exploits linear perspective, shapes from shading, occluding contours, orientational and volumetric primitives; cezanne: motion parallax; binocular disparity; colour as tone; van gogh: distorted laws of linear perspective; monet: atmospheric perspective, colour as tone (to show depth), occluded objects, diminishing detail in texture to show depth; diminishing size, elevation and linear perspective; leonardo's last supper: linear perspective, gestalt groupings ( groups of heads); massacio's the holy trinity in santa maria novella: linear perspective, elevation, occluding figures; jan van eyck's the betrothal of arnolfini: linear perspective, occluding objects, diminishing size, shape from shading, atmospheric perspective. ibid. pp. - . ibid. p. . i use “realistic” as though it is an unproblematic style category. it is not. for an example of the issues involved, see ernst gombrich’s art and illusion (oxford: phaidon press, ) and nelson goodman’s languages of art (indianapolis: bobbs-merrill, ). see glyn humphreys and dietmar heinke ( ). spatial representation and selection in the brain: neuropsychological and computational constraints. visual cognition, vol. : - , - . this would be an example of ontogenetic, not phylogenetic, evolution. i would like to thank michael davis (phd scholar, australian national university) for his research assistance which was funded by an australian research council small grant, awarded to me by the university of canberra, . pii: - ( ) - advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. book reviews commutative algebra. the old and the new are skillfully mixed to produce a book one can learn from. the reader can read and is not asked to do any deciphering, as is sometimes the case with books in algebra. h. e. lacey, the isometric theory of classical banach spaces, springer, , pp. the reader should compare this book with banach’s to realize how far we have come. this sophisticated account of some of the deepest techniques of real analysis is a worthy successor. g.-c. rota editor william carlos williams’s the great american novel: flamboyance and the beginning of art william carlos williams’s the great american novel: flamboyance and the beginning of art april boone william carlos williams review, volume , number , spring , pp. - (article) published by penn state university press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /wcw. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /wcw. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ william carlos williams’s the great american novel: flamboyance and the beginning of art april boone u n i v e r s i t y o f t e n n e s s e e in the early s in rutherford, new jersey, william carloswilliams had serious doubts that the “great american novel,” as itwas then conceptualized, could ever be written. though generally known for his revolutionary work in poetry, williams was also quite an experi- mentalist in prose, claiming in spring and all that prose and verse “are phases of the same thing” ( ). williams showed concern for the future of american litera- ture in general, including that of the novel. in response to what he viewed as spe- cific problems facing the american novel, problems with american language, and problems inherent in the nature of language itself, williams created the great american novel in . williams was troubled by the derivative nature of american novels of the time, their lack of originality, and their dependence upon european models; the exhausted material and cliché- ridden language of the his- torical novels of his day; the tendency of such novels to oversimplify or misrepre- sent the american experience; and the formulaic quality of genres such as detec- tive novels. at the heart of the great american novel is williams’s concern with how these conventional novel forms obscure the play of language and fail to engage readers in the defamiliarization that drives his poetics. growing out of these underlying premises, the great american novel engages the techniques of what we would now call metafiction to parody worn out formulas and content and, ironically, to create a new type of novel that anticipates postmodern fiction. the great american novel has received infrequent yet varied responses from scholars. in an interview with edith heal published as i wanted to write a poem, williams himself calls the work “a travesty on what [he] considered conventional american writing” (iwwp ). he adds, seemingly offhandedly, “people were always talking about the great american novel so i thought i’d write it. the hero- william carlos williams review, vol. no. , spring © texas tech university press ine is a little ford car—she was very passionate—a hot little baby. someday you should read it. you’ll have fun” (iwwp – ). from this attitude (as well as some of the work’s content), we might gather that parody of american writing as usual was at least a part of williams’s aims for the work. linda wagner, however, in the prose of william carlos williams, claims that the “language is neither so playful nor erudite as joyce’s; tone is not that of par- ody, as williams later suggests” ( ). wagner further states, “no jokes or puns, no neologisms, no portmanteau words—williams’s novel asks nothing from the reader except the seriousness of mind to shape the fragmented parts into a whole . . .” ( ). to view the great american novel in this light, though, is to completely miss the work’s unmistakable humor (much of which does involve wordplay such as puns). the reader of this work inevitably must confront this question of how seriously we are to take it. the issue calls to mind a work by dadaist man ray called “gift” which looked like an iron that one would typically use to remove wrinkles from clothing—but the iron also had fourteen nails stick- ing out of the ironing face. how seriously are we to take such a work of art? as mark a. pegrum states, “man ray’s iron cuts, but it is also humorous” ( ). the same is true of the great american novel. many critics have valued the great american novel primarily as an interlude or exercise by williams on his way to more important work. hugh kenner, for example, views the great american novel as a first draft of paterson, a working out of the scope and technique of this later poem (“a note” ). in a home- made world, kenner subsequently describes the great american novel as “paro- dic” and “an obstetrician’s vignette” ( ). dickran tashjian, in skyscraper primi- tives: dada and the american avant- garde, calls the work “an exercise complementary to european dada” and “a prelude to in the american grain” ( ). tashjian and others, in pointing to the relevance of dada, make observations that can be quite useful for understanding the great american novel. tashjian was one of the first scholars to note that dada had never been sufficiently explored in relation to williams’s work in general (skyscraper n), and tashjian’s study still provides one of the relatively longer discussions of dada as it relates, in broad terms, to the great american novel in particular (sky- scraper – ). williams did undergo what tashjian refers to as “his dada phase” ( n), though williams sometimes denied any influence of the move- ment on his work. williams was acquainted personally with the dadaists who lived and worked in new york from – , including marcel duchamp, wal- ter and louise arensberg, man ray, and francis picabia. clearly, williams’s william carlos williams review encounters with the art and philosophy of this group had a major influence on the themes and techniques of the great american novel. as tashjian explains in his william carlos williams and the american scene, – , “in new york, dada focused upon the tensions of art/anti- art, exploring the dialectic between destruction and creation, between accepted art forms and experimenta- tion, which might lead to new works hitherto unrecognized as art by american culture and society” ( ). the achievements of the dadaists—the ready- mades of duchamp, the concepts of found art, the collages of joseph stella, the work of man ray—are certainly relevant to my claims about williams’s goals for his satiric novel. the discussions of scholars such as bram dijkstra and peter schmidt provide valuable insight into the influence of cubism and dadaism on williams’s thought in general, but tend to mention the great american novel only in passing. of williams’s early works addressed by dijkstra in the hieroglyphics of a new speech, for example, the great american novel receives the least attention, with only a very brief reference. in schmidt’s william carlos williams, the arts, and literary tradition, the great american novel is often marginalized, literally, either in brief parenthetical references or in short footnotes, but schmidt acknowl- edges the need for more critical attention to the work, which he includes among williams’s “own versions of dadaist ‘automatic’ writing” ( , ) and also calls an experiment “with literary cubism” ( ). in addition, schmidt makes the important observation that dadaism is mentioned by name in the great american novel. overall, the brilliance of schmidt’s work is that it complicates the discussion in richly provocative ways: by reminding us that williams’s perceptions of dada were not fixed but were altering over several years ( ), by noting the influence of dada as simultaneous with williams’s explorations of “emerson’s and whitman’s assumption that originality and inherited literary forms are incompatible” ( ), and by pointing out differences between dadaism and the varieties of cubism and how williams appropriated now one, now the other, as his purpose required ( ). though primarily focusing on improvisations and spring and all, chapters and of schmidt’s book should be required reading for the student of the great american novel because they are rich with relevance and possible applications in regard to the avant- garde art of which williams himself was an avid student. the claims i will demonstrate by considering the great american novel as metafiction are concurrent with some of the conclusions reached by those who have approached williams’s work in general as dadaist or cubist. the concerns of the dadaists and cubists who are categorized as modern artists are often paral- lel with concerns of the postmodern writers of metafictional novels. the intersec- b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel tion of these concerns is notable in the great american novel. mark a. pegrum, in his recent book challenging modernity: dada between modern and postmod- ern, points out that a number of scholars view dada as a forerunner to postmod- ernism, and that “a few even consider dada as a possible changeover point from the modern to the postmodern” ( ). though he doesn’t specifically refer to williams, pegrum’s analysis of dada and the postmodern, particularly his chapter section entitled “dada against history”; chapter on the question of how seri- ously one is meant to take the flamboyance of dadaism; and chapter on (anti)art, merit close attention from scholars interested in the relevance of dada and proto- postmodernism to williams’s art, and especially to the great american novel. williams was clearly intrigued by and influenced by what the dadaists were doing, yet he never came to agree with the segment of dadaism that would decry the value of all art, and he resisted the term “anti- art” sometimes applied to his own projects. when wallace stevens called williams’s work anti- poetic in , “williams argued . . . that the poetic and anti- poetic were of a piece, creation and destruction, art/anti- art, inextricably bound together in a dialectic” (tashjian, william carlos williams – ). therefore, the claims of many critics, such as webster schott and biographer paul mariani, who label the great american novel an anti- novel, seem accurate on some levels—but not all (i ; mariani ). when one compares the work to joseph heller’s anti- novel catch- , for example, there are obvious similarities. both works parody and radically oppose the conventional expectations of what a novel should be. both works sat- irize convention, rules and restrictions. yossarian, heller’s antihero, “succeeds” by feigning illness rather than fulfilling his duties, and therefore, because of this ploy (among other, more influential factors, of course), he breaks free of the catch- regulation, a paradoxical rule that made discharge on the grounds of insanity an impossibility. williams’s antihero is a struggling novelist, caught in his own catch- situation, the impossibility of writing a novel, an impossibility created by the very rules that supposedly are meant to facilitate this writing. like yossar- ian, the novelist “succeeds” by acting against expectations, creating the “novel” that is the great american novel. undoubtedly, the great american novel does bear qualities of the anti- novel, but this label doesn’t adequately sum up the scope of williams’s work. c. hugh holman and william harmon have aptly noted that, characteristically, an anti- novel “experiments with fragmentation and dislocation on the assumption that the reader will be able to reconstruct reality from these disordered and unevalu- ated pieces of direct experience” ( ). granted, the great american novel works william carlos williams review partly on such an assumption, and like catch- , the great american novel’s humor comes largely from the parody and satire of convention. however, the great american novel has a self- conscious dimension as a work of fiction that differs from catch- ’s primary purpose of satire on social conventions, authority figures, and the human condition. the satire of the great american novel, in contrast, is ultimately directed toward the conventions imposed upon all creators of fiction and, specifically, toward the rather stagnant state of the american novel in williams’s time. where catch- criticizes novelistic conventions indirectly, the great american novel makes this criticism the primary focus of the novel. in the work, williams confronts the problems facing the american novel and creates a piece that seems prophetic, even proto- postmodern, in its vision of the inevitable move to predominance of metafiction in the postmodern novel. the earliest known use of the term “metafiction” is in a essay by william h. gass, in which, interestingly, he applies the term as a corrective because some works which had been labeled as anti- novels needed a more fitting term to indi- cate their primary thematic concern with the act of creating fiction (waugh ). as previously discussed, such is the case with the great american novel. metafiction was not a new phenomenon in literature at williams’s time. williams, in fact, greatly admired laurence sterne and his tristram shandy, one of the pre- cursor texts of metafiction, written in the mid- eighteenth century. russian formal- ist critic viktor shklovsky, in his essay on tristram shandy, observes that “awareness of form constitutes the subject matter of [sterne’s] novel.” however, discussing metafiction as such did not come into vogue as a critical trend until the early s, when gass and others began to take note. thus, critics prior to that time, as well as critics such as james breslin, writing about the same time as gass, could not view metafictional works through the lens of the extensive study we now have on the subject. still, in his william carlos williams: an american artist, breslin perceptively notes the following: “one ten- dency, evident in the novel from andre gide to john barth, has been to make this self- conscious struggle with literary form into the fictional subject itself. williams appears to have been one of the first twentieth- century writers to try this, in his ironically titled the great american novel” ( ). breslin also comments that williams uses a “work- about- itself technique” in creating the novel ( ). with that said, i propose a new look at williams’s text in light of more recent scholar- ship which defines metafiction and explores the abundance of metafictional nov- els in postmodern times. as my opening paragraph indicates, the great american novel is actually not a novel in any conventional sense of the word. the work has no coherent plot b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel and no typical protagonist or antagonist. thus, williams was clearly being a bit facetious in titling his work the great american novel. however, when looked at from another view, the title seems to ring somewhat true, as a vision of the direc- tion future american novels would take. williams had been experimenting with new forms, publishing his kora in hell: improvisations, a collection of prose poems, in , and spring and all, which he describes as “poems interspersed with prose,” in . given that the word “novel” originally derived from the latin novus, meaning “new,” and came to english from the italian word for short story, novella (a short work of prose fic- tion that told a new, original story, in contrast to retelling a traditional one), williams also must have been somewhat serious in calling this “new” work a “novel.” because he viewed the current status of the american novel as stagnant, williams sought to make a new novel, just as his goal in the poetic genre was to “make it new.” apparently, he believed that any new creation in either genre would have to come through a completely new type of form. therefore, with the pastiche and the found art of dada, the synthetic cubism of those such as juan gris, the metafictional techniques of laurence sterne, and (as we shall see) the wordplay of gertrude stein, williams creates his “great american novel” in the form of a collage consisting of sections of his novelist’s self- conscious fictional prose interspersed with bits of other found materials. we get a sense of williams before his typewriter, surrounded by fragments of writing he had collected. certainly included were letters from ezra pound written to him in the early s regarding williams’s work; recent letters and notes from his friend and fellow poet alva n. turner, whom we also see in paterson; a crumpled past due bill; several hastily though poignantly written recordings of startling occurrences williams witnessed as an obstetrician who delivered more than two thousand babies; the december issue of the ladies’ home journal with an article on the cumberland mountain mother; newspaper clippings on flaming youth, the hottest new novel of being published in metropolitan in install- ments under the pen name warner fabian, often speculated to be “one of the most important and serious- minded novelists in america” as reported in the new york times november and december , ; current advertisements for new clothing fashions from magazines such as vanity fair; clippings from the new york times of september and september , , announcing lohengrin to be performed in italian at manhattan with anna fitziu in the starring role (or per- haps a souvenir playbill from williams’s own attendance at the production); and published descriptions of american industrial production and products, probably also from newspaper articles, ads, or manufacturing company brochures. william carlos williams review i also speculate that williams had before him the following: issues of popular magazines (such as romance and western story magazine) from the last decade or so that often published the sort of trite american writing that unnerved him; the september , issue of all- story weekly with a dog- eared story entitled “diada, daughter of discord” by e. k. means; passages from the flurry of publi- cized reports from arctic expeditions over the last several decades such as john murdoch’s ethnological results of the point barrow expedition or the smith- sonian’s ethnography of the ungava district by lucien m. turner (reports also covered often in the new york times), which included information on the living conditions and marital practices of alaskan eskimos; passages including some of the more melodramatic accounts of the american past, perhaps from selected history books that had been published since the mid- nineteenth century; and sketches in recent editions of the new york times of successful american immigrants. such found materials as these make up the great american novel. the text that includes these pieces demands a patient, motivated reader who is willing to read on without the luxury of a coherent story with a conventional beginning, middle, and end. perhaps because of its experimentation with tech- nique, linda wagner, in the prose of william carlos williams, has called the great american novel “williams’s attempt at a stream- of- consciousness novel” ( ). no doubt, williams had been impressed by joyce’s ulysses, published in , and passages of the great american novel do utilize a sort of stream- of- consciousness technique, but as a whole, the work has more in common with that of russian formalists such as rozanov, who promoted a “resolution of the novel back into its raw materials, into a kind of linguistic collage” (jameson ) and with what jorge luis borges, in his essay “the garden of forking paths,” labeled infinite regress (mchale ). like ulysses, the great american novel lacks a traditional plot, but williams’s work seems more metafictional in its intent because what we are reading seems to be the unrefined, unassimilated building blocks of the story that the novelist is trying to create. the pastiche tech- nique allows williams to foreground the process of the novelist’s efforts to put together the random materials mentioned above into a coherent fiction, and thereby calls attention to the typical process by which novels assimilate and transform bits and pieces of culture into their fiction. thus, the novel may effec- tively be read as the story of a man writing a story of himself attempting to write a story. the unnamed novelist who is the protagonist of this novel is obsessed with beginnings. obsession, by definition, is a continued dwelling on one idea or emo- tion without the ability to dispel it. thus, this novelist’s obsession with beginning is b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel evident because one might read the entirety of his novel as a constant search for a beginning. in her seminal work entitled metafiction: the theory and practice of self- conscious fiction, patricia waugh defines such a search as a redefinition of a conventional literary theme: “the traditional fictional quest has thus been trans- formed into a quest for fictionality” ( ). this is the quest we see beginning in the great american novel’s chapter i, the only titled chapter in the whole work, which is called, significantly, “the fog.” in the opening lines, we are in the mind of the writer as he attempts to coax his novel’s beginning out of the fogginess of insubstantial ideas: “if there is progress then there is a novel. without progress there is nothing. everything exists from the beginning. i existed in the beginning. i was a slobbering infant . . . yet if there is to be a novel one must begin some- where” (i ). as waugh points out, “metafictional novels often begin with an explicit discussion of the arbitrary nature of beginnings” ( ). however, because the novelist is unable to find the beginning, the viable subject, the initial building block, the events, or even the words to give his “great american novel” a fruitful start, he seems throughout the work to begin with one section, then to abandon it as hopeless and begin completely anew in the next section. he even abandons the convention of titling his chapters, perhaps because he had titled chapter i with the hope of being able to write himself out of “the fog,” but to no avail. chapter i also gives an indication that the conventional use of time as a linear progression will be abandoned at some points in this novel. in the book’s opening paragraph, the novelist states, “yesterday was the twenty- second. today is the twenty- first. impossible. not if it was last year. but then if wouldn’t be yesterday” (i ). similarly, chapter ii’s opening paragraph mocks the traditional temporal guidelines provided for readers: “last night it was an ocean. tonight trees. already it is yesterday” ( ). paragraph four of this chapter ends by stating, “three a.m. to be exact twenty- eight minutes past three,” but this temporal “clue” seems to have no connection to the paragraph it completes. more extensive twists in traditional linear progression may be found in chapter vii, which begins with an account of columbus and his sailors’ joyful arrival in the “new world”. after three paragraphs on this subject, the narrative abruptly shifts to the present world of the novelist writing the story: yes this party of sailors, men of the sea, brothers of a most ancient guild, ambassadors of all the ages that had gone before them, had indeed found a new world, a world, that is, that knew nothing about them, on which the foot of a white man had never made a mark such as theirs were then making on the white sand under the palms. nuevo mundo! william carlos williams review [thus ends this paragraph. then, the next paragraph begins:] the chil- dren released from school lay in the gutter and covered themselves with the fallen poplar leaves.—a new world! ( ) it is the novelist who is observing the children in the gutter and linking their feel- ing of a new world with that of columbus and crew, but williams depends on the reader’s ability and willingness to fill in the gap in the text’s presentation of time, using ideogrammatic logic. likewise, the reader must make a similar leap, a few paragraphs hence, when the thoughts of the novelist again leap forward in time from columbus to george washington to an indian raid in november upon a white settlement. after fourteen paragraphs of detailed description of the raid and its aftermath, the nar- rative just as abruptly shifts back to columbus in a new paragraph: “for a moment columbus stood as if spell- bound by the fact of this new country. soon however he regained his self- possession and with alonso pinzon ordered the trunks of tri- fles to be opened which, being opened, the indians drew near in wonder and began to try to communicate with these gods” ( ). the juxtaposition of the two groups of indians in the text seems to occur in the novelist’s mind as it would in an ideogram, and the reader, transported from one instance to another as if by a flash of lightning, is left to reorder the chronological occurrence of the two events by temporal progression. this sort of time shifting, which takes place at numerous points throughout the work, often plays upon the metonymic: the type of singular moments in historical accounts which have become the conventional way of viewing entire groups of people and their characteristic social positions. for example, the idea of native americans’ awe of the first godlike european explorers had become utterly con- ventional by the time of williams’s writing, and had come to work metonymi- cally, one event serving as a trope for the view of native american attitudes. (per- haps, by extension, williams also uses the moment of the indians’ awe at the trunk of trifles to point metaphorically to contemporary american views of euro- peans and their treasure trove of established artistic form and content as superior.) interestingly, david reid has argued that, as opposed to metaphor, “metonymy . . . typically plays on ready- made associations between things, such as circumcision’s marking the israelites, or the fact that the french eat frogs or that british sailors used to eat limes against scurvy” (italics mine, ). in dadaist fash- ion, then, williams uses the trunk- opening moment in american history as a ready- made, or in cubist fashion, places this moment in a collage of historical moments involving native americans, next to the raid, and thereby forces b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel new associations, new ways of thinking beyond convention. the moment in which the indians viewed the riches of european explorers with wonder (and viewed the explorers themselves with adulation) is juxtaposed with a historical moment centuries later in which native americans take the riches, the weapons and liquor, of white settlers (one of them referred to as “a cocky englishman”) by force (i ). like one viewing a ready- made of duchamp or a collage of gris or picasso, the reader is confronted with an old “thing” in a new context, and forced to rethink conventional referentiality. though the collage technique of the great american novel often ignores or frustrates the reader’s expectation of plot progression, the novelist also demon- strates a high degree of awareness of possible critical responses to his text. this awareness is undoubtedly born of the novelist’s (any avant- garde novelist’s) inevitable resentment of the constraints placed upon his capacity to utilize the imagination—the constraints of critical expectation, of rules which limit what a writer should or should not do with his art. as waugh remarks of b. s. johnson’s metafictional work albert angelo, the self- conscious novelist “voice[s] a paranoid fear that his audience will misinterpret his fiction by reading it accord- ing to expectations based on the tradition of the realistic novel” ( ). in the great american novel, this “paranoid fear” of critical condemnation is first seen in chapter ii, in williams’s response to a letter from or conversation with his friend regarding appropriate subject matter: “you are wrong, wrong, alva n. turner. it is deeper than you imagine. i perceive that it may be permissible for a poet to write about a poetic sweetheart but never about a wife—should have said possible. it is not possible” ( ). when williams uses the word “permissible” here, he seems to grow indignant at the thought of choosing his subject only with permission of critics, so he attempts to correct himself by saying that he should have said “pos- sible” rather than permissible. however, he finds himself trapped by the critics because the inevitable negative response of critics to breaking the law of permis- sibility makes true revolutionary success impossible. the novelist of the great american novel also parodies critical authoritarian- ism by including a negative review of his own work as part of the text (a review which, in part, sounds conspicuously like the criticisms of ezra pound toward williams’s work). chapter iii begins: it is joyce with a difference. the difference being greater opacity, less erudition, reduced power of perception—si la sol fa mi re do. aside from that simple, rather stupid derivation, forced to a ridiculous extreme. no excuse for this sort of thing. amounts to a total occlusion of intelli- william carlos williams review gence. substitution of something else. what? well, nonsense. since you drive me to it. ( ) this clever way of staying one step ahead of the critic is also seen in sterne’s tris- tram shandy, in a remarkably similar passage: “and what of this new book the whole world makes such a rout about?—oh! ‘tis out of all plumb, my lord,— quite an irregular thing!—not one of the angles at the four corners was a right angle.—i had my rule and compasses, &c. my lord, in my pocket” ( – ). in both of these passages, the critics of williams and sterne miss the point that con- fusion or defamiliarization is the point. we see a similar metapoetic moment in the opening lines of spring and all, when the writer takes the pose of a critic of his work, creating a critic who responds to his break from traditional rhyme and rhythm by crying, “you have robbed me. god, i am naked. what shall i do?” ( ). with such techniques, williams and sterne, as many later writers of metafictional texts, are able to essentially thumb their noses at any possible responses of the critics who make the rules that they are breaking. a second aspect of the great american novel’s self- conscious dread of criti- cal response is of the type that would be later described by harold bloom as the anxiety of influence. this seems to be one of the basic driving forces of williams’s text because the fear of being derivative is often what causes the novelist to aban- don one of his beginnings and embark upon a new beginning, which he hopes will be original. we see the novelist’s self- conscious obsession with originality articulated in chapter iii, and then we see the numerous failed attempts to be orig- inal throughout the remainder of the text. for example, the critic’s voice is once again heard in chapter iii stating, “in other words it comes after joyce, therefore it is no good, of no use but a secondary local usefulness like the madison square garden tower copied from seville—it is of no absolute good. it is not new. it is not an invention” ( ). this dismissal of a writer’s work plays on one of the deepest fears of the writer, the sense that there is nothing new, articulated by waugh as “a desperate sense of the possible redundancy and irrelevance of the artist” ( ). no doubt, williams had personally experienced this anxiety of influ- ence because he includes, in the text of the great american novel, ezra pound’s comment on kora in hell: “. . . c’est de rimbaud. finis” ( ). other creative depictions of derivation in chapter iii include sigfried wagner’s “composition” of a “beautiful cantata on a theme [he] discovered in one of [his] father’s operas,” ( ) which highlights the paradox of composing from preexisting material; and the mention of rosinante, the name of don quixote’s broken- down horse, which seems to invoke the cliché of beating a dead horse ( ). b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel before turning to the way that the great american novel ironically solves the problem of anxiety of influence, we will address the crux of the work, as well as of williams’s poetic philosophy as a whole: the word. williams was fascinated by words, and his creative mission became an effort to maximize their potential. a film entitled voices & visions: william carlos williams depicts williams at his typewriter in the act of composing his untitled poem now commonly referred to as “the red wheel barrow,” which was originally published in spring and all the same year as the great american novel. the film portrays williams typing and retyping the draft of this one- sentence poem, experimenting with the line breaks to maximize the semantic potential of each word. as james breslin states, “to get at the way williams handles the line we can say that he breaks lines so as to maintain as much as possible of the energy which he finds naturally inherent in words and objects” ( ). charles altieri has pointed out that the energy of this poem depends predominantly on the capability of the words to shift in their gram- matical roles: each part of speech reveals its capacity to transfer force. each first line ends in what could be a noun—a substance allowing rest in the flow of meaning—but that turns out to function adjectivally. as adjectives, the words define aspects of an intending mind . . . seeking a substance in which to inhere. but the words’ nominal qualities do not disappear. their incompleteness, and their shared position with the verb “depends,” combine to create an effect of substance in action. in effect, concrete qualities seem verbal—seem capable . . . of transferring force from object to object and from the mind’s intentions to concrete events. ( – ) williams’s interest in this grammatical and syntactical flexibility of words would explain his appreciation for the work of gertrude stein. in a essay, williams notes the similarities between sterne’s aim in tris- tram shandy and the work of stein. in fact, williams perceives sterne as stein’s predecessor in the project that also most concerned williams: the handling of the words and to some extent the imaginative quality of the sentence [in chapter of tristram shandy] is a direct forerunner of that which gertrude stein has woven today into a synthesis of its own. it will be plain, in fact, on close attention, that sterne exercises not only the play (or music) of sight, sense and sound contrast among the words william carlos williams review themselves which stein uses, but their grammatical play also. . . . it would not be too much to say that stein’s development over a lifetime is anticipated completely with regard to subject matter, sense and gram- mar—in sterne. (se ) such grammatical play is of primary interest to williams, not only in poems such as the one now conventionally called “the red wheel barrow,” but at the heart of the great american novel as well. more important than the novelist’s search for a viable subject in the great american novel is his search for a word—the word. this search for a sort of tran- scendental signifier often comes in the form of grammatical wordplay, play on the sounds and appearance of words, and even a play on the shape of letters them- selves. for example, in the opening chapter of the text, the word “progress” shifts between functioning as an object: “if there is progress then there is a novel” and “such is progress,” to functioning as a verb: “words progress into the ground,” to functioning as a subject: “progress is to get” (i – ). in such passages, williams seems to toy with the notion of free play of the signifier. perhaps, therefore, the concerns of those who explore williams and dadaism intersect most prominently with my project on the issue of williams’s dissatisfaction with referentiality and the sign. (dadaism and cubism break traditional referentiality in an attempt to make new signs of existing objects.) in addition to calling attention to our dependence upon grammatical functions of words, as he had done in “the red wheel barrow,” williams also causes us to focus on the fact that words are essentially sounds and combinations of sound patterns as well as visual combinations of letters on a page (although he never completely breaks free of reference). for example, the dynamo passage illustrates the process of our mind’s formation of sounds into words: “turned into the wrong street seeking to pass the power house from which the hum, hmmmmmmmmm- mmmm—sprang. electricity has been discovered for ever. i’m new, says the great dynamo. i am progress. i make a word. listen! ummmmmmmmmmmmm—” (i ). the dynamo, a machine for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, reminds us of how our mind converts sounds into meaning in the form of words. significantly, the dynamo’s hum sounds like the noise “um,” which we often make when our minds are actively in the process of transforming our ideas into the sounds that make words. in this passage, williams is clearly engaging chapter of the autobiog- raphy of american historian, journalist, and novelist henry adams. though adams may be considered late victorian, it is clear why the chapter (entitled “the b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel dynamo and the virgin”) appeals to williams, for adams’s ideas have much in common with williams’s poetics, with his frustration at his own efforts in writing, and with his current qualms about the state of american culture and american artistic vision. adams describes how at the great exposition, which showcased in paris the latest and most promising worldwide inventions at the turn of the twenti- eth century, he is shown an exhibit that featured dynamos. in a passage very much in the style and spirit of the great american novel, adams writes: satisfied that the sequence of men led to nothing and that the sequence of their society could lead no further, while the mere sequence of time was artificial, and the sequence of thought was chaos, he turned at last to the sequence of force; and thus it happened that, after ten years’ pur- suit, he found himself lying in the gallery of machines at the great exposition of , his historical neck broken by the sudden irruption of forces totally new. ( ) the exhibit evokes a sort of epiphany in adams, who sees in the dynamo “a silent and infinite force” and states that “among the thousand symbols of ultimate energy the dynamo was not so human as some, but it was the most expressive” ( ). the raw energy of the dynamo leads adams to meditate upon the mystic forces that have been seen as driving the universe, such as the sun, the revolution of the planets, even the spiritual forces such as the fecund powers of goddesses once worshipped, and of the virgin mary. driving force is one of the most recur- rent concerns of the great american novel as well as spring and all, in which the writer states, “the imagination is an actual force comparable to electricity or steam, it is not a plaything but a power that has been used from the first to raise the understanding” (cp ). while duchamp’s ready- mades reveal that in an age of machine- made objects, “the divine force is electricity” (schmidt ), williams looks to the latent power of imagination. in an effort to get at the ultimate energy behind words, the novelist of the great american novel sometimes calls attention to the compound word and the kenning, a metaphorical compound of two or more words. in the passages that states, “but who do you think i am, says white goldenrod?” (i ), “goldenrod” is a compound word representing the appearance of the object represented—its color and shape. since one would normally conceive of goldenrod as a flower with golden blooms, the phrase “white goldenrod” defamiliarizes the image, to create a new image of a sterile or albino plant, devoid of its familiar color. the novelist, in the line “come into my heart while i am running—jumping from air- william carlos williams review plane to plane in midair” ( ), performs a similar play on the kenning “airplane” by calling attention to the fact that the only difference in plane and airplane is the break between the compound words in the middle: air/plane. the phrase “jump- ing from airplane to plane in midair” creates an image in the reader’s mind of a person acting out this leap in the substance of air itself, but it also foregrounds our dependence upon understanding the word “air” to visualize the image. similarly, the novelist highlights the visual appearance of words as letters, and foregrounds our lack of ability to make physical “contact” with the symbols that make words: “liberate the words. you tie them. poetic sweet- heart. ugh. poetic sweetheart. my dear miss word let me hold your w. i love you. of all the girls in school you alone are the one—” ( ). remarkably, the letter w resembles the female sexual organ. the novelist longs not for sexual relations, but textual rela- tions, for intimate contact with a genital- shaped letter, a bold and delightfully witty gesture that seems very similar to stein’s project. peter nicholls, in mod- ernisms, notes stein’s reference to “caressing nouns” ( ) and highlights “the erotic and textual pleasures indulged in [her] writings” ( ). williams’s novelist struggles to go that far, stating, “the words must become real, they must take the place of wife and sweetheart” (i ), and “he went in to his wife [the words made wife] with exalted mind, his breath coming in pleasant surges. i come to tell you that the book is finished. i have added a new chapter to the art of writing” ( ). however, the novelist’s book was far from finished at that point, and he had not actually succeeded in overcoming representation. the novelist’s play upon the appearance of a letter is similar to that which brian mchale notes in richard brautigan’s postmodern work, the tokyo- mountain express: [brautigan] designates osaka as the “orange capital of the orient.” the real- world osaka, so far as i can discover, has nothing in particular to do with oranges; nevertheless, brautigan’s motive for associating osaka with oranges is transparent—transparent in the sense that it depends on the signifiers of the signs in question, on the word in the most literal sense. osaka is the orange capital of the orient simply because osaka, orange and orient all begin with the letter “o.” there is, moreover, an iconic relationship involved: at the level of the written (printed) word, the letter “o” resembles an orange. here formal features of the verbal signifier . . . even letter shape—have been given the power to generate signifieds; the word transparently determines the make- up of brautigan’s world. ( ) b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel this is also williams’s world, a world of representation which one must inhabit as a means of communicating and attempting to contact the essence of things. because of the problematic relationship between the word as signifier and the object signified, williams seemed to have a lifelong love- hate relationship with words. in i wanted to write a poem, he states, “you must remember i had a strong inclination all my life to be a painter. under different circumstances i would rather have been a painter than to bother with these god- damn words” (iwwp ). nonetheless, words became his medium, and a frustration with the inability of words to overcome representation and actually to become the things repre- sented is at the heart of the great american novel. the novelist makes a greater number of statements about the problematic nature of words than any other matter in the text. as waugh points out, “the metafictionist is highly conscious of a basic dilemma: if he or she sets out to ‘rep- resent’ the world, he or she realizes fairly soon that the world, as such, cannot be ‘represented’ ( ). besides the problem of words’ inability to capture the ever- changing present, as seen in his statement, “now i am not what i was when the word was forming to say what i am” (i ), williams’s novelist is painfully aware of the impossibility of capturing the full sensual nature of experience with words, for he laments: progress is to get. but how can words get.—let them get drunk. bah. words are words. fog of words. the car runs through it. the words take up the smell of the car. petrol. face powder, arm pits, food- grease in the hair, foul breath, clean musk. words. words cannot progress. there can- not be a novel. break the words. words are indivisible crystals. one cannot break them—awu tsst grang splith gra pragh og bm—yes, one can break them. one can make words. progress? if i make a word i make myself into a word. such is progress. i shall make myself into a word. one big word. . . . i begin small and make myself into a big splurging word: i take life and make it into one big blurb. ( – ) to overcome the problems of the crystallization of words articulated here, words would either have to enact the mythical blessing described in chapter viii: “let us bless him [a sleeping child] with words that change often and never stiffen nor remain to form sentences of seven parts. to him i send a message of words like running water” ( ), or they would actually have to become the things rep- resented, as in the novelist’s dream of achievement: “the words from long prac- tice had come to be leaves, trees, the corners of his house” ( ). the novelist’s william carlos williams review failure to write his ideal novel rests on the impossibility in using conventional prose to achieve either option. the “novel” that he does, paradoxically, create by this failure is based ulti- mately on the issue of derivation, and the trap of inevitable intertextuality. with his focus on the word “creation,” the novelist points out that words themselves are formed and preserved by derivation, and therefore, creative writing, with words as its medium, must also be derivative: “to progress from word to word is to suck a nipple” ( ). in writing, one word derives its meaning from the sur- rounding words, gaining sustenance and continued existence from them as a baby thrives on mother’s milk. thus, the key issue that the novelist is trying to resolve is the dilemma of trying to create something new while depending on old materials to do so. as pegrum states, “if postmodernism is a game with the ves- tiges of the past, an ironic rehashing, then so too is dada a game of irony, built around the knowledge that an escape from the modern legacy is impossible, but with a determination to achieve some distance from it nonetheless” ( ). as previously mentioned, williams was especially frustrated with the state of the american novel in his time. no doubt, he viewed the inherent problems of words themselves as the primary problem, but he also lamented an american cul- tural situation that he viewed as problematically fixed in nature, like words. williams feared that american writers would always write work that was deriva- tive of european models. as his novelist states, “america is a mass of pulp, a jelly, a sensitive plate ready to take whatever print you want to put on it . . . we have no words. every word we get must be broken off from the european mass” (i ). to williams’s dismay, many writers capable of creating the fabled “great ameri- can novel” eventually seemed to give up on american material all together. this could be seen, for example, in hawthorne’s initial fixation upon colonial puritan stories, then his later move to create stories that take place on foreign soil, such as the marble faun, set in italy. even american novelists such as hemingway, who did work with a “specific american mythology” (norris ), have been read as rehashing old types, revising the american cowboy figure, for example, as a bull- fighter in a spanish setting. feeling overwhelmed by the lack of truly original options, therefore, the novelist of williams’s work is unable to create a new novel in the traditional sense, but must turn to radical techniques to create the new form that is the great american novel. given his own feelings of despair at the obsta- cles that faced american writers who wished to write the “great american novel,” williams seems to offer the great american novel as both a sardonic commentary on the impossibility of writing a new american novel within the old models and a new form of novel, which on some levels, must be taken seriously. b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel in one sense, the novel offers a number of satiric solutions to the anxiety of influence or the metafictional “desperate sense of possible redundancy and irrele- vance of the artist”(waugh ). because intertextuality is inevitable, especially in the american novel at the time, the novelist ends up with a final product that is a collage composed of predominantly borrowed, unoriginal material. in some instances, sections seem to be taken word for word from (or at least to be colla- tions of different versions of) letters, advertisements, newspaper articles, and eth- nological reports and other materials we have previously mentioned. as hugh witemeyer proves in a article in william carlos williams review, “most of [chapter xvii of tgan] is lifted without acknowledgment from an article by winifred kirkland entitled ‘mountain mothers’ in the ladies’ home journal for december ” ( ). this plagiarism seems oddly out of place in a work that con- demns derivation, but as witemeyer concludes, “the great american novel enacts the fallen linguistic plight of modernity by suggesting that plagiarism and its attendant guilt are inescapable conditions of verbal construction in a belated and impoverished world” ( ). thus, paradoxically, the novelist so intent upon originality seems to solve his search for a word, not by beating the “traditionalists of plagiarism” as they are called in spring and all, but by joining them. a second ironic solution to the dilemma of intertextuality is parody. the nov- elist of the great american novel realizes that like the words that are worn out, the traditional novel form and formulas are depleted and stale. for example, as waugh points out, “pure detective fiction is extremely resistant to literary change” ( ), so it is particularly fitting that this novelist parodies one of his contempo- raries who would mindlessly follow the easy formula to create a detective novel: “yet to have a novel—oh catch up a dozen good smelly names and find some reason for murder, it will do” (i ). there is nothing novel, in any sense of the word, about following such formulaic means of creating literature. similarly, with his attention in chapter i to types of light, the novelist may also be satirizing nathaniel hawthorne’s conventional views of the romance novel by writing in direct contradiction to them. hawthorne had abandoned the american setting in his later works because, as sergio perosa explains, he “put forth the idea that that atmosphere of fairyland and of strange enchantment so crucially needed by the romancer was lacking in america” ( ). hawthorne’s use of imagination to create a fantasy world distanced from reality directly opposes williams’s hope of closer contact with actual things through the imagination. hawthorne favored using moonlight in his fictional setting because, as he states even as early in his novel- writing as in his custom- house introduction to the scarlet letter, moon- light causes objects to become “spiritualized” and “to lose their actual substance, william carlos williams review and become things of intellect” (perosa ). again, this technique opposes that of williams, who desired a fiction that would facilitate, as he states in paterson, “no ideas but in things” ( , italics mine). thus, williams’s attention to light in the nar- rative section that closes chapter i might well be a conscious critique of hawthorne’s use of moonlight. williams’s novelist writes: [f]or a moment they remained in the shadow cast by the moon. a fog had arisen in which the egg- shaped white moon was fixed—so it seemed. . . . the [car] windshield was opaque with the water in minute droplets on it—through which the moon shone with its inadequate light. that is, our eyes being used to the sun the moon’s light is inadequate for us to see by. but certain bats and owls find it even too strong, preferring the starlight. the stars were also out . . . on the highway . . . nothing could be seen but the white billows of [fog] crossed in front by the flares of the headlights . . . [i]n his own bed- room . . . his wife’s head [was] on the pillow in the perfectly clear electric light. the light shone brightest on the corner of her right eye, which was nearest it, also on the promi- nences of her face. (i – ) interestingly, this novelist prefers the harsh clarity of electric lighting to the tra- ditionally romantic softness of moonlight, which he refers to as inadequate. in his preface to the house of the seven gables, hawthorne further states that assign- ing specific localities to one’s narrative “exposes the romance to an inflexible and exceedingly dangerous species of criticism, by bringing his fancy- pictures almost into positive contact with the realities of the moment” ( ). perhaps williams has hawthorne’s philosophy, or at least a similarly romantic one, privi- leging moonlit ambiguity over electric reality, in mind in passages like that above. in addition to this parody and his sentimental romance story of the female ford car who falls in love with a mack truck, the novelist also writes more exten- sive parodies of the idealizations of historical accounts, such as the story of the mormon migration “on foot , miles along what later became known as emigration trail” (i ); and the accounts of fighting between indians and settlers in the typical pioneer novel, as seen in his crass description of an american engi- neer who had been killed: “looked just like a pin- cushion, with the feathered arrows that were in him” ( ). such ironic uses of previously validated forms of stories seem to anticipate the notion in john barth’s definitive essay entitled “the literature of exhaustion” that “the genres of literature are exhausted and must be played against parodically by any genuinely original contemporary b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel writer” (dipple ). thus, the american novelist of the great american novel has resorted to the pastiche that takes segments of preexisting writing and pastes them together in a new context that often satirizes their original one. in doing so, the novelist is like the rag merchant in the end of his “novel” who proclaims, “our main specialty is shoddy” (i ). the passage on shoddy that ends the great american novel is ingenious, for it succinctly pulls together all of the themes and dilemmas with which the novelist has struggled throughout the work. the rag merchant declares, “our main speciality is shoddy,” with the straightforward intention of explaining the primary product manufactured by his company. the word “shoddy” was used at least as early as , and throughout the nineteenth century, to describe cloth made from the shredding of old rags to make new material. over the course of the century, though, the term also came to describe anything having a deceptive appearance of superior quality, or some- thing cheap, inferior, or shabby (“shoddy”). thus, the pun is that, in the american cultural, industrial, and literary context, the word “shoddy” takes on both mean- ings: a product woven from other materials and a product that is inferior. it is also ironic that the merchant says “our main specialty,” meaning the product in which we supposedly excel, is “shoddy,” meaning (beyond his intention) of inferior quality. the passage alludes to the manufacture of literary products, both those being produced in williams’s time and those that would be produced in the future. as the rag merchant details the process of creating shoddy cloth, we sense an atti- tude of ambiguity on the part of the novelist, and williams. on the one hand, the description provides an implicit critique of some literary works created like the shoddy cloth. to create the various types of shoddy, the old materials may be washed, dried, burned with gas, drained of color, broken, stretched and turned into skeins, even sometimes having loose bits of wool blown into a cotton mesh on a loom. if we think of these processes as referring to the measures that ameri- can writers were taking to wash, drain, and stretch clichés and worn out conven- tions and to pass them off as original fiction, the pun is quite humorous, and the statement, “our main specialty is shoddy” takes on a whole new meaning. the observation that “one man made a million . . . by making cheap quilts” from filthy rags fluffed up and mechanically fed to an assembly line where “a girl sim- ply sat there with an electric sewing device [with] which she . . . drew in the designs” points to the commodification of literature, the selling of cheap, unimag- inative literary products taking place in american popular magazines, publishing industries, and even the growing film industry. on the other hand, there is a sort of admiration for the ingenuity of the method william carlos williams review of producing shoddy, which breaks up the old and patches it together into some- thing new, like the hard edges of modern art: “it’s all wool but the fibre has been broken. it makes a hard material not like the soft new woven woolens but it’s wool, all of it” ( ). similarly, the man who used rags to make a million “took any kind of rags just as they were collected, filth or grease right on them the way they were and teased them up into a fluffy stuff which he put through a rolling process and made into sheets of wadding” ( ). such passages call attention to the collage techniques that have created this “novel” (techniques that williams would later use in paterson). in , williams praised picasso for breaking faces, for creating faces with hard edges rather than “a meat of set color and contour” (ri ). there is, then, a certain fascination with the harsh, violent, mechanized process that creates shoddy because it represents so much of modernity, even its best art. at the same time, though, by ending his metafictional collage with the description of the collagelike process that creates shoddy, the novelist is fore- grounding the bind that he is in: because of the state of fixed referentiality in lan- guage and the state of cultural stagnation in america, he must create an art that is fragmented and that makes its own creation the primary concern. in order to cre- ate something new, he has been forced into this literary patchwork. many post- modern novelists, such as donald barthelme, ronald sukenick, kurt vonnegut, b. s. johnson, thomas pynchon, and clarence major, would follow suit, using metafictional collage to “explicitly create ‘anxious objects’, works of art which have a suspicion they may be piles of rubbish” (waugh ). taken seriously, therefore, the great american novel is a forward- looking work. in chapter xii, the novelist quotes vachel lindsay as stating, “america needs the flamboyant to save her soul” (i ). the chapter describes the appeal of flamboyant forms of entertainment such as the circus, jazz, flappers, and the movies, and makes the claim that “flamboyance . . . is at least the beginning of art” ( – ). this idea is illustrated throughout the novel, with the father’s excla- mation of “shit” at the birth of another son, which places a familiar expletive in an unlikely context, therefore making it new ( ); with the “shower of colored glass” that refers to duchamp’s belief that a shattered stained glass window lying in pieces on the ground is more beautiful than the whole one in the wall ( ); with the allusions to radical experimentalists such as serge voronoff, a russian doctor criticized for grafting monkey sex organs into humans to lengthen the life of sexual capability ( ); and with references to revolutionary figures such as kropotkin, one of russia’s most prominent anarchists ( ). such references call for a dramatic revolution in art, led by the imagination of radical artists. for williams, this revolution must necessarily be a violent one, like the dada- b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel style destruction of the world by imagination in the opening passage of spring and all: “the imagination, intoxicated by prohibitions, rises to drunken heights to destroy the world. let it rage, let it kill. the imagination is supreme” (cp ). the novelist of the great american novel observes the fact that in many instances, in the natural world, destruction is a viable form of creation. for exam- ple, he notices a swarm of dragonflies that were catching and eating gnats: “swiftly the gnats progressed into the dragon flies, swiftly coalescing—and from time to time a droplet of stuff fell from the vent of a feeding dragon fly,—and the little sound of this stuff striking the earth could not be heard with its true poetic force” (i – , italics mine). the dragonflies’ excrement is poetic because it is new. the same concept is behind the passage in which the novelist describes the great spanish explorer hernando de soto, who, knowing he is dying, is pleased at the prospect of being absorbed into the land of the great mississippi river: “should he die his body should be given to this last resting place. into it europe should pass as into a new world” ( ). the absorption goes further, though, when the novelist adds, “there at the edge of that mighty river he had seen those little fish who would soon be eating him, he, de soto the mighty explorer—he smiled quietly to himself with a curious satisfaction” ( ). like the gnats devoured by the dragonflies, de soto will be eaten by the fish of the mississippi, and he is satisfied by the notion of being destroyed, digested even, in order to become something new. this notion of progress that comes from destruction may also be seen in the novelist’s aversion to literary monarchism in any form. he apparently believes that for new creative endeavors to be productive, the literary fathers must be will- ing to be digested like the gnats, to be broken up like the rag fibers, so that some- thing new may emerge. elizabeth dipple notes “postmodernism’s longing to smash the pieties of literary history” ( ), and williams’s novelist’s exclamation “oh to hell with masters and the rest of them” (i ) demonstrates such a long- ing, even to crush the complacencies of recent american literary success. edgar lee masters, with his publication of the spoon river anthology in bound volume, had become internationally successful, earning accolades even from ezra pound, who exclaimed in january , in the egoist: “at last! at last america has discovered a poet” (qtd. in russell). the stark poetic monologues spoken in free verse by the small town americans created or recreated by masters in spoon river had broken many of the conventional poetic rules and seemed truly new. however, subsequent to the success of this volume, in – , mas- ters lived during these years as the best- known american poet, based solely on the phenomenon of spoon river. between and , he published five nov- william carlos williams review els, none of them truly novel, so even the success of his poetic innovations had failed to bring about the continual revolutions in technique that williams called for in the damning of literary “masters” (such as masters, specifically). of course, williams did not exempt even himself from the piety- smashing; the novelist actu- ally follows his statement condemning masters by adding, “to hell with every- thing i have myself ever written” (i ). as schmidt explains, “williams’s dadaist disgust . . . was not merely self- righteously directed at literary history or contem- porary society; it involved a harsh judgment of his own earlier work” ( ). on many levels, williams’s the great american novel succeeds in the quest for a truly new american novel. because of its capricious selection of content and sporadic compositional technique, the work cannot be traced to any for- mula. likewise, the sheer number of parodies, references, and allusions to other works contained in the great american novel prevent it from easily becoming subject to parody itself; most likely, the great american novel will remain one of a kind. it is a work that resists classification and critical commentary that would make it stale. the very nature of the work, with its wealth of subjects, ensures that it will continually become new upon each reading. but let us not become too complacent about the work’s measure of artistic success. the final line of the novel which states, “o vida tan dulce!” means “life is so sweet,” but the irony is that at the end of the novel, the line comes immediately after a description of congoleum, a new floor covering made from “nothing but build- ing paper with a coating of enamel” ( ). thus, the exclamation that “life is so sweet” can be read as a bitterly ironic gloss on the traditional happy ending; a sardonic acknowledgment that in an age of mechanical reproduction, shoddy products can be produced indefinitely; and a recognition that new products, lit- erary and otherwise, can and will be produced only from old. though the great american novel does reach a type of compromise with the factors that limit its own creation, it also comes from williams’s genuine sense of despair at being caught in the paradox, the prison house (to borrow nietzsche’s term), that is lan- guage. works cited adams, henry. “the dynamo and the virgin.” in the education of henry adams. ed. ernest samuels. boston: houghton mifflin, . altieri, charles. painterly abstraction in modernist american poetry: the contemporaneity of modernism. new york: cambridge up, . breslin, james. william carlos williams: an american artist. new york: oxford up, . b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel dijkstra, bram. the hieroglyphics of a new speech: cubism, stieglitz, and the early poetry of william carlos williams. princeton: princeton up, . dipple, elizabeth. the unresolvable plot: reading contemporary fiction. new york: rout- ledge, . hawthorne, nathaniel. the house of the seven gables. ed. robert s. levine. new york: norton, . holman, c. hugh, and william harmon. a handbook to literature. new york: macmillan, . jameson, fredric. the prison- house of language: a critical account of structuralism and russian formalism. princeton: princeton up, . kenner, hugh. a homemade world: the american modernist writers. new york: knopf, . ———. “a note on ‘the great american novel.’” perspective . (autumn- winter ): – . mariani, paul. william carlos williams: a new world naked. new york: mcgraw- hill, . mchale, brian. postmodernist fiction. new york: routledge, . nicholls, peter. modernisms: a literary guide. berkeley: u of california p, . norris, margot. “modernist eruptions.” in the columbia history of the american novel. ed. emory elliott. new york: columbia up, . – . pegrum, mark a. challenging modernity: dada between modern and postmodern. new york: berghahn books, . perosa, sergio. american theories of the novel: – . new york: new york up, . reid, david. “euro- scepticism: thoughts on metonymy.” university of toronto quarterly . (summer ): . russell, herbert k. “edgar lee masters.” in dictionary of literary biography, volume : american poets, – , third series. ed. peter quartermain. detroit: gale, . schmidt, peter. william carlos williams, the arts, and literary tradition. baton rouge: louisiana state up, . “shoddy.” oxford english dictionary. nd ed. oxford: oxford up, . oed online. july . <http://dictionary.oed.com>. sterne, laurence. the life and opinions of tristram shandy, gentleman. ed. james aiken work. new york: odyssey p, . tashjian, dickran. skyscraper primitives: dada and the american avant- garde – . middletown: wesleyan up, . ———. william carlos williams and the american scene, – . berkeley: u of cal- ifornia p, . voices & visions: william carlos williams. videocassette. santa barbara, calif.: the annenburg cpb project, . william carlos williams review wagner, linda welshimer. the prose of william carlos williams. middletown, conn.: wesleyan up, . waugh, patricia. metafiction: the theory and practice of self- conscious fiction. new york: methuen, . witemeyer, hugh. “plagiarism in ‘the great american novel’: the ethics of collage.” william carlos williams review . (spring ): – . b o o n e – william carlos williams’s the great american novel < d f f f d caeeefe ff fd e eef e ff ffe fbeae b e f > ТЕКСТ КАК ОБЪЕКТ СЛОВЕСНОСТИ УДК � poetry as a parable pedro l. talavera-ibarra missouri southern state university e. newman rd., joplin, missouri, usa - , the article examines the evolution of the understanding of poetry as a specific variety of the language arts. based on materials from spanish, russian, and french poetic discourses, the article reviews the analysis of the essence of poetry, and it recapitulates poetry’s systematic interpretation in the works of scholars from different countries and periods. key words: poetry, metaphor, parable, interpretation, poetic function. jorge luis borges, who might have been the only blind person in the world that knew about parables, gave us one about the “yellow emperor” [ ]. i want to retell it briefly. after having seen the emperor's palace, after having crossed with him many lu- minous rivers in sandal-wood canoes, and after having sacrificed a turtle to break the spell of a labyrinth finding a way out, the poet read a brief poem at the foot of the next to the last tower of the palace. this short composition is the one that gave him both immortality and death. the text is lost. some say it was only one verse, some say only one word. but the true and incredible fact is that the poem contained the enormous palace, entirely and in detail, with every single piece of porcelain, and with the drawings on every piece, and the sunsets, and all the sad and happy moments of the glorious dynasties of men, gods and dragons that had ever lived there. the yellow emperor proc- laimed that the poet had taken the palace away from him, and the iron sword of the executioner cut off the life of the poet. there are others that say that the story was dif- ferent. since two equal things cannot exist in the world at the same time, it was enough for the poet to recite the poem in order to make the palace disappear. all these legends are speculations, and the truth of the matter is: the poet was a slave of the emperor and he died like one. his poem was forgotten because it deserved to be forgotten, and his descendants, who will never be able to find it, still look for the one word that contains the entire universe. to the readers of poetry (the poets themselves, serious scholars, graduate students, university professors, and so on) poetry often seems to be like the enchanted palace of Вестник РУДН, серия Теория языка. Семиотика. Семантика, , № the “yellow emperor”, an entire universe deserving of explanation and containment by means of only one word. following are some examples of these attempts to find that word: ) poetry “lives from the metaphor” (leopoldo lugones, ) [ ]. ) the “creation of metaphors... is the goal of the creative process” (andrei bely, ) [ ]. ) art is “thought in images”, “...this potebnia's conclusion can be formulated as: poetry = imagery” (viktor shklovsky, ) [ ]. ) poetry is “the utterance oriented towards the expression” (roman jakobson, ) [ ]. ) “we have reduced poetry to its primordial element: metaphor” (jorge luis borges, ) [ ]. ) “poetry is today the superior algebra of the metaphors” (josé ortega y gasset, ) [ ]. ) “only when a verbal work acquires poeticity, a poetic function of determina- tive significance, can we speak of poetry” (roman jakobson, ) [ ]. ) “the language of poetry is a ptolemaic world, one and only, outside which nothing exists, and nothing is needed”... “as soon as another voice, another's accent, the possibility of another's point of view breaks through the play of the symbol, the poetic plane is destroyed and the symbol is translated onto the plane of prose” (mikhail bakhtin, ) [ ]. all of the above mentioned definitions deny poetry the virtue of the content, and most of them focus on the assumption that no poetry is possible without a trope, more specifically, a metaphor. however, in two of the poetic traditions that interest me, we can find poems with absolutely no tropes that have always been considered “poetry”. such is the case of two examples included in all major anthologies of russian and span- ish poetry. i am referring to the poem “Я Вас любил...” by alexander pushkin [ ], and “no me mueve, mi dios, para quererte..” [ ], an anonymous sonnet in spanish: no me mueve, mi dios, para quererte, el cielo que me tienes prometido; ni me mueve el infierno tan temido para dejar por eso de ofenderte. tú me mueves, señor: muéveme el verte clavado en una cruz y escarnecido; muéveme el ver tu cuerpo tan herido; muévenme tus afrentas y tu muerte. muéveme, en fin, tu amor, en tal manera que aunque no hubiera cielo yo te amara y aunque no hubiera infierno te temiera. no tienes que me dar porque te quiera; porque aunque cuanto espero no esperara, lo mismo que te quiero te quisiera. pedro l. talavera-ibarra. poetry as a parable this factual argument against the identification of poetry with imagery can be ex- tended to almost all contemporary poetry, which tends to avoid metaphors as an ana- thema. nevertheless, it is remarkable that serious scholars like the spanish philosopher ortega y gasset as well as the russians mikhail bakhtin and roman jakobson, think that the task of containing a universe within a nutshell was accomplishable. not less important is that the nutshell happens to be the notion of metaphor. that identification, or equation, is only the fruit of the long quest for a system in literature, the notion of systematic order leading inevitably to unity, which prefers to be expressed in a univocal, axiomatic way. the first major work in the field of poetry analysis, aristotle's poetics [ ] predetermined the emphasis on a system that would copy “the order of nature”. the system would come out of ordering the parts of the whole, while the theory would grasp the nature of the whole. on the one side, we have to study the parts that share an essence, “the nature”; on the other side, we have to understand the inner qualities of “the nature”. since aristotle, the scholar analysis of poetry hap- pens to be a holistic classification that implies the existence of “essential qualities” in the poems and an essence in poetry. russian formalism, represented in my quotations by jakobson and shklovsky, also approached literature with the understanding that knowledge of the essence explains and contains the particular facts, i.e. the actual poems or texts. in its life span, from until , russian formalism made “device” the only hero of literary history. they developed the notion of “defamiliarization” (ostranenie) to explain why the device (a metaphor, a trope, or a technique) would be considered the essential element in li- terature. and even though the formalists moved from shklovsky's equation “poetry = imagery” in to jakobson's equation “poetry = poeticity = poetic function” in , they never gave up on the belief that the essence of poetry existed in the form of a device. according to the formalists, and the structuralists later, what is important in literature is the disruption of practical language (“defamiliarization”). the disruption takes place when we listen or read something unusual, something out of the familiar and ordinary. because our attention is caught by the use of a new, disruptive language, we focus on the message itself rather than on the meaning of it. poeticity, according to jakobson, is represented in linguistics by a projection “of the principle of equivalence from the axis of selection into the axis of combination” [ ]. if in practical language the words are linked syntagmatically, where by combination one word recalls another, in poetry the process is disrupted by inserting a word from the axis of selection. when i say “i am eating the bread...”, the expectation is to finish the sentence with something syn- tagmatically motivated, by combination, like: “i am eating the bread that was on the table”, or “i am eating the bread from yesterday”. but the process of practical language can be disrupted by picking a word from the axis of selection, i.e. not motivated by combination, and creating something like “i am eating the bread of my hope”. thus, practical statements acquire poetic representation. a famous jakobson's example is the statement “our army conquered this part of the world” transformed into the paro- nomastic phrase “veni, vidi, vici”. bakhtin argued, fairly in my opinion, that the sole token of the poetic function was its opposition to practical language, its disruption of automatism in language (“defami- Вестник РУДН, серия Теория языка. Семиотика. Семантика, , № liarization”) since for the formalists the aesthetic function was the “negation of any prac- tical function” — in the words of jan mukarovsky [ ]. negation becomes the essence of poetry, and negation has universal validity as a system. in the “formal method” a denial is transformed into an ontological argument and only an apophasis is offered to us (“god may be known through what god is not”; “poetic language may be known through what practical language is not”). if this is true, then any catchy phrase that goes against practical language becomes a poem, like in advertisement: “nothing's bolder / nothing's colder”; “nobody lays a finger on my butterfinger”; “taste the fu- ture”, etc. bakhtin thought that this major methodological mistake in russian formalism was determined by the “belief” that the russian futurist poets had created a new, mo- noglossic and ideologically self-centered, poetic language, every word of which was to be interpreted as the word of the “mythical adam”: one and indivisible. both for- malism in literary criticism and futurism in poetry, believed in an old “philoso- pheme”: the expression of an “only language of truth” in the form of a sole unitary language of poetry. both formalism and futurism were ptolemaic conceptions of language. yet bakhtin himself could not avoid the same unitary vision of poetry when developing his own theory. if in the s bakhtin explains the distinction between “practical” and “poetical” languages as a consequence of the futurist belief in the cre- ation of a new poetic language, but in the s bakhtin adheres to the belief and makes it a central point of his theory. the essence of poetry, according to bakhtin, is to be found in the unity of a discourse created against the diversity of discourses (“he- teroglossia”) which, paradoxically, is the basic texture of language itself. poetry, in the words of bakhtin, is the language that is as if it were not real: “poetry, striving for maximal purity, works in its own language as if that language were unitary, the only language, as if there were no heteroglossia outside it” [ ]. at the center of this work is, again, the play of the symbol in the poetic plan (the metaphor, the trope). curiously enough, we could add two very influential philosophers to the list of scholars that examine poetry in terms of the metaphor and the old familiar ghost of the essence of poetry. the russian nikolai berdiaev wrote and published his book “the crisis of art” (krizis iskusstva) in [ ], while the spaniard josé ortega y gas- set published his famous work la deshumanización del arte in [ ], both of them were attempts to explain the avant-garde movements about to replace the russian and spanish american symbolist schools. for berdiaev, two were the tendencies in art at the time: the analytical and the synthetical. representing the synthetical principle, russian symbolism tried to achieve the organic unity of art and the “world of na- ture”. on the other hand, the avant-garde schools of cubism in painting and futurism in poetry were the expression of the analytical aspirations that rejected any kind of organic principle. contrary to symbolism, in which the spiritual acquires a material representation, futurism dematerializes matter transferring the gravitational center from man to matter. man and his spiritual side are absent in the avant-garde expressions of art. in the words of berdiaev, the failure of the avant-garde movements was that they did not recognize the levels of being hidden behind the physical veil of the world. they re- jected transcendence, and therefore they were only the representation of a process of disintegration in the physical plan. pedro l. talavera-ibarra. poetry as a parable an excellent case in point is the following example from mayakovski’s “a cloud in trousers” [ ], where the initial metaphor of the heart as a house on fire becomes a physical reality for everybody: allo! Кто говорит? Мама? Мама! Ваш сын прекрасно болен! Мама! У него пожар сердца. Скажите сестрам, Люде и Оле, — ему уже некуда деться. Каждое слово, даже шутка, которые изрыгает обгорающим ртом он, выбрасывается, как голая проститутка из горящего публичного дома. Люди нюхают — запахло жареным! Нагнали каких-то. Блестящие! В касках! Нельзя сапожища! Скажите пожарным: на сердце горящее лезут в ласках. Я сам. Глаза наслезнённые бочками выкачу. Дайте о ребра опереться. Выскочу! Выскочу! Выскочу! Выскочу! Рухнули. Не выскочишь из сердца! [ . p. — ]. in a striking parallelism with berdiaev, ortega y gasset thought that the task of the artist was to create a universe that opposes the habitual world. as a consequence, the poet that knew how to “isolate himself from the surrounding (circumstance)” was the best poet. at the center of the poet’s detachment from the surrounding reality was a process of stylization, or deformation of the real. the metaphor, in the conception of ortega y gasset, was the only tool we had to create evasion from reality. the me- taphor created “imaginary reefs” among real things. but, following ortega y gasset, if the traditional metaphor was cast upon reality in order to embellish it, the avant-garde, on the contrary, tried to eliminate the extrapoetic support making of metaphor a poetic res. in the first case, the use of the metaphor was “human”, because it was an ideali- zation of the real, an intellectual abstraction of reality. in the second case, the realiza- tion of the unreal as unreal, painting the ideas instead of the things, was the expres- sion of the “dehumanization” of art. ortega y gasset's conclusion is that art has lost its Вестник РУДН, серия Теория языка. Семиотика. Семантика, , № transcendence, since thematically speaking has rejected its human side and its support in reality. both of them ortega y gasset and berdiaev were right about avant-garde poetry, but for the wrong reasons. the limitations that they perceive in the new poetry are ra- ther the limitations imposed on them by a symbolist conception of poetry. unity and transcendence were lacking in avant-garde art for the simple reason that the avant-garde artistic movements never tried to reach them. and it is true that disintegration had found an expression in the subversion of the metaphor, but that does not mean that the new art had lost its human content. in fact, we see in the philosophers the same limi- tations imposed on the literary critics above mentioned; all of them had their visions shaped by the symbolist tradition. both the philosophers and the critics were not ex- plaining poetry. on the contrary, the weltanschauung of symbolism explains their views. the two basic philosophical principles in symbolism were the platonic conception of a universe divided into two different worlds and the plotinian notion of the unity of being in beauty. the platonic conception supports the need for transcendence in art, since the true reality, “the ideas”, is hidden behind this visible world [ ; ]. the plo- tinian notion points out to the need for unity, since the ascension from the material to the spiritual in man leads to a “vision” of beauty that is at the same time the synthesis of both man's spiritual and material sides, body and soul, man and nature [ ]. this notion in symbolism recovers the old motive of harmonia mundi in romanticism. both principles, the plotinian and the platonic, were incorporated by baudelaire with his appropriation of swedenborg's theory of “correspondances” and fourier's theory of universal analogy [ ]. moreover, baudelaire established the triad that would make possible the revelation of the correspondences and allegories: les mots, les sons et les parfums. the triad will survive throughout the entire period of the symbolism. at the same time, baudelaire made possible the shift from the simile to the metaphor in sym- bolist poetry. both mythology and metaphor were, in the conception of the french poet, a dictionary of spiritual incarnations accessible to everybody. metaphor, by be- ing a visible representation of the abstract, was both the vision of beauty that would bring harmony and unity, and an image of the abstract reality hidden behind the visible. most topoi in symbolist poetry will spread out of baudelaire's weltanschauung prin- ciples: the role of imagination, the significance of music, the idea of poetic ascension, the use of mythology, the poet's definition as a translator of nature, the recovery of symbols through memory, the belief in harmonia mundi, the “rêverie”, and the no- tion of homo duplex. the list of poems that illustrate their existence would be long and superfluous, but we can find more than enough examples in latin american poets like rubén darío, leopoldo lugones, josé juan tablada, and manuel gutiérrez nájera; or in russian poets like andrei bely, alexander blok, vladimir soloviev, and kons- tantin balmont. towards the end of the symbolist period, at the beginning of the th. century, the general tendency was to make of a poem a big metaphor that would inte- grate all of its parts into a great all-inclusive image, for example, in the poems “the stranger” (“neznakomka”) [ ] by alexander blok and “margarita” [ ] by rubén darío. in darío’s poem certain transcendence from the concrete to the abstract takes pedro l. talavera-ibarra. poetry as a parable place metaphorically, since the woman taking apart the leaves of the daisy flower, be- comes herself a flower taken apart by death: ¿recuerdas que querías ser una margarita gautier? fijo en mi mente tu extraño rostro está, cuando cenamos juntos, en la primera cita, en una noche alegre que nunca volverá. tus labios escarlatas de púrpura maldita sorbían el champaña del fino baccarat; tus dedos deshojaban la blanca margarita, «sí... no... sí... no...» ¡y sabías que te adoraba ya! después, ¡oh flor de histeria!, llorabas y reías; tus besos y tus lágrimas tuve en mi boca yo; tus risas, tus fragancias, tus quejas, eran mías. y en una tarde triste de los más dulces días, la muerte, la celosa, por ver si me querías, ¡como a una margarita de amor, te deshojó! the fervor and persistence of the symbolist vision of the world in poetry reached its peak at the beginning of the th. century, just when poetry and its vision of the world were about to change. in , the russian symbolist andrei bely criticized pushkin, the national glory, as a poor and insignificant poet because in his works metonymy pre- vails over metaphor depriving the poems of any complete symbolic image [ ]. thus, symbolism framed several years in advance the equation that will dominate poetry’s interpretation for decades to come: “poetry = metaphor”. poetry itself, however, was to reject this orderly vision of the world through the voice of the avant-garde. guillaume apollinaire said it better in his poem “la jolie rousse” [ ] in what i think is an appeal to both the critics and the tradition: vous dont la bouche est faite à l'image de celle de dieu bouche qui est l'ordre même soyez indulgents quand vous nous comparez a ceux qui furent la perfection de l'ordre. references [ ] anonimous no me mueve mi dios para quererte // castro leal a. las cien mejores poesías mexicanas. méxico: porrúa, . p. . [ ] apollinaire ch. la jolie rousse // apollinaire ch. oeuvres poétiques. paris: gallimard, . p. . [ ] aristotle poetics // adams h. critical theory since plato. san diego: harcourt brace jova- novich, . p. – . [ ] bakhtin m. slovo v poezii i v proze // voprosy literatury. v . m., . p. — . [ ] baudelaire ch. oeuvres complètes. v . paris: gallimard, . [ ] bely a. magiya slov // bely a. simvolizm. kniga statyei. m.: musaget, . [ ] bely a. nie poy krasavitsa // bely a. simvolizm. kniga statyei. m.: musaget, . p. — . Вестник РУДН, серия Теория языка. Семиотика. Семантика, , № [ ] berdiaev n. krizis iskusstva // berdiaev n. sobranie sochineniy. v . paris: ymca-press, . p. — . [ ] blok a. neznakomka // blok a. sobraniie sochineniya v shesti tomakh. v . l.: khudo- zhestvennaia literature, . p. — . [ ] borges j.l. parábola del palacio. antología personal. buenos aires: sur, . p. — . [ ] borges j.l. proclama // videla g. el ultraísmo. madrid: gredos, . p. . [ ] darío r. margarita. poesía. venezuela: biblioteca ayacucho, . p. . [ ] eyjólfur k.e. plotinus on sense-perception: a philosophical study. cambridge: cambridge university press, . [ ] jakobson r. poetry of grammar and grammar of poetry // pomorska k. and rudy s. lan- guage in literature. london: harvard university press. . p. — . [ ] jakobson r. what is poetry? // pomorska k. and rudy s. language in literature. london: harvard university press. . p. — . [ ] lugones l. prólogo a lunario sentimental // osorio t.n. manifiestos, proclamas y polémicas de la vanguardia literaria hispanoamericana. caracas: biblioteca ayacucho, . p. . [ ] mayakovsky v. oblako v shtanakh // mayakovsky v. izbrannie proizvedenia. tom . m.: go- sudarstvennoye izdatelstvo khudozhestvennoy literatury, . p. — . [ ] mukarovksy j. dénomination poétique et la fonction esthétique de la langue // actes du quatrième congrès international de linguistes. hague: mouton & co, . p. — . [ ] ortega y gasset j. la deshumanización del arte // ortega y gasset j. obras completas. v . madrid: alianza editorial-revista de occidente, . p. — . [ ] plato meno // plato complete works. indianapolis: hackett, . [ ] plato phaedrus // plato complete works. indianapolis: hackett, . [ ] pushkin a.s. ia vas liubil // pushkin a.s. sochineniia v triokh tomakh. v . m.: khudo- zhestvennaia literatura, . p. . [ ] shklovsky v. iskysstvo, kak priom // kosny w. texte der russischen formalisten. v . munich: wilhelm fink verlag, . p. — . ПОЭЗИЯ КАК ИНОСКАЗАНИЕ Педро Л. Талавера-Ибарра Кафедра иностранных языков Южный Университет Штата Миссури (США) e. newman rd., joplin, missouri, usa - talavera-p@mssu.edu В статье рассматривается эволюция представлений о поэзии как об особом виде словесного искусства. На материале испанского, русского и французского поэтического дискурса анализи- руется сущность поэтического творчества и систематизируется его интерпретация в трудах мыс- лителей различных стран и эпох. Ключевые слова: поэзия, метафора, иносказание, притча, интерпретация, поэтическая функция. bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories full terms & conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=rjar the journal of architecture issn: - (print) - (online) journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjar bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez to cite this article: raúl martínez martínez ( ) bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories, the journal of architecture, : , - , doi: . / . . to link to this article: https://doi.org/ . / . . © the author(s). published by informa uk limited, trading as taylor & francis group published online: jan . submit your article to this journal article views: view crossmark data https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=rjar https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjar https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi= . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorsubmission?journalcode=rjar &show=instructions https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorsubmission?journalcode=rjar &show=instructions http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories in the late nineteenth century, bernard berenson revived the analytical methodologies employed in art history by proposing new methods of pictorial analysis, such as space-composition and life-enhancement. in the twentieth century, his pupil geoffrey scott transferred these new methodologies from their original context, renaissance painting, to architecture. though scott was a recognised critic within english aes- thetic circles, he was largely ignored in continental european academic communities. the influence of his book the architecture of humanism ( ) was limited to the anglo-american world before the s. this essay depicts the key role that the italian architect bruno zevi played after the second world war, by becoming the primary architectural his- torian to introduce and diffuse scott’s forgotten masterpiece in many non-english-speaking countries. zevi defended a critical methodology based on spatial, empirical, and sensory analysis of architectural works, an attitude that is observed in his theoretical corpus written immediately after his return from the united states. this paper proposes an examin- ation of zevi’s reception of scott’s theories and the debates that it propa- gated, and aims to contribute to the understanding of the methodological approach followed in the years after the second world war on both sides of the atlantic. the introduction of the concept of space as an element of architectural analysis and design has been one of the most significant contributions to the field of architecture in the twentieth century. the interpretation of architecture in terms of space, though, did not become widely familiar to american and english audiences until the early s, with the publication of sigfried giedion’s space, time and architecture in , nikolaus pevsner’s an outline of european architecture in , and later, bruno zevi’s architecture as space in . broadening this traditional narrative, colin rowe suggested that the american art historian bernard berenson, his pupil, the english architec- tural historian geoffrey scott, and, potentially, the american architect frank lloyd wright, had already begun to utilise space as a fundamental concept in their works, prior to the normally assumed entry of space onto the english- speaking architectural stage in the s. rowe’s hypothesis was developed in part from cornelis van de ven’s space in architecture: the evolution of a # the author(s). published by informa uk limited, trading as taylor & francis group this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-non- commercial-noderivatives license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. raúl martínez martínez department of history and theory of architecture and communication techniques, universitat politècnica de catalunya-barcelonatech, barcelona, spain. raul.martinez-martinez@upc.edu orcid - - - the journal of architecture volume number - https://doi.org/ . / . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / mailto:raul.martinez-martinez@upc.edu http://orcid.org/ - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf new idea in the theory and history of modern movements ( ). this book, focusing on the period from until , operated on the premise that ‘the concept of space as an architectural fundamental was almost exclusively a german contribution,’ a seemingly continuous source of influence for the leading architects and historians of the twentieth century. rowe articulated van de ven’s argument, questioning european influence on wright but support- ing the inclusion of berenson and scott. this paper will delve deeper into rowe’s observations in order to propose a continuous chain of connectivity and influence stretching from the s all the way back to anglo-american art historians and theorists of the late nine- teenth century. its focus is to reveal the lineage beginning with bernard beren- son, continuing with geoffrey scott and developing further with bruno zevi. the connection between berenson and scott has already been well established by scholars like david watkin and mark campbell but the relationship between scott and zevi has never been explored. in rowe’s opinion, the architecture of humanism: a study in the history of taste ( ), together with its theoretical alternative, rudolf wittkower’s archi- tectural principles in the age of humanism ( ), was the most important contribution within the theory of architecture of the twentieth century. scott’s well-known masterwork aimed to expand the methodological theory outlined by berenson in in ‘a word for renaissance churches,’ a little- known, yet seminal essay that proposed an incipient interpretation of architec- ture in terms of space, described from the point of view of the aesthetic spec- tator (fig. ). however, as watkin has pointed out in the foreword of the edition of the architecture of humanism, the legacy of scott’s volume extended further than just his interpretation of architecture in terms of space. it also facilitated the introduction of the emerging physiological aesthetic theory, based on the concept of einfühlung, into the english-speaking architec- tural scene; the demolition of the ‘fallacies’ (romantic, mechanical, ethical, and biological), false analogies based on intellectual concerns, developed in the nineteenth century by architectural criticism in an effort to explain architecture; and a positive statement of baroque architecture as the ultimate depiction of the ‘humanist values’ in architecture . in terms of these four contributions, the impact of ‘geoffrey scott’s greatest memorial’ was not immediately recognised, nor was it linear. the book was published in england and the united states at an unfortunate moment in history, the summer of when the great war began. the positive reception garnered by the release of this first edition was limited to a modest group of people, mostly friends and scholars related to villa i tatti. the second edition, released in , appeared under more favourable historical conditions (fig. ). the receptive climate of opinion at the time facilitated a wider dissemi- nation of the text and, as watkin observed, it ‘almost could be taken for a book of the s instead of something left over from before the war.’ from the late s to the s, the architecture of humanism lived a dynamic life of continuous recognition. it was reprinted several times in the united states ( , , , , and ) and in england ( , , and bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez figure . the free review: a monthly magazine, november . (biblioteca berenson, villa i tatti – the harvard university center for italian renaissance studies, courtesy of the president and fellows of harvard college). ), becoming a fundamental text in the field of modern and postmodern architecture. philip johnson in ‘the seven crutches of modern architecture’ ( ), vincent scully in modern architecture: toward a redefinition of style ( ), peter collins in changing ideals in modern architecture – , charles w. moore in body, memory and architecture ( ), philip steadman in the evolution of designs, biological analogy in architecture and applied arts ( ), and roger scruton in the aesthetics of architecture ( ), among others, were all influenced by one or several of the main points described in watkin’s foreword. the relative influence of scott on the intellectual development of american postmodernism is witnessed by the impact that vincent scully had on leading architects of the late s and s, some of whom participated in creating the ‘strada novissima’ in the venice biennale of . scully’s critical point of view towards the international style was evident in the text that he wrote for the catalogue of the exhibition, titled ‘how things got to be way they are now,’ in which he provided reasoning on the current architectural situation. in scully’s opinion, the presence of the past as it operated in that moment in american architecture dealt with the reconsideration of ‘traditional, vernacular values by critics and architects alike,’ fostering the reappearance of forms that stemmed from the american tradition of domestic building in wood. this revival was related to similar convictions that had led the first shingle style in the s and s, important ideals that america had forgotten and that needed to be restored. scully further developed his study on this time period in his doctoral dissertation, later published as the shingle style: architectural theory and design from richardson to the origins of wright ( ). scott was both directly referenced and alluded to in this work, specifically when scully mentioned scott’s ‘ethical fallacy’ to describe john calvin steven’s and albert winslow cobb’s attitude of mind. more importantly though, scott’s presence was forci- bly noted through scully’s spatial descriptions and his ability to transmit the feeling of interior space. two decades later, scully delineated the influence of the formal and spatial relations of the shingle style on contemporary american architects in the shingle style today or the historian’s revenge ( ). there he included the work of postmodern architects such as robert venturi, charles w. moore, robert a. m. stern, jaquelin t. robertson, among others. scott’s influence on scully is not unique; a similar line can be traced, both directly or indirectly, from the architecture of humanism to the featured work of other postmodern architects, including written pieces like the secret life of buildings ( ) by gavin macrae-gibson. the longevity and widespread impact of scott’s ideas exist through the continuing lives of this ever-expanding study. the profound significance of the architecture of humanism spread further than just the united states and england. in , years after scott’s death, elena craveri croce, the daughter of philosopher benedetto croce, translated the text into italian (fig. ). the introduction that she wrote for the book emerged from an adolescent reverence for berenson that instigated a strong admiration towards scott. it depicted croce’s deep knowledge of his biography as well as the apparent connection between scott’s principles and the journal of architecture volume number figure . the architecture of humanism: a study in the history of taste, nd edition, . berenson’s own theory. she also presented her own interpretation of the book’s importance, emphasising the attention placed on aesthetic matters, with beauty as the pivotal point of architecture, a carefully calculated observation linked to her father’s interests in aesthetics. though elena croce’s translation was published at an unfortunate time—the start of the second world war—it maintained longevity in italy throughout the twentieth century. the italian architect and historian bruno zevi, actively inter- ested in aesthetic matters, was immediately attracted to the book, and acquired his own italian copy. his careful reading of the architecture of humanism is evi- denced through annotated phrases and meticulous notes in the margins. during the same year as the publication of the italian translation, zevi was forced, due to his jewish heritage, to abandon his studies of architecture in rome and emi- grate from italy. in the spring of , he first travelled to england to study at the architectural association school of architecture in london, and later, in , he moved to the united states to study at columbia university and harvard university. in these two countries, he gained a new understanding of the enormous influence that the architecture of humanism had on the anglo-american world. in , zevi returned to europe, and, immediately after the end of the second world war, he began incorporating scott’s theories in his own work. the enthusiastic reception zevi achieved within the italian community led to a diminishing appreciation of the importance of his anglo-american training. zevi was subsequently categorised by scholars and architects as a primarily ‘italian’ architectural historian, even though english references were predominant in the bibliographies of his first books and geof- frey scott’s theories maintained a prominent role within his texts. by reflecting scott’s theories in his own writing, zevi became a mouthpiece for scott’s contributions long after scott’s untimely death, and a continuation of a lineage that stretched back to berenson. furthermore, because of his exposure to the british and north american architectural culture, zevi played a key role in building a bridge between the anglo-american world, the italian world, and subsequently, the ibero-american world with the rapid translations of his texts into spanish. books such as saper vedere l’architettura ( ), storia del- l’architettura moderna ( ), architettura e storiografia ( ), architettura in nuce ( ), and il linguaggio moderno dell’architettura ( ) were translated into spanish in , , , , and , respectively. zevi’s diffusion of scott’s postulates permeated into his work beyond his own writing. in , zevi became the editor of the universale di architettura pub- lished by edizioni dedalo, a collection of short essays that aimed to expand architectural appreciation and understanding to the general public. the italian translation of the architecture of humanism was reprinted as the second and third volume of the compilation, just after edward frank’s pensiero organico e architettura wrightiana—two works that zevi considered essential texts for the formation of a good architect, along with heinrich wölfflin’s renaissance und barock (fig. ). zevi reissued the same translation two decades later while serving as the director of a new collection universale di architettura, edited this time by testo&immagine (fig. ). bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . translation of elena craveri croce from the nd english edition. (image courtesy of fondazione bruno zevi) zevi’s original reading and modern interpretation of scott’s text paved a foun- dation upon which he would build his life’s work. this was summarised on the back cover of the and italian reprints of the architecture of human- ism, where zevi rhetorically posed the question, ‘is it possible to understand painting without knowing bernard berenson? similarly, you cannot understand architecture without reading scott’s book.’ this reasoning expanded the con- tents of the book from italian renaissance architecture to all architectural periods, specifically providing a practical application ‘to understand and judge contemporary events’. the efficacy of the text was expanded by zevi from archi- tectural criticism to architectural design. he described the architecture of humanism as ‘a guide to current architectural practice,’ and advocated for the use of scott’s theories in architectural design courses as a complement to the book’s already-accepted theoretical aims. this definition was closely aligned with scott’s own hopes and objectives, since he originally conceived the architecture of humanism for ‘those who practice architecture, and also those who deal in philosophy (figs. and ).’ zevi began fostering this relationship between architectural practice and criti- cal thought in saper vedere l’architettura ( ). in the last chapter, titled ‘toward a modern history of architecture,’ zevi appealed for a more progressive manner of understanding the history of architecture. according to him, among the living factors of the contemporary world, modern architecture with its ‘inves- tigation of spatial problems’ marked a pathway for historians and critics toward the true essence of architecture, allowing them to read both present and past buildings through a contemporary lens. this spatial essence of architec- ture, zevi claimed, had been notably perceived by modern architects like frank lloyd wright and eric mendelsohn, but ‘among the authors who have under- stood the problem, geoffrey scott, stands out.’ this dynamic interpretation of the history of architecture provided a continuity which connected the present and the past, and had significant pedagogical implications. as he pro- fessed, ‘the story of ancient architecture should be taught with a modern critical mentality.’ zevi’s idea that the study of history created a critical consciousness whose usefulness had to be put in practice during the creative process was cate- gorised in the s under the slogan of ‘history as an instrument of synthesis of architectural education.’ as the director of the journal l’architettura. cronache e storia, zevi reinforced the concept that history ‘ought to be the most stimulating subject in the university and its methodological effects should be felt in the other branches of the curriculum.’ becoming a focus of his educational pedagogy, these ideas directed his inaugural lecture as chair of architectural history at the university of rome in , titled ‘la storia come metodologia del fare architectonico,’ and were reiterated in the united states the following year in his speech ‘history as a method of teaching archi- tecture’ during his assistance at the aia-acsa teacher seminar. this core thought followed a linear path from its development in poetica del- l’architettura neoplastica ( ). according to zevi, neoplasticism was a style, derived from cubism, that had translated its pictorial conquests into architec- tural terms. the two-dimensional and three-dimensional vision of architecture the journal of architecture volume number figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . collection universale di architecttura (directed by bruno zevi), number - . bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . collection universale di architecttura (directed by bruno zevi), number . figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . in the first chapter entitled ‘renaissance architecture,’ zevi wrote the name of f.l. wright when scott talked about the relationship between the architectural design and the materials in the renaissance. (image courtesy of fondazione bruno zevi) the journal of architecture volume number figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . in the chapter ‘romantic fallacy,’ zevi referred to the tecton group when scott talked about the role that the garden played in the renaissance taste. this is another example of zevi’s modern interpretation of scott’s fallacies. (image courtesy of fondazione bruno zevi) of the past was surpassed by the four-dimensional reality of architecture, which including time as an element, had to abandon the static definition of architec- ture and to reconstruct the ‘dynamic experience of the conception and the realization of a work of art.’ this new architectural consciousness lead the architect to an intellectual technique for the decomposition, characterisation, and assemblage of the parts of the buildings, becoming an effective analytical process that could be used to critically reinterpret architecture while establishing links between history and design. as zevi expressed in the conclusion, subtitled ‘critical instrumentality of the neoplastic search,’ ‘to make architecture and to understand architecture’ were considered ‘parallel activities.’ the progression of this active history of architecture was materialised in his attempt to visualise this architectural criticism within the exhibition on the fourth centenary of michelangelo buonarroti’s death. the display, held at the palazzo delle esposizioni in rome in , featured models and photographs of the architectural work of the italian architect. these ‘critical models,’ made by zevi’s students from the istituto universitario di architettura di venezia, with the assistance of the painter mario deluigi, were three-dimen- sional translations of specific critical thoughts on architecture. expressed with the instruments of the architect rather than the written word, these artistic cre- ations served to visualise architectural criticism from a contemporary vantage point, a new method in teaching and learning architecture that had to be not only capable of producing culture but also of developing the creative approach of architects in the formation of spaces. in , zevi’s beliefs shifted from ‘mannerism to language,’ as he admitted in his address at the riba in . this change was embodied by his publication of il linguaggio moderno dell’architettura ( ), an essay which, in zevi’s own words, ‘con- densed all that i believed in’: the language of modern architecture could be codified, modern architecture coincided with modern historiography, but most importantly, architecture is ‘mainly space, dynamic space to move in, to be used and lived in.’ by creating several new channels to disperse scott’s vision, zevi became the greatest intermediary for the rebirth of the architecture of humanism in new architectural fields. geoffrey scott’s fallacies in zevi’s theoretical corpus – throughout zevi’s career, as evidenced in his writings, scott continued to be a reference and an avid support for his arguments and claims. scott’s fallacies, in particular, provided the theoretical basis for zevi’s corpus. verso un’architettura organica ( ), his first book, was written in london with the assistance of the resources of the royal institute of british architects’ library. this seminal text rejected ‘the most widespread misunderstanding in the historiography of modern architecture,’ the interpretation of modern architecture as a sequence of three stages—growth, maturity and decay. scott’s ‘biological fallacy’ equipped zevi with the necessary backing to develop his historiographical claims. scott’s defense of the ‘primitive’ and ‘baroque’ periods of renaissance architecture as time frames of growth and development rather than of stagna- bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez tion and decay coincided with zevi’s objectives to portray the architectural periods before and after as times of expansion and development in their own right, non-subsidiary to the rationalist phase of modern architecture ( – ). verso un’architettura organica referenced scott in ‘meaning and scope of the term organic in reference to architecture,’ a chapter where zevi made use of scott’s terminology to clarify the confusion behind the word ‘organic.’ zevi’s first fallacy, named the ‘naturalistic fallacy,’ was based on ‘romantic naturalism,’ a principle which considered the organic to be a ‘formal imitation of nature.’ he rejected any connection between the two concepts, using ideas from scott’s ‘romantic fallacy.’ he then applied this same axiom to modern architecture and other periods like gothic architecture and ‘all the worst english pseudo-roman- ticism.’ the origin of this historical reference was denoted in zevi’s italian copy of the architecture of humanism and in verso un’architettura organica (fig. ). where scott wrote of english domestic architecture, ‘the modern preference is to make the manor share in the romantic charm of the cottage,’ zevi added in his text that the period was, ‘full of naturalistic souvenirs which were tacked onto the outsides of cottages in order to give them an added charm.’ zevi’s second postulate titled, the ‘biological fallacy,’ shared its name with scott´s last fallacy but its meaning bore no relation to scott’s definition. the defect of this misconception was creating connections between psychological sensations and architectural forms. the strict correlation fabricated between the two resulted in a ruled aesthetic system—a manual, of sorts, that would sep- arate architecture from art. zevi presented scott as the protagonist of this fallacy and related the basis of this anthropomorphic identification with quotes from arnold whittick’s eric mendelsohn ( ) and scott’s the architecture of humanism. because zevi held scott in such a high regard, however, he resisted portraying him in a negative light, stating, if geoffrey scott had not died young and had been able, as he promised in his masterpiece the architecture of humanism, to reconsider the history of renais- sance architecture in the light of these berensonian theories, either he would have utterly refuted such doctrines or else his subtlety would have succeeded in evoking, even from such meagre premises, a series of brilliant critical deductions. the analytical and methodological contents of scott’s fallacies, then, gave zevi the necessary mechanisms to analyse modern architecture and other archi- tectural patterns. in another chapter of verso un’architettura organica, zevi jus- tified the reasons that led italy to reject modern architecture based on two ‘fallacious trends,’ monumentalism and provincialism, which were motivated by scott’s romantic fallacy. for scott, the gravest facet of this fallacy was con- sidering architecture to be symbolic. monumentalism, according to zevi, failed in this respect because it exaggerated the symbolism of public buildings to glorify the fascist state. this connection between current architecture and poli- tics is strengthened by the evidence provided by zevi’s copy of scott’s text, where zevi wrote ‘piacentini’ on the margins bordering a paragraph on the counter-reformation which stated, ‘never, perhaps, has architecture been more successfully or more deliberately made the tool of policy’ (fig. ). the the journal of architecture volume number bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . in the chapter ‘romantic fallacy,’ zevi highlighted the naturalistic influence on the domestic english architecture expressed by scott and marked the example of the cottage which was adapted later for zevi’s own arguments. (image courtesy of fondazione bruno zevi) the journal of architecture volume number figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . in the first chapter ‘renaissance architecture,’ zevi referenced piacentini when scott talked about the political instrumentality of architecture. (image courtesy of fondazione bruno zevi) other trend, provincialism, was delineated as a strong reaction against the modern. as zevi stated, it was ‘the by-product of a romantic fallacy’ supported by pseudo-nationalist and sentimentalist motives. throughout his analysis, zevi followed the same philosophy as scott, that ‘to overcome these misunderstand- ings, it is necessary to not only condemn them, but to clarify the reasons for their emergence.’ although scott’s fallacies made up the basis of zevi’s first book, the tangible relationship between their theories was only just beginning. zevi’s second book, saper vedere l’architettura, was most eye-opening to the non-english-speaking architectural sphere as it proposed a new methodology of understanding, judging and analysing architecture. the fifth chapter was con- structed based on the same model that scott utilised in the architecture of humanism. zevi achieved this similarity by directly distinguishing ‘scott’s falla- cies’ from his ‘interpretations of architecture,’ characterising ‘interpretations’ based on their ability to provide a partial history of architecture and ‘critical fal- lacies’ on their inability to illuminate any permanent element of architecture. then, as scott did with the fallacies, zevi analysed the main interpretations of architecture (political, philosophical-religious, scientific, economic-social, mate- rialist, technical, physio-psychological, and formalist) and pointed out their deficiencies; however, unlike scott, zevi proved these to be partial or incomplete histories of some aspects of architecture rather than absolute misconceptions. finally, just as scott concluded the architecture of humanism with his ‘huma- nist values,’ zevi ended chapter five with the proposal, ‘on the spatial interpret- ation.’ zevi’s theory subordinated the other eight secondary interpretations under the spatial interpretation in the same way that scott’s theory subordi- nated the fallacies to humanist values. scott’s humanist values, based on the senses, were the core of the architectural experience; and the fallacies, based on intellect, could not constitute an architectural experience, though they may have enriched it. scott took on a particularly predominant role in the section ‘on the spatial interpretation.’ zevi extensively quoted and referenced ‘the distinguished english critic’ and ‘student of berenson’ in order to support his conviction that space was the primary mechanism through which one should judge archi- tecture. in this section, zevi included a full transcription of scott’s proposal regarding space. he explained the quotation of this ‘important passage’ as ‘an insight into architectural reality,’ stating, in no unclear terms, that scott was the only historian to grasp the ‘secret of architecture’ and to express it ‘with absolute clarity.’ scott was included under the physio-psychological interpretation (the ‘biological fallacy’ from verso un’architectura organica), although zevi excused him again from any fallacious arguments by stating that ‘these hazy points do not diminish the value of scott’s fundamental con- clusions.’ zevi’s pardon proved to be unnecessary; scott was not trying to transform art into science. in fact, he rejected the intellectualisation of art, criti- cising the preponderance that intellect had maintained above senses in each one of his fallacies. the concept of einfühlung, defended by scott, was more in relation to the idea of architecture as an experience than as the theorisation of architecture. at the same time that scott began recognising space as the bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez intrinsic value of architecture, he was proposing the application of einfühlung methodologies to architectural space and, subsequently, he was inferring that space should be the basis of architectural criticism. scott’s fundamental con- clusions were, therefore, the same as those that zevi maintained in saper vedere l’architettura. the key role that the architecture of humanism played in saper vedere l’arch- itettura is reinforced in the bibliography, where zevi stated that it was a unique work ‘of fundamental importance among books on the theory of architec- ture.’ he also included scott’s text as a justification for the inclusion of two references: first, georges gromort’s initiation à l’architecture ( ), and second, clough & amabel williams-ellis’s the pleasures of architecture ( ). zevi explained in the bibliography that these two books succeeded because of their grounding in scott’s work, which allowed them to reject false postulates established by the old criticism. saper vedere l’architettura was translated into english as architecture as space in , only a decade after the italian edition and immediately following the last two reprints of the architecture of humanism ( , ). the first correlation between scott’s and zevi’s books was pointed out by paul zucker in his review of the english translation. this author argued that ‘the importance of zevi’s book architecture as space can hardly be overestimated. it may have the same influence for our generation which geoffrey scott’s the architecture of humanism had more than forty years ago and still maintains.’ zucker’s con- nection cannot be reduced to the simple fact that scott was the architectural critic most quoted in zevi’s text or that his statements regarding space created a foundation for the book. this connection was made by zucker, in fact, because he felt that zevi embodied scott’s legacy and impact in his own right. zevi’s third book, storia dell’architettura moderna, was an extension of verso un’architettura organica. the chapter where scott was first mentioned was ‘the evolution of architectural thought.’ it maintained the same structure and principles as ‘meaning and scope of the term organic in reference to architecture’ from verso un’architettura organica. even functioning as a repro- duction, it contained small, but significant alterations related to scott’s prin- ciples, especially those concerned with the ‘biological fallacy,’ mentioned in the first book. zevi clarified here that the ‘biological fallacy’ was ‘the application of a physio-psychological interpretation and especially of the theory of einfüh- lung to architecture,’ a further elaboration on zevi’s main concepts listed in sapere vedere l’architettura. he changed the term ‘aesthetic system’ to ‘ambig- uous aesthetic system,’ which implied that the concept of einfühlung could support multiple interpretations but, most importantly, this clarification estab- lished a link between the theory of einfühlung and its application for the analysis and judgment of architecture. zevi dedicated another chapter to ‘the methodological problems in architec- tural historiography,’ problems that were closely related to scott’s fallacies—in particular, the biological fallacy. zevi’s primary objective when he wrote verso un’architettura organica and storia dell’architettura moderna was to put an the journal of architecture volume number end to the misconceptions of ‘immaturity, maturity and decline’ as evolutionary phases in modern architecture. in zevi’s opinion, ‘the structural fallacy benefited the evolutionary because it made art rely on technical progress.’ scott had included this erroneous tendency within the parameters of his biologi- cal fallacy; the archaic stage of an artistic tradition, he argued, was not mere immaturity of technique. rather, it implied a particular aesthetic aim and conception. zevi’s fourth book, architettura e storiografia, was published the same year as storia dell’architettura moderna. in this work, rationalism and organic architecture were considered architectural phases that shared the same tradition and a single language. he established the same historical continuity that scott had proposed between the renaissance and the baroque, rejecting early evolutionary theories. influenced by wölfflin’s renaissance und barock, zevi explained that the baroque and organic architecture reintegrated the archi- tectural elements that the renaissance and rationalism had separated. the difference was that ‘baroque fused the three dimensions of the renaissance and organic architecture merged the four dimensions of cubism.’ baroque and organic architecture for these two authors portrayed the ultimate phases of renaissance and modern architecture, respectively (fig. ). the strong correlation between scott’s fallacies and zevi’s books demon- strated the applicability of the architecture of humanism throughout diverse and separate architectural subjects with the complete integration of scott’s the- ories into zevi’s way of thinking. while the ‘destructive portion’ (the fallacies) of scott’s text was critical for the basis of zevi’s arguments, the ‘constructive portion’ (the humanist values) played an arguably larger role in the development of zevi’s spatial interpretation. bruno zevi’s methodological basis: on the spatial interpretation the importance given to methodological issues in architecture during the late s was one of the most common topics in architectural debates in the anglo-american context where the formalist methodology of wölfflininan roots was beginning to be revised. both the architecture of humanism and saper vedere l’architettura were united in the aim of applying new methodo- logical approaches to architecture based on spatial interpretation. according to zevi, the ‘ignorance of architecture’ developed from a lack of a direct and clearly delineated analytical method, a problem which he attempted to solve in the fifth chapter of saper vedere l’architettura, entitled ‘interpretations of architecture.’ the main interpretations were grouped into three categories: ‘interpretations of content’ (political, philosophical-religious, scientific, econ- omic-social, materialist, and technical), ‘physiological and psychological interpretations,’ and ‘formalist interpretations.’ the last two categories were analysed in depth by zevi due to their relevance and applicability to a spatial interpretation. the formalist interpretations led to a revolutionary shift in the analysis of painting, sculpture and architecture. by focusing exclusively on formal aspects, scholars were enabled to study architectural works with more bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez the journal of architecture volume number figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . in the ‘introduction,’ zevi underlined scott’s own interpretation of the term renaissance architecture (the primitive, classic, baroque, academic, and rococo phases formed renaissance architecture) and adapted this procedure to the term modern architecture. (image courtesy of fondazione bruno zevi) critical precision and while enacting more exact individuation of each monu- ment, thus promoting ‘a finer response to its aesthetic value.’ the physio- psychological interpretations, developed from formalist interpretations, continued this explicit path offering a humanist basis to architecture rooted within einfühlung theory. zevi warned, however, that these two interpretations failed because they used an ‘aesthetic judgment,’ instead of an ‘architectural judgment,’ to analyse architecture. where aesthetic criticism reduced architec- ture to pictorial values, focusing on facades and surfaces, architectural criticism was concerned with space. zevi’s proposal, ‘on the spatial interpretation,’ tried to resolve this lapse by applying formalist and einfühlung theories to architec- tural space. this layout was developed in the fourth chapter when zevi showed the evol- ution of ‘space through the ages,’ a new proceeding that followed in the path of other authors, especially nikolaus pevsner’s an outline of european architec- ture. in the descriptions of the buildings analysed, zevi depicted the architectural experience of an observer who wandered through its interior, explaining the empathetic sensations that occurred when the human body was transposed into space. he used imagery such as, ‘you feel that you are an organic part of a space which has been created for you and has meaning only due to your pres- ence,’ and ‘architects conceived spaces which induced in the observer not a sense of peaceful contemplation but a mood of imbalance, of conflicting impulses and emotions, of struggle’ to place the reader within the architectural experience. these statements were all consistent with scott’s proposal to apply formalist and einfühlung methodologies to analyse architectural spaces. in scott’s own words ‘we have transcribed ourselves into terms of architecture. […] we transcribe architecture into terms of ourselves. this is the humanism of architecture.’ zevi concurred with scott’s desire to apply these two methodologies to archi- tectural analysis; however, he elaborated on the failures in the formalist and physio-psychological interpretations as they were transferred from aesthetic cri- ticism to architectural criticism. he characterised architecture from other art forms such as painting and sculpture by clarifying the specific ‘content of archi- tecture.’ it was, he said, ‘the men who live in architectural space, their actions, indeed their whole physical, psychological and spiritual life as it takes place within it. the content of architecture is its social content.’ zevi justified this argument with the use of vitruvius’s principles and focused his attention on social and aesthetic problems, arguing that in architecture, there was little sense in isolating beauty but ignoring social content. zevi asked the reader, ‘is a highway beautiful without automobiles? is a ballroom beautiful without dancing couples?’ in order to conclude that function and beauty were irrevoc- ably intertwined due to the social content present at the very core of architec- tural understanding. zevi’s expression that ‘social content, psychological effects and formal values in architecture all take shape in space’ professed the ‘indissolubility of social and aesthetic problems,’ the same assertion that scott claimed in the architecture of humanism (fig. ). bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez the journal of architecture volume number figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . in the ‘introduction,’ where scott differentiated between the three conditions of well-building (commodity, firmness, and delight), zevi emphasised that beauty in architecture lay in space. (image courtesy of fondazione bruno zevi) architecture requires ‘delight.’ for this reason, interwoven with practical ends and their mechanical solutions, we may trace in architecture a third and different factor —the disinterested desire for beauty. this desire does not, it is true, culminate here in a purely aesthetic result, for it has to deal with a concrete basis which is utilitar- ian. in the late s, following the english release of zevi’s works, the debate between social and aesthetic content of modern architecture rose to the fore- front of architectural criticism. in , a year before the english translation of saper vedere l’architettura, arnold whittick, in the second edition of eric mendelsohn, criticised the ‘too limited’ interpretation that bruno zevi had in verso un’architettura organica by considering organic architecture exclusively through functional reasoning. in whittick’s opinion, organic architecture ‘should comprehend both functional building and an aesthetic principle of des- ign.’ as the discourse on the social content of architecture began to grow and expand, the dialogue surrounding it became more focused on function over beauty. in , john summerson in ‘the case for a theory of modern architecture’ used zevi’s rhetoric about organic architecture to support his investigation into the existence of a common basic principle applicable to modern architecture. by refuting the established formal theory, he concluded that ‘the source of unity in modern architecture was in the social sphere, in other words in the architect’s program.’ in the same year, erick christian sor- ensen in ‘on form, in space’ furthered the discussion by saying ‘what we seek is an architecture able to encompass the frame of life—to reflect all our experi- ences in the true order of art.’ all these authors, while eager to contribute to this new discussion on functional and aesthetic content in modern architec- ture, were unable to incorporate the development of zevi’s argument over time because they only had his first book as a reference. at that time, saper vedere l’architettura had not yet been translated and dispersed into the english-speak- ing hemisphere. most recently, panayotis tournikiotis in the historiography of modern architecture ( ) reanalysed zevi’s thesis and continued this trend of placing social content above technical interests and artistic impulse. by expanding upon the difference between aesthetic judgment and architectural judgment as well as expanding upon the social content of architecture in saper vedere l’architettura, zevi both modernised and actualised the original claim made by scott in the architecture of humanism. the architectural experience continued saper vedere l’architettura claimed space as the essence of architecture and the key aspect of analysis in architectural judgment. according to zevi, architecture had to be conceived as a sensory art (not an intellectual one) that could only be understood from direct experience. at the time when the book was written, architectural space was beginning to be characterised as a relevant subject matter for architectural criticism in english-speaking countries. articles such as ernö goldfinger’s trilogy—‘the sensation of space’ ( ), ‘urbanism and spatial order’ ( ), and ‘elements of enclosed space’ ( )—dealt with bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez matters similar to those discussed in saper vedere l’architettura. they evaluated the specific qualities of space, its aesthetic and psychological effects on the indi- vidual, and introduced the concept of architectural experience as one of the characteristics of spatial perception. this direction towards a cinematic con- ception of architecture was evidenced by the appearance of several books in english during the s and s. rex distin martienssen’s the idea of space in greek architecture in ; the english translation of zevi’s book architecture as space in ; steen eiler rasmussen’s experiencing architec- ture in ; kevin lynch’s the image of the city in ; and gordon cullen’s townscape in , were all publications about spatially experiencing architecture and architectural environments that contributed to the introduction of the sense of dynamic motion in urban and architectonic processes of analysis and design. the influence of saper vedere l’architettura continued to thrive well into the s. new spatial criticism emerged at that time such as the theories of the portuguese scholar pedro vieira de almeida. in his bachelor’s thesis ‘ensaio do espaço da arquitectura’ ( ), he developed new concepts like espaço nuclear (core space), espaço complementar (complementary space), and espaço transiçao (transitional space) which assisted in the evolution of zevi’s theories. during this decade, zevi continued to allocate attention toward the subject of space. in , years after saper vedere l’architettura, a second book was published, manifesting a renewed interest in the topic. in architettura in nuce, scott’s presence was central, yet again; only this time, it was through references to his mentor, bernard berenson. it should be noted that the amer- ican art historian was not a new addition to zevi’s repertoire. berenson was also mentioned in zevi’s first books, but only in direct reference to scott. unlike many architectural critics, berenson, according to zevi, maintained the power to influ- ence architecture through his aesthetic perspectives. in this new book, zevi repeatedly used berenson’s description of ‘art as an experience’ to confront the abstract, german-minded approach to space, especially the theory of raum- gestaltung, introduced by august schmarsow, herman sörgel and leo adler. the confrontation between ‘traditional theories’ of space (schmarsow) and ‘contemporary interpretations’ of space (berenson) was dissected in zevi’s text. zevi did not reject abstract spatial conceptions since he recognised that they played a relevant historical role in considering a spatial approach in the study of architecture. often intellectually stimulating, they failed because they were based on spatial categories and not on specific architectural works. zevi agreed with berenson’s approach, a subject which he had discussed before through the lens of scott’s own interpretation of the same point. accord- ing to zevi, scott, and berenson, the valid methodology for architectural analysis had to always be based on the direct architectural experience of concrete works (fig. ). not coincidentally, two decades later saper vedere l’architettura, zevi utilised this same argument as the foundation of his review of cornelis van de ven’s space in architecture. in l’expresso, zevi recognised the usefulness of this book and its importance to the categorisation of contributors to this debate, but the journal of architecture volume number bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez figure . l’architettura dell’umanesimo, . in the ‘introduction,’ when scott explained that architecture was understood as an art through rhythm and proportion, zevi connected these two intellectual concepts with a sensory element: space. (image courtesy of fondazione bruno zevi) he also reinforced its major flaw: the metaphorical interpretation of architectural phenomena as ‘incarnations of abstract spatial postulates.’ the concept of space was first introduced abstractly into architectural theory, maintaining malleability throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. from the very beginning, two different theoretical positions emerged. in , both schmarsow with das wesen der architektonischen schöpfung (the essence of architectural creation) and berenson’s with ‘a word for renais- sance churches,’ introduced their differing concepts regarding the interpret- ation of architectural space. zevi was in alignment with berenson’s and scott’s trajectory on this principle, inherently contradicting previously accepted german theories. the wide dissemination of berenson and scott’s ideas in the western world is unimaginable without the work done by zevi in continental europe, with his persistent effort to spread this attitude to understand, analyse, and judge architecture through space. acknowledgements a shorter version of this essay was originally presented at the association of art historians annual conference held at university of east anglia, – april and at the third international symposium, mapping architectural criticism th– st centuries held at the académie d’architecture, paris, – april . i would like to thank mark crinson, richard williams, paolo scrivano and hélène jannière for selecting this paper. i would like to acknowledge the biblioteca berenson, villa i tatti, the harvard university center for italian renais- sance studies for the courtesy of providing figure , and the fondazione bruno zevi for their assistance in recovering images from the library of bruno zevi and their generous permission for reproduction. notes and references . colin rowe, ‘the present urban predicament’, in alexander caragonne, ed., as i was saying. volume : urbanistics (cambridge, mit press, ), p. . . this book derives from his doctoral dissertation at the university of pennsylvania, defended in and titled: concerning the idea of space: the rise of a new fundamental in german architectural theory and in the modern movements until . . cornelis van de ven, space in architecture: the evolution of a new idea in the theory and history of modern movements (assen, van gorcum, ), p. xiii. . rowe surmised that neither scholar admitted to german influence while, in fact both authors acquiesced to a certain degree. berenson referenced jacob burckhardt in the study and criticism of italian art: second series (london, george bell and sons, ), p. vi; and scott mentioned jacob burckhardt, heinrich wölfflin, and theodor lipps in the architecture of humanism: a study in the history of taste (london, constable, ), pp. ix, . . david watkin, ‘foreword’, in geoffrey scott, the architecture of humanism: a study in the history of taste (london, architectural press, ); mark campbell, a beautiful leisure: the decadent architectural humanism of geoffrey scott, bernard and mary berenson (dissertation, princeton university, ); mark campbell, ‘geoffrey scott the journal of architecture volume number and the dream-life of architecture’, grey room, (spring, ), pp. – ; mark campbell, ‘aspects not things: geoffrey scott’s view of history’, aa files, ( ), pp. – . . alina a. payne, ‘rudolf wittkower and architectural principles in the age of modernism’, journal of the society of architectural historians, , (september, ), pp. – . . alfonso corona martínez, ‘respe(c)to a colin rowe’, revista summa +, ( ), p. . . the article was first published in the free review: a monthly magazine (november, ) and reprinted in the study and criticism of italian art: second series (london, george bell and sons, ). . watkin, ‘foreword’, pp. ix–xxix. . ibid., p. xix. . ibid., p. xxiv. . gabriella borsano (ed.), architecture : the presence of the past (new york, rizzoli, ), p. . . elena croce, ricordi familiari (firenze, vallecchi, ). . bruno zevi, zevi su zevi: architettura come profezia (venezia, marsilio editori, ), pp. – ; and roberto dulio, introduzione a bruno zevi (bari, editori laterza, ), pp. – . . mario sanfilippo, ‘architettura/la collana di zevi. pensare e provocare’, il messaggero (october , ). . francesco cirillo, saper credere in architettura (napoli, clean edizioni, ), p. . . geoffrey scott, the architecture of humanism: a study in the history of taste (london, constable, ), p. . . bruno zevi, saper verdere l’architettura (torino, einaudi, ), p. . the clarification that zevi provided in the first note, titled ‘the anti-architectural nature of the modern spirit?’ was significant because he expressed that whenever he referenced ‘space in archi- tecture,’ he was referring to the ‘idea of space-time,’ which he gave a specific application within architectural criticism. the aim was to abolish the concept of architecture as an a- temporal art not through ‘philosophic or scientific demonstrations’ but rather within the ‘direct experience of architectural analysis.’ . ibid., p. . . bruno zevi, ‘la storia dell’architettura per gli architetti moderni’, l’architettura. cronache e storia, (september, ), pp. – . . this was the title of the inaugural lecture that zevi gave on august at the university of buenos aires, as the opening of the course on architectural history that he gave at the school of architecture and urban planning. the inaugural lecture and the closing speech were printed as bruno zevi, conferencias (buenos aires, facultad de arquitectura y urba- nismo, ). . zevi, ‘la storia dell’architettura per gli architetti moderni’, p. . . zevi’s transcription, titled ‘history as a method of teaching architecture,’ was published in marcus whiffen (ed.), history, theory and criticism of architecture: papers from the aia-acsa teacher seminar (cambridge, mit press, ), pp. – . for a summary of the seminar see: marcus whiffen, ‘history, theory and criticism. the aia-acsa teacher seminar. abstracts and extracts’, journal of architectural education, , supplement: history, theory and criticism. the aia-acsa teacher seminar ( ), pp. – . . zevi, saper verdere l’architettura, p. . . bruno zevi, poetica dell’architettura neoplastica (milano, libreria editrice politecnica tam- burini, ), p. . two decades later, in il linguagio moderno dell’architettura ( ), zevi considered ‘the syntax of four-dimensional decomposition’ as one of the seven invari- ables of the modern language of architecture. bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez . images of the models were published in a monographic number of l’architettura. cro- nache e storia, (january, ). a balance of the exhibition was achieved in bruno zevi, ‘visualizzare la critica dell’architecttura’, l’architettura. cronache e storia, (may, ), pp. – . . ‘from mannerism to language’ is the title that zevi added later in his second autobiography zevi su zevi: architettura come profezia (venezia, marsilio editori, ) to introduce his talk at the riba, which summarizes zevi’s change after . it was then that he first under- stood the limitations of modern mannerism and proposed the advantages of a new codified system for modern architecture. . for a full transcription of zevi’s speech at the riba see bruno zevi, ‘architecture versus his- toric criticism’, royal institute of british architects. transactions, ( ), pp. – . . ibid., p. . . bruno zevi, storia dell’architettura moderna (torino, einaudi, ), pp. – . . bruno zevi, verso un’architettura organica (torino, enaudi, ), pp. – . . ibid., p. . . scott, the architecture of humanism, pp. – . . zevi, verso un’architettura organica, p. . . the relation whittick-scott is not accidental, during the development of verso un’architet- tura organica zevi consulted whittick’s book eric mendelsohn. in its last chapter, ‘the aes- thetic value and significance of mendelsohn’s work’, whittick considered the aesthetic pleasure as the characteristic mechanism to judge the essentials of architecture. to reinforce this belief, he quoted scott to support the use einfühlung’s theory in architectural analysis. see arnold whittick, eric mendelsohn (london, faber & faber, ), p. . . zevi, verso un’architettura organica, p. . . scott, the architecture of humanism, pp. – . . zevi, verso un’architettura organica, p. . . zevi, saper verdere l’architettura, p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . georges gromort, initiation à l’architecture (paris, librarie d’art r. ducher, ), p. . . clough williams-ellis and amabel williams-ellis, the pleasures of architecture (london, jonathan cape, ), p. . the authors will support their arguments in the mechanical fallacy (p. ), the biological fallacy (p. ), and the psychological standpoint (p. ). . paul zucker, ‘review’, the journal of aesthetics and art criticism, , (december, ), p. . . zevi, storia dell’architettura moderna, pp. , ; and dulio, introduzione a bruno zevi, p. . . zevi, storia dell’architettura moderna, p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . bruno zevi, architettura e storiografia (milano, tamburini, ), pp. – . . anthony vidler, histories of the immediate present (cambridge, ma: mit press, ), pp. – . . zevi’s methodological vocation was already recognised by other authors such as giulio carlo argan and paolo scrivano. see giulio carlo argan, ‘a proposito di spazio interno’, metron, ( ), pp. – ; and scrivano ‘“vedere e scrivere l’architettura”. bruno zevi e “saper vedere l’architettura”’, in architettura spazio scritto. forme e tecniche della teoria dell’architettura in italia dal a oggi (torino, utet, ), pp. – . . the application of formalist judgment in architecture can be observed in the two books of giulio carlo argan: l’architettura protocristiana, preromanica e romanica ( ) and the journal of architecture volume number l’architettura italiana del duecento e trecento ( ). these two text were very influential for zevi and were reprinted in his collection universale di architettura. see zevi, zevi su zevi, p. . . zevi, saper verdere l’architettura, pp. – . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . scott, the architecture of humanism, p. . . zevi, saper verdere l’architettura, p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . scott, the architecture of humanism, p. . . arnold whittick, eric mendelsohn (london, faber & faber, ), p. . . john summerson, ‘the case for a theory of modern architecture’, r.i.b.a. journal (june, ), p. . . erick christian sorensen, ‘on form, in space’, in michael asgaard andersen, ed., nordic architects write. a documentary anthology (new york, routledge, ), p. . . panayotis tournikiotis, the historiography of modern architecture (cambridge, ma: mit press, ), p. . . parts of the bachelor’s thesis were published between and as ‘ensaio sobre o espaço da arquitectura ( )’, arquitectura, ( ), pp. – ; ‘ensaio sobre o espaço da arquitectura ( )’, arquitectura, ( ), pp. – ; ‘ensaio sobre o espaço da arquitec- tura ( )’, arquitectura, ( ), pp. – . in a facsimile, published by centro de estudos arnaldo araújo, appeared. for deeper understanding of the correlation between zevi and pedro vieira de almeida, see tiago lopes dias, ‘teoria e desenho da arquitectura em portugal, – : nuno portas e pedro vieira de almeida’ (ph.d. dissertation, uni- versitat politècnica de catalunya, ). . zevi, zevi su zevi, p. . . bruno zevi, architettura in nuce (venezia-roma, istituto per la collaborazione culturale, ), p. . . current scholarship such as johanna gullberg, ‘voids and bodies: august schmarsow, bruno zevi and space as historiographical theme’, journal of art historiography, (june, ), pp. – , examines the differing opinions between these two authors and demonstrates the longevity and lasting importance of space as a relevant topic. . zevi, architettura in nuce, p. . . bruno zevi, cronache di architettura, dalla national gallery di i. m. pei alla polemica sul ‘falsi’ bolognesi (bari, laterza, ), p. . bruno zevi, the continental european emissary of geoffrey scott’s theories raúl martínez martínez 	abstract 	geoffrey scott’s fallacies in zevi’s theoretical corpus – 	bruno zevi’s methodological basis: on the spatial interpretation 	the architectural experience continued 	acknowledgements 	notes and references providence american quarterly, vol. , no. (september ) © american studies association sarah johnson is currently serving as the associate chair of the liberal studies department at the parsons school of design and is a ph.d. candidate in historical and critical studies at the university of brighton, u.k. her dissertation focuses on women’s ready-to-wear clothing in america in the last third of the nineteenth century. exhibition review the business of fashion: a social history sarah johnson parsons school of design from paris to providence: fashion, art, and the tirocchi dressmakers’ shop, – . museum of art, rhode island school of design, providence, rhode island. susan hay, curator and project manager. sarah buie, exhibition designer. jan. –april , . the exhibition website: http://tirocchi.stg.brown.edu/ was developed by scholarly technology group, brown university. from paris to providence: fashion, art, and the tirocchi dressmakers’ shop, – . edited by susan hay. providence, r.i. rhode island school of design, . pages. $ . (cloth). introduction the exhibition, from paris to providence: fashion, art, and the tirocchi dressmakers’ shop, – , combined serendipity, archival tenac- ity, and first-rate scholarship in depicting the production and consump- tion of high-end women’s fashion in the first half of the twentieth century in providence, rhode island. the discovery of the entire contents of a business from the early twentieth century provided an intimate look at the operation of a small american couture design business by immigrant entrepreneurs, anna tirocchi and her sister, laura tirocchi cella. from paris to providence represented a high tph american quarterly standard of interdisciplinary research of interest to scholars of twenti- eth-century material culture, business history, immigration history, art, costume, and design history, public history and women’s studies. the exhibition, catalog, web site, and programs were the culmina- tion of a twelve-year process guided by susan hay, curator of the department of costume and textiles at the rhode island school of design (risd) museum. when anna tirocchi died in , her sister and business partner laura tirocchi cella placed in storage the contents of the business, including its records, stock of garments, textiles, and accessories, and even the furnishings and equipment that had been used by the business at broadway in providence (fig. ). all this remained untouched until the death of beatrice, laura’s daughter, who had inherited the property upon anna’s death. in , the property and its contents then passed to laura’s son, dr. louis j. cella, jr. the unique nature of this collection was recognized by n. david scotti, a local auctioneer, who acted as the initial intermediary figure . the prentice mansion at broadway, providence, rhode island, the site of the tirocchi shop and residence from to ; front view, . providence between the cella family and risd curators and who saved the collection from being sold at auction. after the cella family agreed to donate the contents of the house and business, hay and her staff began to catalog all of the objects within the property, a task itself requiring two years’ time. the results of this project, which received multiple grants from the national endowment for the humanities along with additional funding from the rhode island committee for the humanities and the risd museum associates and private support from the tirocchi-cella fam- ily, offered extraordinary justification for government support of public history projects. corporate sponsorship, especially for fashion exhibi- tions, has attracted comment recently because funding has been either directly or indirectly provided by existing firms for displays of their own garments (for example, the fall guggenheim museum’s giorgio armani exhibition). non-commercial funding for the tirocchi project enabled the long-term research necessary to develop the exhibition over the twelve-year period, without the perception of compromises dictated by corporate funders. scholarly objectivity for a project of this scale was critical to the exhibition’s integrity, spanning from when the site was discovered to the exhibition’s opening. along with the exhibition, the museum offered an array of programs for school children and adults, including lesson plans for visits, and a family guide. exhibitions on textiles and dress are necessarily of short duration, given the fragility of the artifacts. however, hay and her collaborators have done an extraordinary job of ensuring that the project has a lifespan beyond the show’s run, thanks to the catalog—with essays by hay and other costume historians, pamela parmel and madelyn shaw, and american cultural historians susan porter benson and john w. briggs—and the project’s website. the over three hundred garments and textiles, as well as eighteen cubic feet of archival materials, were donated to the museum collections at risd and the university of rhode island, kingston. the collections can presently be seen on the internet at http://www.risd.edu/deptsite.cfm?department=tirocchi. an excellent one-day symposium and walking tour, a day with the tirocchi sisters, was held in conjunction with the exhibition on saturday, march , . essayists from the exhibition catalog, led by hay and including susan porter benson, john briggs, and other specialist scholars presented their research to a large, lively crowd, american quarterly addressing the providence area’s local appetite for public history programming. it was gratifying to see such an outpouring of local interest in the tirocchi sisters’ shop, as this was not a conference exclusively for academics. rather it provided excellent scholarly presentations and a heady discussion involving academics, some tirocchi family members, and people from the community who brought their reminiscences of clothing consumption, work, and the italian-american neighborhood of federal hill and the silver lake area of providence, where the tirocchi shop was located. this was public history at its best. the complete documentation of any historic business is cause for academic celebration, as sites like this one are a rarity. businesses have long retained records they were legally obliged to keep, but they did not usually do so for the sake of historical interest, unless the material had some promotional value. business records have also been discarded or destroyed as companies went out of business or were subsumed in more recent corporate mergers. sometimes funding or staff limitations have prevented materials from being properly archived or stored, or the perception of what scholarly scrutiny will bring is negative. scholarly access to historical business records is best if the collections have been donated to museums or other archival collections. for example, scholars have mined the warshaw collection at the national museum of american history, smithsonian institution, the winterthur and hagley museums, the wanamaker papers at the historical society of pennsylvania, and the hartman center at duke university, where the materials are properly indexed and stored, and are accessible for scholarly research. a new model of scholarly interpretation the resulting tirocchi exhibition, catalog, and website represent a significant shift in the museological and scholarly interpretation of the production and consumption of women’s garments. the historical study of dress has been inhibited by a major disjuncture in two of the approaches to the subject, an issue broached only in the past fifteen years. the first is the curatorial approach, taken in museums directly addressing the description of objects and their placement within the larger, chronological timeline of style and form. alternatively, the academic approach seeks to examine clothing as another type of providence consumer object within the historical context of its production, distri- bution, consumption and potential re-use, and generally does not include the examination of actual garments. wendy gamber’s seminal research into the boston dressmaking and millinery trades stops a bit short of full integration of extant garments and historical context, but her contextual analysis is so refreshing, this awareness is muted by the solidity of her facts. there are several obvious exceptions where curators have found historical context. elizabeth ann coleman methodically researched and curated the work of three parisian couturiers in the brooklyn museum exhibition and publication the opulent era: fashions of worth, doucet and pingat. more recently, alexandra palmer’s couture and commerce: the translantic fashion trade in the s “places the couture consumption of elite english-canadian women in the context of toronto’s postwar culture and society,” and aptly fills this void. historians have not, however, integrated extant garments into their contextual studies. as fields of academic inquiry, both consumption and material culture have gained recognition in the last three decades of the twentieth century. historians studying specific areas of material culture have continued to struggle with limitations imposed by biases ranging from the traditional art historical hierarchies to those subjects subju- gated by gender, geography, age, or socio-economic class. ann smart martin proposed three methods of inquiry in the study of clothing consumption, so garments may be accessed in the same ways chairs or buildings have been analyzed: “the way material goods mark or confer position in a social hierarchy; the role of fashion and demand in spurring economic growth and changing manufactures; and the ways in which people can construct their own meanings for objects produced by themselves or others.” she posited that these methods would lead to the broader contextual analysis of clothing consumption. martin links the traditional curatorial approach to the analysis of clothing in searching for an interpretive model that will extend the same practices applied to traditionally masculine subjects of historical interpretation. the tirocchi exhibition examined the following themes: the tirocchi sisters’ middle-class professional experiences as dressmakers in italy and after their emigration to providence; the changing landscape of american dressmaking and retailing industries in the twentieth century; the representative expressions of the major art movements in the styles american quarterly of both two-dimensional (textiles) and three-dimensional (garments and accessories) media. if, as consumption historian lawrence b. glickman has written, the best approach to american history is through the lens of material culture, then this exhibition embodies both martin and glickman’s ideas. primary and secondary evidence of women’s experiences as entrepreneurs, laborers, and clients of high-end custom- made and ready-to-wear clothing from to was clearly provided by the exhibition. exhibition overview the extant garments, textiles, accessories, and sketches provided a jubilant procession into the sartorial world of the early twentieth century. descriptions of sumptuous living are readily available in the era’s fiction. jay gatsby’s lush parties on long island were brought to life by f. scott fitzgerald in literature, with flappers dancing the night away in roaring french gowns. even ralph lauren’s costumes for the s film version fall flat when compared to the genuine articles. this exhibition captured that indescribable essence, what made the s roar for that limited, upper eschelon, while the rest of america struggled with the inherent inflation so aptly described in daniel horowitz’s morality of spending. custom-made dresses were made by hand, with a series of fittings on the client, making them distinct from ready-to-wear garments and the one-size-fits-most mentality of mass production. the close fitting garment, combined with cutting-edge french style and extraordinary textiles, created the exclusive type of garment that society women were after when they came to the tirocchi sisters’ shop. the cachet these garments created in cities across america differentiated these women from the less well off, middle- class women who may have had to consume what was locally available, either in a less cosmopolitan dressmaker’s shop or at as high- end a department store as their purse would allow. they, in turn, would be differentiated from lower-middle-class and working-class women, who may have had to make their own clothing or purchase ready-to- wear clothing in order to accommodate their entry into the paid workplace. in any event, the socio-economic status represented by a custom-made dress, or an entire wardrobe of these dresses, was what defined the socially elite women of these cities. the physical space of the exhibition at risd created both the public face of the shop that clients would have seen as well as the behind-the- providence scenes view of the tirocchi sisters and their seamstresses’ lives. the three-dimensional presentation of the exhibition was successful be- cause it divided the space into sections of the business—the formal showroom, the collection of dresses, textiles, accessories and fashion illustrations, and the workshop. the exhibition design reflected both the production and consumption aspects of the tirocchi shop. concise text panels were clear throughout the gallery spaces and provided historical context for each section of the show. they defined myriad french terms critical to understanding the extant garments and textiles and the modernist art movements to which they were linked. the exhibition did an excellent job of placing the extant garments and textiles into this chronological framework, representing stylistic influ- ences from the modern art movements spawned in paris and adopted by american clothing firms such as the tirocchis’. the garments found in the tirocchi shop represent various models of production, which changed in the first half of the twentieth century. most of these garments were custom-made from imported textiles, speaking to the desire of providence’s society women to have exclusive garments representing the most cosmopolitan styles. there are also some examples of high-end ready-to-wear garments in the shop. the styles of these garments would have been chosen by a client from fashion illustrations and then made up at the tirocchi shop from pre-cut and embroidered panels of textiles to more closely fit the client. little previous scholarship has documented these pre-packaged “robes” or kits of embroidered textile panels with an illustration for customizable ready-to-wear (fig. ). younger women in the early twentieth century often cast aside the consumption habits of their mothers and grand- mothers and opted to buy this sort of high-end ready-to-wear clothing, since fitting was much less time-consuming than going for the series of appointments that a custom-made dress required. the first room of the exhibition chronicled the tirocchi family genealogy; they were born in a small town, guarcino, just south of rome. as was typical of immigrant families, members of the tirocchi family came to america throughout the first two decades of the twentieth century and maintained a tight familial network. however, the tirocchis differed from many southern-italian immigrants because the family was middle-class. anna and laura emigrated as english- literate adults in and probably worked in new york prior to settling in providence, where other family members had established american quarterly themselves. census research showed the tirocchi sisters listed as wage-earning tailors in , opening their own business in the butler exchange building in downtown providence in . in , anna was able to purchase the large mansion on the west side of providence at broadway, which served as the shop and residence for anna tirocchi, her sister laura, and laura’s husband, louis j. cella, an italian-american physician. the exhibition at this point segued into a reconstruction of the formal showroom of the tirocchi dressmakers’ shop where clients would have waited upstairs to be seen for their fittings. this formal reception area was decorated in much the same fashion as a formal victorian parlor, with ornately carved walnut furniture and display cases for textiles, accessories, and fashion magazines. the fashionable east side of providence was home to society’s major families, who had figure . sketch of a “robe” from the harry angelo company, new york. the collection also features the uncut embroidered textile for the “robe.” providence resided in providence for several centuries. quotations taken from oral histories of actual clients or from their present-day family members document the importance of consuming european-inspired couture in providence society and the sensations caused by wearing a tirocchi gown to a formal social occasion. for example, louise aldrich’s tirocchi wedding gown was featured photographically and its use was fully documented through archival material and through private family records. likewise, the photographs and stories of other loyal tirocchi clients from the east side of providence documented the history of the tirocchi firm and the gradual transition from custom-made to ready-to- wear clothing at all levels of society. the tirocchi collection contains letters written both by clients and by anna tirocchi, representing the joys and tensions of such a personal business as custom clothing. some clients were on friendly terms and regularly exchanged christmas cards with the sisters. other correspon- dence reflects financial constraints, bills past due, and women taking the liberty of canceling a custom order after it had been completed, probably the reason that some of the garments were still in the tirocchis’ possession when the shop closed in . the social complexity of interactions between middle-class business women and clients representing the highest levels of traditional new england society and the “girls,” or young italian women who worked in the shop, is presented with candor. rarely is so much known about individual women from all three classes involved in the separate aspects of management, garment production, and high-end consump- tion. to guard their exclusivity, the tirocchi sisters had to carefully monitor who they would accept as clients. the only way to maintain a client base of old-guard new england society was to serve those women alone. additionally, there was social pressure from the top down on the tirocchi sisters to monitor their interactions with the newer, less affluent italian-american women in their neighborhood in order to maintain the exclusive status of their custom shop. to its credit, the exhibition focuses on all three social groups without favoring one. the historiography of couture exhibitions has focused on elite clients, with no attempt to provide the context of middle-class shop management, or the working class laborers who made the garments, in part because records regarding the activities of the latter two groups rarely survive. from paris to providence represented the socio-economics of both production and consumption in providence. american quarterly the exhibition mapped out the geography of this local production and consumption from archival data. the tirocchi clients lived on the well- heeled east side of providence, the tirocchi shop and residence was situated on the then fashionable west side of providence, and the shop “girls” lived in the much less affluent italian-american neighborhoods of federal hill and silver lake that surrounded the shop’s location. an analysis of this geography underscores the fact that the fashionable client was more than just across town, but socio-economically and racially divided from the sewing woman responsible for the construc- tion of her appearance in providence society. initially, the tirocchi sisters appealed to the upscale society women of providence because they had been trained in rome, allegedly by a dressmaker to royalty, and because they were middle-class practitio- ners with flawless command of the english language. their story as immigrant women, with complete autonomy in business dealings and intermittent travel to europe on buying trips, does not reflect the average story of the immigrant women on the lower east side of manhattan, for example, struggling with assimilation issues and family patriarchy, a lack of language facility, and the daily poverty inherent in piece work and sweated labor. the tirocchi sisters carved out a middle- class existence for themselves and their extended family. by sharing resources and taking business risks, the business survived through horizontal integration in the form of additional property and business acquisitions during the s and s. archival records suggest that their custom business struggled through the s and held on with a few loyal clients and a limited staff. this struggle for survival in the depression reflects a larger shift in the garment industry, away from the consumption of custom-made garments in favor of more accessible, less labor-intensive (and therefore less expensive), ready-to-wear garments. the exhibition also explored correspondence between the tirocchi shop and its vendors, both in the u.s. and abroad, providing an accounting of the flow of exclusive raw materials required to produce their custom-finished garments. an invoice to a.l. tirocchi from the french textile firm, bianchini férier, dated january , supplied fabric swatches of the french painter raoul dufy’s textile designs (fig. ). combined with employment records, this data may enable future scholars to cost out a garment and compare that cost to its wholesale and retail prices, a method of research rarely applied to historic garment production for lack of extant records. these primary sources providence suggest how the tirocchis accommodated preferences for european- styled couture garments by american women of social prominence. the largest room of the exhibition held a chronological survey of over three hundred garments, textiles, and accessories left in the tirocchi establishment when it closed in . this gallery examined the relationship of french textile and clothing design to other facets of french modern art and how these styles were transplanted to america via direct importation and fashion journalism. the clothing and textiles on display not only reflected shifts in taste. they also revealed a great deal about the process of stylistic translation in the shop through redesign and construction. some extant garments are examples of good design and construction, but others, less successful garments, also survive as design bloopers from the early twentieth century. for example, several gowns of heavier-weight velvets were cut on the bias, or at a forty-five degree angle to the grain. while this produced successful curved seams in lighter-weight fabrics, the results in velvet are a bit less graceful. examples like these suggest the ups and downs of garment design, as presumably what was left was not found to be figure . an invoice to a.l. tirocchi from the french textile firm, bianchini férier, dated january , . . american quarterly satisfactory by the clients for whom the garments were made. other extant garments represent the less responsible side of consumption and the risk inherent in a custom business. correspondence revealed that some garments remained at the shop because the client refused to pay for the garment, even if there were no stylistic flaws. the tirocchis’ stock of french accessories, including jewelry, dress ornaments, and handbags also provided more conservative clients with access to the french modernist movements. this gallery showed how the tirocchi shop gradually phased out fully custom-made garments for society women, who then adopted luxurious ready-to-wear garments that could be partially altered for a more custom fit. french luxury industries have long been known for their labor-saving efforts, and this exhibition highlights the continua- tion of an eighteenth-century tradition of custom embroidering panels of textiles in the exact shape and size of the garment’s pattern pieces. according to pamela parmel these ready-to-wear garments “helped figure . art moderne floral beach jacket in wool felt by tuck-wite, new york. providence dressmakers like anna survive the radical changes in the fashion industry that occurred after world war i.” scholarly discussion of these “robes,” or pre-packaged production kits to be made up by custom shops during the transitional phase from strict custom-made clothing to ready-to-wear clothing, was significant because very little is known about these high-end customizable, ready-to-wear garments. their existence has not been common knowledge in the history of clothing, making this exhibition a real contribution to scholarship. oral history research accompanying the exhibition suggested how the custom industry adapted itself to shifts in production and consumption and used fashion illustrations and packaged styles in lieu of the more creative, collaborative process of designing a dress with input from the dressmaker and client. other stylistic shifts are represented by the remnants of the tirocchi collection. a large inventory of fine lace was found, left behind with the adoption of less frilly, more streamlined garments after world war i. french modernism shifted the stylistic interpretation of forms from the way they appear in nature to starkly abstract shapes, but textile consumption practices suggest that there was a prolonged co-existence of realistic floral patterned textiles with more abstract floral patterns by artists like raoul dufy. garments, textiles, and accessories presented a dazzling chronology of modernist styles in two and three dimensions: abstraction in a pattern-woven silk and wool suit; cubism-inspired textiles with overprinted patterns; orientalism in chinoiserie woven and beaded textiles; art deco in machine age-patterned knits; an art moderne floral beach jacket in wool felt by tuck-wite, new york (fig. ); the trompe-l’oeil playfulness of surrealism in several garments. tirocchi shop “girls” and the production of clothing the third room of the exhibition focused on the neighborhood women who came to work at the tirocchi shop and who collectively produced the garments. despite scant archival resources, this was perhaps the most interesting room of the exhibition because the workaday realities of clothing production are so often overlooked in scholarly analyses. employment in the tirocchi shop provided a matriarchal community for young italian-american women whose families relied on their wage-earning capabilities. time books docu- mented the hourly wages and hierarchy of skills intermittently—often american quarterly identifying a worker only by her first name—and employment records reflected record-keeping not necessarily in tandem with actual employ- ment practices. also, the gallery featured several photographs of the workshop spaces. one circa image of anna tirocchi seated among her employees at the butler exchange building shop provided a posed glimpse of daily shop life (fig. ). the tools of the trade, including storage furniture, sewing machines, notions, and a short chair for pinning hems were also on display. the tirrochi sisters did not run a sweatshop or demand homework, but the demands of a custom business called for long, unglamorous hours, probably in violation of rhode island’s legal maximum work week of fifty-four hours. to counterbalance the ebb and flow of the seasonal custom clothing business, the girls were taken annually to anna’s vacation home in narragansett. so, while these women were paid lower wages than other women working in larger industries in providence, the familial ties and “maternalism” of anna tirocchi provided them with a safe haven for their years of paid employment. despite low wages and long hours, many women reminisced with pride figure . anna tirocchi, seated center, and her employees at the butler exchange building shop, c. . providence about the beautiful garments they produced as skilled craftswomen. perhaps the best example of one worker’s story is of mary riccitelli basilico, whose husband panfilo basilico provided an oral history of his wife’s experiences there. he courted the young mary while she was one of the core seamstresses and related stories of the family atmo- sphere and nepotisim in hiring practices at the small shop. when the two married, the shop girls donated labor and the tirocchis the materials for mary’s wedding gown, equal in quality to those made for clients. thus from paris to providence interpreted the tirocchi shop from the perspectives of the three groups of women who knew it: the two entrepreneurial tirocchi sisters, the wage earners they employed, and the east side women they served with custom-made clothing. the collections from the shop provide insights into a relatively undocu- mented era in clothing production, adding to scholarship what has been left untold until relatively recently. wendy gamber’s seminal work on the boston dressmaking and millinery trades and nancy green’s comparative book on american and french labor in the clothing industries, ready-to-wear and ready-to-work: a century of industry and immigrants in paris and new york, are perhaps the most apt comparisons to the tirocchi research. also, the tirocchi sisters’ professional experiences, and their adaptation to changes in the ameri- can fashion industry, mirror those of other professional women dis- cussed by angel kwolek-folland in incorporating women: a history of women and business in the united states. as an exhibition of costume, from paris to providence succeeded in breaking free from the art-historical approach of interpreting fashion limited to elite couture and the analysis of the garments as objects d’art. this paradigm, long used by museum curators, clings to the exclusivity of elite consumption and only provides one side of a more vibrant, multi-faceted interpretation of production and consumption. traditionally, labor history, business history, and consumption history were disparate academic pursuits based upon document-driven primary sources. it was the domain of museum curators to use extant objects from design disciplines to document modern art movements. as from paris to providence proves, extant garments, textiles, and accessories provide excellent representation of these chronological, stylistic trends when they are included in historical analyses and fully contextualized with proper research by curators who have been trained as historians. american quarterly in a limited sense, more progressive history departments have fostered the study of women as producers and consumers of fashion- able clothing. the lack of willingness of scholars to accept the ephemerality of fashion as business history or women’s production and consumption as legitimate areas of study persists too doggedly in the academic community. it seems untenable that scholars wishing to study this field find themselves to be academic refugees, making the develop- ment of this exhibition all the more important to american material culture and costume historiography. lawrence glickman’s call for the telling of american history through material culture has been vindi- cated with this fine exhibition, providing the cultural, economic, political, immigration, production and consumption contexts through solidly historical methods of inquiry. notes . susan hay, ed., from paris to providence: fashion, art and the tirocchi dressmakers’ shop, – (providence, r.i.: rhode island school of design museum of art, ), . . eleanor heartney, “annals of sponsorship i: the guggenheim’s new clothes,” art in america (feb. ): – . . lou taylor, “doing the laundry? a reassessment of object-based dress history,” fashion theory ( ): – . christopher breward, “cultures, identi- ties, histories: fashioning a cultural approach to dress,” fashion theory ( ): – , covers a broader, disciplinary scope. nancy rexford, patricia cunningham, robert kaufman, and patricia trautman, “forum: research and publication,” dress ( ): . . wendy gamber, the female economy: the millinery and dressmaking trades, – (urbana, ill.: univ. of illinois press, ). . alexandra palmer, couture and commerce: the translantic fashion trade in the s (vancouver, b.c.: univ. of british columbia press and royal ontario museum, ), – . . ann smart martin, “makers, buyers, and users: consumerism as a material culture framework,” winterthur portfolio (summer/autumn ): . . lawrence b. glickman, consumer society in american history: a reader (ithaca, n.y.: cornell univ. press, ), vii. . the existence of such high-end, customizable ready-to-wear garments is espe- cially significant to the history of clothing as it has not generally been acknowledged in scholarship. ready-to-wear clothing for women is generally interpreted as spreading a more democratic sense of style throughout america in the early twentieth century, though i have contextualized this interpretation as in keeping with american consensus historiography in the s and s in my forthcoming doctoral dissertation. providence . john w. briggs, “strategies for success: the tirocchis, immigration and the italian american experience” in hay, paris to providence, – . . susan hay, “paris to providence: french couture and the tirocchi shop” in hay, paris to providence, – . see also nancy j. troy, modernism and the decorative arts in france, art nouveau to le corbusier (new haven, conn.: yale univ. press, ); and valerie steele, paris fashion: a cultural history (new york: oxford univ. press, ). . pamela a. parmal, “line, color, detail, distinction, individuality: a. & l. tirocchi, providence dressmakers” in hay, paris to providence, – . . wendy gamber, the female economy: the millinery and dressmaking trades, – , (urbana, ill.: univ. of illinois press, ), . . susan porter benson, “clients and craftswomen: the pursuit of elegance” in hay, paris to providence, – . . angel kwolek-folland, incorporating women: a history of women and business in the united states (new york: twayne, ). see esp. her chapter “crisis management: women and business at midcentury, – .” . paul greenhalgh, art nouveau, – (london and washington., d.c.: victoria & albert museum and national gallery of art, ). this exhibition and catalog were especially remiss in the lack of examples of costume representing the art nouveau movement. the quarterly journal of austrian economics volume | no. | – | spring www.qjae.org quart j austrian econ ( ) . : – https://qjae.scholasticahq.com/ creative commons by-nc-nd . license book review confucian capitalism: shibusawa eiichi, business ethics, and economic development in meiji japan john h. sagers cham, switzerland: palgrave macmillan, , xvi + pp. jason morgan* shibusawa eiichi ( – ) is one of the most respected figures in modern japanese history. often referred to as the “father of japanese capitalism,” shibusawa rose from humble origins—he was the son of a small-scale indigo farmer and spent his boyhood helping in the family fields and with keeping the books—to become the most powerful business magnate in japan. he was involved in the founding of hundreds of corporations (many of which are still in operation today), sat on the boards of countless organizations and firms, and was in the ministry of finance before being appointed president of the first national bank of japan. he was also a devoted philanthropist. the founder and supporter of hospitals, schools, charities, and social service programs, shibusawa is today * jason morgan (jmorgan@reitaku-u.ac.jp) is an associate professor at reitaku university in chiba, japan. quart j austrian econ ( ) . : – remembered mostly for being an “ethical capitalist,” or, more specifically, a “confucian capitalist.” why “confucian”? from the time he was a boy, shibusawa, at the behest of his confucianist father, studied the chinese classics every day with a scholar in a nearby village, eventually committing much of the confucian corpus to memory. later eschewing neo-confu- cianism and its metaphysical innovations, shibusawa was most fond of the analects, one of the original confucian texts compiled by confucius’ followers after his death. unlike the neo-confucianists, confucius had a generally positive view of trade and business, and shibusawa agreed that commerce ethically practiced could be beneficial for society as a whole. this confucian grounding was the motif of shibusawa’s entire career. in his business dealings and charitable activities alike, shibusawa cited the analects, and confucius’ social-mindedness in general, as the guiding principles of his public activities. so why the renewed interest in a long-deceased japanese indus- trialist with a fondness for spring-and-autumn period chinese philosophy? in the wake of the financial meltdown and subsequent acceleration of the boom-bust cycle, many in academia and beyond have increased their calls for the taming, if not outright abolition, of capitalism. in confucian capitalism: shibusawa eiichi, business ethics, and economic development in meiji japan, john h. sagers—whose other works include origins of japanese wealth and power: reconciling confucianism and capitalism, – —wants to revisit his earlier thinking about japan, inc. (the close relationship between government and business that was the secret of japan’s success until the end of the bubble economy in the early s) in order to emphasize that “the system [shibusawa helped build] now needs to be dismantled.” (viii–ix) as sagers puts it: shibusawa’s confucian capitalism was essentially an ideological strategy to create both ethical guidelines and a positive new identity for the commercial classes. first, shibusawa called himself a business leader or ‘person of practical affairs’ jitsugyoka, which he defined in contrast to several characters of japanese society: the government official, the military leader, the politician, the scholar, and the old-fashioned merchant. where government and military officials defended the nation and carried out policies, jitsugyoka produced valuable goods and services that contributed to the people’s well-being. unlike the newly emerging book review: confucian capitalism: shibusawa eiichi, business ethics… politicians, jitsugyoka did not pander to public opinion and pursue narrow self-interest. unlike scholars, jitsugyoka were not concerned with abstractions, but focused on practical affairs. unlike tokugawa-era merchants who were greedy for gain for their households, jitsugyoka worked for the good of the whole nation. furthermore, his confucianism allowed him to define himself in contrast to foreign and domestic liberals who called for japan’s wholesale westernization. ( – ) critical of “corruption in high places and an economy mired for decades in seemingly inescapable stagnation” ( ), sagers argues that corporations must practice greater corporate social responsibility (csr) ( ) and posits shibusawa as the model for his proposed reforms. divided into eight chapters, sagers’ book is a thematic biography of a famous figure in which the theme largely eclipses the biography. only two of the chapter titles—the introduction and the conclusion—contain the name “shibusawa eiichi.” all the rest zoom out to take in the social and economic changes taking place before and during shibusawa’s long life. protectionism, business networks, stock exchanges, central banks, labor unions, the gold standard, war financing, infrastructure, bureaucratic involvement in corporate governance, and the influence of technologies and ideas from america and europe are just some of the big topics sagers tackles here. this is an ambitious book, and one worth reading if only for the scope of the hundred years or so of modern japanese history it takes into account. and yet, as in old japanese maps, there is a cloud bank obscuring some of what sagers purports to examine. indeed, this book, for all of the valuable information it offers the reader, suffers not so much from peripheral blurring as from macular degeneration. there is a big blind spot right in the middle of the book’s field of vision. namely, one wonders what sagers means by the term “capitalism.” sagers uses the word in the title of his book and on page after page in his text, but in the end we never quite know how he understands it. the closest we get is when sagers quotes historian of capitalism joyce appleby in defining capitalism as a “relentless revolution.” awkwardly, sagers then has shibusawa “answer” appleby (from more than one hundred years before appleby wrote her volume) that confucianism was the key to maintaining old societal values quart j austrian econ ( ) . : – while advancing business in a given polity. ( ) but is this purported dichotomy between capitalist and society—framed by appleby, endorsed by sagers, and apparently confirmed and then overcome by shibusawa eiichi—real? did shibusawa “answer” appleby’s challenge by pursuing a kind of “confucian capitalism” that took the edge off the northern european variety? is the “capitalism” of which sagers and appleby write capitalism at all? elsewhere in the same book that sagers quotes above, appleby writes: there can be no capitalism, as distinguished from select capitalist practices, without a culture of capitalism, and there is no culture of capitalism until the principal forms of traditional society have been challenged and overcome. ( ) is shibusawa eiichi the exception to the appleby rule, then? was confucianism really the skeleton key that allowed shibusawa to unlock the business potential of a traditional society while leaving its traditions largely in place? and is the thing, “capitalism,” that sagers argues needs reforming really capitalism at all? the notion of a “confucian capitalism” is plausible if the premise that “capitalism” is a destructive force, a “relentless revolution” continuously clear-cutting social practices in the quest for more and more money, can be shown to apply in all cases. but if capitalism is not really that at all—that is, if capitalism is just human nature, one of the ways in which human beings attempt to survive and thrive—then “confucian capitalism” as a heuristic device loses much of its analytic power. indeed, if we widen our scope a bit further we can see that the use of the term “capitalist” can be, and has been, applied so willy-nilly to so many different things that it breaks down and is virtually meaningless. shibusawa eiichi used technologies such as the joint-stock corporation and the stock exchange to distribute risk and raise money for his various plans. but the chinese do this, too, and in a way that out-capitalists the very representatives of capi- talism themselves. if the chinese do not have an applebian “culture of capitalism,” then surely the set phrase can have no ideological citing joyce appleby ( , ). book review: confucian capitalism: shibusawa eiichi, business ethics… purchase, and must be rejected. and if that definition falls, then so, too, does sagers’ thesis, that some kind of philosophical harness, such as confucianism, is needed to promote virtue among the industrialist class. unfortunately for sagers, confucius’ homeland is a buzzing, blooming capitalist tilt-a-whirl. as kai-fu lee points out in ai superpowers: china, silicon valley, and the new world order ( ), stanford-based entrepreneurs once laughed at chinese startups as cheap knockoffs, but now admit that they cannot keep up with the competitiveness of the chinese market. american companies routinely fail in china, according to lee, because they do not take the time to study chinese culture. if capitalism really does destroy local practices, then china should be indistinguishable from palo alto. but as anyone who has ever been to china can attest, china is very much not the bay area. in other words, “capitalism” has not destroyed anything. it has amplified existing cultural norms and enriched great swaths of humanity. is this the thing that sagers thinks needs reforming? what about elsewhere? in debt: the first years, david graeber reminds us that commerce, and the intricate financial practices and social networks that make commerce possible, have long been a central feature of the islamic world. this may not qualify as appleby’s “culture of capitalism,” but it hardly matters, because business in the dar al islam is still firmly rooted in the religious and cultural practices of the region. whatever capitalism is, it has been very polite to its muslim hosts—so culturally quiet, in fact, that one hardly notices it’s there. in africa, too, despite the orientalist fantasy of the eternally childlike native, men and women prefer to prosper, to thrive materially while improving their social standing. cheats and con artists always try to turn a quick profit at the expense of morality, but such people are readily sifted out of the market everywhere. (it is only when government intervenes to protect scofflaws, as it does in the united states for the robber barons in goldman sachs, that “capitalism” can be said to inflict harm on local societies.) getting rich, testing schemes, doing good by doing well—these are not somehow proprietary to the west. so, one is left wondering, if “capitalism” is a universal, then how is it modified by confucianism? quart j austrian econ ( ) . : – indeed, even the “confucian” aspect of shibusawa’s thought was more complicated than might first appear. for example, in arguing in favor of protectionism after initially supporting english-style liberal trade policies for japan, shibusawa cited adam smith’s theory of moral sentiments in advocating a business approach oriented to society as a whole, and not beholden solely to the entre- preneur. ( ) adam smith as reining in “capitalism”? (it might be time to bring in the fainting couch for mr. krugman.) and when sagers chides shibusawa for his too-cozy relationship with government bureaucrats and the managerial state, one wonders if this, too, can really be called capitalism. sagers himself uses what is arguably the correct term—“crony capitalism”—to describe this inherently corrupt arrangement. drawing on the work of morikawa hidemasa, an earlier shibusawa scholar, sagers writes: morikawa […] noted that shibusawa eiichi’s name always comes up when it is fashionable to criticize big business as in the case of the s lockheed scandal or the oil shock and scholars like tsuchiya [takao] say that today’s managers need to look again at shibusawa eiichi’s thinking to solve contemporary problems. but for morikawa, the system of crony capitalism known as ‘japan, inc.’ (nihon kabushiki gaisha) that shibusawa helped create was the root of japan’s problems. ( ) but is “japan, inc.” capitalist in any real sense of the term? shibusawa himself floated back and forth between finance and government (he was the recipient of a coveted amakudari golden parachute from the finance ministry into the “private” sector in [ ]), and used his connections transecting the osmotic membrane between economy and state to enrich himself enormously. it is highly debatable, then, that shibusawa eiichi was a capitalist at all, unless “capitalist” also means “crony capitalist,” in which case it means nothing at all. if the state picks winners and losers and uses the implied threat of fines and incarceration to enforce bureaucratic fancy, then perhaps sagers’ and others’ critiques of such a system as a fault of “capitalism” are greatly misplaced. lastly, on whether confucianism is the best leaven for the purported excesses of “capitalism,” even though it is beyond doubt citing morikawa hidemasa ( , – ). book review: confucian capitalism: shibusawa eiichi, business ethics… that shibusawa’s confucian beliefs inspired him to pour enormous amounts of money into social welfare programs, it can hardly be said that the analects is the only book to have spurred the wealthy to part with some of their gains for the sake of the commonweal. the islamic merchants graeber mentions grounded their business ethics solidly in the quran, for example, and christian and jewish busi- nessmen and -women have done incalculable good for humankind through charitable giving that, quite frankly, puts the confucianists to shame. jacob schiff, richard devos, howard ahmanson, jr., julius rosenwald—these tycoons stooped to embrace the forgotten and destitute because the god of jacob and abraham, or the son of man, said it was good to do so. even today, judeo-christian america remains the most charitable nation on earth. given all this, one question that might be posed to advocates of confucian capitalism is, “why did you pass up capitalism of the torah, the hadith, and the new testament?” however, these questions for broadening the scope of sagers’ investigation should not be interpreted as detracting from his work. he has clearly scoured the archives in search of material, and his book is an important stepping-off point for debates about this important topic. at the very least, sagers is correct in his assessment that japan, inc.’s days are probably over. as the recession in japan racks up birthdays and the government continues to shoot arrows from its keynesian quiver at the indifferent beast, it must be clear to all candid observers that further intervention in the economy is not the answer to capitalism’s woes. sagers’ book is a valuable contribution to the deliberations about where to go once—and may the day come quickly—the bureaucrats in japan and elsewhere grow tired of failure and adopt a more daoist approach by doing precisely nothing to “help” capitalism recover. it may very well be that a “confucian capitalism,” wherein philanthropy is couched in confucian practices, is a viable solution to the two lost decades (and counting). whatever the eventual outcome, sagers’ work is very useful in thinking through the answers to the pressing questions japan faces as crony capitalism dies a very drawn-out death. for those considering buying and reading sagers’ book, though, a word about style. sagers is to be commended for his research, but many of his paragraphs felt like pachinko runs, and there is a cubism to sagers’ argumentation that frequently mystified your quart j austrian econ ( ) . : – humble correspondent, even after multiple tries at comprehension. the syntax of this book is not for the faint of heart. sagers darts about from topic to topic, and grasping at the meaning of a given passage can be a bit like trying to catch eels in a pond. and then there is the glossing trouble. sagers uses a lot of japanese terms, which is a good thing, but he glosses them, well, diversely. for example, on the very same page ( ), sagers glosses shokusan fukyo (sagers must mean shokusan kōgyō (殖産興業)) as “promoting production and building wealth and strength” and then, about two dozen lines later, as “promoting production for a wealthy country.” on page , sagers gives the exact same phrase as “promote production, encourage industry.” which is it? other terms are similarly kaleidoscopic, but gapponshugi wins the prize. gapponshugi is a shibusawa neologism referring to the ‘pooling of monetary capital, managerial talent, and labor to serve the public interest.’ sagers glosses this term repeatedly, and with substantial variation. sometimes it is just ‘pooled resources,’ but elsewhere sagers adds a political valence: “resources united to build enter- prises that served the nation.” ( ; see similar gloss on ) important terms like these should be made consistent, especially when much of the argument hangs upon how they are translated. as shibusawa himself might have said, though, if you want something, you’ll have to work for it. this dictum applies in full force for anyone who is about to wade through the tall grass of this often challenging book. confucian capitalism is a welcome return to the life and philosophy of one of the greatest japanese magnates of the past two hundred years. it is also an opportunity to set the record straight on whether shibusawa eiichi—or japan, inc.—was, or is, “capitalist” at all. r e f e r e n c e s appleby, joyce. . the relentless revolution: a history of capitalism, st ed. new york: w.w. norton. graeber, david. . debt: the first years. new york: melville house. , citing shimada masakazu ( , – ). book review: confucian capitalism: shibusawa eiichi, business ethics… hidemasa, morikawa. . “shibusawa eiichi: nihon kabushiki gaisha no sōritsusha,” in nihon keieishi kōza, ed. nihon no kigyō to kokka. tokyo: nihon keizai shimbunsha. lee, kai-fu. . ai superpowers: china, silicon valley, and the new world order. boston: houghton mifflin harcourt. masakazu, shimada. . shibusawa eiichi: shakai kigyōka no senkusha. tokyo: iwanami shinsho. draft the demoiselles d'evanston: on the aesthetics of the wigmore chart the harvard community has made this article openly available. please share how this access benefits you. your story matters citation bruce l. hay, the demoiselles d'evanston: on the aesthetics of the wigmore chart, law, probability & risk ( ). published version doi: . /lpr/mgn citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos: terms of use this article was downloaded from harvard university’s dash repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to open access policy articles, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#oap http://osc.hul.harvard.edu/dash/open-access-feedback?handle=&title=the% demoiselles% d'evanston:% on% the% aesthetics% of% the% wigmore% chart&community= / &collection= / &owningcollection / &harvardauthors= b f e c ea d fce e &department http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos: http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#oap http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#oap http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#oap electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract= les demoiselles d’evanston: on the aesthetics of the wigmore chart bruce l. hay harvard law school, cambridge, ma , usa† forthcoming, law, probability and risk (fall ) there is an old adage that the investigating officer can often remember to good purpose, namely, “cherchez la femme,” “seek for the woman.” i the international exhibition of modern art arrived arrived at the art institute of chicago in march , a few months before john wigmore of northwestern university published the the problem of judicial proof, in which he introduced his “chart method” of analyzing and evidence. known as the armory show, the exhibition was billed as america’s first big introduction to cubism, fauvism, futurism, and the other fashionable isms of the contemporary european art scene. (“splash! splotch! cubist art here,” one chicago newspaper headline † email: bruce_hay@harvard.edu. author’s note: this paper was originally presented at a conference on graphic and visual representations of evidence at cardozo law school, most papers from which were published in a special issue of law, probability & risk in december . i thank peter tillers for organizing the conference and including me. gross, h. ( ). criminal investigation: a practical textbook for magistrates, police officer and lawyers. london: sweet & maxwell, __. wigmore, j. ( ) the problem of proof. illinois law review, , . portions of the articles were taken from his book, wigmore, j. ( ). the principles of judicial proof as given by logic, psychology, and general experience and illustrated in judicial trials . boston: little, brown. the exhibition opened in new york’s th regiment armory in february , featuring about , paintings, sculptures and decorative objects by about european and american artists. about half of those works traveled electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract= announced, following the popular press’s custom of using “cubist” as an umbrella term to designate all of the strange new styles. ) it is intriguing to speculate (for i have been unable to determine) whether wigmore attended the exhibition, and if so whether he saw any connection between the art on display there and the schematic diagrams in his judicial proof article, which came out in june of that year. if he did see a connection it was, to his mind, probably negative. wigmore was enormously learned and had a wide-ranging knowledge of many cultures, but his leanings were had victorian. he would have considered his chart method, designed as it was for the orderly administration of justice, as being firmly opposed to the decadence, libertinism, anarchism, bolshevism, and sheer mental derangement that many traditionalists discerned in the works of matisse, gauguin, duchamp, picasso, and other artists of what the newspapers called the “advance guard.” indeed, wigmore presented his method as a self-conscious reaction to what he saw as the disorder reigning in the continental legal systems. what america needs, he says in his article, is “a probative science – the principles of proof – independent of the artificial rules of procedure.” if we fail to develop one, “we shall find ourselves in the present plight of continental europe,” where in the previous century “the ancient to chicago and then to boston. for a general account of the exhibition, see brown, m. ( ). the story of the armory show. new york: abbeville press. chicago daily tribune, march , p. . the wigmore quotations in this paragraph are from the problem of proof, supra note , pp. - . f ig ur e . w ig m or e, c ha rt o f t he e vi de nc e in c om m on w ea lth v . u m ili an . . fr om t he p ro bl em o f p ro of worn-out numerical system of ‘legal proof’ was abolished by fiat and the so-called ‘free proof’ – namely, no system at all – was substituted.” european jurists, he explains, never acquired an “understanding of the living process of belief; in consequence, when ‘legal proof’ was abolished, they were unready, and judicial trials have been carried on for a century past by uncomprehended, unguided, and therefore unsafe mental processes.” he makes free proof sound like the juridical equivalent of free love; his talk of “unsafe mental processes” echoes what the guardians of public morals in chicago are saying about the strange, unconventional nudes at the armory show. “nasty, lewd, immoral, and indecent,” one schoolteacher declares; do not expose the young to these “degeneracies of paris,” a clergyman warns. “the idea that some people can gaze at this sort of thing without its hurting them is all bosh. this exhibition ought to be suppressed,” says the president of the city’s law and order league. and newspaper calls the work “pollution … materialized in several paintings of the nude; portrayals that unite in an insult to the great, self-respecting public of chicago. just who is responsible for this showing of dishonor to sensitive great art that finds expression in the chaste and beautiful painting of the human figure in the nude in our institute?” and a speaker at at a ladies’ group in evanston intones: “the body is the temple of god, and the cubists have profaned the remaining quotations in this paragraph are taken from the story of the armory show, supra note , p. . the temple.” whatever wigmore’s one views on the exhibition were, it is unlikely he thought it had much in common with his own work. still, certain parallels between his chart method and artistic modernism are hard to resist. his project should, i think, be seen as part of the response to the “crisis of representation” making itself felt in many forms of cultural production at the time. think of the year alone: russell and whitehead complete the principia mathematica, providing what they think will be a firm logical foundation for mathematics; wittgenstein begins the correspondence concerning russell’s theory of knowledge that will result in the tractatus; saussure dies, prompting the publication of his cours de linguistique generale from student notes; in the legal academy, hohfeld publishes his fundamental legal conceptions as applied in judicial reasoning. in the arts, the rite of spring, composed by stravinsky and choreographed by nijinsky, sparks a riot at its premiere in paris; malevich paints his black square, thought by some art historians to be the first purely abstract painting in western art; joyce’s portrait of the not all chicagoans had such narrow-minded reactions. many were enthusiastic about the new styles; others were skeptical, but urged “fair play for insurgent art,” as one chicago newspaper put it. see the story of the armory show, supra note , at . see also martinez, a. ( __). a mixed reception for modernism: the armory show at the art institute of chicago. museum studies, , ; prince, s. ( ). chicago critics take on modernism. the old guard and the avante-garde: modernism in chicago, - (s. prince ed.), pp. - . on responses to the exhibition across the country, see mancini, j.m. ( ). “one term is as fatuous as another”: responses to the armory show reconsidered. american quarterly, , . i am indebted to neal feigenson for some of the examples in the paragraph. a recent treatment of that year’s achievements is rabaté, j. ( ). : the cradle of modernism. artist as a young man is serialized, the first volume of the proust’s a la recherche du temps perdu iss published, and virginia woolf completes her first novel. in their different way each of these works, like wigmore’s method, is a self-conscious effort to develop a new language for its aesthetic or intellectual domain. the wigmore article doesn’t make the splash these other works do, but that shouldn’t keep us from viewing it in their company. the wigmore chart system, as peter tillers has remarked, is an important precursor to current research on the visual representation of information, and for that reason deserves the attention of anyone interested in the subject of the recent symposium in these pages on visual evidence. the analytical properties of the wigmore system have been well explored by a number of scholars who have approached it from the perspective of cognitive science, demonstrating its potential value for drawing correct inferences from disaggregated bits of information. i am a fan of this work, being partial to the use of visual diagrams and also to the see tillers, p. ( ). introduction: visualizing evidence and inference in legal settings. law, probability & risk , , . wigmore’s system has been mostly ignored by evidence scholars, who view it in rather the same way traditionalists saw the artistic avant-garde work of the period: as weird and illegible. the difference, of course, is that the avant-garde works of that era have now become mainstream, while the the wigmore article is still generally seen as a “quaint, even bizarre, period piece,” as william twining characterizes the prevailing attitude. twining, w. ( ). theories of evidence: bentham and wigmore. stanford: stanford university press, p. .. the wigmore system has only received the sustained attention of a few scholars, most of them writing after the s. see, for example, schum, d. and martin, a. ( ). formal and empirical research on cascaded evidence. law and society review, , ; theories of evidence, supra; tillers, p. and schum, d. ( ). charting new territory in judicial proof: beyond wigmore. cardozo law review, , ; anderson, t. and twining, w. ( ). analysis of evidence: how to do things with facts, based on wigmore’s science of proof. boston: little brown. study of rational decision making. but i am also a believer in the close reading of images, and wonder whether we students of the wigmore system have not overlooked some of the meanings embedded in its outwardly formal, abstract language of primitive shapes. with that possibility in mind, i propose – somewhat irreverently – to examine at the wigmore system from an aesthetic and vaguely psychoanalytic point of view, comparing it to another, better known geometric system of representation that also made its chicago debut in that spring of . my reflections here should not be taken as a judgment on the general project of developing tools for the visual analysis and representation of evidence, a project with which (to repeat) i am quite sympathetic. rather, they should be taken as a reminder that if we are to understand visual evidence, we need to learn to look carefully at what we are seeing. ii i would liken the wigmore method to the aesthetic of picasso’s standing female nude, which traveled to chicago with the armory show and now hangs in the permanent collection of the museum of modern art in new york. a charcoal drawing done in , this work is typical of the so-called analytic phase of cubism, with its characteristic monochrome palette, i should note that this work did not attract the condemnations lavished on the paintings of duchamp, gauguin, and especially matisse (whose paintings were burned in effigy). figure . pablo picasso, standing female nude. . metropolitan museum of art, new york. multiple planes, and reduction of its subject to simple lines, curves and angles. nearby the picasso i have reproduced the two complete charts wigmore included in his judicial proof article as examples of his method; both are his own diagrams of the evidence in a murder case (figures and ). the charts employ the elaborate system of symbols wigmore has developed in the article – closed circles and boxes, respectively, for “affirmatory” testimonial and circumstantial evidence; open boxes and circles, respectively, for “negatory” testimonial and circumstantial evidence; triangular objects for “explanatory” and “corroborative” evidence; an assortment of lines, arrows, squiggles and dots to indicate the source of the evidence, the degree of its perceived credibility, the conclusion toward which it points, and other things (figure ). of the cubist painters, a contemporary admirer said that soon they will have “created the algebra of painting,” by which they will “separate out – according to their own own analytical methods and to the characteristics of the object – the principal elements of the bodies they propose to translate.” he might almost have been speaking of wigmore’s algebra the analytic phase of cubism is usually dated to the period - . the “synthetic” phase is said to have started in late when braque and picasso started using collage techniques to construct images out of newspapers, string, and other objects. from critic maurice raynal’s catalog for a june modern art exhibition in rouen. the english translation here is taken from fry, e. ( ), cubism. london: thames & hudson, p. . fi gu re . w ig m or e, e vi de nc e c ha rt fo r h at ch et t v . c om m on w ea lth . fr om t he p ro bl em o f p ro of of evidence. the lexicon of geometric shapes in the wigmore chart has a surprising resemblance to that of the picasso drawing, though obviously their terms of reference – one represents the physical world, the other purely abstract relations among thoughts – are very different. there is also a remarkable congruence in the problems of representation the two figures are designed to address. sympathetic critics around are praising cubism for, among many other things, compressing more information into an image than could be achieved by conventional pictorial techniques. where conventional painting gives just a partial view of an object, showing it from one side only, cubism can show the object from many sides at once; where conventional painting froze time at a single moment, cubism could capture successive moments in a single image. in cubism, one writer claims, the aim is to “depict the object as one knows it is – that is, from several angles at one time[,] … yielding a complete representation of the object”; in comparing the critics’ theories of cubism to the wigmore’s rationale for the chart system, i confine myself to some of the critical views circulating in . for brevity’s sake, i do not take up the voluminous theoretical writings on cubism that have appeared since. for a recent view (emphasizing cubism’s semiological interrogation of the nature of the sign), with references to the broader literature, see foster, h., krauss, r., bois, y., and buchloh b. ( ). art since . new york: thames & hudson, - , . it was also suggested that cubism gave expression to recent developments in science and mathematics, including non-euclidean geometries and the idea of a fourth dimension. see, for example, apollinaire, g. ( ). les peintres cubistes. the english translation is excerpted in relevant part in chipp, h. ( ). theories of modern art: a source book by artists and critics. berkeley: university of california press, . fi gu re . g lo ss ar y of w ig m or e c ha rt s ym bo ls fr om t he p ro bl em o f p ro of this gives the observer “a real simultaneous vision of all of its faces.” the “quest for a ‘simultaneity’ of the aspects of the object,” another writes, was “close to the heart of cubism.” compare wigmore on his chart method: “many data, perhaps multifarious, are thrust upon us.” the task for the decision maker is “to avoid being misled (it may be) through attending only to some fragments of the mass of data. we must assume that a conclusion reached upon such a fragment only will be more or less untrustworthy.” the difficulty is that “those data have entered into the formation of our belief at successive times; hence a danger of omission or of inferior attention. knowledge in the highest perfection would consist in the simultaneous possession of facts.” we see different sides of a case at different times; the challenge is somehow to see them all at the same time, to “enable all the data to be lifted into consciousness at once.” to comprehend the whole matter and not just fragments, “it is necessary also to simplify it, to reduce it to its elements” – words that could have been wigmore’s, though in fact they were written by the cubism theorist quoted above. lacoste, c. ( ). sur le “cubisme” et la peinture. temps present (paris, april). reproduced in english translation in cubism, supra note , p. . delmarle, f. ( ). quelques note sur la simultanéité en painture. poème et drame (paris, march). reproduced in english translation in cubism, supra note , p. . the problem of proof, supra note , p. . ibid. (emphasis in original; internal quotation marks omitted). ibid., p. . sur le “cubisme” et la peinture, supra note , p. .. a related aim of both systems is to represent the processes of thought – to show how separate fragments of data are combined into a cognitive unit. for the cubists, one writer suggests in , the aim is to get past the flow of mere sensory impressions in order to paint one’s mental conception of the object: “therefore they no longer imitate the misleading appearances of vision, but the truer ones of the mind.” compare wigmore, for whom the purpose of his method is “not [to] show us what our belief ought to be,” but rather “to show only what our belief actually is, and how we have reached it.” when seeing and hearing evidence, we test it in our consciousness and reach a conclusion. “and thus step by step we set down the separate units of actual belief, -- connecting, subsuming, and generalizing, until the subfinal grouping is reached; then dwelling in consciousness on that, until at last a belief (or disbelief) on the final fact evolves into our consciousness.” the chart system tries to reproduce the assembly of sense data into an object of belief; it tries to show, as the cubists do, not just what we see but what we know. i really cannot do justice to the uncanny echoes between wigmore’s manifesto for his system and the manifestoes for cubism that were being written by european art critics at the same moment. to read his work alongside theirs is to see how patently his article deserves to be treated as a document of high modernism. raynal, m. ( ). qu-est-ce-que … le cubisme? comœdia illustré (paris, december). reproduced in english translation in cubism, supra note , p. . the problem of proof, supra note , p. (italics in original). ibid., p. . iii some readers will object that i have committed a category mistake. wigmore is creating not pictures but diagrams, bearing a greater resemblance – and, the objection would go, more properly compared – to electrical circuit charts or industrial flow charts than to cubist portraits. yet are we sure about that? no one thinks of wigmore’s work as having anything to do with the representation of women. but for that matter, no one thought that of cubist works either, at least not initially. during the armory show, a prize was offered to anyone who could actually find the alleged nude in one of the most notorious cubist works. and who, even today, would know the subject matter of the standing female nude, without either being told the title or being thoroughly acquainted with picasso’s work? yet there she is, once you look carefully: the female figure emerges unmistakably from picasso’s tangled maze of lines, angles, and curves. let us see whether we can also find her in, or between, the lines, angles and curves of the wigmore system. having set forth the glossary of symbols in his system, wigmore gives two examples of how evidence discrediting a trial witness should be diagrammed in hypothetical cases (figure ). in both examples, the circle on top of the box on the upper right represents the testimony of the see the story of the armory show, supra note , p. . the work in question was duchamp’s nude descending a staircase, one of the lightning rods of the show. witness; the shapes to the left and below represent numbered items of evidence that discredit the testimony. the symbols in wigmore’s system are presented as entirely arbitrary, with no necessary connection between signifier and signified, as saussure might have put it. the shapes are not supposed to represent any information about a witness; they are simply said to designate certain formal qualities of the evidence (box = testimonial, circle = circumstantial, etc.). look carefully at the images, however. in both, the refuted witness is represented by a venus symbol (♀), while the refuting evidence is represented as arrows – mars symbols (♂) in one of the figures – aimed roughly in the witness’s direction. the witnesses in these hypothetical examples are not supposed to be women. yet the concept of discredited testimony takes the visual form of a female on a box; and the concept of evidence that exposes the truth takes the visual form of phalanx of sharp arrows pointed at her. this may or may not have been intentional. but it is no coincidence that untrustworthy evidence in this system is placed under the sign of the female. again and again in wigmore’s his voluminous work on evidence, women emerge as a menace to sound thinking and the search for truth, and a scientific approach to evidence becomes as wigmore explains, the larger figure involves hypothetical testimony against a former employer. items and a in the figure represent the facts that the witness had been fired, and that a fired employee is likely to be biased; item represents the demeanor of bias the witness showed on the stand. the smaller figure involves eyewitness testimony. items , and are bits of information suggesting the witness could not have seen the incident clearly. see the problem of proof, supra note , pp. - . in describing these examples wigmore uses the male pronoun to refer to the discredited witness. figure . wigmore, sample diagrams of evidence discrediting a witness. . from the problem of proof synonymous with minimizing the influence of the irrationality and disorder associated with the female mind. the best-known instance of this is his position on the testimony of alleged rape victims, which is aptly summed up by the topic’s placement in his evidence treatise. here are two adjacent entries in the treatise’s table of contents: a. § . character of complainant in rape charge, from particular acts of unchastity. § . disposition of an animal, from its behavior in particular instances. unchaste women, unruly animals. sexual assault charges, in wigmore’s view, are often the fabrications of oversexed adventuresses who sleep with men and then turn around to cry rape. for this reason he vigorously advocates putting rape complainants’ reputation and sexual history before the jury, and disapproves of rulings that limit the admission of such evidence. but false rape charges are not only brought by women who asked for it; they are also brought by women who have masochistic fantasies they cannot distinguish from reality. this “unchaste (let us call it) mentality finds incidental but direct expression in the narration of imaginary sex-incidents of which the narrator is the heroine or the victim.” hence his infamous proposal, purportedly backed with the authority of the latest psychological research, that no rape case should go to trial see wigmore, j. ( ). a treatise on the anglo-american system of evidence. boston: little brown. volume i, p. . wigmore, j. ( ). a treatise on the anglo-american system of evidence, third edition. boston: little brown. volume iii, p. . before a psychiatrist examines the supposed victim and determines that her story is not a wishful fantasy. we learn more about the women’s animalistic nature in wigmore’s principles of judicial proof, the book whose publication accompanied the chart method article. the book contains some of wigmore’s own writings, but mostly consists of other authors’ works that he offers as “illustrative” of the principles underlying the probative science he has called for in the chart article. the work of hans gross, the german criminologist whom i quoted in the epigraph, makes a frequent appearance. (wigmore dedicates the book to gross, “who has done more than any other man in modern times to encourage the application of science to judicial proof.”) wigmore reproduces an extensive passage from gross to illustrate what wigmore terms the “generic traits” of women. let us, the passage urges, confront honestly and unsentimentally the true nature of female psychology, in the spirit of scientific investigation. the facts are these: women feel rather than think; they intuit rather than reason; they gossip ibid., pp. - . for a critical look at wigmore’s position, see bienen, l. a question of credibility: john henry wigmore’s use of scientific authority in section a of the treatise on evidence. california western law review, , . principles of judicial proof , supra note , p. . ibid., dedication page. in the second edition of the book, wigmore introduces this passage as demonstrating that “women are more apt to confuse what they really have observed with what they have imagined or wished to occur; and [relative to men] are apt to fall below in candor and honesty.” wigmore, j. ( ). the principles of judicial proof, or the process of proof, as given by logic, psychology and general experience and illustrated in judicial trials. second edition. boston: little brown, p. . endlessly never get to the point; they perceive the world in terms of concrete objects and personalities, and cannot think logically, analytically, or conceptually; and “they have no real knowledge of justice.” most importantly for purposes of the science of proof, the fairer sex has serious trouble telling the truth. “dishonesty,” we learn, “is a specially feminine characteristic; in men it occurs only when they are effeminate. real manliness and dishonesty are concepts which cannot be united.” you can seldom get a straight answer out of a woman, and if you do it is probably the opposite of what she means: but even her simplest affirmation or denial is not honest. her ‘no’ is not definite; e.g., her “no” to a man’s demands…. so schopenhauer agrees: “nature has given women only one means of protection and defense – hypocrisy: this is congenital with them, and the use of it is as natural as the animal’s use of its claws. no means yes; and watch out for her claws. this is the female, which the many “science of proof” must face down and bring to heel. and here is a passage from a book on trial advocacy wigmore offers to illustrate the principles of the “testimonial process”: the ferocious beast rears her head again: when a witness comes into the box with what is commonly called a “knowing” look, and with a determined pose of the head, as though he would say, “now, then mr. counselor, principles of judicial proof , supra note ., pp. - . this passage is presented as an excerpt from gross, h. ( ). criminal psychology. ibid., p. (ellipses in original). ibid., p. (ellipses added). this passage is presented as a quotation from harris, r. ( ). hints on advocacy. i’m your man, tackle me,” you may be sure you have a flippant and masterful being to deal with…. but although i have used the masculine pronoun, this witness is very often a female. … you will always approach her as if she were a wild animal ready to tear you if she could get near enough. talk about fauvism: the recurrent association of women with wild animals is remarkable. consider, finally, the two sample full-scale charts wigmore includes in his article, which i reproduced earlier. one (figure ) is the author’s diagrammatic representation of the evidence from a massachusetts case; the other (figure ) refers to an virginia case. without going into their details, i think it is worth observing what kinds of case these charts are pictures of. here, in brief, are the facts of the massachusetts case: a man sought to prevent the defendant’s marriage to a woman, apparently out of jealousy; later his decapitated body was found at the defendant’s workplace, the defendant was convicted of his murder, and the conviction upheld on appeal. here are the facts of the virginia case: a man died of poisoning after drinking whiskey delivered by the defendant, who was charged with his murder; his conviction was overturned by the state’s high court, which suggested he had been framed by the victim’s wife, who was having an affair and “had been supplied by her paramour with strychnine to administer to her husband.” notice the pattern. in one case a woman has used her charms on the fauvist painters get their name from the french word for wild beasts. the cases in question are commonwealth v. umilian, mass. ( ), and hatchett v. commonwealth, va. ( ). for the opinions, evidence lists, and charts, see the problem of proof, supra note , pp. - . two men, one of whom is decapitated as a result. in the other, an unfaithful wife kills her husband and lets an innocent man take the rap. female promiscuity and double-dealing leading to death, destruction of innocent men’s lives, and male decapitation: these are the themes encoded in the innocous little shapes in wigmore’s drawings, and the animalistic dangers against which his geometric apparatus is designed to provide some measure of protection. in pointing out the irrational, misogynistic overtones of his system, my purpose has not to pick on wigmore, whose attitudes toward women were no worse than average for his era. in some respects they were better; he was more respectful of women law students than many of his contemporaries. my point is simply that the “unsafe mental processes” that his chart method article warned against tend, in the scheme of his writings, to be associated with the seductions and duplicities of sexually licentious women. let the courts beware of the woman of unchaste body or mind who lies on the witness stand and ruins a man’s life; in the same way, let the science of proof be on guard against “unguided, and therefore unsafe” patterns of thought that would ruin its claim to be a true science. these projects are mirror images of each other in the rhetorical, conceptual and psychic universes of the chart method. loose thinking is the his biographer reports that wigmore agreed on one occasion to serve as master of ceremonies for a joint social event for law students at northwestern and another law school. told by a student that she was not invited because it was a stag event, wigmore announced that he would not participate if northwestern’s women students were excluded. see roalfe, w. ( ). john henry wigmore: scholar and reformer. evanston: northwestern university press, p. . counterpart of a loose woman; clean analysis is the sign of female probity and the containment of sexuality; a systematic diagram the index of a legal system that has not permitted itself to be unmanned by female teeth and claws. the implicit psychic function being served is hinted at, i think, by the title of another publication from : totem and taboo. viewing it in this way, we can see that the wigmore system, novel as it is in some respects, has a long lineage in western graphic design. consider, to take a single example, draftsman drawing a reclining nude, whose treatise on geometric drawing and its applications (in which the woodcut appears) is an important precursor to modern analytical chart systems. freud, s. ( ). totem and taboo. the standard edition of the complete psychological works of sigmund freud, vol. xiii (strachey, ed., ). fi gu re . d ür er , d ra fts m an d ra w in g a r ec lin in g n ud e. c . . h ou gh to n l ib ra ry , h ar va rd u ni ve rs ity in durer’s image, the man uses a reticulated net and a viewing rod to accurately register the proportions of his subject on an oblong sheet of paper. as lynda nead and others have pointed out, the picture dramatizes the transformation of disorderly nature, figured as a scantily clad, voluptuous female, into ordered knowledge, figured as a disciplined, attentive male accompanied by vertical instruments and a carefully manicured tree. the figure sets in opposition culture to nature, abstraction to physicality, knowledge to sexuality, male to female. notice the positioning of the woman’s hand, and the air of anxiety hanging over the draftsman. the screen grid with its protects him from the feminine and enables him to impose order on it. geometric clarity and scientific knowledge, in this picture, go hand in hand with the control of women and the containment of female sexuality. the draftsman who would tame the beast must keep his lines straight, his angles right, and his drawing implement sharp. hence the instructions – from wigmore – for good diagram drawing: use an oblong sheet of unruled paper. … use right-angled continued lines. … see nead, l. ( ). the female nude: art, obscenity, and sexuality. new york: routledge, pp. , . for similar analyses of the image, see russell, h.d. ( ). eva/ave: woman in baroque and renaissance prints. washington, d.c.: national gallery of art, pp. - ; freedman, b. ( ). staging the gaze: postmodernism, psychoanalysis, and shakespearean comedy. ithaca, n.y.: cornell university press, pp. - . on the semiotics of representation of the female body in western art more generally, see the essays collected in reclaiming female agency: feminist art history after postmodernism (broude & garrard eds.). berkeley: university of california press, ; the expanding discourse: feminism and art history (n. broude & m. garrard eds.). new york: harper collins, ; the female body in western culture: contemporary perspectives (s. suleiman ed.). cambridge, mass.: harvard university press, . use a sharpened lead pencil. the durer woodcut helps us understand some of the significance of these words. as does the work of picasso, so much of which, like the woodcut and the wigmore chart, is devoted to finding new formal techniques for disassembling the female body. iv i do not want to be misunderstood as saying that analytical diagrams of this type (or scientific approaches to evidence more generally) are inherently associated with the cluster of anxieties i have identified here. any such generalization would be completely out of keeping with premise of this paper, which is that identifying the meaning(s) of an image requires close attention to its specific context, which in this case means the written apparatus of which it is a part. to date, connoisseurs of the wigmore system have, i think, been overly taken with its formal properties, treating it as the purely cognitive system its author presented it as, ignoring the full range of meanings embedded in its strange figures. in this respect they may have traced a path similar to the one picasso scholars have followed when interpreting his epochal les demoiselles d’avignon (figure ). for decades, the problem of proof, supra note , pp. - . by way of defending the title for this article, i note that while northwestern’s law school is in chicago, wigmore lived in evanston, where the rest of the university is located. see john henry wigmore: scholar and reformer, supra note , at . critical assessments of this painting focused almost entirely on its formal pictorial innovations – figure . pablo picasso, les demoiselles d’avignon. . museum of modern art, new york. the flattening and splintering of space, the proto-cubist reduction of the figures, the appropriation of egyptian and african tribal art, the utter sabotaging of renaissance compositional conventions. only since the s has a “revisionist” critical literature emphasized that this painting is, after all, a picture of prostitutes, and that its sharp edges and menacing figures enact a psychosexual drama blending fears of women, death, and castration. a revisionist understanding of wigmore’s contribution to modernism might, as i’ve suggested, proceed along roughly similar lines. if my reading punctures some of his system’s pretensions, it also puts him in distinguished company. i hope it serves as a reminder that analytical charts are pictures, whatever else they may be. and that as students of visual evidence, we can never learn to look too closely at the pictures we are seeing. a sample of recent scholarship, plus an overview of the history of the work’s critical reception, is contained in the anthology picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon (c. green ed.). cambridge: cambridge university press, . the pivotal revisionist work examining the painting’s erotic dimensions was leo steinberg’s essay the philosophical brothel, in art news, vol. nos. - (sept. and oct. ), reprinted in october, vol. (spring ), pp. - . see also les demoiselles d’avignon, studies in modern art (rubin, seckel and cousins eds.). new york: museum of modern art, ; chave, a. ( ). new encounters with les demoiselles d’avignon. art bulletin, , . journal of art historiography number june ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries julia kelly this essay examines the ways in which art works from dahomey were discussed and analysed after they were brought to france in the s, following the french conquest of this west african kingdom in . the cultural significance of a number of dahomean sculptures, which entered the collection of the trocadero ethnographic museum, was clear in accounts at the time. however, later art historical interpretations of the relationships between objects arriving from africa in europe and their role in artistic discourse largely overlook this, taking their bearings from artists’ own statements about their non-western sources of inspiration. the supposed novelty in paris of african masks, statuettes and ritual objects in the first decade of the twentieth century, enshrined in artists’ accounts, ignored the presence in the city’s major anthropological museum of objects which were already regarded as important courtly art from a longstanding historical kingdom. by contrast, the kinds of african art works that artists predominantly looked to were mysterious in origin, made by unknown hands, lacking specific histories. the reception of dahomean art works was complicated by the strong associations that developed in the european imagination between this kingdom and the ferocity of its sacrificial practices and fighting forces (for instance its famous women warriors). as this essay shows, these associations strengthened the perceived power of dahomean art, as well as increasing the prestige of the french in having ‘captured’ them and brought them back to france. artists and writers in the th century made use of dahomey and its connotations, evoking the complex relationships between france and the african kingdom turned colony: andré salmon looked back at an image from a popular newspaper pinned on his wall as a child, showing french troops entering dahomey’s capital city abomey, while jean genet invoked dahomey’s pre-colonial past. despite its presence in the french cultural imagination, however, dahomey and its art did not seem to play a significant role as a formative influence for the artistic avant-garde in paris in the s and s, at least according to the existing historical accounts of this period. that is to say, in the formal appropriations by artists in france from non-western precedents in the early th century, the dahomean sculptures in the trocadero museum were notably absent. this essay also suggests some reasons for this absence: the large scale of these sculptures relative to the more collectible artefacts that were coming into the european market from africa; and, more significantly perhaps, the history and meaning that they already embodied as courtly portraits of dahomean kings. these were not free- floating ‘exotic’ objects onto which european fantasies could be projected. then as julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries now, they did not fit into a paradigm of cross-cultural appropriation, their anthropological and artistic meanings intersecting in rich and complex ways. in his play the blacks (les nègres), jean genet invoked the former african kingdom and french colony of dahomey to represent the spirit of the whole african continent. the publication of his play coincided with the transformation of dahomey from a part of colonial french west africa to an independent state. genet’s protagonist felicity, a black queen, utters the phrase ‘dahomey! dahomey!’ as a rallying cry: ‘to the rescue, blacks from all corners of the earth.’ the reference to dahomey here, at a time when royal artists in its capital city abomey were becoming the subject of a new museum in the renascent liberated african country, and when dahomean cultural heritage began to be officially recognised and its conservation actively pursued, encapsulates its evocative and powerful meanings for a european colonial (and post-colonial) audience. they were reminded of its status as a once-great kingdom with complex rules and customs, including sacrificial rites that led it to become synonymous with a certain kind of heightened savagery in the european imagination. genet suggests a latent force ready to be unleashed again, in a striking passage further on in the play when felicity’s call to dahomey is repeated: sulking africa, worked in the fire, worked in iron, africa of millions of royal slaves, deported africa, drifting continent, are you there? slowly you disappear, you withdraw into the past, into the tales of shipwrecks, colonial museums, the works of scholars, but i call you back this evening to attend a secret celebration. dahomean rulers were of course also in the nineteenth century involved in the passage of slaves. genet’s references to iron also tantalisingly suggest one of the most famous of dahomey’s art works in french collections, the iron sculpture dedicated to gou, known previously as the fon god of war, which by the s had the fifth republic was introduced in october , and dahomey became an official independent state in . its name was changed to benin in . jean genet, les nègres, paris: marc barbezat-l’arbalète, , (my translation). the abomey museum had been planned since the late s, and opened in . a guide by jacques lombard and paul mercier, two french ethnologists, was published in . the restoration of the abomey royal palaces had been mooted since early in the th century, but in dahomey received its first unesco funding for their restoration, and they have since been placed on the list of world heritage sites in danger. see francesca piqué and leslie h. rainer, palace sculptures of abomey, history told on walls, los angeles: getty museum, , , available at http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/palace .pd f (accessed / / ). genet, . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries already been shown at the museum of modern art in new york in , and would feature as one of the ‘masterpieces’ of the musée de l’homme in [fig. ]. figure ekplékendo, akati ( th cent.): sculpture dediée à gou (sculpture devoted to gou, god of iron and warfare (front view). ethnic group: fon. from: abomey (zou), benin, africa, (before ). paris, musée du quai branly. wrought iron and wood, h. cm. inv.: . . . , from the musée de l'homme.© . musée du quai branly, photo hughes dubois/scala, florence. genet was writing at a moment when intellectuals in france and its former colonies had begun to engage in serious critiques of colonialism. this essay will go this sculpture, dated to before and attributed to the fon artist akati ekplékendo, is in the collection of the musée du quai branly, and on show in the pavillon des sessions at the louvre, a display of pieces of non-western art selected for their aesthetic merit. see the entry by marlène biton in jacques kerchache (ed.), sculptures: afrique, asie, océanie, amériques, paris: réunion des musées nationaux, , - , and maureen murphy, ‘du champ de bataille au musée: les tribulations d’une sculpture fon’, in histoire de l’art et anthropologie, paris: inha/ musée du quai branly (‘les actes’), , http://actesbranly.revues.org/ (accessed / / ). see for instance michel leiris, ‘l’ethnographe devant le colonialisme’, les temps modernes, ( ), - , aimé césaire, discours sur le colonialisme, paris: réclame, and frantz fanon, peau noire, masques blancs, paris: seuil, . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries back to an earlier moment around the turn of the century, when the french colonial conquest of dahomey was still fresh in the mind, and when artists in europe were apparently about to open their eyes to the art of africa as a new source of inspiration and viable cultural reference. sitting amongst these too are ‘the tales of shipwrecks, colonial museums, the works of scholars’: the mediating contexts of travel accounts, nascent ethnography and the museum that transmitted and transformed information and objects gleaned in the field in their transition from africa to europe. the set of circumstances that allowed european modernist artists to begin to appreciate and draw inspiration from non-western art forms (especially those from africa), has been the subject of much art historical speculation. combinations of people, dates, places and texts have been mooted, often on the basis of retrospective accounts by artists themselves written or recorded in the s and s. one of the most famous examples of this is maurice de vlaminck’s account of acquiring african art in , set out in his autobiographical narrative portraits avant decès of . vlaminck’s account of his first acquisition of african objects, which he locates in , appears to locate him as the first european artist explicitly to do so. in it, he describes going into a bistro in argenteuil, having spent some time painting the seine and the nearby quayside: sailors and coal-stevedores were gathered round the counter. while sipping my white wine and seltzer, i noticed, on the shelf behind the bar, between the bottles of pernod, anisette, and curaçao, three negro sculptures. two were statuettes from dahomey, daubed in yellow ochre, and white, and the third, from the ivory coast, was completely black. vlaminck goes on to describe how these sculptures ‘really struck me’ in a way that had not been possible previously, having visited the trocadero with derain in the past to find there only ‘barbarous fetishes’. suddenly he was aware that these were ‘the expression of an instinctive art’, providing him with a moment of revelation and emotion. vlaminck then recounts how he bought the sculptures after having to work hard to convince the owner of the bistro to part with them. jean-michel paudrat has examined in detail the historical evidence for vlaminck’s claim to have begun collecting african art in , and found it impossible to verify. but if vlaminck’s account has little factual basis, it is the major accounts of this include robert goldwater’s seminal primitivism in modern art [ ], new york: random house, , and the -volume catalogue edited by william rubin, “primitivism” in twentieth-century art: affinity of the tribal and the modern, new york: museum of modern art, . see the excerpts published in jack flam and miriam deutch (eds), primitivism and twentieth-century art, a documentary history, berkeley, los angeles and london: university of california press, , - . flam ( ), . paudrat, ‘from africa’, in rubin ( ), . paudrat claims that vlaminck’s acquisition of the dahomey statuettes may have taken place in march , but places the real beginnings julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries extremely interesting as an evocatively embellished, quasi-fictive, recollection of this period. its setting in the argenteuil bistro in the company of ‘sailors and stevedores’ is significant, as this location far from the sea is nevertheless connected to a wider context of international shipping trade and the movement of people and artefacts across oceans, reflecting the trajectories of explorers, missionaries and anthropologists in the th and early th centuries. a well-known photograph of andré derain’s studio in c. - showing african masks and statues alongside a model ship evokes the same associations. the fact that the works that caught vlaminck’s eye were from dahomey and the ivory coast, both important locations in the th-century slave trade, is surely of significance: where once human beings were shipped and sold, now their effigies were circulated, providing a connection with living people far from the french dockyard bistro. an implicit irrationality is a theme lurking in vlaminck’s account: the sculptures arrayed next to bottles of exotic liqueurs, him enjoying an afternoon of drinking, the fact that he asked himself whether his exposure to the sun while painting en plein air had contributed to his sudden appreciation of these african pieces. the dahomean works that vlaminck described having bought have not been traced. his account does evoke, however, statuettes of a kind that were very similar in appearance and technique to yoruba sculptures, made of polychrome wood. the works that vlaminck refers to are small in scale, which is understandable given their probable status as sailors’ souvenirs, possibly even what we would now call ‘tourist’ art that was traded in the ports of the slave coast. it was not, as we shall see, the grand courtly art that had been brought back to france with great fanfare when dahomey fell to the french in the s, whose explicit presence in artists’ accounts of their interest in african objects in the early th century is bewilderingly sparse. when artists began ‘suddenly’ to appreciate african art in this period, their own descriptions and subsequent scholarly analyses looked above all to small-scale masks, statuettes and so-called fetishes as of particular interest and inspiration. another of the important (and similarly retrospective) accounts of this phenomenon, was pablo picasso’s notorious recollection of visiting the trocadero museum in - which he recounted to andré malraux in , and which the latter then included in a publication of . here, picasso specifically referred to the impact upon him of ‘masks’, and created a distinction between sculptures which were already well known to the european public and were perceived as belonging to significant ancient courtly civilisations in northern africa and the middle east, and the more unfamiliar and less ‘civilised’ works from west and central africa: ‘the masks weren’t like other kinds of sculpture. not at all. they were magical things. and why weren’t the egyptian or the chaldean pieces?....those were primitive [archaic], not magical things. the negroes’ sculptures were intercessors...’. of an ‘encounter with african art’ in the autumn of , paudrat in rubin ( ), . see also flam, ‘matisse and the fauves’, in rubin ( ), - . this photograph is reproduced in rubin ( ), . picasso, ‘discovery of african art. - ’, in flam ( ), . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries in the extensive scholarly literature that has arisen in relation to this subject, which used to go by the name of modernist ‘primitivism’, certain encounters of people, objects and corresponding art works by western artists appear to have become established truths. one example of this is the connection between paintings by picasso and kota reliquary figures from the then french congo, present in the collections of the trocadero ethnographic museum since the early s, a connection first made by john golding and reiterated in the work of william rubin and patricia leighten amongst others. for example, leighten connects picasso’s demoiselles to a particular object, the kota reliquary figure brought from the french congo to the trocadero in , using this as a crucial example of how picasso conflated his figures ‘with recognisably african forms’. kota reliquary figures, and similar examples, have borne considerable conceptual weight in the construction of this historical moment of ‘primitivism’, despite the fact that they are quite modest in scale, particularly in the context of the collection of the trocadero at the turn of the century. why should they be seen to be so crucial for this moment? and why, conversely, have sculptures from dahomey, striking symbolic figures carved on a large scale, one of the focal points of the trocadero’s african collections at that time – carrying with them all sorts of associations about both the perceived power and significance of the dahomean kingdoms between the th and th centuries – not played a more central role in scholarly accounts of the cross-cultural artistic encounters of this period? given that artists did visit the trocadero museum in the early years of the th century, the reasons for privileging certain african art works over others, both at the time and in subsequent art historical readings, poses a historical conundrum, for which this essay will propose some tentative solutions. dahomey had a high profile in the french public imagination due to its supposed notoriety as a location for excessive savagery, a perception fuelled by the popular press and by the presentation of dahomean subjects as living exhibits in the exposition universelle of , particularly the notorious ‘amazon’ women warriors. dahomey, as christopher green has put it ‘...became almost synonymous as a name with an especially terrifying notion of the “primitive other”, one built around travellers’ tales that had produced an entire mythology of human sacrifice and cannibalism’. however, as we shall see, the critical reception and presentation of dahomean artefacts in the late th century provided a very different picture of its john golding, ‘the demoiselles d’avignon’, the burlington magazine, : ( ), - ; rubin, ‘picasso’, in rubin ( ), - ; leighten, ‘colonialism, l’art nègre and les demoiselles d’avignon’, in christopher green (ed.), picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon, cambridge: cambridge university press, , - . leighten ( ), . for this sculpture, see http://collections.quaibranly.fr/#ad c da- d - e-ad f-f d a d (accessed / / ). see suzanne preston blier, ‘les amazones à la rencontre de l’occident’, in nicolas barcel et al (eds), zoos humains: au temps des exhibitions humaines, paris: la découverte, , - . green, ‘“naked problems”? “sub-african caricatures”? les demoiselles d’avignon, african, and cubism’, in green ( ), . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries culture, subsumed by the ‘dark’ dahomey that is presumed to dominate accounts of the period and subsequently. in the artistic discourses of the early th century, references to dahomey are more nuanced than we might imagine, particularly regarding the status of its cultural products. beyond vlaminck’s ‘witness statement’, so difficult to interpret, the kind of evidence that exists for artists’ engagement with dahomean artefacts mainly takes the form of journalistic accounts. the american gelett burgess, writing in about a visit to paris a couple of years earlier, pointed to artists’ interests in non-western objects, and provided a list of precursors for their new ‘universe of ugliness’: ‘i had studied the gargoyles of oxford and notre dame, i had mused over the art of the niger and of dahomey, i had gazed at hindu monstrosities, aztec mysteries and many other primitive grotesques...’. guillaume apollinaire also commented on artists’ uses of african and oceanic artefacts, as well as on the status and function of the trocadero ethnographic museum in his articles for paris-journal and le journal du soir. in ‘exoticism and ethnography’, published in , he famously picked out from the ‘curiosities’ housed in the languishing trocadero ‘...that pearl of the dahomean collection: the large iron statue representing the god of war, which is without doubt the most unexpected of art works, and one of the most graceful in paris’. [see fig. ] for apollinaire, the interest of this sculpture lay in its departure from figurative conventions: ‘the human figure certainly inspired this unusual object. and yet none of the elements that make up this witty and profound invention resemble any detail of the human body. the black artist was evidently creative’. apollinaire’s description taps into one of the central questions raised in the western reception of non-western, and especially african, works: familiarity and otherness. the god of war is ‘like’ a human figure as the western tradition would recognise it, but it is also profoundly ‘other’: different in every detail, the product of an inventive mind. in the same year, andré salmon included in his ‘anecdotal history of cubism’ an account of the genesis of picasso’s demoiselles d’avignon, which included a reference, albeit vague, to dahomean works, as well as reinforcing the distance between such art and that of egypt: already the artist had a passion for the art of the negroes, which he ranked far above that of the egyptians. his enthusiasm was not based upon an on the construction of the image of dahomey through the press in the late nineteenth century, see véronique campion-vincent, ‘l’image du dahomey dans la presse française ( - ): les sacrifices humaines’, cahiers d’études africaines, : ( ), - , http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/cea_ - _ _num_ _ _ (accessed / / ). flam ( ), . guillaume apollinaire, ‘exotisme et ethnographie’ (paris-journal, september ), in oeuvres en prose complètes, vol. ii (eds pierre caizergues and michel décaudin), paris: gallimard, , (my translation). apollinaire, . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries empty taste for the picturesque. the polynesian or dahomeian images appeared ‘rational’ to him... salmon’s assessment of the impact of this work upon picasso echoes apollinaire’s discussion of the god of war, in its emphasis on an otherness that was in its way also inherently logical, with its own coherence and ‘rationality’, despite apparent difference. almost a decade later, in his essay ‘l’art nègre’ published in propos d’atelier of , salmon again mentioned picasso’s interest in dahomean objects, but now revealed the source of his own preconceptions at the time, of that particular african country and its culture: if i, to whom picasso showed some examples of dahomean statues whose purity i could not grasp, glimpsed a savage beauty in them however tempered by a traveller’s concept of the picturesque, i still kept a very crude colour illustration from the petit journal, of the kind that ordinary french people cut out to decorate their walls, showing crimes, catastrophes or military or republican acts of prowess. it showed the first soldiers of general doods [sic] entering abomey, laughing at dahomean idols with heads like jackals, buffalos or unimaginable monsters. salmon went on to wish for the existence of a narrative of cultural encounter written not by an artist, but by one of the soldiers involved: ‘i always waited for a well-read soldier to write a poignant account of the shock of his old civilised certainties and these monuments of a new beauty, older than any familiar to us. that soldier’s book never appeared. the picturesque was blinding’. the image to which salmon referred was probably the cover of the illustrated supplement to le petit journal of november [fig. ]. this showed french troops confronting and ridiculing ‘the fetishes of kana’ and ‘the god of war’, as part of the campaign led by general alfred-amédée dodds (whose name salmon misremembers). three statues are depicted: one a dog-like form with an elongated muzzle (salmon’s ‘jackal’), one a seated female figure holding a bowl on her head, with scarification marks on her chest and face, and the third, central andré salmon, ‘histoire anecdotique du cubisme’ (la jeune peinture française, ), in herschel b. chipp, theories of modern art, berkeley, los angeles and london: university of california press, , and . on the contradictions between the ‘rational’ or ‘reasonable’ here and ‘the vocabulary of horror’ implicit in salmon’s account, see green, “‘naked problems’?”, in green ( ), and passim. salmon, ‘l’art nègre’, in propos d’atelier, paris: g. crès, , . salmon ( ), . a similar sculpture to this can be found in the collection of the british museum in london, see the fon ‘caryatid figure with offering’ from benin in tom phillips (ed.), africa: the art of a continent, london: royal academy, , . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries statue a standing figure holding up a sword and with a bull’s head (the ‘buffalo’). at the left in the background of the image the animal heads of further sculpted figures flanking the pillars of a building can be seen. the french soldiers adopt relaxed poses as they stand back and contemplate the sculptures, one gesturing towards them while another smokes a cigarette, hands behind his back. figure front cover of le petit journal, supplément illustré, november . if dahomey was known in the late th century for its fierce and powerful warriors, in this image its threat is fully subjugated. king behanzin’s forces are absent, and their stand-ins are three figures of fun wheeled in on a wooden cart, symbolic statues now in the colonisers’ possession. the ‘god of war’, presumably here the central bull-headed figure with the raised sword, was clearly supposed to the same three figures can be seen in an illustration from an account by the sub-lieutenant henri morienval la guerre du dahomey, , , an image reproduced in stanley b. alpern, amazons of black sparta: the women warriors of dahomey, new york: new york university press, , between and . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries be contrasted with the superior military presence of the french, with their array of military equipment. the image also set up a series of loaded contrasts between clothed and unclothed figures, heavy boots and bare feet, white uniforms and a black body. the dahomean women ‘amazon’ fighting forces were another well- known aspect of the kingdom’s mythology, while here a woman is only present through a passive seated female figure, seated awkwardly with legs splayed in front of her and holding aloft an offering bowl: hardly ready to resist or attack. the association of dahomey with the slave trade, whose phasing out was seen at the time as one of the reasons for the kingdom’s decline (and thus need to be ‘redeemed’ by the french colonisers), is also evoked in this image, given the visual echo of the slave auction in the three sculpted figures paraded on the cart. there is a power dynamic at play in such images that has to do with proving superiority by belittling the products of a conquered colony. photographs of the british forces following their ‘punitive’ raid on benin city in nigeria in show soldiers arrogantly sitting on top of piles of looted booty, arms crossed in a gesture of victorious confidence, while the objects collected in ‘retribution’ include examples of the ‘bronze’ sculptures that became so prized (and contentious) on their return to britain. such images demonstrate the power of the colonising forces, able even to treat the most valued objects of the cultures they encounter with relative disdain. there is an intriguing parallel here with the notorious potlatch ceremonies as seen through western eyes, particularly those in which (according to observers) displays of great wealth and symbolic importance are paraded and then destroyed. the kingdom of abomey was captured by the french forces in , after a campaign lasting nearly years. king gezu, who had ruled between and , signed a commercial treaty with france in , but his successor son glele (reigning - ) had provoked a series of hostilities between france and dahomey. a first french military expedition lead by dodds in - against king behanzin (reigning - ) was followed by a second in , which lead to the eventual surrender of behanzin and the capture of abomey and other strategic sites in dahomey. while the sculptures shown on the cover of le petit journal apparently did not make their way back to france, another group of dahomean works did, and aroused considerable interest. dodds, born in senegal to a french father and senegalese mother, seized a number of ‘trophies’ from the beleaguered city to which the departing dahomeans had set fire: three large wooden statues of dahomey’s kings [see figs. and ], as well as four relief doors from the palace of abomey, which the soldiers had discovered half buried in the earth, and thus preserved from harm, and which were given to the trocadero in . despite the image discussed above showing the french soldiers making fun of dahomean sculptures, the french on dahomey’s ailing slave trade, which was supposedly continuing clandestinely, see the preface by e. levasseur to edouard foà, le dahomey: histoire-géographie-moeurs-coutumes- commerce-industre-expéditions françaises - , paris: hennuyer, , xi. see for example the photograph in the collection of the british museum published by annie coombes, reinventing africa: museums, material culture and popular imagination, new haven and london: yale university press, , . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries clearly identified another set of works from the former kingdom as holding great symbolic religious and political meaning, hence the importance of ‘capturing’ them and taking them back to france with them. these works were joined by a royal throne from cana (a town which was the burial site of previous dahomean kings), and by the iron god of war in , taken by captain eugène fonssagrives from ouidah, dahomey’s major port. the trocadero museum in the early s did already contain a few dahomean sculptures: artefacts collected by a colonial administrator in and by edouard foà between and , given to the museum in . foà’s collection also contained a large number of ‘objects’, as well as musical instruments and textile samples. but the new looted material from abomey, cana and ouidah that came to the museum in was seen as much more significant, due to the context of its acquisition. an article by guy tomel in le monde illustré published on february , discussed the new art works that had arrived in the trocadero, and quoted from a letter sent by dodds to the french marine ministry dated january (and apparently received on february) announcing the surrender of behanzin. the symbolism of the material shipped back to france by the conquering troops was made clear in this journalist’s account: will behanzin be kept in senegal, banished to some penitentiary colony or interned in france? no resolution has yet been made in this respect: but what is certain is that his throne is no more...except in the trocadero where it features among the objects general dodds brought back from dahomey... tomel’s account also described how the four palace doors were buried as abomey was attacked, conjecturing that this meant that ‘behanzin and his followers probably attached a great value to them’. his article is notable for the connection it makes between the ‘glory’ of the successful french colonial military campaign and the corresponding worth and value of the objects looted, as if to justify the former via the latter. far from being objects of ridicule, then, the ‘monumental pieces’ from dahomey that were brought back to france were ‘the most beautiful specimens of black industry that we own’, and the three statues of particular interest: gaëlle beaujean-baltzer, ‘du trophée à l’oeuvre: parcours de cinq artefacts du royaume d’abomey’, gradhiva, ( ), - , http://gradhiva.revues.org/ (accessed / / ). paudrat in rubin ( ), . these are searchable as a collection linked to foà on the musée du quai branly website, see http://collections.quaibranly.fr/# ca ed -a - c -bf d- b e dc d (accessed / / ). guy tomel, ‘le trône de behanzin’, le monde illustré ( february ), and . tomel, . tomel, . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries upon seeing them we cannot help but think of the monstrous idols of the ancient phoenicians. but their moloch or astarte did not have such well thought-out forms. we are far here in any case from the crude fetishes of new caledonia. in the rudimentary art of barbarous peoples there are stages of development. our new protégés, the dahomeans, seem to occupy one of the highest of these. what is more they have always been taken for one of the most talented black races. the inherent value to the french of these objects probably also accounts for the attention paid to one of the three statues of kings then displayed in the trocadero: the supposed effigy of king glele in the form of a man-lion. according to tomel’s account, this was damaged by the subjects of king tofa in porto novo during its transit to france, who apparently recognised their former enemy and attacked his sculpted head with swords. a new head was carved in france by the trocadero’s conservator, jules hébert ( - ), following drawings made by fonssagrives of the statues in their original state. while this statue was apparently damaged while still in africa, parts of the abomey palace doors were allegedly damaged by the parisian public while on display at the trocadero, the copper plaques that once protected their corners pilfered by visitors. one of the important factors in tomel’s high valuation of the objects from dahomey was, according to his account, their legibility and recognisability. tomel’s assessment coincided with the ‘rankings’ of ethnographic objects published by the archaeologist edme-françois jomard in which was seen as formative for the evolution of the trocadero ethnographic museum by its founder, ernest-théodore hamy. in jomard’s ‘methodical classification’ of non-western artefacts, first place was reserved for representations of the human form: ...we know that in many countries there are...natives who turn their hand, not without success, to imitating portraits, even to the composition of whole figures and figurines, in relief, with original physiognomies and dressed according to their situation, their caste, their profession, giving to each one the colour of their race and their distinctive character. tomel, . tomel identifies this as the most ‘impressive’, . porto-novo had been a separate kingdom at the end of the nineteenth century, ruled by king tofa since , and continually coming into conflict with dahomey and requiring french protection. it became the capital of french dahomey. i can find no trace of eugène fonssagrives’ drawings. fonssagrives gave the god of war to the trocadero. this is suggested by maurice delafosse in one of his articles on the dahomean material, ‘le trône de béhanzin et les portes des palais d’abomé an musée ethnographique du trocadéro’, la nature, ( april ), . jomard, ‘classification méthodique des produits de l’industrie extra-européenne ou objets provenant des voyages lointains, suivie du plan de la classification d’une collection julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries the final place in jomard’s schema, class , was reserved for what he called ‘objets de culte’, which in a footnote were revealed as taxonomically impossible: ‘the rank that cult objects occupy is outside all classification’. the dahomean statues of kings gezu, glele and behanzin were of course both ‘portraits’ and ‘cult objects’. these two poles mapped out, arguably, the contested terrain of the reception and evaluation of non-western objects in late th-century and early th- century europe, where writers and theorists struggled to make them fit into both established western categories for art works and art production, and to correspond to ethnographic models of understanding. fig. ‘emblèmes des rois dahomiens, guezou (le coq), glé-lé (le lion), behanzin (le requin)’, and ‘behanzin and his family’, from eduoard foà, le dahomey. histoire–géographie–moeurs–coutumes–commerce–industrie–expéditions françaises ( - ), paris: hennuyer, , facing page . the status of the dahomean royal statues as portraits was implicit in an image published in foà’s account of the time he spent in dahomey between and , where the three statues are shown in juxtaposition with an image of ‘behanzin and his family’. [fig. ] behanzin is seated in this image, and wears his kingly robes, while around him his sons and other members of his family are arranged, some with arms crossed in poses of defiance. the warring gesture adopted by the three statues pictured above them, which maurice delafosse would ethnographique complète’ ( ), reproduced in ernest-théodore hamy, les origines du musée d’ethnographie [ ], paris: jean-michel place, , . jomard ‘des collections ethnographiques’ ( ), in hamy ( ), . edouard foà, facing page . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries describe as ‘that of a boxer preparing to attack’ , along with drawings of the reliefs on the palace doors come together to create an image of royal power and influence. foà’s account, although referring to a period he spent in dahomey prior to its subjugation by the french, was published in , after the material in this image had been installed in the trocadero. this image then also served to validate the acquisition of the dahomean artefacts, and to reinforce their connection to the dahomean royal family. while many of the objects that arrived at the trocadero during the late th century were from unknown sources and of unknown function, collected by missionaries or travellers, the collection of dahomean sculptures and reliefs represented a rare example where their origins, and significantly, their connection to real living people, were known. the arrival of the looted material from dahomey at the trocadero and its subsequent display was the subject of three articles in la nature in by the anthropologist maurice delafosse. the first of these on the ‘statues of the kings of dahomey’, published in march, opened with a strident rebuke to anyone who might doubt the artistic value of the former kingdom’s artefacts: one opinion, which is unfortunately quite widespread, tends to see blacks in general and the dahomeans in particular as inferior beings, incapable of any elevated or artistic feeling. the few objects that we could save from the abomey fire and which are exhibited at the trocadero ethnographic museum are here to prove the opposite. delafosse’s optimism was however tempered by his perception that these works were nevertheless relatively crude in execution. in fact he traced a development in artistic skill through the statues of gezu, glele and behanzin respectively, based on their relative ages: that of gezu being already about years old and the most crudely carved, while that of behanzin showed ‘a real progress, a more vivid care for form, a more meticulous care for detail’. the three sculptures thus presented a potted history of the development of dahomean art. in delafosse’s reading, the statue of gezu was meant to represent the grandfather of behanzin as a man-cockerel, in keeping with his nickname ‘the cock’, and its wooden surface bore traces of a series of metal blades and nails that once adorned it, intended to represent feathers. the statue was later thought to have been erroneously identified with a dahomean king, and instead to be a so-called power figure or bocio common among the fon. its role as the cornerstone to the maurice delafosse, ‘statues des rois de dahomé au musée ethnographique du trocadéro’, la nature, ( march ), . delafosse (march ), . delafosse (march ), . delafosse (march ), . the misidentification was first posited by emmanuel georges waterlot in , in the study he produced as the first in the series published by the new french ethnological institute, les bas-reliefs des bâtiments royaux d’abomey (dahomey), paris: université de paris, . the sculpture formerly thought to be gezu was moved from display and put into julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries dahomean dynasty of kings though, at this moment in the late nineteenth century, was significant. to include gezu, and to position him as the formative ancestor of his successors had a strategic value, given that he was thought of as the ‘good’ king in recent dahomean history from the french point of view: the appeaser who had entered into contact and signed contracts with the french, allowing for trade and the presence of missionaries, and the ‘humanitarian’ ruler who had toned down the notorious dahomean sacrificial ‘customs’. his two sons, by contrast, under pressure from their priests and ‘amazon’ warriors, were seen to have relapsed into more elaborate and cruel sacrificial practices, as well as actively flouting agreements with the french. if gezu was painted a brown-red colour with striped brown and yellow shorts, glele, the lion-man, was painted red with green shorts, his fur represented by marks in the wood while his hands and feet remained recognisably human. behanzin, the shark-man, had a green head and black body. the latter statue had already lost the bottom part of its jaw before being taken by dodds and his soldiers: jaws, according to delafosse, which were intended to symbolically devour europeans, based on the imagery of a royal sceptre also acquired which represented a shark biting a white person. these meanings shed further light on the importance of acquiring these works for the conquering french. delafosse also pointed to scenes of europeans fighting with dahomeans in the palace door reliefs, where the latter were ‘always victorious’. to overcome a people whose military confidence was inscribed extensively in their visual iconography was doubly gratifying: a coup of high political value. the restoration of the statue of glele (the lion-man) by the trocadero’s technician was surely significant. many artefacts which entered the museum’s collection in this period were partial and fragmentary, and their status as such arguably bolstered european perceptions of their role in ‘rescuing’ cultures on the brink of collapse (the premise of what is now called ‘salvage’ anthropology). here, the statue was not only ‘saved’, plucked from the fire that the dahomeans had set, but also restored to its ‘original’ state by hébert, the trocadero’s sculptor- technician. it was clearly seen as important enough to warrant a reconstruction. this was in contrast, for example, to the fate of artefacts like the kota reliquary figures, whose ‘sculptural’ element was preserved, while the bundles of ancestral bones to which they were affixed and which formed an integral part of their meaning and function, were routinely discarded and did not make it back into european ethnographic museums. indeed, salmon in ‘l’art nègre’ described the ways in storage, see beaujean-baltzer. it was included in the royal academy in london’s extensive survey of african art, see phillips ( ), . the most exhaustive account of the bocio as a genre is given by suzanne preston blier, african vodun: art, psychology and power, chicago: university of chicago press, . delafosse (march ), - . delafosse (march ), . delafosse (march ), . delafosse (march ), . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries which unwanted appurtenances were (deservedly) left behind by collectors to focus on the ‘naked beauties’ of africa sculpture. the restoration of the sculpture of glele implied its ‘realism’: its portrait status, and proximity to something the western artistic canon could understand, meant that it could be reinstated. hébert made mannequins for the trocadero’s displays and for the exposition universelle in paris, which portrayed groups of prehistoric people, a new approach to anthropological display which was a success with the public. known for his use of plaster, wax, painted glass eyes and real human hair to striking effect, hébert had also created an acclaimed effigy of the sumerian ruler gudea for the exposition, and the smithsonian in washington had acquired his figures of african natives in . his work on the figure of glele raised it to the status of a prominent and significant courtly statue. figure maurice delafosse, ‘statues des rois de dahomé au musée ethnographique du trocadéro’, la nature, ( march ), . salmon ( ), . see douglas cole, captured heritage: the scramble for northwest coast artifacts, vancouver: university of british columbia press, , . jean m. evans, the lives of sumerian sculpture: an archaeology of the early dynastic temple, cambridge: cambridge university press, , - . julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries an etching of the three statues in situ published in delafosse’s account in la nature showed a top-hatted visitor standing behind them holding a small book and observing them, either making notes or sketching, suggesting their significance [fig. ]. their impressive size was also emphasised in this image, as the male figure appeared totally dwarfed by the sculptures, which appeared to be installed on a large, high plinth. a photograph of the group in the museum in shows a different configuration of the three portraits, with gezu now in the background on a slightly higher plinth, glele to the left and behanzin to the right. the main plinth was about a foot and a half from the floor, making the elevation of the sculptures less marked than that in the etching: clearly the manufactured image is designed to heighten the effect made by the works. in an account of the sculptures published by james frazer in man in , he refers to the effect of their size: ‘on a recent visit to paris i was struck by three life-size wooden statues in the trocadero museum, which represent three kings of dahomey– guezo, guelelé, and behanzin– all more or less completely in the form of animals’. frazer went on to include translated excerpts from delafosse’s article of march . delafosse’s approach to the dahomean material in the trocadero was striking for its emphasis on the historical accuracy of the sculptures and their historical context. in the second of three articles he wrote about the throne taken from cana and the abomey palace doors, describing the former as a ‘real historical piece, giving us the most authentic information about the king’s entourage and the ceremonies of his court’. like tomel before him, he pointed to the use of different coloured skin tones in the figures that made up the throne, indicating different racial types: european, african and arab. while such comments might seem distastefully racist to us today, we have to put delafosse’s perspective in particular in the context of his own intellectual interests, especially as he identifies some of the women depicted as fulani. aged only when writing these articles, and having just finished his studies in arabic at the ecole spéciale des langues orientales in paris, delafosse went on to serve as a colonial administrator in ivory coast and sudan, where he took a particular interest in muslim africa, pre-colonial history, and the complexity of ethnic and caste identity in french sudan. delafosse’s approach to understanding the abomey palace doors showed an interest in building an iconographical tradition, as he cross-referenced the motifs of a snake, a boat and an executioner cutting off a prisoner’s head to similar designs observed in dahomey by repin in , and appearing in accounts by forbes and skertchly in and respectively. j.g. frazer, ‘statues of three kings of dahomey’, man, ( ), . delafosse (april ), . delafosse (april ), ; tomel, . delafosse’s most famous work on this subject was the three-volume haut-sénégal-niger, paris: larose, . these references make up some of the important primary source accounts of dahomey in the mid-nineteenth century: the british naval commander frederick e. forbes’, dahomey and the dahomans, being the journal of two missions to the king of dahomey and residence at his capital in the years and , london: longman, brown, green and longmans, ; the julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries delafosse’s accounts of the dahomean material at the trocadero situated them not only within the context of their pre-colonial history, but also drew attention to their imbrication within the colonial conflict itself. a third article focused on the sculpture that delafosse identified as the ‘god of war’, basing this identification on descriptions in the accounts of skertchly and burton before him of the ‘dahomean mars’ ‘bo’ or ‘gbo’. again delafosse drew attention to the use of realistic detail in the production of the sculpture from cast and hammered iron, pointing to its articulation of calf muscles by working the metal after casting, and to the clearly delineated toes and nails of the feet: ‘i am insisting on all of these details, as they indicate the scrupulous care the artist has taken to copy reality’. the material used in this sculpture, metal, and its absence in the established accounts of dahomey, led delafosse to conjecture that it had been created recently. while we now know this not to be the case, it is significant that the anthropologist saw it as emblematic of colonial contact, its limbs made from melted down ships’ anchors, ‘probably no longer used, abandoned at the coast and collected by the natives’, its pedestal a piece of armour plating from a european ship or cannon cover. delafosse went on to speculate that the sculpture was itself created in response to french aggression, essentially a piece of war art: the officers of the king resident at ouida, seeing that this town would be the first to be attacked by the french, and wanting to encourage the population to resist, probably made this statue using materials found on the beach: the dahomean army evidently believed that the terrible spirit of war, pleased with such a beautiful statue, could not fail to provoke terror and flight in the french ranks. the statue probably wasn’t beautiful enough for the spirit, or the french had a mars more powerful than gbo on their side; at any rate this latter had the misfortune to see his useless idol turned into an ethnographic object. in any case, we should not complain. delafosse’s commentary was prescient in a sense, as the sculpture is now believed to have been seized as war booty by king glele during a raid on the town of doume in western benin in about , where the sculpture was taken along with its maker, akati ekplékendo. this sculpture has had a fascinating afterlife, as we have seen at the beginning of this essay. from being a spoil of war twice over, it went on to be former french naval surgeon dr repin’s ‘voyage an dahomey’, le tour du monde, ( ); and british entomologist j. alfred skertchly’s dahomey as it is, being a narrative of eight months’ residence in that country, london: chapman and hall, . delafosse, ‘une statue dahoméenne en fonte’, la nature, ( august ), . the british explorer richard burton’s a mission to gelele, king of dahome had been published in (london: tinsley brothers). delafosse (august ), . delafosse (august ), . delafosse (august ), . beaujean-baltzer. julia kelly ‘dahomey!, dahomey!’: the reception of dahomean art in france in the late th and early th centuries lauded as a masterwork of african art by apollinaire in an essay of , and then in its presentation in exhibitions of african material from the s onwards. in a later comment made by the artist henry moore in the early s, the sculpture (then in the collection of the musée de l’homme in paris) was stripped of its history and meaning, becoming a collection of junk-like assembled parts, described as the figure ‘that has the butcher’s hooks and bits of chain hanging from its hat, and a skirt made from a bit of waste tin’. if the god of war sculpture went on to become great art, its anthropological dimension arguably suffered as a result. the other dahomean sculptures that have been the subject of this essay did not receive such sustained attention, either as art or for their anthropological significance, until later in the th century. all of these dahomean works, moreover, appeared to play little role in artists’ encounters with non-western forms as sources of inspiration in the early th century. the dahomean royal portraits and associated material were arguably too personalised, too loaded with a specific history and connected to real living people (behanzin lived in exile in martinique and algeria until his death in ). they were also too large (unlike small-scale ‘collectible’ objects that could be kept in artists’ studios) and too closely associated with a kind of ‘high’ and precious court culture, like that of egypt, which did not fit with a need to supposedly rescue from oblivion objects that had been overlooked as too crude, too strange, too ‘other’. perhaps, too, artists in europe avoided artefacts which were loaded with a colonial context they found politically uncomfortable, preferring objects which appeared to float free from this framework, brought together in anonymous accumulations in ethnographic museums, or traded amongst sailors and dealers in the bars and galleries of paris. onto these private, appropriated ‘fetishes’ they could project their own interests and fantasies. dahomey, on the other hand, was too real to handle, and too historically and symbolically rich to be subjugated by the european hand, eye and mind. julia kelly is research associate at loughborough university, uk. she has published on the cultural encounters between art and anthropology (art, ethnography and the life of objects, ) and on histories of sculpture in the long twentieth century (giacometti: critical essays, ed. with peter read, ; found sculpture and photography, ed. with anna dezeuze, ; bill woodrow, with jon wood, ). j.a.kelly@lboro.ac.uk henry moore in conversation with john russell, december , in alan wilkinson (ed.), henry moore: writings and conversations, aldershot: lund humphries, , . for instance see preston blier, royal arts of africa: the majesty of form, london: laurence king, , and the exhibition artistes d’abomey, paris: musée du quai branly, . american journal of educational research, , vol. , no. , - available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/education/ / / © science and education publishing doi: . /education- - - a study on individuals’ art preferences according to their personality traits via computer-aided web site recep Öz , ahmet ragıp Özpolat , orhan taŞkesen ,* computer teaching education, erzincan university, erzincan, turkey psychological counseling, erzincan university, erzincan, turkey art teaching education, erzincan university, erzincan, turkey *corresponding author: ahmetozpolat@hotmail.com received july , ; revised july , ; accepted august , abstract aim of this study is to examine the relationship between individuals’ art preferences and personality traits. in this study where relational scanning model was used, students of a university, which has total . students, make up the research group. students in the research group are from different classes and demographic traits. five-factor personality scale, a computer-aided art preferences survey that includes visuals from the arts of renaissance, cubism, abstract art, traditional art, impressionism and surrealism and personal information form were used to obtain the research data. according to results it was found that people with the personality traits of extroversion and openness to experience mostly prefer surrealist works and those with personality traits of tender- mindedness usually prefer impressionist work of art. keywords: personality, art preferences, openness to experience, big five model cite this article: recep Öz, ahmet ragıp Özpolat, and orhan taŞkesen, “a study on individuals’ art preferences according to their personality traits via computer-aided web site.” american journal of educational research, vol. , no. ( ): - . doi: . /education- - - . . introduction art is one of the many activities (playing sports, having picnic or going fishing etc) that we prefer to do so that we can move away from discipline-required daily works and relations. many people are involved in arts to get rid of the tiredness in their life. some people take painting, music, marbling, calligraphy and dance lessons from hobby courses while some others are more passive and only prefer to follow artistic activities as they are shy or could not find enough time. the importance and priority of art to a person can vary. while some people want to be informed from the artistic activities, they spend time and money for them, some others are only interested in an artistic activity when they come across and they do not spend money for it. however, some people regard going to galleries, learning about artists, following the hobby courses and the date of concerts or theatres are loss of time. apart from those who does not let art be involved in their life, people who are slightly interested in art vary according to their art preferences. whether the preferences, of which motto is “there is no accounting for tastes”, are related to art education, art history, parenting education and personality beside the art experience or not is one of the big questions for every field. for example, those who prefer square shapes are prim, hard-working and logical but sometimes they may make wrong decisions. on the other hand, those who like circle shapes are good communicators, agreeable and sympathetic personalities [ ]. . art preferences and characteristics of personality in this sense, it can be stated that individuals’ art preferences are related to their personality structure. however, psychologists usually ignore individuals’ interest in art [ ]. in this sense, whether individuals’ tendencies to works, which are separated from each other according to style, function and sense of art, are related to individuals’ personality or not is an important question. in this field of study the researches which were done abroad are important. conservatism, openness, schizotype, tolerance to uncertainty and especially a various type of personality factors that search for sense were studied [ ]. specific studies which would shed light on especially the relation between art and personality were carried out, too [ , , , ]. it was found in wilison, ausman and mathews’s studies ( ) that liberals mostly prefer more complex and abstract paintings on the other hand, conservatives do not like mixed representative and mixed abstract paintings and they prefer simple representative ones. in furnham and avison’s studies ( ) the relation between the preference of surreal painting and personality was examined. according to findings of this study the relation between the preference of surreal painting and the dimension of five factors personality was not very strong. the findings supported other studies showing the relation between art preferences and personality, also they showed american journal of educational research that some personality traits could be related to especially preference of surreal painting. in mcmanus and furnham’s study ( ) it was concluded that aesthetic activities have strong relations specially with the personality functions of openness, adaptability and responsibility. in a study carried out by premuzic et al. ( ) . individuals’ personal differences in their artistic preferences were examined and it was found that art preferences were consistent with personality and openness to experience -a personality trait- had the strongest relation. according to premuzic et al. ( ) together with the wide acceptance of one of the personality theories named five factor -sometimes called “big five”- it would be easier to compare the findings of different studies for the determiners of personal differences in art preferences. according to theory of five factors personality, personal differences which are not clinical can be classified as five personality factors [ ] studies in which the relations between the five factors personality and art were examined were not too old. there are some studies [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ] which deal with the relations between artistic concepts and personality. however, in these studies the question about individuals’ art preferences and whether their personality structures affect these preferences or not is not dealt with sufficiently. in fact, the answer of the question “how is the relation between individuals’ personality structure, their art preference and artistic interests” is of great importance. in this study, answers for the following questions were searched in order to examine the individuals’ personality structure and their art preference; . is there a relation between personality types of individuals and their art preferences? . do individuals’ personality types differentiate according to their art preferences. . method relational scanning model was used in this study. scanning is an approach that aims to describe a situation, an event, an individual, a society or an object in their own conditions which remain in the past or still exist [ ]. . . sample and procedure in this study, which deals with university students’ personality types and art preferences, research group consist of students and ( %) of them takes fine art education and ( %) of them are from other departments. in the scope of study (% . ) male and (% . ) female total students were reached with convenience sample method. age of the participants is as such; (% . ) of them are between - age range and (% . ) of them are older than . students in the study group were announced to enter a ready-prepared web-based survey system. the students who voluntarily enter the web site were given feedback about their art preferences, types of personality and artistic interests when they fully completed the form. the server pc sun fire x with quad-core and amd opteron processor was preferred and used as the infrastructure of the web- site in which the scales were applied. also it has gb ram memory and hard disks (raid) that can record the date simultaneously. in addition, there are four / / base-t gigabit network connections (ethernet port), dvd burner (dvd-rw), a total of usb . ports ( on the front panel, on the back panel), and on the main board are located a d / d graphic card, and a serial rs port. centos . operating system of redhat company, free for personal use, is used as a server operating system. apache server version . . is used for web services on the server. mysql . version is used as a database which is both easy and free for use. the coding of the survey is entirely done by us using the php (php . ) programming language. . . data collection instrument in this study the data is collected through adjective- based personality tests and visual(guernica/pablo picasso,pêras, camille monet and a child the artist’s garden in argenteuil /claude monet,the blind leading /pieter bruegel, court of mahmud of ghazni/ hadi tajvidi, dessin arithmétique iv./ theo van doesburg, bottle and wine glass on a table/pablo picasso, la mod’ele rouge/rene magritte, onions/pierre auguste renoir, christ before pontus pilate/hieronymus bosch,vav/erol akyavaş, compossition/wassily kandinsky, compossition/ georges braque, geopolitius child/ salvador dali, mola/ van gogh, the martyrdom of saint catherine/lucas cranach the elder, falcon/ from a moraqqa giclee, whispering wall/ burhan doğançay, violin and playing cards/juan gris, african sonata/ vlademir kusch, le boulevard de montmartre/ camille pissaro, hunters in the snow/ pieter bruegel, ebru-tulips /alparslan babaoğlu, composition/ ferruh başağa) and individual information forms developed and classified by experts according to the art movements within the framework of literature. . . adjective-based personality test adjective-based personality test was developed by bacanlı, İlhan and aslan ( ). factor analysis and similar scale validity methods were utilized in order to test the validity of the developed scale. in the factor analysis which was conducted to test the validity of the scale, adjective pairs which can evaluate the five different personality traits (neurotic personality, extraversion, openness, agreableness, consciuostness.) were determined. the resulting data showed . % of the five- factor personality variance. sociotropy scale, conflict- response scale, negative-positive emotion scale, and constant anxiety inventory were used to test the external validity of the developed scale. expected results were obtained through these comparisons. the obtained results proved the validity of the current scale. also at the end of the reliability analysis of the scale, cronbach alpha coefficient is found to be for sub scale of neurotic personality . , extraversion . , openness . , agreeableness . , conscientiousness . [ ]. individuals’ art preferences scale: in the framework of literature, a computer-aided art preferences survey which covers visual species of the art genres such as renaissance, cubism, abstract art, traditional art, impressionism and surrealism was applied. according to the survey, paintings with high representing power were chosen from each of these art movements. to give brief american journal of educational research information about the chosen painting movements; renaissance today is adopted as the period that started the classical european art. until the th century the symbolic world view of the middle age was dominant over europe. there was an abstract and debate closed system of thought. this was naturally reflected in the art. besides painting and architecture, "perfect form", "balance", "balanced proportions" and "elegance" were also valid in the th century sculpture [ , ]. according to san [ ] in response to the perfect and ideal image of the renaissance, the contemporary art movements of the th century such as cubism, structuralism and constructivism are the movements that deal with a number of abstract forms and qualities which cannot be separated from substance and its form. in these types of art, intuition also has a big role as well as mind. with regard to the rates and links, there are no external goal orientations except the expression of artist’s own inner harmony and intuition except some substantial items such as mass, contour, color and tones. dysfunctional abstract paintings deal with pure and absolute forms. impressionism is an art movement that takes capturing the light and colour of the object as a goal and takes care of saving the light and colour of the nature rather than representing it. emerged and observed first as a painting movement and later as a music movement in france in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and aimed to enroll the world completely in light and colour effect terms, impressionism handled the reality using a rather different method from realism and naturalism. taking the reality and epistemological process as an individual phenomenon rather than regarding them universal distinguishes them from other art movements influenced by scientific developments [ ]. the basic category that determines the abstract art is geometry and it displays a specific order. painting is a surface covered with form, texture and colour which are combined together in a specific order. making the art of painting geometrical and fixing it on a geometric structure means a move away of the art from the interest of living [ ]. surrealism is an art vision based on the data of the science of mental illnesses particularly the psychoanalysis which began and developed with the viennese psychiatrist sigmund freud. until that time all the schools were established through seeking expression opportunities about the relations between objects. surrealism was doing the same thing in another way: through self approach, through human spirit, through unconscious way of world. according to surrealism, human being comprehends the outside world with his emotions but his perception of the outside world is not an expression of the concrete reality. people unconsciously re-establish that world inside themselves. the mission of the surrealist art is to express that inner world and clear up the subconscious. this can be achieved not through thinking logically, but on the contrary, through taking madness into consideration, dreaming, and observing the mental patients' ways of thinking [ ]. “when the dynamic nature of modernity and modern social institutions are considered, security is literally the opposite of inertia here. on the other hand, in traditional cultures, the time that levi-strauss calls as 'reversible time' which corresponds to continuous renewal of the temporal uniformity and similarity is conducted through repetition method; namely the past is a way of organizing of the future.” [ ] paintings which relate to those stylistically, spiritually and sensually different art movements are presented to students' liking. the paintings are graded between and depending on the appreciation of the students. personal information form: demographic individual info forms are used. table . is there any relationship between the personality and art preferences? ap np ex op ag co ap pearson correlation , -, * -, * , -, sig. ( -tailed) , , , , , n *. correlation is significant at the . level ( -tailed). table . do individuals’ personality types differentiate according to their art preferences? sum of squares df mean square f sig. neurotic personality between groups , , , , within groups , , total , extraversion, between groups , , , , * within groups , , total , openness between groups , , , , * within groups , , total , agreeableness between groups , , , , within groups , , total , conscientiousness between groups , , , , within groups , , total , *. correlation is significant at the . level ( -tailed). american journal of educational research . . data analysis a pearson correlation analysis is applied to find an answer to the question that whether there was any relationship between the personality -the first sub-question of the research- and art preferences. the results are remarked in table . when table is examined it is observed that there is a low level of correlation between subscales of personality type scales and individual art preferences. it is inferred that there is a correlation of.- between individuals' art preferences and their openness to experience, and a .- correlation between their art preferences and outwardness. a one-way variance analysis is applied to find an answer to the question that whether the personality types differ according to individual art preferences -the second subquestion of the research-, and the results are remarked in table . table shows us that the personality types differentiate depending on the individual art preferences. when the f value of the extroverted individuals has differentiated significantly at the rate of , ,p<. , the f value of the individuals who are open to experience has differentiated significantly at the rate of , ,p<. . lsd tests are performed to have a look at the source of this difference. the results are given in table . table . findings concerning the differences of art preferences according to individual personality types dependent variable significantdifference (i-j) standard error significance , , , , * , , , , , , , , * , , , , , , openness , , , , , , , * , , , , , , , , * , , , , , , *. correlation is significant at the . level ( -tailed). (cubism) (surrealism) (impressionism) (northern renaissance) (traditional art) (abstract art) when table is examined it is observed that the extroverted individuals have higher scores of surrealism than impressionism and traditional art. at the same time, the individuals who are open to experience also have higher scores of surrealism than impressionism and traditional art. . discussion according to findings obtained from the study, there is a correlation –even if it is low- between individual’s art preference and personality. in funham and avison’s study [ ], the relation between the preference of surreal painting and five factors personality was not so strong either. however, individuals’ personality structure affects their art preferences. when the literature is generally taken into consideration, it is seen that although the correlations between the personality and art preferences are not statistically very high, individuals make their preference according to this characteristic of their personality structure. in dellinger’ study [ ] it is stated that there is a relation between individuals’ personality types and their preference of shapes. a work of art can be regarded as a composition of shapes; therefore, this study matches up with dellinger’s. it can be indicated that individuals who are open to experience and extroverted, like more liberal and different experiences and they make effort to gain different experience. in this sense, these individuals are liberalist. in their study wilson, ausman and matthews [ ] stated that liberals preferred more complex and abstract paintings. premuzic et al. [ ] found that younger and extroverted personalities mostly prefer cubism; however, agreeable and responsible personalities mostly make impressionist preferences. also, in this study it was stressed that individuals, who are open to change, have higher imagination, need for cognition and divergent thinking, they prefer untraditionally, low authoritarian regime and liberal behaviours. furthermore, these individuals are more compatible with the concepts of untraditional and modern abstract arts. in our study, it was also found that individuals who are extroverted and open to experience mostly prefer surrealist paintings and they are not very interested in impressionist and traditional paintings. according to wilson, ausman and matthews [ ] conservative people mostly prefer traditional art however, liberals mostly like more cubic and abstract paintings. findings obtained from our study support the other studies done in this issue. also, according to per and beyoglu [ ] students of fine arts department usually have extroverted personality. the students who attend fine arts department in turkey are more extroverted individuals given that they are selected with reference to interests and talents. as the % of the sample in this study is comprised of the students of fine arts department, it can be said that the interests and art preferences of the individuals who are extroverted and open to the experience show surrealist tendencies. in the study carried out by furnham and crump [ ] in which the personality traits of the students of science and art department such as abstraction, openness to experience, geniality and conscientious responsibility were compared, it was deduced that scores of geniality, sensitivity, abstraction and openness to development of the art department students were higher than the scores of science department students while they got lower scores in conscientious responsibility and perfectionism. moreover, according to alkan et al. [ ] extraversion and openness to experience influence the relationships of the individuals positively. it is believed that extroverted personality traits american journal of educational research preclude the individuals from being egocentric and help them relate with the others. . conclusion as a result, the relationship between personality types and art preferences of individuals is obvious. the one results of the study, open experienced and social persons show more interest in sürrealizm emphasis on the subconscious and abstract works that emphasize ideas as shown in the literature. but unlike this, it is a consequence in research that the persons who are lower openness to experienced and social show orientation to the external world is reflected in pictures as impressionism and traditional arts.in addition, the extroverted personality types of abstract art known for its warmth and sensitivity in social relationships and showing interest in the surrealist work.the high levels of responsibility and perfectionism conscientious people prefer the traditional arts. so it shows that our country is an indication that similar results with studies in other countries about the relationship between personality types and art preferences. . future investigations the study may be lacking some qualitative data in the context of findings. the relationship between the preferred paintings and personality types of the individuals could only be evaluated in terms of quantitative data. this method does not allow us to comprehend to what the individuals pay more attention while choosing paintings and what they think or how they feel about painting. mixed patterns which include a combination of quantitative and qualitative data can be suggested for the next studies to be done in literature. on the other hand, personality types and art trends of the students from various fields of art education can be compared. at the same time, the influence of the art education of the individuals on human relations and communication, and life satisfaction can be searched. also, the relationship between the preferences of geometric shapes and personality types of the individuals can be investigated. references [ ] dellinger, s., . favorıte shape reveals personalıty, http://weeklyworldnews.com/headlines/ /favorite-shape- reveals-personality/ adresinden . . tarihinde ulaşılmıştır. 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( ) is there a correlation between extroversion personality characteristics of medical students and awareness of works of art? turk, j. med. sci, ( ), - . [ ] erdal,b., ( ). müzik tercihi ve kişilik İlişkisi. c.Ü. sosyal bilimler dergisi, cilt: , sayı: , - . [ ] taşkesen, o.( ). developing interest in art scale and determining the relation between personality type of teacher candidates and their interest in art. educational research and reviwers. ( ). - . [ ] per, m., & beyoğlu, a. ( ). personality types of students who study at the departments of numeric, verbal and fine arts in education faculties. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, , - . [ ] field, a. ( ). discovering statistics using ibm spss statistics. sage. [ ] bacanlı, h., İlhan, t., & aslan, s. ( ). beş faktör kuramına dayalı bir kişilik ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi: sıfatlara dayalı kişilik testi (sdkt). türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi, ( ), - . [ ] arda, z., Şahin, h., büyükkol, s. ( ). İlkçağdan modernizme; bilim, sanat ve felsefe buluşmaları, eğitim ve Öğretim araştırmaları dergisi, cilt: / [ ] rawlings, d., barrantes i vidal, n., & furnham, a. ( ). personality and aesthetic preference in spain and england: two studies relating sensation seeking and openness to experience to liking for paintings and music. european journal of personality, ( ), - . [ ] san, İ. ( ), sanat ve eğitim, ankara Üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi yayınları, no: , ankara, türkiye. [ ] Özkan, d. ( ) empresyonizm, sinema ve bergsoncu zaman kavramı: zaman ve mekân algılarının dönüşümü. the journal of academic social science studies international journal of social science. / , - [ ] sezer, c.( ) soyut resimde yüzeyin Çizgisel düzenlemesine yönelik analizler eskişehir osmangazi Üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, ( ). [ ] güvemli, zahir ( ). sanat tarihi. İstanbul: varlık yayınları. [ ] chamorro-premuzic, t., reimers, s., hsu, a., & ahmetoğlu, g. ( ). who art thou? personality predictorsof artistic preferencesin a large uk sample: the importance of openness. british journal of psychology, , - . . [ ] furnham, a., crump, j. ( ) the sensitive, İmaginative, articulate art student and conservative, cool, numerate science student: İndividual differences in art and sciences students. learning and İndividual differences. . - . book reviews applications in a manner analogous to the spinoffs of the switching and information theories. indeed not every present-day systems engineer would have been able to cope directly with early caldwell, huffman, shannon or wiener; nevertheless he is now indirectly applying the results of those early investigations. it is hoped, however, that in its final form this prototype will become more accessible. in warning the reader that his growth patterns should be seen as mathemat- ical constructs rather than biological realities, grenander quotes rosen on biological morphogenesis: one investigates the capability of models. this reviewer has pointed out elsewhere that the similarity of patterns occurring at widely different scales is due to the fact that the specific nature of interactive forces is frequently superseded by the properties of three-dimensional space, which permit but a limited repertoire of patterns and connectivities. therefore these mathematical constructs have a validity in equilibrium and steady-state systems, regardless of specific interactive forces. a. l. loeb bulletin of the american mathematical society volume , number , september spectral synthesis, by john j. benedetto, academic press, inc., new york, , pp., $ . . let $ be in l°°(r). if <& can be written as n $(*) = ckexp(ixyk) then the set of characters {exp^xy^): k = ,...,«} is called the spectrum of $ and denoted sp $. the set of translates of < > spans a finite-dimensional subspace % of l (r), namely the linear span of sp $. in fact, sp $ is exactly the set of characters exp(ixy) belonging to %. thus the linear span of the translates of o is determined by its spectrum. the problem of spectral synthesis for bounded functions is to study suitable generalizations of this simple observation. that is, given $ in l°°(r), is the smallest translation- invariant subspace of l°°(r) containing $ and closed in some topology generated by the spectrum of o ? the problem has been studied with various topologies on l (r), but for many purposes the most suitable is the weak-* topology. also the setting is often generalized to a locally compact abelian group g with character group t. in our discussion above, g = r and t = {exp(ixy):y £ r}- for the more general set-up, let <& be in l^ig) and let ^ be the smallest weak-*-closed translation-invariant subspace of l°°(g) containing $. for any weak-*-closed translation-invariant subspace Ï of l°°(g), we define its spectrum as ?t n t. and the spectrum of o is, by definition, the spectrum of ?t$ . the spectrum is a closed subset of t and every closed subset e of t is the spectrum for at least one Ï. if there is exactly one % i.e. if e determines Ï in license or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use book reviews this sense, then e is called a spectral set. the problem of synthesis in i^{g) can equally well be regarded as a problem in i) (g) since there is a one-to-one correspondence between weak-*- closed translation-invariant subspaces ?t of l (g ) and the closed ideals i of l}{g\ the ideal i corresponding to ?t is simply Ï = {ƒ e l ^ ) - <$,ƒ> = for all $ g ?t}. the spectrum of ?tthen turns out to be equal to the zero- set of ƒ, namely z(i ) = (y g t: f(y) = for all ƒ g ƒ}. thus a closed set £ in t is a spectral set provided it is the zero-set of exactly one closed ideal in ll(g). the largest closed ideal in ll(g) with zero-set e is k(e) = {ƒ g ll(g): ƒ = on e) and the smallest such closed ideal is the closure of j(e) = { ƒ £ l\g): ƒ - in a neighborhood of £ } . the so-called abstract wiener-tauberian theorem asserts that the empty set is a spectral set. this tells us, for example, that if the fourier transform ƒ of a function ƒ in l (r) never vanishes, then the smallest closed ideal in j} (r) containing ƒ is l)(r) itself. this result is called the wiener-tauberian theorem because wiener used it to establish a number of theorems of tauberian type. incidentally, wiener argued that it would be far more appropriate to call them hardy-littlewood theorems. in any case, the abstract wiener-tauberian theorem is now a simple result in harmonic analysis, but it has far-reaching consequences. one of the major problems in spectral synthesis was whether spectral synthesis holds, i.e. whether every closed set in t is a spectral set. the answer is easily affirmative if t is discrete. the first example of a nonspectral set was given by laurent schwartz in . his example is the surface s of the unit ball in rn where n > . hence there are two distinct closed ideals in l*(r ) whose zero-set is s, namely k(s) and j(s). actually, a result of helson and others implies that there is a continuum of distinct closed ideals in l*(r ) whose zero-set is . the problem remained open for such familiar groups as the circle group t and r until when paul malliavin proved the remarkable fact that every nondiscrete t contains a nonspectral set. a very interesting proof using tensor products was given by varopoulos in with an improvement by carl herz. in aharon atzmon settled the related principal ideal problem by showing that if t is nondiscrete then l}(g) contains a closed ideal which is not finitely generated, much less singly generated. meanwhile, a good deal of energy was expended showing that many nice sets are spectral sets. carl herz ( ) showed that locally star-shaped bodies in rn are spectral sets using ideas originating with calderón ( ). in herz showed that the cantor set in r is a spectral set and in he showed that circles in r are spectral sets. in varopoulos proved that all - dimensional kronecker sets are spectral sets; saeki later removed the need for o-dimensionality. in yves meyer showed that a number of perfect sets in r defined by means of pisot numbers are spectral sets. almost all books in harmonic analysis give some attention to spectral license or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use book reviews synthesis. they often obtain malliavin's theorem and discuss examples. see, for example, kahane and salem [ ], katznelson [ ] and rudin [ ]. hewitt and ross [ ] deal with these matters and also give a fairly complete treatment on wiener-tauberian theorems. reiter [ ] omits malliavin's theorem but gives a careful exposition on spectral synthesis, including his theorems concerning the relationship between a spectral set in g and in a closed subgroup or a quotient group. meyer [ ] devotes a chapter to synthesis with emphasis on his work on pisot numbers. lindahl and poulsen [ ] also have a brief chapter on pisot numbers (written by meyer), a chapter on varopoulos's theorem that kron- ecker sets in the circle group t are spectral sets, and a lot of other results on spectral synthesis. benedetto [ ] proves malliavin's theorem. the book under review is the first book known to the reviewer that is devoted solely to spectral synthesis. the book consists of three chapters. in the first chapter the author establishes notation and terminology and, implicitly, his points of view. one of these is that all the action is really on the character group t. thus ll (g ) is replaced by a(t) = { ƒ: ƒ e ll (g )} ; a(t) is given the norm \\f\\a = h/hj and hence is isometrically isomorphic with l}(g). the conjugate space a'(t) of a(t) ^ l)(g) is of course isometrically isomorphic with l°°(g) but is written as a'(t) to emphasize the functional point of view and its relationship with t. since a(t) q c (t) [by the riemann-lebesgue lemma], a'(t) contains all the finite regular borel measures on t. just as with radon measures and distributions, the support supp t can be defined for any element t in a'(t); supp t is a closed subset of t. accordingly, the elements !tof a'(t) are called pseudomeasures on t. if tis the pseudomeasure i n ^ ' ( r ) corresponding to the l -function <& on g, then the spectrum of <& is exactly the support of t. for a closed set e in t, let a'(e) = {t e a'(t): suppt c e) and let a's{e) = { t a'(e): <r,<p> = for all <p e k(e)}. [note that henceforth we regard k(e) and j(e) as ideals in ^ (t).] then a'(e) = j(e) and a's(e) = k(e) so that e is a spectral set if and only if a'{e) = a's(e). the pseudomeasures in a's{e) are called synthesizable pseudomeasures (supported by e). these and other elementary facts and definitions are set down in chapter . throughout this chapter the author weaves in historical comments and relates the theory to other areas. in fact, the chapter includes discussions on integral equations, the theory of light, the theory of tides, cubism, the theory of filters, music, interferometers, and the heisenberg principle. the third chapter is concerned with the more difficult and technical aspects of spectral synthesis. the first section deals with nonsynthesis and contains a thorough discussion of both malliavin's and varopoulos's proof of malliavin's theorem. the second section concerns the synthesizability of pseudomeasures and of functions <p in a(t): <p is synthesizable provided <r,<p> = for all pseudomeasures supported by the zero-set ztp of <p, i.e. <p belongs not only to k(z<p) but to j(z(p). this section contains a proof of the beurling-pollard theorem, which asserts that functions in lip^ (t) fl ^ (t), a > / , are license or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use book reviews synthesizable, and katznelson's theorem, which asserts that functions in a(t) of bounded variation are synthesizable. the most distinctive chapter in the book is chapter on tauberian theorems. as mentioned before, the direct connection between spectral synthesis and tauberian theorems is the fact that the empty set is a spectral set. the history of the subject isn't so direct and chapter indicates how the theory developed, especially how wiener developed it. in the late 's wiener was led to the spectral analysis of l°°-functions on r, equivalently of pseudomeasures. since these objects are usually not ^-functions or l - functions, the ensuing analysis was termed generalized harmonic analysis. chapter begins by introducing the "wiener spectrum" and proving wiener's tauberian theorem. beurling's theorem relating the spectrum of a bounded uniformly continuous function $ on r with the beurling spectrum is proved using wiener's tauberian theorem. it is interesting to note, as benedetto does, that beurling's original proof did not use the tauberian theorem and that the tauberian theorem can be deduced from beurling's theorem. next a vast array of classical tauberian theorems is given. wiener's proof of the prime number theorem based on his tauberian theorem is also given. next we find wiener's original proof of his famous inversion theorem [if ƒ in ^ (t) never vanishes, then l/f is in a(t)] and the more general wiener-levy theorem. the latter theorem was later generalized to commutative banach algebras with unit by gelfand ( ) from which wiener's original inversion theorem is imme- diate. the last section of chapter is more modern in flavor and includes ditkin's theorem, a brief study of calderón sets and herz sets, and concludes with a proof of varopoulos's theorem that kronecker sets e are spectral sets, in fact they support no "true pseudomeasures" (meaning "truly pseudo" measures), i.e. a'(e) consists exactly of the regular borel measures supported b y £ . the book contains a wealth of material, though much of it can be found in other books and journals. the book is well motivated and well documented. unfortunately, in my opinion the book is not well organized. it is easy to find some useful item someplace and then lose it forever. the index is complete as far as definitions of terms is concerned but not of much use in finding references to an item that may well be sprinkled throughout the book. for instance, an entry on examples of nonsynthesis sets would have been helpful. the index refers to sections, not pages, and this is a hindrance since the same number may be used for a section, proposition, theorem, formula and exercise. section . . contains formulas . . - . . and propositions . . and . . , while theorem . . shows up later in section . . . it is also difficult to find a result by a frequently quoted author; beurling is referred to in sections and exercises! the question remains: for whom is the book suitable? the specialist in spectral synthesis will of course find the book invaluable, but may become frustrated chasing down useful tidbits. i would not recommend the book to the casual nonspecialist who wants to learn a little about the subject. for the license or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use book reviews person who wants to learn commutative harmonic analysis i would recom- mend several less specialized books instead. and for the student interested in spectral synthesis i would recommend benedetto's book in conjunction with other books on the subject such as [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ] or [ ]; incidentally [ ] seems better organized than the present text. a lot can also be learned by going back to the original sources, for instance [ ]. references . j. benedetto, harmonic analysis on totally disconnected sets, lecture notes in math., vol. , springer-verlag, berlin and new york, . . e. hewitt and k. a. ross, abstract harmonic analysis, ii, die grundlehren der math. wiss., band , springer-verlag, berlin and new york, . mr # ; erratum, , p. . . j.-p. kahane and r. salem, ensembles parfaits et séries trigonométriques, actualités sci. indust., no. , hermann, paris, . mr # . . y. katznelson, an introduction to harmonie analysis, wiley, new york and london, . mr # . . l-Â. lindahl and f. poulsen, thin sets in harmonie analysis, lecture notes in pure and appl. math., marcel dekker, new york, . . y. meyer, algebraic numbers and harmonic analysis, north-holland, amsterdam, . . h. reiter, classical harmonic analysis and locally compact groups, clarendon press, oxford, . mr # . . w. rudin, fourier analysis on groups, interscience, new york, . mr # . . n. wiener, generalized harmonic analysis and tauberian theorems (reprinted from and papers) m.i.t. press, cambridge, mass., . mr # . kenneth a. ross bulletin of the american mathematical society volume , number s, september the theory of approximate methods and their application to the numerical solution of singular integral equations, by v. v. ivanov, noordhoff interna- tional publishing, schuttersveld , p. o. box , leyden, the netherlands, xvii + pp., price dfl. ,-. the main theme of the book is the numerical solution of singular integral equations with cauchy kernels. the following set up is typical. let y denote the unit circle in the complex plane and consider the equation: ( ) k<t>=k°<t> + yk$ = f where the dominant operator k° and the operator k are given by k° = a(t)<f>(t) + ( riylb(t)f<t>(r)(t - t)~ldr, k$ =fk(r, t)^t)dr, with the first integral having its cauchy principal value. in the classical theory (cf. [ ]) the solution <£ is sought in the holder class h(a,y) ( < a < ), and the coefficient functions together with (k<j>)(t) are assumed to be holder continuous on y. there is also an lp theory in which these restrictions on the coefficient functions and the kernel k(r, t) are relaxed somewhat. there is a good case and a bad case. the good case is when a - b ^ on y, and bad is "not good". in the good case, k is normally solvable, there is a simple formula for the license or copyright restrictions may apply to redistribution; see https://www.ams.org/journal-terms-of-use from le sacre to les noces: primitivism and the changing face of modernity all rights reserved © canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : canadian university music review revue de musique des universités canadiennes from le sacre to les noces: primitivism and the changing face of modernity nancy berman volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer cet article berman, n. ( ). from le sacre to les noces: primitivism and the changing face of modernity. canadian university music review / revue de musique des universités canadiennes, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar résumé de l'article the function of the primitivist aesthetic in modern french culture shifted dramatically from the pre- to the post-war period. whereas the primitivism of the ballets russes's le sacre du printemps was understood by its contemporaries to be radical, excessive, even prophetic and apocalyptic, the primitivism of les noces was perceived to some extent as a manifestation of both the classicist "call to order" and the mechanistic aesthetic of the post-war period. indeed, les noces was one of many cultural products by means of which post-war modernists extolled the virtues of the machine age. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ -v -n -cumr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ from le sacre to les noces: primitivism and the changing face of modernity nancy berman from the turn of the century until the first world war, the emerging modernist movement in european arts and literature was, ironically, characterized by its disapproval of modernity. the early modernists, according to charles taylor, protested "a world dominated by technology, standardization, the decay of community, mass society, and vulgarization"; they were overcome with a sense that europe was reaching the end of an epoch, the end, as thomas mann wrote in his novel the magic mountain, of "the bourgeois, humanistic, liberal epoch, which was born at the renaissance and came to power with the french revolution, and whose last convulsive twitchings and manifestations of life we are now beholding." modern society was perceived to be increasingly and tragically estranged from the earth; human culture was becoming, in the words of the russian poet alexander blok, "ever more a thing of iron, of machines; more and more it resembles a gigantic laboratory in which vengeance upon stikhiya [elemental spontaneity] is made ready; science grows so as to enslave the earth .. ." mann and blok were among the many who echoed the sentiments ithis is a revised version of a paper presented at the conference of the canadian university music society in ottawa, where it was awarded the george proctor prize jointly with laurel parsons's paper entitled "music and text in elisabeth lutyens's wittgenstein motet," also published in this issue. i would like to acknowledge the assistance of the social sciences and humanities research council of canada for a fellowhip which enabled me to travel to paris in the summer of to research primary sources. see peter gay, freud, jews, and other germans: masters and victims in modernist culture (new york: oxford university press, ), : "modernists hated modernity: they hated, in other words, the rule of the machine, the vulgarity of bourgeois society, the pretensions of parvenus, the waning of community"; lionel trilling, beyond culture (new york: viking press, ), , where he characterizes the modern element in literature as "hostility to civilization," the "canonization of the primal, non-ethical energies ... the disenchantment of our culture with culture itself*; and clement greenberg, "modernist painting," in modern art and modernism: a critical anthology, ed. francis frascina and charles harrison with the assistance of deirdre paul (new york: harper and row, ), : "i identify modernism with the intensification, almost the exacerbation, of th[e] self-critical tendency that began with the philosopher kant..." charles taylor, sources of the self: the making of the modern identity (cambridge, mass.: harvard university press, ), . thomas mann, the magic mountain (new york: alfred a. knopf, [c. ]), quoted in ricardo j. quinones, mapping literary modernism: time and development (princeton, n.j.: princeton university press, ), . alexander blok, "poèziya zagovorov i zaklinaniy," in sobraniye sochineniy v shesti tomakh, vol. (moscow: izdatei-stvo "pravda," ), as quoted in richard taruskin, stravinsky and the russian traditions (berkeley and los angeles: university of california press, ), : . cumr/rmuc pervading cultural life at the beginning of the century: joseph conrad, d. h. lawrence, t. s. eliot, and virginia woolf also emphasized in various ways the sense of disenchantment, decay, and degeneracy prevalent at the time, as did artists such as gauguin, picasso, vlaminck, matisse, kandinsky, kirchner, and klee, among many others. all of these writers and artists turned at some point in their careers to the primitive, searching for a revitalizing force for art, for psychological and cultural beginnings and origins, for a means to transcend western degeneracy; what these artists and writers ultimately found, however, was themselves, both as individuals and as members of modern european society. primitivism erupted into the modernist vanguard with unprecedented frenzy on may at the théâtre des champs-elysées in paris. the premiere of stravinsky's le sacre du printemps marked, to borrow lionel trilling's phrase, the "canonization of the primal, non-ethical energies" in music and dance. the critical uproar following the premiere has become part of musicological lore. indeed, the legendary riot and subsequent flurry of activity in the daily and periodical press contribute to our present-day reception of the work as a landmark of modernity, a monolith of twentieth-century music. the reception history of le sacre holds more than mythological value, however; it clearly reveals the significance of the work's perceived primitivism within the early modern movement. if the ballets russes's production of le sacre provided passage to a land of primitive ritual, its parisian audience approached this image of pagan russia as an other against which it could assert or question its own identity, and onto which it could project its own fears and desires. thus, in the press, the "primitive" russians were repeatedly aligned with nature, being described as animalistic, devoid of reason, corporeal, violent, unable to restrain their impulses, while the french were always aligned with culture and civilization, with centuries of experience, with reason, wisdom, restraint, and finesse. for the more nationalistic critics, these binarisms served to confirm french cultural superiority; for the progressive, avant-garde, modernist critics, the russians' youthful, uninhibited traits served to foreground, and thus question, the degen- eracy and overly cerebral aspects of french culture. trilling, beyond culture, . the entire reception history of the premiere of le sacre has been collected by truman campbell bullard in his dissertation, "ttie first performance of igor stravinsky's sacre du printemps" vols. (ph.d. diss., the university of rochester, eastman school of music, ). in addition to collecting and translating the reviews, bullard discusses the context and parameters of the critical reaction; he does not, however, address the issue from the standpoint of cultural history. see also igor stravinsky—le sacre du printemps: dossier de presse, collected by françois lesure (genève: Éditions minkoff, ). this collection offers reviews and articles from several cities, including paris, london, st. petersburg, moscow, berlin, rome, buenos aires, and new york. preponderance of place is given to articles and reviews concerning the paris premiere; however, reviews of both the version with choreography by massine, and the concert version, are included. here i am borrowing from discourse theory as established by, among others, edward said in orientalism (new york: pantheon books, ). for a good example of the nationalistic viewpoint, see jean perros, "après les ballets russes," / ( ) in this article i will argue that the function of the primitivist aesthetic in modern french culture shifted dramatically from the pre- to the post-war period. whereas the primitivism of le sacre was understood by its contempo- raries to be radical, excessive, even prophetic and apocalyptic, the primitivism of les noces was perceived to some extent as a manifestation of both the classicist "call to order" and the mechanistic aesthetic of the post-war period. while le sacre conformed to the pre-war stance of the modernists—that is, its modernist supporters perceived it to be critical of modern french culture and society—les noces was one of many cultural products by means of which post-war modernists extolled the virtues of the machine age. at a very basic level, the primitivist rhetoric remained constant in the reception of both le sacre and les noces. in the reception of les noces, the primitive continued to be defined as instinctive, youthful, and natural; in both le sacre and les noces\ primitivism's primary musical sign was understood to be rhythm; for both works, the dancing masses provided the foremost choreographic sign. henry malherbe best described the dancing masses in his review of the premiere of les noces, in the feuilleton du temps of june : "these rhythmic swarmings of a russian crowd, these complicated maneuvers of an unarmed troop, whipped by the sonorous knout of a brutal music, these pyramids of anxious gymnasts, these jumps of louts, these torturing exercises of a squad, under the orders of the implacable amazon that is mile nijinska .. . " n la critique indépendante , no. ( june ), in bullard, "the first performance of igor stravinsky's sacre du printemps," : - ; for an example of a modernist standpoint, see roland- manuel, "le sacre du printemps,** montjoie! ( - june ), in ibid., : . see also chapter of nancy berman, "modern primitivism: the parisian avant-garde, - ** (ph.d. diss., mcgill university, forthcoming). in this paper i will focus primarily on the reception of les noces. supporters of le sacre who saw the work as critical of modern french culture include jacques-emile blanche, who claimed that the ballets russes revealed and protested the "regrettable individualism," "particularism," "decadence,** and "poverty'* which in his opinion characterized contemporary french culture; "un bilan artistique de ," la revue de paris, december , - , in bullard, "the first performance of igor stravinsky's sacre du printemps," : - , , . jean marnold also comments on the decadence of the french tradition and the manner in which the ballets russes, in their production of le sacre, challenge the conventions of french culture; see jean marnold, "musique,'* mercure de france, october , - , in bullard, : . indeed, many were the critics who commented on the challenge posed to french culture by the ballets russes and le sacre. see, for example, octave maus, "le sacre du printemps,** l'art moderne , no. ( june ): - , in bullard, : ; florent schmitt, "les premières: les sacres du printemps de m. igor stravinsky au théâtre des champs-elysées," la france , no. ( june ): , in bullard, : ; fernand gregh, "ce que disent les danses du prince igor, " la revue musicale , nos. - (july-august ): - , in bullard, : ; rené chalupt, "le mois du musicien," la phalange ( august ): - , in bullard, : ; louis laloy, "stravinski," la musique retrouvée (paris: librairie pion, ), - , in bullard, : . ironically, the conser- vative arch-nationalist critic jean perros most aptly summarizes the modernist view of le sacre (which he despised) in his review "après les ballets russes," la critique indépendante , no. ( june ): , in bullard, : - ; here his sarcastic take on the work and those who worshipped the ballets russes reveals to what extent the russians were perceived to both challenge and threaten french culture and civilization. "ces fourmillements rythmés d'une foule russe, ces manœvres compliquées d'une milice désarmée, fouettée par le knout sonore d'une musique brutale, ces pyramides de gymnastes anxieux, ces sauts de lourdauds, ces exercices torturants d'une escouade, sous les ordres de l'implacable amazone qu'est mlle nijinska ..." (translation by drue fergison, who has collected and translated many of the reviews of cumr/rmuc there are, however, substantial differences in the reception of the primitivist aesthetic as manifest in le sacre and les noces. for les noces, unlike le sacre, was repeatedly described by the critics in terms of its simplicity, austerity, purity, stripped down sobriety, and, most surprising of all, its classicism. many of the most qualified critics used the term "classical" to differentiate les noces from le sacre. roland-manuel, a prominent composer, writer and popularizer of music, compared the romanticism of le sacre to the classicism of les noces: "neighbours, at a distance, in spirit, le sacre and les noces differ curiously in terms of structure ... the peculiar romanticism of le sacre gives way to a sort of grand, stripped-down classicism, which clearly emphasizes an orchestral arrangement whose simplicity is extremely bold." boris de schloezer, another prominent critic, writing for la nouvelle revue française, claimed that nijinska's choreographic style was "classicism in the large sense"; yvonne sérac, in tentatives, wrote of the alliance of the classic and the modern. andré levinson, one of the epoch's most prominent dance critics, implied the classical aspect of les noces when he compared it to picasso's "ingrist" works. the premiere of les noces in her dissertation "les noces: a microhistory of the paris production" [duke university, ]). henry malherbe, "aux ballets russes: noces, scènes chorégraphiques russes avec chant et musique composées par m. igor strawinsky," feuilleton du temps, june . a knout was a type of whip used in imperial russia for purposes of torture, with death often the final result. for examples of critics who use terms such as these, see albert jeanneret, "noces," l'esprit nouveau, no. (no page): "gontcharova, usually turbulent and sometimes rowdy, here maintains an excellent sobriety of the purest effect" ("gontcharowa, dont on sait la turbulence habituelle, parfois tapageuse, est ici d'une excellente sobriété de l'effet le plus pur"); no author, "les revues et la presse, dernier écho de 'noces,'" la revue musicale, november , : "the technique in noces is related to that of le sacre; but, overall, the work is more plastic, with purer contours; colour is relegated to the background" ("pour la technique les noces s'apparentent au sacre; mais, dans l'ensemble, l'œuvre est plus plastique, des contours plus purs; la couleur est reléguée au second plan"); raymond charpentier, georges linor, and andré levinson, "les ballets russes à la gaîté-lyrique: 'noces'. ballet de m. igor stravinsky," comoedia, june , section entitled "le décor, la chorégraphie," by andré levinson: "austerity appears here as excessive as was the voluptuousness of orgiastic colour not long ago" ("l'austérité y apparaît aussi excessive que l'était naguère la volupté des coloris orgiaques"); gustave bret, "les noces," l'intransigeant, june , : "music without artifice and without clothing, sturdy, dry, and naked" ("musique sans fard et sans vêtements, drue, sèche, et nue"); yvonne sérac, "les noces, "tentatives, august , - : "stripped of all their richness and luster" ("dépouillés de tout ce qui fut leur richesse et leur éclat"). translations mine; henceforth, all translations my own unless otherwise indicated. "voisines, de loin en loin, par l'esprit, le sacre et les noces diffèrent curieusement d'aspect et de structure ... le romantisme particulier du sacre laisse la place à une espèce de grand classicisme dépouillé, que met nettement en valeur une disposition orchestrale dont la simplicité est extrêmement hardie..." roland-manuel, "laquinzaine musicale—les ballets russes à la gaîté-lyrique: les noces d'igor stravinsky," l'Éclair, june . "classicisme au sense large"; boris de schloezer, "noces," la nouvelle revue française, june , . 'talliance du classique et du moderne"; yvonne sérac, "les noces," tentatives, august , - . charpentier, linor, and levinson, "les ballets russes à la gaîté-lyrique," comoedia, june , section on "le décor, la chorégraphie," by levinson: "by force, the artist inscribes colourless russian folklore in the firm contour of picasso's so-called 'ingrist' designs" ("de force, l'artiste inscrit le folklore russe décoloré dans le contour ténu des dessins dit 'ingristes', de picasso"). / ( ) classicism, austerity, purity, sobriety: by , the significance of these vital cultural catchphrases was multifaceted. as early as the beginning of the century, french critics, reflecting the growing anti-germanic and anti-roman- tic sentiments of french composers, had begun to establish a definition of classicism founded on "clarity, simplicity, austerity, sobriety, pure construc- tion, precision, discreet harmony, and formal perfection." after world war i, this conglomerate of aesthetic attributes came to be applied to the emerging avant-garde trend that first made its appearance in the visual arts during the war, the nouveau classicisme. as scott messing explains, until the s, the nouveau classicisme remained more or less distinct from what we now refer to as "neoclassicism" (that is, the use of pre-romantic formal procedures by twentieth-century composers). the former was described by maurice brillant, in an essay written in , as a style which emphasized "great care of construction, a great austerity, and a sobriety provoked by renunciation of impressionist colours." neoclassicism, on the other hand, maintained the pejorative connotation that had been associated with it since the turn of the century, until , the year of the premieres of stravinsky's octet and his pulcinella} only in the early s, then, did the term "neoclassicism" lose its derogatory meaning, and come to imply both tradition (through its reliance on pre-romantic formal procedures) and innovation (through its use of the anti-romantic language of the avant-garde). for the critics, the classicism of les noces (which premiered on the same program as the neoclassical pulcinella) was not dependent on the use of pre-romantic formal maneuvers; it referred solely to what was perceived to be its use of the avant-garde language of the time, to its bare, austere, simple, essential nature, to the transformation of real life actions into ritual gesture into "pure" plastique? the perceived scott messing, neoclassicism in music: from the genesis of the concept through the schoenberg/stravinsky polemic, studies in musicology, no. (ann arbor: umi research press, ), . maurice brillant, "les œuvres et les hommes," le correspondant, february , - , quoted in messing, neoclassicism in music, . according to messing, at the turn of the century, french critics often used the term "neoclassi- cism" to describe the music of brahms and mahler, who, in their opinion, "sacrificed originality and depth of musical substance for the abject imitation of structure" (neoclassicism in music, ). see messing, pp. ff., for the connection of neoclassicism with stravinsky. messing claims that "[s]cholars do not agree on which stravinsky opus is most appropriate to label as his first neoclassic composition; the majority opinion is divided between pulcinella and the octet. the expression, however, never appeared in reviews of the premieres of these works, and its attachment in to stravinsky may have seemed random, occurring just at the moment when the terminology needed a composer of sufficient stature upon which it could be grafted in order to sustain its continued use" (p. ). see boris de schloezer, "notes: les noces," la nouvelle revue française, august , : "les noces is a picture of ancient russian peasant wedding rites, but, as in the dances ofsacre,... those of noces have no anecdotal, descriptive, or archéologie signification: they are the transformation of ritual attitudes and gestures (themselves merely a symbolic transposition of real-life actions) into pure plastique" ("les noces sont un tableau des anciens rites nuptiaux de la russie paysanne, mais de même que les danses du sacre, ... celles des noces n'ont aucune signification anecdotique, descriptive, archéologique: elles s'inspirent des gestes et attitudes rituels (lesquels eux-mêmes ne sont qu'une transposition symbolique des actions de la vie réelle) pour aboutir à leur transposition purement plastique"). cumr/rmuc classicism of les noces was the hallmark of its modernism; the critics situated the work squarely within the "call to order" which had been articulated by cocteau in his book le coq et l'arlequin in (reprinted in as le rappel à vordre) and which dominated modernist tendencies in france throughout the s. furthermore, the aesthetic attributes associated with both neoclassi- cism and nouveau classicisme were shared with the primitivist tendencies of the period. while many post-war modernists advocated the austerity and sobriety of the new classicism, no group of artists explored so thoroughly the intimate rela- tionship between the classic and the modern as did the purists, in the pages of their review l'esprit nouveau. an exploration of the purists' modernist affin- ity for the classical, an affinity which characterized the reception of les noces, will allow us insight into the work's multi-dimensional primitivism. l'esprit nouveau was founded in november by the architect charles- edouard jeanneret (later to come to fame as le corbusier, one of the leading architects of the twentieth century), his good friend the painter amédée ozenfant, and the poet paul dermée. an important voice for the parisian avant-garde, this magazine of "general progressive culture" embraced fields as diverse as architecture, painting, sculpture, product design, music, literature, philosophy, psychology, politics, and economics. despite the diversity of subject matter, the aesthetic views of its editors revealed a particular overriding sensibility. an emphasis on reason, logic, mathematics, science, mechaniza- tion, and technology pervaded its pages: the editors and contributors were committed to "order, precision, to the lesson of the engineer and the machine, to the classical tradition." inasmuch as it reflected "an artistic climate that placed its faith in formal, pure, objective values," purism participated in the large-scale call to order which dominated french cultural life after world war i. according to the art historian romy golan, the purists jean cocteau, Œuvres complètes (geneva: s.n., - ). for more on cocteau's aesthetic vision and its context, see messing, neoclassicism in music, . messing, in neoclassicism in music, , also observes this connection: "our survey of contem- porary appraisals of stravinksy's music after le sacre du printemps has demonstrated that the rhetoric of simplicity, childhood, and objectivity was a shared affinity with french modernist trends in music, literature, and the visual arts. we may, however, recognize another concurrent tendency which was also characterized by a similar language of purity, concision, and naivete: the influence of non-western primitive cultures on the european avant-garde. in , when egon wellesz observed that 'the sudden and wide-spread interest in primitive music, in folk-music, and in the music of savage races seems to indicate that this new tendency has already received its theoretical foundation,' he was stating an already obvious cliché." reyner banham, theory and design in the first machine age (london: the architectural press, ), . see christopher green, léger and the avant-garde (new haven and london: yale university press, ), , , , , - ; banham, theory and design, - ; john golding and christopher green, léger and purist paris. the tate gallery, nov. - jan. (london: tate gallery, ); romy golan, "modes of escape: the representation of paris in the twenties," in the s: age of the metropolis, exhibition catalogue, ed. jean clair (montreal: the montreal museum of fine arts, ), esp. - . green, léger and the avant-garde, . / ( ) advocated a pictorial syntax based on mathematical measurements, uni- versal laws, stability, solidity and a striving towards perfect harmony. if the war had left behind piles of debris, purism, both antidote and cure, prescribed a world—as this self-coined "ism" plainly indicated—of utter purity. the basis of the purist aesthetic was reason: for jeanneret and ozenfant, reason regulated not only scientific inquiry, but also artistic undertaking: nothing justifies us in supposing that there should be any incompatibility between science and art. the one and the other have the common aim of reducing the universe to equations. we shall prove that pure art and pure science are not watertight domains. they have a common mind ... art and science depend on number. the purists greatly admired modern machines as well as the esthétique mécanique, or the mechanical aesthetic. indeed, the second paragraph of the first issue of l'esprit nouveau emphasizes the importance of the machine aesthetic: today no-one denies the aesthetic that is revealed by the constructions of modern industry. more and more, the construction of industrial machines relies on proportions, the play of volumes, and material in such a way that many of them are veritable works of art, because they involve number, that is, order. now, the elite, individuals who make up the world of industry and business, and who consequently live in this virile atmosphere where undenia- bly beautiful works are created, believe themselves to be quite far from all aesthetic activity; they are wrong, because they are among the most active creators of the contemporary aesthetic ... it is in general output that one finds the style of an epoch, and not, as we too often believe, in a few ornamental productions. golding and green, léger and purist paris, . see also golan, "modes of escape," : "the most immediate impulse at the end of world war i was for a return to order, and nowhere was this yearning more evident than in the emergence of purism." lbid. quoted in banham, theory and design, ; see also green, léger and the avant-garde, . see green, léger and the avant-garde; golding and green, léger and purist paris; kenneth silver, esprit de corps: the art of the parisian avant-garde and the first world war, - (princeton: princeton university press, ). "nul ne nie aujourd'hui l'esthétique qui se dégage des constructions de l'industrie moderne. de plus en plus les constructions industrielles, les machines s'établissent avec des proportions, des jeux de volumes et de matières tels que beaucoup d'entre elles sont de véritables œuvres d'art, car elles comportent le nombre, c'est-à-dire l'ordre. or, les individus d'élite qui composent le monde de l'industrie et des affaires et qui vivent par conséquent dans cette atmosphère virile où se créent des œuvres indéniablement belles, se figurent être fort éloignés de toute activité esthétique; ils ont tort, car ils sont parmi les plus actifs créateurs de l'esthétique contemporaine. ... c'est dans la production générale que se trouve le style d'une époque et non pas, comme on le croit trop, dans quelques productions à fins ornementales." l'esprit nouveau, no. : no page. cumr/rmuc although the purists often drew analogies between the machine and the work of art, they never advocated making machines the subject of paintings. furthermore, although they championed modernity and mass production, the purists maintained a strict, hierarchical division between high and low art, fine art, and mass culture. analogies between the machine and the work of art were extended by many artists in the s, such that the machine was used as a metaphor for psychological states of mind. for le corbusier and ozenfant, the new machine age heralded a new classical age. their works exemplify this belief inasmuch as their mechanistic qualities (for example, the overlapping of objects which results in the outlines of cogwheels and pistons) always coexist with allusions to classical art and architecture. for the purists, objects such as the aeroplane, the steamship, and especially the motorcar served to link modern aesthetic values and mech- anization with the classical, "pure" aesthetic values of ancient greece. these objects, which before the war had been symbols of dynamic simultaneity, became, after the war, symbols of a new, mechanized "call to order," more in touch with committed, modern-life realism. for the purists, then, modernism, and specifically its machine technology, hearkened back to the aesthetic purity of classical greece. and indeed, perhaps the most striking aspect of the critical reception of les noces is the emphasis placed not only on its modern classicism, but also on its machine aesthetic. emile vuillermoz, a composer and music critic whose enormous role in french cultural life spanned more than fifty years, attributed the special green, léger and the avant-garde, . one of the painters best known for his mechanical aesthetic was fernand léger, himself a member, in the first half of the s, of the purist group. while the purists' belief in the analogy between the work of art and the machine led them to tolerate and even admire artists such as léger who actually incorporated the machine into their work, his trademark paintings of machines are not considered to be representative of the purist aesthetic; rather his paysages animés of the early s best reflect the purist view of art and life, specifically the relationship between man, nature and architecture. see green, - . golan, "modes of escape," . see golan*s discussion of suzanne duchamp and jean crotti in "modes of escape," . ibid., . simultaneity refers to a mode of representation explored by the cubists, the orphists, and the futurists, in which more than one view of the same person or object is presented to the viewer. one of the primary practitioners of simultaneous representation was robert delaunay ( - ), whose orphist style grew out of the desire to bring more lyricism and colour to the austere intellectual cubism of picasso, braque, and gris (other artists concerned with simultaneity include léger, picabia, duchamp, and kupka). the orphists* concern with dynamism and dynamic simultaneity is aptly summarized in the following excerpt from the "technical manifesto of futurist painting," published in comoedia on may : "the gesture which we would reproduce on canvas shall no longer be a fixed moment in the universal dynamism. it shall simply be the dynamic sensation itself. indeed, all things move, all things run, all things are rapidly changing. a profile is never motionless before our eyes, but it constantly appears and disappears. on account of the persistency of an image upon the retina, moving objects constantly multiply themselves; their form changes like rapid vibrations, in their mad career. thus, a running horse has not four legs, but twenty, and their movements are triangular" (umbro apollonio, éd., futurist manifestos [new york: viking press, ], - ). see sherry a. buckeberrough, robert delaunay: the discovery of simultaneity, studies in the fine arts: the avant-garde, no. (ann arbor: umi research press, ). vuillermoz, a promoter of modern music, was instrumental, with charles kœchlin, in setting up / ( ) quality of les noces to its machine aesthetic: while les noces was, for him, an aesthetic extension of le sacre, its special atmosphere, sustained by music both savage and barbaric, was created by stravinsky's "sound factory": all he [stravinsky] needs, to create his special pathos, is a solid machine with which to forge beautiful accents, a machine to hit, a machine to lash, a machine to fabricate automatic resonances. his genius resides in the organization of the rhythmic gasping of this sound factory, a gasping so new, so strong, so right, which dominates you, which carries you along, which subjects you to its fantasy without a reviving break. in a slightly later article, vuillermoz took his analogy even further: it is impossible to describe the irresistible effect of stravinskyian rhythm, which is always unpredictable and unexpected, always accurate. don't take what follows for a joke: if i was the director of a big metallurgical factory, if i had at my disposal, for example, the workshops of creusot, i would not hesitate to organize a big celebration for the apotheosis of modern labour, and i would entrust igor stravinsky with the task of composing a score using the very instruments of work... with a few simple yet striking melodies given to the crowd of workers. i am certain that i would thus permit the author of le sacre to write, to the glory of iron and fire, an extraordinary masterpiece. vuillermoz was not the only critic to liken les noces to a sound factory, roland-manuel, in l'Éclair, described the instrumentation in terms of stravinsky's "factory," overseen by the "engineer" ernest ansermet: "under the surveillance of the chief engineer ansermet ... the machines from the stravinsky factory obtain, in les noces, an output which surpasses the most optimistic forecasts." gustave bret, writing in l'intransigeant, made a sim- ilar analogy: "all of this [the instrumentation] creating an implacable sonorous factory, turbulent and precise, of a dynamic efficiency, superior to everything the société musicale indépendante in ; he became editor-in-chief of the revue musicale in , and contributed prolifically to l'illustration, l'Éclair, and comoedia. "il n'a besoin, pour créer son pathétique spécial, que d'une solide machine à forger de beau accents, machine à frapper, machine à cingler, machine à fabriquer des résonances automatiques. son génie réside dans l'organisation du halètement rythmique de telle usine sonore, halètement si nouveau, si fort, si juste, qui vous domine, qui vous entraîne, qui vous asservit à sa fantaisie sans cesse renaissante." emile vuillermoz, "premières. ballets russes: 'noces,'" excelsior, june , (translation after fergison). "il est impossible de décrire l'effet irrésistible du rythme strawinskyste, toujours imprévu et inattendu, toujours juste. qu'on ne prenne pas ce qui va suivre pour une plaisanterie: si j'étais directeur d'une grande usine métallurgique, si j'avais à ma disposition, par exemple, les ateliers du creusot, je n'hésiterais pas à organiser une grand fête du travail pour l'apothéose du labeur moderne, et je confierais à igor strawinsky le soin de composer une partition en se servant des instruments mêmes de ce travail ... avec quelque mélopées très simples mais frappantes confiées à la foule des ouvriers. je suis certain que je permettrais ainsi à l'auteur du sacre d'écrire, à la gloire du fer et du feu, un extraordinaire chef-d'œuvre." vuillermoz, "noces, d'igor stravinsky," la revue musicale, august (translation after fergison). "les machines de l'usine stravinsky obtiennent, dans noces, un rendement qui dépasse les prévisions les plus optimistes." roland-manuel, "les noces," l'Éclair, june . cumr/rmuc that has been done in the genre." albert jeanneret, le corbusier's brother and fellow contributor to l'esprit nouveau, drew on assembly line imagery to describe stravinsky's instrumentation; several other critics used the term "mechanical" to describe the effect of les noces. for instance, according to dominique sordet, writing in l'Écho national, stravinsky's aesthetic is "lit by the light of the choice of this singular sonorous material, whose properties are dryness, force, and mechanical cleanness." over the course of the nine years during which stravinsky worked on les noces, his own interest in the mechanical surfaced. ramuz, in his souvenirs sur igor strawinsky, tells of the years - , when stravinsky was working on the orchestration for les noces in morges, a community which he described as "quite hostile to all novelty": he [stravinsky] even rivalled the carpenter's ribbon saw and the garage-ow- ner's motors; and if i search for where his affinities would have been, where he would have found sympathy, it is not at the bourgeois apartments, of which there were so many in the vicinity ... it is in these workshops where the machines operated at full-speed as if in competition ... each part of the machine having its own particular sound and speed, while out of these superimposed sonorous elements a new rhythm was born; the multiple and conflicting aspects resulted in a rhythm both simple and persistent. "tout cela composant une usine sonore implacable, turbulente et précise, d'un rendement dynamique supérieur à tout ce qui a été fait dans le genre." gustave bret, "ballets russes: noces, de stravinsky," l'intransigeant, june . albert jeanneret, "noces," l'esprit nouveau, no. , n.p. "toute l'esthétique de m. stravinsky s'éclaire à la lumière du choix de ce singulier matériel sonore, dont les propriétés sont la sécheresse, la force, la netteté mécanique." dominque sordet, "la semaine musicale: les ballets russes," l'Écho national, june . stravinsky began to compose les noces in late summer . he was interrupted by his work on renard in , and resumed intensive work on les noces at the beginning of . the short score was finished in april . he then proceeded to score the first scene for an orchestra of . he wrote only a few pages using this orchestration, after which he experimented with separating the instrumental groups on stage. his next vision for the work's orchestration included an electrically driven mechanical piano and harmonium, an ensemble of percussion instruments and two hungarian cimbaloms. after scoring the first two scenes along these lines, he realized the difficulty of finding two good cimbalon players, as well as the difficulty of synchronizing the mechanical elements with the singers and non-mechanical instrumentalists. finally, in , he found the definitive solution: choirs accompanied by a percussion orchestra divided into pitched and non-pitched instruments. the greater part of this instrumentation was carried out in , and the orchestral score was completed on april . see eric walter white, stravinsky: the composer and his works, nd ed. (berkeley: university of california press, ), - . "assez hostile à toute nouveauté ... il concurrençait même la scie à ruban du menuisier, les moteurs du garagiste; et si je cherche où auraient dû être ses parentes et où il aurait dû trouver des sympathies, ce n'est pas à ces appartements bourgeois dont il y avait un grand nombre aux environs ...: c'est à ces ateliers dont les machines fonctionnaient soudain à plein comme prises d'émulation; ... chaque organe de la machine ayant son bruit particulier et son allure particulière, tandis que de ces éléments sonores superposés et de leur superposition même naissait comme un rythme nouveau, dont la résultant était simple, persistante, les facteurs multiples et contrariés." charles ferdinand ramuz, souvenirs sur igor strawinsky (lausanne: Éditions de l'aire, ), - . / ( ) given his interest in the mechanical, it is not surprising that stravinsky's second version of les noces, undertaken during his stay in morges, includes a mechanical piano. indeed stravinsky's extensive reworking of the orchestra- tion of les noces was indicative of his search for the mechanical: in the words of the composer, the final instrumentation "would fulfill all my conditions. it would be at the same time perfectly homogeneous, perfectly impersonal and perfectly mechanical." stravinsky was to be the engineer and the inventor of what jean-michel nectoux calls "perfectly oiled mechanisms." and indeed, the first audience for les noces heard precisely that. as we have seen, classicism and the machine aesthetic are intricately linked in the reception of les noces. with this context in mind, i would like now to explore the significance of the work's perceived primitivism. the worship of the machine and of modern technology prevalent in much of the french avant-garde reflects the obsession in france with america: machine-age amer- ica, with its industry, technology, and popular culture, was seen by the french as a land of promise, celebrated as "ultraperfect, rational and utilitarian and universal." america represented the land of the future, the one "best equipped to usher in the new age: the naive master of the machine, unencumbered by the weight of tradition." america and its machine age became viable as an alternative to tradition; poets and artists defined america "as a society of, by, and for the machine." the view of america as free of tradition, existing in a permanent and vibrant present, dominated european thought from at least the nineteenth century. in , the founder of the german social democratic party, wilhelm liebknecht, commented that "[n]o traditions, no handed-down prejudices" stravinsky was to work with mechanical pianos for much of his career. see rex lawson, "stravinsky and the pianola," in confronting stravinsky, ed. jann pas er (berkeley and los angeles: university of california press, ), - . lawson (p. ) believes that stravinsky found escape from the demands and buffooneries of socialite paris by working with mechanical pianos: "in a socialite paris brimming with rich princesses, worthy musicians, and adoring acolytes, donning a metaphorical boiler suit and joining the musical mechanics must on occasion have been a great relief." igor stravinsky and robert craft, expositions and developments (berkeley and los angeles: university of california press, ), . see jean-michel nectoux, "stravinsky par lui-même: premiers enregistrements parisiens," revue musicale de suisse romande , no. (september ): : "the music from l'histoire du soldat and ragtime, with their brief accents, their sharp sonorities, and their implacable ostinatos, illustrate well the intensity of the perfectly oiled mechanisms of which stravinsky, like the sorcerer's apprentice, is the engineer and inventor" ("les musiques d'histoire du soldat et le ragtime illustrent bien, avec leurs accents brefs, leurs sonorités acérées, leurs ostinatos implacable, cette vie intense de mécanismes parfaitement huilés dont stravinsky serait l'ingénieur et l'inventeur quelque peu apprenti-sorcier"). indeed, many of stravinsky's critics and admirers were aware of his experiments with the player piano; his exploits were often publicized. this awareness could have further contributed to the reception of the work as "mechanical." e lissitzky, '"americanism' in european architecture," krasnaya niva, no. ( ), repro- duced and translated in sophie lissitzky-kuppers, el lissitzky: life, letters, texts (greenwich, conn.: new york graphic society, ), , quoted in elizabeth hutton turner, american artists in paris, - , studies in the fine arts: the avant-garde, no. (ann arbor, michigan: umi research press, ), . hutton turner, american artists in paris, . turner, american artists in paris, , . cumr/rmuc prevented americans from taking part in a "fresh, pulsating present." unen- cumbered by tradition, living in a constant present, youthful and naive: these typically primitivist catchphrases were consistently applied to america and american culture by europeans, particularly in the post-war period; america became a new site by which france (and europe in general) could transcend history's fate. the benevolent, utopian primitivism associated with america's youthful- ness, naïveté, and lack of tradition was complemented by the association of america with the putatively malefic presence of native indians, and the activities of the "wild west," all of which had been extensively popularized in europe as early as , the year in which james fenimore cooper's the last of the mohicans was published in french translation. indeed, the presumed savagery of american indians was a favourite source of entertainment in europe throughout the nineteenth century: native americans were imported to perform for european royalty, they were exhibited at zoological gardens, they were fantasized in karl may's ever-popular novels, and they were prominently displayed in buffalo bill's wild west show from to . picasso himself painted buffalo bill and his wild west show in . while europeans obviously understood that there was a distinction between native indians and "americans," the spirit of the former seemed to infuse european perceptions of the latter. writing in , nietzsche explained: there is an indian savagery, a savagery peculiar to the indian blood, in the manner in which the americans strive after gold: and the breathless hurry of their work—the characteristic vice of the new world—already begins to infect old europe, and makes it savage also, spreading over it a strange lack of intellectuality ... america represented a strange but alluring amalgam of the primitive and the modern, where the rhythms of tribal music melded with the incessant rhythms of daily life and work—and particularly with the rhythms of the machines which the french admired and associated so strongly with the new world. the fundamental point i wish to emphasize relates to zeitgeist: that les noces would be received as not only primitive, but also mechanical and classical in this atmosphere in which the avant-garde reveled can come as no surprise. after the war, modernists had come to terms with modernity, with the quoted in hugh honour, the new golden land: european images of america from the discoveries to the present time (new york: pantheon books, ), . see glenn watkins, pyramids at the louvre (cambridge, mass. : harvard university press, ), - . friedrich nietzsche, "sanctus januarius: the joyful wisdom, book iv," in the complete works of friedrich nietzsche, ed. oscar levy (london: t. n. foulis, ), : , quoted in jean-louis cohen, scenes of the world to come: european architecture and the american challenge, - (paris: flammarion; montreal: canadian centre for architecture, ), ; also quoted in envisioning america: prints, drawings, and photographs by george grosz and his contemporaries, - , ed. beeke sell tower (cambridge, mass.: busch-reisinger museum, harvard university, ), . / ( ) rule of the machine and scientific progress. the primitive no longer served as an other against which the west defined and transcended itself; the parisian audience of les noces adapted this most russian of works as a reflection of its own, american-sponsored, machine-driven society. as peter wollen summa- rizes, while orientalism, and, i would add, early (pre-world war i) primitiv- ism, was crucial to the emergence of modern art, modernism was consolidated by americanism, by an aesthetic of the engineer obsessed by machine forms and directed against the lure of the ornamental and the superfluous ... [a]n art of the leisure class, dedicated to conspicuous waste and display, gave way to an art of the engineer, precise, workmanlike and production-oriented. this trend, which grew along- side and out of an interpretation of cubism, culminated in a wave that swept across europe: soviet constructivism, the bauhaus, de stijl, purism, esprit nouveau. all of these were variants of an underlying functionalism which saw artistic form as analogous to (or even identical with) machine form, governed by the same functional rationality. in les noces, the sound of the russian peasant merges with the sound of the american worker: the folk rhythms which propel the mundane cycles of life conflate with the factory rhythms which propel europe out of its own disturbing past and forward into the machine age; the echoes of age-old tradition are transformed into the incessant beat of the new. abstract the function of the primitivist aesthetic in modern french culture shifted dramatically from the pre- to the post-war period. whereas the primitivism of the ballets russes' s le sacre du printemps was understood by its contemporaries to be radical, excessive, even prophetic and apocalyptic, the primitivism of les noces was perceived to some extent as a manifestation of both the classicist "call to order" and the mechanistic aesthetic of the post-war period. indeed, les noces was one of many cultural products by means of which post-war moder- nists extolled the virtues of the machine age. peter wollen, raiding the icebox: reflections on twentieth-century culture (bloomington: indiana university press, ), , . music hall and modernity: the late-victorian discovery of popular culture, and: musical comedy on the west end stage, - (review) music hall and modernity: the late-victorian discovery of popular culture, and: musical comedy on the west end stage, - (review) peter bailey journal of victorian culture, volume , number , spring , pp. - (review) published by edinburgh university press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /jvc. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /jvc. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ reviews barry j. faulk, music hall and modernity: the late-victorian discovery of popular culture (athens, ohio: ohio university press, ), xxii + pages, illustrated, hardback, £ . (isbn ). len platt, musical comedy on the west end stage, - (basing- stoke: palgrave macmillan, ), pages, hardback, £ . (isbn ). in the substantial body of work on music hall produced over the last thirty or so years, scholars have been busy demystifying a mass entertainment form sentimentalized in heritage narratives as a cosy edwardian resort full of song and laughter, whiskers and waistcoats, languid toffs and ardent costers. historians in particular have bypassed such romantic impedimenta in their reconstruction of the material conditions of production, the social composition of audiences and the dynamics and meanings of music hall entertainment as inflected through specific categories of class, gender, time and place, all set within a larger social context. more rigour, less fun, but better history. hitching a ride on the linguistic turn, latterday students of the halls have also been alert to the determinant power of language in the form- ation of a distinctive music hall voice and its influence on popular culture across a wider canvas. most of this work has concentrated on the discursive properties of music hall song and its performance. barry j. faulk moves beyond the in-house exchanges of the halls to scrutinize its representation by a new breed of literary intellectuals and journalists from the late victorian years to the early s. through a selection of reportage and fiction on london music halls, faulk argues for the emergence of a distinct occupational type, the aesthetic professional parading his or her critical expertise in exalting the pleasures of a hitherto despised demotic mode, its performers and its public. thus an intellectually enterprising bourgeois fraction is said to consolidate its own subcultural identity in alignment with the broader thrust of professionalisation, represented here as a prime feature of modernity notably conspicuous in the apparatus of a new centralised state. in so doing, this enlightened and enlightening cadre propel the halls from the margins into the mainstream of national attention, a discursively potent operation that translates into enough mary botto muse_logo new middle-class bums on seats to secure what faulk terms ‘the bourgeois takeover’ of a basically proletarian institution ( ). primarily a literary scholar, faulk leavens his close readings of texts with the promptings of cultural studies, proposing to remedy a major deficiency of the field in its neglect of the professional middle class and its new ‘managerial intellectual’ as a key ruling group in capitalist culture ( , ). the main argument is at times strenuously overstated, as though the claim of high professional status and cultural expertise for this literary ginger group is a displaced bid for professional validation by the author himself, or an expression of the tension that still haunts literary studies of popular culture whose materials by definition lie outside the canon, but whose practitioners must establish equivalent significance accord- ing to alternative criteria of uneasy and often contested formulation. happily, barry faulk negotiates the latter minefield with some aplomb. professing an early form of radical chic the new critics invited fellow class respectables to tap into the unique vitality of the halls, instructed by their acute critical intelligence, the product of frequent intrepid forays into this markedly proletarian territory. in the complex and ambiguous discourse that constituted this new rhetoric of the popular the halls were promoted both as living sites of modernity and repositories of an essential englishness invested with the sturdy properties of the traditional in contest with modernity’s more threatening features. thus the advanced sensibilities of the critical elite revealed the vernacular modernism of the crowd’s knowing celebration of the modern city’s perils and possibilities while registering the halls as a historic resource, the traditional property not of any one class but of a newly defined category of ‘the people’. a principal value of the halls was a saving vulgarity – winningly defined by faulk as ‘bracing bad taste’ ( ) – an antidote to the enervations of modernity and the controls of capitalist entrepreneurs. among his case studies, faulk moves from the camp enthusiasms of arthur symons, poet and prolific columnist with an undoubted zest for the modern, to the elegaic sentimentalism of t.s. eliot and his tribute to marie lloyd as the departed ‘soul of the people’. mrs ormiston chant is awarded a respectful chapter, elevated to membership of a new group of ‘nascent state intellectuals’ ( ), and an assembly of texts by walter besant, hall caine and henry nevinson are deconstructed as critiques of the sexual politics of the halls, a theme with which faulk concludes the book in revisiting the controversy over the quasi-nude ‘living pictures’ at london’s palace theatre. here, other middle-class women reformers are said to exercise a form of expert authority, attempting to rescue working-class models who made their reviews own counter claim to an aesthetic professionalism in a world of fiercely competing knowledges. foucault takes a discreet bow. late victorian music halls were indeed a focus of intense debate about new cultural forms, their social impact and popular appeal – max beerbohm talked of their ‘vast importance as indices of national character’. in this regard music hall and modernity is illuminating and provocative on some key voices and issues. while it is doubtful that any critical cadre can operate with the kind of uncompromised autonomy argued for here (pace faulk, bourdieu still has a point in disallowing any such proposition), the general question of the function of discourse and representation in cultural formation is a compelling one, not least in an era when print media was arguably at its most potent. what is missing is any attention to the equally clamant voices from inside the industry itself, long experienced in boosterish self-representation, despite faulk’s intriguing but unsubstantiated claim that his cultural mavericks were ‘often directly involved in it (music hall) as a commer- cial venture’ ( ). a more serious omission in a work championing ‘managerial intellectuals’ is that of the fabians. for them, as ian bradley has shown, the music halls provided a continuous reference point not only in debate, where high cultural disdain was tempered with an acknowledgment of the genuine values of some manifestations of popular taste, but in plans for municipalisation, a hands-on managerial agenda. chris waters’ work on the wider range of socialist debate on popular culture in the period also goes unacknowledged. and the alleged ‘bourgeois takeover’ of the halls? it is more likely that the music halls’ true centre of gravity continued to rest with the lower middle class, though to borrow from post colonial discourse we might also argue that it was less a case that the middle class transformed the music hall than that music hall transformed the middle class, a point that barry faulk goes some way to allow. in the interwar period middle class distance from the popular collapsed into a middlebrow culture of a broader yet more emollient content, one of whose landmark con- fections was musical comedy as examined by len platt, another literary scholar proclaiming commitment to cultural studies. basically a play with music that advanced beyond its tributary forms of burlesque and operetta, musical comedy set its romantic narratives in the modern everyday world, its stylized realism glamorised with song and dance and spectacular production values. its modernity was that of the new social spaces of the big city – shops, hotels, restaurants, exhi- bition halls. its subjects were adventuring young men and women eagerly pursuing the goods, services and consequent pleasures they offered. as platt makes clear in this welcome first full length interpre- reviews tive treatment of the genre, this was a conservative modernity rep- resented as safe and secure territory for a consumerist middle class newly bent on enjoying themselves. its keynote was ‘gaiety’, an unprob- lematic, commoditised good time, its prime site the gaiety theatre on the strand run by the legendary george edwardes, its most glamorous icons the gaiety girls, the original long legged lovelies of the modern chorus line. platt emphasizes the essentially optimistic world view of musical comedy that not merely reflected but produced – ‘constituted’ – a blithe confidence among its target public, its gaiety a counter to the angst that haunted the fin de siècle (and has been too often over-read by scholars more commonly pathologising the modern condition). and while comfortably bourgeois in its presumptions, musical comedy and its astute (male) team of writers and producers sold its market formula to a much broader audience, achieving mass exposure nationally and internationally until the early s when the west end original was superseded by the american musical. in this crisp and incisive analysis platt shows how musical comedy played to the sensibilities of its audience. settings in foreign locations – the continent, the empire, asia and ‘arcady’ – afforded an agreeable exoticism while reinforcing the message of england’s superiority over the natives in culture, manners and jolly good sense. while musical comedy celebrated an end to undue deference it still found place for the aristocracy among its stock characters, retaining a taste for the inimitable glamour of upper-class style and savoir faire. platt fore- grounds the alluring yet contained parasexuality of musical comedy whose female stars provided the ultimate glamour of the erotic com- modity, high fashion costuming, visually arresting mise en scene and extensive publicity. (the economics of academic publishing allow examples of the newly ubiquitous picture postcard but not the dynamic colour of the douglas hardy posters). and musical comedy was amusing, for no show was complete without the imported drollery of a leading music hall star in an era of competing yet complementary popular forms that also saw the debut of modern revue. what does the cultural studies approach mean to two literary scholars of late victorian popular culture? indeed, what does ‘cultural studies’ now stand for in its ever widening invocation? tokenist or pluralist? a set of techniques or ‘politics by other means’? for barry faulk and len platt it means a more searching, theoretically informed exercise of their basic trade in textual analysis, alert to the wider leverage of discourse and representation on page and stage in the cultural construction of modern regimes of pleasure in britain’s, or at least, london’s belle époque. the cs hunt for agency is given an uneasy new reading by reviews faulk in his nomination of a bourgeois class fraction of cultural gatekeepers as ideologically autonomous, whereas platt demonstrates how a cadre of cultural producers thrived through their collusive exploitation of a redefined hegemony. of the two monographs, platt’s is the more satisfactory for its greater attention to social and historical context, still too often absent or scanted in cs, or in literary studies claiming its kudos. peter bailey paul barlow, time present and time past: the art of john everett millais (aldershot: ashgate, ), ix + pages, illustrated, hardback, £ (isbn ). nostalgic lists are currently very fashionable in the british media. in any account of the greatest victorian paintings, judged by criteria such as tate britain’s best selling postcards or the number of reproductions of an individual canvas in contemporary coffee-table surveys, one would expect to find at least four of john everett millais’ early oils featured prominently. these are isabella ( ), christ in the house of his parents ( - ), mariana ( ), and ophelia ( ). each is deservedly famous in its own right, and is characterised by a meticulously-detailed pre-raphaelite surface, by the emotional intensity and complexity of its principal protagonists, by a sophisticated play of realism and iconogra- phy and of two and three dimensions, and by subject matter deriving from either the bible or mainstream british literary history. further down the same list, one might be similarly surprised if millais’ portrait of john ruskin did not figure alongside two of millais’ more melancholy subject pictures, the blind girl ( - ) and autumn leaves ( ). cherry ripe ( ) and bubbles ( ) are perhaps less palatable to contemporary sensibilities, but would probably also merit a mention. given millais’ continuing popularity, it is perhaps remarkable that only four book-length accounts of the painter’s work have appeared in the last decade. millais’ scholarly neglect is, of course, part of a broader trend within art history, in which victorian painting has been habitu- ally passed over in favour of french art of the same period. indeed, the historiography of modern art is widely presumed to bypass almost entirely british art movements, such as pre-raphaelitism, in favour of a sequence of ‘isms’ – realism, impressionism, symbolism, cubism, futurism, dada, surrealism and abstract expressionism – that orig- inated in paris and new york rather than london. what might come as more of surprise to victorianists of a more literary bent, however, whose research is characterised by a tradition of rigorous, contextualised close reviews creative commons attribution-sharealike . unported license. | intellectual property law 	 	 	 	 		.. - jan : : am 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 		 	cks_ _intellectual_ property_law_ .pdf kb may : : am 	 	 	 journal of art historiography number december from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: the suppression of abstract expressionist sculpture meghan bissonnette introduction a photograph in the january , issue of life magazine depicts fourteen men and one woman gathered in an empty room, dressed in suits (and an overcoat for the woman), and staring defiantly at the camera. their sparse surroundings give no indication of their identity; rather the accompanying caption addresses them as an ‘irascible group of advanced artists’. the short paragraph that follows notes their opposition to the jury of a national exhibition to be held at the metropolitan museum of art. this photograph, known as the ‘irascibles’ photo, is today a defining symbol of american abstract expressionism, which emerged in new york city after the - war. however, it also contributed to the mythologizing of this movement in two ways: first, it depicted what appeared to be a cohesive group of artists, when nothing could be further from the truth, and second, it played a part in the belief that abstract expressionism was a movement of painters. although ten sculptors signed the letter to the met, they were not included in the photograph. in fact, in the late s and early s, both painters and sculptors were part of the new york avant-garde, and attempts to document this period, such as modern artists in america ( ) edited by robert motherwell and ad reinhardt and the exhibition abstract painting and sculpture in america held at the museum of modern art in new york (moma), often included sculpture. but as abstract expressionism became canonized, sculpture was written out of the story. the factors that shaped this omission are the central concern here. of the ten sculptors who signed the met letter, this article will focus on six who used welding and other direct-metal techniques to make abstract sculpture: david hare, herbert ferber, ibram lassaw, seymour lipton, theodore roszak, and david smith. they had the closest ties to the new york school painters, and their work, with the exception of smith, has suffered the most from the later suppression of sculpture from this period. in the late s and into the s, hare, ferber, lassaw, lipton, roszak, and smith were part of a new generation of sculptors in new york, and their works were regarded as embodying a new sculptural vocabulary. drawing from constructivism and surrealism, their pieces exhibited anti-war and anti-nuclear sentiment; an interest in nature, primordial creatures, the cosmos and scientific developments; and the expressive use of dripped metal. of the six, several were prevented from travelling to europe due to the war, so the influx of european artists in new york in the s had a profound impact. although their work is very disparate, and they did not see themselves as a cohesive group, the use meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... of surrealist biomorphism to express a dystopian worldview in the post-war period is a common theme. like the abstract expressionist painters their lives were shaped by the social and political events of the time: the great depression and the new deal programs, the devastation of the - war, the dropping of the atomic bombs, and the cold war. despite common aesthetic concerns and shared experiences, very few histories of abstract expressionism look seriously at the intersections between painting and sculpture. these sculptors developed alongside the painters of the new york school and were involved in many of the same avant-garde activities; therefore, their work has been labelled by stephen polcari and others as ‘abstract expressionist sculpture’, ‘action sculpture’, or ‘sculpture of the new york school’. despite the problematic nature of these labels, as they suggest the sculptors were emulating developments in painting, they will be referred to in this article as abstract expressionist sculptors. this act of naming serves two purposes. the first is one of convenience and clarity, while the second is ideological. naming was an integral step in the consolidation of avant-garde painting in mid-century new york; therefore, extending this label to sculpture challenges the canon and recognizes the power of naming in the myth-making process. in the s and early s the work of hare, ferber, lassaw, lipton, roszak, and smith was regarded by many as being at the forefront of developments in sculpture. yet by the late s, and increasingly into the s, their work lost favour, with the exception of smith, who is the only sculptor out of the six who has had lasting national and international success. meanwhile, the sculpture of hare, ferber, lassaw, lipton, and roszak came to be seen as derivative of abstract expressionist painting. since then, their sculpture has been largely erased from the narratives of post-war american art. however, it is not a complete erasure, instead it is a suppression. this study contends that clement greenberg’s writings had the greatest impact on the reception of abstract expressionist sculpture, from his initial approval in ‘the new sculpture’ ( ), to hesitation in ‘cross-breeding of modern sculpture’ ( ), and later rejection in his feature on david smith ( ) and ‘sculpture in our time’ ( ). the immediate impact of greenberg’s criticism can be seen in the work of jane harrison cone and rosalind krauss who were as early as , andrew carnduff ritchie, head of painting and sculpture at moma, labeled smith, hare, roszak, lipton, and ferber as ‘abstract expressionists’. he also included the female sculptor mary callery; however, since she did not achieve the same level of success in the s, she has not been included in this study. see ritchie, sculpture of the twentieth century, (exhib. cat.) new york: moma and simon and schuster, , - . stephen polcari mentions all six, as well as isamu noguchi, as sculptural counterparts to abstract expressionist painting in his study on abstract expressionism. see polcari, abstract expressionism and the modern experience, cambridge, ma and new york: cambridge, up, , xxiii. and lisa phillips labels their work as sculpture of the new york school in the exhibition of the same title. see phillips, the third dimension: sculpture of the new york school, (exhib. cat.) new york: whitney museum of american art, . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... influenced by his formalism in the s. the long-term effects of greenberg’s criticism are evident in later analyses by historians such as michael leja, kirk varnedoe, and edward lucie-smith, and in the erasure of sculpture from many books on abstract expressionism. our understanding of abstract expressionism has profoundly changed as a result of revisionist histories published in the last thirty to forty years; nevertheless, sculpture has not benefited from these reassessments. this suppression, particularly greenberg’s role, has been mentioned on numerous occasions; however, the impact of greenberg’s writings has not been explored in depth. in contrast, this article revisits the reception of abstract expressionist sculpture to look closely at the conditions that led to the current treatment of post-war sculpture. it argues that this suppression is due largely to the writings of greenberg and the critics and historians that were influenced, either directly or indirectly, by his position. furthermore, by singling out smith as the only sculptor of merit, the complexity of post-war art was erased. first, this article will examine the historiography of abstract expressionist sculpture, focusing on writings by greenberg, wayne anderson, leja, varnedoe, and lucie-smith. second, it will explore reasons for this suppression, which are ideological rather than aesthetic in nature. this study demonstrates that tastes for certain works are culturally constructed and a product of their time. ‘the new sculpture’ the shift in attitudes towards abstract expressionist sculpture can be primarily attributed to greenberg, including his initial support for this work, and later rejection. therefore, this section and the next will chronicle his writings on this body douglas dreishpoon has been one of the few scholars to look at greenberg’s writings on abstract expressionist sculpture in detail. in his catalogue essay for the exhibition action/abstraction: pollock, de kooning, and american art, - , organized by the jewish museum, dreishpoon outlined greenberg’s initial approval and later rejection of this body of work. however, he did not explore the issue thoroughly, nor did he posit reasons for greenberg’s dismissal of this sculpture, except to suggest that it no longer conformed to the qualities outlined in ‘the new sculpture’. see: douglas dreishpoon, ‘sculptors, critics, arenas and complaints’, in action/abstraction: pollock, de kooning, and american art, - , ed. by norman l. kleeblatt, (exhib. cat.) new york: the jewish museum and new haven and london: yale up, , - , - . dreishpoon analyzed ‘the new sculpture’ in detail in his phd dissertation on roszak, but did not look at its larger impact, except to say that roszak rejected greenbergian purity. see dreishpoon, ‘theodore j. roszak ( - ): painting and sculpture’, phd diss., city university of new york, . greenberg’s initial support for abstract expressionist sculpture and/or his later dismissal of this work is mentioned and discussed in several sources. see: david anfam, abstract expressionism. london: thames & hudson, ; debra bricker balken, abstract expressionism, london: tate publishing, ; lisa phillips, the third dimension; and andrew causey, sculpture since , oxford and new york: oxford up, . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... of sculpture, exposing the impact that his words would have on a later generation of historians and critics. in doing so, it is revealed that the story of the erasure of abstract expressionist sculpture is a story of greenberg. prior to , greenberg had written about sculpture on numerous occasions. in several articles and reviews he mentioned abstract expressionist sculpture and often responded positively to this work. these writings show that throughout the decade, he saw a new trend emerging in sculpture and the abstract expressionists were at the forefront. for example, in a review of the whitney annual, he commended sculptures by smith and roszak. later that year, greenberg mentioned smith in a review for the exhibition american sculpture of our time held at the buchholz and willard galleries. in this article, greenberg made clear his support for smith, and declared that his sculptures overshadowed the others in the exhibition. furthermore, he had the potential for greatness: ‘smith is thirty-six. if he is able to maintain the level set in the work he has already done…he has a chance of becoming the greatest of all american artists.’ in , greenberg expressed approval of hare’s work in a review of his one-man show at the art of this century gallery. in his piece, greenberg stated: ‘hare stands second to no sculptor of his generation, unless it be david smith, in potential talent.’ and while he criticized the diversity in hare’s output he proclaimed that hare had a ‘prodigious amount of talent’ and praised his linear inventiveness and draftsmanship. also that year, in a review of the whitney annual, he indicated that the work of roszak, smith, and alexander calder ‘all point to the possible flowering of a new sculpture in america, a sculpture that exploits modern painting and draftsmanship, new industrial methods, and industrial materials.’ the following year, that sentiment was repeated when greenberg again reviewed hare’s work and stated that despite his young age, hare has already shown enough promise to place him in the forefront of what now begins to seem, not a renaissance, but a naissance of sculpture in america: sculpture that in its methods and very utensils no less than in its clement greenberg, ‘review of the whitney annual and the exhibition artists for victory’, in clement greenberg: the collected essays and criticism, volume , perceptions and judgments, - , ed. by john o’brian, chicago and london: university of chicago press, , . clement greenberg, ‘review of the exhibition american sculpture of our time’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , - . greenberg, ‘american sculpture’, . greenberg, ‘american sculpture’, . clement greenberg, ‘review of an exhibition of david hare’, in clement greenberg: the collected essays and criticism, volume , arrogant purpose, - , ed. by john o’brian, chicago and london: university of chicago press, , . greenberg, ‘exhibition of david hare’, . clement greenberg, ‘review of the water-color, drawing, and sculpture sections of the whitney annual’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... conceptions…attaches itself more intimately to industrialism than any other form of art now being practiced. these writings demonstrate that by the late s, greenberg supported abstract expressionist sculpture, with favourable mentions of all the sculptors, with the exception of ferber. moreover, he saw a sculptural renaissance on the horizon, which would be a major theme in ‘the new sculpture’. greenberg’s greatest approbation for abstract expressionist sculpture came in , in his article ‘the new sculpture’, published in partisan review. in this landmark piece, he identified a sculptural renaissance with smith, roszak, lipton, hare, lassaw, and ferber at the heart of it. greenberg had hinted at this in his review of hare’s work where he mentioned a ‘naissance of sculpture in america’. three years later, that renaissance had come. in ‘the new sculpture’ he suggested that sculpture and not painting was the more advanced art. he described this ‘pictorial draftsman’s sculpture’ as emerging from george braque and pablo picasso’s cubist collage. moreover, it adopted modern materials such as steel, iron, alloys and glass, while rejecting traditional media such as bronze and marble. multiplicity of materials, especially in the same work, was favoured over unity or cohesion. the new sculpture was orientated towards the landscape, rather than the monolith – a solid object built up around a core. also, this sculpture was not concerned with representation, and had no historical ties aside from cubist painting. the linearity, the openness, and the rejection of traditional sculpting methods and materials in these works appealed to greenberg, and he felt that sculpture ‘has lately undergone a transformation that seems to endow it with a greater range of expression for modern sensibility than painting now has.’ the comparison to painting would be a recurring theme in his writings on sculpture, and suggests that painting and sculpture were in competition with one another. he commended the young sculptor-constructors ‘who have a chance, as things look, to contribute something ambitious, serious and original’ and named, in addition to the six mentioned above, richard lippold, peter grippe, burgoyne diller, adaline kent, clement greenberg, ‘review of exhibitions of david smith, david hare, and mirko’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , . for other positive reviews of abstract expressionist sculpture prior to see greenberg, ‘review of a group exhibition at the art of this century gallery, and of exhibitions of maria martins and luis quintanilla’, in o’brian clement greenberg…volume , - ; greenberg, ‘review of the whitney annual and exhibitions of picasso and henri cartier- bresson’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , - ; and greenberg, ‘a symposium: the state of american art’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , - . clement greenberg, ‘the new sculpture’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , - . greenberg, ‘the new sculpture’, . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... and isamu noguchi. these sculptors showed freshness, inventiveness, and positive taste. greenberg noted, however, that not enough attention has been paid to the new sculpture, but despite that he concluded: ‘yet this new “genre” is perhaps the most important manifestation of the visual arts since cubist painting, and is at this moment pregnant with more excitement than any other except music.’ given that greenberg had a high regard for cubism – he often used the term ‘cubist classicism’ to describe sculpture he favoured, and he regarded abstract expressionism as inheriting the legacy of cubism – this statement is a testament to his interest in this work. this article, which was later reproduced (albeit substantially changed) in art and culture, greenberg’s edited volume of writing, represented a definitive stance regarding his position on sculpture. furthermore, ‘the new sculpture’ has been often cited in discussions of greenberg’s views on sculpture, as well as in studies of american sculpture of the s and s. greenberg’s praise may have influenced many of the commonly held sentiments regarding this work, including the belief that something exciting was happening in sculpture alongside developments in painting. it also coincided with institutional support for this work at moma in new york. for example, three years later andrew carnduff ritchie repeated many of greenberg’s sentiments in his catalogue essay for the sculpture of the twentieth century exhibition, a survey of general stylistic concerns of the previous fifty years. ritchie addressed the ‘so- called’ abstract expressionist sculptors in the final chapter whose works ‘owe more to the metaphorical, symbolic and technical example of surrealists like giacometti and gonzalez than to any other one source’. he went on to explain that it was in america where the best sculpture was being made, and in this context he mentioned lassaw, smith, hare, roszak, lipton, and ferber. ritchie’s claim that ‘another sector of the limitless frontier of sculpture is being explored right in our time,’ recalls greenberg’s belief that sculpture ‘is at this moment pregnant with more excitement than any other art except music’. given ritchie’s position as head of painting and sculpture until , this exhibition and accompanying catalogue provided a seal of approval from one of the foremost institutions for modern art. greenberg, ‘the new sculpture’, . greenberg’s article mentions a number of sculptors, namely grippe, diller and kent, who are rarely discussed in the current literature on sculpture of the period, further exemplifying the erasure of the complexity of this period. greenberg, ‘the new sculpture’, . for abstract expressionism carrying on the legacy of cubism, see clement greenberg, ‘the decline of cubism’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , - . ritchie, sculpture of the twentieth century, . ritchie, sculpture of the twentieth century, . sculpture of the twentieth century was not the only exhibition at moma during this period that demonstrated support for abstract expressionist sculpture. americans ( ) and americans ( ) both featured a select number of sculptors with the aim to present recent works in a wide variety of styles. included in americans were hare, noguchi and roszak, while ferber, richard lippold and frederick kiesler – a surrealist-influenced stage designer, painter and sculptor – were represented in americans. both curated by dorothy c. miller, meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... this initial support for abstract expressionist sculpture is contrasted to the current situation, whereby moma owns major works by these sculptors, many of which were acquired in the s, s and s, yet none of them are currently on view. a re-evaluation by greenberg began to express doubts regarding this sculpture in his article ‘cross-breeding of modern sculpture’, which appeared in the summer issue of art news. concerning the abstract expressionist sculptors, who he had praised several years prior, he explained: some of our american constructor-sculptors, the more gifted as well as the less, flounder in their new medium, at a loss, for guiding examples, go off down blind alleys, or commit horrible errors of taste—particularly now that the tide has turned for the moment away from geometrical forms toward plant and animal ones. he further criticized the excesses of this work in the ‘complications of line, texture and color’. however, he hadn’t completely rejected this body of sculpture, rather he claimed these sculptor-constructors were too ‘passive’ and ‘timid’, but suggested that the new sculpture had the potential to surpass painting. undoubtedly, he was beginning to express his reservations due in part to the use of ‘plant and animal’ forms, and what he regarded as excesses in the work. this was a recurring theme in his criticism on smith, where his sculpture was criticized when it veered towards ‘baroque excesses’, and praised when it moved towards a restrained ‘classicism’. its emergence here suggests that greenberg had a certain standard for contemporary sculpture. they were part of a larger series of exhibitions intended to introduce the public to notable contemporary artists. see dorothy c. miller, ed., fourteen americans, (exhib. cat.) new york: moma, ; and dorothy c. miller, ed., fifteen americans (exhib. cat.) new york: moma, . according to moma’s online catalogue, they own three works by david hare, five works by herbert ferber, two works by ibram lassaw, five works by seymour lipton, five works by theodore roszak, and nineteen works by david smith. david smith is the only one with works on display. see ‘the collection’, moma, accessed may , http://www.moma.org/explore/collection/index clement greenberg, ‘cross-breeding of modern sculpture’, in clement greenberg: the collected essays and criticism, volume , affirmations and refusals, - , ed. by john o’brian, chicago and london: university of chicago press, , . greenberg, ‘cross-breeding’, . greenberg, ‘cross-breeding’, . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... the turning point came in when greenberg dealt the final blow to the new sculpture. in a review and feature article on david smith that appeared in art in america in the winter of - , he stated that the hopes he had for sculpture ten years ago had faded. he explained: ‘painting continues to hold the field, by virtue of its greater breadth of statement as well as by its greater energy. and sculpture has become a place where, as hopes have turned into illusions, inflated reputations and inflated renaissances flourish.’ he goes on to outline the failures of this sculpture: [i]t is also significant that modernist american sculpture should have succumbed so epidemically to “biomorphism,” and that then, after the fanciful and decorative improvisations of plant, bone, muscle, and other organic forms, there should have come a spinning of wires, twisting of cords, and general fashioning of cages and boxes—so that the most conspicuous result of the diffusion of the welding torch among american sculptors has been a superior kind of garden statuary and a new, oversized kind of objet d’art. his bias against biomorphism, along with plant and animal forms is more clearly stated here. in his criticism, classicism based on cubist-constructivist forms became a standard against which to judge sculpture. he did not hold surrealism or biomorphism in high regard due to the surrealist tendency towards subject matter, which went against the principles of medium specificity. smith, however, was one of the few to withstand the overall decline in american sculpture, and greenberg labelled him as ‘the best sculptor of his generation’. by the mid- s smith’s work had become increasingly pared down and abstract, although some remnants of subject matter remained, for example in the tanktotems. nonetheless, his work did not have the same aggressive or intricate imagery seen in the works of other abstract expressionist sculptors, such as roszak’s night flight ( ), or lipton’s clement greenberg, ‘david smith’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , - . greenberg, ‘david smith’, . greenberg, ‘david smith’, . arshile gorky’s paintings, despite the use of biomorphic forms, did not receive the same criticism as abstract expressionist sculpture. in a review of gorky’s paintings at the julien levy gallery, greenberg noted that gorky had been ‘corrupted’ by the influence of ‘abstract “biomorphic” surrealist painting’. see clement greenberg, ‘review of an exhibition of arshile gorky’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , - . however, a year later greenberg stated that his earlier hesitations were gone; gorky’s work had not succumbed to the ‘surrealist version of charm’. see clement greenberg, ‘review of exhibitions of paul gauguin and arshile gorky’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , - . after gorky’s death in , greenberg would refer to his paintings as late cubist on several occasions, and mentions of biomorphism had disappeared. for a notable example, see clement greenberg, ‘”american-type” painting’, in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , . greenberg, ‘david smith’, . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... thunderbird ( - ). this would have lasting consequences as smith would come to be seen as the only sculptor of merit during this period, but it would also have an enduring impact for the other sculptors named – hare, ferber, lassaw, lipton, and roszak – whose works would be relegated to the junk pile. the immediate effects of this article have only strengthened over the years, as this became an influential text. firstly, it was a feature article on a preeminent american artist, and has been referred to again and again in the literature on smith. and secondly, it was later reprinted in in art in america and in in art and culture (the only volume of greenberg’s writings until the late s). greenberg substantially revised ‘the new sculpture’ when it was published in arts magazine in under the title ‘sculpture in our time’. similar to the original version, he outlined the qualities of abstract expressionist sculpture, however, he deliberately omitted the names mentioned in ‘the new sculpture’. instead he claimed: art delights in contradicting predictions made about it, and the hopes i placed in the new sculpture ten years ago, in the original version of this article, have not yet been borne out—indeed they seem to have been refuted. painting continues as the leading and most adventurous as well as most expressive of the visual arts... by republishing this article, but with a radically different evaluation of post-war sculpture, greenberg provided a final act of judgment in his rejection of this body of work. he also attempted to rewrite history by erasing his initial approval of the new sculpture. furthermore, ‘sculpture in our time’ was reprinted as ‘the new sculpture’ in the art and culture anthology, yet another instance of the suppression of the sculptors mentioned in ‘the new sculpture’. his assessment of art in the post-war period not only accounts for the suppression of abstract expressionist sculpture, but also the supremacy of painting during this period. given greenberg’s position as one of the most authoritative critics of the post-war period – in the s and s he could make or break an artist’s career – his evaluation of abstract expressionist sculpture had profound consequences. his initial approval and later dismissal of this body of work had a trickle-down effect that lead to the omission of this sculpture from books, museum exhibitions, and collections. the effect of greenberg’s criticism is apparent in a multitude of ways, including the lack of information on abstract expressionist sculpture, the erasure of this work from monographs on american sculpture and abstract expressionism, and the explanations given for these omissions by other historians and critics. the minimal scholarship on hare, ferber, lipton, lassaw, and roszak provides the most clement greenberg, ‘sculpture in our time’, in clement greenberg: the collected essays and criticism, volume , modernism with a vengeance, - , ed. by john o’brian, chicago and london: university of chicago press, , - . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... telling evidence of the suppression of abstract expressionist sculpture. it is a marked contrast to the treatment of smith’s career, which has been the subject of numerous publications, critical writings, and exhibitions. recent exhibitions such as a large retrospective in at the guggenheim museum in new york, solo exhibitions in at the phillips collection and los angeles county museum of art, and monographs by sarah hamill and joan pachner, indicate a continued interest in smith’s work. in claiming that abstract expressionist sculpture has been suppressed, it does not imply that their work has ceased to be shown. their sculptures are represented in many notable collections in the united states and they continue to be shown in solo and group exhibitions. overall though, these works tend to be kept in storage and are rarely included in high profile exhibitions. also abstract expressionist sculpture has been documented in small exhibition catalogues and several unpublished dissertations, but there have been very few book-length monographs on this work. consequently, many narratives written since the s on post-war abstract sculpture have upheld smith’s greatness. the absence of discussions on sculpture in the discourses on abstract expressionism provides the false impression that it was a movement comprised solely of painters. one of the first dissertations on abstract expressionism, william exhibitions include david smith: a centennial, solomon r. guggenheim museum, new york, february – may ; david smith: cubes and anarchy, los angeles county museum of art, april – july ; and david smith invents, the phillips collection, washington, d.c., february – may . for monographs see sarah hamill, david smith in two dimensions: photography and the matter of sculpture, berkeley: university of california press, ; and joan pachner, david smith, london and new york: phaidon, . a notable example is the blockbuster exhibition abstract expressionist new york, which was organized by the museum of modern art in , and shown at the art gallery of ontario later that year. in the main exhibition, ‘the big picture’, only two sculptors were represented: david smith and louise nevelson. one exception is the exhibition action/abstraction that included works by ferber, hare, lassaw, lipton, and smith. there is one monograph, an older study on seymour lipton. see albert elsen, seymour lipton, new york: harry n. abrams, . elsen’s monograph is useful mainly for its extensive reproductions. dissertations include douglas scott dreishpoon, ‘theodore j. roszak ( - ): painting and sculpture’, phd diss., city university of new york, ; nancy heller, ‘the sculpture of ibram lassaw’, phd diss., rutgers university the state u. of new jersey (new brunswick), ; sarah johnson, ‘zen artists of the eighth street club: ibram lassaw and hasegawa saburō’, phd diss., city university of new york, ; valerie a. livingston, ‘herbert ferber: sculpture, discourse, context, - ’, phd diss., university of delaware, ; joan french seeman, “the sculpture of theodore roszak: - (volume i and ii)’, phd diss., stanford university, ; lori ann verderame, ‘the sculpture of seymour lipton: themes of nature in the s’, phd diss., penn state university, . they are valuable sources for scholars and researchers, but with the exception of verderame’s research, their findings have not been made accessible to a wider audience. meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... seitz’s ‘abstract expressionist painting in america’ focused only on painters. the trend continued with irving sandler’s the triumph of american painting ( ), the first book on the movement. subsequent texts by serge guilbaut and michael leja have upheld this tendency, solidifying the belief that only the painters made works of historical relevance. when studies do include sculpture, it often takes a minor role. for example, david anfam’s abstract expressionism ( ) includes discussions of smith, and like many, he considered smith to be the only noteworthy sculptor of that period. stephen polcari’s study includes a few brief discussions of sculpture, and mentions all six of the sculptors in his analysis on the cultural climate of the era; nevertheless, only painters are the focus of the in-depth biographical sections. debra bricker balken’s book abstract expressionism perhaps does more to address the bias against sculpture. she includes the work of smith, hare and ferber, and discusses greenberg’s criticism of the new sculpture. however, as a slim volume, it is not yet known what effect (if any) this work will have on future scholarly work. a recent monograph by phaidon ( ) provides a broad overview of abstract expressionism and covers work by smith, lassaw, and ferber; it reflects a shift towards a more inclusive treatment of sculpture. derivative, formulaic, and material: why abstract expressionist sculpture failed to fit in greenberg’s writings on abstract expressionist sculpture suggest that he had to choose between painting and sculpture – that only one, not both, could be the preeminent art form. in fact, as early as , in his essay ‘towards a newer laocoon’, he declared that there was a single dominant art form, and other art forms william c. seitz, abstract expressionist painting in america, cambridge, ma and london: national gallery of art, washington by harvard up, . seitz’s dissertation was completed in . although it wasn’t published until , it was available for many years through circulated copies. irving sandler, the triumph of american painting: a history of abstract expressionism, new york: praeger, . serge guilbaut, how new york stole the idea of modern art, trans. arthur goldhammer, chicago: university of chicago press, ; and michael leja, reframing abstract expressionism: subjectivity and painting in the s, new haven: yale up, . polcari, abstract expressionism. debra bricker balken, abstract expressionism, london: tate publishing, . katy siegel, ed., abstract expressionism, london and new york: phaidon, . the sympathetic treatment of lassaw and ferber’s sculpture sets this source apart from other histories of abstract expressionism. siegel does not compare developments in sculpture to those of painting, instead she touches on the formal and technical developments of this work, with occasional references to sculpture history. nonetheless, this book does not represent a complete acceptance of abstract expressionist sculpture. the work of hare, lipton, and roszak is not included. furthermore, there are only brief mentions of sculpture in the survey section. meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... ‘deny their own nature in an effort to attain the effects of the dominant art’. when sculpture did not satisfy his standards, he declared painting to be superior. his comments regarding biomorphism reveal his bias against this type of sculptural vocabulary, preferring instead cubist forms. as caroline jones explains, this stemmed from his distaste for surrealism, which was due to its subject matter. concurrent to this was his disapproval of what he referred to as ‘baroque excesses’. although he was never clear on the meaning of this term, it suggests works that have a formal complexity or evoke strong emotion. moreover, his early renunciation of biomorphism and ‘baroque excesses’, which was repeated throughout his writings, indicates that these standards developed early on in his criticism, eventually becoming dogmatic. he criticized the use of biomorphism and ‘baroque excesses’ in smith’s sculptures, but in the s, in his tanktotem, agricola and sentinel series, smith’s aesthetic was increasingly pared down and restrained. as the influence of surrealism, which shaped the sculptures of the s, began to dissipate, smith gained greenberg’s full approval. by the mid- s greenberg could claim that smith’s works were once baroque, but had become more classical. these criteria were determined by greenberg’s adherence to the theory of medium specificity, in which the aim of sculpture was to explore qualities unique to that medium – for example, three dimensionality, mass, space, and surface – rather than concerns of subject matter. abstract expressionist sculpture tended towards the literal in the incorporation of biomorphism and evocative titles. these suggestions of subject matter placed this work in opposition to aesthetic purity, the goal of medium specificity. kant, and the idea of self-critique, whereby a discipline uses its own methods to critique the discipline, influenced greenberg’s theory of medium specificity. it was a rational approach to art making that for greenberg reached a high point with analytic cubism. cubism, and its classicism, control and restraint, was the measure against which to place smith’s work, suggesting that greenberg was looking for a new art that would continue this tradition. clement greenberg, ‘towards a newer laocoon,’ in o’brian, clement greenberg…volume , . caroline jones, eyesight alone: clement greenberg's modernism and the bureaucratization of the senses, chicago: university of chicago press, , - . greenberg, ‘david smith’, . greenberg’s essay ‘modernist painting’ provides one of the clearest articulations of his theory of medium specificity. although it was first published in , caroline jones notes that the ideas espoused in ‘modernist painting’ had been repeated and reiterated in early publications dating back to ‘towards a newer laocoon’, where he first outlined his theory on purity in the arts. see jones, eyesight alone, , - . greenberg’s role in the altering of smith’s work after his death is a notable example of his adherence to aesthetic purity in sculpture. as rosalind krauss illustrated in her article ‘changing the work of david smith’, several of smith’s painted metal sculptures were stripped of their colour or left to deteriorate outdoors. although she didn’t point to greenberg specifically, raphael rubenstein noted that she regarded greenberg as the prime suspect. furthermore, greenberg was critical of smith’s use of colour because it went against meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... roszak’s spectre of kitty hawk ( - ), an iconic work from this period, provides an example of how much abstract expressionist sculpture deviated from a restrained classicism. made of welded and hammered steel brazed with bronze and brass, it depicts a horrifying creature removed from anything known in the natural world. it stands on four ‘legs’ – one slightly raised off the base – and has a long, large tail-like form that comes to a point and serves as a main focus of the work. along the creature’s ‘body’ are numerous jagged spikes, tentacle-like forms, and biomorphic projections in different shapes. the entire surface is covered with a very rough, jagged finish that repels the viewer. greenberg’s formalism required a disinterested gaze, one characterized by a detachment. his criticism of ‘baroque excesses’ was echoed in his critique of abstract expressionist sculpture and its ‘complications of line, texture and color’. baroque art, which was visually complex and appealed to the emotions and senses, was everything that restrained high modernism wasn’t. not only did abstract expressionist sculpture appeal emotionally to the viewer, but works like spectre of kitty hawk interrupt the viewer’s space by inviting a tactile response while also repelling the viewer. these interruptions provide a sense of theatricality by incorporating and engaging the viewer. both elements, emotional appeal and theatricality, belied the disinterested gaze and denied the work the ability to transcend what it depicted. in the late s, critic michael fried, a student of greenberg’s, would criticize theatricality, which he saw as a characteristic of minimalism. the unique nature of sculpture – its formal complexity and the manner in which it could disrupt the viewing process – led to its suppression during this period. greenberg’s immediate impact on the reception of abstract expressionist sculpture can be seen in the work of his students. in the s greenberg taught a graduate seminar at harvard university. even though he was there for only one semester, he influenced three students in particular: michael fried, jane harrison cone, and rosalind krauss. as barbara m. reise explained, not only did these three continue to write about topics that greenberg had previously taken on, but greenberg’s influence was also seen in ‘the almost incestuous territorializing of david smith’: all three wrote about smith, cone organized an exhibition of his work at the fogg art museum in , and krauss’s phd dissertation was on smith’s sculpture. the tenets of medium specificity. see krauss, ‘changing the work of david smith’, art in america, september/october , - , and raphael rubenstein, ‘critical overhaul’, art in america, may , . michael fried, ‘art and objecthood ( )’, in art and objecthood, chicago: university of chicago press, , - . barbara m. reise, ‘greenberg and the group: a retrospective view, part ’, studio international , no. , june , note . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... cone and krauss’ writings on david smith have been explored in detail elsewhere. relevant here is the manner in which they upheld greenberg’s assessment of smith as the greatest sculptor of his generation while dismissing other abstract expressionist sculptors. cone, in an article for artforum published the year after the exhibition at the fogg art museum, treated smith’s work as if it was created in isolation by severing any connections between him and then-current sculpture; she stated that after the s smith’s works were ‘self-referential’. she affirmed that his sculptural innovations, particularly his use of found objects, were abused in much of the junk sculpture of the era – no doubt a dismissal of abstract expressionist sculpture. similarly, krauss treated smith as an isolated phenomenon in her early writings on his work. later, when she rejected greenbergian formalism in her book passages of modern sculpture, it was not accompanied by a re-evaluation of the sculpture that greenberg had dismissed (such as abstract expressionist sculpture). in the chapter on david smith, she drew on the work of hare, ferber, and lassaw, in order to compare to smith’s work and uphold his greatness. both cone and krauss, in reinforcing smith’s greatness while dismissing the work of other abstract expressionist sculptors, reveal the immediate impact that greenberg had on other scholars. greenberg’s criticism was a significant factor in the reception of abstract expressionist sculpture; that it coincided with the rise and fall of this work is no coincidence. nevertheless, wayne anderson addressed the larger context of this suppression. writing for artforum in , he explained there was a ‘stable character’ in abstract expressionist painting, while in sculpture there were ‘multiple and intermixed’ styles that came across as a lack of consistency – something that greenberg criticized. he attributed this to the variety of methods and materials available to the sculptor – more so than in painting – and also to the rich sculptural tradition they were drawing from. he suggested that sculpture and painting developed as they did in the s because there was a clear grouping of painters, but not sculptors. although there were strong sculptors in the years before the - war – he names calder, jose de rivera, smith, roszak, noguchi, lassaw and meghan bissonnette, ‘chapter : “drawings-in-air”: david smith and the formalist impulse’, in ‘the making of an american sculptor: david smith criticism, - ’, phd diss., york university, . jane harrison cone, ‘david smith’, artforum , no. , june , . jane harrison cone, ‘introduction’, in david smith - : a retrospective exhibition, (exhib. cat.) cambridge, mass.: fogg art museum, , . rosalind krauss, ‘the essential david smith’, artforum , no. , feb. , - ; rosalind krauss, ‘the essential david smith: part ii’, artforum , no. , april , - ; rosalind e. krauss, terminal iron works: the sculpture of david smith, cambridge, mass.: mit, . rosalind krauss, ‘chapter five: tanktotem: welded images’, in passages in modern sculpture, cambridge and london: mit, , - . wayne anderson, ‘american sculpture: the situation of the fifties’, artforum , no. , june , . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... peter grippe – it was difficult to link their works stylistically. he further attributed the reception of sculpture to the tendency of critics to view sculpture in relation to painting: ‘the radicalism of modern sculpture in this country is only disconcerting to those whose historical orientation demands stylistic grouping and continuity. the belief that sculpture since the late forties has followed painting is now a cliché, resulting from the fact that the history of modern art has been written about painting.’ this statement certainly applies to the work of leja and lucie-smith discussed later in this section, as both viewed sculpture by painting’s standards. anderson addressed the ideological nature of this suppression, as well as the cultural context. while there is merit to his claims, one cannot overlook the impact of the foremost american critic of the era. leja only briefly mentioned sculpture in his book reframing abstract expressionism. he claimed that, with the exception of smith, the works were too literal. furthermore, abstract expressionist sculpture was lacking in the spontaneity that characterized painting, implying that the inherent nature of the materials of sculpture led to its lack of success. he failed to account for the so-called color field painters – mark rothko, barnett newman and clifford still – whose works also lacked in spontaneity yet became widely successful. here, leja judges sculpture by painting’s standards. moreover, he does not provide a convincing argument for why this work failed to achieve success, nor does he offer evidence to support his claim that it was this works’ lack of spontaneity that determined its reception. the explanations provided by scholars for the suppression of abstract expressionist sculpture are varied and, at times, contradictory. according to kirk varnedoe in his catalogue essay for the moma exhibition primitivism in th century art, abstract expressionist sculpture had become too formulaic: bones and birds became spiky skeletal monsters and horrific airborne predators, while the simple process of metal welding became a vehicle for tortured, twisted shapes of anguish…to the point that a “regressive” disregard for finish and an “archaic” evocation of mythic horror became predictable, even formulaic aspects of much of american metal sculpture around . his criticism echoes that of greenberg in his article on david smith, especially in regards to the formulaic subject matter and treatment of this sculpture. varnedoe’s claim has merit; however, he doesn’t consider the diversity of abstract expressionist sculpture where not all pieces are characterized by a ‘disregard for finish’ or anderson, ‘american sculpture: the situation’, . anderson, ‘american sculpture: the situation’, . leja, reframing abstract expressionism, . kirk varnedoe, ‘abstract expressionism’, in ‘primitivism’ in th century art: affinity of the tribal and the modern, vol. , ed. by william rubin, new york: the museum of modern art, , . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... ‘evocation of mythic horror’. lassaw’s kwannon ( ), for example, is comprised of an irregular grid-like structure, and its name refers to the japanese buddhist goddess of mercy. and while many works had craggy surfaces, not all did. roszak’s night flight, with its smooth, sleek finish and contrasting jagged edges, is a case in point. not only does varnedoe demonstrate an allegiance to greenberg’s assessments, but it is apparent that he preferred the sublimated use of primitivism by smith and the abstract expressionist painters. edward lucie-smith provides another example of the impact of this suppression. in his popular survey book sculpture since he stated: the upsurge in american painting during the s was not matched by comparable developments in sculpture, and it took some time for the situation to resolve itself. sculptors were confronted by the demand that they should find an equivalent for the abstract expressionist style in painting, and the quintessentially ‘painterly’ nature of this made the demand seemingly impossible to fulfil. in this context he addressed lassaw, roszak, and lipton – but not smith – and declared these artists were attempting to emulate the abstract expressionist painters, but were always a step behind. his study echoes the widespread belief, outlined by anderson, that american post-war painting was supreme, while sculpture was derivative. however, he offered no evidence that the sculptors were attempting to emulate painting or even that they felt the need to do so. lucie-smith went on to argue that abstract expressionist sculpture was either too literal, attached itself to abstract expressionism after the movement had reached its peak, or tried to emulate abstract expressionist painting in its earlier phase. this is stated quite explicitly in his discussion of lipton’s work: ‘as lipton’s career demonstrates, the american sculpture affiliated to abstract expressionism made its appearance only when the movement in painting was already at or even past its peak, and it never took things as far as the painters were ever able to do.’ in his discussion of edward lucie-smith, sculpture since , london: phaidon, , . this position was also expressed by carter ratcliff a few years earlier, however with greater derision. he claimed that the ‘action sculpting’ of lassaw, roszak and others made a mockery of action painting – because welded and dripped metal could not flow like paint, it was therefore ‘stuck with the hulking themes of the early s – all the myth that provincial surrealism loves, and can never forsake. to the poignance of an inadequate technique, these artists joined the bathos of stalled iconography’. carter ratcliff, ‘domesticated nightmares’, art in america, may , . this was a review for the exhibition the third dimension: sculpture of the new york school curated by lisa phillips, then associate curator at the whitney museum of american art. one of the purposes of the exhibition was to bring attention to american sculptors of the s and s, who had been overshadowed by the painters of the era. lucie-smith, sculpture since , chp. . lucie-smith, sculpture since , . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... lassaw’s work, lucie-smith commented on the supposed unoriginal nature of this work, and claimed that lassaw’s sculptures of the s were a ‘literal attempt’ to reproduce paintings by pollock or tobey. yet sarah johnson, in her dissertation on lassaw and the influence of zen buddhism, acknowledges that lassaw was impacted by pollock’s drip paintings, but also examines other influences, such as his interest in cosmological space. both leja and lucie-smith are guilty of judging sculpture by the standards of painting, rather than on its own terms, something greenberg also does. how would their views differ if they regarded sculpture, not as an attempt to find an equivalent to painting, but as having its own aims? neither leja nor lucie-smith provides evidence to support their arguments for why abstract expressionist sculpture was not successful. instead, in these texts by leja, varnedoe, and lucie- smith, the treatment of abstract expressionist sculpture is never questioned. rather, it is accepted as natural and justified by various means. however, a distinction should be made between greenberg, who extended his criticism to ‘the new sculpture’ as a whole, and leja, varnedoe, and lucie-smith who singled out specific sculptors: leja referred generally to sculptors associated with abstract expressionism, yet he highlighted one work by lipton; varnedoe was critical of metal sculpture around , but specifically mentioned roszak, ferber, and lipton; and lucie-smith addressed the work of lassaw, roszak, and lipton. yet these scholars provide differing explanations for the suppression of sculpture (that it was derivative, formulaic, or literal), which suggests that their conclusions are in part conjecture or based on personal opinion. furthermore, lucie-smith’s claim that developments in painting were not met by comparable developments in sculpture eerily recalls greenberg’s comparison of painting and sculpture, for example, his statement in his article on smith that the hopes he had for sculpture ‘have faded. painting continues to hold the field…’ moreover, it provides evidence of the critic’s continued influence. underlying these scholars’ assumptions is the belief that sculpture wasn’t able to be like painting, indicating that the ‘triumph of american painting’ is still a dominant narrative. in order for painting to be seen as the preeminent art form of this period, the complexity of sculpture had to be simplified, even suppressed. leja, varnedoe, and lucie-smith are quite dismissive of post-war abstract metal sculpture; in contrast, anderson is more sympathetic to the aims and concerns of these artists. moreover, he contextualizes the critical reception of this sculpture in the cultural climate of the post-war era, extending a sense of legitimacy to his arguments. anderson’s article points to the complexity of this issue, where multiple factors contribute to the treatment of post-war american sculpture. reconsidering the work of this era would require a rethinking of how sculptors thought about space, outside the reductionist aesthetics of greenbergian lucie-smith, sculpture since , . johnson, ‘zen artists’, - . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... formalism. lassaw’s interest in cosmological space, previously mentioned, is one example. another is ferber’s room-sized sculptural environment, sculpture as environment, which was displayed at the whitney museum of american art in . an early form of installation art, ferber explored the relationship between sculpture, the viewer, and the gallery space. it also requires a closer examination of how artists responded to the anxiety of the post-war and cold war period brought about by the dropping of the atomic bomb, mccarthyism, policies of containment and fear of communist contamination. according to joan pachner, roszak’s spectre of kitty hawk ( - ) is ‘a condemnation of the use of air power in war’. hare’s figure waiting in cold ( ), an elongated totemic figure composed of rows of iron rods and delicate metal netting, alludes to harsh elements and a solitary existence. as explained earlier, abstract expressionist sculpture rejects the tenets of medium specificity, and the dominant reading of this period as one shaped by a modernist impulse. conclusion there have been attempts in the past by critics, curators, and historians to recoup abstract expressionist sculpture. in the early s the sculptor and art critic wade saunders wrote a feature article on abstract expressionist sculpture for art in america, while lisa phillips, then curator for the whitney museum of american art, curated the exhibition the third dimension, featuring their works. these efforts, however, were short lived. the exhibition, action/abstraction, previously mentioned, documented the greenberg/rosenberg debates and included works by ferber, hare, lassaw, lipton, and smith. it is too early to tell the impact this exhibition will have, if any, on the reappraisal of this work. as this article demonstrates, the relegation of post-war abstract sculpture is ingrained for many scholars, historians, and critics. greenberg played a critical role in the suppression of post-war sculpture. he initially supported this work in ‘the new sculpture’, but later dismissed it in his feature article on david smith, and in ‘sculpture of our time’. this dismissal would have a profound effect. the immediate impact can be seen in the work of cone and krauss, two of greenberg’s students, who upheld smith’s greatness while writing off the work of his contemporaries. even when krauss broke with greenberg’s formalism she did not challenge his assessment of abstract expressionist sculpture. joan pachner, ‘theodore roszak and david smith: a question of balance’, arts magazine , no. , february , . wade saunders, ‘touch and eye: ‘ s sculpture’, art in america, dec. , - , ; and phillips, the third dimension. action/abstraction: pollock, de kooning, and american art, - , was organized the jewish museum, new york, in collaboration with the albright-knox art gallery, buffalo, and the saint louis art museum. it was subsequently exhibited in buffalo and saint louis in . meghan bissonnette from ‘the new sculpture’ to garden statuary: ... although a direct causality cannot be determined, echoes of greenberg’s statements can be found in the writings of leja, varnedoe, and lucie-smith, who also rejected abstract expressionist sculpture for various reasons. today, the suppression of abstract expressionist sculpture is evident in the lack of published information and the fact that their works are rarely shown. considering that smith’s work, which greenberg upheld, has been featured in numerous publications and exhibitions in recent years, one questions the long-term impact of his judgments. nonetheless, greenberg is not the sole perpetrator in the reception of this body of work – an issue which anderson raises. one must also ask, to what degree did practicalities play a role in this suppression? siegel noted that the expense of materials was prohibitive to sculptors in the s, and resulted in less artists working in that medium. there was also the need for specialized equipment, the cost of shipping, and the labour- intensive production. more research is needed in this area. the difficulty in trying to recover what has been lost is that the dominant narratives on abstract expressionist sculpture – such as those by leja, varnedoe, and lucie-smith – have become so entrenched that they have become historical fact. the challenge, in trying to put together a comprehensive narrative of post-war sculpture, is that one must take into consideration works and artists that have been written out of the histories. if there is a desire to recoup this work, and gain a glimpse of what the cultural production of an era actually looked like – and not just what we want it to look like – than such efforts become increasingly difficult over time. retrieving information is a challenge: key figures have passed away, and second-hand accounts become the authoritative source. however, there is much to be attained by looking at abstract expressionist sculpture, even if it no longer satisfies current tastes. a greater understanding of the aims and desires in this period of american art, and a stronger grasp of the struggles sculptors faced, are just two things to consider. meghan bissonnette is lecturer of art history at valdosta state university in valdosta, georgia. she earned her phd from york university in . this article is drawn from her sshrc-funded doctoral dissertation ‘the making of an american sculptor: david smith criticism, - ,’ which examines the historiography of david smith in relation to themes of labour, national identity, masculinity, and exceptionalism. bissonnette.meghan@gmail.com this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution- noncommercial . international license. katy siegel, ‘survey,’ in siegel, abstract expressionism, london and new york: phaidon, , . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / nimbusromno l-regu title video as art: collecting artists’ moving image in academic art libraries type article url http://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/ / date citation grandal montero, gustavo ( ) video as art: collecting artists’ moving image in academic art libraries. art libraries journal, ( ). pp. - . issn creators grandal montero, gustavo usage guidelines please refer to usage guidelines at http://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/policies.html or alternatively contact ualresearchonline@arts.ac.uk. license: creative commons attribution non-commercial no derivatives unless otherwise stated, copyright owned by the author http://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/policies.html mailto:ualresearchonline@arts.ac.uk / introduction moving image collections have been a common feature in library collections for more than years, playing an important role in a variety of settings. but although users take their presence for granted today, this development was only possible with the introduction of mass market video formats during the s. the majority of libraries, and almost all academic libraries, did not collect film (or early professional video formats), a role that was left to film archives and commercial film libraries. in the uk, the british library (unlike the library of congress), did not systematically acquire moving image material, which is not subject to legal deposit, this being one of the functions of the british film institute (bfi) since the s. the technical difficulties of making film accessible (in terms of equipment, use and storage), and its limited availability and the difficulty of sourcing material, contributed to the poor use of moving images in universities for teaching and learning, and for research. the situation changed in the early s with the introduction of the videocassette and the first affordable recorders. in sony introduced the ?” u-matic, and, in , the ?” betamax, the first videocassette aimed at the home market. one year later, jvc introduced the vhs (video home system) format, which eventually emerged as the preferred consumer video format in the early s. videocassettes made it possible for academic libraries to develop significant moving image collections, by acquiring pre-recorded material or recording tapes in-house. the affordability and universality of vhs lead to an explosion in the size of these collections, which were further transformed by the introduction of new digital formats. dvd (digital video disc), launched in , has gradually replaced vhs as the universal format for home video, combining its affordability and availability with a much higher image quality. in recent years, new generation digital formats have been introduced, with blu-ray disc (bd) being currently the most popular. the current moving image collection in an academic art library is typically in a variety of formats. at chelsea college of art and design library, for instance, there are around dvds, vhs and u-matic cassettes, the majority pre-recorded commercial publications, but with a significant number of television programmes recorded off-air and some original material acquired through donation. video as art: collecting artists’ moving image in academic art libraries gustavo grandal montero v ideo collections have been part of library holdings for several decades, but developing and managing these collections presents a number of challenges. this is the case particularly for artists’ film and video, and this article attempts to identify the issues involved and to offer some practical guidance, drawing on the experience of collection development and management at chelsea college of art and design library, and across the libraries of university of the arts london and elsewhere. ‘some people take my work too seriously and some don’t take it seriously enough.’ john cage journal art libraries / journal art libraries artists’ film and video artists’ involvement with the moving image is almost as old as the medium itself. from an interest in technology and science to a fascination with popular culture, and especially from the desire to investigate the aesthetic possibilities of film (and video from the late s) as a visual art, the moving image has been particularly attractive to the more radical modes of artistic practice. developments in the technology of film and video that have increased affordability and accessibility (for example the introduction of amateur film equipment, the popularisation of mm and mm formats, the development of portapak and other video cameras, or the digital revolution) have also contributed to increased interest by fine art practitioners in experimenting and producing work in this medium. cinema and modernism are roughly contemporaries, and the ‘historical’ avant-garde produced a substantial corpus of work that would be hugely influential in the development of contemporary art. artists associated with cubism, abstract and constructivist art, futurism and, particularly, dada and surrealism, produced films – from marcel duchamp to salvador dali, including fernand leger, viking eggeling, walter ruttmann, hans richter, oskar fischinger and man ray. from the late s and early s, lettrism, situationism, fluxus and other new ‘radical’ movements created important film work, and the parallel development of video art and conceptual art and minimalism in the late s produced the first generation of artists using the moving image as their main or sole medium of work. artists as diverse as vito acconci, john baldessari, christian boltanski, daniel buren, dan graham, bruce nauman, yoko ono, nam june paik, carole schneemann, robert smithson, wolf vostell or william wegman started to make moving image work during this period. from the late s, installations where video or film are often combined with other media and/or performance in a gallery context (as, for instance, in the work of gary hill), became the prevalent form of artists’ moving image work, a trend that culminated in the s and continues today, although significant ‘single-channel’ (i.e., using a single screen) work continues to be produced, with some artists moving between the two (from bill viola to pipilotti rist), or alternating film or video work with work in other media. in an article published in the art libraries journal in , academic and video artist karen mirza was quoted as stressing the importance that ‘the next generation of video artists should be able to watch historical, as well as contemporary, work while they are completing a degree (...) students need to be aware of its origins, not just current practice’. film and video are ever more popular as a form of contemporary art practice, particularly in the context of installations, as any visitor to art galleries, or art college degree shows, will know, and have been taught as a subject at the latter since the late s. at chelsea college of art and design, for example, the roll call of former staff and students that have produced significant work in this medium include anne rees-mogg, guy sherwin, chris welsby, jock mcfadyen, anna thew, charles garrad, stuart marshall, gillian wearing and steve mcqueen. the imperative for art librarians to build collections of artists’ moving images to serve the current and future needs of artists and art historians is clear. acquisition acquiring videos in academic libraries can be considered more difficult and time consuming than other, more traditional materials, for reasons that include the lack of specialist library suppliers, limited availability of historical and back catalogue titles, changing and diverse formats, complex legal frameworks, etc. selecting and purchasing artists’ videos is often even more challenging, due in part to the nature of the material itself, that of an art work. as with artists’ books, prints or multiples, the librarian working with artists’ moving image assumes the role of the curator. publishers and distributors range from commercial galleries to mainstream film and video distributors (artificial eye, bfi, facets, first run, palm pictures, tartan, t&c film, etc.), and include artists’ organisations and centres (art metropole, electronic arts intermix, lux, etc.); public galleries and art agencies (artangel, arts council, baltic, bifrons foundation, centre pompidou, ica, etc.); publishers of contemporary art books, artists’ books and multiples (bookworks, edition fink, jrp ringier, les presses du reel, mfc michele didier, onestar press, etc.); and artists’ film and video specialist distributors and publishers (anarchive, artpix, bdv, canyon cinema, center for visual music, cinenova, film and video umbrella, filmarmalade, heure exquise!, index, light cone, lowave, mystic fire, re:voir, the film-makers’ cooperative, v tape, video data bank, etc.) films and videos can be available as limited edition artworks, often numbered and/or signed; as institutional copies in ‘professional’ formats, often / journal art libraries acquired with public performance and other rights; or as mass market releases on vhs or dvd for domestic use. film and video work by a specific artist can be available through some, all or none of the above channels. matthew barney’s cremaster cycle has rarely been shown in public and was released in a limited edition of for the art market, but part of the third film is available as the order: cremaster , a mass-market dvd published by palm pictures. tracey emin’s top spot was released in cinemas, and in vhs and dvd for the home market by tartan, but her earlier short film cv is not available on video, and neither are gilbert and george’s historical early s short films, in the tate collection. self-publishing is common, not only for relatively unknown artists or those at the beginning of their careers, but also for well-established practitioners (a remarkable example being takahiko iimura). in art college libraries, and some specialist collections, non-editioned work is often donated by staff or students. these are normally copies on vhs or dvd made by the artists, but would only very rarely be the original master copy. availability issues, and the very high average prices for this material, make it challenging to achieve a good coverage, with balance between historical and current practice. anthologies and compilations are a good way of increasing the coverage of the collection, and often the only way of acquiring the work of certain artists or periods. a special kind of compilation is the video magazine. a number of magazines presenting video art at first hand on vhs appeared in the s, including compiler, factory video magazine, grey suit, untelevision and zapp magazine. multimedia magazine engaged presented its issue no. ( ) in this format. currently, titles like artpix, journal of short film and liveartwork continue this format on dvd. a final source of artists’ film and video is television. british universities and other educational institutions with an era licence are allowed to record off-air television programmes for educational use. from channel turner prize specials to bbc programmes on jeremy deller’s battle of orgreave, british television is a source of documentary material often not available commercially, but also of original artists’ moving image work. legislation although videos have been part of library collections for more than years, the use of this format in academic institutions still presents a number of challenges, with a complex legal framework that includes several grey areas. the brief information provided in this section is intended for general guidance only and individual institutions should establish clear and comprehensive policies and guidelines informed by professional legal advice to ensure that their practices stay within the law. the bufvc (british universities film and video council) provides advice to its members on all aspects of audiovisual collection management and usage. copyright is possibly the most important and most complex of the legal issues related to this material. films, videos and television programmes are protected by copyright legislation. in the uk, commercially produced video in any format (including vhs and dvd) can be shown for teaching purposes, as long as the audience consists of registered students only. copying and adapting this material is not allowed without the permission of the copyright owner. the director and producer are the principal joint owners of copyright, and other people may own the copyright in parts of the programme, e.g., the screenplay or the music. if a programme is produced for an employer, copyright is owned by the employer. copyright of a film lasts for years after the death of the director, producer, screenwriter and composer of any original music. copyright on television programmes expires after years. non-commercially produced videos are also protected by copyright. the conditions in which they can be used depend on the terms of the acquisition, and can be subject to a written contract. artists’ film and video public performance, display and other rights are often offered for sale to institutions (including libraries), and can occasionally be a compulsory requisite for purchase. censorship is also a very important legal consideration, particularly in the uk, where the video recordings act introduced compulsory video censorship. since , the supply of videos not classified by the bbfc (british board of film classification) is a criminal offence, unless exempt, as is supplying a rated video to anyone under the age stated; a video is not covered by the act and is exempt from classification if it is considered educational or if its subject is sport, religion or music. however, this exemption is only granted if the video does not contain images of human sexual activity; mutilation, torture or other acts of gross violence towards humans or animals; human genital organs or human urinary or excretory functions; or techniques likely to be useful in the commission of offences. the interpretation of the law to establish what material it does not cover requires subjective / journal art libraries selected suppliers bdv (bureau des videos) (france) http://www.bureaudesvideos.com contemporary video art distribution and publishing company created in . limited editions on professional formats include public performance rights. unlimited editions on vhs and dvd for private use only are also available for sale. catalogue available online. canyon cinema (usa) http://www.canyoncinema.com filmmakers’ cooperative specialising in the distribution of experimental film, founded in . collection of more than films available for rental and sale in different formats, including vhs and dvd. catalogue available online. cinenova (uk) http://www.cinenova.org.uk non-profit organisation dedicated to distributing films and videos made by women, formed in . collection in different formats, including vhs and dvd, available for rental and sale. catalogue available online. electronic arts intermix (usa) http://www.eai.org/eai/index.htm non-profit media arts centre and distribution service for video and media art, founded in . collection of works available for rental or sale in different formats, including on dvd for educational use in libraries or classrooms. catalogue available online. filmarmalade (uk) http://www.filmarmalade.co.uk new publisher of contemporary artists’ film and video. each dvd release includes a single work, published as a limited edition. catalogue available online. heure exquise! (france) http://www.exquise.org organisation dedicated to distributing video art, created in . collection of works available to members for rental in different formats. copies on dvd for educational use in libraries or classrooms are also available for sale. catalogue available online. index (austria) http://www.index-dvd.at/en/index.html publisher of austrian and international film, video and media art on dvd, established in . catalogue available online. lowave (france) http://www.lowave.com publisher of contemporary film and video art on dvd, established in . catalogue available online. lux (uk) http://www.lux.org.uk non-profit arts agency for the support and promotion of artists’ moving image. founded in , it builds on four decades of work by predecessor organisations (the london filmmakers co-operative, london video arts and the lux centre). collection of works available for rental and sale in different formats, including dvd. it also publishes the collection afterimages and anthologies on dvd. catalogue available online. the lux shop is an excellent source of commercially published vhs and dvd titles. re:voir (france) http://www.re-voir.com publisher of artists’ film and video on vhs and dvd, established in . catalogue available online. video data bank (usa) http://www.vdb.org distribution service for video art, established in . collection of works available for rental and sale in different formats, including vhs and dvd. its early video art collection includes many titles from the castelli-sonnabend collection, the first and most prominent collection of late s and s video art. catalogue available online. v tape (canada) http://www.vtape.org arts center and distribution service for video and media art, founded in . collection of works available for rental and sale in different formats, including dvd. catalogue available online. / judgement, and should only be applied in the context of institutional policies and guidelines. off- air recordings made under the era licence are not covered by the law (as television programmes are regulated by ofcom). access and preservation issues the cataloguing of artists’ videos is discussed in detail elsewhere in this issue, but i would like to close this survey with a few practical considerations regarding both access and preservation. at university of the arts london, local guidelines for the cataloguing of video recordings have been produced to achieve maximum consistency in the application to these materials of the international standards aacr , marc , ddc and lcsh. guidelines for cataloguing artists’ multiples are also used for some of these items. good subject and genre indexing and selection of access points are crucial elements in creating catalogue records that facilitate access and use of artists’ moving image collections. most of the artists’ moving image works in the collection at chelsea are for reference use in the library, for reasons including purchase licence conditions and other legal requirements, to maximise access to expensive resources, and also for preservation purposes. chelsea, like most academic libraries, has no archival role in this area, and the vast majority of this collection comprises non-original material, mostly commercial pre-recorded vhs tapes and dvds, off-air recordings on both formats and some copies of original works made by the artists on different formats. however, the need to ensure that these items, many difficult to find or access in other public collections, are available for future use in teaching and research, means that preservation considerations have been made a priority. developed to make video affordable, vhs was not designed to achieve high resolution and long life. deterioration of tapes, particularly with heavy use or when played in poorly maintained equipment, is common. the fragility of digital discs is also a well- known problem. migration of material to new copies, when legal (e.g. transferring vhs off-air recordings to dvd), and substitution of commercially available titles, when practicable, are partial remedial solutions. equipment and format obsolescence may pose a greater threat to video collections than media degradation factors. the need for dedicated equipment for different formats (u-matic, vhs ntsc, multi-region dvd, etc.) and the pace of technological change could mean that in the long term video collections on cassette or disc formats will not be sustainable. according to audiovisual preservation expert dietrich schüller, ‘within a few years all video specific recording systems will become outdated to be replaced by the handling of video signals as true file formats by computers. this means that all video formats currently in use will be obsolete in the near future’. from the mid s the consensus principle for long term video preservation is that efforts must concentrate on the content, which can only be preserved by migration from analogue to digital formats. in the case of material under copyright, this can only be achieved with the explicit agreement of the copyright holder. this is also the view of pip laurenson, head of time-based media conservation at tate, who has written extensively about the specific preservation issues of artists’ video, in the context of tate collection and installation art: ‘an ongoing preservation program ensures that the videos in the collection are always stored on a current format (...) a regular transfer of the video signals onto new stock, to overcome the problem of material deterioration, and onto new formats to overcome the problem of obsolescence, is therefore essential for the conservation of these art works. the tate gallery plans to do this every five or six years. copying video signals without the loss of information or picture quality is therefore essential and can be achieved using digital technology.’ references . in four american composers, directed by peter greenaway (channel four television, ). cited in a. l. rees, a history of experimental film and video (london: bfi, ), vii. . the british film institute (bfi) is the agency responsible for the moving image heritage in the uk, through the bfi national archive. in the bfi and arts council england appointed curator of artists’ moving image william fowler to develop this area of the collection. the bfi makes , films available for rental in mm and mm copies (see the bfi avant-garde catalogue (london: bfi, ) for some of the material available in these formats) and offers an on-site research viewing service. it also publishes the british artists’ films series in partnership with illuminations and arts council england, as well as the history of the avant-garde series and individual titles on dvd format. journal art libraries . professional video technology had been in use in the broadcasting industry for years. the ampex corporation quadruplex videotape (launched in ) was first used in the usa to record television programmes so that they could be broadcast across multiple time zones. . a general historical overview of the development of this form of practice is available in a history of experimental film and video by a. l. rees (london: bfi, ). david curtis provides a definitive account of artists’ moving image in the uk in a history of artists’ film and video in britain (london: bfi, ). for video art specifically, see catherine elwes, video art: a guided tour (london: tauris, ). . annamarie mckie, jill trumper and nicholas turner, ‘diverse practices: video art and libraries,’ art libraries journal , no. ( ): - . . galleries and bookshops that specialise in artists’ books and multiples are often very good sources for artists’ videos, particularly self-published videos (e.g., printed matter, boekie woekie, florence loewy). . professional formats are high quality formats used in broadcasting like betacam or digital betacam, as opposed to lower quality consumer formats like vhs or dvd. one of the advantages of acquiring high quality formats is the possibility of producing in-house copies in lower quality formats without additional loss of image quality. . a specialist collection that accepts copies of original work is the british artists’ film and video collection at central saint martins college of art and design, see david curtis and steven ball’s article about the collection on p.??-??. . aspen, the first of the multimedia ‘magazines in a box’, included a reel of mm film with four short films in issue no. + ( ). these were hans richter rhythm ( ), laszlo moholy-nagy lightplay: black-white-grey ( ), robert morris and stan vanderbeek site ( ), and robert rauschenberg linoleum ( ). . the era licence permits staff at british educational establishments to record, for non- commercial educational purposes, scheduled free-to-air broadcasts on bbc television and radio, itv network services, channel four, e , more and film , and five television. strict terms and conditions regulate use, labelling, retention, making of copies, etc. more information is available at http://www.era.org.uk/. . see john wyver, vision on: film, television and the arts in britain (london: wallpaper press, ). . british universities film & video council, http://www.bufvc.ac.uk/. . the video standards council, the uk’s video industry professional body, has produced a very clear guide to the video recordings act and subsidiary legislation, which is available at http://www.videostandards.org.uk. . see the article by jacqueline cooke on page ?? - ??. . the national preservation office has published practical guidelines for libraries, caring for cds and dvds ( ), http://www.bl.uk/npo/pdf/cd.pdf. the association of moving image archivists (amia) has developed similar guidelines for videotapes, videotape preservation fact sheet, http://www.amianet.org/resources/guides/ fact_sheets.pdf. . different colour encoding – pal, ntsc, secam – for vhs and regional encoding – to – for dvd require compatible equipment. current and future compatibility issues should be considered when acquiring new material. . dietrich schüller, audio and video carriers (tape, ), http://www.tape-online.net/docs/ audio_and_video_carriers.pdf, . . ‘the conservation and documentation of video art,’ in modern art: who cares? ed. ijsbrand m.c. hummelen and dionne sillé (amsterdam: foundation for conservation of modern art, ), - . acknowledgements many thanks to pete crollie for sharing his experiences in developing a video art collection at wimbledon college of art, and to emily glancy for many discussions about artists’ books, multiples and quite a few other things. gustavo grandal montero collection development librarian chelsea college of art and design/camberwell college of arts university of the arts london chelsea college of art and design library john islip street london sw p ju uk email: g.grandal-montero@chelsea.arts.ac.uk / journal art libraries chasing science culture give me gestalt! preference for cubist artworks revealing high detectability of objects claudia muth , robert pepperell , claus- christian carbon , department of general psychology and methodology, university of bamberg, bamberg, germany cardiff school of art & design, cardiff metropolitan university, cardiff cf sp, uk e-mail: <claudia.muth@uni- bamberg.de> submitted: <leave for editor to date> abstract in cubist paintings by picasso, braque and gris it is possible to detect everyday objects like guitars, bottles or jugs, although they are often difficult to decipher. in this art-science collaborative study we found that participants without expertise in cubism appreciated cubist artworks more if they were able to detect concealed objects in them. the finding of this strong correlation between detectability and preference offers wide implications for art history and human cognition as it points to a mechanism that allows us to derive pleasure from searching for and finding meaningful patterns. keywords: art perception, gestalt, ambiguity, indeterminacy, cubism introduction the visual system continually constructs order out of highly ambiguous and insta- ble stimuli we receive from the world. artworks often exploit, reveal, and play with the perceptual and cognitive mech- anisms involved by presenting viewers with prediction-errors [ ], contradictions [ ], indeterminacy [ , ], or ambiguity [ , ] inducing elaboration of various inter- pretations at the same time. cubist paint- ings are especially open to interpretation as they are full of everyday objects that are concealed because they are depicted in a fragmented way that makes immedi- ate recognition very difficult. in this paper we show that viewers’ apprecia- tion of cubist paintings is closely linked to their ability to identify an object, or a gestalt, respectively, from partial clues. many art theorists and perception re- searchers have proposed such a relation between appreciation and emerging or- der from disorder, ambiguity, or inde- terminacy. the philosopher of art george dickie stresses the recognition of “uniformity in variety” or “simplicity in complexity” [ ] while according to the psychologists hekkert and leder: “we like to look at patterns that allow us to see relationships or create order” [ ]. reber et al. claim that increased fluency in processing a complex topic enhances appreciation [ ]. meanwhile, van de cruys and wagemans suggest that art- works often violate viewers’ perceptual predictions, and that they are then able to derive aesthetic pleasure from reducing the cognitive uncertainty induced by those violations [ ]. the neurologists ramachandran and hirstein argue that perceptual grouping processes in general are linked with the neural structures known as the ‘reward system’ [ ]. but despite the frequent claims that detecting gestalt, or recognizable form, in challenging visual stimuli is inherent- ly pleasing, to date this has not been demonstrated empirically. in this study we chose as stimuli cubist artworks by picasso, braque and gris because they offer a high degree of visual indetermi- nacy and ambiguity yet at the same time are full of recognizable depicted objects [ , ]. thus, they provide a perfect op- portunity to test whether the viewers’ ability to detect these objects is linked to their appreciation of the paintings. participants twenty participants (mage= . yrs; range: - yrs; females) volun- teered in the study. they had normal or corrected-to-normal vision ensured by a standard snellen’s eye chart test and by a short version of the ishihara color vi- sion test. they had no expertise in cubist art. apparatus and stimuli stimuli consisted of photographs of cubist artworks by pablo picasso ( ), georges braque ( ), and juan gris ( ); all of them being adapted to pixels width and pixels height (if the proportion was not . : we cropped the pictures accordingly). the participants sat with an approximate distance of cm in front of a lg w p screen with -inch screen size at a resolution of × pixels yielding a visual angle of about . ° x . ° for the stimuli. procedure and results the study was structured in two blocks, each showing the stimuli in a random- ized order. during the first block, sub- jects had to rate the pictures on liking. during the second block, participants rated how well they could detect objects within the artwork. all ratings were cho- sen from a -point-likert-scale from (‘not at all’) to (‘very’). for both variables we aggregated data across participants revealing a strong relationship between the detectability of objects within cubist artworks and liking indicated by a pearson correlation of r= . , p<. (see fig. ). discussion the results show that gestalt formation is closely linked to appreciation; viewers much preferred paintings in which they were able to decipher concealed objects. this finding is in line with previous pro- posals about the link between detecting fig. . data points represent detectability of objects and liking per stimulus revealing that the better the participants could detect objects within an artwork, the more they liked it. the amount of explained variance is . % indicated by r . the equation gives the rela- tionship of x (detectability) and y (liking). pa pe r is "i n p re ss " ( le on ar do ) order and appreciation [ ], reward by uncertainty reduction [ ] and the detec- tion of simplicity in complexity [ , ]. we did not replicate previous findings showing that over-familiar [ ] or insuf- ficiently ambiguous stimuli [ ] had a negative effect on appreciation. the reason why gestalt recognition is linked to positive appreciation in the case of cubist paintings, however, may not be due merely to the fact that hitherto objects invisible are recognized, or be- cause enjoyment is derived from in- creased fluency in coping with a complex perceptual process [ ]. as the art historian dario gamboni demon- strates, cubist paintings of this period ( - ) never show explicit or complete objects but rather ‘potential’ objects, as he puts it, which cannot be fully resolved [ ]. ernst gombrich points out that the experience of reading a cub- ist painting is unsettling because the paintings present us with “contrary clues which will resist all attempts to apply the test of consistency…we will always come across a contradiction somewhere which compels us to start afresh” [ ]. another art historian, robert hughes, writes of the paintings that “as a descrip- tion of a fixed form they are useless”; their value lies in the way they “report on multiple meanings, on process” [ ]. unlike images that offer effortless and determinate recognition cubist paintings present the viewer with ongoing percep- tual indeterminacy while offering clues to enable gestalt recognition. our find- ing of increased preference for paintings revealing high detectability of objects might then be attributable not just to the mere recognition of forms but also to the fact that recognition is occurring against a background of ongoing uncertainty. the principle of ‘uniformity in variety’ noted above highlights this point while holding provided that we can appreciate the qualities of uniformity and variety at the same time. as the critic and early supporter of cubism guillaume apolli- naire emphasized, this requires great involvement and effort of the viewer, which enhances aesthetic pleasure [ ]. this link between elaboration and ap- preciation is supported by empirical studies showing that appreciation in- creases with the elaboration of innova- tive material but not with that of conventional and easy stimuli [ ] – a result that is consistent across different types of measurement [ ] and different age groups [ ]. in line with van de cruys and wagemans we thus propose that it is the presence of novelty, uncer- tainty or other challenges evoked by a stimulus that promotes dynamic aesthetic processes [ ], not the fluency or imme- diacy of recognition per se. further stud- ies might assess in which way gestalt detection influences those dynamics: is there an immediate effect of the insight [ ] during gestalt recognition on aes- thetic appreciation and how does this relation unfold with time? getting the balance right between un- recognizability and recognizability seems critical to maximizing aesthetic response. this can be illustrated by a key episode in the history of the development of cubism: in picasso spent the summer in the spanish town of ca- daqués where he produced a large body of highly abstract paintings in which objects were barely discernible. art his- torians now refer to this as the ‘hermetic’ phase of cubism. picasso’s main dealer, daniel-henry kahnweiler, declined to buy any of these works (with one excep- tion) – a sign that he had concerns about selling them on to collectors [ ]. prob- ably stung by this (the dealer had pur- chased nearly all of the artist’s cubist works up to that point) picasso quickly embarked on a major portrait of kahn- weiler ( , art institute of chicago) which is notable for the reintroduction into the cubist language of much more identifiable cues about the objects being depicted [ ]. kahnweiler soon resumed purchasing picasso's works, which there- after explicitly avoided indecipherable abstraction. together with our empirical findings, this episode suggests that part of the reason we value perceptually challenging images, and cubist paintings in particu- lar, is that they offer us an opportunity to wrestle with our own perceptual pro- cesses and discover hidden patterns and order. when this process of discovery becomes too difficult appreciation is diminished; when the struggle is reward- ed then it is increased. the motivation for and success of the perceivers’ efforts are likely to be linked to the interplay between determinacy and ambiguity or order and disorder, which the cubist art- ists were highly successful at manifest- ing in their works. our findings have relevance beyond aesthetic perception and art history as they might point to a general principle of cognition: we derive pleasure from stim- uli in which we can detect meaning and ambiguity at the same time. understand- ing the appreciation of works of art thus offers insights into the way the human mind operates. references . s. van de cruys and j. wagemans, “putting reward in art: a tentative prediction error account of visual art,” i-perception , no. ( ) pp. - . . meinhardt ( ), <http://www.artnet.de/magazine/uber-den- gedachtnisverlust-der-gegenwartskunst>, accessed december . . d. gamboni, potential images: ambiguity and indeterminacy in modern art (london: reaktion books, ). . r. pepperell, “connecting art and the brain. an artist's perspective on visual indeterminacy,” fron- tiers in human neuroscience ( ) pp. - . . m. jakesch and h. leder, “finding meaning in art: preferred levels of ambiguity in art apprecia- tion,” the quarterly journal of experimental psy- chology , no. ( ) pp. - . . g. dickie, introduction to aesthetics: an analytic approach (new york: oxford university press, ). . p. hekkert and h. leder, “product aesthetics”, h. n. j. schifferstein and p. hekkert, eds., product experience (amsterdam: elsevier, ) p. . . r. reber, n. schwarz, and & p. winkielman, “processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure. is beau- ty in the perceiver's processing experience?,” per- sonality and social psychology review , no. ( ) pp. - . . v. s. ramachandran and w. hirstein, “the science of art. a neurological theory of aesthetic experience,” journal of consciousness studies , no. - ( ) pp. - . . d. e. berlyne, studies in the new experimental aesthetics: steps toward an objective psychology of aesthetic appreciation (oxford, u.k.: hemisphere, ). . e. gombrich, art & illusion: a study in the psychology of pictorial representation (london: phaidon, ). . r. hughes, the shock of the new. art and the century of change (london: thames & hudson, ) p. . . g. apollinaire, les peintres cubistes. médita- tions esthétiques (paris: e. figuière, ). . c. c. carbon and h. leder, “the repeated evaluation technique (ret). a method to capture dynamic effects of innovativeness and attractive- ness,” applied cognitive psychology , no. ( ) pp. - . . c. c. carbon, l. michael, and h. leder, “de- sign evaluation by combination of repeated evalua- tion technique and measurement of electrodermal activity,” research in engineering design , no. - ( ) pp. - . . c. c. carbon and j. p. l. schoormans, “rigidity rather than age as a limiting factor to appreciate innovative design,” swiss journal of psychology , no. ( ) pp. - . . w. köhler, die aufgabe der gestaltpsychologie (berlin, new york: walter de gruyter, ). . j. richardson, j., a life of picasso: - : the painter of modern life (london: jonathan cape, ). . r. penrose, “picasso's portrait of kahnweiler,” the burlington magazine , no. ( ) pp. - . pa pe r is "i n p re ss " ( le on ar do ) 	give me gestalt! preference for cubist artworks revealing high detectability of objects cross fertilization between museums and schools, science and art, history and multimedia cross fertilization between museums and schools, science and art, history and multimedia lidia falomo bernarduzzi • gabriele albanesi received: june / accepted: january / published online: february � the author(s) . this article is published with open access at springerlink.com abstract in pavia university celebrated its th birthday. this provided the opportunity to propose the neverland project whose purpose was to overcome the division between formal and informal science education. a number of classes (various age groups) from a group of schools in the province of pavia took part in the project. the university museums (physics, medicine, mineralogy, natural history, botanic garden) and laboratories joined forces. each class adopted a famous pavia scientist of the past (including volta, scarpa, scopoli, taramelli and golgi), visited the corresponding museum and undertook specific laboratory ac- tivities. once back at school, the information gathered was related to the history of modern figurative art focusing on the role of analogical inference, often relevant both in scientific and artistic innovation. participatory videos and multimedia were produced. the neverland project draws on the past work of the history of physics group starting in the s and s which aimed to preserve, restore and explain through d multimedia old physics instruments. this work led to the foundation of the university (science) museum system. interactive exhibitions were dedicated to volta ( ), einstein (an international project run in in conjunction with berlin and jerusalem and with contributions from oldenburg and pisa), galileo ( ), and the history of the energy conservation principle ( ). in all of them, high school students were trained to play the role of ‘‘explainers’’, carrying out a series of historical experiments with younger pupils, classmates, and the general public. the various activities were coordinated by university students. the youngest participants were encouraged to develop forms of ‘‘artistic’’ expression based on the feelings and ideas experienced in their exposure to scientific activities. l. falomo bernarduzzi (&) department of physics, university of pavia, pavia, italy e-mail: lidia.falomobernarduzzi@unipv.it g. albanesi via breventano , pavia, italy e-mail: albangab@alice.it interchange ( ) : – doi . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &amp;domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &amp;domain=pdf keywords formal/informal science education � formal/informal images � history of science � history of art � multimedia the university of pavia’s museum system the university of pavia is very old: it was founded by charles iv in . during the fifteenth century its prestige grew—a number of colleges were established and the current main site was used for lectures. in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the university experienced a period of crisis, but nevertheless saw the establishment of the city’s two most important colleges. such illustrious persons as gerolamo cardano ( – ) and gaspare aselli ( – ) were teaching there at the time. in the eighteenth century the reforms of empress maria theresa and emperor joseph ii of austria made the university one of the most famous in europe. many university collections were established in those years: the museum of natural history was established in under lazzaro spallanzani ( – ); also saw the creation of the physics laboratory under carlo barletti ( – ), who was succeeded by alessandro volta ( – ); the botanic garden was founded in , and expanded under giovanni antonio scopoli ( – ); the medical collections were established in the s, and antonio scarpa ( – ) became curator of the anatomy museum, which housed the normal and pathological human anatomy and comparative anatomy collections. the university laboratories and museums became places of teaching and for disseminating scientific knowledge. professors were required to perform public experiments, and hold demonstration lessons once or twice a week. the best students assisted and worked with their professors in their research activities. the collections grew as a result of a dense network of relations that extended throughout europe. the university laboratories, especially in physics, became nodes in a network that stretched to all grammar schools in the province, and saw the presence of the most important instruments in the various branches of physics in each school. in napoleon defeated the piedmontese and the austrians, and conquered lombardy. this led to a number of rapid political changes: the first cisalpine republic, the austro-russian reaction, the second cisalpine republic, the napoleonic italian republic, the kingdom of italy, the return of the no longer ‘‘enlightened’’ austrians. despite the political, institutional and economic difficul- ties, new laboratories were founded in the first decade of the nineteenth century (hydrometry, geodesy and architecture), others in the middle of the century (technology, science of the construction of machines). they were then transferred to milan, where a higher technical institute for engineers was established. in the university expanded by acquiring botta palace, at the time the most sumptuous private house in pavia. the institute of pathology was relocated there. the institute became famous under camillo golgi ( – ), who made fundamental contributions to medicine and biology and received the nobel prize in . l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi in the s, the old research laboratories were turned into museums (e.g. the history of pavia university museum was founded in ) and, following a refurbishment of the university buildings, new collections were founded in the new institutes of anatomy, physics, chemistry and histology. the most recent re-organisation (bevilacqua et al. ) began in the s. the museum of mineralogy, whose oldest specimens date back to lazzaro spallanzani, was transferred to its new home. the same happened to the mathematics collection. finally, in the early s the museum of electrical technology was founded. the university science museums are today working to revive the strong educative function that characterized their origins. this means actively engaging all the various visitors both through the use of the history of science and modern university laboratories, which are often housed in the same buildings as the museums. they also want to expand their role as a key node in the network of schools extending throughout the region, through formal and informal educational activities and by collecting data on the historical collections held in the schools in order to enhance them. formal/informal formal/non formal/informal education the literature discussing the distinction between formal education and non-formal and informal education stretches back a number of years. the distinction can be seen in the generic division between formal/informal education, and even in this dichotomy there are many ambiguities (hodkinson et al. ). we refer in particular to eshach’s definition of the three types of learning (eshach , p. ) and show how they can be integrated into a common framework through a close partnership between formal educational and non-formal cultural institutions in the pavia area working on a single project. this has, as described below, several implications and effects also on the level of informality (web, augmented reality, interpersonal relationships). in addition to the visit, and the workshop, and the use of the museum’s collections as an opportunity to ‘‘supplement’’, extend or explore an individual school subject (kisiel ), schools began to plan their educational activities in conjunction with museums. the objectives and content of the projects were based on the nature of each museum as well as the curriculum pathways of individual school subjects. formal/non formal/informal learning rigorous cognitivism and the logic of deductive/inductive learning forces us to pay more attention to the mechanisms of cognition than to the situation in which it takes place. we must, therefore, consider those attitudes and theories that pay or have paid more attention, not only to the mechanisms of thought, but also the social context, and the nature of the cultural offerings, and conditionings. we refer, for example, to the processes of assimilation and accommodation (piaget and avec la cross fertilization collaboration de garcia ), and mediation and social interaction (vygotskji ), as well as to recent research on multiple intelligences (gardner ) or to the pluridimensionality of mental life (bruner , ). in this respect, we can think of the learning process as one of continuous, up-to-date exchange between external stimuli and their internal encoding, even in the presence of digital tools (jonassen et al. ). it is an ongoing process involving not only logic/deduction, selection and cataloguing, but also other forms of thinking, different mental, behavioural and psychological processes, attitudes, as well as sensations, feelings and impulses. it is therefore a subtle, continuous exchange that produces similarities, comparisons, associations and evocations, metaphors and symbols, and forms of analogical thinking. the science museum becomes a place with collections of objects evoking stories and biographies, theories and abstractions, people and problems, initially within the clearly marked boundaries of a specific scientific path, but soon spreading and creating associations, triggering other routes, tailored to the memory of each person, to the stories heard (in the case of schoolchildren), to areas not yet defined in his/her personal life experience. one moves away from the subject. associations between different dimensions, between technology and humanism, between science and art are activated. einstein ( – ) and picasso ( – ), for example, did not cross paths, and the theory of relativity never came into contact with the contemporary concerns of cubism. indeed, einstein himself said, in a letter replying to paul laporte (who, before its publication, had sent him his essay entitled cubism and the theory of relativity written in ): ‘‘this new artistic ‘‘language’’ has nothing in common with the theory of relativity’’. however, a few lines earlier in that same letter he stated: if i disregard the practical value of a science i do see a similarity between the scientific and the artistic activity. both attempt to assemble from parts a whole which by itself is indistinct—(ein an sich unuebersichtliches ganzes) in such a way that the resulting order creates distinctness and clarity. the distinctness and clarity thus achieved gives us a satisfaction of a high order. this occurs both in science and in art. in science, the principle of order which creates units is achieved through logical connection while, in art, the principle of order is anchored in the unconscious… (laporte , p. ). we would like to think that einstein and picasso met involuntarily ‘‘at an analogical level’’ or even just ‘‘at a metaphorical one’’. so the connection between art and science has its rationale, its raison d’être lies in the value of learning ‘‘by analogy.’’ this encounter can produce (and the final exhibition of the ‘‘neverland’’ project is concrete proof of this) operations, ideas, objects, drawings/paintings. this ‘‘doing’’ involves ‘‘understanding’’ the reasons (figures in science and scientific subjects, scientific theories, documents kept in the museum) in order to subsequently ‘‘translate’’ them into images, in a ‘‘modular’’ or ‘‘multiple’’ behaviour of knowledge engaging different intelligences, and making use of various production techniques for the same topic. in the context of the museum, this ‘‘understanding by doing’’ (de bartolomeis ) is initiated and developed through the workshop. the scientific workshops conducted within various contexts of the university of pavia’s museum system l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi perform this function on several levels: experimenting synergically together (and even synesthetically to some extent, if we consider the willingness of younger children to explore their experiences with the involuntary and tender help of the five senses: the smell of the museum, its colours, the ‘‘slipperiness’’ of some equipment, the sting of the electric shock felt by children, etc.), in a controlled manner, using deductive logic and consistent explanations, but which leave each young person the freedom to ‘‘explore science’’ using ‘‘every one’’ of his/her intelligences. in the context of the last completed project—‘‘neverland’’—we also ran a participatory video workshop. under the expert guidance of a filmmaker, children from some sample classes turned into actors, directors and sound technicians, and proceeded to explore the museum with the use of camcorders. in these short professionally edited and produced videos, the metaphor of analogical exploration of the museum was refined further, and took on the form and style of an exchange with the museum, translated into a visual story. the videos revealed not only the rigour of scientific narrative, and its faithful reproduction, but also narrative strategies, aptitudes and opinions. the term participatory video accurately indicates the collective nature of the experience, which does not detract from the scientific quality of the narration, yet at the same time gives it an emotional sense of discovery, of wonder. these analogical paths are rich in sensitivities and emotions, the same emotions experienced when performing a scientific experiment, a sense of novelty and at the same time of the verifiability of a hypothesis. formal/informal images in both visual art and science the analogy is between reality and its representation. museums possess documents, instruments, objects and images in general about reality investigated from a scientific viewpoint. in our case they are the museums of physics, medicine, botany, and earth sciences. both art and science use two types of images, a ‘‘realistic’’ kind (as we perceive things), and another that is mental, conceptual in nature (schemas, models, formulas). science also uses technical tools—microscopes, telescopes, computers, sensors—thus expanding the perception of reality. the mental and conceptual processing of the observed world is translated into schemas, taxonomies, formulas, graphs, models, and generally into ‘‘signs of thought’’ by introducing into research elements and marks of visual grammar, the same grammar that is used in the visual arts. this ‘‘thinking in pictures’’ must also make use of the same visual rules. all the ‘‘players’’—students, teachers, museum staff and those involved in the university workshops— are engaged in this dialogue through interaction with the artefacts (interactive exhibits, new technology, historical and natural specimens) and situations (sharing, co-operating, negotiating, verbalising intuitions, doubts, asking them to reflect, to try out etc.). a number of participatory videos produced by the classes can be viewed at: http://musei.unipv.it/ _ didattica/didattica.html. we know that the world that we see before us whenever we open our eyes - the colours, shapes, movements and expressive qualities of objects—is not a mere copy or mirror of the physical world around us. it is also the result of the construction of the visual system which, through a complex chain of operations and processes, transforms and organises the incoming sensory messages. the eye and related neurophysiological mechanisms are only the beginning of this organisational process. it is at this level of cross fertilization http://musei.unipv.it/ _didattica/didattica.html http://musei.unipv.it/ _didattica/didattica.html the observations that arise from seeing the world directly or indirectly are put together and integrated with abstract or informal types of image. in particular, formal (figurative and realistic), informal (gestural and material) and abstract (geometric and compositional) are typical categories used in visual art to represent the physical (reinterpretation of reality) or mental (feelings, attitudes, affections). we can imagine this as the ‘‘poetic journey’’ that the artist and the scientist undertake hand in hand as they set off on their journey. both open their eyes to the spectacle of the world, they are dazzled, both begin to describe it, each with her or his own language: the artist begins to investigate nature, configures shapes and relationships, brings into focus shapes and contrasts and then begins to turn what she or he sees into a visual representation, using the elements of visual language (colour, light, point, line, surface, etc.). soon she or he moves away from realistic narration, she or he moves in different directions, she or he prefers abstract shapes, chooses geometric figures, reduces them to their essence, frames them, looks for compositions, makes (informal) choices of pure form, then imitates nature, its indistinct surfaces, humus and matter without definitions or boundaries (these are the choices of material, sign and informal art). the scientist too investigates nature. she or he, in turn, is dazzled, she or he searches for origins and causes, senses the presence of laws and dependencies, inferences and relationships, she or he hypothesizes changes, translates her or his perceptions into hypotheses using, for example, geometry, mathematics and formal logic. she or he deduces models, laws, seeks confirmation, transforming her or his initial visual perceptions into completed schemas, which she or he is able to represent fully in her or his mind and to rewrite on a blackboard. these schemas/graphs/formulas are ‘‘abstract’’ translations of her or his deductions i.e. non-realistic forms which nevertheless still represent reality. in our projects with schools we have often dealt with this interplay between different forms, between realistic and abstract/informal re-interpretations of reality, of the world, of nature, rediscovered in art galleries and science museums. indeed, young children have, if properly educated and guided, an incredible creative and expressive capacity, but also, in relation to the investigation and credibility of events, one capable of distinguishing between reality and image, between the real world and imagination. children do not easily lose sight of the distinction between real and virtual, they have no difficulty in playing with analogies (falomo bernarduzzi et al. ) as well as with scientifically correct definitions, which they keep in their memories. if, for example, during a visit to the museum of mineralogy a child is shown images of thin sections of minerals seen under the polarized light of a microscope, she or he will be able to enthuse about the colours she or he sees in these images better than an adult, and, if she or he possesses the necessary information, be able to translate/re-live the same sensations in other types of images, for example in abstract works of visual art. but she or he will also be able to footnote continued analysis that fundamental, long-running experimental research has accurately formulated the main ‘‘rules of vision’’, with their chromatic, dimensional, formal and physiognomic parameters. like those of written and spoken language, these rules are summed up by the term ‘‘grammar of vision’’ (kanizsa ). l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi ‘‘copy’’ or ‘‘reproduce’’ these images, using visual memory and sensitivity, and produce her or his own personal drawings. she or he will be able to carefully ‘‘observe’’ the surfaces of minerals and, from that informal knowledge, invent, produce, configure realistic images, as we all do when we dreamily look at clouds in the sky. she or he will even be able to draw a cloud ‘‘in the manner of picasso or kandinsky ( – )’’. she or he must, however, learn to observe, for example, the moon in the sky, to dream about, reflect on and rediscover that same and yet different moon in a painting by van gogh ( – ), look for it again through a telescope, in order to learn to understand it better, to draw it and to surf the seas of internet, and share the experience with all the world’s children. the child’s representation of the world meanwhile, we also try to identify and distinguish, in the context of, and alongside informality, two types of images: those that are formed in the mind, as patterns, tracks, models, formulas, which we can more appropriately define as abstract, and those that are drawn directly from our personal visual experience through the mechanism of configuration. configuration is present in every kind of mental or graphical representation of the outside world, be it formal (figurative, realistic, photographic) or informal (stains, signs without any naturalistic connotation). configuration allows us to recognize an image, connect it to a schema, classify it, and thus include it among already known images; in the case of unknown signs, informal stains or images of unknown objects, configuration allows us to draw comparisons, make connections, analogies, and, possibly define a new category of image. configuration helps us to move away from the discomfort of incomprehen- sion (i do not understand what i see…) and tends to allow us to fit a confusing image within a familiar visual category. in this respect, it may be considered linked to the rule of good form cherished by gestalt psychology. that is why we encourage efforts to identify known forms in unknown informality such as figures in clouds or in stains on walls. this may be an inevitable and automatic activity, which we yield to by virtue of the power of order (gombrich ). more generally, the distinction between formal, informal and abstract, when reduced to the dimension of images, may be defined as the difference between realistic and non-realistic. it is related to the concept of visual realism. if a realistic image is one that represents reality as we perceive it, it is the result of a consolidated common sense conception which identifies external reality with the images of it produced by our binocular, perspective, photographic vision. according to more traditional developmental psychology, from the age of three all children begin to represent the world using forms of visual realism: this form of representation, which we can define very simply as ‘‘formal’’ is gradually consolidated through the use and increased application of consolidated and repeated interpretational (or conceptual) frames. in this respect, children’s drawings can be defined as teaching paths and drawings of the moon and sun can be found at http://galileolab.wetpaint.com/page/ come?la?vuoi?la?luna% f. cross fertilization http://galileolab.wetpaint.com/page/come% bla% bvuoi% bla% bluna% f http://galileolab.wetpaint.com/page/come% bla% bvuoi% bla% bluna% f stereotypes. different types of increasingly sophisticated schemas, over the years, i.e. increasingly defined as ‘‘truthful’’, accumulate, almost as if moving in an obligatory figurative direction, moving inexorably towards a sort of accepted representative realism of adulthood. the ability that children of all ages have to express themselves graphically also through signs (using both visual language- colour, lines, light, abstract forms etc.—but also through the synaesthesia of signs from other senses—sounds, tastes, smells…) that are not structured in a realistic sense, suggest that the ‘‘realistic path’’ is not the only, inevitable one, but also the unwitting result of the encounter with the adult culture of which the child is a part from birth. realistic figurative stereotypes are the result of a form of accommo- dation (piaget ) to the adult, through which the child obtains immediate gratification and understanding. for the sake of communicative economy other ‘‘informal’’ graphic signs are neglected, this time by the adult (parent, educator, media…), and only emerge in specific contexts, as in our projects. the educational role of museums—planning together with schools the nature of the close partnership between the schools in the pavia area and pavia university’s museum system requires us to consider the guidelines laid down by the italian ministry of education, universities and research (miur), particularly the national guidelines for the curricula of infant schools, primary schools and lower secondary schools (ministero dell’istruzione and dell’università e della ricerca ). they expand the opportunities for collaboration and reinforce the bases of existing projects. these new educational and cultural scenarios set out, in very clear detail, the scope of a ‘‘new humanism’’, placed within a context of increasingly broad and globally interconnected geographical, political and cultural boundaries. within such a context, the divide between ‘‘humanistic culture’’ and ‘‘scientific culture’’ loses its meaning. instead, the encounter between science and art, which is developed in context in all our projects, becomes ever more relevant. the distance between ‘‘formality’’ and ‘‘informality’’ in education also tends to shrink. the educational content presented within the context of the guidelines, at the various school levels, modify the objectives and the very boundaries of the disciplines involved. the guidelines propose greater interaction between different disciplines and set concrete goals. they call for better-targeted, more clearly defined interdisciplinary project goals, which are open to the social, to exchange with the local community and its cultural agencies. the dimensions of ‘‘the local’’ too are extended towards ‘‘the glocal’’ through the net and the world wide web. it is, at the same time, an attempt to simplify the normal school ‘‘curricula’’, which are required to set goals, timelines, clear and consistent objectives and assessment methods, all within better selected and more focused content. in this completely revised educational and cultural dimension, the definition of the curriculum has expanded, while projects with museums acquire more concrete goals, as well as greater educational responsibility. the guidelines for pre-school ( – years) education structure learning within the confines of the five fields of experience: the self and others, body and movement, l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi images, sounds and colours, discourse/conversation and words, knowledge of the world. this is, therefore, a dimension that is not yet divided into disciplines, but which involves different modes and approaches; it is a synergy or ‘‘global’’ interaction of at least three approaches: the narrative, based on spoken language, description and story-telling; the creative, based specifically on art and its various fields, but also on new media and new languages of communication, which young children encounter as spectators and as actors. a third approach, based specifically on exploring the body, objects and nature through the five senses, comes into contact with the ‘‘world’’. here, attention is focused especially on the environment, natural phenomena, the world of animals as well as the shape and functioning of the human body. these three approaches, based on the guidelines, can be found in our projects for children aged – , offered in different forms for this broad age range, but always interconnected in various ways. during their visits to museums and ‘‘places of science’’ and in the laboratories/workshops they explore through observation and the use of their senses, in general, in playful, emotionally engaging contexts that provide synesthetic stimuli (vecchiato ; oliverio and oliverio ferraris ; singer and singer ; macchietti ; bruner et al. ). examples include: a visit to alessandro volta’s study and then to his laboratory, where children observe certain phenomena, such as lightning, simulated through the spark of a wimshurst electrostatic machine. they are able to perceive the sound of the spark, its smell, and imagine its effects; they are able to feel on their skin the small sparks generated by a volta electrophorus. they can ‘‘taste electricity’’ (through two tea spoons made of different metals placed on the sides of their tongues), as volta himself did. in this way, they explore these phenomena through their senses, as has happened to scientists, before instruments were devised to detect, and later, measure them. in the medicine section they can look inside the human body, through wax models, and through th and th century skeletons and interesting slides under the microscope, such as those prepared by camillo golgi. in the natural history museum they can compare the human body with those of animals, observing their differing anatomical structures, resulting from different functions and evolution… their sensorial experiences, their visual-graphic expressiveness and oral narration skills increase within a general, global (wallon ; pichon-rivière ) ‘‘story of the world’’, in which the children live and within which they begin to approach science. they ask questions, try to understand what cannot be seen (like scientists), they develop a sense of wonder about what they do not know (again like scientists). clearly, visual narration prevails, hence the reliance on ‘‘stories’’ using images, which are produced in school workshops that take place following museum visits. now begins a journey in which, through learning, images become increasingly important. later these indicate and turn into ‘‘visual models’’, which will then become an important part of the scientifically-based cognitive process. at these ages, the stories based on the history of science are largely about people and objects in our projects both in the museum and at school. the pieces produced such as artefacts, drawings, videos and stories related to their explorations, maintain an cross fertilization imaginary and playful dimension. what can later be narrated, reported and exaggerated to their families becomes important for the children. this global perspective persists in later years, but is gradually toned down, grows more mature, and becomes more specialised from the age of – , when the narrative, creative and exploratory approaches initially experienced in synergy, differentiate. the context continues to be stories, but this time narrated using specific languages. again, to quote the guidelines at the end of primary school ( years), children should: develop a sense of curiosity and ways of looking at the world that encourage them to look for explanations of what they see happening around them. explore phenomena using a scientific approach. with the help of the teacher, their classmates, on their own, they observe and describe events as they happen, ask questions, on the basis of personal assumptions, devise and carry out simple experiments. identify similarities and differences in the phenomena, make measurements, record significant data, identify space–time relations. identify quantitative and qualitative relationships in phenomena, produce graphical repre- sentations and drawings of an appropriate level, develop simple models… (ministero dell’istruzione and dell’università e della ricerca , p. ). the guidelines provide indications on the ‘‘methods’’ and ‘‘structures’’ and ‘‘representations’’ and ‘‘models’’ that form the backbone of scientific research and are a prelude to the guidelines for the lower secondary school curriculum, where physics, chemistry, astronomy, earth sciences and biology are taught for the first time. the attainment goals for the skills to be developed at the end of this level of education (age ) are the following: pupils explore and experiment in the laboratory and outdoors, the most common phenomena as they occur, they imagine and verify the causes; they look for solutions to problems, using the knowledge they have acquired. they develop simple outlines and models of facts and phenomena using, when necessary, appropriate measures and simple formulas… they make connections between the development of science and the development of human history. they develop curiosity and interest in the main problems related to the application of science in scientific and technological developments. (ministero dell’istruzione and dell’università e della ricerca , p. ). between the ages of and they begin to consolidate the visual models and images that sustain the knowledge they acquire. this thinking in images is reinforced through the use of illustrations, relies on science stories told through videos, films, comics, photographs and cartoons. as they improve their skills of expression (including graphical), pupils use figuration to tell stories of science, to illustrate experiments, to report laboratory work. from the age of / , the visual models are less tied to the real world and turn into outlines, graphs and diagrams, which pupils learn to draw in order to summarize concepts, science stories and scientific information. these are the analogue pictures that accompany and grow alongside knowledge and concepts acquired through deductive reasoning. they are perceptions, configurations, combinations and inventions of forms, metaphorical associations and similes, identifications between already coded mental patterns and new experiences. this l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi dynamic activity nourishes their ‘‘visual thinking’’, it combines concepts and images, consolidates outlines and creates reference models. these models are continually moving away from the initial forms of visual realism, characteristic of earlier developmental stages—they are no longer naturalistic but tend towards abstract and essential forms. thanks to these skills, which have now become interdisciplinary in nature, as pupils have mastered different languages through specific areas of research linked to the subject areas, the work proposed in the context of history-science and modern workshops in museums and in the multimedia ones at school become easier and more productive. pupils are now able to isolate, even before they reach upper secondary school, contexts of research which are defined as scientific activities. they can describe phenomena and timelines, illustrate and record them as they occur, and make logical deductions. the work, reports, and artefacts produced in these age groups still retain all the features of a science story, but are more detailed and presented using various, simultaneously present languages. they include narrated and illustrated biographies and case studies, comparisons between experiments, the search for analogies between different scientific events, the use of sophisticated images taken from the history of art, graphic summaries, maps and graphs, photographic reports, videos that are published online through social media… at secondary school level, logical deduction, the results of logical reasoning and the definition of theoretical models become more important. the mathematical knowledge that has been gradually acquired paves the way to science education proper. in this age group ( – years old) pupils, after participating in history- science workshops and modern laboratories, often within more general topics (heering ; bevilacqua et al. ; andreani et al. ) become explainers (they present the historical experiments in the exhibition/workshop held at the end of the project to their peers and to the public). they are also able to use, produce and present exhibits and multimedia materials which focus on science stories, debates among scientists, compare different theories (‘‘impossible’’ dialogues) and historical contexts (bevilacqua and falomo bernarduzzi ; bevilacqua and bordoni ). finally, as regards the last age group, university and doctorate science students coordinate the final exhibition/workshop activities, while undergraduates studying on the communications degree course take part in the project by producing multimedia materials. each project, recently almost on a yearly basis, is planned jointly with teachers and starts with update days for them on selected history of science and history of art topics. however, teachers are left to decide the most appropriate way to present the topics to their classes. this enables all the participants involved to develop contemporaneously: museum staff (and academics), who provide their skills, but which is, at the same time, enriched by the different interpretations of their collections and histories of science; teachers who acquire new, specific knowledge and, at the same time see their role as mediators between the knowledge in museums and the learning needs of their pupils enhanced and pupils, who see themselves as cross fertilization protagonists not only during the various stages of a project, but also in the final presentation of their products or historical experiments. all participants, including the teachers themselves, learn through direct involvement, ‘‘by doing’’, thus putting into practice that ‘‘eclectic approach to the insertion of the hps in science teaching’’ outlined by stinner et al. ( , p. ) through an effort that is collective, and therefore reduced for each participant. the neverland project the project came about during the th anniversary celebrations of the founding of the university. the celebrations provided the opportunity for the very young to discover the university, to grow with it, as well as renew and strengthen their relationship with the city. fifteen schools (nursery, primary as well as st and nd level secondary schools) in the city and province of pavia took part in the project. more than a thousand fig. map of the activity trails the different classes followed l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi pupils and students (thirty-five school classes and a university course) aged – years old encountered figures in the history of pavia university, visited its museums, analysed documents, and acquired knowledge. both logical and analogical paths were adopted in various ways in situated learning occasions. every participant was guided through science in a rigorous, documented, objective manner, and, at the same time (and this is a little travelled road) was invited to follow parallel paths, which were in some way connected with the original investigation, but which could be ‘‘commented’’ ‘‘reconstructed’’ and ‘‘narrated’’ through tools and techniques based on other forms of knowledge. they included figurative art and painting. the following are examples of activities carried out by some of the classes participating in the project. infant schools in the case of kindergarten children ( years old), some classes visited the museum of natural history. each class identified their favourite trails (fig. ). the kids especially enjoyed imagining being able to free the animals in the museum and, as in a fairy tale, magically make them come alive in the paintings of famous painters (fig. ): henri rousseau ( – ), paul klee ( – ), vincent van gogh. the idea of freeing the animals from their cold display cases was also taken up in the participatory video (fig. ): each child, like a little explorer in the darkness of the museum, equipped with a torch to which was attached a mini camcorder, chose an animal, freed it and observed it. fig. in these ‘‘toy theatres’’ (measuring twenty centimetres in height), the animals drawn and cut out by children are applied as figures onto a background of paintings by henry rousseau and stood on a chessboard floor—this is an opportunity to tackle the difficulties of three-dimensional representation cross fertilization primary school mineralogy—two classes of year old children ( children) worked on the project, in its various forms, for about months. the children began by gathering information from the museum of mineralogy and on the web about the figure of torquato taramelli ( – ), a leading geologist to whom the oldest secondary school in the city is dedicated. this was followed by a discussion on minerals and how they occur in nature, also considering the specimens brought in by children. the classes also visited the museum of mineralogy, where they observed several types of crystals and minerals. they were then taken to a laboratory with many polarised light microscopes where they observed several thin sections of different rocks (fig. ). in a subsequent session they were guided round a recently opened research laboratory, where they could see various advanced techniques for analysing minerals. as a result, additions have been made to the curricula of several subjects, such as geometry and history of art (fig. ). a knowledge of crystals has promoted the study of some classical regular solids such as the cube, tetrahedron and octahedron. each child drew, cut out and recomposed the various figures. they then identified and described other solid figures that are present in the real world. some solid figures are fundamental to figurative art, from the pyramid in raphael ( – ) to the cylinder, sphere and cone in cézanne ( – ), and picasso’s cubism. in the thin sections laboratory the children commented on the iridescent beauty of the microscopic images and some pointed out that they were remarkably similar to paintings they had seen at school (fig. ). these were mainly works by some of the most important international figures in material and informal art—j. pollock fig. some frames from the participatory video fig. a thin section is a sheet of rock cut so thin ( . mm) as to enable light to pass through most of its constituent minerals. observed through a polarizing microscope, different colours can be seen depending on the constituent minerals. it can also reveal different colours or different shades when the stage is rotated l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi ( – ), j. dubuffet ( – ), a. burri ( – ) and w. kandinsky— who the students already knew. comparing these artists and the images produced from thin sections later generated totally unexpected connections, evocations and ideas! the creative workshops involved another range of activities, based on geometry: the teacher paused to reflect on cubism with the children, who then began to draw a portrait of taramelli in cubist form ‘‘in the style of picasso’’ (fig. ). two types of analogy were used here: the analogy between natural and geometric forms and the analogy with the cubism of braque ( – ) and picasso. other activities included finding analogies between the thin sections and abstract art: children drew thin sections ‘‘in the style of kandinsky’’ on a metre long roll of paper, and rocky ground on a m long roll. the last activity was designed to ‘‘imitate’’ nature and the magical randomness of rocks and stones (fig. ). they produced drawings by spontaneously and randomly mixing colours and marks on a sheet, and finally cut these drawings into stone shapes. botanic garden—children from different classes, all aged , visited the university’s botanic garden. after the visit they also took part in a workshop on the fig. interdisciplinary exchanges: flat, solid geometrical figures are an area common to many areas of research and study, not only of a scientific nature; this allows connections between different disciplines and facilitates the preparation of interdisciplinary projects and educational pathways, involving both very different materials and activities cross fertilization morphology of leaves and bark and on the reproduction of plants. the topics discussed during the visit and the workshop were then explored at school, alongside the traditional science curriculum. children were particularly interested in the problem of plant nutrition and the function of soil. humus and its composition aroused great curiosity (figs. , ). fig. thin sections and works of art fig. translating the features of taramelli’s face into essential lines and volumes requires a keen eye and detailed knowledge of the cubist style l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi comparing the barks of different trees led to identifying their different rhythms and geometries. the children began by making rubbings directly from the bark, then identified their essential lines and used geometric rigour to translate them onto graph paper. the geometric forms identified in the barks of different trees, were then creatively reinterpreted and used (fig. ) as textures for clothing and everyday objects (cars, furniture and furnishings). three m long drawings were made, using different techniques superimposed at random, in a repeated pattern, drawing leaves and insects of different sizes that were continuously superimposed. after completing it the children brushed it with several layers of coffee. the drawing thus turned into one large picture with a uniform tone (fig. ). in this case the analogy evokes the layers of leaves in the underbrush which, as they continue to fall, help to produce humus. participatory video—a participatory video was produced by two of the classes that visited the botanic gardens and the history of pavia university museum (fig. ). the children took on the roles of director, sound technician and actor. fig. drawing stones means imitating nature, and playing in a carefree, though not disorderly manner fig. workshop on humus at the botanic garden. creative workshop: six metres of painted surface (acrylic colours) with different shades of earth mixed and superimposed, imitate the texture of humus and contain an infinite number of minor additions of plant, animal and mineral origin (chalks and colour pencils). inspired in particular by the painting of j. dubuffet cross fertilization the aptitudes and roles were based on the preferences of each pupil and the talents identified through some games in a session before shooting began. during the session, the children were given the chance to try out the video and audio recording equipment. fig. j. dubuffet’s informal painting ‘‘imitates’’ the randomness of nature. some of its surfaces have the same irregularity as undergrowth, bare earth and fertile humus. the artist follows the poetics of ‘‘art brut’’, rejecting rules of composition and imitation while making use of gesture and the sensuality of the materials of which things are made fig. bark lines, reproduced by means of rubbings, and transformed into geometric shapes can be used for fabrics and decorations different games were used depending on the children’s age and the roles they chose. the youngest imitated animals and their movements while others shot scenes with a videocamera; the oldest told true or invented stories that their companions tried to recognise, shot scenes and tested the steadiness of their hands through games of dexterity. l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi secondary school pupils pupils showed the historical experiments to their peers, to elementary school children, and to visitors of the exhibition (fig. ). some classes chose a scientist and produced videos in which they narrated a story (figs. , , ). the subject of the story was chosen by the group and the fig. insects, drawn in superimposed layers. parts of the design fig. children during shooting at the botanic garden and at the history of pavia university museum fig. a secondary school student explains to a visiting class how volta’s electrophorus and pile work cross fertilization storyboard was also written by the group. the results are science stories, told by pupils, which sometimes also take into account the social and political contexts in which the scientists lived. some videos produced by schools, as well as a number of those produced by about two hundred and fifty undergraduate students studying communication, innovation and multimedia, formed part of an augmented reality project. the purpose of this project was to provide information about our university, its most illustrious figures and their inventions and discoveries. we used qr codes to fig. the scientist chosen by a technical school was gerolamo cardano. the pupils and their teacher also created a robot, in which two of cardano’s discoveries—the cardan shaft and the solution of cubic equations—played an important role fig. pupils of a classics lyceum chose the scientist camillo golgi, who studied at their school in the nineteenth century. they drew inspiration from a particular episode in the political and social context of golgi’s life, an episode in which they found some similarities with their particular stage in school life fig. in the case of an arts lyceum, the protagonists of the story were the professors and university students who died in the first world war. the university courtyard dedicated to them was the site of the installations created by the school kids l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi communicate the information, as they are inexpensive and can be read by any smartphone. as a result, the courtyards, lecture rooms and university museums were dotted with ‘‘tiny squares’’ linking up to explanatory texts, to past images of one’s location, to video clips made by the history of science group (fig. ), as well as to videos and pictures produced by all those participating in the neverland project. we hope to extend the augmented reality project in the near future to the city, which is rich in history. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited. references andreani, l., bevilacqua, f., cardinali, l., falomo bernarduzzi, l., marabelli, f., & mascheretti, p. 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( ). les origines de la pensée chez l’enfant. paris: presses universitaires de france. l. falomo bernarduzzi, g. albanesi http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - -x http://www.indicazioninazionali.it/documenti_indicazioni_nazionali/dm_ _ _gu.pdf http://www.indicazioninazionali.it/documenti_indicazioni_nazionali/dm_ _ _gu.pdf 	cross fertilization between museums and schools, science and art, history and multimedia 	abstract 	the university of pavia’s museum system 	formal/informal 	formal/non formal/informal education 	formal/non formal/informal learning 	formal/informal images 	the child’s representation of the world 	the educational role of museums---planning together with schools 	the neverland project 	infant schools 	primary school 	secondary school pupils 	open access 	references the ‘great divide’: how the arts contribute to science and science education view point the ‘great divide’: how the arts contribute to science and science education martin braund & michael j. reiss published online: june # the author(s) abstract in recent years, there has been a rapid growth in interest about the relationship between the arts and the sciences. this article explores this developing relationship and the suggestion that science and science learning are not complete without the arts. we see three levels at which the arts might improve the teaching and learning of science. the first is at a macro-level, concerned with ways in which subjects (including the arts and sciences) are structured and options for studying them provided and packaged. the second is at the meso-level, guiding approaches constructing science curricula that engage learners through using sts (science, technology and society) contexts. the third is at the micro-level, of pedagogical practices in science and teaching that can be drawn from the arts. the drivers of steam (science, technology, arts, engineering and mathematics) add new dimensions to the nature of science in the twenty-first century and make science likely to diverge even more rapidly from school science unless new pedagogies, including those from the arts, help close the gap. the result could be a more authentic and engaging school science, one more relevant to the needs of the twenty-first century. résumé les dernières années ont marqué un intérêt grandissant pour les liens entre les arts et les sciences. cet article propose d’analyser ces liens en développement, ainsi que l’idée que les sciences et l’apprentissage scientifique ne sont pas complets sans les arts. nous distinguons trois niveaux où les arts sont susceptibles d’améliorer l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des sciences. le premier, le niveau macro, s’intéresse aux façons dont les sujets scolaires (y compris les arts plastiques et les sciences) sont structurés, et comment les différentes options pour les étudier sont proposées et présentées. le deuxième niveau, intermédiaire, guide des approches visant à la construction de curriculums scientifiques qui stimulent l’intérêt des apprenants par le biais de contextes sts (sciences, technologies et société). le troisième, soit le niveau micro, se penche sur des pratiques pédagogiques en sciences et en enseignement qui sont dérivées des arts. les facteurs qui influencent les sciences, les technologies, les arts, l’ingénierie et les mathématiques ajoutent de nouvelles dimensions à la nature des sciences au ième siècle et augmentent le risque que les can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - m. braund (*) department of research, faculty of education, cape peninsula university of technology, mowbray campus, highbury rd, po box , cape town , south africa e-mail: martin.braund@york.ac.uk m. j. reiss ucl institute of education, university college london, bedford way, london wc h al, uk e-mail: m.reiss@ucl.ac.uk http://orcid.org/ - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf sciences se démarquent encore plus rapidement des sciences en milieu scolaire, à moins que de nouvelles pédagogies, y compris celles qui proviennent des arts, ne contribuent à réduire cet écart. le résultat de telles pédagogies pourrait déboucher sur des programmes de sciences à l’école plus authentiques et plus motivants, et aussi plus pertinents compte tenu des besoins du ième siècle. keywords curriculum . policy development . science-arts collaboration in recent years, there has been considerable growth in the literature devoted to relationships between the arts and the sciences. a development and application of this is evidenced in the moves in several countries to consider a steam curriculum instead of a stem one—in other words, adding ‘arts’ to ‘science, technology, engineering and mathematics’ (marshall, ; lunn & noble, ; colucci-gray, burnard, cooke, davies, gray, & trowsdale, ; harris & de bruin, ; skorton & bear, ). this comes at a time of continuing unease about the effectiveness of science education and trends in low youth engagement with science (archer, dewitt, osborne, dillon, willis & wong, ; schmidt, burroughs & cogan, ; royal society, ). this article, while not a formal review, explores the developing relationship between the arts and sciences and the suggestion that the enterprise of science and of learning it increasingly benefit from the arts and that science and science learning at all ages are consequently less complete. the questions we address are: & what might the arts provide that would make the sciences more complete? & in a world where many young people turn from learning science and involvement in it, what can we learn and take from the arts that might improve the teaching and learning of science? as will become clear, we understand the arts as including more than the visual arts; we also refer to ‘the sciences’, to make a parallel with ‘the arts’ apparent and to acknowledge that science includes a range of disciplines. we start by providing a brief historical overview, so as to contextualise contemporary issues on which we subsequently focus. our particular interest is in the science education provided by primary and secondary schooling and our main intention in this article is to present the argument that the current way science is perceived and adapted for science education has substantial shortcomings for contemporary science education. science and art in culture and civilisation art seems to be as old as cognate human existence. it is commonly recognised that art, in expressive visual form, dates as far back as the late palaeolithic (about , bce). figurines, beads and decorative art on functional objects such as handles, implements and simple vessels for food and water are evident from mesolithic to neolithic times and later, with the first emergence of pottery (preziosi, ). with refinements in hieroglyphics and the advent of written languages, art in storytelling and illustrated texts evolved, often simultaneously, alongside the extraordinary visual art of civilisations across africa, arabia, the eastern mediterranean, central and southern america, australasia and polynesia-micronesia. with the development of language, new literary art forms of poetry, fiction and theatre became possible. it seems that humans across their diaspora simultaneously advanced their art as an essential part of progressive civilisation. today, the arts can be considered to include the visual arts (including drawing, painting, sculpture, filmmaking, architecture, photography ceramics), literature (poetry, drama, prose fiction) and the performing arts (theatre, dance and music). can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – as far as the earliest manifestations of ‘science’ in culture are concerned, these are more difficult to pin down. partly this concerns the word ‘science’, which only came into common use (at least as we now understand it) in the early nineteenth century (heidegger & grene, ). this is not to say that science as a distinct activity did not exist in prehistory. observations and calculations of, for example, the earth’s precession around its axis and the solar year and lunar month are known from mesopotamian and babylonian carved tablets of around years bce (steele, ). in modern times, historians and philosophers have come to a consensus that sees science as a body of empirical, theoretical and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by people (‘scientists’) who emphasise observation, explanation and prediction of real-world phenomena (whitehead, ). as such, modern empirical science is a development of what was called ‘natural philosophy’ from the time of aristotle through to the eighteenth-century enlightenment and nineteenth-century origins of modern science. stemming from baconian beliefs of inductivism and empiricism, scientific ‘methods’ were considered to be fundamental to modern (empirical) science, especially of the physical and biological kind. thus, the enterprise of doing science (and to some extent of learning it) has often been (and still is) presented as a progressive narrative in which true theories replaced false beliefs (bereiter, ). alternative, expansive interpretations of science, such as those of thomas kuhn, portray science in more nuanced, terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes, considered by traditional ‘baconists’ to be outside science (kuhn, ). unfortunately, for many school students, the more restricted view of science founded on baconian traditions has often led to perceptions of science as a fact-driven enterprise divorced from the culture in which it exists and serves. these views have prevailed in the history of education in science (driver, leach, millar & scott, ). at the same time, as we discuss below, there are, thankfully, many examples of teachers attempting to introduce students to a more creative and engaging experience of science (e.g. mcgregor, wilson, bird & frodsham, ). our own view is that it remains the case that one of the great strengths of science (which we take to mean the natural sciences—principally biology, chemistry, physics and earth sciences) is that science does seek for reliable knowledge that has a substantial underpinning objectivity—so that, for example, chemical reactions undertaken in the same environmental conditions proceed independently of who is observing them. we are very well aware of arguments within science and the philosophy of science about the ways in which observers affect what is observed (schrödinger’s cat, quantum entanglement, etc.) but our argument does not rely on any particular resolution of such issues. the arts and science: how science might be made more complete by the arts we use the word ‘complete’ in the phrase ‘science might be made more complete by the arts’ with two emphases. first, we make the claim for science, independently of education. let us be clear that we do not mean there is an absolute requirement for the arts in order for science to exist or proceed. science seems to have done quite well in recent times without much overt recourse to the arts. there are, however, subtle and more covert ways in which the arts and the sciences co-exist and are (or should be) interdependent. some of these are seen in the personal lives of scientists. root-bernstein et al. ( ) showed that nobel prize winners and members of the national academy of sciences and the royal society were more likely than other scientists, or even the population at large, to have hobbies or abilities in the arts. secondly, we make the claim with reference to the successful teaching of science. we now put forward four main premises in our argument that science is made more complete by its relationship with the arts. we use these to lead to a fifth premise, establishing a case for the arts to enhance the ways in which science courses and teaching methods might change to make science learning more authentic and engaging. can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – . the subject boundaries premise: divisions between curriculum areas (school subjects) run counter to the life experiences of learners of all ages. . the cognitive premise: the work of science needs creative as well as critical thinking to allow discourses that empower and fuel discovery and innovation and allow risk-taking. . the neuroscience premise: thinking in science is stimulated by artistic activity. . the collaborative, economic premise: collaboration between arts and sciences and vice versa is at the heart of the modern economy. . the pedagogical premise: the final justification is embedded in science education: organising curricula to accommodate science and arts and drawing on pedagogy normally associated with the arts offer fruitful ways to engage learners in school science and help them learn and to help prevent young people turning away from science. we now consider key aspects of these five premises in more detail. our focus is on the teaching and learning of science, so we spend less time on the aspects of these premises that are more to do with science than with science education—which is particularly the case for premise four. however, we feel that for the argument about teaching and learning to hold, and to change how science is typically taught in schools, it is important that educators believe they are still being true to science. cultural and subject boundaries it has been suggested that the subject disciplines of the curriculum have evolved structures and character- istics that create boundaries between them and that this limits cross-disciplinary collaboration (phelan, davidson & cao, ). indeed, goldberg ( ) argues that the panic that the launch of sputnik in caused among us government not only, as is widely acknowledged, gave rise to a new drive to improve the teaching of science and mathematics in schools but also meant that education, instead of being seen as a way of cultivating an engaged member of society, became the vehicle for discrete subject expertise. dillon ( ) sees disciplinary borders favouring a utilitarian view of knowledge and creativity, often under- valuing disciplines, including the creative and performing arts, not directly associated with the primary means of economic production. subject discipline boundaries, generally strengthened by an accountability and performance culture embedded in school systems, often mitigate against a more open agenda and epistemology where collaboration and creativity contribute to investigative and problem-solving ap- proaches (breimer, johnson, harkness & koehler, ; colucci-gray et al., ; harris & de bruin, ). science relies on creative as well as critical thinking often science is seen as concerning mainly ‘critical’ rather than ‘creative’ thinking. this is largely because critical thinking is perceived as a set of vertically operated cognitive skills used for decision-making in complex but logical situations, or for solving ‘ill-structured’ problems (kuhn, ). critical thinking is valued as a meta-cognitive tool to strengthen assertions and enhance domain-specific understanding in science. this particular understanding of the nature of assertions as judgements coincides with essential components of the nature of science (see, for instance, abd-el-khalick, lederman, bell & schwartz, ) as science relies on logic in empirically testing competing claims to assess the strength of evidence- supporting claims. this all seems very logical and appropriate for science but there are many cases where leaps in scientific discovery and innovation would not have happened using critical thinking alone. a possible example is neils bohr’s model for the atom that in paved the way for one of the great leaps forward in science: quantum physics. bohr needed a new way of conceptualising the atom to allow for the erratic behaviour of electrons, stepping beyond the classic planetary model of electrons orbiting a nucleus in a planar ellipse. it can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – has been argued that his model of atomic structure was stimulated by contemporaneous changes in literature and the arts, such as cubism (clarke, ). bohr maintained that the form electron paths took depended on how you looked at them. their very nature was a consequence of our observations. this meant that electrons were not like little planets at all. instead, they were like one of picasso or braque’s deconstructed pictures, a blur of brushstrokes that only made sense once you stared at it for long enough. we are not claiming that without cubism, bohr’s theory would not have arisen. the important point is that the existence of new ways of looking at the world in the arts opens up spaces in which new thoughts about how the physical world works are more likely. there are now an increasing number of initiatives that use such approaches. for example, the university of california davis art fusion programme was co-founded by entomologist/artist diane ullman of the university of california davis department of entomology and nematology and the ceramicist donna billick back in , building on an undergraduate course, ‘art, science and the world of insects’, that they initiated in (garvey, ). the programme has been described as transformational as its innovative approach has helped facilitate learning in both formal and informal settings and has helped engage members of the local community as well as students and academic staff. similarly, the nsf art of science projects have funded a number of activities that intersect art and science. for example, susan eriksson, geologist and artist, uses metal, wood and minerals to create unique pieces that are often inspired by the geological world. eriksson notes that scientific concepts are used when she creates her art. for instance, quantitative skills are used to divide tonal systems, while her metalwork incorporates various chemistry principles (national science foundation, ). many people think that doing science involves closely following a series of steps, with little room for creativity and inspiration. in fact, many scientists, like bohr and in the examples above, recognise that creative thinking is one of the most important skills they have—whether that creativity is used to come up with an alternative hypothesis, to devise a new way of testing an idea, or to look at old data in a new light. creativity is critical to science and sits alongside criticality; it does not replace it. the brain and ‘scientific’ and ‘artistic’ thinking the third premise in support of our argument for the arts ‘in and for’ science comes from neuroscience and some of what is known about human brain function. there have been claims for some time that the arts can contribute to the general development of cognitive abilities (deasey, ). early claims for brain- associated arts- and science-based thinking were based on presumptions about brain differentiation. it was suggested that the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex control different physical and cognitive functions (sperry, ; hermann, ). analytical and sequential reasoning (useful in math- ematics and science) was said to be associated with left brain function while the right side was seen to deal with interpersonal, imaginative and emotional thinking (herrmann, ; mcgilchrist, ). this led to a simplistic view that arts learning is associated with ‘right brain’ thinking science and mathematics with ‘left brain’ thinking. consequently, some educators such as dorothy heathcote advocated arts-derived pedagogy arguing right-brained activity such as drama could lead to a ‘left-handed’ way of knowing and thus benefit scientific, logical-mathematical reasoning (wagner, ). however, recent brain biology has challenged ideas of separated brain functions. in a review of the field, morris ( ) points out that most cognitive scientists favour a ‘whole brain’ view, acknowledging that activities drawing on as wide a range of stimulation as possible inevitably improve brain function, especially for higher order activity and critical thinking (see also howard-jones, ). the point we wish to suggest here is that artistic activities may stimulate the brain in ways that might not be engaged by traditional science activities. there are now a number of initiatives that explore the implications of the arts for neuroscience, including fusion, a group that meets every four weeks in edinburgh (edinburgh neuroscience, ). for example, fusion artist michele marcoux explores the fragmentary nature of identity, memory and perception, providing new insights into the work of scientists. can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – before leaving this third premise in support of the arts for science, it is worth mentioning the work of the dana foundation in the usa. this organisation supports a number of research studies on brain functioning. work using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) has shown benefits in cognitive reasoning for those who have been involved in music training (moreno, ), dance (cross & ticini, ) and drama/ theatre (hough & hough, ). a collaborative and economic perspective a new steam age driving economic development in modern science and technology is emerging making disciplinary subject boundaries of schools seem rather out of date. the ‘capital’ of art and science (i.e. the broad accumulations of knowledge and skills that contribute to and are fundamental to the enterprise of the arts and the sciences) is made greater by closer collaboration between them. in the business world, art- science collaborations have led to large-scale investment and smaller scale innovation. a country-wide approach placing the arts firmly within the stem agenda in the usa has been stimulated in a movement championed by the rhode island school of design (risd), now adopted by institutions, corporations and individuals throughout the usa (risd, ). the initiative’s key aims are to help hire artists and designers to drive technological innovation and promote possibilities for integration of arts with science and technology subjects across all phases of education. examples of collaborations involving the risd steam initiative include design students working alongside marine ecologists and oceanographers to conserve coastal sites and nature-lab interns making animated films to teach about marine ecosystems and work with universities in germany to design and test advanced solar-powered vehicles. other us examples include the stanford art + science programme (stanford arts, ), the hiring of artists to solve problems in government agencies (los angeles county arts commission, ), collaborations between the worlds of fashion and science (office of communications, ) and janet echelman’s monumental, fluidly- moving sculptures that respond to environmental forces, including wind, water and sunlight (echelman, ). in the uk, there is a collaborative network called the ‘knowledge quarter’, a rapidly growing partnership of over academic, cultural, research, scientific and media organisations. the hub of the network is europe’s largest bioscience laboratory, the crick institute in london. this collaboration draws on unique expertise and knowledge in the arts and sciences from conservation of the world’s earliest books and manuscripts (at the british library) to fashion and creative designs at central st martin’s college, all in touch with researchers at the crick institute (knowledge quarter, ). the possibilities thrown up by art-science collaborations have resulted in new applications of science and technology in product design and use. the fashion industry has been quick to take advantage. figure shows an example of a dress devised by london-based, techno-fashion house cutecircuit. the dress has thousands of micro leds sewn into the fabric, allowing a garment to change colours and patterns. these ‘smart textiles’ have the potential to evolve into even more dramatic creations, especially with advance- ments in nanotechnology. one already classic piece is the ‘kinetic dress’. this victorian-style evening dress has sensors in the fabric which communicate to the electroluminescent embroidery when the wearer is moving. the faster the movement, the brighter the embroidery, translating kinetic movement into colour and pattern design. collaborations like this serve to increase the economic and knowledge capital of both art and science. a report on sciart, wellcome trust’s -year scheme to stimulate art-science links in the uk, found artistic outcomes from ten case studies evidenced widespread dissemination to sizeable audiences and an unusual longevity of audience and professional interest (glinkowski & bamford, ). it seems that contribution to scientific capital is not so much a shift or development in scientific processes or outcomes, but rather that scientists’ involvement with artists encouraged speculative approaches to research and being more prepared to take risks. can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – how science education benefits from the arts and how the arts make a contribution to ‘better’ (more authentic and engaging) science education for the hundred years or more of compulsory schooling in the developed nations, there has been an almost constant concern that students are less enthusiastic about learning science than other subjects and that decreasing numbers of young people want to pursue science into higher education or as a career. a meta- analysis of research for the royal society vision report shows these attitudes have hardly shifted over the last ten years in the uk in spite of huge investment in improving science teaching in schools, teacher training and professional development (bennett, braund & sharpe, ). in the usa, similar concerns over the quality and depth of science education to interest and engage students, particularly from disad- vantaged backgrounds, have been noted (e.g. schmidt, burroughs & cogan, ). the relevance of science education (rose) project carried out surveys of -year-old students in countries and found that, while students in all countries see the importance of science, in many this does not translate into liking for school science as a subject, particularly for girls (sjøberg & schreiner, ). so, our questions remain what might the arts provide that would make the sciences more complete and what can we learn and take from the arts that might improve the teaching and learning of science? we can envisage consequences that the arts might have on science, for science and in science. our interest is particularly in science education and we see three levels at which the arts might improve teaching and learning of science. the first is at a macro-level, concerned with ways in which subjects (including the arts and sciences) are structured and options for studying them provided and packaged. the second is at the meso-level, guiding approaches to the construction of science curricula and schemes of work that engage learners, for example through using sts (science, technology and society) contexts. the third is at the micro-level, of pedagogical practices in science and teaching that can be drawn from the arts. these three levels are not entirely distinct—in particular, the meso-level overlaps at one pole with the macro-level and at the other with the micro-level. however, the three levels provide a useful heuristic. in the second half of this article, we consider each of these levels, paying the most attention to the third one—arts practices in and for science teaching. the arts and sciences at the macro-level: curriculum provision countries vary greatly in the extent students specialise early or are required to learn a broad and balanced range of subjects until the end of compulsory schooling. it is not uncommon for students to be pushed fig. eiza gonzález wearing a cutecircuit dress by edgar meritano © cutecircuit, used with permission can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – towards a specialism in the arts and humanities or the sciences and mathematics, though few countries specialise to the extent that england does where most students take only three subjects from the age of . in the last ten years or so, to broaden and diversify science in schools and link it to technology, engineering and mathematics, there has been a push in the uk, the us and some asian countries towards the concept of stem – science, technology, engineering and mathematics. while there is some sense in taking a lead from wider communities of modern economies that link these disciplines needed for development, evidence of how stem has impacted the occurrence and effects of collaboration and interdisciplinary work in schools is unconvincing (archer et al., ; colucci-gray et al., ), despite the widely acknowledged benefits of interdisciplinary approaches (cf. the work of leonardo da vinci). too often, the concept of stem seems remote and poorly understood by teachers. for example, in the uk, the royal society commissioned a series of meta-analyses of research as part of its stem vision report, one of which considered to what extent the stem concept was embedded and had made differences in schools (howes, kaneva, swanson & williams, ). in one section of their report the authors cite research studies showing that: stem remains a misleading curriculum concept: it is not an integrated reality in high schools anywhere in the world that we know of, and stem integration is not well understood by teachers. in many projects, the focus is on science and maths, leaving out engineering and technology. (howes et al., : ) the aspires (young people’s science and career aspirations - ) project found stem subjects were viewed by students as lacking creativity and unrelated to images or aspirations that they had for themselves (archer et al., ). drawing on the arts to reinvigorate science education might provide the sorts of post-human education advocated by quinn ( ) and alluded to by philosophers such as biesta ( ), one where individuals play a part in knowing about themselves as part of a greater whole, rather than being seen as subservient participants in an epistemology valuing information and knowledge as superior to the individual. an example of ‘macro’ integration can be seen in a us-originated project calling for stem to integrate with arts into a ‘steam’ curriculum (see www.steamedu.com). this has been picked up by the south korean government which has instituted an associated curriculum and teacher training programme (baek et al., ). the steam rationale explicitly draws on a formula of smart technology with ‘cool design’, once promoted by the late steve jobs. it may be that a steam curriculum appeals to the agenda of ‘pacific rim’ countries that value an innovation-based reform of education for a competitive knowledge economy. in the pyramid diagram provided by steam education (fig. ), steam educators promote the idea of ‘life-long holistic teaching’ as a more progressive and ‘functional’ alternative to conventional integration or multidisciplinary views of stem and arts (a). the idea is to work in a transdisciplinary way, avoiding artificial combinations (or separations) of subject disciplines. steam educators promote a more progressive alternative to conventional integration or multidisciplin- ary views of stem and arts (a) that retain separate identities and traditional subject disciplines with associated content-related structures (e.g. high tech high, ). rather than taking a problem or topic and using it to focus teaching in subject time or through a multidisciplinary approach that can produce artificial connections between subject content, a steam approach constantly reiterates the importance of a local, relevant problem to solve, drawing in the arts and humanities as well as stem content as a natural consequence of researching and communicating solutions. for example, herro and quigley ( ) describe steam teaching using the context of a local housing development adjacent to a school. stem content included sound insulation, geological and geophysical data and the mathematics of cost impact and design. the arts (visual and communication) and humanities (social sciences) were used to explain human dimensions of aesthetic design and in communicating students’ views of developers’ proposals. according to howes and colleagues, such a steam approach for schools might have attractions for arts-led work can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – http://www.steamedu.com with learners who are not apparently predisposed towards or interested in stem, but who might thereby maintain contact with stem in some form: rather than seeing such students as having leaked from a stem ‘pipeline’, perhaps we should see them as travelling by a different route, to a later rendezvous. (howes et al., : ) arts and sciences at the meso-level: engaging learners through arts-related sts contexts at the ‘meso’ level, we consider ways in which places of learning operationalise the curriculum in terms of the courses, schemes of work and textbooks used to teach science. although institutions might espouse an educational stance valuing creativity, even one that alludes to integration between the arts and the sciences, it is often the case that aspirations are ‘thwarted by mandated, all-time consuming packaged programs’ (manley, : ). craft ( ) sees a curriculum controlled by assessment regimes limiting schemes that include creative approaches because they are seen as time-consuming and less likely to ‘deliver’ against assessment targets. in response to the perceived problems of students’ disaffection with science and claims that science teaching is boring and irrelevant, science educators and teachers have turned towards course design that sets science in contexts relevant to the real world (e.g. gilbert, bulte & pilot, ). in the usa and some other countries, the term science-technology-society is broadly synonymous with a context-based approach and so this definition, provided by aikenhead, is helpful: fig. a framework for steam education © yakman, g. ( ), used with permission can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – sts approaches… emphasise links between science, technology and society by means of … a technological artefact, process or expertise; the interactions between technology and society; a societal issue related to science or technology; social science content that sheds light on a societal issue related to science and technology; a philosophical, historical, or social issue within the scientific or technological community. (aikenhead : - ) given the arguments made above for closer links between stem and the arts, and examples of how science now draws on and is complemented by arts-related activity, it seems opportune to include steam examples that provide the ‘technological artefacts’, ‘processes’ and ‘interactions’ of aikenhead’s definition for sts. if sts approaches better engage students already signed up to science courses, then including arts applications of science, such as in fashion, film, music, dance and theatre, has the potential to draw in more of those who did not choose science courses in the first place, or for people to re-engage with science learning at a later date. in cultures where the contribution of indigenous knowledge systems is important to science education, recourse to the arts has currency for students’ wider involvement in science learning and for addressing curriculum development in post- colonial contexts, where the contributions of indigenous cultures are taken respectfully and equitably (e.g. alsop & bencze, ). furthermore, it is increasingly appropriate to refer to arts-related stse (science, technology, society and environment) contexts, since stse has become more important in science education (e.g. pedretti & nazir, ) and as the arts have engaged more substantively with environmental issues (o’brien, ). arts in science teaching at the micro-level: pedagogical practises drawing on the arts unesco’s decade of educational effort ( – ) centred on interdisciplinary reform rather than on subject-focussed change. central to its resolution was an emphasis on holistic teaching practices encouraging uses of multiple methods of instruction, for example, writing, art, drama and debate (unesco, ). there is nothing radically new in using such methods to help explain science and make it more accessible to those studying science. the methods of creative writing, poetry, physical model making and visual approaches including painting and drawing, drama and role-play have been part of a few science teachers’ repertoires for some time (e.g. goldberg, ). we suspect, though, that as science education (and all education for that matter) has moved towards more examination-oriented and standard- driven accountability, these methods have become rarer. those teachers who are ‘committed believers’ in these approaches might continue to use them, but even they are under continuing pressure in a time- constrained system that values evidence of achievement in a restricted core of subjects, examined for a narrow set of linguistic and mathematical skills, over outcomes concerned with holistic development of learners. this is despite the widespread acknowledgement that in the twenty-first century, a greater range of skills are necessary (deming & noray, ). in primary schools, in many countries, the primary teacher has been seen as both expert and champion of subject integration. because they typically teach all subjects, the idea of integrating science, and using contexts and methods from the arts and humanities to teach science content, seems more natural. but even these teachers can be under pressure to restrict holistic teaching and learning. in england, these pressures were manifest in critiques of integration from the so-called new right, culminating in a report on the curriculum by alexander, rose and woodhead ( ). they claimed that subject content outcomes were submerged, weak and at a low level in topic work which at the time was typically cross-curricular. since then, the curriculum pressures on science and the arts in english primary schools have increased to the extent that these subjects, along with others, are often downgraded and squeezed into short-afternoon slots can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – after the main business of the day (teaching of ‘literacy’ and ‘numeracy’) has occupied the morning’s work (cf. access art, , for a response to the pressures on curriculum time for art). but why should we claim that methods and approaches from the arts offer possibilities for better learning in science? to begin to answer this question, it helps to look at some of the ways in which science is structured and communicated. science uses symbolic and semiotic systems of representations and employs specific but different meanings for everyday words making it often seem like ‘learning a foreign language’ (bleicher, tobin & mcrobbie, ). science teachers employ mathematical, chemistry and physics symbols and these communication modes can create significant subject-specific barriers to student learning that do not occur in other school subjects (wellington & osborne, ). thus, communication through a variety of visual, spoken and alternative written language modes (alternatives to written, expository texts), drawn from the arts, offers ways of breaking down the barriers that students find hard to cross. in the university of california irvine school of medicine, medical students used masterpieces by van gogh, rembrandt, kandinsky and da vinci to improve observation and pattern recognition skills in clinical situations (shapiro, rucker & beck, ). an additional (and unexpected) outcome was that medical students following the fine arts programme developed better skills in emotional recognition, cultivation of empathy, identification of story and narrative and awareness of multiple perspectives. more routinely, perhaps, there are documented examples of painting and drawing being used in expressive modes for school students to develop and communicate scientific ideas in creative ways. figure comes from a california art-chemistry project. in a workshop on ‘hydrogen fuel-cell cars’, students discussed the basic workings of a fuel cell and then designed their own ‘car of the future’ (halpine, ). in a similar vein, fig. , showing an insectivorous plant with its feeding and reproductive adaptations, was drawn by a high-school student after studying original letters of charles darwin (stafford, ). the picture shows evidence of integration between artistic creativity and scientific writing. in her edited work, drawing for science education, phyllis katz brings together a large number of international examples of how drawings are being used in science education (katz, ). perhaps these artistic activities work because they tap into the visual thinking of learners. it is often said that today’s young people inhabit a multimodal world dominated by television, video games, computers, tablets, films and so on. it has also been claimed that visual thinking translates into problem-solving ability. visual thinkers literally ‘see’ their answers to problems, enabling them to build entire information systems using their imaginations (gangwer, ). an appreciation of structures, processes and concepts can be enhanced by d representations. in many primary school classrooms, around the world, one sees food web mobiles and papier-mâché planets hanging from ceilings. in secondary school chemistry lessons, one might see molecular models made from plasticine and cocktail sticks, and in biology lessons, plant cells made from plastic bags and wallpaper paste. part of the appeal of art approaches, such as those described so far, is that they offer alternatives to the usual modes of science teaching. begoray and stinner ( ) argue that the science classroom is dominated by expository text, representing the dominance in science lessons of comparison, description, sequencing, listing, cause and effect and problem solution. they claim that, as narrative text is more common in the life experience of learners (from films, novels and oral story telling) and is less abstract than expository text in organising knowledge, its use in science lessons can lead to better empathy with science and more effective cognitive learning. one method from the arts, perhaps above others, stands out in this regard of narrative alternatives providing the benefits of visualisation: drama. forms of drama (scripted plays, role-play, movement, mime and dance) make science ideas, theories and processes, at varying degrees of complexity and abstraction, more comprehensible to students through their more active involvement in the reconstruction processes, necessary in a constructivist approach to learning (braund, ). additionally, drama in science models ways in which scientists develop and validate theories and provides a productive platform for debating the social, political and cultural dimensions of science, that help give science a human face, especially for students sceptical of its worth (Ødegaard, ). can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – among drama strategies to enhance science learning, role-plays of the physical kind, where students portray molecules, components of biological cells or model processes such as energy or behaviour of electrons in circuits, offer particular advantage. according to scott, mortimer and ametller ( ), rationalising ideas between learners’ conceptions of the world and canonical science requires differentiation between, and integration of, these two ways of explaining and seeing the world. to achieve integration of ideas requires making the less visible (molecules, electrons, cell components) and abstract ideas (energy, fig. an example of an h o car designed by a third-grade student during a workshop on hydrogen fuel cells halpine, s. m. ( : ) fig. an insectivorous plant drawn by a high-school student after studying original letters of charles darwin. stafford, s. ( ) in c. j. boulter, m. j. reiss & d. l. sanders (eds), darwin-inspired learning, - , rotterdam: sense publishers can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – photosynthesis, entropy) comprehensible to students without obstructions embodied in the symbolic and sometimes obtuse language of science used to communicate these ideas that we referred to earlier. this is why science teachers often use metaphors and analogies to help students access ideas, explanations and theory (aubusson, harrison & ritchie, ). for example, analogues such as the hot water system of a house or ski lift have been used to explain current, voltage and resistance in electrical circuits. a criticism of these approaches is that the analogues themselves may not be fully understood or using them could foster development of problematic alternative conceptions for the target concepts being taught (harrison & treagust, ). it is here that the use of physical role-plays offers an alternative, still drawing on analogues for learning, but through physical interactions that more closely involve learners with the content being taught (braund, ). one cautionary note here is that any analogy, whether arts- or non-arts-derived, communicates only a partial reality. the skill of the teacher is required to provide cognitive space, through discussion, allowing learners to critique whatever analogous model or method is used so that its successes in promoting understanding and its limitations as a version of scientific reality are clear (braund, : ). the arts pedagogies described in this section, and others, including poetry (pollack & korol, ), creative writing and music (crowther, ), offer the science teacher an enhanced pedagogical toolkit to help students learn science. a tradition in science teaching has been to use practical work to help students access ideas and teach concepts, but this has been criticised for being too focussed on practising and performing rehearsed routines and procedures rather than on ensuring that students understand what is going on (hodson ; abrahams & reiss, ). it is, however, possible that approaches derived from the arts have a place to play to enhance practical work. for example, warner and anderson ( ) studied different classes that were investigating the biology of snails, through observation and experi- ment, with and without a prelude of role-plays involving students as expert zoologists. they noticed better accuracy in writing and increased levels of anatomical knowledge for students who had taken part in the role-plays. conclusions—towards a more authentic and engaging science education using the arts we have argued that in considering the contribution that the arts might make to the sciences, particularly in terms of teaching the sciences, it is useful to envisage the contribution as potentially operating at three levels: the macro-level (the ways in which subjects, not only the arts and sciences, are structured and options for studying them provided), the meso-level (guiding the construction of science curricula and schemes of work) and the micro-level (pedagogical practices that can be drawn from the arts when teaching science). it is not, we contend, the case that all three levels must simultaneously exist for improvements to be made. for example, one can envisage a single (albeit passionate and determined) science teacher making changes to their teaching (i.e. at the micro-level) without any corresponding changes at the meso- or macro-levels. nevertheless, it seems reasonable to presume that if appropriate changes are made at two of the levels, ideally all three, the benefits are likely to be correspondingly greater. in arguing for the contributions that the arts might make to science and science education, we are not claiming there should be full integration nor that the epistemology or ontology of the arts and sciences are the same. as literary critic george steiner ( ) once claimed, the intentions, procedures and products of the arts and science have never been the same. art does not proceed from a less complete and less satisfactory representation of the world to a better one; the paintings of giotto are not less worthy than those of degas or pollock. science, though (like the arts) culturally and socially bound, is different and proceeds by empiricism, testing out and establishing better representations of the world. today’s views of the universe and its origins are more complete (though never wholly complete) than those of aristotle, ptolemy, copernicus, galileo, newton or einstein. our main intention in this article has been to show that the current way science is perceived and adapted for science education has substantial shortcomings for the science education of the twenty-first century (see can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – california alliance for arts education ( ) for examples of how many of our arguments apply to school mathematics as well as to school science). an arts-informed view is helpful here. in , theatre director and theorist peter brook gave a series of lectures collectively entitled the empty space (brook, ). brook’s phrase ‘the empty space’ was used metaphorically to critique the state of theatre in britain, as he saw it being staid and stuck with methods of communication and presentation that had changed little over the previous years. audiences were turning away from theatre and so brook envisioned and pioneered more enlightened ways of presenting and communicating through drama. his ideas revolutionised theatre in britain and beyond for generations. brook’s concerns for the late twentieth-century theatre echo those of science educators today in many countries who recognise the lack of enthusiasm of students for science and the reducing likelihood that they will choose further study of science or science-related careers (millar & osborne, ; sjøberg & schreiner, ). in brook’s terms, then, the trick for science educators is to turn increasingly away from the ‘dead hand’ of traditional, non-interactive methods such as book and board work (and even some versions of practical work) to see what gains can be made from employing strategies involving more collaborative learning effort and innovation from students (braund, : ). it is our contention that drawing on the arts for inspiration and new approaches will help. the argument here is not only that the arts can engage and inspire students; it is that using the arts as a language to help learners understand scientific concepts can be a powerful way of enabling such learning. in an article we wrote over ten years ago (braund & reiss, ), we proposed an evolutionary model for science and science education, accounting for changes in science that have broadened its scope and spheres of operation (for example, to encompass science done in other places than traditional laboratories). we argued that these changes in science were generally not paralleled by advances in science teaching methods and that greater attention needed to be paid in school science education both to changes in how science is viewed and to the potential of out-of-laboratory learning. such attention would also help lead to a shift in school science from ‘transmission learning’ to ‘constructivist learning’. our model thus indicated increasing divergence between science as practised in the real world and science as represented in schools, and we argued that such divergence was unhelpful for science students. it is our contention that the model gains when extra dimensions of the contribution of the arts to science and of arts-based pedagogy to science teaching are added (see fig. ). we call the model a ‘mark ii’, the text the nature of science the nature of learning divergence of school science from science authentic and engaging school science relevant to the needs of the st century incorporating steam school science at the start of the th century transmission learning science is a body of received knowledge that can be passed on to learners who are seen as passive recipients capable of recreating the ways in which knowledge and theory were discovered and elucidated constructivist learning learning science involves the personal construction of meaning through interaction with science knowledge and theory in contexts that have relevance to learners’ lives classic, th/ thcentury science knowledge grows from theories tested by specialists mainly through experimentation in laboratories modern collaborative, multi-disciplinary science knowledge grows through expansion of theories drawing on a wide range of inputs, experiences and technologies in a variety of places steam art and creativity add new dimensions and possibilities to science new pedagogies more attuned to learners and drawing on the arts fig. towards a more authentic and engaging school science (drawing on steam): an evolutionary model (mark ii) can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. ( ) : – in bold upper case italics in fig. and the dotted and hashed arrowed lines being additions to the version. the drivers of steam add new dimensions to the nature of science in the twenty-first century but additionally make science likely to diverge even more rapidly from school science unless new pedagogies, including those from the arts, help close the gap, drawing the nature of learning science closer to the changing nature of science in the real world (shown by the dotted and dashed arrowed lines). the result could be a more authentic and engaging school science, one more relevant to the needs of the twenty-first century. we acknowledge that the addition of the boxes at the right-hand side of fig. , building on our five premises, places additional demands on teachers. not all science teachers will welcome the new pedagogies for which we have argued in this article. we also acknowledge that there are some students who may not welcome these new approaches either. nevertheless, we argue for these new approaches for two main reasons. the first is that they present students with a more authentic vision of science. in this sense, we feel that steam can be understood as being a contemporary enhancement of stem. were we historians or philosophers of science, this reason would have been the sole one on which our argument rested. however, we are both science educators and while we wish to remain true to developments in science, as indicated above, our main intention, as also indicated above, is to provide a better science education for students. this is our second reason—we contend that these new pedagogies, with associated shifts in content, can help many students to engage in science when they would otherwise have not done so and can help them to learn science better. we need our science students not to lose their creativity. for people to be educated in the twenty-first century, they need to study both the arts and the sciences throughout their schooling. people talk about literacy as if it means only to be educated and proficient in using the language we speak, but there are other literacies especially of steam that are equally part of what it is to be educated. today’s and tomorrow’s citizens need both the arts and sciences to equip them with the criticality and creativity of mind and the aesthetic and emotional capacities essential for being rounded and cognate humans. compliance with ethical standards conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references abd-el-khalick, f., lederman, n. g., bell, r. l., & schwartz, r. s. 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( ) : – http://roseproject.no/network/countries/norway/eng/nor-sjoberg-schreiner-overview- .pdf https://arts.stanford.edu/for-faculty/art-science/ http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ / / e.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ / / e.pdf https://steamedu.com/downloads-and-resources https://steamedu.com/downloads-and-resources 	the ‘great divide’: how the arts contribute to science and science education 	abstract 	abstract 	science and art in culture and civilisation 	the arts and science: how science might be made more complete by the arts 	cultural and subject boundaries 	science relies on creative as well as critical thinking 	the brain and ‘scientific’ and ‘artistic’ thinking 	a collaborative and economic perspective 	how science education benefits from the arts and how the arts make a contribution to ‘better’ (more authentic and engaging) science education 	the arts and sciences at the macro-level: curriculum provision 	arts and sciences at the meso-level: engaging learners through arts-related sts contexts 	arts in science teaching at the micro-level: pedagogical practises drawing on the arts 	conclusions—towards a more authentic and engaging science education using the arts 	references untitled ucla ucla previously published works title art appreciation for veterans with severe mental illness in a va psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery center permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ cp c journal arts & health, ( ) issn - authors ketch, robert a rubin, robert t baker, matthew r et al. publication date doi . / . . peer reviewed escholarship.org powered by the california digital library university of california https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ cp c https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ cp c#author https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ this article was downloaded by: [va medical center ], [robert rubin] on: march , at: : publisher: routledge informa ltd registered in england and wales registered number: registered office: mortimer house, - mortimer street, london w t jh, uk click for updates arts & health: an international journal for research, policy and practice publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rahe art appreciation for veterans with severe mental illness in a va psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery center robert a. ketcha, robert t. rubinb, matthew r. bakera, alexander c. sonesa & donna amesa a va greater los angeles healthcare system – west l.a. psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery center, los angeles, ca, usa b psychiatry department, va greater los angeles healthcare system, and david geffen school of medicine at ucla – psychiatry and biobehavioral sciences, los angeles, ca, usa published online: mar . to cite this article: robert a. ketch, robert t. rubin, matthew r. baker, alexander c. sones & donna ames ( ): art appreciation for veterans with severe mental illness in a va psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery center, arts & health: an international journal for research, policy and practice, doi: . / . . to link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . please scroll down for article taylor & francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “content”) contained in the publications on our platform. however, taylor & francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the content. any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by taylor & francis. the accuracy of the content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. taylor and francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the content. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rahe http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi= . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . this article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. terms & conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms- and-conditions d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions art appreciation for veterans with severe mental illness in a va psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery center robert a. ketch a , robert t. rubin b *, matthew r. baker a , alexander c. sones a and donna ames a a va greater los angeles healthcare system – west l.a. psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery center, los angeles, ca, usa; b psychiatry department, va greater los angeles healthcare system, and david geffen school of medicine at ucla – psychiatry and biobehavioral sciences, los angeles, ca, usa (received june ; accepted november ) considerable research has shown the positive effects of art, music and drama therapy on mental health and well-being. in september , a weekly art appreciation class was initiated at the veterans affairs (va) west los angeles (wla) psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery center (prrc) for veterans with severe mental illness. there are va prrcs throughout the usa, designed to be transitional learning centers with curriculum-based interventions to help veterans re-integrate into the community and develop meaningful activities independent of the hospital setting. the va wla prrc art appreciation class includes classroom sessions and community outings to local museums and other institutions holding art works of interest. it is taught at a college level and designed to lack the stigma of being a therapy group. preliminary evidence from self-report measures indicates positive effects on mood, self-esteem, socialization and community participation among the veteran participants and recognition among staff that the course aids the veterans’ recovery process. appreciating art thus appears to promote both subjective and objective improvement in recovery and community re-integration for veterans who are experiencing chronic and disabling emotional distress. keywords: veterans; mental health; art appreciation introduction art appreciation as a tool for enhancing mental health in the military california has the nation’s largest population of veterans (blanton, ), and the veterans affairs (va) greater los angeles healthcare system cares for about , veterans in its mental health programs. many veterans recovering from severe mental illness are served by the va west los angeles (wla) psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery center (prrc), whose mission is to stimulate hope and promote mental health recovery by offering support, education and opportunities so that individuals can successfully achieve their goals in the community. there currently are va prrcs throughout the usa (veterans health administration handbook . , ), and all are seeking innovations in their programming. with its flourishing art scene, los angeles is considered a major art center supporting a vibrant gallery culture, world-class art education and some of the most this work was authored as part of the contributor’s official duties as an employee of the united states government and is therefore a work of the united states government. in accordance with u.s.c. , no copyright protection is available for such works under u.s. law *corresponding author. email: rtrubin@yahoo.com arts and health, http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch mailto:rtrubin@yahoo.com mailto:rtrubin@yahoo.com http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . respected art museums in the world. consistent with the wla prrc mission, in september an art appreciation class was established with three goals: (a) appreciating art, (b) building positive relationships among class participants and (c) integrating participants into the community. the classes are led by the one of the authors, rak, a licensed clinical social worker and experienced group facilitator with a long- standing interest in art appreciation. this report discusses the evidence on art appreciation as a vehicle for mental health recovery, how the art appreciation class fits into the recovery philosophy of the wla prrc, and the operation of the class, including examples of art discussed and preliminary evidence on effectiveness, based on individual veteran survey responses. the report, “arts, health and well-being across the military continuum: white paper and framing a national plan for action” (americans for the arts, ) identifies the positive effects of art on the mental health of veterans and advocates for advancing the policy, practice and quality use of arts and creativity as tools for health in the military. it further refers to the work of the national endowment of the arts that culminated in a theory of how art works as a system in america: “when people engage in art, they themselves may change and ‘grow,’ . . . art contributes to and enriches the overall quality of life” (national endowment for the arts, , p. ). according to the management of major depressive disorders working group (cited in americans for the arts, , p. ), arts interventions can be a form of behavioral activation – the systematic scheduling and monitoring of pleasurable or reinforcing activities – which can have significant antidepressant effects. expressive art therapies can help individuals have improved sleep and impulse control, greater concentration, and less depression and anxiety (americans for the arts, ). visual art has been shown to alleviate stress and anxiety in patients in healthcare settings (nanda, eisen, & baladandayuthapani, ; ulrich, ; ulrich & gilpin, ; wissing, ). when we look at things that we consider beautiful, the activity in the pleasure and reward centers of the brain is increased (kawabata & zeki, ). chatterjee ( ) also contended that the pleasure we derive from viewing objects we find beautiful correlates with activation of our brain’s reward circuitry (i.e., different kinds of pleasures, including music, visual art and even architectural spaces, are accompanied by increased neuronal activity in the orbitofrontal cortex). expressionist theories claim that the function of art is to communicate on the emotional level (chatterjee, ); for veterans who are experiencing disabling emotional distress, appreciating art and learning about artists thus could have positive effects on mood, self-esteem, socialization and community participation and may be a protective factor in suicide prevention. method program rationale, goals and process in the artist’s way, cameron ( ) identified elements of recovery to a healthy life, one of which is “the artist date . . . opening yourself to insight, inspiration, guidance” (p. ). cameron defined an artist date as “a block of time, perhaps two hours weekly, especially set aside and committed to nurturing the creative consciousness, [one’s] inner artist” (p. ), leading to a sense of well-being. an artist date may be bowling, a walk on the beach, listening to music or a visit to an art gallery. it was this joyful experience that encouraged rak, in september , to share with veterans his appreciation of the artistic creations of others by beginning an art appreciation class for one hour each week at the wla prrc. r.a. ketch et al. d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch frederickson ( ) indicated that we should cultivate positive emotions in ourselves and in those around us, not just as end states in themselves, but also to achieve improved psychological and physical health. the wla prrc is a holistic program, centered on the recovery model (warner ), that provides evidence-based treatments, wellness classes and creative arts experiences for veterans with severe mental illness. therapeutic lifestyle changes (tlcs) are elements of the wla prrc’s holistic wellness programming. walsh ( ) reviewed research on the effectiveness of eight tlcs for mental health: exercise; nutrition and diet; time in nature; relationships; recreation and enjoyable activities; relaxation and stress management; religious/spiritual involvement; and service and helping others. class participants are encouraged to complete the lifestyle practices diary: the eight ways to practice tlcs. for some veterans, the art appreciation class is part of the fifth practice, recreation and enjoyable activities. veterans in the wla prrc are considered students who take classes, an orientation meant to be destigmatizing and which is part of the recovery model. each veteran develops a personal recovery plan and engages in activities based upon his or her recovery goals. community integration, as opposed to institutionalization, is the goal of recovery, and the art appreciation class includes both classroom sessions and community outings. the class is taught at the level of a college art history class. it is not designed as “therapy” and is meant to avoid the stigma associated with participation in a therapy group. veterans participate as if they were in a college classroom and thus are transformed from patients to students. dimming of the lights while appreciating art projected on the screen is conducive to a pervasive sense of peace and calm. classes begin with participants sharing art experiences they have had during the previous week, which may include having viewed art or having read something about art. the leader (rak) then shares his art experiences during the previous week, which may include projecting on a large screen photos from a laptop computer of art from a gallery, museum or sculpture garden visit. the veterans are encouraged to share their observations and perceptions of the projected art. this sharing not only provides information about a particular artist or artists, but it also informs members about art-experience opportunities in the community. when members express an interest in a particular artist or style of art, the leader researches the topic and brings information about the artist to the next class. for example, when a group member asked about salvador dali, the leader made a full presentation on the artist the next week. every two months, the class leader and a va recreation staff member accompany the class to a local museum to view art that has been discussed in class. this experience introduces veterans to museums to view original art first-hand and to consider the museums as community resources for further exploration on their own. the leader serves as the guide and may engage the museum to provide a docent to further explain the exhibits. museums visited in the los angeles area include the armand hammer museum, getty villa, getty center, los angeles county museum of art, norton simon museum, california african american museum, autry museum of western art, ucla franklin murphy sculpture garden, ucla fowler museum and the huntington library, gardens, and museums. the leader contacts the museums ahead of time to secure free passes, and the recreation staff member arranges packed lunches from the va. some veterans who have been unable to participate in the group outings have visited the museums with family members. although the weekly meetings are conducted as art appreciation classes, as a licensed clinical social worker, the leader seeks to develop a positive group environment and relationships with members through expressions of concern, acceptance, genuineness and arts and health d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch empathy, as well as nonjudgmental acceptance and appreciation (yalom, ). the leader seeks to engage members in the discussion of art, artistic styles and artists, to evoke positive and recovery-oriented thoughts and feelings. for example, a viewing and discussion of the paintings of cakes and pies by wayne thiebaud led to discussions of positive memories of family members’ gathering and baking. it has been important to follow the suggestions and interests of class participants, who often ask about a particular artist or type of art. veterans have asked about dali, rembrandt, picasso, munch (painter of the scream) and others, which has led to interesting reviews of their art and lives. other veterans have asked about aztec and egyptian art, which has led to the discussion of historical aspects of artistic creations. the topics thus are often directed by the class members’ interests. the leader sometimes shares an overview of art seen on a recent museum or gallery visit, and members sometimes ask to learn about the life of an artist whose work has been shown. prior to the museum field trips, the leader presents information on the museum and the art to be seen. for example, before visiting the armand hammer museum, the group viewed photos and a brochure of the museum collection, including works by gustave moreau and vincent van gogh. this led to discussions of the artists and their subjects. van gogh’s painting, trees in the garden of the hospital saint-paul (figure ; van gogh, ), led to a discussion of the mental health challenges in van gogh’s life, of which they were already aware. the recovery principle in this discussion was to learn that one is not alone in facing mental health challenges, and that some of the most famous and productive people throughout history have faced similar challenges. figure . trees in the garden of the hospital saint-paul (van gogh, ). the work of art depicted in this image and the reproduction thereof are in the public domain in the usa. r.a. ketch et al. d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch the paintings of king david and salome dancing before herod by moreau led to class members’ discussing the history depicted by the paintings, as some of the class members were very knowledgeable about the bible stories. supporting spiritual health also is part of a recovery-oriented approach to the treatment of mental illness. prior to visiting the john paul getty museum in malibu (the villa), the leader presented information on the eruption of mt. vesuvius and the burying of pompeii and herculaneum, because the museum is a replica of a villa in herculaneum. the museum houses many sculptures and artifacts from ancient greece, rome and egypt. the class was very interested in the history and artifacts from pompeii. they viewed videos that dramatized the time of the eruption, and some already had watched television programs on the subject. students were very keenly aware of how this tragedy helped preserve the details of everyday life , years ago. certain artists have fascinated the class members. caravaggio, the pioneer baroque painter, painted real people in action, with dirty fingernails and all, to depict bible stories for catholic churches. some of his work was rejected by church leaders, because his subjects did not look saintly enough. figure illustrates the down-to-earth style of this early baroque painter (caravaggio, ). the veterans were interested in caravaggio’s life struggles, stemming from the loss of most of his family to bubonic plague. learning about how famous artists endured their life difficulties has been part of teaching the veterans about resilience and recovery – how to endure great troubles and still move forward with their lives. figure . death of the virgin (caravaggio, ). the work of art depicted in this image and the reproduction thereof are in the public domain worldwide. arts and health d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch the veterans also identified with artists who had other challenges. although norman rockwell created idealistic views of america for over years while illustrating for the saturday evening post magazine, he left there to illustrate for look magazine, so he could express his social concerns by portraying some of the problems afflicting american society. he painted the problem we all live with, which depicts a six-year-old african- american girl in the ’s being escorted to her class by federal marshals, a tomato- stained wall with degrading graffiti behind her (figure ; rockwell, ). this illustrated the forced integration of new orleans public schools. the class members compared caravaggio and rockwell in the ways they painted reality. many individuals with severe mental illness face discrimination because of their illness, and this rockwell painting conveyed the importance of being resilient under adverse societal circumstances. the sculptures of auguste rodin were introduced prior to visiting the norton simon museum, where the thinker and the burghers of calais were viewed. the class members were interested in the expressions of the statues and discussed interpretations of the faces and body language. this gave the opportunity to learn about rodin’s life, which was not without tumult, and the class related to the challenges rodin faced and appreciated the greatness of his work. they also learned about the bronze casting process rodin used to create his sculptures. in this class, veterans have been exposed to a wide range of cultures in their exploration of art. one of the most important aspects of the recovery model is the support of cultural diversity and lifelong learning. prior to a visit to the autry museum of art, the class viewed and discussed the works of american artists, especially those who have portrayed the west, including n.c. wyeth, frederic remington, and allan houser. the veterans were interested in learning about these artists’ lives. for example, allan houser, born in , one of the most renowned native american painters and modernist sculptors, was the son of sam haozous, who was a translator for geronimo, the leader of the apache nation. houser was the first member of his family tribe born outside of captivity since geronimo’s surrender and the tribe’s imprisonment by the us government. the class was quite moved by houser’s sculptures of native americans. figure . the problem we all live with (rockwell, ). copyright by look magazine. reproduction of this image complies with fair use under us copyright law. the image is one of the subjects of this educational article and makes an irreplaceable contribution to the reader’s understanding of the article, where it is accompanied by background and commentary, and is of sufficiently low resolution to avoid competition for commercial purposes with the original image. r.a. ketch et al. d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch while preparing for a trip to the california african american museum, the works of african-american artists collected by the golden state mutual life insurance company were studied, including the murals by hale woodruff and charles aston and works by jacob lawrence, charles white and romare bearden. also considered was the harlem renaissance, leading to the production of much fine african-american art. the class members were impressed by the important contributions of these and other african- american artists. the class learned about henri matisse and pablo picasso before visiting the los angeles county museum of art, which has many art objects from picasso’s various periods (blue, rose, cubism and others), as well as several important works by matisse. the impact of these painters on modern art was a topic for class discussion. other artists featured in the class have included richard diebenkorn, sam francis, mary cassatt, winslow homer, thomas eakins, frederic edwin church and the glass sculptures of dale chihuly, giving the class opportunities to discuss the artists’ talents and psychosocial challenges, how the artists dealt with them and how they expressed them in their art. one of the goals of a holistic approach to the treatment of mental illness is to help overcome the narrowing of world view that often comes with retreating into an internal world of isolation. the students taught themselves to see the world more fully through the artists’ creativity. for example, david hockney’s works encourage the viewer to look more fully at a scene. he used photography with multiple cameras to record the english yorkshire countryside, as well as painting on multiple large canvases in order to portray the details of landscapes. through his art, he helps the viewer learn to see more and in greater detail. the class members have repeatedly recalled this lesson in viewing scenery. andrew wyeth taught us to appreciate the beauty around us. he mostly painted what he saw in and near his home. he wandered around his neighborhood, into people’s attics and cellars, and out in the fields, where he saw things that interested him. this led to a discussion of how the class members could look for and find beauty in their daily lives. the class learned that artists express their feelings and emotions through their art. vincent van gogh saw his paintings as a way not to copy nature but to improve on it. he said that paintings come from the painter’s soul, and picasso wrote that art washes away the dust of everyday life. while this lesson in creativity is helpful to everyone, it is especially useful to veterans confronting life’s major challenges. in addition to the art appreciation class, the advancement of art experiences by the wla prrc is achieved through creative arts classes (painting, ceramics, silk screening, mosaics), art shows created by veterans, and displays of art prints. veterans are encouraged to enroll in outside adult education classes, and, as mentioned earlier, some veterans have returned to school in the community as part of their recovery goals. results program staff have emphasized the serenity the veterans experience as they view the images and absorb knowledge, and that their social skills have been enhanced by the gentle encouragement to participate provided by the discussion facilitator. it has been remarkable to the program staff just how fluent these veterans with severe mental illnesses have become in the language of art. of particular importance, gaining confidence from this class and others in the wla prrc has aided veterans’ transition to the community and helped stimulate their lifelong learning. for example, some of our veterans in late middle age, following years of mental illness, have begun to pursue college educations. arts and health d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch veterans in all wla prrc classes are asked to complete surveys to assess the classes for effectiveness and areas of improvement. for the art appreciation class, five veterans completed surveys after about eight months’ attendance ( weekly sessions). (other veterans, who attended less frequently, were not surveyed.) on a five-point likert scale ( ¼ extremely negative, ¼ neutral, ¼ very positive) asking, “how do you feel about attending this class?” all five participants indicated “very positive”. comments about what they liked most included, “the slides,” “information concerning the artist,” and “talks about the impressionists.” to the question, “do you feel this class has helped you develop in your own recovery?” all five participants answered “yes.” responses to the question, “how has it helped you develop in your recovery?” included, “opens my mind,” “opens my mind to the beauty around me,” “by watching the artist” (slide presentations), and “go to museums to see art by the artist.” responses to the question, “how could it better help you in your recovery?” included, “more videos,” “keep the class going,” and “by doing it.” two veterans indicated the class was fine as it is. all the veterans answered “yes” to the questions, “do you find the information and supplementary materials provided in the class helpful?” and “do you feel that the information given in the class has helped in your recovery?” responses to the request to “explain how course materials and information have helped in your recovery” included, “learning about the arts,” “i like art and going to the museum to see paintings,” and “helped me to think about art.” with regard to the question, “what additional suggestions or comments do you have that would assist in making this a better class?” two participants indicated, “nothing at this time,” and one indicated, “more movies about art.” discussion the above-mentioned responses provide preliminary data on the effectiveness of the art appreciation class, and they point to its ability to support participants’ subjective beliefs about their progress toward recovery. the data also provide a rationale for continuation of the class, with more detailed evaluations of both its subjective impact, through measures of psychological functioning, and its objective impact, through measures of socialization, community participation and progress toward independent living. continued assessment of the art appreciation class, with ongoing improvements as suggested by veterans and staff, will determine its ultimate place in the armamentarium of recovery-oriented mental health programs. we need to learn more about how identifying with an artist or being immersed in beauty impacts our brain’s reward circuitry. the art appreciation class offers the opportunity to further investigate art appreciation as a vehicle for psychological growth and improved mental health. future plans include hypothesis-based collection of both structured self-report measures and narrative comments from class participants, and structured evaluations from wla prrc staff, to further elucidate the art appreciation class as a vehicle for psychological growth and improved mental health in veterans. development of a manual, with links to images and video clips of suggested artists and recovery-themed discussion points, also will be undertaken, so that others can institute and evaluate similar classes in their own clinical settings. conclusion the wla prrc art appreciation class embraces many aspects of the recovery model for the treatment of severe mental illness in veterans, providing a unique learning adventure r.a. ketch et al. d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch for the participants. the class enhances their psychological resiliency by fostering their love for learning and their ability to rise above the stigma of mental illness. participants learn that some of the greatest artists faced similar challenges. the class emphasizes cultural diversity and supports community integration, combining didactics with community outings to provide places to go to appreciate art, a deeper awareness of the lives of artists, and, in turn, deeper insight into the veterans’ own life stories. of importance, the class format of didactic sessions and outings to local cultural institutions is easily adaptable to many mental health recovery-oriented programs. acknowledgements the authors are grateful to the veterans and staff of the wla prrc who have contributed to the success of the art appreciation class. disclosure statement none of the authors has any financial or other conflict of interest with respect to this work. references americans for the arts, national initiative for arts and health in the military. ( ). arts, health and well-being across the military continuum: white paper and framing a national plan for action. retrieved from http://www.americansforthearts.org/sites/default/files/pdf/ /by_ program/legislation_and_policy/art_and_military/artshealthwellbeingwhitepaper.pdf blanton, r. e. ( ). overview of veterans in california: march . retrieved from california research bureau website: http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/ / - .pdf cameron, j. ( ). the artist’s way: a spiritual path to higher creativity. new york, ny: jeremy p. tarcher/putnam. caravaggio, m. m. ( ). death of the virgin [painting]. retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/c/c /michelangelo_caravaggio_ .jpg chatterjee, a. ( ). neuroaesthetics: researchers unravel the biology of beauty and art. the scientist, , – . retrieved from http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleno/ /title/neuroaesthetics/ frederickson, b. ( ). positive emotions. in c. snyder & s. lopez (eds.), handbook of positive psychology (pp. – ). new york, ny: oxford university press. kawabata, h., & zeki, s. ( ). neural correlates of beauty. journal of neurophysiology, , – . doi: . /jn. . nanda, u., eisen, s., & baladandayuthapani, v. ( ). undertaking an art survey to compare patient versus student art preferences. environment and behavior, , – . doi: . / national endowment for the arts. ( ). how art works: the national endowment of the arts’ five- year research agenda, with a system map and measurement model. retrieved from http://www. nea.gov/research/how-art-works/ rockwell, n. ( ). the problem we all live with [painting]. retrieved from http://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/the-problem-we-all-live-with-norman-rockwell.jpg ulrich, r. s. ( ). effects of viewing art on health outcomes. in s. b. frampton & p. a. charmel (eds.), putting patients first: best practices in patient-centered care (pp. – ). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. ulrich, r. s., & gilpin, i. ( ). healing arts: nutrition for the soul. in s. b. franpton, l. gilpin, & p. a. charmel (eds.), putting patients first: best practices in patient-centered care (pp. – ). san francisco, ca: john wiley & sons. van gogh, v. ( ). hospital at saint-remy [painting]. retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/ / /van_gogh_-_b%c %a ume_im_garten_des_hospitals_saint- paul.jpeg veterans health administration handbook . . ( ). psychosocial rehabilitation and recovery centers (prrc). washington, dc: department of veterans affairs. arts and health d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch http://www.americansforthearts.org/sites/default/files/pdf/ /by_program/legislation_and_policy/art_and_military/artshealthwellbeingwhitepaper.pdf http://www.americansforthearts.org/sites/default/files/pdf/ /by_program/legislation_and_policy/art_and_military/artshealthwellbeingwhitepaper.pdf http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/ / - .pdf http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c /michelangelo_caravaggio_ .jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c /michelangelo_caravaggio_ .jpg http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleno/ /title/neuroaesthetics/ http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleno/ /title/neuroaesthetics/ http://dx.doi.org/doi: . /jn. . http://dx.doi.org/doi: . /jn. . http://dx.doi.org/doi: . / http://dx.doi.org/doi: . / http://dx.doi.org/doi: . / http://www.nea.gov/research/how-art-works/ http://www.nea.gov/research/how-art-works/ http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/the-problem-we-all-live-with-norman-rockwell.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/the-problem-we-all-live-with-norman-rockwell.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ / /van_gogh_-_b%c %a ume_im_garten_des_hospitals_saint-paul.jpeg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ / /van_gogh_-_b%c %a ume_im_garten_des_hospitals_saint-paul.jpeg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ / /van_gogh_-_b%c %a ume_im_garten_des_hospitals_saint-paul.jpeg walsh, r. ( ). lifestyle and mental health. american psychologist, , – . doi: : / a warner, r. ( ). does the scientific evidence support the recovery model? psychiatric bulletin, , – . doi: . /pb.bp. . wissing, k. ( ). expressive arts and traumatic brain injury: therapeutic arts for head trauma survivors. retrieved from http://suite .com/a/expressive-arts-and-traumatic-brain-injury- a yalom, i. ( ). the theory and practice of group psychotherapy. new york, ny: basic books. r.a. ketch et al. d ow nl oa de d by [ v a m ed ic al c en te r ] , [ r ob er t r ub in ] at : m ar ch http://dx.doi.org/doi: : /a http://dx.doi.org/doi: : /a http://dx.doi.org/doi: : /a http://dx.doi.org/doi: : /a http://dx.doi.org/doi: . /pb.bp. . http://dx.doi.org/doi: . /pb.bp. . http://suite .com/a/expressive-arts-and-traumatic-brain-injury-a http://suite .com/a/expressive-arts-and-traumatic-brain-injury-a 	abstract 	introduction 	art appreciation as a tool for enhancing mental health in the military 	method 	program rationale, goals and process 	results 	discussion 	conclusion 	acknowledgements 	disclosure statement 	references from the museum.indd th e ar t o f t hi nk in g eur respir j ; : – | doi: . / . doi: . / . | copyright ©ers from the m useum les demoiselles d’avignon was an explosion of intuitive creativity that took a quantum leap forward in reshaping our perspective of art and the modern world. picasso’s demoiselles proclaimed the future as they echoed the monumental nudes and mythical forms of the past. it was a painting that was “destroyed” before it was “created”; analysed as deconstruction before synthesised into something completely new (rivalling the renaissance in its novel approach to perspective); and as individual and precocious in its execution as multi-dimensional in the forces that shaped it. five heroic, sharply stylised nudes whose planar shapes exude the primitive dissonant power of forms are crowned by magnetic heads that stare straight at us through angular eyes and medusa-like faces. th eir bodies dramatically confront us even though they are rigidly suspended in their surroundings – a fused hardness that contrasts with the transitoriness of impressionism. th ere is no stillness: no fi xed focal point or single source of light; and no fl oor, horizon or uniform sense of depth. th e integrity of mass as distinct from space has now been fragmented as dissected anatomies give us multiple perspectives simultaneously. muted colour further emphasises form whilst use of the full colour spectrum (pink hued contours of the nudes set off by icy blue panes) allows for an alternative interpretation of depth perspective. negative space is now positively painted freeing up the exploration of mass and void, line and plane, colour and value. picasso’s demoiselles was initially a barcelona brothel scene that began as an allegory of vice (sailor-client seated amid fruit and women) and virtue (medical student entering on the left with a skull). but picasso’s large canvas yearned for a grander, timeless statement, and he had the genius, drive and confi dence to experiment, rework and shape his painting towards the “discovery” that it became. in several master strokes of intuitive analysis and synthesis, the novel geometries of picasso’s demoiselles have combined the primitivism of african tribal art with western archaic sculptural forms and the newest ideas in science and mathematics of space, time and dimension (poincare, einstein). th e multi-faceted nature of cubist art shattered the autonomy of the individual object but in so doing enabled objects to both integrate with and transcend their environment. cubism highlighted metamorphosis and change rather than permanence and made instability, indeterminacy and multiple points of view staples of modern art. th e quantum world has now been embraced and picasso is true to his pronouncement that “je est un autre”. in reimagining three-dimensional pictorial space on a two-dimensional surface, picasso had been shown the way by cézanne and spurred on by braque. cézanne’s series of mont sainte-victoire nature paintings exemplify his patient exploration of the relativity of seeing as he moved around both object and visual space and painted with “both eyes”. however the ambiguity that came with cézanne’s optics being “not in the eye but in the brain” was initially seen as impotence. later generations saw this very same duality as greatness and intellectualised it. braque in particular freed himself from all illusionistic perspective (unnecessary distance between object and viewer) and “painted space” that could be more “fully experienced”. whereas picasso hungered for new beginnings and so constant and abrupt change was inevitable (mistresses and art styles), braque’s quest was for ultimate resolution leading to an oeuvre that evolved gradually. initially, picasso and braque were kindred spirits as they created a new cubist vocabulary, but it is the atelier series of braque that carried this experiment towards its natural conclusion. atelier viii is a complex summation of everything braque had learned about art during his long life (incorporating both “analytical” and “synthetic” stages of cubism). for braque, harmony is attained when “objects do not exist except in so far as a rapport exists between them, and between them and the viewer”. above the lived-in microcosm of the painter’s studio in atelier viii fl ies a huge white bird, the embodiment of the creative force. all of a sudden, space-time has collapsed into a dimension of art where the solitary experimentalist (cézanne), the exuberant genius (picasso) and the methodical intellectual (braque) are all juxtaposed, somewhat separated from everything that has gone before but intimately connected to all that will follow. tom kotsimbos dept of medicine, central clinical school, monash university; dept of allergy, immunology and respiratory medicine, alfred hospital, melbourne, victoria, , australia. e-mail: tom.kotsimbos@monash.edu pablo picasso: les demoiselles d’avignon, ; museum of modern art, new york paul cézanne: mont sainte-victoire with large pine, ; courtauld institute of art, london georges braque: atelier viii, ; colección masaveu, oviedo, spain c ub is m picasso cézannebraque charles darwin picasso cézannebraque cccharlessssssss 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license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of academic world research and education center. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . sciencedirect th world conference on educational technology researches, wcetr- teaching/learning strategies through art: painting and basic design education asu besgen a* aassoc. prof. dr., karadeniz technical university, faculty of architecture, department of architecture, trabzon, , turkey abstract the art and architecture relationship is discussed within the context of historical process since the first mankind product. moreover, the art and architecture are mentioned as the most important components through the history of civilisation. art is a diverse range of human activities and the products of those activities; which depend on the creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, photography, and other visual media and also architecture. each artwork is the product of its artist’s creativity. the artist forms his artwork through his lifetime experiences in a subjective way by the help of artistic expression, which is as same as for an architect and his architectural work. the art of painting as an art form is the specific shape, or quality an artistic expression takes, which is as same as for an architectural form, and the methods used through for a painting is nearly as same as the methods that an architect uses for his architecture. in the view of this phenomenon, the paper focuses on the relationship between painting and architecture through basic design education. the common elements and principles in painting and architecture will be held in details with examples, to put forward the importance of relationship between two fields, in the aim of proposing a new teaching/learning strategy for basic design education. in the light of this aim, mainly the “space” concept, which is the most common element for an artistic and architectural work will be exemplified with the course practices produced at karadeniz technical university, department of architecture, trabzon, turkey. © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. peer-review under responsibility of academic world research and education center. keywords: education; painting; architecture; basic design; space. * asu besgen. tel.: + - - - / + - - - ; fax: + - - - . e-mail address: abesgen@ktu.edu.tr / abesgen@gmail.com © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of academic world research and education center. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.sbspro. . . &domain=pdf asu besgen / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – . introduction: the relationship of painting and architecture it is known that architecture and painting belonged together. indeed, they were admirably intertwined at various points in history in the ancient cultures of east and west, and in the european gothic, renaissance, and baroque periods. we see the architecture in paintings and the paintings in architecture, see fig. . fig. . (a) the architecture in painting; (b) the painting in architecture, baroc period (http://bettybaroque.wordpress.com/ / / /guercino- - & http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/rome-san-luigi-dei-francesi). in the beginning of the th century, we find examples of paintings having a direct influence on architectural design, in the ways it never did before, see fig. . fig. . (a) painting by theo van doesburg, ; (b) plan for the barcelona pavilion by mies van der rohe, (woods, ). it is though that their independence from each other gave them an intellectual and artistic parity, and allowed architects and painters to learn from each other’s works, see fig. . asu besgen / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – fig. . (a) painting by kasimir malevich, ; (b) designs by zaha hadid for the media park, dusseldorf, (woods, ). before th century, it is impossible to think of an architect who adopted in his work, methods or forms from a painter. after the separation of the arts, by the way of modernism, this influence began to appear, and is sure to increase in the future. . . the relationship of painting and architecture: space as we look at the artworks from past to present, we see that the elements constituting the artwork are created on certain basis. the organization of various elements comes together in a harmonious and/or contrast way to form a whole and are observed to be the inevitable requirements for a piece of work to be qualified as an artwork. in the light of this truth, it can be said that there are many similarities between painting and architecture through their essence, purpose, methods and techniques. while creating the two basis’ products, the artist and the architect use the basic design elements which can be titled as; dot, line, directions, size, shape, texture, value, colour, and the basic design principles such as; repetition, hierarchy, domination, balance, unity, see fig. . fig. . (a) painting by pablo picasso, ; (b) design by oma (rem koolhaas) for seattle library, (http://lucianwilsonhonorsyear.blogspot.com.tr/ / /cubism-and-pablo-picasso.html & http:// f .wordpress.com/lectures/lecture- -differentiation ). however, this article aims at pointing out to another significant concept, which is beyond the basic design elements and principles as common aspects of painting and architecture, in addition, lies within the intersection set asu besgen / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – of these two. the concept is; “space”, where all basic design elements and principles become auxiliary in creating itself and where the artwork is intuitively, rationally and conceptually formed with a certain setup. architecture is the art of creating space. history of painting is in a sense the history of representation of spaces, and these two essences have the nature of emphasizing the necessity and significance of space, both for architecture and painting. space, that immaterial essence that the painter suggests and the architect envelops, creates a wholly human and finite environment within the infinite environment of nature (scruton, ). thus, the space becomes limited by touching the objects or concrete shapes. painters create the meaning they intend not only with shapes but also by designing the space. the space of painting is a structure which can be limited and has the rules of which is completely determined by its artist. space in architecture is simply defined as a volume, which is surrounded and/or surrounds us. then, it has its physical form that can be decoded and described by its concrete characteristics, but space is more a social phenomenon than physical one, it is a social product (proshansky, ; lefebvre, ). therefore, space in architecture is a specific void determined by its architect with its objective(s). space in painting and architecture is an abstract concept created in mind based on the interrelations of objects. thus the concept of space completes its abstract journey initiated within the mind by turning into a concrete product: the surface in painting, the built environment in architecture. in both areas, the space creates itself and exists with various elements. in painting, the space is created through design elements such as points, lines, forms, dimensions, proportions, textures, colours and with design principles such as repetition, hierarchy, dominance, balance, unity, according to the composition it has. in architecture, the space reaches to a third dimension by raising all these elements and principles which are in two dimensions in painting, and re-exist with planes, surfaces and forms. . . the relationship of painting and architecture: education education in its general sense is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, training, or research. education frequently takes place under the guidance of others, but may also be autodidactic (dewey , ). architectural education is a professional discipline, which the architecture spans both the arts and the sciences. students need to have an understanding of the arts and humanities, as well as a basic technical understanding of structures and construction. skills in communication, both visual and verbal, are essential. while knowledge and skills must be developed, design is ultimately a process of critical thinking, analysis, and creative activity ( asca’s the goals of architectural education, ). the article intends to exemplify the “basis design course”, which is one of the fundamentals in architectural education, under the title “teaching/learning strategies through art”. . improvement: painting and basic design education “basic design” courses in architecture aim at dealing with various concrete-abstract problems as a design problem and to support the designers to produce unique solutions to these problems during the course flow. within this scope, one part of the works conducted during the freshman year in “basic design” course at karadeniz technical university (trabzon, turkey), department of architecture will be discussed with exercises/examples in terms of perception, interpretation and design by painting-architecture-space relation. now, there comes one of the examples, with the theme, purpose(s), problem of the example: “theme: the space of a painting purpose(s): to acknowledge an artist and a painting, to interpret a painting, to identify a painting within the basic design elements and principles, to comprehend painting-space-design relationship, to design an abstract space. problem: please analyse the artists and their works such as; piet mondrian, theo van doesburg, cesar domela, friedrich vordemberge-gildewart, vilmos huszar, lajos von ebhnet, sophie taebuer, jean arp, whose works are asu besgen / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – from de stijl; el lissitzky, kasimir malevich, henryk stazewski, nikolai suetin, ilya chashnik whose works are from constructivism and suprematism. at the end of this research, select minimum compositions from the artist(s) whose works you have admired. create a three dimensional volumetric composition by transforming the elements you prefer on the base area of your selected works into place/surface elements. use those elements you do not consider to be in three dimensional as two dimensional base expressions.” the alternative solutions to the problem can be seen in figure and figure , by the help of the photographs which the left column shows the original paintings and the other two mentions the designers’ approaches within the spatial design organizations based on paintings. . conclusion: teaching/learning strategies through art the results of the essay can be summaries under two items, parallel to the aim of the study. these are; “teaching/learning strategies in basic design education”; “painting and basic design education as a case in “teaching/learning strategies through art”. architectural design is not merely teaching of skills and techniques. it also deals with how one should work on an issue or problem, what the one thinks about how s/he approaches these. design education is required to enable individuals to think, define, relate, apply their knowledge and work in a changing environment. one should learn to wonder, imagine, observe, search and evaluate available hints to be able to find alternative solutions and approach problems with a criticizing and creative manner. designing and the design process involve the concept of “creativity”. creativity requires, in a sense, to be able to think, produce new things, see objects or situations from different perspectives and this skill can be gained through education. creativity lies at the basis of intuition, which includes individualistic freedom. creativity is the ability to perceive and transfer life; to re-synthesize the existing knowledge and know-how; to reproduce the knowledge and to come up with new products and new ideas. in art, it is of gaining of a new and unique entirety. it contains the items of curiosity, imagination, invention and authenticity. it suggests analysis, synthesis and original novelty of an issue. in creativity where invention and innovation is the core, all capabilities, thoughts, thinking processes and imagination of the mind interact with each other. the creative action towards invention combines and integrates all pieces of this structure. creation begins with selection. the essence of creativity lies in the ability to reach the target through different paths. the creative person freely produces creative works and makes different suggestions during the creative process, by making use of his past, intellectual knowledge and experiences, perceptions and imagination and through evaluation of their environment on this basis and by using his intuition and search results. therefore, existing events and theories are re-discussed, however, with a different perspective. within this scope, when designers encounter with a design problem, they can ask themselves questions such as “what kind of an experience did i have?”, “how do i feel about this experience?”, “what did i think about this experience?”, “why did i think about this experience?”, “what measures, values did i consider basically when i was making my judgment?”, “why do i like some things while i don’t like others?”, “what can i do to improve this situation?” and many more. exercises made in light of the given examples have the nature of introducing design and design action, developing different perspectives, bringing in the skills of making different interpretations on events, objects and situations, enabling each single designer to develop their own unique ways of perception, thinking and acting in the face of concrete or abstract problems, enabling them to understand that being unique and creative is about the one’s way of thinking and expressing themselves, in parallel to the main purpose of the basic design course. as a result of the implementations, designers first learn basic information about the determined movement, artwork and artist. through the determined art movements and paintings, they see that the artworks are based on certain rules, which, sometimes intuitively, sometimes rationally and sometimes conceptually exist within a certain space setup and suggestion. they analyse the state of basic design elements available in these artworks, such as points, lines, direction, shape, texture, colour, at the time of combination and in line with the relevant rules. they asu besgen / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – perceive the way of using design principles, such as repetition, hierarchy, dominance, balance, unity, in these artworks. they determine the two dimensional organization of these elements and principles. they upgrade their interpretations to three dimensional structures to form space/spaces through use of planes and surfaces. as quoted from wernher von braun, they use the essence of creativity, “the known” in new ways and combine them in forms “not seen before”. they gain a new perspective and a new way of expression through the space perception and space design. figure . the space(s) of a painting- . friedrich vordemberge-gildewart, composition no: , kasimir malevich, supremus no. , lajos von ebneth, composition, kasimir malevich, suprematist painting, piet mondrian, no. vi / composition no.ii, asu besgen / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – figure . the space(s) of a painting- . cesar domela, relief, s nikolai suetin, composition, s ilya chahsnik, suprematist composition, s kasimir malevich, suprematism, s friedrich vordemberge-gildewart, composition, s asu besgen / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – references asca’s the goals of architectural education. ( ). retrived from http://www.acsa-arch.org/resources/student-resources/overview/ architectural-education dewey, j. ( / ). democracy and education. the free press. pp. – . isbn - - - . lefebvre, h. ( ). the production of space. blachwell publishers ltd, oxford, uk. proshansky, h. m., ittelson, w. h., rivlin, l.g. ( ). environmental psychology: man and his physical setting, holt, rinehart and wiston, usa. scruton, r. ( ). space and mass. retrived from http://global.britannica.com/ebchecked/topic/ /architecture/ /space-and-mass woods, l. ( , march ). art to architecture. retrieved from http://lebbeuswoods.wordpress.com/ / / /art-to-architecture acoustic space, marshall mcluhan and links to medieval philosophers and beyond: center everywhere and margin nowhere philosophies article acoustic space, marshall mcluhan and links to medieval philosophers and beyond: center everywhere and margin nowhere emma findlay-white and robert k. logan ,* book and media studies, st. michael’s college, university of toronto, st mary street, toronto, on m s j , canada; emma.findlay.white@mail.utoronto.ca department of physics, university of toronto, st. george, toronto, on m s a , canada * correspondence: logan@physics.utoronto.ca; tel.: + - - - academic editor: marcin j. schroeder received: june ; accepted: august ; published: september abstract: the origin of mcluhan’s notion of acoustic space is described. it is shown that his definition of acoustic space as having its center everywhere and its margin nowhere can be traced back to the christian mystics of the middle ages and the early renaissance dating as far back as the th century. keywords: mcluhan; acoustic space; visual space; god; the centre is everywhere; the circumference nowhere . introduction marshall mcluhan is widely recognized as a visionary commentator of media and the means by which modern society communicates. the notion of acoustic space is one of the key ideas in marshall mcluhan’s understanding of media. mcluhan used his notion of acoustic space to characterize communication within the oral tradition. he contrasted acoustic space with space that characterized literate communication with writing especially alphabetic writing and then print. he suggested that the notion of “acoustic space” could be used to describe the conveyance of electric information via telegraph, telephone, radio, television, and would certainly have added, and indeed embraced, the digital age that he so presciently foresaw. what we intend to show is that his notion of acoustic space in which the center is everywhere and margins nowhere, which is so key to his understanding of both the oral tradition and electrically configured information and by extension to digital information is actually rooted in his background as a medieval scholar. while his notion of acoustic space especially used to describe electric and digital information is considered quite modern and forward thinking, its genesis can be found in the medieval understanding of god as an omniscient being that can never be proven to exist, but whose presence is considered indisputable by the faithful. from the sacred trapping of medieval mysticism in the th century to the secular world of modern mass media, mcluhan was a conduit to the st century where communication technologies have supplanted god(s) as the omniscient entity controlling the world. . the origin of mcluhan’s notion of acoustic space mcluhan defined acoustic space in many equivalent ways throughout his career but the idea of having its centers everywhere and margins nowhere comes from the way by which auditory signals are received from all directions at the same time. by the same token, electrically configured information is received all over the globe virtually simultaneously. this connection between electric and auditory information can be traced as far back as to his collaboration among his circle of colleagues at the university of toronto (the toronto school), and those who participated in the journal explorations philosophies , , – ; doi: . /philosophies www.mdpi.com/journal/philosophies http://www.mdpi.com/journal/philosophies http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/journal/philosophies philosophies , , – that mcluhan co-edited with ted carpenter. mcluhan developed this notion based on a suggestion from his colleague, carl williams, a psychology professor at the university of toronto and a former student of e. a. bott. another of mcluhan’s colleagues, edmund carpenter ( ), documented this trade off in his memoir, carl provided the first breakthrough. he used the phrase ‘auditory space’ in describing an experiment by e. a. bott . . . the phrase was electrifying. marshall changed it to ‘acoustic space’ and quoted symbolist poetry. jackie [tyrwhitt] mentioned the indian city of fatehpur sikri. tom [easterbrook] saw parallels in medieval europe. i talked about eskimos. as mentioned above it is in acoustic space that we receive auditory signals from all directions all at once. by the same token it is also true of electric information because we receive electrically-configured signals from all directions from all across the globe more or less simultaneously. in the article “art as survival in the electric age”, mcluhan ( ) [ ] (p. ) explained that: “one of the peculiarities of the electric age is that we live simultaneously in all the cultures of the past. all of the past is here and all of the future is here.” mcluhan explained the connection between electric and auditory information as far back as in volume of the journal exploration, the manuscript reader went too slowly, traveled too little to develop much time sense. whatever of the past was discussed was felt as present, just as today the simultaneity and inclusiveness of our historical knowledge makes it all felt as being now. we have arrived once more at the oral via what appears as non-auditory means (mcluhan ) [ ] (p. ). acoustic space is about the simultaneity of auditory information, which parallels the simultaneity of electric information; and this is why mcluhan proposed that electrically configured information is acoustic in nature. as related by carpenter, the idea of auditory space, which mcluhan changed to acoustic space was electrifying. mcluhan applied it to electric information contrasting it with the visual space of writing, especially alphabetic writing and print. the contrast between visual and acoustic space became one of mcluhan’s defining characteristics of media ecology. mcluhan characterized visual space as linear, sequential, one thing at a time, continuous and connected as opposed to the non-linear, simultaneous, discrete and disconnected nature of acoustic space. acoustic space was not only auditory but also tactile and even visual in the case of television. acoustic space engages multiple senses whereas visual space only involves the eye (mcluhan interview in playboy ) [ ]. . origin of the phrase center everywhere and circumference nowhere the origin of mcluhan’s notion that acoustic space has its centers everywhere and its margins nowhere begins with the definitions of god found in the book of the philosophers (in latin liber xxiv philosophorum), written sometime in the th century: it [the book of the philosophers] consists of twenty-four ‘sentences’, ‘aphorisms’ or ‘definitions’ of “god”, attributed to as many philosophers attending a fictional gathering, each an attempt to answer their only remaining question, ‘what is god?’ (quid deus?). the first textual witness is from a th-century french manuscript currently at laon. the definitions where often accompanied by a scholastic commentary in either of two redactions, the “shorter” and the “longer” commentary. both definitions and commentary echo and weave numerous late ancient and medieval views on the first cause and the nature of divinity [ ]. according to paolo lucentini ( ) [ ], “the influence of this work on medieval scholarship and literature has revealed traces of its ideas among the works of jean de meung, dante, meister eckhart, nicholas of cusa, giordano bruno, robert fludd, pascal, leibniz”. philosophies , , – the authorship of each of the definitions of god is unknown. it was the second definition that survived into the renaissance and modern times in marshall mcluhan’s definition of acoustic space. the second definition of god in the book of the philosophers in latin is “deus est sphaera intelligibilis cuius centrum ubique circumferential nusquam”, which can be translated into english as “god is the intellectually knowable sphere whose center is everywhere and whose circumference is nowhere”. although this is a definition of god, for our purposes the important part of the translation is the phrase “whose center is everywhere and whose circumference is nowhere” as this is what appears in mcluhan’s definition of acoustic space with the substitution of circumference with margin. it is worth noting that in addition to the second definition that definition (xviii) is similar to definition (ii), namely, “deus est sphaera cuius tot sunt circumferentiae quot puncta” translated as god is a sphere which has as many circumferences as center points. although the original author(s) of these definitions is unknown, it is known, however, that alain de lille ( to / ), the first to make use of definition ii. he borrowed it “from this same book, a geometrical definition of god, which would be very successful, especially in the modern epoch (pascal, kepler, voltaire)” [ ]. another reference to alain de lille’s use of the quote is made by brendel ( ) [ ] (p. ) who claims that the original quote . . . which probably goes back to alain de lille, seems to have been the intermediary as well as the most important formulation of all these concepts. the successors of alain were indeed illustrious: bonaventure, thomas aquinas, meister eckhart and seuse: cusanus [nicholas of cusa], marsilio ficino; and finally rabelais and pascal. bonaventure ( ) [ ], who lived from to used a formulation of god similar to that of alain de lille in his book the soul’s journey into god; the tree of life and the life of st. francis: if you are the cherub, [you contemplate] god’s essential attributes, and if you are amazed because the divine being is both first and last, eternal and most present, utterly simple and the greatest or boundless, totally present everywhere and nowhere contained, most actual and never moved, most perfect and having nothing superfluous or lacking, and yet immense and infinite without bounds, supremely one and yet all-inclusive, containing all things in himself, being all power, all truth, all goodness (bonaventure , bolding ours) [ ]. meister eckhart, who lived from to in his sermon, suso and his spiritual daughter wrote something similar: this pure and simple being is altogether in all things, and altogether outside all things. hence a certain doctor says: god is a circle, whose centre is everywhere, and his circumference nowhere. a certain wise theologian says that god, in regard to his godhead, is like a vast circle, of which the centre is everywhere, and the circumference nowhere (inge ) [ ]. in ad, nicholas of cusa, born between and and lived to , no doubt influenced by alain de lille, bonaventure and meister eckhart wrote in on learned ignorance the following passage expanding the original definition to include not only god but the universe: god is boundless. if nature and the form of the universe reflect his reality, then it too is boundless. a boundless region has no center . . . hence the world machine will have its centre everywhere and its circumference nowhere. rabelais, born somewhere between and and lived to makes use of the definition of god by his predecessors in his humorful book gargantua and pantagruel, the story of two giants, philosophies , , – father and son, and their adventures where one finds the line: “allez, amis, en protection de ceste sphère intellectuale de laquelle en tous lieux est le centre et n’a en lieu aucune circonférence, que nous appelons dieu.” this translates into english as “go my friends under the protection of this intellectual sphere, the centre of which is at all points and the circumference at none, which we call god.” the next appearance of ‘center everywhere and circumference nowhere’ is with blaise pascal, who lived from to , in his philosophical work pensee (trotter , section ii, paragraph ) [ ]: the whole visible world is only an imperceptible atom in the ample bosom of nature. no idea approaches it. we may enlarge our conceptions beyond all imaginable space; we only produce atoms in comparison with the reality of things. it is an infinite sphere, the center of which is everywhere, the circumference nowhere. in short, it is the greatest sensible mark of the almighty power of god that imagination loses itself in that thought. the use of the image of “the center everywhere and the circumference nowhere” makes it into the th century in j. l. borges’s [ ] story the library of babel, in which “the library is described as ‘a sphere whose exact center is anyone of its hexagons and whose circumference is inaccessible’”. it is worth noting that the library in this story can also be called the universe, and vice versa. giordano bruno is one more thinker that we can link back to the notion of ‘a center everywhere and a circumference nowhere’ found in the book of the philosophers and the writings of alain de lille and nicolas of cusa. bruno’s universe had no center. “in the universe”, he wrote, “no center and no circumference exist, but the center is everywhere...” elaborating upon this point he remarked: “as to us on earth, the earth seems to be the center of the universe, so to inhabitants of the moon, the moon will appear as such ... each world has its center, each its up and down; these differences are to be assigned relatively (hollister ) [ ]. in his book on the infinite universe and worlds published in and strongly influenced by nicholas of cusa, bruno wrote: “to a body of infinite size there can be ascribed neither centre nor boundary.” but even more radical than this in the same volume he also wrote: it is then unnecessary to investigate whether there be beyond the heaven space, void or time. for there is a single general space, a single vast immensity which we may freely call void; in it are innumerable globes like this one on which we live and grow. this space we declare to be infinite, since neither reason, convenience, possibility, sense-perception nor nature assign to it a limit. in it are an infinity of worlds of the same kind as our own. it was for this radical idea of a universe of universes that bruno refused to recant that he was condemned by the inquisition to be burned alive at the stake in the campo di fiori in rome on february , a fate he seemed to anticipate when he wrote, also in his book on the infinite universe and worlds, these words: “it is unity that doth enchant me. by her power i am free though thrall, happy in sorrow, rich in poverty, and quick even in death.” . mcluhan’s definition of acoustic space does the collection of the definitions of god and the universe that incorporate the phrase “center everywhere and circumference nowhere” sound familiar? well if you are a student of mcluhan and remember his many definitions of acoustic space it is almost a perfect match. this philosophy of eternal change appears in his writing. mcluhan repeated himself strategically. as cavell argues, “his words and theories change constantly and are the product of immense thought as well as organic environmental differences” (cavell , xvii) [ ]. here is a collection a collection of some of mcluhan’s definition of acoustic space that demonstrate what a key role that his notion of acoustic space and his definition of it play in his understanding of media. although this list may seem repetitive it demonstrates that acoustic space and its contrast philosophies , , – with the visual space of the written and printed word was a recurring theme for mcluhan in his various treatments of media. it also provides the reader with an understanding of the richness of mcluhan’s notion of acoustic space and its connection to tactility, all the senses and the psyche. finally, it demonstrates that the use of the trope or cliché of “center everywhere and circumference nowhere” became an archetype in mcluhan’s world of understanding and analyzing media and their effects. mcluhan’s idea that a cliché becomes an archetype applies to his own use of “center everywhere and circumference nowhere” in the following excerpts from his oeuvre: “the world of acoustic space whose center is everywhere and whose margin is nowhere, like the pun (mcluhan and wilfred watson ) [ ] (p. )”. “acoustic space has the basic character of a sphere whose focus or center is simultaneously everywhere and whose margin is nowhere . . . acoustic space is dynamic; it has no fixed boundaries. it is space created by the method or process itself. in contrast, visual space is static and container-like, with a fixed center and margin (mcluhan and powers ) [ ] (p. )”. when being interviewed by playboy magazine mcluhan was asked, “what do you mean by acoustic space?” he responded, “i mean space that has no center and no margin, unlike strictly linear space, which is an extension and intensification of the eye. acoustic space is organic and integral, perceived through the simultaneous interplay of all the senses; whereas ‘rational’ or pictorial space is uniform, sequential and continuous and creates a closed world (playboy magazine ) [ ]”. speech structures the abyss of mental and acoustic space...it is a cosmic, invisible architecture of the human dark . . . until writing was invented, we lived in acoustic space, where the eskimo now lives: boundless, horizonless, the dark of the mind, the world of emotion, primordial intuition, terror. speech is a social chart of this dark bog (mcluhan and parker ) [ ] (p. ). writing turned a spotlight on the high, dim sierras of speech; writing was the visualization of acoustic space. it lit up the dark (mcluhan and parker ) [ ] (p. ). acoustic space is totally discontinuous, like touch. it is a sphere without centers or margins as prof. bott of the university of toronto explained a generation ago . . . audio-tactile space is the space of involvement. we “lose touch” without it. visual space is the space of detachment and the public precautions we call “scientific method” and scholarly or citational erudition (mcluhan ) [ ] (p. ). until writing was invented, man lived in acoustic space: boundless, directionless, horizonless, in the dark of the mind, in the world of emotion, by primordial intuition, terror (mcluhan and fiore ) [ ] (p. ). cubism (‘multi-locationalism’) is one of the painterly forms of acoustic space (mcluhan ) [ ] (p. ). medieval and ancient sensibility now dominates our time as acoustic and multisensory awareness displaces the merely visual (mcluhan and mcluhan ) [ ] (p. ). . from whom did mcluhan derive his definition of acoustic space as having its center everywhere and its margin nowhere clearly many writers might have inspired mcluhan’s notion of acoustic space as having its “center everywhere and its margin nowhere”. mcluhan as a scholar of the medieval and renaissance periods was familiar with all the writers we have cited in the section origin of the phrase center everywhere and circumference nowhere. he referred to each of them in his writings as the following collections of excerpts from his writing reveal. we can begin with mcluhan’s ( ) [ ] ph.d. thesis, the classical trivium: the place of thomas nashe in the learning of his time, in which he discusses bonaventure, meister eckhart, nicholas of cusa, and rabelais. we have also found two mentions of alain de lille in the mcluhan oeuvre. the first dates back to mcluhan’s ( ) [ ] paper “the ciceronian program in pulpit and in literary criticism” where he refers to “alain de lille’s manual on this method [dialectics]”. the second is in laws of media mcluhan, m. & e. [ ] (p. ). philosophies , , – mcluhan ( ) [ ] refers to bonaventure in “the ciceronian program in pulpit and in literary criticism”, where he quotes bonaventure: if, however we consider speech by reason of its end, it exists in order to express, to instruct, and to move. but it never expresses anything except through the mediation of a form, never teaches except through the mediation of the light of conviction, never moves except through the mediation of virtue or power... mcluhan ( ) [ ] (p. ) again mentions bonaventure (“for st. bonaventure, likewise, ‘synchrony’ or acoustic and simultaneous structuralism presented no problems.”) and quotes from him extensively. mcluhan had a copy of the establishment of the university of being in the doctrine of meister eckhart of hochheim by bernard joseph muller-thym in his personal working library. mcluhan ( ) [ ] (p. ) refers to nicholas of cusa in the gutenberg galaxy in the following way: the third of these events was nicholas of cusa’s enunciation, in , of the first thorough-going doctrines of the relativity of knowledge and of the continuity, through transitions and middle terms, between extremes. this was a fundamental challenge to definitions and ideas that had tangled thought since the time of the ancient greeks. mcluhan ( ) [ ] mentions rabelais three times in the gutenberg galaxy: • rabelais offers a vision of the future of print culture as a consumer’s paradise of applied knowledge [ ] (p. ); • the celebrated earthy tactility of rabelais is a massive backwash of receding manuscript culture [ ] (p. ); and • aretino, like rabelais and cervantes, proclaimed the meaning of typography as gargantuan, fantastic, supra-human [ ] (p. ). mcluhan ( ) [ ] mentions rabelais three times in understanding media: • from rabelais and more to mill and morris, the typographic explosion extended the minds and voices of men to reconstitute the human dialogue on a world scale that has bridged the ages [ ] (p. ). • indirect comment on the effects of the printed book is available in abundance in the work of rabelais, cervantes, montaigne, swift, pope, and joyce. they used typography to create new art forms [ ] (p. ). • the same community admires the varied tonality and vigor of aretino, rabelais, and nashe, all of whom wrote prose before the print pressure was strong enough to reduce the language gestures to uniform lineality [ ] (p. ). mcluhan had a copy of blaise pascal’s pensee ( paris: larousse edition) [ ] in his personal working library and refers to him times in the gutenberg galaxy [ ]. we believe that with mcluhan’s acquaintance with all the authors that refer to a sphere with center everywhere and margin/circumference nowhere have been accounted for save giordano bruno. however, mcluhan was surely acquainted with bruno through his reading and re-reading of finnegan’s wake, which was almost an obsession for him. we make this claim because as pointed out by robert anton wilson ( ) [ ], “the two philosophers most frequently mentioned in the wake, nicholas of cusa and bruno of nola.” philosophies , , – . conclusions as a medieval and renaissance scholar, it is clear that mcluhan, wittingly or no, incorporated the mantra of center everywhere and margins nowhere from many or all of these authors into his definition of acoustic space. pinpointing the direct origin to a single author would be difficult and uninteresting. what is interesting, however, is the link that is forged between ancient and modern thinkers. a medieval understanding of the universe is helpful in understanding the universe of universes created in the internet and digital ages. the typographic explosion that mcluhan cites from multiple authors mirrors the electronic and digital explosion felt during the tail-end of the th century and continues to be felt in the st. what we find interesting is the connection mcluhan made between the scholars of the medieval era and the renaissance and the characterization of the oral tradition and the electrically configured information. in mcluhan’s time, acoustic space was emerging as a retrieval of primitive thought patterns and sensory perceptions. he claimed, in his book written with eric mcluhan, that with the rise of electric media, “medieval and ancient sensibility now dominates our time as acoustic and multisensory awareness displaces the merely visual” (mcluhan and mcluhan ) [ ] (p. ). decades later, that same medieval sensibility that mcluhan identified continues to hold true, although what mcluhan conceived as infinite in his age of electric mass media has already been surpassed by such digital technologies as the personal computer, the tablet, the smart phone, the internet and the cloud. the cloud, and not god, is the sphere of unknowable power and dimension for our secular digital age. what this would have done to mcluhan’s personal philosophy we will never know but indications are that he could not or would not have imagined a world where the omniscient presence is not divine but digital, and where perhaps there is no longer room for a god-like entity. in this light, technological advances made by humankind each year are really no more than stabs at the dark cloud of uncertainty, and should be attributed more to our collective hubris than to our cultural achievements. perhaps it is ironic that mcluhan’s use of a medieval definition of god provides such an accurate definition of cyberspace. some readers no doubt will seize upon the origin of mcluhan’s definition of acoustic space in theological writings as proof of the influence of catholic thought on mcluhan’s thinking. as one of the authors (rkl) who had the privilege of working with mcluhan and spending time with him would suggest it probably has as much to do with mcluhan’s small c catholic outlook as his capital-c catholic religious beliefs. marshall whose mind was abuzz with ideas every waking moment of his life had trouble keeping track of where his information came from. as a result, we will never know what motivated the connection he made between the nature of acoustic space and a th century medieval definition of god that seems to work as a description of st century cyberspace. author contributions: both emma findlay-white and robert k. logan researched and wrote the paper. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . mcluhan, m. understanding me: lectures and interviews; mcluhan, m., mcluhan, s., staines, d., eds.; mcclelland & stewart: toronto, on, canada, . . mcluhan, m. explor. stud. cult. commun. , , . . marshall, m. the playboy interview: marshall mcluhan; playboy magazine: chicago, il, usa, . . book of the philosophers. available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/book_of_the_ _ philosophers (accessed on february ). . paolo, l. il liber viginti quattvor philosophorum nei poemi medievali. in poetry and philosophy in the middle ages: a festschrift for peter dronke; john, m., ed.; brill: leiden, the netherlands, . . alain de lille (alanus ab insulis). available online: http://peenef .republika.pl/angielski/hasla/a/ alaindelille.html (accessed on february ). . brendel, o.j. symbolism of the sphere: a contribution to the history of earlier greek philosophy; e.j. brill: leiden, the netherlands, . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/book_of_the_ _philosophers https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/book_of_the_ _philosophers http://peenef .republika.pl/angielski/hasla/a/alaindelille.html http://peenef .republika.pl/angielski/hasla/a/alaindelille.html philosophies , , – . bonaventure, e.h. the soul’s journey into god; the tree of life and the life of st. francis; paulist press: new york, ny, usa, . . inge, w.r. light, life and love: selections from the german mystics of the middle ages. theologica germanica, ; pp. and . available online: https://archive.org/stream/pdfy-fpw eq_iz-y yvze/ light,% life% and% love% [selections% from% the% german% mystics% of% the% middle% ages]_djvu.txt (accessed on february ). . trotter, w.f. translation of blaise pascal’s pensee; aeterna press: london, uk, ; section ii, paragraph . . borges, j.l. a circle with the center everywhere. . available online: https://dialinf.wordpress.com/ / / /a-circle-with-the-center-everywhere (accessed on february ). . hollister, w. giordano bruno and the infinite universe. griffith observer, february . available online: http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/world/modeur/ph-holli.htm (accessed on february ). . cavell, r. mcluhan in space: a cultural geography; university of toronto press: toronto, on, canada, . . mcluhan, m.; watson, w. from cliché to archetype; viking: new york, ny, usa, . . mcluhan, m.; powers, b.r. the global village: transformations in world life and media in the st century; oxford university press: new york, ny, usa, . . marshall, m.; parker, h. counterblast; harcourt brace & world: new york, ny, usa, . . mcluhan, m. culture is our business; mcgraw-hill: new york, ny, usa, . . marshall, m.; fiore, q.; agel, j. the medium is the massage: an inventory of effects; bantam books: new york, ny, usa, . . marshall, m.; mcluhan, e. laws of media: the new science; university of toronto press: toronto, on, canada, . . marshall, m. the classical trivium: the place of thomas nashe in the learning of his time; w. terrence gordon: corte madera, ca, usa, . . mcluhan, m. the ciceronian program in pulpit and in literary criticism. renaiss. reform. , , – . . marshall, m. francis bacon: ancient or modern? renaiss. reform. , , – . . mcluhan, m. gutenberg galaxy: making of typographic man; university of toronto press: toronto, on, canada, . . mcluhan, m. understanding media: extensions of man; mcgraw-hill: new york, ny, usa, . . pascal, b. pensee; larousse: paris, france, . . wilson, r.a. joyce and tao. james joyce rev. , , – . © by the authors; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc-by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). https://archive.org/stream/pdfy-fpw eq_iz-y yvze/light,% life% and% love% [selections% from% the% german% mystics% of% the% middle% ages]_djvu.txt https://archive.org/stream/pdfy-fpw eq_iz-y yvze/light,% life% and% love% [selections% from% the% german% mystics% of% the% middle% ages]_djvu.txt https://archive.org/stream/pdfy-fpw eq_iz-y yvze/light,% life% and% love% [selections% from% the% german% mystics% of% the% middle% ages]_djvu.txt https://dialinf.wordpress.com/ / / /a-circle-with-the-center-everywhere https://dialinf.wordpress.com/ / / /a-circle-with-the-center-everywhere http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/world/modeur/ph-holli.htm http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	the origin of mcluhan’s notion of acoustic space 	origin of the phrase center everywhere and circumference nowhere 	mcluhan’s definition of acoustic space 	from whom did mcluhan derive his definition of acoustic space as having its center everywhere and its margin nowhere 	conclusions gianni contessi pittura e linguaggi di le corbusier sarebbe problematico insistere da subito sul perché ed il per come è fre- quente il caso di architetti, a vario titolo illustri, del novecento (ci limitiamo a quel secolo) - italiani e no, peter beh- rens, van de velde, le corbusier, max bill, giuseppe terragni, carlo scarpa, giuseppe samonà, leonardo mosso, aimaro isola - abbiano praticato più o meno lateralmente altri linguaggi figura- tivi: scultura, per dire, o pittura. sono temi che abbiamo avuto modo di affrontare ripetutamente in questi anni giungendo fino al punto di definire l’ar- chitettura come “disciplina infelice”. il caso di le corbusier, tuttavia rivendica a sé considerazioni specifiche, che in parte attengono alla sua formazione non politecnica e invece calibrata sugli inse- gnamenti di una scuola di arti applicate. altra considerazione da fare è che il maestro svizzero ha praticato la pittura (ed inoltre la scultura) non a latere ma propriamente come integrazione del ci- mento e dell’invenzione progettuale, sta- bilendo anzi - ed oltre le apparenze più perspicue della forma - una connessione bastantemente stretta fra le due compo- nenti del suo pensare per immagini. lasciamo stare, per un momento, il quanto di razionalismo funzionalista e modernista ed anche l’assertività utopica e profetica dell’architetto e prendiamo in considerazione il puro esercizio pittorico lecorbuseriano per come esso è stato in grado di stabilire i codici di un linguaggio autonomo pur nelle evidenti tangenze con il lessico di léger e con taluni picas- sismi del picasso surrealista o parasurre- alista attestati lungo un’arcata temporale non breve (dai tardi anni venti agli anni cinquanta), e persino con qualche rifles- so della scultura di henry moore. firenze architettura ( , ), pp. - issn - (print) issn - (online) cc by-sa . firenze university press www.fupress.com/fa/ tutto ciò nella costante rinuncia ai dettati dell’astrazione e dunque a favore di sue proprie declinazioni della figurazione. rimane, a questo punto, l’interrogativo sul quanto di figurazione o astrazione sostanzi l’architettura di le corbusier. la stagione purista degli anni di après le cubisme ( ) e di la peinture moderne ( ) è in sostanza, quella dell’afferma- zione de l’esprit nouveau e, pure, di vers une architecture ( ) o quanto meno quella in cui si preparano le immi- nenti affermazioni del giovane svizzero che, in fatto di pittura, è, alla data del , ancora tributario del sodale pittore ozenfant. certo: il cubismo; è da lì che parte l’avventura di una modernità ragio- nata e non modernolatrica e, fra l’altro, dipendente da una cultura o estetica sim- bolista estranea al mondo e al “lirismo” positivo (se non addirittura positivista) rispettivamente di ozenfant, iniziale cha- peron del provinciale elvetico dal inurbato a parigi. le pitture puriste dei due si assomiglia- no, hanno una loro eleganza formale; presuppongono la scomposizione e ri- composizione cubista, anzi, decostruzio- ne cubista, cui è opportuno aggiungere qualcosa che tenga conto della matu- razione o evoluzione verso una poetica dell’oggetto (la seconda stagione, quella del cosiddetto cubismo sintetico, delle finte impagliature a collage) che il grande pittore e grande amico di le corbusier, fernand léger, in verità estraneo a tale dottrina, porterà alle prove più alte. léger sarà il grande creatore di icone del modernismo fra le due guerre mon- diali, incrociando scomposizioni tardo cubiste e geometrie déco, figurazione e astrazione, e coltivando frequentazioni in cui, oltre a le corbusier, trova po- charles-Édouard jeanneret la cheminée, ( x cm), © flc paris sto anche mallet-stevens, iconografo dell’architettura cubo-déco. entrambi, léger e mallet, impegnati anche come scenografi, a teatro e al cinema il pit- tore, al cinema l’architetto. che tipo di scenografo avrebbe mai potuto essere le corbusier? anche il grande pittore spagnolo juan gris e il nostro gino severini sarebbero stati tra i più talentuosi creatori di icone del modernismo se, l’uno non fosse mor- to prematuramente e l’altro non si fosse dato alla rivisitazione del classicismo nell’ambito del “ritorno all’ordine” del dopo . È la stilizzazione il risultato finale delle prove estreme del cubismo, raccolte, filtrate e riordinate in base ad intenzioni puristiche, per composizione secondo chiarezza: quella chiarezza che, in fondo, non era stata valore per i cubisti della prima e della seconda ondata; e che adesso, nella pittura di ozenfant e jeanneret trovava quel tanto di spirito giansenista, quell’applicazione di una sobrietà in francia considerabile quale contrassegno nazionale. nella personalità sfaccettata e contrad- dittoria di le corbusier, nel suo cinismo ideologico, nella sua già ricordata asser- tività profetica, nel suo avere conferito all’architettura la dignità di uno dei più alti linguaggi del xx secolo, nell’abnormità di tutto ciò che lo riguarda, nel bene come nel male, spiccano almeno due prove poetiche minori che coniugano testi e immagini, e pertengono comunque al catalogo del le corbusier pittore: anzi- tutto il famoso poème de l’angle droit ( - ) e poi il meno frequentato entre-deux ou propos toujours reliés “écrit et gravé de la main de l’auteur”. e siamo fra il e il , anno di chiusura dell’opera. le tavole sono state “gravés avec la pointe de mon couteau de poche, tecnique très pénible, patien- te”. già, e il padre incisore e l’elogio della mano di focillon… si prova una nostalgia modernista forse non luttuosa ma sufficientemente afflitti- va a guardare le opere d’arte degli anni cinquarta (e dei tardi quaranta) fino ai primi sessanta. quando qualcuno parla- va persino di unità delle arti. charles-Édouard jeanneret bol, pipes, et papiers enroulés, , ( . x . cm), © flc paris lucien hervé le corbusier nel suo studio in rue nungesser et coli, paris ( x cm), museum of modern art, new york painting and style of le corbusier it will be difficult to insist about why and how often, in the twentieth century (just talking about this period) various kind of well known architects -italian or foreigners, peter behrens, van de velde, le corbusier, max bill, giuseppe terragni, carlo scarpa, giuseppe sa- monà, leonardo mosso, aimaro d’isola- have practiced more or less laterally other artistic languages: sculpture, for example, or painting. these are issues which we had repeatedly considered during these years until we reached to define architecture as an “unhappy discipline”. nevertheless, the case of le corbusier, requires specific consid- erations, partly due to his not polytechnic education calibrated with the teachings of the school of applied arts. a further consideration is that the swiss master has practiced paint- ing (and also sculpture) not as a separated matter but as a proper integration of experimentation and invention in design, establish- ing - beyond appearances of form-a sufficiently close connection between the two components of his thinking through images. leaving aside, for the moment, the functionalist rationalism or modernism and also the utopian and prophetic assertiveness of the architect, let us consider the pure pictorial exercise of le corbusier as it has been able to establish codes of an autonomous language in obvious similarities with the lexicon of léger and picasso espe- cially during his surrealistic and pre-surrealistic period, present in a long time period (from the last twenties to the fifties), and even with some influence from the sculptures of henry moore. all of this in the constant renunciation to the dictates of abstraction in favor of his own interpretation of figuration. at this point, the ques- tion remains about how much of figuration or abstraction there is in the architecture of le corbusier. the purist season during the years of après le cubisme ( ) and la peinture moderne ( ) is substantially the same of the affirmation of l’esprit nouveau and also of vers une architecture ( ) or at least the one in which the upcoming statements of the swiss young man are being formed, regarding painting, in he still owes much to his close friend, the painter ozenfant. one fact is certain: cubism; that’s where all the modernist adventure starts in a reasoned and not modernist self-worship way, among other things, addicted to a cultural or aesthetic symbolism foreigner to the world and to positive “lyricism” (if not even positivism) compared to ozenfant, initial chaperon the provincial swiss who moved to paris in . purist paintings of the two look alike, they have a kind of formal ele- gance; they assume the cubist decomposition and reconstruction, in fact, cubist deconstruction, to which should be added some- thing that takes into account the maturity or evolution towards the poetics of the object ( the second season, the one of the so-called synthetic cubism, of the fake collage twists) that the great painter and friend of le corbusier, fernand léger, actually unrelated to the doctrine, will lead to best results. léger will be the greatest creator of modernism icons between the two wars, by mixing the old-cubism decompositions and déco ge- ometries, figuration and abstraction, and cultivating frequent visits during which, besides le corbusier, appears also mallet-stevens, iconographer of the cube-deco architecture. both them, léger and mallet, were also engaged as scenographers, the painter in theatres and cinemas, the architect only in cinemas. what kind of scenographer could have been le corbusier? even the great spanish painter juan gris and our gino severini could have been some of the most talented icon creators of the modernism if, the first would not have disappeared prematurely and if the other would not have converted to classicism as part of the “return to order” after the . stylization is the final result of cu- bism hard experimentations, collected, filtered and re-arranged on the basis of puristic intentions, to compose with transparency: the same clarity, after all, that hadn’t been value for the cubists of first and second generation; and that now, in the paintings of ozenfant and jeanneret has found that jansenist spirit and the application of a sobriety that is in france almost a national flag. in the multifaceted and contradictory personality of le corbusier, in his ideological cynicism, in his already mentioned prophetic as- sertiveness, in the capacity to dignify architecture as one of the highest languages of the xx century, in the abnormity of everything that concerns him, in both a positive and a negative sense, two issues stand out, that are minor poetical tests which combine text and images, and that however come from the catalogue of the painter le corbusier: first of all, the famous poème de l’angle droit ( - ) and then, the less- known entre-deux ou propos tou- jours reliés “écrit et gravé de la main de l’auteur”. we find ourselves between and , the year of the text conclusion. the panels had been “gravés avec la pointe de mon couteau de poche, tecnique très pénible, patiente”. yes, after all le corbusier’s father was an engraver and we re- member what henri focillon wrote in the “Éloge de la main”. there is a feeling of modernist nostalgia maybe not so tragic but sufficiently afflictive looking at the artworks of the fifties (and from the late forties) until the earlier sixties. when someone talked even about the unity of the arts. translation by arba baxhaku † korean journal of human ecology . vol. , no. , - http://dx.doi.org/ . /kjhe. . . . issn - (print)/issn - (online) - - 세기 전반 모더니즘시대 haute couture 디자이너 작품에 나타난 순수 미학적 협업(collaboration)의 의미 분석 an analysis on the aesthetic collaboration appeared in the artworks of haute couture designers in the first half modernism age of th century 이효진* ) 전북대학교 의류학과 lee hyo-jin dept. clothing &textiles, chonbuk national university abstract the purpose of this study was to analyze on the aesthetic collaboration appeared on the modernism arts and haute couture designers in the th century as the necessity of analyzing on the pure meaning of collaboration which is a talking point associated with culture of the st century. the study was performed by means of documentary method. the results are as follows; first, it was analyzed that the collaboration in the pure meaning of the first half of the th century had partial common points which was stated as art inspiration in the arts collaboration out of the st century collaboration. secondly, the haute couture designers(paul poiret, gabriell chanel, madeleine vionnet and elsa schiaparelli) have common point that they involved into the artworking through active exchange with many artists from diversified fields in the th century. especially, the characteristics of the collaboration in the forms, materials and color of their works were appeared visually. when the collaboration in the first half of th century was regarded entirely as mental matter of manifestation of pure aesthetics, in can be said that the big difference was mostly the maximization of mutual interest between collaborator and collaboratee in the st century collaboration. keywords: haute couture designer, collaboration, the pure aesthetic meaning of collaboration, modernism Ⅰ. 서론 세기 들어와 미술을 비롯한 예술의 본질과 기능에 대 한 불확실성이 확산되었으며, 세기 예술은 아름다운 것 보다는 새 것을 추구해 왔다. 따라서 세기 예술가들은 전 통적 예술과의 대립과 투쟁을 통해 새로운 예술을 창조해 왔으며 그들은 ‘전위(avant-garde)’라는 이름으로 규정되었 다. 이러한 제반 상황은 ‘모더니즘(modernism)’이라는 이 름으로 특징지워졌다(kim, ). 종종 ‘모더니즘’의 동의 어처럼 사용되는 것이 ‘아방가르드(avant-garde)’라는 표현 이다(jin, ). 따라서 예술계에서도 새로운 사고방식, 새로운 운동으 로서 움직임이 활발해지고 지금까지의 감각적인 것에서부 터 보다 철학적이고 논리적인 자유로운 방향을 모색했다. † 이 논문은 년도 전북대학교 연구기반 조성비 지원에 의하여 연구되었음 * corresponding author: lee hyo-jin tel : - - e-mail: curiously@naver.com 한국생활과학회지 제 권 호 - - 각 장르의 순수함을 유지하면서 다른 장르와의 공통점을 발견하고 교류해서 융합한다는 새로운 경향이 나왔다 (nam, ). 세기 초 이런 경향은 협업이라는 관점으 로 발전하여 순수한 예술적 디자인 영역 확장 및 독창적 아이디어 접목으로 모더니즘 예술 양식이 더 찬란하게 발 전하였다. 이러한 협업의 개념은 순수 의미 관점에서 이 미 많은 학자들이 모던 아트와 패션에서의 협업을 언급했 다(addressing the century, ; bronwyne cosgrave, ; colin mcdowell, ; francois baudot, ; gertrud lehnert, ; george o'hara, ; lydia kamitsis, ; nam, ; richard martin, , lee, ). lee( )는 미술에 있어서 협업을 통한 공동 창 작은 세기만의 산물이 아니라 중세에서 세기까지는 미술에서 협업이 가장 활발하게 이루어진 시기였으며 융 합형 시대를 대변하는 단어 중의 하나가 ‘협업’이라고 하 였다. 즉 이 현상은 이미 세기 이탈리아에서 있었던 다 양한 영역의 분야와 문화 등이 하나로 만나는 교차점에서 기존의 생각을 새롭게 재결합하여 더 많은 혁신적인 아이 디어를 창출해 낼 수 있다는 ‘메디치 효과(medici effect)’(frans johansson( / )와 그 맥을 같이함을 알 수 있다. 세기초 이미 다양한 장르의 예술 영역 경계가 허물 어지고 서로의 분야에서 신선하고 독창적인 예술적 교감 이 교류가 되었으며, 당시 혁명적이라고 할만한 ‘협업’의 결과를 오트쿠튀르 패션에서 보임으로써 전 세기를 통 하여 그 영향력이 지배적이었고 세기의 화두가 되는 용 어가 되었다. 그런데 세기들어 패션의 키워드가 되고 있는 것이 바로 콜레보레이션(collaboration:협업)이라고 언급하고 있으며 패션뿐만 아니라 여러 분야에서 동종 업계간의 협 업이 지속적으로 이루어지고 있다. 여기에서 세기에 화 두가 되고 있는 ‘협업’이라는 단어를 재고찰하고 신뢰도 있는 정확한 개념과 그 중요성을 이해해야만 한다. 특히 세기 패션과 관련된 협업에 대한 선행연구가 어느 주제 보다도 활발히 연구되고 있다. 이 모든 연구에서 협업이 란 의미를 콜레보레이션으로 언급하고 있으며 단어 자체 의 순수 개념으로써의 협업은 콜레보레이션의 종속적인 일부로써 다루고 있음을 고찰할 수 있다. 따라서 본 연구는 세기 패션에서의 화두인 콜레보레 이션의 순수한 의미만의 ‘협업’이 예술과 패션에서 나타 났던 세기 전반 모더니즘 양식 시대를 배경으로 분석해 볼 필요성을 가지게 되었다. 이 모더니즘 양식 시기에는 세기에서 의미하는 콜레보레이션의 개념과 형태가 상 이하기 때문에 사전적 의미 그대로 ‘협업’이란 용어를 그대 로 사용하였다. 그리고 세기 전반 순수 예술양식의 다양 한 장르와 패션의 협업을 분석하여 세기 현상과 비교 교 찰 분석해봄으로써 콜레보레이션의 순수한 의미의 개념과 현재 혼용되어 사용되는 개념과의 차이를 정확히 제시하여 궁극적으로 미래에 발전적인 협업의 다양한 방법에 신선한 방향성을 바르게 인식하는데 그 목적을 두었다. 본 연구는 문헌연구로 연구주제와 관련된 선행 논문, 서적 및 간행물 등을 통하여 이론적 내용을 고찰하여 분 석하였다. 연구의 시대적 범위는 모더니즘 예술양식이 성 행하였던 세기 전반기인 년 이후 제 차 세계대전 전까지의 시기로 한정하였으며, 연구내용 중 연구 분석 결과의 설득력 있는 결론을 위해 세기 콜레보레이션의 의미와 비교분석을 하였다. Ⅱ. 모더니즘 예술 양식과 협업의 배경 . 협업의 개념과 의미 변화 협업하다의 순수한 사전적 의미는 ‘공동으로 일하다’, ‘공동으로 연구하다’, ‘합작하다’이며 따라서 ‘협업’의 의 미는 ‘공동 연구’, ‘합작’, ‘공정’ 등의 뜻을 내포하고 있다 (sisa royal english korean dictionary, ). 이러한 순수한 의미의 협업을 최초로 시도했던 북 디자 이너인 윌리엄 모리스는 세기말에 예술과 일상이 하나 로 융합되는 디자인 도시, 디자인 인생을 꿈꿨고 이를 위 해 중세의 공방을 벤치마킹했다. 동료 예술가와 함께 모 리스-마셜-포크너 회사를 설립하여, 예술가와 장인을 구분 짓지 않고 협업으로 창작했던 중세적 방식 그대로 양탄자, 스테인드글라스 창문, 도자기, 타일, 가구 등 다양한 생활 용품들을 제작했다(lee, ). 특히 예술과 패션에 나타 난 순수한 협업은 세기 전반 활발히 이루어졌다. 그러나 '협업‘의 순수한 의미는 세기에는 예술과 예 술가, 브랜드와 기업의 모든 측면에서 상업적인 성공을 최종 목적으로 하면서 ’전략적 제휴나 교류’ 의 의미로 변 화되었다.(lee, ) 즉 세기에 언급되는 콜레보레이 션의 전략적 의미는 다양한 예술 장르와 예술가들이 각 종 브랜드나 기업에 어떠한 감성적인 아이디어를 제공하 여 그로 인한 ‘고부가가치 창출’이라는 관점이 무엇보다 세기 전반 모더니즘시대 haute couture 디자이너 작품에 나타난 순수 미학적 협업(collaboration)의 의미 분석 - - 도 중요하게 인식되고 있다. 따라서 이러한 개념이 변화 하면서 용어의 호칭 또한 ‘협업’으로 불려지는 것이 아니 라 ‘콜레보레이션’이라고 명명되고 있다. 세기 협업의 의미를 구체적으로 살펴보면, 콜레보레 이션이라는 용어는 ‘공동작업’의 개념을 바탕으로 사용하 고 있으며 공동작업의 범주는 기술의 개발에서부터 디자 인, 연계 제품의 생산에 이르기까지 매우 광범위하다. 콜 레보레이션이란 브랜드나 기업, 혹은 독자적인 개인을 포 함하는 콜레보레이터(collaborator)와 콜레보레이티 (collaboratee)가 협력적이고 동등한 위치에서 자신의 핵 심역량을 바탕으로 일정기간 동안 협업을 하는 것이다. 콜레보레이션은 전략적 제휴의 일종으로 서로 다른 두 상 대자가 만나 서로의 경쟁력과 핵심역량을 바탕으로 시너 지효과를 창출하는 것을 목표로 하고 있다. 더욱이 세 기는 감성과 문화가 화두가 되면서 기업 역시 사회적 트 랜드에 따라 기업의 다양한 협업을 통한 마케팅적 전략으 로 소비자들의 감성을 자극하는 감성 마케팅으로 그 의미 가 변화하고 있다. 이처럼 세기말 이후부터 세기 전반에 나타났던 협 업의 순수한 의미는 세기들어 콜레보레이션 의미로 그 개념이 인식됨을 알 수 있다. . 모더니즘 예술 양식과 패션의 협업 배경 세기 후반부터 부르주아 사고방식과 관습을 경멸하 고 기존체제를 뒤엎으려던 무정부주의와 사회주의는 미술 가들 사이에서도 하나의 유행이 되었다. 세기 미술의 시작은 이와 같은 사회 분위기 속에서 전개되었고 이것은 특히 색채에 대한 관심과 추상으로의 미술 경향으로 나타 났다(kim, ). 세기 전반 여년은 예술 세계가 끊 임없이 새로운 아이디어 생성되고 그러한 움직임이 지속 되었으며 패션은 이에 정도의 차이는 있었으나 이 모든 상황에 대응하였을 뿐만 아니라 이를 반영하였다. 세기 패션과 예술의 모든 경우 논제의 중심은 바로 파리(paris) 였다(colin mcdowell, ). 당시 파리는 가장 중요한 예술 도시로 세계 각지에서 예술가들이 모여들어 새로운 미술이 태동하고 있었다. 패 션 디자인도 황금기를 맞아 예술과 결합되면서 패션도 하 나의 생활조형으로 예술의 한 영역으로 발돋움하였다 (kim, ). 차대전 이후 새로운 의복은 패션 디자이너 만이 아니고 예술가들도 밀접하게 관련되어 디자인이 모 색되었으며, 세기 전반의 패션을 주도했던 것은 무어라 해도 파리의 오트쿠튀르(haute couture)였다(fashion, ). 미적인 관점에서 패션은 년대에 결정적으로 근대화되었다. 무엇보다도 패션은 건축, 회화, 디자인 등 의 다른 예술분야에 뒤지지 않고 동등하게 발전하였다. 패션에 대한 언급 없이 년대를 단 몇 페이지로만 한정하는 것은 불가능하다. 그것은 사회생활에서 일어났 던 혁명적인 상황을 반영해야 하며 특히 여성의 삶에 있 어서 혁명적이었기 때문에 많은 아이디어나 문학 그리고 공연과 조형예술 작품에서 민감하게 수용되었다. 패션에 몸담았던 쿠튀리에들은 당시 트랜드 특성을 정의 내리는 것에 만족하지 않고 예술 운동에 참여하였다(raymond rudorff, ). 즉 년대 예술의 역사는 의상과 공연의 역사와는 떨어질 수 없는 밀접하게 연결되어 있었다. 공연과 의상 디자인은 ‘modernism’이란 어휘를 발전시키기 위한 내용 을 제공했던 년초의 여러 가지 학문적인 ‘예술적 융 합‘의 결정적인 요소였다. 의상은 착장한 배우의 정체성을 통해서 변형, 왜곡, 기계화되었고 인체를 육감적이거나 비 육감적으로 표현하였다. 예술적인 노력의 정치적 목적이 가끔은 뚜렷하게 반대될지라도 협업을 위한 유사성과 기 회들이 드러나 있었다(addressing the century, ). 세기 전반 여년의 예술세계는 많은 다른 양식이 다양하게 나타났는데 년대초 예술양식인 야수주의 (fauvism)는 년 salon d'automme와 마티스(enri matisse: - ), 드랭(andre derain: - )의 작품에서 두드러졌다. 이들은 강하고 밝은 색채와 평면으 로 왜곡된 형태 등의 기존의 가치관을 과감하게 깨뜨렸기 때문에 비평가들이 les fauves(야수)라 일컫게끔 부추겼 다. 야수주의자들의 색상은 패션과 텍스타일 디자인에 상 당히 강항 영향을 미쳤다(george o'hara, ). 년 대를 통해 패셔너블한 분위기는 비정형적이었으며 바로 이들 예술가들은 패션의 중심세계에 있었다(colin mcdowell, ). 같은 시기 패션의 야수주의자인 포와 레는 야수주의자들과 똑같은 강도의 색상의 위력에 의해 자극을 받았다. 그리고 년 파리에서는 마리네티(filippo tommaso marinetti: - )가 <le figaro>지에 미래주의 (futurism)자 시의 선언을 발표했을 때 나타났던 미래주 의는 속도의 미와 격렬한 움직임을 찬미했다. 이탈리아의 미래주의자들은 자신들의 패션뿐만 아니라 그림, 시, 건 축, 음악, 영화 심지어 요리 부분에 까지 혁명의 역동적인 새로운 문화를 만드는데 투쟁의 선두자로 생각했다 한국생활과학회지 제 권 호 - - (addressing the century, ). 년대의 많은 아방 가르드 예술가들은 패션에 적극적인 관심을 가졌는데 미 래주의자들은 패션을 인체로부터 분리되기를 원하였고 패 션은 현대도시의 라이프스타일의 움직임과 속도를 반영하 는 독립적인 예술형태로 간주하였다(gertrud lehnert, ). 이처럼 근대 예술의 흐름이 세계 제 차대전 이후 나타 난 패션의 민주적인 변형에 끼친 막대한 영향을 무시하고 넘어갈 수 없다. 년대에 나타난 일직선과 평평한 면으 로 그려진 여성의 모습은 평면과 각, 수직선과 수평선, 기 하학적인 윤곽과 평탄하게 늘어진 면을 포괄하는 입체주의 (cubism) 회화공간과 완전하게 일치하였다. 쿠튀르 패션 은 형태을 순화하고 장식적인 것들 거부하는 쪽으로 기우 는 새로운 근대적인 미학적 가치에 맞추어 의복스타일을 민주화했다(gilles lipovetsky, / ). 즉 입체주의는 회화의 ‘혁명’이었다고 할 수 있으며 세기에 나타난 거 의 모든 예술운동에 지대한 영향을 끼쳤고 세기를 대표 하는 거의 모든 예술언어가 입체주의에서 태어났기 때문이 다.(jin, ) 피카소(picasso pablo: - ) 의상은 원통형이나 원추형 등 순수하게 입체주의자 그 자체였으며 년대의 전위적인 사조를 방향짓는데 있어서 중요한 위치를 차지하게 되었다. 이것을 기회로 디아길레프 (sergei diaghilev: - )의 발레는 러시아 민속풍에 서 프랑스의 전위파 예술로 바뀌었다(nam, ). 그리고 일반적 경향의 합리주의와 형식주의에 반발하 여 나타난 차 대전 사이의 예술과 문학에서 일어난 운동 으로 초현실주의(surrealism)는 환상에 집중하고 꿈의 세 계를 재조명하였다. 초현실주의에 영향을 받은 화가들은 마크리트(rene magritte: - ), 달리(salvador dali: - ), 피카소, 미로(joan miro: - ) 등이 있었다. 패션에 있어서 초현실주의는 년 말에 나타났으며 초자연적이거나 심리학적으로 암시적인 의상 을 묘사하기위해 년대에 가장 자주 사용되었다 (george o'hara, ). 워스(charles frederick worth: - )이래 수많은 의상 디자이너들이 일요화가로 활약했으며 여러명의 화가 들과 예술가의 친분을 공유하며 의상 디자인 발전에 기여 했다. 오늘날 예술과 패션이 공생관계가 되었음은 명약관 화한 사실이 되었음을 부인할 수 없다(addressing the century, ). 세기 전반에는 다른 어느 때보다도 패 션과 예술의 접목이 눈에 띄며 디자이너는 창조적 아이디 어를 구하고자 예술에 몰입하고 새로운 예술운동에서는 의복을 포함한 생활 전반을 예술로 함축하려는 움직임이 성행하였다. 전위적인 예술가들과의 협업이 미적으로 참 신한 패션을 생성하여 이 시대를 특징지었다(fashion, ). 쿠튀르 디자이너들은 항상 예술에서 무엇이 일어 나고 있는지 인지해왔으며 디자인 문제와 시대를 반영하 는 새롭고 독창적인 의상을 창안하기 위해 디자이너들에 게 도움을 주어온 예술가의 사고와 아이디어를 항상 사용 하였다(colin mcdowell, ). kim( )은 미술에 가장 많이 신세를 지고 있는 분야 는 패션으로 미술은 패션의 모태지만 미술과 패션은 아름 다움을 지고(至高)의 목표로 삼고 차별화를 향한 인간의 맹 목에 가까운 열망으로 그 시장이 번창하고 있다는 점에서 는 일란성 쌍생아와도 같다고 하였다. 이처럼 모더니즘 예 술양식의 예술가들과 패션 디자이너와의 예술적 교류는 당 시 패션의 다양한 아이템으로 구체화되었음을 알 수 있다. . 세기 패션에 나타난 협업의 의미 패션비즈 창간 주년 기념 세미나의 ‘ 세기 패션 비 즈니스의 키워드는 콜레보레이션’이라는 주제의 강의에서 진정한 의미의 라이프스타일 브랜드를 탄생시키려면 콜레 보레이션이 필수라고 하였다(fashionbiz, . ). 무엇보다도 세기에는 학문분야에서도 패션관련 콜레 보레이션에 대한 연구가 활발히 진행되고 있다. kan( )은 콜레보레이션이 나타나는 배경으로 ‘문화’ 의 중요성이 대두되고 있는 것이라고 언급하였다. 따라서 패션관련 콜레보레이션에 대한 선행연구들을 고찰 분석한 결과 공통적으로 세기에 나타난 콜레보레이션을 개념 과 동기, 결과에 대한 내용으로 나타났다. 세기 콜레보레이션의 개념은 hong과 hwang( ) 의 경우, 콜레보레이션은 공동의 이익을 위하여 서로 결 속하여 여러 가지 기능을 공동으로 수행하는 것의 의미로 협업, 협력, 협동 등의 용어로 활용된다고 하였다. 기업의 콜레보레이션은 두 개 이상의 대등한 회사가 서로의 이익 을 추구하는 기업활동이라고 정의하였다. jeong과 kim( )에 의하면 콜레보레이션이란 일반적으로 ‘협 력’, 마케팅 및 생산적 관점에서는 ‘합작’이라는 의미를 가진 단어로, 콜레보레이션의 핵심은 합작하는 양자가 가 지고 있는 강점이 최대한 발휘되어야 하며 또 강점들이 서로를 잘 부각시켜서 본질적인 ‘융합’으로 시너지를 낼 수 있는 전략을 사용해야 한다고 서술하였다. 그리고 패션과 예술의 관점에서 콜레보레이션을 언급 세기 전반 모더니즘시대 haute couture 디자이너 작품에 나타난 순수 미학적 협업(collaboration)의 의미 분석 - - 한 lee와 kim( )은 오늘날 미술과 패션의 결합은 대 중성과 예술성을 가진 하나의 ‘art’로 간주하는 패션 디자 이너들이 미술에서 직접 아이디어를 가져오거나 예술가들 을 자신의 패션 작품에 참여하도록 하면서 더욱 두드러진 다고 했다. 이것은 미술작품에서 영감을 받아 프린트나 패턴으로 활용되는 ‘아트 인스피레이션(art inspiration)’, 예술가에게 디자인을 맡겨 제작하는 방법, 브랜드 홍보전 략으로 아티스트를 초청해 연계하는 공동 마케팅, 갤러리 형식의 공간 연출이나 작가들이 작품에 패션 상품을 응용 하는 사례 등의 모든 작업 형태를 ‘예술과 패션의 콜레보 레이션’이라고 하였다. baek과 bae( )의 경우도 패션 브랜드나 디자이너가 다른 예술 장르와 결합하는 현상을 형식적인 면에서는 아트 콜레보레이션(art collaboration) 으로 내용적인 면에서는 아트 인스피레이션이라 하였다. 이와 같은 세기 콜레보레이션은 그 동기 또한 다양 하게 나타나고 있다. 국내 패션기업의 콜레보레이션 동기 는 hong과 hwang( )은 경제적 효율성, 사업규모확 장, 상품기획력 향상, 브랜드 경쟁력 재고였으며, shin과 lee( )은 패션업체들이 유명디자이너와 결합으로 인 해 그들의 인지도와 창의성을 브랜드에 접목시켜 틈새시 장공략과 브랜드 이미지의 고급화시키는 시너지 효과를 얻기 때문이며, 패션업체와 이종업계와의 콜레보레이션을 통해 시각적 차별성을 높이고 패션업계의 다각화 효과로 새로운 시장을 개척, 다양한 브랜드 이미지 창출 및 시너 지 효과를 기대해 볼 수 있기 때문이라고 하였다. yang( )은 콜레보레이션 동기는 주로 패션 영역과 활발히 이루어지는데 이는 패션 브랜드나 디자이너에 대 한 대중의 높은 인지도로 인해 높은 부가가치나 이미지 상승을 기대할 수 있기 때문이라고 하였다. moon( ) 은 패션분야에서 나타나는 콜레보레이션 동기를 패션이 아트와 결합함으로써 나타나는 기업의 전략적 특징과 다 양한 마케팅의 효과에 대해서 살펴보았다. 중요한 것은 콜레보레이션의 목적에는 매출확대라는 충분조건이 당연 히 포함되지만 그 보다 변화하는 현대 사회의 소비자의 욕구를 포괄적으로 충족시키고자하는 가치 지향적 동기가 반드시 전제된다고 하였다.(lee, ) 세기 패션관련 분야에서의 이러한 콜라보레이션은 그 결과 또한 다양한 측면에서 나타났다. jeong( )의 경우 콜레보레이션을 통해서 브랜드 아 이덴티티는 ‘물리적 특성, 개성, 관계, 문화, 사용자 이미 지, 자아 이미지’ 모두 확장되었고 두 파트너는 서로의 아 이덴티티를 공유하면서 협력을 이루었다. 매출과 업계반 응에서도 높은 상승을 보여주었으며 기획, 디자인, 제품 개발, 마케팅 등 모든 분야의 협력을 통해서 새로운 기술 의 확장과 새로운 디자인의 발전을 이루었다고 분석하였 다. kan( )의 경우 콜레보레이션의 유형을 분석하고 이를 토대로 문화적 특성을 고찰하였는데, 현대 패션에 나타난 콜레보레이션의 문화적 특성은 탈경계성, 융합성, 유희성, 동시개념성으로 나타났다고 하였다.(kan, ) 패션사례를 중심으로 콜레보레이션을 연구한 jeong과 kim( )의 경우 브랜드나 기업, 혹은 독자적인 개인을 포함하는 콜레보레이터(collaborator)와 콜레보레이티 (collaboratee)가 협력적이고 동등한 위치에서 자신의 핵 심역량을 바탕으로 일정 기간 동안 협업하는 것으로 이들 의 협업은 참여주체의 아이덴티티를 바탕으로 시각적으로 표현되며 이로 인한 부가적인 가치가 발생한다는 것이다. lee와 kang( )의 경우 성공적인 콜레보 제품이 탄생 되기 위해 콜레보레이터와 콜레보레이티의 어떠한 요소들 이 어떤 방식으로 결합되는지 조형적 관점에서 분석하였 다. 콜라보레이티의 조형요소 일부를 그대로 차용하는 경 우는 콜라보레이터의 아이덴티티를 가장 잘 나타나며 콜 레보레이션의 조형 융합시 변형과 재창조되는 경우는 참 여한 디자이너나 브랜드를 일견에 인식하기 어려운 단점 이 있었으나 다른 유형에 비해 콜라보레이티의 주도적인 디자인이 나타났다. yang et al.( )의 연구는 패션 콜레보레이션은 새로 움과 차별화된 경쟁력을 찾기 위한 형태임과 동시에 제휴 파트너가 구축한 기술력뿐만 아니라 이미지와 인지도 등 과 같은 무형적 가치도 공유할 수 있으므로 적극 추진되 고 있다고 하였다. 특히 아트 콜레보레이션이 기업에 미치는 효과는 기업 의 이미지 증대화 인지도 상승, 매출 상승과 고객유치의 효과가 나타났으며, 예술가와 협력한 경우 기업은 경쟁사 의 차별적 이미지 창출과 새로운 브랜드 가치제고, 브랜 드 아티스트 인지도 증가, 프리미엄 가격 획득, 매출상승, 새로운 고객유치 등의 효과가 나타났다. 또한 예술가가 작품제작에 직접 참여한 경우 기업 자체가 예술기업 이미 지 전환이라는 기회를 제공하는 것으로 나타났다(moon, ). 그리고 패션이 미술과 조우하는 것은 세상에 단 하 나뿐인 미술작품의 희소성과 역사성을 접목하여 제품의 예술적인 품격을 높이고 매출증대와 이미지 상승효과를 동시에 누릴 수 있다는 것이다(lee & kim, ). 즉 세기 패션관련 분야에서 나타난 콜레보레이션의 궁극적인 목적을 hong( )이 언급한 것처럼 여러 학자 한국생활과학회지 제 권 호 - - collaboration contents researcher concept ▪ inter-enterprises' collaborations which are related to the strategic management for reinforcing their competitiveness in various field. ▪ to work together for a special purpose. ▫hong & hwang( ) ▫jeong & kim( ) ▫lee & kim( ) ▫baek & bae( ) motivation ▪ collaboration can be defined as two or more companies together by sharing core competencies and advantages in order to pur suit profit and value. ▪ to strategic purpose, collaboration can be classified into value ascending collaboration, image changing collaboration, business-field collaboration, and event collaboration. ▫hong & hwang( ) ▫jeong & kim( ) ▫shin & lee( ) ▫yang( ) ▫moon( ) result ▪ the brand competitiveness motive type had higher scores on the performance and satisfaction of collaboration than did the other types. ▪ through collaboration there could achieve the image upgrade effect, diversification of business, sharing the targets, and promotion effect. ▫jeong( ) ▫kan( ) ▫jeong & kim( ) ▫lee & kang( ) ▫yang et al.( ) the comparison of the collaboration between th and th century ‣ th century collaboration a manifestation of pure aesthetics. è ‣ th century collaboration the maximization of mutual interest between collaborator and collabotatee. <table > the meaning of the collaboration appeared in the th century fashion 들의 견해를 종합해 보면, 콜레보레이션이란 둘 이상의 기업이 자신이 보유한 핵심역량을 바탕으로 상호 보완적 인 역량을 결합하여 각자가 가지고 있는 시장 및 기술 경 쟁상의 강점을 함께 나누는 일정 기간 동안의 협력관계라 고 할 수 있다. <table >은 c 패션에 나타난 혐업의 의미를 요약 정리 하였고, c의 의미를 비교하였다. . 세기 전반 haute couture designer의 작품 활 동에 나타난 협업 .에서 언급한 것처럼 야수주의, 입체주의, 미래주의, 초현실주의 등의 예술양식 및 예술가들과 협업으로 그들 의 아이디어를 직접적으로 패션 작품세계에 접목시킨 당 시 대표적인 오트쿠튀르 디자이너 작품할동을 고찰하였 다. 따라서 본 장에서는 폴 포와레, 가브리엘 샤넬, 마들렌 비오네, 엘자 스키아파렐리의 작품활동에 나타난 협업 특 성을 분석하였다. ( ) paul poiret( - )의 협업 특성 패션을 아방가르드 예술과 연관지어 예술의 반열로 끌 어올린 최초의 인물이 폴 포와레이다(kim, ). 패션의 야수주의자인 폴 포와레는 예술의 ‘wild beast’와 같은 똑 같은 강렬한 방법으로 색상의 힘(the power of color)에 매료되었다(colin mcdowell, ). 포와레는 야수주의 세기 전반 모더니즘시대 haute couture 디자이너 작품에 나타난 순수 미학적 협업(collaboration)의 의미 분석 - - 화가들의 순수한 색채와 비구조적인 선의 흐름을 선호하 였다. 그에게 결정적인 영향력은 년 파리에서 공연한 디아길레프의 발레 뤼세(ballet russes: 세기초 디아길 레프가 제작한 러시아 발레 시리즈) <scheherazade>의 의상 디자인을 한 박스트(leon bakst: - )와 마찬 가지로 그의 작품에 나타난 오리엔탈리즘(orientalism)이 었으며 포와레도 자신의 디자인에 오리엔탈리즘을 적용하 였고 예술양식의 모든 요소들도 패션에 그대로 접목하였 다(addressing the century, ). [figure ] 포와레의 취향으로 완전하게 구현된 동양풍 패션은 어느 디자이너 도 감히 엄두내지 못했던 방식으로 전례 없던 우아함과 역사적 영향력을 가진 이국적인 민속적 요소들을 과감하 게 조합하였다(adrian, ; valerie mendes & amy de la haye, ; gertrud lehnert, )(figure 참조). 당시 예술가이자 드레스메이커였던 디자이너나 단순히 예술에 매료되었던 디자이너들은 두 분야를 통합하는 패 션을 만들어냈다. 포와레는 자신의 쿠튀르 컬렉션을 위한 직물 디자인을 위해 뒤피(raoul dufy: - )와 드랭 등의 예술가와 협업한 최초의 패션 디자이너였다 (addressing the century, ; bronwyne cosgrav, ). 그는 자신의 컬렉션 직물디자인을 위해 초기 모더 니스트 예술가인 뒤피와의 협업으로 그의 회화 작품을 문 양으로 한 직물을 창조했다. 뒤피의 디자인은 밝은 색과 특유의 천진난만한 형태와 묘사로 다분히 이국적인 정서 를 느끼게 해주었고 야수주의의 대담한 색채 배합을 고스 란히 담고 있다(kim, ). [figure ]은 뒤피가 디자인 한 텍스타일[figure ]을 그대로 케이프로 제작하였으며 [figure ]는 두 사람의 협업 작품이다. 특히 포와레는 년과 년 사이 가장 뛰어난 일러스 트레이터 작가 두 사람인, 일리브(paul iribe: - )와 르파프(george lepape: - )와 멋스러운 패션화보 앨 범을 만들기 위해 함께 작업을 했으며, 그는 자신과 다른 예 술가들과 작업을 함께 하는 모범이 되는 협업을 확립하였다 (francois baudot, ; george o'hara, ; gertrud lehnert, ). [figure ]은 왼쪽의 경우 르파프의 일러스트 레이션이며 오른쪽은 뒤피의 텍스타일 디자인으로 제작한 포 와레의 드레스이다. 모드화가인 일리브는 실내장식가였고 르 파프는 원래 화가로 포와레 작품집의 성공으로 ‘보그’지 표지 를 담당했으며 포와레의 무대의상 제작에도 협력하였다 (nam, ). 그리고 당시 미래주의 패션은 강한 색상대비와 역동적 색채를 통해 과거 복식에 대한 고정적인 개념에서 벗 어나 활동적이고 유동적인 의복으로 표현 되었으며 이러한 역동적인 감각은 포와레와 뒤피의 의상에도 사용되었다(kim & cho, ). 포와레 이전의 패션은 다른 장르와는 철저한 장벽을 가 지고 전시대의 모방을 반복하고 있었던 것에 지나지 않았 다. 또한 기술업에 지나지 않았던 쿠튀리에를 예술의 일 부분으로 올려놓은 것도 포와레였다(nam, ). ‘협업’ 의 관점에서 모든 예술분야에서 새로운 세기의 막을 열었 던 년대의 패션은 과거 수세기의 전통의 벽을 타파한 그 대담한 ‘포와레의 시대’가 없이는 이룩되지 못했다. 특히 포와레의 작품은 야수주의 화가들의 비구조적인 선의 흐름과 순수한 색채, 뒤피의 텍스타일 디자인, 미래 주의의 과감한 색상대비, 역동적인 색채로 표현되며 순수 한 협업의 의미를 지녔다. 이처럼 세기 전반 예술과 패 션에서의 ‘협업’은 그 순수함과 예술적 감성을 유지하면 서 다양한 장르의 분야와 상호 영향을 주고받으며 순수미 의 구현인 예술작품 활동으로 발전하였다. ( ) gabrille chanel( - )의 협업 특성 가브리엘 샤넬은 기능적으로 풍요로운 의상을 창안했 고 입체주의와 아프리카 미술 그리고 미래주의 예술양식 에서 많은 영감을 받았다(bronwyne cosgrave, ) 샤 넬이 여성 의복 형태를 기하학적이고 장방형으로 단순화 한 것에는 입체주의 개념인 힘과 위엄이 느껴지는 기하학 적 단순함이었다.(colin mcdowell, ) 세기 가장 유 명한 입체주의 예술가인 피카소는 년 주로 브라크 (george braque: - )와의 만남 후 주로 그가 제 작했던 작품을 통하여 패션에 영향을 주었다. 그들의 입 체주의 양식은 스웨터와 다른 의상디자인에 영향을 미쳤 다(george o'hara, ). [figure ]은 년 발레 뤼세 <le train blue>에서 샤넬이 의상디자인을 했으며, 피카 소는 프로그램과 무대 자막을 디자인했다. 미술로부터 패션의 영혼을 훔쳐 낸 여인, 샤넬은 근대 예술의 움직임을 읽어내 자신의 패션에 녹였으며 샤넬의 수트에서는 피카소의 입체주의 그림에서 볼 수 있는 박스 형태가 실루엣으로 변신하였고 그녀를 통해 당대 사람들 은 새로운 시대의 패션을 만나게 되었다(kim, ). [figure ]을 통해서 이러한 이미지를 볼 수 있다. 피카소와 브라크에 의해 새롭게 개척된 아프리카 미술 에 대한 열정은 높게 치켜 올린 이마와 긴 목과 같은 외양 은 패션에서도 그 자체가 그대로 반영되었다. 샤넬의 모 조보석도 동일한 원천에서 나온 것이라고 볼 수 있다. 신 소재에 대한 관심과 함께 모더니즘은 보석 디자이너들에 한국생활과학회지 제 권 호 - - 게 플라스틱, 금속, 유리를 사용하게끔 자극을 주었으며 울저지(wool jergy) 같은 새로운 의상 소재도 나타났다 (colin mcdowell, ). kim과 bae( )은 미래주의 적 특징의 소재로는 의복과 모자에 주로 투명한 비닐소재, 가죽소재, 신축성이 있는 라이크라, 알루미늄, 플라스틱과 같은 기존 소재와는 차별화된 독특한 소재들이 사용되고 있다고 했듯이 이러한 신소재들의 사용은 세기 전반 샤 넬의 작품에서 두드러지게 부각되었다. 즉 샤넬이 만든 의상은 저지를 사용하거나 남자 옷을 아이디어 원천으로 하는 등 신선한 발상으로 심플하고 매 력적인 스타일로 착용감이 좋은 것을 추구하였다. 또 재 산가치 보다도 패션성에 가치를 둔 코스튬 주얼리 (costume jewelry)의 개념을 확립시킨 것도 샤넬의 공적 이었다. 샤넬은 특히 쥬얼리에 강한 영향을 미쳤는데, 스 마트한 트위드 수트에 인조진주 목걸이 또는 금장 체인 등을 함께 착용했다. 년대 동안 샤넬은 화려하게 세 팅된 인조보석이나 준보석으로 코스튬 주얼리를 정교하게 디자인하기 위해 베두라(fulco de verdura: - )와 협업하였을 뿐만 아니라 텍스타일 디자인까지 공동 작업 하였다(george o'hara, ). 샤넬은 또한 초현실주의 사진작가 만 레이(man ray: - )와도 협업하였다. [figure ]은 베두라가 샤넬의 장신구 디자인한 팔찌이며 [figure ]은 이를 착장한 모습을 초현실주의 작가인 만 레이의 사진이다. 스스로가 자립한 여성으로써 가르손느 (garçonne)의 이상향(理想像) 그 자체였던 샤넬은 활동적 인 생활을 하는 신여성을 위한 스타일을 제시하고 새로운 드레스 코드를 확립시켰다.(fashion, ) 이러한 가 르손느 스타일은 미래주의 예술가들의 작품에서보이는 기 하학적 형태를 통한 속도의 동적인 감각이 율동감있게 표 현된 것이다[fig. ]. 샤넬은 특히 차 대전 이후 자신의 영향력 넓혔다. 그 녀는 전통적인 남성복인 벨트가 있는 레인코트, 단순한 오픈넥 셔츠, 블레이져, 카디건, 바지 그리고 부드러운 베 레모, 그레이와 네이비 블루칼라에서 도입된 의상들을 입 었으며 또한 그녀는 베이지의 유행을 창조했다.(george o'hara, ) [figure ]는 그녀의 연인 웨스터민스터 공(duke of westminster)의 의상을 그대로 착장하였다. 년대부터 년대는 샤넬의 전성기로 그녀는 많은 예술가들과 예술적 공감대를 교류했는데, 피카소, 장 콕도 (jean cocteau: - ), 달리, 앙드레 지드(andre gide: - ), 스트라빈스키(igor stravinsky: - ), 드미트리대공(grand duke of demitri) 등 이외에도 많은 예술가들이 있으며, 이 중 콕도의 잡지 그리고 스트라빈 스키의 음악과 디아길레프의 무용을 후원했다("the th peoples", ; james laver, )(figure 참조). 샤넬은 세기 전반 예술운동에 있어서 중요한 역할을 담당했을 뿐만 아니라 자신의 작품활동을 통해 모더니즘 예술양식의 특성을 가르손느 스타일이나 단순하고 기하학 적 이미지로 반영한 오트쿠튀르 디자인임이 명확하게 나 타나고 있음을 알 수 있다. 입체주의의 힘과 위엄이 느껴 지는 기하학적이고 장방형의 단순한 형태, 모더니즘과 미 래주의의 영향으로 플라스틱, 금속, 유리, 비닐, 가죽, 라 이크라 등의 신소재들이 사용된 것은 가장 큰 특징이었다. ( ) madeleine vionnet( - )의 협업 특성 입체주의와 미래주의 예술양식은 비오네의 디자인에 많은 영향을 주었다. 그녀는 인체형태의 본질에 대한 정확한 이해 와 실험을 바탕으로 바이어스와 입체재단을 활용하여 신체에 잘 들어맞는 실루엣을 만들기 위해 다양한 인체 해부학적 재 단법을 선보였다. 비오네는 소위 패션계의 건축가로 탁월한 조형감각과 입체재단 기술로 독창적인 의복조형을 다루었으 며 재단의 혁신을 가져왔다. 바이어스나 변형이 자유로운 통 재단(barrel cut), 슬래쉬와 삼각 무(goget)의 독특한 재단, 홀 터넥(halter neck)과 카울넥(cowl neck) 등의 구조적인 디테 일과 디자인도 비오네가 고안한 것이며 일본의 기모노 구조 를 도입한 평면구조의 의복제작도 수작업으로 이루어졌다 (fashion, ; george o'hara, ; kim, ). [figure ]는 그녀의 가장 단순한 기하학 이미지의 원리를 한 예로 보여준 작품이다. 비오네는 세기 바이어스 재단의 발명과 코르셋으로 부터 여성을 해방시켰으며 그녀의 작품은 고대 그리스나 로마의 복식미를 현대적으로 재해석하여 많은 디자인을 제시하였다. 년 차 세계대전 이후 미래주의 화가인 쌰야트(ernesto thayaht)를 만나 그와의 예술적 교류와 작업을 통해 그녀는 기하학적 리듬감과 운동감을 디자인 에 중요한 특징을 반영하였고 이러한 기하학적 형태는 삼 각형, 사각형, 원 등의 수학적 계산이 가능한 창조적 형태 로 그녀의 많은 작품에 표현되었다(choi, ). 쌰야트는 유니섹스 오버롤(overall)인 ‘tuta’(이탈리아 사람들에게는 오버롤의 단어로 인식되고 있음)라고 이름 붙여진 의상을 개발하였는데, 이것은 민첩성과 유연함을 가져오는 직물과 구성의 경제성 또한 증진하는 것으로 여 겨졌다. ‘tutta’의 의미는 ‘all’이었다. 쌰야트는 ‘tutta’에 서 ‘t’를 한자 없애고 오버롤에 이름을 붙인 것이다. 쌰야 세기 전반 모더니즘시대 haute couture 디자이너 작품에 나타난 순수 미학적 협업(collaboration)의 의미 분석 - - 트는 년대 비오네 패션하우스과 전문적인 관계를 구 축하는 것을 지속하였다(addressing the century, ). [figure ]은 쌰야트가 자신이 디자인한 투타를 입고 입 는 모습이며 [figure ]은 년도의 투타를 포포바 (ljuboy popoba)가 재현한 디자인이다. [figure ]도 쌰 야트의 디자인을 비오네가 기하학적인 선과 패널로 장방 형 실루엣 애프터눈 드레스로 선보였다. 당시 비오네는 자신의 재단원리를 추종하는 파트너인 자수장식가 르사쥬(francois lesage: - )와 협업 을 하였다. 놀라운 상상력을 가진 르사쥬의 자수는 드레 스의 건축적인 구조와 장식의 매개체로 비오네 작품에 특 별히 잘 적용되었다. 그는 바이어스 커팅뿐만 아니라 직 물의 자연스러운 흐름을 방해하지 않고 모든 스티치를 경 사 방향이나 위사 방향 어디 쪽으로든 다루었다(lydia kamitsis, ). 르사쥬가 비오네를 위해 작업한 자수장 식은 비오네의 많은 드레스에서 서로의 역사에 남을 만한 협업의 특성을 보여주었다. [figure ], [figure ]의 두 작품 모두 르사쥬가 자수장식한 비오네의 드레스이다. 비오네는 인체형태를 정확히 이해하고 몸에 잘 맞는 실 루엣의 작품을 만들기 위해 재단, 소재, 장식 등을 협업을 통해 발전시킨 것을 알 수 있었다. 년대 그녀는 의상 실루엣을 위해 저지나 실크 크레이프나 머슬린과 같은 흐 르는 듯한 직물을 사용했으며, 미래주의의 화가와 협업하 여 수학적 계산이 가능한 기하학적 형태의 작품을 만들었 다. 그리고 이러한 형태의 표현을 위해 자수 장식가와의 혐업을 통해 형태에 방해가 되지 않는 장식을 하였고, 특 별한 재단 기술인 바이어스나 플리츠로 재단하였다. ( ) elsa schiaparelli( - )의 협업 특성 스키아파렐리는 년대 가장 흥미롭고 자극적이며 즐거 움을 주는 패션을 창조하였다. 그녀에게 패션은 예술이었으 며 입체주의와 초현실주의 예술양식은 그녀의 디자인에 직접 적으로 영향을 주었다. 그녀는 초현실주의 아방가르드 움직 임을 그대로 실험하였으며 자신의 패션에 예술을 응용함으로 패션과 예술이 접목하는데 성공하였다(gertrud lehnert; ). 스키아파렐리에게 예술은 아이디어 발상 원천이라기 보다는 직접 패션에 도입되어 응용되었으며 달리나 콕도의 스케치 그대로 복식으로 만들어진 작품도 많았다. 또한 그녀 는 신소재를 적극적으로 이용하였고 비닐이나 유리, 셀로판, 낙하산 실크 등을 사용한 실험적인 작품을 제작하였다 (fashion, ). 즉 스키아파렐리의 새로운 소재 등으로 실험적인 시도는 아주 정교한 액세서리로 만들어졌는데, 그 디자인에서 초현실주의적 환상은 기본형태에서 탈피한 엉뚱 하리만치 기발한 형태로 모자, 장갑, 구두 등으로 구체화했다 (addressing the century, ). [figure ], [figure ]은 달리의 작품으로 그의 신비로운 세계는 의상의 핵심적인 독 설이 되었다. 이런 초현실주의 표현방법은 스키아파렐리의 작품 활 동을 통하여 당시의 유명한 예술가들과 활발한 협업을 통 해서 더욱 두드러지게 나타났다. 그녀는 달리나 콕도 이 외에도 패션일러스트레이터인 베라드(christian berard: - )와 같은 예술가들과 협업을 했으며 브레통 (andre breton: - )과는 절친했다(bronwyne cosgrave, ). 그중 스키아파렐리의 친구이자 가장 위 대한 초현실주자인 달리는 그녀를 위해 직물디자인 까지 도 했으며 주얼리와 패션 디자인에 많은 아이디어를 제공 했는데 그 자신도 패션분야에 가장 영향력을 가지고 있었 다. 달리의 형이상학적 유머러스함과 충격을 주는 능력과 엉뚱함은 역시 이러한 기질을 가지고 있었던 스키아파렐 리에게 엄청나게 호소력이 있었다. 이 두 사람은 아주 가 까웠을 뿐만 아니라 트롬프뢰유(trompe l'oeil: 의상에 디 자인을 솔기나 니팅으로 인해 시각적 착시를 일으키는 것)기법을 응용하여 첨단적인 직물과 의상을 디자인하였 다(colin mcdowell, ; valerie mendes & amy de la haye, ). 스키아파렐리 의복의 출발점인 트롬프뢰유 기법의 스웨터에서 단적으로 나타난 것처럼 아이디어와 위트가 풍부한 유니크한 패션이었다(fashion, ; george o'hara, ). [figure ]는 달리의 조각 작품 [figure ]이 스키아파렐리의 작품으로 창작되었으며, [figure ] 역시 스키아파렐리가 달리의 작품[figure ] 이미지를 공동으로 협업하여 기발하게 창작되었다. [figure ]은 트롬프뢰유기법의 작품이다. 스키아파렐리의 작품 활동에서 협업한 또 한명의 초현실 주의 화가는 베라드로 그에게서 받은 영감에서 나온 색상 ‘쇼킹핑크(shocking pink)‘는 그녀의 대명사가 되었다. 지퍼 를 오트쿠튀르에 처음으로 도입한 것도 그녀였다(nam, ). 스키아파렐리는 위트나 충격 요소만큼 즐거움을 주기 에 더 이상 나은 것은 없다는 것을 즐겼으며 자신의 아이 디어는 그녀가 유명한 예술가들로부터 위탁했던 작업과 함께 상당한 기교로써 수행되었다. 그녀는 직물디자인과 액세서리 디자인을 위해 달리, 베라르, 콕도와의 협업 이 외에도 쉬럼버(jean schlumber: -)가 코스튬 주얼리와 한국생활과학회지 제 권 호 - - design er characteristics p a u l p o i r e t characterist ics § a forerunner collaborated between fashion and avant-garde art. § influenced by the color of fauvism, the orientalism and unconstructual lines. § collaborated dufy, derain, iribe, lepape etc. e x a m p l e o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n fig. ballet design by leon bakst, fig. evening dress by paul poire, fig. evening cape by paul poiret, fig. amphtrite textile by dufy, fig. collaborative works by dufy & poiret, fig. dressing gown by poiret, textile by dufy, g a b r i l l e c h a n e l characterist ics § influenced by the cubism, the futurism and the african art. § she was aggressive to use new materials.(like plastic, metal, vinyl, wool jergy, aluminum etc.) § collaborated with picasso, braque, cocteau and verdura etc. e x a m p l e o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n fig. chanel's design for the ballet russes , fig. chanel suit, fig. ivory bracelet by vedura, fig. chanel as photograped by man ray, fig. garconne look by chanel, fig. musculine design by chanel, fig. chanel's colleague, 's <table > collaboration appeared in the artworks of haute couture designer 세기 전반 모더니즘시대 haute couture 디자이너 작품에 나타난 순수 미학적 협업(collaboration)의 의미 분석 - - m a d e l e i n e v i o n n e t charact eristics § influenced by the cubism, the futurism. § as an inventor of a bias cut, she applied an architectural structure and shape to fashion design. § collaborated with the thayaht and the lesage. e x a m p l e o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n fig. geomatric dress by vionnet, - fig. tuta by thayaht, fig. tuta by popova fig. afternoon dress by vionnet, - fig. vionnet's greek vase dress embrodery by lesage, - fig. vionnet's evening dress embrodery by lesage, - e l s a s c h i a p a r e l l i charact eristics § influenced by the surrealism. § the originative, experimental artworks with new material like vinyl, glass, cellophane etc. § collaborated with dali, cocteau, berard, schlamber etc. e x a m p l e o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n fig. schiaparelli's shoe hat designed by salvadore, fig. night & day clothes of the body by salvador dali, fig. schiaparelli's desk suit designed by salvadore, fig. venus de mild with drawer sby salvadore dali, fig. schiaparelli, fig. lobster telephone by salvadore dali, fig. tromp l'oeil suit, fig. schiaparelli's suit, fig. elsa schiaparelli by man ray, 한국생활과학회지 제 권 호 - - 버튼을 제작했다(george o'hara, ). 특히 스키아파렐 리와 협업했던 패션사진작가인 만 레이는 패션에 그 영향 력을 아주 폭넓게 지속적으로 영향을 미쳤다(colin mcdowell, ). [figure ]은 콕도에게서 영감을 받아 서 제작된 스키아파렐리의 작품이며, [fig. ]은 초현실주 의 화가이자 패션 사진작가인 만레이와의 협업 작품이다. 스키아파렐리는 초현실주의 요소들을 자신의 디자인에 적극 활용하였고 초현실주의 예술가들과 친분을 유지하면 서 기발한 아이디어를 의상에 도입시키고 예술가들을 패 션에 직접 참여시키기도 하여 활발한 협업을 통해 작품 활동을 하였다. <table >는 c 전반 haute couture 디자이너의 협 업 활동 특징과 그 작품 사례를 요약 정리한 것이다. Ⅲ. 결론 및 제언 본 연구는 세기 문화와 관련하여 모든 분야에서 화 두가 되고 있는 콜레보레이션의 순수한 의미의 협업에 대 해 분석해 볼 필요성이 부각되어 세기 모더니즘 예술양 식과 오트쿠튀르 디자이너들의 작품 활동에서 나타난 협 업에 대해 고찰 분석하는 데 그 목적을 두었다. 그럼으로 써 세기 콜라보레이션 의미와 어떠한 공통점과 차이점 이 있는가를 분석해 봄으로써 협업에 대해 정확한 정보를 공유하고자 함에 그 의의를 두었다. 연구결과에 의한 결 론은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 모더니즘 예술양식 시대 오트쿠튀르 디자이너들 의 작품활동에서 나타난 순수 협업과 세기 나타난 콜레 보레이션의 공통점과 차이점: 세기 전반 오트쿠튀르 작품활동에서 나타난 협업은 단어 그대로의 순수하고 이상적인 아이디어 교류가 작품 으로 표현되어 나타남으로써 당시 최고의 패션 작품의 완 성을 이루었다. 이러한 의미의 협업은 세기 콜라보레이 션 범주 중 아트 콜레보레이션이라는 부분에서도 아트 인 스피에이션으로 언급되고 있는 부분적으로 공통점을 가지 고 있음이 분석되었다. 그리고 세기 전반의 협업은 순 수미의 발현이란 정신적인 것이 전부였다면 세기 콜레 보레이션은 콜레보레이터와 콜레보레이티 상호간의 이익 의 극대화가 목적으로 물질적인 부분이 대부분인 것이 큰 차이점이라고 할 수 있다. 둘째, 세기 패션 관련 분야에 나타난 콜레보레이션은 전략적 제휴의 일종으로 서로 다른 두 당사자가 만나 서 로의 경쟁력과 핵심역량을 바탕으로 시너지 효과를 창출 하는 것을 목표로 한다. 그리고 패션분야 이외의 많은 분 야나 연구에서도 전략적 제휴 및 공동 이익을 위한 협력 된 관계를 표현하는 부분에서 콜레보레이션이라고 언급되 고 있다. 여기에는 콜레보레이션을 단순한 현존하는 예술 가와의 제휴관계도 들어가지만 예술작품을 차용하는 경우 도 그 범위에 포함되었다. 셋째, 모더니즘 예술양식 및 예술가들과 협업으로 예술 양식의 요소 및 예술가들의 아이디어를 직접적으로 패션 작품세계에 접목시킨 폴 포와레, 가브리엘 샤넬, 마들렌느 비오네, 엘자 스키아파렐리의 협업으로 인한 작품을 중심 으로 고찰 분석하였다. 특히 이들 오트쿠튀르 디자이너들 은 세기 전반 회화, 무대의상, 일러스트레이션, 보석디 자인 등 다양한 분야 많은 예술가들과의 활발한 교류를 통해 작품활동을 했다는 공통점을 가지고 있었다. 따라서 이들의 작품들을 통하여 작품의 형태, 소재, 색채면에서 협업의 특성이 가시적으로 나타남을 분석하였다. 형태는 독창적인 재단 기술로 직선적이고 기하학적인 감각이 각 디자이너들의 개성을 반영하면서 다채롭게 나 타났음을 알 수 있다. 소재는 이전시대 의상의 소제로 사 용되지 않았던 플라스틱, 금속, 유리, 비닐, 저지 등 획기 적인 신소재의 사용으로 디자이너들의 기발한 아이디어가 자유롭게 표현되었다. 색채는 순수한 원색이나 무채색이 든 원색이든 단순하고 강렬한 색채대비가 두드러지게 표 현되었다. 연구에서 더욱더 중요하게 제언할 수 있는 것은 세 기 화두인 콜레보레이션이란 의미와 순수한 의미의 협업 에 대해 부정확한 이해와 남용에 대한 우려를 깨닫게 되 는 계기가 된 것이라고 할 수 있다. 무엇보다도 세기 전 반에 오트쿠튀르 디자이너들의 작품활동에서 나타났던 순 수한 의미의 협업이 세기에 활발히 이루어져야 미래의 패션문화가 경쟁력있게 발전할 수 있다고 사료된다. 주제어: 오트쿠튀르 디자이너,콜레보레이션, 협업의 순 수 의미, 모더니즘 reference addressing the century; years of art & 세기 전반 모더니즘시대 haute couture 디자이너 작품에 나타난 순수 미학적 협업(collaboration)의 의미 분석 - - fashion,( ), hayward gallery, london. adrain bailey( ), the passion for fashion, dragon world. baek, j. h. & bae, s. j. 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( ). socio-cultural meanings of the trend of collaboration expressed in contemporary fashion. journal of the costume culture, ( ), - . yang, h. y. & kim c. s. et all( ). the influences of shopping orientation on selection criteria, attitudes, and preference of collaborated fashion products, journal of korean society of clothing industry, ( ), - . <figure 출처> fig. . fig. . :the passion for fashion fig. . poiret fig. . fig. . : fashion loves art fig. . fig. : poiret fig. . th century fashion fig. fig. . fig. . fig. .fig. . fig. .: chanel fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. .: vionnet fig. . fig. .: addressing the century years of art & fashion fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. .: fashion and surrealism fig. . the encyclopaedia of fashion Études photographiques, | juillet Études photographiques | juillet institutions photographiques/ressources de la photographie paul strand, frontalité et engagement Éric de chassey Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ issn : - Éditeur société française de photographie Édition imprimée date de publication : juillet pagination : - issn : - référence électronique Éric de chassey, « paul strand, frontalité et engagement », Études photographiques [en ligne], | juillet , mis en ligne le septembre , consulté le avril . url : http:// journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ ce document a été généré automatiquement le avril . propriété intellectuelle http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ paul strand, frontalité et engagement Éric de chassey note de l’Éditeur cet article pourrait être considéré en son entier comme un écho aux considérations d’olivier lugon sur l’usage de la frontalité par walker evans. la lecture de son livre, le style documentaire (paris, macula, , p. sq), a joué un rôle décisif dans ma réflexion. que son auteur trouve ici l’expression de ma gratitude et de mon admiration. paul strand est justement célébré comme l’un des pionniers de la photographie moderniste aux États-unis. pour le dire simplement, il est l’un des premiers à avoir abandonné l’esthétique du pictorialisme au profit d’une straight photography, c’est-à-dire à rejeter l’esthétique symboliste de la stylisation et de l’évocation, à renoncer aux possibilités offertes par le flou et le bougé, à toutes sortes d’artifices de tirage, au profit d’une pratique photographique directe et objective, reposant sur le principe d’une saisie immédiate de la réalité, sans transformations ou le moins possible. son article-manifeste de , “photography”, écrit à l’âge de vingt-sept ans, proclame clairement : « la plus parfaite réalisation de [cette objectivité absolue qui est le propre de la photographie] est atteinte sans aucun truc ni procédé, sans manipulation, grâce à l’utilisation de méthodes photographiques directes [straight photographic methods] .» comme l’a remarqué l’historien alan trachtenberg, ce programme moderniste repose sur l’affirmation d’une innocence de l’appareil photographique ; or, sans qu’il soit besoin d’aller y voir très loin, il est remarquable que cette supposée innocence et ce caractère direct soient manifestés, rendus visibles, comme toujours dans l’histoire de l’art (l’exemple de monet vient immédiatement à l’esprit), grâce à une stratégie formelle spécifique : la neutre objectivité ne se donne à voir comme telle qu’à travers des choix subjectifs, la saisie directe n’est possible que mise à distance. paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet si cet aspect a aussi peu retenu l’attention des commentateurs, c’est sans doute que cette stratégie a pris, chez strand comme chez certains des artistes qui l’ont suivi, la forme d’un respect de cette convention par excellence du modernisme qu’est la planéité (le respect du caractère bi-dimensionnel de l’image tirée). la conversion de strand aux principes du modernisme (sous l’influence de stieglitz) se manifeste en effet par l’abandon d’un espace fluide organisé selon un point de fuite en profondeur – typiquement visible sous forme de lacets ou de zigzags – au profit d’un espace frontal, sans “fuite” justement. une première version de cette opération de mise à plat avait été proposée dans les premières années du vingtième siècle par une sorte d’équivalent photographique de l’art nouveau (sans doute influencé par les ouvrages d’arthur wesley dow), un japonisme linéaire dont les paysages enneigés de george seeley sont peut-être les exemples les plus aboutis. mais le caractère fluide des lignes ainsi que la tendance du spectateur à chercher à reconnaître ce qui est représenté dans toute image (le caractère indiciel de la photographie emporte forcément un regard de type iconographique, malgré toutes les intentions abstraites) conduisent toujours à voir les oppositions des zones planes également comme une récession vers un fond, l’œil étant conduit d’un coin de l’image à un autre par un trajet continu (d’une certaine manière, ce trajet ne devient plan qu’en exacte proportion de son ralentissement). ce n’est pas à ce japonisme qu’adhère strand, même s’il a déclaré plus tard avoir eu une « période japonaise ». ses premiers travaux, vers - , vues de rivière ou de lacs aussi bien que vues urbaines, portent surtout l’emprise de clarence white. le regard y est conduit vers un arrière-plan imprécis le long d’un chemin ou d’un cours d’eau. le flou “artistique” est alors l’un des seuls éléments qui peuvent distinguer les images ainsi obtenues d’un espace pittoresque hérité de la renaissance, espace qui avait été largement exploité par la photographie de paysage américaine du xixe siècle (on pense aux vues de la yosemite valley de watkins, souvent organisées selon la courbe d’un bras de rivière que la longueur du temps de pose a figé en ruban ). ce qui intéresse alors le photographe dans le paysage, c’est la notion de passage, d’une continuité spatiale de l’avant vers l’arrière, pour elle-même, ou d’un passage ménagé par des objets placés dans le paysage en proportion décroissante et en lacets. les fameux reproches qu’aurait faits stieglitz au jeune strand venant lui rendre visite en se concentrent, à propos de “bay shore, long island, new york”, de , sur l’absence de définition des objets et non sur la question spatiale. selon strand en , stieglitz lui aurait dit : « vous voyez, ce que fait l’objectif soft-focus, lorsque vous l’utilisez, il donne la même apparence à toute chose comme si tout était fait de la même matière. l’herbe a l’air de l’eau, l’eau a l’air d’avoir la même qualité que l’écorce de l’arbre ; et vous avez perdu tous ces éléments qui distinguent une forme de matière, ou de nature – que ce soit de la pierre ou n’importe quoi – d’une autre . » or, lorsque strand met en pratique les conseils que son mentor lui a donnés, il est remarquable qu’en même temps qu’il adopte un principe de netteté de la prise de vue (une netteté relative il est vrai puisque l’objectif f/ qu’il a privilégié garde un certain vague des contours), il choisit également d’abandonner la profondeur spatiale. l’un des premiers moyens adoptés réside dans l’utilisation des noirs en formes géométriques rappelant les contours orthogonaux de l’image globale. non seulement strand photographie régulièrement des fenêtres (dans une mise en abyme de la fenêtre picturale), mais il choisit de pousser les contrastes de telle sorte que la fenêtre devienne un pur et simple rectangle noir – et donc plan . dans des images de la nouvelle-orléans comme “woman carrying children”, datant de mars- paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet avril , l’image apparaît comme la superposition de deux plans sans épaisseur : un mur avec une fenêtre et ses volets, une femme avec son bébé. cet aspect est encore renforcé quand les images sont exposées ou qu’elles sont reproduites dans camera work puisque, selon l’exemple de stieglitz et de dow, strand a pris l’habitude d’encadrer ses photographies d’un filet noir . lorsque, en mars , strand bénéficie de sa première exposition personnelle, à la galerie dirigée par stieglitz, ses œuvres sont louées par le critique charles caffin : « ainsi donc les vues sont, au sens le plus strict, les enregistrements d’une objectivité réelle . » les commentaires que le critique consacre aux scènes de rue laissent entendre que leur spatialité est encore marquée par le modèle perspectif profond : elles sont selon lui « kaléidoscopiques ». pourtant strand a déjà réalisé (mais peut-être ne l’a-t-il pas encore montrée) une photographie qui marque un changement important de sa conception : “wall street”, de , où l’on voit d’abord un rythme de rectangles noirs plats . malgré toutes les interprétations politiques que cette photographie a pu susciter, la noirceur complète des rectangles évite que l’on puisse les reconnaître comme les fenêtres de la banque morgan, derrière lesquelles se déroulent des activités professionnelles (ce qui sera moins le cas lorsque le même motif apparaîtra dans son film manhatta, en ). tout au plus peut-on penser que leur présence est plus ou moins menaçante. strand dira lui-même : « j’étais conscient par exemple de ces grandes fenêtres noires de l’immeuble morgan, ces énormes formes noires. j’avais aussi un ami qui travaillait dans ce bâtiment. […] et puis aussi, j’étais fasciné par tous ces petits personnages passant devant ces grandes formes sinistres, presque menaçantes […], ces formes rectangulaires noires, répétitives – comme des formes aveugles, étant donné que vous ne pouvez pas voir à l’intérieur, avec tous ces gens qui passent devant. j’ai essayé de tenir tout cela ensemble . » mais cette déclaration tardive de l’artiste est moins convaincante qu’on ne le dit d’ordinaire, surtout dès lors qu’il apparaît que les rectangles noirs dont les verticales sont alignées sur les bords de l’image sont des tropes récurrents de l’artiste à partir de cette époque (et pour longtemps). quant aux lignes géométriques qui structurent la composition, si elles ne sont pas exactement orthogonales, au moins sont-elles suffisamment tangentes au plan de l’image pour ne pas susciter de sensation de profondeur (cela vient aussi de ce que les personnages sont de tailles similaires). l’opacité des fenêtres fait apparaître toute l’image comme une juxtaposition, un assemblage, de formes sur un seul plan, selon un motif en diagonales faibles. le même motif de structuration de la surface selon une grille diagonale se retrouve dans la série de photographies réalisées à twin lakes, dans le connecticut, pendant l’été , à partir d’un porche parcouru par les ombres rectilignes d’une balustrade. la planéité est ici suffisamment grande – l’image devenant un motif de rectangles juxtaposés en un rythme du blanc au noir – pour que l’isomorphie soit complète, qui permet tous les retournements de point de vue possibles. il en va de même dans la série des bols (“bowls”, ) sauf que la trame plane n’est plus ici orthogonale mais curviligne, en un jeu de courbes et contre-courbes, qui manifeste une application des leçons de l’abstraction à laquelle sont parvenue depuis quelques années ses amis peintres marsden hartley et abraham walkowitz . tardivement, strand interprétera ces images non seulement comme des expériences en abstraction, mais aussi comme un essai pour concilier planéité et profondeur spatiale, selon l’exemple de picasso : « avec ce travail, je crois que j’ai vraiment compris le principe qui se trouvait au fondement de l’organisation de l’espace de l’image chez picasso et tous les autres, de l’unité que cette organisation contenait [sic]. paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet j’ai aussi compris comment créer une surface bidimensionnelle qui puisse avoir un caractère tridimensionnel, de telle sorte que l’œil de la personne qui regarde l’image reste dans cet espace et rentre véritablement dans l’image au lieu de glisser sur les côtés. tout dans cette image devait vraiment être relié à tout le reste . » il est permis cependant d’être dubitatif de ce point de vue, et l’on peut pour le moins affirmer que c’est tout autre chose que l’on voit, en particulier, et pour éviter une plus longue démonstration, parce que cette réconciliation entre bi- et tridimensionnalité est au fondement même du mécanisme photographique. peut-être dans “bowls” est-il créé une sorte d’espace circulatoire (qui anticiperait ainsi sur la série des appareils akeley de ), mais, à plus court terme, c’est une photographie totalement frontale qui est proposée, où l’intégration des éléments (qui constitue l’apport essentiel du commentaire de strand) comprend également les bords orthogonaux de l’image et sa planéité, ce qui crée par conséquent une image sans aucun point de fuite (au sens littéral de ce terme ). strand n’a cessé de valoriser l’idée que l’image est un tout unitaire, proposé d’un seul coup, sans médiation, sans préparation, sans intermédiaire – idée somme toute traditionnelle en peinture mais non en photographie, où c’est souvent une lecture par les détails qui est suggérée. À ses étudiants des années , il déclarait par exemple : « lorsque vous mettez une photographie sur un mur, soit elle marche comme une totalité soit elle ne marche pas du tout. et tous les prétextes, tous les raisonnements, toutes les légendes dont vous pourrez l’accompagner ne la rendront pas meilleure . » il a également insisté dans une conférence de sur la façon dont, sur une surface plane, est proposée « une manifestation unifiée [a unified statement] du thème de l’image par la répétition de formes, de lignes et de textures en rapport les unes avec les autres. […] c’est là, je crois, la contribution esthétique majeure de l’expérimentation abstraite. l’utilité pour les photographes en fut grande, en ce qu’elle leur donna une conscience nouvelle de la voie qui permet de satisfaire leur besoin d’intégration de la réalité très complexe qu’ils doivent contrôler . » cette intégration unitaire conduit strand à privilégier une photographie caractérisée par une complète absence de point de fuite, au sens littéral du terme. en ce sens, il est – au moins pour la période - – très éloigné de la géométrisation que pratiquent les photographes qualifiés de “cubistes” par les critiques de l’époque, tels coburn ou stieglitz dans leurs vues de new york. chez ces deux artistes, la géométrisation est complexe mais ménage toujours une perspective avec point de fuite ou récession des échelles. si l’on considère une photographie de stieglitz telle que “from the back window, ”, de , on s’aperçoit que la construction géométrique y est en fait organisée avec une ligne de fuite en profondeur, constituée par la médiane verticale, le long coin entre deux maisons par lequel s’aperçoit le ciel. strand évite pour sa part systématiquement un tel motif dans ses vues urbaines de l’époque. lorsque, au début des années vingt, dans une période de crise, il s’essaiera à un “cubisme” similaire, plus strictement influencé par stieglitz, il produira quelques images construisant le même type d’espace, notamment dans ses vues de la caméra et des machine-outils akeley de . cependant, si ces images sont parmi les plus connues qu’il ait réalisées, elles restent singulièrement marginales par rapport au reste de son œuvre et, dès la vue en plongée de “the court, new york”, , les diamants des terrasses avec les verticales rectangulaires des façades, vus en plongée dans l’ombre et la lumière violemment contrastées, empêchent le regard de trouver une zone de dégagement. ils construisent l’image comme un puzzle de formes géométriques, d’une paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet manière certes plus complexe que dans les vues d’arrière-cours de , mais proche pour ce qui concerne la planéité. strand a lui-même considéré que son travail des années - s’organisait en trois directions : abstraction, paysages urbains et portrait . même si le portrait est le genre qui se prête le moins à une opération d’aplanissement, celle-ci est une tendance trop générale pour lui à cette époque pour qu’aucun domaine de sa création y échappe. ainsi le portrait d’un vieil homme à twin lakes (“early portrait, twin lakes, connecticut”, ) devient- il la superposition de deux plans, sans transitions : une figure humaine sans épaisseur formelle véritable sur un fond géométrisé, le premier plan et le fond étant en outre rabattus l’un sur l’autre par la similitude des motifs linéaires qui raient la salopette du vieillard et le mur de la maison (planches de bois et montants des fenêtres et de la chaise). il en va de même dans les portraits pris à la dérobée dans les rues de new york et publiés en dans camera work, généralement interprétés sans grande attention pour leur forme au profit du seul discours social, qui voit dans strand l’héritier de lewis hine. dans celui d’un mendiant barbu, l’homme se retrouve comme compressé entre deux plans plats définis par la même planéité de la typographie sur la pancarte et sur le mur. quant à “blind”, de , deux moyens y sont combinés : une semblable géométrisation linéaire sur la pancarte blanche qui pend autour du cou de la femme et sur la pierre striée de lignes orthogonales, un aplanissement par la typographie du mot « blind ». il faut ici insister sur le fait que cette stratégie formelle moderniste est mise au service d’un objectif social : il s’agit de conserver l’altérité de la personne représentée, mais de la communiquer le plus directement possible, en un face-à-face radical, sans intermédiaire (il s’agit d’une littérale mise au pied du mur, avec l’intention d’éviter le brouillage de tout discours interprétatif). quant à la série de photographies qui, en - , suit et synthétise les trois voies d’expérimentation antérieures et tire les leçons de l’exposition à , elle est de manière évidente marquée par les mêmes principes. deux des photographies de strand – “white fence” et “from the viaduct, new york”, de – montrent ainsi la même méthode de feuilletage des plans (par opposition à une profondeur progressive). “white fence” est construite comme une superposition de formes géométriques planes organisée selon un angle aigu, comme un rythme de parallélépipèdes rectangles accentués par le fait que la photographie a sans doute été prise de nuit (ce qui force les contrastes et opacifie les éléments). elle est d’ailleurs critiquée en pour ce que les effets de cette méthode produisent de non traditionnel : « on se demande bien comment on pourrait combiner plus de contraste, d’insistance, d’excentricité, de laideur entre les quatre coins d’un tirage . » dans “from the viaduct”, vue de manhattan depuis le viaduc de la e rue, strand fait une fois encore usage de la typographie des enseignes pour redresser son image, renforçant ce redressement par la verticale de la limite des palissades sur le trottoir. les mêmes points de vue structureront le film manhatta, réalisé en avec sheeler, dont la plupart des plans insistent sur le caractère géométrique des surfaces . face à cette ville que picabia et duchamp ont considérée comme la « ville cubiste » par excellence, le propos est bien de transformer la verticalité de l’architecture en éléments d’assemblage sur le plan ou, pour reprendre les propos de strand dans un communiqué de presse, de transformer « la géométrie verticale du bas de manhattan » en « éléments […] exprimant l’esprit de new york ». on peut penser que ces opérations photographiques conduisent strand très près de ce que michael fried considère comme l’essence du modernisme : le fait de présenter paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet l’œuvre dans un face-à-face avec le spectateur . une photographie ultérieure de strand viendra en tout cas littéralement manifester cette tendance fondamentale chez lui. avant de la montrer, strand fera pivoter de ° une vue d’un pueblo dans le colorado. “mesa verde, colorado”, de , fait ainsi venir vers l’avant un élément d’architecture (l’arête de deux murs) qui devient un visage, avec ses ouvertures, tandis que l’accroissement du contraste de valeur, obscurcissant totalement une petite fenêtre, transforme celle-ci en carré noir, ne permettant aucune vue vers un intérieur ou un ailleurs possibles . mais le modernisme est plus classiquement défini comme la conscience de la part de l’artiste que son médium possède une spécificité, qu’il s’agit de rendre exclusive. strand lui-même, dans de nombreux textes, a repris à son compte la nécessité d’une photographie “moderne” (l’article “photography” s’ouvre par la phrase : « la photographie […] trouve sa raison d’être, comme tous les autres médiums, dans une spécificité totale de ses moyens »), sans pour autant insister sur ce qui est considéré historiquement comme le propre du modernisme anglo-américain, la bidimensionnalité de l’image. tout au plus aurait-il conseillé à ses étudiants des années de visiter les musées, parce que « la photographie est seulement une autre manière d’organiser un espace bidimensionnel ». pour alan trachtenberg, il n’y a pas là de contradiction et le propre de strand réside dans son objectivité : « l’illusion traditionnelle de la réalité est restée son but : il s’agissait pour lui de construire des imitations bidimensionnelles de l’espace tridimensionnel dans le droit fil de la principale tradition occidentale. […] le modernisme pouvait bien lui avoir appris à voir le monde avec une attention accrue pour la forme abstraite qui fonde chaque perception ; le romantisme, muse pour lui plus fondamentale, lui avait appris à rester loyal envers la plénitude du monde tel qu’il est . » pourtant, la photographie a changé les règles de l’approche de la réalité : le photographe n’est pas, comme le peintre, conduit à chercher la représentation de la troisième dimension ; son appareil est construit pour donner toujours cette illusion . ce qu’il peut chercher en revanche, c’est à accentuer volontairement la bidimensionnalité, à supprimer l’illusion de profondeur par la précision de sa prise de vue. il va alors contre la nature supposée de son médium, ou plutôt il choisit entre deux natures : celle du support et celle de l’instrument. pour le dire simplement, strand part d’une définition de l’art – celle du modernisme pictural qu’il admire et auquel il se confronte explicitement . il applique cette définition à la photographie, malgré qu’il en ait à l’époque (contrairement donc à sa déclaration d’indifférence à l’égard de la question de l’art ). ce qui est interprété généralement comme un effet ou un moyen de la réalisation du concept de straight photography est donc aussi une imitation des procédés modernistes en peinture . strand a bien reconnu le rôle qu’ont pu jouer dans sa pratique les œuvres de picasso et de braque. il a pu en voir des exemples à l’armory show de , puis dans les galeries de stieglitz et de marius de zayas . cette influence est cependant traitée en général de façon très vague ou sur le mode de la dérive, avec une forte insistance sur une idée tout à fait erronée de ce que peut signifier historiquement la notion d’abstraction . il est patent que l’intérêt de strand à cette époque est d’abord formel, ou esthétique – c’est là sa première préoccupation, comme le montrent des lettres où il insiste notamment sur le fait que, dans tout ce qu’il produit, depuis les vues de machines jusqu’à celles de nature ou les portraits, son intérêt porte sur « l’organisation des formes, dont chacune n’a d’importance que dans la mesure où elle est reliée à d’autres . » paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet comme tous les autres photographes “cubistes” auxquels il est alors agrégé – de zayas l’associe ainsi dans une exposition du printemps à sheeler et schamberg, trio que les critiques identifient comme « affiliés à la cause de l’“art moderne” » –, strand reprend des peintres français leur insistance sur la géométrie. la structure orthogonale de ses images se rapproche évidemment de celles des œuvres cubistes visibles à new york, dont plusieurs – notamment violon et guitare peint par picasso en ou nature morte au violon de braque, papier collé de la même année – attirent singulièrement l’attention sur un rectangle noir par lequel s’opère un aplanissement de l’image tout entière (comme dans nombre de photographies de strand, mais chez les peintres d’une manière plus littérale, puisqu’il s’agit d’un élément hétérogène collé au-dessus des autres). strand va plus loin cependant que cette seule géométrisation ; il adopte également la frontalisation extrême qui caractérise ces œuvres nouvelles. de telle sorte que pourraient s’appliquer aux photographies de - les termes que de zayas employait en à propos de picasso (termes qu’il a pu transmettre à strand quelques années plus tard, sous une forme ou une autre) : « dans ses tableaux, la perspective n’existe pas : on n’y trouve rien d’autre que des harmonies suggérées par la forme, et des registres se succédant et composant une harmonie générale qui remplit ce rectangle qu’est l’image . » alors que sheeler est singulièrement proche de picasso, strand l’est surtout de braque. qu’il l’ait compris dès sa visite de l’armory show, ou qu’il en soit devenu conscient plus tard, au moment où il réalise lui aussi des images utilisant des affiches et des enseignes (dans un contexte de vue urbaine et non de nature morte), il a retenu la leçon contenue dans un tableau comme violon mozart/kubelick ( , collection particulière). la présence de la typographie moderne permet en effet de proposer simultanément deux lectures : iconographiquement, elle établit une sorte de fond distant ; formellement, elle reporte ce fond sur le même plan que celui de l’image. comme les autres moyens que reprend strand, elle propose ainsi une surface homogène au regard, alors que toute suggestion de volumétrie (dont use largement picasso) détruirait cette conception unitaire et unifiante. chez braque comme chez strand, cette conception trouve dans la structure de la grille son outil le plus efficace : un premier système orthogonal, créant une unité strictement picturale au détriment des éléments, se double d’une grille diagonale, qui anime la surface, introduisant mouvement et transparence. et chez les deux artistes, l’homogénéisation du spectacle visuel va de pair avec la volonté d’être plus direct, voire de paradoxalement lier la vision à la possibilité d’un toucher (braque écrit dans un carnet : « ce n’est pas assez de faire voir ce qu’on peint, il faut encore le faire toucher . ») dans ce rapport de modélisation au cubisme, il ne s’agit pourtant pas d’une nouvelle forme de pictorialisme, qui aurait simplement échangé un modèle pictural pour un autre. ou plutôt, il ne s’agit pas seulement de la reprise d’un style, mais plutôt de l’utilisation d’une stratégie formelle en vue d’une ambition plus grande. la pratique de strand reste finalement cohérente avec ses propres condamnations récurrentes de l’utilisation de la photographie pour imiter la peinture. formulé dès , ce rejet trouve sa forme la plus affirmée en : « de toute part on essaie de transformer l’appareil de photo en pinceau . » or, précisément, ce qui évite de faire du cubisme une nouvelle source pictorialiste, dans le cas de strand, c’est que ce n’est pas une pratique caractérisée par une touche subjective mais que sa spécificité se situe ailleurs, dans la construction, là où il rejoint le caractère mécanique de la photographie (comme l’ont bien compris à la même époque des artistes comme tatline ou rodtchenko). pour reprendre la conclusion de strand : « quelques photographes sont en train de démontrer par leurs œuvres que l’appareil de paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet photo est une machine – et une incroyable machine. ils prouvent qu’en l’utilisant purement et intelligemment, on peut en faire l’instrument d’une nouvelle sorte de vision, aux possibilités jamais exploitées, liée à la peinture et aux autres arts plastiques, mais n’empiétant sur eux en aucune façon . » la suite de la carrière de strand montre une incroyable résistance de ce fondement cubiste à travers toutes les vicissitudes de son style, jusque dans les moments d’humanisme le plus revendiqué, où le contenu sentimental semble devoir primer sur tout le reste. avant et après qu’il ait rompu avec stieglitz (en ), tandis que s’affirme chez lui une dimension explicitement “documentaire” qui transforme quelque peu le sens de la recherche de l’objectivité , des éléments formels persistent qui sont pourtant extérieurs à l’expérience objective, vécue, du monde comme continuité en profondeur. bien plus, ces éléments sont le résultat de choix délibérés. c’est ainsi que strand choisit d’utiliser un appareil graflex lorsque, en - , il effectue des prises de vue dans les régions désertiques du nouveau-mexique, précisément parce que celui-ci ne permet pas un rendu trop détaillé (dans les mêmes conditions, weston ou ansel adams feront de la précision des détails une nécessité de l’objectivité, quitte à ce que cela nuise à l’unité de l’image ). ne changeant guère de matériel entre et , strand le choisit pour accentuer les caractéristiques frontales et le feuilletage des plans, utilisant de plus une « focale absurdement longue par rapport aux standards actuels » afin de donner une image très compressée. quant à ses tirages, souvent sombres, ils sont souvent au platine, parce que celui-ci « obscurcit les détails ou l’absence de détails » – et strand renforce encore cet aspect en appliquant une couche de vernis par dessus l’image . la même stratégie formelle, qui compose les images comme un assemblage de rectangles plans et frontaux, préside ainsi aussi bien à “red river, new mexico”, de – trois épaisseurs simplement superposées, façade puis portes et fenêtres en lamelles verticales de bois avec des montants presque horizontaux, puis fleurs dans une fenêtre centrale avec un rideau à motif – qu’à “village” de – une image publiée en dans le livre time in new england, où la stricte orthogonalité des murs en bois, des fenêtres à carreaux et des persiennes se décline en deux plans successifs où s’incruste à chaque fois un spectacle naturel (bâtiments puis arbre). l’humanisme se marque seulement dans le fait que strand semble désormais chercher à préserver une possibilité de transition entre les plans, au lieu de les projeter directement vers le regard. dans “red river, new mexico”, de , une portion du sol est présente, qui crée un seuil vers l’image et laisse la sensation d’un très léger point de vue de côté. dans “village”, , la courbe d’un canapé ou d’un bois de lit s’insère entre les deux vitres. pour robert adams, ces légers décalages sont un véritable « principe moral » dans “time in new england” . ils sont plutôt à mon sens le résultat du croisement d’une deuxième influence extra-photographique, celle du cinéma qui vient doubler le modèle pictural. strand a en effet consacré l’essentiel de son temps entre et à la réalisation cinématographique, entre les tournages de the wave au mexique et de native land aux États-unis. entre ces deux films, il a réussi à abandonner le statisme qui imprégnait ses premiers essais et provenait certainement d’une esthétique photographique (statisme qui avait également marqué manhatta) au profit d’un véritable art du mouvement. il en tirera en une conclusion esthétique qui a valeur générale, en privilégiant ce qu’il nomme « réalisme dynamique » : « il n’existe rien de complètement statique. par conséquent la nécessité et le désir de cette sensation en art sont, à mon avis, la contrepartie de la vérité et du besoin humain essentiel de sentir que les choses bougent et changent . » paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet le titre même qu’il donne à son ouvrage sur les campagnes françaises, la france de profil (publié en , à partir de photographies de - ), signale cette nouvelle volonté de strand. les propos liminaires de claude roy renforcent encore le refus de la frontalité : « les visages aimés, c’est de profil seulement qu’on ose les regarder vraiment, qu’on garde la liberté de rêver à eux, de jouer à s’en détacher pour être enfin contraint de s’y attacher. je n’ose pas regarder mon pays de face. ma france de profil, c’est à ton contour perdu que je parle à voix basse . » pourtant, malgré une telle déclaration (qui n’appartient d’ailleurs pas à strand, mais commente ses œuvres), le fondement esthétique de l’œuvre de strand ne bouge que marginalement et nombre de photographies publiées dans ce livre continuent à obéir aux mêmes principes que trente-cinq ans auparavant. c’est par exemple le cas de l’image la plus célèbre de l’ouvrage – “jeune gars, gondeville, charente” – qui reprend le motif du portrait frontal plaqué sur une trame de planches verticale (discrètement ponctuée par les horizontales des ferrures). ce motif avait d’ailleurs également ordonné les apparitions de la figure humaine dans time in new england, en des occurrences organisées savamment par l’artiste dans les deux dernières parties du livre, passant de la stricte application dans “mr bennett, ” et dans les cinq portraits suivants – un buste individuel est placé sur un fond de planches horizontales et/ ou le montant vertical d’une fenêtre ou d’une porte –, à une complexification par introduction des courbes d’un fil de fer et d’un bouquet dans “leo wass, ”, puis à un progressif réordonnancement qui marque une pause avec le fond neutre de “edwin albee, ” – un homme à casquette posant le torse de trois-quarts sur un fond de ciel indistinct – avant d’aboutir aux images orthonormées que sont “woman, ” (en fait “susan thompson, cape split, maine”, ), et “hope noonan, ”. le même motif réapparaîtra, à côté d’images montrant une trame architecturale considérée pour elle- même, dans tous les ouvrages ultérieurs de strand, jusque dans ghana : an african portrait (publié juste après la mort de l’artiste, en ). strand aura ainsi partagé avec nombre de ses contemporains la volonté de pratiquer une photographie “objective”. et je dirais même qu’il a su formuler ce but avec peut-être plus de clarté encore que n’importe lequel d’entre eux : il en a fait un but au service duquel des moyens spécifiques sont mobilisés, sans intervention de la subjectivité . c’est pour cette raison qu’il choisit de rapprocher l’image sur le plan de la photographie, en intégrant géométriquement tous ses éléments, parce qu’il veut obtenir la communication la plus directe possible, sans filtre, une projection de la réalité en pleine face du spectateur, sans possibilité d’analyse autre qu’une reconstruction . chez des photographes comme stieglitz, pour qui l’image est le résultat d’une union avec la nature (stieglitz avait coutume de dire : « lorsque je photographie, je fais l’amour »), il n’est pas besoin de ce procédé contradictoire de mise à distance et de rapprochement à la fois : l’accès au monde peut se faire directement, sur un mode fusionnel. tout au long de sa carrière, strand fera quant à lui retour à ce mode privilégié de communication de l’image qu’est l’organisation frontale en plans. après avoir tenté de procéder à une humanisation de ce principe dans les années d’après-guerre, strand donnera dans l’une de ses dernières photographies, “bird on the edge of space, new york garden, th street”, de , un poignant symbole de sa volonté toujours présente, quoique de manière moins évidente que dans sa jeunesse, de réconcilier éloignement et accès direct : il y présente deux plans sans transition (une fenêtre obscurcie et une grille orthogonale) auxquels s’ajoute un oiseau sans volume et dont la position est indéterminable (devant la grille ? entre la grille paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet et la fenêtre ?), soit que la géométrie lui permette de s’élancer ou de tomber au dehors, soit qu’il en reste prisonnier. notes . paul strand, “photography”, seven arts, août , p. , repris dans nathan lyons ed., photographers on photography, englewood cliffs, prentice-hall, , p. . . alan t rachtenberg, “camera work : notes toward an investigation”, in jerome l iebling ed., photography : current perspectives, rochester, the massachusetts review, , p. . . p. strand, à naomi rosenblum en , cit. inpaul strand : circa (cat. exp.), new york, metropolitan museum of art, , introd. de maria morris hambourg, p. . strand précisait alors que cette période “japonaise” se caractérisait par un « soft-lens work du même type que celui pratiqué par clarence white pendant longtemps ». . À propos desquelles a. trachtenberg précise : « ce qui prend forme dans […] les photographies de watkins, c’est le yosemite sous l’aspect d’un spectacle pour voyageurs – une manière de voir dans laquelle l’aura, le mystère qui naît de la simple distance entre le regardeur et la vue, se dissolvent dans l’illusion de la proximité, de la possession privée. » (in reading american photographs : images as history, mathew brady to walker evans, new york, hill and wang, , p. ). . alfred stieglitz, en - , cité par p. strand en , interview de william innes homer cit. inp. strand, op. cit., p. . . le renforcement des contrastes est un élément capital de la nouvelle esthétique de strand, qui prime sur la géométrisation à laquelle on a souvent attaché une importance très grande comme symptôme d’une tendance innée au modernisme. l’insistance sur les formes rectangulaires et géométriques rythmées est présente très tôt, mais elle change de nature avec la découverte du modernisme pictural. ainsi maria morris hambourg peut-elle écrire de “garden of dreams – temple of love” de , que cette photographie « montre une affinité pour l’architectonique et le solide, tempérés par l’éphémère et le fortuit », cit. in p. strand, op. cit., p. ). en fait, la forme circulaire du temple, très perceptible et créant des échos rythmés par les piliers, empêche de voir les intervalles comme des rectangles pleins (la transformation de l’espace négatif en espace positif, nécessaire à la planéité, est impossible car l’objet photographié ne cesse jamais de nous apparaître comme une colonnade circulaire). . ce fait est mentionné par sarah g reenough, “paul strand, : applied intelligence”, in modern art and america : alfred stieglitz and his new york galleries (cat. exp.), washington d.c., national gallery of art, , p. . . charles caffin, “paul strand in ‘straight’ photographs”, , repris dans camera work, n° , octobre , p. . . s. greenough doute que cette photographie ait été exposée en (cf. s. greenough, op. cit., p. , n° ). . interview de calvin tomkins, juin , cit. in p. strand, op. cit., p. . . strand avait chez lui des œuvres de marin, dove, hartley, o’keeffe, lachaise, etc. la série des “military symbols” de hartley a fait l’objet d’une exposition à en avril . strand lui-même a expliqué ces images en comme le résultat d’une volonté de comprendre l’abstraction picturale : « je me trouvais à la campagne, dans le connecticut, et les sujets les plus simples […] paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet comme des bols de cuisine, des tasses, des assiettes, des morceaux de fruit […] la balustrade du porche – des choses aussi simples que cela ont été mon matériau pour mener des expériences destinées à trouver ce que pourrait être une photographie abstraite et ce qu’était vraiment une peinture abstraite. » . p. strand, interview par william innes homer, , cit. in p. strand, op. cit., p. . comme souvent, le vocabulaire de strand est assez imprécis. il emploie le terme « picture » que l’on est obligé de rendre en français par « image », afin qu’il puisse s’appliquer aussi bien à la peinture qu’à la photographie. mais le terme anglais d’origine est moins connoté iconographiquement, renvoyant simplement à un objet que l’on peut regarder. . pour victor burgin, la composition est « un moyen qui permet de retarder la prise en compte du cadre, et de cette autorité de l’altérité que celui-ci implique » (“looking at photographs”, tracks, vol. , n° , automne , p. ). . p. strand, cité par paul leipzig à propos de remarques faites par le photographe à la photo league dans les années , cité par anne tucker, “strand as mentor”, in stange, , p. . . p. strand, “photography and the other arts”, conférence prononcée au moma en , citée par estelle jussim, “praising humanity : strand’s aesthetic ideal”, in stange, , p. - . . « trois routes importantes s’ouvraient à moi. elles m’aidèrent à trouver mon chemin au milieu du fatras d’événements passionnants qui surgirent de l’armory show de . mon travail se développa en réponse à ) mon désir de comprendre l’évolution nouvelle de la peinture, ) mon désir de pouvoir exprimer certains des sentiments suscités en moi par new york, ville où je vivais, ) un dernier désir, aussi important que les deux précédents […] je voulais voir si je pouvais photographier les gens dans la rue sans qu’ils se rendent compte de la présence de l’appareil de photo. » (p. strand, entretien avec milton w. brown et robert rosenblum, , repris par milton brown, “the three roads”, in stange, , p. ). . anon., “the wanamaker spring exhibition”, american photography, avril , cit. in p. strand, op. cit., p. . . pour une analyse précise du film, voir jan-christopher h orak, “modernist perspectives and romantic impulses : manhatta”, in stange, , p. . celui-ci note que les plans se rapprochent fortement de la pratique photographique de strand puisque, à deux exceptions près, aucun d’entre eux ne dure plus de douze secondes. . p. strand, pour la sortie commerciale du film en sous le titre new york – the magnificent, cité par naomi rosenblum, “the early years”, in stange, , p. . . cf. michael fried, le modernisme de manet, paris, gallimard, (manet’s modernism : the face of painting in the s, chicago, university of chicago press, ). . sur cette photographie, dans cette même version renversée, voir le commentaire de steve yates, “the transition years : new mexico”, in stange, , p. - . yates signale notamment l’existence d’un deuxième tirage, dans l’autre sens. celui-ci a un effet fort différent de celui que je viens de décrire. . p. strand, “photography”, art. cit., p. - . . propos de p. strand cités par walter rosenblum, “a personal memoir”, in stange, , p. . . a. trachtenberg, “introduction”, in stange, , p. . . cf. hubert damisch : « […] car les principes qui président à la construction d’un appareil photographique – et d’abord à celle de la chambre noire – sont liés à une notion conventionnelle de l’espace et de l’objectivité, élaborée préalablement à l’invention de la photographie et à laquelle les photographes, dans leur immense majorité, n’ont fait que se conformer. » (“cinq notes pour une phénoménologie de l’image photographique”, , repris in la dénivelée, À l’épreuve de la photographie, paris, seuil, , p. ). . dans la mesure où son exposition personnelle de se tient exactement en même temps que la forum exhibition qui représente l’apogée du modernisme pictural aux États-unis. paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet . voir notamment cette déclaration : « l’existence même d’un médium est, après tout, sa justification absolue. si, comme le souhaitent tant de gens, il a besoin d’une justification, il ne sert à rien de comparer les potentialités [des différents médiums]. […] acceptons plutôt avec joie et gratitude tout ce qui permet à l’esprit de l’homme de chercher et d’atteindre une réalisation plus pleine et plus intense. » (p. strand, “photography”, art. cit., p. ). . voir ce qu’en dit a. trachtenberg : « l’idée de”straight photography” telle qu’elle est formulée par strand dans son article fameux […] ne requiert rien de moins qu’une purification, afin de préserver la pratique originelle, c’est-à-dire la production d’images dignes d’être considérées comme des œuvres d’art traditionnelles. […] dissociée d’autres pratiques de la photographie, la notion d’”objectivité” se traduit par ) la fin du tirage à la gomme, à l’huile, etc., et ) par une ouverture aux nouveaux moyens d’organisation de l’espace pictural (gros plan, abstraction) appris de la peinture moderne et sanctionnés par elle. » (trachtenberg, op. cit., p. ). je pense avoir montré qu’un élément essentiel est absent de cette liste : la frontalité plane. . la liste des mentions de picasso par strand dans ses entretiens tardifs se trouve dans p. strand, op. cit., p. , n° . À homer, , strand déclare à propos de de zayas : « quand il a ouvert sa galerie [en ], j’ai pris l’habitude d’y aller et de voir les choses qu’il accrochait et de le voir lui aussi. » (cit. in p. strand, op. cit., p. , n° ). . m. morris hambourg (p. strand, op. cit., p. ) écrit par exemple : « À la différence de steichen, qui refusait l’abstraction de picasso et de picabia, strand fit bon accueil au cubisme non seulement parce qu’il était plus jeune que steichen et qu’il n’avait pas encore trouvé son style propre, mais aussi parce qu’il ne se préoccupait pas de la question du style, sauf dans la mesure où un style pouvait transmettre des significations humaines essentielles. » cf. ibid., p. - . sur la confusion entre “abstraction”et toutes les formes de modernisme pictural dans le vocabulaire des critiques et artistes américains du début du xxe siècle, je me permets de renvoyer au premier chapitre de mon livre la peinture efficace, une histoire de l’abstraction aux États-unis ( - ), paris, gallimard, . . ces lettres sont écrites aux administrateurs du camera club de new york en pour éviter son éviction du club (soulevée par l’exposition d’une photographie de nu masculin frontal). elles sont citées par n. rosenblum d’après des archives conservées par w.rosenblum (“the early years”, in stange, , p. ). trachtenberg voit dans cette esthétisation le propre de la photographie de strand (cf. trachtenberg, op. cit., p. ). . expression tirée d’un article paru dans the new york sun du avril , repris in de zayas, op. cit., p. . . ces deux œuvres furent montrées soit à , chez stieglitz, en - , soit à la modern gallery, chez marius de zayas, en - . une reproduction du dessin de braque orne en outre la couverture du numéro de novembre de la revue . elles furent acquises par le grand collectionneur walter arensberg. elles sont aujourd’hui conservées au musée de philadelphie. . m. de zayas, in camera work, n° , , repris dans de zayas, op. cit., p. . le même principe est à l’œuvre chez braque, qui déclare par exemple : « je dis adieu au point de fuite. et, pour éviter une projection vers l’infini, j’interpose des plans superposés à une faible distance. pour faire comprendre que les choses sont l’une devant l’autre au lieu de se répartir dans l’espace. » ( in jacques lassaigne, “un entretien avec georges braque” [ ], xxe siècle, n° , décembre , p. ). . sur cet aspect chez braque, je me permets de renvoyer à mon texte “braque et la nature morte : tactilité littérale et virtuelle”, in georges braque, l’espace (cat.), le havre/paris, musée malraux et adam biro, , p. - . . p. strand, “photography and the new god”, broom, , repris dans lyons, op. cit., p. . . id. c’est moi qui souligne. paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet . cette exigence d’objectivité trouvera sa formulation la plus explicite dans un texte de : « le véritable artiste, comme le vrai scientifique, est un chercheur utilisant un matériel et des techniques afin de pénétrer la vérité et la signification profonde du monde […] ce qu’il crée, ou plutôt qu’il rapporte, est le résultat objectif de ses explorations. » (p. strand, “letter to the editor”, the photographic journal [londres], juillet , cité par n. rosenblum, “the early years”, in stange, , p. ). . edward weston : « l’image ainsi rapidement saisie possède certaines qualités qui lui donnent aussitôt une spécificité photographique. il y a d’abord l’incroyable précision de la définition, particulièrement dans la saisie des détails les plus fins ; il y a ensuite la séquence ininterrompue des gradations infiniment subtiles du noir au blanc » (“seeing photographically”, the complete photographer, , repris dans lyons, op. cit., p. ). il faut noter que la deuxième spécificité est aussi mise en valeur dans les textes de strand, mais pas dans ses photographies, qui souvent fonctionnent sur la disjonction, et la distinction, des éléments visuels. . cf. richard benson, “print making”, in stange, , p. - . benson revient également sur la légende de la perfection des tirages de strand. . robert adams, “strand’s love of country : a personal interpretation”, in stange, , p. (« dans le livre, il a travaillé de manière décalée, comme si ce décalage était un principe moral (et d’une certaine manière c’était le cas), mais habituellement à peine décalée. ») . p. strand, conférence à l’institute of design de chicago, juillet-août , citée par mike w eaver, “dynamic realist”, in maren stange ed., paul strand : essays on his life and work, new york, aperture, , p. . . claude roy et p. strand, la france de profil, new york, aperture, [lausanne, la guilde du livre, ], p. . . À propos de “mr bennett”, john szarkowski écrit (in “revelations”, the new york review of books, décembre ) : « on pourrait aussi considérer la superbe “blind woman” ( ) comme une étude pour “mr bennett” ( ). elle est suffisamment simple pour une affiche – c’est en fait un objet, un principe clair, quelque chose que nous pouvons saisir politiquement. nous pouvons la voir mais elle ne peut pas nous voir. mr bennett en revanche regarde à son tour, droit dans les yeux et l’âme du photographe intrusif et étranger, et dans nos yeux et notre âme également. et ce qu’ils voient et que nous voyons tous est terrifiant. » . en , il déclare à calvin tomkins (in “profiles : look to the things around you”, the new yorker, septembre , repris dans paul strand : sixty years of photographs, new york, aperture, , p. ) : « j’ai des moyens esthétiques à ma disposition, dont j’ai besoin pour pouvoir dire ce que je veux dire à propos des choses que je vois. et la chose que je vois se trouve à l’extérieur de moi – toujours. je ne cherche pas à décrire un état intérieur. » . il vaut la peine de signaler la contradiction apportée par allan sekula : « la photographie solitaire, sobrement légendée accrochée au mur de la galerie est le signe, avant tout, d’une aspiration à la condition à la fois esthétique et marchande de la peinture et de la sculpture modernes. dans ce vide blanc, on pense que la signification émerge entièrement de l’œuvre d’art elle-même. l’importance du cadre discursif est masquée, le contexte est caché. » (“dismantling modernism, reinventing photography : notes on the politics of representation”, in jerome l iebling ed., photography : current perspectives, rochester, the massachusetts review, , p. - ). paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet auteur Éric de chassey université de tours paul strand, frontalité et engagement Études photographiques, | juillet 	paul strand, frontalité et engagement pp - ( ).indd s en se s & s o ci et y reprints available directly from the publishers. photocopying permitted by license only © berg printed in the uk senses & society volume , issue pp – cross-talk between the senses david howes the handbook of multisensory processes, edited by gemma calvert, charles spence and barry e. stein, cambridge, ma: the mit press, , pages. hb - - - . $ . . visual music: synaesthesia in art and music since , with contributions by kerry brougher, olivia mattis, jeremy strick, ari wiseman and judith zilzcer, london: thames & hudson, , pages, with illustrations, in color. hb - - - . £ . . it is commonly assumed that each sense has its proper sphere (e.g. sight is concerned with color, hearing with sound and taste with flavor). this modular conception of the sensorium is reflected in the analytic orientation of most current research in the psychology of perception with its “sense-by-sense” – or, one sensory modality at a time – approach to the study of perceptual processes. in recent years, however, a more david howes is the author of sensual relations: engaging the senses in culture and social theory ( ). he is professor of anthropology at concordia university, montreal, and director of the concordia sensoria research team (http://alcor. concordia.ca/~senses), as well as a contributing editor to the senses and society. david.howes@sympatico.ca + s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews interactive, relational approach to the understanding of how the senses function has begun to take shape as a result of the growing body of evidence that points to the “multisensory organization” or “integration” of the brain. as calvert, spence and stein write in their introduction to the handbook of multisensory processes, even those experiences that at first may appear to be modality- specific are most likely to have been influenced by activity in other sensory modalities, despite our lack of awareness of such interactions . . . [to] fully appreciate the processes underlying much of sensory perception, we must understand not only how information from each sensory modality is transduced and decoded along the pathways primarily devoted to that sense, but also how this information is modulated by what is going on in the other sensory pathways. ( : xi-xii) examples of such modulation include the well-documented fact that, in noisy surroundings, speakers can be understood more easily if they can be seen as well as heard. this finding is readily explicable in terms of the redundancy hypothesis of classic information theory. however, the new multisensory psychology of perception probes deeper to explore the relationships among the component parts of a multisensory signal. for example, in the case of animal and human communication, redundant multisensory signals can be subclassified into those that produce responses in the receiver equivalent to the response to each unisensory component (equivalence) and those for which the response is superadditive – that is, which exceeds the response to the unisensory components (enhancement). multisensory signals may also be made up of stimuli which convey different (i.e. nonredundant) information, as in the case of the mcgurk effect, where seen lip-movements can alter which phoneme is heard for a particular sound (e.g., a sound of /ba/ tends to be perceived as /da/ when it is coupled with a visual lip movement associated with /ga/). in this instance, the response to the multisensory signal is new, qualitatively different from the response to either of the unisensory components, and thus demonstrates emergence. the relationship between the components of a multisensory signal may otherwise be one of dominance as in the ventriloquism effect (where the seen lip-movements of the dummy alter or “capture” the apparent location of the speech sounds) or concatenation (my term) as in the case of the reproductive behavior of male oriental fruit moths: such moths “need the visual presence of the female in combination with her pheromones before they will perform their most intricate courtship displays, and they need an additional tactile stimulus of a touch on the abdomen before they will copulate” (p. ). many of the chapters in the handbook use modern neuroimaging techniques to reveal the multiple sites of multisensory processing in the brain, including many regions long thought to be modality-specific s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews or “primary sensory” areas (as distinct from the so-called higher order “associative areas” traditionally assumed to be responsible for the formation of unified percepts out of the diversity of inputs). in addition to demonstrating the functional interdependence of the modalities, a number of chapters point to their functional equivalence. for example, it is now clear that sensory-specific areas can be “recruited” or “remapped” by other sensory-specific areas in situations of sensory deprivation or intensive perceptual training. thus, the visual cortex in blind individuals has been found to show activation in auditory tasks while the auditory cortex in deaf individuals can be activated by visual tasks. of note, the quality of sensation associated with activating the visual cortex in congenitally blind individuals, or the auditory cortex in congenitally deaf individuals, appears to derive from the nature of inputs. that is, visual inputs are perceived as visual even when auditory cortex is activated [in the case of the blind, while the reverse holds true in the case of the deaf] . . . furthermore, even in normal, nondeprived humans, there is evidence for extensive multisensory interactions whereby primary sensory areas of the cortex can be activated in a task- specific manner by stimuli of other modalities . . . common to these findings is the principle that inputs recruit pathways, cortical areas, and networks within and between areas that process the information, and the sensoriperceptual modality associated with the input is driven by the nature of the input rather than by the cortical area activated per se. (p. ) such evidence of adaptive processing, or “cross-modal plasticity,” underscores the importance of adopting a relational approach to the study of the sensorium in place of assuming that the senses are structurally and functionally distinct. other chapters explore such issues as whether the sensory integration involved in speech perception is fundamentally the same or different from other kinds of multisensory integration (the same); whether the senses are differentiated at birth and become coordinated through experience – the developmental integration hypothesis – or are relatively unified at birth and become differentiated through development – the developmental differentiation hypothesis (neither – the formation of percepts in early development involves the “joint action of developmental integration and differentiation processes” (p. )); and whether the phenomenon of synesthesia (i.e. the union or crossing of the senses, e.g. hearing colors, tasting shapes) might not provide a better model for conceptualizing perceptual processes than the conventional sense-by-sense approach that has dominated research on the senses and sensations to date. the condition of synesthesia is typically understood to be quite rare. the most commonly documented form, color-grapheme s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews synesthesia (in which written words or letters are perceived as having particular colors) occurs in one in , people. to limit synesthesia to a congenital condition, however, would be myopic. synesthetic connections can be learned. take the case of odor-taste synesthesia which, perhaps because it is such a common effect, has failed to attract much popular attention or scientific documentation. yet the evidence is clear: the majority of people appear to experience odor-taste synaesthesia. first, sweet is one of the most common descriptors applied to odors . . . [furthermore,] when smelling an odor, most people can more easily recognize a taste-like quality such as sweetness than more specific qualities such as strawberry- or banana-likeness. (p. ) when we speak of the odor of vanilla or strawberry as sweet are we speaking in metaphor rather than reporting an actual olfactory sensation? not according to stevenson and oakes: the central argument of [their] chapter is that, as a result of eating and drinking, patterns of retronasal odor stimulation co-occur with oral stimulation, notably of the taste receptors, so that a unitary percept is produced by a process of either within-event associative learning or by a simple encoding as one event. eating sweet vanilla-flavor ice cream will ensure that the retronasal odor of vanilla becomes associated with sweetness; on some later occasion the smell of vanilla will seem sweet, even if no conscious recollecton of eating ice cream comes to mind. (p. ) in the concluding chapter of the handbook, v.s. ramachandran et al. also reject what they call the “metaphor explanation” of synesthetic perception, and proffer a physiological explanation having to do with the “cross-activation of brain maps” in its place. such cross- activation may come about by two different mechanisms: ( ) cross-wiring between adjacent [brain] areas, either through an excess of anatomical connections or defective pruning, or ( ) excess activity in back-projections between successive stages in the hierarchy (caused by defective pruning or by disinhibition). (p. ) in the case of color-grapheme synesthesia – their chosen example – the brain areas corresponding to graphemes and colors are right next to each other in the fusiform gyrus, and the potential for excess cross-activation or “hyperconnectivity” as a result of some genetic mutation in those individuals who naturally experience this effect is therefore strongly indicated. ramachandran et al. conclude that s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews far from being a mere curiousity, synaesthesia deserves to be brought into mainstream neuroscience and cognitive psychology. indeed, [precisely because the neural basis of synaesthesia is beginning to be understood – unlike in the case of metaphor] it may provide a crucial insight into some of the most elusive questions about the mind, such as the neural substrate (and evolution) of metaphor, language and thought itself. (p. ) there is much to be said for ramachandran et al.’s “bottom- up” approach to the study of synesthesia, but i do not think the “top-down” approach, which would descend from the cultural (via the metaphorical) to the psychological to the physiological level of brain organization, should be dismissed out of hand. (in point of fact, owing to the selective focus of their academic discipline, neuropsychology, ramachandran et al. never ascend through what they call “the hierarchy” as far as the cultural level.) if we are to comprehend fully all this evidence of cross-talk between the senses, there needs to be more cross-talk between the disciplines, by which i mean the insights of anthropology and history into the cultural mediation of sensation must also form part of the conversation. as cultural psychiatrist laurence kirmayer observes concerning the hierarchical systems view of neural organization, contemporary cognitive neuroscience understands mind and experience as phenomena that emerge from neural networks at a certain level of complexity and organization. there is increasing recognition that this organization is not confined to the brain but also includes loops through the body and the environment, most crucially, through a social world that is culturally constructed. on this view, “mind” is located not in the brain but in the relationship of brain and body to the world (kirmayer, forthcoming). ideally, kirmayer goes on to state, “we want to be able to trace the causal links up and down this hierarchy in a seamless way,” but for this to come about neuropsychologists, historians and anthropologists will first have to overcome the selective focus of their respective disciplines and engage in more “joint action” research, as it were. imagine what a “cross-cultural handbook of multisensory pro- cesses” would look like. instead of presuming sensory processes to be confined to the brain, it would start with the investigation of the culturally patterned “loops” through the environment – that is, with the cultural modulation of perception. a “top-down” or culturally sensitive approach to, say, synesthetic perception would begin by providing an inventory of the cultural practices and technologies that s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews generate different sense ratios across different cultures and historical periods. for example, whether the incidence of color-grapheme synesthesia would be as high in an aural-oral society as it is in a visual-literate one, such as contemporary western society is a good empirical question. in the latter, words and letters are experienced as quiescent marks on paper or a computer screen, which renders them available for color-coding, whereas in the former words (being experienced aurally) might not tend to be seen so readily as they would be felt or smelled as well as heard. in my own ethnographic research in papua new guinea, i found evidence of audio-olfactory synesthesia. in many melanesian languages one speaks of “hearing an aroma” (and this association is carried over in pidgin english: “mi harim smel”). the reason for this could be that most communication takes place face-to-face (i.e. within olfactory range of the other) and odoriferous substances (e.g. the oil with which the body is anointed or chewed ginger) are used to augment the power of a person’s presence and words. this finding counters stevenson and boakes’ claim that “odors display taste properties but do not elicit auditory or visual sensations” (p. ). this claim is also countered by the evidence for a form of color-odor synesthesia reported by diana young among the anangu of australia’s western desert (see young ). starting with examples such as these, which, i would note, are practical (i.e. supported by cultural practices that form part of the “loop” through which all sensations must pass) as well as metaphorical, neuropsychologists could well be inspired to discover all sorts of heretofore unsuspected cross-linkages between the senses wherever they may be localized in the brain. this is a heady prospect, but it can only come about as a result of more cross-talk between the disciplines leading to the establishment of cultural neuropsychology as a recognized field of study. it bears noting that the same shift from a unisensory to a multisensory approach to the study of perception that pervades the handbook has been sweeping the humanities and social sciences in recent years (as observed in “introducing sensory studies” – the lead essay in the inaugural issue of the senses and society). this convergence or fusion of horizons gives me great hopes for the conversation envisioned here. furthermore, while i must confess to often feeling out of my depth reading the handbook of multisensory processes, i never ceased to marvel at the ingenuity of the experiments, or to admire the meticulousness of the reasoning involved in the interpretation of results in any of its fifty-four chapters. i would therefore recommend the handbook as essential reading for any scholar interested in exploring the varieties of sensory experience in history and across cultures on account of the multiple models and questions it suggests for further archival or ethnographic research. s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews visual music: synaesthesia in art and music since is a beautifully illustrated catalog that accompanied the exhibition by the same name at the museum of contemporary art, los angeles and the hirshorn museum and sculpture garden of the smithsonian institution in washington in . this groundbreaking study begins by presenting an “alternative history” of the abstract art of the past century by disclosing its debt to music. because of the selective (visual) focus of conventional art history, the development of abstraction is commonly told in terms of avant-garde artists seeking to produce a non-representational – or “pure” – art that would be “freed from imitative constraints,” without it being appreciated how much that movement was inspired and dependent in its formative stages on emulating the formal abstract structures of musical composition. music had long been considered the most spiritually exalting and purest form of art on account of its ethereality, nonobjectivity and emotivity (or direct appeal to the affects), and it was the idea of visual art aspiring to “the condition of music” – that is, of creating “music for the eyes” – that inspired many of the pioneers of abstraction on both sides of the atlantic, from wassily kandinsky and paul klee in europe to arthur dove and georgia o’keefe in america. the rhythmic interplay of geometry and color in kandinsky’s later paintings (e.g. fuga (fugue), ), and the synesthetic theory of painting he elaborated in on the spiritual in art, led one fellow artist to write “kandinsky is attempting to paint the color of sound” (p. ). klee, for his part, transformed polyphony into abstract pictorial form (e.g. static-dynamic gradation, ), while o’keefe records that the impetus behind her organic abstractions (e.g. blue and green music, ) came from attending an art class where students were required to draw while listening to music: “this gave me an idea that i was very interested to follow later – the idea that music could be translated into something for the eye” (p. ). the dream of the “unification of the arts” through “sensual compounding” which inspired these experiments in abstraction simultaneously exposed a major shortcoming intrinsic to the medium of painting: its immobility or static character. musical compositions, of course, unfold through time. “abstract film developed as if in direct response to this shortcoming,” the authors claim (p. ). the originators of abstract cinema, working in black and white, “elaborated sequences of geometric forms that moved across the screen and through time, as would a sequence of sounds,” and then, as technologies of color film and soundtracks developed, their successors, such as oskar fischinger, were able to bring color, form, and sound together to create extended composi- tions that bore occasional resemblance to the work of the earlier generations of abstract painters while taking full advantage of the crucial element of time and incorporating sound and music to create a fully synaesthetic experience. (p. ) s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews the most famous example of this genre is, of course, the disney studio animated motion picture fantasia ( ), in which fischinger had a hand. in addition to propelling the synchronization of the senses to new heights, fantasia signaled a fundamental change in the direction of visual music: the change “from an avant-garde practice toward a modern mass-cultural phenomenon” (p. ). the changeover in visual music from avant-garde practice to pop culture continued apace in the s and s with the phenomenon of the light show (e.g. the vortex concerts), which drew together a wide variety of practices – from performance art to scientific experiments, from coffeehouse jazz concerts to psychedelic drugs – to create an immersive visual and sound experience. the light show offered a neutral place in which high art and popular culture, abstraction and representation, the scientific and the spiritual, the electronic and natural, and the visual and aural could all be collaged together in a vast swirling eddy of overlapping sensations. it was the ultimate synaesthetic experience, one that attempted through the hallucinogenic to blur the distinction between sound and image, interior and exterior. (p. ) in their effort to trace the “successive unfolding” of the idea of visual music – from abstraction, to abstraction in motion, to total immersion – the contributors to the catalog also canvas many other artistic expressions and inventions besides those surveyed above, such as the color organ, optical printer, contemporary installation art and digital media, as well as diverse controversies (e.g. over the validity of the analogy between specific colors and specific musical notes or keys in the first place). the catalog is also crowned with a brilliant chapter on color music from a musical perspective, which reverses the drift of all the other chapters, and a very informative “chronology” that, by documenting the successive engagements with and elaborations of the notion of visual music on both sides of the atlantic (and from coast to coast in the united states), gives substance to the claim that this stylistic strain, while not the single mode through which music and the visual arts have interacted over the past century . . . is certainly the most consistent . . . continuing to find new arenas for aesthetic exploration even as other, more famous movements and styles [e.g. cubism through abstract expressionism] eventually faltered. its longevity can be explained above all by the fact that it required technology for its fulfillment. (p. ) while i am in deep sympathy with the first branch of this argument, i must register my dissent from the progressivist conclusion in the second branch to the effect that the promise of synesthesia s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews – the compounding of the senses leading to spiritual awakening as imagined by kandinsky – was “fulfilled” by technology – that is, by the synchronization of the senses in film and other so-called multi-media. for such media foregrounded certain sensory ratios – most notably the audio-visual – while screening out others and thus limited “mind” or consciousness in the very act of extending or projecting it outwards. the tradition of visual music could equally well be interpreted as involving a contraction of the synesthetic paradigm. there exist other sensory ratios than those hypostasized in the technological dynamo of our audio-visual civilization. at the same time, visual music does prove that the history of art (or of music) is best practiced with two senses, rather than one – and thus agrees with the central theoretical and methodological claims of the handbook of multisensory processes. notes . the ethnomusicologist steve feld once remarked to me that limiting synesthesia to those who are congenitally susceptible to this effect would be like restricting music to those with perfect pitch. it cannot be so confined. but to qualify this assertion, and anticipate my discussion of ramachandran’s position in what follows, let me note that i concur with ramachandran’s view that synesthesia is sensory or perceptual, not conceptual or metaphorical. it is not just another trope. however, by ignoring the practical (i.e. culturally patterned and learned) dimensions of synesthesia, it seems to me that ramachandran forecloses an important avenue of inquiry into the genesis of this effect at the level of the individual and its shaping or expression at the cultural level. . ramachandran et al. are not alone. there is but one reference in the whole handbook to cross-cultural variation in the modulation of perception: apparently, the mcgurk effect is significantly weaker in japanese than in american perceivers (p. ). . or even earlier periods of western culture. for example, a form of audio-grapheme synesthesia has been described for the renaissance: “in a person’s handwriting, erasmus claimed, he could hear that person’s very voice” (smith : – at ). . that is, proximity of brain areas would no longer be the determinative criterion (pace ramachandran et al.) -- as indeed it is not, given all the evidence of cross-modal activation, feed forward and back-projection processes that has begun to emerge. . a number of sensorially-minded anthropologists have already opened this conversation with neuropsychology and made significant headway exploring “the question of how far back into the genesis of bodily experience [or activation of brain areas] cultural worlds can reach” (kirmayer, forthcoming): most notably, hinton and hinton ( ), young ( ), and downey ( ). s en se s & s o ci et y book reviews . imagine how different the history of abstraction in art would have been had it started with des esseintes’ “mouth organ” (a collection of liqueurs each analogous to a musical note, which the protagonist of huysmans’ À rebours played upon his palette) in place of the color organ. this example is cited in visual music but dismissed as too “literal” (p. ). that audio-gustatory synesthesia can, in fact, form the basis of a highly abstract art is evidenced by the case of indian aesthetics and cosmology (see pinard ; schechner ). for a good overview of the full range of sensory combinations explored by western artists prior to the cinematic turn see the color of angels (classen ). references classen, constance. . the color of angels: cosmology, gender and the aesthetic imagination. london and new york: routledge. downey, greg. . “seeing with a ‘sideways glance’: visuomotor knowing and the plasticity of perception.” paper presented at the “ways of knowing” conference, st andrew’s university. hinton, devon and hinton, susan. . “panic disorder, somatiza- tion, and the new cross-cultural psychiatry: the seven bodies of a medical anthropology of panic” culture, medicine and psychiatry : – . kirmayer, laurence j. n.d. “on the cultural mediation of pain.” in s. coakley and k. shelemay (eds), pain and its transformations. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. forthcoming. pinard, sylvain. . “a taste of india: on the role of gustation in the hindu sensorium.” in david howes (ed.), the varieties of sensory experience. toronto: university of toronto press. schechner, richard. . “rasaesthetics.” the drama review ( ): – . smith, bruce r. . “listening to the wild blue yonder: the challenges of acoustic ecology.” in veit erlmann (ed.), hearing cultures: essays on sound, listening and modernity. oxford: berg. young, diana. . “the smell of greenness: cultural synaesthesia in the western desert.” etnofoor ( ): – . rethinking russolo tempo ( ) – © cambridge university press doi: . /s printed in the united kingdom rethinking russolo edward venn one of the more telling indicators of luigi russolo’s ( – ) anglo-american reception is his description in grove as an ‘italian inventor, painter and composer’. within this lurks the devaluation of his composing efforts in comparison to his work as the maker of inton- arumori (noise instruments), his authoring of new aesthetic ideas, and his activities as a painter. there is little, perhaps, to argue with in this assessment, for (somewhat ironically) russolo’s music of the future has been consigned irrevocably to the music of the past; raymond fearn has suggested that ‘the musical remnants from this period have remained to a large extent in the realm of musical archaeology’. the only material traces available for musical archaeologists are the opening seven bars of the score of il risveglio di una città (the awakening of the city; – ): the machines that were to play it were destroyed during the second world war. the loss of russolo’s compositions has inevitably distorted our understanding of his work and has served to throw attention onto those progressive, and sometimes speculative, theoretical and mechani- cal aspects of it that have survived in written accounts, at the expense of those elements that are of a more traditional or pragmatic nature. study of the remaining fragments of il risveglio di una città, leavened with necessary doses of circumspection and speculation, forms a vital and hitherto under-utilized component to any assessment of russolo’s career. together, the writings and music provide complementary exam- ples of the characteristic tension between the pull of tradition and the exhilarating opportunities of futurism in his work. � such tensions are present in russolo’s writings, which, due to the loss of virtually all of his music, form the foundation on which his reception has been built. for the most part, this reception has followed russolo’s lead in stressing the progressive (often futurist) elements that in practice involve the construction and use of the noise instruments. nevertheless, the writings do not quite succeed in concealing the debts russolo owes to certain traditional musical values, and the intermingling of these with his energetic prose reveals more of his compositional approach than he perhaps intended. p ho to : l u ig i r u ss ol o flora dennis, ‘luigi russolo’, the new grove dictionary of music and musicians ii ed. stanley sadie (london: macmillan, ), p. . anthony burton, in the oxford companion to music ed. alison latham, arranged the three professions thus: ‘composer, inventor and painter’ (oxford and new york: oxford university press, ), p. . russolo was a signatory of both the ‘manifesto of the futurist painters’ and ‘the technical manifesto of futurist painters’ (february and april respectively) and his work was included in a exhibition of futurist paintings in paris. raymond fearn, review of il suono veloce: futurismo e futurismi in musica by daniele lombardi, music and letters vol. no. (november ), p. . the extract was reproduced in in the magazine lacerba to illustrate russolo’s ideas for enharmonic notation, and has subsequently been reprinted on numerous occasions, includ- ing in the art of noises trans. barclay brown, pp. – . flora dennis lists a further three works by russolo plus incidental music: none of this is thought to have survived; ‘luigi russolo’, p. . core metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk provided by lancaster e-prints https://core.ac.uk/display/ ?utm_source=pdf&utm_medium=banner&utm_campaign=pdf-decoration-v rethinking russolo the emphasis on the visionary aspects of russolo’s work which informs barclay brown’s introduction to his translation of russolo’s writings are typical of the anglo-american reception. whilst noting that at the time of writing comparatively few people have actually read russolo’s essays, brown nevertheless draws attention to the significant place they occupy in th-century music. the writings include the ‘first expression’ of ‘[t]he doctrines of musique concrète’ and one can find aesthetic links with ‘such contemporary figures as pierre schaeffer and john cage’; in modified forms russolo’s ideas informed the work of ‘a number of movements and individuals’. his reputation as an inven- tor of noise machines ‘lingered on in paris long after his departure’ from that city, where he had accompanied avant-garde films using his rumorarmonio (noise harmonium). the writings themselves, and in particular ‘the art of noises: futurist manifesto’ ( ) share numerous correspondences with filippo tommaso marinetti’s ‘the founding and manifesto of futurism’, published in le figaro ( february ). these correspond- ences throw into sharp relief the blend of progressive and traditional thought in russolo’s work, and provide a counterbalance to the image of russolo depicted in brown’s work. comparing these two manifestos, we can observe that each invoke a like-minded group of artists, though in both only the author of the manifesto is a signatory. secondly, there is a strong whiff of the skin being sold before the bear is caught: both speak primarily of art that is to come, rather than describing art that is in existence. thirdly, and despite claims of self-renewing originality based on scientific discovery, the manifestos betray futurism’s links to the past whilst simultaneously trying to kick over its traces. for all of marinetti’s self-aggrandizing and violent rhetoric of renewal, the founding manifesto is rooted in ‘a tangled web of turn- of-the-century political, cultural and philosophical currents’. the influence of writers such as proudhon, bakunin, sorel and above all nietzsche inform – often in an idiosyncratic and distorted fashion – both its prose style and content. italian intellectuals such as giovanni papini, giuseppe prezzolini and argendo soffici criticised the futurists for their ‘lack of originality’ – though one wonders if this criticism was to some extent directed at marinetti’s lack either of acknowledgement of his sources or of his recognition of the similar themes articulated by his peers. on the surface, and in contradistinction to marinetti’s grounding in the intellectual and artistic climate from which his own manifesto sprung, luigi russolo’s manifesto ‘the art of noises’ ( ), seemed to owe little to his background as a painter. it is likely that marinetti’s linking of technology, machinery and music in an insert into balilla pratella’s ‘technical manifesto of futurist music’ ( ), along with marinetti’s example in general, stimulated russolo’s musical ideas. the themes of futurist art that can be detected in marinetti’s manifesto barclay brown, ‘introduction’, the art of noises trans. barclay brown (new york: pendragon press, ), pp. – . brown, ‘introduction’, p. . ibid. ibid, p. . caroline tisdall and angelo bozzolla, futurism (london: thames and hudson, ), p. . ibid., pp. – . jane rye, futurism (london: studio vista, ), p. . although not trained as a musician, russolo grew up in a musical family; see rodney j. payton, ‘the music of futurism: concerts and polemics’, the musical quarterly vol. , no. ( january ), pp. – . russolo claims that the music that was considered most successful was that that is most unconventional; one wonders if his claims of ‘knowing nothing’ were somewhat disingenuous, given his family background, cited in brown, ‘introduction’, p. . see brown, ‘introduction’, pp. – and payton pp. – . tempo recur in russolo’s. above all, one must place one’s faith in the future, rather than the past. instead of the safety of tradition, the futurist is to plunge joyfully into the unknown, embracing the machine age, raising the machine to the level of an artistic object, glorifying speed and dyna- mism, exalting violence and conflict, and exploring the relationship of all this to urban life. the goal is a mode of expression ‘flexible enough to express the range of experience open to man in the dawning century of speed, mobility and unprecedented scientific advance’. the realization of this new form of expression is a central theme of russolo’s writings. his anticipation of noise machines (the first of which was ready a month after the publication of the manifesto) genu- inely looks towards a musical future that only became commonplace from the s with the advent of musique concrète. as with all futurist manifestos, the past is recognized for its glories, but for russolo the con- cert hall is no longer to be a museum, nor the performer a curator: we futurists have all deeply loved and enjoyed the harmonies of the great masters. beethoven and wagner have stirred our nerves and hearts for many years. now we have had enough of them, and we delight much more in combining in our thoughts the noise of trams, of automobile engines, of carriages and brawling crowds, than in hearing again the “eroica” or the “pastorale”. the expansion of timbral resources – surely the most innovative aspect of russolo’s work – is to be accompanied by an expansion of pitch and rhythmic material: the octave is to be divided into quartertones (rather than semitones), this division enabling ‘dynamic continuity’; rhyth- mic counterpoint is to take advantage of the infinite ‘rhythmic motions of a noise’. russolo’s vision of music thus encompasses the scientific exploration of sound, the depiction of urban life, the possibilities of the machine age and the focus on dynamism that characterizes futurist art in general. in this respect, his work is overtly progressive. more traditional concerns inform the practicalities of compos- ing such music, which for russolo was essentially abstract rather than imitative. although many futurists prized extreme subjectivity, such abstraction was by no means uncommon in their art. in paintings such as his ‘iridescent interpretations’, for example, the artist giacomo balla drew on scientific analysis of light; we might assume from this that russolo was interested in a similar artistic response to the scientific properties of sound. he certainly provides sufficient observations about the nature of overtones in noise to suggest this is the case. on the other hand, russolo also discussed certain organizational principles – indeed, he was at pains to stress the ‘logic’ of his music – that were of a more traditional nature, and which also might deserve the epithet abstract. when searching for further evidence that might help pin down what russolo meant by ‘abstraction’, a useful point of departure might be the observation that marinetti’s liberation of sounds from syntax and gram- mar was an inspiration for russolo. a similar divorce of sound from tisdall and bozzolla, p. . luigi russolo, ‘the art of noises: futurist manifesto’, in the art of noise, p. (original emphasis). luigi russolo, ‘enharmonic notation’, in the art of noise, p. russolo, ‘the art of noises’, p. . see brown, ‘introduction’, pp. and . it should be noted that this attracted criticism from other futurists such as umberto boccioni, who complained as early as that balla’s ‘universe does not throb’. (cited in tisdall and bozzolla, p. .) see for instance, ‘physical principles and practical possibilities’, the art of noises, pp. – . if my inference is true, then we find russolo once again through his scientific study of sound anticipating subsequent th-century developments. russolo, ‘polemics, battles, and the first performances of the noise instruments’, the art of noises, p. . rethinking russolo imitative associations in russolo’s music may well stem from marinetti’s example, but this neither implies nor denies the existence of a (musical) grammar as an organizational principle. russolo did not in fact discuss musical syntax and grammar as such, save to suggest that noise might be regulated by harmonic and rhythmic means, giving us justifiable grounds for supposing that these elements were decisive in the shaping of his music, and in particular the principle of ‘dynamic continuity’. that pitch is of vital importance to his art is again apparent from a pas- sage in ‘the orchestra of noise instruments’, in which he discusses accuracy of intonation in the same context as ‘musicality’, a somewhat traditional concept and a possible signal that russolo regards his work on some level as being evolutionary rather than revolutionary. in this light, we might view russolo’s ‘emancipation of timbre’ in the same way as schoenberg’s ‘emancipation of dissonance’, in that it renews, rather than replaces, the musical resources available to the composer. given the available evidence, the preceding comments and conclu- sions might need to be taken with a pinch of salt. however, it is clear that russolo’s desire for practicality in both the notation and per- formance of his works meant that he blended old and new musical symbols in his scores (such as the use of the -line stave and traditional time-signatures with certain graphical representations) along with traditional terminology. a similar pragmatism informs the practice of futurist composers of using the intonarumori alongside standard orchestral instruments. russolo notes that he added timpani, a sistrum and a xylophone to his orchestra of noise instruments; pratella com- bined conventional and unconventional instruments in his opera eroe. nevertheless, here at least russolo is clear that his preference is for his new instruments on their own. it is impossible to be sure from the writings if such compromises were made in the spirit of introducing gradually the novel aspects of futurist music, as russolo would have us believe, or if they were indica- tive of a compositional aesthetic less radical than one might otherwise have thought. nevertheless, the fact that such compromises exist at all should alert us to the possibility that russolo’s compositions may also have displayed an underlying pragmatism, if not conservatism, that served to organize (or even constrain) the musical material. � although it is dangerous to assume that there is necessarily a unity between a composer’s aesthetic writings and compositional out- put, there is evidence in the first seven bars of il risveglio that russolo in a similar manner, the absence of traditional instruments removes particular expressive and associative connotations. alexander goehr noted how for the futurists ‘flutes or ket- tle drums themselves symbolise a culture’, and ‘traditional instruments were remnants of an ancient civilisation which had to be destroyed’. in this respect, the futurists provided an example for stravinsky and varèse. see ‘the survival of the symphony. . licence for licence’, the listener ( december ): p. . with little supporting evidence from russolo’s writings, brown suggests in his ‘introduction’ (p. ) with reference to a review of il risveglio in the pall mall gazette, that there may well be some formal principles underpin- ning the music. in ‘the art of noises: futurist manifesto’, p. . the art of noises, p. . see ‘enharmonic notation’, p. – . the use of the word ‘theme’ in the article ‘the orchestra of noise instruments’ may have been metaphorical, but it may also have signalled that traditional musical methods of con- struction inform russolo’s practice, p. . russolo, ‘the orchestra of noise instruments’, p. . ibid. one might note a similar compromise in the first wave of futurist painting, which relied on recent trends (divisionism and cubism) for its technical basis. tempo practised what he preached. that is to say, these bars provide further confirmation that russolo is less of a revolutionary than might be imag- ined, and this consistency enables the music to be admitted as evidence when considering russolo’s output as a whole. before turning to what we know of russolo’s music, what of the music that has not survived? brown omits from his account the direct contact russolo’s contemporaries had with both the noise instruments and the music written for them. stravinsky had met russolo and heard his music on a trip to milan in ; also present on this occasion were diaghilev and prokofiev. six years later, three futurist concerts in paris were to have ‘a considerable impact […] on casella, falla, honegger, milhaud, ravel and stravinsky’, and a demonstration of the rumorarmonio was introduced by varèse. accounts of the event suggest that, at best, the potential of the instruments was recognized, but their current state of development, and the music that was written for them, was considered less impressive. example one presents the surviving bars, transcribed into standard notation. (at the start of each system are the ranges of each instrument as given by russolo, who claims that these were the ranges employed in performances of il risvelgio.) barclay brown has described these bars as follows: these two pages display the constant use of drones and glissandos. although the individual entrances of the instruments and the presence of contrary motion in the parts give the impression of polyphony, the music has a clearly harmonic intent. the first of the two pages seems to be loosely based on a chord interval- lically constructed like a dominant seventh with the root of g. all but the last of these features can be discerned in ex. . the pedal points provided by the ronzatori (low hummer) suggest i–v–vi in e minor, though in practice the language is more ambiguous than that. the opening leans first towards an enharmonically-spelt dominant seventh on c-natural and then to a half-diminished chord on c-sharp. bars three and four combine a sustained perfect fifth on b with mov- ing material that affirms e as a tonic. the extract ends with a sustained augmented chord on c, first anticipated in passing in bar . the use of quarter-tones at the very end, in a sort of written out glissando, falls far short of the brave new world of pitch resources described by the composer. rhythmically, the passage is far more straightforward. the pedal points establish a regular harmonic rhythm; motion above this conforms to a regular simple triple metre. this is true also for the glis- sandi that are initiated in the second bar and which become increasingly important as the extract progresses: the crotchet pulse regulates the beginnings, endings, peaks and troughs of all of the glissandi. such omissions are characteristic of brown’s introduction: see john c. g. waterhouse, [review of the art of noises], music & letters vol. , no. ( jul., ): . payton, . dennis, . waterhouse, russolo, ‘the noise instruments’, in the art of noise, . however, as can be seen in ex. , there are numerous instances of the work going beyond the notional limits of the instru- ments. this fragment was recorded in using reconstructions of russolo’s instruments. the recording itself is but seconds long; there are also demonstrations of each of the instruments. some issues of the recording distinguish between the work and the samples of the intonarumori (for instance, musica futurista: the art of noises ); others, such as futurism and dada reviewed (ltmcd ) run all the tracks together, creating a misleading impression of the work and its content. barclay brown, ‘the noise instruments of luigi russolo’, perspectives of new music vol. , no. / (autumn, – summer, ), . ‘the conquest of enharmonicism’, the art of noises, pp. – . rethinking russolo if pitch and rhythm provide the logic underpinning russolo’s music, what organizational principles might we infer from this passage? the harmonic language as notated, considered independently from timbre, shows an awareness of contemporary developments in the field, balanc- ing impressionistic sonorities with weakly-directed tonal motion. this tonal motion, coupled with the regularity of harmonic rhythm and example tempo measured crotchet pulse, provides a solid, if routine framework. giving russolo the benefit of the doubt, one might assume that this framework was yet another pragmatic device, one that gave musicians unused to the intonarumori something familiar to work with. it is likely, however, despite russolo’s claim that the noise instruments have amongst the example continued rethinking russolo numerous overtones a clearly defined primary pitch, that the result- ing harmonies would have been inaudible, and any notional pragmatic function that they may have had would have been lost. certainly, none of the accounts of russolo’s concerts discuss the harmonic language, and nor can it be heard in reconstructions of these bars. as with russolo’s relatively simplistic approach to harmony, his use of the intonarumori lacks a deft touch. the impression is that the com- poser is over-eager to show off his creations. within the first six bars, he deploys all of his available resources: all but one of the instruments contributes to the tutti in bar , and only the ronzatori do not make use of their ability to glissando. clearly, the city is waking quickly! unfortunately, it is likely that the rush to incorporate everything would render indistinct the timbral variety at his disposal. a similar argument regarding the inaudibility of rhythms can be made, for the noise machines set up their own internal rhythms. in this respect, the timbre of the noise instruments serves to mask the musi- cally unadventurous material in much the same way the futurists such as marinetti and russolo cover their own aesthetic debts to the past in their otherwise progressive writings. the degree to which these debts are covered can be discerned in mark radice’s analysis of these bars. although he doesn’t use the term ‘dynamic continuity’ in this context, radice’s sympathetic reading of the work suggests how russolo’s expressive goal might have been realized: in traditional western art music, vertical sonorities are arranged as a progres- sion of chords consisting of identifiable intervals invariably based upon the presumption that the half step in some way represents the smallest, indivis- ible sub-atomic particle. russolo’s conception of futurist music eliminates such “progressions” and substitutes instead a continuous “transformation” of vertical sonorities. […] russolo’s new notation does indeed facilitate correspondingly new musical ideas, particularly insofar as transformations of vertical sonorities are shown in what we might call analogue fashion. since russolo’s time, important compositions employing transformations rather than progressions have appeared – bartók’s music for string instruments, percussion and celesta ( ) and penderecki’s threnody for the victims of hiroshima ( ) are two well-known examples. […] unfortunately, music theory has not kept pace with musical practice, and, as yet, there is no system for discussing vertical sonorities incorporating microtones. as i have shown, the musical language is not as unorthodox as radice would have us believe; the glissandi and microtones are essentially sur- face decorations and the transformations of vertical sonorities owe as much to late-romantic parsimonious voice-leading as it does to proto- bartókian principles (note, for example, the chromatic shifts in bars and ; the augmented chord on c is formed by raising the third and fifth of the ‘tonic’ e minor chord). at this early stage of its development, dynamic continuity seems to have fallen far short of the futurist aims of ‘speed, mobility and unprecedented scientific advance’. the reasons for this, i contend, are twofold. firstly, russolo’s reliance on traditional structuring principles, whether for pragmatic purposes or not, serves to inhibit the musical flow; nor do these principles provide an alterna- tive means of realizing a new form of musical expression. secondly, russolo’s use of traditional devices leaves him open to traditional criti- cism, and these bars would suggest that he is not a particularly inspired composer (hardly a surprising conclusion, given his background). ‘the art of noises: futurist manifesto’, p. . see n. . ‘the art of noises: futurist manifesto’, p. . mark a. radice, ‘“futurismo”: its origins, context, repertory, and influence’, the musical quarterly vol. , no. ( ), pp. and . tempo � one should perhaps not read too much into these opening bars, for they represent russolo’s earliest attempts at deploying the new resources at his disposal. furthermore, by basing both his notation and his organi- zational principles on traditional models, he makes the learning process easier for performers schooled in such models. however, the traditional basis of these bars should also serve to limit readings of his work that overemphasize the progressive aspects. indeed, throughout his sur- viving literary output, and exemplified by il risveglio, we find russolo building on the past, rather than sweeping it aside with the new as the founding manifesto of futurism confidently proclaims should be the model. nevertheless, if one is to attempt an evaluation of russolo’s musical career, then these few bars, rescued and reconstituted by musico-archae- ology, become significant. russolo’s reception has seldom been based on a close reading of his music, and doing so provides interesting par- allels with his theoretical and mechanical work, whilst highlighting certain musical weaknesses which compromise his endeavours. in this light, flora dennis’s suggestion that russolo was an inventor first and composer third has more than a ring of truth about it; russolo’s relega- tion to an interesting footnote in music history is perhaps deserved. bibliography balla, giacomo; carrà, carlo; marinetti, filippo tommaso, russolo, luigi; severini, gino, the technical manifesto of futurist painting, . brown, barclay, ‘the noise instruments of luigi russolo’, perspectives of new music vol. , no. / (autumn, – summer, ), pp. – . burton, anthony, ‘luigi russolo’ in the oxford companion to music ed. alison latham (oxford and new york: oxford university press, ), pp. – . dennis, flora, ‘luigi russolo’ in the new grove dictionary of music and musicians nd edition., vol. ed. stanley sadie (london: macmillan, ), pp. – . fearn, raymond, [review of il suono veloce: futurismo e futurismi in musica by daniele lombardi], music and letters vol no. (november ), pp. – . goehr, alexander, ‘the survival of the symphony. . licence for licence’, listener ( december) pp. – . marinetti, filippo tommaso, the founding and manifesto of futurism, . payton, rodney j., ‘the music of futurism: concerts and polemics’, the musical quarterly vol. , no. ( jan. ), pp. – . radice, mark a., ‘“futurismo”: its origins, context, repertory, and influence’, the musical quarterly vol. , no. ( ), pp. – . russolo, luigi, the art of noises trans. barclay brown (new york: pendragon press, ). rye, jane, futurism (london: studio vista, ). tisdall, caroline and bozzolla, angelo, futurism (london: thames and hudson, ). waterhouse, john c. g., [review of the art of noises], music & letters vol. , no. ( july, ), pp. – . [pdf] sigmakb: multiple probabilistic knowledge base fusion | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / . corpus id: sigmakb: multiple probabilistic knowledge base fusion @article{rodrguez sigmakbmp, title={sigmakb: multiple probabilistic knowledge base fusion}, author={m. e. rodr{\'i}guez and s. goldberg and d. wang}, journal={proc. vldb endow.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	m. e. rodríguez, s. goldberg, d. wang 	published 	computer science 	proc. vldb endow. the interest in integrating web-scale knowledge bases (kbs) has intensified in the last several years. research has focused on knowledge base completion between two kbs with complementary information, lacking any notion of uncertainty or method of handling conflicting information. we present sigmakb, a knowledge base system that utilizes consensus maximization fusion and user feedback to integrate and improve the query results of a total of kbs. this paper presents the architecture and… expand view via publisher vldb.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations methods citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper 	 figure 	 table 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure view all figures & tables 	knowledge base 	expectation–maximization algorithm citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency query answering over uncertain rdf knowledge bases: explain and obviate unsuccessful query results 	i. dellal, s. jean, a. hadjali, b. chardin, mickaël baron 	computer science 	knowledge and information systems 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed university of 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datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani locvs amŒnvs , - resum l’obra de l’escultor gironí fidel aguilar ( - ), tot i la seva escassetat i fragilitat, sorprèn per, entre altres, la madu- resa assolida i les extraordinàries afinitats que el seu treball presenta amb el d’alguns dels millors artistes europeus del seu temps. en aquest article s’exploren precisament els punts comuns i les relacions amb l’obra de tres artistes ben concrets: elie nadelman ( - ), celso lagar ( - ) i amedeo modigliani ( - ). en els primers apartats de l’arti- cle es revisen els possibles punts de contacte o d’influència directa que van poder permetre que l’escultor gironí conegués l’obra dels altres tres artistes, ja sigui a partir de contactes personals, de converses amb terceres persones o bé a partir de reproduccions en revistes o diaris. tot seguit s’analitzen els conceptes estètics comuns entre els seus treballs respectius, que s’articulen principalment en la tria de materials, la iconografia i l’interès comú pel primitivisme i el classicisme. finalment es valoren algunes de les connexions formals concretes que es poden detectar en les escultures, els dibuixos i les pintures realitzats per aquests artistes, que s’expliquen precisament a partir de les afinitats conceptuals esmentades. la comparació entre les obres respectives ens porta a concloure que és necessari estudiar el treball d’aguilar en un marc més ampli que el del noucentisme que normalment l’ha acollit, perquè alguns dels seus trets tenen més a veure, per exemple, amb una anticipació de l’art-déco. paraules clau: fidel aguilar; elie nadelman; celso lagar; amedeo modigliani; escultura; noucentisme; primitivisme; art modern abstract fidel aguilar and the european art of his time: elie nadelman, celso lagar and amedeo modigliani despite its scarcity and fragility, the work of the catalan sculptor fidel aguilar ( - ) is surprising for, among others, the maturity he achieved and the extraordinary affinities that his work shares with that of some of the best eu- ropean artists of his time. this article explores the aspects and relations his work has in common with that of three well- known artists: elie nadelman ( - ), celso lagar ( - ) and amedeo modigliani ( - ). in the first part of the article, we review the possible contacts or direct influences that allowed the sculptor from girona to know the work of the other three artists, either from personal contacts, from conversations with third parties, or from repro- ductions in magazines or newspapers. we then study the common aesthetic concepts between their respective works, which are mainly related to the selection of materials, the iconography and their common interest in primitivism and classicism. finally, we evaluate some of the specific formal connections that can be detected in the sculptures, drawings and paintings made by these artists, which are explained precisely from the aforementioned conceptual affinities. the comparison between the respective works of these artists leads us to conclude that it is necessary to study the work of aguilar in a broader framework than that provided by noucentisme, because some of its features have more to do with, for example, an anticipation of art deco. keywords: fidel aguilar; elie nadelman; celso lagar; amedeo modigliani; sculpture; noucentisme; primitivism; modern art fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani maria lluïsa faxedas brujats universitat de girona. departament d’història i història de l’art mlluisa.faxedas@udg.edu recepció: / / , acceptació: / / , publicació: / / https://doi.org/ . /rev/locus. locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats la completíssima exposició titulada «un meteorit fugaç: fidel aguilar ( - )», que va commemorar el cente- nari de la mort de l’escultor gironí i que va ser comissariada per eva vàzquez , ens va oferir la possibilitat excepcional de contemplar i estudiar la pràctica totalitat de l’obra artística conservada d’aquest autor, que malauradament, degut a la seva mort massa prematura, és escassa. aquesta revisió va fer ressorgir algunes preguntes que poc o molt s’han anat plantejant des de la mort de l’artista, una de les més interessants de les quals és, possiblement, com és que l’obra d’aguilar, que no va arribar a sortir mai de catalunya i amb prou feines de girona, comparteix tants elements pel que fa als seus temes i formes amb la d’alguns dels seus coetanis europeus més reco- neguts. si hi ha algun element que sorprèn de les seves escultures és l’extraordinària maduresa formal i conceptual que descobrim en algunes de les seves peces escultòriques més significa- tives, tenint en compte, sobretot, la joventut i l’aïllament d’aquest artista respecte als corrents artístics nacionals, i sobretot internacionals. en un article anterior, vàzquez, que no dubtava a qualificar aguilar de modern, ja havia proposat una sèrie d’escultors amb l’obra dels quals les seves creacions mantenen proximitats certament significatives: picasso, brancusi i maillol, entre d’altres . en el catàleg de l’exposició esmentada se citen els noms de molts altres creadors amb els quals l’obra d’aguilar estableix connexions ben evidents . en aquest article em proposo revisar la se- va relació amb tres artistes concrets, l’obra dels quals ofereix, al meu entendre, punts de contacte interessants i suggeridors amb la d’aguilar, i que pogueren ser, en un moment donat, una referèn- cia o fins i tot una influència per ell. es tracta de l’escultor d’origen polonès elie nadelman ( - ) i el pintor i escultor italià amedeo modigliani ( - ), a l’obra dels quals agui- lar va poder accedir, o bé a través de la premsa i les revistes, o bé a través de terceres persones que l’haurien pogut conèixer directament. a aquests dos artistes cal afegir-hi el pintor salmantí celso lagar ( - ), a qui aguilar sí que va poder tractar personalment; per aquest motiu la seva possible influència podria ser, doncs, més directa. tot i que a la primera part de l’article he provat de documentar amb detall les possibles vies d’accés d’aguilar a l’obra d’aquests autors, cal destacar que l’objectiu no és tant el d’intentar establir l’existència de contactes o d’influències directes, que probablement són impossibles de confirmar, sinó més aviat el de suggerir afinitats i coincidèn- cies estètiques que ens poden ajudar a considerar aguilar, malgrat la seva joventut i el seu isola- ment, com algú absolutament capaç de captar i de treballar amb els mateixos principis, intuïcions i idees artístiques d’alguns dels seus coetanis més reconeguts. finalment, cal dir que, tot i que en aquest article m’he centrat en la figura i en l’obra d’aguilar, algunes de les ressonàncies que esmen- tarem s’estenen també, de fet, al conjunt de l’es- cultura noucentista catalana de la seva generació , en l’estudi de la qual és possible que la influència d’aquests artistes hagi estat poc considerada. elie nadelman a barcelona l’escultor elie nadelman fou una de les figures més significatives en els cercles avantguardistes del parís dels primers anys del segle xx, malgrat que avui el seu nom i la seva obra hagin caigut en un cert oblit. nascut a varsòvia el , nadel- man va marxar primer a munic, el , i mesos locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani després a parís, on es va quedar fins al . tot just començada la primera guerra mundial va viatjar als estats units. malgrat que pensava que seria una estada temporal, va acabar convertint-se en permanent, fins al punt que es va nacionalitzar com a ciutadà nord-americà el . va morir a riverdale, nova york, el . durant els seus anys parisencs d’abans de la guerra, nadelman es va esforçar, com molts dels seus col·legues, a ela- borar un llenguatge escultòric propi que fugís de la influència allargassada de rodin, la figura més destacada, sense cap mena de dubte, de l’escultu- ra de l’època ; una influència que és perceptible en les primeres obres de nadelman, però de la qual va aconseguir escapar gràcies al seu recurs a la linealitat i a una certa recuperació de determi- nats elements classicistes, com veurem. a parís, nadelman va ser un habitual del saló dels germans stein, ja que leo fou un dels seus primers col·leccionistes i un gran amic seu, i es va relacionar amb totes les figures clau de l’avantguarda, fins i tot picasso, que va visitar el seu estudi com a mínim una vegada . més tard nadelman diria que, d’aquesta visita, picasso, que hi havia vist una escultura titulada cap, de , realitzada només amb volums còncaus i convexos, n’hauria tret la inspiració per crear la seva obra cubista, particularment escultures com ara el cap de fernande olivier, de . també va insistir diverses vegades en la precedència de la seva obra respecte al cubisme, afirmant que era ell qui havia descobert en primer lloc la for- ma abstracta . malgrat que la seva reivindicació pugui semblar exagerada, ja que picasso i braque experimentaren amb els principis cubistes ja des de , sí que cal reconèixer que, certament, nadelman va treballar en la línia d’una escultu- ra en què la dissecció de la massa en plans que interseccionaven avançava decididament cap a l’abstracció abans que ho fes cap altre autor. en tot cas, entre i , nadelman va viure alguns anys d’èxit en què va participar en diversos salons i va exposar individualment en galeries importants, com ara la parisenca dru- et (el i el ) (figura ) o la londinenca paterson ( ), amb força succés comercial i crític. cal tenir present que per als escultors fer- se un lloc als ulls del públic en aquest període era més difícil encara que per als pintors (les expo- sicions individuals d’escultors importants que es van presentar en galeries parisenques entre i no arriben a la desena ). la reputació de nadelman va quedar ben establerta, doncs, en aquests anys: quan andré salmon va escriure la seva obra la jeune esculture française (llibre redactat abans de la primera guerra mundial i publicat l’any sense modificacions ni actu- alitzacions) li va dedicar un capítol sencer, titulat «humanisme», i el va situar, juntament amb maillol i el mateix picasso, al capdavant de l’es- cultura contemporània, que tanmateix, segons salmon, oferia un panorama més aviat pobre . figura . exposició de nadelman a la galerie druet, . jerome robbins dance division, the new york public library for the performing arts, astor, lenox and tilden foundations. locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats salmon qualifica l’obra de nadelman de potser excessivament cerebral o teòrica, més fàcil de percebre primer per la intel·ligència que per les sensacions, i hi adverteix un cert element primi- tivista: «doué de l’application de l’artisan savant, artiste par la volonté lointaine et jamais immobi- lisée tandis que la main s’applique, si elie nadel- mann est grec l’athena vers laquelle il tourne ses regards est, assurément, l’athena d’egine» . de fet, nadelman, i en paral·lel al seu treball més abstracte o formalista , havia començat a revisitar el classicisme en la seva escultura ja a partir de , tal com mostra per exemple la seva figura femenina dempeus (gertrude stein) (figura ), que reprèn una antiga iconografia del cos femení actualitzada mitjançant una estilit- zació molt característica de l’autor basada en la línia corba . nadelman no és pas l’únic d’en- tre els escultors del moment que cercarà el seu camí personal en una revisió i en una relectura de l’art clàssic: maillol o bourdelle en són uns altres exemples, cadascú mitjançant estratègies diferents . per molts dels escultors instal·lats a parís en aquell moment, la nova mirada vers el classicisme no era només una manera d’allu- nyar-se clarament de la omnipresent influència rodiniana, sinó també de trobar «a new, classical language appropriate to the modern, internatio- nal community in which they lived» . l’estra- tègia de nadelman passa per portar les formes clàssiques a una simplificació formal extrema, quasi abstracta, que tanmateix manté una gràcia elegant: «ces références [clàssiques] lui permet- tent cependant de perpétrer la tradition et sur- tout de l’enrichir car nadelman ne s’en tient pas aux formules grecques, il suggère le mouvement, l’élan, le dynamisme, par de séduisantes lignes fluides et les arabesques de l’art nouveau» . aquesta insistència en la revisió dels models grecs, tanmateix, que com hem dit convivia amb les seves peces més abstractes, no va ser del tot entesa i hauria contribuït progressivament a ar- raconar nadelman de les principals valoracions històriques i crítiques de l’art modern, tot i que sens dubte va ajudar a fer-lo més interessant pels espectadors catalans que el descobririen el , en ple apogeu de l’estètica noucentista. en efecte, nadelman mai va deixar de relaci- onar-se amb la important i activa colònia d’artis- tes polonesos que es movia al parís de l’època , a la qual pertanyien també, entre d’altres, tres dels crítics d’art més actius en la defensa de les avantguardes, com ara guillaume apollinaire, adolphe basler i el propi salmon, tots els quals escriurien sobre el seu treball. per això no ens ha d’estranyar que quan el galerista català josep dalmau va decidir organitzar una exposició d’ar- tistes polonesos, celebrada entre el de maig i finals de juny de i encapçalada per mela mutermilch, nadelman en fos un dels partici- pants destacats . mutermilch ja era coneguda del públic barceloní perquè havia fet una primera ex- posició personal a can dalmau l’any anterior, i va ser tan ben acollida que no va dubtar a tornar-hi l’any següent, aquesta vegada acompanyada d’al- gunes de les personalitats artístiques més relle- vants del seu entorn artístic parisenc . per una carta enviada per dalmau a muter el de gener de deduïm que el galerista català ja coneixia nadelman, probablement de la seva visita ante- rior a parís, ja que el titlla de «bon cher ami» . la mostra, anomenada «exposició d’art po- lonès: grupu d’artistes polonesos residents a parís», va ser tot un esdeveniment a la tempora- da artística catalana, com va recollir àmpliament la premsa de l’època . s’hi van presentar quinze figura . elie nadelman, figura femenina dempeus (gertrude stein), c. . bronze, , × , × , cm. whitney museum of american art, nova york; donació del llegat d’elie nadelman . locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani creadors i un total de cent trenta-sis obres . tot i que muter era l’artista central de l’exposició, com revela el seu posicionament privilegiat al ca- tàleg, nadelman fou, amb diferència, el més ben representat. en concret, s’hi van exposar quaran- ta-dues peces seves, entre les quals hi havia dos caps en marbre (nocturn i la gràcia), un cap en bronze (amazona), una estàtua en bronze (ve- nus) i una estatueta en guix (ballarina), que foren les úniques escultures de l’exposició; la resta eren dibuixos. de les escultures, en podem identificar amb precisió el cap en marbre titulat nocturn , reproduït al catàleg (figura ). així mateix, l’arti- cle de folch i torres a la veu de catalunya ana- va il·lustrat amb una fotografia d’amazona . val a dir que, precisament amb l’excepció de noc- turn, que va aparèixer amb aquest nom en altres exposicions, nadelman normalment no titulava específicament les seves obres, i quasi totes por- ten noms molt genèrics, com ara cap de dona o nu femení dempeus. batejar-los amb aquests títols tan concrets fou possiblement una estratè- gia pensada per a aquesta exposició. així mateix, les peces triades per ser mostrades a barcelona pertanyen clarament a la seva línia més classicis- ta, que segurament va pensar que podria ser més fàcilment assimilable pel públic català. en refe- rència als dibuixos, cal fer notar que aquest era un mitjà expressiu de gran importància per na- delman, que el va cultivar al llarg de tota la seva vida. dos anys més tard, el , en va publicar una selecció d’una cinquantena a parís sota el títol de vers l’unité plastique (que reeditaria més tard a nova york). els títols dels que va exposar a barcelona no ens permeten identificar-los cla- rament: dels que indiquen un tema concret, setze són caps, i nou, nus, mentre que la resta es titulen simplement estudi. en qualsevol cas sembla clar que, segons el criteri dels historiadors, és entre els seus dibuixos d’abans de on precisament podem trobar els millors exemples de les seves qualitats com a artista gràfic i on es fan més evi- dents les seves capacitats de simplificació formal, fins arribar gairebé al límit de l’abstracció . per tal de reforçar la importància de l’ex- posició, el de juny mela muter i el seu marit michel, juntament amb nadelman, léopold gottlieb i witold gordon, van arribar a barce- lona, on el dia van ser objecte d’una recepció a les mateixes galeries dalmau, i el dia michel va oferir una conferència pública . la presència dels artistes a la ciutat va reforçar l’impacte posi- tiu de l’exposició i en va augmentar les referènci- es a la premsa, que va fer un ampli seguiment dels diversos actes als quals van assistir . la recepció crítica més especialitzada també va ser molt po- sitiva en termes generals, i en totes les referències s’hi esmenta el nom de nadelman com un dels participants destacats en l’exposició. ja abans de la seva inauguració trobem, a la veu de catalu- nya, un article entusiasta que augura que aquesta «farà època en els anals de la nostra vida artística, ja que de sa visita se’n recull una sensació d’art intensíssima» . l’àmplia crítica de folch i torres es publica el de maig a tota pàgina i amb cinc il·lustracions d’obres de l’exposició; una de les quals, com hem dit, pertany a una de les escultu- res de nadelman, de qui parla extensament: […] polonia viu a través les clàssiques y pures conformacions de les esculptures den nadel- man. un artista certament com pochs n’hi hà pel món, que al costat de la seva obra d’es- culptor ens mostra la seva meravellosa sèrie de dibuixos, en els quals trobem una recerca incansable vers les solucions esculptòriques figura . pàgina dedicada a nadelman en el catàleg de l’exposició d’art polo- nès: grupu d’artistes polonesos residents a parís, galeries dalmau, barcelona, . ajuntament de girona, arxiu municipal. fons galeries dalmau. locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats que tornen arrodonida realitat en la hermo- sa testa titulada «nocturn», demunt la qual les ombres y les llums, juguen rodonament, resolent a superfícies esfèriques el proble- ma constructiu de l’esculptor. encantarse en l’avidesa d’aquells dibuixos linials den nadel- man, es una de les més altes delicies que’ns siguin donades a gosar […] . serenor, puresa i solidesa són uns altres mots que folch no dubta a aplicar a l’obra de na- delman. alexandre plana també es va fer ressò d’aquesta exposició a la revista de catalunya, tot i que potser en va parlar amb menys entu- siasme. esmenta nadelman con un dels artistes que, segons ell, té una personalitat visible i en valora sobretot els dibuixos: «repeteix d’una di- versa manera una mateixa actitut, com si no po- gués sintetitzar-la d’una vegada, i ara amb línies simples, ara amb jocs de ratllats, dóna una suau sensació de cossos en moviment» . pel que fa a les escultures, les troba poc originals i de mode- latge acadèmic, tot i que suggeridores. la revista la cataluña va publicar la seva crítica el de juliol, just quan la mostra acabava de tancar. s’hi cita nadelman, muter i gottlieb com el nucli de l’exposició. l’escultor és qualificat de «sorpren- dente y enigmático» i s’hi esmenta que «sabe jugar con el arte clásico, animando con dulcísima inquietud bustos purísimos […]. este autor, pre- ocupado en el estudio de las estructuras, analiza, descompone, investiga en el papel, con enérgicos y concienzudos trazos a pluma, los problemas que resuelven sus graciosos mármoles» . la publicidad també en va publicar una críti- ca a primera pàgina, que va ser il·lustrada amb el retrat de josep dalmau, de mela muter, gairebé a la fi de l’exposició, el de juny. sobre nadel- man, s’hi diu que les seves peces «denotan una privilegiada inteligencia algo oscurecida, no obs- tante, por el sinnúmero de complicadas fórmulas y torturadas combinaciones decorativas» . d’al- tra banda, un exemple concret del ressò que l’ex- posició va poder tenir entre els artistes locals ens l’ofereix el gravador enric c. ricart, que escriu el següent a les seves memòries: l’exposició dels artistes polonesos a can dal- mau de la portaferrissa va apassionar a gairebé tots els que anàvem a can galí. el mateix se- nyor galí no ens frenava el nostre entusiasme, tot i que la lluminositat dels polonesos no tenia res a veure amb la mitja claror tan cara a galí. hi havia, però, un lligam germànic ma- nifestat més en la manera de compondre i de dibuixar que no pas en el color. val a dir que en la repercussió positiva d’aquesta mostra hi va tenir molt a veure, sens dubte, la fraternitat espiritual que el catalanisme noucentista sentia envers polònia, un país la his- tòria tràgica del qual l’havia obligat a dipositar en la seva cultura l’essència de la identitat naci- onal. així, a la veu de catalunya s’escriu que cal rebre com es mereixen els artistes vinguts de polònia, «la haròica terra germana nostra que ve a revelarnos la força espiritual de la seva nació, que reviu a travers de les opresions que priven la expansió del seu gran esperit» . més explíci- ta en la comparació entre les dues nacions és la publicació renaixement, que saluda els artistes polonesos tot dient que «els qui volen per a la seva terra tota la llibertat que vosaltres també voleu per a la vostra, vos adressen, encoratjadora, l’abrassada de germans» . tot plegat ens porta a concloure que l’expo- sició en general i l’obra de nadelman en parti- cular van obtenir un ressò molt important en els ambients artístics barcelonins i catalans. per tant, tot i que és improbable que aguilar visités l’exposició personalment el , no ho és tant que, gràcies al catàleg o als retalls de diaris, o bé per comentaris fets per algú que sí que l’hagués visitat, arribés a tenir algun coneixement sobre l’obra de l’escultor polonès. a més, cal tenir en compte que la mateixa mela mutermilch va fer una estada a girona durant la primera meitat de , en la qual es va relacionar molt estretament amb el grup noucentista gironí, ja que fins i tot va exposar a athenea el mes de maig. És molt probable que en aquest moment conegués per- sonalment el jove aguilar, que ja formava part del grup de masó i montsalvatje, a qui hauria pogut parlar perfectament del seu amic escultor polonès i fins i tot mostrar-li alguna reproducció del seu treball. en qualsevol cas, més enllà d’un possible coneixement directe que cal mantenir en el terreny de la hipòtesi, el cert és que els punts en comú entre les obres de tots dos són prou sig- nificatius, com veurem. celso lagar a catalunya el pintor celso lagar, nascut el a ciudad rodrigo, va arribar a catalunya el proce- dent de parís i probablement fugint de la primera guerra mundial, juntament amb la seva compa- nya, l’escultora hortense begué. lagar s’havia format inicialment com a escultor, primer amb el seu pare, que era ebenista, i després treballant a madrid amb el català julio antonio. en conèixer miquel blay, aquest li hauria recomanat que anés tan aviat com pogués a parís per millorar la seva formació, tal com havia fet ell mateix . el se n’hi anà, doncs, gràcies a una beca concedida per l’ajuntament del seu poble, de la qual només va poder gaudir durant divuit mesos. d’aquest locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani període data la seva única escultura coneguda, titulada rosa de thebas ( ). un cop acaba- da la beca es va quedar a la ciutat, on va fer la seva primera exposició individual l’any , a l’ashnur gallery, i on va coincidir amb alguns pintors catalans, com ara domènec carles, a qui va retratar. quan torna a espanya i s’instal·la a barcelo- na el ho fa tanmateix com a pintor . uns quants anys més tard, ell mateix explicaria que va fer el pas de l’escultura a la pintura perquè «la escultura entraña una emoción demasiado lenta, nada en armonía con mi naturaleza; en cambio, creía encontrar en la pintura más campo para realizar mis aspiraciones» . És com a pintor, doncs, que debuta a l’escena artística catalana l’any , amb tres exposicions destacades. la primera és una important mostra de seixanta obres que té lloc a les galeries dalmau, del de gener al de febrer. un dels observadors més atents de l’activitat artística barcelonina del moment, joan miró, fa referència a aquesta exposició en una carta al seu amic bartomeu ferrà: «nostra vida d’art barcelonina es ara molt intensa; un pintor de gran talent, molt lluny d’es- tar format, empro, en lagar, ens ha mostrat les seves obres cezannistes; are tenim l’otto weber, alemany i estructuralista si be no tan fort com l’altre. molt ens interessa veure aquestes guspires d’art nou» . aquesta mostra pot ser considerada la primera exposició d’avantguarda d’un artista espanyol presentada per dalmau , en el catàleg de la qual es pot llegir un pròleg del propi gale- rista, a més d’un text molt breu de lagar que és la seva principal definició teòrica del planisme, -isme d’avantguarda creat per ell que podem considerar també el primer proposat per un ar- tista espanyol (si deixem el cubisme de picasso a banda, és clar): «après le sentiment, la couleur et la forme comprise dans le planisme et le volume sont les élements du bel art» . en una entrevista que se li va fer dos anys més tard hi afegiria que «la escuela planista interpreta el natural utili- zando planos de color para darle profundidad y volumen a los cuerpos, y prescinde bizarramente de los valores de claroscuro» . en termes molt generals, el planisme pot ser considerat un llen- guatge d’avantguarda que nega la perspectiva i la tridimensionalitat, posant èmfasi en una voluntat constructiva combinada amb elements de dina- misme futurista i un agut colorisme. aquest in- terès per presentar-se sota la bandera d’un -isme evidencia clarament que, a parís, lagar s’havia adonat del fet que la nova pintura d’avantguarda necessitava ser definida mitjançant uns mots que permetessin distingir les aportacions de cada ar- tista o grup de la resta. curiosament, la resposta més entusiasta a l’obra de lagar la va oferir eugeni d’ors, que no va dubtar a elogiar-lo tot afirmant que el seu avantguardisme no trencava amb la tradició, sinó que l’afirmava («si un gran cubista se puede con- tar en la literatura del mundo, éste fué castellano y se llamó d. francisco de quevedo» ), i adver- tia sunyer i la resta de pintors mediterranis que estiguessin atents, no fos cas que la renovació de la pintura de construcció no acabés venint d’al- tres artistes. lagar va voler aprofitar de seguida la mà que li estenia d’ors, i així el veiem publi- cant un article a la revista gironina cultura de- dicat a xènius i titulat «el renacimiento después del cubismo» , que es pot llegir com un agra- ïment i al mateix temps com una adhesió a les tesis estètiques de l’intel·lectual català. lagar hi defensa el rol precursor de cézanne i reivindica el valor estructural de la pintura, tot prenent ele- ments del propi vocabulari artístic de xènius . Òbviament, lagar també havia entès que l’apro- pament al noucentisme podia ser una bona via per consolidar la seva posició a catalunya. el va ajudar el fet que diversos elements de la seva pin- tura, com ara l’estructuració compositiva, un cert primitivisme i la idealització formal podien ser considerats també propers a aquest moviment . si l’article de lagar es va publicar en una re- vista de girona va ser perquè en aquell moment el pintor salmantí es trobava instal·lat allà. en efecte, del de març al d’abril de va celebrar una segona exposició a la sala athenea on va presentar les obres que no havia venut a la mostra barcelonina . tot i que no sabem amb exactitud qui va ser el contacte que li va facilitar la possibilitat de fer una exposició a girona, és molt probable que es tractés de l’escriptor xa- vier montsalvatje, figura clau dels ambients intel- lectuals gironins del moment . lagar va aprofi- tar l’avinentesa per fer una estada a la ciutat, on va arribar el de març juntament amb begué, avisant que pensaven restar-hi cinc o sis setma- nes per preparar la seva exposició com calia . a athenea va presentar un total de quaranta-cinc obres més algunes escultures de begué. ni a l’ex- posició de girona ni a l’anterior de barcelona hi apareix cap obra que, pel títol, es pugui identifi- car clarament com a planista . val a dir que el fet d’exposar a girona fou interpretat per alguns com un cert pas enrere per lagar, després d’haver fet un debut important a can dalmau. així sembla suggerir-ho la revis- ta vell i nou, que manifestà clarament els seus dubtes sobre el fet que una pintura innovadora com la de lagar pogués ser mínimament entesa o acceptada a la ciutat: en celso lagar está fent una exposició a girona. encara que creiem que’l art no’s déu negar a ningú, temem que potser és una mica pertorbador portar les vigoroses pintures del locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats fort artista salmantí, tant innovadores tant revolucionaries, a una quieta ciutat on les evolucions de les escoles artístiques no s’han pogut anar seguint, i on poden resultar enig- mes els raonaments espirituals d’una estética que marxi den paul cézanne a l’abisme. els intel·lectuals gironins es van sentir obli- gats a respondre a aital atac a la receptivitat artística del públic de la seva població a l’art d’avantguarda, cosa que van fer al mateix núme- ro de la revista cultura on va sortir el text de la- gar . la seva resposta ens permet saber que lagar, commogut per la ciutat, va tenir temps de pintar-hi algunes obres destacables, i també que algunes de les creacions exposades van ser venudes. sobre la pertinència o no d’exposar a girona, podem citar de nou el jove miró, que, en una carta, felicita ricart per haver presentat la seva obra a la ciutat, i hi afegeix: «jo per are no penso encare exposar. quan sigui arrivat el dia penso passar també per girona, que’s fa ben simpática amb aquesta vitalitat artística» . aquest període relacionat amb l’exposició d’athenea fou el de la seva primera i principal es- tada a girona. tenint en compte que al maig tor- nava a exposar a barcelona, podem calcular que, efectivament, va romandre a la ciutat unes sis setmanes, de mitjan març a final d’abril de . en aquest temps pintà, segons montsalvatje, una sèrie d’obres de tema gironí que «són les més superiors i hermoses, per a nosaltres que cer- quem, ara, la més justa interpretació de la ciutat en lloc de l’ensenyança d’una tècnica» . alguna d’aquestes creacions la va fer tan ràpidament que una setmana després de la inauguració ja va ser fins i tot incorporada a l’exposició d’athenea . aquestes obres van formar el gruix de l’exposi- ció següent de lagar, que no fou a madrid com indicava el diario de gerona , sinó a la can- tonada, sala relacionada amb santiago segura, el mateix empresari del faianç català, les galeries laietanes i la revista vell i nou. a les peces giro- nines s’hi van afegir apunts de la platja de pequín i imatges del bal bullier, de parís . tanmateix, segons sembla, lagar va tornar encara una segona vegada a girona. segons montsalvatje, hi va arribar «de retorn de la seva terra nadiua. totes les tonalitats són enfosqui- des, les clarors s’han esvaït i les ombres deve- nen negres, mates» . l’únic moment en aquests anys en què lagar hauria tornat a visitar la seva família fou quan va anar a ciudad rodrigo i a galícia entre finals de i principis de . després va tornar a catalunya, i potser llavors va fer aquesta segona estada a girona, que tanmateix no està documentada. en tot cas, és veritat que l’exposició d’athenea va suscitar en aquell moment certa controvèrsia a la ciutat, ja que era la primera vegada que s’hi presentaven obres d’un caire mínimament avantguardista , tal com es va reflectir a la premsa local. a ban- da de les notícies ja citades que van aparèixer a cultura i al diario de gerona, també se’n va parlar a la revista aiguaforts. el número del de març d’aquesta publicació, per exemple, du a la portada un dibuix de samuel (joan coromi- nas) en què dues noies molt elegants passegen pels afores de la ciutat mentre l’una li pregunta a l’altra: «i tu, voldries servir de model an en la- gar?», i la segona li respon: «que’t penses que vull veure’m més lletja del que soc? i ca!» . a la pàgina següent trobem la crítica de l’exposi- ció, que es mou en l’ambivalència al reconèixer la sinceritat de l’autor i fins el valor d’algunes obres, tot agraint-li la possibilitat de conèixer en el seu treball les tendències pictòriques con- temporànies, però titllant-lo al mateix temps d’equivocat i arbitrari . encara un mes després el mateix crític recorre a comparar l’obra de l’expositor següent, myrbach, amb la de lagar, tot remarcant el desconcert que aquesta havia generat . a art i sport en van fer una crítica encara més negativa: «l’art dels desorientats: futura torre de babel, que’s beslluma vivament, peró de resultats deplorables, té un nou paladí. aquest és en celso lagar. les seves aquarel·les exposades, dolentes, dolentíssimes, ho demos- tren ben clarament» . la possibilitat que hi hagués una relació personal entre lagar i fidel aguilar caldria situ- ar-la, doncs, en aquestes poques setmanes entre març i abril de . És d’allò més probable que aguilar visités l’exposició i tractés personal- ment amb l’artista, malgrat que no en tinguem proves efectives. sí que podem afirmar, això no obstant, que aguilar posseïa un exemplar del catàleg de l’exposició de lagar a les galeries dalmau i, per tant, que en coneixia el treball. a més, lagar va seguir estant molt actiu en el panorama artístic català dels anys següents: part de l’estiu de el va passar, sembla, pintant diversos paisatges de la costa catalana, entre al- tres llocs, a blanes . el juny i el juliol de publicà uns dibuixos als números i de la revista nova. el setembre-octubre de la- gar va fer una altra exposició a les galeries laietanes i es van publicar uns dibuixos i unes reproduccions de la seva obra al número de la revista vell i nou. el novembre de publicà un gravat més avantguardista com a portada del número de la revista nova. tot seguit marxà a madrid, on va presentar una exposició indi- vidual, i tornà a barcelona entre maig i juny de , per presentar-hi una nova exposició a les galeries laietanes. la seva presència a l’escena artística del país va mantenir, doncs, certa regu- laritat. en qualsevol cas, si és cert que, com s’ha locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani detectat , cap al començà una nova etapa de maduresa i consolidació en l’obra d’aguilar, sens dubte el coneixement de l’obra del pintor salmantí en va poder ser un dels catalitzadors. celso lagar i amedeo modigliani a més de la influència que lagar pogués exercir en aguilar en virtut de la seva relació personal, una altra qüestió interessant és si, a través d’ell, aguilar va poder tenir algun coneixement direc- te de l’obra de modigliani, amb la qual algunes de les seves peces presenten unes afinitats tan suggestives. els estudis sobre el pintor salmantí donen per fet que lagar i modigliani es van co- nèixer a parís en la seva primera etapa a la ciutat, abans de venir a catalunya el , i que, per tant, en les obres que es van exposar aquí el ja s’hi percebria la seva influència . amb tot, no s’hi aporten detalls ni informacions concre- tes que permetin datar o contextualitzar la seva relació . en la molt àmplia bibliografia sobre l’artista italià, en canvi, no hi ha pràcticament cap esment a l’amistat entre els dos artistes que ens ajudi a situar-la en el temps . com veurem, és un fet que modigliani i lagar es van conèixer a parís, però no tenim tan clar quan es van trobar i, per tant, en quin moment l’italià va poder exercir alguna influència en l’artista salmantí, si és el cas, i, indirectament i a través d’ell, en aguilar. tot seguit analitzaré amb cert detall les informacions de què disposem sobre la seva relació per mirar d’aclarir aquestes qüestions. en la ja citada entrevista publicada el , lagar explica que el seu primer quadre el va vendre gràcies a una gestió que la seva dona, hortense begué, va fer amb el galerista chéron, del carrer de la boétie . tot seguit afirma que «entonces trabajábamos para chéron modigliani y yo […]. me acuerdo que modigliani me hizo un retrato que vendió entonces a paul guillau- me, un día de hambre por francos» . georges chéron fou, en efecte, marxant de modigliani. la seva galerie des indépendants, després ano- menada chéron et cie, va obrir justament al car- rer de la boétie el mes de desembre de , any en què està datat un dels dos retrats a l’oli que li va fer modigliani. allà exposaria, per exemple, una col·lectiva d’artistes que incloïa modigliani entre l’ i el de maig de . que lagar tam- bé treballava amb chéron queda documentat pel fet que una de les obres que va presentar a l’ex- posició de les galeries laietanes de setembre- octubre de , ensaig de llum per planisme, figura en el catàleg com a propietat de la col- lecció chéron, galeriees [sic] des indépendants. aquesta coincidència de marxant entre lagar i modigliani és la primera referència ferma sobre la seva relació que ens situa en un marc temporal concret. pel que fa a guillaume, va treballar amb modigliani des de principis de . d’altra banda, existeix en efecte un magnífic retrat a l’oli sobre tela de lagar pintat per mo- digliani que s’ha datat el (figura ) i un o dos retrats que va dibuixar més tard, cap a - . el retrat a l’oli, que es troba avui al museu d’israel, a jerusalem, és, des d’un punt de vista estilístic, plenament consistent amb les seves pintures realitzades el , en què es detecta un cert aire cubista. des d’un punt de vista temàtic, cal dir que pertany també clarament al grup de retrats d’artistes i intel·lectuals que modigliani executa entre i i que inclou, entre d’al- tres, juan gris, frank burty haviland, manuel humbert, moïse kisling, henri laurens, chaïm soutine, picasso, diego rivera, jacques lipchitz i beatrice hastings . val a dir que el gènere del retrat fou sens dubte el més important dels que tractà modigliani, tant per motius quantitatius figura . amedeo modigliani ( ), retrat de celso lagar. oli sobre tela, x cm. donació anònima a l’estat d’israel; en préstec permanent a the israel museum, jerusalem, de l’admi- nistrador general de l’estat d’israel. nº de registre: l-b . foto © the israel museum, jerusalem, per david harris locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats com per la seva qualitat i dedicació personal . la tria dels seus models no depenia del fet que aquests fossin molt amics seus o no —tot i que és cert que els més íntims els va retratar unes quan- tes vegades—, sinó que en aquell moment repro- duïa sobretot la imatge de persones que li inte- ressaven des dels punts de vista de la fisonomia i de la seva actitud exterior. d’altra banda, l’autoria del retrat no planteja cap mena de dubte. ja es va exposar a la galeria bing & cie el , en la important retrospectiva celebrada després de la mort de l’artista, i sem- pre ha format part de tots els catàlegs raonats de l’obra de modigliani com a retrat de celso la- gar. sabem també que modigliani no treballava gairebé mai de memòria, sinó que sempre tenia el model davant (només molt puntualment va pintar a partir d’una fotografia), per la qual cosa és evident que el retrat es va pintar en presència del seu model. finalment, consta que al revers de la pintura hi ha una inscripció que diu «fait en à l’atelier de lagar, avenue de maine» . la qüestió és que enlloc de la bibliografia existent sobre lagar consta que aquest tornés a parís entre i , tot i que, efectivament, durant uns quants mesos no es documenta res de les seves activitats. Únicament es dona per su- posat que va arribar a catalunya el i que es va quedar a espanya fins al . les referències en premsa que es van publicar a l’època també suggereixen que durant aquests anys s’hauria quedat al país i que hauria viatjat entre diverses ciutats . l’existència d’aquest retrat, en canvi, palesa que en algun moment entre maig de , quan encara és a catalunya amb tota seguretat, i la primavera de , quan també sabem amb certesa que hi torna a ser, el pintor i la seva dona devien tornar a parís, malgrat la guerra. la da- tació del retrat és tan clara que, encara que pen- séssim que la imatge que hi apareix no és la de lagar , el fet que s’hagués pintat al seu taller ens hauria de portar a concloure que, efectivament, lagar va ser a parís en aquest període. el retrat, la prova més clara de la relació entre lagar i mo- digliani, fa que la data més antiga confirmada de la seva relació ens situï a finals de , la qual cosa esdevé coherent amb la col·laboració de tots dos amb la galeria chéron. no és possible doncs establir amb tota seguretat que lagar conegués l’obra o la persona de modigliani abans d’aquest any, i que, per tant, n’hagués pogut rebre la in- fluència abans de venir a catalunya, malgrat les profundes concomitàncies que existeixen entre alguns dibuixos dels dos autors . també queda en suspens, per tant, la possibilitat que aguilar hagués pogut tenir referències directes de modi- gliani a través de lagar. de tota manera, el coneixement de l’obra de modigliani a catalunya s’havia fet possible per altres vies. cal tenir present que l’artista italià, que havia arribat a parís el , va abandonar la pintura totalment entre i per dedi- car-se exclusivament a l’escultura (i als nombro- sos dibuixos preparatoris corresponents). mo- digliani hauria expressat reiteradament la seva voluntat d’apropar-se a brancusi , a qui coneixia i admirava, i també va dir repetidament que l’es- cultura era la seva vocació artística principal , però que no s’hi podia dedicar per motius de salut i econòmics. el retorn a la pintura a partir de , impulsat per raons comercials, el va viure en part com un fracàs. durant els seus anys de dedicació a l’escultura va crear un total de vint-i-vuit peces que, en conjunt, suposen una síntesi molt personal d’influències diverses, amb un marcat caràcter primitivista. entre aquestes influències, per cert, sembla que hi hauria tingut un paper molt rellevant l’obra de nadelman, que modigliani va poder veure per primera vegada a l’esmentada exposició de la galerie druet de i que el va atreure intensament i li va servir d’estímul poc abans de començar la seva breu carrera com a escultor . modigliani hauria après de nadelman «the idea of a plastic reasoning […] which proceeded through the ideal type, of classical derivation, of the sculptural head and its order in homogenous series». la seva afinitat va arribar fins al punt d’incloure citacions especí- fiques als pentinats d’algunes obres de nadelman en els seus propis bustos . És molt probable fins i tot que modigliani i nadelman es coneguessin personalment, ja que tots dos anaven als matei- xos cafès de montparnasse, van estudiar a l’aca- démie russe en la mateixa època i tenien amics comuns . més tard, la seva obra va mostrar-se conjuntament en almenys un parell d’exposici- ons col·lectives: a la mostra «twentieth century art: a review of modern movements» (whitec- hapel gallery, londres, ) i al cabaret vol- taire de zurich, el juny de . en qualsevol cas, com dèiem, el primitivis- me és un tret característic de l’obra escultòrica de modigliani, i va ser en aquest context que va aparèixer per primera vegada a catalunya. el d’agost de , el número de la revista nova es va dedicar en part al tema del primitivisme, tot reproduint dos dels caps esculpits de modigliani (catalogats actualment com a ceroni xx i cap b, es troben al museu de filadèlfia i a la kunst- halle de karlsruhe respectivament i estan datats entre i ) (figures i ), que formaven part aleshores de la col·lecció parisenca de char- les malpel. la revista també incloïa dos textos de joan sacs, la publicació d’alguns fragments poè- tics de noa noa de gauguin, i reproduccions de diverses pintures d’eduard egozcue. qualsevol lector català interessat en l’escultura hauria po- gut tenir, doncs, una primera aproximació molt locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani directa a una de les vies més interessants de l’art europeu del moment, precisament a través de modigliani. per tant, si bé no podem provar que lagar hagués parlat de modigliani a aguilar, sí que és molt possible que aguilar hagués pogut tenir accés a aquest número de la revista nova i a les reproduccions de l’artista italià, ja que athenea hi estava subscrita . s’ha de tenir en compte, tanmateix, que l’article teòric principal que es publica en aquest número, titulat «gauguin i el primitivisme» i signat per joan sacs (feliu elias), fa una valoració molt negativa, no tant sobre el primitivisme en si, sinó sobre el treball de la ma- joria d’artistes que es consideren a si mateixos primitivistes, començant pel propi gauguin. per sacs, la majoria d’aquests artistes s’equivoquen, perquè s’allunyen «de la veritat, de la realitat, que és l’anima del classicisme», i acaba l’article dient el següent: […] un exércit de pompiers del primitivis- me han caigut sobre del mercat, acaparant amb llurs exageracions gratuites l’atenció dels marxans de pintura i del públic […]. d’alguns d’aquests falços primitivistes avui ne doném unes reproduccions, perqué revista no- va se deu an aquesta tasca informadora; i si bé ens trovém d’acord amb els académics al condemnar aqueix error, en cambi ens tro- vém d’acord amb aqueixos primitivistes equi- vocats en condemnar als academics i d’acord amb els verdaders primitivistes en condem- nar als uns i altres, tot desllindant els camps. s’entén, doncs, que tant egozcue com mo- digliani, els únics artistes que poden ser con- siderats més o menys primitivistes l’obra dels quals apareix a la revista, formen part d’aquests pompiers i falsos tan condemnables. el segon article de sacs es titula «el barbarisme i el pri- mitivisme artístics en el curs de la història» i l’autor hi reitera la seva opinió que el primi- tivisme que practiquen la majoria d’artistes moderns és anodí i arribista; tanmateix, afirma que l’arcaisme, el salvatgisme, el barbarisme, el rusticisme i el primitivisme són fenòmens recurrents en totes les cultures d’arreu i en tot moment i que, per tant, han de ser tinguts en compte, tot i que hagin donat resultats reeixits molt poques vegades, potser només en els casos d’ingres i cézanne . en síntesi, el context en què es presenta per primera i única vegada, en vida, l’obra de modigliani a catalunya no li fou figures i . revista nova, núm. ( d’agost de ), p. i . locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats gaire favorable, ja que dels textos que l’acompa- nyen es desprèn una visió més aviat negativa del seu treball , però això no vol pas dir que aquest no pogués causar efecte en algun lector català. entre nadelman, modigliani, lagar i aguilar fins aquí hem provat de fer un repàs de les possibles vies de contacte, més o menys direc- tes, mitjançant les quals aguilar va poder tenir coneixement de l’obra dels tres artistes citats. com hem vist, només en el cas de lagar podem confirmar amb gairebé total seguretat que en co- neixia la persona i l’obra; en el cas de nadelman i modigliani, en canvi, la seva coneixença de l’obra depèn de si en va poder consultar reproduccions de les escultures en revistes, o bé del que terceres persones li n’haguessin pogut explicar. en qual- sevol cas, i com dèiem al principi, no es tracta tant de cercar els punts de contacte entre els seus treballs respectius en el camp de les influències com d’assenyalar-ne les afinitats, que són prou suggerents i diverses, com provarem de revisar tot seguit. un primer element important que cal des- tacar pel que fa als trets en comú que compar- teixen els tres escultors és la seva preferència per la talla per sobre del modelatge, i per tant del treball amb la pedra per sobre de qualsevol altre material. aquesta és una qüestió crucial per a tots els escultors de l’època, que, com hem esmentat en començar, necessitaven allunyar-se de l’ombra de rodin i les seves metodologies de treball industrialitzades, i en general de la tradi- ció de l’escultura de tipus impressionista basada en el modelatge, com la de medardo rosso: «it is for this reason that, for many sculptors, the technique of direct carving became the most pleasing form in the exploration for less predic- table expressive modes» . en aquest sentit, el tall directe sobre la pedra podia oferir una nova experiència plàstica: «rather than a fluctuating and asymmetric articulation in space, the stone block offered an architectonic stability and a plastic uniformity. the sense of gravity, sobri- ety and simplicity of the forms were reflected by the rough stone which, absorbing the light, confirmed its monolithic nature» . en referència a l’opinió que modigliani tenia sobre la qüestió, el seu amic lipchitz va escriure que ell, com al- tres escultors del moment, «was very taken with the notion that sculpture was sick, that it had become very sick with rodin and his influence. there was too much modling in clay, “too much mud”. the only way to save sculpture was to start carving again, direct carving in stone» . pel que fa a aguilar, l’any ell mateix va afirmar el següent: «el objeto predilecto de mis afici- ones es poder trabajar la piedra. en su dureza encuentro que obtienen mayor plasticidad mis ideales» . nadelman, d’altra banda, va treballar sovint el bronze, però va realitzar una part molt important, qualitativament i quantitativament parlant, de la seva obra del període parisenc en marbre. val a dir també que la seva tria de ma- terials com la pedra o el marbre no només els distingia dels artistes considerats del passat, sinó en certa mesura també dels del futur, ja que en aquell moment l’evolució de l’escultura avança- va precisament cap a la diversitat de materials i tecnologies. així ho mostren les obres del propi brancusi, que treballava la pedra però també la fusta o el vidre, o de picasso i archipenko, que elaboraven construccions cubistes policromes i polimatèriques . en qualsevol cas, tant per modigliani com per nadelman i aguilar, la destil·lació més re- presentativa del seu treball es va plasmar en els caps de pedra que van crear: vint-i-sis de les vint-i-vuit escultures conegudes de modigliani són caps (les altres dues són cariàtides). en l’obra escultòrica parisenca de nadelman els caps tam- bé ocupen un paper numèricament molt impor- tant. cal recordar que tres dels cinc treballs que va presentar a barcelona ho eren i que n’hi havia dos que estaven esculpits en pedra. pel que fa a aguilar, és una opinió àmpliament compartida que els seus quatre magnífics caps esculpits en pedra de girona segurament el , a tot estirar a principis de (figura ), constitueixen la mostra més madura del seu art, encara que pot- ser no siguin les seves darreres obres . l’interès pels caps com a motiu és també un tret compartit amb altres escultors moderns: «[…] the head in stone or marble became one of the most wides- pread types used for a sculpture that aspired at affirming, more than a sensational cultural frac- ture, a bland dissidence» . com hem anat apuntant, un altre element compartit per aquests artistes és la gran diversi- tat d’influències que els crítics i els historiadors han anat identificant en les seves creacions. en el cas de nadelman, més enllà de les ressonàncies evidents de tots els períodes de l’art grec (arcaic, clàssic i hel·lenístic, en funció de l’obra), respec- te al seu període parisenc s’han citat referents aparentment tan diversos com rodin, l’escultor gòtic alemany viet stoss, aubrey beardsley i l’art nouveau, von hildebrand, miquel Àngel, giovanni da bologna, clodion, i fins i tot cons- tantin guys i seurat . pel que fa a modigliani, un repàs de les possibles influències que hauria rebut la seva obra hauria d’incloure des de l’es- cultura khmer, hindú, egípcia, japonesa o de la costa d’ivori, fins a l’art clàssic, egipci, ciclàdic, l’escultura gòtica francesa i italiana, el greco, locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani brancusi o cézanne . en relació amb aguilar, les referències reconegudes pel seu treball també són múltiples: ell mateix ressaltava l’interès que li suscitava l’art clàssic en general i el grec en parti- cular . jaume fàbrega va assenyalar com a refe- rents, en el seu estudi pioner, l’art de les sezesion centreeuropees, el prerafaelitisme, els frescos romànics catalans o l’obra de matisse, el propi modigliani o el pintor manuel cano , i coma- dira precisaria més encara apuntant el paper del món d’olbrich, hoffman i klimt, com també de l’art grecollatí passat per munic . a tot ai- xò, vàzquez, que creu que aguilar «desbordava d’influències» , hi ha afegit elements de la cultu- ra popular (el cinema, la moda, les revistes, la fo- tografia, etc. ), a més de molts noms d’escultors europeus, sobretot de l’àmbit germànic, l’obra dels quals hauria pogut descobrir en les revistes internacionals esmentades. en aquest sentit, és interessant assenyalar que de nadelman, que ha- via passat uns quants mesos a munic el , es va dir precisament que interpretava el classicisme tal com s’entenia en aquella ciutat, fent referència a la circumstància que hi vivia adolf von hilde- brand, autor de l’influent llibre das problem der form in der bildender kunst (el problema de la forma en les arts figuratives) ( ), que també era molt conegut als cercles artístics parisencs . entre aquesta diversitat és possible distin- gir-hi dues grans línies d’interès, que ho foren també per molts altres artistes de la seva gene- ració. la primera naixeria, com hem avançat, del primitivisme, per imprecís i difícil de definir que resulti aquest terme, tant aleshores com ac- tualment . deixant de banda el fet que el recurs al tall directe de la pedra ja és en si mateix un arcaisme, en l’obra dels tres escultors és possible rastrejar, fins i tot, alguns dels objectes artístics concrets que els van servir d’inspiració, des dels marbres d’egina en el cas de nadelman , fins a les màscares fang de la col·lecció guillaume en modigliani , passant pel capitell de la lluita de jacob i l’àngel del claustre romànic de girona pel que fa a aguilar . també per lagar la qüestió del primitivisme és un aspecte essencial; no en va escriurà el , en el seu article de resposta a xènius i parafrasejant cézanne, que «nosotros somos en nuestro tiempo los iniciadores de un arte primitivo» . aquest és un dels elements en què més clarament es detecta la seva afinitat amb modigliani, perquè, més enllà de la semblança entre les seves obres, coincideixen en «[…] ese discurso general, de tipo conceptual, que com- partían muchos de los vanguardistas europeos contemporáneos. aspirar a ser primitivista era una manera inequívoca de definirse como artista moderno» . val a dir que l’obra escultòrica més rellevant de lagar, la ja citada rosa de thebas, es caracteritza precisament per un hieratisme, una frontalitat i una rigidesa de les formes del cos de característiques que podem qualificar clarament de primitivistes. aquests elements primitivistes conviuen amb la segona gran línia d’interès, que es correspon- dria amb les referències classicistes que també hem anat esmentant. aquests referents semblen més evidents en el cas de nadelman i d’aguilar, el qual tradicionalment ha estat adscrit genèrica- ment al noucentisme. val la pena tenir present, però, que, exactament igual com passa amb les referències més primitivistes, també el classicis- me és per a ells, en bona mesura, un llenguatge que adopten però que no imiten, sinó que es fan seu. com s’ha escrit sobre nadelman: «it must be remembered, however, that nadelman used antiquity only as a pretext; he borrowed its voca- bulary to create a new language which fit his own message» . modigliani també pren diversos ele- ments del classicisme, el més destacable dels quals és possiblement la recurrència a la cariàtide , que es concretarà en només dues escultures (ce- roni xi i ceroni xxv), per a les quals elaborarà, però, un gran nombre de dibuixos que es troben figura . fidel aguilar ( ), cap. pedra de girona cisellada, , x x cm. col·lecció particular. foto: jordi puig. locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats entre el millor de la seva producció gràfica . val a dir que la cariàtide és un motiu que trobem repetidament entre els escultors del període . també entre els papers d’aguilar hi ha almenys dos dibuixos de cariàtides, pensats possiblement per formar part del projecte de la casa casas, de masó. l’admiració per l’art antic s’estenia també entre els artistes moderns a l’apreciació de les ta- nagres, recentment revisada en el cas d’aguilar i els seus coetanis i perfectament demostrable en el cas de nadelman, que, en la seva època ameri- cana, crearia tota una sèrie d’obres que s’hi inspi- raven , igual com van fer altres artistes moderns. la referència a les cariàtides ens remet a un dels aspectes essencials per entendre el treball es- cultòric d’aguilar, que és el fet que una gran part d’aquest va ser pensat i realitzat en conjunció amb projectes arquitectònics i decoratius proposats per rafel masó . tampoc en aquest sentit va ser una excepció, perquè no només molts dels dibui- xos que nadelman va presentar a barcelona, per exemple, portaven l’epítet decoratiu en el títol, sinó que pel mateix modigliani la seva escultura estava pensada com a tal. fins i tot la primera presentació pública de les seves escultures al salon d’automne de parís de va aparèixer al ca- tàleg sota el títol genèric d’ensemble décoratif . així mateix, sembla que l’italià es va arribar a plantejar la possibilitat de portar a terme una obra d’art total, una mena de «temple de l’amor» , que uniria arquitectura i escultura, una mica a la mane- ra del temple dedicat als herois de kosovo, d’ivan mestrovic, obra de certa fama en aquell moment arreu d’europa. el fet de pensar en la pròpia es- cultura en conjunció amb un entorn arquitectònic o decoratiu determinat no era vista per ells, doncs, en cap cas com un demèrit, sinó com un valor. primitivisme (o arcaisme) i classicisme són, doncs, els dos camins principals que, com hem dit, van recórrer els escultors moderns per allu- nyar-se de l’escultura de rodin i els seus segui- dors. totes dues vies, per diferents que puguin ser-ne els resultats, coincideixen en un punt fonamental: condueixen a l’allunyament de tot naturalisme i expressionisme, i aspiren a una vo- luntat de produir una síntesi formal i una estilit- zació. com escriurà nadelman: it is form in itself, not resemblance to natu- re, which gives us pleasure in a work of art […]. the subject of any work of art is for me nothing but a pretext for creating significant form, relations of forms which create a new life that has nothing to do with life in nature, a life from which art is born, and from which spring style and unity. l’escultura només es deu, doncs, a les seves pròpies normes internes, ja que la vida de les for- mes artístiques obeeix a regles ben diferents de les que regeixen la vida de les formes orgàniques. el recurs principal per aconseguir-ho serà l’esti- lització, un procés que també comadira veu, a propòsit d’aguilar, com un pas que no porta al realisme, sinó a la plenitud formal . És aquesta estilització la que allunya les obres dels artistes que aquí ens interessen de la rudesa i la contundència dels punts de partida originals i els aporta un element de gràcia i ele- gància que historiadors i crítics han esmentat en tots els casos. pel que fa a aguilar, fontbona té clar que aquest element no només caracteritza el seu treball, sinó també les aportacions de la segona generació d’escultors noucentistes ca- talans en el seu conjunt: «els noucentistes més joves introduïren en el seu art un punt d’ama- nerament estilitzadament arcaïtzant […] absent en els definidors de la tendència, sigui escultors, com clarà i casanovas, sigui pintors, com tor- res-garcía, sunyer o xavier nogués» . també en l’obra de modigliani es fa evident que l’esti- lització elegant i agradable és l’element més de- terminant en l’apropiació i en la transformació d’elements visuals presos d’objectes que podem qualificar com a primitius . respecte a nadel- man, potser el cas més clar, només cal esmentar que d’ell s’ha escrit que «[he] was in love with style. it is the central fact in his life and in his art» . en tots els casos es produeix, doncs, un procés d’abstracció idealitzada i d’extrapolació a partir de la realitat en què s’eliminen la fidelitat al model i als detalls i les particularitats caracte- rístics de les figures. també es redueixen aques- tes a un joc de línies (en els dibuixos) i de volums (en les escultures), on tot se subordina a una idea superior d’unitat formal. És partint d’aquestes premisses que les afini- tats formals entre les respectives obres dels artis- tes citats, manifestes tant en els conceptes gene- rals com en detalls molt concrets dels seus tre- balls, se’ns fan més intel·ligibles i esdevenen més naturals que sorprenents. un exemple d’aquests detalls podria ser, per exemple, la peculiar posi- ció doblegada de la mà dreta a la ja citada figura femenina dempeus (gertrude stein) (figura ), un gest que retrobarem de manera molt semblant en nombrosos dibuixos i escultures d’aguilar, com ara a aurea pax o a figura femenina (figura ). l’elaboració dels pentinats dels caps de tots tres autors (i també en alguns dibuixos de lagar) en complexes trames geomètriques, que sovint fan que els veiem més com a casquets que no pas com a cabells, és un altre element comú fàcilment identificable. pel que fa als ulls ametllats, als trets facials molt marcats i linealment simplificats i als peculiars «colls torçats» de molts dels dibuixos, com ara el cap de dona, realitzat als voltants de , o escultures, com ara imploració o el ja ci- locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani tat cap (figura ), d’aguilar és clar que tenen un parentiu clar amb alguns dibuixos i amb molts dels retrats i de les figures pintats per modigli- ani a partir de , que, al seu torn, mostren elements directament procedents del seu treball escultòric . però també són trets compartits amb la majoria de dibuixos i d’escultures de nadelman i fins i tot de lagar, com ara en obres d’aquest darrer que van ser exposades a catalu- nya, per exemple: la pintura figures en un paisat- ge (la vida al camp) (c. ) o l’aquarel·la tors de dona (c. ). pel seu possible paper mediador, val la pe- na ressaltar unes altres connexions entre l’obra d’aquests artistes i els dibuixos de lagar dels anys - , ja sigui per influència de mo- digliani o d’altres autors o per la seva pròpia evolució. aquests dibuixos també mostren els mateixos elements de simplificació i estilització d’ascendència primitivista que hem detectat en els tres escultors. en peces com ara el dibuix eva ( ) o en la il·lustració que es va publicar a la portada del catàleg de l’exposició dalmau de , aquesta simplificació condueix a una repre- sentació dels cossos construïda quasi exclusiva- ment a partir de línies corbes, la qual cosa evoca fortament diversos dibuixos i escultures de na- delman sobre el tema del nu dempeus, del perío- de - . alguns d’aquests dibuixos fins i tot sembla que avancin creacions futures del jove joan miró, que, cap a l’any , també treballa- rà uns nus femenins i masculins clarament basats en estructures curvilínies. com hem apuntat més amunt, és indubtable també la semblança entre dibuixos com aquest de la portada i la sèrie d’es- tudis sobre el tema de les cariàtides realitzada per modigliani, una de les més extenses i elaborades de la seva obra gràfica , i podríem indicar aquí també les indubtables concomitàncies existents amb alguns dibuixos d’aguilar, realitzats possi- blement després de l’estada de lagar a girona (figura ). així mateix, els dibuixos de nus dem- peus de lagar publicats a la revista nova els mesos de juny i juliol de o a vell i nou l’octubre d’aquell mateix any (figura ) s’han afinat i s’han fet més lineals. també hi apreciem, especialment en aquests darrers, formes molt similars a les que treballa el propi aguilar per exemple a la seva coneguda sèrie d’exlibris per a la família montsalvatje, tot i que aquest les refina encara una mica més. el dibuix en tinta figura ( - ), que va pertànyer a xavier mont- salvatje, és un altre exemple d’aquesta reducció a la pura línia que practica lagar en aquests anys. finalment, també és molt interessant ob- servar les semblances entre el tractament geo- metritzat del tema de la noia de les trenes, un motiu que aguilar va treballar repetidament i en diferents materials cap a en dibuixos figura . fidel aguilar (c. ), figura femenina. marbre, x x , cm. col·lecció anna aguilar domènech. foto: jordi puig. i escultures en fusta i pedra i que lagar pintaria el a la nena de les trenes, en una imatge que ha estat directament comparada amb els retrats de modigliani . Òbviament, també hi ha elements diferen- cials entre els treballs dels diversos artistes. per exemple, les testes de modigliani presenten unes característiques de frontalitat i simetria que no percebem amb la mateixa contundència en els caps dels altres dos escultors, que solen presentar una lleugera inclinació, o bé del rostre en si o bé del coll, la qual cosa els confereix un toc més gràcil, com podem apreciar en els qua- tre caps esmentats d’aguilar . aquesta graci- litat continua destacant com un tret compartit quan comparem obres com ara el dibuix seguici de quatre figures femenines (c. ) (figura ), d’aguilar, i el conjunt d’escultures de les qua- locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats tre estacions, de nadelman ( ) . en tots dos casos, quatre dones vestides amb túniques elegantment drapejades, amb el cabell recollit i trenat, inclinen el cap i gesticulen suaument en el que esdevé una veritable harmonia rítmica lineal de cossos i vestits. les relacions visuals que hem apuntat entre les obres dels artistes tractats en aquest article ens ajuden a argumentar una de les intuïcions que emergeixen més clarament quan es té l’oca- sió de valorar l’obra d’aguilar d’una manera global, i és que, malgrat que l’escultor gironí ha- gi estat sistemàticament enquadrat en el context del noucentisme, atesa la seva vinculació amb el cercle de masó i d’athenea, el cert és que la seva obra presenta, malgrat la migradesa, una diver- sitat formal i estilística que ens hauria d’impedir d’encasellar-l’hi de manera tan immediata. ho havia apuntat comadira i ho resumeix perfec- tament vàzquez quan escriu el següent: […] l’encaix de fidel aguilar dins el nou- centisme genuí és, doncs, més aviat proble- màtic […]. És força revelador que, ampliant la perspectiva, la seva obra resulti més com- prensible i quasi menys singular i tot, com si hagués sabut entreveure el món epicuri, estilitzat, mundà i decorativista que als anys vint inundaria el fructífer mercat de l’art déco . figura . fidel aguilar (c. ), composició amb figura femenina. llapis plom sobre paper, , x , cm. museu d’història de girona, núm. reg. . foto: jordi puig. figura . revista vell i nou, núm. (octubre de ), p. . locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani tal com hem vist en aquest article, els ar- tistes que hi hem esmentat o bé haurien pogut oferir-li models per ajudar-lo a evolucionar o, si més no, convertir-se en companys de viatge, encara que fos simbòlicament . certament, també és possible pensar que aquesta via de l’estilització permanent s’hauria pogut acabar convertint en un camí sense sortida. És en cer- ta mesura el que demostra l’evolució de l’obra de nadelman —el que va tenir una carrera més llarga d’entre els tres escultors— en la seva etapa americana, al llarg de la qual el veurem tractar temes diversos però que repeteixen i accentuen potser en excés aquest element de so- fisticació que li és tan característic. això potser també li hauria passat a modigliani si no hagués deixat l’escultura, tal com sembla suggerir un dels seus amics, zadkine, que el va tractar en aquest període: a cette époque, modigliani traversa aussi une crise d’ordre artistique; la sculpture de ses tètes en pierre, même celle de sa cariati- de de vingt mètres, ne le satisfassait pas. il se rendait compte qu’il se répétait et ses tè- tes longues, tout en s’effilant, perdaient leur sveltesse. le presque-sourire d’intime satis- faction qui animait ses premières tètes, s’était tari; une habileté du savoir-faire ne permettait plus à l’âme «inquiète» de sourire . lagar va esquivar aquest perill abordant al mateix temps una diversitat d’estils, des del seu planisme fins als flirtejos amb el fauvisme, el cu- bisme i el simultaneisme, que, tanmateix, en cer- ta mesura van diluir la seva personalitat artística, en dificultar-ne la classificació. la mort prema- tura d’aguilar li va impedir desenvolupar ple- nament el seu potencial artístic i personal, i això provoca que hàgim de deixar només en el pla de l’especulació la possibilitat que hagués arribat a caure en el perill que la repetició continuada de determinades troballes formals reeixides s’hagu- és acabat desnaturalitzant en un arabesc buit de tota significació. en tot cas, la seva obra compta pel que és i, entre moltes altres coses, ha de ser valorada per haver-se situat, encara que fos sen- se que el seu autor en fos plenament conscient, a l’avantguarda de les preocupacions estètiques dels escultors del seu temps. figura . fidel aguilar (c. ), seguici de quatre figures femenines. carbó sobre paper, , x , cm. museu d’història de girona, núm. reg. . foto: jordi puig. locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats * aquest article s'ha escrit en el marc del projecte iberian moder- nisms and the primitivist imagi- nary (aac nº /saict/ – ), cofinançat per compe- te , portugal i la unió europea (european fund for re- gional development). . l’exposició es va celebrar del de maig al de setembre de a la casa pastors, organitzada per l’ajuntament de girona. se’n va editar un catàleg: e. vàzquez i j. falgàs ( ), un meteorit fugaç: fidel aguilar ( - ), girona, ajuntament de girona. . e. vàzquez ( ), «la mo- dernitat de l’escultura europea de principis de segle», revista de gi- rona, , p. - . . e. vàzquez ( ), «intro- ducció: un meteorit fugaç», a vàzquez i falgàs, un meteorit fugaç, girona, ajuntament de gi- rona, p. - , p. . . com ara en l’obra de julio antonio, en particular el seu mo- nument als herois ( - ) o els estudis per al monument a enric granados, o del terrassenc josep armengol. vegeu f. fontbona ( ), «el context artístic català del temps de fidel aguilar», revis- ta de girona, , p. - . . c. chevillot (dir.) ( ), ¿olvidar a rodin? escultura en parís, - , madrid, funda- ción mapfre. . hi va anar de la mà de leo stein a finals de , abans de la primera exposició de nadelman a parís. carta de nadelman a kine- ton parkes, . citada a p. keo- bandith ( ), elie nadelman: les années parisiens - , parís, au même titre, p. . . b. haskell ( ), elie nadel- man: sculptor of modern life, nova york, whitney museum of art, p. - . . p. keobandith ( ), elie nadelman…, op. cit., p. . . c. chevillot ( ), «el pro- blema era rodin», a chevillot, ¿olvidar a rodin?…, op. cit., p. - , p. . tanmateix, l’autora oblida precisament comptabilitzar l’exposició de nadelman de . . «l’état de la jeune sculpture française, tel que nous le con- sidérons présentement aux fins d’une étude précise est proprement un état d’indigence» (a. salmon ( ), la jeune sculpture françai- se, parís, societé des trente, albert messein ed., p. ). . ibídem, p. . . en aquest període parisenc, nadelman va treballar en diversos estils simultàniament. els seus primers estudiosos en van arribar a identificar fins a vuit de diferents en els seus dibuixos i quatre en les se- ves escultures (j. i. h. baur [ ], the sculpture and drawings of elie nadelman, nova york, whitney museum of american art, p. ). chevillot es refereix també a aques- ta diversitat estilística quan escriu: «cubista cuando tenía un lápiz en la mano, nadelman dejaba de serlo en tres dimensiones», a «el proble- ma era rodin», op. cit., p. . . ell mateix va escriure: «i em- ploy no other line than the curve, which possesses freshness and for- ce. i compose these curves so as to bring them in accord or in opposi- tion to one another» (declaració de l’artista publicada a «the photo- secession gallery», camera work, (octubre de ), p. ). . per una revisió de la influència del classicisme en l’obra de modi- gliani i altres escultors moderns, vegeu k. wayne ( ), «mo- digliani, modern sculpture and the influence of antiquity», a g. belli, f. fergonzi i a. del puppo ( ), modigliani sculptor, milà, silvana editoriale, p. - . . b. haskell ( ), elie na- delman…, p. . . p. keobandith ( ), elie nadelman…, op. cit., p. . . formava part, per exemple, de la societé des artistes polonais, fundada a parís el . . la bibliografia més antiga so- bre nadelman esmenta l’existència d’una exposició conjunta d’ell i manolo hugué el a barce- lona, però no n’hem trobat cap evidència. creiem que en realitat fa referència a aquesta exposició col- lectiva de . . m. mutermilch ( ), «me- mòries», a mela muter: girona, , girona, ajuntament de gi- rona, p. . . carta de josep dalmau a mela mutermilch, de gener de , ajuntament de girona, arxiu i bi- blioteca rafael i maria teresa san- tos torroella (galeries dalmau). . a més de les que citarem tot seguit, es troben notícies breus so- bre l’exposició i les activitats relaci- onades a de tots colors (núm. , de maig de ); el diluvio ( , , i de juny de ); el poble català ( , i de juny de ); la publicidad ( de maig i , , , i de juny de ), i la veu de catalunya ( , i de maig, , i de juny de ). . per l’ocasió, dalmau va editar un catàleg de quaranta-tres pàgines, amb un prefaci de michel muter- milch que revisava breument la història de l’art polonès, i la llista d’obres i d’autors acompanyada de fotografies en blanc i negre d’al- gunes de les peces. vegeu catàleg de l’exposició d’art polonès: grupu d’artistes polonesos residents a pa- rís, galeries dalmau, barcelona, ; ajuntament de girona, arxiu i biblioteca rafael i maria teresa santos torroella (galeries dalmau). . també va aparèixer una foto- grafia d’aquesta mateixa obra a la revista polonesa sztuka, ( ). segons haskell, és una peça de inspirada en el cap de l’afro- dita de cnidos. b. haskell ( ), elie nadelman…, op. cit., p. . . j. folch i torres ( ), «els artistes polonesos», la veu de catalunya ( de maig), p. . . j. i. h. baur ( ), the scul- pture and drawings…, op. cit., p. ; b. haskell ( ), elie na- delman…, op. cit., p. . . la veu de catalunya publica un resum de la conferència el de juny, juntament amb una fo- tografia dels artistes polonesos a barcelona. . mutermilch, «memòries», op. cit., p. - . segons els diaris, també van assistir a una trobada amb el president de la diputació de barcelona i van visitar el cercle artístic. . «crònica», la veu de catalu- nya, de maig de , p. . . j. folch i torres ( ), «els artistes polonesos», op. cit. . a. plana ( ), «crònica d’art», revista de catalunya, ( de maig), p. . . la cataluña ( de juliol de ), p. . . j. j. ( ), «arte y artistas: exposición de arte polaco», la publicidad ( de juny), p. . . e. c. ricart ( ), memòri- es, barcelona, parsifal, p. . locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani . «crònica», la veu de catalu- nya ( de maig de ), p. . . «salutació», renaixement ( de juny de ), p. . . sembla que ja havia fet una primera estada breu a barcelona el , en ple període de formació (i. garcía [ ], celso lagar, madrid, fundación mapfre, p. ). . f. melgar ( ), «los artis- tas españoles en parís: celso la- gar», ahora: diario gráfico, ( de gener), p. - . . en el catàleg de l’exposició a les galeries dalmau de , el mateix galerista, que n’escriu el prefaci, aclareix que «en lagar fa pocs mesos que cultiva la pintura». vegeu exposició celso lagar – pintures, acuarel·les: quatre escul- tures de mme begué, ajuntament de girona. arxiu i biblioteca ra- fael i maria teresa santos torroella (galeries dalmau). cal, doncs, prendre amb precaució les dataci- ons d’algunes de les seves obres en els anys i , tal com han aparegut sovint en diversos catà- legs de galeries. . f. melgar ( ), «los ar- tistas españoles en parís: celso lagar», op. cit., p. . . carta del de març de . vegeu j. miró ( ), epistolari català, establert per joan ainaud de lasarte i editat per j. m. min- guet, t. montaner i j. santanach, barcelona, fundació miró, p. . . les poques crítiques de l’ex- posició van ser prou positives: «exposició lagar-bagué a can dalmau», la veu de catalunya ( de febrer de ), p. . . exposició celso lagar – pintu- res, acuarel·les, op. cit. . parmeno ( ), «lagar el in- novador: el misterio de la escuela planista», el heraldo de madrid ( de març), p. . . e. d’ors ( ), «celso la- gar», españa ( de febrer), p. . . c. lagar ( ), «el rena- cimiento después del cubismo», cultura ( de febrer), p. - . en realitat, aquest número de la revista es devia publicar a l’abril, entre altres coses perquè el propi text de lagar està datat el dia d’aquest mes. . j. murgades ( ), «visió noucentista del cubisme segons ors», els anys vint en els països catalans (noucentisme/avantguar- da). primer col·loqui internaci- onal de l’associació francesa de catalanística, barcelona, publica- cions de l’abadia de montserrat, p. - . . i. garcía ( ), celso lagar, op. cit., p. . . hauria venut cinc aquarel·les i quatre olis. vegeu r. santos tor- roella ( ), «celso lagar en barcelona», a revisiones y testimo- nios: dietario artístico, barcelona, taber, p. . . montsalvatje dedicarà a lagar un capítol del llibre que va escriu- re en col·laboració amb joaquim pla, terra de gestes i de beutat: girona, dins el llibre iv dedicat a «girona en la pintura», girona, dalmau carles, , p. - (edició facsímil de libros certeza, zaragoza, ). segons miquel de palol, montsalvatje era el cicerone dels artistes plàstics que van visitar la ciutat durant els primers anys de la dècada de , quan «una colla de joves pintors de la darrera escola havien fet de girona un montmartre rural». vegeu m. de palol ( ), girona i jo, barcelo- na, tanagra, p. . . diario de gerona ( de març de ), p. . . el catàleg de l’exposició gi- ronina està reproduït a i. garcia ( ), orígenes de las vanguar- dias artísticas en madrid ( - ), tesi doctoral defensada a la universidad complutense de madrid, p. . . vell i nou, ( d’abril de ), p. . . cultura ( de febrer de ), p. - . la resposta la va escriure josep tharrats, fundador i director de la revista. val a dir que la visió positiva de l’ambient artístic gironí que vol transmetre aquesta nota anònima la desmenteix una altra nota publicada en el mateix núme- ro i signada per a.e. (p. ferrés- costa), en què es fa referència a la gasiveria i pobresa espiritual i cul- tural dels gironins. ibídem, p. . . carta del de juliol de , a miró ( ), epistolari…, op. cit., p. . en cartes posteriors, però, menysté l’opció d’exposar a girona dient que el que han de fer es ex- posar a europa, s’entén a parís. per exemple, a la carta a ricart del d’agost de . ibídem, p. . . x. montsalvatje i pla ( ), terra de gestes…, op. cit., p. . les obres pintades a giro- na serien, segons ell, el riu, el tren de frança, camí de sant daniel, camí de la font i sant pere de ga- lligants. també va pintar un retrat del propi montsalvatje, no sabem exactament en quin moment, però podria ser en aquesta estada. . tal com informa el diario de gerona del de març de , p. . a l’exposició de barcelona també havia incorporat diverses obres que ja havia tingut temps de pintar a la ciutat. . diario de gerona ( d’abril de ), p. . . vell i nou ( de maig de ), p. . . x. montsalvatje i j. pla ( ), terra de gestes…, op. cit., p. . . i. garcía ( ), orígenes…, op. cit., p. . . diario de gerona ( d’abril de ), p. . . aiguaforts ( de març de ), portada. . colorit ( ), «les pintures den lagar a athenea», aiguaforts ( de març), p. . . colorit ( ), «exposició de myrbach a athenea», aigua- forts ( d’abril), p. . . «d’art», art i sport ( d’abril de ), p. . . e. vàzquez ( ), «un ideal de coll torçat: l’escultura de fidel aguilar», a e. vàzquez i j. falgàs, un meteorit fugaç, p. - , p. . . j. m. de sagarra, «celso la- gar», la vanguardia española ( de setembre de ), p. . És possible que ja hi hagués anat l’estiu de . . j. fàbrega ( ), «assaig d’introducció a l’obra de fidel aguilar», a j. fàbrega (ed.), fi- del aguilar ( - ), girona, ajuntament de girona i col·legi d’arquitectes de catalunya i bale- ars, p. - , p. . . garcía afirma que, al catàleg de les galeries dalmau de , «se advierten las primeras conno- taciones de los diferentes lenguajes que más atrajeron a lagar en parís. uno de ellos fue el arte primitivo de modigliani» (i. garcía [ ], orígenes…, op. cit., p. ). en una altra publicació esmenta que la locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats relació amb l’italià comporta «in- fluencia decisiva de los dibujos de cariátides de modigliani, que lagar asumirá como base para su futuro lenguaje» (i. garcía [ ], celso lagar, op. cit., p. ). . garcía també afirma que «no se conocen con exactitud los mo- mentos-clave de esta convivencia» (i. garcía [ ], orígenes, op. cit., p. ) i es remet a narciso alba, que diu que van viure junts un temps, però no ofereix cap dada o font d’aquest fet. n. alba ( ), celso lagar, aquel maldito de montparnasse, valladolid, junta de castilla y león, p. . el crític anglès philip vann escrigué: «poc després de la seva arribada a parís, lagar va conèixer modigliani a la terrassa d’un cafè; la relació entre lagar l’ascètic, modigliani, loquaç i gregari, va ser instantània. durant un temps els dos van compartir un petit taller, compartint també la pobresa, el gust pel vi i per les animades discussions sobre l’art» (celso lagar. pinturas, - , barcelona, galeria joan gaspar, , p. ). a la bibliografia sobre modigliani no apareix, però, cap indici d’aquesta convivència. . a més dels que se citen en refe- rències posteriors, s’han consultat: a. salmon ( ), la vie passi- onnée de modigliani, parís, inter- continentale du livre; c. parisot (ed.) ( ), modigliani e i suoi: jeanne hébuterne, andré hébuter- ne, georges dorignac, amedeo mo- digliani, venècia, canale arte ed.; modigliani and his models, lon- dres, royal academy of art, , i modigliani y su tiempo, madrid, museo thyssen-bornemisza, . vull expressar el meu agraïment als estudiosos de modigliani kenneth wayne i alessandro de stefani, de the modigliani project, per les valuoses informacions que m’han aportat sobre la qüestió. . recordem que l’any va vendre diverses obres a les galeries dalmau. potser aquí es referia al seu primer quadre venut a parís. . f. melgar ( ), «los artis- tas españoles en parís: celso la- gar», op. cit., p. . fins on sabem, és l’única vegada en què lagar va esmentar directament en un text publicat la seva coneixença amb modigliani. . en la procedència del qual, tanmateix, no s’esmenta mai gui- llaume, sinó que es remet a la gale- ria lefevre, de londres. . un d’aquests dibuixos és de , quan lagar ja tornava a ser a frança, i es troba al kunstmuseum de berna; porta les inscripcions «a lagar» i «dessiné à la rotonde /lagar». h. wagner ( ), «amedeo modigliani: bildnis cel- so lagar. zeichnung, », mit- teilungen, - (juliol-agost), p. - . l’altre va ser subhastat el mes de novembre de per christie’s, i parisot el llista al seu catàleg raonat amb el número / . c. parisot ( ), modigliani. catalogue rai- sonné. tome iii: dessins, aquarelles, roma, carte segrete. . k. wayne ( ), «modigli- ani entre et : beatrice hastings, portraits d’artistes et proto-surreálisme», a amedeo modigliani: l’oeil interieur, parís, gallimard, p. - . . w. schmalenbach ( ), «the portraits», a modigliani: the melancholy angel, parís, skira, p. - . . modigliani, catàleg de l’expo- sició realitzada a l’storran gallery de londres el mes d’abril de . . vegeu, per exemple, l’article de romà jori ( ), «una exposició: celso lagar, pintor fauve», a vell i nou, (octubre), p. - . . certament, la semblança entre el retrat i el propi lagar, per les poques fotografies que en tenim, o fins i tot en comparació amb el dibuix de , es pot posar en dubte. . i. garcía ( ), orígenes…, op. cit., p. - . . a. ceroni ( ), modigliani: dessins et sculptures, avec suite du catalogue illustré des peintures, mi- là, edizioni del milione, p. . . segons bernard dorival, «la sculpture a été sa passion majeure, sa vocation véritable», citat a a. werner ( ), modigliani scul- pteur, parís, les éditions nagel, p. . . que van ser estudiades per primera vegada en el seu conjunt a l’exposició modigliani scultore, rovereto, museo di arte moder- na e contemporanea di trento e rovereto, de desembre de a març de . . a. basler ( ), modigliani, parís, les éditions crès, p. , citat a p. keobandith ( ), elie nadelman…, op. cit., p. . dirrim escriu sobre l’exposició de que «the work demonstrated a daring modernity and such an original personality that it shook the young artists in paris. its re- percussion soon became visible in the work of such future masters as picasso, brancusi, modigliani, archipenko and lipchitz». vegeu d. dirrim ( ), elie nadelman ( - ): his hellenic influence, - , art history research paper, p. . . a. del puppo ( ), «post- rodin options for the sculptural head in paris», a modigliani scul- ptor, op. cit., p. - , p. . . k. wayne ( ), modigliani and the artists of montparnasse, nova york, harry n. abrams, p. . . el pintor hongarès czobel, íntim amic de nadelman, vivia el al mateix edifici que modi- gliani, al de la cité falguière. vegeu p. keobandith ( ), elie nadelman…, op. cit., p. . . aquesta escultura en particular està considerada una de les seves obres més madures, en la qual les diverses influències visuals en què es va inspirar arriben a una sín- tesi més completa. a. del puppo ( ), «head, - », a modi- gliani sculptor, op. cit., p. - , p. . . les revistes que es rebien a at- henea, a més de la revista nova, eren com a mínim vell i nou, the studio, museum i moderne bau- formen (e. vàzquez [ ], «un meteorit fugaç», op. cit., p. , nota ). a part, aguilar podia tenir accés a les revistes que rebia ma- só, com ara deutsche kunst und dekoration. tots els autors que han tractat l’obra d’aguilar han destacat la importància d’aquestes publicacions en la conformació de la seva cultura visual i artística. . j. sacs ( ), «gauguin i el primitivisme», revista nova, ( d’agost), p. . . j. sacs ( ), «el barbarisme i el primitivisme artístics en el curs de la història», revista nova, ( d’agost), p. . . aprofitem l’avinentesa per re- cordar que, tanmateix, modigliani va mantenir relacions personals amb diversos artistes catalans i espanyols importants, a banda del propi lagar, com ara amb manuel humbert o juan gris. vegeu r. santos torroella ( ), «mo- digliani y nosotros», a modigliani - , barcelona, obra social de la caixa de pensions. a banda dels artistes que hi esmenta l’autor, cal afegir-hi com a mínim els noms locvs amŒnvs , fidel aguilar i l’art europeu del seu temps: elie nadelman, celso lagar, amedeo modigliani de l’escultor lleó solà i del mateix eduard egozcue. . a. del puppo ( ), «modigli- ani’s beginnings as a sculptor: di- rect carving on stone, precedents and continuations», modigliani sculptor, op. cit., p. - , p. . . ibídem. . j. lipchitz ( ), amedeo modigliani ( - ), nova york, harry n. abrams. . maxlim ( ), «al pasar… siluetas locales: fidel aguilar», el norte ( de juny), p. . . a. del puppo ( ), «worldly primitivism, orientalism for muse- ums», modigliani sculptor, op. cit., p. - , p. ; b. léal, «la es- cultura invisible», a c. chevillot (dir.) ( ), ¿olvidar a rodin?…, op. cit., p. - , p. - . . e. vàzquez ( ), «un ideal de coll torçat», op. cit., p. - . els quatre caps estan reproduïts al catàleg un meteorit fugaç, op. cit., p. - . . a. del puppo ( ), «post- rodin options for the sculptural head in paris», modigliani sculp- tor, op. cit., p. . . j. i. h. baur ( ), the scul- pture and drawings…, op. cit., p. . . a. del puppo ( ), «worldly primitivism, orientalism for museums», modigliani sculptor, op. cit., p. . . maxlim ( ), «al pasar… siluetas locales: fidel aguilar», op. cit. . j. fàbrega ( ), «assaig d’introducció a l’obra de fidel aguilar», op. cit., p. - . fàbre- ga també indica que, a més de les revistes europees i catalanes que ja hem citat, tenia accés a les publica- cions de l’institut d’estudis cata- lans sobre els frescos romànics. . n. comadira ( ), «fidel aguilar i la seva ombra», a fidel aguilar, un noucentista gironí, girona, ajuntament de girona, p. - . comadira també recalca el paper indiscutible de rafael masó en la transmissió i el decantament de tots aquests models. . e. vàzquez ( ), «introducció. un meteorit fugaç», op. cit., p. . . e. vàzquez ( ), «un ide- al de coll torçat», op. cit., p. . . k. wayne ( ), «modi- gliani, modern sculpture and the influence of antiquity», op. cit., p. - . . en aquest article entenem per primitivisme l’interès i la fascinació de molts artistes europeus pels objectes produïts per les cultures oceàniques, africanes, indígenes americanes i orientals, així com per les societats arcaiques (egipte, pèrsia, etrúria, etc.), l’art medieval i l’art popular. . vegeu la nota d’aquest article. . a. del puppo ( ), «worldly primitivism, orientalism for museums», op. cit., p. . . j. fàbrega ( ), «assaig d’introducció a l’obra de fidel aguilar», op. cit., p. . es conser- va el dibuix que aguilar va realit- zar d’aquest capitell. . c. lagar ( ), «el renaci- miento después del cubismo», op. cit., p. . . i. garcía ( ), celso la- gar, op. cit., p. . l’autora esmen- ta l’existència d’unes fotografies dels inicis artístics de lagar com a escultor en les quals se’l veuria al costat de relleus i de blocs de pedra on s’insinuen formes inspirades en imatges arcaiques i exòtiques. . d. dirrim ( ), elie na- delman…, op. cit., p. . . k. wayne ( ), «modi- gliani, modern sculpture and the influence of antiquity», op. cit., p. . . n. alexander ( ), mo- digliani desconocido: dibujos de la antigua colección de paul alexan- dre, madrid i ambers, mncars i fonds mercator, p. - . . f. fergonzi ( ), «preli- minary issues for modigliani scul- ptor», a modigliani sculptor, p. - , p. . . e. vàzquez ( ), «un ide- al de coll torçat», op. cit., p. - . . j. i. h. baur ( ), the sculpture and drawings, op. cit., p. ; b. haskell ( ), elie na- delman…, op. cit., p. - . . j. falgàs, «l’escultura d’aguilar en l’ideari noucentista de masó», a e. vàzquez i j. falgàs, un meteorit fugaç: fidel aguilar ( - ), p. - . . també lipchitz va explicar que modigliani li havia dit que els concebia com un ensemble (j. lipchitz [ ], amedeo modigli- ani ( - ), op. cit.). . f. fergonzi ( ), «preli- minary issues…», op. cit., p. . . e. nadelman ( ), «the photo-secession gallery», op. cit., p. . . n. comadira ( ), «fidel aguilar i la seva ombra», op. cit., p. . . f. fontbona ( ), «el context artístic català del temps de fidel aguilar», op. cit., p. - . . «every primitivist synthesis, or every archaelogical allusion, had to be translated into stylised elegance, very pleasing to modern tastes», a f. fergonzi [ ], «preliminary issues», op. cit., p. ; modigliani «favoured the most graceful primitivist stylist elements, refusing the explicitly tribal roots and the more exotic echo of oriental art», a a. del puppo, «worldly primitivism, orientalism for museums», op. cit., p. . . j. i. h. baur ( ), the sculpture and drawings, op. cit., p. . . pel que fa a la influència del treball escultòric de modigliani portat a terme entre i a la seva pintura posterior a aquesta data, s’ha resumit així: «the pro- cess of synthesis of the planes and the elimination of the spatial junc- tions, experimented by modigliani in his sculptures (and above all, the long graphic phase of his sculptu- re), is carried into his painting in this way. it determines that trace of distance from reality […] that makes modigliani’s paintings so appealing», a f. fergonzi ( ), «painting as a development of the sculptural heads», a modigliani sculptor, p. - , p. . . reproduït al catàleg paintings by celso lagar, londres, crane kalman gallery, , làmina xxiv. aquest dibuix podria ser un estudi per a la dona de la poma, que es va exposar a can dalmau i a at- henea el ; i. garcía ( ), orígenes…, op. cit., p. . . vegeu els dibuixos reproduïts a b. haskell ( ), elie nadel- man…, op. cit., p. - i - . a l’exposició dalmau, recordem-ho, es van presentar diversos dibuixos titulats desnú o estudi de desnú. locvs amŒnvs , maria lluïsa faxedas brujats . aquests estudis s’han de da- tar entre i , perquè mo- digliani els va deixar a casa del dr. alexandre abans de marxar de vi- atge a itàlia el mes d’abril d’aquell any. a la seva tornada només en va realitzar uns quants més. vegeu n. alexander ( ), modigliani desconocido…, op. cit., p. - . . revista nova, ( de juny de ), p. , i revista nova, ( de juliol de ), p. . . vell i nou, (octubre de ), p. . . r. santos torroella ( ), «modigliani y nosotros», op. cit., p. . . que, tanmateix, sí que com- parteixen amb almenys set dels caps de modigliani el somriure amb prou feines esbossat, que evoca im- mediatament l’escultura arcaica. . reproduït a b. haskell ( ), elie nadelman…, op. cit., p. . . n. comadira ( ), «fidel aguilar i la seva ombra», op. cit., p. . . e. vàzquez ( ), «introducció. un meteorit fugaç», op. cit., p. . . nadelman ha estat assenyalat com un precedent directe de l’art-déco. vegeu d. dirrim ( ), elie nadelman…, op. cit., p. , i la nota d’aquest treball. . o. zadkine ( ), le maillet et le ciseau: souvenirs de ma vie, parís, ed. albin michel, p. . transatlantica, | transatlantica revue d’études américaines. american studies journal  | state of the union antoine cazé. john ashbery. a contre-voix de l’amérique. paris : belin, . p. axel nesme Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/ doi : . /transatlantica. issn : - Éditeur afea référence électronique axel nesme, « antoine cazé. john ashbery. a contre-voix de l’amérique. », transatlantica [en ligne], | , mis en ligne le avril , consulté le septembre . url : http:// journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/ ; doi : https://doi.org/ . /transatlantica. ce document a été généré automatiquement le septembre . transatlantica – revue d'études américaines est mis à disposition selon les termes de la licence creative commons attribution - pas d'utilisation commerciale - pas de modification . international. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / antoine cazé. john ashbery. a contre- voix de l’amérique. paris : belin, . p. axel nesme l’auteur de cette étude a relevé avec succès un double défi : enfermer dans quelque pages d’une écriture serrée et rigoureuse l’œuvre foisonnante et multiple de john ashbery, mais aussi ordonner au fil de trois parties aux enchaînements impecccables un discours poétique cultivant « l’obscurité retorse dans la mutilation du sens et l’effacement du référent ». plusieurs paradoxes définissent ce qu’a. cazé nomme après ashbery « le principe de difficile visibilité » du poète, et c’est de leur tension que l’analyse tire sa dynamique. paradoxe d’une écriture auto-référentielle qui, imitant le tracé des patineurs sur la glace, se désigne comme absente de la place à laquelle pourtant elle renvoie pour n’exhiber en fin de compte « que les traces indistinctes et balbutiantes de son absence même », procédant ainsi d’une stratégie d’évitement généralisé où toute amorce de discours se voit aussitôt sapée dans ses fondations. paradoxe du texte comme pellicule jetée sur le réel qu’il voile, mais dont il révèle les contours, l’invisibilité du réel devenant la condition même de sa lisibilité. paradoxe de l’intimité extrême qui fait de l’œuvre ashberyenne l’« espace contradictoire d’une marginalité centrale, d’un fatras essentiel » où le sujet, privé de toute maîtrise de l’univers discursif qu’il habite, se trouve néanmoins par lui constitué, alors même que sa vérité lui échappe. paradoxe, enfin, d’une « machinerie verbale » surdimensionnée au regard d’un sens qui y existe au mieux à l’état d’esquisse. chez ashbery, poète et critique d’art, peinture et écriture se fécondent mutuellement de manière à rendre les poèmes « aussi inévitables que des tableaux ». parmi les tendances picturales qui l’ont influencé, a. cazé relève le surréalisme vis-à-vis duquel ashbery maintient une attitude critique, voire ironique, préférant alterner composition consciente et libre association afin d’arpenter la frontière où la réalité « se colore » au contact du rêve. si l’influence du cubisme se décèle dans la pratique ashberyenne du collage, la référence obligée n’en est pas moins ici l’expressionnisme abstrait. là où dans cette esthétique la peinture rompt avec toute « velléité mimétique » et se veut antoine cazé. john ashbery. a contre-voix de l’amérique. transatlantica, | avant tout « expressive d’elle-même », l’écriture d’ashbery enchaîne les fragments contradictoires de manière à compromettre toute lecture vectorisée par un sens comme « horizon interprétatif ultime ». cependant, si le pouvoir dénotatif du langage se trouve remis en cause par le collage poétique, cette pratique n’en débouche pas moins sur un nouveau réalisme mettant en valeur ces rapports imprévisibles entre les choses qui échappent aux représentations préétablies. ce travail de déconstruction de la représentation conduit ashbery, dans the tennis court oath, à faire s’entrechoquer formes poétiques fixes (sonnets ou sextine, entre autres) et longs poèmes aux contours plus indécis, l’ironie particulière de cette juxtaposition se reflétant dans la contradiction qui oppose l’académisme du « serment du jeu de paume », tableau de david qui sert de titre au recueil, et l’expressionnisme abstrait qui définit son esthétique. cette esthétique, antoine cazé nous la montre à l’œuvre de manière saisissante dans la belle étude de « self-portrait in a convex mirror » qui clôt la première partie du livre. dans ce poème, dont le titre est emprunté à une œuvre du parmesan, a. cazé signale le paradoxal « double geste par lequel le poète se représente en train de (se) décrire et en même temps se protège de l’acte de représentation », geste qui conditionne un rapport particulier à la temporalité, dans la mesure où l’invocation du modèle pictural participe aussi bien d’une volonté de « figer le temps dans l’espace que d’animer l’espace du tableau du mouvement de l’écriture ». le chapitre de l’ouvrage intitulé « cadres fixes, contours flous » interroge le statut de la forme dans la poésie d’ashbery, où la contradiction est encore une fois de mise : maîtrise des formes traditionnelles et pression simultanée de l’informe définissent le moment de « crise de la poésie américaine » où se situe l’œuvre d’ashbery. sans nul doute, c’est ici que se pose avec le plus d’insistance la question de l’originalité, d’ailleurs inhérente à l’attitude post-moderne dont a. cazé souligne bien qu’elle confine le poète au statut de faussaire, l’intention parodique menaçant à tout instant de s’abolir dans ce que le critique nomme avec lucidité « une certaine complaisance dans le mauvais goût ». ashbery ne cède pourtant nullement à la tentation du passéisme, et la virtuosité formelle est chez lui subordonnée à une volonté exploratoire qui s’illustre brillamment dans la sextine où a. cazé décèle des résonances oulipiennes et dont la maîtrise technique devient elle-même facteur d’« instabilité sémantique ». aux antipodes de ces contraintes formelles, le poème en prose, quant à lui, en suivant au plus près le mouvement chaotique de la pensée et des perceptions, finit, à force de côtoyer le réel, par en compromettre toute représentation. se dégage ainsi une tension entre la forme et son autre qui fait du poème un lieu de perpétuelles transformations où la fixité de l’image n’a plus cours, de même que la forme poétique, sitôt perçue, y est menacée de dissolution, comme en témoigne la belle analyse du poème « litany ». parce qu’elle refuse une vision statique du monde, la poésie d’ashbery apparaît donc sous la plume d’a. cazé comme une poésie de la syntaxe plus que de l’image rendant presque caduc le principe jakobsonien de projection du paradigme sur le syntagme. le dernier chapitre, intitulé « peintures sur soi », explore le lyrisme ashberyen dont la polyphonie signe la fin d’une ère « romantique » croyant encore à la possibilité pour « la voix simple et claire d’un poète de s’exprimer sans ambiguïtés ». libre au lecteur de déceler au fil de ces pages une continuité entre l’œuvre d’ashbery et une tradition qui passerait par les « self-consuming artefacts » de george herbert, les ballades lyriques de wordsworth et les monologues dramatiques de browning, où l’on pourrait arguer que l’identité poétique se déclare déjà, selon la belle formule d’a. cazé à propos antoine cazé. john ashbery. a contre-voix de l’amérique. transatlantica, | d’ashbery, « ouvertement frictionnelle et instable ». de même, là où chez ashbery « l’authenticité des sentiments […] est à la fois affichée dans le lyrisme et dénoncée par le jeu de l’ironie », on songera peut-être à heinrich heine, souvent mis en musique par schumann auquel a. cazé nous rappelle d’ailleurs qu’ashbery emprunta sa devise dans « the skaters ». l’enjeu, toutefois, est bien spécifique à ashbery, car il s’agit pour le poète de « s’avancer masqué afin de rendre compte de la fêlure secrète de son homosexualité », telle qu’elle se profile derrière l’identité précaire qui ne cesse ici de ne pas s’écrire et qui bientôt « n’est plus qu’un vide, un trou » recouvert par une série de représentations factices jetées comme autant de masques sur l’irreprésentable. c’est le rare mérite de cette étude d’avoir su, au fil de trois parties dont il n’est pas fortuit que chaque titre soit emprunté au domaine de l’image, épouser le paradoxe ashberyen pour faire résonner une voix poétique qui s’engendre ainsi par un jeu subtil de mises en regard. index thèmes : recensions auteur axel nesme université lumière — lyon antoine cazé. john ashbery. a contre-voix de l’amérique. transatlantica, | 	antoine cazé. john ashbery. a contre-voix de l’amérique. . _ .tp publications of the astronomical society of the pacific, : – , october � . the astronomical society of the pacific. all rights reserved. printed in u.s.a. spectral mapping reconstruction of extended sources j. d. t. smith, l. armus, d. a. dale, h. roussel, k. sheth, b. a. buckalew, t. h. jarrett, g. helou, and r. c. kennicutt, jr. , received june ; accepted august ; published october abstract. three-dimensional spectroscopy of extended sources is typically performed with dedicated integral field spectrographs. we describe a method of reconstructing full spectral cubes, with two spatial and one spectral dimension, from rastered spectral mapping observations employing a single slit in a traditional slit spectrograph. when the background and image characteristics are stable, as is often achieved in space, the use of traditional long slits for integral field spectroscopy can substantially reduce instrument complexity over dedicated integral field designs, without loss of mapping efficiency—particularly compelling when a long-slit mode for single unresolved source follow-up is separately required. we detail a custom flux-conserving cube reconstruction algorithm, discuss issues of extended-source flux calibration, and describe cubism, a tool that implements these methods for spectral maps obtained with the spitzer space telescope’s infrared spectrograph. . introduction spectroscopy has long been at the forefront of astronomical research. from uncovering the elemental abundances underlying the solar spectrum to modern massively parallel surveys probing the scale and structure of the universe, the dispersion of light affords an almost preternatural power of discovery at a distance. the recent advent of large-format optical and infrared detector arrays has revolutionized spectroscopy, enabling many novel methods that capitalize on the growing pixel count. cross-dis- persion of the dispersed beam enables higher spectral resolution and longer slits in compact instruments (e.g., allington-smith et al. ; tull et al. ; smith et al. ; mclean et al. ; wilson et al. ). the use of multiple slits or fibers makes it possible to obtain spectra for hundreds of objects si- multaneously over wide fields (e.g., heacox & connes ; york et al. ; colless et al. ; le fèvre et al. ; hook et al. ). integral field spectroscopy of moderately wide areas using image slicing, densely packed fiber bundles, or microlens arrays efficiently maps extended objects (e.g., tecza et al. ; content ; mandel et al. ; dubbeldam et al. ; bacon et al. ; poglitsch et al. ). these methods, along with fabry-pérot scanning and other imaging interferometers, fall un- der the broad category of three-dimensional spectroscopy, which encompasses a set of techniques and instrumental designs that enable the observer to build up spectral cubes with two spatial and one spectral dimension. steward observatory, university of arizona, tucson, az. spitzer science center, california institute of technology, pasadena, ca. department of physics and astronomy, university of wyoming, laramie, wy. max-planck-institut für astronomie, heidelberg, germany. california institute of technology, pasadena, ca. institute of astronomy, cambridge university, cambridge, uk. given finite detector area, a trade-off among field of view, spectral resolution, and instantaneous wavelength coverage must be made for a given three-dimensional spectrograph de- sign. in the limit of zero background, identical throughput and detector performance, and an unchanging point-spread function (psf), any combination of these three that utilizes the same fractional detector area will offer identical spectral mapping efficiency. modern integral field spectrographs typically favor larger fields at the cost of resolution or wavelength coverage but have the notable advantage of capturing the entire field at once, which mitigates systematics due to variations in sky back- ground and transmission, and time variations in the psf (e.g., in adaptive optics applications; thatte et al. ). for ob- serving single unresolved sources, however, integral field spec- trographs are relatively inefficient, since they dedicate a large fraction of their detector budget to unused background area. for isolated point sources, single-slit spectroscopy still main- tains an advantage. this advantage is even more acute in the ground-based infrared, where, due to the large and variable sky brightness, source and sky must be switched rapidly throughout the observation—on timescales of minutes at near-infrared (nir) wavelengths ( – . mm) and up to hz at thermal mid-infrared (mir) wavelengths ( – mm). in this regime, single long slits offer another compelling advantage: the ability to chop the source between two positions along the slit, per- forming in situ sky subtraction with well-characterized slit throughput and minimal loss of observing efficiency. unfortunately, single long slits are of more limited use for three-dimensional spectroscopy of extended sources from the ground. in particular, variations in the sky brightness and trans- mission, as well as the psf, during the (potentially long) series of integrations required to map out large extended regions pose significant challenges, especially for sources with surface smith et al. pasp, : – fig. .—illustration of resampling noise. top: top line, an ideal, uniform, curved spectral order, with center indicated by the gray line, is formed from a flat-spectrum source with a gaussian psf of constant width fwhm p pixels. it is sampled by the pixel elements (middle line) and resampled to . straighten the order using linear interpolation, centered precisely on the known order center (bottom line). bottom: extractions of three different pixel widths (offset for clarity), demonstrating the purely sample-based noise induced by resampling. brightness comparable to or below that of the sky. despite these drawbacks, the scanning method has been used at optical and near-infrared wavelengths to construct moderate-sized maps of bright sources (e.g., burton & allen ; monteiro et al. ), and in solar astronomy (e.g., johanneson et al. ), but has been eclipsed in recent years by dedicated integral field techniques. although they offer high mapping efficiency for extended sources, the reduced efficiency of integral field spec- trographs for unresolved sources often dictates that additional long-slit modes be included in instruments that offer these ca- pabilities, increasing complexity. in space, the various limitations of long slits for conducting three-dimensional spectroscopy over wide fields are minimized, since the astrophysical background is typically smooth and unvarying, and the image characteristics fixed. the infrared spectrograph (irs; houck et al. ) aboard the spitzer space telescope (werner et al. ) includes four sensitive, back- ground-limited spectrograph modules (covering – mm) based on fixed single slits, with no moving parts. the spitzer telescope offers a dedicated spectral mapping mode in which a selected irs slit is moved in a raster pattern, stopping to obtain one or more exposures at each position, to map out extended regions. since the irs is a diffraction-limited spec- trograph that delivers a psf varying in size by roughly a factor of over the full wavelength range, this mode is very useful for obtaining extended-source full-coverage spectrophotometry free from strong aperture bias. spectral mapping also offers the significant advantage of preserving high efficiency for spec- troscopic follow-up of individual point sources while providing the additional capability of very deep, spatially resolved spec- troscopy of large, low surface brightness sources, all in a single instrument without moving parts. here we describe an approach to reconstructing full spectral cubes from scanned or rastered spectroscopic observations us- ing a single slit. in § , we outline a custom algorithm for cube reconstruction, consider issues of extended-source flux cali- bration in § , and finally describe cubism, a tool imple- menting these reconstruction techniques for irs spectral maps, in § . . spectral cube reconstruction the reconstruction of three-dimensional spectral cubes from a suitably obtained set of overlapping input spectral images (each potentially consisting of multiple spectral orders) differs fundamentally from image mosaicking. the input images carry mixed spatial and spectral information, the relative spatial off- sets among the input spectra cannot be readily computed from the mapped data themselves, and ensuring flux conservation requires a dedicated approach. here we outline the general properties of an algorithm for spectral cube reconstruction, dis- cussing more details of a specific implementation, along with analysis of the constructed cube, in the next section. . . resampling noise modern spectrographs, in particular those which are cross- dispersed, rarely form spectral images in which the spatial and spectral axes are aligned with detector rows and columns. curved orders that cross many detector rows are common. a simple method to deal with these curved order data involves first resampling them, traditionally with a flux-conserving form of linear interpolation, to create a straightened spectral image. after this step, simple summation can be used to extract the final spectrum. optimal forms of spectral extraction that employ weighted sums to minimize signal degradation (e.g., horne ) could also be applied to such a straightened image. in practice, how- ever, an unavoidable difficulty enters with this approach when the spatial profile of an unresolved source distributed along the slit is not well sampled. as discussed by mukai ( ) “re- sampling noise” results from the initial straightening step, which is retained and amplified by all subsequent processing. figure illustrates this effect using a single, idealized curved spectrograph order formed from a flat-spectrum source with a constant gaussian psf ( pixels). this continu-fwhm p . ous profile is then observed with the detector pixel grid (all assumed to have flat and equivalent response) and then straight- ened by resampling using linear interpolation centered precisely spectral mapping reconstruction pasp, : – on the known order center position. in spectra extracted from the resampled order data, periodic resampling noise of up to % is induced in this example, varying in magnitude with the size of the extraction region. the period depends on the rate at which the order center crosses row boundaries. although this noise is mitigated at larger extraction sizes, this is no consolation when performing further operations on the resam- pled spectra, such as estimating the row-by-row slit profile for optimal extraction, as mukai considered, or remapping the spa- tially resolved pixels along the slit to a common sky coordinate system, as considered here. it should be stressed that resampling noise is fully indepen- dent from detector or other instrumental properties, or the form of the point-spread function, but is rather an inherent sampling limitation: information on the distribution of flux along the slit has been irrecoverably lost. as an example, consider a psf that is much smaller than the size of a pixel. in an observed spectral image, you cannot distinguish between the spectrum of a point source having been placed in the center of a pixel or near its edge. if interpolation is performed to shift this spec- trum down by, e.g., one-half pixel, in both cases, two equal interpolated pixels result. real spectrographs present varying and imperfectly determined order positions, both of which can compound this issue. better sampling alleviates the effect, but it persists at the few percent level even at the typical sampling of pixels per fhwm. in diffraction-limited spectrographs, the psf sampling can change appreciably from one wavelength end to the other. the irs spectrograph modules (houck et al. ) were designed to sample the psf at the long end of each module’s wavelength range and thus are significantly under- sampled at shorter wavelengths. to mitigate the effects of resampling noise, it is vital to avoid additional interpolation steps that can introduce it. for the con- struction of spectral cubes, two opportunities for interpolation can be avoided: initial straightening of the curved order data, and remapping of the rastered set of input spectra onto an output cube grid. although the information lost by an undersampled spectrum cannot readily be recovered without imposing prior knowledge on the form of the slit profile, avoiding unnecessary interpolation—especially early in the reduction sequence—can minimize the resulting sampling noise. in typical spectral re- duction algorithms employing multiple interpolation steps, re- sampling noise can be reduced by ∼ % using the methods outlined here, strongly dependent on the signal-to-noise ratio of the observations and intrinsic sampling of the spectral instrument. . . spatial versus spectral degeneracy creating the three-dimensional intensity cube froms(v,f,l) a series of two-dimensional spectra is fundamentally limited by an implicit degeneracy in the information present in a spectral image. as illustrated in figure , when spectrally mapping with psf size comparable to or smaller than the slit width, an ambiguity exists in the interpretation of pixels ad- jacent in the dispersion direction. given pixel in a singlepij two-dimensional spectral image, which maps to the spectral cube location , the adjacent pixel in the dispersions(v ,f ,l )kl kl m direction could be considered to map either to the samepi� , j wavelength at adjacent spatial positions within the cube, , or to the same spatial position at differents(v ,f ,l )k� ,l k� ,l m wavelengths, .s(v ,f ,l )kl kl m� in general, both spectral and spatial adjacency are encoded in the slit image. when the psf is large, very little spatial information remains. when the psf is small, spatial and spec- tral information are irrecoverably convolved together within the slit. in the latter case, a single point source with two adjacent spectral lines just blended at the instrument’s spectral resolving power will appear identical to the spectrum of a source elon- gated along the slit width, emitting a single spectral line. many image-slicing integral field spectrograph designs mitigate (or hide) this problem by sampling the slit width using only a single pixel (e.g., poglitsch et al. ), although without meth- ods to scan wavelength at subresolution, this can adversely impact the reliability of unresolved spectral line measurements. addressing this degeneracy requires some assumption, with three approaches possible: . assume that no spatial information is available in the slit. adjacent pixels in the dispersion direction are placed into ad- jacent wavelength planes in the spectral cube, and all spatial information is provided by the mapping observations. . assume that equal spatial and spectral information is avail- able in the slit. adjacent pixels in the slit are distributed equally into the spectral cube within individual wavelength planes (“alongside”) and at adjacent wavelengths (“beneath”). . assume a varying mix of spatial and spectral information, which can be restated as a mixing angle with respect to planes of constant wavelength, varying from � (equally spatial � spectral) to � (fully spectral). in this work, we have adopted the first assumption, although others may be advantageous in cases of extreme undersampling of the slit. . . remapping the spectra the reconstruction of a full spectral cube , with twos(v,f,l) spatial (v, f) and one spectral (l) dimension from a set of two- dimensional spectral images that have been obtained by map- ping a given region of the sky could, in principle, be accom- plished in a number of ways. pixels from the spectra could be remapped onto a cube grid and interpolated. conversely, pixels in an output cube could be reverse mapped into the original spectral image set, and a weighted average of interpolated val- ues drawn. in order to minimize the effects of resampling noise and to ensure flux conservation, however, a method that avoids unnecessary interpolation steps is preferable. such a method is available in direct clipped polygon resam- smith et al. pasp, : – fig. .—illustration of the spectral/spatial degeneracy in sampled slits. a monochromatic point source with psf smaller than the slit width of pixels is mapped in three steps perpendicular to the slit (offset along the slit for clarity). in the resulting spectral images, at right, adjacent pixels in the “wavelength” direction can be interpreted as adjacent spatially or spectrally. single pixel width “pseudorectangles,” each of which bounds the contributions from a single wavelength, are shown in color. pling, in which the contributing weights of individual input pixels are computed by their geometric overlap with an input mask and output grid. polygon clipping is a mature technique in the field of computer graphics. for the purpose of spectral resampling, simple clipping algorithms (e.g., sutherland & hodgman ) suffice. since spectral orders are commonly curved and the orien- tation of the spatial and spectral dimensions can vary at each point along the order, a fundamental element in this algorithm is a means of separating input pixels by wavelength. for this purpose, an abutting set of “pseudorectangles” (prs), each of which outlines the region of influence of a single wavelength, can be constructed to cover the curved order. the center of each pr is placed at the precise order center, as illustrated in figure , and they may be angled to follow the tilt of spectral lines (common in particular in cross-dispersed spectrograph designs), which itself may vary along the order. in this scheme, an individual input pixel can (and often does) contribute to multiple wavelengths. the exact method of constructing the set of prs is not critical; as long as the central position along the slit is well determined and matched by the pr centers, there are no gaps in coverage, and the pixel sampling of the under- lying detector device is respected (which in general means that the width of the pr should be pixel). with the set of prs in hand, the cube reconstruction algo- rithm consists of the following steps: . clip each pseudorectangle against the input pixel grid for each of n input spectral images i in a given mapping sequence. . rotate and translate the obtained sets of clipped partial pixel fragments (grouped by image i and wavelength l) into the output cube grid, according to position and orientation within the map. . clip the offset pixel fragments again against the output (cube) grid. . accumulate the overlap area-weighted sum of contributing pixels in each cube pixel (and, optionally, a parallel uncertainty cube). the final area-weighted sum can be expressed: n (k) (k)� � d m ixyijm xy xykp xy�prm s(v ,f ,l ) p , ( )ij ij m n (k)� � m dxy xyijmkp xy�prm spectral mapping reconstruction pasp, : – fig. .—illustration of the two-pass clipping algorithm. from top left: a single pseudorectangle (corresponding to a unique wavelength), shown overlain on the input spectral image (red) detector grid, is clipped, rotated, and offset into the output cube (blue) pixel grid at the appropriate wavelength plane. multiple overlapping sets of input spectra are accumulated in the same fashion. a contributing set of input spectra at a slightly different rotation angle is also shown. where is the data value at pixel of the kth input spectral(k)i [x,y]xy image, is a per image mask used to disable input pixels,(k)mxy and is the area of overlap in cube pixel from inputd [i, j,m]xyijm pixel . the overlap area results from two distinct rounds[x,y] of polygon clipping: ( ) clipping the pseudorectangle m (cor- responding to wavelength ) against the input pixel andl [x,y]m ( ) clipping the resulting “pixel fragment” (which can be a full pixel or a polygonal portion of a pixel), suitably rotated and offset, against the output cube pixel . a schematic of the[i, j] two-phase clipping approach is shown in figure . the core of the cube reconstruction algorithm is the com- putation of the d pixel overlap weights. their calculation de- pends on accurate positioning of the pseudorectangles on the input spectrum, including any line tilt at that wavelength, and the absolute position of the slit center (and thus pr center), as well as the rotation of the slit in the output coordinate grid. errors in positioning the pr along the order in the input spectra or spatially within the output grid will degrade the achieved spectral and/or spatial resolution, as well as increasing corre- lation of noise in adjacent pixels. an individual pr may have both an effective rotation induced by instrumental line tilt in the spectral image and a true rotation arising from differential slit position angle at the time of observation with respect to other spectral images in the mapping set. only the latter should be used to rotate the set of pixel fragments into the output grid (see fig. ). if the spectrograph produces multiple orders from a single slit (e.g., using cross-dispersion), the algorithm of equation ( ) can be extended to permit separated groups of input pixels in the wavelength overlap region between orders to contribute to the same output plane. the wavelength sampling of the output cube in the overlap region between orders is chosen to accom- smith et al. pasp, : – modate the maximum spectral resolution present there, and the d weighting terms are split linearly between the bracketing output planes, according to their proximity to the output wave- length, e.g., , whered r [ fd,( � f )d] f p (l � l )/(l � , for an input wavelength , and its bracketing output wave-l ) l length pair . this ensures flux conservation even for[l ,l ] wavelengths sampled in multiple orders. if accurate error estimates are available for individual pixels in the input spectral images, they can be propagated through equation ( ) using identical weight factors to build a parallel variance cube: n (k) (k)� � d m vxyijm xy xykp xy�prm j (v ,f ,l ) p , ( )ij ij m n (k)� � m dxy xyijmkp xy�prm where is the variance per input pixel. this algorithm does(k)vxy introduce noise correlations between adjacent pixels (as would interpolative approaches), but in practice these are minimized by employing a high level of pixel redundancy in filled spectral maps, with often a dozen or more input pixels contributing to a single output pixel. such pixel redundancy occurs naturally for overlapping spectral orders and is greatly increased by con- structing mapping observations in which single positions on the sky are sampled by several different parts of the slit (along both its width and length). the polygon clipping method discussed here bears a super- ficial similarity to the drizzle algorithm of fruchter & hook ( ) but differs in that it employs exact pixel overlap cal- culations and two levels of pixel clipping (at the pseudorec- tangle stage and again into the output cube) and does not shrink pixels or pixel fragments via a “drop factor.” its advantage over related methods to remap curved spectral data is primarily in avoiding unnecessary interpolation steps, which can introduce resampling noise early in the reduction process, as well as enforcing surface brightness conservation implicitly. another advantage is the ability to track individual contributions from spectral pixels in the source images to the final cube, which can be used readily to reject discrepant pixels. . . pixel rejection and masking the algorithm introduced offers significant statistical power for identifying and rejecting transient or persistent bad pixels. depending on the sampling redundancy at each pixel within the spectral cube, sigma trimming methods can be used effec- tively. since a given input pixel will appear many times[x,y] in a large spectral cube and since each output pixel can have many (dozens or more, depending on map layout) contributing input pixels, statistics can be accumulated to flag outlier pixels. various schemes can be employed, but a sigma threshold, nor- malized to an effective measure of the natural spread in the data—the median absolute deviation from the median—proves effective. to identify persistent deviant pixels in all input spec- tra, it suffices to demand that a given input pixel (at a specific ) be flagged at least some fraction of the times it appears[x,y] in the output (e.g., %). see § . for a specific implemen- tation of this approach. . extended-source flux calibration accurate flux calibration of extended sources has always proved challenging for slit spectrographs, since uniform, beam- filling astrophysical reference sources of known flux intensity (in mjy sr� , for instance) as a function of wavelength are not generally available. instead, point sources (typically stars) with well-measured or modeled flux distributions are used to provide spectrophotometric reference. the flux calibration of point sources is then, ideally at least, trivial—as long as all science targets are unresolved and are placed in exactly the same po- sition within the slit as the reference calibration sources, all details of beam acceptance profile and diffractive losses, which can vary significantly with wavelength and position along the slit, precisely cancel out, and the ratio of unbiased spectra between target and calibration reference will form an accurate physical flux ratio with the model flux. this ideal situation, although approachable for point sources, is by definition not possible for extended sources, light from which enters the slit at all allowable angles, modulated by the source’s angular dis- tribution within the slit. for this reason, some care must be taken to obtain accurate spectrophotometric calibration of ex- tended sources and, in particular, spectral cubes reconstructed from mapping observations of these sources. there are three main issues with extended-source calibration based on point-source spectrophotometric references, which are discussed in order of their ease of treatment. . . aperture correction in imaging point-source photometry, a crucial issue for cal- ibrating extended sources is the aperture over which the point- source flux is measured, typically stated as a radius in pixels. assuming that all unresolved sources are measured with the same aperture radius, the derived fluxes do not depend on the aperture size. however, since such an aperture encircles only a fraction of the total flux of a source, an aperture correction must be applied to derive accurate extended-source calibrations from known photometric reference stars (e.g., reach et al. ). an identical issue occurs in slit spectroscopy, with the ex- traction aperture width serving the role of the photometric ra- dius. small aperture widths are desirable for faint sources, since they exclude noisy pixels in the source’s profile along the slit. larger aperture widths, however, minimize aperture correc- tions, since they capture the bulk of the source flux present in the spectrum. this tension between the desire for larger aperture for unbiased flux measurement and smaller apertures for high signal-to-noise ratio flux recovery has led to psf fitting meth- ods (e.g., stetson ) and their approximate analog in spec- troscopic applications, optimal extraction (e.g., horne ). spectral mapping reconstruction pasp, : – fig. .—slit-loss correction function for the four irs modules. neither psf fitting nor optimal extraction is applicable to extended sources, since they rely on the uniform distribution of source flux on the detector or in the slit. the first step of accurate extended-source flux calibration is, therefore, forming an estimate of the aperture losses as a function of wavelength (the “aperture-loss correction function” [alcf]). this function can be applied to the normally extracted spectrum of spectro- photometric reference stars to estimate the full, undiminished flux at each wavelength in the limit of an infinite aperture. for long slits, the form and magnitude of the alcf can often be obtained trivially using bright flux reference stars with wide extraction apertures. . . slit-loss correction a slit has finite dimensions and therefore accepts only a portion of the flux of a point source imaged onto it. in dif- fraction-limited spectrographs, such as the irs, this slit throughput changes appreciably with wavelength, as the psf delivered by the telescope grows in size by diffraction. for calibrating point-source spectra, this does not present a diffi- culty; as long as all point sources, including the flux references, are well centered in the slit, the slit throughput function divides out. for an extended source, however, a calibration system tied to reference point-source observations will necessarily include an implicit correction for the fraction of the point-source flux that the slit admits. in the limit of a perfectly uniform, slit- filling extended source—which can be conceptualized as an infinitely dense grid of point sources with vanishing flux—the diffractive losses out of the slit are exactly offset by the dif- fractive gains into the slit from sources beyond its geometric boundary. in this limit, then, a “slit-loss correction function” (slcf), which is simply the fraction of the flux of a well-centered point source admitted by the slit as a function of wavelength, must be used to correct extended-source fluxes. without this cor- rection, extended-source fluxes are overestimated. obviously, the actual magnitude of the true slcf depends on the observed source flux distribution, which can be intermediate between unresolved and fully uniform. this complicates its use, but in practice, depending on the size of the slit, this detail can often be ignored, and a single correction function can be employed for all extended sources. estimates of the slcf can be obtained by convolving models of the psf (e.g., stinytim for the spitzer telescope) with the approximate slit dimensions. an example of such a set of slcfs for the four spectrograph modules of spitzer’s irs is shown in figure . . . slit beam profile although a slit can be formed with precise geometric bound- aries, the solid angle it subtends on the sky is broadened due to diffraction. just as for radio dish measurements, a slit has some beam profile, , which can change with wavelength.b(v,f) estimating this beam profile function can be very difficult. salama ( ) describe a method for deconvolving the spec- trograph beams aboard the infrared space observatory using a series of spectra obtained by rastering a point source around the input slit. such a method obviously relies heavily on models of the diffraction of the combined telescope and spectrograph optical path but in principle can be used to recover b. when attempting to test the reliability of a given slit-loss correction, for instance by comparing synthetic photometry from the spectra to real photometry over a common wavelength range (e.g., mm spitzer photometry), there is a strong de- generacy with the effective solid angle subtended by the slits, , such that the slcf can be scaled up orq p b(v,f) dv df∫ef f down, with compensating changes to the inferred beam. if the slit is uniform, and unless both corrections are separately known, it is useful to collapse all information of the beam profile to a single number, the effective solid angle per pixel, and derive this number by comparing photometry with spec- trophotometry in a sample of extended-source measurements. this effective solid angle per pixel should be approximately equal to the slit width times the pixel scale. . cubism an implementation of the cube reconstruction algorithm presented in § for spectral mapping observations using spitzer’s irs spectrograph is available in cubism, the cube builder for irs spectral mapping. cubism is written in the interactive data language (idl) and is designed to com- bine sets of two-dimensional spectral images from irs map- ping observations into single d spectral cubes, with two spatial and one spectral dimension. a variety of cube analysis tools are also available, including arbitrary extractions and map creation (e.g., a continuum-subtracted line image). cub- other tools are available for the processing of single, staring mode irs observations—e.g., smart (higdon et al. ) and spice. smith et al. pasp, : – ism, and a manual detailing its use, are available from the spitzer science center. . . inputs and calibration cubism uses by default the raw two-dimensional basic calibrated data (bcd) spectral images, which have been pro- cessed by the irs pipeline (flat-fielded, corrected for stray light and certain detector anomalies, etc.). versions of the data with- out flat-fielding or stray-light correction can optionally be used for testing purposes. it applies the twin clipping reprojection algorithm of § , using an input set of calibration data derived primarily from ssc calibration products. a set of pseudorec- tangles for each order (see § . ), which delineate the order position and wavelength solution, are constructed directly from the order position and line tilt calibrations. the standard wav- samp calibration files provide a similar set of prs but do not follow the detector’s pixel sampling as required to minimize noise correlation and are therefore not employed. extended- source slcf and alcf flux corrections are applied by default (see § ), the latter by employing a special form of the standard fluxcon flux calibration input. the effective solid angle per pixel (the single free parameter in the extended-source flux calibration methods discussed in § ) is calibrated by comparing integrated spectrophotometry over ∼ arcmin areas to corrected photometry in multiband imaging photometer for spitzer (mips), infrared array camera (irac), irs blue peak-up, and isocam data in bright gal- axies from the spitzer infrared nearby galaxies survey (sings) legacy survey (kennicutt et al. ). in all cases, these solid-angle terms agree with the measured slit width within %. . . cube construction cubism constructs an output cube grid that bounds the mapped region, with default pixel size identical to the sampling in the relevant spectrograph module (ranging from . � to . �). individual spectra are offset into the output grid ac- cording to the requested or reconstructed positions of the slit center during the exposure. the latter, based on contempora- neous telescope attitude reconstruction from gyroscopes and star tracker, yield more stable results. the limited spatial in- formation available in any individual spectral image makes cross-correlation alignment untenable, such that accurate po- sitional accuracy (below the level of the pixel sampling) is crucial for this technique. resulting positional errors, compared to fixed astrometric systems (e.g., mass), are ∼ �. each of the six subslits—two each for low-resolution mod- ules long-low (ll, – mm) and short-low (sl, – mm), along with two high-resolution modules short-high (sh, – mm) and long-high (lh, – mm)—are treated indepen- see http://ssc.spitzer.caltech.edu/archanaly/contributed/cubism. dently. a single cube can contain data for only a single subslit, although for the low-resolution modules, it is unimportant how the data were targeted (e.g., the second order of sl can be used from bcds in which the first order was targeted, etc.). in the latter case, the frame table that defines absolute positions of all spitzer apertures is consulted to calculate the position of the offset subslit. consistent with measurements, spatial distortion along the slits due to projection distortion or other optical effects is assumed negligible. in each of the high-resolution modules, orders are formed by cross-dispersion from the single entrance slit. the cubes are created by merging the order data in the overlap wavelength region, as described in § . . the fractional contributions of all input pixels contributing to a given output cube pixel are computed and are collectively called the cube “accounts.” these can be stored and reread, and they permit high-level statistical methods to be applied to the cube data, for example to exclude outliers (see § . ). cubism was extensively tested on simulated spectral mapping data to validate the algorithm and ensure flux conservation. for speed, the core clipping functions, which implement a special-purpose reentrant form of the sutherland-hodgman polygon clipping algorithm (sutherland & hodgman ), are written in c and autocompiled. if autocompilation fails, an idl- native version will be used as fallback (at a significant speed penalty). . . uncertainty full error cubes are built alongside the data cubes by standard error propagation of equation ( ), using, for the input uncer- tainty , the bcd-level uncertainty estimates produced byjixy the irs pipeline from deviations of the fitted ramp slope fits for each pixel. these uncertainties, which are statistical ramp uncertainties only and neglect other errors in calibration and later processing steps, are used to provide error estimates for extracted spectra and constructed line or continuum maps. . . background both to remove the astrophysical foreground and back- grounds (primarily zodiacal and cirrus) and to mitigate the effects of time-varying warm or “rogue” pixels, it is advan- tageous to subtract near-in-time background frames from each input data record at the d level. suitable background frames (which are free from source contamination in the targeted slit) can be taken from the observations directly (e.g., for smaller targets), from dedicated offset observations, or, if neither is available, from records obtained from the archive at close times (within a few days) and ecliptic latitude ( ). iffb � b f � � necessary, additional correction can be made by subtracting a d spectrum (e.g., extracted from a dark region within the cube)—equivalent to removing a constant value from each cube plane. spectral mapping reconstruction pasp, : – fig. .—cubism project window, with several disabled and selected records. . . bad pixels the bad pixel masks, of equation ( ), are derived from(k)mxy three sources. permanently marked nonresponsive pixels from the pmask are combined with pixels flagged during the ex- posure for saturation (zero or one ramp sample valid), or flat- field difficulties, which are reported in the bmask input frames (automatically loaded alongside the bcds). additional user bad pixels can be marked either globally (such that pixel is disabled in all input spectra) or for individual input[x,y] records. both types of bad pixels can be generated automati- cally, by computing outlier statistics in the accounts information built up during the cube generation (the full record of which input pixels contributed to which output pixels and with what fractional weight). two parameters, , the sigma-trim threshold,rj and , the minimum fraction, control automatic bad pixelfmin detection. for each output cube pixel, the contributing pixel residuals (either with or without subtracted background) are tested against an estimate of the contributing pixel deviation j (computed either from a true variance or, for small number contributing, the median absolute deviation from the median value). if a pixel is an outlier, i.e., fi � median (i )f ≥xy xy�ijm , it is tentatively marked bad. if the same pixel is so markedr jj at least a fraction of the times it appears in the cube, it isfmin flagged. significant power at high spatial frequency (point sources, edges) results in a large natural range of contributing pixel values, such that some care must be taken to ensure that valid data (e.g., strong spectral lines) are not flagged. . . components the cubism interface consists of three main components: the project window, a multipurpose viewer, and a spectrum viewer and map creation interface. underlying the interface components is a scriptable object-oriented data container, se- rialized to disk using idl’s own save format (e.g., cube.cpj). all components communicate with each other to present a consistent state. for example, when loading a new set of bad pixels in one component, the displayed bad pixels in another are automatically updated. . . . cubism project all data, calibration inputs, and cube build settings are col- lected and operated on from the cubism project pane, shown in figure . from this interface, projects can be loaded and saved, or recovered from disk. any number of project windows can be opened at a time. records (individual bcds) can be added and removed, disabled from the build, combined into background images in various ways, sorted, examined for header information, etc. the cube build parameters and cube build itself are controlled from the project component. the cubism project interface also allows bad pixels and back- ground records sets to be loaded, combined, and saved. an individual project targets a single slit in a single module. sep- arate visualization images can be loaded, and feedback is pro- vided on the cube build. various optimizations are employed to speed up the cube build process, including keeping track of the specific cube pixels affected by changes to bad pixel settings and rebuilding only these. using the viewer component, records or stacks of records, the assembled cube, or an image load- ed for visualizing the position of the slit at each step can be displayed. . . . cubeview individual records, stacks of records, spectral cubes or maps, and visualization images can all be viewed in a single viewer interface: cubeview. cubeview has a number of general and special purpose tools that are activated as needed. a single project at a time communicates with one or more instances of the viewer, which modifies itself based on the type of data displayed. for example, if the cube project sends for view an average stack of bcd records, cubeview provides tools for toggling background subtraction, editing the slit-end cutoff po- sitions of the pseudorectangle set, viewing, adding, or removing global and record level bad pixels, etc. when viewing full spectral cubes, an interface to move through the cube planes is provided, and a cube extraction tool is enabled, to construct rectangular extractions or matched region extractions based on preexisting spectra. when viewing cubes, maps, or visualiza- tion images, the world coordinate system (wcs) coordinates are reported, whereas with spectral data, the wavelength, order, and any pixel flags are shown. when viewing visualization images, individual records can be selected directly on the over- lay (useful for specifying background records). general use tools, including histogram scaling, color map modification, line slice plotting, box statistics, aperture photometry, a pixel table, and others, are always available. smith et al. pasp, : – fig. .—cubeview viewer, in three different configurations, showing (from left to right) a stack of bcd records with pseudorectangle set overlaid and bad pixels displayed, a visualization image with the slit positions and selected records shown, and a stack built from the cube itself with an extracted region shown. fig. .—cubespec window, displaying an extracted spectrum, and map region composed of one peak and two continuum regions. the line has been fitted. multiple cubeview instances can be used simultaneously, or a single instance reused to view different types of data. separate projects loaded in the same session communicate with their own set of cubeview tools. an example of cubeview displaying record spectral data, a visualization image, and map created from a spectral cube is shown in figure . . . . cubespec when an extraction is made from a spectral cube being viewed, the resulting spectrum is displayed in the cubespec tool, shown in figure . map images can be assembled and directly viewed in the associated cubeview viewer by speci- fying an arbitrary number of foreground and continuum wave- length regions over which to average (e.g., a line region flanked by two continuum regions), with either wavelength-offset– weighted or uniformly weighted averages used to set the con- tinuum in each foreground plane. map sets can be saved and restored by name, and a custom redshift entered to shift sets (e.g., specified at rest frame) into the observed frame of a target. the tool also provides simple line-fitting capabilities and the ability to create maps using filter curves or other weighting functions (e.g., a mm image using the mips mm filter curve). spectral mapping reconstruction pasp, : – fig. .—example map created from a sl irs spectral map ( – mm) of supernova remnant cas a, in three continuum-subtracted lines: [ne ii] (red), [ar iii] (green), and [s iv] (blue). each position in the map has an associated full – mm spectrum. . . outputs cubism outputs data products in standard fits and ipac table formats. although the working storage format is idl sav file, the full spectral cubes can be exported as fits, with the third spectral dimension’s wavelengths encoded as a lookup table, following the fits spectral coordinate standards of grei- sen et al. ( ). maps created from the cubes are output as standard d fits images, with information encoding the fore- ground and background wavelength range(s) used to create them. when uncertainty cubes have been built, accompanying uncertainty fits files are produced alongside the fits data products. spectral extractions are reproduced in the ipac table format (an ascii format with column delineations, labels, and units) and include information describing the coordinates of the ex- traction rectangle. all products have associated wcs coordi- nate systems attached, with estimated accuracy of �. . optimized spectral mapping as for deep image mosaics, the redundancy of pixel sampling is the foremost determinant of the quality of a produced spectral cube. redundancy permits robust statistical rejection of bad pixels, minimizes the impact of variations in slit throughput or see http://irsa.ipac.caltech.edu/applications/ddgen/doc/ipac_tbl.html. detector response along the slit, and reduces noise correlation between neighboring output pixels. in particular for the irs, with its time-varying rogue pixels, sampling a given position on the sky with at least different detector pixels is crucial for achieving high final cube quality (e.g., using the methods of § . ). given the spatial and spectral degeneracy (§ . ), it is also critical to step by one-half the slit width in the dispersion direction. wider step spacing risks gaps or uneven photometric response in the spectral cube, in particular when a random and unknown spatial dither pattern is added to the requested pointing positions. a detailed set of recommendations for planning and executing spectral maps is provided at the ssc. . summary in observing regimes with stable astrophysical background and image characteristics, integral field spectroscopy of ex- tended sources can be achieved efficiently by rastering a single long slit to cover the target area with suitable redundancy. this can significantly reduce instrument complexity and size, in par- ticular if a long-slit mode is already required for efficient fol- low-up of isolated point sources. these savings in instrument complexity are traded against increased dependence on tele- scope pointing accuracy—only telescope attitude systems that can track position at angular scales substantially smaller than the smallest slit width provide effective platforms for slit-map- ping integral field spectroscopy. a resampling noise–minimizing, two-pass polygon clipping algorithm for the reconstruction of spectral cubes with two spatial and one spectral dimension from spectral mapping data sets is introduced, and an implementation of this algorithm for spitzer irs spectral mapping observations, cubism, is de- scribed. cubism has been used for individual maps comprised of ∼ individual spectral data frames, for ultradeep blind spectral mapping surveys, and for large area mosaics covering hundreds of square arcminutes. it makes full use of the un- paralleled background-limited performance of the irs spec- trograph to provide sensitive integral field infrared spectros- copy. an example custom image created from three continuum-subtracted lines from a large map of the supernova remnant cassiopeia a is shown in figure . the authors thank the staff of the irs instrument support team at the spitzer science center, california institute of tech- nology—with special thanks to phil appleton, carl grillmair, david shupe, pat morris, sergio fajardo-acosta, patrick ogle, jim ingalls, harry teplitz, and patrick ogle—for substantial continuing support and advice regarding all aspects of telescope control, instrument calibration, pipeline behavior, and more. we are also indebted to the irs instrument team at cornell university—in particular jim houck, vassilis charmandaris, see http://ssc.spitzer.caltech.edu/irs/documents/specmap_bop. smith et al. pasp, : – jeff van cleve, keven uchida, greg sloan, sarah higdon, and daniel devost—for much helpful advice, discussions, calibra- tion assistance, and insight into the instrument. michael cush- ing provided helpful discussions regarding aspects of the al- gorithm design. support for this work, part of the spitzer space telescope legacy science program, was provided by nasa through contract issued by jpl/caltech under contract . references allington-smith, j. r., et al. , mnras, , bacon, r., et al. , mnras, , burton, m., & allen, d. , proc. astron. soc. australia, , colless, m., et al. , mnras, , content, r. , proc. spie, , dubbeldam, m., content, r., allington-smith, j. r., pokrovski, s., & robertson, d. j. , proc. spie, , fruchter, a. s., & hook, r. n. , pasp, , greisen, e. w., calabretta, m. r., valdes, f. g., & allen, s. l. , a&a, , heacox, w. d., & connes, p. , a&a rev., , higdon, s. j. u., et al. , pasp, , hook, i., et al. , proc. spie, , horne, k. , pasp, , houck, j. r., et al. , apjs, , johanneson, a., bida, t., lites, b., & scharmer, g. b. , a&a, , kennicutt, r. c., jr., et al. , pasp, , le fèvre, o., et al. , in deep fields, proc. eso workshop, ed. s. cristiani, a. renzini, & r. e. williams (berlin: springer), mandel, h., et al. , proc. spie, , mclean, i. s., et al. , proc. spie, , monteiro, h., schwarz, h. e., gruenwald, r., guenthner, k., & heath- cote, s. r. , apj, , mukai, k. , pasp, , poglitsch, a., et al. , proc. spie, , ———. , proc. spie, , reach, w. t., et al. , pasp, , salama, a. , in iso beyond point sources: studies of extended infrared emission, ed. r. j. laureijs, k. leech, & m. f. kessler (esa sp- ; noordwijk: esa), smith, j. d. t., et al. , proc. spie, , stetson, p. b. , pasp, , sutherland, i. e., & hodgman, g. w. , commun. assoc. comput. machinery, , tecza, m., thatte, n. a., krabbe, a., & tacconi-garman, l. e. , proc. spie, , thatte, n., et al. , in asp conf. ser. , imaging the universe in three dimensions, ed. w. van breugel & j. bland-hawthorn (san francisco: asp), tull, r. g., macqueen, p. j., sneden, c., & lambert, d. l. , pasp, , werner, m. w., et al. , apjs, , wilson, j. c., et al. , pasp, , york, d. g., et al. , aj, , m o n r o y — d e m o r a e s ouvidor artistic occupation: art and life beyond the norm keywords laws occupations social movements urban planning essay according to são paulo regulations, empty or disused buildings are not fulfilling their social function and, therefore, can be occupied by homeless people. the case analyzed in this text goes even further: to the housing is added a community of artistic production. which, in terms of the law, is precisely what puts the building again at risk, since by having more than one activity, it could be argued that it is not fulfilling its ‘social function.’ u sing the case of ouvidor – a cultural occupation in the center of the city of são paulo, brazil – we seek to understand how normative concepts on urban space and its use contrast with the effective use given by the social group that inhabits said building. for this, we confronted the appropriation of an abandoned property through a type of non-institutionalized artistic production – characteristic of this object – with the instances of power: both the strategic master plan and the art system. thus, we propose to debate situations where popular artistic practice can reach the potential for social transformation. drawing from the in situ experience of the authors of this text, as well as the study of the demand for ownership of the property under analysis, we can consider the insurgency as the predominant theme to understand this production. history ouvidor is the address of a thirteen-story building located in the central area of the city of são paulo that was abandoned for several years. former headquarters of the ministry of culture of the state of são paulo, this property was vacated by the government in the pau l a m o n r oy profesora, escola da cidade, faculdade de arquitetura e urbanismo, são paulo, brasil j u l i a d e m o r a e s a l m e i da profesora, universidade de são paulo, são paulo, brasil a r q — s a n t ia g o , c h il e ocupantes en azotea de edificio ouvidor , são paulo / occupation dwellers in the ouvidor building top, são paulo . © archivo ouvidor ocupantes de ouvidor , laboratorio de vestuario consciente, º piso del edificio, são paulo / ouvidor dwellers and contributors, vestuario consciente lab, th floor, são paulo . © archivo ouvidor early s, remaining empty for more than seven years. between and there was a residential occupation commanded by families of the movimiento moradia do centro (m m c), being subsequently evicted by judicial action and, once cleared, granted to the housing and urban development company (companhia de desenvolvimento habitacional e urbano, cd h u). when cd h u left, the building was abandoned for the last time. then, on may , , it was occupied again; this time, by a group of artists from southern brazil. thus, an empty public property became fertile ground both for the experimentation of alternative ways of life and for the development of artistic-cultural works without institutional support. artistic freedom could be exercised in its purest form; the occupation not only originated a residential place for more than people – including local self-taught artists, immigrants, children, and the elders – but also a space for artistic production. however, the social group that inhabits this building today, better known as ocupação artística ouvidor , has experienced not only the uncertainty regarding its permanence in this place but also what it means to live the insurgency. yet, what exactly do we mean by this? insurgency: new uses for a democratic space the idea of insurgency is understood here as the search for new models that challenge the hegemonic structures of power which dominate the narrative of who and how should urban environment appropriation be accomplished. this insurgency – or insurrection – can be made explicit through speeches or actions of disobedience in the face of certain disciplinary mechanisms – which, in america, range from the colonization process of the th century to today’s neoliberalism – and through this deconstruction, it is possible to create new modalities of dialogue between the dominant and dominated. in , the inhabitants of ouvidor faced a possession lawsuit filed by the owner of the property, that is, the state. the artists would have to leave the building since none was its owner. in the middle of the legal debates, a point alleged in the judicial action no. - . . . . called our attention: it was argued that the property was not fulfilling its social function, that is, underutilized. in relation to the center of são paulo, this point is one of the most discussed: as in most latin american cities, the centers have become desfile inaugural i i bienal de artes ouvidor, puente terminal bandeira, adyacente al edificio de la ocupación, são paulo / i i biennial of arts of ouvidor, inaugural parade, terminal bandeira bridge, next to the occupation, são paulo . © archivo ouvidor a b obsolete and, therefore, have hundreds of vacant buildings, such as this one, abandoned for years. in this way, by failing to comply with what the law determines as a social function, these buildings are merely at the mercy of real estate speculation, since the city center is one of the richest valued regions, with full access to public transport, education, and health. in this case, and considering the property was taken by homeless people, they could have given them the property, since by inhabiting it they were giving it an active use. however, this did not happen. why? according to the resolutions issued in the ouvidor case, the social function of a property would be, by law, limited exclusively to housing. therefore, since in addition to living there, the inhabitants of this building are using it to produce art, under the law the occupation would not be legitimate. but why can’t art be understood as a way to make use of a publicly owned property? could, eventually, artistic work re-signify underutilized urban space? from a legal point of view, we can observe that state instruments operate in the territory in a controversial manner. on the one hand, the act of occupying a privately-owned building may be considered illegal, since the right to property is violated under article , subsection x x ii of the federal constitution. but this same instrument, specifically through the strategic master plan of the municipality of são paulo (law . / ), defines that one of the fundamental points that must be fulfilled by any property and landowner is the already mentioned social function of urban property: the inactivity of land or buildings located in regions with adequate infrastructure, can cause detrimental effects to their environment (such as degradation and abandonment) and to the entire city, since it reduces the supply of areas suitable for urbanization or use, causing the rise of real estate and the expulsion of large portions of the population to more remote and environmentally sensitive regions. a artista morador de origen colombiano en su lugar de residencia, º piso del edificio, são paulo / colombian dweller and artist in his place of residence, th floor, são paulo . © paula monroy b felipe chianca, artista morador de la ocupación en su lugar de residencia y taller de trabajo, º piso del edificio, são paulo / felipe chianca, occupation dweller and artist in his place of work and residence, th floor, são paulo . © paula monroy m o n r o y — d e m o r a e s c d [...] the owner of an unbuilt or underutilized land will have a period of one year to present a project to develop or build on their properties. the same term applies to those already built, but not used, however here the obligation is to give them effective use. (municipal secretary of urban development cidade de são paulo, ) as a squatted territory, ouvidor existence implies permanently dealing with conflict. from the urban point of view, the conflict appears in the dichotomy between appropriation and eviction. but from the sociocultural point of view, this clash of perspectives can be understood as a synonym for democracy; after all, the debate between the various agents that make up the city is part of its own construction (wisnik, ). however, in the brazilian context after , we have not only been able to note that the divergences pull away from constructive dialogue, but also the way the country is approaching an increasingly homogenizing and authoritarian scenario, where the hegemony of the neoliberal state determines what is possible and what not. going deeper into legitimacy in these kinds of contexts, we observe that it is subject to the visibility or silencing of conflicts, demands or the social body itself. the power that is exerted on the bodies of a community, ‘biopower’ (foucault, ), is related to the application of sovereignty by a limited group of dominant actors and taken to its maximum expression. we are referring to authority mechanisms whose focus is not that of promoting the construction of social autonomy, but the instrumentalized formatting of the existence of certain social groups in the territory, where the human being really becomes subject, through struggle and work, to face death itself. in this light, the exercise of living itself becomes a political act, an act of resistance (mbembe, ). here we identify a clear point: the state chooses not to assist the residents of ouvidor in the interest of guaranteeing their property rights over the building. this type of oppressive actions on citizenship – here represented by the right to dignified housing – by certain c hall de acceso º piso del edificio, são paulo / th floor hall access of the building, são paulo . © paula monroy d lola, artista trans chilena, residente temporal del º piso del edificio, são paulo / lola, chilean trans artist, temporal resident of the building’s th floor, são paulo . © paula monroy e hegemonic economic agents have been criticized by a progressive group of theorists, activists, and social movements. for them, the policy of destitution of rights is a permanent practice and seeks to protect a condition of individual sovereignty over freedom, collectivity, and democratic social welfare. aware of this clash of forces so present in the contemporary city, it is observed that: the increasing polarization in the distribution of wealth and power is indelibly etched into the spatial forms of our cities, which increasingly transform into cities of fortified fragments, of gated communities, and privatized public spaces kept under constant surveillance. the neoliberal protection of private property rights and their values become a hegemonic form of politics, even for the lower middle class. [...] yet there are in fact all kinds of urban social movements in evidence seeking to overcome the e vista de la ocupación ouvidor desde el puente terminal bandeira, são paulo / ovidor occupation view from the terminal bandeira bridge, são paulo . © paula monroy f g isolations and to reshape the city in a different social image from that given by the powers of developers backed by finance, corporate, capital, and an increasingly entrepreneurially minded local state apparatus. (harvey, : - ) as in the construction of urbanity, the clash of perspectives is an important survey of resources for contemporary artistic production, functioning as a great articulator in the dialogue between the work and the public. in fact, “art is precisely something that always causes programmed strangeness in the context of what made it a habit [...] is an effective deprogrammer of mental habits, to which people offer inevitable resistance” (tiburi, ). it is through this key that we understand the potential of artistic practice, because it questions speeches or realities ruled by the norm. this potential reaches an even greater dimension when it is transferred from the traditional exhibition space to the urban space. art, city, and legislation in são paulo. is it a crime? in the th and st centuries we have observed how the relationship between art and city (the latter understood as a public place of relations, historical conditions, political perspectives, and collectivity) has gained importance in the deconstruction of the power devices that operate on the territory, on institutions and, consequently, on society. it is what we may call ‘dissident art’ or ‘counterculture.’ in the brazilian case, the counterculture has been manifesting itself from the modernist generation – with artists such as tarsila do amaral, anita malfatti, and oswald de andrade, all participants of the renowned modern art week of – through speeches that sought to break the traditional artistic patterns of that time. but it was in the late s, even during the brazilian military dictatorship, that the artistic insurgency strongly expanded. f espacio común y huerta comunitaria en la azotea del edificio, são paulo / common space and community garden in the building top, são paulo . © paula monroy g yebora, artista moradora de la ocupación en su lugar de residencia y taller de trabajo, º piso del edificio, são paulo / yebora, occupation dweller and artist in her place of residence and workshop, nd floor of the building, são paulo . © paula monroy a r q — s a n t ia g o , c h il e tropicália – musical revolution initiated by caetano veloso, gilberto gil, gal costa, and os mutantes, among other artists – was born as “a proposal of ‘universal sound’ that considered all the sounds produced by mankind to be valid” (murgel, : ). in addition to calling for a certain universality, the movement occupied festivals and public spaces – mainly in são paulo – responding to both the strong us cultural influence that already prevailed in much of latin america and the oppression of the military regime that ruled brazil for more than years. the members of tropicália found in the musical expression their battle tool, which in ended up costing veloso and gil to be exiled. currently, with the expansion of internet access in brazil, its decentralized and fluid information system promoted the creation of a network of artistic collectives and social movements that occupied the streets of the main cities of the country between and , mixing art and political activism. in the specific case of são paulo, these public space manifestations provided both a desire to claim the ‘right to the city’ and new artistic circuits, parallel and independent, built from appropriation and collaboration (campbell, ). it is within this scenario of effervescence and debate where the artistic occupation ouvidor was born. in this sense, we believe that the recent wave of socio-political protests that have taken the streets instalación «ferida aberta» del artista sirius amén en su lugar de residencia y taller, expuesta durante la i i bienal de artes ouvidor , º piso del edificio, são paulo / “ferida aberta” installation, by artist sirius amén in his place of residence, as exhibited during the i i biennial of arts of ouvidor , th floor of the building, são paulo . © archivo ouvidor m o n r o y — d e m o r a e s of various cities in latin america, where the civilian population has made artistic-cultural manifestations facing the repression of the armed forces, may come to question what was established by a highly unequal system in various aspects, forcing to rethink urban, economic, gender and human rights policies in favor of a truly democratic sociocultural configuration. at this point, it is worth exploring a legal concept that, in the socio-cultural context, addresses the ambiguity between the legal and the illegal, the formal and informal. ‘cultural criminology’ is a criminological theory that seeks to understand why certain artistic manifestations are considered as crimes while others are not. coined in the united states by jeff ferrell, this new perspective of criminology arises to understand the presence of graffiti on us walls. in short, the author concludes that graffiti was criminalized for being associated with a part of the immigrant population: the latino minority located in urban peripheral areas (shecaira, ). that is, both the art and the social group that produced these drawings suffered legal censorship. thus, cultural criminology is presented as a contribution of critical criminology, which aims to relate issues of cultural ideology, migration in the urban context, and expressions of group identity, with criminal and administrative responses that restrict the freedom of artistic production in the contemporary city. from this concept, it is possible to build a parallel vision in brazil, where we can identify a legal similarity in the behavior of the state: criminalize the formats that do not fit the previously established legislative framework, without giving space to local singularities and specificities. that is the case of the artistic occupation ouvidor . it should be noted that, throughout its existence, ouvidor has established some alliances with institutions. but these associations have not changed the situation of illegality and questioning that this community suffers. for example, an association articulated in with the red bull brand – whose cultural headquarters is close to the occupation – allowed for the realization of the second biennial of arts ouvidor , bringing its artists notoriety and media presence. another example was the invitation made by sofía borges, one of the artists that curated the rd são paulo biennial, to two ouvidor resident artists. both were called to develop a performance within the installation a infinita história das coisas ou o fim da tragédia do um, being somehow embraced by the institution. finally, in , an invitation from the curatorial team of the são paulo cultural center (cc sp) was made, so that, for the first time in the history of ouvidor , a group of residents would be part of a collective exhibition in this renowned public institution. it is important to clarify that these projects were carried out in the midst of internal discussions: it is recognized that institutionalization can contribute in financial terms, but also that it opens space for the co-optation of the occupation image and the banalization of popular resistance art, which happens to be exploited as cool, outsider art with all the merchandising that this taller de modelo vivo en el marco de la i i bienal de artes ouvidor , são paulo / live model drawing workshop during the i i biennial of arts of ouvidor , são paulo . © archivo ouvidor entails. as we well know, the market is powerful and it will always tip the scales in its favor. this situation raised a strong debate towards the construction of new models of housing and organization, which finally ended up triggering the migration of some members of the occupation to other dwelling and production spaces. the actions, works, and performances carried out by the ouvidor community have much more to do with a process of political resistance in an extremely unequal country – where art is understood as a battle tool – than with a final product that can become a market asset for museums and galleries. therefore, from our field research, we understand that the productions developed here – ranging from ephemeral actions, workshops, and conversation forums to artist-residency programs, all free of charge – acquire a revolutionary strength from the moment in which they challenge the cultural industry and the urban law by democratizing the access to art and by bringing it closer to everyday life. we talk about people who, in situations of illegality and criminalization, keep producing and occupying spaces. the socio-political impact inherent in the squatting movements, as well as the resilience in the face of the discursive limitations of a self-taught practice, make us think about the value of this occupation within a context that is constantly trying to make it disappear. here lies its insurgency. legal or illegal, scholarly or popular, legitimized or unrecognized, the artistic occupation ouvidor is presented as a strategic alternative to contribute both to the active social function of an unoccupied property and to new ways of producing and exchanging knowledge in a context of social inequality, legal ambiguities and uncertainties about the future of brazilian artistic practices. arq acceso del edificio visto desde el puente terminal bandeira, durante una jornada colectiva de trabajo / building access viewd from the terminal bandeira bridge, during a day of collective work. © archivo ouvidor m o n r o y — d e m o r a e s notas / notes the strategic master plan of são paulo city (p d e) “is a municipal law that guides urban development and growth until . prepared with the participation of society, the p d e directs the actions of urban space producers, public or private, so that the city development is done in a planned manner, attentive to the collective needs of the entire population, taking care to guarantee a city that is more modern, balanced, inclusive, environmentally responsible, productive and, above all, with a high-quality life. it must regulate some planned urban instruments and revise existing ones, in order to make são paulo more adherent to the pre-existing royal city and more attractive for economic activities that reinforce its global city profile, and to the condition of being the rd biggest metropolis of the world.” source: https://gestaourbana.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/ marco-regulatorio/plano-diretor/ we, as academic colleagues, have developed our research, around this object of study, from the concepts of art-city and cultural criminology, respectively. between and , we conducted a field investigation through periodic visits to the ouvidor occupation, using methodologies such as participant observation, interviews, and action research. this experience provided us with a primary database for the construction of this article. according to article of the directive strategic plan of são paulo of , totally unoccupied or underutilized lands that have not reached the minimum utilization coefficient, or properties with % or more of unused area, do not fulfill their social function. in , various social manifestations massively took the streets in são paulo and other brazilian cities with an important political role. however, the initial demand for the decrease in the value of public transport was lost amid a scenario of collective dissatisfaction with the national economy. this economic crisis triggered a political crisis that, in turn, culminated in the impeachment of president dilma rousseff in . a controversial and authoritarian process: after years of a policy considered leftist – rousseff being the first one in history who set out to make the rich pay taxes – brazilian investors and businessmen made an agreement to remove the president from office, taking advantage of the established crisis context. from this movement, a national conservative wave was born, which in elected president jair bolsonaro, a fan of censorship and an executioner of critical thinking. event of visual and performing arts that took place in são paulo in february and was strongly influenced by european artistic avant-garde (dadaism, expressionism, cubism, and so on). it caused a great deal of strangeness in brazilian society at that time given its challenging nature in the face of traditional molds of what was understood as art. its main intention was to establish new aesthetics, formats, and reflections on national artistic creation. a term that arises from the penetrable installation of the artist hélio oiticica, who sought to represent the freedom and creativity of brazilian popular culture in opposition to the censorship of the military regime initiated in . the work was exhibited at the museum of modern art in rio de janeiro (m a m /r j) in april . collaborative initiatives such as a batata precisa de você, movimiento parque augusta, occupations in roosevelt square and voodoohop parties in abandoned spaces, stand out. concept created in by the french philosopher and sociologist henri lefebvre, who defines it as the right of democratic access to urban resources and the exercise of collective power to reshape urbanization processes. in , various south american countries experienced a wave of demonstrations and social crises against the political regimes that govern them. these demonstrations have been strongly repressed by the police and military corps, threatening even the lives of citizens. parallel event to the renowned são paulo biennial and whose second version was inaugurated in september . under the title outros mundos possíveis, the project sought to address the concept of counterculture from different genres, prioritizing the construction of physical works, projections, installations, and performances. the main guidelines were media economics as well as networking and knowledge sharing between professionals and self-taught people from different areas. contemporary art event that since has functioned as one of the largest platforms worldwide for the exhibition and dissemination of national and international works. after the venice biennale, it is considered the second most relevant within the world’s art a r q — s a n t ia g o , c h il e paula monroy <pmonroy@usp.br> julia de moraes almeida <julia.moraes.almeida@usp.br> circuit. the version, affective affinities, proposed for the first time a collective curatorial system, directed by the spanish gabriel pérez-barreiro. from the coup d’etat against president dilma rousseff in to the current government of jair bolsonaro elected in , the brazilian ministry of culture has gone through processes of progressive divestment, content censorship, and even its suppression. with this, it ceased to be a ministry and became the special secretariat of culture, an agency under the ministry of citizenship. architect, universidad mayor, chile, . master (c) in space, project and culture, faculdade de arquitetura, universidade de são paulo (fa u u s p), brazil, . specialized in art: criticism and curatorship, p u c /s p, brazil , . she joined the organization of the x i x biennial of architecture and urbanism of chile (valparaíso, ) and the curatorial team of the i i biennial of arts ouvidor (são paulo, ). she was the general editor of the feria libre de arquitectura catalog (santiago, ) and curator of são paulo, the city invited to the x x i biennial of architecture and urbanism of chile. monroy is a professor at the escola da cidade, faculdade de arquitetura e urbanismo, são paulo, brazil. lawyer, universidade de são paulo, brazil/universidad pantheon-sorbonne, france, . master (c) in criminology, faculdade de direito/faculdade de arquitetura e urbanismo, universidade de são paulo, . master, university of lyon i i , france, . she is the national coordinator of the rede brasileira de saberes descoloniais, the direito nucleo, cidade e cultura and the laboratorio de direito urbanístico. she is also co-author of the book novas perspectivas da criminologia (editora d’placido, brazil, ). she currently teaches at the universidade de 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r i a m u n i c i pa l d e d e s e n v o lv i m e n t o u r b a n o, cidade de são paulo. «função social da propriedade: parcelamento, edificação e utilização compulsórios» mai. . accedido el noviembre . disponible en: <https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov. br/cidade/secretarias/urbanismo/funcao_social_da_propriedade/ index.php?p= > t i b u r i , marcia. «a negação dos todos os poderes», revista cult , são paulo ( ). w i s n i k , guilherme. «guilherme wisnik: ‘conflito é atributo essencial da cidade viva’». folha de s. paulo. são paulo. abril . accedido el de noviembre de . disponible en: <https://www .folha. uol.com.br/ilustrada/ / / -guilherme-wisnik-conflito- e-atributo-essencial-da-cidade-viva.shtml> https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/urbanismo/funcao_social_da_propriedade/index.php?p= https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/urbanismo/funcao_social_da_propriedade/index.php?p= https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/urbanismo/funcao_social_da_propriedade/index.php?p= https://www .folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/ / / -guilherme-wisnik-conflito-e-atributo-essencial-da-cidade-viva.shtml https://www .folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/ / / -guilherme-wisnik-conflito-e-atributo-essencial-da-cidade-viva.shtml https://www .folha.uol.com.br/ilustrada/ / / -guilherme-wisnik-conflito-e-atributo-essencial-da-cidade-viva.shtml x mm http://anm.sagepub.com animation doi: . / ; ; animation pat power animation animated expressions: expressive style in d computer graphic narrative http://anm.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/ / / the online version of this article can be found at: published by: http://www.sagepublications.com can be found at:animation additional services and information for http://anm.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts email alerts: http://anm.sagepub.com/subscriptions subscriptions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.navreprints: http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalspermissions.navpermissions: http://anm.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/ / / citations at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts http://anm.sagepub.com/subscriptions http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.nav http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalspermissions.nav http://anm.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/ / / http://anm.sagepub.com animated expressions: expressive style in d computer graphic narrative animation pat power abstract the development of d animation systems has been driven primarily by a hyper-realist ethos, and d computer graphic (cg) features have broadly complied with this agenda. as a counterpoint to this trend, some researchers, technologists and animation artists have explored the possibility of creating more expressive narrative output from d animation environ- ments. this article explores d animation aesthetics, technology and culture in this context. synthesizing research in cg, neuro - esthetics, art history, semiotics, psychology and embodied approaches to cognitive science, the nature of naturalistic vis-à- vis expressive visual styles is analysed, with particular regard to expressive communication and cues for emotional engagement. two foundations of naturalistic d cg, single-point perspective and photorealistic rendering, are explored in terms of expressive potential, and the conclusion considers the future for an expres- sive aesthetics in d cg animation. keywords d animation, creative, emotion, expressive aesthetic, naturalism, non-photorealistic rendering, perspective, realism animation: an interdisciplinary journal (http://anm.sagepub.com) copyright © the author(s), . reprints and permissions: http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journals/journalspermission.nav vol ( ): – [ - ( )] . / article at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com realism, naturalism and expression realism and naturalism, ideas of art as an imitation of reality, are currently the primary ethos of d animation culture and technology. these issues are ‘far larger and more far-reaching than aesthetics or artistic convention’ (kress and van leeuwen, : ), involving not only questions of aesthetics, but of ontology, epistemology and phenomenology. their history is at least as old as plato’s derogation of art as mimesis, and its subsequent defence by aristotle. in modern times they again became prominent with the advent of photography, then the birth of cinema. photography and cinema differ somewhat from painting and animation with regard to realism as, in lens-based arts, the indexical nature of the image is generally a given, whereas in both non-photographic imagery and animation the constructed nature of the imagery is salient. other non-lens-based visual arts flourished subsequently by actively exploring denaturalization as both theme and technique. since the late s, when roland barthes’ analyses of the codes of reality effects and referential illusions undermined aspirations to realism and naturalism, contemporary cultural or semiotic theory has also aimed at denaturalization by revealing the socially coded basis of cultural phenomena which are taken-for-granted as natural. ironi- cally, during the same period, naturalism has become the sine qua non of cg research, the achievement of photorealism being ‘the main goal of research’ in this field (manovich, : ). ‘different realisms exist side by side in our society’, but the standard by which we judge visual realism remains conventionally understood naturalism, that is photorealism ( kress and van leeuwen, : ). in fine arts and animation, the term realism is often used interchange- ably with naturalism to define a style of visual or audio-visual mimetic representation that aspires to photorealistic or cinematic verisimili- tude. andrew hemingway ( : ) argues that the term realism is too confusing a term to apply to visual arts such as painting and suggests that, following e.h. gombrich, the term naturalism (despite its own ambiguous associations) better reflects ‘the general idea of pictorial verisimilitude’. though both terms are used where considered appropriate in this article, the term naturalism does seem somewhat less confusing, and better reflects the technological drive towards verisimilitude in d animation. theories of art as expression also have a controversial history. having been particularly out of favour in the second half of the th century, they have recently been revived due in part to advances in the study of emotion, like those by neuroscientists antonio damasio, joseph ledoux, edmund rolls and jaak panksepp, by psychologists including jerome kagan, nico frijda and arnold modell, and by theorists who deal specifically with emotion and expression in the arts, for example jenefer robinson, noël carroll, greg m. smith and christopher butler. animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com in a narrative context, naturalist and expressive modes of represen- tation can be seen as dialectically related. generally, illusionistic d attempts mimesis of an external (or cinematic) reality whereas expres- sive styles play more with the nature of mind and of perception, emotion, memory and imagination. however, in common with live action (as in german expressionism or film noir, for example), a virtual visual reality can still be expressive in modalities such as lighting or sound, while a non-naturalistic animated narrative might not express anything successfully at all. but in animation as in painting, whereas some artists strive for visual verisimilitude, others prioritize expressive- ness, and these are aesthetically divergent styles, the former dealing primarily with denotation, and the latter, either consciously or intu- itively, with expressive connotation. there are resonances here with dialectics such as objective/subjective, logical/emotional and noumenal/phenomenal and with language, where prose can be contrasted with more poetic and expressive forms. traditionally, animation has been one of the most expressive of the visual arts, but in d animation, quantitative has trumped qualitative, due in part to what vivian sobchack ( ) calls ‘the calculative and quantitative tendencies of the computer’ (p. ). the issue in question here is whether or how an aesthetic culturally and technologically rooted at one end of this continuum can be taken for a creative stroll towards the other end. the exercise should prove worthwhile, because as kostas terzidis ( : ) suggests, the expressive has many advan- tages over the realistic and, whereas the computer-graphic quest for realism is essentially about completeness, ‘notions of incompleteness, imperfection, and subjectivity’ invite interactive participation and have an expressive value that can surpass this explicitness. as michael davis ( ), a specialist in greek philosophy and translator of aristotle sees it, mimesis should comprise ‘a stylizing of reality in which the ordinary features of our world are brought into focus by a certain exaggeration . . . like the relationship of dancing to walking’ (p. ). he concludes that ‘the more “real” the imitation the more fraudulent it becomes.’ d computer graphics and photorealism there are strong historical, technical, commercial and cultural reasons for a dominant naturalist aesthetic in contemporary d cg. the homology of applied science and technology research and develop- ment ensured a legacy of ideologies of objectivity as opposed to subjectivity. as digital techniques have supplanted analogue tech- niques in many design and production contexts, including graphics and animation, d animation has co-evolved symbiotically and stylisti- cally with developments in d cg technology. there has been co- development and cross-over in technical advances for computer-aided design and manufacturing (cad/cam) and developments for use in power animated expressions at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com d animation and entertainment, largely ‘determined by the needs of the early sponsors of this research – the pentagon and hollywood’ (manovich, : ). whether they are for use in architecture, car design, military applications, medical imaging or feature animations, they all come under the rubric of d cg visualization, and can be traced back to ivan sutherland’s sketchpad system that exempli- fied this ‘new paradigm of interacting with computers’ (manovich, : ). autodesk inc., one high-profile contemporary example, develops systems for use in architecture, engineering, manufacturing, and media and entertainment. it develops cad systems (such as autocad) in tandem with d animation solutions (such as d studio max and maya), and research and development in specialized graphics hardware and software are congruent across all these sectors (figure ). though these markets are largely distinct, there are important historical, cultural and technical syntheses. for example, volumetric modelling and rendering using voxels (volumetric pixels) has been used for some time in areas such as medical imaging (visualizing mri scans), but now, combined with physics simulation, this synthesis comprises a prominent research and development focus both for animation and effects for arts/entertainment, and in particular for water, ocean, cloud and other fluid or gaseous effects. of the tech- nical oscars awarded in , over half were for development of such dynamic fluid effects systems. most of the commercial, educational, governmental/military organ- izations and individuals involved in d research and development are driven predominantly by an ethos of realistic or naturalistic visualiza- tion, and this is understandable in terms of goals for technical achieve- ment. siggraph is the major cross-industry professional organization for cg and its research proceedings point towards realism as a common goal (manovich, : ). d cg animation software for arts/entertainment is currently focused on three main markets; animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) computer aided design (engineering, architecture, drafting vehicle and product design) computer aided manufacturing (cad extended to control cutting, drilling and other output devices) medical imaging (visualization for fmri scanning and other medical technologies) scientific visualization (mathematics, data visualization) simulation (training simulators for aircraft and other safety critical equipment) visual effects for movies (naturalistic effects for seamless integration with live action) interactive vr (remote control, virtual worlds for arts & entertainment) d animation for film & games (both naturalistic and expressive output for arts & entertainment) figure d cg markets and applications (only those towards the bottom left are potential markets for expressive output). at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com animated movies (including features, adverts and shorts), d games and special effects generation (sfx). although, to some extent, produc- ers of animation and games have a broad choice as to the aesthetic they choose, the special effects industry by its nature requires seamless integration with live action and thus depends on verisimilar naturalism. in this world of what manovich ( : ) calls hybrid aesthetics, the goals of a naturalistic aesthetic for sfx have a strong influence on the world of animation. in spite of the fact that much in d animation has been technically determined, artistic innovation has also played a part, and many d animation and special effects companies have developed ad-hoc solu- tions to specific problems encountered by directors or designers that are often problems of aesthetics or style. such advances have often disseminated into the wider cg community through forums such as siggraph, resulting in ‘the development of important algorithms that became widely used’ (manovich, : ) and, despite commercial competition, a range of top-end systems has evolved with broadly similar functionality (for example, variations on sub-division surfaces, inverse kinematics, fluid effects, particles and dynamics). there have always been technically gifted iconoclasts with an eye for aesthetics (for example, john whitney, ed catmull, chris landreth), who were as much concerned with artistic as with technical advances. landreth ( ), an engineer turned artist who worked on the devel- opment of maya and whose animated short ryan won an oscar in , calls this a renaissance field, bringing together artists, program- mers, musicians, engineers and other eclectic talents to develop new kinds of storytelling. as these systems evolve they are gradually becoming more accessible to artists and, as d cg output becomes more pervasive, artists are becoming more attuned to their creative potential. landreth sees this as a process of democratization and fore- casts that ‘individuals, not just large studios, will soon be able to develop huge works of art, such as cg feature films, on their own’. more affordable digital systems and tools with more intuitive interfaces and better educational resources play their part in this increased accessibility, and norman klein ( ) cites animation students who want their work to look ‘haunted . . . as an antidote to the hygienic digital screen’ (p. ). despite the naturalistic orthodoxy, all of this signifies the ongoing evolution of a more eclectic and expressive aesthetic in d cg animation environments. aesthetic expression and emotion the concept of expression or the expressive is ubiquitous in the arts, but ‘few terms are as poorly understood’ (robinson, : ). the quotidian use of expressive, as in gesture/facial expression, points to emotion as underpinning expression, and despite the fact that ‘the power animated expressions at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com expression theory of art came in for widespread and formidable criticism’ from the s onwards (p. ), contemporary theories of aesthetic expression have emerged based on recent psychological and neuroscientific research in emotion, such as that advocated by philos - opher of aesthetics and psychology, jenefer robinson, in deeper than reason ( ). suggesting a ‘new romantic theory of expression’, robinson argues that although all works are expressive in some respect, some are what she refers to as central cases of expression (p. ) while other secondary cases are more peripheral. emotions are processes that involve an initial fast, unconscious but coarse affective appraisal of the immediate environment involving low- level neural circuits, particularly the amygdala, that result in physio - logical responses affecting attention, motivation and action tendencies. this rapid response is accompanied by a slower cognitive appraisal that assesses the appropriateness of the quick-and-dirty affec- tive appraisal and that monitors, labels and feeds back into the overall emotional process (p. ). this view is consistent with ledoux’s ( ) fast low-road and slow high-road theory of emotion, and with rolls’ ( : ) explanation of that perennial philosophical conun- drum, the affective paradox of fiction. through aesthetic engagement, the arts can educate us emotionally by initially evoking instinctive emotional responses, followed by cognitive monitoring and reflection upon them, with aesthetic reflection comprising a later part of this process. understanding in the arts is dependent on affective embodied experience, and expressive qualities of artworks are ultimately ‘quali- ties that can be grasped through the emotions they arouse’ (robinson, : – ). oxford professor of english, christopher butler ( ), writing of emotions and the arts, observes that: ultimately it is these emotional responses which count for our pleasure or pain; it is our emotions and moods, apart from physical pain, that contribute most to our sense of the happiness, and the sadness of our lives. (p. ) both robinson ( : ) and butler ( ) suggest that it is wrong to equate expressive qualities in an artwork with named emotion labels such as happy or angry, as artistic expression of emotion evokes complex emotional reactions in audiences that cannot easily be labelled, that are often the very raison d’être of the creation. edvard munch’s archetypal expressionist painting the scream might be char- acterized as expressing anguish, for example, but evokes much more complex states (including aesthetic pleasure) which may be ineffable outside of the work itself. robinson argues ( : ) that successful artistic expression arouses appropriate emotions in audiences, and quoting from coleridge’s dejection: an ode, she suggests the purpose of expressive art is, from outward forms to win the passion and the life, whose fountains are within. animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com this resonates with the everyday use of expressive (as in facial expres- sion) and contrasts with the naturalistic focus on an objective reality that is without. expressive arts need to be experienced emotionally if they are to be properly understood. butler ( ) sees understanding and emotion as being aesthetically interdependent and sees expressive form as ‘a provocative rhetoric’ (p. ) that aesthetically guides our attention in experiencing works of art. like the experience of hearing a funny joke compared to an explanation of it, experiencing a work of art and knowing about it are qualitatively distinct phenomena. ‘wagner’s music is better than it sounds’ was mark twain’s ( ) twist on this phenomenon. creative expressive signification the genre comprising the rapidly growing body of d cg animated features for children or family audiences, led by pixar’s toy story (john lasseter, ), and including titles such as dreamworks’ shrek (andrew adamson and vicky jenson, ), sony pictures’ monster house (gil kenan, ) and warner brothers’ happy feet (george miller, ), is the main focus of attention here, together with some contrasting work that may point the way towards a more expressive d aesthetic. this dominant genre shares not only a common techno- logical genesis but exhibits many consistencies in content, form and style. one way these can be summarized is in terms of semiotic modality markers or cues, as proposed by kress and van leeuwen ( ). building on ideas from habermas, bourdieu and bernstein, kress and van leeuwen outline four reality principles or coding orientations that modulate the motivated signs comprising modality markers or cues within specific social contexts (p. ). in d animation, modality cues are generally interpreted through the dominant, common sense, natu- ralistic coding orientation, with high modality aspiring to naturalism. stylistically, most d cg features favour high modality cueing for movement (e.g. motion capture data), relatively high modality cueing for form (detailed but stylized d character models), high modality dialogue soundtracks (high-profile actors) and low modality character- ization (e.g. talking tortoises or dancing penguins). synthetic reality effects are uneven, and some ‘privileged signs of realism’ (manovich, : ), for example fluid effects, are high modality cues that might compensate for others, such as human form. due to our cognitive sensitivity to the latter, lower modality stylized cues can be more aesthetically effective or expressive, and are less likely to cue dis - sonance as in, for example, the uncanny valley effect (power, ). besides the dominant naturalistic coding orientation, kress and van leeuwen ( : ) also posit technological, abstract and power animated expressions at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com sensory coding orientations that modulate modality cues differently within specific social contexts (figure ). whereas high modality would be ascribed to audio-visual verisimilitude in a naturalistic orien- tation, to accuracy in a technological orientation (e.g. in technical diagrams), or to generalization in an abstract orientation (e.g. in pie- charts or abstract works of art), the sensory coding orientation is affectively based, and congruent with an expressive aesthetic. it is an orientation or context in which high modality or value might be ascribed to non-naturalistic qualities that are tacit, suggestive, exagger- ated, affective, connotative, evocative, or in some way expressive. in its sensory coding, traditional animation is often closer to theatre than to cinema, and ‘animated narration recalls the fluency of mise-en- scène in contemporary theatre’ (hernandez, ). the constraints of space and live production often require theatre to be more expres- sively inventive than film, and from moment to moment or scene to scene, whole sets or scene props might transmogrify magically, and a trunk might become a bed, or a coffin or a car. julie taymor ( ), a writer/designer/director of theatre, film, musicals and opera, who has successfully adapted animation for stage, sees art as essentially about transformation, and argues that an artist must transform and distort reality in order for an audience to be transformed. echoing coleridge’s lines (cited earlier), she sees an expressive approach as having the potential for powerful impact, enabling more active and creative inter- action by audiences in making their own aesthetic and imaginative connections. taymor also sees the attempt to recreate external reali- ties as a fundamental mistake, and believes instead in internal realities as the only reality we can really know. this too is precisely the premise animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) naturalistic orientation photorealism perspective recorded sound motion capture documentary full colour technological orientation accuracy legibility denotation appropriate detail restrained use of colour abstract orientation abstraction organization formal design selective use of colour sensory orientation expressiveness connotation sensory design caricature symbolism defamiliarization neuroesthetic cues examples of high modality markers (cues for high value) figure coding orientations & modality cues (following kress and van leeuwen, ). at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com of playwright and writer michael frayn’s ( ) book the human touch: our part in the creation of a universe. ‘ultimately, a profound evaluation of artistic expression must involve both the world at large, which is its inspiration, and the human brain, which is capable of being inspired’ (harth, : ), and contemporary neuroscientific research, in particular recent findings in neuroesthetics, sheds new light on many of the classical and gestalt principles of expressive art. ramachandran’s ( ) neuroesthetic concepts such as peak shift, isolation, metaphor and problem solving point to how an expressive aesthetic can facilitate cognitive, creative and emotional engagement. ramachandran’s concept of isolation, for example, is equivalent to scott mccloud’s ( ) idea of amplification through simplification and to the minimalist design aphorism less is more. the neural basis of this is a bottleneck of visual attention; ‘there cannot be two overlap- ping patterns of brain activity simultaneously’ (ramachandran, : ), and realistic imagery has a poor signal-to-noise ratio that can distract attention. the brain, as a complex dynamic system, responds to stimuli through associative hebbian resonance in its neural networks that dynamically activates multimodal attractors affecting (and affected by) the complex reflexive interplay of phenomena such as emotion, attention and memory. emotion drives attention, and stylized or expressive imagery can isolate and accentuate rhetorically, guiding and focusing attention by amplifying the signal, and through metonymic and synesthesic connotation and resonance, can act as a multimodal neural hyperstimulus, capable of encapsulating an entity’s essence in a blended aesthetic gestalt. active audience engagement can intensify these effects, and semir zeki ( ) argues that artistic hyper- stimulation of areas of the visual cortex through expressive cues such as use of creative ambiguity, expands the viewer’s imagination and invites participation in constructing meaning. recent brain imaging research has also compared responses to natu- ralistic video imagery, and then its rotoscoped, expressively animated equivalent. rotoscoped from video, linklater’s waking life ( ) embraced a deliberate visual stylization for expressive effect, using imagery as metaphor, reflecting characters’ altered states of mind. evidence from the research suggests that, whereas naturalistic live- action evokes brain responses that characterize recognition and mind- reading, expressive animated footage is more likely to activate areas associated with emotional reward (power, ). in other experiments, brain imaging of subjects shows that the amygdala, a centre of emotion, responds more strongly to impressionistic than to naturalis- tic faces, and that expressive works distract conscious vision while engaging more directly with emotions (cavanagh, ). the qualitative aspects of imagery are those that are expressive (green, ), and a central case of expressive work is imbued with aesthetic cues (for example, exaggeration, isolation or defamiliariza- power animated expressions at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com tion) that, in contrast to a literal or verisimilar depiction, conveys a poetic or metaphorical psycho-verisimilitude that can evoke appropri- ate emotional responses in an audience. an animator might aspire to an expressive aesthetic in any of several different modalities; through use of form, music, dialogue, lighting, colour, movement, setting, narra- tive dynamics, or through the complex isomorphic or metaphoric interplay between these. expressive aesthetic cues can apply in any modality, for example peak shift (i.e. caricature or exaggeration), and gooch ( ) notes that in imagery ‘the human responses to color, motion, form, highlight, outline, and depth are all susceptible to peak shift effects’ (p. ). expressive effect can be amplified by creating a resonating harmony or counterpoint between different modalities, and this involves metaphor. metaphor is a creative fusion of similarity and difference that may have its evolutionary origins in symbiogenesis. biosemiotics provides insights into how the capacity for creative joining together of different, even competing, phenomena in nature (evidenced in most cells in our bodies) may emerge as semiosymbiogenesis in culture through a capacity for metaphor (wheeler, : ). metaphor is also one of ramachandran’s ( ) neuroesthetics principles: ‘in many ways . . . the most important’ (p. ), and he sees it in the brain’s capacity for cross-modal connectivity, an exaggerated form of which, synesthesia, is relatively common amongst artists (p. ). such cross- modal metaphoric and metonymic associations might enable a staccato sound to resonate with sharp edges in imagery or to evoke edginess as a feeling. similarly, for both artist and audience, the gestalt of an expressive aesthetic emerges through the poïesis of sensory interplay, through the sensorium’s synergy of metaphorically harmo- nizing modalities. discussing the semiotics of feeling, modell, a harvard professor of psychiatry, agrees that the connection between sensation, emotion, feeling and meaning is based primarily on the cross-modal associations of metaphor and metonymy. ‘metaphor mediates, cate- gorises and thus organizes the perception of bodily sensations’ (modell, [ ]: ), including emotion, and not only transfers meaning but transforms it. in cross-modal metaphoric poïesis, the energy inherent in a hand-drawn character can echo inner emotion, the sorrow experienced in a tragedy can be transformed into aesthetic pleasure, or representations of others can imaginatively and empathet- ically become ourselves. artists and theorists, for example mccloud ( ) and sobchack ( ), have highlighted the expressive qualities inherent in drawn lines or brushstrokes. another insight into this source of expressive energy is provided by recent research on the brain’s mirror-neurons’ capacity for active simulation, that helps explain the nature of the expressive human warmth evoked by hand movement and vibration through a drawn line, or the embodied energy indexically evident through a thumb imprint on a clay model. expressiveness and empathy animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com are closely linked (green, ), and simulation theory suggests that the quality of the artist’s gestures embedded in the work can induce empathetic engagement through active simulation, and that ‘visible traces of goal-directed movements’ will activate the mirror-neuron system (freedberg and gallese, : ). this is described as ‘feeling the movement behind the mark’, and helps explain some of the aesthetic appeal of expressive work that foregrounds expressive strokes, fingerprints, gouges, or any indexical artefacts of embodied gesture involved in its construction (power, : ). d cg is usually indexically dehumanized through absence of such qualities. marjane satrapi, writer and co-director of persepolis ( ), who uses pen-and-ink says that there’s a perfection about computer generated animation that doesn’t look ‘natural’ and a ‘coldness’ she doesn’t like, compared to the expressive ‘vibrations of the hand’ that give life to hand-drawn animation (satrapi, ). klein ( : ) observes a similar phenomenon with ani-morphs in which ‘the audience is supposed to sense the hand intruding’, and proposes an aesthetic that foregrounds production methods. aardman’s supervising director richard goleszowski insists that audiences can tell the differ- ence between cgi, drawn and stop frame, and that in contrast with the automated, synthetic, even plastic-looking nature of much d animation, if ‘you know it’s a hunk of plasticine and occasionally you can still see the fingerprints – some of the process is revealed and that actually helps you tune in to the character’ (strike, ). such index- ical expressiveness ‘captures the ontological spirit of form and its shaping forces’, as terzidis puts it ( : ). ‘it manifests form’s meaning, significance and quintessence.’ creative expression in d cg animation expressiveness is about ‘personality, individuality and idiosyncrasy’ (terzidis, : ), and expressive works in animation are more likely to be independent or auteur-type works, whereas many of the more formulaic animated features belong at the mainstream end of the spectrum. though many of the latter will have an identified auteur such as lasseter or byrd, they are less likely to be driven by personal expe- riences or by strong empathy with others’ experience, as is for example, ari folman’s waltz with bashir ( ), about personal experiences connected with the sabra and shatila massacres in lebanon, or landreth’s ryan ( ), about canadian animator ryan larkin, an oscar nominee in , who had fallen on hard times. it is intriguing that such expressive animation should come as documen- tary, traditionally the archetypal realist form. independent animation will not necessarily be more successfully expressive than mainstream output, but in common with the film and music industries, cultural and economic factors, such as the scale, automation and economy of power animated expressions at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com production and distribution, have a huge impact on how creatively or idiosyncratically expressive d animated output is likely to be. culture and economics influence narrative style too, and no matter how clever the graphics, formulaic storytelling will tend to be not only less expres- sive but less creatively satisfying. creative scriptwriting in hollywood is undervalued and use of formulaic narrative structures such as joseph campbell’s a hero’s journey in a fairytale setting lead to lack of originality in narrative (mcclean, : ), a scenario all too common in cg features. many artists or directors of moving image projects choose anima- tion over live action explicitly for its expressive potential, and linklater’s waking life ( ) and folman’s waltz with bashir ( ) are just two examples (extensive live-action was shot for both). the latter was shot first in studio on video and subsequently animated using a combination of cel animation, flash, d cg and live-action roto- scoping (figure ). the producers pitched to international tv station managers at the toronto documentary film festival, but only two expressed any interest, eventually supporting the film. ‘the other attendants at the pitch did not comprehend why a film should be animated’ (folman, ). in contrast, reaction to the finished docu- mentary seemed to justify folman’s animated approach. in variety, leslie felperin ( ) observed that a subject that might have been just another war documentary, was ‘transmuted via novel use of anima- tion into something special, strange and peculiarly potent’. jonathan romney in the independent ( ) wrote that choosing to ‘depict his quest in impressionistic, often dream-like animation initially seems like an outrageous poetic liberty – but it makes his film all the more personal and gives it the urgency of a true cri-de-coeur’. emotional rather than visual realism is the stylistic choice for folman and also for chris landreth in his oscar-winning documentary short film ryan ( ). landreth is interested in what he calls psycho- realism, ‘in co-opting elements of photorealism to serve a different purpose; to expose the realism of the incredibly complex, messy, animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) figure still image from waltz with bashir (ari folman, ). at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com chaotic, sometimes mundane, and always conflicted quality we call human nature’ (landreth, ). to achieve this he uses d graphics to reflect the characters’ states of mind, and the d scenes include expressive non-photorealstic rendering and multiple, warped, non- linear, simultaneous perspectives (figure ). there is some indication of expressive advances in cg features. disney-pixar’s wall-e ( ) is unusual, in that in contrast to most movies of this genre that rely on high modality dialogue voiced by hollywood actors, for much of the film, the blips and whirs of robots are the only dialogue. ben burtt’s sound design is minimalist and highly expressive, and wall-e was nominated in all sound and music cate- gories for the oscars, and won the oscar for best animated feature. dr seuss’s horton hears a who! (chuck jones, ) by blue sky studios, the computer animation subsidiary of th century fox, is adapted from dr. seuss’s book of the same name. an animated version was first produced and written by theodore geisel (dr. seuss) in , and directed by chuck jones. dave torres, the lead animator, says the film enabled them to ‘push the boundaries of expressiveness for an animated character’ (bekins, ). co-director steve martino tried ‘to bring chuck jones-style animation into d’ using the original pen and ink drawings as stylistic inspiration, and describes ‘a zone of seussian exaggeration’, where everything has a ‘very hand-drawn, free-flowing style’, with who-ville being stylistically ‘the very opposite of the recti- linear and symmetrical graphics that computers are fond of making’ (bekins, ). while the finished film fits comfortably in the main- stream genre, aspirations to more expressive output are clearly evident amongst some of those working in cg features. of course, d cg is modular and object-oriented (both under the hood and in the animation process), making d metamorphosis, figure- ground reversals and some distortion effects difficult, even counter- intuitive. despite being digital, it lacks some of the flexible simplicity of pen and ink, and the ‘dream of plasmatic freedom’, signified for power animated expressions figure still image from landreth’s psychorealistic ryan ( ). at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com eisenstein in the fluidity of the animated line (sobchack, : ), can prove somewhat less lucid in d space. alternative perspectives two of the primary cornerstones of d animation are single-point perspective, the sine qua non of d cg technology, and its co-signifier in naturalistic illusion: photorealistic rendering. in exploring how d animation is expanding its stylistic horizons, it is worth examining briefly how both these conventions have recently been explored in terms of their expressive potential. ‘the system of perspective is fundamentally naturalistic’ (kress and van leeuwen, : ), and d animation is defined primarily by consistent linear single-point perspective. nevertheless, this conven- tion is paradoxical, as it offers a point-of-view, often socially deter- mined, that is encoded as though it is ‘subjective, individual and unique’, while it simultaneously rests on ‘an impersonal, geometric foundation, a construction which is a quasi-mechanical way of “record- ing” images of reality’ (p. ). thus, socially constructed viewpoints are naturalized, and single-point perspective remains one of our most pervasive abstractions. nevertheless, experimental evidence shows that ‘no culture-dependent learning is required for adequate percep- tion of perspective images’ (zorin, : ), and linear perspective is a good approximation of the human visual system and will always be the norm when depicting d scenes in d. although the earliest documented observation of perspective has been dated to approximately bc (coleman and singh, : ), it failed to take off until the early renaissance in europe and remained dominant in western art until the th century when, unshackled from service to verisimilitude by photography and perhaps inspired by non- euclidean perspectives or by einstein’s theory of relativity, modernist artists painted convolutions of space-time rather than just space. cubists and later surrealists (in particular rené magritte) played thematically with perspective and challenged conventions of natural- ism and realism. alternative projections don’t just belong to ancient and modernist art, and to non-western traditions, but to mainstream animation too; in cartoons, it became a convention for foreground char- acters and backgrounds to be treated differently, not just stylistically but in terms of their projection. many experimental alternatives to single-point perspective systems have been tried in cg with varying degrees of success, including systems for computing escher-like impossible scenes, d warps and combined multiple projections (agrawala et al., : ). andrew glassner, a cgi technical researcher turned writer-director, has worked on what he calls non-linear or free-form optics for computer graphics (figure ), as detailed in a paper titled ‘cubism and cameras’ ( ). animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com he insists these are much more than curiosities, and that just as the cubist painters found new angles to communicate, his ‘animated, fluid form of cubism’ using free-form optical models can do likewise with synthetic images and animated sequences’ (p. ). agrawala et al. ( , amongst others) have also developed systems for simultaneous d multiprojection, as artists often use multiple projections for ‘express- ing a mood, feeling or idea’ or for improving comprehensibility of the scene (p. ). karan singh, who had worked on the development of maya, was r&d director on the production of ryan ( ). he was motivated by the surreal storyboard and inspired by the artwork of people like picasso, dali, albright and bacon to develop a system (subsequently implemented in maya), that could render out multiple simultaneous projections and camera angles to a single frame. these warped non- linear projections helped express the characters’ psychological perspectives and could also be used to create cinematic mood or create a sense of uneasiness in the audience (coleman and singh, ). capacity for simultaneous multi-projections needs to be built into the compositional space and many problems remain to be solved with such systems. however, the seamless integration of multiple perspec- tives with appropriate lighting, shadows and effective artistic control may provide a projection palate freed from the hegemony of the quasi- objectivity of perspective, enabling the animator to choose dialogically what aspects of the scene to accentuate, from what angle and to what aesthetic effect. expressive (or non-photorealistic) rendering alternative rendering algorithms can be used to output a naturalistic scene in eclectic styles from cartoon-style to canaletto. some similar off-the-shelf effects are common in d paint applications such as adobe photoshop, and simpler image-based post-processing tech- niques can also be used in d. however, effective non-photorealistic rendering in d applications is a more complex affair. non- photorealistic rendering (npr) is the collective name for a range of power animated expressions figure image from a storyboard for a thriller using expressive projections. artwork by tom mcclure from glassner ( ). at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com techniques that have been developed to render d models and animations in alternative modes to the photorealistic norm for the genre, and the term expressive rendering is synonymous and seems preferable to the negatively couched default term npr. durand ( a) argues that, although computer graphics has long been defined as a quest to achieve photorealism, ‘as it gets closer to this grail, the field realizes that there is more to images than realism alone. non-photorealistic pictures can be more effective at conveying information, more expressive or more beautiful’ (p. ). typically, npr flattens output from d animations and offers a plethora of output effects. amongst these have been simulated artistic media (e.g. watercolours, oils, charcoal or stained glass), painterly styles (e.g. impressionist, pointillist or van gogh), and even cartoon or toon- style rendering that has been integrated into mainstream d applica- tions such as maya (figure ). in ratatouille (brad bird, ), a brief d effect where a book illustration of the famous chef gusteau comes to life and talks to the protagonist remy was created using a regular d scene output with a toon-style render. if well handled, expressive rendering has the potential to mean- ingfully expand the palate of artistic effects and can open up expres- sive opportunities for animation artists. on the down side, many of the effects implemented using npr have been trivial or gimmicky. there is a difference between images of expressive or artistic merit and ones that look vaguely artistic, and switching on a van gogh style filter will most likely generate kitsch.a paper titled ‘a real-time “boiling style” nonphotorealistic rendering system for low fidelity animation’ describes an npr system that ‘produces jittery style drawings’ that mimic ‘low-fidelity animation conventions to produce rendered models that look hand drawn rather than machine inter- preted’ (hesselgren and naftel, ).without denigrating the system in question, the description does beg the question as to whether algorithms that automate ‘jittery style drawings’ that ‘look hand drawn’ can help output genuinely expressive animation. animation animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) figure expressive rendering – contrasting naturalistic and expressively rendered duplicate objects from a single d scene (using a maya toon-style render). at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com that mimics expressiveness, perhaps, but much depends on imple- mentation and on how much control the animator has over the output. although some npr work has focused on derivative artistic effects or effects derived from other media, expressive rendering effects do offer creative options for animators if well implemented. much depends on whether the effects are relatively pre-determined or auto- mated, or whether they offer interactive, intelligent and intuitive tools for expressive artistic control. further creative developments are feasible, with recent research focusing on findings from cognitive psychology and empirical research on perception, including neurosci- entific work on visual perception, which is one of the most advanced fields of neuroscience. conclusion: evolving an expressive d aesthetic mainstream d animation culture continues to be driven by a natura- listic agenda, and the convergence of live-action sfx and animation is one of the driving forces. for example, james cameron’s avatar (mostly cg with some live-action and due for a release), uses seamless performance capture, so that the actors can be directed in real-time with the director simultaneously viewing the actions of the cg characters set in d cg environments. the aim is a seamless synthesis of the real and the virtual, even during direction and produc- tion. avatar is made in stereoscopic d for d projection. assessed as a gimmick during the early s and again in the early s, the d projection phoenix has arisen again, perhaps to persist this time, particularly for mainstream feature animation, as the technology has improved immeasurably and d cg production techniques are highly suited to flexible and economically viable production in this mode. heightened realism as immersive spectacle is the primary aesthetic goal of d projection and it is another indication that hollywood is still hot on the trail of the virtual reality grail. physics simulation, seamless performance capture and d model generation from video, for example, are all particularly active research and development areas, and all are linked to the naturalistic agenda. as the technology gets faster and more sophisticated, the limitations that have so far precluded attempts at fully photorealistic d anima- tion will eventually be surmounted. but material constraints can have creative advantages, and often lend a medium its charm, requiring artists/animators to adopt expressive solutions. durand ( b) outlines three ways to handle them: by elimination (finding technolog- ical solutions); by compensation (alternative hacks or workarounds); or by creative accentuation, which he says ‘can bring important richness to pictures’ (p. ). accentuation foregrounds constraints stylistically for expressive aesthetic effect. less is more can apply to power animated expressions at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com creative freedom too, and the capacity to do work with few material constraints in a digital environment may prove to be a mixed blessing. these developments are fine as long as more expressive approaches are not culturally and technologically sidelined. presently there are many modes in which d animation can be used as an expressive storytelling medium. expressive d models can be designed by choice using distorted geometry for non-naturalistic modelling effects. anima- tion data (including motion capture data) can be augmented stylisti- cally either by keyframing, or by using algorithms enabling, for example, hyper-energized, fluid, languid, robot-like, rubbery, sticky or other effects. as outlined earlier, expressive effects can be achieved through implementing warped or multiple cubist-like camera projec- tions, or through expressive rendering techniques or post-rendering effects. d is often digitally integrated with live action and other animation techniques, and this hybrid aesthetic is one obvious way forward for expressive animation. mixing live action and animation is hardly new (the fleischer brothers composited live action and animation in the s in the out of the inkwell series starring koko the clown). orig- inating assets in digital format simplifies manipulation and synthesis, however, as evidenced by many modern hybrids: for example, luc besson’s arthur and the invisibles ( ) and the stuart little series. both horton hears a who! (chuck jones, ) and kung fu panda (john stevenson and mark osborne, ) are d animated movies, but both use brief d animated sequences to code dream/fantasy altered states of consciousness. in the former there are two, one based stylistically on dr. seuss’s pen-and-ink illustrations from the book and another based on anime, and there is one in the latter, styled on chinese shadow puppetry. the flexible nature of a digital environment enables this fruitful fusion of styles and a simultaneous dialogical synthesis of alternative animation traditions for expressive aesthetic effect. looking to the future, there are a number of developments that would help enable the evolution of an expressive aesthetic in d animation. interface design is an area in which ‘the amount of user vs. computer control is an exciting issue’ (durand, a: ), and many animation systems are not intuitive or easy to use, as focus has been on high-profile developments in naturalistic functionality and effects, with comparatively little development in intuitive interfaces. there is the real danger that computerization produces what terzidis ( ) calls whorfian effects, where ‘through the use of commercial applications and the dependency on their design possibil- ities, the designers’ work is at risk of being dictated by the language- tools they use’ (p. ). this conundrum can be observed regularly when novel or ‘cutting-edge’ effects (for example, morphing) become fleet- ingly fashionable and are consequently over-used in adverts or films to the extent that they soon become clichéd or passé. terzidis suggests animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com that, on the other hand, what he calls algorithmic design enables creativity and discovery of new forms and novel phenomena (p. ). this involves more open-ended, complex or programmable options being available to the animator or designer as opposed to default presets or a relatively finite range of ready-made effects. such algorith- mic design capabilities are already enacted on some systems (through scripting, for example), but their current effectiveness depends on an animator’s capacity (or at least that of one of the team) to program them effectively. it is a lot to ask of animators (or anyone else) that they should excel in visual and motion design, character design and storytelling, and then be capable programmers as well, so the implementation of intuitive interfaces for algorithmic design processes is critical. many modern interfaces are still encumbered with numerical or other non-intuitive forms of input, often into a bewildering host of variables with indeter- minate functionality. interfaces with iconic or indexical relationships to real-world equivalents enabling embodied interaction can be more intuitive and easy to use for expressive effect, providing they do not bind the artist to the constraints of their real-world equivalents. what might be called a magical-realist approach to interface design would be optimal in this context, with functionality based on real-world analogues where helpful, but with ‘magical’ digital capability besides. although limited gesture-based input already exists, for example on paint systems, complex gesture-based interfaces (and those with haptic feedback) are likely to become more common, and evolving versions of these can be seen with recent products such nintendo’s wii, and those using apple’s multitouch and microsoft’s surface technologies. gesture-based interfaces for d animation systems would be particu- larly apposite and would lend a reflexive element to animating – the animator animates character gestures in software through using gesture. use of gesture on input could facilitate more expressive and intuitive computer-based animation, including virtual gesture-based aesthetic phenomena such as feeling the movement behind the mark. in terms of theory, emotion is an important basis for understanding expressiveness. despite their hypothesizing the concept of a sensory coding orientation, kress and van leeuwen ( ) acknowledge that affect/emotion has been ‘too thin a thread in the tapestry’ that comprises their influential semiotic theory of imagery and visual design (p. ). emotion is both psychological and visceral, embodied minds and their physical and cultural environments are complex systems, and can best be explained, as antonio damasio argues (liston, ), by blending theories at several levels of organization, from mole- cules and cells, to large-scale systems, and physical, social and cultural environments. symbiotic paradigms such as complexity theory, phenomenology and biosemiotics can embrace the connectedness of biology and culture and provide fertile environments in which embodied approaches to expressive aesthetics can flourish. power animated expressions at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com although we are ‘inextricably shaped by embodied action’ (gibbs, : ), ‘our linguistic, imaginative and symbolic capacities provide a degree of freedom from the demands of our environment’ (modell, [ ]: ). while the semiotic freedom of creativity is the fullest expression of human communication (wheeler, : ), naturalis- tic or other conventions impose ‘limitations of conformity on sign- making’, constraining its ‘semiotic scope’ (kress and van leeuwen, : ). by qualitatively transcending its calculative and quantitative genesis, the contemporary expressive turn in d cg animation has a creatively liberating potential through which we may be moved, even transformed by the reflexive resonance of the human touch. acknowledgements the author wishes to thank the editor, suzanne buchan, and the anonymous reviewers, for the detailed feedback that was invaluable in finalizing this paper. notes photorealism as a style in painting and hyperrealism, a more recent and expressive variant, add somewhat to the potential for confusion in terminology. although d computer graphics has its own compound term virtual reality that is relevant in this context, it suffered from over-hyped usage in the s and still suggests headsets and real-time simulation in virtual space. it is worth pointing out that denotation can be seen as just a dominant naturalizing connotation, an illusion perpetuated by a naturalist ideology. labels for art movements such as expressionism, abstract expressionism and cinema’s german expressionism muddy the terminological waters considerably. this concerns how we are able to have strong emotional responses to fictional situations we know are not true. rolls suggests, like robinson, that though the emotions may be real enough in an arts context, there is slower top-down cognitive mediation of the emotion that contextualizes response. taymor’s multiple award-winning adaptation of disney’s animated film the lion king ( ) for the stage was produced by disney theatrical productions, who have similarly adapted other animated works for broadway including the hunchback of notre dame ( ) and beauty and the beast ( ). this phenomenon is the basis of visual illusions such as the rubin vase/profile figure/ground illusion and the necker cube ambiguous line drawing illusion. conversely, dissonance between modalities can evoke effects such as tension or irony. the / -day us writers’ strike had a minimal effect on animation production (with some exceptions such as the simpsons), as for historical reasons many animation writers belong to the animation guild whereas animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ) at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com the strike was called by the more live-action oriented writers guild of america. many other cultures used alternatives to linear perspective, e.g. japanese and chinese artists typically used oblique parallel projection in their drawings. multiple projections, metamorphosis (morphing), image distortion and npr effects can all be added relatively easily as post-render or d image effects. however, these can be qualitatively different from more challenging d implementations that are integral to the scene and rendered as such. on the commercial front, it also helps differentiate a lucrative theatre release market from a domestic one, at a time when high definition technologies such as blu-ray are leading to market convergence. the controversial whorf or sapir-whorf hypothesis in linguistics suggests that different language patterns give rise to different patterns of thought and that thought is determined to a great extent by language. references agrawala, maneesh, zorin, denis and munzner, tamara ( ) ‘artistic multi - projection rendering’, in perceptual and artistic principles for effective computer depiction (siggraph course notes), pp. – . san antonio, texas. url (consulted may ): http://people.csail.mit.edu/fredo/sig _ 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( ) inner vision: an exploration of art and the brain. oxford: oxford university press. zorin, denis ( ) ‘perception of pictures’, in perceptual and artistic principles for effective computer depiction (siggraph course notes), pp. – , san antonio, texas. url (consulted may ): http://people.csail.mit.edu/ fredo/sig _artscience/depictionnotes .pdf patrick power is a senior lecturer in digital media and design at london metropolitan university. he worked for over a decade in the creative industries, specializing in graphics, video and d animation, before completing an ma in interactive multimedia at the royal college of art. he has since worked for years as an academic in higher education, and his research interests include animation, emotion, play, narrative and the synthesis of science and the arts. he currently teaches theory and practice of digital media design at london metropolitan university, specializing in creative d animation. address: digital media & design, london metropolitan university, room , ladbroke house, – , london n ad, uk.[email: p.power@londonmet.ac.uk] power animated expressions at ajou univ on december , http://anm.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://anm.sagepub.com electronics article a multi-column deep framework for recognizing artistic media heekyung yang and kyungha min ,* industry-academy collaboration foundation, sangmyung university, seoul , korea; yanghk@smu.ac.kr department of computer science, sangmyung university, seoul , korea * correspondence: minkh@smu.ac.kr; tel.: + - - - received: september ; accepted: october ; published: november ���������� ������� abstract: we present a multi-column structured framework for recognizing artistic media from artwork images. we design the column of our framework using a deep neural network. our key idea is to recognize the distinctive stroke texture of an artistic medium, which plays a key role in distinguishing artistic media. since stroke texture is in a local scale, the whole image is not proper for recognizing the texture. therefore, we devise two ideas for our framework: sampling patches from an input image and employing a gram matrix to extract the texture. the patches sampled from an input artwork image are processed in the columns of our framework to make local decisions on the patch, and the local decisions from the patches are merged to make a final decision for the input artwork image. furthermore, we employ a gram matrix, which is known to effectively capture texture information, to improve the accuracy of recognition. our framework is trained and tested using two real artwork image datasets: wikiset of traditional artwork images and ymset of contemporary artwork images. finally, we build synthset, which is a collection of synthesized artwork images from many computer graphics literature, and propose a guideline for evaluating the synthesized artwork images. keywords: media recognition; multi-column framework; cnn; deep learning . introduction understanding artworks has been a long problem in computer vision, image processing and machine learning field. the recent progress on deep neural network structures presents many interesting schemes that recognize and classify artwork images and photographs according to their styles. we present a deep network-based approach for recognizing artistic media from artwork images and classifying the artwork images according to their creating artistic media. for the background of our approach, we survey wikiart, the famous artwork image database, and list the most frequently used artistic media (see figure ). among them, we select four most highly ranked media, including oil paint, watercolor, pencil and pastel. since our approach relies on the sample data for training and test, we exclude artistic media whose artworks images are less than . we omit tempera, which is rarely used nowadays. the four artistic media are very frequently used nowadays, and lots of artwork images created by the media are collected from various websites. the unique stroke patterns of an artistic medium on an artwork image present a key to recognize which medium is employed to create the artwork image. for example, thin and parallel hatching stroke patterns are key to recognize that the artwork is drawn by a pencil and spread marks of colors are a key to a watercolor brush. in figure , we illustrate the examples for pencil and watercolor artwork images. the red boxes on the input artwork images are the patches containing the stroke textures properly. resizing the input image would harm the stroke textures so that the artistic media that created the electronics , , ; doi: . /electronics www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics http://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /electronics http://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics https://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= electronics , , of image might not be recognized (see figure c). therefore, we recognize that an artwork image is created using pencil, if we observe thin and parallel hatching stroke patterns on the image. electronics , , of that created the image might not be recognized (see figure c). therefore, we recognize that an artwork image is created using pencil, if we observe thin and parallel hatching stroke patterns on the image. figure . the frequency of artistic media from wikiart. figure . the frequency of artistic media from wikiart. electronics , , of that created the image might not be recognized (see figure c). therefore, we recognize that an artwork image is created using pencil, if we observe thin and parallel hatching stroke patterns on the image. figure . the frequency of artistic media from wikiart. figure . patches containing stroke textures for pencil and watercolor artwork (a) input artwork image; (b) patches containing stroke textures; (c) input image resized to patch scale. in recent machine learning, many researchers have developed schemes for recognizing and classifying styles of photographs and artworks using deep convolutional neural network (cnn) electronics , , of structures. these structures recognize styles by extracting the features, such as contents, texture, color, tone, composition of the object, and camera, etc. since the features employed for style recognition are not explicitly defined and the relation between the features and the style is not clearly specified, an implicit approach, such as deep cnn structures is very appropriate for style recognition. therefore, our approach for media recognition is devised based on a deep cnn structure. we devise the following strategies to enrich our framework that classifies and recognizes artistic media from artwork images. our first strategy is to devise a multi-column structured model, which is composed of several recognition modules. artistic media are recognized through the stroke patterns that convey distinctive characteristics of the artistic media. our survey on the artwork image database reveals that stroke patterns are on a local scale, not on a global scale. stroke patterns are observed from the patches of an artwork image, not from the whole artwork image. therefore, we devise an artistic media recognition strategy in two stages: the stroke patterns in the patches sampled from an artwork image are processed in independent recognition modules, and the decisions from the modules are integrated for a media recognition on an artwork image. in order to properly implement this strategy, we devise a multi-column structured model composed of independent recognition modules. our second strategy is to process texture information properly. many cnn structures process both texture information and the content information simultaneously. recently, gatys et al. [ ] presented a scheme that separates texture information from a source artwork image and applies it to another image to synthesize the artistic style of the source image to the target image. they proposed a gram matrix, which is defined as a correlation of the feature vectors that express the texture embedded in the source image. therefore, the gram matrix estimated from an artwork image is expected to possess the texture information of the artistic style of the image. we estimate the gram matrix from an artwork image and process them to recognize the artistic medium used to create the artwork image. our approach for recognizing artistic media from artwork images can be employed for evaluating synthesized artwork images. many researchers in computer graphics have presented diverse techniques that synthesizes artwork images by simulating artistic media, such as pencil, oil paint, watercolor, pastel and ink, etc. unfortunately, the evaluation for most of these techniques depends on either visual assessment or comparison to the results of previous works and the real artworks created by their aimed media. our approach can present a quantitative and objective evaluation scheme for the synthesized artwork images, which has not been presented yet. a technique for simulating an artistic medium successfully mimics its target medium, if the stroke patterns of the target media are recognized from the synthesized artistic effects. therefore, if our recognizer can recognize the target medium from a synthesized artwork image, then the technique that produces the image is evaluated to be successful in mimicking the medium. electronics , , of figure . three datasets for our approach. figure . the process of our approach. . related work many machine learning researchers classify artworks and photographs according to their styles. some of them try to classify artworks according to the material, such as paper, wood, silver, oil, ink and watercolor, etc. in the early days, handcrafted features were widely used. recently, the convolutional neural network (cnn)-based approaches are spotlighted. . . schemes using bandcrafted features keren et al. [ ] classified artworks according to their creators by the style of the artwork. their scheme employed dct coefficients as their classifying features. as a result, they classify five painters from artworks. li et al. [ ] classified artists of chinese ink paintings by analyzing wavelets from the brush strokes drawn on the artworks and lyu et al. [ ] applied li et al’s scheme to classify drawings. johnson et al. [ ] presented a scheme that classifies van gogh’s paintings. however, these schemes show poor performance. they do not classify sufficient number of artworks and artists. shamir et al. [ ] presented a style of an artwork as its creator, and the school of the creator. they defined features using histogram analysis and edge statistics and classified three schools and nine creators from artworks. liu et al. [ ] classified dart dataset that has . k paintings by employing handcrafted features, such as color, composition, line and their combinations. they compared the performances of several decision schemes, including svm. they classify artworks into six schools of arts, including baroque, cubism, and impressionism. they also classify their creators. the handcrafted feature-based schemes have difficulties in defining implicitly expressed styles with a set of explicit features. most of them classify limited artwork classes and test their schemes on only easily distinguishable artworks. mensink et al. [ ] presented an automatic classification technique on the photographs taken on the collections in rijksmuseum in the netherlands. they recognize a creator, a type, material and the creation year from the artworks. they recognize material categories, such as paper, wood, silver, oil, ink and watercolor, etc. their features are sift, which is effective in classifying different patterns. figure . three datasets for our approach. electronics , , of we build three artwork image datasets: wikiset of k size, collected from the artwork images on wikiart, the largest historical artwork image database and ymset of k size, collected from various websites. furthermore, we also build synthset of the synthesized artwork images collected from the literature on computer graphics society. the datasets are illustrated in figure . this paper is organized as follows. in section , we briefly review our related works. in section , we explain how our recognizer is organized. we suggest the implementation details and the training process of our recognizer in section . furthermore, we execute some experiments using our recognizer and dataset to show that our approach is valid in section . finally, we draw conclusions and suggest future work in section . the process of approach is illustrated in figure . electronics , , of figure . three datasets for our approach. figure . the process of our approach. . related work many machine learning researchers classify artworks and photographs according to their styles. some of them try to classify artworks according to the material, such as paper, wood, silver, oil, ink and watercolor, etc. in the early days, handcrafted features were widely used. recently, the convolutional neural network (cnn)-based approaches are spotlighted. . . schemes using bandcrafted features keren et al. [ ] classified artworks according to their creators by the style of the artwork. their scheme employed dct coefficients as their classifying features. as a result, they classify five painters from artworks. li et al. [ ] classified artists of chinese ink paintings by analyzing wavelets from the brush strokes drawn on the artworks and lyu et al. [ ] applied li et al’s scheme to classify drawings. johnson et al. [ ] presented a scheme that classifies van gogh’s paintings. however, these schemes show poor performance. they do not classify sufficient number of artworks and artists. shamir et al. [ ] presented a style of an artwork as its creator, and the school of the creator. they defined features using histogram analysis and edge statistics and classified three schools and nine creators from artworks. liu et al. [ ] classified dart dataset that has . k paintings by employing handcrafted features, such as color, composition, line and their combinations. they compared the performances of several decision schemes, including svm. they classify artworks into six schools of arts, including baroque, cubism, and impressionism. they also classify their creators. the handcrafted feature-based schemes have difficulties in defining implicitly expressed styles with a set of explicit features. most of them classify limited artwork classes and test their schemes on only easily distinguishable artworks. mensink et al. [ ] presented an automatic classification technique on the photographs taken on the collections in rijksmuseum in the netherlands. they recognize a creator, a type, material and the creation year from the artworks. they recognize material categories, such as paper, wood, silver, oil, ink and watercolor, etc. their features are sift, which is effective in classifying different patterns. figure . the process of our approach. . related work many machine learning researchers classify artworks and photographs according to their styles. some of them try to classify artworks according to the material, such as paper, wood, silver, oil, ink and watercolor, etc. in the early days, handcrafted features were widely used. recently, the convolutional neural network (cnn)-based approaches are spotlighted. . . schemes using bandcrafted features keren et al. [ ] classified artworks according to their creators by the style of the artwork. their scheme employed dct coefficients as their classifying features. as a result, they classify five painters from artworks. li et al. [ ] classified artists of chinese ink paintings by analyzing wavelets from the brush strokes drawn on the artworks and lyu et al. [ ] applied li et al.’s scheme to classify drawings. johnson et al. [ ] presented a scheme that classifies van gogh’s paintings. however, these schemes show poor performance. they do not classify sufficient number of artworks and artists. shamir et al. [ ] presented a style of an artwork as its creator, and the school of the creator. they defined features using histogram analysis and edge statistics and classified three schools and nine creators from artworks. liu et al. [ ] classified dart dataset that has . k paintings by employing handcrafted features, such as color, composition, line and their combinations. they compared the performances of several decision schemes, including svm. they classify artworks into six schools of arts, including baroque, cubism, and impressionism. they also classify their creators. the handcrafted feature-based schemes have difficulties in defining implicitly expressed styles with a set of explicit features. most of them classify limited artwork classes and test their schemes on only easily distinguishable artworks. mensink et al. [ ] presented an automatic classification technique on the photographs taken on the collections in rijksmuseum in the netherlands. they recognize a creator, a type, material and the creation year from the artworks. they recognize material categories, such as paper, wood, silver, oil, ink and watercolor, etc. their features are sift, which is effective in classifying different patterns. however, sift is not effective in classifying similar patterns. therefore, their scheme shows poor performance for the stroke patterns produced by pencil, pastel and charcoal. electronics , , of . . schemes using cnn-based features the recent progress of deep convolutional neural networks motivates some researchers to apply this technique for style classification. these techniques can be classified into three categories: feature fusion-schemes, cnn-based schemes and gram matrix-based schemes. karayev et al. [ ] classify historical styles from k artworks using the feature fusion approach. they employed alexnet to extract features from artworks. they compared this feature set with other features, such as l*a*b* color histogram, gist, graph-based visual saliency and meta-class binary features and proved that the features from alexnet are very effective for artwork classification. recently, tan et al. [ ] visualize the feature response from the artwork classification. they extract features using alexnet and visualize the reasons for prediction. they compare various options for their network: whether pretrained for imagenet dataset or not and decision options (svm or softmax of neural network). as a result, a combination of pretrained and softmax decision method shows the best performance. strezoski et al. [ ] introduced a classifying scheme for artistic media from omniart dataset, which has k artwork images. they extracted features using recent deep cnns, such as vggnet, inception-v and resnet and compared their performances. they evaluated the performances of the models according to creator-accuracy, type-mean average precision (map), material-map and period-mean. they show a limitation by omitting comparison with human baseline performance. furthermore, they do not concentrate on stroke-based media, such as pencil, pastel, oil paint, and watercolor brush, which are the most widely used artistic media. they also do not discuss how to apply their schemes to classify synthesized artwork images, which are the results of non-photorealistic rendering (npr) society. more recently, several researchers employed a gram matrix to classify styles. matsuo and yanai [ ] employed vggnet to extract gram matrix of the feature maps. they compute pca from the gram matrix to classify artwork images from wikiart that has more than categories. chu and wu [ ] extracted correlation features by producing the gram matrices from each layer of vggnet to classify image styles. sun et al. [ ] designed a two-pass cnn structure that extracts object and texture features separately. the texture path employs the gram matrix of the features to improve the classification performance. their cnn structures are alexnet and vgg- . they do not require explicit definition of features, which is one of the major obstacles. the cnn-based features present better performance than human baseline, such as mechanical turk. these schemes also are proved to be effective in classifying more styles from larger dataset than the schemes using handcrafted features. . . patch-based schemes recently, patch-based works, which estimate styles from patches that are sampled from an image and collect the styles to classify the style of a target image, were presented. lu et al. [ ] employed alexnet structure to classify the style of images from ava dataset. they sample patches from an image randomly and accumulate the feature output in a stochastic way. anwer et al. [ ] introduced double-column cnn [ ], which is designed based on vgg- , to collect features of artworks from local scales, as well as global scales. the features from different scales are fed into different columns of cnn. the proposed technique show better accuracy than the normal networks fed by only global image. they employed alexnet [ ] and vggnet- [ ] for the columns of their structures. we have tested various recent cnn structures, including alexnet, vggnet, googlenet, resnet, and densenet, for our recognizer and decide densenet, since it shows higher performance than other cnn’s. anwer et al. [ ] sampled patches from an image according to the objects embedded in the image. since the stroke textures of an artistic medium are frequently observed in the vacant area of an image, the object-based sampling would not be effective in our approach. the existing patch-based schemes do not employ a gram matrix for extracting features from the texture. by combining gram matrix-based texture and patch sampling strategy, our scheme shows higher performance than the existing patch-based scheme. electronics , , of . building our recognizer for artistic media . . a strategy for our recognizer our strategy in this study is to recognize artistic media through the stroke patterns observed on artwork images. since the stroke patterns are in local scale, we sample several patches from an artwork image instead of resizing the image. many existing studies resize input images into a fixed scale for the input of the deep neural network, but it may smear and distort the stroke patterns on the image. we design our recognizer using a multi-column structure, which is composed of individual recognizing modules that independently process the patches. each module recognizes media from the stroke patterns located on the patches. a patch with very prominent stroke patterns gives a strong clue to an artistic medium than other patches with indistinct stroke patterns. therefore, a decision from a module that recognizes the most prominent stroke patterns should dominate the decisions from other modules. we implement this idea in our multi-column structured recognizer. lu et al. [ ] presented a multi-column structured model to estimate the aesthetic quality of an image. they process patches sampled from an input image in the modules of the multi-column structure and merge the results from the modules through sorting and statistic layers. our model is different from lu et al.’s model [ ] in the following points. the first difference is the process of generating a final decision. our model aims to detect stroke patterns that are used for creating artistic media. the most reliable result from a module dominates the results from other modules. therefore, we choose a voting strategy to generate the final decision instead of sorting and statistics, which are the strategy in lu et al.’s model. the second difference is the patch sampling strategy. lu et al.’s model [ ] does not consider the overlapping of the patches, since the aesthetic quality may become different with a slight translation of sampling position. however, our scheme avoids overlapping of the patches, since we aim to sample patches that cover the whole image. the third difference is the consideration of texture. lu et al.’s model [ ] does not consider the process of extracting features from texture embedded in the patches. we observe that the stroke patterns are expressed in texture information. therefore, we employ a gram matrix [ ] that effectively extract features in texture information to extract texture information from stroke patterns in a patch and apply them for the final decision-making voting process. anwer et al. [ ] presented a style classification scheme using a multi-column structured model whose input is multi-scaled patches. they vary the scales of the patches sampled from an input image and process them through a cnn model to extract features expressed in fisher vectors. they apply a linear svm model on the fisher vectors to produce a final classification. our model is different from anwer et al.’s model [ ] in the following points. the first difference is the rescaling of sampled patches. since the stroke patterns observed in the patch is a key in our model, we do not rescale the patches. the second difference is the strategy for the final decision. anwer et al.’s model [ ] considers all the results from the modules for their final decision. our scheme presents a voting strategy that considers the most reliable result from the modules. since a decision from a patch with faint stroke patterns may distort the classification of a media, we ignore them through our voting strategy. the third difference is the consideration of texture. anwer et al.’s model [ ] does not consider features extracted texture, either. we employ a gram matrix [ ] to extract feature from textures and employ them in the final voting process. our recognizer for artistic media from artwork images is designed based on the existing cnn structure. many existing style recognition frameworks employ various well-known cnn structures, such as alexnet [ , ] and vggnet [ – ]. strezoski et al. employed several cnn structures, including vggnet, googlenet, and resnet, and compared their performances [ ]. we follow this strategy for our recognizer. recently, we have tested five widely-used structures, including alexnet, vggnet, googlenet, resnet, and densenet, for recognizing artistic media from real artwork images and concluded that densenet, the latest cnn structure, shows best performance among them [ ]. therefore, we employ densenet- [ ] for our recognizer. electronics , , of recognizing artistic media from artwork images depends on how the media stroke patterns on the images are properly processed. therefore, texture-based features play a more important role in recognizing artistic media than the content-based features. to capture texture-based features properly, we employ a gram matrix [ ], which is known to show excellent performance in capturing and processing texture-based features. sun et al. employed a gram matrix for the features extracted by vggnet for recognizing styles from images [ ]. we apply gram matrix for the features extracted by densenet- for our classifier. . . structure of our recognizer the structure of our recognizer is illustrated in figure . an artistic medium is predicted based on both gram matrices extracted from the layers of densenet- and final result of the densenet- . the input of our recognizer is a series of patches sampled from the input image. we make a different configuration for our classifier according to the stage: a training stage and a test stage. note that a patch is processed in a single cnn structure for a single recognizing module (see figure a). we train a single recognizing module and employ it for an element of the overall multi-column structure (see figure b). for the test stage, we build k different modules to process the patches separately and combine the predictions for the final prediction of an artistic medium (see figure b). electronics , , of including vggnet, googlenet, and resnet, and compared their performances [ ]. we follow this strategy for our recognizer. recently, we have tested five widely-used structures, including alexnet, vggnet, googlenet, resnet, and densenet, for recognizing artistic media from real artwork images and concluded that densenet, the latest cnn structure, shows best performance among them [ ]. therefore, we employ densenet- [ ] for our recognizer. recognizing artistic media from artwork images depends on how the media stroke patterns on the images are properly processed. therefore, texture-based features play a more important role in recognizing artistic media than the content-based features. to capture texture-based features properly, we employ a gram matrix [ ], which is known to show excellent performance in capturing and processing texture-based features. sun et al. employed a gram matrix for the features extracted by vggnet for recognizing styles from images [ ]. we apply gram matrix for the features extracted by densenet- for our classifier. . . structure of our recognizer the structure of our recognizer is illustrated in figure . an artistic medium is predicted based on both gram matrices extracted from the layers of densenet- and final result of the densenet- . the input of our recognizer is a series of patches sampled from the input image. we make a different configuration for our classifier according to the stage: a training stage and a test stage. note that a patch is processed in a single cnn structure for a single recognizing module (see figure a). we train a single recognizing module and employ it for an element of the overall multi-column structure (see figure b). for the test stage, we build k different modules to process the patches separately and combine the predictions for the final prediction of an artistic medium (see figure b). figure . our structure: (a) a single recognizing module and (b) an overall multi-column structure. . . estimating gram matrix for our recognizer the stroke patterns produced by an artistic medium are observed from the stroke texture embedded in an artwork image. to build a set of feature vectors that properly extract the texture information, we employ the layered structure of a deep convolutional neural network (cnn), which processes the input image in a series of layers whose resolutions are abstracted as the layer goes deeper. the recent study on style transfer based on deep cnn structure [ ] presents a gram matrix that extracts feature maps that convey the texture information by the correlation of the feature vectors, which responds to a linear filter bank. gram matrix of l-th layer, which is noted as 𝐺 , is defined as: 𝐺 , = 𝐹 , 𝐹 , , ( ) where 𝐹 , and 𝐹 , is feature maps correspond to the i-th and j-th filter at position k, respectively [ ]. since gram matrix is estimated at each layer of the cnn structure, we compute 𝐺 ’s for the layers and concatenate them as 𝐺 𝑥 = 𝐺 , 𝐺 , … , 𝐺 for the x-th patch. densenet- structure has five figure . our structure: (a) a single recognizing module and (b) an overall multi-column structure. . . estimating gram matrix for our recognizer the stroke patterns produced by an artistic medium are observed from the stroke texture embedded in an artwork image. to build a set of feature vectors that properly extract the texture information, we employ the layered structure of a deep convolutional neural network (cnn), which processes the input image in a series of layers whose resolutions are abstracted as the layer goes deeper. the recent study on style transfer based on deep cnn structure [ ] presents a gram matrix that extracts feature maps that convey the texture information by the correlation of the feature vectors, which responds to a linear filter bank. gram matrix of l-th layer, which is noted as gli, j is defined as: gli, j = ∑ k fli,kf l j,k, ( ) where fl i,k and fl j,k is feature maps correspond to the i-th and j-th filter at position k, respectively [ ]. since gram matrix is estimated at each layer of the cnn structure, we compute gl’s for the layers and concatenate them as g(x) = { g , g , . . . , gm } for the x-th patch. densenet- structure has five layer blocks (m = ), and we have five gram matrices: g , . . . , g . we illustrate the gram matrices and their information in figure . note that we convert gl’s into -dimensional vector before the concatenation, since gl is a -dimensional vector of various sizes. electronics , , of electronics , , of layer blocks (m = ), and we have five gram matrices: 𝐺 , … , 𝐺 . we illustrate the gram matrices and their information in figure . note that we convert 𝐺 ’s into -dimensional vector before the concatenation, since 𝐺 is a -dimensional vector of various sizes. figure . the gram matrices extracted from densenet- . in order to effectively detect stroke patterns from the patches, we devise a novel idea for the concatenation. it is widely known that the feature maps extracted in the lower layer of a cnn structure correspond to primitive features and the feature maps extracted in the higher layer of a cnn structure correspond to abstract features. since stroke patterns we aim to extract are more complex than the primitive features and more simple than the abstract features, we assign lower weights for the 𝐺 ‘s of low and high l values, and higher weights for medium l values. therefore, the weight, 𝑤 , for 𝐺 is determined according to gaussian function: 𝑤 = gaussian 𝑙 − 𝑚 − − . ( ) we concatenate them in the following formula: 𝐺 = 𝑤 𝐺 ∘ 𝑤 𝐺 ∘ … ∘ 𝑤 𝐺 , ( ) where ∘ is a concatenation operator. from 𝐺 𝑥 , we compute 𝐺 𝑥 , which is a four-dimensional one hot vector through a fully connected layer. after averaging 𝐺 𝑥 with 𝐿 𝑥 , the final four- dimensional one hot vector from densenet- , we conclude the final recognition for the x-th patch. this process is illustrated in figure . figure . the process of decision making in a recognizing module. figure . the gram matrices extracted from densenet- . in order to effectively detect stroke patterns from the patches, we devise a novel idea for the concatenation. it is widely known that the feature maps extracted in the lower layer of a cnn structure correspond to primitive features and the feature maps extracted in the higher layer of a cnn structure correspond to abstract features. since stroke patterns we aim to extract are more complex than the primitive features and more simple than the abstract features, we assign lower weights for the gl’s of low and high l values, and higher weights for medium l values. therefore, the weight, wl, for g l is determined according to gaussian function: wl = gaussian ( ( l − m − ) − ) . ( ) we concatenate them in the following formula: g = w g ◦ w g ◦ . . .◦ wmg m, ( ) where ◦ is a concatenation operator. from g(x), we compute g(x), which is a four-dimensional one hot vector through a fully connected layer. after averaging g(x) with l(x), the final four-dimensional one hot vector from densenet- , we conclude the final recognition for the x-th patch. this process is illustrated in figure . electronics , , of layer blocks (m = ), and we have five gram matrices: 𝐺 , … , 𝐺 . we illustrate the gram matrices and their information in figure . note that we convert 𝐺 ’s into -dimensional vector before the concatenation, since 𝐺 is a -dimensional vector of various sizes. figure . the gram matrices extracted from densenet- . in order to effectively detect stroke patterns from the patches, we devise a novel idea for the concatenation. it is widely known that the feature maps extracted in the lower layer of a cnn structure correspond to primitive features and the feature maps extracted in the higher layer of a cnn structure correspond to abstract features. since stroke patterns we aim to extract are more complex than the primitive features and more simple than the abstract features, we assign lower weights for the 𝐺 ‘s of low and high l values, and higher weights for medium l values. therefore, the weight, 𝑤 , for 𝐺 is determined according to gaussian function: 𝑤 = gaussian 𝑙 − 𝑚 − − . ( ) we concatenate them in the following formula: 𝐺 = 𝑤 𝐺 ∘ 𝑤 𝐺 ∘ … ∘ 𝑤 𝐺 , ( ) where ∘ is a concatenation operator. from 𝐺 𝑥 , we compute 𝐺 𝑥 , which is a four-dimensional one hot vector through a fully connected layer. after averaging 𝐺 𝑥 with 𝐿 𝑥 , the final four- dimensional one hot vector from densenet- , we conclude the final recognition for the x-th patch. this process is illustrated in figure . figure . the process of decision making in a recognizing module. figure . the process of decision making in a recognizing module. electronics , , of . implementation and result . . implementation we have implemented our classifier in a personal computer with intel®xeon®cpu e - with . ghz, nvidia®tesla®p gpu and gbyte main memory. our classifier is developed in python with pytorch library implemented on linux®of ubuntu version. the loss function of our classifier, which is designed by employing the concept of cross entropy, is defined as follows: loss(y, y) = − d∑ d= k∑ k= y· log y, ( ) where d is the batch size, k is the number of classes, y is the true label, and y is the predicted label. we use d as and k as . for the optimization, we employ the adam strategy [ ]. we set mini-batch size as , and learning rate as . . we trained our model for epochs. . . data collection we collect real artwork image dataset in two ways: historical artwork images and contemporary artwork images. wikiset is a dataset of historical artwork images collected from wikiart, the largest artwork image collection on the internet. ymset is a dataset of the contemporary artwork images collected from various websites. both datasets contain k images, respectively. we build synthset by collecting synthesized artwork images from the following literature: oil paint brush [ , – ], pastel [ – ], pencil [ – ] and watercolor brush [ , , – ]. we collect images in total— oil paint images, pastel images, pencil images and watercolor images. these images are presented in figures a –a in appendix a. . . training and results according to the suggestion of an important machine learning textbook [ ], we assign . k ( %) images for training, . k ( %) images for verification and . k ( %) for the test. we apply the synthesized artwork images only for test. we execute three tests: (i) wikiset images, (ii) ymset images and (iii) synthset images. the confusion matrices of these tests are illustrated in figure and suggest the performances in table , respectively. electronics , , of . implementation and result . . implementation we have implemented our classifier in a personal computer with intel® xeon® cpu e - with . ghz, nvidia® tesla® p gpu and gbyte main memory. our classifier is developed in python with pytorch library implemented on linux® of ubuntu version. the loss function of our classifier, which is designed by employing the concept of cross entropy, is defined as follows: 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑦, 𝑦 = − 𝑦 ∙ log 𝑦, ( ) where d is the batch size, k is the number of classes, y is the true label, and 𝑦 is the predicted label. we use d as and k as . for the optimization, we employ the adam strategy [ ]. we set mini- batch size as , and learning rate as . . we trained our model for epochs. . . data collection we collect real artwork image dataset in two ways: historical artwork images and contemporary artwork images. wikiset is a dataset of historical artwork images collected from wikiart, the largest artwork image collection on the internet. ymset is a dataset of the contemporary artwork images collected from various websites. both datasets contain k images, respectively. we build synthset by collecting synthesized artwork images from the following literature: oil paint brush [ , – ], pastel [ – ], pencil [ – ] and watercolor brush [ , , – ]. we collect images in total— oil paint images, pastel images, pencil images and watercolor images. figure . the confusion matrices from wikiset, ymset and synthset. . . training and results according to the suggestion of an important machine learning textbook [ ], we assign . k ( %) images for training, . k ( %) images for verification and . k ( %) for the test. we apply the synthesized artwork images only for test. we execute three tests: (i) wikiset images, (ii) ymset images and (iii) synthset images. the confusion matrices of these tests are illustrated in figure and suggest the performances in table , respectively. . experiment and analysis . . comparison . . . comparison with the existing models figure . the confusion matrices from wikiset, ymset and synthset. electronics , , of table . the performance of our three tests: (i) test with wikiset, (ii) test with ymset, and (iii) test with synthset. dataset media no. acc. prec. rec. f wikiset oil . . . . pastel . . . . pencil . . . . watercolor . . . . total . . . . ymset oil . . . . pastel . . . . pencil . . . . watercolor . . . . total . . . . synthset oil . . . . pastel . . . . pencil . . . . watercolor . . . . total . . . . . experiment and analysis . . comparison . . . comparison with the existing models for comparison, we survey the related works and categorize the existing recognizer models in two aspects: the input and the features they employ. the input of the models is either the whole image or patches sampled from the input image. the feature on the models is from either the result of the last layer of the model or the gram matrices computed from the overall layers. we select huang et al.’s work [ ] as the work that employs the output of the last layer for the whole image. lu et al.’s work [ ] as the work that employs the output of the last layer for the sampled patches. finally, we select sun et al.’s work [ ] as the work the employs a gram matrix for the whole image. our work employs a gram matrix for the sampled patches, which has not been tried by the existing works. note that sun et al.’s work [ ] and ours employ both the features from the last layer and the feature from the gram matrix. we compared f score of the models for the wikiset and synthset in table . in comparison, our recognizer outperforms other models for every artistic media and dataset except only for the watercolor images from synthset. table . comparison of four types of classifiers. dataset features input last layer gram matrix whole image sampled patches huang et al. [ ] o o lu et al. [ ] o o sun et al. [ ] o o o ours o o o . . . comparison with the datasets table shows the metrics, including accuracy, precision, recall, and f , score for three datasets. we also illustrate f scores of the three datasets in figure . in comparison, we observe that the f scores from oil paint and pencil for three models lie in the range of ( . – . ) and ( . – . ), respectively. electronics , , of however, the f score of pastel and watercolor from synthset shows extraordinarily low values. we discuss the reason for this case in section . .electronics , , of figure . comparison of f scores from the four recognizer models on ymset (a) and synthset (b). figure . comparison of f scores from three datasets on our recognizer. figure . the decreasing order of recall values of the confusion matrices in figure for ymsets and synthset. figure . comparison of f scores from the four recognizer models on ymset (a) and synthset (b). . . analysis . . . why ymset shows best performance? according to our assumption that stroke texture plays an important role in recognizing the artistic media, the recognition on ymset, the collection of contemporary artwork images, is expected to have higher performance than the recognition on wikiset, the collection of traditional artwork images, since the stroke texture on the artwork images of ymset is less damaged than the texture on the images of wikiset. this assumption is proved to be valid by our experiment. according to table and figure , ymset shows greater performance than wikiset. electronics , , of figure . comparison of f scores from the four recognizer models on ymset (a) and synthset (b). figure . comparison of f scores from three datasets on our recognizer. figure . the decreasing order of recall values of the confusion matrices in figure for ymsets and synthset. figure . comparison of f scores from three datasets on our recognizer. . . . the similarity of the recognition pattern for ymset and synthset we compare three points for ymset and synthset in the confusion matrix in figure : (i) the order of recall values, (ii) the most confusing pair, (iii) the least confusing pair. i. the recall value of each medium is the diagonal entry of the confusion matrix. the decreasing orders of recall values for ymset and synthset are illustrated in figure , which notifies that both of the orders match. electronics , , of electronics , , of figure . comparison of f scores from the four recognizer models on ymset (a) and synthset (b). figure . comparison of f scores from three datasets on our recognizer. figure . the decreasing order of recall values of the confusion matrices in figure for ymsets and synthset. figure . the decreasing order of recall values of the confusion matrices in figure for ymsets and synthset. ii. the most confusing pair of a medium is the medium whose entry is the largest entry except for the diagonal entry in the row of the confusion matrix. for example, the most confusion pair of oil in ymset is pastel, since the entry for pastel, which is . , is the largest in the row for oil except the diagonal entry. the comparison of the most confusing pairs for each medium is illustrated in the left column of figure . in figure , the most confusing pairs for oil and pencil coincides for ymset and synthset. the reason why most confusing pairs for pastel and watercolor does not coincide is discussed in section . .electronics , , of figure . the most confusing pairs and least confusing pairs between ymset (a) and synthset (b). . . analysis . . . why ymset shows best performance? according to our assumption that stroke texture plays an important role in recognizing the artistic media, the recognition on ymset, the collection of contemporary artwork images, is expected to have higher performance than the recognition on wikiset, the collection of traditional artwork images, since the stroke texture on the artwork images of ymset is less damaged than the texture on the images of wikiset. this assumption is proved to be valid by our experiment. according to table and figure , ymset shows greater performance than wikiset. . . . the similarity of the recognition pattern for ymset and synthset we compare three points for ymset and synthset in the confusion matrix in figure : (i) the order of recall values, (ii) the most confusing pair, (iii) the least confusing pair. i. the recall value of each medium is the diagonal entry of the confusion matrix. the decreasing orders of recall values for ymset and synthset are illustrated in figure , which notifies that both of the orders match. ii. the most confusing pair of a medium is the medium whose entry is the largest entry except for the diagonal entry in the row of the confusion matrix. for example, the most confusion pair of oil in ymset is pastel, since the entry for pastel, which is . , is the largest in the row for oil except the diagonal entry. the comparison of the most confusing pairs for each medium is illustrated in the left column of figure . in figure , the most confusing pairs for oil and pencil coincides for ymset and synthset. the reason why most confusing pairs for pastel and watercolor does not coincide is discussed in section . . iii. the least confusing pair of a medium is the medium whose entry is the smallest entry except for the diagonal entry in the row of the confusion matrix. for example, the least confusion pair of oil in ymset is pencil, since the entry for pencil, which is . , is the smallest in the row for oil except for the diagonal entry. the comparison of the most confusing pairs for each medium is illustrated in the right column of figure . in figure , the least confusing pair for oil coincides, and the least confusion pair for pencil is less than . for ymset and synthset. the reason why the least confusing pairs for pastel and watercolor does not coincide is discussed in section . . . . . the evaluation guideline for synthesized artwork images in figure , we observe that our recognizer shows very competitive f scores for oil and pencil in synthset, which contains and sample images, respectively. we assume the low f scores for pastel and watercolor comes from the lack of sample images. furthermore, in the section . . , we shows that ymset, the contemporary real artwork images, and synthset, the synthesized artwork images, have very similar recognition patterns in the order of recall values, the most confusion pairs and the least confusing pairs. from these observations, we can argue that our recognizer can be an evaluation guideline for new techniques that aim to synthesize artwork images by mimicking artistic media. a technique that aims to mimic artistic media is regarded to achieve its purpose, if the figure . the most confusing pairs and least confusing pairs between ymset (a) and synthset (b). iii. the least confusing pair of a medium is the medium whose entry is the smallest entry except for the diagonal entry in the row of the confusion matrix. for example, the least confusion pair of oil in ymset is pencil, since the entry for pencil, which is . , is the smallest in the row for oil except for the diagonal entry. the comparison of the most confusing pairs for each medium is illustrated in the right column of figure . in figure , the least confusing pair for oil coincides, and the least confusion pair for pencil is less than . for ymset and synthset. the reason why the least confusing pairs for pastel and watercolor does not coincide is discussed in section . . . . . the evaluation guideline for synthesized artwork images in figure , we observe that our recognizer shows very competitive f scores for oil and pencil in synthset, which contains and sample images, respectively. we assume the low f scores for pastel and watercolor comes from the lack of sample images. furthermore, in the section . . , we shows that ymset, the contemporary real artwork images, and synthset, the synthesized artwork electronics , , of images, have very similar recognition patterns in the order of recall values, the most confusion pairs and the least confusing pairs. from these observations, we can argue that our recognizer can be an evaluation guideline for new techniques that aim to synthesize artwork images by mimicking artistic media. a technique that aims to mimic artistic media is regarded to achieve its purpose, if the resulting image is recognized as if it has been drawn by the aimed media. until now, the recognition is only evaluated by human assessment. however, our recognizer that shows similar recognition patterns between real artwork images and synthesized artwork images can be an evaluation guideline for the synthesized artwork images. a process of the evaluation guideline is illustrated in figure . electronics , , of resulting image is recognized as if it has been drawn by the aimed media. until now, the recognition is only evaluated by human assessment. however, our recognizer that shows similar recognition patterns between real artwork images and synthesized artwork images can be an evaluation guideline for the synthesized artwork images. a process of the evaluation guideline is illustrated in figure . figure . the process of evaluation guideline for synthesized artwork images. a technique that generates synthesized artwork images by mimicking artistic media is evaluated to be successful, if our recognizer can recognize the target media from their result images. . . limitation after our experiment, we list the following limitations of our approach. . we concentrate on four media. we have designed a recognizer for four media, which are very frequently used to create both real artwork and synthesized artwork. for traditional artwork, we can list more artistic media, such as tempera, fresco, ink, etching, lithography, etc. even though they are not as popular nowadays, the study on recognizing traditional artworks may need to recognize artworks created by those media listed above. . lack of samples for synthesized pastel and watercolor. we have surveyed literature on mimicking artistic media in computer graphics society, and we cannot find a sufficient amount of literature for pastel and watercolor. in pastel, we find two works, one of which aims to mimic crayon, which is very similar to pastel [ ]. due to the lack of sample images for pastel and watercolor in synthset, the results on both media is less confident than those from oil paint and pencil. . strategy for sampling patches. we sample patches from an artwork image in random to capture stroke texture lying in an artwork image. since most of the stroke textures lie in local scale, sampling several patches may not catch proper stroke texture. to avoid this problem, we need an intelligent strategy for sampling patches that would not miss stroke texture. such a strategy may require low-level information from image processing techniques, such as gradient, curvature, and saliency. . conclusion and future work figure . the process of evaluation guideline for synthesized artwork images. a technique that generates synthesized artwork images by mimicking artistic media is evaluated to be successful, if our recognizer can recognize the target media from their result images. . . limitation after our experiment, we list the following limitations of our approach. . we concentrate on four media. we have designed a recognizer for four media, which are very frequently used to create both real artwork and synthesized artwork. for traditional artwork, we can list more artistic media, such as tempera, fresco, ink, etching, lithography, etc. even though they are not as popular nowadays, the study on recognizing traditional artworks may need to recognize artworks created by those media listed above. . lack of samples for synthesized pastel and watercolor. we have surveyed literature on mimicking artistic media in computer graphics society, and we cannot find a sufficient amount of literature for pastel and watercolor. in pastel, we find two works, one of which aims to mimic crayon, which is very similar to pastel [ ]. due to the lack of sample images for pastel and watercolor in synthset, the results on both media is less confident than those from oil paint and pencil. electronics , , of . strategy for sampling patches. we sample patches from an artwork image in random to capture stroke texture lying in an artwork image. since most of the stroke textures lie in local scale, sampling several patches may not catch proper stroke texture. to avoid this problem, we need an intelligent strategy for sampling patches that would not miss stroke texture. such a strategy may require low-level information from image processing techniques, such as gradient, curvature, and saliency. . conclusions and future work we have presented a multi-column structured framework for recognizing artistic media from artwork images. we sample several patches from an input artwork image and process them in each column of the framework to recognize stroke textures of an artistic medium that is used to create the artwork image. the local decisions on the patches are merged to make a final decision for the artwork image. we employ a gram matrix, which is known to be capture texture information from an image very effectively. we trained and tested our framework using real artwork datasets and compared the performance with the existing cnn-based recognizers to show that our recognizer shows the best performance. furthermore, we also build synthesized artwork images and test them using our recognizer. our recognizer shows the possibility of presenting a guideline for evaluating synthesized artwork images. we are going to improve the accuracy of our recognizer by sampling patches from an input artwork image more intelligently. we also extend our datasets to cover other media or artistic style, such as abstraction and pop art. author contributions: conceptualization, h.y. and k.m.; methodology, h.y. and k.m.; software, h.y.; validation, h.y. and k.m.; formal analysis, h.y. and k.m.; investigation, h.y. and k.m.; resources, h.y.; data curation, k.m.; writing—original draft preparation, h.y. and k.m.; writing—review and editing, k.m.; visualization, h.y. and k.m.; supervision, k.m.; project administration, h.y.; funding acquisition, k.m. funding: this paper is supported by national research foundation of korea (nrf) through nrf- r d a a . conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. electronics , , of appendix a we present the images in synthset in figures a –a . electronics , , of figure . oil paint images in synthset. figure a . oil paint images in synthset. electronics , , of electronics , , of figure . pastel, watercolor and pencil images in synthset. figure a . pastel, watercolor and pencil images in synthset. electronics , , of electronics , , of figure . pencil images in synthset. references . gatys, l.; ecker, a.; bethge, m. image style transfer using convolutional neural networks. in 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[crossref] [pubmed] . ng, a. machine learning yearning. . available online: http://mlyearning.org (accessed on october ). © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://dx.doi.org/ . /tvcg. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://mlyearning.org http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	related work 	schemes using bandcrafted features 	schemes using cnn-based features 	patch-based schemes 	building our recognizer for artistic media 	a strategy for our recognizer 	structure of our recognizer 	estimating gram matrix for our recognizer 	implementation and result 	implementation 	data collection 	training and results 	experiment and analysis 	comparison 	comparison with the existing models 	comparison with the datasets 	analysis 	why ymset shows best performance? 	the similarity of the recognition pattern for ymset and synthset 	the evaluation guideline for synthesized artwork images 	limitation 	conclusions and future work 	 	references journal of digital convergence❙ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jdc. . . . 화 ‘엑스맨(x-men)’의 변신모티 에 나타난 타피직스 분석 *, 진헌** 동 학 상 학원 티미 어학과 사과 * , 동 학 상 학원 티미 어학과 수 ** analysis on pataphysics of the metamorphosis in film ‘x-men’ seyoung chang*, jeanhun chung** dept. of multimedia, graduate school of digital image &contents, dongguk university, doctor's course* dept. of multimedia, graduate school of digital image &contents, dongguk university, professor** 약 ‘x-men’ 변신(metamorphosis) 주 티브 등 과 경 시각 과 만들어 내 내러티브 끌어간다. 본 연 목 변신 티브가 슈 히어 특징 하나 ‘ 타피직스(pataphysics)’ 가상 , 재 새 운 가상 변신 티브 미학 특 수 시하고 한다. 타피직스는 럽에 시 어 통에 탈피한 리 사 에 한 등 타포 상징에 한 고 특 가진 가상 다다 과 실주 , 아트, 포스트 니 어지는 술운동에 큰 향 주었다. 러한 술 에 나타난 타피직스 특 하고 에 나타난 변신 에 용하 다. 그 결과, 에 나타난 변신 미학 특 슈 히어 과 내 힘 양태 시각 하 , 또한 술 가상 과 어 가상과 실 첩 루어진 타피직스 , , 탈 재 함 고찰하 다. 주 어 : 슈 히어 , 변신, 가상 , 타피직스, x-men abstract the movie, x-men, develops the narrative with metamorphosis as the main motif making visual effects of characters and background. the objective of this study is to suggest that the metamorphosis motif can be materialized based on the virtuality of "pataphysics" as one of the genre characteristics of superhero movies and the newly materialized virtuality can be aesthetic characteristics of metamorphosis motif movies. with the virtuality that has its own characteristics with metaphorical symbols such as satire on an absurd society out of existing traditions, pataphysics started in mid-twentieth century and has had an impact on art movements of dadaism, surrealism, pop art, and postmodernism. analyzing the characteristics of pataphysics which were shown in these artworks, we applied it to metamorphosis scenes of the movie. as a result, we found out that it visualized the shape and aspect of inner and outer strength of a superhero with aesthetic characteristics of metamorphosis scenes and it realized the presence, hybridity, and ex-formal properties of pataphysics consisting of overlapped virtual and physical reality, with technical virtuality. key words : superhero, metamorphosis, virtuality, pataphysics, x-men received august , revised september accepted october , published october corresponding author: jeanhun chung (dept. of graduate school of digital image and .professor) email: evengates@gmail.com Ⓒ the society of digital policy & management. all rights reserved. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . ), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.issn: - ‘엑스맨(x-men)' 변신 티브에 나타난 타피직스 ❙journal of digital convergence oct; ( ): - . . 연 경과 목 슈퍼히어로 화는 만화를 원작으로 만들어진 세기 블록버스터의 장르 치를 확고히 하며 다양한 매체로 융합되어 문화 가치를 인정받고 있다. 슈퍼히어로 화는 변신을 모티 로 이루어지는 인의 웅캐릭터를 등장시켜 재 되며, 외형과 내재 인 변신의 슈퍼히어로 의 시각 변형을 보이며, 변신모티 는 슈퍼히어로 화에서 작품으로 몰입시킬 수 있는 화 고유의 기술 가상성을 기반으로 만들어진다. 변신의 가상성은 과거 주술 상상력에서 탄생한 가상성에서 과학 기술에 의 한 디지털 가상으로 발 되었다. 한 최근 디지털 기술 의 융합과 발 으로 인해 가상과 실의 경계를 넘나들 며 타포(pataphor) 상상력을 실 하는 증강 실의 새로운 가상의 개념으로 변모하고 있다. 년 월 게임 ‘포켓몬 go'[ ]의 세계 인 열풍은 이를 반 하고 있다. 알 드 자리(alfred jarry)의 타피직스(pataphysics) 는 이와 같은 사회 상을 설명할 수 있는 가상과 실 의 첩된 세계를 의미하는 새로운 가상성의 개념으로 빌렘 루서(vilém flusser)의 테크놀로지를 통해 물질 로 실 되는 기술 상상력에 근 하여 잠재된 가상의 상상력이 실화되고 있는 술과 문화 장르에 향을 끼치고 있다. 본 연구에서는 슈퍼히어로 화의 변신모티 와 타 피직스의 개념과 특성을 살펴보고 변신 모티 의 기술 가상성을 기반으로 시각 재 이 이루어지는 슈퍼히어 로 화의 변신 장면을 분석하여 타피직스의 표 특 성이 구 되고 있음을 본 연구에서 살펴볼 것이다. 그럼 으로써 슈퍼히어로 화의 변신모티 의 미학 가치를 새로운 가상성의 개념인 타피직스로 고찰하고자 한다. . 연 본 연구의 범 는 다음과 같다. 장에서는 연구의 배경, 목 , 범 와 방법을 살펴보 고, 장에서는 슈퍼히어로 화와 변신모티 의 계, 타피직스의 정의와 술운동에 끼친 향을 통한 타피 직스의 표 특성에 해 고찰해보고자 한다. 장에서는 화 ‘엑스맨’의 변신장면에 나타난 타피직스의 특성을 분석하여 슈퍼히어로 화의 변신모티 가 가지는 디지 털 미학의 가치로서 타피직스를 고찰하고자 한다. 장 에서는 본 연구의 내용과 향후 연구 방향에 해 정리, 설명한다. 연구방법으로는 변신에 한 선행논문과 문헌을 통해 슈퍼히어로의 변신 모티 를 정의내리고, 타피직스에 련된 국내외 문헌을 통해 나타난 이론과 술작품을 통해 표 특성을 도출하 으며, 화의 변신모티 와 타피직스의 연 성을 용하기 해 표 인 슈퍼히 어로의 변신 모티 가 한 화 엑스맨(x-men) 시리 즈에 등장하는 캐릭터의 외형과 내 인 힘의 변신 장면 을 분석하여 타피직스의 특성을 고찰하 다. . 슈 히어 변신 티브 타피직스 . 슈 히어 변신 티브 슈퍼히어로(superhero) 장르 화는 'super'에서 알 수 있듯이 인 인 힘을 가진 웅 캐릭터를 심으로 세기 문화의 한 상으로 코믹스에서 시작되어 미국의 상업성과 사회 이데올로기가 통합된 신화 아 이콘으로 화화되어 만들어졌다. 월 이며 경이로운 변신을 통해 윤리가치를 지키는 슈퍼히어로는 조셉 캠벨 (joseph campbell)이 말하는 ‘출발, 입문, 귀환’의 여정을 거치면서 인간의 보편 모습에서 자연 인 세계로의 자기 극복의 순례자로서 도덕성을 가지고 사회의 이상 가치를 실 한다. 변신(metamorphosis)이란 '바꾸다, 넘어서’의 뜻을 가 진 meta와 ‘형태, 형성과정’의 morphose의 합성용어인 라틴어의 metamorphose에서 유래된 말로 ’변성(變成), 변 (變轉), 변모(變貌), 변신(變身) 등의 의미로 풀이된 다[ ]. 슈퍼히어로 화에서 변신은 내러티 를 개하는 데 있어서 매우 요한 모티 로서 신화, 민담설화, 설 등에서 시작된 비 실 인 가상의 세계를 표 하는 주술 상상력이 시각성을 요구하는 회화나 사진, 화에 나 타나는 기술 상상력으로 인해 가상이 실화가 되어 구 되고 있다. 먼 변신을 정의 내리는데 있어서, 선행 연구의 논의를 정리해 보면 다음과 같다. ‘인간과 비인간 의 계에서 이루어지는 외형 변모’[ ], ‘자의나 타의에 의해서 어떤 원형이 다른 형태로 바 는 것’[ ], ‘생시든 analysis on pataphysics of the metamorphosis in film ‘x-men' journal of digital convergence❙ 죽어서든 다른 형태로 변화하는 것[ ]’, ‘인간, 동물, 이계 인, 정령들의 탈신, 둔갑과 같은 변형담[ ]’, ‘인간의 합리 인 사고로는 이해할 수 없는 신비한 힘에 의하여 한 존 재가 다른 존재로 물리 인 변화를 일으키는 상[ ]’, ‘한 존재 는 한 종속(species)이 다른 형태로 변화되는 일종의 역 (逆轉的) 상징체계[ ]’ 등이다. 슈퍼히어로 화에서 변신모티 가 시각 으로 재 될 때 고려되는 부분은 ‘변신 형태’로 변신 주체가 외형 인 변화를 가졌 는지, 내 인 변화를 가졌는지에 따른 ‘형(形)과 질 (質)[ ]’의 표 에 해당될 수 있다. 이는 몸을 통해 변형되 는 주체의 ‘보이는 것’의 외 인 ‘형(形)’의 변화와 내 심상의 변화인 ‘보이지 않는’ 내 의지나 욕망, 그리고 능력과 같은 내 인 ‘질(質)’의 과정과 함께 이루어진다. type appearance inner aspects contents change in the body one's will, desire, superpower body, mask, costume, gadget cgi visual effects, camera-working for the character's psychology <table > type of the metamorphosis-shape . 변신 가상 과 타피직스 . . 변신(變身) 가상 (假象性) 변신은 변신과정을 경험하는 주체가 가진 내재 의 지와 외부 힘에 의해 연속과 반복의 실과 실제하지 않는 가상을 오고가는 상상의 시뮬 이션을 거치는 a+b 의 혼종된 '변신되기’이다. 변신은 역사 으로 주술 미 신에서 비롯된 가상의 욕망으로 실제로 존재하지 않지만 (現前) 만드는 것이 상징 메타포의 가상화의 과 정인 ‘-되기’이다. ‘-되기’(devenir)는 들뢰즈와 가타리 (guattari, félix)가 말하는 ‘내가 스스로 다른 것으로 되 어가는 과정’을 뜻한다[ ]. 이 ‘-되기’(becoming)의 변신 은 디지털 기술의 발달로 화매체는 cgi라는 기술 가 상의 힘으로 포장된 합성의 시뮬 이션 과정을 통해 가 상의 변이된 형태로 재 된다. 화에 나타나는 슈퍼히 어로의 변신은 우연한 사고로 얻은 물질성으로 능력을 얻기도 하며, 보이지 않는 물질과 결합된 몸은 변화의 시 뮬 이션 과정을 보이며, 몰핑(morphing)에 의해 디지털 이미지로 합성되어 재 된다. 그리고, 이 가상 이미지의 재 과정은 사진의 단순한 기계 복제가 아닌 변신하 고자 하는 상체와의 유사성에 근거한 ‘변형된 복제’의 메타포로 나타난다. 한, cgi의 기술 가상성에 의해 실과 가상의 경계가 흐려지고, 재 되는 형태의 양상 은 다양해지면서 정형화된 질서에서 벗어난 이질감을 느 끼게 하는 변신의 형태들을 객들은 극 으로 수용하 게 되고 즐기게 된다. 기존의 극사실 리얼리티로 재 하고자 하는 상과의 동일성을 논하는 것은 진부해지고, 극사실 이미지가 아닌 실과 허구의 상상물로 시뮬라 시옹의 가상성이 된 것이다. . . 타피직스(pataphysics) 경과 특 랑스 극작가, 알 드 자리(alfred jarry ∼ ) 의 타피직스(pataphysics)[ ]는 형이상학의 메타피직 스(metaphysics)로 설명할 수 없는 비논리 이며 부조리 함을 표 하는 일종의 풍자와 패러디로 근 과학의 이 성 사유에 한 항으로 나타난 세기 엘리트의 철학 사유로 시작되었다. 타피직스는 과학과 기술을 유한 상상력으로 빌렘 루서(vilem flusse)의 기술 형상에 의한 상상력에 가깝지만 진지한 태도로 가상의 힘을 유희 으로 표 하며, 반 고흐(van gogh), 종합주 의(synthetism), 세잔의 로방스(cezanne provence), 신인상주의(neo-impressionism)로부터 향을 받았으 며 후에는 실주의(surrelism), 다다이즘(dadaism), 미래 (futurism), 순수주의(purisam), 기계미학(machine esthetic), 큐비즘(cubism)에 향을 주었다. 그리고, 년 에 타피직스는 팝아트의 다양한 순수조형요 소의 개념의 원리로 사용되곤 했다. 표 으로 장 보드 리야르(jean baudrillard)를 시한 철학, 존 이지(john cage)의 음악, 마르셀 뒤샹(marcel duchamp)의 시각 술, 르 코르뷔지에(le corbusier)의 건축 등에서 향을 끼침을 살펴볼 수 있다[ ]. 타포(pataphor)는 타피 직스에 기 하여 확장된 은유를 뜻하는 메타포(metaphor) 를 신하는 표 방법이다[ ]. 메타포는 가상과 실이 분리되지만, 타포는 분리되지 않고 첩된다. 타피직 스는 형이상학을 뜻하는 메타피직스를 패러디했지만 우 리의 일상뿐 아니라 술에서도 실재와 은유가 첩되어 있음을 뜻한다. 이는 디지털 기술이 발달한 세계에 용될 수 있는데, 가상 실(virtual reality)과 증강 실 (augmented reality)이 첩된 세상으로 상상과 이성, 허 구와 사실, 환상과 실재 사이의 단 을 이어주는 타피 직스 세계라는 것이다[ ]. ‘엑스맨(x-men)' 변신 티브에 나타난 타피직스 ❙journal of digital convergence oct; ( ): - 이제 타피직스의 주제와 표 특성을 구체 으로 살 펴보기 해 반미학 , 반 술 운동의 술양식으로 나타난 문학, 미술 작품을 고찰해보고자 한다. 먼 , 타 피직스를 이끈 알 드 자리의 부조리의 실주의 희곡을 표하는 상징과 풍자로 표 된 세기말 ‘ 비 왕(ubi ro, )'에서 타피직스의 주제를 찾아볼 수 있다. 극에 등장하는 ’ 비‘는 비 웅 인 외형과 성격 결함을 지닌 캐릭터로 그로테스크하게 표 되며, 과 거 모방의 재 , 이상 인 웅, 감정의 정화, 논리 인 과와 시간의 흐름을 특징으로 하는 아리스토텔 스의 통 비극에서 벗어나 희비(喜悲)의 경계를 넘나드는 시 부조리를 설명하는 왕이자 로서의 상충된 존재 감을 모방이 아닌 재성을 시하는 (presentation) 으로 객 앞에서 바로 시뮬 이션 된다. 한 통 시 학에서 보이는 ’ 일치‘[ ]의 논리 시공간 개념을 괴 하며 공간과 롯을 넘나드는 극의 흐름을 보여 다. 그 리고 공연 에 일상에서 하는 무작 인 욕을 권력 에 항하는 패러디로 직 으로 객에서 내뱉는 작품 의 성과 풍자, 패러디의 극에서 보이는 표 주제와 다다(dada) 시문학 운동을 주도한 트리스탄 차라 (tristan tzara)의 ’무작 시‘의 표 방법은 통 인 개념에서 탈피한 일상의 소재와 혼종(昏鐘)된 표 인 콜 라주, 포토몽타주, 디메이드와 같은 시각 표 양식을 통한 창조물로 정신을 표 하고자 했던 다다이즘과 실주의, 그리고 년 팝아트와 같은 문화 운동에 향을 주었음을 여러 작가의 작품을 통해 살펴 볼 수 있다. [fig. ] left: alfred jarry, character of 'ubu roi( )', center : ernst max,'ubu imperator( )', right: erenst max, illustration 'a week of kindness( )’ 특히 다다이즘의 표 작가인 막스 에른스트(max ernst)는 자리의 희곡 ’ 비 왕‘을 보고 타피직스에서 보여주는 실의 부조리에 한 술 감을 그의 작 품에 그 로 반 한다. 그 로 그의 주된 주제로 작품에 자주 등장하는 페르소나인 인간과 새가 혼종된 ’로 롭 (loplop)‘을 통해 부조리와 냉소의 사회 풍자 인 실과 환상의 흐려진 경계를 콜라주, 로타주 기법으로 표 하여 기묘한 가상의 세계를 묘사하고 있다. 그리고, 마르 셀 뒤샹(marcel duchamp)은 실주의 인 작품 ’ 마 일의 끈(mile of string, )‘을 유클리드의 기하학 선 에서 벗어나 비뚤어진 타피지컬한 실과 끈을 사용한 설치 공간을 통해 상상과 비 실 으로 통 인 기하학 원근법 투시가 이루어지는 물리 근을 차단하고, 시각 통만을 가능하게 하여 고정되어진 틀에서 벗어 나 실의 공간을 표 한다. 한 공공집단의 공간을 개 인 으로 실과 끈으로 차단, 해석함으로서 집단의 정체 성에 한 비 으로 보여 지기도 한다. 작품 ’ 표 정지 기( stoppages Ḗtalon, - )‘는 과학 이며 객 측정이 이루어진 세 개의 실을 력에 맞추어 떨어뜨린 후 다양한 형태로 변형된 우연한 실의 상태를 보여주며 ’비가시 인 수선(invisible mend)의 표 정지기 (stopper)‘를 의미하는 모호한 용어, ' stoppages Ḗtalon' 로 타피직스의 실험을 시도한다[ ]. 이는 기존의 고정 된 보편성과 불변성의 정통 과학에서 벗어나 변화된 시 각으로 재해석하는 탈정형화된 개념의 타피직스에 한 그의 심을 보여 다 할 수 있다. 한 르네 마그리트(rené magritte) 역시 데페이즈망 (dépaysement) 기법을 통해 공 에 띄워놓은 큰 바 , 낮 이 밤으로 변해 있는 등의 이미지에서 보여주듯이 물체 나 상을 그것이 놓여 있던 본래의 일상 인 질서나 배 경, 분 기에서 떼어내 그 사물의 속성과는 연 성 이 없는 엉뚱한 장소에 놓아 작품을 표 한다. 이는 보는 이로 하여 탈정형화된 이질 인 상황으로 인한 오 제 의 고립, 수정, 혼합된 이 이미지, 우연한 만남, 역설에 의한 이미지의 결합으로 비 실 인 가상의 공간을 실 과 혼합하여 보여주는 타피직스에 향 받았음을 보여 다. [fig. ] marcel duchamp, left: sixteen miles of string, (part of his installation for the first papers of surrealism exhibition, ny), center: stoppages Ḗtalon; standard stoppages( - ), right: rené magritte, the castle in the pyrenees( ) analysis on pataphysics of the metamorphosis in film ‘x-men' journal of digital convergence❙ 이와 같은 타피직스에 직 으로 향을 받은 술 작품을 통해 첫째, 알 드 자리의 희곡에 나타난 캐 릭터와 작품의 자유로운 형식과 주제를 통한 통 모 방의 재 이 아닌 경계 존재의 앞에서 직 으로 시뮬 이션되는 ‘ 성(現前性, presence)’, 둘째, 이에 향을 받은 다다이즘과 실주의 술운동에 나타난 표 작가의 작품, 막스 에른스트의 비 습 재료 와 이미지의 ‘혼종성(昏鐘性, hybridity)’, 셋째, 마르셀 뒤샹, 르네 마그리트와 같은 작가의 작품에서 살펴볼 수 있었던 이성과 과학의 형식화된 형태와 고정된 공간에서 벗어난 오 제와 공간으로 표 된 상황의 ‘탈정형성(脫 定形性, ex-formal)’은 비논리 인 상황과 실과 가상 을 첩시키는 타포 은유를 가지며 타피직스의 특 성이 될 수 있음을 추론할 수 있다. . '엑스맨(x-men)' 변신 티브에 재 타피직스 화 ‘엑스맨’은 년 마블 코믹스로 시작하여 그 역 사가 오래되었으며 년 미국에서 tv 시리즈 애니 메이션으로 방 , ‘엑스맨(x-men, bryan singer, )' 을 시작으로 ’엑스맨 (x-men , brayn singer, ), ‘엑스맨: 최후의 쟁(x-men:the last stand, bret ratner, ), ’엑스맨 탄생: 울버린(x-men origins:wolverine, gavin hood, ), 엑스맨: 퍼스트 클래스(x-men:first class, mattew vaughn, ), 더울버린(the wolverine, james mangold, ), 엑스맨 데이즈 오 퓨처 패스트 (x-men days of future past, bryan singer, ), 엑스 맨: 아포칼립스(x-men :apocalypse, bryan singer, )의 시리즈로 화화되었다. 그리고, 게임과 같은 디 지털 콘텐츠로도 인 인기를 얻고 있으며 등장인물 의 변신모티 를 만들어내는 cgi의 가상성을 시각 효 과로 화의 내러티 를 이끄는 표 인 작품이다. 그러므로 본 연구에서 인지도가 높고, 변신모티 가 작품에서 요한 역할을 하는 화 엑스맨 시리즈에 여 러 편에 등장하는 주요 슈퍼히어로인 xavier(a), magneto(b), storm(c), blink(d), marvel girl(e), iceman(f), shadowcat(g), nightcrawler(h), quicksilver(i), colossus(j), mystique(k), beast(l), wolverine(m), angel(n)의 외형 변화나 내 인 능력의 힘이 재 된 공간 변화 등의 변신 장면을 통해 변신의 가상성과 타피직스의 특성이 연 되어 재 되 고 있음을 고찰해보고자 한다. [fig. ] characters in 'x-men' film . (現前性, presence) 화 ‘엑스맨’에 재 된 변신은 슈퍼히어로 캐릭터의 외형의 변화에서 연속 이며 직선 인 시간을 ‘지 ’이라 는 시간 안에서 변신하기 의 과거, 변신하는 재의 경 계 상태와 변신 후의 미래의 모습을 시간과 공간에서 동 시에 보여 다. 변신의 단순한 결과론 인 움직임이 아 닌 시각 구조의 변화 과정을 디지털 이미지의 표 방 법인 a에서 b로 변형되는 간 과정의 몰핑(morphing) 의 디지털 유동성을 통해 가상과 실을 이어주는 실 인 감각을 실시간으로 보여 다. mystique iceman colossus quicksilver [fig. ] metamorphosis of pataphysic's presence 표 인 캐릭터로 미스틱(mystique)의 타인을 복제 하여 자신의 몸을 변형시키는 과정, 아이스맨(iceman)의 얼음의 형태로 본인의 몸이나 사물을 변화시키는 장면, 콜로서스(colossus)의 강철로 변신하는 과정, 퀵실버 (quicksilver)의 시공간을 멈추어 시뮬 이션 장면은 알 ‘엑스맨(x-men)' 변신 티브에 나타난 타피직스 ❙journal of digital convergence oct; ( ): - 드 자리의 희곡에서 그로테스크한 비 왕이 객 을 앞에 두고 부조리의 풍자 사를 직 으로 내 뱉어 표 하거나 주의 회화에 나타난 자동기술 으 로 바로 떠오르는 사고를 표 하듯이 화에서 변신을 일으키는 상의 속성이 변화되는 과정의 후와 형태의 경계를 넘나드는 변신체를 앞에서 그 로 보여주는 성을 경험하게 한다. . (昏鐘性, hybridity) 외형의 변신이 한 캐릭터는 신체가 다른 이형의 존재로 동식물 는 사물, 이성의 인간이나 타인이 되는 변이의 과정을 일으킨다. 화 ‘엑스맨(x-men)'에 나타 난 슈퍼히어로는 돌연변이의 소외된 실의 인물과 가상 의 형태를 가진 타포의 메타포로 결합된 이종의 변신 체로 혼종된 외형으로 재 된다. 외형의 변화를 갖는 변 신모티 를 가진 표 인 캐릭터로는 늑 의 발톱을 연 상시키는 양손에 튀어 나온 속 골격과 헤어스타일의 울버린(wolverine), 늑 인간을 그 로 재 한 듯한 비 스트(beast)의 신, 인간과 혼종된 새의 날개를 가진 엔 젤(angel), 악마의 외형을 연상시키는 듯한 귀와 꼬리를 묘사한 나이트크롤러(nightcrawler) 등에서 살펴 볼 수 있다. wolverine angel beast nightcrawler [fig. ] metamorphosis of pataphysic's hybridity 이들은 왜곡된 형태로 마치 추미학(醜美學)을 재 한 듯한 애매한 경계 존재의 외형들을 보이며 다원 해 석이 가능한 혼성 이미지로 재 된다. 타피직스의 문학작품 기법인 상징과 다양한 장르를 혼합하여 만들어 낸 창작 방식이자 에른스트 등을 시한 다다이즘과 실주의 작가의 작품에서 표 된 기법과 유사하게 재 된다. 한 화에서 이들이 가진 이질 인 변신의 외형 은 기성화된 사회에서 동떨어진 소외된 실에서 느끼는 부조리한 사회로부터 차별 받는 주제를 직 으로 표 하고 사건의 내러티 를 이끌어가는 주요 모티 가 되기 도 한다. 이는 디지털 이미지가 가지는 서로 통행하거나 혼성되는 상을 가 시키며, 이미지 간에 혼합, 교 의 방식으로 형상화하는[ ] 특성과 변신이 보여주는 타 피직스 특성과 일치함을 살펴볼 수 있다. . 탈 (脫定型性, ex-formal) 화에서 외형의 시각 변신이 드러나지 않고 슈퍼 히어로의 내재된 보이지 않는 변신의 힘을 가진 능력 은 실의 시공간이 수정되거나 고립되어 혼합된 가상의 변신으로 시공간을 이질 인 상황으로 재 , 두 가지 상 황이 동시에 나타나는 시공 경험을 실에서 변형시킨 다. 이와 같은 일정한 틀에서 벗어나 고정된 공간에서 벗 어난 즉흥 조형형태가 복합 으로 병치되어 나타나는 탈정형성은 변신의 비선형 인 조형 형태로 순간 인 변 신 공간을 연출하며 화에서 재 하고 있다. magneto xavier blink mavelgirl storm shadowcat [fig. ] metamorphosis of pataphysic's ex-formal 그 로 매그니토(magneto)의 속 자기장의 힘을 이 용하여 스태디움 공간을 공 으로 띄워 이동하는 변신, analysis on pataphysics of the metamorphosis in film ‘x-men' journal of digital convergence❙ 사비에(xavier)의 시공간을 조정하여 실의 인간의 정 신과 몸을 과거나 미래로 이동 는 시공간을 넘나드는 변신, 블링크(blink)의 재의 시공간에 다른 시공간 으로 이동할 수 있는 문을 만들어내는 변신, 마블걸 (marvel girl)의 텔 시를 통해 재의 시공간 분자를 조작하여 괴하거나 만들어내는 변신, 스톰(storm)의 재 기후 변화를 마음 로 조정하여 새로운 공간으로 만들어내는 변신, 도우캣(shadowcat)의 재의 공간 을 뚫고 이동하거나 의식을 다른 시간으로 넘어서는 변신은 모두 재의 시공간과 가상의 비일상 인 시공간 을 동시에 재 한다. 마치 비정형 공간을 작품으로 보 여 다다이스트 뒤샹의 작품이나 마그리트, 기리코 등 의 실주의 작가들의 작품에서 보이는 일상의 물리 한계에서 벗어난 실과 환상 인 무의식 인 가상성이 돋보이는 데페이즈망과 같은 비정형 인 기법들이 동시 에 재 되는 듯한 미장센을 연출하고 있다. 정리하면 이 러한 변신모티 는 비논리 이며 일상에서 벗어난 규범 화되지 않는 시공간을 시각화하여 실에 존재하지 않는 탈정형 상태의 타피지컬한 실과 가상의 공간을 첩시켜 재 하고 있다 할 수 있다. . 결 본 연구에서는 슈퍼히어로의 변신이 무엇이며, 알 드 자리의 타피직스가 다다이즘과 실주의와 같은 인간 실에서의 한계를 월한 잠재된 상상력으로 기존 의 이성 합리주의에 반발하는 주제를 가지고 가상의 시공간을 나타낸 다양한 술 운동에 그 향을 미쳤으 며 이를 통해 타피직스의 표 특성을 ‘ 성’, ‘혼 종성’, ‘탈정형성’으로 분석되었다. 한 슈퍼히어로 화 ‘엑스맨’에 재 된 실과 가상 이 혼재된 슈퍼히어로의 외형 형태와 내 인 인의 힘을 발 하는 변신모티 는 잠재된 가상의 힘을 기술 가상으로 재 함으로서 상과 이미지의 실재성에 한 새로운 계를 만들어내는 타포 상상력으로 표 되 고 있음을 장면을 통해 살펴 볼 수 있었다. 슈퍼히어로의 부분은 실재하는 인간이지만 변신 후엔 가상의 몸이 되어 실의 존재로 재 되거나, 가상의 시공간으로 넘 나드는 타포 등장인물로 재 되거나 는 타피지 컬한 변신의 공간을 만드는 슈퍼히어로의 힘으로 시각화 되고 있는 것이다. 이와 같이 슈퍼히어로의 변신모티 를 통해 재 된 타피직스의 표 특성으로 슈퍼히어로 캐릭터의 외형에 나타난 변신 과정을 직 으로 몰핑기 법을 통해 객에게 보여주는 ‘ 성’, 돌연변이 변신의 외형 특징인 이종 결합에 의한 ‘혼종성’으로 나타나는 소외된 존재와 부조리의 주제와 외형 표 , 내재된 변 신의 힘을 일상의 실을 탈피한 시공간의 변화에 의한 ‘탈정형성’으로 논의하 다. 이상으로 본고는 슈퍼히어로의 cgi의 기술 가상력 에 의해 표 되는 변신모티 의 시각 조형성이 디지털 상의 미학 가치로서 새로운 가상의 개념인 타피직 스를 제시한 것에 의의를 두고자 한다. references [ ] doi:,https://namu.wiki/w/%ed% f%ac%ec%bc % %eb%aa%ac% go. . 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"introduction. aristotle’s poetics", by aristotle. trans. s.h. butcher. new york: hill and wang, [ ] d'hamoncourt and mcshine, eds., "marcel duchamp", pp. - , prestel pub, [ ] lister, martin, u seon-a, "the photographic image in digital culture", pp. - , visual languge, [ ] eunyoung jung, "surrealism in labyrinth: marcel duchamp's mile of string for "first papers of surrealism", the journal of art theory & practice, vol. , [ ] seyoung chang, "a study on the comic strip style in the movie la chinoise", journal of the korea convergence society, vol. , no. , [ ] d'hamoncourt and mcshine, eds, ‘marcel duchamp’, prestel pub, [ ] jungsoo han, "color and brightness calibration convergence technology for d virtual reality attractions", journal of the korea convergence society, vol. , no. , (seyoung chang) ․ 년 월 : 숙명여 상미디어 디자인 석사 (mfa) ․ 년 월 : 동국 학교 상 학 원 멀티미디어학과 박사 수료 ․ 년 월 ∼ 재 : 안양 학교 디 지털미디어디자인학과 겸임교수 ․ 심분야 : contents design, animation, motion-graphic ․e-mail : zukiya@naver.com 진 헌(jeanhun chung) ․ 년 월 : 홍익 학교 시각디자 인학과 (bfa) ․ 년 월 : 미국, academy of art university computer arts (mfa) ․ 년 월 ～ 재 : 동국 학교 상 학원 멀티미디어학과 교수 ․ 심분야 : vr, contents design, 입체 상, d computer graphic, computer animation, visual effects paper changes in artistic style after minor posterior stroke j m annoni, g devuyst, a carota, l bruggimann, j bogousslavsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see end of article for authors’ affiliations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . correspondence to: julien bogousslavsky, department of neurology, lausanne university hospital, ch lausanne, switzerland; julien.bogousslavsky@ chuv.hospvd.ch received may revised version received september accepted september . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : – . doi: . /jnnp. . background: two professional painters experienced significant changes in their art as the main consequence of minor stroke located in the left occipital lobe or thalamus. methods: the features of this artistic conversion were analysed on the basis of extensive neurological, neuropsychological, and psychiatric evaluations. results: both painters, initially unaware of the artistic changes, exhibited mild signs of executive dysfunction, but no general cognitive decline. the first painter, who showed mild visual-perceptive difficulties (dyschromatopsia and scotoma in his right upper visual field after left occipital stroke), together with increased anxiety and difficulty in emotional control, switched to a more stylised and symbolic art. the second painter, who also presented features of emotionalism related to his left latero-thalamic stroke, switched from an impressionist style to a more joyous and geometric, but more simplistic, abstract art. conclusions: these findings show that mild cognitive and affective modifications due to focal posterior brain lesions can have significant repercussions on artistic expression. p ainting is a very complex behaviour and its neural correlates involve brain areas processing the perceptive, cognitive, and emotional valences of stimuli; brain damage, therefore, could modify artistic expression. the effect of a major stroke on artistic changes as a function of the lesion type has been the subject of several reports, which have generally focused on the result of severe visuo-spatial disturbances (that is, hemispatial neglect) and aphasic disintegration. right parieto-occipital damage resulting in spatial neglect, constructional apraxia, or perceptual agnosia can alter the spatial configuration of the whole painting or individual parts, – while extensive left hemisphere damage may be responsible for simplification of detail of represented objects. another aspect to consider is that, in a limited number of cases, brain disorders seem, paradoxically, to improve artistic expression. painters with fronto-temporal dementia and predominant left hemisphere dysfunction generally lose their capacities of abstraction and symbolic representation, but their paintings may appear more emotional and creative. – alzheimer’s disease and lewy body dementia, in which visuo-spatial disturbances may be prominent, adversely affect drawing ability, but, in certain cases, painting become more intuitive and fluid. – from published reports of painters with dementia, we can draw some conclusions about the relationships between brain disorders and painting. in some cases, a surprising outburst of creativity corresponds with the loss of inhibitory control, leading to a sort of artistic disinhibition. for example, in patients with semantic dementia and predominant left hemisphere atrophy, facilita- tion of creativity has been attributed to a mechanism called ‘‘paradoxical functional facilitation’’, corresponding to a shift from a left to a right hemisphere mode of functioning. the effect of lesions within fronto-subcortical networks subserving executive functions might be more subtle. executive functions may intervene in painting in the process of screening the figurative relevance of stimuli or in expressing novel order relationships between concepts. furthermore, lesions limited to the limbic and paralimbic regions involved in the regulation of mood and emotional states should also affect an artist’s work. creativity in painters has always been related to the emotional features of the artist’s unique personality, and periods of intense artistic activity have frequently been compared to hypomanic states. depression, anxiety, emotional dyscontrol, apathy, indifference, mania, and psychosis, all of which are known possible affective consequences of focal infarcts, – can have a major influence on art, even after only limited brain damage. the possibility that focal and limited brain lesions might specifically influence an artist’s style through execu- tive or affective changes has been poorly investigated. here, we present two painters, both of whom had a limited stroke in the area of the left posterior cerebral artery and recovered from their sensory motor deficits, but whose artistic expres- sion was modified. case reports patient patient was a year old right handed lithographer and described himself as a self taught painter. the themes of his paintings were principally simplified human representations (fig a), semi-figurative scenes, and original geometric shapes. his pictorial language was rather naive, influenced by primitive expressive styles (explanations of artistic terms can be found in appendix a). he presented a sudden loss of vision in the superior right visual field and an autoscopic phenomenon (he saw himself lying on the floor with his head turned to the left). he also noticed difficulty in perceiving complex objects in his upper right visual field. the first neurological examination showed a right superior quadrantopia sparing macular vision, confirmed by a detailed ophthalmologic evaluation. an mri revealed an acute ischemic infarct in the occipital area corresponding to parts of v and v (fig ). arterial dissection was excluded by mr angiographic and doppler findings, ecg monitoring did not reveal intermittent atrial fibrillation, and other causes, such as diabetes, vasculitis, or procoagulant states, were ruled out. the presumptive cause was a paradoxical embolism from a patent foramen ovale and he was treated with oral anticoagulants. within a few days, the right superior quadrantopia reduced to a paracentral abbreviations: dex, dysexecutive questionnaire; mmse, mini mental state evaluation; ptsd, post-traumatic stress disorder www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ scotoma, but a dazzling flash or white lines and contours (mimicking the ‘‘shapes of fish skin and burning paper’’) would frequently appear in the upper right visual quadrant. neurological examination months after stroke showed a right superior paracentral scotoma at ˚ degrees and a dyschromatopsia in the spared right upper visual field. repeated eegs did not reveal any epileptic discharges. at the month follow up, neuropsychological assessment (table ) showed minor changes, such as a tendency to digress in his discourse, a slightly delayed response times in both visual fields in a visual detection task, and a tendency to perseveration in a figural fluency task, but a normal perfor- mance in go-nogo and stroop-like tasks. there was no general cognitive decline in the mini mental state evaluation (mmse = / ). oral and written language, constructional, ideational, and ideomotor praxis, and episodic and short term memory were normal. he denied any difficulty in recognising familiar shapes when looking for someone in the street, when reading magazines, or when looking at paintings. according to his wife, he had no problems conducting his professional life and was independent in terms of travelling alone, organising his exhibitions, and taking care of his bills. we diagnosed a mild dysexecutive syndrome. a psychiatric interview showed no personality changes after stroke, but did show increased impulsiveness, fluctuating depressive mood, and increased anxiety and avoidance behaviour, suggestive of a moderate post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd). this ptsd-like syndrome was confirmed by a pathological score— particularly for the avoidance symptoms—in the impact of event scale. moreover, some irrational ideas were found, but these related only to the cause of the stroke (for example, family problems), and the diagnosis of a psychotic reaction was excluded. the dysexecutive questionnaire (dex) showed a relatively higher score in the items of emotional dyscontrol and loss of motivation compared to other items. patient did not report any change in his habits, taste, eating, or aesthetic judgment. he started drawing and painting month after the stroke and, after a few weeks, comments by relatives and clients made him aware that some changes had occurred in his art. human limbs and hands were thinner, sharper, and more stylised (fig b) and the details simplified. compared to his figure paintings by patient some months before (a) and months after (b) stroke. the scenes were chosen because of their similarity to highlight the small stylistic changes. figure patient ’s occipital stroke, as shown in an mri weeks after the acute event. fast spin echo t (tr: ms, te: ms, nex: , fov: , matrix: , % gap) mm thick transverse section. annoni, devuyst, carota, et al www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ previous paintings, there was an overall simplification as a result of the increased use of monochromic colour choices, more stylised figures, and unreferenced background spaces. he also introduced the luminous features that appeared in his scotoma (fig b, top picture, bottom left corner; bottom picture, top left corner). he showed us six examples from before the stroke and four from after the stroke, which confirmed these changes. four of these (two from before and two from after the stroke) were shown to two independent judges who concluded there was simplification and increased abstraction, symbolism, and role of luminosity (see appendix b). his method of painting itself was also altered; as he said, ‘‘previously, i would lie down and visualise a canvas for an hour before starting to paint. now, the flash prevents me from doing this. my inspiration comes a little at a time while painting, rather than before i start’’. patient patient , a year old ambidextrous retired bank clerk, developed a great interest in painting from the age of and exhibited locally and nationally. his favourite themes were swiss landscapes and he avoided purely abstract representa- tion. critics defined his art as ‘‘figurative-impressionist’’. he first came to our attention because of sudden right hypoesthesia-hemiataxia-hemiparesis, from which he recov- ered completely within h. an mri showed a small lesion in the area of the thalamo-perforant branches (fig ). intermittent atrial fibrillation was noted and treatment with oral anticoagulants started. a standardised neuropsychological evaluation year after the stroke (table ) revealed a slight impairment in executive functions, as demonstrated by a moderate tendency to perseveration in verbal (phonological) and figural fluency tasks and by some lack of precision in semantic and mental imagery tasks (for example, in a word definition task, he said, ‘‘an elephant, this is the largest animal on earth, with tusks… i am not sure about its colour; does it have hooves?’’). the mmse showed no cognitive decline ( / ). oral and written language, constructional, ideational, and ideomotor praxis, and episodic and short term memory were normal, as were auditory and somesthetic tasks of interhemi- spheric transfer. according to his wife, he had no problems carrying out social activities. in a self administered dex questionnaire, the patient only scored high on two items, impulsiveness and lack of interest in social rules. we diagnosed a mild to moderate dysexecutive syndrome. a psychiatric interview led to the diagnosis of an absence of any clinically relevant personality change, but the appearance of mild emotional dyscontrol. moreover, the consultant did not suggest any psychiatric disorder. the painter’s wife com- pleted a questionnaire on personality changes (the iowa scale of personality change, ispc ), comparing his personality before and after the stroke, which confirmed that the only change was the development of this slight emotional dyscontrol. he started to paint again weeks after stroke, initially with his left hand, then alternating between the left and right hands, a method he had never used before the stroke. even though the strength and motility of the right hand had completely recovered, he intended to train his left hand in case his right hand was again paralysed. he sold his new paintings with the same success as before. it was not until several months later that comments by clients and critics made him realise that his art had changed. table summary of neuropsychological data for patients and domains scores patient patient gnosia recognition of embedded figures (pop) / / hooper visual organisation test (adapted version) / / recognition of celebrities (actors, / / politicians, etc) recognition of facial emotions / / colour naming / / position discrimination (borb) / na object recognition in non-canonical / / views (borb) stereognosia (objects, right hand) / / stereognosia (objects, left hand) / / semantic memory semantic memory: columbia / / semantic memory: description of / / * visual features executive functions phonological fluency ( min) * categorical fluency ( min) design fluency (repetitions) ( *) ( *) perseveration in luria’s graphomotor / * / * tasks clinical go/nogo task / (n) / (n) non-colour stroop (interference/ , (n) , (n) naming phase) behaviour/emotional scales global dex score / * / * occasional emotional signs (reported in the dex) apathy impulsiveness other artistic/diet changes none none psychiatric scales had depression / / had anxiety / * / ies scale . na *normal: , . n, normal; na, not assessed. impaired performances are indicated by an asterisk. abbreviations for the tests : borb, birmingham object recognition battery; columbia, columbia association test; pop, poppelreuter’s figures; ravlt, rey’s auditory verbal learning test. recognition of facial emotions is part of a prosopagnosia battery. the adapted hooper and stroop-like tests were developed in lausanne. mood alterations were evaluated using the french version of the hospital anxiety and depression scale (had) and ptsd-like symptoms were assessed using the impact of event scale (ies). figure patient ’s left paramedian thalamic stroke, as shown in an mri weeks after the acute event. fast spin echo t (tr: ms, te: ms, nex: , fov: , matrix: , % gap) mm thick transverse section. changes in artistic style www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ patient switched from a ‘‘figurative’’ to a more ‘‘realistic’’ art, in which colour intensity, a search for more realistic shape consistency, a focus on detail, and a more structured organisation of space were the most important features (fig ). he showed us three examples from before and three from after the stroke, which confirmed these changes. two independent judges concluded that, after stroke, there was more geometric organisation and use of bolder colours and a greater relevance of each detail of the painting (see appendix b). he reported that he was ‘‘more sensitive to the hidden beauty of nature’’ and that he ‘‘wanted to live and paint spontaneously, explore the world, and represent it in its raw strength’’. he also indicated a loss of interest in ‘‘impres- sionists’’, whom he had preferred for the previous years. impressionism was now no longer sufficiently real or representative of his creative strength. intriguingly, he said that it was the use of the left hand that led him into this new artistic dimension. in fact, he discovered that figures executed with his left hand had more emotional strength and bolder colours, whereas, in those painted with the right hand, the lines, contours, and perspectives were clearer. he realised that his creativity was increased by the use of his left hand. patient showed us three canvases representing the same subject, painted with the left, right, or both hands, respectively, which demonstrated that the painting produced using the left hand employed more vivid colours (fig ). apart from painting, patient did not notice any changes in his previous habits. his relatives and friends did not report any change in his behaviour or personality after stroke. at the year follow up, patient ’s artistic productivity remained high. discussion our two patients were talented painters who experienced qualitative artistic changes as the main consequence of a stroke in the area of the left posterior cerebral artery. other behavioural consequences included moderate executive dysfunction and features of emotional dyscontrol, but no general cognitive impairment. the possibility that the artistic changes were due to a conscious personal choice following a life threatening medical event was initially considered; however, both patients were initially unaware of the changes to their art, suggesting that the change was due not to personal choice, but was neurological in origin. reduced insight into a cognitive or behavioural modification is often a direct consequence of brain dysfunction. patient evolved initially towards bimanual painting. however, we did not consider that the artistic changes were related to bimanual painting, since the subjective feeling of the painter in parallel was of a more general creative freedom, regardless of the hand used. the fact that, in both painters, the changes only involved painting, and not other habits or activities, also led us to discount an effect on creativity related to general effects, such as novelty seeking. moreover, modification of novelty seeking is generally related to frontal lesions, while our patients had stroke in the posterior circulation. the artistic changes may have been associated with a direct effect of the infarct. since the posterior brain regions seem to play a specific role in creative thinking, it is not surprising that a minor lesion in these regions might alter an artist’s creative thought and thus his style of painting. besides, the fact that patients and had left hemispheric dysfunction may provide some support for the theory of ‘‘right hemi- sphere functional release’’. different possible cognitive mechanisms may be considered. firstly, given that artistic modifications after posterior strokes are often due to alterations in perceptual or spatial and visuo-constructive activity or mental imagery, such neuropsychological alterations may be the cause of the artistic changes. however, we found no evidence of spatial deficit or constructional apraxia. patient showed mild signs of semantic impairment in verbally describing char- acteristics of animals or objects, but the fact that, after stroke, his painting was more structured and detailed suggests that mental imagery was well preserved. secondly, creativity is also modulated by evaluative judgements and executive functions. the role of the thalamus and posterior brain structures in executive func- tions has been reported – and is supported by data from functional imaging studies. simplification of drawing and attention to detail have both been described in some patients with frontal dementia. therefore, moderate executive dysfunction in both painters could be partly associated with their artistic changes. this hypothesis is strengthened by both patients’ modified performances in verbal or visual fluency tasks, which are executive tasks, but have also been used as a short test of divergent thinking and creativity. however, fact that the artistic changes were different in patients and suggested that executive dysfunction was not the only mechanism. both painters also showed post- stroke emotional changes, which may also be considered. in the case of patient , the main artistic change was the way he drew human figures. he also used a less structured background in his paintings, and the relationship between light and shapes appeared less developed than before. a general simplification of his art developed after his stroke. increased anxiety and avoidance behaviour could have played a role in this general simplification. in the case of patient , the main pictorial changes were a conversion to a more figure paintings by patient before and after stroke. note the use of more vivid colours after stroke. annoni, devuyst, carota, et al www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ structured organisation and bolder colours. on clinical evaluation, patient also showed increased emotionality, which has been shown to influence creativity in other painters. these observations suggest that the artistic modifications in our patients might be due not only to mild executive dysfunction, but also to a moderate loss of emotional control. in conclusion, we suggest that the new painting style adopted by these painters may be attributed to mild changes in executive functions, semantic capacities, and emotional regulation. while the change in their artistic behaviour seemed to exceed the sum of the emotional and cognitive manifestations related to their stroke, our data strongly suggest that these modifications can, at least partly, explain the change in style. the lack of strict formal rules in artistic creativity allows the development of new abilities after brain dysfunction, which depend not only on the artist’s person- ality, but also on the lesion site and the ability of the brain to reorganise. the effect of focal brain lesions on individuals highly skilled in artistic expression provides a unique opportunity to study neuro-aesthetics, the neuroscience discipline dealing with the neurobiology of art, that is, the relationship between the brain and the artistic mind. acknowledgements we would like to thank valentina palma and jean ott for their analysis of the painters’ work, the patients for their paintings, and tom barkas for reading the manuscript. authors’ affiliations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j m annoni, g devuyst, a carota, l bruggimann, j bogousslavsky, department of neurology, lausanne university hospital, lausanne, switzerland a carota, centro ricerche in neuropsicologia i.r.c.c.s, fondatione santa lucia, via ardeatina , rome, italy this work was supported by the swiss national science foundation (grant nos. ao- to jm annoni and - . to j bogousslavsky) and by the biaggi foundation competing interests: none declared appendix a to stylise to synthesise the essential elements of the shape and colours of that which is to be represented by simplifying them and subordinating the realisation of this portrayal to a particular aesthetic purpose. the concept is thus suggested by small elements (features, spots of colour, etc), rather than explicitly detailed. symbolic in figurative art, the process of transmitting specific concepts by means of the representation of images and elements suggestive of these concepts, but which have a figurative autonomy regarding the concrete reality. abstract art artistic tendency that discards the representation of the external world, the aim of which is the formal message and visual perception itself. the pictorial language that ensues from this tendency expresses itself through the simplification and decomposition of shapes. figurative art the representation of truth by figures. artistic language that resorts to the use of images and subjects which are present in the real world and universally known. greater organisation of the structure to produce a picture balanced in the construction of each element, so that the composition is harmonious and well proportioned in the final work. geometric organisation to structure a portrayal in a linear, ordered, and rigorous way, as if the arrangement of each element had to be measured. figure pictures painted by patient some weeks after his cerebrovascular accident, using his left hand, right hand, or both hands. note the tendency to use more colours when using the left hand. changes in artistic style www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ strong importance of every detail to express every element of the composition in its shading, originality, and formal characteristics. emotional force artistic language which is able to provoke strong emotional feelings due to a particular use of colours, shapes, design, etc. appendix b comments on the paintings of patients and paintings before and after stroke by an art critic (ac) and a professional artist (pa). the patients lent us ten (patient ) or six (patient ) paintings of different sizes. half of these paintings were from the years before the stroke and half from the year following the stroke. a standard a reproduc- tion of the paintings was sent to the judges, to avoid size effects. the judges were told which paintings were executed before, and which after, the stroke. ac is an art critic in rome and pa a professional painter and sculptor in lausanne. they did not know the patients and were not aware of the type of stroke or the subsequent deficits. they had no neurological knowledge and were only told that the patients had started to paint again after a stroke. their analysis included global observation and general architecture, represented theme, style and characteristic of drawing, importance of details, colours, and aesthetic evaluation. patient , top pictures fig before stroke (fig a) the picture shows a figurative representation. in the centre, there are two people, in vivid colours, who seem to float in a landscape, represented only by floral elements. the pictorial language is naive, evoking a primitive expression. however, there is an interesting difference in style in the representation of the trees; it seems that more thought has been given to these before starting painting. (ac) the painting represents an idyllic eden. images taken from a conventional, but joyous, set. light (divine) is nearly out of field. space is organised around the horizon. (pa) after stroke (fig b) simplification of the previous paintings. there is now an almost pure monochromic choice. on this blue, there are some light sources confined to the right half of the painting (sun, moon?) and around the single figures. these figures are now completely stylised (like slowly moving silhouettes) and move in an unreferenced space. there are some randomly situated geometric patterns, suggesting an elementary graphic language. (ac) very simplified painting: the elements are now abstract and the symbolic is present everywhere. peripheral features are also abstract and suggestive of contradictory forces. the light/form relationship develops on its own. (pa) patient , bottom pictures fig before stroke (fig a) in this painting appears a determination to abandon figurative style in favour of colour, light, and abstraction. the allusion to matisse is obvious. the painter shows a number of individuals completely independent of each other. each object is represented as a silhouette illuminated by an internal light. (ac) the painting represents an organised space, in which light is the principal subject. imagery is more abstract, but the church, house, and cat are conventional representations. naive art. (pa) after stroke (fig b) similar stylisation of the same subject. the same representa- tions are shown on a red background. the luminosity of the sun permits no colour work, except for some minor accentuation of pallor. (ac) simplified painting with abstract elements and symbolism. strong signs of violence represented by ‘‘emissions’’ coming from one of the figures. some allusions to kandinsky. (pa) patient , fig before stroke this work alludes to the french impressionist school, particularly towards dissipation of form, as in cezanne’s work, which announces cubism. the objects lose their classical definition because of the use of patches of pure colours, which tend to mix with one another. (ac) dissolving and superimposing figures, rejecting individual autonomy in aid of the whole. oblique elements suggest violence and confusion. weak contrasts. abstract expression- ism pattern. (pa) after stroke this work seems to search for shape consistency and to focus more on details represented in the first work. the red tonality allows a stronger relevance of each object, particularly due to the use of white. in the construction of the painting, it is possible to define lines structuring the spatial composition. this is almost a regression in its wish to clarify what was previously expressed only by colour. 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[variability of right hemisphere activation during semantic word processing in aphasic patients: an electrophysiologic study in three patients.] rev neurol ; : – . spreen o, strauss e. a compendium of neuropsychological testing: administration, norms and commentary, nd ed. new york: oxford university press, . bruyer r, schweich m. a clinical test battery of face processing. int j neurosci ; : – . assal g. batterie des examens neuropsychologiques du chuv. lausanne: division autonome de neuropsychologie, . lépine j, godchau m, brun p, et al. evaluation de l’anxiété et de la dépression chez des patients hospitalisés dans un service de médecine interne. annales médico-psychologiques ; : – . hansenne m, charles g, pholien p, et al. mesure subjective de l’impact d’un événement: traduction francaise et validation de l’échelle d’horowitz. psychologie médicale ; : – . changes in artistic style www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ www.e-neurospine.org an age-old debate: anterior versus posterior surgery for ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament ali moghaddamjou , , michael g. fehlings , division of neurosurgery and spine program, department of surgery, toronto western hospital, toronto, on, canada division of neurosurgery, department of surgery, university of toronto, toronto, on, canada ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (opll) is a disease characterized by heterotopic bone formation classically occurring in the cervical spine. the compression from the ossified mass is one cause of cervical spondylotic myelopathy (csm) and predis- poses patients to spinal cord injury (sci). , this special issue of neurospine focuses on the management of opll and csm, addressing some controversies that surround the optimal surgical approach to opll. opll is more common in east asian populations with incidence rates from . % to . % compared to . %– . % in the caucasian population. the exact cause of opll remains to be determined. given that there is a significant recurrence risk in parents ( . %) and sib- lings ( . %) of opll patients, a genetic link has been long postulated. extensive linkage and genetic studies have identified rare variants of genes associated with opll. addi- tional studies are needed to further establish the genetic role in the pathogenicity of opll. the neurological dysfunction from the compressive effect of opll is often progressive and irreversible. - surgery is currently the only effective treatment option in patients with advanced csm from opll. the role of surgery in the management of patients with mi- nor symptoms or mild csm from opll remains controversial and these patients are often managed conservatively. in the most recent guidelines on the management of csm, the expert opinion based on the current body of evidence advises against prophylactic surgery in asymptomatic patients with cervical cord compression. we suspect that early surgery will have an expanded role in the management of opll as more is discovered about the natural history of opll and mild csm and their association with subsequent sci. the optimal surgical approach in the treatment of opll has been a topic of great discus- sion amongst spinal surgeons for decades. laminoplasty through a posterior approach has historically been the most common method since it was first described in . in recent years, the anterior approaches to opll are gaining momentum due to their improved safe- ty profile. the fundamental principles of surgical treatment for opll are to decompress the spinal cord from the ossified lesions, maintain or restore normal stability of the spine and release compressed nerve roots. in the posterior approach, the decompression is achieved indirect- ly by increasing the canal space whereas anterior surgery allows for direct decompression via the removal of the ossified mass. furthermore, an anterior construct is optimal in re- neurospine ; ( ): - . https://doi.org/ . /ns. edi. neurospine eissn - pissn - this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. copyright © by the korean spinal neurosurgery society editorial corresponding author michael g. fehlings e-mail: michael.fehlings@uhn.ca https://orcid.org/ - - - division of neurosurgery and spinal program, department of surgery, university of toronto, toronto, on, canada see the article “the clinical implications and complications of anterior versus posterior surgery for multilevel cervical ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament; an updated systematic review and meta-analysis” on page . https://doi.org/ . /ns. . https://doi.org/ . /ns. . https://doi.org/ . /ns. . https://doi.org/ . /ns. . https://doi.org/ . /ns. . https://doi.org/ . /ns. . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /ns. edi. &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - anterior vs. posterior surgery for opllmoghaddamjou a, et al. https://doi.org/ . /ns. edi. www.e-neurospine.org storing the physiological lordosis of the cervical spine. theoretically, the anterior approach should be superior in terms of neurological outcomes given that it achieves decom- pression directly. furthermore, anterior surgery achieves supe- rior post operative alignment of the spine when compared to posterior approaches. despite these benefits, anterior decom- pression is less often utilized as it is technically demanding and associated with serious complications. removing the ossified lesion in opll is challenging as it is frequently adhered to a calcified or thinned dura. as such, an anterior approach is sus- ceptible to iatrogenic durotomies and intraoperative sci. the discussion around the optimal surgical approach is, hence, a balance of the risks of an anterior approach compared to its relative benefit over a posterior decompression. in this issue of neurospine, a meta-analysis on anterior vs. posterior surgery for opll from the seoul national university provides valuable data on this balance of risks and benefits for spinal surgeons. based on our assessment, this meta-analysis is the most com- prehensive when compared to other analyses, - with stud- ies including recent large series from morishita et al. and hou et al. furthermore, the authors have provided extensive analyses on the complications of the surgical approaches that are crucial in clinical decision making. in keeping with previous studies, the results of this meta-anal- ysis revealed that surgery for opll had a significant improve- ment in the postoperative japanese orthopedic association scores with the anterior approach having a greater impact (dif- ference of . ) when compared to posterior decompression. on the contrary, anterior procedures had a higher rate of post- operative neurological deficits ( . % vs. . %) and iatrogenic durotomy ( . % vs. . %). the authors concluded that, in general, the small improvement in postoperative clinical out- comes do not justify the potentially serious complications that are associated with anterior approaches for opll. the final decision on the approach needs to be individualized to patient-specific factors. there are some instances in which the advantages provided through the anterior approach justify the small increase in the probability of complication. a posteri- or approach allows for limited indirect decompression, which might not be sufficient in cases of severe opll. anterior sur- gery is, hence, recommended in opll with canal occupancy ratios of greater than %. , , the curvature of the spine needs to be taken into consideration as there is evidence against pos- terior approaches in rigid kyphotic spines. key measures of alignment such as c – cobb angle, sagittal vertical axis and the modified k-line should be used in the decision making on the approach. the comfort level of the surgeon with the technique is critical on the choice of the approach. a surgeon experienced in ante- rior approaches in opll can further justify that approach given its superiority in outcomes. laminoplasty is the most common posterior operation in opll partly because of its comfort amongst surgeons in east asia where opll is common. other techni- ques such as laminectomy and fusion can also be utilized. in a multicentre prospective aospine study, the major outcomes of laminectomy and fusion and laminoplasty were comparable in csm. however, laminectomy and fusion can provide superior deformity correction potentially avoiding the progressive ky- photic deformity which is a downfall of posterior laminoplasty as a treatment for opll. further data comparing the two pos- terior approaches in the context of opll are required to deter- mine the superior posterior technique in long term outcomes. the topic of anterior vs. posterior surgery for all causes of csm has been studied separately. in a propensity-scored matched analysis using prospective multicentre data, the aospine group reported overall similar postoperative outcomes and complica- tions between the two groups. with the current body of evi- dence a guideline or algorithm on the optimal approach to csm cannot be established and the final decision should be made on a case-by-case basis. a randomized control trial to determine the optimal surgical approach to csm is currently underway. the results of this unique study in which experts vote for the eligibility of randomization would address the current lack of high-quality evidence. overall, the comprehensive meta-analysis on anterior vs. pos- terior approaches to opll in this issue of neurospine provides surgeons essential information to aid in choosing the optimal surgical approach. the posterior approach is generally preferred due to its safety profile; however, in severe opll (occupancy ratio > %) and cases with kyphotic deformity the superior outcomes of the anterior approach may justify its use. the final decision on the approach will be dependent on patient specific factors as well as the experience of the surgeon on the different approaches. further international multicentre studies are re- quired to have enough evidence in supporting a unifying con- clusion on the optimal approach. acknowledgments mgf is supported by the halbert chair in neural repair and regeneration. anterior vs. posterior surgery for opllmoghaddamjou a, et al. https://doi.org/ . /ns. edi. www.e-neurospine.org references . fehlings mg, tetreault la, riew kd, et al. a clinical prac- tice guideline for the management of patients with degener- ative cervical myelopathy: recommendations for patients with mild, moderate, and severe disease and nonmyelopath- ic patients with evidence of cord compression. global spine j ; ( suppl): s- s. . wu jc, chen yc, liu l, et al. conservatively treated ossifi- cation of the posterior longitudinal ligament increases the risk of spinal cord injury: a nationwide cohort study. j neu- rotrauma ; : - . . matsunaga s, sakou t. ossification of the posterior longitu- dinal ligament of the cervical spine: etiology and natural history. spine (phila pa ) ; :e - . . yan l, gao r, liu y, et al. the pathogenesis of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament. aging dis ; : - . . terayama k. genetic studies on ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine. spine (phila pa ) ; : - . . chen x, guo j, cai t, et al. targeted next-generation sequenc- ing reveals multiple deleterious variants in opll-associated genes. sci rep ; : . . murakami m, seichi a, chikuda h, et al. long-term follow- up of the progression of ossification of the posterior longitu- dinal ligament. j neurosurg spine ; : - . . schmidt mh, 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r, sun w, qian b, et al. anterior cervical corpectomy and fusion versus posterior laminoplasty for cervical op- pressive myelopathy secondary to ossification of the poste- rior longitudinal ligament: a meta-analysis. orthopedics ; :e - . . chen z, liu b, dong j, et al. comparison of anterior cor- pectomy and fusion versus laminoplasty for the treatment of cervical ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament: a meta-analysis. neurosurg focus ; :e . . chen tp, qian lg, jiao jb, et al. anterior decompression and fusion versus laminoplasty for cervical myelopathy due to ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament: a meta- analysis. medicine (baltimore) ; :e . . morishita s, yoshii t, okawa a, et al. perioperative compli- cations of anterior decompression with fusion versus lami- noplasty for the treatment of cervical ossification of the pos- terior longitudinal ligament: propensity score matching anal- ysis using a nation-wide inpatient database. spine j ; : - . . an hs, al-shihabi l, kurd m. surgical treatment for ossifi- cation of the posterior longitudinal ligament in the cervical spine. j am acad orthop surg ; : - . . fujimori t, iwasaki m, okuda s, et al. long-term results of cervical myelopathy due to ossification of the posterior lon- gitudinal ligament with an occupying ratio of % or more. anterior vs. posterior surgery for opllmoghaddamjou a, et al. https://doi.org/ . /ns. edi. www.e-neurospine.org spine (phila pa ) ; : - . . kato s, ganau m, fehlings mg. surgical decision-making in degenerative cervical myelopathy - anterior versus poste- rior approach. j clin neurosci ; : - . . ma l, liu fy, huo ls, et al. comparison of laminoplasty versus laminectomy and fusion in the treatment of multi- level cervical ossification of the posterior longitudinal liga- ment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. medicine (bal- timore) ; :e . . singhatanadgige w, limthongkul w, valone f rd, et al. out- comes following laminoplasty or laminectomy and fusion in patients with myelopathy caused by ossification of the pos- terior longitudinal ligament: a systematic review. global spine j ; : - . . kato s, nouri a, wu d, et al. comparison of anterior and posterior surgery for degenerative cervical myelopathy: an mri-based propensity-score-matched analysis using data from the prospective multicenter aospine csm north amer- ica and international studies. j bone joint surg am ; : - . . ghogawala z, benzel ec, heary rf, et al. cervical spondy- lotic myelopathy surgical trial: randomized, controlled trial design and rationale. neurosurgery ; : - . title: the accordionist artist: pablo picasso year: the accordionist is a painting by pablo picasso. as stated by the title, the painting is meant to portray a man playing an accordion. the division of three-dimensional forms into a two-dimensional plane indicate that the painting is in the style of analytic cubism, which was developed by picasso and georges braque between and . the onset of cubism is possibly due to picasso and braque rebelling against centuries of traditional, realistic art that imitates the natural world. more information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/the_accordionist © - succession pablo picasso - sack (korea) issn - / https://doi.org/ . /disegno. . . architecture: history and representation. designing an interactive athlas. proceedings and communication alberto grijalba bengoetxea, julio grijalba bengoetxea abstract nowadays a qualitative leap is found in graphic production, a graphic discourse which is encouraged by new technologies and re- production systems. there is a change in the visual grammars and we find a hyperinflation of the spreading of the new proposals in the new information society. there is a need to construct a graphic and visual discourse on the history of architecture. we finf thata while postmodernsociety does not believe in a big history discourse, especially in architecture; contemporary media demand for it, as lyotard pointed out, in this commoditized society. time has arrived to reflect on the capabilities new technologies and communi- cation hold. we pretend to analyze thegraphic documentary as a language and as an effective mean to express and communicate architecture history in the last half of the xx century, when different graphic production strategies were used. the documentary research, identification and cataloguing of the graphical material follow the production of modern architecture atlas that consists of partial maps. this would be an interactive map suitable to be consulted from a different range of fields and categories; an athlas capable to compare architects, art movements and architecture schools. keywords: athlas, technology, communication, representation, information. introduction once advanced xxi century, over the equator of the se- cond decade, the question around a metanarrative about the history of modern architecture as an essential vehi- cle to its understanding and communication is still pen- ding. nowadays an outline of what could be considered as the state of the art is still incomplete, we find it broken and disperse, probably due to two simultaneous factors. the first one is related to the capability to put documen- tary in order, its analysis and read, attending to visual cul- ture and current graphic discourse. parallelly, we have the new information technologies, the so known big data’s capability and its own roles for visual communication, as developed by the architecture of information ai [wur- man, bradford ]. the second of the factors is the inexistence of a visual architecture history of the th century as a catalyst for data. this lack may be due to the impossibility of putting together a unitary story about drawing according to the great story of the rise of the modern movement, as poin- ted out by professor carlos montes [montes serrano , pp. - ]. great story understood as the polyhe- drically simplified interpretation of a complex reality, so- mehow idealised, but comprehensible by generality, as defined lyotard. the complexity of treating the information together with the disbelief of metanarratives in a postmodern world, are the star ting points of this investigationt. we assume the difficulty to create a global narrative in a hyper-communi- / cated and over-informed society, in which the econmy of means and the economy of visual language in this regard are evident. communicating turns into a challenge. we face a reality in which you can know the whole, but there is always the chance of a par tial discourse, so the narrative can be interrupted and altered. this star ting point is contradictory with the current need of studies about the old great narratives. in recent time research and publications on new ar t and architecture standars thrive. editorial compilations and gathering in re- search works and diffusion of its conclusions can be seen in publications such as: years of architectural drawing, houses for architects, paintings you must see….. films… books… … this contra- diction is, to a high degree, due to the incapability that theoretical criticism holds to communicate when facing the society need for a practical knowledge. even if it is only to contribute to the big communication networks, knowledge is what we need, what we seek for. all this pro- ves the discourse’s commodity character [lyotard ]. everything is created to be consumed, and everything is communicated to be desired. fig. . arquitectura española - [baldellou, capitel ]. fig. . alejandro zaera-polo, guillermo fernández abascal, brújula política de la arquitectura global, [zaera-polo, fernández abascal , p. ]. / indeed, the contradiction is evident; we currently find a qualitative gap in graphic production. a graphic discourse that helped by new technologies and new reproduction systems finds itself in a constant development and evolu- tion. at the same time that this change in the grammatic visuals [marchán ] occurs, we find a hyperinflation of the diffusion of new proposals. at the same time our ways of interpreting and knowing reality is changing. on one side, nowadays we have the possibility to find any information or knowledge due to its diffusion both in paper and vir tual publications. never was this much knowledge within the reach of so many. but on the other, facing the reality of the vast aspect of knowledge, we need an analytic and ordering system that simplifies it. a document that allows us to quickly access information, place and locate it, attending to cer tain ca- tegories that allows us to create an essential map of its relations. definitely, we need an atlas. the same as at the beginning of the th century, arntz’s isotypes and pictograms, elaborated for neurath, proved to be an effective mechanism to share knowledge. jacques ber- tin established inthe sixties the graphic semioligy in order to explain territory. it was not only about a graphic repre- sentation but, for him, it most of the times implied a strong responsability on what and how to perform. a visualization between the quantitative and qualitative [bertin ]. after these first experiences, richard s. wurman was the one to code the information presentation systems under the name of information architecture, ia. it is at this point were we stand; information is a group of images and texts categorised around the principle of: location, alphabet, time, category and hyerarchy latch. research and development our approach to the research is to create an athlas of mo- dern architecture of the th century consisting of several par tial maps that follow the proposed categories: archi- tects, ar t movements, their relationships and chronology. to achieve our purpose we are analyzing the par tial maps created in the late years of the th century toghetehr with the new technologies, the new graphic narrative and their application to the act of communicate and inform about history of architecture. there were many attempts to generate a map of the evo- lution of architecture in the th century. fig. . italo rota, centrotrenta anni d´architettura. venti anni di altro, [rota , p. ]. / some tend to be similar to the famous london metro map by beck in , where the most impor tant are re- lations, crosses and colours. others, like the ones from charles jenks, are multiform masses that relate architects, tendencies and data, placed in a strict temporal frame, but where only names and texts are referenced ( ). the diagram from professor capitel about spanish architectu- re on the last third of the th century [capitel ] discards time and places the diverse architects depending on hierarchy and the proposed categories. so does italo rota in his centrotrenta anni d´architettura. venti anni di altro [rota ] where he draws the tree of architecture that emerges poetically over history’s natural soil. from the branches, depending on its position and size, leaves with names of architects are born, which are shaded by small suspended decorations where the unclassified place their singularity. all of them are an attempt to explain the complex in a simple way, to understand, paraphrasing alber t einstein. time frame the time frame in which we pursue to realize this analysis of the drawing as graphic language and effective means of expression distinctive of the history of architecture, focalises in the second half of the th century. this pe- riod is subsequent to the modern age of the first half of the century, where diverse graphic production strategies were used. the context in which this work and investigation are pla- ced has a very clear beggining with the ciam that has place in dubrovnik ( ), where the team x is built and an also outstanding end with the th international architecture biennale in venice ( ), where internatio- nal architects such as norman foster, zaha hadid, richard rogers etc. concur under the title cities, architecture and society. this time frame has been chosen because it results intere- sting to observe the gap produced in the architecture of the s; how the second half of th century star ted with a clear predominance of the modern movement but with the years, and especially from the s, its bases star ted to be questioned. it is like that the great diversity of propo- sals of all sor ts of styles appears, which makes of the cho- sen time one of great interest for analyzing the different movements. the architectural panorama referring to the fig. . charles jencks, arbol genealogico, . / fig. . urtzi grau, daniel lópez-pérez, publications in architectura of oma/amo, . graphic discourse finds its way through the use of diverse formulas, the management of a more complex and sophi- sticated technology, getting to the use of informatics as the key tool, showing a special interest for the problems on the fields of urbanism, sociology and economy. in that sense, it is key to star t the period with dubrovnik’s ciam, where categories as mobility, cluster, growth and change, urbanism and habitat are proposed. the ciam (congres internationaux d’architecture mo- derne) were a very impor tant piece on the development of th century architecture ( - ) and on the theory and practice of urbanism. the modern movement appeared as a result of th century rationalism and the need of a social development, making architects’ worry about style move onto themes such as method, organisa- tion and technology. unlike in the past, modern movement architects develo- ped, as a working tool, the need to create communication strategies to put their architecture in the map. well known are the publications domus, stijl, l’esprit nouveau, bau- meister, a.c. in spain. all of them didactic, revolutionary and clearly propagandistic [frampton ]. the dissolution of the ciam was obvious when the high number of members, over three thousand, made the discussion about any topic complicated, generalist and diffuse. it was then that the team x was left in charge [giedion ]. some movements make then their way whose characteristics and renewing ideas turn the com- parison among them the key to understand this assor ted epoque. from the new brutalism to ecologism we have selected the team x, the metabolists, archigram, archizo- om, superstudio, high-tech, postmodernity and decon- structivism [benevolo ]. several architects have also been included, who despite not being considered inside any movement should be ta- ken into consideration for their impor tance in the deve- lopment of the architecture of the second half of th century. not only references to architecture are made, but to understand the athlas in its complexity other ways of ar tistic expression must be included, together with some relevant exhibitions and competitions that give as a result a wider comparative spectrum [grijalba bengoe- txea, ubeda blanco ]. the end of the period coincides with the x international architecture venice biennale ( ), bienal that for the first time regards the problem of urban development and its planning, continuing with the worry for urbanism that, as mentioned before, occupied the architects of the th century. the topic cities, architecture and society focused the development of this biennale in urban planning from the social dimension of the city, the relation between ar- chitecture and society. the comparison with the chosen date as a star ting point for creating the map: the ciam from dubrovnik and the architects of the team x in inevitable to obtain a better communication efficiency. like this, beginning and end of this time frame are cho- sen because of their years difference ( - ) and because of their similarities on reflecting similar worries related to architecture and urbanism by the outstanding figures on those moments. / fig. . leah dickerman, masha chlenova, exposición inventing abstraction: - , moma, . interactive virtual map, general connections and example of particular links of pablo picasso: <www.moma.org> (accessed , june ). maps / athlas. from the diverse to the particular the development of the investigation comes from a do- cumental search, a big data that enters a process of ack- nowledging and cataloguing on a first phase. we chose a series of examples from that period with all their graphic material for an ulterior analysis, whose final objective is the making of an atlas: an interactive map of space-time. it is impor tant to emphasize that the gathered documen- tation needs to be first filtered and evaluated because what interests us is to process it in order to turn it into a graphic representation that can be immediately visua- lized. since there has never been a similar study to fol- low, we have selected the pieces of work according to several criteria: their inclusion in history of architecture manuals, the number of referred times in bibliographical resources, and finally their presence in the indexes of ar- chitecture magazines published within the studied period, all these included in the bibliography [cur tis ; gösel, leuthäuser ; hitchcock ; jenks ; rossi ]. the aim is to create a document that analyzes diversity using an accessible and userfriendly communication tool. a mixture of a written and visual communication [berlin ]. in contrast to the nice only visual icon used by otto neurat and nigel holmes [holmes ] and to tufte’s complex combination of text and image [tufte ], we have opted for a halfway conciliatory intermediate. in the last decades the graphic discourse has emerged even stronger, encouraged by new advances in repro- duction systems and new technologies that contribute to a new reading of information in this digital era, when the use of new gadgets influence our way of receiving data and of communicating in a very visual way. a previous approach to the topic consists in a search of examples of maps related to architecture and ar ts throu- gh time. inside the frame of architecture we find various examples. charles jencksì’s paradigmatic genealogical tree, shown in the image, analyzes different architecture mo- vements during a tuenty-year period. he places different tags with names of architects and architectural pieces of work. it is interesting to observe the disposition of the information in relation to the time location, the category and the hierarchy: according to the impor tance of the pie- ce of work the tags are bigger and depending on the con- cepts they are related to, they appear closer to each other. this example uses, however, only keywords and names, it lack images that transmit the information in a more direct and visual way. this is a map that depends on the viewer to be understood, it depends on their knowledge. it is an initiatic diagram. the next example includes one of the aspects relative to the visualization by diagrams and images that focus on a very effective way on what they want to transmit. it is the case of the production of the architecture publications by oma/amo. along a chronologic axis, images of diverse magazines, media, etc. are placed. all these graphics are suppor ted by extra information at the bottom of each column. oc- casionally comic balloons appear and the most impor tant events unfold as an explosion. under the apparent chaos a magnificent order is hidden, where all the studio publi- / cations are stacked in organized growing order through time. it is a complete map. in moma created a map towards which a fesher approach and reading are possible its interactive character. it lacks a physical format; you can only acces it online. it depends on new information technologies. the apparent cobweb set up is disturbing and at the same time inviting, it comprises a game and a change in shape, something necessary in new communication systems. names of ar tists show up in different colors depending on their relevance, and once you zoom over them you can observe their relationship with other authors and at the same time a technical file opens with information about their lives and work.the map itself does not contain images, but the names of the ar tists. it is once you get deeper into a par ticular author that you can access more information on his work. this map adds a fundamental aspect towards the configuration of our own map, the interactive par t. the visual process that accompanies the acquisition of new knowledge has changed to be dynamic; an online connection system, accessible across the globe. it is a new way to code, order and communicate. an interactive athlas.the outcome through these examples we analyzed the ordering prin- ciples to consider when designing the new atlas. it is im- por tant that the great amount of documentation we have at the begining becomes into quality information, which means that the big data is includeds and compressed in a graphic representation that incorporates not only tags but images and connections among the tags. at the same time, it must facilitate the display of more information zooming on some elements and allowing that different windows of information are included within the document. in this interactive space-time map, affinities and differen- ces along the timeand even more formal aspects, both plastic and graphic should be fit to be compared. the fields of study presented are connected by itineraries and categories depending on the established hierarchy: architects, architectonic movements, pieces of ar t, ar tistic movements, expositions, etc… as par t of the interactive process, its itineraries should be activated or turned off enabling us to meassure the impact and their relationships depending on the needs of our search or study. each category is composed by files with information related to pieces of work, architects, exhibitions, etc, and its codification referring to the ideas of the movement in which it is included. an open athlas the creation of our atlas, understood as a compendium and as a complex addition of diverse maps, star ted by arranging the information in written and using. then, once the images referring to the chosen graphical examples had been collected, we have designed a digital map and finally we introduced the playful- dynamic component to facilitate a better understanding of the existing relation- ship among the diverse items. to make the most of this interactivity, we need an open athlas. an open working field suitable to be expanded ans filled in with new tags, images, connections, etc. it should not be considered as a unique graphic representation; on the contrary, and due to the itineraries and layers that can be activated or turned off, various maps are prone to be created depending on the characteristics to be compared or the interest of the study. our atlas seeks for a contemporary view of the graphic discourse; one that gives access to knowledge through an interactive tool that allows us to make a comparative and temporary study. it is a compilation of diverse par tial knowledge maps that, in their continuity, interpret a reality. the final objective is the creation of a tool that allows us to make a comparative study through the exemplification of architects and works. as an example of great communication, we musy have a look at the very interesting map created by the first director of moma, affred h. barr, cubism and abstract art [barr ]. in the museum decided to revise the leyendary exhibition under the title: inventing abstraction - [dickerman, chlenova ]. the well known poster, condensing knowledge and adver tising, was crea- ted a dynamic model and completed with personalized files of movemenets and ar tists. the final result is a clear, simultaneous, interactive model.this is a remainder and an information tool that brings together accuracy and play with strict information. it recreates the old proceedings using modern techniques, a good model. in our athlas of modern architecture, when we compare the informative graphics to the text diagrams the result is surprisingly effective. the facts are orderly presented and / fig. . alberto grijalba, julio grijalba, carolina heising, working holographic map, . / fig. . proposed map. / the connexions are easy to understand. in the digital era links are increasingly used to communicate; blocks of text that combined with graphics, photographs and diagrams to create a story, give an explanation or explore our wor- ld [rendgen, wiedemann ]. probably working on an athlas about the graphic discour- se is a conclusion itself: the process of working on the proposals, the analysis, the choice of the documents and their transformation from the first holographic sketches to a digital application as a result. despite the trial for aseptic objectivity with which the process has been taken there is always some subjetivity. from every choice a positioning on history of architectureand its representation in the last five decades is taken [cortés, moneo ]. the treatment of visual information has become an objecti- ve in itself; clarifying and analyzing the contents; being awa- re of hierarchy, association and position of the elements in order to provide the most possible information at just a glimpse [holmes ]. it is not, then, a document only seeking for compositional-graphical excellence, but an ef- fective as a narrative of the knowledge in a graphic di- scourse one too. it is an athlas capable of communicating a comples subject in a clear way [alcalde ]. image, text and simultaneity. epilogue the humongous work has been limited to architects, architectural movements, pieces of ar t and ar- tistic movements in pursuit of a clearer communication. but, despite the need for a limitation, obviously needed in any investigation work though efficient, it has proved to be in some cases par tial and exiguous, hence its open character. information has been arranged following three criteria: time; relashionship and interrelationships within the different movements and cathegories and the critique impact. it is a map that can be completed and clarified, eventhoug not any change can be accepted in favour of an accurate and clear communication. more graphic docu- mentation does not necessarily mean a better transmition of knowledge or a better clarityas we have realized during the process. efficient graphic communication implies choi- ces and hierarchization [tufte ]. this ‘athlas of architecture’ does not pretend to reduce knowledge to an image on relation to its position in time. our intention is not to trivialize its content, to achieve a simplistic communication. it is not a reductionistis sketch fig. . alfred h. barr, cubism and abstract art, exhibition moma, , april-march [barr ] / that pretends to be a superficial analysis reducing know- ledge. on the contrary, wee tried to avoid the common disfunction of the theory of big data communication: fast read but little knowledge. with its interactive capaci- ty, which enables modification of the search mechanisms and amplification of information with emerging windows of complementary documentation, it is not only a map to orientate but an athlas of knowledge, which also ma- kes the addition of as many maps as we will be able to elaborate possible. all this is achieved using technological mechanisms of communication accessible nowadays. simultaneity is finally the last contribution. the new athlas can interact in several windows at the same time, even use several registers making good use of the moder fe- atures new technologies offer ; the multi-window and multi-taks. it is possible to view the general map at the same time that we activate a par ticular line of affinities, from the general map we can open an emergingwindow about an author, a work or an architer tural movement. it is as flexible and as dense a tool of knowledge as the user needs. acknowledgments this contribution is par t of the line of experimentatio if the research group’s recognized by uva girdac. it was financed by the ministry of education, culture and spor t, through a grant of collaboration, under our direction, by carolina heisig. fig. . proposed map. samples of emergingwindow. / authors alberto grijalba bengoetxea, etsava, university of valladolid, agrijalb@arq.uva.es. julio grijalba bengoetxea, etsava, university of valladolid, jgrijalb@arq.uva.es. references list alcalde, i. ( ). visualización de la información. de los datos al conocimiento. barcelona: uoc. barr, a.h. ( ). cubism and abstract art. new york: the spiral press. bertin, j. ( ). semiologie graphique. paris: mourton. bertin, j. ( ). la graphique et le traitement graphique de l’information. paris: mouton, gauthiers-villars. benevolo, l. ( ). historia de la arquitectura moderna. barcelona: gg. baldellou, m.a., capitel, a. ( ). arquitectura española - . summa artis, vol. xl. madrid: espasa. cortés, j.a., moneo, j.r. ( ). comentarios sobre dibujos de arquitectos actuales. barcelona: etsab. curtis, w.j.r. ( ). la arquitectura moderna desde . madrid: hermann blume. dickerman, l., chlenova, m. ( ). inventing abstraction, - . moma, december , -april , : <www.moma.org/calendar/ exhibitions/ > (accessed , june ). frampton, k. ( ). historia crítica de la arquitectura moderna. barcelona: gg. giedion, s. ( ). espacio, tiempo y arquitectura. barcelona: reverte. gössel, p., leuthäuser, g. ( ). arquitectura del siglo xx. colonia: taschen. grijalba bengoetxea, a., ubeda blanco, m. (eds.). ( ). los concursos de arquitectura. congreso internacional de expresión gráfica arquitectónica, oporto de mayo- de junio . valladolid: universidad de valladolid, servicio de publicaciones. hitchcock, h. r. ( ). arquitectura de los siglos xix y xx. madrid: cátedra. holmes, n. ( ). designer’s guide to creating charts and diagrams. ny: watson-guptill pubns. jenks, c. ( ). the new paradigm in architecture: the language of post- modernism. new haven: yale university press. jenks, c. ( ). el lenguaje de la arquitectura posmoderna. barcelona: gg. koolhaas, r. ( ). oma-rem koolhaas: - . in el croquis - . lyotard, j-f. ( ). la condición posmoderna: informe sobre el saber. madrid: ediciones cátedra. marchán, s. ( ). del arte objetual al arte del objeto. madrid: akal. montes serrano, c. ( ). un posible canon de los dibujos de arquitectura. in ega expresión gráfica arquitectónica, n. , pp. - . rendgen, s., wiedemann, j. ( ). information graphics. taschen: colonia. rota, i. ( ). ma gli architetti dormono tutti… in domus, n. , pp. - . rossi, a. ( ). la arquitectura de la ciudad. barcelona: gg. tufte, e.r. ( ). the visual display of quantitative information. cheshire: graphics press. tufte, e.r. ( ). visual explanations: images and quantities, evidence and narrative. cheshire, ct: graphics press. wurman, r.s. ( ). information anxiety: what to do when information doesn’t tell you what you need to know. new york: bantam. wurman, r.s., bradford, p. ( ). information architects. zurich: graphis press. zaera-polo, a., fernández-abascal, g. ( ). brújula política de la arquitectura global. in el croquis, , pp. - . wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ durham research online deposited in dro: march version of attached �le: accepted version peer-review status of attached �le: peer-reviewed citation for published item: mcmurray, r. 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http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijwoe. . http://dro.dur.ac.uk/ / https://dro.dur.ac.uk/policies/usepolicy.pdf https://dro.dur.ac.uk title: encouraging the managerial imagination: ethnography, smart phones and novel ways of seeing author: robert mcmurray address: durham university business school university of durham mill hill lane durham dh lb, uk t. + ( ) f. + ( ) e. robert.mcmurray@durham.ac.uk bio: robert mcmurray is senior lecturer in management at durham university business school, uk. his research interests centre on occupational identities, emotional labour, health and well-being, dirty work, processual notions of change, and ethnographic approaches to research and learning. mailto:robert.mcmurray@durham.ac.uk encouraging the managerial imagination: ethnography, smart phones and novel ways of seeing abstract this paper invites discussion of the role, potential and limitations of employing the ethnographic lens in undergraduate management teaching as a response to growing concerns over the usefulness of critical management education. specially, it outlines the case for employing the smart phone as a novel channel through to introduce would-be managers to new ‘ways of seeing’ (berger, ). describing how this is achieved in practice through the production of photo essays and on- line films, the paper contributes to our understanding of how the apparent freedom afforded by the ethnographic lens to ‘see anew' is necessarily constructed through the disciplinary effects of ethics, copyrights and the privileging of a very particular academic audience. the result is a necessarily circumscribed pedagogic space that nonetheless allows room for the doubt, uncertainty, contradiction and experimentation that is essential for more engaged learning and critical managing. key words: cms, ethnography, film, learning, managing, teaching introduction there is growing concern over the effects of business education as financial crises have engulfed developed western economies and managers are accused of greed, profiteering, mismanagement and reward for failure (gallos, ; cunliffe & linstead, ; croft and binham, ; the economist, ). the suspicion is that the lessons offered by business schools have done little to mitigate the problems faced by the wider world (gabriel, ), indeed, we stand accused of producing the graduates who brought the global economy to its knees (alajoutsijärvi, ) as we equipped future leaders with a priori categories that are unquestioningly inflicted on the world (chia, ) and manufactured management students bored with the very idea of managing (vaill, ). no wonder some label us academies of the apocalypse (james, ). such concerns require a response from those of us who comprise the academy. they invite us to look again at the lessons we offer, the interest we elicit and the effects we intend. examining how photography and film may be used to encourage critically informed management learning, this paper considers how we might achieve that which the best management teaching has always offered, namely, pedagogic spaces that connect faculty and students in the ‘imaginative consideration of learning... to construct an intellectual vision of a new world’ (whitehead, , p. ). the paper explores whether the use of an ethnographically informed camera lens can provide management students with new ‘ways of seeing’ (berger, ) that encourage learners to question, interrogate, investigate, recombine, challenge and problematize the world around them so as to better manage within it. focusing on the construction of observation, i suggest that the camera lens is an ideal device through which to fire the sociological imagination (wright-mills, ) in those who are about to embark on a lifelong process of management learning that is designed to engage with the challenges that arise from complex worlds (gabriel, ; cunliffe and linstead, ). drawing on examples from my own teaching, i consider the ways in which the production of photo essays and films can engender new ways of seeing (berger, ) that are apt to appeal to a digital generation with little prior experience of managing or organising. the paper is organised as follows. first a case is made for opening up the sociological imagination of management students through exposure to more ethnographically informed ways of seeing. this necessitates a brief account of the possible benefits and limitations of an ethnographic sensibility before considering how this might be achieved through deployment of the smart phone camera. having considered the use of the ethnographic lens in theory, some examples are offered of its use with students in practice. focusing on teaching methods and visual products, this section considers the modes and effects of disciplining management students to see more ethnographically. the effect of audience is taken up toward the end of the paper as part of a reflexive account of my own effect on student learning in both political and disciplinary terms (foucault, / ). in concluding the paper i consider how the tensions that exist between the desire to give students the intellectual freedom to develop their sociological imagination on the one hand, and the disciplinary control of an assessed educational context on the other, might be reconciled. i start however by drawing connections between the need to excite the sociological imagination in students and the place of a more ethnographic gaze. thinking imaginatively ethnographically there have been renewed calls to excite the sociological imagination (wright-mills, ) in our management students pursuant to developing the critical and complex thinking required to ensure that managers can cope with and respond to the often unrelenting pace of change in a globalised world (cunliffe & linstead, ; duarte, ; gallos, ). to possess a sociological imagination is to have ‘the capacity to shift from one perspective to another, and in the process to build up an adequate view of a total society and its components’ (wright- mills, : ). this implies developing within the student the critical faculties required to locate themselves, others and the minutia of everyday life within wider flows of societal, cultural, structural and historical processes so as to consider their relations and affects each upon the other. when such a sensibility is applied to critical management studies(cms) it suggests a concern with identifying ‘structural and economic inequalities, systems of power relations and modes of domination’ (cunliffe and linstead, : ) with a mind to considering or even enacting alternative modes of organising predicated on more inclusive, responsible, humanistic or emancipatory principles. at first glance it may not be clear that such imagination has a place within our business schools, particularly where: ‘the perception of management as a field of study for young people is entirely instrumental – an effective stepping stone to launch a career; but one devoid of either intrinsic interest or social value’ (gabriel, : ). such perceptions are associated with tendencies toward intellectual singularity, narcissism and boredom which can only be combated insofar as we encourage management learners to look both at and beyond themselves (whitehead, ). it requires that they be excited in the imaginative consideration of alternative ways of seeing and being within the world, in which the potentiality of locating self within networks of relations, structures, processes and forces speaks to an active project of organising self and other. it requires figuring out who you are with all of the associated implications for your way of being in the world. one way of moving toward such a position is to encourage learners to view the world ethnographically. ethnography ‘rests on the peculiar practice of representing the social reality of others through the analysis of one’s own experience in the world of others’ (van maanen, , xiii). it takes as its starting point the need to imagine the relations between self and other in specific cultural, spatial and temporal contexts. this includes the requirement that the individual make sense of the wider scene as part of a process of re-presentation. practically, this speaks to a commitment to ‘being there’ wherein patient, diligent and cautious observation of unfolding processes allows the tutored eye to see the remarkable in the everyday as well as ‘the mundane elements of remarkable events and contexts’ (silverman, : ). what and how we see is of course influenced by the social location of the viewer, a limitation which – when unrecognised and unacknowledged – has left ethnography open to claims of colonialism, sexism, objectification and coercion. this reminds us that there is never ‘just looking’ rather, we are always looking at the relations between things and ourselves, wherein what we perceive depends on the ways in which we have been encouraged to see (berger, ). within ethnography van maanen ( ) identifies a number of different ways of seeing, variously labelled as realist, impressionist, confessional, critical, formal, corporate and literary tales. each effects what is seen and reproduced depending on how the ethnographer conceives of facts, negotiates their distances to participants, claims authority and visibility, promotes the voices of others, or explicitly acknowledges the effect of their own politics, in addition to innumerable other refractions of the gaze. yet what each mode of seeing has in common, what each fieldworker learns, ‘is how to appreciate the world in a different key’ (van maanen, : ). it is this knack for seeing differently and arriving – however imperfectly – at views of organising that are embedded in an appreciation of wider cultures, processes and structures that is particular useful to business students. indeed, it is the ability to link specific events and intricacies to wider movements and meanings, while still reflecting on the effect of self as viewer (and writer) that is a trademark of both an active sociological imagination and good organizational ethnography (cunliffe, ). developing the above point cunliffe ( ) notes that ethnographic modes of seeing require immersion and translation if the student is to understand human experiences in context. such commitment is a pre-requisite to the production of thick descriptions that give a sense of temporality, being-there and credibility. it requires time to figure out who you are, the type of tale you will tell and how you will write it. it is also an ethical project in the sense that from start to finish the ethnographer makes decisions that will effect participants and self in respect of: who and what to observe (where, when, what, duration, frequency, appearance, relations), what to leave unsaid (bracketing off), the use of trust, the portrayal of others, the selection of voices, the mode of interpretation, and style of representation. it is something of this experience and resulting sensibility that i seek to invoke within large numbers of management students. to convey, as described below, all of the above to large groups of undergraduate students attending a single module is no easy matter. it is for this reason that no claim can be made to produce fully fledged organisational ethnographers from just one course. accordingly the aim is more modest, yet hopefully still profound, directed as it is to opening up students to a wider and more sociologically informed view of organising through an ethnographically informed mode of learning. the purpose of the course i lead is to plant seeds that germinate an interest in and understanding of ethnographic ways of seeing. yet to achieve this i must first connect with the learner: i need to take some everyday aspect of students’ lives and employ them as a means through which to open up an interest in the worlds and lives of others. to this end i recruit the smart phone camera as accomplice in the promotion of the ethnographic lens. ‘smart phones’ & the ethnographic lens as fully fledged citizens of the youtube generation, the fresher's class of / were comfortable with the invitation to broadcast yourself. they were comfortable with the ubiquity of image and the ability to endlessly produce and reproduce visually centred and textually accompanied accounts of the self and other. they were comfortable with the technology that facilitates such reproduction, not least the internet enabled, photographically capable and almost universally available smart phone. this device connects students to friends, family, strangers, networks and the wider world. it is a logical step to extend this connection to the academic world of ideas. indeed, mitchell ( ) suggests that such novel visual tools can help novice researchers explore the possibilities for eliciting critical and engaged commentary as part of a more inclusive exploration of that which constitutes ‘data’. a second related concerned is with the effect of seeing the world through a lens. at the very beginning of his book on digital film making director mike figgis talks of the ways in which using different cameras and different lenses makes you 'suddenly realise this is a whole different way of looking at things' (figgis, : ). this links to thomas’s contention that objects – in this case the smart phone – obtain their meaning in use: ‘objects are not what they are made to be but what they have become’ (thomas : cited in rose : ). it is only with interaction that certain qualities become activated or meanings mobilised. this interactional becoming is not however unidirectional for the process of engagement shapes the interlocutor in so far as the person is 'momentarily shaped by the visual object as they look at it' (rose, : ) – or look ‘through it’ in this case – as the agency of the object ensures the co-constitution of the person and the object in the given moment as each changes and disrupts the other. thus a smart phone is phone until it is employed as a camera lens for viewing, and the nature of that view changes in-turn depending on whether the viewer is concerned with stills or motion, literalness or post-capture enhancement. the presence of lens changes the way in which the person views and interacts with the world around them, moving with rather than independently from the would-be ethnographer, affecting their modes of engagement with, and embodied experience of, the environment they are in and re- presenting (pink, ). moreover, the nature of the pocket-lens is transformed according to the techniques – cinematic, documentary, v rit , reportage – that are brought to bear by the student. in these ways the deployment of smart phone lens has the potential to change – to usefully disrupt – our taken for granted ways of seeing. a third reason for employing the smart phone camera lies in the ability to reproduce the mediated encounter with other. to capture, develop, edit and re-present image and text is to begin to understand the processes and limitations of reconstituting our ethnographically informed encounters for other others to see. it speaks to the graph or writing in ethnography; but rather than being required to produce some malinowskian tome, the camera lens enables more immediate and perhaps less mediated communication of that which has been seen. unlike writing, the un-doctored image carries traces of the ‘real’ (clarke, ) a link to something, however bracketed or posed, that ‘was there’. not that the photo is ‘real’ in any essentialist sense. as barthes ( / ) notes, a photo is nothing but chemicals on paper (or digitally stored data resulting from the work of electronic photo detectors). the photo or film is nothing without that to which it refers. and yet, that the referent was in some sense captured attests to the student being there – a certification of the presence of one with the other in a way that words alone can never provide (barthes, / ). thus, images are useful ethnographically not because they reproduce or prove a ‘real’, but because they speak to a series of relations and hidden affects – cultural, emotional, political, organisational – negotiated within and between ethnographic context, student, photograph and viewer. indeed, it could not be otherwise if we accept that the image ‘purposely distorts the world we take for granted and makes the photographic act part of a larger way of seeing and constructing meaning’ (clarke, : ). in these ways the effect of having sight mediated through the lens of a camera is to open up the possibility of the camera phone serving as a channel through which to encourage students to consider alternative 'ways of seeing' (berger, ) as a response to that which rhodes ( : ) describes as a ‘responsibility for experimentation that breaks from the established ways of thinking and writing that confine becoming’. experimentation does not mean that anything goes. ethnographically informed observations are a ‘systemised form of looking at others, that is to say, they are disciplined’ (madden, : ). rather, the point of experimenting with the smart phone camera lens is to free sociologically imaginative modes of thinking that encourage the student ‘to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and external career of a variety of individuals’ (wright-mills, : ) where career speaks not just of some narrow vocational self-interest, but a playfulness of mind that allows for the (often unexpected) combining of ideas ‘as well as a truly fierce desire to make sense of the world’ (wright-mills, : ). the remainder of the paper considers the effects of such experimentation in terms of teaching, learning and disciplining in respect of a cohort of first year management students. disciplining seeing the qualitative methods course i run at durham university business school is designed to ensure that each learner ‘develops the observational, analytical and communication skills that every effective manager needs’ and to do so ‘through a focus on more qualitative and interpretive modes of knowing’ (course handbook). the course introduces a range of skills pertaining to communication, team working and presentation, along with exposure to a range of approaches to research in organisations including ethnography, observational theory and practice, interview methods and reflexivity. these are couched within discussions of the different implications of competing research paradigms (burrell & morgan, ) and the possibility that there are different ways of seeing the worlds of work, managing and organising. while theory is delivered through a series of fairly traditional lectures; weekly workshops afford space for activity based practice and experimentation. workshop activity is focused around the theme of ‘ways of seeing’. from the basics of visual perception and perceptual selectivity (whitehead, ; douglas, ) through to issues of perspective (berger, ) and then multiplicity and absence (dali, ; mitchell, ) students are invited to challenge taken for granted assumptions about the world around them, and indeed the usefulness or otherwise of unconventional ways of seeing. a brief account of three of the exercises employed might usefully convey the ways in which students were prepared or disciplined to reconsider ‘seeing’ as ‘observing’ both with and without the camera lens. in example one, students are asked to consider which of the images of art dealer and writer ambroise vollard ( - ) are more ‘real’: the photographic portrait of vollard on the front piece of the sale chlomovitch catalogue; renoir’s dressed up version of vollard as toreador ( ), or; picasso’s ( ) portrait which simultaneously shows multiple perspectives of vollard’s head in the style of analytical cubism. initial replies asserted the representational reality of the photographic portrait. following reflection and discussion students then moved from this position to note that: the photograph was not the thing – not vollard himself; that lighting and pose may have been intended to control meaning; that you could not see all of him – and less as compared to that offered by picasso’s analytical cubism, and; perhaps, vollard as toreador told us something more of the personality of the man, perhaps hinting at his role as the main performer and orchestrator in the art world’s ring. a second exercise inspired by berger’s ( ) chapter on publicity and marketing, requires students to consider what might be behind various images and global brands. they are asked to consider what is being suggested, who the speaker is, what the audience is, and crucially, who or what is being exploited. the students’ initially descriptive accounts were contrasted with berger’s ( ) observations of passivity, meaninglessness, envy and control, before inviting the students to locate berger’s own position within the theoretical framework of burrell and morgan’s ( ) paradigms. in this way i begin to build within the students the disruptive notion that there are different ways and depths of seeing. together we begin to consider the ways in which analysis, training, theory and politics can be used to produce quite different accounts of a single image or scene. at the same time students are themselves being subjected to discipline and training, both in terms of being opened up to questioning and imaginative exploration of multiplicity and meaning, but also to the need for greater precision in the expression of ideas, the substantiation of arguments and the interrogational of alternatives. from seemingly prosaic skills centred on information searching and referencing, to identification of ontological positions and epistemological implications, students are trained to discipline and extend their imaginations through growing knowlegde. a third exercise (just three weeks into the course) brings a discussion of photography and research; and with it the challenge to create a photo essay. students are shown the ways in which photo essays combine image and text with a view to conveying something more of the context, culture, emotion and experience of a scene in an attempt to provoke a response in the viewer (mitchelle, ; rose, ). among the various exponents of this art were the photojournalists of life magazine, the apogee of which was in the middle part of the twentieth century and whose moving images include those of country doctor, v-j day kiss in time square, and rfk’s assassination to name but a few. <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<insert image about here>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> working in teams, students were briefed to ‘take five pictures to form a photo essay on the routines of university life’. they were asked to consider what they had already learnt in terms of the purpose, potential, limits and ethics of employing visual methods in research; and informed that they were required to present their essays to the workshop (as a power point presentation) followed by a brief reflection on approach and message. in this way students were being required to move intellectually from consideration of presented images, to representations of their own experiences through visual imagery. the results were photo essays on socialising, alcohol, sleep, money, sport, work, food and changing community. as mitchell ( ) notes, the production of limited amounts of text accompanying the images invited discussion of how and why particular images were taken and created. at this point there was little evidence of linking between personal experience of routines and broader organisation theory represented by say weber or ritzer. there was however a developing conversation with visual imagery and method. students positioned themselves in front of as well as behind the lens as part of deliberate accounts of the embodied experience of routines with regards to stress, relaxation and excess. this was achieved while playing with the intimate anonymity of body parts (mitchell, ; petersen & Østergaard, ) as hands, groups of arranged feet, turn faces and the obscuring of distinguishing marks were all employed as symbolic representations of a larger whole. in part this reflected a growing concern with the ethics of representation in terms of consent, anonymity and an ethical responsibility – these issues having been covered as part of a lecture on the ethics of social research and business practices in terms of honest reporting, fair dealing, integrity and avoiding treating others as means, all of which was reinforced by assessment rubrics stating that transgression of ethical guidelines would result in a zero mark. it also spoke to attempts to see more deeply, as objects and body parts were presented for their connotative as well as denotative meanings. to this end, students recounted the manner in which the depiction of five beds (images - ) stood for similarity and difference in the routinized lives of undergraduates pre-occupied with socialising, working, studying, drinking and sleeping. <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<insert images - here>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> the above images drew on workshop discussions of the power of absence in visual imagery. specifically, they borrowed from the example of stephen riggins’s study in which a row of empty dryers in an african hair salon stood for the absence of the young women who were dead or dying at home of hiv/aidss (see mitchell, ). by adapting this use of absence students combined notions of part, whole, self, other, absence and routines in imaginative combination (wright-mills, ) to comment on their own connections to the wider world. for others the development of more sociological thinking took on a political edge as photo essays were presented as comments on student poverty and debt, and with it allusions to the wide variations in privilege and familial wealth among their own cohort – with all this implied for opportunity and position. in these ways photographs allowed for multiplicity of perspectives and interpretations in terms of both that which is seen and unseen by audience, authors and community members (petersen & Østergaard, ). thus, after three weeks of study the students had been encouraged to shift attention from the search for concrete answers and definitive solutions, through the layered analysis of the images of others, to the presentation of images of their own lives as linked to the wider organising theme of routines. students had taken up the challenge of turning their ethnographic lens safely upon themselves as part of a first tentative attempt to identify, understand and represent the lived experience of the everyday and mundane as part of a developing capacity to ‘shift from one perspective to another, and in the process to build up an adequate view of a total society and its components’ (wright-mills, : ). the teaching term culminated in the use of smart phone cameras in the production, posting and presentation of student films, with the expressed purpose of extending the learning process. over a period of weeks, students were required to work in groups of to construct films analysing processes of rationalisation in work, business or society. completion of the assessment in groups prioritised the need for team work, while also encouraging students to reflect on intra-group variations in ways of seeing, thinking, analysing and representing. more prosaically, it also renders the supervision and marking of the resulting films more manageable. basic tips were offered in terms of lighting subjects, shot planning, camera movement, equipment choice, audience and post-production (figgis, ) in addition to the prior work on ways of seeing and representing. the resulting films employed poetry, empathetic acting, location interviewing, approximations of auto-ethnographic accounts as well as silent movie approaches to deploying the camera lens in observation of the effects of rationalisation on self and others. discussions of intra- and intergroup comparisons of the ways in which students variously saw and interpreted rationalisation suggested a developing understanding of their films as personally informed versions of reality rather than ‘objective or truthful accounts’ (pink ). there were cases in which students conveyed a more objective sense of the world around them. in these latter cases students expressed a more positivistic account of their filmic presentations while still recognising that their ontological and epistemological examples of student pocket-film submissions on the theme rationalisation http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u_zol fsls http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bydkxd uhti http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ov zaozttgw http://youtu.be/- r fb sxa http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u_zol fsls http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bydkxd uhti http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ov zaozttgw http://youtu.be/- r fb sxa positions were just one way of viewing and representing the world (burrell and morgan, ). for the most part students succeeded in communicating something of their understanding of and relation to processes of rationalisation as theory, experience and representation. representations of rationalization and its absence included: mundane routines of waking, eating and commuting; the purpose and structure of educational systems; the functioning of and resistance to global capitalism; the potential for alienation in the modern work place; the functioning of signs and systems; supply chains; behaviour modification, and much more. links were made to the conceptual contributions of those including marx, weber, rit er, taylor, emming and ford and were presented through approaches approximating reportage cinema v rit , narrative, staged presentation, poetry and animation. <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<insert image here>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> it was notable that the composite nature of both photo essay and film assignments with respect to the ‘co-equality’ they impose between image and speech text (mitchell, cited in rose, ) had the effect of levelling the field for students whose first language was not english (approximately a quarter of the cohort) as imagery allowed greater freedom of expression for those not yet confident when communicating complex ideas in text alone. more broadly, students reported finding the task of film production challenging in terms of time, organisation, and the necessity of ‘being there’ in order to produce images (inter alia barthes, / ; silverman, ; cunliffe, ; van maanen, ). the act of having to look at and re-present the world beyond books was said to have heightened awareness of rationalising, control and its pervasiveness. this echoes wright-mills ( : ) observation that once you are really into a subject you see it everywhere once you are sensible to its themes. to this end students looked again at everyday processes and details that had become common place to them. students reported having to engaging more deeply with concepts in readiness to present them clearly through visual media to a wider audience, while the very act of presenting was perceived by students to have embedded their understanding of the subject more deeply than exam or essay. students noted that interviewing and observing others as part of filming opened them up to alternative view points and perspectives, while also increasing their awareness that others may interpret the finished films in different ways. this was felt to be enhanced by the possibilities offered by sound, soundtrack and poetry as supplements to the creative conveying meaning and eliciting emotion. finally, students stated that the process had generally been rewarding and fun. this chimes with claims that one of the benefits of utilising film and photography in ethnographic research is the sheer joy and sense of fun that accompanies the process (mitchell, ) thus ‘enhancing the aesthetic dimension of the research itself for all concerned’ (warren, : ). these are of course self-reported accounts of the impact of employing visual methods in learning, and no claim is made for effect size in terms of change or improvement in learning outcomes. moreover, satisfaction was not total as some students commented that they would have found a traditional essay or examination easier (being well tutored in there forms). this last point is important in so far as such ethnographically informed visual methods should be seen as compliments to rather than a replacement for more traditional essays and examinations. overall, there was a sense in which the smart phone camera had afforded students the necessary freedom to consider new ‘ways of seeing’ that linked to and developed their sociological imaginations. there was a sense in which the products of their labours could be said to have been ethnographically informed in so far as ethnography is a process of: ‘creating and representing knowledge (about society, culture and individuals) that is based on the ethnographers’ own experiences. it does not claim to produce an objective or truthful account of reality, but should aim to offer versions of the ethnographers’ experiences of reality that are as loyal as possible to the content, negotiations and intersubjectivities through which the knowledge was produced’ (pink, a: cited in pink, : ) while these films were not ethnographic in the sense of representing extended periods of time in the field or being embedded in particular sites of organising, the best did offer theoretical informed and critically presented accounts of people and their social patterns as considered, experienced and encountered by the students themselves. they accounted for the ethno in so far as they had their basis in careful observation of people (and indeed non-human actors that shape the lives of people) coupled with sympathy for the other’s point of view. the writing (graph) took a visual form which was intimately concerned with audience. this concern was foregrounded because students knew their films were to be made available to the world and each other via youtube. they were also aware that their researcher observations were to be the subject of critical summative judgement by a particular other: the course leader. the effects of audience the argument to this point is that the camera lens can serve as a useful engagement device through which to open up the sociological imagination (wright-mills, ) in management students. employing technology and media familiar to members of the facebook generation, students are invited to reconsider the taken-for-granted organization of their localized worlds. informed by discussions on different ways of seeing (berger, ; cunliffe, ; mitchell, ; van maanen, ) they are encouraged make explicit their interpretation of social worlds and subjective experiences in light of management concepts such as rationalization. the act of presenting their ethnographically acquired insights requires them to commit to their ideas (madden, ) ready to discuss and defend the proffered relationships between experience, world, image, word and text. in concluding the paper i want to say something about the process of presentation and the effect of particular audiences. the presager and corollary to presentation is, of course, audience. as photo essays are presented to peer groups and films displayed globally via the world wide web, students become aware of a wider audience who might pass judgement on their observations. moreover, there is a sense in which the audiences’ gaze falls not just on the material on display, but also on the ‘body behind the camera and its relation with the world’ (macdougall, : cited in pink : ) as presentational mode and subject matter are employed by the audience in consideration of the maker’s own subjectivity (rose, ). here the student is opened up to a complex relationality in which what is observed and re- present must be considered in light multiple others’s interpretations. this hidden other is spread across the globe: a heterogeneous audience whose assessment of presented subject and presenting subjectivity are likely to vary according to spatial, temporal and cultural geography. under such circumstances the insightful student might think it unwise to privilege or prioritise the viewing of any particular group within such a differentiated range of viewers (kim, ). and yet, where observation and film are produced under conditions of university assessment there is an ‘other’ who claims a privileged right to know and judge: an eye that claims primacy over the rest of the audience when it comes to matters of seeing. this other who would seek to discipline the student's nascent ethnographic gaze is, as we have already established, the lecturer (in this case me). madden ( ) notes that ethnographers need to pay attention to the fact that their observations are saturated with power politics and history – a point echoed by rhodes ( ) in respect of ethics. the same is true of the lecturer. for better or worse the embodied and disembodied presence the lecturer in audience of the learner has, and perhaps should have, a marked effect (see dahlgren, ; marton & säljö, ; ramsden, ; lizzio et al., ) for which we must take responsibility. it is important to take a moment to consider the nature of this effect, particularly given that the purpose of my own teaching is to encourage students to look beyond their own social milieu to consider how we are shaped by and in turn shape the wider processes of society (wright-mills, ). considered reflexively my own effect is both political and disciplinary. it is political in the sense that i announce up front my cms sensibility in challenging the taken-for-granted assumptions of our organised realities, but in such a way as to leave room for ‘undecidability’ contestability and doubt (rhodes, ). as i discuss research paradigms, students consider my subjectivist ontology and question whether i might best be located within the interpretive or radical humanist tradition epistemologically (burrell and morgan, ). while some share this ontological sympathy, finding solace in a management module that is not implicitly or explicitly underpinned by positivistic certainty; others find greater novelty in the suggestion of social constructionism, as well as the invocation to consider the perspectives of the marginalised minority or (dis)empowered worker, alongside that of the senior management executive that many of the students aspire to be. here then is a political overtone which students might mimic, collude with or resist depending on their own sympathies. what is not negotiable is the requirement that the student’s work be ‘critical’, ‘substantiated’ and ‘sociologically imaginative’ if it is to be judged favourably. this latter dictate is a product of the perceived need to discipline imagination with knowledge and preferred ways of knowing (whitehead, ). it also speaks to a far more direct relation of power which is overtly disciplining and disciplinary, as preferred ways of seeing are encouraged through the ‘spatial ‘nesting’ of hierarchi ed surveillance’ (foucault / : ) as self, peers, lecturer, institution and virtual worlds all play a part in observing that the subject attends to the correct training. in the course i run group work and peer presentation are employed to ensure that the student body regulates itself with respect to the mode, level and timing of educational participation. youtube’s rules on copyright are co-opted to reinforce academic concern with ethicality. assignment briefs, marking guides and grade descriptors reinforce the lecturer’s primacy in determining how and what to see. in these ways film making and presentation effectively reinforce the disciplining, homogenising and differentiating gaze of my academic and institutionalised community. this exercise of discipline ‘presupposes a mechanism that coerces by means of observation; an apparatus in which the techniques that made it possible to see, induce effects of power and in which, conversely, the means of coercion make those on whom they are applied clearly visible’ (foucault, / : - ). the result is that the nascent ethnographic gaze of the student is informed by a concern with what the academy, in the form of the lecturer, demands to see. it is the gaze of this self-privileging audience that works ‘to alter them’ (foucault / : ) and claims the right as a representative of the ‘makers of business leaders’ ( urham university business school webpage, ) to determine some measure of what they are to be seen to be. thus, even within the context of a desire to engage and free the sociological imagination of students, such endeavours inevitably prescribe and conscribe that which learners are encouraged to see when education is delivered within a university. within any discipline some ways of seeing are more acceptable than others: in this case more sociologically and ethnographically informed gazes that arise from and are reinforced by academic traditions, conventions, regulations, evocations, rewards and sanctions which form networks of supervisory relations that confine and bind lecturer and student, but which nonetheless give the lecturer as audience greater sway (foucault, / ). nowhere is this more evident to the student than in the lecturer’s examination of the products of their observations, wherein the marking of that observation determines whether they have looked – and will the allowed to continue looking – the right way. considered thus, it appears that the use of the ethnographic lens is not so much about new ways of looking, as new ways of encouraging students to internalise the ways that academics continue to want them to see. there is then a tension between a pedagogic claim to set minds free and institutional contexts that are well versed in determining how individuals are seen and see. concluding thoughts madden ( : ) notes that 'ethnographic observation is a complex and theoretically challenging issue, not a mere sensory act, but a theoretical and political act of categorising and attempting to understanding'. it is a way of seeing that seeks to understand something of the perspective of the other (outside) and the effect of the self (inside) in its relation to observing, observed, telling and reading. it is a disciplined way of seeing that enables the description, interpretation or enactment of organising, cultures, processes, practices and structures. in this sense disciplined takes on a less malignant tone than the foucauldian ( / ) association with surveillance. it speaks, in part, to whitehead’s ( ) notions of discipline as precision in so far as any romance for ideas must be followed by an invitation to impose order on the relatively free and disorganized understanding that was encouraged in students at an earlier stage. acknowledging the existence of discipline in all its various forms is important because, as rose ( : ) notes we 'learn to see in particular ways and this is a process that is reiterated every time we look' producing certain types of subjectivities. this paper has been concerned with the how our ways of seeing might be expanded to include more ethnographic, sociological and critical ways of seeing. it has been concerned with the potential for the ethnographically informed camera lens to open reflection on our modes of living, working, organising and managing so as to disrupt the reiterating tendencies of habit and status and thus remind us that the world around us and our place within it are always in flow (whitehead, ; rhodes, ). such endeavors require training and disciplining. they depend crucially on showing the learner that theirs is not the only way of seeing and that, with proper training they may come to employ a range of different lenses capable of construing multiple worlds. novel teaching methods, such as the production of films, are useful tools in such training. they encourage the combination of research and 'artistic representation' to ‘make critical interventions, and help us to get in touch with our social worlds' (o'neill, : ). both through and in spite of the institutional context of their offering, such experimental methods can portend ‘new ways to think and talk about organizations and allow room for doubt, uncertainty, contradiction and paradox (phillips, ), and subvert the dominance of masculine rationality’ (rhodes, : ) precisely because their format, marking, observation and categorization have not been wholly defined, fixed and institutionalized in the context of management learning. this, as rhodes ( : ) goes on to suggest ‘resonates with long-standing calls for the social sciences to be informed by an active imagination (wright-mills, ) that is creative in making links between the lives of actual people and the structures that they are located in’. this might include the imaginative faculties and ways of seeing require to mitigate some of the 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( ) the sociological imagination. harmondsworth: penguin . http://www.businessweek.com/debateroom/archives/ / /us_financial_cr.html http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/ http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/ http://www.aacorn.net/members_all/ostergaard_sille/organizationalphotography.pdf image dr. ceriani with lee marie correspondence from magnum re permission to print ‘lee marie’ photo as follows: re: country doctor - w. eugene smith jonathan bell [jonathan.bell@magnumphotos.com] sent: august : to: robert mcmurray hi robert, following on from fiona's email, we can provide you with a licence to use the image in your paper. our minimum fee is £ (+vat) per image. this fee covers the office admin and keeping the estates running, although i do understand that sometimes this is too much for an academic publication. let me know what you think. thanks, jonathan jonathan bell : editorial & publishing jonathanb@magnumphotos.co.uk direct: + ( ) office: + ( ) https://mail.udbs.dur.ac.uk/owa/?ae=item&t=ipm.note&id=rgaaaac qfldxynotzfmuler akcbwaqclqta nbt tep ken v atrpr boaaa zwozmw% fqt fjrjukb njaaattil aaaj images - images - : student life, similarity and difference (no copyright) image image : student smart phone camera films (no copyright) vis comput ( ) : – doi . /s - - - o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e towards multi-perspective rasterization xuan yu · jingyi yu · leonard mcmillan published online: march © springer-verlag abstract we present a novel framework for real-time multi-perspective rendering. while most existing approaches are based on ray-tracing, we present an alternative approach by emulating multi-perspective rasterization on the classical perspective graphics pipeline. to render a general multi- perspective camera, we first decompose the camera into piecewise linear primitive cameras called the general lin- ear cameras or glcs. we derive the closed-form projec- tion equations for glcs and show how to rasterize triangles onto glcs via a two-pass rendering algorithm. in the first pass, we compute the glc projection coefficients of each scene triangle using a vertex shader. the linear raster on the graphics hardware then interpolates these coefficients at each pixel. finally, we use these interpolated coefficients to compute the projected pixel coordinates using a fragment shader. in the second pass, we move the pixels to their ac- tual projected positions. to avoid holes, we treat neighbor- ing pixels as triangles and re-render them onto the glc im- age plane. we demonstrate our real-time multi-perspective rendering framework in a wide range of applications in- cluding synthesizing panoramic and omnidirectional views, rendering reflections on curved mirrors, and creating multi- perspective faux animations. compared with the gpu-based electronic supplementary material the online version of this article (http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - ) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. x. yu · j. yu (�) university of delaware, newark, usa e-mail: jingyiyu@udel.edu x. yu e-mail: xuanyu@udel.edu l. mcmillan university of north carolina at chapel hill, chapel hill, usa ray tracing methods, our rasterization approach scales better with scene complexity and it can render scenes with a large number of triangles at interactive frame rates. keywords multi-perspective rendering · graphics hardware · real-time rendering · rasterization introduction a perspective camera captures the spatial relationships of objects in a scene as they appear from a single viewpoint. in art, the use of perspective cameras is surprisingly rare: artists, architects, and engineers regularly combine what is seen from several viewpoints into a single image. despite their incongruity of view, these multi-perspective images are able to preserve spatial coherence. they can depict, within a single context, details of a scene that are simultaneously inaccessible from a single view. in computer graphics, image-based approaches are com- monly used to render multi-perspective images [ , , ]. their rendering quality depends on the sampling of the plenoptic function [ ] and aliasing artifacts can be intro- duced during initial sampling and final reconstruction. alter- natively, ray tracing can be used to render high quality multi- perspective cameras. however, ray tracing is often too slow for interactive rendering. recently, gpu-based ray tracing techniques [ , ] have been developed to efficiently de- termine ray–object intersections. however, a fundamental problem in gpu ray tracing is that it requires random ac- cess to a database of scene triangles, which does not fit well with the simd feed-forward graphics pipeline [ ]. in this paper, we present a novel rasterization frame- work for rendering multi-perspective images in real-time. to http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - mailto:jingyiyu@udel.edu mailto:xuanyu@udel.edu x. yu et al. fig. our framework interactively renders a complex city scene of k triangles at fps. a cross-slit camera is used to render the scene at an × resolution render a general multi-perspective camera, we first decom- pose the camera into piecewise primitive multi-perspective cameras. we use the recently proposed general linear cam- eras (glc) model that describes typical pinhole and ortho- graphic cameras, as well as many commonly studied multi- perspective cameras. we derive the closed-form projection equations for glcs and show how to rasterize triangles onto the gpu via a two-pass rendering algorithm. in the first pass, we compute the glc projection coeffi- cients of each scene triangle using a vertex shader. the lin- ear raster on the graphics hardware then interpolates these coefficients at each pixel. finally, we use these interpolated coefficients to compute the projected pixel coordinates us- ing a fragment shader. in the second pass, we move these pixels to their actual projected positions. to avoid holes, we treat neighboring pixels as triangles and re-render them onto the glc image plane. we demonstrate our real-time multi- perspective rendering framework in a wide range of applica- tions including synthesizing panoramic and omnidirectional views, rendering reflections on curved mirrors, and creat- ing multi-perspective faux animations. compared to gpu- based ray tracing methods, our rasterization approach scales better with scene complexity and can render highly complex scenes with a large number of triangles at interactive frame rates. previous work historically, multi-perspective images have been frequently employed by pre-renaissance and post-impressionist artists to depict more than can be seen from any specific point [ ]. escher uses highly curved projection models to gener- ate “impossible” perspectives of a scene. picasso and other cubism pioneers made effective use of rearranging differ- ent parts of the depicted scene while maintaining their local spatial relationships, which results in an incongruous spatial system [ ]. in computer graphics, multi-perspective images have been widely used in cel-animations [ ] and omnidirectional visualizations [ , ]. a commonly used technique for cre- ating these images is to combine strips from different pin- hole images. this approach, often called a strip camera, has appeared quite often in graphics literature. for example, computer generated multi-perspective panoramas [ ] com- bined elements of multiple pinhole strips into a single image using a semi-automatic image registration process. the con- centric mosaics of [ ] and [ ] are another type of multi- perspective image that is useful for exploring captured envi- ronments. durand [ ] suggests that specifying multi-perspective cameras can also be an interactive process and uses them as an example to distinguish between picture generation and user interaction. examples of such approaches include the d-based interactive rendering systems by agrawala et al. [ ] and hanson and wernert [ ]. roman et al. [ , ] provide a semi-interactive system that uses a linear cam- era to combine photographs into panoramas of street scenes. agrawala et al. [ ] proposed to composite large regions of ordinary perspective images. they reduce the degree of user interaction by identifying the dominant plane and then use graph cuts to minimize multi-perspective distortions. recently, real-time multi-perspective rendering tech- niques have been developed based on polygonal graphics hardware. these include techniques for supporting multiple centers of projection in vr applications [ , ], render- ing general curved reflections or refractions [ , ], and synthesizing special panoramic effects [ , ]. the work by hou et al. [ ] decomposes an arbitrary multi-perspective image into piecewise-linear multi-perspective primitives. they then render each primitive camera by implementing a non-linear beam-tracing using a pair of vertex and fragment programs. finally, multi-perspective images have received attention from the computer vision community for analyzing struc- ture revealed via motion [ , ] and generating panoramic images with a wide field-of-view using mirrors [ ]. sev- eral researchers have proposed alternative multi-perspective camera models which capture rays from different points in space. these multi-perspective cameras include pushbroom cameras [ ], which collect rays along parallel planes from towards multi-perspective rasterization fig. a diagram showing the pipeline of our rendering algorithm fig. (a) a general linear camera is described by three generator rays parametrized under two parallel planes ( pp). (b) we can decom- pose a reflection image of a curved mirror into piecewise glcs points swept along a linear trajectory, and two-slit cameras [ ], which collect all rays passing through two lines. multi-perspective decomposition to render an arbitrary multi-perspective camera, we first de- compose the camera into piecewise linear primitive multi- perspective cameras whose projection models can be easily characterized. . general linear cameras our decomposition is based on the recently proposed gen- eral linear camera or glcs [ ]. glcs unify traditional per- spective, orthographic, and multi-perspective cameras mod- els such as the pushbroom and the cross-slit cameras. in the glc framework, every ray is parameterized by its in- tersections with the two parallel planes, where [s, t] is the intersection with the first and [u, v] the second, as shown in fig. (a). this parametrization is often called a two-plane parametrization ( pp) [ ]. in this paper, we further sim- plify the analysis of [ ] by substituting σ = s − u and τ = t − v and use [σ, τ, u, v] to represent rays. we also as- sume the default uv plane is the default image plane and is at z = while st plane is at z = . a glc is defined as the affine combination of three rays: glc = {r : r = α · [σ , τ , u , v ] + β · [σ , τ , u , v ] + ( − α − β) · [σ , τ , u , v ], ∀α, β } . ( ) we treat the problem of multi-perspective rendering as one of specifying the set of rays collected by the camera. yu and mcmillan [ ] have shown that these glc cam- eras, when constrained by an appropriate set of rules, can be laid out on the image plane, thereby generating arbitrary multi-perspective renderings. in fact, to a first order, the glc-based framework can describe any multi-perspective image that is consistent with a smoothly varying set of rays. in sect. . , we demonstrate rendering or degree panoramas by stitching piecewise cross-slit glcs. in sect. . , we show, by dynamically composing a multi- perspective camera from smoothly varying specific glcs, that it is also possible to create faux animations from static models. glcs can also be used to render reflections on arbitrar- ily curved mirrors (sect. . ). given a mirror surface rep- resented as a triangle mesh, we can associate the reflection ray with each vertex so that each triangle corresponds to a ray triplet, as shown in fig. (b). we then specify the uv parametrization plane for each ray triplet as the plane of the triangle itself and render each glc individually. finally, we can compose multiple glc images into a single reflection image. next, we derive the glc projection equation. to further simplify our analysis, we assume the uv plane is the im- age plane of the glc. we also assume the three generators have the form [σ , τ , , ], [σ , τ , , ], and [σ , τ , , ], x. yu et al. fig. (a) projecting a point p to a ray in the glc. (b) the projection of p can be computed using the affine coordinate on the sweeping plane Πz i.e., these three generator rays originate from pixels [ , ], [ , ], and [ , ], respectively. under these three generator rays, every ray r in the glc can be written as the following affine combination: r[σ, τ, u, v] = ( − α − β) · [σ , τ , , ] + α · [σ , τ , , ] + β · [σ , τ , , ]. ( ) it is easy to see that α = u and β = v under this simplifi- cation. therefore, computing the affine coefficients of r is equivalent to projecting r onto the image plane. to compute the projection of a d point p (x, y, z) in the glc, we sweep a plane Πz parallel to the uv plane and passing through ṗ . the three generator rays will intersect Πz at ṫ , ṫ , ṫ , where ṫ = ( , , ) + z · (σ , τ , ) = (σ z, τ z, z), ṫ = ( , , ) + z · (σ , τ , ) = (σ z + , τ z, z), ( ) ṫ = ( , , ) + z · (σ , τ , ) = (σ z, τ z + , z). our goal is to compute the affine combination [α, β] of the three generator rays that pass through p . notice, the same affine coefficients should apply to point p with respect to triangle �ṫ ṫ ṫ , i.e., ṗ = ( − α − β) · ṫ + α · ṫ + β · ṫ . ( ) recall that [α, β] can be computed using the ratio of the signed areas formed by triangle �ṫ ṗ ṫ , �ṫ ṫ ṗ over �ṫ ṫ ṫ as shown in fig. (b); we have u = �ṫ ṗ ṫ �ṫ ṫ ṫ = ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ zσ zτ x y zσ + zτ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ zσ zτ + zσ + zτ zσ + zτ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ , v = �ṫ ṫ ṗ �ṫ ṫ ṫ = ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ zσ zτ + zσ zτ x y ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ zσ zτ + zσ + zτ zσ + zτ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ . ( ) for glc-based decompositions, the smoothness is guar- anteed if all cameras are parameterized under the same pp. however, when glcs are used to model more com- plicated phenomenons such as reflections, it is common practice to use different parametrization planes (e.g., local tangent planes), for minimizing the approximation errors. therefore, the projection continuity for two adjacent glcs is not guaranteed in a general configuration [ ]. in [ ], hou et al. proposed a similar multi-perspective camera de- composition scheme. their approach used the normalized vector [nx , ny , nz] to represent the ray direction instead of the pp. their parametrization naturally maintains smooth- ness across the camera boundaries. however, their projec- tion equation is more complicated and it may have multiple (up to ) solutions, and hence, additional steps are needed to determine the actual solution. popescu et al. [ ] extended glcs to a continuous form, but at the cost of a cubic projec- tion equation. for multi-perspective rasterization, the linear projection not only has the advantage of simpler computa- tion, but also the more important advantage of single projec- tion. multi-perspective rasterization our goal is to emulate glc-based triangle rasterization on the perspective camera graphics pipeline. in this section, we first briefly review the perspective-camera based linear ras- terization and then identify the difficulty in implementing glc rasterization. finally, we present a simple and efficient technique for emulating glc rasterization on the gpu. . linear rasterization in a perspective camera, d lines project to d lines via perspective projection. therefore, to render a triangle, we can simply first project the vertices of the triangle onto the image plane of the camera and then linearly interpolate the pixels between the projected vertices. therefore, the raster on the graphics hardware serves simply as a linear interpola- tion engine. in contrast, a triangle maps to a curved triangle in a multi-perspective camera. thus, the linear raster cannot be directly used to rasterize the triangles. modern graphics hardware has been focused on adding programmable shading to their capabilities, to allow each vertex or pixel be processed by a short program [ , ]. for towards multi-perspective rasterization example, it is easy to write simple vertex and fragment pro- grams to support phong shading using per-pixel-based light- ing, surface normal and positions. however, very little effort has been made to change the linear raster. in fact, rasteri- zation of curved triangle still remains an open problem in computer graphics. . emulating glc rasterization we present a simple and efficient glc rasterization scheme on the gpu. our goal is to use the raster to interpolate the linear components in the glc projection equation and rely on the fragment shader to conduct the nonlinear operations. recall that both the numerator and the denominator in the glc projection equation ( ) can be written as the determi- nant of matrices. furthermore, all entries in the two matrices are linear in the x, y, and z coordinates of d points. there- fore, we can linearly interpolate these projection coordinates within the triangle. specifically, to render each scene trian- gle, we first compute the per-vertex-based projection coef- ficients (i.e., each entry in the numerator and denominator matrices) using a vertex shader. the raster then interpolates these coefficients. on the fragment shader, we then com- pute the projected pixel coordinates using the glc projec- tion equation and store them in a source texture s. next, we need to move these pixels from s to their actual projected positions in the glc image t . a simple solution is to map each pixel in s to a pixel in t . however, this simple map- ping will introduce holes in the target glc image, i.e., some pixels in t may not correspond to any pixels in s due to discretization. to resolve this problem, we treat every three neighboring pixels in s as a triangle and re-render these tri- angles onto t . similar to frustum culling for perspective cameras, we also discard triangles that lie completely out- side the image plane in the second pass. fig. shows the complete pipeline of our approach. to maintain correct depth ordering, we also compute per- pixel ray depth. specifically, once we compute the projected pixel coordinate [u, v] of a d point p (x, y, z) in the glc, we calculate the ray depth dp as ‖(x − u) + (y − v) + z ‖ / . this step can be efficiently combined with the glc projection at the end of the first pass in the same fragment shader. when we re-rasterize the triangles from s to t in the second pass, we simply use z-buffer to resolve the visibility problem. . glc projection equation to render the complete d scene, it is important that we rasterize each scene triangle without overlapping in the first pass. we benefit from the large texture memory size on commodity graphics card. in our experiment, we use up to k × k textures and each scene triangle is set to have × image resolution. this allows us to interactively ren- der complex scenes with over k triangles. . results we have implemented our algorithm using directx . c with shader model . . all experiments are recorded on a pc with . ghz intel core duo cpu, gb memory, and an nvidia gtx graphics card. figure summa- rizes the performance data. the computational overhead in our glc rasterization pipeline is comparable to the classical perspective rendering. this is because to render a pinhole camera, all scene vertices need to be transformed via per- spective transformation and tested for view frusturm culling whereas our glc rasterization scheme separates the pro- jection and culling in two separate passes. our approach, however, will incur larger overhead due to context switch- ing between the two passes. when rendering cameras using a single or a small number of glcs, the overhead caused by context switching is negligible and our algorithm scales linearly with the resolution used to render each scene trian- gle. however, when rendering a large number of glcs, this overhead can severely affect the performance of our algo- rithm (sect. ). in fig. , we render a cross-slit camera and compare the rendering result with ray tracing. we have modified the povray ray-tracer to support all types of glcs. our test scene consists of geometric primitives like spheres, cylin- ders, and boxes. we discretize the sphere by triangles, the cylinder by triangles, and the box by triangles. in fig. (b), we set the scene triangle resolution to be × pixels and we observe slight polygonization artifacts on the ground plane. however, since we re-render the projected pixels as triangles in the second pass, the final rendering does not contain holes. furthermore, as we increase the reso- lution for rasterizing the scene triangles, the polygonization artifacts disappear. applications . multi-perspective panoramas multi-perspective panoramas attempt to combine a series of views into a single image that is viewed in pieces. one way to construct multi-perspective panoramas is to stitch glcs together. in fig. (a), we approximate a circular cross-slit panorama [ ] by stitching piecewise linear cross-slit glcs. specifically, all these glcs share a common slit that passes through the center of the circle. we then discretize the circle using a sequence of slit segments. in fig. (b), we render a degree view of a cow model of triangles. we are able to fuse both the head and the tail of the cow into a single multi-perspective image. our system renders at fps and we can interactively rotate the cow as shown in the supple- mentary video. x. yu et al. fig. (a) rendering a cross-slit camera using ray tracing. (b)–(d) show the rendering result of our approach using × (b), × (c), and × (d) rasterization resolution for scene triangles. notice at a low rasterization resolution, polygonization artifacts can occur in the final rendering (e.g., the ground plane in (b)) fig. real-time rendering of degree panoramas using glc rasterization. (a) a perspective image of a cow model that consists of triangles. (b) our panoramic rendering of the cow model at fps at an × resolution in fig. , we render an omnidirectional view of a teapot model that consists of k triangles at fps at a × resolution, reminiscent of an mcop image [ ]. the classi- cal pinhole camera (b) cannot simultaneously illustrate the nose and the handle of the teapot. using multi-perspective rendering, we can fuse both the nose and the handle in a single image (c) while maintaining low image distortions. figure (d) shows the top view of the teapot. . real-time reflection a special class of multi-perspective images are reflections on curved mirrors. to render reflections, we reuse the de- fault triangulation of the reflector and compute per-vertex reflection rays. we then treat each individual triangle as a glc and use the triangle plane as the parametrization plane of the glc. finally, we render each glc separately and stitch them to generate the final reflection image. in fig. , we render reflections from a mirror sphere. the butterfly scene contains triangles. we tessellate the sphere with glc triangles and render each glc at a × resolution. we set each scene triangle to be ras- terized at a × resolution. our approach is able to render at fps and the reflections appear highly smooth. since our algorithm uses two passes to render each glc, context switching between each pass can introduce addi- tional overhead. in particular, with very fine triangulation of the reflector (∼ k triangles), our algorithm is slower than the gpu ray-tracing approach [ ] where scene triangle pro- jection and ray tracing are combined in a single pass. the main advantage of our approach over ray tracing is that it scales well with scene complexity whereas the performance of gpu ray-tracing can significantly decrease when render- ing thousands of triangles. . multi-perspective faux-animation finally, it is possible to use multi-perspective rendering to create fake or faux-animations from static models by dynamically constructing the multi-perspective images. in fig. , we show three frames from a synthesized animation. towards multi-perspective rasterization fig. (a) we construct the multi-perspective panorama by stitching a sequence of cross-slit cameras. (b) shows a perspective view of the teapot. (b) shows a degree view of the teapot. notice the cgi textures near the handle and side can be simultaneously seen in the panorama. (d) shows a top-down view of the teapot. our system ren- ders at fps at an × resolution fig. rendering reflections using the glc rasterization framework. we decompose the mirror sphere into triangles, each corresponding to a glc. (a) we render the sphere in a butterfly scene at fps. the rendering results (b) are highly smooth. (c) shows a close-up view of (b) fig. (a) shows a perspective view of the cow model. (b), (c) multi-perspective renderings were used to turn the head quarters of the cow in a fake animation we first construct a multi-perspective camera composed of two glcs. the first glc, a cross-slit camera, captures the torso and the tail of the cow model. the second cross-slit glc hinges on the first one and can rotate towards or away from the head of the cow. as we rotate the second camera, we are able to synthesize realistic head rotations of the cow model while maintaining continuity across the two glc cameras. zomet [ ] used similar approach by using single cross-slit camera to achieve rotation effects from a sequence of images. x. yu et al. fig. the performance of our algorithm in reflection rendering. (a) we fix the number of the scene triangles and each triangle’s ras- terization resolution while changing the number of glcs used to ap- proximate the mirror sphere and each glc’s image resolution. (b) we fix the number of glcs and the glc image resolution while changing the scene complexity and each scene triangle’s rasterization resolution discussions and future work our glc-rasterization framework has several advantages. first, our method is very easy to implement: the mapping from a d point to its image in the glc is unique and can be directly computed on the gpu whereas other multi- perspective cameras such as the ones used in [ ] require solving higher-order polynomial equations and selecting the proper solution. second, since we use rasterization in place of ray tracing, the performance is expected to ride in pro- portion with advances in commodity graphics hardware. fi- nally, our framework will naturally support fully dynamic scenes since it does not rely on acceleration data structures commonly used for ray tracing. the main limitation of our framework is that it does not scale well with the number of the glcs. in our experiments, we find that this is caused by context switching between the two passes. when rendering multi-perspective cameras composed of a large number of glcs, the overhead due to context switching can significantly decrease the overall performance of our algorithm. although the ray-tracing ap- proach [ ] also used multi-perspective decomposition and stitching, it is not an issue for their method as the authors combined the bounding triangle computation and ray trac- ing in a single pass. in the future, we plan to investigate how to combine the ray-tracing and rasterization methods into a single framework to handle both complex scenes and complex camera compositions. it may also be possible to combine our technique with existing gpu-based algorithms for rendering more sophisticated visual phenomenons such as glossy reflections, refractions and caustics under subscat- tering. finally, we will explore efficient methods to extend the glcs to support both linear projection and projection continuity. we envision our proposed multi-perspective rendering framework will serve as conceptual inspiration for designing new graphics hardware. specifically, we anticipate that our framework would motivate the hardware community to de- velop nonlinear rasterization units to support general multi- perspective rendering. notice that any multi-perspective camera can be locally approximated by the glcs. there- fore, if the rasterization unit can support the glc projection model (i.e., quadratic rational functions), it may be used to directly render arbitrary multi-perspective effects. acknowledgements this work has been supported by the national science foundation under grant mspa-mcs- . references . adelson, e.h., bergen, j.r.: the plenoptic function and the elements of early vision. in: computational models of visual processing, pp. – ( ) . agrawala, m., zorin, d., munzner, t.: artistic multiprojection rendering. in: proceedings of the eurographics workshop on ren- dering techniques , pp. – ( ) . aseem, a., agrawala, m., cohen, m., salesin, d., szeliski, r.: photographing long scenes with multi-viewpoint panoramas. in: siggraph ’ : acm siggraph papers, pp. – ( ) . carr, n.a., hall, j.d., hart, j.c.: the ray engine. in: proceed- ings of the acm siggraph/eurographics conference on graphics hardware ( ) . diefenbach, p.j., badler, n.i.: multi-pass pipeline rendering: real- ism for dynamic environments. in: proceedings of the symposium on interactive d graphics, pp. –ff. ( ) . durand, f.: an invitation to discuss computer depiction. in: npar ’ : proceedings of the nd international symposium on non- photorealistic animation and rendering, pp. – ( ) . gascuel, j.d., holzschuch, n., fournier, g., péroche, b.: fast non-linear projections using graphics hardware. in: si d ’ : pro- ceedings of the symposium on interactive d graphics and games, pp. – ( ) . glassner, a.s.: cubism and cameras: free-form optics for com- puter graphics. tech. rep. msr-tr- - , january ( ) . gupta, r., hartley, r.i.: linear pushbroom cameras. ieee trans. pattern anal. mach. intell. ( ), – ( ) . hanson, a.j., wernert, e.a.: image-based rendering with occlu- sions via cubist images. in: vis ’ : proceedings of the confer- ence on visualization ’ , pp. – ( ) . hou, x., wei, l.y., shum, h.y., guo, b.: real-time multi- perspective rendering on graphics hardware. in: siggraph ’ : acm siggraph sketches, p. ( ) . kitamura, y., konishi, t., yamamoto, s., kishino, f.: interactive stereoscopic display for three or more users. in: siggraph ’ : proceedings of the th annual conference on computer graph- ics and interactive techniques, pp. – ( ) towards multi-perspective rasterization . levoy, m., hanrahan, p.: light field rendering. in: siggraph ’ : proceedings of the rd annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, pp. – ( ) . lindholm, e., kligard, m.j., moreton, h.: a user-programmable vertex engine. in: siggraph ’ : proceedings of the th an- nual conference on computer graphics and interactive tech- niques, pp. – ( ) . mei, c., popescu, v., sacks, e.: the occlusion camera, in: proc. of eurographics . comput. graph. forum. ( ), pp. – (sept. ) . ofek, e., rappoport, a.: interactive reflections on curved objects. in: siggraph ’ : the th annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, pp. – ( ) . peleg, s., ben-ezra, m., pritch, y.: omnistereo: panoramic stereo imaging. ieee trans. pattern anal. mach. intell. , – ( ) . popescu, v., dauble, j., mei, c., sacks, e.: an efficient error- bounded general camera model. in: dpvt ’ : proceedings of the third international symposium on d data processing, vi- sualization, and transmission ( dpvt’ ), pp. – . ieee computer society, washington ( ). doi: . / dpvt. . . purcell, t.j., donner, c., cammarano, m., jensen, h.w., hanra- han, p.: photon mapping on programmable graphics hardware. in: acm siggraph courses, p. ( ) . rademacher, p., bishop, g.: multiple-center-of-projection im- ages. comput. graph. , – ( ) (annual conference series) . roman, a., lensch, h.: automatic multiperspective images. ieee trans. pattern anal. mach. intell. , – ( ) . roman, a., garg, g., levoy, m.: interactive design of multi- perspective images for visualizing urban landscapes. in: vis ’ : proceedings of the conference on visualization ’ , pp. – . ieee computer society, washington ( ) . seitz, s.m., kim, j.: multiperspective imaging. ieee comput. graph. appl. ( ), – ( ) . shum, h.y., he, l.w.: rendering with concentric mosaics. in: siggraph ’ : the th annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, pp. – ( ) . simon, a., smith, r.c., pawlicki, r.r.: omnistereo for panoramic virtual environment display systems. in: vr ’ : proceedings of the ieee virtual reality , p. ( ) . swaminathan, r., grossberg, m.d., nayar, s.k.: non-single viewpoint catadioptric cameras: geometry and analysis. int. j. comput. vis. ( ), – ( ) . wood, d.n., finkelstein, a., hughes, j.f., thayer, c.e., salesin, d.h.: multiperspective panoramas for cel animation. in: sig- graph ’ : proceedings of the th annual conference on com- puter graphics and interactive techniques, pp. – ( ) . wyman, c., davis, s.: interactive image-space techniques for ap- proximating caustics. in: proceedings of the symposium on interactive d graphics and games, pp. – ( ) . yu, j., mcmillan, l.: a framework for multiperspective rendering. in: rendering techniques ( ) . yu, j., mcmillan, l.: general linear cameras. in: the th european conference on computer vision (eccv) ( ) . zomet, a., feldman, d., peleg, s., weinshall, d., society, i.c.: mosaicing new views: the crossed-slits projection. ieee trans. pattern anal. mach. intell. , – ( ) xuan yu is a graduate student in computer and information sciences department at the university of delaware. he received his b.sc. from shanghai jiaotong university and is currently pursuing his ph.d. with dr. jingyi yu at the university of delaware. jingyi yu is assistant professor in computer and information sci- ences department at the university of delaware. he received his b.sc. from caltech in , and m.sc. and ph.d. degrees in eecs from mit in . his research interests span a range of topics in computer graphics, computer vision, and im- age processing, including computa- tional photography, medical imag- ing, non-conventional optics and camera design, tracking and surveil- lance, and graphics hardware. leonard mcmillan is associate professor of computer science at the university of north carolina in chapel hill. leonard received his bachelor’s ( ) and master’s ( ) degrees in electrical engi- neering from georgia institute of technology. leonard received his ph.d. in computer science from the university of north carolina at chapel hill ( ). leonard has been a member of technical staff at at&t bell laboratories where he worked in the digital signal processing architecture group and was a coarchitect of the at&t pixel machine. leonard has also worked as a senior staff engineer at sun microsystems where he helped developing several visualization and multimedia products. leonard is a pioneer in the field of image-based rendering. image- based rendering is a new approach to computer graphics where scenes are rendered directly from a collection of reference images rather than a geometric model. leonard is also interested in a wide range of re- lated topics, including computer graphics rendering, imaging methods and technologies, three-dimensional display technologies, computer graphics hardware, and the fusion of image processing, multimedia, and computer graphics. http://dx.doi.org/ . / dpvt. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / dpvt. . 	towards multi-perspective rasterization 	abstract 	introduction 	previous work 	multi-perspective decomposition 	general linear cameras 	multi-perspective rasterization 	linear rasterization 	emulating glc rasterization 	glc projection equation 	results 	applications 	multi-perspective panoramas 	real-time reflection 	multi-perspective faux-animation 	discussions and future work 	acknowledgements 	references << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (gray gamma . ) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (iso coated v % \ eci\ ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /perceptual /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /srgb /dothumbnails true /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true 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f c c f e c c e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f f c a e e f d e f f e e f d e f f d e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f f d f b d e a c a f b f b a f a e c f e e e e d e a c f d e e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d f c c f c c e e f b e f b d e e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu <feff a f f f e f f c c e e d f c f f e c e e d e d c d d d c f e e f e c f a f f f f e e e e f d d f e c f e c e f f c f f f f e c e f f c e f c f a f d f e e> >> >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice reconstructing histories: analyzing exhibition photographs with computational methods arts article reconstructing histories: analyzing exhibition photographs with computational methods sabine lang * and björn ommer heidelberg collaboratory for image processing, iwr, heidelberg university, heidelberg, germany; ommer@uni-heidelberg.de * correspondence: sabine.lang@iwr.uni-heidelberg.de received: july ; accepted: october ; published: october ���������� ������� abstract: displays of art in public or private spaces have long been of interest to curators, gallerists, artists and art historians. the emergence of gallery paintings at the beginning of the seventeenth century and the photographic documentation of (modern) exhibitions testify to that. taken as factual documents, these images are not only representative of social status, wealth or the museum’s thematic focus, but also contain information about artistic relations and exhibition practices. digitization efforts of previous years have made these documents, including photographs, catalogs or press releases, available to public audiences and scholars. while a manual analysis has proved to be insufficient, because of the sheer number of available data, computational approaches and tools allowed for a greater access. the following article describes how digital images of exhibitions, as released by the new york museum of modern art in the fall of , are studied with a retrieval system to analyze in which artistic contexts selected artworks were presented in exhibits. keywords: art history; computer vision; digitization; exhibition histories; photographs; visual search; retrieval systems . introduction the invention of photography in the nineteenth century has allowed to capture exhibitions of modern times faster and in large numbers. this has been done by museums, galleries and other cultural institutions for various purposes. the invention of digitization technologies in the late twentieth century has also produced digital repositories of photographic records of museum displays and recently, institutions publish them for everyone to see. for art historians, these collections provide a rich source to study installation practices over time, displayed artworks and their suggested relations to other artworks. the interest in displays of artworks, however, can be traced back to the pre-modern period, when, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the genre of the gallery painting was established in the netherlands. famous examples include david teniers’ (the younger, – ) paintings of archduke leopold wilhelm’s ( – ) art collection in brussels, works by johann michael bretschneider, the francken family, adriaen stalbemt, hendrik staben or jean-antoine watteau’s ‘the shop sign of gersaint’ ( – ) nicholls ( ). the research presented in this paper makes use of digital records of exhibits and demonstrates how these can be studied with computer-based methods to analyze in which artistic context artworks were shown and ultimately support with provenance research—both important task of art historians. the method further stresses the possibility of a visual instead of a textual reconstruction of exhibition histories and provenance research; the latter strongly relies on the availability of text documents, which are often difficult to access, lack completeness or contain erroneous information. while it is impossible to evaluate these digital exhibition records manually, computer technologies are able to process millions of images, thus allowing to formulate universal statements or to find broader patterns in art—this is one great potential of retrieval systems. arts , , ; doi: . /arts www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts arts , , of for photographs of exhibitions this means that we are able to evaluate a great number of images, to make general statements about exhibition practices for specific artworks and trace its inclusion in shows through time and place. to evaluate images, an interactive interface was used, which was developed within the computer vision group at heidelberg university . since , the group hosts an interdisciplinary project between computer vision and art history, resulting in various projects, which applied various computational methods to art data. the interface enables to object and part retrieval in art datasets, which has been tested on diverse image collections, such as architectural prints, paintings of christ’s crucifixion and medieval manuscripts. preceding works studied legal communication in the sachsenspiegel (c ), a medieval law book containing heavily illustrated text sheets bell et al. ( ), or included a computational analysis of reproduction processes of medieval images monroy et al. ( ). the present study benefits from previous works and analyzes a set of exhibition photographs, released by the museum of modern art , by retrieving user-selected artworks. this article hypothesizes that computational tools can correctly retrieve user-selected artworks from exhibition photographs to assist with the reconstruction of exhibition histories. although object retrieval has been used in humanities research for quite some time now, to the knowledge of the author, prior work has neither demonstrated its usage for exhibition study nor highlighted the possibility of a visual provenance research. eventually, this interest in art displays highlights the importance of installations for the reading and meaning of individual works grießer ( ). literature overview the literary overview consists of two parts, which are a direct result of the thematic focus and selected method of this article: while the first presents past works in art history on the topic of exhibits, the second provides an overview of works done in computer vision on object retrieval. literature was selected, because it either gives an insight into the great variety of topics relating to exhibits and exhibition history or applications for object retrieval systems. also, compiled literature is representative of different approaches and interests of scholars in the field of art history, computer vision and its intersection. art historians have studied museum and exhibition history and installation practices in great depth; numerous books and articles are a result of this interest. previous works discussed historic exhibits, the exhibition space, presented artworks and provided more practical guidelines for curators. scholars pointed to developments in museum practices, based on changed social or economic values in society and the art world. in , brian o’doherty published his influential article ‘inside the white cube’ o’doherty ( ), where he studies the white gallery space and its meaning; he elaborates on the sociological, economic and aesthetic context in which viewers experience art and studies the relation between the content of the image and spatial context. he concluded that the museum space transforms everyday objects into art, that the white cube is a work of art itself and thus not neutral. the question, if artworks can endure without this context, was highly also significant to him. o’doherty also elaborated on the installation photograph, which is central to this article, and notes the photogenic nature of the white cube and disappearance of the viewer in it; this is also visible in the moma records. while this article focuses on artworks and less on the space, future work should also explore the relation between space and images; computer-based tools might be used to examine different modes of hanging or the inclusion of benches, plants and other decor. in , o’doherty issued his follow-up ‘studio and cube’ o’doherty ( ), focusing on the relation between an artist’s studio and the gallery space; he concludes that both are spaces in which the interface is available for other scholars upon request. inquiries can be send to sabine.lang@iwr.uni-heidelberg.de. the article is referring to the museum of modern art in new york, when it uses ’museum of modern art’ or the abbreviation ’moma’ in the text, also in references to archival material or other sources. the following article uses the term ’installation’ to refer to museum displays of artworks and not to the modern genre of installation. also the phrase ’installation views’, in this context, always refers to photographic records of museum displays instead of the genre ’installation’. arts , , of art obtain meaning. o’doherty dedicated much consideration to the exhibition space and thus is included in this overview. his writings are still relevant; although the present study is more interested in displayed artworks, it should be regarded that the moma as a cultural institution and space influences images and that both cannot be separated. literature also includes practical handbooks on exhibition organization pöhlmann ( ), bertron et al. ( ) and more scientific discourses on exhibition histories, practice and discourses in museums. grießer ( ) write extensively on the history of exhibits and relevant ’fields of action’ in museums. in her essay on ’museology’, monika sommer discusses the origins of museums, its tasks of collecting, categorizing and presenting and the great meaning of museums for society. the term ’display’ is further studied by christine haupt-stummer, who emphasizes the crucial role of art displays for exhibits and states that an increasing awareness of the importance of forms of presentations characterize modern museum practices; beginnings can be traced back to edgar degas proposals for the installation of the paris salon in . especially the last essay and accounts on aspects of exhibition organization and curating are relevant for this article, which is also based on the assumption that the way artworks are displayed in exhibitions and in which artistic context is crucial. other scholars have focused on individual shows and their importance for a global exhibition history, encompassing the period from the late seventeenth century to the present day. the following are examples of historic accounts of exhibits, which either focus on single or provide an overview of multiple shows. bruce altshuler’s ‘exhibitions that made art history’ is a compendium of shows from until , divided in two volumes altshuler ( ). it is inarguably one of the most comprehensive reference books on exhibitions and records the development of modern art through art shows. it includes archival material, historic reviews and installation photographs and gives information on twentieth century art, exhibition design and curatorial practices. by doing so, it combines various aspects: stating historic accounts while also laying out practical recommendations for curators. its comprehensiveness is exceptional and relevant for every scholar, who studies exhibits, the history of modern art and its display. similar, bernd klüser and katharina hegewisch compiled thirty art exhibitions, held throughout the twentieth century for ‘die kunst der ausstellung’ klüser and hegewisch ( ). selected shows are representative of the symbiosis between exhibition room and art; the modern space became a gesamtkunstwerk, where architecture and decor reflected the thematic scope and style of artworks. although collected essays mainly provide general information, they elaborate on included artworks and their display. while accounts remain sketchy, they resemble attempts of this article. there is much literature on popular exhibitions, such as the ’armory show’ in new york city ( ) or the ’degenerate art show’, held in munich in as part of a series of shows brantl ( ); those shows are well researched—also because photographic records are available—and much information is available about historic context, organization, installation and display of artworks. there would be great potential, if these textual and visual exhibition records, printed partially in books, can be linked, based on a computational analysis of digital images. although methods exist, missing data is still an issue. while exhibitions have been a continuous topic in art history, photographic records have not been studied with computational technologies so far. however, the exponentially increasing amount of visual data has resulted in great research activity in image search and retrieval; although approaches exist since the early s, image search with visual queries has experienced great popularity in recent years (zhou et al. ). also, works in computer vision and digital art history have described the application of retrieval systems on art data. (crowley and zisserman , ), detected objects in paintings using classifiers, which were trained on object-categories of natural images. however, approaches, which rely on natural images, are insufficient, because they do not adapt to the specific characteristics of art, such as abstraction or unknown object categories and thus, results are not convincing. schlecht et al. ( ) used a detection system to retrieve identical and similar gestures in medieval manuscripts, also studying compositions and object relations bell et al. ( ). other work described the automatic retrieval of illustrations from a set of medieval ballad sheets chung et al. ( ). a retrieval system to find visual links in artworks arts , , of was created by seguin et al. ( ). in , the google arts and culture lab publicly announced an ongoing project with the moma. scientists developed an algorithm, which searches through the collection of exhibition photographs to find matches with the works included in the moma’s online collection museum of modern art, new york ( ). the present article can be assigned to both, to exhibition studies in art history and present work on object retrieval in computer vision. the investigation contributes to the state of research in that it studies photographic records of exhibitions with computational tools, which, to the knowledge of the authors, has not been done before. while the project of the google lab and the moma resembles the approach taken in this article, it presents completed work, where scholars are not actively engaged and can use the method for their own research. eventually it has also missed to demonstrate how this can be used for art historical research. the used method in this article is thus very different to previous works, which analyzed exhibition displays manually, and because it mainly relies on visual data. we present a large scale study of exhibition photographs of the moma and examine the reappearance of singular artworks in shows over time. an approach, which has been rare in art history. eventually, we aim to demonstrate that tracing back the exhibition history of artworks is an essential aspect of provenance research and hope to trigger further research in that field. . studying installation views with computational methods to examine art datasets, the computer vision group of heidelberg university has developed an interface for a visual search. since , the group hosts an interdisciplinary project between computer vision and art history, resulting in various projects, which applied object retrieval methods to art images to find similarities between artworks, identify (visual) patterns over time and reveal artistic networks lang and ommer ( ). so far, diverse image collections have been evaluated, including architectural prints, paintings of the crucifixion of christ and medieval manuscripts. the project team studied legal communication in the ’sachsenspiegel’ (c ) by retrieving most common gestures, determining their spatial relation and occurrence with other objects or motifs bell et al. ( ), schlecht et al. ( ), or a computational analysis of reproduction processes of medieval images monroy et al. ( ). currently, digital images of street art are being analyzed with the aid of the retrieval system: results will be presented in the following section. the present study benefits from previous works and analyzes a set of exhibition photographs, released by the museum of modern art in new york. the next two sections introduce the interface and also give some additional information on previous projects, including search results and notes on failure cases. . . an interface for visual search the computer vision group has developed an interactive interface to search for image regions, selected by users, in large art-historical image collections. the interface operates on a search algorithm, where the previously selected query(ies) form the positive exemplar. for every image collection, uploaded and initialized on the interface, a set of generic negatives is created. to perform a search, the user is marking an image region, which is regarded as the one positive query exemplar; hand-crafted hog features are used to extract the feature from the positive query. the histogram of oriented gradients (hog) is a feature descriptor in computer vision, which provides edge orientation histograms and is particularly used for detection dalal and triggs ( ). an exemplar-based support vector machine (svm) is then used to train a classifier, where the user-selected query functions as the positive exemplar and the previously gathered generic negatives as negatives. svms are commonly used for classification, where a hyperplane is created in a higher dimensional space to separate data in two categories—in object detection, to distinguish between positive and negative retrievals in relation to the query adankon and cheriet ( ). a sliding window moves over all images in the dataset and the trained classifier extracts features for every region; the classifier then measures the similarity to the positive query feature for every feature. the highest rated image regions are displayed as results by the interface, thus not only showing identical but also similar regions to the query. a feedback system arts , , of was introduced to refine the classifier, eventually providing better search results through additional (visual) information takami et al. ( ). it is also important to note that while for other retrieval systems manual tagging is necessary, the used algorithm purely operates on visual image qualities, which is especially useful for unlabeled data; this is often the case for art image collections, where large number of the data are not labeled. the step-by-step use of the interface and its functions are described in the following section. the retrieval system contains various image collections, which are displayed on the front page (figure ); the user is able to select one of the existing datasets or upload a new one. the initialization process uploads the images and corresponding metadata. consequently, the collection can be used for image search; an overview of images included in selected dataset is provided, simplifying the selection process for users. after selecting an image, the user can mark up to five bounding boxes as queries and define spatial relations between individual regions, this is crucial, for example, for an iconographical analysis, which relies on specific compositions of figures and objects. bounding boxes are tools to mark regions of interest, while also excluding the effect of the background (zhou et al. ); examples of selected regions marked with bounding boxes can be seen in (figures and ). the user then triggers the search process, where results are being displayed in a new window, ordered with decreasing similarity. a user feedback, where positive results are marked in green and negatives in red, retrains the model and refines returned results. the interface offers additional features, such as to enlarge individual results, access metadata and pin positive results, which appear in a separate space and facilitate a comparative analysis (figure ). in the past, the tool was successfully tested on diverse image collections, where thematic scope, genre, technique and quality of digital reproductions varied. despite this variety, the algorithm was able to perform well on all collections and proved its adaptability to different data and search queries. the website of the computer vision group includes an overview of conducted work and shows more results on art data computer vision group, heidelberg university ( ). . . performance results on other datasets since , the computer vision group carries out interdisciplinary work, applying computational methods and tools—the interface being one—to diverse art historical data, such as medieval manuscripts, architectural drawings, religious paintings, and photographs of street art. this confirmed the efficiency of algorithms and encouraged to test the system on other challenging data: digital exhibition records of the moma being examples. however, to further promote the usefulness of retrieval tools for art historical research, and eventually for every visual discipline in the humanities, the following section wants to share additional performance results obtained by the interface on above mentioned data during past projects. because of the limited scope, this section presents search results from medieval manuscripts and street art photography. the interdisciplinary project team has analyzed the sachsenspiegel (c ), a medieval law book, using the interface to find recurring objects, study compositions and formal changes and developments. the manuscript exists in four versions, named after their current locations in heidelberg, dresden, wolfenbuettel and oldenburg, and contains heavily illustrated text sheets; the original version was produced by eike von repgow (c –c ). illustrations are standardized and identical and similar figures and objects reappear throughout the manuscript; unarguably, this standardization as well as clear object contours support a good retrieval performance; tests on the interface have shown that algorithms perform less confident on modern styles, such as impressionism or expressionism, where outlines are less distinct and objects are highly distorted. also, reproduction quality is still a major issue, which influence performance and results of retrieval systems. analyzing the sachsenspiegel, the group was interested, for example, in gestures to study relations between figures and medieval communication. because the interface also allows to select multiple regions, the authors also studied compositions: for the present search the user was interested in a crown and flag, which is depicted to the figure’s right (figure ). algorithms retrieved identical and similar image regions to the query, allowing a formal comparison to identify developments or alterations due to, for example, arts , , of aesthetic preferences of printers lang and ommer ( ). it can be concluded that the motif of the crowned figure with flag appears various times throughout the manuscript; while posture and positioning are almost identical, the form of crown and flag vary, also the general appearance of the figure. figure . current image collections on the interface developed by the computer vision group; the first row shows a test set, a collection of art, depicting the crucifixion, architectural drawings and medieval manuscripts. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. (a) (b) figure . (a) shows the user-selected queries on a sheet from the sachsenspiegel (c ); (b) presents the obtained search results using the interface. image rights: heidelberg university library, https: //digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cpg . https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cpg https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cpg arts , , of (a) (b) figure . (a) shows the user-selected queries; (b) presents the obtained search results after the second training round. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. displayed images are taken from the instagram page of the artists ’osgemeos’. (a) (b) figure . (a) the interface offers the function to enlarge search results to view entire image and metadata; (b) pin function to separately display correctly retrieved images. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. displayed photographs/details belong to the museum of modern art, new york. the group is currently carrying out a project, using a dataset of street art photographs; the project is interested in repetitions of motifs across time and in different geographical locations, the positioning of street artworks in cities and relations between viewer, urban context and artwork. first tests were carried out to test the usability of the interface, since the data proposes new challenges to algorithms, such as large context regions, a great variety of motifs and styles and distortions due to perspective. authors, for example, studied street artworks of brazilian artists osgemeos; we were interested in the figure seen from behind and a text to its right, where the spatial relation between the regions should be considered by the algorithm (figure ). although first results were already sufficient, user feedback was provided to obtain even better results. figure displays the results after the second iteration. relevant details were pined to simplify a comparative analysis; results highlighted that the artists used the figure quite frequently and that its appearance remains relatively similar, despite some color variations: cloths, backpack, posture, raised arm and invisible face are constants; the reading of the texts revealed that the artists addressed issues of their time, mostly relating to their hometown of são paulo. the group was then interested in the tradition of the figure seen from behind and the use of text in art history. both examples indicate, how retrieval systems can be used for art historical research and that algorithms perform well, even on challenging datasets; the present investigation will further demonstrate its efficiency. arts , , of . . the data: photographic records of exhibitions held at the moma, new york in the fall of , the moma released a large set of archival material, which documents their exhibition history. it includes photographs of exhibitions, catalogs and press releases. documents provide additional information about artists, displayed artworks, exhibition planning and involved curators; while the photographs are main sources for this article, other material is used to further enrich search results and analysis. digital photographs of exhibitions give insight into past shows and, because of their sheer number, require new ways of analysis: can we evaluate these images with the help of computer vision? this article demonstrates how computational tools can be used to study the exhibition history of artworks and the artistic context in which they were shown. for evaluation purposes, a collection of exhibition photographs from the publicly available dataset of the moma was acquired. as of july , the museum provides digitized material for exhibitions, including bespoken photographs. the dataset consists of a selection of exhibitions, where each show is represented by a varying number of photographs. exhibitions of the moma are included in the collection, which is used for this article, the earliest being the inaugural show ‘cézanne, gauguin, seurat and van gogh’, which opened on november and closed on december . the latest is the / exhibition dedicated to belgian surrealist rené magritte, entitled ‘magritte: the mystery of the ordinary – ’, held from september to january . the selection is reflective of the great variety of exhibitions staged at the moma from to the present day; it includes a variety of exhibition types, such as monographic and group exhibitions, exhibitions of the permanent collection or shows dedicated to the museum’s newest acquisitions. also, different genres of art in a range of techniques are presented, such as sculptures, oil paintings, drawings, prints or photographs. access to such a large dataset enables to ask research questions, which address universal issues and aim to find broader patterns; this requires innovative methods to answer them (figure ). due to the nature of photographs, the data possesses new challenges for algorithms: rooms offer a perspective view and are therefore much more complex to grasp than well-aligned digital images of singular artworks. also, artworks are multiple in exhibition views, vary in size and are mostly not presented parallel to the image’s margins but distorted, which makes it harder for the algorithm to detect individual works. searching for single artworks in exhibition photographs is thus aggravated, also by additional decor, benches or plants, which might occlude artworks. lastly, the lightning of the rooms creates stark contrasts in the photographs and therefore poses an additional challenge. all aspects require the algorithm to be very flexible and adaptable to visual variances in the dataset. . . studying exhibition photographs with computational tools earlier research has demonstrated the potential of computational object retrieval for art images; while these mainly detected objects, such as dogs, horses, figures or gestures, the present article uses identical models to find artworks. in this way, exhibition histories for artworks can be recreated. the present study demonstrates this, using exhibition photographs provided by the moma. once other museums release comprehensive collections of installation photographs, this task can be significantly enhanced; allowing more detailed and encompassing statements about where and when artworks were shown, among which other artworks and if this varied for different museums. by connecting these exhibition views with additional digitized sources, such as other photographs and auction catalogs, one significantly extends the potential of computer-based methods, also for provenance research. arts , , of figure . the interface for visual search holds a collection of exhibition photographs as released by the museum of modern art, new york. as expressed in the top region of the interface, at this point, in order to select a search region, users can either click on an existing image or upload a new one to the collection. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. displayed photographs/details belong to the museum of modern art, new york. . . . the detection of de chirico’s nostalgia of the infinite (c –c ) a large tower dominates giorgio de chirico’s ( – ) metaphysical painting ‘the nostalgia of the infinite’ (c –c , oil on canvas, moma). sunlight illuminates the image and cuts it in two halves; the place in front of the tower is deserted with the exception of two figures, whose silhouettes are still visible but soon might disappear. the oil painting was executed in / and first sold to the parisian art dealer paul guillaume ( – ) in and was eventually acquired by the moma in december through the galerie bonaparte in paris—as the provenance entry on the museum’s website states. the interface was used to search for de chirico’s work in the moma’s exhibition images; the painting was selected in an installation photograph from the ‘painting and sculpture from the museum collection’ show, which was held between october and january (figure ). the archival material for the exhibition also holds a ‘master checklist’, where all included works are listed, a press release and four installation photographs. arts , , of figure . user’s selection of giorgio de chirico’s the nostalgia of the infinite on the interface. as expressed in the region beneath, users can define, if the algorithm should search for both queries or also for single ones. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. installation view taken from the exhibition “painting and sculpture from the museum collections.” october – january . photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . b. in the query image, de chirico’s painting is shown next to ‘parade’ ( ), an oil painting by american artist peter blume ( – ); the latter was acquired in and has been a part of the museum’s collection ever since. blume confronts the viewer with an industrial landscape: the painting is dominated by a surreal factory, positioned along a diagonal line; the sky appears to threaten the scenery, emphasized by contrasting clouds of white and dark color. in the right foreground, we see a man holding a knight’s armor; he is about to leave the image’s reality, thus entering the viewer ’s world. the armor suggests his metamorphosis into a mechanical being. blume used different tones of white and gray and highlights in red and yellow to create his surreal landscape. his works are often linked to surrealism, which ultimately validates his connection to de chirico. for the search, the user marked de chirico’s work with a bounding box; after initializing the search, results are presented in another window, visualized in rows of eight in decreasing similarity (figure ): evidently, algorithms were able to retrieve de chirico’s ‘the nostalgia of the infinite’ ( – ) correctly. his work was found in four other exhibitions, correct retrievals are included in the first three rows of the results’ page. information about exhibitions can be concluded from the metadata, which is provided for every single image and saved on the interface; once results are given for a search query, this information can be accessed through the system. besides the show, ‘nostalgia of the infinite’ was included in ‘paintings, sculpture, and graphics form the museum collection’ ( july , until september ), ‘fantastic art, dada, surrealism’ ( december , until january ), ‘permanent collection exhibition’ ( march , until april ) and the giorgio de chirico solo exhibition ( september until october ). the confident findings encourage to look at individual exhibitions in more detail and study in which artistic context the image was shown and if that changed over time. as stated, the query painting is exhibited in the ‘painting, sculpture, and graphics from the museum collection’ exhibition; the installation photograph shows it alongside blume’s ‘parade’; unfortunately, this is the only link the image reveals, since other artworks are not visible. because of the relatively small set arts , , of of photographs for this show (only four), other photographic records provide no further information about other artworks, with which de chirico’s painting was presented. however, the ‘master checklist’ museum of modern art, new york ( ) lists both paintings in the section ‘magic realism’; thus, it can be assumed that other works in this category hung in close proximity or indeed formed a group. in this case, ‘the nostalgia of the infinite’ would have been displayed alongside blume’s ‘parade’, de chirico’s ‘toys of a prince or evil genius of a king’ (oil on canvas, – ), dalí’s ‘the persistence of memory’ (oil on canvas, ) and ‘portrait of gala’ (oil on canvas, ), max ernst’s ‘the nymph echo’ (oil on canvas, ), richard oelze’s ‘expectation’ (oil on canvas, ), pierre roy’s ‘danger on the stairs’ (oil on canvas, – ) and ‘agricultural conference’ (oil on canvas, c ), yves tanguy’s ‘mama, papa is wounded!’ (oil on canvas, ) and henri rousseau’s ‘the sleeping gypsy’ (oil on canvas, ). creation dates for individual works reveal that most have been painted during the late s and s, with rousseau’s gypsy being an exception and that all are linked to surrealism. in this way, de chirico’s work was mainly presented alongside contemporaries and precursors. the exhibition introduced him as a forerunner of surrealism—as such he was viewed by surrealist artists, who celebrated his mystical, deserted architectural views. regarding style, de chirico’s artwork was presented within a homogeneous group of works; assumingly it was not the intention of the curator to display contrasting images in order to highlight differences. however, minor semantic contrasts can be found within the group. although artists’ nationalities and connections to specific art movements and groups varied, all images exemplified a strong preference for figuration, depicted dream-like worlds and used bright colors—with the exception of tanguy, who included abstract elements. as an example, the urban landscapes of de chirico or blume were opposed to max ernst’s nature-dominated representation of the nymph or rousseau’s depiction of a sleeping gypsy in the desert. depictions of natural fertility were contrasted against images of desertedness—as seen in the paintings of de chirico or dalí. figure . search results using the interface for giorgio de chirico’s the nostalgia of the infinite. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. displayed photographs/details belong to the museum of modern art, new york. four years prior to the museum collection exhibition, the painting was included in the ‘fantastic art, dada and surrealism’ show, which presented an extensive overview of one of the two most important art movements of modernity. at the time of the exhibition’s opening, dada was already superseded, while surrealism was internationally established and at a height; surrealist groups in various european cities and numerous exhibitions, such as the ‘international surrealist exhibition’ held in the new burlington galleries in london in , exemplify this. the exhibition at the moma presented a great number of works, dating back to the sixteenth century, such as hans baldung grien’s ‘seven horses fighting in a wood’ (woodcut, ). de chirico and his paintings (in total, oil paintings and drawings were shown) were again linked to a surrealist tradition. doing so, the show of / already picked up, what would be visible in the ‘museum collection’ exhibition in arts , , of . however, in the section, where de chirico’s work was shown, organizers exclusively placed him among his own works. an installation shot shows ‘the nostalgia of infinite’ next to ‘toys of a philosopher’ ( ), ‘the duo’ ( – , moma) and ‘mystery and melancholy of a street’ ( ) (see photograph ). all paintings were executed around the same time and are representative of de chirico’s classical metaphysical style, showing deserted cityscapes, mannequins and stark contrasts of light. at least within this spatial section, the painting was not positioned within a greater art historical context, but remained positioned within de chirico’s oeuvre—creating a homogeneous group of works. however, if we consider the entire exhibition, links to the past and to forerunners of modern art movements were certainly emphasized. the next search result links to the ‘painting, sculpture, and graphic arts from the museum collection’ exhibition, which again included de chirico’s work and opened its doors in ; the more permanent show remained on display until . for the first time an exhibition was staged at the newly remodeled galleries on the second floor, where all except for two were used for showcasing the museum’s collection of paintings museum of modern art, new york ( ). alfred h. barr jr. ( – ) was responsible for the hanging and organization of the exhibition: “installing the painting galleries has been a problem of compression. the new space, now permanently set aside on the second floor, has made available three additional galleries for the museum collection, yet there is even now room for only paintings. [. . . ] in the remaining galleries varieties of lyric fantasy, dream realism, and factual painting include the work of klee, masson, graves, tanguy, de chirico dix, sheeler, and others” museum of modern art, new york ( ). indeed, the installation photograph (see photograph ) shows two of de chirico’s works— ‘the nostalgia’ and ‘the evil genius of a king’—on one wall, opposing tanguy’s abstract painting ‘slowly toward the north’ ( ) and ernst’s ‘two children are threatened by a nightingale’ ( ). similar to the ‘museum collection’ show in , the exhibition of showed de chirico’s work within a surrealist tradition. this might indicate that the exhibit—maybe museum collection shows in general—were arranged in homogeneous groups, representing established styles, themes, or artists, rather than in a contrasting manner. this is further validated when looking at other installation photographs of the same exhibition: an image shows a room dedicated to post-impressionist artists, such as cézanne and van gogh, whose ‘starry night’ ( , oil on canvas) is visible in the right corner. this observation is validated by previous remarks on the presentation of de chirico’s work in shows by the moma, which also elaborated on the homogeneity of displays. scholars have indeed noted that historically group or mono-graphic exhibitions were organized chronologically, geographically or according to themes; this structure represented the western art historical canon and is visible in the mentioned shows, which include the italian artist’s works. it was not until the s, with the reflexive turn, that traditional practices were criticized and new curatorial approaches were taken: new forms of representation were established, which were interdisciplinary, offered a critical perspective on canonical knowledge and created new contexts for artworks. also museum collection shows aimed to showcase the quality and diversity of the collection and announce the museum’s identity—this was at least one main purpose of exhibits until the s grießer ( ). a collection thus had a specific purpose, being aesthetically, economically or because of personal taste, and was gathered accordingly; also, collections seldom remained static, but changed and increased over time. by exhibiting their collection, the moma publicly proclaimed their identity and thematic focus. it must be added however that these shows only displayed a small number of the collection, which were additionally curated and picked according to a specific pre-defined art history and museum studies generally distinguish between group and monographic exhibitions; these can be organized chronologically, thematically or geographically. museums then display objects from their own collection or items on loan from other institutions. versions of our modern museums already existed before christ; then palace rarities, church treasuries and cabinets of curiosities are generally seen as predecessors. the modern museum, however, emerged in the age of enlightenment and experienced its first climax around . more information on the (modern) museum and its history can be found in simmons ( ). arts , , of purpose simmons ( ). the ’master checklist’ (museum of modern art ) of the show, presenting the museum’s collection, reveals that various artists and styles were included, however, most of them were european; this was representative of the zeitgeschmack. almost twenty years after the previous show ended, the moma staged another exhibition dedicated to its extensive permanent collection (permanent collection, march until april ). again, de chirico’s image of the infinite tower was displayed; an installation view (see photograph ) displays it next to ‘the anxious journey’ ( , oil on canvas) and ‘gare montparnasse’ ( , oil on canvas), both painted by the italian artist. the subsequent walls show rousseau’s ‘sleeping gypsy’ ( , oil on canvas) and two other paintings, which were not identifiable. however, most likely they are from an earlier period, possibly around the late nineteenth century, because of their stylistic similarity to the works of odilon redon. unfortunately, no archival material is given for this exhibition, so no further information was provided. exhibiting de chirico in close proximity to rousseau resembles the arrangement in the ‘painting and sculpture from the museum collection’ exhibition ( ). interestingly, both shows displayed the museum’s own collection but were held under different directors, namely barr and richard oldenburg ( – ). for the show in , barr was again responsible for the hanging, for the exhibition in , it is unclear whether oldenburg was actively engaged in the installation or if it was the sole responsibility of one of the moma’s curators. however, since both displayed works of the museum’s collection, it can be assumed that similar installation practices and forms of representation are employed; not least, because exhibits, dedicated to the collection, had specific aims and purposes, namely to promote the museum’s taste and present masterworks, which testify to the collection’s quality. other installation photographs of the ‘permanent collection’ exhibition ( ) illustrate that rooms were dedicated to cubism (braque, picasso, roger de la fresnaye), expressionism (kokoschka), ‘der blaue reiter’ or abstract art. artists were mixed and works grouped together according to specific styles. in conclusion, the show presented an overview of the major (european) art movements and some of the most prominent works within the moma’s collection. while de chirico’s ‘the nostalgia of the infinite’ was repeatedly shown in group exhibitions so far, the next search result assigns it to a show, which was held in . entitled ‘giorgio de chirico’ ( september until october ), it was solely dedicated to the italian artist. an exhibition shot (see photograph ) displays the oil painting ‘the enigma of a day’ ( , oil on canvas) to its left and ‘ariadne’ ( , oil on canvas) to its right. this artistic context is highly similar to the ‘fantastic art’ exhibition ( ), organized by barr, where de chirico’s painting is also exhibited among his own works. the show gathered twenty of his most famous paintings, mainly from his early metaphysical period, visualizing popular characteristics, such as abandoned city streets, mannequins and dark/bright contrasts. the show was directed by james thrall soby, curator of the moma, and installed by margaret miller (associate curator of painting and sculpture), under the directorship of rene d’harnoncourt ( – ) museum of modern art, new york ( ). . . . the detection of balthus’ portrait of joan miró and his daughter dolores ( ) to demonstrate the consistency of the algorithm, the interface was used to search for balthus’ ( – ) portrait of ‘joan miró and his daughter dolores’ ( , oil on canvas, moma). the spanish artist is portrayed sitting on a chair with his daughter, who stands between his legs; their gazes directly confront the spectator, captivating him with their undivided attention. the room, in which the scene takes places, seems empty, almost abandoned. the paris-born artist chose brownish, very muted colors for his double portrait. again, the interface developed by the group was used to search for the portrait; the same process as described for the example of de chirico was triggered: the exhibition of the museum’s collection includes an installation photograph, where balthus’ work is visible (figure ); a bounding box was used to mark the painting and then the search was initiated. similar to de chirico’s search, the algorithm performed well and detected the artwork four times, as can be seen on the results’ page, where retrievals are shown in declining similarity (figure ). the first three images in the first row show balthus’ work, followed by an image of another artist and then again followed by the portrait arts , , of of miró and his daughter. how incorrect retrievals might be interpreted will be discussed at a later stage in this paper. as stated, the first result is from the exhibition of the ‘museum collection’. to its right, christian bérard’s ‘jean cocteau’ ( , oil painting) was exhibited, the left painting could not have been identified. cocteau is depicted in half-length and parallel to the viewer; he is dressed in an orange shirt, set against a brown background. a loose brush stroke and application of paint suggest a short execution time of the painting. the second search result stems from the same exhibition; the painting was found in another exhibition photograph (see photograph ). the photograph reveals additional links to other works; the image of miró and his daughter was shown alongside franklin chenault watkins’ ‘boris blai’ ( , oil on canvas); blai is shown in half-length, with his body turned to the left and directly looking at the viewer. similar to bérard, the artist used muted brownish tones, which he applied very loosely to the canvas. the show of embedded balthus’ work within a group of portraits—the ‘master checklist’ reveals that the group also included oskar kokoschka’s ‘portrait of dr. tietze and his wife’ ( , oil on canvas) and ‘self portrait’ ( , oil on canvas) museum of modern art, new york ( ). the group presented a mix of nationalities, where the expressionistic style and the genre were constants tying works together. this corresponds to historical exhibition practices, where artworks were organized and displayed in homogeneous groups grießer ( ). figure . user’s selection of balthus’ portrait of miró and his daughter dolores on the interface. additionally, users can define, if the algorithm should search for both queries or also for single ones. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. installation view taken from the exhibition “painting and sculpture from the museum collections.” october – january . photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . a. arts , , of figure . search results for balthus’ joan miró and his daughter dolores ( , moma), first search process, figure shows user’s feedback, where positive detections are marked in green, negatives in red. previously defined search constraints are visible at the top. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. displayed photographs/details belong to the museum of modern art, new york. balthus’ image was again included in the exhibition entitled ‘portraits from the museum collection’ ( may– september ) twenty years later. the corresponding installation shot provides further information about the artistic context in which the painting was displayed (see photograph ). to its right, balthus’ portrait of andré derain ( , oil on canvas) was hung, followed by two works by the french artist christian bérard ‘on the beach—double self portrait’ ( , oil on canvas) and ‘jean cocteau’ ( , oil on canvas). on the far right, the photo shows the portrait of ‘boris blai’ ( , oil on canvas) by watkins. the exhibition thus showed a group of works, which are very similar in terms of date and style. all paintings were created in the s—with the exception of bérard’s portrait of jean cocteau—and painted in an expressionistic style. the group is almost identical to the one in the ‘museum collection’ exhibition of , where bérard’s cocteau and watkins portrait were also shown alongside the portrait of miró. the last result shows balthus’ work in the ‘modern masters: manet to matisse’ exhibition ( august– september ) (see photograph ). the retrieval of this result is surprising since the painting in the photograph is highly distorted by the perspective and small in scale. however, the algorithm was able to detect it, which testifies to the efficiency of the developed interface. the shot includes a large number of paintings and reveals the following works (from left): balthus’ ‘the mountain’ ( – , oil on canvas), yves tanguy’s ‘fear’ ( , oil on canvas), matisse’s ‘large interior in red’ ( , oil on canvas), giacometti’s ‘peter watson’ ( , oil on canvas) and ‘the apple’ ( , oil on canvas), miro’s ‘maternity’ ( , oil on canvas) and ‘diana’ ( , oil on canvas) by german painter paul klee. the exhibition catalog, which is available online, provides additional information: “[the exhibition] surveys almost a century of european painting which starts with manet in and closes soon after the death of matisse in . the selection has been conceived in eight chapters: impressionism; post-impressionism; matisse [. . . ]; expressionism [. . . ]; cubism [. . . ]; the “painted dream”, which in this exhibition refers to painters of fantasy before, during, and after surrealism; portraits, a personal predilection [. . . ] and last [. . . ] ten painters of the school of paris [. . . ]” museum of modern art, new york ( ). groups displayed the full variety of art, suggesting an interconnected reading of the paintings—balthus’ portrait is seen among surrealist imagery, abstract as well as figurative paintings. whereas previous exhibitions mainly exhibited balthus’ work within a portrait tradition, the present show places it within a less homogeneous group, including different styles, motifs and artists’ nationalities. assumingly, the aim was to present the variations known in modern art, resembling more modern approaches, which less reflected canonical arts , , of knowledge grießer ( ). previous exhibitions mainly focused on presenting the image among other portraits; ‘modern masters’, however, enlarges the artistic context in which the query is shown. while the interface is able to detect the query image in the set of exhibition photographs correctly, the search process also retrieves results, which are not identical to the query, but regarded as similar by the algorithm. these additional images are not relevant for the exhibition history of the specific artwork, but might suggest new and interesting links. general observations can be obtained from the results (figure ): other images mainly consist of portraits, which are characterized by a central alignment of a figure, a simple background or style, similar to balthus’ expressionism. the first row shows paul cézanne’s ‘the bather’ (c , oil on canvas), presently in the moma’s collection; although the painting was executed more than fifty years before the query image, its style and general composition bears resemblance to miró’s portrait. the bather is shown in the center of the image, accentuating a vertical line, which divides the painting almost in equal parts. this is comparable to balthus’ portrait, where miró and his daughter also emphasize strong vertical lines, while the transition between floor and background additionally creates a distinct horizontal line. the background, consisting of different shades of blue and a rocky landscape, is simple and also suggests a horizontal line. because of its reduced content and central position of the figure, the painting is easy to comprehend and balthus’ image eventually inherits the same qualities. cézanne’s image of the bather was exhibited in the exhibition dedicated to van gogh, gauguin and seurat; an installation shot reveals that it was shown among other portraits, including cézanne’s ‘portrait of a man in a blue cap’ (or ‘uncle dominique’, c , oil on canvas) and ‘harlequin’ ( , oil on canvas), paul gauguin’s ‘melancholic’ ( , oil on canvas), followed by cézanne’s ‘self-portrait with beret’ ( , oil on canvas). the show thus presented the male figure of the bather among other portraits, mainly by cézanne. by identifying cézanne’s work as similar to balthus, the algorithm detected an image, which is not only formally similar, but was also displayed among a very homogeneous group of works — an obervation, which has been made for balthus’ portrait also. the motif of the bather was again detected in picasso’s ‘bather’ ( – ) as shown in the second row, last image on the right. although executed in a cubist style and holding a white towel in his left hand, the figure, its composition and background indicate a strong link to cézanne’s male figure, which was painted almost twenty years prior. again picasso’s work displays similar qualities to the paintings of cézanne and balthus; it is thus comprehensible why the interface would suggest a similarity between the three paintings. the third image in the second row shows henri matisse’s ‘portrait of michael stein’ ( , oil on canvas), which was included in the ‘henri matisse retrospective’ in , where it was presented among a group of portraits. in contrast to the painting by balthus, which showed a full-length figure — the present work portrays stein in half-length. he is positioned parallel to the viewer, his suit and background are painted in different shades of brown. while prior works bore greater resemblance to balthus’ work, it is less obvious, why the algorithm detected the portrait. when contrasting both images, it is evident that both artists used a similar color palette –mainly brown tones –, style and facial expression. comparing exhibition photographs highlights that matisse’s work was embedded within a similar group of artworks than balthus’ painting. curators and directors of the moma— in this case richard oldenburg for ‘henri matisse: a retrospective’, and alfred h. barr for ‘cézanne, gauguin, seurat, van gogh’, and ‘painting and sculpture form museum collection’, — thus preferably hung works of identical genres together. the result page shows another work by matisse, namely his oil painting ‘nude with a white towel’ ( – ), which depicts a female nude standing next to a chair in a brightly colored room. the motif is more similar to cézanne, picasso and balthus’ miró than the portrait of stein, because it shows a figure in full-length, depicted at a central position in the image. concluding, it is noticeable that most of the retrieved artworks are full-length portraits, with the exception of matisse’s ‘michael stein’ ( ), characterized by a central alignment and similar in style to balthus’ portrait; most works presented a reduced visual language and results were considered to be similar to the query image because of formal and semantic qualities. arts , , of the second search, based on the user’s evaluation of the results, leads to improved results and possibly to new findings and connections. in the case of balthus’, a second round was initialized to demonstrate the usability of the interface, based on the user’s feedback; the four detected paintings by balthus were marked as positive, others in red (figure ). results revealed that detections were rather similar to the first round and did not improve significantly, a first search already provided satisfying results (figure ). however, it is noticeable that a new work appears: the second row now features vincent van gogh’s ‘l’arlésienne’ (mme. ginoux) ( ), which was displayed in the van gogh exhibition ( – ). again, the algorithm’s detection indicates a strong connection to balthus’ work, because both are portraits and similar in terms of central alignment and formal qualities. figure . search results for balthus’ joan miró and his daughter dolores ( , moma), second search process based on user’s feedback; van gogh’s painting l’arlésienne (mme. ginoux) ( ) is highlighted. previously defined search constraints are visible at the top. image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. displayed photographs/details belong to the museum of modern art, new york. . discussion the task of object retrieval is highly relevant for art history to evaluate large datasets, which would be impossible to do manually; the authors have presented an interface for visual search, developed by the computer vision group. in contrast to text searches, it does not rely on metadata, which is often erroneous or completely missing and thus complicates searches. it has been shown that the system of the group is applicable to diverse image sets, including different techniques, genres or styles. eventually, it was developed to be actively used by scholars, who have different research questions and aims. tests have proven that the interface can successfully detect artworks in exhibition photographs; this article has demonstrated how this can be used for art historical research: to find exhibitions, where the image was included and study in which artistic context selected artworks were presented. other results further validate its usefulness: figure shows search results for ernst ludwig kirchner’s ’street, berlin’ ( , oil on canvas, moma), which was included in the ’german art’ show in and the ’permanent collection’ exhibit ( march to april ). the exemplary search for de chirico’s ‘the nostalgia of the infinite’ revealed that different directors tended to display paintings among a similar group of artworks. in the ‘museum’s collection’ ( ) and ‘permanent collection’ ( ) shows, ‘the nostalgia’ was displayed in close proximity to henri rousseau’s ‘sleeping gypsy’, suggesting a semantic and formal connection; this was also the case for balthus’ portrait of miró and his daughter. the homogenity of display groups is a constant throughout the moma exhibits, which have been discussed in this article, and are representative of historical practices grießer ( ). arts , , of figure . search results for ernst ludwig kirchner’s ’street, berlin’, . image rights: computer vision group, heidelberg university. displayed photographs/details belong to the museum of modern art, new york. the previous section has also highlighted, how ‘incorrect’ retrievals can be used for art historical research. systems for object retrieval might thus be used to study the exhibition history and artistic context of an artwork; the article presented an innovative application of computer-based methods, which is of great assistance to art historians—also with the great potential to propel provenance research. the release of digital archival material, including photographic records of museum displays, catalogs, press-releases and checklists, by the museum of modern art has enabled to ask and answer questions related to exhibition histories and displays with innovative methods. by adding other archival material and connecting, so far, separate digital collections, this method offers the opportunity to study exhibition displays on large scale, over time and space. this article also aimed to highlight the potentials of applying computational methods to art data and the necessity of interdisciplinary work—in this case computer vision and art history. however, these methods can only work in combination with traditional methods and human efforts. computer-based methods certainly do not replace, but rather assist art historians with their work, where obtained results must be assessed in order for methods to improve and disciplines to progress. object retrieval is relevant for many visual disciplines and the article aimed to demonstrate its wide applicability on very diverse data. eventually, studying objects or image regions is very much related to the issue of establishing links between images and finding similarities and therefore is reflective of similar questions raised in the whole of humanities. . sources this research article has heavily relied on the availability of exhibition data, as provided by the museum of modern art, new york. an initial dataset was released in the fall of , but has since been extended. as of july , the museum’s website holds data for , including exhibition photographs, catalogs, press releases and other archival documents. all image rights belong to the photographic archive, the museum of modern art archives, new york. the following is a list of all referenced visual archival material and contains accession numbers for images displayed and arts , , of referred to in this article. cited written documents are incuded in the reference list, but also belong to the archival material of the moma. also, details (figure a,b) from the medieval manuscript of the sachsenspiegel have been presented; full digitized images can be found under the following link: https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cpg , university library, heidelberg. lastly, figure a,b shows images taken from the instagram page of brazilian street artists osgemeos https://www. instagram.com/osgemeos/?hl=en. exhibition photographs photograph . installation view of the exhibition ’fantastic art, dada, surrealism’, december – january . photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . a. photograph by soichi sunami [online] https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ / installation_images/ ?locale=en, accessed may . photograph . installation view of the exhibition, ‘paintings, sculpture and graphic arts from the museum collection’, july [unknown closing date]. photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . . photograph by soichi sunami [online] https://www. moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en, accessed may . photograph . installation view of the exhibition, ‘permanent collection’, march [unknown closing date]. photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . . photograph by katherine keller [online] https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en, accessed may . photograph . installation view of the exhibition, ‘giorgio de chirico’, september — october . photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . . photograph by soichi sunami [online] https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ / installation_images/ ?locale=en, accessed may . photograph . installation view of the exhibition, ‘painting and sculpture from the museum collections’, october — january . photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . b [online] https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ / installation_images/ ?locale=en, accessed may . photograph . installation view of the exhibition, ‘portraits from the museum collection’, may — july (auditorium and first floor); july — september (auditorium re-installation). photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . . [online] https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en, accessed may . photograph . installation view of the exhibition, ‘modern masters: manet to matisse’, august — september . photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. in . . photograph by katherine keller [online] https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en, accessed may . author contributions: s.l. conducted the data collection, analysis using the interface for visual search and the interpretation of obtained results. b.o. contributed to the creation of the interface for visual search, supervision and revisions to the manuscript. funding: “this research was partly funded by the heidelberg academy of sciences and humanities.” acknowledgments: thanks to the computer vision group of heidelberg university for their support, input regarding computer-based approaches and words of encouragement. in particular, thank you to nikolai ufer for his general help and providing information about the method and interface and to anja lang for proofreading the manuscript. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cpg https://www.instagram.com/osgemeos/?hl=en https://www.instagram.com/osgemeos/?hl=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ /installation_images/ ?locale=en arts , , of references adankon, mathias m., and mohamed cheriet. . support vector machine. in encyclopedia of biometrics. berlin: springer, pp. – . altshuler, bruce. . exhibitions that made art history. salon to biennial : – . bell, peter, joseph schlecht, and björn ommer. . nonverbal communication in medieval illustrations revisited by computer vision and art history. visual resources : – . 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computational methods 	an interface for visual search 	performance results on other datasets 	 the data: photographic records of exhibitions held at the moma, new york 	studying exhibition photographs with computational tools 	the detection of de chirico's nostalgia of the infinite (c –c ) 	the detection of balthus' portrait of joan miró and his daughter dolores ( ) 	discussion 	sources 	references aesthetic philosophy of art resilience as a global art movement and its impact on contemporary interior design mahmoud ahmed hassan elkouriny assistant professor at helwan university - faculty of applied arts department of interior design & furniture. egypt introduction: both creative and technical aspects of interior design are influenced by contemporary global art movements and trends. some of these movements and trends are exaggerated to the point of fantasia, others are applicable, objective and influential to societal advancement, taking into account cultural identity and ruling standards. of those trends that express the latter is art resilience, founded in paris in , the birthplace of most modern movements of the world. it was natural for the movement to have an effect on modern and contemporary architecture and interior design concepts in terms of their creative and applied aspects. this is due to the movement’s interest in reestablishing the aesthetic values of artistic work and design, in light of the current cultural and social developments. this paper aims to shed light on how this movement and its principles impacted interior design. why this research: interior design is the life we live in. it is what surrounds us from furniture, colors, materials, walls, windows, doors, and everything we build and use. therefore, all that we see, either positive or negative things, affects us respectively whenever we utilize this vacuum, influenced by contemporary intellectual trends and artistic movements. at the present moment, one of most important and globally transcending contemporary intellectual and artistic movements, influential in art, architecture and interior design, is the art resilience movement. therefore, we must shed light on this artistic movement to emphasize its pros and cons to the interior designer. research problem: • the emergence of some works of interior design express the taste of its interior designer without taking into account the ruling concepts and aesthetic dimension, also neglecting cultural heritage. all the aforementioned go against the art resilience movement’s concepts and must be highlighted. • deficiency for some due to limited knowledge of modern art movements and how to benefit from them. • in some contemporary art designs, we see the disappearance of the work of art, because these designs are unfounded and do not distinguish themselves in any way from anything else. modern icons triumphed. being a token is to be against the world. to be against the world means to be against reason, and therefore against humanity and ruling concepts. research objective: shed light on the most important contemporary international artistic and intellectual movements to benefit from them in interior design, specifically in this paper, the contemporary art resilience movement, to raise the level of creativity of the interior designer to keep pace with contemporary thought. research hypotheses: • art is an expression of consciousness of existence, and beauty is its basis. • interior design as an artistic product influenced by artistic and intellectual movements. • interior design as a work of art is measurable and applicable. • interior design, as any other branch of the arts, must represent the community and link the simple user and the community, and not overlook the introduction of what’s new as well as the redevelopment of the user to cope with global intellectual fluctuations. .art resilience in paris: the art resilience movement was created in by ksenia milicevic and founding members john botica, gregorio cuartas, christel larson, girr lartigue, victor molev, miguel betancourt, senol sak and christopher stone. they are a group of artists who consider art and design as being a product of a creative and systematic intellectual process, built on foundations and rules, and not merely on the birth of the moment, without a codified dimension. and being a work of art hence it is measurable and applicable. artists are part of contemporary reality and are not separated from the world, hence must be influenced by the intellectual and social changes and concepts governing society, thus preserving the ability of art and design to connect man with the world. . defining the concept of “resilience”: “resilience” is a very old and very modern concept. it was used during ancient times in writings on portico, from seneca , pliny , cicero , the term “resilience” comes from the latin verb “resilio”, which means "to leap or spring back", so it is used as "rebound, resistant". in most cases, “resilience” will now be defined as the ability to recover in spite of shocks, disasters or hardships, and in a time of globalization and clash of civilizations this term floats frequently. originally, the term was used in metallurgy, which refers to the quality of the material manifested in its ability to revert to its initial state after shock or constant pressure. the metal, which is under strong pressure, makes it seneca the younger (died april , ad), fully lucius annaeus seneca and also known simply as seneca, was a roman stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and—in one work—satirist of the silver age of latin literature. seneca was born in córdoba in hispania, and raised in rome, where he was trained in rhetoric and philosophy. pliny the elder ( ad - august , ad), fully gaius plinius secundus, was a roman author, a naturalist and natural philosopher, a naval and army commander of the early roman empire, and a friend of emperor vespasian. pliny wrote the encyclopedic naturalis historia, which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. cicero (january , bc - december , bc), fully marcus tullius cicero, was a roman statesman, orator, lawyer and philosopher, who served as consul in the year bc. he came from a wealthy municipal family of the roman equestrian order, and is considered one of rome's greatest orators and prose stylists. distortable and is able to regain its shape. “resilience” then extended to the ability of individuals and groups to continue to evolve despite destabilizing, difficult or painful events. this term was first used in by amy werner in hawaii who studied children in hardship. she tried to understand what factors allowed these children to rebuild and live a balanced life. psychological studies have examined this and a number of factors have emerged: the ability to solve problems, individual qualities such as self-knowledge, autonomy, self-esteem, trust, altruism, social communication and the ability to find support. in fact, it is a matter of developing these qualities in individuals to overcome trauma or prepare them to respond in crisis situations, in this sense, studies are conducted in psychology, but the concept of “resilience”, for ten years, has been applied in many areas such as business organization, environment, architecture, interior design, computer science, medicine, and education. . recent emergence of art resilience: art resilience movement emerged as a reaction to the intensity of the emergence of alana and increased privacy in some modern trends in architecture, design and art. the movement emphasizes the aesthetic values in the work of art through aesthetics, which makes the work or design unique and clearly visible from any other design that lacks the foundations of aesthetics, while maintaining the identity of the designer and design. the movement calls for adapting to cultural, social and political changes in art and design without neglecting the role of aesthetics and the principles of art, and preserving the cultural heritage. the late th and th centuries saw the birth of artistic movements such as symbolism, cubism and surrealism that sought to adapt to the great social, industrial, economic and political changes that took place at the time. parallel to these movements are a series of some of the strangest movements such as hirsutes, hydropathes, incohérents, and highly politicized and disruptive movements, such as constructivism, suprematism, futurism, and dada. these movements, together with the aesthetics of the anglo-saxon analysis of the s which are characterized by the rejection of the idea of beauty as the basis of art, call for questioning the existence of works of art as a specific human achievement (arthur danto, ) resilience in art tends to restore beauty as the foundation of art. the beauty, by its proximity to the good, allows judgement about quality, when discerning whether “this is good” or “this is not good.” a work that is not based on any foundation is beyond the possibility of appreciation of any quality. the quality of the work is in its approximation of what art is supposed to be, that is, mainly, a producer of aesthetic emotion. every work of art is rich in possibilities for expression, demonstration, and discourses which call upon our feelings, and yet, the only judgement on quality possible is through the beauty, that is to say, the internal structure of the work. it is from this structure that it differs from ordinary discourse. the judgement of the quality of a work is essential, because art is formational(ksenia milicevic, ). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/arthur_danto https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/arthur_danto image – [ ] courtesy of kurt schwitters (original photograph) an internal vacuum characterized by chaos and a high uplift of the designer person ... interior design is not purely human relations of the designer alone. image – [ , ] piero manzoni a clear example of a comical egotistical nature of an artist without regard to the standards governing aesthetics. image – [ ] modern toilet is a unique bathroom-themed restaurant chain with several locations located in hong kong and taiwan everything in the , -square-foot ( m ), three-story restaurant is based on items from a bathroom. the checkered tile covered walls are adorned with showerheads, while plungers hang from the ceiling along with fæces-shaped lights. the chairs are actual unworking toilets, dishes are served on plastic miniature toilet bowls, and drinks in miniature urinals. http:// .bp.blogspot.com/-jsihfz vu/tzamcpr-rii/aaaaaaaaaqo/o gpc wugwq/s /toaletrestoran .jpg image – [ , ] supremacism, an art movement founded by kazimir malevich, seeks to express not only "pure sense." for the russian studio monoloko design, the dazzling element was an untapped visual language with qualities not translatable to spatial design. when contemporary art relies solely on the artist's intention, the artist's resilience determines his responsibility to society, because art is the future “image” of society and acts in parallel with its cohesion. man is a social being, by nature must live in society to exist, excessive individualism is impossible, these two sides must be harmoniously combined. .the goal of art resilience: flexibility is a movement that seeks to redefine the concept of art and design during the contemporary period and uphold the values of aesthetics and emphasize the balance in design and artwork between ego (privacy- personality of the designer) and the principles of aesthetics and values, taking into account current intellectual, social and political changes. in theory, rather than a split approach, resilience is a systematic approach. in practice, resilience removes discourse that hinders artistic production and focuses on work development. given that the quality of the artwork can be objectively determined, the flexibility of the art excludes purely random, gestural, ugly, conceptual or only decorative productions. design (artwork) consists of aesthetic and ethical systems. we can rationally judge the aesthetic quality of the work, and we can perceive it with our sensitivity in the "readable" part, in what it "speaks" or what provokes it. figure – [ ] explains how to judge design through the availability of two prerequisites: the aesthetic system and the ethical system. ethical system aesthetic system design (artwork) . aesthetic system: it is all about the aesthetic values in the design, especially the personality of the designer or artist, including all that’s extraordinary and exaggeration. . ethical system: it is the method of presenting the design to the community where it must have authenticity and identity, usability and applicability, taking into account the concepts governing society spatially and temporally. on a general level, resilience requires a variety of expressions rather than contemporary art production, which for decades has produced images that are immediately recognizable as "contemporary art" and ended up in only exhibition halls and office shelves rejecting any other form of art as old. image – [ ] la quete incertaine painting by ksenia milicevic great example for art resilience which reflect: art is not the result of a random gesture nor a dramatic or sealed entertainment for the public. the artists whose work are part of the contemporaneity, but which are based on aesthetics, thus maintaining its ability to link man with the world. image – [ ] philippe starck is one of the best interior designers in the world and his style is remarkable,an example for: • the definition of art to be possible. beauty to be objective and the natural foundation of art. • the formal expression must be free, but based on aesthetics that ensures quality. artists must be aware and responsible for their actions. • art to be key to community and individual development. image – [ , , , ] basouna mosque: suhag governorate, egypt designer: walid arafa national exampel the formation of the new mosque and the diligence of the designer to establish the true image of architecture and design in the service of society, and its role in the re-creation of civilization and human development, that successful architecture is in harmony with nature and the universe "and chants praise" the case of all creatures, so the challenge was "how to design a building that does not contradict nature”. great example and application of the philosophy of art resilience. all cultures generate images of themselves through artistic imagery, but not all artistic images are works of art. contemporary art that assumes itself as a current art may be a picture of us, but resilience is necessary when it comes to its quality as an art. principles of art resilience movement: • redefining art and design to be possible for everyone. • objectivity of beauty and the emphasis of it being the basis of art and design. • both the artist and the designer are responsible for presenting their works under the aesthetics of art and design and not comical and personal passions without neglecting the personality of the artist and designer. • art and design are key to community and individual development. . aesthetic philosophy of the art resilience movement: beauty is basically seen as a simple matter of taste. any objective value is rejected. but what the movement affirms is that beauty is not in the subject, nor in form or color, but is subject to the work itself, it embraces it, and emerges from it, from its form in its entirety and not from the beauty of what it represents. the art resilience movement interprets the stage of perception and judgment on design as follows. a vision of all (ontology ) appears where the subject (viewer) and the object (work) are one entity. at that moment, there is no space for a simple taste, but the life experience of both the designer and the recipient is reflected(edgar morin, ). figure – [ ] the contemporary beauty from the point of view of the art resilience movement is to see the ontological whole where the subject (viewer) and the object (work) are one and indivisible unit. only the period in which the work registers itself is canceled and artistic products become ephemeral. through subjectivity, production is focused solely on the artist's works, where the interest of the artistic component lies solely in the intention of connoting the artists' project. however, it is precisely art that has no intention . the concept of beauty in art resilience: beauty is a network with rules but unfolds infinitely, represented by elements (experience, memory, folklore, etc.) which are mechanisms of acculturation, and then a stage of brainstorming using cultural and social changes, and mechanisms of beauty as the designer must ensure the idea of two aspects: the first one allows the activation of the experiment to be broad and potentially interpretable (the personal character) to the designer so as to be concerned ontology: in greek, meaning "being", is one of the most original and important branches of metaphysics. this study examines the nature of intangible existence in metaphysical issues arising from scientific perceptions or concepts and laws, such as matter, energy, time, space, quantity, quality, reason, law, mental existence, etc. and find any entity or entities and any patterns of these entities in life. however, ontology is closely related to the terminology of reality. object (work) subject (viewer) all (ontological) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edgar_morin https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edgar_morin https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edgar_morin https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edgar_morin with the direct superficial meaning, while the second is concerned with the deep structure, the ruling concept (the fundamentals of beauty, societal character, measurable and applicable) that lets the work as it stands. art is the trend towards life. in the universe, everything oscillates between "construction" and "demolition." this is the rhythm of the world. human societies periodically oscillate throughout history between war and peace. art calls for life. beauty is harmony, calm and balance. it is the natural foundation and purpose of the insoluble unit of work. . idea and concept in art resilience movement: ideas are hazy entities, cognitively incomplete, because they are self-conscious states reflective of a purely individual human vision and have differentiation and specificity, revolve around specific topics, realistic or distant from reality (fictional), always carry variable qualities in the context of the cognitive field that embraces it, and from the previous perspective is a self-vision of the designer (organizational approach) on the signs of what he had in himself, and it becomes a thought that can be traced when converted according to scientific development of professional knowledge to philosophy (the image of the concept of explanation of the idea and self-perceptions), based on rules that can be shown abstractly in design gravitating towards reality. the concept is a perceived visual cognitive unit, with a system, and flexible and dynamic mobile templates that accept expansion and reception, in which the chosen and isolated perceptions of the designer appear to show facts that are specific to him, wandering in his mind. also, concepts are open to add any value/or values and expands with the expansion of the designer. ideas and philosophy are components of one organism, cannot be separated from each other. . the concept of aesthetic perception in art resilience movement: the concept of aesthetic perception of the movement is purely scientific. neuroscience, dives into this vital question for humans. faced with artwork, there is no neutral observation. thanks to recent research through medical imagery, it is possible to separate the emotional reactions associated with pleasure or resentment, and other aesthetic appreciation, when facing beauty. during experiments in which people were placed in front of art objects, researchers discovered that two different circles of the brain were activated: the improved cortical circuit and insulin, and the emotional circuit and the amygdala. when experiments were conducted to measure reactions to artworks created according to the golden ratio by showing antique themes and renaissance sculptures, scientist found that everyone relates fittingly to harmonious proportions. everyone sees harmony and balance in a work of art. the same circuits become active - that evolving cortical circuit. responses are very fast, almost instantaneous. soon after, the deeper and older areas that include emotions are activated. after that, our experiences, memories and mental states are activated, here's a second answer: i like it, or i don't like it. we must distinguish, on the one hand, the objective beauty associated with harmonious forms and physically measurable relationships, and on the other hand, "personal perception" (i love it - i do not like it). figure – [ ] design perception image – [ ] furniture piece by designer khaled mehrez the story of the prophet david and the hoopoe through elements (experience, memory, or popular heritage) of mechanisms of acculturation. a production piece of furniture from this story. figure – [ ] this diagram explains that the contemplation of a work of art or design, according to the art resilience concept, takes place in two stages taking into account the presence of two necessary elements in the design. the first is the need to re-enter the idea of beauty in art without which there is no art. the second is to re-establish what’s beautiful. the beauty of artwork from the art resilience movement point of view is not in the subject, nor in form, nor in color, but in what is subject to work, measurement, and application. the freedom of creativity of the artist is a continuation of the creation of nature. this reflects the essence of modern-day art, which “becomes a form of social consciousness that enjoys freedom and relative independence”. first stage (instantaneous) •the moment when the spectator observes the work, where the flow occurs between him and this - aesthetic passion. at that moment, i, the viewer, have been impressed by the power of some works immersing us in the world. the viewer is the only one in this relationship, an individual subject, devoid of all affiliations, devoid of himself, and drowned a small fraction of the time in all. at that moment, work does not mean anything, it does not convey any message. second stage (contemplative) •once this first moment has elapsed, the viewer begins to focus on what the work as a subject suggests, what it's talking about, and the message it's trying to convey. final verdict on design •applicability •achieve the desired functions of the design. •design compatibility with identity, legacies and ruling concepts. cortical circuit emotional circuitactivate the hence, the saying "the aesthetic characteristic of the modern era and not the beautiful saying which is an advantage of the old stage” and the difference is related to the extent of acquiring freedom. even to the extent that the creator is regarded as the origin of the work and as much as the creative work is an expression of the original if we see the originality of the artistic creativity of the creators through their creative achievements and their freedom of thought and performance. what does the creative artist and traditional craftsman meet or disagree with? research results: • art and design are an integral part of the surrounding community. • beauty is a network with rules but unfolds infinitely. • both the artist and the designer are responsible for presenting their works under the aesthetics of art and design and not comical representations and personal passions without neglecting the personality of the artist and designer. • art and design are key to community and individual development. • design (artwork), consists of aesthetic and ethical system. • art and design are the products of a creative and systematic intellectual process built on foundations and rules and not the result of the moment without a codified dimension, and as a work of art, is measurable and applicable. • all cultures generate images of themselves through artistic imagery, but not all artistic images are works of art. contemporary art that assumes itself as a current art may be a picture of society, but resilience is necessary when it comes to its quality as art and design. • art resilience movement calls to the adaptation to cultural, social and political changes in art and design without ignoring the role of aesthetics and the basics of art and the preservation of cultural heritage. research recommendations: • to shed light on contemporary art movements to evaluate them and draw all that is positive and in the interest of art and design. • design must be logical, measurable and applicable. • put the ruling concepts towards our eyes as designers without neglecting the character of the artist and designer. . references ( ) alain besancon, l'image interdite, librairie colibrio (bessenay , france) ( ), ( ) arthur danto, " after the end of art", princeton university press, ( ) ( ) edgar morin, la méthode, i. la nature de la nature, seuil, , sites: https://www.art-resilience.com/english/factors-of-resilience-in-art/ https://www.artmajeur.com/en/kseniamilicevic/artworks/ /la-quete-incertaine https://www.roomdecorideas.eu/how-to-combine-different-interior-design-styles-like-philippe-starck/ national seminar on arts resilience, uk, http://artsdevelopmentuk.org/presentations-from-the-aduk-national-seminar-on- arts-resilience- / https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alain_besan%c %a on https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/arthur_danto https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edgar_morin https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edgar_morin https://www.art-resilience.com/english/factors-of-resilience-in-art/ https://www.art-resilience.com/english/factors-of-resilience-in-art/ https://www.artmajeur.com/en/kseniamilicevic/artworks/ /la-quete-incertaine https://www.artmajeur.com/en/kseniamilicevic/artworks/ /la-quete-incertaine https://www.roomdecorideas.eu/how-to-combine-different-interior-design-styles-like-philippe-starck/ https://www.roomdecorideas.eu/how-to-combine-different-interior-design-styles-like-philippe-starck/ http://artsdevelopmentuk.org/presentations-from-the-aduk-national-seminar-on-arts-resilience- / http://artsdevelopmentuk.org/presentations-from-the-aduk-national-seminar-on-arts-resilience- / http://artsdevelopmentuk.org/presentations-from-the-aduk-national-seminar-on-arts-resilience- / http://artsdevelopmentuk.org/presentations-from-the-aduk-national-seminar-on-arts-resilience- / microsoft word - art .doc amedeo modigliani portrait de brancusi, fusain sur papier, x collection particulière résumé. en , modigliani va à paris avec, dans ses bagages, une vaste culture littéraire et philosophique. il y fait la connaissance, parmi d’autres, du docteur paul alexandre, son futur mécène, qui l’introduit à brancusi, installé ici depuis . modigliani qui complétait ses revenus avec ses dessins et ses peintures, décide de se mettre à la sculpture, ce qui le rapproche davantage à brancusi. de cette période datent plusieurs dessins représentant le portrait de brancusi, dont celui où le sculpteur joue de la contrebasse. a l’époque où brancusi travaillait à la simplification des formes, modigliani s’approprie en sculpture le portrait unique, synthèse des figures égyptiennes, africaines, khmères. a l’aide de brancusi, il expose au salon des indépendants ( ) et, en , il décide de partir à carrare pour tenter une dernière communion avec la matière sculpturale. il ne fait pas carrière en sculpture, car on lui reproche souvent l’influence brancusienne et, heureusement, il revient à la peinture. mais l’amitié entre les deux reste pour toujours. keywords : brancusi ; paul alexandre ; art africain ; cariatides ; salon des indépendants. en , modigliani a pris des cours de peinture à la scuola libera di nudo à florence, puis à l’istituto di belle arti à modigliani : l’expÉrience de la sculpture auprỀs de brancusi doïna lemny venise en , où il a rencontré nombre d’artistes et écrivains italiens tels umberto boccioni, fabio mauroner ou ardengo soffici. la biennale de venise de et est pour lui l’occasion de découvrir le symbolisme et aussi la sculpture de rodin qui attisent sa curiosité. en , modigliani décide de partir pour paris, cette « rome nouvelle de ce siècle » comme l’appelait max jacob . gino severini qui vient à paris en novembre de la même année expliquera cet engouement pour la scène parisienne : « au temps de notre jeunesse, lorsque modigliani et moi, en , arrivâmes à paris, les idées n’étaient pas très claires pour personne. toutefois, sans le savoir, nous savions pas mal de choses, dont on a pris conscience plus tard .» modigliani avait dans ses bagages une vaste culture littéraire et philosophique : ses lectures de dante, carducci, nietzche, bakounine, baudelaire, rimbaud, d’annunzio, oscar wilde et apollinaire l’accompagnent dans la com- préhension de cette scène internationale et l’encouragent à aller à la rencontre des personnalités les plus diverses. le peintre henri doucet l’introduit auprès du docteur paul alexandre qui deviendra son mécène et ami et qui lui présentera d’autres artistes de l’avant-garde parisienne dont brancusi qu’il avait lui-même rencontré par rev. roum. hist. art, série beaux-arts, tome lii, p. – , bucarest, l’intermédiaire du sculpteur maurice drouard : « drouard avait pour brancusi une admiration et une amitié profonde que j’ai immédiatement partagées, racontait plus tard paul alexandre. […] quant à modigliani, c’est rue du delta justement que je l’ai rencontré pour la première fois en et que je lui ai fait connaître brancusi peu après .» brancusi était arrivé à paris le juillet et essayait à cette époque de se frayer un chemin dans cet espace artistique en pleine effervescence, dominé en sculpture par rodin et galvanisé par picasso. participant pour la première fois, sur la recommandation de son professeur antonin mercié, au salon d’automne de paris en , brancusi est remarqué par rodin qui l’accepte comme praticien à partir de janvier . en avril, il prend une décision salvatrice : s’éloigner du maître et en finir avec le modelage, ce qui le fera réfléchir sur le retour vers les méthodes ancestrales de la sculpture. tailler directement le matériau lui promettait de découvrir de nouvelles formes qui pourraient rappeler l’art des peuples primitifs de l’extrême orient et de l’afrique. et pourtant, en cette année , il utilise encore le modelage pour une commande de monument funéraire pour un cimetière roumain, ensemble de deux pièces qui deviendra la prière et taillera en pierre et en marbre six têtes et bustes conservant l’apparence réaliste des modèles. a la fin de cette année, il entame par la pointe du ciseau dans un bloc de pierre deux bustes en parfaite fusion et réalisera son premier baiser que sidney geist considérera comme « une déclaration d’indépendance destinée à s’opposer à rodin en tous points. les deux œuvres [le baiser de rodin et le baiser de brancusi] constituent en tout cas un paradigme de polarité esthétique .» une troisième sculpture, la sagesse de la terre marquera l’abandon définitif du modelage, l’éloignement de la représentation d’un modèle réel et le rapprochement des arts premiers. brancusi se serait inspiré pour cette sculpture unique de plusieurs œuvres présentées au salon d’automne de paris de , dominé par la rétrospective gauguin dans laquelle étaient exposées Ève bretonne ( ) et le dessin préparatoire, aujourd’hui disparu, de la peinture d’où venons-nous ? que sommes- nous ? où allons-nous ? ( ). cette rétrospective a vraisemblablement marqué les esprits et surtout ceux qui étaient assoiffés de nouveautés. arrivé à paris au début de l’année, modigliani a certainement visité le salon d’automne et a été impressionné par la force de l’art de gauguin, plus connu pour ses peintures que pour ses sculptures, et par l’exotisme de ses figures. il découvre en même temps, à travers de fréquentes visites des musées parisiens et plus particulière- ment du musée de trocadéro, l’art africain et océanien. il n’a pas complètement oublié son travail passionnant du marbre lors de son bref séjour à pietrasanta et à carrare en avant de suivre des cours de peinture à florence et à venise. lorsque le docteur paul alexandre lui présente brancusi, modigliani qui continuait à peindre et à dessiner pour compléter les maigres subsides envoyés par sa mère, décide de se mettre à la sculpture. le docteur alexandre se rappelle : « brancusi et drouard lui ont donné, "en professionnels" qu’ils étaient, des conseils techniques pour le choix des matériaux et pour la taille, comme le font les artistes entre eux ». avant même de s’investir dans cet art, il se présente comme sculpteur, encouragé par son entourage. lorsque sa mère lui écrivait à paris, elle adressait son courrier à « amedeo modigliani, sculpteur » . modigliani n’a pas eu de formation de sculpteur mais seulement une extraordinaire culture de la renaissance baroque, dont donatello, michelangelo ou bernini qui ne pouvaient pas constituer pour lui de véritables guides. en revanche, l’ étonnante sculpture d’un peintre, derain, figure accroupie ( ) qu’il remarque au même salon d’automne de paris ( ), ainsi que les recherches artistiques de ses amis de montparnasse, brancusi, lipchitz, archipenko, zadkine, l’encouragent à sculpter. mais les matériaux coûtent cher et sculpter demande beaucoup plus de temps, si on pratique la taille directe, comme le souhaite modigliani. l’épisode du vol d’une pierre dans un chantier, bien qu’évoqué par andré salmon dans une fiction, résume bien cet aspect, son ambition de sculpter et aussi sa faiblesse physique accentuée par ses addictions. il rêvait de travailler le marbre, mais il se contente de la pierre calcaire trouvée dans les chantiers parisiens, qu’il pense pouvoir polir jusqu’à lui rendre l’aspect du marbre. brancusi lui trouve un atelier tout près du sien, cité falguière, pour l’accompagner dans sa démarche. deux personnalités complètement différentes se retrouvent : le roumain, plus introspectif, se retirant dans le calme de son atelier pour entamer un dialogue avec le matériau et en extraire l’essence, et l’italien, de nature fougueuse, désireux de communiquer avec les autres, habitué à travailler vite et à réaliser ses œuvres sous le regard des autres. tous deux, fascinés par l’art africain mais ne l’approchant pas dans leur création et même le rejetant comme brancusi qui a préféré détruire la plus africaine de ses sculptures en bois, le premier pas, assistent à la naissance du cubisme sans jamais y adhérer. la forte personnalité de picasso les intrigue – brancusi en gardera une distance respectable, alors que modigliani suit avec admiration la nais- sance des premières sculptures du peintre catalan. ils se retrouvent les mardis à la closerie des lilas au cénacle artistique et littéraire dirigé par paul fort aux côtés d’apollinaire, marinetti, severini, gonzalez, léger et picasso dont modigliani esquisse certains portraits. il n’est pas étonnant d’ailleurs de voir plusieurs portraits dessinés représentant brancusi dont un de au crayon et à l’encre marron : une figure carrée dominée par l’arc des sourcils prononcés au dessus des yeux pétillants et pénétrants du sculpteur. si pour ce portrait, il indique bien le nom de brancusi, pour une série d’autres dessins de la même période, représentant un homme assis aux bras forts équilibrant cette figure bordée d’une barbe carrée, aux yeux vifs, l’artiste les intitule l’homme à la barbe. on peut supposer que son ami roumain devient son modèle auquel il accentue, dans la succession des esquisses, le caractère fort et déterminé. la figure de brancusi, ses postures de méditation semblent l’inspirer : dans un dessin à l’encre représentant brancusi dans un fauteuil, la figure du sculpteur encadrée par une chevelure et une barbe noires s’allonge, les yeux ombragés par les gros sourcils dissimulent la vivacité du regard. portrait de brancusi, , crayon, plume et encre. l’homme à la barbe assis, . encre sur papier, x . cm. collection particulière. portrait de brancusi assis dans un fauteuil. encre de chine sur papier, . x . portrait de constantin brancusi (revers du joueur de violoncelle), huile sur toile, x cm collection abelló, madrid le joueur de violoncelle, . huile sur toile, x cm. collection abelló, madrid. brancusi jouant de la contrebasse, photo. legs brancusi, centre pompidou, paris. il ébauche également un portrait du sculpteur sur le dos d’une peinture de petit format, x cm, le joueur de violoncelle, thème qu’il a préparé par plusieurs dessins et qu’il reprendra en peinture sur un format plus grand, x cm. il considérera cette peinture comme l’une de ses œuvres maîtresses . n’ayant pas d’information précise sur l’identité du modèle de cette peinture, le docteur alexandre se souvient d’un voisin de modigliani, lorsqu’il habitait à montmartre, qui jouait du violoncelle. mais un regard plus attentif sur le portrait du musicien nous permet de constater qu’il présente les mêmes traits que brancusi. l’ébauche du portrait du sculpteur sur le dos de cette toile serait-elle un pur hasard ? un élément supplémentaire nous conduit à supposer que modigliani aurait fait un transfert d’image et aurait incarné brancusi dans ce joueur de violoncelle : on connaît le don musical du sculpteur qui, sans formation musicale, jouait du violon et de la guitare. une photographie conservée dans l’atelier du sculpteur, le représente jouant de la contrebasse . il n’est pas étonnant que modigliani ait vu cette photographie et qu’il l’ait associée à son thème. une complicité s’est créée entre les deux artistes, basée sur un dialogue fructueux, une compréhension profonde de la démarche de chacun. lorsque modigliani retourne à livourne où il reste trois mois – de juillet à septembre – et où il invite brancusi, il commente avec ironie le jugement de le fauconnier sur brancusi dans une carte postale envoyée le septembre au docteur alexandre : « reçu une carte de le fauconnier. il a écrit quatre lignes absolument extraordinaires de bêtises de brancusi ce qui m’a fait beaucoup de plaisir. j’aime beaucoup cet homme-là et salue le de ma part si tu le vois » . avant de partir vers sienne, modigliani envoie une carte postale à brancusi qui, malgré son invitation généreuse de l’accompagner, est resté à paris : « mon vieux branc, dans un moi[s] je vais revenir. a bientôt et avec impatience le plaisir de te recauser. ami modigliani » . a son retour, modigliani écarte toute tentation de peinture afin de se mettre à la sculpture pour laquelle il était appuyé et conseillé par son ami. en , brancusi avait complètement « oublié » rodin et travaillait à la simplification de ses formes, à leur purification, arrivant à désincarner les portraits d’enfants et de femmes afin d’exprimer un état, un vécu. ses torses sont à peine suggérés dans le poli du marbre. seuls danaïde en pierre (musée d’art de bucarest) et le baiser gardent les traces de la pointe du ciseau rappelant les sculptures retrouvées dans les fouilles archéologiques. modigliani, de son côté, travaille vite, entame les blocs de pierre poursuivant le même thème : des têtes de femmes et d’hommes allongées, dont les traits symétriques sont construits sur une verticale comme des éléments d’architecture. en abandonnant le modèle, il ne représente plus personne, il s’approprie ce portrait unique qui traverse les époques : il réalise ainsi une synthèse des figures égyptiennes, africaines, khmères. le peu de différences entre ses cariatides nous font croire que si une erreur survenait dans la taille, comme le précise le docteur alexandre, « il reprenait un autre bloc et il recommençait. […] presque toutes [les figures sculptées] en réalité sont la même statue constamment recommencée en vue d’une forme définitive qu’il n’a, je crois, jamais atteinte » . brancusi n’a-t-il pas repris ces thèmes principaux pour les retravailler pendant des années dans de longues séries ? mais il prenait le temps de la réflexion, il se donnait l’occasion de « caresser » la matière, comme il aimait à le dire, de marquer l’évolution de la forme dans ce processus de simplification, de vivre avec la poussière du marbre, alors que modigliani ne pouvait plus supporter de dégrossir le bloc. sa santé ne le lui permettait pas. dans le même souhait d’encourager son jeune ami, brancusi s’occupe de l’organisation d’une exposition des œuvres récentes de modigliani. n’ayant pas suffisamment d’espace dans son atelier, il les installe dans celui de leur ami commun, amedeo de souza-cardoso, et en prépare l’ouverture prévue le mars , comme il le précise dans une petite lettre à paul alexandre jointe au carton d’invitation. des cinq photographies de cette installation, on retient qu’en dehors des dessins, plusieurs têtes sculptées ont été présentées. il expose aussi au salon des indépendants de la même année une cariatide, une tête et quatre dessins. carte postale de modigliani à brancusi, septembre legs brancusi, centre pompidou, paris son enthousiasme pour la sculpture ne diminue pas, mais il est concrétisé par un travail irrégulier de la pierre pour lequel il réalise de nombreux dessins préparatoires. le rêve du marbre l’habite et il décide au printemps de retourner en italie et de sculpter dans ce matériau près des carrières les plus connues, à carrare. ce n’est qu’ainsi qu’il cherche à atteindre « la plénitude » dont il parle avec passion au docteur : « je ferai tout dans le marbre. le patelin près d’où je planterais littéralement même ma tente – une tente d’abri – est de lumière éblouissante, de la plus éblouis- sante limpidité d’air et de lumière qui soit » . pour lui, ce séjour à carrare est un dernier essai de communion avec la matière sculpturale, d’immersion dans la carrière- même et peut-être d’éloignement des figures pures que son ami roumain continuait à tailler. craignant de ne pas retrouver intacte à son retour une tête déposée dans l’atelier de brancusi – qu’il appelle avec une note d’humour « le serbo- croate » – il demande à paul alexandre de la récupérer. avec une mentalité de peintre et doté d’une rapidité exceptionnelle à dessiner et à peindre, modigliani n’a pas la patience de sculpter sur une durée illimitée. il précisera dans la même lettre du avril : « la plénitude approche. elle ne bandera point l’arc pourtant avant que je ne travaille une quinzaine de jours encore. » mais il ne rapportera rien de ce bref séjour en italie qui signera sans doute la fin de son activité de sculpteur. idéalisant la sculpture, modigliani a placé de grands espoirs en elle, lui accordant une place particulière dans ses choix. il cherchait la compagnie des sculpteurs qui devenaient très rapidement des amis, comme brancusi, lipchitz, archipenko, laurens ou zadkine. les conversations qu’il avait avec jacob epstein venu à paris installer son monument funéraire dédié à oscar wilde, ainsi que sa participation avec des sculptures au salon des indépendants, ont eu un écho très puissant parmi les artistes d’avant-garde de londres, dont le français gaudier-brzeska qui voyait dans cette génération de sculpteurs les fondateurs de la modernité, tel qu’il le soulignait dans son « manifeste du vorticisme » : « et nous, les modernes, epstein, brancusi, archipenko, dunikowski, modigliani et moi-même, dans le combat incessant de la ville contemporaine, devons pareillement dépenser beaucoup d’énergie » . par son esprit brillant, sa désinvolture dans les relations, il s’est fait vite accepter dans le cercle de sculpteurs surtout lorsqu’il a emménagé dans le quartier de montparnasse. en revanche, sa sculpture n’avait pas encore la force pour les convaincre. les artistes qui avaient une longue pratique de la sculpture regardaient avec indulgence ses têtes en pierre : « l’influence de brancusi était évidente – écrivait zadkine – mais personne ne prenait les sculptures de modi au sérieux ; il y avait en ces têtes l’idée d’un peintre provisoirement subordonnée à celle d’un sculpteur. d’ailleurs, la période de sculpture ne dura pas longtemps chez modi car il revint heureusement à la peinture ». cette expérience de la sculpture a été certainement sous le regard et les enseignements de brancusi qui lui a appris, comme le souligne john russell, « qu’il était possible d’être dans le progrès tout en faisant usage de l’immense répertoire de formes simples et riches qu’il a assimilées en italie » . brancusi n’avait pas l’habitude de parler de ses confrères, ni de commenter leur art. au crépuscule de sa vie, lorsqu’il racontait son parcours à un écrivain américain d’origine roumaine, peter neagoe , il évoquait « le personnage » modigliani avec beaucoup de tendresse. les années où il l’a accompagné sur les pas de la sculpture lui ont apporté beaucoup de bonheur et en même temps le regret de ne pas avoir pu inculquer à ce jeune artiste talentueux et cultivé la force nécessaire pour la sculpture. max jacob, chronique des temps héroïques, paris, l. broder, . cité par a. m. hammacher, « amedeo modigliani », modigliani : gli anni della scultura, venise, arnoldo mondadori editore, , p. . noël alexandre, modigliani inconnu : témoignages, documents et dessins inédits de l’ancienne collection de paul alexandre, paris, , p. et doïna lemny, « chez rodin, je traîne toujours mon désespoir … », in after brancusi, institut d’histoire de l’art «g. oprescu», bucarest, , p. . sidney geist, « le baiser », le baiser, paris, Éditions du centre pompidou, « les carnets de l’atelier brancusi », , p. . gabriella belli, flavio fergonzi, alessandro del puppo, modigliani sculptor, silvana editoriale, , p. . noël alexandre, op. cit., p. . john russell, modigliani, art council of great britain, the edinburgh festival society, londres, , p. . andré salmon, la vie passionnée de modigliani, verviers, éditions gérard &cie, , . cette œuvre fait partie des six présentées au salon des indépendants ( mars- er mai) : le mendiant de livourne, la mendiante, lunaire, deux études dont le portrait de piquemal. cette photo a été reproduite dans pontus hulten, alexandre istrati, natalia dumitresco, brancusi, paris, , p. . noël alexandre, op. cit., p. . legs brancusi, bibliothèque kandinsky, centre pompidou, paris. noël alexandre, op. cit., p. ibidem, p. henri gaudier-brzeska, manifeste du vorticisme , blast, n° , juillet . ossip zadkine, le maillet et le ciseau. souvenirs de ma vie, paris, , p. . john russell, modigliani, art council of great britain, the edinburgh festival society, londres, , p. . peter neagoe, the saint of motparnasse. a novel based on the life of constantin brancusi, new york, philadelphia, chilton books, . notes max jacob, chronique des temps héroïques, paris, l. broder, . cité par a. m. hammacher, « amedeo modigliani », modigliani : gli anni della scultura, venise, arnoldo mondadori editore, , p. . noël alexandre, modigliani inconnu : témoignages, documents et dessins inédits de l’ancienne collection de paul alexandre, paris, , p. et doïna lemny, « chez rodin, je traîne toujours mon désespoir … », in after brancusi, institut d’histoire de l’art «g. oprescu», bucarest, , p. . sidney geist, « le baiser », le baiser, paris, Éditions du centre pompidou, « les carnets de l’atelier brancusi », , p. . gabriella belli, flavio fergonzi, alessandro del puppo, modigliani sculptor, silvana editoriale, , p. . noël alexandre, op. cit., p. . john russell, modigliani, art council of great britain, the edinburgh festival society, londres, , p. . andré salmon, la vie passionnée de modigliani, verviers, éditions gérard &cie, , . cette œuvre fait partie des six présentées au salon des indépendants ( mars- er mai) : le mendiant de livourne, la mendiante, lunaire, deux études dont le portrait de piquemal. cette photo a été reproduite dans pontus hulten, alexandre istrati, natalia dumitresco, brancusi, paris, , p. . noël alexandre, op. cit., p. . legs brancusi, bibliothèque kandinsky, centre pompidou, paris. noël alexandre, op. cit., p. ibidem, p. henri gaudier-brzeska, manifeste du vorticisme , blast, n° , juillet . ossip zadkine, le maillet et le ciseau. souvenirs de ma vie, paris, , p. . john russell, modigliani, art council of great britain, the edinburgh festival society, londres, , p. . peter neagoe, the saint of motparnasse. a novel based on the life of constantin brancusi, new york, philadelphia, chilton books, . mnras , l –l ( ) doi: . /mnrasl/slv polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and molecular hydrogen in oxygen-rich planetary nebulae: the case of ngc n. l. j. cox, , ‹ p. pilleri, , ‹ o. berné, , j. cernicharo and c. joblin , université de toulouse, ups-omp, irap, f- toulouse, france cnrs, irap, av. colonel roche, bp , f- toulouse, france group of molecular astrophysics, icmm, csic, c/sor juana inés de la cruz n , e- madrid, spain accepted november . received november ; in original form august a b s t r a c t evolved stars are primary sources for the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) and dust grains. their circumstellar chemistry is usually designated as either oxy- gen rich or carbon rich, although dual-dust chemistry objects, whose infrared spectra reveal both silicate- and carbon-dust features, are also known. the exact origin and nature of this dual-dust chemistry is not yet understood. spitzer–infrared spectrograph (irs) mid-infrared spectroscopic imaging of the nearby, oxygen-rich planetary nebula ngc reveals the presence of the . µm aromatic (pah) emission band. it is attributed to emission from neu- tral pahs, since no band is observed in the – µm range. the spatial distribution of pahs is found to closely follow that of the warm clumpy molecular hydrogen emission. emission from both neutral pahs and warm h is likely to arise from photodissociation regions associated with dense knots that are located within the main ring. the presence of pahs together with the previously derived high abundance of free carbon (relative to co) suggest that the local conditions in an oxygen-rich environment can also become conducive to in situ formation of large carbonaceous molecules, such as pahs, through a bottom-up chemical pathway. in this scenario, the same stellar source can enrich the interstellar medium with both oxygen-rich dust and large carbonaceous molecules. key words: h ii regions – planetary nebulae: individual: ngc – infrared: stars. i n t r o d u c t i o n the asymptotic giant branch (agb) and planetary nebula (pn) phases of stellar evolution govern the chemical enrichment of the interstellar medium (ism) by low- to intermediate-mass stars. evolved stars are efficient dust factories, but the processes in- volved in dust formation and evolution are still shrouded in mystery. unlike molecules, dust grains can only be efficiently formed in the innermost warm regions of evolved stars (gail & sedlmayr ). carbon-rich evolved stars are formation sites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs). bottom-up formation is either via pyrolysis (frenklach & feigelson ; cherchneff, barker & tielens ) or photolysis (cernicharo ). the top-down process could occur through shock-, photo, or chemical destruction of carbonaceous or sic grains (jones, tielens & hollenbach ; pilleri et al. ; merino et al. ). generally, silicate dust formation is related to oxygen/o-rich winds (c/o < ), while carbonaceous dust formation occurs pri- marily in carbon/c-rich winds (c/o > ). pah features are present in planetary nebulae (pne) with c/o abundance ratios as low as � e-mail: nick.cox@irap.omp.eu (nljc); paolo.pilleri@irap.omp.eu (pp) ∼ . (cohen & barlow ; delgado-inglada & rodrı́guez ). however, in several cases both oxygen-rich and carbon-rich dust features are seen in (spatially integrated) infrared spectra of pne (e.g. cerrigone et al. ; perea-calderón et al. ). garcı́a- rojas et al. ( ) found that dual-dust chemistry in pne with o- rich nebulae show weak pah bands and crystalline/amorphous sil- icates, while the c-rich ones have strong pah bands and very weak crystalline silicate features. garcı́a-hernández & górny ( ) identified the presence of dual-dust chemistry in pne mainly with high-metallicity and relatively high-mass (∼ – m�) young pne. dual-dust chemistry in c-rich pne has been explained in terms of different evolutionary phases. the silicate dust emission is formed earlier. pahs are formed in a later mass-loss phase and are present in the outflows (matsuura et al. ). for pahs observed in o-rich galactic bulge pne (perea-calderón et al. ; guzman-ramirez et al. , ), this scenario seems less satisfactory since these pne are mostly old, low-mass stars that are not expected to go through a third dredge-up phase, and there- fore show no enhanced c/o ratios. an alternative explanation is that pahs in these objects are formed in situ in an uv-irradiated dense torus as suggested by matsuura et al. ( ) and cer- nicharo ( ). in this scenario, pahs form in a region just outside where some uv photons penetrate and dissociate co and the free c© the authors published by oxford university press on behalf of the royal astronomical society d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nrasl/article-abstract/ / /l / by c s ic - instituto d e g anaderia d e m ontana user on july mailto:nick.cox@irap.omp.eu mailto:paolo.pilleri@irap.omp.eu l n. l. j. cox et al. carbon can subsequently aggregate there and lead to formation of pahs (e.g. matsuura et al. ). cernicharo ( ) has shown that in dense photo-dissociation regions (pdrs) of proto-pne, the photodissociation of co and other species leads to the growth of carbon chains, and to the production of carbon clusters. this rich photochemistry suggests a possible bottom-up scenario for the for- mation of pahs. agúndez, cernicharo & goicoechea ( ) have shown that the same applies to o-rich environments as those found in protoplanetary discs where c h and hcn are found with very high abundances. in this letter, we present spitzer spectroscopy of the nearby pn ngc (ring nebula). section presents the spitzer obser- vations of ngc . the results we obtained for the pah and h emission are discussed in section and put in perspective in section . s p e c t r o s c o p i c i m ag i n g o f n g c ngc is a nearby ( + − pc; o’dell, henney & sabbadin ), oxygen-rich bipolar pn. its main ring corresponds to an ionization-bounded torus structure seen nearly pole-on with lobes directed along the line of sight (cf. o’dell et al. a). the cen- tral star of the pn (cspn) has an effective temperature of teff = k and a stellar luminosity l� = l� (o’dell, sabbadin & henney ). the reported c/o abundance ratio ranges from . to . (delgado-inglada & rodrı́guez ). ngc has been observed with the spitzer space telescope (werner et al. ) as part of programme (pi: h. diner- stein). the infrared spectrograph (irs) sh observations (houck et al. ) have been processed with cubism (smith et al. ), including sky background subtraction and σ clipping. the d spectral data cube allows us to study the mid-infrared spectrum ( – . µm, r ∼ ) of ngc in a region of × arcsec with a plate scale of . arcsec per pixel, as shown in fig. . in an initial assessment, we extracted two (average) spectra, one towards the central star and one pertaining to the main dust ring. the extracted spectra are shown in fig. . both spectra clearly differ in terms of relative strength of the gas emission lines. all the gas emission lines typically detected between and µm for pne are present in ngc . most noticeable, however, is the presence of the . µm pah band. the . and . µm pah bands are also detected in the spectrum for the main ring, confirming the presence of pahs. the presence of the . µm pah band is further corrob- figure . spitzer–irs maps of the . μm emission feature (green) and the [s iii] emission line (blue) in the ring nebula overlaid on top of the spitzer irac μm image (red). the two white squares (dashed lines) indicate the extraction region for the spectra shown in fig. . figure . spitzer–irs sh spectra extracted from the d spectral-cube at two positions in the ring nebula. the positions are indicated by the two white-dashed squares in fig. . the top panel shows a spectrum from the central hot-gas cavity and the middle panel shows the spectrum ‘sw’ arising from the main dust ring. emission lines arising from several atoms and molecular hydrogen are labelled (ghost lines are indicated with asterisks). the bottom panel shows a close-up view of the (continuum subtracted) – μm pah emission complex. the pah emission spectrum of the horsehead h ii region (compiègne et al. ), scaled by a factor of . to match the . μm peak intensity, is shown for reference. orated by lower sensitivity irs sh spectra (calibration programme ) taken at two positions (n–s) on the ring perpendicular to the data cube (e–w). previously, pah emission bands were thought to be absent in this pn, although in hindsight the . µm band (contaminated by a h i line) is tentatively seen in the spitzer-sl spectra shown by hora et al. ( ). no clear detection of a pah feature in the – µm range could be obtained; the data are very noisy and suffer from a bad overlap between the two sl modules of the irs spectrograph. previous spectra obtained with isocam circular variable filters (cvf) have insufficient spectral resolution and sensitivity to detect pah bands in the presence of strong atomic emission lines. the iso- short wavelength spectrometer (sws) aperture does not cover the main ring. spitzer lh/ll ( – µm) spectroscopy (programme ) of the dust ring is of insufficient sensitivity and spectral resolution to discern the presence of any dust features. line intensities for a representative subset of species are extracted from the spitzer spectrum for each position in the spectral map. this set of lines traces roughly the ionizing radiation field throughout the nebula, that corresponds to the photon energies (∼ – ev) required to bring atoms in a certain ionization state. the spatial distribution of the mid-infrared h s( ) and s( ) emission lines at . and . µm, and the . µm pah band is shown in fig. . d i s c u s s i o n fig. reveals a close relation between the radial distributions of pah, h , and dust emission in ngc (see van hoof et al. for a comparative study between h and dust emission). the co- spatial distribution of h and pah emission shows that both species are present and excited at similar locations within the molecular ring. pahs could also be involved in the formation of h (habart et al. ; boschman et al. ). next, we discuss the observed pah bands (section . ) and give a brief analysis of the h emission (section . ). section . then examines these results in the context of hydrocarbon photochemistry. mnrasl , l –l ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nrasl/article-abstract/ / /l / by c s ic - instituto d e g anaderia d e m ontana user on july pahs and h in the ring nebula l figure . d spatial distribution of line intensity for the atomic (ne v, ar v, s iv, s iii, cl ii) and molecular (h , pah) tracers in ngc . intensities are normalized to the maximum value found for each species. negative offsets are towards the south-west. the atomic species and the energies (ev) required to bring them in the specified ionization state are indicated. figure . radial profiles for pah and h integrated intensities, and infrared (dust) emission at and μm (w m− sr− ). . pah emission bands: profile and intensity the . µm pah band is observed at the position of . ± . µm, which is typical for that band (hony et al. ). the full width at half-maximum is ∼ . µm. this is larger than typical, and is due to a red wing extending up to ∼ . µm. the total integrated emission of the . µm feature in the main ring ranges from ∼ to × − w m− sr− . for the pah bands extracted from the ‘sw’ region (fig. ), the peak intensity is ∼ mjy sr− with an integrated line intensity of . × − w m− sr− . i( . µm), normalized by the total integrated infrared emission (tir), is consistent with the relation with c/o ratio as derived by cohen & barlow ( ) for a large sample of pne with c/o ≈ . – . the integrated line inten- sities of the . and . µm pah bands in the ‘sw’ region are estimated to be . ± . and . ± . × − w m− sr− , respec- tively. the . µm pah feature is not detected (section ). we derive an upper limit of its peak intensity, i( . ) = . ± . mjy sr− , to be compared to i( . ) = . ± . mjy sr− . pech, joblin & boissel ( ) modelled the emission of a distri- bution of pahs in iras + suggesting that the extended profile of the . µm band is due to the smallest sizes of the pah distribution (containing between and carbon atoms). candian & sarre ( ) also modelled the . µm emission band with neu- tral pahs. these authors conclude that a profile with a peak at a relatively longer wavelength and with a more extended red tail (as well as a less steep short wavelength side) implies that lower mass pahs are relatively more abundant. hony et al. ( ) argue that the i( . )/i( . ) band strength ratio is determined by molecular structure, with low values associated with (compact) pahs present in pne. the i( . )/i( . ) ratio is < . which is below the values determined by pilleri et al. ( ) for pah and pah+ template spectra, which are . and . , respectively. although such a low value is rather exceptional, quantum chemistry calculations indicate that it is possible for neutral pahs (langhoff ; see pauzat for a review) and even for very large ones (bauschlicher, peeters & allamandola ; ricca et al. ). ionized pahs are expected to dominate in pdrs with large values of g /ne > (where g is the radiation field strength in habing units of . − w m− ), whereas mostly neutral pahs or even negatively charged pahs are expected to be found in pne and h ii regions when the medium is fully ionized (ne ∼ nh) and low values of g /ne < prevail (joblin et al. ). for the ring of ngc the effective g is ≈ – . a predominance of neutral pahs has previously been reported for the horsehead nebula h ii region, where g ∼ (compiègne et al. ). in this case, the usually strong . and . µm pah bands are also absent, whereas the – µm pah emission spectrum is very similar to that of ngc (fig. , bottom panel; compiègne et al. ). similar profiles are also seen in the pne iras + and iras − (hony et al. ) and mixed-chemistry post- agb star iras − (matsuura et al. ). . h temperature and density the presence of h in pne is attributed to pdrs associated with the dense knots residing in the ionized regions (speck et al. ; manchado et al. ). aleman & gruenwald ( ) find that h infrared emission lines in pne are produced mainly in the warm and partially ionized transition zone between the ionized h ii re- gion and the neutral pdr. additional heating and ionization of the gas is required to explain the strong h emission lines. possible mechanisms are soft x-rays from the hot cspn (natta & hollen- bach ; vicini et al. ; aleman & gruenwald ; though no diffuse x-ray emission is observed; kastner et al. ), shocks from the combined herschel-pacs (van hoof et al. ) and spitzer-lh dust emission, the total integrated infrared dust emission, tir ≈ . × − w m− sr− , is a tracer of the energy input: g (tir) = π × tir / ( . × − ) ≈ . alternatively the radiation field strength at . pc from the central star can be estimated as from an on-the-spot approximation, g = l�χ /( πd ) = (tielens , p. ). mnrasl , l –l ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nrasl/article-abstract/ / /l / by c s ic - instituto d e g anaderia d e m ontana user on july l n. l. j. cox et al. (arias et al. ), or the development of an extreme-uv-dominated advective pdr in which the ionization and dissociation fronts have merged (henney et al. ). the integrated line strengths for the h ( - ) s( ) and s( ) emis- sion from the main ring range from to × − w m− sr− (fig. ). in addition, we extracted h s( ) to s( ) integrated line intensities from a small region in the north–east part of the ring for which a single (lower resolution) spitzer-sl spectrum is avail- able. assuming thermal equilibrium we use the line intensities to derive the rotational temperature and column density of h : t(h ) = + − k, n(h ) = . + . − . × cm− . these values are comparable to those derived by cox et al. ( ) for the helix nebula: t(h ) = k and n(h ) = . × cm− . the h ii region drives a shock in the globule and hence the pressure in the external molecular shell around the globule (where h is emitting) will be comparable to the pressure in the h ii region (e.g. bertoldi ). pressure equilibrium at the ionization front is given by ne te = nh tgas. if photoevaporation occurs, this provides a lower density limit. assuming that the h rotational temperature we derived above is an upper limit to the gas kinetic temperature (i.e. v = rotational levels are excited by collisions but also by uv fluorescence cascades in the surface pdr of the globules), as well as te = ± k (liu et al. ) and ne = ± cm− (o’dell et al. b), we obtain nh > – . × cm− . this is consistent with estimates from optical studies (o’dell et al. ). the gradual increase of h intensity from . to . pc is linked to the decrease of the h destruction rate with the attenuation of uv photons (corresponding to av ≈ . ; pilleri et al. ), while the sharp increase of pah intensity at ∼ . pc is primarily due to a density gradient (pahs are less sensitive to destruction by uv photons than h ). av = . mag corresponds to n(h)∼ cm− , which yields an average volume density of cm− , with higher densities inside the knots. . hydrocarbon photochemistry we expand here on the scenario proposed by e.g. matsuura et al. ( ), cernicharo ( ), and guzman-ramirez et al. ( ) in which co is dissociated and pahs are formed from free carbon. in the case of ngc , the abundance of elemental carbon (i.e. c and c+) is an order of magnitude higher than that of co (bachiller et al. ; sahai et al. ), likely a result of dissociation of the latter by the strong radiation field of the high-excitation cspn. both co- and c-emitting regions are clumped. as shown in the previous section, these clumps have high density (> cm− ) and are exposed to a moderate radiation field (g ∼ ). cernicharo ( ) and agúndez et al. ( ) have included in their chemical models for c- and o-rich environments reactions such as c + h → c h + h, c h + h → c h + h, and c+ + h = ch+ + h which have moderate activation barriers, which make them very slow in the cold ism, but become rapid enough to control the abundance of c-bearing species at the high temperatures and high h densities prevailing in the pdrs of (proto-)pne. this is because chemical reactions involving h v= with radicals in a warm gas become significantly efficient if the volume density is large enough (cernicharo ). h v= reactions with more complex organic molecules could also overcome activation barriers of several thousand kelvin allowing the growth of chemical complexity. in a c-rich pdr environment, c h and hcn play a key role in the photochemistry (cernicharo ), while for o-rich environments agúndez et al. ( ) have shown that the photodissociation of co and n provide the path to the formation of c h and hcn with abundances similar to those of c-rich environments. the high (h ) gas temperature, together with freely available c, suggests a very fast and rich photochemistry at the surface of the dense knots existing in the main ring of ngc . together, these conditions favour a bottom-up formation of large carbonaceous molecules. it is not clear how this process would give rise to a peculiar pah population such as observed for ngc . the pah size distribution will be the result of the equilibrium between formation and destruction, where uv destruction generally favours increased abundance of large pahs which are more stable (montillaud, joblin & toublanc ). although the large pahs have high probability to be ionized rather than photodissociated (zhen et al. ), the high electron abundance provides a competing recombination rate, which shifts the balance in favour of neutral pahs. s u m m a r y a n d c o n c l u s i o n s we present the unexpected detection of a weak . µm pah emis- sion band in the main dust torus of o-rich pn ngc . the band profile (position and red wing) and the absence of noticeable bands in the – µm range indicates that the emitting population consists primarily of neutral pahs and contains a relatively higher abundance of smaller specie as found in most other objects. the spatial distribution of pahs is closely correlated with the clumpy distribution of h revealing the presence of pdrs associated with dense knots exposed to a moderate radiation field. for the physical environment associated with dense knots inside an ionized region, chemical models provide a way to transform a gas dominated by h , co, h o, n with c/o < into a gas where complex car- bon chemistry can occur and this might provide a pathway to form pahs through a bottom-up process. in ngc , reactions with large activation barriers could be facilitated by excitation of h in v= . a more detailed inventory of the properties and chemistry of nebular knots in oxygen-rich pne will require observations at higher angular resolution. regardless of the exact formation mech- anism involved, our analysis indicates that complex hydrocarbon chemistry, including the formation of large molecules (with more than c atoms), can occur in pdrs associated with high-density knots located within the ionized regions of o-rich pne. therefore, if knots are commonly formed in (old) o-rich pne, these can enrich the ism also with carbonaceous material. ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s we acknowledge helpful comments by the referee. the research leading to these results has received funding from the european research council under the european union’s seventh framework programme (fp/ - 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instituto d e g anaderia d e m ontana user on july http://arxiv.org/abs/ . ahy volume - issue cover and front matter ustrian "history yearbook volume xix-xx - parti university of minnesota h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s x d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms austrian history yearbook published annually by the center for austrian studies of the university of minnesota with the cooperation of the conference group for central european history board of editors the american committee to promote studies of the history of the habsburg mon- archy: karl roider (executive secretary), louisiana state university—charles ingrao, purdue university—helen liebel-weckowicz, university of alberta— radomir luia, tulane university—robert wegs, university of notre dame— william e. wright, university of minnesota (ex qfficio) correspondents angelo ara, university of pa via— derek beales, cambridge university—peter burian, university of cologne—j zef buszko, jagellonian university—mirjana gross, university of zagreb—jiff kofalka, hussite museum at tdbor—domokos kosiry, hungarian academy of sciences—fe'lix kreissler, university of rouen— §tefan pascu, babes-bolyai university—george m. schwarz, memorial university of newfoundland staff william e. wright, university of minnesota, editor peter urbanitsch, austrian academy of sciences, associate editor karl roider, louisiana state university, newsletter editor barbara krauss-christensen, assistant editor and business manager mary vik, editorial assistant and typist edmund kern, editorial assistant james miller, editorial assistant suzanne sinke, editorial assistant david steele, editorial assistant the publication of this issue of the austrian history yearbook has been made possible by subventions from the center for austrian studies of the university of minnesota. the price for this volume is $ . plus $ . for handling and mailing.checks should be made payable to the austrian history yearbook—university of minnesota and sent to the center for austrian studies, social sciences building, university of minnesota, minneapolis, minn. . manuscripts, books for review, biblio- graphical information, news items, and correspondence should be sent to the editor at the same address. orders for volumes xv-xvi, xvii-xviii and xix-xx should be sent to the center for austrian studies. orders for earlier volumes should be sent to gifts and exchanges, fondren library, rice university, houston, texas . © by the center for austrian studies, university of minnesota issn- - h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s x d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms austrian history yearbook volume xix-xx - part university of minnesota h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s x d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms austrian history yearbook volumexix-xx, parti - table of contents editor's note xiii habsburg foreign affairs new perspectives on the historical significance of the "year of the turk," by thomas m. barker austria's last turkish war, by paul p. bernard conflict or consensus? habsburg absolutism and foreign policy, - , by charles ingrao peoples and culture progressive historians and the historical imagination in austria: heinrich friedjung and richard charmatz, by harry ritter czech cubism and fin-de-siecle prague, by bruce garver the formation of modern cracow ( - ), by lawrence d. orton national cultural centers of the habsburg empire before : zagreb, by james p. krokar aesthetics and modernity: art and the amelioration of change in fin-de-siecle austria, by james shedel a note on galician jewish migration to vienna, by marsha rozenblit foreign policy in the twentieth century aristocrats and politics in austria, - : some letters of count alois lexa von aehrenthal and prince karl schwarzenberg, by solomon wank activism and inertia: ottokar czernin's mission to romania, - , by gary w. shanafelt h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s x d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms bethmann-hollweg, austria-hungary andmitteleuropa, - , by richard w. kapp vienna between the wars decision-making amid public violence; the vienna riots, july , , by douglas d. alder historiography a review essay: klingenstein, lutz, and stourzh, eds. biographie und geschichtswissenschaft. aufsdtze zur theorie und praxis biographischer arbeit, by peter loewenberg book reviews mitteilungen des osterreichischen staatsarchivs, vol. xxxii, by frederick r. zuber mitteilungen des osterreichischen staatsarchivs, vol. xxxiii, by karl a. roider, jr mitteilungen des osterreichischen staatsarchivs, vol. xxxiv, by joseph richard goldman razprave in gradivo [treatises and documents], nos. - , by bogdan c. novak historickd geografie, vol. xx, by stanley b. winters klein, daten zur siedlungsgeschichte der osterreichischen lander bis zum . jahrhundert, by charles r. bowlus klingenstein and lutz, spezialforschung und "gesamtgeschichte." beispiele und methodenfragen zur geschichte derfruhen neuzeit, by thomas m. barker reingrabner, protestanten in osterreich. geschichte unddokumentation, by charles h. o'brien seibt, die juden in den bohmischen ldndern. vortrdge der tagung des collegium carolinum in bad wiessee vom . bis . november , by herman freudenberger heindl, die protokolle des osterreichischen ministerrates, - , pt. , vol. ill, by norman rich (v h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s x d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms matsch, geschichte des auswdrtigen dienstes von osterreich (-ungarn) - , by enno e. kraehe zollner, geschichte osterreichs. von den anfdngen bis zur gegenwart, th ed., by helen liebel-weckowicz vajda, felix austria. eine geschichte osterreichs, by william a. jenks gutkas, geschichte niederosterreichs, by helen liebel-weckowicz . . hoffmann, osterreich und das land ob der enns, by evan b. bukey.. zaunerand slapnicka, oberosterreicher. lebensbilder zur geschichte oberosterreichs, vol. ii, by evan b. bukey zauner and slapnicka, oberosterreicher. lebensbilder zur geschichte oberosterreichs, vol. ill, by peter pabisch csendes, geschichte wiens, by barbara jelavich kann and prinz, deutschland und osterreich. ein bilaterales geschichtsbuch, by konrad h. jarausch lutz and rumpler, osterreich und die deutsche frage im . und . jahrhundert. probleme der politisch-staatlichen und sozio-kulturellen differenzierung im deutschen mitteleuropa, by radomir v. luza etudes historiques hongroises , publiees a i'occasion du xv congres international des sciences historiques par la commission nationale des historiens hongrois, by imre bard nehring, comitatus gemeriensis, by zoltdn j. kosztolnyik heller, comitatus zempliniensis, and heller, comitatusszathmariensis, by z. j. kosztolnyik kosztolnyik, five eleventh century hungarian kings: their policies and their relations with rome, by thomas von bogyay zimsnyi, la pologne et la hongrie auxxvi '-xviw siecles. textes du colloque polono-hongrois, by keith hitchins jagellonian university, studia austro-polonica, vol. ii, by edward d. wynot, jr v h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s x d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms jagellonian university, studia austro-polonica, vol. ill, by gunther e. rothenberg wiesflecker, kaiser maximilian i. das reich, osterreich und europa an der wende zurneuzeit, vol. iv, by paula sutter fichtner kirchhofer, erinnerungen eines wiener bur germeisters - 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poland], by lawrence d. orton niederhauser, the rise of nationality in eastern europe, by gale stokes kessler, politik, kultur und gesellschaft in kroatien und slawonien in der ersten hdlfte des . jahrhunderts. historiographie undgrundlagen, by ivo banac vi h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s x d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms balid, die kultur der bosniaken, supplement i, by davor kapetanic schremmer, technischer fortschritt an der schwelle zur industrialisierung. ein innovativer durchbruch mit verfahrenstechnologie bei den alpenldndischen salinen, by j. robert wegs sandgruber, die anfdnge der konsumgesellschaft. konsumgiiterverbrauch, lebensstandard 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brain tissue injury and preservation of artistic skill behavioral sciences article braque and kokoschka: brain tissue injury and preservation of artistic skill d. w. zaidel department of psychology, university of california at los angeles, hilgard avenue, los angeles, ca , usa; dahliaz@g.ucla.edu received: june ; accepted: august ; published: august abstract: the neural underpinning of art creation can be gleaned following brain injury in professional artists. any alteration to their artistic productivity, creativity, skills, talent, and genre can help understand the neural underpinning of art expression. here, two world-renown and influential artists who sustained brain injury in world war i are the focus, namely the french artist georges braque and the austrian artist oskar kokoschka. braque is particularly associated with cubism, and kokoschka with expressionism. before enlisting, they were already well-known and highly regarded. both were wounded in the battlefield where they lost consciousness and treated in european hospitals. braque’s injury was in the left hemisphere while kokoschka’s was in the right hemisphere. after the injury, braque did not paint again for nearly a whole year while kokoschka commenced his artistic works when still undergoing hospital treatment. their post-injury art retained the same genre as their pre-injury period, and their artistic skills, talent, creativity, and productivity remained unchanged. the quality of their post-injury artworks remained highly regarded and influential. these neurological cases suggest widely distributed and diffuse neural control by the brain in the creation of art. keywords: brain and art; neuropsychology and art; brain damage; artists . background the recent decade has seen a remarkable expansion in the understanding of the neural underpinning of the arts. this can largely be attributed to a major conceptual breakthrough in which the aesthetic reaction of viewers (aesthetic experience) to art was determined to be separate from the art creation/production process. the techniques for measuring these two aspects of art apply different scientific strategies. functional neuroimaging of healthy viewers reacting to artwork provides inroads into the neural underpinning of aesthetic evaluation [ – ]. the general consensus from these studies is that multiple brain regions and pathways are involved in aesthetic evaluation. this suggests that layers of our concepts of art aesthetics need to be peeled in order to understand how each active brain region contributes to the aesthetic experience. in this special issue, “neuropsychology of art,” three papers emphasize the viewers’ aesthetic reactions through the examination of neuroimaging empirical data [ ], the examination of neuroimaging literature [ ], and the examination of the reactions in light of mirror neurons and psychoanalytic considerations [ ]. for the creation of the art itself, observations of established artists with acquired brain injury provide the insights necessary to explore the nature of the neural underpinning of the production aspect. the questions pursued concern whether or not single or multiple neural circuitries are involved, the hemispheric specialization role [ ], as well as any post-injury alterations in the artist regarding skill, talent, personal oeuvre, and creativity [ – ]. the focus in the present paper is on the creation aspect of art through a discussion of world-renown artists, braque and kokoschka, both of whom sustained penetrating head injuries in world war i (wwi). behav. sci. , , ; doi: . /bs www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /bs http://www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci behav. sci. , , of inferring cognitive functions of the mind from patients with brain lesions has been a widely accepted method in brain research. the same strategy applies to art. an early assumption, not founded on empirical studies, was that the right hemisphere specializes in producing and aesthetically reacting to art. unfortunately, the assumption became prevalent, and eventually was challenged [ ]. indeed, close examination of the artworks of artists with brain injury revealed otherwise [ , – ]. what was unraveled from such artists suggests that unilateral injury in the right hemisphere does not abolish the ability to produce art, something one would expect if the right hemisphere specialized in this function, and that damage in either hemisphere does not lead to deficits in the artistic ability, talent, skill, or creativity of established professional artists [ ]. the current emerging view is that artworks tap functions specialized in both hemispheres and involve widely distributed neural pathways that contribute to its production. the effects of brain injury on artists continue to fascinate and provide insights. in the cases described below, the main interests lie in any alteration of their pre-injury genre, their artistic skills, and their creativity. the neurological cases of braque and kokoschka have not been discussed in detail previously. they are important because both were highly accomplished and influential artists, both before and after their brain injury. . georges braque georges braque ( – ) was an innovative, world-renown, and highly influential french artist linked mainly with the school of cubism. he was a painter, draughtsman, sculptor, and engraver whose early interest in cubism reflected the influence of artist paul cezanne [ ]. “braque found in cezanne a fragmented plane, straddling nature and painting that was to become the principles governing his own oeuvre” [ ] (p. ). in his own cubist art, braque expressed the idea of object fragmentation combined with emphasis on geometrical forms. through his personal and professional relationship with pablo picasso, for over six years cubist characteristics were enriched and developed [ ]. the volume of cubist artworks produced by these two artists was prolific, innovative, and influential [ , ]. then, in , wwi broke out, and in august of that year braque enlisted in the french army [ ]. on may , in one of the battles in france, he sustained a head wound from a piece of shrapnel in a section of the battlefield that lay outside the trench. when he lost consciousness as a result of the shrapnel, he was thought to have died. only a day later, a search party found and rescued him. the medical treatment in the hospital consisted of drilling a hole into his skull (a procedure known as trepanation), which resulted in braque experiencing temporary blindness and a two-day coma from which he recovered only around may [ ]. his physical recovery lasted nearly a year, and during that time reportedly he did not paint. a formal neurological report of his hospital treatment has not been published, but details of his medical and physical condition are known from descriptions offered by himself, several of his friends, and his wife [ , , , ]. importantly, further critical clues can be deduced from a single photograph: at one point in , when braque was convalescing in sorgues, a photograph of a seated braque was taken at henri lauren’s studio in the same town [ ]. we can see a rather thick absorbent gauze pad over a circumscribed area in the left side of his head, suggesting that it covered the wound. the gauze was held in place by a large bandage wrapped around his head. assuming that the published photograph was not mirror-reversed, the wound was in the left side of the head. the gauzed region appears to correspond roughly to the left parietal lobe and possibly the superior temporal lobe. it does not appear to cover the left temple behind which broca’s area lies, nor is it positioned so far back in the head to include the occipital lobe. indeed, there has not been any mention by his friends and associates of aphasia or any other language disturbances, and similarly no reports of right hand or leg paralysis. those are symptoms we would expect from damage to the left hemisphere. there has also been no mention of right spatial hemi-neglect, prosopagnosia, spatial agnosia, or left hand and leg paralysis, all symptoms we would expect if the right hemisphere were damaged. whatever the localization of the damage in the left hemisphere, braque did not paint for nearly a year afterwards. behav. sci. , , of some comments on the medical practice of trepanation and head wounds in wwi are worthwhile. the practice then was applied to alleviate pressure caused by blood clots, to remove shell fragments, bullets, hair, abscesses, or to drain built-up liquid forming under the skull bone [ ]. after burring, sometimes surgeons used their own fingers to remove foreign bodies, but if not done gently enough, this could cause injury to the brain tissue. magnets were also used to remove metallic pieces. it is not known for certain how many holes were actually burred in his skull, but since with trepanation the goal was not to injure cerebral tissue, we should assume that no substantial tissue damage was inflicted in braque’s case. when he did resume painting, which was around the summer of [ ], he picked up artistically where he left off at the start of the war, namely, his characteristic oeuvre of cubism, and more particularly what is known as synthetic cubism [ , ]. not only were the geometric forms produced again, straight lines made with a ruler, objects overlapping each other, both animate and inanimate, but the pre-war technique of papier collé was applied as well [ ]. “for although the picture space [in cubism] had become independent of external reality, the subject matter had lost none of its rights. quite the opposite—it had a greater function than ever, it was simply that the subject matter no longer had any meaning outside the picture. that was the fundamental principle that governed braque’s work from until the end. the interruption caused by the first world war did not affect his development in any way, as has often been said” [ ] (p. ). significantly for the present discussion, after the war he did not produce an entirely new artistic genre, nor did he return to his pre-cubist genres (i.e., fauvism, neo-impressionism). indeed, he proceeded to develop and expand his artistic expression within the cubist tradition for many years. one can reasonably argue that his brain injury did not produce extensive tissue damage to have inflicted major deficits on his artistic cognition. with the absence of detailed medical reports of his case, the extent of the damage cannot be ascertained with certainty. however, from available non-medical behavioral descriptions made around the time of his injury, it is clear that he was unable to create art. this suggests that neural damage was present. upon neural recovery, he returned to his art seemingly unscathed. . oskar kokoschka oskar kokoschka ( – ) was a well-known austrian artist who painted in the expressionist tradition. he was also a poet and a playwright. in wwi, he fought on the side of austria and suffered a head wound. on august , a bullet penetrated his skull during a russian ambush on his troops in sikiryczy, ukraine. this wound, together with a bayonet lance into his lung, rendered him unconscious long enough to have been thought dead by others on his side of the battle. the bullet was not lodged in his brain, but had exited. in his autobiography [ ], he describes the events that transpired during that battle: his left hand became paralyzed, presumably as a result of the head wound to the right hemisphere (he does not actually report the head side). following his rescue, he reported that he had difficulties in walking and seeing. both his balance and vision were affected by the head wound, and for the rest of his life he suffered from bouts of vertigo. after a few months in the hospital, and despite all of his symptoms, he was considered fit to return to the battlefield, this time on hungarian territory fighting against italian troops. there, shells exploding near his position rendered him shell-shocked. hungarian orderlies transported him to a hospital in vienna where lesions in his cerebellum were inferred from x-rays. normal gait balance is maintained by the cerebellum. to restore his balance, he underwent countless sessions of therapy consisting of induced painful spasms, which he found hard to endure to such an extent that thoughts of suicide formed in his mind [ ]. in the fall of , he was again subjected to painful experiments, this time in the swedish laboratory of nobel prize winner robert barany. he reports that he stayed in sweden for that purpose for a period of six to eight weeks, and during that time he continued to paint new works, still in the style of expressionism. behav. sci. , , of to the best of my knowledge, the exact point of bullet penetration and its path of destruction in his brain have not been reported. the left hand paralysis he experienced on the battlefield was reversible. no mention of neuropsychological right hemisphere symptoms appears in the writings about him by others or in his own observations of himself. whatever the nature of brain tissue damage caused by the bullet, it did not hamper his artistic talent and skills. unlike braque, who did not paint for a whole year following his injury, kokoschka never ceased to paint and write, even while receiving medical treatments and convalescing from his wound. in hospitals in vienna and dresden he wrote plays and painted paintings, and similarly while in the hospital in sweden he continued to paint. important to the main argument here is that, despite damage to brain tissue, he continued with the same genre he had practiced prior to the war. he did not create new genres or new styles, and his motivation to create and innovate did not wane. . other established artists as with braque and kokoschka, numerous other professional prolific artists with damage to brain tissue continued to create art without loss of talent or skill [ ]. one of these was a french artist p.a. from marseilles. his case was described by vigouroux et al. [ ]. at the age of years, he had a right hemisphere stroke that resulted in paralysis in the left side of his body as well as in a left hemi-neglect of space. the effects of the neglect were reflected in not painting in the spaces positioned to the left side of the canvas. neurological patients with right hemisphere damage, especially if the parietal lobe is involved, commonly suffer from this condition; they attend only to the right half of their space, including their imaginary space formed in their mind’s eye [ , ]. there are classic examples of this phenomenon: patients draw only the right half of a clock, flower, house, face, and other objects. they also fail to orient in the direction of a speaker who stands in their left side. in most such cases, the hemi-neglect is relatively short-lived, and this seems to have been the case with p.a. prior to the cerebral stroke, p.a. created paintings and drawings depicting scenery, everyday interactions of people, as well as nude women; some were painted with bright colors while some were in pale shades or as line drawings. in his post-injury artistic life, there was no alteration in these choices nor in his genre [ ]. this case, too, shows that artistic talent and skill are not mediated by neural pathways specialized unilaterally in one hemisphere and that, instead, they are diffusely controlled by neural pathways in the brain. . general discussion despite serious brain injury, the established and highly regarded visual artists described here resumed making their art without noticeable alterations in their personal oeuvre, talent, skill, or creativity—all elements that define the artistic endeavor. the genre represents the principle artistic choice of expression through the themes, concepts, ideas, design structure, organization, appearance, colors, and many more elements. the genre of choice communicates what is in the mind of the artist. at the cultural historical times of their work, their artworks continued to be highly regarded and influential. braque, in particular, was a major figure in the art world at that time and his stature continued unabated. previously, boller reported preserved artistic abilities following a stroke in a french artist [ ] and vigouroux [ ], reporting on artist p.a., remarked that his artistic interests and skills were not altered post-injury. similarly, a review of many other post-injury artists revealed lack of alterations whether in the visual, musical, or literary arts, and regardless of etiology [ ]. importantly, the hemispheric laterality of the damage has not been found to cause detrimental effects on artistic abilities [ , , ]. ultimately, subjecting paintings and other visual artworks of artists with brain injury to microscopic computer digital analysis has the potential for revealing details in the artists’ pre- compared to post-injury methods. this has not yet been applied in the artists under discussion here. future studies of digital analyses (e.g., [ , ]), might unravel additional interesting information. behav. sci. , , of motoric hand use problems may arise as a result of the hemispheric side of the damage. with left hemisphere damage leading to right hand paralysis, right-handed artists switch to the use of the non-dominant hand (e.g., [ , , ]). in such cases, the artistic cognition per se is not altered; the left hand lacks the same steady control and muscle strength exhibited pre-damage by the right hand, and the consequences of the switch to the non-dominant hand is reflected in brush pressure, stroke thickness, line curvature, or clay consistency (by sculptors), as well as in other features. accommodation to the control of the hand itself is incorporated into the final appearance of the artwork. in such cases, the effect on the art, if any, is not central to the principle artistic cognition, which drives the artwork; peripheral motoric issues can be observed in manual activities in non-artists with similar brain injury as well. in any case, there was no switch of handedness as a result of the brain injury with braque, kokoschka, or p.a. similarly, brain injury can lead to specific perceptual deficits that are not unique to art or to artists. an example of this is hemi-neglect for the left half of space following right hemisphere injury. visual artists with this type of injury typically do not paint in the left half of the canvas [ , , , ]. however, these cannot be considered to be art-related effects since the neglect symptoms are present in non-artists as well, and in many such cases the phenomenon is not permanent. consequently, eventually, with the passage of post-injury time, artists fill in the left half of their canvas. furthermore, artists’ production abilities appear unaffected by this type of brain injury. there is no loss of artistic talent and expressive abilities. this outcome suggests that the artistic cognitive endeavor, which includes the units listed above, can be controlled by undamaged regions and pathways and are likely to be neurally distributed in the brain. in the great majority of cases, artists go on producing their works despite their brain injury [ ]. what is it about the neural underpinning of the creation aspect of art that spares it from serious brain injury, unlike the brain localized effects on language, for example? a critical feature of the human brain is that it supports cognitive symbolic and abstract thinking as well as referential communicative abilities more than any other animal [ – ]. this is the underpinning of humans’ sophisticated language. vocabulary and syntax together allow humans to make an infinite number of combinations that together convey a wide range of meaningful utterances. furthermore, abstract and symbolic thinking is also the bases for art creation and appreciation. this can explain partly why only humans make art; it does not fully explain why brain injury largely spares the production of it. the answer may lie in what role art has come to play in human society. we need to take a broader perspective through the exploration of the evolutionary pressures on the human brain. the evolutionary trajectory that led to the eventual emergence of homo sapiens [ , ] involved overcoming survival hurdles in which social groups with emphasis on unity-for-survival played a major role [ , ]. of all the hominins, homo sapiens seem to be the only ones to make art [ ]. for socially-oriented early human groups language became a highly efficient method of communication, and its evolution has deep roots going back to non-human primates tens of millions of years. art, too, is a communicative system, but its roots cannot simply be traced to other primates; they do not produce art. art supplements language by facilitating the sharing of emotions, experiences, ideas, thoughts, and symbols of social identity, and for these probable reasons it promoted bonding among the early group’s members in efforts to survive harsh environmental conditions with limited food sources. these could be some of the underlying reasons for how art became a form of communication that supplements language. unlike language, where neural control in the brain is highly localized (mainly in the left hemisphere), the advantage of art’s communicative format is that humans have increased their ability to express their inner and external life’s experiences through widely distributed systems in the brain. it explains in part why brain injury of the kind described here does not lead to significant alterations in art expression. acknowledgments: i thank the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful input and useful comments on the earlier version of the manuscript. behav. sci. , , of conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references . cela-conde, c.j.; 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[crossref] [pubmed] © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /leon_a_ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /fnhum. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rstb. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /a http://dx.doi.org/ . /ejsp. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	background 	georges braque 	oskar kokoschka 	other established artists 	general discussion yeats, stevens, eliot: eras and legacies, an interview with marjorie perloff yeats, stevens, eliot: eras and legacies, an interview with marjorie perloff edward ragg, marjorie perloff wallace stevens journal, volume , number , spring , pp. - (article) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /wsj. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /wsj. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ the wallace stevens journal . (spring ): – . © johns hopkins university press. yeats, stevens, eliot: eras and legacies, an interview with marjorie perloff edward ragg edward ragg: your first book, published in , was devoted to yeats, and for several decades you have written about, taught, commented, and reflected on many of the major twentieth-century poets, as well as, more recently, their twenty-first-century inheritors, explicating, in particular, the evolution of modernist and postmodernist avant-gardes. how would you compare and contrast the changing reputations and influence of such now-canonical figures as yeats, stevens, and eliot on poetry and poetics both in their own times and since? marjorie perloff: yeats, stevens, eliot? the major shift in our time is that yeats is all but written out of histories of modernism, at least in the us. courses on modernism tend to be almost exclusively on american modern- ism, and so yeats does not figure. then, too, given his dates ( – ), yeats seems increasingly to be pushed back into the nineteenth century. after all, he still wrote his poems in metrical stanzas, and his “high” style has little in common with that of the american modernists from pound and eliot to h.d. and marianne moore (the latter, increasingly, seen as one of the central modernist poets), or robert frost and langston hughes. contemporary students of poetry, and especially those in creative writing, hardly know he exists: he has been relegated to courses on irish literature or perhaps on the decadence, which has become an important scholarly subject in recent years, witness vincent sherry’s modernism and the reinvention of decadence. perhaps the questioning of yeats’s “modern- ism” is in part a necessary corrective: when i was going to graduate school in the s, every other student of modernism was writing a dissertation on yeats! gayatri spivak (then at iowa) is a case in point. then again, yeats remains an important poet for the broader public, especially in the uk, as is the case with eliot. eliot is also largely untaught in the academy today, where his politics, his devout christianity, and his misogyny make him a problematic subject in the age of trigger warnings. at the same time, eliot is enormously popular with a broader public. i’ve just come back from teaching at the t. s. eliot international summer school in london and i can assure your readers that eliot remains, for yeats, stevens, eliot: eras and legacies, an interview with marjorie perloff many poetry lovers, the great twentieth-century poet. his letters, now in the process of publication, already take up six volumes and roughly , pages: and that’s only up to (eliot died in !). someone is buying these massive volumes! in , stevens is probably taught more widely than either yeats or eliot. he is acceptable to all as a “great” american poet, even if accusa- tions of racism and conservative politics sometimes cloud the picture. as stevens’s lyric poetry recedes into the past, he is seen as the natural heir of emerson, whitman, and even dickinson, though he barely knew her work. it is stevens’s americanism (eliot, after all, was an expatriate), his sense of time and place, his relation to pragmatist philosophy and impact on our later poets that puts him squarely at the center of things. e.r.: in terms of their poetics and attitudes toward poetry, as expressed implicitly or explicitly in poems and often explicitly in their essays on po- etry, are there revealing points of comparison, do you think, among these three poets? have these points of comparison become more apparent with the passing of time and our evolving sense of modernism? m.p.: well, all three poets write a difficult, oblique, indirect poetry, meant to challenge the reader. and all three are aesthetes, who believe that art redeems life, makes life worth living. they are not populists who believe poetry is part of everyday life! but there the similarity stops. one would never confuse the three. yeats’s aesthetic is still essentially romantic and features the antithetical poet, wearing a mask, confronting a hostile middle-class public. his poetry is highly rhetorical and dramatic and makes use of traditional stanzas. eliot’s poetry is much more thematic, dealing with ethical issues, although obliquely so. his poems are more concrete and particular than yeats’s, as geographic as they are histori- cal. stevens is the most abstract and “art for art’s sake” of the three: his lifelong concern with the imagination vis-à-vis reality—the “pressure of reality” (cpp )—is distinctive. yeats would never have pitted art vs. reality in that way. at the same time, both yeats and eliot are more innovative at the sound level than is stevens. to the end, stevens writes in unrhymed quatrains or tercets (and sometimes longer stanzas), whose base line is a loose iambic pentameter, to be expanded or shrunk, in keeping with the poet’s thought patterns. it is an entirely adequate form, but not especially inventive. e.r.: you stated in “‘pound/stevens: whose era?’ revisited”—coincid- ing with your book of the same year, st-century modernism: the “new” poetics ( )—that modernism “remains unfinished” ( ). is that simply a trait of modernism itself or do you see modernism as something that is still evolving in the twenty-first century? yeats modernized his poetic the wallace stevens journal diction repeatedly over his career, but is not easily described, as you note, as modernist. stevens and eliot are clearly more modernist, eliot especially, while stevens has gradually been accepted more by the later avant-garde poets of the twentieth century and current period—susan howe being a noted champion of stevens in particular. but what do yeats, stevens, and eliot still have to teach us now that modernism is over a hundred years of age? m.p.: modernism remains “unfinished,” i believe, in that we are still essentially living in the modernist period and subject to the modernist aura. how can that be in , a full hundred years after the publication of eliot’s “prufrock”? didn’t a vocal postmodernism arise in response to modernism and question all its premises? it looked that way back in the s, when critics like ihab hassan were busy contrasting the two movements or periods. but, by the s, we began to realize that noth- ing had quite replaced those revolutionary modernist features: collage, fragmentation, alinearity, the absence of closure, decenteredness, indeter- minacy. in retrospect, the modernism of the world war i era constituted a real break with the past. the new industrialized urban west stood in stark opposition to nineteenth-century fiction and poetry—and, of course, painting. whatever, say, cubism owed to earlier painters, when picasso and braque first showed their canvases, audiences didn’t know what to make of them—they represented something new. stevens’s poems have been called romantic odes, but read coleridge’s “dejection: an ode” and then, say, “the man on the dump,” and the distinction between poetic modes and epochs is perfectly obvious. modernism remains “unfinished” because we have yet to surpass it. e.r.: al filreis has followed stevens’s poetic afterlife closely, and bart eeckhout and lisa goldfarb’s poetry and poetics after wallace stevens ( ) has shown in some detail the very wide range of poets for whom stevens is relevant today, or, at least, worth sparring with. could it be said that stevens, despite some initial resistance from the language poets, has become more significant for contemporary poets and poetics than either yeats or eliot? m.p.: that depends on which contemporary poets you choose to consider. stevens was always the poet revered by mainstream american poets, from anthony hecht and john hollander to adrienne rich and jorie graham. john ashbery has always been considered the heir of stevens, with harold bloom emphasizing the bond, and susan howe has declared herself again and again a disciple of stevens. but beware of the anxiety of influence! as time goes on, i detect a major eliot influence in both the work of ashbery and of howe, and the latter is also a devotee of yeats, on whose poetry she was brought up by her irish mother. in the midnight, for example, yeats yeats, stevens, eliot: eras and legacies, an interview with marjorie perloff holds a central position. and the layout of a howe poem is much closer to the visual poetics of eliot than to the fairly traditional layout of the typical stevens poem. at the same time, we have to recognize that large congeries of us poets— from black mountain and the beats to language and conceptual poet- ics—are not especially indebted to yeats, eliot, or stevens, taking their direction instead from william carlos williams or from european and latin american models. and then, of course, african american poets have also looked elsewhere for their models, and women poets have turned to emily dickinson and other women poets for inspiration. still, as we move closer to the s and the th anniversary of the waste land, it may well be eliot, long scorned for his political conser- vatism and orthodox anglicanism, who will once again be center stage, quite simply because he is such an extraordinary poet. he wrote relatively little poetry, but every word is chosen with astonishing care, and the rhythms are endlessly varied and brilliant. his earlier poetry especially captures the peculiar tensions and stress points of modern living in ways that still captivate students. i’m thinking of lines like “of restless nights in one-night cheap hotels / and sawdust restaurants with oyster-shells” ( ). consider the relationship of “restless” to “restaurants,” the latter word originally referring to a place of refuge, of refreshment needed so as to continue on one’s way. so the substitution of, say, “bistros” or “cafes” for “restaurants” would destroy the whole passage. and, as in the case of pound, the more time that goes by, the less upset- ting the poet’s politics or cultural attitudes. dante was no sweet innocent, no progressive, but we seem to have forgotten all about the guelph- ghibelline conflict in his native florence. e.r.: you are a much-traveled scholar who has been addressing an increas- ingly diverse, global audience over the years. what has struck you about the changing fates and varying poetic statuses of yeats, stevens, and eliot in different parts of the world? what do you see as the main driving forces behind these dynamics of change? are there evolutions in this regard that you view with excitement and others that are causes for concern? m.p.: this is a very challenging question. i am always fascinated by na- tional differences when it comes to the response to a given poet. let me begin with yeats. i’m on the board of the yeats journal of korea. their yeats society is extremely active, and, for reasons i don’t quite understand, yeats is very popular in korea and also in japan, given his work on noh plays, as well as in india, where his symbolism is much studied. perhaps it is yeats’s “spiritualism” that appeals to readers in these east asian coun- tries. in a deeply secular europe, where increasingly modernist poetry studies focus on american rather than british poetry, i don’t find yeats much talked about—although, of course, he remains a very respectable the wallace stevens journal dissertation subject. and in my visits to brazil, i hear little about yeats; his work seems relatively remote. the eliot situation is different. in india, even after years of colonial rule, eliot remains somehow the # poet. at the recent eliot summer school, a large proportion of the students came from india. their english is, of course, very good, and they have strong interests in eliot’s “spiritualism,” his concern for something beyond the material. eliot is widely studied in europe, but there is also skepticism about his religious turn and his misogyny. as for stevens, we have witnessed a real change in recent years. until the s or so, french poeticians used to shrug off stevens with the words “we already have mallarmé.” stevens seemed too “french,” too “sym- bolist,” not sufficiently american. and in germany, stevens was long regarded as a bit quaint, what with his bucks clattering “over oklahoma” and his placement of a jar in tennessee (cpp , ). but in recent years, the europeans have come to appreciate stevens as the unique poet he is, and i always find much interest in stevens in east asia. the british, who never warmed up to williams, have always regarded stevens almost as one of their own. frank kermode singled stevens out for study, as did other british scholars. but—and here is a great irony—none of the above is as popular in europe, asia, or latin america, or (i gather) in north africa and the middle east, as is ezra pound. there are very active pound societies in china and japan; in brazil, the concrete poets augusto and haroldo de campos long ago claimed pound as their mentor; and the cantos, with their many languages, their deployment of the “chinese written character,” and so on, have a large appeal. then, too, pound’s biography—his being jailed for treason, his stay in a mental hospital, his defiance of authority—these are appealing to foreign readers. and pound’s work as a translator is especially important. stevens was not a translator, eliot just barely, but pound’s devotion to “transcreation” of poetry from other languages has won him much support abroad. we must also take into account the difficulty of translating stevens’s poetry. his tone is especially hard to duplicate and the transitions are so subtle. e.r.: lee jenkins has written poignantly about stevens’s poetic contem- poraries (in wallace stevens in context). she notes how williams adopted “dear fat stevens” in kora in hell as one of the “stay-at-home american modernists who,” unlike eliot and pound, “had not ‘run to london’” ( ). how would you describe the consequences of stevens never being involved in a european avant-garde or other movement, notwithstand- ing his contact with duchamp and other european artists through the arensberg circle in new york? put differently, how was stevens’s reputa- tion shaped by his largely american experience, in contrast with yeats yeats, stevens, eliot: eras and legacies, an interview with marjorie perloff and eliot, given these latter poets’ more public connections with literary, artistic, and other worlds, whether in london or elsewhere? m.p.: stevens was the poet who stayed home, whose poetics are squarely in the american tradition, despite a certain french overlay, as in “sea surface full of clouds.” in recent decades, much work has been done on stevens’s emersonianism and his relations to william james and charles peirce (see, for instance, joan richardson). he is in many ways the representative mod- ernist american poet, along with williams and moore. his pennsylvania childhood, his isolated years in new york, his work for an insurance com- pany in hartford: all these are things later american poets can relate to. just as readers around the world appreciate whitman and dickinson as quintessentially american, so stevens is increasingly seen as the real thing: no expatriate games, no social climbing, no sense of inferiority vis-à-vis the european tradition. the depth of his very american poetry makes up for what may seem like an absence of breadth. and stevens’s consistent concern for the natural world has gained wide appeal in our ecological climate. e.r.: clearly, both yeats and eliot had more definitively public careers than stevens in the sense of their respective roles as cultural arbiters. one thinks of yeats’s involvement in irish nationalism and the irish national theatre and eliot’s career as literary critic, playwright, and publisher. stevens is generally considered to incline more toward privacy, both tem- peramentally and socially, and the abstract tenor of much of his poetry is, rightly or wrongly, traced to this “temperament” (a word preferred by the poet himself in discussion of his favorite painter, cézanne, in “the figure of the youth as virile poet” [cpp ]). however, interest in stevens’s prose, especially his public lectures and essays, has grown in recent years. how would you characterize the different public profiles of these three poets and how would you evaluate the importance of their prose works in relation to their poetries? m.p.: of the three, yeats is obviously the great public figure. playwright, theater director, irish senator, journalist: yeats made his living from his prose writings as well as his public activities. he was astonishingly prolific and his views on philosophy and religion have been taken very seriously. at the same time, many people—say, w. h. auden—regarded yeats’s involvement in theosophical movements, his faith in the occult, and his “system” in a vision as wrongheaded, if not foolish, and today yeats’s “ideas” are rarely taken seriously. his politics, which became increasingly conservative, have also been decried. but his autobiographies is certainly a major literary text, and there are essays like “per amica silentia lunae” that read like prose poems. the wallace stevens journal yeats’s other activities did not interfere with his writing of poetry. he wrote a great deal, whereas eliot, after “ash wednesday,” all but stopped writing poetry except for the four quartets of the late s and early ’ s. eliot became a major critic—much more of a critic than yeats, i believe— and, of course, an editor and publisher. his criticism set the stage for the new criticism and beyond, but as a poet his output was, however im- portant, quite small, and the plays have never won the wide audience his poetry has commanded. i for one don’t care for the plays at all. and his religious and political writings have been—and continue to be—very con- troversial. yet the poetry itself makes up in quality for its lack of quantity. every line, every word counts! stevens is, to my mind, the purest poet of the three, but not an important essayist. the “adagia” may be grouped with his poems: these short apho- ristic prose texts are best read side by side with the lyrics. and stevens was a great letter writer; many letters, again, are almost poems. the essays are, of course, of great interest to stevens scholars because information derived from them can help us to read the poetry. but i find them less than compelling. i don’t think stevens was—or wanted to be—a critic or cul- tural commentator. i realize that interest in his public lectures has, as you say, grown. but his “ideas” and critical arguments are not very striking, and we have to remember that he was a busy insurance executive. one cannot compare his essays to, say, “tradition and the individual talent” or “hamlet and his problems”—essays that changed the very course of literary study. e.r.: stevens is arguably closer to williams and moore than to yeats or eliot in terms of poetic affinities or, at least, poetic friendships. what do you make of eliot’s alleged dragging of his feet when it came to faber publishing stevens? bearing in mind stevens’s own comments on eliot and their very different attitudes toward religion—notwithstanding the former’s alleged deathbed conversion to catholicism and a shared, if very different, interest in “belief”—would you say that eliot did have an im- pact on stevens’s reputation, at least in britain and perhaps in america? m.p.: eliot’s “dragging of feet” says more about him than about stevens. as an editor (of the criterion and then at faber & faber), eliot was cu- riously snobbish about his fellow americans. he seems always to have preferred european writers, even ones that now seem quite dated or mi- nor. he did not admire williams either and, in general, kept aloof from american modernist poetry, with the exception of marianne moore, whom he found “eccentric” and interesting and who could not be regarded as a competitor. and eliot remained loyal to pound all his life, whether or not he actually “liked” the cantos, for he knew what pound had done for him. stevens was another matter. he probably seemed too romantic to eliot, too personal, too solipsistic. conversely, eliot was not stevens’s cup of yeats, stevens, eliot: eras and legacies, an interview with marjorie perloff tea—too doctrinaire, too orthodox. reading, pennsylvania, is hardly new england, even if both poets went to harvard. and eliot took seriously his blue-blood heritage, which stevens certainly did not have. but there is no reason why great poets should like and appreciate one another. affiliation doesn’t work that way. williams’s tastes were for some very minor poets like eli siegel. and look at stevens’s high regard for josé rodríguez feo! e.r.: both stevens and eliot absorbed aspects of french symbolism— stevens especially in relation to mallarmé and eliot in relation to baudelaire and laforgue. both poets also embraced paul valéry. but how did these french influences impact differently on stevens and eliot, in your view? m.p.: both poets absorbed indirection and irony—the obliquity of the french symbolists. but whereas eliot created dramatic characters, follow- ing laforgue’s model, stevens preferred mallarméan philosophical medi- tation, often highly abstract, to the nervous raciness of a laforgue. as for baudelaire, it was his catholic sense of original sin that appealed to eliot; stevens doesn’t seem to have been particularly influenced by baudelaire. e.r.: yeats was attracted to radical and esoteric philosophy as well as to the occult, and his sense of history, particularly in terms of the movement of gyres, is idiosyncratic. just as eliot in his literary criticism came to define his own place as a poet in relation to dante and other figures from literary history, yeats provided his readers with a vocabulary for conceiving his role as a contemporary irish poet in relation to both irish and world his- tory. stevens, by contrast, does not essentially create a vocabulary rooted in an interpretation of history, or even cultural change, that enables his readers to conceive of his métier as poet. certainly, stevens does create a special and notably abstract vocabulary, especially in the notion of the “supreme fiction,” which has given his readers tools for interpretation of the poetry. but would it be fair to say that stevens is not as ardent as either eliot or yeats in constructing a poetic legacy in relation to history, be that literary or overall history? undeniably, stevens did intend his work to be taken as a complete statement of sorts (“the whole of harmonium” etc.), and he harbored a definite fear of miscellany. yet those more total- izing gestures are of a different order from how yeats and eliot built their respective poetic worlds, are they not? m.p.: i agree with this diagnosis completely. for stevens, as denis donoghue once said, the past was not only dead, but deadly. there is little interest in or concern for history, or even for his own actual past. stevens’s poetic voice operates in the present and is often quite abstracted: the concern is with “now” and what can be generalized about that “now.” stevens draws his imagery from the natural, not the historical world. the wallace stevens journal animals, birds, trees, flowers, plants, the weather, the four seasons: these are the properties of the stevens universe. his final volume is called the rock. and the vocabulary is very much stevens’s own, especially the titles, which are so unique, like “no possum, no sop, no taters”—even though the poem by that name doesn’t mention these particular items! e.r.: thinking further of their corpuses and total careers, how do you con- ceive the late and last works of these poets? late stevens, especially the rock (as you mentioned), and late yeats, especially his last poems, have been occasionally compared in critical literature, especially as stevens’s stature as a poet has grown in light of his late and last work. eliot’s posi- tion seems different, at least in terms of his poetry, the highlights of which must include “the love song of j. alfred prufrock,” the waste land, and four quartets. is it fair to say there is no late great eliot? does this matter? and how do you conceive of late yeats and late stevens? m.p.: like yeats, stevens was a late starter and steadily improved. most critics agree that the rock is one of his best volumes. and stevens’s style evolved from the early exuberant exoticism of “le monocle de mon oncle” to the sparseness of “not ideas about the thing but the thing itself.” eliot is the opposite: he was young and precocious when he wrote “prufrock” in his early twenties. the four quartets represent his “late great” style: he was in his early fifties when he wrote the quartets, his final poem! so he and stevens have opposite trajectories, with yeats closer to stevens than to eliot. e.r.: to return to critical reassessment of these three poets, particularly in light of greater sensitivity in some critical spheres to issues of gender, sexuality, and ethnicity, how do you think modern audiences have come to terms with or contested these poets’ political proclivities or other pref- erences? each was a creature of his time, but each also tended to particu- lar points of difference in their poetries and prose: eliot with his anglo- catholicism, royalism, and anti-semitism, yeats with his irish nationalism and flirtation with fascism (or at least a distaste for democracy), stevens with a racism typical of his generation when faced with representations of the “other.” but do these political differences matter? you have also taken stevens to task on a different but related issue, namely his poetry of war and the coda to “notes toward a supreme fiction”: that he was aloof, abstracted from the “actual world” the poet so often craved. but does modern criticism need to “come to terms” with yeats, stevens, and eliot in relation to their implied or explicit worldviews? m.p.: in my essay on “notes toward a supreme fiction,” i argued that stevens’s poetry suffers somewhat from its failure to include other people in his poems, and i guess i still find the solipsism problematic. stevens yeats, stevens, eliot: eras and legacies, an interview with marjorie perloff was, in his own life, a great solitary, and his introversion can prove to be irritating when he is trying to comment on, say, the meaning of war. i don’t think he had anything interesting to say about war, and his attempts, as in “notes toward a supreme fiction,” fail because the commentary on, say, “major man” relies on generalization. as a “man among other men” (cpp ) stevens had the characteristic prejudices of his time and place. he clearly considered blacks inferior and jews as outsiders. more important, poets were, essentially, men; woman was the muse, but not herself a poet. yet stevens had such a strong sense of integrity, of refusing to be anything he wasn’t, of never writing so as to “sell,” that i believe the public easily forgives him even for such unfortunate titles as “like decorations in a nigger cemetery,” which happens to be one of his great poems—a medi- tation on death. the politics of eliot and yeats are harder to forgive. eliot was quite clearly anti-semitic, although again we must understand that anti-semi- tism as being heavily class-bound and nationalistically derived. jews, in his day in london, were the “other”—strange, exotic, “foreign” creatures; eliot’s mother, for that matter, openly declared she didn’t like “them.” and african americans were regarded as being even more “other”—a differ- ent species. one can never forgive eliot for declaring, at the university of virginia in the mid- s, that society didn’t want to have to accommo- date too many “free-thinking jews.” but his poetry is so brilliant that we can overlook these national and class faults, remembering that they were just about ubiquitous at the time. yeats’s case is a little different because his ideas were often so silly! his version of fascism was to give authority to a group of aristocratic irish leaders like lady gregory; it is hardly a populism. a middle-class and often impecunious yeats increasingly presented himself to his poetry pub- lic as an aristocrat—part of a kind of royal “we.” stevens, despite his lapses, was the most democratic of the three, having absorbed the values of the american republic without excessive fuss—or even interest. but, to conclude, to castigate the three poets in question for their “worldviews” seems to me entirely unfair. one has to understand the first half of the twentieth century so as to read yeats, eliot, and stevens with the sympathy they deserve. it was a very different world from ours, and poetry was considered a higher calling, a resistance to everyday bour- geois existence. pop culture was dismissed as demeaning and cheap. this may be a snobbish view, but it meant that poetry was taken very seriously indeed. one didn’t just sit down and write a few poems on a sunday. and i feel that was a great legacy. the second point—and i’ve already said this—is that poets aren’t nec- essarily “nice” people. some (e.g., louis zukofsky) have the “right” (that is, really, left) politics, but are too self-centered to care about others; some betray their family and friends (robert frost); some fall prey to totalitarian the wallace stevens journal poetics, like pound and, in a different way, bertolt brecht. the modernist writer whose politics i most admire is one we have not mentioned: samuel beckett, who could easily have sat out world war ii in ireland and done nothing to help the cause, and yet joined the resistance in france, risked his life day after day until war’s end and beyond. but, someone might respond, beckett could be quite cruel to the women in his life. we read our poets, finally, not for moral uplift but to marvel at the power of poetic language to invent an alternative universe—a universe that is unique, coherent, and self-contained even as it paradoxically also represents our own desires and confusions. as stevens put it, when the blackbird flew out of sight, it marked the edge of one of many circles. (cpp ) beijing people’s republic of china works cited eeckhout, bart, and lisa goldfarb, editors. poetry and poetics after wallace stevens. bloomsbury, . eliot, t. s. collected poems, – . harcourt brace jovanovich, . filreis, al. “the stevens wars.” boundary , vol. , no. , fall , pp. – . jenkins, lee m. “poetic contemporaries.” wallace stevens in context, edited by glen macleod, cambridge up, , pp. – . perloff, marjorie. “‘pound/stevens: whose era?’ revisited.” the wallace stevens jour- nal, vol. , no. , fall , pp. – . ———. “revolving in crystal: the supreme fiction and the impasse of modernist lyr- ic.” wallace stevens: the poetics of modernism, edited by albert gelpi, cambridge up, , pp. – . ———. st-century modernism: the “new” poetics. wiley-blackwell, . richardson, joan. a natural history of pragmatism: the fact of feeling from jonathan ed- wards to gertrude stein. cambridge up, . sherry, vincent. modernism and the reinvention of decadence. cambridge up, . stevens, wallace. wallace stevens: collected poetry and prose. edited by frank kermode and joan richardson, library of america, . establishing a brain styles test: the ybrains test available online at www.sciencedirect.com – © published by elsevier ltd. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – wces- establishing a brain styles test: the ybrains test chua yan piawa * a university of malaya, institute of principalship studies, level , block c, complex city campus um, jalan tun ismail, kuala lumpur, malaysia abstract teaching with knowledge of students’ thinking and learning styles increases its effectiveness. the ybrains test is developed to help school teachers to understand the thinking and learning readiness levels of their students in the process of providing effective teaching and learning activities. the test was established based on theories and brain experiment research evidences. this article reports the rationale of establishing the test and its validity and reliability. © published by elsevier ltd. keywords: brain style, thinking and learning, ybrains, validity and reliability . background one of the major goals of the malaysian national mission in producing first class human resources, as has been documented in the malaysian education master plan - , is to produce “first class minded” students. specifically, it aims to equip students with science, technology, innovative, creative and all-round soft and hard skills (core element , ministry of education malaysia, , pp ). as a consequence, educational transformation has been initiated, and teaching and learning strategies that focus on enhancing the “human mind”, emphasis on all- round skills in enhancing critical thinking left brain the and creative thinking right brain across school subjects have been introduced at all levels in schools (suresh, ). however, it was observed that the teaching and learning strategies are implemented in schools without considering students’ thinking and learning styles. teaching with knowledge of students’ thinking and learning styles increases its effectiveness. it’s difficult for a school teacher to provide teaching activities and materials that best accommodate students’ thinking and learning styles without knowing students’ thinking and learning styles (chua, ). according to some scholars, matching teaching styles to thinking and learning styles will increase academic achievement and make the teaching and learning process an enjoyable experience (naimie, siraj, chua, shaghoi & ahmad abuzaid, ; chua, ). therefore, an attempt has been initiated to build a test of thinking and learning style. it was developed to help school teachers to understand their students’ thinking and learning styles. the instrument named ybrains, consists of items, was developed based on theories and evidences of brain researches. . theories and evidences of brain styles people naturally learn and think in different ways. split brain experiments’ evidences have indicated that both human brain, i.e. the left and the right brain think and learn, or process information differently. several scholars (springer and deutsch, ; torrance, ; bogen, ) suggested that when people are thinking or learning, they tend to rely on either the left or the right brain. the tendency for a person to rely either the left or the right open access under cc by-nc-nd license. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – brain in processing information is called brain hemisphericity (torrance, ). based on experiences and research findings, educational psychologists (osborn, ; ornstein, ; bamber, and ibrahim, ) argued that an educational practice is one of the factors of brain hemisphericity. for ages, many educational psychologists have recognised the distinctly different roles of both hemispheres of the human brain. traditionally, the left hemisphere has been referred to as the dominant hemisphere, which has more functions in thinking and learning process, and the right hemisphere as the minor hemisphere. however, it is now believed that both of the hemispheres are important in thinking and learning processes. bogen ( ) was the first person who uses the word “brain hemisphericity” or “brain thinking and learning style”. in his “parallel ways of knowing model”, bogen believed that there are two distinct ways of knowing, which are opposite one and the other. the first way of knowing is related to intuition, divergent, imaginative, holistic and subjective ways of thinking (right brain functions). in contrast, the second way of knowing is related to intellect, logical, convergent, rational, sequential, analytic and objective ways of thinking (left brain functions). another scholar, munzert ( ) in his effort to develop an iq test asserted that the differences between left and right hemispheres’ functions are qualified by the mental activities, which are processed in each half of the brain. his theory of “intelligent creativity-creative intelligent” asserted that the left brain is the “intelligence creativity” side, and it is the control centre for such intellectual functions, such as time, memory, numbers, language, speech, logic, analysis, sequence, classification, computation, and seriation. these functions encompass the abilities necessary for academic success. while the right brain is the “creative intelligence” side, and it is the control centre for the mental functions involved space, intuition, attitudes, emotions, extrasensory, rhythm, music, dance, synthesis, fine arts, mechanics, physical coordination, and visual-spatial. similarly, torrance, reynolds, riegel and ball ( ), in their efforts to establish a brain style test (i.e. the your style of learning and thinking test) listed the functions of the left and right brain. the functions of the left brain included recognising and remembering names, responding to verbal instructions, systematic and controlled in experimenting, dependent upon words for meaning, produced logical ideas, processes verbal stimuli, objective processing of information, serious, systematic in solving problems, receptive, abstract thinking, dislike improving, not psychic, little use of metaphor and analogies, responsive to logical, verbal appeals, deal with one problem at a time, sequentially, critical and analytical in reading, logical in solving problems, gives instructions verbally, uses language in remembering, and grasps certain and established truth. on the other hand, the functions of the right brain included recognising and remembering faces, responding to visual and kinaesthetic instructions, playful and loose in experimenting, responds with emotion and feeling, interprets body language, produces humorous ideas, process kinaesthetic stimuli, subjective processing of information, playful in solving problems, self acting; concrete thinking, likes improving; highly psychic, high use of metaphor and analogies, responsive to emotional appeals, deal simultaneously with several problem at same time, creative, synthesising, associating in reading, intuitive in solving problems, gives instructions through movement and gesture, uses images in remembering, and grasps uncertain truth. empirical evidences of the functions of the left and right hemispheres were basically based on the observation on brain damage patients and split brain experiment studies (gazzaniga, ; springer and deutsch, ; and sperry, ). according to the split brain theory, derived from findings of the split brain experiments, the left brain involves with verbal, logical, sequentially-order, rational, realistic, evaluation, critical reasoning, and convergent tasks, while the right brain processes visual, non-verbal, intuition, non-linear, spatial, artistic, musical, holistic, imaginative and creative information (szirony, burgin, & pearson, ; weinberger, ; mcmanus, ; saleh and iran-nejab, ; shiflett, ; ibrahim and davis, ; carol, ; yarlott, ; dombrower, favero, king, dombrower & michael, ; torrance, ; herrmann, ; sperry, ). . indicators of brain styles besides referring the above mentioned theory and models, the items of the ybrains test were developed based on research evidences of split brain experiments including the blood flow technique (lassen, ), dichotic listening technique (bethmann, tempelmann, de bleser, scheich & brechmann, ; kimura, ), electroencephalogram or electrical brain writing technique (galin and ornstein, ), and hemispheric functions on visual stimuli study (levy & trevarthen, ). in additions, findings of the left brain and right brain functions chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – derived from psychological tests such as the literal preference test (porch and coren, ) and the street gestalt completion test (bogen, ) were also be referred. . . left brain style the indicators of left brain thinking and learning style included: good in logical, rational and analytical thinking, evaluate materials in rational way, works in a systematic manner, follows rules, processes information sequentially, or step by step, inhibited in responding emotionally, prefer structured activities, proficient in language and verbal activities, prefer science and mathematics subjects, suitable for works which need the skills of systematic, logical thinking and decision making, prefer words over picture or images when reading, prefer using right side of the body for physical activities (the left brain controls right side of the body), emotion is hardly influent by the people, dislike nonsense and less logic idea, prefer learning language subjects, like to tell real stories, realistic in thinking, like to work in a serious, structured, and office-like environment, like routine and repetitious works, tend to match visual stimuli with its function (derived from the laterality study for hemispheric functions on visual stimuli), and less ability in right brain functions. . . right brain style the indicators of right brain thinking and learning style include: creative, imaginative in thinking, like to produce original ideas, good in spatial relationship, has a highly adventurous and inventive mind, solves problem intuitively, act spontaneously, response with emotion and feeling, prefers open-ended assignment, has a good sense of humour, has an open mind in everyday life, prefer using left side of the body in physical activities like to response to music and art, or innate musical and artistic talent, suitable for works that need the skills of spatial relationships, understand creative expressions in paintings (the aesthetics values of impressionism, surrealism and cubism art works, such as the aesthetics values in vincent van gogh, claude monet and pablo picasso’ paintings), emotion influent by others, good at recall image, like to tell humorous jokes, like to work in a playful environment, inventive in thinking, like non-structured works, tend to match visual stimuli with its appearance, and less ability in left brain functions. . . whole brain style the indicators of whole brain thinking and learning style include: has a balanced thinking style, i.e. presents a mixed style of abilities and characteristics of the left brain and right brain styles, works better with task that needs the skills of both the right and left brain. besides the three brain styles, the test is also measuring the level of openness in thinking. openness is viewed as associated with the right brain functions, such as appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas and imagination (runco & pritzker, ). in the test, the openness levels (open style, mixed style and closed style) are identified based on the following openness indicators: generous in sharing idea with others; like to communicate ideas freely; have positive emotion; extraversion; practicing active listening, and listening with understanding; open to what others are saying; not being unreceptive to other ideas and opinions; and receptive to new experience and changes. it is important for an instructor to identify the openness level of a learner before preparing a lesson because teaching is less effective if the student’s mind is closed for learning. . establishing the ybrains test treffinger ( ) pointed out that there is no single, uniformly accepted theory of thinking, and there is also no single assessment instrument of thinking that is and will be universally accepted. pertaining to brain style, torrance ( ) stated that if information about the specialized functioning of the two cerebral hemispheres is to become useful to educators, educational psychologists must invent a variety of instruments and recalibrate many existing instruments, while starko ( ) asserted that the use of a typical thinking instrument is depended on the need and the purpose of its developer, and varying theories and definitions will support differing types of assessment. chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – according to some well-known educational test developers (torrance, ; watson-glaser, ; taylor and getzels, ), the general criteria for selecting specific thinking test are: ( ) it must have relevance to thinking theory, ( ) it must have relevance to thinking behaviour in the real world, ( ) it must simply a different aspect of thinking behaviour, ( ) it must be attractive to the respondent, ( ) it must be built so that a person can respond in terms of his/her experiences whatever these may have been, ( ) it must yield data that can be scored reliably for meaningful aspects of thinking, and finally, ( ) the testing materials, instructions for administration, time limits, and scoring procedures must be clearly and relevantly stated. the items of the ybrains test were developed based the general criteria suggested by the test developers mentioned above. besides that, the items were also built on the rationale that thinking and learning styles can be identified, quantified, and represented by scores (starko, ). the ybrains test consists of items. the items are used to collect data concerning brain styles (left brain, right brain of whole brain style) and openness level (open style, mixed style or closed style) of a respondent. each item provides respondent with multiple choices – each choice representing a specialised function of the left brain, or a parallel function of the right brain. the respondent is asked to indicate which of the specific brain functions best describes his/her own typical behaviours (not the statement that is correct to most people). the responses are then calculated to obtain a brain style score (divide the total point scored by the number of responses made by the respondent). the brain style score is then categorised into three thinking and learning styles based on a -point index which was divided into three sections: left brain style (section ): . – . points; whole brain style (section ): . - . points; and right brain style (section ): . – . points. for the openness level, the scoring is similar to provide a three sections’ openness styles: open thinking style (section ): . – . points; mixed thinking style (section ): . - . points; and closed thinking style (section ): . – . points (figure ). the whole brain and mixed thinking are set at a narrow range of . - . point (a % of the -point scale) because for a person to be balanced in brain style, the maximum range of difference between the scores of the two hemispheres is %. the three brain styles and thinking styles is then arranged in a two-dimensional matrix, to create a typology diagram (figure ). the typology diagram presents a new model: the brain style model. brain style thinking style open mixed closed left brain whole brain right brain brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . left brain-open thinking style brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . left brain-mixed thinking style brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . left brain-closed thinking style brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . whole brain-open thinking style brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . whole brain-mixed thinking style brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . whole brain-closed thinking style brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . right brain-open thinking style brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . right brain-mixed thinking style brain style score: . - . openness score: . - . right brain-closed thinking style figure : typology diagram of the brain style model generated from the ybrains test the ybrains test is developed in a computer-based system by using a visual basics programme. when a respondent responds to the test items, his learning and thinking styles (left, right or whole brain style, and open, mixed or closed thinking style), as well as the strengths, weaknesses and some suggestion to his style will be presented instantly by the computer programme. besides that, the test uses a nature friendly background to stimulate chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – respondent’s thinking when he responds to the test items. figure indicates an example item and the results of the test in graphical form (the test has won two gold medals in innovation expo, including the st international invention, innovation & technology exhibition, ). figure : an example of test items and the results of the test in graphical form . reliability and validity of the ybrains test the items of the ybrains test were established on the assumptions that thinking and learning styles can be identified, quantified, and represented by scores. in order for these assumptions to be met, instrument used for measurement must meet the test of validity and reliability (starko, ). . . reliability test-retest reliability of the ybrains was conducted in two studies. the first study tested student teachers ( males, females; average age: . years old) of a undergraduate teacher training programme at the kuala lumpur specialist teacher training institute, and retested the same students three months later. the pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were positively significant for both of the thinking and learning styles (left brain style: r= . , p< . ; right brain style: r= . , p< . ). the second test was conducted on sixth-form students ( males, females; average age: . years old) of the seri serdang secondary school in a range of five months in . the product-moment correlation coefficients were also positively significant for both of the thinking and learning styles (left brain style: r= . , p< . ; right brain style: r= . , p< . ). ling ( ) in a study (on a group of secondary school principals: males and females; average age: . years old) reported that the internal consistency reliabilities (cronbach’s alpha values) of the left, right, open and closed style are . , . , . , and . . . . validity the validity of the ybrains test will be presented in terms of content, concurrent, construct and predictive validity. . . . content validity the items of the ybrains test were constructed by attempting to transform theories and research findings regarding the functions of the left brain and right brain into a multiple-choice test format, with each choice representing either a left brain style or a right brain style, and either an open or closed thinking style. . . . concurrent validity chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – concurrent validity examines whether an instrument correlates with current measures. the concurrent validity study for the ybrains test was conducted on a group of students ( males, females; average age: . years old) undergraduate student teachers from the kuala lumpur specialist teacher training institute. the study identified correlation between the ybrains test and two thinking and learning styles instruments. the two instruments are: ( ) the styles of learning and thinking test or solat (torrance, ). the solat test (youth form) consists of items. each item of the test provides two choices – one representing a specialised function of the left brain, and the other representing a specialised function of the right brain. a respondent is asked to indicate which of the two specific learning and thinking styles best describes his own typical behaviour. ( ) the brain works (synergistic learning incorporated, ) test. the brain works test is a items, triple-choice, computer operated self-assessment instrument. the three choices of each item represented the left brain, the right brain, and the mixed brain dominant thinking and learning styles. the results of the two concurrent validity studies are presented in table . as shown in table , the scores of left brain style of the ybrains were positively and significantly correlate with the left brain style of the solat (r= . , p< . ) and the brain works (r= . , p< . ). on the other hand, the scores of right brain style of the ybrains were positively and significantly correlated with the right brain style of the solat (r= . , p< . ) and the brain works (r= . , p< . ). table . correlation between the scores of the ybrains with the scores of the solat and the brain works correlation left brain style right brain style styles of thinking and learning (solat) - ybrains . ** . ** brain works - ybrains . * . * note: *significant at p< . ; **significant at p< . . . . construct validity construct validity asks whether the task on an instrument match generally accepted characteristics of the construct being measured. in determining construct validity, test developer examines scores on instruments attempting to measure the same variable as well as scores on measures of different but related variables (starko, ). in this case, according to the split brain theory derived from the split brain experiment evidences (sperry, ), critical reasoning abilities are functions of the left brain. on the other hand, creative thinking abilities are the functions of the right brain. the instruments are: ( ) the watson-glaser critical thinking appraisal or wgcta (watson & glaser, ). the wgcta test is one of the most prominent critical thinking tests (fulton, ). it was used to measure critical thinking skills of the subjects. it consisted of items. the items are scored for five components of critical thinking based on the watson and glaser’ critical thinking definition. the five components of critical thinking are ( ) inference, ( ) recognition of assumptions, ( ) deduction, ( ) interpretation, and ( ) evaluation of arguments. ( ) the torrance test of creative thinking or ttct test, figural form (torrance, ). the ttct test is the most well known creative thinking test. it has been translated and used in more than different languages (khatena, : ). it was used to measure creative thinking skills of the subjects. it consisted of sub-tests: picture construction, picture completion and lines activity. these sub-tests are scored for five components of creative thinking based on torrance’s definition of creative thinking. the five components are ( ) fluency, ( ) originality, ( ) elaboration, ( ) abstractness of titles, and ( ) resistance to premature closure. the subjects were form four students ( males, females; age: . years old) from the seri serdang secondary school. it was hypothesised that if the instruments reliably measure similar thinking element, one would expects positive relationship, despite the different contents and responses required. the results of the pearson correlations in table clearly indicate certain trends. it indicates that the ybrains scores of left brain style were positively and significantly correlated with the wgcta critical thinking index (r= . , p< . ) and its four components (inference: r=. , p< . ; deduction: r=. , p< . ; interpretation: r=. , p< . ; and evaluation of arguments: r=. , p< . ). on the other hand, the ybrains scores of right brain style were positively and significantly correlated with the ttct creative thinking index (r= . , p< . ) and its four components (fluency: r=. , p< . ; originality: r=. , p< . ; elaboration: r=. , p< . ; and resistance to premature closure: r=. , p< . ). chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – table . correlations between the scores of the ybrains with the scores of the ttct and the wgcta tests correlation ybrains watson-glaser critical thinking appraisal (wgcta) left brain style inference . * recognition of assumptions . deduction . ** interpretation . * evaluation of arguments . * critical thinking index . * torrance test of creative thinking (ttct) right brain style fluency . * originality . * elaboration . * abstractness of titles . resistance to premature closure . * creative thinking index . * note: *significant at p< . ; **significant at p< . however, the relative low and insignificant correlation between the recognition of assumptions score of the wgcta and the left brain style score of the ybrains (r= . , p> . ) suggests that the two tests measuring different aspects of critical thinking similarly, the relative low correlation between the abstractness of titles score of the ttct and the right brain style score of the ybrains (r= . , p> . ) suggests that the two tests assess different components of creative thinking via different test contents and from different perspectives. (ybrains measures thinking and learning styles while ttct and wgcta measure thinking skills). the results suggest that the left brain style and right brain style of the ybrains reliably measure certain similar critical and creative thinking, as measured by the wgcta and the ttct tests, and these results are inline with the evidences of the split brain theory, that creative thinking is one of the functions of the right brain while critical thinking is one of the functions of the left brain. . . . predictive validity predictive validity examines whether scores on a measure predicts its traits or performance at a later time. it asks not how a measure correlates with other measures today but how they may relate to activities tomorrow (starko, ). based on the split brain theory (springer & deutsch, ), it seemed reasonable to predict that arts major and music major subjects will score higher on the right brain style of the ybrains test. on the contrary, mathematics major and science major subjects will score higher on the left brain style. table depicts the results of a predictive study. the subjects of the study were mathematics major, music major, science major and fine arts major student teachers (final year undergraduates; males, females; average age: . years old) from the kuala lumpur specialist teacher training institute. the data in table indicate that the music major and fine arts major students scored higher on the right brain style (music major: left brain style, m= . ; right brain style, m= . ; fine arts major: left brain style, m = . ; right brain style, m= . ). on the other hand, the mathematics major and science major subjects scored higher on the left brain style (mathematics major: left brain style, m = . ; right brain style, m= . ; science major: left brain style, m = . ; right brain style, m= . ). the results show the ability of the scores of the ybrains test in predicting the thinking and learning styles. moreover, referring to the ybrains typography diagram (figure ), mathematics major and science major students demonstrated left brain style (ybarins score: mathematics major = . ; science major score= . ), while on the other hand, the music and fine arts students demonstrated right brain style (ybarins score: music major = . ; fine arts = . ). table : mean and standard deviation scores of the four academic majors on the ybrains test ybrains mathematics major (n= ) music major (n= ) science major (n= ) fine arts major (n= ) mean sd mean sd mean sd mean sd chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – left brain style . . . . . . . . right brain style . . . . . . . . ybrains score . . . . . . . . in another study, ling ( ) reviewed literature and found that malaysian secondary school principals are working in a highly structured, systematic, rational, convergent thinking environment, and they are predicted as critical in thinking. hence she hypothesised that the malaysian school principals possess a left brain style. her study on a group of school principals (n= , aged - ) showed that . % (n= ) of the respondents are left brain style thinkers, . % (n= ) are whole brain style thinkers, and only one respondent possesses a right brain style (table ). the three predictive validity studies’ results show that to some extent, the ybrains test is able to predict the brain style of its respondent. . conclusion the reliability and validity studies that have been presented above indicate the ability of the ybrains scores to represent the brain styles of its respondents. the instrument could be used as an alternative measure to other thinking and learning style tests to understand human behaviours from a slightly different perspective. since human thinking is a universal behaviour, the usage of the test might not limited only to the malaysian secondary school students, however, reliability studies should be carried out before it could be widely used. table : frequency and percentage of brain styles of a group of secondary school principals (n= ) ybrains n % brain style left brain style . whole brain style . right brain style . thinking style open style . mixed style . closed style . references bamber, j. h., bill, j. m., boyd f. e., & corbett, w. d. 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( ). split-brain theory and education. british journal of educational studies, ( ), – . an overview of art and design education procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – - © published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer review under responsibility of prof. dr. hüseyin uzunboylu doi: . /j.sbspro. . . wces an overview of art and design education gokce kececi sekeroglu a * a abstract to what extent is this system effective in cultivating creative, distinctive and unique individuals within the field of media, tv- cinema and advertising? to what degree is it possible to establish free thought, the freedom to bend the rules, creativity an d individuality which are vital for the art and design process, in line with the current repressive, disciplined and theoretical education? in parallel with the rapidly developing world of technology, the visual design field nowadays requires individuals who are able to keep up to date with the latest trends, and create and develop authentic ideas. therefore, a solution for the future and critical perspective, which covers the possibility of coexistence of the scientific and theoretical aspects of communicat ion, alongside the unique-creative-aesthetic concepts, is necessary. keywords: communicatiom, visual, creativity, imagination, education ; introduction for centuries, human beings have been communicating through their instincts that are existent in their innate creativity. this natural necessity compels us to communicate verbally or non-verbally. this pursuit is often supported by visual elements, which effectively developed the process of communication design. in time, the paintings on the cave walls, which was the initial form of communication, was replaced by the alphabet, and throughout this period writing deemed more important than visual elements. over time, the equality of writing and visuals as part of the communication process became widely accepted. visual communication design, which was developed alongside a number of art and design movements and was established upon a contemporary system, has become an indispensable part of mass communication. the developing countries' (second world countries) efforts to keep pace with the sophisticated structure of the rest of the world are proving insufficient. an education system that does not nurture creativity, which essentially constitutes the backbone of the creation process, makes it almost impossible to cultivate individuals who can contribute to the fast changing field of communication design. . communication and public human beings do not only struggle for existence, but also to express themselves. this natural necessity that compels us to communicate verbally or non-verbally. expressing oneself, reassessing oneself upon feedback, and sharing information are all parts of the communication process. in other words, communication is an action human * - - - e-mail address: gokcesekeroglu@gmail.com available online at www.sciencedirect.com © published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer review under responsibility of prof. dr. hüseyin uzunboylu open access under cc by-nc-nd license. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / gokce kececi sekeroglu / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – beings practice in order to find necessary tools and equipment to survive within the same natural conditions in a particular geography; to arrange division of labour within the society; to create various values and beliefs in order to justify the differences that stem from the division of labour and strive to integrate the society by giving them common upper identity (oskay : ). altering lifestyles, developing and ever-changing technological and economical conditions have effectively changed the communication means and processes, and in return this change brought a different aspect to mass communication. as a result, the communications network has become an essential part of society. according to giddens, over the past - years we have been witnessing a convergence in production, distribution and consumption of information. even though press, television and film used to be closed forms of communication before, nowadays they are nested within each other, to a considerable extent. the difference between forms of communication is no longer massive. besides, due to technological advancements and the fact that internet is sweeping though the world, the sector of television, radio, newspaper and telephone are going through dramatic changes. even though newspaper and other means of mass communication are still the focal point of our lives, the organisation and service delivery style are changing immensely (giddens : ). within modern societies where the main form of communication is established through mass communication, predominantly makes use of visual elements. . visual communication one another, as well as the masses, transformed these images into a visual language. years ago, sumerians living in the middle east created around pictograms and ideographs by using nails. as the simple set of pictograms (symbols for spoken sounds) phoenicians developed around years ago started to spread, it became the universal form of communication. the pictograms are considered to be the birth of the phonetic alphabet, and since then it has played an essential role in facilitating communication between societies. as soon as printing was introduced by johannes gutenberg, the number of literate people soared, and shortly after this led to other inventions regarding communication. in order to improve the teaching and learning of texts, designers proposed ideas towards the standardisation of letters. these ideas have changed in due course, although the universal phonetics alphabet preserved its structure, and aimed to facilitate legibility of all sorts of texts. since the th century, typography designers have been developing unique fonts, out of respect to the archetypes of letters, the paintings in cave walls. therefore, writing, as a means towards expressing oneself through use of symbols transferred onto paper by combining drawings and verbal expression has become two separate elements of graffiti, which is more often than not considered to be vandalism and can be comparable to paintings on cave walls, is a form of urban communication in our modern society (figure ). wall paintings can be considered as a good example for this. nowadays, there are several cities where people wish to express themselves through colourful spray paint: vandalism, wall paintings, or words expressed through everyday language... all of these visual expressions are in fact, a complex form of communication. the messages communicated through wall paintings can sometimes manifest itself as an organisation, or a simple wish, a holler of unabated love, and sometimes as an utterance of threat towards the enemy or a satire on government policies. figure : gokce kececi sekeroglu / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – throughout human history, the need to create, and communicate the outcome to others, has led people to use multifaceted and various means of communication. whether it be cave paintings or neon billboards, it is the need to appeal and reach to the masses, is what lies beneath all these practices. for that reason, the concept of visual communication has become an indispensible part of mass communication, such as newspaper, television and cinema, the internet and advertising. content and visuals, and text and images, should be considered as two equally important segments of the formatting process of mass communication elements. . . graphic art and design in visual communication before the industrial revolution, the form and beauty of the creations of human beings were directly linked to the functionality they possessed, and as a result art and life were considered as a whole. the technological developments brought by the industrial revolution (end of th century and beginning of th century) created a massive gap between the materialistic and inner needs, by turning social life upside down and the machine age brought about design arts and the sole purpose of such products/elements/fields was to contribute and bring quality and graphic design were influenced by the art movements and trends of the period. this period is considered to be the contemporary development phase of graphic design, which represents the most fundamental area of application within the visual communication field and witnesses the contemporary issues within society. the contributions from - modern art movements, such as cubism, futurism, dadaism, surrealism, suprematism-constructivism. design schools of the period was founded in , during the financial and cultural collapse after the war. bauhaus aimed to boost and add momentum to the industry, by combining art and design with industry, which resulted in mass production, therefore infusing the cheap and mediocre quality goods with better aesthetics and functionality. the cooperation of designers and craftsmen enabled the educational institutions to teach essentials of design and handcraft, as well as industrial, materials related and modern production issues, in detail. gokce kececi sekeroglu / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – social and behavioral sciences ( ) figure : jules cheret, prom poster, . an architect, painter and a craftsmen worked together to tackle the design issues of the period. in , painter paul klee ( - ) and in wassily kandinsky started teaching at bauhaus, which paved the way for a incomplete. therefore they should always : ).instead of setting a style, klee and kandinsky (figure ) encouraged scrutinising style and developing a new approach to art education. they taught their students to trust their instincts while working on their designs. in , constructivist laszlo moholy-nagy, who contributed to the world of art with his paintings, photography, film, sculpture and graphic works, joined bauhaus with his distinctive innovative style. he is also well known for combining typography with photography to draw attention to visual communication. figure : laszio moholy-nagy & herbert bayer, bauhaus book cover design, . in the first bauhaus book, moholy- means of communication and that legibility is essential to communication, therefore, it should not be forced into certain patterns or templates. in the school was closed due to administrative reasons, and in it reopened in dessau. this period ( - ) can be considered to be the maturity period of the bauhaus, where it was highly influenced by constructivism and de stijl. several designs developed at bauhaus, manifest itself in the th century as products, furniture, architecture, and typography. once the graduates of bauhaus joined the staff, a printing house was founded and a lot of innovations were introduced. the font designed by bayer (figure: ) was simple, easy to perceive and universal. for that reason, it became one of the most favoured fonts. gokce kececi sekeroglu / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – figure : herbert bayer, universal alphabet, font design, at the beginning of the th century, most of the creative innovations in the field of graphic design came about as an extension to modern art movements. around this period, not only bauhaus designers, but a number of independent designs. these designers were equipped with visual theory knowledge and style awareness, and they skilfully applied these to graphic design. they asserted that, since functionality creates aesthetics, while establishing a visual expression, the designer should strive through conceptual work, and it was adopted by countries such as poland, usa, cuba, germany and france, as one of the primary design practice. understanding of art and design. innovations, inventions and several events had already influenced other countries as a result, the boundaries around communication was gradually erased. . creativity in current visual communication design education the communication networks and means we use abundantly in our everyday lives encouraged progress in visual communication design. as a result of the fast-changing and improving technology, demand for visual design increased also. however, the extent to which the functionality of a design, namely the communication it allows for, depends on how appealing it is aesthetically or how enduring or creative it is. from the th century onwards, the art and design education has mainly covered curricular and extracurricular education. this kind of education should be considered as a developing system. otherwise, it is inevitable that one will lack the merits of rapid changes, developments and innovations around the world, and get stuck with the traditional practice. visual arts which require creativity and the outcome expected of a visual design education -cultural structure. for example, bauhaus approach, an art and design school which was founded in in germany, took cognizance of communication within both art and education, and aimed to render art more comprehensible and interesting for the bject to one of the most important issues in compulsory education in several countries is that they lack the qualities of a school to cultivate confident, questioning, creative and critical individuals. this approach also contradicts with the idea behind a primary school, which sets out to encourage creativity, curiosity, exploration, and self-expression (artut, : ). individuals who are educated within this system are not only far from creativity, but also deem gokce kececi sekeroglu / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – art and design activities as unnecessary and a hardscrabble, and therefore suppress their creativity potential. considering that creativity is an innate instinct, it must be recognised that a wrong education system, can be responsible for suppressing creativity, instead of encouraging it. in order to develop, a society requires extraordinary and creative individuals. schools that favour and focus on positive sciences and theoretical information produce unhappy and unsatisfied individuals. therefore, implementing creative visual practices will not only increase the come up with innovative and unique creations in the field of visual communication. creative thinking can be taught and learned. however, acquiring such ways of thinking depends on innate skills, as well as the duration of education. in order to teach creative thinking, a suitable environment is essential. such an environment should be free from suppression and stress, and should make individuals feel free and safe to express themselves. in order to maintain communication and practice, an improved way of thinking and interaction between individuals is also required. the language and volition used throughout interaction carries utmost importance ( . conclusion visuals are indispensable parts of communication, and it has been used in several areas within smaller communities, as well as the masses in order to enable communication. several studies demonstrate and agree that only % of a text is remembered by an individual, whereas visuals allow for around % of the materials to be countries are attaching importance to visual communication, which is becoming increasingly fundamental. the importance placed upon visual communication in such countries educators who favour text before visuals must remember that the alphabet and other characters are also products of creativity and design. following the middle school and high school, individuals who opt for visual communication studies often aim to work in the sector of media, tv-cinema, multimedia and advertising as creative, unique individuals, who are capable for introducing something new to the society. however, the fact that individuals lack the background for art and design concepts hampers the creative education of the individual. considering this, to what degree is it possible to establish free thought, the freedom to bend the rules, creativity and individuality which are vital for the art and design process, in line with the current repressive, disciplined and theoretical education? references . ( th . ( st ). elliot, deni, & lester, paul martin. ( ). image ethics: searching for dialog rather than solutions, th annual visual communication conference. chico hot springs, montana giddens, anthony ( ). sosyoloji, th nd nd evi, http://www.rehabasogul.com/ / / /imajlar-icin-gorsel-iletisim-ve-etik/ http://www.vikipedia.org/ the impact of the antiwar elites’ activities on the international life and politics procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – - © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of lumen research center in social and humanistic sciences, asociatia lumen. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . sciencedirect lumen international conference logos universality mentality education novelty (lumen ) the impact of the antiwar elites’ activities on the international life and politics crisanta oana moldovana * a babe -bolyai university, mihail kog lniceanu nr. , cluj-napoca, , romania abstract by examining the elements of a civilization in whole, the importance of elites can immediately be appraised, as the success, which is the strength and prosperity of millions of human beings, comes exclusively from them. but at the other end, there are many elites on which the destiny of humans from certain regions, countries or continents depended. these elites are the political ones that have key roles in the precipitation of wars and, more rarely, in their avoidance. © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of lumen research center in social and humanistic sciences, lumen association. keywords: political; scientific; cultural elite; actions and effects; interwar period; international relations; . introduction the first explanations given to the term ‘elite’ were made exclusively by approaching the term on the basis of the value criterion – distinguished, special, talented, valuable, chosen (latin) – namely everything that can be better. by examining the elements of a civilization in whole, the importance of elites can immediately be appraised, as the progresses (scientific, artistic, social), which are the strength of a country and the prosperity of millions of human beings, come only from them. individual achievements of the elites represent a collective gain, a real social gain and indeed, as gustave le bon highlighted, the wealth thus acquired is not stolen from the people or from anyone in particular, but a wealth from nowhere gained only by means of the sweeping efforts of elites. (le bon, sine anno, page ). previously, d'avenel noted in his writings that at the beginning ‘people were getting rich by means of private war by ruining their neighbours (le bon, p. ). those who were born in the bosom of dynasties, royal or dictatorial, were placed in positions that gave them the possibility to decide on the course of history. * corresponding author. tel.: - - - . e-mail address: crisanta.oana@yahoo.com available online at www.sciencedirect.com © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of lumen research center in social and humanistic sciences, asociatia lumen. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / crisanta oana moldovan / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – but there also existed many elites, at the other end of the social hierarchy, who did not enjoy any advantage obtained by birth. some of these elites had the luck of distinguished professors, as seems to have happened to shakespeare, while others have simply enjoyed the chance of a good idea at the right time. alexander fleming (aderhold, faure, talamon, oschner, , pp. - .), discoverer of penicillin, is just one example in this respect. the determination, the enthusiasm and the tenacity of elites were certain characteristics that distinguished them from the rest of the people. sometimes, however, their inner impetus and self-confidence turned into monomania and some of them were not quite normal from a psychological point of view, suffering perhaps narcissistic personality disorders with an exaggerated sense of self-importance. adolf hitler belongs to this category of political elite, and richard wagner (castleden, , pp. - ) belonged to this category of artistic elite. the nowadays reality is that of the ultra-ramified very precise division of multiple specialized human activities, any achievement is intended to be regarded as one of elite, but not every achievement confers elite quality. time imposed the classification of elites into categories: political, scientific, military, religious, property, sport ... from the word “elite” some expressions have derived (elitist, elitarian, elitarist) whose meaning expresses in part, not at all or the opposite of the basic word. in the explanatory dictionaries, additionally to the source of value, there was a need to add another interpretation as well, that of the advantageous position. e.g. in dex ‘elite’ is defined as ‘part of society whose members, having an advantageous position, consider themselves superior to the masses’ (coteanu et al., , p. ). . political elites in nature, most creatures live in various communities - packs, herds, flocks - where a pronounced hierarchy reigns. they are led mostly by the naughtiest individuals, most brutal, most powerful and sometimes the most intelligent ones. the pack structure of an animal species seems to be genetically determined, due to the fact that during the historical evolution of the species, this structure proved favorable to survival. of course, there are also other values that belong to a human population, such as culture, education, ethics, morals, etc. a brief foray into the animal kingdom supports the argument according to which the power structures are generally a consequence of cohabitation of people in larger or smaller groups. the sad reality is that in their hereditary genetic material preserved for millions of years, human beings appear with the behavior of a predatory, parasitic animal, haunted by unpredictable instincts and impulses, brutal selfishness and greed and unnecessary aggression. it is surely that people can also be noble, charitable, kind, but in no case as they are described in the utopic communist hypothesis of the ‘new man’. the power involving many forms - state, political, military, religious, cultural - can be defined by the fact that certain manifestations arise according to the willpower of representatives and to the own ideals of the holders / executors of the power (de roh & leinard, , p. ). it is certain that the state, defined as an instrument of power and hierarchy, existed among different populations since prehistoric times and that this form of organization will not fade, even in a hypothetical communist nirvana. the state will always seem like an unavoidable secondary phenomenon, belonging to the human gregariousness of the pack. wherever people live in groups (societies) there will appear power structures, following the existence of a hierarchy. … the parents of communism, marx and engels, likewise their epigones, have tried to avoid the anarchic degeneration of a society without state structures (in fetscher, , p. ), preaching – like some equals of god – the creation of the ‘sublime new man’ who would possess a social conscience so elevated that it cannot be but noble, charitable and kind. (de roh & leinard, , p. ). the three social structures of any population - democracy, dictatorship and anarchy actually appear in the most amalgamated forms. if the notion of masses (crowd, plebs, flock, common herd) seems unequivocal, the concept of ‘elite’– leading, political – is much more complex. it is in the interest of the population that the leading and power positions be assumed by its most able members. this would mean that the entire power belongs to the value elite. crisanta oana moldovan / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – but is it possible? is it possible that the human being be the exception which hardens the rule?, because in nature, as seen, packs, herds, flocks ‘are led mostly by the naughtiest individuals, most brutal, most powerful and sometimes by the most intelligent ones’ (de roh & leinard, , p. ), the most ambitious. the evolution of ambition knows no limits, ‘the ascension of aspiration towards power may reach the ideal of identification with the divinity’ (adler, , p. ). all aspirations and interests betray the impatience of these humans to surpass the limits of human condition, to rise even beyond time and space. of course, one may say that the great achievements of humanity wouldn’t have been possible without ambition. there is one small detail to be taken into account: ‘a work of genius is impossible without considering, in one way or another, the community. such work always involves one connection with the community, the wish to promote its interests. otherwise, we could not attribute it any value at all’ (adler, , p. .) ambition and tenacity are terms that sound nicer than vanity or pride, even though they are synonyms. it is asserted that there is no human being in whom vanity is not present. when it exceeds a certain level, it becomes extremely dangerous and determines an increased psychical tension, which makes humans outline more clearly the purpose to obtain power and superiority. and since it is harder to enforce it yourself if you ostensibly display your vanity, most times it camouflages, taking different appearances. man might be conceited and under the guise of a certain modesty, or may be so conceited as not to care about how others judge him. he necessary becomes subjective, by losing the touch with reality, being permanently concerned only by his own interests. usually, winning the masses for their own interests is made with few exceptions by a chatty army, who have never exercised a true profession, who are in a protective way appointed to as the political elite. the ideology, the programs and the methods of the so-called political parties resemble one another so much that the only distinguishing mark is their name. but the ‘positive’ features, such as: the lust for power, the boldness, the cunning, the megalomania, the deceit, the arrogance, etc. are excessively possessed by the entire political elite. they stand out in a more direct, overt and brutal way in dictatorial regimes. the history of mankind is the history of the continuous conflict, which is an inevitable part of the human condition. it seems that we, as a species, cannot live without it. we think that we want peace, but we cannot survive without disputes . (castleden, , p. ). many times, the destinies of some people from certain regions, countries or continents depended on the personal action of some individuals. these individuals are none other than the political elites that have key roles in precipitating wars, or more rarely in their avoidance. "napoleonic wars would not have happened if it were not for napoleon bonaparte; world war ii from - would not have happened without adolf hitler. on a smaller scale, the anglo-zulus war would not have happened without sir henry bartle frere’. (castleden, , p. ). by only taking a glimpse at the effects of the second world conflagration, when over million people died and hundreds of millions suffered, we realize how complex the concept of elite is, which includes in its definition the term special. and there cannot be said that the death and enormous suffering of a large part of the planet population caused by an individual, elite, is not something "special". if natural disasters, from the inside of earth, from the atmosphere and climate, follow scenarios and regular cycles easier and easier to predict, human conflicts, which are hundreds or thousands of times more catastrophic are impossible to predict. the only thing that can be certainly admitted is the fact that they still exist. it is incomprehensible that such a tragic and unscrupulous character as hitler inspired more writings than any other historical person whose life, ideas and facts really deserved to be recorded. probably, for the simple fact, hard to accept, that he embodied the ugly part of the human personality. (roland, , p. ). antisemitism was one of the cultural and political connotations common to a large part of europe after the end of first world war. the phenomenon was based on both national characteristics and specific motivations. ‘the stereotype of judeo-bolshevism was a formula with rapid effect and represented a powerful resonance factor. one of the fundamental writings of anti-semitism, protocols of the elders of zion - dedicated crisanta oana moldovan / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – to a hypothetical conspiracy hatched by hebrew people in order to conquer the world - began circulating, in the interwar period, in europe, and the first german edition dates back to .‘ (minerbi, , p. ). in march , the pastor martin niemöller from berlin made public an appeal addressed to congregations in prussia, warning them about a new form of idolatry. ‘our nation is threatened by a danger of death. this danger is a new religion.’ (roland, , p. ) the ridiculous aspects of nazification emerged, amongst others, also by the desire to cleanse the world of the jewish culture, trying to make a distinction between the aryan art and culture and non-aryan art and culture. aryan art praised nordic virtues, namely heroism, physical strength, comradeship, patriotism and sacrifice, while non-aryan art (degenerate, as they called it) was that which distorted the symmetrical perfection or presented the most unpleasant aspects of life. it is perhaps too little known the fact that hitler's favorite paintings were only those which had morbid scenes, such as plague in florence by hans makart, or the paintings of franz von stuck, which presented naked women surrounded by snakes or pursued by centaurs. also, göring had bought many pieces of ‘degenerate art’ (which included at the moment all modern art, as cubism, dadaism and expressionism) for his personal collection. it is obvious that, after the crystal night, he didn’t have to buy such pieces anymore, as the decree by means of which he was ‘aryanising’ the goods that hebrews had to abandon, also permitted other practices. on may th, , in the markets of university cities, thousands of books were burned, books belonging to authors such as sigmund freud, karl marx, carl von ossietzky, erich maria remarque, kurt tucholski.‘ (minerbi, , p. ). these demonstrations, to which attended all student fraternities and the majority of teachers, were deliberate actions coordinated by goebbels. by his violent and abusive speech against convicted authors, held in berlin, he tried to leave the impression that these manifestations were spontaneous and designed to demonstrate the true sentiments of the germans, who will not oppose any resistance measures taken by the regime. the balefire that turned books into ashes, was not only an act of barbarism, but also a demonstration of the nazi government of acquiring cultural hegemony. if, in relation to literature, music, film, theatre, plastic arts, the nazis could force the distinction between aryan and non-aryan culture, in the case of sciences it was more difficult to demonstrate that an aryan formula or an aryan law is something else than a non-aryan one. and yet, the nazi regime found an ‘expert’ that accepted to be ridiculous and help them. this was none other than the nobel prize laureate in physics, philip lenard (roland, , pp. - ), who made himself available to goebbels, minister of information and propaganda. the immediate result was a ‘brain drain’ towards england and then towards the united states. scientists and other intellectuals, homeless, sought refuge in a europe that was inexorably heading towards war. the elites’ activities during the interwar period were directly related to how they got involved in the events before and during the second world war. due to the very extensive geographic coverage area and to the huge number of combatants (over . . ) the second world war had a different character from the previous wars in the sense that it became a total war. there were no distinctions between military and civil activities: all was subordinated and directed towards the war effort. technological progresses have resulted in widening the arenas of war. it was inevitable for the civil populations not to become victims. towns and villages were destroyed in their entirety, sometimes as collateral damage, sometimes deliberately. almost two thirds of those who died in war were civilians, over million innocent civilian victims of the holocaust, a sinister war directed against certain minority groups, primarily hebrews. most victims of the holocaust died in eastern europe. the allies decided even since that the war crimes be judged. the final plan for a trial of war criminals was the work of henry stimson, the u.s. secretary of defense, and approved by president truman. the entire political and military elite was prosecuted for participation in wars of aggression, for war crimes and crimes against humanity. hitler managed to avoid the consequences of his actions by committing suicide just before his probable capture by the soviet army entered in berlin, and göring managed to kill himself the day before his execution. the others, hermann göring, joachim von ribbentrop, julius streicher, rudolf hess ... were sentenced to death by hanging or imprisonment (castleden, , pp. - ). crisanta oana moldovan / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – as for the nürnberg trials, at that time there were objections to the possible illegality, claiming that judges were appointed only by the victorious ones and that they were therefore not impartial, and as well, there had been invoked the wild bombardments to which the civilian populations from cities (like dresda) were exposed as well as the nuclear attack from hiroshima and nagasaki. similar trials of war criminals were held in the far east as well (between - , hideki tojo, general masaharu homma, tomoyuki yamashita, who were sentenced to death) (rodney, , p. ). these trials did not "enjoy" the same notoriety as that of the nazi leaders due to the allied propaganda that took care not to defame the japanese emperor hirohito because of the special position that the emperor has in the japanese culture. these trials had a profound influence on the development of international criminal law, leading to the genocide convention, the universal declaration of human rights, the geneva convention concerning the laws and customs of war and finally, to an international criminal court. furthermore, european countries considered the economic integration as a way of ensuring that a european war could not burst anymore. european union bases were established when the european coal and steel community was founded, after the treaty of paris from , and in the following years it grew and developed into an economic and political confederation. in an attempt to ensure that any future conflicts can be solved, the united nations system was established in . . conclusions the war and its end determined side consequences as well, such as: the colony independence movement, the division of europe into two camps that cultivate a climate of mutual distrust (cold war), the resumption of the chinese civil war in the far east, and the discovery of nuclear energy has been exploited both for the production of the atomic bomb and for the construction of nuclear plants, so controversial nowadays. british and dutch colonies including india and indonesia as well as the philippines archipelago became independent. as the independence movement grew, it brought new relationships of diplomatic, political and economic nature between the new nations. world map has radically changed, with many new nations and names; when the gold coast became independent, it changed its name into ghana. churchill and truman agreed with stalin regarding the soviet hegemony in eastern europe. ‘western powers have been so grateful to stalin for his resolute resistance against hitler, that they gave him everything he asked for. these compromises made to stalin remained popular in eastern europe as the west betrayal. churchill even agreed to force the soviet refugees who had found shelter in great britain to return to the soviet union. many of them preferred to commit suicide rather than return to a certain death; those who returned were shot on the spot’ (rodney, , p. ). in the far east, the chinese civil war resumed. the national army, who had been much weakened during the war, fled to taiwan in , where, for a long time, maintained a kind of government in exile, and in mainland china, mao established a communist state, people's republic of china. the cold war was in some way a third world war which lasted nearly half a century. it was a generalized conflict between capitalism and communism, between east and west, and, above all, between two global super powers, the soviet union and the united states who brought into the orbit their satellites and their allies. references [ ] aderhold, c. faure, j., talamon, l., oschner, c. ( ). personalities who changed world history. from the first world war to the present; – up to the present, translation: gafi a, m., bucharest, enciclopedia rao, pp. - . [ ] adler, a. ( ). knowledge of man, translation gavriliu, l., bucharest, editura tiin ific , pp. , . [ ] castleden, r. ( ). conflicts that changed the world, translation cîrlig, r. c., bucharest, ed. meteor press, pp. - , , , , . [ ] castleden, r. ( ). people who changed the world, translation v cariu, m., bucharest, ed. meteor press, pp. - . crisanta oana moldovan / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – [ ] coteanu, i. et al. ( ). explanatory dictionary of the romanian language, bucharest, editura academiei republicii socialiste românia, p. . [ ] de roh, t., leinard, u. ( ). social-elitist democracy, tranaslation mu lea, i., cluj-napoca, ed. dacia, pp. , , . [ ] le bon, g. political psychology, translation pelin, s., filipe tii de târg, prahova, ed. antet xx press, p. . [ ] minerbi, a. ( ). illustrated history of nazism, translation sauciuc, g., bucharest, editura rao, pp. , . [ ] roland, p. ( ). nazism: an illustrated history: the rise and fall of adolf hitler, translation boja, l., bucharest, editura corint, pp. , - , . arq . vol . no . criticism johnny rodger putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective charles rennie mackintosh, rose detail from bookcase for windyhill, the announcement that american architect steven holl had won the competition to design a new building for the glasgow school of art opposite charles rennie mackintosh’s original (built – ), and the revelation of his plans to the public, provoked plenty of criticism about the possible relationship between the two buildings. professor william curtis first wrote on the topic in the architects’ journal almost a year from the announcement, and his opinions on the relationship were forthright: ‘rather than dialogue’, he argued, ‘there is a dumb lack of articulation in construction and material.’ a response came in the following issue of the aj from david porter, then professor at the mackintosh school of architecture. he disagreed with curtis, claiming that the new building will have ‘an extraordinary spatial richness’ and that ‘the original sketch curtis saw in glasgow last december has progressed very rapidly’, for it was but an early stage in ‘a design strategy driven forward with a mixture of poetics and ruthless pragmatics: qualities that are singularly appropriate in this context, and developed with artistry and skill’. curtis subsequently wrote a further open letter to ‘the governors, the director, the faculty, students, staff, alumnae and alumni’ of glasgow school of art, which was published in facsimile in the architects’ journal on march : what a disappointment then to contemplate steven holl’s proposed addition. it is horrendously out of scale, it dominates mackintosh, it does not create a decent urban space, it fails to deal with the context near and far, it is clumsy in form and proportion, it lacks finesse in detail, has no relationship to the human figure, and is a stillborn diagram dressed up in holl clichés such as ‘iceberg’ glass. even if the two professors were unable to move in dialogue from their respective positions, what about the buildings themselves? the new holl building has been on site on renfrew street since early autumn , so what scope is there for relation and dialogue between it and the mackintosh school of art across the road? perhaps it would be more profitable, at this stage, to start with an analysis of elements of the ‘ready’ end of that relationship, the mackintosh building, which might predispose it towards dialogue. the thesis in the present essay is that it is the proto-modern aspects of mackintosh’s work which play an important role in enabling the contemporary user or designer, and steven holl in particular, to approach the building and engage intimately with it. holl seems to strive consciously after all – if we are to take his writings as a manifesto for his built work – for a refinement of the notion of the ‘modern’. in one essay he writes of his own vision of architecture as: an attitude reaching toward the full sensation of those earliest freedoms of modern architectural thought that could take architecture beyond neo-modernities and post-modernities into a realm where ideas have no boundaries – and the final measure of architecture lies in its perceptual essences – changing the experience of our lives. but what are those proto-modern aspects in charles rennie mackintosh’s work, what does holl mean by ‘modern architectural thought’, and where, if anywhere, would the two find common ground? nikolaus pevsner’s claim for mackintosh, in his pioneers of modern design, as some type of high- prophet of modernity (‘a forerunner of le corbusier’, ‘not a single feature derives from period styles’) has long since been thoroughly criticised for, among other things, ignoring the myriad influences on the art school from the arts and crafts movement, from the vernacular styles of regional england as well as scotland, from art nouveau, symbolism and the vienna secessionists. one recent critique, for example, refers to pevsner’s ‘authoritarian didacticism’. it is thus with the rigidity and unsteadiness of pevsner’s argument in mind, rather than with the simple pertinence of his emblematic boldness, that, even now as the builders dig metres deep in black clay to start the construction of holl’s new glasgow school of art across the road from mackintosh’s original building, i aim to prepare some deeper and steadier foundations to the argument for a proto-modern mac. if holl’s ‘design strategy’ can be understood, as porter put it, as ‘driven forward’, at least in part, by ‘ruthless pragmatics’ which are ‘singularly appropriate in this context’, then it seems criticism arq . vol . no . criticism steven holl’s new building for the glasgow school of art stands across the street from charles rennie mackintosh’s original. this paper questions the scope for relations between them. putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective: the new building at the glasgow school of art johnny rodger arq . vol . no . criticism johnny rodger putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective that it may indeed be the proto-modern aspects of mackintosh’s building which are best investigated for a promise and possibility of relationship to holl’s hypermodern work. thus i’m going to do several things in this essay. first, i’m going to establish a working definition of ‘modernity’ which satisfies those conditions set out by holl in the quotation above. next, i will discuss how mackintosh’s work can be seen in that context, where that context will neither be one which excludes or denies all other possible contexts and influences, ‘period’ or otherwise, nor is set in some totemic relationship with the latter-day modernist masters of the twentieth century. then i will examine how mackintosh’s own historical studies paid into his work, and how he took inspiration from the past to make a leap into the future. finally, i will explore what sort of ‘dialogue’ holl’s designs propose with the mackintosh thus understood. heightened relations between objects ‘the modern’ has been defined as entailing a new apprehension of our relationship with the world. but what sort of apprehension of the world was it replacing? we might take the single point perspective system of representing objects as a simplified example, a caricature of the conventional ingrained attitude of the western person to the world around them. all perspective systems are of course endowed with distinct symbolic meanings of their own. that the renaissance, through brunelleschi, alberti and leonardo, had come up with both that system, and the image of vitruvian man, the perfect naked subject created by god and situated at the heart of the ideal forms of the universe, speaks volumes about a hierarchy of values and meaning. this clear separation of the perceiving subject from the objects which surround it has been seen by some thinkers, for example heidegger, as disastrous for western civilisation inasmuch as it drives those subjects on to an ever-increasing quest for efficiency in their dealings and their dispositions of objects, which latter remain alienated from them. for some other modern thinkers, such as those in the frankfurt school, this drive to efficiency in our dealings with objects leads ultimately to the subject treating other humans in the world as objects, as mere coordinates for categorisation in cartesian space, and thus locking them into the same economic drive to efficiency which culminates in the mechanised, rational, organised slaughter of auschwitz. for heidegger the art work in general escapes this disastrous separation of subjects and objects and its frightful conclusion, rescuing the object from its designation as dumb, inert and meaningless by forming and foregrounding its full being not merely as an object but as a ‘thing’. for other thinkers, such as maurice merleau-ponty, it is with the modern attitude that there is a rediscovery of things; and this is achieved through the methods of phenomenology, which – as a philosophical study of experience and consciousness, of how we experience things – also manages to blur the subjective/ objective dichotomy. steven holl is much influenced by phenomenology in general and by the writings of merleau-ponty in particular. holl often cites merleau-ponty in his book questions of perception: phenomenology of architecture. at one point in that publication holl describes his method of work: we must consider space, light, colour, geometry, detail, and material as an experiential continuum. though we disassemble these elements and study them individually during the design process, they merge in the final condition, and ultimately we cannot readily break perception into a simple collection of geometries, activities and sensations. in the world of perception, merleau-ponty describes the modern as when the relationship between humans and things is ‘no longer one of distance and mastery’. he writes of a ‘vertiginous proximity’, which […] prevents us both from apprehending ourselves as a pure intellect separate from things and from defining things as pure objects lacking in all human attributes. thus the modern attitude is to let things come to us themselves, under their own conditions, and not to subject them purely to our reductive systems and hierarchies of reception. the artistic paradigm here, of course, is the case of cubism, where there is an attempt to let the manifold aspects of the being of the thing emerge in their own right, simultaneously and not in sequence under the imposed space-time framework of one idealised perceiver. in a crude juxtaposition, you could say that where classicism imposes order and allows objects to be experienced in terms of a preconceived euclidean framework of measurement, proportion, symmetry and so forth, modernism attempts to release things to be themselves. nor is it mere coincidence that the cubist movement, with these notions of how the object presences itself in space, arises in the same first decade of the twentieth century as the original development of phenomenology by edmund husserl. in his essay in the handbook of phenomenological aesthetics, andrea pinotti writes of a critical ‘history of rapprochement between cubism and phenomenology’ where since early attempts, it is clear that the real point does not consist in a phenomenological interpretation of cubism, that could accompany other readings (hermeneutical, formalist, iconological, etc., all equally legitimate), but rather in the hypothesis that cubism does the same as phenomenology, that it performs a parte imaginis the same operation that philosophy performs a parte philosophiae. we may also note that mackintosh was completing his glasgow school of art at the same time, in the same year ( ) as such a prominent cubist work as picasso’s harlequin leaning was painted. there is no evidence that mackintosh was influenced by, or even knew of husserl or the cubist movement’s work but, nonetheless, his contemporary architecture can be demonstrated to have similar concerns. just as john berger says that: ‘the cubists were concerned with the interaction between objects’, then so, mackintosh, i intend to show, lets objects and aspects of the world come to us through heightened criticism arq . vol . no . putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective johnny rodger style as the art school was built at the close of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, at the height of the period of architectural ‘styles’, we might wonder in which style mackintosh designed the facades of his school: is it a nineteenth- century glasgow tenement, or a seventeenth-century scottish castle? of course, the answer is neither. as both david brett and frank walker show, mackintosh, influenced by the arts and crafts ethos, was more concerned with the ‘character’ of a building as a particular ‘natural and authentic’ architectural expression of its symbolic or functional meaning, than with ‘style’ as a form of ‘copyism’, a coordinated and strictly planned composition following established precedents. nonetheless, we cannot fail to notice that three outer facades of the art school form a perimeter block of blond sandstone which conforms to (and is often indistinguishable from, to the newcomers’ eye) the surrounding grid blocks of the glasgow tenement cityscape in terms of material, colour, dimension and proportion. the fourth facade on a typical perimeter block would usually be hidden away from public street-level view to the interior of the block and thus, in the tenement case, that facade is often built of a less expensive material like brick or sandstone rubble. but the peculiar aspect of the block in which the glasgow school of art sits, is that the north side is on the ridge of garnethill some height above the south, so that the facade facing the interior of the block (normally hidden from street view) is in fact almost totally visible, seen from sauchiehall street over which it towers. mackintosh exploits this visibility by modelling that facade as a scottish castle – like fyvie castle, for example (built and adapted from the thirteenth to the nineteenth centuries) in terms of traditional materials – grey harling, the rhythm of fenestration, and forms such as crowsteps adorning the broad frontage (actually relations with other objects. this heightened relation is usually one of tension. i will show how it is in tension with other objects that the qualities of ‘things’ in his world emerge as strengthened and refined – it is a dialectic, in other words, not between objects as in heidegger’s etymological definition of them as existing merely as ‘over-against’ a subject, but between ‘self-supporting’ things. tensions in mackintosh’s work the provenance of this idea of tensions in mackintosh’s work – hinted at by david porter when he addresses the appropriateness of both ‘poetics’ and ‘pragmatics’ – comes from david brett’s critique c. r. mackintosh: the poetics of workmanship. brett describes the theoretical and poetic tension of a graphic design rooted at once in the positivistic and scientific approach of christopher dresser, and in the naturalistic approach of ruskin which, when overlaid with further symbolist overtones, becomes the vehicle for an integration of architectonic, structural and decorative elements throughout mackintosh’s mature work. at its most simple level this would be seen, for example, in the tension between the geometric and biomorphic forms in numerous of mackintosh’s well-known floral designs [ ]. i want to examine here, however, the creation and exploitation of such tensions specifically in mackintosh’s glasgow school of art that will bring holl’s building into a set of particular relationships, which cannot be reduced to merely that of two objects posed indifferently ‘over-against’ one another across renfrew street. a palpable tension is already evident through all aspects of that existing building as it is experienced by the user, in the ‘styles’ mackintosh adopts, in the materials, in the forms, in the construction methods, in the working out of the architectural programme and so on. a brief exposition of some of these aspects follows: mackintosh, glasgow school of art, south elevation, arq . vol . no . criticism johnny rodger putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective the rear) which sits high looking out over the top of the city to the distant lanark and renfrewshire countryside, much like a castle surveys from on high the spread of its policies [ ]. so the art school is also then, in a formal sense, both a castle and a tenement. material the next question to ask is whether the art school is a stone building or a timber building? it seems obvious from the outside, and from the above descriptions, that it is a stone building, even if it has some steel support. yet, when we enter the building, we seem to find apparently autonomous timber buildings inside with their own system of supports and structure. the central stair structure and the gallery on the first floor seem at once to be hung from, and to support, a complex and heavy set of timber trusses at the skylight; and the library, surely one of the most delicate and evocative spaces in western architecture, is entirely timber, with a whole forest of dark timber pillars evidently holding it up. light the cardinal orientation of the glasgow street grid allowed mackintosh to set up a strict tension between workspaces and circulation/social spaces which is heightened through the quality and quantity of light brought into those spaces. the large studio workspaces are ranged across the four storeys of the north-facing facade, with huge factory-style windows mackintosh, glasgow school of art, elevations to scott and dalhousie streets (east & west), mackintosh, glasgow school of art, elevations to scott and dalhousie streets (east & west), criticism arq . vol . no . putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective johnny rodger northern street facade, we note the long steel lintels above the main windows which clearly support the stonework above, and, in the mackintosh room and the lecture theatre for example, the structural steel beams supporting the floors above are prominent. yet, in the main stairwell, it is unclear whether the timber cage around the stairs is structural or mere decoration hanging in the void. back in the library again, mackintosh gives us a tantalising clue as to the structural reality of the forest of supporting timber pillars we find there. on the gallery facade around the library, he has a series of timber boards in abstracted forms which hang down below the skirt of the balcony. on study of these boards we realise (pace pevsner and no period forms) that they are in fact a particularised variation on the form of ionic columns (whose design provenance deep in prehistory, according to some romantic theorists, is the tree trunks in the forest). mackintosh not only has those columns free floating, not supporting anything, but hung upside down, with the top of the column suspended pointing down from metres high in the air. it is only when our further researches into the building reveal to us that the timber pillars which do appear to be supporting this room are in fact vain, because the whole timber room is really suspended in the stone building from unseen giant metal pins attached to a steel beam on the ceiling of the room above the library, that we realise the abstracted upside-down columns on the gallery are really an elaborate and dizzying structural joke at the expense of ‘classical style’ [ ]. programme as part of glasgow’s european city of culture celebrations, several established architects from other parts of the world were invited to come to glasgow school of art, to engage with the building by constructing a temporary structure on or around it, to give artists plenty of natural light to work in, but no glaring sunlight. the circulation corridors and stairs are disposed across the southern elevation warmed by the sun, distinctively patterned by the light from the irregular window formations there (see the castle features above). form the glasgow school of art was built in two stages. mackintosh was still in his twenties when he began the design of the eastern side of the building, completed in . the second, western half was commenced in and he was into his forties when it was completed two years later. by then, mackintosh was quite a different and more accomplished artist and architect than he had been on completion of the first half. for one thing he was now a partner in his architectural practice, honeyman and keppie, and was properly acknowledged as the designer of the building (he had not been for the first half). he had also completed a number of other accomplished buildings under his own name by this time (scotland street school, the hill house, the daily record building, queen’s cross church), and he had achieved some fame across europe, particularly with exhibitions in turin and in vienna, where he was associated with the secessionists. the contrast between the architecture of the eastern half of the building as an early work and that of the western half as a mature work is accordingly, another source of tension in this structure. it is most obvious in the forms on the respective east and west facades. as drew plunkett says: if the defining characteristic of the first phase of the art school is organic decoration laid over a robust palette of raw materials derived from the traditions of scottish vernacular building then the second phase is defined by the geometric severity of aggregated squares. this contrast can be viewed in the context of brett’s antagonism of the geometric and biomorphic. the facade can be seen as influenced by mackintosh’s study of vernacular scottish forms, maybole castle in particular, and his sketch of that building gives credence to the genealogy. the scottish tower house like maybole has been described in terms of its verticality and its ‘ornamentation’ as ‘confined to the parapet and upper portions, where it often bursts out with extraordinary profusion and richness’ (with bartizans, turrets, corbelling and crowsteps all jostling one another in a jumble of forms on the roofscape). mackintosh’s original drawings for the then unbuilt west facade show it designed in a similar style [ ]. by the time he came to redesign and actually build the west side in – , however, it is a more geometrical, indeed a more secessionist, design with the long gridded oblong oriel windows displaying the industrial and technological spirit which abounded in edwardian glasgow, in contrast with the vernacular and organic forms on the opposite, earlier, eastern facade [ ]. construction there is a disorientating and vertiginous quality to the mixed information which mackintosh allows us to see about how his building supports itself. on the mackintosh, glasgow school of art, library arq . vol . no . criticism johnny rodger putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective and by mounting a critique of its architecture. among them were stanley tigerman, aldo van eyck, arata isozaki and leon krier. a book of the proceedings, edited by murray grigor, was published as the architects’ architect. leon krier gave one of the most negative assessments of mackintosh’s architecture. he pointed to the multitude of fine solid sandstone school buildings in scotland constructed contemporaneously with the glasgow school of art, the product of a building campaign in the wake of the education act which transferred the obligation for universal education to local government from the church in scotland. krier points out how successful most of these schools are in terms of gathering the public and opening access to large numbers of people. he claimed that the mackintosh building is weak in its public role. he concluded that it has ‘the scale of a factory with the door of a cottage’, referring to the industrial scale windows on the north facade and the single ‘in’ and single ‘out’ doorways at a scale more normally associated with domestic building than public building [ ]. this draws attention to the tension in scale. how could mackintosh get this doorway so wrong? in fact mackintosh’s genius is shown here, in that he understands that the artist operates exactly at the fulcrum of that tension between their work as a single individual and the meaningful relationship of that work to society, to culture, and to the world in general. when the student enters that small door into the vast building they feel the formal significance of that relationship of the particular to the general: every morning they are given a master- class in how to manoeuvre between the two. a tactic of pragmatic adaptations if the tension achieved in mackintosh’s work through the creation of forms and spaces is a pivotal aspect of his modern approach to the world, inasmuch as the things in this world are allowed to emerge on their own authentic terms in dialectic with other things, then the question remains about how he came to this way of working while other contemporaries in edwardian glasgow were still exploiting styles like the neo-baroque and beaux-arts- influenced ways of working? a simple strand emerges from the complicated narratives and sources of mackintosh’s development in his study of scottish vernacular architecture, specifically that of the baronial period from the thirteenth through to the sixteenth centuries. his interests mirrored a revival of the baronial which arose in the nineteenth century, arguably given impulse by sir walter scott, not only through his historical fiction but with the actual building of his neo-baronial ‘castle’ in the borders at abbotsford; an impulse sustained in scholarship including robert billings’ baronial and ecclesiastical antiquities of scotland ( – ) and subsequently david macgibbon and thomas ross’s the castellated and domestic architecture of scotland ( – ). as early as , mackintosh gave a talk to the glasgow architectural association in which he leant very heavily – some would say almost to the point of plagiarism – on the interpretation of the evolutionary phases of the baronial idiom set out by macgibbon and ross. through these phases, we can see the architecture adapting to historical needs and circumstance as they arise over centuries, rather than seeking to conform to a set of established rules of the kind we find in ‘classical’ architecture with its canon of precepts regarding proportion and symmetry. thus there is an accumulative and pragmatic sense to the forms of the castle, as we see it develop gradually from a tower to an l-shaped plan, from a defensive dwelling into a luxurious residence. introducing a transcript of mackintosh’s talk ‘scotch baronial architecture’, frank walker draws attention to important points of the tradition for mackintosh, who ‘speaks of a versatile “grouping of parts” and a readily varied “external outline”, both qualities resulting from an ability to respond to the contingent’. not only that but, in this tradition, mackintosh, glasgow school of art, elevation to renfrew street (north), criticism arq . vol . no . putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective johnny rodger through this process of building, the structure is itself decoration and a plastic poetics develops its own vocabulary and symbolic content, grounded in functional necessity, such that these buildings develop as iconic images of great strength. mackintosh operates with the same pragmatic and adaptive spirit at the glasgow school of art – of course he is not designing and building over three centuries, the time period for his adaptations are much shorter at just over a decade – but they are there nonetheless. andrew macmillan comments on the practical aspects of this pragmatic approach, noting that it is a tactical procedure, inasmuch as important design decisions are continually being made and revised even as the building is under construction: basic plans and sections were completed, each part of the building was then subjected to examination then re-examination as detail design or building work proceeded, a process of tactical confrontation with the potential of each particular situation. we may take one example of how this pragmatic approach worked on one elevation, and how that elevation changed in design as mackintosh built and developed a richness of spatial, architectonic and plastic vocabulary over time. three elevation drawings of the west facade are shown here: the first is his drawing of (refer to [ ]); the next is the drawing [ ] showing how he intended to build the facade when he restarted the project; the final drawing is a presentation drawing made in (refer to [ ]) showing the facade as completed. looking first at the drawing, we see that – as robert mantho and drew plunkett pointed out in their book speculations on an architectural language – it is not any more or less decorative with its ‘varied external’ roofscape than the later designs, but it offers just a different type of decoration. in , we note a few details: the simple form of the door on the west facade, that the whole facade is to be built in polished ashlar stone, and the height of the stone oriels above the three lower windows (to the north). by , mackintosh must have realised as he worked on the building that, in order to stress the verticality of the long oriel windows of the library, he would have to differentiate that side of the facade from the rest, otherwise their slender forms would be lost in the breadth of the wall. his final, masterly, solution was to remove the stone tops of the other three shorter oriels and to build the bulk of the windowless part of the elevation with squared snecked rubble (as seen in the drawings). this has two effects: first of all it leaves the slender part of the wall containing the longer windows accentuated through its smooth ashlar stone, and with the curve of stone sweeping up from the lower window level, such that it almost seems to stand out as a tall slim tower on its own. secondly, this rubble wall now reminds us of the rubble on the neo-vernacular east wall, relates this elevation back to that older one, brings that tension between the two elevations into the foreground and emphasises for us in our imagination the sheer volume of the whole building. finally, as the roofscape has been altered from the ‘varied external’ type, mackintosh builds the little wall in front of the door in the same form as the segmental pediment on the east elevation which we can no longer view now because of the new height of the west wall. he also builds the bulk of that wall in snecked squared rubble, again to force into consciousness a physical presence of the contrasting forms of that earlier east elevation. in effect, then, we are presented on this west elevation with a simultaneity of mackintosh’s early and mature styles, a multi-perspectivity, which allows us to view both elevations of the building and compare them at once, ‘merge[d]’ as holl says, ‘in the final condition’, without having to take the time to walk around the building and view them in series. thus we see that the drawings do not constitute for mackintosh a basic finished outline of the building form to be further decorated. rather they mackintosh, glasgow school of art, elevations to scott and dalhousie streets (east & west), arq . vol . no . criticism johnny rodger putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective represent a structural intention, while, as work carries on, the spatial character of the structure is developed and adapted to particular situations as they arise. this expands and enriches the symbolic vocabulary of the whole work as a mutual and tactical engagement of ‘things’. the building thus draws us into ‘vertiginous proximity’ through the restless dynamic of its tensions, and does not allow us to feel distant, separate, and abstracted from it as if it were a merely inert object. holl and mackintosh in relation the ultimate question for curtis then, might be whether steven holl’s drawings – which he read as ‘dumb’ and lacking ‘finesse’ – operate in a similar way to mackintosh’s. that is to say, from the starting point proposed by those drawings, will the new structure develop and adapt into porter’s ‘extraordinary spatial richness’ as it rises out of the black clay and into dialogue with things which mackintosh proposes to it from across the street? this depends on what is meant by ‘dumb’: if it means non-verbal, then holl might agree; but if, however, it means something closer to ‘inert’, then he would surely beg to differ. holl writes of how architecture ‘more fully than other art forms engages the immediacy of our sensory perceptions’, describing that immediacy as: […] sensations of textured stone surfaces and polished wooden pews, the experience of light changing with movement, the smell and resonant sounds of space, the bodily relations of scale and proportion. all these sensations combine within one complex experience, which becomes articulate and specific, though wordless. our problem at the moment, however, as the building rises out of the ground, is that we cannot directly experience the ‘articulation’ of those myriad sensations of touch, sound and smell described by holl, but only project and imagine their effects from the architectural drawings and the description of materials. what we can do, however, is analyse from the drawings how these ‘things’ – the old mackintosh and new holl buildings – will interact on a formal level, partly to do with relations of proportion and scale. if we follow then the analysis of mackintosh’s building above, and take the drawings of holl’s new west elevation, we can attempt a description of what that interrelationship will be. we see that holl will raise his building around the retained stone facades of the s assembly building that already occupies the south-west corner of the site [ ]. thus, in effect, holl’s design performs a variation of mackintosh’s simultaneous presentation of two facades from different eras on the one plane. but where mackintosh gives us a metaphorical juxtaposition of different facades from different time periods through subtle use of material and form, holl heightens that tension by giving us an actual superimposition of a modern facade against an older one. the variation on the theme is taken further. not only does the superimposition allow for the formal division and the breaking-up of the bulk of holl’s building – that bulk being something specifically criticised by curtis as ‘out of scale’ and ‘clumsy in form and proportion’ – but, in a similar manoeuvre to mackintosh on his west elevation, it allows for the emphasis of the tower-like slimness and the vertical orientation of the concrete wall supporting holl’s overarching structure. this break-up of the forms, dimensions and materials on the elevation is also cleverly manipulated in holl’s design so that it enters into formal proportional dialogue with mackintosh’s west side. the tension thus stretches across renfrew street as the cuts and reveals in holl’s facade reproduce and play on mackintosh’s forms, such as the rectangular expanse of his rubble wall and the horizontal band of his attic storey. so much for one facade, but the sheer bulk of this building does, nonetheless, continue to pose a problem for its context. central glasgow is built up with perimeter blocks on a regular grid. until recently, the height of the buildings on the grid was fairly regular but, now, several buildings break out beyond the regularity of their fellows. this puncturing of the grid has taken place in the central business district of the city centre, where the buildings are occupied largely by offices and are generally bulky and robust. the grid layout continues up over the steep-sided mound of garnethill where the art school is located but it is steven holl, glasgow school of art, west elevation, criticism arq . vol . no . putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective johnny rodger explicitly to exploit those tensions and playful revelations of structural reality, as discussed above, in the mackintosh between a building which can be imagined as stone, as timber and as steel. holl denies this problem of glare, and gives a novel anthropomorphic reading of the anatomy of those materials in the school of art which reminds us of the ‘human attributes’ in objects referred to by merleau-ponty. in one sketch, holl proposes a structural and material dialogue between the metaphorically living bodies of the two buildings [ ]: the mackintosh with its slender steel and timber framework (‘thin bones’) and its sandstone cladding (‘thick skin’); and the new building with a heavy concrete frame (‘thick bones’) and a light alabaster- like cladding of laminated non-reflective glass (‘thin skin’). the question is, then, whether the delight the softer edged there, with a predominance of four- storey sandstone tenements and also some educational, cultural and religious buildings. most of the residential buildings on the north of renfrew street have small front gardens. holl pays homage to this softer street edge with his garden terrace (holl uses the scottish gaelic term, machair, for this feature) on the second storey, which also serves as an outdoor viewing platform looking directly at the mac. there are, then, concessions made by holl to the quieter and more suburban edge of the grid here in terms of the voids breaking up the facade of the building, of the garden, and so on. but, nonetheless, the sheer bulk of the building, which might sit happily among the robust blocks in the central business district, seems to dominate everything – including mackintosh’s building – in the more delicate ambience of garnethill. when it comes to the structure and materials of this bulky building, holl has published drawings to argue that the interaction between the two buildings is one of complementarity. again, the holl design has been criticised for posing a facade of glass – albeit non-reflective laminated glass – against the tall northern windows which bring cold light into mackintosh’s studios. the reflected glare will ruin the effect in mackintosh’s studios, says curtis, unless it is a ‘miracle glass’. but it is interesting, nonetheless, that holl, through his use of glass, aims holl, glasgow school of art, principle – complementarity contrast: structure/ material, holl glasgow school of art, view from renfrew street, arq . vol . no . criticism johnny rodger putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective holl, glasgow school of art, circuit of connection, holl, glasgow school of art, principle – circuit of social connection, criticism arq . vol . no . putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective johnny rodger facade, from the balconies and always from the subtle translucent effects through the laminated glass cladding. again, however, curtis is doubtful about any subtlety of treatment here, asking if ‘his light tubes risk becoming dull holes clogging up the section of the building’ and, more rhetorically, if holl ‘has experienced those short grey winter days in glasgow?’ porter, on the other hand, seems to have more confidence in holl’s managing of the light, noting that he is ‘an architect raised in seattle, a city of glaswegian dampness and clouds’. porter’s final judgement on the use of light and its relation to the mackintosh is more positive, asserting that the new building will be ‘a subtle reflector and refractor of light in and around the building, taking care to let any reflections sit gently on mackintosh’s facade opposite’. for a building, then, which is explicitly designed by holl to create sensory interrelationships within its context, and to draw on the ‘complexities of perception’, it is difficult to predict its effects purely from the design drawings before we can actually step inside the completed edifice and experience it, as intended, through our senses. so much seems to depend at this stage on our imagination. what contribution, for example, will be made to the experience of the cleft of that circulation space cutting through the breadth of the building by the sound of the footfall of lingering passers-by, by snippets of conversation heard, and by the noise of work filtering out from the studios? holl himself gives us a hint of an answer to this question when he draws attention to the simultaneity of experience when he argues: ‘the live reflection and re-echo within a stone cathedral increases our awareness of the vastness, geometry, and material of its space’. he then invites us to, ‘imagine that same space with a carpet and acoustically softened […].’ curtis and porter both demonstrate in their critiques how imagination – laden in this case with their own personal experiences of and associations with the local weather – is their route to judgement. but then, is not a fully imaginative projection from personal culture the only proper way to confront a design which sets out from the principle of dialogue? user might find in the dialogue between the delicate timber framing of, say, the mackintosh library, and the heavy cylindrical concrete forms of the voids driven through the new building; and that contrast between the mute sandstone and the ineffable translucent patterning of the laminated glass cladding will be the enduring impression. or, if as curtis asserts, will the ‘japanese lantern’ that is the mackintosh by night simply ‘be destroyed by a surfeit of light from the fully glazed facades opposite’? the question of light to the interior and the language of light distribution through the building – and how a tension is maintained between the different types of spaces and their functions, the circulation between these spaces, and the varying quality of light in those spaces – is a principle evidently just as important for holl’s design as it was for mackintosh. the entrance to holl’s building is, unlike mackintosh’s, a large rectangular double-height portal at ground level, off-centred to the west side [ ]. besides setting up an interesting set of proportions on the site, this off-centring enables various strategic aspects to come into play. it allows for a certain deference from the new kid on the block towards the mackintosh, and makes room for the large picture windows and terrace on the second floor to be focused for viewing the historic masterpiece. it also enables exploitation of the long latitudinal axis in the building for interior circulation. it is in a cleavage along this axis that holl has designed a series of ramps and broad tread stairways, which rise at a low gradient through the height of the building [ ]. this circulation acts like mackintosh’s corridors on the south side of his building, as a social space rather than just for strictly utilitarian access. the long stretch of these staircases is lit in distinctive patterns by light brought down through the irregular cutaways in the full-height tubular lightwells (the ‘driven voids’), and by borrowed light from the fenestration on the south side. holl calls this circulation space the ‘social condenser’ [ ]. the spaces off this circulation – studios, workshops and offices – will, in turn, have varying forms and strengths of light from the windows to the south, skylights to the northern notes . william j. r. curtis, ‘facing up to mackintosh’, architects’ journal, . ( november ), p. . . david porter, ‘facing up to mackintosh ’, architects’ journal, . ( november ), p. . . william curtis, ‘an open letter’, architects’ journal, . ( march ), p. . . steven holl, ‘questions of perception: phenomenology of architecture’ in questions of perception: phenomenology of architecture, ed. by steven holl, juhani pallasmaa, alberto pérez- gómez (san francisco: a+u and william stout publishers, ), pp. – (p. ). . nikolaus pevsner, pioneers of modern design (london: penguin, ), pp. – . . james macaulay, charles rennie mackintosh: a biography (london: w. w. norton, ), p. . . peter eisenman, ‘aspects of modernism: maison dom-ino and the self-referential sign’, in oppositions reader, ed. by k. michael hays (new york: princeton architectural press, ), pp. – (p. ). . theodor w. adorno, negative dialectics (london: routledge and kegan, ), pp. – . adorno portrays the holocaust as at once the logical culmination and betrayal of the enlightenment. . martin heidegger, poetry, language, thought (new york: harper collins, ), pp. – . . holl, p. . . maurice merleau-ponty, the world of perception (london: routledge, ), p. . . edmund husserl’s logical investigations: part two, investigations in phenomenology and the theory of knowledge was originally published in german in , and his ideas: general introduction to pure phenomenology in . . andrea pinotti, ‘cubism’, in handbook of phenomenological arq . vol . no . criticism johnny rodger putting holl and mackintosh in multi-perspective aesthetics, ed. by hans rainer sepp and lester embree (new york: springer, ), pp. – (p. ). . john berger, ‘the moment of cubism’, new left review, . (march–april ), – . berger claims on p. that ‘the few great cubist works were painted between and ’. . ibid., p. . . heidegger, p. . . david brett, c. r. mackintosh: the poetics of workmanship (london: reaktion, ), pp. – . . ibid., p. ; frank walker, ‘scottish baronial architecture’, in charles rennie mackintosh : the architectural papers, ed. by pamela robertson (wendlebury: white cockade, ), pp. – . . walker, pp. , . walker compares the rear elevation of glasgow school of art with the front elevation of fyvie castle in aberdeenshire. he writes: ‘mackintosh’s drawing shows a similar solid:void relationship and aggregation of symmetries to those evident at fyvie.’ . robert mantho and drew plunkett, speculations on an architectural language (glasgow: crm society, ), p. . . charles rennie mackintosh, sketch of maybole castle, , glaha / , glasgow university, hunterian art gallery collection. . david macgibbon and thomas ross, the castellated and domestic architecture of scotland (edinburgh: w. & r. chambers, – ), ii, p. . . antoine laugier, an essay on architecture (london: osborne and shipton, ), pp. – . . brett, p. . brett points out on mackintosh’s relation to glasgow’s great shipbuilding tradition that: ‘the method whereby the ceiling of the library of the school of art is hung from the joists of an upper room, thought to be unusual from the perspective of conventional architecture was, and still is, a common device in ship construction.’ . murray grigor and richard murphy, the architects’ architect (london: bellew, ). . ibid., p. . . walker, p. . . andrew mcmillan, ‘a modern enigma: a paradox of reduction and enrichment’ in mackintosh’s masterwork: the glasgow school of art, ed. by william buchanan (edinburgh: a. & c. black, ), pp. – (p. ). . mantho & plunkett, pp. , . . holl, p. . . curtis, ‘an open letter’. . ibid. . curtis, ‘facing up to mackintosh’. . ibid. . porter, ‘facing up to mackintosh ’. . holl, p. . illustration credits arq gratefully acknowledges: glasgow school of art, – glasgow school of art / steven holl architects, – biography johnny rodger is reader in urban literature at the mackintosh school of architecture. his published work includes contemporary glasgow (rutland press, ), edinburgh: a guide to recent architecture (batsford/ ellipsis, ), and the monograph gillespie, kidd & coia – (rias, ). his new edited collection demolition proof (ngs) was published in april. author’s address j.rodger@gsa.ac.uk microsoft word - a. abdel-dayem abstract—the objective of the paper was to understand the use of an important element of design, namely color in a semiotic system. semiotics is the study of signs and sign processes, it is often divided into three branches namely (i) semantics that deals with the relation between signs and the things to which they refer to mean, (ii) syntactics which addresses the relations among signs in formal structures and (iii) pragmatics that relates between signs and its effects on they have on the people who use them to create a plan for an object or a system referred to as design. cubism with its versatility was the key design tool prevalent across the th century. in order to analyze the user's understanding of interaction and appreciation of color through the movement of cubism, an exercise was undertaken in dept. of design, iit guwahati. this included tasks to design a composition using color and sign process to the theme 'between the lines' on a given tessellation where the users relate their work to the world they live in, which in this case was the college campus of iit guwahati. the findings demonstrate impact of the key design element color on the principles of visual perception based on image analysis of specific compositions. keywords—color in semiotics, cubism and novice designer, visual perception, multimedia and communication. i. introduction he world is argumentative with contending cues and varied roots and visual perception pays an important role in effective communication. multimedia is perhaps the most effective means of communication and semiotics is prevalent in the modern world’s multimedia based design. it was in the 's where semiotics was first utilized in multimedia industry for promotional material for distinctive commodities. traditional text book based literacy is important [ ]. however, in today’s world, semiotic multimedia literacy including text, audio and videos is proving to more effective and perhaps more important for learning, teaching and communicating ideas that are both complex as well as simple. multimedia is immediate and rich, and it enables us to amplify and clarify the meaning of its content in ways text or narration alone cannot [ ]. today’s digital multimedia as we know it came up in the later part of the th century and is a broad term that circumscribes various mediums. it includes the bunching of customary communications through film, images, music, spoken and written words, with the shared power of computers manoj majhi is with the dept. of design, indian institute of technology (iit) giwahati, assam, india (e-mail: manojmaj@iitg.ernet.in). dr. debkumar chakrabaty is with the dept. of design, indian institute of technology (iit) giwahati, assam, india (e-mail: dc@iitg.ernet.in). and communications technology through computer-enabled consumer devices and most importantly the internet. [ ]. new media also holds out possibility of on-demand access to content anytime, anywhere, on any digital device, as well as provides a platform for interactive user feedback, creative participation and community formation around the media content [ ]. in such an intricately connected world, image analysis and understanding of semiotics holds key to the effectiveness and reach of the subject media to serve its purpose. ii. impact of color on semiotics a. motivation and approach as discussed in the previous section, today’s digital multimedia significantly influences one’s learning and awareness. in order to evaluate effectiveness of the medium, it is important to identify the key factors of interactive multimedia design that impacts one’s sub-conscious awareness. they are: • interaction of various elements of design • signs and context used to communicate (semantics) • relationship between signs used (syntatics) • impact of signs used on their users (pragmatics) in order to understand these factors, a task was devised to use colors, an important design element, to develop a composition using a given tessellation using the theme ‘between the lines’ [ ]. a tessellation is a repetition of a pattern to form of small squares or blocks such as tiles on pavements that is arranged in a checkered or mosaic pattern. the subject tessellation (fig. ) [ ] is developed using the slide, reflection, and rotation techniques. the slide technique is utilized to redraw the middle tile to the tile above it. from the top, the tile is reproduced clockwise using the slide, reflect and rotate techniques consecutively. b. case study exercise to analyses semiotics for an user group, a group of users were given minutes to complete a task of designing a composition based on the subject tessellation using the design element color to address the theme of 'between the lines' to the context of your world i.e, the iit guwahati college campus. the task also required the subjects to provide a point description about the composition and relate their inputs to the given task. the subjects were not bound by any specific rules and formal design structure in their compositions. manoj majhi and debkumar chakrabaty computer graphics and understanding semiotics in design t world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of educational and pedagogical sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , e du ca ti on al a nd p ed ag og ic al s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/computer-graphics-and-understanding-semiotics-in-design/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / fig. subject tessellation [ ] fig. analysis result of compositions c. review of subject compositions the review of the subject composition indicated that the subjects used various elements of semiotics in their design to convey the central idea. an analysis of the data contained in the composition showed % of the subjects used the element of color and % of the subjects used multiple elements to communicate their concepts. a pie-chart (fig. ) illustrates this split looking into the evolution of basic design tools it is clear that effectiveness and creativity of the subjects transcends their counterparts over a century back who were bound by formal styles of creative design such as cubism. cubism is a style of painting and sculpture developed in the early th century which is characterized chiefly by an emphasis on formal structure, reduction of natural forms to their geometrical equivalents. it was encouraging to note the vigor and self-realization in multimedia semiotic design that the exercise brought out from subjects and enabled them to communicate their ideas in unique and effective manner. a few random compositions are presented below. d. observations on select compositions a few random compositions are presented in this section along with observations fig. composition- in composition- (fig. ) the life in the college campus is well represented. the greenery that is abundant in the college campus is conveyed with signs between the lines to the context and using the color green. the various activities in which an individual indulges are communicated using the sign for the female sex [ ]. the signs of hand tools indicate a workshop. the indian currency rupee symbolizes signification of banks. sports icons are used to communicate a stadium. the user has also used a tandoori chicken leg to symbolize non-vegetarian food, a musical instrument to designate musical performances for the diaspora with the audience represented by black dots. the guitar performance indicates taste of the audience is catered to. in summary, this composition is successful in providing a good representation of the various activities the subject relates to in his life in the college campus. fig. composition- in composition- (fig. ) the subject has the colors red, blue, yellow, orange and white. the color white signifies knowledge [ ], yellow signifies intellect or freshness [ ], red signifies energy and strength [ ], white signifies purity [ ][ ]. it may be noted that the motto of iit-g is world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of educational and pedagogical sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , e du ca ti on al a nd p ed ag og ic al s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/computer-graphics-and-understanding-semiotics-in-design/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / "knowledge is power" [ ] and the composition conveys the message that the life at iit-g being joyful and knowledge imparted being pure. the colors incorporate within itself the mottos and ideas in context with iit-g. fig. composition- in composition- (fig. ) the subject indicates that the design circle is progressively growing, which symbolizes the increasing number of designers graduating from the department of design, iit-g that has been in existence over a decade [ ]. the subject used strips of black and white in combination, such that many designs involve the exciting usage of these two exceptional colors. the circle that signifies the design circle and the various shapes representing the achievements, the light shadow signifies the future campus. fig. composition- in composition- (fig. ) the subject defines the life at iit- g by using a cool color scheme in the dimensional grid. the user has used shades of blue and green that depicts that life here is cool where the user has made a metaphorical representation of the life at campus. another reason for having used the cool color scheme is that it is soothing to the eye, to metaphorically showing the life here is also soothing to the inner eye i.e. the mind. the lower levels are greener and the higher levels are bluer, by this the user seems to show that life here is easy and 'greener' at the lower levels and it gets difficult and 'bluer' as one rises to the higher levels. but, it also gets 'cooler' here at the campus which is close to nature. the colors the subject sees most in the campus are flowing rivers and dense forests which seem to influence predominance of blue and green. the user has changed colors at every step of this composition and used a different solid color to demarcate the various levels of life one is subjected to at campus that also signifies growth and change. the user has used gradient and shadows through gradient to show light falls on this grid. this is recognized to the continuous light of knowledge. fig. composition- in composition- (fig. ) the colors used are the subject’s favorite ones i.e. pink, blue, red and white. the lines provide a d feature to the composition giving it the appearance of projecting out of the surface and the subject has leveraged this feature by using light and colorful shadows. the user has used white color at the top facing areas, red color at right facing areas and pink color at left facing areas. in the composition the exception was the outline where the user used color blue. the motivation of the subject was that though the image looked like a d structure it still was made on the d which prompted the intent was to maintain some d flavor as well. white was used to signify the present of strong overhead light source on the structure, whereas red and white signify shadow of and weak reflected light coming from objects not visible on image but can be perceived at a significant distance. since the surfaces are approximately at right angles, the subject has used combination red and pink to signify reflection of incident from two perpendicular surfaces. in the background the subject has used a bit of grey to give the mainframe spotlight. though the subject intended to use shadows outside the frame but refrained from doing to comply with the objective. the overall color combination seemed to show a sense of harmony as they are quite contrasting but still managed to fit in the frame quite world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of educational and pedagogical sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , e du ca ti on al a nd p ed ag og ic al s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/computer-graphics-and-understanding-semiotics-in-design/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / well enhancing the aesthetic quality of the composition. fig. other design compositions the other compositions that were a part of the case-study are summarized in fig. . compositions of the total have been discussed in this paper and the rest are presented above for reference. iii. conclusion the influence of on semiotic design and its impact on the effectiveness to communicate an idea using a specific media was evaluated in this case study. the study demonstrated the ability of the subjects to comprehend and utilize signs (semiosis) including indictors, symbols, metaphors in realm of the visual communication. a range of visual perceptions was developed based on a simple given task of using color through which the subjects could relate the following • signs to their meanings • signs with other signs • signs and their effects on the diasporas in summary the paper provides an interesting insight to application of semiotics in conveying a range of ideas through a basic medium. the observations and patterns can be leveraged to enhance effectiveness of the compositions using multiple mediums which was evident in subsequent case studies. acknowledgment i wish to express my sincere appreciation to professor. debkumar chakrabarti for his invaluable encouragement, and guidance in undertaking the presented research work. i am also grateful to dr. sougata karmakar for his support in writing this paper and to the students of the dept. of design, iit guwahati and the staff who participated in the subject case study and design tasks. references [ ] gert rijlaarsdam, huub van den bergh, michel couzijn,"traditional literacy ",effective learning and teaching of writing: a handbook of writing in education p . [ ] ralph m. stair, george reynolds, george w. reynolds .principles of information systems p [ ] noah wardrip-fruin, nick montfort,"internet",new media reader p [ ] keith a. roberts, david yamane,"media content",religion in sociological perspective p [ ] tom bassarear,"between the lines",mathematics for elementary school teachers p [ ] http://www.math.wichita.edu/history/images/tessellation .gif cici naifeh . . [ ] eric s. rabkin,"female sex ",mars: a tour of the human imagination p [ ] johan fornäs,"color white signifies knowledge",signifying europe ch [ ] marcia moses,"yellow signifies intellect or freshness",understanding color:creative techniques in watercolor p [ ] arnold bittlinger,"red signifies energy and strength ",archetypal chakra: meditations and exercises of opening your chakras p [ ] john kitto, henry burgess, benjamin harris cowper,"white signifies purity ",the journal of sacred literature p [ ] yogendra singh ,"white signifies purity ",social sciences: communication, anthropology, and sociology p [ ] syed v. ahamed, victor b. lawrence,"knowledge is power",intelligent broadband multimedia networks p [ ] kavita dass,"department of design , iit-g ",guide to top campuses in india p manoj majhi is an assistant professor of design at iit guwahati, india. in his current position, he teaches graphic design, interaction design, product design,i.e., multimedia and other courses at the department of design. manoj majhi has been with iit guwahati since . his primary research interest lies in the field of in interactive areas of animation, special effects, cartooning, research interest, animation movie history, and creation of traditional animation . prior to department of design at iit guwhati, majhi held position as the creative director at sun tv network for seven years. he received his master of design, in visual communication with specialization in animation at idc (industry of design center), in the indian institute of technology, bombay, during which he was invited by interval research corp., palo alto university workshop. . palo alto, california. among the five interactive design projects in iit powai bombay, the project ‘samas’ was chosen by interval research to be presented at palo alto california. out of projects presented at interval research ‘samas’ was awarded -best visual presentation and the most thorough methodology and creative concepts he received his bachelors degree in industrial and production engineering at university of mysore. debkumar chakrabarti, phd is a professor of design at iit guwahati, india. in his current position in the department of design, he has worked extensively in the ergonomic evaluation and design of work methods , and implements used by indian agricultural workers along with many other projects . world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of educational and pedagogical sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , e du ca ti on al a nd p ed ag og ic al s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/computer-graphics-and-understanding-semiotics-in-design/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / pphhiilliipp vvaann lloooocckkee sashoekstraat wulveringem, belgium info@philipvanloocke.com philip.vanloocke@ugent.be keywords: counterpoint, string theory, higher dimensional geometry, consciousness, quasicrystals, golden section, tiling the plane research ccoouunntteerrppooiinntt iinn tthhee vviiivissuuaall aarrttss.. aa ppeerrssppeeccttiivvee bbaasseedd oonn mmyy ggrraapphhiiccaall aanndd ssccuullppttuurraall wwoworrkk presented at nexus : relationships between architecture and mathematics, porto, - june . aabbssttrraacctt.. counterpoint is a concept which has its roots in music, where it refers, loosely speaking, to the simultaneous presence of musical lines which complement one another, at times converging and at other moments evolving into a relationship of contrast. in this paper i use the notion of counterpoint in a visual context. i conjecture that such an extended use is meaningful, and explain this for graphical work as well as for sculptures. i take the freedom to illustrate this with some of my own artwork. iinnttrroodduuccttiioonn counterpoint is a concept that originated in music. the transfer of this concept to the context of visual art broadens its meaning. if the meaning of ‘counterpoint’ is stretched too far, one risks to make the concept almost trivial. but there are forms of visual art for which a meaning of sufficient specificity can be maintained, and for which the analogy with the musical context is reasonably clear. i will illustrate this for graphicaly art as well as for sculptures, and will take the freedom to take my own artwork as a basis for my explanation. the graphical works which i create have a relation with string theory. this relation is stronger than a weak metaphor, since different works correspond to different higher dimensional vibrations of a picture. when the same picture is used as a starting point, the works belong together and the visual representations have relations of both similarity and contrast, and may express complementary meanings of a deeper underlying theme. further, my sculptures are often created in pairs or groups, and a play of convergence and divergence between individual works can enter the process of creation. the relation between interior and exterior in my sculptural work creates additional aspects of counterpoint. ggrraapphhiiccaall wwoorrkk aanndd ccoouunntteerrppooiinntt in this section i will explain how i perceive counterpoint movements in my graphical art. i will do this in three steps. first, i will explain why different levels of meaning are present in a single work. i will refer to higher dimensions and will sketch the philosophical and historical context of my method. in the second subsection i will be somewhat more specific on the technique that i have elaborated. these considerations will allow me to come to the subject of counterpoint in the third subsection, which is the section with the illustrations. nexus netw j ( ) – nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , doi . /s - - - ; published online january © kim williams books, turin philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... lleevveellss ooff mmeeaanniinngg iinn aa ssiinnggllee wwoorrkk my graphical work takes images of the environment as a starting point. i transform these images by defining additional dimensions, which means that i (a) de-contextualize the images and (b) at the same time add new context. (a) my transformations take a building or person out of the familiar context. this separation from context occurs because the transformations are based on particular physical and mathematical methods. recent physics teaches us that higher dimensions and non-euclidean geometry are indispensible for describing both the smallest and the largest scales of reality. these concepts play a central role in the computer simulations y that i use to transform objects that we perceive on our scale. our cognitive capacities have evolved in three dimensions. i have often observed that transformations that pass through higher dimensions result in a visual language suitable for expressing poetry, but such that our daily concepts are not apt to nail down the specific nature of this poetry. this disconnection makes my technique suited to working around particular deep themes connected with the human condition (i comment on this below). (b) while these transformations take objects out of their familiar frameworks, the transformation also adds visual elements and new context to an image. more specifically, in each work, my goal is to achieve one of the following three aims: . the image of an object of high particularity, such as a building, can be transformed into an image that displays a universal symbolism. there are many views on what good art is. i often find myself attracted by artwork that for some reason tends to have a universal appeal. in some of my works, i express a shift toward universality by constructing transformations that yield motifs referencing universal core themes of myths or religions. these themes allude to conceptions of reality as a whole. as noted above, my transformations involve concepts that are central to physical descriptions of, among other things, the largest scale of reality. in my artwork, these recently developed concepts resonate with old concepts that are associated with this largest scale. . the visual elements involved in a transformation may give a building additional ff connotations, which are linked with the place where it is found, or with the meaning the place has for the artist. . in several works, i specify the transformation in such a way that the result expresses a theme or property of the worldview associated with the transformation. these transformations are about additional dimensions and non- euclidean geometry. the context of such concepts is recent physics and they are associated with a non-classical worldview. these include, for instance, perspectives on time, which i express in the visual language enabled by the transformations. the processes of de-contextualization and re-contextualization imply that an artwork has different layers of meaning. there is the starting picture with its ‘ordinary’ meaning, for instance a picture of a clock. this is transformed into a visual composition that has a direct visual interpretation, for instance an anthropomorphic interpretation if the deformation is such that a face or a person can be recognized. there is also an interpretation at a deeper level, when the face or person formed by the clock has an expression corresponding to a deep property of time, or, more generally, when the y composition is reflecting such a property. nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , subjecting the same picture to different higher-dimensional vibrations leads to different artworks. if these works are put together, counterpoint appears on the level of visual composition as well as on the level of deeper meaning: time has several connotations, both from the perspective of daily life and from the perspective of recent physics, which allows for counterpoint relations on a deeper level. an example will clarify what i mean. bur before turning to it, i will elaborate on the method which i use and on its philosophical context. hhiigghheerr ddiimmeennssiioonnss aanndd bbaassiiccss ooff tthhee mmeetthhoodd let me describe in general terms how i transform a flat photograph into a higher- dimensional surface. to begin, i define an origin in the plane of the photograph. suppose that, in each point of the plane, a piece of rope is stretched that connects this point with the origin. on the plane i place a sphere that touches the plane at the origin. now suppose that we wrap around the sphere the rope connecting a point with the origin, keeping fixed the endpoint of the rope that is located at the origin. the other endpoint of the rope then defines a point in three dimensions. mathematically, we can also put a four-dimensional hypersphere on the plane of the photograph. by wrapping the rope around the hypersphere, we map each point in the plane of the photograph onto a four-dimensional point. this procedure can be defined for hyperspheres, but also for more complicated geometrical forms of arbitrary dimensionality. by the process that i described graphically in terms of wrapping a rope, i map eachg point p of the plane of the photograph onto a higher-dimensional point, so that the plane is transformed into a higher-dimensional surface. then, i project this point back onto the plane of the photograph, which leads to the identification of a point q in that plane. i transfer the colour values of the latter point q to the former point p. given that with an appropriate choice of geometry, the higher-dimensional surface is folded several times above the plane of the photograph, this procedure results in an image that contains several reduced copies of the original picture. colors in my artwork have usually shifted relative to the original photograph. i use two techniques to accomplish this transformation. first, i translate the curvature of the geometry into a color shift. the most straightforward way is the application of a redshift, in agreement with the concept in general relativity that curvature implies this phenomenon. there is also another technique that i use to determine the colors in my works. by placing point-sources in space from which solarization waves originate, i emphasize particular places in the image, or i determine their role in the composition (i am using the concept ‘solarization’ according to its meaning in photography, where it refers to the phenomenon in which a color moves over into its complementary color). i obtain still more freedom for working with color by using colored lightsources and by combining different layers into the final image. in practice, both the determination of an appropriate geometry and the determination of appropriate colorization are the most time-intensive aspects of my technique. there is a reason why i mention some more technical concepts in this section. the concepts that are combined into my method originate in fundamental mathematical and physical models. thus, there may be a connotation of ‘heaviness’ in two respects: it is heavy in the sense of being technically difficult, but it is also heavy in the sense that reflecting on deeper reality carries an existential load; an attitude of brooding comes close sometimes. precisely in order to balance this ‘heavy’ aspect, in several works i use a visual language that is deliberately fairy-like: deeper reflection then resonates in a light visual r philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... language with a touch of humor. the artworks illustrate that deeper reality, or thinking about it, must not necessarily lead to some kind of somberness. instead, from it sprouts a poetic language of forms confirming a pleasant spirit. it is the ambition of my art to appeal aesthetically to people who are not familiar with the method with which the art is created. but those who are more or less familiar with it will recognize an additional layeredness, even in works that were created in an intentionally fairy-like style. hhiigghheerr ddiimmeennssiioonnss iinn aarrtt around the end of the nineteenth century, the idea of higher dimensions began to affect art and culture, ranging from literature to theology. in , edwin abbott published his satirical novel flatland: a romance of many dimensions, which is still s being reprinted. his main character is a square who lives in a two-dimensional world. in this world, the social status of a person is determined by his number of sides. triangles are considered less intelligent, and priests are polygons with several sides. women in flatland are lines and have a single side. one day, the main character is lifted out of the plane by a three-dimensional sphere. he acquires the notion that there are more than two dimensions. when he talks about this idea in flatland, his notions are considered subversive, and he is put in prison. abbott not only aimed at social satire, but also criticized the educational system, which suppressed creativity instead of encouraging it (being a schoolmaster himself, he was in a good position to make this diagnosis). in the art world, which took a position independent of formal schooling at many decisive moments, the idea of higher dimensions soon firmly took root. for instance, in his paris time, picasso became familiar with a book on higher-dimensional geometry by the mathematician esprit jouffret [ ]. the book has several schemas visualizing projections of hypercubes, which can be recognized in picasso’s paintings in which he initiated cubism (see [robbin ]). also several of his fellow cubists created paintings visualizing how the world would look from a four-dimensional perspective. higher dimensions also influenced futurism and expressionism. whereas cubism considered an additional spatial dimension, futurism tried to represent the idea of a four-dimensional space-time, which implies that different temporal perspectives are integrated into a single painting. expressionists often worked with a more symbolic representation of higher dimensions. one example is dali’s crucifixion (corpus hypercubus), in which christ hangs on a ) three-dimensional unfolding of a four-dimensional hypercube. at the current moment, about a century after the cubist movement originated, physical theories have become more sophisticated, but higher dimensions have remained a core theme in physics. string theory (and its successor, m-theory) evolved into an eleven-dimensional theory, covering ten spatial dimensions and one time dimension. in addition to the three spatial dimensions of our ordinary perception, there are six spatial dimensions that are strongly curved in all versions of the theory. the tenth spatial dimension has different properties in different variations of the theory. in one of these, it is extended infinitely and offers room for an infinity of parallel universes. with respect to the application of higher dimensions in art, the current moment r differs in several ways from the first half of the twentieth century. because recent theories deal with domains in which much higher energies are considered, the curvatures that are presently contemplated are stronger and more complicated. correspondingly, i use geometries that sometimes result in fractal images. but higher dimensions also emerged in another domains, such as crystallography. as was found in the s, quasicrystals can nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , be considered as projections of parts of high-dimensional grids of hypercubes. there are artists who based graphical works or paintings on this science [robbin ]. as i explain below, i apply these concepts in my sculptures. another change with art from the first half of the twentieth century follows from the fact that, at this moment, we have computers. we can simulate higher-dimensional models and in this way reflect on the implications of higher dimensions with exactitude, whereas the artists of the cubist movements largely depended on intuition only. pphhiilloossoopphhiiccaall ccoommmmeennttss our physical reality includes sixty powers of ten. what does that mean? take the smallest size that appears in physics, which is the size of a string in string theory. multiply this length by ten. this length is again multiplied by ten, and so on, until sixty multiplications have been performed. at that point, we have reached the scale of the largest cosmic structures that we have observed. as humans, we find ourselves at the middle point of these orders of magnitude. at our order of magnitude, and for energies that confront us in daily circumstances, we can describe reality with models that work with a three-dimensional euclidean space and an independent time dimension. this is not the case for smaller or larger scales, or for energies that are significantly larger than those we encounter in our typical daily environment. the first physical theory to be formulated in four dimensions was the theory of restricted relativity, in which space and time became a four-dimensional whole. non-euclidean dimensions were incorporated into the development of general relativity. in the course of the past century, many trials have targeted the addition of more dimensions, with the aim of obtaining a unified theory for the forces of nature [van loocke : ch. ; halpern ]. only string theory has come close to achieving this ambition in a mathematically coherent manner. string theory is also being applied in cosmology, as so-called string cosmology. among cosmologists, however, the inflation model of the cosmos is most popular at that scale. in the course of the s this model led to a reformulation of classical big-bang cosmology. because this reformulation is a profound one in different respects, several authors have written in terms of a ‘revolution’ in cosmology [van loocke : ch. ; guth ]. the inflation model integrates general relativity with some central concepts of particle physics (a central concept being the so-called inflation field, formulated by analogy with the higgs field in particle physics). this model implies that our universe is immensely larger than our visible universe. in addition, our universe is one among many ‘islands universes’ in the inflation vacuum. for an observer who stands inside an island universe, such a universe is infinitely large and has a unique moment of origination, the moment of the big bang. for an observer standing outside the island universe, the big bang lasts infinitely long and takes place at the boundary of an island universe of finite size. such facts are consequences of the way in which inflation cosmology integratesaa general relativity. at the very beginning of our island universe, the largest and the smallest scales coincided, simply because the largest level was as small as the smallest level. a fraction of a second after the beginning, however, the inflationary phase began. during this phase, quantum fluctuations were magnified up to macroscopic orders of magnitude. this resulted in inhomogeneities in the distribution of matter and energy, leading to the structures we presently see in the universe, like galaxies and galaxy clusters. because of the role of quantum fluctuations in the origination of cosmic structures, a common refrain is the proposition that the same uncertainty principle that describes the behavior of the philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... electron was responsible for the formation of the galaxies. without galaxies or stars, there would, of course, be no people. recent cosmology thus emphasizes the very early stage of the universe and the quantum fluctuations present at that stage as significant for everything that would follow. this very early stage can only be described with higher- dimensional, non-euclidean geometry. our existence became possible because cosmic inflation magnified the properties of this stage. above, i used the term ‘de-contextualization’. the transformations which i construct take an object out of its familiar, three-dimensional euclidean context – the context that is typical and familiar for our order of magnitude. on the basis of the above observations, this de-contextualization is open to a broader interpretation: it refers not to the order of magnitude, but also to the moment in cosmic history. higher dimensions are a reference to the earliest stage of everything that exists. scientific experiments or technological realizations aside, the question is whether or not we, at this moment of cosmic history, are locked into our present scale. for me, this is an open question. i refer to something that everyone experiences, namely consciousness. consciousness at present is not explained. i am aware that for some people, this statement is emotionally loaded but evolutionary theory cannot explain consciousness either. since the mid- s, it has become common to draw a distinction between ‘hard’ and ‘easy’ problems of consciousness. the ‘easy’ problems concern the question of which neural structures correlate with consciousness as well as questions concerning their function. the ‘hard’ problem concerns the question why this correlation even exists. as far as consciousness is concerned, current science can identify correlations, but that is profoundly different from establishing underlying causation. some scientists propose that reference to the smallest level of reality is necessary before progress can be made on the hard problem of consciousness. such an achievement would yield a captivating picture. if that were the case, then matter, at moments at which consciousness is correlating with it, would be described using models encompassing concepts that are also central to the theories describing the origins of our universe. many religions and old myths propose such a relationship between human consciousness and the origination of the universe. it is impossible to predict whether or not this scientific integration i describe here will actually transpire: perhaps yes, perhaps, no. but it is normal practice for artists to find inspiration in deep, open questions. as i noted above, i like to work with the shifts from particularity to universality. the core themes of myths are a gratifying beginning to the realization of this movement. identifying the themes i incorporate into a particular work is not always an easy task. one reason is simply the fact that knowledge of these themes is not widespread or that a theme is communicated from a single perspective only. take, for instance, the theme of the fall. at first sight, this choice seems to be only an archaic theme from the old testament, hardly an inspiration for contemporary art. only if we can look beyond the judeo-christean-islamic complex can we grasp the universality behind this theme. in the old testament, god exiles people from paradise. in african myths, we often hear the opposite: the people repel the gods by breaking the harmony of the world [van loocke : ch. ; sprout ]. the deeper common theme is that a particular type of serenity, acceptance, or humility is valued more highly than an egocentric orientation or conceit that people use to try to escape their human condition. this underlying theme is more abstract than the concrete, visual language of the myths. in different works, i have at times intertwined such themes, both abstract and more concrete. nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , ssppaaccee--ttiimmee,, eevvaanneesscceennccee ooff bbeeiinngg,, aanndd nnoonn--vveerrbbaall ppooeettrryyyrryy the higher-dimensional geometry i apply is non-euclidean and therefore curved. as a result, an object (or parts thereof) can appear several times. for clarification, i refer to a gravitational lens. consider a star located behind a galaxy. the gravitation of the galaxy is equivalent to a curvature of space-time, which has a lens effect on the light sent out by the star. therefore, it is possible that we see different images of a single star. by analogy, one can observe that the original image often reappears several times in my works.ff with an appropriate choice of geometry, it is possible to create an image that consists of several part-images, or that seems to scatter into fragments, in each of which the whole can be recognized. in this way, i work with a complexity that, although aesthetic, has a certain degree of capriciousness. but even an image that seems to be fragmenting retains its poetry. because of the relationship between fragmentation and evanescence, i regularly use this technique of fragmentation to express the poetry of evanescence. the transitoriness of being is usually associated with agony. life has moments that make it almost impossible to see the poetry of evanescence. in different works, i try to reflect a visual glimpse of that poetry. but i have another reason i work with this theme in my art. einstein proposed that the agony associated with the fragility of being was relative from a four-dimensional perspective anyway. the real arena of physical processes is four-dimensional space-time as a whole. a moment of consciousness correlates with a small area in space-time. this restriction of consciousness burdens us with the illusion of evanescence. to einstein, this insight was relevant to his sense of life, and he tried to comfort survivors of deceased friends with this insight. whether einstein was on the right track with this attitude is a matter of discussion. there are many other ways to cope with the fragility of being. for instance, recent insights on personal identity are relevant. people are discontinuous processes to a significantly higher extent than introspection suggests. if we do not have a truly essentialistic self, there is no such self that can disappear or evanesce. still, i share with einstein the view that insights on the fundamental structure of the universe do have implications for our sense of life. i return to another point that i made in the first section. i use the higher-dimensional perspective to add meaning. nevertheless, the visual poetry of the resulting artwork may be explicable only in part with verbal concepts. our aesthetic, emotional, and cognitive intuition have evolved in three dimensions. in my works, one recognizes the presence of a visual poetry. but because our usual concepts are fitted for a three-dimensional universe, verbal descriptions of appreciation of works that refer to higher dimensions are subject to restriction. the clear presence of poetry, without words available to articulate it, is one of the facts we mean when we use the word ‘sublime’ in an artistic context. higher dimensions therefore offer a suitable context for working with the sublime. ggrraapphhiiccaall wwoorrkk aanndd ccoouunntteerrppooiinntt after these remarks we are ready to consider an illustration. consider the photograph in fig. . it shows the clock on the cathedral of ypres (ypres is a city in belgium famous for its commemoration of the first world war). we let the image vibrate, and do not confine ourselves to the third dimension but we let the deformation extend to higher dimensions. we proceed with the projection to the plane of the photograph in accordance with the explanation given higher. this we do three times. after appropriate colorization, the works shown in figs. a-c result. philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... fig. . picture of the clock on the cathedral of ypres fig. a. clock cathedral of ypres, # nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , fig. b. clock cathedral of ypres, # fig. c. clock cathedral of ypres # philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... as is exemplified in these illustrations, in most of my works one recognizes motifs with an easy interpretation, such as eyes and mouth, heads and bodies, mythical birds, and so on. this is achieved by proper construction of the higher dimensional geometric model. i choose it in a way so that the motifs combine into a composition that accords with my inspiration. different compositions express different connotations of time. along with easily interpretable motifs, one recognizes themes surrounding the deep problems of time, which strengthen counterpoint relations between different works, since different deeper themes may be articulated in different works. ssccuullppttuurreess aanndd ccoouunntteerrppooiinntt kkeepplleerr aanndd tthhee ggoollddeenn sseeccttiioonn higher dimensions play a central role in my sculptural work as well. there are two historical lines of mathematical work which can be seen as precursors to the method i am using. the first one is kepler’s geometry. kepler was one of the brightest mathematicians of his time. one of his points of interest was the mathematics of the golden section, or as he called it, ‘division into extreme and mean ratio’. in the field of algebra he discovered how the number = . appears in the fibonacci sequence. he also discovered polyhedra in which is a defining number, such as the triacontahedron. it has thirty identical faces, each of which is the golden rhombus (in a golden rhombus the ratio of the long diagonal to the short one is equal to ). it is a structure which reappears in recent mathematics from a new viewpoint: the triacontahedron can be obtained as a combination of the basic cells of quasicrystals. the latter are described at this moment with help of projections from higher dimensional structures onto three-dimensional space. partial triacontahedra can be seen in several of my sculptures. fig. . kepler’s triacontahedron because the golden section played such a remarkable role in his mathematical reflections, kepler stated: ‘geometry has two great treasures. one is the theorem of pythagoras; the other the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. the first we may compare to a measure of gold, the second we may name a precious jewel’. from our perspective this reads like an exaggerated statement. but kepler’s worldview was religious-platonic, complemented with thoughts we would associate with magic or overly literalistically conceived mythology. nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , kepler was not only a mathematician and an astronomer, he also was an astrologist, devising his own astrological technique on the basis of planet configurations. during the renaissance, several philosophers valued astrology more highly than astronomy. kepler shifted this order. since the late middle ages the idea that god’s thoughts are rational had gained support. inspired by this, kepler was convinced that these thoughts could ber reconstructed with geometry and numbers. astronomy was a better context for such an endeavor than astrology. but in spite of this shift, part of his thought remained rooted in older traditions. for instance, it can be conjectured that he came to the concept of elliptical planetary motion by taking inspiration from the egg form, which in orphic mythology defines the initial form of the universe. the historical context of sculptures in which the golden rhombus plays a central role is therefore an appropriate context to link recent scientific and older mythical themes. as i mentioned, kepler was one of the brightest mathematicians of his days. but there is a domain in which he had been surpassed by arab mathematicians and architects of the middle ages. it is a domain in which the golden section also plays a role, and that is properly understood only since the s. in his work harmonices mundi, kepler i considers tilings of the plane, that is, he considers various sets of polygons which can pieced together to cover the plane without gaps or overlaps. in arab mosque art, this type of problem was considered earlier, since islamic art excluded images of humans or the prophet, and the arabs often made recourse to geometrical motifs. compositions of motifs were used to cover large walls or portals. the question therefore arose of how to tile the plane in a way that is of sufficient beauty and sophistication to do justice to the dignity of a religious building, while at the same time remaining practically feasible. it was recently discovered that in certain arab patterns, tilings can be identified which were constructed by roger penrose in the s (see [lu and steinhardt ], or, for more illustrations, [prange ]). the arabs appear to have found tilings with a special property: they are non-periodic. in the next section i explain why this is remarkable, and how this is related with my sculptural work. tthhee ggoollddeenn sseeccttiioonn,, ttiilliinnggss aanndd pprroojjeeccttiioonnss ffrffrffrfrff oomm hhiigghheerr ddiimmeennssiioonnss in the s, roger penrose was searching for non-periodic tilings of the plane. in such a tiling, the whole pattern cannot be obtained by translation of subpatterns. the reason for his search had to do with a fundamental problem in mathematics: if such a tiling exists, then a particular type of mathematical problem could be proven to be unsolvable in principle. mathematics has problems for which a solution would mean that all of mathematics would be inconsistent. this would entail, for instance, that equals . therefore, it is posited that such problems are unsolvable in principle. around penrose had indeed found different non-periodic tilings, one of which is shown in figs. a-b. consider the two rhombi in fig. a. the acute angles of the rhombi measure ° and °, respectively; these are the angles which appear in the golden triangle. these rhombi tile the plane non-periodically as shown in fig. b. it can be observed that there are different points at which one can recognize motifs with partial pentagonal symmetry. because of the prominence of the golden section in the regular pentagon, this adds to the prominence of the golden section in the planar quasicrystal tiling of fig. b. there is r another fact that emphasizes the relation of this structure with the golden section, which is related to a remarkable insight achieved by the dutch mathematician nicolaas de bruyn in . philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... fig. a. the two rhombi which are combined in fig. b fig. b. non-periodic tiling of the plane an ordinary crystal has translation symmetry: its molecular structure has sub-patterns rr which, after translation, reappear in the entire structure. a quasicrystal is also composed of a limited number of types of cells, but their combination is non-periodic. because of applications in material science and in design of electronic components, quasicrystals are widely studied. quasicrystals have been fabricated in the laboratory, and it has recently been discovered that they occur in nature as well. de bruyn’s insight was that two- dimensional quasicrystals (tilings of the plane like in fig. b) are projections of part of a five-dimensional grid of hypercubes. three-dimensional quasicrystals, which play an important role in my sculptural work, result as projections of part of a grid of six- dimensional hypercubes onto three-dimensional space. at first sight this may seem surprising, since a grid of cubes, whatever their dimensionality, is perfectly periodic. therefore it is remarkable that a projection of such a t grid results in non-periodic structures. the point which explains this fact is that only part of the grid is projected. this is easy to explain when we consider the projection of a two- dimensional lattice on a line (which is a one-dimensional structure). fig. shows a grid of squares, a yellow and a green line. the yellow line is the line onto which part of the grid is projected. the projection is confined to points on the grid located between the green line and the yellow line (these points are marked by red circles in fig. ). the angle between the horizontal lines of the grid and the green and yellow line is defined such that its tangent equals / . the projection of the points marked with red circles leads to a division of the yellow line into line segments of two lengths, denoted l and s, respectively (l standing for long, s for short). the ratio of the lengths of these segments is equal to . the pattern lsllsl… that results is non-periodic, and can be recoded in such a way that the numbers of the fibonacci series appear. by a similar nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , procedure, two-dimensional and three-dimensional quasicrystals are obtained as projections of grids of five-dimensional and six-dimensional hypercubes, respectively. tan k l fig. . projection of part of a two-dimensional grid leads to a non-periodic one-dimensional structure on the yellow line in two dimensions, quasicrystals can be build by assembling the two rhombi in fig. a. in three dimensions, we obtain quasicrystals by combining the two golden rhombohedra (fig. ). the golden rhombohedra have six faces, each of which is the golden rhombus. with these golden rhombohedra, different familiar polyhedra can be composed. twenty rhombohedra (ten of each type), for instance, if correctly assembled, result in kepler’s triacontahedron. fig. . the golden rhombohedra initially, i explored this world of forms with help of software i had written for this purpose (there are many open questions on the combinatorics of the golden rhombohedra; mathematics constrains the combinatorics of the basic cells less stringently than in the two-dimensional case). fig. shows a simple example in which two partial triacontahedra can be recognized at the top. this software-based approach is not always practical, since a full sculpture (meaning a sculpture with an interior that is completely filled with golden rhombohedra) easily contains many more rhombohedra than there are, for instance, in a triacontahedron. for me, the best way is to work on the basis of philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... intuition. i make a large set of golden rhombi and combine them into a sculpture that fits my inspiration. because by far not all combinations of rhombi result in an extended surface without holes, this takes much practice and experience-based spatial insight; that is a precondition for this kind of art. in some instances working on the basis of intuition leads me beyond the original context of quasicrystals. for some of my sculptures i verified that it is impossible to fill them with quasicrystals, even though all angles between the golden rectangles involved are familiar from quasicrystals. other works can be filled completely with the golden rhombohedra. fig. . form resulting from combination of the golden rhombohedra ssccuullppttuurreess ttiilleedd wwiitthh mmiirrrroorrss i make my sculptures open; therefore they have an exterior and an interior. i tile theaa interior completely with mirrors of a golden rhombus shape. sculptures with mirrors have different antecedents in contemporary art. for instance, robert smithson created sculptures in which he combined different mirrors, and in which a limited number of mirror-reflection iterations are visible. in comparison to such installations and constructions, my work has a more intricate complexity of light reflection. in this sense it is related with video-feedback art, in which loops are created by a videocamera which is directed at a screen. the image registrated by the camera is transmitted to the screen, y captured by the camera, sent to the screen, and so on. as a result, the screen displays fractal patterns. a variation of this type of loop appears in the interior of my sculptures, but without the intervention of a camera and electronics. an incoming ray of light is reflected several times on different mirrors before reaching the eye of an observer. since different rays reflect on different series of mirrors, an image with fractal depth results. because the mirrors have the shape of the golden rhombus, they create images which at times have a cubistic feel. the image changes every time the observer changes position. the environment, as well as the observer, are drawn into the reflection process and become part of the artwork. below i include three examples of sculptures (figs. a-c). nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , fig. a. first example of a sculpture (ph. van loocke , sculpture # ) philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... fig. b. second example of a sculpture (ph. van loocke , large sculpture # ) nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , fig. c. third example of a sculpture (ph. van loocke , sculpture # ) philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... mmiirrrroorr bbaasseedd pphhoottooggrraapphhyy when i zoom in with a photo camera on the interior of my sculptures, images result in which light weaves a pattern of fragments that belong together, but which nevertheless seem disparate. figs. a-b show two examples. in course of the reflection process some fragments receive more light than others, and the sharpness with which they are present in the image is inevitably subject to variation (focussing on large fragments implies that smaller fragments become more vague and vice versa: although the physical distance between the mirrors and the camera is not subject to strong variation, the lengths of trajectories of light rays differ strongly as a function of the number of reflections to which they are subject). fig. a. ph. van loocke , mirror based photography # nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , fig. b. ph. van loocke , mirror based photography # i want to make two additional metaphysical comments in relation to this art, which helps to understand the point that i am about to make concerning counterpoint. first i make a remark on the mirrors, which reflect one another in such a way that in a sculpture with a limited number of faces, a much vaster complexity appears. the theme of mirrors which mirror one another is an old theme in eastern philosophy. think, for instance, of the mirrors or ‘pearls’ of indra, which mirror one another in an infinite regression, so that in each pearl a pattern of infinite detail is created. this theme entered western philosophy thanks to leibniz. leibniz’s view strongly differs from descartes’s atomism, according to which reality is composed of infinitely small atoms. in interplanetary space these revolve around the sun and like minuscule stones they drag the planets around the sun in their vortexes. in leibniz’s view, reality is composed of monads, which are infinitely small mirrors that reflect one another. for instance, the mirror in our brain philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... which is mirroring best acquires dominance, and it determines the content of our consciousness. leibniz was influenced by eastern philosophy. for several centuries, he had few followers in western philosophy. but i like finding affinity between my art and the great stories, especially when the latter extend over different cultures. it gives inspiration and it may relate art of the present with world views of the future. the second example of a metaphysical relation that i give at this place concerns ‘intellectual’ kabbala. i use the adjective ‘intellectual’ in order to make it clear that i am not referring to new-age kabbala but to the kabbala of isaac luria, who in the sixteenth century proposed a cosmogenesis with different stages. at the beginning there was only the infinity of god. in this infinity there is no place for a world like ours, since god fills everything. at a certain instant, god selects a special point in this infinity. he retracts from this point and allows it to expand. thus comes into existence the place where our world can originate. but since god had to retract from this place in order to enable our world, his qualities are no longer permeating it. therefore, evil can exist. but if we take an open, relaxed attitude, then we still perceive traces of the goodness of god. fragments of the world contain traces of the initial divine light, and it is up to people to connect these fragments and to increase their relative weight. the theme of fragments, and the play of the light connecting them, is visible in the photographic work that i make on basis of my sculptures. acceptance of luria’s cosmogenesis is not a necessary condition for appreciating this art form, but familiarity with this metaphysical context can add another layer of meaning, which may increase the subjective value of an artwork. ccoouunntteerrppooiinntt aanndd ssccuullppttuurraall wwoorrkk as in case of my graphical work, different semantic levels are present in a single work. in case of sculptures, this holds for the interior as well as for the exterior. in the exterior and at a figurative level, certain motifs, such as biomorphic themes, abstract people, and so forth, can be recognized. the higher-dimensional projections which describe the shape of the exterior have a physical and metaphysical context that i have outlined when i discussed my graphical work. in addition, the golden section, which is prevalent, has its own long tradition with ramifications in platonism and beyond. the interior of a sculpture, and the mirror based photography to which it leads, can be related to eastern metaphysics, with leibniz or with kabbala. this often creates a counterpoint in an individual sculpture. the finiteness of the exterior communicates with the sheer infinity of the interior, and the metaphysical themes associated with the exterior complements the mirror-and-light metaphysics associated with the interior. in the case of my graphical work, a single photograph leads to different works if different higher-dimensional deformations or ‘vibrations’ are applied to it. in the case of my sculptural work, the same grid of six-dimensional hypercubes leads to different sculptures if different parts of the grid are projected (although some sculptures fall outside the range of quasicrystals, as i explained before). in some instances i create my sculptures in small groups, and i orient the interiors of the sculptures toward one another, so that the reflecting mirror systems in different sculptures increase the complexity of the reflection pattern in each of them. in this case, the counterpoint is not f only involved through the complementary relations between interior and exterior in individual sculptures, but is also observed in the relation between different sculptures. nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , ccoonncclluussiioonn the round table session at nexus entitled “generative architectural codesness” included two interventions in which counterpoint is discussed and explained from a broad perspective. moderator celestino soddu explained how counterpoint is a major theme in his architectural work. the dynamics of convergence and divergence of several forms is evident in the method that he designed, in which algorithmic variation is combined with an artist-based selection process. i took the freedom to discuss the concept of counterpoint in relation with my own artwork. both in my graphical and in y my sculptural work it has a natural place. nnootteess . the point q is located in the plane of the photograph, but may fall outside the area covered by the latter. in order to associate colour values with q in such a case, i tile the plane caleidoscopically with the photograph. this means that each tile has a copy of the photograph, with orientation in such a way that neighbouring tiles contain images which are mirrored along the shared side. . note that this was before the restricted theory of relativity had beeny formulated. the concept of higher dimensions was studied in mathematics and from there found its way into art. . a large number of famous artists from the first half the twentieth century were inspired by the concept of higher dimensions. the classical reference work on this subject is [henderson ]. . for an overview, see [van loocke ]. . for the scales in our universe and for the cosmological concepts to which i am referring below, see [primack and abrams ]. . for a keen discussion, see [blackmore ]. for my position on consciousness, see [van loocke : ch. ]. . see, for instance, [penrose ]. in a statistical analysis of the opinions of scientists, the stance that penrose defends would appear to have the support of a minority. the history of science and the observation of the sociological mechanisms at play suggest that one cannot draw very firm conclusions from this fact. . ‘arena’ is a strong word: from einstein’s perspective, all change is illusion and only static structures in four-dimensional space-time exist – otherwise, for instance, our past could change. . einstein’s opinion implies that the future is fixed, which is too deterministic in view of quantum mechanics. the discussion referenced is whether small or large variations of einstein’s view are tenable. . these recent scientific insights come close to old buddhist propositions: see [van loocke : ch. ] and [blackmore ]. . for a more extended description, see [dunlap ]. . see for instance the work ‘four sided vortex’ at the beginning of the official site for robert smithson’s work on www.robertsmithson.com . through anastasius kircher (who had contact with jesuits who had traveled to the east) leibniz had become familar with eastern concepts. leibniz’s cosmology, like the eastern cosmologies he knew, is a correlative cosmology instead of a causal cosmology. monads do not interact causally (like in classical physics one process influences another one by exerting a force on it or by bouncing onto it), but are rather synchronized beforehand by the creator of the universe, which explains the coherence of our world. the hierarchical relation between monads also agrees with eastern philosophy [van loocke ]. . one may wonder how far the analogy goes between luria’s cosmology and present scientific cosmology, since both approaches share the theme of an expanding universe. a more detailed comparison shows that there are indeed various similarities; see [primack and abrams ]. philip van loocke – counterpoint in the visual arts... rreeereffefeffefefeff rreenncceess blackmore, s. . consciousness: an introduction. london: hodder and stoughton. n dunlap, r. . the golden ratio and fibonacci numbers. signapore: world scientific s publishing henderson, l. . the fourth dimension and non-euclidean geometry in modern art. princeton: princeton university press. jouffret, e. . traité élémentaire de géométrie à quatre dimensions. paris: gauthier-villars. lu, peter and paul steinhardt. . decagonal and quasi-crystalline tilings in medieval islamic architecture. science : - penrose, r. . the large, the small and the human mind. cambridge: cambridge d university press. prange, s. . the tiles of infinity. saudi aramco world , (september/october ). available at: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/ /the.tiles.of.infinity.htm. last accessed september . primack, j. r. and n. e. abrams. . the view from the center of the universe. discovering our extraordinary place in the cosmos. new york: riverhead books. s robbin, t. . shadows of reality. the fourth dimension in relativity, cubism and modern thought. new haven: yale university press sprout, b. . primal myths. creation myths around the world. new york: harper collins d vanvv loocke, philip. . het wereldbeeld van de wetenschap. antwerp: garant (in dutch). p aabbbaboouutt tthhee aauutthhoorr philip van loocke was born in in bruges. he is an artist/philosopher/mathematician. he is also a professor at the university of ghent, currently associated with the department of the rector as art/science liaison officer. his website is http://www.philipvanloocke.com. 	counterpoint in the visual arts. a perspective based on my graphical and sculptural work 	abstract 	introduction 	graphical work and counterpoint 	levels of meaning in a single work 	higher dimensions and basics of the method 	higher dimensions in art 	philosophical comments 	space-time, evanescence of being, and non-verbal poetry 	graphical work and counterpoint 	sculptures and counterpoint 	the golden section, tilings and projections from higher dimensions 	sculptures tiled with mirrors 	mirror based photography 	counterpoint and sculptural work 	conclusion 	notes 	references 	about the author lloorraa ddiikkoovvaa steamboat drive # cincinnati, oh usa loradikova@gmail.com keywords: information, string theory, m-theory, spacetime, morphologies presented at nexus : relationships between architecture and mathematics, porto, - june research aafafftftfftftfftff eerr tthhee ppaarraaddiiggmm ooff ccoonntteemmppoorraarryyyrryy pphhyysssysiiccss iinn aarrcchhiitteeccttuurree:: ssppaattiiaall ppoossssiibbiilliittiieess aanndd vvavvarriiaattiioonnss aabbssttrraacctt.. architecture in the information age becomes a mixture of spatial and temporal processes that are directly linked to changes in science, technology and culture. in the digital era, when information becomes a matter of philosophy, methods of informational transitions provide multiple possibilities for conceptualizing space, and thus opening new horizons to architecture. this research explores algorithms of analogy between string theory, m-theory and architecture. the mathematical spacetime concepts of movement, dimension and topology in physics are studied asy tools for achieving informational transitions in the design elements and their structures. as a result this methodology opens numerous possibilities for interpretation and creation of new design morphologies. fig. untying form into shadow the function of art is to imitate nature in her manner of operation. our understanding of “her manner of operation” changes according to advances in the sciences john cage [ : ] aarrcchhiitteeccttuurree iinn ssppaaccee aanndd ttiimmee architecture is not only a spatial statement, but is also a philosophical one. design transforms data into spatial structures by organizing physical, technical, cultural,y functional, aesthetic and economic information, by means of abstract connections. therefore, architects participate in the design process by analyzing restrictions in space, time and culture. later, they convert them into a non-accidental spatial artifact. this process of repetitive organization, namely defining the multitude of elements and their connections, requires particular methodology. this paper explores a possible approach for achieving such design methodology by using spatial concepts from the area of modern physics. employing an indirect analogy with string theory and m-theory, the paper encompasses a variety of questions, bringing architecture, philosophy, and science together, to investigate how the interconnectedness of these questions could affect contemporary design, providing different modes for organization of the design elements in space, time, and context. to focus on why i bring architecture, philosophy, and science together i would like to introduce a question asked by the physical chemist ilya prigogine, when referring to the organization of the embryo: “how can an inert mass, even a newtonian mass nexus netw j ( ) – nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , doi . /s - - -z ; published online january © kim williams books, turin lora dikova –a after the paradigm of contemporary physics in architecture:... animated by the forces of gravitational interaction, be the starting point for organized active local structures?” representing a philosophical paradox in the sciences, namely the mystery of the act of processing organization, the question might just as well be ascribed to architecture, because even though the final result from design is a spatial artifact, that artifact is not a direct product of spatial elements, merely put together. in spite of its peculiar attitude towards physical, technical, cultural, functional, aesthetic, and economic restrictions, initially, each design process deals with structuring pure states of information about objects and their possible relations. therefore, the primary cause of any designed artifact is a transformation of information; this transformation is in fact “the starting point for organized active local structures”. moreover, it is precisely such informational transitions that link the facts which are configured in systems by means of science. it is also these transitions which philosophy makes interpretations of. prigogine stated that, “it is science, not its results, that is the subject of philosophy” [prigogine and stengers : ]. the diversity of the tendencies in philosophy frames our culture. therefore, by processing the information about how science and culture relate, new patterns of organizational structures could be derived, giving multiple and challenging answers to prigogine’s question. living in the twenty-first century we experience the impact of the informational revolution, marked by rapid alterations in science and technology, and consequently in culture. these alterations affect the way we make and comprehend architecture. inevitably, they impose change in the design process, because our appreciation of space alters as well. space has become the result of a diverse mixture of the developing scientific, technological, and cultural activities; space has turned into a spatial and temporal layering of information, constantly accumulating and altering the very way space itself is comprehended. therefore, in order to make and comprehend spaces in the twenty-first century, we need to frame a language of relevant organization of the design elements, precisely because the alterations in the science and culture change the philosophical meaning of architecture. as mentioned, designers, in particular architects, react to these alterations by transforming spatial and temporal information. architects such as marcos novak, kas oosterhuis and stephen perrella have already undertaken their quests for such a shift in the attitude towards the relation between science and culture. in relation to the beginning of a new approach towards space and time this paper investigates the possibilities for designers to take advantage of the various methods for transforming cultural and scientific informational patterns into spatial artifacts. to do so, i specifically explore how algorithms of analogies, which are initially derived from the spacetime framework in modern physics, could then be transferred into design methodologies. i consider the main concepts of movement, dimension, and topology, as they are particularly framed in string theory and m-theory, and convert them into design y tools for mediating transformations of information in a spatial way. to do that i investigate two ways these concepts could contribute to the design process: first, providing a conceptual ground for organizing a “cause and effect” structure of designg elements; and second, exploring the possibilities for form creation. nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , fig. . the topological city even though the indirect analogy with contemporary physics represents one of the many ways to form particular organizational structures in design, its concepts correspond to architecture both by providing a particular method of organization of spatial elements in a system, and by providing tools for manipulating the organization of complex dynamic systems. the theories used in this analysis, string theory and m-theory, are recent examples of ongoing scientific attempts to combine the theory of quantum mechanics and the theory of general relativity into a unified theory of everything. the main concept is that particles, considered point-like in classical physics, are in fact minute strings, vibrating in a sub-quantum world of mathematical multidimensional spaces, thus producing the properties of bigger particles. in m-theory, a successor to string theory, these strings surpass the dimensions of the sub-atomic scale and form huge membranes, “branes” for short, which collide and produce a multitude of new universes. highly controversial, because they cannot be tested by experiment, and radically strange, because they digress from our general understanding of the physical world, these concepts cannot be applied to the design process directly. however, the inner logic for organization of spatial and temporal elements defined by these theories could successfully be applied in design as a way to transform spatial and temporal information, precisely because they offer challenging connections among the concepts of movement, dimension, and topology. these concepts, derived from modern physics but interconnected with mathematics, art and philosophy, could be applied in architecture as design tools for organizing spatial and temporal information. architecture, following the paradigm of modern physics, could therefore result not only in a new morphology, but also in the creation of new contexts. design might turn into algorithms of informational patterns, which change the x, y, z time variables of z objects. such a change would influence the subjects in the environment of these objects. therefore, this change of the variables of the objects would help achieve a diversity of spatial and temporal events. lora dikova –a after the paradigm of contemporary physics in architecture:... aarrcchhiitteeccttuurree aanndd mmoovveemmeenntt the architect kostas terzidis stated that, “motion involves time as a measurement of change” [ : ]. in string theory and m-theory, “the wild vibrations of the different strings” [green : ], which are different from ordinary vibrations because they account for the quantum fluctuations at that scale, could still be considered as a form of alteration in time, on the condition that we accept time, even without being able to measure it in the quantum world. moreover, the distinguishable difference among the elementary particles, tested by classical physics, results from the difference in the specific vibrations of the strings in multi-dimensional spaces, according to string theory and m- theory. therefore, such a spacetime framework represents not only a repetitive movement and energy exchange, but also allows the concept of movement to serve as a tool to form informational transitions. to transform this concept of movement in architecture, we should consider both the dynamic possibilities of the design elements as well as the option of tracing motion in a static form. the first would imply the use of movement as a tool for transforming information about space and time in architecture; the second implies its use as a tool for imposing a form onto a designed artifact. fig. . temporal sequence of form over time as an organizational tool, movement in n-dimensions could be applied both to objects and subjects in the design process either to force or to imply a particular structurer of connectivity. such a structure would inevitably create a specific frame of information. the awareness of this specific type of communication between objects and subjects provides opportunities for the designers. for example, in his design “articulated cloud”, the artist ned kahn takes advantage of this by designing a four-dimensional movement (three spatial and one temporal dimensions) in space and time. the dynamic façade of the building, made of flexible, wind sensitive and reflective exterior panels, alters naturally with the change of wind and the dynamics of the reflected sky, thus nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , communicating any change in the spatial and temporal information of the immediate building environment. such attempts at animating architectural objects, done by introducing movement to unconventional elements for those purposes, make it possible to assign a new identification to the architectural object. in relation to this the architect kas oosterhuis stated that the architectural object turns into a “building body” [ a: ], encompassing all design elements, objects and subjects, by forming a homogenous environment of body structures which respond to common informational flows. however, if we consider the architectural artifact as an overall static structure, excluding movable elements, like doors, windows, equipment, but rather referring to the massing of the architectural object, the tool of movement also provides possibilities for informational transitions, as a result of “cause and effect” design organization. kas oosterhuis, for example, treats the classic house as a “vectoral body whose direction is frontally oriented to arrival and departure” [ b: ]. thus, if we consider the dual nature of architecture, being static, and yet imposing dynamic vectoral orientations in space, we could investigate, following the analogy with string theory, movement in n- dimensional spacetime as a mode of dynamic organization of static objects. the multi- dimensional aspect of the theory does not denote that we impose these dimensions literally, since additional dimensions merely mean additional states of information. y moreover, that aspect allows for more connections between the static and dynamic states of the objects. in four-dimensional space and time, for example, the architect zaha hadid developed such an approach in her early designs, applying, however, predominantly visual organizational patterns to limited elements and using collage design, rather than producing austerely articulated static places in movement. movement in multiple dimensions could also allow us to create a particular form in architecture. even though the architect kostas terzidis stated that, “form itself does not involve time” [ : ], it could capture the change of time in spatial configurations, depicting the consequence of movement through time and space. form, as a consequence of the movement in multiple dimensions through spacetime, does not necessarily demand an “animated building”, as greg lynn would argue, but rather implies the inevitability of tracing movement onto the integrity of the form itself. for example, the casa guardiola designed by the architect peter eisenman is a result of the rotation, translation, cutting, mirroring, unification and duplication of a cube in space. the final architectural form and structure of the house communicate the notion of these processes of violation of the integrity of space, achieved by the movement of geometrical structures in time. therefore, the form of the house is “animated” in the sense that it preserves traces of the series of movements in spacetime as geometrical projections, articulated in the final form. therefore, a form could be considered a spatial memory of certain movement in space-time. moreover, michael leyton argues that shape is memory storage and vice versa. when discussing the two-dimensional structure of paintings, he states that memory storage is also a reflection of the information about the past [leyton : - ]. thus, we could consider the potential of a form as a consequence of n-dimensional movement, to provide informational transitions in space and time, being aware that [t]he designer is a stylist of the entire flux through the building body. however, the modern designer is more than that. (s)he also gives shape to the flux of the physical building body itself. the designer shapes the building body that will eventually change its shape and content in real time [oosterhuis b: ]. lora dikova –a after the paradigm of contemporary physics in architecture:... aarrcchhiitteeccttuurree aanndd ddiimmeennssiioonn dimension is the measure of the information on the location of elements in spacetime. therefore, an element in the design system of four dimensions, relevant to our classical physical reality, is identified in space and time by one temporal and three spatial measures. however, according to string theory and m-theory, there are respectively ten and eleven dimensions in our physical world; therefore, more complex informational structures exist among the elements in these theories. even though we design in three dimensions and time, we should consider and take advantage of the consequences of the possibility of higher-dimensional spaces, resulting in the creation of more states of information about objects, therefore, more options for them to relate technically or contextually in intriguing manners. the significance of string theory and m-theory as tools for design methodology in architecture, is that the mathematical meaning of dimension is not isolated on its own, but it is woven into the structure of space and time. thus the tool of dimension sets very particular conditions on how space and time operate together. “now although it is hard to picture in more than three dimensions, this conclusion – more dimensions mean more vibrational patterns – is general”, states the physicist brian greene [ : ]. therefore, the concepts of dimension and movement are interconnected. how would such an analogy refract into the design process? as mentioned before, the concept of movement in architecture, even in static structures, proliferates with design possibilities for meaning and form. therefore, by altering the concept of dimension, we disturb the tool of movement in the design process, changing the connectivity of the designed elements as well as altering their form. that inevitable dual transformation allows controlling the design in a more flexible way and also provides additional modes of framing information into spatial structures. the artist tony robbin, for example, used the concepts of movement and dimension in his sculpture for the center of art, science and technology at denmark’s technical university. working on the geometry of quasicrystals, “three-dimensional projections of higher-dimensional objects”, tony robbin appreciates the “richness of four-dimensional geometry” by investigating its possibility for “multiple objects in the same place and time, objects appearing and disappearing by rotation, objects passing through one another without interference”. describing his sculpture, robbin emphasizes the importance of combining concepts of movement and dimension to “allow the viewer to pass under, over, around, and through r the work, and to happen upon the many and unexpected occurrences of fivefold, threefold, and twofold symmetry” [robbin : - ], caused by the change of light and the viewer’s position. since the concepts of movement and dimensions are interconnected, as discussed above, and since the influence of movement as a design tool could shape a particular form in architecture, we can assume that the use of dimension can also indirectly achieve architectural form. moreover, knowing that a common way to experience a form is by processing visual information, technical manipulation of multi-dimensional projections could serve as a tool to generate form. tony robbin expressed his awareness of that fact by referring to henri poincaré, who “repeatedly suggested that successive models of the projections of four dimensional figures when seen in sequence could lead to a vision of the fourth dimension” [robbin : ]. therefore, the possibility of framing whole structures, for example, in building sections or on urban level, would provide an immediate tool for generating form in the design process. moreover, a form generated in this way would differ from other morphologies in architecture by providing a new appreciation of spaces, namely the visual experience of y n-dimensionality. nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , fig. . n-dimensional variations on tracing form however, because we are used to the restraints of our four-dimensional world, any representation of n-dimensionality could pose a challenge. treated as a structure of connectivity among elements, n-dimensionality could take another direction in influencing the design process, namely by increasing the possibilities for informational transitions. as brian greene would argue, “… since a string’s vibrational pattern determines its mass and charge,” in string theory and m-theory, “this means that the extra dimensions play a pivotal role in determining particle properties” [greene : ]. in architecture, the concept of dimension, considered as the link among all design elements in a system, might be investigated in context, not necessarily by technical geometrical projections. the architect stephen perrella, for example, tests such contextualism in his studies of hyperspaces, which are richer in informational transitions. moreover, for him, hypersurfaces “are thought to render a more complex notion of spacetime information” than the mathematically defined ones, because in the hypersurfaces “the abstractness of these mathematical dimensions is shifting, defecting or devolving into our lived cultural context” [emmer : ]. unlike stephen perrella, marcos novak considers the concept of dimension in m-theory as a way to identify the design elements. therefore, he suggests that dimension serves not as a tool to combine elements together in a system, but to differentiate their typology: …both are manifolds, the difference between hyperspace and hypersurface of a hyperspace of (n)-dimensions is a submanifold of (n- ) dimensions. thus the hypersurface of a hyperspace of four spatial dimensions is a space of three spatial dimensions, produced by an act of projection or section or y screening [novak : ]. aarrcchhiitteeccttuurree aanndd ttooppoollooggygygyggyggygg deriving a form from topological spaces is the predominantly direct way to structure what kenneth powell calls “sculptural drama” [powell : ]. intriguing results of the application of the concept of topological forms in the arts are found in the two- dimensional art of m. c. escher, where spacetime is visually curved, as well as in the sculptures of eva hild, improvising with the pressure, curvature, and intensity of a form. moreover, topology has been already widely utilized in architectural theory by architects lora dikova –a after the paradigm of contemporary physics in architecture:... such as greg lynn, peter eisenman and kostas terzidis. the “weak form” of peter eisenman and the “fold” of greg lynn have tested topological structures and the way they relate to morphology in architecture. greg lynn implements topology as a tool to investigate flexibility and continuum in a form as well as its signification, affected by “programmatic, structural, economic, aesthetic, political and contextual influences” [terzidis : ]. in similar way, un studio, for example, transfer the möbius strip directly from topology into architecture in their design for the möbius house with the concept of infinite interaction of the users’ activities. fig. . topological invariants on analytical cubism however, the mathematical approach taken by string theory and m-theory towards the concepts of topology and n-dimensionality suggests an intriguing relation between topology, dimension, and movement. this relation provides various algorithms for organizing elements in structures. specifically, it bonds in a unique way the spatial character of the elements with the temporal feature of their structure. the strings vibrate in the sub-quantum world, in six-dimensional mathematical spaces called the calabi-yau manifolds, thus forming the properties of the various particles. brian greene explained further that the “vibrational patterns of the strings are influenced by the twists and turnsy in the geometry of the extra six dimensions” [ : ]. therefore, the tools of topology, movement and dimension become interconnected and self-regulatory, given that topology controls deformations of form, such as stretching, twisting, folding, and scaling, while preserving the form integrity. moreover, the architect kostas terzidis argues that form, subject to topological deformations, would reveal particular properties, as it would “allow time to be imprinted on form”, as well as be an “object in disguise” because the object could be “composed of the topology of the one object and the geometry of the other” [ : , ]. this implies that by applying topological transformations to the design elements, we change the concepts of movement and dimension. therefore, topology could be used to control the design mechanisms and organization in their unity. kas oosterhuis, for example, suggested that, “[t]he tension between the dimensions can be made visible and tangible by stretching them almost physically, like a baby in a bunting bag” [oosterhuis b: ]. similarly, movement, as a design tool, could also be transformed, stretched, folded or scaled, which would nexus netw j – volvv . , no. , result in a change of form and connectivity of the design elements. therefore, topology provides rich possibilities for manipulation of the design elements in form and context. f dealing with the possible relationships among the elements in architecture, topology could serve as a tool not only for morphological and contextual, but also for programmatic organization of the relations between objects and subjects. therefore, topology could constitute a powerful instrument for how architects transform the data of all design restrictions into spatial and temporal structures, emphasizing specific characteristics about such an organization. dealing with deformations, preserving the object’s integrity, but defining boundaries – “in and out” conditions – topological transformations could be applied in the design process, for example, as a spatial solution to border contexts. in a single building unit, or on urban level scale, exploring the elements as sets of typologies might serve as a tool to set categories of identities. this could therefore help to deal with a multitude of objects and subjects at once, by introducing them as part of a single topological structure, giving the advantage of controlling complexity because: [r]ather than assuming a continuous behavior that governs all finite elements, the behavior of each finite element contributes toward a generalized behavior. finite elements can be regarded not as arbitrary units but rather as localized samples. in this context, general principles are derived from particular instances [terzidis : ]. aarrcchhiitteeccttuurree aafftftfftftfftff eerr tthhee ccoonncceeppttss ooff mmooddeerrnn pphhyysssysiiccss “we have our own discoveries to make, based on the mathematics and physics of our own time”, stated the artist tony robbin [ : ]. therefore, if we go back to the question of the organization of the embryo, posed by ilya prigogine, we might find that in each time and space we accept different answers to that question. our way of thinking as artists, scientists or philosophers who organize given information to achieve a developed structure of interconnected elements, is subject to change according to “our own discoveries”. this paper presents a way to frame architectural theory through a aa reflection on a scientific analysis. by applying an indirect analogy with concepts from string theory and m-theory, the paper investigates possibilities for interpretation of information in the design process. the analysis of the tools of movement, dimension, and topology provide opportunities for both, interpretation and generation of design artifacts. it also reveals the importance of the spacetime framework in string theory and m-theory, taken as a design tool for dealing with complex dynamic systems, such as architecture, because unlike acknowledged concepts in classical physics, like phase space, for example, string theory and m-theory link the concept of dynamics with the concept k of spatial deformation topologically as well as temporally. someday string theory and m- theory might prove to be wrong about how they define our physical space and time. however, that would not repudiate any of the places we might have designed as “animated through multi-dimensional spacetime form”, exuberant in the diversity of their topological structures on the contrary, it would only be one of the various ways to answer prigogine’s question – one more time, in one of our many understandings of spacetime. aacccackknnoowwllwleeddggmmeenntt all images are by the author. lora dikova –a after the paradigm of contemporary physics in architecture:... nnootteess . [prigogine and stengers : ]. prigogine discusses the relationship between physics and philosophy; in this case referring to the viewpoint of the french philosopher denis diderot. . the theory of general relativity, including gravity, is mathematically irreconcilable with the theory of quantum mechanics, including electromagnetism, the strong and weak forces. however, scientists assume that under conditions, similar to the ones they suppose formed in the big bang or in black holes, these forces should be unified. string theory and its follower m theory represent a way to do it. however, they are only theoretical and due to technological restrictions, unverifiable. . phase space is used for analyzing dynamic systems by introducing six coordinates to an object, defining its location by three spatial coordinates and their respective momentum, relating to the movement of the object. rreeereffefeffefefeff rreenncceess cagecc , john. . a year from monday: new lectures and writing. middletown, cn: wesleyan g university press. emmer, michele. . mathland: from flatland to hypersurfaces. basel: birkhäuser. s greene, brian. . the fabric of the cosmos. new york: alfred a. knopf. leyton, michael. . the structure of paintings. vienna: springer-verlag/wien. novak, marcos. . transarchitecture and hypersurfaces: operations of transmodernity. architectural design , - : - . oosterhuis, kas. a. hyperbodies: towards an e-motive architecture. basel: birkhäuser. ———. b. architecture goes wild. rotterdam: publishers. d powell, kenneth. . unfolding folding. in: architectural design profile : folding in architecture. architectural design , - : - . prigogine, ilya and isabelle stengers. . order out of chaos: man’s new dialogue with nature. boulder: new science library. e robbin, tony. . quasicrystal architecture: the space of experience. pp. - in beyond the cube. the architecture of space frames and polyhedra, j. francois gabriel, ed. new a york: john wiley & sons. terzidis, kostas. . expressive form. a conceptual approach to computational design. london and new york: spon press. young, john wesley. . projective geometry. chicago: open court pub. y aabbbaboouutt tthhee aauutthhoorr lora dikova is a bulgarian architect. she received her two professional accredited master of architecture degrees from the university of architecture, civil engineering and geodesy, sofia, bulgaria in and from miami university, usa in . she has published several studies on interdisciplinary design methodologies, focusing on the relation between architecture and urban design. she has received numerous honours and awards for her design work in the area of commercial building design, and her projects were exhibited on the xi world architectural triennale in sofia, , bulgaria and on the european awards for bulgarian architecture, sofia,a . currently, she is a representative to the international union of architects on behalf of thef union of architects in bulgaria. 	after the paradigm of contemporary physics in architecture: spatial possibilities and variations 	abstract 	architecture in space and time 	architecture and movement 	architecture and dimension 	architecture and topology 	architecture after the concepts of modern physics 	acknowledgment 	notes 	references 	about the author e m i ly g r e e n w o o d a ta l e o f t w o o ’ s : o d y s s e u s a n d o e d i p u s i n t h e b l a c k at l a n t i c crossroads in the black aegean: oedipus, antigone, and dramas of the african diaspora. barbara goff & michael simpson. oxford: oxford university press, . xii + pp. (cloth us$ . ) romare bearden: a black odyssey. robert g. o’meally. new york: dc moore gallery, . pp. (cloth us$ . ). commenting on cultural imperialism under european colonialism, frantz fanon ( : ) remarked that “the settler makes history; his life is an epoch, an odyssey.” in fanon’s analysis the settler’s sense of history derived from the history of the “mother country,” rather than the history of the colony that he or she inhabited. but history did not stop here: the reference to the odyssey reminds us that behind the modern colonial metropolis was a fic- tional line of descent reaching back to a greco-roman cradle, such that the european settler could lay claim to an even more ancient cultural inheritance. the two books examined here make short work of these classical imperial fictions; o’meally demonstrates how romare bearden’s collages of the odyssey collaborate with homer, jazz style, to produce an epic that black america can recognize as its own. if the voyage of odysseus is sometimes taken to symbolize the migration of ancient greek civilization toward the west, barbara goff and michael simpson interject the troubled figure of oedipus, who plays poseidon to the settler’s odyssey, disrupting the voyage and confusing the trajectory (p. ). both studies are timely and speak to a wave of recent research on black classicism – an examination of the work to which the classical tradition has been put in africa and the african diaspora, ranging from the hege- monic appropriation of classics by colonizers and slave-owners to the use of classics as an ironic counterdiscourse that writes back to racism and impe- new west indian guide vol. , no. & ( ), pp. - url: http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/nwig/index urn:nbn:nl:ui: - - copyright: content is licensed under a creative commons attribution . license issn: - downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access new west indian guide / nieuwe west-indische gids vol. no. & ( ) rialism, or as a source of mythopoiesis in the formation of modern black identity. the two works reviewed here propose different but complementary mod- els of black classicism: oedipal struggle and odyssean improvised blues narrative. in crossroads in the black aegean, goff and simpson examine the dramatization of postcolonial identity as it emerges through adaptations of the theban plays (oedipus rex and antigone) by the athenian tragedian sophocles. through an intricate discussion of six plays and one epic poem from africa and the african diaspora, they argue that these works challenge european culture’s smooth colonial transmission of itself from classical antiquity to modernity by substituting a model of violent transmission (p. ) based on the incestuous family ties of oedipus and antigone, at once father and daughter and brother and sister. in one of many arresting statements, they claim that, in the works surveyed, “the wretched of the earth have adopted oedipus and antigone to make a family and a working identity” (p. ). unpacking this counterintuitive claim will give readers a good sense of the scope and ambition of the work. as his father’s killer, mother’s lover, and the genitor of his own siblings, oedipus becomes, in goff and simpson’s study, a symbol of the complex relationships occasioned by colonialism. the incest and endogamy that haunt this myth serve as “a sign for the forced amalgamation of cultures” under plantation slavery in the americas (p. ), while this incestuous endogamy also speaks to the inextricably intimate relationship between colonial and postcolonial societies in africa and the african diaspora (p. ). throughout the study the shorthand term “dramas of african descent” is used to refer to plays that originate in different locations in the african diaspora, but this term does double duty, since all plays use the myths of oedipus and antigone to reflect on how the violent incursions of slavery and colonialism interrupt literal lines of “descent” in africa. goff and simpson are aware that positing oedipus and antigone as explanatory figures for postcolonial identity is a provocative move. both figures might appear to carry the risk of colonial regression, reaffirming a western order of knowledge and trapping postcolonial productions in unequal dialogue with the classical past. the way in which they address and negate this objection is subtle and compelling and deserves to become an impor- tant discussion for all scholars engaged in thinking about the uses of greco- roman classical texts in postcolonial literature (pp. - ). first, they reject the idea that greek tragedy, and ancient greek civilization more generally, is a european possession. instead, they argue that european imperialism deter- . goff , hardwick & gillespie , rankine , ronnick , walters , wetmore , . downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access review article ritorialized greece as well as africa (p. ), and that african playwrights and playwrights of african descent recognize this distance from europe in their postcolonial locations: “in proportion as africa and ancient greece are both distant from that modern metropolis, they are close to one another” (p. ). what is more, goff and simpson remind us that, far from the exclusion of africa and its diaspora from greco-roman civilization that was promulgated by colonial ideology, classical greek drama was part of the inheritance of many of the playwrights whom they study (p. ). what is more, evoking wole soyinka’s contention in myth, literature and the african world, they point out that in several of these plays the playwrights exploit the affinity between african ritual and the ritual of greek drama, whether yoruba ritual in ola rotimi’s the gods are not to blame ( ), or “africa-derived tra- ditions of the pentecostal church” (p. ) in lee breuer’s the gospel at colonus ( ). the dramatic works discussed in this book are as follows: the gods are not to blame by the nigerian playwright ola rotimi (chapter ); the darker face of the earth by the african american playwright rita dove (chapter ); the gospel at colonus by american writer and director lee breuer (chapter ); odale’s choice, by the barbadian poet, scholar, and playwright kamau brathwaite (chapter ); the island by the south african playwrights athol fugard, john kani, and winston ntshona (chapter ); and nigerian playwright femi osofisan’s tegonni: an african antigone (chapter ). each play is accorded a careful critical analysis that takes into account its performance history and issues of audience and reception as well as the circulation of published play-texts. although the chapters stand as insightful studies of the respective plays in their own right, the concentration on the adaptation and transposition of the oedipus myth in the theater of the african diaspora ensures a high degree of cohesion: two plays (rotimi’s and dove’s) are examined as adaptations of sophocles’s oedipus tyrannus and breuer’s play as an adaptation of oedipus at colonus, while odale’s choice, the island, and tegonni are analyzed as adaptations of antigone. this oedipal schema is complicated by the fact that goff and simpson appeal to the concept of “the black aegean” as a parallel interpretive frame- work for their study. in fact, there are two separate theses here that cleave along the lines of title and subtitle. the title, “crossroads in the black aegean,” hints at dialogue with paul gilroy’s model of the black atlantic ( ), while the subtitle, “oedipus, antigone, and dramas of the african diaspora,” designates a more specific enquiry into the appropriation of sophocles’s plays in dramas of african descent. both theses converge in the fifth chapter, which features a discussion of an adaptation of sophocles’s antigone by kamau brathwaite written and performed in ghana in and subsequently re-performed in the caribbean. this chapter juxtaposes odale’s choice with derek walcott’s epic poem omeros ( ) and asks downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access new west indian guide / nieuwe west-indische gids vol. no. & ( ) how brathwaite’s conception of the caribbean as a locus of creolization might help to clarify processes of cultural transmission between africa and the caribbean, africa and europe, and the caribbean and europe. in contrast to the antagonistic model of oedipal descent that features in the oedipus and antigone plays, walcott’s model of caribbean identity in omeros is seen to involve a reworking of the oedipus complex in which the son (the narrator of walcott’s poem) adopts a multiplicity of fathers (p. ). this argument is a welcome addition to scholarship on walcott, enriching the bloomian model of the anxiety of influence, recently applied to omeros by line henriksen ( ). reconciling the complex, multidirectional geometry of the black aegean proposed here – itself a supplement to the black atlantic – with goff and simpson’s oedipal framework requires considerable intellectual effort. as they explain, they envisage the black aegean as a further zone within the black atlantic (p. ): “this we postulate as a triangle, projected from within the black atlantic and symmetrical with it, but with its third point radiating eastwards so that it links africa to ancient greece and asia minor as well as to the imperial west” (pp. - ). the advantage of hypothesizing the black aegean is that it provides a spatial metaphor for mapping “the trade in the representations of ancient greece, undertaken by the colonizers … and by the formerly colonized” (p. ). it is crucial to the argument of this work that readers accept not only the idea of the black aegean, but also the idea that the oedipal paradigm is one of the dominant models of exchange within the cultural zone of the black aegean. this is no mean interpretative and argumentative feat, and goff and simpson pull it off – for the most part extremely convincingly. however, it is of the nature of a complex and ambitious study like this, which is often densely argued, that the argument occasionally overwhelms with its com- plexity. there were a few passages that i read several times without ever feel- ing confident that i had fully grasped the point being made. an example is the complex argument about the vertices of the triangle of the black aegean (pp. - ). however, in spite of dense formulations like this i found the discussion immensely rewarding and frequently groundbreaking. in terms of the work’s theoretical orientation, goff and simpson take their bearings from all over the black aegean. they are mindful of african scholarship, caribbean scholarship, and european scholarship, while observ- ing that these traditions are not exclusive and are often interrelated. in the course of their argument they bring fanon’s oedipus into dialogue with the oedipuses of harold bloom ( ), and gilles deleuze and félix guattari ( ), and they recognize caribbean and african playwrights, poets, novel- ists, and scholars as an important source of theory. nor is their oedipal para- digm one-way, since the plays of african descent “project their own cultural downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access review article context into the greek play,” leading to a role reversal in which any hierarchy between “original” and “adaptation” is obviated (p. ). by any standards this is a remarkable book that speaks powerfully to several different disciplines: (anglophone) african literature and drama, african american literature and drama, (anglophone) caribbean literature and drama, classics (both greek tragedy and classical reception), theater studies, and cultural studies. in effect readers get two complementary and mutually reinforcing theses in one book; both theses represent vital contribu- tions to the study of the black atlantic, black classicism, and the adaptation of the oedipus myth in literature and drama of african descent. if oedipus is an ominous icon for traffic with the past, the hero of the second book under review would seem to be a much safer prospect. the odyssey is a well-established motif in the literature of the caribbean and north america, from aimé césaire’s cahier d’un retour au pays natal and ralph ellington’s invisible man to derek walcott’s omeros and the odyssey: a stage version. and yet the figure of odysseus also comes with its own complications. not only is he a notorious trickster who was often portrayed negatively in subsequent greek literature, but it is also hard to make the transition from the greek culture hero of homer’s epic to postco- lonial cultural hero, since homer’s odysseus seems often to be on the side of the colonizer, not least in his encounter with the cyclops in book of the odyssey (see hall : - ). robert o’meally’s romare bearden: a black odyssey steps into the mid- dle of this debate. the primary subject of the work are the twenty “odysseus” collages by the african-american artist romare bearden, first displayed at the cordier & ekstrom gallery in new york in . the occasion for o’meally’s book was a commemorative exhibition of the collages, “romare bearden: a black odyssey,” thirty years on, at the dc moore gallery in new york (november , -january , ). this exquisitely produced book, which features high-quality illustrations of bearden’s collages, watercolors, and other art works, is at once a coffee-table piece and a serious contribu- tion to both the study of bearden’s work and the field of black classicism. as the first book-length, critical study of bearden’s “odysseus” collages, it is no exaggeration to say that o’meally’s book is an important landmark in the critical literature on bearden and the reception of the odyssey in the americas. the book steers an even course between the expectations of specialist readers and the needs of general readers. the introductory essay provides important contextual information about bearden’s background, situating him in the artistic and intellectual milieu of the harlem renaissance and explain- ing the influence of picasso and matisse on his development as an artist. here o’meally also relates bearden’s engagement with homer’s odyssey to black classicism and the works of frank snowden and martin bernal (bernal downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access new west indian guide / nieuwe west-indische gids vol. no. & ( ) , ; snowden , ). there follow short essays on each of the “odysseus” collages and their corresponding watercolors, including three watercolors for which no collages exist. o’meally explains that, following the success of the exhibition of the collages in , bearden reproduced them as watercolors (p. ). each essay is accompanied by a reproduction of the collage and watercolor in question and draws the reader’s attention to points of aesthetic interest, the homeric context, pertinent african-american contexts, and other interpretative avenues. in his analysis of each individual collage, o’meally breaks down bearden’s method, explaining the division of the canvases into quadrants, inspired by cubism, and demonstrating the symbolism of the scissored silhouettes as “figures in black.” in addition, o’meally shows how color is part of the collages’ aesthetic meaning, with “dissonant combinations” contributing to surface tension and depth of field (p. ). reading o’meally’s work in conjunction with bearden’s illustrations is akin to strolling through a virtual exhibition with an enchanting guide. o’meally brings his background as an authority on jazz to his interpreta- tion of bearden’s dialogue with homer, and gives us bearden collaborating with homer “like section-mates in a jazz band” (p. ). homer’s odyssey was undoubtedly a rich source of tropes for african american artists in the harlem renaissance, but o’meally’s analysis also throws up plenty of black tropes that homeric scholars might profitably take back to their study of the odyssey. for instance, i found o’meally’s statement about bearden’s concep- tion of homer as “a now-sad and now-funny blues narrative: a tale of loss and renewal wherein the improvising hero struggles to prevail against life’s rush of changes” (p. ) a valuable and thought-provoking contribution to the play of genres and moods in homer’s odyssey. nor in my view has anyone diagnosed the condition of the women abandoned by odysseus better: “in bearden’s hands, she [nausicaa], like circe, is also one of the epic’s women left behind with the blues” (p. ). then there are the insightful explanations of poseidon’s role in the poem, as envisioned by bearden, in terms of the phenomenon of “antagonistic cooperation” in jazz: “the sea-god’s insatiable anger and power press odysseus to new levels of improvisation such that, paradoxically, the god who gives him the deepest blues is the very one without whom odysseus’ greatest acts of heroic valor could never have occurred” (p. ). in walcott’s omeros, when the narrator quips to omeros that “master, i was the freshest of all your readers” ( : ), one feels like adding “after bearden” – a point that walcott would probably concede, given his admis- sion that bearden’s odyssey collages may have been one of the influences behind omeros ( : ). oddly, walcott does not feature in o’meally’s discussion, in spite of the fact that walcott has spoken passionately about the odysseus collages. in fact, “the caribbean dimension” of bearden’s poetry, to borrow the phrase from sally price and richard price, is not at all clear in o’meally’s discussion (price & price ). granted, the extent to which downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access review article the caribbean is a significant context for the “odysseus” collages is an open question. o’meally suggests that in most of the collages the landscapes resemble images of africa. it is only in his discussion of the last collage (in terms of narrative chronology), “odysseus and penelope reunited,” that o’meally appeals to the caribbean as a cultural crossroads that helps to make sense of the “hodge-podge” of styles in bearden’s depiction of odysseus and penelope enthroned in one panel, alongside the port, city walls, and palace of ithaca: nor should we forget that when bearden made these collages he frequently flew to his home in st. martin; indeed, the ithaca of these collages – with its tropical trees and airy mix of european, african, and amerindian influ- ences, ancient and modern – has the air of a contemporary caribbean port (p. ). arguably the caribbean is a more pervasive presence in the odysseus col- lages, which may even be construed as being set in the caribbean (see price & price : ). in this context it is instructive to compare the prices’ dis- cussion of the collage “the sea nymph” ( ) with o’meally’s. o’meally pursues the idea that bearden’s “odysseus” collages are a “sort of parable of black america (as well as a universal statement),” and suggests that this particular collage, which treats odysseus’s rescue from the ocean floor by the sea nymph ino (based on odyssey book ll. - ), “may ask us to consider where the black communities of the united states would be with- out the selfless rescuers like ino – mothers, grandmothers, … all those who make it their business to dive in after the ones who are sinking down” (pp. - ). conversely, citing walcott, the prices use this collage to exemplify the influence of the caribbean on bearden’s art, particularly the colors of the caribbean archipelago (price & price : - ). both can be right, pro- viding we allow an enlargement of the african american or black american experience to include african and black experience in the caribbean, as part of the broader geographical region of the americas. in fact, building on o’meally’s excellent study, future studies would gain from using caribbean tropes to further illuminate bearden’s approach to the odyssey. for example, in fifteen of the twenty collages the sea, depicted in various shades of blue, is a powerful narrative thread. even in those collages where the sea is not obviously present, the blue of the sky acts as a memory cue reminding the viewer of the ever-present sea – “the oncoming cobalt sea” in the words of the jamaican poet john figueroa ( : ). it would be extremely fruitful to apply kamau brathwaite’s dictum, referring to the cultural unity of a geographically scattered and culturally diverse caribbean, that “the unity is submarine” to bearden’s “odysseus” collages (brathwaite : ; see dash and jones ). downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access new west indian guide / nieuwe west-indische gids vol. no. & ( ) for goff and simpson’s study the way out of the oedipal nightmare of postcolonial history is to adopt lots of different fathers, rather than fighting them. this is not so different from the methodology of bearden’s collages, in which oedipus and odysseus, africa, europe, and the americas are different layers in the same story. r e f e r e n c e s bernal, martin, . black athena: the afroasiatic roots of classical civilization. vol. i: the fabrication of ancient greece - . new brunswick nj: rutgers university press. —, . black athena: the afroasiatic roots of classical civilization. vol. : the archaeological and documentary evidence. london: free association. bloom, harold, . the anxiety of influence: a theory of poetry. oxford: oxford university press. brathwaite, kamau, . odale’s choice. london: evans brothers. —, . caribbean man in space and time. savacou / : - . breuer, lee, . the gospel at colonus. new york: theatre communications group. dash, j. michael, . libre sous la mer: submarine identities in the work of kamau brathwaite and Édouard glissant. in t.j. reiss (ed.), for the geography of a soul: emerging perspectives on kamau brathwaite. trenton nj: africa world press, pp. - . deleuze, gilles & félix guattari, . anti-oedipus: capitalism and schizophrenia. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. dove, rita, . the darker face of the earth. london: oberon books. fanon, frantz, . the wretched of the earth. london: penguin. [orig. .] figueroa, john, . ignoring hurts: poems. washington d.c.: three continents press. fugard, athol, john kani & winston ntshona, . statements: “siswe bansi is dead,” “the island,” “statements after an arrest under the immorality act.” new york: theatre communications group. gilroy, paul, . the black atlantic: modernity and double consciousness. london: verso. goff, barbara (ed.), . classics & colonialism. london: duckworth. hall, edith, . the return of ulysses: a cultural history of homer’s odyssey. london: i.b. tauris. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access review article hardwick, lorna & carol gillespie (eds.), . classics in post-colonial worlds. oxford: oxford university press. henriksen, line, . ambition and anxiety: ezra pound’s cantos and derek walcott’s omeros as twentieth-century epics. amsterdam: rodopi. jones, bridget, . “the unity is submarine”: aspects of a pan-caribbean consciousness in the work of kamau brathwaite. in stuart brown (ed.), the art of kamau brathwaite. bridgend, u.k.: poetry wales press, pp. - . osofisan, femi, . recent outings: two plays, comprising “tegonni, an african antigone,” and “many colours make the thunder-king.” lagos, nigeria: opon ifa readers. price, sally & richard price, . romare bearden: the caribbean dimension. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. rankine, patrice d., . ulysses in black: ralph ellison, classicism, and african american literature. madison: university of wisconsin press. ronnick, michele v. (ed.), . the autobiography of william sanders scarborough: an american journey from slavery to scholarship. detroit: wayne state university press. rotimi, ola, . the gods are not to blame. oxford: oxford university press. snowden, frank, . blacks in antiquity: ethiopians in the greco-roman experience. cambridge ma: harvard university press. —, . before colour prejudice: the ancient view of blacks. cambridge ma: harvard university press. soyinka, wole, . myth, literature and the african world. cambridge, u.k.: cambridge university press. walcott, derek, . omeros. new york: farrar, straus and giroux. —, . reflections on omeros. in g. davis (ed.), the poetics of derek walcott: intertextual perspectives. special issue of the south atlantic quarterly : - . walters, tracey, . african american literature and the classical tradition: black women writers from wheatley to morrison. new york: palgrave macmillan. wetmore, kevin, . the athenian sun in an african sky. jefferson nc: mcfarland. —, . black dionysus. jefferson nc: mcfarland. emily greenwood department of classics yale university new haven ct - , u.s.a. <emily.greenwood@yale.edu> downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access a selection of letters from déodat de séverac © canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : canadian university music review revue de musique des universités canadiennes a selection of letters from déodat de séverac elaine brody numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce document brody, e. ( ). a selection of letters from déodat de séverac. canadian university music review / revue de musique des universités canadiennes,( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ -n -cumr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ a selection of letters from dÉodat de sÉverac elaine brody twenty-five years ago, i wrote my doctoral dissertation on the life and piano works of déodat de séverac ( - ), a contemporary of debussy and ravel, widely honored in his lifetime but consigned almost to oblivion some forty years after his death. in the quarter century since i embarked on my efforts to bring him some of the recognition that was his due, two complete series of recordings of his entire piano oeuvre have been released; an association of friends of déodat de séverac has been established; a new biography is in the works; an earlier one by joseph canteloube, never before published, will soon be in print. for the last few years, his home town, st. félix, has been the site of summer chamber music festivals; and soon, his birthplace will become a museum of memorabilia of the composer and his friends. de séverac produced a corpus of piano works that reveal his deep love of the countryside in southwestern france, near spain. these pieces bear titles similar to those of albéniz, whose assistant he was for a few years at the schola cantorum, the school established in paris in by charles bordes ( - ) and vincent d'indy ( - ). they also contain some of the color and picturesque quality of mussorgsky's pictures at an exhibition. but one hardly acquired fame through the composition of piano pieces, and like every other musician at the beginning of the century, séverac recognized that to attain any kind of eminence would require the composition of at least one opera for paris. he wrote not one but two in that genre: le coeur du moulin, produced in at the opéra-comique and héjiogabale, performed at the arena in béziers in . in , as a new graduate of the schola, séverac entered the mainstream of music and musicians in paris and apparently was canadian university music review, no. , promised a performance of le coeur du moulin, an event that did not occur until two years later. after the successful outdoor performance of héjiogabaje — fifteen thousand crowded into the arena to hear the opera — the french cellist and conductor louis hasselmans ( - ) determined to present a concert version at the salle gaveau in paris, using several of the cobla players from céret (another town in the south of france, where séverac lived for a time) to give the work an authentic folkloric air. séverac's works met with considerable success and for a time he joined the ranks of celebrated musicians of his day. but he was not happy. more and more séverac sought the peaceful surroundings of his native village, st. félix. a generous, jovial man, he preferred the tranquillity of languedoc to the bustle of paris, and he soon settled permanently in céret surrounded by a group of artists that included picasso, frank haviland, stuart merrill, aristide maillol, georges braque, juan gris, marie laurencin, andré salmon, max jacob, and the greek expatriot moréas. several of them established residence in the town, which, for a time became known as the "mecca of cubism." later séverac began dividing his time between st. félix and céret. like many young composers, séverac was concerned with obtaining appropriate performances of his works. "how do i get a performance?" he asked himself. "how do i get the best singers i need? what kind of involvements do these artists have that might prevent their participation in my work? who can advise me?" for answers to these questions, séverac sought the advice of his teacher and friend charles bordes. paul poujaud, a lawyer who was a close friend of debussy, also made himself available to the young man for suggestions and assistance. moréas, (the pseudo- nym of iannis pappadiamantopoulos, - ), the first writer to use the designation "symbolist," became another confidant. he and the critic pierre lalo ( - ) are among the corre- spondents to whom séverac wrote during to . i recently acquired several of his letters at auction, and i thought they might interest readers. except for the last one that rather touchingly describes séverac's situation in the middle of world war i, all pertain to works or performances in paris in the first decade of this century. the first letters and postcards are written to paul poujaud. bordes knew him well and called him by his first name (see letter of january ); séverac addressed him first formally and then informally as cher ami. except for the short note of february , where séverac writes to moréas about reynaldo hahn, proust's favorite musician friend, most other letters are to the editor of the review musica. the last letter, in behalf of the woman director of the hospital where séverac worked as an orderly during the last months of the war, is probably to pierre lalo. * * * * * - - [sic] saint félix (hte g-ne) dear friend, i just received a letter from m. carbonne, régisseur of the opéra- comique, suggesting the tenor sans (?) for the role of jacques. i know nothing about this singer and if you can fill me in about him, i would be grateful. as for madame carré, she would not be able to sing the "coeur du m" [sic] because of "chiquito," carbonne tells me. if i understand properly, madame carré prefers the music of "chiquito" to that of "coeur du moulin" and she must have good reasons because nouguès's [production ] it seems, was handsomely mounted — i'm permitting myself to come and ask you your advice not on the subject of m. nouguès's music, because i'm familiar with it, but on the subject of the tactics to take with regard to carré. should i insist on having marguerite carré, whom the offical communiqués from the opéra-comique have designated as the future creator of "coeur," or must i simply give in to her new desire to not perform [in my piece]? in that case, i intended to ask for mlle vautrin or mme merentre. what do you think of that? you would be very kind to give me your advice before i reply to mme carré and i thank you in advance for your understanding and your trouble. if i but hearkened to my own nature, i would say the devil with it all and content myself with addressing carré with the sonorous word of king ubu, seasoned with languedocien garlic. it's really awful to busy oneself with this nonsense when the weather is beautiful and the thrushes are intoxicated in the vineyards! again thanks, dear friend, very cordially yours with all my soul. séverac j a n u a r y my dear paul, t w o w o r d s to tell you of y e s t e r d a y ' s s u c c e s s . the hall w a s totally filled and on a v e r a g e r e c e i p t s of more t h a n francs a n d e n o r m o u s s u c c e s s . the o r c h e s t r a w a s thrilling, t h e g r e a t l a n s o n t r a n s c e n d e n t a l . he is t r u l y a g r a n d singer of the great school. his d a m n a t i o n a r i a w a s a d m i r a b l e and my little english h o r n p l a y e d his p a r t like in a h a n d e l concerto, in a s t o n i s h i n g fashion. it's a gilot t h a t is s p r o u t i n g . d'indy's s u i t e also w e n t well. in s u m , it w a s a m a r v e l o u s p r o g r a m d e s p i t e its seeming incoherence. t h e schola s a n g "o vos o m n e s " a d m i r a b l y . i'm not telling you m u c h more a b o u t it, r e l i n q u i s h i n g my pen to d.d. w h o is a l w a y s a delightful host. t h o u s a n d r e g a r d s , c h a r l e s [bordes] dear sir, the good p a t e r y e s t e r d a y did a fine job, from every point of view. if he w e r e able to give t h r e e or four c o n c e r t s like t h a t one e v e r y year, all w o u l d go well. his o r c h e s t r a is p r o g r e s s i n g well a n d it c u r r e n t l y h a s a lot of r a t h e r wonderful y o u n g s t e r s a n d " w i n d s . " what a p i t y t h a t you could not come to t h i s delightful t o w n t h a t you n e v e r t h e l e s s love so much. but i hope t h a t if bordes can realize his n e w and magnificent project, you will come — what a beautiful project! but h o w difficult! h a p p i l y , bordes will succeed b e c a u s e he w a n t s to. what beautiful faith! what touching audacity! i will r e t u r n soon to p a r i s w i t h a n e w w o r k in my t r u n k . it is not entirely finished and it's w h a t is d e l a y i n g my r e t u r n . but it d e l a y s me a good deal to s u b m i t it to my friends. i beg you to t r u s t in my s e n t i m e n t s of lively affection a n d to accept my best w i s h e s for . very cordially y o u r s , séverac dear friend, i don't k n o w if you r e m e m b e r a c o n v e r s a t i o n w e had one evening at the c a s t é r a s on the subject of l i b r e t t o s for lyric d r a m a s ? you urged me to read c e r t a i n b o o k s by pouvillon t h a t seemed to you in h a r m o n y w i t h my music, "antibels," among o t h e r s . the subject of t h i s w o r k w h i c h i h a v e carefully r e a d d u r i n g v a c a t i o n , the l a n d s c a p e w h e r e the action unfolds, t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e people on stage (and whom i know well enough for having seen them daily) have in fact suggested to me the desire to fashion a musical drama from it. it is on this subject that i want to ask your advice. it seems to me that in this plot, which i understand very well, certain alterations would be necessary or rather it would have to be enormously condensed. as it is now, i believe, this work is perceptibly too long. i allow myself to come to ask you your feeling on this subject because — if i don't offend your modesty — i have great confidence in your taste. pouvillon's son, who is very intelligent, and my friend the poet lafargue are at my disposal to do the alterations that i will deem necessary. it is for that reason that i allow myself to come to ask you your advice as to the theatrical aspect of the work. if you are willing to do this, you will fill me with joy and i will be very grateful. otherwise, if you are too busy to write to me, we will chat about it on my return to paris (end of february). has bordes spoken to you again about his theatrical project? this admirable dream will not be realized without great difficulties, and in the interest of this dear and great friend, he should not set sail without having a good compass in his pocket... i am working a lot at this time on a short piece that i should like to complete before returning to paris. will it be good?!! i wouldn't yet know, but you will see it. be kind enough to remember me to my friends the scholistes and believe in my warm and very sincere friendship. séverac [postcard to paul poujaud rue solferino paris] i was delayed, dear friend, in telling you how much pleasure i received from your lovely card. i'm lazy, half speechless . . . but i don't forget my friends. all [the best] to you séverac [pneumatique to poujaud] dear sir and friend, i'm again taking advantage of your kindness. would you give me the address of m. lalo or ask him (if you have occasion to see him) if he has had a reply from madame bréval for thursday. in case she will not be able to do me the honor of singing at my concert, i would immediately have to make arrangements to have somebody else. please excuse my offhanded manner and trust in my respectful sympathy. déodat de séverac [ denfert-rochereau written on the side] [to jean moréas avenue d'orléans paris date postmarked is february ] dear master, i was going to treat myself to going with you to applaud raynaldo hann [sic], but i must give up the pleasure. i am, in fact, obliged to go and rehearse one of my interpreters. be kind enough to excuse me, dear master, and trust in my lively and respectful affection. séverac, rue d'assas dear friend, in the letter in which you asked me for a piano piece that i sent you, you said that the journal "musica" would send me remuneration of a hundred "bucks," if i dare express myself in this way. inasmuch as i've received nothing, i wonder if the package from "musica" could have gone astray? you would be very nice to fill me in on that matter because i sense that this traitoress called "the spineless woman" is lying in wait for m e . . . "le coeur" is going well at the opéra-comique. i hope that it will be done next week unless things go awry, which is always possible. pardon the liberty i have taken in this request and trust in my devoted and affectionate sentiments. d. de séverac, rue d'assas, paris. [c. april ] dear sir, i realized that i have had several distractions this afternoon. since you were nice enough to name several of our comrades from céret, i have forgotten to give you the name of cortie, a remarkable fiddler, a musician like manyach (already mentioned) who came with their group to take part in paris in the performance of "héliogabale". the success of these instrumentalists was really considerable. add also — if you have room left — j. delcroze urenea and p. de montredon who also ply their trade with us!!! thanks and a thousand apologies, your grateful séverac st. félix near castelnaudary dear friend, here is the little [musical] autograph you requested. is it ok? certainly! i will be delighted that you are going to publish in "musica" what you wish from my "héliogabale." ask for it at rouart, who published it, and above all, ask him for the corrected score by leflem, because the one that appeared is chock full of mistakes. a thousand regards from your devoted séverac p.s. you could, perhaps, present a fragment of the ballet in the third a c t . . . [my] friend, i mailed you the promised piece. i also sent another. that one was too complicated! so i sent you an unpublished piano piece [not new] but an older one. it will perhaps interest your readers to see what i've become while ageing. [i shake] both hands. séverac, rue d'assas st. pons hérault august dear sir and friend, i wrote you over two weeks ago but i suppose that this letter must, like so many others, have gone astray. here i go again coming to you with the same motive. i want, a second time, to present you (in writing and it's too bad you can't see her with your own eyes) madame vauvillier, to whom our dear bordes was a spoiled and coddled friend, as he deserved to be. madame vauvillier would like to submit to you a musical work of which she is the author. she knows, bordes having told her a thousand times, of your sound good taste and she would eagerly like your advice, even more so because she intends to present this work to the opéra- comique. from that point of view, you would be able to give her excellent advice, and i am certain that the originality of this piece will be of great interest to you. it would be necessary therefore that you hear the work by mme vauvillier, but you will certainly not be able to come to st. pons. also, madame vauvillier requested that i ask you if you would be able to receive her either at guéret or at paris when and where it would be possible for you [to do so]. i thank you in advance for your reply which i hope will fufill the wishes of the author of the "eyes of the soul." as for me, i am still an orderly in the hospital of st. pons which is as a matter of fact under the loving care of madame vauvillier. where will future events leave me? i don't know, but i put myself in the hands of fortune. i know nothing of the comrades (or very little), nothing about alquier, the castéras, the master. finally, when will it be over? thousand good regards, very affectionately, your devoted d. de séverac p.s. be kind enough to put your name on the envelope. again thanks. notes . marguerite carré ( - ), a french soprano, made her debut as mimi in at nantes, where her father was director of the theater. two years later, she appeared in paris at the opéra-comique, and the following year married its director, albert carré. she created fifteen roles at the opéra-comique and continued singing until , when she turned her attention to teaching. she divorced carré in . . chiquito, a -act opera by jean nougès (see note ) to a libretto by henri cain, describes scenes from basque country life. the hero chiquito is a pelote player; pelote is a basque tennis game. the opera, first performed at the opéra-comique in , is dedicated to pierre loti. madame carré sang the soprano lead. (see henri de curzon's article on the opera in le guide musical, november ). . jean nougès ( - ) is best known for his opera quo vadis, also to a libretto by cain. first performed at nice on february , it succeeded so well that on november it was given at the théâtre de la gaïté in paris. based on the novel of by the polish author henryk sienkiewicz ( - ), quo vadis was performed at antwerp, prague, vienna, warsaw, and moscow within a year and at philadelphia, new york, and milan the following year. oscar hammerstein opened his london opera house on november with a performance of this opera. . charles bordes ( - ), a pupil of césar franck, was a cofounder with vincent d'indy of the schola cantorum in paris in . already in he made plans to create in france a practical theater for the revival of french operas of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. . rené d'avezac de castéra ( - ), studied with d'indy at the schola from to , the same time that séverac attended the school. he and his brother carlos became close friends of séverac. some of their letters appear in blanche selva's short biography, déodat de séverac (paris, ). . in , séverac started work on a lyric drama, les antibejs, with a libretto by his friend, the poet marc lafargue. les antibels, based on a novel by pouvillon, remained unfinished at séverac's death. . pierre lalo ( - ), son of the composer edouard lalo, was a french music critic who wrote for the journal des débats, the revue de paris, le temps, the courrier musical, and comoedia. on april , in le temps, he wrote a most favorable review of the paris concert performance of héliogabale. . lucienne bréval ( - ; real name berthe schilling), a mezzo soprano, made her debut at the paris opéra in . from then until , she was known for her roles in wagnerian operas. . paul leflem, born in , still lives in paris today. he, too, studied with d'indy at the schola cantorum and became professor of counterpoint there in . from to he also directed the singers of saint-gervais, a group founded in by charles bordes. doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com a cultural reflector constructed by cinematic language and graphical design in the formation years of turkish cinema: film poster* serra erdem abstract turkish cinema that was accepted as a new branch of art starting from the pre- republic period started to find its own identity between the years – . the system has difficulties of the first stage of configuration in the fields of operation, application and screening. cinema, with its production companies, producers, directors and artists, and audiences, comes out as the basic in this first stage and ends its configuration stages in executions. movie theaters meet the audiences with the system. with the development of turkish cinema, posters, the most effective conduit of marketing, are developed as well because of their peculiarity of transportation the messages to the audience most easily and effectively. some similarities are seen between the posters that are analyzed according to genres, which are designed by considering the audience’s appreciations, assets and expectations. thus, we can see that a common formation of a design language in those posters is starting to form. the film posters which were made in these years are not only a communication conduit trying to draw audience’s attention on films and establish a relationship between the film and the audience, but also gives information about the social and cultural situation and value judgments of the society. keywords: turkish cinema, film posters, genres, design * anadolu Üniversitesi engelliler entegre yüksekokulu tarafından düzenlenen . uluslararası sanat sempozyumunda yayınlanan bildiriden türetilmiştir. araştırma görevlisi doktor, gazi Üniversitesi, güzel sanatlar fakültesi , görsel İletiş im tasarımı bölümü, serra.erdem(at)hotmail.com erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com tÜrk sİnemasinin bİÇİmlendİĞİ yillarda sİnema dİlİ ve grafİksel tasarimlarla oluŞturulan bİr kÜltÜr yansiticisi: fİlm afİŞlerİ Öz cumhuriyet dönemi öncesinden başlayarak sanat dalları arasına yedinci sanat olarak katılan türk sineması, gerçek kimliğini - yılları arasında bulmaya başlamıştır. sinemanın kendi sistemini kurması için zamana ihtiyaç olacaktır. bu sistemde, işletim, uygulama ve gösterim alanlarında kendini yapılandırmanın ilk aşamasının sıkıntısı vardır. yapım şirketleri, yapımcı, yönetmen, artistleri, izleyicileri ile sinema bu ilk dönemde sistemin temelleri olarak ortaya çıkar ve kuruluş aşamasını uygulamaların içinde geçirir. sinema salonları izleyicilerle sistemi buluşturur. bu gelişmelerle eşzamanlı olarak oluşan reklam pazarında, iletişim mecraları arasında izleyiciye kolay ulaşılabilirliği ve iletiyi en kısa ve net bir biçimde anlatabilme özelliğiyle afiş ilk sırada yer almıştır. İzleyicinin beğenisine, değer ve beklentilerine göre tasarlanan bu afişler film türlerine göre değerlendirildiğinde, çeşitli benzerlikler görülmüştür. bu da, ait olduğu dönemde yapılan afişler arasında ortak bir tasarım dilinin oluşmaya başladığının göstergesidir. bu dönemin sinema afişleri yanlızca izleyicinin dikkatini çekmek ve filmle bir bağ kurmasını sağlamakla birlikte, aynı zamanda izleyiciye dönemin sosyal ve kültürel durumu, toplumun değer ve yargıları hakkında bilgi verir nitelik taşımaktadır. anahtar kelimeler: türk sineması, film afişleri, film türleri, tasarım erdem, serra. “a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster”. ulakbilge . ( ), - erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com introduction a poster, according to the definition of turkish language association, is ‘an illustrated placard installed in a public place, prepared for the purpose of announcing or promoting something (wikipedia, ). posters, composed by piecing visual and typographic elements together, have made progress with the advancing technology and printing techniques. historical development of posters when examining the first examples of poster design, though it could be seen that assyrians used posters for selling their goods (using cuneiform on clay tablets) or it was used for promotion of gladiator fights, founded circuses during the roman empire period, examples of posters in today's context first emerged in france. ‘the french law with regard to the freedom of press that was enacted in led to a great advancement in the poster industry by abrogating the many provisions of censorship and allowing posters to be hanged on anywhere besides spaces that were reserved for official announcements and churches. streets were transformed into an art gallery which people from every walks of life could observe, reputed painters desisted regarding designing advertisement posters as a depreciating act (bektaş, : )’. experiencing more development with the cultural movements, poster art grew into an efficient instrument of promotion and advertisement for announcing the goods and services produced to the public as a result of the industrial revolution. rapid improvement and growth emerged in art movements showed its effect on poster art like in every other area. the art of poster, which is a branch of fine arts, is used in performing advertisement or propaganda, promoting art events such as theatre plays, exhibits, films or industrial products. works conducted with the purpose of programming the promotion of items produced in industry and banking business lines that generated by the industrial revolution, covers an important place amongst the factors, which influenced the emergence of poster art. changing living conditions at this stage caused new significance to be attributed to cities, the world of arts and entertainment which organized only focusing on the aristocratic segment expanded to every class and layer of the populace. while these developments necessitated the proliferation of programs, posters constituted a very significant portion amongst the printed materials which was to accelerate the promotion of cultural activities to be held and produced goods, and spread these to the society. erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com development of the art of engraving in the th century and diversification of printing techniques with continuing advancement following this phase stand out as the preliminary advances constituting the technical infrastructure of poster art. emerged in the early th century by banding visual and textual elements together, posters took yet another important turn in progress after gaining reproducible attribution with lithography technique as well. emergence of color printing techniques in the second half of the th century increased the appeal of poster art. ‘color lithography techniques developed after alois senefelder's invention of lithography technique in , played and important role for posters in gaining an artistic form. (becer, : )’. starting to achieve an artistic identity with advancing techniques and designs, posters also assumed the function of spreading the art by reaching to the every fraction of society at the same time. beginning to distinguish itself as a branch of art within the arts and crafts movement, posters were influenced by various artistic styles such as art nouveau, futurism, cubism, dadaism and created its own aesthetic with modern perception. ‘the poster craze reached its age of maturity with "the beautiful era (belle Époque)" which started in 's. in , czechoslovakian alphonse mucha ( - ) became one of the names that left a mark on the art nouveau period with his "gismonda" poster. poster was now truly recognized as a branch of art, catalogues were produced and auctions were held. poster exhibitions were first held in in italy and britain, in germany and in russia. in a poster exhibit organized in , in france, there was a total of posters exhibited, categorized by country. thus, poster, which started its journey in ’s paris, had become the most significant instrument of mass communication all around the world. (merter, : )’ posters in ottoman empire ‘values that renaissance brought in to the cultural life of europe, started to affect the ottoman community beginning from the early th century (becer : )’. it is an interesting fact that posters started to emerge in turkey, in the later periods of ottoman empire and the early years of the republic were mostly designed for product advertisement, art events and charity organizations. when examining the design of posters in this period, within the text-image balance in these designs the prominence of especially text is striking. the significance of this is that the substantial consideration of printed text proves that this promotion is carried out with long descriptions. it appears that primary colors were opted for in color designs and choice of red, blue, yellow colors were a characteristic of the period. doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com posters in republic period ‘specialization in graphic design field in turkey started after the proclamation of the republic. in 's, munif fehim, İhap hulusi and kenan temizan pioneered graphic design with their qualified works in book covers, press announcements and poster areas (becer, : )’. however, posters in our country couldn't escape being copies of posters in europe for a long time. the reason was, the turkish government sent poster artists in our country to overseas (especially germany) for education. artists trained in those countries proceeded working in poster studios as instructors after their arrival. poster art, however, experienced major development in post-republic era. posters and turkish cinema with the advancement of technology, poster as a mass communication instrument differentiated from other communicative instruments by integrating visual arts into daily life. poster design at the same time is responsible for conveying the message to the audience in the most efficient way as it has the characteristic of being a communication instrument beyond every artistic concern in its structure. similarly, the art of cinema has the characteristic of being the most efficient communicative instrument in conveying the message to the audience as well. when the advertisement and expression features of the poster art, which is the most efficient communicative instrument facilitated for the communication of the art of cinema to masses, are grouped together, this union takes on a more efficient, consistent and powerful significance. turkish cinema of the years particularly between and , is the period when the formal and thematic style of our cinema and its own language was beginning to be developed. those years were also the times when cinema in our country started to be appraised as a branch of art. wide spreading of cinema also brought along marketing in order for this art form to reach the audience. in this context, poster is the most effective communicative channel. after being associated with the art of cinema, poster art have advanced in parallel with cinema. since the poster designs are directly related with the subjects, thematic properties principally stand out as the primary factor having an impact on design. when the movie posters belonging to the period between the years - are examined, it could be observed that the usage of photography is very few erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com and illustrations are preferred instead. the directors also prefer illustrative posters in which the designer could express himself or herself more freely. if the differing illustrations on movie posters are to be examined as per movie genres the similarities in-between become visible. posters and turkish society posters created with graphical designs and using the cinematic language, in addition to advertisement of the films, bear the feature of documenting the turkish society and the structure of the film industry of that period. posters have gone beyond being merely a decorative notice instrument, and grown into visual instruments that symbolically reflect the cultural and social life in the country. the movie poster, apart from the plot of the movie, reflects the characteristic properties of the period it belongs to and also the conditions forming the film industry as well. the name of the director alone gives clues to the audience about the genre of the movie and how the poster was created. when performing a visual reading, similarities in posters of the - periods could be observed. however, if examined based on their categories, it could be seen that these similarities hold design oriented differences between each other based on their plots. for example, while the primary purpose of melodramatic posters is to emphasize the impossible love between social sanctions and personal expectation, independence war posters emphasize the heroism of turkish nation. these posters created with similar techniques, could be distinguished with the usage of figures, their postures, facial expressions, choice of clothing and figurative, iconic images (such as turkish flag). although this is a prevalent characteristic for all types of posters, each poster bears distinctive features of its own genre. (figure - - - ) content as well as form could be evaluated in a two-dimensional manner in the posters; as in the turkish cinema, instead of conceptional or artistic solutions it is preferred to express the plot of the movie in an illusory realm and with easy-to- understand forms. the actual reason for this is that the plot of the mo vie should be in the most easy-to-understand way for the audience. meanwhile, the relationship between the image of movie actor and the audience creates new norms in the posters. at first, the ideal male image that is glamorized by the female audience and their fantasies, assumes definitive qualities. further, the contradiction and conflict between the male figure and the gentle- obedient female figure shapes the intellectual principles affecting the poster design. doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com these images positioned in compliance with the social values also define the idealized symbolic meanings of male and female figures that desired to be reflected on the society. this contrast is clearly made visible particularly in melodrama posters. the female figure that embodies a more implicit body language compared to the male, without making direct eye contact with the audience and in need of protection is portrayed together with a male figure that is strong, making direct eye contact with the audience and with express body language. the position of the women within the turkish society of this period and their relationship with men could easily be demonstrated by examining the posture of women in the posters. (figure - ) the conservatism in the turkish society is especially apparent in the female figure. in these designs, two separate female typecasting facing the male was created. one of them is innocent and obedient, and the other is coquette and sexy. these determinate identities manifest themselves with their association with the strong, dominant, commanding typecasting of the male figure and positioning of their bodies. (figure - ) female figures with different identities; the sexy, bad, lonely or the miserable, good overwhelmed with social and cultural values, roles and prejudices always appear together with the male figure. the women figure that is not separately pictured from the male image determines the place of the women in the society with bold underlines. (figure - ) alongside the images that reflect the protective identity of idealized good men; the image of bad, malignant, ugly male reflects the opposing ethical values in poster design. the correlation set between the prime characters of the posters, the good and beautiful female, handsome and good male figures, and the bad and ugly male, handsome and strong, protective male also triggers the tension with humane feelings like fear, desire, passion and hate. this anthology is the indication of social judgment that determines the varying values of sexual discrimination. despite the traditional, social judgment of definitive forms, clothing and hairstyles reflect the modern look of the period. (figure - ) the emergence of immigration phenomenon from rural to urban areas in 's causes the occurrence of immigration movies in addition to rural movies. at this stage, women in the urbanization process take the place of the innocent country girl. the insecure country girl with pigtails undergoes a change and transformed into the urban, city women. (figure - ) a similar approach also emerged in children's films. children's movies, which manifested themselves particularly in the second half of 's, in order to erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com support the upbringing of children as free individuals, introduced the child stars to the society who were as important as the stars of singer movies. (figure - - - ) yet, posters of comedy movies with caricaturistic features started making the audience laughing from the posters. female nudity in these posters was also used as the element to increase attractiveness. although there were no nude scenes in the film of that poster, this method was applied in order to appeal the audience to the theaters. (figure - - - ) in the 's, cinema experiencing the twinge generated from the fear of extinction against the television, attempted to solve the chaos of filling empty theaters by tending towards sex movies. the attention erotic foreign movies of degeneration period attracted, led to the commencement of erotic movie period in the turkish cinema. the poster art of this chaotic period follows similarly degenerate approaches. although the turkish cinema created its own movie poster style, it shows separate values from the turkish graphical art of the period. the production of the poster was implemented within the frame of a system. the prime elements of this system were illustrators, typographer and the staff who prepared the poster for print. the illustrations created by the illustrators, and the calligraphies prepared by the typographers were pieced together in the printing house by the printing staff like a patchwork and the poster design was finalized. however, it could be observed that the production process of the years between and gave way to a more serious and even more professional relations. this transformed the movie poster beyond from being merely a design created with visual and textual elements to a consistent combination created by a graphic designer or a design team, which created the poster by grouping visual and textual elements together with a distinct style. the effect of turkish cinema posters on turkish graphic art is open to question. however, the designers who created the movie posters of the period that included the years between and continued their careers in the following years as caricaturists or illustrators, between and the period of designers with artistic identities started. cinema producers whose commercial interests distanced them from appraising the poster design as an art form, prefers to stay away from artist posters. it is an undisputed fact that designers such as mengü ertel, bülent erkmen, sadık karamustafa or yurdaer altıntaş, who stayed away from doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com cinema posters because of the dilemmas generated from the approach of the industry to poster design and mostly created theater or festival posters, have become authority figures in turkish graphic art. conclusion consequently, the period between the years - determines the era when turkish cinema started to be acknowledged as artistic. therefore it is also important for the development line of turkish poster design. in this context, in the - 's when turkish cinema made progress in real terms, similar progress is expected to emerge in the poster design in parallel with above-mentioned progress. the demand for posters created by the necessity of promotion undergoes a process of progress and development in itself starting from the first examples. the first stage of this process begins with the pictorial expression of the movie's plot. the reflection of the connection developed between the content and implementation aims to clearly emphasize the genre of the movie. in the second stage, the introduction of the actors who are the prime elements of the movie takes place. actors bringing the plot together with the society are pictured in qualities that draw the audience to cinema theaters. at this stage, the illustrators are responsible for strengthening the bond between the character and the jeune. the hierarchy existing between the producers and the actors of the movies must be apparent in the posters as well. typefaces and font size choices of the typographers should assume qualities construing this hierarchy. these characteristics determine the systematic qualities of the design of turkish cinema posters and developed as the characteristics of the period. much like the movies that were joint products of a collective work area, the posters designed between the years - were designed as the products of collective working areas. director of the movies also takes place in the act of directing the poster design. despite the approach of the director, who as the employer embodies a concern that wishes the movie he or she directed to be reflected on the society with appealing values, to the artist identities of actors impersonating the characters of the movie, preferred to equip the poster designer only with an implementer identity. this approach proves that poster design was not acknowledged as art and appraised only functionally in the early years. however, while poster examples that emerged with the start and acceptance of implementation examples increased, inevitably artistic pursuit and approaches started to appear by itself. - 's were to gain great importance as the period when the posters started to obtain artistic identity. the designer was not independent in the design process of the posters created in the early years. the posters that the audience, erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com producer, director, even the studio owners had a say in, would appear before us as the independent area of work of the designer embodying a new meaning in time. this process would make way and pioneer the growth of the famous designers of the and . the years when technical equipment of poster designs was improved also include this process. printing techniques were improved in accordance with the technological advancements of the time. reverting back to illustration while the progress in which photography participated into the social life, dominated poster art in the early periods, is equivalent to importance attached to the artistic practices. in the following years, turning once again to photography means the implementation of the choices presented to poster art by the age of developing technology. turkish cinema developed between the years - created movie genres that reflects the change in the society and determined the characteristics of its frame of mind. while this diversity on the one hand put the rules, attitudes and opinions adopted by the society forward in the face of events experienced within historical processes; it also proves the changing aesthetic prospect of art on the other hand. the genre choice of movies also determines the thematic choices of movie posters and their change leads to the progress of designs. examining the poster art of years - poses great importance since it also documents movie producer, director and actors of this period. this is documentation identical with the significance of reading the history of cinema one more time on the basis of poster art. movies constitute the memory of turkish cinema, and poster art allows for the foreknowledge to be established in a process much shorter than viewing and assessing these movies. turkish cinema posters, of which the artistic development explained in the above passages, are also the indicators of social changes at the same time. as the visual records left after the movies consumed within their short staging times, posters that always formed bonds with the society, succeed in enamoring themselves along with many memories rooted into the hearts and minds of turkish cinemagoers. in spite of the ill and harsh conditions of technological impossibilities of the years between - 's, movie posters produced during these years are products of a certain effort and these products, together with the movies of the period that they belong, they continue determining and sustain the culture, social and political structure, frames of mind and traditions of the country they were produced. the design of these posters, which covers a period of years in the midst of th century, while reflecting a synthesis of the vital realities of doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com turkey, they also determine their status among the posters produced for the world's cinema. figure kendini kurtaran Şehir-Şanlı maraş, faruk kenç, İstanbul film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure İstiklal harbi-ruhların mucizesi, hayri esen, milli film, (İnanoğlu, : ) erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com figure ateş rıza, Şinasi Özonuk, kemal film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure karayılan, Ümit utku, kervan film, (İnanoğlu, : ) doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com figure bu kadın benimdir, vedat Örfi bengü, elektra film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure ninni talihsiz yetime, muharrem gürses, işık film, (İnanoğlu, : ) erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com figure beni mahvettiler, talat Özbak, Ömay film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure felaket kadını, hüsnü cantürk, kulüp film, (İnanoğlu, : ) doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com figure akrep kuyruğu, cevat Şahiner, adalı film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure bir gönül oyunu, mehmet aslan, koçanga film, (İnanoğlu, : ) erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com figure Şaşkın baba, hulki saner, erman-saner film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure halk Çocuğu, memduh Ün, uğur film, (İnanoğlu, : ) doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com figure toprak, nedim otyam, barbaros film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure yanıklar köyü, Ümit utku, kervan film, (İnanoğlu, : ) erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com figure ayşecik Şeytan Çekici, atıf yılmaz, as film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure bana annemi anlat, osman f. seden, kemal film, (İnanoğlu, : ) doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com figure ayşecik cimcime hanım, hulki saner, erman-saner film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure ayşecik cimcime hanım, hulki saner, erman-saner film, (İnanoğlu, : ) erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com figure memiş ile İbiş anaforcular kralı, Çetin karamanbey, arslan film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure vur patlasın Çal oynasın, esat Özgül, anadolu film, (İnanoğlu, : ) doi: . /ulakbilge- - - ulakbilge, , cilt , sayı , volume , issue www.ulakbilge.com figure Şaban Çingeneler arasında, semih evin, seneka film, (İnanoğlu, : ) figure karamanın koyuny, semih evin, seneka film, (İnanoğlu, : ) erdem, s. ( ). a cultural reflector constructed by cınematıc language and graphıcal desıgn in the formatıon years of turkısh cınema: fılm poster. ulakbilge, ( ), - www.ulakbilge.com kaynaklar becer, e. ( ), İletişim ve grafik tasarım. ( . baskı). ankara: dost yayınevi bektaş, d. ( ). Çağdaş grafik tasarımın gelişimi. ( . baskı). İstanbul: yapı kredi yayınları İnanoğlu, t. ( ). afişle türk sineması. ( . baskı). İstanbul: kabalcı yayınevi merter, e. ( ). . yılında cumhuriyeti afişleyen adam. ( . baskı). İstanbul: literatür yayıncılık http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/afiş babak saleh search this site babak saleh my publications on google scholar i am on twitter and have a linkedin profile babaks -- at-- rutgers -- dot --edu - as of now, i am a vice president at morgan stanley, where i conduct research, implement and scale machine learning algorithms for various applications in financial investments. previously i worked at american international group (aig), under the investment organization. - i received my ph.d. in computer science with a concentration on machine learning and computer vision from rutgers university. my thesis is focused on detecting abnormalities in images and improving the generalization capacity of visual classifiers, which was awarded with the outstanding student paper award from aaai . - my research on using computer vision for analysis of fine-art paintings received significant coverage from major media outlets. a tv segment (pbs) can be found here, and a longer (with more technical details) video here: ipam @ ucla. - i have interned at adobe research and disney research. 	" abnormal objects" dataset can be found here. 	images used in "learning style similarity for searching infographics" can be found here. report abuse google sites report abuse . sayı.indd sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramının teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımı aylin beyoĞlu** Öz sanat eğitimi okul öncesi dönemden itibaren eğitim programlarının her aşamasında yer verilmesi gereken geniş kapsamlı bir eğitimdir. diğer bilim dallarıyla ilişkili olan sanat eğitimi, çağımızın her alanında olduğu gibi çağdaş sanat anlayışı içerisinde de bilim ve teknolojiye yer vererek yeni oluşumların gerçekleştirildiği önemli bir eğitim alanı olma özelliğini taşımaktadır. bu eğitim süreci içerisinde mekân kavramı, bireye algılama bakımından yaşadığı ortamı ve bulunduğu çevre olgusunu anımsattığı için iç dünyanın dış dünyayla ilişkisini sorgulatan bir kavramdır. bu araştırmada, sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramını ve mekânın teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımını sanatçıların yapıtları doğrultusunda incelemek araştırmanın temel amacını oluşturmaktadır. araştırmada, teknolojik gelişmelerin sonucu fotoğrafın keşfiyle ortaya çıkan endüstriyel ve teknik yenilikler; pop art, op art ve kinetik art, performans sanatı, enstalasyon, video sanatı, dijital teknoloji ve İnternet gibi elektronik teknolojilerin getirdiği yeniliklerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki mekânın başkalaşımı incelenmiştir. araştırma ile elde edilen veriler, sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramının kazanılması ve bireyin teknolojik gelişmelerle teknolojik olanaklardan yararlanma, düşünme, araştırma, yorumlama ve uygulama yapabilmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. anahtar sözcükler: sanat, sanat eğitimi, mekân, teknoloji, enstalasyon, op art. transformation of location in artists’ works through technological developments as a concept in art education abstract art education is a comprehensive education that must be present in every phase of educational programs starting from pre-school education. affiliated with other disciplines, art education is an important discipline producing new formations by accommodating science and technology within the contemporary science concept, as in any other field. the concept of location within the educational process reminds the feature of physical environment by the individual’s perception, thus leads to questioning the relationship between the inner world and the outer world. the research focuses on the transformation of location in artists’ works with the innovations that have been triggered by electronic technologies such as industrial and technical advancements, pop art, op art and kinetic art, performance art, installation, video art, digital technology and internet since the milestone of the invention of photography through technological advancements. the data gathered in this research are significant for attaining the concept of location in art education and allowing individuals to benefit from technological advancements, critical thinking, interpreting and application. keywords: art, art education, location, technology, installation, op art. pau egit fak derg, ( ): - bu makale - haziran tarihleri arasında . uluslararası avrasya eğitim araştırmaları kongresi (ejer)’inde sözlü olarak sunulan bildirinin genişletilmiş halidir. makalenin genişletilmiş hali dikkate alınarak başlıkta değişiklik yapılmıştır. ** arş. gör. dr., trakya Üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi, güzel sanatlar eğitimi bölümü, resim-İş eğitimi anabilim dalı, edirne. e-posta: aylinbeyoglu@trakya.edu.tr is sn - p ri n t / - o n lin e © p am u kk al e Ü n iv er si te si e ğ it im f ak ü lt es i h tt p :/ /d x. d o i.o rg / . /p u je gönderme tarihi: . . kabul tarihi: . . aylin beyoğlu giriş günümüzde eğitim kurumlarında sanat eğitimcisi ya da sanatçı yetiştirilirken sanat eğitimini içeren derslerde eser incelemeyle birlikte mekân kavramının irdelenmesi sanat eğitiminde hissedilen bir ihtiyaç doğrultusunda katkı sağlayacaktır. sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramı, resimsel anlamda mekânı oluşturan temel faktörleri ve elemanları içerisine dâhil ettiğinden bireyin mekân kavramını eğitim sürecinde kazanması önem taşımaktadır. sanat yapıtını ele alırken bireyin, resmin temel elemanları ve faktörleri diyebileceğimiz mekânı oluşturan elemanları ve faktörleri göz ardı etmemesi gerekmektedir. sanat eğitimcisi ya da sanatçı olma yolunda ilerleyen bireyin çalışmalarındaki mekân kavramıyla ilgili ihtiyacın giderilmesi açısından sanat eğitimi derslerinde bu kavrama ağırlık verilebilir. sanat eğitimi alan bireye, geleneksel yöntemlerin dışında teknolojik gelişmelerin eğitime sağlayacağı katkıdan faydalanabileceği de gösterilmelidir. bireyin bir yapıtın mekânını ele alırken onu yapıt içerisindeki diğer elemanlarla ve ayrıca diğer sanat akımlarıyla teknolojinin yarattığı olumlu ya da olumsuz yönlerle karşılaştırarak ele alması bireye, mekânın kavranması konusunda katkı sağlayacaktır. bunun yanı sıra, sanat eğitimi derslerinde günümüz sanatçılarının yapıtlarındaki mekân kavramına ağırlık verilerek bireye görsel açıdan zenginlik sağlayabilir. fotoğraf ve fotoğrafın farklı tekniklerle sanatçıların yapıtlarında kullanılarak yapıtların değişime uğraması mekânlar içerisinde farklı algılama boyutlarına ve yorumlama biçimlerine neden olmuştur. mekânın nesnel varlığını oluşturan üç boyutunun ötesinde, duyularla tanımlanmaya başlandığı andan itibaren mekânsal algı devreye girmektedir. bireyin mekânda yaşamını sürdürmesindeki temel etken mekânı algılamasıdır. mekânsal ilişkilerin anlaşılması için, öncelikle mekânın nasıl algılandığının açıklanması gerekmektedir. mekânın algılanması, bilinmesi ve değerlendirilmesinin sürekliliği, çevrenin duyu organları ile hissedilmesi, mekânın algılanma biçiminin anlaşılması ve mekânın niteliklerinin tanınması sonucunda seçim yapma ve karar verme sürecidir (rapoport, ). sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki mekânlarda ve mekânla bütünleşen yapıtlarda fotoğrafa oldukça ağırlık verilmiştir. bu süreçte üretilen yapıtlar teknolojinin ilerlemesiyle yeni tasarlanan mekânlarda sergilenmiş ve bazı mekânlara izleyicide dâhil edilerek mekân ve alıcı ilişkisi kurulmuştur. böylelikle geleneksel mekân ve sergileme biçimlerinden uzaklaşarak izleyici mekânda yani sanat yapıtı içerisinde konumlandırılmıştır. modernizm ve modernizm sonrasında sanat yapıtlarının mekânlarında teknolojinin kaynaklık ettiği açıkça gözlenebilen değişimler, bireye hangi yapıt örnekleriyle nasıl vurgulanabilir? mekân içerisinde yer alan fotoğraflar, fotomontajlar, floresanlar, videolar, bilgisayarlar ve lazer ışınları gibi teknolojinin ilerlemesiyle üretilen yapıtların örnekleri mekân kavramı açısından birey tarafından nasıl karşılaştırılabilir? teknolojik gelişmelerin etkisiyle bilgiye dayalı olarak sanatçıların yarattıkları mekânın ele alındığı yapıtlar ve mekânla ilgili sanatsal uygulamalar bireye nasıl özümsetilebilir? söz konusu soruların incelenmesi problem durumunu teşkil etmektedir. bu araştırmada, sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramını ve mekânın teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımını sanatçıların yapıtları doğrultusunda incelemek araştırmanın temel amacını oluşturmaktadır. yöntem araştırmada; sanat eğitimi, mekân kavramı, teknoloji, pop art, op art ve kinetik art, performans sanatı, enstalasyon sanatı, video sanatı, dijital sanat ve sanatçıların yapıtları ile ilgili literatür taraması yapılmıştır. Çağdaş ve güncel sanat akımları irdelenerek richard hamilton, yaacov agam, anish kapoor, robert smithson, yannis kounellis, bruce nauman vb. sanatçıların yapıtlarından konuya uygun örnekler seçilmiştir. araştırma doğrultusunda incelenen mekân kavramı hem sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki mekân hem de yapıtın bulunduğu mekândaki konumu ile ele alınmış ve buna göre mekânın başkalaşımı değerlendirilmiştir. bu araştırma betimsel tarama modeli ile desenlenmiştir. araştırma doğrultusunda ulusal ve uluslararası düzeyde yazılmış kitaplar, dergiler, makaleler, web sayfaları, kataloglar, broşürler, yüksek lisans, sanatta yeterlilik ve doktora tezleri pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramının teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımı incelenmiştir. araştırma; konu açısından, sanat eğitimi, mekân kavramı, teknoloji, yapıtlarında teknolojik gelişmeleri kullanan çağdaş ve güncel sanatın sanatçılardan mekân kavramı araştırmasına uygun örnek temsilciler ile sınırlandırılmıştır. bulgular matbanın icadı, elektriğin bulunması ile birlikte gelişen teknolojiler ve sanatçıların saray veya siparişlere bağlı çalışmalar yapmaktan çıkıp özgürleştiği süreç sonrasında camera obscura’nın elde ettiği görüntülerin ilk olarak joseph nicephore niépce tarafından bir yüzeye sabitlenmesi (langford, , s. ) resim sanatında, amaçlar ve yöntemler açısından yeni değerlendirmeleri ve düşünceleri gerektirmiştir. fotoğrafın keşfi bir devrim yaratmış, teknolojik açıdan yaşanan bu gelişme birçok ressam ve heykeltıraşın fotoğraftan ve gerçekliğinden faydalanmasına sebep olmuştur. benjamin, fotoğrafçılığı, geçtiğimiz yüzyılın sonunda kültürün yeniden üretimi ve yayılması bağlamında ortaya çıkan kitle iletişimin bir aracı olarak değerlendirmiştir (sağlamtımur, , s. ). bunun yanı sıra ressamlar ve heykeltıraşların mesleğini kaybetme endişesine düşmesi ve fotoğraftan birçok baskı yapılarak sanat yapıtının tek olma özelliğini yok ettiği düşüncesi birçok tartışmalara neden olmuştur. oskay ( , s. - ) konu ile ilgili düşüncesini şu şekilde belirtmiştir: fotoğrafın, gelişen teknolojiyle birlikte yaygınlaşmasıyla, kitleler tarafından çok fazla vasıf gerektirmeden, sıradan insanlar tarafından da aslının aynısı görüntü üretimi, seri üretime benzer bir hal alarak beraberinde sanatçının el emeğiyle üretimini yaptığı resim sanatının belgeleme özelliğini tamamen yitirmesine yol açmıştır. ressamlar yeni çalışma alanlarını, fotoğrafın giremeyeceği alanlara yönlendirmeye çaba sarf ederken, aktarılan gerçeklik artık doğanın gerçekliği değil sanatçının gerçekliği olmaktadır. . yüzyıl’ ın ikinci yarısında barbizon ekolü sanatçılarının dış mekânlara çıkarak an ın resmini yapmaları izlenimci sanatçıları etkilemiş, sanatçıların atölyelerini terk ederek hem doğa, hem de kent görünümlerinden oluşan dış mekânları resimlerinde ele almalarını sağlamıştır. sanatçıların dış mekân kavramı, temsil edilişi bakımından farklılıklar göstererek, farklı niteliklere bürünmüştür. sanatçılar dış mekânları ve doğa güzelliklerini, hem duyularla hem de düşünce boyutuyla ele almaya başlarken, akıl güçlü biçimde etkin olmuştur. sanatçılar eserlerinde fotoğrafın sunduğu olanakları değerlendirmiş, geleneksel resim anlayışından uzaklaşarak kendi resimlerini yaratma çabasıyla, özellikle modellerine bağlı kalmamak açısından bu yenilikten faydalanmışlardır. İzlenimci sanatçılar, geometrik kurallara bağlı perspektif kullanmak yerine, boşluk ve hacim duygusunu doğal ışığın yarattığı dereceli tonlar ve renkle ufka uzanan doğal mekânları resmetmişlerdir. teknoloji ilerledikçe sanat alanında da yenilikler kendini göstermeye devam etmiştir. endüstri alanında yapılan değişikliklerle kaşık, çatal, cam, ayna duvar kâğıdı v.b. nesnelerin kendileri, sanatta farklı bir boyutla ele alınmış, sanatçılar tarafından eserin bir elemanı olarak değerlendirilmiştir. kübizm’ de de bu şekilde kullanılan nesnelerle amaç, nesneleri taklit etmek yerine, onun gerçeğini aktarabilmek olmuştur. kübizm’ le, nesneler ve mekân parçalanarak, çok yüzeyli biçimler mekânla özdeşleşmiştir. İlk kez kübizmde kullanılan kolaj tekniğiyle sanat eserine yapıştırılan nesneler, daha sonra diğer sanat akımlarında da farklı şekillerde kullanılmıştır. kübizm, geleneksel perspektif, ışık- gölge kullanımlarına ve sanatı doğanın taklit edilmesi olarak gören kuramlara karşı çıkmış, doğadaki biçim, doku, renk ve mekânları taklit etmek yerine, kübist formlarla parçaladıkları nesneleri, çeşitli yönlerden aynı anda algılanabilecek biçimde yan yana getirerek yeni bir gerçeklik yaratmıştır. . yüzyılla birlikte sanayi ve teknoloji alanında yapılan icatlar sanatçılara yeni olanaklar sunmuş, mekânın algılanma biçimlerini de değiştirmiştir. hız, enerji ve hareketi resimlerine konu alan fütürist sanatçılar, fotoğraf makinesinin pozlama özelliğini kullanarak, yakaladıkları anlık hareketleri mekâna dâhil etme isteğiyle tuvale aktarmışlardır. sanatçılar eserlerinde mekânları, hareketi vurgulamak için aynı formu tekrar tekrar kullandıkları bir düzenle dinamizmi süreklilik yaratarak aylin beyoğlu betimlemişlerdir. sanatçıların eserlerinde yer alan nesneler ve figürler hareket duygusuyla, yaratılan mekân tarafından kuşatılmıştır. fütürizm akımı ile sanat türlerinden esinlenen sanatçılar, yapıtlarıyla zamanın sanatsal ve kültürel değerlerini dadaizm akımı’ yla sorgulamaya başlamışlardır. dadacılara göre sanat algımız sadece nesnenin kendisinden değil, sergilendiği mekândan da kaynaklanmaktadır (eczacıbaşı sanat ansiklopedisi, ). amerika’da pop sanatı ve kavramsal sanat akımlarında etkili olan henri robert duchamp’ın r. mutt takma adıyla imzaladığı pisuarı, sıradan hazır nesnenin alışılmış ortamından çıkarılarak sanat eseri olması ve bir sanat mekânında sergilemesi mekânında sanatçılar tarafından sorgulanmasına yol açmıştır. sanatçının pisuarı, sanat mekânında yeniden kimlik kazanmıştır. diğer sanat akımları paralelinde, ’ larda İtalya’ da metafizik resim akımı ortaya çıkmıştır. akımın sanatçılarından, de chirico, nesneleri ve mekânları alışılmış olanın dışında ele almıştır. sanatçı resimlerinde metafizik bir dünya kurgulamış, yarattığı ışık-gölge zıtlığıyla, boşluk ve yokluk duygusuyla mekânlarını vurgulamıştır. sanatçının resimlerinde, figürler diğer figürlerle bağlantılı olmadan, fantastik mimari yapıların yer aldığı mekânların içerisinde oluşturulmuştur. bir diğer sanat akımı gerçeküstücülük ise, daha önceleri ihmal edilmiş bir takım çağrışım biçimlerinin olağanüstü gerçekliğine, rüyaların mutlak kudretine, tarafsız düşünce oyunlarına yönelik inancı esas almaktadır. estetik veya ahlaki kaygılardan muaf olarak, mantık tarafından uygulanan hiçbir kontrolün geçerli olmadığı, düşüncenin dikte edildiği düzlemdir. gerçeküstücülük, “hayatın ve ölümün, gerçeğin ve hayalin, iletişimin ve iletişimsizliğin, yukarı’nın ve aşağı’nın artık zıt ve çelişkili olarak düşünülmediği” bir bakış açısına sahip olduğunu iddia etmektedir (eco, , s. ). resimde mekân kavramı gerçeküstücü sanatçıların resimlerinde yanılsamaya bağlı yaratılarak, mekânın farklı şekillerde algılanmasına sebep olmuştur. ayrıca sanatçılar resimlerinde birden fazla mekânın, tek bir görüntüde ele alındığı mekânlara da yer vermiştir. ’larda pop art, op art ve yeni gerçekçilik gibi akımlarla ortaya çıkan resimsel olmayan tavrın sonrası sanat eğilimlerine egemen olduğu bu dönem sanatında belirleyici rol oynadığı açıkça görülmektedir. tv, reklam, çizgi film, sinema v.b. iletişim araçlarının çağdaş gerçekliğinin bilincine varan genç sanatçılar eğer istedikleri yaşamın içinde olmaksa, ifade aracı olarak kitle iletişiminde kullanılan klişeleri ve imgeleri kullanmaları gerektiğine karar vermişlerdir (germaner, ). akımın sanatçıları arasında; richard hamilton, roy lichtenstein, robert raushenberg, jasper johns, james rosenquist, claus oldenburg, andy warhol gibi sanatçılar yer almaktadır. resim : richard hamilton, “günümüzün evlerini bu kadar farklı ve Çekici yapan nedir?” (just what is that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing?), , kağıt üzerine kolaj, x . cm, kunsthalle, (dr. georg zundel’in koleksiyonu). tübingen (charles, manca, mcshane, wigal, ). sanatçı, resim ’deki kolaj çalışmasını, white chapel gallery’de açılan İşte, yarın konulu serginin afişi olarak tasarlamıştır. bu sergi bağımsızlar grubu’nun açtığı, pop sanat çalışmalarının sunulduğu ilk sergi olmuş ve yapıtın merkezinde yer alan vücut geliştirmiş erkek figürü ve cinsel organını kapatan üzerinde pop yazılı bir lolipop şekeri ile pop kelimesi sanatçının bu eserinde ilk kez kullanılmıştır. sanatçı yapıtında bir iç mekâna, gazete ve dergilerden kestiği fotoğraflara ve reklâm afişlerine yer vermiştir. sanatçı, eserin genel ifadesinde, iğneleyici, eleştirel ve alaycı bir ifadeyi tercih etmiştir. hamilton, eserinde tüketim kültürünün materyallerini kullanmış, o dönem insanının sıklıkla kullandığı ya da özendiği günlük yaşamı kolaylaştıran materyalleri kullanarak tüketim kültürüne pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramının teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımı gönderme yapmıştır. sanatçının eserindeki iç mekân, hazır imgelerin kesilip yapıştırılmasıyla kolaj tekniğiyle oluşturularak derinlik kazanmıştır. kolaj tekniği, geleneksel sanatın sınırlarına bağlı kalmak yerine, sanatı özgür ve yenilikçi kılarak, her tekniğin uygulamada rahatlıkla kullanılmasını sağlaması açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır (Ögel, , s. ). sanat eğitiminde kolaj tekniği ile yapılan eserlerdeki mekân kavramının incelenmesi, hem bireysel hem de grup çalışmalarında bireye teorik ve uygulamalı olarak katkı sağlayabilir. sanat eğitimi alan birey kolaj tekniğini, farklı tekniklerle ve farklı malzemelerle birlikte uygulayabileceği için belli bir kalıp içerisinden çıkarak, mekânın temel elemanlarını farklı bir bakış açısıyla görebilir. yine pop art ile aynı yıllarda gündeme gelen, bireye sanat eğitiminde farklı bir bakış açısı sağlayabilecek ve onu düşünmeye sevk edecek diğer bir çalışma yves klein’in, nisan ’de paris’te iris clair galerisi’nin iç mekânında boşluğu sergilemesi olabilir. sanatçının sergisinde duvarlarda, yerde, tüm mekânda boşluktan başka hiçbir şey yoktur. burada sanatçı ham gerçeği özgürce kullanmıştır. yılı ekim ayında da arman aynı galerinin iç mekânında dolu yu göstererek sanatçıya yanıt vermektedir. arman’ın sergisinde galeriye nesneleri yığmasıyla mekân kullanılmaz olmuştur. sanatçılar bu çalışmalarıyla yeni gerçekçilik’in oluşumundan önce sanatın bu yeni tanımına katkı bulunmuşlardır (germaner, ). resim : yaacov agam, “agam salonu”, , karışık teknik, x x cm, pompidou kültür merkezi, paris, fransa (selvi, ). op art sanatçıları arasında yer alan yaacov agam resim ’deki elysee sarayı’ndaki ens- talasyonunu başkan georges pompidou için yapmıştır. mekânın duvarları değişen imgeler- le dolu polimorfik duvar resimlerinden oluşur- ken, tavanı ve zemininde yer alan halı kinetik- tir. sahne izleyicinin konumuna ve bakış açı- sına göre değişmektedir (selvi, ). agam, farklı renklerde çubuklarla oluşturduğu ya- pıtlarında, izleyicinin yer değiştirmesine göre kromatik düzenleri değişen mekân tasarımla- rı geliştirmiştir (germaner, ). sanatçının eserinde sanat yapıtı mekânla bütünleşmiş, mekân sanat yapıtına dönüşmüştür. yaacov agam’ın değişen imgelerle dolu polimorfik duvar resimlerinden oluşan bu eser örneği sanat eğitimi alan birey açısından mekân kavramında yanılsamayı ön plana çıkaracak bir örnektir. bireye, optik etkiler yaratarak algıya dayalı bir çeşit titreşimlerle görsel yanılsamalar sunan ve bireyin eser ile etkileşim kurarak bütünleşmesine olanak sağlayan bir eser olması açısından önem taşımaktadır. ayrıca bireyin yer değiştirmesine bağlı olarak kromatik düzenleri değişen bir mekân tasarımı olması da bireye, mekân kavramı konusunda farklı bir bakış açısı sağlayabilir. bir diğer sanat yapıtı örneğini incelemeden önce sanat yapıtının mekânla doğrudan ilişkilendirilerek mekânın yapıta, yapıtın mekâna bir anlam yüklediği minimal sanat’ı ele alırsak; “minimalizm, mekânın fiziksel boşluğunu sanat yapıtından ayrılmaz bir öğe haline getirerek ne resim ne heykel olan yeni bir sanatsal pratiği gündeme getirmiştir.” (antmen, a, s. ). İlk kez ’de richard wolheim tarafından içeriği en aza indirgenmiş sanat için kullanılmış olan donald judd, robert morris, sol lewitt, stella, dan flavin ve carl andre gibi sanatçıların düzenlediği sergiler ile tanınmaya başlayan minimal sanat terimi, giderek çoğunlukla üç boyutlu yapıtlar, heykeller için kullanılmıştır. ancak, ’lardan başlayarak amerika’da yaygınlaşan sanat anlayışının kapsamındaki resmi de tanımlamaktadır (eczacıbaşı sanat ansiklopedisi, ). amerikalı minimalist sanatçı dan flavin’in flavin’in, ışığın içinde bulunduğu mekânı değiştirebilme yetisini fark etmesi ve ilk defa ’de tek renkli tuvallerinin üzerine lambalar yerleştirmesiyle ışık, bir hammadde olarak sanatın diline girmiştir (Şenergüç, ). sanatçı, mekânı strüktüre etmek için farklı boyutlarda ve farklı renklerde neon lambalarıyla çalışmaktadır. sanatçı bunlarla mekânın sınırlarını belirler, mekânı örgütler aylin beyoğlu ya da mekân içinde görsel bir olgu yaratır. teknoloji ürünü hazır yapım malzemeyle kendisini sınırlayan flavin, lambaları yerleştirmeyi uzmanlarına bırakarak kendisi geri planda kalmaktadır (germaner, ). minimalist heykel çalışmaları yapan anish kapoor, formlarla değil, etkileşim ve deneyimlerle ilgili heykeller yapmaktadır. sanatçının heykellerini genellikle yansımalı yüzeyler üzerine gerçekleştirerek iç ve dış bükey yanılsamalar oluşturmaktadır. sanatçı için mekân büyük önem taşımaktadır. sanatçı mekân hakkındaki düşüncelerini şu şekilde belirtmiştir: tek gerçek nitelik mekândır. mekânın, bilim kurgu dışında hiç bir öyküsü yoktur…eserlerdeki en önemli şey mekân fikridir. alışılmışın dışında orjinal olanı çağrıştıran. orjinallik demekle ilk olmanın anlamına geliyor, oraya mahsus olması çok önemli ve kişinin genel olarak değil de mekâna göre oluşturması önemli. eserlerin çoğu bir yerden geçiş olarak düşünüyorum, geçişle ilgili olarak ve yerin gerekliliği ile ilgili (crone, stosch, , s. ). resim : anish kapoor, “ s kıvrımı”, , cilalanmış çelik, x x cm, pegen projeleri, los angeles, abd (haydaroğlu, ) sanatçı, resim ’teki eserinde s şeklindeki iç bükey ve dış bükey yüzeyleri duvarın çevresindeki boşluğu deforme bir şekilde yansıtmaktadır. bu etki nesneyi maddesel olmaktan çıkarıp bakan kişiyle arasındaki bağı koparmaktadır (selvi, ). sanatçı eserini bir iç mekân içerisine yerleştirerek mekânı ve boşluğu değerlendirmiştir. cilalanmış çelikten oluşturduğu eserinde ayna görüntüsünün yansımasını değerlendirmiştir. yine minimalist sanat içerisinde yer alan land art’ta yeryüzü; eskiden, temsil eden ve edilen şeylere bir mekân olarak ele alındığı için her zaman ikinci planda kalmıştır. land art sanatçıları içinse temsil eden ve edilenin tamamen kendisi olarak algılanmaktadır (yılmaz, ). sanatçılar, yer yüzeyinin büyük parçalarından oluşan mekânları yeniden düzenlemiştir. sonsuz olan boşluğu veya alanı eserleriyle sınırlandırmışlar ve mekânı genişletmişlerdir. land art ile mekân, doğa ile her türlü nitelik bakımından aynı olmuştur. mekânı doğa ile özdeşleştiren land art akımı temsilcileri arasında; robert smithson, michael heizer, robert morris, walter de maria, nancy holt, alice aycock, mary miss, dennis oppenheim, jan dibbets, richard long, hamish fulton, andy goldsworthy, christo ve jeanne-claude gibi sanatçılar yer almıştır. resim : robert smithson, “spiral jetty”, , kaya, su, kum ve toprak, ’ uzunluk and ’ genişlik, great salt lake, utah, abd (http:// imgkid.com). land art eğiliminin önemli temsilcilerinden biri olan robert smithson, resim ’te görüldüğü gibi karadan gölün merkezine doğru gelen, kaya, kum ve toprak kullanarak sarmal şeklinde bir bir mekân oluşturmuştur. mekân içerisinde suyun yükselip alçalmasıyla oluşan derinlikle suyun renginde de değişiklikler meydana gelmiştir. sanatçı, eskiden petrol çıkartmak için kullanılmış bir bölge olan utah’taki bu büyük tuzlu göle pembe rengi veren mikroorganizmaların olduğunu öğrenmiş ve dikkati çekmek için bu çalışmayı gerçekleştirmiştir (turani, ). dalgakıranın sarmal biçimi, gölün merkezinde bulunduğu söylenen efsanevi burgaca göndermede bulunmaktadır. smithson çalışmasında, çöp kamyonları kiralayarak yaklaşık yedi bin ton toprak kullanmıştır. , km uzunluğundaki dalgakıranı, özellikle endüstriyel bir bölgede inşa eden sanatçı, insanın doğayla ilişkisine dikkat çekmek istemiştir. yapıtlarında doğal yaşam-ölüm döngüsünü işlemiştir. land art örneklerini sanatçı, mekân ve mekân dışı olmak üzere ikiye ayırmıştır (antmen, pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramının teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımı b). sanatçı, sanat malzemesi olarak, galeri içine alınamayacak kadar büyük ya da satılamayacak bir nesneye dönüştürdüğü mekânları kullanmıştır (atakan, ). sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramı göz önüne alındığında, land art sanatçıları tarafından doğaya ve çevreye yapılan müdahalelerin incelenmesi, bireyin doğayı ve mekânı yepyeni bir bakış açısıyla görmesine katkı sağlayabileceği gibi bu çalışmaların projeye dayalı olmasının da bireyi araştırmaya yönlendirebileceği düşünülmektedir. ayrıca, bireyin duyarlılıklarını artıracağı, yaratıcılıklarını geliştireceği düşünülmektedir. geleneksel anlayışlardan ve tekniklerden sıyrılan land art sanat eğitiminde bireye, sanata dair sınırların aşılmasında katkı sağlayacak bir süreç olarak görülebilir. land art, happenings, minimalizm, enstalasyon, pop art, fluxus-performance- yoksul sanat-vücut sanatı, video art gibi eylem ve uygulamaların bazıları kavramsal sanat anlayışının temelini oluştururken bazıları da kavramsal sanat’la aynı dönemde ve daha sonrasında varlığını sürdürmeye devam etmiştir. kavramsal sanat ’ lı yılların sonlarında geniş anlamdaki sanat fikrine, sanatı özel bir nesne ve özel bir yerle sınırlanamayacağı fikrini getirmiştir (lynton, ). kavramsal sanat, fikirler sanatı olarak da adlandırılmaktadır. kavramsal sanat metin ile ilişkilidir ve öncelik kavramdadır. resim : joseph beuys, “kötü durum” (plight), - . keçe, piyano, kara tahta ve terrmometreli heykel ve çevre düzenlemesi. londra, anthony d’offay galerisi (lynton, ). alman sanatçı beuys’un resim ’teki kötü durum isimli çalışmasını düzenlediği iki ayrı mekân, kül rengi keçe rulolarıyla kaplanmış olup; üzerinde bir karatahtayla bir termometre bulunan bir piyano yer almaktadır. keçe kaplı duvarlar, mekâna belli bir ağırbaşlılık vermiş, ayrıca sıcaklık, korunmuşluk ve londra merkezinden gelen gürültüye karşı bir yalıtım oluşturmaktadır. kapalı piyano, boş karatahta, kimin için ne ölçtüğü bilinmeyen termometre de insanların özlemleriyle yeteneklerini ve bunların baskı altına alınışını dile getirmektedir (lynton, ). beuys, çalışmasında galerideki gerçek bir mekânı kurgulayarak çok önem verdiği keçeleri tekrarlar halinde mekânın yan yüzeylerine iki sıra halinde yerleştirmiştir. sanatın başka bir nesnesi olan piyanoyla yine kendi kurguladığı mekânı bütünleştirmiştir. hayatını kurtaran keçelerle yaşamın canlılığını vurgulayan beuys, günlük yaşamdaki bir mekânı sanatsal bir öğe olarak izleyiciye sunmaktadır. beuys’un da kavramları temel alarak içerisinde yer aldığı  kavramsal sanatın, ’li yıllarda çeşitli sanatsal eğilimleri ve eleştirileri kapsayarak, sanatsal ve kültürel normları eleştiren yeni kavramsalcılık bir devamı niteliğindedir. kavramsal sanat, postmodernizm ile birlikte sanat alanında başlayan sanat sadece seçkinler için değildir anlayışını yaymaya çalışan bir karşı duruş hareketiyken; yeni kavramsalcılık, toplumsal bazı olgulara karşı duran bir harekettir (little, ). Özellikle ’li yıllarda, postmodern kuramların yaygınlık kazanmaya başladığı yıllarda dikkat çekmeye başlayan postmodern yeni kavramsalcılık, sanatsal nesneden çok toplumsal anlama odaklanan, cinsiyet ayrımcılığından ırk ayrımcılığına, medya eleştirisinden sanat kurumlarının eleştirisine uzanan, özünde belli güç ilişkilerinin şekillendirdiği toplumsal kodları irdeleyen sanatçıların pratikleriyle şekillenmiştir (antmen, ). bu alanda çalışmalar gerçekleştiren basılı medyanın diliyle konuşan meksikalı postmodern grafik sanatçısı barbara kruger meslek hayatının ilk yıllarında kadın dergilerinde sanat yönetmenliği yapmış, görüntü ve gerçeklik konusunu o yıllarda ele aylin beyoğlu almayı düşünmeye başlamıştır. sanatçının bir dergiden ya da gazeteden kesilip yerleştirilmiş kupürleri andıran çalışmalarını, reklam panoları, mağazalar, istasyonlar gibi kentin çeşitli yüzeylerinde, kırmızı yazılarla vurgulanan siyah beyaz posterler, video, film ve enstalasyonlar şeklinde karşımıza çıkarmıştır. kolajları, sosyal yaşamdaki davranışlarımıza ve klişelere vurgu yapmaktadır. siyah beyaz fotoğraflar üzerinde çoğunlukla dergilerde rastlayacağımız türden metinleri kullanarak çalışan kruger, gündelik reklam gerçekliğine kadınsı, provakatif bir yön katmıştır. bu yazıların dikkat çektiği şey, tüketim ve eğlence duygusunu körükleyen medyanın iki yüzlülüğüdür (yılmaz, ). sanatçı kavramsal temelli çalışmalarında kopyalama ve kendine mal etme stratejilerini kullanmıştır (Şahiner, ). resim : barbara kruger, “exhibition” barbara goldstein galeri, (http://peterandjoan. blogs.wm.edu/ / / /barbara-kruger-a- room-with-a-view/). barbara kruger’in resim olduğu gibi eserlerinde ilgi çekici olan asıl nokta, grafik öğelerinin hep sözcüklerle veya harflerle birlikte mekânlarda yer almasıdır. mekân içerisinde mekâna bakarken yazılarda okunabilmektedir. sanatçı, eserleriyle bütünleştirdiği mekânları sanat yapıtına dönüştürmektedir. sanatçının kullandığı yazılar gerçek bir mekânın duvarları, tavanı, tabanı mekânın tamamını kaplamaktadır. sanatçıların kruger gibi mekân içerisinde yazıyı kullandıkları yapıtlarının incelenmesi, sanat eğitiminde bireyin yazı ve mekânı nasıl birlikte kullanabileceğini görme açısından katkı sağlayacaktır. birey yazı ve mekân ilişkisini bir yapıt içerisinde inceleyerek değerlendirme olanağına sahip olacaktır. bu yapıtlar; sanatçılarının eserlerinde kullanılan harfler, kelimeler, metinler, cümleler vs. mekânla birlikte kullanılan anlatım biçimlerini içeren kavrama dayalı yapıtlar olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. barbara kruger gibi ’lerden sonra isimlerini duyuran cindy sherman, sherrie levine, sanatçılar, kadın bedeninin biyolojik özelliklerine odaklanmak yerine yapısökümcü bir yaklaşımla kültürel çözümlemelere yönelmişlerdir. louise bourgeois, ghada amer, janine antoni, rosemaria trockel ve tracey emin gibi sanatçılar da feminist sanatın temsilcilerindendir (antmen, b). feminist sanat içerisinde sadece resim-heykel değil; aynı zamanda performanslar da önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. resim : louise bourgeois, “babanın İmhası”, , alçı, lateks, ahşap kumaş ve kırmızı ışık, , x , x , cm (selvi, ). ressam, grafik tasarımcısı ve heykeltıraş olan louise bourgeois, çoğunlukla belli belirsiz şekilde cinsel içerikli sembolik önem taşıyan stilize figürler tasarlayarak alışılmışın dışında malzemeler kullanmıştır. yılı sonrasında yapıtları açıkça feminist olmaya başlamıştır. resim ’deki eserinde meşum bir kırmızı ışıkla yıkanan, tehdit edici nitelikte tuhaf kubbemsi şekiller, bourgeois’nın babasının sadakatsizliğine duyduğu öfkeyi yansıtmaktadır. bu yapıt sanatçının eserlerindeki belirgin feminizmin başlangıcı olmuştur. mağaramsı bir mekândaki yemek masasında, baskın figür olan baba, kuzu ve pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramının teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımı tavuk kemiklerinden oluşturulmuş bir kalıpla lateks içine yerleştirilmiş, parçalanmış ve hükmettiği çocukları tarafından yenmektedir (selvi, ). sanatçının yarattığı bir mağarayı andıran mekândaki çalışması içinde bulunduğu mekânla var olmaktadır ve mekânın ayrılmaz bir parçası olarak mekânla bütünleşmiştir. sanatçı yaptığı bu feminist sanat özelliklerini içeren çalışması ayrıca en basit tanımıyla nesnenin veya nesnelerin mekân içerisine yerlerinin belirlenerek yerleştirilmesi şeklinde tanımlayabileceğimiz enstalasyon sanatına da uygun bir örnektir. yeni yüzyılın sanatı, salt bir disiplin sınırları içinde değerlendirilmemesi gereken bir olgu olmuştur. burada temel özelliklerin yanında teknik özellikler de sanat yapıtının anlamına müdahale etmektedir. dolayısıyla bütün bu temel özelliklerin ortak bir dil olarak ele alınıp, anlamlandırma sürecine katılması gerekmektedir (başar, ). sanatçıların belirledikleri özel bir mekâna nesne veya nesnelerin yerleştirmesi çok farklı teknik, yöntem ve malzemeyi gerektirebilir. bu farklılıkları görmek, karşılaştırmak, değerlendirmek sanat eğitimi alan bireye eleştirel bir bakış açısı kazandıracaktır. video yöntemiyle pek çok enstalasyon gerçekleştiren bruce nauman, insanın doğal yapısıyla birlikte deneyimlerini inceleyerek video v.b. medya araçlarıyla belgelemiştir. sanatçının ağırlıklı verdiği bir yöntem olan video; sinema ve televizyon haricinde tamamen kişisel kullanımlar için icat edilmiş bir görüntü alma ve izleme yöntemidir. sanatçı için, malzemenin olanaklarının sonuna kadar zorlanmasının ardında insan nesne diyaloğu yatmakta ve sadece sanatçı- video arasındaki diyalog değil, video sanatının temel dayanaklarından biri olan izleyici de bu ilişkinin içinde önem taşımaktadır (bozkurt, ). resim : bruce nauman, “antro/sosyo nauman”, , video enstelasyonu, sanat galerisi, hamburg almanya (http://www. medienkunstnetz.de/works/anthro-socio/). nauman, amaçsız eylem, aşağılanma, stres ve hayal kırıklığı gibi deneyimleri incelemeyi, belgelemeyi ve bunlara izleyiciyi katmayı amaçlamaktadır. sanatçı, video, performans, neon vb. birçok medya aracı kullanmaktadır. sanatçı, insan doğası üzerine gözlemlerini naklettiğini ve bunları algılayış şeklimizi incelemektedir (cumming, ). sanatçı, resim ’deki çalışmasına mekânı dâhil etmiştir. sanatçı yaptığı çalışmasında galeri mekânı içerisine televizyon ve projeksiyon makineleri yerleştirerek görüntüyü mekânın duvarları üzerine yansıtmış ve izleyiciyi düşünmeye sevk etmiştir. yine izleyiciyi düşündürmeye dayalı çalışmalar gerçekleştiren performans sanatçıları ise, açık havada ya da bir salonda basit bir dekor ve eşyalardan oluşan hatta dekorsuz sahnelerde, alanlarda, su içinde, gökte ve diğer yerlerde gerçekleştirilen belli bir sabit mekânı olmayan bir anlayıştır. seyirciyi düşündürmeye dayalı bu anlayışla sanatçı, konusu önceden yazılmamış bir olayı tiyatro tarzında konuşarak, hareketlerle, doğaçlama olarak gösteri şeklinde sunmaktadır (demirkol, ). resim : oleg kulik, “ben amerika’yı isırıyorum, amerika’da beni”, , performans(kılınç, ). oleg kulik, resim ’da görüldüğü gibi yılında moskova’da köpek formuna girerek ben amerika’yı isırıyorum, amerika’da beni adlı performansını gerçekleştirmiştir. sanatçı bu aylin beyoğlu performansı new york’ta gerçekleştirdiğinde bir kafesin içinde iki hafta boyunca kalmıştır. bu süre içinde ellerinin ve dizlerinin üzerinde yaşamış, kâselerden yemek yemiş, bir paspasın üzerinde uyumuş ve sadece gırtlaktan sesler çıkartmıştır. kulik, performansıyla türler arasındaki varoluş farklarının bile nasıl iktidar ilişkilerine dönüşebileceğini göstermektedir (kılınç, ). kulik’in performansında mekân sanatçının hem kendi bedeni, hem kafeste ki canlı performansında bir köpek evi, hem de performansı sergilerken kullandığı unsurlardır. sabit bir mekânı olmayan farklı mekânlarda genellikle basit nesnelerle oluşturulan performansların yanı sıra, sanatçı için mekân, üzerine yeni önermelerin getirilmesi gereken alanı temsil etmektedir. bireyin içinde yaşadığı mekân, onu var eden ve biçimlendiren unsur olarak, fotogerçekçi sanatçılar tarafından sosyolojik ve psikolojik etmenleriyle birlikte ele alınmış, iki taraflı yaşanan bu ilişkisel varoluş objektif bir biçimde betimlenmeye çalışılmıştır. figür ve mekân ilişkisini farklı yönleriyle ele alan fotogerçekçi sanatçılar, gerçekliğin plastik çözümlemelerini sunmakla beraber, izleyiciyi de içinde yaşadığı mekâna ilişkin faktörleri sorgulamaya yöneltmektedir (karaalioğlu, ). resim : cynthia beth rubin, ‘the wilder building’, rochester, ny, . dijital resim (http://cbrubin.net/wilder/wilder_b.html). fotoğrafın yanı sıra dijital tekniklerin sunduğu imkânların çeşitliliği sanatçılara bunları araç, ortam veya konu olarak kullanabilme seçimi yaratmıştır (christiane, ). dijital sanat, bilgisayar destekli bir sanat formudur. dijital sanat, tamamen bilgisayar destekli olabileceği gibi, taranmış fotoğraflar gibi başka kaynaklardan alınmış da olabilir. dijital sanatın uygulayıcısı olan sanatçılar, taranmış olan çeşitli tekniklerdeki resimleri bilgisayar programlarını kullanıp değiştirerek yeni ürünler ortaya koyabilirler (keser, ). cynthia beth rubin’in resim yer verilen dijital kolaj ile yarattığı bu çalışmasında babasının mesleğine başladığı mimari mekânı ele almıştır. sanatçı çalışmasıyla mimari mekânın dış görüntüsünü sunan fakat mekânı algılamayı zorlaştıran bir çalışma yaratmıştır. sanat eğitimi alan bireylere bu çalışmanın mekân örneği, dijital sanatı uygulayarak, bilgisayarda farklı programlarla fotoğraf ya da taranan resimlerin mekânlarını yeniden tasarlayarak neler yapılabilir bunu görme imkânı tanıyacaktır. tartışma ve sonuç sonuç olarak mekânın sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımının incelenmesinin bireyin sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramını kazanmasına ve bilimsel ve teknolojik ilerlemelerine uyum sağlayan yenilikçi, araştırmacı insan modelleri yetiştirilmesine olanak sağlayacağı sonucuna varılabilir. araştırmada resimsel mekânla fiziki mekânın yapıtla başkalaşımı sorgulanmış ve yapıtın mekâna dâhil edilmesi ile fiziki ilişkisine bakışta başka bir yönü ortaya çıkarmıştır. Ülker’in ( ) “mekân yanılsamasından resim yüzeyine espas” isimli araştırmasına izleyiciyi de dâhil ederek belirttiği gibi, “izleyici ile sanatçının var ettiği mekân ile arasında bir içerme ilişkisi kurulmaktadır. bu, heideggerci bir anlayışta deneyimlenen mekânın plastik sanatlar alanında gerçekleşmesidir. mekânda anlam boyutu, temsili veya manipülatif olmadığından, öznel olması bakımından yenilik taşımaktadır.” Ülker araştırmasıyla konunun önemini farklı bir açıdan ele almaktadır. karaalioğlu ( ) yaptığı araştırmasının sonucunda, insan ile mekân arasında yaşanan karşılıklı etkileşim biçiminin sanat alanındaki temsillerinin, izleyenin kendini tanımlama güdüsünü güçlendirdiği gibi yaşadığı çevreye karşı farkındalıklarını da zenginleştirdiğini vurgulamıştır. bu sonuç sanat eğitimi alan öğrencilerde dikkate alındığında yapılan araştırmayı destekler niteliktedir. sanatçıların yapıtlarında imgenin dâhil edildiği mekânların diğer kitle iletişim araçlarıyla farklılaştırılmasıyla, sanat, sanat yapıtı ve pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramının teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımı çevre gelişen teknolojilerle şekil almaktadır. Ünver ( ) çalışmasında, “teknolojiye verdiği bilgilerle genelde yaşamı değiştiren bilimin, özelde sanatın da değişmesini hızlandırdığını” belirtmiştir. bu konu ile ilgili günümüz sanat eğitimcilerine de bireye verdiği eğitimde önemli roller düşmektedir. uysal( ) yaptığı araştırmasında konuyu şu şekilde yorumlamıştır: “sürekli gelişiminin yaşandığı bu çağda sanat eğitimi alanında da öğrencilerin bu teknolojilerden ve yeniliklerden bağımsız eğitimi etkili bir eğitim modeli olamayacaktır. Özellikle bilgisayarla birlikte tüm medyanın dijitalleştiği, görülebilir olanların yanı sıra yapay gerçekliklerinde içinde bulunduğu sanal ortamın günümüzde toplum yaşamının her alanında varlığını ve etkisini hissettirdiği açıktır. sanat eğitimi alan bireyler geleceğin teknolojisinin yeni uygulamalarına açık, araştırmacı ve bilgiye dayalı yetiştirilmelidir.” türkiye’de sanat eğitimi veren kurumlarda karşılaşılan bir eksiklik olarak konu ele alındığında erzen ( )’de şu şekilde bahsetmiştir: “sanat eğitimi yapan kurumlarda acilen bir yenilik gerekmektedir. bu yenilik önce sanat okulunun katı duvarlarını kırarak çevreye açılmasını, toplumsal ve kültürel olanaklarını kullanmayı, öğrencinin bilincini, kültürünü, duyarlılığını, cesaretini ve özgürlüğünü arttırmayı ilke olarak benimsemelidir.” bu ilkeler doğrultusunda birey teknolojik gelişmelerle mekân kavramının değişimine yönelik elde edilen bilgiler günümüzde ve gelecekte sanat eğitimi öğrencilerine katkı sağlayabilecek niteliktedir. yapılan bu araştırma sanat eğitiminde karşı karşıya kalınan bir ihtiyacın giderileceği düşünülmektedir. kaynakÇa antmen, a. ( a). yerleştirme: heykelin dönüşümü mü?. sanat dünyamız, sayı: , İstanbul: yapı kredi yayınları, . antmen, a. ( b). . yüzyıl batı sanatında akımlar. İstanbul: sel yayıncılık, - - . atakan, n. ( ). sanatta alternatif arayışla.. İzmir: karakalem kitabevi, - . başar, r. ( ). bilgi Çağında disiplinler arası bir metin olarak sanat. bilgi Çağı ve sanat. vi. ulusal sanat sempozyumu, hacettepe Üniversitesi, güzel sanatlar fakültesi yayınları, ankara. bozkurt, m. ( ). video sanatı. İstanbul: bileşim yayınevi, . charles, v., manca, j., mcshane, m., wigal, d. ( ). muteşem resim. n. elhüseyni (Çev.). İstanbul: yapı kredi yayınları, . christiane, p. ( ). digital art (world of art). london, uk: thames & hudson ltd, . cumming, r. ( ). görsel rehberler sanat. İstanbul: İnkılap kitabevi, . crone r., von stosch, a. ( ). anish kapoor. prestel, munich, berlin, london, new york, . demirkol, v. ( ). batı sanatında modernizm ve postmodernizm. İstanbul: evrensel basım yayın, . eco, u. ( ). Çirkinliğin tarihi. İstanbul: doğan kitap, . eczacıbaşı sanat ansiklopedisi, ( ). . cilt, İstanbul: yem yayın, - . germaner, s. ( ). sonrası sanat: akımlar, eğilimler, gruplar, sanatçılar. İstanbul: kabalcı yayınevi, - - - - . haydaroğlu, m. ( ). sanatçı sanat eseri. İstanbul: yem yayın, . karaalioğlu, o. ( ). figür-mekân ilişkisi bağlamında fotogerçekçilik. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, uludağ Üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, bursa. keser, n. ( ). sanat sözlüğü. ankara: Ütopya yayınevi, . kılınç, g., m. ( ). bedenin, iktidar kavramına karşıt bir öğe olarak vücut ve performans sanatında kullanılması. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, mustafa kemal Üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, hatay. langford, m. ( ). story of photography, second edition, library of congress cataloguing in publication data, great britain, . aylin beyoğlu little, s. ( ). İzmler – sanatı anlamak. İstanbul: yem yayın, . lynton, n. ( ). modern sanatın öyküsü. c. Çapan (Çev.). İstanbul: remzi kitabevi, - - . oskay, h.a. ( ). fotoğrafın tartışılan gerçekliği ve gerçeküstücülük. ulakbilge, ( ), s. - . Ögel, s. ( ). Çevresel sanat. İstanbul: İstanbul teknik Üniversitesi mühendislik mimarlık fakültesi yayınları. rapoport, a., ( ). human aspects of urban form: towards a man-environment approach to urban form and design. pergamon press, great britain. sağlamtimur, z., Ö. ( ). walter benjamin’in bakış açısından tarih ve fotoğraf İlişkisi, İletişim kuram ve araştırma dergisi, , iletisimdergisi.gazi.edu.tr/site/index.php/ikad/article/ download/ / erişim tarihi: . . . selvi, s. (ed.). ( ). sanat atlası. İstanbul: boyut yayıncılık, - - . Şahiner, r. ( ). sanatta postmodern kırılmalar ya da modernin yapıbozumu. İstanbul: yeni İnsan yayınevi, . Şenergüç, m. ( ocak ). modern sanatın prometheus”u. açık gazete, İstanbul. turani, a. ( ). dünya sanat tarihi. İstanbul: remzi kitabevi, . Ülker, d. ( ). mekan yanılsamasından resim yüzeyine espas. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, anadolu Üniversitesi, güzel sanatlar enstitüsü, eskişehir. Ünver, e. ( ). bilim ve teknoloji gelişir sanat değişir. cumhuriyet bilim ve teknoloji dergisi, ( ). uysal, a. ( ). gelişen teknolojiler odağında değişen-dönüşen sanat-sanat eğitimi Üzerine bir değerlendirme. . sanat ve tasarım eğitimi sempozyumu. ankara: başkent Üniversitesi, . yılmaz, m. ( ). modernizmden postmodernizme sanat. İstanbul: Ütopya yayınevi, - . zimmerman, p. ( ). body language: the presence and absence of cindy sherman, sherrie levine and barbara kruger, http://peterandjoan.blogs.wm.edu/ / / /barbara- kruger-a-room-with-a-view/ erişim tarihi: . . . pamukkale university journal of education, number (january /i) extended abstract introduction examining the concept of location in art education lessons to train art trainers or artists in educational bodies will also allow the shortcomings of the art education to be remedied. the concept of location in art education includes the fundamental factors and elements comprising the location in pictorial meaning, and it is significant for the individual to attain the concept of location within the art education process. additionally, the art education lessons must prioritize the concept of location in modern artists’ works to create visual richness and provide a different perspective. photography is highly featured in the locations in artists’ works and the works integrated with the location. the works created in this process were displayed in newly designed locations through technological advancements and the audience was included in certain locations to establish a relationship with the location and the recipient. thus it moves away from the traditional location and exhibition forms, placing the viewer into the location, i.e. the artwork. the locations in art works of modernism and post-modernism feature changes in location that visibly arise from technology which should be emphasized in art education through samples artwork. this research aims to remedy the shortcoming in art education of individuals studying the samples of artwork produced with the advancements of photography, photomontage, fluorescents, videos, computers and laser beams in the location. methodology the study involved a literature review on art education, concept of location, technology, pop art, op art and kinetic art, performance art, installation art, video art, digital art and the works of artists. contemporary and current art trends are examined to select the artwork pamukkale Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı (ocak /i) sanat eğitiminde mekân kavramının teknolojik gelişmelerle sanatçıların yapıtlarındaki başkalaşımı that are in line with the subject. this study is designed in descriptive survey model. the study was limited in subject to art education, concept of location, technology and select artwork in line with the concept of location using technology in their work. findings the invention of photography was revolutionary and this technological development led numerous painters and sculptor to benefit from photography and its reality. in addition, painters reflected the location with the photographs using different materials. with the advancement of technology, the innovation in art continued to rise. with the changes in industry, spoons, forks, glass, mirror, wall paper and similar objects themselves were examined in a new dimension of art, evaluated by artists as an element of the artwork. similarly, the purpose of cubism using such objects was to relay the reality of objects, rather than simply imitate them. through cubism, objects and location are torn down to identify multifaceted shapes with the location. working on minimalist sculptures, anish kapoor creates sculptures of interaction and experience, rather than forms. the artist’s sculptures are usually prepared on reflective surfaces, comprising concave and convex reflections. additionally, land art performers rearranged locations consisting of large portions of floor surface. they limited the endless space or area in their work and expanded the location. land art allows the location to possess the same qualities as the nature in every aspect. offering a location from daily life to the viewers as an artistic element, in two lines on the side surfaces of the location. he integrated another object of art with the location that he fictionalized. the main point of attraction in barbara kruger’s creation is graphical elements in the location alongside words or letters. the artist transforms the locations integrated to their work into works of art. discussion the concepts that are the subject of this study have been examined and the resulting data are expected to contribute to attaining the concept of location and allowing individuals to utilize technology, critical thinking, interpreting and implementing. furthermore, the concept of location has been included in the artwork in both pictorial and physical sense, bringing new perspectives to the location through new forms of relations, and it is the hope of the researchers that this study will enable the development of innovative, investigative human models conforming with scientific and technological developments of the country, and providing the concept of location to individuals in the art education. the study pondered the transformation of pictorial location and physical location through artwork, where the inclusion of physical location to the artwork and the physical relations revealed a different perspective. it can be argued that the locations where artists included the image in their work were differentiated through other mass media tools, thus the art, artistic work and the environment are shaped by the advancing technologies. in this context, attempting to understand the concept of location through its transformation by technological advancements paved the way for examining and assessing the concept of location. the information attained from the concept of location through technological developments may serve as reference for the current and future art students. milena bartlová journal of art historiography number december czech art history and marxism milena bartlová czech art history after the second world war was pursued in a state dominated by soviet power and as such it presents a prominent example of the coexisting synergy and conflict between the vienna school and marxism. research into this relationship may provide valuable insight into the character of czech art historical tradition. i will attempt to show the role played by marxist, marxist-leninist and stalinist thinking in czech art history against the background legacy of the vienna school of art history. the introduction of marxism into czech art history has to come to terms with this legacy, as before the second world war the czech art historical milieu was a self-proclaimed devoted and faithful follower of the vienna school. the shape of czech marxism in art history, however, differs quite significantly from that which one might expect from the vantage point of the western world. frederick antal, who personifies the contact between the two approaches, was unambiguously rejected, and authors such as meyer schapiro and t. j. clark remained virtually unknown. czech marxist art history displayed pronounced disinterest in the social history of art and instead, solely concentrated on the problem of realism. the most interesting period was the s, when the viennese tradition was re-evaluated during the search for ‘humanist marxism’, or revisionism. reframed, it was fundamentally strengthened as a methodology and considered the only truly scientific one. the only scholarly analysis devoted to czech marxist art history and published before the end of the s was by rostislav Švácha. it is based on good quality research but is written from a position inside marxism and not surprisingly, Šváchaʼs study thus lacks a critical distance from its topic. i have traced the character of the transition from austro-hungarian to czechoslovak art history in my contribution to the colloquy organized by matthew rampley at the royal academy in london in . the text will appear in a special issue of jah edited by him. other texts illuminating the position of czech art history in the context of the vienna school include hugo rokyta, ʽmax dvořák und seine schule in den böhmischen ländernʼ.Österreichische zeitschrift für kunst und denkmalpflege, , , - ; ján bakoš, ‘viedenská škola a český a slovenský dejepis umenia’ in: ján bakoš, Štyri trasy metodológie dejín umenia. bratislava , - ; otto m. urban, ʽthe beginnings of modern art history and art criticism in the czech landsʼ, centropa, , , - ; matthew rampley, ʽhistory and the politics of empire: rethinking the vienna schoolʼ, art bulletin , , , - . rostislav Švácha, ‘dějepis umění v současnosti’ in: rudolf chadraba et al. eds, kapitoly z českého dějepisu umění, vol. , praha , - . cf. also nicholas sawicky, ‘modernist paradigms after the war: the case of max dvořák’, in: vojtěch lahoda ed., local strategies, international ambitions. modern art in central europe - , praha , - , who is the only one to briefly relate the czech reception of dvořák to marxism. this is true even more concerning the two period overviews by luděk novák, ʽvýtvarná teorie v letech - ʼ, umění, , , - (dealing more with the theory of artistic practice than with art history proper) and františek matouš, ‘teorie a dějiny umění - ’, umění, , , - . milena bartlová czech art history and marxism two methodological restrictions deserve a preliminary mention. firstly, i will proceed within the framework of the history of discourse, while devoting only marginal attention to the history of institutions, art historical topics and biographical research. this restriction is dictated by the fact that general inquiry into the historiography of four decades of czech history under the rule of the communist party ( - ) has only gained momentum in the past few years. until now, there existed just a few historical studies explaining the processes of continuity and discontinuity between the strong left-wing cultural and political czech tradition of the inter-war period, post-war years and the period of socialism (after ), and marxist revisionism of the s. twenty years of disinterest can be easily recognized as an act of negative memory, of forgetting; the type identified as ‘monological forgetting’ by aleida assman. more than twenty years after the political revolution of the velvet revolution of , the predominance of moral judgement has receded only slowly in czech society and this has affected both membership of the communist party (the legal order contains a law from which declared the cp a ‘criminal and despicable organization’), and also the reception and application of marxism in scholarly research. as a result important creative personalities of the second half of the th century ─ in our case art historians ─ may have, at times, been members of the ruling communist party and information about them would have to be mined from personal archive files. their membership may have had a decisive impact on their public activities and on the challenges they had to face in their careers. besides, one definition of marxism considers it to be a theoretical component of communist activism and in fact its employment was deemed self evident for any cp member. as a result, it is often hard to decide whether published texts merely represent outer signs of loyalty to the political regime, ‘just a camouflage’ (as they are often summarily designated in retrospect), or whether they are the result of serious thinking and intellectual work. the question of honesty in communist engagement, or rather its lack, is primarily considered in actual czech discourse ─ paired with retrospective moral judgment. i will leave it to one side, however, and will also only refer to the institutional level marginally. still, i am convinced that it remains feasible and legitimate to follow the relationship between czech art historical marxism and the legacy of the vienna school of art history predominantly within the framework of published texts. my second restriction concerns the fact that the state of informative sources does not allow me to pursue the topic of both czech and slovak art historiographies in parallel with each other, in spite of the fact that the developments took place in the common state of czechoslovakia ( - , - ) and there existed a web of mutual contacts. the czech intellectual milieu during the inter-war decades was characterized by a marked prominence of a leftist orientation. the czechoslovakian communist party was one of the strongest communist parties in europe. in it jiří knapík, Únor a kultura: sovětizace české kultury - , praha ; jiří knapík, v zajetí moci: kulturní politika, její system a aktéři - , praha ; michal kopeček, hledání ztraceného smyslu revoluce. zrod a počátky marxistického revizionismu ve střední evropě - , praha . both national art historiographies together are sketched with further references in milena bartlová, ‘art history in the czech and slovak republics: institutional frameworks, topics and loyalties’, in: matthew rampley et al. eds., art history and visual studies in europe, leiden , - . milena bartlová czech art history and marxism became the only one to win a parliament majority in free elections and many artists were already members before the war. among visual, literary and theatrical artists there was a strong soviet-oriented vanguard movement including the prominent theoretician karel teige ( - ), who attempted to conciliate surrealism with communism during the s and s. the reason why art history did not join this prevailing trend is not immediately clear. it may have had something to do with the generally rather conservative taste of the central figures of the czech art historical establishment. the director of the state art collections vincenc kramář ( - ), who already appreciated cubism before the first world war, stood apart from his peers in this respect. he disregarded the otherwise strong insistence on the necessity of a ‘time gap’ which only enables art historical engagement with new art after thirty or fifty years have elapsed. the class affiliation of mainstream czech art history was unambiguously bourgeois. the czech art historical establishment rarely paid attention to the activities of the prague circle and to jan mukařovskýʼs formation of structuralist aesthetics and theory in the s. the czech art historians felt satisfied and safe with the legacy of the vienna school as represented by vojtěch birnbaum ( - ) at the prague university. his student and successor to his chair antonín matějček ( - ) was himself a late student of max dvořák. the status of this latter method was confirmed by defending it against the indigenous tradition represented by karel chytil ( - ). the art historical methodology developed by birnbaum, which has remained dominant until today, consists of two aspects which are loosely connected. one is a rigorously formal analytic approach coupled with positivist historicism as a double tool for art historical research concentrated on individual artworks. the main art historical target is, however, a narrative of linear artistic developments construed according to laws which, once discovered, are considered objective and true, not to be questioned but only applied. the whole methodological structure is generally indebted to franz wickhoff more than to alois riegl. this resulted in a sceptical distance from art historical theory (including riegl), from methodological self-analysis as well as from new methodological inspiration. another result was a rather strict concentration on local artworks that could be researched in the desired depth and detail and which conformed to the task of any research in humanities which was seen to confirm czech national identity. ideas of dvořákʼs later years, which turned the history of art into a ‘spiritual history’ karel srp ed., karel teige - . kat. výst. galerie hl.m. prahy ; tomáš hříbek, ‘karel teige and the “wissenschaftliche weltauffasung”ʼ, umění , , - ; matthew s. wittkovsky, ‘karel teige,’ in: matthew s. wittkovsky ed., avant-garde art in everyday life. exh. cat. art institute of chicago , - ; karel teige, modern architecture in czechoslovakia and other writings, los angeles . brief portraits of the prominent czech art historians between the wars are included in my paper ‘the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history’ (forthcoming). their upbringing and family background seems to have been most often the czech ‘bildungsbürgertum’. unfortunately, czech biographical research generally overlooks the matter of class (i am indebted to marta filipová for bringing this question to my attention). ján bakoš, ‘der tschecho-slowakischer strukturalismus und kunstgeschichtschreibung’, zeitschrift für Ästhetik und allgemeine kunstwissenschaft , , - ; ján bakoš, ‘Česko-slovenský štrukturalizmus a dejepis umenia. pražský lingivstický krúžok a dejiny umenia’ in: bakoš , - . for more about the character of this antagonism cf. my paper ‘the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history’ (forthcoming). milena bartlová czech art history and marxism remained present outside the academic establishment, with teachers at artistic academies. against this background we will assess the two original art historical thinkers from two generations of antonín matějčekʼs students at the prague university: pavel kropáček in the s and jaromír neumann a decade later. pavel kropáček ( - ) started his career early, received his phd aged twenty-four and his medievalist achievements were highly praised by his teacher. in the late s he engaged with the fine art scene and became a theoretician of skupina (group ). he died in auschwitz, aged only , as a consequence of his participation in the underground communist resistance movement during the war. his dissertation on panel painting from the hussite period ─ the indigenous reformation movement in the first half of the th century ─ was published posthumously. kropáček successfully combined the standard rigorous formal study of individual artworks with their inclusion in a different framework from the equally standard ‘history of ideas’ of dvořákʼs followers. uniquely influenced by mukařovský, he adopted a broader structuralist approach that would need to be elaborated more deeply in order to bring more effective results. it was clearly kropáčekʼs individual fate that inhibited a further development of structuralism in czech art history and thus a later parallel to hans sedlmayrʼs generation in vienna. because the czech history of older - especially medieval - art was so strongly informed by the need to promote national qualities of artistic production, we would expect to find some fiery opposition to the german nationalism of the viennese structuralists and consequently some kind of emancipation of the czech art history from vienna. unfortunately, such a discussion was prevented from taking place by the historical situation ─ first during the war when czech intellectual life was suppressed and then after the war because of the communist takeover of power and ensuing severance of international connections with countries outside of the soviet bloc. jaromír neumann ( - ) belonged to the generation of young czechs who flocked to universities after the end of the war, most of whom joined the communist party at the same time. their belief in the moral superiority of the soviet state, ideology, science and culture in the post-war period was genuine. neumann belonged to the young people who formed self appointed ‘revolutionary committees’ in - under the auspices of the cp, which expelled professors and students from the universities who were not judged ideologically acceptable. among the older generation of czech art historians, vincenc kramář was the only one to enrol in the cp by , aged sixty-eight, once again going against the mainstream of his peers. he declined the offer of becoming the director of the new national gallery taking excuse in his failing health but he remained committed to václav v. Štech and jaromír pečírka, cf. the latter´s afterword to the collection of translated essays by max dvořák, umění jako projev ducha, praha . translation of geistesgeschichte as ‘history of ideas’ shifts the semantic focus away from dvořákʼs ‘spirit’ which includes an important spiritual dimension. eva petrová, ‘pavel kropáček’, in: anděla horová ed., nová encyklopedie českého výtvarného umění. praha , - ; karel stejskal, ‘pavel kropáček’ in: chadraba , - (stejskal here refers to kropáček as marxist, a mistake i repeated in my paper ‘vývoj českého malířství krásného slohu v pojetí pavla kropáčka’, ars , - ; hana rousová, ‘Živý pes pavel kropáček’, in: jiří Ševčík et al.eds., alén diviš: paralelní historie, praha , - . czech universities were forcedly closed during the nazi occupation between and . milena bartlová czech art history and marxism the new regime. the leading figures of a younger generation, antonín matějček and jan mukařovský only joined the party, as many others did, when it became a totalitarian ruling force after the successful communist power takeover in february . this was clearly in order to support their academic careers. from onwards, marxism-leninism became the sole approved and officially acceptable methodological approach to anything, including art historical research. a brief clarification of terminology may be helpful at this stage. the object of our inquiry is the position and role of marxism in czech art history. between the s and s however, the official ideology, whose primacy was embodied directly in the czechoslovak constitution, was marxism-leninism. considered by its opponents as a major deviation or even treason against the legacy of marx and engels, the ideology was developed in the soviet union between the wars. the leninist part consisted of an adaptation of marxist philosophy to the social reality of underdeveloped eastern european countries where industrialization was lacking and the proletariat formed a tiny minority of the population. one noticeable feature was the resignation of internationalism. in retrospect, the formative role of russian orthodox traditions, imperial politics and the political culture of byzantine or persian origin are evident. marxist rhetoric remained obligatory but the decisive role was attributed to the collective wisdom of the communist parties – under the direction of the soviet cp − as the sole source of legitimacy. this held true even more for stalinism with its personality cult, which was a totalitarian regime whose practices were related to german nazism. in czechoslovakia the period of stalinism in the s, under strong and direct soviet surveillance, should be distinguished from the s when the search for pristine and ‘humanist marxist’ philosophy rose and consequently the reading of original marxist texts returned. this period witnessed an increased dialogue with the west that included marxists outside the soviet bloc countries but not those intellectual developments which had elaborated on classic marxism, like the frankfurt school or the althusserian circle. the s and s were affected by the crushing of the prague spring in and the ensuing establishment of a neo-stalinist regime, weaker in political practice but authoritarian in ideology and rhetoric. due to the self-proclamation of much of the period’s writing as ‘marxist’ a precise differentiation may often be difficult. however the whole situation cannot be properly understood without discriminating between marxism, marxism-leninism and stalinism. after the introduction of marxism-leninism as the only acceptable ideological and philosophical framework in , czech art history found itself in a peculiar position. czech art history was not forced to denounce its own tradition from the first half of the th century, as was the case of the other humanities that had been influenced by semiotics and structuralism. it was also able to continue its own long-standing and highly formative discourse on the tense confrontation between czech and german speaking cultures. the dispute fitted perfectly into the new political situation that followed the expulsion of the three-million german minority from the country in the aftermath of the second world war, between cf. archie brown, the rise and fall of communism, london ; eric hobsbawm, how to change the world. tales of marx and marxism, london . i have analyzed this background in my book naše, národní umění. studie z dějin dějepisu umění, brno . it is in the process of being published in german translation. milena bartlová czech art history and marxism and . in spite of its residual internationalist rhetoric, marxism-leninism allowed space to sustain the self-confirmation of national collectivism without having to renounce it in favour of class collectivism. unlike historiography, however, czech art history had no marxist experience of its own. the theoretical writing of karel teige was not considered part of art history but as an aesthetic and critical stance concerning actual artistic practices. moreover teigeʼs texts, written prior to his suicide in , remained unpublished until . the rapid settlement of this debt can be recognized around the year in the texts of prominent art historians. in the middle of the s marked contributions began to appear by marxist-leninist oriented art historians of the younger generation. after the deaths of stalin and his devoted czech ally klement gottwald in - and the th congress of the soviet cp, the second half of the decade introduced what is probably the most interesting chapter of czech marxist art history, relying on max dvořák for a new synthesis of a viennese legacy with marxism, which was promulgated around . at its core was a unique appropriation of iconology and participation in a wider stream of revisionism in the central european soviet bloc countries in their search for a ‘humanist marxism’. the most interesting aspect of this development may be the fact that czech art historyʼs reorientation towards marxism did not take place within the framework of social art history which was, on the contrary, sharply denounced as ‘vulgar sociologism’ ─ a code-word used to label an adherence to original marxism that disregarded the leninist contribution. this caused a real split between czech marxist art history and its counterparts in the west. the overview of marxist art history published by andrew hemingway does not pay any attention to art historical developments in the soviet bloc countries, including czechoslovakia, and this is typical of such an overview. seen from the other side it is symptomatic that meyer schapiro remained virtually unknown in czech art history, even though he had close personal experience with pre-war vienna. a plan to publish a selection of meyer schapiroʼs essays in the middle of the s was undoubtedly supported by the marxist affiliation of the author. it was protracted beyond the fall of the communist regime and when the book finally appeared in almost all mention of schapiroʼs marxism had been omitted. the czech translation of arnold hauserʼs philosophy of art history was arranged in the s by aestheticians and elicited no response among art historians. the synthesis of nicos hadjinicolau has karel teige, vývojové proměny v umění, praha . a joint obituary for both state and party leaders written by jaromír neumann introduced the first issue of the new central art historical journal umění in . rudolf chadraba, ‘sociologie umění’ in: sáva Šabouk ed., encyklopedie českého výtvarného umění, praha , p. - . andrew hemingway ed., marxism and the history of art: from william morris to the new left, london, . evonne levy, ʽseldmayr and schapiro correspondʼ, wiener jahrbuch für kunstgeschichte, , , - . the afterword by the volumeʼs editor karel srp was also published separately as ʽdějiny umění podle meyera schapiraʼ, umění, , , - . arnold hauser, filosofie dějin umění, praha . in the standard czech textbook of art historical methodology, hauser is briefly mentioned together with elias and bourdieu in a short chapter entitled ‘sociology of art history’. marxist art history does not qualify as a research category at all, similarly milena bartlová czech art history and marxism remained completely unknown until today and horst bredekampʼs dissertation of has only been on record because its third part is devoted to that iconic topic of czech history, hussitism. in contrast, frederick antalʼs florentine painting and it social background, a book of crucial importance for marxist art history that grew from the orbit of the vienna school, was translated almost immediately and appeared in summer of . the impulse behind the publication was undoubtedly the viennese affiliation of antal who had been dvořákʼs student and thus the book was clearly expected to provide the desirable foundation for a czech marxist art historical methodology. in the afterword, jaromír neumann (aged twenty-eight at the time) harshly reproached antal and argued that the book cannot be termed marxist at all. neumann found antalʼs mistakes in his overly direct transition from a class analysis to a stylistic one and in his consideration of art as a mechanical product of social classes, or strata, to which the donors belong. in neumannʼs opinion, antal starts from a false concept of development and does not take into account the ideas of engels and lenin concerning historical development. as a result, antal was made accessible to czech readers but at the same time rebuked from a stalinist vantage point. this criticism was prolonged into the second half of the s and onwards, when ‘sociologism’ was deplored as unacceptable. social art history in the czech context was at least partially vindicated in the s but until very recently any approach that would account for the decisive roles of recipients of artworks and investors in them has been habitually denounced as unacceptably prioritizing the social environment over the artwork itself. instead of developing social art history, the art historians and critics who declared themselves marxists or marxist-leninists concentrated on the debate over realism. the discussion absorbed the energy of prominent art historians from three generations and revolved around leninʼs theory of reflection, which claimed to explain the epistemic role of visual arts. a highly interesting contribution to the debate was made by vincenc kramář who managed to sidestep stalinist terminology. kramář developed genuine marxist principles in order to prove that realism does not mean the simple replication of visible facts but their creative reformulation, and that cubism was a successful example of realist art. on the basis of private correspondence with kramář, karel teige expressed the same idea more sharply and openly in a text written between and and not intended for imminent publication. teige, however, opposed kramářʼs conclusion that cubism specifically should be included in realist art, but he stressed that the opposite derogatory label of ‘formalism’ should apply neither to cubism, nor to abstract art. both scholars clearly stated that the style propagated as ‘socialist realism’ reproduces petty bourgeois values and is supported by true reactionaries. with books by donald preziosi or eric fernie. jiří kroupa, metody dějin umění i-ii, brno - , - . horst bredekamp, kunst als medium sozialer konflikte, frankfurt a.m. . frederick antal, florentské malířství a jeho sociální pozadí, praha . vincenc kramář, ʽo realismu a formalismuʼ, výtvarné umění, , , - . karel teige, ‘pokus o názvoslovnou a pojmoslovnou revisi’, in: teige , - . vincenc kramář, kulturně-politický program ksČ a výtvarné umění, praha , . while the cp proposed its political program of in order to cover up its true stalinist aims before the takeover of milena bartlová czech art history and marxism jaromír neumannʼs contributions around , on the other hand, faithfully conformed to the official stalinist terminology and practice. in his doctoral thesis, defended in and devoted to realism in bohemian seventeenth-century painting, neumann explained baroque art as a combative ideological product of late feudalism directed against the progressive because ─ early bourgeois in character ─ renaissance and reformation cultures. the book was clearly written under the influence of antalʼs concept of marxism as social art history. in , the year of its publication, neumann performed a ‘public self-criticism’ ritual and confessed that it was only the teaching of stalin and the cp that had helped him to turn away from the malignant influences of structuralism, as represented by mukařovský, kropáček and the slovak structuralists. were it not for neumannʼs shift in position, as clearly expressed in the afterword to florentine painting mentioned above, his dissertation could have formed a strong foundation for czech marxist art history. it would be methodologically incorrect to disregard the period rhetoric but it is still quite clear in retrospect that neumannʼs criticism of antal was far from implausible. some recent criticism of antal, hauser and max raphael arrives at similar conclusions, while adding that such a ‘rudimentary form of marxist art history’ could have only been brought to completion later by the followers of the frankfurt school, with the help of walter benjaminʼs writings and after the rediscovery of aby warbug in the s. the widely held conviction that conformism to official marxist-leninist ideology only affected research in modern art whilst early art remained untainted, cannot be sustained. it was clearly present in the s work of jaroslav pešina ( - ), the son-in-law of antonín matějček from whom he inherited the highly prestigious scholarly focus on medieval painting together with a respected position in the czech art-historical establishment. his specialty in late gothic painting led pešina to the topic of hussitism which the stalinist regime in czechoslovakia construed as its crucial legitimating historical epoch. pešina relied on the studies of the young communist historiographers to show that, as an analogy to the privileged epistemic historical position of the proletariat, the hussite revolution also had a fundamental meaning in history. from this it followed that artistic production related to the hussites is not marginal and unimportant ─ as evaluated by standard art history ─ but on the contrary, it has a world-wide importance. according to pešina it is only logical, for example, that the use of nuremberg originals as power in , kramář shared the idealism of other leftist intellectuals in this remarkable booklet and defended the communists’ cultural politics. for context, see knapík . jaromír neumann, malířství xvii. století v Čechách, praha . jaromír neumann, ‘boj o socialistický realismus a úkoly naší výtvarné kritiky a historie umění’, in: za vědecké dějiny umění a novou kritiku, praha , - , esp. . on slovak structuralism cf. ján bakoš, ‘Česko-slovenský štrukturalizmus a dejepis umenia. pražský lingivstický krúžok a dejiny umenia’ in: bakoš , - . otto karl werckmeister, ‘the turn from marx to warburg in west german art history - ’ in: hemingway , - , esp. . while an anthology of benjaminʼs texts was published in czech translation already in , both the frankfurt school and warburg remained largely unknown among czech art historians until the s. cf. also berthold hinz, ‘kunst und geschichte nach dem mauerfall: marx – zu hegel – auf den kopf stellen!’ in: andreas berndt et al. eds., frankfurter schule und kunstgeschichte, berlin , - . jaroslav pešina – mojmír hamsík, ʽtriptych monogramisty i.v.m. příspěvek ke studiu problematiky českého malířství . stoletíʼ, umění, , , - . milena bartlová czech art history and marxism inspiration for art in bohemia was delayed for more than three decades, as the difference conformed to the differences in the development of social productive forces between the two countries. unlike kramář or neumann, pešina used leninist and stalinist axioms of simplified textbook marxism to construe his argument. it seems that in the beginning of the s he has succumbed to the most seductive fallacy of marxism, namely its capacity to provide easily understandable explanations and directions. although pešina abandoned this position after , he relied on the results he achieved in this way in his further research. in he developed an argument concerning the popular character of artistic production in the hussite period, and in he construed his explanation of the art of the beautiful style as being ethnically czech and socially plebeian on the same basis. the work of a pupil may best exemplify the teacher’s ideas. this is certainly the case with karel stejskal’s (b. ) study on the realist character of the style of the so- called rajhrad altarpiece (second quarter of the fifteenth century). he defended it against an allegation of naturalism and characterized the measure of progressive realism in the pictures by assessing ‘the measure of closeness of the artist’s approach to reality and his creative grasp of it’. what may strike a reader today as an example of a narrow-minded ideological approach, was in its time a proclamation of a moderate opposition to the official propaganda, revealed in the subtleties of selected terminology and logic of argument which measured the progressive quality of creativity and did not judge it on the basis of class alone. ten years later, karel stejskal was among the protagonists of what i would call the ‘iconological turn’. this was elaborated by jaromír neumann in his studies which were already published before . neumann suggested that instead of a one-sided concern for a social dimension of art, art historians should devote their attention to the creative dimension, and to its source which is to be found in the artist’s imagination. in contrast to his earlier criticism of dvořák as a bourgeois thinker, neumann now considers dvořákʼs methodology as a valuable inspiration that may be of help in the search for an assessment of art as a creative ─ and not tony judt, reappraisals: reflections on the forgotten twentieth century, london , (citing leszek kolakowski). jaroslav pešina, ʽstudie k malířství poděbradské dobyʼ, umění, , , - ; jaroslav pešina, ʽk otázce retrospektivních tendencí v českém malířství krásného slohuʼ, umění , , - . karel stejskal, ʽpodoba císaře zikmunda – prostředkem boje husitského umění proti feudální reakciʼ, acta universitatis carolinae – philosophica et historica, praha , - ; karel stejskal, archa rajhradská a její místo ve vývoji českého umění první poloviny . století, universitas carolina - philosophica , nr . praha , - , esp. . robert suckale explained in similar way the qualitative difference between the texts of wilhelm pinder and the official nazi propaganda in the early s, cf. robert suckale, ʽwilhlem pinder und die deutsche kunstgeschichte nach ʼ, kritische berichte, , , nr. , - . jaromír neumann, ʽk dnešním metodickým otázkám dějepisu umění: poznámky o výtvarné představivostiʼ. umění , , - ; jaromír neumann, umění a skutečnost: úvahy o realismu v uměleckém vývoji, praha . the most important deficiency of the text by r. Švácha (as note ) is a complete omission of this initiative and creative role of j. neumann in the methodological shift around . neumann is credited only with ‘vulgar marxism’ around while the position of an authoritative protagonist of czech iconology is attributed to rudolf chadraba. the reader should bear in mind that when the volume was being written in the middle of the s, neumann was expelled from the cp and was tolerated only on the margins of the field, while chadraba was the main editor of the book and a vice-director of the institute of art history of the academy of sciences. milena bartlová czech art history and marxism mechanical ─ reflection of historical consciousness. while in neumann still noted that dvořák remained an insurmountable idealist, four years later he considered dvořákʼs work as a possible foundation for marxist art history thanks to his employment of dialectical method, his lack of materialism notwithstanding. iconology, retrieved by neumann from panofskyʼs recent books, offered a possibility to synthesize the viennese ─ and specifically dvořákʼs ─ tradition of ‘spiritual scholarship’ with the marxist demand that historiography should provide knowledge of the ideological dimension of history. the ‘idealistic’ component of dvořákʼs art historical method could be safely set aside while the main benefit resided in his dialectic; it was a dialectic which marked the decisive break from the ‘dogmatic’ ideology of stalinist years. iconology began to be understood as a method that enabled researchers to expose the thinking and ideology of times past through a direct analysis of an image, without recourse to social and historical circumstances, which were considered external and contingent. instead of ‘intrinsic’ or cultural meaning of artworks, the entity thus revealed would be the ideological superstructure of an historical epoch, which did not need to be derived from its material, economical basis. seen from a certain distance it seems clear that this methodological convergence was made possible by the intellectual habit of hegelianism ─ shared by both the viennese tradition and marxism. it was precisely this habit that was ─ together with the conviction about the direct epistemological role of a visual image ─ refused by thinkers who had turned towards inspiration in structuralism and semiotics. the most interesting feature of the synthesis may be that although it considered itself marxist, it completely disregarded class analysis of specific artworks, their production and consumption. the only exception seems to be neumannʼs thesis on baroque realism, discussed briefly above. the background from which the new interpretation of iconology, and of dvořákʼs history of ideas, was developed was the one-sided interest in realism. the decisive character of art and style was seen in their direct epistemic role, regardless of social situation, which for czech art history unambiguously remained an external factor. the marxist twist of iconology continued to be attractive to czech art historians for forty years. in the s, iconology seemed to be an exceptionally sophisticated tool for exploiting the epistemic potential of artistic heritage. its character was strongly indebted to dvořák, as art historians did not consider it necessary to search for relevant period texts that would be used for the interpretation of artworks and none of panofskyʼs original neo-kantian basis remained in place. the method was stripped of its strict consistency and reframed as a direct interpretation of the ‘physiognomy of forms’ (indebted to the gestalt tradition). motifs in images were interpreted as bearers of ‘hidden symbolic utterance’ without taking any recourse to semiotics. this hidden information could be interpreted as secular or as political, in both cases, as opposed to spiritual or church messages, which were labelled as merely covering up, with sawicky . jaromír neumann, ʽdílo maxe dvořáka a dnešekʼ, umění, , , - . the whole issue of the journal was devoted to reassessment of max dvořák. cf. ján bakoš, ‘the vienna schoolʼs hundred and sixty-eighth graduate: the vienna schoolʼs ideas revised by e. h. gombrich’ in: richard woodfield ed., gombrich on art and psychology, manchester , - . milena bartlová czech art history and marxism the help of period ideology, what was really at stake. after all, the method of ‘reading between the lines’, or the belief that the true meaning of public utterance can be encoded for reasons of safety and must therefore be deciphered as it could prove to be in opposition with the first superficial reading, was a common semantic practice for the inhabitants of soviet bloc countries in the s, s and s: this was the proper way to read daily newspapers. similarly, the insistence on autonomous artistic development, as opposed to the idea of art as participating actively in the life of a society, conformed to the need to maintain creative artistic freedom in face of manipulations of artistic production on part of the authoritarian regime ruled by the communist party. the basic compliance between the dvořák-type iconology and the tradition of the czech branch of the vienna school can be seen also in the fact that this platform could provide a common ground for art historians who set out from marxism – as did neumann and stejskal − and for those who started from an ideologically opposite position, namely from catholic spiritualism. it seems clearer now why max dvořák gained an almost sacred character in czech art history. he was the great and world- respected czech speaking member of the vienna school of art history. but additionally, it was through his legitimization that czech art history was, as early as the beginning of the s, able to find a solution to the task of establishing a methodology that would be acceptable to the official ruling ideology. as a result of its ‘iconological turn’ the czech art historical establishment could call itself marxist and at the same time was able to retain a position of elitist ‘bourgeois humanism’. suppressed and out of the focus of theory, bourgeois class consciousness was allowed to flourish in czech art historical academic and museum establishments, perhaps aided by another officially repressed area of art historical competence, namely private collecting. in the s as well as s, art history departments were inhabited by finely dressed and elegant men with polished manners, both members of the communist party and its outsiders. the discipline was pursued as an elitist sanctuary of humanistic values, safely shielded by its scientific methodology from the excessive demands of the ruling ideology. in the s, iconology also became a starting point for researchers in modern art like františek Šmejkal and petr wittlich, although they moved gradually closer towards psychoanalysis and semiotics. the sum of these approaches was called marxist art history up until the end of the s and managed to retain its strong bond with the viennese tradition of fundamentally historical explanations of artworks. was this marxism, or was it not? as far as it considered itself to be so, the most ambitious books are rudolf chadraba, dürers apokalypse – eine ikonologische deutung, praha and josef krása, die händschriften könig wenzeles iv, praha . they both gained international relevance because they were published in german and english. the topics of both krása and chadraba developed impulses of the leading vienna school scholars, julius schlosser and max dvořák respectively. the situation seems to have been closely parallel in poland with the prominent personality of jan białostocki. the fate, methodologies and politics of art history in the individual countries of the soviet bloc were, however, rather specific and the lack of relevant research forbids me to pursue a more detailed account of the topic here. for a recent survey see ján bakoš, ‘paths and strategies in the historiography of art in central europe’, ars, , , - and relevant chapters in rampley et al. . Švácha . milena bartlová czech art history and marxism we may have to classify it as a specific branch of marxist methodology. on the other hand it may be difficult to find a place inside any relevant definition of marxism for an approach that explicitly disregards the social framework of art production and consumption, and does not attribute class analysis a central place. attempts at different methodological starting points remained isolated and had no followers: this holds, for example, for the semiotics of art proposed by the theorist josef zvěřina. the intensity of the methodological tradition of the vienna school can be discerned also in the fact that until today there has not been a great deal of understanding in czech art history for those approaches that would disregard the history of forms as a basic framework of interpretation. this concerns first of all the heideggerian phenomenology that became ─ thanks to efforts of philosopher karel kosík ─ the source of inspiration for ‘humanist marxism’ or revisionism in the s. we could say that the dvořák-style iconology fulfilled a similar role to phenomenology within the czech intellectual environment, but their mutual contact was not considered necessary. there was, however, one important exception, václav richter ( - ) from brno university, who created a specific methodology by synthesizing phenomenological inspiration with the tradition of the vienna school in spite of his sparse, or perhaps non-existent, contact with the contemporaneous texts of kurt badt or lorenz dittmann. richter read hans g. gadamer (although he never cited him) and he reframed the viennese epistemological basis using the concept of ‘mental model’. following heidegger himself, richter attempted to interpret baroque architecture as a bearer of meanings that could be recognized through sensually concrete bodily experience, and not with the help of information gained from research into historical ideas and ideologies. the letters exchanged between richter and his close personal friend jan patočka - leading phenomenologist of european stature but banned from the philosophical establishment and institutions - reveal that richterʼs efforts were considered rather naïve by the professional philosopher. václav richter had a creative follower in the s, ján bakoš, who was a slovak art historian, while patočkaʼs teaching in the late s influenced a small group of art history students in prague. taken as a whole however, phenomenology never gained the influence in art history that could match its dominance in czech philosophy, and there seem to have been no attempts at synthesizing it with marxism. the case of the second brno professor in the art history department, medievalist albert kutal ( - ), confirms the original role of the marginal but josef zvěřina, umělecké dílo jako znak, praha . zvěřina was a roman catholic priest and theologian, persecuted by the communist regime, and he did not participate in the art historical scene beside this delayed publication of his dissertation. attempts at an officially acceptable convergence of semiotics and marxism in theories of visual art were pursued, on a mediocre level and without much success, by sáva Šabouk, ʽteorie umění a umělecká kritikaʼ, estetika, , , - . tomáš hříbek, ‘proti metodě: karel kosík o architektuře a urbanismu’, in: marek hrubec et al., myslitel karel kosík. praha , - ; kopeček , esp. - . václav richter, umění a svět. studie z teorie a dějin umění, praha ; ivan chvatík – jiří michálek eds., jan patočka, dopisy václavu richterovi, praha ; rostislav Švácha, ‘k “odstupu” a “parciálnosti” v soudobém dějepisu uměníʼ,umění, , , - ; rostislav Švácha, ‘václav richter’ in: chadraba , - ; ján bakoš, ‘epistemologický obrat na ceste historika umenia’ in: bakoš , - . only dalibor veselý is known internationally from this group, all others published only in czech. milena bartlová czech art history and marxism intellectually potent brno school of art history. kutal benefited from contact with an important historian of the younger generation at brno university, josef válka, who mediated the knowledge of post-war french historiography. this enabled kutal to elaborate on his interest in the social history of the annales school tradition. although the relationship between annales school and marxism has not been unambiguous, it proved possible to employ this inspiration in czech historiography without provoking official discontent. for kutal, the french inspiration served to complement his methods, which remained within the framework of czech methodological tradition combined with moderate iconological attempts, and a decent but never complete absence note of czech national identification of form and contents of medieval artworks. the concept of ‘marxism without classes’ in czech art history proved valuable once again after the demise of the communist regime. apart from several politically compromised individuals who had to leave the scene, czech art history found itself in a comfortable situation after the turn of . it has continuously upheld the position of an elitist humanistic discipline, which was only briefly engaged in stalinist ideology and practice in the early s but moved beyond them long ago, harmonizing with the appeal of the predominant neo-conservative atmosphere of the new capitalism in the s. if more radically historically oriented approaches to old art have found their way into czech art history in recent decades, inspired, for example, by robert suckale or svetlana alpers, the stress on the elements of volition on the part of donors and the public of artistic production is adversely confronted by the deeply rooted belief in the idea of autonomous artistic development. its primarily formal character is still paired with the concept of an art history ruled by the laws of development, a field of research which can directly access and reveal ideas ─ even the spirit ─ of history. from this vantage point it can be concluded that czech art history is a faithful and devoted part of the legacy of the vienna school of art history. marxism, or marxism-leninism, opposed the local branch of viennese tradition only briefly and essentially did not weaken but rather strengthen this deep seated continuity. at the same time, however, the distrust in art historical theory became stronger than before, as the marxist-leninist episode serves as an exemplary menace. as a result, czech art history largely remains deeply suspicious of any fresh inspirations. milena bartlová teaches at the academy of arts, architecture and design in prague after thirteen years at the department of art history at masaryk university in brno. professor since , she is up till now the sole female art history professor in her country. she writes about medieval art history in central europe, about art theory and she is one of the very few czech art historians to also do research in art ján bakoš, ‘umeleckohistorické stanovisko alberta kutala’, in: bakoš , - ; milena bartlová, ʽalbert kutal zum . geburtstagʼ, kunstchronik, , , - . martin nodl, ‘otázky recepce francouzské historiografie v českém prostředí: totální dějiny, dlouhé trvání a mentality’ in: dějepisectví mezi vedou a politikou. brno , - ; personal communication of válkaʼs student jiří kroupa. i am indebted to marta filipová (birmingham) for her informed corrections and insightful suggestions which helped me greatly in the final revision of the text. milena bartlová czech art history and marxism history´s history. her book our own, national art (naše, národní umění, brno ) analyzed the construction of national identity through medieval art history and the history of german-czech relationship in the field. this year she published a book on performative theory of medieval image real presence: medieval image between icon and virtual reality (skutečná přítomnost: středověký obraz mezi ikonou a virtuální realitou) which she started to write as a fellow at the institute of advanced study in berlin ( ). bartlova.m@seznam.cz wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - 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- -y editorial preface nadia magnenat‑thalmann © springer-verlag gmbh germany, part of springer nature in this issue, we have fourteen regular papers: the first paper is titled “an automatic d registration method for rock mass point clouds based on plane detection and polygon matching” by liang hu, jun xiao and ying wang from university of the chinese academy of sciences, china. the second paper is “a robust visual tracking method via local feature extraction and saliency detection” by yong wang from university of ottawa, china, xian wei and xiaoliang tang from chinese academy of sciences fujian institute of research on the structure of matter, china, lu ding from shanghai jiao tong university, china and huan- long zhang from zhengzhou university of light industry, china. the third paper is “real-time object tracking based on an adaptive transition model and extended kalman filter to han- dle full occlusion” by mohammad zolfaghari and hossein ghanei-yakhdan from yazd university, iran and mehran yazdi from shiraz university, iran. the fourth paper is “simultaneous segmentation and cor- rection model for color medical and natural images with intensity inhomogeneity” by yunyun yang and boying wu from harbin institute of technology, china and wenjing jia from harbin institute of technology (shenzhen), china. the fifth paper is “multidimensional virtual reality-mvr method: a new method of visualization of multidimensional worlds” by dariusz jamróz from akademia gorniczo-hut- nicza imienia stanislawa staszica w krakowie wydzial elektrotechniki automatyki informatyki i inzynierii biom- edycznej, poland. the sixth paper is “dual-modality spatiotemporal feature learning for spontaneous facial expression recognition in e-learning using hybrid deep neural network” by xiaoliang zhu and zijian chen from center china normal university, china. the seventh paper is “kinetic locally minimal triangu- lation: theoretical evaluation and combinatorial analysis” by tomas vomacka, ivana kolingerova and martin manak from university of west bohemia, czechia. the eighth paper is “three-dimensional salient point detection based on the laplace–beltrami eigenfunctions” by dongmei niu, han guo and xiuyang zhao from uni- versity of jinan, china and caiming zhang from shandong university, china. the ninth paper is “maximum spatial–temporal isometric cluster for dynamic surface correspondence” by xiang pan, zhihao cheng and sanyuan zhang from zhejiang univer- sity, china and fuchang liu from hangzhou normal uni- versity, china. the tenth paper is “transformation of portraits to picas- so’s cubism style” by guanyu lian, southeast university, china and kang zhang from university of texas at dallas, usa. the eleventh paper is “hybrid d mass-spring system for simulation of isotropic materials with any poisson’s ratio” by karolina golec, florence zara and stéphane nicolle from universite claude bernard lyon , france, palierne jean-françois from ecole normale superieure de lyon, france and guillaume damiand from centre national de la recherche scientifique, france. the twelfth paper is “robust dense correspondence using deep convolutional features” by yang liu and zhixun su from dalian university of technology, china, jinshan pan from nanjing university of science and technology, china and kewei tang from liaoning normal university, china. the thirteenth paper is “salient object detection via hybrid upsampling and hybrid loss computing” by zhengyi liu, jiting tang and peng zhao from anhui university, china. the fourteenth paper is “compact and intuitive data- driven brdf models” by tanaboon tongbuasirilai, jonas unger and joel kronander from linkopings universitet, sweden and murat kurt from ege universitesi, turkey. * nadia magnenat-thalmann thalmann@miralab.ch miralab-cui, university of geneva, battelle, building a, , route de drize,  carouge, geneva, switzerland http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -y&domain=pdf n. magnenat-thalmann nadia magnenat-thalmann editor-in-chief the visual computer publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 	preface exhibition: giacometti reimagined exhibition life & times giacometti tate modern, london, may– september . giacometti reimagined i met a stranger on a train and a week later we are at the alberto giacometti exhibition at the tate modern. i fear being smothered by the stench of decay, depression, and despair. a confrontation with atrocity and human isolation. a godless world of self- deception, anxiety and ego. a futile search for meaning when there is nothingness and suicide. dear reader, i share with you the cluttered colours in my mind with honesty and sincerity, exposing my vulnerability and fragility, with rawness and trepidation. i step inside with the vinyl music of joy division’s closer playing in my mind. immediately, the mundane transcends the exceptional to the sublime with giacometti’s flirtations with cubism, primitivism, surrealism, violence, and sexuality: a plaster heart dangling by a thread; a scorpion with a half-cut throat; a peach and a melon making love. and i sense an affinity with his playwright friend samuel beckett and waiting for godot. i stroll into the piercing gaze and judgement of a group of elongated sculptures, women of venice. i see their tears, hear their screams, and suffer their scrutiny of my nakedness. the memories of a teenage romp through the ugliness of nietzsche’s thus spoke zarathustra cascade through my mind, causing crisis, confusion, and contradiction. i tiptoe towards giacometti’s iconic sculptures of emaciated men: the artist’s response to the horrors of the second world war; an assimilation of history and symbolism of opportunity. he embraces the philosophy of existentialism, of individual freedom and conscious choice, articulated by his friend jean-paul sartre in his essay being and nothingness. he works frenetically, relentlessly, tenderly, and meticulously, reapplying, removing, smoothing, and ripping pieces of clay to create the essence of resilience and survival: trees without leaves. it is the distance between the figures, the aggressiveness of the void and the lingering hate in the silence that is so haunting. in this existential community there is no conversation, no celebration of trust, no encouraging and enabling relationship, no collaboration and fighting for shared values, no appreciation of spirituality, no solace in enduring love, no hope, no joy. my companion whispers in my ear and we smile. i catch a glimpse of her beauty. i feel the compassion of a gentle caress. for a moment, memories and possibilities collide and she is the most important reason for my existence, for my being. are we still strangers? can we become friends? will we be lovers? a transition from the cataracts of my mind and the steel scaffolding of my identity to the passion of my heart and the clarity of my soul. so, dear reader, go with a stranger, a friend, or a lover, to explore and discover the exceptional potential of every brief encounter and find meaning in your endeavour. sunil bhanot, rcgp council member, wessex faculty chair, and gp partner at holmwood health centre, hampshire. e-mail: gpnews@aol.com doi: https://doi.org/ . /bjgp x british journal of general practice, june woman of venice iv, . plaster, × . × . cm. collection foundation alberto et annette giacometti, paris. © alberto giacometti estate, acs/ dacs, . diego seated, . oil paint on canvas, . × cm. sainsbury centre for the visual arts, norwich. © alberto giacometti estate, acs/dacs, . - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /koscas. . . 애니메이션 시공간의 변형적 흐름에 관한 연구 - 조르주 슈비츠게벨의 작품을 중심으로- Ⅰ. 서론 Ⅱ. 애니메이션 시공간의 표현양상 Ⅲ. 조르주 슈비츠게벨의 작품분석 Ⅳ. 결론 참고문헌 abstract 김홍균* 초 록 애니메이션은 다른 매체와는 구별되는 독특한 미학적 특성들을 지니고 있다. 우선적으로 애니메이션은 분절 촬영으로 손에 의해 만들어진 창조적 이미지이다. 또한 ‘변형’을 통해 생성된 애니메이션 이미지는 특유의 '운동성'으로 새로운 시공 간을 얻는다. 본 논문에서는 애니메이션의 시공간의 표현성을 크게 두 가지로 나누 어 다룬다. 첫째는 변형 이미지와 둘째는 운동성에서 이루어지는 이미지이다. 이를 구체화하기 위해서 본 논문은 조르주 슈비츠게벨의 작품을 분석하였다. 슈비츠게 벨의 작품들은 애니메이션의 이러한 구조적 특성을 잘 반영하였다. 특히, 슈비츠게 벨의 <fugue>, <la course à l'abîme>은 다양한 변형과 운동성이 그의 표현방법 과 함께 잘 결합했다는 점에서 애니메이션 시공간 분석의 좋은 사례가 되는 작품 들이다. 이들 작품의 이미지들은 위의 주된 표현장치들을 통해 끊임없는 변형적 흐 름을 지속한다. 본 연구는 이 작품들 속에서 변형과 운동성이 어떤 기능을 하면서 의미를 만드 는가를 분석하는데 초점을 맞춘다. 이들 작품들은 변형과 다양한 움직임으로 이루 어져, 관객에게 다양한 영화적 형식을 지각하도록 만든다. 여기서 우리는 공간과 시간, 정지와 운동, 차원과 차원, 해체와 재구성, 추상과 구상 등 무수한 이중적 구조를 체험하게 되는데, 그 주된 장치는 변형과 애니메이션의 운동성을 강화한데 서 기인한다고 할 수 있다. 주제어: 변형, 운동성, 시공간, 의식의 흐름, 초현실주의 - - Ⅰ. 서론 인간은 고대부터 표현한 대상에 생명을 부여하기 위하여 다양 한 시도를 해왔다. 애니메이션은 이런 점에서 신처럼 세상을 창 조하고 싶은 인간의 욕망을 반증하는 매체라고 할 수 있다. 그런 데 움직임을 창조하는 애니메이션에는 신과는 다르게 미메시스에 서 벗어나 독특한 방식으로 세상을 창조하는 환상적이며 마법적 인 시공간표현이 존재한다. 애니메이션에서 묘사된 이러한 시공 간은 고착된 사물의 고정관념을 파괴하고 관람자로 하여금 색다 른 경험을 체험하게 하는 특성을 지니고 있다. 꿈과 무의식, 상 상을 통해 구현된 이 세계는 인간의 의식적 흐름을 이용하여 재 현됨으로써 관객에게 환상을 제공한다. 본 연구는 애니메이션 시 공간표현에 있어 사실적 표현이 아닌 환상적이며 마법적인 것에 논의의 초점을 둘 것이다. 이러한 매혹적 요소로서의 애니메이션 특성, 특히 변형을 통해 내면세계 흐름의 표현을 중점적으로 연 구할 것이며, 그 예로 슈비츠게벨(georges schwizgebel)의 작품 을 분석, 의식흐름의 묘사가 어떻게 구현되는지에 논의의 초점을 둘 것이다. 애니메이션 시공간의 독특한 특성을 연구하기 위해 먼저 세 기 말에 등장한 의식의 흐름(stream of consciousness)기법과 베 르그송(henry bergson), 프로이트(sigmund freud)의 사상, 그리 고 초현실주의(surrealism)의 표현장치의 연구를 선행할 것이다. 이외에도 다른 사상적 배경이 있으나 이들 이론들에 논의의 초점 을 맞춘 이유는 이 이론들이 당대 뿐 아니라 현재에 이르기까지 애니메이션 시공간적 표현에 있어 중요한 위치를 차지하기 때문 이다. 더욱이 인간의 의식을 개개의 정신이나 관념들의 집적이 아니라 하나의 흐름이라고 보는 의식의 흐름기법과 시공간을 초 월한 초현실주의의 표현기법은 상당히 유사한 방식을 지니고 있 다. 따라서 장에서는 의식의 흐름과 초현실주의 표현장치 그리 고 여기에 영향을 준 철학적 배경에 대하여 연구할 것이다. 그리고 장에서는 위의 특성, 즉 환상적이며 마법적 시공간 형 - - 성에 적합한 슈비츠게벨의 작품을 분석할 것이다. 슈비츠게벨의 작품들은 일상적으로 경험하는 사물들을 묘사하였지만 추상적 감 정을 불러일으키는 다양한 양식들을 이용, 일상의 일반적 시각을 초월한 독창적인 예술 형식을 창조하였다. 그의 작품들이 일반적 인 다른 극영화 또는 애니메이션과 구별되는 점은 시공간을 연상 적인 흐름의 구성과 변형되어지는 공간, 그리고 독특한 운동성으 로 다루고 있다는 것이다. 그래서 슈비츠게벨 작품의 특성을 요 약하면 시공간 표현의 독보적 형식미이다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 <fugue ( )>와 <la course à l'abîme ( )>등의 작품들을 시공간의 변형과 운동성 등으로 분석하고자 한다. 먼저 <fugue> 에서 시공간의 변형, 특히 변형을 통한 의식의 흐름을 연구하고 <la course à l'abîme>의 작품에서는 운동성을 통해 비시간성을 통한 현재의 묘사를 연구할 것이다. 그리고 슈비츠게벨 작품을 이루는 요소로 형상의 표현방법과 소재로 채택한 건물 및 그림자 그리고 추상적 구조, 작품에 등장하는 작가의 손 등 슈비츠게벨 의 표현장치에 대해 분석할 것이다. 슈비츠게벨의 작품을 분석함 으로써 우리는 애니메이션만이 지니고 있는 독특한 시공간 표현 의 방법적 측면을 알 수 있을 것이다. Ⅱ. 애니메이션 시공간의 표현양상 . 애니메이션 시공간의 표현성 년 그리니치에서 개국 대표들이 하루의 정확한 길이를 결정, 전 지구를 한 시간의 간격, 시간 대역으로 구획하여 정 확한 개시를 확정하기 이전부터 시간의 규정은 프랑스 등 다양한 나라에서 시도되었다. ) 또한 공간은 고대부터 개발되어온 다양한 지도가 입증하듯이 정치, 군사적으로 매우 중요한 요소였다. 시 간과 공간의 척도를 규정하고 제어하는 것은 근대이전부터 권력 * 이 논문은 년도 한서대학교 교비 학술연구 지원사업에 의하여 연구되었음. ) stephen kern, 박성관 역,『시간과 공간의 문화사』, 휴머니스트, , p. - - - 이었다. 이러한 물리적, 양적으로 계측된 시공간 개념은 사진과 영화, 산업혁명 등 사회구조를 변혁시킨 다양한 사건들과 문예사 조, 세기 말 베르그송 등의 철학에 의해 반론이 제기되면서 영 향력이 줄어들고 그에 반하는 새로운 흐름이 등장하게 되었다. ) 또한 세기 초 영사기의 등장으로 시간과 공간의 표현성은 크게 확장 되었다. 당대의 예술가들, 특히 초현실주의자들을 중심으로 하는 아방가르드(avant-garde) 예술가들은 그들의 회화작업 뿐만 아니라 사진, 영화 등의 매체에도 관심을 가지고 시간과 공간의 문제를 다루기 시작했다. 그들은 전통적이며 사실적인 세계의 묘 사에서 벗어나 주관적 시간과 공간의 문제를 다루기 시작했고 곧 다양한 형태의 결과물들을 도출하였다. 움직임을 창조하는 애니메이션에는 크게 두 가지 경향으로 구 분될 수 있을 것이다. 첫 번째는 대상을 있는 그대로 묘사하는 미메시스적 표현, 즉 사실적 표현으로 구현된 것으로 오랫동안 재현의 역사를 지배해온 방식이다. 두 번째는 미메시스에서 벗어 나 작가 자체의 독특한 방식으로 세상을 창조하는 일종의 환상적 이며 마법적인 시공간이다. 전자의 미메시스적 표현이 객관성을 바탕으로 물리적이고 사실적 형태를 유지하는 반면, 후자는 탈현 실적 공간을 다루며 주관적인 성격을 지니며, 창조적인 유기적 공간이다. 마법과 환상에 기반 하여 제작된 애니메이션 시공간은 미메시스적 현실재현과 다른 방식으로 인간의 상상력을 가시화하 며 관객에게 일상에서 경험하지 못하는 또 다른 현실을 체험하게 한다. ) 실사영화의 멜리에스(georges melies)와 초기 애니메이션 작가인 블랙턴(james stuart blackton) 등이 마법사였다는 점은 위의 사실을 반증하는 재미있는 사례이다. 멜리에스 등은 영화와 마술의 두 전통을 병합, 영화를 마술로 끌어들였다. ) 이들 작품 ) 특히 계몽주의에서 벗어나 기계문명의 발전으로 근대에서 현대로의 진입과 더 불어 경험하게 되는 시공간 압축(time-space compression)의 경험은 도전적이 고 흥미롭다. david harvey, 구동회, 박영민 역,『포스트모더니티의 조건』, 한울, , p. ) 서수정, “한국장편애니메이션의 공간정치학”, 중앙대박사학위논문, p. - - 의 시공간은 현실재현이 아닌 꿈의 세계를 시각화시킨 것이다. 이들은 언어로 대체될 수 없는 인간의 심리, 즉 내적공간을 표현 하기 시작했고, 근본적으로 비재현의 재현이라는 성격을 띠게 되 며 감각적이며 비논리적으로 경계너머의 비가시적 세계를 묘사하 였다. ) 애니메이션의 이러한 성격은 특히 실험적인 애니메이션에 의해 발전되어 왔다. 에겔링(viking eggeling)과 피싱거(oscar fischinger) 등의 추상적 형상, 조단(larry jordan), 스미스 (harry smith), 브리어(robert breer) 등 언더그라운드 필름에 서의 실험적 영상, nfbc(national film board of canada)소속 맥 라렌(norman mclaren) 등의 작가주의적 애니메이션 등이 이 범주 에 속한다. 이들은 관객에게 미메시스의 시공간이 아닌 작품자체 의 독특한 시공간을 시각화시키려 했다. 이들의 작품들은 내용보 다는 형식미를 강조하고, 미메시스적 재현과 전통적 내러티브 구 조가 아닌 비 지시대상과 추상적, 초월적 요소로서의 구조에 주 목을 하며 이를 위해 비연속성과 음악성을 강화하였다. 그렇기 때문에 이들의 이미지는 대상의 재현이 아닌 해체 및 재구성을 통한 시각적 구성에 좀 더 초점을 두고 있다. 이러한 애니메이션 의 환상적이면서 마법적인 시공간 형성에 주요하게 영향을 끼친 것은 앞서 언급한 세기 말에 형성된 사상과 관계가 깊다. . 시공간 표현의 이론적 제공 ‘의식의 흐름’ )은 시간을 개별적 단위들의 총합이 아닌 일종 ) 초현실주의자들을 비롯해 당대의 아방가르드예술가들은 초기영화에 있어서 뤼 미에르형제의 다큐멘터리적인 재현성보다 멜리에스의 마법적인 장치들에 더욱 열광하였다. laura mulvey, 『 초에 번의 죽음』, 현실문화, , p. ) 서수정, 앞의 논문, p. ) ‘의식의 흐름’은 심리학에서 처음 사용된 용어로‘생각의 흐름(stream of thought)’으로 불리었다. 최초로 정신을 ‘생각의 흐름' 이라고 부른 사람은 윌리엄 제임스(william james) 였다. 제임스는 따로따로 분리되어 있는‘실제 적 부분들’과 흘러가며‘이행하는 부분들’을 엄밀히 구별한 뒤, 후자는 배 제되어왔다고 말했다. 그래서 후자의 흘러가는 이행하는 부분들을 표현하기 위해 단어 그대로 개인의 의식에 떠오르는 감각, 상념, 기억, 연상 등을 계속 적으로 흐르게 하여 표현해야한다고 주장했다. 즉 의식의 흐름기법은 개인의 의식에 떠올라 그의 이성적 사고의 흐름에 병행하여, 의식의 일부를 이루는 - - 의 흐름으로 간주하는 이론으로서, 년 이후에 생긴 모더니즘 문학 표현장치 중 하나이다. 이전의 작가들은 대부분 한 인물의 생각들을 분석하려 했으며, 인물의 의식 속을 직접 탐사하는 것 처럼 기술했다. 그러나 발화단계 이전의 내적 의식을 표현한 작 가는 없었다. 이를 극복하고자 의식의 흐름 소설은 잠재적 의식 의 흐름을‘내적 독백’형태의 서술적 기법으로 사용했다. 등장 인물 의식의 흐름 전체를 포착, 풍부하고 빠르며 미묘한 사고의 활동을 충분히 표현하기 위해 작가는 단속적이고 일관성 없는 생 각들과 비문법적인 구문, 언표 이전 단계에 속하는 사고와 심상, 그리고 언어의 자유연상 등을 도입했다. 이는 의식 전체를 재구 성하여 표현하기 위한 기법이었으며, 아래 뒤자르뎅(edouard dujardin)의 글에서도 볼 수 있듯이 끊임없이 변화하며 흘러가는 의식의 유동성을 처리하는 데에 특히 효과적이다. “시계는 시를 쳤다. 내가 기다려온 시간, 나는 지금 이 집을 들어가서 만나야 할 사람이 있다 ; 그 집 ; 그 거실 ; 안으로 들 어가자. 밤이 왔다 ; 좋구나, 신선한 공기! ; 대기에는 뭔가 활 기찬 것이 있다. 계단 ; 우선 첫 번째 계단부터.....” 이 대목 에서 화자가 이야기하는 시간은 단 몇 초밖에 안되지만, 사적인 시간의 지속은 꽤 길게 늘어나며 그 지속 안에서 불규칙하게 요 동친다. 잠깐 동안 주의에 집중하다가 생각과 지각이 마구 뒤섞 이는 모습, 그리고 공간과 시간 속에서의 비약, 이런 것들을 통 해 직접적인 내면독백은 정신의 내적 작용을 표현해냈다. ) ‘의식의 흐름’에 영향을 준 사상적 배경으로는 베르그송과 프로이트를 들 수 있다. 베르그송에 의하면 정신의 모든 심상들 은 자유로이 흘러가는 주변의 물속에 잠겨들면서 물이 든다고 표 현하였다. 이는 정신적 사건들이 저마다 그 이전과 이후 혹은 그 것의 근거리나 원거리와 연결되어 있으며, 정신생활은 전체적으 로 천천히 흐른다고 할 수 있지만, 각각의 부분들은 상이한 속도 시각적, 청각적, 연상적, 잠재의식적인 수많은 인상의 흐름을 표현하기 위한 기법이다. stephen kern, 앞의 책, p. ) stephen kern, 앞의 책, p. - - - 로 움직이면서 급류의 소용돌이처럼 서로 부딪치며 흘러가게 된 다. 그래서 베르그송은 인간의 의식을 개개의 정신이나 관념들의 집적이 아니라 하나의 흐름(flux)이라고 보며, 기존의 시공간 개 념에 의문을 제시하고 시간을 형이상학의 중심에 놓았다. ) 또한‘의식의 흐름’은 프로이트의 정신분석학과 상당한 관계 를 지니고 있다. 프로이트는 꿈과 환상의 세계에서 나타나는 시 간의 왜곡에 대해 말한다. 프로이트는 정신의 무의식적인 과정이 ‘무시간적’이라고 주장하는데, 왜냐하면 시간의 경과가 꿈이나 환상의 과정에 어떤 변화도 일으키기 못하여 시간에 대한 관념이 거기에 적용될 수 없기 때문이다. ) 프로이트에 의하면 꿈에서는 모순과 대립이라는 논리적 범주가 작동하지 않고, 현실적으로 불 가능한 것들이 동시에 공존할 수 있고 자유로이 결합할 수 있다. 시간은 순서대로 흐르지 않고, 다양한 시간대가 다양하게 혼합되 기도 한다. ) 이러한 이유로 꿈과 환상은‘무시간적’으로 설명 된다. 베르그송의 시간개념과 프로이트의 심리분석은 당대의 예술사 조, 입체주의(cubism), 미래주의(futurism) 및 다다이즘(dadaism), 초현실주의 등 세기 초반 아방가르드 예술운동에 커다란 영향 을 끼쳤다. 특히 초현실주의의 핵심적 표현장치였던 자동기술법 (automatism), 콜라주(collage), 데페이즈망(dépaysement) 등에 상당히 영향을 끼쳤다. 이들 기법들은 시공간의 확장을 통하여 그들이 그토록 이루고 싶어 했던‘경이로움’(the marvelous)을 ) 베르그송은 그의 논문인〈시간과 자유의지：의식의 직접 자료에 대한 소론 essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience( )>에서‘지속 (durée)' 또는 실제 시간개념을 확립, 시계로 측정할 수 있는 공간화한 시간 개념을 거부하려 했다. 베르그송에 의하면 정식적인 생명이 전개되는 것은 공 간 속에서가 아니라 바로 시간 속이라고 주장했다. 그는“시간의 본질은 흘러 간다는 데 있다”라고 말한다. 즉“내가‘나의 현재’라 부르는 것은 한 발은 과거에, 다른 한발은 미래에 걸쳐놓은 것이다”라고 하였다. 이런 생각은 당 시 철학·문학·예술 영역에 큰 영향을 주었다. michael rush, 뉴 미디어 아트, 시공사, , p. , stephen kern, 앞의 책, p - , ) stephen kern, 앞의 책, p. ) 박성수,『애니메이션 미학』, 향연, , p. - - - 탐구하기 위해 고안된 장치들이다. 브르통(andré breton)은 초현 실주의 콜라주에 대해“시간 속에 들어있는 틈새”라고 표현, 전 생과 현생, 그리고 내생이 모두 하나의 삶 속으로 녹아든 환영적 이미지라고 하였다. 이는 시간을 포함한 대상을 양적, 물리적으 로 파악하는 기존관념에서 탈피하여 이미 존재했던 요소 간에 새 로운 질서를 부여하는 것을 말하고 시간과 공간을 압축, 교환, 축약하는 것을 의미한다. 이들 초현실주의 표현장치의 목적은 원 전성에 대한 희화를 통해 이성적 현실을 뒤틀고, 있는 그대로의 세계를 탈감각화 시키는 데 있다. 따라서 이들 기법은 우연, 무 상성, 이질적인 측면들의 통일성과 만남을 통하여 경이로움을 창 조한다. ) 마지막으로 초기 영화의 시간표현 또한 주목할 만하 다. 세기 초반 멜리에스가 쇼트의 충돌로 환상적인 영상을 만 들어낸 이 후 영화작가들은 편집에 의해 시간을 훨씬 더 다양하 게 압축, 팽창, 혹은 역류시킬 수 있다는 사실을 발견했다. 그래 서 시퀀스 간에 시간을 제어할 수 있게 되었으며, 시간적 질서를 마음대로 변경할 수 있게 되었다. 이렇듯 초기영화는 영화 고유 의 매체적 특성을 인식, 시간을 확장시켰다. ) Ⅲ. 조르주 슈비츠게벨의 작품분석 조르주 슈비츠게벨 )은 애니메이션만이 표현할 수 있는 독특한 시공간의 형성에 관심을 갖고 끊임없이 실험하는 작가이다. 그의 ) hal foster 저, 전영백 역,『욕망, 죽음, 그리고 아름다움』, 아트북스, , p. , 조윤경,『초현실주의와 몸의 상상력』, 문학과 지성사, , p. - ) stephen kern, 앞의 책, p. ) 슈비츠게벨은 년 스위스 베른출신의 애니메이션 작가이다. 그는‘gds 스 튜디오’를 설립, 단편 애니메이션 작가로서 다수의 작품을 제작했다. 대표작 으로는 patchwork ( ), the flight of icarus/ le vol d' icare ( ), perspectives ( ), off-side/hors-jeu ( ), tours ( ), la sujet du tableau ( ), fugue ( ), les jeune fille et les nuages ( ), l'homme sans ombre ( ), retouches ( ), romance ( ) 등 이 있고 년에는 부천국제애니메이션페스티벌(biaf)에 <erlking>을 출품하 였다. - - 작품들은 일상적으로 경험하는 구체적 형상과 공간들을 사용하고 있지만 끊임없는 변형과 움직임으로 대상을 해체, 재구성하여 일 상의 일반적 시각을 초월한 독창적인 시공간을 창조하였다. 감각 적이며 비논리적인 공간의 구성은 곧 인간의 내적, 심리적 공간 을 대변하며, 미메시스적 공간이 아닌 표현적 속성의 탈현실적 공간으로 꿈의 세계를 시각화시킨다. 비록 화면 내에서 지시대상 들은 분명하게 드러나지만 대상들은 탈용도화되어 초현실주의처 럼 데페이즈망된다. 이를 통해 슈비츠게벨 작품들의 공통된 주제 는 바로 일상적으로 경험하지 못한 새로운 시공간의 제시이다. 그래서 그의 작품은 새로운 영역으로의 여행처럼 느껴진다. 슈비 츠게벨의 작품은 일련의 스토리의 구조를 지니고 있다. 그러나 관객은 곧 지속적인 변형으로 선형적구조의 체험이 아닌 끊임없 는 시공간의 변형적인 흐름을 체험하게 된다. 예를 들어 그의 대 표작 중 하나인 < tours ( )>에서 보면 영화 속의 모든 형상 들은 제목처럼 계속 회전되어 형상들의 인과관계와 물리적 시공 간을 붕괴시켜 색다른 공간을 만들어낸다. 그림 . < tours> <la sujet du tableau> <l'homme sans ombre> 슈비츠게벨의 많은 작품들이 있지만 본 논문에서는 <fugue>, <la course à l'abîme> 등의 작품들을 집중적으로 분석할 것이 다. 이외에도 < tours>, <la sujet du tableau ( )> 등의 작 품과 비교적 최근의 작품 <l'homme sans ombre ( )>, <jeu ( )>, <retouches ( )>, <romance ( )> 등의 작품들도 주목할 만하다. 이들 작품의 특성을 요약하면 시공간의 변형, 리 듬과 반복의 운동성 등이고 거기에 표현되어진 장치들은 표현대 상의 조형적 스트로크, 추상적 구조물, 그림자 등이다. 본 논문 - - 에서는 슈비츠게벨의 특성으로 시공간의 변형, 운동성 등으로 분 석하고, 기타 표현장치에 대해 연구할 것이다. . 시공간의 변형 앞서 언급했듯이 슈비츠게벨의 많은 작품들은 시공간의 변형으 로 일상적으로 경험하지 못한 새로운 공간을 제시하고 있다. 특 히 <fugue> 등의 작품에서 보면 공간이 끊임없이 재구성 되어있 다. 아래 그림에서 보면 화면 안에 의자에 등지고 있는 한 사람, 주인공이 야자수가 보이는 거실에 있다. 그러나 곧 카메라가 트 럭 아웃(truck out)되면서 이 장면은 평면화 되어 소파에 앉아있 는 여자의 손에 사진처럼 들려져 있다. 그리고 또 다시 카메라가 트럭 아웃되면 그 여성은 거울에 비쳐진 대상으로 변하여 또 다 시 평면화 된다. 카메라는 계속적으로 움직이며 이번에는 여자가 다시 액자의 공간으로 변한다. 그리고 여자의 공간에서 건물과 구름, 그네, 물가에 비쳐진 모습 등으로 자유스럽게 유영하게 된 다. 그림 . <fugue> 형상들의 물리적 관계들은 메타모포시스와 끊임없는 카메라의 운동에 의해 무한정 해체되며, 대상 간의 경계가 무너짐과 동시 - - 에 대상은 또 다른 공간으로‘녹아들고’, ‘ 미끄러져’간다. 이러한 시공간 변형의 핵심적인 장치는 바로 메타모포시스 (metamorphosis)이다. 메타모포시스는 캐릭터나 배경 등의 이미 지를 조작하여 형태의 구조와 본질을 변화시키는 것을 말한다. 그리하여 대상이 지닌 고유의 지각을 제거, 초현실주의자들이 그 토록 원한 경이로움과 더불어 환상을 제공하게 된다. 다시 말해 메타모포시스는 사물의 정체성과 물리적 법칙의 붕괴를 통해, 하 나의 존재, 즉 자아가 여러 자아로 변형되게 한다. 이로 인해 주 체와 대상사이의 한계가 제거된다. 그래서 모든 것의 성격이 혼 합되고, 구분이 흐려지며, 모호해져 이중적인 것이 된다. 이렇듯 변형을 통한 환상성은 또 다른 존재로 미끄러져 들어가, 사물의 기존 시각을 전복시키고 보는 것의 사실주의적 방식을 무너뜨린 다. ) 이는 바로 애니메이션이 지니는 고유한 특성이며, 그 원인 은 맥라렌의 애니메이션에 대한 유명한 정의 )에서 알 수 있다. 즉 각각의 움직임을 표현한 프레임은 지속적으로 소멸되는 동시 에 움직임을 이루는 부분으로 변이하여 존재하게 되는데, 이들 프레임의 경계가 맥라렌이 주장하는 간극의 차이에서 나오는 결 과물인 것이다. 애니메이션 프레임은 창조적 배치를 통해 만들어 지는 특성을 지니고 있다. 또한 애니메이션 프레임은 차원의 공 간에서 차원적 시공간의 환영으로 대체되며, 대체된 시공간의 환영은 현실의 물리적 요소들을 넘어서는 동시에 자유자재로 시 공간을 제어할 수 있게 된다. ) 이러한 변형은 앞서 언급한 의식 의 흐름에 영향을 준 프로이트와 베르그송의 주장과 일맥상통한 다. 프로이트는 재현되는 것과 재현하는 것이 서로 마주침으로써 또는 서로 닿아서 작동하는 일정한 접촉이 변형을 초래하며, 둘 사이에 존재하는 것은 형식적 공통성이 아니라 무정형적인 접촉 ) rosie jackson 저, 서강여성문학연구회 역,『환상성』, 문학동네, , p. - ) 맥라렌에 의하면 애니메이션은 프레임들 사이의 비가시적인 틈을 교묘하게 조작하는 예술이라고 하여 애니메이션의 참된 본질은 프레임과 프레임 사이에 발생하는 움직임을 창조하는 활동으로 보았다. 박성수, 앞의 책, p. ) 김홍균,「애니메이션 프레임의 구조적 장치에 관한 연구」,『한국애니메이션 학회논문』, . p. - - 으로 인해 일정한 융합이나 왜곡, 누락이 발생한다고 했다. ) 프 로이트는 꿈의 작업에 이러한 주장을 하였지만, 애니메이션 이미 지 역시 이런 시각에서 접근할 수 있다. 이러한 프로이트의 시각 은 베르그송의 의식과도 공통점이 있다. 베르그송은 자아의 이전 상태들이 서로 속에‘스며들어 있고’, ‘융합하고’, ‘용해되 어’있다고 했다. 또 내적 자아의 의식 상태들은 ‘상호침투, 상 호연결’되며, 의식의 움직임은 나중에 혼합, 교착(interlacing), ‘삼투과정’이라는 과정을 겪는다. ) 프로이트나 베르그송의 주 장에서 볼 수 있듯이 자아는 융합되어 또 다른 자아를 만들어 낸 다. 주체와 대상사이의 한계는 제거되고, 사물들은 대체의 작용 에 의해 서로에게 미끄러져 들어간다. 대상은 보고 있는 대상 안 으로 녹아 들어가고 바로 그 대상이 된다. ) 그래서 슈비츠게벨 의 이미지들은 끊임없는 변형적인 흐름을 지속하게 되는 것이다. 위의 그림에서 볼 수 있듯이 <fugue> 의 주인공은 수많은 대상으 로 분화하여 녹아들어가고 또 그 대상들도 끊임없이 메타모포시 스되어 화면에서 유영한다. 이러한 표현들은 초현실주의의 데페이즈망 )을 연상하게 한다. 데페이즈망은 구체적인 형상을 이용, 꿈같은 이미지를 만들어 내 기 위한 기법이다. 다시 말해 사물들은 표현공간에서 사물 본래 의 일상적인 질서나 배경, 분위기에서 이탈되고, 자기장소를 떠 나 존재하는 사물들이 새로이‘배치’되는 것이다. 시공간을 초 월하여‘재구성’된 이 사물들은 우리에게 경이와 심리적 충격을 ) 박성수, 앞의 책, p. ) stephen kern, 앞의 책, p. ) rosie jackson, 앞의 책, p. ) 데페이즈망은 프랑스어로 낯설음, 낯선 느낌, 환경의 변화 등으로 해석되며, 타향으로 보내기, 유배 등의 뜻도 지니고 있으며, 동사 데페이제(dépayser)는 낯선 느낌을 주다, 어찌할 바를 모르게 하다, 나라나 환경, 습관 등을 바꾸게 하다 등으로 해석된다. 따라서 데페이즈망은 전치(轉置), 전위법(轉位法) 등 으로 해석되며, 물체를 본래 있던 곳에서 ‘떼어내는 것’을 의미한다. 따라 서 사물들의 용도, 기능, 의미를 현실적 공간에서 이탈, 환경을 변화시켜 그 것이 놓여 질 수 없는, 또는 사물의 속성과는 전혀 관련성이 없는 낯선 장소 에 조합시킴으로 초현실적인 환상을 창조해 내는 기법이다. 김홍균,「애니메이션에 있어서 데페이즈망에 관한 연구」,『한국만화애니메이 션학회논문』, , p. - - 안겨주며, 관객들에게 열린 형식을 제공한다. ) 이런 점에서 슈 비츠게벨의 변형은 초현실주의와 일맥상통한다고 할 수 있다. 그림 . <fugue> 또한 변형할 때 주의 깊게 보아야할 점은 캐릭터와 배경의 구 분이 없다는 것이다. 메타모포시스는 애니메이션의 특성이기 때 문에 다른 작품에서도 많이 보여 진다. 보통 일반적인 애니메이 션은 캐릭터와 배경의 구분이 확실하다. 그렇기 때문에 일반적으 로 캐릭터에서 캐릭터로 변형을 한다. 배경은 캐릭터의 상황과 움직임을 위한 무대를 제공해주는 것이 일반적인데 반해 슈비츠 게벨의 작품에서는 캐릭터와 배경의 구분이 모호하다. 위의 그림 은 <fugue>의 후반부에 해당하는 이미지들로서, 위에서 언급한 캐릭터와 배경이 변형된 이미지들이다. 우선 그네 타는 장면이 있다. 그네 타는 장면은 곧 그네의 운동처럼 좌우로 움직이며 구 름 장면으로 바뀐다. 곧 구름은 물고기가 되고 물고기들은 처음 등장한 작가로 변한다. 배경과 캐릭터가 뒤섞여있고 심지어는 캐 릭터가 배경공간으로 변하고 그 공간은 또 다른 대상으로 변형된 다. 그의 공간은 일상적 공간과 시간을 넘나들어 표현되어진다. ) 김홍균, 앞의 논문 p. - - - 그림 . <fugue> 위의 그림은 <fugue>의 후반부에 해당하는 이미지들로서, 사물 의 경계가 더욱 불확실해지고 전에 나온 장면들이 중첩되어 이중 적인 모습을 띄게 된다. 두 개의 형태가 중첩 되면 대상은 투명 성(transparency)을 획득하게 되는데 이때의 투명은 분명한 느낌 을 주지 않고 오히려 모호하고 다의적 공간(equivocal space)으 로 바뀌어 신비감을 자아내게 한다. ) 공간은 곧 해체되고 남녀 가 물가로 가서 쳐다보는 것이 계속적으로 반복된다. 그리고 추 상적 공간과 건물, 나무의 풍경과 여인, 작가의 모습, 구름과 건 물, 풍경들이 중첩되며 콜라주되고 대상들이 데페이즈망되어 계 속적으로 움직인다. 종래에는 작가의 모습으로 변해 작가는 글을 쓰기 시작하는 것으로 작품은 끝이 난다. 흥미로운 것은 작품 도입부와 마지막에 나오는 주인공이다. 이 작품의 마지막에 나오는 주인공은 바로 작가 자신을 대변하며, ) david a. lauer 저, 이대일 역, 『조형의 원리』, 예경, p. - - 전반적인 내용은 창조자의 상념이다. 따라서 작품의 내용은 앞서 언급했던 의식의 흐름을 집요하게 추적하여 표현한 것으로 귀결 된다. . 리듬과 반복의 운동성 슈비츠게벨 작품의 또 하나의 커다란 특징은 ‘운동성’에 있 다. 그가 표현한 대상의 움직임은 반복적이면서도 리드미컬하게 구성 되어있어 마치 춤을 추는 듯, 관객에게 시각적 쾌감을 제공 한다. 리듬과 반복운동은 대상의 일반적 재현이 아닌 극적순간의 강화로 변하게 하는 기능을 갖는다. 일반적으로 사실적 재현은 표현대상의 반영으로서 물리적 움직임과 일반적 시간개념을 갖는 데 비해 리듬과 반복은 일반적 상황이 아닌 극적 순간으로 환원 시켜 주는 구조를 지니고 있다. 특히 반복은 동적인 느낌을 주게 되고, 단순성이 갖기 쉬운 지루함을 극복하게 하며 철학적이고 신비주의적인 사고를 제공한다. 또한 반복으로 표현된 대상은 시간의 양적, 물리적 개념에서 초월하여‘비시간성’(timelessness) 으로 환원, 비현실성을 획득하게 된다. 이로 인해 순환하는 공간 과 시간을 만들며 일반적 시공간 개념을 부정한 표현적 시공간을 만든다. 또한 정지가‘그때’의 반향을 불러오는 한편 움직임은 지속하는‘지금’의 현존을 강조하려는 경향이 있다고 말한 멀비 (laura mulvey)의 말처럼, ) 슈비츠게벨이 만든 움직임은 과거- 현재-미래의 선형적 구조가 아닌 끊임없는‘지금’을 보여준다. 그래서 슈비츠게벨은 이러한 움직임의 운동을 통해 일반적 시간 개념이 아닌‘지금’의 비시간성을 보여준다. 그리고‘지금’의 운동성을 강화시키는 요소 중 하나로 카메라의 움직임을 직접 애 니메이션으로 만드는 것에 주목해야 한다. 대부분의 애니메이션 작품이 카메라 이동에 있어 캐릭터와 배경 및 각 요소를 분리, 광학적으로 해결하는 데에 반해 슈비츠게벨은 거의 대부분, 특히 풍경을 묘사할 때의 카메라 이동을 캐릭터와 배경의 구분이 없이 ) laura mulvey, 앞의 책, p. - - 직접 작화하여 해결하였다. 그리하여 기계적이고 평면적인 카메 라의 움직임에서 탈피, 대상의 변형을 첨가하여 더욱 스펙타클한 광경을 제공하게 된다. 그의 작품의 공통된 특징 중 하나인 끊임 없는 카메라의 움직임은 곧 공간의 이동을 위한 주요한 장치이 다. 공간의 이동은 곧 관객에게 여행하듯 이미지를 경험하는 것 을 가속화시키는 동시에 끊임없는 현재를 제공한다. 앞서 언급한 반복과 리듬미컬한 움직임, 그리고 카메라의 이 동 등의 경향은 년에 제작된 <la course à l'abîme/ the ride to the abyss>에서 주목할 만하다. 이 작품이 다른 작품들 과 구별되는 점은 제목에서 암시하듯이 바로 표현대상의 변형과 끊임없는 카메라와 피사체의 움직임, 공간의 이동 등으로 관객에 게 독특한 시공간으로 여행하는 무수한 시각적 경험을 제공하고 있다는 점이다. 그림 . <la course à l'abîme> 위의 그림에서 알 수 있듯이 작품전체의 주된 내용은 말 타는 사 람들의 여정이다. 다양한 사람들(말 타는 사람의 변형, 노래하는 사 람, 오케스트라 등)과 아치형 건물 등의 풍경, 새 등이 등장하며 사운드로는 오페라의 웅장하고 리드미컬한 음향을 사용하고 있 다. 내용적으로 말을 타는 움직임의 변주를 통해 내러티브의 요 소를 갖추고 있는 것처럼 보인다. 그러나 이 작품은 일반적인 극 - - 영화 또는 애니메이션과는 다른 구조를 보여주고 있다. 우선 이 작품은 슈비츠게벨의 다른 작품들처럼 표현대상들의 끊임없는 움 직임과 변형으로 대상과 배경공간이 다른 대상으로 녹아들고 미 끄러져 간다. 그러나 이것으로 끝나지 않는다. 이 작품에 등장하 는 말 타는 사람들의 여행, 머리 빗는 여자, 배타는 사람들, 천 사의 합창 등 화면의 모든 움직임의 종극에는 트럭 아웃되면서 지금까지 등장했던 모든 캐릭터들의 행동이 한 화면 내에 동시에 진행된다. 논리적 시공간의 관계를 찾아내려 했던 관객은 메타모 포시스로 연결되는 장면들 사이에서 유영하다가 최후의 이미지에 이르러 지금까지의 모든 장면들이 한 화면에 파노라마처럼 펼쳐 질 때 압도적인 전율을 체험하게 된다. 프레이밍된 화면을 살펴 보면 이 여정은 점차적으로 화면의 내부로 움직인다. 그리고 모 든 움직임은 끊임없이 반복되어 무수한 장면들이 독립적이면서도 한 화면의 일부분으로 존재하게 된다. 결론적으로 리듬과 반복은 이 작품에 끊임없는 생성과 소멸, 재생의 순환고리를 제공하는 장치가 된다. 그림 . <la course à l'abîme> . 표현장치 변형과 운동성 외에 슈비츠게벨의 작품에는 여러 표현적 장치 들이 있다. 우선적으로 슈비츠게벨이 다루는 형상들은 섬세하게 재현되지 않는다. 형상은 유지하되 여러 요소들을 생략하여 단순 하게 대상을 표현하고 여기에 붓질의 스트로크를 강화한다. 그래 서 마치 야수파의 마티스(henry matisse)나 표현주의의 회화, 포 - - 스트모더니즘의 신표현주의 회화를 연상시킨다. 여기서 그가 표 현하는 대상의 단순화와 스트로크는 대상을 직접적으로 해체하지 는 않지만 움직임과 더불어 대상에 녹아들게 하는 장치가 된다. 또한 물감이 지닌 고유의 질감 또한 화면의 긴장을 불러 일으켜 대상의 해체와 재구성을 반복하는데 기여하게 된다. 그림 . <la sujet du tableau> <fugue> <retouches> 애니메이션은 리얼리티에 있어 지표성에 큰 영향을 받지 않는 다. 그 이유는 애니메이션의 이미지가 현실 대상과의 사진적 인 과성이 아닌 형태적 유사성에 입각해 형성되는 도상학적 (iconography)이미지이기 때문이다. 따라서 관객은 애니메이션의 극중 사건이 비현실적이라고 인식하더라도, 감정적으로는 그것을 받아들인다. ) 이러한 도상적 표현과 붓질의 스트로크는 시공간 의 이동을 위해 변형과 끊임없는 움직임을 용이하게 만드는 기폭 제의 역할을 하게 된다. 그림 . <l'homme sans ombre> 또한 위의 그림에서 볼 수 있듯이 슈비츠게벨의 작품 전반에 ) 이종한, “새로운 예술형식으로써 디지털애니메이션의 환영성에 관한 연구”, 중앙대박 사학위논문, . p. - - 자주 다뤄지는 소재로 건물 등의 구조물과 더불어 대상의 그림자 가 자주 등장한다는 점이다. 건물은 기하학적 구조로 되어있다. 그래서 차원의 변화를 만들기가 용이하다. 예를 들어 차원이었 던 건물은 바로 변형되어 평면화되고, 다른 건물의 구조로 변하 는 등 사물과 차원의 변화를 통해 공간의 불가해한 요소를 강화 한다. 그리고 그림자는 그의 작품에 있어 작품전체의 분위기를 이끌어 가는 주요한 장치로 기여한다. 특히 슈비츠게벨은 건물 중 아치형의 회랑과, 건물과 인물에 드리워진 그림자를 강화하는 것을 즐겨 사용하는데 이는 키리코(giorgio de chirico)의 회화 를 연상시킨다. ) 슈비츠게벨의 작품 속의 회랑과 그림자는 키리 코의 작품처럼 공간에 움직임과 변형을 첨가하여 초현실적 풍경 을 극대화시킨다. 그리고 슈비츠게벨의 또 다른 특징 중 하나는 추상적 리듬의 표현이다.<les jeune fille et les nuages>, <jeu> 등의 작품에 서 건물과 비, 번개 등의 자연현상들은 자연스럽게 패턴화되고 추상화되어 인지 가능하지만 곧 해체되어 기하학적이며 유기적인 추상형태로 재생된다. 아래의 그림 <jeu>는 타이틀을 분해시켜 기하학적 추상의 구조로 변환된다. 그리고 이러한 추상적 구조는 시종일관 변형되어 끊임없는 추상적 리듬으로 화면을 채운다. 그림 . <jeu> 이들 사실적 재현과 추상적 형상과의 만남은 대상을 추상적으 ) 키리코는 년에서 년에 거대한 회랑(colonnade, 回廊)과 그곳에 깃들 인 거대한 그림자를 소재로 작품을 제작했다. 키리고의 대표작 <거리의 우수 와 신비>은 의도적으로 원근법을 해체, 공간적 모순을 기술적으로 조작함으로 써 초현실적인 효과를 얻는다. victor i. stoichita 저, 이윤희 역,『그림자의 짥은 역사』, 현실문화연구, , p. - - 로 환원, 기술함으로써 세계와의 새로운 접근을 시도한다. 즉 표 현대상의 형태는 재현하되 대상의 일반적 지각을 폐기하고 순수 한 형태로 인식하게 하여 대상을 환원, 추상적 감정을 일으키게 한다. 이러한 표현적 장치는 우리가 일상생활에서 흔히 보는 사 물들을 낯설게 하여 관객에게 새로운 시각적 능력을 확장시키게 한다. 그림 . <la sujet du tableau> <la course à l'abîme> <retouches> 마지막으로 슈비츠게벨 작품의 주요한 장치 중 하나는 ‘손’ 의 등장이다. <la course à l'abîme>, <la sujet du tableau>, <retouches> 등과 다른 작품에서도 종종 등장하는 손은 현실과 가상세계와의 매개적 기능의 역할을 하는 동시에, 창조자 즉 작 가자신을 대변, 대상을 자유자재로 변형시키는 일종의 마법사 역 할을 대신 한다. 이는 세기 초반, 블랙턴이나 맥케이(winsor mccay) 등 초창기 애니메이션 작품에서도 종종 보여 지는데 여기 서의 손은 실사와 애니메이션의 접경지대, 즉 현실과 환상의 문 지방 역할을 하고 있다. 이후에 애니메이션 작가들은 손이라는 매개체를 통하여 마법같이 움직이는 그림을 만드는 일을 보여줌 으로써 창조자의 면모를 상징적으로 보여주고 있다. 위의 그림들 을 보면 화면에 직접 손이 등장하여 대상을 제어, 창조하고 소멸 하는 창조자로서의 역할을 보여주고 있다. Ⅳ. 결론 움직임을 창조하는 애니메이션은 미메시스에서 벗어나 독특한 - - 방식으로 세상을 창조하는 일종의 환상적이며 마법적인 시공간적 표현이 존재한다. 이러한 표현방식의 배경에는 인간의 내적심리 를 묘사하는 의식의 흐름기법과 초현실주의의 표현장치들이 있 다. 그리고 베르그송, 프로이트 등의 철학적 개념들은 이들 표현 기법의 이론을 제공한다. 그리고 이런 점에서 슈비츠게벨은 앞서 언급한 애니메이션만이 표현할 수 있는 독특한 시공간의 형성에 관심을 갖는 작가이다. <fugue>, <la course à l'abîme> 등의 작 품들은 일상적으로 경험하는 구체적 형상과 공간들을 사용하고 있지만 끊임없는 변형과 움직임으로 대상을 해체, 재구성하여 일 상의 일반적 시각을 초월한 독창적인 시공간을 창조하였다. 우선 그의 작품들은 시공간의 변형에 초점을 맞추고 있다. 이러한 시 공간의 변형의 핵심적인 장치는 바로 메타모포시스이다. 메타모 포시스를 통하여 우리는 보고 있는 대상 안으로 ‘녹아들고’, ‘미끄러져’ 가게 됨을 알 수 있었다. 또한 슈비츠게벨의 작품 에서는 캐릭터와 배경의 구분이 모호하다. 배경과 캐릭터가 뒤섞 여있고 심지어는 캐릭터가 배경공간으로 변하고 그 공간은 또 다 른 대상으로 변형된다. 그의 공간은 일상적공간과 시간이 넘나들 어 표현되어진다. 슈비츠게벨 작품의 또 하나의 커다란 특징은 ‘운동성’에 있 다. 앞서 언급했듯이 끊임없는 카메라의 움직임과 더불어 표현대 상의 움직임은 반복적이면서도 리드미컬하게 구성되어있어 마치 춤을 추듯, 공간을 유영 하듯 시각적 쾌감을 제공한다. 리듬과 반복은 대상의 일반적 재현이 아닌 극적순간의 강화로 변하게 하 는 기능을 갖는다. 움직임은 지속하는 ‘지금’의 현존을 강조하 여, 물리적 구조로서의 시간표현이 아닌 ‘지금’을 끊임없이 보 여준다. 다시 말해 슈비츠게벨은 일반적 시간의 양적 개념을 초 월하여 질적인 것으로 변환하는 동시에 ‘비시간성’ 으로 환원, 끊임없는‘지금’을 보여준다. 이로 인해 순환하는 공간과 시간 을 만들며 결국 일반적 시간개념을 부정한 영화만이 표현할 수 있는 표현적 시간을 만들어 내었다. 그래서 관객은 지속적인 변 형과 움직임으로 선형적구조의 체험이 아닌 끊임없는 시공간의 - - 변형적인 흐름을 체험하게 된다. 또한 슈비츠게벨의 표현장치, 붓질의 스트로크, 추상적 형태와 그림자, 손의 등장 등도 작품의 분석을 통하여 시공간 표현의 변형을 강화함을 알 수 있었다. 결 론적으로 슈비츠게벨 작품들은 표현대상의 변형과 끊임없는 카메 라와 피사체의 움직임을 통해 일상적으로 경험하지 못한 새로운 시공간을 제시하며, 관객들로 하여금 새로운 영역으로의 여행을 제공한다. 참고문헌 아담스 시트니, 박동현 역,『시각영화』, 평사리, . 데이비드 하비, 구동회, 박영민 역,『포스트모더니티의 조건』, 한울, . 피오나 브레들리, 김금미 역,『초현실주의』, 현대미술운동총서, . 할 포스터, 전영백 역,『욕망, 죽음, 그리고 아름다움』, 아트북스, . 로라 멀비, 이기형, 이찬욱 역,『 초에 번의 죽음』, 현실문화연구, . 마이클 러쉬, 심철웅 역,『뉴미디어 아트』, 시공사, . 매튜 게일, 오진경 역,『다다와 초현실주의』, 한길아트, . 스티븐 컨, 박성관 역,『시간과 공간의 문화사』, 휴머니스트, . 빅터 스토이치타, 이윤희 역,『그림자의 짥은 역사』, 현실문화연구, . 빌렘 플루셔, 윤종석 역,『사진의 철학을 위하여』, 커뮤니케이션북스, . 박성수,『애니메이션 미학』, 향연, . 조윤경,『초현실주의와 몸의 상상력』, 문학과 지성사, . 서수정, “한국장편애니메이션의 공간정치학”, 중앙대박사학위논문, . 이종한, “새로운 예술형식으로써 디지털애니메이션의 환영성에 관한 연 구”, 중앙대박사학위논문, . 김홍균,「애니메이션 프레임의 구조적 장치에 관한 연구」,『한국애니메 이션학회논문』, . 김홍균,「애니메이션에 있어서 데페이즈망에 관한 연구」,『한국만화애 니메이션학회논문』, . donald crafton, before mickey, the animated film - , the university of chicago press chicago and london, . robert russett, cecile starr, experimental animation, van nostrand - - reinhold company, . roland barthes, camera lucida, hill and wang, . - - abstract a study on transformational stream in space and time of the animation - focusing on the georges schwizgebel’s works - kim, hong-kyun unlike the other media, the animation has its unique aesthetic characteristics. first, one of the media characteristics of the animation is creativity images of the hand drawn animation by shooting of frame by frame. next the animation image which is created through metamorphosis obtain new space-time by unique motility. this paper treats of two parts of space and time in animation. one is the metamorphosis image of animation and the other is the motility. to concrete this, this paper analyzed georges schwizgebel’s works. they are very interesting that the structural characteristics of the animation. especially, <fugue>, <la course à l'abîme> directed by georges schwizgebel are a good text for analyzing space-time of animation in that it combines various metamorphosis and motility with his expressions. the images of his works are continuously maintained transformational stream by his main expressions of metamorphosis and motility etc. this study focuses on analyzing the way of metamorphosis and motility function to make meaning in this texts. his works consist with metamorphosis and motility, and various moving images to let audience feel the characteristics of space and time in animation. we can experience numerous dual structures like space and time, freeze-frame and motility, rhythm and repetition, two dimension and three dimension, dissolution and reconstitution, abstract shape and concrete form etc from these cases. one of the main apparat is the emphasis of metamorphosis and motility by independent space of animation. key words : metamorphosis, motility, space-time, stream of consciousness, surrealism - - 김홍균 한서대학교 영상애니메이션학과 교수 ( - ) 충남서산시 해미면 대곡리 tel : - - kanima@hanseo.ac.kr 논문투고일 : . . . 심사종료일 : . . . 게재확정일 : . . . biron - birkbeck institutional research online biernoff, suzannah ( ) flesh poems: henry tonks and the art of surgery. visual culture in britain ( ), pp. - . issn - . downloaded from: http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / usage guidelines: please refer to usage guidelines at https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/policies.html or alternatively contact lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk. http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/policies.html mailto:lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk biron - birkbeck institutional research online enabling open access to birkbeck’s published research output flesh poems: henry tonks and the art of surgery journal article http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/ version: published (refereed) citation: © taylor and francis publisher version ______________________________________________________________ all articles available through birkbeck eprints are protected by intellectual property law, including copyright law. any use made of the contents should comply with the relevant law. ______________________________________________________________ deposit guide contact: lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk birkbeck eprints birkbeck eprints biernoff, s. ( ) flesh poems: henry tonks and the art of surgery– visual culture in britain ( ) http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/irstats.cgi http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/deposit_guide.html mailto:lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk this article was downloaded by: [birkbeck college] on: november , at: : publisher: routledge informa ltd registered in england and wales registered number: registered office: mortimer house, - mortimer street, london w t jh, uk visual culture in britain publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rvcb flesh poems: henry tonks and the art of surgery suzannah biernoff version of record first published: feb . to cite this article: suzannah biernoff ( ): flesh poems: henry tonks and the art of surgery, visual culture in britain, : , - to link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/ . / please scroll down for article for full terms and conditions of use, see: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions esp. part ii. intellectual property and access and license types, § . (c) open access content the use of taylor & francis open articles and taylor & francis open select articles for commercial purposes is strictly prohibited. the publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. the accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. the publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rvcb http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions suzannah biernoff flesh poems: henry tonks and the art of surgery medical archives are remarkable and unsettling because, quite apart from any historiographical questions they raise, they confront us with the limits of spectatorship, curiosity, understanding and empathy. as soon as pic- tures cross the uncertain line dividing science and art – or stray beyond their original diagnostic or didactic context – they begin to ask questions of us. how does one, might one, should one, look at images of the mutilated, diseased, disfigured or dead body? to what extent are our responses to these states of embodiment universal – or culturally learnt and regulated within specific contexts of viewing? when medical archives document the horrors of war they can be even more disturbing because they connect us to events and experiences that can seem, to quote the british painter paul nash, ‘utterly indescribable’. at the very least we find ourselves in the company of images whose meanings exceed the traditional narratives of medical or military history. * at the age of sixteen, without very much deliberation, henry tonks ( – ) decided to embark on a career in medicine: mainly, he later admitted, because it held more appeal than his father’s other vocational suggestion, which was architecture. with this goal in mind he became a student first at the royal sussex county hospital in brighton, and then at the london hospital where, in , he was appointed house surgeon under frederick treves (the same year that treves’ best-known patient, joseph merrick, the ‘elephant man’, moved into lodgings at the hospital, where he spent the last four years of his short life). in , tonks successfully passed his final examinations and became a fellow of the royal college of surgeons; more decisively, as it turned out, he also enrolled in evening classes at the westminster school of art with fred brown, who opened the door to the new english art club and eventually got him a job at the slade school of fine art teaching drawing and anatomy. tonks was when war broke out and an assistant professor at the slade. by january he was working in a british red cross hospital for the french in haute-marne, and was later posted to a clearing station nearby. he wrote to geoffrey blackwell: ‘the wounds are horrible, and i for one will be against wars in the future, you have no right to ask men to endure such suffering. it would not matter if the wounds did well but they are practically all septic’. tonks realized very quickly that his medical skills were inadequate to the task at hand. ‘i have decided that i am not any use as a doctor’, he wrote in another letter, after returning to london. ‘i don’t think the government very clever at using people’s services. munitions, anything in fact, i am ready to take up’. this article contains medical images that are not to be used for professional or commercial purposes without the express permission of the archive. visual culture in britain issn - print/issn - online # taylor & francis http://www.informaworld.com doi: . / d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r http://www.informaworld.com despite these misgivings, in january tonks received a temporary commission as a lieutenant in the royal army medical crops. as well as assisting with operations at the cambridge military hospital at aldershot, he had the unenviable job of assessing whether patients were fit to return to active duty. it was at aldershot that tonks met the pioneering plastic surgeon harold delf gillies ( – ). an ambitious new zealander twenty years tonks’ junior, gillies had convinced the authorities of the urgent need for specialist centres to treat the facial casualties arriving back figure . photograph of henry tonks in his room at the queen’s hospital, sidcup, . reproduced courtesy of the royal college of surgeons of england. flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r from the front; he was appointed head surgeon at aldershot when the centre opened in . it was gillies who sought tonks out, having heard from his friend (the times’ golf correspondent, bernard darwin) that ‘the great henry tonks’ had been posted to aldershot to work in the orderly room. in gillies’ biography there is a description of tonks in his junior officer’s uniform, looking much like ‘the duke of wellington reduced to subaltern’s rank’. a keen amateur artist himself, gillies had taken drawing lessons by correspondence so that he could record his surgical procedures, and he recognized the value – both personal and professional – of working with such a talented draughtsman. he asked tonks to draw the patients before and after surgery, in addition to producing diagrams of the operations (gillies continued to make quick sketches for his surgical assistants) (figures and ). in april, tonks wrote to his friend, the writer and art figure . henry tonks, diagram of three surgical procedures. deeks case file, gillies archives, queen mary’s hospital sidcup. reproduced with permission. suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r critic d.s. maccoll: ‘i am doing a number of pastel heads of wounded soldiers who had had their faces knocked about. a very good surgeon called gillies who is also nearly a champion golf player is undertaking what is known as the plastic surgery necessary. it is a chamber of horrors, but i am quite content to draw them as it is excellent practice’. what can tonks’ collaboration with gillies tell us about the relationship between art and surgery, both in the context of wartime britain and in relation to the broader histories of medical representation and aesthetics? these are not easy questions to answer: our protagonists were practical men, not writers or public intellectuals. we have little choice but to rely on anecdotal and circumstantial evidence, to take an oblique approach to questions of influence and motivation. in this article i draw two broad conclusions: first, that the nature of the injuries witnessed by tonks and gillies contributed to a heightened awareness (certainly on gillies’ part) of the aesthetic dimension of reconstructive surgery; second, that tonks’ surgical training and experience made him highly attuned to the physi- cality, the fleshliness of art. one of the earliest accounts in the press of the work being done at aldershot – an article in the daily mail from september – set the scene in terms that were to become standard rhetorical fare: ‘nowhere do the sheer horror and savagery of modern warfare appeal so vividly to the mind and senses as in a tour of these wards’. unlike the patriotic and sentimentalized figure of the ‘broken soldier’, the wounded face was taboo. facially disfigured veterans were very rarely included in the public visual record of the war (despite the fact that some , men suffered head or eye injuries compared with , who had one or more limbs amputated). with few exceptions, newspaper and magazine stories did not publish photographs of facial casualties, although amputees were often pictured, their prosthetic limbs objects of fascination and even beauty. when gillies’ centre moved into new accommodation at frognal near sidcup in january , illustrations of the estate’s impressive gardens were favoured, often as a picturesque backdrop for visiting dig- nitaries. the patients were described as ‘the loneliest of all tommies’, facial injury as ‘the worst loss of all’ – a loss mitigated only by the miracles of modern medicine (figures and ). mirrors were not allowed on the facial wards, but they invariably found their way in. gillies recounts nurse catherine black’s story of a corporal ‘who had been very handsome’, judging by the photo he kept in his kit: it was not long before i heard of molly. she wrote to him by nearly every post, letters full of plans for the day when she would be able to come and see him. he kept putting her off. ‘i don’t want her to come until i get some of these beastly bandages off, sister,’ he used to say. ‘it would scare her to death to see me lying here looking like a mummy’. on the day they were taken off his mother visited him. she went very white and i thought for a moment she was going to faint, but not the slightest expression of face or voice betrayed her. mirrors were prohibited in that ward, but to my dismay i found the corporal in possession of one that evening. none of us had known that he had a shaving glass in his locker . . . i think he must have fought out his battle in the night, for early next morning he asked for pen and paper and wrote a letter to molly. ‘you’re well enough to see her now,’ i said. ‘why not let her come down?’ ‘she will never come now,’ he said quietly. flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r figures and . photographs of patient before and after surgery. deeks case file, gillies archives, queen mary’s hospital sidcup. reproduced with permission. suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r according to gillies’ biographer, most general surgeons were embar- rassed by facial wounds. the usual practice was simply to ‘pull the edges of the wound together, insert stitches and hope that nature would do the rest’. gillies was determined to change all that. in france, he observed the renowned plastic surgeon, hippolyte morestin, and charles auguste valadier, a dental specialist; he also studied photographs of the techniques used by german plastic surgeons. ‘appearance,’ he concluded of the german approach, ‘was of secondary importance’. pound adds: ‘to a german the uglier the scar the more honourable the wound’. even the french (who might be thought more ‘sensitive’ to appearances), he continues, had neglected the aesthetic side of plastic surgery. gillies’ biography turns on this pointed observation: modern plastic surgery – the unplanned child of modern medicine and modern war – was, above all, a ‘strange new art’. the recreation of a patient’s looks was as crucial as restoring physical function; in a sense more important. gillies describes the procession of casualties returning from the western front following the somme offensive of july , . two hundred extra beds had been set aside at aldershot for facial casualties. two thousand patients arrived: ‘men without half their faces; men burned and maimed to the condition of animals’. the tabloids reiterated this sense of horror at the dehumanizing effects of severe facial injury and disfigurement: a response that had little to do with functional damage (loss of vision or jaw function for example) and everything to do with appearance. ‘very cruel was the lot of those who came out of the war with their faces shattered beyond human semblance’, reported the morning post in january , under the headline ‘face restoring – wonders of war surgery’. as sander gilman points out, what is at stake here is the possi- bility of ‘passing’ as normal. passing is not the same as becoming invisible; it is ‘becoming differently visible – being seen as a member of a group with which one wants or needs to identify’. the line between aesthetic (correc- tive) and reconstructive surgery can never be absolute, because, as gilman’s book demonstrates, definitions of what is ‘normal’ change over time and because, from a cultural and social perspective, appearance is function. * like the ‘strange new art’ of facial reconstruction, tonks’ drawings blur the line between art and medicine, and, by disturbing the conventional categories of medical illustration and portraiture, they highlight the ambi- guities that lie at the heart of those representational practices. approached as portraits, the drawings imply frankness and trust: one finds a suggestion of psychological depth and intimacy that is absent from the photographs of the same patients filed with the case notes (figures and ). reflecting on the lessons he learnt as a resident medical student, tonks wrote: the medical profession stands alone in giving an observer occasion for a profound study of human beings, whether from the point of view of their structure, or – and this is even more interesting and perhaps important for the physician – the working of their minds. everyone, whatever is to be his calling in after life, would be the wiser for watching at the bedside of the sick, because the sick man returns to what he was without the trappings he has picked up on his way. flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r for all their poignancy, tonks’ drawings, no less than the case photo- graphs, are the product of specific institutions and conventions: medical and military, in the first instance, but also aesthetic and epistemological. the images and accounts of facial injury that have survived bear witness to physical and psychological trauma, but they also violently disrupt the cultural ideal of embodied masculine subjectivity. they are personal, figure . henry tonks, portrait of a wounded soldier before treatment [deeks], pastel. # the royal college of surgeons of england, tonks collection no. . figure . henry tonks, portrait of a wounded soldier after treatment, – [deeks], pastel. # the royal college of surgeons of england, tonks collection no. . suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r empirical and symbolic in equal measure. the complexities become appar- ent if one compares tonks’ pastel studies with other, more usual, forms of medical representation – graphic illustration and photography. the gillies archives at queen mary’s hospital in sidcup contain a wealth of visual material: pen and ink diagrams and x-rays as well as pre-and post-operative photographs, some in stereograph. the curator of the archives, andrew bamji, has identified the subjects of tonks’ portraits from the medical case files, making it possible to compare the pastels with photographs and other archival material (for example, figures – ). the diagrams record gillies’ surgical procedures in the clearest and most economical form possible. in order to do this, tonks has abstracted the wound from its human context, certainly from any suggestion of pain or suffering. there is not a hint of interiority, psychological or physical, apart from the jagged hollow of the wound. the diagrams have more in common with dress patterns than portraits, and indeed their purpose was instruc- tive as well as documentary. they are, to borrow a turn of phrase from the royal academy’s first professor of anatomy, the british obstetrician and surgeon william hunter ( – ), possessed of ‘a kind of necessary inhumanity’. private charles deeks was when he was caught in an explosion in france in july that obliterated much of his right cheek and mouth. his case notes include details of the wound and the three operations to reconstruct his mouth. (deeks was discharged back to active duty in april but survived the war, returning in and to have dentures fitted.) a pre-operative photograph shows the extent of the damage (see figure ). deeks would have been wearing a steel helmet – they were introduced in – but, although this increased his chances of survival, it did nothing to protect his face from shrapnel and flying shell fragments. innovations in weapons technology were also responsible for new kinds of wounds that were larger and more complex than those inflicted by ordin- ary rifles. the difficulty of producing ‘live’ surgical diagrams in these circumstances is summed up by another artist who was posted to sidcup and mentored by tonks, the australian daryl lindsay ( – ). recalling his first operation, lindsay reflected: ‘how was i going to trans- late what looked like a mess of flesh and blood into a diagram that a student could understand?’ medical drawing had always involved processes of selection and trans- lation, as chris amirault explains: ‘to perform its medical work, only those details important to diagnosis [or surgery] should be emphasized, and other extraneous details should not’. the inclusion of incidental details – contextual, corporeal, aesthetic – presented a particular difficulty for nineteenth-century medical photography. this is what makes early medical photographs so fascinating as historical and cultural artefacts: unlike graphic illustrations, they inadvertently reveal too much. in the example we have just looked at, deeks’ upper lip forms a horizon beneath which his gaping lower face – the true subject of the photograph – is echoed in the crumpled neckline of a hospital gown. above, we see the regular features and carefully combed hair of a good-looking young man. photographs always arrest the flow of time, but here the temporal dislocation is flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r particularly disconcerting because the subject himself is riven by it. we see him ‘before’ and ‘after’ the explosion simultaneously, as though private deeks had strayed unwittingly into someone else’s nightmare. although the artistic potential of photography was still being energetic- ally debated in the opening decades of the twentieth century, its empirical value had long been settled. erin o’connor notes that by – just two decades after the invention of photography – photographs were being used to document disease in germany, england, france and america. ‘everyone agreed’, she writes, ‘that the camera was an ideal scientific tool, far better than an artist’s hand at recording the exact look of cells, stars, botanical specimens and human subjects’. but even the most objective- looking photographs rely upon series of technical and aesthetic manipula- tions: time is suspended; three-dimensional objects are compressed into two-dimensional shapes; living colour (in the case of early photography) is converted to shade; and the subject comes into view through cropping and framing. we are struck by the incontestable evidence of ‘things as they are’, but this conviction, writes o’connor, has less to do with the camera’s ‘accuracy’ in the case of medical photography than with its ‘capacity to conflate surface and substance, to present visual clarity as the key to the deep truth of disease’. and yet, photographs of combat injuries – such as that of private deeks – make no attempt to represent the invisible. what we see is all surface, or, perhaps more correctly, the psychological depths alluded to in such photo- graphs are uncharted: there was no formal psychological assessment of these patients, although anecdotal evidence suggests that depression was common. in this respect they are not at all equivalent to nineteenth- century studies of hysteria or photographs of the criminally insane (the images that have received most attention from historians of photography), which presented a legible body, an expressive surface – no matter that the meanings attributed to these bodies were little more than fantasies. even pictures of disease, and diagnostic medicine itself, relied on a visual semiotics linking visible signs to a ‘deep’ pathology that was invisible to the naked eye. o’connor develops this point, noting that advances in microbiology from the mid-nineteenth century contributed to a radical re-conceptualization of disease. the study of cells revealed that disease was not a thing as such, in an ontological sense, but ‘the result of local or systemic deviations from normal physiological functions’. by contrast, wounds and surgical techniques clearly do have tangible, ontological existence. surgery is a supremely material specialism. the curiously entwined histories of nineteenth-century medicine and photography have been the subject of considerable scholarly interest, and it is not my aim here to add to this literature. rather than appealing to an overarching or underpinning history of medical representation – in which the medium itself is the continuous thread – i want to emphasize the social, institutional and aesthetic contexts in which a particular group of images, photographs and drawings, were made and seen. this necessarily involves some differentiation at the level of spectatorship: not all viewers are the same, and the meanings of images are a product of their framing – physical and conceptual – as much as their content and media. as a suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r drawing instructor, tonks was more aware than most of the extent to which we learn to see. many historians of photography – certainly those writing about its legal, military and scientific (or pseudo-scientific) uses – have been less inter- ested in these nuances of spectatorship and context than in the role of photography as an apparatus of documentation, surveillance or control. our understanding of victorian photography in particular is ‘distinctly foucauldian’, o’connor remarks: ‘photography was the agent of an oppressive objectivity, the argument goes; under cover of pure mechanical mimesis, it projected a distinctly political visuality’. power, in this ver- sion of the modern disciplinary society, is anonymous and ubiquitous. like the inmates of bentham’s panoptican, we never know when we are being observed or by whom, and so assume continuous surveillance. lisa cartwright’s screening the body: tracing medicine’s visual culture exempli- fies this approach to the ‘medical gaze’ – not a way of seeing so much as an impersonal, panoptic visuality, the product of new visual technologies (from the microscope to motion pictures) and new bodies of knowledge (in this case, modern physiology). it is, by her own admission, a book that ‘can perhaps be faulted for taking to an extreme the thesis that the cinema was used in science as a strategy of control and domination’. while the political investments and social effects of medicine – and photography – must not be underestimated, these concerns are not directly addressed here. what this essay shares with the broader post-structuralist project is something perhaps more subterranean: a wish to excavate the idea of representational ‘truth’ in its historical setting. the relationship between truth and representation is a perennial topic in art history and visual culture, but in the context of war it acquires a heightened urgency. on march , , some four months before the assassination of archduke franz ferdinand in sarajevo, lord haldane, the lord chancellor, gave the annual creighton lecture at university college, london, on ‘the meaning of truth in history’. to an audience that included the italian, german, austrian, russian, japanese and spanish ambassadors, the provost and vice-chancellor of the university, and a host of mps and judges, he posed this question: what should be the historian’s ‘standard of truth’? ‘the historian’, he answers, ‘surely must resemble the portrait painter rather than the photographer’. like any great artist, the true historian possesses the ability to fathom the spirit of an age, to ‘disentangle the significance of the whole from its details and to reproduce it’. his basic methods should be scientific and impartial, but ultimately, ‘art alone could . . . make the idea of the whole ‘‘shine’’ forth in the particulars in which it was immanent’. this ability to elucidate and breathe life, or the illusion of life, into the past distinguished the historian from the chronicler or bio- grapher who amasses facts rather than interpreting them, a distinction made rather vividly by sir edward grey in his opening remarks of the evening: ‘a mere accumulation of facts and records could as little, without interpretation, give a true impression of the life, the spirit, the work, and the thought of a past age as a drawer full of dried and unmounted skins could give an impression of the life of birds in the air, on the earth, or on the water’. flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r few people today would be persuaded by this portrait of the oracular historian, finding in the dusty detritus of past events an essential, luminous truth. the convictions expressed by sir edward grey and lord haldane are very much of their time, but they do shed light on the equivocal status of photography during the – war, and the comparative privileges enjoyed by the war artists. the empirical status of the photograph as evidence relied on an appearance of unmediated reality, the belief that nature had represented itself without human intervention (aesthetic or ideo- logical). this ‘reality effect’, as roland barthes would much later describe it, lent the documentary photograph – and the photographer – a kind of innocence: a point that sue malvern makes in relation to first world war photography. regarded as ‘craftsmen providing a service’, the official war photographers had less authority, commanded less respect and got paid less than artists such as paul nash, wyndham lewis, c.r.w. nevinson or indeed henry tonks. paintings and photographs of the war were often compared, and the comparison usually centred on the question of truth: the camera’s indiscriminate eye contrasted to the artist’s ability to select and interpret, to invest a scene with emotional veracity. jan gordon’s review of an exhibition of canadian photographs at the grafton galleries in underlines this per- ceived difference between the artist and the camera (the photographer’s presence is, as often, elided). contrasting a photograph of a trench littered with german corpses with nevinson’s la patrie of the same year, gordon concludes: ‘‘‘this is war’’, cries the camera, ‘‘as i see it’’. ‘‘this is war’’, says mr nevinson, ‘‘as i understand it’’. and herein lies the difference’. * henry tonks was uncomfortable with the public interest in his drawings of facial injuries. no less than the photographs in the gillies archives, they raise questions, for the most part unspoken, of propriety, censorship and taste. in correspondence with wellington house, the government’s propa- ganda unit, tonks says that in his opinion the pastels are ‘rather dreadful subjects for the public view’. this is the only reference to the series in the official correspondence, which suggests that publication for mass con- sumption was never a serious consideration. some of the drawings were reproduced in gillies’ plastic surgery of the face ( ) alongside surgical diagrams and photographs, but the drawings themselves had, until recently, rarely left the archives of the royal college of surgeons and university college london. for tonks, there was evidently a distinction between the legitimate gaze of the artist and surgeon and that of the general public. he does not describe the pictures as ‘dreadful’ in any other context, and at least one visitor to aldershot, a former slade student, described one picture, of a boy with ‘a deep hole in his jaw’, as ‘hauntingly beautiful’. from these passing comments, and the silence of government officials, we can begin to map the protected and policed territory of the medically or aesthetically ‘educated’ gaze. tonks’ studies of plastic surgery patients have not received much com- mentary, but a handful of essays have been published in addition to, and largely dependent on, joseph hone’s discussion in his biography of the artist. the most striking discrepancy in this small body of writing suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r concerns the question of tonks’ clinical or artistic objectivity. hone claims that ‘tonks brought a spirit, now of scientific, now of artistic detachment, to his task’, a view endorsed in j.p. bennett’s supplement for the journal of plastic surgery. for bennett, ‘one only has to see for a moment the tonks pastels to be struck by the mastery of technique which records traumatised tissues; scarring, oedema, salivary fistulae’. gillies credits his colleague with the ‘foundation of the graphic method of recording [surgical] cases’. the tonks who emerges from these accounts is, in hone’s assessment, ‘the historian of facial war injuries’: precise, accurate, detached, but also humane. bennett insists that the drawings are more powerful than photo- graphs ‘because the artist has, in a sense, instilled his sympathy and understanding into the record’. julian freeman is equally convinced of the superiority of tonks’ chosen medium over photography: ‘in each pastel, skin tones, mass, shape and colour all appear, all of them beyond the reach of the camera’. again, the drawings are described as ‘both accurate and impressive in their clarity’. aside from the formulaic com- parison with photography (to which we shall return), what interests me is the possibility of seeing the drawings differently: as unclear rather than exact, exploratory rather than definitive. tom lubbock finds in tonks’ pastels an aesthetics of ambiguity that is distinctively, if unintentionally, modern. this is not, however, the modern- ist distortion or abstraction of the figural found in, say, picasso, otto dix or francis bacon. the deformations of cubism and expressionism are, he points out, consistent, but tonks’ faces are affecting precisely because they are violations of formal and symbolic logic. they combine the familiar and the alien. the injuries are unreadable, because we encounter them in the context of a perfectly ordinary face, with tousled or combed hair, details of clothing: the collar of a dressing gown, the knot of a tie; an engagingly direct gaze. in the midst of all this reassuring normality the ambiguously rendered injuries are ‘signal anomalies’. emma chambers makes a simi- lar observation about the viewer’s response alternating between ‘a horri- fied gaze at the areas of wounded flesh, and an attempt to locate the inner identity and personality of the sitter through reading emotions (of pain, resignation or bravery for instance) into the eyes’. this ‘mismatch’ between ‘bodily presence’ and ‘identity’ is both disturbing and compel- ling: it sets in motion a compulsive, self-conscious gaze: exactly the kind of immoderate visual engagement that tonks disapproved of. he clearly felt his own fascination to be superior to that of ‘all the more tedious visitors’ to aldershot for whom the studies, framed and displayed in the artist’s office, were one of the unmissable ‘sights’. is it possible that the wounds, in tonks’ studies, are ambiguous but also perfectly accurate and clear? might my perception of undifferentiated flesh (or chambers’ ‘bodily presence’ or lubbock’s ‘signal anomalies’) be seen quite differently by someone with detailed anatomical knowledge or surgical training? lubbock is aware of this possibility, and quotes tonks’ admission that he had ‘often wondered . . . what the figure looks like to anyone who has not this knowledge [of anatomy]’. at the london hospital, tonks had the job of conducting anatomy demonstrations for students; in his autobiographical ‘note from ‘‘wander-years’’’ he recalls flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r ‘bribing the post mortem porter . . . to fix a corpse on the table for my benefit, which i could then draw at my ease’. his drawing skills were honed in the dissecting room and on the hospital wards: ‘each patient’, tonks writes, ‘had a double interest, that of the disease which brought him there, and his possibilities as a model and how i would express them’. tonks and gillies would have been able to fill in any visual gaps with their own knowledge of the tissues and structure of the face, a form of knowledge that was tactile and instrumental as well as visual. one person’s suggestive ambiguity is another’s clinical detail, and to try to judge which is the more correct interpretation is to miss the point that accuracy and precision are partly in the eye (and fingers and memory) of the beholder. there is no anonymous viewer on whom to pin our theories of spectatorship, and even the ‘medical gaze’ is too blunt an instrument to account for the particular skills and sensibilities of a surgeon, a radiographer, an obstetrician. pastel is an accommodating medium. because it requires no preparation or drying time between layers (like oils) it lends itself to improvisation and, unlike watercolour or pen and ink, a pastel sketch can be reworked. it is, on the other hand, a medium entirely unsuited to archival documentation. sticks of dry pigment mixed with a non-greasy binder, pastels are essen- tially pastes of coloured dust – a form to which they all too easily return if not handled carefully. in his definitive grammaire des arts du dessin ( ), charles blanc described pastel as an ‘exquisite powder’: the lustrous and tender flesh-tints, the down of the skin, the bloom of a fruit, the velvet of fabric, cannot be better rendered than with these crayons of a thousand nuances which can be vigorously juxtaposed or melted with the little finger, and whose impasto seizes the light. their soft, blond aspect, strengthened by some decisive browns, ravishingly expresses not only the brilliant tint of a young girl, the flesh of an infant, the finesse of a hand, the glisten and transparency of skin, but also certain delicacies of colour that oil mixtures might ruin. pastel had long been associated with the feminine in art, a point that anthea callen makes in her study of degas: not only was it popular with women artists, the medium itself was described in feminine terms. it was used primarily for the ‘lowest’ subjects in the academic hierarchy: still life, land- scape, portraiture. tonks was very much part of this tradition (figure ), and would have been familiar with the conventional distinction – invoked by blanc – between line and colour. ‘by implication’, writes callen, ‘pastel colour was soft, feminine, frivolous; oil colour was strong, vigorous, manly’. there is no frivolity in tonks’ aldershot and sidcup studies, but his choice and treatment of the medium emphasizes the youthfulness, fragility and beauty of his sitters, as well as suggesting the fleshliness of their injuries. it also gives the drawings a tenderness that is wholly absent from the photographs (and from daryl lindsay’s watercolour portraits of the same men, which were painted from photographs). while the photo- graphs record the horrific nature of the injuries for posterity, the pastels seem more fleeting, more time-bound. they participate in their subjects’ vulnerability and mortality rather than documenting it. saline infusion (figure ) shows how masterfully tonks could exploit these effects. drawn in at the red cross hospital in arc-en-barrois, the religious overtones are apparent: this is, as chambers suggests, a suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r figure . henry tonks, the toilet, exhibited , pastel, · . cm. tate collection, london. # tate, london . figure . henry tonks, saline infusion: an incident in the british red cross hospital arc- en-barrois, , pastel, . · cm. reproduced by permission of the trustees of the imperial war museum. flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r contemporary pietà or deposition: the cross now a metal bed; the instru- ments of the passion replaced by instruments of salvation, the needle and line of the saline drip highlighted in the same red chalk that outlines the wounded soldier’s naked torso and neck. exhibited the same year, the central figure was described by sir claude phillips as a ‘magnificent young hercules’, a ‘splendid nude torso’, yet – like many depictions of the crucified christ – our hero is offered up to the viewer as a thoroughly enfleshed object of desire. the tension between his herculean appeal and his eroticized vulnerability has everything to do with tonks’ handling of his materials and the contrast between line and colour, chalk and pastel. callen remarks on the ‘direct physicality’ of pastel in degas’s hands, the way he leaves raw marks unblended, creating lines that describe the female form but retain an independence from it. like degas’s pastel drawings, tonks’ portraits are ‘palpably tactile but, of course, physically untouchable: they encode the sensation of touch – both the artist’s touch and the experience of touching skin’. we will come back to this question of tactility, but there is one further point of reference for tonks’ drawings to consider first. as we have seen, the surgical studies do not quite fit existing models of medical representa- tion, graphic or photographic. the same can be said of traditional portrai- ture. joanna woodall observes that naturalistic portraiture has always been motivated by the desire to ‘overcome separation’, to make the absent present, to reconcile image and identity, to defy death. none of this is possible without an experience of recognition. yet in tonks’ draw- ings of wounded soldiers, the subject is doubly alienated from himself. in the first place, the institutionalization of these men (first in the military, then as long-term and usually recurrent residential patients) dislocates them from the social and physical fabric of their ordinary lives, their sense of a past and future meaningfully connected to the present. in addition, the privileged signifier of subjectivity, the face, now signifies trauma. to a surgeon the damaged tissue may be a challenging text to read, but ultim- ately legible; to a pioneer in facial reconstruction the absence of a face may signify its potential surgical and prosthetic reconstruction, but to most of us, including the casualties at aldershot and sidcup, the injuries are an abyss. the men tonks encountered were capable of stoicism, even cheer- fulness: one young man is ‘modest and contented’ despite having had ‘a large part of his mouth . . . blown away’, but these remarks are as disorienting as the remnants of traditional portraiture: the residual frag- ments of individuality conveyed through posture, gaze, clothing and framing, fragments that only foreground the devastating violence of the injury. these are anti-portraits, in the sense that they stage the fragility and mutability of subjectivity rather than ‘consolidating the self portrayed’. tonks himself referred to them as ‘fragments’ in a letter to d. s. maccoll. the achievements they celebrate are not those of the men we see (though to be alive at all was an achievement of sorts). the personality, the hero, of these untitled portraits is the pioneering surgeon, his inventiveness, skill and dedication told through the simple narrative structure of ‘before’ and ‘after’. there is, however, another dimension to the drawings, another way suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r of reading them against the grain both of conventional portraiture and medical illustration. tonks’ notion of verisimilitude, of visual truth, rested less on the certainties of anatomy than on a commitment to drawing as practice. thomas monnington offers some insight into the meaning of ‘practice’ at the slade. drawing was understood as a process of research, ‘a really exhaustive search’, he explained in an interview with andrew brighton. ‘at the slade there has always been a degree of experimenta- tion – an unfinished quality. they painted pictures at the [royal] college and they painted experiments more at the slade’. * approached as iconic likenesses, the drawings unsettle the pictorial con- ventions and ideology of portraiture. the intrusion of the flesh disrupts traditional notions of subjectivity. but seen as drawings, as marks on paper, the studies have an indexical rather than iconic quality: they no longer signify a person (hero, victim) or idea (the horrors of war, medical progress); instead, they present a material transcription of a sustained visual-tactile encounter. there are traces of earlier marks, evidence of re-working and layering. ‘all works of art are a series of corrections’, tonks wrote to his former student rodney burn in . the studies are densely worked but unfinished: some areas have a vigorous, linear clarity, while elsewhere, layering and blending create a skin-like softness and opacity. one is drawn in by all these textural details: saliva glistening on the surface of a lip, the sharp tip of an ear or smooth parting of hair, an indeterminate chunk of pigment. none of this is adequately conveyed in reproductions. the compelling details of surface texture are lost in photo- graphic translation, along with the sense of intimacy created by the scale (roughly half life-size) and material proximity of the drawings and the evident delicacy and duration of the artist’s touch. in the originals, the wounds are not revolting, the taut sheen of scarred skin is not grotesque. there is something at once exquisite and inhuman about the under-face as tonks depicts it. tonks was proud of the studies, confessing to his former student dickie orpen not long before he died that they were the only drawings he was ‘not ashamed of’. they are personal, verging on private, not just because of the physical and psychological exposure involved, but because of the intimate visual-tactile encounter that remains implicit, indeed embedded, in the work. tonks wrote virtually nothing about his philosophy of drawing, did not give formal lectures and generally disliked the art-theoretical discourse propounded by ‘art boys’. apart from a report on the teaching of draw- ing prepared, with sir george clausen, for the girls’ public day school trust, and passing references in tonks’ letters, we have to rely on the writings and reminiscences of his students. a set of maxims formed the backbone of his instruction: that drawing is very difficult; that practice is everything; that learning to draw is learning to see (and the inability to draw is an inability to see); that ‘literary’ concerns (such as narrative or symbolism) have no place in pure drawing; that drawing is at its most truthful and affecting when it is directly observed, unidealized and self- less. the authority of these values flows from the french realist tradition flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r defined by courbet and millet in the s and s, although degas and manet were more immediate influences. from the very beginning, the curriculum at the slade was informed by the french system of art educa- tion, with its elevation of the living model over study from the antique. when the slade school of fine art opened its doors to students in october , it was under the professorship of edward poynter. poynter, who came to the slade from the parisian atelier of charles gleyre, pledged to instil in his students ‘the knowledge of their craft at their fingers’ ends before they began to paint pictures’ – an implicit criticism of the competi- tion. in his view, students trained in the english system were all too often motivated by commercial gain rather than artistic mastery. poynter was succeeded as slade professor by alphonse legros, then frederick brown and, in , henry tonks. the most systematic account of the slade philosophy of drawing is an essay by tonks’ student, john fothergill, who edited an official illustrated volume, the slade, published in . in ‘the principles of teaching drawing at the slade’, fothergill introduces a paradox that animates tonks’ portraits of wounded soldiers a decade later: drawing (or, in this account, great drawing) is fundamentally tactile. touch is for the draughtsman what sound is for the musician: a student who draws ‘by sight’ is no better off than a deaf man who learns to play the piano by mimicking the movements of his instructor. a good drawing, for tonks, was one that conveyed a palpable sensation of the object – an ‘idea of touch’ – whether a waxy apple or the curve of a model’s back. ‘there are drawings’, remarks fothergill, ‘which make us feel that the draughtsman has been learning at every touch’. they have noth- ing to do with precise measurement or proportion, the abstract perfection of a line, an accurate contour or a recognizable silhouette. the beginner is advised to think of the model as a ‘corporeous unity; hold this, and the line and shading will follow without you or your critic’s being conscious of it’. ‘corporeity’ is not quite what it sounds. rather than being an attribute of objects (their ‘materiality’ or ‘fleshliness’), ‘corporeity’ is defined in a footnote as the sum of an individual’s visual-tactile experiences: the ‘result of our having from infancy unconsciously observed the light and shade on, and peculiar to, every form we have touched or traversed’. so, when you describe an artist’s ‘delicate touch’, ‘rough handling’ or ‘nervous feeling’, these phrases are to be taken quite literally because ‘[t]hey tell us the manner in which the artist visually touches or handles form’. the history of surgery, too, is partly a history of touch: technologically extended and transformed by the invention and refinement of surgical instruments. in art and in surgery, touch (or hapticity, the visual approx- imation of touch) can be diagnostic, interrogative, analytical, instrumental or creative. gillies describes how the initial examination of facial wounds could take up to a week and involved manual palpitation to determine the extent and type of tissue lost (skin, soft tissue, bony substructure). the operation was planned with the aid of a sculptural model of the face, showing the missing contours, and radiographs to reveal any displaced bone or other material. the eventual operations demanded ‘the greatest delicacy of touch’. the visual appearance of injuries could be misleading: suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r one patient’s ‘enormous gaping wound’, caused by an explosion, healed well with only minor surgery. gillies’ point is well illustrated by the before and after photographs in plastic surgery of the face. the camera, he cau- tions, ‘occasionally represents an inaccurate conception of the wound’. in fothergill’s essay, the ‘exactitude of the photograph’ is analogous to the drawing done purely by sight. the mechanical representation of nat- ure, whether by means of a camera or with the aid of measuring devices and techniques, reveals nothing. it has ‘merely duplicated the aspect of the model, minus the colour, and the spectator is no better off than he was before he saw the drawing. it has told him nothing. being conceived with no ideas of tangible form, it gives him none’. tonks despised the ‘snap- shot’ approach to drawing, but his hostility towards photography is also consistent with his disparaging view of scientific (specifically industrial and technological) ‘progress’, mechanization and mass production (of which cubism was, in his view, symptomatic). not surprisingly, his sub- jects were, with the notable exception of the wartime studies, untouched by modernity: family scenes, sunlit interiors, the occasional landscape, ladies’ portraits, everything gently and charmingly familiar. there is a preponderance of female subjects in tonks’ work: ‘the paintings’, notes stephen chaplin, ‘are often of young women yearning after contemporary critics knew not what’, and it is tempting to see this affinity with the domestic and the feminine as an aesthetic retreat from the historical pre- sent. for chaplin, tonks’ best-known work is ‘poised between the eight- eenth and nineteenth centuries’. towards the end of his life tonks urged rodney burn (then the director of the school of the museum of fine arts in boston) to read gina lombroso’s the tragedies of progress for an account of the ‘bad th cen- tury’: ‘it is a remarkable explanation of views i have held ever since i read ruskin nearly years ago’. tonks’ opinion chimes with a deep vein of pessimism, in english and continental european thought, about the social and cultural effects of industrialization and mechanization; a deep suspi- cion, too, about visuality in a world seemingly dominated by the mass- produced spectacles (photographic and cinematic) of the popular media and entertainment industry. but tonks was no cynic where art was con- cerned. hone notes that a brand of schopenhauer-inspired mysticism was very much ‘in the air’ and can be detected in tonks’ conviction that art, far from being a ‘mere embellishment of life’, was ‘the one really worthwhile, the redeeming, activity of mankind’. tonks did not always make a pleasant impression on his students, many of whom – including paul nash, charles nevinson and percy wyndham lewis – went on to re-define british modernism as they attempted to represent the great war. it is easy to see the differences between teacher and students as evidence of an unbridgeable generational divide, and to agree with nevinson that art must spring from the same source as war – the same currents of violence and mechanization – if it is truly to give form to the experience of modern combat. but, in the modernity of english art, david peters corbett reminds us that modernity is not ‘dependent on modernism for its realisation in the cultural sphere’. we should, writes corbett, be more attentive to different ‘types of relationship – explicit, flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r withdrawn, evasive, direct – to the experience of modernity’. lisa tickner’s modern life and modern subjects is an example of what can be achieved by ‘expanding the frame’ to encompass ‘a cultural history of representations of modernity, rather than an art history of canonical mod- ernists’. in tonks’ case, as in many others, the artistic response to mod- ernity was deeply (and irreconcilably) contradictory. tonks was by no means alone in his nostalgic attachment to an imaginary world untouched by modernity, but he was also fully engaged with a corporeal present that was inescapably modern because formed (and de-formed) in the crucible of modern, mechanized combat. the comment is often made that tonks’ knowledge of anatomy stood him in good stead as an artist and drawing instructor. reading fothergill’s essay suggests rather different priorities, to do with the embodied knowledge and manual, tactile experience acquired through surgical training and practice in the dissecting room. at the same time, tonks interrogates the idea of beauty (and, by extension, that of ugliness or the grotesque). through dedication and practice one might, he believed, achieve ‘a kind of intimacy’, but ‘only by seeing the thing itself . . . from painting the thing’. to his friend mary hutchinson he admitted that such intimacy was not always pleasant: it might lead ‘us into the most squalid places, almost holding one’s nose’. helen lessore recalls being taught by tonks in the s: ‘in his preaching of ‘‘truth to nature’’ tonks managed to convey a moral quality, a conviction that beauty was somehow incidental, a side product of the pursuit of truth; that it would be a reward unexpectedly discovered in the most unpromising material, provided that we followed certain disciplines and were faithful to our experience’. there is a productive tension in tonks’ first world war pastels between the sensuous appeal of his medium and the revulsion with which we would normally view the seriously injured body. in this they recall degas’s drawings of prostitutes whose striated flesh bore traces of the artist’s lingering eye and hand. far from the virginal ideal of untouched and untouchable femininity, degas’s bathers seemed to be marked by ‘mar- riages, childbirths and illnesses’, and contemporary audiences reacted with disgust as well as fascination. as with tonks’ drawings, the ambi- guity of degas’s figures is easy to miss in reproduction: what the critic gustave geffroy described as a ‘distressing poem of the flesh’ in has become a popular subject for poster art. this is not likely to be the fate of tonks’ studies, but in both cases ‘beauty’ is re-defined as an intense aesthetic encounter rather than as a visible quality of beautiful objects. tonks was aware that every artwork has its own life, that the drawings he was so satisfied with could be ‘dreadful’ in a different context. unapologetically elitist, he produced the aldershot and sidcup studies with two kinds of viewers in mind – medical and artistic – both, in his view, professional. and yet, as i have suggested, the drawings themselves are troubling even within these contexts precisely because they blur the line between them. i have described them as anti-portraits, but they have an equally complicated relationship to medical representation because their intimacy and incidental beauty undermine the ‘necessary inhumanity’ of clinical medicine. ludmilla jordanova makes the comment that ‘everything to do with the body is potentially unsettling’. we might go even further suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r and say that medical representations are especially potent in this regard, because they show us at our most vulnerable, our most ‘raw’ and exposed. unsettling as art, they can be just as troubling as scientific documents. acknowledgements this research has been made possible by a wellcome trust research leave award (no. ), granted in for an ongoing project on the corpor- eal territories of war. i am very grateful to andrew bamji for access to the extensive database of images at the gillies archives, queen mary’s hospital sidcup, and to fred schwartz and mary hunter for providing bibliographic guidance. the gillies archives and the royal college of surgeons of england have been especially generous in their assistance with reproductions. finally, a special acknowledgement is due to lisa tickner for mentioning henry tonks in the first place and commenting so helpfully on drafts. notes nash, describing the western front in a letter to his wife margaret, november – , , reprinted in paul nash, outline: an autobiography and other writings, (london: faber, ), . henry tonks, ‘notes from ‘‘wander-years’’’, artwork , no. ( ): . quoted in joseph hone, the life of henry tonks (london: heinemann, ), – . quoted in hone, henry tonks, . the comment is attributed to an unnamed ‘london hostess’ by reginald pound, gillies, surgeon extraordinary (london: michael joseph, ), . pound, gillies, . quoted in hone, henry tonks, . ‘moulding new faces’, daily mail, september , . quoted in pound, gillies, . variations on this theme can be found in the collection of news clippings from the queen’s hospital sidcup, held at the london metropolitan archives, ho /qm/y / . joanna bourke, dismembering the male: men’s bodies, britain and the great war (london: reaktion, ), . i am making a distinction between the public visual culture of facial disfigurement and official documentation (medical archives, government records) to which public access was limited. mary guyatt provides a detailed account of developments in prosthetic limb technology during and after the first world war in ‘artificial limbs for british veterans of the first world war’, journal of design history , no. ( ): – . seth koven examines the discourse of disability in its wider social, political and sexual contexts during and after the first world war in ‘remembering and dismemberment: crippled children, wounded soldiers, and the great war in great britain’, american historical review (october ): – . bourke’s chapter on ‘mutilating’ focuses on the experience of amputees (dismembering the male, – ) and jeffrey reznick considers artificial limbs as examples of material culture in ‘prostheses and propaganda: materiality and the human body in the great war’, in matters of conflict: material culture, memory and the first world war, ed. nicholas j. saunders (london: routledge, ), – . for an excellent discussion of disability and corporeal reconstruction in germany, see heather r. perry, ‘re-arming the disabled veteran: artificially rebuilding state and society in world war one germany’, in artificial parts, practical lives: modern histories of prosthetics, ed. katherine ott, david serlin and stephen mihm (new york: new york university press, ), – . ‘the loneliest of all tommies’, sunday herald, june ; ‘worst loss of all’, manchester evening chronicle, may–june . news cuttings from the queen’s hospital sidcup, london metropolitan archives, ho /qm/y / . harold gillies and d. ralph millard, the principles and art of plastic surgery, vols (london: butterworth, ), vol. , . the anecdote is repeated with slight variation in pound, gillies, . pound, gillies, . the photographs were reproduced in a german textbook lent to gillies by the american dental surgeon bob roberts. pound, gillies, . gillies, quoted in pound, gillies, . pound, gillies, . gillies, quoted in pound, gillies, . flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r gillies quoted in andrew bamji, ‘facial surgery: the patient’s experience’, in facing armageddon, ed. hugh cecil and peter h. liddle (london: leo cooper, ), . london metropolitan archives, ho /qm/y / . sander l. gilman, making the body beautiful: a cultural history of aesthetic surgery (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ), xxi. while i will touch on portraiture as an important frame of reference for tonks’ first world war studies, this is the focus of emma chambers’ recent article, ‘fragmented identities: reading subjectivity in henry tonks’ surgical portraits’, art history , no. ( ), – . our perspectives on tonks differ in several respects despite a number of shared convictions. chambers locates tonks’ surgical portraits in their art historical context and pursues questions of subjectivity and spectatorship via psychoanalytic theory. this article, in contrast, emphasizes the cultural and professional contexts of tonks’ collaboration with gillies, using medical photography as a point of comparison and unpicking the idea of representational truth. tonks, ‘wander-years’, . hone notes that tonks would spend up to four hours observing an operation and taking notes: ‘the clarifying diagram came later’. henry tonks, . the expression ‘necessary inhumanity’ comes from hunter’s introductory lecture to students, c. , st thomas’s hospital manuscript , royal college of surgeons, verso. quoted in ruth richardson, death, dissection and the destitute (london: routledge, ), . nick bosanquet, ‘health systems in khaki: the british and american medical experience’, in facing armageddon, ed. hugh cecil and peter h. liddle (london: leo cooper, ), . sir daryl lindsay, ‘the sir richard stawell oration’, the medical journal of australia , no. ( ), . chris amirault, ‘posing the subject of early medical photography’, discourse , no. ( – ), . erin o’connor, ‘camera medica: towards a morbid history of photography’, history of photography , no. ( ), . ibid., . ibid., . depression is mentioned in many of the press clippings from queen mary’s hospital. an article in the evening standard states: ‘not every one of the sailors and soldiers who have been severely wounded in the face or jaw at frognal suffer from acute depression: but most of them do so’ (‘music in the wards’, june ). carol armstrong’s review of georges didi-huberman’s invention of hysteria: charcot and the photographic iconography of the salpêtrière provides a critical introduction to this topic. ‘probing pictures: carol armstrong on georges didi-huberman’, artforum international (september ), http://www.thefreelibrary.com o’connor, ‘camera medica’, . in addition to works already cited (amirault, armstrong, didi-huberman, o’connor), the following titles address aspects of nineteenth-century medical photography: peter hamilton and roger hargreaves, the beautiful and the damned: the creation of identity in nineteenth century photography (london: lund humphries/the national portrait gallery, ); martin kemp, ‘a perfect and faithful record: mind and body in medical photography before ’, in beauty of another order, ed. ann thomas (new haven, ct: yale university press, ), – ; roberta mcgrath, seeing her sex: medical archives and the female body (manchester: manchester university press, ); and the special issue of history of photography on photography, science and medicine, , no. ( ). ludmilla jordanova’s work on the visual cultures of medicine provides the best point of departure in this endeavour. she stresses the importance of context in understanding the historical role of images, and her methodological approach is more systematic than most. see, for example: ‘medicine and visual culture’, social history of medicine , no. ( ), – ; ‘happy marriages and dangerous liaisons: artists and anatomy’, in the quick and the dead: artists and anatomy (london: hayward gallery, ), – ; and defining features: scientific and medical portraits – (london: reaktion/national portrait gallery, ), – . o’connor refers to the work of john tagg, sander gilman and stanley joel reiser, among others. ‘camera medica’, . patrizia di bello’s study of victorian women’s albums is a notable exception to this historiographical tendency, in its attention to the tactile, imaginative and social pleasures afforded by collecting and displaying photographs. women’s albums and photography in victorian england: ladies, mothers and flirts (aldershot: ashgate, ). lisa cartwright, screening the body: tracing medicine’s visual culture (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ), xv. ‘truth in history: creighton lecture by lord haldane’, the times, march , : . the quotes that follow are from this article. on photography in the first world war, see jane carmichael, first world war photographers (london: routledge, ) and john taylor, war photography, realism in the british press (london: routledge, ). sue malvern, modern art, britain and the great war: witnessing, testimony and remembrance (new haven, ct: yale university press, ), . suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r http://www.thefreelibrary.com jan gordon, ‘art and the camera’, new witness, december , quoted in malvern, modern art, . henry tonks, imperial war museum file, item , august , . a selection of the portraits appeared in the exhibition henry tonks: art and surgery curated by emma chambers (strang print room ucl, october –march ). since then they have appeared in future face at the science museum (october –february ); the hunterian museum at the royal college of surgeons of england; the war and medicine exhibition at the wellcome collection (november –february ); and faces of battle at the national army museum in london (november –august ). in june the full series was made digitally available on the website of the gillies archives: http://www.gilliesarchives.org.uk/tonks% pastels/index.html. a selection of case files from the gillies archives can also be viewed online as part of a wellcome trust funded sciart collaboration, project façade: www.projectfacade.com (launched in ). lady kennett [kathleen, lady scott], self-portrait of an artist: from the diaries and memoirs of lady kennett (london: john murray, ), . chambers, ‘fragmented identities’; hone, henry tonks; tom lubbock, ‘doing damage’, modern painters , no. ( ): – ; j. bennett, ‘henry tonks and plastic surgery’, supplement to the british journal of plastic surgery ( ): – ; julian freeman, ‘professor tonks: war artist’, the burlington magazine, may : – . hone, henry tonks, . bennett, ‘henry tonks and plastic surgery’. ibid., . harold gillies, plastic surgery of the face (london: henry frowde, hodder & stoughton, ), x. hone, henry tonks, . bennett, ‘henry tonks and plastic surgery’, . freeman, ‘professor tonks: war artist’, . ibid., . lubbock, ‘doing damage’, – . ibid., . emma chambers, henry tonks: art and surgery (london: the college art collections, university college london, ), – . she expands on this comment in ‘fragmented identities’, – . tonks, quoted in hone, henry tonks, . tonks, ‘wander-years’, . ibid., . charles blanc, grammaire des arts du dessin ( ), quoted in anthea callen, the spectacular body: science, method and meaning in the work of degas (new haven, ct: yale university press, ), . callen, spectacular body, . ibid., . chambers mentions that tonks had favoured pastel for life drawing and portraiture since around . chambers, ‘fragmented identities’, . the face-to-face encounter between artist and sitter also distinguishes tonks’ portraits from the photographs and lindsay’s illustrations. chambers notes the ‘consensual interaction of looks’ implicit in the portraits (‘fragmented identities’, ), but it is unlikely that tonks’ sitters were in a position to say no. military rank, class and personality (formidable in tonks’ case) must have shaped these encounters. chambers, henry tonks, – , . extract from an article by sir claude phillips on the new english art club, dated december , . tonks correspondence file, imperial war museum, london, file no. / , item . callen, spectacular body, . joanna woodall, ‘introduction: facing the subject’, in portraiture: facing the subject, ed. joanna woodall (manchester: manchester university press, ), . tonks quoted in hone, henry tonks, . ernst van alphen, ‘the portrait’s dispersal: concepts of representation and subjectivity in contemporary portraiture’, in woodall (ed.), portraiture, . emphasis in original. tonks, quoted in chambers, henry tonks, . sir thomas monnington, interviewed by andrew brighton, in henry tonks and the art of pure drawing, ed. lynda morris (norwich: norwich school of art gallery, ), . monnington in morris, henry tonks, . chambers argues similarly that the sight of the under-face in tonks’ portraits ‘interrupts the conventional relationship between external and internal identity in portraiture by interposing a fleshy interior between face and self’. ‘fragmented identities’, . chambers develops this insight with reference to julia kristeva’s writing on abjection, and didier anzieu’s concept of the ‘skin ego’. flesh poems d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r http://www.gilliesarchives.org.uk/tonks% pastels/index.html.aselection http://www.projectfacade.com correspondence quoted in morris, henry tonks, . tonks, quoted in bennett, ‘henry tonks and plastic surgery’, , and in ‘dickie orpen on henry tonks’, in dickie orpen: surgeons’ artist, exhibition catalogue (london: camberwell college of arts/ royal college of surgeons, – ), . diana [dickie] orpen ( – ) was the daughter of william orpen. both were taught by tonks at the slade, dickie when she was only . during the second world war she followed tonks’ example, producing drawings of reconstructive surgery at the plastic and maxillo-facial unit at hill end st albans. her drawings are in the collection of the british association of plastic, reconstructive and aesthetic surgeons (bapras). ‘art boy’ was tonks’ dismissive term for critics. see s. chaplin, a slade school of fine art archive reader: a compendium of documents, – , in university college london, contextualised with an historical and critical commentary, augmented with material from diaries and interviews (london: ucl, ), part . . see also david cast, ‘representing reality: g.e. moore, tonks, coldstream, victor pasmore and others’, word and image , no. ( ), – . cast, ‘representing reality’, – . ibid., – . emma chambers, ‘the cultivation of mind and hand: teaching art at the slade school of fine art – ’, in governing cultures: art institutions in victorian london, ed. paul barlow and colin trodd (aldershot: ashgate, ), . cast, ‘representing reality’, ; chambers, ‘cultivation of mind and hand’, . fothergill was tonks’ student from to . i have used his essay as my main source for tonks’ ideas about drawing, as tonks himself wrote very little on the subject (the few exceptions, mostly from letters, are glossed in hone and morris), nor did he produce any statements for the school’s calendar or annual reports (chaplin, slade school of fine art archive reader, . , vol. ). given the official nature of fothergill’s publication, chambers thinks it likely that ‘the ideas expressed in this article are very close to those of tonks himself’ (henry tonks, n. ). a similar assessment is made by chaplin, who identifies fothergill’s sources as tonks’ ‘informal instruction in the life room’ and conversations with other students (slade school of fine art archive reader, . ). john fothergill, ‘the principles of teaching drawing at the slade’ in the slade, ed. john fothergill (london: slade school, university college, ), . fothergill, ‘teaching drawing at the slade’, . ibid., n. . ibid., . gillies, plastic surgery of the face, – . ibid., . fothergill, ‘teaching drawing at the slade’, . ‘the word ‘‘snapshot’’ is a hateful word and is only fit for a photographer’, tonks wrote in a letter to the girls’ public day school trust in november (quoted in morris, henry tonks, ). chaplin, slade school of fine art archive reader, . . ibid., . . tonks, quoted in morris, henry tonks, . the book to which tonks refers is g. lombroso, the tragedies of progress, trans. c. taylor (new york: e. dutton, ). hone, henry tonks, . the exhibition catalogue henry tonks and the art of pure drawing, edited by lynda morris, includes the reminiscences of some of tonks’ students, including david bomberg, thomas monnington, helen lessore and william coldstream. tonks also taught lewis, nash, nevinson and stanley spencer, among others, in the s and s: relationships that were often intensely competitive. he makes a brief and unlikeable appearance in nash’s autobiography: outline, – , . for a fictionalized account of the war experiences of this generation of slade students, see pat barker’s life class (london: hamish hamilton, ). c.r.w. nevinson, ‘how the war vindicated modern methods in art’, tate gallery archive, . , item , cited in david peters corbett, the modernity of english art – (manchester: manchester university press, ), . corbett, modernity of english art, . ibid., . lisa tickner, modern life and modern subjects (new haven, ct: yale university press, ), . tonks, quoted in cast, ‘representing reality’, . helen lessore, ‘henry tonks as i remember him’, in morris, henry tonks, . callen, spectacular body, . gustave geffroy, la justice, may , quoted in callen, spectacular body, . jordanova, the quick and the dead, . suzannah biernoff d ow nl oa de d by [ b ir kb ec k c ol le ge ] at : n ov em be r 	cover .pdf 	flesh poems.pdf [pdf] hemispheric asymmetry of liking for representational and abstract paintings | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /s - - - corpus id: hemispheric asymmetry of liking for representational and abstract paintings @article{nadal hemisphericao, title={hemispheric asymmetry of liking for representational and abstract paintings}, author={m. nadal and s. schiavi and z. cattaneo}, journal={psychonomic bulletin & review}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	m. nadal, s. schiavi, z. cattaneo 	published 	psychology, medicine 	psychonomic bulletin & review although the neural correlates of the appreciation of aesthetic qualities have been the target of much research in the past decade, few experiments have explored the hemispheric asymmetries in underlying processes. in this study, we used a divided visual field paradigm to test for hemispheric asymmetries in men and women’s preference for abstract and representational artworks. both male and female participants liked representational paintings more when presented in the right visual field… expand view on springer link.springer.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures and topics from this paper 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	representation (action) 	facilitation 	awards citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency viewing of figurative paintings affects pseudoneglect as measured by line bisection. 	a. ciricugno, c. ferrari, m. rusconi, z. cattaneo 	psychology, medicine 	attention, perception & psychophysics 	 save alert research feed gender differences in the associations between gray matter volume and the centrality of visual product aesthetics 	jianping huang, y. sun, xiaoang wan 	psychology, medicine 	neuroscience 	 save alert research feed representational versus abstract imagery: effects on purchase intentions between vice and virtue foods 	seth ketron, kelly naletelich, stefano migliorati 	psychology 	 save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency hemispheric processes in the perception of art 	j. coney, c. bruce 	psychology 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background and methods save alert research feed hemispheric lateralization and aesthetic judgement 	wiecher h. van houten, c. chemtob, s. hersh 	psychology, medicine 	cortex 	 	 save alert research feed the roles of handedness and stimulus asymmetry in aesthetic preference 	a. mead, j. mclaughlin 	psychology, medicine 	brain and cognition 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed hemispheric specialization and recognition memory for abstract and realistic pictures: a comparison of painters and laymen 	s. vogt, s. magnussen 	psychology, medicine 	brain and cognition 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed the role of the lateral occipital cortex in aesthetic appreciation of representational and abstract paintings: a tms study 	z. cattaneo, c. lega, c. ferrari, tomaso vecchi, m. nadal 	psychology, medicine 	brain and cognition 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references results and background save alert research feed hemispheric memory for surrealistic versus realistic paintings 	d. zaidel, a. kasher 	psychology, medicine 	cortex 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed the right hemisphere in esthetic perception 	b. bromberger, rebecca sternschein, page widick, w. smith, a. chatterjee 	psychology, medicine 	front. hum. neurosci. 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed lateral organization and aesthetic preference: the importance of peripheral visual asymmetries 	j. beaumont 	psychology, medicine 	neuropsychologia 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed the role of prefrontal and parietal cortices in esthetic appreciation of representational and abstract art: a tms study 	z. cattaneo, c. lega, chiara gardelli, l. merabet, c. j. cela-conde, m. nadal 	psychology, medicine 	neuroimage 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed brain correlates of aesthetic expertise: a parametric fmri study 	u. kirk, m. skov, m. christensen, n. nygaard 	psychology, medicine 	brain and cognition 	 	 save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue okumuş & yavan / geçmişte ve günümüzde seramiğin kullanım alanları journal of arts e-issn: - cilt: , sayı: , vol: , issue: , http://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index resĠm sanatinda usta Çirak ĠlĠġkĠsĠ ve sanat eĞĠtĠmĠndekĠ yerĠ the relation of master and apprentice in art of painting and its place in art education dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ġsmail tetĠkÇĠ uludağ Üniversitesi güzel sanatlar eğitimi bölümü resim İş Öğretmenliği bölümü bursa/tÜrkİye, e-mail: ismailtetikci@gmail.com makale bĠlgĠsĠ Özet makale geçmiĢi: geliĢ: mart kabul: mayıs resim sanatı, öğrenme aşamasında bir ustadan öğrenme, ustaya bakma ya da deneyimleme ile farklı yöntemlerle; ancak hep benzer bir sistemle devam etmiştir. rubens, rönesans ustalarından; van dyck, rubens’den; jacques louis david antikete’den; . yüzyıldan sonra sanatçılar, birbirlerinden ya da geçmişten benzer veya zıt yöntemler kullanarak yoğun bir biçimde etkileşim içerisinde olmuşlardır. batı anlayışına dönük türk resim sanatı üzerinde ise realizm, empresyonizm, kübizm gibi akımların ve bu anlayışlardaki hocaların önemli etkileri bulunmaktadır. bu çalışmada, resim sanatı tarihindeki belirgin atölye ve sanatçı örnekleriyle, sanatçıların ustalardan ya da çağdaşlarından nasıl ve hangi şekilde etkilendiği, bu etkinin sanat ve sanat öğrenimlerine yansımaları üzerinde durulmuştur. bu hedef doğrultusunda da türk resim sanatındaki benzer veya ayrı yöntemler ele alınmaya çalışılmıştır. böyle bir değerlendirme ile geçmişten günümüze sanat eğitimi ya da öğrenimi üzerinde durularak günümüz sanat eğitimi ve yöntemlerine ışık tutması hedeflenmektedir.. anahtar kelimeler: resim sanatı, eğitim, usta, Çırak, atölye. doi: . /arts. article info abstract article history: received: march accepted: may within the scope of environmental art of which first samples were put out in painting art continued during learning phase with different methods such as learning from a master, watching the master or experiencing; but it has always with a similar system. rubens, from renaissance masters; van dyck, from rubens; jacques louis from david antique; after the th century, artists interacted extensively with each other or with the past using similar or opposite methods. on the turkish art of painting towards western understanding, there are important influences such as realism, impressionism, cubism, and the masters in these understandings. in this study, by examples of outstanding workshops and artists in the history of painting, it is emphasized that how and in what way the artists are influenced by masters and contemporaries and the reflection of this effect on art and arts education. in the direction of this goal, similar or separate methods of turkish painting were tried to be considered. with such an evaluation, it is aimed to shed light on today's art education and methods by focusing on past art education or learning. keywords: painting art, education, master, apprentice, studio doi: . /arts. http://ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/arts/index mailto:ismailtetikci@gmail.com tetİkcİ / resim sanatında usta Çırak İlişkisi ve türk sanat eğitimindeki yeri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - . gİrİŞ resim sanatı baĢlangıcından bu yana bir ustadan öğrenmeye dayalı olmuĢtur. bulunduğumuz yüzyılda her ne kadar geleneksel atölye eğitimi değiĢikliler göstermiĢ olsa da temelde /ustadan öğrenme/ yöntemi hep devam etmiĢtir. diğer birçok sanat ve zanaat dallarının doğası gereği usta-çırak iliĢkisi her daim var olmuĢtur. Çağlar boyu sanat her dönem bir öncekinden öğrendiklerinin üzerine ekleyerek devam etmiĢ veya öğrendiklerini yenileyerek, onlara karĢı çıkıĢla baĢka bir boyuta taĢınmıĢtır. mısır sanatı, yunan sanatını yunan sanatı, roma sanatını etkilemiĢtir. benzer bir diyalogla uygur minyatürü selçuklu minyatürünü ve oda osmanlı minyatür sanatını etkilemiĢtir. kısaca gelenek köklerini hep kendinden öncekine yaslamıĢtır. . resİm sanatinda usta Çirak İlİŞkİsİ ve bati sanat eĞİtİmİndekİ yerİ ortaçağ'da dinin baskın etkisiyle kendine has, inanılan bir dünya resmi izlenirken rönesans çoğunlukla antikite üzerinden hareket ederek dogmalarını oluĢturmuĢtur. kuĢaktan kuĢağa aktarımın baĢkahramanları ise atölye hocaları olmuĢtur. giotto ve masaccio gibi ustalar, nesiller sonra birçok yeni büyük ustanın yetiĢmesi için önemli temeller atmıĢlardır. bu ustaların en önemlilerinden biri de verrocchio’dur. o, leonardo ve botticelli gibi büyük ustaların hocası olmuĢtur. birçok sanat atölyesinde olduğu gibi verrocchio da kendi atölyesinde öğrencileriyle kolektif bir üretim içerisinde olmuĢtur. ustanın kontrolünde her öğrenci birbirini tamamlayan farklı iĢler yapmaktaydılar. birisi boya hazırlarken diğeri desen çizer ya da bir diğeri teknik iĢleri yapardı. uzun yıllar içerisinde ustalaĢan bir baĢka öğrencisi ise resim ya da heykelin sonuçlanmasında ustayla birlikte çalıĢırdı. bu birlikte üretimin güzel örneklerinden biri, verrocchio ve öğrencisi leonardo’nun yapmıĢ oldukları “baptism of christ” isimli resimdir (resim- ) resim . andrea del verrocchio, leonardo da vinci, mesih’in vaftisi, - , uffizi müzesi, floransa resim . andrea del verrocchio, leonardo da vinci, mesih’in vaftisi (detay) Ġsa’nın vaftiz edilmesini konu alan resimde sağda, aziz john Ġsa’yı vaftiz ederken resmin solunda oturan iki melek bulunmaktadır. bu meleklerden arkada olanını verrocchio öndekini ise leonardo yapmıĢtır. leonardo bu resme yardım ederken henüz genç bir ressamdır. resmettiği melek figürüyle hocasından daha farklı yenilikler yaptığı ve gelecekte de yapacağının ipuçlarını vermektedir. leonardo’nun figürü hocasınınkinden daha hareketli tetİkcİ / resim sanatında usta Çırak İlişkisi ve türk sanat eğitimindeki yeri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - ve belli ölçüde ruhsal bir duyguyla yapılmıĢtır. meleğin saçları, hareketindeki kıvrımlar ve figürün genel olarak oluĢturduğu kontroposto duruĢu ile veroccio'nun resmini daha dinamik bir hale sokmuĢtur. ayrıca melek figürünün ileri ve öne doğru hareketi karĢısında bulunan aziz john figürüyle bir üçgen oluĢturacak biçimde kurgulanmıĢtır. (wasserman, : ) bu resim hem bir usta ile asistanının beraber yaptığı ve bize bu iliĢkinin boyutunu anlatan önemli çalıĢmalardan biri, hem de aynı zamanda öğrendiklerini geliĢtiren, değiĢtiren yenileyen büyük bir ustanın yetiĢmesini izlediğimiz bir resimdir. atölye eğitimini ve usta çırak iliĢkisinin boyutlarını bize en iyi gösteren ustalardan biri de Ģüphesiz rubens’dir. barok ustası sanatçı, yapmıĢ olduğu çok sayıda baĢyapıtları ile bilinir. Çok geniĢ bir yelpazede sanat algısı olan rubens, birçok önemli ressamın yetiĢmesinde yardımcı olmuĢtur. “yetenekli birçok flaman ressam onun yönetiminde çalıĢmak ve böylece ondan bir Ģeyler öğrenmekten gurur duyuyordu. eğer, yeni bir yapıt sipariĢi, bir kiliseden ya da bir kral veya prensten geliyorsa, rubens bazen sadece renkli bir taslak yapıyordu. (nitekim, resim …, daha geniĢ bir kompozisyon için yaptığı böyle bir taslaktır.) taslağı büyük tuvale geçirmek ise öğrencilerinin veya yardımcılarının göreviydi. onlar, ustalarının taslağı doğrultusunda tüm yerleĢtirmeyi ve boyamayı yaptıktan sonra, rubens eline fırçayı alıyor, Ģurada bir yüze dokunuyor, burada ipek bir giysiye fırçasını sürüyor veya çok Ģiddetli kontrastları yumuĢatıyordu.” (gombrich, : - )” sanatçının bazı öğrencileri en az kendisi kadar ünlü olmuĢtur. onların baĢında da van dyck gelmektedir. “rubens’in pek çok usta yardımcının görev aldığı bir atölyenin baĢında olması, çok sayıdaki sipariĢi karĢılayabilmesini sağlamıĢtır. sanatçının baĢyardımcıları arasında bulunan van dyck ’de atölyeye girmiĢ ve bir süre çalıĢmıĢtır. ’de gerçekleĢtirilen mızrak darbesi (resim- ) adlı yapıtta yer alan bazı figürlerin van dyck’ın çalıĢması olduğu sanılmaktadır. kimi kompozisyonlarında yalnızca bazı bölümleri yardımcıları yaparken, bazı resimlerinin tümünü yardımcıları gerçekleĢtirmiĢ, ancak hepsini rubens denetlemiĢtir.”(eczacıbaĢı sanat ansiklopedisi, : ) resim :peter paul rubens, the coup de lance, x cm, t.Üy.b, royal güzel sanatlar müzesi , antwerp, belçika https://www.artble.com/artists/peter_paul_rubens tetİkcİ / resim sanatında usta Çırak İlişkisi ve türk sanat eğitimindeki yeri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - rubens’i birçok ustadan ayıran önemli özelliklerinden biri de, kolektif iĢ üretme durumunda kimin hangi resme ne oranda ya da nasıl katkı sağladığını gizlememesidir. eğer resmine baĢka biri bir Ģeyler eklemiĢ ise o bu yapılanları gizlememiĢtir. atölyede usta çırak iliĢkisinin dıĢında en önemli meselelerden biride akımların ve dönemlerin genel özelliklerinin dıĢında, bir sanatçının oluĢturduğu yeni dünyanın, kendinden sonra gelen birçok önemli ressam tarafından takip edilmesidir. bu öğrenme biçimi ressamın ressamdan değil eserlerinden öğrenmesidir. sanat tarihinde “caravagio’culuk” olarak da bilinen caravaggio’nun resim anlayıĢını, onun açık-koyuya dayalı biçimsel yapısını devam ettiren sayısız büyük sanatçı bulunmaktadır. iĢığı alıĢılmıĢın dıĢında kullanıĢı çağdaĢlarında ve izleyen yüzyıllarda baĢka sanatçılarda da hayranlık uyandırmıĢtır. georges de la tour gibi fransız sanatçılar, özelliklede . yüzyılda roma’da bulunan hollandalı ressamlar caravaggio’nun üslubunu öylesine benimsemiĢlerdir ki, çağdaĢları tarafından bile artık “caravaggio’cular” ya da “caravaggio ekolü” olarak adlandırılıyorlardı. Çoğu ekolün onu meydana getiren ressam ya da ressamlardan çok daha sonra orataya çıktığı düĢünülürse, bu gerçekten de ĢaĢırtıcı bir geliĢmeydi. caravaggio hayattayken, hollandalı carel van mander günümüzde roma’da yaĢayan Ġtalyan sanatçıları isimli bir kitap yayımladı. eserde küçük bir bölümde genç ressam caravaggio’ya ayrılmıĢtı. caravaggio’nun üslubunun geniĢ sanatçılar arasında oldukça fazla taklitçisi bulunduğu not edilmiĢti. (krausse, : ) resim : caravaggio, azizi thomas’ın mucizesi, tÜyb, x . cm, , yeni saray , postdam resim : georges de la tour, yeni doğan Çocuk, tÜyb, x cm, rennes, musée des beaux arts büyük ustaların birçoğu caravaggio’dan farklı değildir aslında az ya da çok sanat tarihine benzer etkileri bulunmaktadır. ’lü yıllarda cezanne'nin geometriye dayalı anlayıĢı sonrasında picasso’nun oluĢturduğu kübist dünya ve onu takip eden post-kübistler. benzer biçimde kandinsky’nin soyut dünyası ve onun etkiledikleri gibi bütün sanat tarihi bu ve buna benzer örneklerle doludur. ancak usta ve öğrencisinin kolektif iĢ üretmesi durumu farklı bir sanat eseri algısı ortaya çıkarmaktadır. . resİm sanatinda usta Çirak İlİŞkİsİ ve tÜrk sanat eĞİtİmİndekİ yerİ geleneksel türk sanatlarında da kolektif eser üretme oldukça fazla bulunmaktadır. bunun sebeplerinden biri usta ve öğrenci arasındaki yakın diyalog halidir. uzun yıllar süren geleneksel türk sanatları eğitiminin kendine has bir geleneği bulunmaktadır. bu sanatlar arasında hat, tezhip, minyatür, ebru, çini gibi çok özel alanlar bulunmaktadır. ustadan icazet alıncaya dek imza kullanamayan öğrenci birçok eserde hocasıyla beraber çalıĢmaktadır. bu iliĢki öğrencinin icazet alıp usta olmasından sonra da belli ölçüde devam etmektedir. tetİkcİ / resim sanatında usta Çırak İlişkisi ve türk sanat eğitimindeki yeri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - geleneksel sanatlar arasındaki karĢılıklı birbirini tamamlama gerekliliği, eserin altına birden fazla ismin yazılmasına da sebep olmaktadır. Çünkü hattat yazıyı yazdıktan sonra bir baĢka sanatçı olan ebrucu ya da tezhip ustası hattın etrafını bezer. hatta bazen hem hat hem ebru hem de tezhip bir arada kullanılır. dolayısıyla eserin altında üç ustanın da ismi yazılmalıdır. Özellikle klasik osmanlı döneminde bu tür sanat eylemleri kurumsallaĢmıĢ teĢkilatlar tarafından organize edilmekteydi. bunların baĢında nakkaĢhane ve ehli hiref teĢkilatı gelmekteydi. “nakkaĢhanelerde hazırlanan yazma eserler, tek bir sanatkârın değil, pek çok kiĢinin emeği ile bezenirdi. bugün müze ve kütüphanelerimizi dolduran yazma eserlerin kısa sürede tezhip edilmesi bu Ģekilde sağlanmıĢtır. nakkaĢhanede çalıĢan ve “ehli hiref” (saray sanatkârları topluluğu) olarak adlandırılan teĢkilâtın zamanımıza gelen en eski defteri (hicri)- / (miladi) tarihlidir. bu teĢkilâtın en önemli bölüklerinden biri olan nakkaĢlar, yalnız kitap sanatıyla ilgili faaliyetlerle sınırlı kalmaz; saray köĢklerinin ve sâir binaların kalemiĢi, çini ve maden iĢleri desenlerini de hazırlar ve tatbik ederlerdi. saray akkaĢlarına ait bu desenlerin, osmanlı eyâletlerinde bulunan ilgililere iletilip oralarda da doğru olarak uygulanması sağlanır, hattâ mahallinde iĢleyecek usta bulunmadığı takdirde desenle beraber sanatkâr da gönderilirdi. osmanlı sanatında görülen ve asırlar boyu süren üslûp birliği ve beraberliği böylelikle korunmuĢtur. her nakkaĢhanede en kıdemli ve mahir olan usta, sernakkaĢ olarak seçilir ve buradan sorumlu olur. nakkaĢhanelere “uygulama okulu” da denebilir. ehli hiref teĢkilâtı mensupları yevmiye üzerinden üç ayda bir maaĢ alırlardı. bütün çalıĢanların aldıkları maaĢ ve terfiler, maaĢ defterine yazılırdı. eser yapımının yoğun olduğu esnada yapılacak iĢe ehli hiref içindeki yetenekli kimseler kâfi gelmezse, çarĢı esnafı arasından ücreti karĢılığında ustalar, sarayda çalıĢtırılırdı. saray nakkaĢhanesi’nde çalıĢmaya baĢlayan her sanatkâr, ehli hiref’e bağlı olsun veya olmasın, buranın hizmetinde ve idarenin istediği doğrultuda eser vermek zorundaydı. ancak saray, kabul edilebilecek yeniliklere de müsamahayla bakar ve sanatkârı hür bırakırdı.” (derman, . . : osmanlı tezhibine genel bir bakıĢ http://www.obarsiv.com/e_voyvoda_ .html ) osmanlı döneminde batı sanatıyla tanıĢıklık önce saraya gelen batılı sanatçılarla sınırlıydı. batılılaĢma hareketleri ve avrupa ile sanattaki karĢılıklı diyalogların geliĢmesiyle, resim eğitimi almak için yurtdıĢına öğrenciler gönderilmiĢtir. osmanlı devleti’nin avrupa Ülkeleriyle yaptıkları karĢılıklı öğrenci değiĢimi anlaĢmaları sonucunda sanat eğitimi almak için birçok kiĢi baĢta fransa olmak üzere farklı ülkelere gönderilmiĢtir. bu öğrencilerin en önemlilerinin baĢında osman hamdi, ġeker ahmet paĢa, süleyman seyyit gibi isimler gelmektedir. bu isimlerden biri olan ġeker ahmet paĢa: ağır baĢlı, uysal, saygılı kiĢiliğiyle bilinen ahmet ali efendi (ġeker ahmet paĢa), paris’te g.boulanger ve l. gerome gibi akademik ve resmi ressamların yanında sekiz yıla yakın bir süre çalıĢtı. (renda; - ) uzun bir süre iki önemli ustadan eğitim almıĢ olan ġeker ahmet paĢa bu akademik öğretiye ülkesine döndükten sonra doğunun tinsel ruhunu eklemiĢ, belki biraz naif etkide resimler yapmıĢtır. onun hocalarından edindiği akademik becerisini kendi portresinden görmek mümkündür (resim- ). kendine has doğa izlemi ise daha sonradan john berger’in de üzerine bir makale yazmıĢ olduğu “orman” (resim- ) isimli resimden rahatlıkla okunabilir. tetİkcİ / resim sanatında usta Çırak İlişkisi ve türk sanat eğitimindeki yeri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - resim- ġeker ahmet paĢa; orman, tÜyb, x cm, Ġstanbul resim heykel müzesi resim- ġeker ahmet paĢa; kendi portresi, tÜyb, ’ler, x cm, Ġstanbul resim heykel müzesi ġeker ahmet paĢa gibi boulanger ve gerome’nin öğrencisi olmuĢ diğer bir isimde osman hamdi bey’dir. asker kökenli olmayan osman hamdi ressamlığının yanı sıra oldukça önemli bir kültür adamıydı. yaptığı arkeolojik kazılarda elde ettiği bulgularla, arkeloji müzesi’nin yapılmasına önayak olmasıyla, sanayi-i nefise mekteb-i alisi’ni kurmakla ve daha birçok çalıĢmalarıyla osman hamdi kültür ve sanat ortamına büyük katkılarda bulunmuĢtur. (tetikci, ; ) osman hamdi bey’in resimlerinde özellikle hocası gerome’un öğretisini daha çok izlemek mümkündür. gerome’nin yetenekli öğrencisi olan sanatçı, içerden bir bakıĢla oryantalist etkide ancak oldukça gerçekçi bir osmanlı dünyası resmetmiĢtir. osman hamdi bey için batı anlayıĢında türk sanat eğitiminin temellerini atmıĢ kiĢidir demek mümkündür. Çünkü bugünkü mimar sinan güzel sanatlar Üniversitesi yani ilk kurulduğunda ismi sanayi- i nefise mektebi olan okulun kurucusudur. bir çok alanda etkin ve ilkleri gerçekleĢtiren sanatçı inkar edilemez biçimde türk sanat eğitiminin en önemli isimlerinden biri olmuĢtur. resim- : osman hamdi; türbede, , tÜyb, x cm resim- : jean-léon gérôme, tÜyb, . x . cm, yada daha erken tetİkcİ / resim sanatında usta Çırak İlişkisi ve türk sanat eğitimindeki yeri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - ġeker ahmet paĢa, osman hamdi bey ve sami yetik aldıkları eğitimi ülkelerinde büyük bir etki yaratacak biçimde devam ettirdiler. birçok yerde hocalık yaptılar ve öğrenci yetiĢtirdiler. sonrasında birçok önemli isim benzer biçimde yurt dıĢında eğitim almaya gönderilmiĢ geldiklerinde hocalarından öğrendikleri ve dönemin etkili olan akımının yansımalarını türk resmine eklemiĢlerdir. bunların arasında Çallı kuĢağı, d grubu, yeniler grubu ve birçok birliktelikten bahsetmek mümkündür. Çallı kuĢağı ressamları empresyonizm’ in etkisindeyken d grubu ressamları daha çok geometrik ya da kübist etkide eser üretmiĢlerdir. günümüzde de bu devam eden hoca öğrenci arasındaki eğitimin belirleyiciliği, bir veya birkaç akımın sanatçının üreminde baĢat elemanlar olması gerçeği yadsınamaz. . sonuÇ resim sanatı tarihi ile ilgili her yeni inceleme birbirinden farklı birçok bağlantıyı ve insana dair olan sanat iliĢkilerini ortaya koymaktadır. birbirine benzermiĢ gibi duran Ģeylerin aslında bazen çok belirgin bazen de çok ince farklılıklarla bambaĢka oldukları anlaĢılmaktadır. tıpkı insana dair yapılan her incelemenin sanki daha önce hiç tanımadığımız bir varlığı ilk defa inceliyormuĢuz izlenimi uyandırması gibi. bunun nedeni her insanın belli ortak sebeplerle aynı olmasına karĢın aslından her bir insanın bambaĢka bir yenidünya oluĢudur. resim sanatında da bunun paraleli gibidir. her bir usta her bir akım kendi öğretisini devam ettiren sanatçılarla var olmuĢtur. ancak her bir sanatçı aynı ortak paydayı paylaĢsalar dahi bizlere yepyeni bir dünya teklifinde bulunmuĢlardır. verroccio öğrencilerine kendi öğretisi doğrultusunda eğitim vermiĢtir. ancak leonardo yepyeni bir dünyanın kapısını aralamıĢtır ki; o yüksek rönesans’tır. aslında temelde aynı sanatsal dogmalar üzerinden hareket etmiĢ olmalarına rağmen leonardo var olanların üzerine yepyeni bilgiler ekleyebilmiĢtir. Çok katı kurallarla devam eden hatta kurumsal kuralları olan geleneksel türk sanatları belki çok uzun yıllar almıĢ olmasına rağmen hep üzerine ekleyerek devam etmiĢtir. bütün bu kuralcı ya da atölye sistemine dayalı olan klasik sanat eğitimi aslında geleceğin ve de günümüz sanatının oluĢmasının en doğal sebebi olmuĢtur. Çünkü doyuma ulaĢması, kendini tekrar noktasına gelmiĢ olabilmesi için onu kabullenip, öğretiyi devam ettiren sanatçılara ihtiyacı vardır. doyum noktasına ulaĢan her akım ya da öğreti karĢısında onu reddeden yeni bir akımın ya da dönemin doğmasına sebep olmuĢtur. bu birliktelik ve karĢı çıkıĢlar aslında sanat eğitiminin de kendisi olmuĢtur. hoca öğrenciyi yetiĢtirir veya ona öğretir, öğrenci kabullenir veya reddedip devam eder. hoca olduğunda da kendisini kabul eden veya onu reddeden öğrencilerinin olabileceği gibi. benzer durum sanat akımları içinde geçerlidir. tetİkcİ / resim sanatında usta Çırak İlişkisi ve türk sanat eğitimindeki yeri journal of arts, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , , - kaynakÇa derman, Ç., osmanlı tezhibine genel bir bakıĢ http://www.obarsiv.com/e_voyvoda_ .html (eriĢim tarihi: . . ) eczacıbaĢı sanat ansiklopedisi ( ), yem yayınları, , , . cilt, Ġstanbul gĠray, k., “mimar sinan Üniversitesi Ġstanbul resim ve heykel müzesi koleksiyonu’ n dan Örneklerle manzara”, türkiye ĠĢ bankası yayınları, Ġstanbul gombrĠch, e.h. ( ), sanatın Öyküsü, remzi kitabevi, Ġstanbul krausse, a.-c., ( ), rönesans’tan günümüze resim sanatının Öyküsü, çev: dilek zaptcıoğlu,literatür yayıncılık ÖzsezgĠn, k. ( ), cumhuriyet’in . yılında türk resmi, türkiye ĠĢ bankası kültür yayınları, Ġstanbul renda, g., ( ), batılılaĢma döneminde türk resim sanatı, hacettepe Üniversitesi yayınları, türk tarih kurumu basımevi, ankara renda, g.-erol, t., baĢlangıcından bugüne ÇağdaĢ türk resim sanatı tarihi, cilt , tiglat basımevi, Ġstanbul tansuĞ,s., ÇağdaĢ türk sanatı, remzi kitabevi, . basım, , Ġstanbul tetĠkcĠ, Ġ., ( ), batı anlayıĢına dönük türk resim sanatında doğa Ġnsan ĠliĢkisi, sanatta yeterlik eser metni, msgsÜ sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, Ġstanbul wasserman,j., ( ), leonardo da vinci, hanry n. abrams puplished, new york tanritanir_bulent - - uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi the journal of international social research cilt: sayı: volume: issue: Şubat february www.sosyalarastirmalar.com issn: - the use of camera-eye technique in the three soldiers and manhattan transfer bülent cercis tanritanir• abstract john dos passos as a modernist writer entertains the reader during telling his stories. in an excellent way he uses camera-eye technique to tell what he grasps in reality. passos more than a realist novelist shows characters and urban life. in the three soldiers, passos was an ambulance driver in the first world war and mirrors the reality. he is picturing characters feeling, attitudes, flee, wound and ambitions. in manhattan transfer, passos lives the city and reveals his experiences about urban life. he considers city as protagonist and takes its pictures and changes during thirty years. he tells every details of the city like statue of liberty, flag, streets and mechanical inventions. as a result, real expressions react with the soul of the receiver and drive him/her to continue reading his works. this paper argues the use of camera-eye technique in passos’s two novels the three soldiers and manhattan transfer. keywords: camera-eye, picture, soldiers, desert, city and reality. introduction all people, even little boys and girls, want to stand in front of the mirror because of the real reflection it gives. mirror’s reflection satisfies human nature because it shows everything as it is without any additions. in the early th century john dos passos more than any american writer of his generation (foster, ) assumed the new ways of telling stories. at that times, film makers were slowly improving these ways. he gradually deserted the old-style of story-telling method which reveals events and characters chronologically, lead to a climax and then falling off. as an alternative, he just used picturing like a camera. passos used camera-eye technique to reveal his stories. this technique makes him a star in the sky of the famous american novelists. he just transited reality with no exaggerations and imagination, which entertains the reader during reading his works. he was a modernist writer that is why he always tried to put a sharp line with the past. he was interested in telling history because it shows people's felling. in both novels, passos set out to turn characterization, plot and setting with a montage document. it is not clear whether you read or watch the novels. maybe his biggest aim is to form a new image inside readers’ minds and achieve a new breath while reading. passos was interested in some movements related to painting such as cubism or futurism and thus his interest in film montage got theoretical knowledge. thanks to his interest, he was among the brave writers who attempted and tried new things. passos was highly affected and fascinated by the age of machine, so he wished to show himself as a kind of movie machine that images and records his times. he wished it because nobody before him had been such a man. with these qualifications, he wrote completely new kinds of novels. in this paper i want to show how passos uses camera-eye technique in the three soldiers and manhattan transfer. in the three soldiers he pictured the three characters with their atmosphere and in manhattan transfer he pictured the city as a protagonist. besides these, effects of the war is so clear in three soldiers. while examining bad results of the war, dido sotiriou’s farewell anatolia became bestseller in s in some countries affected by the world war i. in her essay about farewell anatolia, ŞİmŞek pays attention that being soldier in the first world war is more difficult than being in any other wars (ŞİmŞek, : ). i. modernism ( - ) modernism is the name of all movements which were dominant from the opening of the th century. this period writers wanted to convince more empirical and sometimes more extremely individualistic forms of writing. john dos passos is considered as a modernist writer. throughout his literary life, he was captured by history of modern art (diggins, ).this movement can be known not only in literature but also in arts. modernism is widely known as the most creative time in the history of humanity. it can be defined as a sharp line which separates the past and find new forms of expressions. writers like ernest hemingway, john steinbeck, james joyce, t.s eliot, and william faulkner are called • assoc. prof. dr., yüzüncü yıl univrsity, faculty of letters, department of english language and literature. - - fathers of modernism. in order to understand literary modernism correctly, it's necessary to give a view at the american history. this country witnessed a change as a product of industrialization. cities start to rise and technology abruptly had the authority to shift everything. that was when realism in literature started. literary movement produced text that mirrored the very real lives of the working class. during this period literature started to change. modernism is formalist, confusion, obscurity and deep in sense and for modernist writers, the plot is non-plot; in which it doesn’t contain cause and effect. the target of the writers is to pay attention to the readers, so they concentrate on one subject during the story. stream of consciousness is the most important technique because of showing unclear emotions. passos’s manhattan transfer brought experimental stream- of-consciousness techniques into his writing method. in modernism, there are no rules and social concerns and the time of the tales is not important. their characters are from middle class who attempt to gain high class. the importance of personal experiences and individuality. they use an easy language but complicated in meaning and its time is too short. passos’s thoughts about modernism seem to be like an art. he describes modernism as a trend over the whole world, a “creative tidal wave” (lowry, ), affecting all arts directly or indirectly. his early novel manhattan transfer. ii. cubism and futurism cubism, as defined by e. h. gombrich in art and illusion, is “the most radical attempt to stamp out ambiguity and to enforce one reading of the picture – that of a man-made construction, a colored canvas” (princeton, : ). guillaume apollinaire, max jacob, gertrude stein, and pierre reverdy were the first ones to use cubism in literature. these poets presented a lot of techniques related to cubism such as destruction of grammar, free verse, etc. (cauman, ). passos was always under the influences of some artistic movements such as cubism. as is seen former sentences, cubism enforces reading of the picture and passos makes readers see the events in his sentences with the effects of cubism. cubism helped him create his own unique style. moreover, he had some illustrations and his ability of camera-eye technique comes from his talents of painting. in cubism, first of all you need a visible content and passos worked as a driver during the war times so he had a lot of visible contents to create something in minds of the reader. what he saw are the subjects of his novels. futurism, another movement in which passos was really interested, refuses all traditional aesthetic values and claims that the future of the world is modernism. it focuses on age of machines, civilization and urbanization. it aims a clear break with the past and a new metting with the future. subjects of futurism are war on the past, war on immobility, speed, modern life. in manhattan tansfer, passos uses futurism technique at a less degree. he focuses on the newly things in new york city. the novel attacks social indifference of modern urbanization and it presents manhattan as a merciless place full of restlessness. cubism and futurism contained new ways of examining daily things and representing them like the human figure and common objects, as well as ephemeral subjects like movement (song, : ). the futurist movement had concepts of simultaneity, dynamism, and speed in life and art and in addition these, it focused on political and glorified war as a way of obtaining national supremacy for italy. with this aim of futurism, passos examined political ways of wars through three characters in the army. iii. lost generation lost generation contains specially a group of american writers who came forward during post- world war i. the reason why the group’s name was “lost” was that some important and inherited values were lost after the world.lost doesn’t mean vanished but it mostly includes meaning of disoriented, wandering, directionlessand these terms presented “a recognition that there was great confusion and aimlessness among the war's survivors in the early post-war years”(hynes, ).the writers and artists joining in lost generation were f. scott fitzgerald, t. s. eliot, john dos passos, waldo peirce, alan seeger, and erich maria remarque. john dos passos presented effects of war in three soldiers. this novel is regarded asa group of socially conscious novels containing disillusionment that appeared after the war. almost all people had big diillusionments because of a number of deaths.three soldiers is regarded as a mirror of thoughts during lost generation. in three soldiers, he tries to be an antiwar novelist standing against all styles of wars and all boredom of the army. being an active member of lost generation, passos wants all readers to see bad effects of wars on people and also on the daily life of people. still, he has been widely read with his identity of lost generation and antiwar. he was, at that term, appreciated by his contemporaries, as well. iv.the use of camera-eye technique in the three soldiers and manhattan transfer passos is a creative artist. he is not conventional as other american writers. many readers of passos have been troubled by camera eye. the subject matter of this technique is the brief stream of consciousness and of course it brings out some obscurity. camera-eye is very difficult to identify until reading passos’s - - autobiography the best times in (pizer, ).camera eyeworks as a personal subjective commentary on the objective elements of the narration elsewhere in u.s.a for passos and its emphasize is often upon the everyday stuff of new york’s streets (beddow, ). in the three soldiers he used a camera eye technique to tell the story of common american soldiers in the first world war. during reading this novel you feel as if you were looking at these soldiers because being an ambulance driver during world war the first enabled him to take pictures of what he saw. he pictured everything around without any addition. dos passos in three soldiers clearly presents three soldiers; chris chrisfield, dan fuselli and john andrews in order to illustrate how theworld war i had an impact on ordinary soldiersand also people around them.andrews, the musician and chief character,points out that we are here for nothing and we cannot change anything. he has just come from harvard for war about which his expectation is that he will have peace for his troubled mind. however, he faces slavery and boredom. in fact, andrews is a typical dos passos hero who has the qualification of aesthetic revolutionary and is also a beauty-devoted young man having a deep social consciousness. two companions of andrews, an italian-american, dan fusseli, and a gentle farm boy,chris chrisfield, are disillusioned like andrews. the farmer, so-called gentle, loses his endurance and kills an officer within the army. manhattan transfer is also an important work by passos. the novel is seen asfar older than themovie technology since it brings out a major entertainment industryduring the time this book was written. foccusing on this novel, passos uses a lot of unconventional choices such as undermining the heroic, downplaying the dramatic, and tempering thetragic with absurd or fatalistic elements.manhattan transfer includes characters whose destinies seem random or perverse; whereas other novels present brave protagonists who choose their own fates. in the novel passos iconoclastically approaches to the moments of some intense actions during the story.he shows the chaos and an urban battle with violence and intense temptations. so, it can be really difficult to catch the actions of the novel if you haven’t lived in a big city before. the novel is considered kaleidoscopic portraitof the city. the novel has a number of characters as well, yet the protagonist is the city itself. in his both novels, passos claims that everyone has equally importance. so his novels are symmbols of democratic structures of that century. in manhattan transfer, the city is presented as a deconstruced totality, fragmented into different ways and various point of views live a cubist painting. with the steps of the avant-garde urban portrait films of his period, passos follows some glimpses forming a collective gaze around. besides, he anticipates to use many techniques presented by the great “city symphony” movies during the s; for example, man with a movie camera ( ) by vertov and berlin:symphony of a great city ( ) by walter ruttman have great effects on passos. passos relies on visual imagery and skips some transitions and thus jumps cinema sector through his manhattan transfer. passos prefers filmmaking with camera-eye technique to focusing careful process and intense labored psychology of literature. passos has some stylistic choices offering some insights into the stories during the novels. he gives not only what can be seen and heard, but also what the stories are. he doesn’t intervene the moments of characters. thanks to passos, we know the purely physical angles of each detail about the stories through his deep observations. in three soldiers, the ‘y’ man refuses andrews’s idea and says we are here in europe for democracy. ‘y’ man continuously reveals that we are the protector of democracy. then passos shows andrews intention for deserting. he is waiting for a moment to take a chance and flee the army. he decides after healing from his wound, he will desert the army. then passos pictures andrews during a dangerous journey in a unique way. he is going to hide and endure anything even to face death in order to have freedom for a couple of months: .... and i was going to be married to a dandy girl [....] but, hell, everybody was saying that we was going to fight to make the world safe for democracy […] “democracy.... that's democracy, ain’t it: we eat stinkin’ goolash an' that there fat ‘y’ woman goes out with colonels eatin’ chawklate soufflay.... poifect democracy!... but i tell you what: it don't do to be the goat." "but there's so damn many more goats than anything else,” said andrews. (passos, : - ) as soon as he got out of the hospital he would desert; the determination formed suddenly in his mind, […] he would desert. he pictured himself hobbling away in the dark on his lame legs[…] he was ready to endure anything, to face any sort of death, for the sake of a few months of liberty in which to forget the degradation of this last year. (passos, : ) in manhattan transfer, he puts his camera-eye on the city. passos uses “fly on the wall” technique while describing a metropolis. john dos passos creates a literary work that looks like his own personal picture of the city. as mentioned before, he deals with this city as a protagonist character. during reading this novel it gives you the impression of looking at the real picture of the city because he shows everything and tells every detail in order to give you a complete image. the novel also includes “jump cuts” in some - - parts bringing breaks during important events. here with the jump cuts, he gives responsibility to the reader to find a central meaning of the novel: what exactly does happen when one experiences a city in real life? ...the inhabitant or visitor basically experiences the city as a labyrinth. although one with which he may be familiar, he cannot see the whole of a labyrinth at once, except from above, when it becomes a map. therefore his impressions of it at street level at any given moment will be fragmentary and limited: rooms, buildings, streets. these impressions are primarily visual, but involve the other senses as well, together with a crowd of memories and associations. the impressions of a real city makes on an observer are thus both complex and composite.... (pike ) passos as an artist among american novelists was interested in society more than individuals and interested in history more than in psychology. his compassions were always with the men and women who were the victims of social and historical forces, while he was also interested in art. passos in manhattan transfer shows new york city and its change during thirty years. at the beginning he shows urban as a suitable place for man to live in and makes his own fortune on it. he reveals its importance. he focuses on color and smell of the city, the posters, the advertisements, the latest trends, etc.a man tells mr. perry not to miss the chance and reminds him that the opportunity knocks the door once a time during a whole life. new project is building in new york like new bridges. many mechanical inventions enter the city like telephones, electricity and steel bridges: in six months i can virtually guarantee that these lots will have doubled in value. now that we are a part of new york, the second city in the world […] i firmly believe that you and i will see it, when bridge after bridge spanning the east river have made long island and manhattan one, when the borough of queens will be as […] all these mechanical inventions – telephones, electricity, steel bridges, horseless vehicles –they are all leading somewhere. (passos, : - ) the three soldiers has also interesting qualifications in the way of its technical innovations; that’s to say, form of the novel is regared totally as‘decentralized,’ not having a central character and a single plot to consider it together artistically. although dos passos never fully exploits the possibilities of the technique, the germ of the style is clearly seen and it is improved in manhattan transfer which brings to perfection in usa (heiney, ). at the very begging of the novel passos pictures another character who is dan fuselli. passos shows emotion and attitude of fuselli. the way of picturing this character is very interesting for readers. passos takes fuselli’s picture as he imagines himself in three different positions. firstly he feels as a little kid at home putting blanket on himself and sleep peacefully, secondly as an officer, dresses as him and even in nineteen years old as an officer and be with a girl like mabe who waits him somewhere outside the camp. thirdly pictures his scare outside the camp, numerous guards looking for him and he is running breathless down a long street pursued by mans who holding guns. after all these interpretations, imaginations and pictures, he starts to sleep and reveals that he should respect his commanders when they go across him. he claims that he must be respectful in order to get promotion. he wants to send a letter to his girlfriend back home and write down corporal dan fuselli: fuselli wrapped the blanket round his head and prepared to sleep. […]he felt cosy and happy like he had felt in bed at home, when he had been a little kid. for a moment he pictured himself the other man, the man who had punched an officer's jaw, dressed like he was, maybe only nineteen, the same age like he was, with a girl like mabe waiting for him somewhere. how cold and frightful it must felt to be out of the camp with the guard looking for you! he pictured himself running breathless down a long street pursued by a company with guns, by officers whose eyes glinted cruelly like the pointed tips of bullets. he pulled the blanket closer round his head, […] he must remember to smile at the sergeant when he passed him off duty. somebody had said there'd be promotions soon. oh, he wanted so hard to be promoted. it'd be so swell if he could write back to mabe and tell her to address her letters corporal dan fuselli. (passos, : - ) if we look main spirit behind manhattan transfer, dos passos can be seen one of the few writers of twenty century to make extensive use of machine-based futuristis themes (lowry., ).passos is going deeply and takes the picture of new york city. it appears in this novel as the actual protagonist. now he is showing its roads especially eleventh avenue and fifth avenue which is crowded and full of cars. then he pictures the statue of liberty which is a very important figure in this city and tells every detail about it. he points out that by sea way many people enter this city and make it bigger. he describes statue of liberty as a tall green woman covers in a frock, standing on an island and holding up her hand. his description for these things was as taking picture of these things with nothing extra that was the reason we are entertained and we react with the story: the morning has grown bleak. leaden clouds have settled down over the city. […] eleventh avenue is full of icy dust, of grinding rattle of wheels and scrape of hoofs on the cobblestones. down the railroad tracks comes the clang of a locomotive bell and the clatter of shunting freight cars. […] fifth avenue at about eighth street.’ (passos, : ) - - …‘look deary you’re missing things… there’s the statue of liberty.’ a tall green woman in a dressing gown standing on an island holding up her hand. ‘what’s that in her hand?’ ‘that’s a light, dear… liberty enlightening the world… and there’s governors island the other side. … (passo, : ) passos turns his camera to another character who is chrisfield .he pictures chrisfield’s dreaming as he is at home in india and the frenchwoman prepares food for him instead of his own mother. at this moment a frenchwoman is standing in the door and he is eating, sergeant anderson shouts at him and calls him "you goddam..." and calls him these words repeatedly. then passos pictures chrisfield reaction who pulls a knife and attacks the sergeant to kill him but his friends stopped him. passos in the three soldiers shows all these points as you are looking at: he dreamed he was home in indiana, but instead of his mother cooking at the stove in the kitchen, there was the frenchwoman […] shouting at the top of his lungs: “you goddam...” he started, but he couldn't seem to think of anything more to say.”you goddam...” he started again […] he was sergeant anderson. chris drew his knife and ran at him…. (passos : , ) passos uses aesthetic terms and innovations of that term that offered new ways of understanding and presenting world of urbanization (lowry, ). passos in manhattan transfer stabled his camera on the flag and pictured it. flag is the most important figure because it is the definition of a state. he tells every detail about it. he wants us to know this flag is not consisting of normal fabric. it is made of silk. passos do all these details to put readers in the picture: “what flag?’ ‘the silk american flag.’ ‘no dear it’s all put away. ’‘please i’d so like to have that flag cause it’s the fourth of july an everything.’” (passos, : ) conclusion in conclusion human nature is built on reality, our mind reacts and is affected with the real events. throughout my research on these two novels, it becomes clear that passos’s writing is immortal in the mind of readers because his role in the novel is just taking pictures. through the influences of joyce, cendrars, flaubert, zola, eliot, passos attempts a novel, manhattan transfer, to show that doing the impossible in an entire city and an entire era. the depth of the novel’s concerns distinguish it from its contemporary books with passos’s jazz-inspired style of writing.whereas humanstry to live their histories, new york city starts to become a metropolis through the novel.in the novel, individual lives ebb and flow like particles in the lifebloodstream of city, and the city accepts or rejects them without emotion. through these both novels passos shows reality in a very excellent way. in each one of these two novels he chooses a certain aspect and takes its pictures. in the three soldiers, he puts his camera on these three common soldiers and shows details about them without any addition or decrease. he is good in using camera-eye technique in the three soldiers because he himself participated in the first world war as an ambulance driver. in manhattan transfer he turns his camera on the city of new york and pictures its changes during thirty years. during the reading you feel as if you were living in this city and seeing everything because everything is described by the narrator. by picturing, passos affects the reader and encourages them to read his writing continuously. as passos was picturing and transmitting what he viewed as a mirror, the reason of it becomes clear during his writing why he teaches the reader. what he claims is just as real as it is. it has been clearly seen that passos ‘s art was shaped with the visual art and spatial quality of his powerful imagination under the effects of cubism and futurism. he used much illustration in his works and thanks to them, he was able to use camera-eye technique successfully. he conventionally united art and literature in his both works. references aaron, shaheen ( ). "spencerian theory and modern rites of passage in john dos passos’s three soldiers", web beddow, alastair ( ). “manhattan nightmares: john dos passos, charles sheeler and the distortion of urban space.” moveable type, vol. boundless. “the lost generation.” boundless u.s. history. boundless, jul. . retrieved feb. from https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/textbooks/boundless-u-s-history-textbook/from-the-newera-to-the-great-depression- - - /the-roaring-twenties- /the-lost-generation- - / cauman, john ( ). inheriting cubism: the impact of cubism on american art, - , hollis taggart galleries, new york,isbn comley, nancy ( ). “rooms, buildings, streets: the city as montage in manhattan transfer”, thesis, print. corbett, bob ( ). “three soldiers.” houghton mifflin company. web. diggins, john p. ( ). “visions of chaos and visions of order: dos passos as historian”, duke university pressvol. , no. doi: . / , p. - foster, gretchen. literature/film quarterly . (jan , ): . gioia, ted. “manhattan transfer: the american novel as scrapbook”, retrieved feb. http://www.fractiousfiction.com/manhattan_transfer.html heiney, donald ( ). “recent america literature ”, barron’s educational series, p. - hynes, samuel ( ). “a war imagined: the first world war and english culture”, london: bodley head. p. .isbn . lapsansky-werner, emma ( ). j. united states history: “modern america”, boston, ma: pearson learning solutions,s. - - lowry, e. d. ( ). “the lively art of manhattan transfer”, modern language association, vol. , no. doi: . / , p. - magee, john ( ). “an analytical study of john dos passos’ manhattan transfer”, houghton mifflin company, . web. michael, battaglia ( ). "better than a textbook", july web. morley, catherine ( ). “modern american literature”, first ed. edinburgh, uk: edinburgh, print. edinburgh critical guides to literature. passos, john dos ( ). manhattan transfer, boston: houghton mifflin, print. passos, john dos ( ). three soldiers, mineola: dover publications, print. pike, burton ( ). “the city as image”, “the image of the city in modern literature” edited by richard le gates and frederic stout, hardcove. princeton, princeton university press, , p pizer, donald ( ). “the camera eye in “u.s. a.”: the sexual center.” modern fiction studies, vol. , no. p. song, jennifer ( ). “modern art and ideas , - , a guide for educators”, department of education at the museum of modern art ŞİŞmanoĞlu ŞİmŞek, Şehnaz ( ). “benden selam söyleyin anadolu’ya: birinci dünya savaşında asker olmak”, uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, vol. , isuue: , issn: - p. - from margin to margin? the stockholm paris axis – http://www.diva-portal.org this is the published version of a paper published in konsthistorisk tidskrift. citation for the original published paper (version of record): edling, m. ( ) from margin to margin?: the stockholm paris axis – konsthistorisk tidskrift, ( ): - https://doi.org/ . / . . access to the published version may require subscription. n.b. when citing this work, cite the original published paper. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/#.#/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. permanent link to this version: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:sh:diva- from margin to margin? the stockholm paris axis – marta edling the history of european art has been largely the history of a number of centers, from each of which a style has spread out. (kenneth clark, provincialism) the study of art in relation to geographical space has for a long time been biased by the “canonical logic” of the centre–periphery narra- tive. the history of modern and avant-garde art is no exception; it is in fact, as the french art his- torian béatrice joyeux-prunel has pointed out, “essential to the myth of modernism” as well as “to scholarship on modernism”. a good example in swedish art history of this shared “binary framework” of art histories of scholars and the self-fashioned narratives of artists and curators is the story of the early career in the s of the swedish museum director pontus hultén (–). the s are often referred to as a short, but important, phase in swedish art history where vital contacts with the international art scene were established. hultén is in such texts described as something akin to a “vision- ary”, seeking new contacts in paris, creating experimental exhibitions that heralded the radical programme of the modern museum in stockholm in the early s. even if both networks and alliances with swedish colleagues and the parisian art scene are mentioned, the narratives remain within the framework of the centre–periphery story of a slumbering nordic province slowly being awoken by hultén’s heroic and foresighted efforts. this is also the narrative we find in interviews with pontus hultén, and in paris we find the complementary story as seen from the centre; a telling example is the  interview with hultén’s friend and associate, the gallery owner denise rené (–), when she described her efforts in  to introduce modern abstract art to the ignorant nordic audience. when the art historical narrative in this way confirms the heroic stories of the involved parties as well as the geographical “binary fra- mework”, it is a methodological problem for the discipline, joyeux-prunel argues; it dis- courages research into historical data on inter- action between spatial positions other than reports on presumed diffusions of aesthetic innovation. if used, this model will not reveal whether there are other kinds of transfers, cir- culations or interchange between peripheries like stockholm and centres like paris. ©  the author(s). published by informa uk limited, trading as taylor & francis group this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/./), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. issn - k o n s t h i s t o r i s k t i d s k r i f t / j o u r n a l o f a r t h i s t o r y v o l . , n o . , – , h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / . / . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://www.tandfonline.com http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf this article aims to study in greater depth this methodological bias of the centre–periph- ery framework and highlight two problems the reproduction of such narratives raises. firstly, in line with joyeux-prunel’s critical and geo- political argument that research on inter- national artistic relationships tends to turn a blind eye to the fact that such trajectories are often transnational and necessarily dependent on national contexts. secondly, taking up arguments made by the french sociologist pierre bourdieu, the problem of the researcher becoming the “instrument” of the field by reproducing heroic stories that in fact theatri- calise the individual’s hard-won position and hide the social struggle that preceded it. drawing on new archival data as well as french research previously unused in swedish art history, i will in the first part of my text present empirical data on trajectories of individ- uals, including pontus hultén and denise rené, in two local contexts between  and : a presumed periphery, stockholm, sweden, and a presumed centre, paris, france. using a “his- torical materialist perspective”, i will focus on data indicating “material conditions of encoun- ters and exchange” and highlight a collaborative project, namely a  exhibition in paris of swedish abstract art between  and . the article’s aim is to elucidate both a new and wider scope of the historical circumstances of the interaction along the stockholm–paris axis during the period and individuals who have hitherto not received attention. in the last part of my text, i will use these results to explain my methodological concerns and discuss the two problems stated above. paris after the liberation of paris in , several new galleries opened, among them the denise rené gallery at no. , rue de la boétie (). two new salons for “avant-garde” art were opened: salon de mai () and réalités nouvelles (). the new art journals and different booklets and pamphlets issued by the galleries also became important instruments for the art critics taking a special interest in contem- porary art. this vitality of the parisian art scene attracted young artists from other countries; it is estimated that the number of artists in s paris totalled between , and ,. also, foreign art collectors and art dealers gravitated towards paris, and the city became a focal point of a transnational network of collabor- ations on exhibitions and sales. the increasing number of galleries and the inflow of young artists created fierce competition; french critics used metaphors of combat and war when describing the contemporary situation. the influx of foreign artists, art dealers and money was essential to the parisian galleries. the french public had a conservative taste, and there was little official support for modern art in france. the post-war french audience also had little money, the market was weak until , and many galleries became completely dependent on foreign capital; a telling example is the denise rené gallery, where more than % of its clients came from other countries. americans dominated the market, but contacts in other european countries were also of impor- tance. paris was indeed a centre of international art, but the situation was “fragile”. the denise rené gallery developed in the late s a profile championing geometric, non-objective abstraction, and pierre bour- dieu refers to statements by denise rené in , looking back at this period as an example of a gallery that early on strategically formulated a high profile orientated towards the “new”. rené was very clear about her intent: “i wanted the new, to get off the m a rta e d l i ng beaten track … .for me, the period of combat was beginning”. as a result of the competitive climate, the galleries in paris developed offensive strategies to assert their positions. the gallery owners encouraged networks linking critics, the jurors of the salons and prestigious awards, as well as editors of the new art magazines. the ambition was not only to launch new artists but also to present tomorrow’s artistic tendencies, and the galleries strategically added other strings to their bow in the form of theoretical and rhetorical pamphlets, lec- tures, debates or oral presentations, thus creat- ing an intellectual profile and framework for their exhibitions. local competition and transnational strategies to deal with local competition and a tough market, denise rené developed a well- planned marketing strategy of transnational collaborations and exchanges with foreign gal- leries in order not only to increase sales but also to establish international credentials for her artists. her earliest contacts were estab- lished with nordic galleries and patrons of art. the travelling exhibition klar form: vingt artistes de l’ecole de paris in spring  was realised through her contacts with the danish artists richard mortensen (– ) and robert jacobsen (–). they gave the exhibition its danish name klar form (pure form) and had links with galerie birch in copenhagen. this contact also led rené to the finnish patron maire gul- lichsen (–), director of gallery artek in helsinki. gullichsen put rené in contact with important art venues for the exhibition in the nordic capitals, among them liljevalchs art gallery in stockholm. making claims to the title “École de paris” and the idea of an abstract tradition, the exhi- bition displayed twenty artists, where contem- porary names, such as robert jacobsen, richard mortensen and victor vasarely (–), were presented side by side with old masters, such as fernand legér (–), auguste herbin (–) and le corbusier (charles-Édouard jeanneret, –). this followed the dual strategy of giving the contemporary artists legitimate ancestry and the customers promises of secure investments for the future. she later referred to klar form as an exhibi- tion that had strived to accomplish a new vision and a statement on abstract art. this polemic stance was also reflected in art d’aujourd’hui, an art magazine loyal to the gallery, which in december  devoted a special issue to the exhibition. the issue was intended as a cata- logue for the exhibition travelling the nordic capitals in spring . the magazine also did follow-ups in the subsequent two issues in the spring; it reported on the exhibition, and in the first issue, it was stressed with an overt rhetoric how the importance of abstract art was demonstrated by the international atten- tion given to the exhibition. the klar form exhibition … arouses con- siderable public curiosity in all the northern european cities where it is presented. for its part, the press makes broad comments and emphasises the exceptional importance of the works presented. the ever-growing success bears witness, once again, to the vitality of abstract art. in the later issue, it was also underlined that the exhibition had been organised by denise rené to meet a demand; she had put on the exhibition to respond to the desire expressed by the scan- dinavian countries and finland, who wished f ro m m a r gi n t o m a r gi n ? th e s t o ck h ol m pa ri s a x i s – to present to their compatriots the represen- tative works of the non-figurative painters and sculptures of the École de paris. the rhetorical aim was thus crystal clear: to present to the french readers that the abstract art on show at the exhibition was much- desired outside paris. stockholm the art market in stockholm had seen good times, both during the second world war and after. this was due not only to the fact that sweden had escaped the ravages of war and could thus gain from having an intact economy and infrastructure but also to the import restrictions on third-rate foreign art, which were in force from  to . the number of exhibitions and artists increased, as did the number of galleries; in stockholm, fifty new art dealers set up their businesses between  and . due to the accumulation of economic capital in stockholm, galleries like the swedish–french art gallery or galerie blanche, could buy art produced by old masters, such as henri matisse (–), pablo picasso (– ), fernand legér (–) and jacques villon (–), at low prices in paris directly after the war and make a profit on them in stockholm. the well-tempered and colourful mix of fauvist and cubist idioms by the younger generation of École de paris painters like jean bazaine (–), charles lapique (–) and maurice estève (–), was also well received as inheritors of a grand old french tradition. this interest in french art stemmed from a long tradition of francophile attitudes in swedish art and art criticism. experimental abstraction was, however, as in paris, met with suspicion by the general audience, and during the early s, the van- guard of abstract art on the stockholm art scene developed along similar lines as the par- isian; young and up-and-coming galleries pre- sented either geometrical/post-cubist abstraction or an expressive abstraction inclined towards the informal, gestural and lyrical. local competition in this new and tenser climate, a quintet of young swedish art historians entered the art scene. pontus hultén, or karl g. hultén as he called himself by this time, was in the mid-s a student at the department of art history at stockholm university college. he and his friends and fellow students oscar reutersvärd (–), rolf söderberg (–), carlo derkert (–) and hans eklund (–) were greatly interested in the history of abstract art and the historic avant-garde, but they could not pursue such topics in an art history department “obsessed with the middle ages”. instead, they devel- oped their interest in modern art in their extramural activities. their interests in the historic avant-garde differed somewhat, but this did not hinder their collaborations. hultén focused more on experimental film, the legacy of dada and the art of marcel duchamp. derkert’s field of work was wider; he frequently held popular lectures on modern art, although it is clear that his special interest was in the early swedish avant-garde and the art pro- duced by his mother, siri derkert. rolf söder- berg wrote art criticism and in  published the first art history handbook on twentieth- century swedish art. oscar reutersvärd and hans eklund specialised at this time in the post-cubist and non-objective swedish artists m a rta e d l i ng who had collaborated with fernand legér in paris in the s and early s and in the kind of contemporary geometrical abstraction promoted by denise rené. i will present reu- tersvärd’s and eklund’s activities in this genre a little further below. an overview of their extramural activities reveals that the five young art historians by the turn of the s had developed a wide range of contacts. they had created and/or presented exhibitions at private galleries, had held popular evening lectures on modern art at public venues and the art history depart- ment, had participated in radio shows and had written monographs, articles and short texts for exhibition catalogues. the newspaper overview also reveals that there was consider- able collaboration between them and that they were well connected to nationalmuseum, where hultén, derkert, eklund and reuters- värd often helped out. moreover, derkert, söderberg and hultén held temporary pos- itions there. in the reports in the stockholm press on these activities, it is clear too that their academic titles and careers gave them legitimacy; the texts seldom fail to mention their academic rank. taking their interest in modern art into consideration, one could say that their affilia- tion to the conservative art history department facilitated as well as necessitated dual careers. their academic careers provided some finan- cial support (by way of occasional travel and/ or doctoral bursaries); however, they also forced the art historians (due to the art history department’s conservative nature) to produce commissioned work on modern art. and in creating exhibitions of modern art and writing on this art in a public context, their academic qualifications were important credentials. in this way, the lack of modern art studies at the stockholm university college’s department of art history created a group of academically very qualified young critics. earlier research on this period has not examined this, and it gives an interesting perspective on the role of theory and intellec- tuals in the promotion of modern art as part of the s art scene. transnational strategies as mentioned earlier, oscar reutersvärd took on the role of a spokesperson for geometrical abstraction and concrete art, e.g. in  in connection with the commemorative exhibi- tion of the non-objective painter otto g. carlsund at gallery artek in helsinki, and in  when he designed the show neo- plasticism at gallery samlaren in stockholm. in , together with eklund, he presented an exhibition of fernand legér and nordic post-cubism at the swedish–french art gallery in stockholm. the exhibitions mirror the strategies of the parisian context; reutersvärd turned the gallery into a theoretical platform and wrote polemical entries in the catalogues. another similarity to the strategies of the par- isian galleries in the late s was the combi- nation of artists of the historic avant-garde and the contemporary artists in exhibitions, creating a historic legacy and producing a promise of secure investments in collecting the contemporary. these similarities have, however, gone unnoticed in swedish research. instead, they have been ascribed to the innova- tive mind of hultén and the exhibitions he created at gallery samlaren in  (together with reutersvärd) and . by taking the paris context into consideration instead, it is clear that his shows, as well as reutersvärd’s earlier efforts in –, must be interpreted as the result of their paris sojourns. f ro m m a r gi n t o m a r gi n ? th e s t o ck h ol m pa ri s a x i s – pontus hultén first went to paris in , and thanks to academic scholarships, he returned there and stayed for several periods of time during the late s and early s. he got to know the danish artists richard mortensen and robert jacobsen, who by that time, as we saw above, were colla- borating with the denise rené gallery. in paris, he also met the non-objective swedish painter olle baertling (–), who visited the city in  to study at the acadé- mie legér. they became, together with the danish artists, both friends and colleagues. baertling was also some years later, helped by the grand old man of the gallery network, the french painter august herbin. oscar reutersvärd came to paris in , financed too by a scholarship. that year reu- tersvärd was introduced to the denise rené gallery network by hultén, and by this time they had also collaborated with olle baertling in stockholm. in february , baertling exhibited, together with august herbin, at galleri brinken in stockholm; this was a col- laboration with the denise rené gallery. thus, by march , when the french exhibi- tion klar form toured the nordic countries, the stockholm–paris network was already firmly established and part of the larger nordic web of alliances denise rené had been building since . l’art suédois, – : exposition d’art suédois, cubiste, futuriste, constructiviste on  february and  march , the two main swedish morning newspapers, dagens nyheter and svenska dagbladet, reported on a new exhibition of swedish cubism and con- crete art from  to  that was planned to travel around europe, possibly even the united states, and would open in paris at the denise rené gallery on  march. the texts made clear that it was a rare and proud moment for swedish art; it was underlined that the exhibition was under the auspices of the french ambassador, and the brave inten- tions of the creators of the exhibition (and aca- demic scholars), karl g. hultén and oscar reutersvärd, were praised. the support of institutions such as nationalmuseum and the swedish institute underscored the reputability of the project. printed sources do not reveal exactly how this exhibition was financed; however, what is clear is that the heroic rhetoric in the above-mentioned articles stands in stark con- trast to the realities. the patronage of the french and swedish authorities, also stressed in the catalogue, was not, as we shall see below, matched by any substantial financial support. reutersvärd and hultén never received remuneration or reimbursement, and reutersvärd wrote in a “melancholic letter” (as described by söderberg) that the exhibition and their stay in paris had cost them “thousands of kronor and three months of work”. hultén, who, in , held a temporary position as an assistant at nationalmuseum, had to apply for an unpaid leave of absence in order to work on the paris exhibition. the interest expressed by the director of nationalmuseum, otte sköld (–), in the exhibition should also be seen in the light of his own participation as an artist, and, as is indicated by the “melan- cholic letter” above, the museum appears to have taken no active part in arranging the exhibition other than facilitating the transport of the paintings. most likely, the freight was financed by nationalmuseum since it was hoped that denise rené would establish contact with the french painter fernand m a rta e d l i ng legér, who had promised to donate a painting by the swedish painter otto g. carlsund (–) to the museum; however, the sources of most of the financial support seem to have been surprisingly unclear. the presentation of the exhibition in the swedish press was strategically planned and also reflects a certain amount of self-interest on the part of the young art historians. this is revealed not only by the rhetoric in the above-mentioned short articles prior to the opening but also in the first report on the exhi- bition in dagens nyheter, only a few days after the opening. in this report, rolf söderberg, hultén’s and reutersvärd’s friend and student colleague, directly conveyed the inten- tions. neither the neutral headline “swedish art in paris” nor the text revealed his own involvement in the exhibition; he had namely written the main entry in the catalo- gue. the text praised the denise rené gallery as the only one in paris with “a desire to show initiative and a spirit to culti- vate”, mentioning also that the gallery’s “ideal” was well known to the swedish audi- ence as a result of the exhibition klar form the year before. denise rené had “with an unshakeable belief embraced the latest abstract art”, and the gallery now showed swedish abstraction was “flattering”, söderberg asserted. it was, he stated, high time to present true avant-garde swedish art to an international audience; the “stepchildren” and “experimenters” who, according to söder- berg, had been disregarded in swedish art. the report on the exhibited artworks also closely mirrored his text in the catalogue and its con- structed timeline of swedish abstract art. the young art historians were also allowed to write a follow-up on the exhibition in the november  special issue of art d’au- jourd’hui on nordic avant-garde art. in these texts, as in earlier ones and exhibitions in stockholm, hultén, reutersvärd and söder- berg asserted the aesthetic affinity between all kinds of cubist, post-cubist and moderately abstract art in sweden between  and , and its continuous contact with international avant-garde art: french cubism, dada, art concret, etc. the polemical intent can also be seen in this special issue, and the texts by söderberg contain the same kind of rhetorical figures as the french reports on klar form the year before. the post-war emergence of a new gen- eration of concrete artists in sweden was described as the result of a want, an impulse given by a “hunger for intellectualism” after a long period of domination by decorative and gestural colourist art. the post-war reappearance of abstraction stemmed, accord- ing to the text, from a pent-up need for nour- ishment; concrete art remedied a frustration and a want for an essential aesthetic ingredient. söderberg had also by this time received a commission from the publishing house albert bonniers förlag to write a book on twentieth-century swedish art, a project he carried out in parallel to writing texts for the exhibition and the magazine. the book was released in  and mirrors in important ways the narrative of söderberg’s paris texts. the art critical response in the swedish press was mainly positive, both to the exhibi- tion and the articles in art d’aujourd’hui. critics welcomed its new avant-garde approach and emphasised, in a similar manner as we saw examples of in the french reports on klar form, the international inter- est. the polemical intent was also under- stood as part of art d’aujourd’hui’s profile. it was explicitly referred to as a magazine that had made “the biased standpoint into a f ro m m a r gi n t o m a r gi n ? th e s t o ck h ol m pa ri s a x i s – virtue that gives it its polemical effectiveness … .it exclusively upholds the cause of the non-figurative painters”. the polemical agenda also provoked a comment from the critic nils palmgren (–), who pointed to the, in his view, aggressive and tactical strategies of the group of young concrete painters participating in the exhibition. they were already established in the stockholm art market, and palmgren argued that they had forged their careers by making allies of art critics in the press and on national radio and that in this exhibition in paris they had utilised their theoretical allies in academia. they had been smart enough to “acquire the right influential friends”, and their “attack” was this time aimed at an “international platform”. palmgren’s comment reflects, not surpris- ingly, his hostility towards abstract art. however, it reveals also that this artistic venture, although launched by hultén, reu- tersvärd and söderberg as a bold international outreach, had the more immediate and prag- matic concern of furthering careers in stock- holm. the young art historians had, as we have seen, been actively involved since the early s in launching historic avant-garde and contemporary abstract artists onto the stockholm art scene, and these artists, also represented at the paris exhibition as both an older and a younger generation, were far from unknown and were of growing interest due to discussions on a new museum of modern art in stockholm. siri derkert (–), otte sköld, viking eggeling (–), otto g. carlsund, erik olson (–), christian berg (–), lennart rodhe (–), olle bonniér (–), arne jones (–), karl- axel pehrson (–) and olle baertling had already been exhibited as part of broad overviews of modern art at major national institutions, such as nationalmuseum, lilje- valchs art gallery and the national associ- ation for the promotion of fine arts (riksförbundet för bildande konst), and private galleries, such as the swedish–french art gallery and färg och form (colour and form), and the small shows at gallery samla- ren. the paris exhibition was in this sense an endeavour very much in tune with stockholm. the argument for the international rel- evance of the art presented in the exhibition appears biased also when taking into account the article “complément à la scandinavie” by the french critic michel seuphor (– ) in a later issue of art d’aujourd’hui. in the text, seuphor commented upon the omis- sion of several scandinavian artists, not least the lack of information on norwegian abstract painting. he also mentioned that he found a number of swedish names missing. seuphor wrote: some gaps in the scandinavian countries which appeared in art d’aujourd’hui (october-november ) have to be amended … abstract painters of some importance have also been omitted. these are primarily gösta verner, ture lindström, inger ekdahl, e. gustavsson, lindquist, valentin andersson, gösta eriksson, zan, gyllenberg, john berg and nils nixon. seuphor also mentioned the painters bengt lindström (–), wiking svensson (–) and eric h. olson (–). the comment points out that the report on swedish art in the magazine had omitted the young swedish abstract artists already living in paris, and one of them, a friend of seuphor, eric h. olson, had penned a letter to seuphor, who then wrote the text intended as an addendum. this further underlines m a rta e d l i ng that the swedish artists exhibited at the gallery in april and presented in the magazine in november were those names which were first and foremost relevant to the swedish audience and by  “hot” favourites for the stockholm art market. one could say that they constituted (together with the art his- torians’ special selection of swedish historic avant-garde artists) almost a kind of brand the young art historians had claimed for their extramural activities. the swedish abstract artists who lived and worked in paris, had received little or no attention in the swedish press and, with the exception of nils nixon (–), were little known in sweden and were from this point of view of little interest. the paris exhibition can thus be interpreted as a strategic measure taken to safeguard the local positions of the art historians in stock- holm, where they had dual careers. the exhibi- tion told a story of abstract art in sweden that in fact gave legitimacy to them as its main spokesmen. whilst they fought for recognition by academia as well as on the stockholm art scene, paris could, although still offering meagre financial rewards, give them ample symbolic recognition to help further advance their careers as independent critics and in the long run as experts on modern art and as art historians. a methodological problem: i. what is a centre? and where is the periphery? during the last thirty years, critical art geogra- phy has provided a more complex and nuanced idea of the geographical distribution of artistic positions and how we are to understand their interrelations. the findings demonstrate the necessity of critically examining the way we understand art in relation to geographical space and avoiding presuppositions about what a centre is and what effect it has on the margins. by way of summary, the importance of the transnational, or perhaps better put, translo- cal, collaborations and mutual dependencies of the stockholm–paris axis seems a vital fact to observe. instead of a one-way diffusion, we can see that strategic measures were taken in each local context in order to increase the competitiveness and resources in the regional habitat. the transnational contact was spurred by competition and the attempt to advance from a marginal local position. the exhibition of swedish art in paris as well as the klar form exhibition in stockholm were in this sense “detours”, as a means to an end. earlier art geographical research has inter- estingly demonstrated that such a “physical as well as symbolic detour” has been a recur- rent pattern in the strategies of launching modern art. building artistic credentials and reputations by exhibiting in foreign cities was a strategy to create a notion of an external demand, a “desire” outside the national context. the international reception was thus used by galleries and artists as a kind of mediator to create domestic attention. we find it in european modernism and the career-building efforts from the late s as well as endeavours to introduce american abstraction in paris in the late s. although having identified similar “detours” launched from paris in  and stockholm in , it is undeniable that paris was, in important ways, a centre in the course of events referred to above. the collab- orations were indeed dependent on the french capital’s international reputation as a mytho- logical space and an economic hub, offering an infrastructure of institutions important to f ro m m a r gi n t o m a r gi n ? th e s t o ck h ol m pa ri s a x i s – artists as well as to art dealers and patrons, gal- leries, salons and magazines. the status of the city as a metropolis of art thus gave the exchange between denise rené and her nordic collaborators its driving force; the francophile swedish art market had had the city as a focal point since the s, and it also served, as we have seen, as a magnet internationally. as the historian carlo ginzburg and the art historian enrico castelnuovo have pointed out, this is in fact how centres work. the relationships between centres and peripheries are founded on “political, economic, religious” dependencies. the “symbolic domination” and the aesthetic impact of the centre must be seen as an effect of this accumulation of resources; it takes “surplus wealth” to produce, distribute and purchase art. as we have seen in the case of paris, this “surplus wealth” very much consisted of foreign money. in the s, paris grew into a trans- national stock exchange, a geographical space where social, artistic and economic assets were combined and augmented, creating intense competition and a diverse art scene. it took great efforts to launch a gallery and to advance from a marginal pos- ition in this terrain. so, even if the city was a mythological and economic focal point, this obviously did not suffice in the day-to-day business of the fledg- ling gallery during its early days at no. , rue de la boétie. starting out in july , it was one of many galleries competing for atten- tion and foreign money. the art market was still weak until the early s, and the trans- national network of galleries and patrons and the travelling exhibitions of the denise rené gallery were vital. the historical data thus testifies to a rather frail situation where “the local embedded the international” and “the international embedded the local” and the topography of the paris art scene must accord- ingly be understood as a transnational space of complex and intertwined relations. it is also obvious that the nordic countries did not constitute a random periphery; they were “margins”. this concept, suggested by the art historian piotr piotrowski instead of the vaguer notion of “periphery”, indicates positions defined by, and literally constituted by, their relationship to a centre. and the nordic “margins” were indeed focused on paris and very important to denise rené and other art dealers and galleries. denise rené’s first overseas exhibition took place in denmark in , and the contacts with patrons of art, such as maire gullichsen, were vital; there was enough money and influ- ence and a taste for abstract art to support a large travelling exhibition in the nordic capi- tals in . thus, as piotr piotrowski reminds us, margins have an impact on centres and, we should add, as we have seen in this case, on each other. to conclude, art historians must be cautious when identifying centres; their terrain may be heterogeneous and their coherence cannot be taken for granted. from this also follows that it is always important to be careful about how research locates and defines a centre; the geographical space (and the city limits) do not necessarily demarcate the social space and the relations that underpin its attractive force. a methodological problem: ii. theatricalisation if in the case of art history, according to joyeux-prunel, we “always study the same centres and the same people”, we should ask ourselves why art historians endorse aesthetic m a rt a ed l i ng preferences of certain artists, curators and critics and why we reproduce self-fashioned narratives. when the scholar thus becomes a mere “instrument” of the field, what is missing is one of the fundamental methodological demands, namely the “epistemological break” with taken-for-granted assumptions produced by the field. and by being in tune with such beliefs, such as the existence of a natural order of the field where art is made (and furthered) by striving, self-sacrificing, creative individuals fighting for the true (or new) values of art, it promotes a “personalist” view of avant-garde strategies. the result is then a theatricalisa- tion of new, experimental and daring achieve- ments as solely aesthetic efforts and results of heroic agency. in that way, it obscures not only their homology with social positions, i.e. the resources and dispositions necessary to accomplish such endeavours, but it also makes those who “did not win the battle of history” more or less invisible and may detract from other artistic productions that in the same “peripheries” were “sidesteps” or even outcomes of resistance or competition. this article has argued that it is important to consider that the (first, local, then national, transnational and later international) careers of denise rené and pontus hultén were based on trying to establish and defend local positions. by taking this into consideration, it becomes clear that the narratives of their endeavours to promote modern art obscure the social reality that necessitated them, namely harsh competition and meagre resources. it may seem an obvious and unin- teresting fact to point to modest beginnings; however, the methodological point is that heroic career trajectories are reliant on access to resources and networks and presuppose dependencies as well as competition. in the self-constructed narratives of hultén and rené, no attention is given to the fact that it was fierce local competition and insuffi- cient career opportunities that pushed them, so to speak, from margin to margin in order to establish and secure careers. using social analy- sis, we may thus interpret the local competition in each context as a centrifugal force that created mutual transnational dependencies. thus, rather than to presume that the exhi- bition l’art suédois – was the result of an aesthetic affinity and a gravitation towards an artistic centre, not unlike the phys- ical pull of a magnetic field, social analysis helps to also identify the push effect that necessitated incentives to create new alliances outside the local context. it points to the rel- evance of considering the competition in the contemporary art scenes in stockholm and paris, where new critics and artists made claims to being the vanguard, and where the stakes were high in the post-war change of artistic generations. to conclude, if visions and farsightedness are characteristic of innovators, one should remember that they are the product of both virtue and necessity. the heroic narrative sim- plifies and hides the often fragile and shaky beginnings, the push effect of competition, and dismisses as traditional, provincial or parochial those positions that threatened pro- fessional advancement locally. thus, as pointed out in the introduction, it is methodologically important to consider the relationships of “material exchange, circu- lation and transaction” between individuals as well as their access to resources in their local context. in that way, the relationship between centres and margins, as well as the heroic trajectories, might be critically recon- sidered and reframed as materially founded and interdependent. f ro m m a rg i n t o m a rg i n ? th e st oc k ho l m pa ri s a x i s – endnotes . kenneth clark, provincialism, london, , p. . the quote is discussed in enrico castelnuovo, carlo ginzburg and maylis curie, “symbolic domination and artistic geography in italian art history”, art in translation, vol. , no ,  (). . on “canonical logic”, see anna brzyski, “introduction: canons and art history”, in anna brzyski, ed., partisan canons, durham, . . béatrice joyeux-prunel, “provincializing paris”, artlas bulletin, vol. , no , , pp. , . . see, for example, andreas gedin, pontus hultén, hon & moderna, stockholm, , pp. , , –; hans hayden, modernismen som institution, stockholm, , pp. , ; patrik andersson, euro-pop, phd diss., univ. of british columbia, vancouver, , pp. , . for a critical historiographical overview of the center-peripery narrative in this period, see annika Öhrner, barbro Östlihn & new york: konstens rum och möjligheter, phd diss., uppsala univ., gothenburg, , pp. –. . hans ulrich obrist, “the hang of it”, art forum, april . cf. also jean-paul ameline and nathalie ernoult, “pontus hultén”, in denise rené, l’intrépide, centre pompidou, paris, . on denise rené, see denise rené and catherine millet, conversations avec denise rené, paris, , pp. –; mette höjsgaard, “denise rené interviewet af mette höjsgaard i galerie denise rené”, in gitte Ørskov and jakob vengberg sevel, eds., rum og form: robert jacobsen  år, aalborg, ; mette höjsgaard, ed., robert jacobsen & paris, copenhagen, ; mette höjsgaard, i paris laerer man at tale rent, phd diss., univ. of copenhagen, , pp. –. . research of importance for this line of argument is thomas dacosta kaufmann, catherine dossin and béatrice joyeux-prunel, “introduction: reintroducing circulations: historiography and the project of global art history”, in thomas dacosta kaufmann, catherine dossin and béatrice joyeux-prunel, eds., circulations in the global history of art, farnham, ; joyeux-prunel, ; catherine dossin, the rise and fall of american art, s–s, burlington, ; castelnuovo, ginzburg and curie,  (); béatrice joyeux-prunel, nul n’est prophète en son pays? paris, . the introduction in dacosta kauffmann, dossin, joyeux- prunel offers a historiographical overview of earlier research. dacosta kauffmann, dossin, joyeux-prunel, , pp. –; also endnote  in this text lists further readings, e.g. kaufmann, . . research of importance for this line of argument is pierre bourdieu and loïc j. d. wacquant, an invitation to reflexive sociology, chicago, ; pierre bourdieu, the rules of art, cambridge,  (). . on this methodological approach, see dacosta kauffmann, dossin, joyeux-prunel, , pp. –. . the article contributes to the number of critical studies of swedish modernism, –, aiming to shift focus from a personalised approach (great men) to “infrastructure” of vital importance for artistic success, e.g. in the modern museum in  (hans hayden, modernismen som institution, eslöv, ; Öhrner, ; Öhrner, “the moderna museet in stockholm: the institution and the avant-garde”, in tania Ørum and jesper olsson, eds., a cultural history of the avant-garde in the nordic countries, –, leiden, ); in television and radio (david rynell Åhlén, samtida konst på bästa sändningstid, phd diss., stockholm univ., lund, ); in public art (jessica sjöholm skrubbe, skulptur i folkhemmet, phd diss., uppsala univ., gothenburg, ); and in the development of old and new institutions for art education (anna lena lindberg, konstpedagogikens dilemma, lund, ; marta edling, fri konst? stockholm, ). linda fagerström’s critical study of young swedish artists’ career opportunities and the role of the artist during the late s and s clarifies the working conditions and terms for aspiring artists. see linda fagerström, randi fisher – svensk modernist, phd diss., lund univ., lund, . . julie verlaine, les galeries d’art contemporain à paris, paris, , pp. –, , –, –. . verlaine, , p. . . on metaphors of combat, competition and war, see verlaine, , pp. –; cf. endnote  below. on the position of denise rené, see véronique wiesinger, “mouvements et marchés de l’abstraction”, in denise rené, l’intrépide, paris, . . dossin, , pp. –; verlaine, , pp. –; kathryn anne boyer, “political promotion and institutional patronage: how new york displaced paris as the center of contemporary art, ca. –”, phd diss., univ. of kansas, ann arbor, ; kathryn boyer, “association française d’action artistique and the school of paris”, journal of art history, vol. , no , . . verlaine, , pp. –, –; dossin, , pp. –, citation on p. ; the art market was also hampered by taxes and an old-fashioned infrastructure. see also rené and millet, , pp. –. . “[j]e voulais du neuf, m’écarter des chemins battus … pour moi, le temps du combat commencait”. english translation in bourdieu,  (), p.  (bourdieu’s italics). catalogue du er salon international des galeries pilotes, lausanne, , p. . . verlaine, , pp. –, –. . on the danish – french collaboration and robert jacobsen see höjsgaard  pp. –, höjsgaard , höjsgaard , as well as jan würtz frandsen richard mortensen copenhagen , pp. –. on finnish contacts, see rené and millet , pp. –, helena woirhaye maire gullichsen, helsingfors  pp.–, ed. erik kruskopf & john arnold, maire gullichsen, pori, , pp. – and pp. –. jean-paul ameline “denise rené. histoire d’une galerie” in denise rené, l’intrépide, paris . m a rt a ed l i ng . verlaine, , pp. –. . art d’aujourd’hui, serie , no , décembre ; rené and millet, , pp. –; verlaine, , pp. –. . “l’exposition klar-form … soulève une vive curiosité, de la part du public, dans toutes les villes des pays du nord de l’europe où elle est présentée. de son côté, la presse accorde de larges commentaires et souligne l’importance exceptionelle des oeuvres présentées. le succès sans cesse grandissant témoigne, une fois de plus, de la vitalité de l’art abstrait. “l’exposition itinérante klar form. ‘vingt artistes de l’ecole de paris’”, art d’aujourd’hui, serie , no –, février-mars , p.  (my translation). . “[r]épondre au désir exprimé par les pays scandinaves et la finlande, qui souhaitaient présenter à leurs compatriots des oeuvre représentantives des peintres et sculptures non figuratifs de ecole de paris”. “l’exposition ‘klar form’”, art d’aujourd’hui, serie , no , juin , p.  (my translation). . martin gustavsson, makt och konstsmak, phd diss., stockholm univ., stockholm, , pp. –; tulla grünberger, svenskt måleri under andra världskriget, phd diss., stockholm univ., stockholm, , pp. –. . gustavsson, , p. . . an early example is issue no. /  of the leading swedish art magazine konstrevy, in which six articles on modern and contemporary french art are presented. cf. also yngve berg, “konstkrönika”, dagens nyheter, - -. this reception was also in line with the international promotion by french authorities of french art as a tradition of the grand masters. see boyer, . . eva-lena bergström, nationalmuseum i offentlighetens ljus, phd diss., umeå univ., umeå, , pp. –, , –, , –, ; andrea kollnitz, konstens nationella identitet, phd diss., stockholm univ., , pp. –. . gustavsson, , pp. –. these two lines of development were general characteristics of nordic art by this time. Ørum and olsson, eds., , pp. –. . on the art scene during the period, see bo lindvall, “–: en kavalkad över de sista tio åren i svensk konst”, konstrevy, häfte , ; sten dunér, “modernismen i sverige mellan den  mars  och den  januari ”, in torsten bergmark, ed., den åldrade modernismen, stockholm, , pp. –. on the young art historians, see eugen wretholm, moderna svenska konstnärer, stockholm, , pp. –; teddy brunius, baertling, stockholm, . . “[m]edeltidsfixerade högskolan”, rolf söderberg, mina konstnärsänkor och andra konstminnen, stockholm, , pp. ,  (my translation). on swedish art history in this period, see oscar reutersvärd, “om fyrtiotalets svenska konsthistoria”, ord och bild, . . jimmy pettersson, “apropå film”; patrik andersson, “den inre och den yttre rymden”, in patrik andersson, anna tellgren and anna lundström, eds., pontus hultén och moderna museet, stockholm, ; lief (sic.) eriksson, “duchamp in sweden, –”, http://toutfait.com/ duchamp-in-sweden---a-critical-review/, published: //, updated: //, accessed: --; ulf linde, från kart till fallfrukt, stockholm, , pp. , . . carlo derkert became known for his popular lectures on the radio, at exhibitions, at nationalmuseum, etc. his name appeared frequently in the press (see also note  below); kristoffer arvidsson, “carlo derkert i efterkrigstidens konstpedagogiska landskap” and annika Öhrner, “carlo derkert – biografiska data och bibliografi”, biblis, no , spring . on söderberg, see söderberg, ; bibliographical information on his writings can be found in svenskt författarlexikon, vol. –, –. . full-text searches can be done in the search engine svenska dagstidningar (swedish newspapers), a database of digitalised major swedish newspapers. i have tracked the five art historians from  to  and charted all the minor and major entries where their names appear. this gives an overview of their exams, marriages, public appearances, bursaries and scholarships, exhibitions, publications, etc. . on their early academic careers, see, for example, reports on bursaries in dagens nyheter, “högskolans doktorandstipendiater”, --; “doktorandstipendier vid stockholms högskola”, - -; “högskolestipendierna i stockholm utdelade”, --; “doktorand- och licenciatstipendier”,- -. also letters in rolf söderberg’s archive from oscar reutersvärd repeatedly refer to their efforts to apply for bursaries, and study loans were an option when applications were rejected; see the letters --, --, --, and undated letter [may ] from oscar reutersvärd to rolf söderberg in rolf söderberg’s archive, royal library ms, acc. /:, and the letter in reply from rolf söderberg to oscar reutersvärd, --, lund university library ms, oscar reutersvärd’s archive. the letters also reflect the necessity of keeping in with the professors at the art history department. for a report on the sacrifices that living on such meagre means entailed, see also cri [pseud.], “studenfamilj är hemkär”, svenska dagbladet, --; gerdes [pseud.], “akademiska knep med smörkniv och tallrik”, norrskensflamman, --. . hultén obtained a bachelor’s degree in  and a licentiate degree in ; rolf söderberg, a bachelor’s degree in  and a licentiate degree in ; oscar reutersvärd, a licentiate degree in  and a doctorate degree in ; hans eklund, a bachelor’s degree in  and a licentiate degree in ; and carlo derkert, a bachelor’s degree in . bibliographical and biographical information on the exams and published texts of the five art historians can be accessed from the online project runeberg (runeberg.org), providing free electronic editions of scandinavian literature. on the relationship between the academic position and the art critical assignments, see e. h., “konsthistorikerna f ro m m a rg i n t o m a rg i n ? th e st oc k ho l m pa ri s a x i s – http://toutfait.com/duchamp-in-sweden- - -a-critical-review/ http://toutfait.com/duchamp-in-sweden- - -a-critical-review/ principdebattera”, konstvärlden, vol. , no , , pp. –. art historians criticised oscar reutersvärd for using his taste for abstract art to analyse art historical material, focusing on intra-aesthetic criteria. see ragnar josephson, “ett underligt fyrtiotal”, svenska dagbladet, --; gotthard johansson, “impressionisterna och naturen”, svenska dagbladet, --; carl nordenfalk, “impressionisterna inför konstvetenskapen”, dagens nyheter, --. . earlier research has overlooked this intimate relationship during this period: “it is no exaggeration to say that the fields of art history and art criticism have had remarkably few points of contact”, hans hayden writes and cites one exception, teddy brunius, who worked as a critic and curator during the same period. hans hayden, “konsthistoria utanför universitetet”, in britt-inger johnsson and hans pettersson, eds., Åtta kapitel om konsthistoriens historia i sverige, stockholm, , p.  (my translation). the relationship between art history and art criticism is not commented upon in dan karlholm, hans dam christensen and matthew rampley, “art history in the nordic countries”, in matthew rampley, ed., art history and visual studies in europe, leiden, . . reutersvärd collaborated with the finnish patron maire gullichsen in the preparations for the commemorative exhibition in helsinki. reutersvärd advertised for works by the artist in the swedish newspaper svenska dagbladet, --; kruskopf and arnold, , pp. –. on the exhibition at gallery samlaren, see gunnar hellman, “variationer på ett gammalt tema”, konstperspektiv, no , ; ulf hård af segerstad, “förändrade perspektiv”, svenska dagbladet, --. eklund designed several exhibitions around the turn of the decade: abstrakt och surrealistiskt ur egon Östlunds samling, stockholm, ; vår tids konst, riksförbundet för bildande konst, ; and den unga kubismen, . . see the prefaces to the small catalogues legér och nordisk postkubism, stockholm, , and neoplasticism, stockholm, . on paris, see verlaine, , pp. – . . verlaine, , pp. –. the strategy was praised by swedish critics. see, for example, k.b., “neoplastiskt sammanhang”, aftonbladet, --. . hayden, , pp. , –, note . cf. also gedin, , pp. –, –. . interview with hultén’s partner, anna lena wibom, --; ameline and ernoult, , pp. –; teddy brunius, baertling, stockholm, , pp. –, –, –; obrist, . see also note  for information on bursaries. . brunius, , pp. –; thomas millroth and per-olle stackman, svenska konstnärer i paris, stockholm, , pp. –; söderberg, , pp. –. see also note  for information on bursaries. . the network was built not only on friendly and professional relationships; denise rené lived together with richard mortensen. söderberg, , p. . oscar reutersvärd and rolf söderberg were brothers-in-law and were married to the sisters kerstin lundhbom (b. ) and britt lundhbom (b. ). see “maud lundbohm”, svenska dagbladet, --; “ansedel maud ernestine maria nordberg”, http://www.molins.nu/ disgen// /.htm, produced: --, accessed: -- . . “svensk konst till paris”, svenska dagbladet, --; “svensk kubism och konkretism på europaturné”, dagens nyheter, --; “svensk nutidskonst på utlandsturné”, svenska dagbladet, --; “kubister på vandring”, dagens nyheter, --. . l’art suédois –: exposition d’art suédois, cubiste, futuriste, constructiviste, galerie denise rené, paris, . . the reference to reutersvärd’s letter appears in swedish in söderberg, , p. : “i maj  fick jag ett melankoliskt brev från oscar reuterswärd: ‘den där utställningen hos denise har fullständigt sugit ut pontus och mig. det har blivit vi som med egna portmonnäer fått punga ut med alla otaliga utgiver i samband med organiserandet. detta plus vårt parisbesök har kostat oss tusentals kronor och tre arbetsmånader’”. letter from oscar reutersvärd to rolf söderberg, -- (my translation); see rolf söderberg’s archive, royal library, ms, acc. /:. . “protokoll i museiärenden, –”, nationalmuseum archive ms, serie a, volym . i am grateful to jimmy pettersson for pointing this out to me. . letters from pontus hultén to rolf söderberg, -- , --, undated [], -/-, rolf söderberg’s archive, kb, acc. /:. the donation of the carlsund painting is also mentioned in the press, and legér received an honorary decoration at the opening of the exhibition from the swedish ambassador. “svensk konst gör lycka i paris”, dagens nyheter, --; “svensk nutidskonst på utlandsturné”, svenska dagbladet, --; “kubister på vandring”, dagens nyheter, --; oscar reutersvärd, “legér och skandinaverna”, in christian derouet et al., eds., legér och norden, stockholm, . the exhibition moved on to brussels only with the help of private sponsors. pelle börjesson and gerhard bonnier, “abstrakt svensk konst på brysselutställning”, dagens nyheter, --. there is no trace of the  paris exhibition in nationalmuseum’s archive, according to an e-mail to the author from eva lena bergström, --. . “[i]nitiativlust och nyodlaranda” … “ideal” … “med trosvisshet gått in för den yngsta abstrakta konsten” … “smickrande” … “styvbarnen” … “experimentatorerna” rolf söderberg “svensk konst i paris”, dagens nyheter, -- (my translation). the article was the result of an initiative by söderberg, who contacted dagens nyheter’s editor, uno dalén, in february . dalén was not at first aware of söderberg’s m a rt a ed l i ng http://www.molins.nu/% disgen/ / / .htm http://www.molins.nu/% disgen/ / / .htm involvement in the project; however, he accepted the text on the condition that it should be a report and not a critical review. see the five letters from uno dalén to söderberg, february to april , in rolf söderberg’s archive, royal library, ms, acc. /:. oscar reutersvärd later thanked söderberg for the “extremely helpful” (“stor nytta”) article. see letter from oscar reutersvärd to rolf söderberg, --, rolf söderberg’s archive, royal library, ms, acc. /: (my translation). . for a critical historiographical analysis of this narrative, see annika Öhrner, “cubism in transit: siri derkert and the early parisian avant-garde”, in harri veivo, ed., transferts, appropriations et functions de l’avant-garde dans l’europe intermediaire et du nord, paris, . . “[d]’une faim d’intellectualisme”. rolf söderberg, “de  à ”, p.  (my translation). see also rolf söderberg, “introduction”, oscar reuterswaerd (sic.), “otto g. carlsund”, and pontus hultén, “viking eggeling”, art d’aujourd’hui, série , no , octobre- novembre . . söderberg, , pp. –. in the foreword, söderberg writes that the last chapter on contemporary art was revised in . rolf söderberg, den svenska konsten under -talet, stockholm, , p. . the text was also revised in later editions. on its influence on swedish art history, see jeff werner, “svansviftningens estetik”, in cecilia widenheim and eva rudberg, eds., utopi och verklighet, stockholm, . . eugene wretholm, “svensk modernism i paris”, svenska dagbladet, --; “abstrakt stämma talar för oss”, expressen, --; “svensk konkretism i parisisk debatt”, svenska dagbladet, --; “parissvenskt”, svenska dagbladet, --; sven lövgren, “modern svensk konst inför fransk publik”, dagens nyheter, - -; ulf hård af segerstad, “ny svensk konst i fransk tidskrift”, svenska dagbladet, --; k. r—d, “böcker och tidskrifter: svenskt abstrakt inför utlandet”, sydsvenska dagbladet snällposten, --. . “[d]et partiska ställningstagandet till en positiv egenskap, som ger den dess polemiska slagkraft” … “den hävdar exklusivt de nonfigurativa konstnärernas sak” k. r—d, -- (my translation). . “[s]kaffa sig de rätta inflytelserika vännerna” … “attack” … “internationell plattform” nils palmgren, “orienterat mot framtiden”, aftonbladet, -- (my translation). . barbro schaffer, “nils o e palmgren”, svenskt biografiskt lexikon, vol. , stockholm, –. . on exhibitions and the discussions on a new museum of modern art, see bergström, , pp. –. the artists had been exhibited in shows, such as god konst i hem och samlingslokaler, stockholm, ; abstrakt konst, stockholm, ; ung konst, katalog nr. , färg och form, stockholm, ; abstrakt och surrealistiskt ur egon Östlunds samling, stockholm, ; det moderna museet, stockholm,  and carl nordenfalk and hans richter, eds., viking eggeling, –, stockholm, . see also the previously mentioned exhibitions at gallery samlaren. the two youngest, lars rolf and ted dyrssen, were still in the beginning of their careers. . rolf had exhibited at several stockholm galleries in  and , making his debut at galleri aesthetica in february . he caught the attention of yngve berg, “konstkrönika”, dagens nyheter, --, and was favourably mentioned again by berg in his “konstkrönika”, dagens nyheter, -- and - -. the only odd name out was ted dyrssen, a young sculptor who appears to have been the “joker in the pack”. the database has no record of exhibitions at renowned galleries before the  paris exhibition. . “quelques lacunes doivent être réparées dans l’ensemble sur les pays scandinaves paru dans art d’aujourd’hui (octobre-novembre )/ … /parmi les suedois quelques peintres abstraits d’une certaine importance ont été égalment omis. ce sont principalment gösta verner, ture lindström, inger ekdahl, e. gustavsson, lindquist, valentin andersson, gösta eriksson, zan, gyllenberg, john berg et nils nixon”. michel seuphor, “complément à la scandinavie”, art d’aujourd’hui, série , no , février , p.  (my translation). gösta werner’s name is misspelled in the original. . seuphor, , p. . on the friendship between seuphor and olson, see millroth and stackman, , pp. –. . gustavsson, , pp. –. . olson’s frustration can be seen in the light of the fact that just a few months earlier, in february , he had exhibited at galerie aesthetica in stockholm, presenting a new artistic profile as “neoplastiscist”. olson’s ambitions were, however, discouraged by the art critic yngve berg, who saw nothing but decorative uses for olson’s paintings. yngve berg, “konstkrönika”, dagens nyheter, --. the other artists, referred to by their full names or otherwise identifiable in seuphor’s text, only rarely appear in the database svenska dagstidningar, –. gösta verner, i.e. werner, made his debut in  but does not appear, apart from one exception (see below), in the database until . see also his obituary in dagens nyheter, --. ture lindström is mentioned for having successfully sold a graphic sheet in  at an exhibition of nordic artists in bergen. “svensk konst såld bergen”, dagens nyheter, --. inger ekdahl is briefly mentioned and characterised as doing “abstract compositions” by the critic yngve berg in a short review of the group exhibition de unga at galerie aesthetica. “konstkrönika”, dagens nyheter, --. her solo debut at lilla paviljongen (little pavilion) in  was mentioned favourably by the critic nils palmgren in aftonbladet, --. valentin andersson appears in an ad for gummeson art gallery in dagens nyheter, --, and, together with gösta werner, is referred to as a concrete painter by yngve berg, “konstkrönika”, dagens nyheter, --. zan, perhaps a reference to the sculptor jack zan, who first f ro m m a rg i n t o m a rg i n ? th e st oc k ho l m pa ri s a x i s – made his career in the northern parts of sweden, is fleetingly mentioned in the stockholm press during the s, e.g. in  by yngve berg, who briefly referred to zan’s “rather ingenious non-figurative sculptures”. yngve berg, “konstkrönika”, dagens nyheter, --. nils nixon’s career was different. he had his first solo exhibition already in  at gummeson art gallery. see yngve berg, “konstkrönika”, dagens nyheter, --. during the late s, he was associated with the new generation of concrete painters exhibited at the paris show in , but he never received the same attention. he was not an alumnus of the school of the fine art academy and as early as  was described as an odd man out by martin strömberg in the book den nya konsten. his modest career is also reflected in the lack of art historical interest in his art. cf. thomas millroth, “måleriet och skulpturen”, in signums svenska konsthistoria, vol. , konsten –, lund, , p. . i have not been able to find the artists gösta eriksson, gyllenberg, e. gustavsson and lindquist. . joyeux-prunel, , pp. –; dossin, , pp. – ; dacosta kauffmann, dossin and joyeux-prunel, , pp. –; béatrice joyeux-prunel, “jouer sur l’espace pour maîtriser le temps”, espacestemps.net, works, .., https://www.espacestemps.net/en/ articles/jouer-sur-lrsquoespace-pour-maitriser-le-temps- en/. rené girard, deceit, desire, and the novel baltimore,  (), p. . . see note ; cf. also piotr piotrowski, in the shadow of yalta, london, , p. . . on paris and the swedish art market in the s and s, see andrea kollnitz, “promoting the young”, in hubert van den berg, ed., a cultural history of the avant- garde in the nordic countries, –, amsterdam, ; annika Öhrner, “a northern avant-garde”, in pam meecham, ed., a companion to modern art, london, . . castelnuovo, ginzburg and curie,  (), pp. –. . verlaine, , pp. –, , gives a good overview of this heterogeneous art scene in the mid-s. . verlaine, , pp. –. . citation from joyeux-prunel, , p. . . ameline, , p. . ca. % of the parisian art market’s clientele came from the nordic countries between  and  according to verlaine, , p. . cf. tania Ørum, “the post-war avant-garde in the nordic countries”, in Ørum and olsson, eds., , pp. –. . piotrowski, , pp. –. . joyeux-prunel, , p. . . bourdieu and wacquant, , pp. –. . bourdieu, , p. . . joyeux, , p. ; castelnuovo, ginzburg and curie,  (), pp. –. . i am very grateful to donald broady, charlotte bydler, mikael börjesson, martin gustavsson, maria görts, dan karlholm, katarina wadstein macleod, andreas melldahl, jimmy pettersson and annika Öhrner for their valuable comments on the manuscript. funding this work was supported by swedish research council [grant number -]. summary the historical study of art in relation to geographical space has for a long time been biased by the “canonical logic” of the centre– periphery narrative. this text takes as its starting point a methodological critique of this binary framework by using an example from swedish art history, namely the art historical narrative of s sweden as a slumbering nordic province slowly being awoken by the heroic and foresighted efforts of the swedish curator pontus hultén. the text analyses two local contexts between  and : a presumed periphery, stockholm, sweden, and a presumed centre, paris, france, and the collaboration between individuals in these two spaces. in focus is a  exhibition in paris of swedish abstract art from  to . the text concludes with a methodological discussion arguing that by considering “the material conditions of encounters and exchange”, it becomes clear that the transnational contacts in these cases were spurred by local competition and that they were mutually dependent, rather than a product of diffusions of aesthetic innovation from centre to periphery. marta edling school of culture and education södertörn university huddinge   sweden e-mail: marta.edling@sh.se m a rt a ed l i ng https://www.espacestemps.net/en/articles/jouer-sur-lrsquoespace-pour-maitriser-le-temps-en/ https://www.espacestemps.net/en/articles/jouer-sur-lrsquoespace-pour-maitriser-le-temps-en/ https://www.espacestemps.net/en/articles/jouer-sur-lrsquoespace-pour-maitriser-le-temps-en/ mailto:marta.edling@sh.se 	abstract 	paris 	local competition and transnational strategies 	stockholm 	local competition 	transnational strategies 	l’art suédois, – : exposition d’art suédois, cubiste, futuriste, constructiviste 	a methodological problem: i. what is a centre? and where is the periphery? 	a methodological problem: ii. theatricalisation 	endnotes turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter , p. - doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. issn: - , ankara-turkey article info/makale bilgisi  received/geliş: . . accepted/kabul: . .  referees/hakemler: doç. dr. halim esen – doç. dr. jale balaban sali this article was checked by ithenticate. sİnema ve avangart sanat hareketlerİnİn kesİŞİm noktasindakİ belgesel yapimlar Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu* Özet sinemanın yükselişiyle birlikte bütün diğer sanat kolları bundan etkilenmiştir. sanatçılar bulundukları sanat dalını ve kendi rollerini sinemanın getirdiği yeni anlatım olanakları çerçevesinde gözden geçirmiş; kimisi de sinema alanında çeşitli deneysel çalışmalarda bulunmak üzere harekete geçmiştir. başta ressamlar olmak üzere, heykeltıraşlar, müzisyenler, yazarlar, mimarlar ve fotoğrafçılar ’li yıllarda ortaya çıkan sinema kulüplerinde bir araya gelerek filmler üzerine görüşlerini ifade etmişler kendi deneysel çalışmalarını sergilemişlerdir. sanatçılar, yaptıkları çalışmalarında sinemanın kurgusal anlatım yapısının yerine ışığın, çeşitli formların kompozisyonu ve dokular üzerinde odaklanmaktadırlar. deneyselliğin ön planda olduğu ilk çalışmalarda soyutlamalar göze çarpmaktadır. bu çalışmalar belgesel yapımlardan uzak görülmekle birlikte gerçeklikle bir bağlantıları bulunmaktadır. sanatçılar ilk aşamada gerçeklikten yola çıkmaktadırlar. ortaya koydukları çalışmaları, gerçekliğin üzerlerinde yarattığı izlenimlerin dışavurumudur. bu çalışma çerçevesinde özellikle deneysel çalışmalar odağında belgesel yapımlar gerçekleştiren yönetmenler ve yapımları üzerinde durulmaktadır. bunlar: İsveçli avangart sanatçı ve film yapımcısı viking eggeling; alman ressam, grafik sanatçısı, avangart sanatçı, film yönetmeni hans richter; fransız ressam, heykeltıraş ve film yapımcısı fernand léger; amerikalı ressam ve fotoğrafçı charles sheeler ile amerikalı fotoğrafçı ve film yapımcısı paul strand’dır. Çalışmanın amacı belgesel yapımlarında görülen avangart yaklaşımları eggeling, richter, léger, sheeler ve strand’ın ortaya koydukları yapımlar çerçevesinde değerlendirmektir. bu amacı gerçekleştirebilmek için literatür taraması yapılmış ve ele alınan sanatçıların filmleri incelenmiştir. gerçekleştirilen çalışma, belgesel yapımların sanatın diğer alanlarıyla yakın bir etkileşim halinde olmasını ve anlatım olanaklarını bu türde yakın * yrd. doç. dr. ordu Üniversitesi güzel sanatlar fakültesi sinema ve tv bölümü, el-mek: tagsermin@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter temaslarla çeşitlendirmesini ortaya koyması açısından önem taşımaktadır. anahtar kelimeler: belgesel film, avangart, deneysel film, viking eggeling, hans richter, fernand léger, charles sheeler, paul strand. the documentary productions which are in the interception point of cinema and avant-garde art movements abstract with the rise of the cinema all other art branches are affected of this. artists looked over their roles and art branch in the means of the opportunuties of new expression that cinema put forward; and some other made a move for experimental studies in the field of cinema. painters were in the lead, sculptors, musicians, writers, architects and photographers came together in the cinema clubs that appeared in s and expressed their points of views on the films and also exhibited their experimental studies. artists focus on the composition of various forms of movements, light and textures instead of fictional construction of cinema. abstractions attract attention in the first works that experimentality leads. these works are related with reality both they seem to be distant from documentary productions. artists set out from the reality in the first stage. these works that they put forward are the expression of the impressions that were created on this reality. every kind of reality can become resources to documentary film studies of artists which lean also abstractions. in the framework of this paper, four artists and their films in the focus of experimental studies are examined. these are swedish avant-garde artist and filmmaker viking eggeling; german painter, graphic artist, avant-gardist, film director hans richter; french painter, sculptor and filmmaker fernand léger; american painter and photographer charles sheeler; american photographer and filmmaker paul strand. the primary objective of this study is to evaluate avant-garde approaches that can be seen in the documentary productions in the framework of eggeling, richter, léger, sheeler and strand’s films. in order to accomplish this goal literature review and film analysis have been used as research methods. this study is a significant endeavor in demonstrating close interaction of documentary productions with other areas of arts and diversification of expression in such close contact with. structured abstract cinema as a new art form cannot reveal itself totally independent from previous artistic forms. developments in technology is an important key factor in the existence of cinema. different art forms have been guiding the process of exploring the narrative possibilities of sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter cinema. examples of these other arts include novel, vaudeville, musicals, popular theater and magic shows. while feature films benefit from these earlier examples, the situation in terms of non-fiction films seems to be a bit different. there are no related examples for documentary productions. however there are different resources that has led to documentary films. these include government reports, journals, newspapers. since these resources are all written it is noted that their lack of impact on documentary production. paintings and cartoons can be seen as closer resources for documentaries. also bruegel, hogarth, goya, daumier and toulouse-lautrec's paintings can be assessed in the visual source (rabiger, : ). the emergence of documentary film which has fed from written and visual sources is actually the birth of cinema. this emergence is closely linked with the style of representation of the nineteenth-century art’s reality in various ways. the reasons can be listed as follows: radical changes in the social structure, a new form of individuality, changes in the relationship between the artist and society, the disappearance of all ties with the past, and the emergence of a new freedom for individual artists and arts (barsam, : ). the realistic approach in the arts provides a meaningful explanation for the emergence of cinema in the nineteenth-century. artists not only in panintings and photos, but also in novels and dramas seek the ways to reflect the daily life as they see without idealizing. they choose their subjects from daily life. realist impulse in visual arts with this transformation in various branches of art was an inspiration for the first films in the cinema history. during the early years, pioneers of cinema started experimenting with the new medium in order to create a unique visual language. lots of narrative possibilities of expression created by the newly discovered medium which was cinema. a start has been made when the lumiére’s objective of the camera starts recording scene of everyday life. this study discusses the new expression possibilities which are often experimental in non-fiction film history. these experimental narrative styles which are developed in close relationship with documentary genre and the other arts. in the framework of the study, productions of the artists who are the pioneers in the development of a new film language are given as examples of avant-garde films. within the framework if this research to display the connections between documentary cinema with avant-garde art movement is intended. in order to reach this main goal, traditional literature review has been used as a research method. to evaluate documentary and the history of avant-garde filmmaking together, and to consider mutual interaction are the recent developments in the film studies. the intersection of the avant-garde artistic practice and the cinema films provide an efficient environment that needed for the development of documentaries. the interaction between documentary production and avant-garde art has an important role in bringing the current status of the documentary. when the artists who are practitioners in different fields of art started practicing in cinema it revealed the different expression possibilities of film language. since artists interpret reality through the Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter filter of their experiences they have revealed several examples of avant- garde films. the artists who perform under the influence of various artistic movements and non-fiction films that interpret their way of reality in a non-fiction format are the subject matter of this research. the directors whose artistic point of view, filmmaking style and avant- garde productions are focused as it follows: viking eggeling, hans richter, fernand léger, charles sheeler and paul strand. viking eggeling, in his only film, diagonal symphony, delivers feeling of movement rhythmically to the music. while drawings unite with each other to form sharp angles, with using softer visual elements the contrasts are highlighted. eggeling, conducted studies with hans richter to develop a universal language in his trials. they also worked on the film experiments to move to a more advanced point of this language. eggeling, with his diagonal symphony, has been a turning point for the abstract film in the history of cinema. hans richter is a director of abstract films, feature films and films that have documentary features. he has contributed to the filmic expression with visual experiments and articles he wrote as well. richter emphasis on rhythm, and makes an effort to reveal it in his films. in the short film which is named inflation, vague references are used to describe situation of the economic structure. in racing symphony there are documentary features and its subject matter is a horce race. the film includes the crowds starting their journey with a train ride to come to the area where the race took place, and ending with the celebration. richter uses various editing tricks that he has used in his other films. the director’s experimental movies attracted attention and he has been a source of inspiration for avant-garde artists. fernand léger is one of the directors that has been examined within the framework of this study. léger and dudley murphy worked together in his only film which was named mechanical ballet. he has tried to adopt a different narrative feature from the films in his time. leger considers objects or parts that will take on different characters with different techniques of handling. he creates a film that has an important place in the history of experimental film genre. his film has traces of cubism and reflects his ideas about filming objects and parts. léger, emphasizes that the light and shadow has the utmost importance. he states that the light brings to life to the most inanimate objects and also it gives cinematographic value to that objects. charles sheeler and paul strand direct together in manhatta, that is a film containing sections of everyday life in new york. this film is one of the first examples of a documentary genre which is called city symphony. manhatta is also noted as one of the first examples of american avant-garde film. in the film intertitles are used which are strings from walt whitman's poetry. the city's buildings, skyscrapers, ports, rail, roof of the building, smoke rising from the chimney is presented to the audience in manhatta. in the film, there are takes that reminiscent of the works of the directors’ in photography. the directors record the reality of certain streets and buildings of the city. people are filmed from a distance or from high-rise buildings and they are shown as large crowds. manhatta of strand and sheen is an abstract place. sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter last of all, films as a new tool attracted the attention of artists practicing in different areas of the arts. artists have applied the theories that they developed in arts to the cinema and it led to the emergence of a variety of abstract film projects. in these avant-garde films artists perform abstractions, repetitive shapes and images, simultaneous improvisation and experiments. the avant-garde productions experienced a heyday in the s. then the advent of sound has led to the development of a different language in making films. the avant- garde filmmaking represents a transitional stage in the development process of the documentary filmmaking. aesthetic approaches that have been developed by avant-garde filmmaking has continued to affect the documentary film productions in subsequent years. keywords: documentary, avant-garde, experimental film, hans richter, fernand léger, charles sheeler, paul strand. giriş sinema yeni bir sanat dalı olarak kendisini ortaya koyduğunda kendinden önceki sanatsal formlardan tamamen bağımsız olarak hareket etmemiştir. teknolojideki gelişmeler sinemayı var eden önemli bir unsurken diğer sanat dalları da sinemaya anlatım olanaklarını keşfi sürecinde yol gösterici olmuştur. bunların içerisinde roman, vodvil, müzikal, popüler tiyatro oyunu ve sihirbazlık gösterileri yer almaktadır. konulu filmler kendilerinden önceki bu örneklerden yararlanmaktayken belgesel yapımlar açısından durumun biraz daha farklı olduğu görülmektedir. belgesel sinema için kurmaca filmlere örnek teşkil edenlere benzer yapımlar bulunmamaktadır. ancak daha farklı kaynaklar belgesel filmlere öncülük etmiştir. bunların içerisinde hükümet raporları, dergiler, gazeteler bulunmaktadır. bu ilk örneklerin yazılı olduklarına dikkat edilirse bunların belgesel yapımların üzerinde etkisi olan uzak kaynaklar olduklarının altını çizmek gerekmektedir. yazılı kaynakların yanı sıra resim ve karikatür, belgesele daha yakın öncüler olarak görülebilmektedir. ayrıca brugel, hogarth, goya, daumier ve toulouse-lautrec’in resimleri görsel kaynaklar içerisinde değerlendirilebilmektedir. (rabiger, : ). İfade edilen yazılı ve görsel kaynaklardan beslenen belgesel filmlerin ortaya çıkışı gerçekte sinemanın doğuşudur ve bu ortaya çıkış on dokuzuncu yüzyıl sanatındaki gerçekliğin çeşitli şekillerde temsil ediliş biçimiyle yakından ilintilidir. fritz novotny, gerçekliğe farklı yaklaşımların neden on dokuzuncu yüzyıl sanatında yaygın olduğunu şu şekilde açıklamaktadır: sanatın dışında yatan değişimin bu nedeni sıklıkla açıklanmaktadır: toplumsal yapıdaki radikal değişiklikler, bütün dünya tarihini etkileyen bir olay olan fransız devrimi’nin sonucu olarak kıtada laik ve dini güçlerin ayrılığı; bunu izleyen demokratik bir toplum ve yeni bir formdaki bireysellik; sanatçı ve toplum arasındaki ilişkideki, hem koruyucusu hem de çevresi olarak, yaşanan temel değişim. bu yeni durumun önemi; geçmişle bütün bağların ortadan kalkmasını ve sanat ile bireysel sanatçı için yeni bir özgürlüğün ortaya çıkışını içerecek bir şekilde, dünyanın yeni bir görünümünün önünü açmasında yatmaktadır (aktaran barsam, : ). realizm ve görünenin tasvirine bunun uyarlanması kurmaca olmayan yapımların ortaya çıkışını açıklamaya yönelik bir kaynak sağlamaktadır. yalnızca resimde ve fotoğrafta değil, ayrıca roman ve tiyatro eserlerinde de yazarlar gördüklerini idealize etmeden olduğu gibi aktarmanın yolunu araştırmışlardır. konularını gündelik hayatın içerisinden seçmişlerdir. farklı sanat Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter kollarındaki bu dönüşümle birlikte görsel sanatlardaki realist itki –insanların, mekânların ve sosyal hayatın görsel gerçeklerinin giderek artan orta-sınıf izler kitlesi için kayıt edilmesi- çekilen ilk filmlere ilham vermiştir. sinemanın özgün bir görsel dili oluşturmak adına çalışmalarına yeni başladığı, anlatım olanaklarının yeni yeni keşfedildiği bir zamanda lumiére’lerin kameranın objektifini gündelik yaşamın olaylarına yöneltmeleriyle belgesel türüne bir başlangıç yapılmıştır. gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmada belgesel türünün ilk zamanlarında diğer sanat alanlarıyla kurduğu yakın ilişkiler sonucunda geliştirilen ve çoğu zaman da deneysel olan yeni anlatım olanakları ele alınmaktadır. yeni bir film dilinin geliştirilmesi konusunda öncü olan sanatçıların film çalışmalarından örneklere yer verilen çalışma çerçevesinde avangart sanat hareketleriyle belgesel sinema arasındaki bağlantıların sergilenmesi amaçlanmaktadır. belgesel sinemada avangart yaklaşımlar avangart (avant garde) fransızca bir terim olup, öncü ya da öncü birlik (orduda diğer birliklerden önce giden) anlamına gelmektedir. İlk olarak on dokuzuncu yüzyılın ilk yarısında fransa'da sanata atfen ortaya çıktığı ve genellikle etkili düşünür claude henri de saint– simon tarafından ilk defa sanat alanında kullanıldığı belirtilmektedir. saint-simon ( ) felsefi ve endüstriyel edebi görüşler (opinions littéraires, philosophiques et industrielles) başlıklı kitabında şunları yazmaktadır: “biz sanatçılar, entelektüel devrimin öncüsü olacağız. sanatın gücü aslında çok etkili ve hızlı olmasıdır. her türde silaha sahibiz: yeni fikirler beyan etmek istediğimizde, onları mermere oymakta ya da tuvale çizmekteyiz.” sanatın entelektüel devrime öncülük edeceği fikri on dokuzuncu yüzyılın ortalarında hala geçerliliğini korumaktadır. on dokuzuncu yüzyılın sonlarına doğru avangart terimi değişim yaşayarak estetik keşiflerin öncüsü olan ve kabul gören sanatsal rutinin dışındaki belirli sanatçı gruplarıyla ilişkilendirilmiştir. kolektif devrimci aydınlanma konsepti zamanla silinmiş ve avangart, estetik kavramsallaştırmaya yeni yaklaşımlar öneren, var olan tematik motiflerden uzak duran ve yeniliklerin keşfinde deneysel olan sanatsal grupları tasvir etmekte kullanılmıştır (ieeff.org). avangart ağırlıklı olarak on dokuzuncu yüzyıldaki ve yirminci yüzyılın erken döneminde sanatta yenilikçi yaklaşımlara göndermede bulunmakla birlikte; fikir ve yaratıcılığın sınırlarını zorlayan bütün sanat kollarına uyarlanabilmektedir. avangart sanatın ’li yıllarda, sosyalist düşüncelerden etkilenmiş olan gustave courbet’in realizmiyle başladığı ifade edilmektedir. bunu modern sanatın birbirini izleyen hareketleri takip etmiştir (tate.org). avangart sanat akımlarının temel özellikleri: aktivizm, antagonizm, nihilizm, agonizm ve fütürizm olarak özetlenmektedir. görsel sanatlarda ’ların sonu ve ’lerin başı itibariyle gerçeklik, hareket ve algı sorgulanırken, dadaizm, sürrealizm, kübizm ve fütürizmin ortaya çıkışının da aynı döneme denk geldiği görülmektedir. bu akımlar gerçekliği yeniden yorumlama çabasını ve sanatçıların mekânı, zamanı, moderniteyi ele alışlarını etkilemiştir. romanda, james joyce, virginia woolf ve marcel proust’un çalışmaları bireysel bilincin derinliğini ve zamanın serbestçe akan doğasını ele almıştır. müzikte arnold schoenberg, anton von webern, alban berg ve igor stravinsky ton tekniğini öne çıkarmışlardır. resimde nesnelerin parçalara ayrılmış, yeniden tanımlanmış ve farklı bakış açılarından üç boyutlu yeniden sunulması picasso ve braque gibi kübistlerin çalışmalarında dikkatleri çekmektedir. farklı sanat dallarındaki bu avangart bakış, sinemaya potansiyelini yeterince kullanmadığı konusunda çeşitli eleştiriler yöneltmektedir. sanatın farklı alanlarında çalışmalar ortaya koyan sanatçılar yeteneklerini beyazperdede sergilemek üzere yola çıkmışlardır. sinemanın modern hayatın karmaşası içerisinde insanlara bir kaçış sunmaktan daha fazlasını verebileceğine olan inanç sanatçıları harekete geçirmiştir (saunders, : - ; barsam, : ). sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter sinema ile sanattaki avangart akımların kesişim noktasını barnouw ( ), şu şekilde özetlemektedir: filmin yükselişiyle birlikte diğer bütün sanat alanları da bundan etkilenmiştir. bu alanlarda çalışmalar sergileyenler de rollerini gözden geçirmişler, sinemaya hücum etmişler, kendileri için yeni pozisyonlar belirlemişler, bunları güçlendirmek için izimler geliştirmişler, sinemadan çeşitli öğeler kendilerine mal etmişler ve manifestolar yazmışlardır. bazıları da ana ilgisini filme yöneltmiştir ( : ). barnouw’un ( ) belgesel tarihinde resim geleneği olarak ifade ettiği türdeki yapımlar, ’lerin ressamları, heykeltıraşları, müzisyenleri, yazarları, mimarları ve fotoğrafçıları tarafından ortaya konulmuştur. bu yapımlarda sanatçılar, sanatlarını icra ettikleri alanlardaki deneyimlerini sinemaya taşımakta ve çeşitli denemeler gerçekleştirmektedirler. yeni bir sinema dili geliştirmek ve var olan anlatım olanaklarına alternatif getirmek amacındaki girişimler sinema tarihinin avangart akımlarla etkileşim içerisinde olduğuna işaret etmektedir. bu etkileşim noktasındaki filmler deneysel ve soyut görülmekle birlikte, sanatçıların gerçeklikten yola çıkmaları daha sonrasında kendi kişisel yorumlarını devreye sokmaları neticesinde belgeselle bağlantılar içermektedir. hakikat sanatçıların ortaya koydukları soyutlamaların temelini oluşturmaktadır. wollen ( ) ’lerde iki avangart yaklaşımdan bahsetmektedir. avrupa’daki sanatçı film yapımcıları soyut yollarla göstermeyi ortadan kaldırıp göstereni keşfetmekte; sovyetler birliğindeki film yapımcıları da göstermenin önceliğinde ısrar etmektedirler. nichols ( ), avangart film yapımcılarını bu şekilde karakterize ederken iki yaklaşım arasındaki ayrımın sınırlarının geçirgen olduğunu ve var olan etkileşimin de göz ardı edilmemesi gerektiğini ifade etmektedir. hem avrupa’dan hem de rusya’dan louis buñuel, jean vigo, dziga vertov, hans richter, louis delluc, ve joris ivens gibi isimlerin içinde yer aldığı sanatçılar, modernist geleneğe uygun bir biçimde filmin biçimsel anlamdaki yapısal özelliklerine vurgu yapmaktadırlar. aynı zamanda sosyal etki konusuna da önem vererek belgesel itkisi doğrultusunda yapımlar ortaya koydukları görülmektedir. bu dönemdeki yapımlara bakıldığında bunların modernist keşif ile belgeselin yakın ilişkisini ortaya çıkardıkları görülmektedir. nichols’un ( ) vurguladığı üzere modernist avant garde yaklaşım, grierson’un belgesel için söylediği “gerçekliğin yaratıcı bir biçimde ele alınışı” ifadesini tam anlamıyla yerine getirebilmektedir. avangart yaklaşımında filmler ortaya koyan sanatçılar belgesel anlatım biçimlerini çeşitli şekillerde yapımlarında yansıtmışlardır. bu yapımlardaki yaklaşım gerçekçi sunumun dominant dünyasının doğallık, kararlılık ve tutarlılığını alt üst etmekte ve parçalamaktadır ( - ). sanatçıların gerçekliği yaratıcı bir biçimde ele alması, var olan gerçeklerin dizinsel bir biçimde kayıt edilmesinden öte, anlamın yaratımı sürecine işaret etmektedir. ivens ( ) bu konuda, “sanatçının kişiliğinin onu gerçeklikten ve basitçe kayıt etmekten ayırdığını” ifade etmektedir. vertov ( ) da “benim yolum, dünyanın algılanışına ilişkin bir yenilik yaratmaya doğrudur. bu nedenle, dünyanın bilinmeyenlerini yeni bir biçimde açımlamaktayım” sözleriyle gündelik hayattaki gerçekliğin yaratıcı süzgeçten geçirilerek biçimlendirilmesi konusuna açıklık getirmektedir. parçalama, yabancılaştırma, kolaj, soyutlama, görelilik, illüzyonizm karşıtlığı ve gerçekçi sunumun saydamlığının genel olarak reddi olarak ifade edilebilecek modernist unsurlar içerisinde yer alan öğeler belgesel film yapımında yerlerini almaktadır. ’lerin avangart yapımları gerçekliğin sunumunun inşasıyla birlikte koşulların yeniden gözden geçirilmesi girişiminde bulunmaktadırlar. klasik anlatının karar odaklı ya da belgesellerin problem-çözüm yapısı yerine Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter açık uçlu, zaman ve mekânla belirsiz bir şekilde oynamaya yer vermektedirler. bu yapımlarda sorunların çözümündense sorunun tanımı ve önceliği tartışılmaktadır. belgesel görüntülerinin dizinsel sunumları ile zaman ve mekanın kurgu sayesinde sıralanmasının kombinasyonunun gücü bir çok avangart sanatçının dikkatini filme yönlendirme nedenidir. modernist avangart, belgeselin genel görünümüne çok hayati katkılarda bulunmaktadır. dünyanın görünümünü, gerçek hayattan çekilen görüntüler ve çekimler aracılığıyla imgesel olarak yeniden oluşturmaktadır. bu türdeki görüntüleri filmi yapan kişi belgesel sunumuna uygun hale getirmektedir. sokaklardan çekilen görüntüler, makinaların çalışması, trafikteki araçlar vb… hem avangart sanatçıya hem de belgeselciye hazır konular sağlamaktadır. bazı avangart yapımlarda soyutlamaya doğru kayılmakla birlikte pek çok çalışmada gerçekliğin fark edilebilir görsellerinden onları dönüştürebilmek için yola çıkılmaktadır (nichols, : - ). sinemada sanatçıların yaptıkları denemelere marcel duchamp, francis picabia, fernand léger, man ray, salvador dali ve jean cocteau gibi sanatçıların soyutlama üzerine teorilerini sinemaya uygulamaları örnek olarak verilebilir. sanat üzerine ilk önemli deneysel filmler; hans richter’in ritim (rhythm - ) ve yarış senfonisi (racing symphony- ); walter ruttmann’ın hafif Şarkı opus (light song opus i- ), İsveçli film yapımcısı viking eggeling’in diyagonal senfonisi (diagonal symphony- ) ve fernand léger ile dudley murphy’nin mekanik balesidir (ballet mécanique- ). ancak sanatçıların sinema ile yaptıkları bu deneyler kısa soluklu olmuştur. barsam ( ) gibi araştırmacılar bunun nedenini ressamların film yapımını pahalı, zor ve çabalarının karşılığını alamadıkları bir alan olarak algılamaları şeklinde açıklamaktadır ( ). belgeselin gelişimine ilişkin var olan tarihsel anlatılar, belgeselin yükselişinde ’lerin avangart sanat hareketlerinin etkisini genellikle göz ardı etmektedir. belgeselin öncülerinden, grierson gibi belgeselin öncüsü olan isimler, modernist yeniliklerin belgesel için tehlikeli örnekler olduklarını vurgulamaktadır. nichols’un ( ) ifade ettiği gibi bu türdeki yaklaşımların da belgesel geleneğinden avangartın silinmesinde etkisi bulunmuştur. ancak belgesel -estetik ve bilimsel itkilere eşit şekilde karşıt- ve avangart arasındaki ayrımların her zaman çok katı olmadığı da görülmektedir. İlk zamanlardaki kurmaca olmayan ve avangart teknikler ile gerçekleştirilen denemeler form ve içerik arasındaki gerilimi aydınlatmaktadır. belgesel görüntülerin maddeselliğini ortaya koymakta ve kendilerini temsillerine dikkat çekmekte bu yapımların önemi büyüktür (geiger, : - ). belgesel sinemanın ilk yıllarında gerçekleştirdikleri deneysel çalışmalarla alana katkıda bulunan sanatçıların içerisinden bu çalışma çerçevesinde ele alınanlar şu şekildedir: viking eggeling, hans richter, fernand léger, charles sheeler ve paul strand. viking eggeling’in deneysel film Çalışmaları dada, yapısalcılık, soyut sanat ile bağlantılı olan, avangart sanatçı ve film yapımcısı olarak anılan viking eggeling; yaptığı çalışmalarında çizgilerin geometrik olanaklarının temalar olarak organize edilmesine odaklanmaktadır. hans richter ile tanıştığında çizgilerin orkestra edilmesinin anlamı üzerinde çalışmaktadır. savaşın bitimiyle richter ile birlikte almanya’ya geri dönen eggeling, önce kaydırmalı çizimlerde sonra da filmlerde hareketin tasviri üzerine çalışmaya başlamıştır. eggeling, bir film kamerası alarak, yeni türde bir sinema yaratımı konusunda araştırmalarına hız vermiştir. yılında günümüzde kayıp olan müzikal kübist stilde geliştirmeye çalıştığı genellikle yatay-dikey orkestrası (horizontal-vertikal orchester) olarak anılan yatay-dikey kütle (horizontal-vertical mass) olarak da bilinen filmini yapmıştır. eggeling’in yatay-dikey orkestrası yaklaşık şekil içeren resim rulosuna dayanmaktadır (http://stendhalgallery.com/?page_id= ). http://stendhalgallery.com/?page_id= sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter resim . yatay-dikey orkestrası, viking eggeling, mcrowell-mcma .com fikirlerini yatay-dikey orkestrası’nda derlemekte olan eggeling müzikteki kontrpuana benzer şekilde kontrast ve analojinin yaratımını gerçekleştirmeye çalışmaktadır. deneysel ve pratikteki çalışmalarından yola çıkarak kendi düşüncelerini sistematik olarak geliştirmiştir. uzun yıllar biçimsel sınıflandırmanın modellerine ilişkin yaptığı çizimler, bunları benzerlikleri ve kontrastları çerçevesinde organize etmesi sonucunda; kontrast ve analoji kullanımıyla sadece dikey ve yatay çizgilerin dışında her türden formel element geliştirebileceğini keşfetmiştir. eggeling yaptığı çalışmalarda müzikte var olan yapısal düzeni oturtmaya çalışmıştır (elder, : , ). halka gösterimi yapılmayan yatay-dikey orkestrası’na ilişkin sanat eleştirmeni ernst kállai şu şekilde yorumda bulunmuştur: gabo’nun kinetik yapısını hatırlatan estetik perspektif viking eggeling’in soyut filmi, sanatçının verdiği isimle yatay-dikey orkestrası’nda ( yılında taslağı çizilen) ortaya çıkmaktadır. film biçimlerin, oranın, ritmin, sayının, yoğunluğun, pozisyonun ve zamansal kalitenin bağlantılarını içermektedir. bu eggeling’in kontrast-analoji teorisinde ele aldığı unsurların kapsamlı bir listesini sağlamaktadır. zaman faktörü, hareketin mekânsal optik akışı ile hemen deneyimlenmekte olup, müzikle bağlantıyı imlemektedir… (o’konor : - , aktaran elder, : ). eggeling ve richter form bağlantılarının sentaksına ilişkin çalışmalarının sonuçlarını ’de “evrensel dil-universelle sprache” olarak adlandırdıkları manifestoyu hazırlayarak, içlerinde albert einstein’ın da olduğu dönemin önemli isimlerine göndermişlerdir. manifestolarında herkes tarafından anlaşılan evrensel bir dili soyut biçimle ilişkilendirmektedirler. amaçları içerisinde deneysel film çalışmalarının ufa (alman film şirketi) tarafından desteklenmesi için onları ikna etmek de bulunmaktadır. bastırdıkları kitapçıktan günümüze ulaşan bir örnek bulunmamakla birlikte genel çerçevesi stephen c. foster’ın “hans richter: activism, modernism and the avant-garde” isimli çalışmasında ve eggeling’in çok az bilinen tarihli “elvi fejtegetések a mozgómüvészetrö (theoretical presentation of the art of motion)” başlıklı denemesinde yer almaktadır. eggeling ve richter’in evrensel dil ile hedefledikleri, görsel algılama üzerine dayanan ve mekanizmasının evrensel olduğuna ikna oldukları bir iletişim sistemi geliştirmektir. richter, herkesin böyle bir dille görmeye ve kayıt etmeye dayanan insani kabiliyete yaslanmasından ötürü etkileşime gireceğinden bahsetmektedir. (elder, : ; foster, : - ). richter, evrensel dil’e ilişkin şunları vurgulamaktadır: bastırdığımız kitapçıkta, soyut formun diğer bütün ulusal dillerin ötesinde ve üzerinde bir dilin olasılığını sağladığına ilişkin tezimizi ayrıntılı olarak açıklamaktayız. böyle bir dilin temeli bütün insanoğlunda benzer formu olan algıda yatmaktadır. bu daha önce var olmayan bir şekilde evrensel sanatı vaat etmektedir. Öğelerin dikkatli bir şekilde analiziyle insanın görüşü, en basitinden Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter en karmaşığına duyguların, düşüncelerin, objelerin ve fikirlerin bir form bulacağı ruhani bir dil olarak yeniden oluşturulabilmelidir (richter, : ). bütün sanat dalları bu dili kullanabilmekle birlikte, eggeling ve richter’e göre film bunu daha üst seviyelere taşımaktadır. eggeling film alanının sanatçılar tarafından etkinlikleri için yeni bir alan olarak devralınacağını belirtmektedir. eggeling ve richter yılında soyut film konusunda ortak denemelerine hız vermişlerdir. richter, eggeling’in soyut resimlerindeki düzenin ve bach’vari açıklığın hayranıdır. İkisi sinemada hareket yoluyla bachvari bir hissiyatı yaratmak istemektedirler. eggeling sinema filmi olarak girişimlerini deneysel soyut filmi diyagonal senfoni (symphonie diagonal) ile devam ettirmiştir. diyagonal senfoni üzerine çalışırken eggeling, daha önceki film denemeleri ile biçim ve renk üzerine yaptığı çalışmalara dayanan bir teori geliştirmeye odaklanmıştır. teorisini görsel dinamikler olarak adlandıran eggeling’in temel prensibi, gökyüzüne karşı renkli ışıkların yansıtılarak biçimin elementlerini ortaya çıkartmaktır. kaydırmalı resimlere dayanan filmi, görüntülerin, ritmin, hareketin ve müziğin sentezi olarak ifade edilmektedir. yaptığı soyutlamalar için herhangi bir gerçekliği kullanabilmektedir. eggeling’in filmi deneysel sinema tarihinde dönüm noktası olan soyut filmlerden bir tanesidir. film yılında ilk önce yakın arkadaşlara ve aile çevresine özel olarak gösterilir, mayıs yılında final versiyonu genel gösterime girer (valckle, : ; http://stendhalgallery.com/?page_id= ; elder, : , ). film nisan tarihinde alman film sansür memurları tarafından lisanslanmıştır. filmin metre olduğu belirtilmektedir, saniyede kare gösterim hızında dakika saniyedir. filmin açılışında “viking eggeling tarafından yılında yapılmıştır. diyagonal senfoni şimdiye kadar tasarlanan en iyi soyut filmdir. film, zaman aralıklarının organize edilmesine ilişkin temel prensiplerin keşfedilmesine ilişkin bir deneydir” ifadesi frederick j. kiesler imzasıyla yer almaktadır. filmi zamanla gelişen bir resme benzemektedir. eggeling arkadaşlarına sonradan müzik eklenmemesi konusunda talimat vermiştir. ancak arşivlerde yer alan kopyalarda müziğe yer verilmiştir. kullanılan müziğin ritmine uyumlu bir şekilde siyah zemin üzerinde beyaz renkte geometrik şekiller belirmekte ve kaybolmaktadır. filmini gözler için müzik olarak değerlendirilen eggeling, filminde hareketi, şekillerin uyumlu bir biçimde ortaya çıkması, bazı bölümlerinin yavaş yavaş kaybolması ve yenilerinin belirmesiyle elde etmektedir. siyah zeminde şekiller yatay, dikey ve diyagonal olarak yer almakta, ritmik bir şekilde hareket duygusu yaratılmaktadır. bendazzi’nin ( ) belirttiği gibi sanatçı, sanatın estetik, politik, etik ve metafizik içermesi gerektiğine inanmaktadır ( ). resim . diyagonal senfoni, viking eggeling, , anthologyfilmarchives.org sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter eggeling’e göre soyut anlatımda sanatçı duyguların aktarılması için sınırsız bir kaynağa sahiptir. soyut sanat ile her bir bireyin ruhunun yansıtılmasının başarılabileceğini düşünmektedir. sanatçı ortaya koyduğu deneysel çalışmalar ile evrensel bir sinema dilini geliştirmek üzere çaba harcamış ve döneminin sanat akımlarının etkisinde gerçekleştirdiği film çalışmalarıyla sinema tarihinde bir dönüm noktası olmuştur (elder, : ). hans richter ve avangart film alman ressam, grafik sanatçısı, avangart sanatçı ve film alanında denemelerde bulunan hans richter, dada ve kübist akımlarla bağlantılı çalışmalar gerçekleştirmiştir. ayrıca richter, avangart filmin gelişiminde büyük bir öneme sahiptir. döneminin önde gelen sanat akımlarının parçası olan richter, zürih dada hareketinin tristan tzara ve hans arp’la birlikte kurucu üyesi olmuştur. richter bu dönemine ilişkin şunları söylemektedir: kübizmin yapı arayışının etkisinde kaldım, ancak önerdiklerinden de memnun değildim. - yılları arasında kendimi giderek artan bir şekilde kübistlerden devralınan parçaların yığını temel prensibine ilişkin objektif bir anlayış kazanmak adına spontane ifadeyi bastırma çatışmasıyla karşı karşıya buldum. bu nedenle nesneye –herhangi bir nesneye- ilişkin ilgimi yitirdim. bunun yerine pozitif-negatif (beyaz-siyah) zıtlığına odaklandım. bu en azından bana çalışma hipotezi sağladı. bu sayede resmin bir tarafının diğeriyle olan ilişkisini organize edebildim (richter, : ). richter - yılları arasında dada sergileri, yayınları ve etkinlikleriyle iç içe bulunmaktadır. Üç dört günde ürettiği vizyoner portreler olarak ifade ettiği resimler ortaya koyduğu dönemde eggeling ile tanışmıştır. birlikte film denemelerinde bulunan sanatçılar, soyut sanat ve film dili üzerine teorik çalışmalar gerçekleştirmişlerdir. richter film çalışmalarına ilişkin olarak modern sanatın bir parçası ve eski sanatların verdiği sözleri yerine getirebilecek bir araç olduğunu belirtmektedir (nga.gov, socks-studio.com). richter, eggeling’in çalışmalarında ağırlıklı olarak görülen biçimlerin ritmik olarak yönetilmesinden ziyade dikkatini harekete odaklamakta ve öğelerin biçimlerinin değişen ilişkilerine ağırlık vererek sinematik görüntüleme deneyiminin geçiciliğini vurgulamaktadır. yaratıcılığındaki dönüm noktası olarak sinematik ritmi keşfetmesi gösterilmektedir. daha sonra bu keşfi ilk filminin başlığına da taşımıştır: film ritimdir: ritim (film ist rhythmus: rhythmus ’ - ) (sensesofcinema.com, network.com). richter’e göre ritim düşünceden daha farklı bir anlama gelmekte olup, bu ikisinin anlamı karşılaştırılamaz. ritim tamamen düşünce ile açıklanamamakla birlikte düşünce de ritim açısından değerlendirilip, değiştirilip, yeniden üretilemez. İkisi de bağlantılarını kaynaklandıkları ve daha ilerisini inşa ettikleri evrensel insan hayatında bulmaktadır. richter’in ilk film çalışmalarında, görsel ritim filmin uzamsal öğelerinin bir bütün olarak bir araya getirilmesinde kullanılmıştır (network.com). Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter resim . hans richter: ritim ( ), youtube.com richter, ritmi duygusal ifadenin özü olarak görmektedir. ritim tamamen soyut olan ilk filmlerden biri olup geometrik şekillerin birbiri peşi sıra ileri, geri, dikey ve yatay olarak akışını içermektedir. ritim ’i ritim (rhythmus , ) ve son soyut filmi olan ritim (rhythmus , ) takip etmektedir. film denemelerine fotoğrafik materyalleri de kullanarak filim Çalışması (filmstudie-film study, ) ve kahvaltı Öncesi hayaletler (vormittagsspuk- ghosts before breakfast, ) ile devam eden richter, belgesel niteliğindeki çalışmalarıyla da dikkatleri çekmektedir (sensesofcinema.com, network.com). richter’e ( ) göre belgesel yaklaşımıyla birlikte film özüne dönmüştür. belgesel doğanın kullanımıyla insanın da işin içerisine katılmasıyla birlikte sağlam estetik temellere yaslanmaktadır. belgesel yapımları kurmaca olanlara göre daha orijinal olarak değerlendiren richter’in konuyla ilgili görüşleri şu şekildedir: doğal unsurların seçimi, elenmesi ve koordinasyonuyla, film teatral ya da edebi gelenekle bağlantısı olmadan orijinal bir şekilde biçimlendirilmektedir. bu belgesel filmlerin yanı sıra yarı belgesel kurmaca filmler (potemkin, paisan gibi) için de geçerlidir. belgesel yapımlardaki unsurlar seçimleri ve koordinasyonlarına göre sosyal, ekonomik, politik, genel insani anlamlar içerebilir. ancak bu anlam sunulan gerçeklerden bağımsız bir şekilde var olamaz ya da yeniden üretim (bir aktörün performansında olduğu gibi) değildir. kamera tarafından ve kurgu odasındaki süreçlerden geçerek yaratılmaktadır. belgesel film orijinal bir sanat formudur. kendi orijinal seviyesinde gerçekleri ciddiyetle ele almaktadır. hayatlarımızın rasyonel tarafını bilimsel deneylerden şiirsel manzara çalışmalarına kadar hakikatten uzaklaşmadan ele almaktadır. kapsamı son derece geniştir. bununla beraber, belgesel yalnızca işlenmemiş doğal materyalin rasyonel bir biçimde yorumlanmasına sadık kaldığı sürece orijinal sanat biçimidir ( : ). richter ( ), belgeselin gerçeklikten beslenmesini orijinal sanat biçimi olmasını destekleyen bir özellik olarak yansıtmaktayken, film sanatına katkısının sınırlı olmasına da vurgu yapmaktadır. sadık kalınan gerçeklik, konulu filmlerde var olan sihir, şiir ve irrasyonel unsurların yokluğu belgesel yapımları sınırlılıklara hapsetmektedir. ancak bu unsurlar gerçekte sinematografik olup, filmin karakteristiğini oluşturmakta ve gelecek vaat etmektedir. bu noktada deneysel-avangart olarak ifade edilen filmlerin önemini vurgulayan richter, bu yapımlarda rasyonel yorumlama gerekliliği, prodüksiyon klişeleri ya da finansal zorunluluklar tarafından sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter konulan engellerin olmadığını belirtmektedir. film aracıyla ilgilenen bireylerin, yeniden üretimin önüne geçmek için yaptıkları bilinçli girişimlerin sinematografik anlatımların kullanımıyla bir araya gelmesi sonucunda yirminci yüzyılın başında farklı ülkelere yayıldığı görülmektedir. avangart hareketin avrupa’da yayılırken başını modern ressamların çektiğini ifade eden richter kendisini de bu sanatçıların içerisinde görmektedir. sanatçılar filmi modern sanatta karşılaştıkları problemlerin üstesinden gelmenin aracı olarak görmektedirler ( ). richter kariyerinin başlangıcında soyut filmler ortaya koymuşken ilerleyen yıllarda daha temsili, figüratif, konulu ve içeriği belgesele kayan filmler gerçekleştirmiştir. resim . hans richter, enflasyon ( ), article.wn.com richter’in görevlendirilme sonucunda çektiği filmler içerisinde en başarılısı olarak ifade edilen filmi enflasyon’da (inflation, ), para konusu ele alınmaktadır. finansal yapının tahmin edilemezliğine gönderme olarak algılanan film, ekonomik krizin devam edeceğine ilişkin bir mesaj olarak yorumlanmaktadır. filmin başlangıcında yer alan yazıda “azalan insanların ve artan sıfırların bir kontrpuanı olduğu” ifade edilmektedir. enflasyon yazısından metal ve kâğıt paraların yakın plan çekimine geçiş yapılmaktadır. para sayan eller üst üste bindirilen görüntüler eşliğinde verilirken, yığılı olan kâğıt destesiyle alınabilecek olanların görselleri de bunları takip etmektedir. yakın plan yüzler, kalabalıklar ve kareye sığmayacak kadar artan sıfırlar, kontrolden çıkan bir durumu yansıtırken, karmaşa yıkılan bir duvarın görüntüleriyle son bulmaktadır. bir belgeselin girişi olan üç dakikalık filme eleştirmenlerden gelen olumlu tepkiler sayesinde yarış senfonisi gibi başka giriş filmleri yapmasının önü açılmıştır. richter’in yarış senfonisi (racing symphony-rennsymphonie, ) almanya’da gerçekleşen tipik bir at yarışından görüntülere yer verdiği bir yapımdır. film soyutlamalardan uzak olup, belgesel alanında bir deneme olarak değerlendirilebilmektedir. richter’in diğer filmlerinden daha az deneysel olan bu filmde ritme duyduğu hayranlığın görüntülerin birbirleri peşi sıra verilirken göz ardı edilmediği görülmektedir. film, yaklaşık beş dakika olup, muybridge’in atlarla yaptığı deneyini hatırlatmaktadır. açılışında “konulu bir filme belgesel giriş olarak yapıldığı” ifadesi yer almaktadır. atların kapılarının açılışı genel çekimle gösterildikten sonra yakın plan bir erkek yüzüne kesme yapılmaktadır. birkaç insanın bulunduğu bir alanda yapılan çevrinmeyi, görevli kadınların yarış pistinin zeminini düzleştirmeleri, çimlerin sulanması, bir kafeteryada yapılan hazırlıklar, gişelerin açılması takip etmektedir. Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter resim . hans richter'in yarış senfonisi ( ), www.theartblog.org trene yapılan kesme, hızla akıp giden rayların, dönen tekerleklerin görüntüsü, hareket eden trenden etrafa yapılan kesmeler filmin temposunu arttırmaktadır. yolcular ellerindeki gazetelerini incelemekte, yolcuların görüntüleri hareket eden trenin görüntüleriyle birlikte verilmektedir. trenin hoppegarten istasyonuna gelişi, yolcuların trenden inmeleri, birbirinin üzerine bindirilen görüntülerle birlikte gösterilmektedir. daha sonra kalabalık caddelerden trafik görüntüleri ve bu trafiği yönlendiren polis memuruna kesme yapılmaktadır. kalabalıkların akın akın at yarışı yapılan alana gelmesine, seyircilerin ve atların yakın plan çekimleri eşliğinde yer verilmektedir. yarışın izleyicileri ellerindeki listeleri incelemekte ve dikkatli bir şekilde piste doğru bakmaktadırlar. listelerde isimler işaretlenmekte ve bandonun çaldığı marş eşliğinde jokeylerin atların sırtında yerlerini alışları gösterilmektedir. bandonun çaldığı müzik, atın sırtını okşayan el, bir kadının sırtını sıvazlayan el ve bıyığını şekillendiren erkek yüzüne yapılan hızlı kesmelerle tempolu bir şekilde film devam ederken, yürüyen insanların ve atların ayaklarından detay çekimlerine yer verilmektedir. İzleyiciler yarışı seyredecekleri yerlere doğru ilerlerken, atlar da pistteki yerlerine doğru hareket etmektedir. bahis oynayan insanların kalabalığı, uzattıkları paralar ve aldıkları fişlerden detay çekimlerle birlikte gösterilmektedir. yarışın başlaması için atlar yerlerine geçmekte ve işaretçi bayrağı sallayarak yarışı başlatmaktadır. atların koşma sesleri yarıştan görüntülere eşlik ederken, yarışı ilgiyle takip eden izleyicilere de kesme yapılmaktadır. yarışın sonlarında heyecanlanan kalabalığın bağrışmaları, birbiri üzerine bindirilmiş olan izleyici görüntüleriyle birlikte verilmektedir. biten yarış içilen içkiler, kaldırılan kadehlerle kutlanmakta; çalan çanın sesi kapanan bahis tahtası da eğlencenin son bulduğunu belirtmektedir. yarış senfonisi, bir at yarışından görüntüleri içeren bunu seyircisine aktarırken avangart filmlerin başvurduğu çeşitli kurgu hilelerine yer veren bir filmdir. gündelik hayattan görüntüler içermesiyle belgesel özelliklerini bünyesinde barındırmasıyla dikkatleri çekmektedir. at yarışı, seyircilerin hipodroma ulaşmak için yaptıkları tren yolculuğundan, yarışın son bulup kutlamalar yapmalarına kadar ele alınmıştır. dönemin insanlarının gündelik yaşamlarından bir kesit olan filmde richter, tempoyu kurguyla ayarlamaktadır. görüntülerin bazen birbirlerinin üzerine bindirilerek gösterildiği film, bu yönüyle diğer avangart filmlerle benzerlik taşımaktadır. http://www.theartblog.org/ sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter richter avangart filmlerinin kazandığı başarıların ardından nazi almanya’sını yılında terk etmek zorunda kalarak new york’a yerleşmiştir. film institute of city college’da dersler veren richter son zamanlarda yazdığı yazılarında, “arı sinemanın” sanatçının özgürlüğü, film içeriğinin moral sorumluluğu ve anlaşılmaz olanın değeri olmak üzere üç karakteristiği olduğundan bahsetmektedir. bu üç karakteristik özellik, arı sinemanın yirminci yüzyılın toplumunda alacağı yerin belirlenmesinde etkiye sahiptir. bunlar hem birbirleriyle ilişkilidir hem de genel hatlarıyla uluslararası avangart sinemanın üç önemli aşamasını tasvir etmektedir.  başlangıç, sinematik bağımsızlık iddiası ( - )  belgeselin daha politik kullanımına doğru bir eğilim ( ’lar)  son olarak, romantik, vizyoner new york temelli avangart ( ’lar- ’ler) İlk iki aşamada aktivist olarak temel bir role sahip olan richter’in, üçüncü aşamaya olan katkısı eğitimci olarak gerçekleşmiştir (sensesofcinema.com/). sanatçının film kariyerinin ilk zamanlarında çektiği deneysel filmlerin çığır açıcı olduğu ve bu filmlerle anıldığı görülmektedir. richter, gelecek kuşağın avangart sanatçıları için ortaya koyduğu çalışmalarıyla ilham verici olmuştur. fernand léger’in kübist fütürist Çalışmaları modern endüstriyel teknoloji ve kübizmden etkilenen fransız ressam joseph fernand henri léger; delaunay, matisse, rousseau ve apollinaire ile kübist akımın öncülerinden olan sanatçılarla yakın bağlar kurmuştur. sanatında cézanne’ın etkileriyle soyutlamadan uzaklaşmış ve tamamen grafik realizme öncelik tanımıştır. yalnızca “çizgiler, formlar ve renkler” gözüne hoş görünmektedir. geliştirdiği farklı kübist tarzı, objeleri en basit temel formlara indirgemesi ve biçimsel kısıtlamayla ayırt edilmektedir. bir ressam olarak léger’in kübizm, konstrüktivizm ve modern reklam posterlerinin ve çeşitli uygulamalı sanat biçimlerinin gelişimi üzerine büyük bir etkisi olmuştur (apollinaire vd., , ; fernand-leger.com). birinci dünya savaşı deneyimi léger’in insan figürüne olan ilgisini arttırmıştır. - yıllarındaki soyutlamayı unuttuğunu ifade eden léger, “çevremdeki bazı erkeklerin çiğlik, çeşitlilik, mizah ve apaçık mükemmellikleri; onların faydacı gerçekliğe ilişkin kati algıları ve bunun içinde bulunduğumuz yaşam ve ölüm dramasının ortasında uygulanması, …beni tüm renk ve hareketliliğiyle argo boyamaya yöneltti” sözleriyle o dönemdeki sanat anlayışını özetlemektedir (http://www.theartstory.org/artist-leger-fernand.htm). mekanik formların çarpıcı renklerde ele alındığı “makine sanatını” geliştiren léger’in modern teknolojiyle teması birinci dünya savaşı sırasında gerçekleşmiştir. süper insan güçleri ve mühimmatın kesin güzelliği onu büyülemiştir. léger, yılı itibariyle pürizm, picasso ve diğerleri tarafından uygulanmakta olan retro neo-klasizmden etkilenmiştir. léger mekanik bir klasizmi uygulamayı başarmıştır. dişli çark ve vidalar gibi modern nesneleri, insan figürleriyle birlikte makine benzeri varlıklar olarak; kati, geometrik ve sert bir biçimde anıtsal işlemeyi başarmıştır (fernand-leger.com). léger, sanatında farklı kaynakların etkisinde kalmış figüratiften soyuta stili dönemden döneme değişim göstermiş; sanatını resimden seramiğe filmden tiyatro ve dans setlerine, cama baskıya ve kitap sanatlarına kadar farklı ortamlarda icra etmiştir. etkinlik gösterdiği alanlardan biri olan sinemaya ilişkin görüşlerini şu şekilde ifade etmektedir: http://sensesofcinema.com/ Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter hareketli resimde her türlü gayret objelerin gerçek değerinin ortaya çıkartılmasına yoğunlaşmalıdır. Şu anki sinema romantik, edebi, tarihi, ekspresyonist, vb…dir. bütün bunları bir kenara bırakıp, bir boru, bir sandalye, bir el, bir göz, bir daktilo, bir şapka, bir ayak vs…, vs…yi göz önünde bulunduralım. bütün bunların oldukları gibi perdeye getirebilecekleri katkıyı düşünelim. değerleri bilinen her yolla artmaktadır. bu sayımda, insan vücudunun parçalarını; yeni realizmde insanoğlunun, benliğin, yalnızca bu parçalarda ilginç olduğu gerçeğini vurgulamak amacıyla bilerek ekledim. bu parçaların da listelenen diğer objelerin herhangi birinden daha fazla öneme sahip olduğu düşünülmemelidir. (léger, : ). avangart film tarihindeki en ünlü ve en çok analiz edilen filmlerinden biri olan mekanik bale’yi (ballet mécanique) ( - ) amerikalı görüntü yönetmeni dudley murphy’nin yardımlarıyla birlikte gerçekleştirmiştir. filmin yapımında léger ve murphy’nin katkılarına ilişkin sinema tarihçilerinin farklı görüşleri bulunmakla birlikte, film iki ismin katkısı, george antheil’in müzikleri ve man ray’in sinematografik desteğiyle tamamlanmıştır. resim . fernand léger, mekanik bale ( ), docomomo.be léger’in söz ettiği objelerin filme alınması konusunda vurguladığı teknik, objenin ya da objenin parçasının izole edilmesi ve yakın çekimlerle mümkün olan en büyük ölçekte perdede gösterilmesidir. objenin ya da parçasının muazzam bir şekilde büyütülmesi ona daha önce sahip olmadığı bir şekilde bir kişilik vermektedir. léger objenin bu şekilde tamamen yeni bir lirik ve plastik gücün aracı haline geldiğini belirtmektedir. İstenen etkinin yaratılmasında kullanılması gereken sinematografik metotlar konusunda léger şunları söylemektedir: gerçek plastik etkiyi elde etmek için alışılmış sinematografik metotların unutulması gerekmektedir. işık ve gölge sorunu asıl önem taşıyan konu haline gelmektedir. hareketliliğin dereceleri göstericinin farklı hızını kontrol eden ritimle ayarlanmalı, zamanlama matematiksel olarak hesaplanmalıdır. objeye ve imajına ilişkin yeni türde bir duyarlılık kazanmış olan yeni türde insana gereksinim duyulmaktadır…(léger, : ). sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter sinemanın doğasında ve görsel algıda dizginsiz bir oyun görünümünde güçlü bir sorgulama olarak ifade edilen mekanik bale, avangart sanatın coşkuyla karşılanan örneklerinden biri olmuştur (delson, : ). bu kısa deneysel filmde (yaklaşık dakika) gerçek bir anlatı formu bulunmamakla birlikte bir iç monoloğun ve bilinç akışının olduğu belirtilmektedir. film, fransızca “mekanik bale, yılında ressam fernand léger tarafından yapılmıştır. bu senaryosuz ilk filmdir. tüm avrupa kentlerinde ve new york’ta birkaç kez sunulmuştur. bu özel toplantılarda paris’i ilk defa görmüş oluyoruz. film bize enteresan anlar sunuyor… film s.m. eisenstein’ın dediği gibi sinemanın başyapıtlarından” yazısıyla başlamaktadır. bir charlie chaplin hayranı olan léger, yaptığı Şarlo kuklasıyla gerçekleştirdiği kısa bir animasyon ile filmin açılışını yapmaktadır. Şarlo mekanik bale’yi sunar ara yazısı ile film devam etmektedir. bu sekansı katharine hawley murphy’nin salıncakta sallandığı çekimler takip etmektedir. hızlı bir kurguyla beyaz şapka, şarap şişeleri, beyaz üçgen görüntüleri bir biri ardına sıralanmaktadır. gülümseyen bir kadının ağzının yakın plan çekimi, beyaz şapka, kadının gülümsemesi tekrar gösterilmektedir. dönen beyaz daireler, dairesel bir şekilde sallanan sarkaç, salıncaktaki kadının sallanışının tersten görüntüsü, kameraya doğru ileri geri sallanan metal bir cismin yakın plan çekimiyle üzerindeki kameraman ve yanındaki kişinin görüntülerinin yansımasına yapılan kesmeyi, sallanan sarkacın ve geometrik şekillerin üst üste bindirilerek bir arada gösterildiği çekimler takip etmektedir. léger’in kübist-fütürist resimlerinin yansımaları olan şekillerin bir araya gelip ayrılmasıyla oluşturulan kurguda geometrik şekiller, daireler, sarkaçlar birbirini takip etmektedir. hızlı bir kurguyla beyaz üçgenler dairelerin peşi sıra gösterilmektedir. léger ve murphy’nin kamerası fütürist dişlileri, sarkaçları hareket halinde çekmekte ve kurguda bunların görüntüleri üst üste bindirilmektedir. hızlı bir şekilde dönen makinaların metal parçalarının arasında bir erkeğe ve papağana kesmeler yapılması tempoyu düşürmektedir. beyaz dairelerin yerini hızlı bir şekilde üçgenlerin alışı, daha sonra yerini rakamlara ve metal dişlilere, şarap şişelerine ve tekrar rakamlara bırakması tempoyu giderek tırmandırmaktadır. hareket vurgusu hem hızlı kurguyla hem de karede yer alan cisimlerin gerçekleştirdikleri bazen de mekanik olan devinimleriyle birlikte yapılmaktadır. kameranın önünde hareket eden sarkaç, kameraya doğru gidip gelen metal cisim, hızla dönen metal teller giderek artan çılgın bir tempoyu yaratmaktadır. kaydıraktan kayan adam, tempolu yürüyen postallı ayakların detay çekimleri, hızla akıp giden araçların yol hizasındaki kameranın üzerinden geçip gitmesi çekimlerin içeriğinin değiştiğini ancak hızın hiç azalmadığını göstermektedir. pistonlar, tabelalardan numaralar, canlandırılmış şarap şişeleri, izole edilmiş gülümseme ve karnavaldaki çeşitli atraksiyonlar birbirini takip etmektedir. omzunda taşıdığı yükle merdivenleri tırmanan kadının tam üst basamağa varmışken tekrardan ortalardan tırmanmaya başlaması hareketin devam ettiğini göstermektedir. pahalı bir inci kolyeye ilişkin ara yazı, kareyi kaplayan sıfırlar, tencerelerin oluşturduğu sıraların farklı açılardan çekimi, manken bacaklarının çeşitli şekillerde hızlı bir kurguyla gösterilmesi filmin sonlarında da temponun düşmediğinin kanıtıdır. sarkaçtan, beyaz şapkaya ve beyaz ayakkabıya hızlı geçişler, model kiki’nin yakın plan yüz çekimleri, şarap şişelerinin farklı kombinasyonlarla hareketleri, Şarlo’nun kuklasının hareket eden görüntüleri ve daha sonra parçalarına ayrılması gösterilmektedir. filmin başında salıncakta sallanan katharine murphy’nin bu sefer dingin bir şekilde ağaçtaki çiçekleri koklayan görüntülerine yer verilerek film sonlanmaktadır. mekanik bale kurgunun anlatısal olmayan olanaklarıyla doğrudan oynamakta ve kurgu ile bilinç akışı arasındaki karşılıklı ilişkiyi ortaya koymaktadır. eisenstein; kurgunun anlatı yapısıyla olan ilişkisinde, kurgunun zamanı ve mekânı dönüştürme gücünün sinemaya çok özel bir unsuru kazandırdığını ifade ederken aynı zamanda joycevari bilinç akışına hizmet etmesi gerekliliğine Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter vurgu yapmaktadır (small ve johnson, : ). léger’in filminde kurgunun bu yönde bir amaca hizmet ettiği görülmektedir. delson ( ) konunun yer almadığı filmin pompalayan makine parçaları, dişliler, çarklar ve pistonlarıyla makine devrine ilişkin bir fantezi olduğunu ifade etmektedir. eleştirmenler filme ilişkin “bütün her şey birbiriyle ilgisi olmayan objelerin fantastik ve çılgın bir dansıdır, film görenlere enerji verir. onları uyarır ve heyecanlandırır. onların imgelemlerinde kendi hikâyesini yaratır. dondurmacıdaki bir kokteyl gibidir” sözleriyle yorumda bulunmaktadırlar ( ). léger yönetmen olarak gerçekleştirdiği bu tek filmiyle, takip eden yıllarda deneysel filmin bir tür olarak ortaya çıkmasıyla daha da ünlenmiş ve sinema tarihinde önemli bir yere sahip olmuştur. charles sheeler ve paul strand’ın modernist soyutlamaları amerikalı ressam, fotoğrafçı ve modernist charles sheeler, fotoğraf ve filmle resim ve çizim arasındaki ilişkiyi entelektüel bir disiplinle araştırmıştır. kendi fotoğraflarını, film görüntülerini resimleri ve çizimleri için temel olarak kullanan sheeler, böylelikle aralarındaki benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları da ortaya çıkartmaktadır (nga.gov). sheeler, yılının başlarında fotoğrafçı paul strand’la birlikte bir film projesi gerçekleştirmek üzere işe koyulmuştur. amerikalı fotoğrafçı ve film yapımcısı olan strand, amerikan modernist fotoğrafçılığının öncülerindendir. fotoğraflarında soyut denemeleri, sokak portreleri, doğal ve makine formlarının yakın plan çekimleri, amerika’nın güney batısı, meksika, amerika’nın yeni İngiltere bölgesi, fransa, İtalya, İskoçya, fas, gana ve romanya’ya yaptığı ziyaretleri yer almaktadır. alfred stieglitz ve edward weston gibi isimlerin yanı sıra gerçekleştirdiği çalışmalarla birlikte erken dönem amerikan modernizmini tanımlamaya katkıda bulunmuştur (metmuseum.org). sheeler ve strand’ın birlikte gerçekleştirdikleri new york şehrindeki bir günü anlatan kısa filmleri manhatta ( ), avangart sinemanın nirengi noktası olarak belirtilmektedir. film, jan- christopher horak tarafından amerika birleşik devletleri’nde yapılmış olan ilk avangart çalışma olarak ifade edilmektedir. filmde, modernist avangart estetik unsurların yanı sıra kurmaca olmayan özellikler bir araya gelmektedir. geiger ( ), manhatta için, avangart ve kurmaca olmayan arasındaki kesişimi keşfeden en etkili yapımlardan biri olduğunu ifade etmektedir ( ). manhatta, new york’taki gündelik yaşamdan sahneleri modernist soyutlamalar kullanarak yabancılaştırmaktadır. strand ve sheeler precisionismin destekçileri olarak, sanayileşmiş, modern amerikan manzarasının kesin ve net bir şekilde tanımlanmış formlarını yakalamaya çabalamışlardır. avrupa’daki fütürizm ve kübizmden etkilenmişlerken, precisionism kentleşmiş yeni dünya mekânlarının yenilik ve enerjisiyle kaynaşan belirgin bir amerikan estetiğini amaçlamaktadır. film yapanların resim ve fotoğraftaki çalışmalarını yansıtmakta, sinematik bir bildiri olarak mütevazi bir görünümdedir. manhatta, özenle çerçevelenmiş hareket eden görüntülerdense hareket içeren fotoğraf izlenimi uyandıran çekimlerle karakterize edilmektedir (geiger, : ). juan suarez’in ( ) filmin kalıcı değerine katkıda bulunan unsurlardan öne çıkarttıklarını şu şekilde sıralamak mümkün:  belgesel değeri,  moderniteye ilişkin önemli bir bildiri olması,  modeller, şekiller, hareketler ve ritme ilişkin estetik bir keşif özelliği, sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter  Çağdaş sosyologlar, mimarlar ve planlamacılar tarafından üretilen, metropolitan modernitesi tanımlarının görsel karşılığı olması ( : ). manhatta, geiger’in ( ) ifade ettiği üzere uluslararası bir modaya dönüşecek olan şehir senfonisi türünün ortaya çıkmasına da yardımcı olmuştur. bu türdeki filmlerde şehirdeki gündelik yaşam gün doğumundan batımına kadar geçen süreçte ele alınmaktadır. Şehir senfonilerine farklı örnekler dünyanın büyük metropollerinde gerçekleştirilerek ortaya konulmuştur. bunların içerisinde walter ruttmann’ın berlin: büyük bir Şehrin senfonisi (berlin: symphony of a great city, ), herman weinberg’ın bir Şehir senfonisi (a city symphony, – kopyası kayıp olmakla birlikte, bazı bölümleri sonbahar yangını’nın-autumn fire içinde bulunmakta, – ), ve jay leyda’nın bir bronx sabahı (a bronx morning- ) gibi yapımlar yer almaktadır (geiger, : ). filmin ismi, walt whitman’ın mannahatta isimli şiirinden gelmektedir. ara yazılarda da whitman’ın şiirlerinden dizelere yer verilmiştir. filmin açılışında yer alan dizeler şu şekildedir: dünya şehri (bütün ırklar için burada) uzun boylu cephelerin şehri mermer ve demirin gururlu ve tutkulu şehir. manhatta, yaklaşık dakika uzunluğunda olup, çekimden oluşmaktadır. başlangıcında şehre yaklaşmakta olan feribottan çekimler gösterilmektedir. ara yazıda “milyonlarca ayaklı manhattan hapsedilmediğinde, kaldırımlarına iner” ifadesi belirmektedir. feribotun iskeleye yanaşmasını, yolcuların akın akın güverteyi boşaltması takip etmektedir. yolcuların sokaklara dağılması, at arabaları, büyük bir şehrin kalabalıklaşan caddelerini gözler önüne sermektedir. bu görüntülerin ardından whitman’ın mannahatta şiirinden yapılan alıntı gelmektedir. “demirin yükseğe gelişmesi, ince, güçlü, görkemli, yükseliş açık gökyüzüne doğru.” gökdelenlerin tepesinden aşağıya doğru yapılan kamera hareketiyle bacalardan çıkan dumanlar ve daha aşağıdaki yapılar görülmektedir. görüntüleri takip eden ara yazı şu şekildedir: “Şehirlerin yapısı, kürek, büyük vinç, iskele duvarı, çalışma duvarlar ve tavanlar.” bir inşaat alanında çalışanlar, büyük kayaları taşıyan vinç ve operatörü, demir iskelet inşa edilmesi ve sahnenin sonunda inşaat alanının geniş açıda gösterilmesi inşaatın ne kadar büyük olduğunu gözler önüne sermektedir. bu görüntüleri bir başka ara yazı takip eder. “nerede bizim yüksek tepe mermer ve demir güzellikler zıt yönlere doğru uzanan.” Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter binaların çatılarının gösterilmesi ve gökdelenlerin tepelerine aşağıdan yukarıya doğru yapılan kamera hareketleriyle film devam etmektedir. binaların bacalarından dumanların çıkması fotoğrafa benzeyen sabit çekimlerle kayıt edilmiştir. görüntüdeki tek hareket dumanlardan kaynaklanmaktadır. farklı açılarla yapılan çekimlerle bacalardan dağılan dumanın gösterilmesi sürdürülmüştür. beliren ara yazı şu şekildedir: “telaşlı ve köpüklü suların şehri, Şehir koyların içine yerleşmiş.” gemilerin hareket halindeki görüntüleri, iskelenin sabit çekimi, gökdelenlerin tepesinin gösterilmesini şu ifade takip etmektedir: “bu dünya tamamıyla demir raylarla yayılmış.” rayların görüntüsü ve bacasından dumanlar çıkan lokomotifin hareketsiz çekimleriyle devam edilmektedir. tren bacasından duman çıkararak yavaş yavaş ilerlerken yeni bir ara yazı belirmektedir. “her denizi kaplayan vapurların hatlarıyla.” hareket halindeki vapurların bacalarından dumanlar çıkaran görüntülerini, durağan görüntüleri takip etmektedir. karedeki tek hareket bacalardan çıkan duman ve bunun rüzgârla dağılmasıdır. ayrıca büyük bir gemiye ilişkin görüntülerde güvertedeki mürettebatın hareketleri dikkat çekmektedir. kamera sabit bir şekilde önündeki hareketi kayıt etmektedir. farklı açılardan çekilen bacalardan çıkan duman görüntülerine kesme yapılmaktadır. takip eden ara yazı aşağıdaki gibidir: “köprülerin şekilleri, geniş çerçeveler, kirişler, kemerler.” resim . manhatta ( ) brooklyn köprüsünden bir çekim, nytimes.com sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter brooklyn köprüsünü gösteren sabit çekim, köprünün mimarisini gözler önüne sererken köprü üzerindeki yaya trafiği kareye hareket getirmektedir. bu görüntüyü takip eden ara yazı gelecek olan bir sonraki görüntünün daha öncekilerde olduğu gibi bir habercisidir. “nehirde gölgeli grup, büyük buharlı römorkör, yakından her iki tarafı da kuşatılmış mavnalar tarafından.” gemilerin uzaktan çekimleri onları hareket halinde göstermektedir. Çeşitli çekim ölçekleriyle gemilerin hareketleri takip edilmiştir. ara yazı şehrin kalabalığına gönderme yapmaktadır. “Şehrin durmayan kalabalığının nereye hareket ettiği, canlı uzun gün.” resim . new york’taki trinity kilisesi, sensesofcinema.com yüksek bir noktadan yapılan çekimde, sokakta yürüyen insanlar ve trafikte hareket eden araçlar görülmektedir. yüksek bir binadan yapılan bir başka çekimde raylarda giden bir tren ve yürüyen yayalar gözükmektedir. benzer bir açıdan yapılan bir başka çekimde daha kalabalık bir cadde gösterilmektedir. yüksek noktalardan yapılan bu çekimleri, cadde seviyesine yakın bir noktadan yapılan ve kalabalığı daha yakından gösteren bir çekim izlemektedir. sabit çerçeveye hareketi insanlar ve araçlar getirmektedir. Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter “gün batımının muhteşem bulutları! ihtişamınla sırılsıklam et beni ya da erkekleri ve kadınları nesiller benden sonra.” gün batımı görüntüsü, bulutlu gökyüzü, karanlık gökyüzünün altındaki şehrin siluetinin yavaş yavaş kararmasıyla film son bulur. kamera hareketlerinin son derece sınırlı olarak kullanıldığı filmde, ara yazılarına sıklıkla yer verilmektedir. bu yazılar whitman’ın, “mannahatta”, “a song of occupations," "a broadway pageant," ve "city of ships" başlıklı şiirlerinden alıntılar olup, kendilerinden sonra gelecek olan görüntülerin içeriğine ilişkin ip uçları içermektedirler. filmin tamamlanmasının ardından sınırlı sayıda kopyası, new york, los angels, londra ve paris’te gösterimler gerçekleştirmek üzere çoğaltılmıştır. filmin eldeki kopyası yılında restorasyondan geçmiştir (tcm.com; nytimes.com). manhatta amerikan şehirciliğini hem yansıtmakta hem de kırmaktadır. film, birleşik devletler modernitesinin özelliğini görüntülemekte ve izleyicileri tanıdık şehir manzarasına yeniden bakmaya zorlamaktadır. amerikan yeniliği, melezliği ve dinamizmini; bu iyimserliği incelikle işaretlerken kutlamaktadır (geiger, : ). filmde sheeler ve strand büyük bir metropolün gündelik hayatından parçaları seyircisiyle paylaşmaktadır. bu gündelik hayatta özellikle üzerinde durulanlar şehrin yüksek binaları, caddeleri ve ulaşım araçlarıdır. bu şehirde yaşayan insanlar kalabalıklar olarak gösterilmekte ve mesafeli bir biçimde kamera tarafından takip edilmektedir. fotoğraf karesini andıran sabit çekimlerin ağırlıklı olarak kullanıldığı yapımda new york gökdelenleriyle ve yeni yapılan binalarıyla gösterişli bir şehir olarak tasvir edilmektedir. bu film sanatçıların sanatsal çalışmaları üzerindeki etkisini sonraki yıllarda da devam ettirmiştir. sonuç belgesel ve avangart film yapım tarihini bir arada değerlendirmek ve karşılıklı etkileşimlerini göz önünde bulundurmak son zamanlarda film çalışmalarında yaşanan gelişmeler içerisinde yer almaktadır. avangart sanatsal uygulamalar ve sinema filmlerinin kesiştiği nokta belgesel yapımların gelişimi ve bugünkü noktaya gelmesi için gerekli verimli ortamı hazırlamıştır. film yapımcılarının ve farklı alanlardan sanatçıların film yapımına gösterdikleri ilgi sinemanın ilk yıllarında çeşitli anlatım olanaklarının denenmesini sağlamıştır. gerçekliğin sanatçının deneyimler süzgecinden geçerek yorumlanması sonucunda çeşitli avangart filmler ortaya konulmuştur. yapılan araştırma çerçevesinde çeşitli sanat akımlarının etkisinde çalışmalar gerçekleştiren sanatçılar ve onların gerçekliği kurmaca olmayan bir biçimde yorumladıkları filmleri üzerinde durulmuştur. ele alınan yönetmenlerin içerisinde viking eggeling, hans richter, fernand léger, charles sheeler ve paul strand yer almaktadır. viking eggeling, elde kopyası olan tek filmi diyagonal senfoni’de hareketi müzik eşliğinde ritmik bir şekilde vermektedir. Çizgiler keskin açılar oluşturacak şekilde birbirleriyle birleşirken, daha yumuşak görsel unsurlar da kullanılarak tezatlık öne çıkarılmaktadır. eggeling, yaptığı denemelerinde evrensel bir dil geliştirmek üzere hans richter ile birlikte çalışmalar gerçekleştirmiş, film denemelerinde de bu dili daha ileri bir noktaya taşımak amacıyla hareket etmiştir. diyagonal senfoni ile eggeling sinema tarihinde soyut film açısından bir dönüm noktası olmuştur. hans richter, soyut film, konulu film ve belgesel içeriğine kayan çalışmalar gerçekleştirmiş bir yönetmen olup, sinema dilinin geliştirilmesi konusunda hem filmsel denemelerle hem de yazdığı yazılarla katkıda bulunmuştur. ritim duygusuna önem veren richter, bunu filmlerinde ortaya koymak adına çaba göstermiştir. enflasyon isimli kısa filminde ekonomik sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter yapının içinde bulunduğu belirsiz duruma göndermelere yer vermiştir. yarış senfonisi isimli belgesel özelliklerine sahip çalışmasında, klasik bir at yarışı konusunu kalabalıkların yarışın gerçekleşeceği alana gelmek üzere çıktıkları tren yolculuğundan başlatıp, yarışın bitmesiyle yapılan kutlamalarla sonlandırmaktadır. richter, filminde diğer çalışmalarında göze çarpan çeşitli kurgu hilelerine (görüntülerin üst üste bindirilmesi, bölünmüş kare vb.) başvurmaktadır. yönetmen sinema tarihi açısından özellikle deneysel filmleriyle dikkatleri üzerine çekmiş ve sonraki yıllarda film alanında denemelerde bulunacak olan avangart sanatçılar için esin kaynağı olmuştur. Çalışma çerçevesinde ele alınan yönetmenlerden fernand léger; dudley murphy ile birlikte gerçekleştirdiği tek filmi olan mekanik bale’de döneminde yapılan sinema filmlerinden farklı bir anlatım benimsemeye çalışmıştır. objelerin ya da parçalarının farklı tekniklerle ele alınmalarıyla farklı karakterlere bürüneceklerini düşünen léger, deneysel film türünde sinema tarihinde önemli bir yere sahip olan bir çalışmaya imza atmıştır. resim sanatında etkisinde kaldığı kübizm gibi akımların izlerini taşıyan filminde sinema sanatının konu edindiği nesneleri filme alışına ilişkin radikal fikirler öne sürmektedir. léger, ışık ve gölgenin son derece önem taşıdığını, ışığın en cansız nesneyi canlandıran ve ona sinematografik değerini veren bir etkiye sahip olduğunu belirtmektedir. charles sheeler ve paul strand’ın birlikte çektikleri manhatta, new york’taki gündelik hayattan kesitleri içeren bir filmdir. filmin belgesel film türleri içerisinde yer alan şehir senfonileri türünün ilk örneklerinden biri olduğu ifade edilmektedir. ayrıca manhatta’nın ilk amerikan avangart film örneklerinden biri olduğu da belirtilmektedir. filmde walt whitman’ın şiirlerinden dizeler ara yazı olarak kullanılmaktadır. Şehrin binaları, gökdelenleri, limanı, demiryolu, binaların çatıları, bacalardan çıkan dumanları sabit çerçeveler eşliğinde seyirciye sunulmaktadır. yönetmenlerin fotoğraf alanındaki çalışmalarını andıran karelere sahip olan filmde, insan figürlerinin eksik olduğu görülmektedir. film, şehrin belirli caddeleri ve binalarının gerçekliğini kayıt altına almaktadır. İnsanlar mesafeli bir şekilde yüksek binalardan çekilmekte ya da büyük kalabalıklar olarak gösterilmektedir. strand ve sheeler’in manhatta’sı sert, net ve soyut bir yerdir. sonuç olarak sinema yeni bir araç olarak güzel sanatların farklı alanlarında etkinlik gösteren sanatçıların dikkatini çekmiş ve çeşitli denemeler yapmalarına da olanak sağlamıştır. sanatçılar alanlarındaki çalışmaları çerçevesinde geliştirdikleri teorileri sinemaya uygulamışlar bu da çeşitli soyut film projelerinin ortaya çıkmasına yol açmıştır. bu avangart yapımlarda sanatçılar, soyutlamalar, tekrar eden şekiller ve görüntüler, anlık doğaçlamalar ve gündelik hayattan dokunuşlarla denemelerde bulunmuşlardır. avangart yapımlar ’li yıllarda en parlak dönemini yaşamış olup, daha sonra sinemaya sesin gelişi ve dünyayı saran ekonomik bunalım film yapımında daha farklı bir dilin geliştirilmesine yol açmıştır. avangart film yapımı belgesel filmin gelişim sürecinde bir geçiş evresini temsil etmekte olup, geliştirilen estetik yaklaşımlar sonraki yıllarda da belgesel sinema yapımlarını etkilemeye devam etmiştir. kaynakÇa apollinaire, guillaume, eimert, dorothea, podoksik, anatoliĭ ( ). art of century: cubism, parkstone international, new york, ny, usa. avant-garde, http://www.tate.org.uk/learn/online-resources/glossary/a/avant-garde, erişim tarihi: . . . barnouw, eric ( ). documentary: a history of the non-fiction film, oxford press, oxford. barsam, richard m. ( ). non-fiction film: a critical history, indiana university press, indianapolis. http://www.tate.org.uk/learn/online-resources/glossary/a/avant-garde Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter bendazzi giannalberto ( ). animation a world history volume : foundations-golden age, crc press, florida. charles sheeler, http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/features/slideshows/charles- sheeler.html?view=grid#slide_ , erişim tarihi . . . delson, susan b. ( ). dudley murphy hollywood wild card, university of minnesota press, minneapolis, mn, usa. eggeling, viking ( ). symphonie diagonale. film. elder, bruce r. ( ). hans richter and viking eggeling: the dream of universal language and the birth of the absolute film, avant garde film (alexander graf and dietrich scheunemann eds.), rodopi, new york, ss. - . fernand léger, ballet mécanique ( ), www.docomomo.be, erişim tarihi . . . flaherty, robert ( ). nanook of the north, film. foster, stephen ( ). hans richter: activism, modernism, and the avant-garde, mit press, ma. geiger, jeffrey ( ). american documentary film. edinburgh, gb: edinburgh university press. hans richter: rhythmus ( ), www.youtube.com, erişim tarihi . . . hans richter, inflation ( ), www.article.wn.com, erişim tarihi . . . hans richter'in race symphony İsimli filmi ( ), www.theartblog.org, erişim tarihi . . . hardy, forsyth ( ). grierson on documentary. faber and faber, london. horizontal-vertical orchestra, viking eggeling , mcrowell-mcma .com, erişim tarihi: . . . ivens, joris ( ). "reflections on the avant-garde documentary," in french film theory and criticism: a history/anthology, ed. richard abel, vols. (princeton, n.j., ), : . izod, john; kilborn richard ( ). “the documentary”, film studies (john hill, pamela church eds), oxford university press, new york. kehr dave, avant-garde, vintage, is back in focushttp://www.nytimes.com/ / / /movies/ kehr.html, , erişim tarihi: . . . léger, fernand ( ). ballet mecanique. film. léger, fernand. ( ). “a new realism – the object,” introduction to the art of the movies: an anthology of ideas on the nature of movie art, ed. lewis jacobs, new york: noonday press, , ss. - . léger, fernand, argentan -gif-sur-yvette , http://www.fernand-leger.com/, erişim tarihi: . . . léger, fernand, http://www.theartstory.org/artist-leger-fernand.htm, erişim tarihi: . . . manhatta ( ). brooklyn köprüsünden bir çekim, www.nytimes.com, erişim tarihi: . . . new york’taki trinity kilisesi, www.sensesofcinema.com, erişim tarihi: . . . http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/features/slideshows/charles-% % % % % % % sheeler.html?view=grid#slide_ http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/features/slideshows/charles-% % % % % % % sheeler.html?view=grid#slide_ http://www.fernand-leger.com/ http://www.t/ sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter nichols, bill ( ). documentary film and the modernist avant-garde, critical inquiry, vol. , no. : - . paul strand ( – ), http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pstd/hd_pstd.htm, erişim tarihi . . rabiger, michael ( ). directing the documentary, focal press, boston. rhythmus , an early abstract film by hans richter ( ), http://socks- studio.com/ / / /rhythmus- -an-early-abstract-film-by-hans-richter- /, erişim tarihi: . . . richter, hans ( ). inflation, film. richter, hans ( ). race symphony, film. richter, hans ( ). the film as an original art form, college art journal, vol. , no. (winter), pp. - . richter, hans ( ). “easel-scroll-film”, magazine of art, no. (february), p. . richter, hans ( ). ‘my experience with movement in painting and film the nature and art of motion., (gyorgy kepes ed.) braziller, new york, ss. - . richter, hans, http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/ /dada/artists/richter.shtm, erişim tarihi . . . richter, hans, http://sensesofcinema.com/ /great-directors/hans-richter/, erişim tarihi: . . . rotha, paul ( ). belgesel sinema. Çeviren: İbrahim Şener, İzdüşüm yayıncılık, İstanbul. saunders, dave ( ). belgesel. Çeviren: ali nejat kanıyaş. kollektif, İstanbul. small, edward s.; johnson, timothy w. 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"the two avant-gardes," readings and writings: semiotic counter- strategies (london, ), pp. - . http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pstd/hd_pstd.htm http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/ /dada/artists/richter.shtm http://sensesofcinema.com/ /great-directors/hans-richter/ http://www.anthologyfilmarchives.org/ http://www.ieeff.org/becomingpoetics.pdf http://stendhalgallery.com/?page_id= http://networkawesome.com/mag/article/weird-rhythms-the-avant-garde-films-of-hans-richter/ http://networkawesome.com/mag/article/weird-rhythms-the-avant-garde-films-of-hans-richter/ Şermin taĞ kalafatoĞlu turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / winter citation information/kaynakça bilgisi tağ kalafatoğlu, Ş. ( ). “sinema ve avangart sanat hareketlerinin kesişim noktasındaki belgesel yapımlar / the documentary productions which are in the interception point of cinema and avant-garde art movements”, turkish studies -international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic-, issn: - , (prof. dr. hayati akyol armağanı), volume / winter , ankara/turkey, www.turkishstudies.net, doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. , p. - . x publ. astron. soc. aust., , , – . deep observations with the parkes -cm multibeam system m. j. disney, p. j. boyce, g. d. banks, r. f. minchin and a. e. wright university of wales, cardiff, po box , cardiff cf yb, uk mjd@astro.cf.ac.uk, pjb@astro.cf.ac.uk, gdb@astro.cf.ac.uk, awright@atnf.csiro.au received november , accepted february abstract: we report on a preliminary analysis of a sec per point survey of square degrees in centaurus, carried out with the parkes -beam system. the signal-to-noise ratio is found to improve as √ tobs for the whole integration. we have detected hi sources between + and + , km s− either by eye or by using the new galaxy-finding algorithm picasso. over half of these are new hi detections. around a dozen of these are not associated with catalogued galaxies and, in two of these cases, we have not identified an optical counterpart on the digitized sky survey. arguments are put forward to explain why deep integrations are needed to find low surface brightness objects. keywords: galaxies: distances and redshifts — galaxies: luminosity functions — galaxies: mass function — galaxies: statistics why go deep? it is worth remembering that hipass is a shallow survey, with only sec integrations per point, and this may severely limit what we can find with the survey (staveley-smith et al. ). therefore, it was always intended that much deeper observations would be made of limited areas of sky, though it was never certain how long such integrations could be profitably carried on, i.e. for how long the signal-to-noise ratio would continue to improve as√ t (disney & banks ). we report here, on behalf of the deep team, some results from our early experiments. reasons for going deep are: (a) to find intrinsically fainter dwarf galaxies. hipass (banks et al. ) is capable of finding ≥ m¯ of hi in a dwarf at a distance of · mpc. in view of the present controversy over the faint end of the luminosity function (phillipps et al. ; trentham ) it is desirable to go deeper, particularly in nearby groups. (b) we should expect that low surface brightness objects will generally have low hi column densities— and this is born out by observations (bothun, impey & mcgaugh ). however, system noise puts a limit to the lowest column density attainable by any radio telescope, irrespective of size, i.e. nhi ≥ tsys √ ∆v (km s− )/tobs(s) (cm − ) ( ) (e.g. disney & banks ) and nhi and surface brightness µb (in blue mag per square arcsec) will be related through nhi ∼ (mhi/lb) · ( −µb) . ( ) thus the hipass survey would appear to have a column density limit (ts ' k, ∆v ' km s− ) of around × cm− , which corresponds to a mean sb (if mhi/lb ' · ) of bµ over the whole hydrogen radius. if the hi radius is twice the optical (van zee, haynes & giovanelli ) and if most of the light from the exponential disk comes from within four optical scalelengths then the central sb, µ (b), of a galaxy with bµ as defined above will be about bµ. thus we cannot expect to find many lsbgs with hipass. we need to go – magnitudes fainter, i.e to integrate for to times as long. (c) a rather different way to approach this is to ask what we would have to do to find optically invisible objects in hi: to detect in hi: distance d < dmax (mhi) ∼ (mhi/fmin) ; not to detect in optical: distance d > dmax(lb) ∼ (lb/lmin) , where fmin and lmin are the minimum detectable hi and optical fluxes respectively. combining these: for an invisible hi detection qastronomical society of australia - / / $ . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /as downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /as https://www.cambridge.org/core deep observations mhi lb > fmin(hi) lmin(opt) (independent of distance) . ( ) now we can calibrate ( ) for the multibeam system, using our recent hipass survey of the cen-a group (d = · mpc) (banks et al. ) where we found mmin = m¯, tobs = s and the faintest optical identification at mb = m. we can thus construct table for the minimum mhi/lb at which we could find invisible objects in different surveys. table . minimum m hi/lb ratios for optically invisible galaxies to be detected in different parkes multibeam surveys survey (mhi)¯/(lb)¯ normal galaxy lsbg vlsbg hipass ( s) · · ×hipass · · ×hipass · · ×hipass · · the reason for the three different columns in table is that low sb galaxies show only part of their light above the sky. thus a lsbg in the table is assumed to show only %, the vlsbg only · %, whereas the normal galaxy is assumed to show all (not of course strictly true). table makes it clear that to find objects with the multibeam which are not on the digital sky survey and yet have mhi/lb values that are not too extreme (≤ ), it is necessary to observe for at least five times longer than hipass. noise in the deep given the novel nature of the multibeam system and the active scanning mode in which data are taken, there was no certainty that the noise would decrease with integration time as predicted. we have carried out an experimental survey to a depth of · × hipass, i.e. sec per beam, in a × degree region of centaurus, taking all the data at night. the signal-to-noise in most parts of the frame (figure ) increases with √ tobs throughout. the main sources of noise appear to be background continuum objects and characteristic long-wavelength ripples (caused by standing waves between the focus box and the figure —a portion of the deep cen survey cube with velocity in the horizontal direction, declination upwards. note the galactic hi emission at zero velocity on the left, continuum sources at declinations of − and − , a real source at declination − and velocity around km s− , edge noise at the top and bottom and the long baseline ripple with period ∼ km s− . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /as downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /as https://www.cambridge.org/core m. j. disney et al. figure —hi spectrum and dss image of one of the unassociated galaxies. the encircled object (marked on the dss image) is the only galaxy within ′ and has a velocity of > , km s− . surface of the dish) which look nothing like real -cm sources. thus there is hope of ‘cleaning up’ such cubes and going deeper still. early results we have searched the × degree cube by eye, and then again using picasso (father of cubism), an automatic galaxy-finding algorithm we have developed at cardiff (minchin , present issue p. ). by and large the two searches agree, though not perfectly. as a result we found a total of -cm sources in the cube (to a flux limit of jy km s− ). this is a conservative lower limit to the number we expect to find eventually and note https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /as downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /as https://www.cambridge.org/core deep observations that the edges of the cube will be noisier due to the survey strategy. since the number of detected sources expected per unit area should go as t / obs this implies the number of detections for the whole sky in hipass to be ×( , )/ × ( · )− / ∼ , . this, however, is a very rough estimate because of clustering statistics. of the sources found, were identified with catalogued galaxies with previously determined redshifts. for most of the remaining sources, there is a catalogued galaxy without a measured redshift lying within ′ of the fitted hi position. however, there are around a dozen sources for which no such association could be made. studies of the digitized sky survey fields around these sources revealed possible optical counterparts in most cases. however, there are still two for which no counterpart has been identified. figure shows the spectrum of one of these objects along with an image of the surrounding dss field. we are undertaking ccd imaging of these candidate very low surface brightness galaxies. future work to summarise: ( ) we have been awarded time to extend our survey of this area to × hipass integration time. ( ) we have surveyed an area in sculptor ( × sq. deg.) to × hipass integration time. these data are currently being analysed. ( ) with the aid of quentin parker we are studying tech-pan films of the cen-a area to look for dimmer counterparts. ( ) we are presently carrying out follow-up ccd observations of the ‘invisibles’. ( ) we are carrying out simulations to improve and validate the automatic galaxy-finding algorithm. ( ) we are experimenting with ways of cleaning cubes before sending them to the ‘galaxy finder’. acknowledgments other members of the deep consortium include ian stewart, mark price, ron ekers, ray haynes, erwin de blok, ken freeman, helmut jerjen, pat knezek, david malin, mary putman, brad gibson, dan zambonini and quentin parker. gb and rfm acknowledge the support of pparc post-graduate research awards. references banks, g. d., et al. , ‘new galaxies discovered in the first blind survey of the centaurus a group’, apj, submitted bothun, g. d., impey, c., & mcgaugh, s. s. , pasp, , disney, m. j., & banks, g. d. , pasa, , minchin, r. f. , pasa, , phillipps, s., parker, q. a., schwarzenberg, j. m., & jones, j. b. , apj, , l quintana, h., ramirex, a., melnick, j., raychaudnury, s., & slezak, e. , aj, , staveley-smith, l., et al. , pasa, , trentham, n. , mnras, , van zee, l., haynes, m. p., & giovanelli, r. , aj, , https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /as downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /as https://www.cambridge.org/core ( ) doi: . /arc introduction consider the following conundrum: – what do the reputation of the president of the go­ vernment, an engineering drawing, the venus de milo, and your idea of a white rabbit have in common? answer: they are all images. although the answer to this conundrum is not partic­ ularly witty, it contains a lesson that we wish to explain here. the conundrum mentions the president’s reputation. for reputation, the dictionary tells us that it is […] the opinion that people in general have about someone or something, or how much respect or admiration someone or something receives, based on past behaviour or char- acter . to the extent that this is a social construction, an individual’s reputation and public image are coincident. among the meanings of the term “image” offered by the dictionary are the following: the way that something or someone is thought of by other people: “the aim is to im- prove the public image of the police” and someone’s im- age is the idea that other people have of that person, esp. an idea created by advertising and by newspaper and tele- vision stories: “he’s trying to project a more presidential * orcid: ­ ­ ­ . department of drawing, fa­ culty of fine arts, university of granada (spain). ** orcid: ­ ­ ­ . department of painting, facul­ ty of fine arts, university of granada (spain). “reputation”, in cambridge dictionary on line, https://dictionary. cambridge.org/es/diccionario/ingles/reputation [accessed: . . ]. dorota maria kurażyńska*, juan j. cabrera-contreras** image: from being a god[dess] to become a flatus vocis – mitchell’s “family of images” (part ) obraz: od bycia bogiem[boginią] do stania się flatus vocis – „rodzina obrazów” mitchella (część ) image” . in the sentence this isn’t the first scandal that’s damaged the image of the president, the words “image” and “reputation” are interchangeable. thus, reputation is an image – that is said. the conundrum also mentions an engineering drawing and the venus de milo. it is not nec­ essary to clarify what we mean when we say that technical drawings and statues are images. finally, the conundrum mentions your idea of a white rabbit. although there are non-iconic ideas (e.g., infinity), the idea of a white rabbit can be said to be an image (mental). in fact, the dictionary defines “image” as follows: […] a picture in your mind or an idea of how someone or something is: “i have an image in my mind of how i want the garden to be” – and, reciprocally, define “idea” by saying, “an understanding, thought, or picture in your mind” . it is also worth remem­ bering that the word “idea” comes from the latin term idĕa, which means “image”, “form” or “appearance” – the same as the greek term from which it is derived: ἰδέα [idéa]. this use of “idea” is found in phrases such as “her picture never leaves my mind”. we can therefore say that the president’s reputation, an engineering drawing, the venus de milo and your idea of a white rabbit are similar in that we can refer to all of these things as an “image”. the moral, certainly trivial, idea that emerges from our conun drum is that we use the word “image” to refer to a con siderable variety of different things – from solid, big “image”, in cambridge dictionary on line, https://dictionary. cambridge.org/es/diccionario/ingles/image [accessed: . . ]. “idea”, in cambridge dictionary on line, https://dictionary.cam­ bridge.org/es/diccionario/ingles/idea [accessed: . . ]. dorota maria kurażyńska, juan j. cabrera-contreras and heavy things that anyone can see, and with which you could hurt yourself if you stumble over them , to incorpore­ al phenomena that you cannot grasp or show to anyone, be­ cause they are not located anywhere. somewhat less trivial, however, is the fact that within this diversity we can find one of the most puzzling problems in the theory of images. the variety of things and phenomena that we refer to as an image is so wide, and the perspectives, traditions, and interests of the thinkers who have tried to tackle the defi­ nition of this term are so varied, that the discussion about images has become a babble­like conversation. in addi­ tion, the extensive semantic field of the term image be­ comes even more complex if we look at its different trans­ lations: “image”, “picture”, “bild”, “obraz”, etc. – each of them connected to (and entangled in) its own etymolog­ ical lineage. one of the famous attempts to address this issue is an essay by w.j.t. mitchell, titled what is an im- age? [ ]. in this essay, which is today considered a clas­ sic, mitchell delves into the tangle of meanings, senses, and nuances of things and phenomena that are known as an image. he does so by proposing a taxonomy, which he calls “the family of images” (fig. ). the family of images is a development of the conception of images that is currently considered canonical. this conception holds that images are a sign modality. in this paper we will analyse the discourse on imag­ es with respect to the taxonomy of images proposed by mitchell, and, in particular, we aim to reveal some of its limitations. it is known that mitchell must be recognized not only for the merit of having been the promoter of the pictorial turn, but also for his extraordinary ability and refinement that enables him to reveal some of the un­ derlying issues that polarize (and also encumbrance) the we say this remembering that the american abstract painter ad reinhardt once contemptuously defined sculpture as “something you bump into when you back up to look at a painting”. the essay appeared in the journal “new literary history” [ ]. later as chapter º of iconology: image, text, ideology [ ]. we always quote this from here. this is the first part of an essay paper devoted to the analysis of mitchell’s doctrine of images. the title of the second part is “is in­ scription┤boob├ an image? on mitchell’s doctrine of images – ‘the family of images’ (part )”. canonical doctrine of images. our interest in this author stems from the fact that we consider his contributions to the theory of images – always brilliantly insightful – to be very characteristic of the current course of the debate over images. first, we would like to comment briefly on the title of this paper. the sentence “‘image’: from be­ ing a god[dess] to becoming a flatus vocis” includes a logical fallacy, a literary trope known as “antanacla­ sis”. antanaclasis consists of using a term deceptively by designating several different notions at the same time. in our case, we use the word image as a name that denotes a [type of] specific object, namely, one that at some time and place was taken by god[dess], but also (now mak­ ing a metalinguistic use of the term) as a word that refers to a certain set of meanings – that is, to things devised by us. this subterfuge allows us to introduce one of the criticisms we will make of mitchell, that is, the abuse of antanaclasis in his discourse on images. status quæstionis: image theory is unsatisfactory we could begin by stating that a thing that, on account of its appearance, makes us respond in the way we would react to an animal, without being one, is said to be an im­ age – “the image neither equates with living bodies nor with the lifeless object”. this definition is questionable (an engineering drawing or an arabesque, e.g., normal­ ly do not make us respond in the way we respond to the presence of a living being). what seems unquestionable, however, is that images play an important role in our lives. we live surrounded by images like never before in the history of mankind. but there were times when opportu­ nities to encounter an image were scarce. for millennia, almost everyone lived and died without ever having seen one of these anomalies that can act upon us as living enti­ ties, without being. it must be assumed that this made the anomaly of the images even more overwhelming, and that it facilitated the propensity to invest in them a fabulous halo (which allowed for assigning a sacred status to the in­ stitutions that controlled them). images, as we know, have been taken by god[dess]. the images continue to appear to be something special to us; that is why they abound and proliferate among us in the way that they do. although for us, accessing them – and even producing and dissem­ inating them – has become an insignificant goal. for this reason, it might come as a surprise to us that, as julian bell has pointed out: the first words in western culture concerning man- made images categorically warn us against them: thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth: thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them. why? what makes the god of the bible forbid all like- ness in the second commandment, before pronouncing of killing, adultery and theft? images draw us in. the desire to make and attend to likeness has been powerful throughout history [ , p. ]. that the images were given such exorbitant impor­ tance, that they were seen as an attack on god, that they fig. . w.j.t. mitchell, from what is an image? (source: [ , p. ]) il. . w.j.t. mitchell, z czym jest obraz? (źródło: [ , s. ]) image: from being a god[dess] to become a flatus vocis /obraz: od bycia bogiem[boginią] do stania się flatus vocis were taken as a threat so defiant of their pre-eminence that their proscription preceded the prohibition of murder, adultery and theft – these are behaviours that seem to us to be very far removed from those that are typical of our cul­ ture. however, the shadow of this archaic understanding of the images continues to overshadow our understanding of the images themselves. mitchell says that, […] behind every theory of imagery is some form of the fear of im- agery [ , p. ]. although our society tends to see itself as a culture that is far removed from magical beliefs and naive animism, […] these naive beliefs are alive and well in the modern era . in any case, we inhabit a world full of images. and not only do we live with them and view them as part of the props of our environment, we also interact with them continuously, and increasingly. we say this when think­ ing, of course, of the suggestive images with which adver­ tising tempts us; in the persuasive images with which the mass media haunt us; in the heartbreakingly disturbing, even unbearable, images, that sometimes reach us via our mobile devices (such as the bodies of salvadorian oscar alberto martínez ramírez and his ­month­old daughter valeria, lying drowned on a bank of the rio grande; they died on june , trying to reach the united states); in im­ ages of all kinds offered by entertainment industries such as cinema and d video games; and also, of course, the enormity of revered images such as the venus de milo or the gioconda. we also think of images such as dolls and paper airplanes. we can also think of those images generated by aug­ mented reality, which pokémon go fans look for, explor­ ing the cities where they play in order to catch them, train them, and then fight with them, and “animated” images such as the robotic pets produced by sony (the aibo ro­ bot dog) or tiger electronics – those strange and capti­ vating “teddy bears” called furbies, which are provided with artificial intelligence, and that learn to communicate by talking with their owner whilst being able to develop their own character and personality. we can also think of the gynoids developed by companies such as true com­ panion in the united states, and orient industry, in japan – which are making the old dream of pygmalion come true – and the “artificial mules” produced by boston dy­ namics, which are robots that can advantageously replace a mule made of flesh and blood. we also think of more humble images, such as artificial plants, fishing baits and duck decoys used in duck hunting; and of dentures, teats (or nipples) of bottle-feeding and pacifiers, and the plans of architects and engineers. as you can see, we have in mind a fairly wide variety of images – and we would like to point out that ( st) a large part of these are not men­ tioned in the usual literature concerned with images, and we take these words of mitchell, who later adds: i believe that magical attitudes toward images are just as powerful in the modern world as they were in so-called ages of faith. […] my argument here is that the double consciousness about images is a deep and abiding feature of human responses to representation. it is not something that we “get over” when we grow up, become modern, or acquire critical consciousness [ , pp. , ]. ( nd) these are also unable to be explained in terms of what is currently understood to be held by a canonical perspective, namely: the commonplace of modern studies of images, in fact, is that they must be understood as a kind of language; instead of providing a transparent window on the world, images are now regarded as the sort of sign that presents a decep- tive appearance of naturalness and transparency conceal- ing an opaque, distorting, arbitrary mechanism of repre- sentation, a process of ideological mystification [ , p. ]. images are important – so knowledge about images is important we inhabit a world copiously populated by an extreme­ ly diverse range of images. but images – unlike ants, clouds, and gastric juices – do not sprout spontaneously in nature. they are there because we create them, because we wanted to bring them to the world to put them where they are. we live in a world full of images because images matter to us. and, given that we care, knowledge about images must also be important. do we have sound knowl­ edge about images? it has been said, for decades, that ours is a “civilization of the image”. we have been hearing for more than half a century that “we live in an era dominated by images” (the “era of image”). it has been claimed that, […] the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the image [ , p. ]. however, the current state of our knowledge about images is unsatisfactory: although we have thousands of words about pictures, we do not yet have a satisfactory theory of them. what we do have is a motley array of disciplines – semiotics, philo- sophical inquiries into art and representation, studies in cinema and mass media, comparative studies in the arts– all converging on the problem of pictorial representation and visual culture [ , p. ]. mitchell is not the only scholar who has expressed his discouragement over the current state of knowledge about images. this diagnosis is shared by a number of authors. we will illustrate this fact by providing three examples. in what is a picture? michael newall makes reference to “the problems of depiction – of what a picture is and how depiction works”, stating: there is nothing like a consen- sus yet – indeed there are many competing positions [ , p. ], whilst in la imagen compleja (the complex image), josep m. català domènech declares: the image, as a concept, always belonged to the par- adigm of the text. […] thinking about the image […] was thinking about the image as information, as com- munication, as a message […]. the concept of image is the product of a textual imagination […]. again we ask ourselves then, what is an image? […] but, if we real- ly want to answer this crucial question, now, in this time of the third millennium, we will have no choice but to forget all the image definitions provided so far. we must forget the philological answers, the historical answers, the aesthetic ones and the philosophical ones that have marked the path of understanding the image until today. we must forget everything, even momentarily, and start from scratch [ , p. ]. dorota maria kurażyńska, juan j. cabrera-contreras our last example is taken from the anthropology of images by hans belting: while is has become fashionable in recent years to speak about “image”, this discourse has brought to light consid- erable confusion in the language that people use, a con- fusion that is merely glossed over by the word “ image”. […] though people are not talking about the same thing, they are nonetheless using the same word. some authors create the impression that images circulate in disembod- ied form […]. others associate images broadly with the visual realm, as if to suggest that everything that is visual is an image. the “image”, however, is defined not by its mere visibility but by its being invested, by the beholder, with a symbolic meaning and a kind of mental “frame”. still others identify images wholesale with iconic signs, thus disregarding the difference between the semiotic and the iconic. finally, there is a school of thought that seeks to protect art from being contaminated by images from mass media or others sources. this confusion of words and meanings give rise again and again to new controver- sies in which definitions are contested. as a result, we not only speak in the same way about very different images, but we also apply very different modes of discourse to the same kinds of images [ , p. ]. one of the reasons for the disquiet caused by the cur­ rent state of knowledge about images is, in effect, the fact that we call such a disparate variety of different things and phenomena “image” to such an extent that we are not clear about what we are talking about when we pro­ nounce, hear, or read the term “image”. we use this word to refer to so many different things and different phenom­ ena that the question “what is an image?” can be replaced by “what is not an image?” “but what is an image?” asks hans belting in his foreword for likeness and presence: history of the image before the era of art – after indicat­ ing that the history of the images should not be confused with the history of art, he then states: the term means as much and as little as the term art [ , p. ]. the family of images although our lives are surrounded by images, although their prominence in our world is manifest (and growing), and although academic interest in images and the number of publications, meetings, symposia, and conferences spe­ cifically referring to them have grown exponentially in re­ cent decades, there is a persistent dissatisfaction regarding the achievements of the theoretical discourse on images. raymond bellour’s claim “without any doubt, we know less and less what an image is” – referred to by belting in his diagnosis of the current status quæstionis [ , p. ] – summarizes the intellectual collapse that characterises the current state of image theory. if the fact of living surrounded by images and living with them is clearly an incentive that urges us to talk about this question was asked by steffen siegel at the “what is an ima­ ge?” seminar, organized in by james elkins. none of the attendees (including mitchell) was able to offer a plausible answer to this question [ , p. and other]. images, then the need to clarify what we mean when we speak of an “image” has become no less of a pressing de­ mand. when we say “image”, we do not always seem to be clear about what we mean – we can often mean too much (and then the question arises “what is not an image?”), or too little (in which case we might only be talking about the gioconda or emulating roland barthes’ speech about an advertisement for panzani pasta). given that specifying the meaning of the term “image” poses seemingly insurmountable difficulties, some authors have chosen to follow the initiative of art theorists who, hu­ miliated by the inability to offer a plausible answer to the question “what is art?” they were left to ponder the idea of “family resemblances” advanced by wittgenstein. the locus classicus for the doctrine of family resemblances is found in part i of his philosophical investigations [ , pp. – ] where, within the framework of a discussion about language games – that is, on the diversity of func­ tions given to the term “language” – wittgenstein says: instead of producing something common to all that we call language, i am saying that these phenomena have no one thing in common which makes us use the same word for all – but they are related to one another in many dif- ferent ways. and it is because of this relationship, or these relationships, that we call them all “language” [ , p. ]. wittgenstein illustrates the issue by taking the word “game” as an example. after mentioning games such as board games, card­games, ball games, olympic games, etc., he concludes: we see complicated networks of similarities overlap- ping and criss-crossing: sometimes overall similarities of detail [ , p. ]. i can think of no better expression to characterize these similarities than “family resemblances”; for the various resemblances between members of a family: build, fea- tures, colour of eyes, gait, temperament, etc., etc. over- lap and criss-cross in the same way – and i shall say: “games” form a family [ , p. ]. as already mentioned, wittgenstein’s comment on family resemblances occurs in the context of a discussion about the various uses of the term “language”. this dis­ cussion, in turn, occurs within the framework of a more general debate about the meaning of words. wittgenstein argues that attempts to define the essential meaning of terms such as “language” and “game”, are fatuous. the meaning of a word – that is, what its definition is intended to specify – is not an essence (the essence is presumably shared by the things named using that word). in general, wittgenstein states that, “the meaning of a word is its use in language” [ , p. ]. one of the authors tempted by the possibilities of using “family resemblances” to tackle the definition of “image” was mitchell, who, in “what is an image?” delved into the tangle of meanings, definitions, and nuances of the wide variety of things and phenomena called “image” and proposed a taxonomy called “the family of images” [ , pp. – ]. the family of images can be seen as an attempt to bring to light a philosophical concept of “image” that can guide our research. mitchell begins his section enti­ tled “the family of images” as follows: image: from being a god[dess] to become a flatus vocis /obraz: od bycia bogiem[boginią] do stania się flatus vocis two things must immediately strike the notice of anyone who tries to take a general view of the phenomena called by the name of imagery. the first is simply the incredible variety of things that go by this name. we speak of pictures, statues, optical illusions, maps, diagrams, dreams, hallu- cinations, spectacles, projections, poems, patterns, mem- ories, and even ideas as images, and the sheer diversity of this list would seem to make any systematic, unified un- derstanding impossible. the second thing that may strike us is that the calling of all these things by the name of image does not necessarily mean that they all have some- thing in common [ , p. ]. the family of images is an attempt to answer the ques­ tion “what is an image?” by unravelling the tangled con­ cept of images and articulating it in a classification pre­ sented in the same way as one would present a family tree (fig. ). from the common root called “image”, mitchell derives the following branches: graphic, optical, percep­ tual, mental, and verbal. the type of images housed in each of them, he tells us, is the object of study of a specif­ ic academic discipline (art history, optics, etc.) and for each of them there is a specific institutionalized discourse. “presiding over all these special cases of imagery” there is “a parent concept” – the concept of the image “as such”, the phenomenon whose appropriate institutional discourse is philosophy and theology [ , p. ]. against this backdrop, and expressly invoking the wittgensteinian notion of language games [ , p. ], mitchell states that fig. . there are many different kinds of images. why? (authors’ property) il. . istnieje wiele rodzajów obrazów. dlaczego? (własność autorów) dorota maria kurażyńska, juan j. cabrera-contreras he intends to examine: some of the ways we use the word “image” in a number of institutionalized discourses – particularly literary criticism, art history, theology, and philosophy [ , p. ]. in his proposal, mitchell mentions the notions of fam­ ily, parent concept, genealogy & family tree, and argues that – as our understanding of images is based on en­ trenched social and cultural practices “in a history funda­ mental to our understanding… of what images are” – he will trace a genealogy of the family of images [ , p. ]. but the genealogy he proposes to us is not one that goes back in time, tracing the ancestor that the family gene rated – such as when julius caesar traced the gens of the julia family, reaching back his lineage to the goddess venus and her son, the trojan prince aeneas. such a genealogy would not make sense, since the relationship between the branches of its tree is not that of a diachronic sequence, but that of a synchronous catalogue. this genealogy is also unlike that established by zool­ ogists when they determine, for example, the common an­ cestor of “darwin’s finches” – a group of different bird species discovered by darwin in the galapagos islands. this is because the origin of the family of images does not lie in a remote original ancestor from which a variety of disparate descendants would have (adaptively) derived (statues, reflections in mirrors, dreams, metaphors, etc.), but in a “parent concept” – that is, a certain understanding of what an image is. and this idea – conceived by way of the fons et origo of the subject, thematised by all insti­ tutionalized discourses on images – is not located at the beginning, but at the end of the story, that is, you do not start with it, you obtain it. this is the result of enlighten­ ment that is reached after examining “some of the ways we use the word “image” in a number of institutionalized discourses”. notice that now we are not talking about images (“we speak of pictures, statues, optical illusions, maps, diagrams, dreams, hallucinations, spectacles…”, mitchell had said), but of a certain idea about what an image is – which is reached by inferring this from the dif­ ferent meanings attributed to the term image in various institutional contexts. here, as in other passages, mitch­ ell’s speech slips through the ambiguities of antanaclasis. more than a list of ancestors that culminates in the ancestor from which would have originated the graphic, optical, perceptual, mental & verbal sub­families of the images, this genealogy consists of a story that refers to the avatars of a trans­historic nature that could evoke the figure of the count of st. germain. images are not just a particular kind of sign, but some­ thing like an actor on the historical stage, a presence or character endowed with legendary status, a history that parallels and participates in the stories we tell ourselves… [ , p. ]. this genealogy could be seen as a bildungsroman, un­ derstood in the way described by arthur danto when he speaks of progress in the understanding of art: in the german genre of the bildungsroman – the nov- el of formation and self-discovery – the story is told of the stages through which the hero or heroine progresses on the way to self-awareness. […] and that awareness, though the end of the story, is really “the first day of the rest of her life” [ , p. ]. the narrative running through this story is basically the following: if they were considered gods, the images would have been seen as copies, to finally be understood as signs. they were taken by god[desse]s, eg. in the world where the people of israel emerged: when laban had gone to shear his sheep, rachel stole her father’s household gods [genesis : ]. now you have gone off because you longed to return to your father’s household. but why did you steal my gods? [laban tells his son-in-law jacob, the husband of his daughter rachel] [genesis : ]. make us gods who will go before us [the israelites asked aaron] [exodus : ]. you shall have no other gods besides me [deuterono­ my : ]. after, in the “era of art” (belting), the images became imitations that, by copying aspects of the things of the world, re­produced the effects produced by the things copied. leonardo, who described the painting as “the sole imitator of all the visible works of nature”, said: and the painter […] achieves directly the imitation of the things of nature. by painting, lovers are attracted to the images of the beloved to converse with the depicted semblance. by painting whole populations are led with fervent vows to seek the image of the deities […]; by paint- ing animals are deceived [ , pp. , ]. eventually, it was understood that an image is noth­ ing more than a sign. in an interview published in , daniel­henry kahnweiler – picasso and braque’s dealer at the time they invented cubism – emphasized that un­ derstanding cubism and modern art in general requires us to understand that painting is a form of writing (écriture): a woman in a painting is not a woman; she is a group of signs that i read as “woman”. when one writes on a sheet of paper “f-e-m-m-e”, someone who knows french and knows how to read will read not only the word “femme”, but he will see, so to speak, a woman. the same is true of paint ings; there is no difference. fundamentally, painting has never been a mirror of the external world […]; it has been a creation of signs, which were always read correctly by contemporaries, after a certain apprenticeship, of course [ , p. ]. we will see that mitchell reverses the sense of the his­ torical development of this story – placing not at the end, but rather at the beginning, the understanding of imag­ es that comprise the original referent of the term (i.e. the terms used in ancient times that we translate to “image”), that is, not statues and paintings, but mental images. in any case, this bildungsroman provides us with a great and compelling narrative of the way things must be seen. let us see how he constructs it. “image”: the term in its strict, proper, or literal sense mitchell points out that it seems reasonable to assume that the reason we call such a variety of disparate things an image is that the term “image” is not always used in the image: from being a god[dess] to become a flatus vocis /obraz: od bycia bogiem[boginią] do stania się flatus vocis same way. it is suggested, therefore, that one way to un­ tangle this mess would be to start “by asking which mem­ bers of the family of images are called by the name in a strict, proper, or literal sense” – with the implication that the rest “involve some extended, figurative, or improper use of the term” [ , p. ]. mitchell admits that it is hard to resist the temptation to consider that the “appropriate” sense of image corresponds to the type of things housed in the graphic and optical branches of his tree – which are […] representations we see displayed in an objective, publicly shareable space [ , p. ]. but this suggestion is a socratic ruse. we soon discover that mitchell’s purpose is to argue that […] contrary to common belief, images “proper” are not stable, static, or permanent in any meta- physical sense, […] they are not perceived in the same way by viewers any more than are dreams images [ , pp. , ]. after proceeding with the intention of undermining the conviction that the metaphysical consistency of real and material images is greater than that of mental images, mitchell reveals his viewpoint on this matter by stating: it’s time now to acknowledge that this whole story could be told another way, from the standpoint of a tra- dition which sees the literal sense of the word image as a resolutely non- or even anti-pictorial notion. this is the tradition which begins, of course, with the account of man’s creation “in the image and likeness” of god [ , p. ]. this, no doubt, is a stunning statement – and no less startling is the embedding within it of one mitchell’s fa­ vourite mottos: “in the image and likeness of god”. first, we see that mitchell places the discovery of the true answer to the question “what is an image?” not at the end of a long historical process of cognitive progress, by virtue of which the appropriate solution to the question of “what is an im­ age?” is finally reached, but rather ab initio, returning to the biblical sources (sources that he seems to discover in the masterpiece of a prominent th­century polymath born in córdoba during the twilight years of spanish jewry’s golden era, the guide of the perplexed by maimónides) . with an interest in paying attention to this acknowl- edgement (“it’s time now to acknowledge…”), because it reveals the route that this author will take in search of the genealogical answer to the question “what is an image?” the most crucial reference to images of the tradition that man was made in the image and likeness of god is the mandate: “thou shalt not make unto thee any graven im­ age”. compliance with this exhortation and the idea that we think it is important to note that maimonides has been de­ scribed as “an iconoclastic firebrand”. this is described by dani rabi­ nowitz, referring to the characterization of maimonides offered by josef stern en the matter and form of maimonides’ guide. the phrase “an iconoclastic firebrand” appears in the review of rabinowitz “a unified reading of maimonides’ guide” (june , ), vid. in https://mar­ ginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/unified-reading-maimonides-guide/. in the matter and form of maimonides’ guide, stern describes the maimóni­ des as a complex thinker and characterizes it by offering an extensive sequence of traits that ends like this: maimonides the proto-spinozist, proto-kantian, or proto-levinasian, and, of course, maimoniders the iconoclast [ ]. naturally, mitchell does not ignore the iconoclassical propensity of maimonides, whom he calls “talmucic scholar” and pla­ ces […] a religious tradition obsessed with taboos against graven ima- ges and idolatry [ , pp. , ]. the literal sense of the word image refers to “a resolutely non- or even anti-pictorial notion” fit well – and this link is consistent with a reminder formulated by mitchell in the first paragraph of his introduction to iconology: this is a book… about vision written as if by a blind author for a blind reader [ , p. ]. image = sign the biblical tradition is declared iconoclastic. but it is here, however, or precisely, where mitchell finds the means by which to strengthen his answer to the question of “what is an image?” – an answer which, as already stated, is nothing more than the idea that image = sign (a sign, we can now add, that he understands to be “resolutely non­ or even anti­pictorial”). one of the most remarkable passag­ es of “what is an image?” is the paragraph that illustrates the thesis of image = sign. if there were no more minds there would be no more images, mental or material. the world may not depend upon consciousness, but images of the world clearly do. and this […] it is because an image cannot be seen as such without a paradoxical trick of consciousness, an ability to see something as “there” and “not there” at the same time. when a duck responds to a decoy, or when the birds peck at the grapes in the legendary paintings of xeuxis, they are not seeing images: they are seeing other ducks, or real grapes – the things themselves, and not im- ages of the things [ , p. ]. the argument that leads us to conclude that the ex­ istence of images is mental seems so convincing that it should be scrutinized carefully, because it leaves a residue that we would not want to leave abandoned to their fate. mitchell states that to be an image is to be a sign. with­ in the framework of this presumption, its reasoning fits perfectly with the explanation of the notion of “sign” of­ fered by semiotics. in any classification of the sign as an element of a process of significance, it always appears as something that (being there, in præsentia) is put in place of something else that is in absentia, or not physically present. peirce defined it as […] something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity [ , cp. . ], a definition that can be translated as fol­ lows: something that, in someone’s eyes, is put in place of (or stands for) something else – not replacing that other thing as a whole, but representing some aspect of it or replacing it in some of its capacities for the purpose of a particular practical use . two implications emerge from this definition. the first is that, stricto sensu, nothing can be said to be a sign. in and of itself, nothing is a sign. we can take as signs things such as words, images, sounds, smells, flavours, acts or objects, but such things have no intrinsic meaning – they become signs only when, mentally relating them to some­ thing else, we invest in them some form of meaning. one of the central principles of semiotics is that signs are not a class of objects. they only exist in the conscience of we follow here the explanation of umberto eco [ , p. ]. dorota maria kurażyńska, juan j. cabrera-contreras an interpreter. as peirce states, nothing is a sign unless it is interpreted as a sign [ , cp . ]. put another way, anything can be a sign as long as someone interprets it as “signifying” something – referring to or standing for something other than itself [ , p. ]. the second im­ plication is that if there is no consciousness that, when perceiving a certain thing, correlates it with another, then there is also no sign. with this in mind, it is understood that mitchell’s ar­ gument is semiotically flawless. when it is assumed that image = sign (and, from here, it is concluded that […] an image cannot be seen as such without a paradoxical trick of consciousness, an ability to see something as “there” and “not there” at the same time), we must also accept that images do not exist the way ducks and lakes exist – whose existence does not depend on a consciousness that, when perceiving them, relates them to something else. in the apocalyptic scenario conceived by mitchell (“if … my mind, yours, all human consciousness were annihilated”), the ducks and the rest of the physical world “would con­ tinue to exist quite nicely” [ ], but the existence of the images would vanish. the tatusas let us now place ourselves in the apocalyptic scenar­ io conceived by mitchell. imagine what would happen to duck decoys arranged on the waters of a lake by a hunter who, just before the catastrophe, was about to hunt there. the ducks would still be there. given that there are no consciences endowed with the “ability to see something as ‘there’ and ‘not there’ at the same time”, we should not use the term “image” to refer to things that, rocked by the undulations of the water, sway on the surface of the lake among ducks made of flesh and blood – in order to relate to them in the same way as ducks, because “they are see­ ing other ducks”. we are abiding by mitchell’s dictum, so when we speak of these things we will not say that they are images. we will instead refer to them as tatusas. after demonstrating that tatusas (in and of itself) are not images, mitchell abandons them to their fate. how­ ever, we might be interested in them and ask a question. even if we accept that we should not refer to as images those things that sway on the surface of the lake, that cast a shadow on it, that generate reflections in the water that are indiscernible from those produced by real ducks, and that such flesh and blood ducks see as other ducks, does this necessarily mean that we should not talk about them? we think not. conclusion and proposal of an alternative approach to the study of images although we admit that we should not refer to images as tatusas, this does not annihilate our interest in them or our willingness to study them seriously and objectively for the purpose of rigorously shaping scientific knowledge about them. although tatusas are not used as signs, they can still be employed in other ways – as hunting decoys, for example. we certainly agree that to speak of something as a sign is to say very little about it. anything can be said to be a sign. thus, to refer to something as a sign is no different to saying that it is a thing. there is nothing (object, being, or entity) that cannot be declared a thing (it is for this rea­ son that philosophers have coined the expression “thing­ in­itself”). so, to answer the question “what is an image?” by answering, “it is a sign” is to devalue the notion of image to the status of flatus vocis. in the nominalist tradi­ tion of medieval philosophy, this latin expression (which refers to the action of expelling air through the mouth, emitting “voices of air”) refers to the argument that the “universals” do not exist at all – that is, they do not refer to something (an “essence”) that has a “real” existence. umberto eco has linked the expression flatus vocis with la reflexio ad phantasmata, stating that language names by blurring the irrepressible proof of the existing individual [ , p. ], we use it to suggest that to settle the issue of “what is an image?” by declaring that “images are signs” is to hollow out the notion of the image in a way that ren­ ders it useless. it renders it useless because, as we have seen, there is nothing (idea, thing or phenomenon) of which cannot be said “this is a sign”. so, considering what in linguistics, logic, semiotics, etc. is named “the law of inverse ratio”, namely, the greater the comprehension of a term, the less­ er its extension and vice versa – we could say that to an­ swer the question “what is an image?” by answering, “it is a sign” is to provide a rather poor explanation of what im­ ages are – of what images are de facto, as a matter of fac­ tual facts. on the other hand, if instead of talking on im­ ages as a whole (= in abstract & in vacuo), we talk about a certain concrete image, certain image of a duck used as a decoy, e.g., we find that this concrete tatusa-duck can be related with some idea of ducks in general, or with that of a specific duck, or with that of a specific variety of duck, or perhaps with a down feather pillows brand, or also with the gray gyrfalcon, as it feeds mainly on ducks, and, of course, even with mitchell’s speech about duck decoys. any of these applied developments of the mitchellian “trick of consciousness” – which consists of to see something as “there” and “not there” at the same time – is a circumstantial and contingent interpretation (an occasional reading) of the tatusa that is there – and an interpretation in nothing different from the very di­ verse interpretations we can make of anything else in the world: a duck of flesh and blood, a lake, a stone, a frog, the rainbow, the behavior of our neighbor, the meaning of a poem, etc. however, it is obvious that the same as a ball admits to be employed in applications in which the drawing of a circle may not be used (and vice versa), a tatusa­duck can do things that cannot be done by a pho­ to of a duck, nor by a drawing of donald duck, nor by the plane drawn by an engineer, nor by a mental image of a duck that i handle in my head while i dream (and vice versa). but, when we place ourselves in the phan­ tasmagorical sphere of signs, this disparity of the uses of images is eclipsed or becomes irrelevant – as well as the factual (and not merely “symbolic”) correlation between the physical conformation of a concrete image image: from being a god[dess] to become a flatus vocis /obraz: od bycia bogiem[boginią] do stania się flatus vocis and the concrete functions in which it can be employed as a tool­artifact (or “technical­artifact”) . the fact that we make images as disparate as duck decoys, ducks pho­ tos, donald ducks, plans drawn by engineers, artworks, for notion of “tool­artifact”, readers can refer to martin hei­ degger’s classic essay the origin of the work of art (der ursprung des kunstwerkes, – , and ) [ ]. for notion of “technical artifact” readers can refer to peter kroes’s technical artefacts [ ]. (in general technical artifacts are material objects that have been delibera­ tely produced by humans in order to fulfill a practical function. as it is known, aristotle explained his doctrine of the four causes – material, formal, efficient and final – by referring to technical artifacts such as houses and statues [physics ii. ]). we consider important to remind re­ aders also of the notion of “affordance”, coined by james j. gibson (one of the most important contributors to the field of visual perception) in . an affordance, in gibson’s sense, must be understood as an action possibility available offered by an object (or surface) – an image, e.g. – to a particular living being in a specific environment. the notion of affordance is perhaps most easily understood through a simple example. among others examples, gibson gives the following one: if a terrestrial surface is nearly horizontal (instead of slanted), nearly flat (instead of convex or concave), and sufficiently extended (relative to the size of the animal) and if its substance is rigid (relative to the weight of the animal), then the surface affords support [ , p. ]. we think that the idea of affordance, borrowed from perceptual psychology, can be helpfully applied to the domain of images understood as tool­artifacts – i.e. as utensils intended to be handled (even manipulated) in different ways, and not only as objects for sight, either being readed, or being aesthetically contemplated. etc. evidence that images are – and should be seen as – tool­artifacts which are intentionally produced to be employment in a disparate diversity of uses – in a dispa­ rate diversity of uses that a good theory of images should not neglect. so, we think that to settle the issue of “what is an im­ age?” by declaring that “images are signs” is to hollow out the notion of the image in a way that reduces it to the condition of an empty flatus vocis. however, to claim that something is a thing that, with­ out being a duck, has the virtue of being seen as a duck by other ducks, reminds us of a fact that is certainly remark­ able and worthy of being taken into consideration. in fact, if we have been making duck decoys for centuries (and other things like this), because of this and for this. we assume that this is one of the reasons why we, and also mitchell, talk about duck decoys and other tatusas – in addition to, of course, talking about how we make images work as signs. in his picture theory, after stating, although we have thousands of words about pictures, we do not yet have a sa- tisfactory theory of them, mitchell suggests: perhaps the problem is not just with pictures, but with theory [ , p. ]. we also agree with this suggestion. translated by michelle symonds references /bibliografia [ ] mitchell w.j.t., what is an image?, „new literary history” , vol. , no. , – . 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[ ] gibson j.j., the theory of affordances, [in:] the ecological ap- proach to visual perception, houghton mifflin, hopewell, new jersey , . abstract the subject of this work is the images, or more accurately said, the state of our knowledge about the set consisting of artifacts such as the venus de milo, the gioconda, the duck decoys (or “fake birds”) used to hunt ducks, toys such as a doll or a paper airplane and drawings such as the planes drawn up by engineers or architects. our purpose is to discuss the understanding of images currently considered canonical – i.e., the theory that states that images are a modality of signs. we will do this by analyzing “the family of images” a proposal developed by w.j.t. mitchell in a famous essay entitled “what is an image?”. after introducing readers to the subject and outlining a diagnosis about the current status quæstionis of theory of dorota maria kurażyńska, juan j. cabrera-contreras images, we will study mitchell’s proposal and criticize the thesis (assumed and brilliantly presented by this author) that states that images are nothing more than a more or less sui generis modality of signs. finally, in the section dedicated to the conclusions, we will outline a proposal of an alternative approach to the study of the images that, instead of seeing them as signs, considers them as tool­artifacts. key words: w.j.t. mitchell, image, sign, artifacts, tools streszczenie tematem artykułu są obrazy, a ściślej mówiąc, stan naszej wiedzy o zbiorze artefaktów, takich jak wenus z milo, gioconda, bałwanki kaczek ( alternatywnie „fake birds” lub „bird decoys”) używane w myślistwie, zabawki, takie jak lalka lub papierowy samolot oraz rysunki zrobione przez inżyniera czy architekta. naszym celem jest omówienie rozumienia obrazów, uważanych obecnie za kanoniczne, czyli de facto przedstawienie teorii stanowiącej, że obrazy są modalnością znaków. w tym celu zamierzamy przeanalizować koncepcję „rodziny obrazów” opracowaną przez w.j.t. mitchella w jego słynnym eseju zatytułowanym „czym jest obraz?”. po zapoznaniu czytelników z tym tematem i przedstawieniu próby dia- gnozy przyczyn dyskomfortu wywoływanego przez status quaestionis na podstawie teorii obrazów chcemy przyjrzeć się propozycji rozumienia tej kwestii przez mitchella i krytycznie zanalizować przyjętą przez niego tezę, która głosi, że obrazy nie są niczym więcej niż modalnością znaków sui generis. na koniec w części poświęconej wnioskom zaprezentujemy swoją propozycję alternatywnego podejścia do badania obrazów, które to stanowisko każe traktować je jako artefakt-narzędzie, nie zaś postrzegać jako znaki. słowa kluczowe: w.j.t. mitchell, obraz, znak, artefakt, narzędzie monuments of the czech republic on the unesco world heritage site list and their significance for geotourism procedia engineering ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com - © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of wmcaus doi: . /j.proeng. . . sciencedirect world multidisciplinary civil engineering-architecture-urban planning symposium , wmcaus monuments of the czech republic on the unesco world heritage site list and their significance for geotourism miloš duraja, marian marschalkoa, dominik niemieca,*, i ik yilmazb a vŠb-technical university of ostrava, faculty of mining and geology, listopadu , , ostrava, czech republic b cumhuriyet university - faculty of engineering - department of geological engineering - sivas, turkey abstract the article presents the monuments from the czech republic enlisted on the unesco world heritage site list. each country tries to choose representative sites and monuments that document the structural and architectural development in a given region. therefore, the czech republic carried out an analysis of their monuments. as the czech republic has a very rich and expressive history in the very centre of europe, its history has significantly affected its civil engineering and architecture. it is also a country with a varied geological structure and geomorphology. today’s untraditional forms of tourism, among which we also find geotourism, may thus build on such knowledge and expand the current offer of destinations. learning about the geological structure is also important in terms of future renovation and reconstruction work. the current list of unesco cultural sites will be expanded by further unique sites and buildings. for this reason, it is important to combine knowledge from more specialised disciplines, such as geology and mining science. © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of wmcaus . keywords: unesco cultural and natural heritage; architectural styles; monuments; geology; tourism; . introduction unesco is an organisation that, inter alia, strives to protect the cultural monuments and sites world-wide. this issue has been globally paid all lot of attention in many scientific works [ , , , , , , , , ]. currently, the unesco world heritage site list includes more than items of a cultural, natural and mixed character. these monuments and sites are found in over countries. about of the monuments are of the cultural heritage character. even if the the convention concerning the protection of world cultural and natural heritage was signed in , the former czechoslovakia joined it towards the end of and it became binding in february . the main task of the convention is the duty of each member country to ensure the maximum protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage to and for next generations. at present, the czech republic has items of tangible cultural heritage and of intangible cultural heritage on * corresponding author: tel.: + . e-mail address: dominik.niemiec.st@vsb.cz © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of wmcaus http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.proeng. . . &domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.proeng. . . &domain=pdf miloš duraj et al. / procedia engineering ( ) – the list. the preserved monuments are buildings of different characters and purposes. they were also built in different architectural styles in towns with a long history, e.g. prague. apart from the individual monuments, attention is also paid to groups of buildings. such monuments create interesting sceneries and may thus be used for diverse purposes. they are interesting not only from the tourism point of view, but they are useful in the film industry too. in the past, there were more such groups, but not all of them have been preserved. for the last century, the landscape has been subject to many changes. the country experienced many establishments and economic systems. there were wars, the extraction of mineral resources was boosted, industry boomed and there were other factors too. in the most affected areas only torsos of formerly rich built-up areas have remained. even nowadays we witness the fact that many monuments perish due to insufficient protection or neglected maintenance on the part of their owners. due to the circumvention of the law, the state loses valuable buildings throughout the republic and thus each effort to reverse this course is important in the general protection. . the geological structure of the czech republic and its monuments unfortunately, we are witnessing the fact that many monumental works perish or are being damaged mainly because of military and religious conflicts. widely, the issue of monuments and sites protected by unesco is discussed in many works, for example by [ , , , , , , , ]. another fundamental problem, both world-wide and in the czech republic, is the geological structure of a given locality, where the specific monuments are located. the czech republic has a very varied geological structure. two large geological units meet there. in the west it is the bohemian massif and in the east it is the western carpathians. in some localities the geological structure is very complicated and unsuitable for construction without any preparatory measures. the list includes single monuments as well as groups of buildings. these date back to different eras and were built applying different building methods and materials. the current and future reconstruction work must count with many factors, which were often neglected in the past and thus had a negative impact on their overall conditions. the geological structure is one of the most important factors and neglecting this factor during construction or later works in the vicinity may lead to serious static disturbances in the monuments. this article describes the basic bedrock geology of selected monuments and groups of buildings. a detailed description of the overlying formations is also very important. the overlying formations formed by natural geological activities as well as there are anthropogenic deposits. as the data are being retrieved gradually, for example during more extensive reconstruction works in the localities (villa tugendhat), their list is not complete yet. in fact, such a detailed description contains a lot of information from different research projects and measurements. therefore, the article works only with selected monuments. combining the knowledge on the geological structure and history of important premises may significantly expand the less traditional forms of tourism, among which geotourism has recently developed [ , , , , , , , ]. . overview of listed monuments and groups of buildings the unesco world heritage list gradually incorporates different monuments of a global significance. the scientific works, such as [ , , ], greatly contribute to their promotion worldwide. to date, the czech republic has the following monuments or groups of buildings on the list: eský krumlov was the first on the list. listed was the historical centre of the town with over buildings dating back into gothic and renaissance. the overall scenery is topped by the vltava river that meanders at this part of the course. on the inner part of one of the meanders there is a protected ‘jewel’ of south bohemia, i.e. the preserved specimen of the building development and urbanisation structure from the th to th centuries. the dominants are the castle and chateau. with its area of ha, it is the second largest castle complex in the czech republic, after prague castle. the main construction works took place from the th to th centuries. the dominant style is renaissance with later baroque reconstruction. the chateau garden spreading on hectares is of the baroque style. it is kept in the style of french and english landscaping with a cascade fountain and a lake. the baroque theatre from the th century, with its unique equipment and furniture, is one of best preserved theatres in europe. other noted monuments are the gothic cathedral of st. vitus, jesuit school and many other interesting buildings. miloš duraj et al. / procedia engineering ( ) – in prague came second to be listed on the unesco list. visitors may admire its long and rich history recorded in the different buildings. all-important architectural styles documenting the city history are represented there, including diverse materials used in the different periods. romanesque style mainly used cretaceous marl as the building material, the gothic used it for decorations, and apart other materials, there are also semiprecious stones. interesting and valuable buildings are also more recent ones from the period of art nouveau, cubism, constructivism or functionalism. it was the historical centre of the city that was enlisted. this locality is rightly classified among the most important architectural reserves in the country. this complex includes many buildings on an area of hectares. the buildings are found in different groups of buildings or quarters, such as hrad any, malá strana, old town, josefov, new town and vyšehrad. among the most popular are the prague castle with its st. vitus cathedral, charles bridge and the premises of the jewish town. the most dominant monument, and also the dominant of the prague castle, is the st. vitus cathedral. its construction lasted from to . for this reason, a part of the structure is gothic and the later extensions are neo-gothic. it is the most important catholic church in the czech republic. tel with its historical town centre is a perfect example of gothic-renaissance urbanistic complex. this is a result of profound reconstruction from the th century. the historical core includes a large renaissance chateau complex with its gardens and english-style park. the chateau was originally a gothic castle. thanks to zacharias of hradec the reconstruction was done in the style of italian renaissance. out of many other monuments, there is an undisturbed complex of gothic and renaissance burgher houses on the square of zacharias of hradec, church of st james and jesuit college. the conservation measures, which have been underway for several years, also emphasize the external sgraffito and other decorations on the buildings. interesting are also smaller structures, such as the st mary column from – . Ž ár nad sázavou with its pilgrimage church of st john of nepomuk on zelená hora was enlisted in . it is one of the best and most original projects of the famous baroque architect jan blažej santini aichel ( – ) from the beginning of the th century. the building is in the baroque gothic style. the church is a central building surrounded by an ambit. the symbol of number is highly prominent there, for example in the pentagram layout of the complex, number of entries or apsides. kutná hora and its historical centre, the cathedral of st barbora and cathedral of the assumption of the virgin mary in sedlec joined the list in . kutná hora is one of the biggest medieval czech towns and owes its development and riches to mining. the symbolism of mining may be found in the names of buildings and in their decorations. the landmarks are especially the late gothic cathedral of st barbora, the cathedral of the assumption of the virgin mary in sedlec, the church of st james, jesuit college, monastery of st voršila order, vlašský dv r (italian court), and kamenný d m (stone house). the cathedral of st barbora is a five-nave gothic cathedral. its construction began in and was finished in . it was founded by jan parlé , and his work was taken over by mat j rejsek. a sixty-year break in the construction was caused by hussite unrest. sandstone from the nearby quarries was used for the construction. lednice-valtice complex is considered the most extensive ( km ) cultural-natural landscape in europe. this artificially made landscape and architectural piece of work was shaped by the family of lichtenstein for centuries. the landmarks are the valtice chateau, built by means of reconstructing the original castle, and the lednice chateau, on whose place there used be a gothic fortress. both the chateaus were subject to renaissance and baroque reconstructions. the current look of the lednice chateau was also topped by neo-gothic reconstruction (tudor gothic) from the mid- th century. the complex also includes many minor buildings, such as the lovecký záme ek (hunting lodge), rybni ní záme ek (pond house), jan v hrad (john’s castle), hrani ní záme ek (border house), chrám t í grácií (temple of three graces), apollon v charm (temple of apollo), minaret, greenhouse, obelisk and rendez-vous. in krom íž was pronounced the most beautiful historical town in the country. in its unique monuments, i.e. archbishop’s chateau and its adjoining gardens, joined the unesco world heritage list. apart from the two gardens, the architectural landmark is the archbishop’s chateau. originally, it was a gothic castle that underwent a fundamental reconstruction at the start of the th century. this turned it into a renaissance chateau and a seat of olomouc bishops. it gained its baroque style around the mid- th century. miloš duraj et al. / procedia engineering ( ) – holašovice is a small village near eské bud jovice and it has an interesting architecture of rural buildings. the village is a locality with the best preserved architecture in the style of rural baroque. this architectural style asserted itself mainly in south bohemia. the village is characteristic for the almost preserved layout of a medieval village with its houses from the th and th centuries. the whole complex counts farms with buildings. the farms are situated around a rectangle village green and are inhabited. the houses have interesting gable fronts with preserved stucco decorations. tab. : dominant architectural styles of selected monuments and their bedrock geology. number –year of listing locality type of monument dominant architectural style bedrock geology - eský krumlov castle and chateau renaissance, baroque moldanubicum (orthogneiss, granulites, crystalline limestone) - praha cathedral of saint vitus gothic, gothic revival barrandien (sediments of earlier paleo- zoic) - tel chateau renaissance moldanubicum (migmatites, gneisses) - Ž ár nad sázavou pilgrimage church baroque gothic moldanubicum (paragneisses, migmatites) - kutná hora cathedral of saint bar- bora late gothic kutná hora crysta- llinicum (gneisses, mica schists) + mesozoic - lednice – val- tice lednice chateau gothic revival vienna basin (clastic sedi- ments) - krom íž archbishop’s chateau early baroque brunovistulicum (granitoides) + neogene-quaternary - holašovice rural buildings baroque (rural) moldanubicum (granulites) - litomyšl chateau renaissance bohemian cretaceous basin (calcareous clastic sedi- ments) - olomouc holy trinity column baroque drahany culm (clastic sediments) - brno villa tugendhat modern architecture, functional- ism carpathian foredeep (clastic sediments) - t ebí basilica romanesque-gothic moldanubicum – pluton (granites, syenites) litomyšl has a landmark in the form of its chateau, which was enlisted in . it is an arcade renaissance chateau in the italian style from the second half of the th century. the reconstruction followed the plans of a renowned renaissance architect, giovanni battista aostalli. the chateau has a square ground plan, two floors and with basement in places. there are pronounced arcades and sgraffito. in the chateau premises there are also other preserved buildings, such as the chateau brewery and the riding school. the finishing touch is given by the chateau garden. olomouc has been known for its monuments in the historical town centre. one of them, the holy trinity column, was enlisted on the unesco world heritage list in . this -metre tall landmark of the city was built by the artists and craftsmen of the town between and . on several floors there is the largest set of baroque statues within one sculpture, which is a central-european original work. the bottom part of the column includes a chapel. brno has been enlisted thanks to the villa tugendhat. this functionalistic building by the architect ludwig mies van der rohe was built between and for the tugendhat family. it is situated in the brno quarter called miloš duraj et al. / procedia engineering ( ) – erná pole. it is the only modern architecture building in the czech republic listed on this unesco list. recently, the interior, exterior and the garden underwent a complete renovation and restoration in the original sense. t ebí is enlisted thanks to its jewish quarter and the basilica of st prokop. the densely built-up jewish quarter is a remnant of several-century co-existence of jews and christians. there are houses, two synagogues and a jewish cemetery. the basilica of st prokop was originally dedicated to virgin mary. as almost derelict it was used for secular purposes for almost two centuries. having been renovated and dedicated to st prokop, it is again used by the church. . conclusion the architectural monuments in the czech republic listed on the unesco world heritage list were built on different geological bedrocks (see tab. ). the dominant geological unit, on which the highest number of the stated monuments are situated, is moldanubicum. petrographically, the unit is made up by predominant metamorphic rocks. during centuries, many interesting buildings have been built on the unit, out which several more are likely to get on the list too. out of the current list, there are five sites on moldanubicum ( eský krumlov, tel , Ž ár nad sázavou, holašovice, and t ebí ). the dominant architectural styles are baroque and renaissance. the remaining seven localities have varied geological bedrocks that belong to different geological units. the bedrocks there are made up by magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. the dominant rocks are clastic sedimentary rocks. out of the architectural styles there are practically all of them, especially thanks to prague. still, the dominant styles in the listed buildings is gothic, baroque and renaissance. we may also admire interesting buildings and extensions in the neo- gothic style. prague is dominant as for the variety of the architectural styles. the construction works started in the th century and have left a number of architectural jewels, such as the prague castle and the cathedral of st vitus. in the course of the centuries, many romanesque and gothic churches, baroque palaces and gardens, art nouveau and cubist buildings, houses and other, also modern, buildings, were built there that all form a unique architectural whole. therefore, it is ranked among the most beautiful historical cities in the world. this is reflected in its popularity with national and foreign tourists and prague has the prime position as for czech tourism being the most visited city in the czech republic. still, in the czech republic there are many other interesting buildings that may become candidates for the unesco world heritage list, such as churches on the undermined area of the ostrava-karviná coal district. the research results appear in works by [ , ]. in the future, the studied area may become a suitable locality for geoscience and mining tourism. references [ ] anania, l., badalà, a., barone, g., belfiore, c. m., calabrò, c., la russa, m. f., mazzoleni, p., pezzino, a. 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( ). a leaning historical monument formed by underground mining effect: an example from czech republic. engineering geology, , - . pii: - ( ) - advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. pii: - ( ) - advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. journal of awareness cilt / volume , sayı / issue , , pp. - e - issn: - url: http://www.ratingacademy.com.tr/ojs/index.php/joa doİ: . /joa. . araştırma makalesi / research article modern sanatta gÖsterİlemeyenİn gÖsterİlmesİ representation of unrepresentative in modern art fatih balci* * dr. Öğr. Üyesi, Çanakkale onsekiz mart Üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi, güzel sanatlar eğitimi bölümü, tÜrkİye, e-mail: balciawake@gmail.com, orcid id: https://orcid.org/ - - - geliş tarihi: aralık ; kabul tarihi: ocak received: december ; accepted: january Özet batı düşün dünyasının, dünyayı tam olarak temsil edecek mükemmel ussallıkta bir dil yaratma isteği, gerçekliği bir kavram ya da sanat yapıtında yeniden üretme yönünde temsil sürecine sokmuştur. ayrıca ’lerde başlayan bir dizi değişim sonucunda gerçeklik algısında köklü dönüşümler yaşanmıştır. artık gerçek dediğimiz şey dolaysız bir kendiliğindenlik içinde kavranmıyordu. empresyonist resimle beraber gerçekliği algılayış biçimimiz resmin konusuna dahil olmuş, yani algılayan ve algılanan arasındaki ilişki soruşturmaya muhtaç hale gelmiştir. kübizm ile bu ilişki içinde şeyleri algılayışımızın kesinlik içermediği, algılayanın da algılananın da kuşkulu olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. modern sanatın daha doğru bir algılayış için giriştiği tüm denemeler, sanatsal önermeler sonunda başarısızlık hissinden kurtulamadı. tüm bu sürecin sonunda bu temsilin mümkün olmadığına ilişkin bir inanç, fikir ortaya çıkmıştır. batı sanatı bu noktadan itibaren yeni bir olguyu gündemine almıştır. eğer böyle bir temsil mümkün değilse, belki de yapılacak yegâne şey temsil edemediğimizi göstermekti. bu gösterimin negatif kutbuydu. böylece sanat tarihinde negatif bu gösterimin soyut, sembolik biçimleri görülecektir. anahtar kelimeler: modernizm, sanat, temsil, sembolik, soyut abstract the desire of the world of western thought to create a language with perfect rationality to represent the world precisely has brought the reality into a process of reproduction in a concept or artwork. in addition, a series of changes that began in the s led to radical transformations in the perception of reality. now what we call reality is not conceived in an immediate spontaneity. the way we perceive reality together with the impressionist picture is involved in the subject of the picture, that is, the relationship between the perceived and the perceived has become inevitable. it is concluded that our perception of things within this relationship with cubism does not contain certainty, and the mailto:balciawake@gmail.com balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , perception and perception is suspicious. all the attempts of modern art for a more accurate perception, artistic experiment could not escape the feeling of failure. at the end of this process, there is a belief that this representation is not possible. from this point on, western art has taken a new phenomenon into its agenda. if such a representation is not possible, perhaps the only thing to do is to show that we cannot represent. this was the negative pole of the show. in this way, the abstract, symbolic forms of this negative representation will be seen. keywords: modernism, art, representation, symbolic, abstract . bati dÜŞÜn dÜnyasinda mÜkemmel dİl arayiŞi ve estetİk yargi batı düşün dünyasının köklerinde var olan ve zamanla şekil değiştirdiği halde kaybolmayan bir düş bulunur. bu düş, dünyayı tam olarak temsil edecek mükemmel ussallıkta bir dil yaratma isteğidir. böyle bir akıl dili, dünyadan, gerçeklikten tam olarak söz edebilecektir. söz merkezcilik dünyayı tam olarak yansıtabilecek ya da temsil edebilecek bir dil ister. aklın kesinlik arayışında temellenen bu dil arayışı kesin olmayanın, yerine oturmayanın farklı olanın, bastırılması, ya da dışlanmasını zorunlu kılmıştır (appignanesive diğ: , ). batı düşün dünyası böyle bir dilin olamayacağını fark etmesiyle beraber krize girer. batı düşün dünyasındaki bu krizin sanattaki yansıması ise temsiliyet krizi olarak kendini göstermiştir. batı sanatı mükemmel bir dil anlayışının uzantısı olarak uzun süre gerçekçilik öğretisine, bilginin ayna teorisine bağlı kalmıştır. yani gerçeklik bir kavram ya da sanat yapıtı tarafından yeniden üretilebilirdi. ama ’lerde başlayan bir dizi değişim sonucunda gerçeklik algısında köklü dönüşümler yaşanmıştı. artık gerçek dediğimiz şey dolaysız bir kendiliğindenlik içinde kavranmıyordu. empresyonist resimle beraber gerçekliği algılayışımız resmin konusuna dahil olmuştu. cezanne gerçeği reddetmemekle birlikte, şeyleri algılayışımızın kesinsizlik içerdiğini söylemişti (appignanesive diğ: - ). modern sanatın daha doğru bir algılayış için giriştiği tüm denemeler, sanatsal önermeler sonunda başarısızlık hissinden kurtulamadı. tüm bunlar yaşanırken batı sanatı’nda yeni bir olgu gündeme gelmeye başladı: sanatsal imgeler kusurlu, eksik iseler; gerçekliği karşılayacak bir imge bulmak mümkün değilse belki resim düzleminde gerçeklik simgesel olarak gösterilebilirdi. belki de gösteremediğimizi göstermek sanatsal tüm bu arayışlara bir yanıt olabilirdi. bu sanatsal yönelimin düşünsel köklerini İ. kant’ta bulmamız mümkündür. epistemolojik bir problem olarak sanat eserini konumlandırmaya çalışan kant’ın düşünceleri bu tür çalışmaları anlamak bakımından bize faydalı olacaktır. kant, öncelikle, bir nesneyi düşünmekle, bir nesneyi bilmenin hiç de aynı şeyler olmadığını belirtir. bilgi iki etmen tarafından biçimlendirir: birincisi nesnenin kendisi aracılığıyla düşünüldüğü kavram ve ikincisi, nesnenin kendisi aracılığıyla verildiği görü. bu durumda kavrama karşı gelebilecek hiçbir görü verilemiyorsa, bu kavram, biçimi (formu) bakımından yine de bir düşünce olabilmekte; fakat onun hiçbir nesnesi olmadığından, böyle bir kavramla hiçbir şeyin bilgisi mümkün olmamaktadır. bu yüzden, anlığın salt bir kavramı aracılığıyla bir nesnenin düşüncesi, ancak kavram duyu nesnesiyle bağıntılı ise bilgi haline gelebilir. (altuğ, : , ) metafizikçilerin bu tarzda bilgi elde etme girişimleri aklın ürettiği kuramsal yanılsamalarla sonuçlanır. ama metafizik bir yanılsamalar toplamı değildir. bu sonuçların kaynağı olan akılda zorunlu bir kaynak vardır. metafiziksel sorunları kaçınılmaz kılan aklın bu doğal yanılsaması şöyle belirlenebilir. ortak-duyu düşüncesinde ve bilimde sürekli belli koşul balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , dizileriyle karşılaşırız. bize öyle gelir ki bu koşul dizileri düşüncemizde sonsuza dek uzatılabilir. gündelik yaşamda bu diziler sorun çıkarmaz. biz bu dizileri ihtiyacımız olan kadarıyla kullanırız. ama insan aklı bu dizilerin tamamlanmış olması gerektiği düşüncesinden kendini alamaz. akıl bu dizileri yeterli bulmaz. kant’a göre metafiziğe yol açan bu düşünme biçimidir. (altuğ, : , ) kant düşünme yetisi içinde iki yeti ayırt eder. bunlardan biri anlık, diğeri akıldır. anlık görünüşlerin birliğini sağlarken, akıl ise anlığın kurallarını ilkeler altında birleştirir. bu bakımdan akıl doğrudan deneyime bağlı değildir, herhangi bir nesneye uygulanamaz. ancak anlığın çeşitliliğini kavramlar aracılığıyla birlik vermede kullanılır. buna aklın birliği denir. (altuğ, : ) ama bu durumda da halledilmesi gereken, netleştirilmesi ve açıklığa kavuşturulması gereken alanlar mevcuttur. ahlak ve estetik yargıların kaynağı ve geçerliliği nedir? salt aklın işlemlerinde, biz, bir tikeli bir tümel yasa altına sokarız, böylelikle de tikelin özgüllüğünü genelin altına kaydırırız; pratik aklın işlemlerinde ise, tikeli tümel bir maxim’e bağımlı kılarız. bununla birlikte estetik yargılamada, şeyin dolayımsız biçimine ilişkin sezgimizden koparılamayacak bir yasalı bütünlüğe yönelik tuhaf bir duygu buluruz. doğa, anlama yetisini bozguna uğratan içte-yerleşik bir ereksellik tarafından canlandırılmış görünür ve bu ereksellik, hoşa giden bir belirsizlik içerisinde, hem nesnenin uyduğu bir yasa hem de tam anlamıyla nesnenin kendisinin indirgenemez yapısı olarak görülmektedir. (eagleton, : ) estetik yargı gücü herhangi bir belirlenimli kavrama bağlı olmadığı için biz, söz konusu nesnenin mevcut olup olmadığını bilemeyiz. fakat bu nesne bu anlamda bilgimizi gerektirmese de, genelde bilgi yeterliliğimiz diyebileceğimiz şeye hitap eder. dünyanın ilke bakımından kavranabilecek bir yer olduğunu ima eder. estetik yargılama o halde, yetilerimizin hoşlanma uyandıran bir özgür başıboşluğu, kavramsal anlamanın bir tür parodisidir; nesneyi kimliği açık bir şey halinde çivilemeyen ve böylelikle belli bir maddi zorlamadan hoş bir şekilde özgür kalan, gönderimli-olmayan bir sahte bilgidir. estetik yargı gücü, anlama yetisinin tek biçimli yasaları ile büsbütün kaotik bir belirlenimsizlik arasında kararsız bir ıslah evidir... demek ki, bizim estetik ve teolojik bakış açılarında bulduğumuz şey, belki her şeye rağmen bize kayıtsız olmayan, bilgi yeterliklerimize aldıran bir maddi dünyanın avutucu hayalidir. (eagleton, : ) . sanat tarİhİnde gÖsterİmİn negatİf kutbu bu avutucu hayal modern sanatın içinde de gezinmeye başlamıştır. resim sanatı içinde bu hayal kendini soyutlamalar ve gizemcilik olarak gösterir. modern sanat’da soyutlamaların kaynağı kübizim’de başlatılır. ama kübizmin yaratıcıları olan picasso ve braque asla soyuttan yana değillerdir. onlar her zaman doğadan yola çıkmışlar doğaya ilişkin yasaları ortaya çıkarabilmek için soyutlamalara zorunlu olarak başvurmuşlardır. picasso ve braque’ın sonuçlarından yararlanmak isteyen genç sanatçılar bu soyutlamaları kendi istekleri doğrultusunda kullanmışlardır. bu ardılların soyutlamaları ise, söylenebilirse şeylerle ilgilerini kesmişlerdir. kübizmden yola çıkarak onu faklı bir yere taşıyan ilk sanatçılardan biri de robert delaunay’dır. delaunay’nin çalışmaları empresyonist resimlere benzemektedir. - yıllarında yaptığı bir dizi resimde kompozisyonlarını, içerikleri belli olmayan renk ve eğri biçimlerle sağlar. bu resimler renk ve biçimlerin çağrışımlarından başka bir şey taşımayan soyut resimlerdir. sezgisel bir anlatıma yakın olan bu resimlere delaunay ay, güneş gibi isimler koymuştur. benzer bir soyutlamayla paul klee’nin çalışmalarında karşılaşırız. klee’nin picasso’ya saygı adlı resmi yumurtayı andıran yapısıyla, picasso ile braque’ın çalışmalarını balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , hatırlatmakla birlikte, renk lekelerini yamaya benzer bir şekilde kurgulaması, renk lekelerini rastgele kullanması ile picasso ile braque’dan ayrılmasına neden olur. picasso ile braque’ın analitik yaklaşımın yerine burada sezgisel bir yaklaşımın aldığı söylenebilir. piet mondrian gibi bazı sanatçılar için kübizm, açıkça tam soyutlamaya giden bir yoldu. mondrian, üyesi bulunduğu teosofi derneğindeki çalışmaların etkisiyle çalışmalarına gizemli bir anlam kattı. – ’de hollanda’da kübist ressamları inceleme fırsatı buldu. renk çeşitlerini azaltarak, resimlerini daha çok çizgisel olarak düzenlemeye başladı. bunlara örnek olarak gri Çizgili elmas ( ) adlı tablosudur. bu resim gri çizgilerden oluşan bir kafes görünümündedir. bu çizgilerden bazıları kalınlaştırılarak belirginleştirilmiştir. resmi asıldığı duvarla bir arada düşündüğümüz bu ızgaranın düzenliliği ve dengesi, resmin temel özelliği ve görsel etkisini sağlar. mondrian - ’ de ‘neo-plasticisme’ adını verdiği anlayışla yaptığı ve son derece sınırlı olan resim dilini değiştirmeden, ’lara kadar sürdürdüğü yapıtlarının iki değişik öğesinden bir birleşim elde etti. mondrian ’e kadar doesburg ile birlikte ’ de de stijl (üslup) ressam ve tasarımcılar birliğinin önde gelen üyelerinden biri oldu (lynton, : - ). resim : piet mondrian, büyük mavi düzlem, kırmızı, siyah, sarı ve gri ile kompozisyon , tuval üz. yağlı boya, x cm. yine kasimir malevich’in ‘suprematizm’ adını verdiği çalışmaları soyut anlayışın bir diğer örneğidir. bu çalışmaların ilk olgun örneği beyaz bir kare içine yerleştirdiği ve onun yarı alanı kadar siyah bir kareyi gösteren resmiydi. “ ...bir imgeden çok bir işareti andıran bu kare, kesinlikle görünebilir herhangi bir nesnenin soyutlaması değildi ( lynton, : ). malevich’in daha sonraki resimlerinde bu resmin statik yapısından farklılaştı. bir birine karşıt, zıt renklerin, farklı boyutların olduğu parçalar beyaz bir zemin üzerinde akıyormuş duygusuyla yer aldılar. sanatçının tüm resimlerinde metafizik bir duygu kendini hissettiriyordu. ’lerde yaptığı beyaz Üzerine büyük haç adlı resmi bunu daha net gösterir. balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , resim : kasimir malevich, , süprematist resim-kompozisyon, tuval üz. yağlı boya, . x cm. delaunay, mondrian ve malevich böylece betimleme dışı bir sanata doğru yönelirken kübizmden yararlanmışlardır. bu sanatçıların çalışmalarında kübizmin kaygılarını göremeyiz. kübizm doğayı anlamak için bir yöntem geliştirmeye çalışırken kaynaklarını pozitivizmden alıyordu. soyutlamaları metafizik değil, fizik soyutlamalardı. kübizmde sanatçıdan çok doğaya uygulanan yasanın sesi egemendi. oysa delaunay, mondrian ve malevich’de betimleme sorununu arkada bırakmak isteyen, resim düzleminde gerçekliğin nasıl betimleneceğine ilişkin soruya yanıt aramak istemeyen resimlerdir. belki bunun imkânsız olduğu düşüncesi bu sanatçıları resim düzleminde gerçekliğin ancak bir işaret, simge olarak yer alabilmesinin mümkün olduğu sonucuna götürmüştü. bu olguları soyut ekspresyonizmin önde gelen temsilcisi ve kuramcısı vassily kandinsky’nin çalışmalarında da görebiliriz. kandinsky resim sanatı ile müzik arasında bir ilişki buluyordu: “kandinsky bir yazısında ‘resim de müzik gibi insanın içindeki gücü harekete geçirir,’ diyordu. resme bakan kişide bir titreşim yaratmayı amaçlayan sanatçı, içimlerle renklerin o kişinin içine işlemesini, müziğin dinleyiciyi sarsıp heyecanlandırdığı gibi, resme bakan kişide heyecan yaratmasını istiyordu (lynton, : ). balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , resim : vassily kandinsky, , doğaçlama , tuval üz. yağlı boya, x . cm. tüm bu sanatçıların çalışmalarına baktığımızda şunu görürüz: çalışmalar gerçekliğin betimlemeleri olmak istememekte ama gizemsel, sezgisel yolla da olsa gerçekliğin bütününe ilişkin bir kavrayış isteğini gösteriyorlardı. bu bize İ. kant idelerinin tarifini hatırlatır. daha öncede anlatmaya çalıştığımız ideler herhangi bir nesneye karşılık gelmezler, aklın zorunlu bir sonucu olarak anlığın çeşitliğini ilkeler altında bir araya getirmek için üretilirler. İşte bu resimlerde nesnelerden söz etmemekle birlikte nesnelerin düzenine ilişkin bir kavrayışı veriyor gibidirler. yine bu olgunun izini konstrüktivist çalışmaların içinde de sürebiliriz. de stijl ile konstrüktivizm arasındaki birleşmeyi, theo van doesburg ile rus, el lissitzky hazırlamışlardı. theo van doesburg’un mondrian ile beraberliği sırasında ortaya koyduğu çalışmalar malevich’in dinsel özellikler taşıyan ikonalarının din dışı benzerleri gibidirler. lissitzky bu çalışmaları mimari ile resmin bir ara durağı olarak tarif etmiştir. bu çalışmalar temel olarak dikey-yatay formülü ile oluşuyordu. theo van doesburg ile el lissitzky için önemli olan çalışmaların kendilerinden çok amaçladıkları idi. “her yapıtım gözleri üzerine çekmeye değil, duygularımızı sınıfsız bir toplum yaratma gibi çok daha büyük bir amaç uğrunda bizi harekete geçirmeye çağrıydı lynton, : ). bunun için van doesburg ile lissitzky yine teknoloji kullanıyorlardı ama bu teknoloji çevremizde gördüğümüz makineler değildi. theo van doesburg ile el lissitzky teknolojinin görünmeyen güçlerinin peşindeydiler. “lissitzky’nin görüşü ve sanatı karışık, gücünü maddi dünyadan almakla birlikte, manevi değerleri de hesaba katan modern görüşlerin metafizik özelliklerinden de esinlenen bir fizik dünyasının haberciliğini yapıyordu (lynton, : - ). balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , resim : el lissitzky, veya , proun d, kontrplak üzerine alçı taşı, yağ, vernik, pastel boya, renkli kâğıtlar, zımpara kâğıdı, grafik kâğıdı, karton, metalik boya ve metal folyo, , x . cm. lissitzky’nin proun olarak adlandırdığı resimleri onun anlayışını iyi yansıtır. mimari öğeler taşıyan bu biçimler malevich’in dikdörtgenleri gibi boşlukta sallanmaktadır. “bu biçimlerin üç boyutlulukları hem gösterilmekte, hem de biçimler aksonometrik olarak düzleme yerleştirildiği için, perspektif özelliklerle bir yanılsama önlenmiş olmaktadır (lynton, : ). van doesburg mondrian’ın etkisindeki ilk döneminden farklı olarak dikey-yatay formülü dışına çıkmış lissitzky’nin etkisiyle daha dinamik kompozisyonlar tasarlamıştır. bu dönem yapıtları köşegen ızgara biçimlerinden oluşan kompozisyonlardı. bu resimler soyut mimarlık denemeleri gibidir. theo van doesburg ile el lissitzk yayımladıkları bir bildiride şunları söylüyorlar: “biz bugün-makinenin içerdiği güçleri esin kaynağı olarak benimseyen ve yücelten, duyarlığımızı yeni plastik yapıtlar üzerinde odaklayan kişiler- yeni bir makine estetiğinin çizgilerinin, aydınlanan ufukta mekanik bir kozmogoninin ilk armağanı olarak plastik bir ifadeyle belirlediğini görüyoruz”. (lynton , s. ) van doesburg ve lissitzky her ne kadar makine estetiğinden yola çıksalar ve çalışmalarının somut bir karşılığı varmış gibi gözükse de; iki sanatçı da resimlerini gizemci bir soyutlama üzerine kurgulamışlardır. gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi olgusu amerikan soyut dışavurumcularında (asd) başka bir boyutta ortaya çıkar. avrupa resminde metafizik veya simgesel boyutta da olsa yer alan gerçeklik burada tamamen yok olacaktır. resim kendi gerçekliği dışında hiç bir şeyle balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , ilgilenmez. resim artık kendi ontolojisiyle baş başa kaldıkça, kendi içine daldıkça daha anlamlıdır. resim artık kendini konuşmalıdır. asd iki döneme ayrılabilir: birinci dönem: jackson pollock, willem de kooning, robert motherwell, yves kline’ın yer aldığı jet-aksiyon dönemi. İkinci dönem: mark rothko, barnett newman ve clyfford still’in yer aldığı renk alanı resmidir. pollock ’lerden başlayarak yeni resmini ilkin kalın fırçalarla boyayarak, daha sonra bir köşesinden kaldırıp akıtarak yaptı, daha sonra tuvali yere koyup fırçayı üzerinde gezdirerek damlatma ve akıtma tekniğini kullandı. pollock’un resimlerinde herhangi bir imge ya da figür göremeyiz, resim bunlara gereksinmez. resim hem nesne, hem içeriktir. bu resimlerin çeşitli bölgelerinde farklılıklar oluşturmayı bırakıp bütünsel bir yüzey oluşturur. Öncelikli olarak resim yapılma aşamasındaki rastlantısallığı soru konusu olur. bu resmin algılanması ile de ilgili problemler ortaya çıkmıştır. daha önce tek bakış noktasından kavranabilen resimler soru konusu olmaktadır. resim : jackson pollock, , bir numara, tuval üzerine yağlı boya, x . cm pollock gibi kooning de desenle resim arasındaki ilişkiyi sorgulamaktadır. kooning’in resimleri figüre çok daha yakındır. bazı biçimlerin bazı imgeleri çağrıştırması ise kübizm ile ilgisini göstermektedir. kooning’e göre sorun, konunun tuvale, düzlem üzerinde yer alan resmetme olgularından vazgeçmeden nasıl yerleştirilebileceğidir. yani tüm çabalar resmin kendi iç sorunlarından ibarettir. resim kendi olanaklarını sınamaktadır. resmin yüzeyinde bir şeyi gösteremiyoruz. neyi vurgulamak istiyorsak onu resmediyor ve öne çıkarıyoruz. bu bir soyutlama ama daha çok da bir eksiltme. Çünkü gerçek dünya da bizim resmettiğimiz nesne salt kendisiyle var değil. bir çevreyle bütünleşmiş olarak mevcut. o çevreyi oluşturan nesnelerin, boşlukların ve alanların bir bölümünün de elle tutulur bir somutluğu, gözle görülür bir kesinliği yok. varlıklarını bize binoküler görsellikleri ve lokomotor etkinlikleriyle duyumsatıyorlar. sorun da işte bu: bu olmayan, ama olan ve üstelik başka nesneleri de var eden olguları, özdekleri (materyalleri) resimsel düzlemde nasıl var edeceğiz? (kahraman, : ) balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , resim : willem de kooning, , gotham’dan haber, tuval üzerine petrol, emaye, kömür ve gazete transferi, . x . cm. böylece temsilin kaynağı resimdeki boşluklar olmaya başlar. varlıklar yokluklarında temsil edileceklerdir. bu resimlerde gösterilemeyen olgular, gösterilemedikleri gösterilerek var olurlar. Çünkü gösteremediğimiz şeylerin zihnimizdeki genişliği negatif gösterime yansır. motherwell – yıllarında resimlerine İspanya cumhuriyetine ağıt adını vermiştir. bu dizi yaklaşık yüz adet resmi içerir ve neredeyse hepsi birbirinin aynı resimlerdir bunlar beyaz zemin üzerine düşürülmüş dikdörtgen oval siyah lekelerdir. bu gösterimdeki gösterilemezliğe iyi bir örnek olabilir. hemen fark edilebileceği gibi bu resimler biçimin kendi olanaklarının bir sınanması olduğu gibi, ele alınan konuların, tartışılan sorunların, aslında kavramsal olarak tartışıldığını fark edebiliriz. resim : robert motherwell, no. , , İspanya cumhuriyetine ağıt, tuval üz. yağlı boya, . × . cm. balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , ’e gelindiğinde jules olitski, kılcal izler bile başka bir form, giderek bir figür yaratır, bu da e kendisinin denetimi dışında bir öğe ekler diye fırçayı bırakıp resmi tabancayla boyuyordu. Çünkü resimde bir alan yaratmak işarete, benzer bir şey yaratmak demekti. bu ise dünyanın temsil edilmesine giden yoldu. ama olitski resim tuvale koyduklarımızla değil çıkardıklarımızla anlam ve önem taşır diyordu. Çünkü saf resim kendine döndükçe bulunabilirdi. bundan öte her şey resimsel değil, resim dışı öğelerdir. resim : jules olitski, kapsamlı rüya, , tuval üzerine akrilik, " x ." asd’nin oluşmasında etkili olmuş olan eleştirmenlerden clement greenberg bu konuda özetle şunları söylüyordu: greenberg’e göre resimsel sanat iki vazgeçilmez geleneksel öğeden oluşur: yüzeysellik ve yüzeyselliğin sınırlarının genişletilmesi. greenberg modern sanat ve İ. kant’ın estetik görüşleri arasında bağ bulmaktadır bunu şöyle anlatır: “ben modernizm’i kant’la başlayan bir özeleştiri eğiliminin şiddetlenmesi, hatta azgınlaşması olarak görüyorum. eleştirinin yürütüldüğü aracın kendisini ilk sorgulayan kant olduğu için, onun ilk gerçek modernist olduğunu düşünüyorum. (...) benim anlayışıma göre modernizm’in özü, bir disiplinin karakteristik yöntemlerini o disiplinin kendisini eleştirmek için kullanmasında yatar. –yıkmak amacıyla değil, kendi yetki alanına daha sağlam yerleştirmek amacıyla. kant, mantığın sınırlarını saptamak için gene mantığı kullandı, işini bitirdiğinde ise mantık kendisine kalanın mülkiyetini daha da emin bir biçimde elinde tutuyordu. (...) eski ustaların tablolarından birine bakan, onu bir resim olarak görmeden önce onda ne olduğunu görmeye yönelir. modernist bir tablo ise önce resim olarak görülür. (...) Özeleştirinin görevi, herhangi bir sanattan bilinçli olarak ödünç alınmış etkileri veya araçları elimine etmektir. böylece her sanat saf bir hale gelecektir ve onun saflığı, özgürlüğü kadar kalitesinin de garantisi olacaktır. (greenberg, : - ) belki bu gelişmeyi kavramsal sanat öncesi son durak olarak görülen minimalist sanata genel bir bakış ile tamamlayabiliriz. minimalizm, temel belirleyicisi bir kültür sorgulamasından daha çok, yapısalcı teorilerden etkilendiği çok açık olan sanat üzerine düşünme eğilimidir. balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , frank stella’nın “fez (fes)” adlı çalışmasına baktığımızda, resmin geometrik olarak bölünmelerden oluştuğu görülür. kare bir tuval dört eşit parçaya bölünmüştür. her parça kendi içinde dioganal şeritlerin tuval köşelerine kaçacak şekilde yerleştirilmesiyle oluşturulmuştur. stella bununla ne yapmak istiyordu? bu soyutlamalarla varmak istediği yer neresidir. minimalistler şunu arıyorlardı: her şey çıktıktan sonra elde ne kalırsa, üretilen şey sanat eseri olarak tanımlanır. jules oltski, frank stella, robert ryman, kenneth noland, charles biederman’ın çalışmaları resim sanatını bu çerçevede geliştirdiler. frank stella çalışmalarını bu çerçeveden hareketle başka bir yere doğru ilerletti. “mademki, diyordu stella, resim bir ilişkililik temeli üzerine kurulmuştur ve resmin öyküsünü onu oluşturan öğelerin kendi içlerindeki ilişkiler oluşturur, öyleyse modern resim bütün bunlardan arınmış bir resim olmalıdır. bu düşünceyle stella sadece tuvalin bakışımlı (simetrik) çizgilerden oluşan bir yüzeye dönüştürmekle kalmadı. gerçekliği damıtabilmek için renk konusunda tasarrufa gitti. tuval belli yoğunluk taşıyan ve tüm yüzeyde aynı kalan renklerden oluşuyordu. bir süre sonra bununla da yetinmedi. alan etkisini azaltmak ya da başkalaştırmak için ve bu alanın salt bir renkten oluşsa da renk lekesinin, konturlarıyla meydana getirdiği biçim nedeniyle yarattığı figür izlenimini yok etmek için, tuvallerini biçimlendirmeye başladı. tuval artık geometrik ve iki boyutlu bir yüzey değildi. Üç boyutlu bir yüzey, hacimdi. (kahraman, : ) resim : frank stella, lanckorona i, , karton üzerine karışık teknik, . x . cm minimalizm’in geliştirdiği resme ait olmayan her şeyi dışarıda bırakma eğilimi, görsellikten çok düşünümsellik taşır. “...bu anlamda minimal sanat wittgenstein’ın tractacus’ta çözmeye çalıştığı sorulara benzer yanıtların peşindedir. tractacus’ta sorduğu soru şudur: dilin var oluşunu sağlayan şey, dilin olanağı nedir? dili, onun en önemli amacı saydığı amaç için, yani dünyayı betimleme, olguları dile getirme, doğruları – ya da başarısız kalındığında yanlışları anlama amacıyla kullanmak nasıl mümkün olabilir. wittgenstein’ın amacı düşüncenin yapısını ve sınırlarını balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , anlamak, yöntemi ise dilin yapısını ve sınırlarını irdelemektir. minimalistler de bu kusursuz dil arayışının içindedirler. asd’nun coşumcu çizgisine karşılık, boş, yansız, bireysellikten uzak, tümdengelimci ve birimci yapısı, manidarlıktan uzak olması minimalist yapıtların ortak paydasını oluşturur. her şey dışlayan ve sanatı tümüyle yalın bir dil olgusu olarak tanımlayan bu yaklaşım wittgenstein’ın felsefesi ile yakın bir bağ içindedir. bu sonuca uslaşmak için yürünmesi gereken yolun başında, her şeyi yadsımayı esas tutan öz eleştiri vardır. minimalizm önce kendisinin de bir parçası olduğu resim gerçeğine karşı çıkar. başlangıçta kendi dışında ama kendisinin de varlıkbilimsel olarak içinde yer aldığı kavramlara yönelttiği eleştiri, mantığın doğal bir zorlamasıyla kendisine yönelir. kendi yaptığı her şeyi sorgulamaktadır. minimalizm her şeyi yadsıyacak ama yerine seçenek diye ürettiği şeyleri de yadsıyarak yürümeye çalışacaktır yolunu ki, bu, olanaksızı aramaktan başka bir şey değildir. Çünkü söz konusu edilen eğer sanatsa, bu koşullar altında sanat, üretken bir etkinlik olmaktan çıkarılacaktır demektir. Çünkü sorulan sorulara verilen yanıtlar gene sanat yapıtı aracılığıyla olmayacaktır. bu yapıtlar sanat yapıtını aşacak ve açılan bir felsefi tartışmanın içinde aranacaktır. yapıtlar olsa olsa söylenenleri ‘imleyen’ içeriğinden boşaltılmış ve dışlanmış nesneler haline gelecektir. sanat yapıtının bünyesinde barındırması doğal olan sanatsal ağırlık hiçe sayılacaktır, sanat nesnesi yokumsanacak, sanatsal üretim aynı zamanda bir biçim ve güzellik olgusu diye tanımlanmaktan, nitelendirilmekten çıkarılacaktır. hepsinin yerine sanatçının bilinci konulacaktır. (kahraman, : ) minimalizimde sanata olan güvensizlik, kendini de kapsayacak bir değillemeye dönüşmüştür. tüm bir modern sanat yeni bir yüzey peşindeyken minimalizm yüzeyi sanat olarak görmek ister. wittgenstein’ın dili felsefenin kendisi olarak görmesi gibi. batı düşüncesinin rüyası olan mükemmel dil arayışı burada gerçekleşmiş gibi gözükür. ancak bu ironik bir şekilde gerçeklik üzerine konuşmaktan vazgeçip dilin kendine dönmesiyle, kendi kendini konuşmasıyla gerçekleşebilmiştir. . sonuÇ batı düşün dünyasında kökleri çok eskiye dayanan gerçeklikten söz edebilecek mükemmel bir dil arayışı bulunmaktadır. modern dünyada yine modern özne böyle bir temsili bulabileceğini, yani bir kavram ya da sanat yapıtı üzerinde bunu üretebileceğine inanmıştır. fakat modern sanatı doğru bir temsil için ortaya koyduğu tüm akım, üslupların sonucunda başarısızlık duygusundan kendini kurtaramamış, her temsilin eksik ve kusurluğu olduğunu müşahede etmiştir. modern dönenim ilk akımı olarak kabul edilebilecek empresyonizm ile beraber, gören ve görülen ilişkisi resmin konusu olmuş, görülenin aslında daha önceki sanatsal dönemlerdeki yansıtıldığı gibi olmadığı, bu algıların tamamen kurgu olduğu, aslıdan görme denilen şeyin ışık ile ortaya çıktığını ortaya koymuştur. bu noktadan itibaren temsile soyunan sanatçının görme denilen bu ilişkiyi soruşturmaya muhtaç olduğu gerçeğinden yola çıkması zorunlu olmuştur. hemen ardından gelen kübizm ise gören açısından olayı sorgulamış ve bu açıdan da görme işleminin koşullara ve konuma bağlı olarak değişken olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. tüm bu gelişmeler sonucunda sanatsal temsilin sürekli bir soruşturmaya muhtaç olduğu ortaya çıkmış ve tüm temsillerin kuşkulu olduğu kabul edilmiş, nihayetinde böyle bir temsilin mümkün olmadığı düşüncesine varılmıştır. sanatsal alan bu noktadan itibaren yeni bir olguyu gündemine almıştır. eğer böyle bir temsil mümkün değilse, belki de yapılacak yegâne şey temsil edemediğimizi göstermektir. böylece sanat tarihinde gösterimin negatif, soyut, sembolik biçimleri ortaya çıkmıştır. Öncelikli olarak mondrian örneğinde görülebileceği resim sanatı temsil adına soyut biçimleri ortaya koyacak ve bunlara sembolik anlamlar yükleyecektir. bu soyut biçimlerin bir kavramı ya da olguyu temsil ettiği söylenmektedir ama bu temsil sembolik olarak balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , yapılabilmektedir. sonsuzu bir nesnede göstermek mümkün değildir ama bir sembol ile ifade etmek mümkündür. İkinci olarak amerikan soyut sanatında, pollock ya da olitski örneklerinde daha net görüldüğü gibi sanat bir şeyi temsil etme görevinden kendini geri çekmiş bunun yerine sanatın kendi iç sorunlarıyla uğraşmayı tercih etmiştir. gerçeklik üzerine susmayı tercih eden sanat sadece yüzey, boya, figür ilişkilerini, sorunlarını gündeme almıştır. sanat böylece ancak kendi iç işleyişini, resim olma, sanat olma durumunu ele aldığı sürece anlamlı görülmüştür. balci / modern sanatta gösterilemeyenin gösterilmesi journal of awareness, cilt / volume: , sayı / issue: , kaynakÇa altuĞ, taylan; ( ), modern felsefede metafiziğin elenmesi ve yol açtığı bilgi kuramsal sorunlar, ege Üniversitesi yay, İzmir greenberg, clement;( ), modernist resim, modernizmin serüveni , ed. enis batur,yky,İstanbul kahraman, hasan bÜlent;( ), sanatta konvansiyonel-tradisyonel İlişkisine bakışlar, hürriyet gösteri, s: , İstanbul lynton, norbert; ( ), modern sanatın Öyküsü, çevirenler: prof. dr. cevat Çapan ,prof. sadi Öziş,remzi kitabevi, İstanbul appignanesi, richard,garratt, chrİs; herkes İçin postmodernizm eagleton, terry; ( ), kant’ta imgesel olan, edebiyat eleştiri / yaz, İzmir resim kaynakları resim : http://www.artchive.com/artchive/m/mondrian/mondrian_blue_plane.jpg.html resim : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/suprematist_composition resim : https://www.wassilykandinsky.net/work- .php resim : https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ resim : https://artmoderneblog.wordpress.com/ / / /jackson-pollock/ resim : https://www.albrightknox.org/artworks/k -gotham-news resim : https://www.artsy.net/artwork/robert-motherwell-elegy-to-the-spanish-republic-no- resim : http://paulcorio.blogspot.com/ / /jules-olitski-comprehensive-dream.html resim : http://www.spruethmagers.com/artists/frank_stella@@viewq ludwig hilberseimer and metropolisarchitecture: the analogue, the blasé attitude, the multitude arts article ludwig hilberseimer and metropolisarchitecture: the analogue, the blasé attitude, the multitude cameron mcewan institute of architecture, school of art, design and fashion, university of central lancashire, preston pr he, uk; cmcewan @uclan.ac.uk received: august ; accepted: november ; published: november ���������� ������� abstract: this article close-reads modernist architect ludwig hilberseimer’s early architectural projects, which employed a language of uniform fenestration, repetition and geometrically reduced typical forms, as embodying georg simmel’s blasé attitude in analogical form, and places this reading in relation to aldo rossi’s concept of the analogical city and the political theorist paolo virno’s notion of the multitude. the first part outlines the discourse around simmel, hilberseimer and rossi to note salient connections between these figures, their thought and the process of modernization. the second part discusses simmel’s and hilberseimer’s readings of the metropolis and interprets hilberseimer’s formal language as embodying the blasé attitude. the third part places hilberseimer in dialogue with rossi and interprets rossi’s analogical city as inhabited by another of simmel’s figures, the stranger. the article concludes by tracing a line from simmel’s figures of the blasé and the stranger via hilberseimer’s metropolis architecture and rossi’s analogical city toward the contemporary multitude, a collective linguistic subject. in doing so hilberseimer’s and rossi’s grammar of the metropolis can be rethought in relation to contemporary subject positions as a critical project toward an architectural theory of the multitude pushing back against the increasingly individualised city and market urbanism prevalent today. keywords: ludwig hilberseimer; georg simmel; aldo rossi; metropolis; architecture; critique; multitude; abstraction; analogical city . introduction in his canonical essay “the metropolis and mental life” (simmel [ ] ) the sociologist and philosopher of the city georg simmel extracted the principle characteristics of early twentieth-century metropolitan life: mechanisation, division of labour, multiplicity, pronounced differences, nervous energy, intensification of consciousness, intellectual character, abstraction, the levelling and exchangeability associated with the money economy. for simmel, these qualities lead to the psychological reaction of the “blasé attitude.” art avant-gardes such as dada, cubism and futurism pursued an aesthetic language that expressed the intensity of the metropolis, multiplicity of experience and nervous energy by means of collage, montage and assemblage whereby, “the picture becomes a neutral field on which to project the experience of the shock suffered in the city,” as manfredo tafuri (tafuri [ ] , p. ) commented in architecture and utopia. architects and planners such as ebenezer howard, bruno taut and frank lloyd wright rejected the new metropolitan condition and pursued an anti-urban ideology in their respective projects for garden cities, alpine architecture and the disappearing city (analysed and critiqued by for example (choay ; pope [ ] )). on the contrary ludwig hilberseimer called for a critical engagement with the city and developed a metropolitan architecture that negated the so-called shock of the metropolis by absorbing its intensity and distilling the “nervous energy” into a formal language of uniform fenestration, repetition and arts , , ; doi: . /arts www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts arts , , of geometrically reduced typical forms (also refer (mertins and jennings ), which contextualises hilberseimer’s relationship to the avant-garde art groups of the s). the aim of this article is to close-read hilberseimer’s early architectural projects, which employed typical forms and uniform “expressionless” architecture, as the architectural analogue of simmel’s figure of the blasé attitude, placing this in relation to aldo rossi’s notion of the analogical city and the political theorist paolo virno’s reading of the contemporary “multitude.” for virno the multitude is a collective linguistic subject who inhabits the “linguistic formation” of the metropolis (virno ), and whom, like simmel’s blasé individual, is characterised by abstraction and intellectual character, which virno, following marx, calls the general intellect (virno ). the multitude is an echo of rossi’s notion of collective memory and resonates with the collective subjectivity of simmel’s blasé individual. there is an implicit lineage which i will read in what follows. i argue the blasé attitude, described by simmel as a way the metropolitan subject internalises the “shock” of the metropolis, is given what i call here “analogical form” in the architecture (the metropolis architecture) of hilberseimer. the analogue is understood by drawing on aldo rossi’s notion of the analogical city where the city is the analogue of the collective memory of its people and where thought becomes form (rossi [ ] ; rossi ). rossi’s idea of collective memory corresponds in some respect with what hilberseimer has said in the new city where he writes how “social, spiritual, political and economic forces” change the “structure” of the city (hilberseimer , p. ) and in the nature of cities: “cities are an expression of particular spiritual and material, social and political conditions, influenced and modified by the forms of production and the means of communication” (hilberseimer , p. ). or following virno, analogical city is a “real abstraction.” this article therefore operates specifically in relation to hilberseimer and simmel, yet in broader terms it links hilberseimer’s metropolis architecture with aldo rossi’s analogical architecture, and simmel’s blasé figure with the figure of the multitude in virno’s thought. the questions posed in the article, related to the city, history, the discipline, the relation between thought and modernization processes, design and critique, individual agency and the collective subject, and architecture as critical activity, seek to remain open. the methodological approach is theoretical and operative rather than strictly historical. i approach from the point of view that architecture, as not only buildings and the city structures, but as drawing, image, text, thought, spatial and signifying practice, is a language, is subject to reading, close-reading and re-reading toward the opening up of discourse and an engagement with intellectual culture more widely. in the first part of this article, entitled “the shock of the metropolis,” i will briefly survey some of the ways in which the figures discussed here (simmel, hilberseimer, rossi, virno) and the salient ideas (metropolis, the blasé attitude, language, the analogue, multitude) are already discursively linked and the historical context within which the ideas took form. in the second part, entitled “metropolis architecture: hilberseimer. typical form, repetition, the blasé attitude,” i discuss the formal language of hilberseimer’s architecture through a reading of a selection of his projects to elucidate notions of repetition, seriality, uniformity, the logic of which is typicality. i interpret the corresponding readings of the metropolis put forward by simmel and hilberseimer in relation to hilberseimer’s art theoretical writings, which put forward a “law of form” where the notion of the particular is rejected and the typical is emphasised. although hilberseimer never mentions simmel directly, there is a connection in the way their thought on the metropolis coincides and i argue that hilberseimer’s projects embody simmel’s blasé figure. in the third part, entitled “analogical city: rossi. the analogue, collective memory, the stranger,” i argue that rossi’s projects develop a conceptual and formal dialogue with hilberseimer’s projects and that hilberseimer’s simmelian interpretation of the metropolis corresponds to rossi’s idea of collective memory and the analogical city. i interpret rossi’s collage project analogical city: panel as inhabited with simmel’s “stranger,” a figure associated with the blasé attitude. in my conclusion “metropolis and multitude” i briefly trace a line from simmel’s figures of the blasé and the stranger to hilberseimer’s metropolis architecture and rossi’s analogical city, toward the figure of the contemporary multitude (specifically (virno , ); and more broadly (hardt and negri ; arts , , of marazzi ; lazzarato )). in doing so hilberseimer’s and rossi’s architectural grammar of the metropolis can be rethought in relation to contemporary subject positions as a critical project toward an architectural theory of the multitude and model to push back against the increasingly individualised city and market urbanism prevalent today (such as what is put forward by for instance (schumacher )). . the shock of the metropolis the expansion of cities toward the end of the nineteenth-century and into the twentieth, their transformation, rapid urbanisation and new forms of subjective experience led to what became known as the metropolis. in her analysis of the modern city, françoise choay has described the double experience of the metropolis at this time which, “revolutionise[d] not only the spatial organisation, but also the mentality of the city dweller” (choay , p. ). on one hand the city densified, forcing expansion beyond a traditional boundary. at the same time the city was divided into a “production–consumption dichotomy” as choay notes forcing new forms of circulation, mechanisation, communication and infrastructural development and reorganisation. writing in his significantly titled text die groszstadt, otto wagner (wagner [ ] ) recognised the fundamental difference in scale and experience of the modern metropolis against the traditional notion of “city.” wagner wrote about the economic conditions of the city and how the logic of mobility, movement and infrastructure shaped the form of the city, key themes that are picked up in hilberseimer’s theory of the metropolis. on the other hand, for choay the new urban order derived from industrial-capitalist production and was not easily assimilated by the city dweller because of the economic drive, demographic concentration and as she says, “increasingly abstract means of communication” toward the “acceleration of history” (choay , p. ), leading to what tafuri called the “shock provoked by the metropolis” in architecture and utopia (tafuri [ ] , p. ). it is precisely for these reasons that the metropolis is the founding site of modernism and avant-garde experiment that engendered, as anthony vidler writes in warped space, “a culture of interpretation dedicated to the study and explanation of these new urban phenomena and their social effects . . . ” (vidler , p. ). as is well documented, thinkers such as walter benjamin, georg simmel and later theodor adorno responded to the development of the metropolis, the social effects of modernity and mental life through different forms of critique. a recent example of how the frankfurt school of thought can be reread is sven-olov wallenstein’s ( ) architecture, critique, ideology which draws in particular on adorno to develop a critical theory of modern architecture (tafuri [ ] ; cacciari ; hays ). in the following i focus on how simmel’s thought is implicated specifically in the city thinking of manfredo tafuri and massimo cacciari, who were part of the wider “venice school” group of historians and theorists of the s and s who included francesco dal co, alberto asor rosa and antonio negri. the story of the venice school is conflicted. for alternative readings of the period and the intellectual discourse, patrizia lombardo has considered the intellectual and historical context around cacciari’s thought in her “introduction: the philosophy of the city” for cacciari’s ( ) architecture and nihilism, while in the project of autonomy pier vittorio aureli (aureli [ ] ) has discussed what he calls the “venice group” focused around architect aldo rossi. in cacciari’s architecture and nihilism, a history of negative critique as it relates to the development of the metropolis, simmel’s text “metropolis and mental life” is a point of departure with cacciari setting up a dialogue with benjamin’s interpretation of baudelaire. for cacciari, negative thought is a critical approach that stresses the irreducible nature of contradiction and crisis within capitalist development. negative thought registers the discontinuities of history, “the leaps, the ruptures” as cacciari writes but not the historical flow (cacciari , p. ). following simmel, cacciari reads the metropolis as abstracting notions of the personal and the emotional toward a calculating rational subjectivity (cacciari , p. ). in a fundamental passage in the philosophy of money simmel called this “the calculating character of modern times” and writes about the “rationalistic character [of contemporary life] betrays the influence of money,” (simmel [ ] , p. ) whereby the “cognitive ideal is to conceive of the world as a huge arithmetical problem, to conceive events and arts , , of the qualitative distinction of things as a system of numbers” (simmel [ ] , p. ). it is not hard to recognise the continued relevance of simmel’s observations on the “calculating character” and objectification of urban life read today in terms of market-based urbanism and the metric-based quantification of living experience. cacciari’s close-reading of simmel’s “metropolis and mental life” was the primary reference point for manfredo tafuri’s interpretation of simmel’s idea of the metropolitan condition. having quoted fragments of simmel’s essay: “the metropolis, identified as the seat of the ‘money economy.’ the ‘intensification of nervous stimulation’ induced by the ‘rapid crowding of changing images, the sharp discontinuity in the grasp of a single glance, and the unexpectedness of onrushing impressions’” tafuri notes how the conditions described by simmel generate the blasé attitude of the individual, which tafuri calls the “man without quality” who is “indifferent to value” (tafuri [ ] , p. ). for tafuri, simmel’s consideration of the metropolis summarise the concerns of the modernist avant-garde: “the problem was, in fact, how to render active the intensification of nervous stimulation,” and tafuri offers a critical strategy: “to absorb the shock provoked by the metropolis by transforming it into a new principle of dynamic development . . . ” (tafuri [ ] , pp. – ). in the following section i will come back to this point to elaborate the connection between simmel’s thought and hilberseimer’s metropolis architecture, a link which seems to have been left hanging by tafuri. for instance tafuri only later in architecture and utopia quips, “it is true that hilberseimer’s ‘city-machine,’ the image of simmel’s metropolis . . . ” (tafuri [ ] , pp. – ) and in the sphere and the labyrinth tafuri briefly states that hilberseimer’s observations on the metropolis are seen to “echo the relationship indicated by simmel between the ‘metropolitan intensification of nervous life’ and the superior level of ‘consciousness’” (tafuri [ ] , p. ). my argument is that the metropolis architecture of hilberseimer is the analogue of simmel’s blasé attitude. as i will discuss later, the blasé individual is the conflicted metropolitan subject who, by analogy to the conflicted and contradictory metropolis, fully embodies the structure of contradictions: the confrontation of objects and people, the excessive distance through anonymity from each individual, the simultaneous overstimulation and disenchantment, the intellect shot through by emotional spirit, extreme individuality within the framework of mass social relations and the internalisation of those social relations within the individual. these contradictions are given form (what i call analogical form) by their negation (cacciari) or absorption (tafuri) in the formal language of hilberseimer’s metropolis architecture. the notion of analogical form is drawn from aldo rossi’s thought, who, in the architecture of the city wrote that the city is the locus of collective memory. for rossi, the city was the analogical form of the collective subjectivity of its inhabitants. rossi’s idea of the analogue was also conflicted: on one hand the analogue as a formal principle united analysis and design, composition and typological principles, and where architecture’s history, its typical forms and enduring urban types is also the material of architecture (rossi [ ] ); and on the other hand the analogue as a figure of thought that synthesised oppositions such as the individual and collective, object and subject, history and memory, architecture and city, the real and imaginary. while rossi does not refer to simmel directly, the lucidity of simmel’s thought, its fragmentary character and influence on walter benjamin, who was a key reference for rossi, would certainly have been known. later i interpret simmel’s figure of the “stranger” (simmel [ ] ), a development of the blasé individual, in rossi’s analogical city project. it is worth noting that in a scientific autobiography rossi ( ) reflected that he was fond of german culture and referred to thinkers including karl kraus, ludwig wittgenstein and bertolt brecht. rossi’s tendenza group (including massimo scolari, giorgio grassi, arduino cantàfora and many others) too were influenced by the german rationalism of architects such as ernst may, peter behrens, hans schmidt and ludwig hilberseimer. in the rational architecture exhibition cantàfora, under rossi’s direction, montaged projects by some of those architects into a single perspective drawing. hilberseimer’s high-rise city organises the central portion of the drawing and presents itself as a uniform backdrop to the singular buildings placed in the foreground. arts , , of the figures (simmel, hilberseimer, tafuri, rossi) and themes (metropolis, analogue, language, critique) discussed in this section condense in a statement by tafuri in the sphere and the labyrinth. in the chapter “‘l’architecture dans le boudoir’” tafuri writes: “the thread of ariadne with which rossi weaves his typological research does not lead to the ‘reestablishment of the discipline,’ but rather to its dissolution, thereby confirming in extremis the tragic recognition of georg simmel” (tafuri [ ] , p. ). tafuri is discussing the linguistic character of rossi’s work as the example of a “critical act” upon the discipline that puts the object into crisis, a crisis that corresponds to simmel’s interpretation of the crisis of the metropolis with its amplified differences and discontinuities and where city had been displaced by metropolis, and the individual displaced into the mass subject. according to tafuri the “crisis of the object” was already anticipated in hilberseimer’s metropolis architecture, where the architectural object had “disappeared” (tafuri [ ] , p. ) but for tafuri it was rossi who “validated” the proposition (tafuri [ ] , p. ). through the elaboration of an “alphabet of forms” freed from contact with the “real,” rossi “dissolved” and “destroyed” the architectural object toward its critical rearticulation with the city. in the following sections i focus on the alternative critical strategies developed by hilberseimer and rossi to internalise the “shock” of the metropolis and reconfigure metropolitan form through a process of repetition, negation and absorption in the metropolis architecture of hilberseimer and repetition, distillation and critical exchangeability in the analogical architecture of rossi. for simmel and hilberseimer the metropolis, as it developed by the s, was a paradigm for the money economy based on commerce and toward financial abstractions and a machine that produced a shifted form of consciousness. for rossi the city was a linguistic machine that produced an “alphabet of forms” and united individual and collective memory, linguistic capacity and imagination, a reading that developed during the s european transition to post-fordist production where the material of modernisation was not necessarily fixed capital, real estate and machinery but human intellect and the faculty of language. today these paradigms seem to coincide and i will conclude by linking the linguistic character of hilberseimer’s and rossi’s architecture of the metropolis with the “metropolis built on language” in paolo virno’s reading of the contemporary multitude (virno , ). . metropolis architecture: hilberseimer. typical form, repetition, the blasé attitude in hilberseimer published groszstadtarchitektur, translated as metropolisarchitecture (hilberseimer [ ] ). the book is both an analysis of the metropolis and a theory of architectural form. in the short first chapter, “the metropolis,” hilberseimer distinguishes between the city and the metropolis; the latter emerging as a paradigmatic form that requires a “new architecture,” a “metropolisarchitecture.” “the firmly organised city emerges at the level of artisan production,” hilberseimer wrote, while “the metropolis is a product of the economic development of the modern era” and the “global economy” (hilberseimer [ ] , pp. – ). metropolis displaces the traditional city. industrial production, mechanisation, the concentration and circulation of capital and the ethos thus embodied became the fundamental structure of society and a radical break from tradition. this ethos is canonically described by georg simmel who wrote how the metropolis had displaced the “polis,” the metropolis produced sharp differences in space and society, and with implications for the mental life of the inhabitants (a rossian collective memory): the psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli [ . . . ] stimulated by the difference between present impressions and those which have preceded [ . . . ] the rapid telescoping of changing images, pronounced differences within what is grasped at a single glance, and the unexpectedness of violent stimuli. to the extent that the metropolis creates these psychological conditions—with every crossing of the street, with the tempo and multiplicity of economic, occupational and social life—it creates in the sensory foundations of mental life [ . . . ] a deep contrast with [ . . . ] small town and rural existence (simmel [ ] , p. ). arts , , of for simmel and hilberseimer the new metropolis was a product of speculative market capitalism and was socially and spatially multifarious, dense and unruly. in a passage that evokes simmel’s metropolitan condition, hilberseimer writes the following: thus the present form of the metropolis owes its appearance primarily to the economic form of capitalist imperialism, which, for its part, developed in close collaboration with science and technologies of production. its powers extend far beyond national economies and increasingly into the global economy. an excess of intensity and energy is achieved through extreme concentration and comprehensive organisation. since production for one’s own needs is no longer sufficient, aggressive overproduction is encouraged; the focus is on stimulating needs rather than satisfying them. thus the metropolis appears first and foremost as a creation of all-powerful capital; as a feature of its anonymity; as an urban form with its own economic, social, and collective psychic foundations that enable the simultaneous isolation and tightest amalgamation of its inhabitants. a rhythm of life amplified a thousand times displaces the local and the individual. metropolises share a certain resemblance with one another; one finds an internationalism in their appearance. they do not relate to specific domains . . . (hilberseimer [ ] , pp. – ). in metropolisarchitecture hilberseimer follows with an analysis of the typologies associated with the new metropolis and divides the book into ten chapters dealing with metropolitan typologies including: residential buildings such as housing and hotels, commercial buildings such as offices and banks, industrial buildings such as factories and warehouses, transportation buildings such as airports and stations. each chapter compiles examples of built and theoretical projects by architects as diverse as daniel burnham, mckim, mead & white to le corbusier. pier vittorio aureli has described the organisation of hilberseimer’s book as a “realist compendium of architectural solutions for the problems confronting the metropolis” (aureli , p. ). having analysed the urban types that make up the capitalist metropolis, hilberseimer puts forward a theory of architectural form, concluding the book with a chapter titled “metropolisarchitecture.” he writes: “metropolisarchitecture is considerably dependent on solving two factors: the individual cell of the room and the collective urban organism” (hilberseimer [ ] , pp. – , ). architectural form is thus a consequence of the individual room and the metropolitan scale. the standardised element, the room, is placed in a continuous “assembly line” that passes through the house, the urban block, the district and to the city, as tafuri observed (tafuri [ ] , p. ). the method and scale of assembly line mass production becomes the implicit organisational principle of metropolitan form. metropolisarchitecture thus integrates city and architecture in such a way that recalls aldo rossi’s concept of the urban artefact, which sought to unite architecture and the city spatially and temporally as well as typologically and morphologically. on one level the methods of industrial mass-production become part of architectural design (such as le corbusier’s “mass-production houses” in toward an architecture (le corbusier [ ] ) or his diagram for the dom-ino). on another level there is a notion of integrating architecture and city where the room is the organising device extruded from architecture to the city. a third level integrates distinct fields of knowledge, where the laws of art are coupled with the laws of architectural form. the following descriptions of projects can help elucidate such a law of form and a point to which i will return in a moment. the canonical project by hilberseimer is the hochhausstadt, the high-rise city ( ). in metropolisarchitecture, the project is framed as a counter to le corbusier’s ville contemporaine (le corbusier [ ] ). the ville contemporaine is made up of different formal typologies (perimeter blocks, set-back “redents,” cruciform towers, z-plan factories), which le corbusier would disarticulate and transform from project to project, eventually condensing at his algiers design in the s. hilberseimer, in contrast, puts forward a single hybrid-type, the block-slab, which consisted of a -storey courted block containing mainly commercial programme, which forms a plinth, from which a -storey slab rises (mostly housing). while in le corbusier’s project the city is zoned horizontally into functional areas (commercial centre, cultural inner ring, residential edge), hilberseimer proposes arts , , of a vertical division between commercial base and residential top—essentially a traditional strategy that hilberseimer argues brings greater density. in hilberseimer’s well-known perspective drawings, with their alluring and oneiric appearance, colourless and contextless, inhabited with a multitude of shadowy figures, the anonymous mass-subject coincides with the anonymity of the generic metropolis. the plan is vertically extruded into volume, the room is horizontally extruded into block, the mass is articulated by uniform punctured windows, and the city extends into the horizon. preceding the high-rise city were projects such as the residential city, the wohnstadt ( ) and the town square project called kleinstadt ( ) (pommer et al. ). in the former hilberseimer uses the rectangular block as a typical form to organise a housing district. protruding stairwells and recessed loggia’s articulate a cubic mass. room sizes are identical for each apartment type so that the plan is an extrusion of the required area with bedrooms on one side and the stairwell and living areas on the other side. like the high-rise city, the façade is articulated with a uniform distribution of windows. at kleinstadt a row of pitched roof houses defines an open square. all buildings share the same language of square plan, uniformly sized openings and pitched roof, with the public building at the centre differentiated with a window where the houses have a door. these projects share a language of repetition, geometrically reduced typical forms and uniform fenestration (see figure ). they develop strategies of extrusion, duplication, repetition and telescoping of scales. a series is produced that reproduces metropolitan thought and form toward a coherent metropolitan language. each image used to depict the projects is contextless yet creates its own context as a dialogue with the other images, with hilberseimer’s other projects and to the typologies that make up the architecture of the metropolis. the perspective construction of the images produce a framework that holds the repeatable elements and frames their exchangeability between projects. the elements “float” within the frame and become subject to substitution and exchange, such as in simmel’s observation on the metropolis that all elements “float” within the money economy, levelled and thus subject to endless exchangeability. while in hilberseimer’s drawings there is an allusion to the anonymity of the mass subject, or what michael hays has called the posthumanist subject “without subjectivity” (hays , p. ), it is possible to interpret hilberseimer’s drawings and projects as embodying what simmel called the blasé attitude. in response to the intensity of metropolitan experience, simmel argued there is a turn inward to individual forms of existence as a self-imposed alienation in order to develop a “protective shield.” in his canonical statement simmel calls this the blasé attitude: “through the mere quantitative intensification of the same [metropolitan] conditions this achievement is transformed into its opposite, into this peculiar adaptive phenomenon—the blasé attitude—in which the nerves reveal their final possibility of adjusting themselves to the content and the form of metropolitan life by renouncing the response to them” (simmel [ ] , p. ). the blasé attitude internalises the shock of the city. it levels the different stimuli, abstracts and renounces metropolitan life as a way to live metropolitan life. pronounced differences become homogeneous, flat and grey to the blasé person. for cacciari, the blasé attitude expresses the ideology of the metropolis as a “form of negative thought” (cacciari , p. ). it is that negation which is expressed in hilberseimer’s architecture. the blasé attitude is given analogical form in the architectural projects, drawings and montages of hilberseimer. it is helpful to draw on what hilberseimer described in his art theoretical writings to develop this point. in his nietzschean-titled essay “the will to architecture” hilberseimer examined the development of abstract art in relation to power and subjective volition calling abstraction a “new classicism”. hilberseimer wrote: “abstract art was the first to transcend the narrow boundary of the subjective in order to reach the objective, the typical. it relinquished the compositional principle in favour of the constructive. with suprematism it achieved its ultimate effects” (hilberseimer [ ] , pp. – ). for hilberseimer, suprematism swept away the anthropomorphic remnants of expressionism and cubism toward new creative possibilities based on fundamental geometric forms that could be deployed by a new abstract language of architectural form. elsewhere hilberseimer wrote that the suprematists reached the point of “nothingness,” and closed “the process of analytical reduction” (hilberseimer [ ] , p. ). hilberseimer wrote: “the arts , , of simple cubic bodies: boxes and spheres, prisms and cylinders, pyramids and cones, purely constructive elements, are the fundamental forms of every architecture” (hilberseimer [ ] , p. ). and again, hilberseimer asserts: “thus structural forms are reduced to their most essential, most general, most simple, most unambiguous. rampant multiplicity is suppressed; formation occurs according to a general law of form” (hilberseimer [ ] , p. ). implicit in hilberseimer’s words are a correspondence between his analysis of abstract art and its generative possibility for project thinking. hilberseimer connects abstract art, abstraction in general, with typical and elemental forms—boxes and spheres, prisms and cylinders, pyramids and cones, their mass and volume (an elementality not unlike rossi’s). these statements on art theory coincide with hilberseimer’s concluding thoughts in the last chapter of metropolisarchitecture: “to form great masses by suppressing rampant multiplicity according to a general law [ . . . ] the general case, the law is respected and emphasised; the exception, however, is put aside, nuance is swept away, measure becomes master, chaos is forced to become form . . . ” (hilberseimer [ ] , pp. – ). the multiplicity of the metropolis, with its nervous energy, stimuli and intensity of experience, is suppressed. against nuance, the typical case is emphasised. for hilberseimer, the general and the typical constitute the analytical and formal criteria of the city. the typical forms and programmes of the metropolis catalogued in metropolisarchitecture (blocks, towers, slabs, plinths, offices, factories, housing, hotels) coincide with the typical forms and principles identified by hilberseimer in abstract art and are transformed into architectural forms which conceptually internalise the forces of the metropolis, distilling the nervous energy where “chaos is forced to become form.” hilberseimer negated the shock of the city by absorbing it, transforming urban shock into productive possibility, which is represented in hilberseimer’s drawings and projects as the architectural analogue of the blasé attitude: the greyness of the graphic tone, the de-coloured contextless background, the uniformity of expression, the repetition of windows, the blankness of façades and the simplified abstraction of cubic forms—a metropolitan form of consciousness and analogical form of the metropolis. arts , , of arts , , x for peer review of figure . montage panel by author. while art avant-gardes represented the intensity of the city through collage and assemblage of multifarious elements, hilberseimer sought to internalise the shock of the metropolis and distilled the “nervous energy” into a language of formally reduced elements and typical forms that could be produced and reproduced in generic schema—an architectural analogue (or analogical form) of georg simmel’s blasé attitude. figure . montage panel by author. while art avant-gardes represented the intensity of the city through collage and assemblage of multifarious elements, hilberseimer sought to internalise the shock of the metropolis and distilled the “nervous energy” into a language of formally reduced elements and typical forms that could be produced and reproduced in generic schema—an architectural analogue (or analogical form) of georg simmel’s blasé attitude. arts , , of . analogical city: rossi. the analogue, collective memory, the stranger rossi’s theory and projects of the city developed in dialogue with those of hilberseimer’s. it is clear in rossi’s projects (in particular his early projects of the s and ‘ s) he follows a similar formal language to hilberseimer. the repetition of elements within a single project and across projects as a series, the uniformity of fenestration and the principle of extruding and combining geometric forms is present in both architects’ work. for instance, the san rocco housing district ( ), a collaborative project between rossi with giorgio grassi, is organised as a series of three gridded blocks, which shift off axis from each other. in scale the project recalls the hofe blocks of berlin and vienna and in the diagrammatic multiplication of blocks invoke the principle of hilberseimer’s high-rise city. rossi’s gallaratese housing block ( ), inserted like a montage into what was a peripheral area of milan, is indebted to the extruded cellular language of hilberseimer. while in a diagram that shows both san rocco and gallaratese, rossi draws a hilberseimer-esque “schema,” distilling into a few simple lines the formal typology of each project. at the trieste city hall project ( ), rossi uses a principle of linear extrusion, from room to slab such as is present in hilberseimer’s city projects, then punctures the elevation with uniform square windows (see figure ). however, in rossi’s texts direct references to hilberseimer are scarce and rossi only briefly notes hilberseimer in the introduction to the rational architecture exhibition and momentarily in the architecture of the city (rossi [ ] ; rossi [ ] ). indeed both hilberseimer’s and rossi’s formal language is defined by a rigorous clarity of form but an intense density of thought. what connects hilberseimer and rossi most explicitly is that the city is a founding conceptual reality from which architecture takes its principles, forms and elements and connects architecture to city, society and the individual in a chain of thought. in both hilberseimer’s metropolisarchitecture and rossi’s the architecture of the city, the city comes first. rossi said: “architecture came into being with the first traces of the city; it is deeply rooted in the formation of civilisation and is a permanent, universal, and necessary artefact” (rossi [ ] , p. ). both hilberseimer and rossi identify the urban types that make up the city, from the high-rises, blocks and slabs described by hilberseimer in metropolisarchitecture, to the monuments, artefacts and primary elements that rossi identified in the architecture of the city and would distil into geometric type-forms in his drawings and projects. both architects studied the city as an entirety, considering the history of the city, the forces that produced the city and how the city functions in its wider spatial territory (regionally and globally). as we have seen, hilberseimer understood the form of the city as the manifestation of productive forces, society and the individual. we took the blasé attitude as an index of the wider societal ethos of the metropolis and thus the blasé individual is also a social individual, a figure who embodies collective memory. hilberseimer said the metropolis was the result of the “intersection of the flow of human activity, economics, and spirit” (hilberseimer [ ] , p. ) and in a significantly titled section of hilberseimer’s later book the new city called “a new spirit” he writes: “now as always, the conditions essential to the life of a city are dependent on social, spiritual, political and economic forces. each change of these forces effects change in the structure of the city” (hilberseimer , p. ). these statements recall an important passage in the architecture of the city where rossi writes that the city is “a material artifact, a man-made object built over time and retaining the traces of time, even if in a discontinuous way;” and it is “in the deepest layers of the urban structure, where certain fundamental characteristics that are common to the entire urban dynamic can be seen” (rossi [ ] , p. ). rossi is speaking about not only the “real structure of the city” as he writes, but “the idea that the city is a synthesis of a series of values. thus it concerns the collective imagination” (rossi [ ] , p. ). for rossi, the city constitutes the repository of human labour and thought, the collective memory and imagination of its people, which is made real in architectural form. it is perhaps in rossi’s drawings that the notion of collective memory is most lucidly represented. arts , , of arts , , x for peer review of figure . montage panel by author. rossi’s projects are in dialogue with hilberseimer’s. rossi developed a formally reduced language of typical elements and forms to be substituted, replaced and exchanged from project to project, always available but never settled, such as in simmel’s notion of the exchangeability of the money economy. the shadowy figure in rossi’s analogical city embodies a simmel’s stranger, who comes today, stays tomorrow but is always estranged. the stranger is the analogical figure of the multitude. figure . montage panel by author. rossi’s projects are in dialogue with hilberseimer’s. rossi developed a formally reduced language of typical elements and forms to be substituted, replaced and exchanged from project to project, always available but never settled, such as in simmel’s notion of the exchangeability of the money economy. the shadowy figure in rossi’s analogical city embodies a simmel’s stranger, who comes today, stays tomorrow but is always estranged. the stranger is the analogical figure of the multitude. arts , , of in drawings that rossi collectively titles analogical city, architectural and urban types are reduced to their geometric type-forms: truncated cones, hollow cubes, tapered or stepped pyramids, cylinders. domestic objects such as chairs, coffee pots, cups, newspapers, match boxes and cigarette packets are rescaled to that of the city. through repetition, combination and recombination of typical geometric and architectural or urban elements, their estrangement from one drawing to another, the altering of scale and arrangement create a discourse across each project and with the city. a solitary shadowy figure, not unlike the nomadic figures who occupy hilberseimer’s city drawings and of which he speaks in the new city (hilberseimer , pp. – ) (the nomad as a social type who recurs constantly in history), also seem to inhabit rossi’s urban studies (for example (rossi )). it is possible to draw a link here to simmel’s figure of “the stranger.” in simmel’s essay “the stranger” (simmel [ ] ) he elaborates another archetypal urban figure who operates in a dialogue with the blasé individual. the stranger is a wanderer who does not come today and leave tomorrow, but rather “comes today and stays tomorrow” without settling down or properly fitting in (simmel [ ] , p. ). like the blasé individual, the stranger is defined through a set of contradictions: a state of detachment and attachment, the union of closeness and remoteness, the extending of social relations without ever “belonging” in a group, a mobility that provides contact with everything but not bound to any one element or place. those contradictions are staged in rossi’s drawings as critical principles where all elements can be moved around, substituted, replaced, exchanged, detached from one project or drawing and reattached within another project, drawing or place. the elements and objects float within the same plane such as is evoked in simmel’s observations when he writes that the different stimuli of the money economy “all float with the same specific gravity in the constantly moving stream of money” (simmel [ ] , p. ). in rossi’s drawings, a tower can be substituted for another tower, or a column, or a coffee pot; a block can be exchanged for another block, or court, or stair, or cigarette pack; the ground of the city can be replaced by the ground of another city, or the surface of the drawing, or the surface of a table top. all elements are replaceable. all elements are continuously available but are never quite settled. perhaps the project that most represents the notion of stranger and demonstrates the principles of scaling and exchangeability at stake in simmel’s analysis of the stranger is rossi’s collage project entitled analogical city: panel (undertaken as a collaboration with bruno reichlin, eraldo consolacio and fabio reinhart). the analogical city: panel project is a montage of rossi’s own projects and those of his references: san rocco ( ), modena cemetery ( ) and segrate ( ) are positioned prominently as the main figural elements while gallaratese ( ) cuts into the image from left to centre; a renaissance ideal city organises the right hand side of the image, piranesi’s carceri are montaged below gallaratese, projects by palladio, le corbusier, terragni are all present. as tafuri has observed: “ . . . a fragment of a renaissance treatise is equal to an eighteenth-century project or to one by rossi” (tafuri , p. ). all projects float within the frame of the analogical city. projects can be substituted, replaced and exchanged by anything else. montaged into the city is a shadowy figure, a stranger who is simultaneously within and outwith the city, attached and detached, belonging and not belonging. the strange figure, who is constantly present in rossi’s drawings, “comes today and stays tomorrow” and can be read as a floating signifier standing in as a social individual, a mass subject embodying the notion of collective memory and an analogue of the multitude. . conclusions: metropolis and multitude updating hilberseimer’s analysis of the metropolis as it coincided with simmel’s blasé attitude and reading into the relationship between rossi’s analogical city and the stranger, it is possible to speculate that a contemporary figure can be situated with the multitude—a collective linguistic subject, always mobile and “united [ . . . ] by ‘not feeling at home’” as paolo virno has said (virno , p. ). elaborating on the connection between metropolis, language and multitude in his essay “three remarks concerning the multitude’s subjectivity and its aesthetic component,” virno writes: “the metropolis actually is a linguistic formation, an environment that is above all constituted by arts , , of objectivised discourse, by preconstructed code, and by materialised grammar” (virno , p. ). for virno the metropolis is built on language, and language is the material of contemporary capitalist production, corresponding with the linguistic subject of the multitude and the social and intellectual forms of life of the metropolis. there is resonance here with simmel who wrote: “the money economy and the domination of the intellect stand in the closest relationship to one another” (simmel [ ] , p. ). hilberseimer’s projects of the s were developed at a paradigmatic moment in the development of advanced capitalism where the “immaterial” production of commercial work based on intellect and language in the broadest sense, was replacing the material production of the factory. then, in the s and ‘ s, when rossi was developing his programme of analogical architecture, the transition from material to immaterial production was amplified and the notion of multitude appeared, where “raw material” became knowledge, information and social relations. today the precarious multitude has replaced the anonymous mass subject. in a grammar of the multitude virno has analysed the consequences of the increasingly abstract structures of contemporary forms of life and developed a theoretical and philosophic framework through which we might develop critical strategies for operating within (or against) capitalist relations. in his “three remarks” essay virno turns specifically to the aesthetic sphere and puts forward the preconditions for an aesthetic theory of the multitude. virno argues that with the centrality of linguistic capacity in advanced capitalism, language as a form of critique is needed, “to translate economic and productive powers of language into political and aesthetic powers” (virno , p. ). drawing on walter benjamin’s “work of art” (benjamin [ ] ) essay virno proposes the possibility of repetition to absorb the shock of metropolitan life and capitalist exploitation toward what virno calls, “uniqueness without aura” (virno , p. ) as a critical authorship. virno puts forward marx’s concept of real abstraction to take advantage of the abstraction of contemporary capitalism and “to give a body to the general intellect” (virno , p. ). if there is an aesthetic theory of the multitude, we can say that there is also an architectural theory of the multitude and that the points made by virno resonate with the argument put forward here. the centrality of language in the economy today calls for a reassessment of models of architecture and critique based on linguistic capacity such as we find in hilberseimer’s critique of market speculation, tafuri and cacciari’s strategies of negation, the linguistic and analogical form of rossi’s analogical city, the formal strategy of repetition and exchangeability staged in hilberseimer’s and rossi’s projects, abstraction as a critical operation, “uniqueness without aura” as a critical authorship where authorship coincides with the agency of the subject expressed through a collective formal language, and where formal language condenses with the abstraction of the multitude. the productive power of language at stake in the multitude can be translated toward an aesthetic and architectural language as a critical project against the market urbanism of today. funding: this research received no external funding. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references aureli, pier vittorio. . architecture for barbarians: ludwig hilberseimer and the rise of the generic city. aa files : – . aureli, pier vittorio. . the project of autonomy: politics and architecture within and against capitalism. new york: princeton architectural press. first published . benjamin, walter. . the 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designing architecture, architecture for designing pictures † marta magagnini and nicolò sardo * “eduardo vittoria” school of architecture and design, university of camerino, camerino, italy; marta.magagnini@unicam.it * correspondence: nicolo.sardo@unicam.it † presented at the international and interdisciplinary conference immagini? image and imagination between representation, communication, education and psychology, brixen, italy, – november . published: december abstract: this essay reflects on the intersection between architecture and photography, or better, between the architecture project and the photography project. the representation of architecture and the urban landscape is investigated through selected methods and trends that in recent years have characterized both the work of some photographers/artists and the design attitudes of those architects that for the birth of the architectural project use the photographic image for mediation. the cornerstone of the critical analysis is the manipulation of the image, techniques for doing so, and the applications and facets of sense and meaning that the desire for perceptual estrangement produces for the two goals: doing art or doing architecture. keywords: architectural photography; editing; manipulation; mimesis; birth of the project . introduction already in the s, architectural photography was characterized as a hybrid area between the two professions of the architect and the photographer—not by chance are many photographs of architecture made precisely by architects—and the photograph itself became a tool, if not for the project, for its representation. today, however, this is not only about a shared interdisciplinary path nor reciprocal instrumentality. in recent years, there has been an unstoppable attitude towards manipulating photographic images that involves both worlds in parallel. in this sense, the photography (of architecture) has developed some trends that lead to transfiguration of the subject represented, to the point that it has become completely reconstituted. in the architectural project, instead, photographs have played an increasingly active part such that they definitively condition the project. on the one hand, thanks to computer graphics, photographic realism has unquestionably monopolized the final phase of representing the project in recent decades; on the other hand, cut and paste, from art to architecture, has opened and continues to open new roads for the architectural project in itself. in photography, the sense of the operation itself ends up with its meaning reversed: it is space that is recreated ad hoc for representation, with procedures ranging from mimesis to the real construction of new realities and elements that increasingly move away from a concrete reference to reach completely digital forms. in architecture instead, the photograph becomes a tool for composition as well as representation: its images offer both “figures” and “backgrounds”, whose editing touches the formal genesis of the spaces. proceedings , , of . pictures for designing architecture: editing strategies for contemporary architectural composition the invention of photography became official in and only twenty years passed between the first daguerreotypes and photomontages created with the camera obscura [ ]. shortly after photographs began to enter middle-class homes in victorian england, the first scrapbooks were created, albums full of photographic collages [ ]. these short historical times reveal the objective nature of the photograph, which immediately loaned itself to manipulation, for reasons both technical and—especially—ontological. in fact, as john berger notes, photographs “do not in themselves carry any certain meaning, because they are like images in the memory of a stranger” and they lend themselves to any use precisely for this reason [ ] (p. ). the photographed object, which that “stranger” deemed worthy of memory, is something that anyone can appropriate to observe the original “recognition” that saved it from lost history. this intrinsic nature is also the reason why, at the beginning of the twentieth century, the photograph began to be used to represent the architectural project. the year marks the official date when the photograph entered architectural design [ ]. the commissioner of the competition for the national bismarck memorial requested participants to create perspectives pasted onto some photos of the elisenhöhe hill. thus began a new practice in which international architecture competitions began to systematically request “photo perspectives” [ ] of the project inserted within its context, that is, glued onto a photograph of something to be conserved even after the new construction was complete. the photograph has been used in many ways throughout the history of the project in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, along with many types of editing [ ]. but this intervention, which mainly affects contemporary imagery, is concentrated not so much on representation, on rendering a well-defined project, as on the conception phase of the project itself, where the photograph becomes a heuristic and creative tool in support of design. beginning with sketches by le corbusier or oscar niemeyer and continuing up to the sketchbooks of steven holl, small interventions of [photographic] collage allow a designed thought to be directly verified. with this strategy, the architect quickly establishes whether the idea is satisfactory or not. for some contemporary architects, instead, editing is a slow job of stratifying thoughts, subject to modulation and variation and experimenting with language. one of the needs of contemporary architecture has been confirmed: the need to confront pre-existence, because any new architectural project-object will itself be immersed in a landscape-collage [ ], a superposition of physical traces with which to interact. the landscape is a real place, but also a place of memories. it is a formal landscape to draw on to reinvent the form itself. an investigation of designs by the so-called contemporary italian “architect-collage artists” (carmelo baglivo, cherubino gambardella, luca galofaro, beniamino servino, and others that are more or less occasional) highlights how these architects do not use the cut-and-paste technique (which is now almost exclusively digital, except the rare exceptions of exceptional designers such as cherubino gambardella) to create images as goals in themselves or final representations of something designed elsewhere and otherwise, but as a compositional strategy. the fragment is intended as a form in itself, to be recomposed, reassembled to combine past and future in an ideal way. in addition, rather than adding and stratifying, one can at times subtract or cancel out portions of [architectural] figures to recover the background and define new [architectural] forms. in this case, the language of the final image derives from that of the initial photograph. the same is true of the content: the manipulation is fed and appropriates a language without the pretext of creating a new one. the idea is to completely change the meaning of a recognizable starting element [ ]. proceedings , , of (a) (b) figure . (a) hans dieter schaal, roma arch-collages, ; (b) luca galofaro, stazione spaziale – ritorni, . (a) (b) (c) (d) figure . (a) cherubino gambardella, la vita con gli oggetti, ; (b) luca galofaro, postcard from beirut, ; (c) beniamino servino, il giardino protetto, ; (d) carmelo baglivo, palazzo veneziano, . proceedings , , of in reality, this is not an entirely new approach. in the s, in fact, collage had its age d’or. among the many international figures of “architect-collage artists”, it is interesting to recall hans dieter schaal, who, after a long stay in rome, realized in a series of “re-seen and corrected” postcards. the observer is presented with systematic changes in the imagery of the eternal city, through the duplication of its most unique, recognized buildings that pertain to collective memory. this formed the series rome arch-collages (figure a). in one of these images, for example, the german architect triples st. peter’s square and its colonnade, and adds another two, one to the left and one to the right: with this operation, a single urban device generates formally identical spaces that are structurally different because they dialogue with different contexts and generate different fabrics. what is evinced in schaal’s work is a reflection on the form and its meaning, which changes according to the position, on how to intervene and grow an urban fabric, and on the sense of a formal, equal reproduction. but for schaal, this operation remains a unicum in his production of designs and in particular did not produce concrete projects. editing for some designers today is instead a favoured tool with respect to other techniques of design and communication, so much so that the images from this or that designer become recognizable; the practice has become “authorial” thanks to the inexhaustible potential of the technique. there are those that use descriptive geometry and design on photographic perspectives (figure a,c,d) and those that instead choose cuttings to work with flat geometries, concentrating exclusively on the layers (figures b and b). the modernity of this analogue tool, which also loans itself to the digital realm, has undoubtedly important value in delineating a history of the contemporary project. this is true given the wide use it has found in the work not only of architects, but also of many contemporary artists: those who use photographs as the basis for the design (rachel whiteread) or those who adopt editing as an autonomous language, which can become a design solution (gianfranco botto and roberta bruno). using cut and paste, each designer not only experiments with their own stylistic search, but drafts true architectural theories for images, simultaneously throwing down the basis for future projects. editing is a method that makes a selection of fragments to reaffirm memory as acquired models. a language is not invented ex novo, but is derived from already known registers, acting with miniscule technical interventions (addition, subtraction, multiplication…), which then become characteristic of a certain practice of architectural composition. the design of architecture, therefore, can only be realized with cut and paste, by nature of the design approach: one cannot begin with raw starting material because the desire is not to create autonomous, original forms, but to record the work within a network of signs and meanings. . architecture for designing pictures: the representation of “other” realities time and light intersect when a photographic image is made, but both of these elements create problems when reality is manipulated. manipulation can proceed a posteriori—operating in the cracks allows depictions to be processed—but can also develop well before by recreating a specific interstice a priori. if the particular relationship between photograph and reality has always been up for debate, what seems clear in the productions highlighted here is how the reality of the photograph itself can become, more than ever, ephemeral and virtual. any instrumental value of the image seems to disappear then: the image, the unique protagonist, aspires to be built as a subject, and reality is not only a servant. in this way the concept of a photograph as a testimony “that the thing was there” [ ] (p. ) loses strength, to instead reclaim its superiority over the “thing” itself. if on the one hand some developments tend towards “mimesis”, to the construction of a feasible reality, other productions deliberately establish an “impossible”, imagined reality. “imagery implies liberation with respect to the literal determination, the invention of new content, displaced, which introduce a symbolic dimension” [ ] (p. ). proceedings , , of the relationship with the subject is thus developed in the folds of dialectics between “convention” and interpretation. “no genetic narration of the origin of the photo, no matter how detailed and careful, can logically guarantee the fidelity of that photo” [ ] (p. ). if the photograph, having overcome its documentary function, has now clarified its capacity to deliver a “reading of the world”, this world seems to be not only already interpreted, explained, mirrored, but is folded, redefined, and reconstructed. but what do the images of “false” photographs on architecture and its representation tell us? in the fiction of the staging, a “truth” about the deeper mechanisms of representation and its subject can possibly be found. basically, the credibility of the image does not create problems for the deeper sense of operating, but allows the meaning of the construction of the depiction to be analyzed with greater freedom. in order to analyze the various procedures initiated by photographs that will be examined, three guiding themes have been identified. . . “transfigured” reality processing proceeds subtly, always maintaining a high degree of relationship to reality. this is rather shown through a “filter” that modifies its character. the actions made are often all internal to the mechanisms of the photographic tool: blurring, multiple exposures, use of filters, etc. these operations on the image can be considered “analogue”, even when done with digital tools. what is amplified is in some way is the “scraps of the model” [ ] (p. ). in the “game of mirrors” between the referent and its representation, the distance between the two is often heightened. “the resemblance between the thing and its mirror image is only an exterior denomination that pertains to the thought. the ambiguous relationship of resemblance is, in things, a clear relationship of projection” [ ] (p. ). what some photographs tend to create is essentially a new grammar of the image with which the edifice is shown through those manipulations that sublimate the raison d’être. in one of his best-known series of photographs, hiroshi sugimoto [ ] uses blurring to represent some iconic works of modern architecture (figure a). he therefore creates a estrangement effect in which, however, the “familiarity” of the subject helps to reduce the distance. his diaphanous images seem to push the “vanishing point” away. they suggest that the image can thicken and become “clearer” but also propose the possibility that one is moving away from the subject. another theme that interests sugimoto is the “representation” of time, the centre on which many of the japanese artist’s works are concentrated. sugimoto particularly insists on this aspect, which sees particular development from time to time [ ] (pp. – ). but it is in his project theatres where “the images of the cinema… provide a condensed historical vision” [ ] (p. ). in sugimoto’s photographs, it is the time of the cinematographic projection that is condensed in the white image on the screen (figure b). enclosing time in a single image is an aspect that michael wesely is also committed to. he depicts the transformation of the scene before the fixed eye of the camera. the result is a series of exposures—over the arc of three years—in which the results recall the signs that are condensed in piranesi’s prisons. the “what was” [ ] (p. ) is prolonged in time and is able to capture the modification of space through the deposition of “traces” that constitute a likewise impossible image (figure d). for his works characterized by an alteration of light, james welling used two masterpieces of architecture as subjects. the glass house by philip johnson is shown through coloured filters that give it an indirect, unexpected reading [ ] (figure e). even more sophisticated are the digital manipulations made on maison de verre by pierre chareau, where the light defining the internal spaces is “rewritten” with reductions and amplifications (figure c). proceedings , , of (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) figure . (a) hiroshi sugimoto, architectures (monumento sant’elia), ; (b) hiroshi sugimoto, theatres (u.a. walker), ; (c) james welling, maison de verre, ; (d) michael wesely, open shutter (the museum of modern art‚ new york), august – may ; (e) james welling, glass house, . irene kung also works with the manipulation of light to heighten the sense of isolation and abstraction in the buildings photographed [ ]: “the beauty and mystery of irene kung’s photos create a map of the city… the daily city transformed into the nocturnal city of dreams… the monuments preserve their identity and geographical location and, nevertheless, in abandoning the earth to rise towards the unconscious, are freed of their cultural and functional appearance to become admirable abstractions” [ ] (p. ) (figure a). (a) (b) (c) figure . (a) irene kung, santa maria della pace, roma, ; (b) abelardo morell, camera obscura (new york), ; (c) thomas kellner, tower bridge, london, . the nucleus of the constitution of the image embodies the process implemented by abelardo morell in his project camera obscura [ ]. the superposition of the external image—produced by the transformation of rooms into real camera obscuras—and the environments themselves produces a sort of photograph “squared”: an indirect glance that builds a photograph of the “photograph” as the conclusion to a process that recalls what was begun by the main character in italo calvino’s the adventure of a photographer (figure b). proceedings , , of thomas kellner also works on the theme of time. he represents architecture through successive snapshots that—making a deconstruction that also clearly references cubism—frame partial sections of the buildings: the “fragments” are then reconstituted by laying printed strips of film side by side [ ] (figure c). the figurations by idris khan—which only superficially appear close to wesely’s—originate in the superposition of multiple images but are applied through a complex process of stratification, thereby showing an “indefinite” reality composed of warp and weft. it is interesting to note how the images originate not only in original snapshots, but also in photographs by other artists; emblematic in this case is his work on some prints of the becher couple [ ] (figure a). (a) (b) figure . (a) idris khan, st. paul's cathedral, london, ; (b) olivo barbieri, colosseo, roma, . to close this section of the research, we cite the fascinating work of olivo barbieri, all of which is carried out within processes that use the constituent elements photography. employing the tilt-shift method, barbieri contracts the area of the shot in question. the process makes a selection and an invitation to the gaze. this, which is almost always from a high point of view, creates a distancing effect that transforms buildings and urban realities into a sort of scale model [ ] (figure b). . . “artificial” reality what is practiced is no longer an operation on reality. it is reconstructed through “simulacra”, real scale models [ ] that, with different degrees of abstraction or similarity, evoke and virtually reconstruct a possible reality. in acting thus, the testimonial value of the image does not create problems (barthes); it is the subject itself that causes problems for the conventions of what would normally be part of the photographic future. “the photograph abandons its traditional documentary worth, a tool capable of capturing the decisive moment, and introduces a doubt about what is seen and naively accepted as real” [ ] (p. ). it is the “original” itself that is redefined. “the false truth of the copy gives body to a simulacrum that simulates the being itself to the point of substituting it (in the case of illusionism)” [ ] (p. ). the model, the replica, becomes the protagonist. “today, abstraction is no longer of the paper, the double, the mirror, or the concept. simulation is no longer of a territory, a referential being, a substance. it is the generation for models of a reality with no origin or reality: hyperreality” [ ] (p. ). thomas demand uses paper to reconstruct real detail-rich “scenography” that is often inspired by real places and environments connected to particular social or political events. the almost obsessive reconstruction tends to simulate and to trick. its images thus become a real criticism of the photographic representation of reality: what is depicted is only a simulacrum. the models, after being rigorously photographed, are destroyed [ ] (figure a). the realism of james casebere’s models is different from that of other photographers analyzed here. he does not insist on the use of colour and the photographs seem to lack precise hints about the proceedings , , of “scale”. the use of water—as if the photographed spaces were flooded—also increases the sense of disorientation in his visions [ ] (figure b). emilio pemjean instead selects spaces extracted from unrealized paintings and buildings. through the neutrality of the surfaces, he reaches the heart of the character of the spaces represented. light—the basic element of his constructions—becomes a tool for characterizing the environments depicted by his models. in addition to taking photographic snapshots, he also often makes videos that show a time series of how the spaces transform as the lighting is modified, thereby allowing for a real visual experience [ ]. his project palimpsesto—“…in a play of language transmutation that goes from architect to painting to sculpture and finally to the photo” [ ] (p. )—“is a path through architectural works that now no longer exist—destroyed or radically transformed—but are still points of reference and collective myths that are perfectly identifiable thanks to some painted masterpieces”. these works are reconstructed under the form of models, even “completing and reinterpreting the spaces in part blocked by objects that the painter used for the scenario” [ ] (p. ) (figure d). (a) (b) (c) (d) figure . (a) thomas demand, sprungturm, ; (b) james casebere, red room, ; (c) lori nix, library, ; (d) emilio pemjean, oudezijds voobugwal , amsterdam, . lori nix’s carefully created models insist on realism and the richness of detail, but they also represent particular conditions of the realized constructions. the american artist presents an apocalyptic vision where buildings are shown, after a hypothetical disaster, as ruins in a state of abandonment where nature seems to want to reappropriate the spaces [ ] (figure c). . . “recreated” reality in this last section, special elaborations are analyzed where architectural and photographic speculation is touched upon in a meaningful way that is entirely fascinating. an important group of artists start precisely from what exists, reinterpreting it and transforming it. in some cases, the proceedings , , of “remounting” changes the forms and meaning to arrive at a new “construction” in which the relationship with the original becomes ambiguous and distant. in some cases a linguistic process begins that is constituted in a real formal sampling capable of evoking “other” realities. even just the removal of parts configures “another” reality. but the interventions on the parts of the image are often much more complex: duplication, alteration, deformation, editing, are the actions aimed at creating an image that—while maintaining a greater or lesser degree of similarity—largely reduces the relationship with a close referent. the most important artist is certainly the german photographer andreas gursky. the image is disassembled and reassembled; the “correct” reality—through the removal of its components or their displacement—forms the figure of a condition that is not true but similar. everything is presented in large-format prints that invite us to enter into these “new” realities [ ] (figure a). (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) figure . (a) andreas gursky, copan, ; (b) filip dujardin, untitled nr. , ; (c) david trautrimas, the fragment accumulator, ; (d) victor enrich, shalom nr. , ; (e) beate gütschow, s nr. , ; (f) emily allchurch, london babel (after bruegel), . the process proposed by gursky is further developed in the work of other photographers that go further in their freedom to use parts that are assembled in the search for original forms. beate gütschow, in her “s” [stadt] series of images combines numerous fragments of urban construction—photographed in some of the most important cities in the world—creating images that evoke, despite the evident fiction, post-apocalyptic city spaces with great realism. the use of black and white also participates in creating an atmosphere capable of fascinating suggestions. gütschow’s desire is to establish a story. if reality is not shown to be capable of providing the “right” elements for this, then it is constructed specifically for it. it is worth noting the presence of the human figure, or in its absence, of elements that in some way mark the presence of humans, who continue to inhabit the scenes represented [ ] (figure e). filip dujardin, while proposing a repertoire of more “extreme” forms, composes his architectures in a manner not unlike the one used by gütschow. in this case editing also starts by capturing parts of real constructions that are “reused” to build new realities, which are often inserted in a natural context where human presence is not excluded [ ] (figure b). the work of david trautrimas can be compared to the work of artists mentioned above, but only from the point of view of constructing the image. because if the mechanism is certainly shared, the elements are decidedly different. trautrimas uses objects taken from reality, but used in building architectural structures creates a estrangement effect given by the transformation of the original proceedings , , of function and the modification of scale. with a mechanism that is ready-made and not without an undoubted element of fun, the objects loan themselves to building imaginary buildings. the images that constitute his spyfrost project series evoke individual building-machines such as military structures used for a hypothetical “cold war” [ ] (figure c). the compositional procedures implemented by victor enrich are not unlike those described up to now. the particularity of the catalan photographer is his composition of extreme structures that call into question any static convention. in addition, when he imagines buildings as capable of having different structures, transformation and movement is not unusual, and everything is underlined by the construction of sequential images (figure d). beyond the established processes—similar to those of other artists discussed here—the characteristics of emily allchurch are the use of famous paintings as an iconographic reference for her images. her depictions therefore become real rewritings of works such as the tower of babel by pieter bruegel the elder or giovanni battista piranesi’s prisons, but they also use fragments of contemporary buildings. the fascination of her work grows out of the clear recognizability of the “original” work and the subsequent discovery of the particularities of the elements that compose the elaborations (figure f). in the work of the finnish artist ilkka halso, the protagonist of the snapshot is no longer the architecture. combining natural scenarios with architectural structures in the series museum of nature, “he shows an image that is anything but pure and uncontaminated—but so often appreciated—of nature. rather, his works present nature torn from its environment… the images place before the observer’s view a completely unnatural reality, new and never seen before: a digitally developed reality that halso obtains by assembling photographs of landscapes and d computer-generated models” [ ] (p. ) (figure a). (a) (b) figure . (a) ilkka halso, museum of nature, kitka-river, ; (b) andreas gefeller, plattenbau , . the images by andrea gefeller [ ] go well beyond a desire to realistically simulate real points of view. reality is reconstructed through complex photography operations in order to simulate an infinite point of view: “the title of the series supervision already contains a reference to the chosen perspective… the characteristic of these images is in the perspective from above that shows us the rooms as if they lacked ceilings. an unrealistic and almost distancing vision is therefore created, in conflict with the common way of seeing a place” [ ] (p. ) (figure b). it seems obvious how photography and some of its developments have caused a crisis in recent years in its relationship with reality, which seems to be dissolving more and more [ ]. even if the relationship with reality is anyway maintained in the examples that have been considered, one sees the complete release from it increasingly often in some artists’ work, along with the creation of completely synthetic images. the next level coincides with the total disappearance of a real referent, instead being projected in a completely reconstructed virtual digital scene. works by giacomo costa [ ] (pp. – ) and proceedings , , of alex roman can be mentioned among the most important examples, while considering an important difference in the approach and results. . conclusions in this investigation on the manipulation of the image in photography and architecture, what is evidenced is a certain complementarity of the two worlds, which go beyond their original disciplinary confines to fill in voids and cracks in the other discipline. on the one hand, the contemporary architecture of real estate announcements seems increasingly like a projection of the image (selling then building), as in photography, which looks for “genuine” three-dimensional models for two-dimensional representation. where those values of which architecture would have had to be a protective deity are no longer recognized in reality, its subjects are created ex novo. on the other hand, the work of architect-collage artists makes precisely the aura that the photograph confers on reality return to architecture that depth of which the consumption society has ruinously removed. a search for the key word evinced by these reflections on architecture and photography could therefore result in “model”. architecture and photography historically need formal models and tools for abstraction to be able to speculate in an orderly way (the role of descriptive geometry in the theory of both disciplines comes to mind), but the standardization and commerc ialization of the contemporary age have dominated the models of the past with signs, concealing them or emptying them of their original meaning. the multi-sensory chaos in which we are immersed makes reality in itself unmanageable for effective artistic investigation. to be able to produce meaning, it is necessary to isolate fragments or autonomously generate spaces that are quieter and less saturated with information. and precisely the search for signs, therefore, could be the common meaning behind the various modulations of photographic manipulation, surprisingly the opposite of falsification and counterfeiting. the search for the project recognizes in the photographic image an ordering tool because it selects memories of spaces and times, while photographic experimentation proposes new geometries and paradigms to be able to silence, at least in the time of a click, the perceptual conflict of an overcrowded reality that masks its bearings. acknowledgments: n.b. all direct quotations were translated by the author from the bibliographic sources. author contributions: this work was conceived and designed by marta magagnini e nicolò sardo. marta magagnini has developed and edited the section , nicolò sardo the section . conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . ceserati, r. l’occhio della medusa. fotografia e letteratura; 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( ), camera construct. photography, architecture and modern city. london: routledge. © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). - books and art mh.indd information technology has clearly had an impact on our daily lives. it has also altered the global economy. but how can you measure the worth of a web search or an electronic file format? in this slender volume, erik brynjolf- sson and adam saunders examine the links between innovation, productivity and value. wired for innovation contrasts information with tangible goods. unlike a physical product, information is not limited by its transportability or the number of times it can be used. yet a con- sumer who uses a web search to book a holiday, for example, adds real value to the economy — and more than billion web searches are made each day in the united states alone. form- ing a demonstrable relationship between web activities and dollars generated is becoming increasingly important. to illustrate why traditional economic measures are inadequate, brynjolfsson and saunders examine the impact of web-based products that seem, to the consumer, to be free, such as google’s search engine or adobe’s portable docu- ment format. these, they explain, follow two-sided markets: many search engines receive funding from keyword-based advertising, and adobe makes money from selling other software products that use its file format. but the con- nections between the two sides of the business are invisible. because adobe doesn’t sell its reader, the contribution of that software to a traditional metric such as gross domestic product cannot be determined. however, networked technologies also offer new ways to manage and analyse economic data at an increasingly fine-grained scale. the authors propose a tool kit for the emerging economics of the digital business world. dif- ferent devices are needed to monitor and test the market as it evolves. some of their suggested indicators are not new, such as customer sur- plus — the aggregate net benefit that consumers receive from an item or service above what they paid for it — but they take on a new role in the digital environment. the combination of mobile phones, global positioning systems, online maps and res- taurant reviews, for example, has opened up possibilities for revenues whose value exceeds that for each technology alone. measuring that surplus requires further technologies to track links in the economic decision chain, such as smart ‘sociometric’ badges that monitor inter- personal interactions. such developments would allow us to monitor flows of informa- tion through the economic and social system at a detailed level. the human side of innovation must also be understood. brynjolfsson and saunders explain that information systems are mean- ingless without the ability to manage and accrue benefits from them. they propose “pillars” that should underpin a successful digital organization — where people are sup- ported by technology, rather than the other way around. open information access, rather than an excessively protective communication policy, is cited as one way for an organi- zation to draw benefit from the human skills available to it — what you can’t see, you can’t extract value from. future economists and computer scien- tists may look to this decade as the begin- ning of a digital global economy. small, light and portable, like the technologies it describes, wired for innovation will form a valuable reference for scholars searching for markers of this fundamental change. those wishing to become a formative part of the new economy — rather than merely a footnote — should read this book. ■ john gilbey lectures in computer science at aberystwyth university, uk. e-mail: gilbey@bcs.org.uk wired for innovation: how information technology is reshaping the economy erik brynjolfsson and adam saunders mit press: . pp. $ . , £ . valuing the digital economy as an executive coach who works with compa- nies to recruit, retain and develop their female talent, suzanne doyle-morris has long had an interest in issues concerning women in male- dominated professions, including academia and science. in her book, she offers advice to anyone who wishes to “understand the boys’ club and move beyond it”. doyle-morris interviewed senior women from a range of backgrounds to discover what made them survive and thrive in their work- places. her interviewees, spanning a wide age group, included a senior diplomat, a retired archaeologist who led digs in iraq, and aca- demics such as athene donald, professor of experimental physics at the university of cambridge and recipient of a l’oréal/ unesco women in science award. the difficulties women face in rising through their professions, doyle-morris argues, stem largely from old career structures. too often it is assumed that an employee, usually male, has a partner, usually female, who will attend to domestic responsibilities, leaving the employee free to focus on work. as more women enter the workforce, they realize that this model does not suit them and they are made to feel inadequate if they do not play by the rules of this game. moreover, career advancement is not based entirely on merit. “people who get ahead are those who make others aware of their wins, and those who spend time developing relationships and their own personal profile,” doyle-morris explains. as % of consumer decisions are said to be made by women, it makes good business sense for companies to put more women in sen- ior positions. but even so, the rise to the top can be slow, especially in the science and engineer- ing professions. in the united kingdom, doyle- morris says, about % of women holding degrees in science, engineering or technology beyond the boys’ club: strategies for achieving career success as a woman working in a male-dominated field suzanne doyle-morris wit and wisdom press: . pp. £ . , $ . tips from the top of the career ladder web-based wonders: google founders sergey brin (left) and larry page (right) and chief executive eric schmidt. d . s t r ic k / r e d u x / e y e v in e nature|vol | november opinion © macmillan publishers limited. all rights reserved do not currently work in these fields. in addition to focusing on how individual women can develop strategies for success, beyond the boys’ club highlights effective government legislation. in norway in , for exam- ple, the government pro- posed legislation requiring % female representation on companies’ executive boards, and by the dead- line of the target had been reached. quotas and affirmative-action policies are often frowned upon by sceptics, who argue that this will lead to a loss of quality. but doyle- morris points out that men have always bene- fited from favours within male networks. “most men know that building relationships for mutual benefit is the only way to build a career,” she notes, so women should not be afraid to do the same. the book explains how best to develop these rela- tionships. it offers tips on how to raise your profile, build your image, network within and outside the organization, take appro- priate risks, negotiate office politics and choose a mentor or coach. although doyle-morris addresses most of these strategies to women working in companies, two professors add advice from academia. they discuss mentoring in univer- sities and the use of flexible working time in their laboratories. they suggest specializing in a field other than your phd topic during the postdoc years, and finding cross-disciplinary collaborations. however, they don’t address more particular problems, such as how to complete your doctorate if you suffer sexual harassment from a supervisor, or how to maxi- mize visibility for your work in order to gain an influential position such as dean or president of a university. doyle-morris has great experience and a passion for her subject. i hope she will write a sequel offering strategies for women in aca- demic science — and that the sequel will offer insights from women belonging to different class backgrounds, races, nationalities, sexual orientations and physical abilities. ■ asha gopinathan is a researcher in neuroscience based in trivandrum, india. e-mail: dendron. @gmail.com how did you become fascinated by algorithms? at , i was exposed to the first computer that came to europe. i took a summer job at ibm and became interested in mathematics and computer science. my taste in art was influenced by mondrian and the bauhaus. i was very interested in geometry. soon i made algorithmic pieces by hand. then i figured that i could program that. some of your works are computer-drawn, others are sculptures. which do you prefer? i have more affinity with the physical than the virtual world. i like to mark paper or water or sand, and i like to explore algorithms without using computers. there is a richness in something beautifully made on paper, stone, clay or canvas that is more inspiring than a flat image. jean-pierre hébert: drawings as thoughts sci-arc library, southern california institute of architecture, los angeles until december kavli institute for theoretical physics, university of california, santa barbara a sand sculpture has been placed on permanent display. having moved from engineering to art, jean-pierre hébert applies mathematical rules to generate artworks that explore themes of chaos and determinism. as resident artist at the kavli institute for theoretical physics, and with an exhibition on in los angeles, hébert explains his interest in algorithms. career success: physicist athene donald. q&a: the algorist m . p e l l e t ie r / l ’o r É a l j. -p . h É b e r t j. -p . h É b e r t how have you interacted with researchers? i’ve always had a strong interest in physics. in collaborations with scientists i learnt about new phenomena in physics and nature and about new ways to express them. i have learnt tricks to define spirals and made graphical presentations of the gravitation around black holes. how did your style develop? at first my work was monochromatic and flat, and used only certain themes in geometry. i wanted to animate it more and make it happen in three dimensions — to make it subject to fields and forces and waves, and to submit it to phenomena like reflections on the surface of water. how did you define the ‘algorist’ movement? we established, years ago, that the work should be based on algorithms but it should also produce an object of art — something concrete, such as a drawing, a painting, a sculpture, a piece of music. it should not be simply the concept behind an algorithm. are algorithms important in art? over the past century most artists were algorists, even if they did not know it. mondrian has an algorithm; cubism was a set of algorithms. algorithms are just a tool, as is a computer, a brush or a pencil. the personality of the artist takes over and should transpire through the work. algorithms are not an end in themselves. ■ interview by nature reporter daniel cressey. nature|vol | november opinion © macmillan publishers limited. all rights reserved 	tips from the top of the career ladder << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends false /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions 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gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d b c b f e f c c c c c f d d e e b f d c d f d a c e f d e f b c e b e e f c e c d e f d a f e f d f e f f d d b f d c d f b d e c b e e f b e f f e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f a d f f d d f e f d f d f f d a c d e f f f e e d f f e fa f e f e f d e f d e f f f d f f d e f f d ed f d f f d c f e c f f e f f f e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f f d f b d e a c a f b b e a f e e e f f d a a e c f d e e e c c f e e d e e e c e f a f d d e f e d f b d e e c f d f e f e b e f f e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d b b f e f c c c c f d d e d f f d a c e f d e f b e e e c c e d e f d f e f d d e b f d d b f d c d f b d e e e e e e e f b e c c f e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents that are to be checked or must conform to pdf/x- a: , an iso standard for graphic content exchange. for more information on creating pdf/x- a compliant pdf documents, please refer to the acrobat user guide. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /highresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice hidden ir structures in ngc  : signpost of an ancient born-again event mnras , – ( ) doi: . /mnras/stz advance access publication march hidden ir structures in ngc : signpost of an ancient born-again event j. a. toalá , ‹ g. ramos-larios , m. a. guerrero and h. todt instituto de radioastronomı́a y astrofı́sica (irya), unam campus morelia, apartado postal - , morelia, michoacan, mexico instituto de astronomı́a y meteorologı́a, depto. de fı́sica, cucei, universidad de guadalajara, av. vallarta , arcos vallarta, guadalajara, mexico instituto de astrofı́sica de andalucı́a (iaa-csic), glorieta de la astronomı́a s/n, e- granada, spain institute for physics and astronomy, universität potsdam, karl-liebknecht-str. / , d- potsdam, germany accepted february . received february ; in original form january a b s t r a c t we present the analysis of infrared (ir) observations of the planetary nebula ngc together with spectral analysis of its [wc]-type central star hd . spitzer irs observations were used to produce spectral maps centred at polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pah) bands and ionic transitions to compare their spatial distribution. the ionic lines show a clumpy distribution of material around the main cavity of ngc , with the emission from [ar ii] being the most extended, whilst the pahs show a rather smooth spatial distribution. analysis of ratio maps shows the presence of a toroidal structure mainly seen in pah emission, but also detected in a herschel pacs μm image. we argue that the toroidal structure absorbs the uv flux from hd , preventing the nebula to exhibit lines of high-excitation levels as suggested by previous authors. we discuss the origin of this structure and the results from the spectral analysis of hd under the scenario of a late thermal pulse. key words: stars: carbon – stars: evolution – stars: winds, outflows – ism: molecules – planetary nebulae: individual: ngc – infrared: ism. i n t r o d u c t i o n planetary nebulae (pne) are formed as a result of the last gasps in the life of low- and intermediate-mass stars (mi � m�). previously, these stars have evolved to become asymptotic giant branch stars (agb) that eject large amounts of mass into their circumstellar medium through dense and slow winds to finally reach the post- agb phase where they develop fast stellar winds and strong ionizing photon flux. the wind–wind interaction creates an inner cavity while the uv flux from the central star photoionizes the material, creating a pn (e.g. balick ). the pn ngc around the hydrogen deficient star hd presents a variety of morphological features that uncover the different stages of mass ejection in the formation of pne. as shown in the colour-composite picture presented in fig. , the nebula has a barrel-like main cavity whose northern and southern caps open into a set of lobes or blisters, sometimes associated with jets, although there is not kinematical evidence of fast outflows (see e.g. meaburn et al. ). a set of optical and ir concentric rings surround the main cavity (corradi et al. ; ramos-larios, phillips & cuesta ), disclosing the last gasps in the agb of hd , the central star of ngc . the main nebula is surrounded by an extended filamentary structure, probably associated with heavy mass-loss � e-mail: j.toala@irya.unam.mx events during the agb, whose morphology seems to suggest that the nebula is interacting with the interstellar medium (ism) due to its relatively high velocity (martin, xilouris & soker ). the nebula exhibits a large c/o ratio, as derived from abundance determinations based on collisionally excited lines (e.g. pottasch et al. ). this is in line with the carbon-rich [wc ]-type of its central star (crowther, de marco & barlow ). fur- thermore, the iso ir nebular spectrum also shows the and μm broad emission features detected in many c-rich agb and pne (see forrest, houck & mccarthy ; sloan et al. ; mishra, li & jiang ; sloan , and references therein), which can be associated with a carbon-rich chemistry, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) clusters, hydrogenated amorphous carbon grains, hydrogenated fullerens, nanodiamonds and unidentified carbonaceous material (ramos-larios et al. ). detailed modelling of the pah species in ngc has been recently presented by boersma, bregman & allamandola ( ). spectral fits to optical and uv spectroscopic observations of hd based on nlte models agree that its effective temperature should be teff ≈ kk (bianchi & grewing ; leuenhagen, hamann & jeffery ; marcolino et al. ). however, the nebula presents low excitation, with the [o ii] λ doublet being the strongest feature in the optical spectrum (e.g. pottasch et al. ). rough estimates based on the zanstra and stoy methods or even highly sophisticated estimates using photoionization models point to an effective temperature teff � kk (harman & seaton c© the author(s) published by oxford university press on behalf of the royal astronomical society d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - x mailto:j.toala@irya.unam.mx hidden ir structures in ngc figure . isaac newton telescope (int) wide-field camera (wfc) colour-composite picture of ngc . red and green correspond to the h α + [n ii] emission and blue is [o iii]. the inset shows a close-up of the main nebula around hd , the central star of ngc , in which we have labelled the main jet-like features identified by meaburn et al. ( ). images courtesy of r.l.m. corradi. north is up, east to the left. ; köppen & tarafdar ; preite-martinez & pottasch ; pottasch et al. ; monteiro & falceta-gonçalves ). in order to explain this discrepancy, bianchi & grewing ( ) proposed the existence of a carbon-rich curtain around hd . these authors argue that the absorption features seen in the resonance transition of the c ii λλ . , . doublet detected in iue observations imply a dense, carbon-rich circumstellar envelope around hd expanding at a velocity lower than its terminal wind velocity (v∞ ≈ km s− ; guerrero & de marco ). in this paper, we use spitzer irs observations obtained in map mode, herschel pacs μm, and canada–france–hawaii telescope (cfht) images to assess the spatial distribution of ionic species, pahs, h , and dust in the central region of ngc . the comparison of their distributions indeed unveils the presence of structures inside the main cavity of ngc close to the central star that may partially block its uv flux. the paper is organized as follows. we describe the observations used here in section and present our main results on the spatial distribution of different components in section . we discuss these results and present a possible origin for these structures in section . finally, a summary of our findings and conclusions is given in section . o b s e rvat i o n s we use here spitzer space observatory observations of ngc (program id , aorkey ; pi: d. weedman) obtained on march . these correspond to infrared spectrograph (irs) observations performed in map mode using the short-low (sl) slits covering the spectral range from . to . μm. up to slit positions were placed on the main nebular cavity of ngc (see fig. ), with another slit positions for background subtraction. the combination of the slits on to ngc cover an angular area of arcsec × arcsec. the pixel scale of the sl detector is .′′ . the irs data were processed using the cube builder for irs spectra maps (cubism; smith et al. ). cubism was used to visualize spectral maps and to obtain spectra from different regions within ngc , as well as an integrated spectrum. standard characterization of noise, background subtraction, and bad bixel removal procedures were followed. to supplement the spitzer spectral maps of ngc , we also anal- ysed spitzer irac and herschel pacs observations. the spitzer irac observations correspond to the program id (aorkey ; pi: g. fazzio) obtained on october , whereas the herschel pacs data correspond to the observation id (pi: t. ueta) obtained on july . all observations were downloaded from the nasa/ipac infrared science archive. we have also used near-ir cfht observations of ngc obtained with the wide-field infrared camera (wircam) through the k broadband (λc = . μm, �λ = . μm) and h - narrowband (λc = . μm, �λ = . μm) filters on july (pi: p. martin). https://irsa.ipac.caltech.edu/data/spitzer/docs/irs/irsinstrumenthandboo k/. http://irsa.ipac.caltech.edu/missions/spitzer.html mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust https://irsa.ipac.caltech.edu/data/spitzer/docs/irs/irsinstrumenthandbook/ http://irsa.ipac.caltech.edu/missions/spitzer.html j. a. toalá et al. figure . slit coverage of the spitzer irs observations of ngc over- plotted on the spitzer irac . μm image. we also obtained uv and optical observations of hd to model its spectrum and estimate its stellar properties (see discussion section). hd was observed by the far ultraviolet spectro- scopic explorer (fuse) and the international ultraviolet explorer (iue) satellites. data from these observations have been retrieved from mast, the multimission archive at the space telescope science institute. we used the fuse observations with obs. id a and a (pi: h. dinerstein) obtained on december in the spectral range - Å with total exposure times of and ks. for the iue spectral range of – Å and – Å only low dispersion spectra were available. we used the iue datasets with obs. id swp and lwr , both taken with the large aperture with total exposure times of s for each pointing. finally, we obtained high-resolution fibre-fed echelle spectrograph (fies) observations at the nordic optical telescope (not). the observations were obtained on december on service mode using the high-resolution fibre, which gives a resolution of r = for the – Å wavelength range. the total fies exposure time was s. r e s u lt s fig. presents the integrated background-subtracted spitzer irs spectrum of ngc . the spectrum was build adding all the emission coming from the nebular regions covered by the irs slits as shown in fig. . the spectrum exhibits the clear presence of pahs at . , . , . , and . μm, as well as a small contribution of the . μm feature (see also fig. in boersma et al. ). the spectrum shows notable emission features from low-ionization species such as [ar ii] at . μm, [ar iii] at . μm, and [ne ii] stsci is operated by the association of universities for research in astronomy, inc., under nasa contract nas - . figure . spitzer irs low-resolution background-subtracted spectrum of ngc . the spectrum includes emission from all the sl slits shown in fig. . broad line emission attributed to pahs are marked at . , . , . , . , and . μm. other prominent emission lines from ionised species are marked. at . μm. a few weak h i emission lines are also present. in agreement with ramos-larios et al. ( ), no h emission lines are detected in the – μm spectral range. the spitzer irs observations presented here provide us the opportunity to study the spatial distribution of the emission from the different pahs and low-ionization emission lines detected in the integrated spectrum of ngc . to perform this study, we used cubism to create spectral maps centred at the lines of the low-ionization species and broad emission features of pahs (see fig. ). for all maps, we subtracted the local continuum following the procedure described in smith et al. ( ). we do not show the spectral map of the . μm pah feature because it lays at the edge between the two nodes of the sl orders. for completeness, we also extracted a continuum image for the wavelength range between and μm, with no contribution from any line or pah feature. for simplicity, we labelled this spectral image as ‘continuum’. all spectral maps are shown in fig. . the spectral maps of the ionic species resemble the optical images presented in fig. : a clumpy barrel-like main cavity with two blobs aligned n–s just outside this cavity, which are spatially coincident with the optical blobs or blisters. the [ar ii], [ar iii], and [ne ii] spectral maps present a limb-brightened morphology along the minor axis of ngc , with emission peaking towards the west. in contrast, the continuum image presents an elliptical shape with a limb-brightened morphology with no apparent contribution to any other morphological feature. the spatial distribution of the emission in the pah spectral maps shares some of the properties of that of the emission lines from ionised species, although some differences are noticeable. the pah emission also shows a limb-brightened morphology, with brighter emission as well in the western region for the . and . μm features, but not for the . and μm ones. note, however, that the emission from the pahs seems more uniform within the main cavity than that from the ionized emission lines, particularly for the pahs mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust hidden ir structures in ngc figure . spatial maps extracted for different spectral features. the top-right panel shows a continuum image corresponding to the emission-free – μm spectral range. all panels have the same field of view and orientation. at . , . , and . μm (see fig. bottom panels). otherwise, the northern and southern blobs in the pah spectral maps are located closer to the inner cavity than those in the ionic species, but those in the . μm pah feature, which are spatially coincident. to illustrate the distribution of the ionic species, the continuum and the pahs features, we present colour-composite images com- bining different spectral maps in the top panels of fig. . the top-left panel shows the comparison of the three ionic spectral maps. this image clearly reveals the clumpy morphology of the emission in the [ar ii] and [ne ii] lines, as well as the extent of the blowouts north and south of the barrel-like main nebula. the top-middle panel compares the distribution of the pahs. although the emission in the . , . , and . μm seems distributed rather uniformingly inside the main cavity, the northern and southern edges of the barrel-like structure show noticeable differences. the top-right panel compares the continuum emission with those of the [ar ii] emission line and pah feature at . μm. the dust continuum dominates the emission towards the northern and southern blowouts of the main cavity in ngc . the bottom row panels in fig. present normalized intensity spatial profiles extracted from the spectral maps shown in fig. along the e–w direction (i.e. pa = ◦) for those same spectral features included in the colour-composite pictures of the top row. the bottom-left panel confirms that the [ar ii] emission is more extended towards the east than that of the [ar iii] and [ne ii] emission lines. the variations of the [ar ii] emission in the inner cavity reflects the clumpy structure unveiled by its spectral map as shown in fig. . the comparison of the pah profiles in the middle-bottom panel show that the pah at . μm is more extended towards the west and is very similar in shape to that of the . μm pah feature. these profiles generally have a higher valley to peak ratio than those of the ionized emission lines in the bottom-left panel. the peaks of the . μm pah lays just inside the other two profiles. finally, the bottom-right panel implies the continuum profile has the highest valley to peak ratio, the peaks are the broadest, and they peak inside those of the pah and emission lines from ionised species. the emission from the . μm pah feature is very similar in shape to that of the [ar iii] emission, which is likely to be the position of the photodissociated region in ngc . moreover, we note that the [ar ii] ionic emission emcompasses that from the pahs at . μm. fig. hints at the presence of structural components inside the main cavity of ngc . in order to highlight this spatial feature, we investigated different ratio maps using the pahs, continuum and ionic species maps. interestingly, the pah ratios unveil a wide structure inside the main cavity in ngc extending from east to west with a width arcsec. a similar structure can also be appreciated when comparing the pahs with the continuum map. we show in fig. the pah . /continuum and pah . / . ratio images. a dark lane seems to decrease the ratio maps at the middle plane from east to west. this structure is detected in emission in the herschel μm image presented in fig. right-hand panel. we note that this structure is also easily spotted in the pah ratio maps presented by boersma et al. ( ). in addition to brighter emission at the equatorial region, this image unveils the presence of two blobs. a wide-field image of the herschel pacs μm is presented in fig. in comparison with other colour-composite ir images of ngc . it is interesting to note that the cfht near-ir images (fig. right-hand panel) show that h is not present in the main cavity, but its emission can be traced as rays protrunding from it and along the equatorial (east–west) plane. a detailed analysis of the ir spectral energy distribution (sed) of the different morphological features of ngc would be desirable, but the available data in the herschel pacs spectroscopy catalogue (ramos-medina et al. ) cannot spatially resolve ngc . the spatial location of continuum emission and the similar ratio maps have been created using the continuum-subtracted ionic line ([ar ii], [ar iii] and [ne ii]) maps in order to search for differences in ionization structure but these images are dominated by clumpy emission and the ration maps are not conclusive. https://throes.cab.inta-csic.es/ mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust https://throes.cab.inta-csic.es/ j. a. toalá et al. figure . the top panels present colour-composite pictures of ngc combining different spectral images. the bottom panels show normalised intensity profiles of the different spectral maps shown in fig. extracted along the e–w direction (pa = ◦). figure . spectral map ratios of the pah . μm feature versus the continuum (left) and the pah . μm feature (middle). the panels have the same field of view and orientation as those in figs and . the red and blue boxes overplotted on the middle panel indicate the apertures used to extract the torus and rim spectra shown in fig. . the right-hand panel shows the herschel pacs μm image of the same field of view of the other panels. the contrast of the herschel μm image has been chosen to enhance the structures inside the main cavity in ngc . the (dashed line) circles highlight the location of the two blobs of enhanced emission. dominant emission line in the pacs μm range, the [o i] . Å emission line at cannot be determined. future sofia observations will be used to spatially resolve the toroidal structure around hd , to construct detailed sed at longer wavelengths, and to further constrain the properties of these structures in ngc . d i s c u s s i o n boersma et al. ( ) reported the clear presence of pah emission around hd , the central star of ngc , although they reckon there is no obvious substructure in their pah charge maps. the detailed comparison of spitzer and herschel mid-ir images and ratio maps of ngc shown in fig. shows it might be interpreted as a toroidal structure inside its ionised shell. whereas its detection in herschel pacs μm images is indicative of a dust component, the spitzer ratio maps reveal an important content of pahs, i.e. carbonaceous molecules. it is worthwhile to emphasize that the spatial location of pahs in ngc does not follow the typical stratified distribution of material seen in photodissociation regions, where it is associated with dense knots and the presence of other molecules such as h (see the case of ngc presented by cox et al. ). neither it compares with the toroidal structures reported in pne with dual-dust or mixed chemistry, i.e. pne with carbon- mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust hidden ir structures in ngc figure . colour-composite ir images of ngc . left: herschel pacs μm shown at different scales (red – logarithmic, green – square root, blue – lineal). centre: spitzer irac image. right: cfht wircam near-ir image. the circular regions in the central and right panels show the position of the two blobs unveiled in the herschel pacs μm image (see also fig. right-hand panel). figure . comparison of the spectrum extracted from ngc (see fig. ) with spectra extracted from the bright rim of ngc and a region spatially coincident with the torus structure shown in fig. right-hand panel. the spectra are normalised to the . μm feature of the ngc spectrum. and oxygen-rich dust (see e.g. guzmán-ramı́rez et al. ). in those cases, the tori have notable ionization gradients, with ionized species in the innermost regions and pahs in their outer edges, as the result of the formation of pahs by photodissociation of co (guzmán-ramı́rez et al. ). there is additional evidence of the presence of large amounts of dust and carbon-rich material between hd and the ionized material of ngc . first, the morphology of this ir feature in ngc is similar to the emission map of the c ivλλ , Å uv emission lines in the image through the uvit sapphire filter presented by kameswara rao et al. ( ). then, the low-ionization degree of the pahs in ngc points to a high internal attenuation, up to av � mag (boersma et al. ). this is in sharp contrast with the extinction derived from the balmer decrement derived from nebular emission lines or the dip at λ Å seen in uv spectra of the central star, which imply av ≈ . (see pottasch et al. , for a through discussion on this issue). finally, we note the different mid-ir spectra of the toroidal structure and the barrell-shaped nebular rim of ngc (fig. ). the spectrum of the latter flattens at longer wavelengths, whilst that of the toroidal structure, closer in shape to the total nebular spectrum, rises up, indicating a larger content of dust and molecules. this interpretation confirms the differential spectral results presented by boersma et al. ( ). . nlte analysis of hd such dusty, carbon-rich toroidal structure would absorb the hard uv flux from the central star of ngc , i.e. it would be the carbon curtain proposed by bianchi & grewing ( ) to explain the discrepancy between the high effective temperature of hd and the anomalously low excitation of the nebula around it. this discrepancy has been questioned by studies modelling the nebular emission, suggesting that the true temperature of hd is lower, down to k (pottasch et al. ) or k (monteiro & falceta-gonçalves ). to confirm the discrepancy between the effective temperature of hd and the nebular excitation of ngc , we have analysed public uv (fuse and iue) and optical fies not spectra of hd using the updated version of the potsdam wolf–rayet (powr) nlte code to produce a detailed atmospheric model (gräfener, koesterke & hamann ; hamann & gräfener ). additional details on the computing methods can be found in todt et al. ( ) and references therein. the synthetic spectrum was corrected for interstellar extinction due to dust by the reddening law of seaton ( ), as well as for interstellar line absorption for the lyman series in the uv range. for the terminal velocity v∞, we obtained a value of ± km s− from the width of the uv p-cygni line profiles (cf. fig. ). a microturbulence velocity of about km s− provides the additional line broadening needed to fit the observed emission line profiles. the stellar mass was set to a typical value for cspne, m∗ = . m� (see e.g. miller bertolami & althaus ), though we note that the value of m∗ has no noticeable influence on the synthetic spectrum. the density contrast between a wind with clumps and a smooth wind of the same mass-loss rate, the so-called micro-clumping parameter d, was derived to have a value of from the fitting of the extended electron scattering wings of strong emission lines (e.g. hillier ; hamann & koesterke ). http://www.astro.physik.uni-potsdam.de/powr mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust http://www.astro.physik.uni-potsdam.de/powr j. a. toalá et al. figure . details of the best-fitting model to hd obtained with the powr code. the top panels show a portion of the normalized uv spectra (fuse and iue) whilst the bottom panel shows the optical spectrum obtained with fies at the not. the observations are shown with blue solid lines and the best-fitting model with red dashed lines. the fuse observation are heavily contaminated by interstellar absorption lines, which were not modelled. it was not possible to fit consistently the fuse, iue, and optical photometric data. while the iue spectra and optical photometry imply a reddening of eb − v = . mag, the fuse and iue spectra suggest a higher reddening of . mag and a higher stellar luminosity of log (l∗/l�) = . that would overestimate the optical flux. the iue observations from different epochs were checked for variability, but no significant differences were found for the well- exposed swp ll ( - - ), swp rl ( - - ), and swp ll ( - - ) observations. other iue observa- tions seemed to be underexposed or not centred on the central star. similar issues may affect some of the fuse observations, thus we rely on the well-exposed iue observations and optical photometry to adopt an eb − v of . mag and log (l∗/l�) = . . this corresponds to av = . , similar to what was obtained by pottasch et al. ( ). the best-fitting parameters of our nlte model of hd are listed in table . the stellar temperature can be constrained by the relative strengths of the emission lines of different ions of the same element, e.g. he i versus he ii or c iii versus c iv. for a given stellar temperature and chemical composition, the equivalent width of any emission line is largely determined by the ratio between the volume emission measure of the wind and the area of the stellar surface, which can be expressed in terms of the transformed radius rt rt = r∗ [ v∞ km s− / ṁ √ d − m� yr− ] / , ( ) originally introduced by schmutz, hamann & wessolowski ( ). in this equation, d is the micro-clumping parameter which is defined as the density contrast between wind clumps and a smooth wind of the same mass-loss rate. our best-fitting model is compared to the optical and uv spectra in fig. , while the sed of hd is shown in fig. . the resultant effective temperature of our best fit, teff = . kk (as also derived mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust hidden ir structures in ngc table . parameters of the central star from analysis with powr. parameter value comment teff [kk] d [kpc] . from bailer-jones et al. ( ) log (l∗/l�) . r∗ [r�] . rt [r�] . d density contrast log(ṁ/m� yr− ) − . for d = v∞ [km s− ] vd [km s − ] m∗ [m�] . adopted tzanstra(h i) [kk] log q(h i) . log q(he i) . log q(he ii) ...a chemical abundances (mass fraction) he . ± c . ± o . ± n ( . ± ) × − solar si . × − solar p . × − solar s . × − solar f . × − solar ne < . h < . fe . × − iron group elements, solar note: ano he ii ionizing photon escapes the wind, a blackbody model of same temperature and radius would give log q(he ii) = . solar abundances are taken from asplund et al. ( ). by marcolino et al. ), confirms the hot status of hd and our estimate for the zanstra temperature is kk. although crowther et al. ( ) determined a higher temperature of kk, we find that such temperature results in c iii emission lines much weak than those observed. moreover, the leuenhagen et al. ( ) models result in a too strong iron-forest between − Å and too strong c iii emission lines. leuenhagen et al. ( ) and marcolino et al. ( ) reported a carbon mass fraction of per cent in the atmosphere of hd , whereas crowther et al. ( ) found it to be lower, per cent. we tested different carbon mass fractions and found them to range between per cent and per cent are consistent with the observations, as most lines are not very sensitive to the carbon mass-fraction relative to the overall quality of the fit. the diagnostic line-pair he ii / c iv implies a c:he abundance ratio of : , but the strength of the c iii emission line suggests a higher carbon abundance of per cent. we conclude that a c:he abundance ratio of : gives a good compromise fit. a solar value for xn gives a good fit to the nitrogen lines in the high-resolution fies optical spectrum, while a nitrogen abundance of . × − by mass results in too strong emission lines. these results confirm marcolino et al. ( ) estimate for the nitrogen abundance of < . per cent. the balmer lines of hydrogen are blended with he ii lines, thus the upper limit of per cent of hydrogen by mass estimated by leuenhagen et al. ( ) cannot be confirmed. as the spectral lines of neon are all blended with other lines, only an upper limit for the neon abundance can be provided, which is also not very strict, given the poor quality of the iue observations. we notice the absence of a strong f vi line, which is compatible with a solar fluorine abundance. similarly, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon solar abundances provide a good fit to the p, s, and si uv and si optical spectral lines. . on the origin of the carbon-rich curtain the origin of the inner pah toroidal structure in ngc is intriguing. whereas the large nebular c/o ratio (pottasch et al. ) suggests that the central star underwent the third dredge-up, bringing the resultant c to the stellar surface and turning it into a carbon-rich [wc] star (herwig ), an eruptive process ejecting carbon-rich material inside the ionized nebular shell seems more likely. herwig ( ) discussed several scenarios for the formation of [wc]-type central stars of pne through the late thermal pulse (ltp) event. during this event, hydrogen-deficient, carbon-rich material is ejected from the central star inside the old hydrogen- rich pn. this material coagulates rapidly into carbon-rich dust due to the reduction of the effective temperature of the central star. interestingly, the spatial distribution of the hydrogen-poor ejecta detected in born-again pne is generally described as disrupted disks and bipolar ejections (e.g. borkowski et al. ; evans et al. ). it is thus possible that the central star of ngc experienced a ltp, which ejected carbon-rich material preferentially along an equatorial plane. as hd came back to the post-agb track and developed a new fast stellar wind, this material formed dust grains which are now just pushed away into a toroidal structure reaching the edge of the barrel-like main cavity. thus, the x-ray emission from figure . spectral energy distribution (sed) of hd from the uv to the ir range. blue squares are photometric measurements in the indicated bands. the sed obtained for our best-fitting model is shown in red. mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust j. a. toalá et al. ngc detected by chandra (see montez et al. ) might have an identical origin as that of the born-again pne a and a . in such cases, the carbon-rich material interacts with the adiabatically shocked bubble created by the current fast wind, lowering its temperature to produce diffuse soft x-ray emission (guerrero et al. ; fang et al. ; toalá et al. ). furthermore, the carbon curtain blocks a significant fraction of the uv flux from hd , resulting in the anomalously low-ionization degree of the nebular shell. similar situation has been recently reported in hubi , a pn whose central star has experienced a very late thermal pulse (vltp) and the carbon-rich dusty ejecta has obscured the star to a degree such that the outer hydrogen-rich nebular shell has cooled down and started recombining (guerrero et al. ). the atmosphere of hd consists mostly of he and c, with solar nitrogen and neon abundances and a likely presence of residual hydrogen. these chemical abundances, as expected from stellar evolution models (e.g. althaus et al. ), favour an ltp event rather than a vltp one (todt & hamann ). finally, we would like to mention the presence of several pairs of jet-like ejections in ngc , including those unveiled by the herschel pacs μm image (see fig. – right-hand panel and fig. ). the most extended are those reported by meaburn et al. ( , labelled as jet in fig. ) and the bipolar structure just outside the barrel-like main cavity in ngc (jet in fig. ). fast collimated ejections are a typical signature of born-again pne (see e.g. fang et al. , and references therein). the pair of blobs inside the main cavity of ngc (marked in fig. with dashed-line circular apertures) could also be interpreted as collimated outflows. their identification in optical or near-ir images has been hampered so far due to the dominant clumpy structure of this pn. s u m m a r y we presented an ir study of ngc around the [wc]-type star hd . the spitzer irs low-resolution spectrum of ngc between and μm confirms its low level of ionization, as no emission lines from high-ionization species are detected in this spectrum. the main ir spectral features are emission lines from low-ionization species, such as [ar ii], [ar iii], and [ne ii], and pah clusters at . , . , . , . , and . μm. no h emission lines are detected in this spectrum, but the cfht wircam h image unveils the presence of molecular hydrogen just outside the main cavity. the analysis of ir observations of ngc uncovered structures inside the inner cavity of ngc . the detection of these structures in spitzer irs pah ratio maps and a herschel pacs μm image seems to imply a high content of dust and carbon-rich material. notably, the structures can be traced in uv c iv images. the morphology of this emissions suggests that a toroidal structure surrounds hd . the current available ir observations suggest that a dusty carbon- rich toroidal structure is embedded inside the optical nebular shell of ngc . this toroidal structure around hd would absorb its uv flux, as originally suggested by bianchi & grewing ( ), causing the nebula to have low excitation. we propose that this structure might have been originated by a late thermal pulse event experienced by hd , which also turned it into a [wc]-type star. this would make ngc a member of the unpopulated group of born-again pne. future high-resolution mid- and far-ir images and spectra will be pursuit and will be used to produce a complete modelling of ngc . this will help characterize these structures and shed light into their origin. ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s the authors are thankful to r.l.m. corradi for providing the int nebular images of ngc and to w. henney for fruitful discussion. jat, mag and ht are funded by unam dgapa papiit project ia . grl acknowledges support from fundación marcos moshinsky, conacyt and prodep (mexico). mag acknowl- edges support of the grant aya - -p, cofunded with feder funds. this work has make extensive use of the nasa’s astrophysics data system. this work uses public data from the ir telescopes spitzer and herschel through the nasa/ipac infrared science archive, which is operated by the jet propulsion laboratory at the california institute of technology, under contract with the national aeronautics and space administration. this paper also presents data obtained with wircam, a joint project of cfht, taiwan, korea, canada, france, and the canada–france–hawaii telescope (cfht) which is operated by the national research council (nrc) of canada, the institut national des sciences de l’univers of the centre national de la recherche scientifique of france, and the university of hawaii. r e f e r e n c e s althaus l. g., serenelli a. m., panei j. a., córsico a. h., garcı́a-berro e., scóccola c. g., , a&a, , asplund m., grevesse n., sauval a. j., scott p., , ara&a, , bailer-jones c. a. l., rybizki j., fouesneau m., mantelet g., andrae r., , aj, , balick b., , aj, , bianchi l., grewing m., , a&a, , boersma c., bregman j., allamandola l. j., , apj, , borkowski k. j., harrington j. p., blair w. p., bregman j. d., , apj, , corradi r. l. m., sánchez-blázquez p., mellema g., gianmanco c., schwarz h. e., , a&a, , cox n. l. j., pilleri p., berné o., cernicharo j., joblin c., , mnras, , l crowther p. a., de marco o., barlow m. j., , mnras, , crowther p. a., abbott j. b., hillier d. j., de marco o., , iau symp. , planetary nebulae: their evolution and role in the universe, canberra, australia, p. evans a. et al., , mnras, , l fang x. et al., , apj, , forrest w. j., houck j. r., mccarthy j. f., , apj, , gräfener g., koesterke l., hamann w.-r., , a&a, , guerrero m. a., de marco o., , a&a, , a guerrero m. a. et al., , apj, , guerrero m. a. et al., , nature astron., , guzmán-ramı́rez l., zijlstra a. a., nı́chuimı́n r., gesicki k., lagadec e., millar t. j., woods p. m., , mnras, , guzmán-ramı́rez l., lagadec e., jones d., zijlstra a. a., gesicki k., , mnras, , hamann w.-r., gräfener g., , a&a, , hamann w.-r., koesterke l., , a&a, , harman r. f., seaton m. j., , mnras, , herwig f., , ap&ss, , herwig f., , ara&a, , hillier d. j., , a&a, , kameswara rao n. et al., , a&a, , l köppen j., tarafdar s. p., , a&a, , leuenhagen u., hamann w.-r., jeffery c. s., , a&a, , mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust http://dx.doi.org/ . / - : http://dx.doi.org/ . / - /aacb http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - /aabcbe http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - : http://dx.doi.org/ . /mnrasl/slv http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x/ / / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - : http://dx.doi.org/ . / - / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x/ / / http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /mnras/stu http://dx.doi.org/ . / - : http://dx.doi.org/ . /mnras/ . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /a: http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.astro. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - / hidden ir structures in ngc marcolino w. l. f., hillier d. j., de araujo f. x., pereira c. b., , apj, , martin j., xilouris k., soker n., , a&a, , meaburn j., lopez j. a., bryce m., mellema g., , a&a, , miller bertolami m. m., althaus l. g., , a&a, , mishra a., li a., jiang b. w., , apj, , monteiro h., falceta-gonçalves d., , apj, , montez r., jr., kastner j. h., de marco o., soker n., , apj, , pottasch s. r., bernard-salas j., beintema d. a., feibelman w. a., , a&a, , preite-martinez a., pottasch s. r., , a&a, , ramos-larios g., phillips j. p., cuesta l. c., , mnras, , ramos-medina j., sánchez contreras c., garcı́a-lario p., rodrigo c., da silva santos j., solano e., , a&a, , a schmutz w., hamann w.-r., wessolowski u., , a&a, , seaton m. j., , mnras, , p sloan g. c., , planet. space sci., , sloan g. c. et al., , apj, , smith j. d. t. et al., , pasp, , toalá j. a. et al., , apj, , todt h., hamann w.-r., , in hamann w.-r., sander a., todt h., eds, proc. wolf-rayet stars workshop. univ. potsdam, potsdam, germany, p. todt h., sander a., hainich r., hamann w.-r., quade m., shenar t., , a&a, , a this paper has been typeset from a tex/latex file prepared by the author. mnras , – ( ) d ow nloaded from https://academ ic.oup.com /m nras/article-abstract/ / / / by inst. a strofisica a ndalucia c s ic user on a ugust http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - : http://dx.doi.org/ . / - : http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x/ / / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x/ / / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - : http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / - / http://dx.doi.org/ . /mnras/ . . p http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pss. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x/ / / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x/ / / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - / aaron douglas and the harlem renaissnace - / / / - $ . / american studies, : / (spring/summer ): - on time, in time, through time: aaron douglas, fire!! and the writers of the harlem renaissance farah jasmine griffin aaron douglas’s associations with writers of the harlem renaissance are many and the resulting collaborations, whether in the form of dust jackets or illustrations, have bequeathed us a body of work deserving far greater critical attention. the dust jackets he designed for many of the movement’s leading lights are proof. he illustrated james weldon johnson’s the autobiography of an ex-colored man ( ) and god’s trombones ( ), claude mckay’s home to harlem ( ), arthur huff fauset’s for freedom ( ), and langston hughes’ not without laughter ( ). douglas however, was much more than an illustrator of harlem renaissance publications. he was also a major architect of the intellectual and aesthetic contours of the new negro movement as well. so, when we speak of his collaborations with writers we must see him as an equal partner in shaping the aesthetic and political vision of the time as well. this essay focuses on douglas’ work on the brilliant but short-lived pub- lication, fire!!, which appeared only once in november . nonetheless, it remains a lasting document of the period. after a brief overview of the context in which the journal was created i will turn my attention to douglas’ interior set of three drawings and the cover (figures - ). this exploration of douglas’ work on fire!! will reveal his importance not only as a visual artist but also as a critical and historical thinker as well. farah jasmine griffin on time the story of fire!! is one of the legendary tales of the renaissance. hav- ing been supported, nurtured, chided, and chastened by their elders, a group of educated, cosmopolitan young artists—migrants most—came together to produce a high quality, if incendiary publication. langston hughes, zora neale hurston, wallace thurman, richard bruce nugent, gwendolyn bennett, aaron douglas, arthur huff fauset, countee cullen, and arna bontemps were the most serious, disciplined and talented of their generation; they gave of their time, talent, and treasure to produce a journal containing fiction, drama, essays, and visual im- agery that focuses on black folk in both the urban and rural contexts. born from a number of conversations, correspondences, and a few manifestoes, the work was what douglas biographer amy helene kirschke has called “the epitome of collaboration in the harlem renaissance.” group meetings at hurston’s or the douglas’s, where they edited manuscripts and made design decisions, resulted in a gem of a journal conceived and produced by black people free of the guiding hand of opportunity, crisis, dubois, charles johnson, charlotte osgood mason, and alain locke. the journal succeeded in shattering expectations of respectability; expecta- tions that confined the representation of the negro, expectations born in struggle against the violence, both discursive and literal, of american racial stereotypes. douglas was not only, nor even, the illustrator of fire!!. he was central in helping to shape the intellectual and aesthetic vision of the publication and in guiding the interventions its editors hoped to make. while langston hughes’s essay “the negro artist and the racial mountain” ( ) is rightly hailed as the manifesto of his generation and the call to which fire!! was a response, his was certainly not the only manifesto. these were manifesto-writing times!! perhaps not like the politically radical calls to action that would follow in the s, but this group of artists were thinking, meeting, and writing about the responsibility of their generation with great passion and conviction. zora neale hurston wrote constantly, especially to langston hughes. at one point she even wrote that she thought she’d found a better painter than douglas. (the painter was joe mitchell.) while it is not surprising that poets, novelists, and essayists wrote such pieces, douglas also penned his own aesthetic statements as well. in a letter dated december , and written to hughes, he wrote: your problem dear langston, my problem, no our problem is to conceive, develop, establish an art era. not white art painted black. . . . let’s bare our arms and plunge deep through laughter, through pain, through sorrow, through hope, through disappointment, into the very depths of the souls of our people and drag forth material crude, rough, neglected. then let’s sing it, dance it, write it, paint it. let’s do the impossible. let’s cre- aaron douglas and the harlem renaissnace ate something transcendentally material, mystically objected. earthy. spiritually earthy. dynamic. there is so much to say about this statement. first of all, douglas is a writer. the construction and rhythm of this paragraph are writerly. the rhythm is established by triplets. listen to the groupings of threes: “your problem. . . . my problem. . . . our problem.” this is followed by “conceive,” “develop,” “establish.” next he gives us a series of prepositional phrases that take us deeper and deeper until a kind of resolution that ends in a final prepositional phrase: through laughter through pain through sorrow through hope through disappointment . . . into the very depths of the souls of our people. this is no arbitrary listing. if you go beneath the surface of the laughter there is likely to be pain, the source of which is a deep sorrow, but it is neither sentimental nor nihilistic because hope still rises. often this hope is shattered by a bitter, bitter disappointment: the hope of reconstruction followed by the nadir. the hope that world war i would bring justice and equality at home only to endure the riots and terrorism of east st louis ( ) and houston. the hope of du bois’ “close ranks” of followed by the disappointment of the red summer of . “close ranks” was the editorial in which du bois encouraged african americans to silence criticism of the american government, to join the war effort, and after having proven their valor and loyalty, they would finally acquire citizenship rights. however black soldiers returned to lynch mobs and race riots. digging deep into laughter, pain, sorrow, hope and disappointment one finds the souls of black folk. this is the journey the black artist must take. douglas’ description of that journey echoes jean toomer’s cane, particularly the poem “song of the son.” in that poem the black artist is heir to a “song-lit race of slaves” and must take the seed of that culture to create an everlasting song, “a singing tree,/caroling softly souls of slavery” douglas’ paragraph ends by collapsing apparent binaries: “transcendentally material, mystically objected, spiritually earthy.” (an aside: note the bold use of “our people,” a phrase that would be challenged by the end of the twentieth century as essentialist.) the call of the letter is to establish “an art era,” to document a people and a time and in so doing create an era recognized for all times and by all cultures. finally, one of the most important things about this letter is the date: december , . recall, hughes “the negro artist and the racial mountain” is not published until june , . so douglas’s statement predates that most famous document showing that these ideas were in the air, circulating, amongst the farah jasmine griffin artists—they were the ideas of their times. hughes’s may have been the most articulate statement of them but they did not originate with him. douglas would pen other such pieces. writing specifically about fire!! he wrote: “we believe negro art should be trained and developed rather than capi- talized and exploited. we believe finally that negro art without negro patronage is an impossibility.” i have most recently seen this quotation, unattributed in valerie boyd’s biography of zora neale hurston, wrapped in rainbows. as such it stands out as a definitive statement about the vision and the goals of fire!!. in aaron douglass: art, race & the harlem renaissance, douglas’s biographer, amy kirschke says that the statement was penned following a meeting of fire!!’s board of editors. we should read douglas’ letters along with hughes’s “negro artist and the racial mountain” as companion pieces. i have devoted so much attention to the letters because i want to emphasize douglas’ role amongst his peers. again, he did not “illustrate” fire!!. he helped conceive, conceptualize and design it. he helped to establish its rhythm, to provide its pulse, to keep it on the beat, on time. in time in addition to the cover and the decorative elements, douglas provided three drawings for fire!!. these are set off in their own section. together they consti- tute their own story, their own set of visual poems. situated between gwendolyn bennett’s “wedding day,” a story of interracial love and interracial betrayal, and nugent’s “smoke, lilies and jade,” an experimental work centering on the bohemian bisexual, alex, the drawings have not been discussed at length. they differ greatly from douglas’ more recognizable work though this style does appear in the february issue of opportunity—the industrial issue. the drawings are formed by a series of uninterrupted lines. neither silhouettes nor shadows characterize the style. professor kirschke finds them “far less interesting than the cover.” indeed they are less dramatic, but they are quite compelling when considered within the context of the rest of the publication. in when harlem was in vogue, david levering lewis doesn’t mention them, referring instead to illustrations that evoke an “unspoiled africa.” i am not sure to what he is referring because none of these drawings reference the continent. let’s linger a while with the drawings of three figures, three types, indeed three characters: what story do they tell? it is important that the drawings of the preacher (figure ) and the artist (figure ) appear side by side in the open book, for they mirror, echo, and paral- lel each other. the preacher stands at the pulpit, bible open, his head turned up and away, he holds one of the characteristic or stereotypic stances of the black man of the cloth. if you’ve seen alvin ailey’s “revelations” you will recognize the same bodily vocabulary: elbows bent, fist in waist, bowed leg, poised for flight. the bent arm, hand on hip breaks the vertical line of his body making a aaron douglas and the harlem renaissnace degree angle with the podium. the other hand is also bent at the elbow, but it reaches across the body, forming a perpendicular line across his lanky body ending in an elastic hand with elongated fingers gesturing “where?” the preacher presents the artist to us. the artist’s figure echoes the preacher: arm also bent at the elbow forming a perpendicular line across his lanky body ending in an exaggerated, elastic hand, elongated fingers holding a paint brush. instead of lectern and bible we have an easel and canvas. the squares and rectangles of the easel and canvas mirror the squares and rectangles of the lectern and bible. both figures have the same facial features, same bodies, same feet and shoes. the artist’s afro is bigger. they are the same or brothers, kindred spirits. the preacher is an oratorical artist, “making moses and jesus words into song” (toomer). he bears the culture of oratorical virtuosity as much as he lifts and bears the hope of his people. the artist is a spiritual guide, digging deep into the souls of his people in order to offer them visions of themselves, their past and their future. indeed this does seem to be a tale that is fitting, in style and content for the pages of fire!!. the artist as an extension of a culture emanating from ordinary black people, creating an art that is at its best when it portrays them unrestricted, free of constraint and in so doing, affirms their messy, complicated, sometimes beautiful, sometimes ugly humanity. the last image is of a waitress (figure ), a working-class black woman with a flapper bob, rolled stockings, and high-heeled pumps. her coquettish, flirtatious, mischievous eyes gesture back at the two men. her features are softer and less serious than theirs but she is linked to them in posture (though she is less angular) and in the relationship of her body to the table behind her. unlike the podium, the artist’s table and easel, the café table is round as are the objects that sit atop it and the tray she holds. she is sensual and slippery probably not controlled by the preacher’s rhetoric or the artist’s brush. much of the discourse of the harlem renaissance revolved around whether and how to represent the newly emergent black working class. the waitress’s refusal to be controlled evokes this discussion. where is she? a restaurant? a café? a cabaret? a speakeasy? she is one version of the new negro woman; certainly not victorian, she is clearly sexual and sensual though not like thurman’s cordelia who “physically, if not mentally, was a potential prostitute.” douglas’ narrative situates the artist between the preacher (a classic folk figure) and a new, urban, working-class woman. so placed in the publication, in time, with the pulse of the journal, douglas’s drawings, so different from his abstract silhouettes, create a narrative linking a southern folk tradition to the urban working class. (in cane, toomer does this as well.) how fitting that a volume that gives us thurman’s young prostitute cordelia, hurston’s cakewalkers effie and john, hughes’s elevator boy, bennett’s brute paul, nugent’s bisexual alex—how fitting that douglas would contribute the preacher, the artist and the waitress. all of them in motion, on trains, elevators, horse and buggy, on the dance floor. douglas’ figures possess mobility in the very bodies they inhabit. they move in time. farah jasmine griffin through time let us now turn our attention to the cover, which is so very different from the interior drawings. it is more in line with douglas’s other work, especially the poster of the krigwa players little negro theater of harlem, may . upon first glance of the cover our eye is drawn to the sphinx. at his hindquarters a circle linked to another circle ends in a hook; this gives the appearance of a chain. if we step back we see the links form an earring and the hook is on the ear of a black head—a person of african descent by features and color—a person of sub- saharan african descent. the sphinx sits inside the black figure. its chin echoes the figure’s chin, as do its lips and nose. only the eyes and hairline differ. the chin is also an outline of sub-saharan africa. the images here are also found on the krigwa players poster where the sphinx sits separate from the figure in the upper right corner, the east: land of the rising sun, facing the pyramids. the black ear-ringed figure sits on a mat, yogi like, holding a mask in his uplifted, flattened hand. visually there is much more going on the poster than the cover but the cover is at once more simple and more complex: the sphinx inside the african whose head is filled with fire!!. douglas often made use of egyptian imagery and form. he used silhouettes much in the manner of the egyptians. he took specific elements from them, the hand, for instance. douglas often spoke of the significance of egyptian forms to his own art: “the only thing that i did that was not specifically taken from the egyptians was an eye.” many artists of his day were inspired by egypt. even filmmakers turned there: think of, for instance, theda barrer in cleopatra. black artists were calling upon egyptian imagery as well. professor kirschke writes: “egypt was a common vocabulary to achieve the goal” of “representing african ancestry and common heritage.” egyptian art, cubism, art deco (itself influenced by egypt): douglas would utilize all of these visual vocabularies. in insisting upon egypt’s relationship to the continent of africa, douglas is a precursor to latter day afro-centrists whose insistence that egypt was an african civilization still sparks controversy and ire. one need only consider the more recent debates over martin bernal’s black athena: the afroasiatic roots of classical civiliza- tion. in three volumes bernal argues egypt provided the source for the cultural achievements of ancient greece (and therefore for western civilization). bernal’s research was greeted by a strong scholarly critique by more conventional clas- sicists. so douglas looks forward to contemporary afro-centrists (let alone to the jazz artist and composer, sun ra). but he is also situating himself in a debate that had been going on since the nineteenth century. the imagery of this cover is in dialogue with and departs from both those who proceed and those who follow him. as early as , if not before, african americans were arguing for egypt’s significance as an african civilization. they were countering thinkers like david hume and thomas jefferson who claimed that no great civilization ever arose aaron douglas and the harlem renaissnace from the dark continent. in addition, they also were intervening in a discourse currently known as american egyptomania—a discourse that posited egypt as a white civilization and as proof of the negro’s inferiority. one reader of free- dom’s journal, identified only as “a constant reader,” wrote to the journal citing sources that identify the ethiopians and cushites as black skinned people who inhabited egypt. according to constant reader, these were people of tremendous creativity, valor and achievement in the arts, sciences and warfare. the letter was published dec. , and concluded: “our origin is such that, no one, however exalted his station in life; need be ashamed of having descended from black parentage.” in david walker, in his appeal to the colored people of the world, would agree: “the egyptians were africans or colored people, such as we are—some of them yellow, others dark, a mixture of ethiopia and the natives of egypt.” in martin r. delany in principia of ethnology: the origin of races and color wrote: “the negro race comprised the whole native population and ruling people of the upper and lower region of the nile.” even frederick douglass, who so often disagreed with delaney would write in : the fact that egypt was one of the earliest abodes of learning and civilization is as firmly established as are the everlasting hills. . . . egypt is in africa. . . . the ancient egyptians were not white people . . . but about as dark in complexion as in any in this country who are considered genuine negroes. the excitement over and debates about egypt were resurrected with the discovery of king tut’s tomb in november . (tutankhamon - bc) the media provided intense coverage of the discovery throughout europe and the united states and the debate about the race of the ancient egyptians came to the fore yet again. in an exciting new project, the historian robert hill is exploring the relationship between art deco, the discovery of tut’s tomb, and the harlem renaissance. according to hill the interest in egypt generated by the discovery of tut’s tomb had a much stronger influence on the thinkers and artists of the harlem renaissance than did the cultures of west africa. however, according to hill, scholars have focused primarily on the influence of west african plastic arts because of the influence of alain locke and the white philanthropist and collector, albert c. barnes. hill argues that the harlem renaissance was the result of “an extraordinary african american interest in things egyptian that led the way for a regeneration of african american culture.” according to hill, both locke and barnes dismissed egyptian influences in an effort to link african american arts with more “primitive forms” of african art because those forms were influencing modernist arists such as picasso and matisse. according to farah jasmine griffin hill, the classical egyptian influence on artists such as douglas is much more longstanding than their engagement of primitivism. while my discussion of douglas departs from professor hill’s, we are in agreement that by the time the douglas image appears on the cover of fire!! black intellectuals had devoted a century of energy, time, and ink to arguing that egypt was an african, black african civilization. for egypt is in africa and some egyptians were black. in douglas’ image for fire!! egypt is literally situated within africa. in so doing, douglas is not only participating in the century long discussion about the relationship between ancient egypt and sub-saharan africa, he is also privileging black africa. however, while the figure, the content of the work represents sub-saharan africa, the form, with its flattened silhouette is not that of an african mask, but egyptian. there seems to be a special irony in celebrating the grand achievements of an empire built on slave labor in the context of a publication that seeks to highlight and uplift those who have been most victimized by imperialism, greed, degradation of the slave trade and the institution of slavery and the high cost of civilization. the same might be said of those intellectuals who have celebrated the pyra- mids and the sphinx at the expense of sub-saharan africa because it so resembles european notions of civilization and empire. but, here, on the cover of fire!! douglas seems to be saying that egypt is not only in africa, it is of africa. it does not sit hierarchically at the top of all african societies but is consumed by and within a construct of africa that is decidedly black. a simple shift in perspective reveals the dominant figure is unquestionably black. the fire!! in his brain parallels the grand artistic achievement of the sphinx and gives birth (athena-like, black athena) to the vision of younger negro artists whose own brilliant creative achievement we find within . . . on time, in time, through time. notes . amy helene kirschke, aaron douglas: art, race, and the harlem renaissance (jackson: university press of mississippi, ), . . langston hughes, “the negro artist and the racial mountain,” the nation, june . . zora neale hurston to langston hughes, sept. , , in zora neale hurston: a life in letters, ed. carla kaplan (new york: doubleday, ), . . quoted in amy helene kirschke, aaron douglas: art, race, & the harlem renaissance (jackson: university press of mississippi, ), . . valerie boyd, wrapped in rainbows: the life of zora neale hurston (new york: scribner, ), . . kirschke, . . david levering lewis, when harlem was in vogue (new york: penguin, ), . . quoted in kirschke, aaron douglas, . . see black athena: the afroasiatic roots of classical civilization: i, the fabrication of ancient greece - ; ii, the archaeological and documentary evidence; iii, the linguistic evidence (new brunswick: rutgers university press, , , ). . see mary r. lefkowitz & guy m. rogers, black athena revistied; lefkowitz, not out of africa. . martin r. delany, principia of ethnology (philadelphia: harper & brother, ), . . frederick douglass, “the claims of the negro ethnologically considered,” a speech delivered at the western reserve college of rochester in rochester, new york, july , . . see interview with robert hill, “the origins of the harlem renaissance in the discourse of egyptology, - ” http://will.illinois.edu/focus /interviews/c / professor hill also shared aaron douglas and the harlem renaissnace his research in a talk at the institute for research in african american history, columbia university, interview with robert hill, “the origins of the harlem renaissance in the discourse of egyptology, - ” sept. , . works cited bernal, martin. black athena: the afro-asiatic roots of classical civilization vols. - . new brunswick: rutgers university, - . earle, susan. aaron douglas: african american modernist. new haven: yale university press, . hill, robert. interview with robert hill, “the origins of the harlem renais- sance in the discourse of egyptology, - .” wil am, . _____. “the origins of the harlem renaissance in the discourse of egyptology, - ” talk given at columbia university sponsored by the institute for research in african american studies, sept. , . hughes, langston. “the negro artist and the racial mountain.” the nation, june , . kirschke, amy helene. aaron douglas: art, race & the harlem renaissance. jackson: university press of mississippi, . figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), fire!! a quarterly devoted to younger negro artists cover, november . courtesy of collection of thomas h. wirth, elizabeth, new jersey. figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), untitled drawing (the preach- er) from fire!! a quarterly devoted to younger negro artists, november . courtesy of collection of thomas h. wirth, elizabeth, new jersey. figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), untitled drawing (the artist) from fire!! a quarterly devoted to younger negro artists, november . courtesy of collection of thomas h. wirth, elizabeth, new jersey. figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), untitled drawing (the wait- ress) from fire!! a quarterly devoted to younger negro artists, november . courtesy of collection of thomas h. wirth, elizabeth, new jersey. full page photo international journal of applied linguistics & english literature issn - (print), issn - (online) vol. no. ; july copyright © australian international academic centre, australia african american diaspora angela brown college of southern nevada, usa e-mail: brownlas @aol.com received: - - accepted: - - published: - - doi: . /aiac.ijalel.v. n. p. url: http://dx.doi.org/ . /aiac.ijalel.v. n. p. abstract the migration of blacks in north america through slavery became united. the population of blacks past downs a tradition of artist through art to native born citizens. the art tradition involved telling stories to each generation in black families. the black culture elevated by tradition created hope to determine their personal freedom to escape from poverty of enslavement and to establish a way of life through tradition. a way of personal freedoms was through getting a good education that lead to a better foundation and a better way of life. with regard to all historic migrations (forced and voluntary), the african union defined the african diaspora as "[consisting] of people of african origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the african union." its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the african diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the african union." keywords: literature concepts, african american abstracts the origin of african american language originated in the dominican islands. slaves were brought to the islands before being slaves in america. in the islands, american slaves were able to communicate because of the tribes from africa spoke the same language. the dialect was easy to conduct everyday communication through common phrases. the language spoken was broken english. phrases like, where are you going, i already been there were used in daily conversation. some of the language from africa is used in american dialect. words like banana and voodoo are a part of the english language. it is wonderful that some of the spirituality in language was shared amongst african traditions implementing culture passed down upon generation of slaves. communication is a valued source of maintaining universal relationships. african folk tales is a form of storytelling used by slaves as a form of entertainment. african folk tales were heroic tales used by slaves. the folk tales had a hero like the road runner and the coyote reflected in the loony toons cartoons. the stories used animals as characters. the hero of the tales, were weak animals who fought over stronger animals like the lion or the bear. the format of the stories was to tell a story of how slaves were to overcome slavery or to tell how the weak could triumph over evil. african slaves believed that someday they would be free. the folk tales were an inspiration that there was hope of obtaining their freedom from slavery. paul dunbar’s poems are about his experiences to slavery. dunbar contrast in his writing about the feelings of being a slave. dunbar expresses the pain of being a slave. his experience entails the hardship of the instability to do as willed. he explains in his poems that the slave felt inferior to the slave owner. dunbar expresses the slaves were put in a position where they were treated less than nature and that the slaves had to keep in their true feelings of pain as a mask they carried. the slaves were very unhappy because they did not want to be slaves and they preferred their lives as free tribes in africa. what it meant to be captive is like a caged bird. that is the way things were and you were forced to live in that condition. a good slave would do what he was told to do in order to survive of face the consequences. there were restrictions on being a slave. as dunbar put it, the painful relationship of being contained is the discipline of change. dunbar spoke of racial justice of the american slave. dunbar wants his voice heard. the songs that slaves sung were about the sorrow and pain of slavery. gospel music is songs written about a spiritual journey to reach salvation. gospel songs speak of hope and disparity of the black race. fredrick douglas found this in the songs about slavery. douglas went north to find freedom and found disparity and sadness of his people. gospel music can be sad to listen to because of the mourning rituals it expresses in its music. music has transformed from work songs, field hollers, and spirituals, to that would leave a powerful imprint on later forms of american music: on gospel, ragtime, jazz, rhythm and blues, rock and roll, and rap. how the genre changed the message remains the same of hope and content. in order to understand the songs you must identify with the content and anguish of black’s suffering. the important theme of louis armstrong’s songs “go down moses” and “swing low, sweet chariot” is asking god to grant their freedom from slavery. the words: let my people go and carry me home sweet chariot speak of the words of slaves of jews. the timeline in which the poems were written were taken from the bible. the poem, “go down moses,” refers to moses asking the heroes to release the slaves from bondage. the final miracle from god, moses was to kill the youngest boy of the pharos. the song “swing low, sweet chariot,” refers to releasing the slaves from israel as well. each poem speaks of justice that black slaves can relate to wanting their freedom from slavery as well. at the end of the poem the song is spiritual in that it states that after they get their freedom they will help others get theirs as well. ijalel ( ): - , armstrong expresses in his poems that he may not know what freedom is like; but the feeling of what it may be like is worth the risk. armstrong’s poems state that heaven may be the answer from bondage. the trickster tales are a remarkable abstract story about stability of the black race from oppression. the tales are often clever display of hope and wit. the tales speak of the black race as strong and heroic. the tales give insight to overcome oppression from slavery. the tales uses strong characters that build hope for the black slave. the tales are funny. the characters in the tales are reflective throughout history of the stereotypes of black people as being inferior to the white race and uneducated. humor was used in the tales to enlighten circumstance to be overcome with spirituality and love. the experimentation of stereotypes in the tale allows an understanding of how race is perceived. the tales talk about the struggle of slaves in how racism becomes an understatement in how society dictates inequality. african american toast to tradition is a collection of poem of rural louisiana which is poems about traditional african experience. the poems are reflective of heroic wit of the black man in how he overcomes racism. “shine and the titanic,” is a toast poem using the wit of the african american. the poem reflects on the black porter is clever in how he escapes the ship from sinking. the titanic was a ship during that did not allow blacks on board cruisers. despite the antics of the time that blacks should just sit and do what they are told, the porter uses his instinct and swims to the port as the ship sinks. toast poems are similar to folk tales because the weak can overcome obstacles of oppression. the slave trade had been predicated to the institution of labor to southern plantation for sugar, rice and later cotton. ely whitley, a yale graduate, invented the cotton gin to reduce slavery. instead, slavery increased because of the demand for cotton in the market. at one time there were more slaves than slave owners. due to the cotton gin, more indian land was purchased to grow cotton. cotton was later noted for destroying the soil witch later effect the production and sale of it. after the industrial revolution, there were over , freed slaves. it was a time where there was a demand for education. during this time, slaves competed for remedial work with the white men. slavery decreased in number to per southern plantation. the emancipation proclamation was radiated to free slaves. because of the use of technology, the southern plantation had no longer a need for slaves. lucy terry’s “bars fight”, poem is a eulogy of the american indian in discretion. americans took the native indian for granted when they took over their land. a lot of people died over the possession of land. the native indians felt the land is free to man and should not be taken for granted. in terry’s poem, she speaks out for the cost of war is too great to lose human life. this poem gives a feeling of redemption towards slavery. wheatley speaks of the pain to be taken from africa to an unknown land bitter and cold in which blacks do not understand. slaves, who were christians, did not understand why they were pitied with scornful eyes of deception. slaves prayed a guardian would protect them for such travesty. fourarticles:together with a preamble, to the colored citizens of the world to those of the united states of america, written in boston, state of massachusetts, september , , by angela khristin brown. the constitution of the united states indicates that all men are created equal. the four articles question the doctoranated activity of slavery as immoral to christians. american slaves were thought of as beast and as / human and were treated like they were mongrels in this pagan land of america. other countries looked at americans unethical treatment of the slave as immoral and cruel. the four articles questions the relativity to slavery is any different than the jewish slaves of israel. whenever a country is conquered, the captives are used for slavery. one would question the cruelty of slavery as immoral. slaves were treated worse than animals. was slavery an act of prudery or an act of repugnance? the apathy towards slaves was an act of ignorance. there comes a time where the expansion will change the course of history. the abolitionist movement was a time morality was important motivation of change, and as a result: measures were made to educate women, the first black newspaper to have the first voice to speak against slavery, the mentally ill and prisons were invented, alcohol was no longer tolerated, revolts against slavery were on the rise. abolutionalism was proclaimed to end slavery. the abolition of slavery ended after the civil war. truth spoke eloquently about the disposition that alienated the black slave women. she spoke of the unjust treatment of the black woman to the white women. she questioned the morality of how black women were treated. she stated that black women are no different and retain civil praise for their contribution to society. she stated black women treatment is immoral to christian belief and she asks for repentance. the black salve women were being raped and forced to child labor and the children were separated from their families. the black women suffered and were forced to do labor. aint’ i a women suggest women be treated differently. no man ever had to bear children, wear a tampon, and face menstrual cramps or labor. when i thought men did the hunting and minded the fields, there were no restraints for the black women to pick cotton. the reconstruction of america after the civil war predicated more violence, racism and discrimination. it was a time where education was important for black slaves. it was a time where manual labor was needed. it was a time of reformation. it elected the first politicians to seek office and to become principles of universities. it implemented the th, th, and amendment to the constitution. it gave the right for president johnson to defend black liberation. after the civil war, was the rising of the klu klux klan of the rural south to lead protest from having equality for black america? after the civil war there was change, there was hope to change to a better life. to every free man there are restrictions that straddle away from a goal. the migration to the south represented the powerless being subdued to silence. ijalel ( ): - , the negro problem in america was for educators to lead poor black people from containment. the relationship with many americans depended on the educated to be role models who would create milestones for poor blacks to follow. as role models represented the educated and the preachers who could arouse crowds with their intellect to lead poor blacks out of poverty. like jesus, blacks needed someone to speak in their behalf for them to support as an answer to the assault and to influence them that life can be better for all people. blacks throughout history knew that education can open the door to a closed mind. slaves knew the importance of communication. slaves wanted to read and write. after slavery, blacks knew the value of a good education. blacks also knew the value to an equal education where the same things offered to whites should be offered to everyone. the more a person reads and listens he will have a better understanding of the world. the more educated a person is he will fight the power with knowledge. education is the key to success. a person who can master reading and writing has better communication skills to determine his level of expertise. an educated man has more respect than someone from off the streets. in order to establish new stereotypes, one must first become articulate. one should know his past, because he cannot deny where he came from, for where he came from is the source that helped him become the individual he is today and with that talent he shall bring something back to his community. claude mckay was born in – . he was college educated. he studied agriculture. he worked several jobs including dining cart waiter and editor. he was born in jamaica and migrated to america to continue writing poetry. he held an interest in arts and politics and was involved with the jamaica socialist party and he served as a founder of the negrotude movement. (a long way from home ( ). claude mckay lived in a time where poor black people were not treated fairly and segregation was tolerated. blacks were looked as second class citizens. blacks were considered separate but equal and if blacks retaliated against the opposition, as a result they were lynched. there was an inflammation of riots in the united states in called the red scare. claude defies the traditional role of the black man at this time by creating a sentiment of pride in his poems. claude explains in his poem that the black man must not die in vain. claude explains in his poem there are historic reasons why the black man must defend himself for a good cause so he can die in peace. (marcellus blount. columbia university press, ) “if we must die,” is a poem about the reformation of the black man. in this poem claude speaks of the disparity of hope that the black man be remembered for his bravery. claude mckay is a historic figure known for his poems which challenged the white intellectual on racism in ’s during the harlem renaissance. claude mckay wrote about how he coped with a racist society. (poetry foundation) mckay's pride in african culture and racial self-consciousness helps stimulate african american literary expression. the sonnet, “if we must die,” was read by british prime minister winston churchill to the british people during world war ii. (new york: columbia university press, ). what does it mean to be black? what does it incline to being different. upon searching for my racial identity, i found out that ¾ of americans are biracial. i wanted to state i was black of non-hispanic race of my college form when my father replied ask your mother what you are. i later found my paternal family ancestors was indeed part hispanic, black, and indian and my maternal family ancestors were indian, black indian, and african. i am related to the goober of mississippi and the founder of mississippi. my nationality is black indian who was denied from knowing anyone my nationality growing up. america is a melting pot. the construction of two world wars allowed black in the military which was racially prejudice to black serving in the war. the union of black nurses was allowed in the war. the treatment of soldiers serving the war had not been respected at this time. after the war was a time to consider fighting for civil rights issues, the right to vote, to form a union and to fight against segregation. it was a time to fight to subcome justice. the harlem renaissance was an intellectual movement of black writers to develop african-american consciousness. it was an artistic literary movement for civil rights. it valued the beauty of freedom. it was a time to stray away from stereotypes to find a self-identity. many writers had been rejected to publish their literature. this movement became an inspiration for writers. there is no such thing as absolute freedom. laws are made to enforce obedience to govern the people. you have freedom to do as you please within following the constraints of the ordained law. to make restraints there is a consequence if you fail to obey the law. civil disobedience is a means to ignore the law without breaking the law. america believes in freedom of speech, the freedom to conduct a non-violent protest is what civil disobedience is. is an act to practice freedom of speech without breaking the law? it is an act to assemble protesting against the injustice of the time. the civil rights movement was done so in sit in’s and assembly marches to fight against segregation, form unions and for equality. king and malcolm x were visionaries for the nonviolent movement. they were humble men who believed in peace. they were humbled by jesus and gandhi by practicing the same ethics in their movement. they were educated men hoping for change and the betterment of black people. their revolution was historic that affected the live of blacks, the poor, the handicapped – it effected everyone. throughout history, slaves expressed in their writing a protest from oppression, from slavery. it is the reason for protest today. there was protest in tales, songs, hymns, pastor calls, literature and poetry for equality and freedom from oppression. this is still common belief to receive absolute justice, absolute freedom from oppression. the old spiritual song says that change will come someday. there is a relationship between modernism and modernity. modernism characteristic of present culture, while modernity is the formality of change in a society. modernism and modernity is influenced by a behavior. the behavior ijalel ( ): - , is relative to an emotion felt during a specific time. modern literature is reflective of time period spanning from the th century to the present. during this time spanned the conscience of cultural movement in art and literature. the moral culture of the renaissance was to be in touch with the love of religion. the imagist felt they needed to express what they envisioned in the art. cubism and dadaism was an art movement often protesting fear and denial. modernism is a reflective of productivity. since the renaissance period, there was the industrial revolution and two world wars. the renaissance was the end of slavery and the beginning of the industrial revolution. people wanted to understand life and so they wrote what mattered to them most. they wrote their feelings about love. the industrial revolution came at a time where technology was replacing man labor. it was a time of invention. people wrote about how their relativity would replace their purpose to technology. during world war i and world war ii, was a time of reason. not being able to relate to war, writers wrote about what they could not come to reason. literature became distorted and disconnected. the way people saw the world was changing. the conscious began to experiment with reason. moral structure became the meaning of expression during modernism. “the heart of darkness “symbolized racism of the congo slave trade. “the station of the metro” illustrated how illusion became an abstract symbol. “the wasteland” is a poem depicting the sorrow embedded in pain which is the primary reason for human need. “the second coming” is the passion in fear of the resurrection or the end of the world. the british consider this period of time as the, “lost generation.” it is a time where people want to understand what is going on in their present lives. it is a time to find comfort in what they have become, not knowing who they really are, hoping that change will come. there is an artistic journey through time with each movement. through each art movement you are seeing the artist reaching the audience by conveying messages through imagery. the imagery can be about an emotion reflective of the living condition. the image can be happy or sad, anger or glee, confused or mortified. the relationship between the artist and his art is determined by attitude. the artist interaction with his audience is a connection to real life events. “farewell to arms,” is a story about real life experience with war. the great depression was a time in america where people felt alienated and desperate. people were unemployed at a time where technology previously increased. it was a time during the world war i. people wanted to find a since of solidarity through hemmingway. stein wrote about having a gay relationship, which was found shocking during the time of dadaism. modernism is the center of content. it is a time where everything is centered on the evolution of human thought. people were searching for empathic reason. there was a lot of conflict and out of conflict there were protest for liberalization. freedom of the speech led to civil disobedience when the literature art movement became popular. it was a time of woman’s suffrage and the harlem renaissance influenced by the civil rights movement. modernism is the foundation of an art movement. art is the expression of how it is conceived or interpreted. art is an emotion embedded in pain, anger and deserted thoughts used to entertain or arouse those of interest. modernism is a political assessment influenced by society issues. modernism is the exploration of human evolution. modernism is how we perceive the culture which surrounds us in time. modernism is written history. conclusion why must man live in captivity? why is there so much poverty and violence in society? why must we isolate ourselves with hatred predicated to violence? why do we live in isolation of so much distrust? this is a test to prepare us for our future. if we could see our own faults of the condition we are in, we can see man is not free. we must tolerate our condition to allow change. i believe that all men should be created equal. all people should sustain life in a healthy environment. i believe that in this era, change has come our way and as we strive as a people we will overcome obstacles to learning to a utopia of freedom. references okpewho, i., & nzegwu, n. ( ). the new african diaspora. indiana university press. olaniyan, t., & sweet, j. h. ( ). the african diaspora and the disciplines. indiana university press. hine, d.c., danielle, d. t., & small, s. ( ). black europe and the african diaspora. university of illinois press. davies, c.b. ( ). encyclopedia of the african diaspora: origins, experiences and culture, volume . santa barbara, calif: abc-clio. wisdom, t., & puplampu, k.p. ( ). the african diaspora in canada: negotiating identity & belonging. university of calgary press. olliz-boyd, a. ( ). the latin american identity and the african diaspora: ethnogenesis in context. cambria press. carter, d. m. ( ). navigating the african diaspora: the anthropology of invisibility. university of minnesota press. conyers, j., & james, l. ( ). racial structure and radical politics in the african diaspora. london: transaction. curry, d.y., eric, d., & smith, m.a. ( ). extending the diaspora: new histories of black people. university of illinois press. arthur, j. a. ( ). the african diaspora in the united states and europe: the ghanaian experience. ashgate. petite histoire de mon théâtre musical all rights reserved © canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : canadian university music review revue de musique des universités canadiennes petite histoire de mon théâtre musical michel puig numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer cet article puig, m. ( ). petite histoire de mon théâtre musical. canadian university music review / revue de musique des universités canadiennes,( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ -n -cumr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ petite histoire de mon thÉÂtre musical* michel puig le théâtre musical, locution passe-partout appartenant à la terminologie actuelle des compositeurs, musicologues et cri- tiques, semble être encore à la recherche de son identité. objet en devenir, en mutation constante, il appelle l'analyse mais défie la synthèse. objet pluriel dans sa formulation même, il se présente au premier regard semblable à un corps céleste formé de deux hémisphères jumeaux : non point dichotomie théâtre/musique mais, bien au contraire, fusion de ces deux éléments pour générer deux combinaisons distinctes et spécifiques. l'une de ces combinaisons, face la plus visible du théâtre musical, répond au souci de nombreux compositeurs qui trouvent dans la théâtralisation de leur musique des solutions à des pro- blèmes compositionnels ; elle privilégie une forme scénique nou- velle dont l'axe premier, le moteur, est la musique. il serait mal venu de ma part de me substituer à ces compositeurs pour décrire et expliciter leur démarche ; telle n'a jamais été mon approche du théâtre musical, aussi, n'en dirai-je rien. l'autre combinaison représente la face cachée de notre corps céleste, celle dont le geste théâtral repensé dans des structures musicales est la raison d'être et qui ne se laisse appréhender que par une longue pratique expérimentale. c'est de celle-ci que je désire vous entretenir. ainsi, analysant les étapes d'une recherche de plusieurs années, j'espère vous amener à découvrir comment la musique a ouvert au théâtre des perspectives nouvelles. pour moi, tout commence en . paris est à cette époque le haut lieu de la recherche et de la réalisation dramatiques. c'est le *ce texte constitue la version, revue et mise en forme par marthe forget, d'une conférence donnée par michel puig le octobre à la faculté de musique de l'université de montréal, à l'occasion d'une visite d'un mois au cours delaquelleil a réalisé, avec les étudiants de l'atelier de jeu scénique et de l'atelier de musique contemporaine, « le rêve du papillon », conte chinois du xhie siècle. r e v u e d e m u s i q u e d e s u n i v e r s i t é s c a n a d i e n n e s , n ° , . théâtre à thèse de sartre, de camus, de gabriel marcel ; c'est aussi le théâtre néo-classique de montherlant et celui des romanciers comme mauriac et bernanos. si le théâtre d'audiberti et de guelderode appartient encore au cénacle de l'avant garde, le théâtre de l'absurde, lui, s'impose à un plus large public : becket, ionesco, adamovet tardieu sont joués au théâtre de babylone par jean-marie serreau et roger blin. au zénith de cette intense activité théâtrale, le t.n.p. de jean vilar brille de tous ses feux. cette même année, je participe à une soirée non-stop au musée des arts décoratifs où, durant plusieurs jours, musique, danse, cinéma et théâtre se succéderont en séquences assez brèves. le temps fort de cet événement reste pour moi la création d'une pièce de becket : comédie, mise en scène par j.m. serreau. j'ai, pour la première fois, la révélation d'un véritable théâtre musical. le texte de cette pièce est provocant, dit d'une manière totalement nouvelle, dans une mise en scène qui, radicale, va jusqu'au bout de ses intentions. trois têtes émergent de grosses jarres où sont enfermés les personnages interprétés par delphine seyrig, emmanuelle riva et michael lonsdale. un projecteur unique, passant d'un visage à l'autre, découpe le dialogue : une voix sort de l'ombre et parle ... abandonnée par la lumière, elle se tait. ainsi, toute la puissance expressive du comédien se trouve concentrée dans le visage et la voix ; l'absence de gestuelle ainsi qu'une diction entièrement fabriquée, recomposée, favorisent cette concentration. la diction, anti-naturelle, est à la voix ce que les jarres sont au corps : elle lui retire toute possibilité d'expres- sion. le texte, chanté dans un tempo très accéléré, inusité au théâtre, doit être répété car l'absence de tout silence et la précipi- tation du discours rendent incertaine, à la première écoute, la compréhension du texte. or, de quoi s'agit-il ici, sinon de faire passer un texte? un beau texte porteur de sons, de rythmes, d'images, un texte où les mots font mouche, deviennent les pierres à sucer de molloy! le théâtre de becket se passe de déplacements, de gestes, de costumes, de décor, de lumière, de musique. il peut se passer de tout, sauf de mots et de comédiens pour les dire. plus tard, il se passera parfois de mots, mais jamais de comédien tant il est vrai que le théâtre, c'est avant tout un comédien devant un public. mais, à ce texte, quels chemins ces comédiens peuvent-ils frayer en eux mêmes, pour qu'il y éveille un écho authentique et revienne, ainsi vécu, aux spectateurs? aucun, répondent auteur et metteur en scène. a ce théâtre différent, donnons une diction autre ; à des personnages qui n'en sont pas, donnons une parole qui n'en soit pas une, antinomique, et rendons-la aussi artificielle que le texte lui-même. définir pour chaque syllabe, pour chaque mot, un timbre, un rythme, une hauteur, une intonation, voilà le travail hors de l'ordinaire auquel se sont appliqués comédiens, metteur en scène et auteur. sans aucun doute, c'est de chant qu'il s'agissait ; mais pour qu'il soit tout à fait musique, il manquait à ce chant une dimension importante : une véritable structure musi- cale. c'est pourquoi sans doute cette tentative de serreau est restée sans lendemain. c'est pourquoi je vais me sentir, dès lors, concerné par la structure musicale d'un texte dramatique quel qu'il soit. ceci m'amène à vous parler de la première étape de ma recherche qui fut consacrée à la problématique du chant. je donne au mot chant une acception large : on chante dès l'instant où l'on s'aventure hors du chemin étroit du langage parlé. plus précisé- ment : on chante lorsqu'on assume consciemment les hauteurs, la durée et la rythmique du son de sa voix ; par le fait même sont exclus le cri et la parole. chanter et parier sont comme vers et prose ... il suffit de ne plus être en état de chant pour que le parler revienne. en , colette magny, chanteuse bien connue en france pour sa voix ample et originale, sa personnalité et son engagement politique, me manifesta sa lassitude d'interpréter des chansons t r a d i t i o n n e l l e s . mais comment pouvait-elle renouveler son répertoire? devait elle s'appliquer, comme bien des chanteurs, à devenir compositeur ou, pouvions-nous, par une recherche com- mune, trouver une voie nouvelle? je lui exposai alors ma façon de concevoir le chant qui reçut son approbation et je lui proposai d'inventer un chant avec elle sur des textes que nous choisirions ensemble. le premier fut un poème de max jacob : les malachites. c'est un exemple parfait de ce que l'auteur lui-même appelle « le cubisme poétique »; une rythmique très savante le structure en petites séquences courtes, discontinues. l'imagination musicale ne peut que suivre. nous pouvions donc nous laisser porter par les images. quel fut mon rôle? d'abord, assez négatif car je refusais le plus souvent ce que colette magny proposait. je lui demandais de dire le poème comme elle le sentait ; mais sa voix restait celle de ses tours de chant, parfaitement adaptée aux chansons qu'elle avait déjà chantées et dont elle ne voulait plus : les formules mélodiques restaient banales, issues d'une harmonie stéréoty- pée. en effet, toute improvisation tend à faire réémerger le déjà entendu qu'il convient précisémet d'évacuer. parce qu'elles impli- quent une harmonie, nous renonçâmes aux notes proprement dites et, à la manière des musiciens sériels, nous mîmes en pratique, suivant ma méthode, la décomposition du son en ses différents paramètres. je conseillai à colette magny de se servir des caractéristiques suivantes : timbre, attaque, dynamique et durée. je l'aidai à prendre à son compte les registres, la respiration contrariée, les bruits produits par le corps : il fallait que cela devînt sa propre invention. ainsi, il lui serait impossible de chanter faux comme on dit d'un comédien qu'il parle faux. le son juste devenait celui auquel sa nature profonde, en s'exprimant, donnait sa forme. nous en arrivâmes très rapidement au travail du mot à mot. je poursuivais ainsi la recherche de jean-marie serreau, en la soumettant en outre à mon expérience de composi- teur. mon rôle consistait donc à maintenir colette magny dans cet éfat de vérité. je l'aidai également à préciser et à noter l'acquis, aie sélectionner et à le coordonner afin que, de cette investigation intérieure, naquît une chanson susceptible de figurer à sonréper- toire. ayant réussi, nous poursuivîmes l'expérience avec un poème de lewis carroll, le célèbre jaberwocky chanté en anglais, profitant de la liberté sémantique de ce poème du « non-sens » pour nous laisser aller aux mots, à leur saveur, à leur jeu ... (aventure verbale qui trouva d'ailleurs un écho l'année suivante à l'occasion d'un travail réalisé avec l'écrivain et musicologue alejo carpentier pour qui la mise en musique d'un texte impliquait que celui-ci répondit à certaines pertinences : expression forte, syn- taxe brisée, enchaînements rares ou inexistants, des verbes, des substantifs, peu d'adjectifs, aucun mot adventice, du rythme). nous nous trouvions néanmoins très loindel'improvisation car nous avions constaté que la mise en oeuvre d'un chant de ce type ne progresse qu'au prix d'une extrême tension et à travers de longs tâtonnements ; mais, une fois définis et considérés comme justes, le mot et/ou la phrase vont résister à toute tentative de modification. si certains éléments peuvent varier, disparaître même au cours des répétitions, d'autres en revanche, semblent inamovibles : ils deviennent l'essence même de la chanson qui, bien des années plus tard, sans avoir été notée restera en mémoire. de nombreux comédiens ou étudiants depuis ont chanté ces chansons et, à ma grande surprise, à travers des interprétations fort différentes, l'objet vocal persiste d'un chanteur à l'autre. j'en suis donc bel et bien le compositeur. pourtant, au cours de notre cheminement expérimental, l'acte de composer a changé de nature, modifiant le rapport de l'interprète au compositeur : celui-ci, dans une attitude d'écoute passionnée, a pris en charge l'invention musicale de celui-là. mais en dépit de cette altérité, le produit fini demeure bien l'oeuvre du compositeur. c'est ainsi qu'il faut comprendre la démarche d'un duke ellington qui com- posa la musique la plus personnelle qui soit grâce à des musiciens qui ne furent pourtant jamais plus eux-mêmes que dans son orchestre. dans cette échange, chacun trouve son compte et participe à la création . l'interprète cesse d'être un subalterne au service du pouvoir que détient le compositeur. je n'ai jamais travaillé autrement depuis, avec des comédiens, des chanteurs ou des instrumentistes, des éclairagistes ou des décorateurs. cependant, j'ai eu besoin d'un long temps d'appren- tissage pour prendre conscience que ce rapport interprète/auteur constituait l'épicentre de l'art théâtral et que ma nouvelle manière de composer participait précisément du théâtre musical. d'autres, heureusement, l'ont compris pour moi... en , sur les conseils de jean-pierre drouet avec qui je travaillais depuis longtemps, jean-marie serreau m'invita à rejoindre sa compagnie théâtrale. il montait alors une adaptation par aimé césaire de la tempête de shakespeare. ma tâche consistait à faire chanter, à ma façon, quelques textes qui jalonnaient la pièce. parmi le groupe de musiciens engagés, outre jean-pierre drouet et michel portai, se trouvait le très remarquable jazzman martini- quais eddy lowiss et le batter haïtien cheriza. le metteur en scène semblait dépassé par l'extraordinaire outil à produire de la musique que nous constituions. il ne savait que nous demander ; nos propositions allaient toujours au-delà de ce qu'il souhaitait et la musique ne parvenait pas à s'intégerer à la réalité du spectacle. mais il convient ici de parler de michael lonsdale ; vous ne pouvez imaginer en effet le besoin d'invention qui l'habite. dans la tempête, il jouait le rôle de prospero et je dois avouer qu'il tenait le spectacle à bout de bras. lors d'une répétition, lonsdale me confia qu'il ne supportait plus d'interpréter le monoloque au cours duquel prospero faisait, très longuement, le récit de sa vie ; et de fait, cette narration était chaque soir un des temps morts de la pièce. ne voulant plus continuer ainsi, il me demanda de lui donner les moyens de chanter ce texte, à ma manière bien entendu ; je lui proposai de l'accompagner en grattant avec des clous les cordes du piano. nous avions préparé notre numéro dans le plus grand secret, aussi, lorsque nous nous exécutâmes, la stupéfaction fut-elle totale sur le plateau et même dans la salle. mais lonsdale a un sens très vif de la trouvaille vocale — qu'on se souvienne d'india song — et le public accueillit avec enthousiasme cette innovation. nous ne pouvions pas en attendre autant de césaire qui voyait une remise en question de son texte dans le détournement que nous lui faisions subir. césaire tenait à ce texte plus qu'à son drame ; nous, nous tenions à notre musique. ainsi se révélait une difficulté majeure, sournoise parce que parée d'une fausse évi- dence : le théâtre considéré comme la manifestation d'un phéno- mène prioritairement littéraire. en effet, la notion selon laquelle le théâtre depuis ses plus antiques origines appartient au domaine des écrivains de pièces est si largement répandue que des metteurs en scène aussi remarquables que j.m. serreau et marcel maréchal on pu affirmer publiquement que sans texte il n'y avait pas de théâtre. il me paraissait cependant évident qu'un texte organisé, fermé sur lui-même, d'une part et, d'autre part, une musique très composée ne pouvaient coexister dans une même structure sans que l'un des deux ne prît le pas sur l'autre : la prégnance de leurs formes respectives se révélait trop contraignante. c'est donc à l'invention dramatique que nous demanderons d'être à l'origine et au centre de la création, faisant appel — ou non — à des paramè- tres musicaux ou à ceux du discours littéraire. et voici que se révèle insensiblement la face cachée de notre théâtre musical. pendant trois ans, je n'ai pas cessé de poursuivre la recherche commencée avec colette magny ; la troupe de serreau se réunissait une fois par semaine pour travailler avec moi ; en , ce fut celle de catherine dasté et un peu plus tard, la compagnie de claude régy. je donnais également des cours à l'école dramatique de tania.balachova auxquels s'ajoutèrent ceux des université de paris vlii-vincennes et paris x-nanterre où j'enseigne encore aujourd'hui. nombreux sont les textes que nous avons soumis à nos pratiques! je pressentais que nous trouverions ainsi la réponse à nos questionnements. après le demi-échec de la tempête s'amorça une longue collaboration entre catherine dasté et moi-même ; j'aime son théâtre, sa poésie, ses réalisations, son interprétation mythique de la scène; j'aime aussi ses textes (quand il y en a ... car ils sont rares!). d'une répétition à l'autre, je découvrais que sa manière de mettre en scène ses spectacles, impalpables et forts, s'apparentait beaucoup à la méthode que j'avais mise au point pour faire chanter les comédiens et jouer les musiciens : même rapport de collaboration entre elle et ses interprètes, même réticence à l'égard de l'improvisation, mais aussi, même refus de subordina- tion à la chose écrite. personne, cependant, ne lui conteste le droit de signer ses spectacles tant il est vrai qu'ils ne ressemblent à aucun autre. de catherine dasté, j'ai appris que l'acte essentiel du théâtre que nous recherchions l'un et l'autre, l'acte créateur, premier, était celui du dramaturge qui assume dans sa totalité le déroulement du spectacle. la dramaturgie dispose du texte et de la musique, elle les commande et les organise ; elle détermine décors, costumes et éclairages et elle donne vie au jeu des acteurs. ainsi, devenu auteur de pièces mais non écrivain, j'ai réalisé une vingtaine de spectacles dont je n'ai écrit ni les phrases ni les mots. j'ai adapté de nombreux livres et parfois imaginé moi-même des arguments dont j'ai confié la rédaction à quelques auteurs. mais j'ai aussi, avec certains d'entre eux, tenté cette création commune qui s'avère de plus en plus nécessaire à la réalisation d'un théâtre musical. a cet égard, mon travail avec michel leiris puis avec robert pinget me paraît significatif. en , je propo- sai à leiris de réaliser un spectacle d'après son livre nuits sans nuit. l'oeuvre et la démarche de cet écrivain trouvent chez moi un écho profond. je choisis donc sept des récits de rêves qui consti- tuent nuits sans nuit et organisai leur déroulement à la façon d'une longue narration qui révélerait petit à petit l'univers du poète. lonsdale assurait la mise en scène. au cours du travail, il nous parut impossible de faire chanter ces rêves tels que leiris les avait écrits. aussi, avons-nous choisi les mots, les bribes de phrases qui répondaient davantage à notre projet. une fois le travail commencé, nous invitâmes leiris à donner son avis, très inquiets de sa réaction... il avait, dit-il, noté ses rêves dans le seul but de les arracher à l'oubli ; poète, il les avait métamorphosés en poèmes. aussi ne fut-il pas choqué de la mutilation que nous infligions à son texte : le spectacle, par ses ruptures textuelles, sonores et visuelles restituait, pour lui, le déroulement onirique dans son instantanéité. plus tard, je réalisai deux pièces différentes et un film tirés d'une oeuvre de robert pinget : graal flibuste. la première pièce fut créée en avignon après un stage de travail intensif d'une quinzaine de jours durant lesquels pinget accepta d'écrire un texte dramatique dans le pas à pas de l'évolution du spectacle, s'adaptant non seulement aux exigences scéniques, mais tenant compte aussi de la nature profonde de chaque comédien qui y participait. faut-il préciser que dans les deux spectacles le texte était entièrement chanté? en tant que compositeur, je me heurtai donc aux difficultés inhérentes à toute structure musicale mais, responsable désormais de l'ensemble des éléments dramatiques, je pus enfin introduire comme paramètre sonore indispensable à la dramaturgie une musique qui s'inscrivait dans le droit fil de mes recherches de compositeur. cette expérience se concrétisa encore davantage en avec une adaptation de la chasse au snarck de lewis carroll ; catherine dasté en avait fait la mise en scène pour le festival d'avignon et nous la jouâmes ensuite à paris. un texte anglais, comportant des indications de hauteurs précises, se mêlait à un texte français dont le déroulement musical restait libre. afin de conserver la richesse de timbres des expressions et la spontanéité du jeu, je confiai le texte anglais à de jeunes comédiennes dont la voix n'était ni travaillée, ni posée. durant plusieurs mois elles s'employèrent à mémoriser le texte auquel j'avais donné une véritable texture musicale. l'écriture vocale j ouait sur un registre extrêmement étendu : ainsi nous évitions le danger d'une tessiture homogène de la voix qui fait souvent écran au caractère dramati- que du personnage. les comédiennes choisissaient expressions et timbres divers, mais toujours dans le respect des hauteurs que j'avais indiquées. la participation d'ungroupe de musiciens assu- rait la présence d'une structure harmonique. je n'étonnerai personne en disant que les notes des comé- diennes étaient approximatives : mais, au fil des représentations (une cinquantaine environ), la justesse d'intonation finit par s'imposer. l'écriture musicale du texte français fut confiée à l'inspiration d'un deuxième groupe de comédiens ; facteur très important de renouvellement pour les interprètes, cette invention permanente entretenait aux cours des représentations un carac- tère d'immédiat. peu après la mort de j.m. serreau qui avait accueilli dans son théâtre notre chasse au snarck, michael lonsdale et moi déci- dâmes de travailler en collaboration : lui, comme metteur en scène et acteur, moi, comme auteur et musicien. en trois ans nous avons créé cinq spectacles. dans la chaîne complexe de chacune de ces dramaturgies, je continuai à glisser les fils fragiles de la trame des divers paramètres musicaux. dans la mesure où je n'entravais pas le libre jaillissement expressif du texte, je lui appliquais ma propre écriture vocale. je poursuivais la même démarche sur la plan rythmique : ainsi plusieurs tentatives furent-elles faites d'associer dans un même segment rythmique le vocal et le gestuel. d'abord restée sans succès, l'expérience réussit pleinement dans nuits sans nuit. sur la scène, éclairés par la seule lueur des bougies, deux comédiens sont agenouillés. a gauche, un comé- dien met en mouvement un métronome. il prononce chaque syl- labe du texte en respectant les silences et les hauteurs que j'ai moi-même fixés sur le manuscrit. simultanément, en suivant la battue métronomique (un temps sur deux), les yeux du comédien vont de gauche à droite puis de droite à gauche. la comédienne placée à droite tient dans la main un petit métronome qu'elle peut accélérer d'une simple pression. a son tour elle dit le texte, bougeant également les yeux mais cette fois à chaque battue du métronome. elle accélère peu à peu le tempo de renonciation du texte, guidée par le métronome que le public n'entend pas alors que le premier demeure constamment audible. les textes se che- vauchent et les yeux, toujours en mesure, sont animés d'un mou- vement de plus en plus rapide qui aboutit à un tournoiement. ainsi, grâce a ce jeu d'alternance rythmique entre silence et énoncé sy llabique, un climat d'angoisse s'installe et grandit au fur et à mesure que se déroule le récit du rêve : une escalade nocturne parmi des nids de vautours. de fait, c'est une véritable pensée contrapuntique — cette composante fondamentale de la musique — qui organise ces quatre voix (deux chants, deux regards mobiles) et qui devient élément dynamique de l'expressivité théâtrale. dans le spectacle suivant, fragments pour « che » guevara, le contrepoint fut greffé d'une façon fort différente sur le texte de pierre bourgeade : ici, michael lonsdale était comédien et metteur en scène, j'étais compositeur et comédien. le violoniste régis pasquier s'était joint à nous. je lui avais donné un canevas harmonique, mélange d'itinéraire et d'incitation à l'invention, basé sur une conception assez particulière de l'harmonie à laquelle je tiens assez pour la placer désormais au centre de mon écriture musicale. lonsdale et pasquier tiraient tous deux de leur instrument les accents les plus émouvants comme les plus comiques, repoussant l'étendue des registres et les contrastes dynamiques dans leurs limites les plus extrêmes. a travers ces multiples expériences, j'étais devenu à la fois compositeur, concepteur et comédien. il ne manquait à ma pano- plie d'auteur de théâtre musical que la pratique de la mise en scène et celle de la direction d'acteurs. auprès de j.-m. serreau, puis de catherine dasté et enfin de claude régy, j'avais accumulé suffi- samment d'expérience pour me permettre d'aborder sans trop de risque ce complexe et difficile métier. je commençai en au cours d'un stage que j'avais organisé en avignon. que voulais-je obtenir de mes comédiens? qu'ils mettent toute la force de leur concentration intérieure au service de la dramaturgie. durant de très longues répétitions, j'avais vu claude régy, impitoyable, obliger les comédiens à se lancer à la poursuite d'eux-mêmes dans une chasse sans merci : introspec- tion difficile qui se traduisait parfois par des crises d'une violence inouïe chez les interprètes. emergeait alors à la surface de ce maelstrom intérieur, comme suspendue dans le vide, une étrange diction qui possédait la force de l'évidence. dans notre travail commun, lonsdale essaiera d'obtenir, par d'autres moyens, cette même concentration. fort de ces expérien- ces théâtrales ainsi que de son métier de peintre, lonsdale diri- gera déplacement et gestuelle de l'acteur avec une minutie qui peut être considérée comme totalitaire tant il aura tendance à écarter toute initiative autre que la sienne. les comédiens seront ainsi posés sur la mise en scène comme les lignes et les couleurs le sont sur une toile. lorsqu'est venu mon tour de diriger des comédiens, j'ai donc essayé de poursuivre dans le même sens ; mais, profitant de l'expérience que j'avais de lacteur-proférateur de son, j'y ajoutai une gestuelle entièrement élaborée comme une musique. je demandai moi aussi aux comédiens un contrôle absolu de leur corps, comme on exige d'un instrumentiste le contrôle de son instrument. mesurer la durée des gestes, maîtriser leur espace et leur intensité : tout instrumentiste en fait l'apprentissage. pas le comédien. c'est en lui imposant cette contrainte que naîtra peu à peu un comédien autre. en effet, le problème du jeu de l'acteur est inversé par rapport à celui du musicien ; celui-ci est formé pour jouer une partition à l'élaboration de laquelle il reste étranger : on lui remet cette partition et il l'exécute. afin de libérer sa créati- vité, il faudra l'obliger à se passer de ce support. l'acteur, lui, est conditionné par des stéréotypes qui relèvent souvent de modes d'improvisations ou du gestuel traditionnel des emplois. il cons- truit souvent son jeu sur ces fausses prémisses ; souvent aussi selon l'inspiration du moment. certes, introduire les paramètres musicaux pour saisir ce jeu, comme l'instantané photographique fixe le mouvement, peut paraître une véritable contrainte. c'est ainsi néanmoins que, privée de ses issues habituelles, la vieafflueànouveaudanslejeu des acteurs, activant des zones inattendues de la créativité. l'approfondissement de ces techniques fit l'objet de ma recherche en théâtre musical dont la dernière étape fut la réalisa- tion d'un spectacle créé en aux semaines musicales d'or- léans. il s'agit d'une longue réflexion sur la préoccupation fondamentale du peintre claude monet. pourquoi, chez lui, cette poursuite forcenée de l'apparence? qu'y cherchait-il? pendant près de soixante-dix ans sa peinture ignore le reste du monde. quelle fut la force de cette fascination pour que la commune, les mouvements ouvriers et nationalistes, la guerre de - ^ a révolution d'octobre, ne trouvent aucune place dans l'oeuvre de monet? cette interrogation a donné naissance à un théâtre musi- cal en quatre tableaux : monet ou la passion de la réalité. une analyse de ce spectacle ne me paraît pas inutile : elle me permettra de compléter et de résumer les propos qui ont précédé. premier tableau : monet, confronté à la peinture réaliste de son époque. camille, sa femme, pose pour lui, contrefaisant des attitudes célèbres : elle est tour à tour le modèle de l'atelier de courbet, l'olympia demanet, la femme au tub et la repasseusede degas. le peintre s'en détourne ; il fixe au fond de la scène un écran où s'animent des images d'eau. « folie de vouloir tout capter ... il faut peindre la joie », dit camille. mais devant la grande femme noire, image tragique de la commune, elle sort en pleurant. la réponse de monet apparaît sur l'écran : impression du soleil levant ( ). deuxième tableau : monet est placé devant une autre facette de la réalité: un peintre doit-il être le témoin de son temps? un très rapide roman-photo défile enimages désarticulées qui sont proje- tées sur des voiles de bateaux. nous sommes en ; c'est le départ d'un bel officier pour le front. monet en retient la dernière image : le retour de la gare. est-ce le matin ou le soir? le temps est-il clair ou brumeux? il repeint plusieurs fois le même sujet. il invente ainsi les séries ... les cathédrales de rouen apparaissent sur l'écran. troisième tableau : camille suggère à monet de peindre son portrait. monet reste immobile regardant les fleurs. tout s'assom- brit et ralentit. « a force de peindre la vie, on rencontre la mort ». la scène est d'un bleu très léger, presque obscure. camille la traverse lentement et se couche. en effet, le vrai portrait de sa femme est celui que monet a peint devant son lit de mort. la fin de la scène montre ce tableau terrible. monet le regarde et peu à peu camille, comme ophélie, flotte à la surface de l'eau. quatrième tableau : le film jusqu'alors en noir et blanc devient d'un bleu intense. face à l'image de la mer, le peintre reste seul, enfermé dans sa méditation, à la poursuite du reflet des choses. peu à peu, la longue série des nymphéas apparaît sur l'écran. de cet argument j'ai fait une sorte de symphonie en quatre mouvements (sous-titre du spectacle) : allegro moderato, scherzo, adagio, finale. au début de chaque mouvement, le résumé de l'action, inscrit sur des diapositives, apparaît sur l'écran ; la lumière revient sur le plateau, les comédiens toussent, les musi- ciens s'accordent. cette petite intrusion dans la sociologie des concerts, comme cette mise en forme symphonique du spectacle, ne servent qu'à informer le spectateur sur les intentions de l'auteur qui tient à dire : « ce spectacle est aussi musique ». bien entendu, la réalité musicale est ailleurs ... pour la première fois, je pense avoir réuni en un tout homo- gène les composantes visuelles, sonores et gestuelles d'un specta- cle en maintenant chacune d'elle à son point le plus élevé d'expressivité. comédiens, texte, musique, film, diapos, éclair- ages sont, à part entière, les sept voix d'un contrepoint qui, du début à la fin, tisse la matière même du spectacle. seul un compositeur, après une longe pratique de son métier, peut mener à bien une polyphonie théâtrale ; mais combiner des éléments aussi divers et autonomes que la mise en scène, le jeu des acteurs, la musique, la projection des couleurs, des images et des éclairages, exige une profonde connaissance de leur fonctionne- ment intrinsèque. c'est à ce prix que j'ai obtenu mon véritable outil de travail : la dramaturgie, partition multidimensionnelle du théâtre musical. copyright © korean stroke society this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. pissn: - • eissn: - http://j-stroke.org changes in painting style by poststroke mania eunjoo rhee, connie hong, young eun kim, byung-chul lee department of neurology, hallym university sacred heart hospital, hallym university college of medicine, anyang, korea letter to the editor dear sir: post stroke neuropsychiatric syndrome is common. many patients after stroke experience depression, cognitive impair- ment, personality change, psychosis, apathy, and anxiety. ma- nia can also be a consequence of stroke but is not common. “mania” is described as a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at least week in the diagnostic and statistical manual of men- tal disorder-v. mania seems to be observed more frequently with the right side brain lesions. here, we report a professional artist whose painting style dramatically changed with manic illness from a recent stroke. informed consent for this report was obtained. a -year-old korean man who had worked in russia as a professional painter visited the emergency room due to a sud- den onset of dysarthria and left side weakness, which were not- ed when he woke up in the morning. he did not have any other vascular risk factors except for smoking. on neurologic exami- nation, dysarthria, left facial palsy and left hemiparesis (motor grade iv/iv) were observed. left side sensory change and sensory extinction were noted, but prosopagnosia was not ob- served. with ophthalmologic examination, corrected visual acuity was . / . on near card test, visual field defect was not observed on manual test and achromatognosia was not noted. the brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed a territorial ischemic lesion with proximal occlusion of the inferior divi- sion of the right middle cerebral artery (figure a). cardio- embolic source was not found on the transthoracic echocar- diogram, transesophageal echocardiogram and holter moni- toring. an antiplatelet drug and statin were prescribed. when he visited our outpatient clinic weeks after the symp- tom onset, although his neurological deficits were much im- proved, he became very erratic, aggressive, talkative, hyperen- ergetic, and lost the desire to sleep with an increased goal di- rected activities such as staying up all night and continuously drawing art pieces consisting of a human face. furthermore, his wife noted that his style of painting was absolutely trans- formed. we compared the paintings he drew after his stroke with some of his paintings from russia on his website before the stroke (figure b, c). his previous artwork showed complementary and subtle color schemes, with well-defined heads and figures using sharp lines. the paintings were ordered with an austere simplicity. on the other hands, his new artwork showed a drastic change in the artistic style. the drawings are complex, disrupted and dis- organized with splattering of words and phrases (in more than one language). use of color became broader and more overt. after starting carbamazepine mg twice daily as a mood stabilizer, his mood slightly improved; however, he was still talkative, and his paintings were still awkward, complex and disorganized. here, we reported the case of a professional painter who showed changes in his artistic style and behavior after an isch- emic stroke. there have been several case reports that showed how stroke influenced professional artists. , however, mood change after stroke was not essential for a change in the artistic style. particularly, some painters had difficulty painting land- scapes and large figures because the right-hemisphere stroke commonly results in visuospatial neglect. in our case, we do not know exactly whether the change in his artistic style was caused by the poststroke mania or the stoke lesion itself affect- ing his creativity or executive function. nevertheless, an in- triguing point of this case is that his mood was clearly reflected journal of stroke ; ( ): - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jos. . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /jos. . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - rhee, et al. changes in painting style by poststroke mania http://dx.doi.org/ . /jos. . http://j-stroke.org in his artistic work, although his neurologic deficit was mini- mal. in his work sentences written in korean or chinese char- acters may denote an expressive form of pressured speech in mania. therefore, it could be postulated that his transformed artistic pattern is due to his affective problem. the clinical profile of mania after stroke is similar to that of primary mania. the majority of stroke patients ( %) present elevated mood as the first symptom followed by an increased rate or amount of speech ( %), reduction of sleep ( %), and agitation ( %). in this case, the mood of the painter was similar to primary mania, even though he did not have any prior psychiatric illness nor family history. a previous func- tional imaging study found significantly reduced functional activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and amygdala in mania patients. likewise, poststroke mania may be related to dysfunction in the ventral limbic pathway. in this case, the mri findings showed the involvement of the inferior tempo- ral lobe including the amygdala. dysregulation of this pathway may explain the alteration in his mood, and the subsequent change in painting style in this patient. moreover frontotem- poral lesion can cause disinhibition of parietal lobe, and the disinhibition can be a cause of secondary mania as a result. although the unexpected color and visual pattern in the pre- vious work might reflect his artistic style like cubism, the col- or and visual pattern like the faces changed in his work after the stroke. the contribution of the inferolateral temporal cor- tex to the recognition of color and visual patterns should be considered. acknowledgements we thank the patient described for allowing us to share his medical details and paintings. references . hackett ml, kohler s, o’brien jt, mead ge. neuropsychiat- ric outcomes of stroke. lancet neurol ; : - . . koreki a, takahata k, tabuchi h, kato m. increased left ante- rior insular and inferior prefrontal activity in post-stroke ma- nia. bmc neurol ; : . . cosgrove ve, suppes t. informing dsm- : biological bound- aries between bipolar i disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia. bmc med ; : . . santos co, caeiro l, ferro jm, figueira ml. mania and stroke: a systematic review. cerebrovasc dis ; : - . . bazner h, hennerici mg. painting after right-hemisphere stroke - case studies of professional artists. front neurol neuro- sci ; : - . . annoni jm, devuyst g, carota a, bruggimann l, bogousslavsky figure . (a) brain mri. diffusion weighted image shows restriction in the right inferotemporal lobe including the amygdala. (b) the painting style be- fore the stroke. the works are complementary and show subtle color schemes, with well-defined heads and figures using sharp lines; b drawn in , b in . (c) new art work after the right inferotemporal lobe infarction courtesy of the patient himself. a b b c http://dx.doi.org/ . /jos. . vol. / no. / january http://j-stroke.org j. changes in artistic style after minor posterior stroke. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : - . . strakowski sm, eliassen jc, lamy m, cerullo ma, allendor- fer jb, madore m, et al. functional magnetic resonance imag- ing brain activation in bipolar mania: evidence for disruption of the ventrolateral prefrontal-amygdala emotional pathway. biol psychiatry ; : - . correspondence: byung-chul lee department of neurology, hallym university sacred heart hospital, hallym university college of medicine, gwanpyeong-ro beon-gil, dongan-gu, anyang , korea tel: + - - - , fax: + - - - e-mail: ssbrain@hallym.ac.kr received: august , revised: september , accepted: october , the authors declare that they have no financial or other conflicts of interest in relation to this research and its publication. eurographics word template for cae computational aesthetics in graphics, visualization, and imaging ( ) d. cunningham and d. house (editors) integrarte: digital art using body interaction b. p. castro , , l. velho and d. kosminsky instituto nacional de matemática pura e aplicada, brazil escola de belas artes, ufrj, brazil abstract this paper emphasizes the participation of the whole body in the interaction process in art, which becomes essen- tial in the development of new insights and artistic expressions. we approach the postmodernism and the post-me - dium condition, having in mind the remediation process between digital and analog media to rethink the possibilit - ies of interactive art through new technologies. we focus in the body as a living medium, to introduce the integ- rarte project, an installation about body experience through movement visualizations and sounds. categories and subject descriptors (according to acm ccs): i. . [computer graphics]: methodology and tech - niques - interaction techniques . introduction this paper presents the integrarte project, a theoretical and practical research that reflects on the possibility of interactivity as an artistic experience. the relationship between art and technology is explored throughout the article as a result of an ongoing process of hybridization in art history, which can be detected even in the early twentieth century. after giving a brief historical background, we describe a stage of development of the integrarte installation, which seeks to bring the public to an artistic body experience through audio-visual stimuli. a inclusion of the whole body within the interaction process becomes essential to establish a denser connection between the public and the artwork during the aesthetic experience. this project proposes a form of integration between body, art and media. . art history background since the end of the nineteenth century until the s, the art scenario was marked by several vanguards, such as cubism, futurism, suprematism, surrealism. each one sought a cutting edge artistic ideal, usually making detailed statements in written manifestos. the art production of this period, in general, is called modern art. in that period, there was a constant attempt to develop a new language that would take over the previous one. it was a period of artistic effervescence and abundant production all over the world. questioning the art nature was inevitable. one of these artist groups, the 'dadaists', were responsible for initiating a process of contesting art essence. marcel duchamp was essential in discontinuing with the traditional values of art. he inserted everyday objects such as a urinal or a bottle rack in the art gallery. this act brought up a number of issues to the art legitimacy system. this raised the major question: what could be con- sidered art? if art was really ubiquitous to our lives, we wouldn't need a restricted institution to legitimize neither the artwork nor the artist. this last point is critical to understanding the develop- ment of what is often called postmodernism. "a period of quite perfect freedom. today there is no longer any pale of history. everything is permitted." [art ]. this is some- thing completely opposite to modernist posture. the mod- ernist approach is commonly exemplified with clement greenberg's thoughts. greenberg was an art critic that sup- ported abstract expressionism. he consistently defended the 'purity' of jackson pollock's works and his 'ac- tion-painting'. pollock's paintings explored the superficial- ity and flatness of the picture, which greenberg considered the essence of the media, the specificity of painting. one of the greatest difference between modernism and postmodernism is their posture towards past production. while modernists try to deny the previous art production and are segmented into several distinct groups, postmod- © the eurographics association . integrarte: digital art using body interaction b. castro, l. velho and d. kosminsky ernists care less about these rules, and include the possibil- ity of absorbing the past into new creative process. also, the distinction between different media become less relev- ant as the figurative art loses its dominance. . the post-medium condition and digital art in frank stella developed the 'black paintings' series, in which he explored the physical materiality of paint and therefore showed the painting as a three- dimensional object like any other. for rosalind krauss [ros ] this work extinguishes the difference between painting and sculpture and is one of the first manifestations of what the author will call post-medium condition. this condition is directly related to post-modernism, and the development of conceptual art, in which arts are liberated from a specific media categorization. from the s, three-dimensional painting is explored by various artists. they turn into sculptures, objects, installations. the distinction between specific forms of art not only loses its relevance, but becomes a limitation to artistic creation. "if the hybridization process is a guiding element of the twentieth century aesthetics, either by the mix of media separated before, either by public participation, in the digital art this process becomes even more complex" [pri ] definitely, the digital technology development makes this division even more delicate. the process of hybridization is inherent to computers. this provides integration of different forms of expression as still images, film, sound and text. all of these expressions are assembled in a unique digital media made possible by one single language: the binary code. however, it is interesting to note that even after the post- medium condition that made the specificity of each medium more undefined, there is a process of 'remediation' of analog media by digital media. according to mcluhan, "in the name of “progress”, our official culture is striving to force the new media to do the work of the old” [mf ]. this can be seen at a basic level of computer interfaces that are based on office objects: folder, the magnifying glass, the file, the recycle bin. also seen at image editing software, in which the tools are the paintbrush, pencil, rubber, etc., and even in their accessories such as pen tablets in which the instrument used for image creation and manipulation has the exact same shape as the analog media. “the digital medium wants to erase itself, so that the viewer stands in the same relationship to the content as she would if she were confronting the original medium.” [bg ] when the digital media tries to 'erase itself', it isn't main- taining only the same relationship with the user through the process. there is also a strong continuity in the form of production and creation result. the use of new media for new forms of expression is limited because we maintain the same creation habits. since we can try to break with the hand gesture habit in- herited from drawing and painting, why not to try other gestures? other body parts may also be associated with visual arts creation. we can develop expressions that integ- rate the whole body, its image, its sound and its volume with external images and sounds. new media artistic approach aware of this remediation process, we developed interactive experiments that were distinguishable from the way we use tools like a paintbrush or a pencil. these experiments use different parts of the body and the relationships between them to create real time drawings from a complex vision of the human movement. we approach the concept of 'body as living media', developed by hans belting. for the author, our body is a vital agent in connection with the images because it is responsible for perception, projection and transformation of these, i.e., the individual human subjectivity is inherent in the process of image mediation. "bodies perform images (of themselves or even against themselves) as much as they perceive external images. in this double sense, they are a living medium that transcends the capacity of their prosthetic media."[han ] actually, when we use sensors to help the computer recognize our body movement, our body is nothing but another big mass of data interpreted by the machine. we may say that the computer sees us just like pictures, sounds and texts but organized in a different way. in our relationship with the computer the sense of sight is usually emphasized and we often hear discussions about visual media, but these boundaries aren't that clear anymore. all media are mixed and that perception is never through one sense only. we can recall the study of the "sense ratios" of mcluhan, in which the author studies the different proportions of the the presence of senses in each media. “media, by altering the environment, evoke in us unique ratios of sense perceptions. the extension of any one sense alters the way we think and act – the way we perceive the world. when these ratios change, men change.” [mf ] given this multi-sensorial vision of the possibilities of hybridization focusing on digital technology, sound was added to our proposition so that the public could also re- ceive a sonorous answer to their movement. therefore, we propose an interactive audible and visual installation that suggests an alternative body awareness, a perception ac- quired through these stimulus. the installation was de- veloped using existing technologies in a creative artistic way, looking to extend horizons in their possibilities. . the integrarte framework for executing the installation we set up a framework composed of a body sensing and data mapping system, and the artistic output. the framework, as seen in figure , consists of a sensor, a computer, a projector and an audio © the eurographics association . computational aesthetics in graphics, visualization, and imaging ( ) d. cunningham and d. house (editors) system. with this framework we can track the human movement in real time, get audio input, process those, display images and amplify the audio. we have chosen to use microsoft kinect because it is an affordable technology that met our prerequisites. the microsoft kinect is a d camera developed for the video game xbox . the sensor includes rgb camera and an infrared camera. from the images combined, it is possible to distinguish the human movement in the area, so we can track the skeleton in real time. to access the algorithm that accomplishes this, we used the simple openni wrapper for processing. this allows us to use the body data to map into other expressions such as sounds and drawings. processing has its own programming language (java based) and is designed for artists and designers. this software uses opengl to render the images generated from the body data. in addition, we also used ableton live to work on the sound design. the use of the kinect allows the integration of the entire body in visual arts creation. it also enables a new way to approach the public in the experience with interactive in - stallations. the kinect reads the movement of the body without the use of infrared markers. thus, the kinect dif- fers from previous optical body reading systems because it eliminates the need to attach objects (infrared markers) to the public's body. the interaction is liberated from a previ - ous public's preparation for the experience, the system can recognize any body that is in the field-of-view of the cam- era. this kinect body recognition is also distinguished from previous image processing system that could only capture the body outline. this contribution comes from the algorithm that allows skeleton tracking from some key joints. figure : the integrarte framework as we could see, kinect provides some possibilities that profoundly change the way of interacting with interactive content in installations. we chose to use kinect in integ- rarte because of these capabilities that enable the body perception by a intuitive and spontaneous reading of the movements, contributing to the public aesthetic experience in an undeniable way. . integrarte experiments we developed four kinds of interactions; each one con- trolled by s different body part or by relationships between body parts. the framework allows us to read the movement from specific points of the body. the skeleton tracking uses head, neck, shoulders, elbows, hands, hips, knees and feet as joints. . . wave. in the experiment 'wave', a strip of blue light was created from the arms of the interactor. the wave was composed of five lines with different levels of opacity. the weight of the lines was also updated according to the proximity of the camera. the sound developed for this ex- periment was repeated like a mantra, chanting “wave, wave, wave …” the repetition of the word 'wave' (in english) gradually merged with the word 'voei' (which means 'i flew' in portuguese), alternating between the visu- al experience of a blue wave, and the body experience of moving your arms like a bird. the volume and the echo of this mantra was influenced by the height of the arms. to complete this experience, a wind whistle could be heard in accordance with the approach of the public. figure : wave © the eurographics association . integrarte: digital art using body interaction b. castro, l. velho and d. kosminsky . . eco. in this sketch the visual content was formed as a smooth abstraction of the interactor's upper body sil- houette. an organic shape was created from the head, hands and torso. it was interesting that the body was easier to recognize when the arms were open. at many times the twisted body formed a non-convex shape. in this experi- ment the flow of the movement was beautifully visualized from semi-transparent layers of different colors. the sound of this experiment was developed from the definition of several small fields: for each one of these areas we recor- ded a tone of the vowel 'o'. these recordings integrated a flexible texture of sounds that kept playing according to the interactor's body. the sound interaction of this sketch was not very intuitive. there were too many layers of sound, making it difficult to distinguish the relationship of each body part to each field, but despite of this complexity the final sonority was very rich. figure : eco . . circle field. this sketch generated circles at different scales according to the distance between the two hands. we defined three sound patterns that we adapted to the circle sizes. the frequency of the sound pattern de- creased as the circle was bigger. this caused the impres- sion of a tighter field, saturated with sound, contrasting with a wider one, in which the sound dissipated, a simple and intuitive interaction. figure : circle field . . graf. this sketch used only one hand to create series of squares. the level of transparency and size were mapped to the z axis and the color was determined by the horizontal position. in this sketch the integration of the whole body was limited to sound interaction. the accelera- tion of the movement determined the pitch. the faster the movements, the higher the pitch. the slower the move- ments, the slower the pitch. figure : graf . evaluation and final thoughts after developing the first experiments, we had the op - portunity to expose them at the international festival of di- gital culture which gathered , people over three days at the museum of modern art in rio de janeiro. integ- rarte was one of the sixteen projects selected to be ex- posed for one day in the category visuality. the recognition process of the method of interaction led the public to explore the body through sonorous and visual stimuli. the installation alternated between interaction styles, surprising the interactors that should try out various movements to discover which part of the body was in con- trol. also, in each style, sound and visual interactions re- acted to different actions, requiring them to explore the whole body to understand the complete process. the advantage of exhibiting four experiments that included different forms of interaction was to compare the public's reaction to different levels of user-friendliness. in addressing the participants informally, the most suc- cessful interaction was 'circle field'. this sketch used a variation of a simple body ability - to delimit a space with your hands. this type of movement is easily controlled and does not require a complex level of body coordination. the noticeable association between visual and audible interac - tion also helped the public to understand this experiment. so even though this sketch already brings a new element in terms of interaction, it remains simple and intuitive. 'graf' was the least mentioned sketch in the informal ap - proach of the public. perhaps because it has the most obvi- ous and common interaction, making this sketch the less © the eurographics association . computational aesthetics in graphics, visualization, and imaging ( ) d. cunningham and d. house (editors) memorable. the sketches 'wave' and 'eco' demanded a greater willingness for interaction and some body coordina- tion and although aesthetically attractive they were not very explored by the public. this may be due to the festival's spatial arrangement. the installation took place next to an- other festival activity. many people were observing who was interacting and this may have inhibited the parti- cipants, especially those who do not usually explore their body movements, or are naturally shy. analyzing the feedback from the public about the differ- ent sketches, we can notice that there is public interest in a more engaging experience. this can be seen through the lack of interest in the sketch that used only one hand, the body part commonly associated with visual creations. nev- ertheless, we realize that there is an average limit of open- ness of the participants to explore the experience proposed. this will be checked in the next opportunity to exhibit the installation,: it will be done in a way that the participant is less exposed, so they can be more spontaneous. we em- phasize that these experiments were limited to the use of the upper body and the research foresees experiments that use legs as well. moreover, we can make a more specific comment on this festival. the festival had a predominant presence of artists from different profiles. it was clear that the background of each person influenced his/her form of interaction. the musician took over the interaction with sound, while visual artists and designers were more interested in the drawings they were creating with their bodies. despite the simultaneity of sound and visual interaction, visual interaction usually overpowers sound interaction, but the music plays a vital role on creating the experience within the immersive environment. these experiments are the beginning of a research on interactive installations and public engagement. from these considerations and results we manage to integrate different forms of human expressions through digital media. using the evaluation made during this festival, our next step is to provide a meeting between the public’s and the artist’s bodies through virtual instances of the artist’s body. these instances, a kind of digital presence of the artist's body, will be made in the form of images, data and voice. further information about this will be presented in the future. interactive installations can bring together different art forms and provide the participant with a complete artistic experience. the body awareness and the visual and auditive experiences are enhanced through time and space interactively. this project is a practical experiment on some theoretical reflections about the inclusion of art in the digital universe, which can have numerous unfoldings. we believe that the possibilities of art are limitless, and that digital technology only enhances this infinite. our biggest challenge is to en- courage people to explore the possibilities of new media and, in doing so, find new ways to create and perceive art and the world around us. references: [art ] arthur d.: após o fim da arte. odysseus, . [ros ] rosalind k.: a voyage on the north sea: art in the age of the post-medium condi- tion. thames & hudson, . [pri ] priscila a.: @rte e mídia – perspectivas da estética digital. editora senac são paulo, . [mf ] mcluhan m., fiore q..: the medium is the massage: an inventory of effects. gingko press, . (first published at ) [bg ] bolter, d., grusin, r.: immediacy, hyper- mediacy, and remediation in: remediation. understanding new media.: mit press, . [han ] hans. b.: image, medium, body: a new ap- proach to iconology. in: critical inquiry . the university of chicago press: © the eurographics association . avant / non-stimulating tradition the effect of temperament on painting art preferences joanna rządkowska, alicja paracka, natalia frankowska this study examined the effect of temperament on preferences for painted artwork. our preferences are determined by different personality traits. the study presented here was a replication of the current study of terror management theory (tmt) with the structures of temperament as individual differences. the results showed significant differences in preferences for traditional and modern art, depending on the degree of harmonization of the temperamental structures. sanguines and melancholics in the no fear condition evaluated modern art most highly, however in the fear condition they evaluated traditional art most highly. this effect confirms the importance of individual differences and the situational variability of preferences in art. there is a lot of research about how personality affects preferences for art. researchers suggests that people’s aesthetic preferences differ depending on their personality structure, including temperament. is it possible that preferences for modern or abstract painting are related to their temperament? could these preferences change under the influence of fear? finally, is it possible that biology determines what we like in a particular context or situation? are our preferences so variable? avant / | www.avant.umk.pl open access non-stimulating tradition burt ( ) and eysenck ( ) were among the first who studied personality preferences in art. they found that inborn temperamental factors could influence on what kind of art will be more preferred. in recent years the studies of furnham & avison ( ), furnham & walker ( ), zwiegenhaft ( ) and axelsson ( ) investigated the relationship between personality and preferences for art in broader terms, mainly preferences for music and photography. chamorro-premuzic, furnham, reimer ( ) argued that in most of the research in this field there is a lack of appropriate measurement tools, or a common taxonomy of art. that is why the researchers classified art as simple and complex art; representational and abstract art; representational and surreal art (furnham & walker ). all these early studies may be criticized for lacking the possibility of standardization, by conducting meta-analysis and comparison of different research results. but from the s researchers started to apply the theory of the big five (chamorro-premuzic, furnham, reimer ), which assumes that personality is a structure consisting of five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (costa & mccrae ). other personality dimensions that were measured include: conservatism, schizothymia, tolerance for ambiguity, and sensation seeking (furnham & avison ). studies in which the neo-ffi inventory was used (zawadzki, strelau, szczepaniak, Śliwińska ) show that openness to experience is significantly associated with aesthetic preferences, however openness to experience is not associated with evaluation of art (chamorro- premuzic & furnham ). openness explained a large part ( percent) of the variance in the preferences for paintings. in these studies researchers also paid attention to other variables, such as intelligence, although intelligence affected only the evaluation of artistic value, not the preferences. the same authors, in other studies, have shown that people who preferred representational art were significantly more conciliatory and conscientious, while higher performance and appreciation of art were associated with non-stimulating tradition openness to experience. it should be noted, however, that in this study researchers did not take into account flexibility of temperament, that could affect preferences under the influence of changes in the environment. the big five factors, except for openness, rarely explained more than percent of the variance (chamorro-premuzic, furnham, reimers ). other studies indicated relationships between conscientiousness, thrill and adventure seeking, and a preference for representational art; and relationships between disinhibition and neuroticism, and pop art and a preference for abstract art (furnham & walker ). test results show that openness to experience was associated with appreciation of all three types of art (representational, abstract, pop art), and that it was inversely correlated with a preference for abstract art. moreover, regression analysis showed that sensation seeking explains more variance than the big five factors. other publications suggest that sensation seeking is related to a preference for surrealist art and a lack of preference for representational art (furnham, avison ). these studies show that sensation seeking and adventure seeking explain most of the variance, placing themselves at the two ends of the scale of modern and traditional art. therefore it seems worthwhile to pay attention to the variables related to the desired level of stimulation, to adequately explain art preferences. given the findings from the research cited above we assumed that temperament is the main factor that affects preferences in paintings, so we are not pioneers. for a theory of temperament we chose strelau ( ), who suggested that temperament refers to formal and relatively unchanging personality traits. his regulative theory of temperament (rtt) concentrates on formal aspects of behavior comprising energetic and temporal characteristics: sensory sensitivity, emotional reactivity, endurance and activity (energetic aspect), and briskness and perseverance (temporal aspect) (strelau ). strelau also suggested that a specific combination of these traits divided people into four types of temperament: melancholic, sanguine, non-stimulating tradition phlegmatic, choleric. phlegmatic and choleric temperamental structures are not harmonized, because people with such temperaments are not able to ensure the right dose of stimulation, whereas sanguine and melancholic are harmonized and people with these structures are able to ensure the optimal dose of stimulation. these assumptions show that temperament, by regulating the flow of mental stimulation and resistance, may have some indirect impact on preferences for visual stimuli, including the paintings. many authors have suggested a strong relationship between art and different types of emotions and moods. it is worth noting that the rtt also refers to an important emotional component. koneĉni's ( ) in-depth analysis of the relationship between music and emotion suggested that emotions such as joy, sadness, anger and fear are present in response to music only if these emotions are related to personal behavior, or associations such as dancing, or whistling. in conclusion, the researcher argued that the most authentic, but at the same time the most rare states in responses to music may be: aesthetic awe, being moved and thrilled. his conclusions correspond with the previously quoted statement of furnham and walker ( ), who suggested that sensation and adventure seeking may be related to art perception and stimulation seeking. this in turn is related to the bodily responses to fear for example. tmt (terror management theory) focuses on the implicit emotional reactions of people that occur when they are confronted with the psychological terror of knowing they will eventually die (a large dose of stimulation) (solomon ). tmt researchers have shown that making mortality salient to research participants will lead to changes in behaviors and beliefs that seemingly protect their worldview and encourage striving for self-esteem. we assumed also that different forms of paintings could lead to changes in human beliefs, especially when such art is threatening in some way and thus more stimulating. to summarize all of the above, we assumed that every work of art has the potential to stimulate. in this study we treated traditional art as less complex and less stimulating, while modern art we treated as more complex non-stimulating tradition and more stimulating in accordance with the assumptions of the tmt (landau, greenberg, pyszczynski, martens ). we assumed that when we induce fear in people, there is a change in art preferences, because of the increased dose of stimulation. we also assumed that anxiety can cause insecurity feelings, which may lead to preferences in more traditional and familiar art, whereas lack of anxiety may lead to the appreciation of unfamiliar and complex art. tmt assumes an impact on individual differences, but the authors of the theory studied only differences in personal need of structure (pns) and they studied a decrease in preferences for modern art that is too abstract and senseless. we were interested in how our art preferences could change and what that depends on. the assumptions of the tmt inspired us to explore whether temperament affects paintings preferences and whether fear could affect those preferences, depending on degree of harmonization of temperamental structure. therefore, we expected that evaluation of paintings will vary between the no fear condition and fear conditions. this dependence will be particularly evident for harmonized temperaments such as sanguine and melancholics, because we assumed that people with such temperamental structure are able to keep an optimal dose of stimulation. these hypotheses were tested by the temperament inventory (fcb- ti), developed by strelau and bogdan zawadzki, to probe the relationship between temperament (as a regulator of stimulation) and art preferences. temperament was used for taxonomic purposes, namely to divide participants into four groups: melancholics, phlegmatics, sanguines, and cholerics (zawadzki & strelau ). these categories indicate the reactivity and activity of participants, which locates them on the sensation seeking and adventure seeking scales. we predicted that individual temperament and fear level will have a significant influence on people’s preferences depending on the situation. referring to the previously cited studies (furnham & avison ), we suggest that a low-reactive person may show a preference for more stimulating art, for example modern art. however this dependence may be non-stimulating tradition moderated by a harmonized or non-harmonized temperament (zawadzki & strelau ), which is related to the ability to provide the proper, optimal dose of stimulation. method participants the participants comprised student volunteers ( university students and high school students; age range was – years; m = . , sd = . ; women and men). we recruited respondents during their daily activities in schools and colleges. materials the study measured the temperament traits, anxiety characteristics, and the level of preference for the presented paintings. to measure temperament traits we used the formal characteristics of behavior – temperament inventory (fcb-ti), developed by jan strelau and bogdan zawadzki (strelau & zawadzki ). in turn to measure fear we used the state-trait anxiety inventory (stai), developed by charles spielberger and gorsuch (strelau & zawadzki ). to arouse fear in participants we showed them a short movie ( . min.), that included horrible scenes from advertisements, music videos and horror; in the no fear group we showed a neutral movie, that lasted . minutes as well, which was part of the movie of alfred hitchcock’s ‘north by north-west’. a slide-show of images was selected to be complex, abstract and classic. as a result, images fall into three different categories, on the basis of the dominant features they have in common: general topics, convention or style. it is assumed that each of the categories is the source of a different kind of stimulation. we used these paintings in the following categories: non-stimulating tradition traditional / conventional image . pieter boel, large vanitas still life image . ignacy henri theodore – fantin latour, the rosy wealth of june image . theodore rousseau, fontainbleau image . titian, portrait of the man image . eugene brudin, laundresses by a stream cubism image . george braque, le portugais image . juan gris, bottles and knife image . pablo picasso, sitting naked woman image . george braque, blue bird image . philip absolon, cassie thinking about cubism modernist image . gilbert and george, bloody mooning image . andy warhol, skull image . salvador dali, premonition of civil war image . francis bacon, figure with meat image . andy warhol, heinz box to examine the assessment of objective attractiveness we used a survey designed for this project which includes items. the survey recorded the level of preference for a presented work of art using the point likert scale. participants rated the items’ global preferability on a scale from (very positive) to (very negative), for example: non-stimulating tradition i______i______i______i______i very positive neutral very negative procedure participants were randomly assigned to one of the experimental conditions, by means of drawing white or red cards. drawing a red card assigned them to the fear group and drawing a white card assigned them to the no fear group. subsequently participants completed the formal characteristics of behavior – temperament inventory (fcb-ti). here is a sample of questions from the inventory: i always feel even a soft breeze, i am able to do two things at the same time, i can see stars in the night sky, i can listen to music while reading . participants had to answer all questions yes or no. before completing the inventory every student heard the following instruction: participation in this study is voluntary, you can stop it at any time. some of the experimental impacts, [] which you will be subjected to may arouse different emotions in you. every tasks [] will be explained. if you have any questions or concerns, please ask the experimenter. make sure you sign all of the sheets you receive. after completing the inventory of temperament we asked students to watch a short movie: aversive or neutral, depending on the experimental group to which they were assigned in advance. the movie was played by the experimenter each time. each of the respondents listened to the audio track with headphones at the same volume level. later we asked respondents to complete the first part (x_ ) of the state-trait anxiety inventory (stai), for the current emotional state. next, participants watched a slide-show, [] consisting of images and evaluated them in a questionnaire containing items on a point likert scale. non-stimulating tradition we informed the participants what the true purpose of the study was only if they expressed curiosity. then we explained that the study concerns the analysis of the impact of different types of stimulation on sensory and emotional sensitivity. results preliminary analyses. we first computed the internal consistency of the five traits of temperament as well as the three kinds of art. mean correlation of the temperament traits between briskness, activity and art preference ratings was r = . (p < . ). there was no significant correlation between traditional art preferences and other kinds of art preferences (modern and abstract) p = . , which means that these preferences are independent. the correlation that supported our predicted and theoretical suggestions was the negative relation between preference ratings of modern art and level of state-trait anxiety inventory (stai) r = . , p < . . table correlations between the formal characteristics of behavior (temperament traits) and art preferences variable . briskness - - . * -. ** . ** . ** - . * . * . perseverance - - . * . ** -. * - - - - . sensory sensitivity . * . ** - - - - - - - . emotional reactivity -. ** . * . * - -. * -. * - - - . endurance . ** -. * - -. * - - - - - . activity . ** - - -. * - - - - . * . traditional art - - - - - - - - - . abstract art . * - - - - - - - . ** . modern art . * - - -. * - . ** - . * - *p < . . **p < . . non-stimulating tradition we predicted that participants with a non-harmonized temperament in the fear condition would rate abstract and modern art as worse, and traditional as better than participants with a harmonized temperament in the fear condition. we also predicted that in the no fear condition there would be no differences between participants’ level of temperamental harmony. a mixed analysis of variance (anova) showed that the mean effect of art preference for a harmonized temperament was significant, f( , ) = . , p < . , eta = . , which means that independently from the experimental condition, the kind of art had a significant influence on preferences. anova also showed no significant effect in the fear condition, f( , ) = . , p = . . we got a significant interaction effect of both factors – kind of art and experimental condition, f( , ) = . , p < . , eta = . , which means that preferences were dependent on experimental condition. participants with a harmonized temperament in the no fear condition rated art always the same independently of its kind, whereas in the experimental figure : ratings of paintings on scale from (very positive) to (very negative) for a non-harmonized (phlegmatics and cholerics) temperamental structure. non-stimulating tradition condition they rated traditional art as better (m = . , sd = . ), rated abstract art as worse (m = . , sd = . ), and modern art worst (m = . , sd = . , p < . ). this shows that experimental condition influenced art rating, but only for abstract and modern art (p < . ). in the case of traditional art, art preferences were the same independently of experimental condition (p = . ). in case of participants with a non-harmonized temperament, we also got a statistically significant main art effect, f( , ) = . , p < . , eta = . , which means that independently of the experimental condition, kind of art influenced its rating. the main experimental condition effect wasn’t significant, f( , ) = . , p = . . the interaction effect of these two factors not significant either, f( , ) = . , p = . . participants with no harmonized$$ temperament structures rated art the same independently of experimental condition. they rated traditional art better (m = . , sd = . ), whereas they rated abstract and modern art worse (m = . , sd = . and m = . , sd = . , ps < . ). figure : ratings of paintings on scale from (very positive) to (very negative) for a harmonized (melancholics and sanguine) temperamental structure. non-stimulating tradition discussion as has already been discussed in the introduction, there is a long history of studies of art preference psychology, but this history is not thorough. so far, researchers have not analyzed temperamental art preferences, so we took this topic up in our study. the purpose of this study was to test how different levels of harmonized temperament structure affect paintings preferences. we assumed that the temperament and fear level of the individual will have a significant influence on preferences depending on the situation. moreover, we suggested that a low-reactive person may show a preference for more stimulating art, for example modern art. this dependence, however, may be moderated by harmonized or non-harmonized temperament. we predicted all of the above according to the tmt (terror management theory) (solomon, greenberg, and pyszczynski ), which led us to think that activating a fear of death in participants would allow us to investigate temperamental differences in art preferences. we also assumed that the particular temperament type, understood as biologically determined structure (strelau ), would affect art preferences. the assumed link between temperament and preferences for art seems to be inconclusive and to depend on situational context. in the no fear condition there was no relationship between temperament and preferences, which means that temperament type did not differentiate participants with reference to their art preference. this fact may indicate the influence of other factors such as personality or intelligence (chamorro-premuzic, furnham, and reimers ). preferences of the non-harmonized temperaments (choleric, phlegmatic) did not differ between fear and no fear conditions, which may be caused by the low flexibility of these types. this degree of flexibility, or lack of it, characterized people who are not able to ensure themselves the appropriate dose of stimulation. in our study, paintings was such a source of non-stimulating tradition stimulation: modern and abstract was highly-stimulating, while traditional art was less stimulating (strelau & zawadzki ). in contrast, the harmonized temperament (sanguine, melancholic) type reactions were situation dependent. in the no fear condition, there was no difference in preferences, while in the fear condition, we observed growing appreciation for traditional art whereas appreciation for modern art was decreased. this may be caused by the flexibility of a harmonized structure of temperament and the ability to ensure the appropriate dose of stimulation. we observed differences between sanguine and melancholics as well. in the fear condition melancholics preferred modern art less whereas sanguines preferred traditional art less. but this distinction between sanguines and melancholics is not clear. lower preference for modern art in the fear condition in melancholics quite clearly demonstrates their need to reduce stimulation. but is the increase in sanguines’ preference for traditional art an attempt to moderate the level of stimulation? this question still remains open. does traditional art cause an increase or decrease of activation? if an increase, why does this effect not occur in the no fear condition? it seems that the answer to these questions requires further research in this paradigm. in relation to tmt (terror management theory) we can say that not only do differences in the pns (personal need of structure) affect the perception of art, but also differences in temperament have a huge influence on it. it seems that there is a declining appreciation for not only meaningless art, but for the meaningful as well, as the works of art used in our study have themes, and figural and meaningful elements. in the tmt researchers also did not anticipate an increase in preference for traditional art, which we noted in our study. the tmt researchers also rejected activation as a possible explanation for changes in the perception of art, arguing that only the fear itself, not simply arousal leads to changes in art preferences. in agreement with strelau ( ) we assumed that arousal and level of stimulation in the experimental situation affects how respondents react to individual art. non-stimulating tradition to prove what type of stimulation really affects the perception of art further research should be conducted. referring to koneĉni ( ) on the different emotions induced by music, it seems interesting to reflect on whether the fear raised in our study by film and the emotions raised by the art share a certain class of emotions, something close to being moved and thrilled. these emotions could correspond zuckerman’s theory of sensation seeking and be associated with dimensions of temperament. the fact that watching a film that induced fear influenced how respondents perceive the different qualities of art can support this thesis. in strelau’s rtt (regulative theory of temperament), each temperamental type specifically perceives different types of stimuli and so they behave differently. the results of our study confirm this relationship. in the experimental condition, the respondents reacted differently depending on how the movie was evaluated. on the other hand, the results do not confirm the criticism of strelau’s aesthetic emotion which would link to behavioral arousal. the results show rather that a relationship between them is possible, or that the factors of the activation level can also affect the perception of art. this confirms our early predictions that art, despite the artistic values, also provides stimulation and affects the level of activation. the division into pleasant, aesthetic and aversive emotions may not coincide with the aesthetic range of emotions experienced in no fear conditions, but research shows that aversive emotions can affect how art is perceived and evaluated. another possible conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that there is no permanent taste and preferences could be situation dependent. the fact that we perceive art differently in terms of fear and no fear situations, may have some implications for art therapy. do the lowest preferences of modern art for all temperaments in the fear condition, and a negative correlation between modern art and stai (state-trait anxiety inventory) results suggest that it is not worth to invite a contemporary artist to a psychiatric hospital? non-stimulating tradition in summary, the temperament may mediate changes in our preferences when we are frightened or highly stimulated. any analysis of the impact of temperament must take into account the situational variability of the optimal dose of stimulation, as is shown in the results of this study. references . axelsson, Ö. . individual differences in preferences to photographs. psychology of aesthetics, creativity, and the arts, , - . . burt, c. . the psychology of art. how the mind works. london: allen and unwin. . chamorro-premuzic, t., & furnham, a. . personality, intelligence, and art. personality and individual differences, , - . . chamorro-premuzic, t., furnham, a., & reimers, s. . the artistic personality. the psychologist, , - . . costa, p.t., jr. & mccrae, r.r. . age differences in personality structure: a cluster analytic approach. journal of gerontology, , - . . eysenck, h. j. . the general factor in aesthetic judgements. british journal of psychology, , – . . furnham, a., & avison, m. . personality and preference for surreal paintings. personality and individual differences , – . . furnham, a., & walker, j. . personality and judgments of abstract, pop art, and representational paintings. european journal of personality, , – . . koneĉni, v. j. . does music induce emotion? a theoretical and methodological . analysis. psychology of aesthetics, creativity, and the arts, , - . . landau, j., m., greenberg j., solomon, s., pyszczynski, t., & martens, a. . windows into nothingness : terror management, non-stimulating tradition meaninglessness, and negative reactions to modern art. journal of personality and social psychology, , - . . strelau, j. . temperament. in j. strelau, ed. psychology, academic handbook, - . . strelau, j. . temperament as a behave regulator. gdańsk: gdańskie wydawnictwo psychologiczne. . zawadzki, b., strelau, j. . the formal characteristics of behavior – temperament inventory (fcb-ti). handbook. warszawa: pracowania testów psychologicznych polskiego towarzystwa psychologicznego. . zawadzki, b., strelau, j., szczepaniak, & p., Śliwińska, m. . neo- ffi personality inventory by costa and mccrae, polish adaptation. warszawa: pracownia testów psychologicznych polskiego towarzystwa psychologicznego. . zweigenhaft, r. l., . a do re mi encore: a closer look at the personality correlates of music preferences. journal of individual differences, , - . – _neu i knew ted kurze initially from the vantage point of yale university in new haven, ct, where, as a resident, i saw him as one of the iconic figures who estab- lished the operating microscope as a neu- rosurgical tool, opening a new era in the field. later, he offered me an opportunity that would prove to be my longstanding and only academic position for more than a generation. that opportunity was in the magnificent setting of the immense, cathe- dral-like los angeles county hospital at the university of southern california medical center. it was there that i made the turbulent emergence from resident to neurosurgeon in a challenging, rich, and largely unforgiving environment. ted was an engaging and charismatic man, truly complex and eclectic—as at home at the helm of an ocean racing sailboat or on a tennis court as in the operating room or when engaged in intimate conversations related to philosophy, metaphysics, his- tory, music, geography, psychology, reli- gion, or the assessment of human nature. he was a primary mentor to me, and for this i will be forever grateful. —michael l.j. apuzzo, chicago, in the spirit of ted kurze (fig. b), this articlewill touch on diverse topics with a numberof common themes. it is configured in sec- tions; in the first section, the power of ideas and their role in initiating change and progress are assessed. this potential cascade effect will be illustrated by an enumeration of the move- ment of modernism in art. in the next section, the immense scope and capabilities of “mod- ern” scientific endeavors are discussed. and in the final section, the realities and philosophies of modern neurosurgical attitudes are defined in hopeful and theoretical terms. alchemy, ideas, and modernism in the history of science, alchemy was a chemical discipline and speculative philosophy aiming to achieve the transmutation of base metals into gold, to find a universal cure for dis- eases, and to discover a means of indefinitely prolonging life. fundamentally, it was the neurosurgery volume | number | december | special article the alchemy of ideas this article presents an assessment of the power of ideas and their role in initiat- ing change and progress. the enormous potential cascade effect is illustrated by exam- ining the movement of modernism in the arts. next, the immense scope and capabili- ties of the modern scientific endeavor—with robotic space exploration at the scale of meters at one extreme and the wonders of nanoscience at the scale of � m at the other—are examined. the attitudes and philosophies of neurological surgery are related to those involved in the modernist movement and placed on the defined scale of contemporary scientific activity. key words: creativity, ideas, modernism, nanoneurosurgery, nanotechnology, neurological surgery, progress, space, stardust neurosurgery : – , doi: . / .neu. . .c www.neurosurgery-online.com michael l.j. apuzzo, m.d. department of neurological surgery, keck school of medicine, university of southern california, los angeles, california james b. elder, m.d. department of neurological surgery, keck school of medicine, university of southern california, los angeles, california rodrick faccio, b.s. department of neurological surgery, keck school of medicine, university of southern california, los angeles, california charles y. liu, m.d., ph.d. department of neurological surgery, keck school of medicine, university of southern california, los angeles, california, and division of chemistry and chemical engineering, california institute of technology, pasadena, california reprint requests: michael l.j. apuzzo, m.d., san pablo street, pmb a- , los angeles, ca . email: neurosurgery- journal@hsc.usc.edu received, july , . accepted, august , . acknowledgment presented in part as the theodore kurze lecture at the american association of neurological surgeons annual meeting, chicago, illinois, april , . figure . left, los angeles county/university of southern california medical center; center, theodore kurze; right, michael l.j. apuzzo. | volume | number | december www.neurosurgery-online.com apuzzo et al. power or process of transforming something common into something special. an idea can be a transforming or transmuting agent capable, in its most potent form, of initiating a cascade of influence and change; indeed, it can be a catalyst for transmutation and change from the ordinary to the elevated. an example of the cascade effect in operation is evident in an examination of the genesis and development of the modernist movement in the arts. fueled and instigated by the emergence of industrialism and the railroad, “modern” cities such as paris and london became lodestones that attracted artists and they provided an immense picture gallery where modern artists could properly read from the “immense dictionary of modern life” ( ). for more than years, paris was “ground zero” for the modernist movement in art, architecture, music, dance, design, literature, and poetry. beginning around , the idea of “change” began to emerge and was met with resistance, particularly from the bourgeois. however, the idea held sway, and those drawn by what art historian peter gay has termed the “lure of heresy” pressed forward, creating what was considered the birth of the modernist movement in , according to virginia woolf. the fundamental idiom of the idea base, as defined by ezra pound in , was, “make it new.” hallmarks of the spirit of the modernist movement were its generally utopian nature, the attitude that progress in all things was assumed, the acceptance of the inevitability of scientific and social process, and the premium placed on innovation and discovery. those engaged felt pressure to reinvent themselves, to divest themselves from the past, and to be astonished with the future ( ). the cascade effect is readily appreciated with reflection on and recollection of the works of iconic modernist figures, which include, for example: in painting: claude monet: the father of french impressionism, who cham- pioned the idea of the artist expressing his perceptions of a subject (fig. ). pablo picasso: whose excursion into cubism expressed decon- struction and reconstruction of the subject in geometric forms, presented in monochrome brown and neutral colors. wassily kandinsky: creator of the first modern abstract work based on geometric progressivism, color symbolism, and psychology (fig. ). mark rothko: who used broad patterns of monotone color for psychological effect (fig. ). jackson pollock: purveyor of a chaos of paint in color and disor- der over broad surfaces. in architecture: charles edouard jeanneret-gris: who, at age , reinvented him- self as “le corbusier” to champion aesthetic spareness and the “machine aesthetic” as an urbanist (fig. ). figure . arrival of the normandy train, the gare saint-lazare, , by claude monet, national gallery, london. figure . composition , july , by wassily kandinsky, guggenheim museum, new york. figure . mark rothko, orange and yellow, , oil on canvas, unframed: � � ( . � . cm.), albright-knox art gallery, buffalo, new york, gift of seymour h. knox, jr., . © kate rothko prizel & christopher rothko/artists rights society (ars), new york. neurosurgery volume | number | december | the alchemy of ideas frank lloyd wright: the master of personal reinvention, who, over a -year career, introduced concepts of “organic” architecture and robust modernity through novel employ- ment of cement (fig. ). mies van der rohe: the self-educated son of a stonecutter from aachen, germany, who sought to represent the modern age through extreme clarity, with “skin and bones” minimalist employment of steel and glass. frank gehry: the romantic modernist, who presents sensual geometry in titanium “jackets” (fig. ). consider the recent performance of philip glass’ modernist opera satyagraha at new york’s metropolitan opera (fig. ). given its form and content, would this have been cre- ated or accepted , , or even years ago? scope and scale of modern science one of the modernist denizens of paris was diego rivera, a young mexican artist from guanajuato. he had dabbled in cubism and became enamored with the concept of fresco paint- ing, traveling to italy to study the -year history of that art form. he went on to become the world’s most accomplished muralist. as the final stages of construction of rockefeller center in manhattan were under way in , he was invited to create a massive mural to commemorate the spirit of the times (fig. ). his creation, however, incorporated an image of vladimir ilyich lenin and was rejected. his fresco, with some variations, was ultimately completed at the palace of fine arts in mexico city. it was titled man, controller of the universe. the center of the piece depicted man at the controls of the universe machine and looking into the heavens with a sense of confi- dence and power (fig. ). this idea of comprehension and con- trol of the environment has led to mankind’s quest for thou- sands of years, from the egyptians to the mayans to today, to grasp the details of the skies above. the concept of comprehen- sion of the stars has created a cascade effect of activities. the cosmic scale in , penzias and wilson at bell laboratories in murray hill, nj, discovered that, beyond the simple visual apprecia- tion of the heavens, an invisible cosmic microwave back- ground radiation could be detected. this phenomenon was later found to have variations, called anisotropy, which could figure . satyagraha, act iii metropolitan opera new york, com- posed by philip glass, april . figure . villa savoie, poissy, france, designed by charles edouard jeanneret-gris (le corbusier), . figure . the solomon r. guggenheim museum, new york, designed by frank lloyd wright, . figure . walt disney concert hall, los angeles, designed by frank gehry, . | volume | number | december www.neurosurgery-online.com apuzzo et al. be measured, thus giving a calculated depiction of the after- glow of the big bang—the creation of our universe . billion years ago. in , the wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe was launched to give a detailed rendering of the skies, and it provided a “baby picture” of the universe (fig. ). this proj- ect, which is ongoing, has provided enormous insight into the composition and time of creation of the universe, its stars and galaxies, and our solar system. it is estimated that our solar system’s age is . billion years (fig. ). the composition of the universe has been a topic of great interest. according to the periodic table, the atoms that we comprehend comprise only % of the universe and are termed “ordinary matter.” twenty- three percent of the universe is unknown “dark matter.” the remainder, nearly %, is composed of a strange “dark energy,” which is believed to be an antigravity force that is cre- ating an ongoing expansion of the universe and will cause its demise millions of years hence. during the formation of the solar system, some of the prod- ucts were the comets, which course in regions beyond neptune ( ). comets, which are comprised of a nucleus of carbon, dust, figure . man at the crossroads with hope and high vision to the choosing of a new and better future (study for the destroyed mural at the radio corporation of america building, rockefeller center), new york, by diego rivera, . from rochfort d: mexican muralists: orozco, rivera, siequeros. san francisco, chronicle books llc, . figure . man, controller of the universe, palace of fine arts, mexico city (detail), by diego rivera, . photograph by bob schalkwijk. figure . image of the infant universe illustrating . billion-year-old temperature fluctuations (color differences) that correspond to the cosmic materials that developed to become the galaxies. (courtesy of the national aeronautics and space administration [nasa]/ wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe [wmap] science team[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/ / _ yrfullsky_wmap_ w.tif].) neurosurgery volume | number | december | the alchemy of ideas and ice, develop what is called a “tail,” made of dust, ice, and water, as they begin to change configuration on the basis of their proximity to the sun and the impact of solar winds. this tail was considered by astronomers and astrophysicists to con- tain clues to the composition and formation of the planets and our universe in general. an idea was formulated to access a comet’s tail! investigators at the california institute of tech- nology, lockheed martin, and the university of washington then conceived the elements of practicality of the project. the comet wild was identified as being accessible by modern spacecraft. a material called aerogel ( ) was created at the jet propulsion laboratories by peter hsu. this spun silicon, the world’s lightest solid, would be used as a catchment substance to gently retrieve materials during the encounter. it was incor- porated into a detector grid that was deployed by the space- craft as it was carefully angulated, at a speed of , miles per hour, through the comet’s tail (figs. and ). on february , , a delta ii rocket carrying the -pound, solar-powered spacecraft was launched from cape canaveral, fl. the successful encounter occurred on january , , and the capsule containing the detector grid was returned to the utah desert on january , , completing a -year journey of . billion miles ( � m). more than particles meas- uring to μm were retrieved, and the samples are currently undergoing analysis in multiple laboratories throughout the world. these were the first rock samples returned to earth from any place beyond the moon—a fantastic achievement of mod- ern science at an extreme scale (figs. and ). the medical universe and neurological surgery medicine exists in a global, social, economic, political, and sci- entific universe driven by forces of national economic vitality, popular attitudes and demands, emerging intellectual, affec- tual, and economic buoyancy, parallel progress in transferable technical and biological areas, and crisis situations, real and perceived. perhaps most importantly, the principal catalyst for progress is the seminal idea. the innovative notion has been particularly operative in neurological surgery, in which, over the past generation, the concept of progressive minimalism has fueled a cascade of progress with new dimensions in the field. the continuum has been progressive—microsurgery, stereotaxy, navigated endoscopy, radiosurgery, endovascular techniques, and cellular and molecular adjuvants. what area of endeavor will follow molecular biology as a seminal innovative concept? an idea conceived at the california institute of technology by nobel laureate and professor of theoretical physics richard feynman has proved remarkably prescient. in december , he delivered a keynote lecture to the american physical society in which he described a concept of “manipulating and controlling things on a small scale” and stated that there exists “a staggeringly figure . illustration depicting the time course and evolution of events during the formation of the universe. during the . billion years since the big bang, stars and planets were formed, while the universe has continued to expand. (courtesy of the nasa/wmap science team [http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/ / _cmb_timeline .jpg].) figure . a, aerogel molded into individual blocks and configured into a collector grid. (courtesy of nasa/jet propulsion laboratory [jpl]-california institute of technology [cit] [http://stardust.jpl. nasa.gov/photo/spacecraft.html#ksc].) b, nasa’s stardust spacecraft is lowered before deploying panels for lighting tests. the length of the stardust main bus is . m ( . ft). the spacecraft weighs kg ( lb). (courtesy of nasa/jpl-cit [http://stardust.jpl.nasa. gov/photo/ksc .html].) b a | volume | number | december www.neurosurgery-online.com apuzzo et al. small world that is below” and “there is plenty of room at the bottom.” this was the conceptual birth of what we now term “nanotechnology.” nanotechnology a nanometer is a billionth of a meter ( � ) and spans ap- proximately atomic diameters. nanotechnology encompasses the design, fabrication, and application of nanoscale systems, or nanosystems, and is a synthesis of multiple disciplines including electrical engineering, biotechnology, chemistry, and physics. in addition, nanotechnology has been defined by the national aeronautics and space administration as “the creation of func- tional materials, devices, and systems through control of matter on the nanometer length scale ( – nm) and exploitation o f n o v e l p h e n o m e n a a n d properties (physical, chemi- cal, biological, mechanical, electrical . . . ) at that length scale.” molecular nanotech- nology is the -dimensional control of atoms and molecu- lar structures to create materi- als and devices with molecu- lar precision. since the introduction of the concept in , there has been a progressive escalation of activity, highlighted by in- novative concepts and nobel laureate discoveries. thou- sands of sophisticated labora- tories involved in nanotechnology research have heralded the “nanotechnology gold rush” that is changing the way man- kind approaches its everyday life on our planet. we are cur- rently involved in the definition of nanoscience, with its con- cepts and principles being defined and applied in mesoscale ( + nm) ( ). we now have elements and building blocks for the creation of products in the nanoworld: nanoparticles, nanowires ( ), nan- otubes ( ), and the -carbon construct “fullerene” (fig. ), originally discovered in spectral analyses of cosmic dust by nobel laureate and gene and norman hackerman professor of chemistry and professor of physics and astronomy richard smalley and his associates at rice university in houston. we have tools and methods for manipulation and investigation in nanoscale dimensions. most importantly, nanotechnology has yielded new concepts in computer science that are essential for the field’s development. the silicon microchip, which has been an essential feature in the development of all modern science, has been moving toward the end of its refinement capabilities. we need to apply nanoscale manufacturing methods for further minimalization. additionally, fundamental limitations of binary logic exist. therefore, new methods of computing, namely, quan- tum computing and molecular computing, are being developed by the use of novel methods of fabrication, such as the self- assembly principles demonstrated in mark reed’s laboratory at yale as part of so-called bottom-up methodology. current large- scale microprocessor production uses top-down manufacturing methods, which employ a technique termed electron beam lithography to fabricate objects in single-crystal silicon. new technologies in imaging allow nanoscale observations and have the advantage of compatibility with living tissue. these instruments are part of the scanning probe microscope group, which includes the scanning tunneling microscope, the scanning capacitance microscope, and the atomic force microscope. with the use of these nanowire probe-oriented devices, both visualiza- tion and manipulation at the atomic level have been realized (fig. ). another tool for manipulation is termed optical tweez- ers ( ), which use a stream of photons to effect movement and figure . illustration depicting the rendezvous of stardust with wild . as the spacecraft flies through wild ’s coma, it deploys its tennis racket-shaped collector grid to capture cometary particles. traveling at miles per hour, the solar-powered spacecraft makes its way safely through the coma as its bumper shields protect the spacecraft from damage by larger pieces of the comet. (courtesy of nasa/jpl-cit [http://stardust. jpl.nasa.gov/photo/artist.html#row ].) figure . photograph of the comet wild taken by the approach- ing stardust spacecraft before col- lection of comet debris. (courtesy of nasa/jpl-cit [http://stardust. jpl.nasa.gov/photo/cometwild .ht ml#row ].) figure . a, side view of the aerogel collector grid, showing particles from the comet’s tail as well as the tracks left by these particles as they entered the aerogel. (courtesy of nasa/jpl-cit [http://stardust.jpl.nasa. gov/photo/aerogel.html#row ].) b, microscopic image of cometary particle in compressed aerogel. (courtesy of nasa/jpl-cit [http://stardust. jpl.nasa.gov/news/news .html].) a b neurosurgery volume | number | december | the alchemy of ideas desired fabrication at the atomic level ( ). amazingly, a bio- molecular motor powered by f -adenosine triphosphatase has been created as a nanoelectromechanical device (fig. ). nanomedicine today nanomedicine encompasses medical diagnosis, monitoring, or treatment at the atomic and single-molecule level. it is cur- rently being applied to areas of imaging, diagnosis, and ther- apy ( , , ). in imaging, quantum dots ( , ), magnetic nanoparticles, and cross-linked iron oxide nanoparticles are elements of active research, the latter two as contrast agents, and quantum dots as flu- orescent labels for live cells, receptors, and neoplasms (fig. ) ( , ). quantum dots are particularly interesting. they fluoresce with- out quenching throughout the usual visual spectrum and offer striking markers of cellular components and cell constructs in vivo (fig. ). they also offer the capability for delineating the extent and location of neoplastic bur- den (fig. ). nanoconstructs are currently valuable in the detection of deoxyribonucleic acid and pro- teins—a boon to medical diag- nostics ( ). these constructs include gold nanoparticles, sil- ica nanoparticles, gold nano- shells, nanotubes, nanowires, nanoarrays, nanofluidics, nano- electromechanical systems, and nanocantilevers (fig. ). nanoconstructs have been used therapeutically for drug delivery and gene therapy; these include nanoshells, liposomes, hydrogels, fullerenes, polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric mi- celles, dendrimers, implantable constructs, and “smart” sur- faces. a major advantage of nanoscale delivery appears to be enhanced membrane penetra- tion. additionally, targeted nan- otherapy offers improved safety and compliance, increased effi- cacy, reduction of secondary effects, and, importantly, target- specific drug release. potential nanosurgery devices include the ultra-efficient fem- tosecond laser system, nanonee- dles, nanotube nanotweezers, and optical tweezers (fig. ) ( ). quantum dot localization ( , ) and hemostatic effects of self- assembled nanoparticles ( ) have also been demonstrated. nanoneurosurgery is the application of nanotechnology to the spectrum of nervous system disease. it will ultimately employ elements, principles, and capabilities of nanotechnol- ogy to diagnose and treat potential or existing central and peripheral nervous system diseases. the future molecular nanotechnology is the -dimensional positional control of atomic and molecular structures to create materials and devices with molecular precision ( ). ultimately, nanomed- icine will involve designing and fabricating molecular devices and then using them in patients to establish and maintain health. mature nanomedicine will require the ability to build these devices with atomic precision. molecular nanotechnology and molecular manufacturing will be the key to enabling technolo- gies for nanomedicine. figure . a, images of nanopar- ticles. left, transmission electron microscopy of indium metal oxide nanoparticles; center, photomicro- graph of multiple polymeric nanopar- ticles loaded with deoxyribonucleic acid; right, individual polymeric nanoparticle. b, scanning electron micrographs demonstrating variations in crystalline sic nanowire structure and stages of synthesis using principles of self-assembly. a, numerous grain boundaries on copper foil film; b, faceted nanocrystals deposited on the film; c, nanocrystals coalescing along the grain boundaries; d, array of verti- cally aligned nanowires; e, multitude of nanowires growing radially with bush-like structure; f, flat nanowire tips; g and h, close view of tips with various diameters shows numerous nanowires contained within hollow wires; i, nanowires after being cut with a “scalpel”; inset, cross sectional view. c, scanning electron microscopic image of highly ordered carbon nanotube arrays. d, illustration of a c buckminster-fullerene (buckyball) molecule made up of carbon atoms arranged in a series of interlocking hexagonal shapes. (image copyright � dr. robert c. wagner, university of delaware.) a b c d | volume | number | december www.neurosurgery-online.com apuzzo et al. consider that we have now entered the early stages of creating novel drug delivery devices, bioprosthetics, new biomaterials, engineered tissues, engineered “organs,” and robotic devices ( ). later, we will see an ever-decreasing scale of operation and the ability to recapitulate every function. through process engineer- ing, we will create genetic content, gene expression, protein prod- ucts, cell structure and function, and thus, organ structure and function. largely, these capabilities will offer the re-creation of the human being. there is, indeed, “plenty of room at the bottom” in medicine and for us in neurological surgery as we consider these concepts to be realities and future capabilities ( , , ). neurosurgical modernism over the past generation, we have reinvented neurological surgery through a culmination of scientific, social, and economic events ( , ). we all want to be modern; however, at times, there is a feeling of insecurity related to this movement and the rush of new ideas and methods. consider the statement in from figure . atomic force microscopy used to manip- ulate single selected silicon atoms. a–c, sequential mechanical extraction of single silicon atoms (marked with circles in a and b) from a silicon surface. d, removal of the silicon atom circled in a; e, the created cavity; f, the atom was then replaced. figure . series of images demonstrating nanopropellers being rotated anticlockwise at . rps (a) and . rps (b) by an f -adenosine triphos- phatase biomolecular motor. from soong rk, backand gd, neves hp, olkhovets ag, craighead hg, montemagno cd: powering an inorganic nanodevice with a biomolecular motor. science : – , . figure . illustration showing potential targets for quantum dots of varying dimensions within a cell. varying the composition and physical dimensions of quantum dots allows control over the color of light emitted. a b c d e f a b figure . illustration showing that quantum dots fluoresce at different wavelengths depending on their physical properties and composition. from ilic b, yang y, craighead hg: virus detection using nanodectromechani- cal devices. appl phys lett : – , ; rasi nr, markin ca: nanostructures in biodiagnostics. chem rev : – , . neurosurgery volume | number | december | the alchemy of ideas the foreward by le corbusier (fig. ) to his classic, im- passioned “manifesto of the modern,” towards a new architecture: “man’s stock of tools marks out the stages of civilization, the stone age, the bronze age, the iron age. tools are the result of successive improvement; the effort of all generations is embodied in them. the tool is the direct and immediate expression of progress; it gives man essential assistance and essential freedom, also. we throw the out-of-date tool on the scrap-heap; the carbine, the culverin, the growler and the old locomotive. this action is a manifestation of health, of moral health, of morale also; it is not right that we should produce bad things because of a bad tool; nor is it right that we should waste our energy, our health, and our courage because of a bad tool; it must be thrown away and replaced.” we, during our time, have the scope and capability of activity that span a realm from to � meters—an incredible thought! with the reinvention of neurolog- ical surgery, we, in many ways, will and must rein- vent ourselves both in spirit and in practical realities. consider the hallmarks of the modernist movement in the arts and literature and the attitudes of those who truly participated in giving s o c i e t y t h e f a b u l o u s progress and fresh ideas that attended the concept of modernism. the passion for progress, the premium placed on innova- tion and discovery, the pressure to reinvent, and the need to astonish ourselves with the new, the future, are things to which we should all adapt to move neurological surgery forward. the quest for modernity should be an inveterate passion for all of us who would call ourselves neurosurgeons! disclosure the authors have no personal financial or institutional interest in any of the drugs, materials, or devices described in this article. references . a’hearn mf: whence comets? science : – , . . apuzzo mlj, liu cy: : things to come. neurosurgery : – , . . apuzzo mlj, liu cy: honored guest presentation: quid novi? in the realm of ideas—the neurosurgical dialectic. clin neurosurg : – , . . arai y, yasuda r, akashi k, harada y, miyata h, kinosita k jr, itoh h: tying a molecular knot with optical tweezers. nature : – , . . cohen h, levy rj, gao j, fishbein i, kousaev v, sosnowski s, slomkowski s, golomb g: sustained delivery and expression of dna encapsulated in poly- meric nanoparticles. gene ther : – , . . elder jb, liu cy, apuzzo mlj: neurosurgery in the realm of � : part — stardust and nanotechnology in neuroscience. neurosurgery : – , . . elder jb, liu cy, apuzzo mlj: neurosurgery in the realm of � : part — applications of nanotechnology to neurosurgery: present and future. neurosurgery : – , . . fritz j, baller mk, lang hp, rothuizen h, vettiger p, meyer e, güntherodt h, gerber c, gimzewski jk: translating biomolecular recognition into nanome- chanics. science : – , . . gao x, cui y, levenson rm, chung lw, nie s: in vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots. nat biotechnol : – , . . gay p: modernism: the lure of heresy: from baudelaire to beckett and beyond. new york, w.w. norton, . . han m, gao x, su jz, nie s: quantum-dot-tagged microbeads for multi- plexed optical coding of biomolecules. nat biotechnol : – , . figure . spectral imaging of a live mouse harboring human prostate cancers labeled with bio- conjugated quantum dots. multi- functional bioconjugated quantum dots injected into the tail vein demonstrate dramatic preferential labeling of subcutaneous prostate tumor tissue. figure . charles edouard jeanneret-gris (le corbusier). figure . scanning electron micrograph of a por- tion of a nanofabricated functionalized silicon nano- cantilever array. figure . optical tweezers used to tie a knot in an actin filament. to manipulate the filament, poly- styrene beads coated with myosin were held by optical tweezers, and end was manipulated to form a knot. scale bar, µm. . ho gw, wong asw, wee ats, welland me: self-assembled growth of coax- ial crystalline nanowires. nano lett : – , . . leary sp, liu cy, apuzzo mlj: toward the emergence of nanoneurosurgery: part ii—nanomedicine: diagnostics and imaging at the nanoscale level. neurosurgery : – , . . leary sp, liu cy, apuzzo mlj: toward the emergence of nanoneurosurgery: part iii—nanomedicine: targeted nanotherapy, nanosurgery, and progress toward the realization of nanoneurosurgery. neurosurgery : – , . . leary sp, liu cy, yu c, apuzzo mlj: toward the emergence of nanoneuro- surgery: part i—progress in nanoscience, nanotechnology, and the compre- hension of events in the mesoscale realm. neurosurgery : – , . . oyabu n, custance o, yi i, sugawara y, morita s: mechanical vertical manip- ulation of selected single atoms by soft nanoindentation using near contact atomic force microscopy. phys rev lett : , . . pinna n, garnweitner g, antonietti m, niederberger m: a general nonaque- ous route to binary metal oxide nanocrystals involving a c-c bond cleavage. j am chem soc : – , . . stardust, jet propulsion laboratory, nasa. http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/ photo/spacecraft.html#ksc. accessed september , . . steinhart m, wehrspohn rb, gösele u, wendorff jh: nanotubes by template wetting: a modular assembly system. angew chem int ed engl : – , . comments in this wonderful tribute to ted kurze, apuzzo et al. provide thereader with several unique insights into the way new ideas bring about change and progress in our civilization. they accomplish this by focusing on the broad effect that the modernist movement has had on european thought and the specific role that individual modernists have had on developing our society’s acceptance of the inevitability of inno- vation and discovery. as the field of neurosurgery and individual neu- rosurgeons move to reinvent themselves in response to today’s scien- tific, social, and economic events, it is particularly useful to be aware of our modernist roots. understanding the roots of the passion we share for bettering the lives of our patients will undoubtedly allow us to move more gracefully, with fewer missteps. e. sander connolly, jr. new york, new york it is often instructive to step back and reflect on the realm of sciencein our lives. this article explores the subject, ranging from the immensity of a universe beyond comprehension to the nanometer world beyond perception. it is inspirational as well as humbling. one of the major attractions of neurosurgery is the capacity to use the same concepts that help us understand the laws of physics, biochem- istry, and molecular biology to devise novel methods for treating neu- rological disease. in some ways, a career in neurosurgery also is the most inspiring and humbling of any career i can imagine. the future of our discipline will depend on incorporating some of the concepts and themes in this article into new treatment methods. our willing- ness to collaborate with other disciplines in science is necessary to make this happen. joseph m. piepmeier new haven, connecticut this special article was presented at the meeting of theamerican association of neurological surgeons in chicago, il, as part of the theodore kurze lecture. dr. michael l.j. apuzzo, former colleague of ted kurze, delivered the original presentation. the senior author is a well-known master surgeon, teacher, and innovator of numerous technologies in both surgery and radiation oncology. in his characteristic style, he skillfully examines the power of ideas, the move- ment of modernism in the arts, and their role in sculpting the future of neurosurgical practice. this all-embracing essay is organized into parts: an assessment of the power of ideas in initiating change and progress, the capabilities of “modern” scientific endeavors, and the realities of modern neurosurgical attitudes. in the first part, “alchemy, ideas, and modernism,” the authors illus- trate, through art, architecture, and music, how an idea is capable of influencing both scientific and humanistic thought. provocative and influential works of modernist figures are cited: wassily kandinsky’s composition , ; villa savoie, designed by charles edouard jeanneret-gris, “le corbusier”; frank gehry’s “jackets” at the walt disney concert hall. these works reflect the cascade effect and how artistic thought eventually progresses to innovative diagnostic tech- niques and surgical approaches. the authors begin the second part, “scope and scale of modern science,” with diego rivera’s mural man, controller of the universe, which depicts man in control of the universe machine (resembling a sur- geon behind a davinci robotic apparatus). the image serves as a sym- bol of where neurosurgery has ventured in the past (microsurgery, stereotaxy, endoscopy, radiosurgery, endovascular techniques) and per- haps will go in the future: nanotechnology. the authors assert that nan- otechnology, the -dimensional control of atomic structures, may expand the field of neurosurgery to include anatomic engineering with nanoneedles, nanotubes, nanotweezers, and femtosecond laser systems. the third part, “neurosurgical modernism,” summarizes the scope of neurosurgery and spans from the cosmos (a scale of m) to nanoscience (a scale of – m). parallels are drawn between the modernist movement in arts and architecture with true practitioners of medicine today. the ultimate outcome of this push for “the new” will inevitably result in improved neurosurgical capabilities. traditionally, the goal of the theodore kurze lecture has been the integration of neurosurgical scientific endeavors with those of the humanities. dr. kurze’s legacy and intellectual spirit are proudly dis- played in this exceptional essay. john j. guarnaschelli louisville, kentucky apuzzo et al. | volume | number | december www.neurosurgery-online.com << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel 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/convertcolors /noconversion /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /na /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure true /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles true /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /na /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /leaveuntagged /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice spilt ink bja single _ _ copy spilt ink: aesthetic globalization and contemporary chinese art the harvard community has made this article openly available. please share how this access benefits you. your story matters citation gaskell, ivan. . spilt ink: aesthetic globalization and contemporary chinese art. british journal of aesthetics ( ): - . published version doi: . /aesthj/ayr citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos: terms of use this article was downloaded from harvard university’s dash repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to other posted material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#laa http://osc.hul.harvard.edu/dash/open-access-feedback?handle=&title=spilt% ink:% aesthetic% globalization% and% contemporary% chinese% art&community= / &collection= / &owningcollection / &harvardauthors= af e ded b b a edea &departmenthistory http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos: http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#laa http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#laa http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#laa 	
   	
   british	
  journal	
  of	
  aesthetics	
   ,	
   ,	
   	
   	
   	
   spilt	
  ink	
   aesthetic	
  globalization	
  and	
  contemporary	
  chinese	
  art*	
   	
   ivan	
  gaskell	
   	
   	
   abstract	
   	
   in	
  response	
  to	
  globalization,	
  is	
  there	
  to	
  be	
  a	
  single,	
  homogeneous	
  set	
  of	
  aesthetic	
  values	
   governing	
  the	
  production	
  and	
  consumption	
  of	
  art?	
  the	
  article	
  focuses	
  on	
  a	
  newcomer	
  to	
   globalized	
  contemporary	
  art,	
  china.	
  it	
  suggests	
  that	
  artworld	
  art	
  (encompassed	
  by	
  the	
  artworld	
   institutions	
  of	
  commerce,	
  museums,	
  and	
  the	
  academy)	
  is	
  far	
  from	
  the	
  only	
  art	
  currently	
   produced.	
  art	
  beyond	
  the	
  artworld,	
  whether	
  commercial	
  or	
  religious,	
  is	
  important	
  to	
  many	
   people	
  worldwide.	
  it	
  describes	
  four	
  kinds	
  of	
  art	
  currently	
  made	
  in	
  china.	
  three	
  are	
  artworld	
  art	
   (modernist,	
  traditional,	
  and	
  avant-­‐garde),	
  one	
  is	
  non-­‐artworld	
  (mass	
  commercial).	
  connections	
   exist	
  among	
  them.	
  further,	
  it	
  argues	
  that	
  practices	
  in	
  all	
  four	
  conform	
  to	
  expectations	
  globally	
   that	
  chinese	
  art	
  of	
  all	
  kinds	
  should	
  exemplify	
  imitation,	
  emulation,	
  and	
  copying.	
  such	
  conformity	
   entails	
  what	
  winnie	
  wong	
  has	
  termed	
  ‘staging	
  chineseness’.	
  the	
  article	
  concludes	
  with	
  an	
   examination	
  of	
  this	
  process	
  in	
  two	
  recent	
  exhibitions	
  before	
  proposing	
  that	
  a	
  proliferation	
  of	
  a	
   variety	
  of	
  values	
  is	
  unavoidable	
  while	
  contemporary	
  artworld	
  practitioners	
  continue	
  to	
   introduce	
  local	
  concerns,	
  and	
  while	
  the	
  self-­‐claimed	
  high	
  status	
  of	
  artworld	
  art	
  is	
  progressively	
   challenged	
  by	
  the	
  vitality	
  worldwide	
  of	
  non-­‐artworld	
  art.	
  while	
  some	
  of	
  these	
  values	
  are	
   resistant	
  to	
  western	
  globalizing	
  homogenization,	
  others	
  conform	
  to	
  it.	
   	
   	
   .	
   although	
  i	
  hope	
  to	
  cast	
  some	
  light	
  on	
  aesthetic	
  globalization,	
  my	
  focus	
  is	
  on	
  one	
  country:	
  china.	
   in	
  recent	
  years,	
  many	
  people	
  outside	
  china	
  have	
  had	
  opportunities	
  to	
  see	
  considerable	
   quantities	
  of	
  contemporary	
  chinese	
  art.	
  the	
  epicenter	
  of	
  what	
  has	
  become	
  a	
  global	
   phenomenon	
  was	
  the	
  china/avant-­‐garde	
  exhibition	
  at	
  the	
  national	
  art	
  gallery,	
  beijing	
  in	
   ,	
   co-­‐organized	
  by	
  the	
  critic	
  and	
  art	
  historian	
  gao	
  minglu,	
  now	
  chair	
  of	
  the	
  department	
  of	
  art	
   history,	
  sichuan	
  fine	
  art	
  institute.	
  the	
  police	
  closed	
  the	
  exhibition	
  after	
  just	
  four	
  hours.	
  twenty	
   years	
  and	
  many	
  exhibitions	
  and	
  publications	
  later,	
  police	
  in	
  beijing	
  prevented	
  gao	
  and	
  his	
  fellow	
   organizers	
  from	
  hosting	
  two	
  commemorative	
  events	
  scheduled	
  at	
  the	
  same	
  venue	
  in	
   .	
  the	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   *	
  this	
  article	
  derives	
  from	
  papers	
  given	
  at	
  two	
  symposia	
  in	
   :	
  the	
  state	
  of	
  aesthetics	
  (institute	
  of	
   philosophy,	
  university	
  of	
  london),	
  and	
  unsettled	
  boundaries:	
  philosophy,	
  art,	
  and	
  ethics,	
  east/west	
   (marquette	
  university,	
  milwaukee,	
  wisconsin).	
  i	
  should	
  like	
  to	
  thank	
  the	
  organizers	
  and	
  fellow	
   participants	
  for	
  suggestions	
  that	
  led	
  to	
  revisions.	
  i	
  should	
  also	
  like	
  to	
  thank	
  a.w.	
  eaton,	
  gao	
  shiming,	
   and—most	
  especially—winnie	
  won	
  yin	
  wong.	
  the	
  award	
  of	
  the	
  beinecke	
  fellowship	
  at	
  the	
  sterling	
  and	
   francine	
  clark	
  art	
  institute,	
  williamstown,	
  massachusetts	
  for	
  the	
  fall	
  semester,	
   	
  enabled	
  me	
  to	
   complete	
  this	
  article.	
  i	
  wish	
  to	
  express	
  my	
  gratitude	
  to	
  the	
  director	
  of	
  the	
  research	
  and	
  academic	
   program	
  at	
  the	
  clark,	
  michael	
  ann	
  holly,	
  her	
  colleagues,	
  and	
  the	
  other	
  fellows,	
  for	
  unstinting	
  intellectual	
   stimulation	
  and	
  practical	
  support.	
   	
   	
   	
   chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  artists	
  whose	
  work	
  was	
  to	
  have	
  been	
  shown,	
  and	
  others,	
  had	
  embraced	
   and	
  developed	
  western	
  contemporary	
  art	
  practices.	
  solely	
  for	
  convenience,	
  i	
  shall	
  use	
  the	
  term	
   chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  to	
  describe	
  their	
  work	
  and	
  that	
  of	
  others	
  who	
  pursue	
  similar	
  practices.	
   	
   as	
  recently	
  as	
   ,	
  britta	
  erickson,	
  curator	
  of	
  the	
  exhibition	
  on	
  the	
  edge:	
  contemporary	
   chinese	
  artists	
  encounter	
  the	
  west	
  at	
  the	
  cantor	
  arts	
  center	
  at	
  stanford	
  university,	
  could	
  claim:	
   ‘china’s	
  avant-­‐garde	
  artists	
  are	
  doubly	
  marginal.	
  they	
  are	
  marginalized	
  in	
  their	
  own	
  country,	
   and	
  china’s	
  art	
  is	
  considered	
  marginal	
  by	
  the	
  international	
  art	
  community’. 	
  we	
  might	
  interpret	
   this	
  claim	
  as	
  no	
  more	
  than	
  a	
  sales	
  pitch	
  appealing	
  to	
  the	
  value	
  of	
  novelty,	
  for	
  by	
  then	
  chinese	
   avant-­‐garde	
  art	
  was	
  penetrating	
  the	
  entire	
  artworld.	
  (by	
  the	
  artworld	
  i	
  mean	
  the	
  international	
   system	
  of	
  exhibition,	
  collection,	
  commerce,	
  scholarship,	
  and	
  publication	
  centered	
  on	
  galleries,	
   auction	
  houses,	
  museums,	
  biennials,	
  fairs,	
  publishers,	
  websites,	
  art	
  schools,	
  colleges,	
  and	
   universities.)	
  let	
  us	
  look	
  at	
  auctions.	
  in	
   ,	
  christie’s	
  organized	
  its	
  first	
  prestigious	
  evening	
   sales	
  of	
  chinese	
  contemporary	
  art.	
  at	
  the	
  february,	
   	
  sale	
  of	
  chinese	
  contemporary	
  art	
  at	
   sotheby’s,	
  london,	
  all	
  the	
  lots	
  sold,	
  meeting	
  or	
  exceeding	
  their	
  estimates.	
  on	
  april	
   ,	
   ,	
   sotheby’s,	
  hong	
  kong	
  offered	
  works	
  from	
  the	
  early	
  years	
  of	
  the	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde—the	
   s	
   and	
  early	
  ‘ s—under	
  the	
  title	
  the	
  nascence	
  of	
  avant	
  garde	
  china.	
  this	
  sale	
  was	
  drawn	
   exclusively	
  from	
  the	
  holdings	
  of	
  a	
  leading	
  collector	
  of	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  art,	
  belgian	
   industrialist,	
  guy	
  ullens.	
  it	
  was	
  hugely	
  successful.	
  for	
  instance,	
  zhang	
  xiaogang’s	
  oil	
  on	
  canvas	
   triptych,	
  everlasting	
  love,	
  painted	
  in	
   ,	
  sold	
  for	
  over	
  $ , , . 	
  equally	
  importantly,	
  the	
   sale	
  arguably	
  marked	
  a	
  watershed	
  in	
  the	
  historical	
  conception	
  of	
  the	
  movement. 	
  it	
  now	
  has	
  an	
   internal	
  history	
  of	
  its	
  own.	
  	
   	
   beyond	
  the	
  aesthetic	
  and	
  commercial	
  spheres,	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  art	
  has	
  entered	
   western	
  public	
  consciousness	
  owing	
  to	
  the	
  detention	
  on	
  the	
  very	
  same	
  day	
  as	
  the	
  ullens	
  sale— april	
   ,	
   —of	
  the	
  single	
  most	
  famous	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  artist,	
  ai	
  weiwei.	
  ai	
  had	
  come	
  to	
   international	
  prominence	
  largely	
  thanks	
  to	
  his	
  collaboration	
  with	
  the	
  swiss	
  architecture	
   practice,	
  herzog	
  &	
  de	
  meuron	
  on	
  the	
  beijing	
  national	
  stadium	
  for	
  the	
   	
  olympic	
  games.	
  he	
   has	
  long	
  been	
  a	
  critic	
  of	
  corruption	
  in	
  china.	
  for	
  instance,	
  in	
   	
  he	
  created	
  a	
  work	
  that	
   exploits	
  a	
  chinese	
  pun.	
  a	
  photographic	
  self-­‐portrait	
  of	
  him	
  jumping	
  naked	
  in	
  mid-­‐air	
  holding	
  a	
   toy	
  alpaca	
  to	
  his	
  groin	
  is	
  accompanied	
  by	
  a	
  caption,	
  ‘grass	
  mud	
  horse	
  covering	
  the	
  middle’.	
  in	
   mandarin,	
  this	
  can	
  also	
  be	
  enunciated	
  to	
  sound	
  like	
  ‘fuck	
  your	
  mother,	
  the	
  communist	
  party	
   central	
  committee’. 	
  wei’s	
  detention	
  led	
  to	
  widespread	
  protests	
  internationally.	
  for	
  example,	
  a	
   large	
  sign	
  reading	
  ‘free	
  ai	
  weiwei’	
  was	
  installed	
  on	
  the	
  exterior	
  of	
  tate	
  modern,	
  london,	
  where	
   between	
  october,	
   	
  and	
  may,	
   	
  his	
  huge	
  installation,	
  sunflower	
  seeds,	
  comprising	
   innumerable	
  individually	
  hand-­‐painted	
  porcelain	
  trompe	
  l’oeil	
  sunflower	
  seeds,	
  filled	
  the	
   gigantic	
  turbine	
  hall. 	
   	
   the	
  meteoric	
  rise	
  of	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  art	
  is	
  a	
  fascinating	
  phenomenon,	
  but	
  it	
  raises	
  a	
   host	
  of	
  questions.	
  i	
  defined	
  the	
  artworld	
  as	
  a	
  complex	
  of	
  western	
  institutions,	
  but	
  not	
  all	
  art	
   falls	
  within	
  the	
  artworld:	
  far	
  from	
  it.	
  in	
  the	
  first	
  place,	
  there	
  is	
  non-­‐western	
  art—or	
  however	
   ‘art’	
  might	
  be	
  termed	
  in	
  its	
  societies	
  of	
  production;	
  that	
  is,	
  art	
  or	
  its	
  equivalent	
  that	
  has	
  not	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  see	
  http://museum.stanford.edu/news_room/archived_exhibitions_on_the_edge.html	
  (accessed	
  june	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  it	
  realized	
  hkd , , 	
  against	
  an	
  upper	
  estimate	
  of	
  hkd , , .	
  	
   	
  kyle	
  chayka,	
  ‘why	
  you	
  should	
  care	
  about	
  sotheby’s	
  ullens	
  contemporary	
  chinese	
  art	
  sale’,	
   hyperallergic,	
  february	
   ,	
   :	
  http://hyperallergic.com/ /sothebys-­‐ullens-­‐sale/	
  (accessed	
  june	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  see,	
  among	
  sources,	
  linda	
  leith’s	
  blog:	
  http://www.lindaleith.com/posts/ / / /from-­‐yan-­‐liang-­‐ai-­‐ weiwei-­‐s-­‐disappearance	
  (accessed	
  october	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  see	
  http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/unileverseries /	
  (accessed	
  september	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
   	
   been	
  amalgamated	
  into	
  western	
  artworld	
  institutions.	
  as	
  yet	
  unappropriated,	
  non-­‐artworld	
  art	
   includes,	
  for	
  example,	
  inexpensively	
  and	
  anonymously	
  produced	
  indian	
  religious	
  posters	
  and	
   paintings, 	
  and	
  haitian	
  vodou	
  artifacts	
  that	
  might	
  find	
  a	
  place	
  in	
  western	
  anthropology	
   museums—as	
  in	
  the	
  case	
  of	
  the	
  exhibition	
  vodou:	
  art	
  and	
  mysticism	
  from	
  haiti	
  traveling	
  in	
   europe	
  between	
   	
  and	
   —but	
  not	
  yet	
  in	
  art	
  museums,	
  in	
  spite	
  of	
  the	
  aspiring	
  title	
  of	
  the	
   exhibition. 	
  in	
  the	
  west	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  elsewhere,	
  art	
  outside	
  the	
  artworld	
  is	
  a	
  huge	
  phenomenon,	
   commercially,	
  domestically,	
  and	
  devotionally.	
  just	
  two	
  examples	
  must	
  suffice.	
  thomas	
  kinkade	
   claims	
  to	
  be	
  the	
  most	
  collected	
  living	
  american	
  artist,	
  and	
  has	
  trademarked	
  the	
  designation,	
   ‘the	
  painter	
  of	
  light™’. 	
  his	
  saccharine	
  landscapes	
  represent	
  mawkish	
  fairy-­‐tale	
  scenes	
  or	
  banal	
   ideals	
  of	
  cosiness,	
  with	
  titles	
  such	
  as	
  bambi’s	
  first	
  year,	
  christmas	
  moonlight,	
  and	
  make	
  a	
  wish	
   cottage.	
  technically,	
  they	
  are	
  at	
  least	
  superficially	
  accomplished.	
  kinkade’s	
  work	
  is	
  exclusively	
   secular	
  and	
  domestic.	
  however,	
  religion	
  is	
  another	
  context	
  of	
  western	
  non-­‐artworld	
  art.	
  a	
  vast	
   quantity	
  of	
  roman	
  catholic	
  devotional	
  art	
  exists	
  outside	
  the	
  artworld.	
  at	
  the	
  pinnacle	
  is	
  the	
   image	
  of	
  jesus	
  christ	
  as	
  the	
  divine	
  mercy,	
  produced	
  by	
  the	
  obscure	
  polish	
  professional	
  artist,	
   eugeniusz	
  kasimirowski	
  in	
   	
  after	
  a	
  vision	
  experienced	
  by	
  the	
  recently	
  canonized	
  polish	
  nun,	
   saint	
  faustina.	
  it	
  is	
  now	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  most	
  revered	
  images	
  in	
  the	
  entire	
  catholic	
  world,	
   reproductions	
  of	
  it	
  officially	
  bearing	
  the	
  same	
  sacred	
  charge	
  and	
  efficacy	
  as	
  the	
  original	
  in	
   vilnius,	
  lithuania. 	
  art	
  is	
  a	
  major	
  part	
  of	
  many	
  people’s	
  lives	
  throughout	
  the	
  world,	
  though	
  not	
   necessarily	
  the	
  art	
  of	
  the	
  artworld. 	
   	
   if	
  these	
  things,	
  and	
  many	
  others,	
  are	
  outside	
  or	
  beyond	
  the	
  artworld,	
  what	
  distinguishes	
  the	
   art	
  that	
  is	
  actually	
  part	
  of	
  it?	
  the	
  artworld	
  has	
  formed	
  around	
  a	
  distinctively	
  western	
  core.	
  in	
   the	
  west,	
  art	
  practice	
  and	
  art	
  history	
  and	
  theory	
  have	
  existed	
  since	
  the	
  sixteenth	
  century	
  in	
  a	
   mutually	
  reinforcing	
  relationship. 	
  the	
  perception	
  of	
  the	
  modern	
  as	
  the	
  crescendo	
  of	
  artworld	
   achievement	
  prompted	
  artists	
  and	
  art	
  historians	
  to	
  search	
  for	
  its	
  antecedents,	
  lending	
   retrospective	
  validation	
  to	
  the	
  work	
  of	
  certain	
  nineteenth-­‐century	
  european	
  artists.	
  picasso’s	
   rehabilitation	
  of	
  ingres	
  at	
  the	
  inception	
  of	
  cubism	
  early	
  in	
  the	
  twentieth	
  century	
  is	
  a	
  prominent	
   example.	
  western	
  artists	
  and	
  commentators	
  continue	
  to	
  propose	
  a	
  narrative	
  of	
  progressive	
   change	
  as	
  they	
  address	
  ever-­‐developing	
  issues.	
  in	
  the	
  twentieth	
  century	
  and	
  beyond,	
  these	
  have	
   included	
  the	
  figure-­‐ground	
  dilemma	
  in	
  painting,	
  and	
  the	
  place	
  of	
  the	
  plinth—if	
  any—in	
   sculpture.	
  practice	
  and	
  discussion	
  occur	
  within	
  the	
  terms	
  of	
  a	
  perceived	
  canonical	
  succession	
  of	
   individual	
  western	
  artists	
  and	
  movements,	
  exemplified	
  by	
  afred	
  barr’s	
  celebrated	
  chart	
  of	
  the	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  available	
  from	
  such	
  websites	
  as	
  art	
  of	
  legend	
  india:	
  http://www.artoflegendindia.com	
  (accessed	
   september	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  musée	
  d’ethnographie,	
  geneva,	
   ;	
  tropenmuseum,	
  amsterdam,	
   ;	
  världskulturmuseet,	
   gothenburg,	
   ;	
  ethnologisches	
  museum,	
  berlin,	
   ;	
  Überseemuseum,	
  bremen,	
   .	
   	
  see	
  http://www.thomaskinkadeasheville.com/kinkade.htm	
  (accessed	
  september	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  see	
  ivan	
  gaskell,	
  ‘jesus	
  christ	
  as	
  the	
  divine	
  mercy	
  by	
  eugeniusz	
  kazimirowski:	
  the	
  most	
  influential	
  polish	
   painting	
  of	
  the	
  twentieth	
  century?’,	
  ars:	
  journal	
  of	
  the	
  institute	
  of	
  art	
  history	
  of	
  slovak	
  academy	
  of	
   sciences	
   ,	
   ,	
   ,	
  pp.	
   -­‐ .	
   	
  various	
  aspects	
  of	
  art	
  beyond	
  the	
  artworld	
  were	
  addressed	
  in	
  the	
  session,	
  ‘beyond	
  art’	
  that	
  i	
  organized	
   and	
  chaired	
  at	
  the	
  annual	
  meeting	
  of	
  the	
  college	
  art	
  association,	
  new	
  york	
  city,	
  february	
   ,	
   .	
  i	
  am	
   grateful	
  to	
  the	
  participants	
  who	
  gave	
  papers:	
  janice	
  baker,	
  david	
  carrier,	
  gabrielle	
  decamous,	
  pradeep	
   dhillon,	
  joachim	
  pissarro,	
  and	
  jacob	
  wamberg.	
  	
   	
  giorgio	
  vasari,	
  whose	
  le	
  vite	
  de’	
  più	
  eccellenti	
  pittori,	
  scultori	
  e	
  architettori	
  ( ;	
  second	
  edition,	
   ;	
   called	
  in	
  english,	
  lives	
  of	
  the	
  artists)	
  is	
  the	
  acknowledged	
  founding	
  text	
  of	
  art	
  history,	
  was	
  not	
  only	
  an	
   artists’	
  biographer,	
  but	
  also	
  a	
  painter	
  and	
  art	
  theorist.	
   	
   	
   succession	
  of,	
  and	
  relationships	
  among,	
  abstract	
  art	
  ‘isms.’ 	
  in	
  consequence,	
  contemporary	
   artworld	
  art	
  has	
  predominantly	
  become	
  little	
  more	
  than	
  a	
  way	
  of	
  ‘doing	
  theory’	
  about	
  art.	
  it	
   rarely	
  escapes	
  self-­‐reflectivity	
  and	
  solipsism,	
  and	
  only	
  occasionally	
  exhibits	
  aboutness—arthur	
   danto’s	
  term —concerning	
  anything	
  other	
  than	
  itself.	
  this	
  is	
  clearly	
  a	
  western	
  phenomenon,	
   exemplified	
  by	
  work	
  by	
  conceptual	
  artists	
  such	
  as	
  lawrence	
  weiner;	
  but,	
  like	
  so	
  much	
  else,	
  it	
   has	
  been	
  and	
  continues	
  to	
  be	
  shaped	
  by	
  globalization	
  as	
  artists	
  from	
  an	
  increasing	
  number	
  of	
   parts	
  of	
  the	
  world	
  participate	
  in	
  a	
  continuing	
  contemporary	
  art	
  discourse.	
  this	
  self-­‐reflective	
   behavior	
  had	
  previously	
  been	
  largely	
  confined	
  to	
  europe	
  and	
  north	
  america,	
  with	
  outliers	
  in	
   south	
  america.	
  now	
  these	
  concerns—and,	
  of	
  course,	
  others—are	
  being	
  addressed	
  by	
  artists	
   throughout	
  the	
  world	
  for	
  a	
  system	
  of	
  exhibition	
  and	
  commerce	
  that	
  is	
  fully	
  global.	
  that	
  system	
   is	
  in	
  part	
  coordinated	
  through	
  the	
  web,	
  as	
  the	
  website	
  oneartworld.com	
  exemplifies	
  through	
   which	
  the	
  works	
  of	
  artists	
  such	
  as	
  beijing	
  and	
  hong	
  kong	
  based	
  yan	
  lei	
  are	
  available. 	
  yet	
   physical	
  exhibition	
  remains	
  significant:	
  yan’s	
  work	
  is	
  shown	
  in	
  commercial	
  galleries	
  in	
  asia,	
   europe,	
  and	
  north	
  america. 	
  	
   	
   intersecting	
  with	
  modernist	
  concerns	
  in	
  globalized	
  art	
  practice	
  is	
  the	
  continuing	
   incorporation	
  of	
  two	
  kinds	
  of	
  things:	
  earlier	
  local	
  products	
  of	
  the	
  predecessors	
  of	
  contemporary	
   practitioners	
  worldwide	
  into	
  the	
  artworld;	
  and	
  things	
  from	
  previously	
  non-­‐artworld	
  locations	
   that	
  have	
  served	
  as	
  sources	
  of	
  inspiration	
  for	
  artworld	
  artists	
  from	
  the	
  early	
  twentieth	
  century	
   onwards.	
  since	
  the	
  early	
  twentieth	
  century,	
  western	
  artworld	
  artists	
  have	
  sought	
  inspiration	
  in	
   the	
  art	
  of	
  peoples	
  whose	
  products	
  had	
  previously	
  been	
  considered	
  to	
  lie	
  outside	
  the	
  boundaries	
   of	
  art.	
  man	
  ray’s	
  famous	
  photograph,	
  black	
  and	
  white	
  ( )	
  exemplifies	
  this	
  phenomenon,	
  the	
   white	
  model’s	
  face	
  contrasted	
  with	
  the	
  shiny	
  black	
  wood	
  of	
  the	
  baule	
  mask	
  from	
  côte	
  d’ivoire.	
   today,	
  global	
  artworld	
  artists	
  also	
  look	
  to	
  their	
  own	
  local	
  traditions,	
  giving	
  their	
  internationally	
   consumable	
  artworks	
  a	
  recognizably	
  local	
  inflection.	
  the	
  installation	
  begun	
  in	
   	
  by	
  xu	
  bing,	
  a	
   book	
  from	
  the	
  sky,	
  comprising	
  hand-­‐printed	
  books	
  and	
  scrolls	
  printed	
  from	
  blocks	
  inscribed	
  with	
   ‘false’	
  characters,	
  is	
  a	
  prime	
  example.	
  it	
  was	
  included	
  in	
  the	
  short-­‐lived	
   	
  china/avant-­‐garde	
   exhibition	
  in	
  beijing.	
  more	
  than	
  any	
  other	
  single	
  work,	
  its	
  showing	
  in	
  japan	
  and	
  america	
  in	
   -­‐ ,	
  and	
  at	
  the	
  venice	
  biennale	
  in	
   ,	
  brought	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  art	
  to	
  international	
  public	
   attention.	
  	
   	
   at	
  present,	
  critics,	
  curators,	
  dealers,	
  artists,	
  and	
  collectors	
  jet	
  from	
  annual	
  fair	
  to	
  biennial	
  to	
   triennial—from	
  venice	
  to	
  singapore	
  to	
  são	
  paolo	
  to	
  miami	
  beach	
  to	
  guangzhao—continent	
   hopping	
  non-­‐stop.	
  the	
  guggenheim	
  foundation	
  has	
  opened	
  or	
  has	
  planned	
  museums	
  not	
  only	
   in	
  new	
  york	
  city,	
  but	
  in	
  bilbao,	
  berlin,	
  guadalajara,	
  rio	
  de	
  janeiro,	
  and	
  abu	
  dhabi.	
  the	
  key	
   question	
  is:	
  is	
  there	
  to	
  be	
  a	
  single,	
  varied	
  but	
  coherent	
  governing	
  set	
  of	
  values	
  (including	
   aesthetic	
  values)	
  for	
  this	
  artworld	
  to	
  which	
  all	
  elements	
  conform—a	
  global	
  homogeneity	
   representing	
  a	
  triumph	
  of	
  largely	
  western	
  preoccupations	
  emerging	
  from	
  the	
  experience	
  of	
   modernity—or	
  is	
  there	
  to	
  be	
  a	
  more	
  widely	
  varying,	
  disparate,	
  open-­‐ended	
  array	
  of	
  values	
   reflecting	
  cultural	
  peculiarities	
  not	
  amenable	
  to	
  homogenization?	
  we	
  may	
  eventually	
  see	
   various	
  sets	
  of	
  practices	
  that	
  partake	
  of	
  both,	
  especially	
  as—counter-­‐intuitively—art	
  made	
   within	
  and	
  for	
  the	
  artworld	
  catches	
  up	
  with	
  art	
  made	
  and	
  functioning	
  beyond	
  it.	
  	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  see	
  the	
  chart	
  on	
  the	
  cover	
  of	
  alfred	
  h.	
  barr,	
  jr.,	
  cubism	
  and	
  abstract	
  art:	
  paintings,	
  sculpture,	
   constructions,	
  photography,	
  architecture,	
  industrial	
  art,	
  theatre,	
  films,	
  posters,	
  typography	
  (new	
  york:	
   museum	
  of	
  modern	
  art,	
   ).	
   	
  arthur	
  c.	
  danto,	
  the	
  transfiguration	
  of	
  the	
  commonplace:	
  a	
  philosophy	
  of	
  art	
  (cambridge,	
  ma	
  and	
   london:	
  harvard	
  university	
  press,	
   ).	
   	
  see	
  http://oneartworld.com/artists/y/yan+lei.html	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  beijing,	
  hong	
  kong,	
  san	
  gimignano,	
  boissy-­‐le-­‐châtel	
  (near	
  paris),	
  and	
  new	
  york.	
   	
   	
   	
   art	
  made	
  in	
  china	
  is	
  playing	
  a	
  particular	
  role,	
  demonstrating	
  that	
  artists	
  can	
  deal	
  with	
   matters	
  beyond	
  art	
  itself	
  while	
  yet	
  satisfying	
  western	
  art	
  adjudicators	
  that	
  they	
  are	
  also	
  taking	
   account	
  of	
  purely	
  artworld	
  concerns.	
  for	
  instance,	
  in	
  a	
  well-­‐known	
  photo	
  triptych	
  (in	
  an	
  edition	
   of	
  eight),	
  dropping	
  a	
  han	
  dynasty	
  urn	
  ( ),	
  ai	
  weiwei	
  enacts	
  a	
  performance	
  making	
  explicit	
   his	
  relationship	
  to	
  western	
  conceptual	
  art	
  of	
  the	
   s,	
  such	
  as	
  keith	
  arnatt’s	
  self-­‐burial	
   (television	
  interference	
  project),	
  ( ;	
  tate,	
  london), 	
  while	
  memorably	
  addressing	
  china’s	
   equivocal	
  relationship	
  to	
  its	
  deep	
  cultural	
  past.	
  at	
  root,	
  art	
  of	
  this	
  kind	
  from	
  china	
  is	
  a	
  response	
   to	
  cultural	
  encounter	
  between	
  china	
  and	
  elsewhere.	
  another	
  work	
  by	
  ai	
  encapsulates	
   ambiguous	
  social	
  critique:	
  han	
  dynasty	
  urn	
  with	
  coca-­‐cola	
  logo	
  ( ). 	
  this	
  is	
  a	
  conflation	
  of	
   a	
  fragment	
  of	
  chinese	
  deep	
  cultural	
  identity—a	
  two	
  thousand-­‐year-­‐old	
  ceramic	
  vessel—with	
  the	
   symbol	
  of	
  american	
  global	
  capitalism.	
  does	
  it	
  imply	
  a	
  polluting,	
  neo-­‐colonial	
  affront	
  to	
  china,	
  or	
   is	
  it	
  a	
  token	
  of	
  the	
  successful	
  absorption	
  of	
  foreign	
  novelty	
  by	
  a	
  profoundly	
  enduring	
  cultural	
   value	
  system?	
  on	
  seeing	
  this	
  work,	
  many	
  chinese	
  viewers	
  would	
  recall	
  the	
  late	
  chinese	
  leader,	
   deng	
  xiaoping’s	
  visit	
  to	
  the	
  coca-­‐cola	
  company’s	
  world	
  headquarters	
  in	
  atlanta,	
  georgia	
  in	
   ,	
  following	
  the	
  announcement	
  the	
  previous	
  december	
  that	
  coca-­‐cola	
  would	
  open	
  a	
  plant	
  in	
   shanghai.	
  whatever	
  else	
  it	
  might	
  be,	
  this	
  work	
  is	
  about	
  more	
  than	
  art	
  itself,	
  and,	
  like	
  so	
  much	
   chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  art,	
  that	
  ‘aboutness’	
  has	
  a	
  specifically	
  chinese	
  agenda.	
  artworld	
   participants	
  can	
  readily	
  convince	
  themselves	
  that	
  this	
  is	
  art	
  that	
  matters	
  owing	
  to	
  its	
  social	
   criticism,	
  whether	
  overt	
  or	
  obscure,	
  thereby	
  satisfying	
  a	
  nostalgia	
  for	
  when	
  western	
  artworld	
   art	
  might	
  have	
  mattered,	
  and	
  filling	
  at	
  least	
  some	
  of	
  the	
  huge	
  void	
  resulting	
  from	
  its	
  solipsistic	
   practices.	
  	
   	
   .	
   let	
  us	
  now	
  look	
  a	
  little	
  more	
  closely	
  at	
  art	
  practice	
  in	
  contemporary	
  china	
  in	
  an	
  attempt	
  to	
  grasp	
   some	
  of	
  the	
  issues	
  arising	
  from	
  chinese	
  artists’	
  dealings	
  with	
  the	
  global	
  artworld,	
  with	
  chinese	
   tradition,	
  and	
  with	
  art	
  beyond	
  the	
  artworld.	
  	
   	
   four	
  basic	
  types	
  of	
  artist	
  work	
  in	
  china.	
  one	
  follows	
  an	
  early	
  twentieth-­‐century	
  modernist	
   tradition,	
  introduced	
  into	
  china	
  by	
  chinese	
  artists	
  who	
  studied	
  and	
  worked	
  in	
  europe—mostly	
  in	
   paris	
  and	
  berlin—during	
  the	
  interwar	
  years.	
  among	
  the	
  leading	
  figures	
  were	
  lin	
  fengmian	
   ( -­‐ ),	
  who	
  destroyed	
  many	
  of	
  his	
  own	
  works	
  during	
  the	
  cultural	
  revolution	
  between	
   	
  and	
   ,	
  and	
  xu	
  beihong	
  ( -­‐ ),	
  whose	
  policies	
  as	
  the	
  first	
  president	
  of	
  the	
  central	
   academy	
  of	
  fine	
  arts	
  following	
  the	
  founding	
  of	
  the	
  people’s	
  republic	
  in	
   	
  have	
  had	
  an	
   enduring	
  effect.	
  some	
  contemporary	
  artists	
  continue	
  to	
  work	
  in	
  the	
  diluted	
  modernist	
  manner,	
   or	
  employ	
  chinese	
  forms	
  incorporating	
  western	
  representational	
  conventions	
  associated	
  with	
   this	
  strand	
  of	
  twentieth-­‐century	
  chinese	
  art. 	
   	
   we	
  have	
  already	
  met	
  some	
  artists	
  of	
  the	
  second	
  type:	
  the	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde.	
  these	
   artists	
  have	
  emerged	
  in	
  only	
  the	
  last	
  twenty-­‐five	
  years.	
  most	
  were	
  academically	
  trained	
  in	
   traditional	
  art	
  academies,	
  and	
  began	
  an	
  explicit	
  engagement	
  with	
  western	
  contemporary	
  art	
  as	
   a	
  consequence	
  of	
  the	
  openings	
  promoted	
  and	
  permitted	
  on	
  the	
  initiative	
  of	
  deng	
  xiaoping	
  from	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  tate	
  london,	
  collection	
  database:	
  http://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/viewwork?workid= 	
  (accessed	
   september	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  this	
  work	
  was	
  included	
  in	
  ai’s	
  one	
  person	
  exhibition	
  curated	
  by	
  karen	
  smith	
  at	
  the	
  mary	
  boone	
  gallery,	
   new	
  york,	
  march	
   	
  –	
  april	
   ,	
   .	
   	
  on	
  lin,	
  see	
  the	
  website:	
  http://www.linfengmian.net/index.htm	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   );	
  on	
  xu,	
  see	
  xu	
   beihong	
  in	
  nanyang	
  (singapore:	
  singapore	
  art	
  museum,	
   ),	
  and	
  the	
  catalogue	
  raisonné,	
  zidu	
  and	
  huo	
   yanwen,	
  xu	
  beihong	
  (beijing:	
  zhong	
  yan	
  bian	
  chu	
  ban	
  she,	
   )	
  in	
  four	
  volumes	
  (in	
  mandarin	
  with	
   contents	
  in	
  english,	
  and	
  many	
  illustrations).	
   	
   	
   	
  onwards.	
  some	
  of	
  these	
  artists	
  have	
  taken	
  visible	
  social	
  change	
  as	
  their	
  subject.	
  for	
   example,	
  hai	
  bo	
  has	
  produced	
  a	
  series	
  of	
  photographic	
  works	
  contrasting	
  past	
  and	
  present	
   appearances.	
  among	
  them	
  is	
  the	
  poignant	
  ‘i	
  am	
  chairman	
  mao’s	
  red	
  guard’	
  ( ),	
  acquired	
  in	
   	
  by	
  the	
  j.	
  paul	
  getty	
  museum,	
  los	
  angeles. 	
  hai	
  juxtaposes	
  frontal	
  portrait	
  photographs	
  of	
   the	
  same	
  woman	
  at	
  two	
  points	
  in	
  her	
  life:	
  as	
  a	
  slim	
  youth	
  in	
  her	
  red	
  guard	
  uniform	
  clutching	
   her	
  copy	
  of	
  the	
  quotations	
  from	
  chairman	
  mao	
  tse-­‐tung	
  ( ),	
  and	
  in	
  middle	
  age	
  wearing	
  a	
   sleeveless,	
  floral	
  printed	
  dress.	
  most	
  of	
  the	
  leading	
  artists	
  in	
  this	
  field	
  are	
  approaching	
  or	
  are	
   over	
  fifty	
  years	
  of	
  age.	
  some,	
  like	
  xu	
  bing,	
  who	
  left	
  china	
  following	
  the	
  suppression	
  of	
  the	
   tiananmen	
  square	
  demonstrations	
  in	
   ,	
  have	
  recently	
  returned.	
  xu	
  bing	
  was	
  educated	
  at	
   the	
  central	
  academy	
  of	
  fine	
  arts	
  in	
  beijing,	
  left	
  china	
  for	
  the	
  united	
  states	
  in	
   	
  where	
  he	
   received	
  a	
  macarthur	
  fellowship	
  in	
   .	
  he	
  was	
  appointed	
  vice-­‐president	
  of	
  his	
  old	
  art	
  school	
   in	
   .	
  	
   	
   not	
  all	
  artists	
  of	
  this	
  generation	
  by	
  any	
  means	
  chose	
  to	
  respond	
  directly	
  to	
  western	
   artworld	
  art,	
  whether	
  modernist	
  or	
  contemporary.	
  some	
  western	
  art	
  museums	
  have	
  been	
   actively	
  acquiring	
  works	
  by	
  chinese	
  artists	
  who	
  have	
  continued	
  to	
  work	
  explicitly	
  within	
  the	
   conventions	
  of	
  the	
  chinese	
  pictorial	
  tradition.	
  they	
  constitute	
  my	
  third	
  type	
  of	
  chinese	
  art.	
  in	
   mainland	
  china,	
  the	
  cultural	
  revolution	
  during	
  the	
  decade	
  following	
   ,	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  earlier	
   periods	
  of	
  suppression,	
  severely	
  interrupted	
  the	
  transmission	
  of	
  traditional	
  art	
  skills.	
  some	
  of	
   the	
  finest	
  practitioners	
  moved	
  to	
  nationalist	
  taiwan,	
  hong	
  kong,	
  singapore,	
  or	
  beyond.	
  in	
   recent	
  years,	
  though,	
  mainland	
  china	
  has	
  engineered	
  a	
  rapprochement.	
  the	
  career	
  of	
  liu	
   guosong,	
  born	
  in	
   ,	
  exemplifies	
  this.	
  from	
  taiwan	
  he	
  moved	
  to	
  hong	
  kong	
  in	
   ,	
  where	
   he	
  taught	
  for	
  twenty	
  years.	
  since	
   	
  he	
  has	
  been	
  visiting	
  mainland	
  china,	
  influencing	
  the	
   revival	
  of	
  traditional	
  painting	
  styles.	
  he	
  was	
  given	
  an	
  exhibition	
  at	
  the	
  palace	
  museum,	
  beijing	
  in	
   ,	
  and	
  at	
  the	
  national	
  art	
  museum	
  of	
  china,	
  beijing,	
  in	
   . 	
  still	
  active,	
  liu	
  now	
  divides	
  his	
   time	
  between	
  taoyuan	
  (taiwan),	
  and	
  shanghai.	
  liu	
  is	
  far	
  from	
  alone.	
  the	
  official	
  promotion	
  of	
   traditional	
  art	
  includes	
  not	
  only	
  instruction,	
  principally	
  at	
  the	
  suzhou	
  academy	
  of	
  traditional	
   chinese	
  painting,	
  but	
  regular	
  exhibitions	
  at	
  the	
  national	
  art	
  museum.	
  in	
   ,	
  for	
  instance,	
  the	
   museum	
  held	
  an	
  exhibition	
  not	
  only	
  of	
  liu’s	
  work,	
  but	
  of	
  that	
  of	
  the	
  fifty-­‐eight-­‐year-­‐old	
  zhou	
   yibo. 	
  zhou	
  works	
  within	
  the	
  traditional	
  chang’an	
  school	
  of	
  painting.	
  he	
  is	
  a	
  professor	
  at	
  the	
   xi’an	
  university	
  of	
  architecture	
  and	
  technology,	
  school	
  of	
  art,	
  and—perhaps	
  tellingly—vice-­‐ chairman	
  of	
  the	
  shaanxi	
  provincial	
  committee	
  of	
  chinese	
  people’s	
  political	
  consultative	
   conference.	
  art	
  produced	
  within	
  the	
  revived	
  and	
  officially	
  sanctioned	
  tradition	
  of	
  ink	
  painting	
  is	
   more	
  likely	
  to	
  be,	
  though	
  is	
  not	
  necessarily,	
  more	
  politically	
  tractable	
  than	
  art	
  that	
  more	
  openly	
   conforms	
  to	
  contemporary	
  western	
  modes.	
  	
   	
   the	
  fourth	
  type	
  of	
  chinese	
  art	
  i	
  identify	
  is	
  art	
  seemingly	
  outside	
  the	
  artworld,	
  whether	
  that	
   of	
  older	
  modernism,	
  or	
  the	
  global	
  contemporary	
  artworld	
  recently	
  joined	
  by	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐ garde	
  artists,	
  or	
  that	
  of	
  chinese	
  traditional	
  artists.	
  by	
  this	
  i	
  do	
  not	
  mean	
  any	
  lingering	
  trace	
  of	
   chinese	
  socialist	
  realism,	
  derived	
  from	
  stalinist	
  soviet	
  models,	
  the	
  only	
  sanctioned	
  style	
  in	
  the	
   people’s	
  republic	
  for	
  generations.	
  this	
  survives	
  interestingly	
  in	
  certain	
  arch,	
  commercial	
  design	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  exhibited	
  in	
  photography	
  from	
  the	
  new	
  china,	
  getty	
  center,	
  los	
  angeles,	
  december,	
   	
  –	
  april,	
   :	
   http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/new_china/	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   )	
  with	
  link	
  to	
  illustration	
  and	
   description.	
   	
  a	
  creation	
  exhibition	
  by	
  liu	
  guosong—looking	
  back	
  at	
   ,	
  national	
  art	
  museum	
  of	
  china,	
  march	
   	
  –	
   april	
   ,	
   :	
  http:// . . . /en/exhibitions/ /t _ .html	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  ink	
  soul	
  at	
  midnight—art	
  exhibition	
  of	
  zhou	
  yi	
  bo,	
  national	
  art	
  museum	
  of	
  china,	
  april	
   	
  –	
  april	
   ,	
   :	
  http:// . . . /en/exhibitions/ /t _ .html	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
   	
   images,	
  such	
  as	
  a	
  recent	
  advertisement	
  for	
  the	
  apple	
  ipad	
  in	
  which	
  a	
  heroic,	
  smiling	
  tractor	
   driver	
  holds	
  aloft	
  an	
  ipad,	
  ironically	
  evoking	
  the	
  ‘little	
  red	
  book’	
  of	
  the	
  quotations	
  from	
   chairman	
  mao	
  tse-­‐tung	
  during	
  the	
  cultural	
  revolution. 	
  rather,	
  i	
  mean	
  the	
  extraordinary	
   phenomenon	
  of	
  the	
  cheap	
  copy.	
  much	
  of	
  the	
  trade	
  takes	
  place	
  via	
  the	
  web. 	
  it	
  includes	
   derivatives	
  from,	
  and	
  copies	
  of,	
  traditional	
  chinese	
  paintings—long	
  an	
  artisanal	
  industry	
  in	
  hong	
   kong,	
  now	
  also	
  practiced	
  on	
  the	
  mainland.	
  although	
  cheap	
  oil	
  paintings,	
  many	
  of	
  them	
  copies	
  of	
   well-­‐known	
  western	
  prototypes,	
  are	
  produced	
  in	
  several	
  asian	
  countries,	
  and	
  elsewhere	
  in	
   mainland	
  china,	
  the	
  center	
  of	
  the	
  practice	
  is	
  currently	
  dafen	
  village,	
  in	
  shenzhen	
  just	
  north	
  of	
   hong	
  kong. 	
  a	
  hong	
  kong	
  businessman	
  moved	
  his	
  enterprise	
  there	
  to	
  take	
  advantage	
  of	
  the	
   shenzhen	
  special	
  economic	
  zone.	
  in	
  dafen,	
  around	
   , 	
  full-­‐time	
  artists	
  are	
  said	
  to	
  produce	
   something	
  like	
  sixty	
  percent	
  of	
  the	
  world’s	
  oil	
  paintings.	
  some	
  are	
  sold	
  in	
  small	
  galleries	
  locally	
   to	
  foreign	
  visitors	
  who	
  throng	
  there.	
  many	
  are	
  sold	
  to	
  wholesalers	
  throughout	
  the	
  world.	
  the	
   internet	
  accounts	
  for	
  yet	
  another	
  segment	
  of	
  the	
  sales,	
  directly	
  or	
  through	
  innumerable	
   intermediaries.	
  the	
  artists	
  are	
  predominantly	
  copyists	
  who	
  have	
  not	
  been	
  able	
  to	
  attend	
  art	
   schools	
  or	
  college,	
  but	
  who	
  have	
  learned	
  their	
  skills	
  mechanically.	
  some	
  produce	
  their	
  own	
   work,	
  but	
  copying	
  is	
  relatively	
  lucrative	
  compared	
  with	
  other	
  possible	
  options.	
  zhao	
  xiaoyong,	
   photographed	
  painting	
  a	
  van	
  gogh	
  self-­‐portrait	
  in	
  april,	
   ,	
  reported	
  that	
  in	
  his	
  career	
  to	
  date	
   he	
  has	
  painted	
  about	
   , 	
  van	
  gogh	
  copies. 	
  copies	
  can	
  be	
  ordered	
  to	
  size,	
  and	
  some	
   websites	
  offer	
  helpful	
  mock-­‐up	
  domestic	
  scenes	
  so	
  that	
  customers	
  can	
  decide	
  what	
  size	
  would	
   best	
  fit	
  their	
  circumstances. 	
  	
   	
   from	
  the	
  point	
  of	
  view	
  of	
  aesthetics,	
  even	
  if	
  not	
  from	
  those	
  of	
  anthropology	
  and	
  history,	
  it	
  is	
   all	
  too	
  easy	
  to	
  dismiss	
  this	
  phenomenon.	
  this	
  activity,	
  after	
  all,	
  is	
  taking	
  place	
  outside	
  the	
   artworld.	
  yet	
  even	
  when	
  considering	
  aesthetics,	
  to	
  dismiss	
  this	
  mass	
  commercial	
  practice	
  would	
   be	
  unwise	
  as	
  we	
  ponder	
  the	
  big	
  questions	
  concerning	
  globalization,	
  its	
  attendant	
  aesthetic	
   homogenization,	
  and	
  relationship	
  to	
  local	
  traditions.	
  in	
  the	
  blue	
  book,	
  ludwig	
  wittgenstein	
  cites	
   the	
  beam	
  of	
  his	
  reading	
  lamp	
  as	
  having	
  indefinite	
  boundaries,	
  but	
  for	
  all	
  that,	
  clearly	
  existing. 	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  produced	
  in	
  association	
  with	
  neonpunch	
  of	
  hong	
  kong:	
  see	
  ‘neonpunch	
  roundup:	
  all	
  about	
  apple,	
   iphones,	
  and	
  ipads’,	
  cnngo	
  website,	
  march	
   ,	
   :	
   http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/none/neonpunch-­‐roundup-­‐all-­‐about-­‐apple-­‐iphones-­‐and-­‐ipads-­‐ 	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  see,	
  for	
  example,	
  the	
  hand-­‐made	
  copies	
  of,	
  and	
  derivations	
  from,	
  traditional	
  chinese	
  ink	
  paintings	
   available	
  through	
  yeahverygood.com:	
  see	
  http://yeahverygood.com/chinese-­‐painting-­‐c _p .html	
   (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  copyists	
  are	
  at	
  work	
  in	
  other	
  places	
  in	
  china,	
  too,	
  for	
  instance,	
  xiamen	
  (fujian	
  province),	
  where	
   tianhong	
  art	
  &	
  craft	
  international	
  ltd.	
  claims	
  to	
  employ	
  over	
   	
  professional	
  artists	
  who	
  copy	
  paintings	
   for	
  wholesale	
  distribution.	
  ‘we	
  are	
  the	
  leading	
  hand-­‐painted	
  wholesaler.	
  we	
  wholesale	
   %	
  handmade	
   oil	
  painting	
  on	
  cavans	
  [sic]	
  with	
  a	
  wide	
  range,	
  include	
  classicalism,	
  impressionist,	
  contemporary,	
   modernism,	
  portrait,	
  still	
  life,	
  abstract,	
  old	
  master,	
  landscape,	
  seascape,	
  moder	
  [sic]	
  decor	
  art	
  etc.	
  we	
   have	
  over	
   	
  full-­‐time	
  talent	
  artists,	
  we	
  creat	
  [sic]	
  original	
  oil	
  painting	
  according	
  to	
  market	
  upcoming	
   trends.	
  we	
  can	
  create	
  a	
  new	
  painting	
  based	
  on	
  customers’	
  photos	
  (old	
  masters’	
  paintings,	
  moder	
  [sic]	
   paintings,	
  photographs	
  or	
  other	
  sources).	
  we	
  can	
  compine	
  two	
  photos	
  into	
  a	
  new	
  style.	
  we	
  can	
  change	
  a	
   painting	
  to	
  fit	
  your	
  colours	
  and	
  more	
  and	
  more’:	
  http://www.madeinasia.com/factory-­‐ /about-­‐ us.html	
  (accessed	
  september	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  the	
  reuters	
  story	
  with	
  photographs	
  of	
  zhao	
  painting	
  a	
  van	
  gogh	
  copy	
  by	
  jason	
  lee	
  was	
  published	
   widely,	
  for	
  example	
  by	
   space,	
  april	
   ,	
   .	
  see:	
  http://www. space.net/news/article/ -­‐ /	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  for	
  example,	
  see:	
  http://www.book .com/	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  ludwig	
  wittgenstein,	
  preliminary	
  studies	
  for	
  the	
  ‘philosophical	
  investigations’	
  generally	
  known	
  as	
  the	
   blue	
  and	
  brown	
  books,	
  ed.	
  rush	
  rhees,	
   nd	
  edition	
  (new	
  york:	
  harper	
  &	
  row,	
   ),	
  p.	
   .	
   	
   	
   the	
  four	
  types	
  of	
  art	
  practice	
  i	
  have	
  identified	
  in	
  china—modernist,	
  avant-­‐garde,	
  traditional,	
   and	
  mass	
  commercial—are	
  like	
  four	
  such	
  lamp	
  beams	
  intersecting.	
  further,	
  they	
  all	
  have	
  both	
   overt	
  and	
  concealed	
  connections	
  to	
  entrenched	
  practices	
  of	
  emulation,	
  imitation,	
  and	
  copying.	
   	
   .	
   describing	
  chinese	
  art	
  in	
  terms	
  of	
  emulation,	
  imitation,	
  and	
  copying	
  is	
  open	
  to	
   misunderstanding.	
  first,	
  in	
  china,	
  visual	
  art	
  has	
  been	
  considered	
  distinct	
  from	
  other	
  broadly	
   expressive	
  forms,	
  such	
  as	
  poetry	
  and	
  calligraphy,	
  only	
  recently,	
  and	
  even	
  then	
  equivocally.	
   second,	
  emulation,	
  imitation	
  and	
  copying	
  long	
  constituted	
  a	
  range	
  of	
  practices	
  that	
  were—and	
   are—part	
  of	
  how	
  an	
  artist	
  (who	
  might	
  also	
  equally	
  be	
  a	
  poet	
  and	
  calligrapher)	
  ideally	
  aimed	
  to	
   achieve	
  what	
  craig	
  clunas	
  describes	
  as	
  the	
  ‘perfect	
  balance	
  between	
  the	
  transmission	
  of	
  ancient	
   models	
  and	
  the	
  formation	
  of	
  his	
  own	
  style’	
  thereby	
  assuming	
  a	
  place	
  in	
  	
  ‘the	
  great	
  chain	
  of	
   cultural	
  transmission’. 	
  we	
  should	
  beware	
  of	
  thinking	
  of	
  emulation,	
  imitation	
  and	
  copying	
  in	
   china	
  as	
  necessarily	
  unchanging	
  constants	
  essential	
  to	
  chinese	
  practice,	
  although	
  this	
  is	
  how	
   they	
  are	
  all	
  too	
  frequently	
  seen	
  from	
  the	
  outside.	
  this	
  association	
  has	
  long-­‐standing	
   international	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  local	
  dimensions.	
  	
   	
   chinese	
  so-­‐called	
  ‘trade’	
  artists	
  have	
  been	
  copying	
  and	
  emulating	
  western	
  artworks	
  for	
  the	
   western	
  market	
  since	
  at	
  least	
  the	
  eighteenth	
  century.	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  best	
  known	
  such	
  artists	
  of	
  the	
   first	
  half	
  of	
  the	
  nineteenth	
  century	
  was	
  guan	
  qiaochang,	
  known	
  to	
  westerners	
  as	
  lam	
  qua.	
  he	
   had	
  studied	
  in	
  the	
   s	
  with	
  george	
  chinnery,	
  the	
  first	
  english	
  painter	
  to	
  settle	
  in	
  china.	
  lam	
   qua	
  developed	
  a	
  clientele	
  for	
  portraits	
  among	
  western	
  merchants	
  and	
  missionaries	
  in	
  canton,	
   where	
  he	
  and	
  his	
  brother	
  developed	
  mass	
  production	
  techniques.	
  his	
  self-­‐portrait	
  from	
  the	
   s	
  is	
  in	
  the	
  peabody	
  essex	
  museum,	
  salem,	
  massachusetts. 	
  other	
  artists	
  were	
  identified	
  by	
   the	
  name	
  lam	
  qua	
  well	
  after	
  guan’s	
  death	
  in	
  about	
   . 	
  in	
   ,	
  the	
  peabody	
  essex	
  museum	
   acquired	
  a	
  copy	
  of	
  ingres’s	
   	
  grande	
  odalisque. 	
  it	
  bears	
  the	
  inscription	
  ‘lamqua’,	
  but	
  may	
   not	
  be	
  by	
  guan.	
  it	
  is,	
  though,	
  a	
  nineteenth-­‐century	
  chinese	
  copy.	
  	
   	
   copying,	
  or	
  imitating,	
  works	
  by	
  western	
  artists	
  is	
  scarcely	
  a	
  new	
  activity.	
  neither	
  is	
  it	
   exclusively	
  the	
  preserve	
  of	
  artisans	
  who	
  never	
  attended	
  art	
  schools,	
  as	
  in	
  dafen	
  today.	
  since	
  at	
   least	
  the	
   s,	
  some	
  orders	
  for	
  copies	
  from	
  entrepreneurs	
  who	
  control	
  the	
  greater	
  part	
  of	
  the	
   market	
  have	
  been	
  filled	
  by	
  teachers	
  and	
  students	
  at	
  various	
  art	
  schools	
  ‘moonlighting’	
  for	
  much	
   needed	
  extra	
  income.	
  furthermore,	
  successful	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  artworld	
  artists	
  have	
  used	
   the	
  services	
  of	
  artisan	
  copyist	
  painters	
  to	
  produce	
  conceptual	
  works,	
  some	
  of	
  which	
  comment	
   directly	
  on	
  the	
  phenomenon	
  of	
  copying	
  western	
  old	
  masters.	
  zhou	
  tiehai’s	
   	
  painting,	
   palace	
  woman,	
  substitutes	
  the	
  head	
  of	
  the	
  american	
  cigarette	
  advertizing	
  character,	
  joe	
  camel,	
   for	
  that	
  of	
  the	
  odalisque. 	
  zhou	
  may	
  design	
  his	
  ironic	
  paintings,	
  but	
  they	
  are	
  doubly	
  ironic,	
  for	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  craig	
  clunas,	
  elegant	
  debts:	
  the	
  social	
  art	
  of	
  wen	
  zhengming,	
   -­‐ 	
  (london:	
  reaktion	
  books,	
   ),	
  p.	
   .	
  clunas	
  describes	
  the	
  sixteenth-­‐century	
  artist,	
  poet,	
  and	
  calligrapher	
  wen	
  zhengming	
  praising	
   his	
  principal	
  calligraphy	
  teacher,	
  li	
  yingzhen	
  in	
  these	
  terms.	
   	
  see	
  peter	
  c.	
  perdue,	
  ‘rise	
  and	
  fall	
  of	
  the	
  canton	
  trade	
  system,	
  i,	
  china	
  in	
  the	
  world	
  ( -­‐ s):	
  the	
   narrow	
  world	
  of	
  artists	
  of	
  the	
  canton	
  trade’,	
  mit	
  visualizing	
  cultures:	
   http://ocw.mit.edu/ans / f/ f. /rise_fall_canton_ /cw_essay .html	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  see,	
  for	
  example,	
  a	
  photograph	
  by	
  john	
  thomson	
  from	
  about	
   	
  in	
  the	
  powerhouse	
  museum,	
   sydney.	
  see:	
  http://eaobjets.wordpress.com/ / / /photo-­‐of-­‐the-­‐day-­‐ /	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  odalisque,	
  oil	
  on	
  canvas,	
   . 	
  x	
   	
  cm.,	
  sold	
  at	
  duke’s,	
  dorchester,	
  uk,	
  sept.	
   ,	
   ,	
  lot	
   ,	
   £ , .	
  its	
  changed	
  color	
  scheme	
  (pink	
  rather	
  than	
  deep	
  blue	
  curtains),	
  and	
  its	
  reversed	
  composition	
   suggest	
  that	
  it	
  was	
  copied	
  from	
  a	
  print,	
  most	
  likely	
  the	
   	
  lithograph.	
   	
  the	
  painting	
  (airbrushed	
  acrylic	
  on	
  synthetic	
  canvas)	
  is	
  in	
  a	
  private	
  collection,	
  but	
  is	
  illustrated	
  in	
  the	
   online	
  archive	
  of	
  the	
  shanghart	
  gallery,	
  shanghai:	
   	
   	
   artisans	
  execute	
  them	
  using	
  airbrush	
  equipment.	
  in	
   ,	
  the	
  avant-­‐garde	
  artist,	
  liu	
  ding	
   addressed	
  the	
  phenomenon	
  of	
  artisanal	
  non-­‐artworld	
  art	
  production	
  directly.	
  he	
  contrived	
  a	
   performance	
  at	
  the	
  second	
  guangzhou	
  triennial	
  in	
  which	
  for	
  four	
  hours	
  thirteen	
  painters	
  hired	
   from	
  dafen	
  village	
  painted	
  forty	
  canvases,	
  all	
  the	
  same	
  size:	
  excerpts	
  of	
  varying	
  extent	
  of	
  a	
   single	
  landscape	
  composition.	
  the	
  title	
  of	
  the	
  piece	
  was	
  samples	
  from	
  the	
  transition	
  c	
  products	
   part	
   ,	
  evoking	
  their	
  formal	
  bureaucratic	
  designation. 	
  part	
   	
  consisted	
  in	
  those	
  forty	
  paintings,	
   in	
  gilt	
  frames,	
  exhibited	
  salon	
  style	
  in	
  the	
  l.	
  a.	
  galerie	
  -­‐	
  lothar	
  albrecht,	
  frankfurt,	
  germany,	
   and	
  the	
  fondazione	
  sandretto	
  re	
  rebaudengo,	
  turin,	
  italy	
  in	
   .	
  in	
   ,	
  the	
  gallery	
  offered	
   individual	
  paintings	
  for	
  sale	
  from	
  the	
  installation. 	
  in	
  this	
  and	
  other	
  contemporary	
  artworld	
   projects	
  exploiting	
  dafen	
  painters,	
  in	
  the	
  words	
  of	
  winnie	
  won	
  yin	
  wong:	
  ‘we	
  see	
  thus	
  not	
  only	
   versions	
  of	
  post-­‐studio	
  authorship	
  collapsed	
  onto	
  a	
  living	
  readymade,	
  but	
  also	
  a	
  specific	
  slice	
  of	
   china’s	
  productive,	
  transitional	
  economy	
  reframed	
  as	
  a	
  transnational	
  object	
  of	
  aesthetic	
   desire’. 	
  	
   	
   this	
  practice	
  of	
  using	
  non-­‐artworld	
  dafen	
  painters	
  within	
  the	
  artworld	
  has	
  moved	
  beyond	
   china	
  itself.	
  for	
  his	
  mfa	
  thesis	
  project	
  at	
  the	
  school	
  of	
  the	
  museum	
  of	
  fine	
  arts,	
  boston	
  and	
   tufts	
  university,	
  john	
  c.	
  gonzalez	
  ordered	
  self-­‐portraits	
  by	
  fifty-­‐two	
  unidentified	
  painters	
  at	
  one	
   dafen	
  workshop.	
  he	
  exhibited	
  them	
  together	
  with	
  a	
  photograph	
  of	
  the	
  head	
  of	
  the	
  company	
   holding	
  gonzalez’s	
  own	
  painted	
  self-­‐portrait,	
  which	
  he	
  had	
  sent	
  to	
  dafen.	
  gonzales	
  gave	
  the	
   installation	
  the	
  title	
  self-­‐portrait	
  project	
  ( -­‐ ). 	
  what	
  is	
  happening	
  in	
  such	
  a	
  work?	
  in	
  a	
   recent	
  interview,	
  gonzalez	
  responded:	
   	
   [m]y	
  wife	
  has	
  really	
  interesting	
  observations.	
  she	
  said	
  something	
  that	
  made	
  a	
  lot	
  of	
  sense,	
   ‘well	
  you	
  know	
  honey,	
  what	
  you	
  are	
  doing,	
  you	
  are	
  always	
  trying	
  to	
  give	
  a	
  voice	
  to	
  the	
   underdog.	
  that’s	
  what	
  you’re	
  trying	
  to	
  do.’	
  i	
  thought	
  about	
  that,	
  ‘yeah,	
  i	
  kind	
  of	
  am.’	
  why	
   do	
  i	
  want	
  to	
  do	
  that?	
  what	
  does	
  it	
  mean	
  for	
  me	
  to	
  give	
  a	
  voice	
  to	
  the	
  underdog?	
  but	
  at	
  the	
   same	
  time	
  i’m	
  not	
  really	
  giving	
  a	
  voice	
  to	
  the	
  underdog,	
  i’m	
  giving	
  my	
  interpretation. 	
   	
   this	
  catches	
  the	
  equivocal	
  nature	
  of	
  gonzalez’s	
  project—perhaps	
  of	
  any	
  project	
  that	
  places	
  a	
   relatively	
  privileged	
  artworld	
  insider	
  in	
  an	
  economic	
  relationship	
  with	
  disadvantaged	
  piece-­‐ workers.	
   	
   a	
  further	
  complication	
  arises	
  from	
  the	
  recent	
  adoption	
  by	
  the	
  most	
  prestigious,	
  though	
  also	
   cupidous,	
  institutional	
  members	
  of	
  the	
  artworld—the	
  leading	
  auction	
  houses—of	
  sales	
  methods	
   previously	
  confined	
  to	
  the	
  marketing	
  of	
  non-­‐artworld	
  art.	
  an	
  example	
  is	
  artlink@sotheby’s,	
  the	
   auction	
  house’s	
  online	
  marketing	
  tool	
  for	
  work	
  by	
  emerging	
  contemporary	
  artists.	
  six	
  works	
  by	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   http://www.shanghartgallery.com/galleryarchive/simplework.htm?workid= 	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  ulrike	
  münter,	
  ‘heimspiel’,	
  chinesische	
  gegewartskunst,	
  aug.	
   ,	
   ,	
  with	
  two	
  illustrations:	
   http://www.chinesische-­‐gegenwartskunst.de/pages/ausstellungen/heimspiel-­‐shcontemporary.php	
   (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  see	
  the	
  l.a.	
  galerie	
  -­‐	
  lothar	
  albrecht	
  website:	
  http://lagallery-­‐frankfurt.de/dinginvitatione.pdf	
   (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ),	
  and	
  http://www.artnet.com/galleries/artfairs.asp?gid= &cid= 	
   (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  winnie	
  won	
  yin	
  wong,	
  ‘framed	
  authors:	
  photography	
  and	
  conceptual	
  art	
  from	
  dafen	
  village’,	
  yishu:	
   journal	
  of	
  contemporary	
  chinese	
  art	
   ,	
   ,	
   ,	
  p.	
   .	
   	
  exhibited	
  at	
  lufthansa	
  studios,	
  dorchester,	
  massachusetts,	
   .	
   	
  andrea	
  sherrill	
  evans,	
  ‘john	
  c.	
  gonzalez’,	
  temporary	
  land	
  bridge:	
  a	
  blog	
  of	
  artist	
  interviews,	
  studio	
  &	
   gallery	
  visits,	
  may	
   ,	
   :	
  http://temporarylandbridge.com/	
  (accessed	
  june	
   ,	
   ).	
  winnie	
  won	
  yin	
   wong	
  kindly	
  drew	
  my	
  attention	
  to	
  this	
  work	
  by	
  gonzalez.	
   	
   	
   julie	
  an,	
  a	
  korean	
  artist	
  who	
  uses	
  photography,	
  appear	
  on	
  artlink@sotheby’s. 	
  in	
  her	
  work,	
  an	
   clearly	
  responds	
  to	
  the	
  artwork	
  role-­‐playing	
  works	
  of	
  the	
  long-­‐established	
  artists	
  cindy	
  sherman	
   and	
  morimura	
  yasumasa.	
  if	
  we	
  select	
  the	
  artlink	
  page	
  for	
  an’s	
  odalisque,	
  we	
  learn	
  that	
  it	
  exists	
   in	
  an	
  edition	
  of	
  three,	
  and	
  that	
  its	
  status	
  is	
  ‘sold.’ 	
  no	
  matter,	
  though,	
  for	
  we	
  can	
  click	
  on	
  the	
   words	
  ‘buy	
  a	
  print	
  of	
  this	
  artwork.’	
  this	
  opens	
  a	
  link	
  to	
  art go:	
  ‘buy	
  high-­‐end	
  reproductions’. 	
   just	
  as	
  on	
  the	
  non-­‐artworld	
  commercial	
  reproduction	
  sites,	
  you	
  can	
  select	
  the	
  print	
  size	
  of	
  your	
   choice.	
  once	
  again,	
  a	
  sofa	
  helpfully	
  gives	
  you	
  a	
  sense	
  of	
  scale.	
  one	
  has	
  to	
  think	
  quite	
  hard	
   before	
  realizing	
  that	
  it	
  is	
  actually	
  a	
  limitlessly	
  producible	
  reproduction	
  that	
  is	
  on	
  offer.	
  the	
  one	
   distinction	
  between	
  the	
  reproductions	
  from	
  sotheby’s	
  art go	
  and	
  from	
  dafen	
  village	
  is	
  that	
  the	
   former	
  are	
  photographic	
  prints	
  whereas	
  the	
  latter	
  are	
  hand-­‐painted.	
  	
   	
   do	
  all	
  these	
  overlaps	
  and	
  similarities	
  suggest	
  that	
  distinctions	
  among	
  avant-­‐garde,	
   traditional,	
  and	
  assembly-­‐line	
  mass	
  commercial	
  art	
  in	
  china	
  are	
  breaking	
  down,	
  and	
  also	
   between	
  artworld	
  art	
  and	
  non-­‐artworld	
  art	
  more	
  broadly?	
  in	
  terms	
  of	
  production,	
  this	
  would	
   not	
  seem	
  to	
  be	
  the	
  case.	
  there	
  are	
  still	
  social	
  distinctions	
  between	
  the	
  art	
  of	
  artists	
  who	
  are	
   educated	
  in	
  art	
  schools,	
  so	
  certified	
  as	
  artists,	
  and	
  artists	
  who	
  work	
  predominantly	
  as	
  artisans	
   outside	
  this	
  system.	
  consumption,	
  though,	
  is	
  another	
  matter.	
  distinction	
  depends	
  largely	
  on	
   encounter	
  with	
  actual	
  works	
  in	
  their	
  unique,	
  or	
  at	
  least	
  peculiar,	
  physicality.	
  when	
  encounter	
  is	
   virtual,	
  with	
  electronic	
  tokens	
  of	
  the	
  artwork	
  imaginable	
  in	
  any	
  convenient	
  size	
  in	
  relation	
  to	
  a	
   sofa,	
  that	
  distinction	
  is	
  blurred.	
  the	
  world	
  wide	
  web	
  has	
  not	
  created	
  this	
  phenomenon	
  on	
  its	
   own,	
  but	
  it	
  has	
  certainly	
  accelerated	
  and	
  strengthened	
  the	
  blurring	
  effect.	
  	
   	
   all	
  four	
  types	
  of	
  art	
  being	
  produced	
  in	
  china	
  share	
  a	
  complex	
  of	
  characteristics:	
  imitation,	
   emulation,	
  and	
  copying.	
  examining	
  how	
  this	
  is	
  manifested	
  in	
  a	
  wide	
  variety	
  of	
  ways	
  is	
  vital	
  to	
   understanding	
  what	
  is	
  at	
  stake	
  aesthetically	
  in	
  chinese	
  art	
  in	
  relation	
  to	
  the	
  supposed	
   globalization	
  of	
  values.	
  	
   	
   while	
  copying	
  is	
  not	
  an	
  exclusively	
  chinese	
  phenomenon—copyists	
  work	
  in	
  vietnam,	
   thailand,	
  and	
  elsewhere—copying	
  western	
  art	
  in	
  china	
  goes	
  back	
  to	
  the	
  eighteenth	
  century,	
   and,	
  as	
  we	
  have	
  seen,	
  was	
  developed	
  on	
  a	
  large	
  workshop	
  scale	
  by	
  those	
  artists	
  operating	
  in	
   canton	
  under	
  the	
  name	
  of	
  lam	
  qua	
  from	
  the	
   s	
  onwards.	
  much	
  chinese	
  traditional	
  brush	
   painting	
  practice	
  centered	
  on	
  the	
  imitation	
  and	
  emulation	
  by	
  aspirant	
  or	
  even	
  highly	
   accomplished	
  artists	
  of	
  works	
  by	
  their	
  revered	
  predecessors,	
  constituting	
  what	
  xu	
  bing	
  has	
   termed	
  a	
  conversation	
  between	
  generations.	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  artists,	
  many	
  of	
  whom	
  have	
   turned	
  their	
  attention	
  to	
  the	
  art	
  of	
  the	
  west—both	
  early	
  european	
  modernism	
  emulated	
  by	
   their	
  own	
  predecessors	
  in	
  the	
  first	
  half	
  of	
  the	
  twentieth	
  century,	
  and	
  predominantly	
  american	
   high	
  modernism	
  of	
  the	
   s,	
  ‘ s,	
  and	
  beyond—also	
  emulate	
  chinese	
  traditional	
  art.	
  indeed,	
   they	
  are	
  under	
  considerable	
  unspoken	
  pressure	
  to	
  do	
  so,	
  both	
  in	
  china,	
  and	
  in	
  the	
  west.	
  much	
   chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  art	
  making	
  occurs	
  as	
  instances	
  of	
  the	
  fulfillment	
  of	
  just	
  this	
  unarticulated	
   expectation.	
  the	
  consequence	
  is	
  double-­‐edged:	
  without	
  denying	
  that	
  the	
  results	
  can	
  be	
   extremely	
  rewarding	
  in	
  every	
  sense,	
  there	
  are	
  inhibitory	
  consequences	
  to	
  conforming—however	
   unwittingly—to	
  a	
  stereotype.	
  artworld	
  institutions	
  no	
  less	
  than	
  non-­‐artworld	
  commercial	
  art	
   enterprises	
  foster	
  this	
  phenomenon,	
  termed	
  by	
  winnie	
  won	
  yin	
  wong	
  ‘staging’.	
  the	
  next	
   section	
  examines	
  how	
  this	
  works	
  in	
  detail	
  by	
  addressing	
  two	
  recent	
  exhibitions.	
   	
   .	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  see:	
  http://www.artlink.com/iya/artist.asp?aid= 	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  see:	
  http://www.artlink.com/iya/gallery.asp?wid= 	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  see:	
  http://www.artlink.com/ar go/sizes.asp?wid= 	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
   	
   between	
  november,	
   	
  and	
  february,	
   ,	
  the	
  museum	
  of	
  fine	
  arts,	
  boston	
  (mfa)	
  held	
  an	
   ambitious	
  and	
  striking	
  exhibition,	
  fresh	
  ink:	
  ten	
  takes	
  on	
  chinese	
  tradition.	
  the	
  museum	
   website	
  describes	
  it	
  as	
  follows:	
   	
   in	
  this	
  groundbreaking	
  exhibition,	
  contemporary	
  chinese	
  ink	
  painters	
  engage	
  in	
  dialogue	
   with	
  classical	
  artworks	
  from	
  china’s	
  past.	
  at	
  the	
  core	
  of	
  this	
  exhibition’s	
  concept	
  is	
  an	
  artist-­‐ in-­‐residency	
  program.	
  leading	
  artists	
  from	
  china	
  and	
  the	
  chinese	
  diaspora	
  have	
  come	
  to	
   boston	
  to	
  study	
  the	
  mfa’s	
  superb	
  collection	
  of	
  chinese	
  art,	
  allowing	
  them	
  to	
  create	
  new	
   works	
  in	
  direct	
  response	
  to	
  the	
  museum’s	
  permanent	
  collection.	
  in	
  the	
  exhibition,	
  the	
  new	
   works	
  and	
  the	
  masterpieces	
  they	
  refer	
  to	
  will	
  be	
  juxtaposed	
  in	
  the	
  new	
  gund	
  gallery—the	
   ancient	
  will	
  historicize	
  the	
  contemporary,	
  while	
  the	
  contemporary	
  will	
  revitalize	
  the	
   ancient. 	
   	
   in	
   ,	
  ten	
  artists,	
  all	
  but	
  one	
  directly	
  or	
  indirectly	
  from	
  china,	
  took	
  up	
  residencies	
  at	
  the	
  mfa.	
   each	
  was	
  charged	
  specifically	
  with	
  exploring	
  the	
  museum’s	
  fine	
  collection	
  of	
  chinese	
  art,	
   choosing	
  a	
  work	
  from	
  it,	
  and	
  then	
  producing	
  new	
  work	
  in	
  response.	
  this	
  project	
  was	
  the	
   brainchild	
  of	
  the	
  mfa’s	
  curator	
  of	
  chinese	
  art,	
  hao	
  sheng.	
  hao	
  was	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  new	
  cohort	
  of	
   accomplished	
  young	
  art	
  museum	
  curators	
  featured	
  in	
  an	
  article	
  in	
  the	
  new	
  york	
  times	
  in	
  march,	
   . 	
  hao	
  is	
  a	
  native	
  of	
  shanghai,	
  but	
  was	
  educated	
  at	
  the	
  college	
  of	
  wooster,	
  ohio,	
  where	
  he	
   changed	
  his	
  field	
  of	
  study	
  from	
  physics	
  to	
  studio	
  arts	
  and	
  art	
  history.	
  he	
  then	
  apprenticed	
  to	
  a	
   master	
  ceramicist	
  in	
  japan	
  for	
  three	
  years	
  before	
  returning	
  to	
  the	
  usa	
  to	
  begin	
  doctoral	
  studies	
   in	
  chinese	
  art	
  history	
  at	
  harvard	
  university.	
  under	
   	
  years	
  old,	
  he	
  was	
  appointed	
  to	
  the	
   curatorship	
  at	
  the	
  mfa	
  even	
  before	
  completing	
  his	
  dissertation.	
  	
   	
   all	
  but	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  ten	
  artists	
  for	
  whom	
  hao	
  arranged	
  residencies	
  chose	
  chinese	
  objects	
  with	
   which	
  to	
  enter	
  into	
  dialogues.	
  six	
  of	
  the	
  ten	
  chose	
  painted	
  handscrolls	
  dating	
  from	
  between	
  the	
   eleventh	
  and	
  the	
  fifteenth	
  centuries:	
  liu	
  xiadong,	
  zeng	
  xiaojun,	
  li	
  huayi,	
  qiu	
  ting,	
  li	
  jin,	
  and	
  the	
   only	
  woman	
  among	
  the	
  ten,	
  yu	
  hong.	
  one—qin	
  feng—chose	
  a	
  late	
  eleventh	
  to	
  early	
  tenth-­‐ century	
  bc	
  inscribed	
  bronze	
  ceremonial	
  wine	
  vessel.	
  liu	
  dan	
  chose	
  a	
  ying	
  limestone	
  scholar’s	
   rock	
  collected	
  in	
  the	
  seventeenth-­‐century;	
  while	
  xu	
  bing	
  selected	
  the	
  only	
  twentieth-­‐century	
   chinese	
  work—the	
  woodblock	
  printed	
  book,	
  the	
  mustard	
  seed	
  garden	
  manual	
  of	
  painting,	
   published	
  in	
   -­‐ ,	
  but	
  initially	
  published	
  in	
   .	
  	
   	
   the	
  only	
  surprise	
  was	
  the	
  choice	
  of	
  jackson	
  pollock’s	
   	
  painting	
  in	
  oil,	
  enamel,	
  and	
   aluminum	
  paint	
  on	
  canvas,	
  number	
   .	
  long	
  and	
  narrow,	
  it	
  was	
  displayed	
  horizontally,	
  like	
  an	
   unrolled	
  chinese	
  handscroll,	
  in	
  the	
  same	
  orientation	
  in	
  which	
  it	
  had	
  originally	
  been	
  conceived	
   and	
  painted	
  in	
  pollock’s	
  then	
  innovative	
  drip	
  manner.	
  this	
  was	
  the	
  choice	
  of	
  arnold	
  chang,	
  who,	
   perhaps	
  not	
  coincidentally,	
  was	
  born	
  and	
  raised	
  in	
  new	
  york	
  city.	
  we	
  should	
  be	
  surprised	
  that	
   this	
  glaring	
  exception	
  should	
  be	
  a	
  surprise.	
  hao’s	
  assumption	
  in	
  curating	
  the	
  project	
  was	
  that	
  his	
   guests	
  would—indeed	
  should—work	
  with	
  chinese	
  material.	
  only	
  chang	
  transgressed,	
  producing	
   and	
  exhibiting	
  secluded	
  valley	
  in	
  the	
  cold	
  mountains	
  in	
  response	
  to	
  the	
  pollock.	
  it	
  is	
  an	
  ink-­‐on-­‐ paper	
  handscroll	
  resembling	
  a	
  traditional	
  chinese	
  landscape	
  painting.	
  as	
  joseph	
  scheier-­‐dolberg	
   expresses	
  it	
  in	
  the	
  exhibition	
  catalogue,	
  ‘chang	
  is	
  using	
  number	
   	
  to	
  teach	
  us	
  how	
  to	
  look	
  at	
   chinese	
  paintings,	
  urging	
  us	
  to	
  engage	
  in	
  the	
  intensive	
  line-­‐by-­‐line	
  exploration	
  that	
  marked	
  his	
   own	
  education	
  and	
  defines	
  his	
  passion	
  for	
  literati	
  landscape’. 	
  what	
  looks	
  like	
  a	
  possibly	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  see:	
  http://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/fresh-­‐ink	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
  carol	
  vogel,	
  ‘the	
  new	
  guard	
  of	
  curators	
  steps	
  up’,	
  new	
  york	
  times,	
  march	
   ,	
   .	
   	
  hao	
  sheng,	
  fresh	
  ink:	
  ten	
  takes	
  on	
  chinese	
  tradition,	
  with	
  essays	
  by	
  joseph	
  scheier-­‐dolberg	
  and	
  yan	
   yang	
  (boston:	
  museum	
  of	
  fine	
  arts,	
   ),	
  p.	
   .	
  	
   	
   	
   cosmopolitan	
  choice	
  turns	
  out—however	
  interestingly—to	
  be	
  no	
  less	
  local	
  in	
  its	
  focus	
  than	
  that	
   of	
  the	
  other	
  nine	
  artists	
  in	
  the	
  exhibition.	
  	
   	
   there	
  is	
  no	
  escape,	
  after	
  all,	
  from	
  a	
  relentless	
  staging	
  of,	
  emulation	
  of,	
  and	
  dialogue	
  with,	
  a	
   purely	
  local	
  past	
  conceived	
  of	
  not	
  as	
  providing	
  material	
  to	
  be	
  equaled	
  and	
  excelled	
  in	
  a	
   competition	
  with	
  predecessors	
  while	
  striving	
  for	
  originality	
  and	
  achieving	
  progress,	
  as	
  the	
   modern	
  western	
  ideology	
  of	
  art	
  making	
  has	
  it.	
  rather,	
  with	
  their	
  contributions	
  these	
   contemporary	
  artists	
  add	
  to	
  an	
  incrementally	
  formed	
  permanent	
  present	
  of	
  works	
  they	
  can	
   never,	
  in	
  any	
  sense,	
  supersede.	
  this	
  is	
  so	
  even	
  when	
  they	
  represent	
  unmistakable	
   contemporaneity,	
  even	
  american—specifically	
  bostonian—contemporaneity,	
  as	
  in	
  li	
  jin’s	
   reminiscence	
  to	
  antiquity,	
   -­‐ 	
  (ink	
  and	
  color	
  on	
  paper,	
   	
  album	
  leaves	
  on	
  seven	
  hanging	
   scrolls)	
  in	
  which	
  a	
  figure	
  wears	
  a	
  boston	
  red	
  sox	
  baseball	
  cap.	
  yet	
  even	
  here,	
  staging	
  emulation	
   takes	
  precedence	
  over	
  cultural	
  translation.	
   	
   in	
  his	
  own	
  work	
  of	
  copying	
  for	
  the	
  mfa	
  exhibition,	
  mustard	
  seed	
  garden	
  landscape	
  scroll	
   ( -­‐ ),	
  xu	
  bing	
  deconstructs	
  rather	
  than	
  simply	
  conforms	
  to	
  the	
  artifice	
  and	
  conventions	
  of	
   traditional	
  chinese	
  painting.	
  when	
  it	
  was	
  first	
  published	
  in	
   ,	
  the	
  mustard	
  seed	
  garden	
   manual	
  of	
  painting	
  made	
  widely	
  available	
  through	
  woodblock	
  printing	
  the	
  particular	
  manners	
  of	
   representing	
  individual	
  motifs	
  associated	
  with	
  great	
  painters.	
  these	
  were	
  the	
  ways	
  of	
   representing	
  human	
  figures,	
  trees,	
  mountains,	
  and	
  all	
  other	
  constituents	
  of	
  landscape	
  paintings	
   that	
  artists	
  were	
  to	
  copy	
  and	
  incorporate	
  fittingly	
  into	
  their	
  own	
  works.	
  because	
  the	
  manual	
  was	
   continuously	
  in	
  print,	
  its	
  codified	
  pictorial	
  formulae	
  held	
  sway	
  for	
  some	
  three	
  hundred	
  years.	
  xu	
   reproduced	
  individual	
  motifs,	
  arranged	
  them	
  in	
  his	
  own	
  long	
  handscroll	
  landscape	
  composition	
   without	
  concealing	
  the	
  joins,	
  or	
  observing	
  the	
  decorum	
  that	
  governed	
  the	
  proper	
  choice	
  and	
   combination	
  of	
  motifs.	
  what	
  is	
  more,	
  his	
  handscroll	
  is	
  not	
  painted,	
  but	
  rather	
  printed	
  from	
   woodblocks,	
  like	
  the	
  manual,	
  thereby	
  transgressing	
  propriety	
  yet	
  further.	
  like	
  a	
  book	
  from	
  the	
   sky,	
  with	
  its	
  subtly	
  outrageous	
  ‘false’	
  and	
  literally	
  meaningless	
  host	
  of	
  characters,	
  xu	
  overturns	
   chinese	
  conventions	
  even	
  while	
  seeming	
  to	
  observe	
  them	
  by	
  means	
  of	
  producing	
  an	
  artwork	
   that	
  flies	
  in	
  the	
  face	
  of	
  traditional	
  taste	
  while	
  using	
  its	
  very	
  ingredients.	
  yet	
  like	
  all	
  worlds	
  turned	
   upside	
  down,	
  this	
  apparently	
  subversive	
  gesture	
  is	
  ultimately	
  confirmatory	
  of	
  traditional	
  values,	
   for	
  it	
  overturns	
  merely,	
  rather	
  than	
  proposes	
  an	
  alternative.	
  	
   	
   one	
  can	
  say	
  the	
  same	
  of	
  another	
  project	
  by	
  xu	
  bing.	
  it,	
  too,	
  is	
  a	
  staging	
  of	
  artists’,	
  curators’	
   and	
  critics’	
  most	
  profound	
  expectations	
  about	
  the	
  imitative	
  and	
  emulative	
  character	
  of	
  chinese	
   art,	
  whether	
  modernist,	
  avant-­‐garde,	
  traditional,	
  or	
  mass	
  commercial.	
  those	
  who	
  entered	
  the	
   british	
  museum	
  between	
  may	
   	
  and	
  july	
   ,	
   ,	
  and	
  turned	
  right	
  immediately	
  towards	
   room	
   ,	
  saw	
  against	
  the	
  deep	
  blue	
  background	
  of	
  the	
  gallery	
  walls,	
  a	
  freestanding,	
  sixteen-­‐foot-­‐ high	
  screen	
  supporting	
  a	
  chinese	
  landscape. 	
  the	
  image	
  of	
  steeply	
  receding	
  mountains,	
  forest,	
   and	
  river	
  had	
  the	
  appearance	
  of	
  a	
  monochrome	
  brush-­‐and-­‐ink	
  drawing,	
  a	
  monumental	
  hanging	
   scroll.	
  the	
  surface	
  was	
  backlit,	
  so	
  the	
  landscape	
  seemed	
  painted	
  not	
  on	
  the	
  side	
  facing	
  the	
   viewer,	
  but	
  on	
  the	
  reverse	
  of	
  the	
  translucent	
  screen.	
  on	
  the	
  left	
  was	
  a	
  smaller	
  hanging	
  scroll	
   with	
  an	
  identical	
  landscape	
  composition.	
  a	
  label	
  stated	
  that	
  the	
  scholar-­‐artist	
  wang	
  shimin	
  had	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  the	
  account	
  that	
  follows	
  is	
  adapted	
  from	
  my	
  review	
  of	
  xu	
  bing,	
  background	
  story	
   	
  in	
  artus	
   (forthcoming).	
  see	
  also	
  the	
  press	
  release	
  at	
   http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/news_and_press/press_releases/ /xu_bing_at_the_bri tish_museum.aspx	
  (accessed	
  july	
   ,	
   ).	
  i	
  am	
  also	
  grateful	
  to	
  neil	
  macgregor	
  (director	
  of	
  the	
  british	
   museum),	
  and	
  the	
  curator	
  responsible	
  for	
  the	
  exhibition,	
  jan	
  stuart	
  (keeper	
  of	
  the	
  department	
  of	
  asia,	
   british	
  museum)	
  for	
  comments	
  expressed	
  in	
  email	
  correspondence.	
   	
   	
   painted	
  it	
  in	
   . 	
  why	
  had	
  xu	
  bing	
  reproduced	
  it?	
  was	
  he	
  no	
  more	
  than	
  staging	
  the	
  chinese	
   propensity	
  to	
  imitate,	
  emulate,	
  or	
  even	
  simply	
  copy?	
   	
   those	
  who	
  ventured	
  round	
  the	
  back	
  discovered	
  the	
  artifice.	
  the	
  light-­‐box,	
  open	
  at	
  the	
  rear,	
   was	
  edged	
  with	
  fluorescent	
  tubes.	
  a	
  jumble	
  of	
  branches,	
  leaves,	
  twigs,	
  and	
  teased	
  hemp	
  fiber	
   was	
  stuck	
  to	
  the	
  screen	
  with	
  scotch	
  tape.	
  similar,	
  locally	
  gathered	
  material,	
  together	
  with	
  stubs	
   of	
  colored	
  chalk	
  and	
  rolls	
  of	
  tape,	
  littered	
  the	
  inside	
  of	
  the	
  bottom	
  of	
  the	
  light-­‐box.	
  on	
  returning	
   to	
  the	
  front,	
  the	
  viewer	
  could	
  disbelievingly	
  correlate	
  the	
  shriveled	
  vegetation	
  stuck	
  to	
  the	
   screen	
  with	
  the	
  exquisite	
  image	
  on	
  the	
  front.	
  xu	
  had	
  recreated	
  wang’s	
  landscape	
  not	
  in	
  ink,	
  but	
   with	
  the	
  shadows	
  cast	
  by	
  vegetable	
  fragments	
  stuck	
  to	
  the	
  back	
  of	
  frosted	
  acrylic.	
  where	
  twigs	
   and	
  leaves	
  stood	
  out	
  slightly	
  from	
  the	
  surface,	
  the	
  shadows	
  lost	
  depth,	
  darkness,	
  and	
  clarity.	
   their	
  penumbrae	
  imitated	
  the	
  delicate	
  wash	
  of	
  diluted	
  ink.	
  the	
  illusion	
  was	
  intense.	
  xu	
  had	
  not	
   merely	
  engaged	
  in	
  a	
  standard	
  form	
  of	
  copying	
  or	
  even	
  of	
  emulation.	
  rather,	
  he	
  had	
  created	
  a	
   contemporary	
  trompe	
  l’oeil	
  that	
  examines	
  the	
  conditions	
  of	
  representation	
  in	
  the	
  chinese	
   tradition,	
  yet	
  participates	
  fully	
  in	
  contemporary	
  western	
  self-­‐reflectivity.	
  	
   	
   this	
  is	
  a	
  work	
  of	
  multiple	
  resonances.	
  what	
  are	
  wang’s	
  ink	
  and	
  paper	
  but	
  products	
  derived	
   from	
  the	
  vegetable	
  world,	
  like	
  xu’s,	
  only	
  more	
  thoroughly	
  processed	
  and	
  refined?	
  not	
  before	
   viewers	
  had	
  entered	
  the	
  zone	
  of	
  direct	
  light	
  behind	
  the	
  screen	
  were	
  they	
  literally	
  enlightened.	
  in	
   front	
  of	
  it,	
  the	
  viewer	
  occupied	
  the	
  chinese	
  equivalent	
  of	
  plato’s	
  cave,	
  contemplating	
  the	
   illusion	
  of	
  a	
  shadow	
  world	
  taken	
  to	
  be	
  a	
  real	
  painted	
  representation;	
  yet	
  behind	
  it	
  one	
  could	
  see	
   that	
  this	
  apparent	
  reality	
  comprised	
  shriveled	
  remnants	
  of	
  actuality.	
   	
   background	
  story	
   	
  was	
  the	
  latest	
  in	
  xu’s	
  series	
  of	
  scroll	
  recreations	
  using	
  light-­‐and-­‐shadow	
   boxes,	
  his	
  first	
  in	
  vertical	
  format.	
  the	
  project	
  conformed	
  to,	
  yet	
  extended,	
  a	
  peculiarly	
  chinese	
   procedure	
  of	
  imitation,	
  emulation,	
  and	
  conversation	
  with	
  older	
  art.	
  in	
  his	
   	
  hanging	
  scroll	
   landscape,	
  wang	
  shimin	
  had	
  imitated,	
  emulated,	
  and	
  conversed	
  with	
  scroll	
  paintings	
  by	
  huang	
   gongwang,	
  his	
  predecessor	
  by	
  three	
  hundred	
  years.	
  vice-­‐president	
  of	
  the	
  china	
  central	
   academy	
  of	
  fine	
  arts,	
  beijing,	
  xu	
  is	
  a	
  government	
  official,	
  as	
  was	
  wang	
  over	
  three	
  hundred	
   years	
  previously.	
  as	
  such,	
  xu	
  is	
  surely	
  aware	
  that	
  the	
  detritus	
  of	
  reality	
  only	
  finds	
  its	
   representational	
  perfection	
  in	
  the	
  contrivance	
  of	
  shadows	
  to	
  maintain	
  illusions.	
  in	
  background	
   story	
   ,	
  as	
  in	
  earlier	
  works	
  in	
  this	
  series	
  executed	
  in	
  china,	
  korea,	
  germany,	
  and	
  the	
  usa,	
  xu	
   exposed	
  the	
  illusion	
  of	
  perfection	
  to	
  be	
  the	
  skillfully	
  improvised	
  manipulation	
  of	
  messy	
  reality.	
   thus	
  is	
  the	
  life	
  in	
  art.	
   	
   	
   .	
   i	
  have	
  only	
  been	
  able	
  to	
  look	
  at	
  a	
  few	
  examples	
  of	
  the	
  staging	
  of	
  chineseness	
  in	
  some	
  chinese	
   avant-­‐garde	
  art	
  practice,	
  yet	
  it	
  occurs	
  in	
  all	
  four	
  types	
  of	
  art	
  practice	
  current	
  in	
  china.	
  i	
  want	
  to	
   be	
  clear,	
  though,	
  that	
  current	
  chinese	
  art	
  practice	
  cannot	
  simply	
  be	
  reduced	
  to	
  matters	
  of	
   staging	
  chineseness	
  or	
  staging	
  emulation.	
  overturning,	
  parodying,	
  contesting,	
  revising,	
  and	
   translating	
  various	
  conventions	
  of	
  chinese	
  art	
  and	
  expectations	
  about	
  it	
  are	
  among	
  the	
  practices	
   open	
  to	
  contemporary	
  chinese	
  artists,	
  though	
  none	
  of	
  these	
  necessarily	
  precludes	
  such	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  wang	
  shimin	
  ( -­‐ ),	
  hanging	
  scroll:	
  mountain	
  with	
  river,	
  bridge,	
  and	
  building,	
  ink	
  on	
  paper,	
   , , . ,	
  british	
  museum,	
  london;	
  collection	
  database	
  entry:	
   http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_details.aspx?cu rrentpage= &titlesubject=on&toadbc=ad&objectid= &orig=% fresearch% fsearch_the_collection_ database.aspx&partid= &searchtext=wang+shimin&fromadbc=ad&numpages= 	
  (accessed	
  september	
   ,	
   ).	
   	
   	
   staging. 	
  indeed,	
  staging	
  of	
  the	
  kind	
  i	
  have	
  tried	
  to	
  identify	
  is	
  absent	
  only	
  infrequently.	
  what	
   are	
  the	
  larger	
  aesthetic	
  consequences	
  of	
  this	
  staging	
  of	
  chineseness	
  in	
  relation	
  to	
  the	
   production	
  and	
  reception	
  of	
  chinese	
  art	
  in	
  the	
  wider	
  world?	
  while	
  a	
  partly	
  homogenized,	
   cosmopolitan	
  artworld	
  continues	
  to	
  function,	
  churning	
  huge	
  sums	
  of	
  money	
  and	
  sending	
   artworld	
  art	
  to	
  new	
  centers	
  of	
  vastly	
  unevenly	
  distributed	
  wealth,	
  such	
  as	
  china,	
  it	
  does	
  so	
  in	
   part	
  on	
  the	
  basis	
  of	
  misapprehension	
  after	
  misapprehension,	
  as	
  participants	
  of	
  all	
  kinds	
  tend	
  to	
   see	
  what	
  they	
  want	
  to	
  see	
  in	
  the	
  work,	
  and	
  nothing	
  more.	
  while	
  chinese	
  avant-­‐garde	
  art	
   functions	
  perfectly	
  well	
  by	
  conforming	
  to	
  western	
  artworld	
  standards—physically,	
  conceptually,	
   thematically—it	
  also	
  engages	
  with	
  forms	
  and	
  issues	
  peculiar	
  to	
  its	
  local	
  circumstances	
  that	
  can	
   remain	
  opaque	
  to	
  cultural	
  outsiders.	
  meanwhile,	
  and	
  more	
  obviously,	
  revived	
  traditional	
  art	
  in	
   china	
  and	
  elsewhere	
  continues	
  to	
  require	
  explicit	
  cultural	
  translation	
  if	
  it	
  is	
  to	
  travel	
  at	
  all.	
  few	
   concerned	
  with	
  globalized	
  contemporary	
  artworld	
  art	
  pay	
  revived	
  traditional	
  chinese	
  art	
  any	
   mind,	
  unless	
  it	
  is	
  the	
  subject	
  of	
  voracious	
  expropriation	
  on	
  artworld	
  terms.	
  all	
  four	
  types	
  of	
  art	
   produced	
  today	
  in	
  china—	
  modernist,	
  avant-­‐garde,	
  traditional,	
  and	
  mass	
  commercial—are	
   shaped	
  at	
  their	
  most	
  fundamental	
  level	
  by	
  a	
  set	
  of	
  expectations	
  shared	
  by	
  artists	
  and	
  all	
  other	
   concerned	
  people	
  in	
  the	
  artworld	
  and	
  beyond	
  regarding	
  the	
  requirement	
  of	
  chinese	
  art	
  to	
  stage	
   chineseness	
  in	
  ways	
  both	
  predictable	
  and	
  unpredictable.	
  this	
  is	
  the	
  fundamental	
  role	
  that	
  most	
   participants	
  in	
  the	
  artworld	
  and	
  the	
  larger	
  commercial	
  world	
  expect	
  of	
  chinese	
  art	
  of	
  whatever	
   type.	
  	
   	
   in	
  the	
  light	
  of	
  this	
  observation,	
  i	
  return	
  to	
  the	
  fundamental	
  question	
  posed	
  earlier:	
  are	
  we	
   to	
  have	
  a	
  single,	
  varied	
  but	
  coherent	
  governing	
  set	
  of	
  values—including	
  aesthetic	
  values—in	
  the	
   artworld?	
  while	
  we	
  should	
  not	
  underestimate	
  the	
  power	
  of	
  financial	
  interests	
  to	
  push	
  the	
   artworld	
  in	
  a	
  globalizing,	
  homogenizing	
  direction,	
  reinforcing	
  stereotypes	
  such	
  as	
  the	
  chinese	
   staging	
  of	
  imitation	
  and	
  emulation,	
  i	
  see	
  a	
  proliferation	
  of	
  variety	
  of	
  values	
  as	
  unavoidable	
  while	
   contemporary	
  artworld	
  practitioners	
  continue	
  to	
  introduce	
  local	
  concerns	
  both	
  wittingly	
  and	
   unwittingly.	
  i	
  also	
  see	
  the	
  self-­‐claimed	
  high	
  status	
  of	
  artworld	
  art	
  being	
  progressively	
  challenged	
   by	
  the	
  vitality	
  worldwide	
  of	
  non-­‐artworld	
  art,	
  itself	
  embodying	
  a	
  huge	
  variety	
  of	
  values— including	
  aesthetic	
  values.	
  while	
  some	
  of	
  these	
  are	
  resistant	
  to	
  western	
  homogenization,	
   others	
  conform	
  to	
  it.	
  in	
  the	
  light	
  of	
  this	
  realization,	
  i	
  ask	
  a	
  final	
  question:	
  can	
  there	
  be	
  a	
   successful	
  aesthetic	
  resistance	
  to	
  the	
  effects	
  of	
  the	
  global	
  artworld	
  and	
  non-­‐artworld,	
  mass	
   commercial	
  art	
  markets?	
  the	
  short	
  answer	
  in	
  an	
  era	
  of	
  proliferating,	
  ruthless	
  hypercapitalism	
  is	
   no.	
  yet	
  insofar	
  as	
  aesthetics	
  is	
  politics	
  by	
  other	
  means,	
  there	
  are	
  urgent	
  concerns	
  to	
  which	
   philosophers	
  and	
  other	
  scholars	
  can	
  give	
  voice:	
  the	
  conditions	
  of	
  employment	
  of	
  artisan	
  artists,	
   and	
  the	
  persecution	
  of	
  artworld	
  artists,	
  in	
  china	
  and	
  elsewhere.	
  in	
  the	
  meantime,	
  people— artists—create	
  surprises.	
  some,	
  at	
  least,	
  will	
  always	
  make	
  aesthetically	
  challenging,	
  provocative,	
   and	
  even	
  inspiring	
  work.	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  i	
  owe	
  this	
  point	
  to	
  john	
  lysaker.	
   editorial manager(tm) for zdm - the international journal on mathematics education manuscript draft manuscript number: zdmi-d- - title: a historic overview of the interplay of theology and philosophy in the arts, mathematics and sciences article type: issue - keywords: corresponding author: prof. bharath sriraman, ph.d. corresponding author's institution: the university of montana first author: bharath sriraman, ph.d. order of authors: bharath sriraman, ph.d. abstract: the etymology of the word "mathematics" can be traced to greek and latin roots with meanings such as "to think or have one's mind aroused" or "the art of knowing". the natural philosophers of the renaissance did not draw an explicit distinction between mathematics, the sciences and to an extent the arts. in this paper we first explore connections forged by the thinkers of the renaissance between mathematics, the arts and the sciences, with attention to the nature of the underlying questions that call for a particular mode of inquiry. second, we will examine both the relationship and individual differences between innovative behaviors across domains. recently robert root-bernstein ( ) introduced the construct of polymathy to suggest that innovative individuals are equally likely to contribute both to the arts and the sciences and either consciously or unconsciously forge links between the two. several contemporary examples are presented of individuals who pursued multiple fields of research and were able to combine the aesthetic with the scientific. finally, we will also discuss the possibilities for re-introducing university courses on natural philosophy as a means to integrate mathematics, the arts and the sciences. a historic overview of the interplay of theology and philosophy in the arts, mathematics and sciences bharath sriraman the university of montana (usa) the etymology of the word “mathematics” can be traced to greek and latin roots with meanings such as “to think or have one's mind aroused” or “the art of knowing”. the natural philosophers of the renaissance did not draw an explicit distinction between mathematics, the sciences and to an extent the arts. in this paper we first explore connections forged by the thinkers of the renaissance between mathematics, the arts and the sciences, with attention to the nature of the underlying questions that call for a particular mode of inquiry. second, we will examine both the relationship and individual differences between innovative behaviors across domains. recently robert root-bernstein ( ) introduced the construct of polymathy to suggest that innovative individuals are equally likely to contribute both to the arts and the sciences and either consciously or unconsciously forge links between the two. several contemporary examples are presented of individuals who pursued multiple fields of research and were able to combine the aesthetic with the scientific. finally, we will also discuss the possibilities for re-introducing university courses on natural philosophy as a means to integrate mathematics, the arts and the sciences. introduction the history and development of mathematics is intricately connected to the rise and fall of ancient and modern civilizations. the progression of humanity from hunter-gather societies onto societies with sophisticated astronomical calendars, visually pleasing architectural forms (temples, mosques, cathedrals etc) reveals our quest to understand the cosmos, our attempts to represent and symbolize it via patterns, symmetries and structure. a common characteristic of many civilizations (both ancient and modern) is the quest to answer three basic philosophical questions: ( ) what is reality? or what is the nature of the world around us? this is linked to the general ontological question of distinguishing objects (real versus imagined, concrete versus abstract, existent versus non-existent, independent versus dependent and so forth). ( ) how do we go about knowing the world around us? [the methodological question, which presents possibilities to various disciplines to develop methodological paradigms] and, ( ) how can we be certain in the “truth” of what we know? [the epistemological question]. the interplay of mathematics, arts and sciences is found in the attempts to answer these fundamental philosophical questions. in this sense philosophy can be viewed as the foundational bridge unifying mathematics, arts and the sciences. in this paper we will first focus on the attempts of the thinkers of the renaissance, who did not view themselves simply as theologians or mathematicians or inventors or painters or philosophers or political theorists, but who thought of themselves as philosophers in the pursuit of knowledge, truth and beauty. then we will try to pinpoint the thinking characteristics of these natural philosophers, particularly the trait of polymathy (root-bernstein, ) which explains innovative behavior across numerous subject specific domains. finally we will examine the implications of these findings for present day high school and university education. manuscript click here to download manuscript: sriraman_philosophy.doc http://www.editorialmanager.com/zdmi/download.aspx?id= &guid= f fc b-b - d- b -f d a b fc&scheme= revisiting the renaissance theology influencing art and science (resulting in powerful mathematics as a consequence) the great works of art during the renaissance, particularly those of italian painters (massacio, brunelleschi , leonardo da vinci , michelangelo , titian, giotto, raphael etc)immediately reveal the interplay of church doctrine with art in that these painters inspired devotion in people by painting divine christian icons. in this process of trying to convey these divine images as realistically and beautifully as possible, these painters moved away from the medieval style of painting (very - dimensional) and essentially created the rules of perspectivity that allowed -d images to be projected onto a flat surface. this suggests that art was instrumental in initiating the mathematical foundations of the true rules of perspective. geometrical optics also played a major role in how artists experimentally arrived at the mathematical rules of perspectivity (e.g., fig . massacio’s holy trinity on previous page). calter ( ) traces a rich lineage of the interaction of optics with art: euclid’s optica ( b.c) - vitruvius' ten books on architecture- ptolemy's optica, (c. a.d) - (the islamic) alhazen's perspectiva, (c. a.d) - roger bacon's opus majus, (c. a.d.), with sections on optics, “whose geometric laws, he maintained, reflected god's manner of spreading his grace throughout the universe – onto john pecham's perspectiva communis, (c. a.d). the amalgamation of mathematical ideas proposed in this lineage was formalized by desargues ( - ) which is today studied in courses on projective geometry. today the visual-artistic side of mathematics is completely lost under the rubble of formalization. however the visual side of mathematics has seen a revival in the th century in the area of fractal geometry due to the work of benoit mandelbrot. this is explored further at a later junction in the paper. the scientists-mathematicians-theologians of the renaissance-post renaissance the relationship between science and theology can be traced back to the pre-socratic greeks. pre-socratic greek society evolved from the typical “sky-god” explanation of creation/reality onto a society that developed a rigorous and systematic philosophy to answer the three aforementioned questions. the pythagorean school (c. b.c) developed a mystical numeric system to designate and describe everything in the universe. they even went so far as to claim that “all things of the universe have a numerical attribute that uniquely describes them”. for instance numbers were designated abstract attributes. such as one: the number of reason, two: the first even or retrieved from http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/histtopics/art.html http://library.thinkquest.org/ /artgal.htm#brunelleschi#brunelleschi http://library.thinkquest.org/ /artgal.htm#davinci#davinci http://library.thinkquest.org/ /artgal.htm#michelangelo#michelangelo http://library.thinkquest.org/ /artgal.htm#titian#titian http://library.thinkquest.org/ /artgal.htm#giotto#giotto sriraman female number (the number of opinion), three: the first true male number (the number of harmony), four: the number of justice or retribution, five: marriage, six: creation and so on… each number had its own personality - masculine or feminine, perfect or incomplete, beautiful or ugly. this feeling modern mathematics has deliberately eliminated, but we still find overtones of it in fiction and poetry. ten was the very best number: it contained in itself the first four integers - one, two, three, and four [ + + + = ] - and these written in dot notation formed a perfect triangle. (brumbaugh, ) further the motion of planets and musical notes were expressed as ratios of numbers. the pythagorean school developed an elaborate numerical system consisting of even and odd numbers to describe the world around them. however plato ( - b.c.e), and aristotle ( - b.c.e) deviated from the mysticism of the pythagoreans and instead attempted to understand the universe via reason. plato suggested that the universe consisted of two realms, the visible realm which was deceptive because of its changing nature and an abstract realm which he believed was eternal and unchanging. within this “dualistic” ontology of reality, plato answered the epistemological question by suggesting that knowledge derived empirically from the changing world was fallible whereas knowledge derived from the abstract realm was infallible or absolute. plato accorded a special place for mathematics in this pursuit of absolute knowledge by claiming that mathematics was derivable independent of the physical senses. thus the purest form of “thought” was mathematical thought as it was deemed capable of deriving “eternal truths” or absolute knowledge. in spite of the alleged motto of the academy, plato distinguished “numbers as ideas” from “numbers as mathematical objects”. unfortunately over time this important distinction faded and platonism approached pythagoreanism, which in turn influenced renaissance philosophers, then modern natural science and thereby again modern philosophy. aristotle on the other hand was an empiricist whose prodigious work left a lasting impression until the th century (namely the dawn of the renaissance). the aristotelian approach to science was empirical and placed a heavy emphasis on perception through the senses. aristotle rejected the platonic notion of the mind’s capacity to intuit /discern a priori reality and instead proposed an a posteriori or empirical methodology whereby knowledge is acquired by the mind. aristotelian science was axiomatic and deductive in nature with the aim of explaining natural phenomenon. the underlying assumption of aristotelian science was that all natural objects were fulfilling a potential determined by an actual prior natural object. for instance, a seed becomes a plant because it is merely fulfilling its potential of becoming a plant. science historians today agree that aristotle was an empiricist, who believed that knowledge is gained via observation, experimentation and experience. the question of whether or not aristotelian science was the origin of dualism is still a matter of present day debate . recent scholarship on post renaissance science and natural philosophy traces a rich intellectual lineage centered on "scholasticized aristotelianism" from th century natural philosophy onto medieval thinkers like aquinas onto aristotle (sriraman & benesch, , p. ). one could argue that aristotle drew a distinction in the natural world between the animate and inanimate, whereas descartes was more focused on the human. descartes’ dualism dominated physics for a substantial period of time. newtonian physics was one of the consequences of the cartesian view point. robinson, h. m. ( ) aristotelian dualism. in j. annas (ed.), oxford studies in ancient philosophy (vol. , pp. - ). oxford: clarendon press. the cambridge history of seventeenth-century philosophy. edited by daniel garber and michael ayers. vols. and ,cambridge: cambridge. university press, . p. thomas aquinas ( - ) synthesized “all that had been argued in western thought up to his time and he showed it to be compatible with christian beliefs” (sharp, , p. ). his argument is superbly summarized by sharp ( ) as follows: …aquinas argued that all our rational knowledge of this world is acquired through sensory experience, on which our minds then reflect. when children are born, their minds are like a clean slate (tabula rasa). aquinas developed a theory of knowledge which is uncompromisingly empirical. the world through which we gain our knowledge is god’s creation, and therefore it is impossible for this gained knowledge to conflict with religious revelation. (p. ) the greek philosophers also stumbled upon the idea of the “infinite”, a sophisticated mathematical abstraction, as evidenced in zeno’s paradoxes . bertrand russell observed that scholastic theology was one of the outcomes of mathematical abstraction (russell, , p. ). his claim is supported by numerous historical examples, a handful of which are presented here. sa’id ibn yusuf (saadia gaon), a th century theologian and leader of the babylonian jews in his theological treatise kitab al-amanat wa-al itiqadat (the book of beliefs and opinions) wrote: how is it possible to establish this concept (of the creator) in our minds when none of our senses have ever perceived him?…it is done in the same way in which our minds recognize the impossibility of things being existent and nonexistent at the same time, although such a situation has never been observed by the senses. (saadia gaon, ) saadia gaon also cleverly reversed zeno’s paradox of achilles and the tortoise to prove that creation occurred. if the world were uncreated, then time would be infinite. but infinite time cannot be traversed. hence, the present moment couldn’t have come about. but since the present moment exists…the world had a beginning. (saadia gaon, ) the ideas of the greeks also had a profound influence on post-renaissance mathematicians like descartes ( - ), pascal( - )and leibniz ( - ) among others. one routinely comes across the use of mathematical analogies to prove the existence of god in the theological works of descartes, leibniz, and pascal. for example, descartes in the fifth meditation states: certainly the idea of god, or a supremely perfect being is one which i find within me, just as surely the idea of any shape or number. and my understanding that it belongs to his nature that he always exists is no less clear and distinct than is the case when i prove of any shape or number that some property belongs to its nature. hence, even if it turned out that not everything on which i have meditated in these past days is true, i ought still to regard the existence of god as having at least the same level of certainty as i have hitherto attributed to the truths in mathematics. (descartes , p. ) zeno (born around b.c.e) was a greek philosopher and logician, and a student of the philosopher parmenides. zeno is remembered for paradoxes that stumped mathematicians for centuries. zeno’s paradoxes evolved from parmenides’ ideas about the illusory nature of motion, change and time. achilles and the tortoise: the running achilles can never catch a crawling tortoise ahead of him because he must first reach where the tortoise started. however, when he reaches there, the tortoise has moved ahead, and achilles must now run to the new position, which by the time he reaches the tortoise has moved ahead, etc. hence the tortoise will always be ahead. sriraman leibniz in theodicy argued that faith and reason were compatible. theologians of all parties, i believe (fanatics alone excepted), agree that no article of faith must imply contradiction or contravene proofs as exact as those of mathematics, where the opposite of the conclusion can be reached ad absurdum, that is, to contradiction. it follows thence that certain writers have been too ready to grant that the holy trinity is contrary to that great principle, which states that two things, which are the same as the third, are also the same as each other. for this principle is a direct consequence of that of contradiction, and forms the basis of all logic; and if it ceases, we can no longer reason with certainty. (leibniz , ) leibniz’s dissertation on the conformity of faith and reason can be interpreted to mean that it is logically contingent and intelligible for a human being to ask why an eternal being exists (craig ). blaise pascal, perhaps the most intriguing mathematical mystic argued for the use of “infinitesimal reasoning” (or reasoning in infinitely small quantities) by proclaiming that the infinitely large and the infinitely small were mysteries of nature that man stumbled on by divine inspiration. pascal is also remembered for his famous wager, where he argued that if god’s existence has a probability of . ( / chance), then it is only rational for us to believe he does exist. pascal in pensees states: if there is a god, he is infinitely incomprehensible, since, having, neither parts nor limits, he has no affinity to us. we are then incapable of knowing either what he is or if he is ... you must wager. it is not optional. you are embarked. which will you choose then? let us weigh the gain and the loss in wagering that god is. let us estimate these two chances. if you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing. wager then without hesitation that he is (pascal, in popkin ) the aforementioned historical examples, viz., the number mysticism of the pythagoreans, the paradoxes of zeno that brought forth the abstraction of the infinite, the attempts of medieval theologians like saadia gaon to systematize theology by constructing uniqueness proofs to theological theorems, and the use of mathematical arguments to prove the existence of a creator by post-renaissance mathematicians, illustrate that there has been a rich interplay between mathematics and theology (sriraman, a). while these aforementioned thinkers of the renaissance and post renaissance who strongly believed in the existence of a creator invoked mathematical arguments to prove their beliefs in their philosophical writings, others such copernicus and galileo, who were professed believers of the catholic church, found it increasingly difficult to believe in the prescribed view of the world (earth) as the center of the universe. their model building during this time period reveals the interplay as well as the conflict between theology and science with mathematics replacing aristotilean logic as the language of description. an infinitesimal is a number that is infinitely small but greater than zero. infinitesimal arguments have historically been viewed as self-contradictory by mathematicians in the area of analysis. the infinitesimal calculus of newton and leibniz was reformulated by karl weierstrass in the th century for the sole purpose of eliminating the use of infinitesimals. in the th century abraham robinson revived the notion of infinitesimals and founded the subject of non-standard analysis to resolve the contradictions posed by infinitesimals within calculus. robinson attempted to use logical concepts and methods to provide a suitable framework for differential and integral calculus. modeling the universe: copernicus-galileo-kepler the ptolemaic model (c. - a.d) of astronomy was based on the assumption that the earth was the center of the universe which was accepted by the catholic church as being compatible with its teachings. however this geocentric view of the world could not explain the curious planetary phenomenon observed by nicholaus copernicus ( - ). that is the retrograde motion (moving backwards and then forwards) of mars, jupiter and saturn, in addition to nearly invariant times that venus and mercury appeared in the sky which is shortly before sunrise and after sunset. fig. claudius ptolemy however these queer motions were perfectly reasonable if one viewed the sun as the center of the “universe” as opposed to the earth. in such a model the peculiarities of the inner planets (mercury and venus) as well as the outer planets (mars, jupiter and saturn) in relation to the earth make perfect sense. the retrograde motion of outer planets is due to the fact that they get overtaken by the earth in its orbitary motion. similarly venus and mercury appear static and only before sunrise and after sunset because their orbitary motions do not allow them to get behind the earth and manifest in the night sky. it is amazing what a little change in perspective does to our perceptions! however the conflicts of copernicus’ findings with church dictum prevented a wider dissemination of his simpler planetary model until his death. centuries later, the great german philosopher, writer, scientist goethe ( - ) reflected on copernicus’ new perspective of our reality: "of all discoveries and opinions, none may have exerted a greater effect on the human spirit than the doctrine of copernicus. the world had scarcely become known as round and complete in itself when it was asked to waive the tremendous privilege of being the center of the universe. never, perhaps, was a greater demand made on mankind - for by this admission so many things vanished in mist and smoke! what became of our eden, our world of innocence, piety and poetry; the testimony of the senses; the conviction of a poetic - religious faith? no wonder his contemporaries did not wish to let all this go and offered every possible resistance to a doctrine which in its converts authorized and demanded a freedom of view and greatness of thought so far unknown, indeed not even dreamed of." galileo galilei ( - ) pushed things further by using mathematics to explain interplanetary motion. in fact many science historians claim that galileo was the first person to systematically use mathematics as the language of science instead of aristotilean logic. aristotle’s conceptions of motion had several flaws which were rectified by galileo by determining that velocity and acceleration were distinct. more importantly the question that vexed copernicus of why the motion of the earth was unfelt (if in fact it was moving) was answered by galileo by suggesting that ( ) only acceleration is felt whereas velocity is unfelt retrieved from http://obs.nineplanets.org/psc/img/ptolemybig.gif retrieved from http://www.blupete.com/literature/biographies/science/copernicus.htm sriraman and invariant except when acted on by an external force (the notion of inertia). thus, galileo suggested that the earth in addition to orbiting around the sun was also rotating on its own axis. needless to say, his attempt to make his model public met with fierce resistance from the church and led to his condemnation by the inquisition. during this same time period the german astronomer johannes kepler ( - ) confirmed and supported many of galileo’s well formulated theories. johannes kepler was born in weil der stadt, württemburg, (and not very far from here). while studying for lutheran ministry at the university of tübingen, he became familiar with the copernican model, which he defended explicitly in the mysterium cosmographicum. the political forces of that time period with his unique personal circumstances, namely his strong adherence to the augsburg confession but rejection of several key lutheran tenets, the use of the calendar introduced by pope gregory xiii, his rejection of the formula of concord and finally his snub to catholicism led to him to exile in prague where he worked for the danish astronomer tycho brahe. with the help of brahe’s data, kepler made several seminal discoveries published in astronomia nova. the beauty of this work lies in the fact that kepler arrived at the first two laws of planetary motion by working with incomplete/imperfect data (we must remember that this data was obtained before the invention of the telescope!). the first two laws were ( ) planets move in ellipses with the sun at one focus, and ( ) the radius vector describes equal areas in equal times. finally the third law was published harmonices mundi in . the third law states that: the squares of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances. incidentally newton’s theory of gravitation grew out of kepler’s third law (and not a fallen apple as suggested by myth). szpiro ( ) recently suggested that among the forces driving kepler’s work during his turbulent tübingen years was to seek a theological explanation to his questions: since god had created a perfect world, he thought it should be possible to discover and understand the geometric principles that govern the universe. after much deliberation kepler believed he had found god’s principles in the regular solids….his explanations of the universe were based on an imaginary system of cubes, spheres and other solids that he thought were fitted between the sun and other planets…published in mysterium cosmographicum. this tome did not unveil any mysteries of the planetary system…since no solids exist that are suspended in the universe. but the book came to the attention of tycho brahe. (szpiro, , p. ) and the rest is history… isaac newton’s ( - ) prodigious work included a mathematical model of the planetary system, in a sense suggesting that the universe was governed by certain laws, expressible via mathematics and discernible by humans (sharp, ). this led to the development of natural philosophy as an answer to the ontological, methodological and epistemological questions with mathematics becoming the medium of establishing truth. one consequence of aristotle’s empiricist tradition was the acceptance of the notion that knowledge of the external world was derived by an active soul , which was in essence separate from that world. salmon ( ) comments : “ it is illuminating to recognize that cartesian dualism offered a way of resolving the conflict between science and religion-which had brought such great troubles to galileo- by providing each with its own separate domain. physical science could deal with matter, while religion could handle whatever pertains to the soul. " (p. ). this led to a growing acceptance among th century natural philosophers in the notion of duality (or dualism). rené descartes ( - ) is considered the founder of this belief system since he initiated the mind-body problem. cartesian dualism essentially proclaims that we are composed of two distinct and basic substances, namely the mind (soul) and matter. matter was the material substance that extended into the world and took up space, whereas the mind (soul) was a thinking substance, which was not “localizable” in space. “if these two aspects (mind-matter) are to be held in equal balance, it seems that it will have to be in some way more subtle than mere juxtaposition ”. the problem of dualism can be reformulated as follows: “one can think of subject and object as two unique and separate natures, neither of which is reducible to each other. the question of course in such a dualistic assumption is ‘how do these two natures relate to each other?’ the modern day renaissance scientists in the th and st centuries have developed the technical tools and the analytic and theoretical maturity necessary for analyzing nature at unprecedented micro and macrocosmic levels. by doing so, they have reaffirmed the dynamic nature of the whole that was reflected in the paradoxes of the ancients. the result is a view of nature in which processes have supplanted ‘things’ in descriptions and explanations. by the end of the th century, limitations of the classical newtonian/euclidean world-view had become increasingly problematic as physicists began exploring nature at the sub-atomic level. the paradoxes posed by uncertainty, incompleteness, non-locality, and wavicles, etc. let it seem apparent that in the sub-atomic world observations and observers are aspects of a whole. the physicist john wheeler comments: “...in the quantum principle we’re instructed that the actual act of making an observation changes what it is that one looks at. to me, this is a perfectly marvelous feature of nature…. so the old word observer simply has to be crossed off the books, and we must put in the new word participator. in this way we’ve come to realize that the universe is a participatory universe.” biologists have found that methodological reductionism, i.e. going to the parts to understand the whole, which was central to the classical physical sciences, is less applicable when dealing with living systems. such an approach may lead to a study not of the ‘living’ but of polkinghorne comments that aristotle’s view of the soul as the underlying “form” or pattern of the body was “taken up by thomas aquinas who rejected platonic dualism that had dominated western christian thinking since augustine.” sir john polkinghorne, science & theology, fortess press, , p. . salmon, w.c.( ). philosophy and the rise of modern science" teaching philosophy, p. . sir polkinghorne, ibid, p. . comment made by the physicist john wheeler in paul buckley and f. david peat: conversations in physics and biology, university of toronto press, , p. - sriraman the ‘dead’, because in the examination of highly complex living systems “only by ripping apart the network at some point can we analyze life. we are therefore limited to the study of ‘dead’ things.” one of the most important shifts in the natural sciences in the modern period has been away from the view of a simple and complete separation between observer and observed to an awareness that an observer also represents a living aspect of that which is being observed-- both as a product of nature and as the mental possibility in nature of observing, as in the notion of the ‘participator universe ’. a synthesis of ‘product’ and ‘process’ are at the heart of the puzzles and paradoxes that we associate with ideas of ‘indeterminacy’ in physics, and with genes in biology. the very concept of ‘objectivity’ maintains that the observed and observer are separate does not hold in the study of “highly complex biological processes such as evolution or the functioning of the central nervous system ... we cannot distance ourselves from the object being considered; indeed, this is so at the very moment we start to think.” it is amazing how close in understanding, and that across six centuries, modern physics and biology are to the neo-confucian philosopher, wang yang-ming’s continuum view of ‘innate knowledge’: the innate knowledge of man is the same as that of plants and trees, tiles and stones…heaven, earth, the myriad things, and man form one body. the point at which this unity is manifested in its most refined and excellent form is the clear intelligence of the human mind. the very process of generalizing implies a belief in the unity of the world: “if the different parts of the universe were not like the members of one body, they would not act on one another…know nothing of one another, and we…would know only one of these parts. we do not ask if nature is one, but how it is one.” the position on mind and nature of theoretical physicists seems consistent with that of the neo-confucian philosopher. another physicist suggest that the heliocentric universe is again becoming geo or human centered in that it is “... formless potentia … and becomes manifest only when observed by conscious beings...of course, we are not the geographical center, but that is not the issue. we are the center of the universe because we are its meaning.” this is yet another amazing shift in perspective. benoit mandelbrot ( - ), a very recognizable name in th century mathematics because of his seminal contributions to the development of fractal geometry has repeatedly emphasized the need to re-orient our perspectives to better understand the world around us. he has often very humbly characterized himself as an “accidental” mathematician. in spite of his early interest and precocity in the study of geometry he was “encouraged’ by the french university establishment to embrace formalization which led him to leave the École normale supériere. he writes cramer, ibid, john wheeler’s participatory universe as quoted in footnote . friedrich cramer: chaos and order, vch publishers, new york, , p. wing-tsit chan, wang yang-ming p. henri poincaré, the foundations of science, george bruce halsted trans., the science press, lancaster, pa., , amit goswami, the self-aware universe, g. p. putnam sons, n.y. , p. “i spent several years doing all kinds of things and became, in a certain sense, a specialist of odd and isolated phenomena…i did not know or care in which field i was playing. i wanted to find a place, a new field, where i could be the first person to introduce mathematics. formalization had gone too far for my taste, in the mathematics favored by the establishment…” (mandelbrot, , p. ) mandelbrot made his astonishing mathematical discovery when working on an economics problem accidentally handed to him by a friend. economists had long attempted to make sense of (and predict) stock market fluctuations and had proposed theories based on existing data which did not hold up when tested with primitive computers. mandelbrot viewed fluctuations from the perspective of changing scales. that is the time scale can be in days or months or years. he suggested that the interchangeable nature of the time scales was the key to understanding the fluctuations. i cooked up the simplest mathematical formula i thought could explain this phenomenon…[making] no assumptions about people, markets or anything in the real world. it was based on a ‘principle of invariance’, -the hypothesis that, somehow economics is a world in which things are the same in the small as they are in the large except, of course for a suitable change of scale (mandelbrot, ). in , edward lorenz, who was modeling the earth’s atmosphere with nonlinear equations at mit, switched from rounding his equations to the sixth decimal point to doing so to the third. what emerged was a totally different system! he attributed the difference to a combination of the iteration of his equations plus the sensitivity of the system to initial conditions---in this case, the changes in the terminal decimal points. lorenz named this randomness within his non-random weather models the ‘butterfly effect’ in a paper he wrote entitled “can the flap of a butterfly’s wing stir up a tornado in texas?” the discovery of ‘sensitive dependency on initial conditions’ coupled with the ‘iteration of patterns or data’ which produce random irregularities in deterministic systems is the beginning of the contemporary science of “deterministic chaos.” the term ‘fractal’ was coined from latin fractua ‘irregular,’ to refer to the results of this combination of iteration and sensitivity. and it was mandelbrot who provided the pictures of this deterministic chaos in his computer generated fractal images---what is described as “…a way of seeing infinity.” we discover these irregular nonlinear fractal structures and patterns throughout nature, in the iterations of buds in romanesco broccoli, the arterial and venous systems of kidneys, lungs, brains, coast lines, mountain ranges, root systems, turbulences in fluids. for example, one might ask the length of a head of cauliflower or a coastline. at one level, the answer might be eight inches or miles. however, at the fractal level of iteration of growth patterns and/or ocean forces, both can be seen as infinite. in most, perhaps all of nature, we encounter a kind of deterministic chaos in a world described by ‘fractal geometries’ which have “…become a way of measuring qualities that otherwise have no clear definition: the degree of roughness or brokenness or irregularity in an object.” this is the heterogeneous and nonlinear world of the branching of buds in the heinz-otto peitgen, harmut juergens, dietmar saupe: chaos and fractals, newfrontiers of science, springer verlag, new york, , p. james gleick, , chaos, making a new science, penguin books, n.y. , p. gleick, ibid. sriraman cauliflower head, the spongy tissue of the lungs, the indentation on the beach. “chaos is more like the rule in nature, while order (=predictability) is more like the exception.” fig . cubism variations an unpredictable consequence of fractal geometry coupled with advances in computer graphics was that it was now possible for machines to produce geometric “art” based on very simple formulae which “shows surprising kinship to old masters paintings, cubist paintings or beaux arts architecture. an obvious reason is that classical visual arts, like fractals, involve very many scales of length and favor self- similarity (mandelbrot, , ). the discovery that self-similarity was an inherent property of nature as mathematically conceptualized by mandelbrot was long written about and expressed by poets, satirists, writers, philosophers and numerous religious traditions. for instance, in southern india, kolam is an art form used by women to decorate the entrance to homes and courtyards (see fig. ). these art forms go back over years and consist of self-similar patterns repeated in different scales in very sophisticated fashion. heinz-otto peitgen, harmut juergens, dietmar saupe: p. “cubism is a more modern art movement in which forms are abstracted by using an analytical approach to the object and painting the basic geometric solid of the subject. cubism is a backlash to the impressionist period in which there is more of an emphasis of light and color. cubism itself follows paul cezanne’s statement that "everything in nature takes its form from the sphere, the cone, and the cylinder." in which these shapes are used to depict the object of the painting. another way that the cubist expressed their painting was by showing different views of an object put together in a way that you can not actually see in real life. the cubism period stated in paris in , reached its peak in , and continued into the 's. major cubists were pablo picasso and georges braque” retrieved from http://abstractart. m.com/cubism.htm retrieved from http://www.fractal-art.com/htmle/men-gallery .html fig. anklets of krishna fig. . spirals in a hindu temple architecture in hindu temples (see fig. ) also reveal that the notion of self-similarity was used to create visually stunning forms. the english writer, jonathan swift ( ), best known for gulliver’s travels wrote: so, nat’ralists observe, a flea hath smaller fleas that on him prey, and these have smaller fleas to bit’em, and so proceed as infinitum and it was mandelbrot ( ) who remarked swift was merely repeating a saying by the german philosopher leibniz, who in turn was repeating aristotle! polymathy the numerous examples of thinkers given thus far represent a unique sample of individuals who made remarkable contributions to the arts, sciences and mathematics, and who also happened to be philosophers. these individuals are best characterized as polymaths. the term polymath is in fact quite old and synonymous with the german term “renaissance- mensch .” although this term occurs abundantly in the literature in the humanities, very few (if any) attempts have been made to isolate the qualitative aspects of thinking that adequately describe this term. most cognitive theorists believe that skills are domain specific and typically non-transferable across domains. this implicitly assumes that “skills” are that which retrieved from http://classes.yale.edu/fractals/ima/fb/artfrac/artfractals.html the author prefers the use of the german term to avoid the sexist overtones of the english equivalent “renaissance man” sriraman one learns as a student within a particular discipline. however such an assumption begs the question as to why polymathy occurs in the first place. although the numerous historic and contemporary examples presented are of eminent individuals, it has been found that polymathy as a thinking trait occurs frequently in non-eminent samples (such as high school students) when presented with the opportunities to engage in trans-disciplinary behavior. in particular the use of unsolved classical problems and mathematics literature has been found to be particularly effective in fostering trans-disciplinary thinking (see sriraman, a, b, b, c). thinking traits of polymaths root-bernstein ( ) has been instrumental in rekindling an interest in mainstream psychology in a systematic investigation of polymathy. that is the study of individuals, both historical and contemporary, and their trans-disciplinary thinking traits which enabled them to contribute to a variety of disciplines. his analysis of the works and biographies of numerous innovators both historical and contemporary reveals that arts advance the sciences and scientists are inspired by the arts. fig. the impossible penrose tribar one recent example provided by root- bernstein ( ) is the effect of escher’s drawings on a young roger penrose, the mathematical physicist, who visited one of escher’s exhibitions in . stimulated by the seemingly impossible perspectives conveyed by escher in -dimensions, penrose began creating his own impossible objects such as the famous penrose “impossible” tribar which shows a -dimensional triangle that twists both forwards and backwards in -dimensions. root- bernstein writes: “roger penrose showed his tribar to his father l.s. penrose, a biologist who dabbled in art… [who] invented the impossible staircase in which stairs appear to spiral both up and down simultaneously…[and] sent escher a copy…[who] then developed artistic possibilities of the impossible staircase in ways that have since become famous” (p. ) another well known consequence of escher’s artistic influence on mathematicians is the investigation of tiling problems (both periodic and aperiodic) popularized by both roger penrose and martin gardner, which helped cystallographers understand the structure of many metal alloys which are aperiodic (peterson, as quoted by root-berstein, , p. ). retrieved from http://mathworld.wolfram.com/penrosetriangle.html common thinking traits of the polymaths described in this paper in conjunction with the thousands of polymaths (historical and contemporary) as analyzed by root-bernstein, dean simonton and many others are: ( ) visual geometric thinking and/or thinking in terms of geometric principles, ( ) frequent shifts in perspective, ( ) thinking in analogies, ( ) nepistemological awareness (that is, an awareness of domain limitations), ( ) interest in investigating paradoxes (which often reveal interplay between language, mathematics and science), ( ) belief in occam’s razor [simple ideas are preferable to complicated ones], ( ) acknowledgment of serendipity and the role of chance, and ( ) the drive to influence the agenda of the times. implications the tension between the disciplines that came out of the renaissance, namely natural philosophy–art – alchemy (metallurgy/chemistry)- theology during the post renaissance continues today in the modern day antipathy between the ever increasing sub-disciplines within arts, science, mathematics and philosophy. many of the thinking processes of polymaths who unified disciplines are commonly invoked by artists, scientists, mathematicians and philosophers in their craft albeit the end products are invariably different. these disciplines explore our world for new knowledge. literature is an excellent medium to create frequent shifts in perspective. paradoxes can be easily investigated by exploring geometry motivated by art. after all art suggests new possibilities and pushes the limits of our imagination, whereas science verifies the actual limitations of these possibilities using mathematics. both are driven by the need to understand reality with philosophy (and theology) often serving as the underlying framework linking the three. models and theory building lie at the intersection of art-science-mathematics. the history of model building in science conveys nepistemological awareness of domain limitations. arts imagine possibilities, science attempts to generate models to test possibilities, mathematics serves as the tool. the implications for education today is to move away from the post renaissance snobbery rampant within individual disciplines at the school and university levels. by building bridges today between disciplines, the greatest benefactors are the potential innovators of tomorrow. our symposium is a worthy start towards this endeavor. acknowledgements the author would like to thank astrid beckmann and claus michelsen for inviting me to give this plenary talk. in the long list of others to thank for helping me formulate, understand and connect the myriad ideas are harry adrian, walter benesch, benoit mandelbrot, robert wheeler, the inspirational work of researchers on the psychology of creativity (robert root- bernstein, mihaly csikszentmihalyi, dean simonton & robert sternberg). the author would also like to thank taylor & francis for allowing me to use small sections of my published articles in the journal theology and science. last but not least i express my gratitude to the great thinkers of the renaissance who were instrumental in helping us understand the magnificence of reality. references asimov, i., greenberg, m., & waugh, c. 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( c). re-creating the renaissance. in contributions to m. anaya, c. michelsen (organizers), tsg : relations between mathematics and others subjects of art and science. proceedings of the th international congress of mathematics education, copenhagen, denmark, pp. sriraman, b. & benesch, w.( ). consciousness and science: an advaita-vedantic perspective on the theology-science dialogue. theology and science, ( ), - . sternberg, r. j., grigorenko, elena l., singer j.l (eds) ( ). creativity: from potential to realization. washington, dc, usical association. szpiro, g.g. ( ). kepler’s conjecture. john wiley and sons. hoboken, new jersey. voelkel, j.r. ( ). johannes kepler: and the new astronomy, oxford university press. voelkel, j.r. ( ). the composition of kepler's astronomia nova, princeton university press. historia	de	la	medicina rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - diego rivera: gran maestro y un didáctico y lúcido historiador de la medicina felipe cabello c. diego rivera: a great master and a didactic and discerning medical historian diego rivera is one of the artistic giants of the th century. his many original creations included landscapes, portraits and large murals created in both mexico and the united states. rivera ventured into many styles-cubism, naturalism and narrative realism-with great success. rivera’s murals build on those of the renaissance, pre-historic and colonial civilizations of mexico. biological and medical topics and their history form an important concern in rivera’s work, present in many of his murals in a highly informative and creative manner. his two history of cardiology murals present an original and comprehensive account of the developments of this medical specialty from pre-historic to modern times. his history of medicine in mexico (the people demands health) mural is a creatively and vigorously fashioned and highly dynamic and synthetic vision of the relationships between pre-historic and modern medicine in mexico and its social foundations. medical topics such as vaccines and vaccination, embryology and surgery are inventively and accurately presented in the large mural, detroit industry. the trigger and impetus for the concern of rivera for these topics of life and death, and the exceedingly ground-breaking way he presents them, appear to stem from his rational materialism, his concern for collective wellbeing, his belief in progress through scientific developments and political action and his commitment to understand mexican and american history. (rev med chile ; : - ) key words: cardiology; general surgery; history, th cent.; public health; vaccination. miembro	honorario,	academia	 chilena	de	medicina;	miembro	 correspondiente,	academia	 chilena	de	ciencias,	instituto	de	 chile. recibido	el	 	de	abril	de	 ,	 aceptado	el	 	de	mayo	de	 . correspondencia	a: felipe	c.	cabello,	m.d. cabello@nymc.edu “pinto lo que pinto, y pinto lo que veo. y pinto lo que pienso, dijo rivera” del poema en inglés “pinto lo que veo”. elwyn b. white. n. york, , traducido por f. cabello. e l asombro que me despertó una reproduc- ción en colores de una pintura de diego rivera (figura ) , en un libro que nos regalara a mis hermanos y a mi nuestro padre, hacia el fin de la primera década de mi vida, ha permanecido en mi memoria hasta hoy día. la reproducción correspondía a la del líder de la revolución mexicana emiliano zapata guiando a pie a un grupo de campesinos, con una hoz en la mano derecha y tirando con la izquierda las rien- das de un caballo inmaculadamente blanco (fi- gura ). lo que impresionara a mi mente infantil acostumbrada al campo de chiloé, con sus cielos grises de lluvia y sus campesinos arrebujados en obscuras mantas y sombreros, fue la luminosidad serena de esta pintura rural. representada, además de la albura perfecta del caballo, por la blancura nívea y la ligereza de las vestimentas campesinas de zapata y sus hombres, las que contrastaban con sus obscuras teces y con el verde profundo de las historia	de	la	medicina sición del museo de arte moderno (moma) en nueva york, en que se expusiera entre otros un mural portátil con zapata que el mismo diego ri- vera reprodujera en el moma - . la reproducción de nueva york titulada “revolucionario agrario zapata” es casi idéntica a la del mural original y sólo un observador agudo puede captar las su- tiles diferencias entre ellas - . el estudio de estas pinturas además fue aleccionador respecto de la psicología de la observación ya que sólo al leer un análisis crítico del mural portátil me percaté que por muchos años había ignorado, tal vez deslum- brado por la belleza del cuadro, que bajo los pies de zapata está aplastado el cadáver de un latifun- dista mexicano , . el mismo análisis también me hizo patente la similitud que yo había intuido al ver pinturas y murales renacentistas en florencia con las pinturas y los murales de rivera en méxico y en estados unidos de norteamérica , . de esta forma el caballo de zapata pintado por rivera le debe en inspiración a los caballos de los pintores del “cuattrocento” florentino paolo ucello, gen- tile de fabriano y benozzo gozzoli expuestos en la galeria degli uffizi y el palacio medici y que rivera debe haber visto en su periplo italiano del año , , , - . rivera y su obra es indudable que la influencia del muralismo renacentista italiano se aprecia en los murales de rivera tanto en la forma como en las complejas técnicas que él usara para ejecutarlos , , - . la com- diego	rivera,	historiador	de	la	medicina	-	f.	cabello rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - figura . p.	neruda,	d.	 rivera	 y	d.	 alfaro	siqueiros.	autografiando	el	canto	 general	con	ilustraciones	de	rivera	y	de	 siqueiros.	 . figura . revolucionario	agrario	zapata.	museo	de	arte	 moderno.	n.	york.	 hojas de los árboles de la selva tropical. en esos momentos infantiles de asombro y admiración, jamás cruzó por mi mente que muchos años más tarde vería los originales de esta reproducción, en el gran mural titulado “la historia del estado de morelos. conquista y revolución” en el palacio de cortez en cuernavaca, y después en una expo- historia	de	la	medicina paración entre los personajes de los murales de la capilla brancacci en florencia, ejecutados por masaccio y masolino y los murales sobre la his- toria de méxico en el palacio nacional de ciudad de méxico revelan en rivera, al igual que en sus pares renacentistas italianos, una extrema habili- dad para el dibujo de figuras humanas dinámicas y bien proporcionadas que resaltan su elegante corporalidad - . estas características para repre- sentar al cuerpo humano en toda su distinguida materialidad, utilizada por rivera en toda su obra con gran genio y originalidad, serían, de acuerdo al crítico john berger, lo que define a la revolu- ción pictórica del renacimiento . rivera usa toda esta técnica en la representación de la población indígena de méxico, invirtiendo con ello el obje- tivo de la pintura renacentista que representaba a nobles y personajes religiosos, estableciendo con ello su clara posición política, revolucionaria, e indigenista - . la inspiración de rivera además proviene del arte de las culturas indígenas maya, azteca y otras, ya que sus murales se asemejan en aliento y también en composición y maestría a los grandes murales mayas de bonampak y cacaxtla, que al igual que los de rivera fueron usados en fidedignos relatos históricos de estas culturas - . como era de esperar, la obra de rivera también trasunta influencias de la pintura mexicana colo- nial y post independencia representada entre otros por la obra de cristóbal de villalpando, miguel cabrera y agustín arrieta . sin lugar a dudas, tanto por la vastedad original de su obra plasmada prolíficamente en retratos, paisajes y murales y por la versatilidad de la técnicas que rivera usara en ellas, él es uno de los gigantes del arte del siglo xx comparable a mi modo de ver solamente con picasso, de quien fuera amigo , , , . los retratos y paisajes de su período cubista, como lo ha dicho la crítica, son similares en novedad y calidad a los de los mejores exponentes de este movimiento como el mismo picasso y juan gris y sus murales en méxico y en los estados unidos de norteamérica son sin parangón, a pesar de que ha tenido una serie de seguidores e imitadores - , , . en la obra de rivera, al igual que en la de sus compatriotas josé clemente orozco y david alfaro siqueiros, se forjan una tremenda habilidad artística para manejar diversos medios de composición, una innovadora originalidad que encuentra sus raíces en la prehistoria e historia de méxico y américa y un inamovible y subversivo compromiso político que resultan en la creación de un arte nuevo y singularmente americano - . la destreza manual de rivera, su racionalismo materialista y vital, su preocupación por lo social y su creencia optimista en el poder de la ciencia y de la técnica para mejo- rar la condición humana, se encuentran sin lugar a dudas en la raíces de su interés por la biología y la medicina que se advierte en gran parte de su obra mural - . la historia de la cardiología los dos famosos murales del instituto de car- diología en méxico ejecutados el año , son uno de los ejemplos en los cuales diego rivera usa como motivos de su obra a la medicina y a la biolo- gía, práctica que comenzara en con un mural llamado “la creación” en el anfiteatro bolívar en la ciudad de méxico , . los murales en el instituto de cardiología en los cuales se relatan episodios de la historia de la cardiología fueron diseñados y pintados con la colaboración del ilustre maes- tro de la cardiología mexicana y doctor honoris causa de la universidad de chile ( ), ignacio chávez , - . chávez, a quien rivera le pintara su retrato, le proporcionó a rivera notas y libros relacionados con el desarrollo de la cardiología, siguió de cerca la ejecución del mural y además escribió un folleto explicando su significado , - . probablemente la fidelidad histórica de la obra, que es excelentemente complementada por los geniales dotes artísticos del pintor, es el resultado de esta estrecha colaboración , , . el primer panel de estos frescos está dedicada a aquellos individuos que tomaron parte en el desarrollo de la cardio- logía en los campos de la fisiología, la anatomía, la patología y la clínica (figura ) , , , - , y el segundo panel contiene individuos que estuvie- ron envueltos en el desarrollo de instrumentos de diagnóstico como la radiología y de medios de laboratorio y farmacológicos (figura ) , , , - . es imposible hacer una relación acabada y con detalle de esta obra en un artículo de este tipo, afortunadamente sobre ella se han hecho variados análisis, en los cuales el lector curioso puede en- contrar mayor información , , , - . en el primer panel, se aprecia en la base el retrato de william harvey, descubridor de la circulación y pionero del método y de la cuantificación experimental y del trabajo en animales y a la izquierda de este en diego	rivera,	historiador	de	la	medicina	-	f.	cabello rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - historia	de	la	medicina figura . historia	de	la	cardiología.	panel	 .	instituto	de	 cardiología.	méxico.	 figura . historia	de	la	cardiología.	panel	 .	instituto	de	 cardiología.	méxico. el ángulo derecho del panel se aprecia a la figura de andrea vesalio, disecando un corazón recién extraído de un cadáver , , , - . en la misma área se encuentran anatomistas como g. b. morgagni y a. cesalpino, señalando esto a mi juicio el ma- terialismo que fuera necesario para el avance de la medicina en el renacimiento y que rompiera con la tradición escolástica de aristóteles y galeno, re- presentado este último por un busto en la base del panel , , , - . la representación de este último en una pasiva estatua podría interpretarse como una alusión a que sus dogmáticas doctrinas inhibieron el progreso de la medicina por aproximadamente . años, del siglo ii hasta el renacimiento . el retrato de m. servet, el descubridor de la circulación pulmonar, siendo interpelado por inquisidores está en la izquierda del panel y las llamas de la hoguera que lo consumiera en ginebra se proyectan hacia la altura dándole al panel un tono rojizo , , , - . estas imágenes representarían el desafío al progreso de la medicina constituido por la intolerancia religiosa y el conflicto entre el avance médico y el obscurantismo. contrastando, el segundo panel tiene un fondo de coloración azu- leja que alcanza su apogeo en su ángulo superior derecho donde hay un árbol de ramificaciones azules que representarían a los capilares venosos, ilustrando con esto el pintor la diferencia entre sangre arterial roja (primer panel) y la sangre venosa azul (segundo panel) , , , - . en la base de este último se encuentra la imagen de w. withe- ring descubridor de la digital, además de la de w. heberden, quien describiera la angina coronaria y hacia la derecha arriba la figura de w. roentgen descubridor de los rayos x viendo el esqueleto de la mano de su esposa , , , - . l. galvani, descubridor de los efectos eléctricos en la musculatura animal, se encuentra representado junto con los músculos de las ranas que usara en sus experimentos al fondo derecho de este panel y el progreso ascendente de diego	rivera,	historiador	de	la	medicina	-	f.	cabello rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - historia	de	la	medicina la cardiología se ilustraría con la efigie del inven- tor del electrocardiograma w. einthoven y los introductores del electrocardiograma a estados unidos de norteamérica e inglaterra, f. wilson and t. lewis en la parte superior de éste , , , - . el centro de ambos paneles está ocupado por pinturas de famosos médicos y cardiólogos de diversas razas examinando enfermos, y además compartiendo con colegas y alumnos, ilustrando el carácter eminentemente práctico y colectivo del estudio y el aprendizaje de la medicina , , , - . el pueblo en demanda de salud demostrando el respeto e interés de rivera por la medicina prehistórica en la base de los paneles de la historia de la cardiología se hayan dos grisa- llas representando la medicina antigua en África y en méxico en el primero y en la china y el egipto en el segundo , , , - . esta fusión y representa- ciones dinámicas y simbólicas entre la medicina antigua y la moderna alcanzan su apogeo y son magistralmente ilustradas en su último mural en el instituto mexicano de seguro social (hospital de la raza) el año - titulado “historia de la medicina en méxico. el pueblo en demanda de salud” , , , , , . este mural de m revela la gran originalidad artística e intelectual del pintor y está basado en sus amplios conocimientos de la medicina del antiguo méxico y de los problemas de la seguridad social de la población en méxico en la época que se pintara el mural , , , , , . el conocimiento de la medicina antigua se manifiesta por la representación en ella de imágenes que se encuentran originalmente en tres códices sobre las cultura pre hispánicas como son el badiano ( ), el vaticano ( ) y el borbónico ( ). de esta manera, en el centro del mural, y en toda su altura está la representación de la diosa azteca de la fertilidad tlazeoteotl, que además representa a la actividad sexual, la renovación de la vida y es también la diosa de la higiene, comedora de la inmundicia , , , , , . esta imagen está apoyada en un pedestal que incorpora a múltiples plantas del herbolario médico de las cultura prehispáni- cas ilustradas en el códice badiano y separan las representaciones de la medicina moderna que se encuentran a la izquierda del observador de las pre-hispánicas que se encuentran a la dere- cha , , , . encuadrando el mural y proyectándose hacia los lados de él se hallan dos árboles cuyas frondas se curvan en lo alto hacia el centro del mural , , , . el árbol a la derecha del observador y de color amarillo ha sido llamado el árbol de la vida y sería una representación de la sexualidad en la tradición azteca , , , . el árbol a la izquierda sería el árbol de la salud y su color rojo represen- taría la sangre , , , . los árboles se enraízan en dos serpientes emplumadas que representan diversas manifestaciones del dios quetzalcóatl y cuyas cabezas se miran en la base del mural separadas por una máscara indígena que representa a la vida y a la muerte y que se halla también representada en lo alto de los arboles , , , , . en el lado prehis- pánico del mural, a la derecha del observador, se representan una serie de actividades médicas como son la atención de partos, la trepanación cranea- na, extracciones dentarias, la aplicación de gotas oculares, amputaciones y aplicación de vendajes y el uso de masaje y baños, dando cuenta de la gran riqueza y la variedad de las acciones sanitarias en estas culturas , , , . en la sección de la izquierda la medicina moderna está representada por la atención de partos por cesárea, la radioterapia, las trasfusiones, la realización de electroencefa- logramas, miografías y la reacción de mantoux además de electrocardiogramas y radiografías y el uso del microscopio en microbiología , , , . a mi juicio, la parte más interesante y dinámica de esta sección, y que representa al título del mural, la constituyen las imágenes de trabajadores/as y ciudadanos/as que demandan de manera pujante e imperiosa atención médica de burócratas médicos que son retratos de personajes de la época (figura ) , , , . esto representaría a mi modo de ver la apreciación por rivera del esfuerzo colectivo y la presión política que son necesarias para asegurar a la población los beneficios de las modernas téc- nicas médicas descritas en el resto de la sección. el mural también establece de manera convincente que la enfermedad, el dolor y la muerte son esen- ciales en la naturaleza humana y que las sociedades en la prehistoria y la historia se han dado diferentes soluciones para satisfacer sus demandas sanitarias. la industria de detroit en el mural que rivera desarrollara durante la depresión en el instituto de artes de detroit en bajo los auspicios de edsel ford, heredero de la familia ford fabricantes de automóviles y que diego	rivera,	historiador	de	la	medicina	-	f.	cabello rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - historia	de	la	medicina figura . historia	de	 la	medicina	en	 méxico.	el	pueblo	en	demanda	de	salud.	 detalle	hacia	lo	alto	de	la	sección	izquier- da.	hospital	de	la	raza.	méxico. figura .	vacunas	y	vacunación.	la	industria	de	detroit.	 instituto	de	artes	de	detroit.	detroit. estuviera dirigido a celebrar a los trabajadores de detroit y a demostrar la pujanza fabril de la ciudad y de la industria automovilística, el pintor tam- bién demostró su interés por los temas médicos y biológicos , , - . este gigantesco mural que abarca tres paredes del gran vestíbulo del museo que ahora lleva su nombre y que alguien ha llamado la capilla sixtina de la industrialización estadou- nidense, contiene junto a escenas que describen el desarrollo industrial de la ciudad, escenas que representan actividades relacionadas con la me- dicina , , - . en los veintisiete frescos del mural, cinco representando a la industria farmacéutica, la producción de vacunas y la vacunación, un em- brión humanos sano, otro en conexión con raíces y la cirugía se hayan distribuidas a lo amplio de él y son los frescos relacionados con la medicina y la biología , , , . en la pintura más llamativa de estas representando la producción de vacunas y la va- cunación rivera escogió al parecer como modelos el pesebre de las natividades renacentistas (figura ) , , - . de esta manera como en las natividades la pintura tiene al frente bellos animales como un caballo, ovejas y una vaca, representando aquí a los animales usados en la producción de vacunas y de sueros, detrás y al medio el niño en pañales sostenido por una enfermera y siendo vacunado por un médico , , - . el fondo de la pintura lo constituye la representación de científicos prepa- rando las vacunas usando microscopios, animales y alambiques y que serían los precursores de esta técnica koch, pasteur y metchnikoff , , - . en la representación de la cirugía (figura ) rivera usa el estilo de retablo en el cual se ve en el medio una mano enguantada negra y otra blanca explorando una cavidad abdominal abierta de la cual se ha extraído un tumor y de la cual se proyectan pinzas hemostáticas , , - . a la izquierda hay pinturas anatómicas que incluyen el esófago, el duodeno y el páncreas y el intestino y a la derecha órganos diego	rivera,	historiador	de	la	medicina	-	f.	cabello rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - historia	de	la	medicina genitales femeninos y masculinos y glándulas y sobre las manos y en el centro una radiografía craneana con un tumor , , - . según algunos este retablo quirúrgico habría sido influenciado por la obra de claude bernard ya que representaría lo que este autor postulaba de que la fisiología y la medicina se podrían reducir al estudio analítico de los órganos . la inclusión de rivera de tópicos médicos y biológicos en un mural dirigido al aná- lisis y a la representación de la dinámica industria pesada de detroit encuentra su razón en su deseo de ilustrar su posición filosófica respecto de la unidad de la materia . de esta forma al explicar su pintura del embrión sano en este mural el pintor dice “…las diferentes manifestaciones de la materia son, en último análisis, sólo diferencias en la velocidad de los sistemas electrónicos de que la materia está formada” . conclusiones según algunos autores el interés de rivera por la medicina habría sido el producto de su amistad con el médico francés e historiador del arte elie faure quien lo llevara a ver operaciones llevadas a cabo por su hermano el dr. j. l. faure en paris en , . fruto de esta experiencia es un bosquejo titulado “la operación” cuya composición har- mónica eli faure encontrara similar al cuadro del giotto “la muerte de san francisco de asis” , . sin embargo, es indudable que este interés del pintor pareciera ser también el fruto de su disposición filosófica que subyace toda su actividad artística y que demuestra un inspirador materialismo que encuentra en la tensión existente entre la vida y la muerte, y por ende en la enfermedad, un aspecto del diario vivir que provoca a su intelecto , . el crítico venezolano m. picón salas, quien estuviera exilado en chile, define a rivera como un maestro con una pupila macro cósmica que vuelca en sus murales todo el proceso social de méxico y de américa y además poseedor de una pupila micro cósmica que le permite realizar exitosamente su excelso arte en un petate, una fruta tropical, una flor o un motivo prehispánico . a mi juicio en la historia de la medicina estas dos pupilas le permiten a rivera representar de manera memo- rable tanto un óvulo como a las bacterias o a una glándula endocrina y a personajes como laennec y skoda y a los procesos sociales y políticos que demandan seguridad social y acceso a la salud. además el ejemplo de rivera y su arte narrativo, que picón salas comparara también al arte na- rrativo del giotto, que le da las espaldas a europa como foco de su quehacer, es una lección vigente para la práctica médica en latino américa , , , . práctica que a menudo está muy atenta de los últimos adelantos de los centros de norteamérica y europa, y a los cuales solamente acceden una minoría, pero que a veces tiene un insuficiente percepción de las realidades sanitarias de la ma- yoría. ilustrado esto por ejemplo por la completa falta de asistencia médica para más de millo- nes de latino americanos . en resumen, la genial obra de rivera sobre la historia de la medicina es un saludable antídoto contra aquello que garcía márquez describiera en su discurso en estocolmo el año “la interpretación de nuestra realidad con esquemas ajenos sólo contribuye a hacernos cada vez más desconocidos, cada vez menos libres, cada vez más solitarios”. agradecimientos: agradezco a mi padre felipe, el haberme introducido a diego rivera a temprana edad. dedico este texto a su memoria y a su bravo estoicismo para tolerar al parecer sin grandes se- cuelas la tortura psicológica y física a la que fuera sometido durante su desaparición de ocho días en tres Álamos el año , por haber usado su incisivo humor para criticar a las autoridades de la época. lo dedico también a la serenidad de mi madre y de mis hermanos en ese difícil trance. agradezco a mis amigos romilio espejo, marcela santis y josé luis di fabio sus invitaciones a re- figura .	cirugía.	la	industria	de	detroit.	instituto	de	artes	 de	detroit.	detroit. diego	rivera,	historiador	de	la	medicina	-	f.	cabello rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - historia	de	la	medicina uniones científicas a méxico que me permitieran ver la obra de diego rivera en su lugar de origen. agradezco los positivos y penetrantes comentarios de un revisor anónimo. reconozco a mi amigo cristian orrego b. su hospitalidad, nuestras con- versaciones acerca de d. rivera y su compañía en una mañana de domingo para ir a berkeley, a buscar en una residencia estudiantil de ese campus de la universidad de california el pequeño y cuar- to mural que d. rivera pintara en el área de san francisco y que me faltaba por conocer. a david lomas, universidad de manchester, inglaterra, le agradezco el proporcionarme una copia de su interesante artículo sobre diego rivera en el oxford journal of art. shawn manning, health sciences library, new york medical college fue de gran ayuda en la preparación de las figuras. la srta. jessica gallardo p. de la biblioteca central de la facultad de medicina, universidad de chile, ha sido como siempre muy gentil en facilitarme material de la biblioteca. referencias . marnham p. dreaming with the eyes open. a life of diego rivera. a a. knopf. n. york. . . wolfe bd. diego rivera. his life and his time. a a. knopf. ny. . . dickerman l, indych-lópez a. diego rivera. murals for the museum of modern art. museum of modern art. n. york. . . cruz arvea r. diego rivera. catálogo general de obra mural y fotografía personal. secretaria de educación pública. instituto nacional de bellas artes. méxico, . . martin lozano l, coronel rivera j. diego rivera. the complete murals. taschen. los Ángeles ca. . . anónimo. rivera. taschen. new york. n york. . . anónimo. latin american artists of the twentieth cen- tury. the museum of modern art. n. york. . . pescio c. the uffizi. the official guide. giunto editore. florencia. italia. . . cardini f. the chapel of the magi in palazzo medici. mandragora s.r. l. florencia. italia. . . levey m. florence. a portrait. harvard u. press. cam- bridge. ma. . . hamill p. diego rivera. harry n. abrams. inc. n. york. . . berger j. the clarity of the renaissance. en: selected essays. j. berger. dyer g. ed. vintage international. n. york. . pp. - . . de la fuente b. el arte prehispánico y la pintura mural de diego rivera. en: diego rivera hoy. palacio de bellas artes. méxico. d.f. . pp. - . . matos moctezuma e. comentario a la ponencia de bea- triz de la fuente. en: diego rivera hoy. palacio de bellas artes. méxico. d.f. . p. . . miller me. maya art and architecture. thames and hud- son. new york. ny. . . miller me, taure k. an illustrated dictionary of the gods and symbols of ancient mexico and the maya. thames and hudson, new york. ny. . . kubler g. the art and architecture of ancient america. yale u. press. new haven. ct. . . oles j. art and architecture in mexico. thames and hud- son. n. york. . . navarrete s, faucherau s, indych-lópez a, klaar walker a. diego rivera. the cubist portraits - . meadows museum of art, dallas, tx. philip wilson publishers, n. york. . . founders society detroit institute of art. . diego rivera. a retrospective. w. w. norton & company. new york. . . fernández j. arte mexicano. de sus orígenes a nuestros días. editorial porrúa. méxico. df. . . traba m. mexican muralists: accomplishments and im- pact. en: art of latin america. - . m. traba. ed. johns hopkins u. press. baltimore, md. . pp. - . . coffey mk. how a revolutionary art become official cul- ture. murals, museums and the mexican state. duke u. press durham. nc. . . helm m. mexican painters. rivera, orozco, siqueiros and the other artists of the social realist school. dover. n. york. . . villa gómez df. la biología en el muralismo de diego rivera. ciencias. n° . pp. - . universidad autóno- ma de méxico. méxico. . http://www.revistas.unam. mx/index.php/cns/article/view/ . . lomas d. painting the history of cardiology. bmj ; : - . . viesca triviño c. la condición humana en el pensa- miento de ignacio chávez sánchez. . http://www. ensayistas.org/critica/generales/c-h/mexico/chavezsan- chez.htm. . neghme a. [ignacio chávez ( - ), pioneer in ibero-american cardiology and distinguished university professor]. rev med chile ; : - . . lomas d. remedy or poison? diego rivera, medicine and technology. oxford art journal ; ; - . . kumate j. diego rivera: la medicina y el arte. en: diego rivera hoy. palacio de bellas artes. méxico. d.f. . pp. - . diego	rivera,	historiador	de	la	medicina	-	f.	cabello rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - http://www.revistas.unam.mx/index.php/cns/article/view/ http://www.revistas.unam.mx/index.php/cns/article/view/ http://www.ensayistas.org/critica/generales/c-h/mexico/chavezsanchez.htm http://www.ensayistas.org/critica/generales/c-h/mexico/chavezsanchez.htm http://www.ensayistas.org/critica/generales/c-h/mexico/chavezsanchez.htm http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/clipboard historia	de	la	medicina . viesca triviño c. comentario a la ponencia de jesús kumate. en: diego rivera hoy. palacio de bellas artes. méxico. d.f. . pp. - . . soto pérez de celis e. una mirada a la historia de la cardiología. elementos ; : - . http://www. elementos.buap.mx/num /htm/ .htm. . toledo-pereyra lh. diego rivera and his extraordinary art of medicine and surgery. j invest sur ; : - . . fullerton jb, silverman me. claudius galen of perga- mum: authority of medieval medicine. clin cardiol ; : e - . . rodríguez-gómez g. re-conceptualizing social medi- cine in diego rivera’s history of medicine in mexico: the people's demand for better health . thesis. university of california. riverside. ca. . . navarro rodríguez a. los murales de rivera y siqueiros en el centro médico la raza. . http://armandoasis. wordpress.com/ / / /los-murales-de-rivera-y- siqueiros-en-el-centro-médico-nacional-la-raza/ . hurlbut lp. the mexican muralists in the unites states. u. of new méxico press. alburquerque . . downs l. diego rivera: the detroit industry murals. detroit institute of arts. w. w. norton & company. new york. ny. . . mcmeekin d. diego rivera. science and creativity in the detroit murals. michigan state university press. east lansing. mi. . . downs l. los frescos de la industria de detroit: una interpretación de la tecnología moderna. en: diego ri- vera hoy. palacio de bellas artes. méxico. d.f. . pp. - . . indych-lópez a. muralism without walls. rivera, orozco and siqueiros in the united states. u. of pittsburgh press. pittsburgh. pa. . . picon salas m. diego. el gigante fiel. en: las formas y las visiones. ediciones gan. caracas. venezuela. . pp. - . . rosemberg h, andersson b. repensar la proteccion so- cial en salud en américa latina y el caribe. rev panam salud publica ; : - . diego	rivera,	historiador	de	la	medicina	-	f.	cabello rev	med	chile	 ;	 :	 - art in the age of machine intelligence " arts essay art in the age of machine intelligence † blaise agüera y arcas research and machine intelligence, google seattle, n th st, seattle, wa , usa; blaisea@creativemachine.org.uk † although the following essay has already been published by medium (https://medium.com/artists-and-machine-intelligence/what-is-ami-ccd a ), it is being re-published here by an agreement between the author himself and the editorial staff of both medium and mdpi, and on the grounds that a work dealing in such a clear, comprehensive, and compelling manner with the critical social issue of a rapidly emerging machine intelligence deserves widespread dissemination; furthermore, given that the essay is also thoroughly grounded in respect to the histories of both art and science—and with appropriate citations—such a dissemination might well include academic publication; and given still further that its focus is the advent of machine intelligence as a mighty new factor in the arts, the current special issue of arts on “the machine as artist (for the st century)” would seem to be an ideal venue, and wherein it will stand as an important complement to our own introductory essay. received: september ; accepted: september ; published: september abstract: in this wide-ranging essay, the leader of google’s seattle ai group and founder of the artists and machine intelligence program discusses the long-standing and complex relationship between art and technology. the transformation of artistic practice and theory that attended the th century photographic revolution is explored as a parallel for the current revolution in machine intelligence, which promises not only to mechanize (or democratize) the means of reproduction, but also of production. keywords: art; science; technology; machine learning; artificial intelligence; aesthetics; photography art in the age of machine intelligence art has always existed in a complex, symbiotic and continually evolving relationship with the technological capabilities of a culture. those capabilities constrain the art that is produced, and inform the way art is perceived and understood by its audience. like the invention of applied pigments, the printing press, photography, and computers, we believe machine intelligence is an innovation that will profoundly affect art. as with these earlier innovations, it will ultimately transform society in ways that are hard to imagine from today’s vantage point; in the nearer term, it will expand our understanding of both external reality and our perceptual and cognitive processes. as with earlier technologies (figure ), some artists will embrace machine intelligence as a new medium or a partner, while others will continue using today’s media and modes of production. in the future, even the act of rejecting it may be a conscious statement, just as photorealistic painting is a statement today. any artistic gesture toward machine intelligence—whether negative, positive, both, or neither—seems likelier to withstand the test of time if it is historically grounded and technically well informed. arts , , ; doi: . /arts www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com https://medium.com/artists-and-machine-intelligence/what-is-ami-ccd a http://dx.doi.org/ . /arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts arts , , of arts  ,  ,       of      figure  . an american daguerreotype  from  —amateur chemist and photography enthusiast  robert cornelius in philadelphia taking, as far as we know, the world’s first selfie. image permission:  this image is in the public domain. united states national archives, washington, dc, usa.  walter  benjamin  illustrated  this  point  mordantly  in  his    essay,  “little  history  of  photography” (benjamin  ), citing an   critique of the newly announced french daguerreotype  technology in the leipziger stadtanzeiger (a “chauvinist rag”):  to try to capture fleeting mirror images,” it said, “is not just an impossible undertaking, as has  been established after thorough german investigation; the very wish to do such a thing is  blasphemous. man is made in the image of god, and god’s image cannot be captured by any  machine of human devising. the utmost the artist may venture, borne on the wings of divine  inspiration, is to reproduce man’s god‐given features without the help of any machine, in the  moment of highest dedication, at the higher bidding of his genius. (benjamin  , p.  )  this  sense  of  affront  over  the  impingement  of  technology  on  what  had  been  considered a  defining  human  faculty  has  obvious  parallels  with  much  of  today’s  commentary  on  machine  intelligence. it is a reminder that what rosi braidotti has called “moral panic about the disruption of  centuries‐old beliefs about human ‘nature’” (braidotti  , p.  ) is nothing new.  benjamin ( ) goes on to comment:  here we have the philistine notion of “art” in all its overweening obtuseness, a stranger to all  technical considerations, which feels that its end is nigh with the alarming appearance of the  new  technology. nevertheless,  it was  this fetishistic and fundamentally antitechnological  concept of art with which the theoreticians of photography sought to grapple for almost a  hundred years, naturally without the smallest success. (benjamin  , p.  )    while these “theoreticians” remained stuck in their thinking, practitioners were not standing  still. many professionals who had been making their living painting miniature portraits enacted a  very successful shift to studio photography; with those who brought together technical mastery and  a good eye, art photography was born, over the following decades unfolding a range of artistic  possibilities latent in the new technology that had been inaccessible to painters: micro‐, macro‐ and  telephotography,  frozen  moments  of  gesture  and  microexpression,  slow  motion,  time  lapse,  negatives and other manipulations of the film, and so on.  figure . an american daguerreotype from —amateur chemist and photography enthusiast robert cornelius in philadelphia taking, as far as we know, the world’s first selfie. image permission: this image is in the public domain. united states national archives, washington, dc, usa. walter benjamin illustrated this point mordantly in his essay, “little history of photography” (benjamin ), citing an critique of the newly announced french daguerreotype technology in the leipziger stadtanzeiger (a “chauvinist rag”): to try to capture fleeting mirror images,” it said, “is not just an impossible undertaking, as has been established after thorough german investigation; the very wish to do such a thing is blasphemous. man is made in the image of god, and god’s image cannot be captured by any machine of human devising. the utmost the artist may venture, borne on the wings of divine inspiration, is to reproduce man’s god-given features without the help of any machine, in the moment of highest dedication, at the higher bidding of his genius. (benjamin , p. ) this sense of affront over the impingement of technology on what had been considered a defining human faculty has obvious parallels with much of today’s commentary on machine intelligence. it is a reminder that what rosi braidotti has called “moral panic about the disruption of centuries-old beliefs about human ‘nature’” (braidotti , p. ) is nothing new. benjamin ( ) goes on to comment: here we have the philistine notion of “art” in all its overweening obtuseness, a stranger to all technical considerations, which feels that its end is nigh with the alarming appearance of the new technology. nevertheless, it was this fetishistic and fundamentally antitechnological concept of art with which the theoreticians of photography sought to grapple for almost a hundred years, naturally without the smallest success. (benjamin , p. ) while these “theoreticians” remained stuck in their thinking, practitioners were not standing still. many professionals who had been making their living painting miniature portraits enacted a very successful shift to studio photography; with those who brought together technical mastery and a good eye, art photography was born, over the following decades unfolding a range of artistic possibilities latent in the new technology that had been inaccessible to painters: micro-, macro- and telephotography, frozen moments of gesture and microexpression, slow motion, time lapse, negatives and other manipulations of the film, and so on. arts , , of artists who stuck to their paintbrushes also began to realize new possibilities in their work, arguably in direct response to photography. david hockney interprets cubism from this perspective: cubism was about the real world. it was an attempt to reclaim a territory for figuration, for depiction. faced with the claim that photography had made figurative painting obsolete, the cubists performed an exquisite critique of photography; they showed that there were certain aspects of looking—basically the human reality of perception—that photography couldn’t convey, and that you still needed the painter’s hand and eye to convey them. (quoted in (weschler , p. )) of course, the ongoing relationship between painting and photography is by no means mutually exclusive; the language of wholesale embrace on the one hand versus response or critique on the other is inadequate. hockney’s “joiners” explored rich artistic possibilities in the combination of photography with “a painter’s hand and eye” via collage in the s, and his more recent video pieces from woldgate woods do something similar with montage. hockney was also responsible, in his collaboration with physicist charles falco, for reigniting interest in the role optical instruments—mirrors, lenses, and perhaps something like a camera lucida—played in the sudden emergence of visual realism in early renaissance art. it has been clear for a long time that visual effects like the anamorphic skull across the bottom of hans holbein’s painting the ambassadors (figure ) could not have been rendered without clever optical tricks involving tracing from mirrors or lenses—effectively, paintbrush-assisted photography. had something like the daguerre-niépce photochemical process existed in their time, it seems likely that artists like van eyck and holbein would have experimented with it, either in addition to, in combination with, or even instead of paint. arts  ,  ,       of    artists who stuck to their paintbrushes also began to realize new possibilities in their work,  arguably in direct response to photography. david hockney interprets cubism from this perspective:  cubism was about the real world. it was an attempt to reclaim a territory for figuration, for  depiction. faced with the claim that photography had made figurative painting obsolete,  the cubists performed an exquisite critique of photography; they showed that there were  certain aspects of looking — basically the human reality of perception — that photography  couldn’t convey, and that you still needed the painter’s hand and eye to convey them.  (quoted in (weschler  , p.  ))  of course, the ongoing relationship between painting and photography is by no means mutually  exclusive; the language of wholesale embrace on the one hand versus response or critique on the  other  is inadequate. hockney’s “joiners” explored rich artistic possibilities in the combination of  photography with “a painter’s hand and eye” via collage in the  s, and his more recent video  pieces from woldgate woods do something similar with montage.  hockney  was  also  responsible,  in  his    collaboration  with  physicist  charles  falco,  for  reigniting interest in the role optical instruments—mirrors, lenses, and perhaps something like a  camera lucida—played in the sudden emergence of visual realism in early renaissance art.   it has  been clear for a long time that visual effects like the anamorphic skull across the bottom of hans  holbein’s   painting the ambassadors (figure  ) could not have been rendered without clever  optical tricks involving tracing from mirrors or lenses—effectively, paintbrush‐assisted photography.  had something like the daguerre‐niépce photochemical process existed in their time, it seems likely  that artists like van eyck and holbein would have experimented with it, either in addition to, in  combination with, or even instead of paint.    figure  . the ambassadors by hans holbein,  . oil on oak,   x  .  cm. the national gallery,  london. image reproduced with permission (left). digitally reprojected image of the anamorphic  skull in the bottom center of the painting. the imperfections evident in the left eyesocket may have  been due to the need to move or refocus the optics halfway through. image permission: courtesy  thomas shahan, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:holbein_skull.jpg. (right)    the hockney‐falco thesis is explained at length in hockney’s ( ) book secret knowledge: rediscovering the  lost techniques of the old masters. while critiques of their methodology and expository approach have been  made, both by scientists and by art historians (see, for example, tyler ( )), the basic point, that the old  masters used what was at the time state‐of‐the‐art optical technology to render effects in painting, is not in  serious dispute.  figure . the ambassadors by hans holbein, . oil on oak, x . cm. the national gallery, london. image reproduced with permission (left). digitally reprojected image of the anamorphic skull in the bottom center of the painting. the imperfections evident in the left eyesocket may have been due to the need to move or refocus the optics halfway through. image permission: courtesy thomas shahan, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:holbein_skull.jpg. (right). the hockney-falco thesis is explained at length in hockney ( ) book secret knowledge: rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters. while critiques of their methodology and expository approach have been made, both by scientists and by art historians (see, for example, tyler ( )), the basic point, that the old masters used what was at the time state-of-the-art optical technology to render effects in painting, is not in serious dispute. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:holbein_skull.jpg arts , , of so, the old european masters fetishized by the leipziger stadtanzeiger were not reproducing “man’s god-given features without the help of any machine”, but were in fact using the state of the art. they were playing with the same new optical technologies that allowed galileo to discover the moons of jupiter, and van leeuwenhoek to make the first observations of microorganisms. understanding the ingenuity of the renaissance artists as users and developers of technology should only increase our regard for them and our appreciation of their work. it should not come as a surprise, as in their own time they were not “old masters” canonized in the historical wings of national art museums, but intellectual and cultural innovators. to imagine that optics somehow constituted “cheating” in renaissance painting is both a failure of the imagination and the application of a historically inappropriate value system. yet even today, some commentators and theoreticians—typically not themselves working artists—remain wedded to what benjamin called “the philistine notion of ‘art’”, as pointed out in an article in the observer from in response to the hockney-falco thesis: is [the use of optics] so qualitatively different from using grids, plumb-lines and maulsticks? yes—for those who regard these painters as a pantheon of mysterious demigods, more than men if less than angels, anything which smacks of technical aid is blasphemy. it is akin to giving scientific explanations for the miracles of saints. (marr ) there is a pungent irony here. scientific inquiry has, step by step, revealed to us a universe much more vast and complex than the mythologies of our ancestors, while the parallel development of technology has extended our creative potential to allow us to make works (whether we call them “art”, “design”, “technology”, “entertainment”, or something else) that would indeed appear miraculous to a previous generation. where we encounter the word “blasphemy”, we may often read “progress”, and can expect miracles around the corner. one would like to believe that, after being discredited so many times and over so many centuries, the “antitechnological concept of art” would be relegated to a fundamentalist fringe. however, if history has anything to teach us in this regard, it is that this particular debate is always ready to resurface. perhaps this is because it impinges, consciously or not, on much larger issues of human identity, status and authority. we resist epistemological shock. faced with a new technical development in art it is easier for us to quietly move the goalposts after a suitable period of outrage, re-inscribing what it means for something to be called fine art, what counts as skill or creativity, what is natural and what is artifice, and what it means for us to be privileged as uniquely human, all while keeping our categorical value system—and our human apartness from the technology—fixed. more radical thinking that questions the categories and the value systems themselves comes from writers like donna haraway and joanna zylinska. haraway, originally a primatologist, has done a great deal to blur the conceptual border between humans and other animals; the same line of thinking led her to question human exceptionalism with respect to machines and human-machine hybrids. this may seem like speculative philosophy best left to science fiction, but in many respects, it already applies. zylinska, in her edited collection the cyborg experiments: the extensions of the body in even works that eschew modern technology are often enriched owing to that choice—whether through new perspectives on traditional techniques, as with the analog techno ensemble dawn of midi (https://dawnofmidi.bandcamp.com/), or through an aesthetic or even ethic of renunciation, as with amish furniture made entirely by hand. these artistic or design choices are of course not “wrong”; on the contrary, their “rightness” exists in relation to the technology of the culture in which they are embedded, and they would be diminished without that context. we can be as awed by contemporary renunciatory art as the artists of the past would be by today’s “normal”. from an evolutionary point of view, it is clear that other primate brains are closely analogous to those of humans, hence the widespread use of macaques for electrophysiological experiments. many of haraway’s contributions are, however, focused on behavioral and sociological studies, domains where she shows how the cultural priors of the research community inform which questions are asked, which observations are made, and which conclusions are drawn. there is an element of subjectivity and observer bias in every branch of science, but it’s especially pronounced in research areas that rely heavily on narrative and statistical observations. https://dawnofmidi.bandcamp.com/ arts , , of the media age, interviewed the australian performance artist stelarc, whose views on the relationship between humanity and technology set a useful frame of reference: the body has always been a prosthetic body. ever since we evolved as hominids and developed bipedal locomotion, two limbs became manipulators. we have become creatures that construct tools, artefacts and machines. we’ve always been augmented by our instruments, our technologies. technology is what constructs our humanity; the trajectory of technology is what has propelled human developments. i’ve never seen the body as purely biological, so to consider technology as a kind of alien other that happens upon us at the end of the millennium is rather simplistic. (zylinska , p. ) as zylinska and her coauthor sarah kember elaborate in their book life after new media ( ), one should not conclude that anything goes, that the direction of our development is predetermined, or that technology is somehow inherently utopian. many of us working actively on machine intelligence are, for example, co-signatories of an open letter calling for a worldwide ban on autonomous machine intelligence-enabled weapons systems (future of life institute ), which do pose very real dangers. turkle ( ) has written convincingly about the subtler, but in their way equally disturbing failures of empathy, self-control and communication that can arise when we project emotion onto machines that have none, or use our technology to mediate our interpersonal relationships to the exclusion of direct human contact. it is clear that, as individuals and as a society, we do not always make good choices; so far we have muddled through, with plenty of (hopefully instructive, so far survivable) missteps along the way. however, kember and zylinska ( ) point out, if we do accept that we have always been cyborgs . . . it will be easier for us to let go of paranoid narratives . . . that see technology as an external other that threatens the human and needs to be stopped at all costs before a new mutant species—of replicants, robots, aliens emerges to compete with humans and eventually to win the battle . . . [s]eeing ourselves as always already connected, as being part of the system—rather than as masters of the universe to which all beings are inferior—is an important step to developing a more critical and a more responsible relationship to the world, to what we call “man,” “nature” and “technology”. (kember and zylinska , p. ) perhaps it is unsurprising that these perspectives have often been explored by feminist philosophers, while replicants and terminators come from the decidedly more masculine (and speculative) universes of philip k. dick, ridley scott and james cameron. on the most banal level, the masculine narratives tend to emphasize hierarchy, competition, and winner-takes-all domination, while these feminist narratives tend to point out the collaborative, interconnected and non-zero sum; more tellingly, they point out that we are already far into and part of the cyborg future, deeply entangled with technology in every way, not organic innocents subject to a technological onslaught from without at some future date. this point of view invites us to rethink art as something generated by (and consumed by) hybrid beings; the technologies involved in artistic production are not so much “other” as they are “part of”. as the media philosopher vilém flusser put it, “tools . . . are extensions of human organs: extended teeth, fingers, hands, arms, legs” (flusser , p. ). preindustrial tools, like paintbrushes or pickaxes, extend the biomechanics of the human body, while more sophisticated machines extend prosthetically into the realms of information and thought. hence, “all apparatuses (not just computers) are . . . ‘artificial intelligences’, the camera included” (ibid., pp. – ). that the camera extends and is modeled after the eye is self-evident. does this make the eye a tool, or the camera an organ—and is the distinction meaningful? flusser ( ) characterization of the “cyborg” is short for cybernetic organism, meaning a hybrid of machine and biology. arts , , of camera as a form of intelligence might have raised eyebrows in the th century, since, surrounded by cameras, many people had long since reinscribed the boundaries of intelligence more narrowly around the brain—perhaps, as we have seen, in order to safeguard the category of the uniquely human. calling the brain the seat of intelligence, and the eye therefore a mere peripheral, is a flawed strategy, though. we are not brains in biological vats. even if we were to adopt a neurocentric attitude, modern neuroscientists typically refer to the retina as an “outpost of the brain” (tosini et al. ) , as it is largely made out of neurons and performs a great deal of information processing before sending encoded visual signals along the optic nerve. do cameras also process information nontrivially? it is remarkable that flusser was so explicit in describing the camera as having a “program” and “software” when he was writing his philosophy of photography in , given that the first real digital camera was not made until (wikipedia a). maybe it took a philosopher’s squint to notice the “programming” inherent in the grinding and configuration of lenses, the creation of a frame and field of view, the timing of the shutter, the details of chemical emulsions and film processing. maybe, also, flusser was writing about programming in a wider, more sociological sense. be this as it may, for today’s cameras, this is no longer a metaphor. the camera in your phone is indeed powered by software, amounting at a minimum to millions of lines of code (information is beautiful ). much of this code performs support functions peripheral to the actual imaging, but some of it makes explicit the nonlinear summing-up of photons into color components that used to be physically computed by the film emulsion. other code does things like removing noise in near-constant areas, sharpening edges, and filling in defective pixels with plausible surrounding color, not unlike the way our retinas hallucinate away the blood vessels at the back of the eye that would otherwise mar our visual field (summers ). the images we see can only be “beautiful” or “real-looking” because they have been heavily processed, either by neural machinery or by code (in which case, both), operating below our threshold of consciousness. in the case of the software, this processing relies on norms and aesthetic judgments on the part of software engineers, so they are also unacknowledged collaborators in the image-making. there is no such thing as a natural image; perhaps, too, there is nothing especially artificial about the camera. the flexibility of code allows us to make cameras that do much more than producing images that can pass for natural. researchers like those at massachusetts institute of technology (mit) media lab’s camera culture group have developed software-enabled nontraditional cameras (many of which still use ordinary hardware) that can sense depth, see around corners, or see through skin (http://cameraculture.media.mit.edu/); abe davis and collaborators have even developed a computational camera that can “see” sound, by decoding the tiny vibrations of houseplant leaves and potato chip bags (davis et al. ). so, flusser ( ) was perhaps even more right than he realized in asserting that cameras follow programs, and that their software has progressively become more important than their hardware. cameras are “thinking machines”. it follows that when a photographer is at work nowadays, she does so as a hybrid artist, thinking, manipulating and encoding information with neurons in both the brain and the retina, working with muscles, motors, transistors, and millions of lines of code. photographers are cyborgs. what new kinds of art become possible when we begin to play with technology analogous not only to the eye, but also to the brain? this is the question that launched the artists and machine intelligence (ami) “a remarkable piece of tissue, the retina is a true outpost of the brain, peripheral only for its location on the back of the eye” (tosini et al. , p. ). similar aesthetic judgments (and impressive engineering feats to support them) were in play by the end of the film emulsion era. kodacolor ii had “as many as emulsion layers, with upwards of different chemicals in each layer” (wikipedia b). this chemical programming embodied aesthetic judgments, just like the software that eventually replaced it. aesthetics imply normativity, and therefore are not neutral with respect to subject matter; so for example, photo processing explicitly favored white people until late in the film era. some digital camera software still reflects racial bias (see cima ). http://cameraculture.media.mit.edu/ arts , , of program (https://ami.withgoogle.com/). the timing is not accidental. over the past several years, approaches to machine intelligence based on approximating the brain’s architecture have started to yield impressive practical results—this is the explosion in so-called “deep learning” or, more accurately, the renaissance of artificial neural networks. in the summer of , we also began to see some surprising experiments hinting at the creative and artistic possibilities latent in these models. understanding the lineage of this body of work will involve going back to the origins of computing, neuroscience, machine learning and artificial intelligence. for now, we will briefly introduce the two specific technologies used in our first gallery event, deep dream (in partnership with gray area foundation for the arts in san francisco, http://grayarea.org/event/deepdream- the-art-of-neural-networks) . these are “inceptionism” or “deep dreaming”, first developed by alex mordvintsev at google’s zurich office (mordvintsev et al. ), and “style transfer”, first developed by leon gatys and collaborators in the bethge lab at the centre for integrative neuroscience in tübingen (gatys et al. ). it is fitting and likely a sign of things to come that one of these developments came from a computer scientist working on a neurally inspired algorithm for image classification, while the other came from a grad student in neuroscience working on computational models of the brain. we are witnessing a time of convergences: not just across disciplines, but between brains and computers; between scientists trying to understand and technologists trying to make; and between academia and industry. we do not believe the convergence will yield a monoculture, but a vibrant hybridity. these are early days. the art realizable with the current generation of machine intelligence might generously be called a kind of neural daguerreotype. more varied and higher-order artistic possibilities will emerge not only through further development of the technology, but through longer term collaborations involving a wider range of artists and intents. this first show at the gray area is small in scale and narrow in scope; it stays close to the early image-making processes that first inspired our art and machine intelligence (ami) program. we believe the magic in the pieces is something akin to that of robert cornelius’s tentative self-portrait in . as machine intelligence develops, we imagine that some artists who work with it will draw the same critique leveled at early photographers. an unsubtle critic might accuse them of “cheating”, or claim that the art produced with these technologies is not “real art”. a subtler (but still antitechnological) critic might dismiss machine intelligence art wholesale as kitsch. as with art in any medium, some of it undoubtedly will be kitsch—we have already seen examples—but some will be beautiful, provocative, frightening, enthralling, unsettling, revelatory, and everything else that good art can be. discoveries will be made. if previous cycles of new technology in art are any guide, then early works have a relatively high likelihood of enduring and being significant in retrospect, since they are by definition exploring new ground, not retreading the familiar. systematically experimenting with what neural-like systems can generate gives us a new tool to investigate nature, culture, ideas, perception, and the workings of our own minds. our interest in exploring the possibilities of machine intelligence in art could easily be justified on these grounds alone. however, we feel that the stakes are much higher, for several reasons. one is that machine intelligence is such a profoundly transformational technology; it is about creating the very stuff of thought and mind. the questions of authenticity, reproducibility, legitimacy, purpose and identity that walter benjamin, vilém flusser, donna haraway and others have raised in the context of earlier technologies shift from metaphorical to literal; they become increasingly consequential. in the era where so many of us have become “information workers” (just as i am, in writing this piece), the issues raised by mi are not mere “theory” to be endlessly rehearsed by critics and journalists. brillhart ( ) piece in the deepdream show also makes use of virtual reality which, while not neural, represents an important advance in both cameras and displays. https://ami.withgoogle.com/ http://grayarea.org/event/deepdream-the-art-of-neural-networks http://grayarea.org/event/deepdream-the-art-of-neural-networks arts , , of we need to make decisions, personally and societally. a feedback loop needs to be closed at places like google, where our work as engineers and researchers will have a real effect on how the technology is developed and deployed. this requires that we apply ourselves rigorously and imaginatively across disciplines. the work cannot be done by technophobic humanists, any more than it can be done by inhuman technologists. luckily, we are neither of the above. both categories are stereotypes, if occasionally self-fulfilling ones, perpetuated by an unhelpful cultural narrative: the philistines again, claiming that artists are elves, and technical people dwarves, when of course the reality is that we are all (at least) human. there is no shortage today of artists and intellectuals who, like alberti, holbein or hockney, are eager to work with and influence the development of new technologies. there is also no shortage of engineers and scientists who are thoughtful and eager to engage with artists and other humanists. and of course, the binary is false; there are people who are simultaneously serious artists and scientists or engineers. we are lucky to have several of such among our group of collaborators. acknowledgments: the author would like to thank kenric mcdowell, jess brillhart, alison lentz, matt jones, mike tyka, alex mordvintsev, jac de haan and charina choi for their inspiring work and useful feedback. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references benjamin, walter. . little history of photography. in walter benjamin: selected writings. translated by m. w. jephcott, and k. shorter. edited by michael w. jennings, howard eiland and gary smith. cambridge: belknap press, vol. . braidotti, rosi. . the posthuman. cambridge: polity press. brillhart, jessica. . deepdream vr. available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahonv cnvgc (accessed on july ). cima, rosie. how photography was optimized for white skin color. priceonomics. april . available online: https://priceonomics.com/how-photography-was-optimized-for-white-skin/ (accessed on july ). davis, abe, michael rubinstein, neal wadhwa, gautham j. mysore, frédo durand, and william t. freeman. . the visual microphone: passive recovery of sound from video. acm transactions on graphics, . available online: http://people.csail.mit.edu/billf/publications/visualmic_siggraph .pdf (accessed on july ). flusser, vilém. . towards a philosophy of photography. islington: reaktion books. future of life institute. . autonomous weapons: an open letter from ai & robotics researchers. july . available online: https://futureoflife.org/open-letter-autonomous-weapons/ (accessed on july ). gatys, leon a., alexander s. ecker, matthias bethge, aaron hertzmann, and eli shechtman. . controlling perceptual factors in neural style transfer. arxiv. arxiv: . . hockney, david. . secret knowledge: rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters. new york: viking studio. information is beautiful. . millions of lines of code. available online: http://www.informationisbeautiful. net/visualizations/million-lines-of-code/ (accessed on july ). kember, sarah, and joanna zylinska. . life after new media: mediation as a vital process. cambridge: the mit press. marr, david. . portrait of the artist as a cheat. the observer, february , p. . available online: https: //www.theguardian.com/theobserver/ /feb/ /focus.news (accessed on july ). mordvintsev, alexander, christopher olah, and mike tyka. . inceptionism: going deeper into neural networks. google research blog. june . available online: https://research.googleblog.com/ / / inceptionism-going-deeper-into-neural.html (accessed on february ). summers, jason. . stabilized images and blind spots. jason summers. february . available online: http://www.jasonsummers.org/stabilized-images-blind-spots/ (accessed on july ). tosini, gianluca, p. michael iuvone, douglas g. mcmahon, and shaun p. collin, eds. . the retina and circadian rhythms. berlin: springer. turkle, sherry. . alone together. new york: basic books. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahonv cnvgc https://priceonomics.com/how-photography-was-optimized-for-white-skin/ http://people.csail.mit.edu/billf/publications/visualmic_siggraph .pdf https://futureoflife.org/open-letter-autonomous-weapons/ http://www.informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations/million-lines-of-code/ http://www.informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations/million-lines-of-code/ https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/ /feb/ /focus.news https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/ /feb/ /focus.news https://research.googleblog.com/ / /inceptionism-going-deeper-into-neural.html https://research.googleblog.com/ / /inceptionism-going-deeper-into-neural.html http://www.jasonsummers.org/stabilized-images-blind-spots/ arts , , of tyler, christopher. . rosetta stone? hockney, falco and the sources of “opticality” in lorenzo lotto’s “husband and wife”. leonardo : – . [crossref] weschler, lawrence. . seeing is forgetting the name of the thing one sees. berkeley: university of california press, p. . wikipedia. a. digital photograpy. available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/digital_photography# history (accessed on july ). wikipedia. b. photographic film. available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/photographic_film (accessed on july ). zylinska, joanna, ed. . the cyborg experiments: the extensions of the body in the media age. new york: continuum. © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . / https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/digital_photography#history https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/digital_photography#history https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/photographic_film http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. medium and mystery: byzantine iconography in light of the media theory of marshall mcluhan louise st. germain a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the master’s degree in theology faculty of theology saint paul university © louise st. germain, ottawa, canada, page ii of iv summary medium and mystery: byzantine iconography in light of the media theory of marshall mcluhan louise st. germain a thesis submitted to the faculty of theology, saint paul university, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts in theology. ottawa, canada. july , this thesis endeavours to answer, “what does it mean for something to be an icon?” though this is not a new question, it attempts a unique approach by using media theorist marshall mcluhan’s four laws of media, as well as his associated tetrad method of organizing the dynamic effects of a medium, as a framework in the analysis. the first part of the thesis reviews contributions from various fields that will inform the inquiry: orthodox theology (past and present), especially with respect to iconoclasm and iconicity; phenomenology and its study of the experience of art and icons; art theory, including the effect of perspective in art; and media theory, which is the domain of mcluhan as mentioned above. the second part of this thesis proposes an original tetrad for iconography, derived from mcluhan’s existing tetrad for cubist art and from the theology of iconography. the new tetrad elucidates iconography’s effects on observers, its role in veneration and worship, and its sensitivity to factors such as its environment and the attitudes of its observers. this leads into the conclusion of the thesis, which summarizes the results to date and identifies potential steps for further study of the icon as a medium. page iii of iv table of contents summary ......................................................................................................................................... ii introduction ..................................................................................................................................... structure and methodology......................................................................................................... limitations and assumptions ..................................................................................................... literature review............................................................................................................................ perspectives on the nature of the icon ....................................................................................... the phenomenology of the iconographic experience ................................................................ marshall mcluhan, religion, and liturgy ............................................................................... the relationship between iconography and modern art ........................................................ part i: the question of icons as media ........................................................................................ section : orthodox theology and the theological role of icons .......................................... the iconoclastic controversy: the development of historical arguments for icons ......... st. john of damascus and the first period of the iconoclastic controversy ........................ the seventh ecumenical council: nicaea ii ( ) .............................................................. st. theodore the studite and the second period of the iconoclastic controversy ............... patriarch nikephoros of constantinople: an unlikely ally of st. theodore the studite ..... the integration of icons in the byzantine tradition ............................................................. theology of the byzantine iconographic style .................................................................... section : phenomenology and the depiction of the invisible ................................................. phenomenology and the question of a “theological turn” ................................................. jean-luc marion and the “crossing of the gaze” ................................................................ merleau-ponty: the idea and the icon.................................................................................. michel henry: seeing the invisible through the eyes of wassily kandinsky .................... section : art theory and the question of perspective ............................................................ perspective as worldview ..................................................................................................... cubism: a spiritual (re-)awakening from the renaissance’s ‘mathematical space?’ ...... section : marshall mcluhan: “the medium is the message” ................................................ the medium is the message ................................................................................................. figure and ground: the extension and interplay of medium and message ........................ visual and acoustic space: the icon as a medium of acoustic space ............................... page iv of iv section : introduction to the laws of media and the tetrad .................................................. the tetrad: a graphical display of the interrelated laws of media ................................... the tetrad as a tool for analyzing iconography ................................................................. part ii: development of the tetrad for iconography .................................................................... section : iconography and cubism as kin .............................................................................. simultaneity and the multisensuous in cubism and iconography........................................ lex videndi: the relationship between education and iconography .................................. movement in the image: the obsolescence of photographic realism ................................ section : the distinction between icons and cubist paintings .............................................. making a scene: co-creator or co-participant? .................................................................. the crossing of the gaze revisited: sources of the gaze ................................................... reversal: the non-visual vs. the idol .................................................................................. section : cubist icons and religious art ................................................................................ cubist icons: blurring the boundaries between icons and modern art ............................... conclusion .................................................................................................................................... bibliography ............................................................................................................................... page of introduction since the very beginning of christianity, christians have been creating art not only to express their faith, but also to serve as a means of connecting to their religious tradition and deepening their relationship with the divine. this has not been without its controversies; the legitimacy of creating images of the divine has required defence both in interfaith dialogue (e.g., with judaism and islam), as well as within christianity (e.g., factions in the iconoclastic controversy, and more recently, ecumenical dialogue with post-reformation iconoclasm). in contemporary eastern christian texts, a distinction is often made between icons and other religious art, indicating that not all such art can be categorized as iconography. it is not usually clear why or how such a distinction can be made, however, especially if the distinction is on the basis of artistic style. therefore, the key question for this thesis is, “what makes an icon an icon, rather than ‘religious art?’—or otherwise put, “what does it mean for something to be an icon?” since this will be a difficult question to answer without any sort of framework to guide the enquiry, marshall mcluhan’s theory of the four laws of media, and its associated tetrad (a method of displaying characteristics associated with each of these laws), will be proposed as a hermeneutic. since mcluhan defines a medium as “any extension of ourselves,” which includes paintings and, by association, icons, the specific investigation in this thesis will be to determine the role of artistic style will be discussed in detail in the body of this text, but distinctions based on artistic style are often polemical in tone. for example, archbishop lazar puhalo compares two images of st. christopher—one a traditional byzantine icon, the other a western painting—with similar composition and subject matter, saying that in the icon, christopher is redeemed and transfigured, while in the western image, he is an ordinary person still bound to the fallen world. [lazar puhalo, the ikon as scripture: a scriptural and spiritual understanding of orthodox christian ikonography (dewdney, bc: synaxis press, ), .] marshall mcluhan, understanding media: the extensions of man, ed. w. terrence gordon, critical edition. (corte madera, ca: gingko press, ), . page of whether mcluhan’s laws of media can provide an adequate framework with which to structure a pertinent response to our question regarding the nature of the icon. structure and methodology this thesis is organized into two major parts. the first provides a detailed overview of the contributions from various fields that will feature in the process of reflecting on icons. this part has two goals. the first is to identify, clarify, and flesh out the concepts, problems, and themes that will be incorporated, either explicitly or implicitly, in the proposed tetrad for iconography. the second is to begin to establish the links between these areas of study, where these links have not been explicitly described before. to begin with, we will probe orthodox theology, past and present, focussing on two major periods: the iconoclastic controversy of the th- th centuries, followed by orthodox modernity, i.e., the literature spanning the th century through to the present. the philosophical field of phenomenology will be the second major area of enquiry, since it offers a unique and pertinent perspective on the ways in which icons are experienced. one theorist in particular, jean-luc marion, has written specifically about icons, constructing an important bridge between theology and philosophy through phenomenology. the third major area of thought to be brought into dialogue will be art theory, especially as it relates to the question of perspective. this will in turn provide a useful segue into cubism, which will be the key comparison when discussing art and iconography. from there, we will come to marshall mcluhan’s work, especially in the area of media and communication theory: this will show itself to be a useful framework with which to organize discussions about iconology. especially pertinent is mcluhan’s tetrad, a unique tool for analyzing and organizing the dynamic effects of a given medium (whether an icon or a cubist painting). with all these elements, by the end of page of part i, i have collected and sorted through all the pertinent pieces and relationships that then enable me, in the second part, to build a tetrad for iconography. the second part of the thesis is the main original contribution of this work, which proposes that a tetrad for iconography can help us to respond to the question, “what makes an icon an icon?” this is the hypothesis, stated specifically according to the framework of mcluhan’s laws of media. this tetrad is populated with insights gained from the theological analysis of iconography in part i. the rest of part ii proceeds to test the validity and value of the tetrad, this time by looking at the dynamic relationships implied in each of the laws of media (enhancement, obsolescence, retrieval, and reversal). i frequently use cubism as a comparison in order to determine whether a “tetradic” definition of icons is specific enough to be able to describe icons while distinguishing them from cubist paintings, which are not icons. the first section of part ii establishes the similarities and parallels between cubism and iconography, while the second notes the areas in which these two are distinguished or even opposed, pointing out the distinctive characteristics of icons. the third and final section of part ii applies what has been learned through the tetrad analysis to a unique case—the cubist icon and other cubist religious art. this “hybrid” case tests the strengths and limitations of the analysis conducted hitherto, leading us to the conclusion of the thesis, where we summarize the results to date and identify potential steps for further enquiry. this approach is valuable because it allows so many further questions to be investigated as they concern icons. my purpose here is not to carry out all of these investigations, which for reasons of length cannot be included in this thesis. rather, my purpose has been to demonstrate the soundness of my hypothesis, and to show that the tetrad i have constructed has significant scholarly and conceptual value. page of limitations and assumptions of course, given the interdisciplinary scope of the question and the length of this paper, certain limitations and assumptions are unavoidable. to reduce the topic to a manageable size, the iconography discussed has been limited to that of the byzantine tradition, though iconography plays a central role in several other expressions of eastern christianity (e.g., coptic and ethiopian orthodoxy). stylistic differences between distinct periods and schools of byzantine iconography are also not addressed here, in order to keep the focus on its more universal characteristics. furthermore, though the term “modern art” encompasses a spectrum of heterogeneous and often unrelated movements, i have chosen to focus on cubism as an illustrative, if not exhaustive, representative for our method. further studies could certainly extend the comparison both to other forms of iconography and to other religious or secular artistic trends. one other concern that needs to be addressed is the validity of applying a framework derived from mcluhan’s field of mass communication theory to a theological question. while it may seem unusual to identify icons as a form of technology or medium, mcluhan’s definition is intentionally and even provocatively broad, going well beyond the electrical or mechanical “gizmo” that usually comes to mind at the mention of the word. he does not presume specific content; consequently, our identification of icons as a medium and use of his tetrad for organizing its effects will not entail an automatic secularization of the medium. in short, primarily theological ideas will prove to be amenable to the use of mcluhan’s framework, with the expected advantage that the dynamic relationships developed between them will more readily come to light. if this approach does prove valuable for the description of iconography as a page of medium, confirming its place in eastern christian tradition, our methodology may in turn be applied to other theological topics—perhaps not only media as extensions of the person, but also revelation as an extension of the divine toward us. to do justice to iconography, it is vitally important to maintain a theological focus: without a grounding in the tradition in which icons exist and operate, it would be impossible to evaluate them as media inextricably tied to the act of faith. however, just as christ and his disciples were called to interact with those outside the faith, so here, elements of truth or insight derived from fields outside theology are brought into dialogue: not to dilute the theological ideas at hand, but to offer potential insight into them. therefore, in this first part of the thesis, we provide an overview of byzantine iconography, first drawing upon eastern christian sources, and subsequently from other fields that may have pertinent perspectives. literature review although many studies address aspects of how icons differ from other portraits or scenes, none of them use our proposed methodology which, as previously explained, is to examine the topic through the lens of mcluhan’s laws of media, incorporating his central concept of the tetrad. surprisingly, very few studies address mcluhan’s tetrads (whether theoretical or specific) in any context. in this section, the state of the question will be examined in its separate parts, subsequently weaving together the individual threads of the discussion. there are four main areas to explore: the nature of the icon from the theological vantage point; the experience of the icon from a philosophical (phenomenological) perspective; the application of mcluhan’s theories to religious matters; and finally, existing comparisons between modern art and page of iconography. links between these areas will also be highlighted in preparation for merging the various discussions in my ultimate effort to answer the single question at the centre of this thesis. perspectives on the nature of the icon of the relevant fields of discussion, this one is the most mature, given that the nature of the icon has been debated for over a millennium. a more detailed examination of the arguments presented during the iconoclastic controversy of the th- th centuries will follow in part i. the three main writers of this period to be considered are st. john of damascus, with his three treatises on the divine images; st. theodore the studite, with his on the holy icons; and patriarch nikephoros, with his discourses against the iconoclasts. iconography has been a much-discussed topic among theologians in the th and st centuries. the principal authors include leonid ouspensky, who wrote theology of the icon and, in conjunction with vladimir lossky, the meaning of icons, one of the seminal th century texts on iconography, and their contemporary, paul evdokimov, author of the art of the icon: a theology of beauty. all of these important works will be discussed in greater detail in part i. in the st century, the conversation about iconography and the nature of icons remains vibrant, among scholars such as bissera pentcheva, arianne conty, clemena antonova, and bruce foltz. pentcheva is an art historian who has specialized in byzantine art and acoustics. her st. john of damascus, three treatises on the divine images, trans. andrew louth, popular patristics (crestwood, n.y.: st. vladimir’s seminary press, ). st. theodore the studite, on the holy icons, trans. catharine p. roth (crestwood, ny: st. vladimir’s seminary press, ). patriarch nicephorus, discours contre les iconoclastes: discussion et réfutation des bavardages ignares, athées et tout à fait creux de l’irreligion mamon contre l’incarnation de dieu le verbe notre sauveur, trans. marie- josé mondzain-baudinet, collection d’esthétique (paris: klincksieck, ). page of book the sensual icon: space, ritual and the senses in byzantium studied how the materials (e.g., gold, ivory), the form (e.g., flat board or relief carving) and environment (e.g., flickering lights, changing shadows, air movement) affect the way icons can be understood in their ritual context. this segues into her book, hagia sophia: sound, space and spirit in byzantium, which focuses more broadly on the interplay between aesthetics and acoustics in the liturgical life of the hagia sophia in constantinople. her article “the performative icon” addresses similar themes as the sensual icon, and will inform my examination, in part ii, of pentcheva’s contribution. clemena antonova, a fellow art historian, has also written on iconography in space, time, and presence in the icon. however, this book and her research in general are restricted to russian icons, rather than dealing with byzantine iconography more generally. in addition to the book just mentioned, she has published several articles on iconological themes, especially with regard to spatial perspective and its temporal counterpart, where she discusses the non-linear flow of time in the icon. bissera v. pentcheva, the sensual icon: space, ritual, and the senses in byzantium (university park, pa: pennsylvania state university press, ). bissera v. pentcheva, hagia sophia: sound, space, and spirit in byzantium (university park, pennsylvania: the pennsylvania state university press, ). bissera v. pentcheva, “the performative icon,” the art bulletin , no. ( ): – . clemena antonova, space, time, and presence in the icon: seeing the world with the eyes of god, ashgate studies in theology, imagination, and the arts (london, new york: routledge, ). clemena antonova, “on the problem of ‘reverse perspective’: definitions east and west,” leonardo , no. (october ): – . clemena antonova, “florensky’s ‘reverse time’ and bakhtin’s ‘chronotope’: a russian contribution to the theory of the visual arts,” slovo (maney publishing) , no. (october ): – . page of arianne conty is a philosopher of religion; her “bending heaven down to earth,” examines the medieval icon, its use of perspective, and the more modern idea of the “crossing of the gaze.” in this sense, she and antonova explore similar themes, although conty discusses both byzantine and western art. in “absolute art: nicolas of cusa’s de visione dei,” she describes an experiment conducted by nicholas of cusa with his fellow monks, and from this she develops a “sociology of belief,” concluding that knowledge of god is not only impossible from a single perspective or vantage point, but is also dependent on being in community with others who are seeking a relationship with god. cusa’s work and the question of perspective, along with the “crossing of the gaze,” are subjects that will be taken up again later in this thesis. bruce foltz is a philosopher writing primarily about the environment, though he also covers several topics in the philosophy of religion. although his work will not be revisited later in this paper, it is worth noting that in the noetics of nature he establishes parallels between icons and the earth, namely, in the way that environment and interconnections (or intertextuality) are important for the being and meaning of both. he argues: “the icons manifest spiritual realities in part through their contextual inter-relations—graphic, poetic, narrative, ontological, and spiritual—within a world seen variously through other icons.” he even dedicates a whole chapter to “the iconic earth,” although this idea of iconicity and idolatry in the natural environment and in the liturgical environment are prevalent throughout. if antonova arianne conty, “bending heaven down to earth: the medieval icon,” religion and the arts , no. – ( ): – . arianne conty, “absolute art: nicolas of cusa’s de visione dei,” religion and the arts , no. (january , ): – . bruce v. foltz, the noetics of nature: environmental philosophy and the holy beauty of the visible, groundworks - ecological issues in philosophy and ecology (fordham university, ), – . ibid., – . page of represents the specific (i.e., russian) end of the spectrum, in discussions about iconography, foltz may represent the opposite, more generalized end, given that he invites not only icons but the entirety of the natural world into the discussion about iconicity and experience. we turn to this perhaps peculiar idea of “experiencing icons,” in our next section on phenomenology. the phenomenology of the iconographic experience the phenomenologist who has written most prolifically on the subject of phenomenology in conjunction with icons is certainly jean-luc marion. among his works, the monograph the crossing of the visible (originally published in french as la croisée du visible in ) will be the focus here, since its key theme is to distinguish object, idol and icon. these ideas will be discussed in more detail below. the book just mentioned is not, however, marion’s only treatment of iconography and its related themes. his the idol and distance (originally published in french as l’idole et la distance in ) opened the discussion on the “visible” and “invisible,” though his questions were left open-ended; the crossing of the visible both continues the train of thought begun twelve years prior (and extended in his dieu sans l'être), one that will prove central to our evaluation of how an icon can be experienced as such, and what might differentiate it from an idol or other work of art. marion’s research in this domain also includes articles and conference presentations. one of these, “le prototype de l’image” formed the basis of what became chapter of the crossing jean-luc marion, the crossing of the visible, cultural memory in the present (stanford, calif.: stanford university press, ). jean-luc marion, dieu sans l’être, quadrige (paris: quadrige/presses universitaires de france, ). jean-luc marion, “le prototype de l’image,” in nicée ii, -  : douze siècles d’images religieuses (presented at the colloque international nicée ii, paris: Éditions du cerf, ), – . page of of the visible. another noteworthy paper from the same conference is michel costantini’s “l’art contemporain : l’idole en quête d’icone?” here, costantini introduces modern art and photographic realism into the dialogue, and finds in those media the negation of iconic traits—in place of the icon appears a pretentious idol coming from imitation and manufacture, without any sense of the creator’s giving of self through the icon, nor with any inkling of acheiropoeisis (made without hands). this abhorrence of imitation or mimesis is a theme that will return in part i, in our discussion of michel henry and the work of abstract artist wassily kandinsky. henry also touches on the topic of byzantine icons, primarily in the form of larger mosaics, in barbarism, where he describes how the power of byzantine iconography comes from its aesthetic composition. also of interest is marion’s “seeing, or seeing oneself seen: nicholas of cusa's contribution in de visione dei” which explores the theology of th-century german theologian and philosopher nicholas of cusa. in the latter’s de visione dei sive de icona, as marion notes, there is not only the question of visions of god, but also of visibility generally speaking, which leads to the discussion of phenomenality. to marion, this means “questions concerning the icon as a type of phenomenon, the reversal of vision into a countervision, the distinction between the object or the nonobject of the seen, and the possibility of seeing the michel costantini, “l’art contemporain : l’idole en quête d’icone?,” in nicée ii, -  : douze siècles d’images religieuses (presented at the colloque international nicée ii, paris: Éditions du cerf, ), – . ibid., . michel henry, barbarism, trans. scott davidson (london and new york: continuum impacts, ), . jean-luc marion, “seeing, or seeing oneself seen: nicholas of cusa’s contribution in de visione dei,” the journal of religion , no. (july ): – . page of other.” similarly, arianne conty, mentioned above, analyzes de visione dei, concluding that our communal understanding of god must be mediated by the words (and thus experiences) of others, because it is not possible to completely understand god from the vantage point of a single person. this conclusion was based on cusa’s experiment with his fellow monks, who circumambulated an icon composed in reverse perspective, and discovered each monk to have a unique perspective. i do not review cusa’s work directly in what follows, although he is included to the extent that he has had an influence on marion. further studies in this area, however, especially those inclusive of western religious art, would benefit from a closer engagement with cusa’s text. returning to modern philosophy: although marion is a major figure in the phenomenology of icons and art more broadly, he is not the only one writing on this topic. fellow phenomenologist michel henry published seeing the invisible, a book on the oeuvre of kandinsky. while not pertaining to iconography directly, it explores many of the same themes as marion’s work, such as the visible and the invisible, which form layers of meaning and connection in a painting. in “iconic wonder,” alexander kozin discusses the phenomenology of pavel florensky—an early th century orthodox theologian who had critiqued the thought of husserl, but died (in ) before several important phenomenological works were written, particularly those with religious themes, in the wake of the so-called “theological turn.” kozin cites lévinas ibid. conty, “absolute art,” . michel henry, seeing the invisible: on kandinsky (london ; new york: continuum, ). alexander v. kozin, “iconic wonder: pavel florensky’s phenomenology of the face,” studies in east european thought , no. ( ): – . page of and his insistence on the importance of the presence of the other, especially the face of the other. although not figuring directly in this thesis, we will encounter lévinas’ legacy in later phenomenologists such as henry and marion. finally, not all phenomenology relating to our topic has an explicitly spiritual bent. maurice merleau-ponty has written extensively on aesthetics, though not explicitly in regard to icons. key essays include “cézanne’s doubt” and “eye and mind” : the former deals with the role of the senses and sensations in the experience of both producing and viewing a painting, while the latter touches on the representation of the invisible—a conversation continuing in the work of henry and marion. merleau-ponty is discussed in further detail in part i. up to this point, we have mentioned resources associated with what might be called the traditional dialogue between theology and philosophy concerning icons. the next two categories present atypical interlocutors: first, marshall mcluhan, and his impact on the way the world sees media (including iconography), and second, modern art, which though seemingly opposed in both content and context, in fact provides a valuable perspective on what iconography is and is not. ibid., – . maurice merleau-ponty, “cézanne’s doubt,” in the merleau-ponty aesthetics reader: philosophy and painting, ed. galen a. johnson and michael b. smith, northwestern university studies in phenomenology & existential philosophy (evanston, ill.: northwestern university press, ), – . maurice merleau-ponty, “eye and mind,” in the merleau-ponty aesthetics reader: philosophy and painting, ed. galen a. johnson and michael b. smith, northwestern university studies in phenomenology & existential philosophy (evanston, ill.: northwestern university press, ), – . page of marshall mcluhan, religion, and liturgy marshall mcluhan, best known for his work in mass communication and the social impact of technology, was a professor of english literature at the university of st. michael’s college (university of toronto). he was also a convert to catholicism, who remained devout throughout his academic career, as witnessed by the series of letters and essays compiled in the medium and the light: reflections on religion. this book is in four parts, treating: his conversion; the church’s current understanding and relationship to media (i.e., electric/electronic media such as television); vatican ii and its relationship to liturgy and media; and the future of the catholic church in an electronic or digital age. sections of other key works, such as the gutenberg galaxy and understanding media also use religious contexts to explain a given concept—such as the breaking apart of a cohesive unity of senses when the visual sense is favoured nearly exclusively —even where religion is not the primary focus of his arguments. in particular, the gutenberg galaxy, which focuses on the effects of the printing press on human society, extensively evaluates the effects of the printing press on the catholic church and the subsequent rise of protestantism. despite a tendency to engage various aspects of religion and the senses, mcluhan never directly discusses icons as a form of sacred art for the purpose of prayer. while making the occasional, passing reference to an icon or to the iconic, his concept of the icon can only be marshall mcluhan, the medium and the light: reflections on religion, ed. eric mcluhan and jacek szklarek (toronto: stoddart, ). marshall mcluhan, the gutenberg galaxy: the making of typographic man (toronto, on: university of toronto press, ). mcluhan, understanding media. mcluhan, the gutenberg galaxy, . page of marginally correlated to a religious icon in the byzantine sense. still, many of the aspects of liturgical practice, and christian faith more broadly, which he does treat, pertain also to the context of iconography. in the medium and the light, mcluhan refers to the christian east as the portion of the church that split from roman catholicism when the latter became too literate or “visual” (meaning text-driven), and consequently too centralized. he also raises the possibility that as the west re-enters a more “acoustic” (non-text-based) world with the introduction of electronic media, the east may meanwhile begin to emulate the west’s visual culture, thereby losing the very acoustic or tactile culture it had hitherto preserved. this would have been the ideal opportunity to discuss iconography as an important element of the east’s less-text-based focus (similarly characteristic of the west and its sacred art up to the renaissance). curiously, however, mcluhan does not discuss this at all, preferring to focus on the musical or sung aspects of the liturgy, the centrality of the sacraments, and the use of the vernacular. therefore, i will be using mcluhan’s thought on visual and acoustic space, and its for example, mcluhan states that “women’s dress and hair styles have abandoned visual for iconic—or sculptural and tactual—stress.” (mcluhan, understanding media, .) inasmuch as mcluhan’s point is that the iconic moves away from the purely visual, i.e., text-based, this aligns with the understanding of a byzantine icon. however, mcluhan uses this term much more broadly, usually with reference to something that revives the tactile experience of a medium. see, for example, ibid., , . mcluhan, the medium and the light, xxviii, . on page , he writes, “it would be a good time to be russian orthodox: they split off from rome because it was too literate. the eastern church is an ‘ear’ church; rome was always very far along the visual road to visual power.” this is arguably a drastic simplification of the theological and political complexities of the schism of , and he does not attempt to explain how these complexities can be boiled down to a disparity in the “visuality” of the christian west and east. however, it does shed important light on the possibility of causing major social changes through the favouring a certain sense (in this case, visual or text-based) above all others. ibid., . mcluhan writes, “while we [roman catholicism] are rediscovering our inner-directed spirituality under electric influence, the oriental world as a whole is marching toward western values and its external trappings. isn’t the east about to lose its inner richness in order to put on what we ourselves are abandoning? instead of borrowing from each other what we each lack, each keeping what is good, we risk completely exchanging sides and discovering that we are still opposed.” page of relationship to art and liturgy (if not to iconography specifically), and applying it in turn to the question of where iconography is to be located within christian theology. secondary source material on mcluhan and religion is similarly void of overt links with iconography. shortly after the publication of his two major works—the gutenberg galaxy ( ) and understanding media ( )—a few articles appeared, attempting to apply mcluhan’s thoughts to the perceived state of society. however, these were rarely authored by theologians. jesuit john m. culkin’s “a churchman’s guide to marshall mcluhan,” is largely a summary of “the medium is the message” expression, explaining how a text-based society can result in linear thinking. when evaluating the application of mcluhan’s theories to the church, culkin aligns the need for a more sensory experience in liturgy with liturgical reforms promoting congregational participation, and the introduction of new technologies (e.g., modern musical instruments, slides, films) into the liturgy. another contemporary article, “liturgical medium in an electronic age,” follows a similar rationale, predicting a reversal of the linear, uniform format of visual liturgy towards a more creative and participatory experience—worship as a work of art. oddly, the author even goes so far as to consider the fourth eucharistic prayer, based on the byzantine rite’s anaphora of st. basil, as illustrative of a nostalgia for the more aural and tribal bonds maintained in the eastern tradition. in neither article is there any direct evaluation of the new media and their associated unified sensory experience, with respect to the sensory experience exemplified in john m culkin, “a churchman’s guide to marshall mcluhan,” religious education , no. (november ): – . ibid., . charles c mcdonald, “liturgical medium in an electronic age,” worship , no. (january ): – . ibid., . page of eastern christian liturgy and in traditional roman rites. there is also no discussion of the theological appropriateness of electric or modern media in a liturgical context. this question of the appropriateness of technology in liturgy was taken up in by martha smith tatarnic : she uses mcluhan’s work to evaluate the seemingly contradictory messages often heard about the church today, namely that it is irrelevant even as religion remains important. she argues that these two messages are in fact one and the same, with the confusion stemming from the bias of television toward an individualism foreign to the church. she explains: “[t]he primary message of the mass media serves to legitimize this idea of the church as irrelevant simply because the demands of the gospel do not make sense in a television value system that upholds the satisfaction of individual desires as being of utmost importance.” the question becomes whether christianity can be effectively transmitted through any and all media, since it appears that the message—the social effect, as mcluhan defines it—of some media (in this case, television) is inherently incompatible with christianity, with the christian message consequently lost in translation. tatarnic suggests that some of missing elements in the television age are those that are “provocative, challenging, ancient, and relational about faith as lived out through a religious institution, elements such as mission work and service, social justice, sacramentality, community, tradition, ritual, or self-sacrifice,” arguing further that these have been replaced by a religion demanding nothing of its adherents. like others, tatarnic references mcluhan’s work only insofar as it relates to the church and electronic or modern martha smith tatarnic, “the mass media and faith: the potentialities and problems for the church in our television culture,” anglican theological review , no. ( ): – . ibid., . ibid., . ibid., – . page of media. although i will be applying mcluhan’s theories to the traditional “medium” of the icon, i take as valid tatarnic’s critique that nothing is being demanded of christian adherents; i will return to this theme when discussing the phenomenology of the icon and the crossing of the gaze. the final part of this literature review will provide a high-level overview of the topic of modern art as it relates to iconography. this may be seen as a natural partner to mcluhan’s communication theory; while certainly aware of icons (inasmuch as they warrant the occasional mention in his work), mcluhan applied his laws of media to modern art, particularly cubism. thus, scholarship treating the link between cubism and iconography should prove especially useful to our own project. the relationship between iconography and modern art as previously noted, mcluhan mentions icons only in passing, and even then, with a meaning only loosely connected to byzantine iconography. he does, however, discuss modern art (and particularly cubism) in relation to his communication theory. i will analyze this in much more depth in part ii, providing an extensive discussion of the similarities and differences between cubist art and iconography, in an attempt to apply mcluhan’s framework for media effects to iconography. i have yet to come across any academic work with this objective, although there are certainly a number of texts which compare modern art with iconography (or other religious art) in other ways. page of andrew spira’s book the avant-garde icon explores the connection between the iconographic tradition and the development of the avant-garde artistic movement in russia. spira recognizes that it may appear that icons and avant-garde art share little in common, with one deeply rooted in the christian tradition and the other based in the rejection of christianity and an antipathy toward religion generally speaking. however, spira argues that it is the tradition of icons in russia that actually made avant-garde art possible; despite rebellion against the church, local artists were influenced by icons in a variety of ways because of the historical importance of iconography to their culture. similarities do exist at the surface level, such as the use of unconventional (non-realist) frames of reference; they may also exist at a deeper level, such as the quest in both instances to express, in and through art, something of the transcendent. while spira focuses specifically on the russian traditions of both iconography and of avant-garde art, i will be considering iconography more broadly. clemena antonova has also compared russian iconography and modern art, specifically cubism, in her book space, time, and presence in the icon. unlike spira, however, the parallels between icons and modern paintings are not her primary focus, although she similarly restricts her geographical scope. antonova covers three themes that pertain to the understanding of icons, beginning with an exploration of time, and the dearth of academic study on the topic of time in art, then highlighting its importance to iconography. among other notions, she treats andrew spira, the avant-garde icon: russian avant-garde art and the icon painting tradition (aldershot, hampshire and burlington, vt: lund humphries, ). the avant-garde movement is largely connected with modernism, and is an umbrella term for a large number of forms of art, including cubism but also impressionism, dadaism, suprematism, and many more. for a general overview of avant-garde art (including writing, fine art, and music) and its premises, see the introduction to richard kostelanetz, a dictionary of the avant-gardes, second edition. (new york: routledge, ), xix–xxii. spira, the avant-garde icon, – . antonova, space, time, and presence in the icon. page of florensky’s concept of reverse time, i.e., the experience of time flowing backward, followed by konstantinos kalokyris’s connection of icons with the idea of liturgical time. she proceeds to a description of space in painting, which lies at the heart of the classical criticism of paintings in general and iconography in particular, given that perspective and viewpoint are key to the experience of a work of art. finally, antonova compares cubism with iconography, noting that they share a similar structure of multiple simultaneous views of the person or object depicted. whereas spira identifies the key difference between the two as the rejection (or not) of organized religion (and of christianity specifically), antonova notes that cubism rather rejects the western system of (linear) perspective. this could not, of course, be the goal of the iconographic tradition, since it largely predates the renaissance popularization of such perspective. though it is true that chronologically-speaking, the ancient use of reverse perspective in iconography could not have been a direct response to renaissance innovations, it is still possible that it was consciously used to oppose a purely immanent worldview; i will discuss this prospect further in section of part i. several other authors have also compared iconography with modern art. sergei bulgakov, in “the corpse of beauty” also identifies a transcendent component to cubist art, though he believed it pointed to the demonic rather than to the heavenly. paul evdokimov also includes a chapter titled “modern art in the light of the icon” in the art of the icon, where he ibid., – . the ideas of both florensky and kalokyris regarding time in iconography are revisited in more detail later in this paper. ibid., – . sergeĭ nikolaevich bulgakov, “the corpse of beauty,” in a bulgakov anthology (london: spck, ), – . paul evdokimov, the art of the icon: a theology of beauty, trans. steven bigham (redondo beach, calif.: oakwood publications, ), – . page of likewise points not only to the absence of a religious dimension in modern art (including cubism), but also to a devastated soul, devoid of the interiority necessary to encounter god. interiority and perspective are key foundational principles which will be revisited later in part i. having reviewed the state of the discussion, the question of what differentiates an icon from other forms of art—particularly modern art that shares similar characteristics—is still only partially answered, and without any consensus. there is also no existing study applying mcluhan’s ideas, such as his laws of media, as a framework for this question. what follows will therefore be the first attempt of this sort, and will hopefully be a catalyst for subsequent research. part i: the question of icons as media since the goal of this thesis is to bring together resources from multiple fields—theology, phenomenology, art history, and media theory—in order to propose a new framework for developing our understanding of the icon and what differentiates it from a secular or even religious painting, i will begin by exploring the pertinent conversations in these fields. section provides an overview of what has been said about icons within orthodox theology, especially at the time of the iconoclastic controversy, which forced orthodox iconographic doctrine to be articulated in great detail. texts from the byzantine liturgy, especially the propers for the sunday of the triumph of orthodoxy (commemorating the end of the iconoclastic controversy), will ibid., , . in this thesis, unless otherwise stated, “secular” refers to the non-religious, or that which is concerned with the worldly, rather than with religion or the transcendent. (charles taylor, a secular age (cambridge, mass.: belknap press of harvard university press, ), .) other meanings of the word exist, which charles taylor has treated at length in a secular age, and are summarized in his introduction. (ibid., .) page of also be examined. we will then hear from influential orthodox theologians of the th and st centuries, especially paul evdokimov, leonid ouspensky, and vladimir lossky. section provides a precis of phenomenology as it relates to the possibilities for experiencing an icon. after an overview of phenomenology and the so-called “theological turn” that appeared in a field originally conceived in “perceptual” terms, i will turn to jean-luc marion, notable not only for exploring the role of the transcendent in human experience, but also—and more importantly for our purposes—addressing iconography explicitly in his work, particularly in the crossing of the visible. section highlights contributions from art history, especially with respect to the role of perspective in a work of art (or an icon) and its effect on the experience of the viewer. this extension of phenomenology is important, and cubism will consequently be introduced as a “dialogue partner,” given its superficial similarities to iconography in both appearance (e.g., the non-realistic representation of object or person) and in purpose (i.e., portraying that which is invisible in symbolic or otherwise visible form). finally, sections and provide an introduction to the thought of marshall mcluhan, and to a lesser extent, of his son eric with whom he collaborated in the latter part of his career. the ideas of medium, figure-ground relationships, and the laws of media all form an important basis for the tetrad—the framework to be developed and applied in the second half of this thesis, with respect to both the ontology and the dynamics of the icon. page of section : orthodox theology and the theological role of icons the iconoclastic controversy: the development of historical arguments for icons within orthodox theology, much has been said about the nature and role of icons, largely due to the iconoclastic controversy that rocked the byzantine empire in the eighth and ninth centuries. the iconoclastic controversy began to gain momentum in ad , when emperor leo iii decreed the destruction of icons; he reinforced this with a further edict in . matters were not resolved until , when empress theodora ordered the re-establishment of icon veneration—an event still commemorated by byzantine-rite christians today as the triumph of orthodoxy. the controversy covered two periods, separated by an interval of relative calm between the seventh ecumenical council (nicaea ii) in , at which iconoclasm was condemned, and , when iconoclastic emperor leo v the armenian rose to power. four major primary sources pertain to this controversy, all of which aimed to define and validate the role of icons as a vital element of christianity. during the first period, st. john of damascus (ca. - ) wrote three treatises against the iconoclasts, which articulate the most important theological arguments in favour of icons. the exact dates of the three treatises are not known, but estimates are that the first treatise was written between and , the second shortly after , and the third in the early s. daniel j. sahas, icon and logos: sources in eighth-century iconoclasm, toronto medieval texts and translations (toronto: university of toronto press, ), . nicephorus, discours contre les iconoclastes, . ibid., . john of damascus, three treatises on the divine images, . page of two councils led up to the temporary reprieve already mentioned: an iconoclastic council in , convened in hiereia by emperor constantine v, and one condemning iconoclasm—the seventh ecumenical council—convened by the empress irene in nicaea in (also known as nicaea ii). because of the widespread destruction of iconoclastic writings in the wake of the controversy, there are few extant records from the council, though fragments survive in later iconophile documents (including the acts of the seventh ecumenical council treated below). in the ninth century, two writers are notable for their defence of icon veneration (iconoduleia): st. theodore the studite ( - ), and patriarch nikephoros of constantinople (ca. - ). mirroring the three-part structure of the damascene’s treatises, st. theodore and patriarch nikephoros each wrote three refutations of the iconoclasts. the latter wrote between and , and although exact dates are not known for the former’s refutations, they generally receive a similar dating. although some scholars have characterized this second period of iconoclasm as a spiritually exhausted, diluted repeat of the first, historian paul alexander argues otherwise, calling it the “philosophical climax of the entire controversy.” while several of the respective arguments and counter-arguments overlap, the second period represented an evolution in christological sophistication and nuance on both sides. in particular, the nature of the authentic religious image became the central object of debate, as evidenced in the horos sahas, icon and logos, – . nicephorus, discours contre les iconoclastes, . paul j. alexander, “the iconoclastic council of st. sophia ( ) and its definition (horos),” dumbarton oaks papers ( ): . theodore the studite, on the holy icons, . alexander, “the iconoclastic council of st. sophia ( ) and its definition (horos),” . page of (definition) of the iconoclastic council of st. sophia ( ), as well as the writings of st. theodore and patriarch nikephoros. let us now turn to essential arguments and counter- arguments put forward in these sources: these will lay the foundation for our subsequent dialogue with the modern theologians and philosophers introduced above. st. john of damascus and the first period of the iconoclastic controversy soon after the advent of iconoclasm in , st. john of damascus wrote his first treatise, in which he critiques the iconoclasts’ literalistic interpretation of the biblical injunction against graven images (ex : - ), and their blanket extension of it to all imagery, including icons. john’s later treatises cover similar ground, though varying in presentation and sophistication: the second treatise is a condensed version of the first, with almost identical florilegia, while the third is further simplified, even as it elevates the arguments to a new level. to distinguish idolatry and worship of the one true god, john repeatedly delves into three areas: the nature of images, whether god is circumscribable, and the possible forms of interaction with sacred imagery. jacques paul migne and ferdinand cavallera, patrologiae cursus completus, series graeca (paris: j.- p. migne, ), – . note: in this document, all further references to this series (the patrologia graeca) will be abbreviated as pg, followed by volume number and column range, e.g., pg , - . st. john of damascus’s second oration can be found in pg , - , and the third oration ibid., - . “you shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them . . .” biblical quotations in this thesis will be from the revised standard version (rsv) unless otherwise indicated. a florilegium is a series of passages strung together from patristic sources, as a way of reinforcing the authority of the argument. all three of john’s treatises contain one, and those from the first two treatises are largely identical; however, they are unusual in that john inserts comments between each passage. see andrew louth’s comment on this in his introduction to the three treatises, pp. - . john of damascus, three treatises on the divine images, . page of before getting into specifics, john examines the nature of the image, and provides an overview of six types, as follows: . natural images: what is by nature is then followed by that which is through begetting or proceeding; e.g., the son is begotten by the father, and thus the son is a natural image of the father. . god’s pre-eternal will: god’s will contains that which is predetermined and shall infallibly come to be. . humankind: that which god brings about through imitation, i.e., we are made in the image of god. . depictions of the invisible in bodily form: scriptural forms and shapes that provide a conception of the divine and angelic, such as the trinity being represented by the sun, sunlight, and the sunbeam. . prefiguration: symbolic representations of what will come to be, e.g., the burning bush prefiguring the theotokos. . memories of past events: scripture or items that exist as memorials, such as the twelve stones from the river jordan used as a figure to remember the priests of the twelve tribes of israel. given these variations on the theme of the image being a likeness of the original, the next question is whether a likeness of the divine is possible, i.e., whether the divine is even circumscribable. the damascene agrees that in the old testament, when the commandment against graven images was given, it was indeed not possible to make an image of god, because ibid., – . treatise iii, §§ - . page of he was invisible and thus could not be depicted. with the incarnation of christ, however, god had chosen to take the form of man, which could indeed be depicted. the final major argument is that there are multiple forms of veneration and worship, and it is crucial to distinguish them. john proposes twelve types of worship and veneration, grouped into two broad categories: worship of god, and veneration of creatures. worship is due to god alone, and can take the form of formal services (e.g., liturgy); wonder and desire at god’s glory; thanksgiving for good things; supplication for needs, and repentance through confession. on the other hand, creaturely veneration—a symbol of submission and honour but not worship—is appropriate in certain cases, with john indicating seven: persons assimilated to god through theosis; things or places through which god wrought salvation (e.g., golgotha); things dedicated to god (books, chalices, etc.); items prefiguring things to come (e.g., aaron’s rod, the jar containing the manna); other people, as made in the image of god; and those in authority, such as masters (to be venerated by their servants). the conclusion is that inasmuch as veneration causes honour to pass from the image to the prototype, and since god has determined to become circumscribable in christ, icons and their veneration must continue to be an important part of existing church tradition. the seventh ecumenical council: nicaea ii ( ) some forty years after the last of st. john of damascus’s treatises on holy images, and years after an iconoclastic council in hiereia, an opposing council was convened in nicaea to definitively remedy the situation. of the eight sessions, the most interesting for our purposes is ibid., . treatise i, § . ibid., – . treatise iii, §§ - . ibid., . treatise iii, § . page of the sixth, in which the horos from the iconoclastic council of was read and, item by item, refuted. several refutations echo those presented by st. john of damascus, though he is not mentioned by name. for example, the iconoclastic council had suggested that an icon of christ either attempts to circumscribe the uncircumscribable, or else confuses the unconfused union (perhaps by only portraying his human nature)—either way, a blasphemy. the new council proceeds to refute this by means of the arguments advanced by john, pointing to christ who became visible through his humanity, while maintaining a perfect union of his two natures. interestingly, just as john made liberal use of florilegia to support his treatises against iconoclasm, the iconoclastic council of also used a florilegium to support its position, citing a number of passages from venerable authors such as st. gregory the theologian and st. john chrysostom. however, the council at nicaea neutralized each of these in turn by demonstrating how these patristic passages had been misunderstood, taken out of context, misquoted, or twisted to suit an argument. for example, the horos quotes amphilochius of iconium that “we should not endeavour to depict on boards with colours the carnal faces of the saints; we do not need these. what we need, instead, is to imitate their conduct through virtue.” the new council retorts that this is only a fragment of what amphilochius said, thereby misrepresenting his position. instead, they suggest, “we do not praise the saints, nor do we represent them in painting, because we like their flesh. rather, in our desire to imitate their virtues, we retell their sahas, icon and logos, , . ibid., – . ibid., – . this is the full fifth volume of the sixth session, which is almost entirely dedicated to these refutations of patristic passages. the fourth volume (icon and logos, pp. - ) contains a similar quotation- and-refutation format, but with the biblical, rather than patristic, passages quoted by the iconoclastic council. ibid., . page of life-stories in books and we depict them in iconographies, even though they have little need to be praised by us in narratives or to be depicted in icons.” the horos of nicaea ii, defined in its seventh session, sums up the mature position of the church by anathematizing the heretics identified by previous ecumenical councils, restating the fourth-century nicene creed, and reiterating the importance of traditions of the church, including the making of iconographic representations. it seemed that the matter had been settled, but as previously indicated, the controversy re-ignited in ad , despite the conclusions of nicaea ii. we will next examine the two key defenders of icons from this second period of iconoclasm. st. theodore the studite and the second period of the iconoclastic controversy in his three refutations against the iconoclasts, st. theodore the studite does not present any arguments not already advanced by st. john of damascus and the council of nicaea ii, although his writing is stylistically different. as john luis antonion de passalaqua puts it in his comparative study of the two writers, “st. john addresses the iconoclasts as brothers who need to be shown the error of their ways, to eventually lead them back to orthodoxy. st. theodore is an angry man.” much like the horos of nicaea ii, theodore equates iconoclasts with heretics, writing in turn to prevent the faithful from being led astray. in his first refutation, theodore uses ibid. ibid., – . theodore the studite, on the holy icons. these three refutations can be found in their original greek in pg , - (first refutation), - (second refutation), - (third refutation). john luis antonio de passalaqua, “a comparative study of the theological approaches of saint john of damascus and saint theodore of studion to the iconoclastic heresy,” in following the star from the east: essays in honour of archimandrite boniface luykx, ed. andriy m. chirovsky (ottawa, chicago, lviv: metropolitan andrey sheptytsky institute of eastern christian studies, ), . page of a style of argument-and-riposte similar to that already seen in the sixth session of nicaea ii. his arguments are nonetheless more articulately expressed, and with more forceful logic and cohesion than those of the damascene’s. in his first refutation, theodore returns to the idea of christ being one person with two natures: since these are distinct and yet inseparable, portraying the circumscribable humanity of christ does not and cannot divide his divinity from his person. theodore then reiterates the relationship of the image with its original, distinguishing the copy as having an identity by name (e.g., an image of christ is named “christ”), but not by nature (i.e., an image is a copy relative to the prototype), thus negating the criticism that an image of christ engenders a polytheistic situation in which two christs are worshipped. revisiting ground covered extensively by john, the studite further refines the concept of veneration and its appropriate uses. theodore’s second refutation covers much of the same theological ground as the first, but is instead written as a dialogue between an iconoclast and an orthodox iconodule. his third refutation again revisits the same general arguments, but he now presents them in a significantly more sophisticated and systematic way, although only in reference to the possibility of an icon of christ; he does not expand into the rationale for images of the theotokos or the saints. these ibid., – . as defined in the horos of the council of chalcedon in ad : “so, following the saintly fathers, we all with one voice teach the confession of one and the same son, our lord jesus christ . . . acknowledged in two natures which undergo no confusion, no change, no division, no separation; at no point was the difference between the natures taken away through the union, but rather the property of both natures is preserved and comes together into a single person and a single subsistent being . . .” [norman p. tanner, decrees of the ecumenical councils, vol. i (london and washington, dc: sheed & ward and georgetown university press, ), .] theodore the studite, on the holy icons, – . first refutation, §§ - . ibid., – , . first refutation, §§ - , . ibid., – , – . first refutation, §§ - , . page of latter are covered (among other things) in the three refutations of theodore’s contemporary, patriarch nikephoros of constantinople. patriarch nikephoros of constantinople: an unlikely ally of st. theodore the studite much like the studite, patriarch nikephoros of constantinople wrote three refutations of the iconoclasts, also in a polemical “angry man” tone, though his work in its entirety is longer and arguably more wide-ranging than theodore’s. the first text treats the same questions addressed by his forebear: the nature of the icon in relation to its prototype, whether god is circumscribable, and the christological question of the hypostatic union. in his second and third refutations, he explores new territory, with a discussion of icons of the theotokos and of the saints. he brings up an important point about images of human subjects: as with the possibility (or impossibility) of portraying christ’s divinity alongside his humanity, there exists the possibility (or impossibility) of portraying a saint’s dual ontology—human, yet the subject of divinization. similarly, every person has an invisible soul and a visible, circumscribable body. therefore, it is arguably impossible to portray all aspects of a person, whether christ or a saint. however, because of the very inseparability of the visible and invisible in each of these, they may still be portrayed. this idea of circumscribability, and that of the unity of the visible and invisible in both the divine, i.e., christ, and the human leads to one of the central phrases from nikephoros’s refutations: “it is not only christ, but the whole of existence that disappears, if he may never be nicephorus, discours contre les iconoclastes. these can be found in their original greek in pg - (first refutation), - (second refutation), and - (third refutation). ibid., . second refutation, § . page of circumscribed nor portrayed.” the patriarch is speaking here not only of christology, but also of cosmology, justifying the assessment of paul alexander that the second period of the iconoclastic controversy revolves around the nature of the image and all the consequent implications. for nikephoros, as marie-josé mondzain-baudinet put it, “the christomach is an iconomach, by which one must generally understand, and the greek pronunciation lends itself to this, that he is an ‘economach.’” in other words, the icon cannot be forbidden without simultaneously rejecting christ and his incarnation in creation, along with the church that also exists in the created world to continue god’s work therein. this positioning of icons, as linking creation and the transcendent, the visible and the invisible, is still celebrated and defended today by byzantine christians (among others). in the next section, i will provide an overview of the role of icons in the byzantine liturgy—an important part of the oikonomia mentioned by baudinet-mondzain. the integration of icons in the byzantine tradition undoubtely, as just mentioned, the cosmological aspect present in patriarch nikephoros’s defense of icons is mirrored in the byzantine divine liturgy. paul evdokimov (d. ), for ibid., . first refutation, § ( d). translation is mine. the greek reads, “μᾶλλον δὲ οὐδὲ Χριστὸς, ἀλλὰ τὸ πᾶν οἴχεται, εἰ μὴ περιγράφοιτο καὶ εἰκονίζοιτο.” mondzain-baudinet’s french translation is, “ce n’est pas le christ, mais c’est l’univers entier qui disparaît, s’il n’y a plus circonscriptibilité ni icône.” the -mach suffix comes from the greek verb μάχομαι (mákhomai), to fight, and this suffix creates a noun meaning an opponent of that to which the suffix is appended. an iconomach is often used as a synonym for iconoclast, although the latter specifically means someone who not only opposes images, but actively seeks to destroy them (suffix -clast derived from the greek κλάσις (klásis), meaning breaking). nicephorus, discours contre les iconoclastes, . the original french of mondzain-baudinet’s quote reads, “le christomaque est un iconomaque, par quoi il faut entendre globalement, et la prononciation grecque s’y prête, qu’il est un ‘économaque’.” the greek words iconomach (εἰκονομάχος) and economach (οἰκονομάχος) are homonyms; the latter refers to someone fighting against the divine economy, i.e., the plan of salvation and its practical implications. for a further overview on the christian and specifically byzantine understanding of oikonomia, see john meyendorff, byzantine theology: historical trends and doctrinal themes, nd ed. (new york: fordham university press, ), – . page of instance, observes that “the church’s liturgy is not simply a copy of the heavenly liturgy, but is rather the erruption [sic] of the heavenly into history.” thus, he can say that icons and other architectural elements of the church (the building, frescoes, objects) are an integral part of the liturgical mystery, participating in a single mystical life. the icon’s role in this mystical life is to sanctify time and space by uniting meaning and presence. evdokimov stresses the importance of presence both in icons and in the liturgy; not only do icons act as a focus or target through which one can be made aware of god’s presence and turn to prayer, but “icons” in the church are also not limited to painted boards. the faithful (synaxis) themselves are indeed living icons of the assembly of angels who participate in the eternal liturgy, as described in the cherubic hymn which inaugurates the liturgy of the eucharist: “let us who mystically represent the cherubim. . .” in this sense, as st. john of damascus originally explained, both people and painted icons, among other things, are images of god in their own ways, with a corollary place in the liturgical life of the church. for this reason, both icons and people are incensed during byzantine services, as a sign of god’s blessing through the grace of the holy spirit. though they are already intrinsic to byzantine services, as described above, icons also receive a dedicated feast day; the sunday of the triumph of orthodoxy commemorates the victory of the iconophiles in , and is celebrated on the first sunday of lent. the festal kontakion (thematic hymn) sung at matins and at the divine liturgy reads: “the evdokimov, art of the icon, . ibid., – . in the byzantine tradition, icons are usually said to be “written”—iconography is εἰκών (image) + γραφία (writing), to emphasize that they are scripture in visual form. however, i am using “painted” in this instance both to draw attention to its physical form, and to distance the icon from mcluhan’s idea of visual space, which is primarily the domain of the written word. mcluhan’s visual and acoustic spaces, and the situation of icons therein, is discussed in more detail later in this thesis. john anthony mcguckin, the orthodox church: an introduction to its history, doctrine, and spiritual culture (malden, ma ; oxford: blackwell, ), . page of uncircumscribed word of the father became circumscribed, taking flesh from thee, o theotokos, and he has restored the sullied image to its ancient glory, filling it with the divine beauty. this our salvation we confess in deed and word, and we depict it in the holy ikons.” although the sunday of orthodoxy is a feast explicitly dedicated to the end of the iconoclastic controversy and a celebration of the freedom to continue the veneration of icons as a central part of the christian faith, this is not the only liturgical occasion on which attention is drawn to the importance of icons. the sunday of the seventh ecumenical council (october th or the nearest sunday thereafter) also emphasizes the theological significance of iconography in its kontakion: “the son who ineffably shone from the father was born two-fold of nature from a woman. beholding him, we do not reject the image of his form; but depicting it, we revere it faithfully. therefore the church, holding the true faith, kisses the icon of christ’s becoming man.” other feasts, though they do not explicitly mention icons, provide important insights into the theology of the icon. one example is the feast of the holy transfiguration (august ), in which christ’s physical appearance is illumined by the uncreated light. this idea of mother mary and kallistos ware, trans., the lenten triodion, the service books of the orthodox church (london and boston: faber and faber, ), . the aposticha (hymn sung with psalm verses) for the feast is even more explicit in it rejection of iconoclasm and its celebration of icons: “advancing from ungodliness to the true faith, and illumined with the light of knowledge, let us clap our hands and sing aloud, offering praise and thanksgiving to god; and with due honour let us venerate the holy ikons of christ; of the all-pure virgin and the saints, whether depicted on walls, on wooden panels or on holy vessels, rejecting the impious teachings of the heretics. for, as basil says, the honour shown to the ikon passes to the prototype it represents. at the prayers of thine undefiled mother and of all the saints, we beseech thee, christ our god, to bestow upon us thy great mercy.” ibid., . the reference to basil is from st. basil the great’s treatise on the holy spirit, chapter , § . [see for example saint basil, on the holy spirit, trans. stephen m. hildebrand, popular patristics series (yonkers, n.y.: st. vladimir’s seminary press, ), .] peter galadza, joseph roll, and j. michael thompson, eds., the divine liturgy: an anthology for worship (ottawa: metropolitan andrey sheptytsky institute of eastern christian studies, saint paul university, ), . leonid ouspensky and vladimir lossky, the meaning of icons, trans. g. e. h. palmer and e. kadloubovsky (crestwood, ny: st. vladimir’s seminary press, ), . page of transfiguration is especially important in the way figures are depicted in icons—not in naturalistic form, but in a transfigured way. in the next section, we examine the transfiguration as a source for reviewing the theology of byzantine iconography as it stands today, elaborating on the fundamentals established during the iconoclastic controversy, especially as these are represented in the stylistic characteristics of byzantine icons. theology of the byzantine iconographic style although the term “transfiguration” most obviously applies to the revelation of christ’s glory on mount tabor, it applies equally to the principles governing the theology and techniques of byzantine iconography. as leonid ouspensky and vladimir lossky write: [t]he icon is a likeness not of an animate but of a deified prototype, that is, an image (conventional, of course) not of corruptible flesh, but of flesh transfigured, radiant with divine light. . . a temporal portrait of a saint cannot be an icon, precisely because it reflects not his transfigured but his ordinary, carnal state. it is indeed this peculiarity of the icon that sets it apart from all forms of pictorial art. in other words, the authors would answer our thesis question with the notion that an icon depicts a saint (and, by extension, the theotokos and christ) in a state transfigured by the divine. still, one might ask how this state can be shown through ordinary artistic materials. although not exhaustive, two techniques in byzantine iconography are worth discussing in this regard: the use of colour and gold to depict radiance, and the unusual proportioning of bodily sensory organs such as the eyes, nose, and mouth. we will begin with the link between gold and the divine light or radiance. ibid., . of course, not only have iconographic techniques changed through the centuries, but they have also varied by geographic region. it is outside the scope of this thesis to cover the details of these variations. however, a useful overview of the history of byzantine iconography and art (e.g., mosaics, frescoes) can be found in andré grabar, byzantine painting: historical and critical study, trans. stuart gilbert (new york: skira rizzoli, ). page of several techniques have been used in iconography to depict the radiance of transfiguration through the grace of god. one is the use of gold to represent the divine light, whether in the form of gold leaf or gold assist (lines painted in gold). an icon’s background is often covered in gold leaf, and is even called “light” by iconographers. another typical use of gold is in the halo (also known as a nimbus), which represents the aura of a glorified saint, evoking the radiance possessed by moses after his descent from mount sinai (ex : - ). it is important to note that in byzantine iconography (and indeed theology), the so-called “uncreated light” radiates outwards from within the saint, and therefore cannot be depicted as an external, separate entity floating above the saint, as it sometimes appears in western sacred art. finally, gold assist is occasionally used, usually on garments, to indicate the influence of the divine light. for example, the clothing of christ might be coloured with gold assist in scenes such as the transfiguration or the descent into hades. the garments of the theotokos, similarly, might be highlighted with gold assist, in order to show her radiance—due to being bathed in the divine light. a second technique used to indicate a radiant light is the use of thin white lines that form highlights on the figure or the garments through a technique similar to hatching. this represents a light coming from the interior, and is uniform across the figure, thus avoiding the shadows or chiaroscuro which would otherwise indicate that the light originates from an external source. evdokimov, art of the icon, . leonid ouspensky, theology of the icon (crestwood, ny: st. vladimir’s seminary press, ), – . constantine d. kalokyris, the essence of orthodox iconography (brookline, ma: holy cross school of theology, hellenic college, ), . jean-claude larchet, l’iconographe et l’artiste, théologies (paris: Éditions du cerf, cerf, ), – . page of as ouspensky and lossky put it, “the divine light permeates all things, so there is no source of light, which would illumine objects from one side or another; objects cast no shadows, for no shadows exist in the kingdom of god.” the proportion of bodily features in icons is also symbolic of the transfiguration through divine grace, especially by means of the sanctified sensory organs. the eyes are large, because they have seen great things, and are adapted to better take in the divine law and the creator’s works. likewise, the ears (when visible) are large, to hear the lord’s commandments and attend to the divine economy; they are in essence an extension of the ears of the soul. even the nose is typically lengthened, in order to smell the fragrance of the holy trinity and other spiritual fragrances. in contrast, the mouth is small, since the need for spiritual food has supplanted the need for material food. nicholas constas usefully summarizes these stylistic changes by stating that “in the icon, the body and all its senses are imaginatively restored to their true function as modes of relation with both god and the viewer.” it could be argued that though these stylistic elements are applied to an iconic figure, and indicate something of the divinized, transfigured nature of the person, they are not sufficient, or even successful in this regard. to this end, two further aspects of the icon will be discussed in the next sections. first, i will provide an overview of phenomenological discourse on the possibility of depicting the invisible within the visible—a central consideration for icons, whose very purpose is to make accessible something of the transcendent. this will be brought into relation with marion’s concept of the crossing of the gaze, between the observer and the one depicted in ouspensky and lossky, the meaning of icons, . kalokyris, the essence of orthodox iconography, – . nicholas constas, “icons and the imagination,” logos: a journal of catholic thought and culture , no. ( ): . page of an icon. subsequently, i will look further into perspective as a tool for manipulating space and time, given that byzantine icons very often use inverse perspective in order to open up dimensions through which an observer could experience god. section : phenomenology and the depiction of the invisible when speaking of the theology of icons, orthodox writers commonly return to the idea of presence—that sense of gazing into an icon not being a matter of staring at an object, as one might look at a secular painting, but rather of encountering the divine such that one is simultaneously also encountered by it. while this dynamic of mutual encounter is certainly a central theme in christianity, it is also an important topic in philosophy, particularly in the field of phenomenology, especially as this has developed over time from a focus on things to one on persons. phenomenology and the question of a “theological turn” linking orthodox theology with phenomenology may seem viable to some and problematic to others, especially since phenomenology has had a history of being rooted in atheist philosophy, and originally excluded the possibility of the divine as a factor in phenomena and their perception. the groundwork laid by edmund husserl ( - ) and martin heidegger ( - ) in this domain contributed to jean-paul sartre’s ( - ) development of existentialism—a far cry from the type of orthodox experience described in this paper thus far. however, not all phenomenologists could agree with this limitation, beginning with emmanuel lévinas ( - ), and extending into the thought of paul ricoeur ( - ), michel henry ( - ) and jean-luc marion ( -), among others. this was a large enough shift in french phenomenology that in , dominique janicaud ( - ) wrote the page of essay “phenomenology and the theological turn,” criticizing french phenomenology (under lévinas and others) for its departure from the immanent or atheist phenomenology of husserl and heidegger and its opening to the invisible, the other, and/or to a pure givenness—a departure that he dubbed the “theological turn.” in response to janicaud, four phenomenologists penned their own essays in defence of the spiritual in phenomenology— ricoeur and henry, already mentioned, as well as jean-luc marion ( -) and jean-louis chrétien ( - ). of these “theological phenomenologists,” jean-luc marion is especially important for our purposes, given his study of the icon, especially in contrast to the object and the idol. thus, we now turn to an overview of his thought. in particular, his discussion of the “crossing of the gaze” will be foundational, because it is a someone and not a something that can originate a gaze, bridging the gap between object (painting, canvas, board) and person. jean-luc marion and the “crossing of the gaze” marion’s the crossing of the visible (la croisée du visible, ) is dedicated to the phenomenology of painting, and focuses on understanding the difference between an idol and an icon. although this is not the first time he has engaged the question, having previously done so in l’idole et la distance ( , later published in english as the idol and distance) and in dieu dominique janicaud et al., phenomenology and the “theological turn”: the french debate, trans. bernard g. prusak, fordham perspectives in continental philosophy (new york: fordham university press, ), . these four essays form the second part of janicaud et al., phenomenology and the “theological turn”: the french debate. while a complete history of phenomenology and the development of theological ideas within it are beyond the scope of this paper, this book is a useful resource for a summary of the position of critics and supporters of the “theological turn” within phenomenology. another useful overview of the role of several phenomenologists (including those already mentioned here) in the development of a continental philosophy of religion can be found in christina m. gschwandtner, postmodern apologetics?: arguments for god in contemporary philosophy (new york: fordham university press, ). page of sans l'être ( , later published in english as god without being), in the crossing of the visible he gives sustained attention to the painted image, whether in the form of iconography or in modern art. early on in the text, marion establishes the connection between the visible and the invisible in his treatment of perspective, touching upon what might be considered incarnate vision. vision is not limited to simply seeing shapes and colours without any regard to the physical act of seeing; rather, the body is in space, the eyes move in response to a scene, and the invisible space between visible objects (walls, floor, etc.) is knowable because of the experience of the body moving through such spaces. therefore, through this connection, the visible organizes the invisible and results in what he calls the “paradox of perspective,” in which the visible is directly proportional to the invisible. building on the interwoven visible and invisible, marion begins to distinguish three forms of the visible: the object, the idol, and the icon, all of which differ by their characteristic forms of gaze. objects are simply seen and valued in a utilitarian way, tied to production and manufacture, without any connection to personhood. idols and icons, however, both involve a returned gaze. he defines the idol as that which dazzles the gaze and lives in the realm of spectacle; like a mirror or radar signal, it reflects the originator’s gaze back upon itself. its being is thus contingent on the desires of the viewer and, to a certain extent, on the ability of the idol to conform to those desires. the icon, in contrast, returns a separate gaze, such that the two can marion, the crossing of the visible, – . ibid., . ibid., , – . page of participate in a crossing of the gaze. whereas the idol exists in proportion to desire’s expectation, the icon stands beyond this; its gaze toward us replaces ours towards it. to further characterize the icon, marion outlines three important traits. first, an icon makes itself available to another’s gaze, and does so independently of any space created with the use of perspective. in other words, although the invisible can inhabit the space modelled through perspectival drawing, the invisible works through the gaze of the figure in the icon without the need for a perspectival system. second, the icon is not only seen by a gaze, but gazes back—and this is always through a human face. as marion puts it, “the painted gaze invisibly responds to the invisible gaze of the one in prayer, and transfigures its own visibility by including it in the commerce of two invisible gazes—the one from a praying man . . . the other the gaze of the invisible saint.” marion inextricably links the visible with the invisible, since the gaze is the invisible within the visible; in the icon, this forms the basis of the spiritual exchange. through it, the face-to-face encounter is made possible, such that two invisible gazes can cross between two visible bodies. finally, the icon does not just insert the invisible into the visible, but it does so more radically than is the case, for example, in suprematist painter malévich’s square. here marion invokes not just the crossing of the gazes, but the play of the gazes, which engage in ibid., . ibid., . in other words, through the icon, an observer’s gaze is engaged with that of an otherwise invisible—though living—saint. this is distinct from the idol, where there is no “other” to return the gaze. kazimir malévich ( - ) was a russian painter, famous for his paintings consisting of a simple square on a square canvas. malévich painted several variations of a square on a background—black square on white background (black square, ), red square on white background (red square, ), white square on white (white on white, ), etc. however, the specific painting to which marion is referring is likely unimportant since here marion previously made a point about the invisible made manifest through such squares. he writes, “the square reproduces nothing, does not satisfy any aesthetic need, nor is it the deposit of the experiences of consciousness . . . the invisible, from that point on, plays no longer between the aim of the gaze and the visible but rather, contrary to the gazing aim, in the visible itself— and is merged with it, inasmuch as the white square is merged with its white base.” (ibid., .) page of prayer and love. the icon also pulls away from the spectacle, which comes from an objectivity foreign to it. in summary, marion begins with the idea of perspective and the way in which the visible and the invisible are inextricably linked through it. from there, he goes on to distinguish the simple object (something that is simply seen) from the idol (something the gaze desires) and the icon (something—or someone—that gazes back). although marion is the phenomenologist who has written the most extensively about icons, he is not alone in considering what happens when painting and observing a painting. the next section will elaborate the parallels presented in the thought of maurice merleau-ponty. merleau-ponty: the idea and the icon merleau-ponty wrote a number of texts that form what could be described as an “aesthetic phenomenology,” several of which pertain to the philosophy of painting, including his essays “eye and mind” and “cézanne’s doubt.” unlike marion, merleau-ponty does not ascribe any type of divine or transcendent dimension to the iconographic, nor does he specifically treat icons in their byzantine (or other religious) form. nonetheless, he shares the notion that the visible and the invisible co-exist inseparably in a painting, and that this is in turn an essential feature of the iconic. as jenny slatman argues, although merleau-ponty does not directly follow plato’s classical distinctions of eidos, eikon, and eidolon (parallel to idea, icon, and idol), he does use the term icon to describe an image containing the invisible within the ibid., – . merleau-ponty, “eye and mind.” merleau-ponty, “cézanne’s doubt.” jenny slatman, “phenomenology of the icon,” in merleau-ponty and the possibilities of philosophy: transforming the tradition, ed. bernard flynn, wayne j. froman, and robert vallier, suny series in page of visible, thus using this term in contrast to cartesian representational thought. in this sense, both marion and merleau-ponty are aligned in the conviction that “the icon is an image that transcends the visible of the representational ideology, and this image can be realized in the art of painting.” in “eye and mind,” merleau-ponty is also concerned with the relationship of the painter to the subject of the painting, and to the world in which the painter exists. in this sense, he brings in a third party: not just the icon’s observer and the one depicted in the icon, but also the one who created the icon. he indicates that painter and painting inevitably switch roles, such that artists often feel observed by things: “we speak of ‘inspiration,’ and the word should be taken literally. there really is inspiration and expiration of being, respiration in being, action and passion so slightly discernable that it becomes impossible to distinguish between who sees and who is being seen, who paints and what is painted.” these claims approximate marion’s crossing of the gaze, though also implying the potential anthropomorphizing of natural objects, such as trees, in a way that marion would not have countenanced. in their own ways, both marion and merleau-ponty reject the notion that there is a barrier separating a person’s inner world from his or her outer environment. therefore, they—and arguably the iconographic tradition as well—respond to the question of how the self and the other (and even the divine other) are interconnected, even mutually dependent. and in a sense, part of the same whole. contemporary french thought (albany, ny: state university of new york press, ), . here she refers to plato’s politeia, which describes a three-level hierarchy through which reality can be understood: eidos, eikoon, eidolon. ibid., . ibid., . merleau-ponty, “eye and mind,” . page of marion and merleau-ponty further agree that a painting or an icon can portray something beyond the visible—whether transcendent or a simple intangible such as shadow or certain effects of colour. the final phenomenologist to be introduced in this section is michel henry, who like marion is also concerned with aesthetics, although writing primarily about abstract art, especially the work of a pioneer of abstractionism, wassily kandinsky ( - ). michel henry: seeing the invisible through the eyes of wassily kandinsky to continue with the theme of invisibility in art, as described in the works of marion and merleau-ponty, it is worth mentioning michel henry’s seeing the invisible: on kandinsky. although henry does make reference to painting (and even byzantine iconography) in other works, it is primarily here that he develops his theories concerning the depiction of the invisible in works of art. the book systematically examines each aspect of painting—form, point, line, colour, composition—but the overarching interest of henry—and his relevance to our present inquiry—is the idea that art exists to provide access to that which is invisible. kandinsky’s works are an ideal test case for henry because in their abstraction they lack the obvious figurative or “visible” aspect that is usually present—and usually taken for granted—in other styles of art, thereby evoking the invisible as the primary subject of his paintings. kandinsky not only painted, but also wrote about the theories underpinning his artistic methodology, and henry in turn engages with kandinsky’s texts as much as his paintings. the artist’s formula of true reality, as henry describes it, is as follows: henry, seeing the invisible. see, for example, henry, barbarism, – . in this passage, henry describes the byzantine mosaics at a monastery in daphne, and the incomprehension of science toward the invisible essence of life contained within artistic expression. page of interior = interiority of absolute subjectivity = life = invisible = pathos = abstract content = abstract form this effectively equates interiority, life, and the invisible with the abstract, wherein something is abstract “when it is separated from the reality to which it belongs.” of course, a large part of the discussion consists of deciding what abstraction actually means. on the one hand, henry points to a form of art such as cubism, in which objects are reduced to simple geometric shapes that may be rearranged almost beyond recognition; this form, however, is unquestionably worldly and thus figurative, since the visible object still dictates the rules of deconstruction and reconstruction to the artist. on the other hand, by the end of his book, henry proposes that all painting is abstract. noting that kandisky associated realist and figurative painting with the materialism of the world and the scientific method of viewing it, and used the abstract as a way to allow life to regain membership in the world to which it belongs, henry extends kandinsky’s theories of abstraction to what would normally be called figurative or even realist sacred art. for example, a painting of the adoration of the magi could be considered purely abstract since no one was there to paint it when it originally happened, with the artists who painted the scene centuries afterwards making their compositional choices (e.g., spatial considerations, objects depicted, colour choices, garments) in response to abstract problems— such as the development of tone and inner resonance with the aim of invoking a certain pathos. henry, seeing the invisible, . ibid., . ibid., . here, henry is referring to kandinsky’s thought related to art. however, the idea that a purely objective viewpoint, as proposed in the scientific method, results in a culture of death (i.e., excludes life by excluding the subjectivity of the viewer) is a key thesis in henry’s book barbarism. henry, seeing the invisible, – . page of henry’s description of all paintings, and especially the sacred art he describes, as being abstract is important to the discussion of iconography, to the extent that portraying the invisible—including the transcendent—is essential to religious and liturgical art. according to kandinsky, “every work of art is the child of its time; often it is the mother of our emotions. it follows that each period of culture produces an art of its own, which cannot be repeated. efforts to revive the art principles of the past at best produce works of art that resemble a stillborn child.” the revival of certain forms of art, that is, can occur when periods share similar inner moods, but it is the emotions, or inner form, that drive the outer expression—as in speech with thought driving the use of words—and not vice versa. with such claims, kandinsky appears to separate body and soul, especially in his description of the desire of men to build statues of their departed, “as though there were any intrinsic value in the bodily existence of such divine martyrs and servants of humanity, who despised the flesh but wanted only to serve the spirit.” this separation of body and spirit is reminiscent of manichaean dualism, and although henry’s text largely focuses on the invisible, as does kandinsky’s art, henry draws the visible and the invisible back together, acknowledging that even with the application of abstract principles to a work of art, the visible and invisible are inseparable. he concludes that “every pictorial element involves a dual aspect: external and internal . . . it follows that the reality of the world is the same as the reality of art, exhausting the division between the visible and the invisible.” wassily kandinsky, “concerning the spiritual in art,” in art, creativity, and the sacred: an anthology in religion and art, ed. diane apostolos-cappadona, new revised edition. (new york: continuum, ), . ibid., , n . ibid., . henry, seeing the invisible, . page of another separation brought into question, relative to the phenomenology of painting, is that between the artist and other observers of the work of art. when comparing marion and henry with regard to their philosophies of depiction of the visible and the invisible, christina gschwandtner remarks that both assume the artist has privileged access to truth, in a near- oracular sense—a “gift” or “genius” that others do not possess. she thus questions how or why only artists would have exclusive access to this genius. while her question is left open-ended and unanswered, it is one well worth addressing to byzantine iconography, as it may shed important light on the tradition. new icons are expected to be unsigned copies of existing icons already belonging to the byzantine liturgical and spiritual tradition, with the artist in turn presumed to be an active participant in the faith community; arguably, then, any distinction between artist and observer is effectively non-existent. the icon is by and for the church community—the body of christ. therefore, it is important to turn to the more general question already asked by henry and marion, among others: how can the invisible truth be depicted in a visible painting? without being able to answer this question, or if its answer is that the invisible truth cannot be depicted, then there can be no icon; all that can exist is the idol. this phenomenological question is thus a vital key to our overall discussion of iconicity, and we will return to this question later on. having engaged theological and phenomenological perspectives, it is worth exploring one more field, in order to properly grasp the issues in play: our next section will thus investigate the use of perspective in a work of art from the vantage point of art theory. christina m. gschwandtner, “revealing the invisible: henry and marion on aesthetic experience,” the journal of speculative philosophy , no. ( ): – . page of section : art theory and the question of perspective having established at this point that presence, and in particular the crossing of the gaze, is a central condition for a painting to be considered an icon, the next question relates to the use of perspective and its relationship to the notion of presence. nicholas constas argues that “contemplating the icon of the person . . . places the viewer within the locus of a dynamic, personal presence. it produces in other words a space, a relational space conditioned by the communion and union of persons. the iconic construction of space suggests that the world is not a world of things, but a world of persons, constituted by their shared relations and activities.” in a world of persons, where one both sees and is seen by another, it is not a case of a single observer viewing an object (or even a person) in a self-contained, separate reality. rather, in the icon, a greater reality encompasses both the observer and the one depicted, and this reality is not specific to a fixed point in space or time. inverse perspective is used to communicate this reality of liberation from space and time by focusing on movement not towards a distant vanishing point, but rather on movement from within the image toward the viewer. while it can be tempting to place the icon’s reverse perspective, or its mix of perspectives, in contrast with the linear perspective of the natural world introduced during the renaissance, it can be argued that the situation is more complex; even linear perspective is itself only one of many ways of representing the natural world. as such, various forms of perspective, including linear and reverse, are intrinsically tied to the worldviews of those who depict their constas, “icons and the imagination,” – . ibid., – . page of worlds in these ways. in the next section, this hypothesis will be explored further through the work of erwin panofsky. perspective as worldview the idea that perspective—whether in a work of art or in an icon—can be used to represent a specific worldview is not uniquely christian or orthodox. in his seminal book perspective as symbolic form, secular art historian erwin panofsky traced the development of perspectival systems from antiquity through the renaissance, and arrived at the counterpart of constas’s conclusion: “the history of perspective may be understood with equal justice as a triumph of the distancing and objectifying sense of the real, and as a triumph of the distance- denying human struggle for control; it is as much a consolidation and systematization of the external world, as an extension of the domain of the self.” in other words, whereas the use of inverse perspective in iconography was a means by which a person could enter into a relationship with another subject, and participate in a space rather than control it, the popularization of linear perspective beginning in the quattrocento ( s) served to place full control of the image into the hands of the person and create a clear subject-object relationship that does not reverse. panfosky notes further, “the vision of the universe is, so to speak, detheologized . . . the result was a translation of psychophysiological space into mathematical space; in other words, an objectification of the subjective.” although texts about iconography can tend to contrast the reverse perspective of icons with linear perspective, indicative of natural or mathematical space, panofsky argues that linear erwin panofsky, perspective as symbolic form (new york : cambridge, mass.: zone books, ), – . ibid., . page of perspective is itself only one way of depicting natural space. as he points out, antique optics as developed in the greco-roman world used the sphere as the basis of its field of vision, knowing that the retina in the eye was not planar, but spherical; correspondingly, its associated geometry was based on relationships of angles and arcs rather than distances and lines, which euclid explicitly stated in the eighth theorem of his treatise, optica. furthermore, even within linear perspective, one-point, two-point, and three-point perspective (enumerating the number of vanishing points) all exist, and all result in slight variations in the final appearance of the scene depicted. in the theology of icons, multiple perspectival systems have also been identified. along with the inverse perspective already mentioned, there exists a multi-view perspective, where several sides of an object are visible, including ones that would not normally be simultaneously in view. there is also isometric perspective, where parallel lines determine edges and items do not shrink in the distance toward a vanishing point. although this is often used in contemporary drafting, it sometimes features in iconography to preserve the uniformity and integrity of a given subject, regardless of how the senses might normally perceive it. tipped perspective allows the items on a surface to be viewed as if from somewhat above, while maintaining a more frontal view of the remaining scene. hieratic perspective, for its part, arranges and sizes people and objects in the order of their spiritual importance. in summary, then, both within and outside ibid., – . see also panofsky’s extensive notes, pp. - , which describe not only the eighth theorem, but the history of how it came to be often misquoted or mis-paraphrased during the renaissance, once linear perspective became established as the norm for depicting natural space. david clayton, “how the form of byzantine icons relates to the christian worldview,” in the turn to aesthetics: an interdisciplinary exchange of ideas in applied and philosophical aesthetics, ed. clive a. palmer and david torevell (liverpool, uk: liverpool hope university press, ), . page of orthodoxy, perspectival systems can be chosen such that they correlate with a specific experience that the creator intends to communicate to the viewer. speaking of art and paintings generally, and their potential connection to the divine, panofsky comments, “perspective, in transforming the ousia (reality) into the phainomenon (appearance), seems to reduce the divine to a mere subject matter for human consciousness; but for that very reason, conversely, it expands human consciousness into a vessel for the divine.” it is unlikely that byzantine theologians would agree with the second part of panofsky’s statement, especially given his earlier statement that mathematical space results in an objectification of the subjective. since a large body of religious art exists in non-iconographic styles, however, panofsky’s comment begs the question whether there is room for an encounter with the divine in forms of art outside iconography. although an exhaustive exploration of the potential for religious encounters in non- iconographic art is well beyond the scope of this thesis, we will briefly address the topic by examining cubist art. on the surface, cubism and iconography share a similar rejection of linear perspective, and arguably for similar reasons. therefore, in the next section we turn to an overview of cubism and its spiritual narrative. this will form the basis for our subsequent development of a tetrad describing the dynamic effects (“messages”) of icons, using mcluhan’s tetrad on cubism as a starting point. cubism: a spiritual (re-)awakening from the renaissance’s ‘mathematical space?’ the early twentieth century was a time of rapid change in almost every way; political revolution and instability, scientific discoveries (such as albert einstein’s theory of relativity in panofsky, perspective as symbolic form, . page of ), and a taste for experimentation in artistic and cultural endeavours. this period witnessed a number of artistic movements falling under the umbrella of “modernism,” including cubism; like many modernist movements, cubism is characterized by a tendency toward abstraction. the spark for this new movement is usually taken to have been pablo picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon, painted in : a life-size painting which portrayed five nude women in geometric form with hard angles and sharp curves, against a background similarly broken up into angular components. although this painting was not generally well received by either picasso’s friends or his critics, fellow artist georges braque took inspiration from the style, and together they developed the distinctive style of cubism. in contrast to linear perspective as developed in the renaissance, which had the effect of fixing the observer to a set point in space and time, cubism sought to break away from a singular viewpoint. as art historian dorothea eimert describes it, cubists circled around the objects of their paintings, analyzing every facet and assembling the resulting fragmented image onto the canvas. these deconstructed and interwoven surfaces blend space and time, perhaps in response to contemporary changes in traditional notions of space and time. at one level, then, cubist marilyn stokstad, art history, revised nd ed. (upper saddle river, n.j.: pearson education, ), . ibid., – . guillaume apollinaire, dorothea eimert, and anatoli podoksik, le cubisme (france: parkstone international, ), . although eimert does not explicitly mention to which changes in the notions of space and time she is referring, it may be einstein’s special theory of relativity, published in (two years prior to picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon), which introduced the famous e = mc equation. however, it is unclear whether this could have been the inspiration for cubist painters. as science historian stanley goldberg reports, einstein’s work was essentially ignored in france until . (stanley goldberg, “in defense of ether: the british response to einstein’s special theory of relativity, - ,” historical studies in the physical sciences ( ): – .) thus, it seems unlikely to have been an inspiration for french cubists such as picasso and braque, whose period of analytic cubism mainly spans - . (stokstad, art history, .) even einstein himself later wrote that there was no connection between his theory of relativity and the method by which cubists depicted space, although it can be argued that neither a detailed nor accurate understanding is required for artistic inspiration. for more on einstein’s comments about cubism and their context, see paul m. laporte and albert einstein, “cubism and relativity with a letter of albert einstein,” art journal , no. ( ): – . another possible influence could be the work of james hinton, who introduced the idea of the fourth dimension and produced a series of page of paintings and icons share a sense of movement and a rejection of a static, unmoving relationship between the observer and object (or person). however, this may be at least in part due to an understanding of geometric space that was itself in flux at the turn of the th century. the relationship of cubism to the spiritual is certainly less apparent than what is obvious in the case of an icon, but there is evidence that some kind of spirituality influenced the movement. guillaume apollinaire, a poet, art critic, and friend of picasso, wrote of the cubist artists: “above all, artists are men who want to become inhuman. they search laboriously for the traces of inhumanity, traces that are nowhere encountered in nature.” apollinaire admits that cubism is not founded on any specific religious beliefs, but has many characteristics in common with religious art. hence he comments, “the painter must, above all, give himself the spectacle of his own divinity and the paintings he offers to the admiration of men will confer on them the glory of also, and momentarily, exercising their own divinity.” from this, it appears as though the art is not oriented toward any transcendent divinity, but rather towards man as his own divinity—something that marion, among others, would call idolatry. given this and apollinaire’s comparison of picasso dissecting the object of painting the way a surgeon dissects a cadaver, cubism—at least as practiced by picasso, braque, and their circle—is not an art of influential science fiction novels in the late th century. hinton is mentioned in nicoletta misler’s biographical sketch of pavel florensky, who commented on a picasso exhibition in moscow. see pavel florensky, beyond vision: essays on the perception of art, ed. nicoletta misler, trans. wendy salmond (london: reaktion, ), . apollinaire, eimert, and podoksik, le cubisme, . translation mine. the original text reads, “avant tout, les artistes sont des hommes qui veulent devenir inhumains. ils cherchent péniblement les traces de l’inhumanité, traces que l’on ne rencontre nulle part dans la nature.” ibid., . ibid., . translation mine. the original text reads, “le peintre doit avant tout se donner le spectacle de sa propre divinité et les tableaux qu’il offre à l’admiration des hommes leur conféreront la gloire d’exercer aussi et momentanément leur propre divinité.” ibid., . page of the same ilk as iconography, with its dependence on presence between observer and subject, along with the implication of honour through veneration. although from apollinaire’s description of the cubist movement one can imagine a type of spiritual art simply emptied of the divine and replaced with a narcissistic self-idolatry, some christian observers—especially orthodox but also some roman catholic —went even further to describe it as evil. orthodox theologian sergei bulgakov ( - ), after having visited an exhibition of picasso’s work, penned an essay entitled “the corpse of beauty,” in which he admits that picasso’s work has real power, and there is something of the mysterious and spiritual in his work—perhaps even of the iconic. however, bulgakov believed that the spirituality inherent in these paintings was that of vampires or demons; thus, picasso had painted icons of the demonic, even going so far as to say that picasso had “become the plaything of an obsessing spirit, an artistic, and therefore convincing advocatus diaboli.” paul evdokimov does not hold cubism in much higher regard. interestingly, he laments that “cubism decomposes the living unity of things into geometric elements and cerebrally reconstructs a painting like a mathematical problem” —a critique reiterating apollinaire’s comment about picasso’s work resembling the dissection of a cadaver. evdokimov perhaps provides the nuance lacking in bulgakov, in the latter’s description of cubism as demonic; for in , the “tract of angers” was circulated, which was a letter signed by a group of roman catholics criticizing picasso as a “communist and enemy of god.” picasso had also submitted proposals for a side altar at a church in assy, as well as a set of stained-glass windows for the cathedral in metz, but faced opposition on both counts. see jane dillenberger, the religious art of pablo picasso (berkeley, ca: university of california press, ), – . bulgakov, “a bulgakov anthology,” – . ibid., . evdokimov, art of the icon, . page of evdokimov, iconography is symbolic, bridging the visible and the invisible, while cubist art is diabolic, throwing these two apart. although picasso and braque are the best-known cubists, and the focus of most dialogue about cubism as a religious art (or its antithesis), the work of two other artists is relevant to our considerations here. american herman trunk, a devout roman catholic, painted a crucifix which arguably does not fall into the same category of paintings described by evdokimov as devoid of meaning; though also cubist, it is stylistically very different from picasso’s multiple renderings of the same subject. second, ukrainian myron levytsky completed iconography for ten ukrainian greco-catholic (i.e., byzantine-rite) churches using a modern, cubist style. these will be used as case studies to test the implications of what can be defined or excluded as iconography. to provide a framework in which to evaluate this, i propose the use of marshall mcluhan’s tetrads, to be introduced in our next section. section : marshall mcluhan: “the medium is the message” marshall mcluhan ( - ) was a canadian media theorist who wrote and spoke extensively about the effects of media, especially electric (and by extension, digital) technologies such as radio and television. famous for coining the term “global village” and the phrase “the medium is the message,” he is well-known for probing the relationships between media and the changes effected in their respective social milieux. because he often wrote with “probes” or otherwise provocative rather than conclusive statements, however, his corpus cannot be defined ibid., . evdokimov points to the common root of the words “symbolic” (σύν (together) + βάλλειν (to throw)) and “diabolic” (διά (through) + βάλλειν, meaning to throw across or to separate, throw apart). although evdokimov refers to “-bolos” as meaning “throwing,” it is actually a noun meaning a casting, though it also has its root in the verb βάλλειν. see the entries for βόλος and διαβάλλω in franco montanari, the brill dictionary of ancient greek (leiden: brill, ), , . page of as a systematic exploration of media or communication theory, consequently attracting many critics in academia. nonetheless, he articulated and often revisited several key themes, including the “figure-ground” relationship of medium and message. toward the end of his career, he developed four “laws of media”—questions designed to retrieve and elucidate the various effects of media on society, the results of which could be schematized in a tetradic structure. these are introduced in laws of media: the new science, co-written with his son and published posthumously. in the present context, we will explore the pertinence of the tetrad for clarifying the effects of the icon. as already indicated, the tetrad is itself dependent on mcluhan’s notions of medium and message, and linked to those of figure and ground. in the next section, therefore, these key ideas will be introduced, followed by an explanation of the tetrad as a framework for analysis. the medium is the message mcluhan defines a medium as “any extension of ourselves.” this differs somewhat from definitions given in dictionaries, which define a medium as, for example, “an agency or means of doing something.” mcluhan’s examples of media include clothing as extensions of the skin, the refrigerator as an extension of the stomach, the mirror as an extension of the eye, for a relatively balanced overview of mcluhan’s career and legacy, along with its reception (both positive and negative) in academia and popular culture, see donald a. fishman, “rethinking marshall mcluhan: reflections on a media theorist,” journal of broadcasting & electronic media , no. (september ): – . marshall mcluhan and eric mcluhan, laws of media: the new science (toronto, on: university of toronto press, ). mcluhan, understanding media, . “medium | definition of medium in english by oxford dictionaries,” oxford dictionaries | english, accessed november , , https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/medium. page of and the wheel as an extension of feet in motion. one of the key observations for which mcluhan is best known is that media have both content and messages. content is what a given medium transmits, and is always another medium; for example, the content of radio is speech, which is itself a medium containing thought. messages, on the other hand, are the effects, whether on a personal or social level, of media (or technologies), such as the elimination of jobs due to the introduction of automation. mcluhan’s idea of tying media to their respective effects will play a central role in our discussion of icons inasmuch as our focus here is not on content per se (i.e., the life and context of a particular saint), but rather on how the viewing and venerating of icons has repercussions— whether in the life of the observer or that of the wider community. with this focus, we will in turn be able to distinguish the “messages” (effects) of icons, and the extent to which the effects of icons are distinct from those associated with other paintings (e.g., the cubist art mentioned above). one further observation to make, before proceeding, is that mcluhan provides the same definition for technologies as he does for media, even giving the same examples—clothing, wheels, extensions of parts of the body. as with media, he states that technologies create environments that affect human sensory patterns in ways that can be felt without being noticed. therefore, “medium” and “technology” can be considered synonymous. his uses of the word “technology,” however, usually refer specifically to mechanical or electric devices, or are otherwise references to tools extending the physical capacities of the body. i will therefore mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, . mcluhan, understanding media, . marshall mcluhan, understanding me: lectures and interviews, ed. stephanie mcluhan and david staines (toronto, ont.: mcclelland & stewart ltd, ), . page of continue to refer to icons as a medium, rather than a technology, in order to avoid any confusion with mechanical, electric, or digital technologies deriving from the realm of machines or automation. figure and ground: the extension and interplay of medium and message when mcluhan wrote understanding media and proposed that “the medium is the message,” he was interested in the effects of media beyond the public eye, and specifically the reciprocal relationship of media. the idea of certain aspects of media being visible or in the foreground, while others remain invisible or in the background, was eventually named the figure- ground relationship. the figure-ground relationship, however, is a dynamic one, contingent on a given point of reference, and even in the writing of mcluhan (and his son eric), statements about what constitutes figure, and what is ground need to be taken in context. in , mcluhan said that “the medium is ground, and the so-called message is always figure.” nevertheless, recognizing that by “medium” or “technology,” mcluhan means any extension of the human person and not just an electronic technology like television or computers, is an important distinction. confusion in this regard may be the source of contention for some of mcluhan’s critics, several of whom consider him to be a proponent of technological determinism, which is a reductionist view claiming that technology defines the nature of society. for an overview of such claims about mcluhan, see ellen balka, “rethinking ‘the medium is the message’: agency and technology in mcluhan’s writings,” media international australia incorporating culture and policy , no. ( ): – . where “technology” is defined strictly as mechanical or electrical devices, it would be difficult to make this claim about mcluhan’s work, since he does not claim that such devices are the only sources of social influence. however, since mcluhan has defined technology (media) so broadly—any extension of man, including speech—it could be argued that in this sense he is a technological determinist, since it is inconceivable that any type of society could be formed without some sort of extension of persons beyond themselves. in a november interview, mcluhan states, “when i wrote this book [understanding media], i was not using figure-ground. now i have switched completely to figure-ground. it was implied in here, but it was not explicit.” (marshall mcluhan, “interview with nina sutton,” interview by nina sutton, november , library and archives canada, accessed march , , https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/ /f / - .wma.) ibid. it is worth noting that in the context of this interview, “the medium is this huge change that takes place in the world . . . it’s the huge service environment that the medium creates.” in other words, the message of one medium (usually that collection of effects regarded as the “message”, here described as a service environment) is, in mcluhan’s eyes, itself another medium. page of this cannot be taken as a rule since, as mcluhan himself later argues, the figure is an area of attention, while the ground is a much larger area of inattention: since these exist simultaneously, they are in flux, with figures rising out of and disappearing back into grounds. therefore, in order to bring the message of a medium into view, a new situation needs to be created (an “anti- environment”), which will pull the old ground out of invisibility and present it as a figure; he claims this is usually the work of poets and artists, who perceive the inarticulate more acutely. mcluhan was also influenced in this regard by scientists, who often start with an effect or thing to be discovered, and work backward to the causes. extending this pattern of thought into the social sphere, even scientists can become aware of the social effects of technologies; he notes that quantum physicist werner heisenberg pointed out that technical change impacts habits and thought patterns. still, though the mcluhans’ oeuvre acknowledges that scientists and management specialists, for example, can redirect attention from the figure to the ground, and in this way provide valuable information about hidden causes of a given effect, it is the artist who is indispensable for an understanding of the nuances of the forms and structures resulting from the introduction of technology (media). this may be at least in part because mcluhan and mcluhan believe that a visual (i.e., text-based) bias exists in western society, such that rigorous academic study in areas such as philosophy tends to disregard the audience of the texts (i.e., the mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, . an illustrative example of this is root cause analysis (rca) in science and engineering. in fact, one root cause analysis methodology used in several fortune companies identifies four elements to the cause and effect relationship, which are strikingly similar to mcluhan’s concepts: “ . cause and effect are the same thing. . causes and effects are part of an infinite continuum. . every effect has at least two causes in the form of actions and conditions. . an effect exists only if its causes exist at the same point in time and space.” [dean l. gano, apollo root cause analysis: effective solutions to everyday problems every time, rd ed. (richland, wa: apollonian publications, ), .] mcluhan, understanding media, – . ibid., . page of ground) almost completely, in favour of a visual fixation on the figure. in conclusion, the arts enable the visibility of the ground; simultaneously, “without the interplay of figure and ground, no art or knowledge is possible.” marshall mcluhan, in analyzing the dynamism of figure and ground with respect to a given medium and its effects (or messages), parallels many of the ideas discussed above with respect to iconography, such as the visible and invisible, the crossing of the gaze, and the sense of movement and subject created through reverse perspective. next, i will highlight mcluhan’s contrast between visual space and acoustic space, one particularly relevant to our considerations of the icon as medium; although an icon is a traditionally visual medium in the popular sense of the word, mcluhan would argue that it inhabits primarily acoustic (rather than visual) space, and this has implications for the senses involved in the experience of icon veneration. visual and acoustic space: the icon as a medium of acoustic space in laws of media, mcluhan contrasts visual and acoustic space, which are characterized, broadly speaking, by linearity and simultaneity respectively. visual space, he contends, is built around the eye and vision and, as an extension, represents that which is continuous, connected, linear, homogeneous, and static. he calls this a man-made artefact, in that it is only through man’s use of the phonetic alphabet, with its associated abstraction from the percepts of other senses, that visual space can exist. in this space, a figure exists without a ground—a marshall mcluhan and eric mcluhan, media and formal cause (houston, tx: neopoiesis press, ), . italics are theirs. one can call these diachronic and synchronic, respectively, and mcluhan does make the connection to these concepts especially in relation to linguistics, as in the writing of ferdinand de saussure. however, he notes that the use of the term “visual” can be problematic in predominantly visual space, since mcluhan means a text- driven society and not everything that can be seen with the eyes (paintings, natural vistas, etc.). mcluhan discusses this briefly in mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, – . page of phenomenon absent from natural environments. mcluhan’s argument here seems dubious: as described earlier, he indicates that there is always an interplay between figure and ground, neither existing without the other. in fact, mcluhan even calls the phonetic alphabet “the hidden ground of the figure of visual space.” the notion of visual space could be refined as that which is focused on the figure, such that one rarely perceives the (still-present) ground. it is “space as created and perceived by the eyes when they are abstracted or separate from the activity of the other senses.” acoustic space, in contrast, enhances the simultaneous, the resonant, and the multilocational; it is the antithesis of visual space characterized by the sequential, static, and linear. it is important to note here that mcluhan does not restrict “acoustic” to the audible or auditory; instead, it denotes anything that can be sensed in synchronous fashion, including visual stimuli that do not resemble, for example, the sequential reading of abstract letterforms as text on a page. acoustic space also implies a sensory synthesis, since it is “always penetrated by tactility and other senses, is spherical, discontinuous, non-homogeneous, resonant, and dynamic. visual space is structured as static, abstract figure minus a ground; acoustic space is a flux in which figure and ground rub against and transform each other.” although mcluhan does not specifically discuss iconography in his writing, his criteria of visual and acoustic space would locate the domain of the icon in the latter. this may seem counterintuitive, since the icon itself makes no sound or use of other senses beyond that of sight. ibid., – , . ibid., . ibid. italics are theirs. ibid., – . ibid., . page of there are two reasons, however, why iconography should be conceptualized in this manner. first, and most obviously, although icons are often said to be “written” and even “read,” understanding and praying with an icon involves a non-linear, synchronous approach to the image as a whole, such that one goes beyond the visible surface, into the presence of the prototype. this movement is further reinforced by the natural environment of the icon, i.e., a place of worship whose light moves with flickering candlelight and a thin veil of incense, (as described by florensky ), supplemented with liturgical chant—elements which form a synthesis of the senses. second, the dynamic interplay of figure and ground is an apt description for the interaction of the immanent and transcendent, or earthly and divine, in the icon. historically, the iconoclasts struggled to understand how a depiction of the earthly by earthly means could adequately represent the presence of the divine; analogously, those accustomed to visual space might well struggle with the visibility of the figure and the invisibility (but not absence) of the ground, as described in mcluhan’s works. with these considerations in mind, we can now turn to an overview of mcluhan’s laws of media and the tetrad, i.e., his method for classifying and displaying the effects of media that can be ascertained through these laws. cubism will feature as a case study, since mcluhan developed a tetrad to explore the effects of this artistic style. with this baseline established, i will attempt to develop a new tetrad, schematizing the dynamic effects of the icon. florensky, beyond vision: essays on the perception of art, . page of section : introduction to the laws of media and the tetrad to define a medium, and consequently grasp its potential effects (“messages”), mcluhan sought to systematize the ways that media could extend or modify the senses; he identified only four, termed “laws of media,” that could be tested objectively: . enhancement—the extension of one or more senses, and the intensification of a situation in some way. in figure-ground terms, this can be either the conversion of a ground element into a figure, or the further intensification of an existing figure element. the key question is, “what does the medium enhance or intensify?” . obsolescence—the displacement into impotency of a former situation. this moves a previous figure element to the ground. the key question is, “what does the medium render obsolete or displace?” . retrieval—the revival of something that had previously been made obsolete. like enhancement, this is a ground element becoming figure, though indirectly as a result of the situation created by the introduction of the medium. the key question is, “what does the medium retrieve that was previously obsolesced?” . reversal—the result of overload, or taking the process to the extreme. this is best viewed as a dual action where figure and ground change places. the key question is, “what does this medium produce or become when pressed to an extreme?” mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, viii–ix. ibid., , – . page of although these laws appear numbered above, they are not to be taken as sequential. as soon as any one of these effects occurs for a given medium, all the others do as well. that said, mcluhan and mcluhan have identified two types of relationships between pairs of laws that should be noted. first, they propose that enhancement and obsolescence relate to morphology, or the form of a medium, while retrieval and reversal relate to metamorphosis, namely, the “embedding of one situation in another.” the strength of these laws is their accounting for the effects of metamorphosis. enhancement and obsolescence (which one could dub “morphological laws”) may tend to be more obvious since they concern what is either already figure, or being purposely brought in as figure. retrieval and reversal can be more difficult to perceive, as they require insight into the ground of a given medium—hence the focus of mcluhan’s work. it is perhaps due to the difficulty in gaining this insight that the mcluhans suggest retrieval is both the “keynote or dominant mode” of the laws of any given medium and, as such, can be the most difficult to discover. the second type of relationship to note, and the one that came to govern the format in which the tetrads were presented, is that there is an inner harmony between the laws, such that pairs can be represented as analogous ratios or proportionalities. the mcluhans conceptualized this using the mathematical idea of “a is to b as c is to d.” in the case of the laws of media, they proposed that “enhance is to reverse as retrieve is to obsolesce,” which they visualized as: marshall mcluhan and eric mcluhan, the lost tetrads of marshall mcluhan (new york and london: or books, ), . mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, . ibid. page of enhance is to reverse as retrieve is to obsolesce it is interesting to note that here, the mcluhans explicitly sought to avoid the analogy, “enhance is to obsolesce as retrieve is to reverse,” claiming these to be incorrect as ratios, although these are precisely the pairs mentioned in laws of media, as described above. the authors provide no further elaboration in this respect, despite mentioning these same pairs elsewhere. it appears that the stated laws are in relationship (or interrelationship) on several levels, although the secondary literature on the mcluhans’ work has yet to produce a complete characterization. for the sake of our argument, it will be understood that all four laws are indeed interrelated, representing different movements in the dynamic perception of figure-ground relationships: • enhancement—what becomes figure? • obsolescence—what becomes ground? • retrieval—what figure had previously become ground, and is now returning to figure? • reversal—how can figure and ground switch places when the medium is taken to the extreme? mcluhan and mcluhan, the lost tetrads of marshall mcluhan, – . if this is the case, then based on the concept of proportionality, it is also the case that enhance is to retrieve as reverse is to obsolesce. ibid., . along with being mentioned by the mcluhans themselves in laws of media, these pairs are also listed in pruska oldenhof and logan (the latter of whom has previously collaborated with marshall mcluhan): “the enhancement as figure is to the obsolescence as ground as the retrieval as figure is to the ground of reversal.” [izabella pruska oldenhof and robert k. logan, “the spiral structure of marshall mcluhan’s thinking,” philosophies , no. (june ): .] page of as previously mentioned, the laws are not sequential but rather operate simultaneously. in order to display them, the mcluhans developed the format of the tetrad, in which each effect, and any glosses, are displayed graphically. we will now explore this. the tetrad: a graphical display of the interrelated laws of media the four laws of media are generally presented in a diagram called a tetrad, in which a space is divided into four areas, two wide and two tall. each law occupies one quadrant, being laid out according to the original proportionalities that the mcluhans identified. enhance retrieve reverse obsolesce although dozens of tetrads appear in laws of media and dozens more in the lost tetrads, the one that will serve as the main prototype in the present context is that developed for cubism, as shown below in figure . cubism (painting) e.g., picasso, braque enhances reverses into multilocational eye • a collage of many points of view: the eye used in terms of other senses, moving, penetrating • re-enter the simultaneous; exit the one- thing-at-a-time iconic image the non-visual • icon demands an educated audience? • sculpture • with no ‘object’ presented, nothing to look at, the painting becomes a mask for the user to wear, to see by retrieves obsolesces the viewer the making process (the genuine fake) • the multisensuous; iconic image • the complex sensibility of many levels simultaneously • cf. picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon (ca. ) representation: visual space objectivity • single, fixed point of view, perspective, foreshortening, chiaroscuro • the passive viewer and photographic realism; the cell for citters to cit in [sic]. • standing on a paris street in , watching a parade of military vehicles mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, – ; mcluhan and mcluhan, the lost tetrads of marshall mcluhan, . page of • the viewer has to complete the image, thereby becoming co-creator. • rediscovers and up-dates primitive values in everyday objects • the mode of light-through using the new camouflage, picasso said, ‘braque and i invented that.’ figure : tetrad for cubism. just as media may form chains, where the content of one medium is another medium, tetrads can also be mutually related. mcluhan identifies two possible ways in which this may occur. first, they may form a chain of tetrads, should an element of one tetrad’s quadrant be the subject of another tetrad. alternatively clusters may form, if the given tetrads have similar elements in a quadrant—for example, if they all obsolesce the same thing. as analytic tools, therefore, tetrads have the potential not only to ascertain the figure and ground effects of a given medium, but also to assess the various connections between related media. the tetrad as a tool for analyzing iconography we now reach the goal of the present endeavour, which is to test the usefulness of tetrads for displaying the dynamics of iconography as a theological medium. the hypothesis is that this tool will be a useful means of focusing our attention on the complex and perhaps overlooked figure-ground relationships at play. as the mcluhans state, insofar as tetrads are a means of focusing awareness of hidden or unobserved qualities in our culture and technology, they act phenomenologically. from hegel to heidegger, phenomenologists have engaged in an attempt to get at the hidden properties or hidden effects of language and technology alike. in other words, they have tackled a right-hemisphere problem using left-hemisphere techniques and modes of cognition. with the tetrads this dilemma is resolved. mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, – . i have modified the display format to a tabular form to streamline its presentation in this thesis, but the items are as written by mcluhan and mcluhan, including inaccuracies (les demoiselles d’avignon was painted in ) and liberties in spelling (“cell for citters to cit in.”). ibid., . ibid., . defining and critiquing the parallels between phenomenology and mcluhan’s thought is beyond the scope of this thesis. however, an excellent overview of mcluhan’s media theory and phenomenology, page of i would contend that the dilemma referred to cannot be completely resolved even with the tetrad, given that the tetrad is itself arguably a left-hemisphere technique for mapping figure-ground relationships and placing them in analogous proportions with each other. still, the tetrad will demonstrate its usefulness as a method for elucidating not only the figure-ground terrain in iconography, but also the extended chain of media to which it belongs. the tetrad representing cubism will be used as a starting point for the development of a similar tetrad for iconography, not only because of the many similarities shared by these two styles of art, but also because icons (or the iconic) are explicitly and repeatedly mentioned in the cubist tetrad. since these references occur in more than one quadrant (reversal and retrieval), it would appear that the tetrad for cubism naturally forms a cluster rather than a chain in relation to the proposed tetrad for iconography. in other words, cubism and icons share certain properties and processes, rather than one leading to another. in what follows, therefore, we will periodically make comparisons with cubism, which will enable us to assess the differences in the respective figure-ground relationships defining iconography. incidentally, other tetrads elsewhere developed by the mcluhans will also be referenced to expand our analysis; specifically, the tetrads for acoustic space, visual space, and perspective in painting will all prove to be highly pertinent. especially that of heidegger, can be found in laureano ralon and marcelo vieta, “mcluhan and phenomenology,” explorations in media ecology , no. / (july , ): – . in particular, they argue that mcluhan took too narrow a definition of phenomenology, calling it “cartesian” and failing to distinguish transcendental phenomenology (husserl) from existential phenomenology (heidegger, merleau-ponty, and sartre). ( ) they further point out that mcluhan’s media theory and the phenomenological movement have the same roots, which are the humanist or anti-positivist artistic movements (art, philosophy, literature) that began to develop toward the end of the th century, in reaction to cartesian intellectualism and scientific positivism. ( ) for our purposes, mcluhan’s tetrads will be taken as one tool among others—such as phenomenological theory—with which iconography can be explored, with the qualification that this tool remains itself a medium in relationship with others. page of part ii: development of the tetrad for iconography as presented in part i, the mcluhans developed a tetrad describing the figure-ground relationships and effects of cubism, taken as a medium. despite its many similarities with iconography, there are also important differences, ranging from stylistic divergences to perceived theological discrepancies—such that bulgakov, for instance, could go so far as to label cubism as demonic. nonetheless, taking the cubist tetrad as a starting point, figure proposes an iconographic counterpart. because of the interconnection between the four laws of media discussed above, there is no linear path through the discrete sections of our new tetrad. the analysis of its contents, therefore, will proceed in three parts. first, the similarities between cubism and iconography will be discussed. next, the important differences will be addressed, particularly, those features in which iconography and cubism stand in opposition—whether in form or doctrine. finally, further nuances will be discussed—for example, the effect and role of the icon in its theological, not to say liturgical, milieu. our focus will be on a properly theological discussion of iconography, as a medium bridging the transcendent and immanent. however, contributions from other areas (as described in part i) will also be incorporated into the discussion where relevant. page of iconography enhances reverses into multilocational thought • the extension of the space of thought • re-enter the simultaneous; exit the one- thing-at-a-time • polycentrism – conflation of the one and the all idols • movement out of the transcendent into the purely immanent (which may appear transcendent) • icon demands an educated audience? • static, controlling subject. retrieves obsolesces the viewer creation in-person relationship • the multisensuous, especially noetic sense • the complex sensibility of many levels simultaneously • e.g., rublev’s trinity ( th century) • the viewer has to become part of the scene – “crossing of the gaze” • the word, acoustic space representation: visual space objectivity • single, fixed point of view, perspective, foreshortening, chiaroscuro • the passive viewer and photographic realism • the passive object as item to be viewed—still life figure : a potential tetrad for iconography. section : iconography and cubism as kin a number of important parallels exist between cubism and iconography, as reflected in their respective tetrads. specifically, six statements from the original tetrad on cubism carry over into the iconographic counterpart. three relate to the existence of both cubism and iconography in acoustic rather than visual space, a topic addressed in greater detail below. for now, it can be noted that the “space” of iconography arguably extends much wider than that of cubism, including as it does the transcendent, and engaging not only the five physical senses, but also the “noetic” faculty. a further similarity is the apparent need for an educated audience. the final two concern the experience of the viewer, who in both cases lacks a fixed viewpoint as well as a specific point in time. since the icon arguably creates a “double dynamic,” where the viewer is in turn also being gazed upon from multiple viewpoints by the subject of the icon, our discussion of this feature will segue into the next section, which elaborates on the differences between our chosen styles—the crossing of the gaze being a crucial one. page of simultaneity and the multisensuous in cubism and iconography spatial and temporal simultaneity one of the most obvious aspects that cubism enhances, as noted by the mcluhans, is exiting the sequential (“one-thing-at-a-time”) and re-entering the simultaneous. the use of the terminology “re-entering” as opposed to simply “entering” implies a retrieval of something previously existent, and it is in fact in retrieval that two other, related items can be found: on the one hand, references to the multisensuous and, on the other, to experiences of simultaneity. these will be elaborated upon below. the key enhancement—the movement from the sequential to the simultaneous—is synonymous with leaving visual space and entering acoustic space (to use mcluhan’s terminology as described in part i): it is in acoustic space that such synchronicity is possible. the mcluhans appear to concentrate primarily on spatial synchronicity, i.e., viewing an object from multiple vantage points simultaneously, and this leads to the name of the enhancement chosen for this tetrad: the “multilocational eye.” in other words, although synchronicity could mean either juxtaposing multiple spatial viewpoints of a given object, or composing an object from a single viewpoint over a period of time, as though simultaneous, the emphasis in the cubist tetrad is on the spatial aspect of synchronicity. this is reinforced by the mcluhans’ other gloss in that category, describing the multilocational eye as a collage that assembles multiple points of view. this is not to say, however, that temporal synchronicity is not a factor in cubism: obtaining multiple points of view does imply movement between vantage page of points, and thus a time lapse—even if only over a brief period. critiques of cubism have also noted both spatial and temporal synchronicity to be characteristic of this form of art. in a similar way, icons are conventionally characterized by synchronicity, both spatial and temporal, although it has been argued that this applies only to the presentation of the image on the board, rather than to the manner in which an icon is processed by the human eye given its limited visual field. nonetheless, it is common for an icon to feature multiple facets of an object that would not normally be visible unless one were to walk “around” the scene. contrary to what an uninformed viewer might presume, florensky notes that the seemingly inaccurate appearances of elements in an icon are not limitations imposed by a lack of technical skill, i.e., by some inability of the artist to portray them naturalistically. in many cases, the sides of objects otherwise hidden are not only depicted, but are also brightly coloured to emphasize their placement alongside the normally visible facets. this indicates that such synchronicity exhibits the intention of the iconographer, rather than being the result of inferior training in perspective. pamela a. genova, “the poetics of visual cubism: guillaume apollinaire on pablo picasso,” studies in th & st century literature , no. , art. (january , ): . in fact, genova mentions a third form of synchronicity—semantic—that is identified through the work of guillaume apollinaire (a contemporary of picasso) as being an element of cubism. pavel florensky, for example, in defending the icon against accusations that it is not physically possible to see three walls of a house at once, argues that it is not possible to see two or even one whole wall at once, because the eye can see only a small portion of a wall without moving around to see the rest of it, and that we can see nothing all at once. [pavel florensky, “reverse perspective,” in beyond vision: essays on the perception of art, ed. nicoletta misler, trans. wendy salmond (london: reaktion, ), .] this statement is inaccurate, especially as it has been demonstrated that the normal human field of vision, i.e., the space the eye can see instantaneously, extends from ° (horizontally toward the nose) to ° (horizontally toward the temple), and ° to ° upward and downward respectively. [robert p. cubbidge, visual fields, eye essentials (edinburgh and new york: elsevier butterworth-heinemann, ), .] since the normal visual field is large enough to encompass the majority of icons and paintings that will be discussed, the analysis in this thesis will be limited to what is displayed simultaneously in the image, and will exclude any factors relating to visual field or eye movement related to “taking in” a whole image. florensky, “reverse perspective,” – . page of although florensky describes the technique in question, an unusual use of perspective, as intentional, ouspensky and lossky delve further into the rationale for it. returning to one of the main issues addressed during the second iteration of the iconoclastic controversy, namely, the relationship of image to prototype, they note that it is important for an icon to avoid the illusion of being the prototype. in other words, the very challenge of the icon is to portray three- dimensional space without artificially creating the impression of going beyond the two- dimensional panel of the icon, so as to avoid any confusion between image and prototype. the use of reverse perspective successfully prevents the eye from being drawn into or behind the panel, instead directing the gaze back toward the observer. the matter of perspective in iconography must be pressed further at this point, because a simple understanding of reverse perspective does not fully encompass the forms of perspective used in iconography. reverse perspective does allow an icon to avoid naturalistic illusion, but often multiple forms of perspective are adopted simultaneously. this could be a combination of reverse and direct (“normal”) perspective in the same icon, such as in rublev’s trinity, or it could be a variety of architectural façades that not only converge toward the viewer (reverse perspective), but do so according to several discrete “vanishing points,” all in the proximity of the observer. as arianne conty suggests, this technique can have the effect of disorienting an observer who is used to being at an unmoving centre, creating in turn the feeling of being “played upon by the painting.” the resulting sense of movement will be revisited below, when discussing the themes of dynamic presence and the crossing of the gaze, but it is worth noting ouspensky and lossky, the meaning of icons, . ibid. conty, “bending heaven down to earth,” . page of here how an unusual use of perspective in the layout of elements and figures can be an important contributor to this distinct characteristic of icons. a further aspect not emphasized in the cubist tetrad is temporal simultaneity, wherein different points in time are collapsed into a single moment. this is arguably an essential characteristic of iconography, and can be represented in multiple ways. in one sense, any portrayal symbolizing the divine or transcendent necessarily implicates an experience of time other than the linear, chronological sort that is proper to the natural world. this can take the form of a representation of kairos instead of chronos, but also that of the juxtaposition of elements from different points in chronological time within the same image—representing a spiralling or folding of chronological time. uniquely, florensky even goes so far as to posit instantaneous— or even reverse—time, as an analogue to reverse perspective; however, other authors do not echo this idea. the most noticeable form of temporal simultaneity in iconography is what i term above as the “spiralling” or “folding” of time, a process by which separate events can be seen simultaneously. as evdokimov writes, scenes can be assembled according to that “redeemed time,” which itself regulates the interior order of the icon. such time creates links within scenes based on intrinsic spiritual meaning. due to their placement in redeemed rather than chronological history, even indoor scenes are not typically depicted as being enclosed by walls, florensky describes this relative to dreams, which he describes as “images that separate the visible world from the invisible”—straddling visible and invisible in much the same way as icons. in dreams, when one is suddenly awoken by an external sound, he notes that often in the dream, a whole sequence of events can lead up to the sound, even though the person could not have actually anticipated the sudden sound. therefore, he supposes that in a dream, time can run backward from the sound through to the beginning of the dream sequence. [pavel florensky, iconostasis, trans. donald sheehan and olga andrejev (crestwood, ny: st. vladimir’s seminary press, ), – .] evdokimov would not agree, indicating that time is not reversible, but can rather be opened up [evdokimov, art of the icon, .]. this is more in line with florensky’s original idea of instantaneous time rather than the time running in reverse that he develops from it. page of so that they might not appear limited by physical time and space. in this way, the icon shows that “everything is subordinated to everything and that everything is immanent to everything.” furthermore, as constantine kalokyris notes, beyond removing walls that would place a scene indoors, an iconographer also habitually omits such items that might make the scene identifiable, or at least renders them in only a rudimentary manner. for example, a crucifixion tableau might include a small mound with a skull to indicate golgotha, but would not generally feature an historically accurate depiction of everything that could have been visible to a contemporary observer. time in the icon can be seen not only as “redeemed” but also as disclosing the “eternal present,” which is echoed in the language and essence of the liturgy—the context in which iconography belongs. as kalokyris writes, “the individual events of religious history are not to be understood as mere occurrences in the past, but as happening mystically and as events active even today. this means that the worshipper does not merely commemorate, but lives, and himself actually partakes in, the life of the saviour and of his saints.” evdokimov would describe the eternal present (i.e., eternity) as a positive form of time, wherein the past, present, and the ages to come are all fully open to the presence of god. in this he brings us again to the theme of presence in the icon, especially as it relates to what might otherwise be considered historical figures. far from simply being a portrait of a person or event of a bygone age, it is understood that in and through the icon, a saint and an observer are brought together into an evdokimov, art of the icon, – . constantine d kalokyris, “byzantine iconography and ‘liturgical’ time,” eastern churches review , no. ( ): . ibid., . evdokimov, art of the icon, . page of eternal present, becoming contemporaries. in the icon, mathematical time is thus abolished, just as much as mathematical space. for this reason, in the tetrad for iconography, it can be said to exit the one-thing-at-a-time (mathematical or linear time) and to re-enter the simultaneous— the eternal present. the multisensuous experience in iconography in the tetrad for cubism, the mcluhans identify the multisensuous, and specifically the iconic image, as that which the style retrieves. defining the “iconic” in a television interview, and speaking of television as an iconic medium, marshall mcluhan said that an iconic medium “is very low in visual quality, very high in tactile. active touch, not cutaneous but active touch, as the psychologists say.” accordingly, the multisensuous is rooted in acoustic space, wherein the simultaneous and the resonance between figure and ground are key. in our next section, the multisensuous will be explored first in modern art, and then in iconography, with the goal of clarifying the parallels and differences. speaking about iconic art, where mcluhan’s definition of “iconic” (as cited in the previous paragraph) is intended, the mcluhans note that “there is muting of the visual as such, in order that there may be maximal interplay among all of the senses. such was the painterly kalokyris, “byzantine iconography and ‘liturgical’ time,” . however, the iconic image, along with the non-visual, is also shown as the primary item into which cubism reverses when figure and ground are flipped. this forms something of a paradox since retrieval creates a figure (iconic image) from a ground, and reversal swaps figure and ground—which should make a ground of the iconic image, not a figure. this is a potential problem with the tetrad. for the purposes of developing the tetrad for iconography, the focus here will be on retrieval of the multisensuous and the role of acoustic space; the iconic per mcluhan’s definition will be considered as belonging to acoustic space. frank kermode, “the future of man in the electric age,” television, monitor (british broadcasting corporation, ), accessed april , , http://www.marshallmcluhanspeaks.com/interview/ -the-future-of- man-in-the-electric-age/. mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, . page of strategy ‘since cezanne,’ to paint as if you held, rather than as if you saw, objects.” in his essay “cézanne’s doubt,” however, merleau-ponty approaches the situation somewhat differently: cézanne does not try to use color to suggest the tactile sensations which would give shape and depth. these distinctions between touch and sight are unknown in primordial perception. it is only as a result of a science of the human body that we finally learn to distinguish our senses. the lived object is not rediscovered or constructed on the basis of the contributions of the senses; rather, it presents itself to us from the start as a center from which these contributions radiate . . . if the painter is to express the world, the arrangement of his colors must bear within this indivisible whole, or else his painting will only hit at things and will not give them in the imperious unity, the presence, the insurpassable [sic] plenitude which is for us the definition of the real. thus, for merleau-ponty, a painter like cézanne does not attempt to represent one sense (such as touch) with something observable to the visual sense. rather, the style of painting begins within the idea that the senses are part of an indivisible whole; if successfully expressed in the work, this indivisible, sensory whole, though perceived visually, will lead to a connection with the presence of the reality represented therein. in iconography, it can also be argued that a stylized rather than naturalistic portrayal of people and their environment also serves to express a form of “real presence,” through an experience appealing to all the senses together. as previously discussed, the use of reverse perspective, exaggerated facial features and generic environments, among other features, are adopted in order to foster both a sense of dynamic movement and of being connected to the reality of the person or event depicted. however, this appeal to all our senses is not restricted to ibid., . maurice merleau-ponty, the merleau-ponty aesthetics reader: philosophy and painting, ed. galen a. johnson and michael b. smith, northwestern university studies in phenomenology & existential philosophy (evanston, ill.: northwestern university press, ), . page of that which appears on the icon board. icons are also inextricably entwined with their liturgical environment, and thus the symphony of senses extends beyond the icon and into the liturgical experience. florensky comments that icons are not only associated with the architecture of the surrounding church and the thin veil of incense wafting around inside, but they are also part of an organically connected whole that includes choreography, vestments, the symbiosis of music and poetry in liturgical singing, and the aesthetics of church ritual itself, taken as a musical drama. as a result, “everything here that is coordinated to everything else does not exist if taken separately, or at least it exists falsely.” sahas reinforces this claim, joining the sight of icons to the sound of music, the smell of incense, the movements of kneeling or the sign of the cross, and the taste of communion, as part of a complete experience of liturgy. thus, the icon is not just a painting, but constitutes a liturgical act—both of and for the church—and is conducive to communion with god. still, although all the senses are engaged synergistically when praying with an icon in its ecclesial, liturgical environment, the burning question of the iconoclastic controversy remains: how do we both portray and perceive that which is invisible—namely, the sanctity of the saints and the divinity of christ? in our discussion above, we addressed the key arguments of patriarch nikephoros, with respect to the inseparability of the visible and the invisible. affirming, with him, that both aspects of a person can be portrayed, it is not yet evident how the transcendent might become perceptible. although we often mean the five physical senses when speaking of “senses,” from the time of the church fathers onward, other spiritual means of perception have florensky, beyond vision: essays on the perception of art, – . sahas, icon and logos, – . ibid., . page of been identified. one of these is the nous, which could be translated as “intellect;” however, it includes not just intellectual and moral reasoning (dependent on the ordinary senses), but also the perception of otherwise invisible spiritual realities, extending to the “noetic” aspect of human beings and even to the apprehension of god himself. it is especially through the nous that one might perceive a presence, and not just an object, in an icon. because the nous, in patristic thought, is associated with the image of god in a person, it also forms the contemplative faculty enabling him or her to seek god and approach divinization (theosis)—union with god through divine grace. sergei bulgakov also makes a case for the nous, describing an observer’s capacity for noetic vision as the very basis for the icon. elaborating on what this kind of vision sees, he suggests that in the “proto-thing” or “proto-image”—the iconodules’ “prototype”—the nous beholds the “noetic image.” thus, adapting a quote from kant, bulgakov states that “things without proto-images are blind (naturalism) and proto-images without things are empty or abstract (schematism).” bulgakov thereby highlights the importance of the link between the material and conceptual—the visible and invisible—a link that figures such as john of damascus had already articulated when making the case for the possibility of revealing the invisible through the visible. nonna verna harrison, “the human person as image and likeness of god,” in the cambridge companion to orthodox christian theology, ed. mary b. cunningham and elizabeth theokritoff, cambridge companions to religion (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), . vladimir lossky, the mystical theology of the eastern church (london: j. clarke, ), . sergei bulgakov, icons and the name of god, trans. boris jakim (grand rapids, mich.: w.b. eerdmans, ), – . ibid., . page of the result of contemplating an icon with both the physical senses and with the nous will be considered below, in our discussion of presence and the crossing of the gaze; for the present purpose of constructing a tetrad for iconography, it can be noted that both icons and cubist paintings share the characteristic of retrieving the multisensuous through a visual medium. however, i would argue that iconography is oriented not only to the physical senses, but also to those spiritual faculties expressive of the nous. the integration of all of our potential modes of perception does not occur automatically, however, and requires development and refinement— particularly in the case of the nous. we therefore return to the brief question the mcluhans ask with respect to reversal in their tetrad for cubism: “icon demands an educated audience?” since the nous is often associated with the intellect, and even at times reduced to it, we will proceed with an examination of the role of education in iconography. lex videndi: the relationship between education and iconography when the mcluhans ask “icon demands an educated audience?” in the cubist tetrad, they are probing the context of cubism, with its reversal into an iconic image and/or the non- visual. although i have already addressed the problems with presenting the icon as both a retrieval and a reversal of cubism, there is the further question of education: does it precede the experience of venerating an icon, or is it rather through veneration that one comes to be educated in the relevant manner? michel quenot, who has written extensively on orthodox icons, suggests that the dynamic is reciprocal: “purified by a centuries-old theological development, christian faith becomes crystallized in the icon according to the previously stated maxim: lex mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, . as previously discussed, the meaning of “iconic” in mcluhan’s work generally refers to the tactile or to simultaneous, acoustic space. it is used in contrast with the “visual,” by which he usually means linear or text-based. thus, reversal into the “iconic” or “non-visual” is movement into the multisensuous. page of credendi, lex orandi, lex videndi! the icon reflects the faith and evokes it to such an extent that a return to the sources, the reactivation of the ‘christian memory,’ today can take that path in reverse: lex videndi, lex credendi, lex orandi!” this interdependence of faith, prayer, and way of life is an important condition that will be considered as we further examine the connections between iconography and education. to begin with, it is important to recall that the pedagogical value of the icon is consistently acknowledged by the church east and west. john of damascus draws a parallel between books and images, proposing that images are to the illiterate what books are to the literate, and that sight is sanctified by images just as hearing is sanctified by words. similarly, the seventh ecumenical council (nicaea ii) referenced the claim of st. basil the great, that “that which speech presents through hearing by giving an account, painting does show, although silently, by art of representation.” in the educating icon, anton vrame points to the mystagogical role of the icon, emphasizing the importance of the word becoming flesh—i.e., visible and tangible—by providing a visual articulation of the gospel message. at the time of christ, those who encountered him both heard and saw him, in a verbal and visual experience. after the ascension, the spoken message continued through oral tradition and, ultimately, the michel quenot, the resurrection and the icon, trans. michael breck (crestwood, ny: st. vladimir’s seminary press, ), . both of the “lex” statements quenot provides are variations on the better-known maxim lex orandi, lex credendi, (the way we pray is what we believe) from th century prosper of aquitaine. both are also a play on words on the occasional expansion of the statement to the tricolon lex orandi, lex credendi, lex vivendi. (the way we pray is what we believe, which is how we live.) lex videndi would translate to the “rule of seeing” or “the way we see.” in the traditional statements, lex orandi comes first, suggesting a primacy to the place of prayer and worship. in quenot’s statements, it comes after lex credendi, an unusual placement. it is beyond the scope of this thesis to exhaustively debate the validity of this, although i would argue for maintaining the original order, lex orandi, lex credendi, not only for the sake of maintaining the traditional order in the statement, but also because of the primacy of worship in eastern christian theology. for this thesis, the focus will be simply the reversal of lex videndi between the beginning and the end of this chain. john of damascus, three treatises on the divine images, . treatise i, § . sahas, icon and logos, . the council is quoting st. basil the great’s to the holy forty martyrs, homily (pg : a). page of gospels. to retain the integrated experience that original encounters with christ had, the tradition also generated iconography: it is this dual verbal-visual gospel that is understood to be the most authentic evangelical transmission. beyond the educational value of icons, however, there is also an argument to be made that a certain education is itself required, in order to appreciate iconography and honour its proper role in in liturgy and prayer. as described earlier in this section, multiple techniques are used to express something of the transcendent within the limited two-dimensional realm of the icon. because of this, grasping the structure and symbolism of iconographic elements—what one might call their visual lexicon—is key to an observer’s ability to receive the message, or rather encounter the presence, communicated through the image. both the historical and contemporary occurrences of iconoclasm are a key indicator of the need for appropriate education: extensive theological debates were required to identify how icons are related to their prototypes, and how (if at all) they should be venerated. furthermore, given that icons are integrated into the liturgical life of the church, the milieu must be understood as a whole. as sahas writes in the introduction to his translation of the sixth session of the seventh ecumenical council: the icon cannot be understood apart from the wider cultural and theological context to which it belongs. . . . a familiarity with the essentials of christian theology and a willingness to draw from and refer to them are prerequisites for understanding the icon as a phenomenon. the reverse is also true. the icon allows one who has a theological and contemplative disposition to see the basic theological principles of christianity in relief or, in fact, in colour.” finally, beyond the cycle of educating for, and being educated by iconography, vrame points to the teleology of the art form: it serves to lead a person not only to contemplation, but to anton c. vrame, the educating icon: teaching wisdom and holiness in the orthodox way (brookline, mass.: holy cross orthodox press, ), – . sahas, icon and logos, – . page of action—the imitation of the depicted virtues, and the openness to transformation through the grace of god. ultimately, the goal of the icon as a medium “is not to know about the saints, but to become saints.” therefore, among the many purposes of the icon is one that is somewhat hidden, namely, to be a companion in the ongoing process of theosis. since movement, both of god towards the person and the person towards god, is an important aspect of iconography and of theosis, this movement will be examined next. movement in the image: the obsolescence of photographic realism in part i of this thesis, i provided a brief overview of the variety of perspectival systems used in multiple forms of visual representation, whether in iconography or in secular paintings from the time of the greco-romans to the modern period. i have already described the role of non-linear perspective (e.g., reverse perspective) in creating a sense of movement, and this will be revisited shortly. before doing so, it is worth touching upon mcluhan’s statement that cubism—and here, i argue iconography also—obsolesces the passive viewer and, with it, photographic realism. such realism, which those writing about iconography often refer to with terminology such as naturalism, marks an important development in media from the th century onwards after the invention and popularization of the camera. it could be approximated in earlier centuries with certain styles of painting, especially those using linear perspective. the difference between a photograph and a cubist painting (or an icon) can also be framed in terms of what marshall mcluhan calls hot and cool media, which differ mainly in their participatory characteristics. a hot medium, like a photograph, targets a specific sense and vrame, the educating icon, . italics are his. ibid., – . page of renders information in high definition, requiring little additional effort from the viewer. in this sense, a hot medium could be considered as one implying a passive viewer. in contrast, a cool medium, like a cartoon, modern painting, or icon, does not have the same high definition transfer of information to a given sense (in this case, visual), and requires more active participation from the viewer in order to complete the available information and discern a meaning. mcluhan argues that because of this difference in audience participation resulting from the form of the medium, each one has different effects in society. it is at this point that the differences between cubist paintings and icons are worth examining in greater detail. although both have the property of being participatory, i propose that the role and corresponding responsibility of the viewer differ in these two genres. furthermore, it is worth noting the significant divergence in the object—or subject, in the case of an icon—of the respective artistic styles, and in their amenability to marion’s “crossing of the gaze.” the question of reversal for each of these forms of art also requires attention. all of these issues will be discussed in the following section. section : the distinction between icons and cubist paintings as we have seen thus far, cubist paintings and icons share a number of characteristics. nevertheless, significant differences exist: icons cannot be outright considered as byzantine- style cubist paintings, even apart from the superficial difference that they are rarely composed of purely geometric shapes. at least three other differences are important enough to warrant further attention. first, i will consider mcluhan’s statement that cubism retrieves the need for the viewer to complete the image, thus becoming a co-creator in the scene. in an icon, i will argue mcluhan, understanding media, . page of that rather than becoming a co-creator controlling a scene, one participates in the scene without acquiring (or even aspiring to) such a status. a second difference, related to the first, is that in iconography the person depicted is never an object to be viewed, but is instead another participant or subject, with whom a gaze can be exchanged. the icon is therefore never the equivalent of a “still life” painting, as might be expressed in a cubist context, even though both genres obsolesce the idea of a stationary viewer. finally, mcluhan claims that cubism reverses into the iconic image or the non-visual, whereas i suggest that the icon reverses into the idol. taken together, these claims indicate that the similarities between cubism and iconography mask a crucial distinction in their phenomenological perspectives. making a scene: co-creator or co-participant? in the mcluhans’ tetrad for cubism, they suggest that the style retrieves the viewer as a co-creator who completes the image—likely in contrast to the hot medium of realist or naturalist art that was normative since the renaissance (with its focus on linear perspective), and whose influence was intensified with the modern invention of photography. because iconography, like cubism, displays “coolness” as a medium, i.e., the need for the viewer to actively participate in completing a given scene, it might seem that iconography would likewise place the viewer in a co-creative role. however, the iconographic goal of making accessible a transcendent reality calls this role into question: in both eastern and western christian traditions, there is a clear “realist” and “naturalist” are being used here to identify painting techniques that are highly representational or life-like, i.e., relating to how the subject is depicted. it is important to note that these terms have also been applied to specific th century artistic movements, where naturalism was the presentation of ordinary daily life (figures and landscapes), while realism was naturalism with socialist (political) overtones—i.e., relating to what is depicted. (stokstad, art history, .) this is not the meaning implied by the use of these terms in our text. page of theological distinction between creator and creation, with the viewer included in the latter category. one indicator of a difference in the role of the viewer in each form of art is the possible range of subject matter. in cubism, for instance, any object can be depicted; even a cursory glance at a series of cubist paintings will reveal a range of items, such as violins, bottles, people, houses, and more. most importantly, it is both possible and common for the subject matter in cubism to be one or more objects, with no people depicted. however, there are no icons that depict only objects. in broader greek usage, an icon (εἰκών) denotes a portrait; the meaning of the word in the byzantine theological lexicon is specifically a representation of christ, the theotokos, and/or the saints. another difference between cubist paintings and icons is the experiential aspect of icons. as art historian bissera pentcheva points out, icons and those praying with them participate in the performative nature of liturgy. icons are physically venerated with kisses, signs of the cross, and prostrations, while candlelight and incense create a flickering sense of animation in the image. all this occurs in an environment in which the senses are engaged, and in which the faithful not only actively exchange their gaze with that of the icon, but also offer it their touch. many examples are available in online galleries, including those of tate modern (“cubism – art term,” tate, accessed july , , https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/c/cubism.) and the guggenheim museums (“cubism,” the guggenheim museums and foundation, accessed july , , https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/movement/cubism.). this is generally not stated explicitly in sources on the topic of iconography, although one can observe this in any reference guide on icons, such as alfredo tradigo, icons and saints of the eastern orthodox church, guide to imagery (los angeles: j. paul getty museum, ). ouspensky also notes that indeed in early christianity, some old testament symbols were used in the place of a human image, such as a lamb representing christ, the lamb of god. however, the council in trullo (ad ) ordained that christ should be depicted as a human rather than a lamb, making clear that in christ, the old testament symbols were fulfilled, and their direct meaning should therefore be depicted. (ouspensky and lossky, the meaning of icons, – .) pentcheva, “the performative icon,” . ibid., . page of the necessity of immersion in this liturgical and sensory environment for the full experience of, and participation in, the icon appears altogether distinct from the requirements for the experience of a cubist painting. the latter is native, of course, to the more sensorially sterile environment of the art gallery—even if one could imagine an exhibition in which the other faculties were somehow intentionally engaged. the differences just discussed, with respect to subject matter and environment, segue into those concerning the varying the role of the observer. now in one sense, an icon’s observer might justly be called a co-creator, as mcluhan says of one observing a cubist painting. this is because the human being is imago dei—made in the image of god—thus reflecting the creativity of the creator. but an observer creates neither the physical icon, nor the prototype depicted, but only orients him- or herself towards the prototype through the icon. as ouspensky comments, “what is gathered into the church is all in human nature that is inherent, created by god; and this includes creative art, sanctified by its participation in the building of the kingdom of god, the task of the church in the world . . . this process does not depersonalise.” ouspensky simultaneously notes both the creative aspect of humanity and its active or participative role in the church (and in the kingdom of god). without god as creator or, more plainly, the existence of transcendent being, the notion that an observer might co-create an icon falls into the category of idolatry critiqued by marion: creation according to desire, in which the original or prototype (i.e., the divine or divinized subject) disappears. for the proper veneration of the prototype to occur, it must not be an impersonal object; one cannot enter into prayerful relationship with a violin or a bottle. this begs the question of what kind of ouspensky and lossky, the meaning of icons, . marion, the crossing of the visible, – . page of relationship one might expect to experience with an icon, in contrast to cubist painting; for this, i will return to marion’s concept of the crossing of the gaze. the crossing of the gaze revisited: sources of the gaze as explained in our discussion of phenomenology in part i, marion differentiated the idol from the icon by claiming that with the icon, there is a crossing of gaze: the observer not only gazes at the icon, but also experiences the return of his or her gaze. in other words, the observer is also the observed. i would add that not only do icons always depict divinized (if not divine) persons, but they also depict them in such a way as to resist objectification—the opposite of a painting wherein a mobile observer sees multiple views of a static (observed) subject. a cubist example of this observed subject would be picasso’s dora maar seated ( ), where one can simultaneously see frontal and lateral views of the model’s face. this is a characteristic not observed in byzantine iconography. pentcheva provides another appraisal of the risk of idolatry and its mitigation in iconography. she states that in the ninth century, both patriarch nikephoros and st. theodore the studite emphasized a nonessentialist definition of the icon, in which the icon is imprinted with the divine form while not itself containing the divine essence. therefore, the icon itself should not be worshipped, since it does not actually contain the divine. accordingly, one could even say that the icon is the absence of the divine, exemplifying byzantine mimesis—imitating presence. with this paradoxical “present absence,” the icon can give form to a sacred figure pentcheva, “the performative icon,” – . here pentcheva also contrasts byzantine mimesis (of presence) with the western idea of mimesis, which is the imitation of form. kandinsky, as discussed in the section on michel henry and phenomenology, referred to the imitation of form as producing art akin to a “stillborn child.” (kandinsky, “concerning the spiritual in art,” .) it would be interesting to investigate further what he would have thought of the notion of imitating presence, especially considering how the extreme non-representational form of his art was aimed at bringing forth the invisible. page of otherwise absent. pentcheva describes this distinction as that which occurs between tangible and intangible absence—reframing the conventional dichotomy of the visible and the invisible. this acknowledged absence also ensures that the icon is safe from idolatry. the question of tangibility becomes even more important in light of miracle-working icons, especially those that display physical effects, such as streaming myrrh, stirring a breeze, or lifting a veil. pentcheva admits that such (alleged) phenomena contradict the theoretical idea of the icon as an absence. perhaps this special case of miracle-working icons could be viewed as another manifestation of the incarnation. as st. athanasius wrote, “it is a property of god not to be seen, but to be known by his works.” to date, the discussion about the crossing of the gaze in the context of iconography has been purely visual. if the icon is a physical object belonging to a multi-sensory liturgy, as argued earlier, then it is possible that the “gaze” may be too limited a term to capture the way in which the icon connects us with the transcendent. instead, it is possible that the “gaze” that the divine returns may consist not only of being seen, but also of being touched, or being smelled, or being heard. in other words, perhaps what is being exchanged in these miracle-working icons is not a single-sense gaze, but a multi-sensual experience of the other. pentcheva, “the performative icon,” . this “present absence” has a similar structure to the eastern christian juxtaposition of positive (kataphatic) theology and negative (apophatic) theology. pseudo-dionysius the areopagite summarizes this position: “since [the divine] is the cause of all beings, we should posit and ascribe to it all the affirmations we make in regard to beings, and, more appropriately, we should negate all these affirmations, since it surpasses all being.” [pseudo-dionysius the areopagite, pseudo-dionysius: the complete works, trans. colm luibhéid and paul rorem, the classics of western spirituality (new york: paulist press, ), (§ c).] by recognizing an absence or limitation of understanding, the observer is reminded that what is being venerated is beyond the material realm, and is not a construction born of this world. pentcheva, “the performative icon,” . saint athanasius, on the incarnation, vol. b, popular patristics (yonkers, n.y.: st vladimir’s seminary press, ), (§ ). this opens the question of why some icons are miracle-working or otherwise “special,” while others are not. this is beyond the scope of this paper, but for a useful introduction to miracle-working icons, specifically in the page of the idea of absence in the icon is useful in distinguishing the icon from the idol, but the existence and corresponding fame of miracle-working icons open a larger discussion about the possibility of idolatry within the context of iconography and icon veneration. in the next section, this potential for the reversal of icons into idols will be examined more closely. reversal: the non-visual vs. the idol in their cubism tetrad, the mcluhans note that the cubist painting reverses into the iconic image and the non-visual, which are the consequences of cubism taken to the extreme. i have already described the problem with the mcluhans identifying the iconic image as being a reversal and simultaneously as being a retrieval. for this section, i will therefore focus on the other suggestion, which is that cubism at its extreme reverses into the non-visual. expanding on this idea, they note that “with no ‘object’ presented, nothing to look at, the painting becomes a mask for the user to wear, to see by.” although this would appear to mean that the cubist painting takes the observer completely out of visual space and fully into acoustic space, the idea that the painting would become a ‘mask’ through which someone looks, rather than being an object that one looks at, parallels the reversal of acoustic space. for this, the mcluhans propose that acoustic space taken to the extreme “exchanges outer for inner sensibility,” which is reminiscent of kandinsky’s attempts to isolate the invisible world of emotional affect in a painting by moving away from representational forms. russian orthodox tradition, see chapter (“icons”) of vera shevzov, russian orthodoxy on the eve of revolution (oxford, oxford ; new york, oxford [england] ; toronto: oxford university press, ), – . mcluhan and mcluhan, laws of media, . ibid., . page of by contrast, the very nature of the icon centers around the integration of the visible and the invisible, the tangible and the intangible, the immanent and the transcendent—it is never wholly immanent (an idol), nor wholly transcendent without a visible component (iconoclasm). theoretically, both of these alternatives could be seen as the icon’s reversals, although they are perhaps more accurately called imbalances between the immanent and the transcendent, or between creation and the divine. however, it could be argued that iconoclasm effects an extension of idolatry, in that it is a reaction to an icon that has been, or is perceived to have been, reduced to an idol. marion, as previously discussed in part i, describes the idol as a reflection or fulfillment of the observer’s own desire, while the icon for its part returns a distinct gaze, causing the observer to be observed by another subject. this crossing of the gaze is the conventional expectation of veneration—an encounter with the divine by means of the image, but not in it. historically, iconodules such as st. john of damascus were focused on this disambiguation— through both the careful definition of the image and the extensive cataloguing of reasons for, and forms of, veneration. in the case where the material icon itself is treated as a divine object, this would be one obvious form of idolatry, and it is this potential—for what i will call here “golden calf” idolatry—that the iconoclasts most feared. in the more secular era in which we now live, influenced as it is by modern art and its associated gallery environment, marion’s concept of the idol—which i will name “reflection of self”—may be a more prevalent form of reversal. whereas in “golden calf” idolatry, the object is mistakenly identified as the divine, in “reflection of self,” the observer locks out the divine here, “secular” is being used to describe a society where belief in god and practice of religion is in decline. this is associated with charles taylor’s “secularity ” definition. (taylor, a secular age, .) page of gaze, thus becoming the only subject. this in turn reduces the divinized person depicted in the icon into an object. the comparatively sterile gallery, and the increasing presence of icons in such environments, undoubtedly facilitates this type of reversal. vladimir soloukhin tells the story of negotiating for an icon with a russian woman, attempting to convince her that far from being disrespected, the icon would be admired. she replied, “prayers are what they’re for . . . is an icon some sort of naked girl, that you want to admire it?” a subtler form of idolatry is also possible, which is the idolatry of icons themselves— iconolatry—honouring not the prototype of the icon, but the system in which the icon belongs. as arianne conty writes, the danger of a univocal appropriating gaze has thus not been spared the icon, which has, at different points in time and for different people, effectively become an artifact, an idol to reinforce the historic incompatibility of the christian east from the christian west. there is, in this sense, a hidden iconoclasm in the very rigidity of the iconic transmission. the systematic dismissal of all western art by the orthodox tradition is itself an example of the invisible mirror of idolatry that iconophiles sought to combat. this wholesale rejection of western sacred art, often without addressing the reality that such art is extraordinarily diverse, is evident in many orthodox writers, including ouspensky and larchet. in his review of larchet’s l’iconographe et l’artiste, church historian françois boespflug criticizes the quasi-manichaean opposition that larchet consistently sets up, wherein vladimir soloukhin, searching for icons in russia (london: harvill press, ), . conty, “bending heaven down to earth,” n . in this note, conty also refers to french historian alain besançon, who describes the theology of iconography as a balancing act between iconolatry and iconoclasm: “the danger comes from the fact that, through the exaltation of a particular theology, one allows the honor due the icon to reflect not onto the prototype but onto the system, which is, in fact, the only thing represented. the face becomes a pretext to rejoice in being a disciple of saint gregory palamas rather than augustine, to be orthodox rather than catholic or protestant . . . that iconolatry, like all idolatry, is worship of oneself and, rather than glorifying in christ, glories in its own idea of orthodoxy.” [alain besançon, the forbidden image: an intellectual history of iconoclasm (chicago: university of chicago press, ), .] ouspensky and lossky, the meaning of icons, . he writes, “the very principles of western religious art . . . are alien to orthodoxy.” page of the pure orthodox tradition is seen as faithful to the church, while the entire post-romanesque western tradition is seen as having betrayed church doctrine. other orthodox theologians, such as evdokimov and florensky, are slightly more nuanced, since they recognize the diversity of western sacred art; still, evdokimov claims that the well was already poisoned with the council of frankfurt (ad ) and the synod of paris ( ), in their focus on the didactic aspect of sacred art. florensky points to the heterogeneity of the western tradition as the issue: its diversity is taken to represent a fragmentation of meaning, such that any light found within is external to it. in the forbidden image, alain besançon explains how easily this reversal can and does occur, and expresses doubt as to whether there even exists a zone of right worship between the extremes of iconolatry and iconoclasm; he suggests that perhaps that zone is where iconolatry and iconoclasm are instead juxtaposed. he also argues that sacred art proper, such as iconography, forms a desert around itself through its inability and unwillingness to depict most of the profane world; this in turn leads to an iconoclastic tendency to reject almost every man- made image for lacking (a narrowly defined) theological integrity. besançon calls this the “hubris of the icon” or “hubris of byzantinism,” driven primarily by modern orthodox literature on the topic of iconography. although a full analysis of the appropriation of icons by political or national groups is beyond the scope of this thesis, the key point here is that idolatry—or iconolatry—can occur either by missing the link between an icon and its prototype, i.e., creating françois bœspflug, “review of l’iconographe et l’artiste,” archives de sciences sociales des religions , no. ( ): . evdokimov, art of the icon, . florensky, iconostasis, – . besançon, the forbidden image, . ibid., – . page of an idol of the image, or (less obviously) by creating an idol of the context in which the icon resides. in either case, the result is a rupture with the divine through an excessive focus on the worldly. up to this point, we have discussed cubist paintings and icons as separate media, with a work of art belonging to one or the other (or neither). in the next section, i will consider the effects of their hybrids: cubist icons or, more broadly, cubist religious art. by examining hybrid cases such as these, we can gain further insight into the strengths and limitations of our analysis of these forms of art, which have been considered as separate entities until now. section : cubist icons and religious art the similarities and differences between cubism and iconography have been well characterized in the previous sections, as part of the exercise of developing a tetrad to summarize the effects—or messages—of icons as a medium, according to mcluhan’s definition. however, our discussion so far presupposes that we are dealing with cubism and icons as completely separate media. as previously mentioned, there are theologians, such as bulgakov, who would argue this to be true; for him, picasso’s work is as demonically inspired as icons are divinely so. others, such as ouspensky, acknowledge that certain icons have been influenced by western trends—though this is seen as detrimental to the tradition. in light of this, let us examine the special case of cubist icons (or other religious art), to discover what occurs at the intersection between these two media. ouspensky and lossky, the meaning of icons, - n . page of cubist icons: blurring the boundaries between icons and modern art several artists have attempted to mediate between cubism and iconography, producing either cubist icons (in the byzantine tradition) or cubist religious art (in the roman catholic tradition). most notable among cubist byzantine iconographers is ukrainian-canadian iconographer myron levytsky ( - ), whose work graces ten churches, primarily in canada and in australia, including holy eucharist ukrainian catholic parish in toronto. his painting is heavily influenced by the avant-garde modern art movement generally, and especially by cubism. in the preface to art historian daria darewych’s book on levytsky, fellow artist and iconographer sviatoslav hordynsky writes that levytsky “belongs to those monumentalists who have managed to remove from churches the syrupy-sweet type of decoration and to replace it with geometrically simplified, two dimensional design without linear perspective, rich in forms and colours, that do not become a decorative addition to the churches, but are an integral part of the architectural whole.” this statement would support the claim made earlier in this paper, that iconography and cubism share the same obsolescence of (linear) perspective with its fixed point of view. however, hordynsky is praising the change from a gallery-like, decorative understanding of the icon toward a holistic integration of the icon into the church architecture, which is certainly a move away from the conventional cubist environment. this ultimately begins to address the question, “what if a cubist painting were moved from a gallery to a daria darewych, Мирон Левицький / myron levytsky (toronto: ukrainian artists’ association, ), . ibid., . page of church, where all senses are activated by the surroundings?” it would perhaps not be inappropriate to imagine cubism deploying its iconographic potential. levytsky’s intention, however, may not be entirely aligned with the broader eastern christian tradition. based on her interview of levytsky, darewych writes, “as the examples chosen for [his ] exhibition demonstrate, levytsky's religious paintings are modern ukrainian icons in which he has escaped the constraints of byzantine art adhered to by less imaginative artists, in order to create a new religious image, rooted in the past but contemporary in form and execution.” she further adds, “by doing so he was the first ukrainian artist to attempt to free church painting in canada and australia from the confines of the ukrainian- byzantine traditions in sacred art.” to see iconography as requiring liberation from the outdated constraints enforced by the less imaginative itself reflects a deficiency: namely, a lack of appreciation for how traditional byzantine symbolism in icons developed with the specific goal of making visible the invisible. regardless, the strategy commended by darewych might also be a way to avoid the pitfall of iconolatry mentioned in the previous section, by using modern techniques to portray the invisible, in conjunction with the byzantine determination to integrate iconography into a greater and cohesive whole inclusive of both architecture and liturgy. still, two of the major distinctions between cubism and iconography, as we have seen, are the subject matter and the role of the observer. if the observer becomes part of the scene, and crosses gazes with the divinized one depicted, then the medium in question is acting as an icon ibid., . ibid., . page of should. this dynamic can perhaps be illustrated with another cubist religious work: crucifix, painted by american herman trunk jr. ( - ) around . while similar in some ways to the icons of levytsky, this crucifix differs in several ways, distinguishing it from the iconographic. first, the christ on trunk’s crucifix does not have a face, nor are there any bystanders; it is therefore impossible for any gaze to be returned to the observer, at least in the way expected in the byzantine tradition. second, the crucifix is pieced together such that multiple sides of the crucifix and christ are visible at once, as though it were assembled based on the observer moving around a stationary object—a cubist characteristic not shared by traditional icons. nevertheless, trunk’s crucifix does convey the desire of the artist to bring forth the invisible, as both modern art and iconography also typically intend. as fowler writes, the aim of cubism (and of this painting by association) is to reveal something more profound than just the material representation of an object and, echoing picasso’s contemporary guillaume apollinaire, it is to use insight rather than sight to guide the creation of the painting’s structure. notwithstanding bulgakov’s previously-discussed claim in “the corpse of beauty” that picasso’s work evokes the demonic, in this case trunk’s subject matter is christ and the crucifixion, without any of the grotesque distortions of picasso’s renderings of the motif (such as cynthia fowler, “herman trunk’s cubist crucifix: a case study,” religion and the arts , no. (january , ): – . an image of this painting appears on the cover of this journal issue; the cover can also be seen online at “volume - : religion and the arts,” boston college, last modified november , , accessed july , , https://www.bc.edu/publications/relarts/issues/former/vol - .html. fowler, “herman trunk’s cubist crucifix,” . apollinaire’s original text states, “[le cubism est] l’art de peindre des ensembles nouveaux avec des éléments empruntés, non à la réalité de vision, mais à la réalité de connaissance.” [guillaume apollinaire, les peintres cubistes (méditations esthétiques) (paris: e. figuière, ), .] page of the crucifixion of , reiterated in , or his corrida drawings of ). although bulgakov associated picasso’s cubism with the demonic, therefore, and even though trunk’s crucifix lacks the direct gaze of an icon, the painting may still reveal something of christ’s presence, and cannot unequivocally be considered as opposed to the christian faith. levytsky’s icons, such as those in toronto’s holy eucharist, are arguably closer to the traditional iconographic style, despite their cubist influence. the icons at that church retain the integrated views of the face, with none viewed in profile. the cubist influence here might more accurately be called a geometric approach to iconography, rather than a fully authentic expression of the style, in which elements are rearranged in both space and time. however, like that of trunk, levytsky’s crucifixion ( ) does not show the face of christ at all, thus raising similar questions. is this a medium in which there is the crossing of the gaze, between the observer and the divine (or divinized)? without a source for the gaze, it would seem implausible that this could be considered an icon, though it would perhaps fall into the category of ‘religious art’—which includes icons, but also other art with religious themes. this leads to an even larger question: “is there a place for religious art beyond the iconographic?” the corollary would be: “can ‘western art,’ as defined by eastern christians like ouspensky, be considered as part of a broader category of ‘religious art,’ with a rightful place in tradition, or is it extraneous to dillenberger, the religious art of pablo picasso, , , . the crucifixion is a repeating theme in picasso’s work, and it is interesting to note the evolution of his crucifixion scenes from the more traditional, in , to somewhat distorted (sketch, - ), to these highly visually- and arguably theologically-distorted cubist versions. see, for example, the icon behind the altar in the sanctuary (“dscn [ ],” holy eucharist ukrainian catholic church, last modified april , , accessed july , , http://www.hagiaeucharistia.com/special- events/dscn /.). additional images of his cubist icons are available in the online encyclopedia of ukraine [daria zelska-darewych, “levytsky, myron,” encyclopedia of ukraine, last modified , accessed march , , http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages% cl% ce% clevytskymyron.htm.]. image available online at zelska-darewych, “levytsky, myron.” page of tradition altogether? what is ‘religious art?’” answering this question is beyond the scope of this work, as it would encompass a full review of western and eastern traditions (both religious and artistic), but it would be the next logical extension of our reflections. conclusion the tetrad for iconography, which builds upon the work of marshall and eric mcluhan, has so far been a useful tool for adding to the conversation about the thesis question, namely, determining what makes an icon an icon. the discussion certainly remains open, especially given the necessarily limited scope of the response to the question here. based on the development and analysis of the tetrad i constructed for icons, i identify several key points about icons in this thesis. one is that the senses, and consequently simultaneity, all participate in the experience of the icon, and this makes icons an acoustic-space medium using mcluhan’s definition. here, the senses include both physical senses (touch, smell, sight) and the noetic sense. icons belong in a liturgical context which is similarly acoustic (i.e., simultaneous and multisensual), and the dynamic relationship between icons as a medium and the divine liturgy as a medium would be a rich one to explore in further work on this topic. another main point is the subject-subject relationship expressed in the crossing of the gaze. this retrieves the in-person relationship which is otherwise hidden when the transcendent is invisible to us in the immanent world. the relationship between the observer and the one represented is critical; an icon is that which invites openness to a divine or divinized other, resulting in the crossing of the gaze elaborated by jean-luc marion. furthermore, distinguishing the icon from the idol requires finesse, as an icon can be idolized if that openness to the gaze is lost and the icon is rather used to reflect the observer’s desires back onto him- or herself. by page of delving into the accompanying causes and effects, our tetrad has proved useful in furthering discussion about the nature of the icon, especially in contrast to that of the idol. point of view is also especially important in iconography, as it contributes not only to the subject-subject relationship just mentioned, but also to expressing certain transcendent or invisible realities. further, it can remove domination from an act of viewing that might otherwise convert the one viewed from subject to object. the use of various forms of perspective contributes both to guiding the type of relationship expected when praying with an icon, and to the sense of movement inherent to the acoustic space to which the icon belongs. finally, structuring these ideas in the form of a tetrad makes manifest in a way that is otherwise not obvious a series of interrelationships between these effects, and this structure can itself be used in an effort to answer the question “what is an icon?” it does not negate answers that have been offered in the past, such as through the iconoclastic controversy and in recent theological works on iconography, but it is a means through which the description of various aspects of icons can be brought into relationship with one another. as stated in our introduction, the present work has been necessarily limited in scope, both to restrict it to a length feasible for an ma thesis, and also to prove the utility of mcluhan’s laws of media—with their associated tetrads—on a relatively small scale. if further work in this vein were to be conducted, several possible avenues exist, many of which have already been touched on, including: • can western religious art after the romanesque period be considered iconography, or is it true that certain styles of art, independent of their subject matter, are incapable of page of transmitting the invisible truths along with the visible? if some forms of art are determined to be unsuitable for iconography, where is the boundary or horizon? • it has been argued that one form of idolatry—iconolatry—occurs when icons are used as symbols representing political or other worldly social structures. in this sense, icon veneration, taken to its immanent extreme, becomes idolatry. further work can explore the factors and causes in this reversal: how prominent was this as a factor during the iconoclastic controversy in the th- th centuries? during the reformation? is this a factor in the argument that western religious art is not iconography (as per the previous point)? • are there characteristics of the christian tradition that necessarily require icons in order to achieve its fullest potential? is aniconic worship (worship without images) simply another form of christian lower-case-t tradition, equal among others, or is it missing a key element? is text, such as the bible, a type of icon, and/or what characteristics does it share with icons? these are all more complex questions, though they all feed back into the central question driving this thesis. all of these questions would benefit from consideration with respect to a figure-ground relationship, so as to assist in establishing both the characteristics and the effects of icons as a medium—including its very definition. mcluhan’s technique of looking at a medium in relationship with other media has proven highly useful, these relationships being either synchronic (i.e., involving relation to other media that exist at the same time, such as speech or writing), or diachronic (i.e., involving relation to media from different time periods). considering the effects of transitions between a medium and the other media with which it is interconnected can provide considerable clarity on the characteristics of a medium. the goal of this work has been to take iconography as a starting point for further page of investigation into christian media, inspired by the scriptural claim that christ “is the image (εἰκών) of the invisible god,” (col : )—the original and everlasting icon. page of bibliography alexander, paul j. “the iconoclastic council of st. sophia ( ) and its definition (horos).” dumbarton oaks papers ( ): – . antonova, clemena. “florensky’s ‘reverse time’ and bakhtin’s ‘chronotope’: a russian contribution to the theory of the visual arts.” slovo (maney publishing) , no. 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( ): – . taylor, charles. a secular age. cambridge, mass.: belknap press of harvard university press, . theodore the studite, st. on the holy icons. translated by catharine p. roth. crestwood, ny: st. vladimir’s seminary press, . tradigo, alfredo. icons and saints of the eastern orthodox church. guide to imagery. los angeles: j. paul getty museum, . vrame, anton c. the educating icon: teaching wisdom and holiness in the orthodox way. brookline, mass.: holy cross orthodox press, . zelska-darewych, daria. “levytsky, myron.” encyclopedia of ukraine. last modified . accessed march , . http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages% cl% ce% clev ytskymyron.htm. “cubism.” the guggenheim museums and foundation. accessed july , . https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/movement/cubism. “cubism – art term.” tate. accessed july , . https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art- terms/c/cubism. “dscn [ ].” holy eucharist ukrainian catholic church. last modified april , . accessed july , . http://www.hagiaeucharistia.com/special-events/dscn /. “medium | definition of medium in english by oxford dictionaries.” oxford dictionaries | english. accessed november , . https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/medium. “volume - : religion and the arts.” boston college. last modified november , . accessed july , . https://www.bc.edu/publications/relarts/issues/former/vol - .html. 	summary 	introduction 	structure and methodology 	limitations and assumptions 	literature review 	perspectives on the nature of the icon 	the phenomenology of the iconographic experience 	marshall mcluhan, religion, and liturgy 	the relationship between iconography and modern art 	part i: the question of icons as media 	section : orthodox theology and the theological role of icons 	the iconoclastic controversy: the development of historical arguments for icons 	st. john of damascus and the first period of the iconoclastic controversy 	the seventh ecumenical council: nicaea ii ( ) 	st. theodore the studite and the second period of the iconoclastic controversy 	patriarch nikephoros of constantinople: an unlikely ally of st. theodore the studite 	the integration of icons in the byzantine tradition 	theology of the byzantine iconographic style 	section : phenomenology and the depiction of the invisible 	phenomenology and the question of a “theological turn” 	jean-luc marion and the “crossing of the gaze” 	merleau-ponty: the idea and the icon 	michel henry: seeing the invisible through the eyes of wassily kandinsky 	section : art theory and the question of perspective 	perspective as worldview 	cubism: a spiritual (re-)awakening from the renaissance’s ‘mathematical space?’ 	section : marshall mcluhan: “the medium is the message” 	the medium is the message 	figure and ground: the extension and interplay of medium and message 	visual and acoustic space: the icon as a medium of acoustic space 	section : introduction to the laws of media and the tetrad 	the tetrad: a graphical display of the interrelated laws of media 	the tetrad as a tool for analyzing iconography 	part ii: development of the tetrad for iconography 	section : iconography and cubism as kin 	simultaneity and the multisensuous in cubism and iconography 	spatial and temporal simultaneity 	the multisensuous experience in iconography 	lex videndi: the relationship between education and iconography 	movement in the image: the obsolescence of photographic realism 	section : the distinction between icons and cubist paintings 	making a scene: co-creator or co-participant? 	the crossing of the gaze revisited: sources of the gaze 	reversal: the non-visual vs. the idol 	section : cubist icons and religious art 	cubist icons: blurring the boundaries between icons and modern art 	conclusion 	bibliography journal of aesthetics & culture: vol , no log in  |  register cart 	 home 	 all journals 	 journal of aesthetics & culture 	 list of issues 	 volume , issue journal of aesthetics & culture an open access journal 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cited articles 	 multimedia information for 	authors 	editors 	librarians 	societies open access 	overview 	open journals 	open select 	cogent oa 	dove medical press 	f research help and info 	help & contact 	newsroom 	commercial services 	advertising information 	all journals 	books keep up to date register to receive personalised research and resources by email sign me up taylor and francis group facebook page taylor and francis group twitter page taylor and francis group linkedin page taylor and francis group youtube page taylor and francis group weibo page copyright © informa uk limited privacy policy cookies terms & conditions accessibility registered in england & wales no. howick place | london | sw p wg accept we use cookies to improve your website experience. to learn about our use of cookies and how you can manage your cookie settings, please see our cookie policy. by closing this message, you are consenting to our use of cookies. do art specialists form unbiased pre-sale estimates? an application for picasso paintings corinna czujack and maria fraga o. martins*z ecares-ulb, av. f. roosevelt , cp , b- bruxelles, belgium and zisegi-unl, campus de campolide, - , lisboa, portugal this work investigates whether art specialists provide good predictors of realized prices for picasso paintings. a sample selection model is proposed to represent the decision of the seller and the price equation. the model is applied to data on picasso paintings for the period – . it is found that the two auction houses, sotheby’s and christie’s, have given good predictions for the works that have been sold. however, for the unsold works, it would have been possible to give estimates better than those given by the salerooms. as a consequence they could perhaps have sold more paintings than they actually did. i. introduction in the period to about picasso paintings have been offered to the market by sotheby’s and christie’s, of which were sold. the unbiasedness of pre-sale estimates is tested for. the study is interested in whether art specialists provide good predictors of realized prices and whether there are differences between both houses. it is argued that pre-sale estimates should be unbiased because, to attract a seller, the auction house cannot set the pre-sale estimate too low. the seller has little influence on the pre-sale estimate, but he sets the reserva- tion price under which he is not willing to sell. the auction house can choose to set the pre-sale estimate range in a way that the client offers the work for sale there. a potential buyer, on the other hand, knowing this relationship, will not attend an auction when the pre-sale estimate is too high. as % of the works remained unsold – that is, were over-estimated – prices are predicted based on the information available to see whether we could have done better. the outline of the paper is as follows. section ii describes the basic econometric model. section iii reports the main empirical results and tests for unbiasedness. section iv concludes. ii. econometric model the study tests whether pre-sale estimates are unbiased predictions of realized prices as follows. let xi be the pre-sale estimate of the price yi of a lot i. unbiasedness requires the best estimate to be equal to xi ¼ e( yi|�), where � is the information set available to the expert. the hammer price, yi, will be given by, yi ¼ xi þ ui ð Þ where ui is a random disturbance with zero mean and e(ui|�) should be equal to zero, implying that the estimate xi takes into account all the information contained in �. to test whether xi is an unbiased estimator of yi, one could run regression by ordinary least squares: yi ¼ � þ x i� þ ui ð Þ and test the hypothesis of � ¼ and � ¼ . if this hypothesis is not rejected then xi is an unbiased estimator of yi. however, in the framework, the dependent variable yi is truncated, i.e. the price exists only for the sold works, even if there is full information on x, the pre-sale estimate. the truncation of the dependent variable is based not on the applied economics letters issn – print/issn – online # taylor & francis ltd http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals doi: . / applied economics letters, , , – * corresponding author. e-mail: mrfom@isegi.unl.pt value of the dependent variable, i.e. the hammer price, but rather on the value of another variable that is correlated with it; in this case this is the reservation price. if the hammer price exceeds the reservation price, the work is sold. otherwise the work is unsold. formally, the model can be written as a sample selection model, as follows: zi ¼ ðw i � þ "i > Þ, decision process ð Þ y � izi ¼ yi ¼ ðx i � þ uiÞzi, price equation: ð Þ equation formulates the decision of the seller to sell or not to sell. the relationship between the price and the pre-sale estimate described in equation is called, for simplicity, the price equation. yi is the value of lot i (the hammer price if the work is sold and zero otherwise), y � i the price paid for lot i, zi is a dummy variable that is equal to one if it is sold and zero otherwise, n is the number of paintings sold and n represents the total number of works offered to the market. w contains the variables influencing the selling decision, i.e. the variables that influence the hammer price and the variables which determine the reser- vation price; the function (.) is the usual indicator func- tion. the estimation of the price equation ( ) for only those works which are sold could result in biased estimates since, in general, eðy � i jzi ¼ , wiÞ ¼ x i�. the standard practice is to correct this sample selection bias. if it is assumed that (ui, "i) in equations and are bivariate normally distributed, independently of (wi, xi) with zero mean and eðu i Þ ¼ �, eð" i Þ ¼ , cov(ui, "i) ¼ ��, the parameters can be estimated by maximum likelihood or by the two-step heckman ( , ) estimator. the latter is based on the fact that the price equation can be rewritten as: eðy � i jzi ¼ , wiÞ ¼ x i� þ ���ðw i �Þ ð Þ where � is the inverse mills ratio defined as �(.) ¼ ’(.)/�(.), with ’ and � being the standard normal density and distribution functions. heckman’s method works as follows: in the first step, an ordinary probit model is used to obtain consistent esti- mates �̂� of the parameters of the decision equation. in the second step, the selectivity regressor � is evaluated at �̂� and regression is estimated by ols for the observations with yi > . this regression provides a test for sample selectiv- ity, as well as an estimation technique. the coefficient on the selectivity regressor is ��. since � ¼ , the ordinary t statistic for this coefficient to be zero can be used to test the hypothesis that � ¼ . if this coefficient is not significantly different from zero, it may be decided that selectivity is not a problem for this data set and proceed to use least squares as usual. these estimators are consistent, but inefficient. however, they provide good starting values for maximum likelihood (ml) estimation. under the assumptions men- tioned above, ml estimators are efficient and can be obtained by maximizing l: l ¼ y z¼ �½�w i �� y z¼ �u � ðyi � x i � �u � �� � � � w i � þ � yi � x i � �u � �� � ð � � Þ � � � ð Þ iii. empirical results the data the data set used consists of all paintings sold by sotheyby’s and christie’s between and . for each painting information has been collected on the work itself, the sale and on the agents who traded it. sources for the construction of the database are mayer’s ( to ) compendia ‘annuaire de ventes’ and the pre-sale catalogues published by the auction houses. the following information is included: the title of the painting, place and date of sale, dimensions, date of creation (and therefore, working periods: cubism, surrealism, etc.), technique and medium used, price and pre-sale estimate and information about exhibitions at which the work was shown. the data- base further contains the zervos catalogue raisonné number, information on the signature and on whether it has been illustrated in the catalogue. during the observed period, sotheby’s sold twice as many picasso paintings as christie’s but also had twice as many of the artist’s works that went unsold. the percentage of unsold works is roughly % for both houses (table ). table compares the price p with the pre-sale estimated range ½ p̂pmin, p̂pmax� for each work offered by sotheby’s and christie’s. it is found that both houses overesti- mated nearly % of all paintings, % of works were sold at a price within the estimate range and % were in most applications (labour market) this model is used with the intention to test for sample selectivity bias, (in our case, whether it matters to include the unsold works). it is considered rather as the estimation procedure to use when having the intention to include the decision process (sold only when hammer price is higher than reservation price). table . number and shares of sold and unsold works number percentage sold works unsold works total sold works unsold works total christie’s . . sotheby’s . . total . . c. czujack and m. f. o. martins underestimated. in particular for sotheby’s an increase is found of strong overestimation over the years. because of the high number of unsold works, it is reasonable to test whether art specialists give unbiased estimators. estimation results as pointed out before, is the price yi is assumed to be determined only the pre-sale estimate, xi. this formulation is justified by arguing that the pre-sale estimate is influ- enced by the same variables that influence the hammer price, because the experts have the same information available as the market has. pre-sale estimate is taken as the midpoint of the range of the pre-sale estimate. the variables w, the regressors for the decision equation, thus include the pre-sale estimate, dimensions, dummies for working periods of the artist, the number of times the painting has been exhibited, years of sale, techniques and media used and whether a work has been published on zervos’ catalogue or not. the variable z is equal to if the paining has been sold, and otherwise. for the specific application, one distinguishes between the auction houses sotheby’s and christie’s because it is suspected they may behave differently. thus equation is written as yi ¼ � þ � s�si þ x i � þ x i � s�si þ ui ð Þ where �si ¼ if lot i was sold at sotheby’s and �si ¼ if sold at christie’s. table shows estimation results for the proposed model (sample selection model). it is estimated by heckman’s two step method and by maximum likelihood. for comparison, the case in which there is no correlation (� ¼ ) is also considered. this yields ols estimates for the price equation and the probit maximum likelihood estimates for the decision equation. it is found that the coefficients and standard errors do not differ much across the different approaches. results obtained from the heckman two-step estimator show a � that is not significantly different from zero, suggesting that no selection bias from including only the works sold is present. this is equivalent to not being able to reject the hypothesis that � ¼ (no correlation). since the heckman estimator is not efficient the maximum likelihood results are also analysed. the hypothesis of � ¼ cannot be rejected at the % significance level, also suggesting that selectivity is not a problem. consequently, one should be able to continue applying ordinary least squares. testing for unbiasedness and prediction the purpose of this study is to test whether pre-sale estimates are unbiased predictors of realized prices. three different hypotheses are tested. first, the null hypothesis that both houses behave identically in predicting prices is tested. then the study tests whether each house releases unbiased predictions. finally, the joint hypothesis that sotheby’s and christie’s behave identically is tested and give unbiased pre-sale estimates. results are displayed in table . none of the hypotheses can be rejected. these results suggest that the auction houses have given good predictions for the works that have been sold. a work of art is bought in, if it has been overestimated, i.e. if no one has been willing to pay at least the reservation price. one wonders whether this overestimation of prices by sotheby’s or christie’s is due to the fact that the market is determined by forces that specialists have not been able a regression has been run regressing the pre-sale estimate on the same regressors which confirms this. this is, of course, a strong simplification. table . observed under- and overestimation percentage* number unsold sold unsold soldp < p̂pmin p̂pmin p p̂pmax p < p̂pmax sotheby’s – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . total . . . . christie’s – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . total . . . . *values sum up to horizontally. do art specialists form pre-sale estimates? to measure, or whether specialists did not predict correctly although the available information would have allowed them to do so. the data are used to test whether better estimates could have been given. art specialists, when determining pre-sale estimates, have only information on sales that have taken place in the past. for this reason ols (hedonic) regressions are run for each year for which one wants to predict by including only the previous years’ data. the predictions ^̂pp̂pp are then compared with the specialists’ predictions ½ p̂pmin, p̂pmax�. as a result, % of predictions lie below the specialists’ low estimates, % within the specialists’ estimate range and % above their maximum estimate. the large share of %, for which the predictions lie below the specialists’ forecasts, suggests that it would have been possible to give estimates closer to the true value, with the consequence that more paintings might have been sold. iv. conclusions the study has tested whether the art specialists at sotheby’s and christie’s have given good predictors of realized prices. specifically, hedonic regressions of the log of price were ran on the following variables: dimensions, techniques and media used, exhibitions, signature, zervos publication, working periods, a dummy for resales, provenance, place of sale, time dummies and the log (of the midpoint) of the pre-sale estimate. table . results for the parametric estimations of the sample selection model heckman two-step method ml method � ¼ coeff. s.e. coeff. s.e. coeff. s.e. decision equation periods childhood and youth � . . � . . � . . blue and rose . – . – . – cubism � . . � . . � . . camera and classicism � . . � . . � . . juggler of the form � . . � . . � . . guernica � . . � . . � . . politics � . . � . . � . . the old picasso � . . � . . � . . techniques oil . – . – . – collage � . . � . . � . . mixed media . . . . . . media canvas . – . – . – cardboard . . . . . . panel � . . � . � . � . . paper . . . . . . published by zervos . . . . . . exhibitions not exhibited . – . – . – exhibited to times � . . � . . � . . exhibited more than times � . . � . . � . . time dummies var.* var.* var.* constant � . . . . . . so’s dummy � s �si � . . � . . � . . pre-sale estimate � � . . � . . � . . pre-sale estimate* so’s dummy � s �si . . . . . . � � . . . price equation constant � � . . � . . � . . so’s dummy � s �si � . . . . � . . pre-sale estimate � . . . . . . pre-sale estimate* so’s dummy � s �si . . . . . . � � . . r . . . log l � . � . � . *because of the large number, coefficients are not given here. c. czujack and m. f. o. martins this was done by applying a sample selection model that allowed one to take into account the decision process of a seller to sell a work only if the hammer price exceeds the reservation price. since there was no selectivity bias from using only the works sold, one was able to continue apply- ing ordinary least squares. four hypotheses were tested giving the results that both houses behave identically and have accurately predicted prices for the works sold. then the % of unsold works, which were overestimated, were taken and prices predicted for them and compared these with the experts’ estimates. the results suggest that, with the information available, it would have been possible to give estimates better than those given by the salerooms. as a consequence they could perhaps have sold more works than they actually did. acknowledgements we are grateful to r. flôres and v. ginsburgh for useful comments. references heckman j. ( ) shadow prices, market wages and labour supply, econometrica, , – . heckman j. ( ) sample selection as a specification error, econometrica, , – . table . testing for unbiasedness; wald test 	 -critical resulthypothesis ols value both houses identical . . accepted � s ¼ , � s ¼ unbiasedness of christie’s . . accepted � ¼ , � ¼ unbiasedness of sotheby’s . . accepted � þ � s ¼ , � þ � s ¼ . . accepted both houses identical and unbiased . . accepted � ¼� s ¼ , � ¼ � s ¼ do art specialists form pre-sale estimates? 	first untitled a patient’s journey visual agnosia this patient was left with visual agnosia after developing herpes simplex encephalitis at a young age. she describes her strategies for coping with this visual disability anonymous patient , anna basu academic clinical lecturer northumberland, uk; sir james spence institute, royal victoria infirmary, newcastle upon tyne ne lp, uk this is one of a series of occasional articles by patients about their experiences that offer lessons to doctors. the bmj welcomes contributions to the series. please contact peter lapsley (plapsley@bmj.com) for guidance. when i was months old i developed herpes simplex encephalitis after coming into contact with a cold sore, which damaged the areas of the brain responsible for processing vision. i was left with visual agnosia and had severe difficulties in recognising people by their faces. i cannot remember the details of the earliest events surrounding my illness, but i have talked about them a lot with my family and this is my story. during the illness i lost my sight as well as my ability to sit and walk. it took me about six months to relearn to walk unaided. during this time my vision gradually improved, but i had to rely on my other senses to interact with the environment. i would sniff, touch, and taste things around me, including the floor, furniture, and people’s clothing, which some found unnerving. my speech development was good. i found changes in routine upsetting and puzzling. mum had the support of medical and educational professionals and on their advice i was taught at home by an educational service (portage) for preschool children with additional support needs and their families, and i had a support assistant at play school. around this time mum noticed i was making mistakes in recognising family members. once i was seen talking to my brother’s friend, mistaking him for my brother (who looks completely different). it wasn’t just a problem with recognising family members, or people in general—mum had painted a postman pat mural on my wall and despite being familiar with his character through books and dvds i just could not recognise him. however, it was when mum realised that i couldn’t even recognise her that things came to a head. this happened on a portage course for parents. as the parents entered the crèche, the children got up and went to their mums and dads. i got up too, studied the adults and then returned to my carer rather than going to my mum. although mum had been standing close to me, it wasn’t until she spoke that i got up and took her hand. mum talked about this to a teacher for the visually impaired at my nursery. he said he thought i might have a facial agnosia. this was discussed with the child neurologist at my next appointment, and subsequently with a neuropsychologist. my lack of recognition of family members caused all sorts of difficulties. mum will never forget the time i was on a child’s amusement ride in the supermarket while she was close by paying for her shopping. when the ride had finished she heard me calling for her and then saw me being lifted out by a woman. this stranger was reluctant to hand me back to my mum because she didn’t see the flash of recognition she was expecting from me. i also had problems with object recognition. no one could understand how i managed to find small objects dropped on the floor but wasn’t able to recognise pictures of everyday objects. when given a verbal clue i would always get the object right. i couldn’t visually distinguish between animals such as a cat and dog or a cow and sheep. this problem only improved after many visits to farms and zoos. when i first started school my eye contact was poor and despite constant encouragement from my family, teachers, and carers to lift my head i found it hard to look at people. my confidence was lowered further by the repercussions when i misread facial expressions. some aspects of my condition have improved but not the facial agnosia and i continue to find the recognition and identification of faces difficult. recognition is even harder when people are out of context or a particular feature such as hair colour has changed. school was on occasions frustrating, not least because everyone wore the same uniform. finding friends both in and out of the classroom could be difficult, so i had to rely on my other senses. things became easier when i moved into sixth form, as students could wear casual clothing. teachers found my disability difficult to understand. some believed it didn’t exist and others didn’t understand that the problem arose from my brain not my eyes. unbelievably, at a parents’ evening a correspondence to: a basu anna.basu@ncl.ac.uk for personal use only: see rights and reprints http://www.bmj.com/permissions subscribe: http://www.bmj.com/subscribe bmj ; :e doi: . /bmj.e (published november ) page of practice practice o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / b m j: first p u b lish e d a s . /b m j.e o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/permissions http://www.bmj.com/subscribe http://www.bmj.com/ teacher asked mum whether all her children were blind, to which (after taking a deep breath) she replied “on my last count, none of my children is blind.” getting teachers to complete the simplest of tasks, such as using a black pen on the whiteboard and enlarging worksheets, was a test all of its own and made life in the classroom problematic. despite these challenges i was successful at gcse level, with good grades. subsequently i studied english language, art, and psychology at a level. as part of my psychology course i studied face perception and its disorders and was asked to give a series of talks to the other psychology classes. for my art a level i brought together elements of cubism and still life and incorporated texture to give my work a more original and interesting direction, reflecting the importance of touch in helping me to understand my surroundings in my early life. over time i have built up my own strategies for recognising my family and friends and those i am in daily contact with like my work colleagues; for example, by remembering their style of walk, hairstyle, and hair colour. i have also become good at recognising voices and scents, including the perfume worn by particular people. recently i have become more sensitive to sounds such as those made by jewellery and keys. i am able to find mum in crowded places by the sound of her bangles and dad by the sound of his car keys. this has increased my confidence in public places. i remember when i was around seven years old being perturbed at meeting identical twins who were also identically dressed. although neither i nor anybody else could distinguish the twins by sight, for once my personal strategies for distinguishing between people by voice, scent, etc, failed me. i was left so scarred by this experience that months later i avoided a close family friend “because she might have a twin.” a few years ago i was approached by my neurologist, professor eyre. she asked if i would take part in a research study of face training, with the aim of relearning the mathematics of face recognition and using functional magnetic resonance imaging scans to look for any changes in the brain. when babies and children study faces intently their brains are learning to calculate the distance between eyes, nose, and mouth and the width and length of faces, which are the basics of expertise in recognising faces. the training programme required me to categorise faces based on differences in these distances. involvement in the study has improved my eye contact and confidence. my training scores have also improved but i still have trouble recognising faces. despite this i am becoming more confident in my day to day recognition of friends and family using all available means. competing interests: the authors declare: ab received funding from the special trustees, newcastle healthcare charity as well as funding for a wellcome trust vacation student and a newcastle university vacation student for the study of the effect of face training on face perception in prosopagnosia and in healthy controls; no financial relationships with any organisations that might have an interest in the submitted work in the previous three years, no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work. provenance and peer review: not commissioned; not externally peer reviewed. accepted: august cite this as: bmj ; :e © bmj publishing group ltd for personal use only: see rights and reprints http://www.bmj.com/permissions subscribe: http://www.bmj.com/subscribe bmj ; :e doi: . /bmj.e (published november ) page of practice o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / b m j: first p u b lish e d a s . /b m j.e o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.bmj.com/permissions http://www.bmj.com/subscribe http://www.bmj.com/ a doctor’s perspective visual agnosia is a specific failure of visual recognition of objects not explained by elementary visual deficits. the agnosia can be category specific—for example, prosopagnosia is a specific agnosia for faces. pure visual agnosia is a rare condition, particularly in young people, but visual agnosias can also occur as part of neurodegenerative conditions. this patient’s visual agnosia was secondary to early acquired herpes simplex encephalitis, which caused bilateral damage to the occipitotemporal regions. those brain areas specifically involved in processing faces were affected, and although the patient made a good recovery overall, face recognition remains problematic on a day to day basis. her story is remarkable on several levels. one of the most striking aspects is the “invisible” nature of the condition. it is not surprising that people may be confused by the fact that someone can see well enough to go horse riding but cannot distinguish between family members by their faces. what people don’t understand they often refuse to believe and this has clearly led to some awkward situations. this patient’s drive to study the condition in detail and to explain it to others is both understandable and commendable. her ability to perceive the world differently can also be viewed as a strength and has led to some original artwork. doctors can help those with visual agnosia by being alert to the possibility of disorders of higher visual function, facilitating appropriate neuropsychological assessments, and providing explanations and accessible strategies for families and schools. to achieve all this, however, requires awareness of such conditions. most remarkable of all are the sheer courage and determination shown by this patient and her family to help overcome her difficulties, enabling her to succeed both in and out of school and in holding down a job. i have learned much from sharing this part of her journey and am proud to know her. anna basu useful resources for patients and clinicians farah m. visual agnosia. nd ed. mit press, —a classic text on disorders of visual recognition national portage association (www.portage.org.uk/)—a home-visiting educational service for preschool children with additional support needs and their families national institute of neurological disorders and stroke (www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/prosopagnosia/prosopagnosia.htm)—patient information on prosopagnosia, or “face-blindness” faceblind.org (www.faceblind.org/)—information from researchers and opportunities for those affected to take part in research for personal use only: see rights and reprints http://www.bmj.com/permissions subscribe: http://www.bmj.com/subscribe bmj ; :e doi: . /bmj.e (published november ) page of practice o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .b m j.co m / b m j: first p u b lish e d a s . /b m j.e o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.portage.org.uk/ http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/prosopagnosia/prosopagnosia.htm http://www.faceblind.org/ http://www.bmj.com/permissions http://www.bmj.com/subscribe http://www.bmj.com/ the treachery of images this is the author's manuscript of the article published in final edited form as: hackler, p. c., & gunderman, r. b. ( ). the treachery of images. academic radiology, ( ), – . http://doi.org/ . /j.acra. . . the treachery of images patrick c. hackler, bs, richard b. gunderman, md, phd indiana university school of medicine, north barnhill drive, room , indianapolis, in key words: rene magritte; art; radiology; radiologists one of the most iconic paintings of the th century was created by the belgian surrealist painter rene magritte when he was aged years. titled the treachery of images ( ), it features a profile of a pipe, below which is written, “ceci n'est pas une pipe,” french for “this is not a pipe.” magritte's work symbolizes a number of important truths that professionals who deal regularly with images, and especially radiologists, would do well to ponder. magritte was born in and began drawing lessons when he was aged years. his mother had a history of mental illness that prompted magritte's father to keep her locked in her bedroom, and she ultimately committed suicide by drowning herself in the local river. magritte studied art in brussels, served in the military, and produced his first surrealist painting in , a milestone that went largely unnoticed ( ). magritte worked off and on in advertising, and at one point during world war ii, supported himself by forging the works of other artists, such as picasso. after the war, he also spent some time producing counterfeit bank notes to support himself. his surrealist paintings began to attain widespread recognition during the s, the same decade in which he developed pancreatic cancer. he died at the age of years and is buried in brussels ( ). magritte was frequently reproached for the treachery of images. viewers complained that the image plainly was a pipe–as obvious an image of a pipe as a person could possibly imagine. yet the http://doi.org/ . /j.acra. . . caption explicitly denies this. magritte's response was amusement. “the famous pipe–how people reproached me for it? and yet, could you stuff my pipe? no, it's just a representation, is it not? ( ) from magritte's point of view, the painting was just that–a painting -and to claim that he had created a pipe would have been a lie. by entitling the painting as he does, magritte reminds us that images–all images, whether abstract works of art, photographic portraits, or radiographs–merely represent and do not reproduce the reality they attempt to portray. in every case, what we have is not x–the thing depicted–but an image of x. likewise, when a radiologist looks at a computed tomography (ct) image of a heart or a magnetic resonance (mr) image of a knee, what meets the eye is a representation, and never the organ or tissue itself. this distinction is worth drawing for many reasons. for one, by including some features of reality, every image also necessarily excludes others. when we produce a chest radiograph, we choose to exclude most of the abdomen, and when we put the mr coil around the knee, we thereby choose to ignore the ankle. we cannot see everything, so we must choose to see only some things, and this means accepting the exclusion of others. this act of framing a painting, a photograph, or a radiologic image is not a mistake, but it introduces the possibility of error. one obvious example is the so-called “corner sign,” a finding that is detectable and perhaps only partially represented on the very edge of the image. but there is a deeper potential for error. looking at a radiologic image, we cannot exclude any anatomic abnormality except with respect to the anatomy the image in fact depicts. a similar point applies with regard to the temporal framing of images. most radiologic images are obtained at a particular instant in time. they show what is happening at that moment, but not necessarily what comes before or after. a transient joint subluxation may not be radiologically apparent if it happens to be reduced at the time the image is obtained. radiologists must often rely on imagination to see any particular “snapshot” as part of an unfolding pathologic process. this issue of seeing only what the image includes goes deeper still, for each type of radiologic study reveals only some features of the anatomy it depicts. plain radiography illuminates only differences in density and thickness; ultrasound illuminates only differences in acoustic impedance; and ct sees only differences in density. fundamentally, a ct scan is nothing more than a two-dimensional collection of tiny density samples. if the pathology in question happens to be amenable to illumination by the imaging technique in question, it will prove helpful in arriving at a diagnosis. if, however, it is invisible or opaque to that imaging technique, then it is likely to be missed. for example, differences in tissue density alone are insufficient to assess local differences in cerebral activity, and ct plays little role in functional brain imaging. so, too, ultrasound is of little use in evaluating air-filled structures. in some cases, images not only fail to illuminate but positively obscure what they represent. for example, if a radiograph is obtained from the wrong angle, an important finding such as a fracture may not be detectable. we have seen cases in which a nondisplaced toddler fracture of the tibia was unapparent, even in retrospect, on standard frontal and lateral views. with an oblique image, however, the fracture was obvious. another example of a finding obscured by imaging is the failure to detect renal stones on a ct scan of the abdomen performed with intravenous contrast. the very contrast that usually helps to make pathologic process such as infection and neoplasia more conspicuous may, when it is excreted into the urine, actually hide the finding. magritte delighted in depicting everyday realities obscured by other everyday realities, such as person's face hidden behind an apple in the son of man ( ). in some cases, images actually distort the reality they portray. magritte's work includes the empire of lights ( ), which depicts a house at dusk under a bright, partly cloudy sky. likewise, ct scanning can produce considerable beam hardening artifact around metallic structures, and mr imaging can be dramatically distorted in the vicinity of ferromagnetic objects. far from representing internal anatomy, in these cases, the imaging technique itself leads to misrepresentation. and finally, there are even situations in which imaging can destroy. in the pilgrim ( ), magritte portrays a man whose head and neck have been moved inches to his right, so that they now float over his right shoulder, leaving an empty gap between his bowler hat and his shirt collar. so, too, radiologic imaging can destroy. for example, patients undergoing mr examinations have lost their lives because of the displacement of ferromagnetic objects in or about them. magritte was fond of saying, “everything we see hides another thing. we always want to see what is hidden by what we see.” ( ) the very existence of radiology is a reflection of this impulse, the desire to see hidden things. the integument hides what lies beneath, and radiologic techniques enable us to peer beneath the surface, to see what lies within. it is no surprise that superman and other super heroes are portrayed as possessing the ability to see hidden things. but when we reveal what lies within, we often lose sight of what meets the eye. when the surgeon operates on the belly, the patient's face is typically draped. likewise, when the radiologist inspects the brain, the face of the patient is typically obscured. if a radiologist bumped into the patient whose head ct she had just been interpreting minutes previously, it is likely that there would be no flash of recognition. radiologic imaging is frequently analogous to turning the patient inside out, making what is inside accessible to the eye but rendering what is outside no longer visible. in this sense, magritte is exactly right: every act of representation reveals some things and hides others. even contemporaneous trends in art, such as cubism, which attempted to reveal objects from multiple points of view at once, could only address this challenge to a limited extent ( ). a practical example of the attempt to surmount the limitations of particular imaging techniques is fusion imaging, such as positron emission tomography (pet)/ct and pet/mr imaging. combining two different techniques, each of which is capable of revealing different biologic properties, provides a more comprehensive view of pathology–in this case, both its anatomic and functional dimensions–than either is capable of providing by itself. magritte's work also helps to illuminate the essentially interpretive nature of the radiologist's work. there is a large gap between the particular pattern of photons striking the retina at any particular moment and the meaning that the radiologist extracts from the image. to take an extreme case, an experienced radiologist may instantly recognize a potentially life-threatening diagnosis such as acute pulmonary thromboembolism, whereas a complete neophyte may perceive little more than visual chaos. the wisest radiologist is not the one who knows with % certainty the correct diagnosis in every case. such a radiologist would be a fool because some cases are inherently ambiguous, and the best the radiologist can do is to provide a balanced assessment of the range of possibilities. the radiologist's mission is not to pretend to know everything, but to make full use of what can be known and present an appropriately balanced and nuanced assessment of each case. magritte's paintings help us to appreciate the subtleties and ambiguities involved in interpreting images, by flouting many of our cherished visual conventions. as critics have put it, magritte is concerned with “the distance that can exist between what one thinks one knows and what one does know” ( ). by showing us that what we think we know is not always the case, he reveals that interpreting images is not so straightforward as we might otherwise think ( ). we operate in a milieu of uncertainty, where questioning assumptions can be one of the most fruitful exercises. references . sylvester d. magritte. rev. and enl ed. brussels: mercatorfonds, . . arnason hh. history of modern art. nd ed. new york: harry n abrams, inc, . . southgate tm. rene magritte: the telescope. in: southgate tm, ed. the art of jama iii: covers and essays from the journal of the american medical association. new york: oxford university press, ; – . . smoke and mirrors: the surreal life and work of rene magritte. the independent [internet]. june [cited may ]. available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/arts- entertainment/art/features/smoke-and-mirrors-thesurreal-life-and-work-of-ren-magritte- .html. accessed june , . journal of art historiography number december the pinch of expressionism in art history review of: kimberly a. smith, ed., the expressionist turn in art history, farnham, surrey, and burlington, vermont: ashgate, , pp., ill. b/w, £ . , isbn: - - - - andrei pop there is no more common, and probably no more useful, art historical superstition than the hunch that whatever disparate phenomena appear around the same time (be they artworks, philosophies, wars, or styles of dancing) have something in common. this is useful because, even if wrong, such connections often illuminate by force of contrast. more embarrassing is the success of such operations: no one will any longer accept an explanation in terms of zeitgeist, style, source, kunstwollen, episteme, turns of the dialectic, and other collective generalizations – at least, no one outside one’s own camp. more recent attempts, like michael baxandall’s ‘cognitive style’, wore their dustiness on their sleeve, convincing only where charming similarities could be found, and not through any grand explanation of the similarity. be that as it may, one term in the historicist vocabulary seems to have evaded our suspicion: the ‘turn’. the first, and most famous, a ‘linguistic turn’, gave the rather tendentious title to a mid-century anthology in the philosophy of language edited by richard rorty. an iconic turn was thereafter declared in art history (to roll back the linguistic one), and haptic, auditory, performative, and enactive turns have tumbled over one another, cheerfully proclaiming the primacy of some sole favoured approach, whether in a specialized field like cognitive science (the enactive turn) or all the humanities (the enactive turn again). the volume under review fortunately does not suffer from such partisan myopia, since neither editor kimberly smith nor any of the living contributors (many of whom provide not just interesting introductions but also translations of allegedly expressionist art historians) believe that we are or should be expressionist art historians. indeed, they seem to be agreed that the phenomenon of a critical (and more questionably, historical) expressionism lasted hardly more than two decades, and affected primarily germany, austria and switzerland. but like other contemporary users of ‘turn’ rhetoric, smith seems convinced that once we swallow the term, we can enjoy a relatively smooth empirical ride, for the world took an expressionist turn, apparently, and though we don’t know precisely why, or in which direction the influence (another nasty old historicist term) flowed, there is no doubt that art prose shared some of the emphatic, pathos-laden, germanic (at times to the point of bigotry) tone of expressionist painting, especially in the decade immediately before and after the great war. then one met opening sentences like those of wilhelm worringer’s altdeutsche buchillustration of : andrei pop the pinch of expressionism in art history the german is not born with a naïve sensuality of the eye, but must instead acquire it. he is too strongly interested in what is essential to record things with impartial sight. and if he is an artist, then he tends to express what things are, instead of representing them. such crude jingoism makes one wonder not just whether forgotten expressionist historians need rediscovering, but even whether famous ones like worringer shouldn’t be forgotten. but of course most of us reading such an author today are not joining a debate on methodology, but treating the author as a kind of exotic historical beast, perhaps one that will cast indirect light on ludwig kirchner or emil nolde. and at times reading on does pay: worringer’s second sentence already suggests an interesting contrast between the essential and the objective that, however misguided, might throw light on larger range of modern art and thinking than the expressionist label would suggest. the third sentence applies this broad claim to art and artists, and already our sought-after term, expression, makes its entrance. readers expecting to find a theoretical history of expressionism via its art- historical personnel will be disappointed. benedetto croce, whose aesthetic theory of expression underwrote much interesting argument about art from julius von schlosser to clement greenberg, makes at most intermittent appearances in the notes; the same goes for empathy theorists like theodor lipps and theodor vischer (though the sparse index, which omits reference to the endnotes, is no guide in tracking sources). but that is really not the point of the collection: unlike the influential getty volume of translations on empathy theory, and chris wood’s reader of the vienna school, smith’s book makes no claims to reclamation (or critique) of a founding moment of art history: rather, the book aims to estrange these venerable traditions, and its heart consists in texts by two obscure germans (fritz burger and ernst heidrich), juxtaposed with canonical (heinrich wölfflin, worringer) and nearly-canonical (max dvořák, carl einstein) figures. the ratio of unfamiliar to familiar is then not overwhelming, and that of translated material to critical essay is likewise less than generous: in the case of three authors, there is one critical essay and just one translation. we are given rather familiar texts by wölfflin at least. his late ( ) reply to critics of his kunsthistorische grundbegriffe, though absent from the old dover principles of art history, is going to be included in the new translation (ed. evonne levy and tristan weddigen, ), and besides is far less a ‘revision’ than the english word suggests: in german, ‘revision’ just means ‘look back’, and the author is neither bold in amending his formalism, nor does this fragment of the thirties have much to do with expressionism. the reader would have been better served by a translation of wilhelm worringer, ‘introduction to old german book illustration ( )’, translated by heather mathews, with kathleen chapman, in smith (ed.), the expressionist turn in art history, . these claims apply of course only to english-speakers: in vienna, dvořák is as famous as wölfflin, and worringer and einstein are suspect. the authors constantly advance such canonical considerations, but given that obscurity afflicts such remarkable historians as Émile mâle or arthur kingsley porter (whose names are known, but who are read only by specialists), overwrought worrying that, e.g., ‘a prominent german historian of the teens is now hardly read’ betrays a teutonic chauvinism in english-language art historiography. andrei pop the pinch of expressionism in art history his first submission to the philosophical magazine logos, the article ‘Über den begriff des malerischen’ [on the concept of the painterly] which diverges interestingly from the first chapter of the grundbegriffe, and possesses a freshness in the way it runs its concept roughshod over various media that is likely to have been infectious to artists (as wölfflin boasted of the book). besides the ‘revision’, there is wölfflin’s logos contribution, ‘italy and the german sense of form’, which despite being familiar in book form ( ; the english ed. is censoriously titled the sense of form in art: an introduction to the italian renaissance), serves the editor and translators well as a test case of failed aesthetic diplomacy, wölfflin’s delicate investigations of italian form north of the alps being offset by a fateful ‘two ways of seeing’ approach that has been kept alive above all by svetlana alpers’ art of describing. the essay on wölfflin, by michela pasini and francesca peri, is a careful, precise reconstruction of two senses of the word expression, labelled in dry analytic style as expression and expression , the former of which signifies intentional communication of a content (expressing a thought) and the latter, the elusive bringing to the surface of things hidden (expressing the ‘temper of an age’, p. ). the results of applying these rubrics to wölfflin’s writings make nice sense where sceptics like gombrich often saw just windy rhetoric; the authors don’t paper over wölfflin’s german nationalism, not at all an inevitability for a swiss national, but not all that uncommon either. the character of the other essays varies in scope, from hans aurenhammer’s and charles haxthausen’s assured, broadly historical placements of dvořák and einstein respectively, to the understandably more apologetic and expository introductions to burger and heidrich by elena filippi and eveliina juntunen. one can see why their authors were forgotten: burger compares the canonical cézanne with hodler before getting to their synthesis in franz marc, which will not change any reader’s mind today, but is obviously of historical interest for the marriage of german art history with then-contemporary art. heidrich’s germanic philippics against italian form and in favour of german colour, meanwhile, must have embarrassed the more nuanced and ecumenical wölfflinians. but heidrich can also surprise: in discussing rubens’ massacre of the innocents and other tragic pictures ( - ), he acknowledges the counter-reformation background of his themes and beliefs, but insists that ‘rubens’ elementary worldview…the full feeling for life which, perpetually welling up as a unity, cannot be destroyed’ is what makes these pictures powerful. corny but true! rubens is in this sense a precursor to goethe, who confessed to eckermann that he was incapable of composing tragedy. the translators, here and elsewhere, deserve credit for neither sweeping these writers’ poetic flights under the rug, nor collapsing into kitsch. returning from the translations to the scholarship, kathleen chapman’s accomplished essay actually manages to say something new about worringer, by - . typically, passini and peri are careful to distinguish this pan-germanism from worringer’s and that of julius langbehn. a shame that editorial staff didn’t amend sentences like ‘while it accentuated his diffidence for certain chauvinistic components of german culture, it strengthened his ties to the german community.’ a footnote to this unlovely sentence makes clear that ‘diffidence’ should rather be ‘unease’! wölfflin during the war is quoted as complaining: ‘this is the unity we heard so much about: everyone has lost his mind.’ ( ) andrei pop the pinch of expressionism in art history focusing on his altdeutsche buchillustration and showing how william morris-like ideas about handiwork and home industry (a great passion of adolf loos and alois riegl as well) combined with german exceptionalism to produce the fantastic thesis that ‘the german propensity for abstraction was expressed most clearly in illustration’ ( ). though the werkbund is cited as context, this is a rare case of the essays going beyond the writer in question to illuminate the world he inhabited: it is worth considering the degree to which such ideas infected the werkbund, or the first, expressionistic phase of the bauhaus. a middle term might be karl scheffler’s der geist der gotik (leipzig: insel, ), which in its shrill attack on greek order and boundless enthusiasm for germanic chaos folded up functional architecture into the latter. the introduction by kimberly smith is both well-read and, for an edited volume, unusually attentive and respectful to the actual arguments advanced by her authors (i cannot describe the irritation of being misunderstood by your own editor, and dismissed in a few banal sentences: a feeling her author/translators will not have here). i am however puzzled by her way of organizing this text: she first brings up the theme of expressionism in art and scholarship, then provides short subtitled sections dealing with each translated author, returns to argument with a section on ‘expressionist art and art history’ (showing how even the suspicious dvořák greeted ‘the spiritual’ dimension issuing in ‘german soulfulness’), before finally giving an overview of the essays and translations. this rather redundant arrangement indicates the tension between original scholarship on an era and anthology of that era, with which the book struggles. as it is, i am afraid it does too little of either to serve as a definitive study of or anthology of these figures—but its hybrid form will make it a welcome guide to those new to the area, including undergraduates in advanced courses on german expressionism. finally, since a review’s primary task is not to praise or blame but to indicate what is done and what needs doing, i want to draw attention to an aporia haunting more than one of the contemporary texts. it is freely admitted by aurenhammer and haxthausen that the authors they discuss were not particularly sympathetic to, nor particularly understood, the art we most literally call expressionist. and, as smith puts it in her introduction, when worringer wrote of expression, ‘he was thinking more of hans von marées, ferdinand hodler, or adolf von hildebrand than wassily kandinsky or franz marc’ ( ). she adds thoughtfully that it was cubism which set the tone, and not its german epigones. but if that is true, as it certainly is, then the very canon of expressionist art historians is exploded. if marées in fact was important, why not include julius meier-graefe (who crops up in the book, but not in the index), who not only wrote saliently on ‘expressionists’ from munch to beckmann, but who despite his dislike of the germanophile artists speculated that his german background and mediterranean orientation might have allowed marées to achieve a monumental style not available to his beloved impressionists? it is fatuous for reviewers to complain of omissions, since every reader will have other favourites: but the point is not the omission of a favourite of mine as much as the shape history is given by forgetting some persons and remembering others. here this means that the force of art historical tradition—a rigid identification of expressionism with die brücke and der blaue reiter—has prevailed despite the rhetoric of rethinking. be that as it may, provoking argument about the relation of andrei pop the pinch of expressionism in art history art to history is a worthy endeavour, so the editor and authors of the expressionist turn have already put us in their debt. andrei pop studied art history at stanford and harvard universities and taught at the universities of vienna and basel before joining the committee on social thought at the university of chicago. he has published antiquity, theatre, and the painting of henry fuseli ( ), edited ugliness: the non-beautiful in art and theory ( ), and translated karl rosenkranz’s aesthetics of ugliness ( ), the latter two projects in collaboration with mechtild widrich. apop@uchicago.edu this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution- noncommercial . international license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / doi: . /j.cub. . . current biology vol no r antarctic ecosystem: are deep krill ecological outliers or portents of a paradigm shift? serendipitous observations of antarctic krill feeding at abyssal depths may revolutionise our view of the ecology of this supposed surface-dwelling animal that is key to the function of the southern ocean ecosystem. andrew s. brierley in his poem ‘thirteen ways of looking at a blackbird’ [ ] wallace stevens’ description of a turdus in a snowy autumn landscape alludes to the cubist practice of observing subjects simultaneously from numerous viewpoints to present a novel perspective. there is little direct interaction between cubism and biology, but when biologists look at systems in new ways, or with new techniques, we often discover something new, and data from multiple perspectives can reveal a view to which conventional observations have been blind. observations from a remotely operated vehicle (rov) of apparently healthy antarctic krill, an animal thought to live its adult life in the near-surface zone, in the abyssal depths of the southern ocean [ ] provide a vivid illustration of this. these observations may require us to reappraise fundamentally our notion of the biology of this key southern ocean species, and affirm that there are still discoveries to be made by basic exploratory research. antarctic krill (euphausia superba) play a central role in the southern ocean ecosystem. these diminutive crustaceans, which reach a maximum length of about cm and wet mass of about g, consume phytoplankton at the base of the food chain and, so doing, make the carbon that phytoplankton have fixed available to the suite of higher predators, including whales, penguins and fish, that feed upon krill [ ]. without krill, many of antarctica’s iconic megafauna would be absent. adult krill have been considered traditionally as occupants of the upper ocean [ , ]. they feed at the near-surface, where photosynthesis occurs, and migrate to depths of not much more than m by day to darker waters that provide some refuge from predators that hunt by sight. krill mate and spawn in this epipelagic zone. although fertilized krill eggs may sink to more than m [ ], adults have not previously been thought to descend to the depths from which some larvae emerge during their ontogenetic ascent. surveys of krill distribution for fishery- and ecosystem-management purposes have been conducted on this premise [ ] and estimates of circumpolar krill biomass — some in excess of million tonnes, more than the global human biomass — have been calculated on the presumption of a near-surface distribution [ ]. the observations by clark and tyler [ ] of mature krill feeding at depths as great as m may necessitate a rethink of this and many other aspects of the biology and ecology of krill. in fact, if these point observations turn out to be representative of a wider geographic or temporal phenomenon, they may trigger a paradigm shift for our understanding of the function of the entire southern ocean ecosystem. stevens [ ] observed his blackbird among ‘twenty snowy mountains’. clark and tyler [ ] discovered krill in the abyssal waters that are fringed by the snowy mountains of adelaide and alexander islands to the west of the antarctic peninsula. their unexpected observations were made off marguerite bay during surveys in the austral summer of / with the rov isis (figure ). the biologists were piggybacking on a cruise run primarily to look at deep sea geological processes, and were hoping to use video footage of the seabed taken by the rov to study large benthic invertebrates such as sea cucumbers and sponges. krill were unexpected in this abyssal environment: the phytoplankton and smaller zooplankton that are the mainstays of krill diet are concentrated in the photic zone near the sea surface several thousand meters above. in the short-lived antarctic spring and summer krill must eat large quantities of food if they are to reproduce successfully. the pronounced seasonal nature of this high-latitude location is characterised by a sharp pulse of primary production as phytoplankton proliferate in the nutrient-rich surface waters that become illuminated and warmed following the passing of the long polar night and the melting of the sea ice. grazers such as krill tune their lifecycles to capitalize on this brief period of feast and, whilst the summer months are favourable for ship-based deep sea research, conventional oceanographic wisdom has it that grazers should be near surface at this time. the rate of phytoplankton production during spring and summer blooms can, however, sometimes be so great that it exceeds the rate of consumption by grazers in the shallows of the watercolumn. observations elsewhere in the global ocean have shown that heavy falls of ‘marine snow’ — dead and decaying plankton remains sinking from the surface — coincident with the surface phytoplankton bloom provide an important pulse of food to the otherwise impoverished deep sea environment [ ]. the ‘snow’ particles can accumulate to depths of several mm on the seabed before biodegrading. clark and tyler [ ] observed krill nose-diving into the seabed in a behaviour that resuspended particulate matter, which the krill then ate. the authors suggest figure . the isis rov being deployed from rrs james clark ross (photograph by julian dowdeswell). dispatch r that the krill they observed may have migrated to the deep sea to exploit this accumulated phytodetritus resource, but lack the time series of observations necessary to test this hypothesis. in fact their paper is as stimulating for the questions it tacitly poses as for the truly fascinating observations it reports. the observed krill might well have migrated recently from the surface: krill complete their twice-daily vertical migrations of about m in less than hours around dawn and dusk and, at that rate, could achieve a m descent in about a day. krill could have swum downwards, feeding on the falling ‘snow’ on the way [ ], and might remain near the seabed feeding on the accumulated drifts before returning to the surface once the table has emptied. there have been reports of size segregation of krill off the western antarctic peninsula [ ], with larger animals being more abundant off shore in summertime. perhaps some component of the adult population migrates routinely down the shelf slope — clark and tyler [ ] observed krill at all sampled depths between m to m — and eventually returns directly to the surface from the abyss such that the post-bloom surface distribution [ ] is a consequence of a deep sea foraging migration. this raises the possibility of a previously unrecognised carbon transport pathway mediated by krill. daily krill migrations may play an important role in transport of surface-fixed carbon to the ocean interior [ ]. if it turns out that krill feed routinely on phytodetritus in the deep sea and then return to the surface, the carbon they re-import to the surface could diminish the extent to which carbon is naturally sequestered to the deep sea by the ‘biological pump’. it has been suggested that physical processes have now rendered the southern ocean less of a carbon sink than it has been historically [ ]: the potential deep sea foraging behaviour of krill could have additional consequences for the global carbon cycle and hence for the climate. an alternative interpretation of the observations of krill in deep water [ ], however, is that these animals are members of a distinct and hitherto unrecognised permanent deep sea population that live out their life in the deep sea. given what we believe about the dependence of krill on sea ice for reproduction [ ] this seems unlikely, but then again it seemed unlikely months ago that krill would be found feeding at m. the only previously published report of krill at the seabed in deep water [ ], observed by an rov at c. m in the weddell sea, was made in summer. the lack of observations of krill in deep water in winter so far may simply be a function of zero sampling effort in winter. year-round sampling in the upper water column has revealed previously unknown patterns of variation in krill abundance [ ], and deep sea biology has benefited from data gathered remotely by long-term instrument deployments [ ]. the global ocean observing system (www.ioc-goos.org) strives to collect data from ocean environments at time and space scales not practicable using standard ship-borne sampling, and the deep waters off marguerite bay are just one of many global ocean environments worthy of year-round monitoring. in the shorter term, genetic studies could provide insight to the degree of exchange of animals between putative surface and deep populations, and an additional challenge for future rov deployments there would be to collect large numbers of samples as well as images. a deep sea population of krill decoupled reproductively from sea ice could be more resilient to the environmental change manifesting to the west of the antarctic peninsula than surface cousins, since deep sea temperatures are more stable than surface temperatures. krill in deep water may literally and metaphorically be out of hot water but, at this stage, this remains little more than speculation. yet another alternative explanation for the deep-water krill [ ] is that they are unhealthy individuals that have experienced difficulty in maintaining depth by swimming and have sunk out from the surface. net caught krill can appear to be swimming actively in the bottom of buckets after removal from the net, but sometimes lack the ability to swim up into the water column, perhaps due to injuries sustained during capture. clarke and tyler [ ] noted cast-off exoskeletons at the seabed that are indicative of moulting. crustaceans moult to grow and animals that are growing are generally healthy. however, intriguingly, for krill, there are reports of stressed or starved individuals moulting to attain a smaller size with subsequently reduced metabolic demands [ ]: moulting might be an act of desperation for an animal struggling out of its depth or, as clarke and tyler [ ] suggest, the moults might simply have accumulated at the seabed following cast-off from healthy animals near the surface. whilst our knowledge of temporal variation in abundance of krill in the deep sea is effectively nil, our knowledge of spatial extent is not much greater. there have been concerted efforts to map the distribution of krill abundance throughout various sectors of the southern ocean [ ] but, frustratingly, the rov observations [ , ] have been off the grids of these large scale surveys (figure ), and no contemporaneous water column data are available. thus, we do not know how seabed concentrations of krill are related, if at all, to distributions in the near surface. clarke and tyler [ ] were unable to estimate abundance of krill on the seabed because their data, collected with surveys of immobile or slowly moving megabenthos in mind, are not amenable to quantitative appraisals of krill. we remain largely ignorant of the biomass of krill in the deep sea. all that we can say is that the locations sampled so far by rovs are not considered centres of pelagic krill concentration (figure ), raising the possibility that elsewhere deep sea abundances might be higher. given that krill play such a central role in the southern ocean ecosystem, efforts to determine circumpolar abundance in the deep sea as well as in the open ocean and under sea ice should perhaps be encouraged. observations by scuba divers and shallow-water rovs first revealed the importance to krill of feeding under ice, and subsequent observations by an autonomous underwater vehicle (a free-running vehicle not constrained by an umbilical) have revealed something of the extent to which krill are distributed under ice [ ]. the rov isis is a powerful research tool with full-ocean-depth capabilities, and has provided another leap forward in knowledge of krill: widespread use of this and the arsenal of sampling devices available to the modern-day marine scientist will likely reveal additional fascinating insights to the private lives of krill and other ocean inhabitants. the fieldwork by clark and tyler [ ] was part of the inaugural science deployment of the isis rov. their startling and unexpected observations make it clear that there is still a need for http://www.ioc-goos.org current biology vol no r the type of basic exploration of the planet’s inner space that remote and autonomous technologies excel at [ , ]. it can, however, be difficult to persuade funders to support basic exploratory research because, in the absence of knowledge, it is difficult to erect the kinds of credible null hypotheses that grant review panels are often directed to favour, and ‘fishing expeditions’ with no defined endpoint can loose out in the competition for finances. the isis rov was delivered in and the joke for too long was that isis was irretrievably stuck in southampton (the city on the south coast of the uk where the national oceanography centre is located). whilst cubists can create in the studio, students of the deep sea must embark to their natural laboratory, and the difficulties in getting isis to sea were for several years a source of major frustration. fortunately the research community is learning to frame its proposals in terms that make them competitive and this, together with the attention to isis that has been drawn by the influential house of commons science and technology committee [ ], will hopefully ensure that the vehicle can be exploited increasingly in the coming years. as apsley cherry-garrard and companions learnt during their ‘worst journey in the world’ to gather penguin eggs in the winter of , the quest for knowledge in far-flung locations can be fraught with risk. in the grand scheme of things, however, st century deep ocean exploration is likely to deliver far greater reward than the financial ‘risk’ it presents. hopefully in the coming years biologists will match cubists in their ability to portray their subjects from multiple spatial and temporal perspectives, and progress towards the holistic view required for fuller understanding of ecosystem function. references . stevens, w. 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( ). the natural history and geography of the antarctic krill (euphausia superba dana). discovery rep. , – . figure . how much krill is out there? deep water seabed observations of krill (red crosses) are at locations off the grid of the most extensive recent water column survey (bounded by red polygons). that survey [ ] was de- signed to cover the regions where fisheries and historic scientific sampling have suggested the bulk of krill biomass is distributed. depth contours in m increments to m are shown in blue, and the mean position of the polar front, which demarks the northern extent of krill distribution, is shown in green. . atkinson, a., siegel, v., pakhomov, e., and rothery, p. ( ). long-term decline in krill stock and increase in salps within the southern ocean. nature , – . . hofmann, e.e., and husrevoglu, y.s. 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( ). feeding by the euphausiid euphausia pacifica and the copepod calanus pacificus on marine snow. marine ecology- progress series , – . . lascara, c.m., hofmann, e.e., ross, r.m., and quetin, l.b. ( ). seasonal variability in the distribution of antarctic krill, euphausia superba, west of the antarctic peninsula. deep-sea research part i-oceanographic research papers , – . . tarling, g.a., and johnson, m.l. ( ). satiation gives krill that sinking feeling. curr. biol. , r –r . . le quere, c., rodenbeck, c., buitenhuis, e.t., conway, t.j., langenfelds, r., gomez, a., labuschagne, c., ramonet, m., nakazawa, t., metzl, n., et al. ( ). saturation of the southern ocean co sink due to recent climate change. science , – . . quetin, l.b., and ross, r.m. ( ). episodic recruitment in antarctic krill euphausia superba in the palmer lter study region. marine ecology-progress series , – . . gutt, j., and siegel, v. ( ). benthopelagic aggregations of krill (euphausia superba) on the deeper shelf of the weddell sea (antarctic). deep-sea research part ii - oceanographic research papers , – . . brierley, a.s., saunders, r.a., bone, d.g., murphy, e.j., enderlein, p., conti, s.g., and demer, d.a. ( ). use of moored acoustic instruments to measure short-term variability in abundance of antarctic krill. limnology and oceanography-methods , – . . bett, b.j., malzone, m.g., narayanaswamy, b.e., and wigham, b.d. ( ). temporal variability in phytodetritus and megabenthic activity at the seabed in the deep northeast atlantic. progress in oceanography , – . . ikeda, t., and dixon, p. ( ). body shrinkage as a possible over-wintering mechanism of the antarctic krill, euphausia superba dana. j. exp. marine biol. ecol. , – . . brierley, a.s., fernandes, p.g., brandon, m.a., armstromg, f., millard, n.w., mcphail, s.d., stevenson, p., pebody, m., perrett, j., squires, m., et al. ( ). antarctic krill under sea ice: elevated abundance in a narrow band just south of ice edge. science , – . . house of commons science and technology committee ( ). investigating the oceans. tenth report of session - . volume . pp. . london. pelagic ecology research group, gatty marine laboratory, university of st. andrews, fife ky lb, scotland, uk. e-mail: asb @st-and.ac.uk doi: . /j.cub. . . mailto:asb @st-and.ac.uk 	antarctic ecosystem: are deep krill ecological outliers or portents of a paradigm shift? 	references style classification and visualization of art painting’s genre using self-organizing maps style classification and visualization of art painting’s genre using self‑organizing maps sang‑geol lee and eui‑young cha* background in art history, the field of study that researches the history of art paintings, painting style has changed continuously according to the changes in time, and individual factors like changes in one’s psychological state, in particular, change the individual painting styles. such styles have changed in different ways by western and oriental paintings, and they act as crucial determinants of deciding the author of a certain painting. likewise, many factors affect the process of categorizing paintings, and these factors can be re-defined as features. every painter has his or her own characteristics that are displayed in each painting. while art historians have analyzed and classified paintings based on the accumulated lit- erature research on aesthetics, there were limitations of interpreting the features that are not visually apparent, because their subjective opinions have been expressed. therefore, there is a need to develop objective features to classify art paintings based on scientific methods [ , ]. recently, art paintings are photographed by digital cameras and are being utilized in diverse ways [ ]. there is also diverse research on the characterization of art paintings that have applied the signal processing theory, image processing and machine learn- ing algorithms on digitalized art paintings [ – ]. research related to extracting various abstract with the spread of digitalization of art paintings, research on diverse scientific approaches on painted images has become active. in this paper, the method of clas‑ sifying painting styles by extracting various features from paintings is suggested. global features are extracted using the color‑based statistical computation and composition‑ based local features of paintings are extracted through the segmentation of objects within the paintings to classify the styles of the paintings. based on the extracted fea‑ tures, paintings are categorized by style using som, which are then analyzed through visualization using the map. we have proved the feasibility of the proposed method of categorizing paintings by style, and the objective features of paintings can contribute to the research on art history and aesthetics. keywords: art painting style, image feature, self‑organizing map, watershed segmentation, classification open access © lee and cha. this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. r e s e a r c h lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : doi . /s ‑ ‑ ‑ *correspondence: eycha@pusan.ac.kr dept. electrical and computer engineering, pusan national university, busan, korea http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : features such as color, painter and time are carrying out brushstroke and texture of paintings to classify the paintings. related works brushstroke can be a great feature that displays the characteristics of a painter. li. et al. [ ] automatically extracted and analyzed the brushstrokes of van gogh. brushstroke was extracted through the combination of edge detection and clustering-based segmenta- tion, and diverse feature values were calculated from the extracted brushstrokes. diverse feature values including number and orientation standard deviation for brushstrokes for brushstrokes in a neighborhood, size, length, broadness homogeneity and straight- ness have been calculated statistically, and his unique brushstroke style was provided as scientific evidence. there are also numerous researches on the art works of van gogh through the analysis of his strongly rhythmic brushstrokes [ , ]. such analysis on brushstrokes, however, is limited for painters who are very unique like van gogh. there is research on the classification of art painting by style. lombardi [ ] extracted the features by light, line and color and classified the art paintings by k-nearest neighbor. visualization and analysis of classification performance were conducted through unsu- pervised learning, hierarchical clustering, self-organizing maps. jafarpour et al. [ ] pro- posed the stylistic analysis of paintings through dual-tree complex wavelet transforms and hidden markov trees. zujovic et al. [ ] proposed the classification method for five genres: abstract expres- sionism, cubism, impressionism, pop art, and realism. features of paintings are extracted using the edge map as the gray-level feature and histogram as color feature in hsv space. the classification performance was analyzed from the extracted features using knn, ann, svm, and adaboost. centinic and grgic [ ] proposed the painter recognition method. the painters were recognized through various classifiers including mlp and random forest using informa- tion and color-based histogram as well as texture-based features using glcm and dwt. shamir et  al. [ ] proposed the method of recognizing painters and schools of art centering on impressionism, expressionism, and surrealism. because the sizes of the paintings are diverse, the paintings have been resized to pixels in the smaller size of vertical and horizontal and have been cropped to  ×  to establish the dataset unlike conventional research. types of features have been calculated from the image, and a total of image descriptors have been extracted. useful informations have been selected from the extracted descriptors using the fisher score and used as feature vectors. li et  al. [ ] proposed the aesthetic visual quality assessment method for paintings. a total of global and local features were extracted by characteristics including color, brightness and composition. since the aesthetic visual quality assessment work is highly subjective, the art works of famous painters are scored visually and then surveyed. based on the average of the score, the paintings are labeled as “high-quality” or “low-quality.” naive bayes and adaptive boosting have been used as classifiers to analyze the perfor- mance. there is also research on utilizing the painting recognition in the field of mobile augmented reality like [ ]. page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : as mentioned above, we were motivated by the research of extracting various features of paintings and analyzing them, and this paper classifies art works as expressionism, impressionism, post-impressionism, and surrealism by their style. the tool of visualizing and analyzing the classifications is then proposed. paper structure the rest of the paper is organized as follows. "feature extraction for art paintings" sec- tion describes the proposed feature extraction method, including color features and composition features. "classification and visualization" section describes the classifica- tion and the visualization for styles of paintings. "experiments" section analyzes experi- mental results of the proposed method. "conclusions" section concludes the proposed approach and discusses about future works. feature extraction for art paintings each digital image of paintings is different in resolution and horizontal and vertical ratio. in order to extract feature values from paintings with different sizes, the process of normalizing the paintings in a certain size must be preceded. however, the problem of this lies in the possibility of the distortion of ratio and features like texture. there is also the problem of the definition of the photographed paintings according to the environ- ment. clear pictures with high-definition provide more information and are appropriate to extract detailed texture features like brushstroke. however, as low-definition images have less high frequency components that can express the delicacy compared to high- definition images, they are relatively less appropriate to extract texture information as features. therefore, we focus on extracting feature values that are independent from the definition and image resolution that differ from the environment where the paintings are photographed. painters express their emotions in paintings using the basic elements of point, line, area and color. in this paper, the features of paintings are extracted after being divided into either color or composition. color is considered as the global features for the shades that are used or preferred by the painters, while composition is the local features ana- lyzed and extracted from the segmentation of the paintings by region. color features as the global features of paintings, color is important. when we look at paintings, we tend to look at the overall color first. then, we look into the composition and detailed aspect of the paintings. each painter has his or her favorite colors, and there are differ- ent color tones by painting style. in this paper, the color features are extracted through statistical computation of the overall pixel of the painting images. the painting images are generally inserted as rgb color model. yet, the rgb color is a color model that is not intuitive as a visual recognition method. therefore, we use the hsv color model that is intuitive to visual recognition when extracting the feature on the use of colors from paintings. the average of hue and saturation is calculated and used to extract the rough statis- tic characteristics of paintings. hue shows which colors have been used, and saturation shows whether the paintings are light or dark according to the amount of white pigment. page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : average hue and average saturation feature can be calculated based on the below eqs.  and . where m and n are the size of rows and columns of the image, and ih(m, n) and is(m, n) are the hue value and saturation value at the pixel (m, n) respectively. the number of colors used mainly can express the colorfulness of paintings. while some painters prefer the combination of less hue, some prefer to express various colors using many types of hue. the types of hue used per painting style are calculated by hue count, according to the following method. from the image of the hsv color model, bin is divided by the number of k for the hue component to calculate histogram hh(i). then, hue count feature is extracted as shown in eq.  , and k = , c = . is used in this paper. where i is bin index, q is the largest value of histogram, and c is a constant( < c ≤ ). then the hue distribution feature is extracted in order to show the ratio dispersion of each hue component in the image. from the above hh(i), the value of bin is divided by the overall image pixel value and used as shown in eq.  . composition features the color features depicted in "color features" section show the overall visual char- acteristics of paintings. the composition of paintings can differ by style. by analyzing the structural elements of paintings, the composition of paintings can be characterized through each local feature. in order to extract the structural elements of paintings, the objects within the image must be distinguished. there are diverse segmentation meth- ods to distinguish the interested objects in image processing. in this paper, the segmen- tation method is used for images as follows in order to separate each painting. assuming that the objects within the image will be expressed in similar colors, the dominant color is first extracted from the image. dominant color is extracted through conducting the k-means clustering by hsv components. after the magnification by cluster to extract the location of the objects divided by color, the image is segmented by cluster using the morphology and connected component computation. then the higher  % in size is selected and used as markers of watershed segmentation. the watershed segmentation is carried out through the marker developed for each cluster to finally seg- ment the objects in the painting image. figure  shows the process of segmentation of color-based objects in paintings using the watershed algorithm proposed in this paper. composition features consist of shape and color features by segment. in order to extract the shape feature, the variance and skewness for segment, the top three largest areas are calculated respectively. the following equations are used to extract the dif- ferent shape features. ( )f = mn ∑ n ∑ m ih(m, n) ( )f = mn ∑ n ∑ m is(m, n) ( )f = number of {i|hh(i) > c · q} ( )f +i = hh(i), i = , , , page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : where j (j = , , ) is the index of the largest three regions and (xk, yk) is the normalized coordinates of a pixel and (x, y) is the normalized coordinates of the center of mass in the corresponding region. for the extraction of color features, the average of each component of hsv for the seg- ment, the top five largest area, is calculated and used. the following equations are used to extract the different color features of a segment. ( )f +j = ∑ k∈regionj xk area of regionj ( )f +j = ∑ k∈regionj yk area of regionj ( )f +j = ∑ k∈regionj [ (xk − x̄) + (yk − ȳ) ] area of regionj ( )f +j = ∑ k∈regionj [ (xk − x̄) + (yk − ȳ) ] area of regionj ( ) f +j = ∑ (m,n)∈regionj ih(m, n) area of regionj fig. illustration of the proposed watershed segmentation method page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : where j (j = , , , , ) is the index of the largest five regions. table  shows the features extracted from "color features" and "composition fea- tures" section. all feature values have a normalized value from to regardless of the image definition. the feature values are created into vector, which are then used as input vectors to be explained in "classification and visualization" section. classification and visualization in this paper, the self-organizing map (som) proposed by kohonen is used in order to classify the styles using the extracted features from "feature extraction for art paint- ings" section. as the unsupervised learning method, in som, the input areas of learn- ing samples are represented in the map through the competitive learning process. the benefit of this method is its usefulness in visualizing the high-dimensional data into low- dimensional view. in this paper, such benefit of som is used to classify the paintings and connect them to the map for visual expression, and to be utilized in analyzing the cor- relation for each painting style. figure  illustrates the process of training and classifying som using the feature val- ues extracted in "feature extraction for art paintings" section. normalized feature values between and are extracted from each learning data, which are developed into vector to be used as input vectors for som. som is trained using the developed input vectors. once the learning process is completed, the best matching unit (bmu) for each input data is found and the class of each node is designated using the class number. at the same time, the painting image list connected to each node is saved. ( )f +j = ∑ (m,n)∈regionj is(m, n) area of regionj ( )f +j = ∑ (m,n)∈regionj iv (m, n) area of regionj table the proposed features for painting image category feature characteristics meaning of feature global f color average hue for the whole image f color average saturation for the whole image f color number of quantized hues f –f color hue distribution local f –f composition horizontal coordinate of the mass center f –f composition vertical coordinate of the mass center f –f composition mass variance for the segment f –f composition mass skewness for the segment f –f color average hue for the segment f –f color average saturation for the segment f –f brightness average brightness for the segment page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : figure  shows the actual execution screen the developed visualization tool that uses som. through learning and classification, each node of the map is connected to the painting image list. selecting the node of the map segment in the upper left hand corner of the tool prints out painting images connected to the node selected in the upper right hand corner. the number shown in the mode of the map shows the class number of each node. in the lower left hand corner, the detailed information of the image list con- nected to each node is shown, and diverse information needed for analysis is printed in the lower right hand corner. experiments image dataset in order to conduct experiments on the four different painting styles of expressionism, impressionism, post-impressionism, and surrealism, representative painters of each style have been selected randomly. the images of their paintings were used as experiment data. in this paper, a total of pieces of artwork painted by painters have been collected from [ ]. the collected images are of different resolutions and are shown in fig.  . table  shows the number of data by style and painter that have been collected for fig. training and classification processes using som fig. execution screen of the developed tool: a parameter settings window of som, b train results analysis screen page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : (see figure on previous page.) fig. collected image samples by painting style: a expressionism, b impressionism, c post‑impressionism, d surrealism samples table number of data by style and painter style painter number of images expressionism edvard munch ernst ludwig kirchner franz marc max beckmann wassily kandinsky impressionism alfred sisley claude monet edgar degas edouard manet pierre‑auguste renoir post‑impressionism georges seurat paul cezanne paul gauguin paul signac vincent van gogh surrealism joan miro max ernst rene magritte salvador dali table learning performance using train dataset by painting style combination class pair precision expressionism/impressionism . expressionism/post‑impressionism . expressionism/surrealism . impressionism/post‑impressionism . impressionism/surrealism . post‑impressionism/surrealism . the experiments. from the collected data, randomly selected  % for each painter was used for training, and the remaining  % was used for testing. learning results for the input data, the best matching unit (bmu) is found, and the class number of the input data is voted. the class number is designated by the painting style of the input data. the class number with the most votes within each node is designated as the class number of the node. in this paper, the train performance is evaluated according to the data ratio that matches the class number of nodes after inputting the learning data. binary classification method of pairing the four styles into two pairs was used in this paper. table  shows the train performance of each experiment. although there are dif- ferences depending on the class pair, the average of the train precision is about . . page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : classification results analysis the classification performance is verified by inputting the test data in the learning map. figure  shows that the paintings have been well classified by style, and table  shows the classification performance for the test data. as shown in fig.  a, paintings of expres- sionism are clustered at the right-bottom on the map that is result for expressionism and post-impressionism. likewise, as shown in fig.  b, paintings of expressionism are clustered at the top-center for the pair of expressionism and impressionism. of course, the location of each cluster may be changed according to the training result of the som. however, the visualization results can be seen that the art paintings with the similar fea- tures are clustered by similar locations on the map. conclusions in this paper, we proposed the method of classifying paintings by style. through the sta- tistic computation, the features of the paintings have expressed in objective figures of pixels. features that show the global and local features have been extracted and the extracted feature values have been clustered using the unsupervised learning method. experiments have verified that the paintings can be classified by style, and som was visualized to enable the analysis of the correlation of painting styles of the art pieces. since painter limits the number of art pieces, there is the difficulty of establishing a vast amount of data. therefore, different types of images digitalized in diverse envi- ronments should be collected to increase the learning performance by increasing the table classification performance using painting style combination test dataset class pair precision expressionism/impressionism . expressionism/post‑impressionism . expressionism/surrealism . impressionism/post‑impressionism . impressionism/surrealism . post‑impressionism/surrealism . fig. samples of classification by painting style through the dispersion on the map: a result of expression‑ ism and post‑impressionism, b result of expressionism and impressionism page of lee and cha hum. cent. comput. inf. sci. ( ) : amount of data. in the future, more features should be extracted, and the classifica- tion performance should be enhanced using the machine learning method. through increased research, scientific features to classify the painting styles should be suggested, and this can be used as the base data for research on art history and aesthetics. this can also be the base research for a system that suggested paintings of similar style or paint- ings by the same author when a certain image is shown. authors’ contributions sgl and eyc designed the study, developed the methodology, collected the data, performed the analysis, and wrote the manuscript together. both authors read and approved the final manuscript. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. received: february accepted: march references . barni m, pelagotti a, piva a ( ) image processing for the analysis and conservation of paintings: opportunities and challenges. ieee signal process mag : – . lyu s, rockmore d, farid h ( ) a digital technique for art authentication. proc natl acad sci usa ( ): – . barni m, pelagotti a, piva a ( ) image processing for the analysis and conservation of paintings: opportunities and challenges. ieee signal process mag ( ): – . ivanova k, stanchev p, velikova e, vanhoof k, depaire b, kannan r, mitov i, markov k ( ) data engineering and management: second international conference, icdem , tiruchirappalli, india, july – , . revised selected papers, ch. features for art painting classification based on vector quantization of mpeg‑ descriptors. springer, berlin, pp – . rigau j, feixas m, sbert m ( ) “informational dialogue with van gogh’s paintings”, in proceedings of the fourth eurographics conference on computational aesthetics in graphics, visualization and imaging, computational aes‑ thetics’ . eurographics association, aire‑la‑ville . saleh b, elgammal a ( ) a unified framework for painting classification. ieee international conference on data mining workshop (icdmw ), p. – . vieira v, fabbri r, sbrissa d, da fontoura costa l, travieso g ( ) a quantitative approach to painting styles. phys a stat mech appl : – . li j, yao l, hendriks e, wang jz ( ) rhythmic brushstrokes distinguish van gogh from his contemporaries: find‑ ings via automated brushstroke extraction. ieee transact pattern anal mach intell ( ): – . berezhnoy i, postma e, van den herik j ( ) computer analysis of van gogh’s complementary colours. pattern recognit lett : – . johnson cr, hendriks e, berezhnoy ij, brevdo e, hughes sm, daubechies i, li j, postma e, wang jz ( ) image processing for artist identification. ieee signal process mag ( ): – . lombardi te ( ) the classification of style in fine‑art painting. phd thesis, pace university, new york . jafarpour s, polatkan g, brevdo e, hughes s, brasoveanu a, daubechies i ( ) "stylistic analysis of paintings using wavelets and machine learning," in signal processing conference, th european. pp. – . zujovic j, gandy l, friedman s, pardo b, pappas tn ( ) "classifying paintings by artistic genre: an analysis of features and classifiers," multimedia signal processing, . ieee international workshop on mmsp ’ , pp. – . cetinic e, grgic s ( ) automated painter recognition based on image feature extraction," in elmar, th international symposium, pp. – . shamir l, macura t, orlov n, eckley dm, goldberg ig ( ) impressionism, expressionism, surrealism: automated recognition of painters and schools of art. transact appl percept : . li c, chen t ( ) aesthetic visual quality assessment of paintings. ieee j sel top signal process ( ): – . martinel n, micheloni c, foresti gl ( ) robust painting recognition and registration for mobile augmented real‑ ity. ieee signal process lett ( ): – . kren e, marx d web gallery of art. http://www.wga.hu/index .html http://www.wga.hu/index .html 	style classification and visualization of art painting’s genre using self-organizing maps 	abstract 	background 	related works 	paper structure 	feature extraction for art paintings 	color features 	composition features 	classification and visualization 	experiments 	image dataset 	learning results 	classification results analysis 	conclusions 	authors’ contributions 	references technoscience art: a bridge between neuroesthetics and art history? alkım almıla akdağ salah ucla, dept. of art history los angeles, us albert ali salah cwi, signals and images amsterdam, the netherlands one of the recent and exciting developments in mainstream art history is its confrontation with the cognitive sciences and neurology. this study is based on the problems these disciplines face before they can contribute to each other. we inspect several critical issues resulting from this encounter, especially in the context of the recently developing field of neuroesthetics. we argue that it is the language barrier between the disciplines, rather than any fundamental conceptual divison, that causes the lack of understanding on both sides. shared terms in arts and neuro- science are elusive, and the different connotations of extant terms in these separate disciplines must be addressed. we propose technoscience art as a ground where joint terminology may be developed, an audience familiar to the concerns of both sides can be formed, and a new generation of scientifically-knowledgeable artists and scientists can interact for their mutual benefit. the aim of art history is to analyze artistic expression, con- texts, production and consumption of arts from a histori- cal perspective. much of art history deals with the visual arts, and for some influential art historians the psychology of vision has been an essential critical tool. yet for the last decade, art history has been lagging behind the current re- search on vision, cognitive science and neuroscience. on the other hand, aesthetics has been an important area of study for psychologists since fechner , and the neural correlates of aesthetic feelings have recently been explored. this paper investigates the two-way interaction between brain research and art history, identifying their common questions and tak- ing on the important methodological issues that prevent more fruitful collaboration between these disciplines. the interaction between brain research and art history is valuable for art historians, artists, and neuroscientists all alike. does it help to understand the mechanisms of a visual phenomenon to evaluate it in the context of an artwork? if the answer is affirmative, then the contribution of neurol- ogy to art history should be obvious. zeki, for example, emphasizes that many of the visual phenomena attributed to the eye actually occur in the cortex (zeki & lamb, ). traditionally, what the artist achieves by directing technical skills with guidance of intuition and honed artistic judge- ment can only be evaluated by an equally developed artistic judgement. this persuasion led to the birth of specializa- tions like art historians, critics, and connoisseurs. yet there is an undeniable search for quantification and more objec- tive venues of evaluation, to which neuroscience is a very promising path. similarly, the production of a new artwork sometimes involves creation of unique experiences for the audience, and artists would benefit from a thorough under- standing of perceptual mechanisms. this is particularly true in the case of technoscience art which more often than not combines several perceptual modalities and in which cross- modal perceptual influences are significant. . from the sci- entific side, to use eric kandel’s words “it is clear what the gain would be for neural science. from a biological point of view, one of the ultimate challenges is to understand the perceptual processing by the brain of conscious experience and emotion” (kandel & mack, ). the recently developing field of neuroesthetics seeks the neural correlates of artistic judgement and artistic creation. yet the concept of ‘art’ does not have a universally accepted and stable definition. the language barrier between art the- ory and neurology further complicates this issue, and there is a pressing need for some common ground. neuroesthetics as its name implies, neuroesthetics is an attempt to com- bine neurological research with aesthetics by investigating the experience of beauty and appreciation of art on the level of brain functions and mental states. the first publica- tions on the topic were authored by prominent neuroscien- tists (changeux, ; zeki, ). although its method- ology and research questions suggest that neuroesthetics should be a sub-discipline of neuroscience, today the topic attracts scholars from other disciplines as well, including aes- theticians and art historians. these scholars either collabo- rate with neuroesthetics researchers, or apply neuroesthetics in their own research. especially after the foundation of the institute of neuroesthetics through the collaboration of the london school of neurology and university of california, for an account of experimental aesthetics in the domain of psy- chology see (silvia, ). two perceptual events in different modalities can interact in non-trivial ways, leading to modification of the sensation in one modality, or even to the creation of a novel sensation. an exam- ple is the famous mcgurk effect, where a persons image mouthing the syllable “ga” and the accompanying audio signal of the spoken syllable “ba” produce the sensation of the syllable “da”. for a re- view of how visual sensation interacts with other sensory modalities see (spence & driver, ). alkim almila akdağ salah, albert ali salah berkeley, the interest in neuroesthetics has grown. confer- ences held on the topic attract linguists, literary critics, mu- sicologists and cognitive scientists, but the agenda of neu- roesthetics is set mostly by neuroscientists. we distinguish between three different approaches followed in the field. the first approach relies on observation of subjects view- ing art samples and inspection of the mechanism of vision, with the aim of inducing general rules about aesthetics. this is the most popular approach to neuroesthetics, and is cham- pioned by its godfather semir zeki in his book inner vision: an exploration of art and the brain (zeki, ). this study has reached a wide audience through its ‘plain’ language and non-technical argumentation and has attracted the attention of many art historians. in this book, zeki focuses on famous modern artworks and artists, comparing the theoretical argu- ments and styles used by these artists with the latest findings in vision research. he argues that while viewing modern art- works, neurons that respond to visual primitives are consis- tently activated, naturally leading to pleasing sensations. for instance the horizontal and vertical lines in the paintings of mondrian and the movement patterns in the kinetic sculp- tures of calder are both perceived early in the human visual system, as there are groups of neurons responding to these primitive stimuli. based on these findings, zeki also suggests that artists -in some mysterious way- have some insight into the structure of the brain. another widely-read but controversial paper along these lines comes from ramachandran and hirstein ( ). in “the science of art,” they put forward eight universal rules for aesthetics. these rules were based on earlier research in psychology, ethology, and gestalt theory. some of them are known to artists either intuitively or explicitly for hun- dreds of years, and gestalt theorists like arnheim have al- ready emphasized the importance of these ‘laws’ thirty years before ramachandran (arnheim, ). however, according to ramachandran and hirstein, specifying the rules is only a part of the big question. in addition to this specification, we must understand why these rules came into being instead of others (i.e. the “evolutionary rationale”) and we must also discern which neurological mechanisms are involved in the realization of these rules. only then will it be possible to grasp how this complex outcome of human nature we call “art” is created (ramachandran & hirstein, ). the second approach aims at establishing the link between certain brain areas and artistic activity. the followers of this approach either study artists with neural problems, discern- ing between their output before and after the onset of the problem, or inspect the works of artistic savants, whose brain activation is unusually high in certain areas of the brain. es- pecially cases with known and well documented brain dam- age provide particular insight into neural mechanisms of artistic creation. mario mendez, for example, explores the stylistic changes in the works of artists with frontotemporal dementia (ftd) (mendez, ). patients with damage to the left hemisphere have demonstrated an expansion in the artistic (and more visual) abilities of the intact right hemi- sphere, while ftd patients with predominant right temporal involvement had difficulties in grasping artistically essential primitives. through an analysis of the work of these patients mendez concludes that ‘the extraction and exaggeration of the essence of art’ both reside at the right hemisphere . in contrast to approaches focusing on the artistic abil- ities and creativity, the third approach investigates aes- thetic enjoyment through brain-imaging experiments on sub- jects looking at pictures. an example of this approach is the experiment conducted by hideaki kawabata and semir zeki (kawabata & zeki, ), in which the question is whether specific brain areas are activated when subjects are confronted with pictures that are deemed beautiful or ugly. the criteria for being beautiful or being ugly are not speci- fied by the experimental setup, and the subjects were asked to choose neutral, beautiful, and ugly images from a database. then they were shown these images whilst in the fmri scanner. for each category (portrait, landscape, still life, and abstract compositions), specialized activation areas were found; for instance the fusiform gyrus predictably responded to portraits. but for the perception of beautiful and ugly, no special area was singled out. instead, the experiment re- vealed increased activation of orbito-frontal cortex (known to be responsive to rewarding stimuli (rolls, )) for beauti- ful images, and increased activation of the motor cortex for both ugly and beautiful images. based on these results, the authors argue that the sense of beauty and aesthetic judge- ment presuppose a change in the activation of the brain’s re- ward system. a fundamental methodological crux for all these ap- proaches is whether the aesthetic judgements are perceived as bottom-up processes driven by neural primitives or as top- down processes with high-level correlates. zeki’s approach initially tended towards the bottom-up, but changed as he continued to develop his theory of aesthetics based on neu- rological findings. in one of his early papers on the subject, zeki relates the modern artistic tendency to single out and emphasize a certain visual primitive in an artwork (e.g. a certain colour, simple motions, geometric shapes and com- positions) to the strength of bottom-up activation created by this intensified stimulus (zeki & lamb, ). according to zeki, what the kinetic artist does when he or she reduces the visual stimulus to pure motion is to act upon an unvoiced intuition about the dynamics of the brain. while this perspective may sound plausible for some mod- ern art pieces, it is certainly not powerful enough to encom- pass most of aesthetic experience. the difficulty that needs to be breached is the huge gap between the primitives and high-level concepts, which requires operating in several res- olutions at the same time. while the primitives have been explored by neurologists with success, most of the high-level concepts have been in the domain of philosophy for hundreds of years. inevitably, zeki saw the need for objective descrip- tions of more abstract concepts, and high-level notions like “beauty” are probed for neural correlates in his later papers on neuroesthetics, as mentioned. he also arrived at an ex- for other examples of this approach see (bentivoglio, ; bogousslavsky, ; otte, de bondt, wiele, audenaert, & dier- ckx, ; ravin & ravin, ; sahlas, ; stewart, ). technoscience art: a bridge between neuroesthetics and art history? planation of art as a by-product of a more general concept- formation and abstraction function of the brain (zeki, ). in his article “neural concept formation and art: dante, michelangelo, wagner,” zeki challenges some of the most influential philosophical notions, including kant’s claim that space and time are the fundamental a-priori forms (zeki, ). he reminds us that our perceptions rely on differ- ent mechanisms that operate in different spatial and temporal resolutions. colour and motion are processed by different brain areas, and are perceived with different speeds. further- more, it has been amply demonstrated that very similar sen- sory inputs can produce different perceptions under slightly different conditions, indeed, many visual illusions are based on this fact. instead, he proposes that the basic mechanism of the brain is that of neural abstraction. to give an example, a neuron in the primary cortex area that responds selectively to a certain stimulus, like a straight line with a specific orienta- tion, is interpreted as abstracting this information. this abil- ity of selective processing, when applied to the whole brain, and to all levels of processing, is powerful enough to lead to concept formation. but what happens when we view an object? even though we arrive at the idea of an object through abstraction, our experience “remains that of the particular, and the particular that we experience may not always satisfy the idea formed in and by our brains” (zeki, ). thus, there is a dif- ference between the particular we experience and the idea of it formed in our brain from all previous experiences with particulars of the same kind. according to zeki, art comes into being through the conflict between the particular and the idea: “a refuge lies in recreating the brain’s ideal in art and through art. . . the translation of concepts in the artist’s mind onto canvas, or into music or literature constitutes art. great art is that which corresponds to as many different concepts in as many different brains over as long a period of time as pos- sible. ambiguity is such a prized characteristic of all great art because it can correspond to many different concepts.” (zeki, ). we should note that here, zeki refers to the famous cave analogy of plato where only the shadows (i.e. particulars) of the real object (i.e. the idea) are accessible to the dwellers of the cave. the relation between the particular and the ideal is one of the core questions of philosophy, one that has been particularly important to aesthetics and art history. accord- ing to plato, artistic expression, which relies on the imperfect collection of the ideas through particulars, is a mere imitation of an insufficient copy. it was kant who salvaged aesthetic judgements (and thus, art) from this inferior status by ren- dering it as a bridge between pure and practical reason. in zeki’s argument kant’s a priori notions of time and space are replaced with a faculty of abstraction that commences at the neural level, but the path from input-selective neurons to concept-selective neural structures is only postulated in very rough terms. when the difference in the level of abstraction is so great, the primitives lose much of their significance, un- less they can be consistently and productively linked to con- cepts. in the case of aesthetics and the search for its neural correlates, we observe that so far this link has been insuffi- ciently explored. present neuroscientific experimental approaches share an- other shortcoming. the evaluation of aesthetic judgements through neuroloscience is mostly confined to visual stim- uli, for which the methodology is most familiar and most advanced. yet aesthetic judgements exist in all domains: the sensation perceived by a painter in front of a beautiful picture is very similar to the sensation perceived by a math- ematician reading an elegant proof. a true understanding of aesthetic judgements can only be achieved by dissociating it from purely visual stimulus, and searching for its correlates across many domains. officially-designated art is not, after all, the only thing that provokes aesthetic responses. subse- quently, new experimental designs are necessary to take into account different manifestations of aesthetic experience. from the perspective of art history the greek philosophers and the church fa- thers have already carefully distinguished be- tween things perceived and things known. it is entirely evident that they did not equate things known with things of sense, since they honored with this name things also removed from sense (therefore images). therefore, things known are to be known by the superior faculty as the object of logic; things perceived [are to be known by the inferior faculty, as the object] of the science of perception, or aesthetic. (baumgarten, ) sensations in perceptual experience are not chaotically perceived. rather they are ordered. there must be some form that determines this order of perceptual experience. it is this form that is the object of aesthetics. (wessell jr, ) all perceiving is also thinking, all reasoning is also intuition, all observation is also invention. (arnheim, ) according to rudolf arnheim, the distinction between perceiving and thinking is arbitrary, since all mental capac- ities function as a whole (arnheim, ). perceiving itself asks for an active and immediate interpretation, as well as a reasoning process. without making a distinction between objects, contours, colors, and movement on the level of neu- ral activity, we cannot decipher what we ‘perceive,’ or better put, what we ‘see.’ most of the sense data are filtered out in for kant, aesthetic judgements were primarily about nature, not art. nevertheless his theories were of utmost importance in the history of aesthetics and art history, and are applied for artworks as well (hammermeister, ). other areas where aesthetic judgements are put under neuro- logical investigations are music, dance and theatre (seeley, ). for the importance of baumgarten in the history of aesthetics see (wessell jr, ), for a negative reading of baumgarten in the history of philosophy see (dixon, ). alkim almila akdağ salah, albert ali salah early stages of neural processing, and only the necessary in- formation is used to construct a perception of the otherwise overwhelming visual stimuli. that means we ‘think’ while we ‘see.’ arnheim established his theory, which is four decades old now, by experimenting with basic geometrical forms and their effects on human psychology. today, several aspects of this theory are validated with recent advances in neuro- science (like the discovery of mirror neurons), and with con- tributions of scholars from different disciplines who show the vitality of images in thinking (stafford, ; lakoff, ). arnheim’s important contribution is to show that the age-old dichotomy between seeing and thinking should no longer be considered as trivially true. seeing has been associated with aesthetic experience and emotions, whereas the usage of the language has been associated with conceptual thinking and reasoning. in order to ‘reason,’ one needs words, and the boundaries of language set the boundaries of thought. this belief in the superiority of verbal communication as opposed to the visual had an influence in almost all domains of every- day life, including scientific practice. the polarization between the intellect (faculties of reason- ing, understanding, acquisition of truth) and the senses (per- cepts, feelings, emotions) is a deeply ingrained distinction in western thought. for long, there was a tacit understanding of a preference of one domain over the other: cognition was held to be superior to perception. when baumgarten coined the term aesthetics as the science of perception, he effectively institutionalized this polarization. however, since art history was primarily occupied with theories of aesthetics, and dealt mainly with visual (perceptual) stimuli, it has struggled to by-pass this differentiation.we could say that in the end, the discipline has achieved a discourse that effaced this polariza- tion by going through various transformations. contemporary art production and criticism do not essen- tialize the aesthetic dimension for artworks; the visual as- pects of the works are not on equal footing with their con- ceptual dimension anymore. art is discussed in terms of a direct association with cultural patterns and cognitive facul- ties, and its importance in terms of its capacity to arouse deep perceptual or emotive responses has been de-emphasized. as david freedberg notes (freedberg & gallese, ), late th century art history prefers to disregard the element of emo- tion in its theories of aesthetics. today, this disownment of emotion is so ingrained into the discipline that most of the contemporary artworks are approached with little attention to their emotional potential. the goals of the artist and cultural contexts of the work have become much more important than the aesthetic dimension of the artwork. the triumph of conceptual interpretation over perceptual and emotional response is the outcome of an agenda that has its roots in the early th century. david freedberg and vit- torio gallese mark its first strong expression to the publi- cation of r.g. collingwood’s the principles of art, which differentiated between the emotive and cognitive aspects of art, disregarding the former in favour of the latter and equat- ing art with language (freedberg & gallese, ). today, this view has thoroughly permeated into the mainstream art history, and many art historians regard art as a text that is only meaningful when it is in the right context, i.e. when it is interpreted in connection with its relation to the in- tentions, thoughts, and culture of its maker. for example, noell carroll and arthur danto both argue that artworks af- fect the viewers not on the premises of visual stimuli, but on the historical knowledge they are based: the audience can- not see a work of art without relating it to some knowledge of art history (carroll, ; danto, ). art history thus defines its agenda as a search for the particulars in the specifics of technique, artistic heritage, and cultural context. this perspective is directly in opposition with the universal- ist and reductionist search for neural correlates of aesthetic judgement. this opposition is bolstered by a misconcep- tion on the side of the art historian about the interpretation of neurological findings, a belief that a neural basis of aes- thetics would preclude individual variation. consequently, any interpretation that draws on the neurology of aesthetic judgements must carefully weigh the importance of the cul- tural aspects of artistic experience against the physical con- straints and principles that are derived from an understanding of brain functions, in order to be accepted by art historians. this point is nowhere as clearly illustrated as in ra- machandran’s bold statement on ‘cubism’ (ramachandran, ). according to ramachandran, certain art forms are necessarily aesthetically pleasing, because they are com- posed of visual primitives like uniform colours, symmetry, lines and corners that activate lower tiers of the visual system strongly. for him, it is a consequence of the wiring of our brains that we like picasso’s cubist works, and any statement to the contrary is due to misguided cultural suppression. this kind of reductionism is anathema to art history, as it greatly downplays the cultural, personal and conceptual dimensions of artistic enjoyment. ramachandran’s approach is also very superficial about historical specifics and consequently does not find much support among art historians. if cubism is nec- essarily pleasing, they ask, then why was it ridiculed when it first appeared? and why was its period of popularity as a technique of painting so brief? for many art historians, neuroesthetics is too reductive to offer anything to art history. there are, however, a few scholars that would like to re-assert the relevance of percep- tion and aesthetics in the interpretation of artworks (rollins, for the relation of aesthetics to emotions see (cupchik, ). thirty years after collingwood, this perspective was firmly es- tablished by the publication of nelson goodman’s language and art. in this influential book, goodman compared the content of pictures with narratives and called them “language-like artificial symbol systems. both their status as pictures and their contents are determined by the syntactical and semantic properties they are deemed by common agreement to have.” (goodman, ). as carroll notes, “goodman reconceptualized the so-called aesthetic response as a cognitive one” (carroll, ). another point we should mention here is that universalist and reductionist approaches are also shunned in the art historical canon, as these perspectives are associated with the much-criticised ‘white, male, anglo-saxon’ view (watling, ). technoscience art: a bridge between neuroesthetics and art history? , ; mcmahon, , , ; seeley, ) . these scholars use recent results from psychology, vision science and neuroscience to ground various hypotheses on the roots of aesthetics, without being overly reductionistic. seeley notes that for cognitive theories of aesthetics: “one must distinguish between two uses of the term aesthetics: one that refers to the processes responsible for the perceptual content of artworks, and the other, in a more contemporary sense, refers to what differentiates artworks and aesthetic ex- periences from their ordinary counterparts. cognitive sci- ence can, at least in principle, explain aesthetics in the former sense. but it is an open question whether it has, as a result, explained aesthetics in the latter sense.” (seeley, ). art history’s criticism of neuroesthetics has not gone unanswered. zeki, for instance, responds to accusations of ‘neuroreductionism’ by drawing attention to reductionist ten- dencies in art historians themselves: after all they separate “sensation from perception, the perceptual from the cognitive and the cognitive from the subjective.” (zeki, ). zeki quotes a passage from amy ione’s commentory on his work to give an example of what he means under such a seperation: “[ione] says that ‘we may get a better un- derstanding of how our brains interpret the reti- nal images our eyes receive”. the latter is of course a view of the organization of the visual brain championed by salomon henschen and by paul flechsig over a century ago, when little was known about the extent and complexity of the visual brain, but it was largely abandoned by vi- sual neurobiologists some thirty years ago. such statements show the extent to which a dialogue between the art historian and the neurobiologist is necessary. for i would find it difficult to be- lieve that there are many neurobiologists now who would go as far as separating the eye from the brain and the mind when they consider vi- sion as a perceptual process!” (zeki, ). this passage exemplifies the language barrier between art history and neuroscience. the way ione formulates the per- ceptual process of seeing an object in the crudest of terms completely ignores recent vision scientific terminology and discoveries. this is on a par with ramachandran’s dismissal of the contextual aspect of the artwork and of art market’s power to judge what is and is not art. the issue is not only a language barrier itself, but a complete unwillingness to over- come it. obviously, there is a need for a common ground, a catalyst, that works for all the relevant disciplines, so that the language barrier will be naturally and willingly eliminated. we believe that technoscience art offers the right medium to bridge the gap between neuroesthetics and art history, as it uses theories from both cognitive sciences and art history, and reflects on vital questions of both disciplines. technoscience art technoscience art is a term coined by frank pop- per (popper, ), in an editorial of leonardo, to cover di- verse art practices that involve technological inventions or scientific ideas. as a movement, its history can be traced back to early s, where the first computer-generated art- works were put on display. today, a plethora of names (in- formation arts, software art, code art, internet art, robotic art, ambient art) are employed to tag subbranches of techno- science art, simply because the idea of creating artworks at the intersection of arts, technology and sciences is a widespread endeavour that draws on disciplines like com- puter science, cognitive science, neuroscience, and even nan- otechnology. technoscience art shows striking similarities to neuroes- thetics: both rely on concepts coming from sciences and arts, both try to address a mixed audience that does not share any common backgrounds, and both are disputed by the main art historical circles. during the first decade of the move- ment, aesthetics was an important research venue for techno- science artists. the combinatorial possibilities offered by the computer lead the artists to create variations of simple ge- ometric patterns, and many possible combinations of a sin- gle composition, from which the most aesthetically pleas- ing ones could be selected. with this approach, philosophers like max bense (bense, ) and abraham moles (moles, ) pioneered the search for mathematical rules govern- ing aesthetics, and their theories were influential. however, their attempt to legitimize computer generated pictures as true artworks was not very successful, as art criticism was not willing to explore a scientific formula for artistic production. thus, technoscience art initially received the same reaction that neuroesthetics was to receive several decades later. a number of developments helped technoscience art to carve itself a niche in the art world. we believe that this progress could itself serve as an example for bridging art history and neuroesthetics. in brief, the technoscience art movement created its own audience, its own specialized the- oreticians, and publication venues. once this infrastructure was in place, the cross-pollination of the disciplines was pos- sible, mainly through scholars who were well-versed in the language of art history, and who learned the necessary scien- tific terminology to follow up with technoscience art. neu- roesthetics needs precisely this kind of infrastructure now. of particular importance is the journal leonardo, which emphasizes the interaction of arts, sciences and technol- ogy, and which offers a fruitful space for exchanging ideas on the latest developments in technology and sciences that are of interest to artists and art critics. the journal has published articles by canonical critics such as gombrich, arnheim, and gibson on the psychological explorations of artworks, as well as works of neuroscientists like jean pierre changeaux on the relation of aesthetics and neurol- ogy (changeux, ). thus, leonardo provides neuroes- thetics with an audience familiar with the earlier theories that link arts to psychology and neurology, in addition to the mathematical explorations of aesthetics. furthermore, this audience is familiar with the terminology of both art history for a good survey of different theories of vision science and neuroscience that have been used by aestheticians and art historians see (rollins, ). alkim almila akdağ salah, albert ali salah and neurology in general. it may be argued that the con- tent of these articles does not go deep in either discipline, yet when compared to an ordinary art historian, the readers of leonardo are surely much more comfortable in following the research in neurosciences and cognitive science. aside from serving as a historical example, technoscience art can contribute to art history and neuroesthetics directly through its artworks. artists in this movement questioned the very nature of artistic production by using computer pro- grams. the most salient example is harold cohen’s artificial painter program aaron, which has its own coded sense of aesthetics that it uses in conjunction with an understanding of composition to automatically create paintings from scratch. harold cohen is one of the most widely recognized elec- tronic artists, and he let aaron evolve through more than years to its present state of maturity. in his words, aaron was originally “a program designed to investi- gate the cognitive principles underlying visual representa- tion” (cohen, ). in years of its artificial life, aaron ‘learned’ to draw, like a child’s first scribbles slowly trans- forming into a modernist painter’s stylistic abstractions. the processes developed by aaron to create its paintings can be inspected to discover patterns and clues about ‘creativity’, but not everyone who watches aaron paint will find suffi- cient evidence to call it ‘creative’. there have been debates about the definition of creativity, and whether it is possible to concede that an artificial intelligence (ai) program can be creative like a painter, or not. if there are rules or a procedural description for the artistic activity, then there is no reason why a computer program can- not be written to produce art. according to ramachandran, aaron does precisely this. furthermore, he justifies this claim by pointing out that the art market pays good prices for aaron’s paintings, and that is a sufficient indication that they are real art (though, as seen above, he overlooked such culturally-based criteria in his discussion of cubism). there are two problems with this argument. first of all, even though aaron makes use of some basic principles about the nature of art, these principles are not necessarily universal and cohen certainly never claimed that they were. his aim was not to search for a set of universal principles, but rather to explore the ideas behind pictorial representation from the point of view of an artist. thus, aaron works on the pref- erences of its creator, and draws pictures similar in style to cohen himself. the second problem is the fact that a good price is not a sufficient condition for being ‘art’, and this is obvious to anyone familiar with art history. the fallacy in the argument is the direct result of the language barrier, the lack of a proper definition of ‘art,’ which is never formulated as concisely as a mathematical formula, but rather involves a lot of intuition and context. incidentally, the output of aaron is widely accepted as art, but for totally different reasons. first and foremost, it is harold cohen that legitimizes aaron’s out- put by being an artist, and by his willingness to exhibit them. secondly, the art venues that choose to exhibit them (e.g. moma) associate an artistic context with these pictures. we must not forget that in today’s artistic enterprise, what makes a piece an ‘artwork’ is necessarily different than what made it years ago. ramachandran fails to acknowledge the cultural and political side of aaron’s pictures. on the other hand, aaron proves the possibility of hav- ing a particular artistic style captured by a computer algo- rithm. whether the principles put forward by ramachandran and hirstein (ramachandran & hirstein, ) are overlap- ping with aaron’s evolved rules is an interesting question, but if there are a set of rules for universal aeshetics, it is likely to be a superset of both. as a gedankenexperiment, suppose that this set of rules does exist, and a program is written to create universally pleasing pictures. the output of this program can be considered as art, not because it will be aesthetically pleasing, but because it will have a unique place in the art historical debates on creativity and aesthetics. as the gedankenexperiment indicates, a better understanding of both art history and neurosciences is necessary to formulate experiments that produce results useful to both disciplines, and the assumptions and arguments used by neurologists do not always reflect an up-to-date understanding of arts. to overcome the language barrier, it is essential that these issues are debated jointly by both parties. another technoscience art example that forces its audi- ence to reflect on these issues comes from the curator and artist ippolito. in his work trusting aesthetics to prosthet- ics (ippolito, ), he scrutinizes three programs (written by others) in order to establish a new way of defining aesthetic values. the first program is firefly, which is an internet- based program that works like a search engine. it learns the musical preferences of its users through a set of music al- bums that the user has to grade from best to worst. then the program compares these preferences with the lists of other users, and notifies the user about musicians that are of po- tential interest, as well as about the new releases of his/her favorites. the preferences of the user are stored by the sys- tem, and represent the aesthetic taste of the user. ippolito calls this set of preferences the ‘prosthetic ego’ of the user. what the program does is a simple comparison of all pros- thetic egos. it does not have a set of pre-established aesthetic values, but nonetheless, it is able to make good suggestions. according to ippolito, this is a process where the aesthetics is created on the fly, without any judgments or strict rules, where only the subject’s position is needed at the first step when the user trains the prosthetic ego: “no one is in charge, and theoretically, no one’s taste is more important than any others” (ippolito, ). the second program, interactive genetic art, works on for a discussion of the creativity of the tools produced by ai in general see e.g. (tijus, ; carrier, ). even though art escapes a precise definition in humanities, it is often the case in neuroesthetics that a particular reseach agenda leads to a particular definition of arts. usually such definitions dis- regard the conceptual (and thus political and cultural) dimension of arts and focus on visual qualities. one such example claims that “the purpose of art, surely, is not merely to depict or rep- resent reality -for that can be accomplished very easily with a camera- but to enhance, transcend, or indeed even to distort real- ity.” (ramachandran & hirstein, ). technoscience art: a bridge between neuroesthetics and art history? assumptions similar to those of the firefly, but operates with visual input rather than audio. interactive genetic art does not operate over the internet, but runs on users’ computers in a way that resembles the genetic evolution of dna. in the first ‘generation,’ the program displays a number of simple forms (e.g. circles, lines, and dots) to the user, and asks the user to evaluate these forms. the user preference acts as the fitness function, and exerts a selective pressure on the forms as the program explores the form space. according to the answers received from the users, the program eliminates the disliked forms from the next generation. in a few genera- tions, the program moves on to much more complex shapes, and eventually to compositions and artworks. the third program considered by ippolito is tierra, which was written by the evolutionary biologist tom ray (ray, ). it is one of the forerunners of artificial life (a-life) programs, and simulates artificial life forms, which are a col- lection of programs that reside in computers memory. these try to create copies of themselves, thereby competing with each other for a scarce resource, i.e. memory. writing short programs that duplicate themselves has been an old challenge for computer programmers. tierra is able to evolve programs that are shorter and more efficient in duplicating themselves than programs created by experienced programmers. more- over, there appear virus-like programs that lack a replication mechanism, and consequently are very short. these pro- grams can harness the replication mechanisms of other pro- grams in the memory. in some generations, these programs dominate the memory, but as the programs on which they rely for replication get scarcer, they fail to replicate themselves. non-linear dynamics similar to actual evolution in a natural environment emerge, and niching behaviour is observed. for ippolito, tierra turns into an aesthetic-evolution machine. he proposes to apply tierra to estimate aesthetic judgments by running it to evolve programs with prosthetic egos of their own, without any input from user’s preferences. the idea is that small programs that have never been in touch with the aesthetic and social criteria of the academy, aestheticians and art historians stand a chance of creating an evaluation system that is not tainted by an abject subjectivity. these examples demonstrate that art created with a deeper understanding of science, technology and art theories brings about a perspective that easily questions the assumptions de- rived from any single disciplinary knowledge and the sur- rounding culture. art historians and neuroscientists have different preconceptions about the definition of art. one of the basic assumptions of art history is that art objects stipulate a certain feeling/condition that other objects can- not evoke (preziosi, ). neuroesthetics is based on a variation of this preconception, it assumes that this feeling is universal and that it is possible to quantify and measure this condition with the help of latest technological apparatus and through scientific experimentation. this is relevant for neuroscience particularly for the reason that if the emergent properties of human aesthetics could be dissociated from the cultural baggage and be studied on their own, they could pro- vide insights to the workings of the brain. neuroesthetics takes it for granted that aesthetic judgment is an innate fac- ulty of man, yet artists like ippolito question even this deeply ingrained idea of art history by taking the human out of the picture. our last example is an artwork that is neither created for the usual art market, nor to call for theoretical debates or to criticize the bare assumptions around the discourse of art and art history. it consists of a simple suggestion that imme- diately pushes on the boundaries of art as an enterprise. the idea is straightforward: take a white, ordinary ping pong ball, cut it into two halves, and lie down under a tree on a sunny day with these half-balls covering your eyes. the experi- ence is a homogenous fog-like opaque white colour (called ganzfeld) that has no equivalent sensation in any everyday environment. this fog will eventually create interesting sen- sations, as the mind tries to cope with the lack of informa- tion in the visual stimuli. in this special setting designed by scott daly, the environment is projected by the shadows of the trees, clouds and objects around the subject, and adds a soothing feeling to the ganzfeld sensation. ganzfeld is a neurophysiological phenomenon first de- fined by the german psychologist w. metzger in , and often used in parapsychology experiments (palmer, ). a person in the ganzfeld receives very little visual stimuli, and daly argues that what the person perceives is the ‘percep- tual process itself’ (daly, ). in proposing the ping pong ball experiment as an artwork, daly wanted to explore the entoptic phenomena. these are perceptions generated within the visual system, like experiencing afterimage affects after holding your hands on your eyes, or like seeing tiny little dots after looking at sky for a long period of time. daly was excited at the idea of creating an art object, or rather an art idea, which directly stimulated the brain, and made the viewer aware of his/her own perception process: “the ganzfeld, like dreams, is a medium we reside within; exter- nal influence is minimal. the ganzfeld is simultaneously a mode for artwork to occur within us, rather than to occur as a specific object.”(daly, ). the creative ideas put forward by artists can open up new research venues for neuroscience and neuroesthetics. in an interview for one of the earliest technoscience art exhibitions (cybernetic serendipity, held in ), charles csuri sug- gested using brain waves for drawing. he gave a deliberate and detailed plan of the experimental setup, and hyphothe- sized that if one could record and digitize brain waves, they could be transferred to the computer; subsequently one could command the computer to draw by only thinking about the drawing itself. csuri explained in detail how such a de- vice could be produced, and how a trained artist might get the computer to draw basic geometrical shapes. the ‘train- ing’ csuri had in mind is actually a cristallization of the thought process to such a degree that the mere thought of the daly is by no means the first artist who is interested in the ef- fects of extraordinary stimuli. as early as , baldwin exper- imented with similar visual stimuli while creating his kinetic art- works. he conducted experiments with photic-stimulation of alpha brain waves to explore the subliminal stimulation of visual percep- tion (r. baldwin, ; r. b. baldwin, ). alkim almila akdağ salah, albert ali salah shape results in a sufficiently expressive wave length, and al- lows an unambiguous interpretation by the computer (efland, ). this idea was futuristic for its time, yet today research on brain-computer interfaces report the possibil- ity of such interactions with computers, primarily intended for people with disabilities (wolpaw, birbaumer, mcfarland, pfurtscheller, & vaughan, ). the possibility of freeing the communication between the artist and the audience from the necessity of representation makes research into neurology of the brain very appealing to artists. peter weibel puts forth one attempt to resolve what he has termed the crisis of representation. weibel argues that technology is shaped by the prevailing sciences of its time. for an example, he relates the birth of cinema to the scien- tific understanding of th century. in a brief survey on the history of pre-cinema years, weibel points out to discoveries of physiology (e.g. optical illusions, and the laziness of the eye), which eventually are translated into technology as the motion-machine (i.e. cinematic apparatus). it follows that the technology of the future will be based on the scientific thinking of the th century. for him, the important paradigm shift in this century is the cybernetic understanding of ma- chines, whose functionality can be dissected into three vital properties: machines that are able to simulate perceptual pro- cessing, machines with receptors and effectors , and finally machines that simulate thinking (weibel, ). the real breakthrough occurs when we start thinking of the image as a system, and try to achieve a resolution for this system that will solve the problem of representation. accord- ing to weibel, who calls such an image as the intellectual image, we can achieve the solution if we operate on the res- olution of neurons. this idea forms the basis of a future cin- ema, a sort of neuro-cinema. thus, the technoscience artist wants to go beyond present interfaces, and have neuronal in- terfaces that are based on neuronal information theory, in which non-hierarchical, decentralized structures (like the in- ternet) are employed. in a sense, this is csuri’s futuristic view of producing artworks that are directly conveyed to the brain of the audience, without the taint of an intermediate medium. that is the artists’ challenge for the neuroscientist. conclusion in this paper we draw attention to problems created by the language barrier between art history and neuroesthetics, and propose technoscience art as a venue that stands the chance of bridging the gap between these disciplines. interdisci- plinary research areas like neuroesthetics often face the prob- lem of addressing audiences of diverse backgrounds, which manifests itself through the lack of a common technology and different research concerns. in the case of art history and neuroesthetics, there is the added complication introduced by the paradigmatic differences between science and human- ities. in particular, key concepts like arts, aesthetics, and rep- resentation do not have concrete definitions that can provide a solid ground for empirical research. in this context, technoscience art may serve a two-fold purpose. first and foremost, it can provide a collaborative setting that fosters individuals competent in both areas. in- deed, the need for collaboration lies at the core of techno- science art, as the first artworks of the genre were born out of joint efforts of innovative artists and scientists with access to computers that were so rare at the time. grounded in this legacy, technoscience artworks call for an interdisciplinary terminology. examples given in the last section demonstrate that such works indeed push the boundaries of research by questioning the unquestioned and challenging the assump- tions, which is the second contribution of technoscience art. neuroesthetics suffers from a lack of understanding per- taining to the relevant issues of the art historical agenda, and a neglect of cultural and social dimensions that are crucial for art history. consequently, its research questions are of limited relevance for art historians. another problem of neu- roesthetics is that it is almost completely confined to visual stimuli, whereas aesthetic judgements permeate all domains of experience. on the other hand, art history is plagued by an unfounded fear of reductionism with regards to neuroes- thetics. this is a direct consequence of the lack of a common ground between the disciplines, which this paper aims to al- leviate to a certain degree. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank john hunter, angelica afanador pujol, and bürkem cevher for their valuable com- ments. references arnheim, r. 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Маркузе Х. ding guoqi professor and director of marxist literary theory and criticism research centre, institute of literature, chinese academy of social sciences, beijing, china guoqiding@ .com art’s commitment to liberation in marcuse’s philosophy abstract: art has a liberating function because it stands on the opposite side of a suppressed society; it is deeply connected with the public’s daily life and has an inherent characteristic of “catharsis”, like describing a good society and identifying with freedom. in the eyes of the theorists of the frankfurt school, its form is what makes “art” art, while the autonomy of art is what realizes the transcendence and detachment of art over and from society and politics in reality by constructing a new and tangible kingdom of art. artistic form, artistic autonomy, and the liberation of mankind are the integral parts that form art and they constitute all the elements that are needed in the art world. for as long as art exists, it will keep its commitment to truth, happiness, and liberation. this paper examines the inevitable inherent relationship between art and liberation mainly through discussing and studying marcuse’s theories of art and aesthetics. keywords: frankfurt school, marcuse, artistic autonomy, liberation, man “artistic form” occupies an important position in the theory of herbert marcuse, a theorist of the frankfurt school. it is “artistic form” that endows his ideas with vitality and significance and makes his art and social critical theory unique, which eventually evolved into a theory of social transformation. reitz once said: “the foundation of the marcusean protest and the basis of his recommended political activity is not the concrete struggle of classes, nor the historical struggle of ideas. instead, his program is grounded in the ‘activism’ of the aesthetic form see- king after the earthly actualization of pleasure, beauty, happiness, and satisfaction”. marcuse’s concern for people ultimately settled in his concern for aesthetic issues, and his aesthetic ideas found roots in “artistic form” (aesthetic form). “artistic form” not only defends the indepen- dence and ontology of art, but also performs a very strong function of criticism and negation charles reitz, art, alienation and the humanities, albany, state university of new york press, , . discussions | art+media and shows a remarkable ability to transform reality. “artistic form” ensures people’s freedom and happiness from aspects of nature, as well as artistic and human liberation, and preserves and shapes elements leading to the future of mankind. marcuse’s theory of “artistic form” in marcuse’s view, “throughout the long history of art, and in spite of changes in taste, there is a standard which remains constant”. this constant standard refers to the standard of artistic form. what makes art art is the existence of artistic form; therefore, form is the reality of art, and it is art itself. artistic form is also known as “aesthetic form” which, in marcuse’s eyes, is the result of the transformation of a given content (actual or historical, personal or social fact) into a self-contained whole: a poem, play, novel, etc. the work is thus ‘taken out’ of the constant process of reality and assumes a significance and truth of its own. the aesthetic transformation is achieved through a reshaping of language, perception, and understanding so that they reveal the essence of reality in its appearance: the repressed potentialities of man and nature. the work of art thus re-presents reality while accusing it. here, the value of form is similar to mathematical permutations and combinations. as an example, take the configuration of carbon atoms in chemistry: graphite and diamond are so strikingly different in hardness only because their carbon configurations are different. in cin- ema, the techniques of montage also reflect the relationship of such a reorganization in form: the organization and arrangements of a number of different scenes enable the expression of the film’s theme. it thus follows that different combinations of arrangements will lead to quali- tatively different things. in marcuse’s eyes, the process of art is one of aesthetic transformation. it reveals the nature of reality through permutations and combinations of a given contents. that is, “the repressed potentialities of man and nature”. to this end, he proposed the concept of “the tyranny of form”. “a work of art is authentic or true not by virtue of its content (i.e., the ‘correct’ represen- tation of social conditions), nor by its ‘pure’ form, but by the content having become form.” “in the work of art, form becomes content and vice versa.” “a play, a novel become literary works by virtue of the form which ‘incorporates’ and sublimates ‘the stuff ’.” the “tyranny of form” is the inevitable overwhelming trend in a work that prescribes that no line or sound may be replaced and suppresses the immediacy of expression. not only poetry and drama, but also realist novels must transform the reality, which is their material, and supply its contents and experience with a “heteronomous” power, which will lead to the production of a new awarene- ss and consciousness, to represent their essence as envisioned by art (form). herbert marcuse, the aesthetic dimension: towards a critique of marxist aesthetics, boston, beacon press, , x. ibid, . ibidem. ibid, ibid, . art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april marcuse believes that stories and plots are roughly similar at different times and in diffe- rent ethnic groups and that the objects and creative materials they depict can be shared by others, meaning that these “contents” are not what makes a work “a work”. what makes a work a work of art can only be “form”. furthermore, it is form that removes, dissociates, and alienates a work from a given reality and allows it to enter into its own reality. in this way, the “form” possessed by art itself confronts the effort to withdraw the view which regards art as “the second reality” and to transfer the truth of creative imagination into “the first reality”. art is not something subordinate to reality; on the contrary, it becomes an independent existen- ce because of its unique form. “form as art’s own reality, as die sache selbst.” “form is the achievement of the artistic perception.” discussing art whilst deviating from its form goes diametrically against art. of course, form is not haphazardly organized in art. marcuse believes that the material, stuff, and data of art (words, sounds, lines, and colours, as well as thoughts, emotions, images) are ordered, interrelated, defined and “contained” in the oeuvre in such a manner that they consti- tute a structured whole. “the laws or rules governing the organization of the elements in the oeuvre as a unified whole seem of infinite variety, but the classical aesthetic tradition has given them a common denominator: they are supposed to be guided by the idea of the beautiful.” the combination of artistic elements based on the principle of “the beautiful” creates a world of art, a realm of form that brings people consolation beyond the reality for the human soul. it provides people with something “higher”, “deeper”, and “better” that people worship but can never obtain in reality. different from the established reality, artistic reality in the realm of art is the result of “aesthetic transformation” (formalization) which is a sublimation of real life. the realm of form is associated with human sensuousness and obeys the principle of pleasure, which confronts the operating principles in reality. marcuse advocates a return to “immediate” art, because “immediate” art is closely related to the most fundamental, corporeal “sensuousness” of humans. “the search is for art forms which express the experience of the body (and the ‘soul’), not as vehicles of labor power and resignation, but as vehicles of liberati- on. this is the search for a sensuous culture.” “immediate” art is a kind of real human sensuous art because it is a reflection and activation not only of the intellect and a refined, distilled, and delimited sensuousness, but also of natural experience and feelings freed from social requi- rements in a declining exploitative society. marcuse believes the logic implemented by art is one of satisfaction. behind the sublimated artistic form, there is unsublimated content – art’s obedience to the principle of pleasure. as marcuse puts it, “the aesthetic form is sensuous form – constituted by the order of sensuousness. if the ‘perfection’ of sense-cognition is defined as beauty, this definition still retains the inner connection with instinctual gratification, and aesthetic pleasure is still pleasure.” the art of form is a kind of natural sensuous art. the discussion above was meant to show that marcuse’s concept of “form” did not come out of thin air and that it had its profound historical origins in the theory of form. regardless of its absorption of aristotle’s constitution theory of “form” and “material”, or the reflection on kant’s dictum that “beauty originally only relates to form”, or the apperception of the gist of the claim of “art for art’s sake” proposed by “aestheticism”, marcuse’s identification and choice of “aesthetic form” theories definitely include his own values and ideals. herbert marcuse, an essay on liberation, boston, beacon press, , . herbert marcuse, “art as form of reality”, new left review, , no. , – . herbert marcuse, counter-revolution and revolt, boston, beacon press, , . herbert marcuse, eros and civilization: a philosophical inquiry into freud, boston, beacon press, , . discussions | art+media marcuse’s thought on “the autonomy of art” “aesthetic form” constructs a unique realm of form that distinguishes art from “the given” by its principle of “autonomy”. in the aesthetic form, the autonomy of art constitutes itself. it was forced upon art through the separation of mental and material labor, as a result of prevailing relations of domination. dissociation from the process of production became a refuge and a vantage point from which to denounce the reality established through domination. when the division of labour makes art a separate category, art is characterized by its ali- enation from real life. marcuse conducted a relatively detailed discussion on this point in his early work, the german artist novel. aesthetic form constitutes art itself, and the autonomous qualities of art endow art with independence and freedom. as marcuse argues, to ascribe the nonconformist, autonomous qualities of art to aesthetic form is to place them outside ‘engaged literature’, outside the realm of praxis and produc- tion. art has its own language and illuminates reality only through this other language. moreover art has its own dimension of affirmation and negation, a dimension which cannot be coordinated with the social process of production. in other words, autonomy and form constitute art’s dimension of independence, which refuses to join the mainstream in real life. in a developed industrial society, where everything is likely to be integrated in its given re- ality, the autonomy of art is particularly important, because a “subversive counterculture today is conceivable only in contradiction to the prevailing art industry and its heteronomous art. that is to say, a real counterculture would have to insist on the autonomy of art, on its own au- tonomous art”. as a subversive force, art cannot be expected to express social revolt directly; we need to count on art’s reliance on autonomy. among the members of the frankfurt resear- ch institute, marcuse and adorno both greatly emphasized the political function of art, while their respective understandings of the function of art differed concerning this point. marcuse emphasized the “autonomy” of art, whereas adorno focused on the “negation” of art, which means that marcuse regarded aesthetics as that of liberation and adorno as that of criticism. marcuse tends to highlight and reserve the fundamental “heteronomous” feature of art and culture. in his view, a certain culture is inevitably produced when the bourgeois era achieves a certain stage in its course of development. culture shows that the mental and spiritual world, as independent realms of value, are superior to civilization, which alienates culture from the civilized world. this alienation remains crucial in developed industrial societies. only by keeping this alienation will art not be integrated into the established society and become its negation, so that it may be an art of liberation. by contrast, adorno emphasized art’s direct opposition to existing society. for example, he believed that the herbert marcuse, the aesthetic dimension: towards a critique of marxist aesthetics..., op. cit. . ibid, . ibid, . art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april anti-realistic moment in the modern novel, its metaphysical dimension, is called forth by its true subject matter, a society in which human beings have been torn from one another and from themselves. what is reflected in aesthetic transcen- dence is the disenchantment of the world. in his aesthetic theory, philosophy of new music, negative dialectics, and other works, adorno expressed the idea that art in contemporary society should have “negative” character- istics, which he also posited as the highest aesthetic features of art. on the basis of that, he goes further, mounting a “defense against a variety of -isms”; that is, he mounts an aesthetic de- fence of the rationality of the existence and appearance of a number of schools of modernism, ranging from impressionism, expressionism, cubism, dadaism, to absurdism. as timothy j. lukes writes, adorno believes that relevance is a large part of art’s attractiveness and power. for marcuse, however, play, harmony, and communality are not improper ae- sthetic themes, even in contemporary technological society. in fact, for marcu- se, the power of aesthetics is its ability to consider the most irrelevant things, and any attempt to subordinate that ability to this or that ‘proper’ context only impedes the aesthetic contribution to liberation. marcuse is critical of modern art because it betrays form and autonomy, whereas adorno fully appreciates modern art in that it confronts the reality and abandons imitation. obviously, marcuse’s perspective is more penetrating. orientation toward “truth” in marcuse’s artistic thought marcuse’s thought on “artistic form” is infused with more meaningful elements when exploring “form”. in particular, he does not study form merely from the perspective of form, but often combines “form” organically with the fate of human liberation and people’s dissatis- faction with repression in real life so that his thought on form presents distinct and revolutio- nary practical features, which naturally adds theoretical value and truth to his theory. as long as art exists, it will keep its commitment to truth; for as long as it is art, it is an existence of “form”. marcuse argues: “that which it has achieved, shown, and revealed in authentic forms, contains a truth beyond immediate realization or solution, perhaps beyond any realization and solution”. “truth” in art refers not only to the internal consistency and logic of a work, but also to the confirmation of its words, image, sound, and rhythm. elements of a work, such as text, structure, and rhythm, are an “objective” existence inviting people to identify and recreate, and they constitute the objectivity of the work. “nor is this objectivity of the oeuvre, its general validity, canceled by the fact that those who created it have come from theodor w. adorno, “the position of the narrator in the contemporary novel”, in: notes to literature (volu- me one), trans. shierry weber nicholsen, shanghai, shanghai foreign language education press, , – . timonthy j. lukes, the flight into inwardness, selinsgrove, pennsylvania, susquehanna university press, , . herbert marcuse, “art as form of reality”, op. cit. discussions | art+media bourgeois families: a confusion of the psychological and ontological realm.” this objective existence makes up the eternal true connotation of a work. in marcuse’s view, in the world of art the fate of an individual (as described in literary and artistic works) represents not only himself, but also others. “the individual ‘embodies’ the uni- versal; thus he becomes the harbinger of a universal truth which erupts in his unique fate and place.” “aesthetic form” contains rich contents that are both specific and universal. “the ae- sthetic form responds to the misery of the isolated bourgeois individual by celebrating universal humanity, to physical deprivation by exalting the beauty of the soul, to external servitude by elevating the value of inner freedom.” the work of art transfers specific and individual content to the general social order to which it belongs. marcuse’s analysis is definitely profound. in his essay the affirmative character of culture, marcuse explains: “the critical and revolutionary for- ce of the ideal, which in its very unreality keeps alive the best desires of men amidst a bad reality, becomes clearest in those times when the satiated social strata have accomplished the betrayal of their own ideals”. these words are equally reasonable. the analysis of the truth of “aesthetic form” enables marcuse to obtain a proper way to examine existing society. the realm created by aesthetic deformation is a fictional realm of art, which presents “higher”, “deeper”, perhaps “truer”, and “better” things, as discussed above. “by virtue of this truth (which art alone can express in sensuous representation) the world is inverted – it is the given reality, the ordinary world which now appears as untrue, as false, as deceptive reality.” art opens a realm that is unattainable through other experiences where people, nature, and things no longer succumb to the established field of reality, so that the unspeakable is spoken, the otherwise invisible becomes visible, and the unbearable explodes. the truth that aesthetic form opens is directly related to human happiness. it is with the help of beauty that people make themselves involved in happiness. however, even the beautiful is affirmed by a noble heart in the ideal of art in that beauty contains dangerous destructive power threatening the established way of living. the direct sensuous nature of the beautiful can provide direct sensuous happiness. marcuse advances the idea that only in art, namely, in the dwelling place of ideal beauty, may happiness be reproduced as culture in the process of the integration of social life. neither philosophy nor religion, two cultural fields that resemble ideal truth in aspects other than those in which art does, can reproduce happiness as culture. philosophy increasingly produces distrust of happiness in its idealistic tendency, while religion merely positions happiness in the afterlife. ideal beauty is a form where desire is expressed and happiness satisfied; hence, happiness becomes the harbinger of truth. “and once it has taken form in the work, the beautiful moment can be continually repeated. it is eternalized in the art work. in artistic enjoyment, the percipient can always reproduce such happiness.” unlike the field of technology, the realm of art is a universe of fantasy and appearance. however, this appearance is similar to that kind of real quality of threats and commitment to the established reality. the universe of art is organized according to a fearless life image in various forms of camouflage and silence. although art does not possess the power to realize life or fully express life, herbert marcuse, counter-revolution and revolt, boston, op. cit. . ibid, . ibid, . herbert marcuse, negations: essays in critical theory, boston, beacon press, , – . herbert marcuse, the aesthetic dimension: towards a critique of marxist aesthetics..., op. cit. . herbert marcuse, negations: essays in critical theory..., op. cit. . art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april still, the powerless, illusory truth of art (which has never been more powerless and more illusory than today, when it has become an omnipresent ingredient of the administered society) testifies to the validity of its images. the more bla- tantly irrational the society becomes, the greater the rationality of the artistic universe. marcuse calls this rationality of art “specific rationality”. it is this “specific rationality” that demonstrates the truth of art and meanwhile exposes unhappiness in the given reality to people in the world. “even the most realistic oeuvre constructs a reality of its own: its men and women, its objects, its landscape, its music reveal what remains unsaid, unseen, unheard in everyday life. art is ‘alienating’.” human society will never be perfect; therefore, art will never perish. art’s commitment to happiness and truth will always beckon people to transform reality. aesthetic form, autonomy and truth, wh ich work together to constitute the complete contents of art, are interrelated and inseparable in the unity of art. theoretically the emphasis of “aesthetic dimension” constructed by “aesthetic form” makes marcuse’s theory of art both a sharp sword to wipe out the unfairness in the world and a mighty weapon to construct a beau- tiful society. “aesthetic dimension” casts a ray of hope toward the painful people living in rea- lity, re-empowers them with fantasy and utopian consciousness, and helps them find the only road leading human society from the realm of necessity to the realm of freedom. as the night ushers in the dawn or one is unexpectedly rescued from a desperate situation, the exploitation of aesthetic consciousness will relight the salvation fire stolen by prometheus so that humanity will re-gather strength to move forward, welcoming a new beginning in ecstasy of hope. contemporary value of marcuse’s thought on art and liberation marcuse’s concern for artistic and aesthetic issues is a modern echo of those unfading wise insights into the unique humanistic value of beauty and art in human history realized through the emphasis of “form” containing a certain kind of unique meaning. in an era of cultural cri- ses, the significance of “form” in aesthetics is that it makes the beautiful eventually become a pursuit of life in the dimension of value. as a response to the two historical waves of aesthetic consciousness – plato’s aesthetic con- sciousness suggested by “beauty itself ” and kant’s aesthetic consciousness characterized by the idea that “the delight of ‘beauty’ and the ‘form’ of ‘beauty’ achieve harmony because ‘human is the goal’” – marcuse’s restatement of aesthetic consciousness symbolized by “form” expresses his sensibility and deep concern in the face of the cultural crisis of humanity. especially in circumstances when everything is controlled by technical rationality, marcuse’s reflection on problems concerning technology and art, science and humanity in his thought on “aesthetic form” produces a serious topic of discussion. concerning the aesthetic dimension, reitz ar- gues that marcuse’s stress on form and autonomy produces a re-evaluation of the concept of “art as art” and the liberating potential of mental labour. in this sense, herbert marcuse, one-dimensional man: studies in the ideology of advanced industrial society, boston, be- acon press, , . herbert marcuse, “art as form of reality”, op. cit. huang kejian, “aesthetic self-awareness and aesthetic forms”, philosophical research, , , – . discussions | art+media marcuse’s aesthetic theory thus converts quite decisively from the militant acti- vist positions outlined in eros and civilization and an essay on liberation to an explicit reassertion of certain of the most contemplative values and assumptions of classical european aesthetics. humans will never abandon their pursuit of beauty because there is always a gap between reality and the realm created by beauty, and human worship for beauty is correspondingly considered a measure of social progress. at one point, marcuse distinguished and defined dis- tinctive and advanced concepts in modern western culture from the perspectives of “quality” and “quantity”. in his view, the advanced industrial countries have long since reached the stage of wealth and productivity which marx projected for the construction of a socialist soci- ety. consequently, a quantitative increase in material productivity is now seen to be insufficient in itself, and a qualitative change in society as a whole is seen to be necessary. such a qualitative change presupposes, of course, new and unalie- nating conditions of labour, distribution and living, but that alone is not enou- gh. the qualitative change necessary to build a truly socialist society, something we have not yet seen, depends on other values – not so much economic (quan- titative) as aesthetic (qualitative) in character. the change in turn requires more than just a gratification of needs; it requires, in addition, a change in the nature of these needs themselves. this is why the marxian revolution in our age must look to art also, if it is to succeed. marcuse believes that advanced industrial society provides a wealth of material goods for the wellbeing of people, which, however, do not bring true happiness; on the contrary, the society “indicates a proto-fascist potential par excellence” and has fallen into the quagmire of cultural crisis. “one-dimensional” society and “one-dimensional” people condemn this world as a whole to languish in a state of morbidity, and only art and beauty might save such a society without its antithesis. “it (art) is committed to an emancipation of sensibility, imagination, and reason in all spheres of subjectivity and objectivity.” faced with such an “integrated” society, art and beauty shed the first rays of the dawn of human liberation. marcuse’s aesthetic stress on art’s resistance to reality and on human liberation is by no means blind; it is proper to position his thought in the framework of value because of the connotation of value itself. huang kejian argues that “achieving sublimeness” implied by “tra- cing origin” indicates the consistency between supreme morality and full happiness. it is utterly impossible to be fully realized in perceptual human world, but its ethereal light has always attracted people’s goodness of heart. this is actually just an ‘ought to be’ which has factual and authentic origins of humanity, it does charles reitz, art, alienation, and the humanities, albany, state university of new york press, , . richard kearney, dialogues with contemporary continental thinkers: the phenomenological heritage, manchester, manchester university press, , . herbert marcuse, counter-revolution and revolt..., op. cit. . herbert marcuse, the aesthetic dimension: towards a critique of marxist aesthetics..., op. cit. . art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april not belong to experienced or sensuous truth, it is ‘ethereal truth’ staying with people’s real intentions. the profound humanities in marcuse’s artistic thought are a “practical investment of hu- man life filled with conscience”. although he did not set a realistic model of the society of the future, the many soulful reminders he brought to human society enable people eventually to realize their potential and achieve happiness in the process of constructing a future society in order to achieve the goal of real freedom and liberation. desperation (helplessness) is earthly suffering; hope is the source of happiness; art and beauty arouse hope in people. marcuse did give us hope! huang kejian, “an introduction to metaphysics of value”, in: a personal anthology of huang kejian, guilin, guangxi normal university press, , . riha journal | november homage to dynamism: a contribution to the study of the iconography of the machine cult in orphism dragan tasić faculty of arts and design, john naisbitt university, belgrade abstract one of the trends in the early days of cubism, orphism was a style of painting that evolved in paris during the period between and . the orphists rejected the rigid principles of a non-abstract art and returned to “pure color” with the purpose of communicating their intense enjoyment. they were imbued with the new spirit and fascinated by the technological progress of the modern world. robert delaunay’s homage to blériot was painted in a state of extreme spiritual happiness, reflecting the whole atmosphere of the times. it is a testimony to the skills of the airplane constructors – the new heroes of a modern epic fantasy. world war i, however, spelled the end of the enthusiasm and optimism of the machine age. [ ] looking from our vantage point today, it is not difficult to see that robert delaunay’s painting homage to blériot (fig. ) marked the end of orphism or orphic cubism. furthermore, blériot appears to have marked a significant watershed in its own right, signifying not the beginning, but rather the culmination of an exceptional epoch in the european past. this work summarizes the experience of its author and the orphists in their quest for a sublime poetics of modernity, bearing testimony to the new spirit as a product of its era and a virginia spate, orphism: the evolution of non-figurative painting in paris, – , oxford (with bibliography). delaunay executed several paintings, drawings and sketches on the subject, the most famous of which being the monumental version now in the kunstmuseum basel and the oil on canvas in the musée de grenoble. see also franz meyer, "robert delaunay, hommage à blériot, ", in: jahresbericht der Öffentlichen kunstsammlung basel , - ; gustav vriesen and max imdahl, robert delaunay: light and color, trans. m. pelikan, new york (© ); bernard dorival, robert delaunay - , paris and brussels ; sherry a. buckberrough, robert delaunay: the discovery of simultaneity, ann arbor, mi ; robert delaunay, - . de l'impressionnisme à l'abstraction, ed. pascal rousseau, exh. cat., paris ; gordon hughes, “envisioning abstraction: the simultaneity of robert delaunay’s first disk”, in: the art bulletin , no. ( ), - ; robert delaunay: hommage à blériot, ed. roland wetzel and sigrid schade, exh. cat., bielefeld and leipzig ; gordon hughes, resisting abstraction: robert delaunay and vision in the face of modernism, chicago and london . riha journal | november visual expression of the exaltation of the modern age. such a powerful and omnipresent emotion was crucial to the creative endeavor of that revolutionary period. robert delaunay, homage to blériot, , glue-bound distemper on canvas, x cm. kunstmuseum basel, martin p. bühler, purchased (photograph: wikimedia commons) [ ] with that in mind, let us turn to the time between the first group exhibition of the cubists, held in , and the salon des indépendants of , when homage to blériot was exhibited. the aesthetics based on cézannesque formulas and the principle of the multiplication of perspectives as well as the reduction of forms to simple geometric shapes, and, on the whole, based on a new perception of reality reached its apex during the so-called analytical phase of cubism. the rupture with the principles of mimesis took on a dramatic form; the process of the destruction of form brought the painting on the verge of abstraction, and the 'heroic' walk on the very edge of representation would continue through the next, “classical” cubist period, also called “hermetic”. the broken and scattered fragments or 'facets', as abstract entities, could only be reconstructed by certain characteristic details. a row of buttons, a moustache, the strings and sound hole of a guitar, or some stenciled letters later on ̶ words associating the bohemian atmosphere of bars, bistros, and nightclubs ̶ would become visual 'keys', always capable of bringing the painting back to the safety of the representational world. neither picasso nor braque participated at the first public showing of cubism, which took place in salle (room ) at the indépendants, so that the highly dynamic development of the analytical breaking down of form and space were known only to the closest associates of the first cubists; robert delaunay guillaume apollinaire, the cubist painters [ ], translated and commented on by peter read, berkeley and los angeles . – john golding, cubism: a history and an https://www.wikiart.org/en/robert-delaunay/homage-to-bleriot https://www.wikiart.org/en/robert-delaunay/homage-to-bleriot riha journal | november and fernand léger were certainly among the most progressive of their followers who took part. they understood the language of cubism very well but each of them, having achieved the basic objective, sought out his own idiom by experimenting with form, space, and color. using the teachings of the chief protagonists as foundations on which to build their individual styles, both artists showed decisiveness and ingenuity in rejecting some crucial principles of the then rapidly evolving aesthetics. first and foremost, the suppression of color and volume was unacceptable. what is more, they decidedly left the smoky milieu of bistros, bars and nightclubs for something more precious to them: they ventured out into the streets, but not in order to catch the glimpses of the urban landscape the way the impressionists or the fauvists did. instead, they wanted to celebrate the lively and fervent metropolis as a stage of technological revolution, from which they could speak out loudly and freely. moreover, they were willing to participate wholeheartedly in the creation of history. the dialects of cubism eventually developed into new poetics. in his tubism, léger builds an imaginary futuristic world of mechanics and robotics ̶ the world of cylindrical shimmering metallic forms, machinelike elements, joints and structures reminiscent of industrial-organic shapes. in trying to find his own way out of cubism, delaunay displayed a somewhat more poetic approach to modern issues, striving to produce works that reveal passionate enthusiasm of a convert who had just been initiated, with an equally passionate desire to awake faith in the future in his fellow contemporaries. an orphic painting abounds with motifs, fragments, constructions, and machinery, along with pure forms as metaphors, signs, and symbols of the modern world. [ ] using picasso’s “free and mobile perspective” in his eiffel tower ( ), delaunay managed to resolve plastically the problem of the complex construction that was hitherto intractable by traditional methods; he incorporated those “seven hundred feet of girders and beams, those four arches spanning three hundred feet” within the framework of his painting, as blaise cendrars noted in . however, apart from the visible efforts to present multiple aspects of one object simultaneously, one cannot fail to perceive in this work the contours of a whole new aesthetic. the color scheme was far from typical of the cubism of the time; quite the contrary, the works of the “analytical” phase were painted almost monochromatically. besides, delaunay’s iconography was not a cubist one. like léger, he seemed to be more preoccupied with the outward forms of modern analysis – , . rev. ed., london and new york , became a standard work in the field. since then the literature on cubism has grown considerably, with robert rosenblum, cubism and the twentieth-century art, new york , being a particularly vital contribution, etc. the painting shown by delaunay at the salon des indépendants of has been destroyed. however, it was very close to a version of a slightly later date, which is now in the guggenheim museum in new york, see: golding, cubism, , pl. ; visions of paris: robert delaunay's series, exh. cat., ed. mark rosenthal, new york . blaise cendrars‘ writing quoted according to gustav vriesen and max imdahl, robert delaunay: light and colour, new york , ; cf. edward hirsch, ed., transforming vision: writers on art, boston etc. . riha journal | november civilization, those technological masterpieces which were soon to become symbols of the new age. the work of modern architecture and sculpture at the same time, which would put in the shade all the existing edifices of cultural and historical significance, thus spoiling the “untouched beauty of paris”, as the fierce critics of it had maintained, inspired avant-gardists with enthusiasm and admiration. as the colossus was being built, a new aesthetics of built steel began to appear, attracting considerable interest of contemporary artists. they glorified the art of the engineer who seemed to have taken particular pleasure in exposing the intricacies of his construction. a thousand feet of open form, made of metal pieces held together by rivets, suggesting accuracy and precision, heralded a new era in materials, design and construction methods, but also revealed its poetic qualities for the rhythm of the intertwined girders of that 'temporary' installation evoked a new sentiment of modernism. it looks as if such a futuristic concept of light and airy mechanical structure could well be incorporated into an airframe design of some kind. in that glorious age of record breaking, the eiffel tower was to become the new pharos ̶ wonder of the modern world and the symbol of the city of light. a lighthouse in the sea of history, this work resembling a launching ramp of some kind, was more than suggestive of what would be achieved in the foreseeable future; in somewhat less than eighty years from the dedication of the eiffel tower in paris, man would land on the moon. [ ] in order to express modernity so deeply felt, delaunay and léger reintroduced color into what was still essentially the structure of cubism. by using the method of contrasting colors and volumes, they sought to generate movement in their paintings, in opposition to the somewhat static character of cubism. indeed, with these devices they achieved extraordinary vigor, adding to the painting’s dynamic qualities. the emphasis was yet again placed on poetic content in art, and a painting was expected to exceed the boundaries of perception and the fundamental meaning, while simultaneously suggesting multiple emotions. seen in this way, the cubist concept of multiple perspectives was further developed. delaunay considered color a structural and expressive element. therefore, the writings of eugène chevreul ( - ), hermann helmholtz ( - ), ogden rood ( - ), and paul signac ( - ) played an important part in his art. the phenomena they observed were based on verifiable scientific principles. laboratory experiments had already proven to be far more superior to the other methodologies that could be used to establish theoretical propositions. by lending an aura of scientific legitimacy to the creative process, the intellectual triumph opened new horizons giving the artists a greater sense of achievement and self-confidence. while his work conjoined art and science, delaunay, like many of his contemporaries, had a vision of his own. it was well based on his own experiences and intuition: “i have dared an architecture of color […] in the hope of creating a dynamic poetry which remains wholly in the realm of visual means, without any kind of literary associations and descriptive anecdotes”. the beginnings of that color-dynamism had already been heralded by delaunay in a according to the letter signed by a group of leading architects, artists and writers published in the newspaper le temps on february ; see henri loyrette, gustave eiffel, new york , . riha journal | november series of studies of the eiffel tower, and the concepts of geometric structures and simultaneism were further developed in his later series of paintings entitled the windows, created between and . around the same time, he presented his simultaneous windows and simultaneous disks series, wherein he promoted his formula of “simultaneous contrast”. those paintings were based on cézannesque principles of contrast and harmony of colors, but delaunay explored the concept further, especially as influenced by chevreul’s theory of simultaneous contrasts of color. delaunay pointed out parallels between color and music: “i played with colors as one would express himself in music by a fugue of colored, varied phrases”. in a letter to wassily kandinsky in , he wrote about his studies in the transparency of color, whose similarity to musical notes had driven him to discover “the movement of color”. that dynamism of colors, similar to musical notes, led to kinetic sensation or the experience of motion through time and space. exploring these effects produced by modern technologies, he dispensed with the object, and all what was left was pure speed, the futurist ideal of aesthetic excellence. [ ] in his paintings of that period, there were no more orientation parameters, no reference points, roofs, buildings such as the eiffel tower, no quantifiable characteristics of the physical, natural world whatsoever. in his eagerness to represent sheer motion, he had to avoid any substantial elements. non-material speed was all that mattered. in his painting of entitled simultaneous disk, he continues to navigate through the masses of color with no measurable data. the interaction of colors is so intense that it seems as though the configuration of circle with concentric rings is moved by itself. delaunay’s simultaneism represents an open system of associations, in which the whole range of ideas about movement would allow us to perceive the painting as expressive of motion, the motion being an essential precondition for the existence of matter in time and space—from the structure of the atom to the movement of planets around the sun. artistically and poetically, simultaneous disk seem to have captured the revolutionary spirit of the time, bringing about the cognition of the concept of micro and macro universe, with no boundary between them. it is intriguing to speculate how much delaunay knew about physics at that time; however, it goes without saying that he very well understood the historical significance of his times, the atmosphere of change and development of science and technology in guillaume apollinaire, “the opening”, in: apollinaire on art: essays and reviews, – , ed. leroy c. breunig, trans. susan suleiman, new york , - ; robert delaunay, “on the construction of reality in pure painting”, in: the new art of color: the writings of robert and sonia delaunay, ed. arthur a. cohen, trans. david shapiro and arthur a. cohen, new york , - . translated from delaunay’s notebook, collection of mme. sonia delaunay, paris, cited in part in: françois gilles de la tourette, robert delaunay, paris , , and denys sutton, “robert delaunay”, in: magazine of art (october ), - , quoted in: herschel b. chipp, “orphism and color theory”, in: the art bulletin vol. , no. (march ), - , here p. , n. . “robert delaunay, letter to wassily kandinsky, ”, in: theories of modern art, ed. herschel b. chipp, berkeley , . riha journal | november modern society. the rutherford atomic model, or planetary model of the atom, was proposed in , bohr’s model was introduced in , and it might almost seem as if delaunay wanted to leave some space for future discoveries to be conveyed or interpreted through that fantastic structure of infinity. [ ] solar disks and simultaneous dynamism predominate in his sun, tower, airplane (fig. ). the painting is literally filled with light decomposed into variously colored rays due to refraction and dispersion. circular forms, positive energy of light and color, along with the symbols of modern age or technological progress, joined together in a sublime, spiritual constellation. a sumptuous coloristic fantasy of swirling masses seems to suggest the idea of the lift force which sustains the airplane in flight as well as the burst of creative energy without which there would be no science, no arts, and no life. robert delaunay, soleil, tour, aéroplane [sun, tower, airplane], , oil on canvas, x cm. collection albright–knox art gallery, buffalo, new york, a. conger goodyear fund (photograph: albright–knox art gallery, buffalo, new york) once again, with all his persistence and inquisitiveness, delaunay managed to instill a new spirit into his painting. the dynamism of colors became the new expression of modernity; it manifested itself in the simultaneous contrast—“the most powerful means to express reality”, as delaunay put it. [ ] in the painting homage to blériot (fig. ), apollinaire saw the perfection of coloristic composition, which came as a result of the successive experiments conducted by its author; he named that particular chromatic technique orphism, robert delaunay, “on the construction of reality in pure painting”, in: charles harrison and paul wood, eds., art in theory, – : an anthology of changing ideas, oxford , - . https://www.albrightknox.org/artworks/ -soleil-tour-a%c %a roplane-sun-tower-airplane riha journal | november alluding to its intense lyricism. the composition features a variety of solar disks, circular shapes creating that simultaneous sensation of light and movement. however, in the abstract continuum of whirling forms and colors there is one concrete motif which dominates all others, both visually and iconographically. in the left foreground, there is a large propeller—a sublime, futuristic symbol of the dizzy progress of technology. this is the motif that appears again and again in delaunay’s paintings. the changing ideas and new scientific ways of thinking established a new relationship of interdependence between discoveries and technological advances; the new spirit of the age brought a new art of engineering and with it a characteristic sentiment of sympathy and affection towards the perfection of form and 'plastic values' of the machine objects. in léger’s words: “hanging on the wall in the popular bals-musettes, you will find aeroplane propellers. they strike everyone as being objects of beauty, and they are very close to certain modern sculptures”. [ ] much like his fellow contemporaries, léger was fascinated with the world of mechanical engineering, and the image of the attractive object, which was to become a symbol of the modern age, quickly made its way into his art. the design and geometric features of the new propulsion device seem to have embodied some key principles of the traditional aesthetics, apart from the essentially novel ones. thus, the proportion, movement, and balance of the twisted airfoil-shaped propellers invented by the wright brothers, were easily harmonized with the forms and colors of 'pure painting'. represented naturalistically or stylized, simplified, sometimes reduced to a mere sinusoidal shape, propeller became a recurring motif in the work of fernand léger, robert delaunay, and sonia delaunay following their break with cubism. indeed, 'l’hélice' was looming large in delaunay’s imagination and there are quite a few paintings featuring a propeller combined with simultaneous discs. however, in the homage to blériot the propeller was not incorporated as a mere aeronautical detail whose function would be solely to serve an emblematic purpose, as in delaunay’s other paintings. if we look more closely, we can see that this 'symbolic object' represents the blériot xi monoplane; among the abstract swirls of color, we discern familiar shapes: the propeller, nose cowl, wings, and the undercarriage of that particular aircraft in which louis blériot made the first flight across the english channel in . this first-ever overseas plane flight, as well as the first international one, was the greatest achievement in the history of aviation following the kitty hawk flight of the wright brothers in . standing guillaume apollinaire, “modern painting, ”, in: apollinaire on art: essays and reviews, – , ed. leroy c. breunig, trans. susan suleiman, new york , . reyner banham, theory and design in the first machine age, new york ; marjorie perloff, the futurist moment: avant-garde, avant-guerre, and the language of rupture, chicago and london , xvii, n. ; david cottington, cubism in the shadow of war: the avant-garde and politics in paris – , new haven and london ; tom slevin, visions of the human: art, world war i and the modernist subject, london ; andreas broeckmann, machine art in the twentieth century, cambridge, ma, and london . fernand léger, “the new realism goes on”, in: the functions of painting by fernand léger, ed. by edward f. fry, trans. alexandra anderson, new york , - . riha journal | november before this painting, seeing what is at the same time hidden and revealed, one might feel like an initiate into some ancient mystery. as a matter of fact, we could hardly think of a better name for this 'lyrical style of pure art' than orphism. the circular forms of primary and intermediate colors might as well symbolize white light broken down by a prism. and out of that light of knowledge there appear triumphant symbols of human achievement, with the most famous monoplane of its time depicted far more naturalistically than any other identifiable object in the painting; the eiffel tower, two other aircraft, and a few human figures are highly stylized. this painting, which concluded the period of what came to be known as orphic cubism, provides a fine illustration of how the “cubist pictorial construction was elevated to the domain of visual poetry”. [ ] artists such as delaunay and léger were convinced that beautiful poetic content was deeply embedded in remarkable modern forms, such as the eiffel tower, the airplane, the automobile, and other innovations tending to remind us of something great. as an urban landmark of an unprecedented scale, the eiffel tower soon became the prototypical image of growth and rapid development, serving as a beacon for modern art and design. moreover, this marker of a unique identity reminds us of yet another beginning; it was constructed in at the entrance to the champ de mars on the occasion of the exposition universelle held in paris during the year of the th anniversary of the fall of the bastille. twenty years after the ceremonial opening, precisely in the year of blériot’s historic flight, a radiotelegraph was set up on the eiffel tower, and so this iconic edifice was made to figure as another symbol of the exploitation of the ether. apart from opening up a whole new dimension of communication, those events also provided a variety of inspiration to draw from. [ ] with homage to blériot (fig. ), delaunay painted a subject taken directly from contemporary life. however, he reduced the subject matter to simple multicolored shapes, with aeronautical symbols or modernist motifs; his homage to blériot was based on contemporary history. we may even suppose that the author chose the particular moment when the blériot xi, “bearing the weight of humanity, of thousands of years of endeavour”, was triumphantly carried through the streets of early twentieth-century paris when it was taken to the conservatoire national des arts et métiers. however, in treating a historical piece, delaunay went further and gave a new formulation of a contemporary theme in painting. he created a magnificent vision of modern life in a work which eloquently reproduces the cultural and historical context in which he was moving. [ ] after blériot’s crossing of the channel, more and more enthusiasts enjoyed the thrill of seeing “those magnificent men in their flying machines”. in august werner haftmann, painting in the twentieth century, vols., trans. ralph mannheim, london , vol. , . fernand léger, “the new realism goes on”, ; christopher green, léger and the avant-garde, new haven and london . guillaume apollinaire, the cubist painters, . such is the title of a british comedy film on the topic directed by ken annakin, as well as of a book by bill richardson and allen andrews, illustrated by ronald searle. both the riha journal | november , the great aviation meet was held near reims, france. the grande semaine d’aviation de la champagne was the first great international air exhibition in which almost all of the important names in aviation at the time took part. the voisin brothers, henri farman, luis blériot, and hubert latham, to name but a few, competed for altitude, distance, and speed records, in front of an audience of , people. a few years later, roland garros was the first to fly across the mediterranean, covering a distance of miles in less than eight hours. the french, in particular, showed intense enjoyment in celebrating their heroes’ achievements, and the airplane, as well as the eiffel tower, was given a significant place in the collective memory. soon, it became the new icon of the modern age, glorified in the paintings and poems of the fervent adherents of the machine cult. they belonged to the first generation privileged to see the dream come true, actually taking part in the adventure. [ ] the various versions of the painting, executed in different techniques, and the study of its composition demonstrate how the artist sought to achieve the effects greatly surpassing those of documentary paintings which were often commissioned by state officials as records of important events. for instance, looking at landing of louis blériot at dover, july , , painted by françois thévenot, we could hardly think of the thrill and excitement of the daring young men breaking barriers and challenging themselves and others to aspire to greatness. with this new approach to reality, created by marrying colors to geometric forms, multiple perspectives to the images of whirling hypnotic disks, all interwoven with symbols, we are invited to drift away, back to those days when the heights of mountains, the vastness of the ocean suddenly ceased to matter. with the earth’s gravity overpowered by the force of the airplane engine, nothing seems to have stood in our way to success. the gateway to the stars was open, and it seemed as if the universe was waiting for our next move, well, a smart move. imbued with the spirit of modern times and new ideals, delaunay wrote: “constructive mobility of the solar spectrum: dawn, fire, evolution of airplanes. everything is round, the sun, the earth, the horizon, the fullness of life, of poetry that cannot be verbalized—life á la rimbaud.” these words seemingly summarize all his reflections on the subjects of light, color, movement, simultaneity, and dynamism in modern painting. [ ] the evolution of airplanes, to which he points, began with the pioneer projects such as bleriot’s box-kite glider, or those of gabriel voisin and other constructors; the emblematic images of the planes or gliders flying over paris, which although look like the famous aircraft of those days, actually appear as somewhat heraldic in character. serving a rather symbolic purpose in delaunay’s painting, they suggest the idea of a sudden soaring success, as if defying those book and the film were released in . françois thévenot, aterrissage de louis blériot à douvres, juillet , , oil on canvas, x cm, musée national des châteaux de versailles et trianon. robert delaunay. du cubisme à l’art abstrait, documents inédits publiés par pierre francastel et suivis d’un catalogue de l’oeuvre de r. delaunay par guy habasque, paris . http://www.culture.gouv.fr/wave/image/joconde/ /m _ - _p.jpg http://www.culture.gouv.fr/wave/image/joconde/ /m _ - _p.jpg riha journal | november who might see the allusion here to phaeton’s flight. the airplane epitomized the development of modernity. narrating the history of heavier-than-air craft crowned with the magnificent blériot xi, these images illustrate the questioning of traditional values, the glorification of individualism, freedom as well as the faith in intellectual and every other kind of progress. the epoch of a new renaissance was ushered in by a proliferation of the culture of science, with technology being expressive of cultural values. the 'art of engineering' has brought a whole new kind of realism, in which the beauty of a flying machine arises from its function. that new beauty, like the beauty of a “racing car whose hood is adorned with great pipes”, emanates from the beauty of speed itself. it was speed, in the first place, that lifted the aircraft off the ground, adding a new dimension to our life. due to high speeds, the airplane brought about the most dramatic change in spatio-temporal relations, with aerodynamics dictating the ideal design of the craft that was to become a typical symbol of modern times. [ ] unlike thévenot’s painting, homage to blériot is not based on static concepts of form in three-dimensional space, and the absence of academic rigidity allowed for innovation and a variety of interpretations. all the splendor of imagination and creative ingenuity of the author burst forth in this eruption of color and movement, tearing down the limits of a purely mimetic representation. delaunay’s airplanes took off, carried by simultaneous dynamism; the whirling energy of colors produces the moving force and the 'lift' which sustains the material objects in the painting. in that consonance of tones and harmony of colors we can almost hear the airplane engines and feel the wind. it was the period that saw the birth of abstraction. a new orientation in art was established by artists like kandinsky who spoke about his synesthetic perceptions, the ability to see sounds or to hear colors. in the new age of multidimensionality, visual representations experienced as auditory percepts brought about significant changes in artistic and literary thought. the “art of noise began to reign supreme over human sensibility”, with the sounds of roaring machines coming even from the skies above. nowadays, when the cacophonous noises of all kinds proliferate, with the ever-increasing longing for the crisp sound of natural silence, it is not in any way easy to imagine all the excitement of those who eagerly listened to that inspirational mechanical music—the new art of machine rhythms, industrial noises, as proclaimed by the futurists. the very moment when the old world was driven into oblivion by the sound of the running motor marked one of the greatest watersheds in history. the remaining vestiges of the classical, academic era were being dismantled and it was all the more difficult for traditional formulas filippo tommaso marinetti ( - ), “the foundation and manifesto of futurism”, in: art in theory, – , eds. charles harrison and paul wood, oxford , - ; marianne w. martin, futurist art and theory – , oxford ; caroline tisdall and angelo bozzolla, futurism, london and new york ; arnold pacey, the culture of technology, cambridge, ma , - ; christine poggi, inventing futurism: the art and politics of artificial optimism, princeton and oxford . filippo tommaso marinetti, “the foundation and manifesto of futurism”, . luigi russolo, the art of noise: futurist manifesto , trans. robert filliou, new york , . riha journal | november to be applied to the emerging new phenomena. at that time, duchamp too sought to express a more dynamic conception, to organize kinetic elements, conveying time and space through the abstract presentation of motion, or to visualize the very process of traveling through the air: “now if i show the ascent of an airplane, i try to show what it does. i do not make a still-life picture of it.” [ ] delaunay’s sun disks and rhythms express the universal idea of movement. as in the eponymous series, the disks c r e a t e movement implicit in the rhythm of their colors, instead of expressing it through repetitive kinetic sensations—as in futurist paintings; in a dynamic and chromatic vision of the universe, they could represent celestial bodies, as well as a homage to speed itself, an allusion to a fast rotating propeller, with the unique motion blur color effect. this triumphal adventus of the airplane and its constructor into the modern era was conceived not as a moment in time, but rather as the process in which the observer, too, would take an active part in the creation of a history that continues to the present day. being an active participant rather than a detached historian, delaunay offers more than just another imaginative recreation of contemporary experience; therein lies his authenticity. henri rousseau, view of the bridge at sèvres and the hills at clamart, st-cloud, and bellevue, , oil on canvas, x cm, pushkin museum, moscow (photograph: wikimedia commons) [ ] a similar interest can be observed in the works of his contemporary henri rousseau ( - ), like the view of the bridge at sèvres and the hills at clamart, st-cloud, and bellevue, for example (fig. ). in his treatment of the subject of contemporary life, we can discern fascination, optimism, and delight, but expressed in a different fashion, a different vision of modernity. the images of the dirigible lebaudy patrie, a biplane, and a hot-air balloon are depicted with marcel duchamp, “painting ... at the service of the mind”, in: theories of modern art: a source book by artists and critics, ed. herschel b. chipp, berkeley , - . catalogue de reproductions de peintures à et dix-sept plans d’expositions , ed. unesco, paris . https://www.wikiart.org/en/henri-rousseau/view-of-the-bridge-at-sevres-and-the-hills-at-clamart-st-cloud-and-bellevue- riha journal | november precision as flying, or rather hovering, in mid-air. the painting is executed in a style that heralds the advent of surrealism. nothing seems to disturb the harmony of proportions and balance (with the imaginary vertical axis from the balloon to the boat, and the arrangement of the flying objects mirroring the line of the hills below), the primary objective being the symbolic aspect of the composition. the historical significance of the objects represented is alluded to by the accuracy of depiction alone, without the revolutionary zest of the era and without the energy and joy of delaunay’s or léger’s innovations. [ ] the two artists whose unadulterated desire was to produce a live image of their world in motion, shared still another common interest. in delaunay began working on a cycle of paintings inspired by the rugby match between cardiff and paris; in fact, during the following decade until , he completed several versions of l'équipe de cardiff (the cardiff team, fig. ) depicting the players in the heat of the game combined with la grande roue de paris—the famous ferris wheel—as well as two recurrent themes in his art, namely the eiffel tower as the archetypal image of modernity and an airplane. robert delaunay, l'équipe de cardiff, , oil on canvas, × cm. musée d'art moderne de la ville de paris (photograph: wikimedia commons) in order to depict all aspects of the dynamism of contemporary life, within his exuberant style he incorporates the organic motion, sport, and play. the unrestrained youthful energy, keen interest, spiritual and physical strength as well as the intense desire to compete and win as the spiritus movens of the modern epoch, the large ferris wheel like a mechanical equivalent of the simultaneous circle, closely associated with energy, the idea of the inevitability of progress, a distant allusion to the wheel of history, all merge in delaunay’s poetic vision of contemporary life. appearing again, in the upper register of the https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:robert_delaunay,_ ,_l'%c % quipe_de_cardiff,_oil_on_canvas,_ _%c % _ _cm,_mus%c %a e_d'art_moderne_de_la_ville_de_paris.jpg riha journal | november composition, there is a silhouette-like image of an airplane as a potent symbol of the desire to cross boundaries, to attain ever greater heights and distances; an astra poster advertises the famous aircraft construction company, with a part of delaunay’s name in capital letters, as if written on a billboard. [ ] this seemingly utopian construct of modern society bears a close resemblance to the features of the contemporary futurist representations based on the machine cult, the delirium of speed, the euphoric feeling that the time had come to realize millenarian goals. they, too, sought to reproduce the dynamic sensation itself; according to umberto boccioni ( - ), simultaneity is lyrical exaltation to the plastic manifestation of a new absolute—speed; of a new and marvelous spectacle—modern life; of a new fever—scientific discovery. […] it is the lyrical exponent of the modern conception of life, based on rapidity and contemporaneity of knowledge and communications. in his painting dynamism of a car, luigi russolo expressed the idea of speed by representing an automobile passing through the surrounding air, the flow around the front, the compression and breaking of sound waves, as if illustrating the doppler effect. as a consequence, we have a new model, a truly aerodynamically designed vehicle, shaped by the airflow. the study of air interacting with a car in motion resulted in what looks like a creative interpretation of modern scientific achievements and technological innovations. [ ] in that same year, similar experiments led giacomo balla a step further; his automobiles virtually disappeared in, so to speak, the abstract vision of the doppler effect. the use of cubist angular fragmentation in such vivid graphic representations of the aerodynamic forces, or the pressure variation around the object, even the wind noise, one could say, suggesting the increasing speed of the car, lead us to believe that the object itself was of secondary importance; speed was vital in making the car fly. in a poetic synthesis of form and space, it is the burning desire to express speed for the sake of speed, that makes us realize all the limitations of a traditional, renaissance composition. however, the futurist concept of visual dynamism was substantially different from the one proposed by the orphists. just as the cubists tried to solve the problem of transposing a three- dimensional object onto the flat picture surface, the futurists found a new means of representing the concept of motion, synchronizing its dynamics with the inherently static medium of painting. the futurists were borrowing the fragmentation of form and divisionism of color, while at the same time evolving their own means of expressing the new pictorial concepts. the principal aim was société astra des constructions aéronautiques, founded in . irina gutkin, “the legacy of the symbolist aesthetic utopia: from futurism to socialist realism”, in: creating life: the aesthetic utopia of russian modernism, eds. irina paperno and joan d. grossman, stanford , - . umberto boccioni, pittura scultura futuriste (dinamismo plastico), milan , ; quoted in: ester coen, umberto boccioni, new york , . luigi russolo, dynamism of a car, - , oil on canvas, x cm, musée national d’art moderne, centre georges pompidou, paris. riha journal | november to capture mobility, and not to represent the object in its totality; “thus a running horse has not four legs, but twenty, and their movements are triangular”, the forces of motion and air flow affect the shape of the car, etc. [ ] delaunay, however, did not insist on kinetic sensation but instead used various pictorial elements like prismatic colors, simple geometric shapes, and a more purely plastic form and construction as a means of expressing contrast and movement. his approach was more conceptual, reflecting in a way the belief that the human mind is also dynamic in nature, allowing the viewer to be drawn in or absorbed by the perpetual mobility of colors, objects, and ideas. the view of the relationship between the man and the machine is also significantly different from that of the futurists. the machine is not viewed as a new idol, it is a means, not an end; the idol is the man who creates it—the constructor of modern civilization. [ ] delaunay’s work was inspired by the art of cubism and the idea of simultaneity, to which he gave a new interpretation. to him the question of orientation or the degree of abstraction were of a lesser importance. moreover, it was the dualism in his work of a figurative style and an abstract manner that produced the greatest effects. quite often his exciting experiments resulted in a fantastic conjunction of the realistic observation and pure invention. in this way, he managed to achieve a unique synthesis of color and light, movement and sound in his constructions. his sincerest desire apparently was to embrace the whole world with the wings of an airplane. however, glorifying the beauty of the machine and speed, he was perhaps reluctant to contemplate the consequences of the dynamism of our world, namely to think about the airplane as the perfect vehicle for the delivery of bombs. local editor anne-laure brisac-chraïbi, institut national d'histoire de l'art, paris license the text of this article is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . umberto boccioni et al., “futurist painting: technical manifesto”, in: art in theory, – , eds. charles harrison and paul wood, oxford , - , . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / ( ) doi: . /arc wprowadzenie rok , weimar. to tu rozpoczął swoją działalność bauhaus, uczelnia artystyczno-rzemieślnicza powstała z połączenia akademii sztuk pięknych i szkoły rzemiosł artystycznych. rok , wrocław. na wydziale archi- tektury politechniki wrocławskiej, w zakładzie rysunku, malarstwa i rzeźby rozpoczynamy obchody upamiętnia- jące setną rocznicę powstania bauhausu, jednej z najważ- niejszych i najbardziej wpływowych uczelni xx w. nie budujemy niemych pomników, chcemy wrócić do idei bauhausowskich z perspektywy naszego czasu i miejsca, chcemy zaangażować studentki i studentów do wspól- nych działań. finałem całorocznego projektu jest wysta- wa oraz konferencja naukowa. w czasach budowania nowego ładu społecznego bau- haus chciał tworzyć przestrzeń odpowiednią dla funk- cjonowania nowoczesnego człowieka. był rewolucyjny, zapalił się do fundamentalnych zmian i wiedział, że ma ra- cję. andrzej turowski w manifeście artystyczno-politycz- nym sztuka, która wznieca niepokój podkreśla szczególny związek awangardy z polityką. jeśli rewolucyjne aspiracje * orcid: - - - . wydział architektury politech- niki wrocławskiej / faculty of architecture, wrocław university of sci- ence and technology, e-mail: karolina.jaklewicz@pwr.edu.pl wystawa z cyklu „przestrzeń architektury/przestrzeń sztuki – after bauhaus” prezentowana była w muzeum architektury we wrocławiu w dniach . – . . . pokazano prace wykładowczyń i wykła- dowców (h. bujak, e. górska, k. jaklewicz, p. jaszczuk, b. ju ch nie- wicz, d. Łuczewska, l. maluga, b. siomkajło, k. skwara, p. wesołow- ski) oraz studentek i studentów ii i iii roku wydziału architektury politechniki wrocławskiej. wystawa składała się z kilkudzięsięciu prac wykonanych w różnych technikach: przestrzennych (rzeźby, modele, meble), malarstwa, fotografii, kolaży, projektów graficznych. karolina jaklewicz* lyonel feininger – przestrzenie równoległe lyonel feininger – parallel spaces introduction the year , weimar. it was here that the bauhaus began its activity, an art and craft school which was es- tablished as a result of the merger of the academy of fine arts and the school of artistic crafts. the year , wrocław. at the faculty of architecture of wrocław uni- versity of science and technology, at the department of drawing, painting and sculpture, we began to celebrate the centenary of the bauhaus, one of the most important and influential universities of the th century. we do not build silent monuments, we want to return to the bauhaus ideas from the perspective of our time and place, we want to get our students involved in joint activities. the final of the year-long project is an exhibition and a scientific conference. in the times of building a new social order, the bauhaus wanted to create a space suitable for the functioning of modern man. it was revolutionary and it was passionate about fundamental changes and it knew it was right. an- drzej turowski in his artistic and political manifesto art that arouses anxiety emphasizes the special relationship between the avant-garde and politics. if the revolutionary the exhibition as part of the series “space of architecture/space of art – after bauhaus” was presented in the museum of architecture in wrocław on . – . . . the works of lecturers (h. bujak, e. gór ska, k. jaklewicz, p. jaszczuk, b. juchniewicz, d. Łuczewska, l. ma luga, b. siomkajło, k. skwara, p. wesołowski) as well as students of the second and third years of the faculty of architecture of wrocław university of science and technology were presented. the exhibition consisted of several dozen works made in various techniques, i.e. spa- tial (sculptures, models, furniture), painting, photography, collages, and graphic designs. karolina jaklewicz bauhausu przyrównać do motywacji twórców rosyjskiej awangardy, można uznać, że historie obu środowisk poto- czyły się podobnie – w rosji […] pułapką okazała się wia- ra w ideologię partyjnej władzy, która awangardy wcale nie pragnęła [ , s. ], w niemczech nazistowskie władze zamknęły ostatecznie bauhaus w r., a dzieła twórców modernistycznych umieściły na liście „sztuki zdegenero- wanej”, co w konsekwencji oznaczało emigrację progre- sywnych artystów. przywołuję relację sztuki i polityki, bo z perspektywy czasu interpretujemy sztukę jako wyraz es- tetycznych czy – jak w przypadku modernizmu – estetycz- no-funkcjonalnych dążeń. sztuka progresywna zawsze miała temperaturę polityczną, powinniśmy o tym pamiętać niezależnie od neutralizującego wpływu czasu . perspektywą zaangażowanej awangardy rosyjskiej lat . xx w. nie była władza, a rewolucja. sztuka miała być „skokiem ku wolności”, którą rewolucja zapowiadała. […] w historii kultury rosyjskiej państwa radzieckiego awangarda podejmująca wyzwanie polityczne przegrała. przegrała jej utopia społeczno-artystyczna w zderzeniu z ideologią poli- tyczną władzy sowieckiej, przegrało jej zaangażowanie z polityczną biu- rokracją komunizmu […]. przegrali tworzący ją artyści. pozostała jednak sztuka, której udało się odnaleźć w samej formie przykład artystycz- nej rewolucji, w odmienności kształtu – odwagę zerwania z konwencją, w eksperymencie – projekt nowego. o przegranej awangardy przesądzały aspirations of the bauhaus are compared to the motiva- tions of the founders of the russian avant-garde, it can be concluded that the histories of both environments were similar – in russia […] it was a trap to believe in the ideology of one party power, which did not want the avant-garde at all [ , p. ]. in germany, the nazi author- ities finally closed the bauhaus in and placed the works of modernist artists on the list of “degenerated art”, which as a consequence meant the emigration of progres- sive artists. i refer to the relationship between art and pol- itics because in retrospect we interpret art as an expression of aesthetic or – as in the case of modernism – aesthetic and functional aspirations. progressive art has always had a political temperature and we ought to bear this in mind, regardless of the neutralizing influence of time . the bauhaus’s spectacular influence on contemporary architecture and design is beyond dispute. among many outstanding lecturers in the school, i am particularly inter- ested in one figure. due to personal reasons. i was born in trzebiatów (german: treptow an der rega) in , i.e., forty-four years after lyonel feininger visited this area for the last time, which was then a popular summer holiday destination at the ostsee, the baltic sea. i look at some archival photos from those years, which were issued in a series of black and white postcards – regemunde (today mrzeżyno), a small settlement before world war ii at the mouth of the river rega, welcoming up to , summer visitors a year. hooded beach chairs regularly placed on the wide beach, fisherman’s huts, fishing boats and flags with swastikas waving over the beach. after these flags appeared, the feininger family never came to mrzeży- no again. in this article, i would like first of all to introduce the figure of lyonel feininger, point out his connections with today’s polish territories and the activities of the trzebi- atów cultural centre aimed at researching and popular- izing the seaside oeuvre of this artist. in the background, i emphasise the relationship between art and politics, be- tween art and history, that is, the relationships between those spheres that art tries to avoid, although they are inevitable . the text is accompanied by the illustrations made in by female students – paintings from the the perspective of the engaged russian avant-garde of the s was not the government, but the revolution. art was supposed to be a ‘jump to freedom’ announced by the revolution. […] in the history of russian culture of the soviet state, the avant-garde undertaking the political challenge lost. its socio-artistic utopia lost in clash with the political ideology of the soviet government, its involvement lost with the political bureaucracy of communism […]. the artists who created it lost. however, there remained art which managed to find an example of an artistic revolution in its very form, in a different shape – the courage to break with convention, in an experiment – a project of a new one. the defeat of the avant-garde in the soviet union, as in fascist germa- ny, was primarily caused by totalitarian political systems, under which culture could only exist as an instrument of reign. from this point of view, avant-garde art was always perceived as degenerated [ , p. ]. the work is always in some situation, in some story, in which voice and silence meet a response. it is impossible to get out of this “even if we sat quietly and without a word, like stones, we would still act through our passivity” […] – according to andrzej turowski, quoting sartre [ , p. ]. il. . gabriela szczerba, wrażenie bryły. homage a feininger (akryl, × cm, ) fig. . gabriela szczerba, impression of the body. homage a feininger (acrylic, × cm, ) lyonel feininger – przestrzenie równoległe  / lyonel feininger – parallel spaces spektakularny wpływ bauhausu na współczesną archi- tekturę i design jest bezsporny. spośród wielu wybitnych pracowników szkoły szczególnie interesuje mnie jedna postać. z przyczyn losowych. urodziłam się w trzebia- towie (niem. treptow an der rega) w r., czterdzie- ści cztery lata po tym, jak lyonel feininger po raz ostatni odwiedził te okolice, będące wówczas kierunkiem letnich wakacji nad ostsee, morzem bałtyckim. przeglądam ar- chiwalne zdjęcia z tamtych lat, wydane w serii czarno- -białych pocztówek – regemunde (dziś mrzeżyno), przed ii wojną światową niewielka osada u ujścia rzeki regi, przyjmująca do , tysiąca letników rocznie. wiklinowe kosze regularnie rozmieszczone na szerokiej plaży, rybac- kie chaty, kutry i powiewające nad plażą flagi ze swasty- kami. po pojawianiu się tych flag rodzina feiningerów już nigdy nie przyjechała do mrzeżyna. w poniższym tekście chciałabym przede wszystkim przybliżyć postać lyonela feiningera, wskazać na jego związki z dzisiejszymi terenami polski i działania trze- biatowskiego ośrodka kultury mające na celu badanie i popularyzację nadmorskiej twórczości tego artysty. w tle zaznaczam relację między sztuką i polityką, mię- dzy sztuką i historią, czyli relacje między tymi sferami, których sztuka próbuje uniknąć, choć są nieuniknione . tekst ilustrują prace wykonane w r. przez studentki – obrazy z cyklu „homage a feininger” prezentowane na wspomnianej wystawie w muzeum architektury (il. – ). przestrzeń życia lyonel feininger urodził się lipca r. w no- wym jorku jako pierwsze dziecko niemieckiego wiolon- czelisty karla feiningera i amerykańskiej piosenkarki niemieckiego pochodzenia elizabeth feininger. dzie- ciństwo spędził w nowym jorku. od najmłodszych lat przejawiał uzdolnienia muzyczne, konstruktorskie i pla- styczne. w r. młody lyonel pokazał rysunków na swojej pierwszej szkolnej wystawie. w tym też roku wyjechał do berlina i rozpoczął studia w königliche aka- demie w pracowni malarza ernsta hanckego. jednocze- śnie rysował karykatury do tygodnika „humoristische blatter”. kolejny etap nauki to pobyt w jezuickim college st. servais w belgijskim liège. oczarowanie historyczną zabudową liège oraz pobliskiej brukseli ujawni się z cza- sem w pracach opartych na motywach architektonicz- nych. po powrocie do berlina rozpoczął naukę w szkole artystycznej karla schlabitza, a po jej zamknięciu wrócił do königliche akademie. feininger aktywnie uczestni- czył w życiu niemieckiej awangardy – jego rysunki poka- zywane były na corocznych wystawach berlin secession w związku radzieckim, podobnie jak w niemczech faszystowskich, przede wszystkim totalitarne systemy polityczne, w ramach których kultura mogła istnieć jedynie jako narzędzie panowania. z tego punktu widzenia sztu- ka awangardowa była widziana zawsze jako zdegenerowana [ , s. ]. dzieło jest zawsze w jakiejś sytuacji, w jakiejś historii, w któ- rych głos i milczenie napotykają na oddźwięk. niepodobna się z tego wy wikłać „choćbyśmy siedzieli cicho i bez słowa, jak kamienie, i tak dzia łalibyśmy przez naszą bierność” […] – zauważa andrzej turowski, cytując sartre’a [ , s. ]. series “homage a feininger”, which were presented at the above-mentioned exhibition at the museum of architec- ture (figs. – ). living space lyonel feininger was born on july , in new york as the first child of karl feininger, a german cellist and elizabeth feininger, an american singer of german origin. he spent his childhood in new york. from an early age, he showed musical, constructive, and artistic talents. in , young lyonel showed drawings at his first school exhibition. in the same year he went to berlin and began studies at königliche akademie in the studio of painter ernst hancke. at the same time, he drew caricatures for “humoristische blatter” weekly. the next stage of study took place at st. servais jesuit college in liège, belgium. the enchantment with the historic build- ings of liège and nearby brussels were revealed over time in works which were based on architectural motifs. after returning to berlin, he began studies at karl schlabitz art school, and after its closure he returned to königliche akademie. feininger actively participated in the life of the german avant-garde – his drawings were shown at the annual exhibitions of the berlin secession (in – ) and grosse berliner kunstausstellung. he was a member il. . olga domalewska, wrażenie bryły. homage a feininger (akryl, × cm, ) fig. . olga domalewska, impression of the body. homage a feininger (acrylic, × cm, ) karolina jaklewicz (w latach – ) oraz grosse berliner kunstausstel- lung. był członkiem grupy ekspresjonistów der blaue reiter, współpracował z die brucke [ , s. ]. wojnę spędził w braunlage w górach harz. sytuacja materialna zmusiła go do zarzucenia malarstwa, jednak dostępność drewna pozwoliła na odkrycie techniki drze- worytu. to właśnie drzeworyt autorstwa feiningera był umieszczony na okładce wydanego w r. manifestu waltera gropiusa. feininger objął posadę profesora gra- fiki na nowo powstałej uczelni. na terenie bauhausu od- nowił przyjaźń z wassilym kandinskim, paulem klee, aleksiejem jewlenskym – w r. założyli grupę die blauen vier jako kontynuację der blaue reiter. poza działalnością pedagogiczną i wystawienniczą feininge- ra pochłaniał okoliczny pejzaż. rowerowe eskapady po okolicy zaowocowały szkicami wiejskich uliczek i ko- ściołów. motywy te rozwinięte zostały później w obra- zach olejnych, jak choćby w cyklu przedstawiającym pod- weimarską wieś gel meroda z charakterystyczną strzelistą wieżą kościoła. sytuacja feiningera, jak wielu mu współczesnych ar- tystów, skomplikowała się w r., po dojściu nazistów do władzy. za powód do emigracji wystarczyłby fakt ży- dowskiego pochodzenia jego żony julii, ale nowa władza dotknęła też bezpośrednio samego artysty, zaliczając jego sztukę do kręgu zdegenerowanej i umieszczając jego of expressionist group der blaue reiter and collaborated with die brucke [ , p. ]. he spent the war in braunlage in the harz mountains. the material situation forced him to give up painting, but the availability of wood allowed him to discover the technique of woodcut. it was the woodcut by feininger that appeared on the cover of walter gropius’ manifes- to published in . feininger took up the post of pro- fessor of graphics at the newly established university. in the bauhaus, he renewed his friendship with wassily kan din ski, paul klee, alexei jewlensky – in they founded die blauen vier group as a continuation of der blaue reiter. apart from his teaching and exhibition ac - tivities, feininger was fascinated with the surrounding landscape. bicycle trips around the area resulted in sketch- es of rural streets and churches. these motifs were later developed in oil paintings, for example in the series de- picting the village of gelmeroda near weimar with a cha- racteristic soaring church tower. feininger’s situation, like many of his contemporar- ies, became complicated in , after the nazis came to power. the fact that his wife julia’s was of jewish origin would be enough as a reason to emigrate, but the new government also directly affected the artist himself, including his art in the degenerated circle and placing of his works at the traveling exhibition of degenerated art (entartete kunst) . feininger, like most of the bau- haus lecturers, emigrated to the united states. he arrived in new york in . feininger’s oeuvre can be divided into several areas. the first is the work of an illustrator. his drawings and caricatures were printed by german and american mag- azines such as “harper’s round table”, “harper’s young people”, “humoristische blätter”, “lustige blätter”. fei- ninger was also the author of some of the earliest press comics. “the chicago sunday tribune” printed full-page colour comics the kin-der-kids and wee willie winkie’s word in and [ ]. another area, as it turned out later, which was connected with painting was modelling. feininger passionately made models of ships and locomo- tives – due to the war, his design of a wooden train for the munich toy factory was not implemented. he was also the author of valued photographs, but what constitutes the uniqueness of his artistic thought was most fully revealed in his painting. feininger’s works are in private collections as well as in museums. the permanent exhibition of feininger’s works is in the lyonel feininger galerie/museum für grafische künste in quedlinburg (germany), where the works from the collection of dr. hermann klummp are presented. other works are, inter alia, at harvard art mu- seum, guggenheim museum, and the museum of mod- ern art (moma). three original drawings were loaned to the minister of propaganda of the third reich, joseph goebbels, did not initially have a negative attitude to modern art, but influenced by hitler, he chose a commission which divided art into “german” and “collapsed after ”. “the right choice” (ironic title) was presented at the great exhibition of german art, the artists of entartete kunst rebel- lious to authorities [ , p. ]. il. . katarzyna jasińska, wrażenie bryły. homage a feininger (akryl, × cm, ) fig. . katarzyna jasińska, impression of the body. homage a feininger (acrylic, × cm, ) lyonel feininger – przestrzenie równoległe  / lyonel feininger – parallel spaces the trzebiatów cultural centre for an indefinite period and are presented there. space of the body in feininger made a trip to paris, which was a breakthrough for his creative activity and it was where he met the works of pablo picasso and georges braque. fascinated by cubism, he introduced its elements to his paintings [ , p. ]. feininger derived a division of forms into geometric figures from the new trend. the composi- tions from this period are dynamic, even rapacious. forms which are constructed mainly of triangles and rhombuses enhance the expressive image of the works. dynamics, which sometimes turns into violence, results from diag- onal rhythms and imbalance of the bodies. feininger re- peated the cubist motif of cyclists in the bicycle race from or the tree motif in the avenue painted earlier by braque in . however, the main theme of his works was architecture and maritime motifs. feininger’s style finally crystallized under the influence of the bauhaus milieu. the layout of planes became clear and architec- ture returned to balance. cubistic rapaciousness turned into contemplative geometry. the number of geometric elements was significantly reduced, and calmer quadrilat- erals appeared in the place of sharp triangles. light, which prac na objazdowej wystawie sztuki zdegenerowanej (entartete kunst) . feininger, tak jak większość wykła- dowców bauhausu, wyemigrował do stanów zjednoczo- nych. do nowego jorku przybył w r. twórczość feiningera można podzielić na kilka obsza- rów. pierwszy to praca ilustratora. rysunki i karykatury jego autorstwa drukowały takie niemieckie i amerykań- skie magazyny jak „harper’s round table”, „harper’s young people”, „humoristische blätter”, „lustige blät- ter”. feininger był też autorem jednych z najwcześniej- szych prasowych komiksów. „chicago sudany tribune” wydrukował w i r. całostronicowe, kolorowe komiksy the kin-der-kids i wee willie winkie’s word [ ]. kolejny obszar, jak się później okaże, połączony z malarstwem to modelarstwo. feininger z pasją wyko- nywał modele statków i lokomotyw – z powodu wojny nie został zrealizowany jego projekt drewnianego pocią- gu dla monachijskiej fabryki zabawek. był także autorem cenionych fotografii, jednak to co stanowi o oryginalno- ści jego myśli artystycznej, najpełniej objawiło się w ma- larstwie. prace feiningera znajdują się w kolekcjach muzeal- nych i prywatnych. stała wystawa prac feiningera znaj du- je się w lyonel feininger galerie / museum für grafi sche künste w quedlinburgu (niemcy), gdzie prezentowa ne są prace z kolekcji dr. hermanna klummpa. inne prace znajdują się m.in. w harvard art museum, guggenheim museum, the museum of modern art (moma). trzy oryginalne rysunki zostały wypożyczone trzebiatowskie- mu ośrodkowi kultury na czas nieokreślony i są tam pre- zentowane. przestrzeń bryły w r. feininger odbył przełomową dla jego twór- czości podróż do paryża, gdzie spotkał się z dziełami pab la picassa i georges’a braque’a. zafascynowany ku- bizmem wprowadził jego elementy do swoich obrazów [ , s. ]. z nowego nurtu feininger zaczerpnął rozbicie form na geometryczne figury. kompozycje z tego okresu są dynamiczne, wręcz drapieżne. formy budowane głów- nie z trójkątów i rombów wzmacniają ekspresyjny wyraz prac. dynamika, miejscami przechodząca w gwałtow- ność, to efekt diagonalnych rytmów i zaburzenia równo- wagi brył. feininger powtórzył kubistyczny motyw rowe- rzystów w wyścigu rowerowym z r. czy malowany wcześniej przez braque’a motyw drzew w alei z r. jednak głównym tematem jego prac była architektura i motywy marynistyczne. styl feiningera skrystalizo- wał się ostatecznie pod wpływem środowiska bauhausu. układ płaszczyzn stał się klarowny, architektura wróci- ła do równowagi. kubistyczna drapieżność przekształ- ciła się w kontemplacyjną geometrię. liczba elementów minister propagandy iii rzeszy joseph goebbels początkowo nie był negatywnie nastawiony do sztuki nowoczesnej, jednak pod wpływem hitlera dokonał wyboru komisji, która podzieliła sztukę na „niemiecką” oraz „upadłą po ”. „słuszny wybór” prezentowano na wielkiej wystawie sztuki niemieckiej, artystów niepokornych wobec władzy na entartete kunst [ , s. ]. il. . kamila boroch, wrażenie bryły. homage a feininger (akryl, × cm, ) fig. . kamila boroch, impression of the body. homage a feininger (acrylic, × cm, ) karolina jaklewicz was treated as secondary by cubists, began to be of key importance for the atmosphere of the works. the paint- ings became contemplative and analytical. the transformation of feininger’s painting can be ob- served in a series of thirteen paintings (ten have survived to this day) depicting the theme of the church from gelm- eroda, which were created within a period of years. the artist discovered this village near weimar still before leaving for paris, when he was visiting his future wife julia who was studying in weimar. he later returned to gelmerody while working in the bauhaus. the painting gelmeroda ii from is a combination of expressionism known from feininger’s early creative activity and cubist influences. expression is reflected by contrasting the yellow background with the black body of the church. the influence of cubism is the division of both the background and the body of the building into triangular fields. the tilt of the church tower from the vertical, which is repeated with a diagonal arrangement of trees, dynamizes the composition and introduces anx- iety. in subsequent paintings – gelmeroda iv from and gelmeroda vii from – the influence of cubism became even more pronounced. dynamic, geometrical compositions, with the axis of the image tilted from the vertical, create a violent and sharp vision of the church. looking attentively, we will observe two elements which in these paintings are details only, but in later works they will dominate the atmosphere of feininger’s painting. there is general external light in gelmeroda iv , but the artist placed a green window opening in the church tower through which a mysterious light got inside. however, in gelmeroda vii, a similarly mysterious moment is the entrance to the church. the next paintings from the series gelmeroda viii , gelmeroda ix from or gelmero- da xii from represent a completely different style of feininger. compositions become calmer, parallel lines and right angles return. light becomes an essential ele- ment of the painting. and it is a specific light because it is not subject to the rigors of the logical direction of in- cidence. any planes of the painting are illuminated from the inside. they constitute a source of light and a reflect- ing surface for themselves. the bodies lose weight, ver- ticals and levels organize the compositions. the glazed surfaces interpenetrate, blurring the logic of the bodies. it seems that in these paintings we are dealing not so much with painted bodies, but with a painted impression of them. seaside space the relationships between light, and more broadly – between nature and man (civilization), can be seen even more precisely in the “seaside” feininger’s works. in , lyonel feininger discovered the fishing vil- lage of mrzeżyno (regenmunde) at the baltic sea [ , p. ]. choosing this place for a summer stay, he planned https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/ [ accessed: . . ]. https://whitney.org/collection/works/ [accessed: . . ]. https://risdmuseum.org/art-design/collection/church-gelmeroda- xii- [accessed: . . ]. geometrycznych uległa zdecydowanej redukcji, w miejscu ostrych trójkątów pojawiły się spokojniejsze czworobo- ki. kluczowe dla atmosfery prac zaczęło być się światło, przez kubistów traktowane drugorzędnie. obrazy stały się kontemplacyjne i analityczne. przemianę malarstwa feiningera można zaobserwo- wać w cyklu trzynastu obrazów (do dziś przetrwało dzie- sięć) przedstawiających motyw kościoła z gelmerody, powstałych na przestrzeni ćwierćwiecza. artysta odkrył tę podweimarską wieś jeszcze przed wyjazdem do pary- ża, gdy odwiedzał swoją przyszłą żonę julię studiującą w weimarze. później wracał do gelmerody podczas pracy w bauhausie. obraz gelmeroda ii z r. to połączenie ekspresjo- nizmu znanego z wczesnej twórczości feiningera i wpły- wów kubistycznych. ekspresja wyraża się przez kontra- stowe zestawienie żółtego tła z czarną bryłą kościoła. wpływ kubizmu to rozbicie zarówno tła, jak i samej bryły budynku na trójkątne pola. odchylenie wieży kościelnej od pionu, powtórzone ukośnym układem drzewa dynami- zują kompozycję i wprowadzają niepokój. w kolejnych odsłonach – gelmeroda iv z r. i gelmeroda vii z r. – wpływ kubizmu stał się jeszcze wyraźniejszy. dynamiczne, zgeometryzowane kompozycje, z odchylo- ną od pionu osią obrazu tworzą gwałtowną i ostrą wizję kościoła. przyglądając się uważnie, zaobserwujemy dwa elementy, które w tych obrazach są tylko szczegółami, ale w późniejszych dziełach zdominują klimat malarstwa feiningera. w gelmeroda iv   występuje ogólne światło zewnętrzne, ale w wieży kościoła artysta umieścił zielony otwór okienny, przez który wpada tajemnicze światło. na- tomiast w gelmeroda vii podobnie zagadkowym momen- tem jest wejście do kościoła. kolejne z cyklu obrazy gel- meroda viii   , gelmeroda ix z r. czy gelmeroda xii   z r. to zupełnie inny feininger. kompozycje uspo- kajają się, wracają linie równoległe i kąty proste. istot- nym elementem obrazu staje się światło. a jest to światło specyficzne, bo niepoddane rygorom logicznego kierunku padania. dowolne płaszczyzny obrazu są rozświetlone od wewnątrz. same dla siebie stanowią źródło światła i po- wierzchnię odbijającą. bryły tracą ciężar, piony i poziomy porządkują kompozycje. laserunkowo malowane płasz- czyzny przenikają się, zacierając logikę brył. wydaje się, że w tych obrazach mamy do czynienia nie tyle z nama- lowanymi bryłami, ile z namalowanym wrażeniem brył. przestrzeń nadmorska relacje między światłem, a szerzej – między naturą a człowiekiem (cywilizacją) jeszcze dokładniej widać w „nadmorskiej” twórczości feiningera. w r. lyonel feininger odkrył położoną nad mo- rzem bałtyckim wioskę rybacką mrzeżyno ( regenmunde) https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/ [data dostępu: . . ]. https://whitney.org/collection/works/ [data dostępu: . . ]. https://risdmuseum.org/art-design/collection/church-gelmeroda -xii- [data dostępu: . . ]. lyonel feininger – przestrzenie równoległe  / lyonel feininger – parallel spaces [ , s. ]. wybierając to miejsce na letni pobyt, planował obserwować ruch statków kursujących między Świnouj- ściem a heringsdorfem. rzeczywistość zweryfikowała jego marzenia. jak pisał, nigdzie nie widać żadnego stat- ku, są one tak daleko, że tylko widać na horyzoncie ich dym z komina. morze jest opuszczone i samotne, jakim do tej pory go nie widziałem (za: [ , s. ]). w r. puste plaże mrzeżyna, potargane lasy, rybackie chatki i kutry oczarowały feiningera do tego stopnia, że każde wakacje aż do r. spędzał z rodziną właśnie tutaj. niezapomniana podróż kolejką wąskotorową do mrzeży- na – wspomina jego syn lux – czy dzisiaj jeszcze można odbyć tę pełną wrażeń podróż? po drodze występują wsie: trzebusz, roby. i wreszcie mrzeżyno. przyjemny chłodek, mokre ścieżki z piasku, specyficzny zapach morza i lasu. jeszcze wiele lat później padało corocznie w naszej ro- dzinie postanowienie – do mrzeżyna nie pojedziemy już więcej, ale zawsze, każdego lata, podejmowaliśmy tę piel- grzymkę (za: [ , s. ]). nadmorski krajobraz inspirował feiningera dwojako – artysta rozwinął i pogłębił swoje marynistyczne zaintere- sowania, ale także uległ nowej fascynacji: naturą. podczas długich spacerów brzegiem morza feininger obserwował różnorodność chmur, ich odbicia w tafli wody, zmieniają- ce się światło. poznał zmienne oblicze koloru morza – od stalowego chłodu gładkiej jak lustro powierzchni, przez ciepłą szarozieloną barwę ogrzanej wody, pomarańczowe refleksy zachodzącego słońca, po głęboki granat toni po- łyskujący srebrem wieczornego światła. pisał: wieczorem na plaży jest niespotykane niebo. kolory widzę w morzu – nie do opisania. zachody słońca, których nie widziałem od mego dzieciństwa (za: [ , s. ]). metafizyczne do- znania przeniósł na szkice i obrazy. czternastego czerwca r. zanotował: […] woda jest jak lustro, jasna, wyso- ka ściana chmur. na horyzoncie samotny parowiec, a na- przeciw jego lustrzane odbicie. długo zastanawiałem się, co to może być. wreszcie maluję ten widok (za: [ , s. ]). olśniony zjawiskami przyrody potrafił przenieść na płótno nie tylko ich wygląd, ale przede wszystkim klimat. w swoich nadmorskich obrazach uchwycił wyjątkowe re- lacje między ziemią, wodą i powietrzem. specyfiką nad- morskiego krajobrazu są relacje natury do człowieka. wo- bec bezkresu nieba i wody postać ludzka jest szczegółem – tak też uchwycił te relacje feininger. postaci ludzkie pojawiają się także w niektórych kompozycjach architek- tonicznych (np. gelmeroda viii i gelmeroda ix) – tam niewielkie sylwetki kontrastują z wielkością kościoła. na obrazie chmury nad morzem z r. umieszczone w dolnej części kompozycji postaci są szczegółem, jed- nak centralna pozycja, w której się znajdują, sprawia, że ten szczegół porządkuje obraz, wprowadza równowagę i symetrię. tytułowe chmury w niczym nie przypominają miękkich cumulusów – zgeometryzowane, oddzielone od błękitu nieba prostym cięciem wyglądają jak wspomnia- na w cytacie ściana. równie intrygująco przedstawione zostało niebo w pracy vogelwolke z r. zbudowana https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/ ?position= [data dostępu: . . ]. to observe ships’ courses between Świnoujście and her- ingsdorf. reality verified his dreams. as he wrote, no ships can be seen anywhere, they are so far away that only their smoke from the chimney can be seen on the hori- zon. the sea is deserted and lonely, like i have never seen it before (after: [ , p. ]). in , feininger was so enchanted by empty beaches of mrzeżyno, “dishevelled’ forests, fishers” huts and fishing boats that he spent every vacation here with his family until . an unforgettable journey by narrow-gauge railway to mrzeżyno – recalls his son lux – is it still possible to make this exciting jour- ney today? on the way there are villages of trzebusz and roby. and finally mrzeżyno. pleasant coolness, wet sand paths, a specific smell of the sea and forest. even many years later, every year our family made a decision – we would not go to mrzeżyno anymore, but we always, every summer, undertook this pilgrimage (after: [ , p. ]). the seaside landscape inspired feininger in two ways – the artist not only developed and deepened his mari- time interests, but he also succumbed to a new fascination, namely nature. during long walks along the seashore, feininger observed the variety of clouds, their reflections in the water surface, and the changing light. he discov- ered the changing face of the colour of the sea – from the steel cold of the mirror-smooth surface, through the warm grey-green colour of the heated water, orange re- flections of the setting sun, to the deep navy blue depths shimmering with silver of the evening light. he wrote: in the evening on the beach, there is an unusual sky. i see colours in the sea – indescribable. sunsets that i have not seen since my childhood (after: [ , p. ]). he transferred his metaphysical experiences into sketches and pictures. on june , , he noted: […] water is like a mirror, a bright, high wall of clouds. a lonely steamer on the ho- rizon, with a mirror image in front of it. i was wondering for a long time what it could be. finally, i am painting this view (after: [ , p. ]). enchanted by the phenomena of nature, he was able to transfer to canvas not only their appearance, but most of all the atmosphere. in his seaside paintings, he captured the unique relationship between land, water, and air. the rela- tionship between nature and man is a specific feature of the seaside landscape. in the face of the vastness of the sky and water, the human figure is a detail – this is how feininger captured these relations. human figures also appear in some architectural compositions (e.g., gelmeroda viii and gelmeroda ix) – there, small figures contrast with the size of the church. in the painting titled clouds above the sea from , the figures placed in the lower part of the com- position are a detail, but the central position in which they are placed makes this detail organize the painting, intro- duces balance and symmetry. the clouds in the title do not resemble soft cumulus clouds in any way – geometrized, separated from the blue of the sky by a simple cut, they look like the wall mentioned in the quotation. the sky was also intriguingly presented in the work vogelwolke from https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/ ?position= [accessed: . . ]. karolina jaklewicz z geometrycznych płaszczyzn świetlista chmura unosi się nad wodą, rozkładając skrzydła niczym ptak. tajemni- cza chmura zdaje się nie odbiciem, lecz źródłem światła – w jej blasku stoi postać. umieszczona w dolnym rogu stanowi kontrapunkt dla niezwykłej chmury, a jednocze- śnie przez wspólne światło zespala się z nią. feininger był nie tylko wrażliwy na doznania zmy- słowe, równie mocno pogłębiał swoje techniczno-kon- struktorskie zainteresowania. nad morzem miał ku temu doskonałą okazję. letni dzień nie był nic wart dla mego ojca, jeśli przynajmniej parę godzin nie mógł spędzić nad swoją deską kreślarską (za: [ , s. ]) – relacjo- nował lux feininger, syn malarza. i dalej: wielkim wy- darzeniem każdej podróży do mrzeżyna było puszczanie na wodzie modeli jachtów, które lyonel feininger bu- dował zimą. fotografie tych modeli posłużyły później jako baza do obrazów i akwareli (za: [ , s. ]). podob- nie jak szkice kutrów, eleganckich jachtów czy dużych frachtowców. doświadczenia płynące z mistycznych doznań natury i miłość do statków zespoliły się w póź- niejszych pracach. jachty, podobnie jak budowle, nie są już odzwierciedleniem realnych obiektów, jak to miało miejsce we wcześniejszych marynistycznych szkicach. rozświetlone trójkąty żagli emanują mistycznym bla- skiem, przenikają się z geometrycznymi płaszczyznami nieba i wody. takie są jachty z r. precyzyjna myśl i ulotne wrażenia świetlne tworzą obraz zespalający emo- cje z rozumem – nie sposób oprzeć się takiemu odczy- taniu tego obrazu. równie frapujący jest namalowany w r. regenklarheit. na pozór spokojna kompozycja kryje w sobie napięcie podobne poprzedzającej sztorm niepokojącej ciszy. kolorystyka płaszczyzny wody, bliż- sza kolorom ziemi, wskazuje, że nie o wizerunek pejza- żu tu chodzi, a o subiektywne doznanie widoku. błękit zazwyczaj przynależny niebu tu pojawił się na żaglach. czy można zatem traktować owe z nieba stworzone ża- gle w sposób symboliczny? czy jest to opisana przez worringera geometria wyrażająca potrzeby religijne? [ , s. ]. sztuki feiningera nie można określić mianem re- ligijnej, nie można też nie zauważyć mistycznych cech jego obrazów. bez względu na źródło światła – czy to wynikającego z natury, czy z symbolicznego absolutu – feininger traktuje światło podmiotowo. nie tracąc nic ze swojej lekkości, otrzymuje ono od autora rodzaj cie- lesności. dostrzegając te dwa komponenty, można przy- toczyć wypowiedź stefana gierowskiego, artysty, dla którego światło było jednym z fundamentów twórczości. zwracając uwagę na materialność światła w kontekście fizyczno-naukowym, dostrzegał także jego metafizycz- ny charakter. w rozmowie ze zbigniewem taranienko powiedział: […] [światło i przestrzeń] to dwa konkretne elementy budowy obrazu, a równocześnie dwa pojęcia – bardzo szerokie i bogate w treści. […] cała metafizy- ka związana jest ze światłem. ale jest ono ważne także w planie malarskim. każdy kolor jest określany światłem w sposób absolutny... tak jak pędzel, farba i płótno są narzędziami pracy malarza, są nimi także światło i prze- strzeń. […] obecnie w moim wyobrażeniu łączę materię ze światłem, […] bo materia ujawnia się poprzez świa- tło [ , s. , ]. podobne połączenie – światła i materii . the luminous cloud, made of geometric planes, rises above water, spreading its wings like a bird. the mysterious cloud does not seem to be a reflection, but a source of light – a figure stands in its glow. placed in the lower corner, it is a counterpoint to the unusual cloud, and at the same time, through the common light, it merges with it. feininger was not only sensitive to sensual experienc- es, but he also deepened his technical and constructive interests. he had a perfect opportunity to do so at the sea- side. a summer day was worth nothing to my father, if he could not spend at least a few hours at his drawing board (after: [ , p. ]) – reported lux feininger, the painter’s son. and later: a great event of each trip to mrzeżyno was the launching of yacht models on water, which lyo- nel feininger was building in winter. photographs of these models later served as a basis for paintings and watercolours (after: [ , p. ]). similarly to the sketches of fishing boats, elegant yachts or large freighters. the experiences of mystical sensations of nature and the love for ships were combined in later works. yachts, like build- ings, no longer reflect real objects, as it was in the case of earlier maritime sketches. the illuminated triangles of the sails emanate with mystical glow, they interpenetrate with geometric planes of the sky and water. these are the yachts from . precise thought and elusive light im- pressions create a picture which combines emotions with the mind – it is impossible to resist reading the picture in such a way. equally striking is regenklarheit which was painted in . the seemingly calm composition hides a tension similar to the worrisome silence preceding the storm. the colours of the water plane, which are closer to the colours of soil, indicate that it is not about the image of the landscape that is at stake here, but a subjective ex- perience of the view. the blue that usually is character- istic of the sky appeared on the sails here. is it possible, then, to treat these sails made of heaven in a symbolic way? is it the geometry described by worringer which expresses religious needs? [ , p. ]. feininger’s art can- not be called religious, but the mystical features of his paintings cannot be ignored. regardless of the source of light – whether resulting from nature or symbolic abso- lute – feininger treats light subjectively. without losing any of its lightness, it receives a kind of carnality from the author. noticing these two components, we can quote a statement by stefan gierowski, an artist for whom light was one of the foundations of his oeuvre. paying atten- tion to the materiality of light in the physical and scien- tific contexts, he also noticed its metaphysical character. in an interview with zbigniew taranienko, he said: […] [light and space] are two specific elements of the paint- ing’s creation, and at the same time two concepts – very broad and rich in content. […] all metaphysics is con- nected with light. but it is also important in the paint- ing plan. each color is defined by light in an absolute way… just like a brush, paint and canvas are the paint- er’s working tools, so are light and space. […] at pres- ent, in my mind, i combine matter with light […] because matter is revealed through light [ , pp. , ]. a simi- lar combination – light and matter – can be observed in feininger’s works. thanks to geometry, paintings acquire lyonel feininger – przestrzenie równoległe  / lyonel feininger – parallel spaces a universal character close to both the symbolic mean- ings of the simplest figures known from primary art, and the more complicated properties of numbers and shapes typical of views of the ancient greeks. for plato […], geometric cognition concerns what exists eternal- ly [ , p. ], and the pythagorean tradition saw the ba- sic symbol in the triangle. maybe this is the reason why feininger’s triangular sails are more than just a piece of canvas? their uniqueness lies both in the shape and in the surreal illumination. spending the next years at the seaside, feininger did not avoid excursions inland. many sketches and paintings showing monuments of the surrounding towns were cre- ated. trzebiatów is a very beautiful old town, it has an enormously high tower which protrudes above the low two-storey houses (after: [ , p. ]). this is how fei- ninger, in the first letter from mrzeżyno of june , , described the town situated several kilometers away from mrzeżyno. the church, which is located on a hill in the bend of the river rega, is featured in many drawings and watercol- ours. feininger sketched it from many places. the sketch from june , shows a monumental body towering over the residential buildings , whereas in the charcoal drawings from the church is in the foreground. in general, feininger paid a lot of attention to towers. most of his architectural compositions feature both church- es crowned with towers and other structures of a soar- ing type. in trzebiatów he discovered baszta kaszana – a high round tower – an element of the old city walls. it is already visible in the drawings from his first visit to the city in . in the following years, he made more sketches and in the artist painted baszta kaszana in a characteristic geoluminist style. feininger studied the narrow streets, sketched views of trzebiatów, on the basis of which he made later paintings on canvas. he painted the cathedral in kamień pomorski, the kołobrzeg ca- thedral and baszta prochowa in gryfice. the church in trzęsacz provided him with special inspirations. to this day, crowds of tourists walk towards the dunes, on the edge of which the last wall of the gothic church has re- mained. the rest of the structure was deluged by the sea over the centuries. feininger created a series of paintings referring to this symbolic place, including ruins by the sea (ruine am meer) from . leaving mrzeżyno was painful. after , the dunes turned into barracks. an air force station was established there. anti-semitism was spreading. the last holidays – without his wife julia whose jewish origin made it im- possible to spend holidays at the seaside – feininger spent with his son. laurence and i keep watching our dearest, now deceased mrzeżyno (after: [ , p. ]) – he wrote on september , . https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/ ?position= [accessed . . ]. https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/ ?position= [accessed: . . ]. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ [accessed: . . ]. – można zaobserwować w pracach feiningera. dzięki geometrii obrazy nabierają uniwersalnego charakteru bliskiego zarówno symbolicznym znaczeniom najprost- szych figur znanych ze sztuki pierwotnej, jak i bardziej skomplikowanym właściwościom liczb i kształtów cha- rakterystycznym dla poglądów starożytnych greków. dla platona […] poznanie geometryczne dotyczy tego, co istnieje wiecznie [ , s. ], a pitagorejska tradycja w trójkącie widziała symbol podstawowy. może dlatego trójkątne żagle u feiningera to coś więcej niż kawałek płótna? ich wyjątkowość kryje się zarówno w kształcie, jak i w nadrealnym rozświetleniu. spędzając nad morzem kolejne lata feininger nie stronił od wypadów w głąb lądu. powstało wiele szki- ców i obrazów przedstawiających zabytki okolicznych miast. trzebiatów jest bardzo pięknym, starym miastem, ma ogromnie wysoką wieżę, która wystaje ponad niskie, piętrowe domki (za: [ , s. ]). tak w pierwszym liście z mrzeżyna z czerwca r. feininger opisał miasto leżące kilkanaście kilometrów przed mrzeżynem. ulokowany na wzgórzu w zakolu rzeki regi kościół widnieje na wielu rysunkach i akwarelach. feininger szkicował go z wielu miejsc. szkic z czerwca r. przedstawia monumentalną bryłę górującą nad zabudo- wą mieszkalną , na rysunkach węglem z r. kościół jest na pierwszym planie. feininger w ogóle dużo uwagi poświęcał wieżom. w większości jego architektonicz- nych kompozycji występują zarówno zwieńczone wie- żami kościoły, jak i inne budowle strzelistego typu. w trzebiatowie odkrył basztę kaszaną – wysoką, okrą- głą wieżę – element dawnych murów obronnych miasta. widnieje już na rysunkach z pierwszej wizyty w mieście w r. w następnych latach powstały kolejne szkice, a w artysta namalował basztę kaszaną w charakte- rystycznym geoluministycznym stylu. feininger studio- wał wąskie uliczki, szkicował widoki trzebiatowa, na podstawie których wykonał późniejsze obrazy na płót- nie. z okolicznych budowli namalował jeszcze katedrę w kamieniu pomorskim, katedrę kołobrzeską, gryficką basztę prochową. szczególnych inspiracji dostarczył mu kościół w trzęsaczu. do dziś potok turystów podąża tam ku wydmom, na których skraju ostała się ostatnia ścia- na gotyckiego kościółka. resztę budowli na przestrzeni wieków pochłonęło morze. feininger stworzył serię ob- razów odwołujących się do tego symbolicznego miejsca, m.in. ruiny nad morzem (ruine am meer) z . rozstanie z mrzeżynem było bolesne. po r. wy- dmy zamieniły się w koszary. powstała stacja wojsk po- wietrznych. szerzył się antysemityzm. ostatni pobyt – już bez żony julii, której żydowskie pochodzenie uniemożli- wiło urlop nad morzem – feininger spędził z synem. lau- rence i ja czuwamy przy najdroższym, teraz już umarłym mrzeżynie (za: [ , s. ]) – pisał września r. https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/ ?position= [data dostępu: . . ]. https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/ ?position= [data dostępu: . . ]. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ [data dostępu: . . ]. karolina jaklewicz space of history one hundred years after the bauhaus was founded, we look at the era of the beginning of the th century as a closed chapter of the modernist revolution. we look at this impulse and belief in the “city, mass, machine” , we look with a burden of the consequences of the authoritar- ian power and ruthless totalitarian systems. we look with the awareness of the impact of civilization development on the natural environment. we look with disbelief – will art ever believe so much in its own power of influence? when in emil zola uttered the historic “j’accuse!” (in french i accuse!) he did not know that he would initi- ate the conscious participation of artists and intellectuals in public life. from the artists’ point of view, the problem of democracy and the republic there constituted the issue of aesthetic and ethical politics, that is, the readiness to public intervention at times of abuse of law and social conflicts [ , p. ]. zola objected and suffered the con- sequences – he was convicted for defamation and had to emigrate. politics shifted the geographical boundaries of zola’s life, just as it shifted these boundaries to the found- ers of the bauhaus. a favourite place of vacation abroad and one of the most important inspirations became unat- tainable for feininger. his first paintings, which were cre- ated in new york, refer to memories of german cities and the baltic sea. the artist exhibited a lot, won awards and gained popularity. he died on january , . feininger created the image of trzebiatów, mrzeżyno and the surrounding area. not only a painting on canvas – his oeuvre, which was inspired by these places, creates a symbolic image of the town, its multi-layered history, bridges the gap between what has passed and what is now. the town myth leads me to the oeuvre of konstandinos kawafis. in the introduction to the volume of poems of all, grzegorz jankowicz writes that […] the town in which he was born and spent most of his life was exalted and made unreal thanks to poetry, in a word: mythicized [ , p. ]. kawafis wrote about alexandria […] until it all became a feeling [ , p. ]. undoubtedly, feininger bestowed affection on the wide beaches and surrounding medieval towns. he composed the geometry of these feelings with intuition and sensitivity. politics forced him to leave his favourite summer resort, new residents came to this sum- mer resort, forcibly separated from their mythical villages and towns. along with the takeover of lands, houses, and porcelain, we also take over the cultural heritage of the place – its protection, knowledge and dissemination be- came the subject of renata korek’s research and activities of the trzebiatów cultural centre. years later, feininger symbolically returned to the seaside – at the request of the tok director renata korek, on the occasion of the th anniversary of trzebiatów, the local art gallery was called the “feininger gallery”. the gallery is located in the historic palace by młynówka, the present seat of the trzebiatów cultural centre, which previously performed the title of tadeusz peiper’s essay published in “zwrotnica” [ ] in as an artistic manifesto of the cracow avant-garde. przestrzeń historii po stu latach od powstania bauhausu patrzymy na epokę początku xx w. jak na zamknięty rozdział mo- dernistycznej rewolucji. patrzymy na ten zryw i wiarę w „miasto, masę, maszynę” , patrzymy z bagażem kon- sekwencji autorytarnej władzy i bezwzględnych syste- mów totalitarnych. patrzymy ze świadomością wpływu rozwoju cywilizacyjnego na środowisko naturalne. pa- trzymy z niedowierzaniem – czy jeszcze kiedyś sztuka będzie wierzyła tak bardzo we własną siłę oddziaływa- nia? gdy w r. emil zola wypowiedział historyczne „j’accuse!” (z fr. oskarżam!) nie wiedział, że zapocząt- kuje świadome uczestniczenie artystów i intelektualistów w życiu publicznym. problem demokracji i republiki, z punktu widzenia artystów, był tam zagadnieniem este- tycznej i etycznej polityczności, czyli gotowości do inter- wencji publicznej w momentach nadużyć prawa i konflik- tów społecznych [ , s. ]. zola sprzeciwił się i poniósł konsekwencje – wyrok za zniesławienie i emigracja. polityka przesunęła geograficzne granice życia zoli, tak jak przesunęła te granice twórcom bauhausu. ulubione miejsce wakacji i jedna z ważniejszych inspiracji stały się dla feiningera nieosiągalną zagranicą. jego pierwsze obrazy powstałe w nowym jorku odwołują się do wspo- mnień niemieckich miast i morza bałtyckiego. artysta dużo wystawiał, zdobywając nagrody i popularność. od- szedł sty cznia r. feininger stworzył obraz trzebiatowa, mrzeżyna i oko- lic. nie tylko obraz na płótnie – jego twórczość inspiro- wana tymi miejscami buduje symboliczny obraz miasta, tworzy jego wielowarstwową historię, przerzuca pomost między tym, co minęło, a tym, co jest. mit miasta pro- wadzi mnie do twórczości konstandinosa kawafisa. grzegorz jankowicz pisze we wstępie do tomu wierszy wszystkich, że […] za sprawą poezji miasto, w którym się urodził i spędził większą część życia, uległo wywyższeniu i odrealnieniu, słowem: umitycznieniu [ , s. ]. kawafis pisał o aleksandrii, […] aż cała stała się uczuciem [ , s. ]. niewątpliwie feininger obdarzył szerokie plaże i okoliczne średniowieczne miasta uczuciem. geometrię tych uczuć komponował z wyczuciem i wrażliwością. po- lityka siłą oderwała go od ulubionego letniska, do letni- ska przybyli nowi mieszkańcy, siłą oderwani od swoich mitycznych wsi i miasteczek. wraz z przejęciem ziem, domostw, porcelany przejmujemy także dziedzictwo kul- turowe miejsca – jego ochrona, poznanie i upowszech- nianie stało się tematem badań renaty korek i działań trzebiatowskiego ośrodka kultury. po latach feininger symbolicznie powrócił nad morze – na wniosek dyrektor- ki tok renaty korek z okazji -lecia trzebiatowa lo- kalna galeria sztuk została nazwana „galerią feiningera”. galeria mieści się w zabytkowym pałacu nad młynów- ką, obecnej siedzibie trzebiatowskiego ośrodka kultury, wcześniej pełniącym funkcję zamku, klasztoru, książęcej rezydencji, siedziby urzędów. poza zbiorem materiałów tytuł eseju tadeusza peipera opublikowanego w „zwrotnicy” [ ] w r. jako manifest artystyczny awangardy krakowskiej. lyonel feininger – przestrzenie równoległe  / lyonel feininger – parallel spaces źródłowych i organizacją wystaw tok prowadzi pro- gramy edukacyjno-badawcze związane z działalnością feiningera, na nowo osadzając jego postać i twórczość w trzebiatowie i okolicach . wśród działań można wymienić: międzynarodowe spotkania artystyczne – trzebiatów zorganizowane we współpracy z uni- wersytetem artystycznym w poznaniu, łączące twórczość współcze- snych artystów z dziedzictwem l. feiningera, publikacje i wystąpienia dr renaty korek w ramach organizowanych przez tok seminariów na- ukowych: „trzebiatów – historia i kultura ”, „trzebiatów – spotka- nia pomorskie ”, gromadzenie i udostępnianie w czytelni publikacji dotyczących l. feiningera. the function of a castle, monastery, ducal residence, and seat of offices. apart from the collection of source mate- rials and the organization of exhibitions, tok carries out educational and research programs which are connected with feininger’s activity, re-embedding his character and oeuvre in trzebiatów and in the surroundings . translated by bogusław setkowicz activities include: international art meetings – trzebiatów organized in cooperation with the university of arts in poznań, which combine creative activities of contemporary artists with the heritage of l. feininger, publications and speeches by dr. renata korek as part of the scientific seminars organized by tok: “trzebiatów – history and culture ”, “trzebiatów – pomorskie meetings ”, collecting and making available in the reading room publications about l. feininger bibliografia /references [ ] turowski a., sztuka, która wznieca niepokój, instytut wydawniczy książka i prasa, warszawa . [ ] korek r., lyonel feininger malarz mrzeżyna i trzebiatowa, [w:] w. Ły siak (red.), trzebiatów – historia i kultura, poznań , – . [ ] longerich p., goebbels p., apostoł diabła, prószyński i s-ka, war- szawa . [ ] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lyonel_feininger [accessed: . . ]. [ ] sztabiński g., dlaczego geometria? problemy współczesnej sztuki geometrycznej, wydawnictwo uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, Łódź . [ ] taranienko z., rozmowy o malarstwie, piw, warszawa . [ ] korek r., korek t., ptasia chmura. o podróżach lyonela feinin- gera do mrzeżyna i okolic w latach – , [w:] a. bartczak, m. witek, europejskie dni dziedzictwa . kamienie milowe: materiały opracowane z okazji obchodów europejskich dni dzie- dzictwa w województwie zachodniopomorskim, biuro doku- mentacji zabytków, szczecin , – . [ ] peiper t., miasto. masa. maszyna, „zwrotnica” , nr , – . [ ] kawafis k., wiersze wszystkie, austeria, kraków–budapeszt–syra- kuzy . streszczenie z okazji odchodów -lecia powstania szkoły bauhaus na wydziale architektury politechniki wrocławskiej zrealizowany został projekt naukowo- -dydaktyczny zainspirowany twórczością wykładowców bauhausu oraz metodyką nauczania praktykowaną przez tę uczelnię. jednym z założycieli i wykładowców bauhausu był lyonel feininger – grafik, ilustrator, malarz, konstruktor. artysta ten przez kilkanaście lat spędzał letnie wakacje w dzisiejszym mrzeżynie k. trzebiatowa (woj. zachodniopomorskie). feininger uwiecznił na szkicach i płótnach wiele zabytków, widoków miast, pejzaży, które obecnie znajdują się w granicach polski. niniejszy artykuł traktuje zarówno o życiu feiningera w kontekście politycznych zmian, jakie dokonały się w latach . xx w., o podróżach nad bałtyk, jak i o oryginalnym języku artystycznym. w szczególności zwraca uwagę na tematy architektoniczne, które są główną osią malarskich i rysunkowych studiów feiningera. oryginalny sposób malowania architektury jest na trwałe wpi- sany w historię sztuki współczesnej. autorka przybliża także działania trzebiatowskiego ośrodka kultury, który obecnie jest w polsce najbardziej prężnym ośrodkiem popularyzującym dziedzictwo sztuki feiningera. słowa kluczowe: lyonel feininger, bauhaus, sztuka, architektura abstract at the faculty of architecture of wrocław university of science and technology, on the occasion of the th anniversary of the bauhaus school foundation, a research and teaching project, which was inspired by creative activities of the bauhaus lecturers and the teaching methodology practiced by this university, was implemented. one of the founders and lecturers of the bauhaus was lyonel feininger – a graphic artist, illustrator, painter, and constructor. the artist spent his summer vacation in today’s mrzeżyno near trzebiatów several times (west pomeranian voivodeship). feininger immortalized many monuments, town views, and landscapes that are now within the borders of poland in his sketches and on canvas. this article is about feininger’s life in the context of the political changes that took place in the s, about travelling to the baltic sea, and about a unique artistic language. the author draws special attention to architectural themes which constitute the main axis of feininger’s painting and drawing studies. the unique way of painting architecture is permanently fixed in the history of contemporary art. it also presents activities of the trzebiatów cultural centre which is currently the most dynamic centre in poland popularizing the heritage of feininger’s art. key words: lyonel feininger, bauhaus, art, architecture fotografia cyfrowa, kolaż (d. kubicka) digital photography, collage (d. kubicka) from cubist simultaneity to quantum complementarity from cubist simultaneity to quantum complementarity christophe schinckus published online: may � the author(s) . this article is published with open access at springerlink.com abstract this article offers a contribution to the history of scientific ideas by proposing an epistemological argument supporting the assumption made by miller whereby niels bohr has been influenced by cubism (jean metzinger) when he developed his non-intuitive complementarity principle. more specifically, this essay will identify the bergsonian durée as the conceptual bridge between metzinger and bohr. beyond this conceptual link between the painter and the physicist, this paper aims to emphasize the key role played by art in the development of human knowledge. keywords cubism � quantum physics � simultaneity � bergsonian durée introduction: cubism and science cubism is usually associated with a movement in art in which the single viewpoint per- spective has been abandoned. actually, the term ‘‘cubism’’ refers to a heterogeneous movement that was composed by ‘‘several cubisms’’: the gris’s cubism was different from the works of villion or leger whereas the metzinger conception of cubism was far from the way of painting of the two masters picasso and braque (who worked together during several years). despite existing dissimilarities between these works, they usually appear under the same umbrella of cubism because they all proposed an innovative way of painting the world by representing, at the same time, several dimensions of a reality/object (fauchereau ). precisely, ‘‘a cubist painting requires us to recognize that our confusion about what is implied in this new method of representation is the result of misplaced expectations […] about our own ability to identify and organize our word’’ (vargish and mook p. ). in other words, although ‘‘cubisms’’ differ in terms of colour themes, & christophe schinckus cs @le.ac.uk school of management, university of leicester, leicester, uk found sci ( ) : – doi . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &amp;domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &amp;domain=pdf level of abstraction and materials used, they all suggest that there is no there because it is all here in a view where ‘‘all the points in space along the path of observation occupy the same location simultaneously’’ (shlain , p. ). such an intellectual evolution in the way of thinking the notion of representation echoed scientific debates that emerged in the early twentieth century in physics. there exists a specific literature showing that cubism serves very well to illustrate the conceptual shift generated by the scientific environment at that time. among other works, one can mention, for instance, laporte ( ), richardson ( ) and fry ( ) who studied the potential link between cubism and the einsteinian relativity, fauchereau ( ), vargish and mook ( ) or henderson ( ) who investigated the influence of no-euclidian geometry on cubism or shlain ( ) and willette ( ) who rather discussed how cubism, by using neutral tones, dull colors and specific contour drawing would have tampered the expression in painting in accordance with an increasing importance of science in society. this article aims at contributing to these debates between cubism and science by focusing on a very specific point: the influence of cubism on niels bohr’s works. so doing, this paper offers a contribution to the history of scientific ideas by proposing an episte- mological argument in favour of the assumption made by miller whereby niels bohr has been influenced by a particular form of cubism (jean metzinger) when he developed his non-intuitive complementarity principle. miller’s assumption on the visual dimension of the principle of complementarity in the s, the physicist niels bohr understood that the classical visual representation of the atom (a solar metaphor in which the atom’s nucleus acts as the central sun while its electrons move in planetary orbits) was inappropriate. at that time, recent experimental evidence suggested that the atom should simultaneously be seen as a corpuscular and as a wave object. the idea that an electron could be both wave and particle generated much debate and it confused scientists, for whom these two perceptions appear to be ontologi- cally incompatible. beyond the scientific/ontological debates, this particle-wave duality could also be looked upon as a challenge from a visual (or artistic) point of view. such a duality was difficult to represent visually because its two components are seemingly in opposition: a particle is often visually represented as a dense body (as a point or a geo- metric form) while a wave is usually seen as a wavy line or curve. in , bohr modified this common way of thinking by proposing his complementarity principle, in which the atomic level is no longer governed by the newtonian perspective based on interrelated electrons in space and time. this atomic level must instead be analysed using a wave-particle duality framework within which an electron is seen as the sum of its wave and particle properties complementing one another. depending on the experimental configuration, electrons can exhibit either their wave or particle modes of existence, not both. how bohr conceived this complementarity view is sometimes presented as a puzzle in the history of scientific ideas (miller , p. ). the complementarity principle can be metaphorically assimilated to psychological studies about the simultaneous existence of reason and emotion and the notion that ‘‘we are both onlookers and actors in the great drama of existence’’ (favrholdt , p. ). in this context, several authors have discussed the potential influences of psychology on niels bohr’s complementarity principle. for c. schinckus holton ( ) and feuer ( ), kierkegaard, james and hoffding played an intellectual role in the development of this principle. in the same vein, pind ( ) explained that rubin (who was bohr’s second cousin) also influenced the danish physicist in his con- ceptualization of the dual complementarity. it bears mentioning that these influences still generate a lot of debate since pais ( ), favrholdt ( ) and kragh ( ), for example, argued that none of the philosophers previously evoked had any influence on bohr (see kragh ; or favrholdt for further details on this point). in this article, i will not address these links between simultaneous dualities coming from psychology and the development of the complementarity principle but will rather inves- tigate the visual dimensions which potentially inspired niels bohr when he worked on this principle. according to miller, a part of the solution can be found in the historical influence of cubism on bohr’s way of thinking. about this influence, miller ( ) wrote, ‘‘the connection with cubism (metzinger) is straightforward and not accidental.’’ however, miller never explained in details why he thought that this influence is straightforward. all contextual information provided by miller in his remarkable works informed us about how a link can be made between bohr and cubism but a question is still open: what is the intellectual reason for why one can consider a straightforward link between them? this specific question is at the origin of this article. in different references miller ( , ) gave historical indications about this relationship between cubism and bohr’s works like, for instance, that, in the early s, bohr moved into a mansion (owned by the carlsberg foundation), which he refurbished by buying a cubist painting (woman on a horse, metzinger). this painting (fig. ) represents a woman on a horse in a fuzzy and geometrical juxtaposition of facets breaking the image into a provocative multiplicity of perspectives. although this painting represents an object that, at first sight, could appeared as frag- mented, it rather offers ‘‘a representation of visual fragments that are rearranged so that the viewer would not have to move through space in an allotted period of time in order to view them in sequence. visual segments of the front, back, top, bottom and sides of an object jump out and assault the viewer’s eye simultaneously’’ (shlain , p. ). combined with the book entitled du cubisme, this painting is usually presented as a telling example of cubist simultaneity as explained by fauchereau ( ), cottington ( ) and shlain ( ). the purchase of this painting by bohr, combined with the testimonies of mogens andersen (bohr’s friend and danish artist), led miller to assume that metzinger had had an influence on bohr’s way of thinking: ‘‘this choice [purchase of the metzinger’s painting by bohr] indicates quite an interest in cubism perhaps [by bohr], a clue to yet another path to complementarity—that is assuming that bohr knew about metzinger prior ’’ (miller , p. , my italics). in the following sections, i will investigate this assumption, whose significance goes beyond the mere historical\contextual influence of metzinger on bohr. actually, this plausible influence of cubism on quantum physics goes beyond miller’s claim since it echoes a vast literature about the epistemic dimension of art and the extent to which art can contribute to an improvement of knowledge (klinke ). jean metzinger ( – ) was a french painter, writer and theorist who was initially influenced by neo-impressionism before joining the cubist movement in . although metzinger produced several pieces of art in which he explicitly showed his adhesion to cubism, he is nowadays well known for having been at the center of cubism as one of the first theorist to identify the movement when it first emerged. metzinger is sometimes see serullaz ( ) or robbins ( ) for an exhaustive list of metzinger’s paintings. from cubist simultaneity to quantum complementarity presented as a cubist painter ‘‘without daring’’ (serullaz ) who is more famous for his conceptual understanding of the movement that, along with another cubist (a. gleizes), he summarized in a book entitled du cubisme ( ). as almost all painters involved in cubism, metzinger had several periods in his work: between and , his works corresponded to what art specialists called ‘‘analytic cubism’’ that ‘‘describes the early phase of cubism, generally considered to run from to , characterized by a fragmentary appearance of multiple viewpoints and overlapping plane’’ (tate ). the major characteristics of this cubism refers to the rupture with the classical tradition and the importance of the multiple perspectives giving a feeling of simultaneity in the vision (serullaz ). starting from , serullaz ( ) explained that metzinger tried to follow unsuccessfully the synthetic period of cubism that mainly corresponded to a systematic used of collages and other materials in works. this evolution showed a more colourful cubism with simpler lines and shapes introducing some elements of reality in the works. this evolution of cubism was not really in accordance with what metzinger was doing and progressively distanced himself from cubism to focus more on what he called a ‘‘realisme constructif’’ (metzinger ). in this article will focus on the metzinger’s analytic cubism in order to understand its potential impact on bohr’s works. there are some works on the metzinger’s cubism and its influence on science generated much debates among scholars. lehrer ( ) wrote, ‘‘it is hard to believe that a work of abstract art might have actually affected the history of fig. la femme au cheval (woman with a horse), – , jean metzinger, oil on canvas, cm . cm ( . in . in), statens museum for kunst c. schinckus science. cubism seems to have nothing in common with modern physics’’ (this claim could be reinforced by laporte or richardson ). these doubts call for an additional argument to support miller’s perspective. the purpose of this article is to offer an addi- tional argument and to contribute to these debates by providing an epistemological reason for why the association between metzinger’s cubism and bohr’s works is intellectually justified. in the rest of the paper, i will identify what bohr found in metzinger’s cubism. that question led me to identify the bergsonian durée (with its diachronic simultaneity) as the epistemological bridge between metzinger and bohr, confirming miller’s claim according to which cubism has influenced niels bohr in his conception of the comple- mentarity principle. from metzinger’s simultaneity to complementarity in physics in , room of the salon d’automne organized in paris exhibited a collection of cubist experimentations presented as a rivalry with the futurist paintings (cottington , p. ). although ‘‘simultaneity’’ was a buzzword for both of these artistic movements, they did not use the term to refer to the same concept: futurists mainly painted a visual per- ception of simultaneity by working on the cinematographic depiction of movement while cubists dealt with a geometric understanding of simultaneity. the futurist simultaneity refers to the simultaneous representation of all subsequent events, but it does not deal with the visual dimensions/perspective of these subsequent events. in contrast, cubists focused on a diachronic simultaneity, in which all visual aspects are holistically captured by juxtaposing all successive aspects of an object in a single pictorial entity. on this point, vargish and mook ( , p. ) wrote, ‘‘when early analysts of cubism spoke about simultaneity, they meant the representation in cubist art of more than one perspective or of what would represent more than one perspective in the traditional of optical verisimili- tude’’. this simultaneity is called diachronic simply because this holistic perception of all dimensions is captured as a unique image directly dependent on the observer’s perspec- tive—any physical or temporal changes would therefore generate a new visual represen- tation. according to cottington ( ), the importance of diachronic simultaneity lies in the visual representation of the bergsonian durée reasserting temporal continuity/unity. the difference between cubism and futurism is clearly explained in the now famous book entitled du cubisme ( ), written by metzinger and gleizes in who contrasted this sense of simultaneity: ‘‘the fact of moving around an object [like cubists do] to seize it from several successive appearances, which, fused into a single image, reconstitute it in time’’—in contrast with—‘‘those [futurists] who mistake the bustle of the street for plastic dynamism will eventually appreciate the differences’’ (gleizes and metzinger , p. ). the book du cubisme played an important role in miller’s assumption since he assumed that niels bohr has read the book before buying metzinger’s masterpiece: ‘‘since bohr read widely we can safely assume that he read their [metzinger and gleizes] book before .’’ i claim here that what is important in the potential influence of metzinger on bohr’s work is the holistic understanding of the concept of simultaneity promoted by the cubist painter in du cubisme. by codifying diachronic simultaneity as the ‘‘programmatic means [of cubism] to the representation of bergsonian durée’’ (bergson , p. ), metzinger opened the door to the idea of complementarity. the bergsoninan durée refers to a theory of consciousness according to which heterogeneity and continuity of phe- nomena can be unified in a consistent way. precisely, the durée can be conceptualized as a from cubist simultaneity to quantum complementarity unified flow of reality (i.e. unified way of perceiving reality). in this perspective, bergson considered that space and time are not a void that would be filled by reality. phenomena are not in space and time but, conversely, the latters are in the former. in other words, time cannot be seen as a multiplicity of moments neither as an abstract eternity—time represents a heterogeneous whole that continually interact with space in a constantly changing flux of renewal. this non-ending and simultaneous repetition of time and space in things can be seen as the bergsionian durée. by promoting a holistic perspective where all aspects (even those which are not visible) of an object are depicted in a single image, metzinger proposed a visual interpretation of bergsonian simultaneity which refers to the idea that ‘‘the real whole has no parts but is repeated to infinity, each time integrally (though diversely) within itself, and that all these repetitions are complementary to each other’’ (bergson , p. ). the interest of met- zinger in berson’s simultaneity was evidenced in an article published in in a daily newspaper (‘‘celui qui ignore les cubistes’’, g.m, l’eclair, th of june, )—this interest has also been evoked by antliff ( , p. ) who wrote ‘‘i believe that du cubisme was written with bergson in mind’’. the diachronic simultaneity promoted by metzinger implied a bergsonian complementarity in which all visual aspects of an object (colours, shadows, perspectives etc.) combine with each other in a complementary but unique cubist image. in this context, cubism can be seen as a visual translation of the unextended durée into an extended and homogeneous multiplicity or juxtaposition of distinct but complementary parts. in line with bergson’ simultaneity, metzinger did not promote an absolute simultaneity nor the possibility of having a simultaneity of spatially separated events. although time, motion and all visual aspects of an object are pictorially fragmented, they are chosen and rearranged by the artist (the observer), permitting the viewer to see them in a single image which is contextually defined: any changes in time or in the observer’s perspective would imply a modification of the image. in accordance with the bergsonian durée, metzinger’s simul- taneity emerged as a unique event (image) repeated ad infinitum. according to miller, the influence of metzinger on bohr’s way of thinking has two sources: the purchase of the painter’s masterpiece woman with a horse and a potential reading of du cubisme. i support this claim by arguing that bergsonian simultaneity is the epistemological bridge between metzinger and bohr. indeed, when bohr ( ) defined his principle of complementarity, he implicitly referred to a bergsonian form of comple- mentarity in which the atomic particle-wave duality must be looked at as a single phe- nomenon (lofgren ). by considering that an electron can be seen as the sum of its wave and particle properties, which complement one another, the principle of comple- mentarity assumed a diachronic simultaneity (wave and particle at the same time in a single phenomenon). the influence of bergsonian durée on modern physics is well doc- umented (guerlac ) but what is interesting for this paper is the parallelism between the bergsonian concept of durée and the principle of complementarity, which, for both met- zinger and bohr, appears as an epistemic way of understanding a fragmented world. although all situations are physically composed of a large number of parts, these parts are perceived, at every moment (and ad infinitum), as a complementary unified perception of time (durée). in the same vein, although the universe appears to be fragmented through two incompatible descriptions of matter (particle-wave duality), the complementarity principle proposed by bohr offers an epistemic way of understanding that complex world as a unified perception at a specific time. this parallelism led louis de broglie ( ) to suggest that bergson anticipated the conceptual framework developed by bohr. the complementarity principle defined by bohr implied a bergsonian durée (with its diachronic simultaneity) that the physicist has possibly found in metzinger’s works. this influence of c. schinckus the painter on bohr is enhanced by the idea that, although the perspective (or explanation) given by the observer is presented as a unique image (event), it is directly associated with the angle of observation taken by the observer. as bohr (bohr , p. ) wrote, ‘‘in the description of atomic phenomena, the quantum postulate presents us with the task of developing a ‘complementarity’ theory the consistency of which can be judged only by weighing the possibilities of definition and observation’’. regarding the visualization of this theory, the physicist wrote, in accordance with the cubist style, ‘‘a more compre- hensive generalization of the complementary mode of description will demand a still more radical renunciation of the usual claims of so-called visualization’’ (bohr , p. ). the elements presented here support miller’s claim that the analytic cubism of metzinger had a significant influence on the bohr’s way of thinking. conclusion in different places, arthur miller ( , ) claimed that metzinger’s cubism influenced the bohr’s works. although miller gave historical and contextual evidences showing how this influence operated, he did not explain why the association between cubism and bohr’s works is intellectually founded. the contribution of this article is to offer an epistemo- logical argument supporting the assumption made by miller whereby niels bohr has been influenced by cubism (jean metzinger) when he developed his non-intuitive comple- mentarity principle. i explained here that the plausible conceptual bridge between cubism and quantum physics is the concept of bergsonian durée. more precisely, i identified a parallelism between the bergsonian concept of durée and the principle of complementarity, which appear, for both metzinger and bohr, as an epistemic way of understanding a fragmented world: the physicist and the painter considered that, although all situations are physically composed of vast numbers of parts, these parts are perceived, at every moment (and ad infinitum), as a complementary unified perception of time (durée). this article is a contribution to the field of history of scientific ideas in which there is, unfortunately, very few historical (physical) evidences. by definition, the history of ideas implies another ‘‘proof regime’’ which is rather based on what philosophers of science call a ‘‘rational reconstruction a posteriori’’ (lakatos ). this paper is a telling example of such as rational reconstruction that refers to a combination of plausible historical facts (enhanced by arthur miller) with a rational\logical reasoning (proposed in this paper). beyond the contribution to the history of scientific ideas evoked above, this short paper also emphasizes that art can also play a key role in the development of human knowledge. indeed, while one can find a lot of articles on how art is influenced by science, this paper suggests the reciprocal link since science can also be influenced by art. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . inter- national license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references antliff, r. m. 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( ). the writing of cubism: the construction of a discourse, – . new york: art history unstuffed publications. christophe schinckus christophe is senior lecturer in finance at the university of leicester, he published more than papers in peer-reviewed journals. he is currently finishing on a book on econophysics (oxford university press) while doing a second ph.d. in philosophy of science at the university of cambridge. c. schinckus http://www.tate.org.uk/learn/online-resources/glossary/a/analytical-cubism http://www.tate.org.uk/learn/online-resources/glossary/a/analytical-cubism 	from cubist simultaneity to quantum complementarity 	abstract 	introduction: cubism and science 	miller’s assumption on the visual dimension of the principle of complementarity 	from metzinger’s simultaneity to complementarity in physics 	conclusion 	open access 	references spitzer/irs mapping of local luminous infrared galaxies m. pereira-santaella , a. alonso-herrero , g. h. rieke , and l. colina instituto de estructura de la materia, csic, madrid, spain steward observatory, university of arizona, tucson az , usa summary. we present results of our program spitzer/irs mapping of local lumi- nous infrared galaxies (lirgs). the maps cover the central ′′ × ′′ or ′′ × ′′ regions of the galaxies, and use all four irs modules to cover the full ∼ − µm spectral range. we have built spectral maps of the main mid-ir emission lines, con- tinuum and pah features, and extracted d spectra for regions of interest in each galaxy. the final goal is to fully characterize the mid-ir properties of local lirgs as a first step to understanding their more distant counterparts. introduction luminous infrared galaxies (lirgs, lir = − l�) are an important cosmological class of galaxies as they are the main contributors to the co- moving star formation rate density of the universe at z = . moreover, the mid- ir spectra of high redshift (z ∼ ) very luminous ir galaxies (lir > l�) appear to be better reproduced with those of local starbursts and lirgs. this may just reflect the fact that at high-z star-formation was taking place over a few kiloparsec scales rather than in very compact (< kpc) regions. we used the spectral mapping capability of irs on spitzer with low (sl+ll modules, r = − , − µm) and high (sh+lh modules, r = , − µm) spectral resolution (see [ ] for details) to observe local (distances of < mpc) lirgs selected from the sample of [ ]. the maps cover the central ′′ × ′′ or ′′ × ′′ regions of the galaxies. the spectral data cubes were assembled with cubism [ ]. results . maps of emission lines and velocity fields we fitted the brightest emission lines in the cubes using gaussians for the emission lines and an order one polynomial for the local continuum. we ob- tained spectral maps of the line fluxes, line ratios, fwmhs and velocities (see ar x iv : . v [ as tr o- ph ] o ct m. pereira-santaella, a. alonso-herrero, g. h. rieke, and l. colina fig. and fig. ). the spectral maps allow us to select regions of interest in each galaxy and extract d spectra to study their physical properties (fig. ). fig. . spectral maps and line ratios observed with the sh module for ngc . . silicate absorption amorphous silicate grains have a broad absorption feature centered at . µm. to measure its depth we used a method similar to that proposed by spoon et al. [ ]. the continuum at µm is estimated by fitting a power law through free feature continuum pivots at . µm and . µm. the silicate strength is defined as: ssil = ln fobs( µm) fcont( µm) . assuming an extinction law and a dust geometry the silicate strength can be converted into visual extinction. fig. shows the spatial variation of the silicate strength in arp . . detecting agns we used two independent methods to detect agn. the first method is the detection of high ionization emission lines such as, [nev] at . and . µm ( . ev) and [oiv] at . µm ( . ev). the high ionization potential of these lines implies the presence of an agn because stars cannot generally produce spitzer/irs mapping of local luminous infrared galaxies fig. . comparison of the sh spectral maps of the flux and velocity field of the µm h line and the [neii] . µm line of arp . fig. . left: spectral map at µm of ngc observed with the sl module. right: d spectra observed with the sl and ll modules, extracted for three different regions. the spectra show pahs, emission lines, and the . µm silicate feature. such amount of ionizing radiation (see fig. right). the second method, proposed by nardini et al. [ ], uses the − µm spectral region to separate out the starburst component in the form of pah emission and the agn component in the form of hot dust continuum, as can be seen from fig. . m. pereira-santaella, a. alonso-herrero, g. h. rieke, and l. colina fig. . left: map of the strength of the silicate feature for the interacting galaxy arp =ic + ngc . right: spectrum of the most extincted region, the nuclear region of ic , source a, for which we measured av ∼ mag (see [ ]). fig. . left: spectral decomposition of the three nuclei of arp using the observed sl − µm spectra (black lines). the dotted blue lines represent the starburst component and the dot-dash red lines are the agn component seen as hot dust continuum. the green lines are the sum of the two components. an agn component is clearly detected in the nucleus of ngc , b (see [ ]). right: sh nuclear spectra of ngc and ngc showing the [nev] lines as well as the [oiv] line. references . a. alonso-herrero et al.: apj, , ( ) . a. alonso-herrero et al.: apj, submitted ( ) . e. nardini et al.: mnras, , ( ) . j. d. t. smith et al.: pasp, , ( ) . h. w. w. spoon et al.: apj, , l ( ) ti tl e t h e e x hi bi t i o n a s a n e x p e r i m e n t : a n an al o g y a n d i t s i m p li c a t i o n s ty p e ar ti cl e u rl h t t p s :// u a l r e s e a r c h o n li n e . a r t s . a c . u k /i d/ e p r i n t / / d a t e ci t a t i o n al b a n o , c a t e r i n a ( ) t h e e x hi bi ti o n a s a n e x p e r i m e n t : an an a l o g y a n d i t s i m p li c a t i o n s . jo u r n a l of vis u a l c ul t u r e , ( n . a .). p p . - . i s s n - c r e a t o r s al b a n o , c a t e r i n a u s a g e g u i d e l i n e s p l e a s e r e f e r t o u s a g e g u i d e li n e s a t h t t p : // u a l r e s e a r c h o n li n e . a r t s . a c . u k / p oli ci e s . h t m l o r a l t e r n a t i v ely c o n t a c t u a l r e s e a r c h o n li n e @ a r t s . a c . u k . li c e n s e : c r e a t i v e c o m m o n s at t r i b u t i o n n o n-c o m m e r c i a l n o d e r iv a t iv e s u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d , c o p y r i g h t o w n e d b y t h e a u t h o r http://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/policies.html mailto:ualresearchonline@arts.ac.uk https://doi.org/ . / journal of visual culture journal of visual culture [journals.sagepub.com/home/vcu] sage publications (los angeles, london, new delhi, singapore, washington dc and melbourne) copyright © the author(s), . reprints and permissions: http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalspermissions.nav vol ( ): – doi . / the exhibition as an experiment: an analogy and its implications caterina albano vcu . / journal of visual culturealbano research-article abstract the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment suggests innovative curatorial approaches that challenge institutional practices. this analogy has however a historical precedence in modernism when it became paradigmatic of the exhibitions at the museum of modern art in new york in the s, defining the curatorial approach of its founding director alfred j barr. this article considers this early use of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment and further reflects on its redefinition at the turn of the th century by examining how both the notions of the exhibition and of the experiment have changed over time. in particular, the article examines the different meanings and practices inferred by the concepts of the exhibition and the experiment in the first decades of the th century and in the present. it outlines how correspondences between cultural and scientific paradigms can be deployed to tease unacknowledged synergies between two modes of knowledge production (i.e. the art exhibition and the experiment) and address questions of presentness, authority and legitimacy that they imply. keywords art • exhibition • experiment • knowledge production • science in , bruno latour collaborated with curator peter weibel on the exhibition ‘iconoclash: beyond the image war in science, religion, and art’ at the zetrum für kunst und medientechnologie in karlsruhe (figure ). the exhibition dealt with the notion of iconoclasm by questioning the supposed inviolability, truthfulness or danger of images. it considered the meaning https://journals.sagepub.com/home/vcu https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/journals-permissions journal of visual culture ( ) of the material destruction of images and the challenge of the beliefs with which they are invested (latour, : – ). to answer such theoretical questions, latour and weibel conceived the exhibition as an experiment with images by bringing together ‘three sources of iconoclashes: religion, science and contemporary art’, and displaying the features that denote images related to these three subjects and the attitudes that they engender in the viewer (pp. – , emphasis in original). ‘it is only because each of us, visitors, curators, and readers’ – maintains latour – ‘harbors such a different pattern of belief, rage, enthusiasm, admiration, difference, fascination, suspicion, and spite for each of the three types of images that we bring them to bear on one another. what interests us is the even more complex pattern created by their interference’ (p. , emphases in original). the inclusion of scientific images in ‘iconoclash’ is telling of the experimentation of the exhibition as a reflection on the social and cultural fabrication of science, and on the ways in which an act of deconstruction (perhaps more than destruction) could bring a different critical appraisal and understanding, whether in the case of medical illustrations, models of biological structures or digital imaging on a micro and macro scale. art added a further reflection on the constructiveness of images through the work of artists as diverse as sigmar polke, luc boltanski, candice breitz, ecke bonk and richard hamilton. the exhibition also drew attention to the ways in which artists have challenged assumptions about what an artwork is from marcel duchamp’s readymades, kazimir malevich’s abstractions, lucio fontana’s slashes, or joseph beuys’ actions, to the contemporary use of digital technologies. as an experiment aimed at understanding the complex set of premises that inform the production and reception of representation across figure view of the exhibition ‘iconoclash. beyond the image wars in science, religion and art’, may , –september , , zkm | center for art and media karlsruhe, © zkm | center for art and media karlsruhe, photo: onuk. albano the exhibition as an experiment belief systems and forms of knowledge production, ‘iconoclash’ put forward an examination of images through images as a hypothesis designed for the audience to probe (weibel and latour, : – ). in so doing, it also instigated a reflection on its own process and the analogy which underscored it: that of the exhibition as an experiment. in their own analysis of such an analogy, sharon macdonald and paul basu ( ) draw attention to the historical th-century definition of the experiment ‘as a knowledge-generating procedure’ that is achieved ‘via the assembly of a particular apparatus and methods performed in a context that was at least theoretically open to the public’, since originally experiments were carried out in front of an audience, and entailed ‘systematic production of novelty’ (p. ). this early definition resonates with today’s emphasis on performance, apparatus, audience and generation of knowledge. an experiment is currently thought of in terms of doing within defined parameters (hacking, : ), entailing a performative production of knowledge attained through the use of methods and apparatus for a potential audience. according to macdonald and pasu, these features also characterize the exhibition and its procedures of generating knowledge. today, the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment designates innovative curatorial approaches that challenge canons, institutional confines or ideological conditioning. the exhibition, in other words, becomes experimental when it engages with its own contingency and potential to generate forms of knowledge, whether in terms of collaborative transdisciplinary practices or through provocation and innovation. plurality, contemporaneity, diversity of spatial and temporal regimes and environments, strategies of inclusion are among the features that define curatorial experimentation, as a ‘move away’ – in charles esche’s words – from the reflexive forms of art toward something unstable and propositional’ capable of fostering new perspectives (thea, : ; see also esche, ). the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment, however, has an historical precedent. first used in the early th century by the european avant-garde and the bauhaus to denote their own innovative curatorial approaches, the analogy was further deployed by the founding director of the new york’s museum of modern art, alfred j barr, to legitimate its endeavor. in conceiving the exhibition as a ‘scientific experiment’, barr rendered the analogy paradigmatic of innovation in ways that are still pertinent today. he also inferred complex and often unacknowledged associations between the two concepts and the related modes of knowledge production that, in barr’s time, aspired to claims of autonomy and universality both in the case of the exhibition and of the experiment. the discourses of art and science on which the two notions of the exhibition and the experiment are culturally constructed have, however, changed since barr’s time. in art, since the late s, the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment has become synonymous with a critique and renewal, if not subversion, of institutional practices towards curatorial approaches that are more or less in antagonism with barr’s notion of modern art and the modern exhibition leading to the current definition of exhibitions that challenge institutional approaches and journal of visual culture ( ) set-ups. such a change has coincided with a reappraisal in the scientific discourse of the notion of the experiment itself. this article examines the meaning of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment both in its historical and contemporary iteration – in the case of barr’s use meant to designate the exhibitions of the museum of modern art in the s and, in today’s utterance, such as latour’s and weibel’s example of ‘iconoclash’. the article contextualizes the use of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment within the artistic and scientific discourses to which it refers (albano, : – ) in the s and today. barr’s programmatic appropriation of the analogy is analysed in terms of the authority and autonomy ascribed to the experiment in the first decades of the th century. the article further brings the historical meaning of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment to bear to today’s use, underlying changes in its implications in terms of performativity in both the case of the exhibition and the experiment, and further outlines how correspondences between art/curatorial and scientific paradigms can be used to tease unacknowledged synergies on modes of knowledge production and questions of presentness, authority and legitimacy. the focus is on the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment as generally used in relation to curatorial practices in order to point to its expansive cultural resonances in ways that may include but are not limited or specific to art/science projects and their display. the modern exhibition as an experiment in explaining the grounding principles of the museum of modern art in new york, its director, glenn lowry, states that in re-evaluating the goals of the collections, … as the nature of the art it collects and the public it serves has constantly changed sometimes in small ways, and at other times in larger ways. in this context the museum of modern art can be considered a disruptive institution, a term loosely borrowed from clayton christensen to describe how certain kinds of enterprises alter established paradigms by pioneering new processes or reaching new audiences that are otherwise being ignored. (lowry, : ) lowry refers back to barr’s idea of the institution when, at the time of the relocation of the museum of modern art in goodwin and stone’s building, he envisaged the museum as a laboratory and its exhibitions as experiments. experimentation for barr meant ongoing renewal whereby the museum’s program of exhibitions ‘was conceived as a series of hypotheses about how modern art can be read at any given moment, subject to renewal and modification as the art itself changes, and as we gain greater insight into a tradition that is still unfolding’ (pp. – ), by adhering to the forms and ways of perceiving reality brought about by scientific and technological advancements. at the same time, barr’s use of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment was also prompted by the necessity to legitimize ‘modern albano the exhibition as an experiment art’ in a period when as an artistic movement it still lacked recognition by turning to that other sphere of knowledge that, in the first decades of the th century, was believed to designate modernity: science. barr’s designation of the new york museum of modern art’s exhibitions as experiments and of the museum itself as a laboratory was inspired by and resonated with those of the european avant-gardes, the bauhaus and the displays at the landesmuseum in hanover from to when alexander dorner was the museum’s director. dorner had attempted to create ‘a new visual language’ for exhibiting modernist art and design at the landesmuseum by commissioning russian constructivist artist el lissitzky to create a room for the display of modernist abstract art, the so-called ‘abstract cabinet’, and to lászló moholy-nagy the never completed ‘gallery of our time’. the two galleries, which were in their own right experimental, are notable since they brought the artistic and design innovation of the modernist avant-gardes and bauhaus together within the context of a museum. in the ‘abstract cabinet’, unframed works by major representatives of the movement, including pablo picasso, fernand léger, naum gabo, piet mondrian, willi baumeister, kazimir malevich, moholy-nagy and lissitzky himself, were shown unframed on metal strips aligned on sliding panels behind which other pictures were hung, thus creating a three-dimensional effect. the panels were painted in white, black and gray stripes which ‘produced cool shimmer that changed with the slightest movement of a visitor’s head’ (cauman, : – ; see also lueddeckens, ; germundson, ). the ‘abstract cabinet’ − as the related booklet suggested – implied ‘the effects of abstract art on the features of daily life’ soliciting connections in the viewer between art and experience and the concurrent fields of image production that for dorner also included film, photography and artifacts from science and technology (cauman, : ). this was also evident in the ‘gallery of our time’ intended to epitomize the modernist aspiration of a synthesis of art, design, science and technology. the gallery directly drew on the bauhaus’s integration of these different spheres of knowledge and its aspiration to convey an impression of the real that was eminently modern. the gallery showed photography, film and reproductions of architectural models, design (including photographic documentation of industrial design) and slide projections of theatrical scenography by walter gropius and oskar schlemmer. with the exception of moholy-nagy’s ‘light machine’, which projected patterns of abstract light when mechanically activated, the display did not include ‘any original work of art. everything was a reproduction, a model, or documentation’ (staniszewski, : – ). from a curatorial point of view, the ‘abstract cabinet’ and the ‘gallery of our time’ epitomized dorner’s idea of a living museum, characterized by flexible and variable exhibition display features. underpinning his curatorial approach was an understanding of art history influenced by evolutionary psychology. dorner acknowledged the centrality of time and transformation in the development of artistic movements and aimed to integrate them into a dynamic understanding of the history of art and of the museum as relative journal of visual culture ( ) constructs, liable to revision and redefinition. in his words, ‘only by seeing in history an open growth freed from immutability − a view familiar to modern biology, physics and psychology − can we hope to judge adequately the evolution of art and, particularly, the most recent movements in art’ (dorner, : ). in a note to this statement, dorner further adds that ‘this modern attitude of the sciences accounts for the gap that has developed between the sciences and the humanities in as far as they preserve the traditional belief in a basic immutability of reality’ as it manifests itself in the tendency to conceive historical movements as timeless. in order to counteract such a tendency, dorner’s approach was to conceive the museum’s displays as an hypothesis on the real, a curatorial experiment to be experienced by the audience, which reflected the contingency of ideas and practices in both art and experience. such an approach proved influential for barr who made his own notion of the exhibition as an hypothesis that could be experientially put forward in the museum’s display, though not in terms of historical relativity but rather of timelessness. barr was preoccupied with creating a museum space that was conducive to the appreciation of new art for american audiences. this in turn entailed the creation of exhibitions that could be seen as evolving along the line of novel and emerging artistic trends on which the very idea of the modern was articulated – whether in terms of modern art, the modern museum and/or the modern individual. for these reasons, although conceptually in debt to dorner’s vision and the bauhaus synthesis of art, design, science and technology, barr took the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment towards directions that contradicted dorner’s evolutionary approach. formally, barr drew on and adapted the displays developed by the modernist avant-gardes and the bauhaus, as exemplified by the landesmuseum’s ‘abstract cabinet’ and the ‘gallery of our time’, in the pristine and spare galleries of the museum of modern art, establishing the defining features of the ‘white cube’ as a self-enclosed and timeless space for art (o’doherty, : – ). neutral wall colours, careful spotlighting and use of graphics were all intended to produce a powerful and reproducible experience of autonomy and independence for the viewer (duncan, : - ; staniszewski, : ). conceptually, barr was not concerned with an evolving experience of time and space, but rather with the quest for an autonomous aesthetics for both modern art and its display. this in turn endorsed the museum’s endeavor for an appreciation of modern art and design in the united states (as well as internationally) and the legitimization of a space that expressed the modernist ethos for independence, internationality and democracy – ideals that matched the economics and politics of early th-century’s capitalism and the promotion of ‘scientific naturalism’ as a concurrent epistemology (marshall, : xx–xxi). the spatial and conceptual adaptability that barr envisaged for the museum of modern art was only partially akin to dorner’s idea of a museum capable of reflecting the dynamic changes of modern living and artistic innovation, since it was primarily meant as a validation of what was modern. ‘by demonstrating the vast variety of styles and concepts’ – barr ( : ) observed – ‘so characteristic of modern art in the recent past, albano the exhibition as an experiment it makes for an open mind and helps keep the institution receptive to new trends.’ this was supposedly actualized in exhibitions that barr and his colleagues tuned to the needs of the time and the democratization of art (wilson, : ; see also grunenberg, ). characteristically, the exhibitions at the museum of modern art paired a scholarly art historical approach (and didactic intention) with ‘experimental’ displays. this is evident, for instance, in the juxtaposition of primitive and modern art in exhibitions such as ‘cubism and abstract art’ ( ) curated by barr and ‘timeless aspects of modern art’ ( ) curated by rené d’harnocourt. on the one hand, ‘cubism and abstract art’ ( ) suggested an evolutionary framework which ‘was time-bound in the sense that it was founded on self-reflexive development. on the other hand, there were aspects of barr’s installation that presented modern art as a timeless and universal language’ (staniszewski, : ). the exhibition included modernist artworks alongside ‘primitive’ and pre-modern artifacts, for instance pablo picasso’s dancer ( – ) was shown next to a figure from gabon. a direct reference to avant-garde exhibitions, the juxtaposition relied on the assumption of the abiding continuity across cultures of the defining motifs of modernity. the careful groupings of works were presented through theatrical vistas across rooms and the spotlighting of artworks in darkened galleries with the intent of individualizing and abstracting their features within the universalizing context of the gallery space which was thought of as autonomous and self-contained (marshall, ; staniszewski, : – ; wilson, : – ) (see figure ). d’harnocourt used a similar approach for ‘timeless aspects of modern art’ ( ) which was part of a series of special exhibitions organized to celebrate the th anniversary of the museum of modern art and meant to ‘relate modern art to the arts of other epochs and to clarify its place in our century’ (museum of modern art, press release, ). as the title suggests, the exhibition aimed to establish the defining features of modern art as an all-encompassing concept by establishing relationships between what was thought to be modern in terms of th-century art and artworks of other periods. this entailed a demonstration of the initial premise or hypothesis underpinning the exhibition itself, that of tracing affinities among artworks belonging to different historical periods and places, since they could all be considered as instances of the modern in their own right. accordingly, ‘timeless aspects of modern art’ methodologically identified and grouped works by way of affinities of form and content to evidence that modern art ‘is not an isolated phenomenon in history but is … an integral part of art in all ages’ (museum of modern art, press release, ). stylistically, this meant a consideration of features, including exaggeration, distortion, and abstraction (staniszewski, : ). a th-century chinese painting, a landscape by cézanne, an artwork by picasso and one by piranesi were displayed side by side to show that they shared similar preoccupations with rhythmic movements, mathematical order, and internal structure (museum of modern art, press release, ). in another instance, to point journal of visual culture ( ) out different ways of conveying the emotional charge of an image, the stylization of wilhelm lehmbruck’s sculpture, standing youth ( ), was shown alongside a romanesque crucifix, georges rouault’s painting of christ mocked by soldiers ( ) and ryman bloom’s the synagogue (figure ). the exhibition design further emphasized the theoretical hypothesis of an encompassing notion of modern art across historical periods through the creation of spacious and darkened galleries where the works were spotlighted as if suspended in time. this dramatic lighting worked to decontextulize the art objects, evoking a crepuscular and ‘timeless’ sense of space, out of which individual pieces emerged. approximately midway through the show, in the ‘emotional content’ section, a dramatically lit romanesque crucifix served as a climax within the exhibition tour. (staniszewski, : ) the scientific hypothesis of the exhibition was thus methodologically elaborated both in the content – through the specific clustering of the selected artworks and artifacts – and formally – through the design features of the display. like an experiment, the exhibition presupposed the production of demonstrable knowledge for the visitor to experience. it was indeed the experimental claim of exhibitions such as ‘timeless aspects of modern art’ in the museum laboratory that the curatorial approach and gallery’s design exposed and foregrounded at the same time. the exhibitions thus figure installation view of the exhibition ‘cubism and abstract art’. new york, moma, march to april . new york, museum of modern art (moma). photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. ©photo scala, florence. photographer: beaumont newhall © the museum of modern art, ny. cat. no.: in . b. © . digital image, the museum of modern art, new york/scala, florence. albano the exhibition as an experiment framed the initial hypothesis on which they had been conceived (e.g. the timeless notion of modernity) into the experiential knowing produced by the experiment–exhibition by ways of controlling the presentness of what was on display. curators exploited the transitional environment of the gallery for removing any temporal references (see bal, : – ), and creating an autonomous space in which the universality of modern art could be asserted. such a space ideally shared the same supposed qualities of pristine order, neutrality and self-containment of the scientific laboratory. informing barr’s experimental exhibitions, however, was an altogether different approach to science from that of dorner, an approach that was not directly influenced by scientific ideas but rather by the ways in which the scientific discourse constructed itself as an autonomous sphere of knowledge. put another way, in using the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment and of the museum as a laboratory, barr invoked the same cultural authority for the museum of modern art with which science was endowed at the turn of the th century when it was prized as a defining form of modernity and its influence was increasingly recognized (shapin, : ). the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment was in fact meant to grant institutional autonomy and authority to the museum of modern art and to endorse the kind of knowledge it produced in ways that confirmed both the museum and the art it showed as epitomes of modernity. the function of the analogy was thus programmatic since it helped to endorse the exhibition with the figure installation view of the exhibition ‘timeless aspects of modern art’, moma, ny, november to january . new york, museum of modern art (moma). ©photo scala, florence. photographic archive. the museum of modern art archives, new york. ref. no.: in . . © . digital image, the museum of modern art, new york/scala, florence. journal of visual culture ( ) cultural weight conferred on science as the field in which the experiment was most commonly recognized and defined. the laboratory and the experiment: two modern cultural constructs historically, such an authority relied on an independent code of practice (put forward by the royal academy in london in the th century and further consolidated in the early th century) that granted science an autonomous sphere of knowledge production. this had been developed around the two notions, those of the laboratory and of the experiment, and implied the institutionalization of science itself as an independent intellectual activity complying to its own regulation, such as the so-called scientific method. within this context, the laboratory had emerged as the privileged space for the production of scientific knowledge as the pursuit of experts behind closed doors. the historical development of the laboratory as the space for making experiments itself concealed an unresolved dichotomy between the private and public dimension of the production of scientific knowledge that has ever since dominated the evolution of science and its cultural positioning: although allegedly public, laboratories are not openly accessible and their validation resides on the ‘visible display of the emblems of recognized experience’ that experts perform and whose validity is vouched for by other experts (shapin, : ). the laboratory is thus ambiguously positioned between the privacy of a self-contained space ruled by experts and the public demonstration of knowledge production which legitimates it (bourdieu, : ). experts, in other words, are both the producers and supporters of the validity of scientific knowledge that is publicly displayed and consumed. it is within this context that the experiment acquires significance as a practice sanctioned by the use of a specific apparatus (i.e. instruments, techniques, methods of observation, description and analysis) that separate the professional scientist from the amateur, the expert from the audience (bourdieu, : ). the ambiguity between the private production of scientific knowledge through practices that are the domain of experts and its public display complicates the assumption of the museum as a laboratory and of the exhibition as an experiment, suggesting a similar ambivalence for the arts. in comparing the new york museum of modern art to a laboratory and its exhibitions to experiments, barr invoked a defining form of modernity and claimed for modern art and the space of its display a sphere of autonomy, independence and legitimacy similar to that of science. barr envisaged for the museum of modern art the same prerogatives of the laboratory as a secular space of knowledge production, both physical and figurative, that was self-ruled and whose validation relied on expertise and practices of production, on the one hand, and public display or communication, on the other hand. the latter, as in the case of the laboratory, acted as the overt legitimization of a form of knowledge that was self-determined albano the exhibition as an experiment since it was generated and validated by experts. although these claims betray concealed entanglements with politics and economics (as they did for science), relevant for our discussion are the ways in which the experiment could support the legitimization of modern art and the modern museum through the prerogatives of autonomy and self-containment that characterized the scientific sphere. underpinning the experiment is in fact the attainment of data whose interpretation helps the demonstration of a specific hypothesis in order for it to acquire general standing. this implies a transition from the particular to the universal that is helpful for understanding barr’s use of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment since it enabled him to extend to the museum of modern art the same prerogative of autonomy and legitimacy culturally ascribed to science. barr in fact exploited the shift from the specific to the general implicit in the validation of experimental knowledge to underpin the claim for universality (despite its specificity) of modern art that the exhibitions–experiments at the museum of modern art tried to attain. in order to grant legitimacy to modern art within the western art canon, barr and his colleagues evinced through their experimental exhibitions the continuity and reappraisal of universal themes and forms in the art of the present, thus endorsing its validity in the now, but also in relation to the past and the future. the museum’s exhibitions were, in other words, experiments meant to experientially corroborate the hypothesis of universality of modern art which had been formulated and was further assessed by museum’s experts (i.e. the curators). the specific topic examined by single exhibitions, such as ‘cubism and abstract art’ or ‘timeless aspects of modern art’, was thus part of the evolving demonstration of the validity of modern art and the space that contained and endorsed it as universal. within the context of the exhibition–experiment, the presentness of the knowledge put forward by the museum was framed within the autonomy and a-historicity of a discourse that construed itself as universally valid. this was not merely an intellectual endeavor, but rather one in which understanding also arose from the affective involvement of the visitor and his or her immersion in the rarified environment of the exhibition itself. the privacy that the laboratory ensured to the scientist was translated to the exhibition in the individual and yet communal experience of visiting. the exhibition generated a space of constructed visibility that granted autonomy and legitimacy not only to the knowledge that it displayed but also to the individual who shared such knowledge. it intimated a dialogic relation between the curator (expert) and the audience through the exhibition itself. within this context, the museum of modern art implied an alliance with its potential audience that was as important for modern art as for modern science. in barr’s ( : ) words: it is a museum for ‘modern art’ – that is, for you and for me, a museum for art which reflects the inner problems of our generation and is created in the hope of meeting some of its basic needs. journal of visual culture ( ) in treading new and even controversial ground, challenging established notions, practices and worldviews, artists and scientists alike fostered a secular and democratic credo whose intended autonomy and independence could be shared, helping to fashion the modern individual. this was in line with the didactic role of the museum that, from its original institution at the turn of the th century, had been conceived with the aim of fostering the ‘fabrication of a modern citizen’ as ‘a new social subject’ by endowing ‘the ethical language of the self’ through its displays (preziosi, : ). the museum of modern art continued the definition of the modern subject by suggesting that the late victorian self-fashioning bourgeois had turned into the aspiring dynamic urban citizen of th-century metropolises − the ‘you’ and ‘me’ whose needs and worldview the museum tackled and reflected on. such an ideal citizen was also the potential audience for the narratives that science was forging and rephrasing in the first half of the th century. whilst science did not immediately call upon such a citizen as an audience maintaining a self-referential circuit of communication across experts, the spreading of its findings within the broader cultural and social arena and the political relevance of expert knowledge in public affairs during the second half of the th century increasingly brought to bear the significance of ‘fashioning’ an audience for science that was akin to the one of the modern art museum. the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment thus endorsed parallels and shared connotations for both the museum and science. these have acquired renewed relevance in our time when the premises on which the exhibition and the experiment were brought together have been questioned and critically reappraised. the redefinition of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment from the late s onwards, barr’s experimental exhibitions began to falter under the pressure of multilayered critique around the power relations, anachronisms and biases that the museum of modern art epitomized, leading to a redefinition of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment. today this is far less redolent of institutional innovation than a critique of established curatorial practices. through direct interventions and collaborative practices, and by moving the exhibition outside the confines of the art gallery, artists and curators have increasingly drawn attention to the necessity of reflecting on a museum’s practices as well as on ‘the category of art that it enshrines and the modalities of spectatorship that it produces’ (bishop, : – ). the museum of modern art, as barr well understood, contended with the shifting present and what counts as ‘modern’, or rather ‘contemporary’ at any given time. for barr, the exhibition as an experiment endorsed an overarching almost ontological notion of modern art and, by extension, of contemporary art as autonomous and universal. today’s experimental exhibitions critique such an assumption and the timelessness it might imply through a questioning of what counts for contemporary art in terms of contingency. what is ‘contemporary for the museum of contemporary art’ now attests to albano the exhibition as an experiment a definition of the present as marked by pluralism, multiple perspectives and contingencies (p. ). as claire bishop points out, ‘contemporary’ in art refers to a ‘dialectical contemporaneity’ rather than an ontological one, since ‘it does not designate a style or period of the works themselves so much as an approach to them’ (p. ). presentness thus relates to the contingency of an approach that is experimental and, as latour and weibel’s ‘iconoclash’ indicates, is also performative. this alludes to ‘durational and evolutionary curatorial endeavors’ that are developed through collaborative networks (o’neill, :). since the s, performative curatorial practices have offered a new paradigm for experimentalism, new formats of collective cultural action, and greater emphasis on self-organization within the contemporary art field. the newly ascendant discourse of curating brought with it an intensified and multiply distributed discursivity that resulted in dialogical approaches to exhibition production. (p. ) within this context, the exhibition is a performative discursive event that involves all its participants or agents (i.e. artists, curators, audiences, artifacts and artworks) (albano, : – ; ferguson, : - ; greenberg, : – ) in the investigation and production of experiential knowledge (o’neill, : ). such a notion of the exhibition also conceptually resonates with the current definition of the experiment and the production of scientific knowledge suggesting a mobilization of meaning that is itself discursive for both the exhibition and the experiment. today’s synergies between the exhibition and the experiment still invest knowledge production – however, no longer in terms of universalizing paradigms, but rather in terms of performativity and dialogical contingencies. this is because science has also undergone an institutional critique that has led to a reappraisal of the experiment in ways that are akin to artistic practices. from the s onwards, the idea of science as a unified, autonomous and universal realm began to be questioned through a critique and historicizing of the processes underpinning the production of scientific knowledge (hacking, : – ; latour, : – ; shapin, : ). rather than being removed from contextual contingencies, the laboratory and the experiment were increasingly considered within the plurality of contexts in which they operated (shapin, : – ; see also latour, ; pickering, ). by situating the formulation of scientific knowledge(s) in terms of practices defined by and to be conceived in terms of place and time – that is as historical products – science historians, philosophers of science and sociologists have drawn attention to the implausibility of a notion of science as independent from the contexts in which it is conceived and removed from historical conditions. despite differences in the debate, the critique has challenged a vision of science as an autonomous field of knowledge production advancing through milestones of individual discoveries according to a well-defined ‘scientific method’. on the contrary, against the background of an overarching grand narrative of progressive achievement, the coming journal of visual culture ( ) to be of scientific knowledge is murky, contentious, and fragmented. from such a critique has emerged the current assumption of scientific knowledge(s) as performative whereby the experiment epitomizes an understanding of science as an historically bound cluster of practices that use a range of cultural, technological and other kinds of resources to perform and hence produce knowledge (hacking, : – ; pickering, : – ). such knowledge includes the material, social, cultural and spatio-temporal dimensions in which it emerges and operates, not as fact or observation but rather as agency (hacking, : – ; pickering, : – ). the experiment thus stands as a form of making, enacting and interacting in ways that affect. according to latour ( : – ) ‘an experiment is an event’ characterized by a plurality of conditions and agents (including scientists, institutions, materials, non-human ‘actors’, etc.) that concur in and are altered by the processes enacted and their results or consequences. such a definition that resonates with that of the exhibition as a performative discursive event acknowledges the collaborative and durational nature of scientific knowledge as it emerges from a multiplicity of relations (or networks and intersections) as well as practices which are both provisional and contextual. ‘an actor’ – following latour ( : ) – is generated by the experimental trials: the performance that is the experiment. such performance frames the processes and actors of the experiment opening up new relations. the knowledge that an experiment produces is, in other words, circumstantial and contingent to the modalities and practices of making, to the interactions and relations or networks of actors (human and non-human) and their transformation; it is – to extend charles esche’s ( ) definition of the exhibition – ‘unstable and propositional’. the experiment as an event thus implies an approach to conditions, objects and people involving spatial, temporal and bodily engagement and the traces of its own development. it is situated and partial and, most conspicuously, affects all the enactors. this implies a notion of materiality that extends beyond physicality or matter to include the sensorium and the overt and latent traces of interaction, manipulation and practice, thus giving new emphasis to the connotations of experiencing that denotes performativity for both the experiment and the exhibition. this is exemplified by another curatorial collaboration between latour and weibel for the exhibition ‘making things public: atmospheres of democracy’ ( ) at karlsruhe’s zetrum für kunst und medientechnologie, which was developed around the performativity of both the exhibition and the experiment in terms of their being an event open to interpretation, interaction and new modes of articulation. ‘making things public’ was conceived as ‘an installation within an installation’ meant to question parliamentary democracy by inviting its audience to experience in a new way political matters through an ‘experimental assembly of assemblies’ – both human and non-human (whether a river, a geographical border, a supermarket or a concept) (weibel and latour, : ). the notion of the actor argued by latour for the scientific experiment translated ‘making things public’ into the ‘thing’ of politics with which the exhibition albano the exhibition as an experiment experimented by creating a performance of democracy through art (see figures and ). divided into subject areas, including ‘the parliaments of nature’ which dealt with the politics of ecology, ‘no mediation, no figures and view of the exhibition ‘making things public’, march –october , , zkm | center for art and media karlsruhe, © zkm | center for art and media karlsruhe, photo: franz wamhof. journal of visual culture ( ) representation’ on science and the ways in which it has redefined systems of representation, and ‘new eloquence’ on the emergence of digital networks, the exhibition included artworks that variously instigated different approaches to things public and to the related affective positioning (i.e. set of opinions, patterns of emotional responses, and ways of finding solutions) questioning the very notions of authority and legitimacy (latour, : – ). this is the case of warren sack’s web- based interactive installation, agonistics: a language game ( ), which explored the democratic potential of verbal contests through an online game, tom fürstner’s interactive installation narrative device iv ( ), which addressed the ways in which digital technologies dominate our experience of the world by tracking the audience interaction with screen as images blend and recompose. according to latour, ‘making things public’ drew on the double meaning of the term representation which in political science implies ‘to gather the legitimate people around some issue’ and in science and technology to ‘present[s] or rather represent[s] what is the object of concern to the eyes and hears of those who have been assembled’ exposing enactors, networks, and inscriptions. ‘contemporary avant-garde artists’, observe weibel and latour ( ), ‘respond sensitively to social changes by chaining the structure of their approach to their work and entering into new alliances with new forms of enactments’ (p. ). ‘making things public’ thus engaged with ways of participation and agency within networks of human and non-human enactors in ways that were pertinent for an understanding of performativity for both the exhibition and the experiment. to see knowledge production – whether related to politics, art, or science – as a flow of interactions not fully determinable presupposes opening it up to a plurality of perspectives and possibilities (see steiner, : – ), which can be thought of as unstable and propositional. this is what denotes today’s understanding of the exhibition as an experiment and the ways in which the two concepts inform each other. both terms in fact allude to practices of making that entail both performing and documenting, whereby knowledge does not only imply factual information but also ways of altering, communicating, affecting and being affected. the analogy suggests a materiality of inscription – in jacques derrida’s ( ) sense – of shifting relations and references that is critical to both art and science. whilst at the beginning of the th century such practices defined a domain of independent authority, which was also invested in the definition of an audience, in terms of the modern individual, today’s notion of performativity reminds us that practices contain the signs of other enactors and performances, of iteration and loss. both the experiment and the exhibition allude to a continuum of difference and repetition, of modification and inscription of traces, mobilizing multiple meanings, perspectives and histories, as well as temporalities and places. in the case of the exhibition, this is evident in the discursive strategies that characterize it and the involvement of the viewer as a maker of meaning in the process of visiting as he or she partakes of the circulation of the experiential knowledge that albano the exhibition as an experiment characterizes the exhibition through perceptive or emotional resonances. in the case of the experiment, performativity is akin to the debate in the arts around curatorial practices and their significance by raising similar questions about the ontological relation with the world and ultimately about the kinds of interpretation and understanding that derive from it (pickering, : – ). this also complicates the relationship of science with audiences, generating what appears as today’s blurred realm of public engagement whereby accountability, communication and even entertainment have entered the scientific discourse, whether in relation to environmental issues, biopolitics or nature-culture in order to address the necessity of broader forms of relationality and agency (franklin, : – ), for which science often turns to the arts as a means of articulation. beyond an analogy by way of a conclusion, we may reconsider lowry’s reappraisal of barr’s comparison for the museum of modern art in new york mentioned at the beginning. lowry’s claim is indicative of a recognition of the origin of the institution and of a time when the experiment meant innovation, advancement and self-determination. today the analogy has acquired a different meaning: hence, lowry’s claim rather than being nostalgic seems to point to the ways in which politics and institutional pressure interfere (and always have) with any definition of both the exhibition and the experiment as contingent and engaged forms of knowledge production. among the traces of inscription of the analogy are the histories of convergence and divergence of the two disciplines. such histories, as our discussion has pointed out, are intermingled, mutually crossing and informing each other despite the supposed separation of these two fields. indeed, the ongoing currency of the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment is indicative of cultural overlaying and pollination that have happened and happen at deeper levels and in less overt forms between the two discourses rather than in more obvious interchanges or explicit collaborations, pointing to fertile syntheses that are worth further enquiry. this cross-fertilization, however, also contains its own disturbance. the experimental exhibition also implies a reflection on contemporaneity and what is contemporary art and, we could add, what is contemporary science. such questioning, as the relation established by the analogy of the exhibition as an experiment testifies to, concerns the legitimacy and authority conferred on both the laboratory and the museum as sites of knowledge production in which networks of actors concur in generating meaning, bringing to the fore an outstanding debate on the politics and institutionally vested interests informing the reciprocity of these two discourses and any potentials for renovation. notes . from the latin verb experire, to experiment means to try or test, and to have experience of, to experience, to feel (oxford english dictionary, : – ). journal of visual culture ( ) . according to hans ulrich obrist ( : ), many of the new developments in curating ‘are precisely related not only to space but also to the invention and re-invention of time in order to create new temporalities’. . the second exhibition in the series, ‘modern art in the modern world’, dealt with ‘affinities between contemporary art forms and other characteristic manifestations of our present civilization’ (museum of modern art, : np). . during the late th century, science was professionalized, becoming a specialized set of practices rather than a gentleman’s pursuit. this meant that experiments that were carried out as public demonstrations in gentlemen’s houses moved into the exclusively designed space of the laboratory where they were carried out behind closed doors (shapin, : – ). . this is effected mainly through written publication – which can be regarded as a related space of interaction between the expert and potential audiences (bourdiau, : ). the notion of the scientific method as a defining attribute in the formulation of scientific knowledge has been complicated through a questioning of its significance in terms of a plurality of methods (shapin, : ). . an instance of scientific inscription is the use of mathematics as a means of description and analysis that contributes to constitution of the autonomy of certain fields of research, such as physics (bourdieu, : ). indeed, as timothy lenoir ( : ) argues, at the core of scientific experiment and its methodological approaches is a transformation of ‘matter into written traces’ which further underpins the construction of scientific models. . latour ( : ) also defines the experiment ‘as a list of effects – or performances – in the laboratory’, the characteristics and behavior of a substance (whether an animate organism, a chemical transformation or physical occurrence). references albano c ( ) exhibition. in: encyclopedia of aesthetics. oxford: oxford university press, – . bal m ( ) double exposures: the subject of cultural analysis. london: routledge. barr ah jr ( ) painting and sculpture in the museum of modern art – . new york: the museum of modern art. bishop c ( ) radical museology or, what’s ‘contemporary’ in museums of contemporary art? london: könig books. bourdieu p ( ) il mestiere di scienziato: corso al collège de france - , trans. a serra. milan: feltrinelli editore. cauman s ( ) the living museum: experiences of an art historian and museum director – alexander dorner. new york: new york university press. derrida j ( ) 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( ) on curating: interviews with ten international curators. new york: art publishers. weibel p and latour b ( ) experimenting with representation: iconoclash and making things public. in: macdonald s and basu p (eds) exhibition experiments. oxford: blackwell, – . wilson k ( ) the modern eye: stieglitz, moma and the art of exhibition, – . new haven, ct: yale university press. caterina albano is a reader in visual culture and science at central saint martins, university of the arts london. she is the author of memory, forgetting and the moving image (palgrave macmillan, ) and fear and art in the contemporary world (reaktion books, ), of journal articles and essays on art and science, the history of emotion (fear and anxiety), on memory and contemporary art, and curating. address: central saint martins university of the arts london, granary square, london n c aa, uk. [email: c.albano@csm.arts.ac.uk] mailto:c.albano@csm.arts.ac.uk journal of art historiography number june the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier-graefe and the problems of cultural transfer csilla markója the ‘hungarian fauves’ – what does it mean? ‘i long believed that hungarian modernism began with the eight, but it turned out that it started with the “hungarian fauves”, around ,’ declared krisztina passuth, curator-in-chief to the newspaper népszabadság. she went on to add: ‘hungarian art history needs to be rewritten.’ this euphoric pronouncement heralded the exhibition ‘hungarian fauves from paris to nagybánya – ’, staged at the hungarian national gallery ( ). this show, which was afterwards displayed at three locations in france, prompting widespread interest in the media there, was accompanied in hungary by debates regarding terminology. ‘were the hungarian fauves really fauves?’ asked art historians and art critics. during the discussions which followed, problems of cultural transfer – i.e. those of the acceptance, adoption, translation, and interpretation of a given segment of another culture, another narrative – were given a good airing, especially at the conference organised as just one of the events the writing of this paper was funded by a jános bolyai research scholarship awarded by the hungarian academy of sciences. ‘a “magyar vadak” fölfedezése. ismeretlen remekművek a nemzeti galériában. varsányi gyula riportja passuth krisztinával’ [discovering the hungarian fauves. unknown masterpieces at the hng], népszabadság, february issue. . the exhibition between march and june was organised by krisztina passuth, gergely barki, and györgy szücs. the international response to the exhibition was highly impressive, at least with regard to the statistics. the show featured times on television and times on radio. in addition, the french daily and weekly press (including le monde, l’indépendant, la tribune, paris match, elle, and palette) reported on it – briefly or at greater length but almost invariably in illustrated articles – on occasions and the monthly press on occasions. the foreign press published articles on the exhibition, along with invitations and snippets of news that together numbered more than these. fifty internet sites informed their readers concerning the travelling exhibition, which was augmented with works by french fauves. csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer intended to augment and interpret the exhibition. together with gergely barki, péter molnos, zoltán rockenbauer and attila rum, krisztina passuth, professor at the institute for art history at the eötvös loránd university of budapest and an eminent researcher of the eight and the activists, investigated the years preceding the appearance of the eight. the threads led to france. ‘a fine exhibition – perhaps this is the first feeling the visitor has on seeing the representative selection,’ wrote the correspondent of the periodical Új művészet, summing up his impressions, ‘an exhibition like this can only be put together from works made in a great period of art. can we say that the art of the hungarian fauves counts as one of the exceptional moments in hungarian painting?’ passuth replied: ‘yes. this was the moment – to be more exact, it was a period of few years, from to specifically – when modern hungarian painting was born. for us today, what happened then seems for us fully amazing. an art was born that was absolutely in synchrony with european trends, even the most recent french and german ones, an art whose autonomous peculiarities and values were – and continue to be – characteristic only of the hungarian fauves.’ in his assessment of the exhibition’s significance in art history, géza perneczky went even further than this: ‘we should attach much more weight after this exhibition to the young hungarian artists familiar with fauvism who visited paris after and who in some cases stayed there for a longer period. but as regards their role in hungary, we should see these artists, whom their colleagues called ‘neos’ (neoimpressionists), a label that stuck for decades, simply as representatives of the ferment that started at the nagybánya artists’ colony and in the miÉnk circle. more is needed. although in the contemporary press the word chercheurs was voiced many times in connection with them (this term later found an echo in károly kernstok’s expression ‘inquisitive art’), it was they who found, and represented for a year or two, what later on already could only be spoilt. if we accept this, though, then we must move to an earlier date the fault line that separates the story of the direct influence of plein air painting (more specifically the nagybánya school), and the secessionist endeavours in hungary that were occurring almost in parallel with it, from the avant-garde, which was then knocking at the door. the start of the hungarian avant-garde thus moves a few years earlier. but even this correction does not express entirely the full extent of the new recognitions. it is not simply that the eight’s appearance around now seems not to have been the first avant-garde stirring in the history of hungarian art. an additional factor is that our impression of the eight as a classicising branch – one the show was accompanied by a series of lectures, with the participation of györgy szücs krisztina passuth, anna szinyei merse, gyula kemény, lászló jurecskó, gergely barki, zoltán rockenbauer, and tamás tarján. ernő p. szabó, ‘a modern festészet ünnepi pillanatai. beszélgetés passuth krisztinával a magyar vadak párizstól nagybányáig – című kiállításról’ [festive moments of modern painting. interview with kp], Új művészet, : , , . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer more retrogressive than progressive in respect of innovation – of the stirring that had begun five or six years earlier may be growing.’ however, to his markedly unsympathetic opinion he immediately added: ‘of course, it could be that we remember only erroneously what the eight actually painted [...]. in this, a role is most certainly played by the fact that many of their works are in private collections; without these the eight cannot be shown in a way that is truly fitting. [...] but however much we try to save the situation, this much is certain: a sea change has taken place.’ after preparations lasting four years for the exhibition that gave rise to this ‘sea change’, another four years needed to pass for the same ‘research group’ to step forth with a ‘fitting’ presentation of the eight, as an organic continuation of the earlier show. the group’s members undertook a task that seemed impossible, namely to reconstruct the three emblematic exhibitions staged between and at which members of the eight (róbert berény, béla czóbel, dezső czigány, károly kernstok, Ödön márffy, dezső orbán, bertalan pór, lajos tihanyi) – who were recruited from the much broader circle of the hungarian fauves – took part along with friends they had invited (artúr jakobovits, vilmos fémes beck, mária lehel, anna lesznai, márk vedres). we thus have an opportunity to ponder questions that Éva forgács (eminent researcher of modernism in pasadena) put in the columns of the journal holmi: ‘can concepts or artistic practices be transferred from one culture to another; and how much can another cultural context modify the meaning and function of a given artistic language, in the present case a language of painters?’ forgács herself answers these questions, when in her nuanced analysis she points out that sometimes ‘cultures of forms and languages of images can be transferred from one culture to another’, ‘which, however, cannot be lifted across [...], the embeddedness in history of some modes of expression, in this case the context created by the french enlightenment and french revolution, in the frameworks of which the french viewer saw the pictures of the fauves, even when these were mediated, since antecedents of these pictures [...] “had given rise to unconscious associations.”’ according to forgács, the historical context of early twentieth-century progressivism in hungary is essentially different from the french: ‘those budapest intellectuals who served as the repository of progressivism did not hark back to the perneczky, géza: ‘revízió a magyar avantgárd kezdeteinek kérdésében’ [revision concerning the beginning of hungarian avant garde], holmi, , , – . the authors of the catalogue included under the collective term ‘hungarian fauves’ the following artists, by virtue of works they produced during a particular phase of their careers: béla balla, rezső bálint, géza bornemisza, tibor boromisza, istván csók, dezső czigány, valéria dénes, sándor galimberti, gitta gyenes, vilmos huszár, béla iványi grünwald, károly kernstok, nana kukovetz, Ödön márffy, andrás mikola, józsef nemes lampérth, dezső orbán, tibor pólya, bertalan pór, armand schönberger, lajos tihanyi, jános vaszary, sándor ziffer. csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer ideas – of , let us say – relating to hungarian attempts to secure bourgeois freedoms, but, turning against their liberal fathers, relied on the ideas of german philosophy, and wished to create a new metaphysics. as the early essays of györgy (georg) lukács, béla balázs, and lajos fülep show, these intellectuals wished to create a new and extensive hungarian national culture in the spirit of german idealism, a culture for which they drew inspiration from ady’s poetry, from the pathos of his new verses that heralded a new age. their rebellion was directed first and foremost against impressionism, which – having partly misunderstood – they considered art characterised by superficiality and subjectivism. their ideal was cézanne, in whose structured pictures they saw – likewise partly erroneously – the glorification of metaphysics.’ at this point, forgács quotes one of the authors of the catalogue, péter molnos, who in one of his studies speaks of how ‘at the birth of the new painting, at the starting out in nagybánya of czóbel, berény, perlrott, and their associates [...], it was problems purely to do with painting that were in focus of attention, independently of every element outside art’, and of how ‘conscious emphasising of structure and composition was basically alien from the colour- centred, deconstructing spontaneity of fauvism’. despite the labelling, the members of the research group evaluated – and formulated – the differences accurately. gergely barki, one of the organisers of the exhibition, declared to the periodical műértő: ‘seeing the pictures emerging in the art trade, one could guess even at the outset that something new would come together, and we were aware that if we began in a systematic way to dig out the pictures hidden away at public collections, there would be surprises for everyone. an appreciable part of the exhibition came from material that had been gathering dust in museum storerooms. the period between and had not been markedly represented in the specialist literature earlier on; the term itself ‘magyar vadak’ [hungarian fauves] raised questions. for the time being, no one was able to come up with anything better, although i, too, did not consider this term entirely appropriate, nor in the end the expression ‘hungarian fauves’ either. even now we know little. the exhibition at best called attention to the fact that there was a tendency that needed to be addressed.’ one difference between the viewpoints related to the usefulness or harmfulness of the term ‘hungarian fauves’, which was declared unsatisfactory. ‘for strategic reasons’, Éva forgács did not deem fortunate ‘the labelling of this painting, rich and encompassing different endeavours, with the expression ‘hungarian fauves’. the entirety of modern hungarian painting, which began late, Éva forgács, ‘vadak vagy koloristák?’ [fauves or colourists] holmi, , , – . péter molnos, ‘the “paris of the east” in the hungarian wilderness’ krisztina passuth and györgy szücs, eds, hungarian fauves from paris to nagybánya, budapest: hungarian national gallery, . . emőke gréczi, ‘vadak után, nyolcak előtt. beszélgetés barki gergely művészettörténésszel’ [after the fauves, before the eight. interview with art historian gb], műértő, april . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer has never been described using terminology other than that created by western and russian narratives, this giving no chance for any kind of distinctive quality, voice, or half-voice, or something original even, to be present in hungarian art.’ the situation was evaluated similarly by ilona sármány-parsons: when local art histories began to be constructed as the history of a national art, an universal measure of a virtual kind dangled in the collective consciousness of the day: the path of french art, as a universal path. [...] when we read the exciting and interesting studies in the catalogue for the hungarian fauves, it becomes clear that the very same fire burned in the breasts of the young hungarian art historians of as had burned in the breasts of those of . the proof that we hungarians managed to connect synchronically with the french experiments with form; in other words, we were modern and we did not lag behind in the race for new visual solutions. [...] in other words, czóbel, berény, perlrott, etc. were there in the salon d’automne, alongside matissse and in the company of derain, with fresh, uniquely new pictures: in paris and in the vanguard! [...] but did anyone notice us? is it not illusory to hope that with this evidential material we can step, albeit afterwards, into the “centre” and integrate into the principal trends in the history of painting? according to katalin sinkó, we can move nearer to an understanding of the problem if we bear in mind that ‘cultural transfer differs essentially from comparison, since it builds on the premise that there are no national cultures that have developed in an autochthonous way. these cultures have formed in the wake of influences, co-habitation, and motif adoption of many different kinds. investigation of cultural transfers, then, places the emphasis on similarities existing in the social memory and not on differences. this is because “common cultural elements ease movement from one context to another”, in other words, understanding.’ in the case of the hungarian fauves, sinkó analyses the process of cultural transfer as follows: the renaming of the “neos” as “hungarian fauves” was, however, unable to take place until this change of designation had been legitimated by an exhibition in france. [...] the decisive step in this area was taken by the organisers of the show “le fauvisme ou l’épreuve du feu”, which opened in forgács, ‘vadak vagy koloristák?’, . ilona sármány-parsons, ‘marginalizált magyar festők, avagy egy közép-európai festészeti kánon kérdései’ [hungarian painter ont he margin, or questions of the canon of eastern european painting], holmi, : , , . katalin sinkó, nemzeti képtár. a magyar nemzeti galéria története. [gallery of the nation. the history of the hungarian national gallery] budapest, , . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer october at the musée d’art moderne de la ville de paris. this exhibition, which dealt with painting in the period between and , devoted a special section to artists working in paris, dresden, munich, prague, budapest, and moscow, as well as in belgium, switzerland, and finland, who were in the circle of the french fauves or under their influence. [...] the fauve movement or trend was one that was built on the traditional centre–periphery approach taken by writings on french and european modern art. we can say that the modernisation of this concept has still not taken place. in essence, sinkó agrees with Éva forgács in that neither concept nor artistic practice can be transferred from one context to another without a modification of meaning. according to sinkó: in the background of reformulations and new names there are the less conscious processes of cultural transfer. in the course of these, french culture and hungarian culture alike have been placed in the role of receiver. while works by hungarian artists that were created under french influence, and the names of these artists also, are perhaps fixed in the narratives of french modernisms, the different time-horizon and the special characteristics of hungarian and central european history remain considerably outside the processes of this transfer. generalising from our example, for a real understanding of the situation only the understanding of the concepts – in the present case, the different meanings of the expression “fauves” – can help. [...] the frame of this can only be “crossed history” (histoire croissé, to use bénédicte zimmermann’s term), which can come into being through the bilateral investigation of processes. for the writing of history of this kind, it is necessary that in concrete situations the different national histories – in our case, the french art history and hungarian art history – step out of the frames of national monocausality followed hitherto and, in the development of theories, take into account, in a multilateral way, the earlier or actual determinedness of the historiography of the other nation. for example, to what extent are the ongoing processes of historical interpretation mirrors of cultural transfers, or are they sensitive indicators of the already complete crisis of the europe ideal in both central and western europe, or perhaps harbingers of the new nationalisms strengthening in the west, too, in the current situation? this provocative question remains unanswered. but in order to understand the operation of cultural transfer, it is enough to think of a connection that develops sinkó, nemzeti képtár, . sinkó, nemzeti képtár , . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer between two strangers. to begin with, they measure their similarities and a possible common basis. they instinctively seek out in their own histories those points which they can offer to each other for identification. in this phase, the smallest similarity can be the source of immeasurable joy. but when there is a common denominator, already the differences, too, can give them pleasure. of course, relations are never perfectly equal and never perfectly mutual. the art history of the time around has been recorded by way of the narrative of progressivism, in the paradigm of the centre and the periphery. the model itself is historical. we can and should remark upon on the material of past in its capacity as such and we may emphasise different aspects of it. nevertheless, the material of the past is malleable only up to a certain limit. the historical marker of the art of the era under discussion is progressivism: we would be ahistorical were we to divest it of this tag. the expression ‘hungarian fauves’ is a proposal for a common denominator. albeit differently and with different emphases, the paris of matisse was, at one and the same time, the paris of the hungarian painters, too. the name itself is a proposal; the meaning is already a variation on the name. however, as far as the history of the eight is concerned, it is not the common denominator, but the delight in the distinctive and the different that matters. the reception of the eight and the press as a fine arts example of the movements active in the different spheres of cultural life in hungary between in , the eight group was a loosely organised, informal association, although its leader károly kernstok, who was known in the press largely on account of his organisational ability, mature years, and prestige, had clear views on what it represented and what its task should be in society. it was Ödön márffy who, with hindsight, summarised its programme most succinctly: ‘the joint or kindred endeavours of these artists could perhaps be formulated as follows, namely that they tried to make pictures according to strict principles by placing emphasis on composition, construction, shapes, drawing, and essence.’ behind these endeavours, journalists and art critics, numbering just a handful but nevertheless highly effectual, organised and influenced the group’s growing middle-class public, which was primarily drawn from the ranks of the urban intelligentsia. in the absence of a real art market, this public purchased works by the group members on a patronage basis, measured their accomplishment in the light of its political-ideological alignment and intellectual preconceptions, which was at the same time the undertaking of a social role. the unique features of their art were for a long time engraved on the countenance of a small yet powerful public; in turn, the mimicry and gestures of this public influenced their art, and, through mediation, have – down to the present day – determined the artistic orientation and approach dévényi, iván: ‘márffy Ödön levele a nyolcak törekvéseiről’ [letter of Öm about on the goals of the eight]. művészet, , , . . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer to forms of generations. Éva körner, who coined the term ‘avant-garde without isms’, considers convergence to be the main characteristic of the period under discussion, but also calls attention to the distinctively hungarian features of the process of bourgeois transformation: in the s, large-scale social co-operation was characteristic of intellectual life in hungary, from the socio-political movements through the transformation of the system of philosophical thought to the fashioning of forms in art. for the time being, intellectual solidarity prevailed; the cracks, and later the splits, that emerge during times of ordeals in political life had not yet appeared. [...] it was not by chance that for the first time in hungary culture acquired a new meaning, one orientated towards the living of life in a more just and true way, because never in hungary did the system of middle-class values, and grounded in it the specialist branches of learning, taken root to such an extent that the desire for a different, more just and true life was erased. nevertheless, cracks appeared well before the paths finally diverged. intense solidarity characterised the eight only at the end of and the beginning of : many of the members failed to take part in the group’s third exhibition, which was held in . kernstok lost his leading role and left the group. when we speak of the eight, in a certain sense we are speaking about an effective fiction, but this vision or fantasy regarding a community created ensembles of art works of emblematic significance, moreover with matchless vehemence for art as a whole. in connection with the eight, it is primarily paintings that we think of, although the members displayed sculptures and even applied art creations. at their third show, berény exhibited, in addition to a writing-case, eight women’s handbags, hangings, and eight pillow-case embroideries. from their circle, anna lesznai also produced high- standard embroideries. capable of being pieced together from entries in her diary, her ideas concerning decoration were also significant. many of the members of the eight could play a musical instrument. róbert berény, an all-rounder in the group and the other leading figure besides kernstok, not only understood mathematics, but also wrote music criticism; indeed, he also composed music, and not just on any level. seen through today’s eyes, the press campaign surrounding the eight reached enormous dimensions, even if ample contributions appeared by conservative writers. during the scientific preparations for the exhibition, Árpád tímár published, in a three-volume collection of sources, more than pages of Éva körner, ‘lovasok a vízparton – fekete négyzet fehér alapon’ [horsemen at the water – black square on a white surface] in Éva körner, aknai katalin and hornyik sándor, avantgárd – izmusokkal és izmusok nélkül. válogatott cikkek és tanulmányok, budapest: mta mu vésze o rténeti kutatóintézet, , . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer articles and reviews from the press response of the time to progressivism in hungary in the early twentieth century. this huge amount was – leaving out of account the anonymous newspaper contributors on the subject – produced by a few dozen individuals, including such devoted or well-disposed supporters of the eight as aladár bálint, artúr bárdos, györgy bölöni, andor cserna, józsef diner-dénes, géza feleky, zoltán felvinczi takács, Ödön gerő, géza lengyel, pál relle, béla revész, and dezső rózsaffy. with regard to those in the field of theory, special mention may be made of géza feleky, who wrote the introduction to the eight’s second catalogue, and györgy bölöni, who followed their activity in paris and from paris and who organised exhibitions for them. the most powerful support, however, came from a poet and a philosopher respectively: endre ady and györgy lukács represented a broad guarantee for the acknowledgement of the merits of their work. the reception of matisse and the influence of german theory behind györgy (georg) lukács was the sophisticated, distinguished figure of leó popper, a brilliant critic who died young, a few months after the eight’s second exhibition. in the twenty-five years of his life, he published a total of twelve short pieces. of these, only a few were on fine art subjects. these influenced neither hungarian art, nor the sunday circle, which, continued, with philosophical force, the lines of thought begun by artists in the years of the first world war. on the other hand, he did exert an influence on his friend györgy lukács, not only inspiring his thinking, but guiding, up to his death, the morality of that thinking by means of well-disposed criticisms, in the course of their correspondence, their joint articles, and their translations. nevertheless, in , at the time of the dramatic turn represented by the hungarian soviet republic, there occurred what popper had so much feared: for lukács, art was apocalyptic power. it was exciting, but, for that very reason, dangerous. the recognition that the forms of art needed to be regulated was, therefore, a matter of time only. popper – with his utopian notions – was, as we shall see, a man of liberty; in lukács, however, there already lurked the commissar who dreamt of apocalyptic powers for himself, which, in due course, he would firmly withstand. one of the most sincere manifestations of this desire to regulate appears in lukács’s work, ‘the roads parted’, a response to ‘inquisitive art’, kernstok’s text setting out a programme for the eight. in his article, lukács defined form as follows: ‘form is géza perneczky, ‘leó és a formák’ [leo and the forms], buksz, , , . kernstok, károly: ‘a kutató művészet’ [inquisitive art], nyugat, : , , . – az utak ii, – . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer the principle of evaluation, of differentiation, and of the creation of order.’ in the best moments of his philosophical career, lukács could have experienced how his thought sequences were dictated by a kind of inspired necessity: lukács was capable of seeing this on a theoretical level, but never on an emotional one. accordingly, the form concept, despite every endeavour on the part of his friend, from time to time degenerated in lukács’s hands into a genre category, or else acquired the shape of a dogmatic metaphysical imperative. on the other hand, leó popper still knew that form involves risking, and that we can understand the independent and unbridled intentions of form only when we are capable of giving up the ‘security given by full understanding’ for ‘the type of uncertain adventuring’ which leads us to ‘the most secret and most unlikely realms of form, towards deeper truth’. on the other hand, philosophy – and in the given historical moment left- wing, bourgeois thinking, too – had no need more pressing than this ‘full understanding’. the lukácsian demand for an exact discipline bent to the yoke of categorisations, systemicism, and definitions cannot be reconciled with any kind of adventuring that is risky and uncertain in outcome. just as popper’s ‘let the will of form prevail’ and lukács’s formal strictness denoted diverging paths, the eight, too, cannot be reduced to a common denominator: the artists in question followed their inner lines of bearing. as regards reception and frame of interpretation, the popperian liberty ideal was not a realistic alternative to the ideas of lukács and his supporters, as, one by one, the hungarian painters had their french orientation recoded through the influence of german theory, which in hungary followed on from geopolitical and historical factors. their reception in the country was determined by art critics who had read the german art historians, primarily meier-graefe. the german cultural circle held sway over popper’s formulations, too, and decisively: the keenest indication of this was its criticisms in connection with fauvism. however, all this does not mean that the political and artistic ideas of kernstok, who was especially critical of german art, would have prevailed. the members of the eight were autonomous artists who did not remain together for long, because their views and interests could not be lastingly reconciled. for each of them, paris meant something different, principally a technique, i.e. acquisition of skills and the reinterpretation of means. it is no coincidence that it is precisely to this period and to leó popper that the so-called double-misunderstanding theory is connected. a summary of it has survived as a fragment, as follows: proposition: the principal factor in the development of art is misunderstanding. lukács, györgy: ‘az utak elváltak’ [the roads parted] , nyugat, . , i, – . – az utak, ii, . ottó hévizi, ‘a forma mint szabadakarat. popper leó esztétikája’ [the forms free will in the aesthetics of leo popper], világosság, , , . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer argument: development consists of the influence (including inherited influences) of people and periods on each other. however, since man cannot know his fellow-man from within and cannot understand what it is that his fellow-man wants, across historical period to period still less (since finding out is impossible), when, nevertheless, he receives what he sees, he does so wrongly, misunderstanding it, and preparing the ground for new misunderstandings. popper’s idea was processed by lukács as follows: the existence of a work can be understood without confusion only when we regard the misunderstanding of it as the sole possible direct communication form: how a world comes into being from a double misunderstanding (from the misunderstanding of “term” and “understanding”) which on the one hand one cannot adequately achieve from one of them but which, however, is in a necessary, normative connection with both is already merely a problem that has to be solved, and not an incomprehensible phenomenon. not long after berény and his circle, we find popper in paris. the young man, who had contracted tuberculosis while young, certainly turned up and made sketches at the matisse academy, although his letters attest that he also took part in training more systematic and more thorough than this. on may , he informed his friend lukács: ‘i have enrolled at the modelling department. and it was a clever thing to do, because i’m learning an incredible amount there: at one and the same time drawing and architecture, anatomy and painting, dynamics and metaphysics, and singing, and how to write articles and art history, as well as swedish gymnastics, the theory of knowledge, and ju-jitsu.’ a few weeks later he was already writing from wengen in switzerland: ‘i made a model of an amazing mulatto woman, a little creature from martinique, who taught me more in a week that fifty jean-paul laurenses or matissses could have done.’ popper read forthwith the programme-announcing – or, more precisely, programme-changing – piece published by matisse, the fauve-chef, in the journal grande revue. this article appeared in hungarian in entitled ‘remarks by a painter’, in the periodical a ház. the text was of enormous importance from the point of view of matisse’s reception in hungary. in his ‘letter from paris’, a piece leó popper, esszék és kritikák. [essays and criticisms], budapest, . popper, esszék és kritikák, , . ottó hévizi and Árpád tímár, eds, dialógus a művészetről. popper leó írásai. popper leó és lukács györgy levelezése. [a dialogue on art. the writings of leó popper . the correspondence of leó popper and györgy lukács], budapest, , . ottó hévizi and Árpád tímár, eds, dialógus, . henri matisse, ‘egy festő feljegyzései’ [notes of a painter], a ház, , , – . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer written in early that likewise remained unpublished and which was probably shared only with lukács, popper sums up its lessons as follows: the path of today’s painting leads to peace. it leads out of the stylistic chaos of impressionism and towards a solidly based calm art which, no matter how it manifests itself, is the brother of architecture: it carries in itself the features of profound security and equilibrium of which it is the embodiment. and, on paths that are concealed, the old order returns: the immobile or mobile sacred order of the greeks and the oriental peoples. here popper makes reference to matisse’s concept change, which the leader of the french fauves announced as follows: with colours, one can achieve beautiful effects, insofar as one relies on their belonging together or their lack of this. often, when i start working, it is the new and superficial effects that i first catch. a few years before, i was content with this result [...]. i should like to achieve the condition stemming from the concentration of feelings that makes a picture a picture. [...] earlier, i did not leave my pictures on the wall, because they reminded me of moments of overwrought excitability and i was not happy to look at them when i was in a calm state of mind. now it is calm that i am trying to invest in them, and i shall get them out again and again until i achieve my goal. [...] behind this succession of motifs, which constitutes the passing existence of living beings and things, and which lends them changing forms of appearance, we must seek a truer, more essential character, to which the artist will accommodate, in order to give a more enduring picture of what is real. having read matisse’s declaration, popper winced. ‘peace today is still present for people only in programmes. [...] it has not yet come – there is no “realm of peace” –, and it will not come at all as long as things go on as they are now: as long as the difference between the artist’s intentions and his deeds is greater than between his deeds and those of his opponent. in actual fact, this difference is such that we see as clear opposites things that in great art are one and the same: form and content. they are going towards the great peace with the form of great confusion.’ popper, who can be termed a liberal almost in the french sense in comparison with lukács, found matisse’s turn towards classicism unsatisfactory and instead considered the example of cézanne and aristide maillol the one to follow. in a number of places, the authors of the hungarian fauves catalogue called attention to popper, esszék és kritikák, . matisse, ‘egy festő feljegyzései’, . popper , esszék és kritikák, . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer the fact that in paris the hungarians had encountered matisse’s ‘tamed’ fauvism’ at the same time as they encountered cubism, which was then gaining more and more ground. the same process ran its course among matisse’s german followers: ‘in the works of young painters liberated from the school of matisse, during the time of cubism, cézanne’s influence strengthened further in paris. this occurred in berlin, too, when in – pictures by cézanne featured at a number of exhibitions. instead of loud colours, there were stable forms, and in an era of growing confusion discipline and concentrated picture-building received new emphasis.’ however, this generally characteristic structural change meant different things in the different regions of europe. passing through a succession of cultural filters wedged not between intention and expression, but also between expression and understanding, very many opportunities for misunderstanding presented themselves. what a painter could acquire from matisse was a mass of skills which could be understood as a kind of procedural system only in the context of the history of french visual culture. and at the same time this meant that the hungarians arrived in paris with a vision formed in advance by the procedural systems of their own visual culture. for their part, these systems determined in advance what they would acquire and receive. the restorator gyula kemény, an ‘honorary’ member of the research group, drew up a list showing – paradoxically – which french influences could have contributed to the preservation of hungarian traditions: . they encountered brushwork with generous use of paint also on van gogh’s surfaces transubstantiated by way of expressivity; . decorative, two-dimensional surfaces and calligraphic outlining, a tradition known from the hungarian secession, made gauguinesque formal elements easily comprehensible; . the strong plastic approach did not appear as a necessarily outworn tradition, since after , with the spread of cubism, cézanne’s system of drafting spatially and organising mass again became topical. the reception of cézanne károly kernstok, who cultivated an ever deepening friendship with oszkár jászi, the constantly self-renewing, politically very active leader of middle-class radicals Éva r. bajkay, ‘magyar és német kapcsolatok matisse nyomán’ [hungarian – german connection int he footsteps of matisse], in Ágnes berecz, mária l. molnár and erzsébet tatai, eds, nulla dies sine linea. tanulmányok passuth krisztina hetvenedik születésnapjára, budapest, , . gyula kemény, ‘francia nyomvonalak a magyar vadak és a neósok festészetében. egy restaurátor feljegyzései’ [french tracks in the painting of the hungarian fauves and ‘neos’. notes of a restorer] in passuth and szücs, eds, hungarian fauves, . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer (who even gave a lecture on the eight) was, after berény, the other rallying point for the company of the eight. in his memoirs, lajos bálint wrote of kernstok as follows: in outer appearance and in his entire manner he was an attractive figure. when he appeared somewhere, he became, almost involuntarily, the centre of the company. with his blond beard, bright blue eyes, and irresistible smile, he was sometimes reminiscent of some legendary prophet. had he utilised these qualities for his own purposes alone, he would, clearly, have enhanced his success as a painter. but – in the first half of his life at least – he was a rebel. i have often asked myself whether political life itself was of greater interest to him than his calling as a painter. [...] however many new principles or experiments appeared, with his lucid intelligence and his excellent professional training he immediately tried them out, but only for so long. even in his most interesting phases, in his pictures depicting large equestrian groups, he was unable to remain in the experimental style long enough to cast the strongly outlined galloping nudes built on structures of bundles of powerful muscles in the form final. [...] he was already around thirty when, along with successes achieved, he abruptly turned his back on his entire output as a painter up until then and set out on his quest in the world of the ‘neos’. if the eight respected him as their leader, this esteem did not extend to their following him in his quick changes. [...] the reality is that without the assistance of the critics and that part of the public that stood behind them, they would never have obtained a hearing in the storm that they generated with their first appearance. i myself was present at that meeting of the galileo circle at which kernstok delivered his lecture entitled ‘inquisitive art’. the essence of this canvassing address was the opposition between the art of the emotions and the art of the intellect. he established a connection between the radical programme of the circle and the essence of the new art. [...] increasing numbers of people were becoming interested in the art of the eight, primarily that section of the public which was grouped around the galileo circle and the periodical huszadik század, and later on around the journal nyugat. this section already celebrated ady, attended with interest the musical manifestations of bartók and kodály, and subsequently the new developments in painting and sculpture, too. having been obliged to leave hungary following the collapse of the hungarian soviet republic, károly kernstok wrote from berlin to gyula kosztolányi kann on october : ‘manet’s mission was to dismantle tradition, ‘felolvasás a nyolcak kiállításán’ [lecture at the exhibition of the eight], pesti hírlap, november , – az utak iii, . lajos bálint, ecset és véső [brush and chisel], budapest, , , , , . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer delacroix’s to provide bold ideas, cézanne’s to lead one to the specific in the individual, and those after him to show freedom of emotions and means in the interests of a goal. the rawest colour is permissible, the bluntest valeur is permissible, the most individual manner of drawing is permissible, and every synthesis is permissible, only there must be a goal.’ it is worth stopping for a moment and pondering why it was that kernstok stressed subjectivity in connection with cézanne’s highly objective art. one of the most interesting products of the reception of cézanne in hungary was a study by the critic géza feleky entitled ‘the legacy of cézanne’. according to feleky, at a time when art is no longer being produced socially but is instead individual discovery, and when every true artist is a revolutionary being on account of necessity and not of temperament, eastern art is losing its exotic character and western art – by virtue of its anthropocentric world-view a necessarily three-dimensional art – is acknowledging, in the most confused and most critical period of its history, the legitimacy of two-dimensional art. this is an indication and consequence of the fact that art is no longer an essential need of western man, or rather that art, not longer performing its essential mission, is already a thing of pleasure and not a thing that is necessary. behold an ‘end of art’ idea from , one that is connected with the wish to surpass the ideas of subjectivity and individualism. in the centre of feleky’s analysis of cézanne is the problem of the two- dimensional plane and the three-dimensional space, and also that of the thrusting together of chaos and order: cezanne, then, did not just create space, mass, and the structure-like fitting together of different masses from nothing, from shades of colour, from degrees of atmospheric moistness, and from other tonal differences; in his pictures, order emerges from disorder. but the acknowledgment of several points of view, deconstructs the picture only in one direction and leads only seemingly to disorder. [...] hence, the picture surface is uneven, contradictory, anarchic, and chaotic. nevertheless, it achieves its goal, because the vision appears in a clear way through the help of the unclear means. these visions are calm and logical: there are clear balances between the clearly outlined masses and also clear, counterbalanced movements. the technique, however, is intuitive; from time to time, very different means add the repository holding the letter: mta mki adattár, lsz.: mdk-c-i- / . feleky, géza: ‘cézanne hagyatéka’ [the legacy of c.], in könyvek, képek, évek. budapest, , . first published in the periodical nyugat: : , , – . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer to the tonal differences. the ‘very different means’ and their various misunderstandings in the art of hungarians, e.g. tihanyi, are analysed by gyula kemény, in the course of picture analogies. in , an outstanding cézanne exhibition was staged at the kunstforum wien that bore the eloquent sub-title ‘vollendet, unvollendet’. in the course of the different phases represented by the pictures, it was possible to observe how cézanne struggled with the organising principle of organised chaos: what he left open and how much space he assigned to the accidental, what he attended to or constructed and how much, and whether from processes that were almost infinite he put together art works that could be described as finished. in the case of the hungarian painters, instead of thinking oriented to the future, concentration on the past, on the completeness of the composition, was more characteristic: in this the rise of psychoanalysis in hungary would have an increasingly significant role. berény spoke rather of memories when he defined himself in comparison with the futurists: the increase in the elements of composition means the development of painting from now on. these elements – memories and emotions – are parts of the painter’s soul.’ on the other hand, kernstok, in ‘inquisitive art’, trusts in the preservation of traditions: ‘the reaction to our little exhibition just now was, as far as i know, much greater than the one we envisaged on the basis of its modest funding. the progressive ones among those who make up our public [...] felt that that if this was not the end, the final product, of a big journey, but rather the beginning of a long road on which we should go forward proceeding from traditions, in order to seek and find those new great values which in essence will be very much akin to those of the good art of every era. nothing in the seemingly shared substructure shows better the different approaches of berény and kernstok than the difference in their works. in the field of graphic art, it was they, of all the members of the eight, who created perhaps the most enduring works. it is worth looking at two drawings of heads by them one after the other. both are fine works composed in a balanced way. the kernstok work, kept at sümeg, is a cool depiction showing an almost androgenic character and radiating timeless calm, while in the berény piece the face of the female figure is feleky, ‘cézanne’, . cézanne – vollendet, unvollendet,. kunstforum bank austria, . róbert berény, ‘a nemzeti szalonbeli képekről’ [on the picture at the national salon]. nyugat, : i , – . kernstok, ‘a kutató művészet’, . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer disfigured by emotions; snake-like, her mouth is wincing, and she is looking at us contemptuously out of the corners of her eyes, which are in slits that are deliberately asymmetrical. her whole being is torn asunder by tension. the difference is perhaps even more striking when we compare another work by kernstok, a harmonious, classically calm depiction of a man with an expressive brow and folded arms, with a berény seated female nude now kept in the graphic art collection at budapest’s university of fine arts. on the latter work, one can clearly see – besides the attempt at a closed composition – that berény was more excited than any other member of the eight by cézanne-type superintended chaos; except that he focused chiefly on the psychic and emotional, that is the energy of pathos. when speaking of kernstok’s drawings, again it was feleky who named the difference between the two extremes the most tellingly: bernard berenson published, in two enormous volumes, beautiful reproductions of drawings of this kind by florentine painters. perhaps not even his keen eye and splendid critical sense would, at first glance, think kernstok’s drawings of nudes out of place in this collection. what the drawings have in common is an undisguised emphasising of centres of movement and of intersections. drawing is the art of and omission. at the end of their lives, one or two old masters – every true painter’s language of forms develops from complexity towards simplicity – contented themselves with dominant details. it seems that the great synthetic power manifest in their drawings is the stage preceding kernstok’s highest synthesis, his ultimate simplification. but kernstok commits to paper only the movement and structive nodes, and surrounds them with a one-stroke outlining. the florentine way of seeing things cannot get that far. behind quattrocentro painting stood the sculptor donatello: he, just like his painter colleagues, asserted the structural connection only within the decorative body unit, emphasising, so to speak, the organic nature of the decoration. for kernstok’s manner of seeing, it is necessary to seek analogies in the work of the elderly rodin or in that of maillol. even then there remains the affinity between the graphic art of florence and that of kernstok. at the end of his train of thought, in which he refers to kernstok’s social commitment, feleky tactfully quotes from a letter of van gogh: giotto and cimabue lived in an obelisk-like environment where everything was placed on architectonic foundations, where individual uniqueness was the stone of the building and where everything rested on everything else and created the monumental order of society. if the socialists would construct géza feleky, ‘széljegyzetek kernstock képeihez’ [on the margin of kernstok’s pictures]. nyugat, , i., – . – az utak ii., . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer their buildings in a logical way – today they are still a long way from doing this –, then this social order would revive again in a similar form. we, however, are living in the midst of complete anarchy and lack of discipline. the reception of adolf hildebrand – the problem of form in fine art ( ) a utopian ideology containing connections between structured picture-building and the restructuring of society – and between essence focused artistic form and man remaking himself – had by this time come into being in the hands of kernstok, who operated with hildebrand’s terminology. kernstok’s famous speech – typically for an artist’s approach - offered only sensory-emotional connections. györgy (georg) lukács provided a concrete programme text, in which popperian ideas were already to be found in a form that was a good deal more doctrinaire and aggressive, but undoubtedly more elaborated. lukács, in his lecture the roads parted delivered to the galileo circle, practically quoted (without giving any kind of reference) the words written by popper in his matisse article, applying them to the works of kernstok rather than to those of the french fauves: these pictures bring calm, peace, relaxation, and harmony – that they could shock anyone is completely incomprehensible. [...] here it is not the success of a new art that is the issue, but the resurrection once again of old art, of art, and about the life-and-death struggle against the new, modern art that this resurrection brought about. károly kernstok has said what the issue is here. that those pictures that he and his friends paint (and those poetic works created by a couple of poets, and those philosophies brought into being by a couple of thinkers) want to express the essence of things. the essence of things! with these simple words, avoiding polemics, the material of the great debate is indicated, and also the point at which the paths diverge. written in and already quoted, popper’s words on equilibrium and calm art on a solid base were interpreted in by lukács as follows: ‘this art is the old art, the art of order and values. impressionism made everything a decorative surface [...]. the new art is architectonic in the old and true sense of the term. its feleky, ‘széljegyzetek’, . for the connection between popper and lukács in more detail, see csilla markója, ‘popper leó ( – )’, in bardoly istván and markója csilla, eds, “emberek, és nem frakkok”. a magyar művészettörténet-írás nagy alakjai. tudománytörténeti esszégyűjtemény, enigma, : , , – . for quotations concerning hildebrand: – ; – . lukács ‘az utak elváltak’, . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer colours, words, and lines are just means for the expression of essence, order and harmony, the weight and equilibrium of things.’ one possible source for these ideas can be found in the introduction to adolf hildebrand’s successful book the problem of form in fine art (translated by jános (johannes) wilde): while the issue here is the imitative, in fine art a kind of research into nature is concealed, and it is to this that the work of the artist is linked. the problems which form places before the artist in this are supplied by nature and dictated by perception. if just these problems happen upon solution, i.e. if just in this relation the work has existence, then also, as a work in itself, it has not become an independent whole which could speak in favour of nature or against it. in order to achieve this, its imitative content – in its development from the wider point of view – has to be raised to a higher realm of art. i would call this point of view architectonic, not concerning myself, naturally, with the ordinary specialist meaning of the word architecture. a dramatic play or a symphony has this kind of architecture, this kind of inner structure, an organic totality of relations, as does a picture or a sculpture, even when individual branches of art are living in completely separate worlds of form. problems of form emerging in tandem with such an architectonic shaping of an art work do not arise from nature and are not self-evident; nevertheless, it is precisely these that are absolutely artistic. architectonic shaping is that which creates a higher-order in art work from the artistic researching of nature. the passage quoted from hildebrand is one of the nearest sources of another of popper’s ideas, namely the notion of art as a mode of being ‘of a different god’, a mode of being in parallel with nature. similarly to károly kernstok’s lecture, the title of which, too, ‘inquisitive art’, was borrowed from hildebrand: the arts, painting let’s say, always start out from nature. [...] that is to say, the means with which the painter works and those with which nature works are very, very, different. [...] in vain do we sit before nature in order to copy it like a camera obscura: there is no light-sensitive plate in us; in vain do we wish to paint the colours as we see them: we have no sunlight in us. there is, it is true, something that we have as human beings which in its significance is of equal value to these things, namely our intelligence. [...] this, this nature [i.e. those things that have bodies – cs. m.] must be called upon to help and must be interpreted. lukács ‘az utak elváltak’, . adolf hildebrand, das problem der form in der bildenden kunst ( ), hungarian translation, jános wilde, budapest, , . kernstok, ‘a kutató művészet’, , . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer as a matter of fact, the ideas of lukács, who was conducting an ideological war, and kernstok, who was seeking autonomous artistic solutions, were brought to a common denominator by their joint hostility to impressionism. the reclaiming of ‘old art’ (e.g. that of the greeks) meant on the one hand the demand for tradition and continuity, and on the other an idealistic philosophy directed towards a metaphysics that hypothesised its own viewpoint in the absolute. after the failure of simmel’s experiment to discover something of substance in impressionism (an example of this was simmel’s first rodin analysis, a critique of which was given by popper in his essay ‘sculpture, rodin, and maillol’; it is not a coincidence that in his obituary for simmel in lukács mentions their one-time teacher as follows: ‘he was the monet of philosophy, whom so far no cézanne has followed.’ ), an equals sign was placed between impressionism and a metaphysics-free world. for example, so it was in the work of the above-mentioned géza feleky also, to whose kernstok article published in nyugat in popper reacted in a letter written from berlin on february : ‘as well as you, géza feleky writes very cleverly about the kernstok things. indeed, and this is the greatest acclamation, he says a couple of things which i myself wanted to write; instead of these, i shall now be forced to serve up something even more brilliant.’ here, popper is perhaps referring to the article which he was to have written on the eight’s exhibition in berlin for the periodical kunst und künstler. this piece was, unfortunately, never produced (or, if it was, we do not know about it), although its basis would probably have been the ‘impressionismus-tektonismus’ difference. according to tímár, this was precisely the term by means of which popper could have contributed significantly to the art criticism of the day. in connection with the terminological debates that became more lively following the ‘hungarian fauves’ exhibition at the hungarian national gallery, it is worth reminding ourselves that the name tectonism is very fortunate, on the one hand because the everyday meaning of the expression is in harmony with the essential characteristics of the artistic endeavours indicated, and on the other hand because this term isolates something for which contemporary criticism had no special term, and for which art history scholarship since then has had no special term either. györgy lukács, ‘georg simmel’, pester lloyd, october . republished in lukács, , – , . hévizi and tímár, eds, dialógus, . for the article in question, see géza feleky, ‘széljegyzetek kernstok képeihez’ [on the margin of painting by kernstok], nyugat, :i , – . – az utak ii.: – . Árpád tímár, ‘Élmény és teória. adalékok popper leó művészetelméletének keletkezéstörténetéhez’ [experience and theory. on the origin history of leo popper.’s art csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer the place of the eight in the differences between the theoretical and moral approaches of popper and lukács we can glimpse the essential difference between the open art of cézanne and the art of the eight which was soon closed. however, to analyse the approaches adopted by eight different artists in the theoretical force fields of two thinkers in itself an act of violence. ‘these people here did not come together in a school; it cannot be said of them that kernstok is their teacher. [...] they are travelling on roads whose direction is still unknown and whose destination no-one can yet know,’ wrote the newspaper népszava in connection with their first exhibition, namely ‘new pictures’. Éva forgács’s hypothesis quoted at the beginning of this study – this held that every artistic phenomenon can be understood only in its social embeddedness, in its own historical tradition, and in its cultural context – is especially warranted in the case of the eight. károly kernstok’s strong political commitment to the middle-class radicals and the freemasons influenced the members of the group (to different degrees, admittedly), but his undertaking of this role, or the pathetic energy that stemmed from this choice, determined the contemporary reception of the works rather than the works themselves. the activity of oszkár jászi, cultivating friendly contacts with károly kernstok and with his sculptor relative márk vedres, has again come to the forefront of research. a characteristic of middle-class radicalism as a way of thinking is a metapolitical commitment, which means that the questions of practice are judged by philosophy, from the standpoint of theory. for this reason, a necessary concomitant of it is a “semantic rationalism”, which pictures reality in models, and wants to tailor concrete conditions and actors to these models. [...] middle-class radicalism is a socialist standpoint, a left-wing critique which is directed towards the superseding of liberalism, and conducts the critique of capitalism from the position of a post-capitalist – in other words, a socialist – order. but here we shall make two necessary restrictions: both the concept of socialism and the picture of capitalism are flexible. the movement of the middle-class radicals failed, and, along with kernstok, theory] in jános háy, ed., lehetséges-e egyáltalán? márkus györgynek tanítványai (bibliography Ágnes erdélyi and andráslakatos), budapest, , . (vd) [várnai, dániel]: ‘Új képek’[new pictures]. népszava, december issue. . – az utak ii.: . gábor g. fodor, gondoljuk újra a polgári radikálisokat [let us reconsider the radical middle- class], budapest, . - . see also the relevant publications of györgy litván. csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer oszkár jászi, too, was obliged to emigrate after . both came into conflict with györgy (georg) lukács’s ideologemes put into effect at the time of the hungarian soviet republic ( ). however, the ‘schematic rationalism’ of the middle-class radicals and their theoretical presuppositions developed together, in fruitful reciprocity with the progressive literary and artistic movements of the age. this historic exchange of ideas left its mark on kernstok’s and his associates’ art, which was sometimes style-breaking, sometimes style-securing, sometimes schematic, and sometimes biddable. if we are to proceed from this approach, we must acknowledge that somewhere between the dead naturalist painting of nature and the reshaped presentation of phenomena given by nature runs a perilous borderland. we must acknowledge naturalist paintings that have inspired us and those that inspire us now, and we must acknowledge nature-altering, stylised pictures that have filled us with artistic joy. it does not, therefore, depend on the trend. but precisely from this we see that in the interpretation of nature vague boundaries lurk in some places, and we sense, too, that every artistic work that expresses truly noble joy in human beings takes shape between these limits that are vague and not precisely set by any aesthetic. but who dares to say to a painter “this far and no further”? for this there is only one forum enjoying full legitimacy: the painter’s talent, his fine feelings. the tact of the painter – károly lyka’s beautiful expression condenses in itself everything that is comprehensively characteristic of the eight. plastic art was theirs, powerful, bold, in the collision zone of two- and three-dimensionality, experimenting with the metaphysics of the body, with rhythm, decoration, primitivism, musicality, and abstraction: everything depended on their sense of proportion. their art is neither avant-garde nor the sum or permutation of french or german influences. instead, it is an organic local outcome of hungarian capabilities, an art which had an antecedent, and which even achieved a paradoxical continuation in the arcadian painting of the s. in the history of hungarian modernism since , theirs was the change that finally liberated art from the constraints of mimetic, mapping, vision: in the nature seen and recomposed by them we can acquaint ourselves with our own creative strength and with the demons that threaten it. the introduction to the catalogue for the los angeles exhibition ‘central gyula kemény describes the first two ‘as an undoing and as a doing up’ in his above- mentioned study published in the present volume. károly lyka, ‘a miÉnk bemutatója’ [the show of miÉnk]. Új idők, february , – . – az utak ii.: . csilla markója the modification of meaning: cézanne, hildebrand, meier- graefe and the problems of cultural transfer european avant-gardes: exchange and transformation – ’, which was exemplary in its depiction of the ‘pan-european horizon’, was written by péter nádas, who spoke of the possibilities for cultural transfer. its title of the introduction was itself eloquent: cautious determination of the location. the sub- title, on the other hand, revealed what would later lie at the heart of the discussion: we thoroughly investigate a single wild-pear tree. the eight group stands before us in the centre of one possible narrative of our own art history. it is rather like the hungarian writer’s wild-pear tree that pushed its roots into the soil of a given garden, a given village, a larger district, and a historical region, while generating year-ring waves in an ever-extending space and time. translated by chris sullivan (pittsburgh) csilla markója, phd, is senior research fellow and head of the research group on art historiography, institute of art history of the hungarian academy of sciences, chief editor of the art historical journal enigma (www.meridiankiado.hu), which is mainly devoted to publishing diaries, letters, and other sources (anna zádor i-iv, tibor gerevich i-iii, jános wilde i-iv, jános györgy szilágyi i-iii). she has published two monographs (lászló mednyánszky , péter nádas ), and her book on hungarian art historiography - is forthcoming. she is a member of the ‘hungarian fauves and the eight’ research group and researcher of the sunday circle. she edited vols. i-v of great figures of hungarian art historiography, and the bilingual edition of ernő kállai’s oeuvre. she has nearly publications on, amongst others, györgy lukács, anna lesznai, arnold hauser, leó popper. markoja.csilla@btk.mta.hu this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution- noncommercial . international license timothy o. benson, ed., central european avant-gardes: exchange and transformation – , mit press, cambridge, mass.: los angeles county museum of art, . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / c:\documents and settings\shirley ogrodowski\my documents\galenson\papers\analyzing artistic creativity.wpd analyzing artistic innovation: the greatest breakthroughs of the twentieth century david w. galenson university of chicago national bureau of economic research february abstract this paper considers not only when in their careers the greatest artists of the twentieth century made their greatest discoveries, but also how quickly they made them. the results underscore the dominant position of picasso and cubism in twentieth-century art: picasso alone accounts for the two best three-year periods produced by any artist, and he and braque account for three of the best five-year periods, all for the work the two young artists did in developing cubism. warhol’s innovations in pop art and matisse’s development of fauvism also rank among the century’s most important breakthroughs. in general, identifying the most important short periods of artistic creativity emphasizes the differing methods of conceptual and experimental artists: great conceptual innovators, like picasso, matisse, and warhol, made their greatest discoveries abruptly, whereas great experimental innovators, like mondrian, kandinsky, and pollock, made their discoveries more gradually. the finding that artists who innovate early in their lives do so suddenly, while those who innovate late do so more gradually, adds an important dimension to our understanding of human creativity. breakthroughs [the artist] has to make an enormous effort to lift himself above his contemporaries. this results in what we often call the “breakthrough,” that every artist on the path to success has to make. alan bowness the true subject of art history is the narrative and analysis of the succession of innovations that have changed the practices of artists over the course of time. this is a source of considerable confusion not only among the public at large, but even among many art scholars, for there is a persistent belief that art history is the story of the lives of great artists. however widespread, this belief is mistaken. artists’ contributions to their discipline do not consist of their entire body of work, but rather only that part of it that embodies inventions that are subsequently deemed valuable by other artists. the chief curator of painting and sculpture at new york’s museum of modern art, perhaps the world’s preeminent museum of twentieth- century art, recently expressed this succinctly in explaining the mission of his institution: “moma is a museum interested in telling the story of successive innovations rather than a museum interested in the longevity of individual careers.” scholarly surveys follow this same model, as for example in the statement that opens the preface to their recent textbook, art since , hal foster, rosalind krauss, yve-alain bois, and benjamin buchloh declare not that their work is arranged around the careers of artists, but rather that “this book is organized as a succession of important events, each keyed to an appropriate date, and can thus be read as a chronological account of twentieth-century art.” although a vast body of scholarship has concentrated on the specific discoveries made by great artists, art historians consistently treat each of these discoveries in isolation, and there has been remarkably little systematic comparative treatment of these events. this paper will begin to remedy this neglect, by using the scholarly narratives of scores of art historians as the basis for empirical analysis of the most important breakthroughs made by the greatest artists of the past century in the course of following their paths to success. performing this analysis can increase our understanding of artistic creativity, at the same time that it deepens our insight into the nature of the greatest artistic innovations of the twentieth century. data there is, it seems, a graph of creativity which can be plotted through an artist’s career. alan bowness the data used in this study were drawn from all available textbooks of art history, published in english since , that survey the art of the twentieth century. from these books, listings were made of all the illustrations of works by artists: of these artists were identified by an earlier study as the most important artists of the twentieth century, while the remaining four were identified by a second study as having executed individual works that ranked among the most important of the twentieth century. the full sample of these artists is shown in table . the data set constructed in this way can be used to create a profile for each artist, showing how many illustrations of his work the textbooks contain from each year of his career. since the illustrations were chosen by the books’ authors to show readers the most important developments in advanced art, the individual years, or periods of years, from which the most illustrations of an artist’s work are reproduced can be presumed to identify the most important portions of the artist’s career. these profiles furthermore reveal not only at what stage of his career an artist made his greatest contribution, but also how suddenly and how quickly he made them. and comparisons across artists of the numbers of illustrations of their work from specified periods of time can allow us to judge which artists’ breakthroughs were most important, in the judgment of art historians. with this recognition, we can examine the evidence. durations many artists do their best work in a relatively short period. alan bowness table ranks the best individual years of all the artists in the sample for this study. this ranking is not restricted to each artist’s best year, so some artists appear more than once, while some artists do not appear at all. perhaps the most striking feature of table is the dominant position of picasso. not only does he rank in first place for his work of , with nearly a third more illustrations than the second-place entry, but in all he has no less than four individual years that rank among the greatest of the century. even more remarkably, three of these years rank among the top five overall. it is no surprise that picasso’s work of ranks as the greatest one-year achievement of the twentieth century, for that was the year he painted les demoiselles d’avignon, which ranks as the century’s most important individual work of art. the privileged place of that painting, and of picasso’s work of that year, are a consequence of the fact that this announced the beginning of the cubist revolution, which would become by far the most influential development of the century in the visual arts. experimental artists develop their contributions gradually, and later works in their mature signature styles are often the most important examples of experimental artists’ innovations, but conceptual artists often arrive at their contributions precipitously, and therefore it is usually the earliest works in a new style that are the most important. cubism was a quintessentially conceptual innovation, which picasso created in order to represent his knowledge of objects rather than to describe their appearance. although picasso, later joined by his friend braque, would go on to develop cubism in a number of important respects, the movement’s greatest innovation occurred at its outset. picasso clearly understood this, for he spent months making an unprecedented number of preparatory sketches and studies, then executed the demoiselles on a canvas far larger than any he had previously attempted. thus although picasso did not make mature cubist paintings in , his work of that year unambiguously declares the radical new approaches to the representation of space and to the construction of form that would stand as cubism’s most important legacy to modern art. there is consequently no surprise that his work of leads table , for it was in that year that the century’s greatest artist announced the century’s greatest artistic innovation. the importance of cubism is underscored by the third-place ranking of picasso in table for . this was a key year in the development of cubism, for it was during that the progressive flattening by both picasso and braque of the faceted objects in their paintings marked the passage from early, or analytical, cubism to late, synthetic cubism. in part this progression was a consequence of a radical innovation by picasso, announced in his famous still life with chair caning of , in which he pasted a small piece of oilcloth to the canvas. this small painting thus became the first collage. this marked a radical departure from artistic tradition, for by attaching a real object to his canvas picasso violated the two-dimensional surface of the picture plane that western painters had respected for five centuries. this apparently innocuous act was the seminal event for the unprecedented proliferation of artistic genres that would occur over the course of the twentieth century. picasso’s third entry in table , which ranks fifth overall, is for . although this came more than two decades after the initial period during which picasso and braque had developed cubism, picasso’s innovation of was nonetheless a significant development of the language of cubism. during a ten-week period in the spring and early summer of picasso painted guernica, a mural that was nearly five times as large as the demoiselles d’avignon. picasso made the enormous painting to express his outrage at the destruction of the basque town of guernica, and the slaughter of its entire population, by german bombers acting for general franco. the painting was an artistic landmark because of its subject matter, for it demonstrated that cubism, which had previously been restricted to private subjects, could be used to make a powerful public statement. for this guernica became an inspiration to many advanced artists who wanted to use their art for political and social ends. a striking feature of table is the position of warhol, who ranks second for his work of . this was the year in which warhol made his most celebrated works, which became the most famous images of the pop movement. early in the year he painted portraits of campbell’s soup cans - one for each flavor the company made - which were exhibited in july in los angeles, in warhol’s first one-man show. he made these paintings with stencils. in august warhol began to make paintings by silkscreening, a technique he would use for the rest of his life, and he quickly made a series of portraits of actors and singers based on magazine photographs. marilyn monroe committed suicide in august, and warhol decided to paint a series of portraits of her. in november, warhol had his first new york show. it included the marilyn diptych and green coca-cola bottles that became his most important individual paintings. warhol’s position in table is a consequence of the enormous influence of his work on generations of conceptual artists from the s on, and of his precipitous arrival at his key innovations. early in warhol was still engaged primarily in his successful career as a commercial artist (when the paintings of campbell’s soup can were first exhibited in los angeles, they were priced at $ each, which was one tenth as much as warhol was then getting for a commercial drawing). the immediate impact of the campbell’s soup can paintings on the art world, which was triggered by an article in time magazine even before his los angeles show opened, within months made warhol into the leader of the dominant new art movement of its time. critics immediately recognized the conceptual nature of his art, as for example in an assessment of pop art the editor of artnews observed that “today, the sole requirement of a work of art is intent; what the artist says, goes.” and it was the conceptual nature of the art that allowed warhol’s sudden transformation from a commercial artist to an advanced artist, for as his biographer noted, “from the first campbell’s soup can onwards warhol was at his purest as a conceptual artist.” during the single year of , warhol arrived at his two key formal innovations, the production of serial images and the use of a mechanical technique to make them. and because what mattered was not the appearance of the works but the idea that motivated them, there was no need for warhol or his assistant gerard malanga to spend years, or even months, perfecting their use of silkscreens (indeed, malanga later recalled that he and warhol often made mistakes, but warhol never rejected anything, saying “it’s part of the art”), and it was the very earliest paintings that embodied these innovations that became warhol’s canonical works. matisse ranks fourth in table , for his work of . although matisse made a number of contributions in the course of a long career, the most important was his first innovation, the development of fauvism. the movement was a conceptual one, in which matisse and several younger painters, inspired by the strong colors and flattened forms of van gogh and gauguin, went even further than those earlier symbolists in the expressive use of pure, bright colors and simplified shapes. matisse was recognized as the leader of the fauve movement, which began abruptly in , and ended abruptly in . fauvism became important for its influence on a series of expressionist painters, beginning with the german blue rider movement in . although matisse made fauve paintings for three years, the conceptual nature of the contribution meant that the most important were those that announced the innovation, and these were the paintings of that were exhibited at the salon d’automne of that year. although there are six experimental artists in the sample for this study, only one appears in table . this imbalance is a consequence of the absence of sudden breakthroughs by experimental artists, whose work typically evolves gradually. yet jackson pollock nonetheless ranks sixth for his work of . pollock’s most celebrated innovation was the drip method he developed, in which he poured and spattered paint onto the canvas, breaking the connection between the touch of the artist’s brush and his paintings. pollock used the drip method in novel ways, to make “all-over” compositions that lacked any central focal point of interest. he achieved this by creating lines that for the first time in western art did not indicate the edges of planes, and consequently did not bound shapes or figures, but rather served as an autonomous visual element. these innovations are generally considered to have been used most effectively in the large paintings pollock made during the four-year period - . it is not the paintings from the earliest of these four years that most often appear in textbooks, however, but those from the last year of the period, in . because pollock’s contribution was not an idea, it is not its first appearance that is most important. instead, because the contribution was aesthetic, it is the latest and most sophisticated embodiments of the new techniques that are most important. a common misconception about pollock’s drip style is that it represented a lack of control. pollock vehemently denied this, famously responding to a time magazine article that described his style as chaos with a telegram that declared “no chaos damn it.” as william rubin later pointed out, pollock’s method involved a number of choices that had to be made jointly, and that doing this successfully required considerable skill, that developed over time: “it may very well be that the physical mastery needed to control a larger ‘figure’ in this technique partly explains why the more bodily inflected patterns of the wall-size pictures came only after three years of working with it.” malevich ranks seventh in table . he was one of the three great pioneers of abstraction, as he, kandinsky, and mondrian all developed their own distinctive forms of non- representational art during the mid- s. yet the arrival of the conceptual malevich was more sudden than those of the experimental kandinsky and mondrian, as john golding recognized: “it might be fair to say that malevich’s abstraction sprang, athena-like, ready formed from the brow of its creator; this distinguishes malevich’s approach very sharply from that of mondrian and kandinsky, who had sensed and inched their way into abstraction over a period of many years. it is this that makes malevich’s art so exhilarating.” the gradual progress of kandinsky and mondrian, rather than any lack of importance of their achievements, accounts for their absence from table , for mondrian’s work overall received substantially more total illustrations in the textbooks than malevich’s, and kandinsky’s only slightly fewer than that of malevich. in contrast, the suddenness of malevich’s arrival at abstraction accounts for his high position in table , for his entry is for , the year he executed his first abstract paintings, and presented them, with attendant fanfare that included publication of the suprematist manifesto, at a moscow exhibition titled “the last exhibition of futurist painting.” the conceptual nature of malevich’s work is reflected in his meticulous use of geometric calculation in the preparation for these paintings, and in their arrangement at the exhibition, as well as in the assertion in his written text that the abstract forms in those paintings symbolized the triumph of modern technology over space and time. duchamp is the only artist other than picasso who has more than one entry in table . duchamp was a radical and protean conceptual innovator, who made a series of largely unrelated innovations that all served to challenge basic conventions of advanced art. duchamp’s highly conceptual approach allowed his innovations to be embodied in individual landmark works, and his two entries in table represent the years in which he made his two most celebrated works, which both rank among the most frequently reproduced works of the century: thus in he painted the nude descending a staircase, no. , and in he signed a porcelain urinal to create the readymade fountain. both of these works created immediate controversy, not only among the general public but also among advanced artists - the nude descending for what was taken to be its attack on cubism, and fountain for its implicit assertion that art could be made merely by a decision of the artist. although for several decades nude descending was considered the more important of these works, their relative positions in table may reflect the fact that the influence of fountain has grown over time, so that many in today’s art world consider it to have been the most influential individual work for the advanced art of the second half of the twentieth century. to consider the possibility that breakthroughs can occur within short periods longer than one year, table ranks the best three-year periods, again by total illustrations, for the same artists listed in table . the results are broadly similar to those of table , but some significant changes appear. three artists who were ranked in table disappear from table . each of the three - tatlin, smithson, and hamilton - made a single important conceptual innovation, which in each case was embodied in a single important work, but none of the three made any developments beyond this contribution. picasso holds the top two positions in table , as well as three others in the ranking; remarkably, he accounts for five of the century’s most important three-year periods in the careers of individual artists. what is interesting, however, in comparing his performance in tables and is that the period in picasso’s s when he produced guernica becomes less important when the longer span of three years is considered, whereas all three of picasso’s highest ranked entries in table are from the years from - , when the young artist was first developing cubism. this underscores the density of innovation during this first decade of cubism, whereas in contrast guernica appears as an isolated achievement of picasso’s later years, which he did not subsequently develop in any significant way. exceptionally, picasso was able to make a major innovation at the age of - fully years beyond the age of any other conceptual artist listed in table - but even he could not recapture the remarkable ability to make one discovery after another that he had enjoyed during his late s and early s. kandinsky joins pollock as a second experimental entrant in table . the years represented, - , are the ones in which kandinsky’s cautious and gradual approach finally produced abstract forms. in an essay of he looked back on the evolution of his work, and stressed not only the difficulty of his progress, but also his expectation that it had not yet reached an end: only after many years of patient toil and strenuous thought, numerous painstaking attempts, and my constantly developing ability to conceive of pictorial forms in purely abstract terms, engrossing myself more and more in these measureless depths, did i arrive at the pictorial forms i use today, on which i am working today and which, as i hope and desire, will themselves develop much further. although he expressed frustration with the slow pace of his development - “i sometimes look back at the past and despair at how long this solution took me” - he understood that it was not his nature to solve problems conceptually: “my only consolation is that i have never been able to persuade myself to use a form that arose within me by way of logic... i could not devise such forms, and it disgusts me when i see them.” finally, to consider even more gradual breakthroughs, table ranks the same artists’ best five-year periods. the rankings do not change dramatically, but several interesting differences appear. braque, who had ranked th and th, respectively, in tables and , moves up to fifth place in table , for the years - . these were the years when braque and picasso worked together “like two mountaineers roped together,” in braque’s famous description, to develop cubism. picasso was the more gifted of the two, and he was bolder and more daring in his art. in spite of braque’s more cautious approach, however, in and he produced individual paintings that appear in more textbooks than any single work of picasso’s from the period apart from the demoiselles d’avignon. reviewing an exhibition of the art of picasso and braque from these years, john golding reflected that “it told the story of how one of the most protean of all artists was prepared temporarily to accept the support and the stimulus offered to him by a fellow artist so much less talented than himself, and of how that artist accepted the challenge involved and in the process transformed himself into a major painter.” virtually all successful modern artists have initially developed their art in the company of other talented young artists; david sylvester compared these collaborations to jazz musicians’ jam sessions, “the paradigm of a situation in which artists are simultaneously supporting and competing with each other.” the early collaboration of picasso and braque was the most important of these episodes for the art of the twentieth century, just as that of monet with bazille, renoir, and the other impressionists had been for the modern art of the nineteenth century. that three of the top five entries in table represent a single ten-year period in the development of cubism further emphasizes the preeminent place of that movement in twentieth- century art. another interesting feature of table involves two great experimental artists, as kandinsky moves up into the ninth rank, and mondrian makes an appearance for the first time in this study’s tables, ranked in the lowest position. both artists benefit from consideration of a longer period, as both are ranked in table for the period in the early s when they and malevich pioneered abstraction. that mondrian worked even more cautiously, and progressed even more slowly than kandinsky, is witnessed by the fact that mondrian ranks well below kandinsky in table in spite of the fact that he has substantially more total illustrations than the russian artist in the textbooks overall, for that larger number is spread more evenly over a period of five decades. table provides clear evidence of the difference in the creative life cycles of conceptual and experimental innovators. twelve of the entries in the table are for conceptual artists, while three are for experimental innovators. the median age of the conceptual artists when they began the periods listed in the table was , whereas the corresponding median age of the experimental artists was . great conceptual innovators, like picasso, warhol, and duchamp, mature rapidly and peak early in their lives, whereas great experimental artists, like mondrian, kandinsky, and pollock, develop slowly and make their greatest contributions at older ages. conclusion of all the revisions of pictorial language proposed in the th century, cubism has been the most radical. alan bowness artistic innovation in the twentieth century was dominated to a remarkable degree by one man. by the measure of textbook illustrations, picasso by himself accounts for three of the five most creative individual years of the century, five of the most creative three-year periods, and two of the three most creative five-year periods. today, after the close of the twentieth century, we can see not only how picasso’s specific artistic innovations dominated the agenda of advanced artists throughout the first half of the century, but also how the manifestation of his versatile conceptual creativity became the prototype for some of the most important conceptual innovators throughout the entire century. david sylvester recognized the historical departure represented by picasso, when he reflected that “picasso is a kind of artist who couldn’t have existed before this century, since his art is a celebration of this century’s introduction of a totally promiscuous eclecticism into the practice of art.” cubism was equally clearly the preeminent artistic movement of the twentieth century. working together during the period from until braque left to serve in the french army in , picasso and braque created a revolution that not only transformed painting, but also had a profound impact on sculpture, architecture, cinema, and virtually every other form of visual art, and beyond this to poetry and literature, as faceting and fragmentation were applied to words as well as to images. the work of picasso and braque in these years accounts for three of the five most important five-year periods of individual artistic creativity of the century. these two young conceptual innovators created a new synthesis of earlier artistic elements that overturned the synthesis of an equally young conceptual innovator, masaccio, who had worked in florence nearly five centuries before, as cubist space and form abruptly replaced renaissance perspective as the dominant paradigm in advanced art. sylvester again recognized both the significance of this episode and its nature, as he observed that the story of the rise of cubism is one of the most wonderful chapters in the history of art. there is something deeply moving about the way this pair of artists in their late twenties found themselves subverting six centuries of european painting while seeing themselves - quite rightly - as the successors to a line that stretched from poussin to chardin to corot to cézanne. the empirical analysis of this paper highlights the difference in the creative processes of conceptual and experimental innovators, for it points up the fact that conceptual artists not only innovate earlier in their careers than their experimental counterparts, but also that they innovate more rapidly. an earlier study based on counts of illustrations in textbooks showed that three of the greatest artistic innovators of the twentieth century were experimental artists, as were five of the greatest . when we examine short periods of innovative breakthroughs, however, using the same data set as the earlier study, the experimental artists are much less prominent. thus experimental artists account for only one of the most important individual years of creativity of the century, for only two of the most important three-year periods, and for only three of the most important five-year periods. the difference in the results of the two studies is a consequence of the fact that many conceptual artists arrive at their greatest contributions suddenly, while many experimental artists arrive at their greatest achievements much more gradually: the shorter the periods within artists’ careers we study, the greater the advantage of conceptual over experimental innovators. one further difference between the two types of innovator also appears in the data analyzed here. because experimental innovators are rarely satisfied that they have achieved their goals, they are often tied to a single problem for an entire career. in contrast, conceptual innovators often believe that they have conclusively achieved specific goals, and can consequently move onto other problems, and to make different contributions. this diversity of conceptual innovators is reflected in the fact that the three artists who make more than a single appearance in any of the tables in this paper were all conceptual artists. all three - picasso, matisse, and duchamp - are among the protean conceptual innovators who made multiple contributions to modern art. . alan bowness, the conditions of success: how the modern artist rises to fame (new york: thames and hudson, ), p. . . deborah solomon, “frank stella’s expressionist phase,” new york times magazine, (may , ), p. . . hal foster, rosalind krauss, yve-alain bois, and benjamin buchloh, art since (new york: thames and hudson, ), p. . the italics are mine. . bowness, the conditions of success, p. . . these books are listed in the appendix to david galenson, “the greatest artists of the twentieth century,” nber working paper ( ). . galenson, “the greatest artists of the twentieth century;” galenson, “the most important works of art of the twentieth century,” nber working paper ( ) . . for discussion and examples, see david galenson, artistic capital (new york: routledge, ), chaps. - . . bowness, the conditions of success, p. . . galenson, “the most important works of art of the twentieth century,” table . . gary garrels, ed., the work of andy warhol (seattle: bay press, ), p. . . galenson, artistic capital, p. . . victor bockris, warhol (new york: da capo press, ), pp. - . . steven madoff, ed., pop art (berkeley: university of california press, ), p. . . bockris, warhol, p. . . madoff, pop art, p. . . bockris, warhol, p. . . pepe karmel, ed., jackson pollock (new york: museum of modern art, ), pp. - , - . footnotes i thank robert jensen for discussions. . e.g. see karmel, jackson pollock, pp. , ; kirk varnedoe, jackson pollock (new york: museum of modern art, ), pp. - . . b. h. friedman, jackson pollock (new york: da capo press, ), p. . . karmel, jackson pollock, p. . . john golding, paths to the absolute (princeton: princeton university press, ), p. . . galenson, “the greatest artists of the twentieth century,” table . . golding, paths to the absolute, p. - . . galenson, “the most important works of art of the twentieth century,” table . . charlotte higgins, “work of art that inspired a movement... a urinal,” guardian, dec. , . . for discussions see galenson, “the most important works of art of the twentieth century.” . wassily kandinsky, complete writings on art (new york: da capo press, ), p. . . john golding, visions of the modern (berkeley: university of california press, ), p. . . david galenson, old masters and young geniuses (princeton: princeton university press, ), pp. - ; david sylvester, about modern art (new york: henry holt, ), p. ; bowness, the conditions of success, pp. - . . see galenson, “the greatest artists of the twentieth century,” table . . bowness, modern european art, p. . . david galenson, “and now for something completely different: the versatility of conceptual innovators,” nber working paper ( ). . sylvester, about modern art, p. . . sylvester, about modern art, p. . . galenson, “the greatest artists of the twentieth century,” riha journal | july (no) laughing matter: modernism and xavier nogués’ cartoons begoña farré torras instituto de história da arte, fcsh-universidade nova de lisboa abstract this paper discusses the notion of modernism by relating it to three artistic movements – modernisme, noucentisme and the avant-garde – which developed in catalonia between the s and the early s. from a common commitment to modernity these three movements produced, nonetheless, widely different aesthetic proposals. notwithstanding their differences, this paper identifies common features in their artistic practices in order to contribute to the ongoing critical review of modernism. thus, rather than a self-referential, medium-specific quest with abstraction as a natural endpoint, modernism is presented here as an open, interrogative artistic practice engaged in a debate in pursuit of ‘the modern’. this understanding of modernism is then tested against the case of xavier nogués, an artist associated with noucentisme, and his contribution to the artistic debate of his time through the necessarily figurative language of caricature. contents introduction a broader understanding of modernism modern art in catalonia the modern practice of art: modernisme, noucentisme and the avant-garde xavier nogués’ engagement in the modernist debate noucentista ideals and the ‘picturesque’ catalan reality the galeries laietanes project caricature on applied arts media – ceramics and enamelled glass conclusion introduction [ ] in the basement of galeries laietanes, an art gallery founded in barcelona in , visitors came face to face with an unusual art display. the walls of the basement’s two rooms were covered by several colourful compositions of large- scale cartoon-like characters celebrating wine and mediterranean living under classically inspired arches complemented by popular sayings on the virtues of this beverage (fig. - , and ). the theme was aptly chosen for a basement which, up to that point, had been the building’s wine cellar. when in art this article is a revised and extended version of the paper "(no) laughing matter: noucentisme, modernity and xavier nogués' cartoons" presented at the international conference southern modernisms: critical stances through regional appropriations, esap, oporto, - february . located at gran via de les corts catalanes, . riha journal | july promoter santiago segura ( - ) set up the gallery on the ground floor, he decided to turn the basement into a venue for tertúlia, or informal discussion among artists, writers and critics on matters related to art and culture. the cellar indeed became a hub of activity attended particularly (but not exclusively) by figures associated to noucentisme, a major artistic, cultural and political movement in catalonia at the time. xavier nogués, partial view of the mural paintings at the galeries laietanes cellar, barcelona, . (xavier nogués: pintures murals procedents del celler de les galeries laietanes, exh. cat., barcelona , - ) xavier nogués, partial view of the mural paintings at the galeries laietanes cellar, barcelona, . (xavier nogués: pintures murals procedents del celler de les galeries laietanes, exh. cat., barcelona , ) riha journal | july xavier nogués, partial view of the mural paintings at the galeries laietanes cellar, barcelona, . (xavier nogués: pintures murals procedents del celler de les galeries laietanes, exh. cat., barcelona , ) xavier nogués, fragment of wall decoration, originally at galeries laietanes, , tempera on plaster, x cm. museu nacional d’art de catalunya, barcelona (© mnac, barcelona, , photograph by jordi calveras) [ ] the basement’s decoration had been commissioned by the gallery owner to xavier nogués ( - ), an artist in the noucentista circle. renowned for his engraving and caricature work, nogués devised a composition that required taking the language of cartoons out of its traditional printed medium and applying it in full colour and large dimensions on plaster. his innovative display of mural caricature was very well-received and earned nogués the recognition of his peers. however, this artist’s concerns never travelled the route of formal and riha journal | july aesthetic exploration followed, at the time, by the avant-garde sectors of the catalan art scene which would ultimately be considered truly modern by international standards. this raises issues as to the art-historical interest of works such as this by nogués which, however unconventional and appreciated by his contemporaries, appear detached from the stylistic, self-referential enquiries historiographically attributed to the modernist avant-gardes. why, then, even consider this work in a volume devoted to modernism? precisely, one could argue, because it poses the problem that hans belting described as the historiographical “embarrassment about non-avant-garde in and after modernism, which yet defies classification”. in other words, taking into account its lack of affinity to any post-impressionist, cubist, futurist and/or abstractionist premises, what does a work like nogués’ mural project bring to the art-historical narrative about the development of modern art? [ ] in order to address these questions, this paper builds on the ongoing critical review of the notion of modernism, which proposes a broader definition of the term not restricted to a formalist reading. it then considers how this more comprehensive understanding of modernism fits in with the catalan art scene of the late th and early th centuries, and it moves on to ascertain the contribution of an artist such as nogués to the development of modern art in that milieu regardless of its degree of affinity to a formalist modernist canon. a broader understanding of modernism [ ] in a general sense, modernism has been defined as a consciousness of modernity, a positive inclination to ‘modernize’, a strive for ‘the modern’. when applied specifically to art, the term has long referred to a pursuit of the modern through a narrowly defined “intentional and self-critical preoccupation with the demands of a specific medium, and its originality with regard to the precedent that medium avails”. it is an understanding of modernism, theorized among others by clement greenberg since the late s, that stresses the autonomy of art with regard to society, its focus on innovation and its preoccupation with nothing outside the medium itself, therefore tending towards abstraction. [ ] though hugely successful, this understanding of modernism has been the subject of increasing scrutiny since the late s when critics began to question the exclusively formal pursuit it claimed for modern art. this revision broadened the field of study to other artistic proposals that had striven for modernity in a variety of ways. in time, it also led to a wide acknowledgment that “the larger story of modernist painting in the later nineteenth and twentieth centuries is that of a plurality of modernisms or, say, of modernist adventures”. hans belting, art history after modernism, chicago / london , . charles harrison, "modernism," in: critical terms for art history, ed. robert s. nelson and richard shiff, chicago / london , - , here . harrison, "modernism," . michael fried, manet’s modernism or, the face of painting in the s, chicago / london , . riha journal | july [ ] faced with this diversity, then, the question arises as to what all of these ‘adventures’ have in common to allow us to label them modernist in one way or another. departing from the formalist canon, christos m. joachimides proposed a more comprehensive definition of modernism as “an artistic attitude […], a dialectical quest […] with an inbuilt theory of innovation”. the dialectical and innovative dimensions of this definition would certainly encompass the purely aesthetic concerns championed by formalist modernism, but they would also explain the broader range of modernist proposals that entered the art debate in the th century (and beyond, according to joachimides). the debate, in this author’s view, revolved around four pairs of key concepts: reality-distortion, abstraction-spirituality, language-material, dream-myth. leaving aside the precise terms of the debate proposed by this author, it is rather his underlying understanding of modernism as a modern artistic practice rather than a formal canon, as an artistic debate through innovation – or rather experimentation – that i will be exploring here for the catalan case. [ ] it is worth noting, however, that for all the critical revision undertaken of the concept of modernism, the exclusionary formalist view of the term appears to have retained some of its appeal. as noted by christopher wilk as recently as , “this widely accepted definition, with its emphasis on aesthetic formalism and its rejection of any relationship between art and society, especially with popular culture, [has] survived remarkably intact and is still used, with some modification, today”. [ ] the endurance of this definition is countered in turn by initiatives such as the exhibition at the centre pompidou under the title modernités plurielles. in the accompanying catalogue catherine grenier calls it a “manifesto-exhibition, presenting a refreshed and broadened view of modern art” which pays tribute to “the exceptional diversity of artistic forms created from to ”. here, too, modernism is defined as “a dialectical relationship”, a rich and complex debate taking place between two poles: partaking in the transformations of modern life, and reflecting on the nature of art. christos m. joachimides, "the age of modernism," in: the age of modernism: art in the th century, ed. christos m. joachimides and norman rosenthal, exh. cat., stuttgart / berlin , - , here . the notion of the modernist artistic practice as an informed critical debate discussed here is also much indebted to the notion of the disciplinary field of art history itself as an informed critical debate, expressed in joana cunha leal, "a montanha mágica," in: l+arte (january ), – . christopher wilk, "introduction: what was modernism?," in: modernism - : designing a new world, ed. christopher wilk, london , - , here . modernités plurielles - , ed. catherine grenier, exh. cat., paris . catherine grenier, "a history of global art," in: modernités plurielles - : l’exposition / the exhibition (album), paris , - , here . michel gauthier, "abrégé d’histoire du modernisme," in: modernités plurielles - , - , here . riha journal | july [ ] a key aspect of this exhibition, for the purposes of this article, is that it also paid particular attention to the art being produced outside the main artistic centres, both in europe and beyond. and it did so from a fresh perspective, by [bearing] witness to the open and discontinuous temporalities that generate the exchanges and processes of reaction from artists to propositions formulated by the avant-gardes. by confronting the canonical perspective of a linear succession of artistic movements to a history drawn from the margins and peripheries, [the exhibition substituted] a cartography of connections, transfers, but also resistances, in lieu of the history of influences. [ ] in this regard, the exhibition recognised the key role played by art magazines in the construction of the modern artistic space beyond national borders, an aspect that will also be looked at below in respect of the catalan case. modern art in catalonia [ ] barcelona constitutes a clear instance of artistic activity developed outside the main centres, though in close dialogue with them, thus offering the types of connections, transfers, and also resistances described above by grenier. [ ] grasping the development of modern art in spain in the first decades of the th century becomes particularly complex in the case of catalonia due to the co- existence in the region of two different yet interrelated currents: noucentisme and the avant-garde. considering these artistic currents in the light of a critical revision of the concept of modernism is further complicated by the presence in the region of an additional movement that preceded both noucentisme and the avant-garde and called itself modernisme, the catalan word for modernism. [ ] for the sake of clarity, the historiographical convention for these three categories could be summarized in very simplistic terms as follows: modernisme developed from approximately the mid- s, started to wane at the turn of the century, and can be largely (though not solely) associated with european art- nouveau movements, albeit – and of particular interest for this article – much less so in painting; noucentisme, for its part, emerged in as part of a broader political and cultural renovation programme promoted by the local bourgeoisie and, in artistic terms, advocated an art that was both modern and catalan, open to the european avant-gardes, but in touch with the region’s classical mediterranean heritage and its popular culture; finally, the avant-garde developed in parallel to noucentisme, but was more confrontational and even more receptive to the formal artistic enquiries pursued in major european grenier, "a history of global art", . mica gherghescu, "grilles et arborescences: le rôle des revues dans la construction de l’espace artistique moderne," in: modernités plurielles - , - . carmen belen lord, "the new art: modernisme," in: barcelona and modernity: picasso, gaudí, miró, dalí, ed. william h. robinson, jordi falgàs and carmen belen lord, cleveland , - . martí peran i rafart, alícia suàrez and mercè vidal i jansà, eds., el noucentisme: un projecte de modernitat, barcelona . riha journal | july centres, most notably paris. in the catalan context, based on this characterization – however flawed by its simplicity – only the artistic proposals identified as avant-garde would qualify internationally as modernism under a strictly formalist definition of the term. and yet, however short they seem to fall on the ‘formal modernity’ scale when compared to their avant-garde counterparts, works by self-acknowledged modernista and noucentista artists had an unequivocal modernizing intent, too. an intent, a belief in modernity, and a strive to bring it to the arts that led the first of these artistic movements to actually adopt ‘modernism’ as its name long before formalist modernism was theorized. indeed, in the catalan context, the term modernist was used for the first time in relation to art, as a positive characterization, in in a literary criticism magazine entitled l’avens (later l’avenç, meaning advance or progress). the purpose of the magazine was stated thus: “l’avens advocates (and will always attempt to advocate) the cultivation in our country of an essentially modernist literature, science and art.” it was this same intent, belief in and striving for the modern that led the second of these movements to take on the name of the new century (noucentisme, literally twentieth-century-ism) as an expression of belonging to an even newer time, one that had ostensibly moved on even from modernisme. [ ] what we see, therefore, is a general commitment to modernity that was very much palpable in catalan society, particularly its elites, from the closing decades of the th century. this consciousness and strive for modernity in a general social, economic, technological and cultural sense was embodied, for instance, in barcelona’s enthusiastic organization of its universal exposition of . this event “offered catalans a historic opportunity to evaluate their region in the context of vanguard european culture, technology and industry; it also established a decisive formal precedent for a modern cosmopolitan outlook.” artists, too, shared in this drive. in the art scene it took the form of a concern with artistic modernity that sought to leave behind academic constraints and that was pursued, albeit in a diversity of styles, by all three currents: modernisme, noucentisme and the avant-garde. what can be seen in the catalan milieu of the time is therefore a common and multifaceted commitment to the modern in art, william h. robinson, "avant-gardes for a new century," in: barcelona and modernity, - . previous uses of the term modernism in europe hark back to the first decades of the th century. these early uses apply mostly to literature and are, in any case, derogatory: "at the height of the battle of the books, the suffix ism – indicative, among other things, of irrational adherence to the principles of a cult – was added to the term modern not by the moderns themselves but by their adversaries." matei calinescu, five faces of modernity: modernism, avant-garde, decadence, kitsch, postmodernism, durham, n.c. , . l’avens ( january ) (my translation). the emergence and development of the concept of modernism in catalonia has been traced by joan lluís marfany, aspectes del modernisme, th ed., barcelona , as quoted in belen lord, "the new art: modernisme," . peran i rafart, suàrez and vidal i jansà, el noucentisme, . belen lord, "the new art: modernisme," . riha journal | july an existence of plural modernities – to borrow the term from the pompidou exhibition –, as has already been acknowledged and explored in depth in barcelona and modernity: picasso, gaudí, miró, dalí, a comprehensive exhibition encompassing these three movements in art and architecture. [ ] however, the modernising intent observed in modernisme, noucentisme and the avant-garde, by itself, does not justify bringing them under the ‘umbrella’ of modernism. for this, it would also be necessary to ascertain these movements' degree of engagement with the notion of art as a critical debate with a focus on experimentation. this, in turn, should provide a way to account for the contribution of artists not aligned with the formal avant-garde, such as xavier nogués, to the development of modernist art in spain through the specific context of catalonia. the modern practice of art: modernisme, noucentisme and the avant-garde [ ] modernisme, noucentisme and the avant-garde are rightly treated in historiography as three distinct categories. even allowing for the considerable diversity that can be seen within each one, and for any aesthetic overlaps between them, they can be understood as three different artistic propositions with which practitioners generally identified themselves. from a non-formalist perspective, however, they also have much in common both between them and with the modern practice of art developing elsewhere in europe and beyond. [ ] firstly, as has already been mentioned, all three movements were characterised by a striving for artistic modernity, a will to create art that was ‘modern’. the inverted commas here are used to stress the imprecision of the concept. references to ‘modern art’ crop up in the art magazines of the time whether they are associated with modernisme, noucentisme, or the avant-garde. yet exactly what was meant by the term is seldom clearly specified. ‘modern’ seems to refer to something desirable in art; some quality that distanced it from outdated academic teachings – that valued illusionistic effects, compositional principles and highly polished renditions of subjects neatly ranged in genre hierarchies – and instead turned it into an innovative form of expression attuned to its time. [ ] a second feature that all three movements have in common is an experimental approach to artistic practice. unfettered from academic constraints, artists searched for that desired modernity by trying out new forms of expression, new subjects, new concepts. in the concrete field of painting, the emergence of a formal investigative approach, which was unprecedented in the catalan art milieu, has been credited to modernista artists ramon casas and santiago barcelona and modernity: picasso, gaudí, miró, dalí, ed. william h. robinson, jordi falgàs and carmen belen lord, exh. cat., cleveland . the exhibition took place at the cleveland museum of art and at new york’s metropolitan museum of art. anonymous, "un pintor de son temps," in: forma (december ), - ; anonymous, "el futurisme 'sic'," in: vell i nou ( march ), . riha journal | july rusiñol following sojourns in paris. pictorial enquiry was equally pursued by isidre nonell, traditionally presented as a second-generation modernista, and by pablo picasso, who at the close of the century was working in barcelona in close contact with the modernista circle. it can also be seen in the work of noucentista artists such as joaquim sunyer (fig. ) who is often cited as this movement’s most noted representative. and it took its most radically anti- academic form in the work of avant-garde artists such as rafael barradas and his vibrationist paintings. joaquim sunyer, paisatge de mallorca (majorcan landscape), , oil on canvas, . x . cm. museu nacional d’art de catalunya, barcelona (© mnac, barcelona) [ ] experimentation, however, was not limited to the purely aesthetic. artists were also asking themselves about what constituted a relevant subject for a modern painting or sculpture, and indeed also questioning how much that subject actually mattered. furthermore, artistic enquiries went beyond form and subject. the period also saw artists testing new media and pushing the boundaries of what could be considered a work of art at all. thus, practitioners who had been conventionally trained in drawing, painting and sculpture began to take an interest in forms outside of the ‘fine arts’ category, such as graphic design, ceramics, glass and metalwork, among others. an illustrative example of this in the catalan milieu is provided by posters, ceramics, glass and textiles, which became collectable forms of modern art thanks to the innovative exploration of these media initiated by modernista artists and subsequently pursued by both noucentista and avant-garde practitioners. this resulted in a “transition of the belen lord, "the new art: modernisme," . on picasso’s interaction with the modernista circles at the time, see jordi falgàs, "picasso’s fellows at the tavern: beyond modernisme?," in: barcelona and modernity, - . in painting, along with joaquín torres-garcía. see, for instance narcís comadira, "the forms of paradise; noucentista painting and sculpture," in: barcelona and modernity, - . riha journal | july traditional to the modern vernacular”, an ‘elevation’ of popular crafts to the category of modern art that is visible in modernisme, noucentisme and the avant- garde. [ ] thirdly, in all three movements, and unlike any preceding practice, artists were willing to engage in a mutually critical process in their search for an art that deserved to be called ‘modern’. no longer subject to crucial assessment by an official academy, artists promoted their own platforms to discuss and judge each other’s work as well as the artistic propositions being developed elsewhere in europe. this critical debate took place through artists’ groupings or associations that organized their own exhibitions, promoted cultural events and met regularly to discuss their artistic concerns. these included, for instance, the modernista festivals promoted by rusiñol in sitges between and ; the artists’ association les arts i els artistes, created in and mostly linked to noucentisme; the athenea association in girona, also noucentista; and agrupació courbet, initiated in and generally related to the avant-garde. the modern practice of art required artists to develop a greater consciousness of their practice and discuss it with their peers. lively discussions became a fixture for modernista artists at the quatre gats café in barcelona and cau ferrat in sitges; for its part, as already mentioned, the cellar at galeries laietanes, also in barcelona, was actively promoted as an artistic den. though largely frequented by noucentistes, it also attracted other more avant-garde practitioners of the catalan art scene whose work was exhibited in the gallery above. [ ] crucially, the period in question also saw the emergence of periodicals – often with the financial backing of members of the bourgeoisie – that for the first time made it their explicit purpose to serve as platforms for debate with a view to modernizing art and literature. examples include the aforementioned l’avenç ( ), pèl i ploma ( ), forma ( ), futurisme ( ), correo de las letras & de las artes ( ), revista nova ( ), vell i nou ( ), un enemic del poble ( ) and l'instant ( ) among several others. these can be variously associated to modernisme, noucentisme and the avant-garde, but especially in the period of noucentisme/avant-garde some titles seem not to fit exclusively into one or the other category, rather sharing in aspects of both at the same time. as pointed out in the modernités plurielles catalogue, these played a key role in the international dissemination of, and local reaction to, artistic proposals being developed throughout europe. they offered critiques on exhibitions and literary works both at home and abroad – with extensive coverage of the latter – through contributions not only by critics, but, crucially, by the artists and writers see belen lord, "the new art: modernisme," ; francesc quílez i corella, "the art of the poster," in: barcelona and modernity, - ; pilar vélez, "the decorative arts of the modernista era: european art nouveau plus the local tradition," in: barcelona and modernity, - ; sílvia carbonell basté, "fabrics and fashion at the turn of the century," in: barcelona and modernity, - . lord, "the new art: modernisme," . all of these are available for consultation online on http://www.bnc.cat/digital/arca/ riha journal | july themselves. additionally, most of these publications also included summaries of art-related articles published in foreign magazines. [ ] this critical debate, moreover, was not exclusive to artists and critics, but rather was made accessible to the general public, too. from the first exhibitions of modernista works by casas and rusiñol in the s we hear of “particularly bitter critical battles” and “vigorous public dialogue concerning the purpose and character of modern painting”. it was the same concern with the purpose and character of modern painting that was subsequently taken up in noucentista and avant-garde circles with echoes in the general press. in particular, public awareness of the debate on modern art grew considerably through página artística, a weekly section created in and devoted to art criticism in catalonia’s main daily newspaper, la veu de catalunya. [ ] the three common features just described – a commitment to modernizing art, a willingness to experiment, and an engagement in an informed, critical debate on what constituted modern art – are in line with the dialectical innovative quest that characterizes the broader understanding of modernism discussed earlier. they characterize a modern approach to producing art without precedent in the catalan art milieu. this is not to say that previous artistic practice lacked any degree of experimentation or debate, but when these existed they were sporadic and in any case restrained by academic expectations and by an absence of alternative debate platforms. also, if any such experimentation or critical debate did occur, they were not associated with any notion of art modernity as this appeared only in the late th century. [ ] based on this, the modernity of art produced by modernistes, noucentistes and avant-gardists can be assessed not on its degree of adherence to a formal canon issued abroad, but rather on its engagement with this investigative, challenging and critical debate on what modern art should be. this debate no doubt included positions championing the “self-sufficient rightness of colour and shape” that would come to be synonymous with formalist modernism; but neither was there a consensus on this point nor was this the only issue at stake. both in their practice and in their writings, we see artists adopting a firm anti- academic stance – common to modernista, noucentista and avant-garde positions – to then discuss a broad range of issues related to the nature and purpose of modern art: to what degree should it be socially engaged or pursue purely (or rather, predominantly) aesthetic concerns; whether painting should the critical dynamism of the catalan art scene in the context of noucentisme and the avant-garde becomes apparent in the broad variety of art initiatives listed in joan m. minguet batllori and jaume vidal i oliveras, "cronologia crítica," in: avantguardes a catalunya - : protagonistes, tendències, esdeveniments, ed. daniel giralt- miracle, exh. cat., barcelona , - . belen lord, "the new art: modernisme," . clement greenberg, "picasso at seventy-five" [ ], in: art and culture: critical essays, boston , - , here . see, for example, miquel utrillo, "els honors i els cegos," in: pèl & ploma ( june ), ; anonymous, "francis, franciscà," in: revista nova ( april ), . riha journal | july aim at flatness or it could also legitimately contemplate volumetric effects; whether it should attempt a clean break with the past, or rather incorporate any of its own traditions; whether it should concern itself with human emotion, reason or spirituality; whether it should somehow try to capture the vibrancy of modern industrial life, or find instead a transcendental essence in some form of perceived primitiveness; and whether “popular” and “low” art forms constituted worthwhile pursuits for artists, among other issues. [ ] again, it is this understanding of modernism – not as an artistic canon that judges the modernity of a work of art based on exclusively formal criteria, but rather as an experimental, informed, critical approach to creating art in pursuit of modernity – which allows the art-historical value of work such as xavier nogués’ to be assessed on the grounds of its contribution to the contemporary critical debate on modern art. xavier nogués’ engagement in the modernist debate [ ] xavier nogués ( - ) combined training in his native barcelona, from the age of sixteen, with a formative period in paris where he travelled in , set up an atelier with alejandro de cabanyes and attended two art academies, colarossi and vity. he subsequently stayed in the french capital in - , and . [ ] despite his early training, he devoted himself to art relatively late in his life. the card players, considered to be his first major work, was published in papitu magazine in , when nogués was already years old. previously, his only known works are a number of landscape paintings from a formative phase (dated - ) and occasional illustrations published from in several general- interest magazines. nogués was a keen observer of the social reality and popular culture around him and, by his own admission, preferred caricature to any other form of art. thus, from the moment he began his artistic practice ricciotto canudo, "l'art cerebrista," in: revista nova ( april ), ; alfons maseras, "fórmules i forma," in: l' instant - ( january ), . joan sacs, "de pintura mural: i – les maníes," in: revista nova ( july ), - . francisco acebal, "l'art popular," in: forma (may ); anonymous, "el futurisme 'sic'," . pinzell, "los germans oslé," in: forma (april ); joan sacs, "l'astigmatisme del greco," in: revista nova ( august ), - ; canudo, "l'art cerebrista". miquel utrillo, "forma," in: forma (february ); joaquín torres-garcía, "notes sobre art," in: revista de l'escola de decoració (march ), - ; joan sacs, "el barbarisme i el primitivisme artistics en el curs de l'historia," in: revista nova ( august ), - . francesc quer, "el senyor farriols i jo, o la cerámica i sos misteris," in: revista nova ( april ), ; joan sacs, "els vidres d'en maurici marinot," in: revista nova ( july ). xavier nogués: pintures murals procedents del celler de les galeries laietanes, exh. cat., barcelona , - . cecília vidal i maynou, xavier nogués: - , barcelona , . rafael benet, xavier nogués, caricaturista y pintor, barcelona , . riha journal | july more fully he quickly gained recognition as an engraver and cartoonist with regular contributions to satirical magazines such as papitu. this magazine was founded and edited by fellow caricaturist and writer feliu elias (a.k.a. joan sacs) with whom nogués would go on to work closely in other editorial ventures. [ ] nogués shared fully in noucentisme’s purpose to modernize catalan art. in , he was a founding member of les arts i els artistes, a group of artists “formed in response to the wish for artistic regeneration [which] brought together the most shifting sectors of the art world and represented the most innovative production of the day. [it was] initially, a revulsive in the catalan art scene.” with the backing of figures from the artistic and political scenes, the group’s (largely unrealised) goals included organising two annual exhibitions and founding a museum of contemporary art. in , nogués contributed to almanach dels noucentistes, a kind of manifesto for the movement, and he became increasingly active in the artistic debate taking place in barcelona at the time involving both noucentisme and the avant-garde. [ ] before proceeding to discuss nogués’ role in the catalan art scene of his day, it is worth focusing for a moment on the interplay between these two currents. the distinction between noucentisme and the avant-garde, though useful for operative purposes, can at times be blurry. to a large extent, this is due to the internal diversity and lack of stylistic cohesion within noucentisme. in effect, the aforementioned almanach dels noucentistes – a publication promoted by art critic and essayist eugeni d’ors – acted as a manifesto of sorts, but did not actually issue stylistic guidelines for artists. instead, it expressed a new endeavour, a generational break, and a consciousness of the new century while including “works by a wide range of writers and artists who did not necessarily subscribe to one another's postulates”. as a result, art produced within this movement was actually highly heterogeneous. [ ] noucentista art could indeed take many forms, but it was generally underpinned by a common belief in the social role of art. thus, all its subscribing practitioners were called upon to contribute to the collective project of bringing catalonia in line with what were perceived to be the most advanced countries in europe. notwithstanding the movement's admiration for such nations, however, the brief was to create an art that was both modern and catalan, as opposed to a mere import of foreign novelties. one way to go about it was to tap into francesc fontbona, "the art of noucentisme," in: homage to barcelona, the city and its art, - , ed. michael raeburn, exh. cat., london , - , here . for a complete list of nogués’ contributions to periodicals see vidal i maynou, xavier nogués, - . feliu elias used this, his real name, to sign his paintings. his writings as an art critic were signed joan sacs, and his caricatures apa. minguet batllori and vidal i oliveras, "cronologia crítica," - . jordi falgàs, "the almanach dels noucentistes: a hybrid manifesto," in: barcelona and modernity, - , here . el noucentisme: un projecte de modernitat, ed. martí peran i rafart, alícia suàrez, and mercè vidal i jansà, exh. cat., barcelona . fontbona, "the art of noucentisme," . riha journal | july catalonia’s classic mediterranean heritage, with a firm focus on order and structure, as theorized by eugeni d’ors. in this sense, noucentista art criticism even advocated a “mediterranean school of painting”; this view placed modern catalan art within a supra-national cultural region that also encompassed southern france, italy and greece. another major tenet of noucentisme art theory, determinedly promoted by critic joaquim folch i torres, was that the essential catalan values that would guide this modern project were to be distilled (not merely transposed) from popular art and culture. [ ] however, this quest for catalan-ness in art never stopped the noucentista milieu from also taking a keen interest in the avant-garde enquiries emerging around europe. while refusing to uncritically adopt foreign novelties, noucentisme was curious as to what these could bring to its project of modern art. in this regard, for example, a part of noucentisme saw great value in the constructive intelligence and focus on structure it perceived in cubism. thus, the arrival of the first cubist exhibition in barcelona in gave rise to a heated discussion of its perceived virtues and shortcomings in several issues of the noucentista página artística de la veu de catalunya. [ ] still, the bourgeois social context from which noucentisme emerged, however keen on progress, conditioned the movement to pursue “a controlled evolution, not a revolutionary adventure”. thus, the most radical avant-garde proposals, though considered and discussed, struggled to gain acceptance. particular resistance was shown to tendencies towards abstraction as they ran counter to the social role attributed to art by noucentisme. at any rate, the engagement of artists in this debate resulted in a heterogeneous artistic production that is sometimes difficult to class as either noucentista or avant- garde: artists like pablo gargallo, manolo hugué, and josep de togores oscillated between both currents; others, including juli gonzález and joaquín torres-garcia, initially aligned with, even heartily championed, noucentisme, and subsequently veered towards more avant-garde positions. it was all part of a dynamic art scene which gained further complexity during the first world war with the return to barcelona of catalan artists based abroad and the arrival of foreign ones drawn by spain's neutrality in the conflict. [ ] xavier nogués’ place in this scene appears to have been one of engagement in the debate from a critical standpoint towards certain aspects of both noucentista and avant-garde positions. as already noted, a substantial part of the discussion on modern art took place in the pages of art magazines. nogués took anonymous, "saló de les arts i els artistes," in: vell i nou ( may ), . peran i rafart, suàrez and vidal i jansà, el noucentisme, . robert s. lubar, "cubism, classicism and ideology: the exposició d’art cubista in barcelona and french cubist criticism," in: on classic ground: picasso, léger, de chirico and the new classicism - , ed. elizabeth cowling and jennifer mundy, london , - ; and christopher green, picasso: architecture and vertigo, new haven , . minguet batllori and vidal i oliveras, "cronologia crítica," . peran i rafart, suàrez and vidal i jansà, el noucentisme, . fontbona, "the art of noucentisme," , . riha journal | july an active role in this novel form of discussion when in he became co-editor with feliu elias of revista nova. this new magazine, financially backed by santiago segura (founder of the galeries laietanes a year later), was conceived with an explicit modernist intent, as expressed in its statement of purpose: unlike current art publications dealing mostly with old art and archaeology, and only incidentally with modern art, this magazine will analyse and bring forth almost exclusively the latest artistic trends, so that the energy and anxieties of people with a new spirit will not find themselves unsupported as they have until now. [ ] it was through his cartoons at revista nova that nogués expressed his views, for example, on cubism; contrary to the interest raised by this avant-garde proposal among some noucentista artists, nogués takes a satirical view of cubism (fig. ). to a self-acknowledged cartoonist, draftsman and engraver, enquiries so deeply centred on the construction of the pictorial field through colour may have seemed somewhat removed from his own formal concerns; moreover, cubism’s disregard for subject matter was at odds with nogués’ own focus on daily reality and social dynamics, which was a key aspect of his critical practice. his own experimental endeavours would necessarily take other paths. xavier nogués, cartoon “the victim”, published in revista nova , june , . caption: “i think i am actually beginning to look like my cubist portrait now” noucentista ideals and the ‘picturesque’ catalan reality [ ] nogués’ attention to the reality around him went hand in hand with his interest in popular culture and art which, as mentioned before, was a key component of the noucentista artistic agenda. from , he began translating this concern into a series of cartoons – published initially in revista nova – that gave graphic expression to phrases and sayings used in colloquial language. the joan torrent and rafael tasis, història de la premsa catalana, barcelona , vol. , - (my translation). riha journal | july humorous depiction of aphorisms and proverbs was far from a new practice, but nogués' intention with this series of cartoons departed from this tradition. eschewing the moralising, paternalistic tone often found in such representations, and taking instead his lead from goya, an artist he greatly admired, nogués gave his cartoons an unequivocal critical tone mostly directed at the catalan elites, thus implicitly critiquing noucentisme from within. indeed, eugeni d’ors’ noucentisme promoted an idealised image of catalonia to be achieved through social, cultural and technical progress, in a process which reserved a major modernising role for art. in the face of this, nogués composed instead a critical survey of the reality of catalan society through its colloquial everyday language translated into cartoons. the result was not a flattering picture; the series showed a society of carefree drunkards, thieves and idle types prone to brawling, often before the eyes of a ridiculed bourgeoisie. members of this class, recognisable by their top hats and black tailcoats, took the brunt of nogués’ social critique: before a society in disarray, they appeared outraged, alarmed, puzzled, or even joining in the ruckus, but invariably powerless to uphold order. when not having to witness lawlessness and disturbances, they were shown as socially unaware and pretentious, given to frivolous pursuits, outsmarted by the popular classes, or as pompous characters who enjoyed being fawned over (fig. ). nogués’ message seems clear: if this was the society to be modernised through mediterranean ideals and the civilising powers of art, noucentisme had a monumental task ahead, and the bourgeois powers promoting it needed to ask themselves whether they were fit for the job. xavier nogués, gastar fums (acting self-important), c. , published in xavier nogués and francesc pujols, la catalunya pintoresca, barcelona , . [ ] furthermore, challenging d’ors’ classicist insistence on order, structure and beauty, nogués executed these cartoons with particularly harsh lines and disorderly compositions, leaving little room for aesthetic enjoyment. in a further vidal i maynou, xavier nogués, . riha journal | july turn of the screw, he later compiled the series into a book ironically entitled la catalunya pintoresca (picturesque catalonia) which has been considered “the masterwork of critical noucentisme”. rather than graphically commenting on current events and political figures of the time, as caricature often did, what nogués brought forth was a collective look in the mirror, one that forced noucentisme’s utopian bourgeois ideology to consider its grasp on reality. [ ] there are mixed reports as to the reception of the picturesque catalonia cartoon book at the time. in the preface to the book’s second edition, nogués himself maintains that the first one was a failure. this, however, contrasts with a report by art critic joan sacs on the complete success of that first edition, which, he claims, immediately sold out. judging from contemporary articles, nogués’ grotesque, often unpleasant depiction of catalan society was labelled monstrous by some, and several artists and critics then felt the need to defend his work from such criticism. crucially for the purposes of this paper, the controversy generated by nogués’ work touched directly on the question of its perceived modernity. indeed, the value of humour and satire as a critical means to artistic renovation – namely, in the field of literature – had been explicitly underlined in the aforementioned l’avens article that first introduced the term modernist in the catalan art scene: we believe that the lack of discussion in literatures is the reason that they lead an impoverished life and sooner or later die of consumption; that it is necessary to foster criticism and that this must err more on the side of severity than that of indulgence, if we want the catalan rebirth/renaissance to bear ever more fruit of real worth both here and abroad; that the humorous and satirical criticism that such good results gives in other literatures must be put in practice in ours. [ ] thirty-five years on from this article, the same held true in the noucentisme and avant-garde context. authors writing in support of nogués’ work greatly valued his grotesque, unforgiving cartoons because of the collective self-criticism they prompted, which they considered an essential condition for modernity, both social and artistic. in the eyes of one of these authors, the fellow noucentista painter josep aragay, nogués’ caricatures forced the movement to rethink some of its basic tenets, in particular those associated with eugeni d’ors’ emphasis on classical order and beauty: of the fifty cartoons that make up la catalunya pintoresca, published in by salvat papasseit llibreters, fourteen had been published for the first time in revista nova in , cecília vidal i maynou, la catalunya pintoresca, th ed., barcelona , . francesc fontbona, la catalunya pintoresca, th ed., barcelona , v. xavier nogués and francesc pujols, la catalunya pintoresca: gravats, nd ed., barcelona , . joan sacs, xavier nogués, barcelona n.d. [ s]. josep aragay, "francesc xavier nogués," in: instant revista quinzenal year , ( september ), ; josep llorens i artigas, "xavier nogués," in: la veu de catalunya pàgina artística ( june ), ; anonymous, "la caricatura," in: vell i nou ( august ), - . l’avens ( january ), supplement (my translation). riha journal | july to those who have ever criticised the monstrous picturesqueness of his [nogués’] drawings, he can reply by laughing at their dreams of harmony and classicism, because such dreams conceived within the monstrosity of their spirit are nothing but a melancholy claim to ancient culture, and cannot go out onto the street other than shrouded, and artificial, and dead as all the dead in the cemetery. [ ] even from a strictly art-theoretical perspective, an unidentified author devoted an article to nogués’ work in vell i nou magazine asserting the value of caricature’s conceptualism to avant-garde artistic enquiries and progressive concerns: lately, the intensifying and conceptualist (symbolist) character of caricature has influenced pure art, as attested to by some of the schools of a more cerebral nature: futurism, cubism, even literary cubism. today, only backward or barbarian peoples don’t know caricature, and conversely, developed peoples are those who have practised it the most. [ ] nogués’ positioning within the most restless sectors of the noucentista art milieu may explain his close interaction with the catalan avant-garde. this translated, for instance, into his participation in exhibitions organised by agrupació courbet, a group of avant-garde artists founded in by joan miró, enric cristòfol ricart, joaquín torres-garcía and josep llorens i artigas. agrupació courbet’s exhibitions also included works by other artists more or less associated with noucentisme, such as joaquim sunyer, manolo hugué and josep de togores. we also find nogués contributing to such a committed avant-garde magazine as un enemic del poble. this publication, subtitled “folio of spiritual subversion”, was named after henrik ibsen’s play an enemy of the people. founded in , the magazine was edited by avant-garde poet joan salvat- papasseit and operated from galeries laietanes. its may issue features a cartoon by nogués criticising bourgeois greed (fig. ) through a well-fed character in a tailcoat vomiting coins when pressed in the stomach by a mugger. in spirit, this is not far from the only known war-related cartoon published by nogués shortly after the start of the great war. as part of the popular types series in revista nova and under the title mr. cannons (fig. ), the cartoon denounces the destruction of civilization through war and death fuelled by capitalist greed. aragay, "francesc xavier nogués," (my translation). anonymous, "la caricatura," (my translation). i would like to venture the possibility that this unidentified author is joan sacs (a.k.a. feliu elias and apa), given his regular contribution to vell i nou generally as a critic, his own practice as a caricaturist, and his known admiration for xavier nogués. robinson, "avant-gardes for a new century," . riha journal | july xavier nogués, cartoon published in un enemic del poble , may , xavier nogués, "tipus populars: el senyor canons" (popular types: mr. cannons), published in revista nova , september , [ ] as contradictory as an anti-bourgeois stance would appear in an artist associated with noucentisme – given the firm bourgeois backing of this movement – this facet of nogués’ work has attracted surprisingly little scholarly attention. a rare work addressing nogués’ political dimension is by alexandre cirici. this author rightly draws a clear distinction between nogués’ class- conscious, critical work in the s and his subsequent “bourgeois integration” in the s. alexandre cirici, "xavier nogués entre l’expressionisme popular i la integració burgesa," in: serra d’or portantveu del 'chor montserratí' ( april ), - . riha journal | july [ ] thus, despite nogués’ lack of interest in purely formal artistic enquiries, we find him associated with elements of the catalan avant-garde. his readiness to be critical of noucentisme, even from within the movement, and to satirise the bourgeoisie promoting it, appears to have earned him credibility among those sectors of the avant-garde that advocated a socially destabilising role for art, and recognised the artistically subversive potential of caricature. the galeries laietanes project [ ] shortly after the controversial cartoons of the ‘picturesque catalonia’ series began to appear in revista nova, the magazine’s promoter and financial backer, santiago segura, asked nogués to undertake the decoration project in the cellar of galeries laietanes. nogués already had some experience in mural painting, gained under aleix clapés at gaudí’s casa milà between and . at galeries laietanes, however, he opted for a completely unconventional approach to this medium by using caricature to cover the walls of both rooms in the aforementioned celebration of mediterranean life and wine culture. [ ] the mural decoration he designed stayed in situ until the s when it was stripped off into panels and put up for sale. with the exception of some elements that were purchased by private collectors, most of the composition is currently kept, and partially exhibited, at the museu nacional d’art de catalunya, barcelona. an in-depth monographic study of the galeries laietanes project has yet to be carried out. this would allow to determine, for example, the precise location in the cellar of each of the thirty-odd panels that it was broken up into. it would also help to establish how they related to one another in the original composition and what meanings might be inferred from these relationships. however, a basic survey of the extant disconnected panels already suggests that nogués took the mural as an opportunity to further his internal critique of noucentista principles. [ ] the classical and mediterranean element championed by noucentisme is clearly part of the cellar decoration: from the wine theme to the arcades opening up (in some cases) to idyllic land- and seascapes, or the numerous renaissance and baroque ornamental citations. these set the scene for a complete gallery of nogués’ trademark characters, which are reminiscent of the revista nova / la catalunya pintoresca cartoons. they are shown in various states of inebriation, enjoying life, misbehaving or just idling their time away under rows of arches complemented by popular sayings celebrating wine and its virtues. again, an especially derisory treatment is reserved for the members of the bourgeoisie; characters in top hats and tailcoats are once more depicted powerlessly observing in dismay the antics of common people having a good time (fig. ). vidal i maynou, xavier nogués, . juan cortés, "el ‘celler de les galeries laietanes’ en el museo de arte moderno," in: anales y boletín de los museos de arte de barcelona ( ), - . the exact number of panels is not known. alícia suàrez and mercè vidal i jansà, "noucentisme and the revival of classicism," in: barcelona and modernity, - , here . riha journal | july xavier nogués, fragment of mural paintings, originally at the galeries laietanes cellar, , tempera on plaster, x cm. museu nacional d’art de catalunya, barcelona (© mnac, barcelona, , photograph by jordi calveras) [ ] in one of the cellar’s largest panels (fig. ), one such character is used as the decorative sculpture topping a fountain that sprouts wine instead of water. in an outraged hand-on-hip posture (also visible in the bourgeois character in fig. ) and with his hat resting directly on his nose, he watches from his high position as a man strangles a cat while another struggles to stand upright under the effects of drink. above, an inscription offers a popular saying: “meat makes flesh, and bread makes belly, but wine leads to dancing”. xavier nogués, fragment of mural paintings originally at the galeries laietanes cellar, , tempera on plaster, x cm. museu nacional d’art de catalunya, barcelona (© mnac, barcelona, , photograph by jordi calveras) riha journal | july [ ] amidst all the merry drinking and carefree enjoyment of life, a single female figure appears oddly out of place (fig. ); tucked under one of the arches and soberly wrapped in a blue mantle, she represents la ben plantada, a cherished icon of noucentisme. xavier nogués, fragment of mural paintings, originally at the galeries laietanes cellar, representing la ben plantada, , tempera on plaster, x cm. museu nacional d’art de catalunya, barcelona (© mnac, barcelona, , photograph by jordi calveras) [ ] la ben plantada – meaning both ‘of good presence’ and ‘firmly rooted’ – was the protagonist of a novel of the same title written in by eugeni d’ors, who initiated noucentisme and remained one of its main ideologists. in line with the spirit of the movement promoted by this author, the novel’s heroine embodied his vision for a new, modern catalonia; a serene mediterranean beauty, invulnerable to any chaos, ugliness, or incivility that might surround her. the book became “the bible of the new catalan mythology” and her protagonist’s portrayal as a strong, dignified woman was a recurrent theme in noucentista painting and sculpture. in , a few years before the galeries laietanes mural project, nogués had been asked to create an engraving for the cover of the novel. in his illustration (fig. ), la ben plantada – a woman of good presence – stood tall, modest and composed, unperturbed by the commotion raised by a number of small, agitated, caricaturesque male figures harassing her. fontbona, "the art of noucentisme," . riha journal | july xavier nogués, cover illustration for eugeni d’ors’ la ben plantada, , etching and aquatint [ ] four years later, nogués chose the same combination of characters – la ben plantada surrounded by cartoon-like male figures – to cover the walls of a venue for the discussion of contemporary art and culture. his decision to recreate at galeries laietanes the characters he had first depicted on the cover of the noucentista “bible” suggests that his design for the gallery’s basement was more than a random assortment of carefree drinkers thematically suited to the intended relaxed atmosphere of the place; the cartoon composition appears to contain, in fact, a clear reference to the movement itself. [ ] at the cellar, la ben plantada is placed high, in a sort of niche between heavily decorated baroque columns. below her, still between the columns, stands a bourgeois character, his body facing the noucentista icon, hands behind his back, as if he were admiring a painting on a wall; but instead, his head is turned towards the observer. four years after d’ors’ utopian vision for the catalan land – and with the admired european nations at war – the bourgeois character considers its symbolic representation still surrounded by the same unruly crowd and offers a quizzical expression that seems to ask the cellar’s users: “what became of our ideal catalonia?” [ ] yet, nogués’ critique of noucentisme at galeries laietanes went beyond the subject matter. at the time, the nature, purpose and means of mural painting were the subject of a heated debate that occupied critics and artists alike. in the articles devoted to it in revista nova in , joan sacs – the magazine’s joint- editor together with nogués – discussed, for instance, the benefits of using either volumetric effects or what he calls “flat” painting techniques on walls. he also made a clear and critical reference to “the leaders of our movement advocating the resurrection of mural painting in the belief that it is infinitely superior to easel joan sacs, "de pintura mural: i - les manies," in: revista nova ( july ), - ; joan sacs, "de pintura mural: ii - la superstició," in: revista nova ( july ), . riha journal | july painting”. against this background, nogués’ project at galeries laietanes can therefore also be seen as stating his position in this debate. indeed, as a movement committed to a socially engaged art, noucentisme theory valued the potential of mural painting highly for reaching large swathes of society with inspiring artistic proposals. spearheaded by joaquín torres-garcía, this endeavour advocated fresco painting as the most “noble” form of mural art. nogués, on the contrary, treated the whole notion of wall painting with deliberate irreverence. not only did he introduce humour and the formal language of caricature, a first at the time, but he also executed it summarily. far from the artisan-like effort required by fresco painting, his characters and the arched composition framing them are, for the most part, simple large-scale drawings roughly executed on the wall with tempera and a thick paintbrush. in his articles, joan sacs also identified what he called the “obsessions” of noucentista mural painting theory: the requirements for “subdued colouring, decorative composition, stylization and morality”. in apparent defiance of these strictures, nogués designed a mixed composition that includes various formal solutions, several of them executed in bright colours, with figures of all proportions shrunk or elongated to fit the available space, and occupied in morally dubious drink-induced activities. [ ] for its part, the formal harshness that characterised the revista nova cartoons all but disappeared in the gallery cellar. still not attempting beauty, the lines were nevertheless softened to create a jolly and relaxed atmosphere. the purpose here was not to jolt the observer into a disagreeable reality, but rather to use the popular component of noucentisme “as a counterweight to a sometimes obsessive mythological classicism inclined toward pedantry”. with his work at the cellar nogués simply ensured that the noucentista milieu would now meet up to discuss art surrounded by a subtle and good-humoured critique to its lofty ideals. caricature on applied arts media – ceramics and enamelled glass [ ] in line with the interrogative and critical approach to art that characterises modernism, the walls of the galeries laietanes cellar thus allowed nogués to test the means and possibilities of caricature in order to mount a conceptual challenge to the artistic values held dear by his fellow noucentistes. it was a form of artistic enquiry that revolved around caricature, rather than around painting as a medium. an artistic enquiry that, in keeping with modernism’s interest in media not hitherto valued by academic convention, nogués also extended to enamelled glass and painted tiles. traditionally seen as decorative crafts, these were art forms that he sought to update through the use of caricature. enamelled glass had a centuries old history in catalonia, with designs mostly limited to compositions of geometric and plant motifs. in cooperation with glass enameller ricard crespo, nogués worked on overcoming the formal and technical challenges presented by applying his popular characters to the curved, sacs, "de pintura mural: ii - la superstició," . joan sacs, "els frescos del manel cano," in: revista nova ( june ), - , here . sacs, "de pintura mural: i - les manies," . comadira, "the forms of paradise," . riha journal | july transparent surfaces of glass cups and saucers. the first pieces were, coincidentally, related to the laietanes project: wine cups and glasses populated by his drunkards, for the use of the artists, critics and writers assembling in the gallery’s cellar (fig. ). xavier nogués, borratxet (drunkard), c. - , enamelled glass. museu nacional d’art de catalunya, barcelona (© mnac, barcelona) [ ] the formal treatment of the figures was largely based on simple contours that were then coloured in using traditional enamelling techniques now adapted to in order to achieve new chromatic effects. the technical difficulties of transposing his cartoons onto glass are apparent in the image provided showing how the colour fields could become accidentally fragmented. the galeries laietanes cups were very warmly received and gave rise to an extensive production of enamelled glassware in collaboration with ricard crespo. nogués’ interest in this material as a medium for cartoons helped establish its value as an art form. his pieces became the object of exhibitions where they also earned the praise of avant-garde artists for his innovative approach to a traditional medium. among those who took an interest in nogués’ and crespo’s enamelled glass we find josep llorens i artigas, a ceramist who played a key role in bringing ceramics to the fore of modern artistic practice and who collaborated with joan miró in the latter’s ceramic works. it is worth reiterating this appreciation of nogués’ work in avant-garde circles despite his disinterest in the medium-specific purely aesthetic enquiries associated with an exclusively formalist notion of modernism. a further token of such recognition can be found in rafael barradas’ vidal i maynou, xavier nogués, . in the s, three exhibitions devoted to nogués' and crespo’s work on this particular medium were held at galeries laietanes. vidal i maynou, xavier nogués, . see josep llorens i artigas, "els vidres meravellosos: xavier nogués – ricard crespo," in: la mà trencada. revista quinzenal de totes les arts ( december ), - . riha journal | july design for an invitation leaflet to his own exhibition of vibrationist work at galeries laietanes in (fig. ). to the right of the composition a small sign reads entrada al celler (cellar entrance). balanced just above it, a small figure, hand on hip and wine glass aloft, cites in schematic lines nogués’ trademark drinking characters that inhabit the venue below. it could be read as a small, but eloquent tribute by a contemporary avant-garde artist to nogués’ contribution to the art scene of his time. rafael barradas, invitation leaflet to the vibrationist exhibition at galeries laietanes, , ink on paper conclusion [ ] from the s to the s barcelona was a lively hub of artistic creation and debate with a focus on modernity. the explicit pursuit of the modern that had been initiated by the modernisme movement gathered pace with the new century among practitioners of noucentisme and the avant-garde. as part of noucentisme, xavier nogués showed an active and critical engagement in the artistic discussions of his time. a recognised draughtsman and engraver, nogués produced his most thought-provoking work in the form of caricature; he took cartoons out of their conventional medium – printed paper – and experimented with them on a range of media, from plastered walls to painted tiles and glassware, at widely differing scales and each requiring its own formal and technical solution. his work was thus in synch with the experimental approach to the popular and applied arts shown by his contemporaries in the international art scene, an interest historiographically acknowledged as a key aspect of modern art. [ ] in the process he challenged noucentista notions of beauty and the inspiring role of art and injected a dose of collective self-reflection into the movement. his grenier, "a history of global art," . riha journal | july work simultaneously incorporated noucentisme’s classicism, mediterranean-ness and interest in popular culture and applied art forms, while questioning the wisdom of pursuing modernity through a bourgeois-backed artistic programme, and challenging its belief in the superior nature of mural painting. in so doing, he also contributed to the broader modern discussion on the validity of the distinction between ‘high’ and ‘low’ art. [ ] nogués’ work was consciously and purposefully representational and, being satirical in nature, was inevitably socially engaged. from an informed position on artistic developments throughout europe, gained at least through his involvement with revista nova magazine, he chose not to occupy himself in the self-referential pictorial pursuits that would come to define formalist modernism. in opposition to these, he experimented instead with the formal, technical, expressive and conceptual possibilities of caricature. his work put forward a novel proposal in the catalan art scene of the early th century. it was a valid one inasmuch as it triggered reactions – both positive and negative – among noucentista and avant-garde practitioners, as well as from the public, thus enriching the debate, even if only locally. [ ] returning to the original question of this paper, nogués’ work, despite its lack of international resonance, is also, i would argue, a proposal of interest to art history in that it shows just how broad the contemporary debate on the nature and purpose of modern art actually was. at the time, the strive for modernity in art certainly included, but was not limited to, medium-specific formal enquiries. regardless of the more concrete ‘-ism’ artists identified with – whether modernisme, noucentisme, cubism or vibracionisme, among others – achieving modernity in art called for a new approach to the creative process which required innovative, challenging proposals and an informed engagement in a critical debate. it was an interrogative practice that went well beyond the aesthetic, encompassing also the social, technical and, crucially, conceptual aspects of art. in fact, in critically discussing what modern art should be, modernism thus understood actually showed everything that modern art could be, which included works such as nogués’ mural caricatures at galeries laietanes. local editor joana cunha leal, instituto de história da arte, fcsh-universidade nova de lisboa reviewers Éva forgács, art center college of design, pasadena jordi falgàs, fundació rafael masó, girona http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / 	introduction 	a broader understanding of modernism 	modern art in catalonia 	the modern practice of art: modernisme, noucentisme and the avant-garde 	xavier nogués’ engagement in the modernist debate 	noucentista ideals and the ‘picturesque’ catalan reality 	the galeries laietanes project 	caricature on applied arts media – ceramics and enamelled glass 	conclusion pii: - ( ) - computers math. appltc. vol. , no. - , pp. - , - / $ . + . printed in great britain. all rights reserved copyright © pergamon press plc i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e ideas o f jay h a m b i d g e o n a r t a n d d e s i g n h. j. m c w m n n m department of design, university of maryland, college park, md , u.s.a. aimtraet--the system of dynamic symmetry, as an approach to decision-making in design, by jay hambidge in the early s had a strong influence on industrial design as well as upon the work of painters. this paper will review the design theories of jay hambidge and dynamic symmetry in terms of the use of proportions in design which are humanistically based upon the proportions of the human body. recent research in the general area known as the golden section hypothesis will be reviewed as a means of justification not only for hambidge's theory of proportions in design but as a validation for recent ideas in design, especially those of robert venturi. the paper will demonstrate the utility of studies from the behaviorial sciences for questions of design history as well as for present-day design theory and practice. the work of contemporary artists and designers will be shown to demonstrate that these ideas, the golden section and dynamic symmetry, while popular in the s, have a renewed sense of relevance to current ideas and approaches in design theory. the influence upon industrial design, while it may not be clear as say the influence of dynamic symmetry or the work of bellows or rothko, is nevertheless also quite clear. this influence is most evident in the work of jay walter "league senior and in the well-known book design this day. the hambidge design system of dynamic symmetry was used by designers at tiffany's in the early s and jay hambidge in his writings argued for an industrial design based upon the proportions of the golden section. the hambidge system is employed today at the design department of ohio state university and by professor lee payne in the industrial design program at georgia tech in atlanta. i n t r o d u c t i o n m y intention when i first began the literature search u p o n which this paper is based, was to prepare a single review o f the published material that would focus u p o n the uses o f the golden section in recent twentieth c e n t u r y art a n d design, as reflected in the recent art literature as presented by a c o m p u t e r d a t a file, a r t m o d e r n ( - ) . m y original intention was n o t to m o v e b e y o n d that specific d a t a base, since it represented the m o r e recent shows a n d articles relative to this topic. i have tried to keep with those basic intentions in the materials that i have developed for this paper. the volume o f published material caused me to decide to prepare two separate reviews o f this material. i have tried to g r o u p the materials for the first review in terms o f articles on the visual art, painting, sculpture, architecture that used the golden section a n d the principles o f d y n a m i c s y m m e t r y as a direct result o f the w o r k o f jay h a m b i d g e [ ]. the second review, the subject o f this presentation, focuses u p o n a wider collection o f materials, aesthetic concerns a n d a greater range o f media used; all however, are still within the general topic o f the use o f the golden section a n d d y n a m i c symmetry in works o f twentieth century art and design. t h a t the golden section has become an obsession for m a n y creative artists t h r o u g h o u t history is a m a t t e r o f record. this writer is no exception! there is something a b o u t these p r o p o r t i o n s which has fascinated m a n y o f us. this review will only cover some o f the m o r e recent experiments. we leave it to others to go back in time and into history. i f one begins, as i have n o w learned to do, to go a b o u t an art m u s e u m and look for the golden rectangle or any o f the five basic r o o t rectangles outlined by jay h a m b i d g e ( - ) [ ] in his system o f d y n a m i c symmetry; one will find to their surprise that they will come to see golden rectangles almost everywhere. i recently toured an exhibition o f nineteenth and early twentieth century small f r e n c h paintings at the n a t i o n a l gallery o f art, washington, d.c. a l m o s t all o f the paintings show influences o f the use o f one o f the r o o t rectangles in their design and composition. one o f the laws o f pictorial c o m p o s i t i o n that the artist o f the nineteenth century learned, was to, within the plane or rectangle o f the picture surface itself, locate and find the square o f that area a n d its leftover segment which h a m b i d g e called " t h e recopical". in almost every w o r k h . j . mcwmnnie in that exhibition, which is really quite a good random cross section o f nineteenth century french painting, important compositional events occur at the critical point which defines the square [ ]. p r i n c i p l e s o f d y n a m i c s y m m e t r y who was jay hambidge? he was an obscure american illustrator who lived in the first two decades o f the twentieth century and who formulated a theory o f symmetry that was based upon his own studies o f greek vases and architecture. he conducted research on the measurement o f the human figure at the harvard medical school in - and many years before le corbusier wrote about his more famous modular, hambidge developed a clear theory about the relationships o f order and proportion in art and design with the human figure itself. what is the golden section or the divine proportion? notions o f ratio and proportion are among the fundamentals o f mathematics and technology. the former is defined as the quantitative comparison between two things or aggregates belonging to the same kind o f species, and latter as the equality o f two ratios (a is to b and c is to d). o f considerable interest, for centuries, has been a fundamental ratio variously called the ratio o f phidias, the golden section, the golden rectangle, the divine proportion, or simply • (phi) from the initial letter o f the name o f the greek sculptor, phidias. it is expressed mathematically as the ratio : . , derived from + (jordan) [ ]. in addition to its application in mathematics, ¢ also appears in the structure o f plants and shells and in the proportions o f the human body; in egyptian, greek, r o m a n and gothic architecture; in the renaissance masterpieces o f leonardo da vinci, botticelli, hals, turner and other artists; in the composition o f music, delightfully in the interval o f the minor sixth; and as recently as march , at the university o f maine, in choreography, in an exercise described as an experiment in spatial relationships. what has been described by professor jordan is a joint workshop that he did with fran merriet o f deer isle in which students acted out the basic root rectangles o f the hambidge system as dance or body movement. the music measurements of the rectangles o f the golden section were placed upon a dance studio floor and the workshop participants acted out these dimensions in the movements o f their bodies. jordan argues that psychological studies attest to the aesthetic acceptance o f the divine proportion as a ratio based in nature. thus, both technologists and humanists, it is contended, are ruled by a dynamic symmetry according to a pre-existing system o f ratio and proportion. the humanist readily acknowledges his debt to science, and the technologist concedes but for (such) harmony beautiful to contemplate, science would not be worth following [ ]. the ubiquity o f ~, and its roles as a bridge linking technology, art and the humanities, is a part o f the theme o f this study on the influence o f jay hambidge. many psychologists as well as artists have become involved in golden section research. d. d. stuhl [ ] has reported some recent developments in terms o f the development o f visual language. research at the university o f kansas, department o f design, is using classical symmetry theory to explore whether a formal framework can be established for the study o f the relationships present in visual and artistic forms. such a framework could be extensively applied and might bring about the formation and conventionalization o f a visual language. it was always jay's intentions to apply dynamic symmetry to a wide range o f artistic problems and while he used analysis o f classical art as examples to demonstrate his theories; he really was not that concerned with the analysis and study of greek art. many artists have conceptualized the golden section as a means to establish order. but the events o f the twentieth century artistic forms have taught us that order can come in many forms, assume many shapes and have different looks. many artists have explored the golden section within a cubistic context. part o f its versatility as a compositional as well as design construct, lies in the fact that the golden section and the other root rectangles in the hambidge system, may be employed in a wide range o f art from realistic to abstract. one o f jay hambidge's associates, the painter george bellows used the system o f dynamic symmetry to compose his action-filled paintings o f the fight scenes in new york city in the s. the influence of jay hambidge on art and design fig. . george bellows, dempsey and firpo. oil, x ~", . (collection: whitney museum of american art, new york, acq. no. . .) one of the late paintings of bellows based upon the hambidge system of dynamic symmetry. almost every line and slope in the composition falls at a precise joint in a hambidge root five rectangle. this p a i n t i n g (fig. ) is o n l y o n e o f m a n y e x a m p l e s which used the s y s t e m to create d r a m a t i c tensions o f m o v e m e n t in the c o m p o s i t i o n . t h e g o l d e n s e c t i o n a n d h u m a n m o v e m e n t i a m n o t a t all sure the p r o p e r t i e s o f the s q u a r e h a v e been well-understood. t h e s q u a r e a n d n o t the rectangle is the basic f o r m a l p r o p e r t y o f m u c h o f c o n t e m p o r a r y art. m o s t p a i n t e r s use rectangles as their p i c t u r e surfaces, since the s q u a r e is felt t o b e so static a shape; b u t it is still the basis o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l f o r m a t s a n d forces even within the t r a d i t i o n a l rectangles u p o n which m o s t o f us paint. s o m e o f the m o r e interesting a n d recent w o r k in the use o f the golden section h a s been achieved in m u l t i - m e d i a p r e s e n t a t i o n s , in d a n c e a n d in h u m a n m o v e m e n t works. m a s s i n e in a n interview s p e a k s o f his w o r k p a r a d e [ ]. t h a t w o r k i n t r o d u c e d c u b i s m into the theatre. c u b i s m f o r m a s s i n e held the key to the m a n i p u l a t i o n o f g r o u p s o f dancers. h e o r c h e s t r a t e d t h e m as t h o u g h their m o v e m e n t s were h a r m o n i e s , their postures, chords. h e built a s y m m e t r y o n c o u n t e r p o i n t a n d w a s a l w a y s c o m p o s i n g in the third dimension. classic f o r m s h a v e their o w n basic v o c a b u l a r y a n d s y m m e t r y a n d structure, as in cubism. t h e use o f the golden section u n d e r g i r d e d their effects. i t h a s b e e n very interesting f o r m e t o n o t e t h a t o n e d o e s n o t find t o o m u c h discussion o f the golden section in the literature in reference t o sculpture o r o t h e r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l a r t f o r m s b u t o n e d o e s find it as a vital c o n c e p t in m o v e m e n t a n d dance. t h i s is certainly a n a r e a f o r which o n e c o u l d d o a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f a d d i t i o n a l research. w h y has the golden section a n d d y n a m i c s y m m e t r y been so limited t o w o r k o f t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l art? a n a c c o u n t o f the p e r f o r m a n c e entitled h . j . mcwrtlnnm " " staged by students of the advanced design course at the department o f art, california state university at humbold, is important to consider [ ]. in this respect, the primary aim o f the performance was to produce multi-media presentations through which the golden section might be experienced directly. it was conceived in terms of a ritual of about rain in a darkened room. this performance started slowly and simply and moving with increasing speed and complexity to a climax. in this paper, the golden section is first analyzed for its mathematical values. the planning of the project and the performance o f the event are described in this article in some detail, from the discussion it was not possible to establish the extent of the viewers' grasp o f the aesthetic or other significance o f the golden section as a result o f the performance. but the conception of using the section as a basis for stimulation of the imagination was very useful. one only wished that there was a follow-up to this study and some way to demonstrate that this method was, in fact, a useful learning experience within the design education. much additional research could be conducted which explores the golden section in terms of human movement relationship. i have already noted in this paper that more recently fran merritt of deer isle, me, in the spring of conducted some workshops in dynamic symmetry in which he had his students act out in human movement, the proportions o f the various root rectangles including the golden section. his was an attempt for them to understand the basic proportions used in dynamic symmetry and to practice these through the use o f kinesthetic cues as well as through purely visual exercises [ ]. t h e m o d u l a r one cannot discuss the golden section in twentieth century art without considering the work of the french artist and architect, le corbusier. a recent study of le corbusier's method o f developing a pictorial idea through several versions with particular reference to the tapestry la femme et le moneau. this work is one of a series produced in the period - . its geometrical framework is based on the square and golden section and derived from the juxtaposition of found objects. this study showed how pictorial motifs in the tapestry can be traced back to his earliest work as a painter when he still used his family name, jeanneret. at that time he was working in the purist style with particular reference to his development of an interlocked glazes motif. his use of a limited number of pictorial words is shown to have been carried through to his architectural designs. it is, of course, le corbusier's development of his modular, the use of the golden section as a comprehensive system of proportions entered into the history of twentieth century architecture [ ]. unfortunately for jay hambidge, when one discusses dynamic symmetry in art today, it is le corbusier and not jay's own efforts that are remembered and noted. we have seen, i hope in this short review, that the golden section is a far more universal idea and it cannot really be ascribed to one's discovery. many have been refreshed and nourished by these conceptions in their own creative efforts, not only in our century but throughout art history as well. to put is another way, the golden section becomes the image itself and is used for the symbolic power it seems to possess regardless of any subject matter. i hope in these reviews of the work of other artists who have used dynamic symmetry in their works, to show that it can be used within the full range of artistic style, from the representative to the abstract. (in july the hambidge center hosted a symposium at rabun gap, ga, on dynamic symmetry, the golden section and the work of jay hambidge.) the modern american artist randall craig also uses the principles of symmetry in the composition of the proportions o f his sculptures. even the formulas themselves are alluded to in the works as metaphors of his system o f design. it is almost impossible to consider the golden section without getting into questions of design as a basic visual language. the utility of the golden section has been demonstrated as a powerful candidate for the basic structure of visual language. if we look at st uhr's article, he takes up the theme of william huff's study an argument for basic design [ ]. in that book, the activity of planning is an activity of structuring, and that consequently the study of structure is in fact a definition of basic design. this critic aims to bring h u f f s study up to date with the addition of new items and terms within the definition of design as it is understood today. by selecting individual the influence of jay hambidge on art and design fig. . walter burt adams, evanston today. oil, x ", . (collection: joseph levy jr, chicago, ill. photo: willard nickerson, evanston, i .) walter butt adams published a book on dynamic symmetry and has made use of these methods for many years in his own work. (reproduced by permission of the artist.) t e r m s such as perspective, s y m m e t r y a n d the golden section; he goes o n to a n a l y z e w h a t t e r m s signify in c u r r e n t design m e t h o d o l o g y a n d praxis with reference to a n u m b e r o f distinct fields o f art. j a y h a m b i d g e b a c k in in a lecture a t the a r t i n s t i t u t e o f c h i g a g o , ii ., p o s t u l a t e d that, in fact, his s y s t e m o f d y n a m i c s y m m e t r y could, in fact, serve as a basic s t r u c t u r e f o r m u c h w o r k in design [ ]. w e have, i feel, a l m o s t c o m e full circle in o u r v o y a g e o f discovery o f visual s t r u c t u r e a n d artistic language. d i d it n o t all begin so f a r as w e s t e r n a r t is c o n c e r n e d with the ancient g r e e k s ? l e e payne o f the i n d u s t r i a l design d e p a r t m e n t , g e o r g i a t e c h in a t l a n t a , recently c o m p l e t e d a m a s t e r ' s thesis o n the general subjects o f the implications o f j a y h a m b i d g e , d y n a m i c s y m m e t r y a n d golden section u p o n a m e r i c a n industrial design including years o f his o w n w o r k . p a y n e ' s research focused u p o n the n a t u r e o f a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f the h u m a n f r a m e o f reference in m a t t e r s h . j . mcwhinnt~ o f design and proportion [ ]. many o f his insights were based upon the work o f a russian, boursalaviteh, whose b o o k the golden number ( ) opened up important insights from the general field o f vision and perceptual research [ ]. it may be that the field o f vision itself may be the vital factor, the missing link. he found that: (a) the human visual limit comes to . (which is close to the golden rectangle); (b) the field o f color vision comes to . (golden mean) (c) proportion o f human binocular vision (golden mean). stone and collins showed that in general the human field o f binocular vision is . and that our general field o f vision is delimited by the golden section. payne, as a part o f his research, surveyed industrial design firms to assess any possible influences from golden section research [ ]. out o f the questionnaires, responded and indicated in their forms they could document no such influence. only four design educators responded positively in payne's study. these were from: ohio state university, columbus, ohio. syracuse university, n.y. georgia tech in atlanta, ga. western washington state college, bellingham, wash. payne also noted and documented some golden section influences upon: archibald weldon whose design for revere ware is in perfect proportion to the golden section. dna standards for paper and type design of black & decker products. fig. . dorothea rockburne, narcissus. three panels, oil on gessoed linen, x x ~ " , . (gallery: xavier fourcade, inc., new york. photo: j o h n ferrari.) rockburne uses the motifs of the methods of dynamic symmetry directly as construction guidlines in her work. (reproduced by permission of the fourcade gallery, new york.) the influence of jay hambidge on art and design fig. . randall j. craig, dynamic circle: resin and fiberglass, " dia x ½", . (collection of artist.) randall craig uses the construction lines of dynamic symmetry as background. in this work, the basic structure can be seen applied to a circle as well as to a square. (reproduced by permission of the artist.) p a y n e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e m o d e r n a n t h r o p r o m e t r i c c h a r t s t h a t i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n e r s n o w e m p l o y u s e m o r e r e c e n t a n d s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d s in t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p r o p o r t i o n s a n d y e t m o s t o f t h o s e m e a s u r e m e n t s c o m e c l o s e t o t h e g o l d e n m e a n . c o n c l u s i o n s s o m e a r t i s t s s u c h a s d o r o t h e a r o c k b u r n e u s e t h e s t r u c t u r a l p r o p o r t i o n s o f d y n a m i c s y m m e t r y a s t h e s u b j e c t s o f t h e i r p a i n t i n g s ( f i g s a n d ). t h e u s e o f a s y s t e m o f s y m m e t r y s e e m s t o p r o v i d e i n t h e w o r k o f a r t a n e s s e n t i a l o r d e r w h i c h is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e h u m a n a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d e x p r e s s i o n . i t p r o v i d e s t h e a r t i s t w i t h a s t r u c t u r e o f r e a l i t y o r w i t h a m o d e l o f t h e w o r l d t h a t c a n b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a p e r s o n a l a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n a n d y e t c a n a l s o c o m m u n i c a t e a g e n e r a l a n d m o r e u n i v e r s a l e x p r e s s i o n . r e f e r e n c e s . h. j. mcwhinnie, review of research in the golden section. leonardo (i) ( ). . j. hambidge, principles of dynamic symmetry. dover, new york (reprint ). . e. walter, jay hambidge and the development of the theory of dynamic symmetry. unpublished ph.d. study, univ. of georgia, athens ( ). . r. jordan, personal communication ( ). . r. jordan, unpublished paper ( ). . d. d. stuhl, a language of form. iris. lang. ( ), - ( ). . d. sylvester, massine in conversation. studio int. ( ), - ( ). . j. b. haviii, the multi-media performance based on the golden ratio. leonardo ( ), - ( ). . f. merrin, personal communication (deer isle, me) ( - ). . le corbusier, the modular. paris ( ). h . j . mcwhinnie . w. huff, an argument for basic design. hastings house, new york ( ). . j. hambidge, unpublished notes on his chicago lecture among the hambidge papers at the archives for american art. . l. payne, dynamic symmetry and industrial design. unpublished m f a thesis, univ. of georgia, athens ( ). . boursalavitch, the golden number ( ). postmodern interpretations of satie's parade all rights reserved © canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : canadian university music review revue de musique des universités canadiennes postmodern interpretations of satie's parade daniel albright jean cocteau: evangelist of the avant-garde jean cocteau : évangéliste de l’avant-garde volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer cet article albright, d. ( ). postmodern interpretations of satie's parade. canadian university music review / revue de musique des universités canadiennes, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar résumé de l'article si le postmodernisme peut se concevoir de façon a-historique comme une catégorie stylistique clé, quel que soit le moment ou le lieu, beaucoup d’œuvres plus anciennes prennent tout à coup, à l’époque actuelle, une certaine importance. cet essai illustre ce point de vue en qualifiant erik satie de postmoderniste. en effet, sa musique est marquée par le bricolage (le mouvement « edriophthalma » des embryons desséchés de emprunte, selon la partition, un thème tiré « d’une célèbre mazurka de schubert »), par la multiplicité des styles (les chansons de cabaret écrites pour vincent hyspa, ou encore parade et ses citations d’irving berlin) et par le matérialisme du signifiant (ce que satie nomme la musique d’ameublement). https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ -v -n -cumr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ postmodern interpretations of satie's parade daniel albright early postmodernism the irish poet william butler yeats ( - ) thought that some artists led bizarre and unhappy lives because their personalities were so far out of phase with their historical eras that they were forced to wear a false mask—that is, to live as caricatures of themselves. for example, yeats considered that he was a romantic poet born too late: a histrionic and effortful presence, an object of mockery to the modern age. yeats indeed seemed to his contemporaries a spooky, ethereal sort of man, so superstitious that he once cut a square out of his fur coat for fear of disturbing a sleeping cat. the romantic poet, to yeats, lived in a subjective phantasmagoria, a delirium of private images; while yeats regarded the twentieth century as an age devoted to the death of imagination, an age which tried to cure itself of desire by hewing to the stolid surfaces of things-as-they-are. the french composer erik satie ( - ) was an almost exact contem- porary of yeats, and illustrates yeats's predicament from the opposite direc- tion. satie too seems out of phase with his historical era—a connoisseur of paradoxes and parapluies, threadbare dandy, high aesthete of low-brow art, irritable and imperturbable, the snowman of lyric. but it seems retrospectively that this phase-shift arose, not from satie's adherence to an outworn aesthetic, but from his remarkable anticipation of the aesthetic of the late twentieth century, what we call nowadays postmodernism. yeats was right in believing that the age was moving toward a rejection of high metaphor, a rejection of transcendence, even a rejection of imagination. among the artists of the early twentieth century, no one was more expert in rejection than satie: his whole career is a, gran rifiuto of all that is grand. satie cast a cold eye on impression- ism, on expressionism, on most of the vibrant movements of the age. if there is a certain aggressive quality to his reticence, that can be explained by the fact that he lived in the age of the panama canal and the novels of proust, an age characterized by large projects and orotund manifestos, an age in which reticence seemed, if not a vice, at least one of the lesser virtues. a list of some of the attributes of postmodernism shows just how easily satie fits the category. see william butler yeats, a critical edition of yeats's a vision ( ), ed. george mills harper and walter k. hood (london: macmillan, ), especially book i. / ( ) bricolage the jury-rigging of art, the assembling of the art object from the odds and ends of older art, in a denatured and desecrated fashion, in order to expose the purely arbitrary character of the signs that all artists, past and present, employ. in this sense the modality of postmodernist art is ironic quotation—or a kind of quotedness so thoroughgoing that it disables irony by providing no stable meaning to be ironic against. art history is wholly flattened, denarratized: the passage of centuries shows no progress, development, or flowering of art, only a steady accumulation of shiny familiar junk, such as the plagal cadence, the first four notes of beethoven's fifth symphony, or the tristan chord. satie is one of the first completely equipped bricoleurs. for example, the edriophthalma movement from satie's embryons desséchés ( ) borrows a theme, according to the score, "from a celebrated mazurka by schubert"— actually the second theme of the funeral march in chopin's second sonata; similarly, the first theme of chopin's funeral march appears in the entr'acte cinématographique from relâche ( ). when satie quotes, he usually flat- tens the salience of the quoted material, renders the material dysfunctional: chopin's first theme is so hamstrung by satie's consolidation of the last two quarter-notes of each bar into a half-note that its solemn tread dwindles into an amusing amble; the mighty march becomes a near-blank sign-board figured with the word "funeral" in thin sans-serif lettering. chopin's second theme is literally flattened, since satie reduces its melodic compass; the theme can not recall itself properly, as if it were infected with a sort of melodic amnesia: am i a schubert mazurka? or something else? throughout the embryons desséchés, athematic gestures (scurrying frills, ludicrously prolonged cadences) seem to be the formaldehyde in which gross quotations are pickled. antiseptically murdered tunes, ranged on shelves—what could be more postmodern? irony is a means for multiplying meaning; satie's disabled irony instead is a subtrac- tion of meaning. polystylism this is bricolage on the level of technique instead of content. the polystylist may combine gregorian chant, three-chord pop tunes, and obnoxious disso- nances into a single composition, in order to create incongruities that deny the propriety or the tenability of any single style. satie was one of the first composers influenced by scott joplin and john philip sousa: as early as he wrote an intermezzo américain, la diva de l'empire, with mild ragtime syncopation; by then he was an experienced cabaret artist, having written songs with the comedian vincent hyspa since . satie made little fuss about the distinction between the highbrow and lowbrow; as we will see, parade strangely blends the ragtime and the high- falutin, advanced musical technique and mere noise. satie's play le piège de méduse ( ) turns polystylism into a technique for spoken drama. the plot concerns a dutiful young man, astolpho, who asks baron medusa for the hand of his daughter frisette—the most conventional of possible plots, complicated by the fact that the characters are almost wholly cumr/rmuc unable to talk to one another. astolpho speaks the formal language of etiquette manuals; medusa's servant polycarpe speaks the insolent language of trade- union politics; while medusa himself speaks satie, a vividly defective franco- lunar tongue: medusa. does he love me, this young man? ... i must know. without knowing i will not be able to sleep easily, or to drink my fill. i will become the shadow of myself. i am going to lay a trap for him, an obvious trap.... i want to have a son-in-law who is really mine, who sees only through my mouth, who takes pleasure in filling himself with my words, who con- founds himself [se confond\ with me; i would not like to have an egoist for a son-in-law, that would be too bad ... listen! the moment has come to lay my trap.... young man, come near.... tell me ... do you know how to dance on an eye ... on a left eye? astolpho. (choking with surprise) ... ? ... no. medusa. good! he is frank! (his face expresses the greatest ravishment.) be aware, my son-in-law, that you are entering an illustrious house, the house of medusa. my family is an old family, which has given its name to an invertebrate animal of the class of cephales [céphales], a very beautiful class! this animal lives in the sea. méduse, of course, is french for jellyfish. the jellyfish snares its prey in its tentacles and slowly assimilates it through a kind of external digestion. baron medusa hopes to do the same thing, to achieve such an assimilation of his prospective son-in-law that astolpho will be able to see only through medusa's mouth, will so fully confuse himself with medusa that he will not know where he begins and medusa ends. stray sense-organs keep popping up in the wrong place: a left eye becomes a good surface on which to dance. medusa seems to hope (and this is the great patriarchal hope) that the family will turn into an undifferentiated blob coopérant to the father's best interests. satie himself is a medusa not of sons-in-law but of styles; in satie's work the chorale, the fugue, the chopin march, are sucked smooth into neutral acoustic material. materialism of signifiers one hallmark of postmodernism is the arraying of signifiers that assert their opacity, that refuse to signify anything in particular. in paintings such as jasper johns's, an american flag is reduced to decoration, a figure into a squiggle, a plus-sign into a pattern-unit. satie is the great materialist of music: his whole program for musique d'ameublement is a method for demoting pre-existing sounds into inaudible mental objects, what john cage would later call silence. as satie said, you know, there's a need to create furniture music, that is to say, music that would be a part of the surrounding noises and that would take them into erik satie, le piège de méduse (paris: salabert, ). ah translations are the author's, unless otherwise noted. / ( ) account. i see it as melodious, as masking the clatter of knives and forks without drowning it out completely, without imposing itself. it would fill up the awkward silences ... it would neutralize the street noises ... alas, satie's only public performance of furniture music—endlessly repeated commonplace figures from saint-saëns's danse macabre and thomas's mi- gnon, played by a small band at the intermission of a play—turned out to be a fiasco when those within earshot insisted on listening to it instead of proceeding about their normal business, even though satie kept shouting, "don't listen!" satie's audience expected semantically dense, emotionally quickening music, a music that heightened the vivacity of the listeners' responses to the world; but satie intended to produce music that receded into the background, an unobtrusive continuo to daily action. here music precipitates, reifies, until it has the same thingly status as a creaky old ruin of a rocking chair, a familiar assist to private musing. one of the finest passages from satie's mémoires d'un amnésique concerns the materialism of music: everyone will tell you that i am not a musician. it's true. since the beginning of my career, i have classified myself among the phonometrographers. my labors are pure phonometrics.... it is scientific thought that dominates. besides, i have more pleasure in measuring a sound than in hearing it. phonometer in hand, i labor joyously and confidently.... the first time i provided myself with a phonoscope, i examined a b-flat of middle size. i assure you, i have never seen anything more repugnant. i called my servant to make him see it. with the phono-weigher \phono-peseur], a very common, ordinary f- sharp attained kilograms. it emanated from a fat tenor whose weight i took.... in order to write my pièces froides, i availed myself of a kaleidophone- recorder. that took seven minutes. i called my servant to make him hear them. i can well say that phonology is superior to music. it's more varied. the pecuniary reward is greater. i owe my fortune to it. in any case, with a motodynamophone, a phonometrician with mediocre training can easily notate more sounds than the most skilled musician can, in the same amount of time, with the same effort. it is thanks to that machine that i've written so much. the future lies with philophony. satie does not go as far as john cage, who was such a perfect materialist of sound that he insisted on hearing any audible event that came by as a thing in itself. for cage, each separate note was an end, not a means—not one-third of a triad, or a leading-tone, or any other sort of kinetic and progressive entity. in alan m. gillmor, erik satie (new york: w. w. norton & company, ), , citing fernand léger, "satie inconnu," la revue musicale ( ): . in rollo h. myers, erik satie (new york: dover publications, inc., ), . cumr/rmuc but one reason for cage's reverence toward satie was that satie's aesthetic was of such materialist character. in early works such as the gnossiennes, or late works such as the entr 'acte cinématographique, a pattern-unit (a chord, a bar, a phrase) will keep alternating with another pattern-unit, in a deliberately non-progressive manner; often one is just as effectively tonic, or dominant, as the other. satie's preposterously nuanced directions to the performer {Être visible un moment or un peut cuit—from pièces froides) only emphasize that any nuance would be equally relevant, equally irrelevant, to these solidly crafted phonic artifacts. sitting heavily in their matrix of fantasy—their weird titles, their queasily chummy or offputtingly indifferent attitude toward musi- cal tradition—satie's pieces clench themselves, defy penetration. they don't easily dance, they don't easily sing, they resist any sort of romantic appassio- nato-, they are objects made of sound, occupying space, waiting patiently for the phonometrician to perform calculations. they especially protest at any attempt to fasten any sort of significance to their signifiers; as signs, they remain obstinately defective. what does, say, edriophthalma mean? how should one feel upon hearing it? in fact, every attempt to align to it a meaning, an emotional quality, is likely to fail: it is a kind of pianistic machine for draining chopin's funeral march of any sense of the funereal. but after eviscerating chopin, the piece seems to propose no alternative to occupy the deleted semantic space. it is an un-funeral march. satie is properly called a precursor to the surrealists precisely because he was extremely fond of wrong meanings—since wrong meanings are a useful technique for gesturing at an absence of meaning. consider, for example, his early "christian ballet" uspud ( ). here is j. p. contamine's scenario to act i—satie carefully inscribed each of these phrases over the relevant (or "relevant") passage in his score: act i a deserted beach; in the middle a statue; in the distance the sea. uspud in persian dress, uspud returns from the torture of the christians and brings back relics, he heaps them at the foot of the statue and bums them; the smoke turns into seraphs who vanish into air. a formidable clap of thunder resounds; the statue falls into pieces, uspud is dismayed. suddenly the sky grows white again, a very beautiful woman, clad in a gold tunic, and whose breast is pierced by a dagger, appears before uspud and stretches her arms to him. it is the christian church, uspud, astonished, takes sand and rubs his eyes, fanfare of trumpets, aerial procession of martyrs who curse uspud. uspud gathers stones and throws them at the christian church, the stones turn into balls of fire, uspud's fury, he picks up a very large stone which explodes with a noise; flames surge up and from their midst stars fly out. great convulsion of nature. ibid., . / ( ) most of the music that accompanies these apocalyptic ferocities is marked très lent and piano. the aerial martyrs curse uspud to a slow tune for harps playing in octaves; soft monotone harps recur for the grande convulsion de la nature at the end of the act. this is a flagrant offense against all the semantic systems of music: satie is disabling our schemes for interpreting musical gesture by providing tranquil evocations of heaven, when the spectacle is a fireworks for the end of the world. in satie's ballets, in his film score, the music does what it can to retain its uneventfulness, its irrelevance, its disengagement from the images that are synchronized with it. loops when satie wrote uspud in , he was a little-known composer working on a spectacle for an obscure bunch of fanatics; when satie wrote parade in , he was a well-known composer working with picasso, cocteau, and the most gifted impresario in the history of europe, serge diaghilev. much of the internal tension of parade comes from the collision of picasso's integrating, allegorical, sexualizing, essentially modernist intelligence with satie's disin- tegrating, semantically erosive, apathetic, proto-postmodernist intelligence. cocteau was able to follow both lines of approach: cocteau's scenario provided an allegory of the terror and histrionic pathos of circus performers, in a manner well aligned with picasso's early paintings of acrobats and clowns; but (as we shall see) cocteau's theory of ballet réaliste, formulated from his experience with the whole of parade, is quite satie-esque, in that it treasures signifiers and not signifieds. for cocteau prized the choreographic shock of street gestures liberated from the context of the street, liberated from the burden of meaning. from the beginning, cocteau revealed himself as satie's ideal collaborator, by devising a scenario for a ballet in which nothing happens. in uspud, satie had to find ways of anesthetizing an over-eventful scenario; but parade came to him in a pre-dysfunctionalized state, as a series of loops, degree turns that leave the spectacle in the same condition in which it began. this is the ballet's scenario: at country fairs it is usual for a dancer or acrobat to give a performance in front of the booth in order to attract people to the turnstiles. the same idea, brought up-to-date and treated with accentuated realism, underlies the ballet "parade." the scene represents a sunday fair in paris. there is a travelling theatre, and three music hall turns are employed as parade. there are the chinese conjuror, an american girl, and a pair of acrobats. three managers are occupied in advertising the show. they tell each other that the crowd in front is confusing the outside performance with the show which is about to take place within, and they try, in the crudest fashion, to induce the public to come and see the entertainment within, but the crowd remains unconvinced. after the last performance the managers make another effort, but the theatre remains empty. the chinaman, the acrobats, and the american girl, seeing that the mana- cumr/rmuc gers have failed, make a last appeal on their own account. but it is too late. one of the meanings of the french word parade is a kind of ante-theatre to a carnival show: a sample of the merchandise designed to lure paying customers. the ballet parade is constructed entirely around rhythms of advertising—and, as a sometime copy-writer, james joyce, noted in ulysses, "for an advertise- ment you must have repetition. that's the whole secret." parade is a parade in vain: the lack of success drives the performers to increasingly frenzied repetitions in order to attract the onlookers, but no one will bite. the ballet is a series of instant replays of itself. furthermore, there is a strongly circular quality to the individual turns. léonide massine—who wore picasso's pretty costume while pantomiming the chinese conjuror—left this account of his act: cocteau ... suggested that i should go through the motions of swallowing an egg. the idea appealed to me. with an elaborate flourish i pretended to produce an egg from my sleeve and put it in my mouth. when i had mimed the action of swallowing it, i stretched out my arms, slid my left leg sidewards till i was almost sitting down, and with my left hand pretended to pull the egg from the toe of my shoe. the egg's journey is a remarkable one, but it ends where it began—the trick is as round as the egg itself. this is, of course, typical of magician's tricks: they depend on the reversibility of irreversible things, such as the digestion of food, or the cutting-up of paper into thousands of pieces, or the sawing-in-half of a lady. such a trick is less an event than a parody of an event: a complicated demonstration that nothing whatever has happened. the egg-trick is a kind of whorl in time, a non-progressive action. and parade as a whole is nothing but a sum of such zeroes. what sort of music should accompany this sort of laborious non-action? one good possibility would be furniture music, since its asemiosis would beautiful- ly match the inconsequence on stage. in —the year of parade—cocteau quoted with glee satie's squib against wagner: "look, a property tree doesn't go into convulsions when a character enters the stage." behind that remark lies a whole philosophy of music theatre: the music ought to be a rigid, immiscible background for the stage action, simply a sonorous equivalent to the cut-out trees and two-dimensional houses. theatre music should exercise discretion and tact, like any good piece of furniture. in francis steegmuller, cocteau, a biography (boston: d. r. godine, ), , trans. steegmuller, citing a program from his majesty's theatre, london, july . james joyce, ulysses: a critical and synoptic edition, ed. hans walter gabier et al. (new york: garland publishing, ), episode , , - . in deborah menaker rothschild, picasso's "parade ": from street to stage (london: sotheby's publications, ), . this is an indispensable book for the student of parade. in jean cocteau, le coq et l'arlequin: notes autour de la musique (paris: Éditions de la sirène, ), . / ( ) and yet, the music of parade is not exactly musique d'ameublement; it is memorable, even disturbing. all traditional music, perhaps all traditional art, consists of the binding-together of variable elements by fixed elements—or, to put it another way, the disruption of fixed elements by variable elements. a chaconne, for example, has a fixed ground bass supporting irregular flights in the treble; and most any piece of tonal music can be analyzed in terms of a rigid template and unpredictable choices. but in parade the fixed elements are so profoundly fixed, as if pounded in with a pile-driver, that it's impossible for the variable elements to make them budge, no matter how frenzied they become. the musical fascination derives from the conflict between the immo- bile and the irresistible: whirling centrifugal figures keep struggling in vain to dislodge a motionless center. the first turn—the chinese conjuror—offers a clear demonstration. the fixed elements here are scale degrees - - —that is, b-d-e in c major, a pentatonic sound suitable for china. this is the striking motive played by trumpet and trombone. but this stiff three-note pattern governs the music long before the brass motive appears: the opening bars of prestidigitateur chinois, and much of the subsequent music, consist of an unsettled repetitious scamper of scale degrees - - - , - - , - - , - - , and so forth, in which all the - figures are sixteenth notes and the other notes are eighth notes. if all the brief - figures are deleted, the scamper reduces to - - - ; it is simply a disguised version of the basic - - motive of this scene. the scamper keeps shifting its instrumentation and shifting its meter (between / and / ); but these tug- gings, recolorings, and dislocations do little to hide the essential monotony of the scamper—one of the main pattern-units of the piece. the scamper, despite its slight eccentricities, is a music loop, exactly comparable to such action loops as the conjuror's swallowing the egg and pulling it from the toe of his shoe; and the insistent - - brass figure is simply a balder presentation of the same loop. it could be argued that satie has devised a musical strategy for imitating the action—that the music is an active partici- pant in the circularity of the conjuring, rather than an inert backdrop to it. but i find it hard to imagine a performance of parade in which the music would seem to reinforce the events, to mark them more deeply in the listener's mind. the music loop inhabits its self-engrossed domain of sound, and the conjuring loop inhabits its self-engrossed domain of action; their forms are congruent, but they occupy separate theatrical spaces. neither the music nor the action is going anywhere; they resemble one another in the way that an absence of apples resembles an absence of oranges. in addition to the plane of music and the plane of action, there is a third, wholly imaginary plane, the plane of the spoken text that cocteau prepared and never heard performed. if the author had not been disappointed, the spectator would have heard satie's music, watched massine's pantomime, while a carnival barker was saying: a—well-informed—man—is—worth—two! if—you—want—to—become—rich. if—you—feel—sick—if—you—feel—tired cumr/rmuc enter—see—the—chinese—wisdom —the missionaries—the— dentists—the plague—the gold—the gongs. the—pigs—that—eat—little—children—the emperor—of— china—in—his—armchair. the—people—who—did —not— participate—at—the— beginning—of—the—show—can—remain—seated enter—see the king of dramas—the great success of laughter and fear in other words, "you ain't seen nothin' yet." the parade, the theatre in front of the real theatre, dismisses its own entertainment value; in the unseen (and non-existent) inner theatre lie unimaginable wonders and terrors. the empty loops of music and conjuring are signs of the emptiness of a liminal realm of advertising, a no man's land between common life (where you're sick, you're tired, and you'd like more money) and the monstrous exhilarations of the freak show within. furthermore, cocteau hoped that certain muffled sounds from the occult invisible theatre would penetrate the parade and tease the audience. in satie's autograph of the score, at a point where clarinets enter (corresponding to five bars after rehearsal number [ ] in the published score), some paroles suppri- mées are written: ils lui crevèrent les yeux, lui arrachèrent la langue ("they gouge out his eyes, tear out his tongue"); and then, after the double bar, above some particularly mild, unthreatening, and monotonous music—true furniture music—satie wrote bruit, the howl of the tortured missionary. this section is accompanied by an unusual musical instrument, a spinning lottery wheel; and perhaps all the loops in parade are in some sense versions of the wheel of fortune, inscribing its arbitrary circles in human space. ofortuna, velut luna, statu variabilis! parade is, then, a buffer between the audience and an expressionist specta- cle. perhaps cocteau heard in his inner ear, when he thought of missionaries tortured by the chinese, something like the torture scene in puccini's tosca ( ), where cavaradossi's offstage screams punctuate the extremely tense music. cocteau (who often enjoyed comparing the scandalous premiere of parade to that of the rite of spring four years earlier) may also have conceived parade as a kind of deconstruction of a stravinsky ballet: for most artists, a work wouldn't know how to be beautiful without an intrigue of mysticism, of love, or of annoyance. the short, the gay, the sad without any idyllic quality, are suspect. the hypocritical elegance of the chinese conjuror, the melancholy of the little girl's steamboats, the touching silli- ness of the acrobats, everything that has remained a dead letter for parade's audience, would have pleased it if the acrobat had loved the little girl and had been killed by the jealous conjuror, killed in turn by the acrobat's wife, or any of thirty-six other dramatic combinations. ln rothschild, picasso's "parade ", . ibid., . cocteau, le coq et l'arlequin, - . / ( ) lurking behind parade is an undramatized drama along the lines of i pagli- acci—or of petrushka ( ), which, like parade, has a conjuror, an oriental entertainer (in this case a moor), and several other carnival performers. in petrushka the characters are caught up in a conventional melodrama of amor- ous intrigue, jealousy, and murder; but in parade the performers inhabit separate performing spaces, like window-displays in a department store. coc- teau thought of satie's score as a masterpiece of architecture; that's what ears accustomed to vagueness and thrills can't understand.... the numerous motifs, each distinct from the others, like objects, follow one another without development and don't get tangled together [ne s'enchevêtrent pas].... never any sortileges, reprises, sleazy caresses, fevers, miasmas. never does satie "stir up the swamp." but cocteau also was an architect, displaying distinct theatrical objects in carefully immured areas: it is not far from the dramatic method of parade to the dramatic method that stravinsky and cocteau toyed with (but discarded) for oedipus rex ( ): let each character occupy an individual mini-stage, and draw back his or her private curtain before starting to sing. just as satie pulled apart the constituents of his music into pattern-units that take no notice of one another, so cocteau pulled apart the constituents of his scenario into a series of black-out sketches—the circus equivalent of soliloquy, soliloquy, duet. but today we may hear other things in the unheard theatre behind parade, beyond tosca or petrushka or anything else that paraded creators might have known. in , schoenberg's erwartung was already eight years old, though it would have to wait seven more years until its first performance. erwartung is a long musical scream—perhaps not quite the same sort of scream that a missionary tortured by the chinese would have screamed, but, on the other hand, how much does one scream differ from another? when satie ridiculed wagner for making the property trees go into convulsions, he was ridiculing the "atonal" schoenberg without having heard him, for erwartung is a contin- uous convulsion of music in sympathy with the character's psychic torment. in the whole context of the twentieth century, parade looks like a kind of machine for neutralizing erwartung, for demoting its expressive extremities to suppressed backstage cries: satie found music that regards torture with urbane aplomb. erwartung aspires to catharsis, to exhaustion through emotional saturation; but parade is pre-catharized, evacuated of troubling material before it begins. erwartung is willing to contemplate any combination of notes, any sequence of chords; parade is a stringently self-limiting domain, in which bibid., . see igor stravinsky and robert craft, dialogues (berkeley: university of california press, ), . one is reminded here directly of petrushka where the drama remains undramatized precisely until the moment that the conjurer draws back the curtain and brings the puppets to life. prior to the three flute toots they are but "window-displays in a fair tent"; in a way conventional melodrama is overlaid on them as well. cumr/rmuc smooth impenetrable sound-hunks disengage themselves from all need to evolve or to fit into models of cognitive or perceptual activity. it is a theatre-city walled up against unwanted feelings, so completely sealed that the mission- ary's shrieks were deleted from the text before the first performance. perhaps parade is what erwartung sounds like with its tongue torn out: a sort of gesturing—mute, but not silent—at zones of human experience that defy expression. in the noises of war were never far from the ears of paris, and parade's method of dealing with terror through cultivated apathy makes it one of the profoundest artistic response to the great war. the saran-wrapped surfaces of late-twentieth-century postmodernism, sur- faces that both expose and evade, may also be a response, in part, to matters that the artist would rather ignore. the fun of non-referentiality is always heightened by the presence of things best not referred to. indeed ostentatious absence of meaning tends to be read as a form of gesticulation at the taboo, which usually rushes in to fill vacuums of signification. in a sense, postmodern- ism, for all its lazy desecrations, has brought into being an entire taboo universe. cubes parade is a profound response not only to the great war, but also to avant- garde art, from within avant-garde art: an act of self-scrutiny by its creators, an attempt to find the meaning of their previous work. as jeffrey weiss has shown, picasso had, by , seen the cubist painter—sometimes dressed in a costume made up of cubes—become a figure of fun on the popular stage, in fashion shows, and so forth; and cubist drawing-methods become a stock element of cartoons and even advertising. parade is an attempt to create a totally cubist reality—as if the universe had been swallowed up by a simula- crum of itself, in the manner of borges's imaginary country where a : scale map was unfurled over the entire area. this cubist land of feigning can be understood as a displacement of pain, a reconstruction of life rendered hard, safe, and witty by art. indeed parade is far too safe—the sharp edges of the cubes no longer have any cutting force. in some ways it is remarkable that picasso would cooperate in constructing such a monstrous expansion and neutering of cubism, the peewee's playhouse version of high art. but picasso too could enjoy weightlessness and frivolity. the evolution of the managers during the development of parade was the most conspicuous cubifying of the spectacle. what became parade started as a piece called david, for which cocteau tried to coax stravinsky into writing music: the parade was to be a come-on to a biblical story, and a clown hidden see jeffrey weiss, the popular culture of modern art: picasso, duchamp, and avant-gardism (new haven: yale university press, ). see jorge luis borges, dreamtigers [el hacedor], trans. mildred boyer and harold morland (new york: e. p. dutton, inc., ), . see steegmuller, cocteau, a biography, . see tom gordon's discussion of david on pp. - of this issue. / ( ) in a box would, through a loudspeaker, urge the public to enter the booth. cocteau at first hoped that parade would have a similar premise: in the first version the managers didn't exist. after each music-hall number, an anonymous voice, coming through an amplifying box (a theatrical imitation of the fair-ground gramophone, an antique mask in the modern fashion), sang out a type-phrase, summing up the perspectives of the character, opening a breach on the dream. but in the finished parade, the masque antique à la mode moderne was no longer a hidden surface for projecting a loud voice, but a silent and extremely conspicuous thing; indeed it is the strongest evidence of cocteau's demotion in favor of picasso, of the demotion of text in favor of visual spectacle. (i know of no other collaboration in the history of art in which the component artistic media seem so bent on annihilating one another. ) the french manager, who introduced the chinese conjuror, became a dancer encased in a huge cardboard caricature of diaghilev, smoking a pipe the size of trombone, with a row of cut-out trees nonchalantly glued to the side, as if he were both a stroller and a perambulating landscape. the american manager, who introduced the ameri- can girl, became a dancer trying to move within a great cubist reconstruction of a skyscraper. the manager who introduced the acrobats was intended to be a dummy astride a pantomime horse; but, when the dummy kept falling off, the pantomime horse performed the role bareback, and became a general object of displeasure for audience and performers alike—the audience complained, understandably, that such cheap tricks could be seen elsewhere for far less money. in parade, picasso reproduced theatrically how we would live if we could live inside a cubist painting. to some extent, the whole cubist revolution consists of the discovery that objects and the space around objects could be treated in a uniform manner: objects made up of facets inhabit a faceted space, as if there were no distinction between foreground and background, between solid bodies and air. braque said that he tried to paint the "visual space" that "separates objects from each other"—"this in-between space [entre-deux] seems to me just as important as the objects themselves." in "analytical" cubism, crumpled objects take shape amid a crumpled sky. picasso himself suggested that his cubist paintings were like flattened-out sculptures, or like instructions for folding paper into a three-dimensional shape: the spectator should feel able to "cut up" the canvas and put it back together and "find oneself confronted with a sculpture." a cubist drawing, then, is more like a set of instructions for folding a paper doll or a paper airplane than like a traditional cocteau, le coq et varlequin, . l cocteau was again the victim in the other most notable instance of collaborator annihilation: stravinsky's insistence that cocteau's libretto for oedipus rex be translated "backwards" into latin was motivated in large measure by his desire to render cocteau invisible in the final work. in william rubin, éd., cézanne: the late work (new york: the museum of modern art, ), , . douglas cooper, the cubist epoch (london: phaidon press, ), . cumr/rmuc perspective drawing in which the parallel lines of objects in three-dimensional space are represented as toed-in lines receding to a single vanishing point. and yet, it is a mistake to believe that cubist drawing is entirely liberated from the conventions of perspective drawing: braque and picasso simply insisted that these conventions must operate, not on the whole plane of the picture field, but on the individual facets exclusively. if you take a cross- hatched trapezoid, suspend it against a black background, and display it through a peephole to anyone raised in the conventions of western art, the spectator will describe it as a rectangle seen obliquely; but a spectator not raised in the conventions of western art will describe it as what it is, a trapezoid. the facets of a cubist painting depend on the elementary (but not universal) apprehension that a square with slanty lines sticking out of its corners is a representation of a cube; without that understanding the picture is meaningless, but with that understanding the spectator can discover images that constitute themselves volumetrically in an amorphous space made up out of a vast heap of tiny individual spaces—for each facet occupies its own miniature continuum. for the cubist, the cube is an atom of space, susceptible to arbitrary recombination with other atoms of space. and this cubist multi-spatiality entails an altered physiology of perception: the spectator apprehends the drawing with fifty different eyes, projecting outward on stalks and curving around the object, the object seen full-face and three-quarter-face and profile all at the same time. cubist art may seem somewhat static, passive, but only because the activity has been transferred from the (tranquilized) object depicted, to the (vehemently darting) gaze of the onlooker. to study a cubist picture is to become a lobster. this peculiar intimacy of thing and atmosphere and eyeball makes parade a disturbing spectacle. picasso's backdrop shows buildings leaning outward at crazy angles over a proscenium arch, itself tilted; when the american manager ambles out, he is a strange combination of a man and a building—an homme- décor in cocteau's phrase—as if the stage set has popped itself out into three dimensions and started to dance. furthermore, in the lower right of the backdrop, picasso painted stippled silhouettes of figures wearing top hats, fashionable clothes—that is, the imaginary shadows of the audience itself. instead of the normal three-plane theatrical model: ( ) the audience, safe in its seats, contemplates ( ) human actors, performing in front of ( ) immobile scenery; parade shatters all three planes into fragments, each of which is an odd jumble of decor, performer, and spectator. the french manager, with trees growing from his back, is a personification of the whole theatrical environment, a stage-fragment moving through a puzzling space constituted by other stage- fragments. the only proper conclusion to such a piece is a scandal, for the audience must surely involve itself in the dramatic action, even if only by throwing things at the performers. of course, the previous paragraph should have begun, this peculiar inti- macy of thing and atmosphere and eyeball and ear. satie's music, with its texture of varied or unvaried self-quotation, has a cubist rhythm as well. if the noteheads of the chinese conjuror's - - - , - - , - - , - - figure were connected, they would trace a zigzag line starting up in predictable directions / ( ) from the stable - unit, like slant-lines proceeding from the corners of a square; and there are many places where extremely repetitive two-note bass ostinati seem to figure satie's score with little rhombs. darius milhaud noted that the vocal line of satie's socrate "is of such absolute purity that, if, just for fun, one followed its ascending and descending, or even static, movement, the result would be a drawing incorporating the pure lines of ancient greek masterpieces"; but the connect-the-dots game, if played with parade, seems to yield something far more up-to-date. in the acrobats' scene—which cocteau intended to represent manned flight and other sorts of technological prog- ress—there is a foghorn-like organ pipe (rehearsal figure ), above which appear two slow, strongly accented, up-down-up string figures: the first con- sists of scale degrees (in c major) - - , repeated twelve times; then, as the diapason shifts from to , the second figure appears, -flat- - , repeated four times; then the first figure and the first bass reappear, repeated eight times. in the cubist context of parade, these two figures seem to constitute a single acoustic object, carefully examined from two different points of view. the mere fact that the figures are repeated in groups of four gives a strong rectilinearity to this section. this music is not acrobatic, not lithe, not airy, but heavily incised, immobile: satie may have felt that his true collaborator on parade was picasso, not cocteau. satie paid little attention to the content of parade, as cocteau imagined it: the chinese conjuror's music is no more oriental than the acrobats' music (the acrobats, for example, perform to pentatonic xylophones); the scenario of parade did lead satie to quote irving berlin's that mysterious rag for the american girl (as ornella volta has noticed ), but the syncopated tune is oddly de-americanized, bleached out, in the antiseptic context of parade, satie, however, paid close attention to the style of parade, as picasso imagined it; and the music can be heard as a kind of academic exercise for a schola cuborum. some critics of parade feel that satie's music is no more cubist than any other piece of music devised according to a principle of pattern-unit construction; but i believe that the angled three-note figures so common in the score of parade are metaphors for cubes as plausible as the individual facets of picasso's drawing—facets which, as we have seen, are themselves only metaphors for cubes. the music tries to inscribe its status as an object through a number of unusual strategies. in addition to this sound-spectacle derived from "analytical" cubist drawing—the reconstruction of the smooth continuous volumes of objects in the visible world with big jerky pixels—parade also offers a sound-spectacle derived from "synthetic" cubist design, that is, the piecing-together of imagi- nary fields of reality through odd collages of ready-made objects, or of artful counterfeits of ready-made objects. cocteau thought that this appropriation of "synthetic" cubism was far more important than such "analytical" artifacts as the american manager's skyscraper costume: notes to vox cdx , - . see rothschild, picasso's "parade", . cumr/rmuc contrary to what the public imagines, [the chinese conjuror, the american girl, and the two acrobats] are more relevant to the cubist school than our managers are. the managers are prop-humans [hommes-décor], picasso pictures that move, and their structure itself imposes a certain choreo- graphic style. for the four main characters, it was a question of taking a collection of real gestures [gestes réels] and of metamorphosing them into dance, without losing their realistic force, as the modern painter is inspired by real objects to metamorphose them into pure painting, without, how- ever, losing sight of the power of their volumes, their materials, their colors, and their shadows. massine, and others involved in the dance aspects of parade, gave cocteau considerable credit for the choreography of the piece: cocteau would model commonplace gestures, and massine and the others would find ways of build- ing a pantomime around those gestures. in this fashion, parade translated into the formal and ceremonious world of ballet the gestural equivalent of slang: for example, there is a well-known photograph of marie chabelska in her nautical american school-girl costume, with flat, turned-out feet, with her legs bowed out in an innocent but extremely unladylike fashion, and with her forearms sticking forward, fingers curled and thumbs pointing right and left—a what-me-worry shrug with her whole body. the subtitle of parade is ballet réaliste, and it is realistic not only in its visual gestures but in its sounds. just as cocteau hunted for odd moderne bits of body-deportment, satie hunted for odd moderne noises—though, in the absence of a coherent scenario to connect the sound-effects with the gestures, the realism of the sound only reinforces the dissonance, the uncoordinatedness of the sound-world and the sight-world. satie's score has cues for a typewriter, a pistol, a high siren, a low siren, a lottery wheel, and something cdlledflaques sonores, sound-puddles, evidently made by dropping a cymbal on a hard floor; cocteau also wanted morse-code apparatus and a variety of other sounds: "the score of parade ought to serve as the musical base for suggestive noises, such as sirens, typewriters, airplanes, dynamos, put there as what georges braque so justly calls 'facts' [faits]." just as braque and picasso glued real cards, or snippets of newsprint, or fragments of musical score, onto their cubist collages, so satie created percussion parts, or a background of continuous indetermi- nately pitched sound, out of the technological innovations of the age. john cage considered that the background sounds of a performance were part of the performance itself; satie, on the other hand, invented the background sounds and scored them into the performance. for proper musique d'ameublement one needs to find talking furniture. and yet, it is exactly at this level, where noises are glued onto satie's orchestral score in the best cubist fashion, that the essential unlikeness of picasso and satie becomes manifest. picasso's collages are overwhelmingly cocteau, le coq et l'arlequin, . it should be noted that cocteau is commending an aspect of parade for which he, not picasso, could be credited. ibid., . / ( ) purposeful. francis frascina has shown, in great detail, how, in nature morte 'au bon marché' ( ), picasso isolates, through careful snipping, the sylla- bles trou (hole) and ici (here) from newspaper headlines, in order to point out, or heighten, the sexual provocativeness of a drawing of a woman cut from a department-store advertisement: picasso has converted, crumpled up, the bon marché into a market that sells, not women's clothes, but women. picasso clearly intended parade to be a nature vivante equivalent to this sort of collage: the male acrobat's costume has a huge spiral whorl right over his groin, and a number of other design elements can also be derived from drawings of penises that cocteau and picasso swapped while visiting italy together in . the collage mode that picasso best understood was the sex rebus, though he sometimes experimented with other sorts of integrating schemes as well. but what sort of integrating principle can be found in satie's noise-collage? to put the question another way, what sort of noise might be inappropriate? a moo or a tweet would be inappropriate, since all the noises are mechanical in character; but it is not easy to think of any other restriction, since the noises seem chosen to impart a sense of the greatest possible sonic variety. further- more, with the exceptions of the revolver shots and the pseudo-foghorn, the noises simply perch precariously on top of the orchestral score: satie was no varèse, and he went to no effort to integrate them timbrally or rhythmically with the regular instruments. just as the american girl pantomimes a series of actions so diverse that they seem purely random, so satie includes noises by chance. parade preceded most of the dada experiments with random construc- tion, such as tzara's generation of poems by tossing separate word-scraps in a hat; and certainly satie had no particular interest in aggressive proclamations of disorder. satie's unobtrusive disorder—disorder that comes into play simply because the artist feels that no other choice is possible—has a distinct postmodern- ist savor. satie was not the first composer to experiment with noise. the futurist luigi russolo—more a painter than a musician—devised a series of intonarumori, noise-intoners, all enclosed in black boxes, as if a cubist's cubes had been taught to speak. these included ululatori, rombatori, crepitatori, gorgoglia- tori, and sibilatori (howlers, rumblers, cracklers, gurglers, hissers), and rus- solo devised concert-pieces for them, such as the veglio di una città (awakening of a city), the score to which is a fine piece of futurist graphic, with its normal bars, clefs, time signatures, and staves, all decorated with thick black lines, holding steadily horizontal, or ascending up and down in slow glides, or proceeding in fast jerks from one flat line to the next—a visual anticipation of the later mondrian. it is difficult to know what the intonarumori sounded like. the instruments themselves seem no longer to exist; in mario abate and pietro verardo reconstructed them and recorded veglio di una città—which seems a dis- see charles harrison, et al., primitivism cubism abstractionism: the early twentieth century (new haven: yale university press, ), . see rothschild, picasso's "parade", , . see caroline tisdall and angelo bozzolla, futurism (london: thames and hudson, ), . cumr/rmuc appointingly lackadaisical succession of borborygms and distant airplanes. still more disappointing is the one surviving recording of the original intona- rumori, unfortunately used as underlay to a conventional corale & serenata, composed by russolo's brother antonio and scored for normal instruments: to hear it is to hear insipid tunes faintly disrupted by various growls, like a radio broadcast with low-pitched electric interference. still, the premise of parade is there, in embryo, in this old futurist record: unpitched contrivances that interject into the domain of art music a collection of sub-artistic noises, a new repertoire in acoustic semantics. here music tries to cope with the random urgencies of urban sirens, with the information overload of a frantic typewriter and a morse-code apparatus, signaling in the void from no one in particular to no one in particular. parade brought into the theatre a simulation of the general background static of the twentieth century. indeed what interested satie was the static, not the noises per se. baudrillard has imagined postmodern man as an astronaut in his capsule ... at the controls of a micro-satellite, in orbit, living no longer as an actor or dramaturge but as a terminal of multiple networks.... this electronic "encephalization" and miniaturization of cir- cuits and energy, this transistorization of the environment, relegates to total uselessness, desuetude and almost obscenity all that used to fill the scene of our lives.... the real itself appears as a large useless body. in parade, the typewriter sounds, the whole apparatus of sonorous flak, seem to represent something obscene, the clangor of reality's large useless body, intruding faintly onto the encephalized music—even as the music ignores the noise, swallows the noise, as if the noise had never been. satie's music, with its extreme disengagement from appetite, from expression, is as close to space-capsule art as anything the early twentieth century can provide; in parade we hear a strange sound, a pre-audition of the postmodern consuming the modern, rendering its whole artillery of technological potencies absurd. abstract if postmodernism can be considered ahistorically, as a stylistic category opera- tive at any time and in any place, then there are many older works that suddenly seem to speak strongly to our present age. this paper argues the case for taking erik satie as a postmodernist: his music is marked by bricolage (the e- driophthalma movement from embryons desséchés, , borrows a theme, according to the score, "from a celebrated mazurka by schubert"); by poly- stylism (the cabaret songs written for vincent hyspa, or parade with its listen to societi nazionale del grammofono r / , reissued on sub rosa subcd - —an extraordinary anthology of futurist sound-texts. jean baudrillard, "the ecstasy of communication," in hal foster, the anti-aesthetic: essays on postmodern culture (new york: the new press, ), - . / ( ) quotation from irving berlin); and by materialism of the signifier (what satie calls furniture music). résumé si le postmodernisme peut se concevoir de façon a-historique comme une catégorie stylistique clé, quel que soit le moment ou le lieu, beaucoup d'oeuvres plus anciennes prennent tout à coup, à l'époque actuelle, une certaine impor- tance. cet essai illustre ce point de vue en qualifiant erik satie de postmoder- niste. en effet, sa musique est marquée par le bricolage (le mouvement « edriophthalma » des embryons desséchés de emprunte, selon la parti- tion, un thème tiré « d'une célèbre mazurka de schubert »), par la multiplicité des styles (les chansons de cabaret écrites pour vincent hyspa, ou encore parade et ses citations d'irving berlin) et par le matérialisme du signifiant (ce que satie nomme la musique d'ameublement). [pdf] food for thought. | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /nchembio. corpus id: food for thought. @article{warhol foodft, title={food for thought.}, author={andy warhol}, journal={nature chemical biology}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ } } 	andy warhol 	published 	medicine 	nature chemical biology in recent decades, the developed world has enjoyed ready access to diverse and high-quality food choices. at the same time, industrial-scale agriculture poses environmental and food safety threats, and ~ % of the world’s population suffers from persistent hunger (http://www.wfp.org/ hunger). governments and multinational organizations are developing strategies for long-term agricultural sustainability and food safety (see, for example, the “global alliance for climate-smart agriculture” at… expand view on pubmed nature.com 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proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue introduction: joycean avant-gardes this is a repository copy of introduction: joycean avant-gardes. white rose research online url for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ / version: accepted version article: flynn, c and brown, r ( ) introduction: joycean avant-gardes. james joyce quarterly, ( ). pp. - . issn - https://doi.org/ . /jjq. . this is a pre-copyedited version of an article accepted for publication in the james joyce quarterly. for citation purposes, please consult the definitive publisher-authenticated version, which can be accessed through project muse, through jstor (five years after publication), or through the paper journal. all rights to reproduction are reserved. eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ reuse items deposited in white rose research online are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved unless indicated otherwise. they may be downloaded and/or printed for private study, or other acts as permitted by national copyright laws. the publisher or other rights holders may allow further reproduction and re-use of the full text version. this is indicated by the licence information on the white rose research online record for the item. takedown if you consider content in white rose research online to be in breach of uk law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the url of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. mailto:eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ introduction: joycean avant-gardes special issue james joyce quarterly volume , number (winter ), pp. - . richard brown and catherine flynn joycean avant-gardes it seems quite remarkable that the time period between the first publication of dubliners in and the appearance of the first published section of “work in progress” alongside tristan tzara in ford madox ford’s transatlantic review in was only ten years, remarkable because of the long intellectual journey travelled by joyce in those years. however apparently large the gap between the scrupulously disciplined naturalism of those early stories and the extravagantly polysemantic play of finnegans wake might once have appeared, they now appear to be part of an ongoing project of radical literary innovation. however distant joyce’s professional relationships with and attitudes to particular avant- garde movements and personalities might have been, and however downplayed by the first generations of his defenders, joyce now appears more and more to readers as an avant-garde writer. if the performances staged by the zurich dadaists or by alfred jarry found immediate, vociferous responses from audiences, joyce’s output has gradually found an audience that responds in a quieter but nonetheless determinedly divergent manner. this issue proposes to add a set of voices to that response by considering his achievement alongside that of his avant-garde contemporaries across the arts rather than despite them or in preference over them. associations between joyce’s work and that of contemporary avant-garde movements are of course intrinsic to his story, especially if we think of the cosmopolitan contexts in which he lived and wrote and the placing of his work in periodical publications throughout his career. we have only to think of his first adopted home in trieste and the influence there of marinetti and futurism, of the huge importance for his gradual breakthrough to an international audience of the advocacy of ezra pound, of his important dialogue with wyndham lewis, of the juxtaposition of a portrait in its serial publication in the egoist with a translation of lautréamont’s maldoror, of his residence in wartime zürich at the time when it was also home to tzara and the cabaret voltaire, of his attendance at the dada trials in paris with pound, and of his close proximity to the members of various avant-garde movements through his associations with sylvia beach, adrienne monnier and eugène jolas. joyce’s letters admit something of these connections: his interest in the avant-garde classicism of guillaume apollinaire’s play les mamelles de tiresias, for example, is indicated in the letter he wrote to his brother shortly after his arrival in paris in (l iii ); his sense of his public association with the avant-garde is indicated by the letter he wrote to stanislaus in claiming that the irish press were reporting “[t]hat i founded in zurich the dadaist movement which is now exciting paris” (l iii ). yet, even if joyce had never left dublin, he would have been directly or indirectly in contact with a force of the early avant-garde. it was yeats who in december went to the first production of alfred jarry’s ubu roi at lugné-poe’s theatre in paris and declared in his reminiscence of it the new epoch that was to become modernism: “after stephane mallarmé, after paul verlaine, after gustave moreau, after puvis de chavannes, after our own verse, after all our subtle colour and nervous rhythm, after the faint mixed tints of conder, what more is possible? after us the savage god”. for yeats at times that savage must have been joyce. an avant-garde turn in internationalist joyce and modernist studies has arguably been underway for some time, perhaps as a necessary accompaniment or corrective to an uncompromisingly “authorial” joyce, an authorially compartmentalised modernist studies and a historicist modernism in place at the turn of the century. it is sustained by the revival of avant-garde practices across the arts in the new century which have no doubt benefitted from the new outlets for independent and experimental work and the new forms of social grouping made possible by the growth of social media. it is no doubt fuelled also by a deeper new understanding of the political and practical situation of avant-gardes. until recently, debates around the term have been structured by a few foundational accounts. in the theory of the avant-garde, composed in and published in , renato poggioli sees the term as originally derived from the military “vanguard” by progressive and militant political and social movements in the early- to mid-nineteenth century, only to be later adopted by artistic collectives, movements and sects who exhibited their opposition to an aesthetic status quo in little magazines and manifestos. poggioli is central in establishing the understanding of the avant-garde as involving an antagonist, collective artistic agency. in theory of the avant- garde ( ), peter bürger historicizes this antagonism, arguing that twentieth-century avant-garde movements aimed to dismantle what he calls the institution of art, the frameworks according to which art is produced, distributed, and understood. the avant- garde status of a work is thus dependent neither upon the consciousness of its author, nor upon its contents, but upon the way it functions within society: avant-garde movements attempt to reintegrate art into the practice of life. yet bürger’s criterion has been seen by many subsequent critics as overly restrictive, as he himself points to the subsequent institutional absorption of surrealism, dada, cubism, etc., even if, in this process, these movements radically changed the values of the art world. rather than a discrete category of practice with a single agenda, raymond williams, in essays in the s, understands the avant-garde as “a range of distinct, and in many cases opposed formations” ( ), separated from modernism often only by degree. williams, in contrast to bürger, points to the dangers inherent in the integration of art and life: the cooption of art into mass culture, in the form of the aestheticized commodity and commercial art, and its incorporation into spectacles of political propaganda. if the various kinds of avant-garde artistic practice emphasized pre- rational and unconscious creativity and drew upon a politics of anarchism, nihilism and revolutionary socialism, this led to a range of political results from temporary liberation and resistance to absorption into fascist national identifications or libertarian deregulation. yet recent critical works have questioned these central conceptions of the avant- garde, providing new geographically, culturally and critically diverse perspectives. a couple instances of this new turn have specific relevance for this special issue. for jonathan eburne and rita felski, in the introduction to a special issue of new literary history, “what is an avant-garde?,” the question becomes a meta-critical opportunity, prompting consideration of the “conditions and repercussions,” the “frameworks and critical faculties” of scholarly accounts. they reject established “biographical narratives” of european movements association with left-wing revolutionary pathos that end in failure or co-optation and propose instead a diffuse, fragmentary and discontinuous avant-garde of experimental political and artistic movements operating in contexts such feminism, the postcolonial, and commodity culture in locations as far-flung as russia, senegal and the united states. in a pair of essays which are taken up by two of the essays in this volume, marjorie perloff questions the central critical identification of the avant-garde with collective practice. she shows how the work of marcel duchamp is both largely constitutive of and divergent from dada, the quintessential european avant-garde collective: “and there’s the rub. remove duchamp from the dada playing field and it rapidly shrinks to half its size. and even then, what about gertrude stein, arguably the most radical writer of the dada period […]? or, for that matter, the presence of james joyce?” she offers both a critique of accepted understandings of the avant-garde and a prescription for future study: “the dialectic between individual artist and avant-garde groups is seminal to twentieth-century art making. but not every movement is an avant-garde and not every avant-garde poet or artist is associated with a movement. what we need, it seems, is a more accurate genealogy of avant-garde practices than we now have.” it is to this genealogy that we would like to contribute with this special issue, which began with a panel at the dublin joyce symposium . the panel was part of a broader swell of interest in joyce’s relationship to european literature, enabled by geert lernout and wim van mierlo’s two-volume collection, the reception of james joyce in europe. this special issue has three parts: an overview of joyce’s avant-garde critical and artistic reception by tim conley; arguments for the connections between joyce’s writing and a more-or-less contemporary avant-garde by catherine flynn and hsin-yu hung; and explorations of joyce’s impact on subsequent avant-garde practices that acknowledge different kinds of indebtedness by jonathan eburne, dennis duncan and scarlett baron. in these six essays, a number of diverse connections and approaches to joyce and the avant- garde are combined and a suitably unsettling and innovative group of texts discussed. as a whole, these essays aim to revise our conception of joyce as well as of the avant-garde. for conley, in “‘meddlied muddlingisms’: the uncertain avant-gardes of finnegans wake,” as for eburne and felski, the question of the avant-garde nature of finnegans wake is more generative than any answer, revealing the values and expectations of its respondents. conley’s own suggestion is that finnegans wake prompts us to escape from taxonomies and categories. he argues that finnegans wake is thus usefully understood through bürger’s representation of the avant-garde as offering the means to all ends through its defiance of the historical trajectory of formal development. conley argues that the wake’s character as a formal resource that leads it to generate an array of responses. in “finnegans wake’s radio montage: man-made static, the avant-garde and collective reading,” flynn situates the semantic excess of the wake within the tradition of avant-garde literary montage, in particular that of guillaume apollinaire. she argues that joyce constructs the radio passage in to respond to adolf hitler’s contemporary misuse of the new technology of radio. subverting monologic authoritarian discourse by activating readers to read collectively, the montage form of the wake is of continued power in the face of a contemporary dominance of instrumental rationality and mass consumption. the ideal sociality of finnegans wake reading groups offers a new possibility for avant-garde collective agency. hung’s essay on “‘circe’ and expressionist drama” develops a carefully supported argument about joyce’s use of georg buchner’s woyzeck ( ) and oscar kokoshka’s hiob ( ). joyce draws, she argues, on lighting effects, declarative dialogue, distorted physiognomy to generate “theatre as magic show.” however, if expressionists represent states of psychic distortion, joyce invokes their means to make himself an “Über- expressionist, who calls for spiritual renewal and liberation, creating a dynamic transcendence.” hung’s essay emerged from the original panel discussion and was left unrevised at the time of her death. it is included here in this form as a tribute to the emerging contribution to joyce studies of a highly promising scholar. eburne’s essay discusses the mexican literary avant-garde of the s and especially the magazine s.nob edited by salvador elizondo in which the opening of finnegans wake was annotated and translated and elizondo’s own extraordinary cult novel farabeuf. dennis duncan’s essay explores the creative presence of joyce in a self-consciously fraudulent literary performance, from the writer who co-founded oulipo, a notable member of the avant-garde group oulipo, whose name abbreviates the phrase “ouvroir de littérature potentialle.” raymond queneau’s on est toujours trop bon avec les femmes (we always treat women too well), populates an outrageously farcical fiction of the easter rising with characters from ulysses. published under the pseudonym sally mara, the novel is followed by sally mara’s fictional memoir, in which she as pornographer, departs on a dedalian journey to paris. baron’s essay explores the intertextualities between joyce and another self- consciously fraudulent literary performance in georges perec’s life: a user’s manual. perec, as she points out, draws on the french translation of ulysses and mischieviously introduces a version of its translator, auguste morel, as “morell of hoaxville” allowing her to unpack the hoaxing forms of intertextuality that typify perec. in a recent essay reflecting on the argument and reception of his highly influential theory of the avant-garde, peter bürger writes that the failure of the avant-garde to dismantle the institution of art was entwined with its success: its radical alteration of the values which inform that institution. he closes the essay with the idea that a future may come—“a future that we cannot imagine”—in which the sublation of art and life can occur. joyce’s writing too we can understand in these terms as it does not so much destroy the notion of literature but rather open it up through profoundly restructuring its values. in doing so, joyce’s work displays an implied trust and endorsement of the literature of the future. renato poggioli, the theory of the avant-garde. cambridge, ma.: belknap press of harvard university press, . peter bürger, theory of the avant-garde. transl. michael shaw, introd. jochen schulte- sasse (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ). raymond williams and tony pinkney, the politics of modernism: against the new conformists (london: verso, ). jonathan eburne and rita felski, “what is an avant-garde?” new literary history . ( ). marjorie perloff, dada without duchamp / duchamp without dada: avant-garde tradition and the individual talent. stanford humanities review, . ( ): - marjorie perloff, “avant-garde community and the individual talent: the case of language poetry” http://marjorieperloff.com/essays/avant-garde-community-and-the- individual-talent/ geert lernout and wim van mierlo, the reception of james joyce in europe, vol. and (london: thoemmes continuum, ). peter bürger, “avant-garde and neo-avant-garde: an attempt to answer certain critics of theory of the avant-garde” in jonathan p. eburne and rita felski ed. “what is an avant- garde?” special issue, new literary history , no. ( ), . note: since your browser does not support javascript, you must press the continue button once to proceed. this may be the author’s version of a work that was submitted/accepted for publication in the following source: brott, simone ( ) architecture et revolution: le corbusier and the fascist revolution. thresholds, , pp. - . this file was downloaded from: https://eprints.qut.edu.au/ / c© copyright massachusetts institute of technology this work is covered by copyright. unless the document is being made available under a creative commons licence, you must assume that re-use is limited to personal use and that permission from the copyright owner must be obtained for all other uses. if the docu- ment is available under a creative commons license (or other specified license) then refer to the licence for details of permitted re-use. it is a condition of access that users recog- nise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. if you believe that this work infringes copyright please provide details by email to qut.copyright@qut.edu.au notice: please note that this document may not be the version of record (i.e. published version) of the work. author manuscript versions (as sub- mitted for peer review or as accepted for publication after peer review) can be identified by an absence of publisher branding and/or typeset appear- ance. if there is any doubt, please refer to the published source. http:// thresholds.mit.edu/ issue/ a.html https://eprints.qut.edu.au/view/person/brott,_simone.html https://eprints.qut.edu.au/ / http://thresholds.mit.edu/issue/ a.html / / draft / / draft architecture et révolution: le corbusier and the fascist revolution simone brott in a letter to a close friend dated april , le corbusier announced that he was to publish his first major book “architecture et révolution” which would collect “a set of articles from l’en” —l’esprit nouveau, the revue jointly edited by him and painter amédée ozenfant which ran from to . a year later, le corbusier sketched a book cover design featuring “le corbusier–saugnier,” the pseudonymic compound of pierre jeanneret and ozenfant, above a square-framed single-point perspective of a square tunnel vanishing toward the horizon. occupying the lower half of the frame was the book’s provisional title in large handwritten capital letters, architecture ou rÉvolution, each word on a separate line, the “ou” a laconic inflection of paul laffitte’s proposed title, effected by le corbusier. laffitte was one of two publishers le corbusier was courting between and . an advertisement for the book, with the title finally settled upon, vers une architecture, was solicited for l’esprit nouveau number —the original title conceived with ozenfant that had in fact already appeared in two earlier announcements. “architecture ou révolution” was retained as the name of the book’s crucial and final chapter, the culmination of six chapters extracted from essays in l’esprit nouveau, containing the most quoted passage in vers une architecture, used by numerous scholars to adduce le corbusier’s political sentiment in , to the extent of becoming axiomatic of his early political thought. interestingly, it is the only chapter that was not published in l’esprit nouveau, owing to a hiatus in the journal’s production from june to november . an agitprop pamphlet was produced in after l’esprit nouveau - advertising an imminent issue “architecture ou révolution” with the famous warning: “the housing crisis will lead to the revolution. worry about housing.” i would like to propose that it was le corbusier himself who changed the title to architecture ou révolution, in , at the precise moment le corbusier–saugnier’s self- same rubric for the forthcoming issue of l’esprit nouveau materialised; and that was, in turn, reserved for the final chapter of his book. laffitte suggested the “et” in what was a partial neutralisation of the architect’s theoretical intent. le corbusier acquiesced to the edit, and soon after—and behind laffitte’s back—submitted a draft manuscript with laffitte’s version of the title to besson. however, by january , le corbusier had reverted to his original book title of , vers une architecture, as per the advertisement in l’esprit nouveau. this / / draft history of names is neither pedantic nor trivial if we consider the appearance and disappearance and reappearance of the word révolution. despite—or perhaps in spite of—the return to vers une architecture in , that very same year, le corbusier’s cover sketch- design curiously bears the title architecture ou révolution, from which we can deduce that the modern architect held on to la révolution as the leitmotif of his project until the very last moment. the book ends with the said remark: society violently desires one thing that it will obtain or that it will not. everything lies in that; everything will depend on the effort made and the attention paid to these alarming symptoms. architecture or revolution. revolution can be avoided. (le corbusier, vers une architecture, .) historians have interpreted this passage hence: le corbusier believed modern architecture (mass housing and the “engineer’s aesthetic”) was the prevention of social unrest, a translation consistent with the dominant reception of le corbusier’s early philosophy as a saint simonian social-utopianism, whose paradigm is the ville contemporaine with its technocratic associations. following le corbusier’s early association with the twenties’ redressement français, there exists a notion of a radical shift in le corbusier’s philosophy by the forties, when he joined the vichy regime. this is based on the facts that in the s le corbusier was associated with georges valois and hubert lagardelle, that he was the editor of the syndicalist journal prélude, that he delivered a lecture in rome in , by invitation by mussolini, and most importantly his collaboration with vichy from the s. yet, despite le corbusier’s late authoritarian activities and affiliation, the architect’s postwar works such as the unité d’habitation, are still often paralleled with the phalanstère and ideal city of charles fourier as industrial socialist models of the city. the conception of modernism as a utopian project of social redemption endures in no small part because of this historical reading of le corbusier’s refrain architecture ou révolution in . this is the reading i will contest in this essay. it is widely known the young architect condemned the french revolution of which he felt was responsible for the decline of french art. yet charles edouard jeanneret- gris was also proud of the revolutionary history of his ancestry, as per the account he provides of his grandfather’s participation in the and revolutions, in crusade or / / draft the twilight of the academies. le corbusier must have known that l’esprit nouveau was the title of a book on politics in by quinet, an intellectual and rioter in the very revolution. in , further, le corbusier reproduces the first principle of the french revolution in enlightenment france at the end of the eighteenth century; he casts himself as a revolutionary intellectual, entitled to property. i propose the locution “architecture ou révolution” is neither against social revolution nor is it socialist credo per se: “architecture or revolution” is a heuristic device, that transcends the received socialist dialectical reading of le corbusier’s argument, architecture/revolution. the architect’s contended and self- proclaimed “politics” and “beliefs” should be considered historical projections that converge on the realpolitik of twentieth-century thought between the two wars, a politico-conceptual groundswell he cannot have avoided. for in there was a real revolution unfolding before le corbusier’s eyes: the fascist revolution of benito mussolini. the international surge of fascism and authoritarian philosophy in the beginning of the twentieth century forms prima facie the atmosphere and lining of le corbusier and ozenfant’s literary project (even if the architect declared himself to be a socialist in , and then a conservative in ). less than a year before vers une architecture was published, the national fascist party (partito nazionale fascista, pnf) rose to power. le corbusier noted in his memoirs “ fascist march on rome. mussolini takes power in italy”—and he was deeply moved. mussolini had successfully deployed the fanatical squadristi (the blackshirts) to extinguish italy’s socialist movement as early as , the year l’esprit nouveau debuted. ten years later le corbusier would describe the exhibition for the anniversary of the march on rome as “the prodigious rome-exhibition of the revolution.” this is the revolution intended by le corbusier, a violent reversal by an authority—not the proletarian revolution that he denounced. for him, italian fascism was revolutionary in the true sense of a radical (structural) change in power that takes place at lightning speed. if italy was late to adopt modern architecture, compared with france and germany, in the making of authoritarian politics and history, italy was precocious. it is didactic in this regard that unlike italy, france did not experience massive popular support for fascism—notwithstanding the vichy collaboration, which was not strictly “conservative” and preserved many of the progressive social programs of the front populaire, and further, a spectrum of fascistic groups in s- s france. instead, france provided the intellectual antecedents for fascism prior to the s, in earlier movements such as the far-right monarchist action française, founded in during the dreyfus affair; emile / / draft zola’s publication “j’accuse;” the nationalist response to the latter in figures such as anti- semite maurice barres, and even the jacobinism of the french revolution ( - ). it is well known, modern fascist political philosophy first manifested in france in the fin de siècle movement of the s, whose proponents were a mixture of italian and french intellectual figures such as the french revolutionary anarcho-syndicalist georges sorel. by sorel and his followers had moved from the radical left to the right, and sorelianism came to be seen as the precursor to twentieth-century fascism. even while fascism in france failed to captivate the masses, it formed the intellectual framework and inspiration for mussolini, who would later acknowledge his debt to sorel in “the doctrine of fascism.” under these conditions, l’esprit nouveau was coolly received, with its socialist urbanism and aspirations of land reformation. all the while le corbusier yearned for “a napoleon i, a “louis xiv,” or a haussmann—and lamented that france had no mussolini or hitler. such facts have been presented as evidence of a contradiction in le corbusier’s position or politics. historians have vacillated between this theory of a shift in the architect’s thought (from the ‘left’ to the ‘right’), and a second reading of his ideological position as “contradictory,” “ambivalent” or “elusive.” yet, this alleged contradiction lies outside le corbusier, and rests instead within the very gestation of fascism in france and italy via the split within the revolutionary left (the socialist parties in each country). the militant revolutionaries and fascists are linked prior to twentieth-century politics through a bitter intellectual battle that traces back to the birth of authoritarian thought. for sorel and the french anarcho-syndicalists, violent revolution was a noble act carried out by both the proletariats and capitalists, in order to intensify and not eliminate class warfare. violence and war, the mythic catalyst for production, was the first tenet of sorelianism. le corbusier’s sentiment, therefore seen through sorel’s eyes—“society is filled with a violent desire for something which it may obtain, or may not. everything lies in that. everything depends on the effort made and the attention paid to these alarming symptoms. architecture or revolution. revolution can be avoided”—does not evoke a socialist utopian revolution but its unconscious ideological shadow, namely that society has a desire for violence at the dawning of fascism in , a problem that would become the precise object of wilhelm reich’s study massenpsychologie des faschismus (the mass psychology of fascism, later banned by the nazis). reich argued that it was not because people were stupid that they submitted to fascism, rather they desired it. the desire for violence which it may or may not obtain—is manifestly erotic: the perversion seeks satisfaction through violent force, / / draft on the one hand, and derives pleasure in desire without gratification, on the other (sorel’s war is an end in itself). in short, it speaks walter benjamin’s warning about the aestheticization of violence. le corbusier is nascently aware that desiring fascism is a neurosis—even while he calls it “revolution”—and implores us to observe its “alarming symptoms.” in , the duce announced his five-year plan to restore rome to its original condition under augustus. true to plan, he ordered the decimation of all urban fabric surrounding the great roman monuments: in five years rome will appear beautiful to everyone in the world; vast, ordered and powerful as it was under augustus. you will liberate the trunk of the great oak from everything that encumbers it. you will open up the areas around the theater of marcellus, the pantheon, and the campidoglio; everything that was created during the centuries of decadence must disappear. in five years one must be able to see the pantheon from the piazza colonna. you will also free the majestic temples of christian rome from their parasitical constructions. the millennial monuments of our history must stand isolated and majestic. (benito mussolini, discourse of december ) le corbusier shared mussolini’s image of rome of “decay” and “decadence,” meaning cluttered with post-roman urban fabric. the architect had a similarly austere urban vision for paris. yet there is another resemblance between mussolini’s aestheticisation of rome and the architect’s historical rendering in vers une architecture, where le corbusier did not merely valorise greece and rome, and the age of classical antiquity: the parthenon, paestum, and hadrian’s villa, which are the formal quintessence of the “new spirit.” he graphically “isolated” and “purified” ancient monuments in the book by deleting surrounding structures and architectural elements, from the original photographs, that were visual obstructions to the “majestic” formal concept of each building. in the pulpit of santa maria in cosmedin he eliminated columns and blackened the windows. once “freed,” the postcard images were serialised on the page, resembling mussolini’s stark serializing vision of rome. just as mussolini called the pantheon and piazza colonna to stand in a strict visual line, “leçon de rome” begins with the famously austere line up of monuments: the pyramid of cestius bce, the colosseum ce, arch of constantine ce, that renders each building beautiful, large, and alone, in what is fundamentally revisionist historiography. / / draft in another sequence, the notre dame de paris, the arc de triomphe, place de l'opéra, and saint-jacques church tower are isolated and serialised over a black silhouette of “the cunarder aquitania” ship. france, here, is suspended in le corbusier’s beloved méditerranée—and italy becomes the birthplace, the primordial sea, of modern architecture. for “the lesson of rome” is not a reactionary preservation by isolation, and le corbusier’s pictures of rome are not allegory or anachronism. instead, there is a sense in both le corbusier and mussolini of a fatalistic palingenesis: their revolution is a destined rebirth that must be activated by a purification of the metaphysical ground. in , the first year of fascist rule, mussolini introduced a new fascist calendar and renumbered the year “year ef” (era fascista). revolution in this sense is no return to a constituted past, redacted or untouched, but to creation ex nihilo—it is an ontological return. the italian reception of le corbusier’s book was spectacular not because of its valorisation of italy and antiquity, but the promise of a return to the very beginning of time itself. it is with this sense of an elusive degree zero that le corbusier grasps la révolution and le nouveau—for him, these are essentially metaphysical concepts on time and being. le corbusier’s revolution as a theory of time derives from his reading of nietzsche’s concept eternal return in also sprach zarathustra, on the infinite rebirth of the universe, rooted in the ancient greek stoic philosophy on the cyclical nature of temporality. eternal return is a concept nietzsche also used to defend amor fati—the choice to love one’s fate including suffering, loss, destruction—hence the notion of revolution as a creative-destruction that resurfaces in le corbusier. these ideas are evident even in le corbusier’s choice of title, vers une architecture, “toward” indicated the elusive character of time, of futurity, and of their expression in architectural terms. “des yeux qui ne voient pas” came from stéphane mallarmé’s poem le phénomène futur. le corbusier saw himself as henri provensal’s artiste du futur and the nietzschean surhumain: “a new type of man … who embodies the future.” thus his architectural vision which elsewhere i described as an “esprit futur” reached for the eternal return, a spirit of the future materialised in an idealised permanent present. it is not only zarathustra’s mastery of “la bête” but the mastery of temporality and the future itself that inspired le corbusier. the revue’s name was also indebted to apollinaire’s manifesto “l'esprit nouveau et les poëtes” which captured the revolution le corbusier had in mind (the two met in ): “they will carry you … into universes which tremble ineffably above our heads. into those nearer and further universes which gravitate to the same point of infinity as / / draft what we carry within us … a renewal of ourselves, that eternal creation, that endless rebirth by which we live.” le corbusier’s very definition of geometric volumes was an effect of the horizon illuminated by the sun to express the “eternal ideal” or “absolute.” such concepts are more evocative of hegel than nietzsche. however, unlike the studies connecting le corbusier to nietzsche, the unconscious hegelianism that underpins le corbusier’s writing has been neglected, with one exception. paul venable turner’s dissertation of established the hegelian basis of le corbusier, not through any documented reading or knowledge of hegel by le corbusier, but rather by tracing the geist, hegel’s “pure spirit” as it survives in le corbusier’s thought. according to turner, it was through le corbusier’s study of provensal’s book l’art de demain, given to him by l’eplattenier, that le corbusier unconsciously adopted an hegelian method. provensal’s philosophy of architecture was based on the nineteenth-century tradition of german idealism of hegel, fichte, and schelling, “especially hegel,” after kant, a chain that is reinvoked with le corbusier’s very concept l’esprit nouveau. turner points out that le corbusier was unique in his conception of the parthenon as “pure creation de l’esprit.” of course, the notions of temporality and le nouveau derive from the greeks, yet “spirit” as the essence of revolution is quintessentially hegelian, from hegel’s phenomenology of spirit, and it re- appears in nietzsche. le corbusier had studied renan’s vie de jésus where jesus is a heroic “revolutionary;” leading turner to state that “the revolution that most impressed le corbusier, the sections he bracketed in renan’s reading was the revolution of the intellect and devotion to spirit.” ironically, le corbusier dismissed germany architecturally and culturally (both deemed inferior to italy and greece), yet despite having possibly never read hegel his philosophy is entrenched in the german metaphysical tradition. le corbusier, like mussolini, saw himself as a “prophet” with a spiritual calling. the violence that they praised is not populist violence, but the violence of the superman: la révolution for le corbusier was precisely that of a master like mussolini. the figure of the master (surhomme) is the one feature that continues throughout le corbusier’s career irrespective of activities and alliances, left or right. this persistent identification with the master connects him to authoritarian thought and to the hegelian “master-slave dialectic,” the seminal passage of hegel's phenomenology of spirit. “at the threshold of the house they will install a vigilant guardian: the conditions of nature. on their coming, the revolution will be accomplished.” thus,,le corbusier does not mean revolution in the marcuse or marxian sense. architecture is not a surrogate for revolution in le corbusier, and neither does / / draft revolution mean “mass housing” or the “engineer’s aesthetic.” le corbusier’s theory of revolution does not derive from fourier, saint simon or the french revolution (except when they are derogatory references), but rather from nietzsche and hegel. le corbusier’s philosophy is not political philosophy, anyway, but western metaphysics in the tradition of german aesthetics: that is the real site of la révolution. i propose that european statecraft in the s and s is a better model for understanding revolution in le corbusier’s philosophical schemata than france’s serial revolutions and its bloody past. what le corbusier produces is not a theory of french state formation but an architectural formation suspended in the viscid fluid of an eternal present (a perpetual rebirth of architecture’s future in the present moment), concepts and themes that were circulating in france through exposure to italian politics and its prevailing theories of temporality that were essential to the fascist conceptual apparatus. le corbusier’s love of italy and admiration of the fascist italian revolution contribute in a disturbing yet elusive way to the development of le corbusier’s thought. for this reason, perhaps, le corbusier’s fascist imaginaire may have received less exposure or treatment, in the architectural academy, than the architect’s views on social reform. this is not to rehabilitate the weak, dialectical theory of le corbusier’s ideation, right and left. rather, the task ahead is to examine the fascist contents of le corbusier’s utopia, alongside a study of the genealogy of utopia and fascism in the french enlightenment and its culmination in the french revolution ( ), where such contradictory discourses and concepts freely circulated. the hegelian method identified in le corbusier and mussolini provides critical insight into the zeitgeist between the two wars, and is further key to the relation between the two prolific writers. this is not to say that hegel is the ‘philosopher of fascism’ in any reductive sense, as nietzsche was ascribed to nazism; but, rather, that hegel and plato are fundamental to western thought and the birth of modernity. adorno and horkeimer’s project situated hegelian philosophy as fundamental to the relation of modernity and fascism, a problem they called the “dialectic of enlightenment,” the reversion of humanism to barbarism under enlightenment philosophy. obversely, postwar historiography situated modern art and the avant garde against fascism, notwithstanding the work of the frankfurt school on the complicity of the avant with ideology during the third reich. it was only by the s and s that a number of studies emerged on the contribution of modernism and avant-garde culture to the formation of fascist ideologies between the wars. these studies were undertaken by historians in political science, art history, french studies, and german / / draft history; notably, mark antliff’s essay on le corbusier and the anarcho-syndicalist georges valois, in his edited collection on fascism and art; and zeev sternhell’s account of le corbusier’s affiliation with valois’s group. within the architectural academy, the most important work on fascism and le corbusier has been undertaken by mary mcleod, robert fishman, and jean louis cohen, as noted earlier. yet, the relationship between architectural modernity and fascism remains in some other, unspoken sense ungraspable, a block in architectural thought. there is a vast literature on the architectures of regime during the two wars, but the question has been historically conceived by way of an allegorical model, toward the symbolic value of fascist architecture, such as italian rationalism, in serving or representing a regime—within the circuit of patronage or profit. likewise, historians have depicted the embrace of le corbusier by the faisceau, who believed le corbusier’s plans represented their mythic la cité, as naïve or not fully grasping the conception of le corbusier’s work.. these representational schemata fail to engage the question of how philosophical fascism was instrumental to the conceptual methodologies of the avant garde, to dominant modernism as imaginaire and the formulation of architectural objecthood. it is possible that fascism was not the enemy of modernism, but its principal technique. le corbusier to william ritter, april , r ( ) , flc: “architecture et révolution;” “suite des articles dans l’en.” he had already published Étude sur le mouvement d'art décoratif en allemagne in , and après le cubism in with amédée ozenfant, but vers une architecture was jeanneret’s book debut. jean petit, le corbusier lui-même, panoramas forces vives (genève: Éditions rousseau, ), . le corbusier to paul laffitte, february , b ( ) , flc. le corbusier had already submitted a manuscript with the title architecture et révolution to besson of georges crès, in january , who ultimately published the book. see jean-louis cohen’s introduction in the new translation: le corbusier, toward an architecture, ed. jean-louis cohen, trans. john goodman, texts & documents (los angeles, california: getty research institute, ). i am grateful to j. l. cohen for his painstaking and illuminating survey of le corbusier’s book. from hereon all citations are to this edition of the book unless otherwise stated. le corbusier, vers une architecture (paris: georges crès, ). / / draft viz in après le cubisme ( ), the november issue of l’esprit nouveau ( ), and also in a letter to his parents ( ). invoice from l’esprit nouveau to g.[eorges] crès, january , a( ) , flc; advertisement in amédée ozenfant, après le cubisme (paris: editions des commentaires, ), un-paginated book;amédée ozenfant and charles eduard jeanneret, "les idées d’esprit nouveau dans les livres et la presse," l’esprit nouveau , no. - ( ): .; le corbusier to his parents, january , r ( ) , flc. see mary mcleod, ""architecture or revolution": taylorism, technocracy, and social change," art journal , no. ( ), . mary mcleod, urbanism and utopia: le corbusier from regional syndicalism to vichy, ed. princeton university (ph.d.) (ann arbor, mi: university microfilms international, ) ; and robert fishman, urban utopias in the twentieth century: ebenezer howard, frank lloyd wright, and le corbusier (cambridge: mit press, ), and cohen in le corbusier, toward an architecture. cohen in le corbusier, toward an architecture. on the forthcoming publication of “architecture ou révolution,” see a ( ) , flc. le corbusier, vers une architecture, . my translation. le corbusier, vers une architecture, . my translation, italics added. for published translations see le corbusier, towards a new architecture, trans. frederick etchells (new york: payson & clarke, ). reprinted as le corbusier, towards a new architecture, trans. frederick etchells (london: the architectural press, [ ]), - . and le corbusier, toward an architecture, . see mcleod and cohen. see mcleod, urbanism and utopia: le corbusier from regional syndicalism to vichy, . e.g. robert fishman, urban utopias in the twentieth century: ebenezer howard, frank lloyd wright, and le corbusier (cambridge: mit press, ), and "chapter : architecture or revolution," - . peter serenyi, "le corbusier, fourier, and the monastery of ema," the art bulletin , no. ( ): . anthony vidler, "asylums of libertinage: sade, fourier, ledoux," lotus international, no. ( ). charles-edouard jeanneret, Étude sur le mouvement d'art décoratif en allemagne, la chaux-de-fonds ( ). cited in charles-edouard jeanneret, Étude sur le mouvement d'art décoratif en allemagne, la chaux-de-fonds (new york: da capo press, ), . le corbusier, croisade ou le crépuscule des académies (paris: crès, ). h. allen brooks, le corbusier's formative years: charles-edouard jeanneret at la chaux-de-fonds (chicago, il: university of chicago press, [ ]), . / / draft see le corbusier, towards a new architecture, - . petit, le corbusier lui-même. le corbusier to paul otlet, june , flc: "en fait d'exposition, j'ai vu deux manifestations capitales: l'une a rome-exposition de la revolution-l'autre a milan- exposition de l'aeornautique -qui ont fait des miracles de visualization et d'enseignement." my translation and italics. in august, the same year, le corbusier praised italy in a fascist revue: “the present spectacle of italy, the state of her spiritual powers, announces the imminent dawn of the modern spirit. her radiance, by its purity and force, illuminates the paths that have been obscured by the cowardly and the profiteers." le corbusier, "l'esprit romain et l'esthetique de la machine," stile futuristica , no. (august ): . on le corbusier’s “extreme enthusiasm” for the exhibition of the anniversary of the march on rome see: libero andreotti, "the aesthetics of war: the exhibition of the fascist revolution," journal of architectural education , no. (february ), - . i will from hereon use the capitalized “fascism” to refer to the italian fascist movement of benito mussolini and otherwise the lower case “fascism” for any other reference to fascism as theory or praxis in europe. le corbusier’s admiration of war and its necessity captures his sense of an authoritarian revolution, as opposed to marxist revolution. andreotti writes that le corbusier thought “that warfare on a national scale had taken over the best that political [proletarian] revolution had to offer: war had absorbed the latter’s dynamic potential, that is, revolution’s vocation to accelerate time while neutralising revolution’s socio-economic effects….” see andreotti, "the aesthetics of war: the exhibition of the fascist revolution." maria stavrinaki, "big flower, small root: germany, war and revolution according to le corbusier," oxford art journal , no. ( ). robert j. soucy, "the nature of fascism in france," journal of contemporary history , no. ( ): “according to réne rémond, fascism was a phenomenon quite alien to french political traditions. most of the so-called fascist leagues of the s and s were not really fascist at all but bona-partist and boulangist in character and inspiration, connected with past nationalistic movements.” see rené rémond, la droite en france de à nos jours; continuite et diversité d'une tradition politique (paris: aubier, ), . soucy contests this view exemplified in rémond for the reason that philosophical fascism was deeply rooted in france even though france did not openly embrace “fascism.” see eugen weber, varieties of fascism; doctrines of revolution in the twentieth century, an anvil original, (princeton: van nostrand, ), , . / / draft giovanni gentile and benito mussolini, "la dottrina del fascismo," in enciclopedia italiana ( ). gentile’s and mussolini’s essay is the opening section of the encyclopaedia entry “fascismo.” the official translation was printed in the fascist government publication giovanni gentile and benito mussolini, "the doctrine of fascism ( )," in fascism doctrine and institutions, ed. benito mussolini (rome: ardita publishers, ). le corbusier, urbanisme (paris: editions crès, ). translated as le corbusier, the city of tomorrow and its planning, trans. frederick etchells (london: j. rodker, ); reprinted in le corbusier, the city of tomorrow and its planning (cambridge: mit press, ), - , . this argument is overturned by paul venable turner’s harvard dissertation that reveals le corbusier’s unwavering thought. turner argues that le corbusier retained the early german idealist position learned from provensal until the end of his career. see cohen in le corbusier, toward an architecture. le corbusier is sometimes regarded as neither left nor right, an example of the phenomenon jean-louis loubet del bayle calls “la pensée non-conformiste.” les non-conformistes des années , une tentative de renouvellement de la pensée française (paris: seuil, ). such political ambivalence is symptomatic of the authoritarian complex. the incorrect notion of ambivalence as indecisiveness or lack of rigour creates an historical shield from authoritarian thought, where such contradictions are critical symptoms, to be examined, not accidents. georges sorel, reflexions sur la violence (paris ); georges sorel, reflections on violence ( ), trans. t. e. hulme (london: g. allen & unwin, ). reprinted in georges sorel, reflections on violence (new york: peter smith, ), - . see mark antliff, "la cité française: georges valois, le corbusier, and fascist theories of urbanism," in fascist visions: art and ideology in france and italy, ed. matthew affron and mark antliff (princeton: princeton university press, ). benito mussolini, discourse of december , cited in d. d'apice-mazzetti, roma: la città contro l'uomo (roma: schirru, ), . spiro kostof, the third rome, - : traffic and glory (berkeley: university of california, berkeley, university art museum; gabinetto fotografico nazionale; university of california, santa barbara, art gallery, gallery, h., ). le corbusier, toward an architecture, . / / draft le corbusier, vers une architecture, - . image: “intérieur de sainte-marie de cosmédin,” ( ) pulpit of santa maria in cosmedin; alinari photograph , retouched by le corbusier. see b ( ) , flc, . see cohen on the modification of images. le corbusier, vers une architecture, - . eternal return first appeared in aphorism of friedrich wilhelm nietzsche, the gay science: with a prelude in rhymes and an appendix of songs, trans. walter arnold kaufmann, st ed. (new york: vintage books, ). simone brott, "esprit futur," log (fall ). guillaume apollinaire, “l'esprit nouveau et les poëtes,” lecture given at the vieux colombier, november , . “the new spirit and poets” in guillaume apollinaire, translated by roger shattuck, selected writings, (new york, ny: new directions, ), . le corbusier, le voyage d'orient (paris: editions parenthèses, ), .“i think that the flatness of the horizon, particularly at noon when it imposes its uniformity on everything about it, provides for each one of us a measure of the most humanly possible perception of the absolute. in the radiant heat of the afternoon, suddenly there appears the pyramid of athos!” le corbusier was drawn to the “limitless horizon of the southern sea.” my translation. jean louis cohen, "le corbusier's nietzschean metaphors" kostka and wohlfarth ( ) - . paul venable turner, the education of le corbusier: a study of the development of le corbusier's thought, - (new york: garland pub., ), . turner, the education of le corbusier: a study of the development of le corbusier's thought, - . turner, the education of le corbusier: a study of the development of le corbusier's thought, - . translation of francois de pierrefeu and le corbusier, la maison des hommes (paris: plon, );le corbusier and francois de pierrefeu, the home of man, trans. eleanor levieux (london: architectural press, ), . these include zeev sternhell, jeffrey herf, alice kaplan, richard golsan, mark antliff, romy golan, boris groys. / / draft see zeev sternhell, neither right nor left: fascist ideology in france (berkeley: university of california press, ). see also, robert fishman, "le corbusier's plans and politics," in the open hand: essays on le corbusier, ed. russell walden (cambridge: mit press, ). mcleod, in her discussion on the faisceau, reveals valois’s great admiration of le corbusier’s work for wordlessly representing the faisceau, on a purely symbolic level, without valois having had any substantive conception of le corbusier’s work. mcleod, urbanism and utopia: le corbusier from regional syndicalism to vichy, . pii: - ( ) - tupology vol. , pp. - . pergamon press. . printed in great britain on local combinatorial pontrjagin numbers--i paul l. king (received november ) §i. introduction novikov proved[ ] that rational pontrjagin numbers are topological invariants. e. miller[ ] showed that they are the only possible local combinatorial invariants, besides the euler number, for an oriented triangulated smooth manifold. on the other hand the formula of baum and bott[l] suggested that, at least in the complex case, the pontrjagin data could be isolated to arbitrarily small neighborhoods of finite point sets, in a rather natural manner. the purpose of this note is to prove that the (first) rational pontrjagin number of a triangulated -manifold is a local combinatorial invariant. (all manifolds are assumed oriented.) this result was proved independently by' the author and by john morgan (unpublished), using rather similar methods. the method extends readily to show that all pontrjagin numbers are local combinatorial invariants of smooth pl manifolds of any dimension. the proof is in § . in § , we apply the result to a few examples. in the remainder of this section, we shall give the idea of our proof by a mildly amusing derivation of the local combinatorial euler formula for a surface from the gauss-bonnet theorem. in this situation there is no need to deal with cubed manifolds, but we do it for analogy with subsequent argument. a manifold with polygonal decomposition is cubed if each k-cell of the decomposition is a p l k-cube. any triangulated space is cubable by taking as vertices the barycenters of each simplicial face, as edges the segments joining the barycenters of k-simplices with the barycenters of (k + l)-simplices in their stars, etc. let m be a compact oriented cubed surface with vertices v~, with p~ the number of edges (= number of faces) in the star of v~. consider the following open cover of m - {o~ }. corresponding to each (open) face f we take the open neighborhood uf of f bounded in m by the segments connecting the barycenters of the -faces of m contiguous to f with the common vertices of such a face and f : i / f / fig. i . this open cover has the properties that uf n uv, = unless f and f ' are contiguous, and u v n uf n uv..= always ( f # f' # f"). make uf a coordinate patch thus: ~ paul l. king ÷ //....~\., z / \ i / \ \ i+i ~x~ / ' l inn\ / / \ / i o \ / \ / \ / i-i fro. . t h e n on uf tq uf., zf = z,.. + c, and the metric g ' = (\/'l--l/ )dz' ~ is globally defined on m - {v~} (dz' = dzf on uf), making e a c h f a c e f a unit square. t h e metric g ' defines a continuous distance function d' on m. which fails to be s m o o t h at the v,. l e t v~ = { p e m : d'(p, v~)<~}. coordinatize v~ b y z~ = ( z ' ) "~",, where z' is locally a coordinate on the slit disc v~ - { s o m e edge in st v,} induced b y integrating dz'. t h e n =, e x t e n d s c o n t i n u o u s l y a c r o s s the slit, with v~ = , and defines a h o i o m o r p h i c differential dz. l e t g~ = (~/--~/ )dzt~z,. on v. l e t h; be a radial c ~ bump function on v~ at v; ; that is: hi is a function of r~ alone (z~ = r, ev(-"°,). hi -- n e a r v. h~ -- outside v. arh~ -< throughout v. w e then h a v e a metric on m: g =eh~g~ + ( - e h ~ ) g ' . i i n o w the g a u s s - b o n n e t t h e o r e m s a y s t h a t w v ' z i c ~ ( m ) = fm aa log g (where by a b u s e o f language g = (x/l-~/ )g dz'~z), aa log g being the g a u s s i a n c u r v a t u r e o f (m, g). it is evident that on the c o m p l e m e n t of the v~'s. a log g - , so r x / - - - l c , ( m ) = ~ f v s d log g. but in v. g = (v~l-'i/ )[h~(r~) + ( - hdro)(p, / )rp/~-~] dz,-~, which is i n d e p e n d e n t of ,, so in v, h e n c e _x/-i-l~ a ~ !fl.f_](logg)r, dr, do,. " o g g - l r~: +r~or~j x/--i [ o_~ ](log g )drmo~ = r : . [r,-~rf+-~ri](logg)dr, where r : ¢ " " , r, ,o gl p i p,/",- : ) , , , = ~ v _ - - ] ' ~ i p, " t h e r e f o r e c t ( m ) = ~ - (pal ), which is the local e u l e r f o r m u l a f o r a c u b e d surface. § . localness o f the pontrjagin class theorem. a cubed oriented -manifold admits a riemannian structure determined by the combinatorial structure and whose (first) pontrjagin form vanishes outside arbitrarily small neighborhoods of the vertices. on local combinatorial pontrjagin numbers--i l t h e p r o o f mimics the derivation o f e u l e r ' s f o r m u l a in the p r e v i o u s section, e x c e p t that there is no c o m p l e t e l y canonical choice o f metric. t h e idea is simply t h a t if a sufficiently natural metric is c o n s t r u c t e d , the pontrjagin f o r m will vanish nearly e v e r y w h e r e . in local terms, we shall simply arrange that enough christoffel s y m b o l s vanish. at the o u t s e t we m u s t m a k e certain choices. we fix once f o r all a radial c " b u m p function h ( r ) at on the unit ball in r, thus inducing a b u m p function at on the unit ball in rn. l e t pk (k = , ) be the (countable) set o f combinatorial i s o m o r p h i s m c l a s s e s o f triangulated k - s p h e r e s . l e t t be a map, also fixed o n c e f o r all, which assigns to e a c h x e ~ a pl.equivalence with the euclidean s p h e r e s k so as to induce a differential structure on x with r e s p e c t to which its triangulation is smooth. t induces differential and riemannian structures on the (k + l)-disc which is the c o n e on x; call the induced metric gx. (it will be o b s e r v e d that a p p a r e n t l y t is not a c o n s t r u c t a b l e m a p ; it is f o r this r e a s o n that the p r o o f is not constructive. t exists f o r all k < , and f o r k >/ if ~ is restricted to s m o o t h combinatorial spheres. t h e r e f o r e the p r o o f o f the t h e o r e m is easily modified to give a result f o r s m o o t h n - m a n i f o l d s , n > . t c a n n o t be e x t e n d e d f u r t h e r without the restriction on ek, h o w e v e r . ) c o n s t r u c t a metric on m as follows. mimicking the previous section, c o v e r m ' = m - s k m b y neighborhoods o f the -faces no three o f which intersect, and m a p e a c h neighborhood into r ' in such a w a y that each -face is m a p p e d to the unit c u b e and that on o v e r l a p s coordinates change b y rigid motions (unitary t r a n s f o r m a t i o n plus translation). l e t g ' be the fiat metric on m ' induced b y these local c o o r d i n a t e maps. as before, g' defines a distance function d ' which e x t e n d s to a continuous distance on m but fails to be s m o o t h on sk m. l e t {s,} b e the (open) -faces o f m. f o r given s~, c h o o s e local coordinates x ' , y', u', v' on the (open) -cubes in st s, so that e x t e n d e d f r o m each c u b e s, = { u ' = v ' = ; < x ' , y ' < }. l e t s , = { o < x ' , y ' < l , u ' + v ' < e } (fixed small ~ > ) , and on s t - s t let x ~ = x ' , y ~ = y ' , u, + x/---iv, = --+ ( u ' + x/----iv') "~p' (up to unitary t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ) w h e r e p~ = n u m b e r o f -faces in st s, and the _.+ sign d e p e n d s on the orientation o f s,. t h e n t h e s e c o o r d i n a t e s e x t e n d s m o o t h l y a c r o s s sl = {u~ = v, = ; < x , y~ < }. l e t g, be the induced (flat) metric on s , dx~ +. • • + dv~ ~ (note that the a b o v e _ sign b e c o m e s insignificant). l e t {e~} be the edges o f m. f o r given e., let s~ be the triangulated -sphere defined b y ] , [ x s , = st e~ iq {p e m : d'(p, e~) < ~'} (fixed small e ' > ~ > ). t h e n we h a v e a priori (via the m a p t) a chosen metric gs. on the cone on s~. l e t e~ = {p e st e~: d'(p, e,)<-~'}; then e , has an induced flat p r o d u c t metric g~ = dxo +(~') g,.(x~ = x ' coordinate along e,, gs i n d e p e n d e n t of x~). finally, f o r a n y v e r t e x v let v = {p ~ m: d'(p, v) <~ ~"}, (fixed small ~" > ~' > ). t h e n v is b o u n d e d b y a triangulated -sphere, w h e n c e v is assigned (via t) a flat metric g~ making it an ~"-ball. define a partition o f unity on m thus. on each v we h a v e the b u m p function h o ( p ) = h ( d o ( p , v ) / ~ " ) , do the distance on v induced b y go. on e , - { v } we h a v e h . ( p ) = h ( d ~ ( p , e ~ ) / ~ ' ) , and this e x t e n d s o v e r the c o n e f r o m v to e~ o ov b y h a ( q ) = ( l - h ~ ( q ) ) h ~ ( e " q / i q l ~ ) and then o v e r the rest of e~ o v b y zero. on s t - { e , } - { v } define h i ( p ) = h(di(p, s~)/e). on (st e o ) - { v } define h~ on the " p r i s m " f r o m e to a e , s: b y hi(q) = ( - h,(q))h~(~'q/lql~) and e x t e n d b y zero. t h e n on s~ n v define hi on the cone f r o m v to dv n s, b y h i ( q ) = ( i - h~(q))h,(e"q/lqlo) and e x t e n d by zero. finally, on c({s,} u {e,} u {v}) define h ' = l - y . h , - y . h , ~ - e h ~ on {s~} u {e~} u {v} and h '=- elsewhere. n o w define the metric g on m b y g = h ' g ' + ~ ha~ + ~ hag° + ~ h~go. we claim that on the i a v c o m p l e m e n t o f the neighborhoods v o f the vertices, the pontrjagin f o r m p j vanishes identically. essentially this is b e c a u s e outside the v the riemannian structure is flat in s o m e direction. we c o m p u t e explicitly. evidently on m - { s , } - { e , , } - { v } , g is actually flat. also o b s e r v e that in local orthogonal coordinates, the only non-vanishing christoffel s y m b o l s are fi,= (g"/ )c~,,, fij= (g"[ )o~g,,(i~/), fi~ = - ( g " / ) ~ ( i ~ / ) . t h u s on s t - { e ~ } - { v } , g = dx, ~ + dy, ~ + (h,(r,)+ ( - h,(r,))~ r, p/'-~)(dr, + r,:do, ~) t h e only p o s s i b l y non-vanishing christoffel s y m b o l s are f~, f~, f,~,. h e n c e the only non-vanishing c u r v a t u r e f o r m r / is r , ' , and this is a multiple o f dr~ ^ d#,. t h e r e f o r e p a u l l. k i n g p ~ k - ¢ e ~ h v j =- . o n e~ - { v}. g = h ' g ' + y~ h,g, + h,,g. = dx,,'- + g, w h e r e g is i n d e p e n d e n t of x,, h e n c e t h e n o n - v a n i s h i n g christoffel s y m b o l s a r e at m o s t t h o s e n o t i n v o l v i n g x,. t h u s the p o n t r j a g i n f o r m c a n h a v e no t e r m i n v o l v i n g dx~ a n d so v a n i s h e s . h e n c e p~ v a n i s h e s o u t s i d e the a r b i t r a r i l y s m a l l n e i g h b o r h o o d s v o f the v e r t i c e s t' o f m. t h i s c o n c l u d e s t h e p r o o f . § . examples e x a m p l e . a local product vertex v o f a c u b e d - m a n i f o l d is o n e at w h i c h the p o l y h e d r a l s t r u c t u r e h a s t h e f o r m of a p r o d u c t s ' × s" w h e r e s ' a n d s" a r e n e i g h b o r h o o d s o f v e r t i c e s o f c u b e d s u r f a c e s , or e × c w h e r e e (resp., c ) is a n e i g h b o r h o o d of a v e r t e x of a c u b e d c u r v e (resp., - m a n i f o l d ) . in t h e s e c a s e s o n e c a n m a k e s u f f i c i e n t l y n a t u r a l c h o i c e s of m e t r i c s to p r o v e d i r e c t l y t h a t the local p o n t r j a g i n n u m b e r p , ( v ) v a n i s h e s . f i r s t c o n s i d e r the c a s e e × c. l e t e,, be a n y e d g e of c. t h e n in v, s t ea= ,~ = : x e a x v xa ya fig. . c o o r d i n a t i z e d as i n d i c a t e d , w h e r e u p to rigid m o t i o n x~ = x ' , y~ = y ' , w~ = ( w ' ) '/"o with q~ t h e n u m b e r of - f a c e s in (st e~ :' c). t a k e g~ = dx~ + d y , ~ + (v'-z-t/ )dw~dw~. o b s e r v e that go is a s m o o t h e x t e n s i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l m e t r i c o n s , = e × e~. in the n e i g h b o r h o o d e of e (e is a c t u a l l y t w o edges at v) we h a v e a m e t r i c ge = dxe + dye + due"+ dye , w h e r e xe = c o o r d i n a t e a l o n g e a n d yu, u~, ve a r e o r t h o n o r m a l c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e m e t r i c d e t e r m i n e d b y the t r i a n g u l a t e d - s p h e r e c, ye = y u ( y ' , u ' , v'), u e = u u ( y ' , u ' , v'), ve = vu(y', u', v'). t h i s m e t r i c e x t e n d s s m o o t h l y a c r o s s v, a n d we t a k e it to be go as well. w e t h e n o b s e r v e r e a d i l y that t h e m e t r i c o n v g = h ' g ' + ~ h,g, + ~_~ h~g~ + hege + h~gv i e ~ ~ e has t h e f o r m g = ( d x ' ) z + g w h e r e g is i n d e p e n d e n t o f x~. h e n c e p , ( v ) = o. s i m i l a r l y , c o n s i d e r s ' × s". if z ' a n d w ' c o o r d i n a t i z e s ' - v a n d s " - v r e s p e c t i v e l y , with g ' = (v'-l-~/ )(dz'-~ + d w ' d w ' ) , o n e o b s e r v e s r e a d i l y that f o r n a t u r a l c o o r d i n a t e s o n a - f a c e n e i g h b o r h o o d si o f s ' x v we h a v e z~ = z ' , w, = ( w ' ) "/p; o n s, of v × s" we h a v e z~ = ( z ' ) "/", wi = w ' ; o n s~ of e ' × e" we h a v e z, = z ' , w, = w ' ( w h e r e e ' a n d e" a r e e d g e s o f s ' a n d s"). in e a c h c a s e g, = (~-l-l/ )(dzz~ + d w z ~ ) . m o r e o v e r , e a c h edge is c o n t a i n e d in s ' or s", a n d the m e t r i c s o n the c o r r e s p o n d i n g s~ e x t e n d s m o o t h l y a c r o s s t h e edges. if finally we t a k e zl. = (z')~/l wo = ( w ' ) "~p, g~ t h e b y n o w o b v i o u s m e t r i c , we c o n c l u d e t h a t o n v, g = h ' g ' + ~ h~g, + y~ h,go + hogo h a s t h e f o r m i a g = ht(r., p~ )dz~dz~ + h:(r~, p~. ) d w ~ d w , w h e n c e a g a i n e a s i l y p , ( v ) = o. e x a m p l e . w e n e x t c o m p u t e t h e p o n t r j a g i n n u m b e r o f the -simplex barycenter. t h i s is the u n i q u e v e r t e x t y p e v w h o s e link is t h e b o u n d a r y of a s i n g u l a r - s i m p l e x . t o c o m p u t e p , ( v ) , c o n s t r u c t a c u b i s m of s ~ as f o l l o w s . begin b y t r i a n g u l a t i n g s ~ as t h e b o u n d a r y of a s i n g u l a r - s i m p l e x . call the v e r t i c e s o f this t r i a n g u l a t i o n r~°(~ = i . . . . . ). i n t r o d u c e as a d d i t i o n a l v e r t i c e s the b a r y c e n t e r s v~ k of the k - s i m p l i c e s s~ k of the t r i a n g u l a t i o n (k = i . . . . . ). an edge of the c u b i s m will be a g r e a t c i r c l e a r c v,)t,~ k - ' (k = . . . . . ) w h e r e s~ k ' c s,f. a -face will be a g r e a t s l r e g i o n v,kr~ k-' v~ k--" t,~ k - ' w h e r e s a k - i s ~ - s , ) (k = , , ). c" s:_, c~ - f a c e s a n d - f a c e s are d e t e r m i n e d a n a l o g o u s l y . ( t h e a n a l o g o u s c u b i s m of s is s h o w n in fig. .) o n l o c a l c o m b i n a t o r i a l p o n t r j a g i n n u m b e r s - - - i \ j fig. . t h e n evidently, e a c h v~ ° and v , ' is a -simplex b a r y c e n t e r , all with the s a m e orientation, while each v~k(k = , , ) is a local product. we thus h a v e o-- p,(s')-- x x x v j + x x t~ ct ~ a = p ~ ( v ) + o + o + o + p , ( v ) h e n c e p j ( v ) = o. e x a m p l e . consider the o r i e n t a t i o n - r e v e r s i n g map $ ~ $ : ( u , v . x , y ) ~ ( u , - v , - x , - y ) ( s = { u + v + x + y = } c r ' ) . i f t is a triangulation o f an (oriented) s , d e n o t e b y t ' the image of t under this map. call a v e r t e x type v orientation-invariant if the cubical structure on link v is h o m o t o p i c to (link v)'. t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f local pontrjagin numbers on orientation (c.f. [ ]) indicates that f o r an orientation-invariant v, p , ( v ) = . we shall verify this directly. g i v e n an orientation-invariant v, c o n s t r u c t a triangulated s b y identifying the h e m i s p h e r e s with copies of a small ball a r o u n d v; f r o m the northern h e m i s p h e r e the e q u a t o r will look like link v as (northern hemisphere) and (link v)' as (southern hemisphere). identify these via the h o m o t o p y (link v ) = (link v)': ¥ v fxg. . c o n v e r t this triangulated s" into a c u b i s m b y the s a m e imposition of b a r y c e n t e r s as in the p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e . t h e v e r t e x t y p e s o f the c u b e d s ' will then be two (oriented) copies o f v, several -simplex b a r y c e n t e r s , several local products. but these latter t y p e s of vertex h a v e p, = and p , ( s ' ) = , so p , ( v ) = as well. e x a m p l e . we c o n s t r u c t a v e r t e x t y p e v with non-vanishing pontrjagin number. we need the following e a s y lemma. i r a vertex type v is orientation-invariant, then so is the type o[ the apex vertex o f the barycentric subdivision o f the cone on link v. n o w consider the triangulation of s~-o c~: vertices: (i °, , ) = v , ' a = , i, , ( , i", ) = v,," i = ( , , i " ) = v,, ~ top vol. . no. i - - h p a u l l. king edges: v~jv~,+;, v j v ~ k j , k = , . , j ~ k a , = o , i , , , a # b -faces: t',,jv~÷,v~ k v~ t vtj b, v -faces: j j k /.'~ l!~+iu o u ~ + i f= i u ~ + i vokv-r m -faces: s i k i ,- ua t~a + i d~fll)~ + i d-¢ etc. this is the a n a l o g of the o c t a h e d r a i t r i a n g u l a t i o n o f s~: fig. . divide out b y the h o p f map $ ~ p : ( z ' , z , z ) --, [ z ' , z : , z ] to o b t a i n a c e l l u l a r d e c o m p o s i t i o n of p z : v e r t i c e s : v ' = [ , , ] , e d g e s : v ~ v l +, t)~ivo k -faces: v ~ j v ~ + , v , k v~ i db vy -faces: v.sv~+,vo~v~+, va i v ~ + i t) o k v'v m v = [ , , ], v ~ = [ , , l] c o l l a p s e s to v ~ - - , e d g e with v e r t i c e s v ~, v k (there are f o u r such edges c o n n e c t i n g v j and v ~) ~ - c e l l b o u n d e d b y two e d g e s v jr k ~ - s i m p l e x with v e r t i c e s v ' , v , v ~ c o l l a p s e s to two -faces ---, -cell b o u n d e d b y f o u r -cells, one v~v k, one vsv m, t w o dvkv": ( fig. . -faces j , j k ~ " -cell b o u n d e d b y f o u r v,, l ~ + t l ' b v b + t t ) v -cells of the a b o v e t y p e (one p o t e n t i a l b o u n d i n g -cell having c o l l a p s e d to two -cells) a -face is b o u n d e d by an s w h o s e s t e r e o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n to r l o o k s like this: on local combinatorial pontrjagin numbers--i fig. . it is verified that exactly sixteen such -cells cover p (without overlaps). one also verifies that the vertices v ~ each have the link type of a product: fig. . which in particular is orientation-invariant. next convert this decomposition to a triangulation by barycentric subdivision, and the triangulation to a cubism by the method of example . by the lemma, the original three vertices have vanishing pontrjagin numbers. the link type of the vertices created by barycentric subdivision does not change under the conversion to a cubism. on the other hand, each of these barycenters except the barycenters of -cells has the link type of a product and hence pontrjagin number zero. finally, just as before, the vertices created in converting the triangulation to a cubism all have pontrjagin number zero. therefore the only nonvanishing pontrjagin numbers might be associated with the sixteen isomorphic types of the barycenters of the original -cells. but pl(p ) = . therefore, a vertex whose link is the barycentric subdivision of the s of fig. , has pontrjagin number / . remark that as a result of this computation, the link type in question is not orientation-invariant. the reader may verify this directly quite easily. in particular, notice that the antipodal map on the link has the same effect as rotation through ¢r around the horizontal (in the figure) axis. references i. p. baum and r. bo'rr: on the zeroes of meromorphic vector fields, essaies... dddids d georges derham, pp. - . springer, new york ( ). . f. hirzebrucm topological methods in algebraic geometry. springer, new york ( ). . s. kobayasm and k. nomizu: foundations of differential geometry, v. . interscience, new york ( ). . e. y. miller: thesis, harvard university ( ). . s. p. novlgov: rational pontrjagin classes. homeomorphism and homotopy type of closed manifolds i, izr. akad. nauk ( % ), - . . r. tnom: les classes caract~ristiques de pontrjagin des vari t s triangul es, syrup. int. de top. alg. ( ), - . university of north carolina chapel hill abstracts delayed discovery or willful forgetting? the reception of polish classical modernism in america steven mansbach polish modern art was collected by leading figures within america's cul- tural vanguard. most prized the art's stylistic innovation; they were likely unaware of the ideological charge that animated modernism's makers. by the end of the s, numerous exhibitions of polish art had been mounted in the united states; however, few concentrated on strikingly in- novative works, preferring instead traditional themes, genres, and styles. nonetheless, poland's modernist efforts garnered popular success at the new york world's fair of . the modern art from other central and eastern european nations was actively promoted by its makers, who had immigrated to the united states. poland's modern art did not benefit from a similar presence, its modernists having mostly elected to remain in their native land. the paucity of polish artists in s america compro- mised their chance to exercise an influential role just as the united states was consolidating an international canon of modern art. avant-garde anachronisms: prague's group of fine artists and viennese art theory naomi h u m e the czech group of fine artists published their journal, umeleckymesicnik (art monthly, - ) to justify their abstraction and their interest in french cubism in response to criticism that denigrated their work as incomprehensible and foreign. in this article, naomi hume argues that the group's strategy was fundamentally at odds with how avant- gardes have been understood to operate in scholarship on modernism. rather than asserting a break with the past, the group applied new vi- ennese art historical approaches—particularly those of alois riegl, max dvorak, and vincenc kramar—to draw parallels between their work and prior art objects that departed from mimesis. they equated their radical style with what riegl called anachronisms in art's development, moments when an independent will to form emerges from the mainstream. by bringing french cubist ideas into dialogue with the inherent spirituality of their own national tradition, the group saw themselves as reinvigorat- ing czech art. the shattered self of komsomol civil war memoirs sean guillory the russian civil war was a fratricidal climax of seven years of war and revolution that fractured russian society. its traumatic effects on post- revolutionary life are beyond measure. in this article sean guillory ex- slavic review , no. (fall ) amines memoirs of komsomol civil war veterans to illuminate the ways the war shaped their sense of self. guillory argues that veterans' memoirs re- veal a shattering of the self where their efforts to narrate their experience as agents of war was overshadowed by their transformation on the batde- field into instinctual beings, imprisoned by emotions, senses, nerves, and muscles. guillory engages the scholarship on the soviet self and subjectiv- ity by calling attention to the ways trauma produces a "darker side" of the self, and in particular, how the body serves as a long-term depository for experiences of loss, disorientation, and deprivation. exile, gender, and communist self-fashioning: dolores ibarruri (la pasionaria) in the soviet union lisa a. kirschenbaum focusing on the soviet exile of the spanish communist and orator dolo- res ibarruri (la pasionaria), lisa a. kirschenbaum brings into dialogue two topics often treated in isolation: soviet subjectivities and the self- understandings of international communists. during the spanish civil war, the soviet media popularized ibarruri's performance of fierce com- munist motherhood. the article traces ibarruri's efforts in exile to main- tain and adapt this public identity by analyzing sources in two distinct registers, both of which blurred the boundaries between public and pri- vate selves: ibarruri's "official" correspondence and her interventions in party meetings. reading such sources as sites of self-fashioning, kirschen- baum argues that ibarruri was at once empowered and constrained by her self-presentation as the mother of the spanish exiles. ibarruri's case both internationalizes understandings of stalinist culture and suggests the pos- sibility of a history of international communism structured around the interconnected and diverse lives of individual communists. socialist senses: film and the creation of soviet subjectivity emma w i d d i s in this article, emma widdis suggests that a sensory history is a crucial counterpart to the recent emotional turn in russian and slavic scholar- ship on russian and slavic history and culture. in particular, the soviet revolutionary project was a unique attempt to create new models of hu- man experience to correspond to the new political order—an attempt to shape sensory experience itself. widdis suggests that the still-young me- dium of cinema was a privileged site for the investigation of new models of sensory perception, for the working out of the problematic relationship between the body, the mind, and the world that had such ideological po- tency in early soviet russia. linking close readings of little-known films from this period to a broader analysis of the discursive field within which they operated, widdis suggests that, in the period of transition between and , intensified sensory (and particularly tactile) experience emerged as a new and revolutionary mode of being in the world. deer in headlights: incompetence and weak authoritarianism after the cold war lucan a. way based on a detailed analysis of belarusian politics and the rise of aliaks- andar lukashenka in the early s, this article explores the sources, character, and impact of authoritarian incompetence and skill on re- gime outcomes after the cold war. one type of incompetence—deer in headlights—emerges out of the disorientation and persistence of older regime practices in the face of rapid political change. this type of incom- petence was one important but largely unrecognized source of political contestation in the former soviet union and other parts of the developing world in the early s. rapid change in the international environment that accompanied the collapse of the soviet union and the end of the cold war created novel demands that existing autocrats often did not know how to deal with—even when they had the structural resources to survive. the result was greater contestation and more incumbent turn- over than would have existed otherwise. antonello eugenio scorcu university of bologna and the rimini centre for economic analysis, italy roberto zanola university of eastern piedmont and the rimini centre for economic analysis, italy the ‘right’ price for art collectibles. a quantile hedonic regression investigation of picasso paintings copyright belongs to the author. small sections of the text, not exceeding three paragraphs, can be used provided proper acknowledgement is given. the rimini centre for economic analysis (rcea) was established in march . rcea is a private, nonprofit organization dedicated to independent research in applied and theoretical economics and related fields. rcea organizes seminars and workshops, sponsors a general interest journal the review of economic analysis, and organizes a biennial conference: the rimini conference in economics and finance (rcef) . the rcea has a canadian branch: the rimini centre for economic analysis in canada (rcea- canada). scientific work contributed by the rcea scholars is published in the rcea working papers and professional report series. the views expressed in this paper are those of the authors. no responsibility for them should be attributed to the rimini centre for economic analysis. the rimini centre for economic analysis legal address: via angherà, – head office: via patara, - rimini (rn) – italy www.rcfea.org - secretary@rcfea.org wp _ mailto:secretary@rcfea.org the ‘right’ price for art collectibles. a quantile hedonic regression investigation of picasso paintings* a.e. scorcu+ and r. zanola° abstract different art objects are likely to be priced by means of different systems of hedonic characteristics; more precisely, different evaluation procedures for high and low price items are often postulated. however, the empirical evidence on this point is scant. the main purpose of this paper is to fill this gap by using the quantile hedonic regression approach. the empirical evidence, based on a data set of picasso paintings sold at auction worldwide, highlights the critical role of the price classes in determining the evaluation criteria of art items. jel classification: d key words: hedonic price; auction; quantile regression; painting; picasso. * a first version of this paper was completed while the second author was visiting at university of york. thanks are due to andrew jones, guido candela, roberto cellini and simone giannerini. the usual disclaimers apply. + university of bologna, department of economics, italy and rimini center for economic analysis (rcea), italy, antonello.scorcu@unibo.it ° university of eastern piedmont, department of public policy and public choice, italy and rimini center for economic analysis (rcea), italy, roberto.zanola@unipmn.it . introduction the price determinants of collectibles has often raised the interest of scholars of the field. surveying the relevant empirical literature, ginsburgh et al. ( ) noted that analyses often use the hedonic regression approach, with the price of an art item explained by a number of hedonic characteristics (author, genre, technique, dimension, etc.), market variables (auction house, city of sale, provenance of the object, etc.) and time dummies. the sign and the size of these price determinants emerge from an hedonic regression, and the corresponding market price index can be obtained from the estimated time dummy coefficients. empirical investigations often analyze the specification of the regression, or the stability of the estimated coefficients over time, as the collectors’ preferences and the evaluation of the hedonic characteristics might evolve, exogenously or in relation to market booms and slumps. in any case, an implicit (albeit restrictive) assumption is that in given market and period, a single evaluation system is shared by low- and high-price art items. although there is an extensive literature on the hedonic approach [e.g. candela and scorcu, ; locatelli-biey and zanola, ; zanola, ; collins et al., , ], it seems that one basic point has been neglected, namely, the possible existence of a segmentation in the art market with respect to the market value of the items. one could hardly be surprised to learn that a different criterion is used in the appraisal of a masterpiece valued several million dollars and another one in the evaluation of a painting whose price might be a few hundred dollars. in fact art item characteristics evaluations can change across the sectional distribution of art prices, because those who bid for expensive items are likely to differ from those who buy relatively inexpensive items [malpezzi, ]. moreover, even the same collector might appreciate differently the characteristics in low- and high price items. finally, paintings that reach an extraordinary evaluation within a group, the top lots, seem to behave differently from other items [pesando, ; mei and moses, ]. the purpose of this paper is to analyze the existence of different hedonic models for cheap and expensive paintings. to this aim, an hedonic quantile regression framework is used, which allows the impact of art item characteristics to differ across price distribution. more precisely, by using a dataset of picasso paintings sold at auctions worldwide during the period - , we address two questions: • is the assumption of homogeneous effects of covariates on prices, implicitly determined by the estimation of average effects, justified; or do effects differ at different quantiles of the price distribution? • how do time-invariant and time-variant characteristics affect the returns from paintings? the rest of the paper is organized as follows. section defines the model to be used. data and functional form are presented in section . the empirical evidence is discussed in section . section concludes. . theoretical framework the hedonic ols regression is commonly used in the analysis of the art market to determine the relationship between a set of characteristics of collectibles and their corresponding (hammer) prices. such an approach relies upon the mean of conditional distribution of the dependent variable. however, to the extent that characteristics are expected to be valued differently across a given distribution of selling prices, the exogenous variables influence the parameters of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable differently. neglecting this possibility might undermine the reliability of the results [koenker and bassett, ; zietz et al., ]. unlike ols, quantile regression models allow for a full characterization of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable. the standard ols hedonic regression minimizes the sum of the squared residuals: { } ,min , ∑ ∑        − == i k j ijji xyk jj β β ( ) where yi is the dependent variable at observation i; xj,i is the j regressor variable at observation i; and βj the parameter of the implicit price of the j characteristic. by contrast, quantile model involves instead the minimization of a weighted sum of the absolute deviations in a median-regression context: { } ,min , ∑ ∑ = − = i i k j ijji hxyk jj β β ( ) where the weight hi is defined as hi = q if the residual for the ith observation is strictly positive or as hi = - q if the residual for the ith observation is negative or zero. the variable q ( <q< ) is the quantile to be estimated. this flexible estimation method might be particularly useful in our framework, in which the price distribution of the art items shows a neat departure from normality. figure displays the empirical distribution function (edf) for the hammer prices. the inverted ‘l’ shape of the edf shows that many items are concentrated in the left-hand tail and that there is a long right-hand tail made up of relatively few items that have high selling prices. in these cases, the quantile regression procedure is less sensitive to outliers and provides a more robust estimator [koenker and hallock, ; bassett et al. ]. quantile regression models may also have better properties than ols models in the presence of heteroschedasticity [deaton, ]. [figure about here] . data and functional form the dataset considers picasso paintings sold at auction worldwide during the period - . the data set is collected from the edition of the art price index on cd-rom. the use of a relatively homogeneous data set based on a single, well known painter, should reduce the effect of the several sources of artistic and market variability, except for the dimension we are interested in, the auction price distribution. the publication contains records of paintings sold at the world’s major auctions, and provides information on a number of variables: artist’s name, nationality, title of the work, year of production, materials used, date and city of sale, auction price, pre-sale estimate (when available), dimensions, signature, and a number of further information that might vary from case to case. in the analysis we complement the data set with a series of indicators about the artistic styles of the painting. no information is provided on the provenance and the previous exhibitions of the items. prices are gross of the buyers and sellers’ transaction fees paid to auction houses and recorded in both local currencies and usd; all prices are however expressed in usd. in order to provide a sensible distribution of the “real” prices of picasso paintings to be used in the regressions, nominal usd prices are deflated using us cpi prices ( = ). all prices are then logged, in line with most of the relevant literature, in order to deal with heteroschedasticity. [table about here] the explanatory variables included in the study are dimension, style, media, salesroom and year of sale. the effects of the price distribution on the variables are shown in table . we compute the average values for the (log of) prices as well for the independent variables, both for the full sample and the quantiles . , . . . , . , . . in column ( ) we show the means of the variables for the whole sample; in columns ( )-( ) we show the corresponding averages for the price classes considered. some ‘stylized facts’ emerges neatly. the dimension is, on average, lower for the low price items (neglecting style and techniques). the old picasso style is often associated with low prices, whereas the opposite holds for the young picasso style. more precisely, the variables included in the regression are: • dimension: the surface of the painting, area, and the squared surface, area , in squared meters. • style: different style periods are identified [czujack, ]; childhood and youth ( - ), style ; blue and rose period ( - ), style ; analytical and synthetic cubism ( - ), style ; camera and classicism ( - ), style ; juggler of the form ( - ), style ; guernica and the ‘style picasso’ ( - ), style ; politics and art ( - ), style ; and the old picasso ( - ), style (excluded variable). as shown in table , some stylistic period are much more frequent than others. the blue and rose period represents less than per cent of the observations, whereas the most common, the old picasso style ( per cent of the total sales), is less frequent in the high price quantiles. different styles have different weights, and are unevenly distributed across price classes. in fact, quantile distributions are significantly different from the average full sample distribution . • media: a set of dummy variables, reflecting the technique adopted, is used: canvas, oil on canvas, the per cent of the items auctioned; panel, oil on panel; mixed, mixed technique; and medother, all other media (excluded variable). • salerooms: sotheby’s and christie’s are known to be the leading auction houses in this kind of transaction while the most important art auction markets are in new york and london. we consider therefore some interaction dummies between salerooms and cities: chriny, for christie’s new york; chrilon, for christie’s london; sothny, for sotheby’s new york; sothlon, for sotheby’s london; othauc for all other locations (excluded variable). the most important market for the picasso paintings is new york, followed by london, with few differences between sotheby’s and christie’s. overall, the items auctioned by sotheby’s and christie’s represents the majority of the sales collected in the data set, but no obvious pattern in terms of prices classes emerges. • year of sale: a set of yearly dummy variables, dt, with t = ,.., , are introduced for each year between and ( baseline variable). sales are spread quite evenly across the years under scrutiny, with notable exceptions, the years and , with less than percent of the total sales, and the year , in which occurred the largest share of sales, . percent, mostly concentrated in the . quantile. the quintile distributions, however, are not significantly different with respect to the full sample distribution. formally, the following regression function form is set: it i ii it dsothlon sothnychrilonchrinymixedpanelcanvasstyle stylestylestylestylestylestyleareaareap εββ βββββββ βββββββββ ++ ++++++++ ++++++++= ∑ = ( ) a shapiro-wilks test is used to test for the normality of the differences between the average and the quantile yearly sales distributions. the results, not shown for the sake of brevity, are available upon request. where pit is the log-price of painting i sold at time t; and ɛit is the error term. . results in the following, firstly the whole sample standard hedonic price model is estimated to set a benchmark. secondly, the quantile regressions are estimated in order to analyze the hedonic characteristics across the price distribution. the results are displayed in table . [table about here] column shows the results for the ols whole sample specification whereas the quantile regression results are shown in columns - . following berndt et al. ( ), standard errors and variance-covariance matrices of the coefficients have been computed by using the white heteroschedasticity-robust procedure. in column , dimension has a positive effect on prices, but at decreasing rate, as the squared area shows a negative sign, in line with several previous studies. all styles perform better than the old picasso style (the baseline variable): the blue and rose period is the most appreciated by the collectors, followed by the cubist period and the young picasso. oil on canvas displays a positive coefficient, whereas oil on panel is not statistically significant and mixed techniques shows a negative coefficient sign, compared to the other media class (the excluded variable). finally, in line with previous studies, even controlling for other hedonic characteristics, christies’ and sotheby’s auction houses, located both in london and new york, sell at a premium with respect to the other auction houses (the excluded variable). the evidence based on the whole sample shows in other words the expected results of a typical hedonic regression. as shown in columns - of table , most of the coefficients are significantly different from zero at per cent probability across quantiles; however, the r-squared of the overall sample regression is larger than the corresponding quantile regressions, because of the greater variability. as for the quantile regression coefficients, a casual inspection might suggest a pattern roughly in line with the whole sample result, with the possible emergence of a stable ranking for artistic values. some differences in the absolute size of coefficients across quintiles emerges for the style variable, whereas in relative terms the blue and rose period is always the most appreciated, followed by cubism, young picasso and the juggler of the form periods. camera and classicism, guernica and politics and art (even if have a positive estimates and therefore perform better than the baseline old picasso style) are less appreciated. like in the whole sample regression, the (log of) the price increases with the size of the painting, but at decreasing rate, with the size of the linear and (more neatly) squared term decreasing for the larger quantiles. differences among quintiles are more evident for the salesrooms, and the media coefficients: some variable, significant in the lowest quantile regressions, lose their significance in the higher quantile regressions. also the yearly dummies follow idiosyncratic patterns. however, a more formal evaluation requires to test for the equality of the coefficients across quantile regressions. in order to avoid problems arising in the presence of certain departures when solving minimization by linear programming [deaton, ], we compute robust standard error estimates by bootstrap, with , replications. f-tests for each groups of variables on the lowest quintile versus the other quintile models is run and reported in table . the null hypothesis of equal coefficients across quintiles cannot be rejected for the dimension, style and salerooms variables, whereas is rejected at the usual significance level for the media and the trend period. for the media variables this result might be in part due to the correlation between the media and the quintile: in the low quintiles mixed techniques or other techniques are relatively important, whereas in the high quintiles canvases prevail. the most striking outcome concerns the yearly dummies: low and high quintiles trends are clearly different, a result already known as the masterpiece effect [mei and moses, ]. [table about here] with different values associated with the mean (ols) regression and the quantile regression estimates, it is natural to evaluate the emergence of significant differences in the price dynamics of picasso paintings. to this aim, the yearly dummy coefficients are used to calculate quantile-specific adjacent year regressions price indexes. these indexes measure the per cent change in price associated with the change from to of the dummy variables and they are given by [ ∗(eβj- )], where βj is the quintile-estimated coefficient. table and figure show both the whole sample and the quintile price index values. [table about here] [figure about here] figure shows how the different specific price classes submarkets share several common short run adjustments, making difficult the recognition of the differences in the quantile trends. the boom of the late s is apparent for every series, as well the subsequent burst and the weak recovery that occurred over the period - . again the boom period of the - emerges neatly from the time indices. the imperfect synchronization of (price) cycles among price classes might affect the previous conclusions, as the use of a common base year influences the subsequent dynamics of the indexes. in order to develop a more balanced approach, in table we show the various -year returns computed over the periods - , - ,…, computed using the table time dummies. [table about here] [figure about here] within a -year horizon, the burst of the bubble of the late eighties lead to a period of significant losses for quantiles in the first years. however, with a careful (or lucky) selection of the investment period, remarkable rates of return can be obtained, as in the period - . the same outcome emerges for specific quintiles, as in the period - for the highest quintiles. on average, the return is higher for the high end of the market, but also more volatile, as shown in figure . the evidence in support of specific price characteristics for different quantiles is therefore strengthened. . conclusions although the existence of different values for painting characteristics across different hammer price distributions may have been considered intuitive beforehand, to our knowledge, such a issue has never been empirically investigated. by contrast, the homogeneity of the systems of evaluation with respect to price levels has been the standard approach in the applied literature. quantile regression provides an intuitive way to evaluate the relevance of the price effect in the appreciation of the paintings. in this paper we use the quantile regression approach for analyzing the structure of the hedonic characteristics of picasso paintings sold at auctions worldwide during the period - . we estimate a log-linear hedonic model both for the full sample and the . , . , . , . , and . quantiles of hammer price distribution. the empirical evidence suggests the existence of significant differences both in the way prices respond to characteristics (particularly in the media variables) and in the rates of return from an investment in picasso paintings across different price ranges (the so called masterpiece effect). references bassett, g.w.jr., tam, m.s., knight, k. ( ), quantile models and estimators for data analysis, metrika, - . berndt e. r., rappaport n. j. ( ), price and quality of desktop and mobile personal computers: a quarter-century historical overview, american economic review, ( ), - . candela g., scorcu, a.e. ( ), a price index for art market auctions. an application to the italian market of modern and contemporary oil paintings, journal of cultural economics, , - . collins, a., scorcu, a.e., zanola, r. ( ), sample selection bias and time instability of hedonic art price indexes, working papers , dipartimento scienze economiche, università di bologna. collins, a., scorcu, a.e., zanola, r. ( ), reconsidering hedonic art price indexes, economic letters, , - . czujack, c. ( ), picasso paintings at auction, - , journal of cultural economics, , - . deaton, a. ( ), the analysis of household survey, baltimore, md, johns hopkins university press. ginsburgh v.a., mei, j., moses, m. ( ), the computation of price indices, in ginsburgh, v.a., throsby, d. (eds.), handbook of the art and culture, north-holland. locatelli biey, m., zanola, r. ( ), the market for picasso prints: a hybrid model approach, journal of cultural economics, ( ), - . koenker. r.w., bassett, g.w. ( ), regression quantiles, econometrica, ( ), - . koenker, r.w., hallock, k. ( ), quantile regression: an introduction, journal of economic perspectives, ( ), - . malpezzi, s. ( ), hedonic pricing models: a selective and applied review, in sullivan, t.o., gibbs, k. (eds.), housing economics and public policy: essay in honour of duncan maclennan, oxford, blackwell. mei, m,, moses, m. ( ), art as an investment and the underperformance of masterpieces, american economic review, , - pesando, j.e. ( ), art as investment: the market for modern prints, american economic review, , - . zanola, r. ( ), the dynamics of art prices: the selection corrected repeat-sales index, working papers , department of public policy and public choice, university of eastern piedmont. zietz, j., zietz, e.n., sirmans, g.s. ( ), determinants of house prices: a quantile regression approach, department of economics and finance working paper series, middle tennessee state university. figure . empirical distribution function (edf) of selling prices table . summary statistics percentile full sample ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) mean std. dev. mean std. dev. mean std. dev. mean std. dev. mean std. dev. mean std. dev. price , , , , , , . , , . , . , . , , , . , , , , area . . . . . . . . . . . . area . . . . . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . . . . . canvas . . . . . . . . . . . . panel . . . . . . . . . . . . mixed . . . . . . . . . . . . other_tech . . . . . . . . . . . . chrilon . . . . . . . . . . . . chriny . . . . . . . . . . . . sothlon . . . . . . . . . . . . sothny . . . . . . . . . . . . othauc . . . . . . . . . . . . table . summary statistics (contd.) percentile full sample ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) mean std. dev. mean std. dev. mean std. dev. mean std. dev. mean std. dev. mean std. dev. d . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . table . full sample and quantile regression (qr) results qr ols ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) coef. robust std. err. coef. robust std. err. coef. robust std. err. coef. robust std. err. coef. robust std. err. coef. robust std. err. area . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . area - . *** . - . *** . - *** . -. *** . -. *** . -. *** . style . *** . . ** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . style . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . style . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . style . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . style . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . style . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . style . *** . . ** . . *** . . *** . . *** . . *** . canvas . *** . . *** . . ** . . ** . . . . . panel -. . -. . -. . -. . . . -. . mixed - . *** . - . *** . - . *** . -. . -. . -. . chrilon . *** . . ** . . * . . . . . -. . chriny . *** . . ** . . ** . . . . . -. . sothlon . ** . . . . * . . . . . -. . sothny . *** . . *** . . *** . . * . . ** . . . cons . *** . . *** . . . . *** . . *** . . *** . yearly dummies yearly dummies yearly dummies yearly dummies yearly dummies yearly dummies r-squared . . . . . . ***,**,*. significance at . , . , . table . test for the equality of the quantile hedonic regressions coefficients qr . vs . . vs . . vs . . vs . variable f prob > f f prob > f f prob > f f prob > f dimension . . . . . . . . style . . . . . . . . media . . . . . . . . salerooms . . . . . . . . period . . . . . . . . table . adjacent year regression indexes percentile full sample . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . d . . . . . . table . -year return return (full) return ( . ) return ( . ) return ( . ) return ( . ) return ( . ) - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . figure . adjacent year regression indexes . . . . . . d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d index (full) index (. ) index (. ) index (. ) index (. ) index (. ) figure . average return and standard deviation of -year returns full samp le . quant . quant . quant . quant . quant average -year return st d d ev ia tio n on -y ea r re tu rn presence / michael cohen mcohen@u-aizu.ac.jp http://www.u-aizu.ac.jp/ dmcohen spatial media group human interface lab. university of aizu - japan exclude and include for audio sources and sinks: analogs of mute & solo are deafen & attend abstract non-immersive perspectives in virtual environments enable flexible paradigms of per- ception, especially in the context of frames of reference for conferencing and musical audition. traditional mixing idioms for enabling and disabling various audio sources employ mute and solo functions, that, along with cue, selectively disable or focus on respective channels. exocentric interfaces which explicitly model not only sources but also sinks, motivate the generalization of mute and solo (or cue) to exclude and include, manifested for sinks as deafen and attend (confide and harken). such func- tions, which narrow stimuli by explicitly blocking out and/or concentrating on selected entities, can be applied not only to other users’ sinks for privacy, but also to one’s own sinks for selective attendance or presence. multiple sinks are useful in groupware, where a common environment implies social inhibitions to rearranging shared sources like musical voices or conferees, as well as individual sessions in which spatial arrange- ment of sources, like the configuration of a concert orchestra, has mnemonic value. a taxonomy of modal narrowcasting functions is proposed, and an audibility protocol is described, comprising revoke, renounce, grant, and claim methods, invocable by these narrowcasting commands to control superposition of soundscapes. introduction an exocentric model in which a user is represented by an icon (avatar, synthespian, vactor, and so on) in the context of a virtual space (as suggested by table ) is useful in spatial sound systems; virtual environments with audio can be thought of as graphical mixing consoles. as outlined by table , since the word speaker is ambiguously overloaded, meaning both loudspeaker and talker, this paper uses source to mean both, a logical sound emitter. similarly and sym- metrically, sink is used to describe a virtual listener, a logical sound receiver. icons embodying sources and sinks may wander around virtual spaces, like min- glers at a cocktail party, or upon the stage during a concert, hovering over the shoulder of favorite musicians. for example, if a sink rotates (exocentrically vi- sually), the apparent sonic location of the source revolves (egocentrically acous- tically) accordingly. most discussions of presence in virtual environments are about its quality— degrees of resolution and interactivity (held & durlach, ; sheridan, ; sheridan, ). this paper assumes elaboration of its quantity (cohen, , presence, vol. , no. , february , – r by the massachusetts institute of technology p r e s e n c e : v o l u m e , n u m b e r ; cohen & koizumi, ). one’s perceptual focus need not be unique or singular. split or shared percep- tion can be thought of as violating the ‘‘one [sensory] sink to a customer’’ allocation that is inherent to immer- sive systems; in an exocentric paradigm, each user may have an arbitrary number of dedicated virtual sensor instances, and the mapping between sinks and hu- mans may be one to many, many to one, or many to many. the case of many sinks designated by a single user, explained in more detail later, describes situations in which one has various simultaneous telepresences (like talking on a phone while monitoring an intercom while listening to music). illustrating a one-to-many mapping of sinks to users (as in broadcast media like tv or radio which effectively employ a single delegate of a collective audience), cohen and koizumi ( ) allowed two us- ers to synchronously adjust the position of multiple sources and a single shared sink in a virtual concert, as if they were simultaneously conductor and (singleton) au- dience. more prosaically, a normal conference call just sums the signals from everyone participating, so that they can be said to share a sink. an example of a many- to-many sink:user mapping is a virtual concert in which the audience shares a distribution of sinks: each user may attend the same soundscape, but multiple sinks can be used to decrease the granularity of audition. such pre- sentation styles blur the distinctions between composer, conductor/performer, and audience, as hypertext blurs the distinctions between author, publisher, and reader. the extension into audio of spatial sound and the flex- ible perspective models of virtual reality—catalyzed by the convergence of telecommunication (including tele- phony), computing, and electronics (including audio, television, and video)—motivate extensions to tradi- tional idioms for sound mixing in musical and confer- encing applications (cohen, ). deafen & attend (confide and harken) traditional mixing idioms for selectively activating multiple sources employ mute and solo functions, which, along with cue, disable or focus on respective channels. sometimes, just the initial letters s and m are used (with no lascivious association intended), the s standing for select as well as solo. that mute blocks the output of a source, it goes without saying. exocentric interfaces, which explicitly model not only sources but also loca- tion, orientation, directivity, and multiplicity of sinks, motivate the generalization of mute/solo and cue to ex- clude and include, manifested for sinks as deafen/ confide and harken, a narrowing of stimuli by explicitly blocking out and/or concentrating on selected entities (cohen, ). deafen disables sinks; confide and harken focus on them by disabling others. these extensions can be described in the context of applica- tion to three situations, presented in the following sec- tions. . deafen/confide invoked on other users’ sinks for privacy a simple conferencing configuration typically con- sists of various icons representing distributed users, mov- ing around shared spaces. these icons each represent a source (the voice of the associated user) as well as a sink (that user’s ears). source attributes mute and solo or cue, settable by each user for each source, are used to focus on some channels exclusively, or selectively still them. solo picks out selected channels for aural scrutiny; mute blocks the selection out of the mix. if privacy is desired, confidentialities can be shared in a separate, acoustically isolated (if still virtual), space. anisotropic (direction-dependent) sound radiation table i. user and delegate—projected presence human pilot representative (projected presence) carbon community avatar rl (real life) electronic puppet meatspace synthespian (synthetic thespian) motion capture vactor (virtual actor) an avatar is the reification of an icon in a virtual environment. cohen patterns (cohen & koizumi, ; cre, ), like that shown in figure , can be used to define projection of sources and thereby control audibility. such ‘‘nearest- neighbors’’ or proximity-based techniques of spatial par- titioning (viegas & donath, ) are useful, as in nor- mal conversations, for situations in which one doesn’t mind others noticing (as third-party witnesses to a first- to-second person address), but multilobed radiation patterns become impractical for situations in which confidants are spatially distributed, and impossible when sound must ‘‘skip over’’ unaddressed inter- vening sinks, like knights in chess. just as a mega- phone directionally projects sound or an ear trumpet collects it, a multimegaphone or ears trumpet, like that imagined by figure , represents a generalization, ca- pable of projecting sound fields to multiple arbitrary locations. alternatively and more practically, deafen/confide functions, sink analogs of mute/solo, can be used to nar- row multicasts to representatives of other humans in a table . roles of soutput rce and sinput k p r e s e n c e : v o l u m e , n u m b e r groupware environment. rather than exclude/in- clude attributes that näively assume symmetry in a ‘‘gossip circle’’ by linking mute to deafen and solo to at- tend, such differentiated functions allow tighter control. one might want to monitor an ongoing conference while focusing remarks, or share with a gallery whose cacophony one has no use for. . deafen/harken invoked on one’s own sinks . . deafen/harken (invoked on one’s own sinks) across several spaces for selective attendance. designation of multiple sinks across sev- eral spaces effectively increases one’s attendance. a user may simply fork themself, leaving one clone hither while installing another yon, compositing soundscapes via the superposition of multiple sinks’ presence (begault, , pp. – ). such a multisink presence, en- abling multiple receivers in different locations, explicitly overlays multiple audio displays, allowing a conferee to leave a pair of ears in one conversation, while sending other pairs to side caucuses. audio entities, unlike visual, do not in general oc- clude, although masking can be thought of as audio oc- clusion (bregman, ; blauert, ; cohen & wen- . the ‘‘cone of silence,’’ used by agent and the chief in mel brooks’ tv show get smart, was intended to acoustically seclude two spies, so that they could exchange secret information without anyone eavesdropping. figure . contour plot showing projection of radiation pattern combining distance and directional effects. (generated in mathematica.) figure . speaker or microphone as hydra—multimegaphone (sources) or ears trumpet (sinks). figure . superposition of soundscapes (reproduced from begault with permission). cohen zel, ). combination of soundscapes can be done directly, monaurally or stereophonically, as in a mixer, as shown by figure . in particular, stereo sources—real (or mic’d on a dummy head) or artificial (binaurally spa- tialized)—may be simply added (cohen et al., ). the overlaid existence so enabled suggests the name given to this effect—sonic cubism, presenting multiple simultaneous acoustic perspectives collapsed into a single soundscape (comparable to the way visual cubism col- lapses several viewpoints of a d scene onto a d sur- face). being anywhere is better than being everywhere, since it is selective. a multisink presence is distilled ubiq- uity, regarding multiple objects at once. distinguishing between other users’ sinks and one’s own (as the two sets might be distinct, identical, or partly overlapping) motivates choice of a special word to describe focusing on a subset of (possibly many of) one’s own locations. in the case of a user represented by multiple sinks, harken recalls a transitive form of hark, a reflexive confide, de- noting a sense of listening attentively or closely via one’s designated sinks’ ears. . . deafen/harken (invoked on one’s own sinks) in a single space for selective multipresence. the designation of multiple sinks can be used to sharpen the granularity of control within a single space, as sepa- rate sinks can monitor individual sources via selective amplification, even if those sources are not reposition- able; just as in ordinary settings, social conventions might inhibit dragging someone else around a shared space. one could pay close attention to particular instru- ments in a concert without rearranging the ensemble, which would disturb the soundscape perceived by icons representing other users in the common model. a useful analogy is a ‘‘rashomon simulcast,’’ after the epony- mous akira kurosawa film based on the stories of ry unosuke akutagawa (akutagawa, ), which con- trasted multiple perspectives of a single incident. table presents a taxonomy of points of view, sweeping the con- tinuum from egocentric through exocentric user experi- ences (laurel, ). imagine, for example, that a concert attendee wanted to pay special attention to a drum and rhythm guitar, while preserving the configuration of the instruments. besides tradition and mnemonics, one reason for not just rearranging the instruments around a singleton sink is to maintain consistency with other listeners, distrib- uted in time and space (both physical and virtual). one could replicate, and be literally besides oneself. in figure , one avatar is located inside the drum, while another doppelgänger is near the rhythm guitar. the apparent paradoxes of one’s being in multiple places simultaneously (firesign theatre, ) can be resolved by partitioning the sources across the sinks. if the sinks are distributed across separate virtual rooms, each source is spatialized with respect to the sink in the same room. in the case of autothronging—or multiple sinks designated by a single user in the same space—an autofocus mode can be employed by anticipating level- difference localization, the tendency to perceive multiple identical sources in different locations as a single fused source. this is related to the precedence effect, or ‘‘rule of the first wavefront’’ (wallach et al., ; haas, ; blauert, ; gilkey & anderson, ). rather than adding or averaging the contribution of each source to one’s multiple sinks, each source can be spa- tialized with respect to only the best (loudest, as a func- tion of distance and mutual gain, including focus and orientation) sink, as shown in figure . applications these themes of multiple, selective presence have been explored by two proofs-of-concept. . helical keyboard the helical keyboard (herder & cohen, ) is a virtual, piano-style keyboard wrapped through a left- handed helix (shepard, ), so that chroma (note within an octave) maps to azimuth and pitch height maps to elevation. the model was generated algorithmi- cally with mathematica (wolfram, ), exported into vrml (hartman & wernecke, ), and imported into open inventor (wernecke, ), where it is animated by a midi streamer. designed to allow separate audition, for instance, of p r e s e n c e : v o l u m e , n u m b e r harmony and melody, the model is meant to be experi- enced in a hemispherical speaker array (amano et al., ). a single sink inside the helix near its base might easily determine the azimuth of the harmony, but the melodic notes would all seem to come from the upper pole. as shown by figure (see p. ), multiple sinks can normalize the octave, and can be selectively disabled by an active toggle. . maw: multidimensional audio windows maw is an application for manipulating sound sources and sinks in d virtual rooms, capable of driving a heterogeneous backend (cohen & ludwig, a, b; cohen, ). the graphical representation of maw’s virtual rooms is an orthographic plan view. fig- ure shows a snapshot of such a representation as part of a typical session (mixing the top-down metaphor used in figure with frontal snapshots), using multiple sinks as foci of a generalized fisheye (furnas, ) audio ‘‘lens.’’ maw supports multiple, independent, simultaneous con- ferences and concerts; a source is inaudible to a sink in a dif- ferent virtual room. the cut/paste idiom is used as a worm- hole (teleporter), so a subcaucus may be spawned simply by cutting a coterie out of one room and pasting it (‘‘beaming down’’) into another. users wanting to monitor simulta- neous conferences need only fork themselves with, for ex- ample, copy/paste, installing (multiply designated) replicant sinks in each room of interest. a mixels panel, shown in . mixels, acronymic for sound mixing elements,—in analogy to dexels (depth elements), hogels (holographic elements), pixels (picture elements), taxels (tactile array elements), texels (texture elements), and voxels (volumetric elements, a.k.a. boxels), since they are like a raster across which a soundscape is projected—define the granularity of con- trol and degree of directional or spatial polyphony. figure . virtual concert: multiple sinks (generalized multifocus audio fish-eye). cohen figure , can be used to activate or deactivate sources and sinks with solo, mute, attend (confide or harken), and deafen. formalization the suite of inclusion and exclusion narrowcast commands for sources and sinks are like analogs of burning and dodging (shading) in photographic processing. the analogy between source and sink operations is close, and the semantics are identical: an icon is enabled by de- fault unless it is explicitly excluded (with mute and deafen), or peers are explicitly included (with solo or cue and attend: confide or harken) when the respective icon is not. because a source or a sink is active by default, invoking ex- clude and include operations simultaneously on an ob- ject results in its being disabled. in predicate calculus notation, active(x) qexclude(x) ` (' y include(y) ⇒ include(x)). ( ) so, for mute and solo, the relation is active(sourcex) qmute(sourcex) ` (' y solo(sourcey) ⇒ solo(sourcex)), ( a) mute explicitly turning off a source, and solo disabling the collocated (same room/window) complement of the selection (in the spirit of ‘‘anything not mandatory is forbidden’’). for deafen/attend, the relation is active(sinkx) qdeafen(sinkx) ` (' y attend(sinky) ⇒ attend(sinkx)). ( b) figurative representation distinguishing between operations involving one’s own and others’ representatives, table proposes a tax- onomy of narrowcasting functions by juxtaposing dis- abling and enabling operations, generally as well as for visual and audio modalities. the famous ‘‘hear/speak/see no evil’’ monkeys, pictured in figure , are examples of reflexive ‘‘[sink] deafen/[source] mute/[sink] avert,’’ which audio relations fill the top-right sextant of table . traditional mixing console functions mute/solo and cue, operating as they do on sources that are metaphorically remote, corre- spond to transitive ‘‘[source] mute’’ (illustrated by figure a), which, along with transitive ‘‘[sink] deafen’’ (illustrated by figure b), fills the bottom-right sextant. a figurative avatar in virtual space is humanoid, and especially includes a head, which embodies not only a center of consciousness, but also the ears, mouth, and eyes. exclude and include source and sink properties can be visually represented by iconic attributes which can distinguish between operations reflexive (invoked by a user associated with a respective icon) and transitive (in- voked by another user in the shared environment) (co- hen & herder, ). distributed users might typically share spatial aspects of a groupware environment, but attributes like mutedness or deafenedness are determined and displayed on a per-user basis (chen et al., ). . ‘‘blind,’’ the dual of the visual ‘‘see no evil’’ avert operation, cor- responds to a video conference ‘‘sneeze button,’’ which blocks or freezes transmission. figure . unicast source = sink transmissions. if an attending sink is deafened (or peers confided in), remaining sinks adopt orphaned sources. p r e s e n c e : v o l u m e , n u m b e r figure . maw conference. figure . mixels panel: sinks and sources across multiple spaces. the solo and confide columns employ the familiar ‘‘radio buttons’’ idiom, in which the selection is presumed to be a singleton. asserting an attribute for one object (by checking it in the respective column at the designated row) resets it for any others, unless the selection set is explicitly extended (by holding down a shift key while asserting the property). cohen for example, a source representing a human telecon- feree denotes mutedness with an iconic hand clapped over its mouth, oriented differently (thumb up or thumb down) depending on whether the source was muted by its owner (or one of its owners) or another unassociated user. (in the former case, all the users in the space would observe the mute, but, in the latter, only the user dis- abling the remote source would see the mute.) an audio muffler might be wrapped around an iconic head to de- note its deafness, but to distinguish between self-im- posed deafness (invoked by one whose attention is di- rected elsewhere) and distally imposed (invoked by another desiring selective privacy), hands clasped over the ears can be oriented differently depending on the agent of deafness. these cases are illustrated by table . such disabling qualities are not mutually exclusive, and, indeed, the orthogonal iconic attributes can be superim- posed, albeit confusingly, as in figure , an ‘‘omnigrope’’ extreme case. simultaneously applied filters can be repre- sented by interpenetrated virtual models, nonverbal commu- nication being used to symbolize access permissions. future research . continuum of audibility besides the dichotomous on/off of the include/ exclude functions, we plan to fuzzify the audibility continuum by programming functions that focus source- to-sink transmissions without blocking them from others in the same space, a ‘‘sharing’’ meant to denote a non- private aside. (for instance, some home listening con- soles have a so-called ‘‘mute’’ function that reduces the volume by approximately db instead of cutting it al- together.) a ‘‘casual confide’’ function could eventually be combined with an obtrusive mode (mershon, ; martens, ), invoking source-side, near-field transfer functions for whispering and sotto voce effects. a notion of ‘‘virtual social distance’’ (michelitsch et al., ) can be used to scale the quality of audio narrowcasts, includ- ing representation as a synthetic murmur. . audibility protocol modeling sources and sinks as software objects, an audibility protocol describes transitions between states in which the respective methods are appropriate, as shown by figure . table . points of view point of view person intimacy object distance mode perspective exocentric rd public other distal transitive objective vicariousness, empathy nd social, multipersonal familiar medial imperative telepresence, autoempathy remote self immersive st personal self proximal reflexive subjective egocentric figure . monkeys at toshogu shrine (in nikko, japan): kikazaru (‘‘hear no evil’’), iwazaru (‘‘speak no evil’’), and mizaru (‘‘see no evil’’). p r e s e n c e : v o l u m e , n u m b e r because of the asymmetry of both mute/solo and deafen/attend (that is, audibility is assumed for collo- cated icons), audibility of a source with respect to a sink should be treated as a revocable privilege and a forsak- able right. for example, audibility would be granted by a source upon one’s entering a space, acknowledgeable by the respective sink by claiming that attribute. a source wishing to exclude certain sinks from audibility would invoke, directly via deafen or indirectly via attend, a revoke method, duly acknowledgeable by each disabled sink’s renounce. further policy extensions will relax the symmetry of such a protocol, including the ability to force audibility by overriding a source’s mute or sink’s deafen (which a parent might invoke when telechiding a distracted child: ‘‘how dare you attenuate my voice?!’’). groupware implementation of deafen/attend should eventually be done nondistally, as privacy concerns be- come relevant. rather than distributing all the source streams, as our prototypes do, and expecting the soft- ware to ignore private transmissions for others, a prop- erly secure implementation would restrict distribution earlier. full articulation of groupware extensions for privacy requires multicasting of listening per- missions. such protocols might ultimately be deployed directly on the internet, dynamically loaded into multicasting routers. active networks allow programmable network infrastructure. an application-specific audibility protocol like that described here could dynamically reconfigure the routers’ policy, for security, privacy, and to reduce network traffic. conclusion the protocols and methods defined and suggested by this research enable narrow- and multicasting idioms for selective privacy and attendance, scalability and lod (level of detail), and side- and back-channels. usually one thinks of one’s perspective as residing in a single place—namely, behind one’s eyes, between one’s ears, figure . distal exclude. table . exclude/include taxonomy: enable/disable for one’s own and others’ representatives cohen and so forth—but telepresence enables such points of attendance to be distributed and nonsingular, by repli- cating subject instead of object. in figure , separate soundscapes corresponding to music (top left), tele- phony (top right), mobile vehicular communication (bottom left), and a workstation (bottom right) are combined into a single percept, one’s perceptual spaces figure . multipresence via multiple sinks. figure . figurative avatar omnigroping interdigitation. a source representing a human teleconferee denotes mutedness with an iconic hand clapped over its mouth, oriented differently (thumb up or thumb down) depending on whether the source was muted by its owner (or one of its owners) or another user. to distinguish between deafness self-imposed (invoked by a user whose attention is directed elsewhere) versus distally imposed (invoked by a user desiring selective privacy), hands clasped over the ears orient differently depending on the agent of deafness. being both virtual and conceptually orthogonal, these various hands interpenetrate. figure . audibility protocol. p r e s e n c e : v o l u m e , n u m b e r being naturally coextensive, the center of one’s con- sciousness being singular. acknowledgments jens herder is the software architect for the helical keyboard project and the developer of the sound spatialization frame- work, in which the avatar representations are deployed. tom- oyuki kannoo implemented the ‘‘omnigroping’’ avatar. hiroki sato prepared the monkey illustrations. this research has been supported by a grant from the fukushima prefectural founda- tion for the advancement of science and education. references akutagawa, r. 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( ). the mathematica book ( rd ed.). wolfram media/cambridge university press. isbn - - - . p r e s e n c e : v o l u m e , n u m b e r Études photographiques, | mai Études photographiques | mai politique des images / illustration photographique beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine exposer la photographie au moma en beaumont newhall and a machine: exhibiting photography at the museum of modern art in sophie hackett traducteur : marine sangis Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ issn : - Éditeur société française de photographie Édition imprimée date de publication : mai isbn : issn : - référence électronique sophie hackett, « beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine », Études photographiques [en ligne], | mai , mis en ligne le mai , consulté le mai . url : http:// journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ ce document a été généré automatiquement le mai . propriété intellectuelle http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine exposer la photographie au moma en beaumont newhall and a machine: exhibiting photography at the museum of modern art in sophie hackett traduction : marine sangis note de l’Éditeur traduit de l'anglais par marine sangis l'auteur tient à remercier joel snyder, katie kirtland, sarah miller, thierry gervais, gaëlle morel, maia-mari sutnik et amy langstaff. au printemps , alfred barr, directeur du jeune musée d’art moderne (moma) de new york, charge le bibliothécaire de l’institution, beaumont newhall, d’organiser une exposition consacrée à l’histoire de la photographie. intitulée “photography - ”, elle ouvre l’année suivante et rassemble pièces qui représentent le premier siècle du médium tout en valorisant ses potentialités esthétiques. en résulte une large sélection d’objets, d’images et d’accessoires photographiques, complétée par des démonstrations didactiques. pour comprendre les concepts sur lesquels se fondent les choix du commissaire, le texte du catalogue qui ébauche les « principes d’une approche critique propre à la photographie » s’impose logiquement comme une première étape. cet essai, puis le livre qu’il devient, history of photography: from to the present, sont considérés en amérique du nord comme la référence majeure sur le sujet. certains ont reconnu dans ce texte l’expression du parti pris de newhall pour la straight photography. d’autres, notamment les chercheurs qui ont enquêté plus précisément sur l’exposition, ont vu dans la sélection des beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai objets la confirmation de la portée moderniste de son discours, principalement axé sur les spécificités du médium. les nombreux débats consacrés à l’exposition et à l’histoire de la photographie de newhall ont cependant négligé une source importante de son travail : l’idée récurrente et dominante dans les années de l’esthétique de la machine. newhall se familiarise avec ce courant d’idées à travers deux figures déterminantes : le photographe paul strand et alfred barr, le directeur du moma. cette esthétique de la machine lui fournit tout d’abord un langage pour promouvoir la photographie comme un art aux spécificités visuelles propres. elle lui permet ensuite de distinguer le photographe de la photographie, l’artiste de l’art et ainsi d’élargir sa sélection d’œuvres à des images dont les finalités s’écartent des idéaux de la straight photography auxquels il adhère dans le texte du catalogue. en effet, on observe un décalage entre les idées développées par newhall dans son essai et les œuvres sélectionnées pour l’exposition. comment comprendre par exemple la juxtaposition de photographies aériennes illustrant un bombardement pendant la grande guerre avec les vues de dunes prises par edward weston à oceano en californie ? si les similitudes formelles sont évidentes, ces images ont peu de choses en commun. l’exposition l’exposition ouvre le mars . elle occupe les quatre niveaux de l’édifice situé sur la e rue de new york. dans le hall d’entrée, les visiteurs sont accueillis par ce que newhall décrit comme un « gigantesque boîtier ». mesurant , x x mètres, la chambre est assez spacieuse pour que les curieux puissent y pénétrer. elle est équipée d’un objectif et d’une plaque de verre dépoli sur laquelle chacun peut observer l’image inversée de silhouettes allant et venant dans le musée . un peu plus loin, indiquant l’entrée des galeries, une composition de deux images par herbert matter attire l’attention du spectateur : une gravure figurant un daguerréotypiste réglant une chambre volumineuse et encombrante, et une photographie d’un homme des années tenant un appareil à main. la scénographie consiste en une succession “d’ambiances” rendues par les couleurs des salles. peintes d’un brun « cuir mauresque » ou d’un bleu nuit, elles associent une atmosphère précise à une période historique ou à un type de photographies donné . les daguerréotypes sont montrés dans des vitrines alors que les épreuves, parfois réunies sous un même passe-partout, sont encadrées ou accrochées directement au mur. le parcours est ponctué sur toute sa longueur par la présentation d’appareils photographiques, d’accessoires de daguerréotypie et même d’une chambre noire datant du xixe siècle destinée au développement des plaques de verre négatives . bien que la presse ait été généralement favorable au catalogue comme à l’exposition , lewis mumford exprime quelques réserves dans un article du new yorker : « il est peut-être un peu ingrat de ma part d’insinuer que le moma trahit, par la quantité du matériel documentaire exposé, des ambitions démesurées […] ce qui manque véritablement à cette exposition, c’est une analyse et une appréciation des photographies fondées sur leur valeur esthétique. un examen assez pointu pour nous permettre de distinguer une manifestation ayant sa place dans un musée d’art, d’une autre que l’on s’attendrait plus à voir, disons, au musée des sciences et de l’industrie . » beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai mumford rappelle clairement qu’il revient aux musées d’estimer la qualité des œuvres d’art et de ne montrer que celles qui témoignent d’une « valeur esthétique ». selon lui, c’est précisément ce travail d’évaluation qui fait défaut à la proposition de newhall. les chercheurs ont souligné la variété des sources et des modèles dont newhall s’est inspiré pour concevoir son exposition et élaborer son approche historique du médium : l’ouvrage de heinrich schwarz sur le photographe écossais david octavius hill, le cours de muséologie de paul j. sachs à harvard, un certain intérêt pour le cinéma d’avant- garde, l’exemple de l’exposition “film und foto” montée à stuttgart en , ou encore la présence au sein du conseil scientifique de l’exposition du mentor du bauhaus, lászló moholy-nagy . plusieurs décennies après la manifestation, la démarche de newhall est perçue comme typiquement moderniste. pour autant, lorsqu’en newhall s’attelle à son projet, sa position n’est pas si claire et déterminée que nous l’imaginons aujourd’hui. dans son travail de recherche et de préparation, newhall est assisté d’un conseil scientifique constitué d’experts qui lui facilitent par ailleurs l’accès à des collections privées et lui ouvrent les portes de fondations d’entreprise. l’équipe est pour le moins hétérogène et comprend : alexey brodovitch, directeur artistique de harper’s bazaar ; c. e. kenneth mees, directeur des recherches chez kodak ; lászló moholy-nagy précédemment cité ; charles peignot, directeur de la revue arts et métiers graphiques ; paul rotha, producteur à la société strand film ; d. a. spencer, président de la société royale de photographie de grande-bretagne ; et enfin edward steichen, alors responsable de la photographie pour les publications condé nast . newhall choisit finalement de découper le premier siècle de la photographie en trois périodes. introduites par un bref préambule traitant de la période “avant la photographie”, elles s’organisent ainsi : “photographie primitive” ( - ), “débuts de la photographie” ( - ) et “photographie contemporaine” ( et au-delà). sa version de l’histoire du médium s’avère techniciste et correspond dans une large mesure à un compte-rendu des avancées technologiques ayant permis, selon lui, de franchir des étapes fondamentales en matière de représentation photographique . l’exposition débute donc par le daguerréotype et le calotype, se poursuit avec le procédé au collodion humide et la plaque sèche, et s’achève avec l’apparition des appareils portatifs et des supports film. de nombreuses images viennent étayer la présentation de ces procédés parmi lesquelles des clichés de photographes de renom comme william henry fox talbot, matthew brady, eugène atget et berenice abbott, mais aussi d’auteurs moins célèbres comme nora dumas et peter sekaer ou de parfaits anonymes. newhall ponctue également ce parcours historique par des exemples de “premiers” usages qu’il estime essentiels dans l’évolution du médium, comme la première reproduction en similigravure d’une photographie dans un journal. cette présentation technologique progresse jusqu’à l’époque contemporaine, c’est-à-dire les années - . newhall choisit alors d’aborder ce dernier épisode en élargissant sa sélection au domaine de la presse, de la science ou du cinéma, de manière à rendre compte de la diversité de la photographie contemporaine. aux côtés des œuvres de photographes de renom vivants, tels walker evans, margaret bourke-white, lászló moholy-nagy et henri cartier-bresson, sont présentés d’autres travaux attribués à des auteurs méconnus, à des entreprises ou des institutions comme les sociétés eastman kodak, mclaughlin aerial surveys et les forces expéditionnaires américaines, ou encore à beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai des équipes de tournage, mentionnant dans ce cas les noms des producteurs, cinéastes et cameramen (fig. & ). quel est le rapport entre une photographie stroboscopique d’une goutte de lait prise dans les années et un calotype de montrant le portail ouest de la cathédrale de chartres ? ou quel est le point commun entre un photogramme tiré du film le cuirassé potemkine d’eisenstein et une photographie de presse montrant un match de boxe ? questions auxquelles il n’est pas facile de répondre tant la quantité d’objets et la variété des genres photographiques représentés semblent littéralement noyer le projet de newhall et en compliquer le décryptage. l’histoire de la photographie décrite par newhall dans son catalogue doit beaucoup à la conception de l’histoire de l’art enseignée à harvard durant les premières décennies du xxe siècle. en effet, charles eliot norton puis paul j. sachs encourageaient les étudiants à privilégier l’étude des caractéristiques physiques d’une œuvre à l’examen du contexte social ou psychologique dans lequel elle était produite. ils mettaient particulièrement en valeur la continuité de l’art à travers les siècles, comme une succession de représentations en permanente évolution. ils valorisaient également la notion de « génie rebelle » incarnant à leurs yeux la figure de l’inventeur de nouvelles formes artistiques . au tournant du xixe et du xxe siècle aux États-unis, lorsque critique et théorie modernes de l’art se cristallisent, l’histoire de l’art, l’histoire de la photographie et la muséologie se constituent en disciplines . ce n’est donc pas un hasard si ces différents secteurs du monde de l’art se révèlent par la suite de connivence. l’article de christopher phillips, “the judgment seat of photography” (le jugement dernier de la photographie) publié pour la première fois dans la revue october en , propose une nouvelle analyse des travaux de newhall. phillips reconnaît dans l’étendue de la sélection la marque d’un renouveau institutionnel et voit dans cette « muséification » la volonté d’inscrire la photographie « dans la logique des objectifs traditionnels du musée d’art. » selon phillips, soumettre la photographie au « regard transfigurant du musée » correspond à un glissement particulièrement négatif des valeurs qui ignore la reproductibilité comme qualité inhérente au médium et assimile les épreuves à des objets d’art précieux et originaux . en , dans son article “history of photography : the state of research” (histoire de la photographie : un état des recherches) publié dans le magazine art bulletin, douglas nickel soutient l’idée que newhall, avant tout passionné de photographie contemporaine, n’aurait cherché par sa version de l’histoire du médium qu’à justifier téléologiquement les pratiques photographiques en vogue aux États-unis dans les années . il note que sur les œuvres présentées dans son panorama historique, % relèvent de la catégorie “photographie contemporaine ”. certes, newhall s’intéresse beaucoup aux productions photographiques qui lui sont contemporaines et cherche dans le passé une tradition dans laquelle elles pourraient s’inscrire. cependant, son attention dépasse largement le périmètre couvert par la straight photography dont « l’idéal esthétique demeure monolithique : netteté optimale, large gamme de tons, précision des détails, sans manipulation au tirage ». dans son introduction au catalogue, il écrit : « la période qui succéda à la première guerre mondiale vit se développer toute une vague d’expérimentations artistiques. la rébellion à l’encontre des conventions académiques en devint elle-même conventionnelle. l’évolution des principes esthétiques engagée depuis le début des années toucha également la photographie. certains photographes prirent conscience de l’aptitude de la beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai photographie à enregistrer le passé et à élargir notre vision du monde. ils abandonnèrent alors toute velléité de la voir accéder au rang des beaux-arts et entreprirent d’en exploiter les potentialités intrinsèques. ils virent dans ce médium autant de possibilités jusqu’alors ignorées . » dans la partie réservée à la “photographie contemporaine”, newhall consacre une section à chacune des applications qu’il considère comme représentatives de ces « potentialités intrinsèques » : les photogrammes [shadowgraphs], la perspective photographique, la straight photography, les appareils miniatures, la photographie instantanée, la photographie de presse, les épreuves en couleurs, les productions scientifiques et les images animées. l’ensemble regroupe pièces, soit % du total des œuvres montrées. l’exposition fait indéniablement la part belle à la photographie contemporaine. bien que la rhétorique de newhall rappelle sa formation d’historien d’art et laisse penser que tous les objets présentés dans cette section sont le fruit d’initiatives personnelles motivées par une intention artistique, force est de constater qu’une part conséquente de ces objets ne s’accorde pas avec le discours. en effet, photographies ont été prises par des auteurs inconnus, sont attribuées à des sociétés ou à des institutions et sont des photogrammes de films. au total, images – soit % de la sélection – contredisent le discours de newhall mettant en scène des individus et des parcours artistiques exceptionnels. au regard de ces statistiques, de la quantité et de la diversité des œuvres, peut-on encore croire que la pensée de newhall est circonscrite à la seule photographie artistique ? dans son article, phillips identifie les précédents qui ont inspiré l’exposition de newhall comme “film und foto”, organisée à stuttgart en présentant un vaste panorama des multiples applications de la photographie et des technologies qui leur sont liées. de par son exhaustivité, l’exposition du moma s’inscrit dans la même mouvance que ce type de grandes manifestations européennes. un rapprochement qui se justifie également par la présence au sein du conseil scientifique de moholy-nagy, co-fondateur du bauhaus, professeur et tenant du fotokunst – l’art de l’appareil photographique . ce n’est pourtant qu’en note de bas de page que phillips en tient véritablement compte, en admettant que « ces expositions mixtes, mariant photographie scientifique, commerciale et créative telle la “nouvelle vision”, ou encore le film, placent l’appareil au centre de l’esthétique technologique d’après guerre en allemagne […] ». bien plus qu’une précision de note de bas de page, ce constat s’impose comme une clé de compréhension du projet de newhall. À l’instar de ses prédécesseurs en europe, newhall fait de l’appareil le dénominateur commun de son exposition. dès lors, il peut affirmer que les propriétés esthétiques de la photographie résultent de la technologie et la distinguent ainsi des autres modes de production d’images . de plus, ce rôle déterminant de l’appareil autorise le commissaire à proposer une large sélection de photographies, qu’elles soient ou non en accord avec les préceptes de la straight photography. pour l’intelligentsia des années , penser la “machine”, son aptitude à produire de la beauté et son rôle dans la sphère culturelle relève du lieu commun . c’est d’abord à travers les écrits de paul strand que newhall accède à ce courant d’idées. paul strand et l’esthétique de la machine beaumont newhall rencontre paul strand en lorsqu’il projette de lui emprunter des œuvres pour l’exposition. malgré quelques réserves devant l’ambition du projet, strand beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai donne son aval et newhall choisit treize de ses photographies, produites entre et , pour la plupart des paysages et des vues d’architectures prisau québec, dans le maine, au mexique et au nouveau-mexique . newhall est particulièrement sensible au travail de strand, ce qui explique la quantité exceptionnelle des images retenues. en effet, avec lászló moholy-nagy, strand est le mieux représenté parmi les photographes encore vivants. en termes purement arithmétiques, il n’est supplanté que par les vingt et une images de matthew brady et par eugène atget dont dix-neuf photographies, trois scrapbooks et un album sont exposés. dans ses mémoires, newhall relate que lors de leur première rencontre, strand lui proposa, non sans provocation, sa propre version de ce que devait être une exposition consacrée à la photographie : « voilà, ce que vous devriez faire : réservez tout le premier niveau à david octavius hill, le second à atget ; dédiez le troisième à alfred stieglitz, quant au quatrième, je vous suggère d’y exposer paul strand . » cette proposition apparaît dès dans un article de paul strand intitulé “alfred stieglitz and a machine ” (alfred stieglitz et une machine), dans lequel trois idées cruciales se dégagent. d’abord strand assimile l’appareil à la machine ; ensuite, il affirme que cette machine ne produit qu’un seul et même genre d’objet, des photographies qui peuvent cependant exprimer la vision singulière de différents photographes, caractéristique de cette esthétique de la machine ; enfin, à partir de ce point de vue spécifique, il élabore l’histoire se rapportant à cette esthétique. À cette époque, strand est déjà l’une des figures tutélaires de la straight photography. alfred stieglitz, son mentor, lui a consacré une exposition exclusive dans sa galerie , de même que le dernier numéro de sa revue camera work sorti en juin . À la fin des années et au cours des années , strand écrit différents articles importants dans lesquels il théorise « la spécificité des moyens » de la photographie . ces textes s’inscrivent dans la filiation des écrits d’autres photographes comme alfred stieglitz ou frederick evans, stipulant que la photographie ne doit pas aspirer à un statut artistique – c’est-à-dire à celui de la peinture. strand est cependant le premier à énoncer clairement les caractéristiques de cette esthétique nouvelle et directe – ou straight – à l’œuvre dans la photographie et à en formuler le vocabulaire. ces idées sont exprimées avec verve dans “photography” (photographie) de et dans “photography and the new god” (photographie et le nouveau dieu) publié en . dans le premier, il soutient que ce n’est qu’en embrassant « la spécificité totale de ses moyens » que la photographie peut trouver « sa raison d’être », son « objectivité absolue et inconditionnelle ». il affirme que c’est l’appareil lui-même qui impose ces caractéristiques singulières, déterminant selon lui les limites du médium. visuellement, cela se traduit par une très grande netteté de l’image, une organisation précise des détails, une gamme de tonalités étendue et le moins possible de manipulations au tirage. plus qu’une simple énumération d’attributs formels, l’ensemble des spécificités énoncées illustre le rapport du photographe à ce qui se trouve devant l’appareil et décrit une posture objective. les images qui résultent de cette approche formelle, émotionnelle et intellectuelle sont « directement produites par l’intelligence et l’esprit via la machine ». strand développe plus loin : « dans le travail de stieglitz il y a toujours l’acceptation totale de ce qui lui fait face, c’est-à-dire de l’objectivité à laquelle le photographe ne peut échapper et qu’il se doit de contrôler . » l’emploi du verbe « contrôler » est ici crucial. il poursuit : « somme toute, il doit être bien clair maintenant que la machine est en soi beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai passive et innocente. il revient à l’homme d’en contrôler le mécanisme et les accessoires, la finesse et la subtilité des productions . » en qualifiant l’appareil de « passif et innocent », strand le réduit au rang de simple instrument et ne remet pas en question la notion de suprématie créatrice du photographe. il va même plus loin en affirmant que l’appareil est un outil qui peut-être utilisé sur le plan artistique, et que l’humanité ne tardera pas à en tirer un grand bénéfice. strand imagine l’avènement d’une nouvelle trinité : « la machine en guise de dieu, l’empirisme matérialiste en place du fils et la science en saint-esprit ». dans cette configuration, la connaissance (l’empirisme matérialiste) est transmise à l’humanité via la machine, l’appareil. et, puisque photographier se conçoit désormais comme un acte spirituel, voire mystique, le photographe se voit allouer la position de médiateur, chargé de composer avec la machine. strand va jusqu’à prétendre que la photographie pratiquée avec objectivité est en passe de transformer et même d’humaniser la machine. il pense qu’elle finira par supplanter « tous les dieux et toutes les trinités » et parviendra à unir l’humanité tout entière. dans cette logique, le photographe devient un guide, un prophète : « et alors c’est à nouveau la vision de l’artiste, cherchant intuitivement le savoir, qui dans ce monde moderne se saisit du mécanisme et des attributs de la machine et nous montre la voie […] l’artiste, exerçant un contrôle créatif et conscient sur la machine, a développé une nouvelle méthode pour percevoir un monde objectif et pour l’enregistrer […] le photographe a rejoint les rangs de ceux qui sont en quête de savoir, qu’il soit intuitif et esthétique ou conceptuel et scientifique. de plus, en prenant le contrôle spirituel d’une machine, à savoir de l’appareil photographique, il a révélé le mur d’antagonismes destructeur et entièrement fictif que ces deux groupes avaient construit entre eux . » ce passage fait écho à de nombreux textes produits par les avant-gardes dans les années : un ton programmatique mobilisateur, une profonde croyance dans la machine et dans son esthétique, une capacité à révolutionner la société comme à abattre ce « mur d’antagonismes ». au-delà des convictions marxistes de strand, ces idées relèvent d’un mouvement plus général, prônant l’acceptation et l’intégration de la machine dans le champ culturel. dans un numéro de creative art publié en , le critique harold clurman commente une des photographies de machine prises par strand lui-même : « [...] la machine de strand apparaît non seulement comme la parfaite image d’une machine, mais d’une machine qui par je ne sais quel miracle aurait accédé à une conscience d’elle-même, de son existence à la fois admirable et autonome, de l’élégance de ses lignes, de sa rugosité suave et de la densité de sa matière. la machine nous scrute calmement, exultant de se savoir pourvue d’un organisme si parfait . » les idées de strand deviennent rapidement la norme en matière de discours sur la photographie et, plus de quinze ans après la publication de ses textes, au moment où newhall organise son exposition, ses citations font figure de formules consacrées. le texte du catalogue photography - témoigne de cette influence. newhall s’appuie notamment sur la notion d’objectivité développée par strand lorsqu’il parle des points de vue simples et directs des photographies de rue de paris prises par atget. il reprend ainsi à son compte l’idée selon laquelle le photographe apprend à se servir de l’appareil comme d’une extension de lui-même. À une époque où perdure encore la conception de l’art comme bel objet, comme intuition de l’artiste concrétisée par son “geste”, la seule solution envisageable pour aborder le problème de la photographie est de regarder l’appareil, non seulement comme une petite machine à fabriquer de la beauté, mais beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai encore comme un être humain. du point de vue de strand, le développement d’une esthétique photographique est indissociable de la notion de transformation sociale – il interprète la reconnaissance de stieglitz comme l’indice d’une évolution possible dans les rapports sociaux. une idée que newhall préfère écarter au même titre que le ton polémique de strand . dans le texte du catalogue, newhall précise les grandes lignes de son projet. il s’agit de définir les « principes d’une approche critique propre à la photographie ». dans cette optique, il propose d’envisager la photographie sous l’angle des « lois chimiques et physiques qui en déterminent la production ». ces « lois essentielles » forment l’ossature de son histoire, et sont directement inspirées des écrits de strand . le plus important pour newhall est d’analyser la photographie selon ses propres critères, ceux-là mêmes qu’il tente de définir. dans une partie du chapitre “photographie contemporaine”, intitulée “l’exigence des deux méthodes” qui met en regard la straight photography et ce qu’il appelle alors la « photographie miniature » – pour la photographie prise avec un appareil de type leica –, newhall écrit : « les propriétés esthétiques de la photographie sont à tel point liées à la technique, qu’il est presque impossible de les envisager séparément. aujourd’hui, la straight photography et la photographie miniature occupent toutes deux une place importante et essentielle. toutes deux sont entièrement conditionnées par les principes mêmes qui régissent la photographie. toutes deux sont honnêtes, simples, directes et indépendantes de toute autre expression graphique . » newhall entend par là que la technique disponible en , ouvre la voie à différentes pratiques relevant toutes des mêmes « principes de la photographie ». des principes qui correspondent à ceux décrits plus haut par nickel : « netteté optimale, large gamme de tons, précision des détails, sans manipulations au tirage ». mais ces qualités formelles sont la manifestation d’une esthétique de la machine, d’une vision propre à l’appareil. newhall explore l’histoire de la photographie en quête de cette esthétique dont l’ampleur des expressions intègre, parmi d’autres, celle de la straight photography. la section “photographie contemporaine” ne tend donc pas, inéluctablement, vers une seule et même finalité, mais désigne au contraire différentes voies possibles pour la photographie. les idées de strand, adaptées par newhall, jouent un rôle essentiel dans cette dynamique et deviennent des lieux communs au sujet de la photographie, telle la notion « d’objectivité ». mais si l’on regarde de plus près les objets sélectionnés par newhall pour l’exposition, les mots et les images ne s’accordent pas aussi aisément. pour saisir les raisons de ce hiatus, il convient de se tourner vers la figure d’alfred barr et de s’intéresser aux idées qu’il a développées sur les origines de l’art moderne. alfred barr et l’esthétique de la machine au cours des années , barr et son équipe organisent au moma une série d’expositions – dont celle de newhall – d’un type radicalement nouveau : “modern architecture : international exhibition” en , “machine art” en , “cubism and abstract art” en , “fantastic art, dada and surrealism” en et “bauhaus : - ” en . chaque exposition est accompagnée d’un catalogue ou d’un livre, destiné à légitimer la présence parfois déroutante de certaines pièces au sein d’une institution muséale. Écrits dans un langage propre à l’histoire de l’art, ces textes sont devenus en l’espace de beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai quelques décennies des classiques incontournables. la vision de la machine et de son esthétique développée à travers cette succession d’expositions constitue un fil directeur dans le discours d’alfred barr sur l’histoire de l’art. selon sybil kantor, « la culture industrielle fut une source d’inspiration dans l’élaboration du langage de l’abstraction et des formes géométriques de l’art avant-gardiste ». marqué par l’approche empirique de la méthode fogg acquise à harvard, barr remarque tout d’abord l’influence de l’esthétique des produits de la machine dans l’architecture du bauhaus. kantor développe : « il a cherché à associer le rationalisme de la machine avec son esthétique et la pureté des mathématiques avec celle des formes, une synergie obtenue selon lui par la liberté de choix de l’architecte. dans sa conception esthétique, l’architecture en tant qu’art a supplanté l’ingénierie. un “goût” rigoureux et méthodique accompagne la moindre décision d’ordre technologique reprenant le principe du style international . » c’est dans la manière dont l’architecte emploie les matériaux industriels pour créer selon barr un effet esthétique qu’il identifie pour la première fois cette « esthétique de la machine ». par la suite, il place ce concept au cœur de son fameux schéma de l’art moderne, réalisé en pour l’exposition “cubism and abstract art”. c’est l’unique référence non artistique figurant dans ce schéma et barr la relie aux courants suprématiste et constructiviste, au bauhaus et à l’architecture moderne, à de stijl et au néoplasticisme, au purisme, au futurisme, ou encore au dadaïsme. autrement dit, l’esthétique de la machine est à la source de tous les mouvements des années jugés essentiels par alfred barr. au printemps , barr organise avec philip johnson l’exposition “machine art ”. les objets présentés sont répartis en six catégories : équipement industriel, matériel de bureau et domestique, ustensiles de cuisine, meubles et accessoires de maison, instruments scientifiques et enfin, verres et porcelaines de laboratoire. jamais jusque-là, de tels objets n’avaient été montrés dans un musée d’art. dans l’avant-propos du catalogue, barr introduit son texte par trois citations illustrant les grandes lignes de son argumentaire sur l’art de la machine présenté comme « l’élément graphique prédominant de [son] époque » et qui reflètent également les idées en vogue à cette période : « quand je parle de la beauté des figures, je ne veux pas dire ce que la plupart des gens entendent sous ces mots, des êtres vivants par exemple, ou des peintures ; j’entends la ligne droite, le cercle et les figures planes et solides formées sur la ligne et le cercle au moyen des tours, des règles, des équerres. ces figures ne sont pas comme les autres, belles sous quelque rapport, mais elles le sont de manière permanente et absolue. » platon, philèbe, c « À la beauté, trois choses sont nécessaires, tout d’abord, l’intégrité ou la perfection, car des choses brisées sont par cela même, laides ; ensuite, la juste proportion ou l’harmonie et enfin, l’éclat. c’est pourquoi les choses qui ont une couleur brillante sont dites belles. » saint thomas d’aquin, somme théologique, question , article , cité par jacques maritain dans art et scolastique, paris, , p. « la civilisation industrielle se doit de trouver un moyen d’en finir avec la scission entre son industrie et sa “culture”, ou de périr. » l. p. jacks, responsibility and culture beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai par ce choix de citations, barr cristallise le lien entre le produit de la machine et la quête éternelle de la beauté idéale – l’art de la machine, et par extension l’art moderne, s’en trouve être la parfaite expression. À l’instar de paul strand, barr voit l’interaction avec la machine comme le chemin du salut pour l’humanité. mais, si strand l’artiste entrevoit le salut dans l’usage de la machine , barr le commissaire voit la rédemption dans la contemplation des formes produites par la machine, dans le plaisir esthétique. faisant écho à la notion de strand qui consiste à s’emparer d’une chose inerte et à lui insuffler une vie nouvelle, barr écrit : « c’est en partie grâce à la reconnaissance des formes esthétiques de la nature que l’homme est parvenu à conquérir spirituellement la nature hostile et chaotique. aujourd’hui l’homme se perd dans la sauvagerie perfide de la civilisation industrielle et commerciale. de tous cotés, les machines multiplient littéralement nos difficultés et annoncent notre perte. si pour reprendre la phrase de l. p. jacks, nous sommes sur le point “d’en finir avec la scission” entre notre industrie et notre culture, nous devons assimiler la machine, tant esthétiquement qu’économiquement. il ne suffit pas de contenir frankenstein, encore faut-il le rendre beau . » ambitieux programme dont barr reconnaît la mise en œuvre et l’accomplissement dans le travail de fernand léger. « […] on a reproché à fernand léger de “déshumaniser” l’art en mécanisant ses figures. mais, en assimilant son esthétique, n’a-t-il pas contribué dans le même temps à humaniser la machine ? » la conception que barr se fait ici de l’expérience esthétique est importante. il adapte une idée véhiculée au xixe siècle, selon laquelle l’art aurait la faculté de susciter en nous les émotions les plus profondes et les plus nobles, à l’art progressiste du xxe siècle – ce en quoi newhall l’imite. concernant l’art de la machine, barr étend la notion de contemplation esthétique comme voie salutaire ou rédemptrice à toute production mécanique – une proposition à l’esprit révolutionnaire. en nous incitant à regarder des formes issues d’un processus de fabrication mécanique, barr postule que nous pouvons influer sur le cours de notre civilisation et que l’art moderne, par sa capacité à assimiler l’esthétique de la machine, est le chemin le plus direct vers le changement. deux idées sont à l’œuvre dans ce discours. barr doit d’abord convertir les produits de la machine en objets artistiques pour convaincre qu’ils inspirent l’art contemporain. en effet, il lui importe de mettre l’accent sur la continuité de l’histoire de l’art, sur la succession permanente des représentations. mais il tente également de rendre compte de l’impact esthétique d’objets autres, conçus en dehors de toute intention artistique, de toute intervention manuelle directe, se distinguant ainsi d’une traditionnelle peinture. avec les nouvelles technologies, la question de l’auteur du produit d’une machine devient problématique. il n’est plus question du geste d’un individu, de son coup de pinceau sur une toile. le processus créatif, bien qu’il soit encore initié par quelque concepteur, comprend désormais un élément intermédiaire : la machine. barr règle la question en faisant de l’auteur un intervenant négligeable. l’impact esthétique dérive alors précisément du caractère mécanique de la production de l’objet : unité, intégrité et éclat suffisent. dans cette logique, le message politique cède le pas à l’esthétique. barr peut alors écrire : « la plupart des plus beaux objets de l’exposition comme le ressort de soutien [ bearing spring] ou la jauge de profondeur sont presque intégralement conçus sans intervention de l’artiste designer. leur beauté ne repose sur aucune intention et n’est qu’un effet secondaire. cependant, ils répondent par leur “intégrité”, la beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai “justesse de leurs proportions” et leur “éclat” à l’excellente définition de la beauté énoncée par saint thomas d’aquin comme étant “ce qui séduit tout regard attentif .” » l’histoire de la photographie paul strand remarque dans un texte de , “the art motive in photography” (le motif artistique en photographie), que dans certains cas, une photographie prise sans intention préalable produit un effet bien meilleur qu’une image se voulant artistique. « comparée à cette soi-disant photographie pictorialiste qui, en vertu de dieu sait quoi, fuit tout ce qui est proprement photographique, un simple enregistrement issu du national geographic, une reproduction de peinture réalisée par druet ou une photographie aérienne est un pur soulagement. elles sont franches, directes et parfois belles, bien qu’involontaires. » strand, comme alfred barr, pointe une même contradiction : parfois des objets sans la moindre vocation artistique nous frappent par leur beauté. l’avènement des nouvelles technologies vient à nouveau troubler les enjeux et la ligne ténue séparant les belles choses de l’art devient plus difficile à définir. la photographie et ses multiples applications s’imposent alors comme un cas particulièrement complexe. que faire des photographies produisant un impact esthétique, mais qui n’ont pas été conçues dans ce but ? une complexité que confirme l’exposition de newhall. l’idée de l’appareil comme dénominateur commun s’accorde mal avec l’idée que l’art est la production d’un artiste et pourtant elles se recoupent en certains points. le concept d’objectivité selon strand, qui s’exprime par la mise en œuvre d’une intention artistique via la connaissance intime et l’usage de la machine, pourrait presque concilier ces deux idées. mais, fondamentalement, l’objectivité renvoie encore au schéma classique de l’artiste maîtrisant les spécificités de son médium. dans sa sélection, newhall présente des photogrammes ou des images prises sans appareil parce qu’ils sont de moholy-nagy, mais également parce qu’ils sont sources de plaisir esthétique. la série de photographies aériennes d’un bombardement est prise par un photographe anonyme – répondant au seul critère “produite par l’appareil” –, elle est sans auteur et ne soulève aucune question d’ordre esthétique selon les critères développés dans le catalogue par newhall. les photogrammes de films représentent un autre cas de figure : résultat de la collaboration entre un réalisateur et un photographe, ces images n’ont jamais été conçues comme des pièces isolées et ne sont que les fragments d’une séquence. newhall semble pourtant suggérer qu’elles produisent du sens sous cette forme, comme des allusions au récit du film. newhall n’aborde pas ces cas particuliers dans le texte du catalogue. cependant, en prétendant que l’appareil détermine l’esthétique de la photographie, il affirme qu’un cliché anonyme ou sans auteur est tout aussi important qu’une image de paul strand par exemple, puisque tous deux sont le produit de la machine. une idée que les historiens de la photographie et les commissaires d’exposition épouseront plus tard. si newhall franchit une étape décisive en réunissant avec pertinence un ensemble complexe et hétéroclite de technologies, de pratiques artistiques et d’applications concrètes du médium photographique, son exposition défie toute cohérence. il n’y a encore rien d’évident à ce que la straight photography – courant esthétique désormais beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai perçu comme la quintessence moderniste – s’impose et occupe une position dominante dans la photographie . dans sa critique de l’exposition, mumford a raison de souligner la surabondance d’objets, mais le dessein de newhall lui a tout simplement échappé. notes . beaumont newhall, photography - , new york, museum of modern art, , p. . . b. newhall, focus : memoirs of a life in photography, boston, little, brown, , p. . . mary anne staniszewski, the power of display : a history of exhibition installations at the museum of modern art, cambridge, ma, mit press, , p. . . b. newhall, op. cit., , p. . . ibid., p. - . . lewis mumford, “the art galleries”, the new yorker, avril , p. . . voir allison bertrand, “beaumont newhall’s ‘photography - ’: making history”, history of photography, vol. , no , été , p. - ; marta braun, “beaumont newhall et l’historiographie de la photographie anglophone”, Études photographiques, no , mai , p. - ; douglas r. nickel, “history of photography : the state of research”, art bulletin, vol. , no , septembre , p. - ; christopher phillips, “the judgment seat of photography”, in richard bolton (dir.), the contest of meaning, cambridge, ma, mit press, , p. - ; et m. a. staniszewski, op. cit., . . b. newhall,op. cit., , p. . newhall racontera plus tard qu’en réponse à son invitation, alfred stieglitz refusa de siéger au conseil scientifique à titre honorifique, de même qu’il n’accorda pas le droit au commissaire de lui dédicacer l’exposition et le catalogue et s’opposa à tout prêt d’œuvres. voir b. newhall, op. cit., , p. . . voir, à titre d’exemple, josef maria eder, history of photography (trad. edward epstean), new york, dover publications inc., , et georges potonniÉe, the history of the discovery of photography (trad. edward epstean), new york, tennant and ward, . pour une approche plus approfondie de cet aspect concernant plus particulièrement newhall, voir d. r. nickel, art. cit. . pour une étude plus détaillée de la question, voir sybil gordon kantor, alfred h. barr, jr. and the intellectual origins of the museum of modern art, cambridge, ma, the mit press, , et également gaëlle morel, “un marchand sans marché. julien levy et la photographie”, Études photographiques, no , décembre , p. - . . s. gordon kantor, op. cit., , p. . . c. phillips, art. cit., p. . l’article de phillips, d’abord publié dans la revue october, marque un net tournant dans la réflexion relative à newhall, au musée d’art moderne (moma) et à l’institutionnalisation manifeste de la photographie. . d. r. nickel, art. cit., p. . . ibid., p. . . b. newhall, op. cit., , p. - . . c. phillips, art. cit., p. . phillips oppose le terme de moholy-nagy fotokunst à celui d’alfred stieglitz kunstfotografie et en déduit une typologie des principales approches nord-américaines et européennes du médium. il interprète également à tort l’apparition de l’œuvre contemporaine de stieglitz dans la version révisée du catalogue parue en – travaux absents de l’exposition beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai ainsi que du catalogue de – comme le signe d’un revirement chez newhall, délaissant le modèle européen pour adhérer au courant nord-américain, voire à l’esprit du moma. pourtant, newhall désirait voir figurer l’œuvre de stieglitz à l’exposition de , et souhaitait même lui dédicacer le catalogue, ce à quoi ce dernier s’opposa. voir b. newhall,op. cit., , p. - . . ibid., p. , note , nous soulignons. . pour une analyse lucide et pertinente des conceptions qui se sont développées dans les années autour des propriétés de l’appareil photographique, principalement dans le cadre du style documentaire, voir olivier lugon, le style documentaire, d’august sander à walker evans - , paris, macula, . . le photographe paul strand écrit en , dans une lettre adressée à van deren coke que « l’intérêt pour la machine était dans l’air » dans les premières années du xxe siècle. voir naomi rosenblum, paul strand : the early years, - , essai non publié, new york, city university of new york, , p. . . b. newhall, op. cit., , p. . . ibid., p. . . paul strand, “alfred stieglitz and a machine”, in waldo frank, lewis mumfordet al. (dir.), america & alfred stieglitz, new york, the literary guild, , p. - . l’article est initialement imprimé à titre confidentiel, à l’occasion de l’exposition de stieglitz à la galerie anderson de new york en . ce récit réapparaît plus tard dans “the art motive in photography”, the british journal of photography, vol. , , p. - . si strand n’est pas le premier, il est certainement l’un des premiers à avancer ce type de constat dans les années - , moment où les histoires du médium produites aux États-unis commencent à s’uniformiser. . p. strand, “photography”, the seven arts, août , p. . . ibid., p. - , et du même auteur “photography and the new god”, broom, vol. , no , , p. - . . p. strand, art. cit., , p. . . p. strand, art. cit., , p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid. Éric de chassey, dans son article “paul strand, frontalité et engagement”, Études photographiques, no , juillet , p. - , analyse les options formelles de strand au sein de ses propres productions et, dans un second temps, les met en relation avec la peinture avant- gardiste contemporaine, plus particulièrement avec l’œuvre de georges braque. . p. strand, art. cit., , p. . . ibid., p. . . harold clurman, cité in paul strand, paul strand : a retrospective monograph, the years - , new york, aperture, , p. . peu après, lewis mumford écrit son livre technics and civilization, new york, harcourt, brace, and co., , une histoire du développement de la mécanisation culminant dans une « troisième phase » au cours de laquelle l’humanité parvient à intégrer définitivement la machine à la vie quotidienne. il aborde aussi la question de l’assimilation de la machine sur le plan esthétique en incluant un chapitre intitulé “photography as means and symbol” et des images de l’exposition organisée au moma en , “machine art”. l’ouvrage de mumford propose également une bibliographie exhaustive. voir aussi, à titre d’exemple : sheldon cheney and martha chandler cheney, art and the machine : an account of industrial design in th-century america, new york, whittlesey house, . pour une étude plus complète du rôle de l’esthétique de la machine, voir terry e. smith, making the modern : industry, art and design in america, chicago, university of chicago press, et richard guy wilson, the machine age in america - , new york, the brooklyn museum, harry n. abrams (coéd.), . beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai . ce choix ne me semble pas correspondre à un simple désaveu politique. j’avanceraisplutôt que pour newhall, comme pour barr, l’idée du bien social se réalise dans la conception que s’en fait norton : l’art en éveillant en nous des émotions nobles et profondes éduque notre goût et élève notre sens moral. une idée typique du xixe siècle, que des auteurs comme phillips compareront plus tard à une forme d’élitisme paternaliste. . b. newhall,op. cit., , p. - . . ibid., p. . . voir c. phillips, art. cit., p. . . s. gordonkantor, op. cit., p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . selon kantor, barr ne fait pas cas de la dimension politique inhérente au fonctionnalisme du bauhaus en affirmant que la forme n’est pas induite par la fonction (ou que la fonction ne commande pas la forme). « la pureté du design » agit comme un principe premier et la fonction devient secondaire : « l’option esthétique qui prévaut est l’originalité, puis vient la contrainte ». j’ajouterai cependant qu’à l’instar de newhall, barr considère la contemplation artistique et esthétique comme un facteur d’accroissement du bien être social. . ibid., p. . jane heap et margaret anderson du magazinelittle review ont organisé la manifestation “machine-age exposition” au steinway exposition hall de new york en . kantor la signale comme la « référence la plus immédiate » dont barr aurait pu s’inspirer pour son exposition “machine art”. . p. johnson, cité in s. gordonkantor, op. cit., p. . . alfred barr, “foreword”, in p. johnson, machine art, new york, museum of modern art, , n. p. pour une approche plus approfondie de la dimension néoplatonicienne présente dans l’exposition de barr, voir jennifer jane marshall, “in form we trust : neoplatonism, the gold standard, and the machine art show, ”, art bulletin, vol. , no , décembre , p. - . . lawrence pearsall jacks ( - ) fut ministre de tendance unitarienne en grande- bretagne, pédagogue et philosophe. jeune étudiant, il suivit une année d’étude à harvard où il eut pour professeur l’historien d’art charles eliot norton. en , jacks dispensa un cours à yale intitulé “responsabilité et culture” dans le cadre de leçons sur les notions de responsabilité et de citoyenneté promues par l’université. la même année, alfred barr commença son doctorat à harvard. si celui-ci n’eut pas l’occasion de suivre l’enseignement de jacks, il a probablement pris connaissance de son texte dans sa version éditée : responsibility and culture, new haven, ct, yale university press, . . p. strand, art. cit., , p. . . a. barr, in p. johnson, op. cit., ,n. p. . cité ins. gordonkantor, op. cit., p. - . . a. barr, in p. johnson,op. cit., ,n. p. . bien qu’en , au moment où newhall publie son essai dans sa seconde version, sous forme de livre, il tend déjà à voir la straight photography comme une sorte d’héritière visuelle naturelle. rÉsumÉs l’exposition emblématique organisée par beaumont newhall en et l’histoire de la photographie qu’il propose dans le catalogue de la manifestation ont suscité de nombreux débats. beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai tous ont cependant négligé une dimension essentielle de son travail : les idées qui se développent autour d’une esthétique de la machine et qui se révèlent prépondérantes dans les années . newhall les découvre et les adopte au contact de deux figures déterminantes dans son parcours : le photographe paul strand, et le directeur du moma, alfred barr. cette esthétique de la machine fournit un langage à son argumentation pour la reconnaissance de la photographie comme forme artistique dotée de ses spécificités visuelles propres. elle lui permet également de distinguer le photographe de la photographie, l’artiste de l’art et ainsi d’élargir sa sélection d’œuvres à des images dont les finalités ne correspondent pas aux idéaux de la straight photography auxquels il adhère dans le texte du catalogue. en effet, si l’on compare l’ensemble du matériel sélectionné pour l’exposition à celui commenté dans l’essai, il apparaît clairement que la publication ne fournit pas un compte-rendu approprié de l’événement. in discussions of beaumont newhall, his landmark exhibition, and the history of photography that he lays out in the exhibition’s catalogue, a key source remains overlooked: ideas about the machine aesthetic prevalent in the s. these ideas made their way to newhall through two key figures – photographer paul strand and his museum director alfred barr. not only did the machine aesthetic give newhall a language through which he could claim photography as an art form with a distinct set of visual characteristics, it also enabled newhall, in some cases, to dissociate the photographer from the photograph – artist from art – and thereby count a broader range of works as significant, even as they did not cleave to ‘straight’ photography’s aesthetic ideals, the ideals he espouses in the catalogue essay. indeed, in evaluating the objects as a whole, and measuring them against the essay, it becomes clear that the essay does not adequately account for everything. auteurs sophie hackett sophie hackett est assistante de conservation au département des photographies à l’art gallery of ontario de toronto et enseigne à l’université de ryerson dans le cadre du master “photographic preservation and collections management”. elle a coécrit avec deepali dewan “cumulative affect : studio portraiture, photography, and museum collections” à paraître dans la livraison d’automne de la revue photography & culture. elle travaille actuellement à la préparation d’une exposition sur les conventions propres au portrait photographique d’atelier.sophie hackett is the assistant curator, photography at the art gallery of ontario in toronto, and an adjunct professor in ryerson university’s graduate program in photographic preservation and collections management. she has co-written an article with deepali dewan ‘cumulative affect: studio portraiture, photography, and museum collections’ that will appear in the fall issue of photography & culture, and is currently researching the conventions of studio portrait photography for an exhibition with the working title studio vernacular. beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine Études photographiques, | mai 	beaumont newhall, le commissaire et la machine 	l’exposition 	paul strand et l’esthétique de la machine 	alfred barr et l’esthétique de la machine 	l’histoire de la photographie microsoft word - livingston.docx transmotion vol , no ( ) 	 	 cedar sigo. royals. wave books, . pp. isbn . https://www.wavepoetry.com/products/royals. the title of cedar sigo’s recent poetry collection, royals, couldn’t be more apt for the book’s regal interior, a celebration and investigation of the lives and creations of poets, artists, musicians, and others elevated as sovereign, as well as the author’s own poetic lineage in created and creating verse. sigo’s royals are cataloged and displayed in living exhibition, guestbook ledger pages becoming the contextualized walls to hang or ink a portrait, where readers take a virtual tour of the galleries, parties, and poetry readings to witness the artists’ picturesque productions, their colorful lives and conversations. the poems in royals pay tribute to the poets and painters, musicians and lovers that have influenced the author and his creative process. sigo, in the tradition of the west coast branch of the new york school and beat poets, whose lines and lives intertwine and illustrate their obsessions, evokes the glorified artists and adorns their admired lines of poetry and conversation with his own poetic fascinations, producing a collection that is, at once, both homage and exploration of his regal literary lineage and his own place among the royal. the reader is invited to the gala, the coronation of the celebrants, whether the landscape is a jazz club, an art museum, a library, a street corner, or even the poet’s living room. we’re on the guest list, welcomed to mingle among the courtiers and courtesans, equally vip; encouraged to turn on, to flirt; urged to listen to the jazz and blues, to tune in to the dialogue, to browse the bookshelves and vinyl record albums, and to take home fragments of lines, “calling up receptors of individual visions,” “trimmings,” a “set of notes” from which to “press new meaning in between” and “retool” for the future ( ). sigo’s court comprises his early artistic influences – as “a bolinas separatist poet” ( ) moving between the suquamish indian reservation and seattle, washington; boulder, colorado and naropa university’s jack kerouac school of disembodied poetics; new york city book stores; and san francisco streets – illustrated in narrative exposition (“dragging back my bags of books … allen, jack, john weiners / … / i was mostly taught who to read … robert duncan, creeley, joanne”) ( ); as well as homage (“sensation” for anselm hollo, “on strings of blue” for bill berkson, “our lives” for julian talamantez brolaski); and imitation (“blue moon” after alfred starr hamilton, “aquarelle” after emile nolde). the book’s dedication, “for brian / – with whom all landscapes / become love poems,” reflect the poet’s love for these royal landscapes: the party, the poetry reading, the conversation. sigo brings us there to mingle, to eavesdrop on the artists’ interchange, to take part in the art and music, and to fall in love as the royals empty their pockets and suitcases to share all their possessions and obsessions. in “the real contents of a street poet’s suitcase,” sigo catalogs among the short list poem: “tiny dented copper spools,” “an elephant gun,” “clean underwear,” “red garland records (red in bluesville, red alone)” and ends with the underlined passages of bob kaufman’s poetry in the beat classic paperback golden sardine ( ). sigo quotes kaufman in those final lines, lamenting that poet guillaume apollinaire’s noble birth prevented his street credibility with the san francisco poets: golden sardine (with underlined lines and figures) “apollinaire never hiked in papier-mâché woods” chip livingston review of royals 	 	 	 “apollinaire never slept in an icehouse” ( ). sigo contrasts the lifestyles between the last two referenced poets: kaufman, an african american surrealist poet who coined the term “beatnik,” and french aristocrat apollinaire, who coined the term “cubism.” the “street poet” of the poem’s title has those passages underlined in his copy of kaufman, positioning the lives of the poets, all poets, as equal in worth of reverence and immortality. sigo invokes the lives of poets and artists, dead and living, referencing them throughout the poems in royals, introducing us if we’re not yet familiar – and urging the reader to get to know this alluded to and elevated academy. in the new york school style of frank o’hara, sigo’s friends and influences stop by, enter in, and casually add a line or become a moment in the poems. “bill berkson / will read from / john weiners / in my wooden / house across / the street (brown / with golden couch) / his sounding out / the cut … / … / his voice held / the cleanest / copy one / could find,” writes sigo in “on strings of blue” ( , ). in the marcel duchampish “whims,” the speaker reimagines remaking objects into gifts for the royal beloveds: “i drew a french mustache / onto a john cage postcard // … i spun a haunted pendant / for the edges of anne waldman // i stamped and numbered an opium pipe / for gregory corso’s private room // i handwrote a ouija board / for caconrad and set it outside the door” ( ), much as joe brainard reimagined the ernie bushmiller comic character nancy in his fantasized alter-scenarios. in “thrones,” the new york school style homage takes the form of a salish giveaway ceremony, sigo says in a lithub interview from january . “my poem ‘thrones’ was written after hearing a tape of philip lamantia read his ‘time traveler’s potlatch.’ … the form has you presenting gifts on bended knee in a way and it forms this sort of totem, a twitching altar with an almost invisible frame. for ‘thrones,’ i was interested in honoring (communicating with) certain essential african american artists. … while ‘the time traveler’s potlatch’ is ultimately a flowing list of decadent gifts, i love that the form itself can also be seen as a gift to all poets.’ (sigo) in addition to bob kaufman, amiri baraka, and alice coltrane, among other dead artists immortalized in “thrones” include: for phillis wheatley: a book of verse in cornerstones of a moorish castle, purple and gold, depicting souls in various stages of release, the pitch, anger and arc of the poems an unrhymed mirror to the long atlantic. for jayne cortez: an intertribal grand entry of poets in cedar bark jackets, split skirts and whalebones pinning them closed, a voice in praise and suspension of the drum … for stephen jonas: your favorite eric dolphy faded to a room of golden tasseled light, a couch of friends’ faces smeared in a gleaming silver crown ( ). in sigo’s poems, “a couch of friends’ faces” is among the highest seat of honor, bringing the throne to the living room, the royalty to the shag carpet, the poetry reader to the art show, where surely verlaine’s blues are playing, a current that reappears through the collection in color and transmotion vol , no ( ) 	 	 sound, at times referencing punk poet musician tom verlaine and at others, french surrealist poet paul verlaine. the verlaines’ blues are carried into royals from sigo’s previous collection language arts, where we find the poet in the poem titled “verlaine blues” in the rain, “dressed in black, in mourning.” “go away from my door, i’ve got time alone and trouble for days / sometimes i get the blues when it rains” ( ). sigo’s speaking poet/narrator finds his community in royals, restaging “apollinaire’s last hot march into evening air” (royals, ). the “essential solitude” of the poet in language arts ( ), where all “rooms are alien” ( ), finds his rightful place among “the poets in glowing lab coats” in royals ( ), pressing “new meaning in between” “the trimmings” ( ). in sigo’s prose poem, “watching william castle writing,” “what makes it down onto the screen as letters, words, phrasing, seems after the fact” ( ). when sigo writes, “it is this desire to filter the language that we have captured” ( ), it seems to speak of the author’s process, filtering the “lines taken home” and “retooled” into a collection that stunningly reimagines and eternalizes them ( ). cedar sigo is “a stylist of lines” ( ), building his “own circuitry / sounds // and flow” ( ), turning his “spade to the inset language” ( ) to thoroughly place the reader in the landscape of the poet and the poem. the immortal “chamber of maiden / thought is metered” and always “gives / way to the word / in this case,” sigo’s – and in the case of royals, sigo’s word is executed perfectly. i read somewhere that if a poet falls in love with you, you can never die. sigo’s love poems to the poets and their landscapes in royals elevate the artists enshrined toward immortality. as he writes in “portrait in black,” “the dream house” becomes the heart “sketched,” a “valley grove of bones,” where “you can only capture the poets / and keep them lurking …” ( ). chip livingston works cited mishler, peter. “cedar sigo on playfulness and poetry.” literary hub, literary hub, mar. , www.lithub.com/cedar-sigo-on-playfulness-and-poetry/ sigo, cedar. language arts. wave books, . research article digital biomimetic architecture between art and dynamic structure: case study—wings in flight shi-yen wu , , felicia wagiri , yen-fen huang, and shen-guan shih department of architecture, national taiwan university of science and technology, taipei , taiwan department of architecture, national united university, miaoli city , taiwan bartlett school of architecture, university college london, london wc e bt, uk correspondence should be addressed to shi-yen wu; sywu@mail.ntust.edu.tw received september ; revised february ; accepted april ; published june academic editor: dehua shen copyright © shi-yen wu et al. *is is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. architecture as a multirelated field is influenced and connected by many subjects. among those subjects, the role of art and natural science is the most dominant frame without ignoring the development of advanced technology. by using technology, the impossible becomes possible such as to capture the body motion of humans as the subject of art and science at the same time. body motion is a potential research of movement over the time. *is does not only involve the aesthetic, but also even more the scientific aspect of a dynamic motion of an organism that can be investigated through a biomimetic approach. in order to understand the biomimetic term, we investigated the physical morphogenesis and geometrical principle of an organism. *e term morphogenesis is a process in which the natural system produces and regulates the configuration of a material in space and over time. based on that, we tried to design a dynamic structure using butterfly’s motion as a subject of study with morphological and biomimetic approaches. butterflies show a simultaneous aspect of movement over time characterized by fragmentation. *is idea also summarizes many aspects of modern art such as portrayal of body movements by futurists, space-time continuum, cinematic freeze frame, and time-lapse photography. a futurist represents a movement that is emphasized on the factors of speed, technology, modernisms, and objects. *is indicates an alternative position that may be relevant to the system of butterfly wings. *is can only be achieved by utilizing a digital design and its parametric tools that help generate functions and form dynamic structures with high complexity and precision. *roughout the development of the system, there will be many changes to the form which will be constantly tested and evaluated using a series of prototype and visual digital design. . introduction over the last years, design and architecture have grown rapidly (and will continue to grow) to different phases and tried to break down their defined boundaries and started to integrate with other disciplines. amongst many disciplines, visual arts and natural sciences such as physics, mathe- matics, chemistry, and social sciences, have constantly af- fected architectural thinking. *e crossover results between these disciplines have resulted in a new form of collaboration and a new way of understanding the architectural context to promote a fresh perspective on design and architecture through the creative art processes and computer science that demonstrate reciprocal relationships. *e implementation of collaborative work was successful in generating a multidisciplinary attitude as well as achieving a new awareness of current technological advances. in this case, collaborative works discuss the potential partnerships between architects and artists in the creative interplay of futurism and dynamism. futurism is an impressionism of the mechanical world that uses advanced technology and urban modernity. it is committed to the new things, destroying older forms of culture and showing the beauty of modern life, machine, speed, and change [ ]. *e sensibility of the futurist is characterized by everything that is alive, which always responds and offers everything that moves, and whatever exists in motion (dynamism and simultaneity). hindawi complexity volume , article id , pages https://doi.org/ . / / mailto:sywu@mail.ntust.edu.tw https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://doi.org/ . / / *ere are many attractive works, ranging from futurism and dynamics to creative applications in painting and art projects. *e movement of the human body expresses mobility of space and sensibility of time and analyzes the potential for movement over time, involving many artistic activities such as dancing, theater, and spatial performing arts in both biological and psychological substances. *e idea of motion is focused on the flux of memories and the sensations of what we remember, as well as the physical movement of what we see. *e movement includes not only physical changes but also emotional and social changes. *e artists are offered the possibility of motion visualization that not only featured the aesthetic aspect but also even more the scientific aspect of dynamic motion of body movement. *e combination of physical movement of body, space, and time has been explored in another discipline that is chro- nophotography [ ]. dynamic motion can be seen from the artwork of cubists, where a story is formed by the movement of images with a painting. *e overall transformations and positions are highly dependent on the physical motion of the body when one or more variables are changed within a given time frame. dynamic motions can also be found from morphological and biomimetical approaches with the goal of implementing into various dynamic structures in response to diverse backgrounds such as art, science, technology, and archi- tecture. with a wide range of newly available tools, inter- disciplinary collaboration makes it possible to investigate biomimetics. in order to understand the term of biomi- metics, we can investigate the physical and geometrical principle of morphogenesis. morphogenesis is known as the process by which the natural system produces and regulates the configuration of matter in space over time [ ]. *is movement is a great organizational pattern in a dynamic system. *e same components can be configured differently to produce endless transformable structures depending on their positions and interconnections in space, and these can operate in two or three dimensions that form many possible shapes. movement in this context refers to the physical motion of the organism. *is refers to perceptions formed by spatial sequences, optical illusions, and composition changes that bring a feeling of movement, which may be experienced differently by each observer. on the other hand, time as a design element greatly enriched the possibilities in the de- velopment of this dynamic structure (see figure ). struc- tures can be designed by following coordinated movements and action of time, acting similarly to living organisms. in this case, movable elements can act on the rhythm, sequence, periodical, cyclical, repetitive, and diverse progressions. furthermore, the dynamic structure involves consideration of abstract and qualitative issues concerning the awareness of technology, spatial experiences, and social engagements. . technology in science and art technology and science sometimes “do art” and art “does science and technology” [ ]. *e borders between art and science have completely disappeared altogether. technology and industrial products are always implemented into art creations that will always use the best newly available technology. industrial products always use the best newly available technology to do art creations even in the past and yet still do today. not only technology is being increasingly used, but the technology also becomes the creative art itself. by using computer technology, it becomes possible to analyze the diversity and simulate the processes that occur in nature, structures from behavioral patterns, complex shapes that change over time, and habits that affect the environment and its physical form. technology enables one to manipulate data through computer systems and machines that then make it into a three-dimensional object that has the potential to mimic the complex forms of nature that traditional construction cannot touch (see figure ). with the machine, it can grow a unique d shape that represents a new order in design evolution. *is dynamic field of computer technology tends to cooperate with art and science (based on figure ), trying to explore each new visualization possibilities with a new approach to the art process. nowadays, computer is not only a tool, but also a cocreator because even though the artist has set and started certain algorithms, she/he cannot predict the end result of computer activity according to the algorithm. *is technical invention has a major influence on art techniques and the creative process. without it, there will be no graphic or photographic or digital media technique that opens up further possibilities of the related art discipline. in the dynamic technology, there are some basic approaches to visualize motion art, static (photography and images), or dynamic (movies and animations). artists and dancers use cameras to catch their performance, whereby they have specific forms and types of photographs, which range start from artistic dance photography to the performance doc- umentation and the study of movement. *e transformation of photography is an example of big invasion in technical applications of art which is naturally becoming an achievement of science and industry. discipline like this can also be seen from the application of new media art, d printing, and computer visualization. however, ex- amples of science and art can be found further in history that has discovered remarkable mathematical visualizations [ ]. *e principles of mathematics, geometry, and arithmetic are introduced not only to science and technology but also in art. when looking at the produced works throughout history, beauty is often associated with perfection of mathematical order, as da vinci frequently did. *is order has been widely explored in nature, and artists seek to study it in detail to transfer it into painting, sculpture, and even architecture. neal panchuk in “an exploration into biomimicry and its application in digital and parametric architectural de- sign” presented to the university of waterloo, canada, in , said that by the rise of postimpressionism, an im- provement occurred, which in the development of science and technology embarked on a new paradigm of “being an imitation” to copy nature. biomimicry is an applied science that derives inspiration from the study of nature. *ere is a relationship of nature with genetic coding. it is not to form a genetical code of an organism but rather the process of self- generation within the environment. geometry has a subtle complexity role in morphogenesis [ ]. it is necessary to think about biological geometry or computational forms not only as a description that is fully developed but also as a principle of local organization in self-organization during the process of morphogenesis. . . learning from nature. in the book “.e pulse concept and the study of biomimicry” published by the scad school of design in cited baumaister who said that biomimicry is the conscious emulation of nature’s genius. it is an in- terdisciplinary approach that brings together two often wings in flight science art biomimetic painting architecture morphology behavioral cubism futurism dynamism abstract parametric technology fragmentation time and space speed angle rotation distance length organism data system application chronophotography rhino grasshopper prototype rhinonest program and scale design decoding technology figure : diagram relationship between science and art (source: drawing by the research team). complexity disconnected worlds, nature and technology, biology and innovation, and life and design [ ]. *is biomimicry seeks to bring the living wisdom of time tested and life practice into a design to inform humans in creating conditions that are conducive to sustainable living. in practical biomimicry, how to find sustainable solutions is to examine life’s blue- prints, chemical prescriptions, and ecosystem strategies. however, at the level of transformative biomimicry, it connects us with the most appropriate, aligns, and integrated way to the human species into the natural process of the earth. biomimicry approach is seen as a design process that can be divided into two categories, namely, defining the human needs or design problems and seeing other organisms or ecosystems work as a solution to solve the problem. *e so- called solution is design look for particular biology to identify its characteristics, its behavior, and its function in an ecosystem which is then translated into a human design that may affect biology [ ]. when architecture is considered, there are many obvious distinctions between biomorphism and biomimicry at any level. biomorphic design or architecture is rooted in the work of surrealists and art noveau. a surrealist, grefory grigson, coined the term “biomorphism” in . since then, the term of biomorphism has been combined with computation to replicate the visible free-form of nature because by looking at nature, we can create edges, surfaces, and volumes [ ]. it is also possible to use this knowledge to find a form that resembles a living entity, but its function is not adapted. in this design approach, the results stay only at the visual level, not referring to functional and ecological levels. *rough the study of existing biomimetic technology that is still developing today, it is clear to see that there are three levels of mimicry, they are the organism, behavior, and ecosystem. *e first level of biomimicry is to mimic the natural form of an organism. *is type of mimicking is to copy the morphological attributes of an organism such as the visual form, component, material, or appearance. design at this level can look fancy, but ecological and functional perspectives are not necessary at this level [ ]. morphology has been transformed from naturalism to schematic styli- zation in which an animal is formed abstractly, geometri- cally, and almost unidentified. biomimicry at a deeper level, the second level, is mimicking the natural process. imitating the natural process means imitating the behavioral pattern of an organism. *is can be achieved by exploring and un- derstanding how an organism relates among species within its own environment. it is possible to imitate relationships between organisms or how they behave. *is requires a deeper understanding to make ethical decisions about the compatibility of what can be copied to the human context. *is level is not suitable for all situations and contexts at all times. *e third level is to imitate the natural ecosystem. *is is a complex series of processes than the first and second levels. at this stage, the mimicking ecosystem should con- sider the designed objects and how those objects affect the environment explicitly and implicitly [ ]. by extending the sphere of influence, the correct sustainable approach can be applied. in addition, the results are functional, sustainable, and also beautiful. beauty is the most important part why biomimicry at any level resonates. . . art and futurism. in the book “history of graphic design, a reference to important events,” it was mentioned that the future includes speed, technology, youth, and vi- olence. futurism influences many movements such as constructivism, surrealism, art deco, and dadaism [ ]. futurism is practiced almost in every medium of art, such as sculpture, painting, ceramics, theater, film, fashion, graphic design, interior design, and architecture. futurism is the impressionism of the mechanical world. it uses the most advanced technology and considers urban modernity, refers to a new style, destroys the older forms of culture, and demonstrates the beauty of modern life-machine, speed, and changes. unlike many other modern art movements such as impressionism and pointillism, futurism is not easily rec- ognized and understood because it is distinctive and influenced by cubism. *e sensibility of the futurist is characterized by a passion for what is alive, which always moves and offers whatever in motion (dynamism and simultaneity), in contrast to whatever in static. it is also dedicated to designs with high complexity which can only be achieved by ma- chines and computers. futurism requires interpretation precisely. *e beauty of speed is the key element of futurism. futurists were influenced by new developments in visual technology, more specifically chronophotography, prede- cessors of animation and cinema that allow the movement of objects to be shown on a sequence of frames. technology has an important influence on their approach to show move- ment, encouraging the abstract visual art with rhythm and pulsation. dynamism of a dog on a leash by giacomo balla in figure was fascinated by chronophotography, a technique in which movement changes are shown on several frames. *is concept encouraged balla to explore and discover new ideas to represent movement and rhythm in painting, and dynamism became one of his most famous painting experiments. figure shows a woman walking with a small black dog in which the movement melts into a single instant. it is showing a close-up of the feet. balla articulated the action in a process by incorporating opaque and semitransparent shapes. *is painting is a rapid-fire exposure that expressed the true dynamics of humans and animals in action and motion. chronophotography pioneer eadweard muybridge ( – ), an eccentric photographer, is famous all over the world for successfully photographing animal and human movements imperceptible to the human eye (see figure ). he was studying motion using several cameras from many angles once in a time, capturing essences and sensations of motion and speed. in , muybridge used photography to prove that there was a moment in horse’s gallop, a time when all four hooves were off the ground at once (see figure ). in , muybridge has successfully photographed a horse in complexity fast motion using a series of twenty four cameras. muybridge used stereoscopic cameras, inches apart to cover the feet taken by a single horse step, taking pictures in a thousand seconds. *e other great mind in the late th century was eti- enne-jules marey. he is a scientist, a psychologist, and also at the same time a chronophotographist. his vision in motion and time is used to measure a beating heart and to capture birds in flight, resulting in technology leading to modern cinema. in figure , he used such brilliant ideas to capture and record “*e man walking” into several phases of movement in one photographic surface [ ]. some of the cubist artists, futurists, or readymade artists, e.g., marcel duchamp, were involved in various modern art movements and were responsible for excellent examples of futurist paintings that implied motion and time, titled nude descending the staircase ( ) as shown in figure . as can be observed, duchamp offered his own interpretation of muybridge’s woman descending the staircase. by using the abstract form of a naked woman who could be identified as she was moving down the stairs in the painting [ ]. motion is made much more explicit in nude paintings. duchamp developed and refined the swirling lines and staccato arcs from points that describe the progress and displacement of the moving subject [ ]. *ere is a rela- tionship between nude descending a staircase and futur- ism. a futurist concerns on movement. by using popular chronophotography at the time, he was able to capture the movement of an organism over a period of time. *e nude painting also leads us to cubism in decomposing forms [ ]. . when science and art becomes one in the modern era, science is aimed at applications, technical advancements, and mastery of nature. art has no such purpose, its scope is symbolization, transmission of cultural meanings, human development, and self-interpretation in specific historical environments. to achieve these goals, art uses all the available advances that exist with exceptional ingenuity, including findings in various areas of expertise, scientific discoveries, and the invention of technological applications [ ]. *e examples listed above show that the production of contemporary art not only changes the boundaries between art and science but also redraws the line between the viewer and the creator. in many cases, viewers play an important role in the work, but in other cases, they are even able to inform the final form itself. *e similarity is found in sci- entific and technological progress which does not only affect every aspect of our everyday life but also becomes a new art media that is often used in the process of art creation. figure : *e horse in motion ( ) by eadweard muybridge [ ]. figure : *e man walking ( ) by etienne-jules marey [ ]. figure : dynamism of a dog on a leash by giacomo balla using chronophotography [ ]. figure : nude descending the staircase ( ) by marcel duchamp; woman descending the staircase ( ) by eadweard muybridge [ ]. complexity in every dynamic cultural development, art and science is known as a twin engine of creativity. science tries to understand natural phenomena by using scientific methods including observation, experimentation, and testing, as well as formulating hypotheses. *e field of science is focused not only on science itself but also extends to the realm of social and culture. art, on the other hand, especially in the past, is characterized by the application of a respected time-honored media such as painting, graphic arts, and sculpture. *ey are created for the purpose of aesthetic experience. with the emergence of new artistic means and daring experiments with the latest technological advances, the boundaries be- tween art and science have gradually disappeared. in the book with the title “art + science,” stephen wilson refers to an institutional art theory with which he thinks the defi- nition of art is dynamic and shaped by whatever network of art and artists, curators, historians, and critics consider to be accepted [ ]. although there are many theories that define the dif- ferences between the two entities, stephen wilson provides arguments based on the fact that the cave painters have become intensive investigators in the field of zoology, anatomy, and psychology. *eir paintings reveal a sophis- ticated understanding of animal life processes. he further argues that by revealing the history of science or art, we will find prehistoric cave paintings the first important milestone in both. he points out that leonardo da vinci and several others have the idea of “deep seeing,” which means un- derstanding the basic processes of the world (kind of what scientists do), and is seen as an essential tool for making art. for example, studying the flow dynamics can help an artist to paint water, studying flight mechanics can help artists while painting birds, and investigating anatomy and dis- section allows the artists to become a better painter or a body sculptor [ ]. . .digitalbiomimeticarchitecture. in the last th century, architecture became the first art which is gradually used by designers who work with digital technology in the scope of arts. architecture is also influenced by nature and living organisms. *is includes a focused understanding not only on designing a better environment for humanity in the future in order to preserve ecological diversity, but also related to the concept of “futurism” that provides inter- esting information and ideas in the creation of space and latest innovative designs with high complexity using com- putation technology. *e focus of this concept will not only become the answer to sustainability, but more than that, it will also explore the process of a sustainable future and mobilize people to think of sustainability by mimicking the morphology of an organism [ ]. architectural morphology was introduced by philip steadman in his book entitled “architectural morphology: an introduction to the geometry of building plan.” it focuses on geometric limitation primarily related to its boundaries, structure, and design. he often uses the phrase “morphol- ogy” which refers to the general science of potential forms such as natural forms, art forms, and architectural forms. *e emergence of the morphogenetic concept in its development shows the value of algorithms in pursuit of nonstandard and organic forms. computation technology is considered as a new method of form-finding. one of the advantages of form-finding is the possibility of combining multidisciplinary research such as computational geometry and biomimetic patterns [ ]. conversely, in computational logic, the threshold depends on the boolean value. *e ef- fectiveness of the algorithm calls for principle consideration. we must give the computer clear rules and orders to generate a form corresponding to the design ideology, in which it may be mathematical, biomimetical, or performative. an author leonardo in published a biology- based procedure to generate an experimental digital ar- chitecture. *e text originated from louis sullivan’s morphological design process articulated in the archi- tectural ornament system. he said that the biomimetic architecture combines architectural paradigms with dig- ital calculations, generative scripts, advanced fabrication, biomaterials, and nature that play an important role in the development of new systems, shapes, structures, aes- thetics, and materials. *is approach can integrate a procedure for understanding, visualizing, producing, and forming the architecture by studying the process in na- ture. for example, looking at seeds, diatoms, algae, shellfish, etc., can be a suitable biomimetic information to the possibility of new architectures. *is new architecture considers how sustainable environments can become integral to new technical innovations and attitudes toward genetics, biomaterials, and science collaborations. *e algorithm will also consider how the forms can follow some natural methods, such as those found in butterflies. *us, biological growth determines body, behavior, and movement, resulting in a structure or a mechanical system that grows digitally for architecture. technology is one of the most important driving forces in the development of modern architecture. with tech- nology focused on the digital computation design, it can provide flexibility in designs where it is possible to change the shape through parameters without having to change and redesign the entire form. parametric design can be updated automatically through parameter changes. *ese systems are related to each other to inform the overall form. no one knows what will be the final outcomes because the result is unimaginable when using a com- putation program known as generation. by mimicking an organism, algorithmic and parametric designs show that the architecture can borrow from nature and generate the possibilities of infinite forms, defying previously set boundaries of knowledge. in the design parametric, ev- erything can be manipulated from initial analysis and design process to the final form, materiality, fabrication, and construction, and control points are given to allow for a degree of flexibility [ ]. *e parametric design not only creates a generation of responsive forms for buildings, but also creates a space that can be adapted for future use. architects now face a digital period that shifts from composition to generation. complexity . . art and dynamic structure. art is a kind of creativity that is communicated through visual, verbal, spatial, and audible aids, whether in the form of real phenomena or subjectively subjected experiences, abstract ideas, emotions (both in intellectual and aesthetic), and body sensations. to create a work of art, artists need at least a creative skill or competence in a particular field, but most artists in gen- erative art leave some creative process to be done by a machine. by using computer technology, it is possible to analyze diversity as well as to simulate processes occurring in nature, ways of behavior, and complex shapes that can change over time (dynamic). *ere are many exciting art works, ranging from various technology that uses human body motion as a subject through video simulation to creative applications in painting. *e movement of the human body is a subject of research that has the potential to analyze movements over time as it involves many artistic activities such as dancing, theater, and performing arts that are inherently spatial in both their biological substance and psychological abilities. *e artists are offered more possibilities of motion visual- ization, which not only display the aesthetic aspect, but also even more the scientific aspects of the dynamic movement. digital motion tracking offers a broad field of investigation in dynamism, continuing into ecological psychology, per- ception, memory studies, creativity studies, media studies, biomechanics, and the history of ideas. in all ages, performers such as dancers and actors always use their bodies as the main elements of their creations and make their motion artwork recorded. in contrast to painters and sculptors, they use a physical form in their work to capture a “real-time” experience that cannot be repeated and only happens once; therefore, it is rare and unique in time. petra sobanova in his book titled “useful symbiosis: science, technology, art, and education” explained that the capture of elusive events with a particular media depends on the technical possibilities of a certain era of humans (drawings, paintings, chronological photography, cinematography, and video) [ ]. *is capture shows the dynamic movement as a set of fixed points in a movement continuum that explain the idea in every movement which can be captured graphically through different graphical representation techniques in- cluding drawing, d modeling, diagrams, and notation. *e movement developed in a dynamic motion as a new form of design derives interest in exploring its variables, testing its limits, and benefiting from its potential. *is paper tries to design a dynamic movement of morphological and biomimetical approaches using butterflies as a study case with the goal of implementing it to various dynamic structures in response to a unique set of inputs from diverse backgrounds such as art, painting, science, technology, and architecture. *roughout the system development, it will continue to be tested and evaluated from a series of physical and digital prototypes. while studying the morphology of dynamic structures, further elements have to be considered which are those related to the changes that may occur during the movement process. *e morphological analysis takes a synergistic view in which a composite system of components is considered to achieve the overall transformation of its parts. obvious variations are needed to be made between art and the dy- namic structure to create motion and time that exist in space. *is creates a dynamic space and space of movement, which represents the forces of life and produces a form of structure or architecture. basically, architectural theories and practices have involved mobility in terms of physical movement of the inhabitants, the sensation of motion as a result of the visual effects of changes in lighting or even the presence of moisture, the existence of humidity, and the representation of movements with forms and structures that show dyna- mism of the futurist art. *e futurist idea represents movement in a picture which struck the cubists, in which the painter seeks to capture coexistence of separate ideas or mental experience in an instant. duchamp painted a picture that moves the world with the concept of cubism. in a book entitled “cubism” written by guillaume apollinaire and dorothea eimert, five movements of the movement of one person, descending a spiral staircase and captured on time lapse were mentioned [ ]. for marcel duchamp, the goal of the personal style is fragmentation. movement of fragmentation of this move- ment cultivates futuristic aesthetic. fragmentation is a form of resistance to force destruction, to preserve the most important part of the whole and to reconfigure a difference in the future. fragmentation often occurs during crisis times. . case study *e design is focused on biomimicry at the morphological and behavioral levels, where form and natural process will be studied further. *e design is inspired by butterflies and related to the possible (interdisciplinary) future, where collaboration flows naturally in terms of architecture, bi- ology, and technology. milad arkian in his research about butterfly, entitled “temperature control mechanism by butterfly wings,” stated that butterflies are known to live and survive under delicate environmental conditions with ex- treme weather changes. *ey are biologically cold blooded, and some form of basking is needed to raise their body temperature. *ey use their wings effectively to regulate body temperature. *ey require a heat-control mechanism to prevent overheating due to wing flapping, but body temperature must be high enough to be able to do a relief flight [ ]. *e purpose of this design is to investigate the biomimetic processes of the butterfly while regulating and maintaining their body temperature by modeling and un- derstanding the principle pattern of wings’ movement. . . .e uniqueness of butterfly’s aerial feats. birds and insects fluttering for a balanced flight in the air show taking off and landing vertically, alternately, and drift. a butterfly is a right model for describing the type of vehicle with an autonomous microaerial system because of the frequency of packing itself. a research about the flying mechanism of a butterfly was done by three japanese researchers, masahiro shindo, taro complexity fujikawa, and koki kikuchi, and successfully published by the international journal and publication named ateas (american transactions on engineering and applied sci- ences) in . in that study, the position of the butterfly body is shown as in figure with symbols to illustrate the angle of roll, pitch, and yaw. horizontal and vertical body planes symbolized by zb and xb are defined as normal regulators. *e angle rolled, depicted, and yaw are sym- bolized as follows: φ θ ψ. φ is the angle between the hori- zontal body plane and the y axis, θ is the angle between the horizontal body plane and the x axis, and ψ is the angle between the vertical plane of the body and the y axis [ ]. . . behavioral .ermoregulation. *e flight parameters describing the state of the butterfly are selected as follows: the angle between the horizontal body plane and the front wing in a normal vector is defined as the flapping angle. *e flapping cycle is divided into two phases, namely, the upper and lower strokes [ ]. *e three main postures shown in figure are typical butterfly postures for thermoregulation, and they are lateral, dorsal, and reflectance. lateral basking is a state when wings are closed over the body and oriented perpendicular to the sun’s rays. at the dorsal basking, the butterfly opens its normal wings into the sun rays so that it instantly heats the wings, thorax, and abdomen [ ]. photos in figure show behavioral illustrations when a butterfly is flapping its wings taken by a high-speed d camera system [ ]. *ese pictures are designed to show how the butterfly’s frame corresponds to loops and lines. butterflies body represent flying or flapping simulta- neously in a terrible rush. *e multiplication and motion effects allow forms to expand this movement. figure (a) shows the streamlines around the wing caused by the flapping motion. *e streamline color corresponds to the flow velocity, where the red line represents faster and the blue line represents slower [ ]. *e wake capture mecha- nism explains the increase in aerodynamic force during stroke reversal. figure (b) shows the constant pressure surface on the wing as a stroboscopic image. *e red and blue surfaces show positive and negative pressures. positive pressure is on the upper side and negative underneath during the down stroke. . .implementation. butterfly is an aspect of a simultaneous movement which is characterized by fragmentation and manipulation of the structure, which serves to distort and dislocate some elements. *e design represents the aero- dynamic characteristics during the roll rotation. *is makes it possible to analyze flow fields that match the behavior when the butterfly is flying. overlapping figures are used to increase the impact of flying motion to the viewer. every- thing moves, everything runs, and everything changes rapidly. *e figure is never stationary but appears and disappears constantly. *rough the persistence of images on the retina, things in movement multiply and distort, suc- ceeding each other like vibrations in the space through which they pass. *e structure is formed by the image of the butterfly motion exploring the techniques of mimicking, imitating, capturing, analyzing, deconstructing, and reconstructing the movement of butterflies in a dynamic spatial perspective. *e entire structure is simply based only on repeating el- ements consisting of various slices of wings’ movement and then represented together to imply their relationship to each other. *e distance of each unit is different and floats separately. *is can be seen as a time lapse from a higher interval to a lower interval. *is design uses several different static positions creating a sense of motion and visual movement that a futurist has claimed. *e idea of motion is focused on the flux of memories and the sensations of what we remember, as well as the physical body movements of what we see [ ]. *e movement does not only embrace the physical changes but also the emotional changes. it has been concluded that the dynamic system which is involved in the production of forms differs fundamentally in biological and systematical. first, the dynamic form is the result of complex movements across scales and angles. second, the model depends on the unit interacting in the dynamic way where everything depends on time lapse and interval. *e connection between units and the overall shape is fundamental in relation to the dynamic system of the movement of a butterfly (figure ). *e movement of a butterfly is a great organizational pattern in dynamic systems. *e same components can be configured differently to create transformable structures that are endless. depending on their position in space and in- terconnection, they can operate in two or three dimensions that make up many possible shapes. movements in this context indicate the physical motion of an organism. *is refers to the perception of space formed by spatial sequences, optical illusion, and compositional changes that can bring a feeling of movement, which may be experienced differently by the observer [ ]. fly-free displays the importance of the time dimension in relation to space. either it is invariant from space-time or a complete representation of objects. *e time-space interval is constant because the length and time of the transformation are inversely related. *e smaller the length of the unit, the greater the time. as a time interval increases, the length decreases, and as a length increases, the time interval decreases. on the other hand, the introduction of time as a design element greatly enriches the possibilities in this dynamic structure. structures can be designed to follow every script where movement and time are coordinated, acting similarly to living organisms. for this instance, moving elements can operate following rhythm, sequence, or progression, and movement can be periodical, cyclic, repetitive, and diverse. furthermore, introducing dynamic systems into the design will involve consideration of abstract and qualitative issues concerning on awareness, spatial experience, social en- gagement, and user interactions [ ]. dynamic structure involves a setting of variable ranges and angles to change over a period of time. variables must be modifiable and identified as length, angle, and position. *e transformation and the overall position depend on the physical movement of the butterfly when one or more complexity variables are changed within a specific time frame. *ese variables can be defined as different points that later define the form of the curve. each curve serves in a different plane with different graph mapper as the controller (see figure ). *e fourth dimension is built from the similar geometry that we normally visualize [ ]. as explained in figure , it starts with a zero-dimensional point, and then by moving that point in any direction for any length creates a line (and an x-axis). moving the line perpendicular to the x-axis creates a plane (and an x- and y-axis). *en, moving the plane perpendicular to both the x- and y-axis creates a space (an x-, y-, and z-axis). *is is the logical system that is used to easily understand the image of objects in a three-dimensional space system, regardless of how distorted it is because of its intuitive to the space perspective. as shown in figure , by using the analogy of transformation, moving space perpendicular to the x-, y-, and z-axis creates the fourth dimension. however, being trapped in three-dimensional space, we cannot vi- sualize the fourth dimension coordinate system, or what objects are in the fourth dimension. two main methods for representing the fourth-dimensional objects, slicing methods and projection methods, have been developed as an attempt to make the invisible visible [ ]. for a more complex design, not only as a sine curve, it is necessary to tweak the points in both planes, x and y points in the xy plane and x and z points in the xz plane (see figure ). minkowski referred to his four-dimensional space-time formulation about the theory of relativity, “space by itself and time by itself are doomed to fade away into mere shadows, and only a kind of unity of the two will preserve an independent reality” [ ]. since three-dimensional geometry only relates to space, it cannot explain the implications of relativity. for a four-dimensional graph, that is what minkowski and einstein believe in our universe, in the field of the cartesian plane, z-axis and y-axis must be released, and it is easier to see the two variables that are subject to change, x and t. since time always flows through our uni- verse and the contraction of length only affects x-axis, z-axis and y-axis can be taken out of consideration. flapping angle roll angle z yhorizontal body plane vertical body plane zb xb yb pitch angle vertical abdomen angle z x lead-lag angle y x yaw angle horizontal abdomen angle figure : definition of the butterfly frame, angles, and posture, picture from [ ]. θ = ° lateral dorsal reflectance θ = ° γ = ° or ° γ = ° ° < θ < ° γ = ° figure : basking postures: lateral, dorsal, and reflectance used by butterflies [ ]. complexity (a) (b) figure : implementation structure of butterfly flying movement. concept: wings in flight (source: drawing by the research team). (a) (b) figure : stroboscopic image pitch rotational flight picture from [ ]. graph mapper for y’s default values for graph mapper - z x y desired values for graph mapper – (the range is adjustable) produced curve in xy planeremapped values for y’s (a) figure : continued. complexity using that geometry principle, a graph of something would look like a vertical line, as time passes and the object length is constant at a single speed. *e faster the something moves through space, the steeper the slope of the graph becomes. in minkowski’s mind, because space and time can both change shape or dilation or contraction, respectively, the only way to understand the true nature of an event is to incorporate two variable things into invariable space-time intervals. *e space-time interval is constant because according to lorentz, the transformation between length and time is inversely related. *e smaller the length of something, the larger the time. as the time interval increases, the length decreases, and as the length increases, the time interval will decrease, but the time interval remains the same since the ratio between the two is an inverse relation [ ]. . . fabrication from the digital data to the real object. to test the fabrication and assembly, prototype structures were built on a smaller scale : using × mm. figure shows the prototype image from various views. *e model default values for graph mapper - desired values for graph mapper – (the range is adjustable) remapped values for z’s z x y produced curve in xz plane graph mapper for z’s (b) figure : logic static system of the model, inspired by the free movement angles (source: drawing by the research team). (a) z x y combination of ys and zs (b) figure : curve on the combination of y and z planes (source: drawing by the research team). complexity consists of four parts identified by four different colors (blue, magenta, orange, and green). each part consists of pieces of wood. in total, there are wood pieces connected by wires. using a computational genetic algorithm, the design starts with points and connects vertical points and then follows the arc pattern to illustrate the movement of the flying butterfly (see figure ). *e surface is generated by the cross-linked wood elements with random angles along the structure with the aid of a genetic algorithm, which is then reflected through the xy plane to obtain a complex flight system fluidity. *e angle represents the movement of a butterfly that flows in flight to regulate their body temperature. *e main algorithm produces a sine curve that has three mountains and two valleys. *e initial points on each plane (either xy plane or xz plane) are randomly determined by the graph mapper in grasshopper (see figure ). in order to get a complex wood structure with cross-linked elements, a set of data for tweaking curves should be defined and merged to get one sine curve. for making other parts, sine curve can be mirrored horizontally and vertically (see figure ). *e second step after the outer curves have been de- termined is to generate the wood pieces. *e size of the wood (a) (b) (c) (d) figure : case study of complex parametric model using the grasshopper logic system (source: drawing by the research team). (a) top view_ : . (b) perspective view_ : . (c) front view_ : . (d) right view_ : . graphmapper of ys graphmapper of curve tweak finding valleys and mountains on curve finding valleys and mountains on curve finding valleys and mountains on curve finding valleys and mountains on curve gm initialization initial points and curve graphmapper of zs gm initialization initial points and curve graphmapper of ys gm initialization initial points and curve graphmapper of zs gm initialization initial points and curve tweakys tweak xs graphmapper of curve tweak tweak ys tweak xs graphmapper of curve tweak tweak zs tweak xs graphmapper of curve tweak tweak zs tweak xs figure : case study of a complex parametric model using the grasshopper logic system (source: drawing by the research team). complexity part z part x part y part w figure : making other parts by mirroring one part horizontally and vertically (source: drawing by the research team). (a) (b) (c) (d) figure : wire connection of the complex parametric model (source: drawing by the research team). complexity ( × mm) is adjustable, but the length of the wood follows the outer curves that have been generated in the previous algorithm. *e total amount of mountains and valleys de- pends on the total length of the prototype model for a stable structure. after the wood pieces are defined, the hole’s marks for the wire connection can be created. in this prototype, three wires with different lengths were used (see figure ). *e part is assembled in an oblique position, inserting pieces connected by wires as shown in figure . between parts, the connection is very difficult because there is no general assembly direction that can be found to determine the distance between woods and the slope angle of each wood. at the full-scale structure, it is easier to use industrial robots for assembly. fabrication using industrial robots can produce more precise and accurate results because of their ability to perform an infinite number of nonrepetitive tasks, thus they are considered as the enablers for deeper transformations in the field of large-scale manufacturing systems. for this purpose, further research is needed, using an articulated robot for cost-effective and potential fabrication process. only in this way, we can significantly expand our range in bio-inspired analysis, architectural design, and production aims, allowing the diversity and complexity of new materials to emerge. . conclusion when looking at architectural biomimetics made through digital design for futurism, it connects traditional art (movement captured by painting) and new expressive sci- ence that allows us to analyze diversity and also simulate the processes that occur in nature through complex patterns of behavior that change from time to time. in order to achieve that, computers and industrial robots play an important role in defining and creating new complex architectural forms and spatial relationships. *e relationship between art and science and their overlapping tendencies seems like a thought with postmodern influences and cubism associated with mobility in terms of physical motion of the occupant, the sensation of motion as a result of visual effects. rep- resentation of movements by forms and structures shows a dynamism of the futurist art. art should also be able to reflect the important phenomena of human existence and living organisms, as well as logical problems that science is completely indifferent. *e evolution of architecture from the traditional way to the modern era of computer-based design has really improved in various aspects such as designing, doc- umenting, and idea communication and now stepping forward in integrating scripts, algorithms, and codes to provide a more efficient way of solving complicated problems in the design process, beyond the roots of representation of existing architectural forms in which it is limited by design techniques. in addition, it is im- portant to emphasize that despite a much higher degree of flexibility and speed in generating possible outcomes in the realm of digital architecture, this situation must be considered very well, so that the existence of this technology means capable of serving and bridging the gap between humanity and complexity of the design process. *e design and construction process in this case study is a good reflection of computational methods that helps ar- chitects and designers to achieve innovative results and allows more design possibilities. *ere is always a need for changes in architectural methods when there is a change in human needs and human evolution, but the important thing is to learn the relationship between many fields which are interconnected to each other. data availability *e data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. conflicts of interest *e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. acknowledgments *e research case studies have been conducted in the de- partment of architecture, national taiwan university of science and technology, by the ministry of education, taiwan. additional expenses have been covered by authors’ home research centres, namely, the d&a lab, department of architecture, national united university, and the de- partment of architecture, national taiwan university of science and technology, in taiwan. references [ ] p. b. meggs, a history of graphic design, a reference to important events, wiley, toronto, canada, . 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[ ] c. m. stevenson, “morphological principal: current kinetic architectural structure,” in proceedings of the international adaptive architecture conference, london, uk, march . complexity psychology & neuroscience, , , , - doi: . /j.psns. . subjective time perception is affected by different durations of exposure to abstract paintings that represent human movement francisco carlos nather , paola alarcon monteiro fernandes , and josé lino oliveira bueno - universidade federal do abc, são bernardo do campo, sp, brazil - universidade de são paulo, ribeirão preto, sp, brazil abstract time perception can be affected by real emotional pictures of people that evoke different levels of arousal. figurative artwork images of body postures that imply movement with different intensities and evoke different levels of arousal can modulate the perception of time. the present study investigated whether abstract paintings that represent motion in different ways affect the perception of time when subjects are exposed to the paintings for different durations. undergraduate students observed abstract paintings from different artistic schools (i.e., cubism, constructivism, expressionism, and futurism). they observed for s each painting and estimated the time of exposure (reproduction method). after the time estimations, the subjects completed different semantic movement, arousal, complexity, and recognition scales to obtain information about how the painting compositions were perceived. time distortions were observed for only two cubist paintings that represented human forms, which were related to both evoked arousal and implied movement (experiment ). experiment further verified whether these time distortions were related to implied movement perception or arousal. different groups of participants were exposed for and s to only four cubist paintings that represented human forms. these time exposures ( and s) were used because the arousal-evoking effects may be transient for exposure times that are longer than - s. the data analysis revealed overestimation of time for the cubist painting that had greater arousal and movement scores only when the subjects were exposed for s, showing that implied movement in abstract human figures is more effective than images with emotional content. we discuss the effect of durations of exposure to pictorial characteristics of artwork on time perception, emphasizing aspects of the visual perception of human forms in cubist paintings and arousal effects in an aesthetic episode. keywords: time perception, static images, implied movement, cubism, arousal. received april ; received in revised form august ; accepted august . available online november . francisco carlos nather, universidade federal do abc, center for mathematics, computation and cognition. josé lino oliveira bueno, university of são paulo, department of psychology. paola alarcon monteiro fernandes, university of são paulo, department of biology. correspondence regarding this article should be directed to: francisco carlos nather, centro de matemática, computação e cognição (cmcc) - universidade federal do abc, rua arcturus, , são bernardo do campo, sp - , brazil. phone: + fax: + . e-mail: f.nather@hotmail.com/f.nather@ ufabc.edu.br introduction impressionist artwork by edgar degas that represents ballerina movements modulates subjective time perception. ballet steps with lower movement scores were judged to have a shorter duration than those with intermediate scores, and ballet postures with intermediate scores were judged to have a shorter duration than postures with the highest scores, such as arabesque and attitude postures (nather & bueno, ). according to these authors, arabesque and attitude postures are more asymmetric than other ballet postures because of the relationship among the positions of the body parts, allowing the observer to surmise the represented movements (implied movement). implied motion in abstract and figurative artworks has been studied under different aspects of visual perception that involves neuronal substrates and subjective time (braddick, ; freedberg & gallese, ; kourtzi, ; martinez-conde & macknik, ; nather & bueno, , ). according to cutting ( ), painters use at least five criteria to represent motion, such as relationships among positions of body parts (broken symmetry), blurring the background of the scene (photographic blur), and superimposing different moments of a moving object in the same painting (stroboscopic images). for example, in the abstract cubist painting nude descending a staircase by marcel duchamp, the human figure is repeatedly overlapped to show all of the human body movements while descending stairs. similarly, the futurist painting dynamism of a dog on a leash by giacomo balla shows the movements made by a dog using stroboscopic images and blurs the scene background. nather et al. kim and blake ( ) studied paintings from the early th century and found that subjects were able to distinguish movement intensities in different artworks. paintings that portrayed motion were rated with higher scores than paintings in which motion was not explicitly intended by the artists. they found greater activity for the motion-sensitive mt+ encephalic brain area in nude descending a staircase and dynamism of a dog on a leash (which imply more movement) compared with abstract expressionist paintings (which imply less movement) in observers who had prior viewing experience with these artworks. in these experiments, the authors also used expressionist paintings by paul klee and piet mondrian that are basically composed of geometric forms and lines. thakral, moo, and slotnick ( ) evaluated the magnitude of activity in the mt+ sensory motion processing region and prefrontal cortex while subjects viewed other paintings (i.e., portraits and landscapes by van gogh). based on each subject’s motion experience ranking, the authors showed a significant positive correlation between the intensity of movement associated with viewing each painting and the magnitude of activity of the mt+ area. furthermore, the paintings that were classified by the participants as pleasant were associated with greater activity of the mt+ area compared with paintings that were classified as unpleasant. these results suggested that the activity of this brain area is associated with the experience of both movement and aesthetic pleasure. the effects of aesthetic episodes on time perception has revealed that it varies directly with the pictorial processing of the artwork’s characteristics. they determined how much time an observer spends in cognitive processing to understand a piece of art (cupchick, ; cupchick & gebotys, ). using paintings by claude monet, edgar degas, and Édouard manet, to which subjects were exposed for , , and s, cupchick and gebotys ( ) found that pleasure judgments by the subjects varied according to the complexity of these artworks and the duration of exposure. however, this study did not focus on specific properties of the paintings’ themes, such as the effects of movement perception on subjective time. freedberg and gallese ( ) proposed that an element of aesthetic episodes consists of the activation of embodiment mechanisms that encompass the simulation of actions, emotions, and corporeal sensations by motion-sensitive cortical brain areas, such as mirror neurons. edgar degas is widely known for his artistic productions that are dedicated to the representation of movement (growe, ). his realistic sculptures of ballerina body postures likely affect the mt+ area because cortical brain areas are differentially activated by real pictures of people’s postures while they perform different movements. for example, the observation of an athlete who is performing an action causes more activation of the mt/mst than this same athlete who is in a static posture (kourtzi & kanwisher, ; proverbio, riva, & zani, ). embodiment mechanisms have been associated with time distortions in previous studies that used body postures of dancers and an exposure time of s (nather & bueno, ). nather, bueno, bigand, and droit-volet ( ) analyzed several aspects of motion perception, including arousal, valence, and familiarity with degas’ ballerina images, and evaluated the impact of empathy and embodiment mechanisms in an aesthetic episode. they showed that the duration of exposure was judged to be longer for ballerina images that implied more movement compared with ballerina images that implied less movement. however, the magnitude of the time distortions was greater for the shorter durations of exposure ( . - . s) than for the longer durations ( - s). interestingly, the authors found a positive relationship between the intensity of movement and arousal. body postures that implied more movement were judged as more arousing than body postures that implied less movement. they explained the difference in time distortions between the shorter (milliseconds) and longer (a few seconds) durations of stimulus exposure by relating it to emotional decay in which the high-arousal effect was transient and limited to relatively brief durations that were shorter than - s (angrili, cherubini, pavese, & manfredini, ). angrili et al. hypothesized that the effects of high-arousal real human pictures were mostly emotional until the first s of exposure, which then decreased after s. thus, the emotional content of the images would be given priority during the early phase of time processing, and attention becomes more effective when the exposure duration is approximately s (short interval). arousal is a fundamental mechanism that modulates the effect of emotion, likely in multiple stages of time processing when a person observes emotional human pictures (smith, mciver, di nella, & crease, ). the effects of aesthetic episodes on time perception has revealed that the perception of the duration of exposure also varies according to the artwork’s properties (berlyne, ). thus, understanding the effects of arousal and implied motion in non-figurative artworks could elucidate the processes that underlie embodiment mechanisms that impact subjective time because “…the feeling of physical involvement in artworks not only provoked a sense of imitating the motion seen or implied in the work, but also enhanced the spectator’s emotional responses to it” (freedberg & gallese, , p. ). the objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of arousal and the perception of movement in abstract paintings on time perception by testing short and long durations of exposure to artwork. we tested whether time perception is differentially affected by different durations of exposure to artwork, the perception of implied movement, and the evocation of arousal. to evaluate the effects of implied movement and arousal on time perception, paintings with different themes that were produced during different artistic movements were used in two experiments, in which the paintings were presented for s (experiment ) and and s abstract paintings and time perception (experiment ) in different groups of participants. in experiment , paintings that represented cubism, constructivism, expressionism, and futurism were used. they were selected because their different motion representation characteristics (cutting, ) have not been tested in previous studies of subjective time (e.g., stroboscopic images, pictures with photographic blur, and action-movement paintings). four cubist paintings were used in experiment . they consisted of abstract human forms. these cubist paintings were selected because at least two of them were perceived as figurative human forms when subjects viewed them for more than . s (hekkert & van wieringen, ). therefore, two durations of exposure ( and s) were used in experiment because these paintings were not easily recognized as human forms with a short duration of exposure ( s). furthermore, high-arousal effects can be transient with exposure times greater than - s in which time perception is mediated by different cognitive processes with s exposure (angrilli et al., ; elbert, ulrich, rockstroh, & lutzenberger, ). thus, exposure to the same paintings for and s was used to test the specific effects of implied movement in abstract human forms and the effects of emotional arousal on time perception. if the effects of arousal decrease briefly at s, then the time estimations for s exposure are more related to implied movement than to an arousal effect. the present study also sought to clarify aspects of visual motion perception that involves an aesthetic episode in which different kinds of implied movement are the most conspicuous characteristics of the abstract compositions. notably, implied movements were not evaluated in previous studies. previous studies of subjective time used figurative artwork that was realistically distinguished as women who were dancing with body postures that were associated with different ballet choreographies, which affected time perception according to visual motion perception. the implicit visual information of these static images of different body postures revealed that movement perception modulates time perception according to increases in motion intensity (nather & bueno, ). therefore, the present study also evaluated whether abstract human forms in abstract paintings cause similar effects. experiment methods participants fifteen undergraduate students (eight men; mean age = . years, sd = . ) from the university of são paulo, ribeirão preto, brazil were randomly invited to participate in the study. they were untrained in visual arts and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. the experiment was approved by the ethics committee of the university of são paulo school of philosophy, sciences and letters, ribeirão preto, brazil. material the experiment was performed during daylight hours in an isolated, soundproofed room at the central library on the ribeirão preto campus. the room was lit with a lm w- compact fluorescent light bulb. digital photographs of abstract paintings were selected according to their pictorial compositions, themes, and artistic movements (table ). table . list of paintings presented to the participants. painting. author (artistic movement) . woman with a guitar. georges braque (cubism) . the guitar player. pablo picasso (cubism) . girl with mandolin fanny tellier. pablo picasso (cubism) . wounded bird and cat. pablo picasso (cubism) . portrait of pablo picasso. juan gris (cubism) . nude descending a staircase. marcel duchamp (cubism) . the knife grinder. kazimir malevich (constructivism) . abstract speed. giacomo balla (futurism) . dynamism of a dog on a leash. giacomo balla (futurism) . lines of movement and dynamic succession. g. balla (futurism) . shape and noise of motorcyclist. giacomo balla (futurism) . the car has passed. giacomo balla (futurism) . girl running on a balcony. giacomo balla (futurism) . the hand of the violinist. giacomo balla (futurism) . contemplating. paul klee (expressionism) . red waistcoat. paul klee (expressionism) . the goldfish. paul klee (expressionism) . composition viii. wassily kandinsky (expressionism) . number , . jackson pollock (abstract expressionism) . number , grey. jackson pollock (abstract expressionism) high-resolution artwork images were obtained from the internet and were adjusted with regard to saturation, brightness, and size using photoshop cs software. the final size of the images was approximately × cm with respect to their vertical orientation. the artwork images occupied the central position of an lg screen that was connected to an hp notebook computer; the remainder of the screen was white. semantic -point likert-type scales for movement, complexity, and recognition and the -point self- assessment manikin scale (lang, ) were used to obtain information about how the painting compositions were perceived by the participants. stimulus exposure, time estimation, and latency recordings were managed using the wave surfer program installed on the hp notebook computer. the cubist paintings used in this study consisted of the analytical phase of cubism in which the shape of the object is subjected to the two-dimensional surface of the canvas. the final result approaches abstraction (see ganteführer-trier & grosenick, ). therefore, the abstract content of the cubists paintings that were used could be understood as a form of art that represents objects of our outer reality. they are composed of formal relations between colors, lines, and surfaces to render the reality of work in a non-representational way. nather et al. procedure the participants individually entered the experimental room and were asked to sit in a chair. the tasks were orally explained to the participants. they were positioned facing the central region of the ” lg monitor at a distance of approximately cm. they were instructed not to count time. the stimuli were presented by pressing the “presentation” key on the computer, and presentation was terminated after s. at this moment, the picture was replaced by a white screen, indicating that the participant could initiate time estimation. immediately after each observation, the participant was instructed to reproduce the presentation duration by pressing the “initiate” key, which was finalized by pressing the “finished” key (reproduction method). the stimuli were randomly presented to the participants. the wave surfer program also recorded the latency between the end of each painting exposure and beginning of the participants’ reproductions. after the time estimations, the participants’ were instructed to rate the amount of movement represented and complexity of the paintings on a -point scale. they were also asked to identify the figure depicted in the painting on a recognition scale and rate their level of arousal on a -point scale. statistical analysis one-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (anova) and the student-newman-keuls post hoc test were used to compare time estimation, latency, movement, complexity, recognition, and arousal data for all of the paintings. one-way repeated-measures anova and the student-newman-keuls test were also used to compare the time estimation data according to the artistic movements and themes of the paintings between groups of paintings. the same analyses were used to compare the data of the different paintings in the paintings groups. one-sample analyses were conducted to compare the mean time estimations of stimulus exposure with the actual time of exposure ( s). also, the one-sample analyses were used to compare the data of recognition scale with points. this analysis allowed inferences about the identification of the objects, animals, and human figures depicted in the paintings. pearson correlation was employed to verify the association between movement and arousal scales. results time estimations the anova of the mean time estimations of the paintings revealed significant differences between the nude cubist painting by m. duchamp and several other paintings (f , = . , p < . ). the duration of nude exposure was estimated to be longer than the three futurist paintings by g. balla (all p < . ), the abstract expressionist compositions by p. klee (p < . ) and j. pollock (p < . ), the expressionist painting by w. kandinsky (p < . ), and the cubist paintings that represented human figures by g. braque (p < . ), j. gris (p < . ), and p. picasso (p < . ). significant differences were also found in latencies between the nude painting and paintings that represented animals and abstract action paintings by pollock (f , = . , p < . ), which were constructed as a function of real body movements performed by the artist (all p < . ; table ). effects of arousal and movement measures on time perception the anova of the arousal and movement data did not reveal a relationship between scores, indicating that implied movement and the emotional arousal evoked by the paintings were not directed related. this result was supported by person correlation analyses. the analysis of movement scores revealed that paintings with animal themes, such as dynamism and lines by balla, received greater movement scores compared with the majority of the other paintings (f , = . , p < . ) including the nude cubist painting by duchamp that were overestimated (all p < . ). the dynamism and lines paintings were not temporally distorted. other paintings that were associated with different time estimations compared with nude, including three futurist paintings by balla, the abstract compositions by pollock, and the expressionist painting by w. kandinsky, did not receive different movement scores compared with this cubist painting. however, nude received greater movement scores than the two abstract expressionist compositions by klee (p < . ) and cubist paintings that represented human figures by gris and picasso (both p < . ). moreover, the hand painting by balla was not scored for simplicity, the first word of the name of each painting is used henceforth in the text. table . means (standard deviations) of time estimation, latency, movement, arousal, recognition, and complexity for the six cubist paintings. painting time (s) latency (s) movement arousal recognition complexity . (. )- . (. ) . ( . ) . (. ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . (. ) . (. ) . ( . ) . (. ) . (. ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . (. ) . ( . ) . (. ) . (. ) . ( . ) . (. ) . (. ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . (. ) . ( . ) . ( . )+ . ( . )* . ( . )* . ( . )# . ( . )** . ( . ) (-) underestimated. (+) marginally overestimated. (*) , , and < . (#) < , and ; < . (**) < points. abstract paintings and time perception differently from nude (both have the stroboscopic figurative representation of human movement) and it was not temporally distorted. the anova of arousal scores showed that the paintings were also scored differently (f , = . , p < . ). these differences were smaller than those found in the movement analyses. the arousal scores were also not related to the time distortions observed. nude received a greater arousal score than the abstract expressionist composition contemplating by klee and futurist painting abstract speed by balla (p < . ). the cubist painting of a cat (wounded by picasso) received lower arousal scores than nude (p < . ), but the other paintings that represented animals by balla (dynamism and lines) were not scored differently from this cubist painting. effect of painting themes and artwork schools on time perception time and the other measures were also analyzed based on the paintings’ themes and artistic schools of the artwork used. the anova did not reveal differences between the mean time estimations among the cubist paintings group (braque, duchamp, j. gris, and picasso; paintings , , , , and ), geometric futurist paintings group (balla; paintings , , and ), cubist expressionist and futurists paintings group that represented animals (balla, klee, and picasso; paintings , , , and ), geometric expressionist paintings group (kandinsky, klee, and pollock; paintings , , , , and ), and futurist paintings group that represented human body parts (k. malevich and balla; paintings , , and ). the data analyses showed that only the five cubist paintings that represented human forms (paintings , , , , and ) had different time estimations (f , = . , p < . ). the post hoc comparisons showed that all of the paintings had shorter time estimations than nude (i.e., the painting with stroboscopic representation of a human figure; p < . ). student’s t-test showed that the time of woman presentation was underestimated (t = - . , p < . ), and nude was marginally overestimated (t = . , p < . ) compared with the actual exposure time of s (table ). the mean latency scores were also statistically different between these paintings (f , = . , p < . ). nude had a greater latency compared with the other cubist paintings (all p < . ). because time estimations were verified only for these cubist paintings that represented human figures, further analyses considered the differential semantic scales only for these paintings. the movement data analysis showed that these cubist paintings were scored differently (f , = . , p < . ). nude received higher movement scores than the other paintings (all p < . ). arousal scores were also different among these paintings (f , = . , p < . ). nude received a higher arousal score than the woman and portrait paintings (all p < . ). woman had a lower arousal score than girl and portrait, indicating that implied movement and arousal scores were not related (p < . ). further analyses evaluated the complexity and recognition measures among these cubist paintings (paintings , , , , and ). the anova of complexity scores did not reveal significant differences among these five cubist paintings. however, the paintings received different recognition scores (f , = . , p < . ). considering that a score of points indicated verified identification of a human figure, the t-test showed that the guitar (t = . , p < . ) and nude (t = . , p < . ) were less easily identified as human images compared with the other three paintings. discussion the results of this experiment can be discussed in terms of the observation time of different artworks in a museum. for example, when a person goes to a museum to appreciate a permanent collection, he/she is exposed to different pieces of artwork, and the time spent observing each one depends on their appraisal characteristics that demand more than s of observation. therefore, interest and pleasure while viewing a specific painting could be related to how long a person observes it. thus, the results for the paintings used in experiment should be discussed by considering the guidelines of the new experimental aesthetics (berlyne, ) taking into account the visual exploration involved in artistic appreciation. in this experiment, paintings with different themes and from different artistic schools were observed for only s. the results showed that different paintings caused time distortions, independent of their abstract compositions. these results are consistent with stoyanova, yakimoff, gourevich, and mitrani ( ) who reported that figurative and abstract paintings that were presented for short intervals (. - . s) also distorted time perception. these authors indicated that under- and overestimations of time were caused by the complexity of the artwork, but they did not discuss which pictorial features were responsible for these time distortions. based on the present results, we can make inferences about the effects of each painting on subjective time because the data were analyzed by considering the paintings’ specific themes and schools. only the cubist paintings that represented human figures were estimated differently when they were analyzed together. interestingly, the five cubist paintings that represented human forms were mostly brown, ocher, and green. representing the analytical phase of cubism, they were nearly monochromatic, which allowed analysis of form without distraction by colors (ganteführer-trier & grosenick, ; strickland, ). however, they differ with regard to the amount of pictorial abstraction that results from different three-dimensional planes of the human figure representation, which causes distinct interpretative ambiguities. nicki, lee, and moss ( ) showed that subjects observed cubist paintings for a longer time according to nather et al. an increase in the subjective ambiguity of the paintings. these authors suggested that interest and pleasure in a painting are associated with identification of an object or person that is represented in the artwork. furthermore, kuchinke, trapp, jacobs, and leder ( ) instructed subjects to indicate the moment at which they recognized any object in several cubist paintings. the paintings with high content accessibility were processed faster toward the point of explicit classification of the depicted content. therefore, it is possible to pointed out that the five cubist paintings used in the present study affected time perception according to affective aesthetic responses in the observer that depended on how ease they were processed. in the present study, all of the cubist paintings that represented human forms received the same scores on the complexity scale. however, woman and nude were less easily associated with human images on the recognition scale. these two paintings were also scored differently on the movement scale and were under- and overestimated, respectively, compared with the actual exposure time ( s). these data could explain why the stroboscopic painting nude, which implies more movement, had a longer time estimation than the other cubist paintings, such as woman (which implies less movement), that do not represent intentional human movements (see table ). furthermore, hekkert and van wieringen ( ) used the rate of identification to evaluate the time required for subjects to recognize human figures in cubist paintings. the results showed that nude was recognized after . s, whereas portrait was quickly identified (< s). paintings with compositions similar to woman were recognized after > . s. these authors suggested that aesthetic pleasure is related to the ability to recognize human figures, independent of the paintings’ complexity. notably, nude had the highest latency. this result could be interpreted as a longer processing time compared with other cubist paintings (table ). nude received the highest movement score and was marginally overestimated. similarly, nather et al. ( ) showed that the duration of exposure to figurative human images (i.e., degas’ ballerinas) was marginally distorted when - s durations of stimulus exposure were used. these authors found that the magnitude of time distortions was greater with shorter exposures (< s) in which body postures that imply more movement were judged with more arousal through embodiment mechanisms. therefore, it is possible to infer that the same mechanisms of time estimation may be required when people observe abstract or figurative human figures that represent movements of different types and intensities such as the stroboscopic artwork. different pictorial characteristics of cubist paintings were analyzed in previous studies (hekkert & van wieringen, ; kuchinke et al., ; nicki et al., ). these studies reported that the duration of exposure is a significant factor in figurative recognition and determines interest in and pleasure evoked by these paintings. implied movement is an intrinsic part of their visual processing, and evaluating the role of movement perception in time distortion was important. in the present study, all of the cubist paintings received the same complexity scores. figurative forms were not easily recognized for only two paintings: nude and the guitar. nude (which implies more movement) was not scored differently from the guitar (which implies less movement) in the arousal measure, and the durations of exposure were over- and underestimated, respectively. the data from experiment did not allow definitive conclusions about whether the implied movement in the paintings was the unique parameter that was responsible for the time distortions observed, and emotional arousal may have played a role. to further investigate the effects of implied movement associated with arousal levels and embodiment mechanisms, four cubist paintings were presented for and s to different groups of participants in experiment . these different durations tested the transient effects of arousal that occur with stimulus exposure times of - s. experiment methods the participants were undergraduate students from the university of são paulo, ribeirão preto, brazil, and randomly invited to participate in the study. they were untrained in visual arts and had normal or corrected-to- normal vision. this experiment was approved by the ethics committee of the university of são paulo school of philosophy, sciences and letters in ribeirão preto, brazil. groups and procedure the methods of experiment were basically the same as in experiment , with the exception that only four cubist paintings that represented human figures were used. these paintings were selected because two of them were previously reported to be recognized as figurative forms after . s (hekkert & van wieringen, ), and they were temporally distorted compared with the other cubist paintings (experiment ). the arousal and movement scores for three of these paintings were not different. nude (painting ) had higher arousal and movement scores than the other cubist paintings, and its exposure time was overestimated. in contrast, the other three paintings did not receive different arousal or movement scores, and the exposure time for woman (painting ) was underestimated. four groups of participants were used. they were defined according to the three cubist paintings used (ga , ga , gb , and gb groups). the ga and ga groups were exposed to woman (painting ), girl (painting ), and nude (painting ). these paintings were presented to participants: s in the ga group ( individuals, men; mean age, . years, sd = . years) and s in the ga group ( individuals, men; mean age = . years, sd = . years). abstract paintings and time perception the gb and gb groups were exposed to the guitar (painting ), girl (painting ), and nude (painting ; table ). these paintings were presented to participants: s in the gb group ( individuals, men; mean age = . years, sd = . years) and s in the gb group ( individuals, men; mean age, . years, sd = . years). notice that two paintings were the same (nude and girl) in all of the groups. similar to experiment , the images were presented in random order for the four groups. semantic differential arousal and movement scales were used in this experiment. they were completed after the time estimations according to the procedure adopted in experiment . statistical analysis one-way repeated-measures anova and the student-newman-keuls post hoc test were used to compare time estimations and latency data for each group separately (ga , ga , gb , and gb ). one- sample analyses were conducted to compare the time estimations in the ga , ga , gb , and gb groups with the actual exposure times ( or s). two-way not repeated-measures anova and the student-newman-keuls post hoc test were used to analyze the movement and arousal scale data between the ga and ga groups and between the gb and gb groups. additional two-way repeated-measures anova and the student-newman-keuls post hoc test were used to analyze the movement and arousal scale data between the ga and ga groups together (ga / ) and between the gb and gb groups together (gb / ). this procedure was used because the data obtained using semantic scales were obtained after the time estimations, and the participants observed the artworks for however long they wanted. pearson correlation was employed to verify the association between movement and arousal scales. student t-test was used to compare the latency data for each painting between the ga and ga groups and between the gb and gb groups separately. results time measures the anova of the time estimation data did not reveal significant differences between the ga and gb groups (table ). the one-sample analysis showed that the time estimations for the paintings were not different from the actual s exposure time in the ga and gb groups. time distortions were observed when the paintings were presented for s in the ga and gb groups. these paintings are available on the following websites: woman (www.wikipaintings.org/en/georges-braque/woman- with-a-guitar- ), the guitar (www.wikipaintings.org/en/ pablo-picasso/guitar-player- ), girl (www.wikipaintings. org/en/pablo-picasso/girl-with-mandolin-fanny-tellier- ), and nude (www.wikipaintings.org/en/marcel-duchamp/nude- descending-a-staircase-no- - ). interestingly, the anova showed that these time distortions were not the same in both groups. in the ga group, differences in time estimations were not observed among the paintings. however, in the gb group, nude (painting ) and girl (painting ), both of which imply more movement, the exposure times were estimated to be longer compared with the guitar (painting ; which implies less movement; f , = . , p < . ). the one-sample analysis showed that the exposure time for nude was overestimated in both the ga and gb groups relative to the actual exposure time of s (t = . , p < . , and t = . , p < . , respectively). the anova did not reveal significant differences in latency among the paintings that were presented for or s (ga and gb and gb and gb groups, respectively; table ). comparisons of the data for each painting separately showed that the latency was greater for s exposure times for the most abstract paintings (nude and woman) in the ga and ga groups (t = - . , p < . , and t = - . , p < . , respectively) and for nude and the guitar in the gb and gb groups (t = - . , p < . , and t = - . , p = . , respectively). arousal and movement measures the anova did not reveal differences in arousal and movement scores between the ga and ga groups or between the gb and gb groups. these results were expected because these data were obtained after time estimation. the participants finished the task of completing the semantic scales after the time estimations and observing the paintings for as long as they wanted. the anova showed that the arousal scores were different between ga and ga together (ga / ) and gb and gb together (gb / ) (f , = . , p < . , and f , = . , p < . , respectively; table ): nude ( . points, approximately) received higher arousal scores than the other paintings ( . points, approximately) (all p < . ). the anova showed that the movement scores were different between the ga and ga groups together (ga / ; f , = . , p < . ) and the gb and gb groups together (gb / ; f , = . , p < . ). woman ( . points) received lesser movement scores than girl ( . points) and nude ( . points) paintings in the ga / (both p < . ). the same was observed in the gb / : nude and girl paintings ( . and . points, respectively) received greater movement scores than the guitar painting ( . points) (both p < . ). notice that movement scores for nude and girl were . points higher than for the guitar in the gb and gb groups together (gb / ), but movement scores in the ga and ga groups together (ga / ) were ≤ . points (table ). pearson correlation analyses did not reveal correlation between arousal and movement scores, indicating that implied movement and the emotional arousal evoked by the paintings were not directed related. nather et al. discussion experiment showed that time perception was affected by cubist paintings that represented human figures when they were presented for s to different groups of participants (ga and gb groups). this experiment also revealed a contextual effect of artwork groupings on time estimation. woman, girl, and nude were not estimated differently in the ga group. however, in the gb group, nude and girl were estimated longer than the guitar. moreover, nude was overestimated in both the ga and gb groups. in fact, this overestimation could be associated with the arousal scores for nude. this painting received greater arousal scores than the other paintings (table ). however, girl received the same arousal score in both the ga and gb groups and was estimated longer than the guitar in the gb group. however, the same was not verified for this painting in the ga group, in which all of the paintings were similarly estimated. the different time estimations found between the ga and gb groups could be better understood by relating them to the implied movement scores. nude and girl (which imply more movement) were estimated longer than the guitar (which implies less movement) in the gb group because of their implied movement. moreover, an explanation was less evident for the time estimations among the three paintings in the ga group. a more refined analysis of the effect of movement scores on time perception clarified these different results. the paintings were not the same in both groups as well as their movement scores. movement scores among woman ( . ), girl ( . ), and nude ( . ) paintings were ≤ . points in the ga and ga groups together (ga / ), and the paintings were not estimated differently. in contrast, in the gb and gb groups together (gb / ), the difference among the guitar ( . ), girl ( . ), and nude ( . ) paintings were > . points (table ). therefore, nude and girl were estimated longer than the guitar in the gb group due to the implied movement among these paintings. these differences in time estimation are consistent with the results of a previous study that used figurative artworks that represented human bodies that performed actions (nather & bueno, ). these authors used different photographs of ballerina sculptures by edgar degas that were presented to three different groups of participants, similar to the present experimental design (three images in each group). using a long duration of exposure ( s) and grouping the same images according to their movement scores ( . , . , . , and . points), these authors showed that participants estimated the time of exposure similarly for ballerina bodies that had implied movement scores ≤ . points. altogether, these data corroborate the present results, in which the images in the gb group were estimated differently based on their movement scores (> . points). this was not observed in the ga group in which the movement scores were ≤ . points. therefore, the results of these studies suggest that the contextual grouping of images affects the processes that underlie both visual movement and time perception. the participants’ latencies were another important aspect of this study, which could reflect an affect of the visual processing of the artwork on time perception. the latencies in the ga , gb , ga , and gb groups were not different. however, the latencies were different between the more abstract cubist paintings (the guitar, woman, and nude) when they were presented for s. aesthetic pleasure in cubist paintings is related to the ability to recognize figurative forms in short (milliseconds) and long ( . s or more) exposures (hekkert & van wieringen, ). additionally, arousal has no effect with exposure times > s, independent of the transient effect of arousal at - s, indicating that other cognitive processes mediate time estimations with s exposure times (see also elbert et al., ) such as movement perception. finally, these paintings were presented with other abstract paintings in experiment . in experiment , only four mostly similar cubist paintings that represented human forms from the analytical phase of cubism were presented to the participants. these four paintings are more easily comparable with regard to their cognitive appraisals. this can explain why nude and woman were marginally overestimated and underestimated in experiment with s exposure. the same was not table . mean ± standard deviation of time estimation, latency, movement, arousal, recognition, and complexity for the four cubist paintings in ga and gb groups. ga / paintings gb / paintings parameter time ( s) . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . time ( s) . ± . . ± . . ± . * . ± . . ± . l . ± . *l latency ( s) . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . latency ( s) . ± . + . ± . . ± . + . ± . + . ± . . ± . + arousal ( / s) . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . movement ( / s) . ± . . ± . # . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . * overestimation. l paintings and were estimated longer than painting in the gb group. + longer latency for s compared with s exposure. italics indicate that the paintings received different scores for arousal and movement relative to the paintings marked in bold. # painting was also scored with less movement than painting in the ga / groups. abstract paintings and time perception observed in the ga and gb groups with s exposure in experiment . general discussion subjective time was affected by abstract paintings that were presented for different durations ( and s). these time distortions may be related to different psychological processes that involve interactions between the observation durations of the two experimental exposure conditions: (i) paintings with different themes from different artistic schools (cubism, expressionism, and futurism) that were presented for s (experiment ) and (ii) four cubist paintings with the same theme that were presented for s (experiment ). considering the artwork schools and themes of the paintings, the time estimation results indicate that cubist paintings that are composed of abstract human forms differentially distorted timing depending on the groups’ exposure times ( and s). the time estimation data were more related to implied movement than to emotional arousal evoked by the paintings that were presented for s, likely because cognitive appraisal affects time processing. therefore, experiments and highlight the importance of artwork grouping and the duration of observation, which was more evident for the cubist paintings that represented human forms. however, why did these cubist paintings differentially affect time perception when they were presented for different times and in different experimental groupings? in experiment , the participants estimated time with very different artworks, and comparisons were made with their cognitive appraisals. several implicit aspects of an aesthetic episode were processed together to generate different effects on time perception that were attributable to the possible comparisons established with observations of all paintings. woman was underestimated and nude was marginally overestimated relative to the actual exposure time of s. nude was estimated longer than woman. interestingly, all of the cubist paintings in this experiment were not different in the complexity measure. these two paintings were less easily recognizable as a human figure compared with the other cubist paintings (recognition measure). furthermore, they were scored differently in the movement and arousal measures. in experiment , nude was overestimated in both the ga and gb groups relative to the actual exposure time of s. girl, which did not affect time perception in experiment , caused time distortion in one group in experiment . this aspect of time perception (i.e., a grouping effect) can be understood by considering the movement and arousal measures. the estimations of the nude and girl (which imply more movement) exposure times were longer compared with the guitar (which implies less movement) in the gb group. but the same was not observed in the ga group. estimations of the nude and girl exposure times were not longer compared with woman, and they were scored similarly in the movement measure. only nude received a greater arousal score in experiment . when people observe these and other paintings in a museum (i.e., an ecological context), interest and pleasure in one specific painting demand different processing times because the subjects are freely attentive to different aspects of the artwork and not subjected to the elapsed time of exposure. therefore, this aspect of visual artwork appreciation could be available in terms of how long a person observes and comprehends it. the cubist paintings that represented human forms were the same in both experiments, and they were relatively similar in their pictorial compositions, characterized by similar elements with regard to the amount of pictorial abstraction (ganteführer-trier & grosenick, ). woman, the guitar, and nude were not easily related to a human figure, demonstrating that their figurative content was not quickly distinguished. this result could be related to previous studies that used only cubist paintings. nicki et al. ( ) showed that subjects observed cubist artworks for more time because of an increase in their subjective ambiguity as the identification of a human figure in the compositions. cubist paintings with higher content accessibility (i.e., less ambiguity) could be processed faster. this aspect of visual perception is an important feature of an aesthetic episode (cupchick & gebotys, ). therefore, the recognition responses in the observer depend on how easily they were processed over time (see also kuchinke et al., ). moreover, hekkert and van wieringen ( ) showed that more than s was necessary to identify a figurative form in cubist paintings. using an identification rate to evaluate the time required for subjects to recognize human figures in cubist paintings, they showed that nude was recognized after . s. a similar painting composition, such as woman, was recognized after . s. therefore, the two exposure durations used in the present study ( and s) were essential to explain the apparently discrepant time estimation data obtained in both experiments. in experiments and (with s exposure), these cubist paintings could be interpreted as only abstract compositions that do not necessarily involve human forms because of the short duration of exposure ( s), which is insufficient for the participants to comprehend and identify human forms or imply movement. thus, in experiment ( s exposure groups), nude was better understood as a human form or a person who is performing a movement. in contrast, s exposure to woman and the guitar did not allow the observers to recognize abstract human forms or perceive movement. this aspect (observation time) of abstract artwork was also evaluated according to the latency measure. the latencies among the paintings were the same when the different cubist paintings were presented for or s (experiment ). however, an interesting latency result was found when comparisons were made between the and s exposure groups. the more abstract paintings produced longer latencies when presented for s, nather et al. including nude and woman in the ga group and nude and the guitar in the gb group (see table ). in contrast, the same was not observed for girl. despite its implicit human form abstraction, girl was recognized as a woman figure. therefore, these results could be interpreted as indicative of image comprehension and processing. the participants may have been attempting to understand the image content before making time estimations, which could affect their further subjective time estimation when the duration of exposure was s (experiment ). this aspect of time perception requires further investigation because it was used as a control measure relative to time perception in this study, but it may provide a possible explanation for the subjective time perception results. exposure time was a relevant aspect of time perception when the same impressionist art pieces that represented figurative human bodies and implied different body movements were studied (nather, bueno, & bigand, ). time duration in an aesthetic episode can surpass the effects of other empathic properties of artworks. for example, the time of exposure to the same ballerina image that implied movement (a great arabesque) was overestimated when presented for s, but the same was not observed when it was presented for s. this information may clarify the different time distortions observed between the and s exposure times because of the emotional arousal elicited by cubist paintings. nude received greater arousal scores than the other three paintings. however, the arousal effects in the observer could be transient with exposure longer than s in which high arousal levels are more effective in the early phase ( s) of time processing (angrili et al., ; nather et al., ). therefore, with s exposure to the paintings, time distortions were unrelated to emotions but rather to determined properties of its composition that could be related, for example, to empathy and embodiment mechanisms evoked by artworks that represent motion (freedberg & gallese, ). gil and droit-volet ( ) discussed the fundamental role of arousal related to the emotional content of human pictures based on the affective picture system (lang, bradley, & cuthbert, ). they showed a lengthening effect on the duration of emotional pictures compared with neutral ones, indicating that the magnitude of this effect increases with greater levels of arousal and impact of emotional pictures. for example, the duration of disgust-inducing pictures (e.g., body mutilation) was judged to be longer than fear-inducing pictures (e.g., snake). the impact of artwork appreciation, such as with cubist paintings, is not the same as with real images of humans in dangerous or fearful contexts (grommet, droit-volet, hemmes, baker, & brown, ). for example, excluding arousal levels, phobic subjects make longer estimates of s observation of a spider (watts & sharrock, ). arousal may be an important mechanism that mediates the effect of emotion on time perception. in this study, however, it must also be considered in terms of hedonic effects and cognitive appraisals that are related to the different properties of the artwork used (e.g., silvia, a, b; russell, ). from this perspective, the present study corroborated the transient effect of emotional arousal on time perception when the duration of an aesthetic episode is greater than - s (see also lambrechts, mella, pouthas, & noulhiane, ) through embodiment mechanisms that are related to the kind of represented movement, either abstract or not. therefore, time distortions for s exposure (experiment ) were related to movement perception in which the paintings received both greater arousal and movement scores. additionally, the arousal scores were relatively similar among the groups of participants in experiment , but movement scores were different (see table ). thus, the different movement scores among the paintings must be considered. when movement scores were ≤ . points, the estimations of the paintings’ exposure times were not different. however, the estimations of the paintings’ exposure times were different when the movement scores were > . . the exposure time for the guitar ( . points, approximately) was estimated to be shorter compared with nude and girl ( . to . points, approximately). these results support the hypothesis proposed by nather and bueno ( ) in which movement scores > . points are sufficient to produce time distortions. a previous study used long-duration exposure ( s) to different photographs of ballerina sculptures that were presented to three different groups of participants, similar to the experimental design in the present study (three images per group). therefore, different kinds of represented movement in figurative and abstract artwork affect time perception. the stroboscopic movement of nude was overestimated because the attention evoked (see elbert et al., ) by this artwork when it was presented for s allowed the individuals to compare paintings with similar characteristics from the same artistic school. the activation of embodiment mechanisms encompasses the simulation of actions, emotions, and corporeal sensations by motion-sensitive cortical brain areas (freedberg & gallese, ), which may explain the time distortions. differential activation of the mt+ area and other cortical brain areas have been discussed in studies that used manga drawings and van gogh paintings (osaka, matsuyoshi, ikeda, & osaka, ; thakral et al., ; vartanian & goel, ). according to kim and blake ( ), different abstract paintings from different schools, such as nude, imply different movement intensities and activate the mt+ brain area. in this study, the participants were previously exposed to the abstract paintings that were used. in another study that used functional magnetic resonance imaging, the latencies were significantly shorter when the subjects were previously trained to recognize represented objects in cubist paintings (wiesmann & ishai, ). therefore, the different time estimation results between the and s exposures to the paintings revealed that embodiment mechanisms, through empathic processes, were more abstract paintings and time perception effective when the participants were able to better understand these abstract artistic compositions. this can be established with exposure times > . s (see nude painting results in hekkert & van wieringen, ). more than emotional arousal, understanding the implicit actions of these abstract human forms through empathy enabled individuals to recognize and make comparisons based on memories of the elapsed time to perform the observed (stroboscopic) movements, such as a person descending a staircase. therefore, overestimations for nude were consistent with the accumulation of internal clock pulses. more attention was given to this painting because of the inherent implicit movement representation (i.e., a stroboscopic image). the internal clock model supposes that timing is derived from the number of pulses generated by one pacemaker linked to one accumulator (gibbon, church, & meck, ). attention modulates the accumulation of pulses that are stored in the accumulator, acting as a switch (see also zakay & block, ). because of the fact that the human brain is able to perceive different implied movements of different artistic representations (cutting, ), the switch in attention increases the number of accumulated pulses during the observation of this kind of movement (i.e., stroboscopic) such that exposure time is judged to be longer. the greater implied movement in this abstract painting then accelerates the pulses of the internal marker, thus generating overestimations. the same was not observed for the other cubist paintings because they do not objectively represent movement. the internal clock runs faster with embodied movement associated with perceived motion when the duration of exposure is sufficient and considering the cognitive appraisals that are involved in an aesthetic episode (e.g., people observing abstract cubist paintings). the latency data confirmed this hypothesis, in which the latencies were different when the subjects observed these paintings for and s. the latency was higher when nude was observed for s, indicating that the duration of an aesthetic episode affects the subjective perception of time, independent of its cognitive possessing. conclusion time perception in artwork episodes depends on several factors that are implicitly related to the combination of image observation, duration of exposure, and processing. the experiments showed that time distortions were more attributable to implied movement perception than to the arousal evoked. therefore, visual movement perception in static artwork accentuates the effects of arousal (emotions) when exposure times are sufficient to comprehend an artwork. implied movement in two-dimensional artworks (e.g., paintings) is an important factor of visual perception that affects timing. further research that uses abstract artwork from different schools (e.g., artwork with proven emotional content, such as the scream by edgard munch) may provide information about other emotional aspects and processes that are related to time perception and embodiment when subjects observe paintings that represent human figures that are or are not in motion. acknowledgements francisco c. nather received a young investigators award from the são paulo research foundation (fapesp). josé lino oliveira bueno received a research grant from the national counsel for technological and scientific development (cnpq). paola alarcon monteiro fernandes received a pibic/ santander undergraduate research scholarship. references angrili, a., cherubini, p., pavese, a., & manfredini, s. 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( ). the role of attention in time estimation processes. in: m.a. pastor, & j. artieda (eds.), time, internal clocks and movement (pp. - ). amsterdam: elsevier. spatially resolved spitzer irs spectroscopy of the central region of m p. beirão, b. r. brandl, p. n. appleton, b. groves, l. armus, n. m. förster schreiber, j. d. smith, v. charmandaris, and j. r. houck received february ; accepted november abstract we present high spatial resolution (� pc) y �m spectra of the central region of m , taken with the spitzer infrared spectrograph. from these spectra we determined the fluxes and equivalent widths (ews) of key diagnostic features, such as the [ne ii] . �m, [ne iii] . �m, and h s( ) . �m lines, and the broad mid-ir polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) emission features in six representative regions and analyzed the spatial distribution of these lines and their ratios across the central region. we find a good correlation of the dust extinction with the co y emission. the pah emission follows closely the ionization structure along the galactic disk. the observed variations of the diagnostic pah ratios across m can be explained by extinction effects, within systematic uncertainties. the y �m pah complex is very prominent, and its ewis enhanced outward from the galactic plane. we interpret this as a consequence of the variation of the uvradiation field. the ews of the . �m pah feature and the h s( ) line correlate closely, and we conclude that shocks in the outflow regions have no measurable influence on the h emis- sion. the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio is on average low, at � . , and shows little variations across the plane, indicating that the dominant stellar population is evolved ( y myr) and well distributed. there is a slight increase of the ratio with distance from the galactic plane of m , which we attribute to a decrease in gas density. our observations indicate that the star formation rate has decreased significantly in the last myr. the quantities of dust and molecular gas in the central area of the galaxy argue against starvation and for negative feedback processes, observable through the strong extraplanar outflows. subject headinggs: galaxies: individual (m ) — galaxies: starburst — infrared: galaxies online material: color figures . introduction m (ngc ) is an irregular galaxy located at . mpc ( freedman & madore ) in the m group. it is the closest starburst galaxy, seen nearly edge-on, with an inclination angle of about � . at infrared wavelengths it is the brightest galaxy on the sky, with a total infrared luminosity of : ; l� (colbert et al. ). most of its luminosity originates from the inner pc, hosting intense starburst activity presumably triggered by a tidal interaction with m (e.g., yun et al. ). evidence for this interaction comes from the h i streams that connect m to all three (m , ngc , and ngc ) peculiar members of the inner m group (appleton et al. ; yun et al. ). recent deep optical images also revealed stars associated with the h i bridge between m and m (sun et al. ). at the distance of m , corresponds to pc, which allows spatially resolved studies of the starburst region. evidence of a stellar bar � kpc long is shown by near-infrared studies (e.g., telesco et al. ; larkin et al. ) and mid-infrared [ne ii] . �m and millimetric co emission studies (lo et al. ). according to larkin et al. ( ) and achtermann & lacy ( ), there is a rotating ring of ionized gas at a radius of � pc and on the inner side of a ring of molecular gas at � pc. two possible spiral arms were also identified by shen & lo ( ) and mayya et al. ( ) at radii of � and � pc. the starburst of m drives a bipolar mass outflow out to several kiloparsecs perpen- dicular to the plane of the galaxy, which is especially evident in x-ray and h� (bregman et al. ; shopbell & bland-hawthorn ; lehnert et al. ; cappi et al. ; strickland et al. ). dust has also been detected in the outflow region (alton et al. ; heckman et al. ; hoopes et al. ; engelbracht et al. ). the star-forming regions of m are predominantly clustered in the volume enclosed by the molecular gas ring, in- dicated by the h ii region tracers such as the [ne ii] . �m line and the mid and far-infrared continuum emission (telesco et al. ; walter et al. ; larkin et al. ; achtermann & lacy ; lipscy & plavchan ). near-infrared hydrogen recom- bination lines also arise in these regions, but they are a more am- biguous tracer of star formation, as they can also be excited by shocks, although these are unlikely to dominate. near-infrared integral field spectroscopy and iso sws mid- infrared spectroscopy by förster schreiber et al. ( ) allowed a detailed modeling of starburst activity in the central region of m (förster schreiber et al. a). these models are consis- tent with the occurrence of starburst activity in two successive episodes, about and myr ago,eachlastinga few million years. however, the spatial studies by förster schreiber et al. ( ) and others covered only near-infrared wavelengths. the large aperture of the iso sws provided a continuous . y �m spectrum but covered the whole central region of m . isocam cvf data (förster schreiber et al. b) provided better spatial resolu- tion, but the spectra only had a spatial resolution of r � and were shortward of �m. a leiden observatory, leiden university, p. o. box , ra leiden, netherlands. nasa herschel science center, california institute of technology, pasadena, ca . spitzer science center, california institute of technology, pasadena, ca . max-planck-institut für extraterrestrische physik, garching, germany. steward observatory, university of arizona, tucson, az . iesl/foundation for research andtechnology-hellas, gr- heraklion, greece; and chercheur associé, observatoire de paris, f- , paris, france. astronomy department, cornell university, space sciences building, ithaca, ny . the astrophysical journal, : y , march # . the american astronomical society. all rights reserved. printed in u.s.a. engelbracht et al. ( ) published spitzer irs low-resolution spectra of a wide strip along the minor axis of m , inter- secting the disk at the eastern side. the spectra, taken as part of the sings legacy project, were combined with spitzer and �m images, and show that the emission by polycyclic aro- matic hydrocarbons (pahs) and h molecules extends far out from the disk (to kpc) in both directions. engelbracht et al. ( ) suggest that the filamentary aromatic-dominated emis- sion either represents dust expelled from the galaxy as a result of a powerful nuclear superwind or indicates that dust in the halo is being lit up by the starburst, perhaps coexisting with the ex- tensive warm h molecules. they suggest that this halo dust is probably a leftover from the interaction with m . in this paper we present mid-ir spectral maps at unsurpassed sensitivity and spatial resolution of the central � . kpc of m , covering the main contributors to the bolometric luminosity of the galaxy. our goal is to provide a spatial and spectrally detailed de- scription of the physical conditions within the central � pc of m , to help us to gain an insight on the evolution of the star- burst activity in this region. this involves the study of the dis- tribution of the radiation field, gas density, and the physical properties of pahs. of particular interest are the spatial varia- tions of the fine-structure lines, the excitation of the molecular hydrogen, and the distribution of the pah molecules. in x we describe the observations and data reduction; in x we present the data; and in x we discuss the scientific results, followed by our conclusions in x . . observations and data reduction the observations were made with the infrared spectrograph (irs) spectrometer (houck et al. ) on board the spitzer space telescope, under the irs guaranteed time observing pro- gram. the data were taken on june using the irs ‘‘map- ping mode’’ in all four modules: short-high (sh; y �m) and long-high (lh; y �m) provide r � , while short- low (sl; y �m) and long-low (ll; y �m) give r � y . each of the sl and ll modules are further divided into two subslits, which correspond to diffraction orders: sl ( . y �m), sl ( y . �m), ll ( y �m), and ll ( y �m). the sh map consists of pointings with four cycles each, and each subsequent pointing is offset by half a slit width parallel to the slit and about one-third of the slit length along the slit. the sh map covers an area of ; . the lh data consists of pointings, with five cycles each, covering an area of ; . the offsets are equivalent to the sh map. the sl data con- sists of pointings, with two cycles each, covering an area over the m central region of : ; . the ll data con- sists of pointings with two cycles each. both sl and ll maps follow the same offsetting scheme as sh. because of the high brightness of m it was unavoidable that the ll data became saturated near the center of m , but the ll data are still usable. figure (left) shows the areas covered by the irs sl, lh, and sh maps overlaid on the irac �m image from engelbracht et al. ( ). the total integration times range from s (for sl exposures) to s (for lh exposures). due to issues concerning the extraction, the lh spectra were not used in this analysis. the boxes labelled ‘‘a’’ and ‘‘b’’ are the regions where the complete low-resolution (sl+ll) spectra were extracted. the data were processed with version . of the spitzer re- duction pipeline (ver. for ll). observations taken at each po- sition were combined into spectral cubes using cubism (smith et al. a), an idl-based software package designed to com- bine spectral mapping data sets into three-dimensional spectral cubes. bad pixels in the basic calibrated data (bcd) spectra were manually flagged and then automatically discarded when re- building the cube. spectra from off-source positions kpc to the northeast of the nucleus were used to subtract the background from the low-resolution spectra. for the high-resolution spectra we did not subtract a background, since there was no suitable ‘‘sky’’ spectrum available and the high source fluxes strongly dominate any background emission. the spectral analysis was done using smart (higdon et al. ) and pahfit (smith et al. b). . analysis on the basis of the sh spectral map coverage we defined six subregions for which we extracted the spectra from sl and sh with cubism. the location of these regions is shown in figure (right) overlaid on the irac �m image from engelbracht et al. ( ). the iso aperture is also shown to illustrate the increase in spatial resolution obtained with the spitzer irs. regions and coincide with the peaks of the [ne ii] emission, regions and are offset to both sides of the galactic disk, the slightly larger region c covers the nominal center of the galaxy, and the final region corresponds to the entire area mapped with the sh spec- trograph. the exact coordinates and sizes are listed in table . figure shows the sl ( y �m) and sh ( y �m) spec- tra extracted for these six regions. the noise is negligible and the spectra exhibit the classical features of starburst galaxies (brandl et al. ), such as strong emission features of the fig. .—left: overlay of sl (red) and sh (blue) coverages and selected low-resolution extraction regions on an irac �m image. regions a and b, represented in yellow, are regions where ll ( y �m) spectra were extracted. right: zoom-in of the irac �m image with an overlay of the sh map area in blue and the selected regions (green) from where the sh+sl spectra were extracted. the iso sws aperture used in the y �m range by förster schreiber et al. ( ) is also overlaid in yellow on the image. both figures are in logarithmic scaling. the irs was a collaborative venture between cornell university and ball aerospace corporation funded by nasa through the jet propulsion laboratory and the ames research center. spitzer irs spectroscopy of m pahs, fine-structure lines, and emission from molecular hydro- gen, in addition to the broad silicate absorption features around . and �m, with an underlying continuum of very small grain emission. the y �m wavelength range contains many im- portant diagnostic lines, such as [ar ii] . �m, [ar iii] . �m, [s iv] . �m, [ne ii] . �m, [ne iii] . �m, and [s iii] . �m. all of the detected features are labeled in figure . the fluxes and ratios of the most relevant fine-structure and h emission lines are listed in table . these lines were measured using gaussian fits to the line and linear fits to the local contin- uum. the [ne ii] line was measured after subtracting the . �m pah feature. [s iv] at . �m is hard to detect on regions and due to the low signal-to-noise ratio (s/n), and [ar iii], at . �m, is too close to the . �m pah feature to be detected in a low- resolution spectrum. due to saturation of the ll module and extraction issues of the lh spectra, we could not measure the [s iii] . �m line. numerous pah emission features are easily detectable in our spectra. the fluxes and equivalent widths (ews) of the strongest features at . , . , . , . , . , and . �m, as well as the y �m complex are listed in table . their values were de- rived using pahfit (smith et al. b), an idl tool that de- composes low-resolution spectra of pah emission sources using a physically motivated model. this model includes starlight, thermal dust continuum, resolved dust features and feature blends, prominent emission lines, and dust extinction. in our case we merged sl and sh spectra in order to have one spectrum for each region with the widest wavelength coverage possible. weaker pah features at . , . , . , and . �m are present in the spectra in figure but are not used further in this paper. in fig- ure we present an example of a fit to a combined sl+sh spec- trum of region . in the overall spectrum (green) we distinguish the continuum component (red), pah component (blue), ionic lines ( purple), and dust absorption (dashed line). silicate absorption affects mainly the wavelength interval from y �m. in pahfit we have the option to include or exclude silicate absorption, and the difference between these two cases can be up to % in flux of the . �m feature. in x . we dis- cuss the methods to estimate the magnitude and distribution of extinction. in addition, there is a significant difference in the . �m flux between the sh and sl spectra, which can also reach %. this difference can be attributed to a poor fit to the silicate absorptionfeature in sh, as this module only covers wave- lengths > �m. in this paper we use the sh+sl measurements for this reason and to include the �m complex. we also extracted combined sl+ll spectra ( y �m) from two ; regions, a and b (see fig. , left), at a distance of pc above and below the galactic plane of m , where sat- uration did not compromise the ll measurements. their posi- tions are listed in table . the spectra from regions a and b were virtually identical in shape, and an average of these spectra is shown in figure . the spectrum is clearly dominated by strong pah emission features and a steeply rising continuum, charac- teristic of classical starburst galaxies (e.g., brandl et al. ). the wiggles observed longward of �m are fringes that origi- nate from interferences in the detector substrate material. at the low spatial resolution presented by the ll modules, we cannot see any unusual features in the sl+ll spectra of regions a and b. also, as the ll slit is saturated at the central region of m , we cannot extract any full low-resolution spectra of this region, connecting it to regions a and b. for these reasons, we do not make further analysis of ll module spectra in this paper. . results and discussion the main gain of our observations over previous work on the starburst in m is the availability of spatially resolved mid-ir spectroscopy of the central region. despite their overall simi- larity, the spectra show distinct variations in the relative strengths of the spectral features, in particular in the neon fine-structure lines and pah features. these variations and their physical causes are described in the following sections. . . the morphology of the starburst region the discovery of a series of compact radio supernova rem- nants along the galactic plane of m , extending over pc (kronberg et al. ; muxlow et al. ), is an indication of very recent and presumably ongoing star formation. the detec- tion of the ionic high-excitation lines [ne iii] and [s iv] confirms the presence of very young massive stars in m . ratios using ionic lines of the same species and different ionization potentials such as [ne iii]/[ne ii], [s iv]/[s iii], and [ar iii]/[ar ii] are a useful measure of the hardness and intensity of the radiation field and table characteristics of the selected regions coordinates region region region region center total region a region b r.a. (j . ) ............... . . . . . . . . decl. (j . )............... + . + . + . + . + . + . + . + . size................................. . ; . . ; . . ; . . ; . . ; . . ; . . ; . . ; . note.—units of right ascension are hours, minutes, and seconds, and units of declination are degrees, arcminutes, and arcseconds. table main emission-line strengths in units of � w cm� region [ar ii] . �m [s iv] . �m [ne ii] . �m [ne iii] . �m [s iii] . �m h s( ) . �m h s( ) . �m s( )/s( ) t [s( )ys( )] (k) [ne iii]/[ne ii] .............. . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . � . � . .............. . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . � . � . .............. . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . � . � . .............. . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . � . � . center..... . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . � . � . total ....... . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . � . � . beirão et al. vol. radiation density, and are therefore sensitive to the presence of young massive stars. our measurements of the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio are shown in table for each of the six selected regions. we find : � ½ne iii�/½ne ii� � : , with a median of ½ne iii�/½ne ii� ¼ : , which is consistent with the spatially integrated ratio of ½ne iii�/½ne ii� ¼ : � : determined by förster schreiber et al. ( ). these values are % lower than the average value of . for the iso sws sample of starburst galaxies (thornley et al. ) and more than an order of magnitude below the value of . foundin thecenter of ngc (beirão et al. ), a low- metallicity starburst galaxy at about the same distance as m . other ratios, such as [s iv]/[s iii] and [ar iii]/[ar ii], could be used to confirm the results on the [ne iii]/[ne ii]. however, as mentioned in x , our measurements of [s iv] in regions and have large errors from noise, and [ar iii], at . �m, is too close to the . �m pah feature to be measured accurately from the low-resolution spectrum, precluding the use of these ratios. the spitzer irs spectral maps allow a study of the spatial var- iation of the radiation field, based on the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio. due to the presence of several luminous star clusters in the cen- tral region, one might expect strong variations of [ne iii]/[ne ii] between regions. in figure we present spectral maps of the two strongest neon emission lines and a ratio map, overlaid by the �m continuum contours from achtermann & lacy ( ). for both line maps, cubism was used to subtract a fitted con- tinuum map from a total line+continuum map at the same wave- length on a pixel-by-pixel basis. the [ne ii] emission in the top map shows two peaks to either side of the nucleus, a weaker and a stronger peak, which correspond to the east and west peaks, respectively, in achtermann & lacy ( ). after a close in- spection, we identify the strong west peak in our maps with the two continuum emission peaks. the east and west [ne ii] emis- sion peaks are identified as a ‘‘ring’’ of ionized gas in achtermann & lacy ( ). the morphology of the [ne ii] emission follows the br� emission in satyapal et al. ( ) and förster schreiber et al. ( ). the [ne iii] map also reveals two emission peaks at the same positions, but with the eastern peak brighter relative to the western peak. the bottom map in figure presents the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio. the ratio varies from . y . throughout the map. the lower value corresponds to the location of the westernmost clusters, and there is a significant increase in the ratio farther out from the galactic plane of m , from . to . . statistical � errors are � % and arise mostly from baseline determination errors. the gray line represents the direction of the x-ray outflow observed in m (strickland et al. , ). it originates from the nu- cleus ( plus sign) and is perpendicular to the plane of the galaxy. the peak of x-ray emission is offset from the outflow axis by pc. although the gradient in the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio does fol- low the outflow axis, it appears offset by to the east, associ- ated with the eastern cluster. the overall morphology of the ionizing radiation in the region as revealed by the spectral maps seems to be in agreement with ground observations of the continuum and [ne ii] emission by achtermann & lacy ( ). however, the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio varies only by a factor of throughout the region, and these var- iations do not correspond to the position of the emission peaks. an increase of the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio is observed farther out from the galactic plane, but due to the limited spatial coverage of the map, we cannot determine if this increase is connected to the outflows. the origins of the observed emission morphology and the variation of the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio are discussed in the following subsection. . . origins of the variation of the radiation field the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio measures the hardness of the radia- tion field, which is a function of stellar age and metallicity, and is often parameterized by the effective temperature, tea, and the radiation intensity as measured by the ionization parameter u. given the strength of the [ne ii] and [ne iii] lines in m , and their proximity in wavelength, which minimizes the effects of extinction, [ne iii]/[ne ii] is the most reliable measure of the hardness of the radiation field. with the help of starburst models, it is possible to use the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio to estimate the ages of the massive clusters in the region. observations with the iso sws have been used previously for this purpose. förster schreiber et al. ( ) determined a spatially integrated ratio of ½ne iii�/½ne ii� ¼ : for the inner pc of m . using the photoionization code cloudy and table main pah feature strengths as measured with pahfit region . �m flux a ew b . �m flux a ew b . �m flux a ew b . �m flux a ew b . �m flux a ew b . �m flux a ew b �m complex flux a ew b f( �m complex)/ f ( . �m) f( �m complex)/ f ( . �m) ................ . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . . . . . . . . . ................ . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . . . . . . . . . ................ . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . . . . . . . . . ................ . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . . . . . . . . . center....... . � . . � . . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . . . . . . . . . total ......... . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . � . . . . . . . . . . a flux in units of � w cm� . the quoted errors are only the pahfit fit residuals. ews are normalized to the ews for the whole sh slit. b ew in units of �m. u is defined as u ¼ q/ �r nhc, where q is the production rate of ionizing photons from the stars, r is the distance between the ionizing cluster and the illuminated gas cloud, nh is the hydrogen number density of the gas, and c is the speed of light. spitzer irs spectroscopy of m no. , solar metallicity stellar atmosphere models by pauldrach et al. ( ), förster schreiber et al. ( ) modeled the variations of line ratios with tea. adopting an electron density ne ¼ cm� and anionization parameter log u ¼ � : , förster schreiber et al. ( a) found for the iso value for [ne iii]/[ne ii] an effective temperature of ; � k and a burst age of y myr. other observed ratios were also modeled, such as [ar iii]/[ar ii] and [s iv]/[s iii], giving similar tea values (within uncertainties). independent estimations of cluster ages were done at longer wave- lengths. colbert et al. ( ) analyzed far-infrared spectra from the iso lws and fitted line ratios to a combined h ii region and pdr model. their best-fit model is an instantaneous starburst of y myr old massive stars, in agreement with förster schreiber et al. ( a). if the infrared emission peaks correspond to massive clusters of stars, we can determine their ages from the measured [ne iii]/ [ne ii] ratio and compare them with the above results, using the photoionization models by snijders et al. ( ). as input, snijders et al. ( ) used massive cluster spectra modeled with starburst , assuming a salpeter imf, mup ¼ m�, mlow ¼ : m�, and a gas density of cm � . this value of gas density is a factor of lower than log u ¼ � : , the förster schreiber et al. ( ) value, but this discrepancy has a small effect on the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio. figure shows the results for a range of ionization parameters. the selected regions are represented by horizontal lines. the value of log u ¼ � : derived by förster schreiber et al. ( ) corresponds to a ionization front speed of q ¼ : ; cm s� . for a typical value of q, the ages of the clusters in each region range from to myr, in agreement with the previously determined burst ages. these clusters dominate the central region of m and may be similar to those observed farther out in m in the optical, studied in detail by smith et al. fig. .—sl (left) and sh (right) spectra of the six selected regions within the central starburst region of m . the ‘‘total’’ region corresponds to the total sh map in fig. . [see the electronic edition of the journal for a color version of this figure.] beirão et al. vol. ( ) using the hstacs, which were found to have an average age of : � : myr. as shown in figure , the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio increases from . to . with increasing distance from the galactic plane of m . this is counterintuitive, as one might expect a harder ra- diation field at the location of the most luminous regions along the plane. away from the plane, a decrease of gas density relative to the number of ionizing photons leads to an increase of the ion- ization parameter, which then causes an increase of the [ne iii]/ [ne ii] ratio, as discussed in thornley et al. ( ). indeed, fig- ure shows that the [ne iii]/[ne ii] scales with the ionization parameter. the variation we observe in the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio implies a variation by a factor of in the ionization parameter. this is equivalent to saying that the gas density decreases times faster than the radiation field, which decreases as �r� , with r being the distance to the ionization source. shocks could also contribute to the increase of the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio in the out- flow region, but in x . we show this effect to be minimal. this hypothesis could be tested using the [s iii] . �m/[s iii] . �m ratio. unfortunately, due to the problems reported in x , we could not derive an accurate flux for the [s iii] . �m line in both ll and lh spectra. it is important to emphasize that even at higher angular res- olution, the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio in m remains quite low for an active starburst. we would have expected a larger variation, with higher ratios locally corresponding to younger clusters and lower ratios elsewhere. a comparison with the iso sws sample of starburst galaxies (thornley et al. ) shows that it is actually lower than most starbursts, despite being closer and better re- solved. the low [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio could be caused by an aged stellar population in which starburst activity ceased more than half a dozen megayears ago—although this possibility seems un- likely given the large amounts of molecular gas still present at the center of m . an edge-on view of the galaxy could also con- tribute to the low variation of [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio. as a comparison, we examined the : ; : area with the highest [ne iii] flux (fig. ), comparing the measured [ne ii] and [ne iii] luminosities with the models to determine the enclosed stellar mass. a single super star cluster of myr would have a cluster mass of m�, which is twice the mass of the super star cluster in ngc (turner et al. ). a single cluster in a : ; : area would correspond to a cluster number density of � kpc� , which is comparable to the cluster density found in the fossil starburst region of m by de grijs et al. ( ). while the average age of the starburst population in m appears to be � myr, ongoing star formation (� myr) could possibly be obscured by recent contributions of older stellar pop- ulations (> myr) to the neon ratio. considering this possibility, fig. .—decomposition of sl+sh spectrum of region . red solid lines represent the thermal dust continuum components, the thick gray line the total continuum, blue lines are dust features, while the violet peaks are atomic and molecular spectral lines. the dotted black line indicates the fully mixed extinction which affects all components, with axis at right. the solid green line is the full fitted model, plotted on the observed flux intensities and uncertainties. fig. .—average of the y �m low-resolution irs spectra of the regions a and b, located approximately pc above and below the galactic plane of m . spitzer irs spectroscopy of m no. , we explore the region with the highest [ne iii] flux, a strong in- dicator of the presence of o stars, as an illustrative case to set an upper limit on the ongoing star formation in m . this region has a [ne iii]/[ne ii] of � . , with a total [ne iii] luminosity of : ; l�. assuming � : ; cm s� , a typical young cluster of myr has ½ne iii�/½ne ii� � and can contribute � % to the total [ne iii] luminosity, or � . % per mass relative to the older y myr old population. this means that the myr old population only emits � % of the total ½ne ii� þ ½ne iii� lumi- nosity of the older y myr old population. even as an upper limit, this value indicates that the activity of the starburst has sub- stantially declined relative to the high star formation rate that existed myr ago. despite the reduced starburst activity, the presence of co emis- sion all over the central region (fig. ) shows that the starburst in m still has a largegas reservoir, as pointed out bythornleyet al. ( ) and förster schreiber et al. ( a). it appears therefore unlikely that the starburst activity ceased because of lack of fuel. on theother hand, negativefeedbackmainly throughstrongstellar winds and supernovae explosions can play an important role in determining the star formation rate in starbursts. förster schreiber et al. ( a) calculated a feedback timescale of y myr, which is in good agreement with the age of the older super star clusters in the central region of m . in summary, we find that [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio is low on average and increases with distance from the galactic plane of m . the increase can be explained by an increase of the ionization pa- rameter through a drop in gas density. the low [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio indicates that the dominant population consists of older clusters (> myr). we cannot rule out the presence of younger clusters in the central region, but they would be at a much reduced rate (< %) of star formation compared to previous epochs. the large amount of molecular gas still present in the central region argues against a starvation of starburst activity due to lack of gas. in- stead, we believe that negative feedback processes are respon- sible for the observed decline in the star formation rate. . . extinction one of the most noticeable features in the spectra in figure is the absorption feature at y �m caused by silicate grains. fig. .—spectral maps in the [ne ii] (top), [ne iii] (middle), and [ne iii]/[ne ii] (bottom) lines from the irs sh module, with contour overlays of the �m con- tinuum emission from achtermann & lacy ( ). the regions shown are � ; . at the bottom map, the line is the direction of the of the x-ray outflow, which is perpendicular to the plane of the galaxy. the cross represents the nucleus. fig. .—effect of the cluster age on the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio. the model curves are computed for a cluster of m�, assuming salpeter imf, mup ¼ m�, and mlow ¼ : m�. each curve represents a different ionization parameter, and the solid curve is the one that approaches the value found by förster schreiber et al. ( ) log u ¼ � : . the horizontal lines indicate the [ne iii]/[ne ii] for each selected region, from region to region . the first dip in [ne iii]/[ne ii] represents the ageing of the stellar population, after which wr stars are produced, increasing the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio. the dip at myr occurs as most massive stars die through supernova explosions. fig. .—map of � : , determined from a simple continuum fit to the sl spectra, with overlay of co y emission contours from shen & lo ( ). the crosses indicate the [ne ii] emission peaks. the image was rotated by � and interpolated. beirão et al. vol. this feature can be extremely deep especially in ulirgs (e.g., spoon et al. ) and affects the observed fluxes of spectral lines and features in this region. the strength of this feature is characterized by the optical depth at . �m (� : ), assuming a simple geometrical dust distribution. for our analysis it is im- portant to estimate the intensity of this feature and its spatial var- iation in order to investigate its influence on the pah strengths, which we discuss in the following subsections. to study the distribution of � : in the sl region, we selected an area of ; pixels in the center of the sl map. within that area we extracted spectra from spatial resolution elements ( ; pixels each). the apparent optical depth � : is then estimated from the ratio of the interpolated continuum to the observed flux at . �m. for the central region of m , � : ranges from . to . , assuming foreground screen attenuation. we built an extinction map of ; resolution elements from the simple-fit method, which is shown in figure . the qualitative distribution of � : observed in this figure is very similar to the qualitative results from the pahfit fitting method. there is a good correlation between the � : distribution and the co y emission, indicating that dust and molecular gas coincide in this region. the enhanced � : in the northwest region of the map indicates an increase of silicate dust above the galactic plane. for an independent, and possibly more accurate, estimate of � : , we used pahfit on sl+ll spectra ( y �m), each corresponding to four resolution elements fitted only with sl. with the pahfit method, � : ranges from to . , with a median is . . the combined sl+ll spectrum is necessary to better constrain the parameters in pahfit. fitting only sl spectra with pahfit can result in large errors in the calculation of � : . unfortunately, due to saturation at wavelengths longward of �m, we have an insufficient spatial coverage of ll data in the central region. in addition, the ll slits are � wide, providing low spatial resolution. for the higher spatial resolution, we used the simple method described by spoon et al. ( ) to estimate � : . in this method we approximate the mid-ir continuum at . �m by a power-law fit to the flux pivots at . and . �m, avoiding the pah emis- sion features. the values derived from both sl+ll and simple-fit methods agree qualitatively well, but in regions where � : < , the differ- ence between the two methods is greater than a factor of . using a mixed attenuation law with av /� : ¼ : (rieke & lebofsky ), the range of � : corresponds to < av < : for the sl+ll method. the values of � : from the power-law interpo- lation method give : < av < : . these values are in agree- ment with förster schreiber et al. ( ), who derive < av < for their selected regions in m covering an area closer to the infrared peaks. we conclude that both methods, besides their significant un- certainties in the magnitude of � : , have consistently revealed significant variations in the amount of dust extinction across the central region. these variations are strong enough to affect the following interpretation of pah features. . . variations of pah emission features polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) are thought to be re- sponsible for a series of broad emission features that dominate the mid-infrared spectra of starbursts (e.g., peeters et al. b). they are observed in a diverse range of sources, with their strongest emission originating in photodissociation regions (pdrs), the interfaces between h ii regions and molecular clouds. the relative strength of the different pah bands is expected to vary with the size and the ionization state of the pah molecule (draine & li , ). observations of galactic sources (e.g., verstraete et al. ; joblin et al. ; vermeij et al. ) have shown that the relative strengths of individual pah features dependonthedegree of ionization: cyc stretchingmodes at . and . �m are predominantly emitted by pah cations, while the cyh out-of-plane bending mode at . �m arises mainly from neutral pahs (draine & li ). thus, the ratios . / . and . / . �m may be used as indicators of the pah ionization state. joblin et al. ( ) have found that the . / . �m ratio can also be linked to variations in the charge state of the emitting pahs, which is supported by laboratory experiments (hudgins & allamandola ). smith et al. ( b) found band strength variations of factors of y among normal galaxies. studies of pahs in m have been done previously using iso. observations with isocam (förster schreiber et al. b) revealed a decrease in the . / . �m ratio and an increase in the . / . �m pah ratio from the nucleus outward along the ga- lactic plane. the observations also showed a good spatial cor- relation of the . / . �m ratio with the co ( y ) emission. these ratio variations are attributed to real differences in the var- iation of physical characteristics of pahs across m , specifi- cally a higher degree of pah ionization within the most intense starburst sites. we use cubism to build maps of ratios of pah features that exist in the y �m sl spectra. the . �m feature is split be- tween the two sl orders, and the . �m feature is largely in- fluenced by the . �m feature, making the local continuum determination difficult. for these reasons the . �m feature map was chosen to be compared to the . �m feature map. in fig- ure we present the . / . �m pah ratio map, overlaid with the co ( y ) contours from shen & lo ( ). obviously, the distribution of the . / . �m pah ratio cor- relates well with the molecular ring defined by the co ( y ) map. the molecular emission forms two lobes � pc from the nu- cleus, whereas the ionized emission is concentrated around the nucleus, in the regions where the [ne ii] and [ne iii] emissions peak. however, the . / . �m pah ratio may be affected by ex- tinction. comparing the co emission with the extinction map in figure and with the pah ratio map, we see that they correlate fig. .—irs spectral map of the pah ratio . / . �m, with overlay of co y emission contours from shen & lo ( ). the map is in logarithmic scaling. this map was done using cubism maps of baseline-subtracted flux at . y . and y . �m. spitzer irs spectroscopy of m no. , well. hence, we investigate the effects of extinction on the ob- served pah ratios in the next subsection. . . . influence of silicate absorption on pah ratios the fluxes of the pah bands at . , . , . , and . �m are all affected by dust absorption. however, the . �m is sig- nificantly more affected by the . �m silicate feature than the . �m feature, which affects the measured pah ratio shown in figure . to illustrate this influence, we show in figure the baseline-subtracted spectra of the selected regions around the nucleus in m , normalized to the flux at . �m to emphasize the relative flux variations of the . �m pah feature. the gray line is the chiar & tielens ( ) extinction law, applied to a normalized flux of . , assuming � : ¼ . for this figure, the baseline was removed by subtracting a second-order polynomial fitted to the following wavelengths: . , . , . , . , and . �m. these wavelengths were chosen to avoid the silicate feature at �m and the pah features. the effect of extinction on the . and . �m pah features is similar, meaning that the . / . �m ratio could possibly be used to study pah ionization with minimal concern for extinction, as the difference in flux cor- rection between . and . �m is � %. however, the . �m feature is influenced by the broad pah feature at . �m, which makes local continuum fitting more difficult compared to the . �m feature. figure suggests that the variations of pah feature ratios in- volving the . �m feature will be heavily affected by extinc- tion, contributing to the distribution of the . / . �m pah ratio in figure . the . �m pah feature is affected by extinc- tion to a similar level as the . �m feature, as shown in figure . draine & li ( ) use the . / . �m ratio for pah size di- agnostic and . / . �m for a pah ionization state diagnostic. variations of these ratios reflect real variations of the physical properties of pahs in m only if their variations are not due to extinction effects. figure presents the . / . and . / . �m pah ratios calculated from pahfit measurements of the same subregions as in the extinction map. the data in figure are corrected for extinction. we took the average of the extinction methods (continuum fit method and the pahfit fit on sl+ll spectra; see x . ) for correction. the points are dispersed be- tween the tracks representing totally ionized and neutral pah populations, and the error bars show the average of the differ- ence between the extinctions derived by the two methods. the triangles are points from the areas where ½ne iii�/½ne ii� > : in the [ne iii]/[ne ii] map from fig. . these are regions with harder radiation field, where a greater number of ionized pah are expected to be observed. the squares are points from areas in the map where ½ne iii�/½ne ii� < : . to preserve the clarity of the plot, only the error bars at these points are represented, as they are typical for all the points. the arrow represents the effect on the ratios of a silicate absorption feature with � : ¼ : , which is the median optical depth for the region as explained in x . . the . / . �m pah ratios are dispersed between . and . . however, the error bar can account for this dispersion, dem- onstrating how silicate absorption can affect thediagnostic of pah ionization state based on this ratio, on scales of the size of the irs resolution elements, � pc. this implies that the average var- iations in the ionization state of the grains are relatively small on scales of pc. these results are to be compared to sings re- sults, in which the . / . �m pah ratio is found to lie within the same range as that in the central region of m for galaxies dominated by h ii regions (smith et al. ). the . / . �m ratio varies between � . and � . . this is well within the range of . y . reported by smith et al. ( b) for sings galaxies dominated by h ii regions. we observe no significant difference in the . / . �m ratio between regions with a high [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio and regions with a lower [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio. extinction and fitting errors affect the . / . �m ratio by only � %, and errors from fitting residuals from pahfitamount to less than %. however, there are significant uncertainties aris- ing from the continuum fitting by blackbody curves with effec- tive temperatures between y k. modifying the number of blackbody components and their temperatures results in changes in the pah ratios in excess of %y %. the horizontal error bar represents the average uncertainty of %. the range of . / . �m ratios implies an environment com- posed of a warm ionized medium and photodissociation regions (pdrs; draine & li ). the dispersion in the data could reflect a real variation of this ratio. the general significance of the variation of the . / . �m is discussed on draine & li ( ). assumptions about the stellar radiation intensity, which affect the . / . �m ratio as well, account for these variations in the number of c atoms. following draine & li ( ), our observed fig. .—baseline subtracted irs spectra of the selected regions from fig. . the gray line is the chiar & tielens ( ) extinction law, applied to a normalized flux of . , and assuming � : ¼ . fig. .—the . / . �m pah ratio vs. the . / . pah ratio, for the same subregions as in the absorption map in fig. . the triangles are points from the areas where ½ne iii�/½ne ii� > : , and the squares are points from the areas where ½ne iii�/½ne ii� < : . error bars represent average uncertainties, related to ex- tinction correction and fitting uncertainties. the arrow represents the effect of a silicate absorption feature with � : ¼ : . the tracks represent the ratios of a population of neutral and ionized pahs. beirão et al. vol. ratios correspond to a number of carbon atoms in a pah grain between and ( : / : �m � : ) and and ( : / : �m � : ). however, there is no correlation between the . / . �m ratio with radiation hardness (symbols in fig. ) or with any other resolved spatial structure in the central region. since the variations are comparable to the uncertainties in the measurement, the results are not (yet) significant enough to support pah size variations at parsec scales. similarly, the variations of the . / . �m ratio are mostly due to extinction and show little support for variations in pah ionization throughout the region. however, if pah sizes did vary on parsec scales, one would expect strong emission from the larger grains, which radiate predominantly at larger wave- lengths, such as the �m complex. . . . the �m pah complex the y �m wavelength rangecontains the h s( ) . �m line and the �m pah complex. this complex is attributed to a blend of emission features ( . , . , and . �m), which are possibly due to pah cycyc bending modes (e.g., van kerckhoven et al. ), and emission from pah clusters, amor- phous carbon particles, and other pah-related species (peeters et al. a). following the draine & li ( ) models, the �m complex is mostly emitted by large pah molecules with y carbon atoms, while the . �m feature is emitted mostly by smaller pah molecules with only y carbon atoms. the relatively narrow features at . and . �m have been detected by iso in galactic (moutou et al. ) and extraga- lactic sources (sturm et al. ). only with the spitzer irs has the whole �m pah complex been identified and routinely detected in both normal and starburst galaxies (e.g., smith et al. ; dale et al. ; brandl et al. ), including the outer regions of m (engelbracht et al. ). however, the spatial variation within galaxies other than the milky way has not yet been studied. engelbracht et al. ( ) detected this complex in the disk and in the halo of m , but their spectral coverage did not include the central regions. here we report the characteristics of this complex in the central kpc of m . as seen in table the ratios between the �m complex and the . �m pah feature, as measured with pahfit, range from . in regions and to . in the center region, and they do not show clear spatial correlations. however, the / . �m ratio varies from . in region to . in region . the ratios be- tween the regions in the plane and the outward regions vary by a factor of . the latter numbers suggest a significant variation, possibly due to different pah sizes. however, correcting for an optical depth of � : ¼ for the regions around the [ne ii] peaks (fig. ), the ratio increases by � %, yielding values of . for region and . for region . while substantially increased, the values are still more than % below the values for regions and . however, due to uncertainties on the determination of � : we cannot diagnose any variation of pah sizes based on this difference. figure shows a baseline-subtracted spectrum of the �m pah complex normalized to the average flux between . and . �m and rebinned to r ¼ to enhance the broad com- ponents. in this figure we can see the flux variation in these three main pah features between the regions. the differences in the strength of these features are consistent within the uncertainties, with exceptions being region at . �m and regions and at . �m. moreover, these discrepancies could be explained by errors in baseline subtraction, which are in the order of %. the �m pah complex is also seen in the ll spectra as far as kpc from the galactic plane. the model of draine & li ( ) predicts that the relative strength of the individual components is not sensitive to ionization state or grain size. our observa- tions are in good agreement with an invariant shape of this pah complex. . . . the difference between pah emission and vsg emission very small grains (vsgs) are dust particles larger on average than pahs, with typical sizes in the range of y nm (desért et al. ). they are excited by stochastic heating and are thought to be responsible for most of the mid-infrared continuum emission. the properties of these grains in relation to pahs have been studied previously in galactic sources (verstraete et al. ; lebouteiller et al. ) and in dwarf galaxies (madden et al. ; wu et al. ). these studies focus on the behavior of vsgs in conditions in which pahs are destroyed, mainly by intense stellar radiation in h ii regions or a low-metallicity en- vironment. flux differences between vsgs and pahs are re- ported in galactic h ii regions by (e.g., lebouteiller et al. ), where the pah/vsg emission ratio increases with the distance from the cluster. as shown in table , there are significant differences in the ews of the pah features between the regions in the galactic plane and the regions outside the galactic plane. however, the ew shortward of �m behaves differently from the ew long- ward of �m. longward of �m, we observe that the ews of the pah features increase outward from the galactic plane. the . �m ew, for example, increases from . �m in region to . �m in region . the ews of the . and . �m decrease outward from the galactic plane. for example, the . �m ew decreases from . �m in region to . �m in region . the ew of the . �m feature decreases up to a factor of , from . �m in region to . �m in region . this could be due to the contribution of the stellar continuum to the local contin- uum shortward of �m. the stellar continuum contribution decreases with wavelength and with the distance from the ga- lactic plane. the continuum longward of �m is composed of thermal emission from vsgs. as the pah flux does not increase outward from the galactic plane, this can only be due to a decrease of the local continuum emission relative to the pah strength. this de- crease can be explained by several different factors: photodes- truction, abundance differences between vsgs and pahs, and fig. .—zoom-in on the pah-dominated emission features in the y �m spectral range of the sh spectra. the spectra were normalized to the average flux between . and . �m and rebinned to a resolution r ¼ , to diminish the noise. the error bars indicate noise at three wavelengths. spitzer irs spectroscopy of m no. , differentheatingopacitiesbetween vsgs andpahs with a varying radiation field. decreasing pah flux with the hardening of the radiation has been observed in galactic star-forming regions (verstraete et al. ; lebouteiller et al. ), on small spatial scales near the luminous clusters (� pc), where the pah destruction largely surpasses pah excitation. whether theconditionsthat lead to pah destruction on pc scales can be maintained over much larger scales, corresponding to the resolution of our maps (� pc), cannot be derived from our data but has been observed in ngc (beirão et al. ). using the sings sample of galaxies, draine et al. ( ) have shown that the fraction of pah abun- dance over the total dust abundance decreases with metallicity. hence, abundance differences between pahs and vsgs could be observed in cases of a strong metallicity gradient. m has a metallicity gradient, but it becomes noticeable only at distances larger than kpc from the center (ranalli et al. ), which is greater than the distance from our regions and to the galactic plane ( pc). our favored explanation is the difference in excitation between pahs and vsgs, enhanced by variations of the radiation field. the mid-infrared pah features are produced by vibrational- rotational modes of the pah molecules, while the vsg contin- uum emission is mainly produced by thermal radiation. vsgs are bigger than pahs, so thermal radiation becomes dominant over vibrational-rotational transitions. following draine & li ( ) models, the opacity of the cross-section peaks at fuv wave- lengths, where hot dust is needed to emit at y �m. however, at the distance from the galactic plane of regions and , the radiation field is still intense enough to excite pahs but no longer of a high enough intensity to excite the dust to the same tem- peratures as in the plane of the galaxy. this provokes the pah ew enhancement observed in these regions. . . excitation of the warm h molecular hydrogen is the most abundant molecule in the uni- verse and can be used to probe the properties of the warm mo- lecular gas in m . it can be traced in the mid-infrared through rotational emission lines, which may arise through three different mechanisms: uv excitation in pdrs surrounding or adjacent to the h ii regions; shocks that accelerate and modify the gas in a cloud, collisionally exciting the h molecules; or hard x-ray photons capable of penetrating the molecular clouds and heating large ionizing columns of gas. vibrational-rotational h line emission in m was studied in the near-infrared by pak et al. ( ). by correlating the emis- sion flux from these lines with [c ii] �m and far-infrared luminosity, they showed that the h emission comes mainly from the pdrs. iso observations of m detected s( ), s( ), s( ), s( ), and s( ) rotational lines (rigopoulou et al. ), excited by uv radiation from massive stars. the s( ) and s( ) rotational transition lines of h are clearly detected in our sh spectra. the fluxes and temperatures of these lines are listed in table , along with the s( )/s( ) ratios. the temperatures were calculated from the s( )/s( ) ratios using the method described by roussel et al. ( ) assuming an ortho- to para- ratio of . our derived temperatures are in agreement with the average temperature value of k, derived with iso (rigopoulou et al. ). the h s( ) line could not be detected in any of the lh spectra, as its equivalent width is very low, supporting our finding that the h temperature is indeed rela- tively high. if h emission is excited mainly by uv radiation in pdrs, the fluxes of h lines and pah lines should correlate closely, since pah emission features arises from the same mechanism in pdrs. to look for secondary effects, such as shocks, we plot in fig- ure the pah . �m versus h s( ) . �m fluxes, both divided by the continuum flux at . y . �m to reduce the range covered by the figure. each data point corresponds to a resolution element of the cubism flux maps taken from sh spectra. the stars correspond to region , squares to region , diamonds to region , and triangles to region . the error bars represent the line uncertainties from the measurement. the cor- relation in figure shows that the excitation mechanisms for both species coincide at least on spatial scales of the resolution of the map, which is pc. while there is a wider dispersion of data points corresponding to regions and (the regions asso- ciated with outflows), the systematic measurement errors account largely for this dispersion. we conclude that shocks in the out- flow regions have no measurable influence on the h emission. however, we cannot distinguish between uvand local shock ex- citation, as produced by supernovae or energetic outflows, on scales smaller than the resolution of our pixels ( pc). . conclusion we presented spatially resolved mid-infrared spectra of the central region of m . the spectra were taken with the spitzer infrared spectrograph in both the y �m low-resolution (r � y ) and the y �m high-resolution r � module. the high signal-to-noise ratio and the continuous spatial and spec- tral coverage allowed us to study the nucleus of a starburst galaxy in unsurpassed detail. our goal was to study the physical con- ditions of the interstellar medium and their spatial variations within the central kpc of m . overall, the spectra show the typical features of a starburst: prominent pah features, silicate absorption, fine-structure lines, and a steeply rising continuum. we built a spectral map with high-resolution spectra, selected six representative regions for spectral extraction, and studied the variations of the neon ionic lines and pah feature emission among the regions. we attempted to trace the structure of the ionizing radiation, and therefore the young stellar population of m , through the diagnostic emission lines [ne ii] . �m and [ne iii] . �m. the overall morphology of the ionizing radiation in the region as revealed by the spectral maps appears to be in agreement with previous ground-based observations (achtermann & lacy ). there is surprisingly little spatial variation of the [ne iii]/[ne ii] fig. .—pah . �m feature over the �m continuum vs. h s( ) over the �m continuum, based on a pixel-by-pixel correlation between sh maps. the values corresponding to each of the selected regions are represented by different symbols. the error bars represent line flux measurement errors. beirão et al. vol. ratio across the disk, and it varies only by a factor of throughout the central region, with these variations not corresponding to the position of the emission peaks. we observed an increase of the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio by a factor of outward from the galactic plane, which may be associated with the outflows. we suggest that the increase of the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio with distance to the ga- lactic plane is due to a decrease in gas density rather than a hard- ening of the field. the [ne iii]/[ne ii] ratio is low on average, which indicates that the dominant population consists of already evolved clusters (> myr). we cannot rule out the presence of ongoing star for- mation in the central region, but it must occur at a much reduced rate (< %) compared to previous epochs. this drop is unlikely to be caused by starvation, as there is still a large amount of mo- lecular gas present in the central region. it is more likely due to negative feedback processes causing a decrease in the star for- mation rate. there are significant variations in the amount of dust extinc- tion, which strongly correlate with the co y emission across the central region. these variations are strong enough to affect the interpretation of pah features, but due to limited spectral coverage the extinction estimates are uncertain. the flux of the main pah features correlates spatially with the flux of the neon ionic lines, and with previous irac observa- tions. variations in the pah ratios such as . / . �m were ob- served across the disk. however, they are strongly affected by the silicate feature at �m. we studied the variations the . / . �m and . / . �m pah ratios, which are diagnostics for the size and the degree of ionization of pahs. we found no correlation between the . / . �m ratio with radiation hardness or with any other resolved spatial structure in the central region. since the variations are comparable to the uncertainties in the measure- ment, the results are not (yet) significant enough to support pah size variations at parsec scales. similarly, the variations of the . / . �m ratio are mostly due to extinction and show little support for variations in pah ionization throughout the region. the �m pah complex is very prominent in the center of m . we did not find any relative variations within the com- plex, which is in agreement with predictions. the variations of the / . �m ratio are most likely due to extinction effects. due to the uncertainties in the determination of extinction, we did not consider the remaining variations as a clear indicator of pah size variation. we observed an enhancement of the ews of the . �m and the other pah features longward of �m outward from the galactic plane. several explanations exist for this, but we favor the variation of the uv radiation field, which excites differently pahs and vsgs, given their different sizes. the s( ) and s( ) rotational transition lines of h have been detected in our spectra throughout the central region. h and pahs coincide at least on spatial scales of the resolution of the map, which is pc. we conclude that large-scale shocks in the outflow regions have no measurable influence on the h emis- sion. however, we cannot distinguish between uvand local shock excitation as produced by supernovae or energetic outflows, on scales smaller than the resolution of our pixels ( pc). the spitzer irs observations of the central region of m complements previous studies, not only in mid-infrared, but also in other wavelengths. our results demonstrate the importance of spatially resolved spectroscopy in starburst studies. they helped to constrain the age of the starburst and confirm results from other studies and also stressed the importance of a thorough study of extinction to investigate possible variations of pah proper- ties. further research of the starburst feedback and quenching processes will elucidate the sharp decrease in star formation in the last myr. it would be interesting to see if higher spatial resolution, as expected from the miri on board the james webb space telescope (jwst ) will discover a wider variation of the radiation field or signs of variation of pah sizes an/or ioniza- tion. in addition, spatially more extended spectral studies of m are necessary to study the connection of the ionic line ratios with the outflows. we would like to thank l. snijders for making the starburst + mappings models available. we would like to thank j. lacy for providing the mid-infrared maps from irtf ground-based ob- servations. we also thank the anonymous referee, whose many thoughtful and useful comments greatly improved this paper. this work is based on observations made with the spitzer space telescope, 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, turner, j. l., beck, s. c., crosthwaite, l. p., larkin, j. e., mclean. i. s., & meier, d. s. , nature, , van kerckhoven, c., et al. , a&a, , vermeij, r., peeters, e., tielens, a. g. g. m., & van der hust, j. m. , a&a, , verstraete, l., puget, j. l., falgarone, e., drapatz, s., wright, c. m., & timmermann, r. , a&a, , l walter, f., weiss, a., & scoville, n. , apj, , l wu, y., charmandaris, v., hao, l., brandl, b. r., bernard-salas, j., spoon, h. w. w., & houck, j. r. , apj, , yun, m. s., ho p. t. p., & lo, k. y. , apj, , l ———. , nature, , beirão et al. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top 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informatica, university of catania, viale a. doria , catania, italy correspondence should be addressed to giovanni puglisi; puglisi@dmi.unict.it received november ; accepted february academic editor: filippo stanco copyright © sebastiano battiato et al. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. mosaics are images obtained by cementing together small colored fragments and are an ancient example of discrete primitive-based images. artificial mosaics are illustrations composed by a set of small images called “tiles” that tessellate a source image aiming to reproduce the original visual information in a mosaic-like style. in this paper, we propose a mosaic generation technique based on gradient vector flow (gvf) together with a set of tile cutting heuristics evaluated according to aesthetic criteria. the effectiveness of the proposed approach has been confirmed by a series of tests and comparisons with state-of-the-art techniques. . introduction art often provides valuable hints for technological inno- vations especially in the fields of image processing and computer graphics. non-photorealistic rendering (npr) is a successful area of computer graphics and it is nowadays applied to many relevant contexts: scientific visualization, information visualization, and artistic style emulation [ – ]. within npr, the recent approach to digitally reproduce artistic media (such as watercolors, crayons, and charcoal) and artistic styles (such as cubism, impressionism, and pointillism) has been gaining momentum and is very promis- ing [ – ]. several denominations have been proposed for this narrower area within npr: artistic rendering (ar) [ ] and computational aesthetics (ca) [ ] are among the most popu- lar ones. its main goal can be resumed as follows: to reproduce the aesthetic essence of arts by means of computational tools. the focus of this paper is related to novel methodologies for the automatic generation of ancient digital mosaics [ , ]. mosaics, in essence, are images obtained by cementing together small colored fragments. likely, they are the most ancient examples of discrete primitive-based images [ , ]. in the digital realm, mosaics are illustrations composed by a collection of small images called “tiles.” the tiles tessellate a source image with the purpose of reproducing the original visual information rendered into a new mosaic-like style. the same source image may be translated into many strikingly different mosaics. factors like tile dataset, constraints on positioning, deformations, and rotations of the tiles are indeed very influential upon the final results. as an example, the creation of a digital mosaic resembling the visual style of an ancient-looking manmade mosaic is a challenging problem because it has to take into account the polygonal shape and the size of the tiles, the need to pack the tiles as densely as possible, and, not least, the strong visual influence that tile orientation has on the overall perception of the mosaic. in particular, orientation cannot be arbitrary but it is constrained to follow the gestalt choices made by the author of the source picture. tiles, hence, must follow and emphasize the main orientations chosen by the artist. in this work we extend our previous mosaic generation approach introducing some computational tools able to emulate the artistic “cut” often used by real mosaicists. this paper provides two kinds of cutting methods and parameters setting that control the cutting by making use of ad hoc analysis and experiments. previous mosaic studies have focused on the decision of optimal position (high coverage of tiles, edge preservation, and minimization of overlap) of predefined shaped tiles. on the other hand, this study focuses on the tile cutting process, so that better tiling can be available. we have also performed journal of electrical and computer engineering several experiments to numerically evaluate, with respect to the various involved parameters, some aesthetic criteria such as total coverage area and number of tiles. the rest of this paper is organized as follows: section reviews the main digital mosaic generation techniques. section describes the proposed d approach, whereas section introduces the tile cutting heuristics. finally, section reports the experimental results, and section is devoted to final discussions and suggestions for future works. . related works the first attempt to reproduce a realistic ancient mosaic was presented by hausner [ ] who also proposed a mathematical formulation of the mosaic problem. lots of artificial mosaic generation techniques have been then proposed (for a com- plete survey see [ , ]). the key of any technique aimed at the production of digital ancient mosaics is the tile positioning and orientation. the methods proposed in the literature use different approaches to solve this problem, obtaining different visual results. some techniques are based on a centroidal voronoi diagrams (cvd) approach [ – ], whereas other methods [ – ] compute a vector field by making use of different strategies (i.e., graph cuts minimization [ ], gradient vector flow [ ]). tile positioning is then performed with iterative strategies [ – ] or reproducing the ancient artisans style by using a “one-after-one” tile positioning [ , , ]. a different nondeterministic approach is used in [ ]. in the following we provide additional details about some techniques that are in some way related to the proposed one (cut strategy, vector field, etc.). the algorithm presented in [ , ], based on directional guidelines and distance transform, is able to lead to very real- istic results by employing some image-processing techniques to obtain a precise tile placing. the authors, in order to obtain a high degree of similarity in terms of style with respect to ancient mosaics, also consider tile cutting. a novel technique for ancient mosaics generation has been presented in [ ] and further refined in [ ]. tile orientation field is generated considering the strong edges of the underlying image. moreover, orientations are forced to vary smoothly in order to produce pleasing mosaics and reduce the gap between tiles. this field is obtained by using a global optimization approach (𝛼-expansion algorithm) [ ]. the packing of the tiles is then performed in two steps. first, a set of mosaic layers (𝑀 , 𝑀 , . . . , 𝑀 𝑛 ) is generated. later, the mosaic layers are stitched together taking into account gap space minimization, the absence of broken tiles, and the crossing of strong edge intensity (no cutting is employed). this task is performed through the graph cuts algorithm [ ]. preliminary version of this paper has been published in [ ]. compared to [ ], we have improved the algorithm including tile cutting capability by making use of proper heuristics together with a deep study about the impact of the involved parameters with respect to the overall quality of the generated mosaic. moreover additional comparisons with state-of-the-art approaches, both in terms of quality and computational time, are now provided. figure : input image and its corresponding gvf field. . d mosaic generation approach the proposed approach of artificial mosaic generation is based on the following two steps: (i) gvf (gradient vector flow) field computation-based on [ ] algorithm; (ii) rule-based tile positioning. gvf is a dense force field designed by the authors of [ ] in order to solve the classical problems that affect snakes: sensitivity to initialization and poor convergence to boundary concavity. starting from the gradient of an image, this field is computed through diffusion equations. gvf is a field of vectors k = [v, 𝑢] that minimizes the following energy function: 𝐸 = ∬ 𝜇 (𝑢 𝑥 + 𝑢 𝑦 + v 𝑥 + v 𝑦 ) + 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 ∇𝑓 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 k − ∇𝑓 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 , ( ) where the subscripts represent partial derivatives along 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes, respectively, 𝜇 is a regularization parameter, and |∇𝑓| is the gradient computed from the intensity input image. due to the formulation described above, gvf field values are close to |∇𝑓| values where this quantity is large (energy 𝐸, to be minimized, is dominated by |∇𝑓| |k − ∇𝑓| ) and are slow-varying in homogeneous regions (the energy 𝐸 is dominated by the sum of the squares of the partial derivatives of gvf field). an example of gvf field is shown in figure . this vector field can be then used to effectively drive tile positioning. edge information is preserved, propagated in the close regions, and merged together in a smoothly way. let 𝐼 be the input image to be mosaicized. in order to simplify the algorithm, we work only on the luminance channel of the image 𝐼, eliminating hue and saturation infor- mation. the luminance 𝐿(𝐼) is then equalized and the discrete gradient of the results is calculated, by means of crossing difference. the equalization process, especially for natural images, allows to normalize the overall gradient distribution. the horizontal and vertical components of the gradient ∇𝐿(𝐼) journal of electrical and computer engineering input: a raster image 𝐼 output: artificial mosaic of image 𝐼 begin 𝐿(𝐼) = luminance(𝐼) 𝐺(𝐼) = robert’s gradient(equalize(𝐿(𝐼))) [𝑢, v] = 𝐺𝑉𝐹(|𝐺(𝐼)| ∞ , 𝜇, 𝑛𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠) 𝑔v𝑓(𝐼) = (𝑢 + v ) / sort in queue 𝑄 pixels (𝑖, 𝑗) according to decreasing 𝑔v𝑓(𝑖, 𝑗) values. only pixels whose 𝑔v𝑓 is greater than a threshold 𝑇 go into 𝑄. while 𝑄 is not empty do extract pixel 𝑃 from 𝑄 place a tile in 𝑃 at angle 𝛼 = tan−𝑙(v(𝑖, 𝑗)/𝑢(𝑖, 𝑗)) if in this way the tile overlaps with previously placed tiles then skip tile positioning for 𝑗 = to length(𝐼) do for 𝑖 = to width(𝐼) do place a tile in the pixel(𝑖, 𝑗) at angle 𝛼 = tan−𝑙(v(𝑖, 𝑗)/𝑢(𝑖, 𝑗)) if in this way the tile overlaps with previously placed tiles then skip tile positioning end algorithm : mosaic generation algorithm. are used as input for the gvf algorithm. notice that the gra- dient computation is performed using robert’s kernel [ ]. this choice is more noise sensitive and hence incorporates in the final mosaic a little, aesthetically pleasant, randomness. all the tiles have the same rectangular shape, the same size, and do not overlap. placing order is fundamental in terms of visual overall effect. heuristically, we start positioning tiles at pixels with a high value of |gvf(𝐼)| and impose that the tile orientation is equal to the gvf direction in its central point. as a consequence, the areas close to the more relevant edges of the input images are taken care of first. the second step of the algorithm is devoted to cover the homogeneous regions of the image. this is accomplished by simply placing each tile one by one following the order left to right, up to bottom, starting from the upper-left corner of the image. this heuristic strategy, somewhat arbitrary, is justified by the properties of the gvf: such technique leads to aesthetically pleasant results, by preserving main orientations and covering a wide portion of pixels with tiles densely packed. the algorithm is summarized in algorithm . . d mosaic tile cutting ancient mosaicists could make use of irregular tiles in the mosaic creation. irregular tiles are suited to follow principal image edges, properly cover the image canvas obtaining hence visually pleasant mosaics. in our case, taking into account well defined ancient styles [ ], both the tile size and its shape (i.e., rectangular) are designed at the beginning of the process. the final mosaic (with irregular tiles) is then novel placed (a) intersection analysis novel placed (b) cut figure : shared cut. obtained employing tile-merging and tile-cutting strategies as better specified below. notice that a simple approach (to overcome the rectangular limitation) that considers little more jittered shapes with a random number of sides and side length, placing these random tiles in the image, cannot work in practice due to the minor percentage of covered area. the original approach has been extended by considering two different strategies of tile cutting: subtractive and shared cut. the former cuts only the novel tiles; that is, tiles that are not already present in the mosaic; the latter cuts both novel and already placed tiles (shared cut actually unions two tiles and can be considered a tile-merging strategy). both strate- gies together with the involved parameters are described in the following subsections. in particular when the tile to be placed overlaps with some already placed tiles (algorithm ), a series of cutting heuristics is properly introduced. . . shared cut. let tile 𝑃 and tile 𝑁 be the tile, already placed and to be placed (novel), respectively. their intersection creates some novel vertexes placed on their border. the cutting is performed considering the line connecting these vertexes (see figure ). as already stated before, the cut is journal of electrical and computer engineering novel placed (a) intersection analysis novel placed (b) nonoptimal cut novel placed (c) optimal cut figure : shared cut. if both cuts satisfy the aforementioned constraints, cut (c) is chosen. in this way a smaller area is removed from the novel tile. novel placed (a) intersection analysis novel placed (b) nonoptimal cut novel placed (c) optimal cut figure : subtractive cut. if both cuts satisfy the aforementioned constraints, cut (c) is chosen. in this way, a smaller area is removed from the novel tile. a re a (% ) 𝑇𝑁 (%) (a) subtractive cut a re a (% ) 𝑇𝑁 (%) (b) shared cut (𝑅= / ) a re a (% ) 𝑇𝑁 (%) (c) shared cut (𝑅= / ) a re a (% ) 𝑇𝑁 (%) (d) shared cut (𝑅= ) figure : percentage of covered area. colors represent several 𝑅 𝑁 values: / , / , / , and . journal of electrical and computer engineering g ro w th (% ) 𝑇𝑁 (%) (a) subtractive cut g ro w th (% ) 𝑇𝑁 (%) (b) shared cut (𝑅= / ) g ro w th (% ) 𝑇𝑁 (%) (c) shared cut (𝑅= / ) g ro w th (% ) 𝑇𝑁 (%) (d) shared cut (𝑅= ) figure : percentage gain in the number of tiles compared to the mosaic without cuts. colors represent several 𝑅 𝑁 values: / , / , / , and . performed both on tile 𝑃 and tile 𝑁 , sometimes more complex configurations can arise and have to be taken into account in the tile cutting process. considering as example, two tiles placed on the border of the canvas (figure ), several lines can be used for tile cutting. in these cases, the line that removes the minimum amount of the tile 𝑁 is chosen. this choice increases the probability of placing the tile 𝑁 . in fact, this tile could undergo further cutting, and the limit imposed by the involved thresholds (see section . ) could not be satisfied. it is worth noting that the shared cut creates convex tiles without irregular parts. however, it should be carefully used because it tends to increase the sides of polygons and round shapes. . . subtractive cut. sometimes the shared cut cannot be used (e.g., further cutting of the placed tiles cannot be done due to the limit specified in section . ); in these cases, the subtractive cut could be useful. it does not modify the already placed tiles but removes part of the novel tile. as shown in figure , two possible cuts can be considered along the side of the tile already placed. in order to preserve more information and increase the possibility of satisfy all the constraints about tile cutting, the cut removing less area is chosen. it is worth noting that the subtractive cut gives higher importance to the already placed tiles (the orientations of their sides are taken into account in the cutting). . . tile cutting parameters. both shared and subtractive tile cuts work together to achieve locally a configuration able to maintain high degree of realism in terms of comparisons with artisan works (e.g., limited the number of sides, no too complex shape, etc.) maintaining at the same time the pecu- liarity of an ancient mosaic (e.g., maximum coverage area, positioning along main oriented underlying structures, etc.). the two involved strategies depend on a set of thresholds detailed as follows. (i) 𝑇 𝑃 , maximum percentage of total cut area, from an already placed tile. (ii) 𝑆 𝑃 , maximum percentage of cut area, with a single cut, from an already placed tile; it should be noted that 𝑆 𝑃 ≤ 𝑇 𝑃 . journal of electrical and computer engineering si de s 𝑇𝑁 (%) (a) subtractive cut si de s 𝑇𝑁 (%) (b) shared cut (𝑅= / ) si de s 𝑇𝑁 (%) (c) shared cut (𝑅= / ) si de s 𝑇𝑁 (%) (d) shared cut (𝑅= ) figure : average number of sides per tile. colors represent several 𝑅 𝑁 values: / , / , / , and . figure : examples of mosaics obtained by using only subtractive cut with 𝑇 𝑁 ranging from % (no cut) to % (step of %) and the ratio between single and total cut 𝑅 𝑁 fixed to = . figure : examples of mosaics obtained by using both subtractive and shared cuts with 𝑇 𝑁 ranging from % (no cut) to % (step of %), 𝑅 𝑁 and 𝑅 fixed to = . journal of electrical and computer engineering (a) madonna (b) peasant (c) kodim figure : original images used for mosaic generation: madonna ( × ), peasant ( × ), and kodim ( × ). (iii) 𝑇 𝑁 , maximum percentage of total cut area, from a novel tile. (iv) 𝑆 𝑁 , maximum percentage of cut area, with a single cut, from a novel tile; it should be noted that 𝑆 𝑁 ≤ 𝑇 𝑁 . let 𝐴𝑁 be the original tile area (i.e., the area of the rectangular shape the tile has when it is generated) of the novel tile and 𝐴𝑃 the area of the already placed tile. let 𝐴𝑁 𝑖 and 𝐴𝑃 𝑖 be the corresponding tile area after the 𝑖th cut. the tile cutting of a novel tile has to satisfy the following constraints: 𝐴 𝑁 𝑖 − 𝐴 𝑁 𝑖+ 𝐴 𝑁 ≤ 𝑆 𝑁 , 𝑖 = , . . . , 𝑀 𝑁 − , 𝐴 𝑁 − 𝐴 𝑁 𝑀 𝑁 𝐴 𝑁 ≤ 𝑇 𝑁 , ( ) where 𝑀 𝑁 is the overall number of cuts performed on the novel tile. the tile cutting of an already placed tile has to satisfy the following constraints: 𝐴 𝑃 𝑖 − 𝐴 𝑃 𝑖+ 𝐴 𝑃 ≤ 𝑆 𝑃 , 𝑖 = , . . . , 𝑀 𝑃 − , 𝐴 𝑃 − 𝐴 𝑃 𝑀 𝑃 𝐴 𝑃 ≤ 𝑇 𝑃 , ( ) where 𝑀 𝑃 is the overall number of cuts performed on the already placed tile. notice that there is subtractive cut if 𝑇 𝑃 = or 𝑆 𝑃 = . . . tile cutting parameter setting. to better reproduce fine details of the original picture, a good mosaic should cover the canvas as much as possible. on the other hand, to preserve the “mosaic effect,” according also to [ ], the number of tiles should be limited and their shapes should be simple. as already stated in the previous section, tile cutting depends on several parameters. in order to set them properly, some tests have been performed to study their impact on the final generated mosaic. the variability of image content has been considered including in our test set both pho- tographic and clip art images. several mosaics have been generated from each image of the dataset with various tile cutting parameter values. some objective measures have been hence derived to describe the properties of the generated mosaic. in particular we have considered the percentage of covered area (figure ), the percentage of gain in the number of tiles compared to the mosaic without cuts (figure ), and the average side number of the tiles (figure ). the experiments related to subtractive cut have been performed with 𝑇 𝑁 ranging from % (no cut) to % (step of %), and the ratio between single and total cut 𝑅 𝑁 is defined as follows: 𝑅 𝑁 = 𝑆 𝑁 𝑇 𝑁 , 𝑅 𝑁 ∈ { , , , } . ( ) the experiments related to shared cut have been per- formed considering also the ratio between the total cut over the already placed and the novel tile as follows 𝑅 = 𝑇 𝑃 𝑇 𝑁 , 𝑅 ∈ { , , } . ( ) the ratio between the single and total cut of the already- placed tile (𝑅 𝑃 ) is equal to 𝑅 𝑁 . the covered area is propor- tional to 𝑇 𝑁 and 𝑅 (figure ). moreover, high values of 𝑅 𝑁 (and 𝑅 𝑃 ) should be avoided. performing a big single cut (i.e., 𝑆 𝑁 and 𝑆 𝑃 close to 𝑇 𝑁 and 𝑇 𝑃 , resp.) creates some holes that cannot be covered later. as can be easily seen from figure , the percentage increase in the number of tiles compared to the mosaic without cuts is proportional to 𝑇 𝑁 and 𝑅 𝑁 (and 𝑅 𝑃 ). the dependence of the average number of tile sides with respect to the aforementioned parameters has been studied in figure . decreasing 𝑅 𝑁 , small but frequent cuts are performed producing complex shapes with a higher number of sides. this trend becomes worse with shared cut at the increasing of 𝑅. finally, side number first increases with 𝑇 𝑁 , later decreases due to the higher possibility of performing single cuts. journal of electrical and computer engineering (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) figure : visual comparisons of artificial mosaic techniques—our approach on the left (a, d, g), liu et al. [ ] in the middle (b, e, h), and di blasi and gallo [ ] on the right (c, f, i). the analysis of the behavior of the proposed approach at the varying of the involved parameters has shown that the increasing of the covered area is obtained, as expected, by using a higher number of complex tiles (see figures and ). the overall analysis reported above has allowed us to link our computational tool with aesthetic criteria devoted to control accordingly the mosaic generation process. . experimental results in order to show the effectiveness of the proposed meth- od, several tests and comparisons with state-of-the-art approaches have been conducted. specifically, a first test compares the proposed artificial mosaic generation approach with di blasi and gallo [ ] and liu et al. [ ] techniques both in terms of visual appearance and execution time. journal of electrical and computer engineering ex ec ut io n tim e (s ) image size proposed approach liu et al. [ ] × × × × × × × × di blasi and gallo [ ] figure : execution time comparison at increasing image size. table : execution time (seconds) of the considered approaches on the test images. technique madonna peasant kodim ( × ) ( × ) ( × ) proposed approach sec sec sec di blasi and gallo [ ] sec sec sec liu et al. [ ] sec sec sec this test has been performed without considering tile cutting strategies. further comparisons have been also conducted to prop- erly test the effectiveness of the tile cutting heuristics. specif- ically, our solution has been compared with the technique proposed by di blasi and gallo [ ]. . . d mosaic generation technique comparison. to assess the overall aesthetic quality, the proposed method has been compared with the mosaics obtained by di blasi and gallo [ ] and liu et al. [ ] by using their original imple- mentations. three different images for mosaic generation (figure ) have been selected: madonna ( × ), peasant ( × ), and kodim ( × ). for the sake of comparisons, each image has been mosaicized making use of the same rectangular shape. as shown in figure , our technique is able to preserve fine details. this happens because high-frequency areas have a higher priority on tiles placing. moreover, gaps (i.e., area left uncovered) are properly distributed. on the contrary, di blasi and gallo’s [ ] algorithm creates some long “cracks” in the mosaiced images, whereas the proposed approach achieves in the same regions a pleasant smoothness. the waves generated by main edges propagate far from their original points creating unpleasant mosaic regions. table : execution time (seconds) of the considered approaches on the test images employing tile cutting strategies. technique madonna peasant kodim ( × ) ( × ) ( × ) proposed approach sec sec sec di blasi and gallo [ ] sec sec sec liu et al.’s [ ] approach produces very pleasant mosaics both in terms of detail preservation and gap distribution. however, it should be observed that its complexity, both in terms of memory and computational resources, is sensibly higher than that of the proposed approach (see table ). moreover, this approach creates unpleasant artifacts in the left and bottom border, of the image. in figure , the execution time of the considered approaches is reported at the varying of image size. the image under analysis is madonna at different scales with tile size equal to × pixels. all the tests have been performed on a intel(r) core(tm) duo cpu . ghz. although our algorithm has been entirely implemented in java, whereas the liu et al.’s [ ] approach is implemented in c++, we outperform it in terms of execution time. liu et al.’s [ ] technique does not scale well with the increasing of the image size; in our test, it reaches its limit with images of × pixels. the proposed approach is then able to obtain satisfactory results, similar to liu et al. [ ] and better than di blasi and gallo [ ] with a computational complexity considerably lower than liu et al. [ ]. . . tile cutting experiments. in order to visually assess the quality of the proposed tile cutting heuristics, a series of mosaics have been generated. although the optimal setting of the parameters depends on the image under analysis and on the subjectivity of the user, a good tradeoff is as the following: 𝑅 = , 𝑅 𝑁 = , 𝑇 𝑁 = %, 𝑆 𝑁 = . % 𝑇 𝑃 = . %, 𝑆 𝑃 = . %. ( ) to further validate our approach, some comparisons have been performed considering the approach proposed in [ ] (see figures and ). five images have been used in our tests: madonna, peasant, kodim , the scream, and kodim . di blasi and gallo [ ] obtain a high degree of realism. the percentage of covered area is pretty high but it is achieved by making use of an elevated number of small and complex tiles. moreover, the algorithm is not able to properly combine information coming from different edges of the images, producing some unpleasant artifacts. on the contrary, our approach obtains a satisfactory coverage area maintaining at the same time an acceptable number of tiles with a low number of sides. moreover, the properties of gvf about edge information propagation permit us to obtain graceful results (no visually artefact). it should be noted that a simple d mosaic can be better used as starting point for other image manipulations (e.g., d mosaic generation [ ]). journal of electrical and computer engineering (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f ) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) figure : visual comparisons of artificial mosaic techniques—our approach on the left (a, c, e, g, i, k) and di blasi and gallo [ ] on the right (b, d, f, h, j, l). the execution time related to the considered techniques has been also reported in table . . conclusions in this paper, we have proposed a novel algorithm for artifi- cial mosaic generation. our contribution has been twofold. several comparisons have been performed among several state-of-the-art approaches both in terms of aesthetical appearance and computational demands. moreover, several heuristics have been introduced to properly manage tile cutting, producing hence graceful mosaics with irregular tiles. the effectiveness of our approach has been demon- strated through a series of experiments and comparisons with recent techniques. future work will be devoted to study the dependence of tile size with respect to image content and size. journal of electrical and computer engineering (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f ) (g) (h) figure : visual comparisons of artificial mosaic techniques—our approach on the left (a, c, e, g) and di blasi and gallo [ ] on the right (b, d, f, h). acknowledgment this work was supported by regione sicilia po/fesr . . . under the emocube project. references [ ] j. collomosse, higher level techniques for the artistic rendering of images and video [ph.d. thesis], university of bath, uk, . 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[ ] s. battiato and g. puglisi, “ d ancient mosaics,” in proceedings of the th acm international conference on multimedia acm multimedia (mm ’ ), pp. – , october . international journal of aerospace engineering hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume robotics journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume active and passive electronic components control science and engineering journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume international journal of rotating machinery hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com journal of engineering volume submit your manuscripts at http://www.hindawi.com vlsi design hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume shock and vibration hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume civil engineering advances in acoustics and vibration advances in hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume electrical and computer engineering journal of advances in optoelectronics hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume the scientific world journal hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume sensors journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume modelling & simulation in engineering hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume chemical engineering international journal of antennas and propagation international journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume navigation and observation international journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume distributed sensor networks international journal of p r if y s g o l b a n g o r / b a n g o r u n iv e r s it y primitivist modernism and imperialist colonialism miranda-barreiro, david journal of spanish cultural studies doi: . / . . published: / / peer reviewed version cyswllt i'r cyhoeddiad / link to publication dyfyniad o'r fersiwn a gyhoeddwyd / citation for published version (apa): miranda-barreiro, d. ( ). primitivist modernism and imperialist colonialism: the view of african americans in josé moreno villa’s pruebas de nueva york and julio camba’s la ciudad automática. journal of spanish cultural studies, ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / . . hawliau cyffredinol / general rights copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • you may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • you may freely distribute the url identifying the publication in the public portal ? take down policy if you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. . apr. https://doi.org/ . / . . https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutputs/primitivist-modernism-and-imperialist-colonialism( f ddd -a - a-a - a a f b).html https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchers/david-mirandabarreiro( eb -c f - f- - c d d b ).html https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutputs/primitivist-modernism-and-imperialist-colonialism( f ddd -a - a-a - a a f b).html https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutputs/primitivist-modernism-and-imperialist-colonialism( f ddd -a - a-a - a a f b).html https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/researchoutputs/primitivist-modernism-and-imperialist-colonialism( f ddd -a - a-a - a a f b).html https://doi.org/ . / . . primitivist modernism and imperialist colonialism: the view of african americans in josÉ moreno villa’s pruebas de nueva york and julio camba’s la ciudad automÁtica david miranda-barreiro bangor university, uk abstract in the first decades of the twentieth century, new york city captured the attention of numerous spanish writers who visited the city and wrote of their experience in the form of travelogues. in this article, i will discuss two of these texts: pruebas de nueva york ( ) by josé moreno villa and la ciudad automática ( ) by julio camba. in particular, i will focus on the representation of african americans carried out by these two writers. whereas black art was regarded as an essential source of inspiration for modernism, the view of black individuals as “subaltern others” was rarely challenged; on the contrary it was often reinforced by the artistic appropriation of african art by the european avant-garde. the view of blacks as an inferior “race” is one of a series of pervasive discourses of “otherness” deeply ingrained in western modernity, which served as justification for imperial colonization and domination, to the extent that “racial” difference and inequality –especially in the case of black people– was considered as a taken for granted truth which was barely questioned, if at all. this article will show the influence of these two coordinates of western modernity –primitivist modernism and imperialist colonialism– in both travelogues, which in spite of their different approach to the situation of african americans in new york, share a number of similarities that can also be found in other coetaneous literary works. rather than qualifying these attitudes as merely racist –although these texts certainly contain racist and colonialist overtones– the article will highlight the strength of discourses of “otherness” in western though, which resist being challenged even when black art is incorporated to the artistic vocabulary of modernism. keywords: new york, josé moreno villa, julio camba, modernism, primitivism, colonialism, travel writing. in the first three decades of the twentieth century, new york city became a fashionable theme in a flurry of spanish travelogues. whereas critical attention to the presence of this city in spanish letters has been traditionally limited to the study of diario de un poeta reciencasado ( ) by juan ramón jiménez and poeta en nueva york (published posthumously in ) by federico garcía lorca, the literary corpus of spanish travel writing about new york has often been overlooked or neglected due to the alleged lack of literary value commonly associated with this genre. on the contrary, i propose that this corpus provides an important insight into the cultural debates on spanish modernity in the early twentieth century. in this article, i will focus on the representation of african americans in of pruebas de nueva york ( ) by josé moreno villa and la ciudad automática ( ) by julio camba, with the intention of showing not only the influence of the so-called primitivist modernism on early twentieth century spanish writers, but also how these texts reflect the widespread view at the time of black people as an inferior “race”, and therefore the impact that pervasive colonial discourses deeply ingrained in western thought had upon spanish modernism. in spite of their different approaches to african americans, both travelogues perpetuate the binary opposition between “civilized” european “races” and the alleged primitivism of african americans, therefore showing the intersections between modernism and imperialism, even when black or “primitive art” is praised for its purity and originality and regarded as the main influence for avant-garde movements such as cubism and surrealism. “primitivist modernism” and its influence on early twentieth-century spanish literature as it has been extensively studied, primitivism became a source of inspiration for the european avant-garde, which embraced the view of negro art as a sort of “primitive regeneration” (rasula ). a key text of the time, oswald spengler’s the decline of the west ( , ), captured the sense of disenchantment that invaded europe in the first decades of the last century, especially after the first world war. the reaction in the arts to such a crisis, in the form of modernism, denounced the decadence of modern life, as marshall berman points out: “in the name of values that modernity itself has created” (berman ). modernist art combined images of simultaneous rejection and acceptance of urban life and resorted to so-called primitive art in order to express its uneasiness with modern life and society. as a consequence, “the present was affirmed (and much of it denounced) by blending primitivist regeneration with futurist longing” and “the paradox of an urban jungle emerged, often under the sign of jazz” (rasula ). however, at the same time that these artistic explorations of the so-called primitive sought to subvert cultural oppositions, primitivist modernism also involved “a revulsion against crossover, a fear of dissolution and confusion, a contrary drive precisely to shore up these boundaries” (jervis ). one must remember that the creation of a dialectics of alterity was essential to the formation of western modernity. the figure of the uncivilised native was used as the axis for the opposition between “civilised nations” and “savages and barbarians”: whereas the old continent represented civilisation and culture, colonised lands were depicted as the territory of primitivism, “the ‘dark’ side – forgotten, repressed and denied; the reverse image of enlightenment and modernity” (hall - ). the admiration for primitive art and the fascination with jazz music coincided with the increasing interest raised by the united states in europe, as reflected in texts such as amerika ( ) by franz kafka, new york ( ) by paul morand, scènes de la vie future ( ) by george duhamel, and the new america, the new world ( ) by h. g. wells, amongst others. the image of the united states promoted by european thinkers and writers did not reflect the reality of this country but rather worked as a third image, “a counter-image, developed by europeans for their own social world” (wagner ). this contrapuntal view of the united states was twofold. on the one hand, america represented an innovative architecture, a new social organisation and the site of astonishing technological developments. new york, in particular, was characterised as an avant-garde city, in francis picabia’s words, “la ciudad cubista, la ciudad futurista. su arquitectura, su vida y su espíritu expresan el sentimiento moderno” (quoted from cañas ). on the other, “americanisation” was seen as tantamount to decay, amongst other reasons, because of the incipient multiculturalism of us society and the visibility of black individuals in american metropolis. the united states were seen as the repository of the purity of aryan blood in the modern world, as a young nation founded on the “supremacy” of the white anglo-saxon “race” over the so-called “inferior races”. however, democracy, equality, and the practice of “racial” intermixing represented a contaminating threat for the hegemony of the white “race”, and therefore it was also believed that: by allowing the increasing homogenization of blood types that shaped its vitality, america was falling to the ranks of the mediocre among the nations of the world. america, with its foundation in the rationalist ideas of equality and unity of the human species, was slowly destroying itself. (ceaser : ) while the european avant-garde incorporated images of primitivism and the language of jazz music, references to american multiculturalism also became a recurrent issue in european accounts of this country, especially in travel writing. for example, paul morand devotes long passages of his travelogue new york ( ) to describe the co-existence of different ethnicities in new york streets, where “there are no dividing lines between these races living within a few yards of each other, but nothing could mix them” (morand ). scènes de la vie future ( ) by george duhamel is also replete with references to the so-called “negro problem”. duhamel’s account poses the alleged dangers of “racial” contact in “this big, mixed america where the races, brought face to face, have not sought to understand each other, and have not succeeded in loving one another” (duhamel ). the work of early twentieth-century spanish writers reflected similar tendencies. modernist authors such as juan ramón jiménez, ramón gómez de la serna, francisco ayala, josé moreno villa and federico garcía lorca, amongst others, not only mirrored the negrophilia of the european avant-garde, but also represented black people and the so-called primitive art in their writings. in his article “temas de arte. el arte negro, factor moderno”, published in el sol in , moreno villa argues that the origins of modern art –of cubism in particular– are to be found in negro art ( - ). furthermore, spanish avant-garde artists were also captivated by jazz music. ballesteros y neira ( , ) argue that jazz was often played in the residencia de estudiantes, a fact also confimed by isabel pérez villanueva tovar ( ). gómez de la serna devoted two chapters of ismos ( ) to “negrismo” and “jazzbandismo” respectively, in which he captured the essence of the attraction that the avant-garde experienced towards primitivism as a purer and primordial artistic expression, in contrast with the decadence of western art: en esa obscuridad de su raza y de su ignorancia han resuelto los problemas escultóricos de un modo que yo llamaría terrible. encarados en la plástica humana, sin la coquetería que se podría llamar europea y que lo prejuzga siempre todo, han hallado los rasgos espantosos del ser humano y sus descaros y sus terribles cataduras y la base simiesca de su armazón. han llegado con una sinceridad y una verdad tan grande en el descubrimiento de los tipos humanos, que son verdaderos ejemplos de exaltación del carácter (gómez de la serna ). gómez de la serna’s assessment of primitive art encapsulates the inherent contradiction of primitivist modernism: whereas black art is praised for its naturalness and raw expressivity, these qualities are explained by its ignorance and lack of civilization. similar arguments can be found in moreno villa’s article, where he states that: ninguno daba en creer que tales fetiches bárbaros, tales productos maravillosos de la humanidad inocente, encerraban el total. semejante creencia hubiera indicado debilidad senil. lo que veían y lo que deben realmente a los escultores negros es la preocupación salvadora, el ansia de conseguir los principios básicos del arte (moreno villa ). likewise, the cinematic tribute that francisco ayala devotes to josephine baker in indagación del cinema ( ), combines appraisal for the famous dancer with statements in which there is a certain colonial overtone clearly influenced by western discourses of “otherness”, such as: “josefina –los negros– un grito raro y violento, de selva” ( ), “la inimitable zalamería de los negros” ( ) and “una sirena con ojos almendra, con sonrisas de cuchillo, coqueta como un mono” ( ). garcía lorca’s representation of black people in poeta en nueva york contains similar contradictions. the “primitive” –embodied by “el rey del harlem” ( - ) and the african mask of “danza de la muerte” ( - )– reacts against the dehumanization of the modern metropolis and purifies new york’s mechanized society. lorca’s powerful image of new york being destroyed by the anger of nature out of control led by a dancing african mask, is reminiscent of the more subtle contrast made by juan ramón jiménez in “la negra y la rosa” ( - ) between the mechanization represented by the underground and the beauty and spirituality of the black lady and her rose, which also take over and purify the mechanical environment surrounding them, although in a more delicate manner: “y la rosa emana, en el silencio atento, una delicada esencia y eleva como una bella presencia inmaterial que se va adueñando de todo, hasta que el hierro, el carbon, los periódicos, todo, huele un punto a rosa blanca, a primavera mejor, a eternidad…” ( ) however, as marta lópez-luaces suggests, the imaginary created by lorca is also embedded in western discourses of “otherness”: lorca enfatiza la correspondencia entre la comunidad negra y lo primitivo. forma a través de su poemario un binarismo entre comunidad negra/modernidad, primitivo/moderno y bueno/malo. este tipo de binarismo, está en la base de un pensamiento que ha justificado tradicionalmente las jerarquías sociales, raciales y de género. (lópez-luaces, ) these discourses had been deeply rooted in spanish society and culture since the beginning of the empire. it has been argued, in fact, that the largest black population in renaissance europe was located in spain (martín and garcía barranco ). accordingly, black people had a large representation in the spanish literature of the golden age, in all literary genres, but especially in theatre (garcía barranco – ). spanish literary representations of blacks characterised them as intellectually and socially inferior, as brutes closer to animals than to humans (santos morillo ). the strength of this type of discourse is also evident in the political life in early twentieth- century postcolonial spain. josé luis venegas ( ) has analysed, for example, unamuno’s failure to include black people in his project of a trasantlatic hispanism that “could restore the international prestige of spanish culture while overcoming the traumas of four centuries of colonial domination” (venegas ). unamuno’s hispanic project was based on a cultural notion of “race” in which the spanish language was the essential bond that united the former colonies and the mainland in an enduring cultural community. following domínguez burdalo, unamuno’s view of hispanism “liga lengua con cultura, palabra con hispanidad” and therefore “reincide también en la negación del concepto de raza en su acepción étnica, además de apuntar al mestizaje como ideal proceso de síntesis” (domínguez burdalo ). under this light, native americans and creoles were seen as spaniards by unamuno due to their belonging to a spanish linguistic community. blacks, on the other hand, were excluded from this community. in the case of “el negro”, unamuno “no mostró hacia él la misma consideración que con indios y mestizos, llegando en muchos casos a defender, o al menos a entender, la esclavitud que especialmente tuvieron que padecer” (domínguez burdalo ). the following quote from unamuno’s review of the novel en el país de los bubis ( ) by josé mas illustrates the persistence of racist discourses that remained unquestioned in western thought: “esos niños grandes, lúbricos y crueles, borrachos y embusteros, que son los negros, y capaces, sin embargo, hasta de la santidad, pero de una santidad casi vegetal, constituyen uno de los más grandes misterios de la historia” (quoted in domínguez burdalo ). despite the emphasis placed on the cultural affinities between spain and its former colonies, nostalgic views of the empire also retained views of “racial” supremacy that had justified colonial domination. when examining the representation of african americans in spanish literary representations of new york, i will therefore refer to recent approaches to primitivism in the arts as explained by gill perry, and inspired by michel foucault’s theory of discourse, in which primitivism is seen as “a complex network of sociological, ideological, aesthetic, scientific, anthropological, and legal interests […] which feed into and determine culture” and emphasize how these discourses involve a relationship of power, and hence “those within western society who analyse, teach, paint, or reproduce a view of the ‘primitive’ would, by this activity, be dominating, restructuring and having authority over that which they define as ‘primitive’” (perry ). as john jervis also points out, “the sophistication of these modernist explorations, their drive to reflexive awareness, will not save them from an implicit or explicit reproduction of some of the constitutive western assumptions about otherness” (jervis ). as i will show next, whereas moreno villa’s travelogue reflects this simultaneous fascination towards black art and the prevalence of discourses of “racial difference” which is characteristic of primitivist modernism, camba’s text is openly imperialist and echoes the nostalgic reassessment of the empire in the form of “hispanidad” developed in early postcolonial spain. pruebas de nueva york: “black dots” on the american flag pruebas de nueva york ( ) was inspired by josé moreno villa’s stay in new york in . the writer travelled to the united states in order to meet the family of his american girlfriend, florence, and to obtain her father’s permission to marry her. the experience resulted in failure, since moreno villa was rejected by florence’s parents and returned to madrid, “recién soltero” in the writer’s words, alluding to juan ramón jimenez’s diario de un poeta reciencasado (ballesteros and neira ). during the time he spent in new york, moreno villa wrote a series of articles for el sol, published between may and july and subsequently gathered in the volume entitled pruebas de nueva york. two years later, he published jacinta la pelirroja, which was inspired by both his relationship with florence and his experience in new york. pruebas de nueva york has been mostly regarded by scholarship as a secondary text of mere documentary interest that complements the love story depicted in the aforementioned collection of poems. this widespread view has been promoted in studies such as those by ballesteros and neira, where the critics define the text by its “autenticidad de crónica amorosa – correlato en prosa de jacinta la pelirroja” (ballesteros and neira ). similarly, díaz de castro argues that “el ambiente cosmopolita y moderno, las grandes ciudades, la mezcolanza de razas, las multitudes, la música – y la plástica– del jazz” reflected in pruebas de nueva york as well as “distintas observaciones sobre la mujer norteamericana” are of great help in order to understand “la figura de jacinta” (díaz de castro ). specific studies on pruebas de nueva york have not significantly gone beyond descriptive approaches to the text in which the view of new york and modernization given by the author is interpreted as the expression of his personal turmoil. emilio josé Álvarez castaño justifies the author’s opinions towards african americans as the result of a cultural clash between spain and the united states (Álvarez castaño - ), an approach also taken by cristóbal cuevas ( – ) and dionisio cañas ( ). on the contrary, and in an attempt to supersede the above author-based analyses, i propose that the image of new york developed in pruebas de nueva york is not a mere reflection of moreno villa’s failed relationship with florence or simply of his personal circumstances, but reflects similar attitudes and discourses prevalent in modernism. in the last chapter of pruebas de nueva york, entitled “puntos negros” ( – ), josé moreno villa argues that african americans and their culture have a strong influence on white americans. the metaphor “black dots” is used by the writer in order to highlight this impact: “con estos puntos aludo a los individuos de raza negra que motean el país cuadriculado de los estados unidos. puntos negros que deberían figurar en la bandera yanqui alternando con las estrellas rojas [sic]” ( ). as he does throughout his travelogue, he declares his intention to offer an objective approach on the subject. however, the writer avoids engaging in the debates about “racial” discrimination taking place in the united states at the time, as he states next: “no se ofendan mis amigos de nueva york. no siento debilidad por ellos, ni voy a enfocar ceñudamente el problema que aportan a la sociedad” ( ). he seems to be alluding to the so-called “negro problem”, or “negro question”, two terms that reflected the uneasiness of white americans with the freedom gained by blacks thanks to abraham lincoln’s “emancipation proclamation” in and the victory of the north over the south in the american civil war. moreno villa aligns himself with anglo-saxon americans, whom he calls “mis amigos”, and declares not to have any “debilidad” towards blacks, who are referred to as “a problem” and located in a position of subalternity which is never questioned: few paragraphs later, the writer characterises blacks by alluding to their alleged “índole sumisa, sometida” ( ). as such, they occupy the lowest positions of american society, working as servants: “los negros, en su mayoría, se dedican al servicio doméstico. ellos friegan los cristales de los rascacielos, suben y bajan los ascensores, sirven la mesa […] mozos de labores secundarias, si no ínfimas” ( ). however, and in spite of their social inferiority to white americans, the writer states that black servants influence their masters: “es evidente que el criado influye en el amo, y sobre todo, en el ama […] hay que creer en la influencia de las cosas todas, por humildes, calladas y sumisas que sean. la mera presencia, si es sostenida o constante, acaba por influir sobre uno” ( ). the imprint left by the servant on his master is a recurrent theme in moreno villa’s work, for example in articles such as “magisterio de los criados”, “la enseñanza de los pobres” and “primeras nociones del mundo”, where he highlights the role played by servants in his own education: “las primeras nociones del mundo social o de la condición humana las recibimos de los parientes y de la servidumbre” (“primeras nociones del mundo” ); “me siento impulsado por una gratitud, o por un apego sordo, a escribir de unos seres humildes que me rodearon en mi infancia y hasta pudieron influir en mi manera de ver el mundo: los criados, las criadas” (“magisterio de los criados” ). moreno villa’s appreciation towards his own servants contrasts with his apparent lack of empathy towards blacks. later on, he explains that “nosotros no desdeñamos a nuestros servidores, o, al menos, con el desdén que los americanos a los negros; pero es porque reconocemos la hermandad. los americanos se sienten de otra estirpe, y esto les defiende del influjo; pero ellos no saben por dónde se cuela éste” ( ). this statement could be interpreted as an expression of “racial” difference, in which spanish servants are recognized as “brothers”, but blacks would be excluded from such brotherhood. this idea seems to be reinforced in the opening paragraphs of the text, where the author argues that: sin saber por qué, le adjudicaba yo a todo negro que veía el conocimiento del español y, con ello, un cierto parentesco; pero esta falsa emoción, que sin duda tiene su raiz [sic] en que cuba fué [sic] nuestra, y que de niño vi negros que castellanizaban y hasta influían en el cante “jondo” con sus “habaneras”, “rumbas” y demás, no acaba de seducirme. no me casaría con una negra. ( ) following the concept of “hispanidad” developed by regenerationist projects, it seems at first that moreno villa identifies language with national identity, establishing a linguistic brotherhood between the mainland and the colonies. such kinship is, however, soon rendered as “false” by the writer. he is even categorical about interracial marriage. when compared to previous texts written by the author, this reaction seems contradictory. in , he openly referred to spaniards as an interracial people: “a primera vista, todos somos moros en andalucía. después se nota cierta complejidad en el tipo. acaso en algún momento parezca que domina el semblante romano de la aristocracia” (“fisonomía del caserío malagueño” ); similarly, in he wrote: “españa, que por su judaísmo y por su gitanería sabe de chaleco, cambalache, tira y afloja, regateo…” (“artistas y mercaderes” ). moreover, after his exile to mexico, moreno villa will avoid colonialist attitudes, as his interest in mexican art and its hybridity (huergo cardoso “los artículos de arte de moreno villa” - ) and texts such as “mi españolismo y mi mexicanismo” ( - ) confirm. in the former, he defines mexican culture as the result of a “fusión carnal” which seems to allude to “racial” mixing: “nadie puede sostener que la cultura prehispánica se fundió con la española. quien se fundió fue la persona indígena con la persona ibérica. de modo que esa fusión, constitutiva del mexicano, es puramente somática y psicológica, del cuerpo y del alma” ( ). therefore, why would moreno villa react against interracial marriage with a black woman? in spite of his rejection of spanish colonialism, the author seems to be influenced by prevalent western discourses about black people that characterised them as inferior and only suitable for serving. as miguel garcía-posada has argued regarding moreno villa’s depiction of blacks in his new york travelogue, he “elude la percepción trágica o simplemente política. verdad es que la misma izquierda europea, con muy escasas excepciones, mantuvo una mentalidad colonial sobre la cuestión hasta la segunda guerra mundial” ( ). in his volume locos, enanos, negros y niños palaciegos ( ), moreno villa tells the story of Ángel, the black servant of his great-grand father, who “no quiso usar de su liberación y murió en casa, fiel a ella, como elemento de la familia” ( ). similarly, in his account of african americans in pruebas de nueva york, the writer does not show antipathy nor blatant racism towards blacks, since he declares his respect and appreciation for the humility of the servants. as he states, “no se trata de simpatía ni antipatía en este momento, sino de apuntar lo que veo” ( ). however, the author never questions the position of subalternity in which they are located (and in which they remain even voluntarily, as in Ángel’s case) despite their influence on their masters. moreover, such influence seems to cause a certain discomfort in the writer, since it is described as silent and hidden process: “[the black] no se engalla, no levanta cabeza; siente que su escalafón social es ínfimo; pero allá en el fondo de su conciencia le sonreirá la satisfacción de ver que actúa sobre el pensamiento y la sensibilidad de los hombres rubios y fuertes” ( ). instead of highlighting the unfairness of “racial” inequality, moreno villa focuses on how blacks slip their “primitive” influence secretly into the white man’s “civilised” physique. as one can see in the following excerpt, the author resorts to western stereotypes of subalternity –such as the assumed sensuality and musical skills of the colonised– in order to show the pathway through which such endangering influence purportedly enters american society: ninguna blanca se abraza con el negro para bailar. pero el bailarín negro será quien imponga la danza. y este aspecto de la sensualidad entra en américa por él. por eso digo que actúa sobre los pies y las piernas del americano. y como a fuerza de danza se adquieren maneras y detalles dinámicos que caben en lo que ya no es danza, sino movimiento general, ademanes de la vida cotidiana, se puede notar en que en las chicas intrépidas hay “monadas” que son negroides, piruetas gráciles que no heredaron de las paquidérmicas razas rubias […] no puedo figurarme cómo serían los estados unidos sin “jazz”. […] es posible que este sello que pone la raza negra a las múltiples razas de los estados unidos sea momentáneo, transitorio; pero nadie sabe las derivaciones que trae una influencia momentánea si es fuerte. ( ) although moreno villa depicts a case of segregation, in which white women do not mingle with black men, the author highlights once more the influence that black culture has on america, even arguing that the black “race” homogenizes the entire american population. significantly, the writer highlights the consequences that the exposure to jazz causes in the american “modern women”; by entering the public space of the jazz club they are transformed by black music, which extends its influence to their daily life, turning them from members of the “paquidérmicas razas rubias” into “monadas negroides”. moreno villa is not clear as to whether this influence has an enriching or a corrupting effect, but he appreciates the musical qualities of jazz music, which “hace bailar al mundo entero con una embriaguez desconocida de nuestros padres envolviendo y electrizando a las naturalezas en las síncopas, quiebros y monotonía de su música peculiar” ( ). similarly, the writer admires the religiosity of the negro spirituals and the holiness they bring to american society: “desconozco la profundidad a que alcanzan estas ‘espirituales’ en el alma americana. pero me inclino a que no es pequeña, porque tal vez no hay arte más penetrante que el de la música”. moreno villa describes the spirituals as original, mystic and transcendental, and praises their hybridity: “las ceremonias de estos negros recién bautizados tienen un color tan aparte que lo ritual parece recién inventado […] hay en sus ceremonias una fusión de elementos. […] y no brotan en todo momento, sino cuando el ánimo está preparado, cuando llegó poco a poco la embriaguez mística” ( ). this admiration will in fact last after his stay in new york, and in he will recall “los blues oídos en nueva york el año , cantados y bailados con un recogimiento digno de una catedral”, which “se me quedaron ahí, en la cinta de la memoria” (“los años tienen su música” ). in both cases, moreno villa admires the originality of black music; however, the class divisions sustained in american society by “racial” hierarchy are accepted as normal: hay un refrán ruso que dice: “echad la naturaleza por la puerta, que ella entrará en vuestra casa por la ventana”. y a los americanos cabría decirles: “despreciad a vuestros inferiores, que ellos os enseñarán el canto y el baile, la sensualidad y gracia refinadas”. ( ) in this image of rebellious nature – reminiscent of lorca’s “danza de la muerte” –, moreno villa not only praises the artistic qualities of blacks, especially their musical talents, but also seems to refer to the idea of a “primitivist regeneration” promoted by modernist art. however, and despite their artistic values, blacks are still seen as “inferiores”. as huberto huergo cardoso points out, although moreno villa “trata con singular perspicacia” the situation of blacks in the united states and the spirituals will leave a strong imprint on his memory, they are treated by the writer as an artistic subject rather than individuals: “el negro sí, pero como objeto de contemplación estética” (“moreno villa por moreno villa” ). in fact, while he states that “no me casaría con una negra”, his fascination towards black music will take him to incorporate the rhythm of jazz to the poetic account of his relationship with florence in jacinta la pelirroja, as he states in its opening verses: “eso es, bailaré con ella/ el ritmo roto y negro del jazz. europa por américa” (moreno villa ). he will even express his loneliness, like a blues singer, through the melancholy of black music, in “causa de mi soledad”: “¡ah! y cantor negro/ de un jazz que siento/ a través de diez capas del suelo” (moreno villa ). as he openly declares in his autobiography vida en claro, “quise que apareciera algo del espíritu y la forma sincopada del jazz, que me embriagó en norteamérica” (moreno villa ). therefore, moreno villa’s account of blacks in america mirrors the attitudes of the european avant-garde about primitivist art that he had studied prior to his visit to new york. as in the view of negro art as “primitivist regeneration”, black music brings a sense of spirituality and renovation to the alleged materialism and excessive puritanism of american society. however, and influenced by prevalent discourses of “otherness” deeply ingrained in the imaginary of western modernity, the writer remains incapable of challenging colonialist views of blacks as inferior beings only suited to serve their white masters. “la españa grande” and “la españa negra” in la ciudad automática la ciudad automática compiles the journalistic articles about new york written by julio camba for the spanish newspaper abc between and . camba’s view of new york as developed in his travelogue is constructed around the author’s sarcastic approach to modernization. one of the aspects of american society criticized by the writer is the coexistence of different “races”, which is seen as problematic. individual studies of la ciudad automática are scarce, and mostly follow a rather descriptive approach, often limited to a summary of the ideas expressed by camba, and without engaging in a critical dialogue with the text, as in the cases of socorro girón ( – ), mónica Álvarez and Ángeles abuín ( – ) and Álvarez castaño ( – ). girón briefly compares camba’s opinion about black people to garcía lorca’s new york poems (girón ), but far from exploring the colonialist implications of camba’s discourse, she perpetuates similar colonial attitudes based on the dichotomy nature (primitivism)/culture (civilization) in her own analysis, by stating that “el negro conquista al blanco con las armas de su ingenuidad, su inocencia, su arte y su ritmo. así conquistó a federico garcía lorca y julio camba” (girón ). camba’s often ferocious criticism of foreign cultures and his degrading remarks towards different ethnicities has been alleviated by considering it as an expression of his humorous style. girón, who refers to the writer as “literato y humorista inconfundible de la edad de plata” ( ), devotes a chapter of her essay to analyse precisely camba’s humorous style. although this scholar argues that “julio camba opina sobre la raza y este malabarista de la lengua española es uno de los escritores que más conciencia ha tenido de la misma” (girón ), she suggests that the writer “se ríe de lo humano en general” (girón ), since “nunca dirige dardos a nadie en particular” (girón – ). although i do not intend to question the characterization of camba’s style as humorous, i do consider that this approach has limited the understanding of his new york chronicles. as maría dolores costa has shown, a critical analysis of camba’s work should not be limited to the acknowledgement of the writer’s ability to play with words and to satirize american society. in her study of camba’s travel writing –which contains several references to la ciudad automática– , costa challenges the view of the writer as mere humorist (costa – ). she points out his recurrent use of stereotypes ( – ), and she notes that “camba’s criticism ultimately serves no didactic function. he does not intend to civilize the ‘barbarians’, simply degrade them” ( ). therefore, i propose that camba’s humour must be taken seriously. as i will show next, camba’s assessment of the theoretical –although still precarious– emancipation of african americans in new york condenses fears of miscegenation and “racial” degeneration, and resorts to colonialist discourses in order to preserve the foundations of a view of spanish national identity based on “racial difference” and imperialist domination. in la ciudad automática, julio camba devotes three chapters to the situation of african americans in new york: “negros” ( – ), “más negros” ( – ) and “negros y blancos” ( – ). similarly to moreno villa’s travelogue, camba’s text especially focuses on the contact between african and white americans, and alludes to the impact that jazz music has on american society. camba locates the chapter entitled “negros” in harlem jazz clubs, where he argues that “racial” hierarchy is blurred by the combined effect of black music and alcohol: nueva york aborrece a los negros, no cabe duda, pero los aborrece únicamente desde las ocho o nueve de la mañana hasta las doce de la noche […] es la hora de harlem. la hora en que los negros más monstruosos estrechan entre sus brazos a las más áureas anglosajonas. la hora en que el alto profesorado, tipo wilson, se pone a bailar la rumba con la servidumbre femenina de color. […] si los blancos odian a los negros es, en cierto modo, como el vicioso odia a su vicio. se ve, en fin que los blancos pueden odiar a los negros durante el día y a las horas laborables, pero que, a pesar de todo, hay algo en el fondo de la raza maldita que los atrae de un modo irresistible. ( – ) as rasula points out, the association of jazz with “electric fever” and an atmosphere “charged with alcoholic delirium” was “a characterization pervasive in poetry throughout the period” ( ). however, in camba’s account jazz does not represent freedom, experimentation or “primitivist regeneration” as it did for avant-garde artists. as one can note, in comparison to moreno villa’s text, here anglo-saxon women are embraced by black men. nevertheless, far from condemning the hatred suffered by african americans in new york, camba focuses his criticism on the “depraved” behaviour of white americans, who look for the pleasures forbidden by their puritan values in the dark and debauched clubs of harlem. blacks are in fact depicted as a “vice” that white americans cannot resist, and which leads to “unnatural” sexual matches that destabilise “racial” and class hierarchies. in the couple formed by “negros monstruosos” and “áureas anglosajonas”, the sexual and “racial” purity suggested by the golden hair of anglo-saxon women is opposed to the impurity and exacerbated lust (“monstruoso”) of black men. regarding the binary white/black, winthop jordan points out that: embedded in the concept of blackness was its direct opposite – whiteness. no other colors so clearly implied opposition […] white and black connoted purity and filthiness, virginity and sin, virtue and baseness, beauty and ugliness, beneficence and evil, god and the devil. (jordan ) jordan’s words refer to the first encounters between the english and the africans in the sixteenth century. as one can see, the same racist stereotypes are still in force in camba’s text. indeed, the portrait of african americans given by camba is a re-elaboration of previous discourses of “otherness” carried out in the west since its encounter with non-european cultures, based on binary oppositions such as sensuality/rationality, nature/civilization and childishness/maturity. this view is confirmed later on in the chapter entitled “más negros” ( ), where camba compares african americans to apes and dogs: hay negros chiquitines y muy peripuestos que se pasean por las calles de harlem con una petulancia tan deliciosa como la de un fox-terrier […] otros son enormes, como gorilas […] bailan los negros fox-terrier y los negros bulldog […] baila el negro gorila y el negroide chimpancé. ( – ) surprisingly, and in contrast with moreno villa’s aim of remaining emotionally neutral, the writer declares later on to have “gran simpatía” ( ) for african americans. soon we discover that such affection is also explained by camba’s attachment to discourses of “otherness”, in this case the infantilization of the “racial other”: los niños, en especial, me encantan y, junto a un negro de seis o siete años, un blanco de tres me parece que ya está en plena senectud. en cuanto a los grandes, no hay ninguno que haya dejado enteramente de ser niño. los negros son niños siempre por su candor y por su marrullería, por su capacidad admirativa, por sus terrores injustificados, a la par que su desconocimiento del verdadero peligro y, ante todo, por la enorme fuerza creadora de su imaginación. ( ) the distinction between whites and blacks is shown by camba as a constant that manifests itself even in the earlier periods of human life: both “categories” remain unalterable, since blacks never overcome this state of childishness and therefore stay in a permanent condition of inferiority in relation to the white man’s maturity. camba’s view of “races” as fixed categories does certainly echo racialist theories such as those argued by arthur de gobineau in the inequality of human races ( ). according to gobineau, all “racial differences” were permanent, since “races” “constitute separate branches of one of many primitive stocks” (gobineau ). we shall return to the jazz club, where we find a dancing couple which blurs the “natural” division between social classes: “el alto profesorado, tipo wilson, se pone a bailar la rumba con la servidumbre femenina de color” ( ). camba seems to react against the “contaminating” influence that black music has on the american intellectual élite. as reisigl and wodak remind us, “race” is a social construction “used as a legitimizing ideological tool to oppress and exploit specific social groups and to deny them access to material, cultural and political resources, to work, welfare services, housing and political rights” ( ). camba is perfectly aware of the racist –and classist– discrimination suffered by african americans, as he openly refers to the so-called “negro problem”: “el llamado problema negro ha dejado de ser un problema exclusivamente rural para convertirse también en un problema urbano” ( – ). the writer provides in fact a list of possible “solutions”: “hay quien habla de matar a todos los negros; hay quien habla de echarlos y hasta quien habla de esterilizarlos”, and declares that “cualquiera de estas medidas tiene cierta lógica; pero lo absurdo es eso de separar a los negros de los blancos en el tranvía, en el teatro, en la escuela y hasta en la iglesia” ( ). bearing in mind the humiliating and dehumanizing depiction of black people given by camba, it is unsurprising that genocide, banishment, and sterilization are seen by him as “logical”, especially if we consider the pervasiveness of debates about eugenics taking place in both the united states and europe at the time. however, he also seems to be condemning segregation policies. the following lines clarify this first impression: ¿para qué separar dos cosas de apariencia tan distinta como un líquido azul y un líquido incoloro? ¿y para qué separar a los negros de los blancos si salta a la vista del más miope quiénes son los blancos y quiénes son los negros? […] por mi parte opino que el problema negro no existe, y no existe precisamente porque los negros son precisamente una raza de color […] dentro de su piel cada negro está tan lejos de los otros ciudadanos americanos como un paragoe en su campo de concentración. ( - ) black skin is compared to a concentration camp that separates african americans from anglo- saxons. as one can see, camba does not even consider the possibility of egalitarianism: for him, their skin colour will always confine blacks to a position of subalternity and make visible the inferiority of their “race”. as in pruebas de nueva york, the emphasis is not placed on “racial” discrimination, but on the subverting power of black culture. the writer condemns the fact that the “natural” social boundaries established by discrimination become weaker during the night, when anglo-saxons become increasingly affected by the intoxicating effect of jazz. the whole scene is given a carnivalesque nature in which the semiotic parallel between “the night” and “the black” strengthens the idea of temporal madness, of the dangerous and corrupting power of the african american influence. significantly, the explanation given by camba for the “irresistible” attraction that anglo-saxons feel towards blacks is reminiscent of moreno villa’s words in pruebas de nueva york: todo lo cual tiene una explicación bien sencilla: la falta de lujuria propia en el pueblo americano. [...]. la dictadura puritana arremetió contra toda pasión carnal de un modo verdaderamente feroz, y hoy pueden ustedes ver a este pueblo que, totalmente desprovisto de sus instintos lujuriosos, no tiene más remedio que arreglárselas con la lujuria de otros pueblos. […] como la raza anglosajona es una de las razas menos sensuales del mundo, se consideró tarea facilísima el hacer de ella una raza enteramente virtuosa, pero al privarla de su parca sensualidad se la dejó sin defensa contra el estímulo de sensualidades extrañas. ( ) anglo-saxons are here ridiculed because of their alleged lack of sensuality, which is considered a flaw rather than a virtue. i suggest that camba’s words reflect the concerns caused in spain by theories surrounding anglo-saxon superiority over the latin “races” promoted by authors such as edmond demolins in À quoi tient la supériorité des anglo-saxons? ( ), translated into spanish in as ¿en qué consiste la superioridad de los anglosajones? (fox , seregni – ). such concerns were to a great extent motivated by scientific theories of “race” or “racialism”, which sprang from the evolutionary theories of darwin, and gave the basis for new ideas of european “racial” supremacy. lord salisbury’s speech “living and dying nations”, delivered few months before the end of the war in cuba, echoed this rhetoric of “racial difference”. in this discourse, the british prime minister argued that nations could be divided in two opposite groups: on the one hand, “great countries of enormous power growing in power every year”, and on the other, “a number of communities which i can only describe as dying” ( ). although spain was not directly mentioned in the speech, spanish politicians understood lord salisbury’s words as a direct allusion to the situation of their country, since it mirrored the diagnosis given by spanish intellectuals to the decay of the empire. as seregni argues: la idea de raza, con sus corolarios concernientes a la superioridad de algunas y a la degeneración de otras, estaba tan clara y presente en los debates de los políticos, en los discursos de los científicos y en los de los intelectuales que las declaraciones de salisbury no hacían más que repetir conceptos ya asimilados. ( ) i propose that camba strives to dismantle racialist theories of anglo-saxon superiority by showing the counterproductive effects of its excessive search for decency: the alleged suppression of sexual drives by the protestant faith cannot contain the strength of the lowest instincts, which are attracted by the exacerbated lust of an inferior “race” and lead americans to fall into the “vices” they try to avoid. both camba’s racist stand regarding african americans and his dialectical efforts to dismantle theories of anglo-saxon “racial” superiority can be connected to nostalgic formulations of spanish national identity after the end of the empire. as a matter of fact, harlem reappears in a subsequent chapter significantly entitled “la españa negra” ( – ), where the writer describes the east side of this neighbourhood in the following terms: entre las avenidas quinta y octava, puede decirse que estamos en españa. una españa algo negra, desde luego, pero una verdadera españa por el idioma, por el carácter y por la actitud general del hombre ante la vida […] no hay duda de que esto es españa, y sólo con espíritu mezquinamente provinciano dejaríamos de reconocerlo así. es españa en toda su enorme variedad histórica. es la españa grande, la españa donde nunca se pone el sol todavía, la españa hispánica, en una palabra. ( – ) camba’s account is a wistful memory of the lost spanish empire, of the unity between the mainland and the colonies. the writer praises the grandeur of the former “españa grande”, still alive in the linguistic and cultural heritage of the colonies, “la españa hispánica”. the success of the spanish empire in bonding with the colonies and creating an enduring sense of community contrasts with the anglo-saxon failure in the united states. the representation of new york as a city “racially corrupted” conveyed in la ciudad automática suggests that americans have failed to include their subalterns in the national unity without jeopardising the integrity of both their “race” and their culture. in contrast, camba’s view of a hispanic unity strives to construct a strong spanish national identity based on “racial” and cultural superiority over its colonial others. in this view, the influence of the subaltern in the “españa grande” does not trigger the degeneration of the dominant “race”, but is rather “the black” who is assimilated to the colonial culture. hence the efforts to highlight that the so-called “españa negra” remains faithful to the linguistic and cultural roots planted by the spanish empire in the colonies. in camba’s text, such nostalgic view of the imperial “españa grande”, still alive in the hispanic heritage of the colonies, together with the view of the united states as a country in danger of becoming “racially” corrupted, attempts to subvert theories of anglo-saxon superiority and the worrying image of spain as a decadent nation which were prevalent at the time. conclusion in spite of their differences, josé moreno villa’s pruebas de nueva york and julio camba’s la ciudad automática show the strength that colonialist discourses have in spanish modernism, especially regarding black people. moreno villa’s travelogue offers a more empathic view of african americans as humble and hardworking servants, which connects this text with similar appraisals of “los criados” and their influence on their masters written by the author. however, such position of subalternity is never questioned by the writer, who prefers not to discuss the dominant racism of american society at the time. this does not stop him from admiring black music, especially jazz and the negro spirituals, which he praises for their beauty and originality. moreno villa’s attitude reflects widespread reactions to primitive art by the european avant-garde, which turned black people into fascinating and often mysterious objects of contemplation without engaging with the problems caused by discrimination and segregation suffered by these individuals in the united states and the long history of colonization and domination of the “other” which is at the core of western civilization. by contrast, la ciudad automática openly presents the influence of blacks in american society as corrupting. in this case there is not even aesthetic esteem for primitive art, but rather a blatant perpetuation of a series of stereotypes and discourses of “otherness” in which blacks are characterised as luxurious, infantile and inferior beings who are even animalized as dogs and apes. apart from its obvious racism (dominant in western thought), camba’s text also strives to reverse contemporary views of anglo-saxon superiority and the worrying diagnosis that characterized spain as a dying nation, therefore preserving an imperialistic view not only based on cultural domination in the form of “hispanidad”, but also on “racial hierarchy” between the white master and the black subaltern. notes some examples of spanish travelogues set in new york and published during - include: eduardo zamacois, dos años en américa: impresiones de un viaje por buenos aires, montevideo, chile, brasil, new-york y cuba ( ), mariano alarcón, impresiones de un viaje a new-york ( ), eduardo criado requena, la ciudad de los rascacielos ( ), luis araquistáin, el peligro yanqui ( ), vicente blasco ibáñez, la vuelta al mundo de un novelista (chapter : “la ciudad que venció a la noche”) ( ), joaquín belda, en el país del bluff. veinte días en nueva york ( ), jacinto miquelarena, … pero ellos no tienen bananas (el viaje a nueva york) ( ), pedro segura, nueva york : impresiones de un viaje a los estados unidos ( ). see also isabel garcía-montón, viaje a la modernidad: la visión de los estados unidos en la españa finisecular ( ), an anthology of spanish narrative texts set in new york and published between and . here i refer to the first edition; however, the editions i will follow are pruebas de nueva york ( ) and la ciudad automática ( ). see robert goldwater, primitivism in modern art (cambridge: harvard university press, ), the myth of primitivism, ed. by susan miller (new york: routledge, ), colin rhodes, primitivism and modern art (new york: thames and hudson, ), frances connelly, the sleep of reason: primitivism in modern european art and aesthetics, - (university park: pennsylvania state university press, ), primitivism and twentieth-century art: a documentary history, ed. by jack donald flam and miriam deutch (california: university of california press, ), and carol sweeney, from fetish to subject: race, modernism and primitivism, - (westport: greenwood publishing group, ). jed rasula also mentions specific studies on the fascination exerted by jazz music on the european avant-garde: jody blake, le tumulte noir: modernist art and popular entertainment in jazz- age paris, - (university park: pennsylvania state university press, ); bernard gendron, between montmartre and the mudd club: popular music and the avant-garde (university of chicago press, ); glenn watkins, pyramids at the louvre: music, culture, and collage from stravinsky to the postmodernists (cambridge: harvard university press, ). for more examples, see william t. spoerri’s the old world and the new. a synopsis of current european views on american civilization ( , first published in ), allan nevins’ america through british eyes ( , first published in ), and olga peters hasty and susanne fusso’s america through russian eyes, – ( ). although it is out of the scope of this article, a postcolonial reading of poeta en nueva york seems necessary and would shed new light into garcía lorca’s text. see also baltasar fra molinero’s la imagen de los negros en el teatro del siglo de oro (cerro de agua; madrid: siglo xxi, ). for a study of the literary concept of hispanismo at the turn of the century, see john e. englekirk’s “el hispanoamericanismo y la generación del ” (revista iberoamericana : – , ). en el país de los bubis, recently re-edited by ediciones del viento in , narrates the author’s autobiographical experience in africa. indeed, despite the abolition of slavery in and the ratification of the th amendment in , which guaranteed suffrage to all american men regardless of their “race” (gamber ), racism was not eradicated in the united states. in , escaping from the segregation policies of the south and attracted by the job opportunities offered by the northern industry, around two million african americans migrated to the cities of the north, west and midwest (turner-sadler ). new york, in particular, became the american city with the biggest black population in the country, with , african americans in - and rising to , in - (grant meyer ). their arrival in the north was received with increasingly violent racist displays. although segregation was illegal, discrimination was perpetuated in the form of a “de facto” segregation: whites reached informal agreements in order to reduce job and housing opportunities for blacks, who despite having the right to vote had little political visibility, since the majority of elected officials were white and ignored their african american counterparts (turner-sadler ). it is not known whether garcía lorca had read moreno villa’s new york chronicles before he travelled to this city, although some critics have suggested that the poet from granada was familiar with this text. garcía-posada argues that “lorca sin duda lo leyó” ( ) and dionisio cañas points out the similarities between moreno villa’s travelogue and the opinions expressed by garcía lorca in his letters and the conferencia-recital (cañas ), to the extent that he states: “unos años después vendrá lorca a manhattan y, aunque no sabemos si leyó el libro de moreno villa –posiblemente tuvo acceso a los artículos conforme fueron saliendo en la prensa– las coincidencias en la actitud de lorca frente a nueva york son tantas que es difícil no pensar que ciertas ‘ideas hechas’, respecto a la ciudad, no provienen ya del texto del primero” (cañas ). Álvarez chillida points out that the debates about eugenics arrived in spain in the s. the “primeras jornadas eugenésicas españolas” were organized in madrid in and ( ). i have not been able to find the meaning of the word “paragoe”. i can only deduce that camba is misspelling “arapahoe” and he is referring to indian reservations. works cited Álvarez domínguez, mónica and abuín prieto, Ángeles. “julio camba en nova iorque: impresións dun xornalista visionario”. xornadas sobre julio camba. ed. ofelia requejo. santiago de compostela: xunta de galicia, . – . Álvarez castaño, emilio josé. nueva york en los escritores españoles del siglo xx. sevilla: edición digital@tres, . Álvarez chillida, gonzalo. el antisemitismo en españa. la imagen del judío. madrid: marcial pons, . ayala, francisco. “josefina baker”. indagación del cinema. madrid: compañía iberoamericana de publicaciones, . – . ballesteros, rafael and julio neira. “introducción” to josé moreno villa, jacinta la pelirroja. ed. rafael ballesteros and julio neira. madrid: castalia, . – . camba, julio. la ciudad automática. th edition. madrid: espasa calpe, . cañas, dionisio. el poeta y la ciudad. nueva york y los escritores hispanos. madrid: cátedra, . ceaser, james w. reconstructing america: the symbol of america in modern thought. new haven: yale university press, . costa, maría dolores. “the travel writing of julio camba”. monographic review ( ): – . cuevas garcía, cristóbal. “civilización artística y civilización comercial: pruebas de nueva york de josé moreno villa”. analecta malacitana: revista de la sección de filología de la facultad de filosofía y letras, ( ) ( ): – . díaz de castro, francisco javier “la poesía vanguardista de moreno villa”. josé moreno villa en el contexto del . ed. cristóbas cuevas garcía barcelona: anthropos, . – . dominguez burdalo, josé. “del ser (o no ser) hispano: unamuno frente a la negritud”. modern language notes (hispanic issue) ( ) ( ): – . duhamel, georges. america the menace. scenes from the life of the future, new york: arno press, . englekirk, john e. “el hispanoamericanismo y la generación del ”. revista iberoamericana ( ): – . fox, inman. la invención de españa, madrid: cátedra, . gamber, francesca “american anti-slavery society (aass)”, encyclopedia of african american history. ed. leslie m. alexander and walter c. rucke. santa barbara; denver; oxford: abc-clio, . – . garcía barranco, margarita. “correlaciones y divergencias en la representación de dos minorías: negroafricanos y moriscos en la literatura del siglo de oro”. la esclavitud negroafricana en la historia de españa. siglos xvi y xvii. ed. aurelia martín casares and margarita garcía barranco. granada: comares, . – . garcía lorca, federico. poeta en nueva york, madrid: cátedra, . garcía-posada, miguel. “pruebas de nueva york”. abc literario january , . gascoyne-cecil, robert arthur talbot (lord salisbury). “living and dying nations”, the new york times may : . girón, socorro. julio camba, escritor novecentista. pontevedra: ayuntamiento de vilanova de arosa, . gobineau, arthur de. an essay on the inequality of human races. new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, . gómez de la serna, ramón. ismos. madrid: biblioteca nueva, . grant meyer, stephen. as long as they don't move next door: segregation and radical conflict in american neighborhoods. boston: rowman & littlefield, . hall, stuart. “the west and the rest: discourse and power”. formations of modernity. ed. stuart hall and bram gieben. oxford: polity press, . huergo cardoso, humberto. “los artículos de arte de moreno villa. a vista de pájaro”. temas de arte. selección de escritos periodísticos sobre pintura, escultura arquitectura y música ( - ). ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “moreno villa por moreno villa. cronología y etopeya”. temas de arte. selección de escritos periodísticos sobre pintura, escultura arquitectura y música ( - ). ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . jervis, john. transgressing the modern. explorations in the western experience of otherness, massachusetts: blackwell, . jiménez, juan ramón. diario de un poeta reciencasado. ed. antonio sánchez barbudo. madrid: visor, . jordan, winthop. “first impressions: libidinous blacks”. from different shores. perspectives on race and ethnicity in america. ed. ronald takaki. oxford: oxford university press, . – . kafka, franz. amerika, new york: schocken books, . lópez-luaces, marta. “nueva york como motivo de ruptura en la poesía española: juan ramón jiménez, federico garcía lorca y josé hierro”. nombres propios. ed. alfonso gamo. madrid: fundación carolina, . – . manzanas, ana. “conversion narratives: othello and other black characters in shakespeare’s and lope de vega’s plays”, calvo sederi vii ( ): – . martín casares, aurelia and margarita garcía barranco. “popular literary depictions of black african weddings in early modern spain”. renaissance and reformation ( ) ( ): – . martínez góngora, mar. “ la invencion de la ‘blancura’: el estereotipo y la mímica en ‘boda de negros’ de francisco de quevedo”. modern language notes (hispanic issue) ( ) ( ): – . más, josé. en el país de los bubis. a coruña: ediciones del viento, . morand, paul. new york, london: william heinemann, . moreno villa, josé. locos, enanos, negros y niños palaciegos: gente de placer que tuvieron los austrias en la corte española desde a . méxico: editorial presencia, . ___ pruebas de nueva york. valencia: pre-textos, . ___ jacinta la pelirroja, madrid: castalia, . ___ “temas de arte. el arte negro, factor moderno”. temas de arte. selección de escritos periodísticos sobre pintura, escultura arquitectura y música ( - ). ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “fisonomía del caserío malagueño”. temas de arte. selección de escritos periodísticos sobre pintura, escultura arquitectura y música ( - ). ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “artistas y mercaderes”. temas de arte. selección de escritos periodísticos sobre pintura, escultura arquitectura y música ( - ). ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “magisterio de los criados”. medio mundo y otro medio. memorias escogidas. ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “la enseñanza de los pobres”. medio mundo y otro medio. memorias escogidas. ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “primeras nociones del mundo”. medio mundo y otro medio. memorias escogidas. ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “mi españolismo y mi mexicanismo”. medio mundo y otro medio. memorias escogidas. ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “los años tienen su música”. medio mundo y otro medio. memorias escogidas. ed. humberto huergo cardoso. valencia: pre-textos, . – . ___ “vida en claro. autobiografía”. memoria. ed. juan pérez de ayala. el colegio de méxico/residencia de estudiantes. . – . pérez villanueva tovar, isabel. la residencia de estudiantes:grupos universitario y de señoritas, madrid, - . madrid: ministerio de educación y ciencia, . perry, gill. “primitivism and the ‘modern’”. primitivism, cubism, abstraction. the early twentieth century. ed. charles harrison, francis frascina and gill perry. new haven: yale university press, . – rasula, jed. “jazz as decal for the european avant-garde”. blackening europe: the african american presence.ed. heike raphael-hernandez. new york: routledge, . – . santos morillo, antonio. “caracterización del negro en la literatura española del xvi”. lemir ( ): – . seregni, alessandro. el antiamericanismo español. madrid: síntesis, . turner-sadler, joanne. african american history: an introduction. new york: peter lang, . spengler, oswald. the decline of the west, volume , london: george allen & unwin ltd., ___ the decline of the west, volume , london: george allen & unwin ltd, . venegas, josé luis. “unamuno, epistolarity, and the rhetoric of transatlantic hispanism”. modern language notes (hispanic issue) ( ) ( ): – . wells, h. g. the new america, the new world, new york: macmillan, . emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco journal of art historiography number june emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ translated and edited by matthew rampley translator’s introduction: el greco in prague: modernism and the reception of an old master emil filla ( - ) was one of the leading modernist painters working in prague before the first world war. following a conventional artistic training at the academy of fine art in the city at the beginning of the twentieth century he was, like many of his generation, deeply impressed by an exhibition of work by edvard munch in prague staged in by the mánes union of fine artists, the leading artistic association of the time. the impact of munch was evident almost immediately, and starting from , when he painted the reader of dostoyevsky, filla produced a series of works that mirrored the visual lexicon and formal language of the norwegian artist, intensifying the gloomy symbolist themes of the latter to an almost unbearable degree. anxious to avoid the limitations of the provincial art world of prague, he avidly consumed the most advanced artistic practices of the major art centres of the time, culminating in a quite personal appropriation and interpretation of cubism. he was also a author of essays in art history and criticism, writing on subjects as diverse as byzantine art, caravaggio, daumier, rembrandt, impressionism, munch and, of course, el greco. although a member of the mánes association, filla was active in the formation of other avant-garde artistic groups, which eventually led to open conflict with mánes. the first was osma (the eight), which he helped found in , and which included other prominent exponents of czech cubism, including bohumil kubišta ( - ) and antonín procházka ( - ). later, in , he formed a successor group called the skupina výtvarných umělců (the group of fine artists). skupina also published its own journal, the umělecký měsíčník (art monthly) between and , and it is from the first volume of that journal that filla’s article on el greco is taken. the artists of skupina did not have a coherent ideology, and this is clear from the pages of the journal, which feature an eclectic range of articles on contemporary by czech and foreign authors, as well as essays on art history, literary reviews and poems. the choice of visual material in the journal was equally broad, ranging from contemporary art, architecture and design to old masters, african, pre-columbian and prehistoric art. for all its lack of coherence, this eclecticism revealed how the artists positioned themselves, as exponents of art as a global first published as ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. poznámky z grecovy výstavy v mnichově,’ umělecký měsíčník, . , - , - and - . a selection of filla’s essays, including that on el greco, is published in filla, o výtvarném umění, prague: karel brož, . matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ practice that transcended traditional spatial and temporal categories. it is this interest in the art of the past that makes filla’s essay of significance, for it reveals how a contemporary artist (as opposed to an art historian) made sense of history. naomi hume has recently suggested that the skupina artists were distinctive precisely in their concern with the history of art, and in this they were strongly informed by the vienna school. a close reading of filla’s article reveals obvious traces of vienna school thinking; the most striking is his repeated reference to the artistic will (vůle umělecká) which is a direct czech translation of riegl’s ‘kunstwollen’. filla’s interest, too, in how el greco treated spatial relations, bears more than a passing resemblance to riegl’s exploration of figure-ground relations in late roman art industry. it may seem improbable that a modernist painter writing in an avant-garde periodical would be familiar with a text on a hitherto marginalised art historical topic, but as hume argues, skupina artists do appear to have been readers of quite minor writings by vienna school authors, and work by riegl had already appeared in czech translation in other modernist publications; in the architectural journal styl had published portions of his essay on monument protection and pavel janák, later one of the leading representatives of cubist architecture in prague, had also published an article in the same issue advocating the adoption of riegl’s ideas in the treatment of the historic district of malá straná in the city. finally, one of the leading interpreters and advocates of cubism in prague, vincenc kramář, who amassed a significant private collection of works by picasso and braque, had been a student of franz wickhoff and worked as an assistant for max dvořák. riegl also shaped emil filla indirectly through the mediations of wilhelm worringer. with its sweeping speculative judgements about aesthetic experience, ‘primitive’ culture and its assertions about the psychological functions of art, worringer’s abstraction and empathy represented a significant departure from riegl, whose theoretical tenets were always developed as a means of analysing specific works of art. nevertheless, worringer clearly saw himself as the heir to riegl, and some of the latter’s work, most notably, the incomplete book manuscript historical grammar of the visual arts as well as some of his shorter essays, engage in a similar kind of broad historical and philosophical speculation. hence, filla’s opening assertions that ‘the grounds of every formal change can be sought in a change of worldview and conception of nature,’ or his claim that ‘to understand the specific forms of [the will to art] and the formal expression of a particular artistic era means detecting the worldview of the age concerned, penetrating it, projecting oneself into its spirit’ resonate with the ideas of worringer and, through him, riegl. naomi hume, ‘avant-garde anachronisms: prague’s group of fine artists and viennese art theory’, slavic studies. . ( ) - . pavel janák, ‘moderní regulace a regulace malé strany’, styl: měsíčník pro architekturu, umělecké řemeslo a úpravu měst . ( ): – on kramář see vojtěch lahoda and olga uhrová, vincenc kramář: from old masters to picasso. prague: national gallery, , and jana claverie, vincenc kramar : un théoricien et collectionneur du cubisme à prague, paris: rmn, . alois riegl, historical grammar of the visual arts, translated by benjamin binstock, new york: zone books, . matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ filla’s essay was prompted by an exhibition in munich of works from the collection of the hungarian aristocrat marczell von nemes, but his text has to be viewed in the context of the wider rediscovery of the painter’s work. although there had been a modest literature on el greco in the nineteenth century, he had been a largely marginal figure, often dismissed as incomprehensible or worse. as late as carl justi had diagnosed his later works as an example of ‘pathological disturbance.’ from , however, when the madrid based art historian manuel bartolomé cossío published a biography of the artist, he enjoyed an astonishing change in critical fortunes. it was julius meier-graefe’s spanish journey of , however, that played the decisive role in bringing him to the attention to a central european readership. meier-graefe saw him as a precursor of impressionism and hence as an ancestor of modern art. given his role as a prominent supporter of modernism, his re-reading of el greco almost guaranteed that the artist would be of interest to contemporary practitioners and hence el greco became a central figure for modern artists. it is in this context that we have to consider filla’s decision to write about him. his essay engages directly with ongoing debates about el greco; it dismisses, for example, the idea that el greco’s work was a pathological symptom or the result of an astigmatism. meier-graefe may have linked el greco with impressionism, but filla distances himself from this reading. instead, it is cubism that provides the points of reference. his assertion, for example, that el greco ‘does not seek to offer a single passing view of an object but would prefer to depict it from all sides at once’ is a clear projection of his own artistic concerns onto the past and reflects the emerging consensus about the significance of cubist painting. filla was not the only czech critic to turn to el greco. indeed, his essay was not even the only article on the subject in that issue of the umělecký měsíčník; it also contained an essay by the historian josef borovička that consisted of a rather more pedestrian account of the painter. undoubtedly the best known czech commentator on el greco, however, was max dvořák, whose essay on ‘el greco and mannerism’ has been widely credited as rehabilitating him and allotting him a place in the history of art. we now know, however, that dvořák was building on a critical consensus that had been building up for a decade before he addressed the subject. there are notable parallels between the accounts of dvořák and filla. both stress the spiritual qualities of el greco’s work and for both, too, this is the symptom of a deeper characteristic of modernity. considering the chronology of their two essays one might speculate that filla’s essay may have been source for dvořák’s manuel bartolomé cossío, el greco, madrid: victoriano suárez, . for an account of the art historical literature on el greco during the nineteenth century see eric storm, ‘julius meier-graefe, el greco and the rise of modernism’, mitteilungen der carl justi-vereinigung, ( ): - . carl justi, diego velazquez und sein jahrhundert. bonn, nd rev. ed: m. cohen, , xxv. julius meier-graefe, spanische reise, berlin: fischer, the modernist reception of el greco was the subject of a major exhibition in düsseldorf in , el greco und die moderne. see beat wismer and michael scholz-hänsel, eds, el greco und die moderne, ostfildern: hatje cantz, . josef borovička, ‘el greco: dojmy ze Španělska,’ umělecký měsíčník, , - , - . max dvořák, ‘Über greco und den manierismus,’ in dvořák, kunstgeschichte als geistesgeschichte, munich: piper, , - . see matthew rampley, ‘max dvořák: art history and the crisis of modernity', art history, . , - . matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ interpretation. there is no direct evidence that the latter read filla, but the similarities are striking, and given that dvořák both remained in contact with colleagues in prague and also showed a keen interest in contemporary art, it is not an improbable conjecture. indeed, filla’s essay potentially casts new light on dvořák’s engagement with contemporary art, which is usually cited in connection with the latter’s short discussion of oskar kokoschka. dvořák was deeply concerned with the connections between contemporary art and the work of the old masters. as hans aurenhammer has indicated, this was initially centred on the reading of tintoretto as the ancestor of impressionism, with clear similarities to the ideas of meier-graefe. later, however, dvořák equated modernism with expressionism. on the one hand this reflected his efforts at catching up with current artistic developments: impressionism was, after all, a historical relic by . on the other, it may be the result of the influence of writers such as filla, who moved beyond meier-graefe’s reading of el greco. sources may come to light that provide a more definite answer. at the very least, filla’s essay shows the complex web that bound together artists and art historians in early twentieth-century prague, and the close intellectual links between prague and the vienna school. matthew rampley is chair of art history at the university of birmingham. recent publications include: the vienna school of art history: empire and the politics of scholarship - ( ); art history and visual studies in europe (co-edited, ); heritage, ideology and identity in central and eastern europe (edited, ). he is currently working on a critical study of museums as instruments of cultural policy in late nineteenth-century austria-hungary. m.j.rampley@bham.ac.uk max dvořák, ‘vorwort’ to oskar kokoschka. variationen über ein thema ( ). reprinted in hans maria wingler and friedrich welz, eds, oskar kokoschka. das druckgraphische wer,. salzburg: galerie welz, , - . hans aurenhammer, ‘max dvořák, tintoretto und die moderne: kunstgeschichte "vom standpunkt unserer kunstentwicklung" betrachtet’, wiener jahrbuch für kunstgeschichte, ( ): - and - . journal of art historiography number june emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco’ the discovery of el greco would never have achieved such wide-ranging significance for contemporary cultural life, and would never have prompted such joy as well as bafflement, if it had been restricted to the world of art history, for which it has the value of a new document or experimental object, like the discoveries of schliemann or the manchu finds of pelliot. for the appearance of el greco has gripped our age much more forcefully; it threw up in the air once more a whirlwind of hidden or obscure issues, and our age saw a part of its ideals in him, as well as answers. for the work of el greco touches the essential bases of artistic creation for the current generation; their interest in him, bound up with a certain love for him, has made it easier to determine the character of the path of our evolution, and it shows how far removed we have become from our yesterday, and where we are going. in the past every specific artistic will [vůle umělecká] had its god or beloved figure, a related school or stylistic current that echoed its own worldview and embodied new technical needs. to understand the specific forms of that will and the formal expression of a particular artistic era means detecting the worldview of the age concerned, penetrating it, projecting oneself into its spirit, in other words, becoming conscious of the relationship of the individual of the time to the external world, identifying with his philosophy of life. it is through this entire philosophy of life that one is able to understand the individual object, whether by means of the immediate intuition of optical perception, or by means of the synthesis of a multiplicity of similar phenomena into individual basic types, or by the transformation of phenomena into specific, conventional symbols or signs, or, ultimately, by seeing nature merely as the imperfect image of the original ideal world. on the other hand, this philosophy shapes a specific formal drive, creates its essential formal unity and dictates its grammar of forms. the grounds of every formal change can be sought in a change of worldview and conception of nature. the art of a defined epoch does not only decline due to internal decay, in other words, due to an incongruence of content and form, an excess of content over form; it also falls to pieces in the sense that an alien culture and worldview stream in and penetrate a particular generation. these can either intermingle, and create a new formation, or the alien culture can become sovereign and rule over the entirety of artistic production or, for a period, it can kill off any artistic production that arises. if, therefore, el greco is not merely an archaeological discovery but, far more, is at the centre of our interests, the magnet and patron for our artistic ambitions, then a certain change in our worldview would be necessary for a change in our ideals. there is no need to keep it secret that the worldview as it appeared in the period of naturalism and impressionism underwent numerous transformations, and that there are all kinds of signs of a new shared effort, already showing positive results, to go beyond mere negation of and opposition to the past. at the same time, however, it should be pointed out that the case of el greco does not always mirror their preconceptions. matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ certainly, the impressionists, especially bonnard but cézanne most of all, pointed the way to el greco, and at first sight there is a certain similarity and unity between them. the point of convergence is provided by colour and the logic of its application, as well as a particular kind of manual technique. yet only cézanne, with his constructivist efforts – precisely the quality that set him apart from impressionism – shows closer affinities to him. if someone were to try to adopt el greco as the true originator of rendering, manual handling of paint and of their consequent effects, which could have had the widest range of causes, we must pursue this comparison consistently, and lay out his basic characteristic features, which, from the standpoint of the optical truth of impressionism, appear as irregularities and distortions. we ought to explain his bizarre proportions and the rigid nature of his entire composition. finally, we would have to descend down to deeper spiritual domains, in order to find the connection between, indeed, the identity of, the genre-like reportage and improvisional directness of impressionism on the one hand, and the constructive precision, psychological expression and inner drama of el greco on the other. from a purely technical point of view, impressionism is completely encompassed by el greco, but this does not explain him, even if it constitutes an essential part of him. to cite el greco, whose work involved, in essence, the organic intermeshing of everything, and to explain this or that by reference to el greco, and just as inappropriate and dangerous as citing the dramas of william shakespeare. for one can find every dramatic tendency, every problem and every offshoot of dramatic art in shakespeare. such universal geniuses only confirm once more that they are exceptional, that they stand apart from the general run of art, and above or outside of individual trends and currents. when we try to determine more closely the nature of our present age the preference for el greco is characteristic. it is typical for this time, which, with its fluctuations and its ambiguities, has yet to be articulated and remains chaotic, that it should not reach for an essentially more straightforward and less complicated master or artwork, and that it should have become fascinated precisely by el greco, an indeterminate and complicated phenomenon even in his own time, who most corresponds to its formal drive. at a time when we attempt everything afresh, and are merely prospecting for a distinct and clear goal, el greco is merely a kind of index of all possibilities. it will be decided in the future which pole this striving, driven by necessity, will decide for, what it will look for and what it will pass over. el greco represents a transitional point of view, and it is certain that when we decide for one of the basic sides of his work, we shall have to leave him behind as a whole, in order to dedicate ourselves to one particular side or tendency. this relationship to el greco will then be only a partial one, and will perhaps be more distant than that today. it is precisely because such universality is tied up with the individual, and can therefore not become a general programme, and is the sign of the creative individual, that any yearning for such a universality is ruled out in our age. universality especially never gravitates towards complexity but rather holds to the greatest simplicity and purity. the fact that our age does not wish to accept all of el greco, but only considers parts of his production, overlooks others and only accepts what it needs, is evidence that it does not yearn for this universality at all. it interprets the matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ remainder, which leaves it at a loss, as a matter of individual caprice, as madness or as personal mysticism. indeed, last of all, it has recently drawn on a pathological explanation, the astigmatism of his eyes. if we deny these aspects of el greco, which are an essential part of his artistic quality, this reveals a lack of understanding of the logic of his representation of art, quite apart, for the moment, from considering the psychological aspect of his experience. up until now our age has found quite inessential technical analogies in el greco. for the moment the discovery of el greco is just the discovery of his technique. however, el greco’s work is higher, more synthetic and more polyphonic, for alongside the cult of the eye and the technical effects the immeasurable content of his spiritual expression should also be brought into account. for it contains hidden within it the power of suggestion, a secret that characterizes all those masters who do not remain attached to the surface of things but who penetrate deep into the essence of the ‘thing-in-itself.’ el greco typifies the modern age in that he is completely timeless, and in a deeper sense, moreover, than tintoretto, whose personality means that he stands beyond the usual comparisons, but whose work, in common with other masters, shows all the stylistic traits of his time. el greco’s year of birth is usually stated as or ; he was thus the same age as francesco bassano the younger. he was a student of titian, stayed in rome for a while, and lived in spain from until his death in . he was originally greek. as a foreigner, not only did he have no connection to any particular current, he also played no part in the development of a particular tradition. he lacked the proud commitment to a school of his own and, last of all, he was free of the partisan hostility and jealousy towards the propensities of other schools. in this regard his freedom was greater than that of italian artists in that, as a foreigner, he was not enmeshed in the problems of his time, and could therefore dedicate himself to the study of ancient art with naïve and unconstrained interest. this was how he understood the laws, the variable logic and possibilities of contemporary as well as older art. when he was born michelangelo was already working on st. peter’s cathedral. during his age the sensibility of the baroque penetrated and governed the whole of life in all directions. but it was issues in rome in particular that absorbed all artistic interest. even titian was shaken by them in a powerful way. in a copy of the ancient laocöon made its way into titian’s house. for a while he then left behind the idyllic reverie, the calm measure, and serious lyrical disposition that he and venetian tradition had made their own, in order to dedicate himself to new problems. on the whole he resisted these new kinds of impulses, because he felt all too well the conflict between his inner character and the violent, pathetic rhythm that was bound up to this new striving. nevertheless, as if both troubled and wanting to prove to himself that he could master these new problems, he painted the resurrection (in the year ), the martyrdom of st. peter, the sacrifice of abraham, cain and abel, david and goliath. within his production as a whole, these pictures are isolated with their passionate gestures, the vivacious but, at the same time, constrained movement of heavy plastic masses, and their violent contortions of the bodies around their axis. el greco entered into this upheaval, this new baroque struggle and was witness to the glorious results of michelangelo and tintoretto. although history tells us that he was a student of titian, the latter did not have as matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ much influence on his earliest works as tintoretto and michelangelo. the new impulse was embodied more clearly and with more conviction in the works of tintoretto, he was more explosive and modern. in comparison with his later works, those of el greco’s first period clearly betray venetian tradition and their baroque character. this is especially the case with the ascension of the virgin mary, the dresden healing of the blind, the adoration of the magi in vienna and the dying christ in the arms of god the father although as in the disrobing of christ each of them cautiously reveals a quality that runs contrary to the baroque. if we just characterize the baroque in terms of its tectonics and configuration of masses, we can see that mass is preponderant in the baroque. while the renaissance signified a balance between support and entablature, in the baroque the entablature is preponderant. the works of michelangelo and tintoretto always have a calm and broad ground plane, all the essentials strive towards the dominant centre; the upper part of the picture is articulated horizontally, and weighs down on the masses below, which, as if driven by passionate movements, swaying around their own axis, are trying to release themselves from their burden and to be relieved of their own weight. in el greco’s paintings from the later period the only thing that remains of all that is the passionate movement. this is not, however, the expression of resistance or of the will to overcome. rather, it is a sudden, light, floating movement, a verticality held aloft by nothing. in the ascension of the virgin el greco preserves the overall layout of titian’s painting of the same name. the composition is conceived centripetally, the masses are distributed horizontally, surface breadth is preponderant as are contrasts between values, and the roundness of the plastic masses gives them a block-like character. in the crucifixion, an image from the later period with a similar motif, this heavy stable grounding is absent, the entire picture, from top to bottom is a single stream coursing upwards; the movement is without violence and is, as it were, released from the bondage of gravity. the centre is compressed between the vertical masses on either side, and is wedged in as in his laocöon. in its proportions the format of the picture is narrowed down and lengthened, round forms give way to sharply angular well defined lines; plastic masses are composed of deep sharp gashes, the breadth of the planes is constricted, to the point where the entire image looks as if it is made up of narrow light and dark strips. all these peculiarities and features, which are typical for the creation of el greco, and which run counter to the sensibilities of the baroque, seem to have been taken directly from gothic. it will always remain undecided, whether he was obeying his innermost self, when he created a link between baroque and gothic, or whether he was led onto this path by external factors, the gothic cathedrals of spain, which at that time kept the spirit of the gothic fully alive. this transformation, so characteristic for el greco, is visible in the paintings of the final period, and it seems that it can be dated to the burial of count of orgaz. in this picture only the upper half, depicting the arrival of the deceased among the heavenly throng, shows nearly all the characteristics of his later painting. the lower portion, however, bears all the signs of both italian and spanish tradition. contemporaries only liked the lower half, and from that point onwards el greco matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ became detached from general understanding, so that this painting represents a division in his life similar to the nightwatch in rembrandt’s life. in the upper part of the burial of count of orgaz all feeling of weight and substance has vanished, the movement is light, full of tension, the horizontal orientation of its motion has been transformed into a diagonal upward direction. it is as if from this time onwards el greco had transferred the entire visible world and every real object across to a realm in which materiality had become spirit, aether and light, a realm in which movement if liberated and every kind of corporeality is replaced by a fluid and illuminated by an inner light, where one material penetrates another, without encountering resistance, and where only reconciliation rules. on this path el greco increasingly distanced himself from baroque conceptions, or at least from its basic characteristic. he was no longer in accordance with the baroque world view and remained isolated, cut off, taking no part in the development of the style as a whole, the mainstream of which continued in its original direction. thus el greco was exceptional for his time and was timeless. he could have no successors, and therefore could not be compared with anyone, for only great masters of the same kind can be compared. from the burial of the count of orgaz onwards the pictures of el greco became flatter and more angular in comparison with his earlier paintings. in his later years he painted over and transformed many of the pictures of his earlier period. this change in the flatness is a striking characteristic of his later period. it is as if, in opposition to conventional practice of the venetians, he drew closer in his final works to byzantine and romanesque art, or to the art of the italian primitives. in order to understand this tendency towards flatness, which was typical for el greco, one has to be clear about the premise of all artistic creation: to give higher value to life, to transform its finitude into immortality, and to bring it closer to the infinite. there is no artwork that does not touch these eternal questions, and that is not also an answer to the question concerning the meaning of life, i.e. its purpose and value. the artist turns away from the immediacy of life, from its physical and material duration, continuation and prolongation, and towards artistic activity, the results of which are more certain and enduring, and in which his creative ideas are more fully condensed and concentrated. thus the artist approaches the boundaries of a deeper knowledge, and on this fateful path he brings about the pure sacrifice whereby he delivers his personality from constant transitoriness, constant nullity and constant futility. works of art are not only miraculous reactions of the drive to self- preservation, they are, further, the embodiment of the goals that humanity sets itself, depending on its worldview. they create higher values than those that the mere individual ego, lost in arbitrary space and temporally determined changeability, can bring forth. the artist does not seek to use his creative work to prolong his short life, to overcome transience, to pass beyond the unavoidable boundary of death. he seeks furthermore to transform all temporality and finitude into unchanging and eternal essentiality, and thereby to overcome his material being. like every organism, humans overcome temporal and spatial change by means of duration and methodical growth. the artist endows his work with qualities abstracted from of his essence: unity, cohesion, concentration, solidity, elasticity; he equips it with characteristics that defy change, and transfers to it the postulates of matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ our organic existence. together with the viewer he sees himself rapturously in his work, conscious of the higher value of his creation, his higher beauty and perfection. only the strict ascetic does not resort to art, indeed rejects every kind of activity. he is like someone who has turned away from life, who has negated his own vitality and devoted himself to forgetting life, and who regards it as impossible to overcome the eternal circle of life and is exhausted by the game of life, conscious that every prolongation of life only bears within it the anguished yearning for still further prolongation. when such a person decides, in spite of everything, to turn to artistic activity, his work does not have the qualities of the organic, of movement and the rhythm of life. rather, its origins seem to lie in the inorganic, and it expresses stability, solidification and quietude. these two artistic possibilities and this various gradations and methods (which emerge out of a yearning to overcome transience either through the strongest affirmation of life, dionysian ecstasy, or through euthanasia and the complete denial of vitality) thus appear to be the basic originary paths of artistic creation. when art is considered as a type of human activity that creates play and symbols, that provides us with monuments to our yearning for the absolute and the eternal, and which liberates us from our own finitude and dependence, the formal laws of creation are always the same. they always strive for the same goal. the different ways in which a work of art distinguishes itself from others is of less importance, and arises out of the variety of worldviews of the creators and, even more, the variety of elements to be used in the representation. the character of any artistic element is its capacity to create contrasts. it is only with the latter that we are able to describe objects well known to us and to summon up new representations of them. each element has an inherent logic. if someone limits themselves to conjuring up and giving form to visual and tactile objects using some element, we speak merely of a good painting or statue and so forth, even if they have used it to its logically correct conclusion. more is needed, however, for such a formation to become a work of art. we demand above all that the object that has been depicted should be purified of all superfluous and inessential components and that it should be torn away from the chance events of everyday life. the creator should either generalize the object (in other words, the object should only incorporate elements it has in common with similar kinds of object) or he should project himself intuitively into the object and fathom what are for him its determining, unique and indescribable features. thus the creator takes the object from out of the manifold and multiplicity, and stamps it with the mark of law and order, revalues its dependence on other chosen quantities and, inasmuch as he equips it with mathematical precision, makes it into an autonomous cosmos, into an organism liberated from any relation to time and place. in this way he creates a distance between this new self-sufficient unity and the world of change and transience. the artist achieves this effect on the path of abstraction. however it is not enough for the artist to see the final effect; above all he must be familiar with all the means, capacities and logic of the elements required for the representation and composition, elements that rigorously and mechanically bring about the intended matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ effect. a rigorous system is necessary for this, one that is predetermined by the view of life and the choice of elements. following this method, this final forge, the object achieves its final form, which has to be transformed, and which never coincides with optical and empirical intuition, since every artistic system stands at a remove from empirical naturalistic truth. if we view el greco’s disposition towards line and space on the basis of this assumption about artistic activity, his inclination appears not only to be an enrichment and extension of the means of expression; in addition we see that he uses line, along with other means, as a factor in the process of abstraction. it would be instructive if we compared changes in pictures from different periods with the same motifs. there are five, six or more of them, and they show an experimental character, pointing towards a soul thirsting for better, more perfect, things. the further one goes the more striking the intentional flatness becomes; the entire arrangement is folded out and swiveled into flat planes; the boundaries of the individual planes are drawn sharply and they are arranged, alongside or up against each other, according to the logic of the ground plane of the image. our present time, with its yearning for greater levels of abstraction and discipline, intuitively as well as formally, and with its reaction against naturalistic forms, led us to el greco, and to his inclination towards fixed closed compositions. it is his final pictures in particular that we prefer and to which we are closest; we intuit his intentions in them, and they illuminate the path we are to take next. perhaps our time seizes on flatness because it reduces everything to two dimensions and better mirrors the rigour of the composition, and because its system is more comprehensible and clearer. the flat space simply mirrors our own desire directly and more fully. yet it should at once be noted that flatness and line do not rule out space. on the contrary, they emphasize it as the most important requirement of representational art. however, they aim to achieve it by using their own qualities and logic. equally, line and surface do not imply rigidity, quietude, or the negation of life. el greco’s development aimed towards linearity, and in particular to its qualities of abstraction, but it would be a mistake to believe that el greco missed out the remaining elements, or denied and neglected them. he also exploited colour and value, and his genius rests on the fact that he knew how to master elements that were diametrically opposed to each other, knew how to co-ordinate them and to concentrate their contrasting effects positively with great force. el greco valued the potential of every element for abstraction; in other words, he would give an individual component, or part of it, an absolute value, with the others being put in a subordinate relation of dependence on it. with regard to the question of value, he would use a specific gradation or depth of tone as the basis on which the remaining values would be determined, and which would penetrate the whole image. however, he did not make use of focal points, or gradual transitions or bleeding, for otherwise this would conflict with the other elements. colour and line determine the values, which consist of keeping to fixed and sharp outlines and surfaces. as we have seen, in the course of el greco’s development these become like light and dark strips. in el greco light is tied up to linear forms; it do not create some focal point matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ illuminating the image, but rather flares up like flames or lightning. in the same way he determines one dominant colour and selects the others according to whether they fit into its scale. el greco’s entire expression searches for the movement of passion and for life aroused by pathos and drama, which is often intensified to the extremes of painful inflamed tension. consequently he uses full, absolute, contrasts and pushes them to the outer of limits of expressivity. the mechanics of movement bear in them powerful and violent expression, just as in michelangelo with his twists and curves; el greco intensifies the expression by leading and pushing the movement in straight, direct lines that turn in acute angles. in this regard in comparison with el greco the work of any painter suffers from being rigid and lifeless, and is more like a momentary snapshot or a stream frozen in mid-flow. the basis of this feeling of life lies not only in the methodical disposition of large masses or in the contrasting way they are arranged; el greco follows his system consistently through to the details. he uses several perspectives in order to fix the illusion of the object; he does not seek to offer a single passing view of an object but would prefer to depict it from all sides at once. by combining together views from different points and from different axes, he achieves an intensified sense of movement by giving the impression that one is seeing the object in a constant flow of movement. on the other hand, although he negates and destroys the fixed standpoint of the viewer, he objectifies the latter’s viewpoint to a heightened level, as if wanting to compel the viewer to forget themselves, to transplant themselves, as it were, into the artwork and become lost in it. something similar can be seen in the work of the primitives, where the perspective and the proportions of the figures and their surroundings are not governed by where the viewer is standing, but rather by the main object in the representation and the position and importance of the other objects in relation to it. the composition of el greco’s images, their essential constructive and architectonic nature, is predominantly bound up with the line. most of all it is the triangular arrangement, with which albertinelli was already familiar, and which started with raphael’s transfiguration, culminating in venetian painting. this triangular schema, in which the blunt end of the triangle is set against the foot of the image, can be clearly seen, indeed, almost felt, in jacopo da ponte bassano, who followed tintoretto in making full use of contrasting values, but especially in the work of francesco the younger. el greco changes this obtuse angle into an acute one, and lays one triangle against another, their arms, which become the real vehicles of the linear rhythm and drama, arranged alongside each other contrariwise. by means of this system he brings even the outermost pictorial elements into a closed unity, and impresses each part with the relation and law of the whole. el greco’s tendency to use planes and lines can lead one to suspect him of decorative aims. these words are used in our time to identify contentless works that merely stimulate the retina, and in which external beauty has no relation to its basic motifs. it should be made clear, however, that such decorative art does not arise out of lines and planes, and other formal means play an equally small causal role. rather, its nature is due to the conflicting and incoherent character of the work itself. whenever form does not well up at the same time as the idea, together with a matthew rampley (trans.) emil filla, ‘domenico theotocopuli el greco. notes from an exhibition of el greco in munich’ specific motif, as a result, it never matches the object represented, regardless of how magical and suggestive its effects may be. as a consequently the work is destined to fall apart into form and matter. however, matter has neither form nor quality, and is apathetic toward them, in other words, indifferent to movement and rest, it is without expression, indeterminate. in the case of such decorativity everything is the result of and arises out of the tectonics of its external form; nothing corresponds to or is a consequence of the internal logic of the motif, everything is independent of everything else, it collides with and violates its psychic value. the artist should not only learn to master laws mechanically and mathematically; above all he must also penetrate their psychic and symbolic expression, he must go down into the depths of their spiritual quality and their relation to inner feelings. this totality, this unified starting point, can be seen quite clearly in el greco’s work. the motif is never sacrificed for some a priori plan or system; it is also the determining basis of all plastic and constructive relationships and components of its logic course. and it is only through this unity that el greco achieves the miraculous beauty and incomparable expression in his paintings. abstracts delayed discovery or willful forgetting? the reception of polish classical modernism in america steven mansbach polish modern art was collected by leading figures within america's cul- tural vanguard. most prized the art's stylistic innovation; they were likely unaware of the ideological charge that animated modernism's makers. by the end of the s, numerous exhibitions of polish art had been mounted in the united states; however, few concentrated on strikingly in- novative works, preferring instead traditional themes, genres, and styles. nonetheless, poland's modernist efforts garnered popular success at the new york world's fair of . the modern art from other central and eastern european nations was actively promoted by its makers, who had immigrated to the united states. poland's modern art did not benefit from a similar presence, its modernists having mostly elected to remain in their native land. the paucity of polish artists in s america compro- mised their chance to exercise an influential role just as the united states was consolidating an international canon of modern art. avant-garde anachronisms: prague's group of fine artists and viennese art theory naomi h u m e the czech group of fine artists published their journal, umeleckymesicnik (art monthly, - ) to justify their abstraction and their interest in french cubism in response to criticism that denigrated their work as incomprehensible and foreign. in this article, naomi hume argues that the group's strategy was fundamentally at odds with how avant- gardes have been understood to operate in scholarship on modernism. rather than asserting a break with the past, the group applied new vi- ennese art historical approaches—particularly those of alois riegl, max dvorak, and vincenc kramar—to draw parallels between their work and prior art objects that departed from mimesis. they equated their radical style with what riegl called anachronisms in art's development, moments when an independent will to form emerges from the mainstream. by bringing french cubist ideas into dialogue with the inherent spirituality of their own national tradition, the group saw themselves as reinvigorat- ing czech art. the shattered self of komsomol civil war memoirs sean guillory the russian civil war was a fratricidal climax of seven years of war and revolution that fractured russian society. its traumatic effects on post- revolutionary life are beyond measure. in this article sean guillory ex- slavic review , no. (fall ) amines memoirs of komsomol civil war veterans to illuminate the ways the war shaped their sense of self. guillory argues that veterans' memoirs re- veal a shattering of the self where their efforts to narrate their experience as agents of war was overshadowed by their transformation on the batde- field into instinctual beings, imprisoned by emotions, senses, nerves, and muscles. guillory engages the scholarship on the soviet self and subjectiv- ity by calling attention to the ways trauma produces a "darker side" of the self, and in particular, how the body serves as a long-term depository for experiences of loss, disorientation, and deprivation. exile, gender, and communist self-fashioning: dolores ibarruri (la pasionaria) in the soviet union lisa a. kirschenbaum focusing on the soviet exile of the spanish communist and orator dolo- res ibarruri (la pasionaria), lisa a. kirschenbaum brings into dialogue two topics often treated in isolation: soviet subjectivities and the self- understandings of international communists. during the spanish civil war, the soviet media popularized ibarruri's performance of fierce com- munist motherhood. the article traces ibarruri's efforts in exile to main- tain and adapt this public identity by analyzing sources in two distinct registers, both of which blurred the boundaries between public and pri- vate selves: ibarruri's "official" correspondence and her interventions in party meetings. reading such sources as sites of self-fashioning, kirschen- baum argues that ibarruri was at once empowered and constrained by her self-presentation as the mother of the spanish exiles. ibarruri's case both internationalizes understandings of stalinist culture and suggests the pos- sibility of a history of international communism structured around the interconnected and diverse lives of individual communists. socialist senses: film and the creation of soviet subjectivity emma w i d d i s in this article, emma widdis suggests that a sensory history is a crucial counterpart to the recent emotional turn in russian and slavic scholar- ship on russian and slavic history and culture. in particular, the soviet revolutionary project was a unique attempt to create new models of hu- man experience to correspond to the new political order—an attempt to shape sensory experience itself. widdis suggests that the still-young me- dium of cinema was a privileged site for the investigation of new models of sensory perception, for the working out of the problematic relationship between the body, the mind, and the world that had such ideological po- tency in early soviet russia. linking close readings of little-known films from this period to a broader analysis of the discursive field within which they operated, widdis suggests that, in the period of transition between and , intensified sensory (and particularly tactile) experience emerged as a new and revolutionary mode of being in the world. deer in headlights: incompetence and weak authoritarianism after the cold war lucan a. way based on a detailed analysis of belarusian politics and the rise of aliaks- andar lukashenka in the early s, this article explores the sources, character, and impact of authoritarian incompetence and skill on re- gime outcomes after the cold war. one type of incompetence—deer in headlights—emerges out of the disorientation and persistence of older regime practices in the face of rapid political change. this type of incom- petence was one important but largely unrecognized source of political contestation in the former soviet union and other parts of the developing world in the early s. rapid change in the international environment that accompanied the collapse of the soviet union and the end of the cold war created novel demands that existing autocrats often did not know how to deal with—even when they had the structural resources to survive. the result was greater contestation and more incumbent turn- over than would have existed otherwise. building a test to assess creative and critical thinking simultaneously procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com wces- building a test to assess creative and critical thinking simultaneously chua yan piawa * ainstitute of principalship studies, university of malaya, level , block c, complex city campus um, jalan tun ismail, kuala lumpur received october , ; revised december , ; accepted january , abstract the malaysia education master plan - expresses the importance of critical and creative thinking, by stating that one of its major goals in producing first class human resources in malaysia is to arm the students with creative and critical thinking abilities. as a consequence, educational transformation has been initiated, and creative and critical thinking teaching and learning strategies have been implemented at the malaysian schools. therefore, it was anticipated that by the year , students under the new school system will exhibit higher levels of thinking styles, especially creative and critical thinking styles. an attempt was initiated to build an instrument to collect and provide data concerning the two thinking styles of the students. the instrument yanpiaw creative-critical thinking styles test or ycreative-criticals, consists of items, will be used to measure creative and critical thinking style of the students simultaneously. this article reports the building of the test and its validity and reliability construction. © elsevier ltd. keywords: thinking test; creative thinking; critical thinking; thinking style. . introduction creative and critical thinking are both essential for students in all aspects of educational studies. the malaysia education master plan - expressed the importance of both of the thinking, by stating that one of the goals of the education master plan in producing first class human resources in malaysia is to arm students with creative and critical thinking abilities (ministry of education malaysia, , p ). as a consequence, creative and critical thinking teaching and learning strategies have been implemented at the malaysian schools. school based and less exam oriented curriculum that emphasizes on all-round skills, focus on thinking skills, cognitive, psychomotor and affective development have been introduced into the schooling system (suresh, ). however, without knowing students’ thinking styles, it’s difficult for a teacher to provide teaching strategies and materials that best accommodate students’ learning and thinking styles. matching teaching style to learning and thinking styles will increase academic achievement and make the teaching and learning process an enjoyable experience (kitchens, barber & barber, ). therefore an attempt was initiated beginning to build an instrument to collect and provide data concerning the two thinking styles of the students. the instrument named * chua yan piaw. tel.: - ; fax: - e-mail address: chuayp@um.edu.my - © published by elsevier ltd. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – open access under cc by-nc-nd license. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – “yanpiaw creative-critical thinking styles test” or ycreative-criticals will be used to measure the creative and critical thinking style of the students simultaneously. . indicators of creative and critical thinking styles the items of the ycreative-criticals instrument were developed based on creative thinking and critical thinking theories and research evidences. creative thinking traits (which form the creative thinking style) were derived from three main perspectives: ( ) creative thinking as a person ( ) creative thinking as a product, and ( ) creative thinking as a process, based on research evidences that have been documented by scholars (maisel, ; weisberg, ; karwowski, ; clapham, ; simonton, ; schultz, tannenbaum & lauterborn, ; isaksen, dorval & treffinger, ; davis, ; khatena, ; besemer & o'quin, ; davis & rimm, ; torrance, ; plass, michael & michael, ; schaefer, ; wallas, ). for examples, the traits of the creative person have been studied and conceptualized at great length by a variety of researchers (maisel, ; simonton, ; davis, ; khatena, ; david and rimm, ; schaefer, ). the list of creative personality attributes they have identified includes such attitudes as imaginative, curiosity, openness, objectivity, flexibility, fluency, sensitiveness to sensory stimulation, humor, intellectual playfulness, indifference towards conformity, willingness to try new ideas, synthesizing skills, and an ability to work intensively for long periods of time. besides that, creative product could ultimately be judged by the levels of creative thinking presented in the product (karwowski, ; simonton, ; dacey, ; besemer & o'quin, ; taylor, ; gamble, ; lehman, ). it includes: ( ) expressive creative thinking, which is illustrated in brainstorming, ( ) productive creative thinking, which is judged by the number of products, ( ) inventive creative thinking, which couples efficiency and ingenuity with available materials and ideas, and ( ) innovative creative thinking, which rearranges the field as cubism in visual art (for instance, the esthetical values in pablo picasso’s cubism painting). in addition, the creative thinking process involves the ability to produce original ideas, to perceive new and unsuspected relationships, or to establish a unique and improved order among seemingly unrelated factors. in other words, creative thinking does not involve just one kind of behavior. the traits of creative process were documented in simonton ( ), downing ( ), dacey ( ), torrance ( ), mackinnon ( ), osborn ( ), guilford ( ), dewey ( ) and wallach ( ). on the other hand, the traits of critical thinking have also been described in various perspectives by scholars. for instances, beyer ( ) offered the simplest definition of critical thinking: "critical thinking means making reasoned judgments on statements, news ideas, arguments, research, etc". other scholars (paul & elder, ; giancarlo, blohm & urdan, ; silverman & smith, ; scriven & paul, ; angelo, ; rudinow & barry, ; wilson, ; primack, ; glaser, ; modjeski & michael, ) viewed critical thinking as the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. from the educational perspective, bloom ( ) stated that the process of critical thinking involves evaluation of ideas, solutions, arguments and evidences. in bloom’s taxonomy of higher thinking, the evaluation skill is the highest level of effective learning and thinking processes. besides that, writers such as facione ( ), ennis ( ), garrison ( ), henri ( ), missimer ( ), and watson & glaser ( ) have focused their attentions upon the requirements of formal logical systems of critical thinking. for examples, watson and glaser ( ) characterized critical thinking as a composite of attitudes, knowledge, and skills. the composites included the attitudes of inquiry that involved an ability to recognize the existing of problems and an acceptance of the general need for evidence in support of what is asserted to be true, the knowledge of the nature of valid inferences, abstractions, and generalizations in which the weight or accuracy of different kinds of evidence are logically determined, and the skills in employing and applying the above attitudes and knowledge. similarly, ennis ( ) identified twelve abilities of critical thinking. according to ennis, the twelve abilities indicate ways of avoiding making mistake in evaluating when selecting the only right answer. by using the terms “meaningful”, “clear”, “consistent”, “logical”, “precise”, “following rule”, “accurate”, “justified”, “relevant”, “assumption” and “true”, one can think more precisely and critically in the evaluation process of critical thinking. besides that, silverman & smiths ( ) and wade ( ) provided examples of critical thinking, involves the chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – abilities of asking question, defining problem, examining evidence, analyzing assumptions and biases, avoiding emotional reasoning, avoiding oversimplification, considering other interpretations, and tolerating ambiguity. . creative and critical thinking traits based on the theories and researches evidences documented by scholars, creative and critical thinking traits were identified and referred as the conceptual framework in building the ycreative-criticals test. the traits of creative thinking style included: generate unique ideas; produce ideas that other could not think of; shift from normal perspective to take a different point of view; view things other than normal ways; imaginative; aesthetic orientation; understand the beauty of art; potential for generating further ideas and changes; able to produce an abundance of ideas in a fixed time; the tendency to view a problem instantly from a variety of perspectives; do not get stuck by assuming the rules which do not apply to a problem; likely to bend the rules; need some breathing space for incubation in the middle of creative process; able to resist the tendency to leap to conclusion prematurely; able to keep open and to make the mental leap beyond the limit freely; able to capture the essence of a given information, to produce imaginative, abstract but appropriate title; able to communicate clearly and powerfully through storytelling; like to fantasize (fantasy provides an almost inexhaustible supply of analogies that useful in stating and solving problems creatively); like daydreaming and emotional; the tendency to combine two elements into one; the tendency to present and recognize idea or objects in unusual visual (other than static, upright, straight on view, the usual and common perspective given by the majority of people); able to visualize beyond exteriors and pay extension to the internal, dynamic working of things; ability to extending and breaking the boundaries of the problem; and good sense of humor (humor is basically creative because it involves unusual and surprise). the critical thinking traits included: searching for meaningful, clear, consistent, logical, precise, accurate, justify, relevant and true in every things; avoid making mistake; follow some rules and criteria in the thinking process; think more precisely and critically in the process of thinking; avoid emotional reasoning; evaluate the degree of truth or false of things before making decision; like to evaluate the logic, validity, and the relevance of data; in evaluation of idea, believe that there is only one way of being right; evaluate carefully before any action taken; distinguish between observation and inference; trying to remain to the main points; respect clarity and precision; like to ask question: searching for the degree of truth; the ability of asking question, defining problem, examining evidence, analyzing assumptions and biases; always looking for the best way to solve a problem; good at reasoning; do not believe in illusion or magic; believe that things can’t change overnight; argumentative and like to criticize fact; high judgment skills; like to discuss about political issues; establish clear criteria for evaluating ideas, issues, or positions. . building the ycreative-criticals test concerning with developing an instrument for measuring human thinking, treffinger ( ) pointed out that there is no single, uniformly accepted theory of thinking, and there is also no single assessment instrument that is universally accepted, while starko ( ) stated that the use of a typical thinking instrument is depended on the need and the purpose of its developer, and varying theories and definitions of creative thinking will support differing types of assessment. according to some thinking test developers (torrance, ; watson-glaser, ; taylor & getzels, ), the general criteria for selecting specific thinking test are: ( ) it must have relevance to thinking theory, ( ) it must have relevance to creative and critical thinking behavior in the real world, ( ) it must simply a different aspect of thinking behavior, ( ) it must be attractive to the respondent, ( ) it must be built so that a person can respond in terms of his/her experiences whatever these may have been, ( ) it must yield data that can be scored reliably for meaningful aspects of thinking, and finally, ( ) the testing materials, instructions for administration, time limits, and scoring procedures must be clearly and relevantly stated. besides the criteria as have been mentioned above, the items of the ycreative-criticals test was built on the rationales that the both creative and critical thinking styles can be identified, quantified, and represented by scores (starko, ), both thinking styles are opposed to one another and they are not correlated (baker, rudd & pomeroy, ; toren, ), and both thinking styles are not incompatible. some scholars (for example: yang & lin, ; beyer, ) suggested that there was an overlapping between creative thinking and critical thinking in chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – certain traits (for examples: discerning imagining, visualizing, predicting, anticipating, recognizing cause and effect). hence, to increase the validity and reliability of the ycreative-criticals test, these overlapping traits were not included in the test. figure presents the scoring indicator of the ycreative-criticals test. figure : the scoring indicator of the ycreative-criticals test . reliability and validity of the ycreative-criticals test the items of the ycreative-criticals test were established on the rationale that both thinking styles can be identified, quantified, and represented by scores. in order for these assumptions to be met, the instrument used for measurement must meet the tests of validity and reliability (starko, ). . . reliability test-retest reliability of the ycreative-criticals was conducted in two studies. chua, komari, amirruddin and rorlinda ( ) tested students of a teacher training programme and retested the same students three months later on the ycreative-criticals. the product-moment reliability coefficients were . (total score), . (critical thinking style), and . (creative thinking style), all of them were at the level of significance p< . . the second test was conducted on form sixth students ( years old) from the seri serdang secondary school in a range of six months. the product-moment reliability coefficients were . (creative thinking style) and . (critical thinking style), both at the level of significance p< . . . . validity the validity of the ycreative-criticals test will be presented in terms of content, construct, concurrent and predictive validity. . . . content validity the items of the ycreative-criticals test were constructed by attempting to transform the theories and research findings regarding creative thinking and critical thinking into a multiple-choice test format, with each choice representing either a critical thinking style or a creative thinking style. the original test consisted of items, and six of them were deleted on the basis of item analysis data, leaving items. . . . construct validity chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – like content validity, construct validity asks whether the task on an instrument match generally accepted characteristics of the construct being measured. in determining construct validity, the test developer examines scores on instruments attempting to measure the same variable as well as scores on measures of different but related variables (starko, ). the construct validity study for the ycreative-criticals was conducted on a group of semester three students ( males and females), enrolled in a diploma in education programme at the special teacher training institute, kuala lumpur. the study identified correlation analyses between the ycreative-criticals test and two thinking skill instruments. the two instruments are: . the torrance test of creative thinking (ttct, torrance, ). the ttct test is the most well known creative thinking test. it has been translated and used in more than different languages (khatena, : ). it was used to obtain data of creative thinking skills of the subjects. it consisted of sub-tests: picture construction, picture completion and lines activity. these sub-tests were scored for five components of creative thinking based on torrance’s definition of creative thinking. the five components are ( ) fluency, ( ) originality, ( ) elaboration, ( ) abstractness of titles, and ( ) resistance to premature closure. . the watson-glaser critical thinking appraisal (wgcta, watson & glaser, ). the wgcta test is one of the most prominent critical thinking tests (fulton, ). it was used to obtain data about critical thinking skills of the subjects. it consisted of items. the items are scored for five components of critical thinking based on watson and glaser’ critical thinking definition. the five components of critical thinking are ( ) inference, ( ) recognition of assumptions, ( ) deduction, ( ) interpretation, and ( ) evaluation of arguments. it was hypothesised that if the instruments reliably measure similar thinking style, one would expect positive relationships, despite the different contents and responses required. from the data in the table , the results of the pearson correlations clearly indicated certain trends, i.e. the scores of creative thinking style of the ycreative- criticals test was correlated positively with the ttct index (r= . , p< . ) and its four components, on the other hand, the scores of critical thinking style of the ycreative-criticals was correlated positively with the wgcta index (r= . , p< . ) and its four components. table .correlations between the scores of the ycreative-criticals with the ttct and the wgcta tests yanpiaw creative-critical styles (ycreative-criticals)correlation creative thinking style critical thinking style torrance test of creative thinking (ttct) fluency . * - originality . ** -. elaboration . * -. * abstractness of titles . -. * resistance to premature closure . * -. creative thinking index . * -. watson-glaser critical thinking appraisal (wgcta) inference -. . ** recognition of assumptions . . deduction -. . ** interpretation -. * . * evaluation of arguments . . * critical thinking index -. . ** note: *p< . ; **p< . the results suggest that the ycreative-criticals reliably measure certain similar creative and critical thinking skills, as measured by the ttct and wgcta. however, the relative low correlation between the abstractness of titles score of the ttct and the creative thinking style score of the ycreative-criticals (r= . , p> . ) might suggests that the two tests assess different components of creative thinking via different test contents. similarly, the relative low correlation between the recognition of assumptions score of the wgcta and chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – the critical thinking style score of the ycreative-criticals (r= . , p> . ) suggests that the two tests measure different aspects of critical thinking. please note that the ycreative-criticals was used to measure thinking style, while the ttct and the wgcta were used to measure thinking skills of the respondents. . . . concurrent validity concurrent validity examines whether an instrument correlates with current measures. since the theories behind the items of the ycreative-criticals are related to thinking and learning style, it seemed reasonable to test its validity with other learning and thinking style instruments. in this case, according to the split brain theory which was derived from the split brain experiment evidences (sperry, ), creative, artistic and imaginative abilities are the functions of the right brain. on the other hand, verbal, language, along with logical and critical reasoning abilities are functions of the human left brain. the instruments are: . the styles of learning and thinking test (solat, torrance, ). the solat test (consists of items) was used to obtain data of the learning and thinking styles of the subjects. each item of the test provides the subject with two choices – one representing a specialised function of the left cerebral hemisphere, and the other representing a parallel specialised function of the right hemisphere. the subjects are asked to indicate which of the two specific brain learning styles best describes their own typical behaviours. . the yanpiaw brain style test (ybrains, chua, ). the ybrains test was used to obtain data of the brain styles of the subjects. it consists of items. each item of the test provides the subjects with two choices – one representing a specialised function of the left brain, and the other representing a parallel function of the right brain. the subjects were asked to indicate which of the two specific brain functions best described their own typical behaviours. the responses of the subjects are categorised into three brain styles based on a -point index: ( ) left brain style: . – . points; ( ) whole brain style: . – . points; and ( ) right brain style: . – . points. the results of the two concurrent validity studies are presented in table and table . the subjects of the first study were student teachers (average age = . years old) enrolled in a teacher training programme (table ), while the subjects of the second study were form five students ( years old) from the petaling jaya catholic secondary school and from four students ( years old) from the klang high school. both schools located at the selangor state (table ). as shown in table , the scores of creative thinking style of the ycreative-criticals are positively and significantly correlated with the right style of the solat (r= . , p< . ) and the ybrains (r= . , p< . ). on the other hand, the scores of critical thinking style of the ycreative-criticals are positively and significantly correlated with the left style of the solat (r= . , p< . ) and the ybrains (r= . , p< . ). the data in table indicated that the scores of the right brain style of the subjects were positively and significantly correlated with creative thinking style scores (form five students: r= . , p< . ; form four students: r= . , p< . ), while the left brain style of the subjects were positively and significantly correlated with critical thinking style scores (form five students: r= . , p< . ; form four students: r= . , p< . ). table . correlation between the scores of the ycreative-criticals and the scores of the solat and the ybrains chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – yanpiaw creative-critical styles (ycreative-criticals)correlation creative thinking style critical thinking style r r styles of learning and thinking (solat) left brain style -. . * right brain style . ** -. yanpiaw brain style (ybrains) left brain style -. . ** right brain style . ** -. * note: *: p< . ; **: p< . table . correlations between the scores of the ycreative-criticals and the scores of the ybrains yanpiaw creative-critical styles (ycreative-criticals)correlation creative thinking style critical thinking style r r r styles of learning and thinking (solat) form five students (n= ) left brain style -. . ** right brain style . * -. form four student (n= ) left brain style -. . ** right brain style . ** -. note: *: p< . ; **: p< . . . . predictive validity predictive validity examines whether scores on a measure predict its traits or performance at a later time. it asks not how a measure correlates with other measures today but how they may relate to activities tomorrow (starko, ). it seemed reasonable to predict that arts major subjects will score higher on the creative thinking style of the ycreative-criticals test. on the contrary, mathematics major subjects will score higher on the critical thinking style. table depicts the results of a predictive study. the subjects of the study were mathematics major and fine arts undergraduate students from a local university. the data in table indicate that the fine arts major subjects scored higher on the creative thinking style [mean score: creative thinking style, m= . ; critical thinking style, m = . ]. on the other hand, the mathematics major subjects scored higher on the critical thinking style [mean score: critical thinking style, m= . ; creative thinking style, m = . ]. the results justify the ability of the scores of the ycreative-criticals test in predicting thinking styles of the respondents. moreover, referring to the ycreative-criticals scoring indicator (figure ), mathematics major students possessed critical thinking style (score= . , i.e. in the range of . to . ) while on the other hand, the fine arts student demonstrated creative thinking style (score= . , i.e. in the range of . - . ). table . mean and standard deviation scores of the mathematics major and fine arts major on the ycreative-criticals test chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – mathematics major fine arts major ycreative-criticals m sd m sd critical thinking style . . . . creative thinking style . . . . ycreative-criticals score . . . . . conclusion the reliability and validity studies indicated the ability of the ycreative-criticals scores to represent the styles of creative thinking and critical thinking of its respondent. although the purpose of establishing this instrument was mainly for assessing the malaysian students’ thinking styles, the instrument could be used as an alternative measure to other thinking tests, in understand human behaviours from different perspectives. since human thinking is a universal behaviour, the usage of the test may not limited only to the malaysian secondary school students, however, reliability measures should be carried out before it could be used generally. since the test is limited to the age of sixteen and above, there is a need to develop two alternative forms of the ycreative-criticals test, for secondary lower and primary school students. references angelo, t. a. 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( ). the relationship among creative, critical thinking and thinking styles in taiwan high school students. journal of instructional psychology. , - . ejels janar .indd european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria vol. no. january, issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org from expressionism to kosovo`s abstract expressionism phd agnesa muharremi- kastrati professor at the faculty of arts, university of pristina, kosovo phd ilir muharremi professor at the faculty of education, university of pristina, kosovo abstract in this paper we have included the most essential characteristics of the historical developments of this artistic movement and the most remarkable names of the fi eld who have lived in kosovo. some artists such as abdurrahim buza, qamil grezda, kujtim buza, muslim mulliqi, tahir emra, nysret salihamixhiqi, rexhep ferri, xhevdet xhafa etc., of the old generation were inspired by this movement in the modern art in kosovo, which was also refl ected to their art works for a long time. in this paper we will write about the history of the beginning of the classical direction up to modern and conceptual art. many kosovo`s artists, such as muslim mulliqi, tahir emra, xhevdet xhafa, rexhep ferri, daut berisha, karmon fan ferri and some others from the new generation of the faculty of arts in prishtina for the fi rst time have transitet from their traditional elements (in their art works) to new concepts of modern contemporary art. thus, we thank the artists from the three generations that are involved in our topic “from expressionism to kosovo`s abstract expressionism”. through the presentation of their research work they have reached the concept of new movements that derive from the classic expressionism involved in european and world historiography starting from paris until the late sixties of abstract expressionism by the well-known american painter jackson pollock who tries to geometric expressionism, informel, pop art, and so on.. in this paper we have analyzed the most prominent names of kosovo`s art and kosovo`s paintings which are generally involved with this concept and until the last cycles of work they have remained faithful to the direction of expressionism. keywords: painter, sculptor, directions (pictorial movement), art works, artistic experiences, impressive and expressive refl ection. introduction vincent van ghog, henri de toulouse -lautrec, edvard munch and james ensor were artists that belonged to the expressionism period between - . vincent van ghog was the fi rst artist who expressed through the colour the passion of human drama or as he said “with red and green colors can express the most terrible human experiences”. the expressionism in kosovar art began from the xix century with the fi rst generation of fi gurative creators. this generation appeared immediately aft er the first world war with painter: abdurrahim buza, qamil grezda, shahin kryeziu. vol. no. january, european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org fig. -self portrait, by abdurrahim buza they were mostly inspired by the landscape of dukagjini, from the diffi cult economic and political situation and especially the position of albanians that degraded to the extreme. all of these worries were refl ected in their emotional souls and through colors they expressed the passion of human drama, centuries -old suff ering of the various invaders, especially the serbo-sllav. fig. -walking, by kadrush rama the fi rst trends of “modern elements” have started from this generation and were refl ected from realism, impressionism and post impressionism. abdurrahim buza and qamil grezda were both painters from gjakova and they painted motifs and expressive images with fl att ering colors. through the phenomenon of colors they tried to emphasize the symbolism and the deep psycho-sociological signifi cance. impressive and expressive directions in kosovo were very short period because in this country many albanian people began to leave their homeland from the serbian regimes. abdurrahim buza and qamil grezda, two famous albanian painters were sett led in the republic of albania and stayed there until the end of their lives. the art works of these two albanian famous artists were full of expressive lines and forms, pure colors which give us nostalgia nowadays. their creativity was never stopped even during the diffi cult moments of invasions. the fi rst art generations, who have studied in secondary art school in peja, were the fi rst artists in kosovo of expressive direction. this art school from / was the fi rst school of art in kosovo. some generations from this school continued education to art academies in europe and european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria vol. no. january, issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org former yugoslavia. when they fi nished their graduation, they returned in kosovo with great artistic experiences (and were inspired from european artist’s works). the fi rst painter of these generation was the muslim mulliqi and i mention other artists next to mulliqi: tahir emra, rexhep ferri, xhevdet xhafa, sculpture-agim cavdarbasha, nusret salihamixhiqi, kadrush rama, nebih muriqi, esat valla and many others. introduction the expressionis in kosovar art began from the xix century with the fi rst generation of fi gurative creators. this generation appeared immediately aft er the first world war with painters: abdurrahim buza, qamil grezda, shahin kryeziu. the art school from / was the fi rst school of art in kosovo. some generations from this school continued education to art academies in europe and former yugoslavia. when they fi nished their graduation, they returned in kosovo with great artistic experiences (and were inspired from european artist’s works). fig. -towers, by muslim mulliqi artistic directions such as: neoclassicism, realism, romanticism, impressionism and other in xx century –fauvism, expressionism, surrealism, cubism to postmodern art, were refl ected to albanian artists from kosovo. in this study we present the best artists from kosovo with their best art expressive works. the fi rst painter was muslim mulliqi with his works (social themes) until other art works themes “invasion of new fields”. all of his cycles (art works) contained expressive elements from dark colors to fi guration forms or many portraits with characters from the ethnic albanian lands. the fi rst composition cycle “sharraxhij ve” and “hamajve” expressed human drama, historical moments, sizifi an’s life where people for decades and centuries were subordinated, abused and enslaved. they also leave their country and sett le in the centers of former yugoslavia for the bett er life. all of this drama was expressed through their pictures (portraits especially through eyes) art works. the artist –muslim mulliqi with grey and red –blue colors represented expressive dramatic feelings. in addition to contentious content of psycho-social, characters (were painted) from his cycle (“hamajve”) has much dark colors with lights on their tired faces (tired from hard work) and psychological loads. the color for mulliqi became like a symbol of human destiny. the same way of paint were in other of his paintings –a cycle of towers: “towers from junik”, “halili and his family”, “halili in front of tower”, etc. vol. no. january, european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org these motifs became a source of inspiration for many other artists. towers have been a symbol of sustainability of existence, wars and a philosophy which has took a place inside their chambers where they were taken with important historical actions for the albanian people. the painter mulliqi at his cycle of art works calls- “invasion of new heavenly spaces “has used a light and expressive colors. i also noticed the expressive colors at the art works of painter-tahir emra, such as: “toka e kuqe (the red land), “homazh martireve (homage to the martyrs), “elegji per kosoven (oration for kosovo).the expressive elements expressed to the dukagjini landscape’s from “cabrati” to the “ carshia e madhe e gjakoves”. conclusions colors, motifs and many expressive elements were as symbol to express more painting in abstract and expressive style. artistic directions such as: neoclassicism, realism, romanticism, impressionism and other in xx century –fauvism, expressionism, surrealism, cubism to postmodern art, were refl ected to albanian artists from kosovo. in this study we presented the best artists from kosovo with their best art expressive works. fig. - homage for martyrs, by tahir emra this painter in the later working showed other way of working (learned and took from his studies in belgrade). this kind of paint (this painting) in kosovo’s art aft er s brings expressionism vocation bett er than from s. this actuality brings for the fi rst time in kosovo and in albanian painting the informel (the pictorial movement- this artistic notion that was born of expressionism). the informel art was last until in paintings of tahir emra, until his new cycle called “elegji per kosoven”. at all of his art works, he has focused colors and some other elements, sands and sheets. xhevdet xhafa is the other painter who has treated the expressionism, abstract –expressionism to some way of informel art at his art works. xhafa has his art work called “autobiografi a (autobiography), in this work he applies two fi gurative elements: form and color, and in many other ways the light element features the compositional plasticity through objects and these objects has transposed into compositions. so, beyond the contentious part of his works, xhafa the fi gurative expression presents european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria vol. no. january, issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org also through his fl att ering colors and he enters among modern albanian creators and his art works belongs in the direction of abstract expressionism. agim cavdarbasha is the best albanian sculpture of contemporary art in kosovo, who has been a creator in the fi eld of sculpture since the young age. many of his sculptures such as: “portraits pieta”, “kafazi (cage)”, “sofra (eating table)”, and some of his new later sculptures in bronze and marble have expressive and abstract elements where he has expressed the aesthetic concept of the forms and he has transformed into symbolic meaning. so many authors from kosovo have a lot of art works with expressive and abstract direction with geometrical and object ways to pop art direction. in this study we focus and analyze to the best artists, painters, sculptures from kosovo, who have been constantly dealing with this concept of expressionism until their last art works in other directions. at some creators we have focused in to their works in details and more analyzing by mentioning the development way of this artistic direction. references phd, hivzi muharremi “metamorfozat e gjuhes fi gurative (the metamorphosis of the fi gurative language)“ ,rilindja, prishtina, kosovo . karin h.grime “impresionizam” knjizara vulkan (bookshop vulkan), taschen . pjer frankastel “impresionizam” edition umetnost i oblik,metaphysica, izdavacka kuca (bookstore) intepretor veljko nikitovic, srbij a . stephen polcari “abstract expressionism and the modern experiences”, cambridge university press . robert l.herbert “impressionism: art, leisure and parisien society”, yale university press, . life imaginaries in gaseous societies arena of becoming life imaginaries in gaseous societies maría noel lapoujade , received: january /accepted: march / published online: april # the author(s) abstract the central topic of the present study is the analysis of human relations in present-day societies, which i conceive as “gaseous societies.” i carry out the analysis based on my philosophical perspective that consists in an anthropological-social philosophy of imagination, images and imaginaries, which i have expressed in all my publications since . present-day societies manifest themselves as “gaseous societies,” dominated by vio- lence, hatred, war, xenophobia, and generalized human and planetary destruction. to a large extent, these anti-human and irrational behaviors of the species that defines themselves as “rational” and “human,” were foreshadowed and propelled by the imaginaries nurtured by those characteristics: imaginaries of violence, hatred, war, xenophobia, destructive, and pred- atory. they, in turn, are produced by the imagination in its dimension of creative destructive- ness, imaginaries that are oriented towards death in every respect. i claim that it is a matter of the unhealthy functioning of the imagination: its images and its imaginaries. the analysis is carried out by means of an interdisciplinary approach that threads together philosophy, physics, and art. the paper proposes a possible alternative path towards the healing of the species that has become preponderantly the annihilating agent of the planet, of nature: animals, plants, water, air, society, and the species itself. i propose an exit towards the light, an exit towards a dignified and free life. keywords imagination . imaginaries . becoming . interdisciplinary philosophy. “gaseous” relationships three millennia ago: becoming i affirm “becoming” as the interval between what “is no longer this” and what “is not yet that,” in other words, the movement of transit, the passage from a state a, to a state b; what is no human arenas ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - * maría noel lapoujade maria.noel.lapoujade@gmail.com universidad nacional autónoma de méxico, unam, mexico city, mexico ciudad universitaria, mexico city, mexico http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:maria.noel.lapoujade@gmail.com longer a, but is not yet b. becoming does not necessarily mean “evolution” or progress: it could also be an entropic becoming, an involution, or a regression. approximately three thousand years ago, in china, one of the books that still guides a considerable part of humanity is the book of universal becoming, called the book of mutations or changes (i ching). in greece, the pre-socratic thinkers were the bridges through which oriental wisdom was passed on, albeit transmuted, to the western world, heraclitus among them. they adopted “becoming,” processes, changes as the only element that remains in the cosmos, therefore, in the human species. since ancestral times in the history of humanity, becoming is orderly, serene, with sporadic intervals of rhythmic alterations, catastrophes and revolutions, equilibrium disruptions, trans- gressions of the cosmic law, or of human institutional legalities. all alterations in the cosmic rhythm of a beautiful mathematical precision are critical periods in different senses, scopes, and fields. specifically, in the realm of philosophy, these alterations constitute the crises of philosophy. nevertheless, these crises are normal aspects of the process of becoming of philosophy: the flow of human thought throughout history. the metaphor of the flux, the heraclitean “everything flows” corresponds to his metaphor of the water: “we bathe and we do not bathe in the same river,” a metaphor that is still as vivid today as it was in the th bc century (héraclite ). the process of becoming, the flow of the totality in which we dwell, with its catastrophes and its crises, and therefore, with the crises of philosophy itself, have led me to claim, in many of my papers, that crises are inherent to philosophy, they constitute its life and soul. since , i have posited the thesis that philosophy is either in a liquid state or nothing at all (lapoujade , , , a). th century. inflection in becoming: speed the speed generated by the human species has introduced a radical inflection in the process of becoming. in the early th century, the avant-garde art movements collected in its diverse forms the ruptures of speed conceived and experienced until then, and the emergence of a growth in human possibilities to produce mobiles at new higher speed levels. futurism, in marinetti’s the futurist manifesto ( ) incorporates “the beauty of speed” to its artistic proposals. in its dada manifiesto, tristán tzara ( ) insists on the ephemeral, destruction, and anti-values. cubism teaches us new forms of visual perception, which turn successive percep- tions into simultaneous ones, something that involves making invisible facets of physical bodies become visible, etc. (lapoujade ). in the late s, artists and thinkers gathered in their works the fragments of cultures that have exploded. thus, emerged the so-called postmodern thinkers, such as jean-françois lyotard, gianni vattimo, and among others. in the realm of philosophy, gilles deleuze stands out as a thinker, who is sensitive to differences, singularities, diversity, as well as to the process of becoming. he insists in the m. n.lapoujade, homo imaginans (vol i), auroras de la imaginación en algunas perspectivas estéticas contemporáneas i (p. ) and auroras de la imaginación en algunas perspectivas estéticas contemporáneas ii (p. ). in these studies, i analyze the manifestos and other texts of the artistic avant-gardes of the th century: cubismo, dadaism, surrealism, etc lapoujade plural forms that denote with higher precision what happens in the world, and what happens to us; he transmutes becoming into becomings. in the realm of knowledge, in the realm of thought, he reflects upon the cartesian metaphor of the tree of knowledge. in his time, he observes that what is ever-changing, multiple and diverse, leads us to introduce a new concept, a new metaphor that depicts more adequately our current landscape: the rhizome, which grows in a disorderly fashion, spreads into all spaces rootlessly and lightly, with its invasive multiplicity and diversity (deleuze ). i argue for the idea of a current trend of thought in spite of the noticeable differences in the views of the protagonists; they share some significant aspects in their analyses of life in our times. from their own diverse perspectives, we can mention milan kundera, a writer who offered his work on the unbearable lightness of being ( ); gilles lipovetsky, who dealt with fashion in the ephemeral era ( ); and paul virilio, who contributed with his work the aesthetics of disappearance ( ). within the limits of this article, i pause briefly to consider the thought of zygmunt bauman, who in emerges in the field of sociology as a spokesman for the concept of liquid becoming: a notion that is expressed through the metaphor of the liquid state. his thought focuses on “liquid modernity” and “liquid love”: in order to analyze the transience, the changes, the instability of social and human relations in our days. i found that in bauman ( ) is used the same metaphor of a “liquid state” that i had introduced in . bauman works with conceptual generalizations that he applies to social realities in the historical moments that he focuses on. thus, he considers that “modernity” met with the previous “solids” in an advanced state of disintegration. then, he claims that “modernity” is ready to build new “solids,” which are resistant, durable, and “unbreakable.” in liquid modernity, he argues that the old cells were replaced by new cells that power relations have designed for individuals in society. they are proposals of fixed orders and social frameworks. in modernity, individuals had to “find the appropriate niche” in which to develop their lives (bauman , ). towards the end of the s, we find the expressions that posit “the end of history,” “the end of modernity,” as well as the vindication of the nietzschean expression “the death of god,” which turned into a slogan. those are the visible symptoms of an explosion that broke into thousand pieces: the sociocultural order of modernity. this movement constitutes the so-called postmodernity, which is in clear decline at present. bauman argues that in postmo- dernity, “power has become extraterritorial.” the distinction between “near” and “far“ or between civilized and wild is “the end of the era of mutual commitment” (bauman , ). in his conversations with zygmunt bauman ( ), keith tester observes that by the end of the s, there was already a distancing move away from the concepts of postmodernity in social thought. based on this, he asks bauman how the notion of liquid modernity can be situated in relation to postmodernity. bauman answers: yes, you have hit the nail on the head. for years, i have felt more and more uneasy with “postmodernity” as the “umbrella term” for the wide range of transformations marking the emergent society. i started the retreat when i came to the conclusion that the battle was lost” (bauman and tester , – ). i want to highlight the coincidence between my conception of philosophy, for which i have used the metaphor of a liquid state, and which i have upheld since , and the publication of bauman ( ), in which he develops his thought by means of the same metaphor. see also lapoujade ( a). life imaginaries in gaseous societies in my own writings, i have never agreed with postmodern thinkers, and the essays in which i analyze postmodernity in lyotard and in vattimo are eminently critical, because among other arguments, i consider that their thoughts constitute testimonies of the disintegration of societies, cultures, thought, and values; they are records that evince the threads of a torn social fabric. they do not proclaim their own constructive, creative proposals, solutions, and original proactive thoughts about the sociocultural ruins that they describe in their works (lapoujade ). i have argued that it is necessary for philosophy to move on, beyond postmodernity (lapoujade ). in this sense, bauman’s thought involves not only the description of this disintegration but a contribution that can be found in his work the art of life. life as a work of art ( ). what does its title mean? the author answers: “the proposition “life is a work of art” is not a postulate or an admonition (of the “try to make your life beautiful, harmonious, sensible and full of meaning, just as painters try to make their paintings, or musicians their compositions’ kind”), but a statement of fact. life can’t not be a work of art if this is a human life— the life of a being endowed with will and freedom of choice” (bauman , ). his work asserts that, even though the search for happiness is permanent in societies, in present-day consumption societies, happiness can be made equivalent to the purchase of goods. this determines that happiness becomes more distant the more we buy, in the face of the vertiginous profusion of new goods whose possession would guarantee its attainment (bauman , ). regarding my own work, i have extensively developed the topic of the consumer who is transmuted into a consumerist in present-day societies, a process that is favored and enhanced by the massive use of electronic communication media that pour into the networks the “emptying” of diverse social imaginaries, so as to inoculate imaginaries in which there is a promise of happiness no longer through the “obsolete” verb to be, but through the seductive and enslaving verb to have. thus, the individuals “become” what they “have.” this is a never ending race, with no reachable aim (lapoujade ). let us now return to bauman, the author states that recognition is sought through “labels, logos, and brands,” which has now been called “identity.” we are submerged in the “liquid” society. his work follows a path that is as random and disorderly as what he describes, a theoretical wandering through a very large number of thinkers from all times, areas, and historical dimensions, to verify the thesis of the uncommitted, fleeting, random, and “liquid” character of present-day human relations. nowadays, products and human relations that are “self-degradable” dominate life. bauman points out that present-day life for young people, as well as in the arts, takes place in the unrelated changes in the assemblage and breaking up of situations. i quote: “practicing the art of life, making one’s life a “work of art,” is equivalent in our liquid modern world to remain in a state of permanent transformation, to perpetually redefine and transform ourselves (or at least to keep trying) to become someone different, other than the person we have been until now” (bauman , ). i affirm that now it is essential to take one step further. it is my reply which i gave to g.vattimo, at a conference delivered at the universidad autónoma de méxico-iztapalapa. méxico. lapoujade st century. the explosion of becoming: gaseous state i claim that the st century is already showing signs in the most diverse orders that the process of becoming is experienced as the metaphor of a gas depicts it. becoming has become “gaseous.” the thesis that i posit is the following: nowadays, life and human relations have acquired the characteristics of gases. from the philosophical perspective, an already classic antecedent is the controversy bachelard-bergson. the duration is construed as the continuous becoming process of con- sciousness that reaches its culmination in henry bergson’s thought; it is challenged and refuted by the apologist of the instant, gaston bachelard. the monadism of instants, the infinite monadic ruptures of the continuum of time, both in the infinitely large, as well as in the infinitely small, has caused acceleration = e/t to increase in such a way that nowadays, with current technology, virtual reality has swallowed the “real” reality in the vertiginous passing of instants in their punctual spaces in our life. computer science has produced a reduction of the placid axial coordinates of space time: to its ultimate imaginary reduction of points and instants (lapoujade b). this fragmentation of spaces/times into instantaneous points in which our current life takes place, is characterized as gases, by quasi non-existent forces of attraction among particles, particles that are very far apart from each other, that is, with low density. the particles move at high speed and in all directions; they can travel long distances. gases have no fixed shape or volume as a consequence of the abovementioned characteristics of their particles; they diffuse and can mix with other gaseous, liquid, or solid substances. the same characteristics are the predominant attributes of our current societies and of interpersonal relations. in the beginnings of quantum physics, werner heisenberg established the so-called “inde- termination principle,” which introduces the relations of uncertainty in experimental situations. to sum up, indetermination in observation consists in the impossibility of observing at the same time, the position, the space, and the instant, the time in which we intend to observe the movement of the electron (heisenberg ). insofar as the broad transposition of the notion of physics into the corresponding philo- sophical metaphor is concerned, it is interesting to highlight in general terms that uncertainty, in whatever way it be understood, is an important factor in human relations at present, whether they involve work or romantic or associative relationships, especially in the younger age strata. it is important to emphasize that in current physics, nothing is passive or inert; instead, everything is in constant movement and in a continuous “cosmic dance” that takes place in the infinitely small world of atoms, nuclei, particles, as well as in the world of stars and galaxies. in the “infinitely small” as well as in the “infinitely large”—to paraphrase leibniz—nothing is inert. fritjof capra writes: “inside the vibrating atoms the electrons are bound to the atomic nuclei by electric forces (...). in the nuclei, finally, the protons and neutrons are pressed into a minute volume by the strong nuclear forces, and consequently race about at unimaginable velocities. modern physics, then, pictures matter not at all as passive and inert, but as being in a i have analyzed in some detail the works of both philosophers regarding this subject in lapoujade ( , ). paths of poetics. time, controversy bergson-bachelard around his antinomic theses: time is continuous: duration, evolution, h. bergson versus time is discontinuous: isolated instants, temporary monads, g. bachelard. life imaginaries in gaseous societies continuous dancing and vibrating motion whose rhythmic patterns are determined by the molecular, atomic and nuclear structures” (capra , ). this cosmic dynamism is found in microphysics as well as in astronomy. it would be total madness to think about our species as if it were located outside the margins of these worlds in which we dwell, but which dwell in us as well. in these fateful days of , the planet, the human species, and individuals share these characteristics that i will call—despite the absurd discredit of this notion—universal. in other words, we find evidence of the universality of the lack of cohesion or social dispersion, abrupt changes, vertiginous transformations in instantaneous movements in all directions, in individ- uals, dispersed particles without fixed form or volume, moving at high speeds. everything that resembles the mobile sculptures of alexander calder, each of which “contains” or more precisely “turns into” an endless succession of diverse, ephemeral, instantaneous, and high-speed sculptures, is an artistic embodiment of life today. the electronic media of communication are the suitable vehicles to express contemporary life. in short instants, we have access to the cosmos, to the world, to the countries, to lives, and to the intimacy of individuals. in this sense today, in , i radicalize my thesis, in which i assumed that philosophy is in a liquid state or it is nothing at all, alluding thus to its permanent crises as being inherent to its nature. today, i assert that at present, philosophy itself must spread as a gas, to go along with and adjust to the state of the world at present. based on the above description, on the observation of the state of the planet earth, the data of physics, and the observation of societies, cultures, and current events, i argue for my thesis thus: philosophy today must be presented as being in a gaseous state. if philosophy intends to think about and for the reality of its time, it is necessary to incorporate—into its traditional academic practice, which has developed throughout history, and which is vital to continue keeping alive—new methods, procedures, and horizons of reflection that the development of electronics enables, among other objectives, its online projection, which is essential in today’s philosophical endeavor. let us take one step further: the “gaseous” reality that constitutes the life of human relations today is presented in a scenario of blind barbarism. barbarism: ailing imaginaries of humanity in the dying planet earth the planet is exhausted and has been exploited up to its last reserves by this predatory species; nature has been violated and tortured by this species that proudly and irrationally likes to be called “rational.” humanity wanders diseased, in a “gaseous” state, suffering from blind hatreds and brutal destruction. it is the total outbreak of leibniz’s “pre-established harmony.” it is the world of planetary and human destruction that brought to the edge of its survival. we are facing the “gaseous” propagation of imaginaries at the service of the destruction of the planet, of the species in general, of peoples, of women and of children in particular, as well as of extermination, of all kinds of crimes and of a blind cruelty of human beings towards each other and towards animals. it is the empire of wars, hatred, and cruelty, and our death impulse (trieb) exercised with primitive brutality, without the slightest scruple of concealment, dis- simulation, or sophistication. the landscape is gloomy. lapoujade puzzled by the bewildering landscape humanity in his historical moment, albert einstein, towards the end of and early s sent a letter to sigmund freud to initiate a dialogue on the scourge of war and destruction. einstein states: “man has within him a lust for hatred and destruction. in normal times this passion exists in a latent state, it emerges only in unusual circumstances, but it is easy task to call it into play…” (einstein , ). in this regard, freud claims that there is within human beings a life instinct, embodied by what he calls eros, the instinct to live, to preserve life, to protect and propagate. but there is also a death impulse, instinct (trieb), thanatos, the instinct towards the annihilation of life. in freud’s reply to einstein, freud points out that thanatos turns into an instinct of destruction as long as it is oriented to the external realm, and not to the individual himself. personally, i have analyzed this issue from the perspective of the creative imagination and the destructive imagination, the latter being still creative, although sadly so, as it invents methods of destruction. there is no need of further evidence to support this thesis than to open one’s eyes to the world that virtual reality exhibits (lapoujade ). in a similar vein, i have developed these analyses further based on the force or on the function of the imagination, which i have scrutinized, since up to the present, on the images that it secretes and on the imaginaries, which i define as constellations of images of all kinds, assembled according to their own internal logic. it is possible to classify the imaginaries into normal and pathological, individual, social, cultural, historical, mythical, scientific, artistic, literary, philosophical, religious, and mystical. it is possible to study imaginaries of different periods (in classical greek thought within a period of some centuries) or of historical events, such as the french revolution, a specific war, etc. imaginaries can also be classified by authors, for instance, the imaginary of kant, proust, rodin, einstein, etc. (lapoujade ). based on the above, i argue that present-day societies show the unequivocal symptoms of diseased imaginaries that promote, among other behaviors, human actions of an unprecedented savagery (lapoujade a). conclusion: imaginaries as life impulses the current year exhibits human cruelty exerted by individuals whose death imaginaries have led to the generalized destruction of humanity. it is necessary to recover the spinozian conatus that makes us persist in being, persist in life, the instinct of life that needs today more than ever the nietzschean clamor “say yes to life.” from my own philosophical perspective, on many occasions and in many publications, i have adopted schiller’s maxim as the motto of my philosophy: “live with your century; but do not be its creature. work for your contemporaries; but create what they need, not what they praise” (schiller , ). in what follows, i would like to rescue from the nietzschean idea that he never developed: “the philosopher as a healer of civilization” (nietzsche , ). in , in anticipation of what we are living today, i organized the iv international, interdisciplinary congress of aesthetics on the theme: imaginarios, impulsos de vida. ffy l. unam. life imaginaries in gaseous societies lastly, i propose to leave an open door to continue developing these reflections. i posit the need to focus on philosophy in general as an instrument of healing, as a medicine that may contribute to the healing of the diseased aspects of humanity. first of all, it is urgent to undertake the teaching and massive dissemination of a prophylaxis of the damaged collective and individual imaginaries, with the purpose of sowing in adults and children, the seeds of healthy, vital, free and joyful imaginaries, and happy about being (lapoujade b). for philosophy to be able to become an international therapeutic resource, it is necessary that it be incorporated into the current mass communication media, for them to make possible its “gaseous” diffusion in its current “gaseous” state. the work that needs to be done, in order to contribute to the healing of the destructive disease of our species, is huge. it is a titanic endeavor for which and here i paraphrase jean-paul sartre ( ): we are all responsible. a task of such magnitude, aimed at curing our species from blind irrational cruelty, needs to be undertaken from all possible areas: the humanities, arts, sciences, religions, education, and politics, to become a workable utopia. in the predominant alchemical nigredo of our contemporary social landscape, i want to leave some brief, subtle drops of life. in the face of the desolation in our current world, laughter has faded from our faces. even black humor has turned into the grimace of a frozen smile. in our world, the so-called “humor” has often become prosaic and coarse guffaws which lack wit. a totally up-to-date task for philosophy is to help humanity recover spaces of vital and ethical-aesthetic pleasure. among other paths is to seek to increase joy in ingenious humor. it is urgent to foster the memory of the enjoyment of simple beauty, unadorned, and vital: the color of a flower, the song of a bird, the music of the sea, a starry night, the even-tempered serenity of stones, which make up the calm of the world: cosmic artistic beauty and why not the beauty of the dignified human life (lapoujade ). the survival of our species, that is, the survival of the proudly misnamed “humanity” and its airs of nobility, requires an elementary first step, “simple” but essential: to recover a conscious imagination, aesthetic-ethical, healthy as an intrinsic attribute of the species that i have dubbed homo imaginans which i soundly define as bio-psycho-socio-cosmic. to a large extent, it all depends on the imaginaries that are taught over and over to this forgetful species. nonetheless, the great maker of imaginaries, human imagination—which i call the penel- ope of the psyche—still has the possibility of secreting imaginaries that promote life. i lay emphasis on the affirmative statement, yes, it is possible; if the imagination, images and imaginaries, become life impulses, such is the teaching of an asian proverb that has remained indelible in my memory: “with a real carrot, we can make a donkey move forward. it suffices to make a man imagine one for him to start running.” open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. lapoujade references bauman, z. 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( ). the aesthetics of disappearance, trans. p. beitchman, new york: semiotext(e) . life imaginaries in gaseous societies 	life imaginaries in gaseous societies 	abstract 	three millennia ago: becoming 	 th century. inflection in becoming: speed 	 st century. the explosion of becoming: gaseous state 	 barbarism: ailing imaginaries of humanity in the dying planet earth 	 conclusion: imaginaries as life impulses 	references .dvi research article a note on discrete multitime recurrences of samuelson-hicks type bruno antonio pansera , and francesco strati , , department of law and economics, university mediterranea of reggio calabria, reggio calabria, italy decisions lab, university mediterranea of reggio calabria, reggio calabria, italy department of economics and statistics, university of siena, siena, italy correspondence should be addressed to francesco strati; francesco.strati@unisi.it received august ; accepted october academic editor: gafurjan ibragimov copyright © b. a. pansera and f. strati. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. by this work, we aim at fostering further research on the applications of multitime recurrences. in particular, we shall apply this method by generalizing the samuelson-hicks model so as to make the new concept of time that this method proposes clear. in particular, the multitime approach decomposes a point of time into a vector, taking into account how different coordinates of time referring to the same date can affect the dynamics of a model. . introduction this work belongs to a series of papers (see [ – ]) which explore the notion of multitime in different branches of mathematical analysis, such as economics and physics. since , the adjective multitime, introduced by paul dirac, appears so as to cope with an environment in which there might be more than one dimension of time. we make some considerations concerning the physical idea of the multitime notion: we recall that a coordinate space is an index numbering degrees of freedom, and the coordinate of time is the usual physical time in which a system evolves. this model is satisfactory, unless we turn our attention to relativistic problems. moreover, some physical phenomena (and social sciences too) are observed in a two- time environment 𝑡 = (𝑡 , 𝑡 ), in which 𝑡 is the intrinsic time and 𝑡 is the observer time. in some real phenomena, there is no reason to prefer one coordinate to another. following these assumptions, we refer to multitime as vector parameters of evolution in multitime geometric evolution and multitime optimal control problems. the second relevant aspect to analyze is the multitime wave functions considered by paul dirac in via 𝑚-time evolution equations 𝑖ℎ(𝜕𝜓/𝜕𝑡𝛼) = 𝐻𝛼𝜓. the dirac pdes system is consistent (completely integrable) if and only if[𝐻𝛼,𝐻𝛽] = for 𝛼 ̸= 𝛽. the consistency condition is easy to achieve for noninteracting particles, while it turns out to be harder in the presence of interactions. all of these laws cannot be applied to relevant problems, if one aims at a plain covariant formulation of relativistic quantum mechanics. eventually, following the literature, we can divide the laws of evolution of physical theories into two branches: the single- time evolution laws (odes) and the multitime evolution laws (pdes). it is clear that, in order to turn a single-time evolution into a multitime evolution, changing the odes into pdes is enough by accepting that time 𝑡 is 𝐶∞ function of certain parameters; let us say that 𝑡 = 𝑡(𝑠 , . . . , 𝑠𝑚). many authors studied the different applications of these notions: we recall some significative papers as [ – ] in which the pdes constraints usually show significant challenges for optimization principles. the multivariable maximum principle was studied in the presence of pde constraints (see [ ]). the multivariate recurrences are based on multiple sequences; they come from areas like analysis of algorithms, computational biology, information theory, queueing theory, filters theory, statistical physics, and so forth. we consider a lattice of points with positive integer coordinates in r𝑛. a hindawi publishing corporation discrete dynamics in nature and society volume , article id , pages http://dx.doi.org/ . / / discrete dynamics in nature and society multivariate recurrence is a set of rules which transfer a point to another, together with initial conditions, which is capable of covering the hole lattice. a multivariate recurrence relation is an equation that recursively defines a multivariate sequence, once one or more initial terms are given: each further term of the sequence is defined as a function of the preceding terms. some defined recurrence relations can have very complex (chaotic) behaviors, and they are part of a field of mathematics known as nonlinear analysis. we shall extend the floquet theory which had been firstly utilized for periodic linear odes [ ] and then extended to difference equations [ – ]. in [ , ], the authors have extended this theory to the multitemporal first-order pdes. in floquet theory, it is necessary to find the associated monodromy matrix and its eigenvalues (called floquet mul- tipliers) in order to pass from a constant coefficient state to a periodic one. it can be crucial in a recurrence formulation (as noted in [ ]) in which time-independent coefficients are unrealistic. an application of the floquet theory can be found in [ ]; here, we shall discuss a further possible extension. in this case, there is a generalization of the periodicity to a sheet of time rather than a point of time approach. in few words, it can be stated that, by a multitime approach, a point of time opens up to a vector of multiple times at that date (see figure ). . the model . . a hint on the samuelson-hicks model. the standard samuelson-hicks model has been made of two crucial com- ponents: 𝛾, the propensity to consume, for which amount𝐶𝑡 = 𝛾𝑌𝑡− is consumed, in which 𝑌𝑡− is the income at𝑡 − , and the rest is saved. the second component is that productive capital needs to aggregate production in fixed proportion 𝛼: 𝐾𝑡 = 𝛼𝑌𝑡− . defining the investment as a change in capital stock 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐾𝑡−𝐾𝑡− , then 𝐼𝑡 = 𝛼(𝑌𝑡− −𝑌𝑡− ), that is, the standard principle of acceleration. furthermore, since𝑌𝑡 = 𝐶𝑡+𝐼𝑡, then a single recurrence equation in income is 𝑌𝑡 = (𝛼 + 𝛾)𝑌𝑡− − 𝛼𝑌𝑡− . ( ) in [ ], samuelson applied the accelerator to consumption only, while, in [ ], hicks described its application to all expenditures including floors to depreciation levels and ceilings to incomes growth. the equations of the model encompass autonomous factors 𝐶 (consumption independent from income) and 𝐼 (investment not dependent on business cycles):𝐶𝑡 = 𝛾𝑌𝑡− +𝐶 and 𝐼𝑡 = 𝛼(𝑌𝑡− − 𝑌𝑡− ) + 𝐼. notice that these autonomous components are crucial for the determination of the cycle. the induced investment depends on the change in output (on the cycle), while the autonomous part depends on technological progress, innovation, or population growth. if the autonomous investment increases at a regular rate, then the economy is in a progressive equilibrium. a problem may arise: autonomous components grow at a constant rate, and 𝛼 and 𝛾 do not depend upon the cycle t t i t i figure : an example of multitime sheet. and are assumed to be constant too. in [ ], these constant factors become periodic and then they are floquetized in the sense of the following section (even if they, and we, detrended the model since growing autonomous investments have been removed). moreover, we shall discuss a further generalization of the floquet periodicity in which every period is decomposed into a vector of times rather than a simple point. . . from floquetizations to multitime. define element 𝑡 =(𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝑚) ∈ n𝑚 as a discrete multitime and function 𝑥 : n 𝑚 → r𝑛as a multivariate sequence. moreover, denote𝜇(𝑡) = min{𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝑚} and = ( , . . . , ) ∈ n𝑚. it seems intuitive to see the discrete multitime as a series of vectors in which the time is not seen as a simple straight line in r and every time as a point on that line; with the multitime approach, every point of time is turned into a vector. in general, in economics, a model is defined in either discrete or continuous time: in the former case, it is usual to say that a generic event happens at 𝑡 = and spreads its effects at 𝑡 = and so forth. for a multitime approach, an event does not come into being at𝑡 = 𝑖 ∈ n but at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖 ≡ (𝑡𝑖 , 𝑡𝑖 , 𝑡𝑖 , . . . , 𝑡𝑖𝑚); it can be thought of as a sheet of time instead of a point (see figure ). an event that occurred on a sheet of time 𝑡 spreads its effects on the subsequent sheet of time 𝑡 and so on. periodic coefficients are a proper generalization of con- stant ones, since the former take into account the periodical characteristic. this generalization can be applied to the samuelson-hicks model with constant coefficient and try to understand if generalizing it to a periodic coefficient model may be of some interest. this approach is called floquetization, in particular for coefficient ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑡+𝜃 = 𝑧ℎ𝑡; ( ) then it can be defined as a floquetian of type (𝜃,𝑧), in which when 𝑧 = , it is nothing more than 𝜃-periodicity. if𝑧 ̸= , then floquetian coefficiencies are a straightforward generalization of the 𝜃-periodic ones. the discrete multitime discrete dynamics in nature and society periodic coefficient model is a further generalization to a multitime approach, where ℎ(𝑡 + 𝜃) = 𝐴(𝑡)ℎ(𝑡) , ( ) ℎ(𝑡 + ) = 𝐴(𝑡)ℎ(𝑡) with 𝜃 ≡ , ( ) where, in case of 𝑚 ⩾ , 𝐴 : n𝑚 → m𝑛(r). in general, for any 𝑇 ∈ n, the form 𝐴(𝑡 + 𝑇 ⋅ ) = 𝐴(𝑡) ( ) is called 𝑇-diagonal periodic. . . samuelson-hicks meets multitime. the discrete multi- time periodic coefficient samuelson-hicks model can be written as a first order diagonal recurrence system of the form of ( ) (𝑌(𝑡 + )𝐶(𝑡 + )) = ( 𝛾(𝑡) + 𝛼(𝑡) − 𝛼(𝑡)𝛾(𝑡 − )𝛾(𝑡) )( 𝑌(𝑡) 𝐶(𝑡)), 𝑡 ∈ n𝑚 ( ) that satisfies the following conditions: 𝑌(𝑡)|𝑡𝛼= = 𝑌 𝛼(𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚), 𝐶(𝑡)|𝑡𝛼= = 𝐶 𝛼(𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚), 𝑌 𝛼 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛽= = 𝑌 𝛽 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛽, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛼= , 𝐶 𝛼 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛽= = 𝐶 𝛽 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛽, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛼= . ( ) the marginal propensity to consume < 𝛾 < ; moreover, 𝛼 can be defined as decelerator if < 𝛼 < , keeper if 𝛼 = , and accelerator if 𝛼 > . national income 𝑌 and its endogenous variable𝐶 (consumption) are assumed as strictly positive multitime sequences 𝑌(𝑡) and 𝐶(𝑡). notice that, in the original model, 𝛾 and 𝛼 are constant factors. in [ ], they have been used as (𝜃,𝑧)-periodic parameters 𝛾𝑡 and 𝛼𝑡 as the autonomous consumption 𝐶 turned into 𝐶𝑡. this periodicity has been extended to (𝜃,𝐴)-periodic parameters 𝛾(𝑡), 𝛼(𝑡),𝑌(𝑡), 𝐶(𝑡). the model may be written as the second order homoge- neous diagonal recurrence equation: 𝑌(𝑡 + ) − (𝛾(𝑡 + ) + 𝛼(𝑡 + ))𝑌(𝑡 + ) + 𝛼(𝑡 + )𝑌(𝑡) = , 𝑡 ∈ n𝑚, ( ) satisfying the following conditions: 𝑌(𝑡 + ) − (𝛾 + 𝛼)𝑌(𝑡 + ) + 𝛼𝑌(𝑡) = , 𝑡 ∈ n𝑚, 𝑌(𝑡)|𝑡𝛼= = 𝑌 𝛼(𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚), 𝑌(𝑡)|𝑡𝛼= = 𝑌 𝛼(𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚), 𝑌 𝛼 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛽= = 𝑌 𝛽 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛽, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛼= , 𝑌 𝛼 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛽= = 𝑌 𝛽 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛽, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛼= , 𝑌 𝛼 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛼, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛽= = 𝑌 𝛽 (𝑡 , . . . , 𝑡𝛽, . . . , 𝑡𝑚)󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨𝑡𝛼= . ( ) a prominent role is played by the so-called floquet mul- tiplier of ( ), that is, first reconverting ( ) into an equivalent diagonal recurrence system: (𝑌(𝑡 + )𝑍(𝑡 + )) = ( −𝛼(𝑡 + ) 𝛾(𝑡 + ) + 𝛼(𝑡 + ))⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟ =𝐴(𝑡+ ) (𝑌(𝑡)𝑍(𝑡)), 𝑡 ∈ n𝑚, ( ) where 𝐴(𝑡 + ) is 𝑇-periodic matrix. then, find the floquet multiplier, which is an eigenvalue of the matrix: 𝐶(𝑡) = 𝑇− ∏ 𝑘= 𝐴(𝑡 + (𝑇 − 𝑘 − 𝜇(𝑡) ⋅ )) , ( ) that is called the monodromy matrix. it is a × matrix with determinant det𝐶(𝑡) = 𝛼(𝑡 + (𝑇 − 𝜇(𝑡)) ⋅ ) × ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ × 𝛼(𝑡 + ( − 𝜇(𝑡)) ⋅ ) . ( ) thus, the multipliers are the roots of the quadratic equation: 𝑧 − 𝑧(tr𝐶) + det𝐶 = ( ) and these multipliers will depend on 𝑡 − 𝜇(𝑡), . . . , 𝑡𝑚 − 𝜇(𝑡). . discussion and conclusions the multiplier-accelerator model shows how cycles can occur in economics. the floquet theory can be used to discrete dynamics in nature and society generalize the constant coefficient framework of the standard samuelson-hicks model. by floquetizing this model, the behavior of the system around their constant value can be studied and thus it is possible to study the periodic cycle. this can happen by the use of the monodromy matrix which is the link between the coefficients and their periodic generalization. these kind of matrices study the behavior of a dynamic system around a singularity, in this case a constant coefficient. it can be stated that each motion of national income 𝑌 is bounded in ( ) if and only if this motion is bounded and𝛼 ⩽ in ( ). for 𝛼 > , it is unbounded and, moreover, each motion of 𝑌 vanishes if 𝛼 < . the floquetized samuelson-hicks model has been further generalized by taking into account a discrete multitime model generalizing the point of time to a sheet of time, as mentioned above. by a sheet of time, the dynamic system may be decomposed into different summable time vectors in which it is possible to study the effect of each coefficient separately. it can be possible to explode the model into different current times, like those paintings from the analytical cubism. it is important to apply the model so as to study recursively the effect of lagged coefficients to the subsequent ones, but the new effect which may become crucial is that in each sheet one can observe a decomposed model: on every time encompassed by a sheet, one can see how modifications of a coefficient affect the coefficients in the same current time sheet and so how this vector affects the model in the other sheet by understanding that model thoroughly. competing interests the authors declare that there are no competing interests regarding the publication of this paper. acknowledgments the authors thank massimiliano ferrara for his invaluable advice and guidance. this research was partially supported by a grant of the department of law and economics of the university mediterranea of reggio calabria. references [ ] c. udrişte, “multitime controllability, observability and bang- bang principle,” journal of optimization theory and applica- tions, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. udriste and m. ferrara, “multitime models of optimal growth,” wseas transactions on mathematics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. udrişte, m. ferrara, and d. opris, economic geometric dynamics, vol. of mono-graphs and textbooks, geometry balkan press, bucharest, romania, . [ ] c. udrişte, m. ferrara, d. zugrăvescu, and f. munteanu, “controllability of a nonholonomic macroeconomic system,” journal of optimization theory and applications, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] v. barbu, i. lasiecka, d. tiba, and c. varsan, “analysis and optimization of differential systems, ifip tc /wg . ,” in pro- ceedings of the international working conference on analysis and optimization of differential systems, kluwer academic, constanta, romania, september . [ ] g. barles and a. tourin, “commutation properties of semi- groups for first-order hamilton-jacobi equations and applica- tion to multi-time equations,” indiana university mathematics journal, vol. , no. , pp. – , . 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[ ] n. g. markley, principles of differential equations, pure and applied mathematics (new york), john wiley & sons, new york, ny, usa, . [ ] p. v. mouche and w. heijman, floquet theory and economic dynamics (extended version), wageningen economic papers, wageningen, the netherlands, . [ ] v. a. yakubovich and v. m. starzhinskii, linear differential equations with periodic coefficients, vol. , john wiley & sons, new york, ny, usa, . [ ] c. udrişte, “multitime floquet theory,” atti della accademia peloritana dei pericolanti—classe di scienze fisiche, matem- atiche e naturali, vol. , no. , article a , . [ ] p. a. samuelson, “interactions between the multiplier analysis and the principle of acceleration,” review of economic statistics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. r. hicks, a contribution to the theory of the trade cycle, oxford university press, oxford, uk, . submit your manuscripts at http://www.hindawi.com hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume mathematics journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume mathematical problems in engineering hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com differential equations international journal of volume applied mathematics journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume probability and statistics hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume mathematical physics advances in complex analysis journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume optimization journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume combinatorics hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume international 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article (published version) http://sro.sussex.ac.uk magnusson, thor ( ) algorithms as scores: coding live music. leonardo music journal, . pp. - . this version is available from sussex research online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / this document is made available in accordance with publisher policies and may differ from the published version or from the version of record. if you wish to cite this item you are advised to consult the publisher’s version. please see the url above for details on accessing the published version. copyright and reuse: sussex research online is a digital repository of the research output of the university. copyright and all moral rights to the version of the paper presented here belong to the individual author(s) and/or other copyright owners. to the extent reasonable and practicable, the material made available in sro has been checked for eligibility before being made available. copies of full text items generally can be reproduced, displayed or performed and given to third parties in any format or medium for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge, provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or url is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ traditionally the score is thought of as a mes- sage from a composer to an instrumentalist who interprets the given information. although the emphasis varies, the mu- sical score can be conceived as both a description of music in the form of written marks and a prescription of gestures for an instrumentalist. it has served as what we now call a “file for- mat,” where the paper (or parchment) stores the music for later realization or consumption. however, the score is more than encoded music. it is also a compositional tool through which composers are able to externalize their thoughts onto a medium that visually represents the sonic data. the score in its various forms is a mnemonic device that enables more complex compositional thinking patterns than those we find in purely oral traditions. a careful investigation into its history will illustrate that the score is not a simple object whose nature can be easily defined. it has had multiple functions in various traditions at differ- ent time periods. this article considers live coding as a new evolutionary branch of the musical score. it will investigate the background of diverse scoring practices as applied in live coding, where the score is written in the form of an algorithm, either graphically or textually, yet always encoded in the func- tionality of a programming language. i present my live-coding language ixi lang as a case study. a note on the score unless sounds are remembered by man, they perish, for they cannot be written down. —isidore of seville, th century although musical marks have been written for millennia, the invention of the musical score as we know it today is normally attributed to guido d’arezzo (b. ). a magnificent scholar of music, known for the creation of the solfège, he also invented systems for algorithmic composition, for example, where pitch values would be systematically derived from syllables in the text. furthermore, d’arezzo is known for the guidonian hand [ ] (fig. ), a system of prescriptive instructions for conduct- ing music, where each part of the hand’s digits represents a musical note for the performers. in the work of this medieval scholar we find the roots of many important ideas engaged here. in the centuries after d’arezzo, western culture has exhibited a strong desire to capture music: to represent it in the silence of the written marks and invoke it again through the interpretation of signs. it is a tradition interlocked in a strongly formalistic attitude toward encoding and decoding musical data, resulting in the establishment of an industry of composing and performing music and, importantly, the technology and in- frastructure that supports recording, distributing and selling music aimed for machine playback. since its origins in the th century, the traditional score has evolved into a highly sophisticated language for encoding musical expression with various idiosyncrasies or personal styles. currently, the bound- aries of what can be defined as a musical score are fuzzy, as the diverse musical compositions, performances and digital systems require different representations of the musical data. nevertheless, the great success of the traditional score as a musical technology has established it as the fundament on which our musical education is built. © isast leonardo music journal, vol. , pp. – , thor magnusson (educator), school of arts and media, university of brighton, brighton, bn jy, u.k. e-mail: <t.magnusson@brighton.ac.uk>. see <mitpressjournals.org/toc/lmj/-/ > for supplemental files (such as audio and video) related to this issue of lmj and accompanying cd. see also <www.ixi-audio.net> for materi- als related to this article. a b s t r a c t the author discusses live coding as a new path in the evolution of the musical score. live-coding practice accentu- ates the score, and whilst it is the perfect vehicle for the performance of algorithmic music it also transforms the compositional process itself into a live event. as a continuation of th-century artistic develop- ments of the musical score, live-coding systems often embrace graphical elements and language syntaxes foreign to standard programming lan- guages. the author presents live coding as a highly technologized artistic practice, shedding light on how non-linearity, play and generativity will become promi- nent in future creative media productions. algorithms as scores: coding live music thor magnusson fig. . guidonian hand with somization syllables. an early technique for music instruction, as well as a mnemotechnic device for musical thinking. (photo © jean gray hargrove music library, uni- versity of california, berkeley) magnusson, algorithms as scores player pianos and punch cards the musical parameters that have been important in the traditional score are primarily the rough denotations of pitch, velocity and duration. these are features that could easily be encoded onto rolls or cylinders for musical automata, and there are records of early such machines dating back to the th century. in the th century, punch cards were a com- mon engineering solution, for example, in textile looms, and they were used to automate the popular player pianos of the early th century [ ]. as instanti- ated through these technologies, musical notation became notably static and lin- ear. an ideal had been fulfilled: perfect performances to be written for perfect instruments. not surprisingly, computers were ini- tially given the same notation system as player pianos, namely punch cards, and the piano roll has become the key visual metaphor in musical software designed for composition and arrangement. it is interesting to observe in this context that this capacity of machines—such as pianolas or early computers—to per- fectly render musical scores coincided with a development in which composers increasingly began experimenting with the scores themselves, incorporating elements that emphasized performer engagement and interpretation. this is analogous to developments in painting when, with the advent of the photograph, the machine liberated painters from re- alism, resulting in impressionism and various other isms such as cubism and surrealism [ ]. if algorithmic music can be traced to the same th-century origins as the modern score in d’arezzo, we may ques- tion its apparent absence through the ages. on closer scrutiny it is clear that there has never been any lack of algorith- mic music: it merely presents an interest- ing problem of encoding. as an example, every group of people improvising or playing together succumbs to implicit rule sets that could easily be reduced to explicit algorithmic steps. however, since algorithms can be generative, resulting in diverse outcomes, it has proved dif- ficult to find the ideal format to write them as musical scores. although various mechanical automata, such as winkel’s componium of , were capable of al- gorithmic music [ ], and people such as ada lovelace in speculated about the computational creation of music [ ], it is the advent of the digital computer that establishes the ideal medium for writing music in the form of algorithms. currently the main obstacles for such musical productions are conceptual, not technical, but new media technologies are transforming this situation very rap- idly, with composers and software devel- opers increasingly grasping the potential for generative music. algorithms as graphic scores what is an algorithm if not the con- ceptual embodiment of instrumental rationality within real machines? —andrew goffey the mid- th century saw many interme- dia experiments involving visual media and sound. artists such as kandinsky and klee experimented with how a syn- chronic medium such as painting could be represented as a diachronic process (such as music). these experiments continued with the fluxus movement of the s introducing a novel approach, namely the celebration of the algorithm as an art form. good examples are lamonte young with works such as “draw a straight line and follow it” (composition no. ) or yoko ono with her in- struction pieces, e.g. “drill a hole in the fig. . a snapshot of claudia molitor’s d score series. (© claudia molitor) fig. . david griffiths, scheme bricks, . here the functional programming language scheme is represented graphically as bricks that can be plugged into each other, thus build- ing complex functional graphs out of simple ingredients. (© dave griffiths) magnusson, algorithms as scores sky. cut out a paper the same size as the hole. burn the paper. the sky should be pure blue” [ ]. graphic scores can represent a special form of algorithm. they are instructions with which the composer has found a reason to go beyond traditional nota- tion. many composers exploring the open work, such as christian wolff, karlheinz stockhausen, john cage, cornelius cardew and iannis xenakis, have resolved to use the graphic score to extend the musical language [ ]. this is often done with the aim of enabling non-linearity, increasing performer in- terpretation and presenting elements of surprise [ ]. the graphic score opens new dimensions in the ontology of mu- sic by rejecting linearity in musical no- tation, thus paving the way for encoded generative or algorithmic music. the emphasis is put on improvisation or the performers’ role in the realization of the piece, often using aleatoric or rule-based techniques such as the casting of dice or formalizing rule sets that the performers have to follow. since the divide between composition and performance becomes vague, it naturally follows that composers using these techniques participate regu- larly in the performance of their work. the above examples manifest how con- temporary music has established a strong basis for live-coding practice. these th-century experiments with the score transformed it into an object of art in itself. in musical performance, the function of graphic scores is not limited to that of instructions for performers. often the audience is given a chance to view and engage with the score as well. claudia molitor’s d score series (fig. ) is a good example of this approach. the score as an object of art was a path of investigation pursued by john cage in editing the book notations, where, in- terestingly, xenakis’s fortran code for stochastic music is presented as a graphic score. indeed, graphic scores are often not written for human performers but rather as instructions for the computer. the upic software system designed by xenakis is a good example of an early such system [ ]. furthermore, graphic scores can be descriptive, i.e. used as visu- alizations of musical works, enabling lis- teners to engage with the piece through another modality. rainer wehinger’s visual rendition of ligeti’s artikula- tion is a fine specimen of such visualiza- tion [ ]. composing algorithms live coding is the offspring of the two strong traditions described above: the formalization and encoding of music, often for machine realization, on the one hand, and the open work resisting traditional forms of encoding on the other. live coding is a form of musical performance that involves the real-time composition of music by means of writ- ing code. this is done in front of an audience, which follows the proceed- ings on a projected screen. typically performers start with a clean sheet, a tabula rasa, and build their composi- tions from scratch. the compositions evolve through the writing of new code, changing code, pausing code or copying a large block in order to transform it into something entirely different. the code is in constant change, often modifying itself. for this reason mclean et al. [ ] talk about “codeomorphology,” since the code and the music evolve together in an interweaved process observed by the audience. in addition to tracing the compo- sitional process, the code is also itself a representation of what occurs in the sonic domain. without it, diverse musi- cal patterns could appear to be one, or a single process could be perceived as many. by inspecting the code one can learn about the instruments, the voices and the form of the musical piece. this representational aspect of code enables performers to externalize their thoughts, thereby freeing some cognitive load and enabling other explorations. a shift has taken place in that the composer is not thinking with a pencil and staff-lined paper but writing instructions in a text document by manipulating graphical forms. such externalization is an impor- tant feature of composition [ ], and the different coding environments enable the composer to think differently about music and musical problems. even if computer science is the foun- dation of all live-coding environments, fig. . a screenshot of alex mclean’s text programming language ( ), where spatial locations of the elements have syntactic relevance, as opposed to many graphical languages such as pure data. (© alex mclean) fig. . david griffiths, al-jazari, . a live-coding environment that engages with the world of gaming. the robots are programmable, and the interface used to program them is the typical gamepad used in video games. (© dave griffiths) magnusson, algorithms as scores these environments are typically inno- vative systems that can be defined as art themselves. the goal is to explore musical representation, interaction and thinking through systems that have other criteria than those of traditional programming languages. the works of dave griffiths, such as scheme bricks (fig. ) and al-jazari (fig. ), are good examples of graphi- cal representation of algorithmic music scores. as another example, the veteran live coder alex mclean has recently performed with his new text live-coding language (fig. ), in which, even if it is text-based language, spatial relations de- fine the meaning of the code. it is yet to be seen if this language can be useful for more production-based tasks, but it works well as an artistic tool. ixi lang ixi lang is a live-coding system designed with the criteria that it be fast (maxi- mum -second wait before some sound is heard), be understandable by the au- dience and allow the user to be relaxed whilst performing. the engagement should be primarily at the level of mu- sical composition rather than computer science. the language is high-level and simple, focusing on the arrangement and manipulation of musical events in time. three main metaphors are utilized: agent, instrument and score. the agent is given an instrument and a score through a simple instruction such as this: jimi -> string[ ] where the agent is called jimi, playing a string instrument with a score containing indexes to the notes in a chosen scale. spaces between the notes represent si- lence, spatial organization therefore be- coming a primary syntax of the language. when other agents are written below jimi on the document, this spatiality becomes helpful in arranging events in time. we also see (fig. ) that there are three different modes available for scoring: melodic, percussive and concrète. the melodic mode takes numbers from a chosen scale, the percussive works with samples that are mapped to the letters of the alphabet and the concrète mode is intended for the looping of longer sound files. each of the modes can take suffixes in the form of note duration, note ac- cent, silence between loops, speed and transposition. these can be seen in the case of agent noel, where ^ represents accents, ( is note lengths, + is transposi- tion and ! is silence before the melody is played again. ixi lang includes actions (methods) that can be applied to the agents: the performer can instruct jimi to reverse, shake up, shift or swap his or her score. when an action is performed on an agent from another location in the document, the agent’s code is updated. furthermore, these actions can be auto- mated and scheduled repeatedly in the future, resulting in a code document in constant change. the coding environ- ment thus serves as a score with a double function (for the computer to interpret and for the audience to follow the musi- cal events), updated in real time, not only by the performer but also recursively and algorithmically by the very score itself. judging from user feedback and personal experience, the language serves as a con- strained musical tool that affords certain compositional practices but prevents others. it is within the limits of the lan- guage that the musical exploration takes place, and users report that these limita- tions encourage creativity [ ]. as such it is not clear whether the language is a musical work in itself or a musical tool. this is an example of how many of the old distinctions, such as work and tool or composer and performer, blur in current media practices. real-time composition and performance the live coder is primarily a composer, writing a score for the computer to per- form. it is therefore appropriate that the computer science term for the system in which the live coder evaluates code is normally “interpreter.” the novelty of live coding is not simply that composi- tion has become a real-time activity [ ] but also that the compositional tool is brought forth to the degree that it is seen as a musical composition in and of itself. one could argue that this entails taking live performance of computer music to its logical conclusion, or in the words of a wired journalist, “what music made with computers could—and should—be” [ ]. current content production in new media, in particular for mobile media devices, indicates that the mp is being superseded by the app. here musical scores, compositional systems or instru- ments for performance are often inher- ent with so much music that they should be considered musical pieces themselves. in this context, live coding can play an important role in the investigation of algorithmic composition and real-time music performance for these devices. this is especially important as music technologies become increasingly com- plex and dominant, strongly influencing our musical creativity. as an art form that plays with the core of the tools used for artistic creation, live-coding systems pro- vide a level of self-reflexivity that can be inspiring and educative for designers and composers of other new media art. conclusion live coding has become a widely prac- ticed and prominent art form, as man- ifested by this year’s international com- fig. . ixi lang exists at the border of the graphical and the textual, as spaces are important functions in the scores and iconicity is applied in the way methods look. it also introduces the use of a code document that is updated when the code modifies itself ( ). (© thor magnusson) magnusson, algorithms as scores puter music conference call for papers and musical performances, both includ- ing a live-coding submission category [ ]. thus, the conference organizers acknowledge the status and function live coding has achieved as one solution to the problem of live performance of com- puter music and audience engagement. live coding emphasizes the algorithmic nature of music and explores the differ- ent conceptual and technical possibili- ties of representing such work. although proven successful in finding novel ways of scoring and performing algorithmic music, live coding is still highly experi- mental, and a vast space of investigation and exploration will take place before it matures through the development of its tools and techniques. in this paper i have explored how live coding continues the th-century tradi- tion of experimentation with the musi- cal score. live coding presents the ideal set of tools and performance context for algorithms to be written in the form of instructions for machines or people [ ]. it shows how these instructions need not necessarily be limited to the textual but can also include the visual and the gestural. hence, the musical score is in yet another phase of transformation as it proliferates and morphs into diverse functions in accordance with the prac- tices afforded by new mobile, locative, interconnected and computational me- dia. from static scores and deterministic storage formats, we move to scores that are written or executed in real time, re- sulting in a new type of live music: gen- erative music. references and notes . k. berger, “the guidonian hand,” in m. car- ruthers and j.m. ziolkowski, the medieval craft of memory: an anthology of texts and pictures (philadel- phia, pa: univ. of pennsylvania press, ) p. . . c.b. fowler, “the museum of music: a history of mechanical instruments,” music educators journal , no. , – (october ). . n. mirzoeff, an introduction to visual culture (lon- don: routledge, ). . fowler [ ]. . c. roads, the computer music tutorial (cambridge, ma: mit press, ) p. . . y. ono, grapefruit: a book of instructions and draw- ings (london: simon & schuster, , originally published in japan in ). . examples of such open work include cage’s fon- tana mix ( ), stockhausen’s plus-minus ( ), pouissieur’s scambi ( ) and cardew’s treatise ( – ). . j. cage, notations (new york: something else press, ). . i. xenakis, formalized music: thought and mathemat- ics in composition (hillsdale, ny: pendragon press, ) p. . . see <www.youtube.com/watch?v= hnl_ sktzq>. . a. mclean, d. griffiths, n. collins and g. wig- gins, “visualisation of live code,” eva london con- ference proceedings (london, ), <www.bcs.org/ server.php?show=nav. >. . and indeed in any cognitive activity—see a. noë, out of our heads: why you are not your brain, and other lessons from the biology of consciousness (new york: far- rar, straus and giroux, ); a. clark, supersizing the mind: embodiment, action, and cognitive extension (oxford: oxford univ. press, ). . t. magnusson, “ixi lang: a constraint system for live coding,” proceedings of icmc (hudders- field, u.k., ). . research and experimental practice is already strong in the field of real-time composition; see, for example, contemporary music review , no. , and a panel at isea in istanbul, where the practice of real-time notation was discussed by practitioners. <isea .sabanciuniv.edu/panel/chasing-ghosts>. . t. armitage, “making music with live computer code,” wired (september ), <www.wired.co.uk/ news/archive/ - / /making-music-with-live- computer-code-.aspx>, accessed december . . see icmc web site: <www.icmc .org. uk/>. . n. collins, “live coding of consequence,” leo- nardo , no. , – ( ). manuscript received january . thor magnusson is a senior lecturer at the school of arts and media, university of brighton, u.k. his research is primarily con- cerned with computer music interfaces and performance and he is the co-founder of the ixi-audio collective. further information to be found at: <artsresearch.brighton.ac.uk/ research/academic/magnusson>; <www.ixi -audio.net/thor/>. call for papers environment . guest editor: drew hemment a special call for papers seeking cross-disciplinary thinking on environmental sustainability and participatory observa- tion on the environment, climate and biodiversity. leonardo is soliciting texts that document the works of artists, researchers and scholars involved in the exploration of environmental sustainability and participatory observation. themes and issues may include: • participatory mass observation of the environment, climate and biodiversity • citizen science and issues of participation • everyday creativity and social innovation in environmental sustainability • ubiquitous, pervasive, locative and mobile communication technology. in urban environments in particular we are separated from the consequences of our actions as surely as the tarmac of the road cuts us off from the earth beneath. this physical boundary encourages a phenom- enological separation. innovative approaches to participatory observation and mapping can overcome this separation, when combined with the way the internet and digital media have enabled individuals to produce and share information globally and instantly. cracks in the pavement can be widened by creative intervention or social innovation, including artworks, social entrepreneurship, scientific intervention or innovations that harness everyday creativity. linked activities exploring the environment . theme have been led by futureeverything (futuresonic) and lancaster university (u.k.). authors are encouraged to submit manuscripts or proposals to <leonardomanuscripts@gmail.com>. leonardo submission guidelines can be found at leonardo on-line: <www.leonardo.info>. the impacts of different sorts of art education on pupils’ preference for th-century art movements education sciences article the impacts of different sorts of art education on pupils’ preference for th-century art movements goran kardum , dubravka kuščević and marija brajčić * faculty of humanities and social sciences university of split, poljička cesta , split, croatia; gkardum@ffst.hr (g.k.); kuscevic@ffst.hr (d.k.) * correspondence: mbrajcic@ffst.hr received: november ; accepted: december ; published: january ���������� ������� abstract: the research presented here aims to determine how art education influences students’ preferences for the th-century art movements. an educational experiment that spanned through one school year was conducted on primary school students. it included three types of intervention: observing works of art from the th century, introducing works of art using a puppet, and the students’ art activities/artwork based on the th-century art movements. the results show that the model of art education is an important factor in changing students’ preferences for the th century art movements. students reacted positively to each kind of education, as evidenced in the wider acceptance of th-century art (abstract, fauvism, cubism, pop art, and surrealism). the type of education did not influence preferences (as much) when it came to classical art and visual works without artistic value. we concluded that puppets and independent creative work should be used more often in art education. keywords: art education; th century art movements; preferences of arts; pupils . introduction in the times in which we live, visual information far outweighs the verbal kind, and the understanding of visual education is a goal reached through education. the world of imagery is broad, mainly because of the dominance of visual media and technology in the modern world; it is rich with visual signals and symbols present in new forms of communication. in the new forms of visual communication, visual works of art have become a part of the universal visual space of modern culture. knowing, understanding, and using the language of visual arts is a key component of visual literacy, and an important factor in understanding the world and culture in the st century. education through art is a subject many authors [ – ] have written about. it enables children and the youth to develop ideas, know their feelings and attitudes, and gain experience through different art activities that provide for aesthetic experiences. students acquire the language of art through the richness of creative visual content. this is why it is important to enable contact with visual works of art from a young age, as well as to train children to understand that experiencing a work of art is not just about the emotional process, but also about gaining perceptive focus and critical judgement. it is now known that understanding and perceiving art in general—and especially modern art—requires so-called specialized perception, or trained viewing, which is a result of the knowledge and abilities acquired and developed in the process of art education inside and outside of school. art education, or an educated taste, is considered less of a fact-based knowledge and more of an ability to define the formal semantic characteristics of a work of art, which is a result of integrating knowledge and other perceptive and cognitive abilities [ ]. knowing the language of art and the experience of observation can be achieved only by continually observing works of art and experiencing educ. sci. , , ; doi: . /educsci www.mdpi.com/journal/education http://www.mdpi.com/journal/education http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - x https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /educsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/education educ. sci. , , of them. husković [ ] claimed that clarity is a basic assumption and the beginning of an aesthetic act, which presumes the necessity of direct or indirect contact between children and works of art. many authors [ – ] have put an emphasis on the importance of direct contact between children and works of art, which successfully realizes contextual learning and enables the introduction of the object of knowledge. this also ensures that cultural, contextual, and personal characteristics are respected. whether observing a reproduction or a piece of original art, it is important that students actively communicate with the offered content. lachapelle et al. [ ] stated that communicating with art should come from a combination of experience- and theory-based learning. experience-based learning makes the observer interact with a work of art, while theory-based learning requires a cognitive participation, gathering information and filling holes in the knowledge that they have about the work of art in question. the authors above claimed that the interaction and combination of these types of learning is the foundation on which students develop new and complex ways of understanding a work of art. when a work of art is introduced, every single person is able to decide whether they like it or not. relations between an individual human being and a work of art are personal and specific. this is why preferences are an interesting starting point in research. salkind and salkind [ ] believed that preference is a degree of liking or not liking a work of art, while other authors defined preference as a personal phenomenon, which is not tied to an individuals’ development phase. they believe it is a result of previous experience, learning experience, socializing, cultural values, and maturity [ ]. chamorro-premuzic et al. [ ] cited a study that emphasized the connection between preference and intelligence, sex, age, level of education, extroversion, etc. preference for works of art is connected with personality traits, and research shows that the most represented one is openness to new experiences, as a predictor of % of variability [ ]. some research found that the activities of individuals affect their preference. salkind and salkind [ ] considered preferences to be dependent on the ability to participate in high-quality art activities, such as visiting museums, workshops, gaining experience through travel, etc. archbell and stange [ ] concluded that aesthetic exposure, education, and experience with works of art influences preferences—in this case, towards art with recognizable or unrecognizable motives. wiersema [ ] highlighted the importance of this in evaluating preferences, as well as the importance of an individuals’ personality. different activities influence an aptitude to art, such as visiting modern museums or archaeological sites, watching science fiction movies or romantic comedies, reading thrillers or poetry, watching classical ballet or modern dance [ ]. the art of the th century was created as a result of obtaining freedom from an objective necessity of collective understanding of art as a realistic image of an object, which made it manifest itself in many interdependent art movements. the art of the th century does not articulate its experience in clear, realistic notions, but by changing conceptions of reality that demand new ways of coding perception schemes that require the observer to put in an effort in understanding. this fact often caused th-century art to be perceived badly by an average, artistically non-educated observer. we have conducted this research to explore whether art education can improve reference, understanding, and observation of th-century art. exploring preferences includes questioning many factors that may influence them in adults, adolescents, and children. these factors include age, sex, sociocultural factors, personality, surroundings, and education. since the s, scientific research of children’s preferences has emerged to clarify the criteria by which children choose works of art [ – ]. all of these indicate that the important factors in children’s preferences are motif, color, and realism in depicting a subject. later research [ – ] showed that younger children prefer realistic art to other kinds. it also showed that, as they age, children become more sensitive to individual styles of art, as well as artistic principles of shaping [ , , – ]. some authors [ , ] studied the preferences of visual motifs in pupils. kraguljac and karlavaris [ ] studied the connection between preferences and education in grade school, trying to determine whether the value of an experimental program of art appreciation can improve the quality of art education in grade schools. the research took two years and led the educ. sci. , , of authors to the conclusion that the experimental program positively influenced the development of appreciative abilities in students. it also showed a positive influence on artistic expression and creative abilities, especially in puberty. similar results, also indicating a connection between education and a higher aesthetic consciousness, were observed by cole [ ], who studied the influence of aesthetic education adapted to museums on preferences of children aged four, six, and eight. cole found that a programmatic museum education elevated aesthetic awareness in children. aylward et al. [ ] also researched the influence of artistic education on children. they, too, concluded that artistic education influenced preschool children positively. savva and trimis [ ] researched the reactions of preschool children to contemporary art. their research has shown that a child’s contact with works of art (including contemporary art displays in museums) is an important part of their learning experience, if adequate methods are used. acer and omerolu [ ] explored the influence of aesthetic education on the evaluation process in six-year-old children. in this case, the education (although of high quality) did not prove to be completely effective in children’s aesthetic judgment. this research aims to show whether art education may be a factor in influencing the preferences regarding th-century art in younger grade-school students. . materials and methods the participants were informed that the research on art preferences was to be conducted at the beginning and the end of a school year. data on art preferences were collected while the students observed visual art reproductions on computer screens, coupled so that every pair of reproductions showed a classical work of art and a th-century work of art. it was explained to the students that they would be observing images of different periods (without mentioning names of paintings, painters, or art movements), deciding which ones they prefer and immediately rating every image on a scale of to by choosing a smiley face that shows how much they like or dislike a certain image. imagery of no artistic value was also shown among the reproductions. fourth-grade pupils used the likert five-point scale ( —i like it a lot, —i like it, —neutral, —i do not like it, —i do not like it at all). first-grade pupils expressed themselves through a visual scale contained of smiley faces. the pupils evaluated the works of art twice, at the beginning and at the end of a school year. the images were shown in pairs of five rotating matrices, so that the position of the image within a pair would not influence their judgement. the pairs contained reproductions belonging to art movements up to and th-century art, both mixed with images without artistic value. the evaluation time was s, and the pupils were asked to evaluate as quickly as possible and choose their answer as soon as they saw the images. the control group in the first (n = ) and third (n = ) grades had no additional education between evaluating works of art at the beginning and the ending of the school year. the experimental groups were working with us during the school year in question. the art education was implemented as follows. to achieve this goal and these tasks, we conducted empirical research in grade schools with lower-grade pupils, with which we implemented different sorts of art education while observing changes in their preferences before and after education. the sample comprised primary school students ( boys, girls) who attended first (n = ) and third (n = ) grade. the first-grade students (n = ) were divided into four groups; the control group (n = ) and the experimental groups a (n = ), b (n = ), and c (n = ). the third-grade students were divided in the same way; the control group (n = ) and the experimental groups a (n = ), b (n = ), and c (n = ). the research was conducted in / . the research included classes formed into eight groups (four first grade, four third grade). some classes were completely included in our research, some only partially. the teachers selected the students that participated in our research in those classes that were not included completely in our educ. sci. , , of research. due to organizational issues, as well as the complexity of the research, most pupils were in schools with day care included. the participants were guaranteed anonymity and were asked to answer truthfully and without fear. . . group a—observing works of art group a consisted of first-grade (n = ) and third-grade (n = ) students. after the initial evaluation of their preference (november ) regarding art movements up to and th-century art mixed with imagery of no artistic value, they were presented with th-century works of art. compared to the control group, group a had additional observation of th-century works of art (abstract art— paintings, fauvism— paintings, cubism— paintings, pop art— paintings, classical— paintings, surrealism— paintings) education in this group was strictly limited to observing reproductions, the first three being the ones students had already seen in the initial preference testing. every image was viewed carefully for one minute without any comments from research participants. in november, the pupils were shown three works of art, and in the months that followed (up to june ) images in all, belonging to th-century art movements. in the months in which six reproductions were shown, the pupils observed them approximately every two weeks. after observing the th-century works of art, there was an evaluation of preferences at the end of the school year, the same as in other groups. . . group b—educational use of puppets group b consisted of first-grade (n = ) and third-grade (n = ) students. they observed the same works of art, but a puppet was used as an educational aid. it was used to explain the characteristics of the art movements of the th century and to focus the students’ attention on observing the images, the language of visual arts, and the basic characteristics of the art movements, while aiming to clarify the works of art. the exposure procedure was the same as in group a: in november they were shown three works of art, and in the months that followed (up to june ) images in all, belonging to th-century art movements. in the months in which six reproductions were shown, the students observed them approximately every two weeks. when meeting the students, conversation about each image lasted – min in first grade and – min in third grade. the reproductions were shown (powerpoint) on a large screen, and the communication was frontal with the puppet as an aid. the whole group actively participated in observing and commenting on the reproductions. the puppets used were the rudolf the reindeer hand puppet (in first grade) and the janja the sheep puppet (in third grade). the puppets were used as communication devices, a medium to motivate the students to be spontaneous and learn about art, all while making it clear that there were no wrong answers and that their observations are all equally valid. the students were encouraged to be active, participate without fear, and compare thoughts. the puppets were both givers and receivers of information. the students were introduced to the observation method of giving life to paintings and art, which would be practically non-existent if there were no people who observed them. the examiner encouraged the students, using the puppet, to do the following: . observe works of art (look at this painting! who painted it? who are the painters? do you know any painters?) . describe works of art (what is in this painting? describe what you see and recognize in this painting. do you see shapes like these in the world around you? where do you see shapes like these?) . analyze works of art (first grade—name the colors, primary and secondary. what shapes are shown? do you see any shapes and colors repeating themselves? do you see dark and light colors? third grade—name the colors, primary and secondary. what shapes are shown? do you see any patterns of colors and shapes? do you see dark and light colors? do you see complementary colors? do you see the chromatic–achromatic contrast? do you see warm and cold contrasting colors? do you recognize any dark–light contrast? do you see a rhythm and ratio of differently sized shapes?) . educ. sci. , , of interpret works of art (why do you think the painter painted this? imagine entering this painting, being inside it. what does this work of art make you feel? what does it remind you of?) the students were introduced to the characteristics of individual art movements through a puppet. . evaluate works of art (after you have found out something about this work of art, how do you feel about it at the moment? what does this work of art mean to you? can you connect it to something in your life? who would you give it to as a present?). the education of the students in the experimental groups lasted h ( weeks of education). . . group c—creative artistic expression/artwork group c, like groups a and b, consisted of first-grade (n = ) and third-grade (n = ) students. the students in group c expressed themselves in shaping art forms according to the th-century art movements which group a observed and group b discussed using puppets. at the beginning of every educational class, students observed the same works of art that they had seen before. when they were expressing themselves artistically, they used different artistic elements. when they were introduced to cubism, the students were given the information about the cubist painters wanting to paint unusually, because they did not care about the actual look of an object, instead they wanted to view it playfully in different ways. they melted different sides into a single image. they also wanted to change the qualities of objects observed, simplifying them to basic geometrical shapes (analytical cubism). before creative work, the pupils observed different objects from different viewpoints to understand the principles of cubism. the first- and third-grade pupils tried to form their own cubist paintings through different creative motivational games. first- and third-grade pupils tried to create their own cubist paintings through different creative motivational games. in first and third grades, they tried to make a portrait and still life; in the third grade they also painted a cubist landscape. the pupils were informed that surrealist paintings looked like they were showing wonderful and funny dreams of the artists. surrealists tried to connect objects and people in new and unexpected ways, ones that do not exist in real life. they were also told that surrealists had a rich imagination, using their art as a way of expressing fears, secrets, dreams, unusual and weird thoughts; their work may seem confusing and frightening because it does not exist in real life. pupils were encouraged to try to express the untold and unreal. through creative games, they used motifs of a surrealist portrait and an unusual dream of a clock (first grade), as well as a surrealist self-portrait and an unusual animal (third grade). in both grades, we modified the surrealist cadavre exquis method to make the students finish a drawing started by a small fragment glued to a piece of paper. this resulted in unusual imagery. in pop art, we explained that the artists depicted only often-seen objects from everyday life. they wanted to show what the contemporary human was surrounded with: comics, ads, stickers on food packaging and bottles, mass-produced objects for everyday use viewed as works of art. the pupils also learned that pop art included famous models, stars, and the latest consumer goods. after learning this, the pupils expressed themselves motivated by pop-art-inspired creative games. in first and third grade, the pupils expressed themselves through motifs of a flag and a popular singer, severina vučković. the first-grade pupils also made portraits of blanka vlašić, olympic gold medalist, and the third-grade pupils used consumer goods as motifs. fauvism did not require any special explanations. the pupils learned that fauvist painters used clear, strong colors to make the paintings wild and powerful. they often used strong contrast, especially of complementary colors. purity of colors used made objects, shapes, and landscapes look unusual and slightly skewed. the pupils expressed themselves through portraits and landscapes using strong contrasts of color. the first-grade pupils made self-portraits with an umbrella, the third-grade pupils painted a still life. to clarify abstract art, we presented the fact that there is no motif or way to decode what the image is showing because the painters were not interested in the real appearance of objects. the pupils educ. sci. , , of learned that the painters tried to express the beauty of rhythm and contrast of lines, colors, and shapes that have a language of their own. the pupils were then encouraged to create abstract art. in both the first and second grade, they shaped different abstract compositions. through creative artistic expression, visual games of recomposing and redefining, using lines, colors, and shapes, mostly with collage, markers, and poster paint, the pupils achieved some interesting visuals. . . instruments . . . abstract art . wassily kandinsky. red oval. , oil on canvas. . piet mondrian. composition in color a/compositie in kleur a. , oil on canvas. . piet mondrian, composition with red, blue, black, yellow, and gray. , oil on canvas. . franz kline, le gros. , oil on canvas. . robert motherwell, the little spanish prison, – , oil on canvas. . jackson pollock, untitled, , black and sepia ink on mulberry paper. . jackson pollock, untitled (green silver), ca. , enamel and aluminum paint on paper, mounted on canvas. . robert motherwell, elegy to the spanish republic, , , oil on canvas. . franz kline, black reflections, , oil and pasted paper on paper, mounted on masonite. . . . surrealism . salvador dalí. the rotting donkey. , oil, sand and gravel collage panel. . salvador dalí. man of sickly complexion listening to the sound of the sea or the two balconies. , oil on wood panel. . max ernst. birds; also: birds, fish-snake and scarecrow. c. , oil on canvas. . max ernst. ubu imperator. , oil on canvas. . rené magritte. la durée poignardée. , oil on canvas. . rené magritte. golconda. , oil on canvas. . salvador dalí, the persistence of memory. , oil on canvas. . rené magritte. the pleasure principle (portrait of edward james). , oil on canvas. . max ernst. l’ange du foyer ou le triomphe du surréalisme. , oil on canvas. . . . fauvism . henri matisse. madame matisse, “the green line”. , oil on canvas. . henri matisse. dishes and fruit on a red and black carpet. , oil on canvas. . henri matisse. the algerian woman. , oil on canvas. . maurice de vlaminck. autumn landscape. , oil on canvas. . andré derain. fishing boats, collioure. , oil on canvas. . andré derain. london bridge. , oil on canvas. . maurice de vlaminck. andré derain. , oil on cardboard. . maurice de vlaminck. the river seine at chatou. , oil on canvas. . henri matisse. the young sailor. , oil on canvas. . . . cubism . juan gris. breakfast. . gouache, oil, and crayon on cut-and-pasted printed paper on canvas with oil and crayon . juan gris. violin and playing cards. , oil on canvas. educ. sci. , , of . georges braque. still life with glass and letters. , cut-and-pasted printed paper, charcoal, pastel, and pencil on paper. . georges braque. guitar. (summer ) cut-and-pasted printed and painted paper, charcoal, pencil, and gouache on gessoes canvas. . georges braque. still life on a mantelpiece. , gesso, gouache, watercolor, and graphite pencil on paper, mounted on board, . juan gris. still life with flowers. , oil on canvas, . juan gris. mandolin and grapes. , gouache and pencil on paper. . juan gris. bottle of rum and newspaper. . . pablo picasso, mandolin and guitar. , oil with sand on canvas. . . . pop art . andy warhol. untitled from marilyn monroe. one from a portfolio of ten screen prints, composition and sheet. . roy lichtenstein. reverie from pop artists, volume ii. (published ), one from a portfolio of eleven screen prints by various artists, composition: . . roy lichtenstein. turkey shopping bag. , screen print on shopping bag with handles, composition: . . andy warhol. À la recherché du shoe perdu. , illustrated book with eighteen photo lithographs with watercolor additions. . jasper johns. three flags. , encaustic on canvas. . andy warhol. jackie. , silkscreen ink on polymer paint on canvas. . andy warhol. vegetarian vegetable from campbell’s soup ii. , screen print. . roy lichtenstein. drowning girl. , oil and synthetic polymer paint on canvas. . jasper johns. flags. , lithograph. . . . paintings before the th century . jusepe de ribera. the holy family with saints anne and catherine of alexandria. , oil on canvas, . × . cm. . pierre auguste renoir. woman with parrot (la femme à la perruche). , oil on canvas, . × . cm. . claude monet. garden at sainte-adresse. , oil on canvas . pieter bruegel the elder. the harvesters. , oil on wood. . Édouard manet. boating. , oil on canvas. . anthony van dyck. self-portrait. – , oil on canvas. . canaletto. piazza san marco. , oil on canvas. . eugène delacroix. ovid among the scythians. , oil on paper laid down on wood. . paul cézanne. mont sainte-victoire and the viaduct of the arc river valley, – , oil on canvas. . rembrandt (rembrandt van rijn). herman doomer. , oil on wood. . edgar degas. the dance class. , oil on canvas. . jean-auguste-dominique ingres. madame jacques-louis leblanc (née françoise poncelle). , oil on canvas. . vlaho bukovac. mladi violinist (armando meneghello). , oil on canvas. . diego rodríguez de silva y velázquez. don gaspar de guzmán ( – ), count-duke of olivares. ca. , oil on canvas. . paul gauguin. still life with teapot and fruit. , oil on canvas. visual works without artistic value were three reproductions from an interior design magazine. educ. sci. , , of . results in order to determine the impact of different types of education on artistic preferences, we used r software [ ]. descriptive statistics and some preparation functions for further analysis were done with the psych package for psychological research [ ]. to analyze the differences between the two points (beginning and end of the school year) and impact of treatment on pupils’ attitudes to seven different art movements, we used cumulative link models (clms) for ordinal data (also called ordinal regression models, or proportional odds models) [ ]. cumulative link models are a different approach to analyzing ordinal data with different types of packages in r; we primarily used the ordinal package [ ]. the significance of the effects of treatment were also tested with an analysis of deviance (anode) approach, which is analogous to the analysis of variance (anova). these models help us to interpret if there is a significant effect of treatment on preference for different art movements. post hoc tests were conducted with the lsmeans package and tukey approach to help us identify a significant difference among groups [ ]. the least square means are means for groups that are adjusted for means of other factors in the model [ ]. the figures (figures and ) were done with the ggplot function within the ggplot package [ ]. educ. sci. , , x for peer review of significant difference among groups [ ]. the least square means are means for groups that are adjusted for means of other factors in the model [ ]. the figures (figures and ) were done with the ggplot function within the ggplot package [ ]. figure . change of artistic preferences according to time and style. figure shows the differences in the least square means of preferences between the beginning and end of the school year among different art movements. there were changes in all styles, with the highest values being at the end of the treatment, except for art made before the th century and images without artistic value (table ), where we have lower values (p < . ). table . pairwise comparisons among the least square means according to time and style. time style lsmean se asymp lcl ** asymp ucl ** group * beginning abstract art − . . − . − . a beginning cubism − . . − . − . b end abstract art − . . − . − . c end cubism − . . − . − . d beginning surrealism − . . − . . e beginning pop art . . − . . e beginning fauvism . . . . f end surrealism . . . . f end pop art . . . . g end fauvism . . . . g end paintings without artistic value . . . . h beginning paintings without artistic value . . . . hi end paintings made before th century . . . . i beginning paintings made before th century . . . . j figure . change of artistic preferences according to time and style. figure shows the differences in the least square means of preferences between the beginning and end of the school year among different art movements. there were changes in all styles, with the highest values being at the end of the treatment, except for art made before the th century and images without artistic value (table ), where we have lower values (p < . ). educ. sci. , , of table . pairwise comparisons among the least square means according to time and style. time style lsmean se asymp lcl ** asymp ucl ** group * beginning abstract art − . . − . − . a beginning cubism − . . − . − . b end abstract art − . . − . − . c end cubism − . . − . − . d beginning surrealism − . . − . . e beginning pop art . . − . . e beginning fauvism . . . . f end surrealism . . . . f end pop art . . . . g end fauvism . . . . g end paintings without artistic value . . . . h beginning paintings without artistic value . . . . hi end paintings made before th century . . . . i beginning paintings made before th century . . . . j * common letter indicates that there were no statistical differences between those groups. ** lcl—lower control limit, ucl—upper control limit. educ. sci. , , x for peer review of * common letter indicates that there were no statistical differences between those groups. ** lcl—lower control limit, ucl—upper control limit. figure . impact of treatment on artistic preferences. a = , ( ) figure shows the differences in least square means of preferences between the beginning and end of the school year among different treatments. table shows the pairwise comparisons according to the results of interaction between time and treatment. in the control group, there were no significant statistical differences between the least square means at the beginning and end of the school year (p < . ). in all of the other three treatments (watching, puppet, and work), there were statistically significant differences between the beginning and end least square mean values. table . pairwise comparisons among the least square means according to time and treatment. time treatment lsmean se asymp lcl asymp ucl group * beginning puppets . . . . a beginning work . . . . ab beginning watching . . . . bc end control . . . . cd beginning control . . . . cde end watching . . . . de end puppets . . . . ef end work . . . . f * common letter indicates that there were no statistical differences between those groups. . discussion this research aims to show how different sorts of education influence the preference for works of art belonging to different art movements. besides that, we have tried to question whether there are differences in that influence considering different art movements. for example, does additional education influence preference more when it comes to the art made before the th century or works without any artistic value when compared to abstract art and other th-century art movements? figure . impact of treatment on artistic preferences. a = , ( ) figure shows the differences in least square means of preferences between the beginning and end of the school year among different treatments. table shows the pairwise comparisons according to the results of interaction between time and treatment. in the control group, there were no significant statistical differences between the least square means at the beginning and end of the school year (p < . ). in all of the other three treatments (watching, puppet, and work), there were statistically significant differences between the beginning and end least square mean values. educ. sci. , , of table . pairwise comparisons among the least square means according to time and treatment. time treatment lsmean se asymp lcl asymp ucl group * beginning puppets . . . . a beginning work . . . . ab beginning watching . . . . bc end control . . . . cd beginning control . . . . cde end watching . . . . de end puppets . . . . ef end work . . . . f * common letter indicates that there were no statistical differences between those groups. . discussion this research aims to show how different sorts of education influence the preference for works of art belonging to different art movements. besides that, we have tried to question whether there are differences in that influence considering different art movements. for example, does additional education influence preference more when it comes to the art made before the th century or works without any artistic value when compared to abstract art and other th-century art movements? the results indicate the existence of an influence of additional art education on the pupils’ preferences, depending on the art movement. the pupils reacted well to different forms of additional education, showing a higher preference for works of art belonging to the periods before the th century and works without artistic value. additional education influenced a change of preference for abstract, cubist, fauvist, surrealist, and pop art. preference for classical works of art made before the th century did not change significantly at the end of school year when compared to the initial preferences. the research has shown that the current educational curriculum in schools that consists of the observation of works of art is not enough; other sorts of education, such as using puppets and analyzing particular works of art are needed. the evidence listed leads us to the conclusion that a person’s relation to culture is not biologically conditioned, but educationally and culturally conditioned, and this research presents an attitude towards culture as shaped by learning. as ingarden [ ] wrote a long time ago that “what matters in constituting an aesthetic experience is not a spontaneous emotional reaction to the tactile qualities of an object, but a concentrated focus on a qualitative dimension of its existence” [ ]. these are the reasons for us to emphasize that formal education is the key factor in pupils’ preferences, as is shown by the research data. exploring the models of art education regardless of the art movements of the th century, we have demonstrated that the lowest positive results in changing pupils’ preferences were registered in the group that only observed works of art, while almost equally good results were visible in both the groups learning through a puppet and the ones doing creative work/artwork. raskin claimed that experience—even at its simplest level of perception—is never within the “innocent eye” concept [ ]; “the way we observe the world, even what we perceive, depends on our horizon of expectation.” this horizon is a product of interaction between subjective factors such as needs, preferences, and personal experience on one side, and objective knowledge derived from historical–cultural frames to which an individual belongs on the other [ ]. we have also concluded that knowledge of art may have a crucial role in understanding it if the work of art in question is connected to children’s experience and feelings, while being incorporated into the activity of creating art. children working through their own activities have confirmed piaget’s thesis about “the child as the primary builder of their self-understanding” [ ]. taught by the experience of bruner (especially the part about the importance of teaching and communication in understanding and knowledge) and vygotsky (especially the zone of proximal development, zpd), who positions teaching in the center of developing understanding, we may conclude that a child’s learning greatly depends educ. sci. , , of on learning from and communication with experts. the interactive teacher–student relationship has resulted in a positive change of preferences for lower-grade-school pupils in regard to the th-century art movements. the pupils understood how that art was created, under which circumstances, and it enriched their thoughts about the works of art. teaching, observing, and understanding visual arts is a process requiring time and effort, as well as an interactive environment in which the role of adults in explaining art through different contexts stays a valuable component in understanding. the research included pupils aged – , with no other groups included, which we see as a limitation. in future research, it would be interesting to include older students, aged – , while introducing some psychological variables such as temper and creativity, and adding more th-century art movements. . conclusions we have undoubtedly established that attitudes towards art are formed by learning, which is visible in a positive preference change concerning th-century art. we have also confirmed that different sorts of art education, such as observing works of art, introducing works of art with the aid of a puppet, and creative activity/artwork based on the observed art movements, helped pupils understand the art language of particular art movements, which changed their perception of th-century art. according to this, art education must change in the direction of the implementation of instruments and tools such as working with puppets and concrete creative work of pupils on th-century paintings. acquiring knowledge and experience through developing the pupils’ creative abilities and nurturing a sense of understanding of the values of art had a positive impact on the pupils’ interest in th-century art. new research might explore the application of the described educational models in familiarizing students with art of different styles and from different centuries. introducing works of art with the aid of a puppet is useful for first-grade students as a means of communicating with works of art. author contributions: conceptualization, d.k.; methodology, g.k.; validation, g.k.; investigation, d.k.; resources, d.k., m.b.; data curation, g.k.; writing—original draft preparation, d.k.; writing—review and editing, m.b.; supervision, m.b.; project administration, m.b. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. funding: this research received no external funding. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . anderson, t.; milbrandt, m. art for life: authentic instruction in art; mcgraw-hill: new york, ny, usa, . . eisner, e. the arts and the creation of mind; yale university 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[crossref] . wood, d. kako djeca misle i uče, društveni konteksti spoznajnog razvitka; educa: zagreb, croatia, . © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /issn. - .iiass- -no -art http://dx.doi.org/ . /tner. . . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - https://www.r-project.org https://cran.r-project.org/package=psych http://www.cran.r-project.org/package=ordinal http://dx.doi.org/ . /jss.v .i http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	materials and methods 	group a—observing works of art 	group b—educational use of puppets 	group c—creative artistic expression/artwork 	instruments 	abstract art 	surrealism 	fauvism 	cubism 	pop art 	paintings before the th century 	results 	discussion 	conclusions 	references detalhes das obras fruit dish and glass, , de georges braque; popeye, , de jeff koons; e shredder . , , de mark napier. vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste: algumas considerações sobre a colagem na produção artística contemporânea com o desenvolvimento das tecnologias digitais, “recortar”, “copiar” e “colar”, tornaram-se operações familiares, padrão determinante de um novo modo de se relacionar com a informação visual. aprofundando a inter-relação entre colagem, inovação tecnológica e cultura de massa, este texto sugere algumas possibilidades de atualização da poética do fragmento na produção artística contemporânea. through the development of digital technologies, operations such as to “cut”, “copy” and “paste” became colloquial; a pattern that establishes a new way to deal with visual information. emphasizing the inter-relations between collage, technological innovation and mass culture, this article suggests some possibilities of bringing up to date the poetics of fragment in contemporary art production. palavras-chave: colagem; arte contemporânea; pintura; novas tecnologias; mídias digitais keywords: collage; contemporary art; painting; new technology; digital media ars ano nº . introdução uma mulher entra na sala de cinema com o filme prestes a começar. na tela, os créditos iniciais e o título do filme: viver a vida (jean-luc godard, ). mal se senta, começa a escrever uma mensagem em seu smartphone. inicia-se uma conversa via sms com uma segunda mulher que, como vemos na tomada seguinte, encontra-se em outro cinema, assistindo a o corretor (atom egoyan, ). acompanhamos o teor da conversa pela pequena tela dos próprios aparelhos, enquadrada sucessivamente pela câmera. em dado momento, a personagem do filme de godard, interpretada por anna karina, entra também num cinema, onde assiste à versão de joanna d’arc de carl theodor dreyer ( ). vemos uma sequência do filme de dreyer, dentro da sequência de godard. ao comentar sobre a beleza de antonin artaud, que atua no filme de dreyer, a primeira mulher liga seu aparelho no modo “câmera” e começa a filmar a tela de projeção, retransmitindo em tempo real para a amiga as imagens que o aparelho captura. numa tomada mais aberta, vemos a primeira mulher assistindo ao filme na tela do cinema e, simultaneamente, no lcd do celular. no plano seguinte, as imagens desse novo “filme” digital no celular da segunda mulher, sobrepostas às imagens do outro filme que, ao fundo, se desenrola. a situação acima descrita transcorre nos poucos minutos do curta- metragem “artaud double bill” ( ) , do canadense atom egoyan. para além da falta de bons modos no cinema, o filme levanta questões sintomáticas sobre nossa relação com as imagens no mundo de hoje. o caráter banal das ações representadas no curta explicitam como uma série de procedimentos antes restritos a um universo especializado foram amplamente integrados ao cotidiano com o advento das novas tecnologias, transformando de modo significativo nossa percepção. . picasso é pop É ponto pacífico, qualquer seja a linha de análise proposta, decretar a “invenção” da colagem na primeira década do século passado como um passo fundamental na história da arte do ocidente. ação catalisadora de uma infinidade de outras pesquisas que, servindo a propósitos diversos, permearia a vanguarda moderna. produto de seu tempo, as experiências com a colagem, então, refletiam uma nova subjetividade, em diálogo direto com as mudanças culturais e epistemológicas trazidas pelo avanço da incipiente sociedade industrial, onde termos como “velocidade”, “aceleração” e “fluxo” eram . um dos episódios que compõem a antologia chacun son cinéma, filme comissionado como parte das comemorações do º aniversário do festival de cinema de cannes. vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste redefinidos. sua proliferação coincide ainda com um momento de implementação das telecomunicações e dos sistemas de transporte que formariam substrato para a expansão das redes de informação futuras. o desenvolvimento da indústria gráfica, relacionada tanto à propaganda e ao comércio de bens de consumos manufaturados, como à divulgação de mensagens políticas e ao entretenimento popular, transforma a paisagem urbana das metrópoles europeias no decorrer do século xix. camadas de informação aparecem justapostas/sobrepostas, seja nas placas das fachadas dos estabelecimentos, seja nos muros ou postes das vias públicas. fragmentos heterogêneos de imagem e tipografia disputam com as atraentes vitrines das lojas a atenção do passante. algumas fotografias de eugéne atget da cidade de paris na virada do século testemunham essa abundância de material impresso de caráter efêmero em circulação [fig. ]. se uma mudança de temas e modos de representação – decorrente de novos questionamentos sobre a percepção visual – pode ser notada na arte do período, começando em manet e passando pelas pesquisas dos impressionistas e pós-impressionistas, não é sem atrito que os elementos “intrusos” dessa cultura de massa em desenvolvimento irão, aos poucos, figurar no universo da arte. esse processo de apropriação era muitas vezes visto como “meio” em direção a fins mais “respeitáveis”, tensionando as relações entre uma iconografia advinda da experiência do espaço urbano e uma arte restrita a sua autonomia formal . nesse contexto, as pesquisas de picasso e braque, que culminariam na colagem, configuram rupturas significativas, portanto, em dois sentidos distintos, ainda que inter-relacionados. quando, no fim do verão de , braque sai de uma loja de avignon com um rolo de papel de parede estampado com veios de madeira sob o braço – para mais tarde, em seu ateliê, aplicá-lo não na parede, mas sobre uma tela – dá andamento a uma operação que, se por um lado, romperia definitivamente com o espaço naturalista na pintura, cânon vigente na representação pictórica desde a adoção da perspectiva linear no renascimento, por outro lado, fazia-o pela inserção física de um elemento industrializado, mundano, no espaço vernacular da pintura. aqui [...] se dá a colisão de dois mundos aparentemente separados, aquele do isolamento hermético do artista em sua torre de marfim, com suas explorações particulares de territórios estéticos desconheci- dos, e aquele do assalto vulgar, mas vigoroso, que se estende do lado de fora da porta do estúdio, um mundo de cafés, bancas de jornais, music halls, outdoors, embalagens industrializadas, jornais, ilustrações comerciais, lojas de departamento e uma série de novas invenções que poderiam voar tão alto quanto os aviões dos irmãos wright e louis . cf. crow, t. modern art in the common culture. londres: yale university press, , p. . fig. eugène atget. rue saint-jacques, . ars ano nº blériot ou somar prazer e conveniência à vida diária, como os cinemas, a luz elétrica, a lâmina de barbear, o despertador ou os pacotes de ce- reais para o café da manhã, vindos da américa . convém enfatizar que “explorações particulares” no que se refere ao questionamento da perspectiva como forma de representação foram constantes no decorrer do século xix, em grande parte por novas indagações no plano da percepção, suscitadas pelas descobertas trazidas com o desenvolvimento científico e industrial – a invenção da fotografia, neste momento, tem um papel fundamental. questionar a perspectiva como modelo significava, antes, questionar o próprio modo de perceber e representar o mundo. o caráter revolucionário do papel de parede colado em fruit dish and glass ( ) [fig. ], de braque, reside no modo como a materialidade desse reforça o plano da tela como superfície literal, rompendo com os códigos da representação naturalista. visualidade e tateabilidade se afirmam mutuamente. a unidade espacial da perspectiva geométrica é substituída pela disposição de fragmentos sobre um fundo que já atua quase como um anteparo. . cf. rosenblum, r. cubism as pop art, p. . fig. georges braque. fruit dish and glass, , colagem e carvão sobre papel. coleção particular. vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste outro aspecto igualmente relevante que reforça o gesto inovador do artista implica a escolha do papel de parede como material. obras anteriores a fruit dish atestam que uma busca por outras soluções formais já estava em andamento – como o uso de areia, cinza e serragem, por braque, e a escolha de picasso pelo ripolin – dando ênfase à materialidade da tinta. a aplicação de um elemento industrializado, contudo, cria no âmbito da arte relações semânticas de outra ordem. a série de papier collés que picasso e braque fariam a partir de então deixa claro que a escolha da matéria-prima é deliberada. os elementos que figuram nessas obras provinham de um repertório que se aproximava mais do cidadão urbano comum, frequentador das salas de entretenimento popular, do que do connaiseur habituado aos corredores do louvre. a esfera mundana predomina tanto no uso frequente de recortes de jornais como nas referências escritas a canções populares da época. [as] propaganda e canções, trazidas aos primeiros papier collés, palavras da cultura popular e comercial que picasso apreciava por suas vozes aurais, musicais e declarativas – assim como por suas insinuações sexuais, seu frisson erótico ou piadas de humor negro. se agitam com as cores dos momentos passados despreocupadamente no entretenimento urbano, ou observando os efeitos das vitrines . no ensaio cubism as pop art, robert rosenblum enfatiza a intenção de picasso, em sua ma jolie ( - ) ao referenciar tanto sua namorada de então, marcelle humbert, quanto, numa esfera mais ampla, o refrão de uma famosa canção popular da época e, sem medo do anacronismo, conclui: “transposto para , o efeito seria semelhante a encontrar o nome de uma das mais famosas canções dos beatles inscrita na base de um rothko”. isso posto, não me parece despropositado questionar: se ao invés do papel de parede comprado naquele verão, braque tivesse colado sobre a tela um outro material qualquer que ele próprio tivesse pintado, imitando veios de madeira, o impacto e relevância da obra teriam sido os mesmos? . na época da reprodutibilidade técnica o desenvolvimento da colagem como processo artístico estabelece, portanto, desde sua origem, um vínculo estreito com o universo industrial, e de modo mais profundo, com o segmento deste responsável pela produção de informação visual: as artes gráficas. matéria-prima fundamental, a imagem impressa, nos diferentes veículos em circulação, formaria um grande conjunto de formas prontas – material abundante e, muitas vezes descartável – sujeitas à apropriação. por extensão, o contínuo aprimoramento das técnicas de produzir imagem não só aumentaria a variedade e quantidade do material impresso . cf. taylor, b. collage – the making of modern art. nova iorque: thames & hudson, , p. . ars ano nº disponível, como iria, por outro lado, conferir aos artistas novas ferramentas de trabalho. como veremos, o lastro na tecnologia será definidor na orientação das possibilidades e dos significados da colagem no decorrer do século. partindo dessa relação “novas técnicas/novas imagens”, podemos delimitar alguns pontos de inflexão na história da colagem. apesar de ter servido a poéticas díspares, perpassando os movimentos de vanguarda na primeira metade do século xx – construtivistas, dadaístas e surrealistas, principalmente –, como técnica a colagem sofreu poucas mudanças até a década de , quando a popularização da serigrafia traria mudanças significativas ao processo. na década de , o mesmo papel caberia às fotocopiadoras (xérox), e na década de , à tecnologia da informática, culminando na internet, nos anos . amplamente empregado no campo da moda para estampar grandes áreas de tecido – apropriação, portanto, de um procedimento industrial exógeno à tradição da gravura nas artes – o silk-screen permitia a transferência rápida de imagens readymade do domínio midiático para a tela, através do uso de uma emulsão foto-sensível. o uso de tal processo implicará duas mudanças simultâneas: em primeiro lugar, o desaparecimento abrupto do fragmento readymade pode ser visto como o ponto final de uma longa tradição iniciada por volta de , onde a realidade material era importada para superfície ilusionista, desconstruindo, de modo considerável, a linguagem de representação [pictórica] dos últimos quatro séculos. ainda, a adoção dos métodos fotográficos de silk-screen foi pensada, pode-se dizer, para ampliar as possibilidades das justaposições do tipo colagem, por meio de novas ordenações de escala, orientação e, sobretudo, do registro que a passagem da tinta pela malha fotográfica poderia produzir. observar as primeiras black-and-white silk-screen paintings de rauschenberg ( - ) [fig. ], por exemplo, é testemunhar a exuberância nascida de um novo repertório técnico – borrões, sobreposições, inversões e recolorações – que a serigrafia rapidamente proporciona . a substituição do objeto material pela imagem fotográfica reflete de modo eficaz uma sociedade cada vez mais regida pela aparência. o universo do showbizz e do cinema inunda a cultura com imagens de seus astros, trazendo implícitos ideais reformulados de fama e glamour. como na marilyn de warhol, a representação da atriz dá lugar à reprodução de sua própria imagem. trabalhar não mais na, mas a partir da imagem impressa, transformada em matriz, introduziu ainda questões ligadas à repetição e à seriação na arte. descontextualizada, a mesma imagem . ibidem, p. . vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste poderia transitar por várias obras, conferindo significados diversos a cada contexto em que fosse aplicada; o que, na mesma medida, reafirmava-a como superfície vazia, destituída de um significado próprio. a repetição em série da mesma marilyn justaposta no plano da pintura reforça que ali já não vemos um retrato, mas um processo de multiplicar imagens. as implicações de produzir uma obra através da reprodução mecânica de imagens mecanicamente produzidas serão reformuladas com o advento das novas tecnologias digitais. fig. robert rauschenberg. almanac, , óleo, acrílica e serigrafia sobre tela. ars ano nº . caminhos da colagem moderna se, como até aqui demonstrado, podemos estabelecer um fio condutor comum que une a colagem à produção da cultura de massa e, de forma adjacente, ao desenvolvimento industrial-tecnológico, tal fato, contudo, considera apenas alguns aspectos da questão, o que demanda um outro foco de análise. no plano da pintura, as experiências na colagem de braque e picasso – que desencadeariam uma série de novas propostas estéticas que reverberam em rauschenberg e johns – tornaram necessária uma revisão de conceitos no âmbito da arte, uma vez que as categorias formalizadas pela tradição ocidental não mais davam conta de definir tais obras. um vasto debate teórico, portanto, mantém-se subjacente a essa produção, tentando resgatar, num contexto onde os limites entre a “grande” arte e a cultura de massa se tornavam progressivamente menos sólidos, o que ainda restava para garantir a primeira enquanto tal. as proposições de clement greenberg em defesa de uma pintura voltada a seus meios específicos como garantia de qualidade artística ilustra em parte essas preocupações. segundo o crítico, a pintura moderna, numa orientação teleológica rumo a suas especificidades, foi aos poucos se desfazendo dos atributos pertencentes a outras formas de arte – a narrativa, a representação do volume, o plano ilusório da perspectiva geométrica – enfatizando assim o que lhe era próprio e único: a configuração plana da tela. no texto colagem, de , escreve sobre as colagens de braque: essas intervenções, com sua planaridade (flatness) auto-evidente, externa e abrupta, faziam o olhar parar na superfície literal, física, da tela [...]; já não se tratava de interpor uma ilusão mais vívida de profundidade entre a superfície e o espaço cubista, mas de especificar a planaridade real da pintura [...]. a superfície era agora indicada explicitamente . apesar de acuradas, as observações do crítico servem, no fim das contas, a uma proposta teórica bastante restritiva – como foi demonstrado posteriormente por outros autores que o tomaram como interlocutor – abrindo poucas possibilidades para um entendimento da colagem na arte contemporânea. no livro o espaço moderno ( ), alberto tassinari propõe uma abordagem mais ampla e generosa ao tratar de parte dessas questões. uma “generalização” da colagem, segundo o crítico, seria a chave para melhor compreender as transformações que configurariam um espaço propriamente moderno. sobre tal espaço, estabelece uma divisão em duas fases, um primeiro momento de formação e uma fase de desdobramento (onde se figuram os trabalhos contemporâneos). as colagens de , . cf. ferreira, g. e cotrim, c. (orgs.). clement greenberg e o debate crítico. rio de janeiro: jorge zahar ed., , p. . fig. jasper johns. fool’s house, , óleo sobre tela com objetos. coleção particular. vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste encaixam-se, conforme esse critério, no primeiro momento, enquanto uma pintura como fool’s house ( ), de jasper johns [fig. ], apresenta uma espacialidade moderna já formada em sua estrutura básica. sob essa óptica, sem nada mais guardar de um espaço perspectivo ou naturalista, na pintura de johns, de forma ainda mais radical do que nas colagens cubistas, as coisas são vistas sobre um plano opaco, e não mais “através” dele. em fool’s house, o espaço é completamente exteriorizado; aqui, “se há um fundo, um espaço último, no caso a tela à mostra, ele se expõe como corpo ou figura no espaço do mundo em comum” . a comunicação direta, entre a obra e o espaço do mundo, amplia o problema da indistinção entre esse novo espaço da arte e um espaço cotidiano qualquer, o que compromete a autonomia do primeiro. introduzindo a noção de imitação no contexto da arte contemporânea, tassinari propõe o conceito de “espaço em obra”. em sua formulação, “um espaço em obra imita, por meio dos sinais do fazer, o fazer da obra [...] o espaço em obra é o imitante. o fazer da obra é o imitado [...] as semelhanças que articulam o imitante com o imitado estão nos sinais expostos pela obra das operações que o teriam feito”. continua: só uma pintura ou uma escultura da fase de desdobramento da arte moderna possui uma espacialidade inteiramente apta para a imitação do fazer da obra. aberta para o espaço do mundo em comum, a espacialidade da obra tem o aspecto de um espaço prático, de afazeres. como um anteparo, na pintura, ou como um arranjo espacial de elementos, mesmo que de um único elemento, na escultura, o espaço da arte contemporânea, ao se mostrar aberto ao espaço do mundo em comum, tem aí a maneira pela qual as operações que são nele imitadas o adentram . a partir do conceito de “espaço em obra”, arrisco definir um primeiro caminho possível de “atualização” da colagem na arte de hoje. refiro-me aqui a obras cujas construções, que partem de uma bricolage em grande escala, extrapolam o embaralhamento de categorias que as combine paintings suscitavam, ao criar configurações físicas e afetivas de objetos no espaço. são exemplos a taxonomia peculiar de mark dion, as estruturas site specific formadas pelo agrupamento improvável, de sarah sze, o acúmulo caótico de grandes quantidades de material em tomoko takahashi e jason rhoades [fig. ], e as assemblages em escala arquitetônica de thomas hirschhorn. os outros dois caminhos cujas poéticas problematizam processos da colagem precisam ser vistos à luz de novas formulações, que se originam nos últimos anos com a popularização da informática. em uma vertente, agrupo obras que se apropriam das novas tecnologias e as revertem para as mídias tradicionais. por fim, artistas que . cf. tassinari, a, o espaço moderno. são paulo: cosacnaify, , p. . . ibidem, p. . fig. jason rhoades. detalhe da instalação the black pussy … and the pagan idol workshop, . galeria hauser and with, londres. ars ano nº utilizam processos de construção que remontam às experiências da colagem, mas cujas obras e ferramentas se configuram dentro do mesmo plano virtual. . ainda outros critérios como antes enfatizado, a história da colagem se desenrola em estrita relação com as constantes transformações da paisagem urbana e a solidificação da indústria cultural. tais mudanças, evidentemente, tornaram necessária uma “atualização” das nossas estruturas percep- tivas cuja dimensão podemos entrever com uma simples comparação de três imagens: a paris de atget, em , [fig. ] momento um pouco anterior aos primeiros papier collés; a times square na década de [fig. ], contemporânea às combine paintings, e a mesma times square em sua forma atual [fig. ]. não me parece exagero sugerir, pela comparação, que a configuração do espaço das grandes metrópoles se aproxima muito de uma grande colagem. a modernidade demonstrou como “fragmentação, hibridização, apropriação e simultaneidade vieram a ser percebidas como analogias mais relevantes para a experiência humana do que a imagem ilusória, singular e coerente” . um aprofundamento na relação entre a intervenção tecnológica na vida cotidiana e a progressiva mudança em nossa sensibilidade, principalmente nos dias atuais, parece-me necessária para elucidar mais alguns pontos pertinentes às poéticas contemporâneas. procurando oferecer outros caminhos de interpretação para além das proposições formalistas de greenberg, o crítico leo steinberg, em , empresta das artes gráficas do termo flatbed numa tentativa de conceituar uma vertente da produção artística da década de que propunha uma ruptura com a “pintura americana” vigente. define em outros critérios: . cf. o’reilly, s. et. al. collage - assembling contemporary art. londres: black dog publishing, , p. . fig. eugène atget. rue saint-jacques, . fig. times square ‘ s. fig. times square ‘ s. vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste o plano flatbed da pintura faz alusão simbólica a superfícies duras como tampos de mesa, pisos de ateliê, diagramas ou quadros de aviso – qualquer superfície receptora em que objetos são espalhados, são introduzidos, em que informações podem ser recebidas, impressas, estampadas – seja de maneira coerente ou confusa. as pinturas dos últimos quinze a vinte anos insistem numa orientação radicalmente nova, em que a superfície pintada é o análogo não mais de uma experiência visual da natureza, mas de processos operacionais . no ano seguinte à publicação do trecho acima na revista artforum, os pesquisadores da xerox parc lançavam o xerox alto, que seria considerado o primeiro computador pessoal (personal computer milestones). refinamento de pesquisas anteriores, o alto substituía em parte as linhas de comando do sistema operacional por uma interface gráfica, precursora da maioria das interfaces de hoje. evocando metaforicamente um tampo de uma mesa, a interface gráfica permitia distribuir sobre a área de trabalho janelas de informação, menus, caixas de opção/seleção e ícones, que eram manipulados pelo usuário através de um cursor que correspondia na tela aos movimentos de sua mão no mouse [figs. e a]. sobre essa “superfície” virtual, informações heterogêneas – imagens, textos, gráficos, tabelas de cálculo – funcionavam de modo simultâneo e independente, permitindo ao usuário mover, justapor ou sobrepor informações conforme seu interesse. em última instância, o que se vê na tela são os resultados de operações – dos comandos executados pelo usuário e, num plano estrutural, dos códigos que operam o programa –, operações matemáticas, por fim. por mais distintas que sejam as intenções dos artistas analisados pelo crítico, frente aos engenheiros da xerox, ambos parecem em sintonia com uma reorientação coletiva no que confere ao consumo de informações e, mais especificamente, das informações visuais, no contexto das grandes metrópoles. É bastante significativa, portanto, a analogia, em ambos os . cf. steingerg, l. outros critérios. são paulo: cosacnaify, , p. . . no inglês, gui - graphical user interface. fig. e a computador xerox alto e detalhe da interface gráfica do sistema (the digibarn computer museum - ‹www.digibarn.com› ars ano nº casos, com a mesa de trabalho (desktop) ao definir esse espaço destinado a processos operacionais (“a planaridade da pintura não seria doravante um problema maior que a planaridade de uma escrivaninha em desordem”). steinberg se mostra atento à influência da tecnologia na formação de uma sensibilidade moderna e de seu consequente impacto no universo da arte ao concluir: o que ele [rauschenberg] inventou, acima de tudo foi, penso eu, uma superfície pictórica aberta novamente ao mundo. não o mundo do homem do renascimento, que buscava decifrar os fenômenos atmosféricos olhando pela janela, mas o mundo do homem que gira botões para ouvir uma mensagem gravada [...] transmitida eletronicamente de uma cabine sem janelas. o plano da pintura de rauschenberg é para a consciência imersa no cérebro da cidade . do lançamento no mercado do primeiro macintosh, em , aos dias atuais, a tecnologia da informática se desenvolveu e se popula- rizou de modo extremamente rápido e contínuo, tornando-se ferramenta indispensável no funcionamento da sociedade contemporânea. se essa onipresença dos computadores alterou em grande medida os processos cotidianos, no que concerne à produção e ao consumo de imagens a trans- formação se mostra ainda mais expressiva. falar sobre a arte produzida na era da “revolução digital” demanda, portanto, ainda outros critérios. . dj set dois aspectos distintos, porém em diálogo contínuo, devem ser considerados aos abordarmos a colagem na era digital: a disponibilidade de novas ferramentas, portanto, seu aspecto técnico, e as operações conceituais decorrentes do uso desses novos processos. trabalhar no plano virtual possibilita uma série de operações que as leis físicas do mundo real limitam. as analogias que fundamentam e nomeiam muitos dos “comandos” da área de trabalho do computador os tornam familiares a processos cotidianos; seus resultados, contudo, atualizam o efeito de seus análogos num espaço regido por outras leis. assim, recortar e colar, as ações que estão na origem da colagem, adquirem outros significados operativos. não se trata mais de tirar de um lugar e acrescentar em outro, modificando ambos; desmaterializada em código, a imagem digital permite uma infinidade de modificações simultâneas e, mais importante, reversíveis. a esse cut/paste elementar em qualquer interface atual, soma-se uma extensa gama de operações pré-programadas – readymade neste sentido – adaptadas de outras esferas, como a fotografia, o cinema, o vídeo, e mesmo a pintura (cujos efeitos são comumente emulados em softwares gráficos). . cf. steinberg, l. op. cit., p. . vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste a proliferação das câmeras digitais em suas várias formas (como celulares e webcams) e o rápido desenvolvimento da internet são, num plano paralelo, igualmente importantes. produzir uma imagem, em tese, tornou-se acessível a qualquer pessoa, independente de conhecimento específico prévio; a mesma facilidade se estende à posterior modificação dessas imagens em softwares cada vez mais simples de operar (e, atual- mente, em opções já presentes na própria câmera). evitando custos (além do primeiro gasto com a aquisição da máquina), a maior parte dessas imagens não é impressa em papel, sendo “postada” em álbuns digitais, passando a fazer parte do infinito depósito de imagens da internet. “baixar” uma imagem (ou qualquer outro tipo de informação) da web e aplicá-la em outro contexto, mesmo que dentro da própria rede, tornou-se um processo banal. a trivialidade da ação traz implícita, contudo, uma importante mu- dança de termos: aqui confundem-se os limites entre consumo e produção: “a tecnologização dos interiores [...] transforma a relação com os sons e as imagens, levando o indivíduo a se tornar uma mesa de montagem ou de mixagem, o programador de um home movie, o habitante de uma zona de rodagem fílmica permanente, a qual não é senão sua própria existência” . adaptadas a essa realidade, as poéticas que se filiam à colagem agregam novos termos ao processo, operando numa esfera que, a meu ver, em muito se aproxima das formulações do crítico nicolas bourriaud sobre a pós-produção. assim define: “pós-produção”: termo técnico usado no mundo da televisão, do cinema e do vídeo. designa o conjunto de tratamentos dados a um material registrado: a montagem, o acréscimo de outras fontes visuais ou sonoras, as legendas, as vozes off, os efeitos especiais. como conjunto de atividades ligadas ao mundo dos serviços e da reciclagem, a pós- produção faz parte do setor terciário em oposição ao setor industrial ou agrícola, que lida com a produção de matérias primas . sinal dos tempos: da mesa de dissecação do conde de lautréamont, ao tampo da mesa dos escritórios, chegamos à mesa de mixagem. atualizando as analogias, bourriaud, assim como outros teóricos , encontra nas figuras do dj, ou do programador, um modo de operação que acredita consoante com o papel do artista contemporâneo. tal processo, esvaziando as noções de originalidade e criação, consistiria em selecionar objetos culturais e inseri-los em contextos definidos. a busca por uma forma autônoma e original é, portanto, substituída pela incursão em uma rede de formas já produzidas, conferindo ao artista a função de operador de signos e significados: “a prática do dj, a atividade do internauta, a atuação dos artistas da pós-produção supõem uma . cf. bourriaud, n. pós-produção. são paulo: martins fontes, , p. . . ibidem, p. . . cf. “appropriations: deaths of the author in electronic music”, elie during também evoca a figura do dj como operador de signos. ars ano nº mesma figura do saber, que se caracteriza pela invenção de itinerários por entre a cultura. os três são semionautas que produzem, antes de mais nada, percursos originais entre os signos” . . o mundo como colagem e apropriação o quadro acima definido – ainda que de forma bastante geral – confere outras chaves de interpretação para análise das duas outras categorias anteriormente propostas. tomando como exemplo a produção de jeff koons e sigmar polke, agrupo na primeira vertente artistas cujas poéticas incorporam as novas formas tecnológicas ao processo de criação de obras que se materializam, por fim, nos suportes tradicionais. É importante considerar que mesmo quando o computador é usado durante o processo, como simples ferramenta para produzir estudos – por questões de praticidade, custo e, consequentemente, maior possibilidade de experimentação – a mediação da máquina tem implicações, principalmente quanto aos modos de armazenar, retrabalhar e visualizar tais projetos. as intenções na escolha por suporte e material tradicionais adquire significados e implicações distintos na poética de cada artista, e a partir dela devem ser considerados. num aspecto geral, entretanto, os modos de operação no ambiente virtual parecem se adequar a uma conjuntura em que produzir arte diz mais respeito à construção, do que à representação. enfatizo, portanto, uma acepção mais do termo “colagem”, nesses dois últimos casos, mais como “processo”, um modo de operar – por seleção, apropriação, recontextualização – do que como solução formal. trabalhar por apropriação, a partir de formas já produzidas, pressupõe o acesso a essas formas. implica, portanto, questões de consumo, propriedade e valor. tradução visual de um código numérico, logo, imaterial, a imagem digital relativiza esses e outros termos da cultura capitalista; na tela do computador, o papel de parede da paris de tem o mesmo valor de um comprado hoje, numa loja de decoração. depósito coletivo de informação, a internet e os programas de troca de dados entre usuários permitiram o acesso fácil a uma infinidade de imagens de qualquer origem ou tema. espécie de aleph tecnológico, o browser me dispõe o fato em tempo real, simultâneo, e o histórico dos fatos passados; na tela do computador, todas as imagens se equivalem; indistintamente, qualquer tema pode ser combinado. “imagens são sempre compatíveis, mesmo quando as realidades que retratam não o são” . a produção de música eletrônica que se populariza a partir da dé- cada de , soube colocar em questão muito dessa nova realidade. apesar . cf. bourriaud, n. op. cit., p. . . cf. sontag, s. sobre fotografia. são paulo: companhia das letras, , p. . vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste de utilizado há algumas décadas, o sample (recorte de um trecho de música existente, reutilizado em outra composição, na forma original da gravação, ou retrabalhado eletronicamente), na era digital, transforma o próprio con- ceito de “composição” musical. com acesso fácil e gratuito a canções de qualquer época – ainda que muitas vezes sem direitos autorais – e softwa- res de edição de áudio instalados no computador (também disponíveis na rede), vários álbuns foram criados por jovens que talvez nem soubessem o significado da palavra “partitura”. exemplo máximo dessa nova estética, o produtor gregg gillis com seu projeto girl talk, lança em o álbum feed the animals. compostas inteiramente de fragmentos de outras músi- cas recombinados (às vezes mais de canções diferentes), as faixas, cujos títulos também provinham de algum trecho presente na letra das canções, costuram uma história da música pop, das obscuridades aos hits, conferindo um sentido atual ao “do it yourself” do punk. por mais estranho que seja pensar em sigmar polke atrás de duas pick-ups numa rave, seu processo de trabalho, em momentos, muito o aproxima do dj proposto por bourriaud. problematizando o papel do artista em um mundo bombardeado por imagens, a obra de polke expõe uma constante investigação no terreno da cultura visual coletiva. desconsiderando hierarquias, remixa no plano da pintura recortes de jornal, fotografias de satélite, ilustrações do século xix, referências da história da arte, cartoons e rabiscos infantis. seu repertório de formas prontas não se limita à iconografia, estendendo-se a “efeitos” da pintura, também saturados de significação. manipulada, uma mesma imagem aparece ora diminuta, ora ampliada até se desintegrar, criando, pela mudança de escala, formas abstratas que remetem às pinceladas do expressionismo americano [fig. ]. expressa muito dessa poética o título de uma de sua mostra de : history of everything . . organizada pelo dallas museum of art, com colaboração do próprio artista, foi posteriormente, apresentada na tate modern, em londres. fig. sigmar polke. fastest gun in the west, , técnica mista sobre tecido. coleção particular. ars ano nº contraponto americano, descaradamente mais pop e tão superstar quanto os djs do auge do techno, jeff koons, servindo a propósitos diferentes, faz uso de operações similares. conterrâneo de henry ford, seu método de trabalho o define ainda mais como produtor, no sentido aqui proposto. servindo-se do mesmo repertório da cultura do consumo que já abastecera seus antecedentes pop, o artista cria colagens digitais, que servirão de base para obras em grandes dimensões, pintadas em sua “linha de montagem”. o deslocamento se dá em vários níveis: o artista coordena um processo onde a forma digital de imagens produzidas mecanicamente é reproduzida manualmente por assistentes, imitando uma reprodução fotográfica – mecânica, portanto. se num aspecto formal, as pinturas apresentam pouco mais do que uma “atualização” da figuração pop anterior, koons, assim como muitos geeks da eletrônica, explicitam como produzir um álbum de sucesso hoje pode implicar vários caminhos, bem longe das aulas de música.w a terceira vertente, por fim, engloba os trabalhos da chamada new media art. totalmente digitais, portanto, criações e habitantes de um universo virtual, tais obras exploram todo o potencial de um mundo estruturado em camadas (layers) de informação. o repertório de referências se expande; música, filmes, transmissões ao vivo, imagens e textos se ressignificam mutuamente. na mesma medida, uma série de outras ferramentas de edição e manipulação passa a ser usada. “num mundo regido por imagens fotográficas”, escreve susan sontag, em , “todas as margens (‘enquadramento’) parecem arbitrárias. tudo pode ser separado, pode ser desconexo, de qualquer coisa: basta enquadrar o tema de um modo diverso. (inversamente, tudo pode ser adjacente a qualquer coisa)” . num universo de informações regido pelas margens das janelas do computador, os enquadramentos do artista definem outros pontos pelo itinerário de significados da cultura. “o enquadramento é ao mesmo tempo um indicador, um dedo que aponta o que se deve olhar, e um limite que impede que o objeto enquadrado caia na instabilidade, no informal, isto é, na vertigem do não-referenciado, da cultura ‘selvagem’” . projetos muitas vezes disponíveis online, alguns trabalhos permitem ainda um input de informação do usuário da rede, colocando em jogo ainda outras camadas de informação, como em shredder . de mark napier [fig. ], que remixa códigos de programação e informações visuais de um site qualquer digitado pelo usuário, gerando uma composição a partir destes elementos. . restart x shutdown . cf. sontag, s. op. cit., p. . . cf. bourriaud, n. op. cit., p. . fig. imagem da home page do site do departamento de artes plásticas da usp (‹www.cap.eca.usp. br›), reconfigurada pelo shredder . , de mark napier (‹www.potatoland.org/ shredder›). vitor rezkallah iwasso copy/ paste as categorias propostas neste trabalho caracterizam, de modo aproximado, três caminhos que se definiram no âmbito da arte que, de algum modo, problematizam a colagem como processo. evidentemente, vários artistas continuam a trabalhar com a tesoura, a cola e uma série de imagens impressas. com o advento de novas formas de produção de imagem, como aqui discutido, a “simplicidade” deste modo de trabalho passa a implicar outras questões, independente de seu resultado final. cada novo processo não elimina, mas altera os significados do anterior. a inter-relação entre colagem, tecnologia e cultura de massa, implica na primeira, por um lado, o fantasma da obsolescência e, por outro, o risco de tudo, no fim, equivaler enquanto produto de consumo. na última sequência do filme de egoyan, quando a segunda mu- lher assiste sobrepostos os dois filmes, vemos ao fundo, na tela, uma casa que arde em chamas, enquanto enquadrada no seu smarphone uma joanna d’arc que pronuncia a palavra “morte”. prognóstico curioso no caso de um diretor que se afirma bastante interessado pela tecnologia moderna . bibliografia complementar antes de ayer y pasado mañana - o lo que puede ser la pintura hoy - catálogo da exposição. museo de arte contemporaneo unión fenosa, . kelsey, j. collage and program, revista parkett, v. , jun. . sonic process. a new geography of sounds - catálogo da exposição. museu d’art contamporani de barcelona (macba), . soulages, f. a revolução paradigmática da fotografia numérica, revista ars, n. , são paulo, eca/usp, . tribe, m e jana, r. new media art. alemanha: taschen, . . entrevista disponível em ‹www. hollywoodreporter.com›. vitor rezkallah iwasso é pintor, aluno de pós-graduação da escola de comunicações e artes da usp, onde desenvolve o projeto de mestrado o mundo de segunda-mão - fotografia, colagem e processos digitais na prática da pintura, na área de poéticas visuais. reaching for success: picasso’s rise in the market (the first two decades) arts article reaching for success: picasso’s rise in the market (the first two decades) enrique mallen college of humanities and social sciences, sam houston state university, avenue i, huntsville, tx , usa; mallen.shsu@gmail.com; tel.: + - - - academic editor: annetta alexandridis received: october ; accepted: march ; published: april abstract: this article explores the exhibitions of picasso’s works in the first two decades of his artistic career, as well as the dealers and collectors who came into contact with them. it describes the relationship between picasso and his first dealers, pere manyach, berthe weill, clovis sagot, père soulier, ambroise vollard, daniel-henry kahnweiler, georg caspari, l. w. guthier, hans goltz, heinrich thannhauser, otto feldmann, alfred flechtheim, emil richter, gottfried tanner, michael brenner, r. j. coady, léonce rosenberg, paul rosenberg, etc.; as well as his first collectors, leo and gertrude stein, olivier sainsère, joachim gasquet, wilhelm uhde, herman rupf, vincenc kramář, frank stoop, hugo perls, edwin suermondt, dr. paul ferdinand schmidt, princess mechtilde lichnowsky, henry simms, ludwig and rosy fischer, professor wilhelm kreis, adolf erblösch, justin k. thannhauser, sergei ivanovich shchukin, ivan a. morosov, etc. it also identifies all important picasso expositions in this time period and how those dealers and collectors were involved in their arrangement. the information provided here has been excerpted from an exhaustive study of the critical literature on pablo picasso, as well as from published exhibition catalogues. keywords: picasso; dealers; collectors; exhibitions; market . introduction picasso’s first known public showing took place in august , when he was included in a group exhibition at the escuela de bellas artes in a coruña featuring the works by selected students in the – class, among whom was picasso, who had completed his first year of ‘figure and ornament drawing’ at the school ([ ], p. ). two years later, picasso would have his first solo exhibition in a non-academic establishment. it took place in february , when he showed two studies of heads in the shop windows of a furniture store owned by joaquín latorre at no. , calle real ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). in september of that same year, the family would leave a coruña and relocate to barcelona ([ ], p. ). their first residence was an apartment at no. , carrer llauder, near the escuela de bellas artes (la llotja), where don josé had assumed his new post. some months later they would move around the corner to the second floor of no. , calle cristina, again conveniently close to the art school ([ ], p. ). soon after their arrival, picasso had applied to la llotja and had easily passed the entrance exam, presumably completing it in one day. he was allowed to skip the early classes and take the entry examination for the senior course in classical art and still life. from the very start, he made friends with his classmate manuel pallarés grau ( – ), a catalan painter from horta in the the chronological list of exhibitions is provided in the appendix a. others date their settling in the city simply to september ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). arts , , ; doi: . /arts www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts arts , , of ebro valley ([ ], p. ), among others. they would eventually share a small studio at no. , carrer de la plata, where don josé encouraged his son to work on a large academic canvas. the painting he would eventually complete would be known as la première communion ([ ], opp. : ) and would be exhibited from april through july at the ‘exposición de bellas artes y industrias artísticas’ in barcelona’s palacio de bellas artes ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). other paintings in the exhibit were by well-established painters such as rusiñol, ramón casas ( – ), and isidre nonell ( – ) ([ ], p. ). in a review in diario de barcelona ( may ), the critic miquel i badia commented that the painting was clearly ‘the work of a novice’, although in it ‘one perceives sensibility in the principal figures. certain areas are painted with strength’ ([ ], p. ). in , picasso’s father again pushed his son to work on a second academic work, science et charité ([ ], opp. : ), a large allegorical painting for which don josé also served as the model for the doctor. it would be exhibited at the ‘exposición general de bellas artes’ in madrid, alongside paintings by the recognized portraitist antonio caba, director of the escuela de bellas artes. the painting obtained an honorable mention [ ]. nonetheless, a madrid critic would find a certain clumsiness and sentimentality in the composition: ‘i am sorry to laugh callously at such grief, but i cannot help it, for surely the doctor is feeling the pulse of a glove’ ([ ], p. ). afterward science et charité ([ ], opp. : ) would also be exhibited at the ‘exposición provincial’ de málaga, where it was awarded a gold medal. these reviews had a clear impact on the young artist, who moved out of no. , carrer de la plata and would not tell anyone the location of his new studio ([ ], p. ). on june, an establishment that would play a crucial role in promoting picasso’s career opened its doors on no. , carrer montsió ([ ], p. ). named els quatre gats, after the famous chat noir in paris, it would soon become a focal point of pablo’s barcelona life. the founder was pere romeu ( – ), but its moving spirits were the artists ramón casas ( – ), isidre nonell ( – ), santiago rusiñol ( – ), and miquel utrillo ( – ). the first exhibition at the els quatre gats took place on july and showed the work of these local artists. the artistic creed they followed was that of modernism, being great admirers of romantic figures such as friedrich nietzsche, richard wagner, joris-karl huysmans, maurice maeterlinck, and henrik ibsen. in art, they were interested in the work of henri de toulouse-lautrec, james abbott mcneill whistler, théophile steinlen, dante gabriel rossetti, and edvard munch. while casas personally had studied in paris in , rusiñol paid frequent visits to the french capital, mostly between and , and nonell spent time there in and ([ ], pp. – ). following the directives of his father, picasso left for madrid in september of to study at the real academia de san fernando ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). he completed the admission drawings in one day, thus equaling his remarkable performance in barcelona ([ ], p. ). he registered for courses by cronies of don josé, including moreno carbonero ( – ) and muñoz degrain ( – ). soon, however, he lost interest in his classes, preferring to sketch outside, at cafés, and in the museo del prado. while in madrid, he probably read a newspaper note, which appeared in february , calling for artists to participate in the paris exposition universelle ([ ], p. ) and would soon heed the call. his artistic ambition was somewhat curtailed as he was forced to return to barcelona in may to convalesce from a serious illness. in order to fully recover, he even accepted pallarés’ invitation to stay in his family’s home in the remote town of horta d’ebre (now horta de sant joan) on the border of catalonia and aragon. they traveled there in june ([ ], p. ) and stayed until late january , when picasso returned to barcelona ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). he gave up any intention of opp: mallen, enrique. online picasso project. sam houston state university. – . others date the exposition to june ([ ], p. ). some date the presumed event to june , but this fact has even been contested by rafael inglada [ ], since there is no record of any such exhibit in málaga at the time. others date the opening to july ([ ], p. ). others date the return to june ([ ], p. ); also others place him still in madrid on june ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date his return earlier to november ([ ], p. ), or later to february ([ ], pp. – ). arts , , of continuing his formal studies in madrid and embarked instead on a career as a graphic artist, earning some money through drawing contributions for journals and books. he would still participate in the ‘exposición general de bellas artes’ in madrid from may to june with a work representing his experience in the countryside, titled coutumes aragonese or dans la cour d’une maison aragonaise. it would be awarded an honorable mention ([ ], p. ). in the summer, picasso took his friend carles casagemas ( – ) to málaga ([ ], p. ), where the former exhibited three paintings at the ‘exposición regional de bellas artes’ organized by the liceo arts club: coutumes aragonese (which he probably retrieved in madrid on his way to málaga), derniers rites (or les derniers moments), and an unidentified portrait (possibly the portrait of josep cardona) ([ ], p. ; [ ], pp. – ). in january , he and casagemas agreed to share a studio at no. , riera de sant joan, not too far from where picasso’s parents lived ([ ], p. ). picasso worked intensively throughout the winter to finish many portraits of his friends (between and ) for the purpose of exhibiting them at els quatre gats in february ([ ], p. ). at this show, he also exhibited three paintings, including les derniers moments ([ ], opp. : ), which he had first shown in the summer of in málaga. the show at els quatre gats was picasso’s first full exhibition. about les derniers moments, manuel rodríguez codolà wrote in la vanguardia ( february): the only painting which ruiz picazzo [sic] has in the iv gats portrays a young priest standing with a prayer book in his hand, looking at a woman on her deathbed. the light of a lamp radiates weakly and is reflected in patches on the white bedspread over the dying woman. the rest of the canvas is in shadow, which dissolves the figures into indecisive silhouettes. there are qualities in this work, painted with a natural ease that we appreciate; qualities that we hope will reach maturity the day when señor ruiz picazzo [sic] frees himself of prejudice and brings his work richer experience and study than he shows today, when he reaches the age when one dares all and produces typically personal works. ([ ], p. ) reporting on the same show, sebastià trullol i plana in diario de barcelona ( february) suggested that the influence of barcelona modernisme detracted from picasso’s work: currently on exhibition in the salon of los quatre gats are several drawings and color sketches by d. r. picassó [sic], a youth who enters into [the world of] art with the obsession of the most extreme modernismo. one cannot deny that señor picassó has talent and feeling for art; he proves this in three oils which appear in the exhibition, in which he demonstrates intuition and knowledge of the expressive potential of color; but in contrast to this, the exhibition reveals in the painter, as in many others who have preceded him and are madly in love with the modernista school, a lamentable confusion of artistic sensibility and a mistaken concept of art...in the collection of pencil portraits, which forms part of the exhibition, several stand out for the confidence of drawing, but it is only necessary to glance at them as a whole to recognize that this is a gallery of melancholy, taciturn, and bored characters that produces in the spectator an impression of sadness and compassion for their unsympathetic portrayal’. [ ] on february, la vanguardia finally published a list of artists whose work had been selected for the paris ‘exposition universelle’, which would open on april . les derniers moments was one of the works chosen, and picasso made plans to go to paris to see his work hanging in one of the two hundred pavilions from different countries lining the seine. before his departure, a second exhibition others date the opening to february ([ ], p. ). see also [ ]. see also ([ ], p. ). others date the opening to may ([ ], p. ). arts , , of at els quatre gats showed four of his ‘bullfight’ pastels in july ([ ], p. ). one of them was bought by the basque painter ignacio zuloaga. by the end of september, picasso had taken off for france in the company of casagemas ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). pallarés would join them in late october. nonell introduced pablo to the dealer pere manyach (b. ) (a. k. a mañac or manyac) in mid november ([ ], p. ). he would soon sign a contract with him, agreeing to receive french franks (frf) per month for his work in exchange for his representation. manyach was involved in supplying works to several dealers, including berthe weill, who would open her own gallery in december ([ ], p. ). in addition to taking three of picasso’s bullfight pastels for frf, which she would immediately resell for frf, she arranged the sale of a painting to sainsère. picasso later recalled that sainsère, a conseiller d’etat, also provided a measure of protection against the police, which systematically suspected all young spaniards of anarchism ([ ], p. ). at manyach’s urging, the spanish consul emmanuel virenque also bought la danseuse bleue directly out of the artist’s studio ([ ], p. ). thus, by the time picasso returned to barcelona with casagemas on – december, he felt that his visit to paris had been a tremendous success [ ]. . first exhibitions in paris the year saw a significant increase in interest regarding picasso’s work. by february, he had relocated once again to madrid ([ ], p. ). in february, news arrived that his friend casagemas, who had returned to paris on his own, had committed suicide, influencing picasso’s decision in the spring to start preparations for a return to paris. the excuse was an exhibition, which had been arranged by manyach for june at ambroise vollard’s gallery. before his return to the french capital, he participated with ramón casas in a joint exhibition arranged by miquel utrillo at sala parés, barcelona in april ([ ], p. ). the sala parés would organize another exhibition dedicated to picasso’s pastels the following month; while in madrid, his oil femme en bleu ([ ], opp. : ) was also shown at the ‘exposición general de bellas artes’ ([ ], p. ). by mid may, picasso traveled back to paris, this time with his friend jaume andreu bonsons ([ ], p. ). he moved with manyach into casagemas’ studio at no. ter, boulevard de clichy, a few meters from the café where his friend had killed himself ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). on june, an article by gustave coquiot ( – ) in le journal announced the impending exhibition at vollard’s on no. , rue laffite ([ ], p. ). the show formally opened on june and featured works by picasso and the basque painter francisco iturrino ( – ) ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). this was picasso’s first significant exhibition, containing some paintings, pastels, and watercolors, as well as a number of drawings, many of which were executed in only three weeks. gustave coquiot was enlisted to write a preface for the catalogue. later he recalled that the canvases [at the vollard show] were not presented as they usually are today, with plenty of space and in a single line, but on top of one another almost to the ceiling and unframed, while some were not even on stretchers but in large folders, at the mercy of any collector or visitor. ([ ], p. ) others date the departure to october ([ ], p. ) or to late october ([ ], p. ). at first they stayed at no. , rue campagne première in montparnasse ([ ], p. ), but later they switched to the studio vacated by nonell at no. , rue gabrielle in montmartre ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date the return simply to december ([ ], p. ), to end of december ([ ], p. ), or to the second half of december ([ ], p. ). others date the departure to mid january ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). at first they lived in a pension at no. , calle caballero de gracia ([ ], p. ) and later at no. , calle zurbano ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date this second trip simply to may ([ ], p. ). others date the opening of the exhibition to june and the closing to mid july ([ ], p. ). arts , , of despite vollard’s assertion that the show was unsuccessful, fifteen works (more than half of those shown) were sold even before the exhibition had even opened ([ ], p. ). a few of the buyers have been identified; l. besnard, monsieur ackermann, eugène blot, and käthe kollwitz ([ ], pp. – ; [ ], p. ). pere coll reviewed the show for the barcelona journal la veu de catalunya ( july): picasso is very young...and at his age i doubt if there are many who have done what he has. he has very great qualities but also great defects. the portraits of his companion iturrino and one of another friend, manyach, and a self-portrait are done with great courage and great confidence, indicating the genius of the painter’. [ ] félicien fagus (nom de plume of the poet georges faillet ( – )) also reviewed the show in la revue blanche ( july): ‘[picasso] is the painter, utterly and beautifully the painter; he has the power of divining the essence of things...like all pure painters he adores color for its own sake...he is enamored of all subjects, and every subject is his’ [ ]. fagus traces not only picasso’s spanish ancestry but also his french antecedents and concludes: each influence is transitory...one sees that picasso’s haste has not yet given him time to forge a personal style; his personality is in this haste, this youthful impetuous spontaneity (i understand he is not yet twenty, and covers as many as three canvases a day)... the danger lies in this very impetuosity, which could easily lead to facile virtuosity and easy success...that would be profoundly regrettable since we are in the presence of such brilliant virility. [ ] problems with manyach soon arose. by the end of january , picasso had already broken his contract and moved out of the apartment they shared. after receiving funds from home, he took the train back to barcelona ([ ], p. ), sharing a studio with angel fernández de soto ( – ) and another aspiring artist, josep rocarol ( – ), at no. (or ), carrer nou de la rambla (today calle conde del asalto). even in picasso’s absence, manyach continued to promote his work and arranged a joint exhibition with the artist louis bernard-lemaire at galerie berthe weill during the first two weeks of april ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). it showed la chambre bleue (le tub) ([ ], opp. : ), courtisane au collier de gemmes (l’hétaïre) ([ ], opp. : ), le quatorze juillet ([ ], opp. : ), le clown au singe ([ ], opp. : ), enfant assis dans un fauteuil ([ ], opp. : ), enfants dans le jardin du luxembourg ([ ], opp. : ), and pierrot ([ ], opp. : ). the dealer also arranged for picasso’s participation in another group exhibition along with matisse, villon, marquet, and maillol at the galerie berthe weill during the first two weeks of june. this recapitulaton of six previous exhibitions, as berthe weill called it, was a mixture of drawings, watercolors, and paintings and may have been the first occasion in which matisse and picasso were exhibited together. picasso, cloistered in barcelona since the previous winter, did not get to see this exhibition. he would not return to paris until the end of october ([ ], p. ). in response to weill’s show, an article in la revue blanche ( february) by félicien fagus discussed the work of picasso and other spanish artists in paris (most of whom were represented by manyach). on october, picasso finally left barcelona for paris with his friends josep rocarol and julio gonzález ([ ], p. ). his departure was reported in the barcelona newspaper el liberal ( october): ‘the celebrated artist, pablo ruiz picasso, left for paris on yesterday’s express’ ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). from november through december , manyach had again arranged an exhibition, ‘peintures, pastels et dessins de mm. girieud, launay, picasso et pichot’, at galerie berthe weill ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). several blue canvases were shown, among them others date the move to barcelona to early january ([ ], p. ). see also ([ ], p. ). others date the third trip simply to october ([ ], p. ). arts , , of dans un cabaret ([ ], opp. : ) and la maison bleue ([ ], opp. : ). the catalogue for the exhibition included an essay by thilda harlor (nom de plume, jeanne-fernande perrot) in which she emphasized the freedom and indefatigable approach reflected in picasso’s work. another favorable article appeared in an article in mercure de france (december) by the symbolist poet charles morice: ‘what drawing!... what composition!...as disturbing and provocative as one of the fleurs du mal’. morice spoke of this very young man’s work [with] a body of work that is already beyond counting. picasso, who was painting before he learned to read, seems to have been given the mission of expressing everything that exists, and of expressing it with his brush. it might be said that he is a young god who wants to refashion the world. ([ ], p. ) around mid january , picasso decided to return to barcelona after receiving frf for the fare from madame besnard, one of his first buyers, in exchange for les adieux du pêcheur ([ ], opp. : ) or mère et enfant au bord de la mer (À dr. josep fontbona) ([ ], opp. : ). he moved again into the studio he had shared with casagemas at no. , riera de sant joan, splitting it now with angel fernández de soto. an article in el liberal ( march) referenced an exhibition of his works in the catalan city: ‘the head which he (p. p.) is now exhibiting is not only attractive because of the impulsive force one can divine in this pastel; it is also captivating in the tenderness and spontaneity to be observed in the form’ [ ]. el liberal ( june) also reported the sale of la vie ([ ], opp. : ) ‘for a respectable price, to the parisian collector m. jean saint-gaudens’ [ ]. on – april, el liberal reported that ‘the artists messrs. sebastià junyer-vidal and pablo ruiz picasso are leaving on today’s express for paris, where they propose to hold an exhibition [never realized] of their latest works’ ([ ], p. ). their journey was recorded by picasso in traditional catalan comic-strip form as an ‘alleluia’ ([ ], p. ). the trip actually took place on april ([ ], p. ). they stayed for a short time with the gonzález brothers in montparnasse before taking over paco durrio’s ( – ) studio at no. , rue ravignan (now place emile goudeau) in mid june ([ ], p. ). the building where he moved (perched on a hill in montmartre) was named bateau-lavoir by poet max jacob because of its resemblance to a seine washing barge and because the floorboards in the old ramshackle hallways creaked like a boat ([ ], p. ; [ ], pp. – ). . . andré level and other major early collectors starting on october and continuing through november, picasso had his last showing at galerie berthe weill, ‘exposition de mm. charbonnier, clary-baroux, raoul dufy, girieud, picabia, picasso, thiesson’, featuring watercolors, pastels and drawings ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). about a dozen of the works included had been produced during the previous three years; la fin du numéro ([ ], opp. : ), dans la rue ([ ], opp. : ), les amants dans la rue ([ ], opp. : ), marchande des fleurs dans la rue ([ ], opp. : ), evocation (l’enterrement de carles casagemas) ([ ], opp. : ), and femmes et enfant (intimité) ([ ], opp. : ). maurice le sieutre wrote the catalogue preface: [picasso] is a good image maker. a fine enameler, if one may express it that way. in his pastels, one finds sharp tones...left intentionally as a result of chemical oxidation. their line is elegant, outlining the splashes of pinks and particularly blues that represent flowers, draperies, dresses, [and] the shawls of lively spanish women. ([ ], p. ) the last of the works listed, femmes et enfant (intimité) ([ ], opp. : ), was purchased by andré level for la peau de l’ours, an art investment group he had established in february ([ ], p. ). this enterprise would prove of crucial importance to picasso’s status in the art market ([ ], p. ). the following year, level would purchase six additional paintings and watercolors from picasso’s see also ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date the return merely to january ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date the return to mid april ([ ], p. ) or merely to april ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date the move earlier to mid april ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). arts , , of early period from berthe weill and père soulié: ‘the half-dozen works on cardboard, canvas and watercolors strained our meager budget’ ([ ], p. ). . . wilhelm uhde and the steins in , a new picasso collector would also arrive in paris, wilhelm uhde ( – ). he had started studying law in dresden before switching to art history and relocating to munich and florence. after his move to paris, he progressively became one of picasso’s top enthusiasts. however, despite sporadic sales, picasso was still under financial stress. he wrote to cinto reventós in barcelona on february: it’s such a terrible waste of time, scrounging the last peseta to pay for the studio or a restaurant...i am forced to deal...because of interest and the need to have something to eat, but ought not to have to waste so much time...it teaches you a stupid but important lesson anyone learns in business in barcelona: grab what you can...anyway, i continue working and in a few days i’m going to have a small exhibition...[charles morice] is in charge...he always does well by whatever he has his sticky fingers in...we’ll see what comes of it... god willing, people will like it and i’ll sell everything i’m showing. ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ) from february through march, he joined albert trachsel and auguste gérardin in the exhibition sponsored by the critic morice at the galeries serrurier on , boulevard haussmann. ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). the catalogue (the introduction for which morice also wrote) listed paintings and gouaches plus three engravings and an album of drawings ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). among the artworks exhibited were; femme à la corneille (marguerite luc) (margot) ([ ], opp. : ), le christ de montmartre (le suicidé) ([ ], opp. : ), le saltimbanque ([ ], opp. : ), one of his first ‘rose period’ works, and probably famille d’acrobates avec singe ([ ], opp. : ). eight of them represented ‘saltimbanques’, making it the first exhibition on the ‘circus’ theme. although his work was discussed in the press, the spaniard probably sold little. according to the american collector leo stein ( – ), he discovered picasso at an exhibition recommended to him by clovis sagot, which must have been this one, the only one occurring early in the year. his sister, gertrude stein ( – ), described the venue as ‘a little furniture store where there were some paintings being shown by picasso’. although serrurier’s premises could hardly have been considered a ‘little store’, they were definitely devoted to ‘furnishings and artistic decoration’ ([ ], p. ). having made an offer for a painting from the establishment, which remained unanswered, leo would eventually acquire famille d’acrobates avec singe ([ ], opp. : ) from sagot before the summer ([ ], p. ). by march, henri-pierre roché ( – ) wrote picasso to set up a proper introduction: ‘i shall bring the american of whom i spoke to see you at your house tomorrow, wednesday morning, at . a.m.’ ([ ], p. ). the actual meeting probably took place at the bateau-lavoir in late spring ([ ], p. ). in november leo would discover another picasso at clovis sagot’s, jeune fille à la corbeille de fleurs ([ ], opp. : ). although his sister gertrude did not approve of the selection, they would eventually agree to purchase it ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). in leo’s words, ‘i dropped in at [the dealer] sagot to talk about picasso; he had a picture by him, which i bought. the ape looked at the child so lovingly that sagot was sure this scene was derived from life, but i knew more about apes than sagot did and was sure that no such baboon-like creature belonged in such a scene. picasso told me later that the ape was his invention, and it was a proof that he was more talented as a painter than as a naturalist’ ([ ], p. ). sagot would go on to also sell them famille d’acrobates avec singe ([ ], opp. : ). the steins had set up residence in paris and, with their inheritance, were putting together an extraordinary art collection. in a probable second visit to the bateau-lavoir, leo purchased others date the opening of the exhibition to february ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). see ([ ], p. ). arts , , of several more paintings by picasso for a total of frf. pablo would also become a frequent visitor at the steins’ salons. some months later he agreed to make portraits of leo and his brother, michael’s son, allan. at approximately this time, gertrude also voluntarily sat for to sessions while he worked on portrait de gertrude stein ([ ], opp. : ). she would become a close friend and patron, encouraging a number of her american friends, including etta cone ( – ) and claribel cone ( – ) of baltimore to buy drawings and paintings by picasso: ‘etta cone found the picassos appalling but romantic. she was taken there by gertrude whenever the picasso finances got beyond everybody and was made to buy frf worth of drawings’ ([ ], p. ). andré level’s organization la peau de l’ours continued to set the pace in . the largest portion of their budget for that year was spent on the work of a single artist, pablo picasso. picking through berthe weill’s stock, and with clovis sagot as his agent, level purchased six paintings and watercolors for the collection. the works were primarily confined to the early s, among them la maison bleue ([ ], opp. : ). ambroise vollard, for his part, had shown interest in picasso’s rose period. in march be bought the bulk of his output from that time. the purchase was finalized on may, when he paid a total of gold franks (gdf) for canvases ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). this would provide the artist with the necessary measure of financial security to return to spain through august ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). the following year, level entered negotiations with picasso for the purchase of la famille de saltimbanques (les bateleurs) ([ ], opp. : ). to cut off other potential buyers, he made an offer of frf through lucien moline. hoping for a higher price, picasso did not initially take it, but he would eventually be forced to accept from them a partial loan of frf to relieve his financial distress ([ ], p. ). in february, pablo sent gertrude stein happier news; vollard had agreed to buy out his studio for frf, the balance to be paid in six months: ‘vollard came this morning. the deal is settled’ ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). by mid february, the dealer had given him a down-payment of frf for a batch of canvases and drawings ([ ], p. ). however, there was also a certain amount of negativity about the transaction. according his friends, the artist found bargaining exhausting, but, much more that that, he also hated parting with his pictures ([ ], pp. – ; [ ], p. ). by mid september, vollard had retrieved eleven paintings and given him a check for the remaining frf ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). . . daniel-henry kahnweiler a new dealer, the german daniel-henry kahnweiler, entered the scene in late february. he had rented space for a small gallery at no. , rue vignon in paris. his gallery opened on july ([ ], p. ). at first, he showed the fauves derain and vlaminck, van dongen and braque ([ ], p. ). soon after the opening, picasso went to check the premises, even returning a second time accompanied by vollard ([ ], p. ). wilhelm uhde, who was one of kahnweiler’s acquaintances, had told him that he had seen in picasso’s studio in march an astonishing large painting still in progress. impelled by these comments, kahnweiler went to see for himself the canvas in question, les demoiselles d’avignon ([ ], opp. : ), at the bateau-lavoir in early-august, and was immediately enthralled ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). in the spring of , kahnweiler visited picasso again with the swiss collector herman rupf, who bought feuillage (arbres) ([ ], opp. : ) on that occasion. later in the year, he would purchase two additional works: tête d’homme ([ ], opp. : ) and paysage (la rue des bois) ([ ], opp. : ). along with the frenchman roger dutilleul ( – ), the russians sergei ivanovich shchukin ( – ) ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ) and ivan a. morosov ( – ), the czech dr. vincenc kramář, see ([ ], p. ). others date the visit earlier to april ([ ], p. ), or merely to may ([ ], p. ), or early may ([ ], p. ). others report the amount he receives as frf ([ ], p. ). others date the opening of the gallery simply to february ([ ], p. ). arts , , of and the americans leo and gertrude stein, rupf became part of a circle of reliable customers at galerie kahnweiler ([ ], pp. – ). one of the first picassos exhibited at the gallery was tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ), which he would soon sell to lotte and paul von mendelssohn-bartholdy. during this same time, the german alfred flechtheim, initiated his career as a parisian dealer, becoming well acquainted with the colony of his compatriots who frequented the café du dôme on boulevard montparnasse. through uhde, flechtheim also met kahnweiler, and, in just a few years, he would come to acquire a large number of works by the cubists. in addition to these collectors, mention must be made of andré level’s dealings in his function as director of la peau de l’ours. early in , he had agreed to buy la famille de saltimbanques (les bateleurs) ([ ], opp. : ) for his association for frf. with these funds and an additional frf he had received from vollard in early-may, picasso traveled to horta d’ebre in june, living a life of near luxury ([ ], p. ). in a telling anecdote, a grocery store owner in horta d’ebre refused to change a bill from picasso’s mistress fernande olivier for one thousand pesetas into smaller currency. the shopkeepers were astonished to see such a large bill. the kids ran all over town trying to find someone who could offer change but to no avail. by early september they traveled to barcelona, staying at the fancy grand hôtel de l’orient ([ ], p. ). once back in paris ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ) in mid september, they left the bateau-lavoir and moved to better quarters at no. , boulevard de clichy, near place pigalle ([ ], p. ). this new apartment was on the top floor with a good view of sacré-cœur ([ ], p. ). in , maurice raynal described the move: ‘what a change it was! it was picasso’s first ‘bourgeois’ residence in paris. a studio with a north light, large and airy; and a sunny apartment, with a southern exposure, looking out on the trees of avenue frochot’ ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). . . kahnweiler’s international market strategies by , kahnweiler ’s inventory of works by picasso had reached canvases ([ ], p. ). in order to promote his artists abroad, primarily in germany, austria, and switzerland, he established contacts with dealers such as georg caspari, hans goltz and heinrich thannhauser (munich), otto feldmann (cologne, later berlin), alfred flechtheim (düsseldorf), emil richter (dresden), galerie miethke (vienna), and gottfried tanner (zürich), as well as in britain and the united states at the grafton galleries (london) and washington square gallery (new york), whose agents, michael brenner and r. j. coady, would become his exclusive representatives in america ([ ], p. ). in may, an article written by frank gelett burgess in , ‘the wild men of paris’ [ ], appeared in the american journal the architectural record with a photograph of les demoiselles d’avignon ([ ], opp. : ). this is the first time the painting had been reproduced. other works illustrated were la dryade (nu dans une forêt) ([ ], opp. : ), femme nue assise ([ ], opp. : ), and trois femmes ([ ], opp. : ). around this time, picasso also participated in a group exhibition at uhde’s galerie notre-dame-des-champs ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ) with paintings dating from – , among them the oil pressoir d’olive à horta de sant joan (l’usine) ([ ], opp. : ). the critic léon werth observed in la phalange ( june): these pictures borrow nothing from geometry, and if their sources of inspiration are diverse mr. picasso should not be reproached for that. like all artists at their beginnings, he has sometimes, in seeking for himself, found others. these pleasing and ingenious works lead mr. picasso finally to this fruit dish and glass, which display their structure, substructure, and superstructure, and whose harmony, simplified as it is, is made up of the yellows and on january ([ ], p. ). others date the trip to may ([ ], p. ), or simply to may ([ ], p. ), or to early-may ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date the move to late-september ([ ], p. ). see ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). arts , , of greens of certain cézannes; and to this landscape of cubic roofs, cubic chimneys, and trees that are like the chimneys but decorated at the top with palms. [ ] the latter comment refers to pressoir d’olive à horta de sant joan (l’usine) ([ ], opp. : ) which had been purchased by haviland the preceding october and was later bought by shchukin ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). towards the end of june, picasso left for cadaqués for a period of two months ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). after his return to paris, kahnweiler bought one of the paintings he had brought back with him while vollard purchased the rest, paying frf for nine paintings and advancing frf on future work ([ ], p. ). during the first two weeks of september, picasso and braque were exhibited together in the ‘ii. ausstellung. turnus, – ’ at galerie heinrich thannhauser (moderne galerie), munich. kahnweiler lent three works by picasso, tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ), a nature morte, and a pastel, and four works by braque ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). ‘these shows familiarized experts with their work but were largely ignored by the broader public... now picasso stood center-stage, vilified and acclaimed as the innovator par excellence’ ([ ], p. ). despite the general rejection of cubism, picasso continued to attract buyers. on october, the czech collector vincenc kramář came for the first time to paris and acquired tête ([ ], opp. : ) and l’étreinte ([ ], opp. : ) from clovis sagot. starting on december and continuing through february , a picasso retrospective was organized at galerie vollard ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ), featuring the cubist sculpture tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ). this exhibition would be his last in paris until he agreed to a public showing during the salon d’antin in ([ ], p. ). apollinaire alerted readers of l’lntransigeant ( december) to the importance of this exhibition. it contained older works ‘of great artistic value’ plus ‘a very fine set’ of works hung without frames but whose ‘major importance’ was increased by the fact that picasso did not regularly exhibit in any of the salons ([ ], p. ). andré salmon also commented in paris-journal ( december): ‘i recall the intense impression i had on first seeing these painful, powerful works’ ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). in , la peau de l’ours, through level’s leadership, acquired two more works, arlequin à cheval ([ ], opp. : ) and les trois hollandaises ([ ], opp. : ). this same year, the museumsverein elberfeld purchased acrobate et jeune arlequin ([ ], opp. : ), presenting it to the städtisches museum (later städtische galerie wuppertal-elberfeld). this was the first time picasso’s work had been featured in a museum ([ ], p. ). around this time, another dealer, léonce rosenberg, became a noted champion of cubism, a lead his brother paul rosenberg would soon follow. working initially with his brother-in-law kahnweiler, paul, along with his partner georges wildenstein, would establish and then win over from léonce exclusive relationships not only with picasso (from on) but also with braque (from ), marie laurencin and fernand léger (from ), and matisse (from ). through kahnweiler’s efforts in the s, picasso had grown in international recognition, evidenced by his inclusion in the collective exhibition ‘xiii. jahrgang, vi. ausstellung’ (january– february) at galerie paul cassirer, berlin, with two works, one of which was tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ). also in the spring, he was featured in the xxii. ausstellung der berliner secession, represented by la coiffure ([ ], opp. : ) and three other works ([ ], p. ). further, from march through april, drawings and watercolors from – plus additional drawings available to viewers on request appeared at stieglitz’s , little galleries of the photo-secession in new york ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). this was picasso’s first american exhibition. the selections, which ranged from paysanne au châle ([ ], opp. : ) to tête de femme (fernande) (Étude) ([ ], opp. : ) others date this trip to june ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ), to the end of june ([ ], p. ), to july ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ), or simply to summer ([ ], p. ). he returns to paris on august – ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date the return to september ([ ], p. ) or simply to september ([ ], p. ). others date the visit merely to october ([ ], p. ). see ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date the closing to april ([ ], p. , ). arts , , of and femme nue debout ([ ], opp. : ), were made by marius de zayas, eduard j. steichen, frank burty haviland, and the sculptor manolo hugué. alfred stieglitz, the owner of the gallery, would acquire femme nue debout ([ ], opp. : ) from the show. in his memoirs, steichen mentioned that ‘gertrude stein was instrumental in softening picasso for us’ ([ ], p. ), getting him to agree to showing at the photo-secession in new york. stieglitz advertised this as picasso’s ‘first one-man show anywhere’, although he had in fact already had two such exhibitions in paris in . an english translation of marius de zayas’s interview with picasso was also published in camera work of april–july ([ ], p. ). . . vincenc kramář towards the end of april, vincenc kramář traveled again to paris ([ ], p. ) and went on a buying spree, purchasing femme couchée ([ ], opp. : ), femme debout ([ ], opp. : ), and femme nue ([ ], opp. : ) from clovis sagot; tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ) from vollard for frf; buste d’arlequin ([ ], opp. : ) at hôtel drouot for frf ([ ], p. ); le port de cadaqués ([ ], opp. : ) for frf and torse de femme ([ ], opp. : ) for frf, both from daniel-henry kahnweiler ([ ], pp. – ; [ ], p. ). at the end of november, kramář visited paris again and brought from kahnweiler coffret, tasse, pommes et verre ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf), mandoline et verre de pernod ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf), femme à la guitare près d’un piano ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf), la clarinette ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf), guitariste (la mandoliniste) ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf), pomme ([ ], opp. : ), petit moulin à café et pipe sur une table ([ ], opp. : ), and femme nue ([ ], opp. : ) and, from vollard, the artworks autoportrait à la mèche ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf), buste de femme ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf), and femme assise dans un fauteuil ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf). on april, the show ‘ drawings by picasso’ opened at stafford gallery, london; picasso’s first solo exhibition in the british capital. the exhibited drawings included le meneur de cheval nu: jeune homme et cheval (Étude) ([ ], opp. : ), which was on sale for gbp, the most expensive work on display. almost all the works dated to before , mostly from picasso’s blue and rose periods. stockbroker and collector frank stoop acquired le meneur de cheval nu: jeune homme et cheval (Étude) ([ ], opp. : ) and jeune femme en chemise (madeleine) ([ ], opp. : ). in may and through july, the gallerist herwarth walden brought together works by many of the french artists represented at the xxii berliner secession for the opening of his sturm galerie, labelling them once again as ‘expressionists’. twenty-two drawings, gouaches and engravings by picasso, mostly from before , were shown, among them tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ). thirty-three works by other european artists, including kandinsky and marc, were exhibited in adjacent rooms as well. also in may, picasso was represented at the xxiv. ausstellung der berliner secession with five works, among them la dame au chapeau noir ([ ], opp. : ) and le pont-neuf ([ ], opp. : ), both on loan from wilhelm uhde. in his review of the exhibition, curt glaser ( – ) wrote that he was thankful ‘that the new works of picasso are shown here in berlin for the first time...cubism, about which, in its short time in existence enough has been said, is undoubtedly only a side track, and we do not think that one day painting as a whole will lean in this direction’ ([ ], pp. – ; [ ], p. ). from may through september, the fourth international exhibition ‘sonderbund westdeutscher künstler’ was organized in cologne. a room was reserved especially for picasso, which included sixteen works from periods between – and – ; among them, arlequin accoudé ([ ], opp. : ) (lent by edwin suermondt), les pauvres au bord de la mer (la tragédie) ([ ], opp. : ) (lent by professor kreis), acrobate et jeune arlequin ([ ], opp. : ) (lent by museumverein elberfeld), l’acteur ([ ], opp. : ) (lent by p. leffmann), garçon tenant un see ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). see ([ ], p. ). others date the opening to june ([ ], p. ). others date it to may ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). arts , , of vase ([ ], opp. : ), les deux frères ([ ], opp. : ), tête de femme ([ ], opp. : ), l’éventail (pomme et éventail sur une table) ([ ], opp. : ), le mandoliniste ([ ], opp. : ), l’avenue frochot, vu de l’atelier de l’artiste ([ ], opp. : ) (lent by alfred flechtheim), and la violiniste ([ ], opp. : ) (from galerie kahnweiler, later purchased by flechtheim) ([ ], pp. – ). a few days before picasso’s departure for céret on may ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ), gertrude stein had bought two still lifes, le petit verre ([ ], opp. : ) and nature morte au journal ([ ], opp. : ). kahnweiler wrote to him in july: ‘shchukin is in paris. as you know, he didn’t want to buy the painting. he insisted on buying the other, the one i didn’t want to sell. and so the flesh is weak i let myself be tempted...i sold it for , frf’ ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). on september, picasso returned to paris and, with his increased earnings, was able to move from no. , boulevard de clichy and bateau-lavoir, where works have been stored, to a new residence at no. , boulevard raspail, which had been located for him by kahnweiler ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). starting on october and continuing through december, the ‘second post-impressionist exhibition’ picasso would be featured again in london at grafton galleries ([ ], p. ; [ ], pp. – ). the show included thirteen paintings and three drawings; among them, composition: les paysans ([ ], opp. : ) of , lent by vollard; bol vert et flacon noir ([ ], opp. : ), lent by leo stein; and nature morte aux bananes ([ ], opp. : ), paysage (deux arbres) ([ ], opp. : ), tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ), tête d’homme ([ ], opp. : ), femme et pot de moutarde ([ ], opp. : ), flacon et livres ([ ], opp. : ), buffalo bill ([ ], opp. : ), tête d’homme moustachu (‘kou’) ([ ], opp. : ), and la tasse (le bouillon ‘kub’) ([ ], opp. : ), all lent by kahnweiler. four works by braque were also shown, most of them also lent by kahnweiler. matisse was represented by paintings and sculptures and many drawings. for the first time picasso’s works were displayed alongside his british contemporaries, including duncan grant and wyndham lewis. in his introduction to the catalogue, roger fry presented picasso and matisse as the leaders of the avant-garde in france. he emphasized that picasso’s recent work aimed to create a language of purely abstract forms, a kind of ‘visual music’. . . albert c. barnes in early december, albert c. barnes spent some time in paris. after becoming a millionaire, he had dedicated himself to the study and collecting of art and had commissioned one of his former high school classmates, the painter william glackens, who had been living in paris, to buy several ‘modern’ french paintings for him. during barnes’ visit, he bought from kahnweiler seven paintings by picasso; tête de femme ([ ], opp. : ), tête d’homme ([ ], opp. : ), verre et fruits ([ ], opp. : ), pot et fruits ([ ], opp. : ), and paquet de cigarettes et journal ([ ], opp. : ). he would later also purchase violon, partition et bouteille ([ ], opp. : ). nevertheless, under the influence of leo stein, he would eventually lose interest in cubism, judging it too ‘academic, repetitive, and dead’ ([ ], pp. , ). on december, kahnweiler finally managed to convince picasso to a contract for three years ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). the artist pointedly noted: ‘i shall moreover reserve the right to keep as many drawings as i deem necessary for my work’. also notes: ‘you will allow me to decide when a painting is finished’ [ ]. while the mean value of a drawing was frf, the value of a size painting ( cm × cm) ran to frf and a size ( cm × cm) to frf ([ ], p. ). kahnweiler had earlier agreed to pay braque just frf for drawings, or frf for ‘drawings with wood-paper, marble, or any other accessories’, and frf for canvases, exactly a fourth of what he would later offer picasso ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). after signing the contract with kanweiler, picasso returned to céret, where he spent christmas night with haviland and manolo, before continuing to barcelona ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). see ([ ], p. ). others date the move simply to late september ([ ], p. ) or to the end of september ([ ], p. ). arts , , of as further evidence of picasso’s increased prices, vollard let his portrait d’ambroise vollard ([ ], opp. : ) go to the russian collector ivan morozov in for frf. moreover, after the expiration of his contract in january, kahnweiler priced the artist’s new works at triple what he had assigned them before ([ ]. p. ). his reputation in america was also growing. starting on february and continuing through march , picasso was included in the ‘international exhibition of modern art’ (armory show) at the th regiment armory, new york, with eight works ([ ], p. ): the bronze sculpture tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ), lent by stieglitz; the three paintings and one gouache paysage (deux arbres) ([ ], opp. : ), portrait de madame soler ([ ], opp. : ), femme et pot de moutarde ([ ], opp. : ), and tête d’homme, all lent by kahnweiler; and the drawing femme nue ( ) plus two still lifes, lent by leo stein, one of which was vase, gourde et fruits sur une table ([ ], opp. : ), the other being bols et cruche (cruche, bol et compotier) ([ ], opp. : ). it also included three works by braque, also lent by kahnweiler, and twelve by matisse. the exhibition subsequently traveled to the art institute of chicago and copley hall, boston ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). . picasso’s retrospective in germany in late february, the first picasso retrospective in germany, titled ‘picasso, œuvres de à ’ was held at galerie heinrich thannhauser (moderne galerie), munich. it featured paintings and watercolors, pastels, drawings, and engravings from to ([ ], p. ). of these, paintings and nine drawings and engravings were on loan from private german collectors. five paintings and nine drawings and engravings were from the collection of alfred flechtheim (düsseldorf); four paintings from the collection of franz kluxen (boldixum); three each from the collections of hugo perls (berlin) and edwin suermondt (aachen); and two each from the collections of dr. paul ferdinand schmidt (münchen), princess mechtilde lichnowsky, and henry simms (hamburg). other loans were from ludwig and rosy fischer (frankfurt), professor wilhelm kreis (düsseldorf), and the painter adolf erblösch, co-founder of the neue künshändler-vereinigung münchen. the person in charge of the organization had been kahnweiler, who also exhibited drawings and gouaches and a series of engravings ([ ], p. ). justin k. thannhauser commented in the catalogue preface: ‘it is widely believed that picasso’s work stands at the origin of the whole expressionist, cubist, and futurist movements. in fact, picasso has nothing to do with any of these, except that he did provide the initial artistic impulse; nor does he want to have anything more to do with them. what distinguishes him from all these movements, even at first sight, is that unlike them he has never expressed his artistic intentions in programs, manifestos, or similar pronouncements; and he has never sought to explain his own new departures either psychologically or psychologistically: he has simply painted’ ([ ], p. ). among the works on display were arlequin accoudé ([ ], opp. : ), le jardin enchanté ([ ], opp. : ), le repas de l’aveugle ([ ], opp. : ), portrait de suzanne bloch ([ ], opp. : ), le garçon bleu ([ ], opp. : ), la mort d’arlequin ([ ], opp. : ), fleurs sur une table ([ ], opp. : ), femme nue sur un lit ([ ], opp. : ), paysage, coucher de soleil ([ ], opp. : ), buste de femme ([ ], opp. : ), tête de femme ([ ], opp. : ), femme aux poires (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ), tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ), tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ), pomme et tasse ([ ], opp. : ), l’éventail (pomme et éventail sur une table) ([ ], opp. : ), la corbeille de faïence ([ ], opp. : ), vase de fleurs ([ ], opp. : ), l’huilier ([ ], opp. : ), la bouteille de rhum ([ ], opp. : ), le pont-neuf ([ ], opp. : ), le mandoliniste ([ ], opp. : ), la grenade ([ ], opp. : ), la violiniste ([ ], opp. : ), l’avenue frochot, vu de l’atelier de l’artiste ([ ], opp. : ), verre et tasse ([ ], opp. : ), femme à la guitare (‘ma jolie’) ([ ], opp. : ), compotier et fruits ([ ], opp. : ), le poète ([ ], opp. : ), guitare, verre et journal ([ ], opp. : ), le saucisson ([ ], opp. : ), and others date the opening to january ([ ], p. ). see also [ ]. arts , , of violon, verre, pipe et ancre (souvenir du havre) ([ ], opp. : ). the latter was bought by vincenc kramář from thannhauser after the show. before picasso’s return to céret, kahnweiler had visited his studio and made a major purchase worth , frf at the prices set forth in the december contract. in exchange, the dealer had received recent paintings of varying sizes, three earlier ones, gouaches (including papiers collés), recent, and four earlier drawings. additionally, he paid picasso frf for repainting the background of le déjeuner sur l’herbe de la famille soler ([ ], opp. : ). by the end of march, due to this father’s failing health, picasso was forced to rush back to barcelona. don josé would pass away on may. a couple of days later and through june, vincenc kramář started negotiations with kahnweiler for the purchase of bec à gaz et guitare ([ ], opp. : ). the collector, in fact, would have the opportunity to meet picasso on one of his visits to paris ([ ], p. ). at the end of the month, kahnweiler was also involved in negotiations with gertrude stein. he had sent her an appraisal of the picassos she owned, among the most important of which were trois femmes ([ ], opp. : ) ( , frf), le meneur de cheval nu ([ ], opp. : ) ( , frf), femme nue debout (fernande) (grand nu rose) ([ ], opp. : ) ( , frf), jeune fille à la corbeille de fleurs ([ ], opp. : ) ( , frf), acrobate à la boule (fillette à la boule) ([ ], opp. : ) ( , frf), la femme à l’éventail (juliette) ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf), and portrait de gertrude stein ([ ], opp. : ) ( frf). the appraisal of the collection was needed due to her estrangement from her brother leo ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). there were two other important exhibitions of picasso’s works around this time; ‘ii. gesamtausstellung’ started in august and ran through september at galerie goltz, munich, where he was represented by five works, among them tête de femme ([ ], opp. : ), violon et raisins ([ ], opp. : ), and l’arlésienne ([ ], opp. : ). another exhibition in the autumn took place at the berliner secession, where of his paintings were shown, among them les pleureuses ([ ], opp. : ), portrait de mateu fernández de soto ([ ], opp. : ), le repas de l’aveugle ([ ], opp. : ), la repasseuse ([ ], opp. : ), l’acteur ([ ], opp. : ), au lapin agile (arlequin au verre) ([ ], opp. : ), hollandaise à la coiffe (la belle hollandaise) ([ ], opp. : ), les deux frères ([ ], opp. : ), tête de femme ([ ], opp. : ), and le mandoliniste ([ ], opp. : ). further, in october through november, he was also featured in the ‘erste ausstellung’ of the neue galerie, berlin, just opened by otto feldmann on lennéstrasse a ([ ], p. ). one of the works exhibited there was paysage ([ ], opp. : ). these are picasso’s most innovative and fruitful months in his entire career ([ ], pp. , ). he carefully noted his earnings from la peau de l’ours in his own handwritting. covering the period through january , his informal list also included an entry for of level avril . frf ([ ], p. ). in a note from november, picasso also inscribed his earnings from sales to kahnweiler, which amounted to frf ([ ], p. ). in another note from december, he would write down an additional frf from sales to the dealer ([ ], p. ). such high earnings had allowed him to relocate to a new residence at no. , bis, rue schoelcher, boulevard raspail in early october ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). additional exhibitions in germany kahnweiler finally managed to close the deal with gertrude on october, after she had settled things with leo ([ ], p. ), purchasing acrobate à la boule (fillette à la boule) ([ ], opp. : ), together with two other earlier works, for , frf, and, in exchange, he gave her homme à la guitare ([ ], opp. : ). he would immediately sell acrobate à la boule (fillette à la boule) ([ ], opp. : ) to ivan morozov for , gdf ([ ], p. ). in december, kahnweiler organized an important second exhibition at otto feldmann’s neue galerie, berlin, entitled ‘picasso und negerplastiken’. it would on march ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], pp. , ). others date this trip to mid-march ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ) or simply march ([ ], p. ). see ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). others date the trip to late-march ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). see ([ ], p. ). arts , , of later travel to dresden, vienna, zürich, and basel. the works, among which was paysage, coucher de soleil ([ ], opp. : ), were shown along with african sculptures ([ ], p. ). by this date, kahnweiler handed over to picasso an additional , frf, for a grand total of , frf that year. picasso was on his way to becoming a very wealthy man ([ ], p. ). during christmas, there was an additional exhibition, entitled ‘beiträge zur künst des . jahrhunderts und unserer zeit’ at galerie alfred flechtheim on alleestraße , düsseldorf. among the picassos on display were bronze casts of three of his early sculptures; le fou ([ ], opp. : ), tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ), and tête de femme (fernande) ([ ], opp. : ). this was the first showing of picasso’s sculptures in germany. none of his three-dimensional works or his most recent constructions had been included in his exhibitions at the galerie hans goltz in or heinrich thannhauser’s moderne galerie in munich in late february, ([ ]. p. ). in january , galerie paul rosenberg opened at rue la boétie, paris. jacques-emile blanche provided a description of the fancy locale: ‘a façade entirely of marble, a vestibule of marble, a staircase of onyx...vast rooms hung with watered silk receiving torrents of light thanks to ingenious lozenge-shaped ceiling fixtures in which a dozen bulbs cluster like grapes on the vine’ ([ ], p. ). this same month, on the second station at kunstsalon emil richter in dresden of the exhibition ‘picasso und negerplastiken’, kahnweiler added fourteen cubist drawings to the works already shown earlier. among the picassos on display was trois femmes: nu debout (Étude) ([ ], opp. : ). the exhibition would move in february through march to galerie miethke, vienna ([ ], p. ), where artworks would be shown, among them femme et pot de moutarde ([ ], opp. : ), vase de fleurs ([ ], opp. : ), l’huilier ([ ], opp. : ), la bouteille de rhum ([ ], opp. : ), buffalo bill ([ ], opp. : ), la grenade ([ ], opp. : ), l’étagère ([ ], opp. : ), verre et tasse ([ ], opp. : ), femme à la guitare (‘ma jolie’) ([ ], opp. : ), tête d’homme à la pipe (‘boxeur’) ([ ], opp. : ), and le saucisson ([ ], opp. : ). in february, kahnweiler purchased from leo stein the painting le meneur de cheval nu ([ ], opp. : ) for , frf, selling it to ivan morozov for twice what he paid ([ ], pp. , ). he also offered the russian femme fatiguée, ivre ([ ], opp. : ) for frf, but morozoy would not take the offer ([ ], pp. – ). while leo’s collection was on the decline, albert c. barnes’ kept increasing, many of them bought from kahnweiler. around this time he wrote to him: ‘i have counted twenty-five renoirs, twelve cézannes and twelve picassos in my house’ ([ ], p. ). however, during the years before the war, kahnweiler seemed to have sold only about % of the picassos he had acquired. following vollard’s example, he focused on building an inventory of his artists’ work with the goal of holding it until the artists’ reputations were sufficiently established for their paintings to command high prices. he rarely organized exhibitions in france, preferring instead to encourage critics and other dealers to spread his artists’ acclaim ([ ], p. ). this same month, michael brenner signed a contract with kahnweiler, whereby the washington square gallery, new york, became the exclusive north american outlet for works by picasso, braque, gris, and léger in exchange for a frf guarantee, which would be subsequently raised to frf and, a month later, to frf ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). on february, the dealer wrote to sergei shchukin and ivan morozov, urging them to bid on la famille de saltimbanques (les bateleurs) ([ ], opp. : ) at the upcoming auction of the collection of la peau de l’ours ([ ], p. ). the collection included twelve paintings, gouaches, and pastels by picasso, among them, l’homme à la pèlerine ([ ], opp. : ), mère tenant deux enfants (la mère) ([ ], opp. : ), mère et enfant (maternité) ([ ], opp. : ), femmes et enfant (intimité) ([ ], opp. : ), le poète cornuti (l’absithe) ([ ], opp. : ), les trois hollandaises ([ ], opp. : ), and compotier et fruits ([ ], opp. : ). the auction took place at hôtel drouot in paris on march , featuring one hundred and works, with paintings and drawings by see ([ ], p. ). arts , , of different artists ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). young cubist painters were represented, but picasso only by pre-cubist works, of which twelve were included. it also included ten paintings by matisse. thannhauser’s purchase of picasso’s la famille de saltimbanques (les bateleurs) ([ ], opp. : ) for , frf would cause a huge scandal, although it did not break a record, since kahnweiler had sold acrobate à la boule (fillette à la boule) ([ ], opp. : ) to morosov in for , frf ([ ], p. ). matisse’s compotier of apples and oranges by contrast sold only for frf ([ ], p. ). the total result of the auction was , frf, the quadruple of the purchase cost ( , frf over a ten-year period). although the paintings by gauguin and van gogh commanded high prices ( frf and frf, respectively), paintings by picasso and matisse brought the highest bids: , frf was paid for works by picasso and the total profit was , frf, of which they gave % to the artists, i.e., , frf. for picasso, this would constitute one-fifth of his recorded income for ([ ], p. ). salmon spoke of a ‘hernani of painting’, an allusion to the famous battle between opposing factions of romantics and classicists at the first performance of victor hugo’s drama hernani in . in gil blas, thannhauser was quoted as saying that he would have even ‘willingly paid twice as much’. an anti-german campaign was immediately launched in the press. however, among the bidders, in addition to the german dealers heinrich thannhauser (munich), alfred flechtheim (düsseldorf), georg caspari (munich), and l. w. guthier (dresden) were the french collectors coquiot and joachim gasquet, as well as artists and critics like albert gleizes, jean metzinger, andré salmon, and max jacob and the curators of le louvre, paul jamot and léon-jacques blocq ([ ], pp. – ; [ ], pp. – ). as fitzgerald points out, the critics perceived the auction as a confirmation of the art’s importance that their own aesthetic evaluations could not confer. thus, this auction served to cast the issue of the interdependence between critical and commercial acclaim in a historical light and demonstrated the role of commercial success in the development of artistic reputation ([ ], pp. – ). on april, kahnweiler arranged for the exhibition ‘picasso und negerplastiken’ to move to the moderne galerie (gottfried tanner), zürich, where it opened as ‘sonderaustellung pablo picasso’. forty-six paintings, seventeen drawings, and sixteen engravings were shown, among them, probably courtisane au collier de gemmes (l’hétaïre) ([ ], opp. : ) or femme au collier de gemmes ([ ], opp. : ), garçon de profil, à la collerette ([ ], opp. : ), nature morte aux bananes ([ ], opp. : ) (priced at frf), trois femmes (Étude) ([ ], opp. : ), trois femmes: nu debout (Étude) ([ ], opp. : ) (priced at , chf), femme et pot de moutarde ([ ], opp. : ), le guitariste ([ ], opp. : ), l’huilier ([ ], opp. : ) (priced at frf), tête de jeune fille ([ ], opp. : ), vase de fleurs ([ ], opp. : ), soldat et fille ([ ], opp. : ), buffalo bill ([ ], opp. : ), la pointe de la cité ([ ], opp. : ) (priced at frf), cartes à jouer et verre ([ ], opp. : ), la bouteille de rhum ([ ], opp. : ), verre et pipe ([ ], opp. : ), femme à la guitare (‘ma jolie’) ([ ], opp. : ), la grenade ([ ], opp. : ), la carafe (bouteille et verre) ([ ], opp. : ), l’étagère ([ ], opp. : ), la tasse (le bouillon ‘kub’) ([ ], opp. : ) (priced at frf), coquillages sur un piano ([ ], opp. : ), tête d’homme moustachu (‘kou’) ([ ], opp. : ), le saucisson ([ ], opp. : ), guitare, verre et journal ([ ], opp. : ), and tête de jeune fille ([ ], opp. : ); as well as feuillage (arbres) ([ ], opp. : ) and paysage (la rue des bois) ([ ], opp. : ) from the collector hermann rupf (neither one illustrated in the catalogue) ([ ], pp. – ). on may and through may, the exhibition moved the kunsthalle basel as part of the ‘mai-ausstellung’ through the efforts of wilhelm barth, who had gotten in contact with gottfried tanner about the possibility of continuing the zürich exhibition in basel. twenty-one works were exhibited, among them garçon de profil, à la collerette ([ ], opp. : ) and deux femmes nues se tenant ([ ], opp. : ) (priced at chf) ([ ], pp. – ). in april, may, and june, picasso noted additional earnings from sales to kahnweiler: frf, frf, and , frf, respectively ([ ], pp. , ). in mid-june, picasso left for avignon, while kahnweiler went on his summer vacation to the bavarian alps ([ ], p. ). after world war i was declared in august, picasso wrote to gertrude others number the works auctioned at paintings and drawings ([ ], p. ). arts , , of that he may have to make a trip to the capital in october as he was waiting for news of a check, presumably from kahnweiler for the , frf still owed him ([ ], p. ). on november, picasso took the night train to paris, returning to no. , bis, rue schoelcher ([ ], p. ; [ ], p. ). with most of its young men at war, the city appeared cheerless. somewhat ambivalent in his attitude toward the war and as a foreigner with strong attachments to german patrons such as kahnweiler and thannhauser, picasso was viewed with mistrust. cubism as a whole became associated with les boches. ‘kahnweiler’s strategy of developing the market primarily in germany, austria, switzerland, and eastern europe, where his family was well connected, did not help with this perception’ ([ ], p. ). by mid december, kahnweiler left italy for switzerland, where he would reside for the duration of the war. on december, the stock of his gallery at , rue vignon, paris was sequestered by the french government. having been declared an ‘enemy alien’, his property was subject to confiscation. seven years later, the confiscated stock would be put up for sale in a series of four auctions at the hôtel drouot in paris ([ ], p. ). picasso would have to wait until may to receive the , frf kahnweiler owed him. even after the debt had been settled, picasso would keep him at bay for six more months before allowing him to make even a modest purchase ([ ], pp. – , – ). . conclusions we have seen how picasso’s early career followed the usual steps of many conventional artists. he was educated at regional and national art schools and was first shown at local establishments, advancing subsequently to national exhibitions in his native country. his relocation to paris also followed a pattern that was common with many spanish painters of this period. although he underwent the usual challenges of his early years in the french capital, he was soon recognized as a ground-breaking artist and a secure investment by important dealers and collectors. abiding by the recommendations of his first long-term marchand, daniel-henry kahnweiler, whose strategy was to avoid the french salons, picasso exhibited at small avant-garde galleries not only in paris but, very importantly, in ‘germanic’ enclaves such as munich, düsseldorf, berlin, amsterdam, vienna, zürich, and prague. this would have dramatic consequences when world war i broke out, as picasso’s works (specifically his cubist output) were identified as boche (german). while he had equally attracted buyers of american (stein, barnes) and russian (shchukin, morosov) origins, the fact that many of his collectors were of german affiliation (uhde, rupf, perls, suermondt, schmidt) did not help assuage the popular misgivings. furthermore, during the war, the entire holdings of kahnweiler, a german national, were confiscated by the french government, which deeply affected the value of his works in the market when they were auctioned in the s. french collectors such as andré level and his organization la peau de l’ours served to compensate for picasso’s economic worries of these difficult years. the purchase of one of his rose period paintings for , frf by galerie heinrich thannhauser (moderne galerie) at auction in allowed picasso to take aesthetic risks that would eventually lead to the innovations of cubism. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. appendix: chronological list of exhibitions • picasso (barcelona, els quatre gats, february ). • primera exposición de arte modernista (escuelas albia, bilbao, august ). • utrillo, miguel, ed. dibujos de pablo picasso y ramón casas (barcelona, sala parés, – june ). • exposición de bellas artes (madrid, ). madrid. . others date the return earlier to late october ([ ], p. ), to mid november ([ ], p. ), or later to the end of november ([ ], p. ). arts , , of • coquiot, gustave, et al. exposition de tableaux de f. lturrino et de p. r. picasso (galeries ambroise vollard, paris, - june– july ). • manyach, père & emile seyden, eds. exposition grand prix d’auteuil: matisse, villon, marquet, maillol, picasso, etc (galerie berthe weill, paris, – june ). • harlor, thilda, et al. peintures, pastels et dessins de mm. girieud, launay, picasso et pichot (galerie berthe weill, paris, november– december ). • manyach, père & adrien farge, eds. tableaux et pastels de louis bernard-lemaire et de picasso (galerie berthe weill, paris, – april ). • le sieutre, maurice, ed. exposition de mm. charbonnier, clary-baroux, raoul dufy, girieud, picabia, picasso, thiesson (galerie berthe weill, paris, october– november ). • morice, charles, et al. exposition d’oeuvres de mm. trachsel gérardin, picasso (galeries serrurier, paris, february– march ). • exposition (galerie notre-dame-des-champs. paris, december – january ). • ausstellung (galerie heinrich thannhauser (moderne galerie), münchen, december ). • kahnweiler, daniel-henry, ed. picasso (galerie kahnweiler, paris, ). • ausstellung des sonderbundes westdeutscher kunstfreunde und künstler (städtischer kunstpalast, düsseldorf, july– october ). • braque und picasso (galerie heinrich thannhauser (moderne galerie), münchen, – september ). • uhde, wilhelm, ed. exposition picasso (galerie notre-dame-des-champs, paris. may ). • exposition picasso (galerie vollard, paris, december – february ). • nemzetkozi impresszionista kidllitas (müvészház, budapest, april–may ). • neue künstlervereinigung münchen. ausstellung pablo picasso. turnus, – (galerie heinrich thannhauser (moderne galerie), münchen, – september ). • fry, roger, ed. manet and the post-impressionists (grafton galleries, london, november– january ). • xxii. ausstellung der berliner secession (secession ausstellungshaus, berlin, frühling– sommer ). • exposition (galerie bernheim-jeune, paris, ). • exposition (la peau de l’ours, paris, ). • moderne kunst kring. internationale tentoonstelling van moderne kunst (stedelijk museum, amsterdam, october– november ). • de zayas, marius, eduard j. steichen, frank burty haviland & manolo. pablo picasso. an exhibition of early and recent drawings and watercolors. first picasso exhibition in usa (photo-secession gallery ‘ ’ (alfred stieglitz), new york, march– - april ). • xiii. jahrgang, vi. ausstellung (galerie paul cassirer, berlin, january–february ). • drawings by picasso (stafford gallery, london, april–may ). • xxiv ausstellung der berliner secession (secession ausstellungshaus, berlin, frühling, ). • buhnoviy valet (jack of diamonds) (moscow. january ). • der blaue reiter. schwarz-weiss (galerie hans goltz, münchen, february ). • dritte ausstellung. graphik (galerie der sturm. berlin, may ). • erste gesamtausstellung (galerie hans goltz, neue kunst. münchen, october ). • exposició picasso (galeria dalmau, barcelona, february–march ). • iii. juryfreie kunstschau (kunsthaus lepke. berlin, november– december ). • leipziger jahresausstellung (verein lia, leipzig, april–end of june ). • moderne kunst kring (stedelijk museum, amsterdam, october– november ). • bell, clive, roger fry, boris von anrep, et al. second post-impressionist exhibition. british, french and russian artists (grafton galleries, london, october– december ). arts , , of • reiche, richart, et al. sonderbund internationale kunstausstellung (städtische ausstellungshalle, köln, may– september ). • . gesamtausstellung (galerie hans goltz, münchen, august–september ). • beiträge zur kunst des . jahrhunderts und unserer zeit (galerie alfred flechtheim, düsseldorf, weihnachten, ). • bubnoviy valet (jack of diamonds) (moscow, march– april ). • basler, adolphe, ed. die neue kunst (galerie miethke, wien, january–february ). • erste ausstellung (neue galerie (otto feldmann), berlin, october–november ). • exhibition (bellevue-stratford hotel, philadelphia, december ). • herbstausstellung (ausstellungshaus der kurfürstendamm, berlin, december ). • pablo picasso. der rheinischer kunstsalon (galerie otto feldman, köln, march– april ). • kahnweiler, daniel-henry, ed. picasso und negerplastiken (neue galerie (otto feldmann), berlin, december ). • thannhauser, justin k., et al. picasso, œuvres de à (galerie heinrich thannhauser (moderne galerie), münchen, february ). • postimpresszionista kidllitds (müvészház, budapest, april–may , nemzetkozi). • benes, vincenc, ed. skupina vytvarnych umelcú, iii. vystava (obecni dum mésta prahy, prague, may–june ). • xix. század nagy francia mesterei (ernst-múzeum, budapest, autumn, ). • xx. ausstellung: albert bloch (galerie der sturm, berlin, december ). • ‘the armory show’ international exhibition of modern art ( th regiment armory, new york, february– march; the art institute of chicago, march– april; copley hall, boston, april– - may ). • post-impressionist and futurist exhibition (doré galleries, london, october – january ). • bubnoviy valet (jack of diamonds) (moscow, january–february ). • erste ausstellung der freien secession (secession ausstellungshaus, berlin, april–end of september ). • exposition (la peau de i’ours, paris, march ). • grapon group (alpine club gallery, london, january ). • internationale ausstellung (kunsthalle. bremen, february– march ). • picasso (galerie caspari, münchen, summer, ). • picasso (washington square gallery, new york, summer, ). • picasso und negerplastiken (galerie miethke, wien, february–march ). • picasso und negerplastiken (kunstsalon emil richter, dresden, januar ). • picasso und negerplastiken (sonder-ausstellung pablo picasso) (moderne galerie (gottfried tanner), zürich, april ). • skupina, i v vystava (obecni dum mésta prahy, prague, february–march ). references . inglada, rafael. “cronología.” in el primer picasso: a coruña— de febrero– de mayo, museo de belas 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[crossref] . cousins, judith, and pierre daix. “chronology.” in picasso and braque: pioneering cubism. edited by william s. rubin. new york: museum of modern art graphic society, , pp. – . . kahnweiler, daniel-henry, and pablo picasso. “deed of sale.” december . © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	first exhibitions in paris 	andré level and other major early collectors 	wilhelm uhde and the steins 	daniel-henry kahnweiler 	kahnweiler’s international market strategies 	vincenc kramář 	albert c. barnes 	picasso’s retrospective in germany 	conclusions 	: chronological list of exhibitions .최계영( - ).hwp journal of the korean institute of interior design vol. no. serial no. _ . 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 마크 로드코의 색면추상에 표현된 색의 확장성 연구 a study on the color extendability in mark rothko’s color-field abstract author 김선영 kim, sun-young / 정회원, 수원과학대학교 실내건축디자인과 조교수, 건축학박사 abstract this study is aimed at understanding the color extendibility of color-field abstract through mark rothko’s paintings. color extendibility is a structure applied by mark rothko. he simplifies it and by pursuing autonomy and immediacy of the color itself, including surface color and the front of color-field, rothko creates value through motions in his square paintings of non-fixed shapes. chapter revisits the meaning of color in abstract expressionism and explains the principle of color-field by applying the concept of ergon and parergon. in chapter , the principle, processes, methods, techniques of expression were studied as a basis to understand color extendibility and color-field abstract. in chapter , the works of mark rothko were analyzed based on his multiform paintings( - ), number and untitled( - ), and black paintings( - ) in order to identify, in the final chapter, the features of color extendibility in rothko’s works. according to the above research, the thesis successfully concludes that the artist’s reconstruction of reality and readjustment of transcendent reality are reproduced via color extendibility, the movement of color-field. keywords 마크 로드코, 색면추상, 색의 확장성, 피겨, 그라운드, 파레르곤, 에르곤 mark rothko, color-field abstract, color extendability, figure, ground, parergon, ergon . 서론 . . 연구의 배경과 목적 현대미술의 주요 담론은 플라톤(plato)의 미메시스 (mimesis)를 거부하고, 차원 이상의 시공간 개념이 누 락된 알베르티(leone battista alberti)의 원근법을 재조 립하여, 여러 겹이 중첩(layered)된 장(scene)을 구체화한 다. 이러한 층은 피겨와 그라운드의 유동적인 시공간의 관계를 형성하였다. 특히 세기 중반 미국 화단을 지배 하던 추상표현주의는 실존주의(existentialism)의 내부 시 선을 반영하여 다양한 양상을 나타냈다. 이는 대상을 ‘어 떻게’ 보는가가 아닌, 그 대상 안에서 ‘무엇을’ 보는지를 피력한 파울 클레(paul klee)의 관점과도 맞물린다. 추상표현주의는 작가의 직관과 행위적 제스쳐로 실존 과 소통한다. 선, 형태, 색 등의 세 가지 요소를 공통으 로 사용하던 기존 회화 형식을 와해시켜, ‘예술가가 생각 하는 리얼리티’를 재현한다. 즉 인상파가 잃어버린 구조 의 힘을 되찾았을 뿐 아니라, 지오토(giotto di bondone) 의 드레이퍼리(drapery) )도 수긍하였다. 이러한 개념은 ) 블래시필드의 관점에서 지오토의 회화는 빈약한 입체감과 공간감의 캔버스를 새로운 세계(scene)로 구현한 색면추상 분야에 서 나타났다. 특히 지속적으로 캔버스 안팎으로 움직이 는 장-캔버스 안으로 들어가는 빛과 캔버스 표면 바로 앞의 공간에서 밖으로 이동하는 색채-을 실현한 마크 로 드코의 작품에서 도드라진다. 따라서 본 논문은 물감이 칠해지는 바탕과 그 조형성을 초월한 물질-대상-이 일 체화된 색의 확장성을 살펴보고자 한다. 이는 작품에 표 현된 색채 의미뿐 아니라, 작가의 리얼리티를 추론하는 초석으로 활용될 것이다. . . 연구 방법 및 범위 연구 방법은 다음과 같다. 장은 추상표현주의에서 색 의 의미를 살펴본 후, 에르곤과 파레르곤 개념을 적용한 결여로 조형 능력이 떨어지는 화가로 간주한다. bernard berenson, the florentine painters of the renaissance, forgotten books, 반면 베렌슨의 관점에서는 촉각적 인식을 자극하는 강력한 조형성 을 지녔다고 본다. edwin howland blashfield, italian cities, forgotten books, 블래시필드는 다른 감각들과 분리된 시각 개념에 상응하는 리얼리 티를 추구하고, 베렌슨은 촉각에 상응하는 리얼리티는 추구하는데, 마크 로드코는 이를 모두 조형성의 개념으로 본다. mark rothko, the artist's reality: philosophies of art, christopher rothko editor, yale university press, , pp. - 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 색면 원리를 살펴본다. 이는 장에서 색의 확장성과 색 면추상을 이해하는 근거로써 표현원리, 표현과정, 표현형 식, 표현방법, 표현기술 등을 추출한다. 장에서는 로드 코의 작품을 멀티폼 시기( - ), 넘버와 언타이틀 시기( - ), 블랙페인팅 시기( - )로 나누어 분석 후, 색의 확장성 특성을 추론한다. 연구 범위는 마크 로드코가 신화적 주제와 초현실주의 의 이미지에서 벗어나, 캔버스 안에 다층 색면 구조가 시작되는 년 이후의 작품부터 진행한다. 이때부터 그의 색채는 형태를 붕괴하고 캔버스를 침투하여 색면으 로 팽창시킴으로써, 공간과 면, 색채와 형의 관계를 재정 비한다. 이는 그가 촉각적 공간과 환영적 공간을 통해 캔버스 안과 밖으로 관람자를 초대한 시기와 일치한다. 또한 마크 로드코가 집필하고, 그의 아들 크리스토퍼 로 드코가 편집한《the artist's reality》에서 피력한 그의 미학적 관점을 중심으로 논한다. . 추상표현주의와 색면 . . 추상미술의 개요 세기 미술사의 주류 중 하나인 추상미술(abstract art) )은 눈에 보이는 대상을 재현하는 대신, 기하학적 형 상으로 이루어진 작품을 총칭한다. 미술사에서 추상 )을 처음으로 체계화한 것은 큐비즘(cubism)이다. 들로네 (robert delaunay)의 오르피슴(orphisme) )과 몬드리안 (piet mondr)의 데 스테일(de stijl) ), 아메데 오장팡 (amédée ozenfant)과 르 코르뷔지에(le corbusier)의 퓌리슴(purism) )의 개념 모두 큐비즘 없이는 생각할 수 ) 추상미술 형태는 사냥의 성공, 자손의 번창을 기원하는 구석기시대 의 기호와 문양 및 이슬람과 비잔틴시대는 종교의 주술과 상징의 기하학적 기호로 이미 존재했다. 그러나 미술에서 추상은 대상의 본질을 꿰뚫어 단순하게 도식화하는 시각적 행위만이 아니다. 이 를 클레멘트 그린버그는 ‘이젤을 버리는 행위 및 제한(틀, 경계)과 시점의 거리를 단절하는 순수한 시각의 변혁’이라고 했다. 따라서 추상미술은 미술의 추상적 가치를 세련되게 하여 설명적 묘사에 따르지 않은 소통을 확대했다. clement greenberg, art and culture, beacon press, , pp. - ) 라틴어 abs(away)-trahere(끌다, 당기다)에서 유래되어 대상의 전 구성에서 어떤 것을 잘라내어 밖으로 끌어내서 줄인다는 뜻으로 전 체에서 생략, 제거, 정리한다. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/abstract ) 피카소(pablo picasso), 브라크(georges braque)를 중심으로 세기 프랑스 회화의 한 경향으로, 오르페우스(orpheus)에서 연유하여 오 르픽 큐비즘(orphic cubism)이라고 한다. 아폴리네르(guillaume apollinaire)가 ~ 년경 들로네 작품의 새로운 형식을 보고 붙였다. 대상의 분석과 화면의 재구성이 주요 목표였기에, 색보다는 형태 조합의 구성을 중시하였다. http://www.frantisek-kupka.com/ ) 네덜란드 예술 운동인 신조형주의(neo plasticism)로 주요 멤버는 피트 몬드리안(piet mondrian), 빌모스 후사르(vilmos huszàr), 바 르트 판 데르 레크(bart van der leck), 게리트 리트펠트(gerrit rietveld,), 로베르트 판트 호프(robert van't hoff)가 있다. 형태와 색채의 추상성/보편성, 수직/수평으로 단순화한 검정, 흰색, 원색만을 사용했다. piet mondrian, de nieuwe beelding in de schilderkunst, , pp. - 없기 때문이다. 이러한 면에서 추상미술은 명백히 관념 미술이므로 오너먼트(ornament)와는 구별되어야 한다. . . 추상표현주의와 색 ( ) 미술에서 색의 개념 외부세계에서 받아들이는 색의 자극은 인간 지각과 연 관되어 있다. 색은 외부 모습을 지각하는 동시에, 내부 세계의 상상력을 통해서도 생긴다. 색을 보는 것은 어떠 한 자극을 눈으로 인식하여 대뇌의 감각세포가 생물학적 자극을 받는 것보다 더 심오하고 복잡한 과정을 갖는다. 이를 괴테(johann wolfgang von goethe)는 ‘내재하는 것이 없으면, 외재하는 것도 없다. 왜냐하면 내부가 곧 외부이기 때문이다.’ )라고 주창하였다. 그러나 미술에서 색이 항상 주요 위치를 차지한 것은 아니었고, 세기까지 색보다는 형(dessin)이 중시되었다. 추상미술에서 색의 관점이 두드러지기 시작한 것은 인상 파부터로, 이는 들라크루아(eugène delacroix)의 색채표 현에서 출발한다. 인상파들은 자연을 거대 색채현상으로 인식하여, 시시각각 움직이는 미묘한 빛 자체의 변화를 재현하였다. 이는 과거 회화들이 충실한 재현을 위해 ‘회 화의 질료성’, ‘매체의 특수성’을 감추고, 비현실적인 원 근법을 묘사했던 것과 차별화한다. 특히 인상주의는 프 리즘에서 빛의 분해, 추출, 결합을 추상화하여 형의 외곽 선을 지움으로써, 앵포르멜(informel) )의 전조가 되었다. ( ) 추상표현주의 등장 추상표현주의(abstract expressionism)라는 명칭이 공 식적으로 사용된 것은 알프레드 바(alfred hamilton barr)가 년 미국에서 전시 중이던 칸딘스키(wassily kandinsky)의 초기 작품에서, 형식은 추상이지만 내용은 표현주의라는 언급에서 시작되었다. 이 후 년 월《뉴요커》기자 로버트 코츠(robert coates)가 이 용어를 빌럼 드 쿠닝(willem de kooning) 과 잭슨 폴록(jackson pollock)의 작품에 사용하며 일반 화하였다. ‘뿌리고 끼얹고 치고 뿜기(dropping, splashing, throwing or spraying) 회화’보다는 정중한 이름으로 붙 인 것이다. 그러나 로젠버그(harold rosenberg)는 이 용 어가 부적절하다고 하여 액션페인팅 )으로 사용한다. 또한 년대 미국 추상표현주의의 결정적 역할을 한 ) 년 에스프리 누보(esprit nouveau)에 오장팡과 코르뷔지에의 《입체주의 이후(aprés le cubisme)》선언서에서 시작된 운동으로 장식성, 과장을 일체 거부한 간결, 명확한 조형성을 주장하는 기능 주의와 상통한다. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/purism ) frank h. mahnke, color, environment, & human response, wiley; edition, , p. , p. ) 형(form)을 부정한다는(in) 뜻으로, 아르 브뤼(art brut), 타시즈(tachism) 로 불리며 타피에(michel tapié)에 의해 구체화되었다. 제 차 세계대전 후 기하학적 추상에 반발하여 계획된 구성을 거부한 자발적, 주관적 경 향이다. http://www.cine .com/news/view/group/m /mag_id/ ) edward lucie-smith, art today, phaidon press, , p. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > necker cube 초현실주의(surrealism)의 자동기술법(automatism) )에서 강력한 영향을 받았다. 인간 정신의 해방을 위한 일종의 신비사상으로, 원시성과 신화의 관심을 부활시켰으며 이 시기 화가들은 프로이드(sigmund freud)보다는 융(carl gustav jung)의 견해를 받아들였다. ) ( ) 추상표현주의에서 색의 고찰 추상표현주의는 크게 액션페인팅(action painting) )과 색면추상(color-field abstract) )으로 나뉜다. 액션페인 팅은 주로 선형적이지만, 색면추상은 캔버스 전체에 색 을 채운다. 폴록의 푸어드(poured)와 드리핑(dripping), 뉴먼(barnett newman)과 로드코의 컬러필드(color-field) 는 표면적으로는 다른 형식의 색을 취하지만, 캔버스의 전면을 덮는(all over) 무초점과 무한성의 공통점이 있다. 이러한 즉각적 색채 감각을 증강시키기 위해 형태는 최 소로 단순화시킨다. 또한 무한성의 효과를 극대화하기 위해 거대성을 반영한다. 이는 보는 사람의 시야를 가득 채우는 일종의 환경색채로 확대된다. 즉 작은 규모의 실 (室) 전부는 공간색채가 되고, 전시된 작품들은 대상색채 가 된다. 이는 에드먼드 버크(edmund burke)가 ‘마음이 그림에 완전히 빠져들어 다른 모든 것을 잊는다.’는 언급 과 일맥상통한다. 보다 중요한 관점은 그림과 공간의 관 계가 물감과 캔버스의 작용과 무관하지 않다는 것이다. 구분 차이점 공통점 액션페인팅 (action painting) 선형, 푸어드, 드리핑 최소화한 형태, 캔버스의 전면을 덮는, 무초점, 무한성, 거대성색면추상 (color-field abstract) 면, 컬러필드 <표 > 추상표현주의와 색 ) 프로이트 정신분석에서 영향을 받아 무의식과 꿈의 세계를 지향하 는 세기 예술사조로, 년 앙드레 브르통(andre breton)의 《초현실주의 선언(manifeste du surréalisme)》에서 명확한 개념 을 갖춘다. 일체의 미학적, 윤리적 선입견 없는 사유의 기록으로 의식 하의 세계를 탐구하여 습관적 기법, 고정관념, 이성 등을 배 제하고, 무념무상의 상태에서 손이 움직이는 대로 그린다. 라리오 노프(mikhail fyodorovich)의 레요니슴(rayonnisme), 밍게스(oscar dominguez)의 데칼코마니(décalcomanie), 에른스트(max ernst)의 프로타주(frottage), 마그리트(rené magritte)의 데페이즈망 (dépaysement)이 있다. bruce altshuler, the avant-garde in exhibition: new art in the th century, university of california press; new edition edition, , pp. - ) jolande jacobi, complex/archetype/symbol in the psychology of c.g. jung, manheim(translator), r. manheim, ralph(translator), princeton university press, , p. ) 초현실주의의 자동기술법에서 유래되었으며, 실재 사고체계는 칼 야스퍼스(karl jaspers)와 마틴 하이데거(martin heidegger)가 논 하던 창조 행위의 과정에서 인간 생명과 직결되는 행위적 특징이 있다. irving sandler, triumph of american painting: a history of abstract expressionism, harper & row, , p. ) 행위의 기록이나 흔적밖에 남지 않는 액션페인팅의 오류를 보완하 여, 순수회화의 표현성은 유지하여 회화의 명료성이 있다. irving sandler, triumph of american painting: a history of abstract expressionism, harper & row, , p. . . 추상표현주의에서 색면의 원리 ( ) 색면의 의미 추상표현주의에서 색면이란 초벌칠을 하지 않은 캔버 스에 직접 물감이 스며드는 것을 말한다. 년부터 주 로 아크릴 물감의 고채도, 중명도의 강렬한 색채로 대체 되었다. 또한 염색 기법을 고수하여 캔버스에 칠해진 색 채와 캔버스 표면을 완벽하게 일치시켰다. 색과 면으로 야기되는 색면은 색 자체에 관심을 두어 인간 내면을 표출하므로 재현(representation) )의 색채 보다 표현의 색조를 선호한다. 광활한 캔버스는 무한히 펼쳐지는 색면을 통해 비가시적인 세계-대자연의 경외감 에서 느껴지는 추상적 숭고-를 색 자체의 중량감으로 표 현하여, 즉각적이고 애매한 환각으로 색면의 안팎을 돌 아다닌다. 즉 추상표현주의는 사람, 풍경, 정물 등의 특 정한 재현은 없으나, 대상과 배경이 색채로 생성된다는 점은 동일하다. 즉 평면성-정면성, 단순성, 대치성-이 있 으나 근본적으로 피겨와 그라운드의 관계는 유지한다. ( ) 색과 면의 관계 몇 초간 <그림 >을 응시하 면 붉은 점이 큐브 내부의 모서 리에 있는지, 큐브 정면에 있는 지 불분명해진다. 이는 차원에 서 차원 이상의 지각 습관이 적 용되기 때문이다. 즉 네거 큐브 는 망막 위의 차원 데이터에 모 순되지 않으므로 하나의 시각 자극이 여러 가지 방식으 로 해석된다. ) 이러한 원리를 토대로 추상표현주의를 처음 인지할 때 는 색과 형이 동시에 지각되어 외곽선이 중시되지만, 시 간이 흐르면 관찰 대상에만 집중된다. 평면성과 얕은 깊 이감에도 색면은 캔버스에서 떠 있것처럼 돌출되어 튀어 올라오는 움직임이 관찰된다. 특히 캔버스 안으로 들어 가는 빛-색채-과 캔버스 표면 바로 앞의 공간-색면-의 안팎을 이동하는 색채 재배치가 시작된다. 피겨 (figure) 그라운드 (ground) 빛 ↔ 표면 공간 색채 ↔ 캔버스 <표 > 색과 면의 관계 ) 이미 실재하고 있는 대상을 다시 드러내므로 실재 대상의 존재를 전제한다. 즉 재현은 재현하고 있는 대상과의 대치를 뜻하며, 스스 로 존재할 수 없고 실재 대상에 의존해야 하므로 타율적 속성이 있다. jean baudrillard, simulations, semiotext(e), , pp. - 오늘날의 재현은 ‘원본 없는 재현’, 자기 동일성 없는 복제인 ‘시뮬 라크르’로 ‘모본과 원본’, ‘가상과 현실’, ‘이미지와 실재’를 대체하는 것으로 양자의 유사함이 발생한다. 즉 색면은 추상적인 색과 면으 로 존재하지만, 이미 존재하는 모든 빛을 포함한다고 연구자는 고 찰한다. ) daniel gilbert, stumbling on happiness, random house, , p. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > caspar david friedrich, monk by the sea, staatliche museen berlin, 출처: http://www.theartwolf.com/ _seascapes.htm ( ) 색면의 속성 추상표현주의에서 색과 면은 피겨와 그라운드의 경계 를 확장시킨다. 특히 넓은 영역에 칠해진 색채는 드로잉, 제스츄어, 심볼리즘 등을 거세한 색면으로 포화된다. 이 는 파울 클레(paul klee)의 ‘회색 점’ )이며, 화가의 사유 로 재구축된 대상물의 ‘변형’으로 볼 수 있다. 이처럼 추상표현주의의 색과 면은 단순히 피겨와 그라 운드의 관계로만 규명하기에 부족한 부분이 있다. 특히 색면은 일반적인 예술작품의 의미와 내용적 이데올로기 뿐 아니라, 색들의 병치와 충돌로 색의 이동, 교환, 뉘앙 스, 반영 )을 생성하기 때문이다. 또한 정적으로 일체화 (united)된 색면 창조를 위해 기존에 활용되던 색 조화와 배열을 재조정하면서, 보다 복잡한 관계를 갖게 된다. 이 를 에르곤과 파레르곤으로 설명하고자 한다. 근대 미학에서 에르곤(ergon)은 칸트(immanuel kant) 에 의해 사용된 그리스어로, 예술에서 작품을 뜻한다. 파 레르곤(parergon)-‘주변’을 의미하는 ‘파라’(para)와 ‘작품’ 을 뜻하는 ‘에르곤’(ergon)을 합침- )은 작품에 부수하는 것으로 일종의 장식적인 것이다. 그는 파레르곤의 가지 예를 회화의 액자, 조각상에 걸쳐진 천, 건물의 기둥을 들었다. 즉 파레르곤은 상대적이고 모호한 것이다. <그림 >는 독일의 극작가 하인리히 빌헬름 폰 클라 이스트(bernd heinrich wilhelm von kleist)가 ‘무한하고 균일한 공간 앞에서 마치 눈꺼풀이 잘려나간 듯한 느낌’ 이라고 묘사했던 작품이다. 구름으로 가득 찬 하늘과 세 피아(sepia)의 바다, 안개가 자욱한 대기 의 수평선을 가르는 왜소한 수도승의 ‘뒷 모습’의 수직선이 존 재한다. 화면 전체는 명확한 형태가 배제 된 채, 색채 그러데 이션-유기체처럼 변 화하는 빛-으로 구축되어 있다. 어떠한 행위나 사건의 재현보다 대자연에 마주 선 혼돈과 절망, 무력감, 좌절감 을 숭고미(the sublime) )로 표출한다. 이렇게 시각적 포 ) 회색 점(들뢰즈는 바로크적 유동성을 설명하기 위한 맥락에서 클 레의 회색 점을 원용한다.)이란 차원이 없고 위치 지정이 불가능한 카오스이다. gilles deleuze & felix guattari, a thousand plateaus, university of minnesota press; edition, , p. 본 연구자는 회색 점을 ‘예술은 눈에 보이지 않는 것을 복사하여 제시하는 것이 아니라, 보이지 않는 것을 보이게 하는 것이다.’라는 클레의 사유를 응축하는 핵심어로도 본다. ) rene, ed. huyghe, art and mankind: larousse encyclopedia of prehistoric and ancient art, , p. ) jacques derrida, the truth in painting, university of chicago press, , p. ) 숭고의 어원은 그리스어 hypsous(높이)에서 유래한다...숭고는 인간 이 인간 이상의 위대함을 초월하여 높은 것을 동경하는 정신적 반 화를 통한 색면은 파레르곤의 속성을 띈다. 재구축 재조정 비재현의 색채 일체화(united)된 색조 <표 > 색면의 속성 . 색의 확장성의 이해 . . 색면추상에서 색의 확장성 색의 확장성은 색면추상 작품 바로 앞, 인간 지각이 시작되는 지점에서 출발하며, 인간 무의식 영역에서 파 생되는 숭고미와 관련 있다. 따라서 관찰자는 작품의 내 적 구성에 관여하여 색면 본질을 이해하게 된다. 재현의 의미작용을 떠나 여러 겹의 중첩된 장을 경험한다. 이 때 색면은 캔버스 밖에 있는 관람자에게 작품의 안도 밖 도 아니고, 내부도 외부도 아니며, 위도 아래도 아닌 모 든 대립을 뒤흔드는 파레르곤의 개념을 갖는다. 이러한 색의 확장성은 낮은 조도의 닫힌 공간에서 거대 면적의 캔버스에 다양한 기술을 활용하여 표현한다. . . 색의 확장성 요소 및 내용 ‘나는 시각적 형식의 추상화를 그린 게 아니라, 추상적 사유를 통한 공간연출 그 자체(makom) )를 인스톨레이 션 하였다.’ )는 로드코의 관점에서 색의 확장성 요소를 추출하였다. 그의 색면은 기하학적 추상이 아닌 관념의 표현으로, 형식적 내용은 사라지고 색면의 질료와 처리 로 표현적 의미만 구체화한다. 그러므로 표현의 원리, 과 정, 형식, 방법, 기술 등의 요소에서 살펴보기로 한다. ) 향이다. nicolas boileau-despreaux, on the sublime, amazon digital services, inc., , p. 부정적 쾌감이 관념적 고통으로 존재할 때, 자기보존의 욕구에서 숭고가 발생한다. edmund burke, a philosophical enquiry into the origin of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful, nabu press, , p. 미가 삶의 직접적인 쾌감인데 반해, 숭고는 대상이 불분명하거나 존 재하지 않는 한계에서의 공포이다. 수학적 숭고(인간의 인식과정)와 역학적 숭고(공포를 수반한 쾌의 과정)로 체계화한다. immanuel kant, the critique of judgement, biblio bazaar, , pp. - 대상을 묘사, 표현하는 것이 아니라 재현할 수 없는 것이 존재한다는 사실을 실현함으로써 숭고의 영역을 암시한다. jean-françois lyotard, the sublime and the avant-garde, art forum, , p. 숭고란 정확히 말로 옮길 수 없는 것으로 새로운 언어와 형식을 필 요로 한다. 즉 여러 감정들이 복합적으로 뒤섞여, 오성의 법칙을 파 기하여 인간으로 하여금 자유를 상기시킨다. karsten harries, meaning of modern art, northwestern university press, , p. 이 작품에서는 구체적인 형상의 부재, 미지의 세계에 고통과 쾌의 모순성, 초월적 존재 등 숭고의 원리를 원경과 전경에 걸쳐 화면에 연장되는 무한한 공간색채로 구체화하였다고 본 연구자는 본다. ) 종교적 관점에서는 성소(聖所)를 뜻하지만, 로드코에게는 모든 세 계와 사유를 담은 전부이자 무의 개념으로 응용했다고 본 연구자 는 본다. ) bbc documentary, simon schama's power of art: rothko, ) 진중권, 진중권의 현대미술 이야기( ), 경향신문, . . 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . ( ) 표현원리 재현의 대상이 무너지면서 색면은 부동의 평면성으로 실체를 갖는다. 일루젼에 지배받지 않는 색면 그대로가 인간에게 전달되어, 표상 및 이미지를 초월한 직관적이 고 총체적인 숭고미를 관통한다. 이로써 가시적인 대상 성을 지워, 비가시적인 근원을 추구한다. ( ) 표현과정 휴먼 스케일의 닫힌 공간(confined spaces) )은 친밀 하고 일상적이라, 색면으로 심금을 울리는데 효과적이다. 또한 낮은 높이에 좁은 간격으로 작품을 설치하여 사방 의 벽체를 완전히 에워싼다. 색면의 빛이 파레르곤으로 발현되기 위해서는, 모든 것이 씻겨 사라지는 듯 강렬한 스포트라이트 대신 주광색 램프를 사용한다. 좁은 공간 과 낮은 층고, 균질하게 퍼지는 저명도의 조명은 물리적 인 빛의 속성을 제어하여 작품의 안과 밖을 넘나든다. 이는 사색적 아우라와 몰아일체를 통해 서서히 색의 확 장성 속에 도달하게 하는 연극적 장치도 포함한다. ( ) 표현형식 면적이 넓어진 캔버스는 동일 색조보다 명확한 명시도 로 색의 확장성을 증폭시킨다. 작품은 액자 없이 스테이 플러가 박힌 그대로의 거친 표면과 캔버스의 외곽 부분 을 불분명하게 채색하여, 색면과 작품이 설치된 공간색 채의 경계를 파레르곤 시킨다. 이는 색면과 대기의 색조 를 동일한 의미로 간주하는 것이다. ( ) 표현방법 밑칠작업 없이 채도와 광택도 조절, 빠른 건조, 두툼한 마티에르에서 해방된 아크릴 물감 사용은 색상배치와 명 암대비를 피하면서 부유하는 색면을 전개한다. 얼룩지고 흐릿해진 빛은 사각 캔버스의 초점(관점)을 증발시킨다. 특히 부드러운 일루젼은 다른 빛을 뚫고 지나가거나 스 며들어 광도를 융해시킨다. 즉 옅은 색상을 여러 번 얇 게 칠하여 타오르는 용광로의 광채처럼 표현한다. ( ) 표현기술 색면의 가장자리에 여러 번 칠해진 톤은 부드러운 하 드에지(hard edge) )를 형성하여, 캔버스 표면 밀도를 비 물성화한다. 스테이닝(staining)-수채화기법을 유화기법 으로 변용시켜 색의 겹침/중간색채의 녹아 배어 스며드 는 표현 활용-은 수채화 같은 성질로 색면에 스며들어 파레르곤화된다. 이러한 자연스러운 빛 번짐은 시간의 흐름과 부드러운 색조를 동시에 담아, 차원의 일루젼보 다 차원의 본질적 마티에르를 표현한다. 또한 조인티드 스킴(jointed scheme)은 벽화가 걸리는 실내 공간의 상 ) mark rothko, letter to katharine kuh, editor miguel lópez- remiro, november , , p. ) ‘면도칼의 날과 같이 예리한 테’란 뜻으로, 년 말 미국에서 일어 난 추상미술의 경향이다. 처음 쓴 것은 년 랭스너(jules langsner)이지만 알로웨이(lawrence alloway)에 의해 일반화되었다. 황을 고려하여 관람자의 인식을 조절한다. 구분 요소 세부 내용 표현원리 비가시적 근원 일루젼/재현/대상 제거, 직관적/총체적 숭고미 표현과정 연극적 장치 통제된 공간 및 낮은 조도, 주광조명, 아우라, 몰아일체 표현형식 거대 캔버스 거친 표면, 불분명한 채색, 색면과 대기의 무경계 표현방법 중첩된 장 무초점화, 색채병치, 색면의 부유, 광도에 의한 발색 표현기술 마티에르 하드에지, 스테이닝, 마티에르, 조인티드 스킴 <표 > 색의 확장성을 위한 요소 및 내용 . 마크 로드코 작품의 색의 확장성 . . 마크 로드코의 색채 세계 로드코에게 색채는 또 다른 리얼리티로 향하는 출구이 자, 파레르곤을 형성하는 주요 수단이었다. 그가 디자인 과 색채를 처음 접한 것은 포틀랜드(portland) 극단에서 였으며 ), 사각 캔버스에서 색면을 극대화하였으나 클리 셰(cliché)적 색채 어휘에서 자유로울 수 있는 실질적 계 기로 본다. 즉 그에게 색채란 빛의 물리적 표현이 아닌 선험적 의미를 담는 사유작용이었다. 그는 ‘어두운 색상이 밝은 색상보다 더 힘차고 즐거우 며 밝은 색상은 어두운 색상보다 엄숙하고 심오하다.’ ) 고 역설했다. 이는 ‘어떤 진술이 파란색이나 초록색일 수 없는 것처럼 회화의 색도 진실이나 거짓일 수 없다.’ )는 의미와 상통한다. 또한 감산혼법은 렘브란트(rembrandt harmensz)에게, 안료의 흡수정도, 광택여부, 색조와 무색 조의 관계 등의 색채효과 )는 에버리(milton avery)와 ) 로드코는 학비 중단으로 예일대학교의 졸업을 포기하고 제 의 고향 포틀랜드로 돌아와서《작은극단(the little company)》을 거쳐 러시 아에 뿌리를 둔《미국실험극단(american laboratory theatre)》 입 단을 시도한다. 러시아계 유대인인 그가 ‘회화와 연극’사이에서 진지 하게 흔들리던 시기로, 러시아 문학에 감정이입이 된 계기가 된다. mark rothko, writings on art: mark rothko, miguel lopez- remiro, ed., exhibition of january -february , , p. 빛의 효과로 감정과 연결 짓는 연상 작용을 습득하였으며, 상이하 게 번지는(blur) 빛, 명암의 정도, 하이라이트와 깊은 음영 사이의 대조 등 극적인 색채표현을 익힌다. 또한 베토벤(ludwig van beethoven), 모차르트(wolfgang amadeus mozart), 슈베르트 (franz peter schubert)의 음악을 사랑했고, 셰익스피어(william shakespeare), 니체(friedrich wilhelm nietzsche), 키에르케고르 (søren aabye kierkegaard)를 주요 사상으로 삼았다. mark rothko, the artist's reality: philosophies of art, yale university press, , p. ) diane waldman, mark rothko - , abrams books for young readers, , p. ) ernst hans josef gombrich, art and illusion, princeton university press, , p. ) michael compton, mark rothko - , tate, , p. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 작품 이미지 원리 과정 형식 방법 기술 -여러 개 의 색점들 은 색면, 색점 등으 로 변화 - 색 면 을 마치 배우 처럼 회화 적 미장센 으로 연출 -채도 차 이로 피겨 ( 대 상 ) 와 그 라 운 드 ( 바 탕 ) 를 불명확화 -색상배치, 명 암 대 비 를 피하면 서 중첩의 장 형성 - 스테이 닝 기 법 으 로 빛 번짐 나타남 no. , -여러 개 의 색점들 은 직사각 형의 색면 으로 발전 - 수평으로 중첩된 색 면이 억누 르는 팽창 과 수축의 분위기 - 피 겨 ( 대 상)와 그라 운드( 바탕) 의 단순화 -옅은 색 을 여러 번 얇게 칠해 광도 에 의한 발 색 으 로 중첩의 장 표현 - 스테이 닝 기 법 으 로 빛 번짐 나타남 no. , -알 수 없 는 곳에서 유 래 하 여 부 유 하 는 수평의 빛 으로 재현 성 탈피 - 수평으로 중첩된 색 면이 억누 르는 팽창 과 수축의 분위기 - 피 겨 ( 대 상)와 그라 운드( 바탕) 의 단순화 -옅은 색 을 여러 번 얇게 칠해 광도 에 의한 발 색 으 로 중첩의 장 표현 - 스테이 닝 기법이 본 격 화 되 어 화면이 염 색되는 듯 한 색조 saffron, 작품 이미지 원리 과정 형식 방법 기술 - 아메 바나 미지의 미 생 물 같 이 숨 쉬는 유 기 체 의 다 형 으 로 기존 회화 의 재현성 탈피 시작 - 색 점 을 마치 배우 처럼 회화 적 미장센 으로 연출 - 피 겨 ( 대 상)와 그라 운드 (바 탕) 의 명확한 구분 없는 채색 -밑칠 작업 없이 채도 및 광택도 의 조절로 마 티 에 르 가 해방되 어 명확한 초점 상실 - 스테 이닝 기 법 으 로 빛 번짐 나타남 untitled, - 재현성 이 거의 사라 져 여러 개 의 색점들 이 마블링 ( ma r b l in g ) 처럼 표현 - 색 점 을 마치 배우 처럼 회화 적 미장센 으로 연출 - 피 겨 ( 대 상)와 그라 운드 (바 탕) 의 명확한 구분 없는 채색 -밑칠 작업 없이 채도 및 광택도 의 조절로 마 티 에 르 가 해방되 어 명확한 초점 상실 - 스테 이닝 기 법 으 로 빛 번짐 나타남 untitled, 마티스(henri matisse)로부터 영향을 받는다. 그는 색면 의 안과 밖에서 움직이는 색의 확장성을 감지하는 이상 적인 거리는 ㏌( ㎜)라고 했다. 그 거리에서 색면을 바라보면 색면 내부의 움직임과 색면 외부의 경계가 사 라지는 것을 경험할 것이라고도 했다. . . 멀티폼(multiform): - 년부터 로드코는 새로운 연작 멀티폼을 제작한다. 이는 고전적인 추상회화에 이르는 교량 같은 역할을 했 다. 신화, 상징주의, 풍경 등 대상을 형상화하던 이전의 주제들에서 일시적이고 공간감이 존재하지 않는 색덩어 리를 모색한다. 따라서 이전 작품들처럼 설명적인 제목 대신, 작품번호와 제작연대만을 활용하거나 특정 작품의 지배적인 색조를 작품 제목으로 삼기도 하였다. <표 > 멀티폼 시기 ) . . 번호(number) 및 무제(untitled): - 그는 년에 이르러 완전한 색면추상에 도달한다. 이 시기 색면은 완벽한 정면성으로 자연계의 일루젼을 제거한다. 멀티폼에서 두드러지던 색점은 - 개의 직사 각형 색채덩어리로 바뀌어 캔버스의 가장자리를 부유한 다. 다양한 색상은 중첩부위에서는 한 개의 색상만을 사 용한다. 즉 밑 작업이 안 된 캔버스 위에 전색제를 얇게 칠하면, 바탕칠을 고정하는 오일은 테두리까지 퍼진다. 물감은 매우 옅어서 깊이 착색되지 않고 표면에만 머물 러, 투명성과 발광성으로 연무 같은 연출이 나타난다. ) 그림출처: jacob baal-teshuva, mark rothko, taschen, , p. <표 > 번호 및 무제 시기 ) . . 블랙 페인팅(black painting): - 년부터 그의 색면은 점점 어두운 색조(maroon, scarlet, vermilion, dark bundy, slate grey, navy, black) 로 변하여, 년 월 일 자살로 생을 마감할 때까지 거의 모노크롬(monochrome)에 집중한다. 년부터 년까지 벽화시리즈는 로드코 초기( 년- 년대) 의 표현주의적 인물화의 분위기도 되살아난다. 그는 블 랙 페인팅 시기부터 색면추상을 본격적으로 탐구하였다. 시그램 벽화 )는 공간의 특성 때문에 처음으로 가로 로 긴 직사각형 캔버스에 수직 형태의 사각형을 그린다. 색면은 니체에게 영향 받은 기억을 바탕으로 결국 죽음 에 이르는 인간의 비극적 운명을 표현한다. 즉 ‘사각형 색면’은 파레르곤에 도달하기 위한 출발점인 동시에 마 지막 관문인 셈이다. ) 그림출처: http://neo-alchemist.com/tag/mark-rothko/ ) 시그램 빌딩 내의 포시즌즈 레스토랑(four seasons restaurant) 벽 화는 부작, 총 점으로 부는 버밀리언과 스칼렛을 사용, 부는 다크 버건디를 활용, 부는 개로 제한된 바룬과 검정으로 점점 명 시성이 낮아진다. 이 후 시그램 빌딩의 고급 레스토랑을 장식한다는 불편한 감정과 거들먹거리는 분위기가 불쾌해져서, 그는 작업을 그 만둔다. 이로써 작품들 중 점은 데이터 모던(tate modern)에, 몇 작품은 카와무라 기념관(kawamura memorial dic museum of art)에, 나머지는 워싱턴dc 국립현대미술관(national gallery of art)에, 몇 개는 자녀들이 소장하게 된다. http://onewhole.sprin gnote.com/pages/ ?print= 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <표 > 시그램 벽화 (seagram murals, ) ) 작품 이미지 원리 과정 형식 방법 기술 - 사 각색면 은 파레르 곤으로 도 달하기 위 한 관문 - 현 존 과 부재의 이 원성 상징 - 일 루젼을 완전히 제 거하여 재 현성, 대상 성 탈피 - 비 가시적 근원 모색 - 통 제 된 공간에 낮 은 층고로 사 각 형 의 색면과 관 람자의 몰 아 일 체 화 로 연극적 장치 -액자 없 이 거대 캔버스 활 용 - 캔버스 의 색면과 대기의 색 채를 동일 하게 취급 - 명 확 한 명시성 및 거친 표면 으로 피겨 ( 대 상 ) 와 그 라 운 드 ( 바 탕 ) 의 불 분 명 함 증폭 -마룬 바 탕에 다크 버 건 디 와 버 밀 리 언 으로 색 채 병치 - 재 현 성 거세로 무 초점화 -색면 부 유로 중첩 된 장 형 성 -붓자국으 로 평면성 ( 정 면 성 , 단순성, 대 치성) 강조 - 차 원 의 일 루 젼 을 삭 제 하 여 차 원적인 마 티 에 르 표현 -하드에지, 스 테 이 닝 , 조 인 티 드 스 킴 으 로 비물질화 tate modern kawamura memorial dic museum of art national gallery of art <표 > 하버드 벽화 (harvard murals, ) ) 작품 이미지 원리 과정 형식 방법 기술 - 사 각색면 은 파레르 곤의 문이 열리는 것 처럼 기둥, 벽, 창문으 로 닫힌 느낌 전달 - 일 루젼을 완전히 제 거하여 재 현성, 대상 성 탈피 - 직 관적이 고 총체적 인 숭고미 - 비 가시적 근원 모색 - 통 제 된 공간에 낮 은 층고로 사 각 형 의 색면과 관 람자의 몰 아 일 체 화 로 연극적 장치 -이전 작 품보다 더 욱 격정적 이고 거칠 어짐 -액자 없 이 거대 캔버스 활 용 -마룬 바 탕에 검정 색 톤과 베 이 지 색 기둥 모양 의 형태는 상 호 작 용 으로 무경 계화 -색면 안 팎으로 움 직이는 색 -기둥 모 양 형태의 상 단 부 와 하 단 부 에 는 섬광 같은 좁은 띠가 맞닿 아 부유하 는 색면 - 광 도 에 의한 발색 으로 중첩 된 장 - 재 현 성 거세로 무 초점화 -색면 부 유로 중첩 된 장 형 성 -붓자국으 로 평면성 강조 - 차 원 의 일 루 젼 을 삭 제 하 여 차 원적인 마 티 에 르 표현 -하드에지, 스 테 이 닝 , 조 인 티 드 스 킴 으 로 비물질화 guggenheim museum tryptychpanel i-iii 하버드 벽화 )는 시그램 빌딩의 색면추상과 폼페이 (pompeii)의 ‘비밀 저택(villa dei misteri)’ 벽화에서 영 감을 얻어 블러색채(blur color) )를 구체화한다. ‘이 공 ) 그림출처: jacob baal-teshuva, mark rothko, taschen, , pp. - , p. ) http://www.markrothkopaintings.org/ ) 하버드 대학(harvard university) 홀요크 센터(holyoke center)의 펜트하우스를 위한 벽화로 개의 스케치 중, 면화의 종교적 상징 론을 바탕으로 파트의 면 패널과 별개파트의 작품 개로 파트, 점으로 구성된다. 시그램 벽화보다 명시성이 높은 색상과 기둥 모양의 형태 및 상인방으로 구성되어 있으며, 이는 시그램 빌딩을 위해 구상했던 이미지를 발전시킨 것이다. ) 블러색채란 빛 번짐 작용으로 대상과 환경의 범위 및 영역이 불분 명해지므로 조형적인 공간색채 구조가 허물어진다. 색의 요소와 간은 문, 창문, 벽으로 밀폐되어 갇힌 느낌과 낮은 조도 로 막다른 골목에 다다른 것처럼 표현했다.’ ) 그가 언급 하던 상황조절(situation controlling)을 사각형 색면으로 최초로 시도한 작품이 시그램 벽화였다면, 하버드 벽화 는 어둠 속에서 ‘사각형의 문이 열리는 것’처럼 실내공간 에서 색의 확장성을 실재로 연출하였다. <표 > 로드코 채플 (rothko chapel, ) ) 작품 이미지 원리 과정 형식 방법 기술 -무 한함과 유한함 동 시 표현하 여 프레임 밖의 무대 주시 - 디 오니 소 스 니체의 직 관 적 이 고 총 체 적 인 숭 고 미 의 절정체 - 일 루 젼 을 완전히 제 거하여 재 현성, 대상 성 탈피 - 비 가 시 적 근원 모색 -통제된 공 간, 낮은 층 고, 주광색 램프로 사 각형의 색 면과 관람 자의 사색 적 아우라 및 몰아일 체화 - 가 시 적 인 시 공 간 에 디오니소 스 적인 무정 형 이미지 -액자 없이 거대 캔버 스 활용 -명확한 명 시성 및 거 친 표면으 로 피겨(대 상)와 그라 운 드 ( 바 탕 ) 의 불분명 함 증폭 -색면 안팎 으로 움직 여 관객과 소통 -다크 버건 디로 균질 하게 칠하 여 점점 어 두 워 지 는 색면은 영 적 절망감 부여 - 검 정 색 은 부재, 텅빔, 무의 개념 이 아닌 모 든 것의 통 합의 의미 -재현성 거 세로 무초 점화 -색면 부유 로 중첩된 장 형성 -미묘한 색 조가 신비 롭고 안개 긴 듯 미묘 한 표면 평 면성 강조 -미세한 붓 자 국 으 로 평면성 강 조 -하드 에지 가 장 자 리 를 마스킹 테 이프 처리 한 모노크 롬의 마티 에르로 색 면의 비물 질화 houston 로드코 채플 )은 그가 늘 염원하던 일체화(united)된 빛을 채우기 위해, 낮은 조도 밑에서 대규모 색면에 둘 러싸인 ‘관람자’를 끌어들인다. 단일한 하나의 캔버스에 완결된 오브제적 소통 방식은, 여러 개의 색면을 ‘동시에 전달’하는 형식으로 변모한다. 또한 무초점, 무한성, 거대 성을 활용하여 클리셰적 색채 어휘를 배제시킨다. 예컨 대 다크 버건디로 밑 작업을 한 후, 그 위에 검정색으로 몇 번 덧칠을 했느냐에 따른 광도와 휘도를 활용한다. 빛의 요소의 지속적인 색채 변화로 단일 색조가 상실되어 일루젼, 이멀젼의 효과가 있다. 특징은 소실점 해체, 차원의 이동, 톤의 그 러데이션, 시각적 허구 등이 있다. 김선영, 올라퍼 엘리아슨의 작품 에 나타난 블러 색채 특성 연구, 한국실내디자인학회논문집 통권 호, . , pp. - ) jacob baal-teshuva, mark rothko, taschen, , p. ) http://www.rothkochapel.org/ ) 로드코 채플 공간 배치와 구성은 로드코가 여러 차례 아이디어와 조정을 거쳐, 개 벽면에 좌우대칭으로 색면을 설치했다. 입구 근 처의 ft 색면 점을 제외한 모든 색면 폭은 ft이다. 그는 년 부터 년까지 번의 유럽 여행에서, 관람자를 품에 안은 듯 낮 은 층고와 자연광을 활용한 색면 어휘를 전달하고자 했다. 따라서 맨하튼 작업실을 예배당과 비슷한 규모와 비율로 시뮬레이션 했으 나, 강렬하고 변화가 잦은 휴스턴의 자연광을 숙지하지 못해 실제 효과는 적절치 않았다. jacob baal-teshuva, mark rothko, taschen, , pp. - 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . . 결론 본 연구는 마크 로드코의 색면추상이 본격화된 년 이후 작품에서 색의 확장성을 고찰하였다. 색면추상의 안과 밖으로 부유하는 여러 겹의 장을 통해 색의 확장성 이 나타났다. 즉 현대미술에서 리얼리티의 파괴는 캔버 스와 색면 자체로 피겨와 그라운드를 봉합하려는 예술가 의 리얼리티로 완성된다. 따라서 대상과 사건의 기록은 물감과 그 빛이 칠해지는 캔버스의 관계로 재편성되었 다. 본 연구의 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 인간 이성으로 분별하던 미는 보이지 않는 세계 를 재현함으로써 원초적 지각을 지향한다. 피겨와 그라 운드의 관계에 집착하지 않는 거대 색면은 대상 너머의 피안에 수렴한다. 요컨대 동일한 공간의 다중 색면은 파 레르곤에 도달하기 위한 관문인 것이다. 즉 질료와 처리 로 존재하는 거대한 색면은 색 자체의 중량으로 재현의 형식을 완벽하게 탈피한다. 둘째, 여러 겹으로 공명(共鳴)된 얕은 색면은 피겨와 그라운드를 병합시켜 항구적이며 초월적인 실재(idea)의 가치를 추구한다. 특히 블랙 페인팅 시기 이전의 색채 덩어리들 사이에 밝은 장(scene)과 캔버스 가장자리 내 부에 침투하여, 캔버스 표면을 부유한다. 이러한 색면은 모호한 깊이로 파레르곤을 조절한다. 즉 색들의 병치와 충돌, 겹침은 캔버스에 반사, 흡수되는 빛과 캔버스 표면 바로 앞의 색면의 재배치로 내용의 형식을 소멸시킨다. 셋째, 닫힌 시공간에서 일체화된 빛은 지속적인 소통 을 조성한다. 낮은 층고, 색면으로 뒤덮인 벽체, 주광색 조도, 무한한 색면 변주 등 전시공간의 통제와 연출은 새로운 관계 형성으로 예술가의 색채사유를 실현한다. 즉 작가 리얼리티의 재구축 및 초월적 실재의 재조정은 색면 움직임을 통해 색의 확장성으로 재편성된다. 즉 시 각적 형태에서 완전히 자유로운 색면은 공간의 모든 의 미와 상호작용하는 생물처럼 생성, 변이된다. <그림 > 색의 확장성 마르셀 프루스트(marcel proust)는 ‘진정한 발견의 여 정은 새로운 풍경을 찾아다니는 것이 아니라, 눈을 새롭 게 하는 데 있다.’ )고 하였다. 본 연구자도 마크 로드코 의 작품에서 새로운 사실을 제안하기보다, 기존의 이론 을 새로운 관점과 방법으로 보는 게 더 중요한 공헌이라 고 믿는다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 마크 로드코의 색면추 상을 에르곤과 파레르곤 원리에서 색의 확장성의 관점을 제언하였다. 이는 가시적 현상들보다 그 뒤에 포진한 무 형의 의미를 음미하는 현대미술을 구체화하는 주요 담론 이 되리라 믿는다. 참고문헌 . bernard berenson, the florentine painters of the renaissance, forgotten books, . bianca bromberge, the experiential sublime: perception, conception, & emotion in mark rothko's classic color-field paintings, bryn mawr college dept. of history of art, . bonnie clearwater, the rothko book: tate essential artists series, tate; annotated edition edition, . irving sandler, triumph of american painting: a history of abstract expressionism, harper & row, . jacob baal-teshuva, mark rothko, taschen, . jacques derrida, the truth in painting, university of chicago press, . lee seldes, the legacy of mark rothko, da capo press; updated edition, . mark rothko, the artist's reality: philosophies of art, christopher rothko editor, yale university press, . stc, mark rothko, stewart, tabori and chang; first edition edition, . todd herman, christopher rothko, harry cooper , david anfam & bradford r. collins, mark rothko: the decisive decade: - , skira rizzoli, . gridley mc, concrete and abstract thinking styles and art preferences in a sample of serious art collectors, heidelberg college, psychol rep. jun; ( ) . ravin jg, hartman jj & fried ri, mark rothko's paintings, suicide notes?, ohio state med j. feb; ( ) . turco r. the object and the dream: mark rothko, j am acad psychoanal. spring; ( ) [논문접수 : . . ] [ 차 심사 : . . ] [게재확정 : . . ] ) the real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes. julian spalding, the art of wonder: a history of seeing, prestel publishing, , preface pablo picasso’s mother and child by the sea ( ): report on the hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging survey of picasso’s newspaper use vol.:( ) sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x research ar ticle pablo picasso’s mother and child by the sea ( ): report on the hyperspectral near‑infrared reflectance imaging survey of picasso’s newspaper use keiko imai  · john k. delaney  · sandra webster‑cook  · reyes jiménez garnica received: february / accepted: july / published online: august © springer nature switzerland ag abstract picasso reused the canvas of mother and child by the sea ( ) several times. a hyperspectral near-infrared ( –  nm) reflectance imaging survey of the painting revealed newsprint text from le journal of january . newsprint from le journal was identified as well in two other paintings, jaume sabartés with pince-nez ( ) and portrait of mateu fernández de soto ( ). picasso transported these two portraits from paris to barcelona along with mother and child by the sea. in all cases, the newsprint letters appear reversed. this presumably was the result of newspaper being applied, for the purpose of transport, to the surface of paintings that were not entirely dry. inspection of the painting and the infrared hyperspectral images suggest that once this ‘ink transfer’ occurred it appears that picasso left the newsprint text in place when he went on to complete the painting. although picasso’s use of newspaper in his compositions is not unusual, further investigation of the presence of newsprint letters in blue period works is of interest. moreover, the survey’s iden- tification of the particular date of the newspaper in question provides important information regarding the timing of picasso’s movement from paris to barcelona, and concerning his repainting and completion of each work. keywords pablo picasso · blue period · painting · hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging · reused canvas · newspaper introduction picasso’s blue period painting mother and child by the sea ( , oil on canvas, . × .  cm, pola museum of art, hakone, z. vi, ) (fig.  ) is dedicated to dr. josep font- bona ( – ), brother of picasso’s friend and sculptor emile fontbona ( – ) of barcelona. the image is modeled after a woman picasso encountered in at the prison of saint-lazare in paris where women would be incarcerated with their infants. picasso continued painting on the saint-lazare prison ‘mother and child’ theme even after moving from paris to barcelona in january  [ , ]. * keiko imai, k-imai@pola-art-foundation.jp; john k. delaney, j-delaney@nga.gov; sandra webster-cook, sandra.webster-cook@ago.ca; reyes jiménez garnica, rjimenezga@bcn.cat | pola museum of art, hakone, japan. national gallery of art, washington, usa. art gallery of ontario, toronto, canada. museu picasso, barcelona, spain. pierre daix relates picasso’s comment concerning these paint- ings: “picasso, en lisant la première édition de picasso – , et surtout après la révélation par la radiographie de la femme au bon- net sous le portrait de sabartés, m’a expliqué que les toiles bleues que nous avions placées à barcelone étaient précisément la suite des maternités de saint-lazare, bien qu’il n’eût plus travaillé d’après les modèles.” daix p ( ) p. , note . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -x&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - vol:.( ) research article sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x mother and child by the sea is thought to have been completed in barcelona in january . it may be the bar- celona coast seen in the background. the fontbona family let go of the painting in , after which it appeared in auctions and changed hands among different collectors. tsuneshi suzuki ( – ), owner of the pola-orbis group and an avid collector, acquired the painting in the s. his collection opened to the public in , with the establishment of the pola museum of art. the condition of mother and child by the sea is as it was at the time of the pola acquisition, including the pres- ence of a linen backing. recent inspection shows there are traces of restoration and a surface coat of varnish. the painting surface appears uneven, even to the naked eye, and unrelated texture suggests a composition beneath the surface. three optical surveys on mother and child by the sea have been done. the first was in by ms. ann hoenigswald of the national gallery of art, washington dc, who took an x-ray radiograph and infrared photos at the time of the picasso: the early years exhibition at the national gallery of art, washington, dc and the museum of fine arts, boston. in , the pola museum of art collected an x-ray radiograph image of mother and child by the sea in coop- eration with tokyo national research institute for cul- tural properties. the radiograph revealed a previously hidden female figure [ , ] (fig.  ). in addition, the radiograph revealed an absinthe glass and spoon. these recall picasso’s paintings of women in paris bars in the fall and winter of . the radiograph images also showed the image of a head of a second female figure likely to be in a lower paint layer, suggesting composi- tional revision. in april near-infrared reflec tance imaging spectroscopy (nir-ris) was done on mother and child by the sea using a hyperspectral camera system from the national gallery of art, washington, dc, in order to further the understanding of the history of this painting in preparation for the art gallery of ontario (ago) and the philips collection joint exhibition. sandra webster- cook and kenneth brummel of ago proposed the survey to the pola museum of art. all participated in the current survey. near-infrared reflec tance imaging spec troscopy has been shown in prior studies to provide improved fig. pablo picasso, mother and child by the sea, , oil on can- vas, . × .   cm, pola museum of art, hakone © pablo picasso’s estate. vegap. madrid, . permission to reproduce courtesy of vegap fig. x-ray radiograph, mother and child by the sea © pola museum of art/national research institute for cultural properties, tokyo vol.:( ) sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x research article visualization of earlier painted compositions in blue period paintings by picasso [ ]. a large number of hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance image cubes were collec ted and mosaicked together to create one large image cube from which false color images were created to make the newsprint letters clearer to see. near-infrared reflectance imaging spectroscopy often provides complementar y information to x-ray radiography since it is sensitive to infrared absorbing pigments not detected by x-ray radiography. hyperspectral near‑infrared reflectance imaging survey results . the newsprint letters seen on the facial area of mother and child by the sea (fig.  ) allowed the identification that they were from page of the january th, , edition of the french newspaper le journal (fig.  ). this newsprint letters were not readily detected from visual inspection of the surface of the painting by eye. the infrared images showed aside from the newsprint text in the area of the faces and hand, there are also traces in the lower section of the painting. the news- print letters seen in the lower section of the painting fig. detail of infrared false color image of mother and child by the sea © john k. delaney, national gallery of art, washington, fig. [left]: le journal, january , , page , bibliothèque nationale de france, source gallica.bnf.fr/bnf, [right]: reversed detail of infrared false color image of mother and child by the sea © john k. delaney, national gallery of art, washington, dc fig. [left]: le journal, january , , page , bibliothèque nationale de france, source gallica.bnf.fr/bnf, [right]: reversed details of infrared false color image of mother and child by the sea © john k. delaney, national gallery of art, washington, dc near-infrared reflectance imaging spectroscopy [ ] was per- formed with a high sensitivity customized scanning hyperspectral camera that has been previous described [ ]. the camera is opti- mally sensitive from to   nm and has a spectral sampling of .   nm. the spatial sampling is .   mm per pixel at the paint- ing. in brief the camera consists of imaging spectrometer with an internal scan mirror that collects image cubes ( × spatial pixels by spectral) in   min at an illumination level of ~   lx at the painting from two incandescent lamps on a rheostat. some image cubes where collected and registered with a true color image to create the mosaicked image cube using the nga-gwu- hsi-registration algorithm [ ]. the resulting data was analyzed in envi (harris, usa). envi was also used to make false color images and principal component (pc) images that were found to improve the visibility of the newspaper text or prior painted compositions. pc imaging processing has been found to aid in recovering lost text in palimpsest as well as improving the visibility of painted over fea- tures when applied to multi band images. hyperspectral imaging clearly showed the words “l’automobile” and “président.” after searching in the "gallica", the digital library of the bibliothèque nationale de france (bnf), the archives of le jour- nal, known to be familiar to picasso. it was possible to identify an issue from january , , which revealed an exact match of the text visible in the hyperspectral images. vol:.( ) research article sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x were identified as being from page of the january th edition of le journal (fig.  ). . the research allowed a more detailed understanding of picasso’s female images and motifs of his paintings of women in paris bars (fig.  ). the principal compo- nent analysis (pca) images support the presence of multiple repaintings. . a clear image of the signature “-picasso-”, inscribed upside-down underneath the upper right corner of mother and child by the sea, was confirmed in the under layer of the painting. this suggests that this had been a completed painting previous to the portrait of the woman seated in a bar. it was also discovered that picasso rotated the canvas degrees before creating the portrait from later in his paris period. according to the findings of our hyperspectral near- infrared reflectance imaging survey, the newsprint is from a january , french newspaper (fig.  ). this strongly supports the theory that picasso moved to barcelona in the latter half of january. prior to the newsprint discov- ery, it was thought that picasso moved to barcelona in early january, according to picasso’s friend sabartés [ ]. the current research conclusively affirms that mother and child by the sea was transported from paris to barcelona by picasso, no earlier than january th. identification of newsprint letters in summary during the hyperspectral near infrared reflec- tance image survey, newsprint letters were identified over wide areas of the painting, specifically, throughout the mother and child, the seashore, and in parts of the sky. the newsprint letters appeared over roughly half of the painting, particularly in the central and lower sections. it is also important to note that all newsprint letters found appear in reverse. we initially assumed newspaper was physically attached to the underlayer painting and represented a part of picasso’s production process. however close inspection, guided by the infrared images and with optical magnification, found that red, yellow, and white colors can fig. composite image of principal component analysis of infra- red hyperspectral imaging and x-ray radiograph of mother and child by the sea © john k. delaney, national gallery of art, washing- ton, dc , © pola museum of art/national research institute for cultural properties, tokyo fig. le journal, front page, january , , bibliothèque nation- ale de france, source gallica.bnf.fr/bnf sabartés j ( ) picasso: portraits et souvenirs, pp – . vol.:( ) sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x research article be seen through surface cracks on the painting, and the reversed letters “sid” of the word “président” could be seen on the mother’s face. physical evidence of newspaper has not been detected. interestingly, the reversed newsprint letters seemed to be only from one side of the newspaper page. to further understand these findings an investigation was carried out on two picasso paintings from the same time period, jaume sabartés with pince-nez ( , oil on canvas, ×   cm, museu picasso, barcelona, z. i, ) (fig.  ), and portrait of mateu fernández de soto ( , oil on canvas, ×  cm, private collection, z. i, ) (fig.  ). the two paintings of picasso’s close friends are roughly the same size and share much in common. they both seem to have been painted in . the canvas of the mother and child by the sea and these two portraits were among the few paintings carried by picasso from paris to barcelona in january . a prior x-ray radiograph of jaume sabartés with pince- nez revealed a portrait of a woman from the saint-lazare prison in the layer beneath the surface. high-resolution color imaging of the two paintings revealed as well news- print letters on the surface of the two portraits. according to reyes jiménez who has long studied jaume sabartés with pince-nez, newsprint letters from le journal detected on the surface is from page of january th, , the same day as the edition identified in mother and child by the sea (figs.  , ). in both cases, the newsprint appears in reverse and the physical newspaper is not found. fig. pablo picasso, jaume sabartés with pince-nez, , oil on canvas, ×   cm, museu picasso, barcelona © pablo picasso’s estate. vegap. madrid, . permission to reproduce courtesy of vegap fig. pablo picasso, portrait of mateu fernández de soto, , oil on canvas, ×   cm, private collection © bridgeman images, © pablo picasso’s estate. vegap. madrid, . permission to repro- duce courtesy of vegap fig. detail of jaume sabartés with pince-nez © pablo picasso’s estate. vegap. madrid, . permission to reproduce courtesy of vegap delaney, jiménez, and imai carried out a survey on jaume sabar- tés with pince-nez, including a hyperspectral near-infrared reflec- tance imaging survey on december st at the museu picasso barcelona. reversed newsprint lettering was detected and some newsprint ink was observed on the surface of the painting. vol:.( ) research article sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x john richardson, in picasso, the early years, cites mari- lyn mccully mentioning traces of newspaper buried in the portrait of mateu fernández de soto [ ]. richardson thought it could be a result of  recycling an old canvas and that the portrait could be a repainted one. the high- resolution color image of this portrait shows newsprint letters that appear in reverse on the surface of the painting (fig.  ). the high-resolution color image allowed us to clearly identify the newsprint letters as page of the janu- ary th, edition of le journal (fig.  ). the two portraits of picasso’s friends share many simi- larities. wrinkling of the surface paint from pressing news- paper onto the still wet surface of the paintings is thought to be unintentional, rather than deliberate. this time, how- ever, reyes jiménez conducted a simulation to see if ink from a newspaper could be transferred to a wet canvas and thus create reverse newsprint letters on a painting using present day newspaper (fig.  ). jiménez found that ink of the letters was transferred on the wet paint layer. this suggests that the newspaper was applied to the paintings before the oil paint was dry, and later removed. jiménez suggests that the matte surface of jaume sabar- tés with pince-nez is possibly a result of the newspaper absorbing oil from the wet painting. the simulation relates also to jaume sabartés with pince-nez and portrait of mateu fernández de soto. according to the research, it seems that picasso completed these two paintings and surprisingly let the newsprint ink and wrinkled newspaper texture remain. fig. [left]: le journal, january , , page , bibliothèque nationale de france, source gallica.bnf.fr/bnf, [right]: reversed detail of jaume sabartés with pince-nez © pablo picasso’s estate. vegap. madrid, . permission to reproduce courtesy of vegap fig. detail of portrait of mateu fernández de soto © bridgeman images, © pablo picasso’s estate. vegap. madrid, . permission to reproduce courtesy of vegap fig. [left]: le journal, january , , page , bibliothèque nationale de france, source gallica.bnf.fr/bnf, [right]: reversed detail of portrait of mateu fernández de soto © bridgeman images, © pablo picasso’s estate. vegap. madrid, . permission to repro- duce courtesy of vegap jiménez conducted the simulation of the transfer of the news- print letters in november and suggested that picasso most likely applied the newspaper to the paint when it was still wet. the simulation was done with oil on canvas diluted with walnut oil. concerning the portrait of mateu de soto, "mccully has discovered traces of newspaper buried in the underpaint of this portrait-possi- bly the consequence of  recycling an old canvas." see richardson j ( ) a life of picasso, chapter  , "painter of human misery" note , p. . newsprint letters observed on the portrait of mateu de soto were clearly matched with the issue of the january th, edition of le journal in two sections (fig.  ). however, the space between the matched two sections is much closer together on the painting than on the original newsprint. therefore, the newspaper could have been torn and wrinkled before being applied on the painting. vol.:( ) sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x research article picasso once tried to give jaume sabartés with pince-nez to sabartés’ family but finally he decided kept it for himself. he also kept portrait of mateu fernández de soto for himself for the rest of his life. the canvas of mother and child by the sea is . times larger than the two portrait paintings. some of the texture of the painted surface might be due to application of the newspaper when the paint was not quite dry. there are ripples and compression cracks on the painted surface, particularly at the position of the child’s head and the mother’s chin which suggest rolling with the paint side in, but the cracks do not extend across the painting. the upper paint layers appear to be not well adhered to the underlayer. the irregular condition of the newsprint letters in mother and child by the sea and portrait of mateu fernández de soto suggests that the newspaper applied to portrait of mateu fernández de soto was creased or wrinkled and that more than two sheets of the newspaper were applied to mother and child by the sea. le journal newspaper con- sists of two sheets and each sheet has been folded in half to create a folio. each folio has two leaves that make up the pages of the newspaper. one sheet, or folio, from the january edition of le journal was cut down the fold to separate the leaves, the leaf labeled as page was applied to the lower section of mother and child by the sea, and the other leaf, labeled as page was placed on the surface of jaume sabartés with pince-nez. the canvas of mother and child by the sea was transported from paris to barce- lona along with at least these other two paintings. we can assume that the newspaper was applied to the still wet paintings to facilitate transport. we intend to further inves- tigate each of the works in consideration of these findings. la flor del mal and newsprint letters because the transferred newsprint lettering is not clearly exposed on the surface of mother and child by the sea, it was not clear which paint layer contained portions of actual newsprint letters, unlike the other two paint- ings. however, in november , following the results of the hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging survey, historian francesc fontbona, successor of the fontbona family that long held the painting, related that fig. simulation of the transfer of newspaper letters on to a painted copy of jaume sabartés with pince-nez by reyes jiménez garnica, oil on canvas, fig. mother and child by the sea, detail of photo by francesc serra i dimas, n.d., courtesy of mr. francesc fontbona © pablo picasso’s estate. vegap. madrid, . permission to reproduce courtesy of vegap picasso brought jaume sabartés with pince-nez to barcelona to present it to sabartés’ family but finally he kept it for himself until gifting it to museu picasso barcelona in (see sabartés j ( ) picasso: portraits et souvenirs, pp – and richardson j ( ) a life of picasso, p. ). portrait of mateu fernández de soto was one of only a few blue period paintings that picasso kept in his pri- vate collection. vol:.( ) research article sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x the newsprint letters had been clearly visible on the sur- face of the painting when he was a child. he also related that the family often talked about the fact that picasso gave this painting the title la flor del mal. he provided a monochrome photograph taken by francesc serra i dimas ( – ) (fig.  ), and a color photograph from the latter half of the s by josé compte argimon ( – ). the photos confirm that most of the news- print detected by hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging was once more visible on the surface of the paint- ing than now. in other words, the restoration done to the painting after it left the fontbona family seems to have reduced the visual appearance of the newsprint lettering that still can be detected by hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging within the layers of the painting. one possible explanation is that some of the newspaper ink could have been removed in the cleaning of the painting since the solvents typically used can solubilize ink. we can therefore propose a hypothesis for the paint lay- ers of mother and child by the sea according to the scien- tific results and the testimony and photographic materials provided by mr. fontbona as follows: bottom layer: the painting was completed and signed “-picasso-.” it is assumed to have been done in paris. picasso started to use the “-picasso-” signature after janu- ary , when he was in madrid. this signature was used for the works picasso submitted to the vollard gallery in paris. the vollard exhibition (june –july , ) was a success with nearly half of the works sold. picasso picked up some of the unsold paintings and reused the canvases [ ]. picasso scholars have been trying to identify what works picasso exhibited in this vollard show. we need also to verify whether or not the bottom layer painting of mother and child by the sea was included in this exhibition. middle layers: these were produced in paris. top and bottom were reversed and the new painting, including what seems to be a female figure, a table and a drink, was made. it is also possible that parts of this composition were repeatedly redone until the beginning of picasso’s blue period. surface layer: prior to the newsprint discovery, it was thought that picasso painted mother and child by the sea in barcelona. the current research affirms that mother and child by the sea was painted between the end of and january in paris. newspaper pages are affixed to the still wet canvas in paris after january , ; the canvas was likely rolled and the newsprint ink remained after the newspaper was peeled off. in barcelona, the painting may have been inscribed with picasso’s dedication to dr. josep fontbona. it is necessary to further investigate the surface layer in more detail. due to restoration done after , very little of the newsprint letters are visible. it is assumed that all the layers of mother and child by the sea were produced in a period of over half a year beginning prior to picasso’s blue period in paris until the beginning of his blue period in barcelona. conclusion all three works under discussion remained for decades with picasso’s friend’s family, or in his own possession. x-ray radiographs of mother and child by the sea and jaume sabartés with pince-nez reveal compositional changes and a separate painting in the layer below the surface. the spe- cific date of the le journal newsprint offers concrete evi- dence of when the three paintings were painted over or completed. it is also apparent that the three paintings for friends have a special connection. picasso’s many associations with newspaper are well known [ ]. from , picasso often used le journal, attach- ing it to paper, paperboard or canvases for his cubism period collages. in , picasso and georges braque had already started including painted letters in their cubist paintings. the current research uncovers the until now unknown role of newspaper linking picasso’s mother and child by the sea and the two other paintings under study. picasso is likely to have completed the painting, preserving the accidental newspaper lettering. this research suggests the possibility of discovering reverse newsprint letters in other picasso paintings. the discovery of newsprint resulting from affixing newspaper to oil paint surfaces reveals an important aspect of picasso’s production process and artistic expression. acknowledgements we would like to acknowledge and thank francesc fontbona, laurent le bon, president of musée national picasso - paris, emmanuel guigon, director of museu picasso, barcelona, kenneth brummel of art gallery of ontario, masahide inuzuka of the national research institute for cultural properties, tokyo, and claire guerin. we are also grateful to shunsuke kijima, hiroyuki uchiro, and yoh shoji of the pola museum of art. we also thank the national gallery of art, washington, dc for their support of this project. sponsorship from the museu picasso, barcelona, to cover permission fees for the reproduction of works by picasso is gratefully acknowledged. compliance with ethical standards conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. references . baldassari a ( ) picasso, papiers journaux (exp. cat,) musée picasso, paris . cucci c, delaney jk, picollo m ( ) reflectance hyperspectral imaging for investigation of works of art: old master paintings and illuminated manuscripts. acc chem res ( ): – vol.:( ) sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x research article . daix p, boudaille g, rosselet j ( ) picasso – . catalogue raisonné de l’œuvre peint, ides et calendes, neuchâtel . daix p ( ) la vie de peintre de pablo picasso. seuil, paris . damon mc, delaney jk, loew mh ( ) automatic registration and mosaicking of technical images of old master paintings. appl phys a ( ): – . delaney jk, thoury m, zeibel jg, ricciardi p, morales km, dooley ka ( ) visible and infrared imaging spectroscopy of paintings and improved reflectography. herit sci ( ): – . imai k ( ) blue period: barcelona-paris. in: exp. cat., picasso five themes. pola museum of art, hakone, pp – (in japanese) . mccully m, raeburn m ( ) Œuvres exposées à la galerie vollard, . in: exp. cat., picasso bleu et rose. musée national picasso- paris, hazan, pp – . richardson j ( ) a life of picasso. – . volume . ran- dom house, new york . sabartés j ( / ) picasso: portraits et souvenirs. louis carré & maximilien vox / l’école des lettres, paris . uchiro h ( ) hidden images of mother and child by the sea. in: exp. cat., picasso five themes. pola museum of art, hakone, pp – (in japanese) publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 	pablo picasso’s mother and child by the sea ( ): report on the hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging survey of picasso’s newspaper use 	abstract 	 introduction 	 hyperspectral near-infrared reflectance imaging survey results 	 identification of newsprint letters 	 la flor del mal and newsprint letters 	 conclusion 	acknowledgements 	references reviews selected works of velimir khlebnikov, russia's outstanding modernist writer, and a notoriously difficult one to translate, have at long last appeared in english, thanks to the editorial efforts of gary kern, aided by vladimir markov. in snake train, kern has included his own and others' annotated renditions of long and short poems, experiments, dramatic works, prose fiction, and visions and theories ("pieces of way- ward character," as markov once referred to t h e m ) . that the prose and drama work better in english than the poetry is understandable. yet one feels that the spirit of the poetry could have been better conveyed if kern had given either strictly linear trans- lations or freely poetic renderings, rather than choosing a fatal compromise between the two. three appendixes provide a chronology of khlebnikov's life, a memoir by his futurist friend dmitrii petrovskii, and russian texts of some of the poems. trans- literations of the shortest ones appear together with the translations. this unreasonable inconsistency constitutes one of the major shortcomings of the book. as is often the case with works published by ardis, the intentions are laudable, but the execution unsatisfactory. for example, it is puzzling to find the translation of a single short poem ("i went, a youth, alone") at the end of the last section, "visions and theories," but its original in the middle of the russian texts, apparently in place. the notes are quite valuable, but occasionally are not as helpful as they might be. in the case of excerpts from longer poems, it would be useful to have some description of the entire poem. one would also welcome a select bibliography of secondary material available in english. e l e n a sokol university of washington k i s t o r i i r u s s k o g o a v a n g a r d a ( t h e r u s s i a n a v a n t - g a r d e ) . by nikolai khardshiev, kasimir malevich, and mikhail matiushin. edited by nikolai khardshiev. postscript by roman jakobson. stockholm: hylaea prints, . pp. + pp. plates. sw.kr. . distributed by almqvist & wiksell international, stockholm. this book appears twenty years too late. nikolai khardzhiev must be praised for many achievements, but, because he has long been in possession of the documents presented here, he should be criticized harshly for his reticence, inertia, and silence on subjects that are of universal significance to all historians of twentieth-century art. khardzhiev frequently emphasizes that recent studies of the russian avant-garde by soviet and western scholars have been marred by inaccuracies and misattributions and have fallen victim to unfounded speculations. many researchers in this area, such as andersen, bowlt, karshan, kovtun, and the marcades, are brought to task and cautioned by khardzhiev in this volume. as his laconic comments and emendations demonstrate, khardzhiev possesses vast published and unpublished resources pertaining to the russian avant-garde; had he made these accessible even ten years ago, he would have facilitated the task of historical documentation and helped scholars to avoid many pitfalls. but it is highly questionable whether khardzhiev, a friend of mayakov- sky, malevich, and matiushin, can rescue the "truth" from the dense mythology that now surrounds the russian avant-garde. in any case, much of the information that khardzhiev has guarded so jealously and that he now presents has already become available from the current research of other soviet scholars. the book is divided into four main sections: a version of khardzhiev's successful study of mayakovsky and the visual arts (which first appeared in maiakovskii: materialy i issledovaniia, moscow, ; revised and republished in khardzhiev and trenin, poeticheskaia kul'tura maiakovskogo, moscow, ) ; a partial autobiography by kazimir malevich; a fuller autobiography by mikhail matiushin; and matiushin's slavic review essay "opyt khudozhnika novoi mery." these texts are complemented by khardzhiev's detailed introduction, prefaces, and footnotes, and by a short postscript by roman jakobson. the book is illustrated with one color and numerous black-and-white repro- ductions, many appearing here for the first time. khardzhiev's article on mayakovsky is the least innovative of the four contribu- tions simply because it has long been accessible. but a rereading of this piece reveals once again the thoroughness of khardzhiev's scholarship here, and its juxtaposition with the malevich and matiushin texts gives it a new, comparative value. what is immediately clear from the article is that the poets and painters of the russian avant- garde moved in very close proximity and that their ethical and aesthetic systems had much in common. khardzhiev reminds us of this by drawing attention to the literary interests of malevich and rozanova and to the artistic interests of guro, kamenskii, khlebnikov, kruchenykh, and others. thus, the fact that mayakovsky started his career as a painter is symptomatic of the "synthetic" inclination of the cubo-futurists. khardzhiev's careful delineation of mayakovsky's work as a painter and lubok designer (during the first world w a r ) , of his relations with david burliuk, larionov, and others, and of his participation in the various avant-garde exhibitions helps further our understanding of this dynamic interchange of literary and artistic ideas just before and after the revolution. the topic of the second section, the malevich autobiography, promises much of interest, but, in fact, the text deals largely with malevich's childhood and adolescence and not with his mature, professional years. of course, it is interesting to read of malevich's youth in the village of parkhomovka in the ukraine, of his admiration for the ukrainian peasants, of the beet factory where his father worked, and of his impressions of kiev, kursk, and "ikonnaia moskva" (p. ). still, central questions remain unanswered; for example, we learn nothing of the cultural level of malevich's family and still do not know if his parents were educated or even literate. on the other hand, thanks to khardzhiev's precise annotations, we now have a firm chronology of malevich's early life, and this can replace the rhapsodical versions provided in previous publications. malevich's memoir does not proceed beyond his impressionist stage; consequently, the urgent need for information on his assimilation and develop- ment of cubism and futurism or on his formulation of suprematism is not fulfilled. the same is true of malevich's subsequent activities in vitebsk and leningrad. in fact, if it were not for khardzhiev's preface and notes, the malevich autobiography would have very little relevance to the theme of the book. at the same time, one wonders why, exactly, khardzhiev decided to publish this particular passage and to what degree he edited and truncated it. for all khardzhiev's emphasis on historical accuracy, we would do well to heed nadezhda mandelstam's warning that khardzhiev, "incapable of semantic analysis," is not averse to redating, distorting, and destroying archival materials {vtoraia kniga [paris: ymca-press, ], pp. and ). the matiushin autobiography is more exciting both because of its detailed survey of the early phase of the avant-garde and because of its lucid style. moreover, matiu- shin the artist is less familiar to us than malevich, although, as his texts demonstrate, his ideas were as provocative as malevich's. once again, an indisputable value of this section, together with khardzhiev's preface and comments, is the establishment of an accurate record of the events, persons, and personalities that affected the lives of matiushin and his wife, elena guro. frequent reference is made to the union of youth group, to the production of victory over the sun, to the "cellar" the stray dog, and to painters, poets, and aesthetes, such as filonov, malevich, khlebnikov, kruchenykh, kul'bin, and puni. the supplementary essay on matiushin's spatial theory sheds light on his formulation and development of the system known as "zorved" (literally, "see-know"), according to which he endeavored to expand the optical radius to degrees. but despite (or perhaps because of) the autobiography reviews and the essay, it is still difficult to recognize where, in matiushin's philosophy, alchemy and astrology ended, and where chemistry and astronomy began. how did matiushin's "impressionism" differ from kul'bin's? why does khardzhiev regard matiushin as a "venerable representative of the international 'avant-garde' of the twentieth century" (p. ), but kul'bin as a "dilettante" (p. ) ? such issues remain enigmatic. on the whole, khardzhiev's bittersweet footnotes form a positive and much needed directory to names and dates relating to the russian avant-garde. on occasion, however, khardzhiev's attempts to inflict his authoritarian views are both vexing and questionable. when many members of the avant-garde such as chekrygin, punin, and tatlin were discussing the ideas of nikolai fedorov, why assume that malevich "was never interested in him" (p. ) ? when, in his diaries and letters of the s, punin described malevich's experiments at the leningrad institute of artistic culture and drew parallels between the work of malevich, matiushin, and himself, why dismiss this obvious connection as "fiction" (p. ) but then refer to the collaboration of malevich and matiushin at the same institute a few pages later (p. ) ? when kul'bin created many abstract appliques of colored paper in - —one of which was shown at the exhibition commemorating the stray dog in leningrad and three of which belong to kul'bin's nephew in leningrad—why reject kul'bin as a "dilettante" and the works as "fakes" (p. ) ? in seeking to impose his pedantic and exclusive opinions on the course of history, khardzhiev may distort it even more than his colleagues have done. j o h n e. bowlt university of texas t h e o n e a n d a h a l f - e y e d a r c h e r . by benedikt livshits. translated, annotated, and with an introduction by john e. bowlt. newtonville, mass.: oriental research partners, . pp. illus. $ . . a well-known memoir of russian futurism now makes its rather expensive debut in english translation. the "archer" of the title is both the destructive scythian riding out of the east and the thoroughly westernized half-blind promoter of the russian avant-garde, david burliuk. burliuk once declared that twenty-five years was the proper "life span for any truth." in this case, livshits's recollections must be read in the perspective of (when they appeared in russian), as well as of - (when the events described took place). specialists know this memoir of the hylaeans (a group of provincial avant- garde poets and painters including the burliuks, mayakovsky, alexandra ekster, velemir khlebnikov, and livshits himself) from either the original or the french translation. the familiar stories are all here: ekster returning from paris with photographs of the latest artistic novelty; schoolboy friends on vacation at bur- liuk's crimean home deciding to create the hylaea movement in because "a label was indispensable"; burliuk's father's comment that he could "paint better with my left foot"; burliuk's discovery of mayakovsky; and the painted faces, scandalous perfor- mances, and toilet-paper manifestoes of the young futurists. according to livshits, russian futurism was a poetic search for russian roots whose genius was khlebnikov, not mayakovsky, a movement which "died without heirs" during world w a r i. h e states that mayakovsky "joined the revolution independent of futurism, if not in spite of it," and maintains that russian futurism was unconnected with the russian revolution and did not survive it. livshits's interpretation of russian futurism must be understood in the context of , when a -year old jewish artist and critic recanted his youthful mistakes under party pressure. livshits himself wrote that his memoir was intended to "expose economics blog - blog about finances, economics and money 	skip to content 	 		 			 				 					 											economics blog 					 											blog about finances, economics and money 					 				 				 				 					 						menu 						 					 					 							home 	finance 	loans 	insurance 	credit cards 	savings 	contact 	 		 	 		 			 			search 		 	 	 					 				 				 			 		 	 	 	 	 		 			 				 				 					 						 														 								 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popular cancer cover 									 					more financial related tips can be found on financialhelper.co.uk 		 			 			 		 		 	 	 	 		 			 			 				 			 		 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 transatlantica, | transatlantica revue d’études américaines. american studies journal  | american shakespeare / comic books sargent and the wyeths in london sargent and the sea, royal academy of arts ( july – september )the wyeth family: three generations of american art, dulwich picture gallery ( june – august ) jennifer a. donnelly electronic version url: http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/ doi: . /transatlantica. issn: - publisher afea electronic reference jennifer a. donnelly, « sargent and the wyeths in london », transatlantica [online], | , online since october , connection on september . url : http://journals.openedition.org/ transatlantica/ ; doi : https://doi.org/ . /transatlantica. this text was automatically generated on september . transatlantica – revue d'études américaines est mis à disposition selon les termes de la licence creative commons attribution - pas d'utilisation commerciale - pas de modification . international. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/transatlantica/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / sargent and the wyeths in london sargent and the sea, royal academy of arts ( july – september )the wyeth family: three generations of american art, dulwich picture gallery ( june – august ) jennifer a. donnelly paintings by some of america’s foremost representational painters decked the walls of two of london’s oldest arts institutions in summer : the royal academy of arts featured early marine scenes by john singer sargent, while across town the dulwich picture gallery showcased work by various members of the wyeth clan. comparisons between sargent and the wyeths are much less evident than contrasts. sargent epitomizes the cosmopolitan, transatlantic artist, whereas the wyeths, particularly andrew, verged on isolationists, repeatedly portraying the same east coast landscapes and locals. sargent’s childhood was spent migrating between italy (where he was born), france, germany, and switzerland, gaining an education in galleries and churches. he had studios in paris, then london, but traveled incessantly, drawing and painting everywhere he went. his canvases evoke lush old world settings, exotic or aristocratic beauties and men of position and wealth; he did not visit the united states until he was twenty years old. the wyeths, on the other hand, have been based in chester county, pennsylvania, since , and have summered in maine since the s. these locations and their longtime inhabitants serve as subjects for much of the family’s work, remembered perhaps most commonly for andrew’s stark compositions in shades of brown, beige, and grey. andrew first visited europe at the age of and his painter sister carolyn lived in the family house until her dying day. still, the juxtaposition of the two shows makes apparent certain parallels amongst these representational artists, particularly regarding the negative reception of their work amongst critics - a persistent habit that ultimately suggests more about the critics’ preoccupations than about the art itself. sargent and the wyeths in london transatlantica, | the siren call of the sea while water holds a different meaning for an expatriate than for one rooted in a particular region in the motherland, both exhibitions contain a strong dose of marine imagery. this is of course the focus of the show on sargent, who sketched ships and ocean scenes from an early age. the wyeth family opens with paintings by patriarch newell convers (n.c.) of historical merchant ships made on commission for the first national bank of boston in (phoenician biremes, elizabethan galleons, etc), and views of coastal maine from the all three generations of the family are interspersed throughout the galleries. advertising for the dulwich exhibition use n.c. wyeth’s a maine fisherman ( ), a portrait of a strong-jawed, broad-chested seaman at the helm of a boat, the water and banks behind him depicted in bold strokes and color. the royal academy publicity takes sargent’s atlantic storm ( , curtis galleries, minneapolis), which depicts the swelling waves seen from the pitching deck of an ocean steamer. while publicists may have hoped to lure visitors trapped in the city during the warm months with seaside images, the role of the sea in sargent’s work does hold some significance in his oeuvre. his own family history is dominated by seafaring men: the family founder was a merchant and ship owner, and his grandson established a far-east trading company that prospered until the time of sargent’s grandfather. sargent’s father, who would have otherwise inherited the business, apparently harbored hopes that his son’s love of sketching boats would translate into a career at sea – a vision would not be realized, to the relief of the painter’s future admirers (and the chagrin of his detractors) .the royal academy exhibition is the first dedicated entirely to the painter’s marine work . sargent’s pieces at the royal academy were made between and , early in his career, when he was aged between and . during this period he was receiving formal training in paris at the studio of carolus-duran and at the académie des beaux- arts. the works were made during summer breaks to normandy, brittany, italy, and morocco. in addition to oils that were exhibited during his lifetime, several studies and preparatory drawings are on display, as well as a scrapbook from these years containing sketches, watecolors, ephemera, and notes (metropolitan museum of art). the various pieces depict seaside landscapes as well as people eking out their living from the sea. en route pour la pêche (setting out to fish)( , corcoran gallery of art, washington, dc), forms a centerpiece, along with a second version of the work, fishing for oysters at cancale ( , museum of fine arts, boston. one of sargent’s first exhibition pieces, it was displayed at the paris salon in to positive acclaim. the scene depicts a group of breton women wading languorously across the sand towards the water to gather their harvest, conversing as they go, baskets under their arms. light sparkles on the puddles in the sand and the workmanship conveys spontaneity, although the many sketches and studies, also on display, reveal the painter’s meticulous methods of preparation. one of the show’s strengths, in fact, is the inclusion of sargent’s drawings. these make evident the astonishing immediacy of his skill, which the rich colors, deft brushwork, and complex compositions of his oils tend to belie. whatever one’s opinion of the finished works, the artist was undisputedly a remarkably capable draftsman . the works clearly display the technical virtuosity that sargent had achieved at a young age, sargent and the wyeths in london transatlantica, | http://www.corcoran.org/collection/highlights_main_results.asp?id= http://www.corcoran.org/collection/highlights_main_results.asp?id= http://www.corcoran.org/collection/highlights_main_results.asp?id= reminding us of henry james’s description of “the slightly 'uncanny' spectacle of a talent which on the very threshold of its career has nothing more to learn.” in atlantic stormand mid-ocean, mid-winter ( , private collections), sargent paints the crests of the waves with precision, giving remarkable solidity to the liquid, amorphous masses of water. in atlantic storm the proportion of the human figures huddled on the ship deck to the massive wave rising above their heads invoke terror and wonder before the immensity of the sea. the inspiration for the pictures came during sargent’s return from the united states on his very first visit to his country of nationality; there lurks a hint of a darker side to the glamour of the transatlantic passage. here we glimpse a brooding twenty-one year old sargent, emerging from adolescence onto the threshold of adulthood. while sargent’s father might have preferred the navy to art school for his son, painting was for the wyeths very much a family affair. n.c. instructed his children andrew, carolyn and henriette in drawing and painting, as well as the husbands of his daughter henriette (peter hurd) and his daughter ann (john mccoy). carolyn in turn taught andrew’s son jamie. the dulwich show focuses on n.c., andrew, and jamie, with a nod to henriette and her husband. a large portion of the roughly seventy works are by n.c. his illustrations for books such as rip van winkleby washington irving and the white companyby sir arthur conan doyle ( ) can be seen in copies of the published volumes in display cases. on the walls hang the large-scale oils that n.c. produced for such projects, which were reduced and reproduced mechanically for publication. the large format gives a closer view of the meticulous attention given to details in costumes and background, the illustrator’s penchant for historical accuracy, and the compositional tricks used to convey action. n.c.’s famous son andrew took these lessons of detail and precision but translated them into a style his own. while he is represented by only around a dozen pieces, these cover a wide chronological swath, from the s to the early st century. a few are in egg tempera, a laborious renaissance technique that the painter learned from his brother-in-law peter hurd. andrew’s much more quickly executed watercolors are equally extraordinary, and those on display give a glimpse of the seemingly empty landscapes, evocative textures, and enigmatic composition emblematic of his work. in the forge ( ), two old stone buildings with unadorned white walls and black roofs stand amongst a few bare black trees and a snowy field. the unadorned rectangles for walls and triangles for roofs appear simple, and the palette of black and white – much of which is the unpainted paper – restricted. on closer examinations, details such as the worn façade of the stucco, weathered unevenly after an untold number of seasons, give an overall effect of startling immediacy and precision, particularly for the fluid nature of the watercolor. andrew’s son jamie constitutes the third generation of wyeth artists. his subjects are more eclectic than those of his forebears, and the effects slightly less consistent. the familiar landscapes of pennsylvania and maine reappear in works such as pumpkinhead visits the lighthouse ( ), which evokes some of the mystery of his father’s work, without as much technical precision. jamie developed a fascination for the dancer rudolf nureyev in the late s and the exhibition includes a portrait study, which is technically proficient if not particularly memorable in itself. his september , however, a watercolor of the celebrated scene of firefighters raising the american flag at the site of the world trade center attacks, borders on kitsch. sargent and the wyeths in london transatlantica, | http://www.allartclassic.com/pictures_zoom.php?p_number= &p=&number=saj http://www.allartclassic.com/pictures_zoom.php?p_number= &p=&number=saj http://www.allartclassic.com/pictures_zoom.php?p_number= &p=&number=saj http://www.archive.org/stream/ripvanwinkle irvi#page/n /mode/ up http://www.archive.org/stream/ripvanwinkle irvi#page/n /mode/ up http://www.archive.org/stream/ripvanwinkle irvi#page/n /mode/ up http://www.archive.org/stream/whitecompanypict doylrich#page/n /mode/ up http://www.archive.org/stream/whitecompanypict doylrich#page/n /mode/ up http://www.archive.org/stream/whitecompanypict doylrich#page/n /mode/ up http://www.archive.org/stream/whitecompanypict doylrich#page/n /mode/ up http://www.archive.org/stream/whitecompanypict doylrich#page/n /mode/ up http://www.archive.org/stream/whitecompanypict doylrich#page/n /mode/ up http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pumpkinhead.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pumpkinhead.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pumpkinhead.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pumpkinhead.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pumpkinhead.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pumpkinhead.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pumpkinhead.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pumpkinhead.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/september th.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/september th.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/september th.html n.c.’s daughter henriette, who spent her adult life in new mexico, is represented by a few still lifes and portraits, and her husband by a mountain landscape in egg tempera, a reminder of the technique that he taught to his more celebrated brother-in-law. still, even these few pieces relate an alternate bend in the family history, one that passed closer to the representational modernism flourishing in the american southwest at the time. the works in the wyeth family are loaned from the bank of america merrill lynch through the company’s “art in communities” program. the selection of works thus stems from their appurtenance to this corporate collection, rather than from any iconographical, historical, or stylistic coherence. this curatorial approach (or lack thereof) unfortunately does not do justice to the family’s rich and diverse legacy. this is a shame, because while london may be a natural setting to view sargent (who was a royal academician, based in the uk from until his death), the opportunity to see pieces by the wyeths outside of the united states is rare . the uneven quality of works is all the more unfortunate given the tendency of scholars and critics to disparage the wyeths. london reviewer charles darwent quipped that “tickets to this show cost £ , which works out at £ per interesting picture” ; the desultory, almost haphazard selection provides little ammunition for defense. the show lacks anything quite as refined as andrew’s egg temperas and drybrushes in the collections of the brandywine river museum in chadds ford and the farnsworth art museum in rockland, maine. more could have been done to draw out how engaging readers must have found n.c.’s illustrations before the availability of video games, dvds, high-speed internet, and hyperlinked text. jamie comes off looking somewhat amateur; the show includes nothing to match his monumental portrait of pig( , brandywine river museum). mere illustration? even had the shows included a more studied selection of the wyeths’ work, the truth would remain that critics love to hate them. to a certain extent, the same was true of sargent. outsiders despite public popularity and financial success, the wyeths and sargent do not easily fit academic categories of school or styles. sargent belongs neither to impressionism, fauvism, or cubism. andrew wyeth stood apart from his contemporaries in abstract expressionism and minimalism; furthermore, he was trained by a commercial illustrator (his father). critics thinly veil frustration, even anger, that in the s and s andrew wyeth did not paint like jackson pollock, take a studio in new york, nurture an intimate relationship with an international dealer, or at least fail trying to achieve these ends. sargent likewise was out of fashion with scholars, by the time of his death in until well into the s. painter and critic roger fry declared in that his work was “wonderful indeed, but most wonderful [is] that this wonderful performance should ever have been confused with that of an artist.” upon andrew’s death in , british critic jonathan jones disparaged “his vision of an ideal america of hunters and farmers and good country folk,” describing it as “fanciful and idiotic” and likening it to the ideologies of president george w. bush .at the occasion of the blockbuster andrew wyeth: memory and magic (philadelphia museum of art & high museum of art, atlanta), new york times critic ken johnson sargent and the wyeths in london transatlantica, | http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pig.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pig.html http://www.jamiewyeth.com/pig.html http://www.philamuseum.org/exhibitions/ / .html http://www.philamuseum.org/exhibitions/ / .html http://www.philamuseum.org/exhibitions/ / .html compared certain of the paintings to advertisements for pottery barn, a chain of household goods stores, and his models to “ralph lauren ads” . lewis mumford wrote in that sargent “remained to the end an illustrator…the most adroit appearance of workmanship, the most dashing eye for effect, cannot conceal the essential emptiness of [his] mind.” similarly, n.c. is generally written off as an illustrator, with the implication that ‘mere’ should always precede the term. just underneath the surface of these critiques lies the presumption that representational painting is less valid than abstract expression, and that persisting in painting figuratively after the articulation of alternative forms of expression must be indicative of an outlook that is sentimental and superficial, while at the same time championing middlebrow taste, particularly if museum audiences like the work. and if attendance numbers are reliable indicators, they do. while the automatic association of popularity with superficiality can be quickly dismissed on logical grounds, the pejorative attitude towards figurative work, even commercial illustration, is puzzling at a moment when scholars of visual culture embrace ephemera, murals, posters, and advertising art as socially and aesthetically significant documents of culture. also puzzling is the english critic who invokes the ‘fantasy’ of andrew wyeth’s paintings. an equivalent critique would have a new yorker accusing a landscape painter in yorkshire of dreaming up its rolling green hills and stately old homes. that author clearly never visited or saw a photograph of chester county, pennsylvania; for to this day, many fields and roads remain exactly, hauntingly, as wyeth painted them, despite the mushrooming development and population of the area over the past two decades. n.c.’s great-granddaughter victoria wyeth, who avowedly does not paint, now leads tours through the considerable collection of wyeth work at the brandywine river museum. her approach is distanced from abstract frameworks of art history, theory, and criticism; she simply asks viewers to look at the paintings, and shares knowledge gained firsthand about the pictures from their creators over a long time. in july , days before the opening of the show in london, she shared reflections from her grandfather ‘andy’ and uncle jamie about the significance of objects and places repeated in their paintings. references are often to memories and events shared by the family; they are highly idiosyncratic reactions to the landscapes in which they passed their lives and the restricted group of neighbors, friends, and acquaintances who shared these places with them. a certain language is repeated throughout the paintings, as with family jokes and nicknames. some of the associations are morbid, some banal, many conscientious of the senses beyond seeing that depictions of objects, places, and people can stir. each in their own way, the painters of the wyeth family mapped out that visual language. the wyeth legacy has not followed the high-selling trends of the international art market – although, to be sure, their work, especially that by andrew, commands considerable sums – but the lack of adulation from the critical establishment at no point deterred their activity. they continued their course with persistence and steadfastness; without a dramatic spectrum of evolution, perhaps, but also without gimmicks. sargent’s reputation was resuscitated in the s, perhaps because the worlds of which his critics were wary had indisputably vanished after the world wars. perhaps the same will be true of the wyeths, particularly andrew, after more time has passed, sargent and the wyeths in london transatlantica, | and the fields and barns he painted are transformed into drive-up drugstores and residential lofts. it is loss, perhaps, that wakes the eye to the value of what was once there. the london shows are not exactly watersheds in scholarship, although they are well displayed and visually pleasant – something like ‘beach reading’ for the museumgoer. bibliography darwent, charles, “only one winner in this generation game”, the independent (uk), june . james, henry, “john s. sargent”, harpers magazine, october , - . johnson, kenneth, “ ‘andrew wyeth: memory and magic' at the philadelphia museum of art”, new york times, april , . jones, jonathan, “on art blog”, the guardian (uk), january . paton, priscilla, abandoned new england: landscape in the work of homer, frost, hopper, wyeth, and bishop, university of new hampshire, . prettejohn, elizabeth, interpreting sargent, stewart, tabori & chang, . sargent, exhibition catalogue. ed. elaine kilmurray and richard ormond. tate gallery publishing, . sargent and the sea, exhibition catalogue. ed. richard ormond. corcoran gallery of art, . notes . the occasion was andrew’s induction into the académie française des beaux arts in ; he was the first american artist since john singer sargent to be admitted. . richard ormond, “sargent and the sea: introduction”, sargent and the sea, corcoran gallery of art, , - ; - . . the catalogue published for the exhibition includes fine essays by curator sarah cash and eminent sargent scholar richard ormond, amongst others. the show was curated by the corcoran gallery of art and shown there and at the houston museum of fine arts. . the small show “sketch everything and keep your curiosity fresh” at the corcoran in was a wonderful and rare exhibition dedicated uniquely to sargent’s drawings. . henry james. john s. sargent, harpers magazine, october , - ; . . nearly the only extra-american exhibitions are an american vision: three generations of wyeth art, which made stops in several european capitals in - , and andrew’s one-man show at the royal academy in as well as several in japan since the s. . charles darwent, “only one winner in this generation game”, the independent (uk), june . . elizabeth prettejohn. interpreting sargent, stewart, tabori & chang, , . sargent and the wyeths in london transatlantica, | . jonathan jones, on art blog, the guardian, january : www.guardian.co.uk/ artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/ /jan/ /andrew-wyeth-america-george-bush . kenneth johnson, “ ‘andrew wyeth: memory and magic' at the philadelphia museum of art’, new york times, april , . index subjects: trans’arts author jennifer a. donnelly université paris vii sargent and the wyeths in london transatlantica, | 	sargent and the wyeths in london talking about harm and benefit information-the challenges in healthcare practice this is a repository copy of talking about harm and benefit information-the challenges in healthcare practice. white rose research online url for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ / version: accepted version proceedings paper: raynor, dk ( ) talking about harm and benefit information-the challenges in healthcare practice. in: drug safety. th isop annual meeting “cubism in pharmacovigilance”, - oct , prague, czech republic. springer , p. . https://doi.org/ . /s - - - eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ reuse unless indicated otherwise, fulltext items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. the copyright exception in section of the copyright, designs and patents act allows the making of a single copy solely for the purpose of non-commercial research or private study within the limits of fair dealing. the publisher or other rights-holder may allow further reproduction and re-use of this version - refer to the white rose research online record for this item. where records identify the publisher as the copyright holder, users can verify any specific terms of use on the publisher’s website. takedown if you consider content in white rose research online to be in breach of uk law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the url of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. mailto:eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ session type abstract submission topic benefit / burden of pharmacovigilance (pharmacoeconomics and pharmacovigilance) presentation preference oral - invited abstract title talking about harm and benefit information – the challenges in healthcare practice co-authors d.k. raynor , . university of leeds faculty of medicine and health, school of healthcare - pharmacy practice, leeds, united kingdom. luto research, n/a, leeds, united kingdom. abstract text effective pharmacovigilance increasingly depends on patients playing their part, but the ‘dialogue’ is impeded because of patients’ lack of knowledge of drug development and safety measures. however, the main barrier is the language we use, which is not the language of the man or woman in the street. even many grass roots health professionals struggle to describe what ‘pharmacovigilance’ means – it is meaningless to patients. what words would they understand to describe the process? equally we talk about benefit/risk, whereas what we mean is the chance of benefit and the risk of harm. pharmacovigilance should allow the patient and prescriber to understand the benefit/harm balance for a medicine and decide if it is right for them – but we currently only given them numerical information about the risk of harm (‘affects less than in people’) – and nothing about the chance of benefit. this means a truly informed decision is not possible. so, how can we best describe numerically the chance of benefit, and where can we source that information? user testing of patient information leaflets is helping to make such leaflets fit-for- purpose, but wordings imposed by regulators are not tested. the wording associated with the black triangle initiative is a case in point: ‘warning – this medicine is subject to additional monitoring’ means something quite different to some lay people – they think it means that they will have more tests or checks (monitoring) if they take the medicine. equally the wordings recommended by prac appear less than ideal, and are un-tested. finally, risk management plan summaries are designed to inform lay people about how the plans for safe use of medicines have been developed and put into practice. but what does user testing of rmp summaries show? are they fit for purpose? this presentation will draw on academic research from the university of leeds on describing benefit and harm information for patients, along with practical examples from user testing in practice by luto research, a spin out company of the university. sublimation, as a technique for treatment procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com - © published by elsevier ltd. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . wcpcg- sublimation, as a technique for treatment sayid dabbagh ghazviniaf*f, milad khajehpoura, mohammad rahmania, elham memaria department of psychology, rudehen azad university amember of young researcher club, tehran, , iran received january , ; revised february , ; accepted march , abstract the goal of conducting this research was to use from sublimation defense mechanism for controlling and managing aggression impulses in persons by themselves. research method in this study was case study and the person under study was a year old woman that was not able to control her aggression impulses. in order to evaluate aggression of participants in this research, after performing treatment processes, it is used from buss and perry aggression questionnaire. results of this research show that: -participant's aggression impulses were meaningfully decreased. -not only participant is able to control her aggression impulses by painting but also she will be able to discharge her unsuitable mental modes. -aggression impulses are move toward suitable and acceptable activities that are sublimated. © elsevier ltd. keywords: sublimation; catharsis; painting; aggression impulse; defense mechanism . intreoduction by having look to works and paintings that are remained from caveman during paleolithic period and analyzing them, gradually process of evolution and mental growth process of human is cleared and also how to deal with mental challenges and tricks for achieving to mental relaxation is shown in these pictures most of psychologists believe that not any analysis like pictures and paintings, may completely interpret differences of thoughts and mental characteristics of people. of course it is obvious that fulfilling this affair necessitates required expertise. generally all artistic works including painting are full of message, allegory and refer. since artistic imaginations including dreaming will reveal all desires, morale and inner contents of human inside of his unconscious existence. human by assistance of imaginations of his mind, expresses his challenges, problems, concerns, shortages, fears, anxieties and his final goals and wishes and will find solution for revealing, satisfying and dealing with them. when mental problems of human are expressed and drawn it will result in alleviating emotional pains and inner pressures and in unconscious mode these fears or challenges by being revealed in paintings and sculpture and even * saeid dabbagh ghazvini: tel.: + - - - ; mobile: + - - - ; fax: + - - - e-mail address: hopesparkle@yahoo.com open access under cc by-nc-nd license. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / sayid dabbagh ghazvini et al. / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – make-up face will satisfy their desires and wishes. therefore for example in paintings of primitive man, we see that these people are hunting, confronting with natural disasters and constructing shelter. painting main elements of nature including moon, sun, thunder, flood and storm may associate some part of desires and fears of human. from view point of fillip williams doing creative activities by using materials and methods of visual arts is called as art therapy (williams, ). art therapy covers great spectrum of therapy functions that consists of visual arts including painting, collage, planning and sculpture. at one side this spectrum of art is used as tool for non-verbal communication, since artistic works besides association and interpretation may assist to understanding and solving problems. at the other side of this spectrum, treatment occurs as a result of artistic process. art therapy is based on theories of freud, jung and other scientists and is under influence of psychoanalysis. in concept of unconscious as freud has mentioned, people mention their memories and thoughts via symbols that finally be used as basis for theory of art therapy. . . general painting therapy is not educating painting; rather it is providing opportunities to persons that by using colors and lines to freely express their feelings, emotions, needs and their knowledge (rubin, ; landgarten, ). painting and other arts are like a bridge among inner world and outer realities and picture like a mediator will reflect conscious, unconscious aspects of past, present and future of person. . . usage of art therapy and painting therapy painting therapy was suggested and used by stern. he was founder of first painting workshop for children in paris at the end of second world war that still today is working. stern mentioned that painting is a tool of psychotherapy for educating not adaptable, unstable and mentally retarded children. sometimes painting is more suitable than speaking for children aged lower than years. especially when they want to talk with an adult, they try to express their meaning both correctly and understandable but as a result of shortage of domain of words and low familiarity with information of speaking language they are not able to transfer their concept; thus the best way to do this is by painting. in the year luis.d.c was used from free painting for adult neurotic. free painting means optional performance by person himself that there is not any force and obligation for drawing (ferrari, ). painting are seen as a reflection of a child’s inner world (dileo, ; golomb, ) as drawings are assumed to give indications about children’s character and state, we can gather some evidence about a child’s emotional state and problems and make conclusive facts (koppitz, ; golomb, ). young children do not easily speak about the traumatic occurrence, recent experience has been that many young children basically give graphic accounts of their experiences and were also able to reveal how distressful re- experiencing this imagery affected them (yule, ). kramer was both artist and teacher that for the first time deal with emotional disorder of children by painting therapy. he believed that the goal of art therapy is creating opportunity for selection and changing behaviors. doing this will create opportunities for repeated experience of conflicts and then tries to solve, analyze, complete or to respond them (kramer, ). the first pioneer in art therapy in u.s.a was margaret naumburg that after working with children at walden school found out those children reflect and project their emotions in their paintings. free association of art by children introduces symbolic type of speech. he believes that self-stimulated expression of art may be used as basics of psychotherapy (naumburg, ). sayid dabbagh ghazvini et al. / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – after him we can refer to victor lowenfeld that for the first time deal with blind and handicapped children and by using painting attempted to rehabilitate handicapped children (lowenfeld, ). the use of painting successfully allows unconscious motivations to present themselves in safe ways for client processing (miller & veltkamp, ). consequently, belief in unconscious motivations is vital to the administering and interpreting of drawings (miller & veltkamp, ). the finding of such distinctions indicates that drawing have the potential to provide helpful information in assessing the functioning of people (goodenough, ). specifically, projective drawing techniques allow for the evaluation of relationships and interactions in the people’s life (koppitz, ). the use of projective drawing techniques is supported by results from various studies. one such study a drawing technique with title of human figure drawings reported that when sexually abused children were evaluated, each child focused on genitalia in his or her drawings also clients that have aggression motivation, show signs of anger and aggression in their paintings (sturner & rothbaum, ). in recent years we have encountered earthquakes in turkey especially after the th of august and th of november. recent research about disasters indicated that children have been seriously affected by natural disasters especially when they occur unexpectedly. children who have had different emotional problems have difficulty in expressing themselves. through play and drawing traumatised or emotionally disturbed children can reflect their anger, fear, desperation (veltman & browne, ; gray deering, ), and they can do this in a secure and relieving aspect (malchiodi, ). results of a previous research about children’s paintings after the marmara disaster showed that drawings of children included dark colours like black and brown and were depicting the disaster scene including graves of beloved parents or siblings (celebi-Öncü & karaaslan, ). art therapy is used by its tool with the goal of growing identity and feeling of success in children. art therapy is useful for children having emotional and behavioral disorders .therefore art therapy gives some clues for understanding and solving problems of children and by creating feeling better life as a result of creative activities; it will improve relations, adjustment skills and personal adaptation of children with their world. simon believes that art therapy or artistic psychotherapy necessitates for having attention to mental needs of patients, including need of freedom, expressing and relaxation and does not attention to details of artistic skills (simon, ). levic has suggested that drawing painting may be used for discerning pathological conditions and from these elementary discern factors, gradually large number of disciplined methods will be created that nowadays are called as painting test (levic, ). painting besides being useful in discerning mental disorders of adults, is suitable for discerning and curing problems of aggression and restless children. painting makes able these children to reveal their inner abilities and creativities. lowefeld has mentioned that process of constructing, drawing and painting is a complicated process in which child uses from different components of his experiences for constructing a meaningful total. in this process child gives us something more than a statue. rather child reveals some part of himself, how he thinks and how he feels (williams & wood, ). according to harmful effect of aggression on growth process of children, aggression during childhood is among adjustment problems that have been greatly studied during last decades (parker & asher, ). persons having adjustment problems may solve their problems by making mental pictures and implementing it; that doing this by assistant of competence art therapist will be promptly achieved. clinical function of art therapy covers following groups: children and adults that are hospitalized, psychoneurotic persons that are volunteered for going under psychotherapy, prisoners, mental retardations , learning disorder , couples having problem, families and persons suffering from physical diseases like chronic diseases of kidney, cancer, hemophilia, asthma, diabetes and nerve problems. sayid dabbagh ghazvini et al. / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – art therapy meetings are held in small and big groups or with presence of families. there are diverse methods and techniques in art therapy. in art therapy using from art is regarded as mediator for achieving to treatment goals. . . how to act art therapy and painting therapy in painting therapy patient encourages to draw painting at presence of therapist and thus therapist encourages or guides patient in performing artistic work. sometimes it is requested from person to draw whatever he wants and other times therapist asks from patients to draw special things. for example patients are being told to draw the picture of their families. art therapists believe that this kind of therapy is useful for all patients and is not just for persons having artistic talent. most types of art therapy are based on this logic that expressing thoughts and emotions in drawing may result catharsis that it has kind of treatment effect. most types of art therapy are parallel with psychodynamic. logical basics, goals and performing any kind of special art therapy are specified by theory of psychodynamic. anyway there are joint goals among most types of art therapy that include: - catharsis - insight- integration -communication -mastery catharsis is among psychoanalysis theories of freud that believes contrast and expressing repression feelings is curable. insight - integration is one of the important consequences of dealing to art. dalley: “art therapy is a path for expressing confused and improperly understood feeling via guiding them toward clarity and discipline” (dalley, ). communication means communication among person and therapist. it is mentioned that under condition in which person is not able to talk about his feeling and experiences, having pictorial communication may have special privilege. masters deals with this issue that persons via reproducing difficult conditions in their paintings, may achieve to type of mastery over their problems. person by reproducing difficult conditions may control his feeling and emotions (glyn, angela, & silk, ). art therapy for all patients and persons referring is a kind of nonverbal communication that achieves to benefit via creating distance between thoughts and problematic feelings; also it helps psychotic patients to separate dream from reality. researches have shown that when persons participate in activities that enjoy them, their physiologic factors including blood pressure, heart beat and aspiration will be slower. thus by using activities and artistic communications it is possible to created actions in physiology and biology of person which these actions may improve ability of person for confronting against diseases and influence in immune system. by using art therapy it is able to increase social skills of people. in fact art therapy like medical grounds deals with prevention and improving mental health of people and at the first stage it attempts to prevent patients via empowering human and in next stage it attempts to cure and decrease diseases. . . catharsis sublimation starts when id of person has strong attraction for discharging its impulses but superego prevents from it. this contradiction occurs when that superego is fully grown in person otherwise impulses of id will be easily satisfied. in fact struggle between id and superego result in anxiety and one of the actions of ego for decreasing anxiety is using from sublimation defense mechanism. factors that continue from using this mechanism by ego, is it’s reinforce effect in decreasing anxiety that is as a result of catharsis and its certification on behalf of society. sublimation is revealed in activities including painting, writing, gardening, musician and poetry and dancing. people of ancient greece believed that stimulating emotions is one of the best ways for personal comfort and improving behavior. from historical point of view, catharsis is based on emotions hydraulic model that it prevents from direct expressing unacceptable emotions including anger, guilt and anxiety. prevention from these kinds of emotions has caused that emotions will be discharged so that indirectly puts persons under pressure, for example anger from physical point of view will be expressed as headache. if emotions will be directly freed in psychotherapy, the source of their energy will be discharged and person will be freed from source of symptoms sayid dabbagh ghazvini et al. / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – (prochaska & norcross, ). whereas sublimation is among grown defense mechanism and this mechanism may suitably discharge sexual and aggression impulses; the goal of conducting this research was to use from sublimation defense mechanism for controlling and managing aggression impulses in persons by themselves. . method . . design, participant and procedure the research method in this study was case study. the person under study was a years old woman that was not able to control her aggression impulses. this issue was proved via interview with her and her family. also results of question inventory showed the same results for aggression of buss and perry. in this research that it is used from sublimation paintings, it is requested from person that under suitable condition and by using tools of painting to discharge his aggression impulses. after termination of work, the result is certified and encouraged by therapist. also in order to encouraging the painting of patient on behalf of society, patient will go under training professional the techniques of painting. tools that are offered to participant include painting canvas with dimensions of * cm, main colors (oil colors) and paintbrush with different sizes. at first participant resists for starting work, since she believes that she is going to draw a beautiful painting like a professional painter but after being justified in relation to methods of work, her resistance will be decreased and she could paint pattern tray duration session tender. it is requested from participant that there is no need to draw special shape or special pattern, rather she shall draw the thing that at present time is in her mind and during painting she can develop and insist on that part which she think it is familiar for her. this method is used for year by participant in order to control her aggression impulses. the style that is used is nearly similar to cubism style. pablo ruiz picasso the founder of this style. this style of painting that is mainly similar to children paintings who knew nothing from painting, colors are simply and optionally drawn on canvas and the result is ambiguous and unclear painting. . . measure in order to evaluate aggression of participants in this research, after performing treatment processes, it is used from buss and perry aggression inventory. this test was designed by buss and perry in the year . the english form of this inventory is consisting of questions. in this inventory, factors evaluate verbal aggression ( questions), physical aggression ( questions), anger ( questions) and hostility ( questions). the choices of this inventory are designed so that status of person on each question is specified within a degree scale, from (does not completely explains me) to (completely explains me). results of psychometric analysis indicate that this inventory has large internal consistency ( . ). also correlation of sub-scales of this inventory that was between . to . indicates suitable validity of this tool (buss & perry, ). . results results of this research show that: - participant's aggression impulses that were measured by question inventory of buss & perry aggression inventory were meaningfully decreased and this issue is reported by person itself and his associates. - not only participant is able to control her aggression impulses by painting but also she will be able to discharge her unsuitable mental modes. - aggression impulses are move toward suitable and acceptable activities that are sublimated. sayid dabbagh ghazvini et al. / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – this graph (figure ) indicates received grades by participants at sub-scales of buss & perry aggression inventory that include: physical aggression (pa), verbal aggression (va), anger (a) and hostility (h). as it is clear in graph grades of all sub-scales after passing time periods is considerable decreased. figure : level of aggression sub-scale in pre-test & post-test physical verbal anger hostility aggression aggression figure : aggression’s evolution process iii ii i these shapes indicate process of evolution that show the aggression of person is decreased at each stage and finally it can be said that effect of painting has decreased aggression. . discussion figure : process of sublimation formation impulse internal reinforcement external reinforcement displacementcatharsistraining sublimation sayid dabbagh ghazvini et al. / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – at first this method was changed by displacement defense mechanism from impulses to ordinary goal and may result in catharsis. since catharsis result in decreasing unsuitable impulses, it is also result internal reinforcement of person. on the other hand encouragement of therapist may result in external reinforcement and increasing interest of person for continuous usage from this method. then at each session professional training is provided to person. practice will improve paintings of such persons so that person not only on behalf of therapist but also on behalf of other persons will be accepted. this process continues up to level that person acquire required skills in painting and finally person will be able spontaneously draw painting without referring to therapist and will be encouraged by society. this style may be factor for controlling unsuitable emotions and feelings, so that after passing educational course person will be able to self-regulation without referring to therapist. not only this style may be used for aggression impulse sublimation but also it may be used for controlling sexual impulses. projective measures, particularly this technique, have the potential to use positively as therapeutic process when working with aggressor clientele. great responsibility, however, must be taken in the training of clinicians to interpret such works. the administration of drawing grants people the freedom to communicate issues they may otherwise be unable to express. using the technique as therapeutic treatment can be beneficial to both client and clinician. references buss, a. h., & perry, m. ( ). the aggression questionnaire. journal of personality and social psychology , , - . celebi-Öncü, e., & karaaslan, t. ( ). examining the drawings of traumatized children who experienced august and november disasters. poster presented at symposium of early childhood education in the st century, hacettepe university, - june. ankara. dalley, t. ( ). art as therapy. london: tavistock publications. dileo, j. h. ( ). interpreting children’s drawings. london: brunner-routledge. ferrari, a. o. ( ). children's drawing and what they means. london: tavistock publications. glyn, v., angela, m., & silk, j. ( ). an introduction psychology of children's drawings. london: taylor & francis. golomb, c. ( ). child’s creation of a pictorial world. lawrenc erlbaum associats. goodenough, f. ( ). measurement of intelligence by drawings. new york: harcourt brace and world. gray deering, c. ( ). a cognitive developmental approach to understanding how children cope with disasters. journal of child and adolescent psychiatric nursing , ( ), - . koppitz, e. m. ( ). psychological evaluation of human figure drawings by middle school pupils ( ed.). new york: allyn and bacon. koppitz, e. ( ). psychological evaluation of children’s human figure drawings. new york: grune & stratton. kramer, e. ( ). art therapy in a children community. springfield, il: charles c. thomas. landgarten, h. b. ( ). clinical art therapy. new york: brunner/mazel. levic, m. f. ( ). they couldn’t talk and so they draw. illinois: charles. c. thomas. lowenfeld, v. ( ). creative and mental growth ( ed.). new york: macmillan. malchiodi, c. a. ( ). trauma and loss: research and interventions article using drawing as intervention with traumatized children. retrieved november , , from tlcinstitute: www.tlcinstitute.org/drawingintervention.html miller, t. w., & veltkamp, l. j. ( ). assessment of child sexual abuse: clinical use of fables. child psychiatry and human development , ( ), - . naumburg, m. ( ). schizophrenic art. new york: grune & stratton. parker, j., & asher, s. r. ( ). peer relations and later personal adjustment: are low-accepted children at risk? psychological bulletin , ( ), - . prochaska, j. o., & norcross, j. c. ( ). systems of psychotherapy: a transtheoretical analysis. pacific grove, ca: brooks/cole. rubin, j. a. ( ). art therapy: an introduction. london: taylor & francis. simon, r. m. ( ). symbolic images in art therapy. london: routledge. sturner, r., & rothbaum, f. ( ). the effects of stress on children’s human figure drawings. journal of clinical psychology , ( ), - . veitman, m. w., & browne, k. d. ( ). the assessment of drawings from children who have been maltreated: a systematic review. child abuse review , , - . williams, f. ( ). exeptional children culture. baltimor, md: university park press. williams, g. h., & wood, m. m. ( ). development art therapy. baltimor, md: university park press. yule, w. ( ). post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. internatonal review of psychiatry , , - . retrieved june, , , from unicef: www.unicef.org/turkey. chen chiyu academy of arts & design of tsinghua university, beijing the combination of chinese and western influences on chinese modern ink painting with lin fengmian, zhang ding and wu guanzhong as examples i s ince the beginning of the th century, improvement of and innovation in chinese painting has never ceased. the development of chinese painting mainly took two paths. the first is represented by wu chang- shuo, chen shizeng, qi baishi, huang binhong and pan tianshou who found strength from the tradition of chinese painting, especially from the tradition of literati painting, combined with modern feelings, and then went on to make new breakthroughs based on traditional chinese painting to innovate chinese painting and move it forward. the second path is represented by xu beihong, lin fengmian, liu haisu, gao jianfu and fang rending who advocated blend­ ing chinese and western influences, by taking western painting techniques and ideas for reference in order to inject new blood into chinese painting. from this second path, that is the symbiosis of the chinese and the western, two more paths branch out. one of them, represented by xu beihong, uses western realism or western classical realist methods to transform traditional chinese painting and to introduce sketch and shadow shading to chinese painting in order to enhance the sense of realism. the other way, represented chen chiyu by lin fengmian ( - ) ), is to learn from modern western art forms to transform chinese painting mainly by learning from the characteristics of modern western art forms and applying them to ink painting to create a new modern form of chinese painting. whether applying the western classical realist method to improve chinese painting as represented by xu beihong or to use western modernist art forms to innovate chinese painting as represented by lin fengmian, we believe that both play active roles in promoting modern th century chinese painting. between the s and s, lin fengmian lived in shanghai, which was a time when his ink painting creation (including colour ink painting) hit its peak. at that time, new china was in a special period dominated by realism or socialist realism, and western modernist art was considered to be anti-realism and formalism, and was thus criticised. against this background, lin fengmian strove boldly to learn from the characteristics of impressionism, expressionism and cubism to create ink and ink colour paintings between the s and s, which must have required from him a lot of courage. coincidentally, zhang ding who worked in the central academy of fine arts in beijing also adopted the method of matisse, picasso and other people engaged in ink painting in the late s and early s. lin fengmian and zhang ding, in the s and s, did not apply western realism methods or the classical realist painting method (the approach advocated by the national culture and arts policy) but rather explored western modernism (opposed by our state ideology) to create new works in ink, and so they forged a new path in modern chinese painting which differed from that of realism. wu guanzhong was lin fengmian’s student when he was at hangzhou art colleges, and in he was transferred to work at the central academy of fine arts by zhang ding. they both managed to merge the academy of fine arts of tsinghua university with the central academy of fine arts. as principal and teacher, lin fengmian’s concept of integrating chinese and western techniques with an emphasis on western modern art influenced wu guanzhong’s ink painting since the s, while zhang ding and pang xunqin and others cre­ ated the characteristics of decorative painting at the central academy of arts which may have had an impact on the decorative form of wu guanzhong’s ink output. wu guanzhong is an excellent representative to embody modernity in ink painting since the s. the year of was mr. lin fengmian’s th anniversary. unfortunately, in february and june of this year, two of the oldest x> xujiang & yanghualin ( : - ). the combination of chinese and western influences... artists zhang ding ( years old) and wu guanzhong ( years old) passed away in beijing. we commemorated the th anniversary of mr. lin fengmian near hangzhou west lake near the location of what once was the art college of hangzhou which changed its name to china academy of art, to put lin fengmian, zhang ding and wu guanzhong’s modern characteristics in ink paintings together in one place to be studied and admired. ii the famous british art historian, oxford university professor michael sullivan claimed that “lin fengmian was the enlightener of chinese modern art” ) , lin fengmian had made an important contribution to the initiation of modern chinese art. he swapped influences from the east to the west and from the west back to the east. before he went to france in january , he had studied chinese ink painting. he learned western oil painting at the academy of fine arts in dijon france and the academy of fine arts in paris. when he returned to china in , not only did he create oil paintings but also worked with ink, and later mainly involved himself in the creation of ink and ink colour painting. lin fengmian is one of china’s great modern art mentors. in when he was years old, cai yuanpei recommended him to return to china to take up the post of principal at the national college of art in beijing. he served for two years, during which time he initiated and organised the beijing art assembly to promote art and social aesthetics. in , with the support of cai yuanpei, lin fengmian came to hangzhou and found the national westlake academy of arts, that is, the hangzhou national college of arts, where his enlightened and inclusive teaching philosophy and emphasis on the teaching methods of western modern art greatly influenced the students’ creative thinking, which made hangzhou art college a more open learning forum than the beijing art college. the works of the students from hangzhou art college such as zao wuji, zhu dequn, wu guanzhong, zhao chunxiang and so on reveal a stronger modernity which has also had a deep impact on the international arena. when lin fengmian studied in france, he listened to the advice of yancesse, the chancellor of his school: “you can not just stay in the academic style; learn more about the styles created by the old and new schools’’® lin fengmian was ) m. sullivan ( . . ). ) jin shangyi & zhu pu ( : ). chen chiyu inspired; not only did he pay attention to the academic classic style but also value the importance of various genres of modern european artistic styles, avoiding the trap which xu beihong fell into by plunging into the classical realist style and finding himself unable to get out when he studied in france. in addition, in the winter of , lin fengmian and lin wenzheng were invited by xiong junrui to travel and study in germany. they went to berlin for one year and came to understand the characteristics of some north european paint­ ing schools. influenced by german expressionism, lin fengmian created some expressionist paintings such as berlin coffee, the austrian, grope and other works. in , lin fengmian published his long article { £ ® (the future of eastern and western art) in chinese. in this passage, he systemati­ cally expressed his artistic outlook, his understanding of eastern and western art and how to reconcile eastern and western art. he advocated that “art is the expression of emotional impulse” if we want to revive chinese art, “on one hand, we should inject the fundaments of western art, based on historical concepts and, on the other hand, sort out chinese traditional art to contribute to the world.” ) in , lin fengmian published his article { -j oh & tifio the future of chinese painting we hoped ' where he expressed his hope and recommendations for the future of chinese painting. when lin fengmian was in middle school in his hometown of meixian, he received some strict basic training in chinese painting. after he came back from france, he adopted expressionism to create oil oeuvres such as human suffering in , sad in the s, while at the same time creating ink works. between the late s and s, lin fengmian began to formulate his char­ acteristic ink painting style. his ink painting portraits such as peasant woman, fisher girl and so on adopted a square composition with rough lines where the plain and simple images were generalised with expressive characteristics. ancient ladies {flute lady - fig. ) created around and woman with cat created in began to focus on the smooth operation of the line, more flexibly and expressively, with the image and background adopting similar deco­ rative pattern effects to matisse’s planes. this group of ink paintings introduced a new ink figure painting schema which was a combination of western modern expressionist features and chinese stick figures and lines. in the s, lin fengmian also used this rugged expressive means to draw river boat, village, ) lin fengmian ( : ). ) lin fengmian ( : ). the combination of chinese and western influences... winter and other landscapes and still life paintings; he emphasised the plane effect, his still life paintings having the characteristics of cezanne’s geometry. after the founding of new china, although realism took a dominant posi­ tion, lin walked steadfastly down his road of modern art. on one hand, he continued to study the stylistic features of impressionism, fauvism, cubism and futurism, while on the other hand, he made further research into chinese tradi­ tional art and folk art. lin thought the development of literati painting in song, yuan, ming and qing dynasty had already achieved perfection and there was no real way forward for it. he found new forms by looking at ancient bronze, lacquer-ware and painted pottery, han brick, shadow puppets, porcelain paint­ ing as well as scroll paintings. he also derived inspiration from folk paper-cuts, shadow puppets, new year paintings, and so transformed our national and folk art forms for the modern era and created new forms of ink works. in the early s, lin fengmian produced some colour ink still life paint­ ings daisy - bottle - fruit, still life, ten years study (fig. ), reading, three- dimensional still life, as well as some theatrical portraits women in the yang family, farewell to my concubine, universe peak, lotus lantern and opera figures. in the late s he plunged into the world of picasso and braque’s cubist language, combining the geometry of the triangle, square, circle and straight line with strong colour contrasts, mixing ink with western gouache paint and choosing colours to increase boldness and texture thereby creating a new form of colour ink painting and open up a completely new creative path different from social-realism which was common at that time. he believes that colours in ink paintings had never really been used expressively, so he advocated a greater boldness of colour. in the early s, he created a large colour paint­ ing shui man jin shan (meaning water overflows from jin shan mountain) (fig. ), in which the full-scale characters dancing in turmoil have the strong characteristic of abstract expressionism; indeed, this work was a contempo­ rary of the american abstract expressionist painter kooning. considering the restrictiveness of the regime and the ensuing and solitariness at home, it was all the more miraculous that lin fengmian managed to create such an innovative and high quality example of new china’s international modernist art in the s. his works made china not only the land of booming art realism but also the nurturer of modernist art’s single flower of the s. from to the early s, when lin had already reached his sixtieth year, he also responded to the call of the party to visit places and experience life, to make friends with the farmers in the village of shanghai’s rural areas and he cre­ ated harvest, fertile flowers, breeding, market, field, labor and other works, chen chiyu close in spirit to the new social reality of working life, but without employing the popular realist style. instead he found expression in the characteristics of chinese folk new year pictures, used plane decorative techniques and round shapes to depict the activities of women and children in rural areas to make the characters look plump, healthy and joyful. lin fengmian’s grandfather was a mason and a folk artist, which gave lin a heritage that brought him close to folk art. he cleverly assimilated folk art elements into his own oeuvre in the process of creating modern chinese painting and provided modern art with an interesting direction. from the s to s, lin sought to further perfect the characteristics of his modern style. he introduced his creative themes including landscape, still life, flowers, birds, ladies and dramatic characters, to modern form creation in ink and ink colour painting. some of his landscapes adopted yellow tones to express agricultural labor in the late s combined with bright colours, which showed the characteristics of impressionism. the representative works from this time were pond created in , farmhouse, autumn forest, sunset, summer in early s, autumn in the late s, with its golden or crimson trees arranged in neat rows, deep ponds and farmhouses lit by the sun so bright and full of natural poetic. in the early s, he settled in hong kong and cre­ ated rosy clouds pond with its green and yellow lotus leaves, white lotus and grass in the pond demonstrating layers of space, colour and harmony which could remind us of monet’s water lilies. in south pacific garden, plants and flowers intertwined in red, yellow, blue, violet and a variety of colours compose a colour symphony, which in turn led me to recall the french impressionist colour master renoir’s garden landscapes in the national gallery in london. lin fengmian’s ideal to strengthen the power of colour in ink painting has been achieved. he created impressionism in chinese ink and ink colour painting. he painted still life and flowers, such as dali flower, lotus pond, flower, ziteng flower, whispers, chrysanthemum, cockscomb in the s, with strong and vivid colours, with some flowers taking up the entire canvas lending the whole oeuvre a strong visual impact. these works prove that chinese painting had found a new visual form. lin fengmian was seriously about lines and would encourage his students “to show the body in lines” and “draw the line like it’s alive”. ) his blue nude and landscape in the s and boat in the late s used hard and pointed straight carved objects which reminded me of the fine lines engraved on ancient ) li lincan ( : ). the combination of chinese and western influences... chinese bronzes. the expressive lines in ancient chinese painting were highly developed; from gu kaizhi’s gossamer description in eastern jin, to wu daozi’s “belt in the wind” in the tang dynasty, to li gonglin’s line drawing in the song dynasty, to yongle palace mural’s iron line drawing in the yuan dynasty, we have accumulated a rich experience in lines. lin fengmian seriously studied the characteristics of chinese painting lines and he created a series of paintings depicting elderly ladies in the late s to early s as well as a group of paintings of beautiful women and nudes in the s. most of these works made use of curved lines and were accurate, smooth, elegant with rhythmic. the lines in some of his works were delicate and elegant, while others were blunt, clumsy and powerful. he created a new aesthetic paradigm for the modern painting of beautiful women. his works such as set fire on chibi, fish sausage sword, catch and freedom of cao, south gate, all kinds of life, pain, christ were painted during the s in hong kong where he assimilated the geometric language of cubism with abstract expressionism to create a new geometric abstract expressionism. in short, from lin started to explore the world of ink paintings until his death in . during the entirety of these years, he was one of the first pioneers to introduce modern western art forms into chinese ink painting. he also creatively threw ancient chinese art and folk art techniques into his crea­ tive melee of ink painting and ink colour painting. he opened up a new road to bring together chinese and western art, in a different way than xu beihong and his followers in that western classical realism was used to transform chinese painting - this path is coherent with the spirit of modern art and modern aesthetics. ill it is curious that when lin fengmian was introducing fauvism and cubism into chinese painting at a time when realism dominated during the s to s in china’s southern metropolis of shanghai, meanwhile another artist named zhang ding ( - ), who came from yan’an to live in the capital city of beijing, also tried to innovate chinese ink painting by borrowing techniques from matisse, picasso, rouault and modigliani. ) ) zhang ding art research center of tsinghua university ( : ). chen chiyu zhang ding is an encyclopaedic artist in visual art. he painted caricature in nanjing and shanghai in s, after which he went to yan’an to accept the baptism of the revolution. he served as the main designer of some large-scale exhibitions in the yan’an period. he joined chairman mao’s speech on culture and art conference in yan’an. he painted posters and street paintings and then came to beijing after the liberation where he designed the national emblem with liang sicheng and the chinese people’s political consultative committee emblem by himself. he was responsible for the completion of the art design for the opening ceremony of the tiananmen gate. additionally, he also designed the world expo china pavilion several times. in , he led the creation of the capital international airport murals in beijing which shocked people around the world; he designed several large murals for beijing and other cities, with his new year paintings and posters also displaying rich characteristics. his ink painting proved to be not only pioneering in the area of landscapes but also unique and, moreover, his calligraphy (zhuan shu) is considered to be top of its class. he also designed the first set of stamps in new china. he excelled in other areas too for example: in book design, product packaging design, caricature, new year paintings, posters, murals, ink painting, calligraphy, exhibition design, art education - in some areas with groundbreaking results. zhang ding was in a class of his own in terms of extraordinary achievement in visual arts. he was even the president of the national institute of folk art. however, people often forget or neglect his modern ink paintings of the late s and early s which i believe are particularly important for chinese contemporary art history. why did the revolutionary artist zhang ding like picasso, matisse and other western modern art masters? one of the reasons is that zhang ding was particularly fond of folk art. in this point, he and lin fengmian were much alike. both wanted to find a characteristic feature of chinese folk art to create a new form of modern art. they discovered some elements from folk art that were different from the western classical realist style and some similarities with western modern art such as abstraction, deformation, expression, beauty of form, etc. after the founding of new china, compared with lin fengmian’s lonely creation, zhang ding was model of activity. in the early s, after he had completed the design of the image of new china, in he served as the party secretary of the painting department at the central academy of fine arts. he then began to think about creative issues connected with the innovation of chinese painting. having participated in the debate on chinese painting which was convened by the artists association, he published an article enti- the combination of chinese and western influences... tied * ® th $t “chinese painting inherited tradition and innovation” in art magazine. ) in the same year, he established the first chinese painting and sketch group since the founding of new china along with li keran and went to southern china to draw. in september, a “li keran, zhang ding, luo ming ink sketch exhibition” was held in beijing around beihai park, which gave a boost of fresh natural zest for chinese painting, and included more than works by zhang ding. this exhibition had a far-reaching impact on chinese painting. it was the first time china had participated in the paris international exposi­ tion in and zhang ding was appointed chief architect of china hall and was a member of the chinese cultural delegation to france. the delegation elected to visit picasso and zhang ding described his meeting with him as close and intimate. in , zhang ding transferred to the newly established central academy of arts and was appointed the first vice-president. together with his colleagues zhang guangyu and pang xunqin, he promoted the development of the central academy of fine arts. they advocated the policy of “da, yang, tu”. “da” means large fine art, meaning the combined artistic spirit achieved through the combination of painting and design, chinese art and western art, pure art and practical art; “yang” means the new western modern art; “tu” is the native folk art. as an artist and designer, zhang ding has a strong con­ sciousness of modernity. the club he designed in yan’an had modern aesthetics such as the labour achievements exhibition he designed for as large installation art. after all, before he came to yan’an, he had a career in nanjing and shanghai and he had ever created caricature, so he felt at one with modern urban civilisa­ tion. during the first several years after liberation, he had the opportunity to go abroad many times as national exhibition designer, for example to poland, germany, france and italy to experience modern western art and culture first­ hand in a spirit of openness. in , picasso held an exhibition in beijing and the media asked zhang ding to write an article on picasso. ) zhang ding praised picasso for using a variety of materials and techniques in oil painting, sculpture, ceramics, collage, architecture, sketching, engraving, performing art and decorative design. however, zhang ding himself was also a fruitful artist in many areas, so in this point, he was similar to picasso. zhang ding asked many folk artists to teach in the central academy of fine arts and in he also invited the famous american pop artist robert rauschenberg to give a lecture ) zhang ding ( : ) ) zhang ding ( : ) chen chiyu at the central academy of fine arts. one can observe that zhang ding is not only cared deeply about local folk art but also had a sensitive and receptive attitude toward even the most avant-garde western contemporary art. from the late s, perhaps inspired by picasso, zhang ding germinated the creativity of modern chinese ink paintings by combining the modern west­ ern art form with the spirit of folk art. from to the early s, zhang ding imitated the works of picasso and others using chinese painting tools. these works include imitation of picasso - landscapes, imitation of picasso - figure, imitation of braque - nest, imitation of rouault - figure, imitation of matisse - figure. this kind of imitation was, on the one hand, a way of learning the style of western modern art masters. on the other hand, zhang ding was clearly experimenting with chinese brushes and pigments as applied to the techniques of western art forms. he hoped to find the junction point between them and the modernity of chinese painting. in the early s, zhang ding created more than two hundred ink paintings with a strong sense of modern form, opening up a new way for modern chinese painting. these works were criticised during the cultural revolution. it was said that in order to avoid destroying them, zhang ding asked someone to hide them in a friend’s house in shaanxi, but even so they were unfortunately lost. now only remain, rescued from a school warehouse. this group of works based on realist ink painting brought a new look to chi­ nese painting during the s to s. among them female militia, pastoral in cangshan mountain, the girl with sheep, weaving girl and the girl with jar employed three-dimensional geometric features, with the use of circles, triangles, and other shapes to represent girls of ethnic origins, sheep, pottery and fishing nets. zhang ding’s huiwa portrait with the long neck and sideways composition was similar to the image of the woman in picasso’s figure, but went further in terms of innovation. chen buwen portrait, stove (fig. ), market and dai lady were influenced by matisse’s application of lines and plane decora­ tion, but here the line dynamics are chinese in character and the decorative elements shape the strong ethnic style. in listening (fig. ), summer - beijing gate, the main room and the oil lamp with mud dog, the residential door or indoor scenes, pottery cat, mud dog, oil lamps, tables, cabinets were laid flat, which gave these works not only outstanding ordinary folk characteristics but also a strong modernistic effect. the colours were bold and the body images enlarged in the still life flower series, with the image of folk patterns on ceramic vases and the blooming flowers shown in harmony and unity. these groups of still life flower works carry the strong visual impact of modern art and are the combination of chinese and western influences... almost van gogh-esque. like lin fengmian, zhang ding also liked to paint dramatic characters; he learnt from the shapes of folk paper-cutting art and shadow play art to draw animation characters from legend of the white snake, and ink painting works such as painted faces, opera characters. zhang ding travelled from the south to the north to collect ethnic new year paintings, embroideries, paper cutting, toys, ethnic patterns and ornamenta­ tion, all kinds of stone carvings and stone portrait bricks from the han dynasty, copies of stone portrait bricks, imitation grotto murals, and ancient prints - he was therefore able to conduct in-depth research on folk art. as professor liu jude pointed out, “his thoughts often run between the two poles of primitive and modern art, which is very similar to picasso”. ) the most outstanding char­ acteristics of zhang ding’s group of ink colour paintings in s was to absorb the characteristics of folk art and decorative arts in modern chinese painting. this is more prominent than lin fengmian because zhang ding focused more on folk art collections, teaching and research. zhang ding made an important contribution on how to introduce folk art elements into the creation of modern chinese painting and he also combined folk art with modern western art by assimilating western modern art into the creation of new chinese ink and colour painting, which not only has a rich ethnic flavour but also bold modern aesthetics. it, therefore, has a unique value in terms of the creation of modern chinese painting. iv just when zhang ding decided to stop his ink painting creation in , wu guanzhong ( - ) ) took up ink painting in addition to oils and in the subsequent years focused mainly on inks. it was just the right time for zhang ding, after thirty years of ink exploration, to pass the baton on to wu guan­ zhong to bring chinese ink painting onto a new stage with remarkable results. in s, wu guanzhong studied at the academy of arts in hangzhou as a student of lin fengmian and wu dayu. he majored in oil painting, and read­ ily admits that he went to the chinese painting department to study chinese painting with pan tianshou. lin fengmian’s reconciliation of chinese and western educational policies and academic thinking had a deep impact on him. ) liu jude ( : ). n) wu guanzhong art research center of tsinghua university programme( :l). chen chiyu in addition, pan tianshou’s strong modern sense of form in chinese painting appealed to wu guanzhong. in , wu guanzhong went to france to study oil painting. he received training in both classical oil painting and modern western art. after his return in , he worked in the central academy of fine arts, department of architecture of tsinghua university, beijing arts normal college, central academy of fine arts and academy of fine arts and design tsinghua university. in , wu guanzhong came to the central academy of fine arts and he found a new world in which to explore form. zhang guangyu, pang xunqin, zhang ding, zhu danian forged a strong decorative painting impetus at the central academy of fine arts, focusing on decorative patterns, folk art and the beauty of form. their distinctive decorative features in their chinese paintings were unlike the creative styles of other art academies. no doubt, wu guanzhong was influenced by the decorative painting to some extent. he introduced plane decoration to his ink paintings. wu guanzhong committed himself to the nationalisation of oil painting and the modernisation of traditional chinese painting. his oil paintings were rich in southern china’s poetry. he unified southern residential houses with the scenery of the rivers and lakes and combined their white walls and black tiles with geometrically abstract techniques to create a fresh and natural vision of the yangtze river’s beauty. his creations boat dwellers, water village (he created another painting named water village in , fig. ), old wall in s, idle houses of southern china in , old house (fig. - date - ) in are all his representations. these works introduced a strong contrast between the large area of white walls and black tiles with a simple abstract beauty. wu’s regionally influenced painting themes helped to forge his iconic wu style and this was his great contribution to the exploration of nationality in oil painting. wu guanzhong selected ink painting in his exploration of the modernity of chinese painting and, after years of research and writing, he succeeded in creating the wu modern ink painting style. his ink paintings not only have a strong sense of abstraction, beauty and decorative character but also have a local flavour, celebrating national customs and oriental poetry. just like the continuous line of a kite, he gave birth to modern chinese painting from the spirit of national culture. i think his modern exploration of ink paintings and the language of form consisted of three main aspects: . to extol the characteristics of southern residential white walls and black tiles in oil paintings with ink painting features in that the form of the white walls and black tiles contrast with the black of the ink and the white of the paper, so that large areas of blank space became the white walls, the colour the combination of chinese and western influences... of the sky, and chunks of ink became the colour of the roof. the small area of black overshadowed the large area of white. his masterpieces are two swallows, hometown, the memory of south china, lu xun’s hometown, sanwei study, old street, white house, farmhouse courtyard, composition in the sky (fig. ) etc. these works together with his oil paintings on the same theme illustrate wu guanzhong’s most distinctive style in the form of linguistic features. packed with beauty of form, there is no doubt that they were different from any other western abstract art but rather exude a simple and yet visually bold chinese style. ' . to develop the lines in chinese painting into a modern form. he exerted the expressive lineal features in the chinese art of calligraphy, especially in cur­ sive strokes. meanwhile, he learnt abstract expressionism from pollock to draw the swaying motion of the pine and cypress, such as in the soul of pine, han cypress, wisteria, the old tree and the jungle, the paradise of birds, etc. the movement of the line created a rhythm while the powerful strokes showed the stubborn nature of pines and cypresses. the interweaving of lines like chinese calligraphy illustrated the winding jungle of vines, with the embellishment of the black spots and patches giving the picture a motional beauty composed of points, lines and body, that would end up being contemporary chinese abstract expressionist ink painting with elements of chinese calligraphy and ancient chinese line painting. . ink pattern forms. wu guanzhong taught at the central academy of art and propagated chinese decorative arts, so part of his colour ink oeuvre explores flat patterns and decorative forms, his themes including the cityscape at night, flowers, grass and buildings, such as spring thunder, beautiful world, cows and sheep, new seedling, the night of hong kong, years, traces, spring grass, hainan people. these works used the same shape in a balanced composi­ tion to form a magical planar visual effect along with finely coloured flat flowers and grass to suppress space in order to stress a flat decorative effect, with the upper part of the works left blank to show the vision and the sky. other works such as the cityscape, night scenery in hong kong or the ruins in gaochang (fig. ) used colours to bring buildings, markets or the ancient city ruins to life. these works were rich in colours, almost as if they were abstract patterns made up of colours. wu guanzhong mainly composed his ink art in these three ways. lin fengmian, zhang ding and wu guanzhong through ink and colour ink painting were key players in the creation of chinese painting. the common point in their works was to take the spirit and form of modern western art as a reference point from which to focus on the features of chinese folk art, chen chiyu ancient decorative arts and calligraphy to depict china’s national icons and themes, such as figures, birds, houses, drama masks, and ethnic features. their ink art works include modernity and nationality, combining the ancient and the modern, the chinese and the western, the folk art’s “tu” with the western modern art’s “yang” to open up a new modern direction for chinese painting innovations. this is a different road from the transformation of chinese paint­ ing by xu beihong and his followers which rely on western classical realist painting to reform chinese painting, and this road has a stronger vitality which may have broader prospects in the st century. translator: mu ruifeng bibliography: - xujiang & yanghualin = xujiang & yanghualin, compendium of lin fengmian’s chronology, reserved on the road of lin fengmian, hangzhou, china fine arts publishing house, . it a sullivan = m. sullivan, lin fengmian, pioneers of chinese modern painting, reserved on paper of art, hangzhou host by china academy of fine arts and zhe jiang daily, . . . > ° jin shangyi & zhu pu, lin fengmian’s artistic career chronology, zheng chao & jin shangyi compiled on lin fengmian, page , zhejiang academy of fine arts publishing house, - ’ - ’ m ml lin fengmian, the future of the eastern and western art, oriental journal, , volume , no. . : ’ <«> , t ° lin fengmian, thefuture of chinese painting we hoped, future journal, january . m ^ » ’ - li lincan, my teacher lin fengmian, zheng chao & jin shangyi compiled on lin fengmian, page , hangzhou zhejiang academy of fine arts publishing house, . the combination of chinese and western influences... ’ a si ikit < « -. zhang ding art research center of tsinghua university, chronology of zhang ding, reserved on memorial zhang ding, page , n magazine art culture design magazine special edition, guangzhou jimei group interior design engineering co., ltd. publisher, . ht : ’ - ji ° zhang ding, chinese painting inherited tradition and innovation, art, june . ftut: ’ - ° zhang ding, picasso, new observation, , . ’ thmooww ’ - liu jude, black, white and rainbow - exploration on the origin of zhang ding’s decorative paintings, memorial zhang ding”, n magazine, . if : q&tow ’ om holmetfl ’ *. wu guanzhong art research center of tsinghua university programme, wu guanzhong memorial collection, tsinghua university press, chen chiyu fig. . lin fengmian, flute lady , ink color painting, x cm. c. s the combination of chinese and western influences... fig. . lin fengmian, ten years study, ink painting, x cm, c. s chen chiyu fig. . lin fengmian shui man jin shan, ink color painting, x cm, c. the combination of chinese and western influences... fig. . zhang ding stove, onk painting, x cm s chen chiyu fig. . zhang ding, listening, ink painting, x cm, s the combination of chinese and western influences... fig. . wu guanzhong, water village, ink painting, x cm, chen chiyu fig. . wu guanzhong, old house, ink painting . x . cm the combination of chinese and western influences... fig. . wu guanzhong, compose in the sky, ink painting, x cm, chen chiyu fig. . wu guanzhong, the ruins in gaochang, ink painting, x cm, warm molecular gas in m : mapping the excitation temperature and mass of h with the spitzer infrared spectrograph gregory brunner department of physics and astronomy, rice university, houston, tx ; gbrunner@rice.edu kartik sheth and lee armus spitzer science center, caltech, pasadena, ca mark wolfire and stuart vogel department of astronomy, university of maryland, college park, md eva schinnerer max-planck-institut für astronomie, königstuhl , heidelberg, germany george helou spitzer science center, caltech, pasadena, ca reginald dufour department of physics and astronomy, rice university, houston, tx john-david smith university of arizona, steward observatory, tucson, az and daniel a. dale department of physics and astronomy, university of wyoming, laramie, wy received july ; accepted october abstract we have mapped the warm molecular gas traced by the h s( )–h s( ) pure rotational mid-infrared emission lines over a radial strip across the nucleus and disk of m (ngc ) using the infrared spectrograph (irs) on the spitzer space telescope. the six h lines have markedly different emission distributions. we obtained the h temperature and surface density distributions by assuming a two-temperature model: a warm (t ¼ k) phase traced by the low j [s( )–s( )] lines and a hot phase (t ¼ k) traced by the high j [s( )–s( )] lines. the lowest molecular gas temperatures are found within the spiral arms (t � k), while the highest temperatures are found in the inter-arm regions (t > k). the warm gas surface density reaches a maximum of m� pc � in the northwest spiral arm, whereas the hot gas surface density peaks at . m� pc � at the nucleus. the spatial offset between the peaks in the different phases suggests that the warm phase is more efficiently heated by star formation activity and the hot phase is more efficiently heated by nuclear activity. the warm h is found in the dust lanes of m and is generally spatially co- incident with the cold molecular gas traced by co emission, consistent with excitation of the warm phase in dense pho- todissociation regions. the hot h is most prominent in the nuclear region. here, the hot h coincides with [o iv] ( . �m) and x-ray emission indicating that shocks and/or x-rays are responsible for exciting this phase. subject headinggs: galaxies: individual (m ) — galaxies: ism — ism: molecules . introduction star formation and galactic evolution are connected via the molecular gas in a galaxy. in the milky way, star formation oc- curs in molecular clouds, although not all clouds are actively forming stars. on a global, galactic scale, star formation may be triggered whenever the molecular gas surface density is enhanced, for example, by a spiral density wave (vogel et al. ), by in- creased pressure orgasdensity in galactic nuclei (young & scoville ; sakamoto et al. ; sheth et al. ), by hydrodynamic shocks along the leading edge of bars (sheth et al. , ), and in the transition region at the ends of bars (kenny & lord ; sheth et al. ). how does this star formation affect the surrounding molecular gas? how is it heated and what is the dis- tribution of the gas temperatures? how does the mass of the warm and hot gas vary from region to region? we address these questions using spectral line maps from a radial strip across the grand-design spiral galaxy, m . m (the whirlpool galaxy, ngc ) is a nearby, face-on spiral galaxy that is rich in molecular gas. its proximity (assumed to be . mpc; tully ), face-on orientation, and grand- design spiral morphology make it the ideal target for studies of theinterstellar medium (ism) across distinct dynamical, chemical, and physical environments in a galaxy. studies of the molecular gaswithinm haverevealedgiantmolecularassociations(gmas) along the spiral arms (vogel et al. ; rand & kulkarni ; aalto et al. ), a reservoir of molecular gas in the nuclear region that is massive enough to fuel the active galactic nucleus (agn; scoville et al. ), and spiral density wave triggered star formation in molecular clouds (vogel et al. ). in addition to being well studied at millimeter and radio wavelengths, m has also been studied at x-ray, uv, optical, near-infrared, infrared, and submillimeter wavelengths (palumbo et al. ; terashima et al. ; scoville et al. ; calzetti et al. ; matsushita et al. ; meijerink et al. ). visiting graduate student fellow, spitzer science center, caltech, pasadena, ca . the astrophysical journal, : – , march # . the american astronomical society. all rights reserved. printed in u.s.a. in this paper we present maps of the h s( )–h s( ) pure ro- tational mid-infrared lines over a strip across m created from spitzer space telescope (spitzer) infrared spectrograph (irs) spectral mapping mode observations. the mid-infrared h lines trace the warm (t ¼ k) phase of h and we use these lines to model the h excitation temperature, mass (rigopoulou et al. ; higdon et al. ), and ortho-to-para ratio (neufeld et al. , ) across the m strips. we use the inferred dis- tributions to place constraints on the energy injection mechanisms (i.e., radiative heating, shocks, turbulence) that heat the warm molecular gas phase of the ism. . observations and data reduction . . spectral data we mapped a radial strip across m using the short-low (sl; – . �m) and long-low (ll; - �m) modules of the spitzer irs in spectral mapping mode (houck et al. ). the radial strips were ; and ; in the sl and ll, re- spectively. each slit position was mapped twice with half-slit spac- ings. in total, spectra were taken in the sl and were taken in the ll. integration times for individual spectra were . s in both the sl and ll. dedicated off-source background observations were taken for the sl observations. backgrounds for the ll observations were taken from outrigger data collected while the spacecraft was mapping in the adjacent module. fig- ure presents the astronomical observation requests (aors) over- laid on the spitzer infrared array camera (irac) �m image of m . the spectra were assembled from the basic calibration data (bcd) into spectral data cubes for each module using cubism (kennicutt et al. ; smith et al. , a). background subtraction and bad pixel removal were done within cubism. the individual bcds were processed using the s . version of the spitzer science center (ssc) pipeline. in cubism, the sl and ll data cubes have . and . pixels, respectively. the pixel size is half the full width at half-maximum (fwhm) of the point-spread function (psf) at the red end of a given module. in principle the psf should vary with wavelength, but since the psf is undersampled at the blue end of the module it is approximately constant across a given module. so the approximate resolution of while we are always exploring the warm phase of h , in this paper we refer to a warm and a hot phase corresponding to temperatures of t ¼ k and t ¼ k, respectively. fig. .—overlay of the irs footprints on the spitzer irac �m image of m . the three parallel strips mark the sl ( – . �m) observations with the white strip denoting the sl ( – . �m) coverage and the gray strip denoting the sl ( . – . �m) coverage. the central strip is where the sl and sl overlap along with the ll ( – �m) radial strip, giving us complete coverage of the mid-infrared spectrum across the nucleus and disk of m . the small off-galaxy strip is the sl background observation. molecular hydrogen in ngc the sl and ll modules and maps of spectral features observed in the sl and ll modules is . and . , respectively. we created continuum-subtracted line flux maps of the h s( )–h s( ) lines using a combination of pahfit (smith et al. b) and our own code. pahfit is a spectral fitting routine that decomposes irs low-resolution spectra into broad pah features, unresolved line emission, and grain continuum with the main advantage being that it allows one to recover the full line flux of any blended features. several h lines are blended with pah features and atomic lines in irs low-resolution spectra: h s( ) with the . �m pah complex, h s( ) with the . and . �m pah complexes, h s( ) with the . and . �m pah complexes, and h s( ) with the [ar ii] ( . �m) line. pahfit also solves for the foreground dust emission and dereddens the emitted line intensities. our code concatenates sl and sl , and ll and ll data cubes into two cubes, one for sl and one for ll, and smoothes each map in the cubes by a pixel ; pixel box, conserving the flux, to increase the signal-to-noise ratio of the spectra. then, for each pixel, the spectrum is extracted and pahfit is run to decompose it. our code saves the location of the pixel on the sky along with the pahfitoutput (i.e., integrated line flux, line fwhm, line equivalent width, the uncertainty in the line flux, the fit to the entire spectrum and the fit to the continuum) for each spectrum and uses this information to construct line flux maps for all of the mid-infrared features. in addition to creating line maps, our code creates maps of line fwhm, line equivalent width, and uncertainty in the flux and data cubes of the fit to the entire spectrum, the fit to the continuum, a continuum-subtracted data cube, and a residual data cube. these parameters (the uncer- tainty in the line flux, line fwhm, and line equivalent width) are all determined within pahfit. for a more thorough discussion of how pahfit determines quantities such as the uncertainty in the integrated line flux, line fwhm, and line equivalent width, see smith et al. ( b). figure presents sample spitzer irs low-resolutionspectra and the pahfitspectral decomposition for three different single-pixel regions across the m strip. the sl and ll spectra are plotted separately because we decomposed the sl and ll data cubes separately. the locations of the regions are marked on the maps of the h surface density in figure . while we have decomposed the entire spectrum and created maps of all of pah features and spectral lines, in this paper we focus primarily onthe h linemaps. . . ancillary data: co (j = – ), optical v band, h�, and x-ray observations in this section we briefly discuss the ancillary data that we have used in order to understand h excitation in m . we take note of the image resolutions for comparison to the spitzer irs beam. the berkeley-illinois-maryland association (bima) co (j ¼ ) map was acquired as part of the bima survey of nearby gal- axies (song; regan et al. ; helfer et al. ). at the dis- tance of m , the song beam ( : ; : ) subtends pc ; pc. the optical v band and continuum-subtracted h� þ ½n ii� images of m were obtained from the spitzer infrared nearby fig. .—shown are sample spitzer irs low-resolution spectra and the pahfitspectral decomposition for three different single-pixel regions across the m strip. the sl and ll spectra are plotted separately because we decomposed the sl and ll data cubes separately. the locations of the regions are marked on the maps of the h surface density in fig. . brunner et al. vol. galaxies survey (sings) archive. the native pixel scale for both images is . and the angular resolutions are � . x-ray emission from m was observed by the advanced ccd im- aging spectrometer (acis) on the chandra x-ray observatory on june . the resolution of the image is � . the x-ray image that we use has been presented and discussed in terashima & wilson ( ). . results . . the distribution of h emission we have detected and mapped h emission from the six lowest pure rotational h lines (fig. ). the maps reveal remarkable differences in the distribution of h emission in m . h s( ) emission is strongest in the northwest inner spiral arm peaking at a flux of : ; � w m� and decreases by a factor of in the nuclear region. in contrast, the h s( ) emission peaks in the nucleus of the galaxy at : ; � w m� and has an ex- tension of equal brightness toward the northwest inner spiral arm. in the spiral arm itself, the h s( ) peak is offset from the h s( ) emission by (� pc). we detect emission from the h s( ) and h s( ) lines to the outer limit of our radial strip, � kpc from the nucleus of the galaxy. in the outer spiral arms, the h s( ) flux is a factor of times lower than in the inner north- west spiral arm and the h s( ) flux is a factor of times lower than in the nucleus. the h s( )–h s( ) maps show different molecular gas dis- tributions within m through each h line. the brightest h s( ) emission is from the nucleus at : ; � w m� . we also see bright h s( ) emission from the inner northwest spiral arm at half the flux of the nuclear peak. the h s( ) peak at the nucleus is : ; � w m� , a factor of � greater than the h s( ) nuclear peak. there is also a linear barlike structure in h s( ) emission across the nucleus of the galaxy at a p:a: � � and length of � . kpc. the emission peaks in the h s( ) and h s( ) maps are not spatially coincident. for instance, in the north- west inner spiral arm the brightest h s( ) emission is further down the spiral arm than the brightest h s( ) emission. offsets like these suggest variations in the excitation temperature from re- gion to region within a galaxy, and even within a spiral arm. the h s( ) and h s( ) lines are brightest at the nucleus with fluxes of . and : ; � w m� , respectively. the h s( ) line shows emission in the nucleus and in the spiral arm to the west. in the spiral arm to the west of the nucleus, the h s( ) flux is : ; � w m� . this is notable because the spiral arm to the southwest of the nucleus is very bright in co and studies have revealed very high molecular gas column densities in the southwest inner spiral arm (lord & young ; aalto et al. ). h s( ) emission is asymmetric in the nucleus and mimics the morphology of the h s( ) line with extended emission to the north of the nucleus. the trail of intensity peaks along the long northeast edge of the h s( ) and h s( ) maps is not real. it is likely due to difficulty smoothing the maps near the edges. these regions do not affect the determination of the h temperature and surface density due to the offset of the sl strip relative to the ll strip. based on the uncertainty maps generated while creating the h line maps, errors in the h s( ) line flux that range from % to % with the largest uncertainties being found in the interarm regions and the outer northwest and southeast spiral arms. errors see http://data.spitzer.caltech.edu/popular/sings. fig. .—maps of the h s( ) (top left), h s( ) (top middle), h s( ) (top right), h s( ) (bottom left), h s( ) (bottom middle), and h s( ) (bottom right) line fluxes across the sl and ll strips that we mapped with the spitzer irs. the h s( ) and h s( ) maps are created from the ll data cube. the h s( ), h s( ), h s( ), and h s( ) maps are created from the sl data cube. the gray scale is in units of w m� . contour levels are at : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , and : ; � w m� for h s( ); : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , and : ; � w m� for h s( ); : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , and : ; � w m� for h s( ); : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , : ; � , and : ; � w m� for h s( ); : ; � and : ; � w m� for h s( ); and : ; � , : ; � , and : ; � w m� for h s( ). the vertical axis is the right ascension and the horizontal axis is the declination. in all of the maps, north is up, east is to the left, and the plus sign denotes the nucleus of the galaxy. the different spiral arm regions are labeled on the h s( ) and h s( ) maps in order to aid in discussing the molecular gas morphologies. the bar in the bottom right corner of each map represents kpc. the box around each map represents the sl or ll strip that we mapped. molecular hydrogen in ngc no. , in the h s( ) line fluxes range from % to % with the largest uncertainties being found at the distant northwest and southeast portions of the m strip. errors in the h s( ) and h s( ) line fluxes range from % to % with the largest uncertainties being found toward the interarm regions. errors in the h s( ) and h s( ) line fluxes are � % and % within a kpc radius of the nucleus and become higher moving radially away. . . mapping h excitation temperature and surface density across m . . . modeling h excitation temperature and surface density the pure rotational lines of molecular hydrogen provide a powerful probe of the conditions of the ism by placing constraints on the energy injection that excites h . for example, neufeld et al. ( ) discuss shock excitation of h and kaufman et al. ( ) discuss h excitation in photodissociation regions (pdrs). us- ing the maps of h emission, we modeled the h temperature and mass distribution over the radial strip in m following the methods described in rigopoulou et al. ( ) and higdon et al. ( ). first, we smoothed the h s( )–h s( ) maps to the resolution of the h s( ) map, . . the maps were then interpolated to the same spatial grid. excitation diagrams across the strip were de- rived from the boltzmann equation ni=n ¼ g(i)=z texð Þ½ � exp �ti=texð Þ; ð Þ where g(i) is the statistical weight of state i, z(tex) is the parti- tion function, ti is the energy level of a given state, and tex is the excitation temperature. n and ni are the total column density and the column density of a given state i and ni is determined directly from the measured extinction-corrected flux by ni ¼ � ; cux(i)= �a(i)h�(i)½ �; ð Þ table h parameters transition wavelength (�m) rotational state (j ) energy (e k� ) a (s� ) statistical weight (g) h ( – ) s( ) .................... . . ; � h ( – ) s( ) .................... . . ; � h ( – ) s( ) .................... . . ; � h ( – ) s( ) .................... . . ; � h ( – ) s( ) .................... . . ; � h ( – ) s( ) .................... . . ; � note.—the statistical weight (g) is ( j þ )( i þ ) where i equals for odd j transitions (ortho transitions) and i equals for even j transitions (para transitions). fig. .—excitation diagrams and the fits to the warm and hot h phases taken from three different single-pixel regions along the m strip. the different regions are marked on the h surface density maps in fig. . brunner et al. vol. where a(i) is the einstein a-coefficient, �(i) is the frequency of state i, � is the solid angle of the beam, and h is planck’s con- stant. table lists the values for the wavelength, rotational state, einstein a-coefficient, energy, and statistical weight of the pure rotational levels of h . in order to derive temperature and surface density distributions we assume a two-temperature model for the h . to determine the hot (t ¼ k) phase temperature, we do a least-squares fit to the h s( )–h s( ) column densities in the excitation dia- gram at every pixel in our maps. we then subtract the contribution of the hot phase from the lower j lines and do a least-squares fit to the column densities of h s( )–h s( ) lines at every pixel in our maps to determine the temperature distribution of the warm (t ¼ k) phase. the warm and hot phase surface density dis- tributions are derived from the column densities of the h s( ) and h s( ) lines, respectively. the column densities are easily con- verted to mass surface density by determining the mass of the warm and hot h within every pixel. figure shows excitation diagrams and the fits to the warm and hot h phases for three different regions across the m strip. the three regions are marked on the h surface density maps in figure . in the nuclear region (region ) the ortho and para levels appear to lie along the same curve, indicating an ortho-to- para ratio (opr) of ; the excitation diagrams do not exhibit the ‘‘zigzag’’ characteristic of a nonequilibrium h opr (neufeld et al. ; fuente et al. ). the slope of the curve appears to decrease as the rotational state increases, indicating that we are sampling a continuous range of h temperatures with the higher rotational states [s( )–s( )] probing a hotter phase of h than the lower rotational states [s( )–s( )]. in the southeast and northwest spiral arms (regions and , respectively) the lower j [h s( )–h s( )] levels exhibit an opr of � . the h s( ) measurement shows significant scatter in the excitation diagrams outside of the nuclear region of m . this would indicate that the opr is less than , however, due to the low signal-to-noise ratio of the h s( ) map, we do not believe that the opr deter- mined from the h s( ) flux reflects the opr of the warm h . we assume an opr of when deriving the h temperature and mass distributions, which is consistent with roussel et al. ( ) who found an opr of for the nuclear region and four of seven h ii regions studied in m . . . . warm and hot h excitation temperature and surface density distributions figure presents the warm (left) and hot (right) h surface density distributions across the m strip. the highest gas sur- face density for the warm h phase is in the inner northwest spi- ral arm at m� pc � . the gas surface density in the outer northwest and southeast spiral arms is maximum at the center of the spiral arms at . and . m� pc � , respectively. the hot phase surface density is highest in the nucleus and interior to the fig. .—warm (t ¼ k) h (left) and hot (t ¼ k) h (right) surface density distributions. the surface density distributions are in units of m� pc� . contours are overplotted for clarity. the warm h surface density contour levels are at . , . , . , . , . , and . m� pc � . the hot h contour levels are at intervals of % of . m� pc � . the hot h surface density distribution is derived from the fit to the h s( )–h s( ) lines and the warm h surface density distribution is derived from the fit to the h s( )–h s( ) lines, corrected for the contribution of the hot h phase. the three circles denote the regions of the spectra and excitation diagrams in figs. and , respectively. fig. .—warm (t ¼ k) h surface density distribution (in contours) compared to the warm h temperature distribution (in gray scale, in units kelvin). the warm h temperature and surface density distributions are derived from the fit to the excitation diagrams across the strip for the h s( )–h s( ) lines, corrected for the contribution of the hot (t ¼ k) h phase. surface density con- tour levels are at . , . , . , . , . , and . m� pc � (same as in fig. ). the nonrectangular shape of the map is due to the slight offset of the spitzer irs sl strip relative to the ll strip. in both the northwest and southeast corners of the maps, the temperature and surface density distributions could not be determined due to no detection of the h s( ) line. note that the nonrectangular shape of the strip is due to the offset between the sl and ll strips. molecular hydrogen in ngc no. , inner spiral arm at . m� pc � . the gas surface density of the hot phase in the spiral arms is – times lower than that of the nuclear region. figures and show the distribution of the warm and hot h temperatures (in gray scale) with the contours of the warm and hot h surface densities overlaid, respectively. in both cases we see that the temperature and surface density are inversely correlated with the hottest temperatures corresponding to re- gions of lowest surface density. for both the warm and hot phases, we see that the temperature is higher in the interarm regions than in the spiral arms. this is real and does not result from lower signal-to-noise ratio in the interarm regions. we tested this by extracting spectra over . kpc interarm regions between the northwest inner arm and northwest arm and between the southeast inner arm and southeast arm and found warm h temperatures of and k and hot h temperatures of and k, re- spectively. these temperatures are higher than the – k warm h temperatures and the – k hot h temperatures found in the spiral arms. figure compares the warm (in gray scale) and hot (in con- tours) h surface density distributions. the warm h mass dis- tribution peaks in the northwest inner spiral arm and the hot h mass distribution peaks in the nucleus and in the region interior to the northwest spiral arm. the warm-to-hot h mass ratio is not constant across the galaxy but is lowest (� ) in the nucleus of the galaxy and increases to and in the southeast and northwest spiral arms, respectively. . discussion . . effects of beam averaging on studies of extragalactic h previous studies have used aperture averages over entire ga- lactic nuclei to derive the physical conditions of the molecular gas (rigopoulou et al. ; higdon et al. ; roussel et al. ). in m , roussel et al. ( ) find that within the central arcsec ( : ; pc ), the warm h phase has a temper- ature of k and a surface density of . m� pc � (a total mass of mwarm ¼ : ; m�). roussel et al. ( ) have also mea- sured the temperature of the hot phase (although they do not mea- sure the mass in the hot phase) and find a hot h temperature of k. having spatially resolved spectra over a strip across m , we can investigate the behavior of the warm and hot h phases on smaller scales. in the nuclear region of m we see that the warm- phase temperature peaks at k and decreases radially toward the inner spiral arms. the warm h surface density at the nucleus is . m� pc � and decreases over a . kpc radius surrounding the nucleus. to check the consistency of our results against those of roussel et al. ( ), we averaged the warm-phase temper- ature over a similar arcsec ( : ; pc ) aperture and found that the warm phase temperature and surface density are k and . m� pc � , respectively. our results are consistent with previous studies of warm h done at lower resolution and suggest that previous studies of the warm h temperature and mass have yielded average values rather than maximum (or minimum) values. . . distinguishing the h excitation mechanisms the warm-to-hot h surface density ratio varies across m , suggesting that the h excitation mechanisms have different ef- fects on the warm and hot phases. the largest warm h surface densities are found in the spiral arms, suggesting that the warm phase is associated with star formation activity. the largest hot h surface densities are found in the nuclear region of m . this suggests that where nuclear activity is the dominant excitation mechanism, a larger fraction of the h can be maintained in the hot phase and that h is generally more efficiently heated by nuclear activity. this is further supported by the fact that the hot h surface density is � k in the nuclear region and decreases to � and k in the inner northwest and southeast spiral arms, respectively. roussel et al. ( ) find that h is generally heated by massive stars in pdrs; however, seyferts and liners show evidence for the dominance of other excitation mechanisms such as x-rays or shocks. by comparing the spatial distribution of the warm and hot h to optical v-band imagery, h�, and co (j ¼ ) emission, we can investigate the relationship between star formation and h . in addition, by comparing the warm and hot h distributions to x-ray observations and the spatial fig. .—hot (t ¼ k) h surface density distribution (in contours) compared to the hot h temperature distribution (in gray scale, in units kelvin). the hot h temperature and surface density distributions are derived from the fit to the excitation diagrams across the strip for the h s( )–h s( ) lines. surface density contour levels are at intervals of % of . m� pc � (same as in fig. ). the high temperature and surface densityof thehot phasetowardthe northwest and southeast ends of the strips is due to the lack of detection of extended emission from the h s( ) and h s( ) lines. in these regions (beyond the northwest and southeast spiral arms) we are unable to accurately determine the hot phase temperature and surface density. fig. .—warm (t ¼ k) h surface density (in gray scale) compared to the hot (t ¼ k) h surface density (in contours). contour levels for the hot h surface density distribution are at intervals of % of the maximum surface density ( . m� pc � ). the gray scale is in units of m� pc � . brunner et al. vol. distribution of [o iv] ( . �m) emission, we can investigate x-ray and shock heating of h within m . kaufman et al. ( ) show that within galaxies, where the tele- scope beam size is generally kiloparsecs across, h emission could serve to probe the average physical conditions in the surfaces of molecular clouds. in figure , we compare the warm (left) and hot h (right) mass distributions to the cold molecular gas traced by co (j ¼ ) emission. the warm and hot h phases appear to trace the bright co emission in the northwest and southeast spiral arms. comparison of co to the individual h s( )–h s( ) line intensity maps in figure also shows that the h in the spiral arms traces the bright co emission. in the spiral arms, both the warm and hot h phases are found in pdrs and are associated with star formation activity. the most striking result is that in the inner spiral arms, we see that the co is offset toward the nucleus from the warm h mass (in fig. ). the offset between the peaks in fig. .—left: comparison of co intensity (in gray scale) to the warm (t ¼ k) h surface density (in contours). the co intensity is in units of jy km s� . the warm h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . right: comparison of co intensity (in gray scale) to the hot (t ¼ k) h surface density (in contours). the co intensity is in units of jy km s� . the hot h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . fig. .—comparison of the co emission to the h s( ) (top left), h s( ) (top right), h s( ) (bottom left), and h s( ) (bottom right) emission. the co emission maps are in units of jy km s� . contour levels for h s( ), h s( ), h s( ), and h s( ) are the same as in fig. . molecular hydrogen in ngc no. , co and warm h mass is in the northwest inner spiral arm and in the southeast inner spiral arm. we believe that these offsets are real, with one possible explanation being that the h is tracing the regions of active star formation within the giant molecular associations. in figures and , we compare the warm (left) and hot (right) h mass distributions to h� emission and an optical v-band image, respectively. the h� image reveals the brightest h ii regions and the v-band image shows the dust lanes in m . in general, the warm and hot h concentrations are not cospatial with the brightest h� emission regions in the spiral arms, with the one exception being that the warm h mass in the northwest and southeast inner spiral arms appears to trace the h� emission. the warm h mass contours show that local peaks in h mass are found within the dust lanes, with the h� emission spatially offset toward the leading edge of the spiral arms. an example of this is in the northwest spiral arms where we see the h mass offset from the h� spiral arms with local peaks being found in the dust lanes. in figures and , we compare the h s( )–h s( ) line- intensity maps to h� emission and v-band imagery, respectively. comparison of the h s( ) map to h� reveals that the strongest h emission in the northwest and southeast inner spiral arms is fig. .—left: comparison of h� (in gray scale) to the warm (t ¼ k) h surface density (in contours). the h� image is in units of counts s� . the warm h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . right: comparison of h� (in gray scale) to the hot (t ¼ k) h surface density (in contours). the h� image is in units of counts s� . the hot h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . fig. .—left: comparison of the v-band image (in gray scale) to the warm (t ¼ k) h surface density (in contours). the v band shows the dust lanes within m . the v-band image is in units of counts s� . the warm h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . right: comparison of v-band image (in gray scale) to the hot (t ¼ k) h surface density (in contours). the v-band image is in units of counts s� . the hot h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . brunner et al. vol. coincident with h� emission; however, the other h s( ) spiral arms show the strongest emission in the dust lanes, offset from the h� spiral arms. the largest offsets are seen in the southeast spiral arm where the h s( ) emission is offset from the h� spiral arm by � ( pc). h s( ) emission appears to follow the dust lanes and the h s( ) intensity subsides into the h� spiral arms. h s( ) and h s( ) emission is also found in the dust lanes; however, there areinstances (such asin the southeast spiral arm) where the h emis- sion appears to be found straddling the dust lane and h� spiral arm. the [o iv] ( . �m) line can be excited in fast shocks (vs > km s� ; lutz et al. ), by photoionization in wolf-rayet stars (schaerer & stasinska ), or by an agn (smith et al. ). we have mapped the blended [o iv] ( . �m) + [fe ii] ( . �m) line across m . while the map contains the contribution of both lines, we have examined the sings high- resolution spectra and find that averaged over a arcsec re- gion around the nucleus of m , the [o iv] line flux is . times higher than the [fe ii] flux. in the high-resolution data cubes of the nuclear region, the [o iv] line flux dominates the [o iv] + [fe ii] blend and the [o iv] emission distribution derived from the low resolution spectra accurately reflects the distribution seen in the high resolution spectra. in figure , we compare the [o iv] surface brightness to the warm (left) and hot (right) h distri- butions. the [o iv] emission is brightest in the nuclear region at : ; � w m� , and within a . kpc radius of the nucleus the peak is coincident with the peak in the mass of the hot h . [o iv] surface brightness decreases from the nucleus to the inner spiral arm by %. we resolve weaker [o iv] emission within the warm and hot h spiral arms. the [o iv] surface brightness is a factor of � lower in the spiral arms than the peak inten- sity found in the nucleus. the [o iv] emission within the nuclear fig. .—comparison of h� emission to the h s( ) (top left), h s( ) (top right), h s( ) (bottom left), and h s( ) (bottom right) emission. the h� image is in units of counts s� . contour levels for h s( ), h s( ), h s( ), and h s( ) are the same as in fig. . sings data cubes and spectra for m can be found at http://irsa.ipac .caltech.edu/data/spitzer/sings/galaxies/ngc .html. molecular hydrogen in ngc no. , fig. .—comparison of the v-band image to the h s( ) (top left), h s( ) (top right), h s( ) (bottom left), and h s( ) (bottom right) emission. the v-band image is in units of counts s� . contour levels for h s( ), h s( ), h s( ), and h s( ) are the same as in fig. . fig. .—left: comparison of the [o iv] ( . �m) emission (in gray scale) to the warm (t ¼ – k) h surface density distribution (in contours). warm h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . right: comparison of the [o iv] ( . �m) emission (in gray scale) to the hot (t ¼ – k) h surface density distribution (in contours). hot h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . the [o iv] ( . �m) emission is in units of w m � . region of m is likely due to the weak seyfert nucleus (ford et al. ) and is possibly associated with shocked gas from the outflows of the agn. the peak of the [o iv] emission coincides with the nuclear peak in hot h mass, indicating that the hot h phase in the nuclear region of the galaxy is agn or shock heated. in the nuclear region we observe a factor of times greater warm h mass than the hot h mass. the warm h mass is much greater within the spiral arms than within the nucleus and the warm-to- hot mass ratio is lowest in the nuclear region where the [o iv] flux is greatest. in general, nuclear activity and shocks heat the ism more efficiently, causing the higher surface density of hot h . x-ray studies of m have revealed bright x-ray emission from the nucleus, the extranuclear cloud (xnc, to the south of the nucleus), and the northern loop (terashima & wilson ; fig. .—left: comparison of the smoothed . – kev x-ray emission band (in gray scale) to the warm (t ¼ k) h surface density distribution (in contours). the x-ray image has been smoothed to the same resolution as the warm h surface density map. x-ray emission is in units of counts. the warm h surface density contours are the same as in figs. and . right: comparison of the smoothed . – kev x-ray emission band (in gray scale) to the hot (t ¼ k) h surface density distribution (in contours). the hot h surface density distribution contours are the same as in figs. and . fig. .—comparison of the . – kev x-ray emission band (in gray scale) to the h s( ) (top left), h s( ) (top right), h s( ) (bottom left), and h s( ) (bottom right) emission in the nuclear region of m . x-ray emission is in units of counts. the h s( ) and h s( ) emission contours are at % of their peak values ( : ; � and : ; � w m� , respectively). the h s( ) contours are at : ; � and : ; � w m� and the h s( ) contours are at : ; � , : ; � , and : ; � w m� . molecular hydrogen in ngc maddox et al. ). a radio jet that is believed to be shock heating the ism has been observed emanating from the south of the nucleus toward the xnc in cm imagery (crane & van der hulst ). in figure , we compare the smoothed . – kev band x-ray image to the warm (left) and hot (right) h mass dis- tributions. the . – kev band has been smoothed to the resolu- tion of the warm and hot h mass distributions, and the nucleus, xnc, and northern loop are indistinguishable in the smoothed image. x-ray emission is brightest in the nucleus and decreases into the northwest spiral arm that contains the greatest h mass. there appears to be very little connection between the . – kev x-ray band and the warm h mass distribution. the peak in x-ray emission is coincident with the hot h mass peak. the brightest . – kev x-ray emission originates from the nucleus and is oriented north to south, similar to the [o iv] ( . �m) emission. the peak in x-ray emission is located within the peak in hot h mass, suggesting that x-rays play an important role in produc- ing the hot h phase. while there is a correlation between x-ray emission and the hot h phase, h excitation by x-rays cannot be distinguished from h excitation by shocks. in figure we com- pare the x-ray surface brightness to the h s( )–h s( ) maps and find that the nuclear h emission appears to be correlated with the x-ray source. . conclusions we have spectrally mapped a strip across m using the spitzer irs low-resolution modules. we used the spatially resolved spec- tra to map h s( )–h s( ) lines across the strip. we find: . the distribution of h emission in m varies with h rotational level. h s( ) emission is brightest in the spiral arms of the galaxy while the higher j transitions show the strongest emission toward the nucleus. the h s( ) line is brightest in the nuclear region and is offset from the peak in h s( ) intensity in the inner northwest spiral arm by . the h s( ) and h s( ) maps show h emission in the nucleus, spiral arms, and interarm regions of m and bar structure aligned north to south is apparent in h s( ) emission. h s( ) and h s( ) emission is resolved in the nuclear region of m . . the different distributions of h emission in m indicate significant spatial variations in h temperature and surface den- sity. using the low j [s( )–s( )] lines to trace the warm (t ¼ k) h , we find that the warm h temperature is highest in the nuclear region at k and the warm h surface density peaks in the northwest inner spiral arm at m� pc � . using the higher j [s( )–s( )] lines to trace the hot (t ¼ k) h , we find that the hot h temperature is lowest in the inner spiral arms ( – k) and increases to � k in the nucleus where the largest hot h surface density is found to be . m� pc � . . the warm and the hot h surface density distributions are not cospatial and the warm-to-hot surface density ratio varies across m . the warm h surface density distribution peaks in the northwest spiral arm and is offset from the hot mass peak by . the hot h surface density distribution shows two peaks, one in the nucleus of m and one located interior to the north- west inner spiral arm of m . variations in the warm-to-hot h ratio and differences in the distributions of the h line emission across m suggest that the warm h is mostly produced by uv photons in star-forming regions while the hot h is mostly pro- duced by shocks or x-rays associated with nuclear activity. . the warm h follows the cold molecular gas traced by co in the spiral arms of m , indicating that the warm phase is associated with the surface layers of dense molecular clouds. the h s( )–h s( ) contours trace the co; however, within the spiral arms, the peaks in h can be offset from the peaks in co intensity. . comparing the distributions of h to v-band imagery and h� emission reveals that the warm and hot h in the spiral arms is found in the dust lanes rather than spatially coincident with the h� emission. . [o iv] ( . �m) emission and x-ray intensity peak in the nuclear region of m and their peaks are spatially coin- cident with the peak in hot h surface density. this implies that the hot h is more efficiently heated by the agn, shocks (pos- sibly associated with the agn), or x-rays associated with the agn. the spatial distributions of the [o iv] emission and x-ray surface brightness are very similar, preventingthe characterization of the primary excitation mechanism (shocks or x-rays) of the hot h phase in the nuclear region. the author graciously acknowledges the spitzer science cen- ter visiting graduate student fellowship program and commit- tee for providing support for this research. the author would like to specifically acknowledge the program coordinators, phil appleton and alberto noriega-crepso. the authors would also like to thank the anonymous referee who helped to clarify our results and improve our discussion. partial support for the com- pletion and preparation for publication of this study by the author was provided by aura grant go . to rice university. facilities: spitzer science center (ssc), spitzer space telescope (sst), berkeley-illinois-maryland association (bima). references aalto, s., hüttemeister, s., scoville, n. z., & thaddeus, p. , apj, , calzetti, d., et al. , apj, , crane, p. c., & van der hulst, j. m. , aj, , ford, h. c., crane, p. c., jacoby, g. h., lawrie, d. g., & van der hulst, j. m. , apj, , fuente, a., martı́n-pintado, j., rodrı́guez-fernández, n. j., rodrı́guez-franco, a., de vicente, p., & kunze, d. , apj, , l helfer, t. t., thornley, m. d., regan, m. w., wong, t., sheth, k., vogel, s. n., blitz, l., & bock, d. c. j. , apjs, , higdon, s. j. u., armus, l., higdon, j. l., soifer, b. t., & spoon, h. w. w. , apj, , houck, j. r., et al. , apjs, , kaufman, m. j., wolfire, m. g., & hollenbach, d. j. , apj, , kennicutt, r. c., et al. , pasp, , kenny, j. d. p., & lord, s. d. , apj, , lord, s. d., & young, j. s. , apj, , lutz, d., kunze, d., spoon, h. w. w., & thornley, m. d. , a&a, , l maddox, l. a., cowan, j. j., kilgard, r. e., schinnerer, e., & stockdale, c. j. , aj, , matsushita, s., et al. , apj, , l meijerink, r., tilanus, r. p. i., dullemond, c. p., israel, f. p., & van der werf, p. p. , a&a, , neufeld, d. a., melnick, g. j., & harwit, m. , apj, , l neufeld, d. a., et al. , apj, , palumbo, g. g. c., fabbiano, g., fransson, c., & trinchieri, g. , apj, , rand, r. j., & kulkarni, s. r. , apj, , l regan, m. w., thornley, m. d., helfer, t. t., sheth, k., wong, t., vogel, s. n., blitz, l., & bock, d. c. j. , apj, , rigopoulou, d., kunze, d., lutz, d., genzel, r., & moorwood, a. f. m. , a&a, , roussel, h., et al. , apj, , brunner et al. vol. sakamoto, k., okumura, s. k., ishizuki, s., & scoville, n. z. , apj, , schaerer, d., & stasinska, g. , a&a, , l scoville, n. z., polletta, m., ewald, s., stolovy, s. r., thompson, r., & rieke, m. , aj, , scoville, n. z., yun, m. s., armus, l., & ford, h. , apj, , l sheth, k., regan, m. w., vogel, s. n., & teuben, p. j. , apj, , sheth, k., vogel, s. n., regan, m. w., thornley, m. d., & teuben, p. j. , apj, , sheth, k., vogel, s. n., regan, m. w., tueben, p. j., harris, a. i., & thornley, m. d. , aj, , smith, j. d. t., et al. , apjs, , ———. a, pasp, , ———. b, apj, , terashima, y., ptak, a., fujimoto, m. i., kunieda, h., makishima, k., & sherlemitsos, p. j. , apj, , terashima, y., & wilson, a. s. , apj, , tully, r. b. , nearby galaxies catalog (cambridge: cambridge univ. press) vogel, s. n., kulkarni, s. r., & scoville, s. z. , nature, , young, j. s., & scoville, n. z. , ara&a, , molecular hydrogen in ngc no. , microsoft word - brydon% -% review% a% history% of% s% experimental% film- .docx a history of s experimental film: britain’s decade of diversity, patti gaal-holmes ( ), palgrave macmillan, basingstoke, isbn - - - - , (hbk), pp. , £ reviewed by lavinia brydon, university of kent the striking cover to patti gaal-holmes’ detailed account of s experimental filmmaking in britain offers a compact illustration of the book’s core concern, namely to call attention to the various and varying works that resist the labels traditionally attached to the decade. by including images from david larcher’s mm travelogue monkey’s birthday ( ), derek jarman’s super- mm landscape film journey to avebury ( ) and jeff keen’s mm rayday film ( - and ) as well as a black and white photograph taken of annabel nicolson’s performance piece sweeping the sea ( ), the cover thus serves as a pointed reminder that the decade continued to produce personal, poetic and playful work despite growing interest in ‘serious’ structural and material film experimentation. it is worth noting that the cover also presents images from more recent work, including a detail from tacita dean’s mm film installation film ( ) and gaal-holmes’ own mm film just looking ( ), signalling that the ensuing ‘historical reclamation’ ( ) is an attempt to (begin to) understand the historical trajectories for contemporary moving image works. this is an important point, not least due to film’s increasingly fragile status as a fine art medium. in the few first pages gaal-holmes introduces the reader to a clear and coherent line of inquiry that she firmly maintains throughout the book, though there are several apologies for pedantry. she states that her re-evaluation of the s does not seek to dismiss the importance of the non-illusionist structural and material film experiments that occurred during the decade but, rather, ‘integrate films that have not received adequate attention into the field alongside those that stand as accepted texts’ ( ). she quickly becomes more specific, pointing out that the dominance of the works and words of structural and material filmmakers/theorists peter gidal and malcolm le grice in discussions of the era problematically suggests that image-rich forms of filmmaking disappeared and only made a return towards the end of the decade. seeking to redress this oversimplification then, gaal- holmes includes a wide range of work in her book and logically organises the six chapters thematically with ‘experiments with structure and material’ nicely sandwiched between ‘visionary, mythopoeia and diary films’ and ‘women and film’. however, prior to these film-focused chapters the first two – ‘questions of history’ and ‘institutional frameworks and organisational strategies’ – examine the structures and strategies historicising and facilitating the decade’s filmmaking. these chapters are especially helpful for the uninformed reader, not least because they work through several key essays: malcolm le grice’s ‘the history we need’ ( ), lis rhodes’ ‘whose history?’ ( ) and david curtis’ ‘which history?’ ( ). the first chapter also crucially expands the introductory comments regarding the thorny ‘return to image’ thesis that gaal-holmes holds responsible for producing and perpetuating biased accounts of the decade. indeed, at this point, the book begins to show some spirit with gaal-holmes weaving her way through several of these accounts identifying particular points of contention. a.l. rees’ comments that the period witnessed a ‘minimalist paring down of the image’ ( , ), for example, are cleverly countered by mentioning anne rees-mogg’s real time ( - ), margaret tait’s place of work ( ), b.s. johnson’s fat man on the beach ( ) and david larcher’s monkey’s birthday. as gaal-holmes emphasises the latter was ‘anything but pared down with its multi-layered images, montage style and hand-worked frames’ ( ). on following pages, statements and sentiments occurring in the work of michael o’pray, malcolm le grice and peter wollen amongst others are also questioned, the highest raised eyebrow perhaps reserved for wollen’s summary of s and s filmmaking because it ‘apportions out the history as if only two forms of filmmaking [structural and new romantic] were evident in the decades’ ( ). the challenges to these biased accounts inevitably gain momentum through the textual analyses that occur in chapters three to six. beginning with ‘experimental film and other visual arts’ the chapters also position the works within broader frameworks, permitting looser and, therefore, livelier discussions. this approach certainly benefits chapter three’s section on derek jarman, whose super- films exhibit a range of influences from landscape painting to jungian psychology and, therefore, resist easy categorisation. it also gives rise to subsequent thought-provoking sections on colour field painting and cubism, drawing on film and the ‘no-film’ film amongst others. by revealing the many reference points for s filmmaking gaal-holmes underscores the numerous artistic approaches to and afforded by the medium, and, importantly, how this flexibility was appreciated by non-structural/material and structural/material filmmakers alike. the next two chapters serve to confirm the ‘true richness of the decade’s experimentation’ ( ), navigating the personal, expressive and, sometimes, anarchic work of visionaries (such as stephen dwoskin) and diarists (such as ian breakwell) as well as the ‘more rigorous agenda’ ( ) pursued by the structural and material filmmakers who primarily worked at the london filmmakers co-operative. the final chapter then explores a range of films by women, detailing the feminist discourses that informed the filmmaking and contemplating the possibility of a ‘feminine aesthetic’. what is especially impressive about these chapters is how gaal-holmes manages to covey the diverse thematic and aesthetic concerns of the various works using no illustrative material. her descriptions are incredibly rich, allowing the reader to swiftly recall (or imagine) the work under consideration including those that incorporate elements of performance. arguably, these enthusiastically detailed observations and the subsequent in-depth analyses best reveal gaal-holmes’ dual role as film historian and artist/filmmaker. as a final comment it is worth mentioning the timeliness of this publication. it responds to the increasingly urgent call ‘for the recognition of film at the moment of its possible demise’ ( ), helping to raise awareness of the specifics and history of the medium whilst acknowledging that further work needs to be done. as gaal-holmes puts it, a history of s experimental film offers a ‘certain road-map to be taken forward’ ( ). but while a.l. rees and david curtis note in their generous forward that gaal-holmes is ‘free of the blinkers of direct personal involvement at the time, so bring[s] fresh insights to the works’ (xv), she also clearly gained much from conversations with key s figures, such as these two. with the passing of rees in november it thus seems important that gaal-holmes’ ‘road-map’ is taken forward sooner rather than later. references: curtis, david. . ‘which history?’ paper presented at tate international council conference, london, june . http://www.studycollection.co.uk/whichhistory.html le grice, malcolm. . ‘the history we need.’ in film as film: formal experiment in film: - , edited by deke dusinberre and a.l. rees, - . london: arts council/hayward. rees, a. l. . ‘underground : reviewing the avant-garde.’ monthly film bulletin , ( ): . rhodes, lis. . ‘whose history?’ ( ) in film as film: formal experiment in film: - , edited by deke dusinberre and a.l. rees, - . london: arts council/hayward. 	
   	
   the continuum of causality in human genetic disorders katsanis genome biology ( ) : doi . /s - - - opinion open access the continuum of causality in human genetic disorders nicholas katsanis abstract studies of human genetic disorders have traditionally followed a reductionist paradigm. traits are defined as mendelian or complex based on family pedigree and population data, whereas alleles are deemed rare, common, benign, or deleterious based on their population frequencies. the availability of exome and genome data, as well as gene and allele discovery for various conditions, is beginning to challenge classic definitions of genetic causality. here, i discuss recent advances in our understanding of the overlap between rare and complex diseases and the context-dependent effect of both rare and common alleles that underscores the need for revising the traditional categorizations of genetic traits. populations. introduction at the start of the th century, a new post-modernist art movement, known as cubism, sought to deconstruct complex images into small geometrical shapes so that objects could be studied from multiple angles and viewpoints. an example of this type of art is pablo picasso’s girl with a mandolin (fig. ). unbeknownst to the artists who propagated this aesthetic concept, the decomposition of complex problems into smaller, experimentally tractable parcels has in fact been a fundamental tenet of the scientific enterprise. in a cubist manner, complex multidimensional questions have been deconstructed, the ultimate aspiration being that once each compartment is understood we will be able to synthesize the complete image and gain clarity. studies of human genetic disorders have traditionally, and faithfully, followed a reductionist paradigm. human genetics typic- ally separates rare and complex disorders into separate categories; has stratified the effect of alleles on the basis of correspondence: nicholas.katsanis@duke.edu center for human disease modeling, duke university medical center, durham, nc , usa © the author(s). open access this artic international license (http://creativecommons reproduction in any medium, provided you g the creative commons license, and indicate if (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/ze their frequencies in populations; and has argued, passion- ately, over the contributions of rare versus common alleles in various disorders [ ]. however, with the advent of data from the exomes and genomes of – people [ – ], including individuals diagnosed with particular disorders [ – ], it is clear that there is an imperfect fit between observation and traditional reductionist paradigms. for example, we have defined monogenic and polygenic traits on the basis of our perception of whether a phenotype is caused by mutations in one gene or many genes, with the ambiguous term “oligogenic” being using as an interme- diate construct. likewise, we have delineated an arbitrary cutoff of a % allele frequency to label an allele as “rare” (and . % for “ultra-rare”), even though these definitions are both non-quantitative in the strict sense and are derived from imperfect observations in a subset of human challenging concepts in the study of monogenic human diseases the foundational question of how a genotype influences a phenotype or multiple phenotypes has propagated the development of categories labeled with the approximate titles and imperfect terms mentioned above. this is not a failure of the field. rather, it is a sign of maturity; a signal that it is time to reconsider how best to put together our first-order constructs to generate an accurate biological understanding of human diseases. like all events that drive higher-order synthesis, challenges remain in the study of the genetics of human disease, not least because it will be necessary to discard some of our preconceived notions and to develop new language that is capable of capturing and transmitting more complex information efficiently. human genetics has, to date, exerted its greatest practical influence in the identification of genes and alleles that cause monogenic disorders. when considering the scope of current and planned projects [ – ], the ability to identify the “cause” of disease in most familial cases is likely to be limited. this is in part due to the fact le is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . .org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and ive appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to changes were made. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver ro/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:nicholas.katsanis@duke.edu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / fig. girl with a mandolin. © estate of pablo picasso. reproduced with permission, artists rights society (ars), new york, usa katsanis genome biology ( ) : page of that definitions of monogenic and polygenic disorders are becoming less distinct, which challenges existing concepts in the field of human disease genetics. at the same time, it is becoming increasingly clear that many of the conceptual aids that we have used to get to this point require reevalu- ation and revision. we first consider perhaps the simplest concept: the concept of “one gene, one phenotype” [ ]. we now understand that mutations in a single gene can drive nu- merous disorders in which the phenotype (or phenotypes) can be explained by the direction of a mutational effect (or mutational effects) at a single locus. two examples of this are kallman syndrome and pfeiffer syndrome, both of which are characterized by distinct phenotypes that are caused by loss-of-function and gain-of-function muta- tions in fgfr (which encodes fibroblast growth factor receptor ), respectively [ ]. the contribution of muta- tional effects to other so-called “monogenic” diseases is less clear. in such cases, environmental and/or genetic modifiers can influence the observed phenotypes. one such example is fuchs corneal dystrophy, which is one of two autosomal-dominant disorders caused by muta- tions in tcf (which encodes transcription factor ); in this case, the disease can be defined as a non-penetrant mendelian disorder or a complex trait [ ], as modifier genes and/or environmental factors influence the observed phenotype [ ]. for the discussed examples, a complex pattern of transcript splicing might explain the different phenotypes that are observed [ ]. an extreme example might be the recessive loss-of-function mutations in cep (which encodes centrosomal protein ) that cause a range of conditions, from the relatively mild disor- ders leber congenital amaurosis or nephronophthisis to the perinatally lethal meckel-gruber syndrome [ – ]. perhaps the best-known example is allelic variation in cftr (which encodes cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator); the same cftr mutation can cause a range of conditions, from isolated male infertility [ ] to severe lung disease [ ], probably owing to the influence of genomic context. these exemplars are un- likely to be academic curiosities; emerging reports from exome-based clinical genetic tests are reporting “pheno- typic expansions”, which are defined as an increasing number of monogenic disorders that violate the “one gene, one phenotype” assumption. presently, as many as ~ % of cases that have been exome sequenced in the clinical setting are being redefined [ ]. taking a cubist view, interpreting cftr mutational data might be thought of as studying the pattern of a single cube, rather than looking at the relation of that cube to the whole “picture”. following on from the need to revise the concept of “one gene, one phenotype” is that of necessity and suffi- ciency. for much of the mendelian disease era, alleles propagated in families or large multigenerational pedi- grees have been described as both necessary and suffi- cient to cause disease; embedded in this concept is the notion that most alleles associated with mendelian traits are penetrant. this concept is being challenged by the accrual of genomic data that are beginning to suggest that individuals vary in their tolerance of pathogenic mutations [ ]; we are now aware of the presence of non-penetrant mutations in individuals with classically defined dominant or recessive traits [ ]. moreover, the traditional argument regarding the penetrance of men- delian mutations may end up being circular, as the known alleles are those that were detected by available methods. the degree of phenotypic penetrance is influenced by stochastic forces, by imperfect phenotyping, sequencing, or annotation, and by the effect of genetic modifiers is yet to be determined. the degree to which phenotypic penetrance is influenced by stochastic forces, by imper- fect phenotyping, sequencing, or annotation, and by the effect of genetic modifiers is yet to be determined. following on from the concept of necessity and suffi- ciency, a third concept that needs to be revised is the trad- itional paradigm that alleles associated with a rare disease are themselves rare in a population. this paradigm remains katsanis genome biology ( ) : page of largely true, although the phenotypic effect (or effects) of some rare alleles is now known to be potentiated by common alleles. these rare alleles sometimes map to the disease locus, as exemplified by a common regulatory variant in ret (which encodes ret proto-oncogene) that contributes to hirschsprung disease [ ] and a promoter polymorphism in fech (which encodes ferrochelatase) that regulates the penetrance of a rare mutation further downstream in the same gene [ ]. more recently, the phenomenon of cis-complementation was described; this phenomenon describes how the deleteriousness of an allele can be modulated by neutral alleles in the same gene or haplotype [ ]. in other instances, the common allele is not present in the “mendelian gene” but in a discrete locus. for example, a common permissive micro- satellite array at the d z locus modulates the penetrance of mutations in smchd (which encodes structural maintenance of chromosomes flexible hinge domain- containing protein ) and causes facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy type [ ]. similarly, an allele found in % of europeans that potentiates an exonic splice enhancer in ccdc b (which encodes coiled-coil domain- containing protein b) can modify the penetrance of a recurrent mutation in bbs (which encodes bardet-biedl syndrome ) in patients with bardet-biedl syndrome [ ]. imagining a cubist’s interpretation of this landscape might lead us to dissolve or blend some of the current “hardfixed” boundaries that are used to define monogenic disorders. critically, it might be important to re-evaluate the usage of deterministic language, such as the terms “causes” or “solved”, as such terms simply and inaccurately imply that monogenic disorders are penetrant and mini- mally variable and that alleles at mendelian loci cannot be influenced by the surrounding genome. refining our understanding of complex human disorders the traditional compartmentalization of complex disor- ders is also coming under scrutiny, and we are beginning to understand that the notion that drivers of common diseases are either exclusively common [ ] or a collec- tion of rare alleles [ ] is an empirical oversimplification [ ]. the idea that both common alleles of small effect and rare alleles of large effect are integral constituents of the genetic architecture of complex traits is largely accepted [ ]. the purist cubist might argue that some complex traits are a cluster of rare disorders, whereas others are truly complex. for example, age-related macu- lar degeneration is a paragon of complex trait analysis and became the first success story in the field of human disease genetics when genome-wide association studies found that a significant proportion of the genetic burden of disease was attributable to a common allele in cfh (which encodes complement factor h) [ – ]. however, rare alleles in a gene encoding another member of the complement pathway, cfi (which encodes complement factor i), have also been shown to be potent disease drivers [ ], but they seem to behave in an almost mendelian fashion because of their penetrance. in other complex traits, such as autism, the distinction between rare and common causative alleles is even more blurred; epidemio- logical and genomic studies have shown that most of the heritability of autism is due to common alleles, but penetrant de novo mutations can contribute substantially to an individual’s susceptibility to developing autism [ ]. post hoc examination of some of these rare, de novo alleles suggests that they have the capacity to cause syn- dromic phenotypes. an example of such an allele is the p . deletion, which is found in > % of cases of autism spectrum disorder [ ] and is associated with, for example, weight-regulation defects [ , ], facial dysmorphisms and renal pathologies [ ]. similarly, re-examination of the mutational distribution of neurode- velopmental traits—including epileptic encephalopathy, intellectual disability, autism and schizophrenia—have shown extensive overlap [ ]. in light of these findings, some might argue that some complex traits are a cluster of rare disorders, whereas others are truly complex. in the case of autism, for example, is it a constituent component of multiple rare syndromes or is it a continuum of variable expressivity and penetrance that does not fit neatly into either the mendelian or the complex disease construct? in some ways, cubist deconstruction will teach us that the traditional artificial boundaries are heuristically help- ful but unnecessary, as key questions remain regarding the genetic variants that cause disease, the underlying molecular mechanisms of disease, and the direction of effect of variants associated with disease (i.e., whether they increase or decrease the expression or activity of the gene product). in this context, the rarity of some alleles and the strength of their effect on protein function have provided a bridge between rare and complex traits. for example, mutations in mc r (which encodes melanocortin receptor) cause a mendelian form of severe obesity [ , ] but have been proposed to predispose to adult-onset obesity under a complex trait model [ , ]. similarly, recessive mutations in bbs (which encodes bardet- biedl syndrome )—mutations in which cause the rare bardet-biedl syndrome, a multisystemic disorder that also manifests truncal obesity [ ]—have been found in indi- viduals with morbid obesity and type diabetes but no evidence of syndromic disease [ ]. although the pres- ence of mutations in mc r or bbs in cohorts with adult-onset obesity informs us about the potential drivers of disease in only a miniscule number of individuals, they nonetheless teach us about two signaling cascades that are likely to be relevant to a larger proportion of patients. similarly, although the contribution of chd (which katsanis genome biology ( ) : page of encodes chromodomain helicase dna binding protein ) to autism will probably never exceed an infinitesimal proportion of the autism spectrum disorder burden, understanding how the loss of chd function affects neurodevelopment will be profoundly informative. given the pace of allele discovery for both “monogenic” and “complex” traits, the discovery of alleles that provide causal evidence for particular loci, and those that establish the direction of effect, will increase dramatically and provide invaluable insights in terms of both biological understanding and drug discovery. moving beyond traditional definitions of monogenic and polygenic human diseases using the analogy of cubist art, how then should we move forward and reconstruct the art piece “girl with a mandolin” (fig. ) so that we can appreciate all of her facets and beauty as a whole? that is, how can we develop a more accurate understanding of human genetic diseases by taking a cubist approach? for clinical diagnosis the emphasis on rare penetrant alleles must persist in order to understand causality and develop interventionist stra- tegies; however, this must be coupled with improved statistical models for assessing the contribution of mul- tiple factors, both genetic and non-genetic, to complex traits. in age-related macular degeneration, for example, the susceptibility of individuals who carry a combination of risk genotypes and smoke is sufficiently high to be clinically meaningful and behaviorally actionable [ ], whereas for other disorders, such as type diabetes, a scale and a tape measure remain more effective diagnostic tools than a genetics-based approach. if the question is one of therapeutics, however, then disease frequency becomes less relevant and allele causality, direction of effect, and biochemical cascades become key. in both contexts, it will be important to start conside- ring not just individual alleles or genes, but biological modules and pathways in toto. for example, considering biological modules has informed penetrance and expres- sivity of ciliopathies [ ] and also illuminated the genetic architecture of peripheral neuropathies [ ]. likewise, for complex traits, considering genes that encode voltage- gated calcium ion channels as a group has revealed a causal module in schizophrenia that might eventually be druggable [ ]. indeed, one could conceive a pathway or a macromolecular complex as “the locus” and treat it as such, from both genetic and drug-discovery standpoints. finally, we should not lose sight of the fact that the con- cept of “mutation” signifies nothing more than variation from a reference genome and in itself does not carry a detrimental connotation. in that context, identifying either rare or common variation that is deleterious to protein function but beneficial to an organism might provide unexpected and orthogonal avenues for therapeutic development, as exemplified by the protective effect of loss-of function mutations in slc a (which encodes solute carrier family member ) to type diabetes [ ]. welcome to the post-modernist era! abbreviations asd: autism spectrum disorder; bbs : bardet-biedl syndrome ; bbs : bardet-biedl syndrome ; ccdc b: coiled-coil domain-containing protein b; cep : centrosomal protein ; cfh: complement factor h; cfi: complement factor i; cftr: cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator; chd : chromodomain helicase dna binding protein ; fech: ferrochelatase; fgfr : fibroblast growth factor receptor ; mc r: melanocortin receptor; ret: ret proto-oncogene; slc a : solute carrier family member ; smchd : structural maintenance of chromosomes flexible hinge domain-containing protein ; tcf : transcription factor acknowledgments i thank erica davis and patrick sullivan for their critical evaluation and assistance in compiling this work and the investigators of the center for human disease modeling (duke university medical center, nc, usa) for their thoughtful input. this work was supported by grants from the us national institutes of health (p dk , p mh , and p hd ). competing interests the author declares that he has no competing interests. references . schork nj, murray ss, frazer ka, topol ej. common vs. rare allele hypotheses for complex diseases. curr opin genet dev. ; 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( ). how art can educate the radiologist’s eye: duchamp’s “nude descending a staircase.” academic radiology, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /j.acra. . . how art can educate the radiologist's eye: duchamp's “nude descending a staircase” richard b. gunderman, md, phd, aimebenomon o. idahosa, bs indiana university school of medicine north barnhill drive, room , indianapolis, in key words: art, perception, duchamp, education, radiology, radiologists duchamp's “nude descending a staircase, no. ” was dubbed one of the most famous and controversial paintings of its day ( . along with the cubist school of which it was a part, it helped to change the way artists and the public perceived art, and its influence persists down to the present day ( . less known but no less notable is the fact that “nude descending” also offers important educational insights to radiologists, particularly regarding the daily work of radiologic interpretation. the nude born in normandy, france, in , marcel duchamp grew up in a household filled with paintings by his grandfather, emile nicolle ( . three of his brothers also became successful artists. as a student, duchamp excelled in mathematics and art, and after graduation he sold cartoons that combined verbal and visual puns. after service in the military, he began exhibiting his paintings and participating in regular discussions with cubist painters. in , he painted “nude descending.” duchamp intended to exhibit “nude descending” at an art show in paris, but it was rejected by his cubist peers. the hanging committee deemed it “ridiculous” to paint a nude descending a staircase, claiming instead that a nude should be “respected” by a more dignified pose. however, it was exhibited later in in barcelona and the next year in new york, where it provoked harsh criticism. teddy roosevelt claimed that it might just as well be called, “a well-dressed man going up a ladder.” the painting, which measures approximately × inches and features mainly ochre and brown hues, depicts a figure composed of geometrical shapes that seems to be moving in a time-lapse fashion https://doi.org/ . /j.acra. . . down some stairs (fig ). the figure appears in sufficiently abstract form that its gender and age are impossible to determine. at the bottom of the painting appears, in block letters, a phrase in french, “nu descendant un escalier.” cubism “nude descending” both inhabits and transcends the cubist vision. the cubists, including founders georges braque and pablo picasso, abandoned the renaissance's emphasis on perspective, which sought to capture the three-dimensionality of a figure or scene as viewed from a particular point of view ( . they also moved away from the realistic depiction of figures, instead creating images the likes of which the human eye had never beheld in the real world. like the impressionists, the cubists seem to have been striving to portray reality in a new way that would reveal aspects of the world not directly captured by the retina. one such aspect was space, the possibility of depicting an object as seen from multiple perspectives at once. the two-dimensional surface of the canvas depicted a three-dimensional reality in a new way, as though the spectator were moving around the object, seeing it from multiple different points of view. duchamp's “nude descending” extends this effect even further in space and time. the figure is no longer depicted as static but as moving, thereby combining multiplicity of perspectives in both space and time. the effect can be likened to a series of motion picture frames, except instead of unreeling over a span of time, the entire sequence is captured in a single image. all stages in the movement seem to be equally present in a single instant. radiologic perspectives “nude descending” invites a radiologist to reflect on some essential features of our daily work that have become so deeply embedded in habit that they can be difficult to recognize. one is the fact that duchamp's figure is fragmented, a feature of essentially every radiologic image. radiologists also see patients not as wholes but as parts, whether as body regions (chest, abdomen, etc.), anatomic slices (ultrasound, computed tomography, etc.), or physical properties (density, echogenicity, etc.). just as “nude descending” was rejected as an affront to the dignity of the nude, so radiologic images can fragment, partition, and undermine the integrity of a physician's perception of the whole human patient. for physicians in other fields who encounter the whole patient face to face, the danger of fragmentation may be somewhat mitigated, but for diagnostic radiologists who do not meet the patient, it takes effort to synthesize the images, the patient's story, and the patient. some investigators and clinical sites have attempted to catalyze this synthesis by adding to radiologic image sets a photograph of the patient ( . even where such photographs and direct patient contact are not possible, however, radiologists can still connect images to patients at least in the imaginative sense, bearing in mind that every set of radiologic images corresponds to someone's parent, spouse, sibling, child, or friend. another radiologically notable aspect of “nude descending” is its depiction of the figure from multiple spatial points of view. the cubists remind us that, depending on the perspective from which a figure is viewed, different features are either revealed or obscured. and to multiple spatial perspectives, duchamp adds multiple temporal points of view. at one point, duchamp's figure appears to be leaning forward and at another point back. radiologists need to remember that the patient looks different to different people at different times. for example, a cardiologist might view the patient through the lens of the cardiovascular system, whereas the pulmonologist might focus primarily on the respiratory system. likewise, a patient viewed at the moment of an acute, life-threatening event may look quite different at a later point, when a multidisciplinary group has assembled for an unhurried discussion of the case. another feature of “nude descending” of special note to radiologists is the interplay it depicts between static and dynamic reality. a sequence of movements of a body through space appears to be frozen in a single instant of time. so, too, radiologic images tend to capture but a single moment in the unfolding of a disease and its treatment through space and time. in both situations, the implication is the same: at no single point in time are we able to see the whole picture. in this sense, the challenge to radiologists can be likened to that of a person listening to a symphony. to be heard, the music must unfold in time, and the whole work is never apparent at any moment. the same can be said for the health and diseases of patients: what the radiologist glimpses is like a still photograph or a series of such photographs, but the reality of the patient persists between the intervals, and the radiologist needs to be imaginatively engaged with that unfolding reality. for example, suppose frontal and lateral chest radiograph show a bullet superimposed over the right ventricle of the heart. how could a bullet be lodged in the right ventricle of a living patient? the answer of course, is that the radiographic snapshot represents a single frame of an unfolding motion picture, and the bullet traveled as an embolus from another point in the body via the systemic venous system. again, radiologists perceive still images but must think in motion pictures. another feature of duchamp's painting is the fact that, when represented geometrically, a human being can become depersonalized. we cannot tell the gender or the age of the figure. we cannot discern the figure's identity, or whether it represents any particular person. we cannot make inferences about the figure's character, or how he or she might be feeling. the painting merely shows us a figure in motion. the same can be said, by extension, about the figures depicted in radiologic images. we may be able to diagnose an intracranial hemorrhage, a bronchogenic carcinoma, or appendicitis, but the image itself tells us little or nothing about the identity of the patient or the life the patient has led. likewise, the radiologist is called upon to avoid depersonalizing or dehumanizing the patient, making sure never to see in any radiologic image just a biologic specimen and nothing more. by giving us so little in the way of personalizing features, duchamp both shows us the inherent limitations of cubism and invites us to enter the painting, imagining for ourselves features that the painting cannot supply. peering inside the human body tells us a great deal about the biologic organism whose images we are viewing, but the radiologist needs to recollect that they correspond to a person with a biography that is still in progress. a fifth and overarching insight of “nude descending” is the fact that, like every piece of art, including non-representational art, it is in fact a depiction or representation of something, either real or imagined. an image is never the same as what it represents. this point is illustrated effectively in a story once told by pablo picasso. one day, a us serviceman complained to picasso that his paintings seemed inaccurate, not corresponding to the reality that meets the eye ( . picasso responded you mentioned earlier that you are engaged to be married. do you have a photograph of your fiancée? may i see it? [viewing the photograph, he expresses great surprise, perhaps even horror.] she's kind of small, isn't she? although radiologists have good reason to take great pride in the many important medical insights radiology can provide, we also need to heed duchamp's warning that images are never as important or real as the human reality they depict. radiology is in large part a representational medical art, and we need to bear in mind that representation also necessarily simplifies and abstracts. behind every static radiologic image is a living, breathing human being with a still-unfolding life story. references . duchamp m. nude descending a staircase, no. . . oil on canvas. philadelphia museum of art. . kushner, m.s. and orcutt, k. the armory show at : modernism and revolution. d. giles, london; . tomkins, c. duchamp: a biography. holt, new york; . golding, j. cubism: a history and analysis. boston book and art shop, boston; . krupinski, e., chung, a., applegate, k. et al. impact of patient photographs on radiologists' visual search of chest radiographs. acad radiol. ; : – . solso, r. cognition and the visual arts. mit press, cambridge, ma; : figure . marcel duchamp, nude descending a staircase, no. , . oil on canvas. philadelphia museum of art. pii: - ( ) - advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. westminsterresearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/westminsterresearch high formalism: the aerial view and the colour field beck, j. this is an accepted manuscript of an article published by taylor & francis in photographies, ( ) - , available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/https://dx.doi.org/ . / . . . the westminsterresearch online digital archive at the university of westminster aims to make the research output of the university available to a wider audience. copyright and moral rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the url of westminsterresearch: ((http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). in case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail repository@westminster.ac.uk http://www.tandfonline.com/https http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/ repository@westminster.ac.uk high formalism: the aerial view and the colour field john beck abstract laura kurgan’s monochrome landscapes ( ), first exhibited in the whitney museum of american art in new york city, consists of four oblong cibachrome prints derived from digital files sourced from the commercial ikonos and quickbird satellites. the prints are ostensibly flat, depthless fields of white, green, blue and yellow, yet the captions provided explain that the sites represented are related to contested military, industrial and cartographic practices. in kurgan’s account of monochrome landscapes, she explains that it is in dialogue with another work from the whitney by abstract artist ellsworth kelly. this article pursues the relationship between formalist abstraction and satellite imaging in order to demonstrate how formalist strategies aimed at producing an immediate retinal response are bound up with contemporary uses of digital information and the truth claims such information can be made to substantiate. keywords formalism abstraction surveillance camouflage satellite images the increasing public availability over the last two decades of location-based information systems, previously the sole preserve of military and intelligence agencies, has radically altered everyday conceptions of space, rendered the use of satellite maps and images commonplace, and made considerations of the dilation and contraction of scale an ordinary function of conceptualizing the positions of things and of people. the relatively seamless movement between satellite maps and images, aerial photographs, and ground level photographs made possible by freely available services like google earth has, to a large degree, domesticated the once vertiginous prospect of the vertical and oblique aerial view, and the impression of optical mastery enabled by the capacity to move around represented space via keyboard, mouse and screen produces the effect of an achieved democracy of vision. at the same time, growing familiarity with surveillance and data-gathering technologies and their critical role as evidence to justify and obtain consent for military and police action domestically and overseas, has contributed to anxieties regarding the extent to which the military and security services, and increasingly corporate and commercial interests, are able to command, control, and utilise the accumulation of all sorts of data, including the details of private citizens. the massive expansion of what can be seen of the world – or, at least, what can be pictured -- has been accompanied by a powerful increase in the suspicion that much remains hidden from view; the erosion of privacy has accompanied the expanded vistas of the electronic realm and the predations of an aggressive, penetrative techno-vision have become a permanent aspect of st century politics and culture. perhaps the two most obvious fields to undergo radical transformation as a consequence of the innovations in geographic information systems (gis) are mapping and photography, areas that conventionally sit at the intersection of science and art. maps and photographs each promise a direct relationship with the real, a facticity that is nevertheless at odds with the complex representational strategies that contribute to their production. as the systems delivering information become increasingly automated, the presumption that interpretive input contributes to the presentation of data has waned. what once required the skill and judgment of teams of cartographers and photographers is now delivered automatically. it is here, in the disembodied manufacture of satellite- or drone-vision, that the challenges of the new visual order are most apparent. without mediating human agency, data can easily take on a positivist clarity (it is what it is) while at the same time breaking free from any sense of function (information gathered relentlessly for its own sake). the skill required to interpret such information is still most often claimed to reside with those agencies who developed the technology: the military, security services, corporations – skills most often self-described as rational, objective, and functional. yet the act of reading a map or photograph has never been an entirely scientific process; it requires conjecture, associational thinking, and an openness to doubt. as images derived from gis sources have become a primary means of legitimating military and corporate policy, the emergence, over the last decade or so, of various forms of what stephen graham ( ) calls countergeographies has sought to complicate and challenge the apparent ease with which satellite and other gis images have become part of the arsenal of the self-evident. the work of eyal weizman and the forensic architecture project ( ), based in the centre for research architecture at goldsmiths college, london, has undertaken a wide range of multidisciplinary, collaborative investigations of sites of conflict, exploitation, and injustice across the globe. trevor paglen ( ; ; ) has mapped us ‘black sites’ and photographed military bases with astrophotographic equipment; pursued military satellites, drones, and other apparatus of the security state. photographers like jon rafman ( ), mishka henner ( ) and doug rickard ( ) have trawled google streetview to produce exhibitions of ‘found’ images that combine conventional genres like street, landscape, and documentary photography with the bureaucratic gaze of the surveillance image. laura kurgan’s work is similarly interested in the ways that photographic and art history can critically engage with gis images, not just through the theoretical and discursive analysis of images but through an engagement with form as an integral part of the code through which data is given meaning. kurgan is director of the spatial information design lab at the graduate school of architecture, planning and preservation at columbia university. her work is mainly engaged with the politics of digital location technologies and the visualization of data. since the first gulf war in the early s -- the first post-cold war conflict to see the us rehearse its so-called revolution in military affairs (rma) with the unprecedented use of information technology – kurgan has investigated technologies of location, imaging and mapping in a series of practice-based projects driven, as in the work of weizman, paglen, and others, by a commitment to opening up the critical potential of information systems. mapping mass graves, incarceration patterns, disappearing forests, and currency flows in a series of case studies from kuwait ( ), kosovo ( ), and new york ( ) to indonesia ( ), kurgan seeks to for further examples of recent work concerned with mapping, information systems, and representation, see abrams and hall ; bhagat and mogel ; harman ; and o’rourke . interrogate and complicate the uses and outcomes of digital imaging technologies, foregrounding the complexity of interpretive procedures and the opacities and blind spots generated by them as well as testing the much-vaunted ‘growing global transparency’ promised by policy analysts. for kurgan, a more nuanced and skeptical understanding of the technology requires an awareness that a new mode of viewing things has been introduced into the public sphere, ‘a way of viewing things close up at a distance in which there is no absolute scale, no anchor, no center.’ as a consequence, ‘evaluating this new visibility and negotiating its reality is a lot less obvious’ than it is often claimed to be (kurgan : ). monochrome landscapes kurgan’s project monochrome landscapes was first exhibited in at the whitney museum of american art at altria as part of a show called architecture by numbers. the project consists of four oblong, forty by eight-two inch cibachrome prints derived from digital files sourced from the commercial ikonos and quickbird satellites. the geographic location of each image is provided in general terms by a descriptive caption and more specifically by the precise numerical values for latitude and longitude -- the numbers that the satellite's sensors are instructed to record. the resolution is given as . of a meter per pixel in three cases (from quickbird) and . meter per pixel in the fourth, ikonos image. the heat value of each position is expressed as a number that is then assigned a standard colour. kurgan’s four images are named white, blue, green, and yellow, and while they are not completely uniform in tone – there are apparent wrinkles in the white, ripples in the blue, splodges on the green, and dirty marks on the yellow -- the four panels serve, in the manner of a rudimentary colour chart, to correspond to those names. the broad insistence of the work – through its title, the simple colour values assigned to the panels as well as their largely blank appearance – is upon surface. yet this depthlessness is only ever partial and the detailed captions, as well as the uneven tone of the images, shift the weight of attention toward the manner of complexity – the technological, computational particularities -- that has engineered such a reduction. white, blue, green, yellow: snow, water, trees, sand. the colours offer a rudimentary palette for landscape representation but the details are precise: the arctic national wildlife refuge in alaska, slated for oil exploration during the bush administration (white); the intersection of the equator and the prime meridian in the atlantic ocean, the degree zero-zero of mapping (blue); old growth rainforest in cameroon, site of illegal logging (green); the southern desert in iraq in the early days of the war (yellow). kurgan’s selection of sites economically braids together issues of resource extraction and global geopolitics using the same forms of data acquisition and manipulation technologies mobilized to advance the actions of exploitation and domination taking place upon the colour-coded landscapes reproduced in the photographs. the refusal of the images to yield much in the way of visual information other than their generic colour values operates, once the locations are registered, as a mode of ironic whitewash: the technologies of surveillance and big data have been deployed to reveal their capacity not for exposure, but for concealment. the images and accompanying text for monochrome landscapes are available on kurgan’s website: http://www.l k.org/monochromelandscapes/monochrome- landscapes http://www.l k.org/monochromelandscapes/monochrome-landscapes http://www.l k.org/monochromelandscapes/monochrome-landscapes monochrome landscapes, then, riffs on some of the contradictory signals delivered by the title of kurgan’s recent book, close up at a distance ( ), in which the project is discussed: the remote sensoring device simultaneously draws close but holds at bay, promises to reveal all but can pull back far enough that definition is lost. in this the satellites and the technologies deployed through them are but more powerful versions of earlier imaging devices that offered or threatened to picture everything that there is to see and much that there is not. and as with those other technologies, the data delivered by satellite imaging systems can erroneously be taken to be facts. kurgan’s work with data is, in this regard, resolutely ‘para-empirical,’ a term she uses to signal resistance to the notion of data as the real itself. rather, for kurgan data is never more or less than representations and interpretations – there ‘is no such thing as raw data’ she argues ( : ) – and while ‘para-empirical’ holds tight to the concrete it also allows for enough of the ‘sense of auxiliary, almost, not quite,’ of ‘alongsideness and incompleteness’ to give leverage to interpretative energy ( ). the value of incompleteness is demonstrated in kurgan’s essay on monochrome landscapes, which not only provides an explanation of, and context for, the production of the work but proceeds to probe further. by stepping into the images through a series of zooms, kurgan refuses to allow the dumb regularity of the surface to stand and instead presses the data to yield what distance has withheld. in the zoomed images, the arctic remains white, though more intensely pearlescent, and the atlantic stays stubbornly blue, if more leathery; but the forest is made to give up a freshly build road and a pair of helicopters hang over iraq. the abstract, in these images, is shown to be made of the real – not the ‘objective’ as such, and its positivist residues, but historical and political conditions are shown to constitute the granular source of the data. faced with the monochromatic – images ‘in which every pixel looks pretty much alike’ – ‘it’s hard not to look for something,’ claims kurgan, as if blankness itself is less a strategy of concealment and more an act of provocation ( : ). it is hard not to look for something, and the new york times could not see much in architecture by numbers: ‘there is little to help the visitor fathom the arcane, often impenetrable displays’ (glueck ). the affectless passive aggression of monochrome landscapes is largely unpicked in kurgan’s subsequent essay, but is this interpretation to be taken as part of the work, a belated and determined dismantling of the apparent autotelic sufficiency of the images? or is it to be read ‘alongside’, as kurgan would have it, a paratext that runs next to and is auxiliary to the four panels of monochrome landscapes, troubling and probing them but leaving them frostily inert? there is certainly a playful splitting here, with kurgan as both artist and critic, radical investigator and corporate data jockey. the slipperiness is part of the project, it seems to me, as the status of data swells and shrinks according to the uses to which it is put and the contexts within which it is situated. data can be hard- edged abstraction or a target grid, vital intelligence or dumb emptiness, but the problem with this capaciousness is that if data can be made to say anything at all it can also be made to say nothing. kurgan’s presentation of the oblong monochrome panels is clearly a calculated alignment of digital imaging and modernist aesthetics, particularly the aesthetics of mid-twentieth century american painting, yet it is not obvious why. while the four panels stage the scene of modern art’s autonomy – a knowingly dated move but successful enough at any rate that the new york times backs off -- the unpacked and zoomed-in images interrogated in kurgan’s writing give the lie to the integrity of the original panels and reinstalls figuration and narrative. the pictures were never really abstract, kurgan reveals; they never are. if this is the case, though, are the images even necessary? the intertwined narrative of arctic oil, illegal logging, misadventures in iraq and the history of mapping is compelling enough without the trick-shot of lifting helicopters out of the ochre ground, though that is also an effective part of the story. what is missing from this engagement with the not-really-concealed content of the images is a more sustained consideration of the form of the four panels. what if the engaged and detailed attention to content in kurgan’s account of monochrome landscapes is a feint that diverts attention from the form of the panels, which are presented, after all, as an iteration of that most contentious of high modernist conceits, the abstract colour field? the more kurgan discusses u.s. geological survey fact sheets about environmental despoliation, the more the stubborn fact of four x -inch cibachrome prints tends to recede from view. ‘there is more than a formal aesthetic at stake here – these are vulnerable ecologies and politically charged landscapes,’ kurgan reminds the reader ( : ). perhaps, but what about that formal aesthetic? the images that comprise monochrome landscapes were designed, kurgan explains, ‘to converse formally with the work of another artist in the whitney collection, ellsworth kelly,’ notably his screenprint four panels ( - ) ( : ). four panels is a belated addition to kelly’s signature red, blue and green paintings of the late s and early s which utilize flat, tonally invariant fields of colour in hard- edged compositions typical of post-painterly abstraction’s disavowal of gesture and figuration. kelly’s four panels are monochrome oblongs of, left to right, green, black, red and blue. the panels of four panels recall the rectangles used in kelly’s spectrum paintings of rather than the geometric forms of the earlier red, green and blue canvases. unlike the large paintings, where the red, green and blue shapes are placed in dynamic proximity, the colours in four panels are separated by a white ground or border, much as the separate monochrome spectrum canvases are spaced at a uniform height along the gallery wall. kurgan does not elaborate on her reasons for aligning monochrome landscapes with kelly’s work, though its blank, reductive, zero-ambiguity look is in accord with the map legend effect kurgan achieves in her piece. beyond this superficial formal similarity between the works, though, by associating her landscapes with kelly’s colour fields, kurgan has plugged her digital prints into the mainframe of american modernist abstraction at a particularly apposite juncture. the emergence of colour field painting at the end of the s was identified and promoted by clement greenberg as a vital move in american art through the elimination of extrinsic conventions and preoccupations -- of depth, illusion, gesture – in order to produce a pure and autonomous artwork. in ‘american type painting’ ( / ), greenberg celebrates in barnett newman, mark rothko, and clifford still’s work the rejection of drawing and design, what he claims is an ‘escape from geometry through geometry itself’ ( : ) as the edge of the canvas ceases to be a confining limit but an aspect of the work. newman’s paintings, for greenberg, ‘do not merge with surrounding space; they preserve […] their integrity and special unity. but neither do they sit there in space like isolated, insulated objects; in short, they are hardly easel pictures -- and because they are hardly that, they have escaped the "object" (and luxury-object) associations that attach themselves increasingly to the easel picture. newman's paintings have to be called, finally, "fields”’ ( ). ellsworth kelly is made-to-order greenberg. there are at least two points worth considering here in relation to greenberg’s establishment of the field. the first is the insistence on negation, the movement of painting away from what greenberg calls ‘artiness’ and toward an essential realization of its medium specificity: serious art for greenberg is about negative choices. the second thing to note is how much this negation is positioned as a mode of resistance – resistance to the luxury object, to kitsch, to incorporation into the degraded bourgeois order of things. for greenberg, newman’s paintings are self- sufficient but not insulated from the world; rather, they claim their own particularity and are not translatable into something else, pushing out into the world without capitulating to its demands. this is not formalism as a withdrawal but as a challenge, a sledgehammer taken to what rothko called the ‘familiar identity of things [that] had to be pulverized in order to destroy the finite associations with which our society increasingly enshrouds every aspect of our environment’ (rothko : ). read through this stern, hard-body formalism, kurgan’s inscrutable, reductive monochrome landscapes repeat the attritional logic of greenberg’s removal of traces of non-art and the content becomes the form. yet even as the work appears to achieve this renunciation, kurgan brings the content back in, insisting that there is more than a formal aesthetic at stake. there always was more at stake, though, and i think that kurgan’s self-cancelling formalism is partly a means of working through the antagonism between self- evidence and representation staged by greenberg’s defence of post-painterly abstraction. the reason it is worth doing this in the context of satellite images is precisely because the data generated by the technology, acknowledged by kurgan’s impatience with the notion of data as the real in itself, claims the place once held for the autonomous art work: the supposition that data just is. the removal of gesture and image, what newman called the ‘props and crutches’ of outmoded associations, might demonstrate a renunciation of kitsch in favor of art, but it was also something of a trap since by avoiding the distortions of expression through the erasure of the readable, the outcome was work that willfully stood for nothing (see guilbart ). the transformation of modernist abstraction from resistant avant-garde to the official (high) culture of cold war america demonstrates the fluidity with which refusal can be folded into complicity. part of kurgan’s job in works like monochrome landscapes, i think, is to reactivate the stubborn awkwardness of formalism without reproducing the acquiescence latent in its refusal to speak. formalism as diversion to produce an autonomous work of art, all traces of extraneous stuff – the non-art – has to be removed, a kind of wipe-down of all surfaces to remove evidence. the integrity of data as ‘raw’ implies the same untouched quality, as if the technologies that produce information are self-erasing, leaving only the data in itself. what drives this push toward the self-evident is to a large extent a consequence of a particular economy of the gaze that puts a premium on immediacy of perception and downgrades interpretive entanglement as failure. in his discussion of newman, rothko and still, greenberg writes that ‘in the end these pictures, like all others, stand or fall by their unity as taken in at a single glance’ ( : ). while this may be the case with all pictures, the single glance is the thing that colour field painting relies on more than most: what there is to see must be seen immediately, all at once, self-evidently presented before the eyes. in this sense, the difference between non-figurative and figurative pictures might be said to be a difference between looking and reading, the first being a retinal response, the second an interpretive engagement. in a short text on his work published in , kelly writes: ‘making art has first of all to do with honesty. my first lesson was to see objectively, to erase all “meaning” of the thing seen. then only could the real meaning be understood and felt’ (kelly : ). to achieve the ‘honesty’ of the single glance involves an erasure of all distracting complications – the props and crutches that might associate the work with anything other than itself. ‘real’ meaning can only be understood and felt once there is nothing to left to read, no information. the dream of direct retinal communication, here, though, can only work through the removal of any trace of the labor that produces it. the resulting work thus functions as a kind of decoy that relies upon a single glance to determine that what is seen is all there is to see. in this regard, when kurgan says that, in pictures where there is so little to see, ‘it’s hard not to look for something’, she is, in formalist terms, not looking in the right way, or looking for too long. the single glance is not enough for kurgan, whose need for something to look at recalls the philistine response to abstract painting that demands the picture be of something. there must be something in the picture somewhere, kurgan’s persistent gaze demands, and because the images she is concerned with are, while not photographs as such, images reliant on the indexical relation to the referent digital images have inherited from photography, she is right inasmuch as the indexical relationship between the picture and the thing photographed ought to guarantee some sort of correspondence between light emitted and its documentation. after all, in the end, kurgan is not looking at paintings, however much her panels may be arranged to look like paintings. but to make photographic images that work like abstract paintings is to invite the assessment of the single glance – the greenbergian test of unity and self-sufficiency – even if such a test is radically insufficient. as rosalind krauss once wrote of james welling’s photographs, kurgan’s monochrome landscapes hold ‘the referent at bay, creating as much delay as possible between seeing the image and understanding what it [is] of' ( : ). it is this delay between seeing and understanding that allows for misrecognition and opens up a space of narrative feedback between the opacities and transparencies of formalism and the satellite image. there are, then, layers of dissimulation and deception at work here, not only in kurgan’s use of the colour field as a mode of display but in formalist aesthetics itself. kurgan borrows the devices of colour field painting to exhibit digital images that appear ‘empty’ but are not; in so doing, she is able, by reintroducing the persistence of ‘content’, to challenge the notion of the self-evident (painting, photograph, or data that ‘just is’). the colour field trope, then, is a decoy that, to be identified as such must become part of an interpretive narrative within which it is revealed as a formalist stooge. but the formalist aesthetic itself must also be understood as a mode of dissimulation in the sense that it is only through the concealment (erasure) of the art work’s associations with non-art that it can be said to realize its autonomy. every time greenberg, newman, rothko or kelly insist on erasing, pulverizing, or eliminating ‘meaning’, they draw attention to that which is not evident in the work at a single glance but can only be detected negatively by the vacuum produced by the work’s blankness. in this mise-en-abîme of seemingly absent content, what kurgan locates by not not looking for something – by looking into the image and not glancing across the surface, by insisting on the necessity of narrative and interpretation – is how the diversionary tactics of formalism preemptively occlude the apprehension of content (history, politics, agency); indeed, the camouflaging of content must, by now, be properly understood to be the content of the form. the trickiness here is not merely a consequence of trying to get to the bottom of kurgan’s use of kelly’s monochrome but is, in fact, i want to suggest, integral to an understanding of the history of the close links among abstract painting, surveillance technologies, and political aesthetics. one of the critical commonplaces that these links have given rise to is the observation that modernist abstraction in painting looks like aerial photography and/or camouflage; and that this surface similarity allows for a reading of photographs as if they were paintings. certainly, the development of camouflage during world war i is hard to separate from early th century painting, not only because, particularly in france, cubist-inspired techniques were deployed in the production of early pattern disruption material. by the s, the links between cubism and camouflage were a well-established part of recent cultural history. on aerial photographs and modernist photography, see shell : ; sekula ; saint-amour ; saint-amour . in a much-cited passage from her book on picasso, gertrude stein describes the moment, early in world war i, when the painter sees, for the first time, a camouflaged truck and claims it a triumph of cubism. ‘[w]e had heard of camouflage,’ stein writes, ‘but we had not seen it’ (stein : ). extrapolating from this moment of identification, stein is able to retrospectively deliver an assessment of the relation between modern war and modern art that has proved remarkably resilient. just as cubist painting broke from prior modes of representation, the ‘composition’ of the great war was similarly not like other wars; it had ‘neither a beginning nor an end’ and ‘one corner was as important as another corner’ ( ). for stein and picasso, hearing of camouflage precedes seeing it. being able to recognize camouflage as camouflage requires some knowledge in advance of what it might look like and what it is for. before seeing the truck, camouflage is but a rumour; picasso could, on the basis of what he has heard, have claimed camouflage for cubism already, but in stein’s account it is only on the basis of seeing the camouflaged truck that an ‘amazed’ picasso is able to cry out that ‘it is we who made it.’ seeing is what counts here, unsurprisingly enough, even if the thing seen is an object painted so as to evade perception. only when the camouflage is not functioning as camouflage – when it is failing to disrupt the perceived form of things – can it be identified as such. conceding that the camouflage of belonged to picasso, salvador dali laid claim, in a short article for esquire in , for the camouflage of world war ii as ‘surrealist and dalistic’: ‘the secret of total invisibility and the psychological camouflage’ (dali : ). what dali has in mind here is the application of his paranoiac-critical method, whereby the paranoiac’s tendency to see connections between things that are not rationally linked together is cultivated in order to dissolve the notional truth of appearances. such a strategy develops the displacements, diversions, and doublings of disruptive patterning into a factory for the manufacture of phantom enemies and terra incognita by collapsing the distinction between figure and ground, between forms and the spaces separating them: everything the viewer sees is potentially something else. the ease with which surrealist investigations into the unconscious were, in the post-world war ii years, as raoul vaneigem notes, ‘co- opted by the dominant mechanisms of deception and fascination’ ( : ) – namely advertising and politics -- indicates the extent to which the strategic duplicities of war came to permeate the postwar world. weimar bauhaus artist oskar schlemmer, put to work camouflaging barracks in , conceded that survival required ‘artistic neutrality, camouflaging one’s real intentions’; schlemmer decided to devote himself to the ‘cult of the surface’ (schwartz : ). one response to an achieved dalian reality where everything means something else is to renounce mimesis. it is here that greenberg’s defense of american abstract painting, with its emphasis on the elimination of content, seeks to shake off the combat model of the european avant-garde and its associations with camouflage. yet, as we have seen, it is precisely through the renunciation of mimesis that abstract art renders itself almost sublimely amenable to the most neutralizing form of pattern misrecognition: the silent surface of pure colour as the warm bath of affirmative culture. if the triumph of american painting, and of american postwar culture, is a triumph of the cult of the surface, it is a triumph also of camouflage – of hiding and showing. the two main modes of camouflage strategy, according to hillel schwartz, are invisibility (hiding) and deceptive visibility (showing) ( : ); camouflage is less about completely screening off the hidden than of disrupting perception through doubling, obscurity, displacement, and disorientation using an array of masks, decoys, substitutions, and obliterative countershadings ( ). like the eliminations of formalist abstraction, the point of camouflage is to work hard to produce the effect that no work has been done at all. while protective colouration is most effective against the quick glance, the deceptions of camouflage are less concerned with fooling the unassisted eye and more properly engaged with disrupting the penetrative gaze of technologically-enhanced vision: of binoculars, telescopes and, most of all, of cameras. ellsworth kelly was one the many artists who served, during world war ii, in the rd camouflage engineers, the visual deception wing of the so-called ghost army, the us military’s tactical deception unit officially known as the rd headquarters special troops. it was equipped with inflatable tanks, cannons, jeeps, trucks, and airplanes that were then camouflaged imperfectly so that enemy air reconnaissance could see them. kelly did not design camouflage himself but was responsible for printing a series of silkscreen posters for training purposes, each of which depicted a particular form of camouflage (behrens : ). knowing what to show and what to hide, what the eye can register and how it is interpreted – the calibration and management of the single glance and the deep interrogative analysis of reconnaissance – are established aspects of kelly’s work from the outset. digitalized colour and the return of the non-figural there is another reason, i think, why kurgan is attracted to kelly’s four panels and why she thought that monochrome landscapes could ‘converse’ with it. kelly’s use of red, green, and blue seeks to establish a direct optical relationship between the work and the viewer, following young-helmholtz’s trichromatic colour theory, which produced the additive red green blue (rgb) colour model that made possible colour photography and continues to be used in television, video and computer displays. red, green and blue are not the primary colours of painting but of science. the rgb model identifies three different kinds of photoreceptors in the eye that are variously ‘tuned’ to perceive primarily long, or red, wavelengths, middle/green, or short/blue ones. the brain interprets the light signal received and interprets its colour value according to the sensitivity of the response; the discrete red, green and blue panels of kelly’s print are, then, as unambiguous in their messages as it is possible to be, seeking to reduce the necessity of interpretation to a minimum, just as the black panel signals the complete absence of light. the intensity of the red, green, and blue signals is full on, black is fully off. in this way, kelly’s four panels reduces vision to its most basic components (the white border delivering the combined full intensity of r, g, and b), the primary materials of sight stripped of overlap, diffusion, shade, and combination. as the foundation of virtually all colour processes, whether chemical or electronic, rgb is the language of modern visuality. for kelly, following greenberg, red, green and blue is as close to direct retinal communication as there is, stripped of all association, all culture, and reaching straight into the cones and rods of the eye. everything else is interpretation. as a crystallized example of formalist purity, a purity sought via chromatic nakedness, kelly’s four panels promises, once and for all, to disambiguate the visual. for kurgan, it is precisely this disambiguation that is the false flag of raw data, used to pass off intelligence as fact. as the model for all colour sensing, representation, and the display of images in electronic systems, kelly’s rgb work unwittingly gifts to kurgan a shorthand for what david batchelor calls the colour chart’s contribution to the ‘digitalization of colour’ ( : ). batchelor makes the distinction between the analogical colour circle of the artist – ‘a continuum, a seamless spectrum, an undivided whole’ based on a ‘grammar of complementarity’ and relational hierarchy – and the ‘grammarless accumulation of colour units’ that comprise the colour chart ( ), the digital opposite of analogical colour: in the colour chart, every colour is equivalent to and independent of every other colour. there are no hierarchies, only random colour events. the colour chart divorces colour from conventional colour theory and turns every colour into a readymade. it promises autonomy for colour; in fact, it offers three distinct but related types of autonomy: that of each colour from every other colour, that of colour from the dictates of colour theory and that of colour from the register of representation. ( ) bachelor suggests that postwar art, from rauschenberg through warhol and richter to noland and kelly, constitutes a move away from analogical to digitalized colour: individuated, discrete, ‘no mergence or modulation; there are only boundaries, steps and edges’ ( ). removed from the ‘register of representation’, digitalized colour is the denatured colour of bureaucratized vision: autonomous units of colour unattached to anything but themselves, independent, interchangeable, grammarless. what kelly’s rgb paintings and four panels are after, then, is not just the formal purity of the single glance but the management of a glance that receives already rationalized and separated -- digitalized – data that blocks, unmoored from any grammar of complementarity, its relation to anything other than itself. in her essay ‘documentary uncertainty’, artist hito steyerl describes watching a news broadcast during the first days of the us invasion of iraq in . a cnn correspondent, pointing a direct broadcast cell phone camera out of a car window, claims that this kind of broadcast has never been seen before. this is true, steyerl observes, because ‘there was hardly anything to see on these pictures’ due to their low resolution. the ‘green and brown blotches […] looked like the camouflage of combat fatigues; a military version of abstract expressionism’ (steyerl ). asking what this sort of abstraction has to do with documentary, steyerl argues that it signals toward ‘a deeper characteristic’ of contemporary documentary images: that ‘the more immediate they become, the less there is to see.’ in other words, ‘[t]he closer to reality we get, the less intelligible it becomes.’ steyerl uses this example to expand on the equally uncertain conceptual territory of contemporary documentary, which can no longer be satisfied with the discredited, positivist categories of ‘truth’ or ‘objectivity’ and must instead exist in ‘perpetual doubt’: ‘the only thing we can say for sure,’ she concludes, ‘is that we always already doubt if [the documentary mode] is true.’ this doubt is underscored in the case of the cnn images, produced by embedded journalists whose output is already mediated by the military. if, as steyerl suggests, ‘we are all somehow embedded in global capitalism’ and the very idea of critical distance is never more than an ‘ideological illusion,’ the truth may well lie, not in any ‘objective’ report but precisely in the blurred cell phone pictures – in the abstraction that represents nothing. such images, she concludes, ‘are as post-representational as the majority of contemporary politics. but, amazingly, we can still speak of truth with regard to them.’ the form tells the truth, here, since the blurred cnn pictures are ‘perfectly true documents’ of the condition of ‘general uncertainty,’ of the ‘precarious nature of contemporary lives as well as the uneasiness of any representation’ (steyerl ) the challenge, for steyerl, is in finding a critical position that does not merely take the condition of uncertainty into account or expose it, but which can replace the affects associated with perpetual doubt -- ‘stress, exposure, threat and a general sense of loss and confusion’ -- with another, yet to be determined ‘affective and political constellation.’ this is, i think, the dilemma of kurgan’s monochrome landscapes and of other ‘abstract’ works engaged with the contemporary politics of visibility, such as paglen’s drone photographs or bloomberg and chanarin’s the day that nobody died ( ), a series of what the artists describe as ‘radically non-figurative, unique, action-photographs’ (bloomberg and chanaran ) made by exposing sections of a roll of photographic film to sunlight during a tour of helmand province in afghanistan while embedded with the british army in june . recalling rothko’s desire to pulverize the familiar identity of things, contemporary artists, skeptical of the neutralizing effects of what bloomberg and chanarin describe as ‘the conventional language of photographic responses to conflict and suffering’ ( ), are positioned precariously along a fault-line between an always already suspect documentary mode and the risky maneuverings of formalism. in steyerl’s example of the cnn images, the blur is the truth, but that truth requires a mode of seeing attuned to the misdirections of contemporary politics, the distractions, obfuscations and double-bluffs of contemporary media, and the representational politics of contemporary art. such a mode of interpretation – ironic, off-kilter, too easily mistaken for paranoia – does not yield the promised exposure of the hidden truth once offered by critique; instead, it is a mode of operations that at the same time produces and interprets encrypted data, much as the camoufleur, in order to manufacture deception, must also be able to read the signs of the enemy. the syntax of surveillance, with its repertoire of feints, blocks, missteps, distractions, decoys, masks and reversals, cannot convert signal into ‘truth’ but the protean maneuvering – endlessly showing and hiding, moving in and out of focus, in and out of range, switching between codes and across media – is perhaps as close to a critical position as can be reached; it is the a-positionality of counterintelligence. this doubleness – that the data or image is at once true and false, evidence and artifice, real and illusory, abstract and figurative – does not necessarily have to lead to relativism and acquiescence, as if there were nothing at stake, but it does speak to the radically ambivalent situation of the contemporary photographic image. it is this ambivalence, i think, that leads kurgan to yolk the satellite image with high formalism since each mode, in its own way, strains toward the promise of some sort of truth not as told but as found – the truth of the single glance that is beyond reflection. as i hope is now obvious, though, the kind of truth claims promised on behalf of the satellite image and of formalist abstraction are, in part, the product of a certain dream of retinal instantaneity and uncontaminated vision that, in order to work, must camouflage the operations necessary for the production of the image. for kurgan, like steyerl, the blur is a kind of truth, but kurgan insists on a form of deep looking that is also made possible by the technology that produces the blur. it is here that the satellite image reveals itself to be nothing like the blank surface of a screenprint (or, indeed, the conventional photograph) because it can, in fact, be looked into as well as looked upon. while skepticism toward formalism’s erasure of content exposes a conservatism concealed by the dazzle of resistance, skepticism toward digital images has, paradoxically, been accompanied by, as mark dorrian writes, ‘a deep and intensifying commitment to them that is itself, in part, a reaction to new powerful imaging technologies’ ( : ). for dorrian, the crux of the issue does not lie in the relationship between the image and truth but between the image and trust; while digitization has indeed eroded trust in the image, it has at the same time become ‘the precondition for a new intensity of trust that is extended to it, the balance of responses shifting in relation to differing institutional and discursive contexts and the understanding of interests embedded in them’ ( ). while the conventional basis for the photograph as evidence lay in its indexical relation to the referent, digital images have not so much destroyed this connection as they have, as dorrian claims, transcoded the index; it is this transcoded indexicality that has redefined the relation between trust and the image. today, suggests dorrian, it is complexity rather than retinal immediacy that seems to be trusted: ‘what is trusted is no longer so much the image as the complexity or fineness of the informational content that can be extracted from it’ ( ). at the same time, transcoded indexicality makes images ‘immediately and always already analyses’ ( ); in other words, the gathered data is captured, processed, and arranged in advance of its apprehension as an image. any interpretation of an image is, then, more than ever, an engagement with truth as it has been made (and as it is made to appear) rather than as it appears. this is why kurgan’s panels not only require informational support in the form of captions but also the interpretive supplement of the written essay; unlike kelly’s ‘honest’ and ‘objective’ rgb colour fields, where interpretative labor would signal the failure of the work to deliver on its retinal promise, the ‘honesty’ of kurgan’s work resides precisely in its acceptance of interpretation as the work. there can be no legitimating single glance when it comes to the digital image because optical immediacy is always already camouflage, a diversion produced by the rgb system to make data look like truth. the detour kurgan’s work takes through high formalism is part of the necessary re-ambiguation of the single glance that unpacks the strategies deployed by colour field painting to camouflage the construction of immediacy. references abrams, janet and peter hall, eds. ( ), else/where: mapping - new cartographies of networks and territories, minneapolis: university of minnesota design institute. batchelor, david ( ), chromophobia, london: reaktion. behrens, roy r. ( ), false flags: art, design and modern camouflage, dysart, iowa: bobolink. bhagat alexis and lize mogel, eds. ( ), an atlas of radical cartography, los angeles, ca: journal of aesthetics and protest press. bloomberg, adam and oliver chanarin ( ), the day nobody died, presented at the barbican art gallery, th december. http://www.broombergchanarin.com/files/theday.pdf http://www.broombergchanarin.com/files/theday.pdf dalí, salvador ( ), ‘total camouflage for total war’, pp. - in haim finkelstein, ed. and trans., the collected writings of salvador dalí, cambridge: cambridge university press. dorrian, mark ( ), ‘transcoded indexicality,’ log: observations on architecture and the contemporary city : - . forensic architecture, ed. ( ), forensis: the architecture of public truth, berlin: sternberg press. graham, stephen ( ), cities under siege: the new military urbanism, london: verso. glueck, grace ( ), ‘architecture by numbers: preston scott cohen, marsha cottrell, michelle fornabai, laura kurgan and ben nicholson’, new york times june . http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /arts/art-review- architecture-numbers-preston-scott-cohen-marsha-cottrell-michelle.html greenberg, clement ( ), ‘”american-type” painting’, pp. - in art and culture: critical essays, boston: beacon press. guilbart, serge ( ), how new york stole the idea of modern art: abstract expressionism, freedom, and the cold war, trans. arthur goldhammer, chicago: university of chicago press. guilbaut, serge ( ), ‘the new adventures of the avant-garde in america: greenberg, pollock, or from trotskyism to the new liberalism of the "vital center"’ trans. thomas repensek, pp. - in francis frascina, ed. pollock and after: the critical debate, new york: harper & row. henner, mishka ( ), no man’s land, print on demand. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /arts/art-review-architecture-numbers-preston-scott-cohen-marsha-cottrell-michelle.html http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /arts/art-review-architecture-numbers-preston-scott-cohen-marsha-cottrell-michelle.html kelly, ellsworth ( ), ‘notes on ’, pp. - in kristine stiles and peter selz, eds. theories and documents of contemporary art: a sourcebook of artists’ writings, berkeley: university of california press. krauss, rosalind ( ), ‘photography and abstraction,’ pp. - in a debate on abstraction, new york: hunter college art gallery. kurgan, laura ( ), close up at a distance: mapping, technology & politics, cambridge, ma: zone books. o’rourke, karen ( ), walking and mapping: artists as cartographers, cambridge: mit. paglen, trevor ( ), torture taxi: on the trail of the cia's rendition flights, new york: melville house. paglen, trevor ( ), blank spots on the map: the dark geography of the pentagon's secret world, new york: dutton. paglen, trevor ( ), invisible: covert operations and classified landscapes, new york: aperture. parks, lisa ( ), cultures in orbit: satellites and the televisual, durham, nc: duke university press. rafman, jon ( ), the nine eyes of google street view, paris: jean boîte editions. rickard, doug ( ), doug rickard: a new american picture, köln: verlag der buchhandlung walther konig. rothko, mark ( ), ‘the romantics were prompted’ ( ), pp. - in miguel lópez-remiro, ed., writings on art, new haven: yale university press. saint-amour, p. k. ( ), ‘modernist reconnaissance’, modernism/modernity ( ): - . saint-amour, p. k. ( ), ‘applied modernism: military and civilian uses of the aerial photomosaic’, theory, culture & society ( - ): - . schwartz, hillel ( ), the culture of the copy: striking likenesses, unreasonable facsimiles, revised and updated, cambridge, ma: zone books. sekula, alan ( ), ‘the instrumental image: steichen at war’, artforum ( ): - . shell, hanna rose ( ), hide and seek: camouflage, photography, and the media of reconnaissance, cambridge, ma: zone books. stein, gertrude ( [ ]), picasso, mineola, ny: dover. steyerl, hito ( ), 'documentary uncertainty', a prior # . rpt. in re-visiones # one. http://re-visiones.imaginarrar.net/spip.php?article vaneigem, raoul ( ), a cavalier history of surrealism, trans. donald nicholson- smith, edinburgh and san francisco: ak press. watson, ruth ( ), ‘art at the interface of data and image, mute december. http://www.metamute.org/editorial/articles/art-interface-data-and- image#sdendnote anc http://re-visiones.imaginarrar.net/spip.php?article http://www.metamute.org/editorial/articles/art-interface-data-and-image#sdendnote anc http://www.metamute.org/editorial/articles/art-interface-data-and-image#sdendnote anc prehistoric art and ideology prehistoric art and ideology author(s): morton h. levine source: american anthropologist, new series, vol. , no. (dec., ), pp. - published by: wiley on behalf of the american anthropological association stable url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/ . accessed: / / : your use of the jstor archive indicates your acceptance of the terms & conditions of use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . jstor is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. we use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. for more information about jstor, please contact support@jstor.org. . wiley and american anthropological association are collaborating with jstor to digitize, preserve and extend access to american anthropologist. http://www.jstor.org this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/action/showpublisher?publishercode=black http://www.jstor.org/action/showpublisher?publishercode=anthro http://www.jstor.org/stable/ ?origin=jstor-pdf http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp prehistoric art and ideology' morton h. levine harvard university introduction "the material remains of past civilizations are like shells beached by the retreating sea. the functioning organisms and the milieu in which they lived have vanished, leaving the dead and empty forms behind ... under- standing... of ancient societies must be based upon these static molds which bear only the imprint of life." gordon r. willey the material remains of past civilizations sometimes include art. where this is so, as in the spectacular case of upper paleolithic art in western europe, we may be able to add an ideological dimension to our understanding of the ancient people. traditional anthropological interest in art treated the subject as an isolated ethnographic category, focused almost exclusively on the technique of art-making, on the iconography, and on the uses to which art is put. but attention has turned increasingly to questions about the ties between art and other aspects of culture. for example, monographs by mills ( ) and mc- allester ( ), produced under the aegis of the harvard values study project, have looked for relationships between esthetic values in navaho art and music and navaho value culture as a whole. malraux's voices of silence ( ) exhib- its a convergent trend in art history. these and similar studies are laying the foundation on which efforts to interpret prehistoric art must rest. translating into achievement the prospect of reconstituting prehistoric "idea culture" through the study of prehistoric art depends upon finding ways and means for archeologists to ask, however indirectly, the same questions which ethnologists increasingly pursue among recent and living art-makers. if relationships between art and other parts of culture can be discerned and described in individual cultures and compared across cultures so as to yield generalizations, if we can make a reasonable case for the idea that a people's art is patterned by the point of view of their culture, if we can suggest the ways in which art exhibits this patterning, we might hope to put the lessons learned to work in behalf of a plausible reconstruction of the attitudes and outlook of a prehistoric people. we might gain a means of narrowing the gap between that span of time for which we know something of man as an economic animal and that much shorter period for which we are acquainted with him as a thinking, believing, feeling creature. the concern of this paper is two-fold: what kind of controls on interpreta- tion can we derive from the study of ethnographic materials? and, what prob- lems can we approach fruitfully through the analysis of art style? the crucial general issues about the "nature of artistic behavior" and the character of the "relationship between art and culture" are not confronted directly. this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp american anthropologist [ , the present discussion moves beyond ground already taken by anthro- pological field forces. this has its obvious advantages and disadvantages. the attempt was stimulated by studies in the art of the upper paleolithic and in aboriginal australian art. in pursuing the concerns of this paper, we will have recourse to the former to exemplify problems in reconstruction of ideology, and to the latter for examples of what ethnographic materials can provide by way of suggestions for and limitations on interpretation. further, we will deal solely with painting and sculpture, the only arts common to the ethnographic and archeological record. the archeological record and ethnographic comparison drawing on material survivals and on the data of paleo-studies in geology, geography, and zoology, archeology develops a picture of the life of upper paleolithic man in broad terms of habitat-economy-society: he was a cold climate big game hunter. his environment was at once bountiful and threatening. animal and plant resources abounded; but bringing down game, even with the refined and varied arsenal then at hand, was ex- tremely difficult if not dangerous. the natural setting which enveloped the ice age hunter was uncommonly labile and must have seemed brutally capricious: the weather in wtirm times was fairly drastic, and the landscape was tortured by tectonic upheavals. but life appears to have been relatively sedentary. small local societies may have migrated with the change of season; but evidence for a plentiful food supply and the elaborate art in the caves refute any suggestion of incessant wandering. the existence of art of such a high level of achievement points to specialization of some sort within the groups; but we can only wonder whether the artistic function was or was not combined with religious or chiefly roles. stylized, intentional burials appear in the record to suggest not only some sort of funeral exercise, but an explicit recognition of life and death as opposed and remarkable states. these people or peoples left for posterity one of the great art collections of all time. it was a refined and varied art, produced over many millennia. taken as a whole, the artistic universe of the upper paleolithic offers large animal "portraits," animal figures bearing geometric designs, other beasts studded with darts, sculptured women in the round and in relief-the famous "ve- nuses"-anthropomorphs of which the best known is the "sorcerer" at les trois freres, profusely superposed engravings on the walls of caves and on pebbles, handprints on the cave walls, some of which betray mutilation of the fingers, geometric figures and dots and club-shaped forms, and the vivacious meanders dug into the then soft clay with the fingers or with hafted animal teeth-the so-called "macaroni." archeology gives us a sense of the character of existence and the realistic problems which confronted these ancient hunters. we are presented, too, with a rich corpus of art. the "missing link" is what these early men thought and believed-how they perceived reality, what they valued and what they took as problematic. this is precisely what we hope to recover to some extent from this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp levine] prehistoric art and ideology a sensitive, systematic study of the art. but we cannot do this by unaided recourse to the art itself. granting the assumption that values and world view reach expression in art, this general confidence is of no help in the enterprise of specific interpretation. if we want to eschew impressionistic insights and reconstitute the "missing link" in a way which is communicable and subject to restudy and confirmation or revision by others, then we will have to base our work quite explicitly on the clues and limits afforded by researches among living peoples. to illustrate the potential advantages of exploiting ethno- graphic materials, let us begin with a brief summary of elements in the life situation, thought and belief, and art of the aboriginal australians. but not without first entering a caveat: the material here is a compilation, a summary of and selection from diverse researches pursued among various regions and cultures of australia. the data on art tend to emphasize that which is characteristic of the oenpelli district of arnhem land in particular and north central and northwest australia in general. the items on ecology and general culture are more widely eclectic. an effort has been made to avoid gross mismatch in coupling material about various aspects of aboriginal life and art; but error or simplistic generalization is built into this kind of summary. this "lumping" is justified, if at all, from the standpoint of our illustrative purpose and does not pretend to be a satis- factory review of the australian situation as such. such a summing up must await many more studies like the recent mountford volume, art, myth and symbolism ( ), in which we are provided with a specific account of aborig- inal art and belief in arnhem land which discriminates three artistic sub- cultures (groote eylandt, oenpelli, and yirrkalla) and details the correspond- ing ideology. pending the availability of such material from many regions of australia, the generalizations which are offered below must be regarded as at least highly tentative. the ungenerous character of the australian ecology, the utter dependence of the aborigine upon the environment, and the intensity and intimacy of his relationship with it form a classical syndrome in the literature. it is vividly and systematically described by birdsell ( ); and tindale ( ) and other writers going back to spencer and gillen have given witness to the picture of a people who live in groups of less than , wander constantly within their tribal territory, and sustain themselves on a diet which reads virtually like a biological inventory of their locality. the life situation of the australian aborigine is not merely reflected in but rather imprinted on his belief and behavior. basic is the perception of a pro- found connection between human life and that of plants and animals-and between all life and the rain. mythology extends this to the notion of a com- mon origin of men and other natural species (fry : ; elkin : ). anxiety, induced by dependence upon the environment and its parsimony, is expressed in various ways: there is a whole complex of belief and action asso- ciated with fertility and increase, a theme which pervades mythology and forms one of the main bases for ritual and underlies the exuberant ramification this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp american anthropologist [ , of sexual symbolism (elkin, berndt and berndt : - ; berndt and berndt : - ; elkin, : - ). the unpredictability of the environment echoes in the belief in benign and malevolent spirits, as well as sorcery, as causal agents. and there are rituals of atonement and propitiation which func- tion to redress the feeling of being vulnerable to retribution for the killing of animals (marrett : - ; roheim : ). marrett describes such ritual as a "composition in the matter of blood revenge." some of the themes in art and artistic behavior among the australians are: . art-making as one of the principal forms of ritual and ceremonial action. the australians hold many designs sacred and, further, believe that a design is what it represents. for example, the painted actor in ceremonial becomes the mythological personage whose role he enacts by virtue of the ritualistic application ("singing on") of the design. . several other forms of ritual art-making include the palimpsest, or repetitive superposition of engraved and painted forms at certain places; the periodic ritual retouching of the wondjina in the kimberley caves to "reacti- vate" their power; ground painting as part of the ceremonial and the remaking or at least repainting of ceremonial objects for each use. . the affiliation between men and other living things is a frequent theme in australian art, especially exemplified in anthropomorphic figures. . "x-ray" art is a popular motif, often showing pregnancy or the inner "works" of men and animals, all of this explicitly reflecting an intense concern with life and, more to the point, with fertility and increase. the emphasis on sexual motifs and the outsize portrayal of genitalia in both x-ray and non- x-ray art is another manifestation of this emphasis. . the australian landscape is familiar to the inhabitants on the most inti- mate level; and features of the landscape are often invested with sacred mean- ing. the australians leave their handprints at sacred places as a ritual of personal identification. elsewhere in this paper we shall have occasion to discuss footprints in the caves and the animal track motif in art as a reflection of elements of the life situation in style. how much of australian belief (and its manifestation in art) refers to the particulars of the australian situation and what may be referred to aspects in which the australian and upper paleolithic situations are comparable? this important stage of analysis requires recourse to material from other living peoples. as an example, let us consider the question of whether the importance of the food quest to the australian modes of belief is related to the sheer fact of scarcity. the chukchee, gilyak, lapps, eskimo, and other hunting peoples of the world live in ecological circumstances which are by no means as adverse as those faced by the australians; some of the environments may even be described as relatively bountiful. yet, in one way or another, these people exhibit anxiety in the face of nature, perceive the world in animistic terms, and take various steps to propitiate the spirits and to compensate nature for what has been taken in the hunt. this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp levine] prehistoric art and ideology sverdrup ( : , ) offers this revealing account of the chukchee world view: the chukchi concept of nature is fundamentally based on the fear of unexpected and unavoidable events. to them the regularly repeated natural phenomena... represent no problem. . . . the hostile nature manifests itself in the unexpected event, in the catastrophes, the storms, the heavy snowfalls . .. disease. s.. the chukchi... have formed a system of their own which explains nature to their satisfaction, and which they think protects them against the catastrophes. they have populated nature with spirits and consider every unforeseen happening as evidence of the direct action of evil spirits, but . .. they can approach them and negoti- ate with them-they can hope that their sacrifices will be accepted by the spirits and that the spirits will show mercy or become reconciled if they have been offended. the belief in good and evil spirits is also found among the gilyak, accord- ing to seeland ( : ), who notes further that evil spirits predominate and must be propitiated. hawes ( : ) reports that the gilyak have a two- cycle year, marked by the seal and sable hunting seasons respectively. the hunters dedicate their first land-hunting catch to the "lord of the forest" at a special place; and the seal bones are tossed back into the sea. similar restitu- tion is found among the lapps, who set aside certain parts of the slain elk for later burial; among the minnetaree indians,. who believe the skeleton of the bison will again take on flesh if the bones are undestroyed; among the baffin- land and hudson's bay eskimo, where a boy's first seal is stripped of its skin and flesh and the bones are thrown by his mother into a deep hole so that they may rise again as live seals for the boy to catch in later life. the fertility-increase complex encountered among the australians is con- spicuous by its absence among these people; and this must be regarded as specific to the australian situation. but it is noteworthy that an animistic view of nature, anxiety about continuity of the food supply, and propitiation and restitution ritual are manifest nevertheless. this persistent syndrome of thought and ritual action, apparently independent of the relative bounty of the environment, seems then to be a function of the dependence upon and inti- mate relationship with the natural setting. in this case, such characteristics would appear potentially attributable to prehistoric hunters like those of the upper paleolithic. the gilyak data relating belief and art offer a few details suggesting the extension of certain features in australia beyond the local situation. we might consider them briefly. the gilyak make art ritually and impute mana-like power to the art product. seeland ( ) refers to "idols" which are both symbols for and dwelling places of the spirits. small carved figures are worn as magical charms, recalling the australian tjurunga. hawes ( : ) reports crude murals in the village houses: some representations of bears, and a rough design like a chessboard. (without implying that this has any resem- blance of which one could make interpretive use, the reference to a mural chessboard pattern recalls two interesting similarities: a like design occurs at lascaux [cf. fig. in breuil : ; windels ]; and birdsell has shown this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp american anthropologist [ , the writer a map drawn for him by an australian informant which looks like a multicolored chessboard.) kreinovich ( ) reports this interesting art ritual among the gilyak: on the sea-going hunt, an indispensable part of the preparation is the making of a carved figure to be placed on the prow or stern of the boat. the ritual is called tn,aj, which also means "image" or "picture" or "figure." it affords protection on the hunt. now, with respect to connections between art and belief, some extension of the australian material beyond the specifically local situation may be sug- gested: the ritual production of art. the equation of a work of art with that which, from our point of view, it merely represents. the investment of pic- tures or carvings with mana-like power. before proceeding to examine similarities and differences in australian and upper paleolithic art, it might be useful to take stock of the procedure thus far. we began with a brief summary of the picture which archeology provides of the life situation of upper paleolithic man, and followed this with a very broad inventory of the art. alongside this account was offered an overview of the conditions of life in australia, their imprint on belief and behavior, and the expression in art of aspects of australian world view and values. it then became evident that any extension of the australian data to upper paleo- lithic man would require further ethnographic comparison to filter out ele- ments specific to the australians. examples were offered relevant to two over- lapping sets of relationships: ( ) the life situation and belief, and ( ) belief and the practice of art. certain very broad positive and negative suggestions were developed in these illustrative comparisons. to narrow the interpretive possibilities further requires that we turn to the art itself, to its content and, above all, to its style. the analysis of style offers two potential contributions. before exemplifying the more detailed kind of interpretation which can be made when the sort of study outlined above is followed by scrutiny of the art itself, the concept of style and its potential value to our undertaking deserves consideration. potential contributions to the interpretation of pre- historic art in stylistic analysis a. style and meaning. "by style is meant the constant form-and some- times the constant elements, quality and expression-in the art of an indi- vidual or a group." in this compact statement by schapiro ( : ) are two implications of potential importance for the study of prehistoric art. one is that style, as well as subject matter, yields "meanings." the other is that an art style refers to a specific group. our discussion of style will be devoted to developing these two implications. style is not, as is sometimes assumed, an aspect of art independent of sub- ject matter or "content." this distinction merely refers to different lines of sight on the same phenomena. when we talk about subject matter, the objec- tive is principally to identify the items of experience to which the painter has turned for his models, or to characterize the anecdotal situation which has this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp levine] prehistoric art and ideology served him for a metaphor. when we talk about style, we may be said to be concerned with identifying the principle or principles of selection which dis- tinguish the artistic utterance. selection occurs on three levels. first, it affects the choice of subject mat- ter. the universe of upper paleolithic art is predominantly a carnival of the animals-and the big game animals at that. the art of australia offers a much more representative sample of the plant and animal life of the region, and humans are frequent subjects. this is a gross contrast, but it will serve to illustrate the point: if we were to approach the matter from a primary inter- est in "content," our problem would be solved with an inventory of the crea- tures who inhabit the artistic universe. the stylistic approach, however, aims at detecting the bias which such a census might reveal and then trying to inter- pret its significance. even when the subject matter is merely identified, there is usually some attempt to describe the manner of depiction, the second level on which selec- tion occurs. the suggestion here is that the manner of depiction is properly and usefully regarded as an object of analysis in its own right. the same sub- ject matter is sometimes found in two quite distinct bodies of art-for example, the fish paintings in arnhem land and at the gorge d'enfer in france. dis- criminating the piscine species is hardly sufficient to account for the contrast in point of view expressed by the art. more to the point is the x-ray treat- ment of the fish in australia as against the full-fleshed presentation of the upper paleolithic fish. the difference in this case is stylistic, a difference in the selection of relevant elements from the model encountered in real life. this is what distinguishes an altamira bison from the buffalo on a nickel. on this level, selection is defined by such questions as: what aspects of the model are retained? what aspects are stressed, by disproportion or color or other means? what aspects are attenuated or ignored? many australian paintings present a tableau, built either on some situa- tion encountered in daily life or on a fantastic recombination of various indi- vidual elements of ordinary experience. in such a work, the artist creates and populates a milieu. this expresses the third level of selection, that which involves patterns of arrangement of the subject matter in the total composi- tion. in the mimi paintings in arnhem land, we may see inordinately tall human figures hurling spears at kangaroo. some of the bark paintings from the same region offer a synthetic situation: a man dominates the center of the picture. he is ringed by fish, two of which are converging on his huge, extended penis. in the former work, the milieu is modeled on a mundane event, whereas the latter presents a microcosmos whose overall arrangement or gestalt is synthetic, a product of fantasy. in both, however, the elements of subject matter have been selected; the depiction of the subjects shows selection; and, in the frame of reference of the total composition, the "environment" is estab- lished through selective principles expressed in juxtaposition, relative size of the elements, the character of the lebensraum, and suggestions about time through treatment of sequence, and so forth. this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp american anthropologist [ , in contrast with australian art, one of the most striking features of upper paleolithic art is the rarity of "scenes." where they do occur, as in the famous one at lascaux, the style is markedly different from the rest of the art. they are generally very economical delineations, almost stick figures in some cases, rather than opulent paintings; and their "sketchy" quality suggests a kind of reportage, perhaps the illustration of a verbal narrative. most of the art, however, is "portraiture" of one kind or another, i.e., the presentation of an animal which is not placed in a context but rather preempts the "milieu" of the painting. not only does the analysis of compositional selection become much more refined, but we are faced with interpreting the significance of the absence of any kind of mise en sc?ne. thus far, we have described style as the expression of principles of selection on three levels and have sought to specify them. in order to suggest the "mean- ings" which style may yield, we must turn to a more general canvass of the idea of selection per se. boas ( : - ) derives selection from the limitations of the artistic media. the materials of the painter and sculptor do not permit truly literal imitation, but constrain them to select. this is self-evident, but it doesn't explain why the selection should not turn out to be random. the fact is that the selection is not random, or else we could never talk about "gothic" art or "cubism" and so on; so that we must work toward some idea of the source of the patterns of selection. tylor said that the purpose of art "is not imitation, but what the artist strives to bring out is the idea that strikes the beholder" ( : ). in relat- ing selection to creative intent, rather than to the constraints imposed by the media, tylor puts us on the path to a useful conception of meaning in style. malraux ( : ) develops this theme: whatever the artist himself may say on the matter, never does he let himself be mas- tered by the outside world; always he subdues it to something he puts in its stead ... for the visible world is not only a profusion of forms, it is a profusion of significances; yet as a whole it signifies nothing, for it signifies everything .... thus, styles are sig- nifications, they impose a meaning on visual experience... always we see them re- placing the uncharted scheme of things by the coherence they enforce on all they "represent." every style, in fact, creates its own universe by selecting and incorporating such elements of reality as enable the artist to focus the shape of things on some essential part of man. this will recall the parallel statement by whorf in quite a different con- text, worth quoting here because it refers in a more general way to the source of selection as a function of symbolic behavior in man's organization of reality: the categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented to us in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds .... we cut nature up, organize it into concepts, ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to do it in this way ( : ). this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp levine] prehistoric art and ideology a few years earlier, in patterns of culture, benedict defined the ethos of a culture as a selection from the great arc of human possibilities. her analogic reference to the configuration of culture and art style in the same work is not merely heuristic; the conception of art style was as much a model as a meta- phor. an art style is a particular set of selective principles. taken as a whole, the style of a particular work of art expresses the perceptive bias of the individual artist, as conditioned by ( ) his peculiar life history and ( ) the context in which his life unfolds, that context being the human group to which he belongs and its culture. but there is also a style attributable to a corpus of art by many artists, as the synoptic collections of any historically organized museum will confirm. sapir's distinction between individual and social behavior ( ) can be projected to reconcile the individual and social dimensions in art style: those aspects of "individual style" which may be referred to shared patterns of selection represent the art style of the group or culture. the "cultural mean- ing" of an art style, then, is the organization of reality, the conceptual modes, the various levels of value-in short, the collective representations-of the culture which produced it. b. stylistic units and cultural units. up to now, we have been concerned with interpreting art-with the use of ethnographic materials and with the meanings which may be derived from the analysis of style. along with scha- piro, we have assumed that a particular art style is the product of a particular historical sociocultural entity. the concept of style outlined above would seem to warrant this assumption. and, although taxonomic arrangements of non- artistic archeological materials in "industries" and "assemblages" have not been equatable with cultures (movius : - ), archeology has used art styles to achieve culture historical integration. on the premise that art styles refer to historic cultural enfities, archeologists have plotted their distribution geographically and chronologically and have been able to order their assem- blages in a space-time matrix. bennett's reconstruction of a central andean area co-tradition ( ) summed up historical and methodological contribu- tions by kroeber ( ) and willey ( ), among others, and remains today a prime example of the effective use of art styles in plotting culture history. but to say that an art style belongs to an historic sociocultural entity doesn't quite do away with the problem of coincidence between an artistic unit and a group unit. we must consider schapiro's point that a culture may foster two art styles contemporaneously. if this were true, we could not be sure whether our ideological reconstruction referred to part of the outlook of a group, or to the whole of it; and our unit of reference would slip from our grasp. from the standpoint of the present concern with cultures on the hunting and gathering level, i.e., cultures which are likely to be homogeneous, the problem does not appear formidable. an apparent instance of diverse art styles maintained by a single culture in arnhem land disappears upon closer inspection. the mimi paintings in the caves are, in most stylistic respects, this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp american anthropologist [ , markedly different from the bark paintings and other art produced today and in the recorded past. we cannot assume, because the mimi paintings figure in contemporary belief and ritual, that they represent another art style of the aborigines of today, who do not make them, do not know or have forgotten who did make them, and regard this art as both representative of and produced by spirits. the fact that present-day aborigines project an explanation on the art does not put them in possession of two art styles. turning more directly to schapiro's point that, "the variation of styles in a culture or group is often considerable within the same period" ( : ), we are led to inquire into the unit characterized as "a culture or group." con- sidering the range of examples adduced throughout the article, it is fair to assume that he refers to contemporaneous variety within something like "western culture." the tremendous diversity within this frame of reference is a plain fact, but are we justified in referring to it as "a culture"? to the extent that we are justified in taking western culture as a unit, it is vis-a-vis non- western cultures; and then it is the similarities within our unit, not the dif- ferences, that are being stressed. if, however, we are going to focus on variation within this huge geographical, historical, sociocultural framework, then we have to recognize subcultures in space, time, and the organization of society and social thought. and the question becomes one of coincidence between a single art style and a single subculture. the recent history of modern art gives vivid testimony to the overlapping and side-by-side existence of diverse artistic styles; it is fruitless to seek a com- mon denominator for expressionism and cubism or for norman rockwell and picasso. there is parallel diversity in views of reality and values. the artistic subcultures can be characterized by different orientations in belief and behavior. however, in no case can a variety of styles be attributed to one artis- tic "school." the problem which schapiro raises is not, in the end, a problem of reconciling cultural homogeneity with stylistic diversity, but one of estab- lishing meaningful coincidences between art styles and sociocultural entities. this problem is yet to be solved with respect to the upper paleolithic. breuil has organized the art into two great cycles, the aurignacian-p rigordian and the solutreo-magdalenian, on the basis of archeological evidence, stylis- tic criteria (which assume a progression toward accomplished naturalistic rendering and increasing elaborateness in technique), and similarities in cer- tain broad features of execution. this grouping of the material, granting its validity, is nevertheless unsuited to the purposes outlined in this paper. the units are chronological and lump obviously disparate art styles. the altamira polychrome bison are placed in magdalenian vi. so are the bison at font-de- gaume. yet they are remarkably different in style. the former are thickly outlined, presented in a variety of poses, very detailed, adorned with a stylized, fringe-like treatment of the hair. the latter have more generalized forms, are rather delicately outlined, are mostly standing erect, with emphatic develop- ment of the hump and other rounded parts of the body. the refinement of de- lineation in the french bison contrasts with the spanish cave paintings as japanese art might contrast with rouault or picasso. this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp levine] prehistoric art and ideology in order to obtain units against which the analysis of style can be pro- jected, it will be necessary to cross-cut breuil's chronological classification with groupings based on spatial distribution. despite their apparent con- temporaneity, and whatever similarities in outlook they may have shared, there were differences in the principles of selection between the people at alta- mira and those at font-de-gaume. we have to assume, provisionally at least, that these were variant local cultures. what might, for convenience, be called the "font-de-gaume style" and the "altamira style" must be plotted geo- graphically. once the distribution is known, the archeology of the area which corresponds with the art style must also be treated as a unit distinct from the remainder of the larger region. in short, a stylistic-cultural region must be plotted and dealt with as an entity. the outcome of such "style-mapping" will be individual units with which we can begin to do interpretive work. it will not result in a sequence of upper paleolithic art history, for the present state of our knowledge of art styles and the logic of their progression is totally inadequate to allow us to convert several different art styles into an historical series on internal evidence. for sequences of styles, we will have to continue to depend for a long time on the data of dirt archeology. some trial interpretations of upper paleolithic art let us proceed now to some attempts at interpretation of some features of upper paleolithic art, using the guides developed above. the following sugges- tions were developed in ethnographic comparisons, taking off from a review of the australian data: dependence upon nature is one of the crucial features of a hunting and gathering subsistence, regardless of the relative bounty of the environment. the relationship with the natural setting is intimate and intense. hunting is difficult with the inadequate arsenal possessed by these peoples; and cornering and killing big game animals is not only problematic but often dangerous. the unexpected and irregular manifestations of nature produce major crises in the lives of such dependent people. these situational factors are reflected in several themes in the outlook and behavior: nature is perceived as active and purposive and personal, sometimes in animistic terms and sometimes in outright anthropomorphic terms; and there is some tendency to identify to greater or lesser degree with nonhuman living things. even when the food supply is abundant, dependence, unpredictability in the total situation, and the resistance of big game to the hunter's purpose in- voke anxiety which is expressed by peopling the universe with spirits or gods which (a) account for the character of the situation, and (b) provide the possi- bility of appropriate action to control or at least salvage the situation. nature, thus regarded, is approached from two directions: it is perceived this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp american anthropologist [ , as accessible to propitiation; and compensation for what man must take from it in order to survive is regarded as possible and necessary. in turn, these themes are reflected in certain attitudes and patterns of behavior with respect to art: the main belief in this connection is that a work of art is the same thing as that which it represents. from this stems the idea that art objects have mana-like power. in the realm of behavior, we have seen that hunting and gathering people who engage in art-making do so ritually. this represents the range of possibilities filtered from a description of australian life, belief, and art by virtue of comparisons with other hunting and gathering peoples designed to distinguish between what is specific to the aus- tralian situation and what might remain for use in interpreting upper paleo- lithic art. in approaching the prehistoric material, the art itself guides us to a still closer range of potential explanation. the selection reflected in the subject matter, depictive treatment, and compositional arrangement of the art is the clue to the selection which characterizes the outlook of the ancient people. in view of what has been said about the need for well articulated art styles for the upper paleolithic, it is only possible to deal here with discrete features which cannot be added up and offered as the values and outlook upon reality of a true sociocultural entity. the handprints in the caves are the remains of a ritual of identification ("kil- roy was here"), the mark of the pilgrim's visit to a sacred place. the very way of life, as we have seen, develops an intimate sense of locality and the imputation of sacred character to features of the landscape. this is elaborately expressed in australia, where there are also handprints and where the natives are able to identify the owners who have placed them there in a ritual act. the profusely superposed drawings are the traces of a restitution ritual: when- ever an animal was killed, his essence was restored to nature by ritual rendering of his image at a sacred spot. basic to this interpretation are the following be- liefs: an image is what it represents; restitution can and must be made to the spirits or gods who stand for nature. these express anxiety over the con- tinuity of the food supply, born of dependence upon nature, and the notion that taking life is dangerous not only vis-a-vis the powerful beast but also the powerful spirits who inspire and protect all life. the superposed drawings occur at selected places, often surrounded by available areas for drawing. on occasion, as at les trois frbres, they are placed in juxtaposition with other art-in this case the "sorcerer"-in a manner which suggests sacrifice to a spirit or god. above all, the palimpsests of this kind suggest a compulsive superposition rather than mere overpainting or overdrawing; and this compulsiveness inspires the notion of ritual. similar artistic phenomena are reported from australia by basedow ( : ), who cites rock carvings at yunta in the flinders mountains where "one design has been carved over the top of another, time after time, until eventually the ground appeared as though it were covered by an elaborate carpet." speaking this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp levine] prehistoric art and ideology of the "impression of profuseness" in the cave galleries of rock painting in arnhem land, elkin ( : - ) says: "the drawings overlay one another. this suggests that satisfaction lies not so much in admiring the finished picture, as in the act of painting it or in some practical desire it expresses and in some result it will effect.. . he believes that this 'ritual' act will bring about the desired result." the anthropomorphic figures, as a general class of art, express the affiliation between men and other living creatures and, as well, the personification of nature. this is a very vague generalization; but it does suggest the direction of produc- tive analysis. assuming the significance of anthropomorphic figures suggested here, the most informative path would seem to require a close study of the factors of selection-human and animal elements used-and composition of these elements into a synthetic figure. this is not an easy task for the upper paleolithic, where anthropomorphic figures are not a strongly expressed artis- tic theme and where they tend to occur as one-of-a-kind examples. the animals which occur with darts or spears sticking in them have been popularly interpreted as imitative magic; and although this kind of interpreta- tion is again very general, it does gain support from other evidence discussed above. this involves the same kind of equation of the artistic depiction with that which is depicted as do the superposed drawings of the palimpsests, al- though the intent here is clearly not restitution but rather to gain power over the animal. thus, we have an expression tending to confirm the perception of the game animals as dangerous in a literal sense. in the more specific treat- ment of perspective tordue below, there seems ample justification to impute this sense of problem to upper paleolithic man. perspective tordue in upper paleolithic art is not a manifestation of inept perspective rendering but evidence for the intense concern of the hunter, with his inadequate armament, over the danger he faced from the horned wild beasts. "twisted perspective" is breuil's name for an artistic practice encountered in the upper paleolithic in which the horns of animals otherwise shown in profile are turned around full face to the viewer. the accepted interpretation of this phenomenon has been that it represents less accomplished naturalism than later art. to put it another way, this style has been designated as earlier and assigned to the perigordian, largely on the assumption that there is a progres- sion in upper paleolithic art as a whole toward the renaissance ideal of per- spective. this assumes a kind of progressive learning which took place over many thousands of years. it also ignores the possibility that perspective tordue expresses a principle of style, a kind of compositional selection which is de- signed to stress the significance to the artist of the horns of the animal. how- ever, recourse to the australian material yields evidence that such twisting of usual appearances is purposeful and refers to aspects of the life experience of the artists. in australia there are many pictures in which the figure of a man or an ani- mal is presented in profile, standing or running, but with the soles of the feet this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp american anthropologist [ , turned up to face the viewer. we know why the australians do this. from early childhood, boys are taught to identify human and animal tracks with extreme subtlety. their lives depend on the success of the hunt and game is scarce, and no means of detecting the opportunity for a kill can be neglected. animal tracks themselves are a prominent motif in australian art; in the pic- tures described above they merely become an element-albeit an important one-of a larger composition. it should also be noted that footprints of humans, as well as handprints, are found in the caves and are part of the syn- drome of identification. tracks are the mark of men and animals in australia. in this light, it is evident that the presentation of the soles of the feet in the arnhem land bark paintings and other art represents a selective prin- ciple, a violation of literal truth in behalf of a more profound reality, reflecting the intense concern with identifying animals and men and even spirits. in the upper paleolithic, we cannot overlook the possibility of an analogous situation in the art, which takes its shape from the particular situation that obtained then and there. we have referred to the inefficiency of the weapons of upper paleolithic man in dealing with large animals; and he doubtless used traps and pitfalls and other means to bring them down. it is also quite likely that one of the perils of wandering around the countryside to hunt or to collect vegetable food was the possibility of attack by these beasts. this was a real problem for him; and the notion that his art features the selective principle which gives prominence to the horns on these grounds seems more plausible than inept rendering-an idea which applies esthetic values limited to a par- ticular period of western art history. further, in the famous "wall-scene" at lascaux, which appears as noted earlier to be illustrating an actual event, we get a depiction of an event in which the disemboweled beast looms over the fallen hunter, horns pointing to the fallen man and to the viewer. the above are some examples of interpretations of upper paleolithic art, offered to illustrate how artistic selection may be projected on a range of pos- sible explanations to narrow that range considerably. this paper has been designed to suggest procedures whereby ethnographic materials, the data about ecology and the life situation and art afforded by archeology, a concept of style as selective perception, can contribute to a systematic, verifiable sequence of analysis and reconstruction. the essence of the procedure is a progressive narrowing down of the variety of explanation for which plausi- bility can be asserted. the objective is a limitation on plausible explanation; patent demonstration is out of the question. even so, with much work on a more modest scale than indicated here, on many fronts which demand study, there is some prospect of narrowing the span between that period for which we know something of man as a highly evolved animal and that brief epoch for which his attitudes and outlook are known to us in specific detail. notes i the writer is indebted to hallam l. movius, jr., clyde kluckhohn, and gordon r. willey for their suggestions and criticisms of the several drafts of this paper, as well as for their manifest contribution to its orientation. this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp levine] prehistoric art and ideology the limitations of even the most scrupulous library research need hardly be stressed, except that awareness of these restrictions has underlined the value of joseph b. birdsell's generous con- tribution of his first-hand knowledge of australian aboriginal life in hours of conversation and counsel. ethnographic comparison, even to the limited extent pursued here, was immensely facili- tated and enriched by recourse to the hraf and cross cultural survey files at yale university. the writer is grateful to george peter murdock for his time and trouble and encouragement in the early stages of this research, as well as for the initiation at his hands to the benefits of the hraf material. references cited basedow, herbert the australian aboriginal. adelaide, f. w. preece and sons. bennett, wendell c. and junius b. bird andean culture history. handbook series no. , american museum of natural history. new york. berndt, r. m. and catherine berndt sexual behavior in western arnhem land. viking fund publ. in anthropology no. . new york. birdsell, joseph b. some environmental and cultural factors influencing the structuring of australian aboriginal populations. the american naturalist, vol. lxxxvii, no. . supple- ment to may-june. published for the institute for the study of human variation of columbia university. boas, franz primitive art. oslo, h. aschettoug & co. breuil, henri four hundred centuries of cave art. translated by mary e. boyle. realized by fernand windels. dordogne, montignac. elkin, a. p. the australian aborigines. sydney, angus and robertson. elkin, a. p., r. m. berndt, and c. berndt art in arnhem land. melbourne, f. w. cheshire. fry, h. k. body and soul: a study from western australia. oceania : - . sydney, australian nat'l. res. council. hawes, chas. h. in the uttermost east. london and new hork, harper & bros. kreinovich, e. a. hunting of the beluga by the gilyaks of the village puir. sovietskaia etnografiia, no. : - . kroeber, a. l. peruvian archaeology in . viking fund publ. in anthropology no. . new york. malraux, andre the voices of silence. translated by stuart gilbert. garden city, doubleday & co., inc. marett, r. r. food rites. in essays presented to c. g. seligman, e. e. evans-pritchard ed. london. mcallester, david p. enemy way music: a study of social and esthetic values as seen in navaho music. papers of the peabody museum of american archaeology and ethnology, harvard university, vol. xli, no. . cambridge. mills, george navaho art and culture: a study of the relations among cultural premises, art styles and art values. ph.d. dissertation, harvard university. this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp american anthropologist [ , ] mountford, charles p. records of the american-australian scientific expedition to arnhem land: , art, myth and symbolism. melbourne, the melbourne university press. london and new york, the cambridge university press. movius, hallam l., jr. curren point, larne, county antrim: the type site of the irish mesolithic. proc. roy. irish acad., vol. , sec. c., no. . dublin. roheim, geza the nescience of the aranda. british journ. of medical psychology, : - . cambridge, cambridge university press. sapir, edward the unconscious patterning of behavior in society. in selected writings of edward sapir, david g. mandelbaum ed. berkeley and los angeles, university of california press. schapiro, meyer style. in anthropology today, a. l. kroeber ed. chicago, university of chicago press. seeland, nicolas die ghiliaken, eine ethnographische skizze. russische revue, vol. xxi. st. petersburg. sverdrup, harald hos tundrafolket (with the people of the tundra). oslo, gyldendal norsk forlag. tindale, norman b. distribution of australian aboriginal tribes: a field survey. trans. roy. soc. so. australia : - . cited in birdsell ( ). tylor, edward b. anthropology. new york, d. appleton & co. whorf, b. l. science and linguistics. in the technology review, vol. xlii, april. m.i.t., cambridge. willey, gordon r. horizon styles and pottery traditions. american antiquity : - . prehistoric settlement patterns in the viru valley, peru. smithsonian institution, bureau of american ethnology, bulletin . u. s. gov't, printing office. wash- ington. windels, fernand the lascaux cave paintings. new york, the viking press. this content downloaded from . . . on tue, jul : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp 	article contents 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	issue table of contents 	american anthropologist, new series, vol. , no. (dec., ), pp. i-viii+ - 	volume information [pp. - ] 	front matter [pp. i-v] 	from the editor's desk [pp. vi-viii] 	prehistoric art and ideology [pp. - ] 	micro-evolution: cultural elements in physical variation [pp. - ] 	values, attitudes, and social concepts of japanese and american children [pp. - ] 	an eta community in japan: the social persistence of outcaste groups [pp. - ] 	intergroup hostility and social cohesion [pp. - ] 	dream learning and individual ritual differences in mohave shamanism [pp. - ] 	possession "hysteria" in a kenya tribe [pp. - ] 	acculturation in the context of selected new and old world peasant cultures [pp. - ] 	brief communications 	on defining culture [pp. - ] 	methodological considerations in the study of intergroup relations [pp. - ] 	some factors affecting residence mobility [pp. - ] 	letter to the editor 	greek kinship terms in everyday use [pp. - ] 	book reviews 	general and theoretical 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	ethnology and ethnography 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	american society and culture 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	archeology 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	linguistics 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	mythology and folklore 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [p. ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	other 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	back matter [pp. - ] what george forgot by kathy wolff (review) what george forgot by kathy wolff (review) quinita balderson bulletin of the center for children's books, volume , number , september , p. (review) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /bcc. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /bcc. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ • the bulletin wolff, kathy what george forgot; illus. by richard byrne. bloomsbury, [ p] isbn - - - - $ . reviewed from galleys r - yrs george has his morning routine perfectly memorized but just as he is about to step outside, he gets the nagging feeling that he has forgotten something important. but what? (storytime spectators may note george’s exposed polka-dot briefs and be tempted to shout out what george forgot.) to be sure he’s prepared for the school day, he mentally runs through all the things he has done; that laundry list of tasks is so daunting that it’s a wonder he can make time to sufficiently tease his sister. even though his playful antics distract him from his routine enough to cause a temporary memory lapse, sis comes through for him in the end with his missing pants. the cover art (dominated by an overstuffed dresser) and endpapers (filled with everything he needs to get ready) show evidence of just how much is involved in this kid’s morning routine. pencil drawings are digitally colored with soft pastels that create a palette filled with both joyfulness and innocence, a tone well-suited to george’s angelic gaze that could get him out of nearly any jam. there is something admirable about the sincere youthful attempt at being organized, and getting lost in george’s messiness is part of the fun as george visualizes everything he did and allows viewers to get sidetracked along with him. qb wood, susan american gothic: the life of grant wood; illus. by ross macdon- ald. abrams, p trade ed. isbn - - - - $ . e-book ed. isbn - - - - $ . r gr. - here middle-grade readers meet a twentieth-century iowan, grant wood, who knows he wants to paint, knows what he wants to paint (other iowans), knows where to learn to paint (paris, obviously), but just can’t reconcile the painterly styles then in vogue—impressionism, cubism, abstract art—with his subject matter. hazy views of french cathedrals, faces parsed into multiple planes, colored geometric forms had little to do with the bib overalls, rolling farmland, and framed houses that consumed his interest, and even less to do with the economic challenges of the great depression holding sway over america’s economy. a gothic arched window in an iowa farmhouse, however, caught wood’s attention, connecting his european experience with american reality, and inspired what would become not only his signature painting but also a seminal work of the american regionalist school, american gothic. susan wood addresses head-on some of the debates and myths surrounding the cryptic figures of the iconic pitchfork and its dour owners, and she selects several other paintings for viewing and discussion which explore wood’s participation in the homegrown art movement he helped to found. macdonald is an ideal choice for illustrator, with his signature retro style and saturated colors that recall early disney animation and little golden books, which intersected the regionalist era. an author’s note, timeline, list of sources, reproductions of several wood’s paintings, and a large photograph of wood posing in his studio are also included. eb c:\documents and settings\pubdat\ebimailt\attach\two paths to abstract art.wpd nber working paper series two paths to abstract art: kandinsky and malevich david w. galenson working paper http://www.nber.org/papers/w national bureau of economic research massachusetts avenue cambridge, ma july the views expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the national bureau of economic research. © by david w. galenson. all rights reserved. short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source. two paths to abstract art: kandinsky and malevich david w. galenson nber working paper no. july jel no. abstract wassily kandinsky and kazimir malevich were both great russian painters who became pioneers of abstract art during the second decade of the twentieth century. yet the forms of their art differed radically, as did their artistic methods and goals. kandinsky, an experimental artist, approached abstraction tentatively and visually, by gradually and progressively concealing forms drawn from nature, whereas malevich, a conceptual innovator, plunged precipitously into abstraction, by creating symbolic elements that had no representational origins. the conceptual malevich also made his greatest innovations considerably earlier in his life than the experimental kandinsky. interestingly, at the age of kandinsky wrote an essay that clearly described these two categories of artist, contrasting the facile and protean young virtuoso with the single-minded individual who matured more slowly but was ultimately more original. david w. galenson department of economics university of chicago east th street chicago, il and nber galenson@uchicago.edu experimental and conceptual innovators through the whole history of art two kinds of talents and two different missions are simultaneously at work. wassily kandinsky, two of the greatest painters of the modern era - wassily kandinsky and kazimir malevich - were russian. both made their greatest contributions in the second decade of the twentieth century. and both are universally recognized as pioneers of abstract art, which became one of the century’s most distinctive artistic developments. kandinsky and malevich have been studied by scores of art historians. these scholars have recognized that kandinsky and malevich arrived at abstraction by very different approaches, just as they have recognized that the two artists’ forms of abstract art differed greatly. as is common in art history, however, these differences have been considered in isolation, as idiosyncracies of these two artists. yet recent research has shown that kandinsky and malevich are archetypal cases of two different types of artistic innovator. recognizing this can give us a more systematic understanding of why kandinsky’s and malevich’s careers, and art, differed in the ways they did. studies of several hundred important artists have shown that artistic innovators can broadly be divided into two groups. experimental innovators generally have imprecise visual goals. their uncertainty leads them to work tentatively, by trial and error. their innovations consequently appear gradually, over long periods, as they make discoveries in the process of executing their paintings. in contrast, conceptual innovators typically use their art to express their ideas or emotions. their goals for their work can be stated clearly, before its execution, and they can consequently plan their paintings precisely, and execute them systematically. conceptual innovations appear suddenly, as the embodiment of new ideas. the long periods often required to develop experimental innovations mean that they usually occur late in an artist’s career. in contrast, the most important conceptual innovations are usually made by young artists, who can create bold new forms without being hampered by long- established habits of thought. the seeker and the finder woe to the artist whose reason interferes with his “inner dictates” while he is working. wassily kandinsky, the new complexity in the modern development of art, the necessity for the conscious use of scientific geometric methods become clear in the creation of a system of movement for new classical structures. kazimir malevich, in a remarkable essay titled “reminiscences,” written when he was at the peak of his career, kandinsky described the development of his art. he recalled one key event that occurred in , when he was , that contributed to his decision to become a full-time artist. at an impressionist exhibition in moscow, for the first time kandinsky came upon a painting that was not strictly realistic: that it was a haystack, the catalogue informed me. i didn’t recognize it. i found this nonrecognition painful, and thought that the painter had no right to paint so indistinctly. in spite of his discomfort, kandinsky discovered that the painting had seized his imagination: i noticed with surprise and confusion that the picture not only gripped me, but impressed itself ineradicably upon my memory... what was... quite clear to me was the unsuspecting power of the palette, previously concealed from me, which exceeded all my dreams. painting took on a fairy-tale power and splendor. and, albeit unconsciously, objects were discredited as an essential element within the picture. kandinsky thus explained that he was powerfully affected by a visual event, as his first sight of a monet not only revealed the power of art, but also planted the seed that would eventually grow into the realization that art need not be representational. a second key event occurred several years later, after kandinsky had moved to munich to study painting: i was enchanted on one occasion by an unexpected spectacle that confronted me in my studio. it was the hour when dusk draws in. i returned home with my painting box having finished a study, still dreamy and absorbed in the work i had completed, and suddenly saw an indescribably beautiful picture, pervaded by an inner glow. at first, i stopped short and then quickly approached this mysterious picture, on which i could discern only forms and colors and whose content was incomprehensible. at once, i discovered the key to the puzzle: it was a picture i had painted, standing on its side against the wall. the next day, kandinsky was unable to recreate his enchantment with the picture: “even on its side, i constantly recognized objects, and the fine bloom of dusk was lost.” he drew a simple conclusion: “now i could see clearly that objects harmed my pictures.” yet this conclusion immediately produced a “terrifying abyss” for kandinsky, as he confronted a momentous question: “what is to replace the missing object?” he feared that a purely abstract art would degenerate into mere decoration, devoid of emotional or spiritual significance. his eventual solution to this problem was based on the belief that non- representational art would remain meaningful if it grew out of representation: if the artist began with real objects, then obscured them by blurring or simplying their forms, the viewer would sense their presence, and feel their impact, even if only subconsciously. making abstract art therefore involved masking: “concealment wields an enormous power in art.” even greater possibilities were raised by using both explicit and implicit forms, “the combination of the hidden and the revealed.” the empirical and visual source of kandinsky’s belief in the validity of abstract art points to his experimental nature as an artist. the same is true of the extended process by which he gradually developed his form of abstract art. thus he reflected in that only after years of patient toil and strenuous thought, numerous painstaking attempts, and my constantly developing ability to conceive of pictorial forms in purely abstract terms, engrossing myself more and more in these measureless depths, did i arrive at the pictorial forms i use today... i sometimes look back at the past and despair at how long this solution took me. yet he recognized that he could only proceed intuitively, letting forms arise in the course of painting: my only consolation is that i have never been able to persuade myself to use a form that arose within me by way of logic, rather than feeling. i could not devise such forms, and it disgusts me when i see them. every form i ever used arrived “of its own accord,” presenting itself fully fledged before my eyes... or else constituting itself actually in the course of work, often to my own surprise. what kandinsky came to understand was that for him progress necessarily occurred gradually, and that abstract art could come only at the end of a “long path, which i had to follow”: it is impossible to conjure up maturity artificially at any particular time. and nothing is more damaging and more sinful than to seek one’s forms by force... one can philosophize about form; it can be analyzed, even calculated. it must, however, enter into the work of art of its own accord... thus, i was obliged to wait patiently for the hour that would lead my hand to create abstract form. kandinsky described painting as a “struggle with the canvas,” in the course of which he “derived spiritual experiences from the sensations of colors on the palette.” while he was working he was constantly sensitive to the developing image: the artist “hears” how something or other tells him: “hold it! where? the line is too long. it has to be shortened, but only a little bit!” “just a little bit, i tell you!” or: “do you want the red to stand out more? good! then add some green. now they will ‘clash’ a little, take off a little. but only a little, i tell you.” response to the work in progress was essential: “one must have the perception to ‘listen’ when the voice sounds. otherwise, no art.” kandinsky consequently rejected calculation or preconception: “my advice... is to mistrust logic in art.” malevich’s attitude was very different. he believed artistic forms should follow rules: “in constructing painterly forms it is essential to have a system for their construction, a law for the constructional inter-relationships of forms.” progress in art need not be gradual: “in art it is not always a case of evolution, but sometimes also of revolution.” his own form of abstract art, suprematism, was a case in point: “i transformed myself in the zero of form and emerged from nothing to creation, that is to suprematism, to the new realism in painting - to non-objective creation.” malevich believed that the time had come for art to abandon imitation of the external world: what was now needed was “the formation of signs instead of the repetition of nature.” these new signs would be ideas, “flowing from our creative brain.” artists “should abandon subject and objects if they wish to be pure painters.” unlike the movements it succeeded, including cubism and futurism, suprematism would not create forms by breaking real objects into component parts, but would build directly with abstract forms: “it is not constructed out of the dynamic elements of the objects, like some futurist pictures,... it is a harmoniously constructed image of abstract elements.” as he explained in an essay of titled “suprematism as pure cognition,” these elements would exist solely in the work of art: “represented spaces, planes and lines exist only on the pictorial surface, but not in reality.” in the same year, malevich’s disciple el lissitzky explained that in suprematism symbols did not have to have immediate meanings: “a sign is designed, much later it is given its name, and later still its meaning become clear.” the judgments of art historians support the characterization of kandinsky as an experimental innovator. alan bowness remarked that during his approach to abstraction “kandinsky was a man struggling in the dark. he was aware of this - it is part of his historic importance that he admitted that neither the creation nor the appreciation of a work of art is an exclusively conscious process.” kandinsky’s friend and biographer will grohmann stressed that kandinsky achieved abstraction not decisively, based on theory, but tentatively, based on vision: it is only with the greatest caution that kandinsky made the transition to abstract forms. had he been guided by theory alone, he could easily, after he wrote on the spiritual in art (i.e. from onward), have completely eliminated naturalistic elements from his painting. in actual fact it took him four years to reach that point, and he was still painting landscapes as late as . kandinsky did not want to paint decorative works, states of mind, or music. he consciously aimed at the pictorial, and for this reason he had to try to retain the forms he had intuitively discovered, but at the same time he filled them with the content of his lived experience. analyzing kandinsky’s work of this same period, david sylvester compared his practice to that of another great experimental artist: the incompleteness of these paintings - the way that passages are left unresolved - is something like the incompleteness of an unfinished cézanne still life. the cézanne is a record of a groping after the forms of external objects in which honesty compels that what cannot be said with certainty is better left unsaid: a kandinsky of the blaue reiter period [ - ] is its counterpart in terms of a groping after the forms of feelings. ulrike becks-malorny contrasted the spontaneity and freedom of kandinsky’s art with the calculation and predetermination of malevich and his followers: there is... a fundamental difference between kandinsky’s art and that of his suprematist compatriots. whereas the suprematists gave priority to the construction of a picture, employing radically streamlined elements and materials, precise analysis and conscious design, kandinsky saw the expressive, true essence of the picture solely in its composition, namely the free combination of manifold pictorial elements. unlike most experimental artists, kandinsky routinely made preparatory drawings, watercolors, and even oil sketches for his paintings. unlike conceptual artists, however, for whom a painting is often an enlarged replica of a final preparatory image, kandinsky’s paintings are generally the last, and most abstract, stage of a progression, in which the image progressively became more abstracted from reality as each sketch moved farther away from the recognizable representational forms of the first drawing. thus when kandinsky spoke of hiding or concealing objects in the approach to abstraction, he was not referring to a process that occurred in the course of application of layers of paint to a single canvas, but rather to one that was carried out in a series of separate works. one consequence of this is that ambiguous objects in his paintings can often be identified by consulting the related preparatory works: kandinsky’s improvisations... retain unmistakable references to his favorite, recurrent motifs. they contain multiple and abstract images of horses, riders, boats, rowers, waves, cannons, graveyards, citadels and reclining lovers... in formulating the improvisations between and , the artist made preparatory watercolor sketches. by studying a group of related watercolors with the final oil version, it becomes clear that kandinsky moved away from the object, obscuring the specific motif so only allusions to its representational origins are retained. sometimes he executed a detailed watercolor on which he based a canvas... in the large oil painting the forms have been obscured to an even greater degree than in the preparatory study. the images have been abstracted from nature to such an extent that they cannot easily be identified or “read.” art historians’ analyses of malevich equally support the view that he was a conceptual innovator. john golding described malevich’s concern with mathematics as he approached abstraction: “malevich had always been interested in geometry, but it is now, between and , that it becomes for him an obsessive concern.” john milner observed that by “malevich began to make the mathematical basis of his work a primary consideration,” noting that malevich and his colleagues lyubov popova and vladimir tatlin “were all three constructing figures on the basis of geometry in . individuality, likeness and character were all of secondary importance.” milner concluded that “in preferring generalized construction to specific detail, and the approach of constructing with geometry, these painters relinquished the whole realist tradition.” larissa zhadova explained that malevich’s suprematism was intended to symbolize the cosmos, but not to represent it: his pictures can be described as images of the world’s cosmic space. but they are not copied from nature; this is not the space one sees by looking at the blue sky above one’s head. they are hypothetical images, conceptual images, plastic formulation images, “factorizations” carried out by the artist’s imagination. suprematism was based on a radical new idea. thus mike o’mahony described the black square that initiated suprematism “not as a culminating point but as a new beginning, a tabula rasa upon which new cultural forms and ideas could be developed.” h. h. arnason also described the black square as revolutionary, “a new beginning that corresponded to the social transformation occurring around [malevich] in the years leading up to the russian revolution.” malevich’s art did not evolve slowly, like kandinsky’s, but changed rapidly. golding recognized that this speed was a function of the conceptual nature of the work: “during the years following the launch of the suprematist manifesto [in ] malevich’s thought was evolving at the same dizzying and heady rate as the evolution of his painting itself.” curiously, however, after its rapid development during - , suprematism stopped as abruptly as it started, as malevich ceased painting for about five years. this may have been an early instance of a phenomenon that has plagued a number of conceptual innovators in the arts, who have suffered dry spells when they ran out of new ideas. golding believed this was the case, for he described malevich as “the prototype for countless subsequent abstract artists who having reached their goal - or at least a distillation of the ideas and sensations they were seeking to evoke - only find themselves in the tragic position of wondering how to go further, how to avoid the endless repetition of the climax of their achievement.” measuring careers there has never been a “thermometer” for measuring the level of art, and there will never be one. wassily kandinsky, kandinsky was a great artist, but he was not a great quantitative social scientist. in an essay written in , he argued that it was impossible to determine when in an artist’s career he had done his best work, for art experts often disagreed, and there was no valid way to resolve these disagreements, because quality in art cannot be objectively determined: in the case of generally and rightly acknowledged artists, some specialists constantly rate their early period far higher than their later works, while other experts maintain the opposite. thus, there exist not simply individual works, but whole periods, made up in turn of numerous individual works, for which no one has ever devised any yardstick of quality either. kandinsky was wrong on both counts: quality in art can be determined systematically, and experts’ disagreements over artists’ best periods - when disagreements occur - can be satisfactorily resolved. even as kandinsky denied that systematic standards for artistic importance could exist, he identified the key standard: “ask yourselves... whether the work of art has made you free of a world unknown to you before.” in art, as in scholarship, importance is a function of innovation. important artists are innovators whose work changes the practices of their disciplines, by revealing worlds unknown before; important periods are those in which these innovative works appear. art historians have devoted considerable amounts of energy to identifying the most important artists, and to identifying their most important periods. and many art historians have devoted considerable amounts of energy to recording systematically the results of these many micro-level studies, by weaving them into summary narratives of the history of art. the resulting surveys of art history nearly always contain photographs chosen to illustrate the most important contributions of the most important artists. no one of these books can be considered definitive, because no single scholar’s judgments can be assumed to be superior to those of his peers, but pooling the evidence of the many available books can effectively provide a survey of art scholars’ opinions on what constitutes a given artist’s most important period. tables and provide tabulations, distributed by the artists’ ages at the date of execution, of all the illustrations of works by kandinsky and malevich, respectively, contained in surveys of art history, published since . table uses these distributions to identify the most important periods in these artists’ careers - the individual years or spans of years represented by the most illustrations. according to table , kandinsky’s best single year was , while malevich’s was . neither of these results is surprising. grohmann declared that “for kandinsky,... was the most fruitful of the prewar years.” this was the time of kandinsky’s arrival at a genuinely abstract art: “he has now mastered the abstract style of expression, and is in possession of the full range of his pictorial means.” and it was in that malevich painted the black square, which he described in the suprematist manifesto of the same year as “the face of the new art,” and as “the first step of pure creation in art.” in december of , in petrograd malevich presented the black square, with of his other paintings, at the famous “ , " exhibition, which publicly launched the new art of suprematism. milner observed that “this exhibition was of enormous importance to malevich for it provided the platform from which he launched a whole new movement and attitude to art.” malevich’s breakthrough in occurred at the age of , while that of kandinsky in occurred when he was years older, at . malevich’s breakthrough was also more highly concentrated than that of kandinsky. thus table shows that paintings made in the single year of accounted for fully one-third of malevich’s total illustrations in the textbooks surveyed, whereas kandinsky’s paintings of account for less than a quarter of his total illustrations. the table also shows that the same effect appears if we consider longer periods, but that the longer the period we consider, the smaller the difference between the two artists. thus malevich’s best three years and best five years both account for larger shares of his total illustrations, respectively, than do kandinsky’s best periods of the same lengths, but by progressively smaller margins. tables - thus show that art scholars agree that malevich’s most important work was done at a considerably earlier age than kandinsky’s, and furthermore that malevich’s breakthrough into abstraction was made more precipitously than that of kandinsky, and dominated his career to a greater extent. these results are consistent with the general analysis of conceptual and experimental innovators, for conceptual artists typically innovate earlier in their careers, and arrive at their innovations more suddenly, than do experimental artists. additional evidence on the life cycles of kandinsky and malevich can be drawn from the decisions of a different group of art experts. in , when the manhattan building of the museum of modern art was closed for renovations, houston’s museum of fine arts presented an exhibition of works selected from the museum of modern art’s permanent collection. the houston museum was given “nearly carte blanche access” to the new york museum’s holdings, and the exhibition was described as “a lucid overview of modern art since ,” or less formally as a “greatest-hits compilation of modern art.” the works in the houston exhibition included three paintings by malevich, and four by kandinsky. the former were painted in , , and , when malevich was , , and , respectively, while the latter were all painted in , when kandinsky was . the three maleviches were chosen from among seven paintings held by the museum of modern art, executed from - , while the four kandinsky were chosen from among a total of nine, executed from - . this careful selection of important works from one of the world’s greatest collections of modern art therefore reveals that the houston curators judged that malevich’s greatest work was done in his late s, while kandinsky’s was done in his late s. in this they agreed not only with the authors of the textbooks surveyed above, but also with an earlier group of curators of the museum of modern art. in , that museum published a book, titled an invitation to see, that contained photographs and discussions of works selected from the museum’s collection, chosen to show a wide audience “a few of the best or most characteristic” works. one malevich, painted in , was included in an invitation, as were four kandinskys - the same four selected for the houston exhibition in . contrary to kandinsky’s fear that art experts would disagree about artists’ best periods, these various sources thus reveal a consensus that malevich reached his peak considerably earlier in his life than kandinsky. two paths to abstract art woe betide him who relies on mathematics - on reason. wassily kandinsky, nowhere in the world of painting does anything grow without a system. kazimir malevich, kandinsky and malevich both believed that the great art of the future would be abstract, and during the years immediately prior to world war i these two russian artists, and the dutch painter piet mondrian, became the pioneers of abstract art. yet the abstract forms they created differed radically, and the same is true of their artistic methods and goals. kandinsky dreamed of an abstract art that would originate in nature, in which natural forms would be simplified and harmonized through the judgment of sensitive and experienced artists. in contrast, malevich foresaw an abstract art that rejected nature, in which mathematics would be used systematically to construct revolutionary new forms that would become understood as symbols of the dynamism of a revolutionary new society. recognizing the difference between the empirical seeker kandinsky and the conceptual finder malevich serves to give us a deeper understanding of their attitudes and their achievements. like cézanne and other great experimental artists, kandinsky worked cautiously and slowly toward an uncertain aesthetic goal, whereas malevich, like picasso and other conceptual innovators, proceeded rapidly and confidently toward an art that expressed his ideas. kandinsky’s impact was greatest on later artists whose concern was with the aesthetic values of their work, whereas malevich became an inspiration for later conceptual artists, for having “liberated the concept of painting from that of picturing.” epilogue it is evident that those artists who serve two opposing worlds must essentially differ. wassily kandinsky, interestingly, the distinction made in this paper between conceptual and experimental artists would come as no surprise to kandinsky, for he proposed essentially the same scheme in . he pointed out that the common distinction between “modern” and “old-fashioned” artists was not a meaningful one, because the division changed with every new fad. he argued that what was needed was an “enduring taxonomy,” which he proceeded to offer. kandinsky made a fundamental distinction between virtuoso artists and creative artists. the former were facile and protean: the virtuoso has a brilliant, versatile talent that is extremely sensitive to every impression, reacts very strongly to everything beautiful, and with the greatest skill and ease develops in many directions - often completely different, sometimes contradictory; a talent that can disdain means of expression (drawing and color) and completely change them. the virtuoso’s art was based on imitating other artists: unable to create in isolation, he needs outside influence... the virtuosos form “schools.” carried away by the strange dream, they create works increasingly inferior to the originals... such artists are like starlings who do not know a song of their own, but imitate more or less well that of the nightingale. in contrast, the creative artist was a single-minded individualist who matured slowly: the creative artist comes into the world with his own soul’s dream. the justification for his existence is the materialization of this dream. his whole talent exists merely for this goal alone. therefore, it is stubborn, seemingly unpliable, adverse to impressions, does not let itself be carried away by the trends of the day, stands apart, is misunderstood, and is initially overlooked. such artists are often bad students in school, do not want to obey the teachers, often fail their exams, and are considered less talented even by their friends. they see other art and everything else around them with their own eyes. when they speak with the help of nature, they do so in their own way, and even here cannot conform to the currently accepted “correct principle.” thus, in the beginning of their careers and often for many, many years, they are considered “second class” artists. yet the creative artist persevered, and slowly achieved greatness: the creator of the new walks straight ahead on his own difficult path. when later on the art historian looks back at the artist’s career, he sees a straight line. he sees that from the beginning the line (drawing), and the color (harmony), remain the same, and that during the course of the work they develop, purify, concentrate, and are brought to perfection. it is clear that kandinsky’s brilliant, versatile, protean, precocious, imitative, and ultimately superficial virtuoso is the type referred to here as conceptual, and that his stubborn, individualistic, single-minded, persistent, original, and eventually triumphant creative artist is the experimental innovator. kandinsky did not categorize individual artists in this article, but it is not difficult to infer some of his assignments from earlier writings. so for example in his celebrated book, on the spiritual in art, published in , he described cézanne as “the seeker after new laws of form,” who “had the gift of seeing inner life everywhere,” and could consequently activate even inanimate objects in creating pictures. in contrast, kandinsky described picasso as “led on always by the need for self-expression, often driven wildly onward.” he portrayed picasso as a daring mountain climber of art, whose abrupt and radical changes of style baffled even his disciples: picasso throws himself from one external means to another. if a chasm lies between them, picasso makes a wild leap, and there he is, standing on the other side, much to the horror of his incredibly numerous followers. they had just thought they had caught up with him; now they must begin the painful descent and start the climb all over again. in this way arose the latest “french” movement, cubism. in kandinsky was living in russia, where he was overshadowed by malevich with his many conceptual followers, and it is not difficult to see his comment that virtuosos formed schools as a bitter reference to suprematism. he would later complain to an interviewer that in moscow paintings were being made in laboratories. although he clearly felt neglected, kandinsky consoled himself in with the thought that his achievement would ultimately be greater and more profound than that of the more protean and flamboyant malevich. thus he concluded that the creative artist “will still realize his dream in one way or another, as long as the dream remains alive within him. thus unlike the virtuoso, he needs inner development.” as discussed above, kandinsky did not believe that the quality of art would ever be measured. now that a way of measuring artistic quality has been devised, however, kandinsky would no doubt be pleased by the fact that this yardstick confirms that his work did grow in importance until later in his life than that of his conceptual rival malevich. . kenneth lindsay and peter vergo, editors, kandinsky: complete writings on art (new york: da capo press, ), p. . . david w. galenson, “the greatest artists of the twentieth century,” nber working paper ( ), table . . david w. galenson, painting outside the lines (cambridge: harvard university press, ); robert jensen, “anticipating artistic behavior,” historical methods, vol. , no. ( ), pp. - ; david w. galenson, artistic capital (london: routledge, ); david w. galenson, old masters and young geniuses (princeton: princeton university press, ). .̀ lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . k. s. malevich, essays on art, - , vol. (london: rapp and whiting, ), p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, pp. - . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, pp. - . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, pp. , . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, pp. - . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . footnotes . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . . rainer crone and david moos, kazimir malevich (chicago: university of chicago press, ), p. . . sophie lissitzky-küppers, el lissitzky (london: thames and hudson, ), p. . . alan bowness, modern european art (london: thames and hudson, ), p. . . will grohmann, wassily kandinsky (new york: harry n. abrams, ), p. . . david sylvester, about modern art (new york: henry holt, ), p. . . ulrike becks-malorny, wassily kandinsky (cologne: taschen, ), p. . . vivian barnett, kandinsky at the guggenheim (new york: abbeville press, ), pp. - . . john golding, paths to the absolute (princeton: princeton university press, ), p. . . john milner, kazimir malevich and the art of geometry (new haven: yale university press, ), pp. - . . larissa zhadova, malevich (london: thames and hudson, ), p. . . martin kemp, ed., the oxford history of western art (oxford: oxford university press, ), p. . . h. h. arnason, history of modern art, fifth ed. (upper saddle river, nj: prentice hall, ), p. . . golding, paths to the absolute, p. . . galenson, old masters and young geniuses, p. . . golding, paths to the absolute, p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . for a listing see galenson, “the greatest artists of the twentieth century,” appendix. . grohmann, kandinsky, p. . . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . . milner, kazimir malevich and the art of geometry, p. . . galenson, old masters and young geniuses, p. ; john elderfield, ed., visions of modern art (new york: museum of modern art, ), p. . . this information was drawn from the museum of modern art’s listing of its collection on its web page. . helen franc, an invitation to see, revised edition (new york: museum of modern art, ), pp. , , - . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . malevich, essays on art, vol. , p. . . golding, paths to the absolute, pp. , ; dore ashton, the new york school (berkeley: university of california press, ), pp. , , ; arthur danto, unnatural wonders (new york: farrar, straus, giroux, ), p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . the quotations in the following paragraphs describing the two types of artist are from lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, pp. - . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, pp. - . on picasso as the prototype of the versatile conceptual innovator, see david w. galenson, “and now for something completely different: the versatility of conceptual innovators,” nber working paper ( ). . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . . lindsay and vergo, kandinsky, p. . table : illustrations of paintings by kandinsky in textbooks, by year of execution year age illustrations year age illustrations total source: all tables in this paper are based on the textbooks listed in david w. galenson, “the greatest artists of the twentieth century,” nber working paper ( ), appendix. table : illustrations of paintings by malevich in textbooks, by year of execution year age illustrations year age illustrations total table : best periods in careers of kandinsky and malevich date age(s) n % of total illustrations best year kandinsky malevich best years kandinsky - - malevich - - best years kandinsky - - malevich - - principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo © institute of materials, minerals and mining doi . / x published by maney on behalf of the institute interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, , – principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo theresa neurohr history of art and visual culture, university of oxford, uk damiano pasini dept. mechanical engineering, mcgill university, montreal, canada the russian-born artist naum gabo ( – ) often employed new materials and techniques which demonstrate how his spatial conceptions developed towards a sculptural expression of lightness, balance and equilib- rium. these principles reverberate with concepts of optimum structures, in which minimum-weight design is achieved through removal of redundant material. not only formal aspects of his sculptures correspond to this con- cept, but also gabo’s shared aesthetic and structural concerns with twentieth- century architecture and engineering, in terms of transparency, spatial open- ness, efficiency and lightweight design are consistent with this idea. similar notions surfaced in prevailing interests in nature’s sense of order and perfection as the basis of biologically-inspired design, which gabo encoun- tered especially in the work of the biologist d’arcy thompson and the art critic herbert read. this paper investigates the aesthetic and structural affinities gabo’s sculptures bear with these notions, highlighting how these informed his sculptural conceptions. his oeuvre demonstrates how his constructive technique enabled gabo to convey an aesthetic that would be appropriate for a modern, industrial society. the aim of this paper is to offer a new way of looking at gabo’s sculptural aesthetic by identifying analogies with theoretical formulations of minimum weight frame-structures, as encountered in the theory of the scientist engineer a.g.m. michell ( ). consistent with his historical context, this work demonstrates how gabo’s sculptures convey an aesthetic of balance, equilibrium, and lightness pre- cisely because his sculptural language is rooted in principles of optimum structures to which he responded in visual as well as structural terms. keywords naum gabo, minimum weight structures, lightweight design, structural optimization, sculptural conceptions, aesthetic, d’arcy thompson principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, introduction they tend to look at a work of mine as an object which can be taken in at a single glance; perhaps it�s because they know it only from photographs which make it look like an object, a flat image. in reality it is a continually unfolding manipulation of space which must be read as an experience in time [. . .] this is why the placing of my works in an exhibition is so vital. in american exhibitions i�ve sometimes found them placed against the wall, as if they were reliefs. this kills half the life the sculpture has for the spectator; i don�t want him just to come up and stand in front of it, but to walk around it, look through it, up at it, down at it. in other words, in �reading� the space, to forget his customary terrestrial movements and restrictions and become as they are � weightless (our art critic , ). (naum gabo on his work and its spectators) these words by the twentieth-century artist naum gabo highlight that picturing his works in a publication might not provide the ideal experience that the sculptures might offer when properly displayed. consolation lies in the fact that it is possible to envisage what resides at the heart of gabo�s sculptures, namely an experience of �weightlessness� in space. the exactness of gabo�s constructions conveys an essence of lightness, balance and equilibrium (figure ). these principles reverberate with concepts of optimum structures, in which minimum-weight design is achieved through removal of redundant elements that do not contribute to balance external loads and resist internal forces. this concept is further consistent with prevailing aspirations at the beginning of the twentieth century for economy of material and formal simplification, together with tendencies to lightweight and transparent design. this paper elaborates on the aesthetic and structural affinities gabo�s sculptures bear with these notions, highlighting how these informed his sculptural conceptions. an investigation of gabo�s constructive technique fi gure naum gabo, linear construction in space no. , variation, – , acrylic and nylon, . x . cm. © tate, london . the works of naum gabo © nina williams. theresa neurohr and damiano pasini interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, demonstrates how his spatial conceptions, method of construction and use of material developed towards a sculptural expression of lightness. characterized by precision, this technique enabled gabo to convey an aesthetic that would be appropriate for a modern, industrial society. the aim here is to offer a new way of looking at gabo�s sculptural aesthetic by identifying analogies with theoretical formulations of minimum weight frame-structures, as encountered in the theory of the engineer/scientist a.g.m. michell. this approach is meant to demonstrate how gabo�s sculptures are governed by principles of optimum design and therefore convey an essence of lightness, equilibrium, and balance. further, concepts of material economy in nature are discussed. particular attention is drawn to ideas of an organic aesthetic promoted through the art critic herbert read, and concepts of optimum design in nature as explored in the work of the biologist d�arcy thompson, in order to investigate how biological concepts of optimum patterns and structures supported gabo�s sculptural development. concepts of a lightweight sculptural expression are above all consistent with the historical context within which gabo worked. this research thus investigates various contextually-grounded sources that informed gabo on concepts of optimum design and enabled him to develop a sculptural expression of lightness. historical context naum gabo was born in russia in (hammer and lodder , a; nash ). he studied natural sciences and engineering in munich and subsequently lived for various periods in germany, norway, paris, england and america, where he died in . throughout his career, gabo circulated within environments of significant artistic and architectural development, which provided stimulation and fruitful intellectual debate with artists, architects and art critics about the forging of new artistic forms. certain twentieth-century notions provide a background in which gabo�s sculptural language developed so that it could manifest concepts of lightness and efficiency. the industrial revolution had witnessed immense technological changes and social transformations (colquhoun , � ; curtis ; frampton ). rapid changes could be observed through new material usage, technologies and revolutionary innovations in science. machines were developed to make production both cheaper and more efficient. architects, engineers and artists responded variously to these developments ultimately to propose a new style which would be suitable to the aspirations of a modern, industrial society. concepts of efficiency were exhibited in a predominance of avant-garde twentieth-century architecture through characteristics of transparency, spatial openness and lightness, as highlighted by the rise of skeletal constructions built from industrial materials, such as iron and steel (curtis , ; hammer and lodder a, � ). structural concepts of lightweight construction were eagerly pursued and developments in reinforced concrete design, such as modern shell construction, offered significant innovations principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, towards lightweight design. geometry is a crucial aspect in considering structural lightweight properties (engel ). the mass efficiency of long-span structures can be improved through an arrangement in which the longitudinal axes of constituent members follow the direction of applied forces. based on this structural criterion, heinrich engel highlighted that members whose overall configuration aligns with a natural flow of stresses generate only axial forces, without bending (pasini , � ; pasini et al. ). this results in efficient material use. in , the engineer eugéne freyssinet in france, for example, designed reinforced concrete airship hangars at orly. these were constructed of arched sections, capable of spanning m (curtis , ) and demonstrate a structure in which the overall shape approaches a system which follows the natural path of internal stress flow, termed the catenary curve, thus transmitting external forces efficiently by simple axial stresses. the catenary curve is formed when a loop of chain (a catena) is suspended from two points. foundations of gabo’s constructive ideas gabo expressed continuous interest in architecture and engineering fostered and informed through close contact with contemporary architects. he would thus have certainly been familiar with nineteenth and twentieth century constructions which pursued lightweight structural principles and would have encountered prevailing tendencies of rationalist thinking, which proposed that new forms were rooted in structural demands from which aesthetic forms emerged naturally by way of formal reduction (curtis , � ). in , gabo presented a complete design for the palace of soviets competition in moscow, which reveals his comprehension of structural design principles and weight-reduction design (gabo ). sensitivity to such structural principles certainly provided sculptural possibilities. constructive art and gabo’s sculptural techniques revolutionary russia motivated artists to develop artistic expressions in conformity with new social ideals. in , gabo co-published the realistic manifesto with his brother, antoine pevsner, in which he delineated the foundations of a new concept of constructive art (gabo and pevsner ). an essential technique of gabo�s earlier figurative constructions consisted of assembling planar elements made of cardboard, wood and later also metal to define spatial boundaries. gabo�s sculptural conceptions in terms of spatial volumes as opposed to mass can be understood as the foundation of a lightweight sculptural expression. inspired by russian avant-garde artists, cubism and geometric models, gabo�s oeuvre increasingly adopted a style of abstract purity (hammer and lodder a, ; b, � ). this formal reduction exhibits a propensity to remove redundant material. later adoption of transparent materials further heightened the sensation of lightness in visual terms. the organic formal aesthetic gabo witnessed in britain manifests in his work through an increasingly curvilinear quality. theresa neurohr and damiano pasini interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, with respect to the lightweight aesthetic of gabo�s sculptures, the adoption of curvilinear forms is particularly significant, since these members can follow an internal stress path, as previously discussed, thus facilitating material efficiency. in visual terms, curvilinearity allowed gabo to define spatial boundaries with less material. furthermore, the transparency and malleability of the plastic, perspex, provided significant opportunities for a lightweight spatial conception. other sculptures were characterized by sets of incised lines to define internal contours and describe complex spaces, as for example gabo�s construction in space: crystal, displayed in figure . even though this technique of incision did not physically enhance lightweight properties, visually it increased a sensation of exactness. however, when the incisions were replaced by physical strings, they can be seen to possess structural implications. gabo�s sculptures were now partially constructed of lightweight tensile members, such as nylon and metal wires, for further weight-reduction (figure ). gabo�s sculptural oeuvre reverberates with contemporary architecture, which highlights his implementation of widespread structural principles. the constructive method provided a means of communicating an aesthetic of precision, appropriate to gabo�s historical context. gabo asserted: �we affirm the line only as a direction of the static forces and their rhythm in objects� (gabo and pevsner , � ). this concisely indicates his structural conceptions such that his sculptures are conceived of as a constitutive system of equilibrated forces. the tensile strings which are skilfully balanced by compressive members resonate with this concept. fi gure naum gabo, construction in space: crystal, , rhodoid [and celluloid], . x . x . cm. courtesy annely juda fine art, london. the works of naum gabo © nina williams. principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, principles of optimum structures gabo�s sculptures often convey a sense of balance, equilibrium and lightness, which recalls concepts of optimum structures. by looking at the theoretical formulations of least-weight framework design, the aim here is to offer a new way of looking at gabo�s sculptures which is consistent with what was the prevailing emphasis on structural concerns, formal simplification and efficiency. concepts of optimum structures, where all redundancies have been removed, provide the epitome of these ideas. in , a.g.m. michell published a seminal work in which he formulated design principles for minimum-weight frameworks (michell ). michell established the arrangement of structural frame members within a space in order for a minimum quantity of material to sustain a given load. the minimum-weight design of a frame structure is such that external loads are balanced by a system of internal axial forces that are withstood by the struts and the ties of the framework. michell determined that the optimal arrangement of such a framework consists of members that form a system of orthogonal (perpendicular) and tangential curves. three geometric concepts are further defined to clarify his ideas: the involute, envelope and evolute of a curve. the involute is defined as any curve orthogonal to all the tangents of a given curve (yates ; lockwood ). figure , for example, depicts the involute of a circle, which is a �logarithmic� or �equiangular� spiral. physically, the involute can be obtained by aligning a string to a given curve. it results from the path of a point of a string, which is unwound while kept taut. figure illustrates that the outer end of the string is orthogonal to the involute, while the interior end is tangent to the original curve (circle). similarly, the involute can be derived for other geometric shapes. the envelope is defined as the curve which is tangent to a family of lines or curves (figure ). the evolute is the envelope of the orthogonal lines to a given curve. in figure , the evolute of the ellipse is depicted as an asteroid, which is the envelope to a set of lines orthogonal to the ellipses. michell determined that minimum-weight frameworks consist of members that satisfy conditions of orthogonality such that a system of tangents and involutes are derived from any evolute curve. frameworks whose members follow the trajectories of these orthogonal curves and system of tangents form a least-weight structure. their member-arrangement depends on load and boundary conditions. michell derived curves for a simply supported beam loaded at mid-span (figure ). the required conditions of orthogonality for this structure can be identified by the system of involute curves seen as concentric circles with radii converging to the centre point of load application. the arrangement of the optimum structure coincides with these curves, where compressive members correspond to the system of concentric circles, and tensile members with the system of orthogonal radii-lines. michell applied these principles for different load and support conditions to determine corresponding least-weight frames. the minimum weight frame for a point load applied to the end of a cantilever beam coincides with a system of tension members of equiangular spirals which are balanced theresa neurohr and damiano pasini interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, by intersecting orthogonal compression members of equiangular spirals (figure ), where the equiangular spiral is the involute curve for a circle, specified in figure . further, michell applied these principles to a system whose load conditions consist of equal and opposite rotational loads applied on a central axis. the resulting minimum-weight frame consists of systems of orthogonals which coincide with lines on a sphere (figure ). in summary, michell demonstrated that minimum-weight structures can be obtained through an arrangement of frame members, which coincide with uniform stress flows. these stress distributions develop within a structure as a result of external load and boundary conditions. michell determined that fi gure involute of a circle. fi gure envelope of a family of curves. principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, fi gure evolute of an ellipse. fi gure lightweight frame for a simply supported beam loaded at mid-span; from a.g.m michell, ‘the limits of economy of material in frame-structures’, philosophical magazine, ( ), fi g. . fi gure lightweight frame for a cantilever beam; from a.g.m michell, ‘the limits of economy of material in frame-structures’, philosophical magazine, ( ), fi g. . theresa neurohr and damiano pasini interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, uniform stress distributions follow geometric arrangements of involutes and evolutes, which are essentially curve systems of orthogonals and tangents. principles of optimum structures in gabo’s sculptures bearing in mind these concepts enables us to identify how such principles of least-weight frameworks are generated in gabo�s sculptures. the perspex semicircular arches and system of nylon strings of gabo�s linear construction in space no. , variation (figure ) visually resemble michell�s structure for a simply supported beam, loaded at mid-span (figures , ). further, gabo�s sculpture is assembled in such a way that the centre supports its perpendicular planes, thus physically providing a point load similar to michell�s structure. the perspex planes thus resemble a compressive frame which is balanced by systems of orthogonal tensile members, such as the nylon strings, analogous to michell�s structure. gabo�s sculpture therefore not only corresponds to michell�s optimum structure in visual terms but his sculptural language also evokes its structural function. if we look for a parallel with michell�s spherical structure (figure ), gabo�s torsion, variation (figure ) provides an obvious reference. not only the title suggests similar load conditions, but the steel spring-wires also define the sculptural space within the phosphor-bronze skeletal structure and evoke the spherical stress distribution of an equivalent lightweight framework. the curves which have been cut into the metal planes further emphasize this sense of rotational movement. gabo later employed a similar conception for a public kinetic fountain project, the revolving torsion: fountain of � . the sculpture revolves about its centre and induces rotational forces as indicated in michell�s spherical structure. gabo intended a series of water jets to serve a similar conception to the use of strings: �now these water jets should replace lines� (thompson, david , ). he further explained that the revolving framework has been constructed to cause the water jets to form �a ball of water� (thompson, david , ). the water jets thus literally represent a �flow of stresses� analogous to michell�s conception of stress distribution. the intangibility of water jets can furthermore be interpreted as an aim to dematerialize his sculpture, moving beyond literal structure. fi gure lightweight frame for equal and opposite rotational loads; from a.g.m michell, ‘the limits of economy of material in frame-structures’, philosophical magazine, ( ), fi g. . principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, casting the net beyond the particular loading cases michell addressed, one can identify how gabo�s sculptures generate systems of orthogonal and tangent curves similarly to systems of involutes derived from evolute curves. the perspex frame of gabo�s linear construction in space no. , variation (figure ), for example, appears to be in perfect equilibrium with tensile strings, which define the interior space through systems of orthogonal and tangent curves. while gabo�s sculptures often consist of more complex representations beyond the loading conditions michell derived, the aesthetic language gabo employed certainly conveys this essence of balance, equilibrium, and lightness precisely because it embodies principles of lightweight frameworks. inspiration from natural structures inspiration from natural forms and structures has further importance for the consideration of concepts of optimum structures in the sculptural conceptions of gabo. nature exhibits a plethora of optimum structures and forms because of its propensity to minimize energy and biological matter. gabo closely fi gure analogy between gabo’s construction in space no. (variation) and michell’s optimum structure for simply supported beam. naum gabo, construction in space no. (variation), , perspex with nylon, . cm. private collection. the works of naum gabo © nina williams. a.g.m michell, ‘the limits of economy of material in frame-structures’, philosophical magazine, ( ), fi g. . theresa neurohr and damiano pasini interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, associated with the art critic herbert read, who was highly interested in structural similarities between nature and science and advocated an aesthetic of organic forms (read a, b, ). further, gabo was inspired by d�arcy wentworth thompson�s on growth and form (kemp , , � ; hammer and lodder a, � ). in on growth and form, first published in , the biologist d�arcy thompson investigated numerous patterns of growth and form and was interested particularly in their efficiency and optimum design (thompson, d�arcy ; gould , ). he was intrigued, for example, by an engineer who immediately understood the mechanical structure of the femur (hip bone) through visual comparison to his crane design (figure ) (thompson, d�arcy , � ). the engineer recognized that the arrangement of cancellous bone tissue resembled a diagram of tensile and compressive forces for similar loading conditions and �that nature was strengthening the bone in precisely the manner and direction in which strength was required� (thompson, d�arcy , ). the engineer had essentially identified that the bone structure had been optimized through adaptive growth, which indicates that biological structures fi gure naum gabo, torsion, variation, c. / , . cm, stainless steel with stainless steel spring wire. courtesy annely juda fine art, london. the works of naum gabo © nina williams. principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, grow material to reinforce highly-stressed regions in order to achieve a uniform stress distribution within the structure (mattheck and tesari ; pasini and burgess ; pasini ). michell�s theory resorts to this principle, where frame-members align with uniform stress distributions. even though biological structures are often subjected to complex loading patterns, nature reveals numerous examples in which patterns of optimum design principles correspond to those observed in michell�s structures (figure ). thompson not only devoted sections of on growth and form to explore the formation of the equiangular spiral, but interestingly, he had observed the system of orthogonal curves, similarly to those of michell�s minimum-weight frames, which is exhibited in the distribution of the cancellous bone tissue (thompson, d�arcy , � ). thompson further lauded the femur for its beautiful manifestation of optimum design principles. the significant link between engineered optimum structures, natural structures and gabo�s sculptures then is that their physical nature tends to a minimization of material usage. as a result, the perfection, precision and exactness of these structures often convey an aesthetic of lightness, balance and equilibrium. spatial geometries: an aesthetic language of precision while we cannot demonstrate that gabo directly encountered michell�s theory, he was well-informed about structural engineering concepts, and he would on his own account have observed patterns similar to stress distributions of least-weight frames in geometric models. gabo�s interest in and affinity for such models has been discussed (hammer and lodder a, � ; corrada ). beyond the visual analogy gabo�s sculptures bear with mathematical string models, a significant aspect of these models lies in the fact that they often delineate surfaces by systems of tangent and orthogonal strings. these geometries illustrate precisely the behaviour of tangential curves converging unto a curve, as discussed in michell�s theory on optimum structures. while gabo most certainly did not conceive of them as such, it is likely that such geometric representations appealed to him aesthetically and fi gure comparison between stress distribution of crane design and cancellous tissue of the femur; from d’arcy thompson, on growth and form (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), p. . theresa neurohr and damiano pasini interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, provided a visual language that corresponds to the concepts of lightweight design which gabo aimed to convey through his constructions. this is apparent from his incising technique to evoke such patterns, which was later replaced with physical strings. the stringing method reveals gabo�s fascination with geometric representations not only in visual terms but also in terms of structural possibilities. for a sculptor with developed structural concerns, this would have been highly appealing. while gabo demonstrated obvious structural understanding, his sculptural aim was not to reproduce scientific concepts precisely. rather, scientific principles provided a source of inspiration and an aesthetic paradigm. patterns he encountered in geometric representations provided a visual language of exactness. an understanding of fundamental structural principles thus allowed gabo to perceive how such representations provided structural possibilities and a unique aesthetic. conclusion gabo�s social, cultural and political circumstances emphasized concerns over progress and efficiency. his upbringing and educational background provided a valuable intellectual foundation and theoretical framework for his artistic conceptions. ensuing residence in diverse places of rich artistic and architectural developments further informed his artistic ideas. gabo benefited from close association with leading contemporary architects and his oeuvre clearly demonstrates shared aesthetic and structural concerns with contemporary architecture and engineering. gabo further encountered numerous sources where principles of optimum design, by virtue of a biologically-inspired design, informed his sculptural aesthetic. herbert read explicitly linked structures of science, nature and art and fervently promoted the idea that natural structures provide aesthetic value through their order and structure. d�arcy thompson further explored nature�s perfection and his enthusiasm for biological optimum design principles certainly affected the work of gabo. the aim of this research was to provide a new way of looking at gabo�s sculptures via a theoretical formulation of optimum structures. this approach is not only consistent with gabo�s historical context but further helps us to understand how principles of lightweight structures are generated in his constructions. patterns of uniform stress flow were demonstrated analytically at the beginning of the twentieth century by michell�s theory in which fundamental principles of lightweight frameworks were formulated. these principles reveal that the arrangement of lightweight frame-members is governed by geometric relations. the system of orthogonal and tangent curves that this necessitates follows beautiful patterns and gabo�s sculptures often exhibit precisely these optimum design principles. through the constructive technique, gabo aligned his works with contemporary theoretical and practical scientific developments. through precision of forms, exact arrangement, and astute choice of materials, gabo developed a sculptural language that conveys an essence of lightness, principles of lightweight structures in the sculptural conceptions of naum gabo interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, equilibrium, and balance precisely because his sculptures demonstrate visual as well as structural affinities with lightweight frameworks. acknowledgements the authors wish to thank professor martin kemp from the university of oxford for the insightful discussions and valuable comments. the authors want to acknowledge that the works of naum gabo are the copyright of nina williams and further wish to thank her for her helpfulness. furthermore, the authors are grateful for the help of professor martin hammer, the tate gallery, and annely juda fine art in obtaining images. bibliography colquhoun, alan. . modern architecture. oxford, new york: oxford university press. corrada, manuel. . on some vistas disclosed by mathematics to the russian avant-garde: geometry, el lissitzky and gabo. leonardo ( / ). visual mathematics: special double issue: � . curtis, william. . modern architecture since , third ed. � , � , � , � . london: phaidon. engel, heinrich. . form-active structures. in tragsysteme/structure system, � . london: iliff e. frampton, kenneth. . modern architecture: a critical history, third ed. � . london: thames & hudson world of art. gabo, naum. . explanatory note to the palace of soviets project submitt ed under the mott o az. in gabo on gabo: texts and interviews, ed. martin hammer and christina lodder, � . sussex: artists bookworks, . gabo, naum, and antoine pevsner. . the realistic manifesto. in gabo: constructions, sculpture, paintings, drawings, engravings, � . london: lund humphries, . gould, stephen. . foreword. in on growth and form, ed. john tyler bonner, abridged version, vii�xiv. cambridge: cambridge university press. gould, stephen. . d�arcy thompson and the science of form. new literary history ( ): � . hammer, martin, and christina lodder. . naum gabo and the constructive idea of sculpture. in naum gabo: the constructive idea, sculpture, drawings, paintings, monoprints, � . london: south bank centre exhibition catalogue. hammer, martin, and christina lodder. a. constructing modernity: the art & career of naum gabo. new haven, london: yale university press. hammer, martin, and christina lodder. b. introduction. in gabo on gabo: texts and interviews, ed. martin hammer and christina lodder, � . sussex: artists bookworks. kemp, martin. . doing what comes naturally: morphogenesis and the limits of the genetic code. art journal . (spring): � . kemp, martin. . seen/unseen: art, science, and intuition from leonardo to the hubble telescope. oxford: oxford university press. lockwood, e. . evolutes and involutes. in a book on curves, � . cambridge: cambridge university press. matt heck c., and i. tesari. . uniform stress: a design rule for biological load carriers. in optimization mechanics in nature, ed. m.w. collins, d.g. hunt, and m.a. atherton, � . uk: wit press. michell, a.g.m. . the limits of economy of material in frame-structures. philosophical magazine : � . nash, steven. . naum gabo: sculptures of purity and possibility. in naum gabo: sixty years of constructivism, ed. steven nash and jörn merkert, � . munich, new york: prestel-verlag. theresa neurohr and damiano pasini interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. no. , december, our art critic, . interview: naum gabo: �space is not outside us�. in gabo on gabo: texts and interviews, ed. martin hammer and christina lodder, � . sussex: artists bookworks. pasini, damiano. . a new theory for modelling the mass-effi ciency of material, shape and form. phd thesis, bristol university. pasini, d., and s. burgess. . the structural effi ciency of trees. in optimization mechanics in nature, ed. m.w. collins, d.g. hunt and m.a. atherton, � . uk: wit press. pasini d., s. c. burgess and d.j. smith. . a method for selecting macro-scale structures with axially loaded members. international journal of mechanics and materials in design : � . pasini d. . shape transformers for material and shape selection of lightweight beams. journal of materials and design ( ): � . read, herbert. a. the universal harmony. the listener august: . read, herbert. b. vulgarity and impotence: speculations on the present state of the arts. horizon . (april): � . read, herbert. . preface. in aspects of form, ed. lancelot law whyte. bloomington, london: indiana university press. thompson, d�arcy wentworth. . on growth and form. cambridge: cambridge university press. thompson, david. . naum gabo talks to david thompson. in gabo on gabo: texts and interviews, ed. martin hammer and christina lodder, � . sussex: artists bookworks. yates, robert. . evolutes, involutes. in a handbook on curves and their properties, � , � . ann arbor, mi: j.w. edwards. reprinted as curves and their properties. washington: national council of teachers of mathematics, . notes on contributors theresa neurohr obtained a bachelor of applied science in civil engineering in from the university of calgary, canada, and a master in structural engi- neering in from mcgill university in montreal, canada. the subject of her master�s thesis was the seismic vulnerability of art objects. in , she pursued a master of studies in history of art and visual culture at the university of oxford, uk, with a dissertation on the sculptural aesthetic of naum gabo. since september , she has been working as a structural engineer at pasquin st-jean & associés in montreal, canada, where her main work lies in the design and structural analysis of high-rise buildings. d. pasini received master degrees in civil engineering and in architectural engineering respectively in and , from the university of pavia, italy. after working as a professional engineer from to , he obtained the phd in mechanical engineering from the university of bristol, uk in , with a thesis on the optimization of material, shape and structural form. in january , he joined the german aerospace center (d.l.r.) in the department of adaptronics at the institute of structural mechanics in braun- schweig, germany. here, his research focused on the optimization of solid state hinges for adaptive wing flaps. since july , he has been assistant professor in the department of mechanical engineering of mcgill university. his research lies in the area of mechanics optimization of lattice materials and composite structures, multiobjective design optimization, multiscale modelling of biological materials and biomimetics. d. pasini is a member of the mcgill institute for advanced materials, of asme and ieee. correspondence to: damiano.pasini@mcgill.ca copyright of interdisciplinary science reviews is the property of maney publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. however, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. the burden of black womanhood - / / / - $ . / american studies, : / (spring/summer ): - the burden of black womanhood: aaron douglas and the “apogée of beauty” amy kirschke we are possessed, you know, with the idea that it is neces- sary to be white, to be beautiful. nine times out of ten it is just the reverse. it takes lots of training or a tremendous effort to down the idea that thin lips and straight nose is the apogee of beauty. but once free you can look back with a sigh of relief and wonder how anyone could be so deluded. aaron douglas came to harlem in , full of dreams and aspirations to work as an artist in new york. he left a secure position as a high school teacher in kansas city, missouri and risked coming to a city where he had only one acquaintance. this was characteristic of him. douglas was an artist who would take risks his entire life: he had entered university of nebraska ten days into the term as a young student, traveling to nebraska with no transcripts or letters, just a determination to learn. he was willing to do whatever he needed to do to obtain a college education, despite late enrollment. douglas had taken similar risks as a young man, when he traveled to detroit to try to find summer employment in fields of work where he held little or no experience. douglas was willing to take the risk of accepting a position at a high school in kansas city which employed only one other black teacher; finally, he was willing to take the risk to leave that position and travel to new york, with little money, but plenty of hope and expectation. douglas’s amazing success was greatly influenced by two women in his life. his mother, elizabeth, encouraged his interest in visual arts and provided amy kirschke inspiration for aaron as a young boy, when he spent hours watching his mother paint and draw. elizabeth had taken lessons from itinerate artists traveling through topeka. his second great inspiration came from alta sawyer, his high school sweetheart and future wife. although douglas repeatedly referred to alta as his inspiration, she was more than that. his numerous letters to sawyer reveal her strong role in his creative process and his unique and progressive view of beauty in a time when african american features in portraiture were rarely celebrated. sawyer would become douglas’s partner in every way; making creative deci- sions with him, navigating the politics of harlem, at which she was particularly adept, choosing patrons and commissions that would further his career. sawyer was a teacher, as was douglas, and certainly helped provide insight for his very positive images of women, particularly as educators. their home on edgecombe avenue in harlem would provide a central place for the creative elite to meet, plan, and socialize. immediately upon his arrival in harlem, douglas was introduced to w.e.b. du bois, the by-now legendary black intellectual and leader of the time, and editor of the naacp’s the crisis magazine. douglas’s life-long connection with du bois would greatly influence his art, including his images of women. du bois was a strong advocate of women’s rights, including economic rights, the right to vote, and reproductive rights, which he called the “right of motherhood at her own discretion.” he compared some aspects of womanhood to slavery: “many things still remind us of that stage of culture: the loss of a woman’s name by her marriage; the persistent idea that a married woman should not have a career; and the older opposition to women suffrage.” du bois recognized the plight of black women was even more difficult than that of their male counterparts, referred to by historian michael a. gomez as “triple consciousness.” du bois employed numerous women as visual artists and writers. one of his most important col- laborators was jessie fauset, who worked with du bois when he served as editor of the crisis magazine. du bois’s image of women went beyond that of african american woman; as a passionate advocate of the pan-african movement, he saw the strength in all women of african descent. he celebrated the strength, resolve, and beauty of black women, which aaron douglas, as a visual artist, would do his entire life. du bois wrote in blackwater of the oppression of women in western societies: our women in black had freedom thrust contemptuously upon them. . . . [w]e have still our poverty and degradation, our lewdness and our cruel toil; but we have, too, a vast group of women of negro blood who for strength of character, clean- ness of soul, and unselfish devotion of purpose, is today easily the peer of any group of women in the civilized world. and more than that, in the great rank and file of our five million women we have the up-working of new revolutionary ideals, the burden of black womanhood which must in time have vast influence on the thought and action of this land. du bois noted the beauty of african american women. “i honor the women of my race. their beauty,—their dark and mysterious beauty of midnight eyes, crumpled hair, and soft, full-features. . . . no other women on earth could have emerged from the hell of force and temptation which once engulfed and still sur- rounds black women in america with half the modesty and womanliness that they retain.” du bois searched to “bring some tribute to these long-suffering victims, these burdened sisters of mine, whom the world, the wise, white world, loves to affront and ridicule and wantonly to insult.” he went on to proclaim “none have i known more sweetly feminine, more unswervingly loyal, more desperately earnest, and more instinctively pure in body and in soul than the daughters of my black mothers.” du bois also understood that one of the greatest obstacles black women faced to achieve the vote, was racism from white suffragists. aaron douglas held black women in the same high regard as du bois. his letters to alta sawyer indicate an excitement and anticipation of endless possi- bilities. their intimate correspondence, some of which took place while sawyer was briefly married to another man, reveals a strong partnership and mutual respect, as well as a celebration of the splendor of black women. douglas saw the beauty of african american features; this can be seen in his art, including in his portrait, alta, at the fisk university galleries in nashville. the portrait is respectful, straightforward and accurate, reflecting as well the portrait style of winold reiss, his white teacher, whose studio he would join shortly after his arrival in harlem. douglas wrote sawyer of his frustration with how african american were depicted, and the need to reeducate the black audience too: i have seen reiss’s drawings for the new negro. they are marvelous. many colored people don’t like reiss’s drawings. we are possessed, you know, with the idea that it is necessary to be white, to be beautiful. nine times out of ten it is just the reverse. it takes lots of training or a tremendous effort to down the idea that thin lips and straight nose is the apogée of beauty. but once free you can look back with a sigh of relief and wonder how anyone could be so deluded. he understood the power of creating “as nearly like nature as possible.” “i have no objection to a pretty face else how could i love you as i do,” douglas wrote alta sawyer in . “but i do object to people holding up pretty faces as the acme of beauty, then saying that the business of art is to depict beauty. it is re- volting. so when you see these pictures by reiss please don’t look for so called beauty. it ain’t there. but there is a powerful lot of art.” it was during these formative years, his first years in harlem, that along with sawyer, du bois and reiss, douglas formed his view of beauty, and the amy kirschke unique way in which he depicted women. winold reiss encouraged douglas to explore modern art, including cubism. he also asked him to consider the ger- man folk art cut-out technique scherenschnitt, and to research african and other non-western art forms. he suggested that douglas examine egyptian art and investigate american negro spirituals, dance, and folklore as possible symbolic motifs in his visual designs. he believed that douglas, as an african american, had the chance to depict african americans with dignity and accuracy, to cel- ebrate beauty in his work. douglas believed that reiss wanted him to arrive “at something of a style in art that would reflect my background. . . . what kind of picture, what kind of world does a black artist see, and transcribe. . . .” douglas recognized the reiss was a wonderful artist, but that reiss understood he could not see the world as a black artist would. “i had to do this,” douglas concluded. douglas also regularly collaborated with women writers, as early as il- lustrating georgia douglas johnson’s “the black runner” for the september crisis. his collaboration was not limited to crisis; he also worked regularly for opportunity magazine. sometimes this collaboration was merely an assignment to provide illustrations for an essay or poem; other commissions, to a lesser extent, as his extensive letters with alta sawyer reference, include discussions and the exchange of ideas between douglas and the writers at crisis and opportunity. the majority of contributing writers to these journals were men. aaron douglas was an educator, as were alta sawyer and w.e.b. du bois. one of du bois’s passions in the magazine crisis, was to encourage the pursuit of education, including a university education. du bois wrote in darkwater “no nation tomorrow can call itself civilized which does not give every single human being college and vocational training free and under the best teaching force procurable for love or money.” douglas sometimes combined the image of teacher/mother in his work; this becomes clear in one of his greatest works, a large mural series for fisk university’s new library, cravath hall. in this com- mission, the fisk administration gave douglas the freedom to create any subject or design he chose, and would include the second floor card catalogue room, the north and south reading rooms, as well as the periodicals room and negro col- lection room on the third floor. douglas described the cycle as a “panorama of the development of black people in this hemisphere, in the new world” beginning with africa, through slavery, and culminating with life in contemporary america. he called this cycle, “the pageant of the negro.” he also planned seven panels that included representations of day, philosophy, drama, music, poetry, science and night in the card catalogue room. douglas included the great inspirations and sources of spiritual light in the south reading room, the negro in america. one of these inspirations was the light of education, symbolized by fisk’s jubilee hall. this mural, which no longer exists, can be seen in a photograph of the time. (figure ) in the mural, fisk’s jubilee hall is shown in silhouette. jubilee hall was the first permanent college building for negroes in the south, built by funds raised by the jubilee singers. douglas described the hall as “in the early years of freedom a beacon of light in almost total darkness. this building, springing the burden of black womanhood from the depths of the souls of black folk, makes a perfect symbol for negro education.” the mural shows graduates leaving the building to work in their various professions. douglas brought together his strong belief in education as the escape from racial discrimination and poverty and his sense of an african american group identity that could be realized through a collective historical memory of africa. among those figures representing professions: a woman in the front of the figures exiting jubilee hall, her body parallel to the picture plane in the style of egyptian relief, one hand on a glove, her other hand turned away from her, her face in profile looking out to her future. she combines characteristics of egyptian art, cubism, and west african masks of the ivory coast, particu- larly the dan society; she is truly the pan-african woman. she is an educator, and she can also be representative of a mother figure. du bois often wrote of the important position of the educator/teacher, as well as the parent in the posi- tion of educator. douglas would repeat this strong woman’s profile in his building more stately mansions. (figure ) here, in a panel meant to represent the progression of cultures and civilizations from the dawn of recorded history to the present, douglas included male figures carrying out work in agriculture, construction, science, and industry. he reserved the most important position in this composition for the sole woman in the group of adults, the teacher/mother figure, who is highlighted by a series of concentric circles, executed in a style reminiscent of orphism. the circles bring us to her hand, which is open, reach- ing out and receiving knowledge, her other arm is around two young children. she stands in front of a globe, her role as teacher and mother is of the utmost importance. she is executed in the characteristic douglas style, a pan-africanist woman of strength and conviction. the recently restored fisk library murals, “the pageant of the negro,” also reveal douglas’s unique view of women and their role in african american identity and collective memory. when the mural depicting enslaved figures, chained together and en route to the slave ship, was restored in spring of , douglas’s sensitive portrayal of the woman slave was fully revealed. douglas shows a series of slaves on the south wall of the north reading room, nine men and one woman, trudging across foliage with tropical palm fronds framing their outlined bodies, as they approach the slave ship. some of the men look forward towards the ship, some look backwards, a few look down at the ground. the one figure who is truly emotive and expressive is the sole woman in the group of slaves. only she openly mourns this living nightmare, the loss of her life, her family, her home, the terror of the future. while her muscular legs carry her forward, her face points heavenward, her hair indicates movement and she trudges ahead. she cries out in sorrow and mourning, her expressive “slit eyes” of an ivory coast dan mask look towards the sky, her mouth cries out, with open, full, expressive lips, in pain and sorrow. she is the only one of the group who openly mourns the destruction of her life in africa. (figure ) perhaps she cries out in ashanti a saying which also existed as the adinkra symbol nyame biribi wo soro, “nyame biribi wo soro na ma embeka mensa,” a statement of amy kirschke hope, this time, desperation: “oh god, there is something in the heavens, let it reach me.” in the newly discovered end wall mural in the north reading room, douglas again allows the woman to express the profound sorrow of the effects of slavery, but this time, in a totally new way: the slave ship sails away from the coast of africa, highlighted by concentric circles behind it which provide the ship a dramatic silhouette. on the shore, left behind, is one sole woman, a slave who was not taken with the group. her sorrow is just as profound: her family, her friends are gone; she is left behind, alone. no other artist of the period creat- ing such murals on african american life, created such an expressive figure, an expression of emotion and extreme grief that douglas reserves again for only a woman. (figure ) douglas never forgot his commitment to express all forms of beauty, includ- ing that of an african woman. the apogée of beauty he embraced was not that of a white woman, and his may cover for opportunity magazine makes that perfectly evident. douglas carefully copied a photograph of a mangbetu woman in the belgian congo (now the democratic republic of congo), a photograph taken by leon poirier and george specht during the french citroën expedition through africa in . the image they took was heavily reproduced in postcard form, and featured a mangbetu woman as an expression of beauty in the congo, with an elongated head and an artistic hair style, wrapped around a basket frame, to make it appear even more elongated. douglas’s cover celebrated another form of beauty, one whose culture saw it as a symbol of wisdom and magnificence. du bois appointed douglas to the position of art director of the crisis between march and december . while this was a largely titular position, douglas nevertheless created some of his more interesting images of women dur- ing this time period, as did other artists of the magazine. while douglas served as art director, a special education issue was published in august , which featured a cover by charles c. dawson. (figure ) dawson illustrates two fig- ures, one is a young black man wearing a mortar board and carrying the banner of the crisis with an american flag partially exposed behind it. the figure who leads the cause for education is a position reserved for a woman: she is young, attractive, in egyptian dress with the nemes headdress, holding a torch. she ties the male student to the past of african history and culture via egypt and leads him to the future. in september douglas created one of his most forceful images of a woman, for the cover of the crisis, the burden of black womanhood. it is here we see his own view of women, and that of du bois as described in his essay in blackwater, illuminated. (figure ) this composition includes the figure of a woman in a long egyptian-influenced garment. we see a side view of her hips and a silhouette of the front of her body. she holds up a round shape, “the world.” she looks up, with face in profile and slit eyes that resemble african masks of the ivory coast, a style frequently employed by douglas. her lined hair too recalls the headdress of an egyptian nemes. a cityscape is included below, resembling art deco drawings of skyscrapers, with the billowing smoke of industry behind the burden of black womanhood it. one simple cabin, perhaps representing her humble beginnings, is on the far right. on the left, we see three pyramids and a palm tree, perhaps indicating her origins. papyrus blossoms in outline, with a deco handling, are scattered in the composition. this woman is not just the african woman carrying her wares balanced on her head, as douglas would illustrate many african women: the woman bears the burdens of the world; she carries them like a female hercules. art historian richard powell has called her an “afro-deco caryatid.” this expressive face would be used again in his fisk murals; it is similar to that of the young woman slave. the image appealed directly to the female audience of the crisis. douglas’s style would influence several artists who followed him, including two women artists. other artists turned to egyptian art for inspiration. joyce car- rington’s untitled september cover shows a woman in an african setting, complete with palm tree, pyramid, and african necklace. she also sports a s hairstyle and what appears to be a string of beads, typical for a flapper’s attire. (figure ) she is a symbol of modern africa, a universal woman of the diaspora. her s contemporary styling makes her accessible and familiar to readers of the crisis. likewise, celeste smith’s deco-influenced drawing, excelsior, which appeared inside the january issue, demonstrates an obvious influence of aaron douglas. (figure ) smith depicts a nude figure, arms reaching out, balancing on the world, standing on an outline of the continent of africa. smith uses rays of light inspired by cubism, orphism, and modernism to accentuate the figure. two rays intersect to spotlight the figure, providing bright white light behind the body. two shadows appear behind it in three different shades, surely indicating the many colors of african peoples, a pan-africanist touch. both are strong, positive images of women, in this case inspired by douglas and created by women artists. douglas often collaborated with writers, not only on the pages of crisis and opportunity magazines, but also for book illustrations. he created numer- ous covers and illustrations for notable harlem renaissance writers, including langston hughes and james weldon johnson. many of these images include strong, modern women, who are pan-africanist in style, including elements of african iconography from several different cultures such as egypt, ethiopia, and the ivory coast. his modern african american woman, seen in his prodigal son (figure ) done in for james weldon johnson’s god’s trombones and similarly in an undated pen-and-ink drawing of the same period, (figure ) shows such a pan-africanist woman. the central female figure is the essence of the contemporary woman, the embodiment of modernism. she is shown in flat silhouette, again, her body parallel to the picture plane, dancing with abandon while she holds the hand of a man in a stationary position, a horn player to the left of her, precisionist skyscrapers behind her, with hints of her heritage behind her to the right, an african idol, palm fronds, and her more recent past, a humble cabin as her rural roots. her face is again that of a western african mask, yet she is all about modernity and abandon. she is free to do as she pleases. an artist and amy kirschke scientist are placed to the right of her, freedom and release is achieved through education and through the arts, through music and dance. so too douglas created images of strong women of africa and the western world for paul morand’s black magic, published in and for numerous book covers and interior illustrations for leading black writers of the era. douglas would continue his images of women as leaders, with his may cover of crisis honoring the twentieth anniversary of the naacp, an event commemorated by the image of a contemporary african american woman, and in his - founding of chicago. (figure ) here haitian jean baptiste pointe du sable points toward the city, with an enslaved woman/mother behind him, her face again showing the emotion and pain of slavery, feelings pointe du sable does not express in a face that is not visible to the viewer. the woman/mother holds up her baby, her arm still shackled, her face facing heavenward, crying out, her dan-mask-inspired face in silhouette. the baby embodies hope; unlike the mother, the baby is free and is therefore the promise of the future. douglas would repeatedly use women to express profound emotion, to allow the viewer to empathize with the experience of african american life. in his painting into bondage ( ), a mural created for the texas centennial exhibition, douglas creates a line of shackled slaves, who trudge towards two slave ships, heads hanging (figure ). one male figure looks towards the light of a single star, emotionless. the figure whom douglas has depicted with emo- tion is the sole woman in the composition; placed on the far left. she holds her manacled wrists straight above her head, while concentric, orphist circles of light pierce her arms and face. her arms seem to touch the slave ship in the distance, her mouth is open, she cries out, looking heavenward for hope. renée ater has explained the use of these concentric circles in the composition: they move the viewer’s eyes outward and also act as the sorrowful sounds of the spirituals. douglas used such circles to suggest the melodies of slave songs. in the companion panel, aspiration ( ) the sole woman in the panel, who is seated next to two standing men, is not overtly emotional. she is the only figure, however, who is depicted in profile, and her face is again highlighted in the composition by concentric circles and a star, which renée ater has identified as the lone star of texas. the woman holds a book in her right hand, she is educated, and in contrast to the scientists next to her, represents the humanities, in particular, arts and literature. aaron douglas’s view of women was formulated by a strong and dedicated mother who largely raised douglas on her own. as an artist, his mother elizabeth provided the role model of both determination and artistic expression that would stay with douglas throughout his lifetime. his relationship with alta sawyer douglas, an educated woman who became extremely important in the running of the urban league in harlem, with whom he had a strong and equal relationship, also provided inspiration for his images of women. finally, his close working relationship with the difficult, but surely inspiring w.e.b. du bois, who spent a great deal of time partnering with women in the creation of the crisis, both the burden of black womanhood in the employment of women artists, and in the numerous editorials which sup- ported women’s causes, provided insight for douglas as a young artist. aaron douglas formulated a style of art during the harlem renaissance that included a consistently strong and positive, as well as emotionally expressive view of women that was unique in the era. he celebrated black identity, an apogée of beauty which was shared with a large audience in his paintings, murals, and most importantly, his book and magazine illustrations. notes . douglas to alta sawyer, , box , folder , douglas papers, schomburg center for research in black culture, new york public library. . irene diggs, “du bois and children,” phylon , ( ): - . . micheal a. gomez. “of du bois and diaspora: the challenge of african american studies,” special issue: “back to the future of civilization: celebrating years of african american studies” journal of black studies (nov., ), . . du bois, “the damnation of women,” darkwater: voice from within the veil. (new york: harcourt, brace, ), (rep., millwood, ny: kraus-thompson, ), . . ibid., - . . glenda gilmore, gender and jim crow: women and the politics of white supremacy in north carolina, - . (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ), - . . douglas to alta sawyer, , box , folder , douglas papers. . ibid. . interview of aaron douglas by ann allen shockley, november , . black oral histories (boh), fisk university special collections, nashville. . du bois, “the immortal child,” darkwater, . . douglas, “an autobiography,” pp. - , box , folder , aaron douglas papers, fisk university, franklin library special collections, nashville. . west african ashanti adinkra symbols have been traced back to the seventeenth cen- tury. . ater, “creating a ‘usable past’ and a ‘future perfect society.’ aaron douglas’s murals for the texas centennial exhibition,” aaron douglas african american modernist. susan earle, ed. (new haven: yale university press, ), . . ibid. . . ibid. figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), negro in america, - . oil on canvas attached to wall (mural), office of admissions, cravath hall, fisk university. courtesy of fisk university. photography by george adams. figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), building thee more stately mansions . oil on canvas, fisk university galleries collection, fisk uni- versity. f ig ur e : a ar on d ou gl as (a m er ic an , - ), sl av e c ry in g o ut , - . o il on c an va s at ta ch ed to w al l ( m ur al ), b oa rd o f tr us te es c on fe re nc e r oo m , c ra va th h al l, fi sk u ni ve rs ity . c ou rt es y of f is k u ni ve rs ity . p ho to gr ap hy b y g eo rg e a da m s. figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), slave left behind - , oil on canvas attached to wall (mural), board of trustees conference room, cravath hall, fisk university. courtesy of fisk university. photography by george adams. figure : charles dawson (american, - ), untitled, the crisis cover, august . figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), the burden of black wom- anhood, the crisis cover, september . figure : joyce carrington, untitled, the crisis cover, september . figure : celeste smith, excelsior, the crisis interior image, january . figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), undated pen-and-ink draw- ing. private collection. figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), the founding of chicago, circa . gouache on paper. courtesy of spencer museum of art, the uni- versity of kansas. museum purchase: r. charles and mary margaret clevinger fund, . . figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), into bondage, . mural, texas centennial exhibition. courtesy of collection of jason schoen, princeton, new jersey. figure : aaron douglas (american, - ), prodigal son, . from james weldon johnson’s god’s trombones, gouache on paper. courtesy of the beinecke rare book and manuscript library, the yale collection of american literature. turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer , p. - doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. issn: - , ankara-turkey sanat akimlari Üzerİnden gelİŞen dİsİplİnlerarasi sanat osman yilmaz** Özet günümüz sanatına bakıldığında biçim algısında büyük değişmelerin olduğu görülmektedir. . yüzyılın sonlarına doğru hızla gelişip yaygınlaşan iletişim teknolojileri disiplinlerarası sanatın yaygın bir şekilde kabul görmesine olanak sağlamıştır. geleneksel sanatyapma tekniklerine göre, çağımız sanatında temel biçimi teknolojik bir ortam yoluyla insan tarafından görülür, duyulur ve hissedilir hale getiren disiplinlerarası sanat, akademik ve akademik olmayan düşünce alanlarını bir araya getirerek sanat yapmanın yolunu açmıştır. disiplinlerarası sanat’ın gelişimi, modern sanat akımları üzerinden olmuştur. bu dönüşümün taşıyıcısı, kübizmin deneysel uygulamalarından doğan ve farklı evren kavrayışlarını dile getiren kolaj olmuştur. bu nedenle disiplinlerarası sanatın ilk belirtilerini geçen yüzyılın başlarında ortaya çıkan kübist sanatçıların kolaj yapıtlarında görürüz. daha özgür ifade olanağının önünü açan kolaj ve dadacı sanatçıların özgür konu seçimleri malzemeleri ve tavırları farklı disiplinlerin bir araya gelmesinde önemli rol oynamıştır. dada’nın gücü özellikle, kübizm, konstrüktivizm ve fütürizm gibi dönemin avangard sanat hareketlerinin hepsini birden ortak bir gövdeye eklemleyebilmiş olmasıydı. böylece, disiplinlerarası sanat’ın çok boyutlu görsel dilini oluşturan alfabesi de yaşam serüveninde yerini almış oluyordu. ii. dünya savaşı sonrası, pop sanat kitle iletişim araçlarının yaygınlaşmasıyla, hiçbir zaman olmadığı kadar büyük kitlelere doğrudan hitabetme olanağı elde etmişti. kavramsal sanat eserleri, her gün karşılaştığımız şeylerle, onlara en uygun gelen şeyleri bir araya getirerek farklı bir gerçeklik sunuyordu. disiplinlerarası sanat’ta kavramsal bir çalışma, nesnel bir biçim olarak ortaya konmasa da metin, biçimin yerini alabilir ve ses manipülasyonları, dijital miksaj ve baskı teknikleriyle birlikte fantastik bir boyut kazanabilir. Çağdaş sanat akımları içinde disiplinlerarasılık hem farklı disiplinleri bir araya getirmiş hem de gelişen teknolojiye bağlı sanat yapma olanaklarını geliştirmiştir. anahtar kelimeler: disiplinlerarası sanat, kübizm, dadaizm, pop sanat, kavramsal sanat.  bu makale crosscheck sistemi tarafından taranmış ve bu sistem sonuçlarına göre orijinal bir makale olduğu tespit edilmiştir. ** yrd. doç. dr. erciyes Üniversitesi güzel sanatlar fakültesi heykel bölümü, el-mek: oyilmazerciyes@hotmail.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. osman yilmaz turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer interdisciplinary art which developed out of movements abstract when contemporary art is studied, major changes in the perception of style are realized. communication technology that has been changing and spreading towards the end of the twentieth century has enabled to widespread acceptance of interdisciplinary art. in comparison with traditional art making techniques interdisciplinary art, which makes fundamental form in contemporary art visible, audible, and sensible with the help of technology, has paved the way for making art by combining academic and non-academic thought fields. interdisciplinary art has improved through art movements. this transformation has been carried by collage which comes out of the experimental practice of cubism and expresses different perceptions of the universe. therefore, we come across the first indications of interdisciplinary art in the works of cubist artists who emerges at the beginning of the last century. collage, which makes possible more free expression opportunity, and dadaist artists’ materials, and choosing subjects independently play a significant role in coming together of different disciplines. dadaism’s capability mainly comes from the success of bringing all avant-garde art movements such as cubism, constructivism, and futurism together at one point. in this way, interdisciplinary art’s alphabet which forms its multidimensional language has taken part in real life. after world war ii, with the spread of mass media pop art has had a great opportunity to addressing to masses of people ever before. conceptual art works have presented a different reality by combining ordinary things and things which are the most suitable to them. in interdisciplinary art, text may take form’s place even if it is not presented as an objective form, and it may be transformed into a fantastic artwork by means of audio manipulation, digital mixing, and printing techniques. interdisciplinarity has gathered different disciplines among contemporary art movements, as well as it has provided opportunities of art making which is connected to technology. structured abstract when current art is considered, it appears that there have been dramatic changes in the perception of form. communication technologies that rapidly advanced and became widespread towards the end of the th century enabled interdisciplinary art to be widely accepted. according to traditional techniques of producing art, interdisciplinary art, which makes the basic form in our contemporary art visible, audible, and sensible for people through a technological environment, has paved the way for producing art by combining academic and non-academic thought areas. cameras, video cameras, computers and the internet, which make the basic form visible, audible, and sensible for people through a technological environment, have been indispensible tools of interdisciplinary art in creating images and exhibiting works of art. sanat akımları Üzerinden gelişen disiplinlerarası sanat turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer the development of interdisciplinary art has been through modern art movements. the messenger of this transformation is the collage, which sprung up from the experimental practices of cubism and which reflect various universal conceptions. therefore, the first signs of interdisciplinary art can be seen in the collages of cubist artist at the beginning of the last century. by assembling fragmented objects and ready-made images on the canvas from various perspectives, cubists created a type of art that was completely distinctive, an art form like sculpture rather than multi-layered art but still not sculpture. the collage, which has cleared the way for freer expression opportunity, the dadaist artists’ free subject choice, materials and attitudes have played an important role in the coming together of various discrete disciplines. the power of dada was to have been able to join all the contemporary avant garde art movements such as especially cubism, constructivism and futurism altogether in the same body. in this way, the alphabet that constitutes the multi-dimensional visual language of interdisciplinary art got its place in the adventure of life. after the world war, by the help of the widespread use of pop art mass media, it was possible to directly address greater masses than ever before. interdisciplinary art that formed new patterns created alternative combinatorial values with collage and photomontage. shopping in the daily life like the collage and photomontage was also a part of the unexpected surprising relationships. the artist who used the images and objects that belonged to the consumer culture such as caricature, comics, money, magazine, newspaper, celebrities, advertisements, fast food, packaging of products, pop music, radio, television and hollywood films showed their interest in the mass culture. artists and designers brought daily life into forefront by means of the images and techniques they used. art was in the position of a turning point with regard to cultural life. pop artist created a new idiosyncratic style by getting rid of their individualism and readdressing in some respects the societal inclinations and attitudes which were formerly thought to have been beyond the bounds of art. when conditions change, the rules that determine the happenings change as well. it is the human being who both changes and complies with the conditions. conditions have changed according to the technological life with machines, and the rules have been adapted accordingly. a life based on mechanic power has deeply affected the human being and obliged them to mechanical adjustment. what modern artists imagine is to catch up with changes in the changing life but to do it rapidly. the superficial expressions are the meanings that come up to the surface from the depths of the entity. towards the s, pop art, which began to lose its influential powers, began to give its place to conceptual art, which perceives art in a different way – the two having different agendas and approaches. conceptual works of art presented a different reality by combining everyday objects with things that match them best. beyond painting and sculpture, there were convincing reasons of going into new adventures in art in terms of interdisciplinarity. the codes in oral expressions where meanings are encoded as well as in visual forms were the carriers of convention and conceptual codes had a considerable place in practical life and thought. in interdisciplinary art, even though a conceptual work of art is not produced as an objective osman yilmaz turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer form, the text may replace the form, and together with sound manipulations, digital mixing and printing techniques, it may take on a fantastic dimension. in the broad sense, conteptual art gives the idea it cannot be limited to a specific kind of object (a painting, a sculpture or whatever it is) and a specific place (a gallery or a museum). it is possible to see collages and assemblages in most of the current works of art in interdisciplinary art. therefore collage, painting and sculpture appeared as an interdisciplinary method. most of the paintings created in the modernist era were works of art that were approximating to three dimensions from two. in this way, while pictorial images were set in their objective reality, the domain of sculpture was entered. similarly, there were some images with pictorial value in some of the three-dimensional works of art. interdisciplinarity does not create its time consciousness out of rebellion against everything by rebelling against the values of modernity but out of technological facilities. interdisciplinary art owes its entire wonderfully exuberant pragmatic attitude to advanced-definition digital technology. in interdisciplinary art, even though a conceptual work of art is not produced as an objective form, the text may replace the form, and together with sound manipulations, digital mixing and printing techniques, new fantastic fields may be tried. interdisciplinary art manifests itself in every field. for example, when a feeling or an idea is joined in a work of art, it intends to realise and transform its idea. in fact, this is a continuous utopia that is experimented in itself. it is the action which is done with its meanings which are sometimes figurative and sometimes non-figurative. interdisciplinart art, where disparate forms exist together, where common works of art are produced using various exhibiting methods and multimedia, has transformed into a metadiscourse. artists today tend to deal with various contents about politics, criticism, anthropology, linguistics, sexuality, and psychology, and other similar fields, and just like they create art about them they can also take philosophical approach. installations, films, videos, arbitrary or random drafts in different forms can be given place in some art organisations and the attendance of people from several professional groups such as urban planners, environmental engineers and psychologists are welcomed in this kind of activities. interdisciplinary art presents transdisciplinary paradoxical views which combine disparate ways of thinking and personal attitudes. interdisciplinarity in the contemporary art, within the bounds of technological possibility, is able to create virtual collages with fluctuations in meaning in the image by arranging heterogeneous meaning series in paradoxical content in a part-whole relationship, ramifying the reflections from content to whole and vice versa. either the images are active or static, among the meanings that spring from the part-whole relationship, there seems to be a contradiction that cannot be balanced, united, or paired off. it is the intention of the aspects which make meanings through image-material form by creating contrasts from entity (existence) to non-entity (nothingness) in a two-way flow from emptiness to plenitude and vice versa. interdisciplinary art is the metadiscourse of distinctive sanat akımları Üzerinden gelişen disiplinlerarası sanat turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer chaotic nature of the intensities, confrontations, conflicts, consubstantiality and contrasts. among the contemporary art movements, interdisciplinarity has both combined disparate disciplines and transformed into the metadiscourse of the present art by improving the opportunities of producing art with the developing technology. key words: interdisciplinary art, cubism, dadaism, pop art, conceptual art giriş günümüzde disiplinlerarası (interdiciplinary) sanat oldukça kabul gören bir sanat yapma yöntemine dönüştü. gelişmiş teknolojik imkanlardan yararlanarak farklı disiplinleri bir arada kullanan sanatçılar hayallerinde sınır tanımaz hale geldiler. geleneksel sanat yapma tekniklerine göre temel biçimi teknolojik bir ortam yoluyla insan tarafından görülür, duyulur, hissedilir hale getiren fotoğraf makineleri, video kameraları, bilgisayarlar ve internet, imajların oluşturulmasında yapıtların sergilenmelerinde disiplinlerarası sanatın vazgeçilmez araçları oldular. zaten, disiplinlerarası sanatın temel biçimleri teknolojik bir ortamla bağlantılıdır. dijital görüntü, ses, baskı teknikleri, fotoğraf manipülasyonu (photoshop), video montajı, video efektleri yapmak; ses manipülasyonları, dijital miksaj teknikleri, web tasarımı için üretim teknikleri, program dilleri yararlanılan başlıca tekniklerdir. enstalasyon (yerleştirme), film, video ve animasyon, internet ve ağ sanatı, sanal gerçeklik (virtual reality) ve genişletişmiş gerçeklik (augmented reality) sergileme teknikleridir. yapay yaşam, sanal gerçeklik, metin ve anlatı ortamları, oyunlar, aktivizim ve hacktivizm disiplinlerarası çalışan sanatçıların yararlandıkları başlıca konulardır. disiplinlerarası sanat’ın sahip olduğu olanaklar modern sanatın içinde ortaya çıkmış ve serpilmiştir. köklerini kübizme kadar götürebileceğimiz disiplinlerarası sanatın ilk belirtileri kolaj’dır. disiplinlerarası sanat yapma yönteminin aşamalarını sanat akımları üzerinden görmek, günümüz sanatının profilini görmek açısından yararlı olacaktır. İzlenimci sanatın esiniyle kübist anlayışa dönüşen sanat düşüncesi, kolajla kendine özgü gerçeği yanında, perspektif kaygısı gütmeyen sanat yapma anlayışı içinde her türlü resimsel türü hiçe sayarak, düşsel bir boşlukta birbiriyle çelişen biçim, renk ve hazır nesnelerin kaotik harmonisinin ürünüdür. sanal figüratif kavrayıştan kademe kademe sıyrılan kübist sanatçılar -ki, bunların başında braque ve picasso gelir- geleneksel resim yapma tekniğini bir tarafa bırakmışlardır. tual yüzeyinde boya yerine hazır nesneleri kullanma fikri, yani kolaj, bu olayın modern sanat düşüncesinde yer almasını sağlayan bir yöntem olmuştur. diğer bir ifadeyle kolaj, birbirine hiç benzemeyen öğeleri bir araya getirerek bir yapıt ortaya koyma tekniği ve bunun sonucundaki doku kopukluğunu yadırgamama özelliğidir (lynton, : ). kolaj’la biçimsel anlamda sanat yapma kaygısıyla ele alınan nesneler -geleneksel oransal ilişkilerle değil- sanatçının anlık derme-çatmaları, zaman içinde keyfi tavrıyla ilgilidir. picasso ve braque da çözümsel kübist resimlerinde, oyun oynamak adına denemeler yapmış oldukları, bu oyun oynama anlayışlarına bağlı olarak ta değersiz sayabileceğimiz bazı hazır malzemeleri de çelişkili tarzda kullanarak deneysel sanata kapı açmışlardır. dada sanatı harmanlamış ve ii. dünya savaşı sonrasında pop sanatı ve kavramsal sanat ise disiplinlerarasılığa ivme kazandırarak, teknolojinin açıkça sanatta kullanılmasının önünü açmıştır. yaptıkları kolajlarla kurgu dilini geliştiren braque ile picasso, aslında, disiplinlerarası ilişkilerin ilk örneklerini yaratmışlardı. böylece kolaj her türden bilgiyi bir araya getirmenin ve sonsuz yeni bilgiler yaratmanın yolunu açarak ilerde disiplinlerarası sanat için bir zemin de osman yilmaz turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer yaratmış oluyordu. disiplinlerarasılık sanat ve bilimi bir araya getirerek yeni yeni sanat bilgisi üretmenin yollarını açıyordu. bilimde maddenin parçalanabilen en küçük parçasının atomlar olmadığı anlaşılmış ve atomaltı parçacık dünyasının belirsizliği yeni soyut bir dünyanın kapılarını aralamıştı. Çünkü atom bir nesne olduğu gibi aynı zamanda bir biçim ve enerji şekliydi. atom-altı (quantum) dünyası birbirinden farklı henüz tanımsız enerji biçimlerini içermekteydi. sanat ta estetik anlamda nesnenin ve biçimin parçalanmasından doğan yeni soyut ilişkileri dile getirmenin ve anlamlandırmanın bir yöntemiydi. böylece sanat, görsel doğayı ölçü alan geleneksel anlayıştan farklı düşünceleri bir araya getirerek yeni bir ifade gücüne ulaştı. dünyayı anlamamızda aklın çok az ya da hiç rol oynamadığını, bilinç ve belleğimizin sağladığı bilgi ve düşüncelerle beslenen sezgilerimizin yaratıcı bir tepki gösterdiğini ileri süren h. bergson, varlığı anlamamızda sanat bilgisinin önemine işaret eder (lynton, : ). kübizmde disiplinlerarasılık eylülünde braque, ilk yapıştırma kağıtları, desenlerinin ardından tablolarının içine soktu ve daha sonra da braque’ı picasso izledi. yine de kolaja, bir boyaresmine eşit bir plastik içerik yükleyerek onu bir sanat formu düzeyine yükseltenler kübistler olmuştur. böylelikle, oldukça önemli sonuçlara yol açacak birçok temel ilke onaylanmış bulunmaktaydı. Öte yandan sanat eserinin nesnel kabulünün amaçlanması, her birinin diğerinin yerini tutabilen “hazır nesnelerin” kullanımını kolaylaştırıyordu. kübizmin analitik dönem ( - ) gerçeği yansıtma kaygısı, braque’ta tabela ressamından öğrendiği teknikle “trompe l’oeil” (gerçeklik izlenimi veren her türlü çizim ve boyama) tahta ve mermer görünümlü duvar kağıtlarını tablolarına dahil etmekle kendini göstermişti. başında boyalı kağıtlar ya da tahta öykünmeleri yalnızca tablonun düzenlenişinde bir yalınlık sağlıyordu (cabanne, : ). resim dışı unsurların resme eklenmesi sanatta da bir dönüşümün işaretiydi. braque’ın resim : george braque meyve tabağı, kolaj, resim : pablo picasso, meyve keman kase, kolaj, resim ’deki “meyve tabağı” isimli kolajın da üst iki yanda dikeyde paralel ve aşağıda yatayda şerit halindeki ahşap görünümlü tuval yüzeyine yapıştırılmış duvar kağıtları arasında yer alan, üstte doğrudan karakalemle çizilmiş üzüm salkımı, büyük harflerle “bar, ale” yazısı ve yine karakalemle çizilmiş, gölgeli silindirik biçimler ve onların devamı ritmik, kesik gölgeli yüzeyli desenlerden oluşturulmuştur. resmin farklı parçaları arasındaki ilişki tüm yüzeyde yayılan karşıt ilişkiyi sürdürüyor. ahşap rengiyle ön plana çıkan yapıştırma kağıtlar ve karakalemle çizilmiş sanat akımları Üzerinden gelişen disiplinlerarası sanat turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer üzüm salkımı, kübik kavisli biçimler ve çaprazda da iki büyük harf grubu kendi içinde, karşıt ritmik parçalanmış bir bütünlüğü işaret ederken, üst üste bindirilmiş resmin kurgusunda kaotik bir ifade yaratıyor. kübistler parçalanmış nesneleri ve hazır imgeleri farklı bakış açılarıyla tuvale monte etmeleriyle; çok katmanlı resimden ziyade, heykel gibi ama heykel de olmayan, tamamen kendine özgü bir sanat türü yaratmışlardı. bundan böyle kolaj modernist sanatta “disiplinlerarasılık” fikrinde temellenen kurguda ağırlığını hissettirecekti. kolaj, disiplinlerarası görüntünün yeniden yapılanmasının eklenti unsuru olarak ortaya çıkmakta ve bu anlamda görmenin daha kurgusal, zihni bir aşamasına karşılık gelmekteydi. yeni deformasyonların yaratıcısı kolaj, asamblaj, enstalasyon, mimari-heykel ve eylem iletişim teknolojilerinin gelişmesine bağlı olarak disiplinlerarasılığa götüren anahtar bir unsurdu. benzer şekilde, picasso’nun ’te yaptığı resim ’deki kolajında, kemanın bir bölümünü bir gazete parçasına ve diğer bölümünü kağıt yüzeyine karakalemle çizilmiş, diğer yanıysa ahşap görünümlü kesilmiş kağıt bir biçim olarak yapıştırılmıştır. keman konturlarının üstüne de keman desenleriyle açık mavi kağıt yapıştırılmış, en üst katında bitişik siyah ve beyaz şerit kağıtların yapıştırıldığı görülür. hemen yanında gazete kağıdı üzerindeyse karakalemle çizilmiş ayaklı bardağa benzer deseni, yine altta büyük harflerle ( j )-urnal yazısı yer alır. resmin sol üst yanında üst üste bindirilmiş konik beyaz kağıt şeritler üzerinde meyveler görülür. alt bölümünde ise, kağıttan merdiven biçiminde gri şeritler ve bir gazete yapıştırılmıştır. yapıtta yer alan nesneler hayattaki gerçek yapılarıyla olduğu gibi eklenmiş ve üzerinde karakalemle kısmi müdahalelerde bulunulmuştur. her iki sanatçının kolajlarında teknik, konu ve kullandıkları malzemeler büyük bir benzerlik gösterirler. her iki resimde de biçim ve malzeme ilişkileri açıkça verilmez. kolaj’da parçalar, birbirleri ile yeterince temas halinde çelişkili bir görünüm verse de, aralarındaki soyut bağlar insan fantezisinde gelişir. sanatın göreneksel dağarcığının dışından ya da daha değersiz sayabileceğimiz bir kesimden malzeme kullanmak; gerçeklikle daha ülküselleştirilmiş bir güzellik elde etmek için değil de, oyun oynamış olmak için oynamak; aynı resimde birbiriyle çelişen biçimler oluşturmak yapıştırma tekniği olan kolaj’dan yararlanarak her türlü resimsel dili hiçe saymak; resmin yüzeyini, içinden düşsel bir boşluğa bakılan bir pencere olarak kabul eden göreneksel anlayışı tümüyle yadsımak gibidir (lynton, : ). dada kaosunda disiplinlerarasılık dada, i. dünya savaşı’nın yarattığı vahşeti ve bu savaşın yaşanmasına neden olan ve her şeyi saran cinnet halini protesto eden karşıt (anti) bir sanat hareketi olarak doğdu. savaştan çok uzun bir süre öncesinden hazırlanmış olmakla birlikte, dada patlayıcı gücünü savaş olgusundan alacaktır. zira, barış zamanında, sonuçta var olan toplumsal denge tarafından kabul edilmiş bir avangart içinde az ya da çok olağanlıkla yönlendirilmiş entelektüel yıkıcılık kalkışmaları, mevcut sınırların dışına yayılarak ve komşu eğilimleri ilhak etmek üzere, çatışmaların yol açtığı alt üst oluşları kendi hesaplarına kullanacaklardı. dada’nın gücü özellikle, kübizm, konstrüktivizm, fütürizm gibi dönemin avangard sanat hareketlerinin hepsini birden ortak bir gövdeye eklemleyebilmesidir (sanouillet, : ). savaş ve savaşın neden olduğu sonuçların arkasında geleneği de içeren tüm yaşam değerlerini gören osman yilmaz turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer resim : hans arp, uyum, kolaj, resim : kurt schwitters, soylu kadınlar, asemblaj, dada, altında ezildiği bu değerlerin karşısına “hiç” ile çıkmıştı. bu yüzden, söylemlerini öncelikle toplumun sanatsal ve kültürel değerleri üzerine odaklamışlardı. dadaistler, insanın insana yaptığı zalimlik yüzünden sanatı ve toplumu ikiyüzlü ve sığ buluyorlar ve özelliklede geçmişi idealize eden referansları yok etme gayretleri içinde, savaşın anlamsızlığını vurgulayarak bilinçli ya da bilinçdışı sanat değerleri yaratıyorlardı. dada adının ortaya çıkışı da eylemleri kadar tartışmalıydı. tristan tzara ve hugo ball tarafından sürdürülen iddialara göre, bu isim o gece cabare voltaire’de sahneye çıkacak olan iki dansçı kıza bir sahne adı araştırılırken, bir zarf açacağı yardımıyla rastgele açılan bir sözlüğün sayfalarından çıkmıştır. başka tanıklara göreyse, dadacıların düzenli olarak toplandıkları cafe terrasse’ın garsonları, dillerini hiç anlamadıkları ve yalnızca konuşmalarından kapabildikleri “da da” heceleriyle tanıdıkları bu gruba, böylece “dada” lakabını takmış olmalarıdır (sanouillet, : ). dada her nasıl ortaya çıkmış olsa da içeriğine uygun bir ismi aldığı şüphe götürmez. dada isminin ilk kez Şubat’ında zürih’te kullanılmış olduğuna bakarak, bunun kendiliğinden bir içe doğuşun ürünü olduğu sonucu çıkarılmamalıdır. aslında, dadacı devrim, sadece, bütün yüzyılların ve bütün ülkelerin batılı yazınında var olan özgürleştirici ve nihilist bir protesto duygusunun en katışıksız ve en aşırı formunu temsil etmektedir. ne var ki o güne değin sanatın icrasına içkin bu ayaklanmacı baskı, doğaları gereği tutucu olan, toplumsal kurumların olağan işleyişi içinde tutulmuş ve ancak, çoğunlukla bireysel yapıtlar ya da tavırlar aracılığıyla ortaya konmuştu (sanouillet, : ). dada hareketi ’da h. ball, eşi emy hennings ile birlikte zürih’te, cabaret voltaire adlı gece kulübünü açmaları ile başladı. buraya; savaş karşıtı olarak gelen sanatçıların sözlü performansları, dans ve müzik gösterilerini içeren gürültülü ve taşkın şovlar damgasını vuruyordu. “bizim için sanat kendi içinde bir amaç taşımıyor sanat, içinde yaşadığımız zamanları doğru algılamak ve kritiğini yapabilmek için bir şans” diyen ball, dada için doğrudan bir hedef ortaya koymuyordu. burada yapılan antisanat hareketiyle güçlü bir saçmalık ve geleneğe karşı saygısızlık vurgusu yapıyordu. dada sergilerin ve kabare şovlarının yanına müzik ve şiiri de katmıştı. Şovlardaki hareketli görüntüler, dinamizm ve propaganda kolaj bir içerikle ifade ediliyordu. Örneğin arp, yırtık kağıt parçalarını rastgele yerlere atıp, onları rastlantısallık ile uyumlu bir sanat akımları Üzerinden gelişen disiplinlerarası sanat turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer biçimde düştükleri yerlere yapıştırıyordu. m. ray günlük nesnelerden asamblajlar oluştururken schwitters; ticaret kelimesinin almanca kommerz’den türettiği “merz” adı altında sokaktan topladığı çöplerden asamblajlar yapıyordu (hodge, , , ). İlk soyut yapıştırılmış kolajlar, sonia delaunay’ın cendrars’ın “prose du transsiberian” ı kullanmış olmasıdır. arp, kâğıttan sonradan yapıştırdığı formları keserek yeni bir teknik de yaratmış; yapıştırılmış kağıt atıklar ilk kübist tablolarda olduğu gibi, resme eşlik eden bir motif değil, ama yapıtın kendisiydi. usa aykırı bu yaklaşımlar, şiirsel, mizahi ya da psişik bir şoka yol açıyorlardı. Şair l. aragon, “iğreti unsurlar, önceden göstermiş olduklarını göstermek ya da tümüyle; yeni bir eğretileme yoluyla, tamamıyla farklı bir şeyi göstermek için seçilmiş olmalarına bağlı olarak farklı şeylere hizmet ediyorlardı” diye yazar (cabanne, : ). İlkel afrika şiirleri, grup üyelerinin hazırladıkları seçilmiş sözcüklerden, anlamsız ses şiirlerinin aynı anda okunması sonucu ortaya çıkan anlamsız şiirlerle temsil ediliyordu. bu göz doldurucu etkinliklerin ardından ’de dada uluslararası bir üne kavuştu ve bu yılın sonuna doğru da grup dağılmaya başladı. dadacı sanatçılar tabi boş durmadılar ve daha sonra da düşüncelerini avrupa’nın çeşitli ülkelerinde yaydıkları gibi amerika’ya da taşıdılar. (lynton, , ). dada hareketi içinde yer alan ressamlar, heykeltıraşlar, müzisyenler şair ve yazarlar düşünce ve tavırları her ne kadar nihilist olsa da, aslında hepsi nihilizm’in anlamına dair ilk biçimsel ve nesnel ilişkileri de kurmuş oldular. görsel sanatlarla ilgili sanatçılar soyut biçimler yanında, hazır malzemeleri yapıtlarına sokmaları yanında, ses, müzik, şiir gibi unsurların da, ya anlık ya da grafik olarak ilk denemelerini yapmışlardı. böylece, disiplinlerarası sanat’ın çok boyutlu görsel dilini oluşturan alfabesi de yaşam serüveninde yerini almış oluyordu. dadacılar doğrudan yeni değerler veya üsluplar üretmiyorlardı, ama yeni yaratılacak değerlerin, özgürlüğe bağlı yöntemlerini ortaya koyuyorlardı. o dönemin yapıt ve sanat eylemlerinden de anlaşılacağı gibi tavırları temelde soyut bir öze yönelikti ve bu da mevcut anlamın sonuydu. yeni hayat ta, sona varılmış bir “hiç”ten doğacak ve soyut olacaktı. zaten, dadacı sanatçılar da, kübistlerin yarattıkları geometrik biçim dilinden ve kolajlarından haberdardılar ve bu söylemi en anlamsız hiç (nihil) olana indirgemek istemişlerdi. “dada yalnızca içgüdüyü benimsediğinden açıklamayı önsel olarak mahkum eder. ona göre, kendi üstümüzde hiçbir denetimin bulunmasına izin vermemeliyiz. ahlak ve zevk gibi dogmalar söz konusu bile olamaz” diyen a. breton (breton, , ), tam bir anlamsızlık üzerinde dada anlayışıyla mutabıktır. kübistlerden farklı olarak daha soyut bir özde bilinçdışı ve içgüdüye varan ruhsal tavırlarıyla, biçime eylemi ya da eyleme biçimi katarak yeni disiplinlerarası sanat oluşumlarının ve olanaklarının önünü açtılar. kendilerini tam bir muğlaklığa bırakan kontrolsüz eylemlerine doğrudan yüklenen bir anlam olmasa da bir açıklaması vardı. Özellikle t. tzara, dada manifestosunda şöyle diyordu: “dada bir protestodur; yıkıcı bir eylemdir, mantığın yerle bir edilmesidir; işte budur dada. belleğin arkeolojinin, geleceğin yıkımıdır, dada özgürlüktür. Çarpışan renklerin, zıtların birliğinin, tutarsızlıkların ifadesi, kısaca yaşamın kendisidir” (antmen, : ). bu muhalif-anarşist sanatçı grubu ifade araçlarını, yöntemlerini eylemleri ile sokağa taşıdılar. dadaistlerin ifadeleri ne kadar kışkırtıcı olsa da sanatı hayata açtıkları gibi hayatı da sanata katmışlardır. kolaj ve fotomontaj, sanatçıların kendilerini pratik ifade etme isteklerini karşılayan bir yöntemdi. soyut kolaj uygulamalarında malzeme boş bir göstergedir. Çünkü anlamı, izleyici yaratacak ve boşluğu da, o dolduracaktır. berlin dada grubundan r. housmann’ın yaptığı kolajlar ve asamblajlar savaşın ve saldırganlık ruhunun, rasyonel aklın iflasının bir göstergesi olurlar. Özellikle “mekanik kafa” adlı asamblaj bu iflasa yönelik güçlü kanıtların simgesi olsa da, bu tarz yaşamaya -farklı şekillerde yaşamaya- devam etmektedir. mekanik kafa robotsu kurgusuyla ahşap başın üzerinde bulunan mezro rasyonel akla göndermelerde bulunurken kulağın birine monte edilen, baskı rulosu ve diğer kulağa takılan kamera vidaları makineleşen aklın insan ilişkilerinde dramatik bir değişime yol açmasıyla yaratılan bunalımın bir ifadesi gibidir osman yilmaz turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer schwitters ile kolaj heykel, heykel boyutu kazanarak atıl malzemeye duyulan merakı daha açık bir dille ifade ediyordu. schwitters “kommerziel” (ticari) sözcüğünden esinle bulduğu “merz” sözcüğünü, farklı plastik ve şiirsel faaliyetlerini nitelemek için kullanır. heterojen unsurların temel olduğu kolaj-tablolar olan “merzbilderler” geleneksel resmin içine sokulan ilk sosyolojik unsurları oluştururlar. sanatçı yaşadığı anın arkeologu olarak, kübistler ya da fütüristler gibi çok iyi kurulmuş bir bağlam içinde estetik değeri, ya da anlamına değil, ama özünde, var olan ifadesine bağlı olarak, günlük yaşamın çoğunlukla aşağılanan, kırılgan kalıntısı çöpün dökümünü sabır ve coşkuyla çıkarmasıdır. disiplinlerarası sanat’ta planların parçalanması ya da parçalar halinde yeniden kompoze edilmesini geride bırakarak, geleneksel–kutsal soylulukların aşılarak modern endüstriyel yaşamın atıklarının analitik kavramlaştırılmaları ilk deneyimler olarak çöpün tekrar hayat bulmasıyla mimari unsurlara dönüşen bir boyuta ulaşmıştır. İki boyutlu yüzeylerden schwitters ile üç boyutlu mimari heykellere dönüşen asamblajları ile uzamı üstüne a. kaprow’un çevre düzenlemelerinin ve amerikan pop’unun habercisidir. böylelikle muğlak mekanların eğretisel düşselliği içinde sokağın atıl hafızası olan nesneler çarpıcı bir güce ulaşır (cabanne, : ). İşlevsel bağlamlarından koparılan nesne-imgeler, kolajlardaki ve asamblajlardaki yeni konumlarıyla tekrar ifade edilmesi, eski kullanılmış başka şeylerle; sanatsal duyarlılıkta bir araya getirilerek parçalar arsındaki farklılıkların entropik göstergeleridir. pop sanatta disiplinlerarasılık abd, ii. dünya savaşından büyük bir yıkıma uğramadan zaferle çıktığı gibi, savaş zengini de olmuştu. Ülkenin sahip olduğu sermaye gücü, toplumsal dinamiklerini etkilemiş, endüstriyel yaşam da farklı bir boyut kazanmıştı. İngiltere de savaştan biraz yıkıma uğramış olsa da, savaştan savaş galibi olarak çıkmıştı. pragmatist bir düşünce geleneğine sahip ve yakın ilişkiler içinde olan bu iki ülkede bilim ve teknolojik gelişmişliğin sonucunda kitle iletişim araçları gelişmiş ve tüketim kültürüyle endüstriye dayalı yeni bir yaşam şekli ortaya çıkmıştı. kitle iletişim araçlarının yaygınlaşmasıyla daha önce hiçbir zaman olmadığı kadar büyük kitlelere doğrudan hitabetme olanağı doğmuştu. bu yeni düzende yapılan sanat ta, kitle sanatı olarak değerlendirilebilirdi. geçmişin iç karartıcılığından kurtulmak, geleceğe neşeyle ve iyimser bir umutla bakmak isteyen pop sanatçıları bazı yönleri ve yöntemleri bakımından sanki dadaizm’in mirasını da devralmış gibiydiler. pop sözcüğü ilk olarak ’te İngiliz sanat eleştirmeni lawrence alloway tarafından, o dönemde yöneticisi olduğu ica (İnstitute of contemporary art)’da bir araya gelen londra’lı sanatçılar topluluğunun yapıtlarıyla ilgili olarak kullanmıştır. bu sanatçılar; r. hamilton ve p. blake, schwitters sonrası gerçekçi kolaj tekniğini uyguluyorlardı. ama terim eğer ’ün başlarında, new york’lu eleştirmenler tarafından yeniden ele alınmamış olsaydı, bu kadar moda olmazdı. gerçekten de new york’lu eleştirmenler bu terimi rouschenberg ve j. john’un combine- paintings ve asamblajları, yeni dadacılık akımının izleyicilerine ait çalışmaları için kullandılar (restany, : ). pop sanat halk içinde canlı ve anlaşılabilir bir sanattı. amerikan pop sanatının etkinlik alanı İngiltere’ye oranla daha genişti. İmgelerin uyandırdığı çekiciliği en belirgin yollardan etkileyici bir şekilde yapıtlarında kullanan sanatçılar r. lichtenstein ve a. warhol’dur. lichtenstein, resimlerin görsel dilini, konularını ve tekniklerini; warhol ise her yerde karşımıza çıkan ve sürekli yinelenen özellikleri ile reklamcılığı ele alıyordu (lynton, : ). sanatçılar sahip oldukları gelişmiş teknolojik olanakları ve yetenekleriyle bunda büyük rol oynuyordu. İstediklerinde popüler imgeleri bayağı, çekici ya da sarsıcı bir güçle kullanmasını biliyorlardı. İstenilen değerleri topluma empoze etmede medyayı kullanabildikleri için, sanat güçlerini de disiplinlerarasılık içinde istedikleri gibi çeşitlendirebiliyorlardı. sanat akımları Üzerinden gelişen disiplinlerarası sanat turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer bu yeni gelişmeler içinde modernist sanat ta farklı bir boyut aldı. - yılları arasında londra’da bir grup sanatçı, desenci ve sanat tarihçisi; sembolizmi ve filmlerdeki, resimli dergilerdeki, reklamlardaki, tüketicilere yönelik desenlerdeki kitlelere yönelik imgelerin sunuluşu üzerine çalışmalar yaptılar. burada yeni bir yaşam şeklinin kapıları aralanmıştı. grup üyeleri kendilerini nasıl bir maceranın beklediği konusunda endişeliydiler. ’da açılan “İşte yarın” isimli sergi, plastik sanatlarla mimarinin disiplinlerarasılıkla nasıl bir araya getirildiğini göstermek istiyordu. aslında bu bir sergiden öte, bir gösteriydi. r. hamilton’ın bir sinemanın ön cephesine asılan kolaj resmi sıra dışı kaynaklardan seçilen imgeleri bir araya getiriyordu. bu kolaj yapıtıyla hamilton, batı insanının yaşamını ve ideallerini özetler gibiydi (lynton, : - ). hamilton’ın amerikan dergilerinden aldığı imgeler ile “günümüz evlerini bu denli değişik ve çekici kılan nedir?” adlı kolajı pop sanatın etkili göstergelerinden biri oldu. hamilton popüler yaşam tarzını anlatan kolajında, doğrudan figüratif imgeleri kullanmış olması, geleneksel anlatım tarzıyla bir bağ kurmuştur ama bu bağ daha çok fütüristik bir tarzı ifade eder. bu modernist anlayışın geleneği kökten reddetmesi yerine, modern olması kaydıyla, yeni plastik dilin anlatım olanağına katkısı olabileceğini ifade ediyor. bilim bize biçimin de maddenin de altında yatan gerçeğin soyut varlık olan “enerji” olduğunu göstermiştir. bundan böyle disiplinlerarası sanat düşüncesi belli belirsiz bir şekilde parçalanan kaotik dünyanın parçalarıyla, yeni bir dünya kurmanın peşine düşmüştür. artık hiçbir şey eskisi gibi olamayacaktır. modern sanatın serüveni hiçten yeni değerler yaratarak yeni bir düzen kurmak olacaktır. geçmişin durağan anlayışının yerini dinamik yaratıcı kavrayış almıştır. a. kaprow’a göre, “sanat ve yaşam rekabet halindedir. bir zamanlar sanat yaşamdan üstün gibi görünüyordu, ama modern dönemde yaşam daha üstün görünmektedir. yaşam açıkça bu yarışı kazandığı için de sanat yaşama katılmaktadır” (kuspit, : ). zaten sıradanlık ve yüzeysellik yeni sanat yapmanın en bilinen yöntemi olur. kolajın yeniden sorgulanışı rauschenberg ile olmuştur. “combine painting”lerin içine mizahi ve alışılmamış nesneleri, çöpü, coca-cola şişelerini, doldurulmuş kuşları ve birçok maddeye ait parçaları sokmasıyla dadaistlerin tavrına geri dönmüştür. rauschenberg, warhol’un görsel ready-made’lerinde daha önce kullandığı fotoğraflamayı kullanarak geleneksel iki boyuta indirgemiştir. fotoğraf, görüntünün yeniden yapılışının organik unsuru olarak ortaya çıkmakta, bu anlamda da kolajın sentetik bir aşamasına karşılık gelmektedir (cabanne, : ). yeni örüntüler kuran disiplinlerarası sanat kolaj ve fotomontajla alternatif birleşimsel değerler yaratıyordu. günlük yaşamda alış-veriş de kolaj ve fotomontaj gibi beklenmedik sürpriz ilişkilerin bir parçasıydı. karikatür, çizgi roman, para, dergi, gazete, ünlüler, reklam, hazır yemek, ürün ambalajları, pop müzik, radyo, televizyon ve hollywood filmleri gibi tüketim kültürüne ait imge ve objeleri kullanan sanatçılar kitle kültürüne olan ilgilerini gösteriyordu. osman yilmaz turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer resim : raoul haussmann, mekanik kafa, resim : richard hamilton, günümüz evlerini bu denli İlginç kılan tam olarak ne? sanatçılar ile tasarımcılar, kullandıkları imge ve teknikler ile günlük yaşamı ön plana çıkarıyorlardı. sanat kültürel yaşam açısından bir dönüm noktası durumundaydı. pop sanatçıları, bireyselliklerinden sıyrılıp daha önceleri sanatın sınırlarının dışında kaldığı düşünülen toplumsal beğeni ve tutumları bazı yönleri ile yeniden ele alarak kendilerine özgü yeni bir tarz yaratmışlardı. bu durumda her şey sanatın hem malzemesi hem de konusu olabilmekteydi. Örneğin, james rosenquist ve warhol reklam dünyasındaki deneyimlerini kullanarak, reklam ile güzel sanatlar arasında yeni bağlar kurup, yeni yöntemlerin önünü açtılar. tek bir süreç, yöntem olarak ortak bir tarza bağlı kalmamış olan pop sanat, genellikle güzel sanatlara yabancı olan malzemeler kullanarak ortaya çıkarılan teksir, baskı, resim, fotoğraf, kolaj ve üç boyutlu yapıtlar ürettiler. c. oldenburg, gündelik nesnelerin devasa, gerçekçi modellerini yarattı. r. lichtenstein, büyük boyutlu çizgi roman kareleri çizdi. a. warhol ünlülerin, tüketim mallarının ve gazete küpürlerinin imgelerini kullanarak serigrafiler üretti. r. rauschenberg ve j. johns tüketim toplumunun sembollerini kullanarak resim ve heykeller yaptılar (hodge, : ). modern düşünce ile doğaya hükmeden insan daha sonra bu hükmedişinden kendisi de payını almış, makineli endüstriyel yaşam insanı zamanla mekanikleşmeye zorlamış olmasıyla toplumsal yeni kaygıların kaynağı olmuştur. fabrikalara dönüşen metropollerin sunduğu hayat tarzları ile değişen değerlerin yalnızlaştırdığı insan, kaotik bir gelecekle baş başa kalmıştır. koşullar değişince olayları belirleyen kurallar da değişir. koşulları değiştiren de, koşullara uyan da insandır. koşullar makineli, teknolojik yaşama göre değişmiş, kurallar da ona uyarlanmıştır. mekanik güce dayalı bir yaşam, insanı derinden etkileyerek insanı mekanik uyuma zorlamıştır. modern sanatçıların imgeledikleri şey, değişen yaşamda değişimi yakalamak ama, hızla yakalamaktır. yüzeydeki ifadeler varlığın derinliğinden yüzeye çıkan anlamlardır. sanat imgeleri insan tininin nesnel dünya ile hesaplaşmasının bir ürünüdür. kant’a göre biz, “nesneleri olduğu gibi değil, sahip olduğumuz düşünce kategorilerine göre biliriz” (tunalı, : ). sahip olduğumuz düşünceler nesnel dünyadan öznel dünyamıza aktardığımız bilgilerle yarattığımız düşüncelerimizdir. bu düşüncelerle yarattığımız doğa içindeki sentetik yaşam doğrudan nesnelerin gerçek organizasyonlarına ve hareketlerine dayalı bir kurgudur. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/ff/hamilton-appealing .jpg sanat akımları Üzerinden gelişen disiplinlerarası sanat turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer kavramsal sanatta disiplinlerarasılık birbirinden farklı gündem ve yaklaşımlarıyla, ’lere doğru etkileyici güçlerini yitirmeye başlayan pop sanat yerini, sanatı farklı bir şekilde sorgulayan kavramsal sanat’a bırakmaya başlamıştı. kavramsal sanat, performans sanatı, enstalasyon, video sanatı gibi çok sayıda sanat türünün otaya çıkmasına ve kabul görmesine ortam sağladı. fikir veya enformasyon (-e ilişkin bilgi, malumat)’u önceleyen kavramsal sanatçı, sol lewitt, “fikirlerin tek başlarına bile sanat eseri olabileceğini, er ya da geç bir gelişim zincirinin nesnel bir gerçeklik kazanmasına gerek olmayacağını” söylüyordu (hodge, : ). farklı yerlerden sanatçıların birçoğu herhangi bir gruba katılmadıkları gibi, her hangi bir manifesto da yazmadan imgelerini disiplinlerarası yöntemlerle farklı yollardan yaratmasını bildiler. kavramsal sanat yapıtlarının bazıları derin karmaşıkken, bazıları da maksatlı sıradan olabiliyordu. kavramsal sanatçılar izleyicilerin gözleri ve hislerinden ziyade, aklına sesleniyorlar, dikkatlerini doğrudan mesaja verebilmeleri için de sanat fikirlerini iyi kurgulamaları gerekiyordu. ’larda pop sanatında çevreyle ilgili elemanların, mekan yaratmada özel ilgi alanlarına dönüştükleri görülür. bu ilgi ile yer bulan enstalasyon fikri yaygın olarak sanatçıların öznel mekan yaratma düşüncesine zemin yaratmış olmalıdır. açık ya da kapalı mekanlar doğrudan sanatçının tercihine bağlıdır. enstalasyon hazır bir mekanda sanatçının öznel mekan arayışıyla yarattığı bu öznel mekana gelen izleyicilerin mekanın, atmosferini deneylemesi ile ve bu deneylemenin sonucunda gözlemlerin bir araya getirilmesi ile son bulur. galeri ya da atölye mekanlarının dışına çıkılmasıyla bir özgürlüğe kavuşan enstalasyon doğrudan sanat eğilimini dile getirerek yaratılan ruhsal atmosferin deneyimlenmesiyle kurgu ya da eylem bir arada yaşanabilir. disiplinlerarası bir anlayışla alışılmışın dışında resim, heykel, grafik ve kolajla birçok yapıt ve etkinlik ister gerçek, ister kurgusal olsun tüm karmaşıklığı içinde sanat olarak sunulmuştur. sanatçıların sanat yapıtları ve sanat etkinlikleriyle büyük başarı göstermeye başladıkları yerler medyanın da ilgi alanıdır. sanatçılar kamusal alanlarda ya da kendilerinin belirledikleri özel mekanlarda farklı çeşitten gösteriler kurgular, sunar ve kendileri de bizzat gösterinin içinde yer alırlar. Çekici, dramatik ya da sıkıcı türden ve tek kişilik gösteri ya da olay olarak, önceden tasarlanmış bir sahnede veya anlık, içten geldiği gibi doğaçlama sergilenen gösterilerden ibaret happening’lerdi. geçmişi dadacı sanatçılara kadar giden ancak savaş sonrası ’da, a. kaprow’un düzenlediği happening, bir başlangıç noktası olmuş ve happening bir sanat türü olarak hızla yayılmıştır. happening ve benzer gösteri türlerinin tüm batı dünyasında bu denli hızlı yayılması, bu sanat biçiminin kendine özgü sunduğu yaratıcı olanaklar ve izleyiciyle yakından kurduğu sıcak ilişkilerdi (lynton, , ). pop sanatının içinden doğan kavramsal sanat, söz ya da sözlerin karşılığı harflerin tuval boyutlarında kimisi resim kimisi de metin olarak yazılıp sergilenmesine dayanmaktaydı. resim niteliğindeki söz ve sözler görsel etkileyicilikleri izleyiciyi anlamlarına dair çağrışımlara dahil eder. bir yönüyle kavramları dilbilimsel açıdan tekrar etüt etmeyi ve üzerlerine düşünmeyi hedefler, ancak görmeyi ve işitmeyi bir arada ele alan ucu açık bir sanattır. İnsanları yeniden düşündürdüğü gibi kafaları da çokça karıştırdığı aşikardır. resim ve heykelin ötesinde sanatta, disiplinlerarasılık bakımından yeni serüvenlere girilmesinin kendince tutarlı nedenleri vardı. görsel biçimlerde olduğu kadar anlamların dizgelendiği sözlü anlatımlardaki kodlar geleneğin taşıyıcısıydılar ve kavramsal kodların da pratik yaşamda ve düşüncede oldukça büyük yerleri vardı. geçen yüzyılın sonlarına doğru kendileri ve etkileri kısa sürede son bulan sanat çalışmaları yapılır oldu. happening türünden olan bu çalışmalar, kısa süreliğine, etkileri de o kadar kısa olan yapıtlardı. bazen içeriklerinde ideolojik eylem ve anlamları da barındırmakta sakınca görülmüyordu. disiplinlerarası bir sanat etkinliği olarak happening, içeriğine bağlı olarak mesajını bir çevre, bir ortam etkinliği içerisinde doğrudan izleyicisine vermek ister. kavramsal sanatı geniş anlamda sanat fikrine, özel osman yilmaz turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer bir tür nesne (resim, heykel ve her ne ise) ve özel bir yerle (galeri, müze) sınırlanamayacağı fikrini verir. bunun yanında çeşitli sorunlara da ışık tutarlar: birbirimizle nasıl iletişim kurarız? nasıl hareket ederiz? nasıl yaşarız? gibi. davranış şekilleri, insanların birbirleriyle ilişki kurma biçimleri; tedirgin edici, ısrarlı hareketler ya da yalnızca bir kerelik ve keyfi davranışlar; kendi kendini yaralama, zarar verme gibi; bir doğa parçasını düzenleyip bireysel sanat eseri sergiler; yer aldığı mekan ve mekanda bulunan izleyicilerin beklentileri doğrultusunda ya da beklentilerin aksine yaratılan gösteriler; tartışmalar doğada ya da kapalı özel mekanlarda yapılan değişiklikleri kamera ve fotoğraflarla belgelemek (lynton, : ). aslında, happening’lerle yapılan düşüncenin kendi kendimiz üzerinde deneylenmesi ve bu deneylemenin elde kalan belgeleri üzerinden yapılan değerlendirmelerdir. sonuç kübist sanatçıların ellerinde yeni bir sanat yapma yöntemi olarak kolajlar, doğrudan klasik bir dizgelendirmeyi aşan ancak, zihinsel sıçramalara olanak veren, beklenmedik ilişkilerin uzamıydılar. aslında ilk olarak yapılan kolajlar bu özellikleriyle modern sanat içerisinde disiplinlerarası anlayışın da ilk göstergeleri olmaktaydılar. günümüz disiplinlerarası sanat yapıtlarının pek çoğunda kolajlar, asamblajlar görmek mümkündür. böylece resim ve heykel disiplinlerarasılık bir yöntem olarak ortaya çıkmıştı. modernist dönemde yapılan resimlerin çoğu iki boyuttan üç boyuta yaklaşan çalışmalardır. bu şekilde resimsel, imge nesnel gerçekliği içinde kurgularken heykel’in alanına girilmiştir. benzer şekilde üç boyutlu yapıtların bazılarında da resimsel değerde imgeler yer almaktaydı. modern sanat temel bir biçim üzerinden yükselmek istiyordu, bu mümkün olmayınca temel değer hiçliğin içine çekildi, ama hiçlik de bir değer olamayınca pop sanat’la ümitlenilip gelecek için figüratif farklı şekillerde denendi. dolayısıyla modern sanat, figürle geleceğe yeni bir hamle yapmış oldu. akabinde gerçeğin yüksek çözünürlüğü, berraklığı arttıkça yanılsama da o kadar azaldı. derinlikten yoksunluk yüzeyselliği beraberinde getirdi. eski sanatla hesaplaşmak ve radikal bir sanat için, belki de baudrillard’ın dediği gibi “sanatın hükümsüzleştirilmesi gerekiyordu. Öyle ki, bu gün her şey kendisini göstermek istiyor: sanat, endüstri, medyatik nesneler, her türden yapıntı, ifade etmek, görülmek, okunmak fotoğraflanmak istiyor” (baudrillard, : , ). günümüz sanatı, disiplinlerarasılık olarak gerçekliği imgelerle filtreliyor ve gerçeklikleri bu şekilde yeni sanat değerlerine dönüştürüyor. dadacıların tavrı farklı bir zaman bilincidir. bu zaman bilinci kendini öncü mecazlarıyla göstermiştir. onların tavrı; beklenmedik ve ani olanın tehlikelerini göze alarak henüz keşfedilmemiş bir geleceği hedeflemesidir. belirsiz bir gelecek beklentisi içinde yenilik inancıyla şimdiki zamanı yüceltir. geçici olan, ele geçirilemeyen yeni değerler hep şimdiki zamanı işaret eder. hayat, seslerin, renklerin, ruhsal ritimlerin birbirine geçtiği bir girdap gibi görünür (artun, : ). disiplinlerarasılık zaman bilincini modernin değerlerine karşı başkaldırarak her şeye karşı isyandan değil, teknolojik olanaklar üzerinden yaratır. disiplinlerarası sanat bütün harikulade taşkın pragmatik tavrını gelişmiş çözünürlülükte dijital teknolojiye borçludur. kavramsal sanat eserleri, her gün karşılaştığımız şeylerle, onlara en uygun gelen şeyleri bir araya getirerek farklı bir gerçeklik sunuyor. disiplinlerarası sanatta kavramsal bir çalışma, nesnel bir biçim olarak ortaya konmasa da metin, biçimin yerini alabilir ve ses manipülasyonları, dijital miksaj ve baskı teknikleriyle yeni fantastik alanlar denenebilir. disiplinlerarası sanat her alanda kendini gösteriyor. Örneğin bir duygu ya da düşünce, herhangi bir yapıta eklemlendiğinde kendi idesini gerçekleştirme, dönüştürme isteğindedir. aslında bu, kendi içinde deneylenen sürekli bir ütopyadır. bazen figüratif, bazen de non-figüratif bir hal alan anlamlarıyla yapılan eylemdir. kim bilir, baudrillard’ın söylediği gibi, “belki de sanat dünyasının ta kendisi bir sanattır” (baudrillard, : ). sanat akımları Üzerinden gelişen disiplinlerarası sanat turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer disiplinlerarası sanatta ayrıksı biçimlerin bir arada var olduğu, farklı sergileme yöntemlerinin çoklu araçlarla (multimedya) üretilen ortak sanat yapıtlarının üretildiği bir üst söyleme dönüşmüştür. günümüz sanatçıları politika, eleştiri, antropolojiyle dilbilim, cinsellik ve psikoloji ve benzer alanlar üzerine farklı içeriklere girebiliyor ve onlar üzerinde sanat yapabildiği gibi filozofik bir tavır da alabilmektedirler. bazı sanat organizasyonlarında enstalasyon, film, video, farklı şekillerde keyfi ya da rastlantısal eskizlere yer verilebiliyor ve bu tür ortak etkinliklere şehir planlamacısı, çevre mühendisi, psikolog ve benzeri meslek gruplarından kişilerin katılımlarına da yer verilmektedir. disiplinlerarası sanat kendi içinde farklı düşünce biçimlerini ve kişisel tavırları bir araya getiren disiplinlerüstü (transdisciplinary) paradoks manzaralar sunuyor. Çağdaş sanatta disiplinlerasılık, teknolojik imkanlar dahilinde imgede, heterojen anlam dizileri paradoksal içerikte düzenleyerek, parça bütün ilişkisi içinde yansıma ları dallandırıp budaklandırıp içerikten bütüne, bütünden içeriğe anlamda sıçramalarla sanal kolajlar yaratabilmektedir. İmgeler ister eylemsel olsun isterse durağan, parça bütün ilişkisi içinde doğan anlamlar arasında dengelenemez, bir birliğe ulaşamaz ya da eşleşmez bir çelişki söz konusudur. boşluktan doluluğa, doluluktan boşluğa çift yönlü bir akış içinde anlamları, imge-malzeme biçimi üzerinden oluşturan öğelerin karşıtlar üreterek varlıktan hiçliğe, hiçlikten varlığa dengeleme isteğidir. yaşamın içinde çoklu, düzenli ya da paradoksal ilişkileri bir araya getiren disiplinlerarası sanat, yoğunluklar, karşılaşmalar, çarpışmalar, özdeşlik ve çelişkilerin kendine özgü kaotik doğasının bir üst söylemidir. kaynakÇa antmen, a. ( ). .yüzyıl batı sanatında akımlar, İstanbul: İletişim yayınları. artun, ali. ( ). sanat manifestoları, Çev: kaya Özsezgin, İstanbul: İletişim yayınları. batur, e. ( ). modernizmin serüveni (pierre cabanne, michel sanouillet, pierre restany), Çev: meltem cansever, İstanbul: yapı kredi yayınları. baudrİllard j. ( ). sanat komplosu, Çev: elçin gen, işık ergüden, İstanbul: İletişim yayınları. cabanne, p. ( ). kolajlar ( - ), Çev: meltem cansever, hazırlayan: enis batur, İstanbul: yapı kredi yayınları. hodge, s. ( ). sanat fikri, Çev: emre gözgü, İstanbul: domingo yayınları. kuspİt, d.( ). sanatın sonu, Çev: yasemin tezgiden, İstanbul:metis yayınları. lynton, n. ( ). modern sanatın Öyküsü, Çev: cevat Çapan, sadi Öziş, İstanbul: remzi kitabevi. restany p. ( ). pop art ( - ), Çev: sema rifat, hazırlayan: enis batur, İstanbul: yapı kredi yayınları. sanouİllet, m. ( ). dadacılığın kökleri ( - ), Çev: turhan ilgaz, hazırlayan: enis batur, İstanbul: yapı kredi yayınları. tunali, İ. ( ). modern resim, İstanbul: remzi kitabevi yayınları. osman yilmaz turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / summer görsel kaynaklar görsel . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collage ( . . ) görsel . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collage ( . . ) görsel . www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/art_movements/dadaism.htm ( . . ) görsel . www.wikiart.org/en/kurt-schwitters/construction-for-noble-ladies- ( . . ) görsel . www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/art_movements/dadaism.htm ( . . ) görsel . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collage ( . . ) citation information/kaynakça bilgisi yilmaz, o., ( ). “sanat akımları Üzerinden gelişen disiplinlerarası sanat / interdisciplinary art which developed out of movements”, turkish studies -international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic-, issn: - , (prof. dr. Şefik yaşar armağanı), volume / summer , ankara/turkey, www.turkishstudies.net, doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. , p. - . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collage http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collage http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/art_movements/dadaism.htm http://www.wikiart.org/en/kurt-schwitters/construction-for-noble-ladies- http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/art_movements/dadaism.htm article title fashion practice, volume , issue , pp. – doi: . / x reprints available directly from the publishers. photocopying permitted by licence only. © bloomsbury publishing plc. clemens thornquist clemens thornquist is professor in fashion design at the swedish school of textiles, university of borås, sweden. his research focuses on the intersection of fashion design, art, philosophy, and organization. clemens.thornquist@hb.se basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself abstract this paper explores foundational problems in art and design in order to understand the theoretical levels of art as a practice where art is un- derstood as the function of technê and mimesis in an aristotelian sense. this definition of art is here used as the principal category for design. as an alternative to applied research in art and design, e.g. through integra- tive studies of social science, the aim of the paper is to present basic research problems and principle research results in art based on exam- ples from fashion design relating to issues of body, dress and space. the motive for the exploration is to develop art and design as a particular clemens thornquist and independent field of practice in the sense of art research resulting in theoretic propositional knowledge for its own domain through the finite formation of concrete material itself (e.g. acts and artifacts). as such the aim of the paper is neither to continue to expand on the past fifty years of design science, nor is it to develop new perspectives on the past two centuries of developments in aesthetics as a social construct. instead the aim is to explore fundamental principle issues that are overlooked in the dominant theoretic discourse in fashion design as an art form inde- pendently from notions on design science (methodology) and socially constructed aesthetics (contexts). in order to explore and define a number of fundamental principle issues in art and design a number of contemporary and historical works in clothing and fashion design that concern the functional and expres- sional relationship between body and dress are explored from funda- mental ontological and logical perspectives. some of these examples are more particular to fashion design (e.g. exploring definitions of garments or developments of new constructions systems for new expressions), while others are more general to expressional issues in relation to body and dress (e.g. exploring form, material and substance, structural prin- ciples or systems interaction in relation to body and dress). together, they indicate principle research issues in art that are necessary for the theoretic development for the field itself as an academic discipline. as an alternative to art and design research outcomes in the form of descriptive and generalizing aesthetic contextualizations, and independ- ently from validating design methods, the paper demonstrates both the possibility and the significance of constructing formal, syntactic and logic in art and design for the field’s own theoretic development. moreo- ver the ontological and logical challenges explored also demonstrate the importance of basic research in art and design in order to explore and define fundamental a priori principles, models and methods to develop the different fields of art and design themselves, instead of merely using processes and artifacts of art and design to supplement research which is primarily for the benefit of other academic fields. keywords: art, design, basic research, ontology, logic introduction: applied research in fashion design as it is the concern of many disciplines, from chemistry to philosophy, from sculpture to anthropology, from psychology to economy, dress is both physiká and metá-physiká: it is both garment and fashion. how- ever, although dress is an ambiguous concept that attracts interest from many different academic disciplines, when it comes to inquiries into the expressional qualities of dress, its particular form and material, the main body of research is conducted from a dominant perspective. for basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself example, in sociology the expressional properties of dress, commonly defined as “fashion,” understood as a form of unplanned change in expression against a backdrop of order, and as such contrasted to func- tion (aspers and godart ), are mainly understood as an expression of social conditions and relationships such as imitation and distinction (cf. bourdieu ; goffman ; mandeville ; simmel ); a dynamic perspective which seems very difficult to challenge even in to- day’s contemporary understanding of the expression, or fashion of dress (cf. breward ; bovone and gonzález ; feinberg et al. ; polhemus ; roach-higgins and eicher ). in cultural stud- ies, however, this concept of fashion as a social expression of human conditions and phenomena, is arguably understood as a more dynamic concept, as a means of cultural constructions, of e.g. nationality, class, gender, subcultures, and other aspects of globalization and cultural life (cf. craik ; wilson ). but even if fashion has been understood as a more ambiguous agency and politicized function of expression, it is still strongly conceptually linked with developments in sociology, putting a strong emphasis on the communicative aspects of expres- sion in dress and its potential for explicit dialogue (cf. kaiser ; peirson-smith ; steele ). following the fundamental notions of fashion in sociology and cultural studies, economic theories on the expressional qualities of dress mainly emphasize the symbolic values of dress as symbols of personal distinction and interaction where cultural capital is transformed into an alchemic hierarchy of economic value (cf. bourdieu ; marx ; veblen ). thus, again, symbolic and structuralist perspectives on the expressional value of fashion design objects seem difficult to challenge as they are found to still dominate the theoretical essence of contemporary research in the expressional quality of dress (cf. berger and ward ; breward ; bruzzi and church gibson ; ma et al. ; kawamura ). in other words, theories concerned with the expressional qualities of dress are today predominantly concerned with dress as a linguistic system from differ- ent communicative aspects of culture and economy and more or less influenced or in close relationship to the structuralist systems proposed by roland barthes ( ). with such a dominant linguistic perspective in the understanding of fashion as the expressional qualities of garments, it may not be surpris- ing that, over recent decades, when art and design schools have sought to legitimize fashion design as an academic field in its own right, it is these linguistic perspectives on art and design (borrowed from humani- ties and social science) that have come to influence the understanding of theory in the establishment of fashion design research. hence, in respect to fashion design as a field of art itself the theoreti- cal development of fashion design as a body of knowledge through the design object has equally followed the aesthetic-linguistic development of art in general (cf. skjold ), and as such, has placed the theory clemens thornquist of dress making (the art form) outside of dress, a relationship similar to the one existing between art and art history. thus, instead of dealing with the concrete construction of physical acts and artifacts that engage with the material world or even ones that reject that concrete material reality (cf. harman ; paraskos and head ), art research has come to mean different versions of new-media-social-science-works (cf. barone and eisner ; leavy ) where particular forms of art, such as fashion design, are utilized as an alternative media to “point out” and “shed light” on different humanistic concepts and conditions (cf. beecroft and beccaria ; kent and shonibare ). here, par- ticularly expressive fashion design projects serve to illustrate or discuss various humanistic concepts and conditions of fashion as a cultural expression rather than to construct and develop new propositional knowledge in the field of fashion design as field of art. in a research school context a few more examples may serve to illustrate the point. for example in shaw’s ( ) research in seamless knitting, where data was collected from museum collections of seamless garments, it is the narrative of landscape and heritage of particular fishing communities that is the focus of a classic “inspired” design project resulting in a collection of garments rather than the exploration of the aesthetic po- tential of new knitting technology that could be visible in the resulting artifacts. as such the project is rather an exploration of a particular design culture around craft instead of an exploration that develops craft techniques and design expression itself. another similar example of research is eriksson’s ( ) work “concrete fashion,” where clas- sic garment archetypes are applied as input to discuss identity and civil engagement in public space from a literary and art history perspec- tive, instead of for example developing new types of clothing for the construction of different identities and forms of engagement. a third example of research which seemingly appears to be a practice-based research into patternmaking is townsend and mills’ ( ) work on zero-waste patternmaking. however, instead of developing alternative pattern-cutting systems for “more creative pattern cutting” based on less waste, as the title claims, the work discusses the ideas of “mastery” in relation to experiential knowledge and “newness” in design. a final example of practice-based research that focuses rather on the commu- nication and context of dress and costume is the works by bugg ( , ). in her works the understanding of costumes by different audi- ences are analyzed, as well as the emotional associations and retelling of embodied experience by the wearers instead of focusing primarily on the development of dress or costume itself. consequently, instead of being used to deal with the fundamental development of the field of art itself, i.e. issues of an ontological and logical nature, the acts performed or artifacts created by different research projects are used as integrative accessories in cultural and textual analyses performed in principally different academic subjects. basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself as important as applied research in the fine arts may be for the devel- opment of different humanistic issues this particular focus neglects the development of art as a science in itself. here, the process and result of fashion design are reduced to applied tools for other academic fields, where the outcome is instead the expansion of other academic fields. needlessly to say, such a dominant focus on applied research in art and fashion design at a large scale is problematic from an expressional point of view, because it means that the otherwise so statuesque fine arts and the field of fashion design have come to engage predominantly in narrations and representations of different issues instead of being concerned with what is crucial for the development of the field, i.e. its own theoretical development. in conclusion this development in art research has come to reinforce a highly questionable academic division between theory and practice, while it at the same time has made the fine arts become the applied arts in the service of other fields. basic research in art and design instead of different forms of applied research where art and design artifacts are used as communicative accessories in research for the development of an essentially different field, basic research in dress is about exploring the expressive potential of dress through fundamental relationships between form and material, between technique and ex- pression. instead of promoting empirical research resulting in verifiable representations, a basic research perspective—in e.g. fashion design— suggests change and development through proposing new foundational definitions and theoretical propositions within the particular field of art itself (cf. hallnäs ). consequently, the crucial question facing an art form such as fashion design does not relate to the formal dif- ferences between art and science, but rather to how art is science or how practical research is theoretical research? in other words, what are the basic ontological and logical problems in fashion design (art) as a fundamental science? to explore such fundamental ontological and logical issues in fash- ion design in particular, and in art in general, i will also use rather fundamental definitions of theory and art. first, theory will be used in the sense of the construction of formal, syntactic, and logic principles rather than contemplative, descriptive, and contextualizing generaliza- tions of a phenomenon. second, art—as the general category for fashion design as a discipline—will be used and understood as the function of technê and mimesis in the sense of technique (principle) and expression (selective active presentation) (cf. aristotle a). based on these defi- nitions, i will look at a series of works that concern different aspects of fashion design to show demonstrate different basic theoretic problems of art as a discipline in and for itself, and as such an alternative to the clemens thornquist applied problems fashion design research. without aiming to make a complete overview of the ontological and logical challenges, i will only draft some aspects of ontological and logical problems to articulate the fundamental importance of basic research in an art form; at the same time i will indicate possible ways of how such problems may be ex- plored in and through the art form itself through concrete design work. however, the main aim is not to validate the results of any of the examples through contemplation or contextualizing, but instead to use the examples to demonstrate basic theoretic problems of formal, syntactic, and principle characteristics of fashion design and how such problems may be approached. hence, the methods for developing the propositions that these examples present are of no scientific interest in terms of validation, and will also not be discussed as such, because the methods used in developing the propositions in the examples are all forms of experimentation in the sense of testing and trying. and such an experimental approach to research for finding and developing new principles (cf. bacon ; pointcaré ) is not to be confused with experimentation as a method for validating, which of course, however, might come at a later stage for the test and adjustment of the fit and function of the proposed models. ontological challenges in fashion design ontology concerns the nature of being and becoming, and the enti- ties that may be said to exist or not. thus ontological issues are about fundamental categories of form, substance, matter, subject, and their relationship to each other (cf. aristotle b). hence, ontology is also about the organization, hierarchy, and division of fundamental entities of existence and reality in the broadest sense, but equally about the organization of, and relationship between, fundamental entities in par- ticular knowledge domains. from the perspective of an art form such as fashion design, the ontological problems are therefore about when something is, or is becoming, e.g. a dress, a garment, a coat, a seam, a pocket, a fashion, etc. but it also concerns the relationship between such entities and definitions. fundamental questions to ask may therefore be: what is the definition of dress? what is the condition of dress? what is the relationship between form and matter in dress? what is the identity of a garment? what is the difference between garments categories? into what hierarchy should they be sorted? even broader questions might be: what is the relationship between body and a garment? what is the relationship between body, dress, and space? in other words, ontological challenges in fashion design concern the basic relationship between form and matter, matter and substance, subject and substance, and other primary categories and definitions in fashion design and dress making. basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself body, movement, and expression derived from the general questions above, a fundamental challenge in fashion design is the movement of the body, both from an expressive and a functional point of view. this does not only involve the ques- tion of how garments may affect and induce a certain movement, but also the reverse one, i.e. how dress may articulate and express a cer- tain movement. an example of the latter is found in a work with a particular focus on the expression of the body in motion: the danse serpentine from by loie fuller. fuller explored the new expres- sions in dance through technical innovations in costume, movement, and lighting. through improvisational dance techniques using vast veils of silk, animated by using long sticks as extension of her arms, together with a complex use of mirrors and light, fuller developed a new cho- reography that transformed the total expression of her dance (garelick ). from a theoretical point of view, the use of a certain kind of stick or a certain silk fabric in any particular color does not constitute the primary contribution of her work. rather, the principal contribution was the newfound way of amplifying the moving body, which provides dance with a new expressive potential. as a comparative example to the above examples of research in the expressional potential of the human body, but instead in a more every- day construction of dress, the textile and garment work by mariano for- tuny also illustrates basic research and development in the relationship between body and dress. in contrast to the corseted female body that was popular in fortuny’s europe, fortuny explored pleating techniques in silk weighted down by glass beads in order to transform the expres- sion of the female body (cf. de osma ). instead of compressing the torso with a corset construction and adding different ornamentation to the body, fortuny based his new construction, the delphos dress, on unstructured pleated silk fabric hung from the shoulder that allowed the dress to flow freely around different bodylines. the function and ex- pression of the pleated construction, which was derived from an ancient greek dress, as fortuny’s naming of the dress suggests, is only loosely controlled by adjustable drawstrings for fit and the attached glass beads for drape, which together respond to each particular body in a liberated yet controlled expression through fortuny’s construction. body and space if fuller’s work focused on the relationship between body, textile, and movement, oskar schlemmer’s das triadische ballett from is a somewhat similar research work, as it stems from an equally funda- mental ontological perspective on body and dress. however, instead of looking at body, textile, and movement, his exploratory work inves- tigated the relationship between body, dress, and space. to examine bodily movement in space, schlemmer started by transforming the body through different wearable objects in order to geometrically abstract the clemens thornquist human figure into an artificial gestalt. then, by adding music and move- ment, he attempted to synthesize human dionysian impulsiveness and vitality with apollonian precision and mechanical reasoning through a choreographed geometry. the work is separated into three parts, where the first is set against a lemon yellow background, the second against a pink background, and the third against a black background (cf. schlem- mer ; schlemmer et al. ). again, the principal contribution of schlemmer’s work, as with fuller’s, is a set of particular forms or ma- terials created by the abstracted relationship between the body, dress, and its environment. as another example of concrete research into the relationship be- tween body, dress, and space the parangolés by hélio oiticica may serve as an example. while following de stijl and the concrete art movement, hélio oiticica explored three-dimensional ( d) color construction through concrete environmental works. one of these works, conducted in – , is the parangolés, a series of works that explore circum- stantial bodily and environmental interaction through different body- art-works. in an attempt to explore and alter peoples’ sense of reality, oiticica used geometric shapes and sheets of block-colored fabrics to emphasize animated and collective movement in order to transform the interaction between the body and its environment (cf. figueiredo et al. ). in relation to this, chalayan’s work afterword from may be understood as an exploration between dress and the built environ- ment. the work, made by hussein chalayan in collaboration with paul topen, examines the foundations of dress as an integral, mobile part of space. through a staged performance, in which a few performers dress themselves in furniture made of multiple materials such as wood, metal, and fabric, the work examines and also proposes a particular metamorphosis between garments, accessories, interiors, and furniture (chalayan ). form and matter another basic ontological problem is the relationship between form and matter and how a particular substance is created by having universal matter take on form (cf. aristotle b). concerning dress, this may be expressed as any unstructured matter taking on the form of dress in some kind of relation to a body that together are meant to embody a particular substance, i.e. its expressional property. one basic example of this is the work by ina hjelte ( ) (figure ), where the principle question is how the structure of a textile relates to, and transforms, into the structure of a garment by experimenting with different ways of cut- ting into the material and the ways in which it then relates to the body as well as the surrounding space. furthermore, in fashion design, the archetypes of dress possess a powerful influence on the development of clothing. looking at develop- ments in fashion design, it seems virtually impossible to break from basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself archetypes such as t-shirt, jeans, skirt, trench coat, jacket, sweater, etc. yet experimental exploration and challenging of foundational defini- tions and archetypes is as vital to the development of fashion design as it is to the development of any other field. a work that explores definitions in fashion design is that performed by larsen ( ), who investigates the fundamental definition of dress. through a series of experiments performed with basic materials and naive shapes, his work examines the interactive properties of garments with the aim of invent- ing alternative methods for developing new types of garments for new ways of wearing and performing (figure ). from the perspective of fashion design, erwin wurm’s rote pullover may also be used to exem- plify fundamental research into the archetypes of garments. in a series of experiments, the work breaks down given definitions of garments through its dynamic interaction with the body. as such, it presents an alternative perspective on a particular garment and its relationship to the body while, at the same time, questioning the existing definitions of different garments (wurm et al. ). figure ina hjelte. course work. clemens thornquist a third example, this time found in the ready-to-wear collection by raf simons for jil sander in , may also serve to illustrate prin- ciple research work into the fundamental problems of form, matter, and substance for the development of new expressions of dress. in this work, simon may be said to have explored jil sander’s earlier notion of minimalism in her fashion design (cf. blanks ). through the con- crete practical study of straight and sharp lines, contrasting volumes, solid block colors, and enlarged decors in relation to the body, the work explores, in a concrete way, sander’s principles (theory of design) in relation to the contemporary expression in the high-end ready-to-wear fashion design field, as an altogether different backdrop (paradigm) than the one many years before. as such, the work explores the formal principle of matter in its simplest and scarcest form in order to achieve a certain substance. that is, the relationship between form and matter in the expression and function of dress may be exemplified through the textile as a loose material, a garment as a form, and the total expression of form and matter as the substance. matter and substance if the above examples illustrate basic research in the relationship be- tween form and matter from a form perspective then the works by lucy mcrae and bart hess exemplify basic research into form and matter from a material point of view. in their work lucy mcrae and bart hess (mcrae and hess ) explore the human character (substance) through physical experiments with the body and different organic and inorganic materials by giving it different forms. for example, in “germi- nation” ( ), sausage forms were created by pantyhose stuffed with sawdust, which then were covered in grass seeds and left in a pool with water for a number of days until the growing material (grass) gradually transformed the form of the worn artifact (dress), while in “grow on you” ( ) they explored the expressive potential of colored foam on figure ulrik martin larsen, . screenshot, experiment from a series of . basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself the body. in the later project, “skin machine” ( ), mcrae herself together with mike pelletier this time explored the expression of nature and technology through dynamic, liquid skins that cross the body by liquid and pressurized air. in terms of exploring the expressive potential of material one might also mention the range of interactive textile-related projects or weara- bles, where the potential of new and emerging technology in garments or as forms of garments are explored. one such project is for example berzowska and laflamme’s ( ) pleet project, where they investi- gate the aesthetic potential of integrated luminous textiles beyond “the realm of dance clubs and rave culture.” as such the project by ber- zowska and laflamme and the projects by lucy mcrae and bart hess touch upon one of the more fundamental research questions, which is about the aesthetic potential of material in relation to body and dress, may it be concrete prosthetics for human enhancement, or not. however, the exploration of expressive qualities in materials does not need to take such vivid forms as the above. much of industry research in the expressive qualities of material in clothing is for example made when alternative material is developed to replace exiting ones but with the requirement that the appearances should be the same. the search for replacing cotton with more sustainable fibers, but still with the expres- sive and functional qualities of cotton is a typical example of such basic research. another example is ikea’s research with weavers to produce replacement textiles with the same quality in terms of feel and drape as existing ones, but with the new ones only using percent of the raw material (personal communication, interview with joachim lindqvist, ikea, textile division, september , ). logical challenges in fashion design logic could be explained as the system or principles of reasoning and the study of inference, where formal logic is a principle abstracted from any particular application, matter, or phenomenon as such (aristotle c). from this perspective logical inquiries concern the explora- tion of inferential systems themselves on a universal level in relation to particular entities. for fashion design this means that logical chal- lenges concern the formal inference and syllogism in constructing and establishing different categories and entities in fashion design and dress making. this implies asking questions about the technique, working methods, systems, processes, manner, etc. in relation to the formal ex- pression (argumentation and rhetoric) of the resulting artifacts. from this perspective, some basic questions of formal logic may be: what is the formal relationship between the technique and methods of making and the expressional qualities of the result? what is the universal way of a particular method? what constitutes valid reasoning in a design clemens thornquist process? what are the relationships between events and elements in a method and how do these relate to the whole process and its predict- ability? what are the formal features of the representations of a design process? what are the relationships between proposition and form of design object? what is a logical vocabulary of sketching as a formal language? what are the formal methods of representing and document- ing the reasons behind design decisions? overall, this is to say that formal logical explorations in an art form are matters of studying and constructing meta-theory for the particular field itself. a priori and pre-models one of the purposes of a logical inquiry is to study a priori knowledge, ways of reasoning, or normative structures that are taken for granted. one such obvious form of a priori structure in fashion design is the tailor’s mannequin. as a basis of construction, a tailor’s mannequin is often an unquestioned a priori model and pre-model for design devel- opment and the further sculpturing of the body. on the one hand, the “neutral” qualities, i.e. its formalized size and appearance, of the pre- model in the form of a traditional tailor’s mannequin suggest blandness and impartiality. on the other hand, the freedom that may characterize it is deeply rooted in a certain idealized form of function and neces- sity. consequently, there is in a particular tailor’s mannequin both a resistance to transformation brought about by its physicality and an openness to new development because of its abstract nature and dis- ability for closure (cf. thornquist ). thus, as a model of the human body and a pre-model for application and development in dress, the abstracted qualities of a tailor’s mannequin need to be reconceived—or changed into a completely new model—in order to open up new pos- sible expressions and functions in garment design. in relation to fundamental approximations and models of the body, it is also interesting from the point of view of fashion design to look at the sculptural works by antony gormley ( ) as a concrete way of proposing different theoretical perspectives on man’s being in the world. for example, in the sculpture series feeling material, propose, and pack, gormley explores the possibilities and limits of the human space in space, where particular series of experiments with form explore different and particular matters of human space in con- crete mechanical rhythms and repetitions across its systematic potential. in this way, gormley deconstructs the human body and its energies and abstracts from it new and different approximations—models—of the body’s relationship in the three axes of the built world, which in them- selves may form the basis for further d work in relation to the body. approximations and principles it is, however, not only the tailor’s mannequin that could be challenged as a particular approximation of the body. most construction systems basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself and patternmaking methods for garment design are also based upon different approximations of the body. while traditional numeric pat- ternmaking systems assume a static position for the dressed body, motion is among the factors that cause clothing pressure to increase significantly. based on this hypothesis, simoes ( ) has researched the representation of the moving body, questioning this predominant static representation of the body that is taken as the base for developing tradi- tional numeric pattern-cutting systems. in order to explore and propose a different approximation of the body in a concrete way, simoes created multiple sets of the same generic garments (trousers and top) based on traditional block patterns in woven textiles with significant plastic qual- ities which then were worn by six different people. the average of the distorted outlines from the original garment shape (deviation), which occurred after the test person’s wearing, was then traced and presented as an alternative approximation for new constructions systems. on a similar note, but not only presenting an alternative approxi- mation of the body, lindqvist’s ( ) work explores and proposes an alternative construction system based on an alternative qualitative approximation of the body instead of the usual quantitative one. as such, the work aims to identify fundamental principles in order to cre- ate alternative expressions and functions. instead of a static matrix of a non-moving body, the proposed model for cutting garments is based on a qualitative approximation of the body visualized through balance, lines, and key biomechanical points (figure ). through concrete physi- cal experimentation on the body, instead of following preconceived ideas regarding professional fashion design trends concerning pattern figure rickard lindqvist, . traditional (top) and alternative (below) approximation of the body and corresponding logic of pattern construction. clemens thornquist construction or academic teaching in patternmaking, fundamental prin- ciples of a construction system were constructed based on a different approximation of the body. technique and expression from a logical perspective, the formal relationship between a technique or method and the expressional qualities of its result is of fundamental importance in an art discipline. if not already safe to assume at once, one needs only to ask a few teachers of design method in order to con- clude that working, for example, purely with front and back flat pencil sketches, rapid prototyping in small scale with e.g. fabrics on a small puppet, or developing only with a dummy that has no head, arms, and legs, will influence the expressional quality of the design result in terms of differences in the emphasis, order, weight, etc. in form, matter, and body. put differently, it means that when starting a design process in or- der to compose a garment from a (loose) material, the material may de- termine the overall behaviors of the garment. for example, if one starts with a very coarse, heavy, and stiff raw material, the blunt properties and weighty dynamics of such material will influence and perhaps even dominate many of the different forms into which the material may be shaped or forced. thus, the material already embodies a certain form, or potential for form. on the other hand, if starting a design process with a form, this form may instead determine the nature and role of the garment, as e.g. a particular archetype that is recognized as belonging to a particular category or sort, which in itself may dominate many different materials that so to speak fill in the form. thus, here again, the basic philosophical question about fundamental relationships between form, matter, and substance shows a central problem in art and de- sign, which for example is also recognized in the basic design courses at bauhaus (lupton and miller ). as a consequence, issues of formal logic concern not only the form of the object or the potential form in the material, but also the form of the method applied in the exploration and development of materials. in their modules, order, emphasis, and tools, the different formal structures of design methods also affect the form of the result. altogether, for art in general as for fashion design in particular, formal analyses of causal relationships between method and results are therefore an obvious problem area to explore and develop. a typical example of research in fashion design exploring the rela- tionship between the form of the method and the form of the result is whole-garment pleating by miyake ( ), where whole-garment pleating techniques are explored in order to propose new expressive and experiential possibilities in dress and its relationship to the body. the result is a new generic method and model in fashion design based on a certain combinations of textile and garment techniques for new expressions in dress. the principal result of the work is therefore not a particular dress or jacket in a certain color or shape. the theoretical basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself result is the principle of the method: a model to be applied and fur- ther developed. in relation to this a fundamental question in basic art research is thus the aesthetic potential in a given technique, such as, for example, what are the expressional possibilities with a particular knitting machine for fashion design? similar, but perhaps less explored, are issues connected with the expressional possibilities with d printing in fashion design. to further highlight the problem between methods and results one may also look at the influence of maison martin margiela ( ) on academic teachings and professional design work over the past ten years or so and in particular a method of deconstruction that is commonly as- cribed to him. while margiela on the one hand has been understood to have laid bare the “secrets” of the fashion design process and brought modern art into fashion (maison martin margiela ; vinken ), it appears that academic teachings in fashion design and professional design work through deconstruction commonly content themselves with applying a certain style of deconstruction to things, a deconstruct- ed look, instead of utilizing a general principle of deconstruction. that is, the everyday meaning of deconstruction in fashion design refers to an applied deconstructive style rather than an analytical principle in the sense heidegger ( ) uses in destruktion—abbau, as a form of exploration that takes different forms depending on the artifact or phe- nomenon analyzed for the purpose of laying bare its partial elements or categories, or understanding its essential structure or function. hence, an inquiry into deconstruction as a fashion design methodology beyond the taken-for-granted meaning and expression may be valuable. returning, to the first example of sketching, which in art and de- sign is a common method to communicate and reason, it is as such a form of natural language with similar function to natural spoken or written language. however, there is more than one natural language of sketching and just as with other natural spoken and written lan- guages there are varieties and, within them, different dialects and styles. hence, similar to the view on natural spoken and written languages as complex and ambiguous, sketching is perhaps even more criticized for being vague and multifaceted. and although one would agree that declarative compositions (sentences) in sketching (natural language) also have underlying logical forms, one main problem remains, namely the relationship between sketching as a natural language and sketching as a formal language. an example of research that explores one aspect of this problem is the work by blomgren ( ). through a series of sketches and experiments with garments based on different construc- tions techniques, blomgren tries to study, identify, and abstract possible logical forms and declarative propositions (properties) for the formula- tion of garments from a seemingly ambiguous and vague sketched natu- ral language (figure ). another aspect of formal language of explora- tion regards situations where the purpose of sketching is to analyze and clemens thornquist represent the form of a valid argument. for example, in art and design work, argumentation is often done in a visual workbook based on in photography, sketching, and collage work. as such, the work aims to make its content valid as a formal inference arguing for the logic of a construction model in a formal grammar and symbolism through a deductive and demonstrative representative pattern. in relation to this a basic research question is therefore how to develop and organize work- books from methodological and epistemological perspectives through visual experimentation with different forms and matter of workbooks. conclusion drawing on a classic understanding of art as the functional relation- ship between technê and mimesis rather than art as a text, postmodern irony, critique, or other concept detached from physical acts, while exploring theoretical issues of art, where theory is understood as the construction of formal and syntactic principles rather than contempla- tive and descriptive generalizations, the above examples demonstrate fundamental ontological and logical dimensions of art, here exemplified by basic theoretic problems in the expressive relationship between body and dress. first, in contrast to views on art and fashion design as non- theoretical practice (cf. skjold ), the examples and problems above demonstrate the reverse: the principal ontological and logical level of art itself and how it may be researched in a concrete way. for example, the methodological research in patternmaking by lindqvist ( ) based on new approximations of the body are comparable to how a neurolo- gist would develop new clinical methods based on new understandings of the human body. similarly, the research of foundational definitions of dress by larsen ( ) to develop our understanding of garments and their hierarchy may be compared to research for developing definitions and hierarchies in biology, in order to find new perspectives on func- tions and developments in a particular area. figure erika blomgren. course work. basic research in art: foundational problems in fashion design explored through the art itself second, for research perspectives in art and design that question perceived technical issues as not artistic issues, and instead favor nar- rative and hermeneutic work mainly for the advancement of other academic disciplines (cf. barone and eisner ; leavy ), it is instead such technical issues, as demonstrated in the examples of fuller (garelick, ) or fortuny (de osma ), that are the foundational issues of fine art: the principles (theories) of the relationships between technique and expression. ironically, it seems that much has already been forgotten about the range of technical developments in fine art throughout history that have advanced the field. for example consider the development of cubist techniques in painting by picasso and braque. as not so much a style, but rather as method and perspective through, for example, cézanne’s geometric solids, cubism does not primarily present new motives in paintings but possibilities to understand and express already everyday motives in new ways (cf. antliff and leighten ). as such, cubism presents painting with a new model, a new grammar—new formal methods—for new possible expressions in painting and the advancement of visual arts in general. the invention of abstraction in art is yet another example (affron et al. ). in another field and at a later date, in the area of product and industrial design at bauhaus, the explorative approach to functional and expres- sive material possibilities in art and design, marcel breuer in his model b chair explored the expressive and manufacturing potential of bent tubular steel and canvas, which drew on new techniques to create seam- less steel tubing (von vegesack and remmele ). as such, breuer’s work presented new principles for new expressions in product design that, just as picasso and braque did, contributed to a model and base for a school of thought in art and design. in architecture, a third and more recent example of similar principle research and development of new techniques for new expressions may be peter rice’s explorations of the expressive potential of glass as a structure in architecture (brown ; rice ). to advance material expressions in architecture, rice developed new generic construction methods that allowed new possible expressions in built environments, focusing on the honesty and imme- diacy of principal materials such as glass and its structural potential for increased tactile qualities in architecture. in other words, looking at the examples related to fashion design in the article and the comparative example above, formal and material issues may neither be dismissed for issues that merely concerns another epistemological field outside of art, nor should formal and material is- sues of technical principles be overlooked for what they actually are: foundational definitions and models. consequently, basic research in art, or “practice based design research,” is no less theoretic than other research when it comes to the construction of formal syntactic princi- ples and foundational definitions; nor is research in art through art any more practical than research in other fields—if one only manages to clemens thornquist acknowledge the actual process of practically and physically moving, changing, adjusting, etc.—composing—symbols and words into a text that motivates, explores, and formulates contemplative and contextual- izing generalizations. moreover, instead of focusing on, for example, sculpting narratives on different humanistic problems with an impressionist technique, basic research in art focuses on developing new schools in painting—a new -ism—that enriches the field with new and alternative methods and medias that enables an even better understanding and exploration of different humanistic problems. as such, basic art research primarily concerns concepts and theories, because its purpose is to construct theo- retical knowledge in abstract models and methods for new expressional and aesthetic possibilities. the outcome or answers to the questions above are not functional or applied in any way; they are theoretical frameworks and principles to be applied. therefore, these questions present the most foundational level of an art form, the principles of a discipline that define the very possibilities and limits of applied works in art, such as narratives and interpretations of different humanistic issues through the particular art form. thus, instead of divorcing art and science, and instead of art being a pleasurable or disagreeable irony, “critically” pointing out an idea in an act of interpretive conceptual du- champism, basic art research serves the fundamental role of a sensible, experimental way of developing new knowledge. all this is nevertheless not to deny that applied and research may result in foundational development of the art itself. applied research may obvi- ously drive foundational theoretic development. for example, to explore a certain social or political problem through fashion design and dress, some foundational ontological and logical dimensions of the art form may need to be developed. one may, for example, think of this as when new words and grammar in a formal language first need to be developed in order to make it possible to explore a particular issue from a different perspective. thus, the need to understand and express an issue that is a main concern of another academic field may also be the motive and in- spiration for a basic research in the art; however, the actual foundational development of the art discipline is the construction of definitions and models for the theoretic advancement of the field itself. nevertheless, the crucial ontological and logical aspects of an art form presented here demonstrate the “pure” aspects of any art: basic research in art, defined as the foundational development of the art for the sake of the art itself. references affron, m., y.-a., bois, m. chlenova and l. dickerman. . invent- ing abstraction – : how a radical idea changed modern 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york: dover thrift. von vegesack, a. and m. remmele. . marcel breuer: designer und architekt. leipzig: spector books. wilson, e. . adorned in dreams: fashion and modernity. london: virago. vinken, b. . fashion zeitgeist. oxford: berg. wurm, e., g. barlow and b. golonu. . erwin wurm: i love my time, i don’t like my time. ostfildern-ruit: hatje cantz. microsoft word - kefala_hoph-open access.docx history of photography : (november ) horacio coppola: towards an aesthetic genealogy eleni kefala university of st andrews this is an accepted manuscript of an article published by taylor & francis in the journal history of photography : (november ), available online: http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . although a milestone in the history of latin american photography, the work of horacio coppola is little known outside argentina. his unorthodox angles and tilting frames, his attention to industrial and urban themes, and his experimentation with different lenses in the period between and were in absolute synchrony with the precepts of european new vision and new objectivity photography, and with american straight photography. that coppola’s visual idiom was in tune with the latest photographic developments in interwar europe is obvious. what remains unclear is how exactly he achieved that synchrony. several scholars have wrestled with this question, which nevertheless remains elusive due to lack of evidence of direct contact with european photography prior to his studies at the berlin bauhaus in and his repeated attempts to downplay the influence contemporary photographers had on his work. the article provides a systematic study of coppola’s aesthetic genealogy and his photographic borrowings through a critical examination of his early pictures and theoretical writings. it teases out possible direct and indirect channels of dialogue with the new vision, new history of photography : (november ) objectivity, and straight photography in the second half of the s, and probes the reasons behind coppola’s reluctance to admit a connection with contemporary european photography in particular. keywords: alfredo guttero ( – ), josé ortega y gasset ( – ), le corbusier ( – ), horacio coppola ( – ), argentina, new vision, new objectivity, straight photography, avant-garde, buenos aires, latin america, s, s. horacio coppola is argentina’s first truly modern photographer. if, according to henry miller, brassai is the ‘eye of paris’, coppola is that of buenos aires. he is best known for his album buenos aires : visión fotográfica, a volume commissioned by the mayor of buenos aires, mariano de vedia y mitre, to commemorate the fourth centennial of the first foundation of the city by pedro de mendoza in . notwithstanding a milestone in the photographic modernism of latin america and a fine example of neue sachlichkeit, or ‘new objectivity’ photography, the album was far less experimental in nature than coppola’s earlier work, which was in absolute synchrony with european ‘new vision’ and north american ‘straight photography’. that the argentine was in step with his contemporaries within and outside the bauhaus before his sojourn there in is a truism. what remains uncertain is how precisely he attained that synchrony. scholarship has been ambiguous on the matter due to lack of evidence of an explicit liaison with european avant-garde photography before . coppola’s own history of photography : (november ) silence regarding his readings on photography prior to his studies at the berlin bauhaus between october and april , his rebuff of the impact the school exerted on his work, and the absence of relevant books from that period in his personal library have baffled researchers, who continue to grapple with the conundrum. while almost all scholars agree on coppola’s possible contact with european visual aesthetics via a set of mediated sources, and especially cinema, prior to , some speak of an intuitive photographer who was born ‘modern’ and whose knowledge of photographic developments outside pictorialist argentina was awfully thin. others put forward an american link, while a third group seems to accept a pre-bauhaus influence of avant- garde photography. natalia brizuela, for instance, entertains the possibility that the correspondence between coppola’s siete temas: buenos aires (seven subjects: buenos aires), a series of photographs published in the influential magazine sur in , and european new vision photography might have sprung from his acquaintance with the work of alfred stieglitz. brizuela speculates that in coppola may have gained access to stieglitz’s geometricised skies from his sequence equivalents, or perhaps to the final issue of camera work ( ), a showcase of paul strand’s aesthetic outlook (namely his abstract prints and manifesto of straight photography), via the editor of sur, victoria ocampo, who had visited the maecenas of american photography at his new york gallery in that same year. by , strand had prefigured several formal themes of german new objectivity photography with its emphasis on the object photographed and a straight, matter-of-fact approach, as well as a number of elements of the more experimental strand of new vision photography, among them the jazzy high and low- angle shots and the tilted camera that coppola openly espoused in (figure ). history of photography : (november ) strand’s clarion call to ‘a real respect for the thing’ in heralded, at least nominally, the demise of pictorialism that had thrived around the globe since the s, while the ‘absolute unqualified objectivity’ that he saw in some of stieglitz’s photographs would materialise as the gonfalon of new objectivity painting and photography in europe, particularly in the weimar republic throughout the s. his abstract pictures, a series of tilted photographs of chairs, shadows, porch railings, ridge poles, and deconstructed skies taken at his cottage in twin lakes in , arguably headed the international photographic vanguard. strand’s abstract visuality had been empowered by his study of cézanne, picasso, and braque, undertaken at stieglitz’s prompting. by turning his dwelling into an unheimlich place through his ‘freewheeling vision’, strand latched onto what would soon constitute the rallying cry of the new vision; the urge to revolutionise visual aesthetics, to see with a neue auge (new eye), was a precept shared by any bona fide avant-gardist across the artistic spectrum. the bauhaus photographer and painter lászló moholy-nagy’s opus magnum malerei fotografie film (painting photography film) would formally set the tone for this neue optik (literally, new lens; new vision) in . the familiar-turned-unfamiliar, which dziga vertov trumpeted in his documentary kino-glaz (kino-eye), comprised the gist of moholy-nagy’s appeal – manifest in his iconic vertical shot of the bauhaus balconies ( ) – as well as of that of aleksandr rodchenko, the russian constructivist and major representative of new vision photography who championed vertov’s view: ‘i am kino-eye. i am mechanical eye. i, a machine, show you the world as only i can see it. [...] my path leads to the creation of a fresh perception of the world. i decipher in a new way a world unknown to you’. rodchenko had admittedly reached history of photography : (november ) strand via vertov. with his di sotto in sù and high-angle photographs of his apartment on myasnicka street in , notes victor margolin, he ‘reinvented the building, making of it a series of novel views’, and so did coppola six years later with his worm’s and bird’s- eye shots of his building on corrientes street in buenos aires. coppola’s tilting frame may well have ensued from an american affair, as brizuela implies, had ocampo’s suitcase carried the final issue of camera work in , but the scholar concedes that the photographer most likely had not ‘seen or read’ any work by strand before . i am therefore less inclined to settle on this story than on the one that sees coppola becoming aware of new vision photography during his bildungsreise to italy, germany, france, and spain between december and may – in other words, prior to his photographs, incidentally taken with the brand new leica mm that he had purchased in europe. for all that brizuela acknowledges that photographs like those of siete temas are ‘in tune, no doubt, with the photographs of the new vision’ as they ‘contain all the formal elements of the european new vision’, she posits that in coppola ‘does not know [them] yet’. based on the absence of relevant books in his library and of any mention on his part of an acquaintance with avant-garde photography (either by visiting exhibitions or simply by sifting through publications in bookshops, museums, art galleries, and at gatherings with fellow cognoscenti), brizuela seems to infer that coppola learnt virtually nothing about new vision photography during those months in europe. instead, she attributes his affinity with the new vision to a number of mediated sources – i will pick up on the idea of mediation later – and, perhaps, through stieglitz. it is true that coppola would return to europe within a few months with a view to history of photography : (november ) becoming not a photographer but an art critic. however, is it not strange that someone whose plan was to join the department of photography at the university of marburg, part of the art history department under richard hamann, should be indifferent to all things photographic, including to the new objectivity (the dominant trend in the german artistic landscape), during that first trip? i find this scenario highly unlikely, if self- defeating. how else could we explain the neue optik of coppola’s bird’s eye view of the two ships and the three small boats in puerto, vuelta de rocha (port, vuelta de rocha) ( ) – published as part of his photo-essay siete temas – whose similarity to moholy- nagy’s high-angle photograph of a little boat and a sailing vessel in boat is arresting, or the extreme vertical shot in calle corrientes ( corrientes street) ( ) (figure ) and its extraordinary kinship with rodchenko’s arbat, street traffic ( ), andré kertész’s crossroads, blois ( ), and moholy-nagy’s gangplank from above ( )? coppola’s and moholy-nagy’s photographs in particular are panegyrics on geometry whose striking similarity, both in conception and execution, is evident in their focus on the round, flat-shaped hats, the rectangular block pavement, and the feast of parallel and intersecting lines that define the composition. how should we interpret the obvious dialogue between his low-angle photographs of trees in pulmón de manzana (block lung) ( ) and rodchenko’s pine tree, pushkino ( ), or between his industrial themes in a number of pictures captioned ‘buenos aires, ’ and in portón y grúa (crane) ( ) (figure ), and albert renger-patzsch’s industrial photographs or germaine krull’s métal ( ) (figure ), which, like crane, aestheticises the fortuitous geometry of tower cranes? what are we supposed to make of the factory funnels of puerto (port) ( ) (figure ) when faced with those of renger-patzsch – in history of photography : (november ) photographs like zeche ‘viktoria mathias’ in essen (viktoria mathias mine in essen (viktoria mathias mine in essen) ( ), the vertical projection of the three smokestacks in the background whose top end is deliberately left out of the frame, is figuratively rendered infinite, suggesting an apotheosis of industrial modernity – and those of charles sheeler, notably his photographs of the ford motor company’s new river-rouge plant in , or his fixation with shadows, a leitmotif of the new vision? almost all of coppola’s high-angle pictures taken from his house on corrientes street are formal studies of shadow and so is mateo y su victoria (mateo and his victoria) ( ) (figure ). a ‘defence of a shadow’, in jorge schwartz’s terms, this high-angle photograph of a man, his cart, and their projected shadows on the street is rotated to grant autonomy to the shadow. coppola ‘seems to breathe life into these shadows, endowing them with the illusion of independence’, says schwartz, pointing out that ‘the bauhaus made great use of shadow photography’. he offers as an example otto umbehr (known as umbo), ‘a leading photographer of the german school’ who ‘even managed to take a photo of his shadow projected onto his own body’. it is true that mateo and his victoria bears strong resemblance to umbo’s the eerie street ( ). shot vertically from a high-angle, the latter captures the unheimlich shadows of two pedestrians and a man on his cycle cart. the otherworldly shadows grow into autonomous entities, dwarfing the human figures from which they emanate. scholars agree that the ‘radical’ turn in coppola’s aesthetics, what luis priamo dubs ‘this gigantic jump’, occurred in , immediately after his first trip to europe. the argentine readily confirmed various visits to contemporary art exhibitions, his familiarisation with the italian novecento (‘in rome, an exhibition of work by umberto history of photography : (november ) boccioni introduced me to il novecento’), and his purchase of Élie faure’s histoire de l’art ( – ), which formed ‘the basis of [his] studies’. david oubiña informs us that during those trips to europe, coppola acquired ‘numerous books and journals’ on film that would later constitute the ‘nucleus’ of his personal library, and that ‘significantly, his collection does not abound in books of photography of that time’. a known cinephile by then, coppola’s interest in publications on cinema was hardly surprising, but his silence about photography was, and so were his later efforts to downplay his sojourn at the berlin bauhaus and any possible impact the director of the photography workshop, walter peterhans, may have had on his work. ‘a mathematician and an exquisite photographer’, noted coppola with respect to peterhans whom he met through his future wife, grete stern, ‘didn’t actually teach photography; he just ran the workshop. […] everything that they have written about me studying photography at the bauhaus, is complete nonsense. i did eighteen photos at the bauhaus workshop. in any case, working there was a very simple business, there was no discussion of the photographs’. priamo, among others, indicates that coppola ‘always dismissed peterhans’s influence on his photography’, citing as examples his post-bauhaus use of the medium format and tripod, both amply employed by peterhans, as opposed to shooting with a mm lens, which he did prior to his time at the bauhaus. likewise, coppola maintained a fairly hostile attitude towards moholy-nagy (who had already left the bauhaus by the time the argentine arrived), probably because of his anti-figurative work. in many ways, coppola methodically cultivated the image of a photographer born ‘modern’. in his ‘autobiographical text’, published in , he eagerly admitted the history of photography : (november ) influence of film directors, painters, authors, poets, art critics, musicians, musicologists, philosophers, psychologists, architects, literary groups and journals, but made no mention of photography, save the cursory statement, ‘photography from nadar to edward weston, from d. o. hill to alfred stieglitz and my contemporaries’, which appeared to obscure more than it clarified. the reference to a couple of pioneer nineteenth-century photographers, both dead by the time he took his first picture, and to american straight photography did not throw light on his photographic borrowings, nor did the passing note on european avant-garde photographers, lumped under the elusive category ‘my contemporaries’. i will return to this point later; for the moment, it should be added that the only photographer coppola recognised as his mentor was his elder brother armando ( – ). priamo sees the two brothers happily coinciding in their treatment of still lifes. armando’s amateur photography, he says, was ‘far removed from the artistic clichés of the time’, but unfortunately it is hard to know whether he was, in fact, in touch with post-pictorialist developments in the united states and in europe in the s and s. schwartz draws a list of publications on photography that were circulating in europe and could have caught the eye of the photographer in the early months of . apart from moholy-nagy’s book-cum-manifesto, there were franz roh’s trilingual foto- auge (photo-eye) ( ), published as an informal companion to the biggest photographic event of the decade, the film und foto exhibition held in stuttgart from may to july , karl blossfeldt’s urformen der kunst (art forms in nature) ( ), as well as germaine krull’s métal ( ) and x paris ( ). added to these were erich mendelsohn’s widely distributed amerika. bilderbuch eines architekten (america: history of photography : (november ) an architect’s picture book) ( ), renger-patzsch’s die welt ist schön (the world is beautiful) ( ), werner graeff’s es kommt der neue fotograf! (here comes the new photographer) ( ), and roh’s l. moholy nagy: fotos ( ). schwartz argues that the texts and photographs published in moholy-nagy’s, roh’s, krull’s, and blossfeldt’s books ‘had a decisive influence on coppola’s development as a photographer during this experimental period’, noting that this ‘influence is apparent in Ángulo de escalera [corner of staircase], the same photo enlarged in positive and negative, produced in ’ (figure ). despite the strong currency of negatives in experimental photography, observes schwartz, for coppola negative prints were extremely rare – a fact which i believe suggests not a synchrony with but an awareness of the visual language of the european avant-garde. although he does not elaborate further on this point, his use of the term ‘influence’ is crucial because it implies direct contact with european photography already by – in other words, it indicates that coppola must have seen some of the experimental pictures of the new vision. in this light, the assertions made so far by brizuela and myself do not take full stock of coppola’s radical vision, which may have culminated in , but had, in fact, cropped up in , in the tilted objectivity of his first known photograph mundo propio (one’s own world) (figure ), and materialised two years later in the experimental duo corner of staircase (positive and negative). the high-angle photograph in corner of staircase (figure ) and the tilted frame in materiales de construcción (construction materials) ( ) (figure ) were in perfect tune not only with the new vision, but also with coppola’s own photographs. his ‘modern’ vision was also evident in his pictures of medianeras (sidewalls), a favourite history of photography : (november ) theme of the new objectivity exemplified, for instance, in franz lenk’s painting berlin tenements ( ) and renger-patzsch’s photograph cityscape of meideirich ( ), and in his numerous photographs of the streets and whitewashed houses around the maldonado stream, all taken in . the sachlichkeit, or materialism, of these pictures, the tilted camera and the experimentation with negatives, all vouch for coppola’s pre- neue auge – an idea endorsed by priamo who traces a firm continuity between corner of staircase (figure ), construction materials (figure ), and san gimignano ( ) in terms of subject and formal approach. the same continuity can be seen in the sachlichkeit of construction materials, the barricas, ramos mejía (barrels, ramos mejía) ( ), and buenos aires ( ) (figure ). juan manuel bonet reaches a similar conclusion when he corroborates that coppola’s pictures demonstrate that already by the end of the s the photographer ‘had assimilated from a distance and in a fragmentary fashion’ the visual idiom of neue sachlichkeit and the new vision. whence this conceptual and formal affinity, if not from direct contact with the visual lexicon of avant-garde photography? coppola’s aesthetic outfit could not have been fashioned out of thin air. it is my contention that the argentine must have been aware firsthand of contemporary european and north american photography prior to . pictorialist argentina may have been cut off from the latest happenings in the field, as priamo affirms, but this does not mean that the sizeable crowd of argentine artists and intellectuals with long sojourns in europe had not carried in their luggage some of the books and magazines on photography circulating there, which the young coppola, who history of photography : (november ) was moving within a context that was au fait with the european art scene, could have consulted. those who are still inclined to veto a direct connection with avant-garde photography (something i would be reluctant to do) are left with a number of mediated influences that have been instrumental in furnishing coppola’s pre- approach to photography. there seems to be a consensus among scholars that the strongest among those influences was european avant-garde film. oubiña confirms that by coppola was abreast of all things cinematic originating in europe. having co-founded argentina’s film club in and acted as its secretary, he was in step with the most recent novelties in russian, german, and french filmography. the fifteen screenings organised between august and november at the amigos del arte, a cultural institution whose agenda was the wide dissemination of avant-garde aesthetics, included the russian fathers of montage sergei eisenstein’s the battleship potemkin ( ) and october ( ), vsevolod pudovkin’s the end of st. petersburg ( ), and vertov’s the sixth part of the world ( ). the club also presented walter ruttmann’s berlin: symphony of a metropolis ( ) and man ray’s the sea star ( ). the screenings were accompanied by introductory lectures on german cinema and ruttmann’s film (by guillermo de torre), french cinema (by romero brest), soviet cinema (by josé luis romero), and the technical evolution of cinema (by león klimovsky). luis buñuel’s un chien andalou ( ) was screened only two months after its premiere in paris and before its first screening in madrid. in his note ‘“el cineclub” de buenos aires’, published in la gaceta literaria, de torre singled out the group’s interest in soviet cinema. ‘the most history of photography : (november ) significant novelty of the cineclub of buenos aires in relation to all the other similar clubs in europe’, he wrote, ‘is the abundance of soviet russian “films”, of those that european censorship proscribes but here are shown publicly and without much astonishment’. coppola’s familiarity with russian cinematography is key both to fixing a direct link between his photographic and cinematic output, particularly his experimental documentary short así nació el obelisco (this is how the obelisk was born) ( ), and to setting up a nexus of triangular relationships that intimate at least an indirect linkage with rodchenko via vertov and eisenstein. the latter’s influence on rodchenko, who had designed the poster for the battleship potemkin, is salient in steps ( ), a high- angle, tilted shot of a woman carrying her child up a series of steps. richard whelan is convinced that rodchenko ‘must have remembered at some level the famous scene in sergei eisenstein’s movie the battleship potemkin showing the cossack massacre of civilians – including a woman with a child on the steps – leading down to the harbor of odessa’. could a kindred triangle, via vertov and eisenstein, lie behind coppola’s rodchenkoesque angles and unorthodox camera frames? the same applies to ruttmann’s berlin, which could have been a wonderful pre-bauhaus study in neue sachlichkeit for the receptive young photographer. the film, writes nora alter, makes use of an ‘entfesselte, or “unleashed”, camera that roams throughout the city ostensibly indiscriminately filming whatever comes into its path’. the protagonist, the city itself, unfolds its character in a series of what could be described as sharp-focused stills insofar as motion remains external to the camera, stemming either from people or moving objects such as vehicles and factory machines. through a mostly static camera (except for tracking shots), ruttmann seizes the movement of the modern metropolis generally history of photography : (november ) without pan-tilt and enhances it through montage. paul grainge and others see berlin as a paradigm of ‘the cold and savage beauty of new objectivity’ in cinema, while alter observes that ‘the cult of the thing, or the object is integral’ to the film. she explains that the ‘purported aim’ of the new objectivity was ‘to focus on nonmediated perception, on the discovery, description, and perceptual account of things as they were’, and considers ruttmann’s visual narrative to be ‘steadfast in its belief in realism and its pursuit of objectivity’. ruttmann’s uncompromising objectivity bears the hallmark of new objectivity photography as this crystallises, for instance, in the work of renger-patzsch, who by the late s had become the movement’s major spokesperson with polemical texts that targeted moholy-nagy’s experimentalism, accusing him of being ‘an amateur pictorialist in modern dress’. in reality, renger-patzsch’s industrial photographs could have been perfectly taken from ruttmann’s berlin. the factory funnels of viktoria mathias mine in essen and eiserne hand mine in essen ( ), the silos of gutehoffnungshütte blast furnace works in duisburg ( ), and the furnace in chimney seen from below, herrenwyk blast furnace works, lübeck ( ), share the same visual vocabulary with the four factory funnels squeezed between two buildings in act i of ruttmann’s film ( min sec) – and, as we have seen, with coppola’s port (figure ). the same applies to ruttmann’s bottle-capping machine (figure ) and renger-patzsch’s shoemaking irons, fagus works, alfeld ( ). the focus on the object itself – the milk bottles in the case of ruttmann, the shoemaking irons in that of renger-patzsch – bespeaks the new objectivity’s fixation with the materiality of the thing and its objective representation, a kind of a double-edged ‘objectivity’. the sequence in the factory in particular ( min history of photography : (november ) sec– min sec) reflects the matter-of-fact approach to industrial materiality as we come across it in renger-patzsch’s celebrated photographs of the fagus and krupp factories. we may safely assume that in ruttmann’s fixed-point camera must have offered the young coppola an education in the aesthetics of neue sachlichkeit, especially if we think of his construction materials (figure ), of the formal and conceptual ‘objectivity’ of his medianeras and his maldonado prints, all photographed in , as well as of photographs like sin título (untitled) ( ), whose resemblance to ruttmann’s bottle-capping machine is striking (figures , ). coppola’s acquaintance with european avant-garde cinema in august is at least partly responsible for the burst of the modern that we see in his photographs of that same year. machinery and industrial themes may have been woven into the visual fabric of the new vision in general, but they evidently found a most straightforward rendering in the hands of neue sachlichkeit photographers. as already mentioned, the new objectivity, which had begun as the weimar era’s representational art around , called for a ‘return to a tangible objectivity’ that ‘dominated all other painting styles’ throughout the s. urban and industrial sceneries were stock motifs in the work of german painters belonging to the more conservative strand of neue sachlichkeit. in argentina, they emerged in the paintings of coppola’s mentor, alfredo guttero, who had spent over two decades in europe before his definitive return to buenos aires in . up until his death five years later, guttero acted, in de torre’s words, as the ‘dean’ of the new generation of argentine painters, and as a ‘cultural operator’ who, according to eduardo costantini, ‘confronted the most conservative art tendencies’ in the country through participation in juries, educational projects and publications, and the organisation history of photography : (november ) of various exhibitions. adrián gorelik states that guttero was, in fact, ‘the only artist that coppola recognised as having a direct influence on the shaping of his approach’, while maría teresa constantin remarks that elements of the work of new objectivity artists of the weimar republic, notably ‘regular volumes, indebted to the new architectural materials and to functionality, doubtlessly evoke guttero’. constantin, who speaks of guttero’s industrial paintings dating from and , quotes a comment on the ‘winds of change blowing in berlin’ that the artist made in a letter to his friend and sculptor luis falcini in . guttero, says constantin, ‘is referring to the neue sachlichkeit’. she points out that the painter ‘shows complete trust in argentina’s industrial development’, as did several new objectivity artists and photographers who took up germany’s interwar faith in industry. the neue sachlichkeit search for a revamped realism formed part of ‘the international climate of the return to order’ that occurred in the second and third decades of the twentieth century, and involved a raft of aesthetic movements, including the italian novecento and its call for a ‘return to rational, ordered painting’. constantin draws attention to the link between the new objectivity and italian novecento, noting that in both cases ‘man behaves a bit like a machine’. the generation of argentine artists who travelled to europe from onward, according to patricia artundo, ‘worked in an environment that emphasized overcoming the aesthetic and artistic questioning of the historical avant-garde and recovering the classical tradition’. guttero, of course, had experiential knowledge of the fermentation that was taking place in the cauldron of european art. in another letter to falcini dated , he spoke highly of the novecento exhibition at the th venice bienniale. the galleries of novecento art, he wrote, are ‘the best in the entire exhibition due to their firm history of photography : (november ) grip of modernity, the soundness of the works and the certain tastes that they demonstrate’. guttero’s familiarity with the novecento and the new objectivity is manifest in his industrial landscapes from . the elevadores de granos (grain elevators) ( ) (figure ), with the imposing salmon-coloured building at the centre- left of the composition, the metallic bridge that divides the painting horizontally and the silos in the background, approximates carl grossberg’s brücke über die schwarzbachstraße in wuppertal (bridge over schwarzbach street in wuppertal) (figure ), with its striking brick-red bridge pylons and the sharp-focused background buildings. notwithstanding that both painters make use of light-green, grey and ochre, guttero’s more pastel-like colours set him apart from the sharpness in form and colour that one encounters in grossberg. pastel-like colours are more pronounced in silo, silos (ca. ) and puerto ( ), the geometricised cityscape of sin título (untitled), and the industrial topography of paisaje de puerto nuevo (landscape of puerto nuevo) ( ) (figure ), whose three factory funnels against the left background break further away from grossberg’s punctilious stroke at the same time that they chime in harmoniously with the visual idiom of straight photography and the new objectivity, as seen in the work of sheeler, renger-patzsch, ruttmann and coppola, among scores of others (figure ). guttero’s grain elevators and landscape of puerto nuevo betray a strong conceptual and to a certain degree formal kinship with the quest of the new objectivity for sachlichkeit, making them another odds-on favourite for bringing coppola closer to the movement’s cult of the object. as schwartz affirms, guttero’s ‘tubular silos, monumental in their volumetric geometry […] were essential in shaping coppola’s approach’. coppola met guttero when the latter opened his fourth ‘one-man show’ at history of photography : (november ) the amigos del arte on september , where he most likely exhibited his industrial sceneries. impressed by the exhibition, the young coppola gave guttero a six-page-long letter discussing his paintings, while their meeting signalled the beginning of a long ‘friendship and a partnership’. clearly, guttero’s role was key to keeping coppola au courant with the latest developments in the european art scene and the retour à l’ordre. in his ‘autobiographical text’, the photographer reveals that it was guttero who in ‘urged’ him to travel to europe and ‘planned an itinerary’ (containing several visits to museum and galleries, such as the novecento exhibition in rome mentioned earlier) which he ‘duly followed’ a year later. to paraphrase gorelik, the year and more specifically the months from august to november were coppola’s menses mirabiles since, to his crash course in european avant-garde cinema and his discovery of guttero’s work, we should add the ten lectures on architecture that le corbusier gave at the amigos del arte and the faculty of exact sciences in buenos aires in october . nurtured on the principles of constructivism and functionalism, le corbusier’s abstract architecture fascinated coppola who, lured by the ‘modern’ vision of the swiss architect, would later recall his lectures, particularly ‘his survey of buenos aires, on which [his] future photographs would be based’. in his interview with gorelik, coppola harped on the ‘decisive influence’ that le corbusier had exerted on his ‘way of seeing the city’. the latter severely criticised buenos aires for its lack of green areas and its anachronistic use of the cuadrícula, or spanish-square planning, describing it as ‘one of the most inhuman cities [he] [had] known’. for all coppola’s emphasis on the impact le corbusier had on his work, the grid system that the swiss shunned so vehemently was, in fact, wholeheartedly history of photography : (november ) cherished by the argentine. testimony to this is a photograph of a whitewashed suburban house taken in and rephotographed seven years later for the purposes of his album buenos aires (figures , ). the change of angle in the retake, says gorelik, resulted in the accentuated esquina (corner), which constitutes ‘one of the key points in understanding the grid system’, the real theme of the photograph, according to the original title: esquina en las antiguas orillas. calle paraguay al (street corner in the old limits of the city. paraguay street). coppola’s ‘ “corrections” to the photograph’, the scholar rightly concludes, ‘can be seen as a subtle defence of the block’, especially because this is the only photograph known to have been repeated by coppola. in a typical avant-garde gesture, le corbusier attributed aesthetic quality to the suburban little houses. through ‘the ennobling of the banal’, he made use of the image of porteño immigrant housing to eschew european architectural academicism which, in his view and in that of many others in the audience, had plagued buenos aires as a consequence of the longstanding eurocentrism of its political élite. from the europhile president bernardino rivadavia, under whose governance the french neoclassical façade of the metropolitan cathedral of buenos aires was completed in , to the so-called generation of the s, who, in an attempt to distance themselves from anything that could hark them back to the colonial past, asserted an eclecticism that drew heavily and often uncritically on french, german, and british architecture, any traces of colonial architecture in the capital city were systematically wiped out, giving way to a hotchpotch of european architectural styles. le corbusier asked his audience to turn their back on academicism and instead embrace the popular cubism of the little houses. ‘you have history of photography : (november ) this’, he professed, ‘a standard plan, and a play of forms in the argentine light, a play of very beautiful, very pure forms. look!’. the study of this ‘folklore for mass production’, he reasoned, could give rise to ‘a pure functional organism’. enraptured by the architect’s appraisal of popular functionalist architecture, coppola clung to the spontaneous cubism of the immigrant houses for their alleged affinity with architectural modernism. the assumed connection between the simple, functional, and nondecorative structure of the suburban houses and interwar modernist architecture was also underscored by the german architect and city planner werner hegemann, who visited buenos aires following an invitation from the amigos de la ciudad two years later. for hegemann, the cubist precepts of contemporary european architecture did not have to be imported to south america because they emanated ‘naturally’ from its own ‘healthy tradition’. ‘even today’, he posited, ‘construction companies erect thousands of small houses that fall completely within classic form, houses which have been simplified and stripped of baroque trappings, giving themselves wholeheartedly and innocently to a very modern materialism [sachlichkeit]’. by shooting the sachlichkeit of the little houses, the argentine kept pace, among others, with the most recent happenings in the european art world. this keenness on functionalism and materialism through le corbusier bespeaks yet another oblique link with neue sachlichkeit. the year may signal coppola’s immersion in european art, but the photographer had plugged into it since at least with the appearance of martín fierro ( – ), the country’s most important avant-garde magazine, which he ‘used to buy at the news-stand’ on the way back from the mariano moreno secondary school. ever since, his acquaintances, friendships, and collaborations with intellectuals and artists, history of photography : (november ) some of them prominent members of the buenos aires avant-garde, kept him up to date with aesthetic gestation across europe. among them, for example, we find jorge luis borges, a leading figure of the literary avant-garde with whom coppola ventured his ‘long walks around maldonado’, taking pictures of suburban neighbourhoods and houses (figure ), and de torre, his partner at the cine club, the amigos del arte, and the martín fierro group, and co-founder of the influential spanish magazine la gaceta literaria ( – ), the main vehicle for the dissemination of european avant-garde art and literature in spain and spanish america, with a wide distribution in argentina. essays on german expressionism, the new objectivity, cubism, and italian futurism populated the pages of la gaceta during the five years of its circulation. by the time de torre moved to argentina (he married borges’s sister, norah), he had already published his book literaturas europeas de vanguardia (european avant-garde literatures) ( ), which made a strong impression in latin america, becoming, in the words of the cuban writer alejo carpentier, ‘a kind of bible’ for latin american literati. de torre, whom ernesto giménez caballero, the co-founder of la gaceta, considered an authority on avant-gardism ‘for his extraordinary erudition in all the -isms’, was no doubt key to coppola’s aesthetic education and particularly to his attunement to the new artistic vocabularies of europe. while in argentina, de torre continued to act as la gaceta’s secretary until , and contributed regularly to josé ortega y gasset’s legendary journal revista de occidente between and . coppola, who had subscribed to the revista in , read ortega y gasset’s influential essay el tema de nuestro tiempo (the modern theme) ( ), after being prompted by francisco romero, who would later become ‘one of argentina’s most outstanding philosophers’. it was there, observes history of photography : (november ) gonzalo aguilar in a note, where the spaniard ‘expound[ed] his rejection of rationalism and relativism in favour of “perspectivism” and his doctrine of the point of view, which can also be traced in coppola’s definition of the “imagema”’. ‘ortega’s powerful influence’, continues aguilar, is also ‘evident in coppola’s use, in essays, of quotations from articles and books by ortega generally published by revista de occidente’. in the tenth chapter of the modern theme, entitled ‘the doctrine of the point of view’, the spanish philosopher considered perspective as ‘one of the component parts of reality’, arguing that ‘a reality which remained the same from whatever point of view it was observed would be a ridiculous conception’. this admittedly resonated with the young coppola, who would soon adopt the maverick perspectives of the new vision, but also with romero, a philosopher preoccupied with the notion of historical perspective and a major translator of works from german into spanish. like de torre, romero, whom coppola viewed as ‘a brother and mentor’, must have played a crucial role in making coppola conversant with the latest intellectual developments in europe, while ortega helped him fashion his unorthodox visuality quite early on, a fact that would later allow him to feel at home with the new visual glossaries of europe and the united states. coppola’s dialogue with european and north american photography is evident in his pictures and theoretical writings alike. the text accompanying the invitation leaflet for what is widely held as the first exhibition of modern photography in argentina, a joint enterprise of coppola and stern at the offices of sur in , was, according to the former, a reproduction of a text written by peterhans. christopher phillips explains that peterhans’s philosophy ‘was considerably closer to renger-patzsch’s than to moholy’. the text spotlighted ‘the free, subjective activity of the photographer’, whose selection of history of photography : (november ) the object presupposed a personal understanding: ‘the photographer expresses his intuition of the object, his understanding, his knowledge of the object’ and in so doing, he provides ‘an essentially new opportunity for knowing and expressing, thanks to its specific ability to detail and “highlight” the reality of those people and things’. the text of the invitation was cast in the same conceptual mould as strand’s manifesto on straight photography. ‘it is in the organization of this objectivity that the photographer’s point of view toward life enters in’, avowed strand in , and his remarks were echoed by ortega y gasset, who, a year earlier, had published his first formulation of perspectivism in el espectador. far from ‘disturbing’ the ‘fabric’ of ‘reality’, argued ortega y gasset, perspective constitutes reality’s ‘organising element’. ‘the persistent error that has hitherto been made’, he wrote, ‘is the supposition that reality possesses in itself, independently of the point of view from which it is observed, a physiognomy of its own’. at more or less the same time, ortega y gasset and strand understood perspective as a constitutive element of reality, and spoke of a new way of seeing. the philosopher and the photographer coincided in their novel mode of θεωρεῖν (to observe, contemplate, theorise), and so did coppola about a decade later. we may never ascertain whether the argentine became acquainted with the work of strand via ocampo in , but we do know that by then he was at ease with strand’s vision thanks to his early attachment to ortega y gasset’s perspectivist theory. commenting on strand, joel eisinger stresses that ‘despite his claims for the objectivity of photography and his demand that the photographer respect the thing in front of the camera, strand still thought of serious photography as expression, as something guided by intuitive knowledge’. the debate on the ‘straightness’ or ‘purity’ of history of photography : (november ) american photography, adds eisinger, ‘paralleled one then taking place in germany among critics of neue sachlichkeit photography’. coppola’s and peterhans’s statements, for instance, summoned up roh’s definition of magical realist (or new objectivity) painting – namely his thesis that ‘to depict realistically is not to portray or copy but rather to build rigorously, to construct objects that exist in the world in their particular primordial shape’. coppola’s and peterhans’s insistence on the ability of the photographer to create, through her or his intuitive perception and personal optik, ‘new’ opportunities for epistemic breakthroughs by offering novel views of reality, is equally impregnated with the new vision quest for a radical change of our perspective and, more generally, the avant-garde search for a new sensibility. ‘we don’t see what we look at. we don’t see the extraordinary perspectives, the foreshortenings, and positions of objects. we who are accustomed to seeing the usual, the accepted, must reveal the world of sight. we must revolutionize our visual reasoning’, declared rodchenko in . three years earlier, moholy-nagy had announced the advent of a new vision: ‘we may say that we see the world with entirely different eyes’. the latter held that ‘the photographic camera [can] make visible existences which cannot be perceived or taken in by our optical instrument, the eye; i.e. the photographic camera can either complete or supplement our optical instrument, the eye’. an almost identical comment was made by coppola in his essay ‘on photography’ (possibly co-authored with stern), which was published in the third issue of campo grafico: rivista di estetica e di tecnica grafica in milan in : ‘we look with our eyes and we see things, objects. only rarely do we look at objects in order to see them for themselves’, he wrote. he concluded: history of photography : (november ) these objects are made of a given material, they have a given surface, shape, colour, volume. a book is smooth or rough paper, ink, a number of pages, a prism. this material, this surface, shape, volume, reflects part of the light that illuminates it; they are visible objects, objects that exist for the camera. […] in certain cases, these bodies may only reflect part of the light; like infrared rays, they are not visible to the human eye, but they are visible to the camera. the text sounds like a redrafting of renger-patzsch’s sachlichkeit aesthetics. ‘to capture impressions of nature, plants, animals, works by architects and sculptors, engineers and technicians’, the german photographer postulated in his article ‘goals’, ‘we have the most appropriate tool at our disposal in photography. [….] the individualized structure of wood, stone and metal can be depicted exceptionally well, and in a manner that would be impossible to achieve with the means available to the visual arts’. also, he added in defence of a purely factual photography: ‘the absolute correct reproduction of form, the subtlety of shading from the highest point of light to the deepest shadow, confers on the technically excellent photograph the magic of the experience itself’. renger-patzsch’s appeal for faithfulness to the material was shared by coppola and so was moholy-nagy’s and ortega y gasset’s perspectivism. ‘an image’, clarified coppola, ‘is obtained of the shape of the object and its volume, which can be characterised as an image from a point of view’. each photograph yields an individual point of view, in the same way that, according to ortega y gasset, ‘all knowledge is knowledge from a definite point of view’. ‘by setting everyone’s fragmentary visions history of photography : (november ) side-by-side’, the latter argued, ‘it would be possible to achieve a complete panorama of absolute and universally valid truth’. coppola reiterates ortega y gasset’s notion of visual and epistemic fragmentation: ‘the photographic image is a fragment of reality. […] the photographic image is the image of a fragment of reality: it is a rectangle which exactly individualises that fragment, limiting it, separating it, framing it as a new visual unit’. the same statement is repeated in his ‘definition of imagema’, originally published in : ‘my work is an optical image of the real, transcribed by the camera and obtained in the final image, it is the proof of my authorship: a proof, an apparent fragment of reality, the creature of my vision, now released’. as in his text, coppola brings together objectivity and expressiveness, as did strand, albeit unwillingly, in his manifesto, at the same time that he conjures up rodchenko’s call for a new visual idiom. ‘the faithfulness of photography is the element itself’, he notes, ‘bent to the will of the photographer who aims to fix on paper his vision of the visible reality’. photography, insists coppola, ‘is an instrument at the service of anyone aware of that reality’. coppola’s major theorisation of the medium is found in ‘imagema’, a leaflet that the photographer used for his exhibition años de fotografía (forty years of photography), which was held at the museo de arte moderno in buenos aires in . i say ‘major’ because, temporally distant from the shocks and jolts of the avant-garde, this was his bid to afford a fairly idiosyncratic account of his photographic vision, one that nevertheless still bore visible traces of an avant-gardist past. cited in the epigraph to the text, paul valéry’s words could have come out of the mouth of any new vision photographer: ‘to see all the things in the world as if they had never yet been seen’. in history of photography : (november ) a typically straight photography and new objectivity fashion, coppola maintained that ‘imagema is pure reality; it is the image in its essential being’. for him, ‘this pure reality is born visible, it becomes visible through the contact […] of the subject who is looking with the object looked at’. referring to the faithfulness, or objectivity, of photography, he explained that ‘the photographic image matches the image on the human retina, but our perception of that image is not necessarily faithful’. we learn that this is because ‘the psyche, with all its emotions, all its private complexities, conscious or unconscious, partially ignores – sometimes totally ignores – that part of the image not related to a given act, to the object’s function’. free from this emotive dimension, the camera lens ‘allows us to capture pure reality, its visible elemental being, its imagema’. to some extent, of course, coppola’s argument implodes because the non-emotive objectivity of the camera is tainted with the subjectivity of the eye of the photographer, who organises this objectivity, and with that of the viewer, who sees and necessarily interprets it through emotive mechanisms – roland barthes’s punctum, or personal meaning, is highly relevant here. siegfried kracauer was quick to undercut the claims of straight and new objectivity photography to pure objectivity. ‘actually there is no mirror at all’, he wrote. ‘photographs do not just copy nature but metamorphose it by transferring three-dimensional phenomena to the plane, severing their ties with the surroundings, and substituting black, gray, and white for the given color schemes’. kracauer found the most compelling case against the objectivity principle ‘in the way in which we take cognisance of visible reality’, which ‘spontaneously structures the inflowing impressions’. history of photography : (november ) be that as it may, coppola’s thesis reverberated with moholy-nagy’s reflections on the supplementary value of the camera vis-à-vis human vision and with renger- patzsch’s reference to the ‘subjective eye’, which ‘views with pleasure the essential things and completely overlooks what is unimportant’, while the camera is capable of ‘see[ing] the essential and inessential with equal clarity’. it was also in accord with roh’s belief that new objectivity painting is able ‘to endow the viewer, who is frequently too cursory and careless in his knowledge of the world and in his idealism, with a penetrating and meticulous lucidity’. roh’s and coppola’s reasoning was in line with that of new objectivity artist grethe jürgens, who in joyously spoke of ‘the discovery of a totally new world’. ‘one paints pots and rubbish piles’, asserted jürgens, ‘and then suddenly sees these things quite differently, as if one had never before seen a pot. one paints a landscape, trees, houses, vehicles, and one sees the world anew. one discovers like a child an adventure-filled land’. as noted earlier, coppola’s definition of ‘imagema’ as ‘one of the possible definitions of the visible, one of the infinite definitions that light gives to vision’, explicitly embraced ortega y gasset’s theory of perspectivism and the subjective expressiveness of the photographer as ‘author’ of images. the photographer, writes coppola, is ‘the man who looks, sees, finds, invents, chooses what can be illuminated, […] the man who sees the skin of the world, of its gestures, of its perspectives’. and he concludes: ‘imagema; image-testimony, a being that transcends. photography as a method, as a philosophy of truth’. coppola’s final remark champions the philosophical underpinnings and epistemological value of the medium, and brings to mind the comments thomas mann made about renger-patzsch’s aesthetic ‘objectivity’. history of photography : (november ) the latter, observed mann, ‘identified what is individual and objective out of the to-ing and fro-ing of the world perceived through the senses, isolated it, elevated it, intensified it, rendered it significant, given it a soul’. like renger-patzsch, coppola’s lens shoots the essence of the object and, fragmentarily, of the world surrounding it. seeing photographically, to use weston’s terms, is to know. in his ‘autobiographical text’, the argentine ponders on the etymological significance of the verb ‘to look’ in spanish: ‘i started to look (spanish mirar, from latin: mirare, from miror: to see with wonder and eagerly; from the sanskrit root: mare, to distinguish)’. the one who looks eagerly and respectfully at the object, produces imagemas, or fragments of knowledge. coppola detects this overlap between vision and cognition in the words of the french philosopher and jesuit priest, pierre teilhard de chardin: ‘seeing. we might say that the whole of life lies in that verb – if not ultimately, at least essentially […] [in order] to know’. the argument on photography as an epistemological tool has seemingly run full circle because, from its inception, the medium has been used in scientific research, a fact that prompted the pictorialist crusade to restore photography as an art form. but in contrast with scientific photography, says coppola, the epistemological value of the medium as art consists not in reproducing external reality faithfully, but in ‘seeing’ the essence of that reality, or in seeing it anew. in doing so, the art of photography can unlock new layers of meaning, amplifying our scope of visibility. photography and philosophy emerge as two overlapping modes of θεωρεῖν. i have argued that while coppola’s engagement with new vision and new objectivity photography culminated in the dizzying angles, tilted frames, shadows and industrial themes of his pictures, his dialogue with european avant-garde history of photography : (november ) photography can be traced back at least to the prodigious year of , and more specifically to his attention to sachlichkeit and his formal experimentation. it is clear that by , the photographer had already been nurtured by an impressive range of sources, some more acknowledged than others and some most likely hushed up. although he was eager to blurt out the impact an architect, a painter, a poet, or a philosopher may have had on his work, he was far less keen to disclose his photographic readings, pre- or post- bauhaus. as noted earlier, save his brother armando, the only two twentieth-century photographers that coppola recognised as his ‘maestros’ were american – stieglitz and weston, both former pictorialists who had espoused straight photography by the early s. ‘he shared the common american anxiety about artistic dependence on europe and wanted independence and international respect for american art’, mentions eisinger with respect to strand, but his comment could easily apply to coppola. entangled in issues of origin and imitation, different latin american avant-garde movements sought to cut the umbilical cord with europe in terms of cultural dependence. in argentina, where , , immigrants arrived, mainly from italy and spain, between and , questions of origin and national culture were high on the agendas of politicians and literati alike. by , buenos aires had transformed from a ‘gran aldea’ (large village) and a ‘modest trade and political centre’ of about , residents in , into ‘a major world port and a metropolis with a population of , , ’. crucially, about two- thirds of those people had not been born in argentina. foreign-born men, according to david rock, ‘still represented per cent of the male population in ’. this radical alteration of demographics together with rapid urbanisation and modernisation raised complex sociopolitical, ideological, and aesthetic issues, one of which was to redefine history of photography : (november ) national cultural identity. concerned with things argentine in an era of mass immigration, the buenos aires avant-garde to which the photographer belonged, vacillated between the reformation of national culture and aesthetic renovation through the tenets of european avant-garde movements. born into a wealthy family of italian immigrants who had settled in argentina in the late nineteenth century, ‘coppola studied at a number of state primary schools, which provided a high level education and sought to encourage the integration of argentina’s many immigrants’. while still at school, we have seen that he was nourished by the aesthetic precepts of the avant-garde magazine martín fierro, thus becoming involved in the martinfierristas’ project to revamp national culture very early on. their vision to renew tradition and forge a new aesthetic language which would be at once distinctly americano and at pace with aesthetic developments internationally was reflected in the choice of name for the magazine: martín fierro was the title of argentina’s national epic written by josé hernández between and . by the late s, hernández’s gauchesque poem, which celebrated the free-spirited gaucho (cowboy) of the pampa, had been canonised based on apparently offering a true image of argentineness in an age when the country’s long-established institutions and structures were being dismantled as a result of the massive influx of immigrants and the processes of modernisation. in anthony giddens’s terms, this radical ‘disembedding’ of traditional social systems and cultural codes inaugurated a series of ideological antinomies which dominated the social, political and aesthetic debates of the time: rural (the pampa) or urban (buenos aires)? tradition or modernity? american or european? don segundo sombra ( ), a novel written by ricardo güiraldes, a prominent member of the martín fierro group, was history of photography : (november ) largely a re-examination of the figure of the gaucho at a time when typical argentine gauchos were disappearing, and a mise-en-scène of those ideological antinomies as it held the tensions between a europeanised lifestyle and a life in the pampa. commenting on a photograph taken at the launch of the book and published in the thirty- sixth issue of martín fierro ( december ), coppola wrote about the martinfierristas (many of whom were members of the amigos del arte): ‘thirty-three people, including ricardo güiraldes himself. all, or almost all, the people that were, or would shortly be, our betters. my joy: to be their young contemporary’. i have already argued that coppola’s apprenticeship in the circles of martín fierro and the amigos del arte, which he described as ‘an exemplary body’ and ‘a varied cultural watershed’, shaped his aesthetic outlook and acted as a catalyst for his search for a new visual glossary that would allow argentine art to slip its moorings in europe and put an end to a long history of cultural dependence. for strand, observes brizuela, ‘american photographic production was unencumbered by the weight of tradition and by the “anxiety of influence”, partly because it was such a recent development […] and partly because its practitioners were mostly amateurs, not worried with debates about art versus science or technology’. the same could be said of argentine photographic production, but unlike strand, coppola began to mould his visual language when the aesthetics of new vision and new objectivity photography were already in full swing. ‘old art’, adds brizuela with reference to strand, ‘the art of the past symbolized in the medium of painting and in pictorialist and figurative aesthetics, belonged in europe; “new art”, the art of the present and of the future was photography and belonged in the usa, the land of amateurs, of history of photography : (november ) self-made men and women, of technology and the real, forceful movement of progress’. in pictorialist argentina, coppola’s photographic idiom was certainly a novelty, but his ‘new art’ was as new as that of his contemporaries on both sides of the atlantic. for him, the ‘new art’ of north america, reflected in the likes of stieglitz and weston, may have been an ally in the battle against cultural dependence, but the same was not true for european photography. as a young artist and a member of the buenos aires avant-garde, he must have – erroneously but understandably – felt that acknowledging his creative dialogue with photographic developments in europe would have compromised his personal contribution to the ‘new art’ within and beyond argentina. coppola’s pursuit of a novel visual vocabulary and his tense relationship with innovative european photographic practices bring to mind his fellow martinfierrista, the painter and polymath alejandro xul solar. as i discuss elsewhere, xul’s participation in the buenos aires avant-garde in the s is patent in his pan-american project, and more specifically in his emphasis on the bolivarian ideal of ‘our america […] the great iberian america’, in his desire to develop ‘our own artistic revolution’, and in his invention, quite literally, of a new latin american language: that is, the neocriollo, or neo-creole, a fusion of american spanish and brazilian portuguese with some words from english and german. ‘the rooms at the museo nacional de bellas artes. an exhibition about german books’, recounts coppola about his first meeting with xul. ‘we introduced ourselves, and xul solar – already using his neocriollo words […] – shared secrets with me’. according to schwartz, the neocriollo had ‘as its point of departure, the written adaptation of a gauchoized, colloquial language, definitive of what is history of photography : (november ) supposedly an argentine stock, with linguistic expressions that are typical of the creolist vanguard of the period’. xul’s pan-american vision was eloquently visualised, among others, in the watercolours mundo (world) ( ) and drago (dragon) ( ), where a flying serpent carrying the flags of latin american countries dominates the scene. through the assimilation of latin america’s different traditions and cultures, the neo- creoles, he tells us, could pave the way for a new and better world. xul’s discovery of the der blaue reiter almanach during his visit in turin in seems to have triggered a similar reaction to that of coppola. the argentine felt a strong connection with the expressionists’ take on utopia and spiritualism, especially with that of kandinsky with whom he shared an interest in rudolf steiner’s anthroposophy and madame blavatsky’s theosophy, but he also felt the need to emphasise his own ‘intuitive’ originality. in a letter, probably to a family member, in that same year, he spoke of the impact the discovery of the almanac had on him: ‘i am very satisfied because, on the one hand, i see how i, on my own, without any inspiration from outside, have worked according to the dominant tendency of the highest art of the future and, on the other, i see how i can stand out among these new artists easily because i have more sense of composition and colour than most of them’. worried about issues of originality and influence, xul and coppola mirror the aspirations and anxieties of a generation of american intellectuals and artists who strove for cultural and aesthetic independence from europe. ‘we are and feel new’, wrote xul around , echoing strand’s own vision of american photography. ‘old and foreign paths do not lead to our new goal. [...] we have reached adulthood but we have not yet finished our wars for independence. the moral tutelage of europe should end. [...] we do not have, in our brief history of photography : (november ) past, artistic geniuses to guide (or tyrannise) us. to the weary world, we should bring a new meaning’. if xul, strand, and coppola, to borrow brizuela’s words, were ‘unencumbered by the weight of tradition’, this only applied endogenously, because they all ultimately shared what eisinger has referred to as ‘the common american anxiety about artistic dependence on europe’. the so-called ‘moral’, cultural, and aesthetic tutelage of europe was what these artists, among many others from across the intellectual and cultural spectrum of the americas, sought to abolish in those years. at the same time, in argentina the urge to forge a culturally distinct identity was fuelled by the great influx of economic immigrants. coppola’s partial acknowledgement of his photographic borrowings obviously failed to account for his visual experimentalism in the years from to , as seen, for instance, in the use of unorthodox angles, tilting frames, and negatives, and of different lenses and prisms in abstract pictures like prisma de cristal (glass prism), interior de prisma (interior of a prism), and autorretrato (self-portrait) (figure ), all three taken in . it seems that from the barracks of the buenos aires avant-garde, coppola was far more reluctant to confess a european affair than an american connection. his aesthetic genealogy nevertheless bears the marks of a long and fruitful dialogue with neue sachlichkeit and the new vision that helped him articulate the first truly modern photographic language in argentina and one of the most exciting visual idioms in twentieth-century latin america. captions history of photography : (november ) figure . horacio coppola, medianera con aire-luz (wall with airshaft), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . figure . horacio coppola, calle corrientes ( corrientes street), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, .	
   	
   figure . horacio coppola, portón y grúa (crane), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . figure . germaine krull, untitled (métal), gelatin silver print, ca. – . amsab- institute of social history (amsab-ish), ghent. reproduced by permission of museum folkwang, fotografische sammlung, essen. figure . horacio coppola, puerto (port), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . figure . horacio coppola, mateo y su victoria (mateo and his victoria), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . history of photography : (november ) figure . horacio coppola, Ángulo de escalera (corner of staircase), negative, gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . figure . horacio coppola, mundo propio (one’s own world), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . figure . horacio coppola, materiales de construcción (construction materials), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . figure . horacio coppola, buenos aires, gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, and fundación telefónica. figure . walter ruttmann, berlin: die sinfonie der großstadt (berlin: symphony of a metropolis), film still ( m s), . deutsche kinemathek, museum für film und fernsehen, berlin. reproduced by permission of eva riehl. figure . horacio coppola, sin título (untitled), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . history of photography : (november ) figure . alfredo guttero, elevadores de granos (grain elevators), oil on board, . cm x cm, . private collection, buenos aires. figure . carl grossberg, brücke über die schwarzbachstraße in wuppertal (bridge over schwarzbach street in wuppertal), oil on board, cm x cm, . medienzentrum, antje zeis-loi / kunst- und museumsverein, wuppertal. figure . alfredo guttero, paisaje de puerto nuevo (landscape of puerto nuevo), industrial pigment, plaster and natural gum on particleboard, cm x cm, . private collection, buenos aires. figure . horacio coppola, esquina en las antiguas orillas. calle paraguay al (street corner in the old limits of the city. paraguay street), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, .. figure . horacio coppola, calle paraguay, esquina jean jaurés (noroeste) (corner of paraguay street and jean jaurés [northeast]), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . figure . horacio coppola, autorretrato (self-portrait), gelatin silver print, . © estate of horacio coppola, courtesy galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, . history of photography : (november ) i wish to thank luke gartlan for his assistance with the review process and help preparing the text for publication, and the two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments and suggestions. i am grateful to the galería jorge mara-la ruche, buenos aires, and the fundación telefónica, madrid, for providing images free of charge. for permission to reproduce the photographs in this article, the author and editor would like to express their gratitude to the family of horacio coppola, eva riehl and the museum folkwang, fotografische sammlung, essen. this work was supported by the arts and humanities research council under grant ah/j / . unless otherwise indicated, all translations from the spanish are those of the author. email for correspondence: ek @st-andrews.ac.uk – henry miller, ‘preface’, in brassai [gyula halász], conversations with picasso, trans. jane marie todd, chicago: university of chicago press , ix. – david oubiña writes that before his first trip to europe in december , coppola’s knowledge of photography was ‘basically intuitive’ and that ‘most probably’ he did not have ‘the chance to see many modern photos’ (‘antes de partir hacia europa, entonces, sus conocimientos sobre fotografía son básicamente intuitivos y, muy probablemente, no ha tenido la ocasión de ver muchas fotos modernas’). david oubiña, ‘la piel del mundo: horacio coppola y el cine’, in luis priamo, natalia brizuela, david oubiña, and patricia m. artundo, horacio coppola: los viajes, buenos aires: galería jorge mara-la ruche history of photography : (november ) , . see also, andrea cuarterolo, de la foto al fotograma: relaciones entre cine y fotografía en argentina ( – ), montevideo: cdf ediciones , . – juan manuel bonet, ‘el siglo de horacio coppola’, in horacio coppola: buenos aires años treinta, ed. juan manuel bonet, buenos aires: galería jorge mara-la ruche , – ; and jorge schwartz, ‘foundation of buenos aires: the vision of horacio coppola’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. jorge schwartz, trans. paul edson and araceli montero, madrid: fundación telefónica , – . – founded by victoria ocampo in buenos aires in , sur was responsible for the dissemination of european and world culture into latin america for more than forty years. francine masiello refers to sur as ‘latin america’s cultural journal of greatest longevity and widest international reputation’. francine masiello, between civilization & barbarism: women, nation, and literary culture in modern argentina, lincoln: university of nebraska press , – . brizuela points out that the argentine mass media ‘barely’ experimented with photography in the s and s. ‘only in sur’, she says, ‘the magazine which envisioned itself as part of a global network of high modernist aesthetics and as the translator of this “global modernism” into spanish, did photography not only appear, but also have a central place during its first decade’. natalia brizuela, ‘grete stern, horacio coppola and the question of modern photography in argentina’, journal of latin american cultural studies, : (june ), – . coppola’s seven photographs were published in sur, (september–december ), while the following issue (december –february ) included five more pictures by him. the twelve photographs are reproduced in luis priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, in priamo, brizuela, oubiña, and artundo, horacio coppola: los viajes, . regarding the history of photography : (november ) modern visuality of siete temas, verónica tell observes that ‘coppola ventured beyond the places most commonly replicated in different publications that tended to repeat the traditional iconography of buenos aires, or would represent familiar places in a different way. […] his use of reflections, projected shadows, unorthodox framing and high-angle shots clearly form part of modern photographic language’. verónica tell, ‘portraits of places: notes on horacio coppola’s photography and short urban films’, journal of latin american cultural studies, : (june ), . – natalia brizuela, ‘horacio coppola y el extrañamiento de lo real’, in priamo, brizuela, oubiña, and artundo, horacio coppola: los viajes, – ; and brizuela ‘grete stern, horacio coppola’, . schwartz confirms that ocampo returned to argentina with two photographs by stieglitz, probably from his equivalents, ‘a series of cloud photographs taken obsessively between and , some of which – verticalised – appear to take on a wholly independent identity, as abstractions cut loose from their moorings’. schwartz, ‘foundation’, and . – for a selection of photographs, see priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, – . – paul strand, ‘photography’ ( ), in classic essays on photography, ed. alan trachtenberg, new haven, ct: leete’s island book , – . – see maria morris hambourg, paul strand circa , new york: metropolitan museum of art , plates , , , , , and . – ibid., – . – schwartz, who calls moholy-nagy’s book ‘the quintessential expression of experimentalism’, argues that it ‘contains theoretical texts on the new art which were to history of photography : (november ) inspire the young coppola’, but without providing more evidence as to when coppola came across moholy-nagy’s work. schwartz, ‘foundation’, . – see andreas haus, moholy nagy: photographs and photograms, trans. frederic samson, new york: pantheon books , plates and . – dziga vertov, ‘kinocks: a revolution’, in kino eye: the writings of dziga vertov, ed. annette michelson, trans. kevin o’brien, berkeley: university of california press , – . rodchenko’s text was originally published as ‘kinoki: perevoròt’ in lef, (june/july ), – . a year earlier, he had worked on the titles of vertov’s pioneering newsreel series kino-pravda (film-truth). see victor margolin, the struggle for utopia: rodchenko, lissitzky, moholy-nagy, – , chicago: university of chicago press , . – margolin, struggle for utopia, . for rodchenko’s pictures, see margolin, struggle for utopia, figures and . for coppola’s photographs, see horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, ; and horacio coppola: buenos aires años treinta, ed. bonet, . – brizuela, ‘horacio coppola’, : ‘la sincronía entre las fotos de stieglitz y las de coppola es más tenue que la familiaridad de este último con strand, de quien probablemente coppola no haya visto ni leído nada para ’. – see horacio coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, – . – brizuela, ‘horacio coppola’, : ‘en sintonía, sin lugar a dudas, con las fotografías de la nueva visión’ and ‘los “siete temas. buenos aires” […] contienen todos los history of photography : (november ) elementos formales de la nueva visión europea que coppola aún no conoce y que no ha aprendido en el taller de la bauhaus’. – ibid., – . – fritz hensler informed coppola that the department of photography at marburg had closed and told him about the new bauhaus in berlin, which he eventually joined. patricia m. artundo, ‘chronology’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, . – see luis priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, . with respect to moholy-nagy’s boat, franz roh and jan tschichold included the negative in foto-auge/oeil et photo/photo- eye, ed. franz roh and jan tschichold, stuttgart: akademischer verlag dr. fritz wedekind & co. , . a year later, roh published both positive and negative in franz roh, l. moholy nagy: fotos, berlin: klinkhardt & biermann , – . for rodchenko’s and kertész’s photographs, see, respectively, margarita tupitsyn, alexander rodtschenko. das neue moskau: fotografien aus der sammlung l. und g. tatunz, munich: schirmer/mosel , plate ; and andré kertész: his life and work, ed. pierre borhan, boston: bullfinch press , . finally, for moholy-nagy’s gangplank from above, see haus, moholy nagy, plate . – see, respectively, horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, ; alexander lavrentiev, alexander rodchenko: revolution in photography, moscow: multimedia complex of actual arts , ; horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, , and ; and albert renger-patzsch: photographer of objectivity, ed. ann and jürgen wilde and thomas weski, cambridge, ma: mit press , plates – and . – see ann and jürgen wilde and weski, albert renger-patzsch, plate . – see karen lucic, charles sheeler and the cult of the machine, london: reaktion history of photography : (november ) books , plates and . sergiusz michalski calls sheeler ‘the american neue sachlichkeit painter’. sergiusz michalski, new objectivity: painting, graphic art and photography in weimar germany – , trans. michael claridge,	
   cologne: benedikt taschen , . – schwartz, ‘foundation’, . – see photography at the bauhaus, ed. jeannine fiedler, london: dirk nishen publishing , . – for more examples of thematic and formal affinities between coppola’s early work and that of contemporary european and north american photographers, see appendix with photographs in priamo, brizuela, oubiña, and artundo, horacio coppola: los viajes, – . – priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, : ‘este salto gigante’. – coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, – . – oubiña, ‘la piel’, : ‘significativamente la colección de coppola no abunda en libros sobre fotografía de esa época’. among the publications oubiña mentions are books by jean epstein, paul rotha, rudolf arnheim, henri diamant-berger, béla balázs, raymond spottiswoode, and léon moussinac, as well as several issues of cinema quarterly, film art, l’art cinématographique and close up. – horacio coppola, ‘interview’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, . – priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, : ‘horacio siempre desestimó la influencia de peterhans sobre su fotografía en su paso por la bauhaus’. – see brizuela, ‘horacio coppola’, . – coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, . history of photography : (november ) – armando coppola was a member of the sociedad fotográfica argentina de aficionados (argentine photographic society of amateurs), the only photographic society of the time, founded in by individuals ‘of the land-owning classes and social celebrities’. armando’s still lifes covered a range of subjects, including ‘texture studies with leaves and stones, compositions with vases of flowers, lamps, dolls and mannequins, tools, dental braces placed on a plaster head to produce a comic effect which hovers between the surreal and the grotesque’. luis priamo, ‘before coppola’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, – . – roh’s book is a good candidate to have attracted coppola’s attention considering that the photographer strongly admired his work (see priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, ). roh’s essay ‘nachexpressionismus. magischer realismus’ (post-expressionism: magic realism) was translated into spanish two years later and published in the revista de occidente to which coppola had subscribed in (artundo, ‘chronology’, ). by , his term ‘magical realism’, which was soon to be replaced by gustav hartlaub’s ‘new objectivity’, ‘was being applied to the prose of european authors in the literary circles of buenos aires’, which coppola frequented. see irene guenther, ‘magic realism, new objectivity, and the arts during the weimar republic’, in magical realism: theory, history, community, ed. lois parkinson zamora and wendy b. faris, durham, nc: duke university press , . – graeff’s book was another informal companion to the film und foto exhibition. – schwartz, ‘foundation’, (emphasis added). the spanish version of the article makes the same point: ‘estas fotos y textos teóricos serían decisivos en el desarrollo de la mirada de coppola’ (these photographs and theoretical texts would be decisive in the history of photography : (november ) development of coppola’s approach). jorge schwartz, ‘fundación de buenos aires: la mirada de coppola’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, . for the positive, see horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, . – schwartz, ‘foundation’, . some representative examples of negatives by andreas feininger, roh, and moholy-nagy were included in foto-auge, ed. roh and tschichold, , , , and . – for coppola’s pictures, see priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, – . for lenk’s painting and renger-patzsch’s photographs, see new objectivity: modern german art in the weimar republic, – , ed. stephanie barron and sabine eckmann, los angeles: los angeles county museum of art , and . – for san gimignano, see horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, . priamo informs us that the tilted city hall balcony of san gimignano, taken with his brother ‘armando’s little x camera’ (coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, ), is the only surviving photograph of coppola’s first visit to europe (priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, ). – for barricas, ramos mejía, see horacio coppola: de la bauhaus a buenos aires, ed. sergio baur, madrid: galería guillermo de osma , . – bonet, ‘el siglo de horacio coppola’, : ‘ya antes del final de los años veinte, horacio coppola había asimilado a distancia, fragmentariamente, el idioma de la modernidad europea, de la neue sachlichkeit o nueva objetividad, de una nueva visión’. – for priamo’s reference to pictorialist argentina, see ‘el joven coppola’, . brizuela points out that ‘in , a very successful first international salon of photography had been held in argentina, which privileged a showcase of pictorialist-type history of photography : (november ) photographs in the argentine selection ( of photographs shown were argentine, from a couple of dozen photographers). the avant-garde practices already widely prevalent in the medium throughout the americas and europe – from paul strand, man ray, laszlo moholy-nagy and umbo to manuel Álvarez bravo and tina modotti – were markedly absent from this first salon’ (brizuela, ‘grete stern, horacio coppola’, ). as i will argue later, coppola operated within the context of the buenos aires avant- garde, known as the martín fierro group, and the amigos del arte (both established in ), as well as that of the cine club (founded in ). – oubiña, ‘la piel’, . – coppola co-founded the cine club with león klimovsky. the club counted among its members alfredo guttero, jorge romero brest, jorge luis borges, néstor ibarra, and guillermo de torre. artundo, ‘chronology’, – . – jorge miguel couselo, ‘los orígenes de cineclubismo en la argentina y “la gaceta literaria”’, alicante: biblioteca virtual miguel de cervantes , n.p., available at http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/nd/ark:/ /bmcf b (accessed april ). the amigos del arte, ‘a group of young intellectuals and artists who were trying to develop buenos aires into an important center of culture’ attracted the attention of major european and american intellectuals and artists of the time, including marinetti, le corbusier, waldo frank, and garcía lorca. alejandro lapunzina, le corbusier’s maison curutchet, new york: princeton architectural press , – . – see cuarterolo, de la foto, ; and couselo, ‘los orígenes’, n.p. – guillermo de torre, ‘“el cineclub” de buenos aires’, la gaceta literaria, ( ), : ‘la novedad más considerable que puede presentar el cineclub de buenos history of photography : (november ) aires con relación a todos los clubs similares europeos es la abundancia de “films” rusos soviéticos, de aquellos que la censura europea proscribe y que aquí se dan públicamente y sin mayor asombro’. – for coppola’s documentary short, see oubiña, ‘la piel’, – ; and tell, ‘portraits of places’, – . – richard whelan, double take: a comparative look at photographs, new york: c. n. potter , . – nora m. alter, ‘berlin, symphony of a great city ( ): city, image, sound’, in weimar cinema: an essential guide to classic films of the era, ed. noah william isenberg, new york: columbia university press , – . – paul grainge, mark jancovich, and sharon monteith, ‘realism, nationalism and “film culture”’, in film histories: an introduction and reader, ed. paul grainge, mark jancovich, and sharon monteith, edinburgh: edinburgh university press , ; and alter, ‘berlin’, . – christopher phillips, ‘resurrecting vision: the new photography in europe between the wars’, in the new vision: photography between the two worlds, ed. maria morris hambourg and christopher phillips, new york: metropolitan museum of art , . – see albert renger-patzsch, ed. ann and jürgen wilde and weski, plates , , and . – see ibid., plate . – maria makela, ‘“a clear and simple style”: tradition and typology in new objectivity’, museum studies (art institute of chicago), : (spring ), ; and history of photography : (november ) guenther, ‘magic realism’, – . – de torre, ‘la nueva pintura argentina’, la gaceta literaria, (december ), : ‘alfredo guttero, quizá el decano de esta muchachada’. eduardo f. costantini, ‘presentation’, trans. nicole o’dwyer, in guttero: un artista moderno en acción, ed. marcelo e. pacheco, buenos aires: malba , . – adrián gorelik, ‘horacio coppola, : borges, le corbusier and the “casitas” of buenos aires’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, ; and maría teresa constantin, ‘alfredo guttero and the industrial landscape’, trans. wendy gosselin, in guttero: un artista moderno en acción, ed. pacheco, – . – patricia m. artundo, ‘alfredo guttero in buenos aires – ’, trans. jane brodie, in guttero: un artista moderno en acción, ed. pacheco, ; and guenther, ‘magic realism’, . guenther notes that notwithstanding their pronounced differences, russian constructivism, fernard léger’s ‘réalisme nouveau’, jean cocteau’s ‘rappel à l’ordre’, and american straight photography, all belonged to the same context. guenther, ‘magic realism’, . – likewise, in the work of guttero, constantin says, ‘the industry is the central motif, but the human presence in the foreground [figure ] cannot be ignored in spite of its size’. constantin, ‘alfredo guttero’, . – artundo, ‘alfredo guttero’, . – alfredo guttero, guttero-falcini: epistolario, – . cartas a un amigo, ed. patricia m. artundo, buenos aires: universidad de buenos aires, facultad de filosofía y letras, instituto de teoría e historia del arte ‘julio e. payró’ , , cited in artundo, ‘alfredo guttero’, . history of photography : (november ) – for guttero’s paintings, see costa malosetti, pampa, ciudad y suburbia, buenos aires: fundación osde , ; ‘alfredo guttero: silo’, museo nacional de bellas artes, argentina, available at http://mnba.gob.ar/coleccion/obra/ (accessed april ); constantin, ‘alfredo guttero y el paisaje industrial’, in guttero: un artista moderno en acción, ed. pacheco, ; and guttero: un artista moderno en acción, ed. pacheco, . – schwartz, ‘foundation’, . – artundo, ‘chronology’, ; and patricia m. artundo, ‘biographical chronology of alfredo guttero ( – )’, trans. patricia haynes, in guttero: un artista moderno en acción, ed. pacheco, . a year later an exhibition on the ‘novecento italiano’ was organised at the amigos del arte. – coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, . – ibid. guttero had co-founded the asociación de artistas argentinos en europa (association of argentine artists in europe). see marcelo e. pacheco, ‘curatorial practice and fields of writing: the case of alfredo guttero’, trans. gosselin, in guttero: un artista moderno en acción, ed. pacheco, . – gorelik, ‘horacio coppola’, . – with the exception of the sixth lecture, which took place at the amigos de la ciudad on october . – coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, . – coppola, ‘interview’, . – le corbusier, precisions on the present state of architecture and city planning, trans. edith schreiber aujame, cambridge, ma: mit press , and . history of photography : (november ) – although we do not know whether the picture, which was originally published in borges’s book evaristo carriego (buenos aires: m. gleizer editor ), was taken before or after le corbusier’s lectures (gorelik, ‘horacio coppola’, ), the influence that the latter exerted on coppola, as the photographer himself acknowledged, is evident in many of his post- photographs. – gorelik, ‘horacio coppola’, . – ibid. – le corbusier, precisions, – . – werner hegemann, ‘el espíritu de schinkel en sud américa’, trans. i. stok, revista de arquitectura, (october ), : ‘las empresas constructoras levantan todavía hoy miles de pequeñas casas que están completamente dentro de las formas clásicas [que] se han simplificado y depurado de los agregados barrocos y se han entregado de lleno, inmediata e inocentemente, a un materialismo [sachlichkeit] modernísimo. […] no fue necesario en la américa del sud la importación del cubismo de la posguerra por arquitectos europeos, pues se formó solo, como consecuencia natural y lógica de su sana tradición’. originally published as ‘schinkelscher geist in südamerika’, städtebau, : (july ), - . cited in gorelik, ‘avant-garde and classicism: horacio coppola’s and facundo de zuviría’s buenos aires’, in buenos aires: coppola + zuviría, ed. adrián gorelik, trans. paola del campo, buenos aires: ediciones larivière , . see also, jorge francisco liernur and pablo pschepiurca, la red austral: obras y proyectos de le corbusier y sus discípulos en la argentina ( – ), buenos aires: prometeo libros , . – coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, . history of photography : (november ) – coppola, ‘interview’, . – ‘una especie de biblia’. cited in juan manuel bonet, diccionario de las vanguardias en españa, – , madrid: alianza , ; and cited in trinidad barrera, ‘historiografía y canon de las vanguardias’, in alma américa: in honorem victorino polo, ed. vicente cervera salinas and maría dolores adsuar fernández, vol. , murcia: universidad de murcia , . – ernesto giménez caballero, memorias de un dictador, barcelona: planeta , : ‘[…] por su erudición prodigiosa sobre todos los ismos’. – three years later, coppola attended ortega y gasset’s course in philosophy at the arts faculty of the university of buenos aires. artundo, ‘chronology’, . – gonzalo aguilar, ‘a passion for geometry’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, . – josé ortega y gasset, the modern theme, trans. james cleugh, new york: harper & row , . – artundo, ‘chronology’, . – ibid. – coppola, ‘interview’, . for coppola’s and stern’s different photographic modernisms, see brizuela, ‘grete stern, horacio coppola’, – . – phillips, ‘resurrecting vision’, . – coppola, ‘exhibition of photographs by horacio coppola and grete stern’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, (emphasis added). – strand, ‘photography’, . history of photography : (november ) – ‘from the year onwards, i have been expounding, in my university lecture, this doctrine of “perspectivity”, which is briefly and arbitrarily formulated in el espectador, i ( )’. ortega y gasset, the modern theme, . – ibid., and . – joel eisinger, trace and transformation: american criticism of photography in the modernist period, albuquerque: university of new mexico press , and . – franz roh, ‘magic realism: post-expressionism’, trans. wendy b. faris, in magical realism: theory, history, community, ed. lois parkinson zamora and wendy b. faris, durham, nc: duke university press , . – alexander rodchenko, ‘the paths of modern photography’, in photography in the modern era: european documents and critical writings, – , ed. christopher phillips, trans. john e. bowlt, new york: metropolitan museum of art / aperture , . originally published as ‘puti sovremennoi fotografii’, novyi lef, (september ), – . – moholy-nagy, ‘photography’ ( ), in classic essays on photography, ed. trachtenberg, (italics in original). – campo grafico: rivista di estetica e di tecnica grafica, (march ). this was a special issue on the work of coppola and stern. – horacio coppola, ‘on photography’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, trans. edson and montero, . – albert renger-patzsch, ‘goals’, in albert renger-patzsch, ed. ann and jürgen wilde and weski, . – coppola, ‘on photography’, . history of photography : (november ) – ortega y gasset, the modern theme, and . – coppola, ‘on photography’, . – horacio coppola, ‘definition of imagema’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, (original emphasis). – coppola, ‘on photography’, – . – part of the inscription on the façade of the palais de chaillot, paris, composed by paul valéry: ‘regarder / comme jamais encore vues / toutes choses qui sont au monde’. cited in horacio coppola, ‘imagema’, in horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, trans. edson and montero, . – coppola, ‘imagema’, (original emphasis). – roland barthes, camera lucida: reflections on photography, trans. richard howard, new york: farrar, straus and giroux , – and – . – siegfried kracauer, ‘photography’ ( ), in classic essays on photography, ed. trachtenberg, . – renger-patzsch, ‘goals’, . – roh, ‘magic realism’, . – grethe jürgens, ‘rezepte zum ersprießlichen besuch einer kunstausstellung’, der wachsbogen, / (january ), – , cited and translated in guenther, ‘magic realism’, . – coppola, ‘imagema’, (original emphasis). – thomas mann, reden und aufsätze, vol. , frankfurt: s. fischer , , cited in michalski, new objectivity, . history of photography : (november ) – edward weston, ‘seeing photographically’ ( ), in classic essays on photography, ed. trachtenberg, – . – pierre teilhard de chardin, the phenomenon of man, trans bernard wall, new york: harper & row , , cited in coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, (original emphasis). – weston’s turn to straight photography was heralded by his pictures of the armco steel plant in middletown, ohio (see r. h. cravens, edward weston, new york: aperture , ), which ‘were a stunning departure from his previous work: sharp-focused, powerful visions of the armco steel mills’ (cravens, edward weston, ). – eisinger, trace and transformation, . – james r. scobie, buenos aires: plaza to suburb, – , new york: oxford university press , . – josé ramón navarro vera, ‘el buenos aires de borges: paisaje interior versus paisaje construido’, in escrituras de la ciudad, ed. josé carlos rovira, madrid: palas atenea , . – david rock, ‘argentina – ’, in argentina since independence, ed. leslie bethell, cambridge: cambridge university press , . – artundo, ‘chronology’, . – anthony giddens, the consequences of modernity, cambridge: polity press , . these antinomies were first formulated by domingo faustino sarmiento in his famous essay facundo: civilización y barbarie (facundo: between civilisation and barbarism) ( ). sarmiento, who would later serve as president of argentina, read the history of photography : (november ) tension between the ‘american’ and the ‘european’, the ‘rural’ (pampa) and the ‘urban’ (buenos aires), as a struggle between ‘barbarism’ and ‘civilisation’, and spoke of the inherent duality of argentine identity. – ricardo güiraldes, don segundo sombra, buenos aires: editorial proa . born into a family of wealthy landowners, güiraldes himself had spent his childhood between europe and the pampa. – coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, . – ibid. – brizuela, ‘grete stern, horacio coppola’, . – ibid. – alejandro xul solar, ‘pettoruti’, in alejandro xul solar: entrevistas, artículos y textos inéditos, ed. patricia m. artundo, buenos aires: corregidor a, – (original emphasis): ‘nuestra américa […], la gran america iberica’. solar, ‘pettoruti’, in alejandro xul solar: entrevistas, artículos y textos inéditos, ed. artundo, b, : ‘nuestra revolución artística propia’. in the spanish-american context, the term criollo (creole) indicates people of european descent who were born and bred in america. – coppola, ‘autobiographical text’, . – schwartz, ‘let the stars compose syllables: xul and neo-creole’, in xul solar: visiones y revelaciones, ed. patricia m. artundo, buenos aires: pinacoteca , . – eleni kefala, ‘“la gran américa ibérica”: humanismo y utopía en los años veinte. el caso de xul solar’, revista canadiense de estudios hispánicos, : (spring ), – . history of photography : (november ) – unpublished letter received in buenos aires on november . archive of the fundación pan klub-museo xul solar, cited in jorge lópez anaya, ‘xul solar: una utopía espiritualista’, in xul solar: una utopía espiritualista, ed. jorge lópez anaya, buenos aires: fundación pan klub, museo xul solar , : ‘estoy muy satisfecho porque veo cómo yo solo, sin ninguna inspiración de afuera, he trabajado en la tendencia dominante del arte más elevado del porvenir por una parte y por la otra veo cómo podré sobresalir entre estos artistas nuevos fácilmente porque tengo más sentido de la composición y color que la mayoría de ellos’ (originally written in italian and translated into spanish by lópez anaya). for more on xul’s spiritual utopianism in the s, see eleni kefala, ‘xul solar, the reluctant utopian’, bulletin of spanish studies, : (february ), – . – solar, ‘pettoruti’, b, : ‘somos y nos sentimos nuevos, a nuestra meta nueva no conducen caminos viejos y ajenos. […] somos mayores de edad y aún no hemos terminado las guerras pro independencia. acabe ya la tutela moral de europa. […] no tenemos en nuestro corto pasado genios artísticos que nos guíen (ni tiranicen). al mundo cansado, aportar un sentido nuevo’. – see horacio coppola: fotografía, ed. schwartz, and . the three pictures were taken with a view camera cm x cm (priamo, ‘el joven coppola’, ). sadrzaj- - .vp p. ivanišević and m. ivanišević: retinal diseases and painting, coll. antropol. ( ) : – mous works. the problem with sight were becoming stron- ger and caught the left eye. by his forties, degas developed a loss of central vision. the painting became increasing problem and he was forced to paint around his scotoma. degas changed media from oils to pastels, which are loos- er and easier to work with, dry slowly, and require less precision. later he discovered that it was easier for him to paint subjects from photographs. despite this his pic- tures become increasingly coarse and blurred and exibit a clear loss of shape in comparison to his earlier works (figures and ). , at age , he could no loger read. in old age degas also had diffi culty recognising colours. degas’ later work is dominated by red, whereas blue is used rarely. he tend to choose stronger colours because he percieve a colour’s intensity more weakly. from onwards the sight was so bad he turned to sculpture. degas asked many ophthal- mologists for advice among them edmond landolt. he was diagnosed with »chorioretinits«, a term then used com- monly to describe a variety of eye conditions . the early loss of central vision, diffi cult distinction of colours, the disturbance of strong light shows that degas had the hereditary macular degeneration. his sister-in- law and the fi rst cousin, estelle musson de gas at age she lost all useful vision in her left eye and by age she was blind in both eyes. that confi rms the heredity of the illness. (his fi rst cousin, estelle musson de gas, had sim- ilar fi ndings makes a familial form of macular degenera- tion an interesting possibility . many well-known painters had various eye diseases – . some eye disorders infl uenced their work at least at cer- tain periods of their life. the aim of this work is to show what infl uence of the different retinal diseases had on paintings of several fa- mous artists and how they saw and experienced the world around them. the sight is more important for painters than for other people because vision is more important for painting then other senses. contemplations are offered about the effects of retinal diseases in the works of degas, munch, cézanne, o’keeffe, constable and goya. these painters are selected because they are known for having retinal diseases or are suspected to have them. retinal diseases, nevertheless hereditary or aquired, in those painters can affect vision on different ways: deterio- rate visual acuity, cause changes of colour vision, make central scotomas, sometimes opacities in the visual fi eld. edgar degas (paris, – paris, ), french im- pressionist, famous for his portraits and ballerinas had juvenile macular degeneration. when he was years old he was a soldier in french-prussian war and he noticed while shooting that he could not see a rifl e target with his right eye. from onwards when he was in new orleans with his broth- er a strong daily light started to bother him. degas found brigt lights intolerable and was forced to work indoors. the theatre was conductive to his glare problems, and his paintings of the ballet and the opera remain his most fa- coll. antropol. ( ) : – professional paper the infl uence of retinal eye diseases on paintingthe infl uence of retinal eye diseases on painting petar ivaniševićpetar ivanišević and milan ivanišević and milan ivanišević university of split, university hospital center split, split, croatia university of split, university hospital center split, department of ophthalmology, split, croatia a b s t r a c ta b s t r a c t in this work the possible infl uences of some retinal eye problems on paintings of several famous artists are considered. the change of painting styles and artistic expression in different periods and ages in a group of world-wide well-known painters are described and correlated with known or suspected retinal diseases. some of them largely became recognizable because of that. contemplations are offered about the effects of retinal diseases in the works of degas, munch, cézanne, o’keeffe, constable and goya. retinal eye diseases have a signifi cant impact on the work of selected famous painters. key words: retinal diseases, painting introductionintroduction received for publication may , p. ivanišević and m. ivanišević: retinal diseases and painting, coll. antropol. ( ) : – it is possible that some of degas’ greatness as an artist is attributable to his visual loss. the infl uence of his eye disease on his paintings renoir described best: »had he died at , he would have been remembered as a good, competent artist, nothing more«. edvard munch (løten, – ekely, ), norwegian expressionist. his most famous image was the scream from . in short period of life he suffered of conse- quence of central retinal vein occlusion and vitreous haem- orrhage. edvard munch developed a »haemorrhage« in the vitre- ous of his better right eye at the age of sixty-seven, in . the resulting opacity that cast its shadow on the retina was the more intrusive because of his other eye was already poor-sighted; and the shape of the bird with a long beak began to insinuate itself into his paintings as the dominant subject of the world he depicted (figure ) . paul cézanne (aix-en-provence, – aixeu-en- provence, ), french post-impressionist painter. he was an important bridge between impressionism and a new line of artistic enquiry, cubism. he got diabetic reti- nopathy which causes blue-green colour blindness and his later paintings became more subdued. his »sick retinas« and the visual deterioration in the latest part of his life also explaine a change from realistic to abstract paintings. without them we might never have had cubism, abstrac- tion and beyond. a large number of the impressionist painters were »nearsighted« like cézanne. he refused to correct with the use of glasses, which he deemed »vulgar things«. in , at age , cézanne was diagnosed diabetes. a triggering factor of cézanne’s diabetes was emerald green poisoning caused by his painting »à la couillarde«, that is, crude painting (with his fi ngers). diabetes induced concurrent retinopathy (figures and ). after a chill sustained while doing an open-air paint- ing of the sainte victorie mountain, cézanne slipped into a diabetic coma and died six days later of pneumonia . georgia o’keeffe (sun prairie, – santa fe, ), was an american artist. she is the best known for her impressive paintings of fl owers and vistas and subjects of the american southwest. with advancing age came severe loss of vision due to age related macular degeneration and central retinal vein occlusion. fig. . early work of a dancing ballerina, . fig. . later work of a bellerinas, circa . fig. . t image of his intraocular debris appeared as a cir- cular haze with a dense branched fi gure at its upper edge resmbling him of a bird, . fig. . sainte victorie mounatain painted from – . p. ivanišević and m. ivanišević: retinal diseases and painting, coll. antropol. ( ) : – o’keeffe fi rst noticed the symptoms of macular degen- eration in . she was that year. she had a severe exudative senile macular degeneration. she came under the care of laser photocoagulation. the left eye had the typical haemorrhagic vascular changes of a vein occlusion that had occured in . her vision was less than / in both eyes and not improvable with glasses. the black rock series occupied o’keeffe between and , a time when her vision was failing to critical levels with central black scotomas which refl ect on her paintings (fig- ure ). she turned to sculpture as a more tactile artistic medium when she found it diffi cult to paint in oils, due to her poor eyesight. she had a family history of this disease, which depends in part on hereditary predisposition. her maternal grandfather suffered from it . john constable (east bergholt, – london, ) was an english landscape painter. his most famous paintings are dedham vale, and the hay wain, . he has been considered colour defi - cient. constable was probably partially red-green colour blind because of his emphasis on greenish and yelow tones and his spare use of reds. his paintings often look autum- nal (figure ). swiss-english painter henry fuseli once wrote to his colleague sir david wilkie, »i like the land- scape of constable, but he always makes me call for my greatcoat and umbrella« – . francisco goya (fuendetodos, – bordeaux, ), spanish painter. one of his most famous work is the nude maja. the nature of his illness probably was autoimune disorder vogt-koyanagi-harada syndrome. fig. . sainte victorie mounatain painted from – after the deterioration in his blue-green vision as a consequence of his diabetic retinopathy. fig. . hampstead heath, . constable has been considered colour defi cient because of a preponderance of suspicious colour, such a murkly green. fig. . prateria di san isidro, produced in is festive, full of the joy of life. fig. . black rock with blue sky and white clouds, . fig. . san isidro pilgrimage in – is horrendous: the crowd, which is in procession, is made up of men and women singing salms with their mouth wide open, their eyes looking up- wards, their faces that look like masks. p. ivanišević and m. ivanišević: retinal diseases and painting, coll. antropol. ( ) : – conclusionconclusion the ocular problems may give another dimension of the painter’s work and have importance in determing the art- ist’s style. in particular period of life of some painters, retinal diseases had very big infl uence on their type of painting and artistic work. maybe the works of certain well-known painters with retinal diseases might be con- sidered to be a link to the abstract art. r e f e r e n c e sr e f e r e n c e s . tennebaum s, j am optom assoc, ( ) . — . ravin jg, jama, ( ) . doi: . /jama. . . — . livingstone m, vision and art: the biology of seeing (abrams, new york, ). — . ravin jg, kenyon ch, the blindness of edgar degas. in: marmor mf (ed): the eye of the artist (mosby-year book, st. louis, ). — . karcioglu za, ophthalmic genet, ( ) . doi: . / . — . malpas j, trans med soc lond, ( – ) . — . marmor mf, surv ophthalmol, ( ) . doi: . /s - ( ) - . — . marmor mf, ravin jg. the artist’s eye vision and the history of art (abrams, new york, ). — . ravin jg. the blurred world of georgia o’keeffe. in: marmor mf (ed): the eye of the artist (mosby-year book, st. louis, ). — . lanthony p, j fr ophtalmol, ( ) . — . trev- or-roper p. the world through blunted sight (penguin books, london, ). — . marmor mf, lanthony p, surv ophthalmo, ( ) . doi: . /s - ( ) - . — . felisati d, sper- ati g, acta otorhinolaryngol ital, ( ) . — . vargas lm, j fla med assoc, ( ) . p. ivanišević university of split, university hospital center split, spinčićeva , split, croatia e-mail: mcpero@xnet.hr utjecaj retinalnih oČnih bolesti na slikarstvoutjecaj retinalnih oČnih bolesti na slikarstvo s a Ž e t a ks a Ž e t a k u ovom radu razmatra se mogućnost utjecaja retinalnih očnih bolesti na slikarstvo u nekoliko svjetski poznatih umjetnika. opisan je odnos između promjena u stilu slikanja i umjetničkog izričaja u različitim razdobljima i dobi života kod svjetski poznatih slikara za koje se znalo ili sumnjalo da imaju retinalne bolesti. neki od njih postali su po tome prepoznatljivi. iznesena su razmišljanja o djelovanju retinalnih bolesti na radove degasa, muncha, cézannea, o’keeffe, constablea i goyae. retinalne očne bolesti imaju značajan utjecaj na rad navedenih čuvenih slikara. his latest works are considered to be forerunner of the impressionism. at the age of he probably got vogt-koy- anagi-harada syndrome or uveomenigoencephalyc syn- drome. a disease affected his vision, hearing and balance. the whole good mood and colours vanished completely from his paintings and his painted characters became sad, unhappy and often frightening and horrible . the period of goya’s artistic output known as the »black paintings« have been created during the time he had the disease (fig- ures and ) . history of medicine josé maría ariso, phd cajal’s hypothetical mapping of the neurological forest through histology drawings at the end of the th century, the scientific community accepted gerlach’s reticular theory according to which central nerve endings did not end freely, but continued with protoplasmic processes.[ ] nevertheless, it was santiago ramón y cajal (figure ) who provided more data to prove that the neuron constitutes the anatomical, physiological, genetic and metabolic unit of the nervous system.[ ] professor, department of education international university of la rioja, madrid corresponding author: dr. josé maria ariso almansa madrid , spain email address: josemaria.ariso at unir dot net cite this article as: ariso jm. cajal's hypothetical mapping of the neurological forest through histology drawings. rhime. ; : - . received: -may- accepted: -jul- published online: -jul- www.rhime.in abstract one of the most significant steps taken to further the intimacy between medicine and art was taken by santiago ramón y cajal, who was subsequently regarded as the father of modern neuroscience. in the late th century, cajal started to draw neural tissues, and neurons in detail. as paradoxical as it may seem, the aesthetic quality of his drawings was so substantial that, in principle, they were not taken seriously by most of cajal’s professional colleagues. however, they were eventually proven wrong, and today cajal’s sketches are known for their brilliant clarity and accuracy. indeed, in this article i provide a brief account of the scientific, aesthetic and even ethical relevance of cajal’s work, which ended up holding pride of place in the history of medicine. keywords: anatomy, art, history of medicine, neurosciences, observation, santiago ramón y cajal figure : cajal in © heirs of santiago ramón y cajal. retrieved from http://instituciones.sld.cu/csrc/galeria-de- imagenes-de-cajal/ besides showing that neurons have free terminations, he revealed that electric currents travel from the dendrites to the axon, thereby paving the way for the subsequent discovery of the synapse.[ ] to make these discoveries, for which he was subsequently awarded the nobel prize (in ), he had to sketch what he saw under the microscope, as photography was then in its infancy, and was certainly not equipped to capture the finer details of a microscopic image. cajal’s aim was also didactic, for he wished to inform medical students in the art of becoming skilled researchers. thus, with regard to their initial phase as ‘observers’, he did not recommend the more conventional detached attitude, but rather suggested that the researcher always look at preparations as if for the first time. in fact, he pointed out that the things we observe will only surrender their secrets to us if we infuse them with “the intensity of our emotions”, as “enthusiasm heightens and refines our perception” (cajal , p. ).[ ] his goal was not as simple as copying images seen through the microscope, for he tried to interpret them in order to find out the structures and mechanisms underlying what he had observed. cajal therefore devoted himself not only to draw neurons and their ramifications (figure ), but also to reproduce the evolution of a given kind of neuron (figure ), compare human neurons with the ones of diverse animals (figure ) and indicate through arrows the direction of nervous conduction (figure ). as regards the development of hypotheses, cajal ( ) admitted the desirability of improving causal thinking, although he also provided some guiding principles: nature uses the same means for equivalent ends; problems must be viewed in their simplest forms; and all natural arrangements, however capricious they may seem, have a function. lastly, cajal also seemed to believe that pride and excessive self-esteem should not prevent us from rejecting our ideas and hypotheses when data do not support them, as a result of which, cajal disposed off many of his sketches. furthermore, as stated above, the beauty of cajal’s drawings led many scientists to reject them, as they seemed more likely to be artistic interpretations, rather than exact copies of preparations. sampedro ( ) considered cajal’s drawings as a sample of “scientific expressionism”, even though cajal later inveighed against surrealism, cubism and expressionism because he claimed that a respectful reproduction of nature, without deformations, was sufficient to communicate ideas and feelings.[ ] www.rhime.in figure : a purkinje neuron and its ramifications © heirs of santiago ramón y cajal. retrieved from https://es.pinterest.com/pin/ / figure : evolution of a purkinje cell © heirs of santiago ramón y cajal. retrieved from http://cvc.cervantes.es/ciencia/cajal/cajal_ recuerdos/recuerdos/laminas.htm in conclusion, we can see that cajal’s work had not only a remarkable aesthetic character, but also an ethical one. cajal believed that, there is no trick to avoiding the victory of truth. therefore, he viewed scientific research as the conquest of truth and, by extension, the conquest of oneself. www.rhime.in . gerlach j. von dem rückenmark. in: stricker s, editor. handbuch der lehre von den geweben des menschen und der thiere. leipzig: engelmann; . p. - . . de felipe j. santiago ramón y cajal. in: wilson ra and keil fc, editors. the mit encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences. cambridge: the mit press; . p. - . . lópez-muñoz f, boya j, alamo c. neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the nobel prize award to santiago ramón y cajal. brain res bull. ; : - . . cajal sr. advice for a young investigator. cambridge: the mit press; . . sampedro j. el arte de cajal para explicar la ciencia. el país [internet]. mar [cited may ] available from http://elpais.com/elpais/ / / /ciencia/ _ .htm l?rel=mas references figure : schemes showing the phylogenetic and ontogenetic evolution of a pyramidal neuron. evolution in (a) an amphibian, (b) a reptile, (c) a rabbit, and (d) a human being. (a), (b), (c) and (d) illustrate the evolutionary phases of a neuron in mammal embryos © heirs of santiago ramón y cajal. retrieved from http://cvc.cervantes.es/ciencia/cajal/cajal_recuer dos/recuerdos/laminas.htm figure : scheme showing connections among neurons of birds retina and the direction of nervous conduction © heirs of santiago ramón y cajal. retrieved from http://cvc.cervantes.es/ciencia/cajal/c ajal_recuerdos/recuerdos/laminas.htm [pdf] book reviews | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /jocn. . corpus id: book reviews @article{macphee bookr, title={book reviews}, author={j. macphee and erik reuland}, journal={the london medical and physical journal}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	j. macphee, erik reuland 	published 	the london medical and physical journal in examining women’s history, the traditional structure has been along the stages of their life cycles. in studies on the history of women’s lives in the early modern period, the phases of spinsterhood, married life, and widowhood frequently form the organizing principle. however, in her study, monica chojnacka breaks with this tradition and explicitly opts for an alternative structure. she focuses instead on the series of expanding social communities in which women moved: the household, the… expand view on elsevier cambridge.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper references showing - of references our daily bread: socialist distribution and the art of survival in stalin's russia, - 	e. a. osokina, kate transchel, g. bucher 	sociology, political science 	 	 save alert research feed katholische kirche in der sbz/ddr – . die formierung einer subgesellschaft im entstehenden sozialistischen staat. [veröffentlichungen der kommission für zeitgeschichte 	reihe b: forschungen, band .] ferdinand schöningh, paderborn [etc.] 	 studies in labour history.] ashgate 	farmworkers and local patriotism, 	 related papers 	abstract 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue =( - )임진호.hwp http://dx.doi.org/ . /jkca. . . . 파티클 시스템을 활용한 실시간 멀티미디어 시계 :구상적 이미지를 통한 시간의 형상화 real-time multimedia clock using particle system 임진호 학교 커뮤니 이션디자인학 공 jin-ho im(imjinho@dju.kr) 요약 새롭게 등장한 미디어아트는 디지털미디어 시 에 맞추어 새롭고 다양한 표 방법으로 발 하고 있다. 통 술과 다르게 객이 극 주체가 되어 작품에 참여하고 상호작용하게 되면서 객과의 소통이 크게 요해졌다. 이러한 디지털 술작품들이 이제는 단순히 갤러리에서만 구 되는 것이 아니라 일상생 활에서 손쉽게 하는 장소 물품에서도 그 모습을 볼 수가 있다. 이러한 작품들은 더욱 상호작용을 함으로써 미디어아트의 근을 쉽게 만들고 있다. 이에 본 논문을 통해 티클 시스템을 이용한 실시간 멀티미디어 시계 작품을 구성하는 연구를 하 다. 시간은 오랜 기간 동안 통 술 역에서 요 한 테마로 활용되어왔으며 다양하게 표 되고 있다. 시간의 연속성과 그에 따른 존재의 가치를 테크놀로 지 기술을 바탕으로 표 하기 하여 시계라는 매체를 활용하고 사용성과 객의 상호작용에 의한 감성 만족을 함께 제공할 수 있는 작품을 제안한다. ■ 중심어 :∣멀티미디어 시계∣파티클 시스템∣미디어아트∣시간∣ abstract the newly developed field of media art is quickly making progress to include various and up-to-date forms of expression. unlike in traditional art, the communication between the art and the viewer has become vastly important, in which the viewer is an active agent who participates and interacts with the artwork. these digital artworks can now be readily observed in everyday places and things, rather than being confined solely in the gallery space. by encouraging open interaction with the public, media art has become more accessible. accordingly, this thesis examines the construction of a real-time multimedia clock piece using particle systems. time has always been a significant theme in the realm of traditional art, which continues to be explored extensively in various forms of expression. in an attempt to express the continuity of time and the state of being value of existence based on technological skills, the thesis presents an artwork that uses the popular medium of a clock while also providing both usability and emotional satisfaction for the viewer’s sensibility through interaction. ■ keyword :∣multimedia clock∣particle system∣media arts∣time∣ * 본 연구는 학년도 학교 신진교수연구비 지원에 의하여 수행된 것입니다. 수번호 : # - 수일자 : 년 월 일 심사완료일 : 년 월 일 교신 자 : 임진호, e-mail : imjinho@dju.kr 파티클 시스템을 활용한 실시간 멀티미디어 시계 : 구상적 이미지를 통한 시간의 형상화 i. 서 론 재 디지털미디어 아트는 테크놀로지 시 에 맞추 어 새롭고 다양한 표 방법으로 사용되고 있고, 술가 가 미디어와 테크놀로지를 이용하여 술 작품의 범 는 차 확 되고 있다. 많은 작가들은 테크놀로지 기 술을 바탕으로 작가와 람객 그리고 작품이 상호소통 하는 새로운 술 작품을 제작하여 이 에는 없었던 경 험을 가능하게 하 다[ ]. 디지털 술작품들이 이제는 단순히 미술 이나 갤러리에서만 구 되는 것이 아니 라 외부의 공공 인 장소에서도 그 모습을 볼 수가 있 다. 이러한 작품들은 더 으로 상호작용을 함으로 써 테크놀로지 인 술작품의 근을 쉽게 만 들게 되어 인터 티 미디어에 한 의 심을 높 여주고 있다[ ]. 디지털 미디어로 표 되는 미디어아트 작품들이 단순히 로그래 기술에 의해서만 표 되 거나 최신 기술의 구 에만 집 하지 않고, 술로서의 경험을 한 많은 고민이 있어야 한다는 비 과 논의들 이 이루어지고 있다. 이들은 객들이 미디어 아트 작 품을 통해서 정신 교감을 이끌어 낼 수 있게 된다면, 이성이 아닌 감성의 변화를 느낄 수 있고 객들은 작 품과의 신체 상호작용뿐만 아니라 더 깊은 정신 상 호작용으로 발 할 수 있을 것이라 주장하는 것이다[ ]. 본 논문에서는 시간의 연속성과 그에 따른 존재의 가 치를 테크놀로지 기술을 바탕으로 표 하기 해 시계 로서의 기능을 한 사용성과 객의 상호작용에 의한 감성 만족을 함께 제공할 수 있는 작품을 연구한다. 시계는 으로 보 되면서 인간의 일상생활에 하게 사용되고 있으며 다양한 형태로 존재한다. 하지 만 이러한 시계들은 의 자연과학과 물리학에서 요 청되는 시간의 단 인 시, 분, 등을 사람들에게 달 되는 요소로 사용될 뿐 시간은 무형의 상태를 의미하며 존의 끊임없는 흐름인 시간의 존재를 직 으로 인 식 시킬 수 있는 시도는 부족하다. 이를 해 첫 번째로 는 시간의 존재에 한 다양한 이론들을 살펴보고 이를 바탕으로 시계의 기능 구 을 해 구상 이미지를 통 한 시간의 형상화를 한다. 둘째로는 웹캠, 거리센서와 로그래 등의 테크놀로지를 통해 객의 참여를 이 끌어낼 수 있는 가능성을 고찰해 보았다. 마지막으로 본 연구를 바탕으로 하여 티클 시스템을 활용한 실시 간 멀티미디어 시계를 제작해 보았고, 작품의 의미와 제작 방법 등을 기술하 다. ii. 시간의 개념 시간의 창기 개념은 자연환경에 의해 경험된 사물 과 상태에 한 인식 변화 다. 하지만 인간은 근 산 업문명을 통해 새로운 시간 개념을 만들어 냈고 그 시 간 개념을 담은 시계가 으로 보 되면서 인간의 일상을 좌우하게 되었다. 시간을 운동과 련시켜서 분 석하고 시간을 운동의 수로 정의하는 ‘물리 시간’의 개념은 의 자연과학과 물리학에서 요청되는 시간 의 의미가 되었다. 하지만 디지털미디어 시 의 등장에 따라 사이버 세계의 개념이 등장하 고 공간은 더 이상 물리 으로 이동되는 거리가 아니며, 시간 역시 언제든 지 조정 가능하며 불연속 인 개념으로 자리하고 있다. 하지만 실 으로 우리는 과거의 철학 과학 종교 연구가 용된 사이버세상이 아닌 실제 사회에서 아 직 살아가고 있으며 과거의 시간과 존재의 념은 디지털 시 에서 역시 새로운 상상력을 한 정신 기 술 근본으로서 공존하고 있다. 시간의 은 시 를 거치며 다양한 개념으로 연구되어 왔으며 크게 ‘인과 시간’, ‘상 시간’, ‘순환 시간’ 그리고 ‘불확정 시간’ 으로 정리할 수 있고 많은 술작업들이 시 의 시간의 에 커다란 향을 받아왔다. . 인과론적 시간 인과론 인 시간의 은 뉴튼(isaac newton)의 “자연철학의 수학 원리”에서 잘 설명되었는데 그는 시간과 공간은 각각 인 것으로, 공간, 시간의 개 념 그리고 운동의 법칙을 설명하고 수학 물리학의 방 법을 논했다. 재의 순간을 기 으로 한 후 사이의 연속 인 시간의 흐름은 생성과 소멸사이의 간격이며 공간의 변화를 의미한다. 운동은 시간의 변이를 나타내 며 시간은 운동의 존재 근거이다. 술 활동에서 시간 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. 의 연속 인 흔 을 한 공간에 표 하는 기법은 미래 (futurism)에서 나타났는데 미래 는 산업화되어가는 사회의 일반 상을 시각 으로 표 하고자 하 다. [그림 ]의 마르셀 뒤샹(marcel duchamp)의 작업에서 보여주듯이 미래주의 화가들은 운동감, 속도를 표 하 기 해 시간의 개념을 도입하 으며 정지되어 있는 단 일화면에 다양한 동 인 움직임과 속도를 함께 표 하 다[ ]. 그림 . 마르셀 뒤샹, 계단을 내려가는 나부, . 상대적 시간 우리는 시간이 동일하게 흐르는 듯이 보이지만 결코 같은 시간 로 흐르지 않는 경우를 체험하고는 한다. 장소와 상황이 같더라도 사람들은 각자 자신의 느낌에 따라 시간의 흐름을 다르게 인식한다. 아인슈타인(albert einstein)이 규정한 상 성 이론 은 시간의 속도가 일정하다는 고 물리학의 시간 을 부정하고 변화 가능한 시간 을 만들어냈다. 그것은 찰자와 찰 계의 변화인 것이며 주 인 마음속의 시간이다. 술 활동에서도 상 시간의 은 [그 림 ]의 피카소(pablo ruiz picasso) 작품을 주축으로 한 큐비즘(cubism)에서 잘 나타난다. 공간속에서 한 상이 과 시 을 이동하면 새로운 상으로 인식된 다는 세잔(paul cezanne)의 다 시 에서 시작된 큐비 즘은 다시 과 다시간성을 주축으로 조형개념이 형성 되었다. 다시 은 다시간성과 히 연계되어있다. 이 는 일 되게 연속되는 찰의 결과가 아니라 단속 이 고 불연속 인 찰의 결과물에 의한 표 이다. 그림 . 피카소, 아비뇽의 처녀들, . 순환적 시간 모든 존재는 돌고 돌며 그 모든 상황도 돌고 돈다는 순환 시간 은 농경시 에 계 이 반복되는 것을 사 람들이 느끼며 형성된 시간에 한 이다. 순환 시간 은 과거 재 미래가 부분 으로 교차한다는 측 면에서, 시작도 끝도 없다는 연속 순환 고리를 의미 한다. 존재의 근원을 바탕으로 어느 것도 없어지거나 새롭게 나타나지 않는다는 에서 존재의 시간의 유한 성과 시간의 무한성을 동시에 드러낸다. 이러한 순환 시간의 은 동양의 철학에 향을 받은 많은 술 작가들의 내면의 표 수단으로서 활용되어왔다. 한 디지털 미디어의 발 과 동양철학에 한 심은 ‘끊임 없는 변화’와 ‘모든 것과의 계‘ 그리고 ’ 원성‘이라는 세 가지 개념을 바탕으로 정신문화와 물질문화를 면 시키고자 많은 술가들에 의해 표 이 시도 되었다 [ ]. 그림 . 백남준, tv부처, . 불확정 시간 과학문명의 부분은 인과 방정식을 이용하 여 자연 상을 설명하 고 이 방법에 의존하여 발 했 다. 그러나 허리 인, 태풍, 염병 출 등과 같은 상 파티클 시스템을 활용한 실시간 멀티미디어 시계 : 구상적 이미지를 통한 시간의 형상화 할 수 없는 자연변이 상들은 매우 복잡하고 불규칙 인 운동을 하기 때문에 인과 인 방정식을 통해서는 설명할 수 없다. 하이젠베르크(werner heisenberg, physicist, ~ )가 주장하는 ‘불확정성(不確定性) 의 원리’에 따르면, 원자의 세계에서는 미시 상의 치와 운동량을 동시에 측정할 수 없다. 어떤 한 변수 를 정확하게 측정하면 할수록 다른 것은 그만큼 부정확 해진다. 따라서 어떤 시간의 어느 한 분자의 치와 운 동량을 동시에 정확하게 견 할 수 없기 때문에, 즉 재를 악하지 못함으로 미래도 견할 수 없다는 것이 다. 이러한 측을 할 수 없는 불규칙한 혼란한 상을 혼동(chaos) 상 이라 부른다[ ]. 디지털 미디어의 발 은 작가의 미 경험과 상상 속 에서만 국한 되었던 많은 표 을 가능 하는 수단으로 사용되고 있으며 불확정시간의 표 역시 간 으로 가능하여 졌다. ‘없음’에 련하여 백남 (namjune paik, video artist, ~ )은 상되지 않는 필름을 tv에 사하 다. 투명한 필름에 빛만이 지나가므로 아무것도 스크린에는 사되지 않았다. 그러나 자꾸 사하면서 스크래치와 먼지 등이 간섭 상을 일으키면 서 우연 인 모습을 보여주었다. 단지 여기에는 사 그 자체, 시간의 흐름만이 있을 뿐이다. iii. 시간의 표현을 위한 파티클 시스템 시간의 존재를 새로운 시각으로 사람들에게 표 하 기 하여 기존의 시계에 존재하는 바늘과 숫자의 역할 을 신할 새로운 조형 요소가 필요하다. 티클 시 스템은 연기의 흐름이나 움직이는 액체, 떨어지는 꽃잎 등 실세계에 존재하는 복잡한 상을 시뮬 이션 하 는 그래픽기법이다[ ]. 티클 시스템의 활용을 해 가 장 기 인 조형요소인 (dot)을 채택하여 활용한 다. 티클 시스템에서 각 티클들은 색상과 속도, 치와 방향 등의 속성을 개별 으로 지닌다. 한 티 클들은 서로 향을 주며 네트워크를 형성하여 유기 으로 움직인다[ ]. . 파티클 시스템을 위한 점(dot)의 활용 수학의 상태에서 이란 사고의 한 단 인 것이다. 유클리드 기하학은 추상 사고의 모습으로 을 규정 하고 있다. 즉 수학 상상력을 펼치기 한 한 역을 제공하는 단 이다. 따라서 이상도 이하의 의미도 가지고 있지 않다. 하지만 불교에서는 상유의 상이고, 심의 출발이며, 심의 증폭 상이며, 심의 월물 이다. 여기서 은 이 아닌 소거의 상태, 무한한 상태 를 지향하기 한 출발 이며 도착 인 것이다[ ]. 시간 을 시각화하기 하여 사용될 은 구성단 의 기본으 로서 그것의 결집과 해산은 다양한 면모를 띠고 시각화 된다. 은 축소, 생략, 간략, 상징, 암시의 의미를 함유 하고 있다. 한 은 치와 크기변화, 컬러, 공간의 변 화, 결합 등 주변요소들과 계성을 지니며 다양한 의 미를 표 할 것이다[ ]. . 점을 활용한 다양한 시간의 관점 반영 우리는 과거의 철학 , 과학 , 그리고 종교 연구가 용된 사회에서 아직 살아가고 있으며 과거의 시간과 존재의 념은 디지털 시 에서 새로운 상상력을 한 정신 기술 근본으로서 공존하고 있다. 따라서 새로운 방식의 멀티미디어 시계를 구성함에 있어서 앞 에서 제기되었던 시 에 시간의 들(‘인과 시간’, ‘상 시간’, ‘순환 시간’ 그리고 ‘불확정 시간’)이 간 그리고 추상 인 시각 방법을 통하여 반 된다면 보다 의미가 있다고 생각한다. . 점을 활용한 인과적 시간의 시각화 의 움직임을 통한 구상 이미지의 연속 인 변화 는 생성과 소멸사이의 간격을 나타내며 공간을 의미한 다. 운동감 속도감을 표 한 의 시각 활용은 인과 시간의 의미를 조형 으로 표 할 수 있다. 그림 . 인과적 시간의 시각화 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. . 점을 활용한 상대적 시간의 시각화 다수의 들이 다층 으로 배치하면서 나타나는 첩(overlapping)은 한 단 가 부분 으로 그것의 에 있는 다른 단 와 연결되고 투 됨을 통해 구상 이미 지를 통한 상 시간의 의미를 조형 으로 표 할 수 있다[ ]. 그림 . 상대적 시간의 시각화 . 점을 활용한 순환적 시간의 시각화 의 무한 반복 패턴을 가진 움직임을 통해 구 되 는 구상 이미지의 변화는 순환 시간의 의미를 조형 으로 표 할 수 있다. 그림 . 순환적 시간의 시각화 . 점을 활용한 불확정 시간의 시각화 의 치와 컬러 그리고 크기 등의 수치를 의도 으 로 고정하지 않고 컴퓨터 로그래 을 통해 불규칙하 게 반 하면 불확정 인 구상 이미지가 생성된다. 이 를 통해 불확정 시간의 의미를 조형 으로 표 할 수 있다. 그림 . 불확정 시간의 시각화 iv. 구현 본 논문에서 제안하는 멀티미디어 시계를 구 하기 한 제작과정은 다음과 같다. 각 단계별 구 내용과 결과를 살펴보도록 한다. . 디지털미디어의 활용 및 구조 설계 표 . 제작 순서도 구상적 이미지를 통한 시계 기능 구현 구상적 이미지를 통한 사용자 이미지 표현 사용자 감지를 통한 장면 전환 스위치 구현 파티클 시스템을 이용한 멀티미디어 시계 완성 . 구상적 이미지를 통한 시계 기능 구현 시계의 기능 구 을 해 액션 스크립트(action script . )를 로그래 언어로 활용한다. 컴퓨터에서 제공되는 시, 분, 에 한 실시간 정보를 바탕으로 수 많은 들을 화면상에 배열, 변화시켜 시간을 표 한다. 화면상에 치한 수많은 들은 실시간 정보에 의하여 유기 결집과 해산을 통해 다양한 면모를 띠고 시각화 된다. 이 게 을 활용한 여백, 공간의 변화와 결합 등 은 [표 ]에서 정리된 것처럼 시계의 기본 구성요소인 시, 분 그리고 의 표 을 가능하게 하 다. 의 구성 요소들을 [그림 ]과 같이 첩하면 시계의 기능을 구 할 수 있으며 기존의 시계의 모습에서 벗어나 새로운 조형성을 지닌 구상 이미지를 통한 시계의 형상화가 가능하다. 표 . 점을 활용한 시계의 구성단위 개별 표현 시계의 구성요소 을 활용한 시간의 표 시 점의 개수 분 점의 길이 초 점의 크기 파티클 시스템을 활용한 실시간 멀티미디어 시계 : 구상적 이미지를 통한 시간의 형상화 그림 . 점을 활용한 시계의 구성단위 중첩 표현 표 . 점을 활용한 시계의 상황별 예시 시간 을 활용한 시계의 상황별 시 시 분 초 시 분 초 시 분 초 . 구상적 이미지를 통한 사용자 이미지 표현 웹캠을 통하여 추출된 사용자의 상을 액션 스크립 트를 통해 비트맵으로 환하고 음 을 최 화 시켜 흑 백 톤 이미지를 생성한다. 이때 생성된 하얀색 역은 랜덤하게 그려지는 다양한 색깔의 티클 들을 통해 묘법 방식으로 재구성되어 표 되며 시계를 표 하 는 들과 시각 일 성을 유지한다. 표 . 영상처리 기능 구현 상처리 상처리 결과 영상 이미지 흑백톤 전환 파티클 활용 . 사용자 감지에 따른 장면 전환 스위치 구현 사용자가 시계의 면에 치하고 있는 것을 감지하 기 하여 거리센서와 make controller kit을 활용한다 [ ]. 거리센서에서 입력된 값은 실시간으로 컴퓨터에 보내지며 장면 환 스 치 구 을 해 액션 스크립트 에 반 한다. 그림 . 장면전환 스위치 구현 거리센서에서 특정 값 이상이 감지되는 경우 장면 환 스 치 기능을 통해 객 감지에 따른 화면 환 시 스템이 된다. [그림 ]과 같이 사용자가 시계에 가까이 다가갈 경우 실시간 정보를 바탕으로 시계를 표 하고 있는 티클 들은 유기 결집과 해산을 통해 사용자 상 이미지를 표 하고 반 로 사용자가 시계에서 멀 어질 경우 시계를 표 으로 돌아가기 해 다시 유기 결집과 해산을 반복한다. 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. 그림 . 관객 감지에 따른 화면전환 시스템 연동 . 파티클 시스템을 이용한 멀티미디어 시계 완성 본 작품의 결과물로 앞서서 진행된 과정을 종합하여 사용자와 상호작용하고 실시간으로 시계의 기능과 사 용자 상 이미지를 동시에 표 할 수 있는 티클 시스 템을 이용한 멀티미디어 시계가 구 가능하다. v. 결과 본 작품의 설치구성은 [그림 ]과 같다. 먼 시계의 기능표 을 해 컴퓨터에서 제공되는 시, 분 그리고 의 값은 액션 스크립트를 통해 티클 시스템을 기반 으로 표 된다. 스크린 하단에 부착된 거리감지 센서는 실시간으로 사용자와의 거리 값을 컴퓨터에 보내고 액 션 스크립트를 통해 특정거리 값 이상이 측정되면 스 치 기능을 이용해 사용자 상표 에 필요한 로세싱 으로 환한다. 이를 해 웹캠을 통해 입력된 객의 상정보는 티클 시스템을 통해 객 상이미지를 재구성하여 표 하게 되고 이를 로젝터를 통해 스크 린에 투사하여 객에게 시각 피드백을 제공하며, 객의 지속 참여를 유발한다. 만약 객이 작품으로부 터 멀어지면 거리감지 센서를 통해 특정거리 값 이하가 측정되고 이와 같은 결과로 인하여 스 치 기능이 동작 하며 기존의 티클 시스템 기반의 시계의 이미지로 환하여 로젝터를 통해 스크린에 투사한다. 의 과 정은 사용자와 작품의 상호작용을 통하여 지속 으로 반복되며 실시간 멀티미디어 시계를 구 하기 한 구 조 설계로서 활용되었다. 본 작품은 [그림 ]과 같이 작품에 한 객 참여를 진행하 으며 성공 으로 구 되었다. 그림 . 작품의 설치 구성 그림 . 작품에 대한 관객 참여 파티클 시스템을 활용한 실시간 멀티미디어 시계 : 구상적 이미지를 통한 시간의 형상화 v. 결론 디지털 기술과 디지털을 응용한 각종 매체들의 속 도로 사이에 보 됨에 따라 술로서 디지털 의 사 용은 공학과 술의 융합을 기반으로 객의 참여를 유 발하며 보다 흥미롭고 발 이고 무한한 표 의 가능 성을 갖추는 새로운 형식으로 발 되어 가고 있다. 본 논문을 통해 제작된 티클 시스템을 이용한 멀티미디 어 시계는 단순 시계의 기능 구 에서 나아가 과거로부 터 재까지의 다양한 시간의 존재 을 디지털 시 의 기술을 바탕으로 새롭게 재해석하고 시각화하 는데 의미가 있다. 구상 이미지를 통한 시간의 형상 화를 해 티클 시스템을 채용하 다. 화면상에 실시 간으로 유기 결집과 해산을 하는 티클들은 시계의 기능은 물론 사용자의 상으로 재구성되어 시간의 에 지흐름 속에서 사용자 자신의 존재를 느낄 수 있도록 표 된다. 향후 실시간 멀티미디어 시계의 구 에 따른 보다 발 된 시간의 형상화 작업을 해 객의 지속 인 참여 와 상호 작용을 효과 으로 유지할 수 있는 방안을 연 구하고 그에 따른 다양한 피드백과 데이터 값을 바탕으 로 한 새로운 시각 근법 연구가 진행되어야 할 것이다. 참 고 문 헌 [ ] 이종석, 황선정, 진성모, “아두이노를 이용한 interactive tapestry 개발 연구”, 한국기 조 형학회, 제 권, 제 호, pp. - , . [ ] 서정자, “디지털 시 의 테크놀로지 술 확장에 한 연구”, 한국기 조형학회, 제 권, 제 호, pp. - , . [ ] 이의 , 이 진, “미디어아트에서 아날로그 감 성에 한 연구”, 한국기 조형학회, 제 권, 제 호, pp. - , . [ ] 유 정, “매체의 발달과 시간에 한 연구”, 한국 기 조형학회, 제 권, 제 호, pp. - , . [ ] 이 우, 비디오아트, 문 마당, . [ ] 서경자, 타이포그래피에 표 된 시간 과 공간간에 한 연구, 홍익 학교 학원 시각디자 인학과, 석사학 논문, . [ ] w. t. teeves, paticle system : a technique for modeling a class of fuzzy objects, acm transactions on graphics, . [ ] 임찬, 윤재선, “움직임 감지 기반의 티클 시스템 을 이용한 디지털 거울”, 한국콘텐츠학회논문지, 제 권, 제 호, pp. - , . [ ] 이 훈, 뉴미디어아트와 시간, 도서출 재원, . [ ] 바실리칸딘스키, 차 희 역, . 선. 면, 열화당, . [ ] 루돌 아른하임, 김춘일 역, 미술과 시지각, 서 울 기린원, . [ ] http://www.makingthings.com 저 자 소 개 임 진 호(jin-ho im) 정회원 ▪ 년 월 : 국민 학교 시각디 자인학과(미술학석사) ▪ 년 월 : 스쿨오 비쥬얼아 트 컴퓨터아트(미술학석사) ▪ 년 월 ～ 재 : 학교 커뮤니 이션디자인학과 교수 < 심분야> : 미디어아트, ux 디자인, hci << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true 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available online at www.sciencedirect.com – © published by elsevier ltd. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – p wces- hindrances to internal creative thinking and thinking styles of malaysian teacher trainees in the specialist teachers’ training institute chua yan piaw university of malaya, institute of principalship studies, level , block c, complex city campus um, jalan tun ismail, kuala lumpur, malaysia abstract the aim of this study is to identify hindrances to internal creative thinking and thinking styles of a group of malaysian teacher trainees from the specialist teachers’ training institute (n = ). three psychological tests were used administrated to the subjects. the result indicates that the ability to think creatively for the majority of subjects ( . %) is hindered seriously by one of the hindrances to internal creative thinking, that is, stimulus fixity. the finding implies that lecturers of this group of teacher trainees should guide them to overcome this internal barrier before trying to encourage them to think creatively. © published by elsevier ltd. keywords: internal creative thinking, thinking style, teacher trainees, stimulus fixity, functional fixity . background human beings react differently to ambiguous situations, situations which cause an individual to experience stress and make him unable to think creatively. several authors and researchers (chua, a, almeida, prieto, ferrando, oliveira, & ferrándiz, ; carson, peterson, & higgins, ; daniels, ; torrance, ; sarnoff & cole, ) are of the opinion that the ability to think freely with an open mind when facing ambiguous situations is an indicator of creative thinking. hindrances to creative thinking can be divided into two types: hindrances to external creative thinking and hindrances to internal creative thinking. according to dacey ( ), two kinds of hindrances to internal creative thinking which prevent people from continuing to think freely and openly when faced with ambiguous situations are stimulus fixity and functional fixity. dacey defined stimulus fixity as a condition of an individual who, when faced with a specific stimulus, can only think about the stimulus such that he is unable to open his mind creatively to think about something else other than the stimulus. it is this hindrance that causes an individual to lose his creative thinking ability when faced with ambiguous situations. in addition, dacey’s study conducted on a group of secondary school students showed that nearly % (n = ) of them possess rigid thinking and are unable to think creatively because of stimulus fixity. he commented that the students’ ability of thinking is limited to the stimuli in front of them until they cannot think creatively about any other thing. torrance, ball & safter ( ) labelled this condition as premature closure, that is, one of the open access under cc by-nc-nd license. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – hindrances where a person cannot open up or free his thinking to think of something else other than the stimulus in front of him. functional fixity on the other hand is defined as the condition where a person is unable to open his mind to think beyond the function of a specific object. according to dacey, life is a process of growing functional fixity – the more a person learns about how things work, the more he tends to accept the patterns of unalterable. nevertheless, functional fixity interferes with problem solving at all levels of thinking. only imaginative people could resist being functional fixity, and think freely for functions other than usual purposes. dacey ( ) reported that the majority of his research subjects (secondary school students) are less creative because of functional fixity. several authors and researchers (koh, ; norrizan, ) are of the opinion that the teaching methodology and the malaysian school curriculum at this point in time place more emphasis on teaching, learning and evaluation methods which are left-brain oriented and which promote rote learning, convergent thinking and submission to the authority of teachers. according to torrance and sato ( ), the left and right hemispheres of the human brain function together to process information and both are required for creative problem-solving. william ( ) stated that man have two hemispheres in his brain but sometimes the education system operates such that we are made to use only one hemisphere and this indirectly hinders our ability to think creatively. chua ( ) compared creative thinking among students in asia and the united states and reported that the standard mean score for the creative thinking index of a group of malaysian secondary school students is lower than the standard mean score for a similar age group in the united states. however, the factor that accounted for the difference was not identified. in relation to this, this study aims to explore and identify the hindrances to creative thinking and thinking styles of a group of teacher trainees in the teacher training institute in order to provide more information to educators, especially those who are directly involved in creative education. . research objectives the objectives of this study are to identify: ) hindrances to internal creative thinking in teacher trainees from the perspectives of stimulus fixity and functional fixity; and ) thinking styles of a group of teacher trainees. . methods the data of this descriptive survey was collected using three paper-pencil questionnaires. . . research subjects the subjects of this study comprised semester three teacher trainees (average age: . years old) of the specialist teachers’ training institute, kuala lumpur. the subjects enrolled in a bachelor of teaching programme, offered by the ministry of education, malaysia. . . research instruments three instruments were used in this study. the first instrument was the story-writing test (dacey, ). this is a paper-pencil test using a picture of a cat looking at a rectangle. the subjects were asked to write a short story, which is interesting and unusual, a story that no one else would think of. this instrument is used to collect information about a hindrance to internal creative thinking, that is, stimulus fixity. the second instrument used was the two-string test (dacey, ). this instrument is a paper-pencil test showing a picture of a young man. one of his hands is tied with a string to the ceiling of a room (string a) while the other hand is trying to reach for the string which is far from him (dacey, : ). research subjects were asked to help the young man solve his problem using a mouse trap. this instrument is used to gather information about functional fixity, another hindrance to internal creative thinking. chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – the third instrument was the thinking style (ybrains, chua, b) which is used for collecting quantitative information about thinking styles. the test items were built based on research findings about brain hemisphericity. it is a paper-pencil test with items. each item contains choices related to left-brain, right-brain and whole brain thinking. the items of the ybrains instrument were developed based on research evidences of split brain experiments including the blood flow technique (lassen & ingvar, ), dichotic listening technique (bethmann, tempelmann, de bleser, scheich, & brechmann, ; kimura, ), and electroencephalogram or electrical brain writing technique (galin & ornstein, ). besides that, in building the test, findings regarding the functions of the left brain and right brain from psychological tests such as the literal preference test (porch & coren, ) and the street gestalt completion test (bogen, ) were also referred to. [the computer-based ybrains test was awarded a gold medal at the th international invention, innovation & technology exhibition, itex ’ , on - may , kuala lumpur convention centre] a left-brained thinker tends to be more logical and analytical in thinking. he evaluates materials in a rational way, works in a systematic manner, follows rules, processes information sequentially or step by step, is a conforming person, is emotionally inhibited, prefers structured assignments, takes life seriously and is proficient in language and verbal activities. jobs best suited for this kind of person are those that require systematic, logical thinking and decision-making skills. meanwhile, the right brained person is creative, generates good spatial relationships, has a highly adventurous and inventive mind, solves problem intuitively, is a non-confirming person, responds with emotions and feelings, prefers open-ended assignments, has a good sense of humour, faces everyday life with an open mind, responds to music and art and possesses innate musical and artistic talent. the right-brained person is suitable for jobs that require the forming of spatial relationships, creative expressions (such as the aesthetics value of cubism painting of pablo picasso) and those that involve idea generation. to be considered whole brained, a person must have a balanced thinking style, possesses the thinking abilities and other characteristics of left-brained and right-brained thinkers. the whole brained thinker is most suited for jobs that need right-brain and left-brain skills. test-retest reliability of the ybrains was conducted in a pilot study on a group of students of a teacher training programme at the kuala lumpur specialist teachers’ training institute. the same students were retested three months later. the average age of the respondents in the reliability test (average age: . years old) was similar to the average age of the respondents in the study. the product-moment correlation coefficients were positively significant for the brain styles [left-brain style: r = . , p< . ; right-brain style: r = . , p< . ; whole- brain style: r = . , p< . ]. . . research procedure the research subjects individually answered questions from the three research instruments in a classroom setting under the supervision of lecturers who were teaching the classes concerned. the time allocated for the first and second instruments was minutes each, while minutes were allocated for the third instrument. . . data analysis since this is a descriptive research, data for hindrances to internal creative thinking (stimulus fixity and functional fixity) is tabulated in frequency and percentage. the data is also analysed qualitatively, that is the students’ answers are interpreted based on the definitions of stimulus fixity and functional fixity. for thinking styles (left, right and whole brain thinking styles), the data is tabulated in terms of frequency and percentage. . results . . hindrances to internal creative thinking the frequency and percentage for hindrances to internal creative thinking of the subjects are shown in table . chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – table . frequency and percentage of the hindrances to internal creative thinking ability of the subjects (n = ) test hindrances to creative thinking stimulus fixity functional fixity frequency percentage frequency percentage the story-writing test . – – the two-string test – – . the results show that . % (n = ) of the subjects experience stimulus fixity and . % (n = ) experience functional fixity. the results indicate that stimulus fixity is the hindrance to creative thinking experienced by the majority of the subjects. only a small number of the subjects experience the problem of functional fixity. . . . stimulus fixity when the short stories of the subjects were analysed quantitatively, it was found that most of the subjects could only write stories centred on the rectangle in the picture given. the following are some of the extracts from the short stories written by this group of subjects: “in the box, there was food. a cat smelled the fried fish and tried to go near the box. unfortunately the cat could not open the box.” (subject ) “the cat ran very fast, looking all around. it saw a box in front. the cat opened the box and saw a rat sleeping in the box.” (subject ) “one day a cat saw a hole in the wall of its master’s house. the cat wanted to see what was in the hole. so it waited in front of the hole and observed. suddenly a rat jumped out.” (subject ) “a cat wanted to look for its friend who had gone missing for a long time. while it was walking, looking for its missing friend, it saw a very big box. it tried to open it, but could not because the box was too heavy.” (subject ) the research data clearly shows that the ability of the above subjects to think openly and freely when faced with an ambiguous situation is low. this weakness (thinking was restricted by the rectangle in the picture which represents an ambiguous situation) hinders them from thinking creatively and producing unique ideas. extracts from the short stories written by the second group of subjects, who are free from stimulus fixity, are as follows: “one quiet night, i felt tired and slept on the bed. i had a strange dream. in my dream, there was a hungry cat with yellow fur. it was looking for food all around its master’s house and finally saw a fish on the table. when the cat was going to eat the fish, it saw another cat which was sick and hungry. it remembered its mother who was kind and always helped other cats who needed help.” (subject ) “kamal is an artist. one day kamal drew a pretty picture (picture of a cat, like in the picture above). he coloured it using pretty colours. he wanted to sell his picture to the owner of a restaurant, but the restaurant owner did not want to buy the picture because he could not understand it. kamal explained that the picture would bring luck to the restaurant owner because the cat in the picture represented the customers who were very interested in the restaurant’s food, and if the picture were hung on the wall of the restaurant, the business would increase.” (subject ) the difference between the two types of stories above is that the first group composed the stories as if they were instructed to focus their stories on the rectangle in the picture. in this situation their thinking was restricted and they were unable to compose unique and unusual stories. their stories were almost always constrained by the lines that surround the picture. however the stories of the second group were not restricted by the rectangle in the picture; they used the whole picture or elements in the picture as the basis to develop stories which were freer and unique. their thinking was not hindered by stimulus fixity. . . . functional fixity the research data in table clearly shows that only a small group (n = ; . %) of teacher trainees could not solve the problem (when faced with an ambiguous situation) creatively because they could not imagine how the chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – mouse trap could be used for purposes other than its original one. some of the teacher trainees suggested that the mouse trap be used to catch a mouse and the mouse be used to help the young man reach for the two strings. however, the majority of the subjects could think logically and rationally, and suggested using the concept of gravitational pull (weight of the mouse trap) to swing the trap which was tied to string b to reach string a. . . thinking style the frequency and percentage of each thinking style of the students are shown in table . it was found that most of the students tend to use the left brain to think (left brain . %, right brain . % and whole brain . %). table . thinking styles of the subjects (n = ) thinking style frequency percentage left . right . whole brain . . discussion the study results show that most (n = ; . %) of the teacher trainees experience the problem of stimulus fixity. they tend to focus their attention on the stimulus alone when faced with ambiguous situations. these teacher trainees are stimulus-bound; they follow rules religiously and are unable to bend the rules to suit their needs. they assume that rules exist when the situation is ambiguous (slahova, savvina, cacka, & volonte, ; getzels & taylor, ; torrance, ). they are likely to assume non-existent directions in order to alleviate the fear of being wrong, and the fear is undoubtedly one of the most effective inhibitors of creative thinking. this behaviour served as a hindrance to internal creative thinking. a creative personality dares to engage in uncertain and ambiguous situations, find new aspects in something that is congenial and familiar and create new experiences, always eagerly searching for new styles and manners and proceeding with various stages of the creative process (slahova, savvina, cacka, & volonte, , chua, ). obviously, from the results of the study, this creative personality is lacking in the teacher trainees. this may be due to the school education system which directly or indirectly stresses thinking which is “systematic, logical and structured” in order to achieve high score in examinations (some subjects in the curriculum do emphasise the significance of enhancing thinking skills in students. this is however, due to the tough competition among schools for academic achievement and “excellent school” and “cluster school” status). students are taught to follow instructions step by step and to think logically as soon as they enter school (hart, ). this emphasis indirectly will train them to centre and view each stimulus from only one perspective. such a focus only increases the ability to think logically while weakening the ability to think creatively. the findings of this study are supported by the research data about functional fixity, where the majority of teacher trainees could think logically, as illustrated by their use of the gravity concept to solve the problem in the two-string test. they could see the mouse trap functioning as a weight, but other unusual functions were not immediately obvious to them. the research results are also supported by the data in table which shows that most of the teacher trainees tend to use their left brain, which is oriented towards logical, systematic and rational thinking. however, the results about functional fixity are not in line with the findings of dacey ( ). the contradictions in the two research findings may be explained by the results of chua’s research ( ), which showed that the standard mean score index for creative thinking in malaysian students is lower when compared to the mean score index for american students of the same age. nevertheless, to compare data of two studies which were conducted years apart does not make sense. more bilateral or multilateral studies should be conducted to clarify this result. chua yan piaw / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – . implications and suggestions the results imply that the teacher trainees in this research experience problems in stimulus fixity when they are faced with ambiguous situations. to free them from this hindrance to creative thinking, it is suggested that lecturers help their students to become aware of this problem and explain to them the natural process of creative thinking while at the same time prepare an environment which will allow them to think creatively. this will awaken them to their innate powers of mind and enable them to reclaim their ability to think creatively. references almeida, l.s., prieto, l.p., ferrando, m., oliveira, e., & ferrándiz, c. 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( ). a guide to right/left brain education: teaching for the two sides mind. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall. . split consciousness and the poetics of inauthenticity: reading anatole broyard’s kafka was the rage amr elsherif* “and that was what i wanted, to be revised. i saw myself as a first draft.” (broyard : ) anatole broyard’s life story makes for a good suspense film or mystery novel: a black man who passes for white, severs all relations with his family, marries in order to avoid military service but is drafted anyway, leaves his first dark- skinned wife and child after finishing his army service, lives a bohemian life with artists in greenwich village, becomes a successful writer, critic and editor of the new york times book review, marries a blonde of norwegian-american ancestry, becomes, as described by the literary scholar and harvard professor henry louis gates, “one of literary america’s foremost gatekeepers” and an “arbiter of american writing”, and refuses to disclose his secret to his children till near his death (gates , ). it was only two months before his death that the secret was revealed and his children came to find out through their mother that their father was black (bliss broyard ). broyard had to pass in order to avoid the restrictions placed on african-americans by the jim crow laws and the one-drop rule in the forties. broyard’s vision of art, life and politics in the fifties, broyard was asked by the atlantic monthly press to write an autobiographical novel and was offered a handsome amount of money for it. everybody waited eagerly for the novel that was never written. it is remarkable that the kind of autobiography broyard chose to write, near the end of his life, was a memoir not a complete autobiography. he chose to frame what would be told and cut out what would be left unsaid. kafka was the rage is a “greenwich village memoir;” it starts at a certain point before which earlier history is excluded or selectively included. the memoir is divided into two parts, “sheri” and “after sheri”; the first of which is centered on the title character while each chapter of the second is dedicated to one or more of broyard’s acquaintances. due to the fact that he provides no intimate and uninhibited description of his * faculty of arts, damanhour university. split consciousness own consciousness, any account of it has to be gleaned from the noetic acts correlative of the noemata of the intended phenomena; i.e. from how he saw people and events (brainard ). the main act of consciousness in writing a memoir -noesis- is remembering. nevertheless, as broyard’s style clearly shows, he was not only remembering people and events but was also writing in a highly figurative style. he was also forming and constructing – another noesis. due to eliminating any reference to his colored background in the memoir, it becomes clear that broyard’s consciousness was not only remembering but also suppressing. although this may go beyond the limits of pure description, it may be safely presumed, as will be discussed later, that he was constructing to cover up what was suppressed. the exquisite style in which the memoir is written creates a layer of figurative language which envelops what is remembered – the noema – in an auratic veil that hypnotizes the reader and sets the narrated objects of remembrance apart from the consciousness which perceived them in the first place. in other words, the noetic acts of forming and stylizing are overtaking those of perceiving and remembering. unlike marcel proust’s À la recherche du temps perdu, kafka was the rage does not seek to reveal the identity of the narrating consciousness through the remembered objects, but rather concentrates on the people and objects for their own sake. this does not mean, though, that the style and figuration are there as a mere veil; they stand in their own right for the beauty they create. due to the thick layer of figurative language, the memoir stands on its own as an autonomous literary work of art separate from the actual lived experience it is supposed to relate. broyard was writing an anti-subjective kind of autobiography, a history of people and objects not of the self. hence, to glean how the remembering consciousness saw the noema and understand the corresponding noetic acts is to read the text against the grain. broyard depicts an image of greenwich village in the forties as a harmonious mixture of life and art; a place where people came to “be with art, to live near it” (broyard : ). people’s lives were suffused with art; high cheek bones were prized above anything else a girl could have due to the influence of cubism. broyard says: “i slept with modern painting” ( ). the memoir starts with a description of sheri donatti – a pseudonym for sheri martinelli ( – ), the painter and poet with whom broyard lived. sheri was her own avant-garde. she had erased and redrawn herself, redesigned the way she walked, talked, moved, even the way she thought and felt. she was a painter and she looked more like a work of art than a pretty woman. she had a high, domelike forehead, the long silky brown hair of women in portraits.… her gestures and motions were a slow dance, a amr elsherif parody of classical poses. they were very deliberate, performed at half speed, as if she had to remember each time, to remind herself, how human beings behaved…. she was a preview of things to come, an invention that was not quite perfected, but that would turn out to be important, a forerunner or a harbinger, like the shattering of the object in cubism or atonality in music. when i came to know her better, i thought of her as a new disease. ( - ) [italics mine] sheri is not only an artist; she is herself a work of art. in the greenwich village utopia, art was no longer exiled; plato’s age-old banishment of art seems to have come to end and the latter has finally become part of life as broyard suggests. nevertheless, an investigation of how the phenomenon of art appeared to broyard’s consciousness would not render the image so seamless or show art and life to be such a harmonious mixture. broyard did not regard sheri as a normal person like most people but as a different and distinguished individual; she is separate from both her own past and life around her. she erased the person she was and recreated herself in everything she did as a living work of art. she became as separate from life and as artistically formed and meticulously calculated as an autonomous high modernist work of art. it is noteworthy that the art techniques broyard mentions, the shattering of the object in cubism and atonality in music, were the peaks of modernism in the forties, the most important characteristic of which is autonomy in both senses of separation from life and revolt against the past. it is also remarkable that art is the constant figure of speech used to refer to sheri all through the memoir -one would be tempted to say metaphor but this is largely inaccurate as will be clear later- and that broyard conceived of art as essentially autonomous. art may influence life; distinguished individuals may bear some resemblance to a work of art but this does not cancel out the distinction between them. both sheri and art appeared to broyard’s consciousness separate from life and the past. she appeared to him like a closed sphere. he yearned to achieve intimacy with her but never managed to: she was an abstract painter and i couldn’t follow her there. she left me outside, like a dog that you tie to a parking meter when you go into a store. i had no talent for abstraction, didn’t see the need for it, or the beauty of it. like liberal politics, it eliminated so many things i liked. yet, if i could understand her paintings, i thought, our sex would be better. we would exist in the same picture plane, pose for each other’s portraits, mingle our forms and colors, make compositions. we would be like two split consciousness people walking through a gallery or a museum, exclaiming over the same things. i began to read about abstract painting…. i had come to think that modern art was an initiation into that life, like the hazing before you get into a fraternity. ( ) not only is abstract painting autonomous but, through its abstraction, it also takes away from art all the details that relate it to life. it exists in an isolated sphere which must be passed through as a transitional period of hazing before one can join the distinguished world of artists. in its abstractness, it appeared to broyard to resemble liberal politics which, in ignoring many of the particularities and even prejudices of culture, would also be separate from life. broyard may not have understood abstract art or even liked it yet he saw it as serious art, something that must be learnt in order to belong to the circle of artists and intellectuals living in greenwich village – the center of hip life in the forties. broyard reflects on his life in the village through comparing it to literature. he opened a secondhand bookstore in the village: it was the talkers who gave me the most trouble. like the people who sold me books, the talkers wanted to sell me their lives, their fictions about themselves, their philosophies…. while i pretended to listen, i asked myself which were more real – theirs, or the stories on the shelves. “the familiar man makes the hero artificial,” wallace stevens said…. as they talked on, i thought of all the junk i had carried out of the shop.… these people were bringing it all back. ( ) the distinction between art and life, as it appeared to broyard’s consciousness, is not only a matter of degree and concentration of emotions. while both real people and books may tell stories, those told by people do not seem real enough; they seem artificial. to tell a good story, realistic or otherwise, technique and expertise are required. art, as broyard perceived it, depends on technicality – a cornerstone of modernism. talking about meyar schapiro’s art class, broyard expounds his understanding of modern art: i remember schapiro telling us that before cézanne, there had always been a place in a landscape painting where the viewer could walk into the picture. there was an entrance; you could go there, like walking into a park. but this was not true of cézanne’s landscapes, which were cut off amr elsherif absolutely, abstracted from their context. you could not walk into them – you could enter them only through art, by leaping. ( ) before modernist painting, a landscape and life were perceived as a continuum; there was usually a path which the viewer could trace with his eyes and which walked him into the painting; art was part of life. with modernism, they became separate. art proper appeared to broyard to be separate from life. whatever resemblances it may bear to life have to be redrawn and recreated for art to become art. whether he liked abstract painting or not, broyard wanted to understand it in order to belong. “modern painting was one more exclusion, one more mystery from which i was shut out…. but when it came to modern art, i was afraid that maybe the others were right, that i would never be hip or sophisticated, would never belong” ( ). modern art was seen as a pass to the chic world of connoisseurs. it is the center which marks the circumference and sets the distinguished inside apart from the ordinary outside. in order for broyard to be separate from ordinary society and his humble background, to gain distinction, art appeared absolutely necessary. “the life we had depended on modern art. without that, all we had was a dirty apartment” ( ). art is added to life to endow them with a sense of distinction. art and life were not unified in the sense they were before modernity, the rationalization of art, the appearance of aesthetics and the bifurcation of reason into the three separate domains of truth, morality and beauty. art remains a separate sphere admissible only to the distinguished few who can understand it and this is why it imparts a sense of distinction. in order to belong to the company of sheri -who separated herself from life and recreated herself like a work of art- the hip artists and sophisticated critics in greenwich village, broyard had to erase his past, go through a transitional phase and recreate or redraw himself. unlike the autonomous art of high modernism, jazz appeared to broyard in a totally different way. whereas he did not like abstract art but found it necessary to understand, he liked jazz yet did not perceive it as a real form of art. apart from the split between his feelings and intellect or aesthetic judgment and the irony -both of which will be discussed later- broyard, comparing jazz to modernist art, saw that the former lacked the essence of art: “was it like les demoiselles d’avignon, a fracturing of music, like the splitting of the atom?… it seemed to me that jazz was just folk art. it might be terrific folk art, but it was still only local and temporary” ( ). for broyard, jazz smacked of life, of folks; it was not separate or autonomous and did not have universal value. he found an analogy for it in a story told by gregory bateson who lived with a primitive tribe in new guinea for some time and used to hear a man beating the drums every day at dawn: split consciousness bateson learned that this man had suffered a grievance that he could not get settled. the tribe had rejected his plea for redress and so he got up every morning and rehearsed his complaint to the village. he tried to wake them, to disturb their rest, invade their dreams. thinking about jazz, i remembered this man and i thought that jazz musicians were something like that. ( ) jazz bore the grievances of african-americans. it was a form of complaint, an expression of the suffering and injustice sustained in life. it was not separate enough from life and “relied too much on improvisation to be a full-fledged art form” ( ). in addition to autonomy, broyard saw real art as highly investing in its technicality which, unlike improvisation, is the element that recreates all the elements that go into the making of art into something new and self-sufficient. communist politics, like sheri, abstract painting and liberal politics seemed separate from life. “when i was at brooklyn college, everyone urged me to join the communist party, but i refused because i thought it was an uninteresting quarrel with the real. modern art, though, was a quarrel that appealed to me more” ( ). broyard saw that communism, like liberalism, distanced people from “the ordinary” to which he, seeing himself as an “insider,” belonged. yet, broyard did not reject abstract art as he did with liberal and communist politics. while all of them seemed separate from life, the latter two appeared to be alienating. modern art, on the other hand, was seen as a pass to sheri and the elite world of artists. sheri herself was seen as a successful project of recreating the self, much like a work of art that transfigures its components into a new ontological mode. broyard describes the new school, which was full of german professors who fled from hitler, as “the ‘university in exile.’” it was also separate from american life “as if it were a concentration camp” ( ). like all the previous objects of remembrance, the university too was separate from the context in which it existed. nevertheless, broyard -who saw himself as an “insider,” as part of the context of the ordinary american life to which the intellectuals he knew did not belong- ironically perceived himself and the people in greenwich village as also separate from the past and isolated from the ordinary. like sheri, they had to recreate themselves and fashion a new life distanced from the ordinary. when i left brooklyn to live in the village, i felt as if i had acquired a new set of relatives, like a surprising number of uncles i had never seen before... who had shunned family and been shunned in turn …. there was a flaw in their past, some kind of unhealthiness, even a hint of insanity…. they were all the family that i had now, all the family that i wanted. with them, i could trade in my embarrassingly ordinary history for a amr elsherif choice of fictions. i could lead a hypothetical life, unencumbered by memory, loyalties, or resentments. the first impulse of adolescence is to wish to be an orphan or an amnesiac. nobody in the village had a family. we were all sprung from our own brows, spontaneously generated the way flies were once thought to have originated. ( - ) the movement from brooklyn to greenwich village, like growth from childhood to adolescence, did not appear to broyard as a process of development but as a rupture. everyone in the village appeared separate from any family or history. he recreated a new life in which family was replaced by books. in all these phenomena, the noematic pole of broyard’s intentional acts of consciousness was the separateness of these phenomena from their histories and contexts. on the noetic side, separate phenomena that appeared alienating like liberal and communist politics were regarded negatively and rejected. those that appeared to involve reinvention or transfiguration like sheri, the new school, modern art and greenwich village itself appeared positive. the phenomena that did not appear separate enough, those that smacked of life like jazz, were relegated to a lower position. the movement to greenwich village and the replacement of family by books were acts of recreating the self. “we didn’t simply read books; we became them. we took them into ourselves and made them into our histories” ( ). moving to live with sheri seemed also like a process of recreating oneself. “living with sheri was a process of continual adjustment. it was like living in a foreign city: you learn the language, the currency, the style of the people” ( ). having to go through such a process of erasing and redrawing oneself is ironic for someone who saw himself as an “insider” and regarded it as a distinction. while broyard wanted to belong to the distinguished sphere of artists, authors, critics and intellectuals, he saw himself separate from them by his intimate understanding of the real. unlike them, he conceived of himself as someone who never lost touch with life and actuality. “i wanted to be an intellectual, too, to see life from a great height, yet i didn’t want to give up my sense of connection, my intimacy with things. when i read a book, i always kept one eye on the world, like someone watching the clock” ( ). broyard saw himself distinguished by his immediacy to life – the quality that others lost due to their separateness. broyard’s split consciousness one of the most revealing chapters in the memoir relates the story of saul silverman, a young jewish intellectual who came to know that he was terminally ill and was going to die shortly. silverman was so rational and contemplative split consciousness that when he referred “in a convoluted, jamesian way to a female companion,” she appeared to broyard more like a “theory of femininity, a sketch for a character” ( ). silverman was one of those thinkers who were separated from life by abstractions, by their intellect and by their consciousness of being different. “he was looking around at the park as if he was taking notes, summing it up, trying to arrive at a definition of the ideal park. he was comparing this one to other parks he had only read about” ( ). silverman, inter alia, was not capable of immediate contact with life because he was constantly thinking in the abstract. he was even alienated from his body; he regarded it as a vehicle or a machine, a mere receptacle for his consciousness or soul which is separate from it; he saw it as an other. “i’ve hardly used this body. it’s the shoddy manufacture of the times – i’m practically new and obsolete already” ( ). his behavior and reactions were not spontaneous but were determined by his sense of distinction and difference. when broyard came to know that silverman had leukemia, he was so angry and wanted to vent out his feelings but the latter stopped him. “we’re not ordinary people, you and i – i don’t see why we should feel obliged to become ordinary now” ( - ). unlike silverman, broyard did not see himself so alienated -even from himself- or lacking immediacy. he had invited me to stand outside the event with him, as a fellow critic – but i couldn’t do it. i wasn’t that intellectual. his situation brought out all the homeliness in me, the sloppiness. my feelings had no style. to saul, my sympathy would have seemed almost bestial, the disorderly impulse of a more primitive civilization. he has always been lofty and distant. ( ) unlike silverman and other intellectuals, including delmore schwartz and clement greenberg, who lost touch with actuality because they were so “blinded by reading” and abstractions, broyard saw himself not as an anti-intellectual but as someone who was in touch with the world and intimate with things, someone who did not lose immediacy; he did not lose touch with actuality, with people and, most importantly, with himself and his feelings. broyard was the one who lived in the thick of american life, took his intellectual friends out, and introduced them to spanish harlem, night life, latin dance and dancers. nevertheless, when broyard’s critical writings are read alongside his memoir, they do not confirm the same immediacy and intimacy he claims. in his article “portrait of the inauthentic negro,” broyard extended jean-paul sartre’s analysis of the influence exercised by discriminating society on the psychology of the jew to offer his description of the character of what he calls the “inauthentic negro” – the one who accepts the other’s view of himself, whose self-understanding is mediated by the other. the inauthentic jew or african- amr elsherif american is forced to remodel himself into certain character profiles which broyard, following sartre, calls “avenues of flight” that do not have “any necessary relation to his true self” (broyard : ). broyard describes the inauthentic character as follows: worst of all, the inauthentic negro is not only estranged from whites— he is also estranged from his own group and from himself. since his companions are a mirror in which he sees himself as ugly, he must reject them; and since his own self is mainly a tension between an accusation and a denial, he can hardly find it, much less live in it. in extreme cases, he may be said to live wholly by conditioning from outside... in place of useful action, he has worked up an act. ( ) this description, which applies to broyard himself, shows that his identity is conditioned by the discriminating society. being forced to deny his identity in order to fit into society, broyard’s consciousness lost its authentic character and came to adopt an inauthentic guise. his self-consciousness is mediated by what he is not, by the other, by the outside. because of this mediation, the outside constituted the inside and broyard’s identity consisted in a fissure; he saw himself as an other. he developed a second nature, an attitude of constant watchfulness which continuously held his true self in check and denied it. his identity, actions and reactions were mediated by what he reacted against. broyard’s relation to people, things and, most importantly, his own self is no less mediated than saul silverman’s and the other intellectuals’ from whom he sought to distinguish himself. if silverman and the other intellectuals did not have immediate understanding of the world because their visions were mediated by their abstract conceptual intellects, broyard’s relation to the world was mediated by his consciousness of himself as an other, by his inauthenticity or self-denial. broyard also is a man without immediacy. his inauthentic self- divided consciousness determined the nature of his relation to himself and to other people and manifested itself in his poetic style. while complete self-immediacy is an impossible ideal, with broyard this is taken to the extreme. there is a gap separating two levels of consciousness. he regarded himself as one would regard someone else he envies – or perhaps pities. “i was like an immigrant who goes from a poor country to a rich one and can’t quite believe in his new prosperity. i distrusted my happiness” (broyard : ). he flaunted one part of himself and suppressed another which he had to keep in check all the time. during his years at the new school, he wanted to be psychoanalyzed. talking to dr ernst schachtel, he said: “as far as i can see, i said, i have no reason to be disappointed. yet, something doesn’t feel right. i don’t split consciousness feel that my happiness is mine. it’s like i’m happy outside of myself” ( ). broyard saw his happiness as belonging to the image he projected not to the consciousness lurking behind this image. he was a man who saw himself living and acting and was tormented by this separation from himself. what i brought to dr schachtel was not a condition or a situation but a poetics. i wanted to discuss my life with him not as a patient talking to an analyst but as if we were two literary critics discussing a novel. of course, that’s what all patients want, but the irony was that with me it might have worked. it might have been the shortest, or the only, way through my defenses, because i had a literature rather than a personality, a set of fictions about myself ( ). ironically, he wanted to discuss himself with dr schachtel in the same manner saul silverman suggested: as two critics separate from what they discuss. broyard saw himself as a fictional character; he created an image separate from himself. like sheri, broyard erased and redrew himself as a work of art. he saw himself as a rough draft that needs to be revised ( ). yet, he was also the critic doing the revision. only that erasure was not complete; he remained self-divided. while all people have images, ideas and understandings of themselves and can never achieve full immediacy to themselves or complete self-consciousness, broyard’s consciousness itself was split into a perceiving and a perceived consciousness or image. it was normal for such a wretched consciousness tormented by its separation from itself to wish for another state in which the split existence would come to end. “i want to be transfigured, i said” ( ). he wanted the work of art which he was creating -his invented identity- to be consummated and all the relevance to history and life to be severed for the new ontological status to be achieved. like silverman who felt that his body is a mere vehicle and delmore schwartz who described his body as “the heavy bear who goes with me” -the intellectuals from whom broyard felt different- he was also alienated from his body (delmore schwarz quoted in broyard ). he felt the fissure between his body and soul and was aware of how it prevented him from achieving intimacy with many girls he knew: their souls lay beside us in the bed, watching, sorrowing. perhaps i needed their souls -there is no other explanation for their inconvenient presence- but i didn’t know what to do with them, any more than i knew what to do with my own. ( ) amr elsherif speaking of his illness and of the general and impersonal medical procedures used by his doctor to characterize his disease in intoxicated by my illness, he wrote: “since technology deprives me of the intimacy of my illness, makes it not mine but something that belongs to science, i wish my doctor could somehow personalize it for me. it would be more satisfying to me, it would allow me to feel that i owned my illness” (broyard : ). broyard lacked immediacy first and foremost with himself. in this alienated state, his relation to life was as mediated as his intellectual friends’ were; and perhaps more so. as a manifestation of his lack of immediacy, broyard could not be spontaneous with other people. his consciousness of separation from himself mediated his perception of all phenomena. he had to watch himself living, acting and reacting. therefore, he was not in immediate contact with people, things and events. like silverman, he could not be spontaneous; not even with his own family. talking about their conversations, shirley broyard, his dark-skinned sister, remembers that spontaneity was avoided: “they always had to be focused on something, like a movie, because you couldn't afford to be very intimate. there had to be something that would get in the way of the intimacy.” and when she phoned him during his illness it was the same way. “he never gave that up,” she says, sounding more wistful than reproachful “he never learned how to be comfortable with me.” (gates ) daphne merkin, one of his close friends, spoke about a “tendency to want to establish a sort of safety through bourgeoisness” (gates ). michael miller, his psychiatrist and friend for thirty years, confirms that their “unusual intimacy was circumscribed by a subject that they never discussed” (gates ). his wife said that he put limits even to her and that when she tried to cross them, he would “bring down this ‘gate’” (gates ). in the memoir, broyard takes responsibility for alienating others and ascribes it to his desire for transfiguration. he acknowledges the alienating effects of constantly watching himself and orchestrating the process of metamorphosis. speaking of some girls with whom he had fleeting relations, he writes: if i had known how to reassure these girls, or if i had remained with any of them long enough, they might have relaxed and become natural with me and i with them. but i was driven with restlessness. i was still looking for transfiguration, as i had said to dr. schachtel – it was transfiguration or nothing. (broyard : ) split consciousness whether this could be viewed as denying room for trust as mariana oshana is inclined to see it or as protecting his identity and personal space, in both cases this is a psychological interpretation of the deeper ontological condition described here (oshana ). broyard confirms that he belonged to ordinary american life in a way that others did not and that he enjoyed a degree of immediacy denied to the other artists and intellectuals with whom he lived. in the “prefatory remarks” to the memoir, broyard writes: while some of my contemporaries made a great show of political commitment, it seems to me that their politicizing of experience abstracted them from the ordinary, from the texture of things. they saw only a platonic idea of american life. to use one of their favorite words, they were alienated. i was not. in fact, one of my problems was that i was alienated from alienation, an insider among outsiders. the young intellectuals i knew had virtually read and criticized themselves out of any feeling of nationality. (broyard : viii) broyard was not attracted to political affiliations not because he belonged to the ordinary american life but because he wanted to belong to it, to be an insider. while these intellectuals wanted to change what they found unsatisfying about it, broyard idealized it as it is and preferred to change himself to fit into it. being forced to deny part of himself to fit in, he created the fissure which shaped his split inauthentic consciousness. in his pursuit of belonging, broyard did not want to belong to the “embarrassingly ordinary” ( ). in an article he published in his times column, he wrote: my mother and father were too folksy for me, too colorful.... eventually, i ran away to greenwich village, where no one had been born of a mother and father, where the people i met had sprung from their own brows, or from the pages of a bad novel.... orphans of the avant-garde, we outdistanced our history and our humanity. (broyard quoted in gates ) broyard wanted to distance himself from that part of his personality and belong to the elite company of art, artists and sheri, to live in greenwich village and study at the new school. all these objects appeared to broyard’s consciousness separate from life. in order to belong to any of them, he had to go through a phase of change and recreate himself like a work of art. this is why phenomena which appeared to him separate from life and involving a process of metamorphosis or amr elsherif transfiguration were accorded a positive value. this is ironic, nevertheless, for someone who regarded himself as an insider and held it as a distinction. the split of broyard’s consciousness into perceiving and perceived layers led to his lack of immediacy with himself and with phenomena around him. with people, it led to what was felt as lack of intimacy; with other phenomena, it led to the ironic relativization of value remarkable throughout the memoir. broyard’s figurative imagination when broyard read passages of his memoir to ellen schwamm, she described them as “stilted and distant” as if he was hiding something. broyard admitted that he was hiding the fact that he was black (schwamm qtd in gates ). following gates, brett ashley kaplan argues that broyard’s denial of his identity stunted his talent and that “it was precisely his inability to address the question of his passing that prevented him from writing” ( ). while this was true for most of his life, near the end it exercised a different effect. it determined the form of the memoir and the nature of his poetic style. in writing his memoir, broyard’s mind was consciously doing the freudian dream work of suppressing and displacing what his waking consciousness would not accept and forming what it could see. if broyard saw part of himself as a fictional character, he was finally materializing this fiction in an actual work of art. the result is a memoir that may be lacking in intimacy but is by no means lacking in style and makes up for what is missing in the former by the exuberance of the latter. the memoir is a modernist literary work of art marked for its style and unexpectedly autonomous from its author. gates notes that broyard’s life is full of ironies and that over the years he learned to use them. his style also displays a plethora of ironies, both verbal and existential. seeing himself as an insider and rejecting the politics that separated him from life yet being forced to deny part of his personality and recreate himself to be accepted into this life -thereby unconsciously condemning society while consciously endorsing it- was only one of many ironies in broyard’s life. irony is not a mere strategy that he resorted to whenever he needed. if the abundance of ironies is not fortuitous, it needs to be grounded in his consciousness. in order to be who he is, broyard had to separate himself from what he was. for a man who erased his personal history and redrew himself as a work of art, the past is real yet denied. his present character -“literature” to use his word- which is the only reality he has now is, nevertheless, fictional, untrue. this existential mode creates an ironic condition in which reality is denied and unreality is confirmed. all the present positions, relations, friendships and career are based on the untrue white identity he created. speaking of books as his new family members, broyard writes: “they were more real than anything i had ever known, real as split consciousness only imagined things can be, real as dreams that seem so unbearably actual because they are cleansed of all irrelevances” (broyard : ). the verbal ironies and the ironic situations with which the memoir abounds are manifestations of this basic ontological condition. broyard was separated from objects of experience by his realization that they do not belong to him but to his fictional self. due to his split consciousness, everything appeared to him to have a dual value. when things have different values, they cannot be seen to have an intrinsic value in themselves. their value depends on how they appear and what they mean to the perceiving self-divided consciousness. therefore, everything sheri said could sound “both” true and false ( ); life could appear less true than literature ( ); going to the psychiatrist would develop new repressions rather than free broyard of the old ones ( ). modern art is deemed necessary and important even if not liked ( ), while jazz may be liked but not aesthetically appreciated ( ). broyard confirms that ethnicity appeared normal and acceptable to all people yet he did not acknowledge his own ( ). the neurotic would be regarded, from a psychoanalytic point of view, healthier than the normal person – an idea which he found flattering because he, like all students at the new school, regarded himself as neurotic ( ). yet, neurosis could be regarded as a healthy sign of protest only if society is oppressive or discriminatory. while in his memoir broyard does not show any sign of condemning society as either, his passing is such a condemnation. although he was alienated and oppressed, broyard rejected liberal politics as alienating and communism -which was regarded by some as a sign of revolt- as an uninteresting quarrel with the real (viii, ). as a result of his separation from phenomena and his lack of immediate experience of what things are, they became ironic for him. broyard’s inauthenticity -his self- divided consciousness in which the perceiving fictional identity he created hides the original self and constantly keeps it in check- manifests itself in the existential and verbal ironies of the memoir. irony may be the most salient feature of an inauthentic consciousness ascribing different values to the same phenomena due to its self-division. yet inauthenticity manifests itself in broyard’s poetics in other ways as well. the need to narrate life without revealing identity requires an aesthetic distance that can be gained only via a certain manipulation of figurative language. the striking feature of broyard’s style is not irony but his overwhelming use of similes. the style of the memoir shows an abundance of figurations that renders it more like a prose poem than an autobiographical piece of writing. compared to any other figure of speech, similes are incomparably preponderant. sometimes the figures seem unmotivated and tend to create similarities rather than discover or describe them. everything in the memoir is like something else. while the figures are amr elsherif enjoyable for their novelty and the sense of high culture that informs them, this is not a reason to abandon them as mere ornamentation used for their decorative function. the concern with art, literature and culture and the derivation of figures from this domain is the factor that unifies the memoir and prevents it from falling into a mere remembrance of a series of unrelated events. while many rhetoricians tend to regard metaphor as an elliptical simile and equate the two figures, from a nonreductive point of view they are not only stylistically different but stem from different visions and perform distinct processes. metaphor stresses the belonging of the tenor -or the target domain- to the category of the vehicle – or the source domain; simile, on the other hand, stresses the likeness yet keeps them separate. “it is sometimes said that while a simile invites the addressee to make a comparison between two unlike things, a metaphor requires the addressee to conceive of one thing as actually being another (unlike) kind of thing” (carston ). broyard’s split consciousness, in addition of course to his training in the new critical tradition, did not allow him to see art as a direct reflection or even unmediated expression of life. his figures do not grow out of realizing similarities in life, then capture and express them in a metaphorical form. this determines the nature of his figures to be similes not metaphors. while metaphors do not necessarily stem from a unified vision as the organic growth of experience in the way romantic thinkers conceived of, they still express the unity of the source and target domains. broyard’s consciousness did not conceive of such unity in the first place. as has been illustrated, broyard viewed art -the source domain- as essentially autonomous and separate from life – the target domain. therefore, to derive almost all his figures, similes and analogies from the domain of art is to distance life from its narration. this is precisely what his similes do; they distance the reader from the remembered life and the hidden identity. life is ordinary and art is a process of transfiguration that can elevate the individual above ordinariness (broyard : ). without art, all he had was just a dirty apartment. speaking of the dishes in the kitchen sink and of how they were hardly ever used, broyard says that they were “like a sculpture or a painting of dishes by magritte” ( ). replacing family with books and authors, he writes: “when i left brooklyn to live in the village, i felt as if i had acquired a new set of relatives, like a surprising number of uncles i had never met before…. these uncles were, of course, my favorite authors” ( ). art must elevate, transfigure and exalt life but it is not an organic part of it. the distance between the source domain from which the figures are derived and the target domain, which parallels broyard’s lack of immediacy with life, makes any figuration of the unity of art and life through metaphors hard to conceive. split consciousness broyard’s consciousness understands the two domains as essentially different yet attempts to find analogies that would elevate life or transfigure it to a higher level. speaking of his attempt to come closer to sheri through learning about art, he writes: “we would be like two people walking through a gallery or a museum” ( ). the “like” of all his similes is not fortuitous. it creates the analogy while betraying and testifying to the distance. similes create a layer of artistic figuration that draws the reader into the literary and artistic figurative level. sometimes the distance is stressed even more when broyard uses “as if” to create his figures like when he describes the new school “as if it were” a concentration camp ( ), books “as if they were” relatives or uncles ( ), and these uncles as having an aura of scandal “as if they had run away with someone’s wife or daughter” ( ). the word “as if” suggests some aspect of similarity while denying it at the same time creating, thereby, an ironic effect. the irony destroys any nearness that may be suggested by the similarity and keeps the literal and figurative levels apart. the common denominator of simile and verbal irony here is the distance between the two parts of the trope which is carried to the extreme of making the signifier refer to a signified sense standing opposed to it in the case of irony. similes and analogies drawn from the domain of art are consistently used to elevate life to the level of art in a way that renders people and events glow with a heroic artistic aura – stressing thereby the distance between the representation and what is represented. dick gilman, one of broyard’s acquaintances who was infatuated with literature and used to identify with the authors he liked while he read them, came to take sheri away from broyard. the latter realized that gilman was in his d.h. lawrence phase; sheri became frieda and broyard became ernest weekley. with the idea of incongruity gaining importance in literary criticism at that time, gilman described broyard and sheri as an incongruous couple ( ). nemecio zarante, a painter who repeated gilman’s attempt, saw the problem as one of asymmetry. he looked “like a priest of the inquisition”; his features were carved “as an el greco portrait of a cardinal or pope”; sheri was seen “as a quattrocento madonna” and broyard “felt like a man being persecuted.” broyard in his bookshop imagined himself “like saint jerome in his study” ( ). rather than foregrounding the remembered events, broyard reconstructs them in symmetrical figurative narratives in which the domain where the similes come from determines the figures and characters which he, sheri and the intruder assume. the figuratively constructed narratives cover up the narrated life. the development of the relation between broyard and sheri is also depicted in figures derived from the domain of art. referring to his sex life with sheri in amr elsherif the beginning of their affair, broyard sees himself as a “piston” and sheri as “paul klee’s twittering machine” ( ). she was more developed and turned his monotony into something rich with variations. later on, he uses one of his favorite images to refer to their relation. “when i connected myself to her, we were like the chance meeting, on an operating table, of a sewing machine and an umbrella” ( ). it is remarkable that the tenor and the vehicle of lautréamont’s metaphor do not depict a coherent image and retain a gaping distance. with sheri, broyard always felt separate, lonely and solitary ( - ). finally, due to their inability to achieve intimacy, they fell apart. rather than discussing the reason why he could not be intimate with sheri, their separation is represented in a figurative way as a dispute over an abstract painting of broyard that she made – anatole’s ontological conspiracy – which he took away when he left. sheri informed the police of a precious painting stolen and accused him. in the police station, the police detective forced him to choose between being prosecuted and leaving the painting which seemed to him meaningless. broyard was finally forced to leave it. in this struggle between art and life, the latter won. yet, the struggle itself is presented in artistic terms setting it apart from the life it covers. the separation between remembered life and its figurative narration or, rather, the figurative structuring of the narration of real life events, results from broyard’s attempt to conceal his identity while telling his story. while the highly ornamental style was characteristic of the high modernism of greenwich village writers, with broyard it was an attempt to escape from personality and cover it up while representing it. the whole memoir can be read as the chronicle of this struggle between life and art, between artists and intellectuals who were separate from life and broyard who regarded himself as an insider who never lost touch with life but was, temporarily, flying in the autonomous realm of art. broyard’s self- conscious stylization of the memoir as a prose poem rather than an intimate narration of life, divided self-consciousness, self-denial, desire to recreate himself through entering the autonomous sphere of art and artists and, most importantly, living all his life under the guise of the character he created in the village, nevertheless, contradict with his attempt to paint a portrait of his life there as a temporary flight, and of himself as an insider intimate with ordinary life and offer a different one. broyard’s figures of speech tear themselves off from life and flaunt themselves in a way that makes them stand autonomous vis-à-vis the real life events they relate to. they create a figurative layer which makes the memoir harmonious through the source domain from which the similes are derived and, ironically, render the memoir an autonomous work of art in its own right. broyard did not write the memoir as a remembrance of his past life or revelation split consciousness of his identity but as his vision, or rather revision, of himself as he wanted to see it. he wrote the fiction of the transfigured self that he wanted dr schachtel to help him create, the self elevated through art to an exalted level of existence. broyard revised himself from a draft into a polished work of art. yet, the traces of the process of revision are still visible in the contradictions and ironies of the split consciousness. while on one level he was remembering, on another he was suppressing and constructing. while he saw himself as immediate, he was constantly watchful of himself and separate from it and others by this heightened degree of self-consciousness. for broyard, “[t]o be acutely conscious … [was definitely] a disease” (dostoevsky ). not only did broyard’s dual consciousness make him lose immediacy with life, other people and himself but it also rendered the value of any object dependent on what it meant to the perceiving strata of consciousness. consequently, objects lost any intrinsic value. broyard’s loss of immediacy not only relativized and ironized his vision of objects but also made any vision of unity with life impossible which, in turn, excluded a metaphorical vision based on the unity of self and life. the attempt to elevate life to an artistic level without intuiting any unity left him with no other means but similes which enveloped life in an artistic veil meant to cover the layer beneath it and enchant the readers with its own aura. broyard’s flight into the realm of art was not as temporary as he may have thought or wanted the reader to believe. like sheri, broyard was a work of art and remained so. like all the intellectuals from whom he sought to distinguish himself, he was also separate from life. in the ironies of his memoir, those of his own personality can be read and in the contradictions of the latter, those of american society can be clearly seen. endnotes broyard uses the word “avant-garde” throughout the memoir in the familiar sense to refer to a high modernist work of art or an artist interested in or whose works display an advanced state of modernist aesthetics. he does not use it in the more technical sense of attack on the autonomy of modernist art. it is also worthwhile to mention early on that throughout the memoir sheri continues to be compared to works of art. it should also be mentioned that the words “like,” “as” and “as if” will be italicized throughout the article. while the relation between modernist art and elitism is well known, a good succinct explanation can be found in josé ortega y gasset’s the dehumanization of art. modern art, on the other hand, will always have the masses against it. it is essentially unpopular; moreover, it is antipopular. it is not that the majority does not like the art of the young amr elsherif and the minority likes it, but the majority, the masses, do not understand it. when a man dislikes a work of art, but understands it, he feels superior to it; and there is no reason for indignation. but when his dislike is due to a failing to understand, he feels vaguely humiliated and this rankling sense of inferiority must be counterbalanced by indignant self-assertion. through its mere presence, the art of the young compels the average citizen to realize that he is just this – the average citizen ( - ). modernist art is elitist by nature. most, if not all, of the artworks that broyard mentions in the memoir are modernist. it is important here to refer to derrida’s commentary on hegel’s understanding of jewish consciousness as separate from the body. in glas, derrida writes: so he cannot enjoy (this). since everything is obtained through the favor of a transcendent and separate god, what the jew enjoys is under the seal of expropriation. what i enjoy does not belong to me. my life and my body are not mine…. since the human body belongs to god, it had to be kept clean… but like a disguise…, like the livery of a servant. ( ) broyard’s unacknowledged sense of separation from his body is similar to that of saul silverman and the other intellectuals in whom he realized the same phenomenon yet sought to set himself apart. in blacks and jews in literary conversation, emily miller budick criticizes broyard’s description in this article as laying the blame on the victim rather than the discriminating society. interestingly, broyard offers a description of the african american who denies his identity that applies to himself. in the memoir, he does not offer any criticism of society as discriminatory. it is also remarkable that some of the topics broyard chose to write on, like his “portrait of the inauthentic negro” and “portrait of the hipster” deal with people who display the phenomenon of split consciousness. in creole renegades, bénédicte boisseron uses homi bhabha’s concept to offer a vision of creole identity as a hybrid. the issue here is not which figure comes first but the difference between metaphor and simile. even from a cognitive perspective which sees that conceptual metaphors precede similes, the two figures are distinct. conceptual metaphors give form to a target domain by projecting structure from a source: in fact, some very abstract targets, like time and causation, may be structured almost entirely metaphorically. similes, on the other hand, match structures construed as simultaneously present in both domains: similes do not add structure to a target, but highlight what’s already there. (israel ) in her compelling critique of reductive simile theories of metaphor, lynne tirrell confirms the difference. “[t]here is a big difference between saying “a is a b” and saying that “a is like a b”. the former entails a’s inclusion in the set of b things, while the latter does not.… since the semantic commitments of the two claims differ, the addition of the 'like' is not trivial” ( ). in the “postscript” to kafka, alexandra broyard quotes her husband in a letter to the publisher: “in a way, i had been an expatriate in the village, living in a style that was essentially foreign to me. i was flying, like a freudian dream of flying, and the book split consciousness ends with my attempt to come back down to earth” ( ). here again, he confirms that life in the village was separate from the normal american life to which he belonged. nevertheless, he does not acknowledge that he continued to live for the rest of his life under the guise of the character he invented in the village. in standby, sandy broyard, anatole’s wife, writes that in writing his memoir he was dealing with the “unresolved issues of his own childhood” and that writing was a “reinvention of himself ” ( ) confirming thereby the conclusion reached here. works cited boisseron, bénédicte. creole renegades: rhetoric of betrayal and guilt in the caribbean diaspora. gainsville: university press of florida, . print. brainard, marcus. belief and its neutralization: husserl’s system of phenomenology in ideas i. new york: state university of new york press, . print. broyard, anatole. “portrait of an inauthentic negro: how prejudice distorts the victim's personality.” commentary, july , pp. – . print. -----. intoxicated by my illness. new york: fawcett columbine, . print. -----. kafka was the rage: a greenwich village memoir. new york: vintage books, . print. broyard, bliss. one drop: my father’s hidden life – a story of race and family secrets. new york: back bay books, . print. broyard, sandy. standby. new york: knopf, . print. budick, emily miller. blacks and jews in literary conversation. cambridge: cambridge university press, . print. carston, robyn. thoughts and utterances: the pragmatics of explicit communication. oxford: blackwell publishing, . print. derrida, jacques. glas. trans. john p. leavey, jr. and richard rand. lincoln: university of nebraska press, . print. dostoevsky, fyodor. notes from the underground. new york: vintage classics, . print. gates, henry louis. “the passing of anatole broyard.” thirteen ways of looking at a blackman. ed. henry louis gates. new york: vintage books, . print. israel, michael, jennifer riddle harding and vera tobin. “on simile.” language, mind and culture. ed. michael achard and suzanne kemmer. stanford: csli publications, . print. amr elsherif kaplan, brett ashley. “anatole broyard's human stain: performing postracial consciousness.” philip roth studies, volume , number , fall , pp. - . print. ortega y gasset, josé. the dehumanization of art and other essays on art, culture and literature. princeton: princeton university press, . print. oshana, mariana. the importance of how we see ourselves: self-identity and responsible agency. maryland: lexington books, . print. tirrell, lynne. “reductive and nonreductive simile theories of metaphor.” the journal of philosophy, vol. , no. , july , pp. – . print. pii: - ( ) - advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. editorial necsus european journal of media studies www.necsus-ejms.org editorial necsus necsus ( ), spring : – url: https://necsus-ejms.org/editorial-necsus- / keywords: ai, artificial intelligence, editorial, film studies, intelli- gence, media, media studies this issue of necsus has been compiled, if not written, during the covid- pandemic which has produced a shock across various existential domains: personal, social, political, economic, public health — the list goes on. some of us may already have settled into new habits and routines that make this situation livable; yet a sense of loss is undeniable and, for many, lasting. as researchers, we are only beginning to engage with the fallout of covid- and think of ways to build more just societies. necsus is determined to contribute to this task by publishing research committed to social and envi- ronmental justice, and to the enquiry into the role of media in shaping a (post-)pandemic imagination. given how recent these developments are, this issue cannot yet fully address the impact and durability of the changes brought about by the emergence of the novel coronavirus. but the research presented here opens avenues for thinking and rethinking the relation be- tween culture, society and our media environment in the aftermath of the unfolding crisis — from the special section dedicated to the theme #intelli- gence, to the features articles, and the reviews about transformational (me- dia-based) politics. for the special section, our guest editors patricia pisters and ruggero eu- geni have compiled a set of articles that address artificial intelligence through the lens of media studies in a variety of ways. for instance, the special section includes a study of cutting-edge ai software in (hollywood) production pro- cesses as well as an investigation into the golem, a figure from jewish my- thology, as an early ‘prototype’ for artificial intelligence. readers will also find exciting new research on expanded cinema as machine learning and the role of ai in video games. for a more detailed overview, please read the in- troduction to the special section by patricia pisters and ruggero eugeni. https://necsus-ejms.org/editorial-necsus- / https://necsus-ejms.org/tag/ai/ https://necsus-ejms.org/tag/artificial-intelligence/ https://necsus-ejms.org/tag/editorial/ https://necsus-ejms.org/tag/film-studies/ https://necsus-ejms.org/tag/intelligence/ https://necsus-ejms.org/tag/intelligence/ https://necsus-ejms.org/tag/media/ https://necsus-ejms.org/tag/media-studies/ necsus – european journal of media studies vol ( ), the features section includes a rich interview with the important film scholars and programmers heide schlüppmann and karola gramann. the interview, written by julia leyda and chris tedjasukmana, charts the field of early film studies (mainly in west germany but also internationally) as expe- rienced by schlüppmann and gramann. the interview emphasises the cen- tral role of feminist film studies in these developments. in fact, the reader will learn that feminist film studies makes up the larger part of institutional film studies in s west germany. the interview also addresses the two subjects’ long-standing curatorial practice — for instance for the kinothek asta nielsen — and what they perceive as the political, cultural, and aesthetic stakes of curation, or ‘programming’ as gramann prefers to call it for political reasons. the research article by kata szita assesses smartphone spectatorship and its impact in film culture more broadly. first, the article pays close attention to the ways in which smartphones have changed the aesthetic and embodied experience of cinema. what does the experience we call ‘cinema’ turn into when it is facilitated through a smartphone? second, szita considers how the smartphone as delivery device feeds back into production and distribution practices. importantly, szita relates smartphone spectatorship to juan garcía espinosa’s concept of imperfect cinema to show that the still widespread re- sistance to smartphone-facilitated cinema is part and parcel of an elitist and exclusionary conception of industrial cinema. smartphone cinema, by con- trast, provides new opportunities for participatory and community-based cinematic practices. ian garwood’s article reflects on the possibility of the videographic mon- ograph. garwood’s general answer is yes, affirmed throughout this article and the wider project indy vinyl to which the article belongs. the more specific contribution of the article consists in the ways it addresses the tensions be- tween the more conventional monograph as a finished, long-form scholarly work and the more process-driven, exploratory, and experimental character of (digital) videographic work. readers will discover how various methods of videographic scholarship, including the explanatory essay, the supercut, and even social media posts, can be integrated into an overarching video-mono- graph — or mono-videograph? in her article on lars von trier’s the house that jack built, bodil marie stavning thomsen expands on her previous research to explore how von trier uses the iconic aspect of the cinematic image to propose an argument on iconicity in art more generally. tracing the relations between von trier’s editorial necsus various investments in the house that jack built — the principles of artistic creation, the aestheticisation of violence, the marketisation of aesthetics — thomsen’s argument toggles between the iconic as a semiotic diagram (fol- lowing c.s. peirce) and ‘the iconic’ as a market-ready, commodifiable image. the result of thomsen’s reading is an impressive account of how von trier both affirms and questions the icon or iconicity in its various guises. richard misek is the guest editor of this issue’s audiovisual essay section. misek presents oscar raby’s ‘manual for a disassembly of cinema’ and char- lie shackleton’s ‘a frame of the mind’. in addition, the section includes rich- ard misek’s own piece ‘a machine for viewing; a pillow of light’. together these three pieces form an exciting compilation experiment with live vr, which premiered irl at the sundance film festival in january and makes its online premiere here in necsus. lavinia brydon and victoria pastor-gonzález have assembled a book re- view section in which malgorzata bugaj reviews the volume futurist cinema: studies on italian avant-garde film and the monograph cubism and futurism: spiritual machines and the cinematic effect. nace zavrl reviews the volumes cel- luloid revolt: german screen cultures and the long in addition to and global cinema. bianka-isabell scharmann reviews the monograph film and fashion amidst the ruins of berlin and the volume film, fashion and the s. marijke de valck and antoine damiens have compiled the following festival reviews: zeynep kartal writes about queer city cinema’s ‘qaleidoscope’; niv fux provides an assessment of vr at idfa and iffr; and juan velasquez buritica interviews frank saptel of the canadian labour international film festival. the exhibition review section edited by miriam de rosa and leo goldsmith includes raquel schefer writing about photography and shaman- ism in the exhibition claudia andujar: the yanomami struggle at fondation cartier, paris, also occitane lacurie and bernabé sauvage conducting an in- terview with antonio somaini, curator of the exhibition time machine: cin- ematic temporalities at palazzo del governatore in parma. enjoy reading the issue, stay safe, and stay healthy. 	editorial necsus microsoft word - - - -ce.docx transmotion vol , no ( ) nokaa-zagaakwa’on gaawiin zagaakwasiiaag: tender buttons unfastened margaret noodin gertrude stein’s signature line, “a rose is a rose is a rose is a rose,” first appeared in her poem “sacred emily” in and was used by her throughout her life, becoming a red signature of repetition and linguistic machination. her writing is often a circuitous exploration of the play between sound and meaning in language that disrupts the standard use of words, allowing alternate connections to be made. stein once explained: when i said. a rose is a rose is a rose is a rose. and then later made that into a ring i made poetry and what did i do i caressed completely caressed and addressed a noun (stein , ). the idea of nouns caressed and addressed is sensual and evocative. stein does not offer romantic realism; she sketches a monologue of fragments. she uses sound and meaning the way a kaleidoscope uses refraction and reflection to create new patterns with familiar objects. her method of taking language apart in order to understand it better is useful in the work of language revitalization. she demonstrates how to fall in love with language as it falls apart and is reconstructed each time we speak. stein spun phrases into being in order to question the very nature of writing, representation, and interpretation, which speakers of all languages do. these operations are the fundamental defense of linguistic diversity. variety in linguistic engineering makes the potential of the entire system greater. and while language is focused first on the work of assisting survival, it is through pleasure, play and manipulation that languages come to life. the more different ways different languages can reflect the human experience, the more we are able to appreciate our shared and complex existence. this essay is a digression gertrude stein might have enjoyed if an anishinaabe poet had joined her saturday salons in paris with pablo picasso, ezra pound, mildred aldrich and others who practiced modern ways of fastening and unfastening words and images. the act of translating stein’s english into anishinaabemowin serves as a method of linguistic and artistic analysis. the anishinaabemowin lines offered here are experimental word play in response to the spirit of her work, not definitive equivalents. stein evokes the senses in writing to center margaret noodin “nokaa-zagaakwa’on gaawiin zagaakwasiiaag” identity on angles and dimensions not often included in verse. she offers social commentary in the form of images that can benefit from a range of diverse readings. anishinaabe-based explorations of the way she combines sensation, location, and history are not lessons in grammar or explication; they are ventures into a territory co-created by stein’s imagination and the over- arching aesthetics of anishinaabemowin. consider the following an example of nindinendaamin izhitwaawinan epiichi gaawiin zagaakwa’igaadesinoog gaye geyabi zagaakwa’igaazoyaang, unbuttoning and rebuttoning ideas across traditions. oginiwi – being a rose when stein’s signature rose-phrase moves from english into anishinaabemowin the definition of a rose and the purpose of repetition can be called into question by speakers willing to bend and stretch the common rules of anishinaabemowin. a rose / oginigaade (the idea of roseness) is a rose / oginiwi (is to be a rose) is a rose / ogininaan (to rose something) is a rose. / oginimaa. (to rose someone) in english, stein’s repetition of “rose” without change is a matter of meter and a lack of adjectives. her unnatural redundancy calls for an unnatural focus on the noun. from an anishinaabe perspective, repetition often shifts identity creating a spiral of contrasting relationships with an object. one option for an anishinaabemowin translation, which achieves a similar level of unnatural, or forced, focus on the rose, might allow the rose to move through all of the various states of animacy foundational to anishinaabemowin but not available in english. as the rose is re-imagined through different verb forms, the symbolic nature of the rose becomes an action and a potential point of re-interpretation. experimental wordplay with repetition allows the rose to take different endings, indicating different levels of animacy. animacy, it should be noted, is a difficult term, not explained. more than something that is simply living or non-living, or in motion versus still, the term is used to differentiate noun classifications and the four major types of verbs in anishinaabemowin. something “inanimate” is an event not defined by or viewed as being in an active relationship with other beings or objects. as the “animacy” of a person, place, thing, idea, or observable state shifts, it enters into more complex relationships transmotion vol , no ( ) with other animate and inanimate nouns. returning to the repetition of the rose, in anishinaabemowin a rose can be described as inanimate, an oginigaade, the essence of rose identity. or the rose could be described as an animate noun, opening up the possible ways the rose can be in the world. you or i could oginiwi, become a rose, which is similar to, but not the same as, oginikaazo, pretending to become a rose. this play with the “rose” is strange in both languages and does not follow the rules of vernacular conversation. just as a student of english would be told to replace repetition with adjectives, a student of anishinaabemowin would be told, “those words have not been used before.” yet in both cases the speaker or writer uses recognizable language and attention is unquestionably focused on the nature of a rose. patterns of repetition and word construction can lead to an expansion of meaning and perspective. stein’s english reframes linguistic experimentation and any translation and alternate reading of her work must do the same, which is why contemplation of a creative response to her writing is a worthwhile exercise. all translations call both sides of the equation into question. ezhi-gikendamaazoyaang - sensation one of stein’s most iconic poetic texts, tender buttons, was published in . while it may seem rooted in a specific parisian expatriate moment, there are instances where its content is surprisingly aligned with a north american indigenous perspective, as when she writes, “a canoe is orderly” ( ) or “a white hunter is nearly crazy” ( ). an anishinaabe poet might also appreciate the statement, “a feather is trimmed, it is trimmed by the light and the bug and the post, it is trimmed by little leaning and by all sorts of mounted reserves and loud volumes. it is surely cohesive” because it speaks of something animate “trimmed” or decorated and specially recognized ( ). the text is primarily viewed as aesthetic experimentation and has been read many ways including as extra-textual exploration, linguistic cubism, feminist sound poetry, and experiments in somatic writing (poetzsch, dubnick, marchiselli, bruner). it is certainly some of that for some readers, but it is not much of that for a reader using an anishinaabe frame of reference for whom the world cubed is a not-new concept; the gender signals “he, him, she and her” are not articulated the same way; a “modernist” break from the past was navigated through assimilative resistance, and automatic writing echoes the very familiar practice of listening margaret noodin “nokaa-zagaakwa’on gaawiin zagaakwasiiaag” beyond the plane of human understanding. for anishinaabe readers tender buttons is a rewarding challenge in translation and an affirmation of a shifting, sensory, spatial aesthetic. tender buttons is organized around sections featuring objects, food and rooms, but the assembly of words reveals the “centre” to be anything but the nouns. speaking about her own work in the context of what artists were doing at the time, stein said: “the painters were looking… and they too had to be certain that looking was not confusing itself with remembering… i began to make portraits of things and enclosures that is rooms and places because i needed to completely face the difficulty of how to include what is seen with hearing and listening” (stein, portraits). as cubism on the canvas is a refraction of multiple visual viewpoints, tender buttons is an attempt to create multiple sensory perspectives in poetry. she uses language in layers, which is, of course, appealing to speakers of agglutinative languages which by definition are constructed of multisyllabic layers of meaning with words that begin in the center and radiate description in multiple directions through meaning and inflection. for example, one translation of “cubism” might be “dawimazinbiige” to clear space, or make space while using lines to create an image. to say pablo picasso, george braques and gertrude stein all did this well becomes a single variation of the verb: ogii-nitaadawimazinbiigewag. stein creates a system of perceiving nouns from many visual directions. her writing is at times transformational, aanjisemagad. objects can move between states of inanimacy and animacy. in one case, “a carafe, this is a blind glass… an arrangement in a system to pointing” suggests an unseeing water vessel, which in english is an awkward and unusual phrase with one word originating in french ( ). anishinaabemowin has a tendency to not absorb words from other languages and has a mutable approach to nominalization. thus, the fancy “blind carafe,” could be described as: a zhaabwaate omooday, an inanimate bottle seen through; a gagiibiingwe- minikwaajigan, an object used for drinking that is unable to see; or part of an izhinoobii’igan, a system of pointing. in stein’s writing things come apart and are reassembled in new forms from various alternate angles. this same transformation is easy to echo in anishinaabemowin due to the way objects can be animate or inanimate depending on how speakers wish to represent them. stein speaks of: “four choices and there are four choices in a difference, the time when there are four choices there is a kind and there is a kind” ( ). stein and other modernists were often transmotion vol , no ( ) inspired by global indigenous art and ideas, often taking “primitive” art as inspiration for cubist abstraction. techniques considered “modern” from a th century post-industrial perspective can be reconsidered from an indigenous angle as a continuation and affirmation of traditional semiotics. although new and unusual to stein’s contemporary audience, this cubed approach is not avant-garde, forward advancing, niigaani-minisinoog, for anishinaabe readers; it is precisely what one should do, move between two word classes and four verb types to represent reality as precisely as possible within the realm of anishinaabe science and epistemology. an anishinaabe reading of tender buttons involves analysis of topics and translation. stein focuses primarily on the waves and elements of the universe as she experiments with the syntax and structure of her sentences. she explores color, light, sound, air, water and celestial bodies as a way of being in the universe. in anishinaabemowin, speakers often create their own descriptive terms for color based on personal experience and perspective. this is precisely what stein does. for example, a common word for “gray” in anishinaabemowin is akakanzhewaande, meaning “coal-colored” matching exactly with stein’s line: “color is in coal. coal is outlasting roasting and a spoonful, a whole spoon that is full is not spilling.” ( ). in translation this could become: akakanzhewaande akakanzhe, literally, “coal is coal-colored,” which capitalizes on the coincidence that the word for the color of coals is already commonly used as a color in anishinaabemowin. the morphemes “akak” and “aanzhe” in the word “coal-colored” call to mind edges on fire leading to the further play on words akakanzhewaanzhe akakanzhe, which is a stein-like instance of repetition. meanwhile, the second line about coal might become, “wenda-abwaadaan, akakanzhe-emikwaanens, mooshkine emikwaanens gaawiin ziigwebinigaadesiinoon.” (completely roasted, the coal spoon is a full spoon that is not spilling.) as with many parts of stein’s texts, staying true to the assonance and consonance of the original sometimes leads to the meanings taking a slight turn. the idea of outlasting slips to completeness in order to allow several consonants to repeat. as tender buttons continues, stein’s overall use of color decreases and several specific colors dominate the visual conversation. the summary below shows which colors appear most often. margaret noodin “nokaa-zagaakwa’on gaawiin zagaakwasiiaag” color objects food rooms total red white green yellow black blue brown orange total with no obvious explanations for the focus on miskwaa (red) and waabishkaa (white) readers are left with supposition. one interpretation might view the focus on miskwaa as a gesture toward miskwaa (red), the color of a rose. an anishinaabe cultural analysis might interpret the focus on miskwaa (red) as a reference to miskwaabik (copper), a metal prominent in the culture, common in the great lakes, and found in both miskwi (blood) and okan (bone). the emphasis on waabishkaa pulls into the conversation concepts of waabi (sight), waaban (the light of dawn) and waabanong (the east). in some cultures, white is purity and privilege, in others it is viewed more scientifically as waves of color combined and reflected, and specifically in anishinaabe words that contain “waabi” are tied to light and heat energy as well as the ability to see. the act of translation shifts possible interpretations. stein writes of color as something to be traded and exchanged between object and observer. more than purity she implies the need to perceive the mixing. she declares, “an ordinary color, a color is that strange mixture which makes, which does not make a ripe juice” (bagakisin enaandeg, mayagiginigawinigaadeg gaawiin aditewabookesii) ( – ). a translation of the phrase requires use of the prefix mayagi, which is close in meaning to “strange” but can also mean “unusual.” in english one can more easily label and separate nouns, while in anishinaabemowin one can be clear about ginigawinan and ginigawin, the nature of what is being mixed and by whom. whether each language offers clarity or obfuscation relates to the information organizing priorities of each culture. stein’s tender buttons are unusual in english because buttons are not typically described as tender. tender buttons are unusual in transmotion vol , no ( ) anishinaabemowin because buttons, zagaakwa’onag, are animate but nearly the same as zagaakwa’iganan, nails, which are not, and furthermore the act of buttoning zagaakwa’ is just one sound separate from zagaa’oozo, to be entangled. this incorporation of images and meaning is a logical response to reading stein, who works to broaden the range of description in her work. this practice also makes great sense to speakers of anishinaabemowin, which rarely imposes strict rules for description and places value on including all possible angles in a word or interpretation. for example, on the one hand, ozhaawashkwaande is all the blue-green between the sea and the sky while ozaawaande is the full spectrum of yellow-brown from yolk to earth. on the other hand, any highly specific item can be transformed into a color, as noted with coal becoming the standard for “gray.” stein’s desire to expand options for description occurs naturally in anishinaabemowin. she affirms the belief that every whole can be described as made of many parts when she asks: “why is there a single piece of any color, why is there that sensible silence, why is there resistance in a mixture…” (aaniin dash enaandeg, aaniin dash mikigaade bizaanayaan, aaniin dash nanaakonaan ginigawinigaadeg…) ( ). after mixtures of color in tender buttons, stein turns to sound. as the focus moves from objects to rooms, sound begins to take up space. for readers who are also singers this representation of sound is reminiscent of the world’s great improvisation traditions. for anishinaabe readers specifically, this move from patterns of meaning to patterns of sound is familiar as part of the drum and rattle tradition. some of the oldest songs and healing lyrics are heavily dependent on repetition marked by subtle variation. as stein uses the familiar global tradition of sensory disruption to create new rhythms, her line, “cadences, real cadences, real cadences and a quiet color” (madwe mii wenda-madwe mii sa wenda-madwe gaye bizaanenaandeg) harmonizes with her sentiment, “should there be a call there would be a voice” (giishpin ganoozhaad, ganoondiwaad) ( ). it is a simple equation. sounds are measured and cut like objects or lines of text. stein echoes the patterns of oral traditions based on observation. her technique is familiar to many cultures in which repetition is used to record reality, aid memory, and alter states of being. as with healing chants, her verse moves from literal data to a musical mantra and can easily flow between languages: “a no, a no since, a no since when, a no since when since…” (gaawiin mii gaawiin mii igo gaawiin apii sa gaawiin apii) ( ). discourse markers mii, sa and igo parse the oral narrative tradition in the way commas and other punctuation are used in english to provide in anishinaabemowin what is often provided by margaret noodin “nokaa-zagaakwa’on gaawiin zagaakwasiiaag” punctuation and word stress in english. these little words are often literally translated as “so,” “then” or “really,” but the lesson learned through the experience of translation is one of the ways in which sound adds to meaning. english is a language that bends now toward literature while anishinaabemowin still retains much of its oral past. stein was breaking english “rules” but acting in ways that conform to anishinaabe expectations. omaa aayaayaang - location related to the subjects of color and sound found in tender buttons is a discussion of wiikwiiwin, a form of energy that crosses distance, such as a wavelength or current. when stein asks, “what is the current that makes machinery, that makes it crackle… what is this current, what is the wind, what is it” ( ), she draws important correlations to anishinaabe epistemology. stein connects currents to machinery drawing a connection between science and society but does not explore those connections any further than to simply gesture toward crackle, control and the need to understand our physical environment. wind in anishinaabemowin is noodin and can be found as part of many words including: waasnoode (the northern lights), ganoodan and ganoozh (to speak to something or someone) and noodenim (to flirt with someone). embedded in an anishinaabemowin translation, stein’s questions of connections and control are more visible. not the same kind of current, water is also a thread through the text. she writes: “water astonishing and difficult altogether makes a meadow” (nibi maamakaanendaagwad gaye zanagag ezhi-omashkosiwibiigeyang) ( ). water is powerful and can shape the land. translating this phrase into anishinaabemowin it is possible to emphasize the way a meadow is written onto the landscape. the nature of water, nibi, when separated is both ni (there) and bi (here), which a poet might read as location and perception. certainly an anishinaabe reading would highlight her phrase “water, water is a mountain and it is selected and it is so practical that there is no use in money” (nibi, nibi aawan wajiw miinawaa nawaj aapiich zhooniyaa) ( ). in stein’s text water is climate, geography, and a base for artistic innovation. water and weather become music. “a climate, a single climate, all the time there is a single climate, any time there is a doubt, any time there is music” (izhiwebad agwajing da madwechige) ( ). water can be a symbol for systems of transfer, “cloudiness what is cloudiness, is it a lining, is it a roll, is it melting… a transfer, a large transfer” ( ), all of which could be reduced to two words transmotion vol , no ( ) aanjisemigad aanakwadoon, the way clouds change, if the translation aims for a core equivalency and a relative amount of initial and internal alliteration. at times, stein’s repetition does lead to a distillation of meaning, which works well with an anishinaabe reading. for life on earth, water is the center of being as stein agrees when she writes “any little thing is water” ( ), which can be echoed as the common anishinaabe phrase, nibi aawiyang (we are water). water is life. stein writes as if she is familiar with this phenomenology based on relationships between both human and nonhuman elements and actors. although she was not overtly working from this perspective, an anishinaabe reading highlights the ways in which she shifts human and non- human relationships on earth to align within a more complex network than one where humans are necessarily the center. her ability to situate her subjects in a network of knowledge beyond the human is another reason to read stein. tender buttons includes several references to the way scientific, seasonal, astrological, and meteorological ways of knowing influence the human world. stein asks and then answers: “star-light, what is star-light, star-light is a little light that is not always mentioned with the sun, it is mentioned with the moon and the sun, it is mixed up with the rest of the time” (anangaazhe, aanii abiskaakonesed, ezhi-zaagiiaasiged gaawiin apane dibaajimaasiiwangid miinawaa giizis gaye dibiki-giizis, mii ginigawinangwaa daso-diba’iganeg) ( ). to represent the possibility only alluded to in english, an anishinaabemowin translator must account for the fact that anangoog (stars), giizis (the sun), and dibiki-giizis (the night-sun, or moon) are all animate, which changes the way a reader might view the possibility that they influence perceptions of time. many anishinaabe readers will recognize the ways the universe is pulled into human lives. for instance, they might read into stein’s discussion of virgins the relationship between elders and youth who are coming of age. stein writes: “a virgin a whole virgin is judged made and so between curves and outlines and real seasons” ( ). one direct translation could be: oshkiniigikwe, gigi-oshkiniigikwe, dibaakonaanaan mii ge-waagishkaaged, izhibii’amawaanaan epiichii aandakiiwang (a new woman, a whole new woman, she is judged by them as she curves and is written by them as the seasons change). stein describes a young woman as changing, like the seasons, in a way that could be part of an anishinaabe vision quest, berry fast, or simply a portent of what she calls “a peaceful life to arise her, noon and moon and moon”, literally translated as “bizaanibimaadizi, ombishkaa, naawakweg gaye dibiki-giizis, margaret noodin “nokaa-zagaakwa’on gaawiin zagaakwasiiaag” dibiki-giizis” ( ). in stein’s writing and an anishinaabe interpretation, a young woman becomes a part of moontime and an eternal system of cycles that define experience as more than civility. connections between the human and non-human elements continue in tender buttons as stein writes of immovable clouds and thunder bridges: this cloud does change with the movements of the moon and the narrow the quite narrow suggestion of the building (o’o aanakwad anjisemigad apii giizis gaye dibiki-giizis mamaajisewaad miinawaa idamang agaasadeyaagamig)… a bridge a very small bridge in a location and thunder, any thunder, this is the capture of reversible sizing and more indeed more can be cautious (aazhogaans endaazhi- animikiikaang gakina aanjisemagad) ( ). affixing the gathering on narrow crossings in space and time not measured by clock or calendar is reminiscent of annual gatherings dictated by the relationship of earth to sky and is not as random to anishinaabe readers as it might have appeared to early industrial capitalists. gaa-ezhiwebag – history in many ways tender buttons can be read as a means of undoing of assimilation, which, according to stein, and many anishinaabe readers, might be a sensible decision. the sensible decision was that notwithstanding many declarations and more music, not even notwithstanding the choice and a torch and a collection, notwithstanding the celebrating hat and a vacation and even more noise than cutting, notwithstanding europe and asia and being overbearing, not even notwithstanding an elephant and a strict occasion… not even with drowning and with the ocean being encircling, not even with more likeness and any cloud, not even with terrific sacrifice of pedestrianism and a special resolution, not even more likely to be pleasing. ( ). is she writing against society or exploring the beauty of communal anarchy as led by a troupe of tricksters? to translate these sentiments possibly interpreted as an interrogation of cultural dominance, names for nations are needed along with a word for “notwithstanding.” it is a problem that the words for europe, “waabishkiiwed odakiim” (white ones’ homeland) or “agaaming gichigami” (the other side of the sea), are both simply indicators of distant shores. transmotion vol , no ( ) just as the terms “eastern” and “western” are not the global cultural and philosophical binary they are sometimes used to imply, the anishinaabe use of gaming (the sea) and bodies of water larger and smaller to locate other cultures does not do justice to actual national variation. this lack of cultural specificity reveals a gap in contemporary anishinaabemowin that will need to be filled by new descriptions for nations based on their actual history and self-declared identity if a full translation of stein’s work is ever attempted. the term “notwithstanding” is a bit easier; both zhaagooch and booch igo imply an air of diffidence in spite of any reasoning. in her meandering metaphor of assimilation, stein celebrates the ability of perception to vary infinitely. she leans toward the encircling oceans notwithstanding. many of stein’s culturally specific passages highlight this challenge of finding ways to accurately name nouns not a part of anishinaabe culture and identify meaningful terms for a number of english prepositions. but challenges in translation should not be considered reasons to avoid the task. as an expatriate poet living in paris, stein understood the meaning of dislocation and relocation. born in to jewish american parents, emigration and migration held a particular meaning for stein, but as she disassembles the term it can be read in many ways. her line in the passage based on a room, preceded by reflection on cardinal directions and followed by rhetorical discourse focused on seduction asks: “giving it away, not giving it away, is there any difference?” ( ). this phrase could productively be read as a post-constitutional, post-treaty critique about the shape and nature of gifts and what and why specific acts are defined as giving. in anishinaabemowin, there is no way to speak of giving without clarifying what is given, who is giving, who is receiving. there is no gift followed by the idiomatic fragment “thanks” used in english. instead, the word “miigwe” (the act of giving) is used to reflect a relationship based on “miizh” (giving to someone) often followed by “miigwechiwi” (thanks). a speaker of anishinaabemowin must determine: - does “we” includes the listener or not (gimiizhaanaanig or nimiizhaanaanig)? - are we are giving to them or they are giving to us (nimiizhaanaanig or nimiizhigoonaanig)? - are the giving and not giving always parallel with us giving to them and then not giving to them (nimiizhaanaanig mii gaawiin miizhaasiiwangidwaa) or are we sometimes giving to them and they are not giving to us (nimiizhaanaanig mii gaawiin miizhaasiiyangidwaa)? margaret noodin “nokaa-zagaakwa’on gaawiin zagaakwasiiaag” native nations were deconstructed through warfare, treaty-making and legislation. when the dawes act of used accounting as a means of erasure, who was doing the giving and whose land it was to give? translating the facts of history can be as difficult as verb paradigms. those who survived the giving often became forced and voluntary immigrants in a home rapidly becoming unfamiliar. stein’s tender buttons offers ways to think about nationhood and identity. oginiig – the roses this essay began by noting stein’s desire to use alternate means of expression to deconstruct perception and find the “center” of an object or idea. an indigenous reading of her work might identify the search for a center as a post-national enterprise. as stein moved to new angles to discern different truths she exchanged one view for another. first color, then sound, then wavelengths and dimensions led to new views. she composed strings of syllables as simultaneously readable and unreadable as picasso’s woman in a blue hat, eyes bulging, shapeshifting, trapped in two dimensions. the polysyllabic nature of anishinaabemowin easily lends itself to such a practice. the verb as the center of most words, is surrounded by prefixes, suffixes, tenses and other various possible additions radiating outward in both directions changing the meaning ever so slightly with each addition. stein’s system for reflecting on reality mirrors the economy and precision of perception long practiced by anishinaabe people, as well as many other indigenous groups, where there is no definite binary, no unidirectional chronology, but rather a living center of knowledge that is maintained through continual reinterpretation. the reason for holding fast to ceremony and tradition is not one of savage simplicity but rather sophisticated understanding of an ever- evolving universe. sustainability is not a romantic relationship to nature; it is a scientific response to shifts in space and time. perhaps stein was writing about a feast, some buttons and a roast, but in her words we can find the metamorphosis of mountains, the light of stars, and the sound of ideas. we find a center that defines better than edges. she sums it up well when she states, “what is the custom, the custom is in the centre” (izhitwaayang naawayi'iing) ( ). and in this center, wrapped in phenomenology and physics is spiritual tradition and the insistence that change is inevitable and survival depends on embracing it. her writing is dense and rambling perhaps, but so is life and the methods of healing and persistence. transmotion vol , no ( ) a religion, almost a religion, any religion, a quintal in religion, a relying and a surface and a service in indecision and a creature and a question and a syllable in answer and more counting and no quarrel and a single scientific statement and no darkness and no question and an earned administration and a single set of sisters and an outline and no blisters and the section seeing yellow and the centre having spelling and no solitude and no quaintness and yet solid quite so solid and the single surface centred and the question in the placard and the singularity, is there a singularity, and the singularity, why is there a question and the singularity why is the surface outrageous, why is it beautiful why is it not when there is no doubt, why is anything vacant, why is not disturbing a centre no virtue, why is it when it is and why is it when it is and there is no doubt, there is no doubt that the singularity shows. ( ) in the deconstruction of morphemes and translation of ideas, meanings do not always align and cannot always be tied to etymological history, but the structure and content of tender buttons can still cause questions to arise, new alignments to be realized, centers to be rebuilt. as stein writes of sensation, location and history, her words hold additional meaning for readers familiar with anishinaabe language and culture. this attempt at translation and anishinaabe reading, this bakonaan dibaajimowin, a skinning of the story, is not the only, or even the most productive method for reading stein, but it does produce new cross-cultural linguistic and literary comparisons. her atomic disassembly questions standard ways of perceiving nouns, actions, and relationships. her words render obvious the way patterns of language lead to different interpretations. tender buttons can be a source of cross-cultural inspiration. stein had her own dance in mind when she wrote: “dance a clean dream and an extravagant turn up, secure the steady rights and translate more than translate the authority, show the choice and make no more mistakes than yesterday” ( ). i will, gertrude, i will: biinishimoyaan bawaajimoyaan gaye maamakanendaagoziyaan, zhaabwitooyaan gweyakonakoniigeyaan, aanikanootamaan, aanikanootawagwaa, ayaangwaamendamaan gaye gaawiin waa awashme wanichigesiiyaan. works cited margaret noodin “nokaa-zagaakwa’on gaawiin zagaakwasiiaag” agnes smedley. race in north america: origin and evolution of a worldview. westview press, . bruner, belinda. "a recipe for modernism and the somatic intellect in the alice b. toklas cook book and gertrude stein's tender buttons." papers on language & literature . ( ): . dubnick, randa k. the structure of obscurity : gertrude stein, language, and cubism / randa dubnick. . marchiselli, chani anine. "queer sonorities: sound as persuasion in gertrude stein’s tender buttons." women's studies in communication . ( ): - . poetzsch, markus. "presence, deixis, and the making of meaning in gertrude stein's tender buttons." university of toronto quarterly . ( ): - stein, gertrude. "poetry and grammar," lectures in america. beacon press, . ----. “portraits and repetition.” collected in gertrude stein: writings and lectures by patricia meyerowitz ed. penguin books, . ----. tender buttons. dover publications, . zbornik_ _ .book original scientific paper / ( . )" / " . . КУЈАЧИЋ М. doi: . /zrffp - srĐan d. markoviĆ university of niŠ faculty of arts marta vukotiĆ lazar university of priŠtina with temporary head-office in kosovska mitrovica, faculty of philosophy department of history of art mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia abstract. the art of the fourth decade of the twentieth century which, as if it was announcing the world war ii, was polarized between so-called “pure art” (l’art pour l’art), engaged art (l’art pour l’idée), and war realism. this sepa- ration often caused ideological conflicts that were intensifying and spread- ing into the sphere of political conflicts. two models of the leftist ideological concepts are reflected into the social- ly engaged artistic work of the two programmatically declared groups, which were devoted to an engaged form of artistic activity: the group “earth” ( – ) from zagreb and the group “life” ( – ) from belgrade. social art in serbia had strong foundations in the second half of the third decade of the twentieth century and stretched throughout the period of war events until . in the period between the two world wars it started with the manifest of mirko kujačić, ( – ) published in and an exhibi- tion of his surrealistic collages, framed shoes, an object named the winter motif and its counterpart, the painting named the root of belgrade gentility. an important event for the continuation of such artistic tendencies was the forming of the group life in in belgrade, with kujačić as one of the founders and the main protagonist. keywords: yugoslav modern art, social art, graphics, painting, “life”, “earth”, “serbia”. magelen@mts.rs marta.vukotic@gmail.com this paper is a part of a research project serbian art of the th century: national and europe (oi ) financed by the ministry of education, science and technologic development of the republic of serbia. collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar introduction the global economic crisis, triggered by a fall in prices on the american stock market in september , destabilized the world and the european political system, thus making a negative impact on the area of newly formed kingdom of serbs, croats, and slo- venes (scs), later the kingdom of yugoslavia. during the twenties and thirties of the twentieth century, the kingdom positioned itself among the countries that had reoriented into market liberal socie- ties after the world war i, such as: france, england, czechoslova- kia, and weimar germany. in this way, it found itself between the right totalitarian systems: fascist italy and then nazi germany, and leftist societies such as ussr. as a leftist totalitarian society, ussr submitted the principles of the liberal market and individual human and citizen freedom to planning market and class privileg- es, while the individual was losing their positions. the late twenties and thirties of the twentieth century in ussr marked a centralized party formation of all aspects of the life of the “working class avant-garde”, where the leader of the communist party was elevat- ed to the level of the cult personality (Šuvaković , pp. ). faced with the dissapointing expectations, immediately after the world war i, that the freedom would bring them prosperity, as a reward for a deserved and important role they had in the events related to the creation of a newly founded state of equal nations and nationalities, the peasants and the working class felt betrayed. they returned from the war, wounded, bitter, and deeply dissa- pointed. everything they believed while fighting was, unfortunate- ly, a deception prepared by war profiteers, deserters who did not even feel the horrors of the war, the crossing of the albanian gulch- es, and life without homeland. heroes of the war encountered pov- erty and humiliation directly from those for whose interests they had fought. it is logical that in the atmosphere of failed hopes in better and more just life there was an urge for rebellion and resist- ance, both among workers and peasants, but also among the part of the inteligentsia and artists, in particular the artists. for, the crea- tor, in principle, cannot live and create beyond the time in which they exists. they, therefore, partly critically speak about the bitter doom, by not accepting the time which was given to them to live in. the creator, partly as a socially engaged artist, strives to point out the absurdity of some “new rules” in the society, labeling them mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar through painting, writing, insisting to make people mull over what yesterday’s warriors and heroes —who spend their last days in pit- eous settlements on the outskirts of big cities, in constant anxiety, fear, and concern over what tomorrow has in store for them—truly need. therefore their turning to the influences of the ideas of equality advocated by the october revolution seems logical. in the kingdom of scs, under the influence of the october ideas, begins the creation of revolutionary cores in the wing of social-democratic organizations, which played an important role in the development of the labor movement and the idea of creating a unique labor party. the communist party of yugoslavia was found- ed at a congress in belgrade in april , in the hotel “slavija”, under the name of socialist labor party of yugoslavia. it stood on revolutionary positions and joined the third international. it was becoming more and more popular, and it made a great success in the general elections, so in it changed its name to the commu- nist party of yugoslavia. in fear of such power of the communist party, the government in belgrade proclaimed the announcement, on december the th, , banning any communist activity and organization; later the persecution was extended to the strongest syndical organizations and the law on state protection was also established (dedijer , pp. ). apart from the economic crisis, the country was facing the strike of the national movement and ris- ing resistance of the communists. after the assassination of the radić brothers in the assembly, the king firmly opted for the abso- lutist reign without intermediary; he abolished the vidovdan con- stitution and dissolved the assembly. deprivation of basic rights, explained as the way of protection of the most vital national and state interests and the future of the country, caused numerous objections among the syndicalists, in schools and universities, as well as in the countryside, and the dissatisfaction was then publicly reported in the streets of the city. the impact of politics over the creation of social art in serbia belgrade set the stage for various political conflicts. the assassina- tion in the assembly on june , , the absolutism of karađorđe- vić, the abolition of the constitution ( / / ), the crisis of collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar parliamentarianism, the ban of the parties and associations, the difficult position of workers and peasants, all of this conditioned the increasingly difficult position of artists in the country, there- fore, in serbia. the reputation of the communist party was getting more powerful in the intellectual circles. after two years of the sixth-of-january dictatorship the problems accumulated, and burn- ing socio-political issues, especially those of national significance, gained increasingly alarming proportions, and as the solution it has been resorted to the proclaiming of the new octroised consti- tution / / . in the year of , shortly before the november elections in belgrade, the first mass student demonstrations occurred under the auspices of the communist party, opening the gates to the creation of the national resistance and the popular front (Ćetković , pp. – ). the demonstrations in belgrade were met with sympathy and support from the citizens. revolutionary, socialist, proletarian art, viewed from the aspect of aesthetics during the october revolution to lenin’s death, was not homogenous, nor was it distinguished by a homogenous nor- mative aesthetics. it was appearing in the spectrum of different sty- listic determinants, starting from cubism, futurism, artistic experiment to proletkult. the beginnings of the “revolutionary art”, “left art”, or more precisely “social art”, can be found in the enlightenment and the populist conception of art, which was con- ceived and developed under the auspices of the bolshevik party, and it was unequivocally presented in by the ahrr resolution (the association of the revolutionary artists of russia), where it was not difficult at all to see the ideas of the perpetrators and the striving for rehabilitation of such painting. a logical extension of such ideas in ussr is “the second international conference of pro- letarian and revolutionary writers”, held in kharkov in , when “the resolution on political and creative issues of the internation- al proletarian and revolutionary literature” was adopted, and new, unique party platform on the field of ideology and culture was established, together with declaring the social realism as the offi- cial proletarian aesthetics (trifunović , pp. ). regardless of the fact that party platform had an uneven degree of acceptance, depending on the country-to-country differences, its theoretically specified doctrine demanded consistency and uniqueness in application. left-oriented artists, striving to engage in artistic practice in order to critically review social realities, resorted to critical social and socialist realism, which ranged from mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar the french art of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century (cezzanism, postcubism, expressionism of forms, neoclassicism, and traditionalism), throughout the twentieth-cen- tury american, british, and german critical social art, then the new german objectivity, to the soviet social, and socialistic realism. the phenomenon of the social realism differs from the emer- gence of the socialistic realism, which was dictated and normative and blindly sticking to the directives and principles of the party. unlike it, the social realism, despite being founded on the figura- tive, is a way and a means by which can be pointed out to an unfair polarism within the society, hence its ideas are often identified with anarchism, the ideas of the trotskyism, and even with the left-oriented engaged visions of the avant-garde (dedić , pp. – ). avant-garde art emerged on the territory of the kingdom between – within specific avant-garde cultures, serbian, croatian, bosnian-herzegovinian, and slovenian, and in the time of the transformation of the bourgeois society into “the society of the mass mechanically-electric reproduction and communication”, within the framework of modern art, culture and society, and, as Šuvaković states “as a radical, transgress and experimental artistic and cultural practice” (Šuvaković , pp. & ). it was a period of realisation of political and cultural idea of yugoslavness, the community of south slavic nations. the art of the third decade of the twentieth century in the king- dom of scs positioned itself between avant-garde and traditional- ism (dadaism, postcubism, expressionism of the form, lˋesprit nouveau, etc.), and after that, in accordance with the need to declare itself in the direction of the “engaged art” it returned to the tradition and academism, which nadežda petrović, a serbian and slovenian impressionist, already abandoned at the beginning of the twentieth century. poet avgustus cesares stayed in the soviet union in the period of – , and in “literary republic” from zagreb he published the article “modern russian painters, art in the revolution and abstraction in art” in . kandinsky, maljevic, tatlin, where he wrote about the complexities and contradictions of “the socialist modernity” in ussr (Šuvaković , pp. ). in the period from – the world of fine arts was desig- nated in magazines as well, such as: “svetokret”, “zenit”, “dada tank”, “dada jazz”, “dada yok”, “ut”, “hipnos”, “ in europe”, collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar “rdeci pilot”, “the new stage”, “tank”, the almanacs “impossible” and “surrealism here and now”. these magazines were not intend- ed for literature only, but they were “intertextual and interpictural experimental creations” that created a “specific avant-garde model of textual-visual expression” (Šuvaković , p. ). avant-garde fought for the autonomy of painting, sculpture, and graphic media, striving to create the notion of yugoslav avant-garde (dragan alek- sic), or the balkan avant-garde (ljubomir micić), which it failed to accomplish, but its specificity could be recognized only in the domain of the intertextual, interpictural, and intermedial trans- gression of literature and media arts. in yugoslav avant-garde it is possible to talk about utopian ideas of the “ total artwork” (gesamtkunstwerk) which came down to manifesto of attitudes and utopian projects (the new age of mitri- nović, barbarogeny and micić’s balkanization of europe as well as the zenitism of jo klek), but also about the clashes of the avant-gar- de and modernists, zenitists and dadaists, zenitists and surrealists, avant-garde artists and socially engaged artists, the leftist intellec- tuals of the party and non-party leftist intellectuals. viewed from the ideological aspect, yugoslav avant-garde was left-oriented, marxist, and under the influence of the party (Šuvaković , p. ). the art of the fourth decade of the th century, which, as if it was announcing the second world war, was polarized between the so called “pure art” (lˋart pour lˋart), the engaged art (lˋart pour lˋidée) and combat realism. this separation was often the cause for the ideological conflicts that were intensified and crossed into the sphere of political conflicts (protić , pp. – ). the relation to fine arts, which was expressed in the resolution of the harkov con- ference in , significantly influenced belgrade socially oriented critics and the art at the beginning of the fourth decade of the twentieth century. this conclusion is also based on the fact that oto bihalji merin took part in the work of the kharkov conference, though officially as a member of the german delegation of writers, designated to be an intermediary between yugoslavia and the sovi- et union, which was strongly felt in his exhibitions by art and among artists in serbia after . merin’s approach to the prob- lems of visual art is dominated by the proclaimed axiological meth- od of perfection, in the relationship between society and art. art is the reflection of reality, and the artist is the one who is obliged to represent the historical reality to the audience, because it is mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar reflected inside him and the proletariat consciously participates in it. this unreserved acceptance of the soviet variant of the socio-realistic doctrine (the thematic recipe and the means for its realization) pushed yugoslav creativity into the waters of conform- ism and pedagogical-programmatic action, and in the period between the year and it was influenced by a part of what we consider by the term “evil doom” of the soviet art (marković , pp. – ). that is the very reason why oto bihalji merin is also considered one of the main intermediaries through whom the information about the kharkov conference and the content of the kharkov resolution arrived in yugoslavia (rozić , pp. ). as the principle for its cultural policy the communist party of yugoslavia also accepts the doctrine of the socialist realism, which is implemented in all fields of the cultural-artistic life with the sup- port of the visual expression of its followers, protagonists and activists. numerous new magazines are being launched, such as “stožer” (belgrade – ), “danas” (zagreb, ), “pečat” (zagreb – ), “literatura” (zagreb, – ), “our reality”, “life and work”, “art and criticism”, nin, “workers’/labor papers”, “young culture”, books of social content were published, in a word the social engagement of the artist was becoming gradually more obvious. in the area of fine arts that idea was born in the movement called “the social art”. this movement, however, never reached unique- ness in both the aesthetic and ideological concept in the kingdom of yugoslavia. in the early s, at the time of break with social realism, bihalji suddenly broke away into the group of modernists. in the book by predrag j. marković belgrade between east and west (p. ) there is a witty account of bihalji's shift to the group of modernists. namely, the story starts somewhat earlier and is relat- ed to the exhibition of four painters from the soviet union (aleksandra dejnek, arkady plastov, aleksandar gerasimov and sergei gerasimov, in august – remark made by s. m.) in belgrade, to which bihalji led the whole “borba” group, paying particular attention to “gerasimov’s painting the kolkhoz holiday, especially the young boy wearing a t-shirt and riding a bicycle, which he called ingenious. this story of bihalj-merin was written by mihailo lalić almost a dec- ade later. what is interesting is lalić’s commentary on the modernist transfor- mation of bihalji: “it seemed to me that oto bihalji-merin, by means of this ger- asimovean bicycle, had transferred from realism to modernism, from east ber- lin to the west.” collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar after the kharkov conference and breton’s second manifesto (bre- ton , pp. ), the engaged art of the fourth decade of the twen- tieth century was joined by surrealists as well. following the anniversary of hegel’s death, “eleven surrealists”, the first of whom was a. vučo, and the last m. ristić, published a brochure in , a kind of manifesto named “the surrealist position”, which was made in , in belgrade. on this occasion and at that place, they declared themselves as the followers of those who wanted to actively participate in changing the social reality. the same year, “the plan for one phenomenology of the irrational” by marko ris- tić and koča popović was published, where the relationship of the surrealist to the historical materialism was explained. the maga- zine “surrealism here and now” was also published that year, which was shut down after the third issue, the same thing hap- pened to the collective surrealist movement in serbia (Ćosić, , pp. ). the idea of the social movement in literature at that time, which was crucial for the formation of ideological positions and painters of that time, was the concept within which the artistic practice takes an important role in shaping a new, free, and humane society. this lasted until the appearance of the magazine “danas”, which announced the collapse of the “social literature” by opening a new polemic circle in serbian and croatian media from the period of – (tesic , p. ). after the collapse, the surrealist group came to the left, although there were also heavy differences in the field of the theoretical thought and criticism: some were devoted followers of the politics of the party in the domain of culture and art as well, while the oth- ers, by following krleža’s “foreword to the book of drawings of podravian motifs by krsta hegedušić”, suggested the synthesis of art and revolution, which started the conflict on the left (lasić , p. – ). mirko kujaČiĆ ( – ) herald of social art in serbia the art scene in which the social movement was active existed not only in the city of belgrade, but it spread all over the country. it was an art that was interested in the poor, the lives of workers and mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar peasants, the art that was growing next to the masses of people, in poor working-class suburbs, on construction sites, on the fields, etc. the social art deeply believed that it could contribute to the realization of the social justice, social changes to better, by the rev- olution and establishing the working-class authorities/power. by entering into the lives of workers and peasants, the artists brought art into their lives and life into art, as a signpost, as a social need, and as an integral and engaged part of the social struggle. artists of the social tendencies in serbia were primarily oriented toward paris, then to the ussr, but also to the great names of ger- man and belgian social art. it is precisely in kujačić’s work, the woodprint “there is no such thing as a free lunch” from that, the influence of the north and fiedler’s, riegl’s and worringer’s theoretical and critical texts about the work of art as a product of the internal necessity, as the product of two principles that are related as correlation: the work of art as an expression of the art- ist’s intention, on one side, and the work of art as the result of image . mirko kujaČiĆ, self-portrait, x , woodprint, not dated, private property. collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar empathy on the other, can be clearly discerned. it is precisely kujačić’s close intimacy and understanding of the position of the disenfranchised and, at the same time, a harsh criticism of the rul- ing class which holds nothing sacred and has irrepressible thirst for wealth at all costs, which can be “read” in a complacent expres- sion on the face of the exploiter and the position of his body, lolled in the armchair, while in the second plan of the statement factory halls can be seen, with illuminated windows and smoke that gush- ing out of the chimney points out to his relying on the ideology of the western provenance social art, first of all to the artists gath- ered around the group “the new reality”, which, partly, arose from the creators that were gathered around the group “the bridge”, primarily george grosz and otto dix. the incentive that came from the ussr was emerging out of two conceptually separated and significantly different artistic ways: engaged painting of academic forms, such as the work of boris kus- todiev, aleksandr and sergei gerasimov, aleksandr dainek, arkady plastov, etc., and on the other side, from the wing of the russian avant-garde, led by el lissitzky, vladimir tatlin, aleksandr rod- chenko, aleksandr vesnin, kazimir maljevich, etc., whose theoreti- cally designed background had similar minds and followers among social artists in serbia. the ways of art to which the russian avant-garde gravitated in its revolutionary enthusiasm was best expressed by vladimir majakovski, advocating for the art that lives on the street, in squares, in factories, in working-class apartments, naming the streets “our brushes” and the squares “our pallets” (mitrović , p. ). except the influence from the ussr, the ger- man social art was a great role model to the yugoslav painters, especially gross’ art, which gained a distinguished place in the left- ist press, where its sententiousness was praised and reduced to two words: “fierce and militant”, but at the same time wrapped with the refined lyricism and intimistic processing. mirko kujačić was, according to today’s criteria, a multimedia artist of exceptional education, versatile talent, and culture. first he graduated from ballet-acting school, became a master of ballet (ministry of education led by b. nušić and national theater called a competition for education of young actors and masters of ballet in ), and then he started working in the national theater in bel- grade. klaudia isachenko, one of many russian refugees in belgrade of that time, a teacher in the ballet-acting school and one of the founders of the belgrade ballet ( – ), recognized the talent mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar in that tall and lean young man, and then she tried to make kujačić immediately get several roles as a ballet dancer and an actor. relentless and rebellious in terms of spirit, unhappy with the entertaining part of the theater, as he used to say, he adamantly abandoned it, theatrically refusing to play the role of a priest, and then he wrote his resignation in a pathetic tone, where he stated his disappointment in the temple of the goddess thalia, which was converted, as he stated, into a fairground and the actors into ordi- nary entertainers (vukotić, , pp. – ). that was a period when kujačić chose fine arts. primarily he was attracted to sculp- ture (art school in belgrade, toma rosandić, ), and then he opted for painting. the immediate reason for this was the wedding and the departure of ivan lučev to paris, who was an excellent friend of his, and the student of petar dobrović at that time. imme- diately after that, kujačić applied for the french scholarship through the ministry of education, which he eventually received. he decided to share the scholarship with his colleague and friend dragan baja beraković, with whom he went to paris in andre lhote’s studio (studio a. lotta, first stay ; second stay, ). his stay in andre lhote’s studio in , his advice and, above all, the analysis of the work of classical and modern art, beneficially influenced kujačić. it can be seen in his map graphics called “fish- ermen”, in purging and reducing the statement. the purging in terms of narration and reducing the composition to the basic dynamic structures, in which the body movement of the fishermen gathered around the crates of fish is wisely controlled and directed at the leash with the movements of other fishermen, which gradu- ally increased the expression and achieved almost the baroque strength of utterance without contact with narrativeness. regardless of the expression, in itself, which emerges from the relationship of black and white, the relationship that is appropriate to the graphics, kujačić directed all the drawing skills toward the “disburdenment/relieving” of the utterance through the accentu- ated linear tremolo which restricts, almost sculptural form, of the fishermen gathered on the deck. the whole structure of human m. vukotić „Нова аванnарqа у с[аром закашњењу. Разnовор са Мирком Куја- чићем“ Ти[оnраq: ОВДЈЕ nоq. xvii �р. , Ти[оnраq, – , . М. vukotić in- terviewed mirko kujačić in his home in mostar, on the occasion of a retrospec- tive exhibition held on the premises of art gallery in mostar. the interview ran smoothly, simply and spontaneously. during this informal interview the artist answered as many as questions, which were later edited and published. collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar bodies located in a triangular spatial scheme was opposed by the stylized ornamental frieze of the rippling sea that touches the structure of the sky on the right side of the composition, through which he gained a rational and thoughtful utterance inspired by real life. unlike this utterance (“the sun is scorching, the sardella must be brined”) in the woodprint, from the same map, “they raise traps on the hunting grounds”, kujačić reduced the expression down to a minimum, primarily with the subtle linear “weaving” of the composition in the central part which is comprised of the fish- ermen’s figures, placed in a triangular compositional scheme, who collect fish from the traps. to that, in essence, calm and stabile composition, the movement and controlled expressive energy is given by acridly defined move- ments of the clouds and sea waves in the background. but it seems that the influence of andre lhote and his theories is felt in one of his oils created around . in this picture, which was gromerly understood in the composition, also from the life of the fishermen, as if the most recent lessons of lhote and interest in the scenes from everyday life, for introduction of the color and overcoming of the achromatic structure of orthodox cubism and for creation of deepened space within which the forms can develop freely. representatives of “zenitism” and “barbarogenia” were espe- cially prominent in the design of marko kujačić’s artistic world, which was greatly encouraged by his association with branko ve poljanski and ljubomir mićić. in that period he was also signed as “mir barbar”. one of many leftist activists’ events bears witness to the association of kujačić and mićić, which was recorded by, at that time, agitated belgrade daily press. that was about the “open let- ter to rabindranath tagore” printed as a flyer by kujačić and mićić, and then with a lot of theatricality and fighting spirit they were throwing it on the visitors of the “kolarac’s national university” in the crowded hall during tagore’s lecture on november , . this action was preceded by loud shouting of the paroles such as “down with tagore!”, “long live gandhi!” which was intended to draw attention of gandhi’s incarceration and that nothing was being done on this matter except some parlor lectures where the modern civilization was glorified, as they explained in the letter (vukotić, , pp. – ). mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar kujačić also cooperated with the “cloud” group, which he consid- ered to be contributing to the affirmation of the art creation freedom and the personal expression, but also in the “fight” for modern art in yugoslavia, even though they were “l’art-pour-l’art-the-same”. in paris, he was especially associated with petar palavicini, and an event from their socializing with josephine becker describes the turbulent and artistically interesting life, when, on the proposal of petar palavicini, they prepared a particular event (happening) in “luxor” wine cellar in paris, where, in banana skirts, a costume that becker launched, in the spirit of her “banana dance” they played a surprise show picking up a loud applause along with her enthusiasm (vukotić, , pp. – ). in contact with the representatives of the yugoslav avant-garde, paris, lhote, as well as the leftists in belgrade, he forms his political tendencies. much of it came from his house. kujačić’s father, doctor by trade, whose house was a gathering place of the “clubbers” and “the righters”—the representatives of advanced ideas in montene- gro at that time—translated tolstoy’s “social position in russia” at that time, and by the end of his life he even translated “iliad” in decasyllabic (Ćetković, , pp. ). fighting artistic performance of mirko kujaČiĆ on april , in belgrade all these influences and events were so called “fighting guidelines”, directed his “fighting artistic performance” on april , in small gallery of the artistic pavilion “cvijeta zuzorić”, prepared by mirko kujačić himself, which today is an unavoidable event in the context of history of art in serbia and yugoslavia. for this performance, kujačić had been preparing for more than a year, tirelessly working in the studio of ivo seremet in jevre- mova st. in belgrade (vukotić, , pp. – ). his intention was to separate himself from, as he used to say, artistically-individualistic for more information please consult: Ф. Мирски, „Инqијски национализам. Повоqом qоласка n. Ра�инqрана[ Таnоре“, Беоnраq: Поли_ика . . , Бео- nраq, ; Аноним, „Ра�инqрана[ Таnоре у Беоnраqу“, Беоnраq: Поли_ика . . , Беоnраq, ; Аноним, „Беоnрађани оqушевљено qозqрављају вели- коn инqијскоn qесника. Два qреqавања n. Ра�инqрана[а Таnора“ “, Беоnраq: Поли_ика . . , Беоnраq, . collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar and subjective contents, in favor of application of new, advanced leftist ideas of the social justice and concern for the poor. he did not manage to perform this immediately, not only because the work of belgrade artists was founded on it, but also because he him- self based his work on those tendencies (trifunović, , pp. , – ). the breach with that kind of art was seen in the theme that would “symbolically” talk about new ideas. in the studio, he started working on a female act, without the model, big dimen- sions, which he was working out in such a way that he turned it upside down, so that the head of the imaginary model was faced downwards. after that, he continued working on this act in a bel- grade slaughterhouse. two poor boys and a colleague Žika vlajnić helped him to relocate a large canvas, which no longer resembled an act, but a slaughtered bull, as well as painting equipment, around the slaughterhouse (trifunović , pp. ). one of the boys was wearing ragged footwear from which one could see his frozen, muddy feet that at the same time inspired kujačić to make a collage named “the brogue”. at the same time he continued to work on the big canvas for which he came to the slaughterhouse, in a place full of blood and slaughtered bulls. in such an atmosphere “the skinned bull” was made, in almost real dimensions, which was to be exhibited, next to the collage in “cvijeta zuzorić” in . in in artistic pavilion “cvijeta zuzorić”, mirko kujačić per- formed a multi-layered “play” which can be classified as the prede- cessor of “happening” in serbia. in front of a crowded gallery of belgraders and other visitors, he first proclaimed his “fighting manifesto”, theatrically standing in front of, for this occasion, his own socially engaged collages. for this occasion, he was purposely dressed, as a wage-worker from the street. creased trousers and a blue-collar shirt more intensely underlined the importance of everything written in the “manifesto”, but also of everything creat- ed on the collages. kujačić surprised even his closest associates and friends with his “warlike reading with ardor and pathos, the clenched fists and combat gesture” (tešić , p. ). the mani- festo was read at a joint exhibit with staša belozanski, but whose works remained in the shadow of the unusual event organized for belgrade audience by kujačić (n.j. , p. ). except the “manifes- to”, the present met with two works, also unusual for the time and space in which they were created, with two surrealist collages: the first, where a torn brogue was nailed in a framed and painted white canvas, removed from the leg of one of the boys from the slaughter- mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar house, which was captioned below as “winter motif”. reserved for the museum of humane societies” and its counterpart, the second collage, with which, as he himself stated “something should be told to belgraders”. that was a smaller two-color painting, on which there was a (bunch) of leek with a caption underneath: “the root of belgrade gentility” (vukotić, , pp. – ). after presenting the “manifesto”, kujačić set a stool in front of a large painting, oil painting, captioned “skinned ox” and intro- duced the audience with the history of its creation. he then called his friend, josip kulundžić the director of the national theater in belgrade at that time , to stand in front of the canvas and invite the audience, through the dialogue with the artist, to reveal what was the aim of the event. since there was no discussion, kujačić made a loud statement that he accepted silence as the approval of his “manifesto” and everything else that was proclaimed at the exhibi- tion. at the very end of this unbelievably visited exhibition in bel- grade, he added, with the same ardor and his unique theatricality, that from that day on he “rejects any further cooperation with art for art, because he does not want to “raise” his personality through art, but he puts his forehead, eye, and arm before human thought for poetry of progress, for a healthy man, for the fight against sanc- tified ideals, against the tradition, against eternal beauty […]” (n. j. , pp. ). “the manifesto” and the surrealistic collages shadowed all previ- ous opinions which he proclaimed in magazines “time”, “politics”, “nin”, etc., as an art critic and a theorist. however, this event, not even “the manifesto” in which a typically leftist view on art was clearly exposed, did not encourage the critics of ancient and peri- odical press to comment, evaluate or criticize it, but everything went almost unnoticed, with the exception of several critics (dra- gan aleksić, rastko petrović) directed to kujačić’s painting (rozić , pp. – ). regardless of the cynicism of rastko petrović that a shoe with holes in it is well placed on the gray background of the woven cloth (petrović, , p. ), kujačić’s closeness and knowledge of the events in european and world avant-garde art scene cannot be dis- puted today. this is related, above all, to dishan’s performances josip kulundžić ( – ) zemunac, who is little known, he was a founder of department of dramatic arts in belgrade and its first professor, writer, direc- tor, theater pedagogist, theatre director in croatian national theater, serbian national theater in novi sad. collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar within the framework of the dada movement and exhibitions of the objects in the gallery space, that is, to attempt the redefining of the object according to oneself, the utility object, into the object as a work of art that is exhibited in the gallery space. but unlike dis- han’s approach to a finished object without emotions and senti- mentalism, which, by his choice, he elevates to the work of art, kujačić’s selection of the apprentice’s torn shoes and the title of the work itself, “winter motif, ”, clearly indicates his engagement and the need to speak to the extent of his own being through a con- crete object that belongs to the misery and hopelessness of every- day life, rebelliously, romantically, and symbolically pointing to the misery and lowness of the world, with which he is faced as a creator and a humanist. in the atmosphere of the changing autumn and spring exhibi- tions in the art pavilion “cvijeta zuzorić”, kujačić’s exhibition came in like a bolt from the sky, like a rebellion, resistance, like a public invitation to protest, but also like a specific form of a preced- ing performative action or “happening”, with which the life of the working class is introduced to the gallery, to the world of art, and social justice and rectitude are problematicized with it. for the first time in serbian fine arts history a program of social art in such an image no. . mirko kujaČiĆ, there is no such thing as a free lunch, , x , woodprint, , private property. mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar original, strong and impressive way was exhibited. in essence, kujačić was far more interested in proclaiming the studio-made spirit of protest and resistance in the gallery, on the street or in public, than constructing a new artistic utterance or aesthetics. kujačić’s work is the performance of production, the exchange and consumption of events, whose aim was to destabilize the contextu- al situation. this involved revising the function of the artwork by subjecting it to the excessive, experimental, and emancipatory artistic practice (Šuvaković, , p. ). as a result of this event, as was kujačić’s exhibition in “cvijeta zuzorić”, there was a demand, almost spontaneously, for the groups of artists to unite and to form a unique front of common “combat requirements” in a joint performance. mirko kujaČiĆ and the appearance of the artistic group “life” ( - ) between the work of surrealists and the appearance of the group “life”, social art in serbia is in full swing after kujačić’s “manifes- to” that was devoted to “collective art of justice, sacrifice and brotherhood” (Ćetković, , p. ). the thing that follows, as the logical and unavoidable consequence of the “manifesto” and the exhibition in “cvijeta zuzorić”, is the formation of the group “life” in in belgrade whose founder and main protagonist, among others, was kujačić himself. the group was formed in his apart- ment at the mansard in petrogradska st. in belgrade. after sever- al preparatory meetings, the group was formed, as mirko kujačić remembers, except him, by Đorđe andrejević kun, radoica Živano- vić noe, dragan baja beraković, josip bepo benković, Đurđe todor- ović and steva bodnarov, although todorović and bodnarov, as kujačić remembers, disagreed on the matter of presence on the first constitutive session of the group “life”. exceptional impor- tance of Đorđe andrejević kun for this artistic movement is accen- tuated in the technical literature, however, without denying that, kujačić described him also as a quiet and taciturn man, who rarely spoke in the group, while, as kujačić remembers, radoica Živanović noe was the main theoretician in the group, but also the main agi- tator together with beraković and kujačić (vukotić, , pp. – ). the group that was soon joined by numerous artists of the collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar same artistic orientation, including moša pijade, bora baruh, pivo karamatijević, etc., continued to meet regularly in jevremova st. in the studio of the sculptor vladeta piperski. “life” was seen as an illegal group influenced by the communist party from the very beginning, which was one of the reasons that it had never had an independent exhibition of its own, but it only appeared within reg- ular autumn and spring exhibitions and acted within the society “cvijeta zuzorić”. in the kingdom of yugoslavia there were two models of the left- ist ideology concepts that were reflected into socially engaged artistic work of the two programmatically declared groups, which were devoted to the engaged form of artistic action: the group “earth” ( – ) from zagreb (depolo, , pp. – ) and the group “life” ( – ) form belgrade. on the occasion of the exhibition of the group “earth in belgrade” in , the members of image no. mirko kujaČiĆ, the sun is scorching, the sardella must be brined, , x , , from the map “fishermen, woodprint, , private property. mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar the group “life” conducted a great propaganda for this exhibition and organized a meeting with the “earthlings” in piperski’s studio, where all joint aims were noted, along with all the significant dif- ferences between these two groups, in terms of the notional and aesthetic view. in addition to “earth” dealing with the rural prole- tariat and “life” dealing with the deconstruction of the myth of the urban art and urban proletariat, the two groups acted differently toward the dogmatic demands of the party directives. after bre- ton’s “second manifesto” in , there was the occurrence of the polarization between the followers of the kharkov line and the modernist-individualistic current/fraction influenced by breton. “life” will be closer to the kharkov line, while the “earthlings” will take side to krleža’s attitudes given in the “foreword to the podra- vian motifs of krsta hegedušić” to whom marko ristić will also join, and radovan zogović, milovan Đilas, etc., will be proven as the total opposites (tešić, , pp. – ). kujačić, kun, piperski, bodn- arov, pijade and the rest considered that the group was only a member of the party, whose task was to organize, escort, and direct all its activities, to adapt, to be precise, the general policy of the party. the party duplication was far more intense in the leftist lit- erature of that time, then it was in the fine arts, thus the battle against krleža’s “seal” will be seen as a battle for the notional- ly-political unity of the party. except for this activity, in kujačić, kun, beraković, and bodnarov submitted a resolution on the material status of artists, demanded favorable rent for the exhibition and more equitable policy related to the selection of their artwork for the exhibitions, then they also organized the “boycott” exhibition directed against the association “cvijeta zuzorić”, paving the foundations of the “independent artist showroom”, which will be opened in the fol- lowing . members of the group “life” accepted graphics as the most suit- able way of artistic expression, but also as the way of transferring ideas and social program of social art, especially due to the pace of reproduction, as well as clear and appropriate expression. graphics was considered a very suitable means for educating the masses, it was even called the “avant-garde of the new art” (Ćosić . p. ). mirko kujačić gained artistic reputation primarily as a graphic art- ist, although his strivings, especially in late years, were pointed toward the domain of painting. at the time of the struggle of graph- ics for its place in the artistic scene of belgrade and yugoslavia, collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar kujačić, together with kun, found himself amongst their pioneers, who came up with extremely important elements: notional, social content and propaganda purpose. from , his map “fishermen” originated from the period of life and work among the (neighbor) fishermen on the island of st. andrija, shortly after he had left his work in the national theatre in cetinje, where he worked as the first set designer. in , kujačić returned to paris, where, on the recommenda- tion of bora baruh he found himself amongst the like-minded, under the auspices of the advanced youth of france, in “maison de la culture”, whose president was louis aragon. there he met many famous painters: gromer, fougeron, frantz masareel (who was the idol of all socially-colored graphic artists), lires, pinon, and other. at the exhibitions organized by “maison” as the aid for the spanish children that were victims of war, picasso, matisse, marinetti, prampolitini, etc., exhibited with our artists, along with kujačić. the phrase that the painters of “maison” were gathered around image no. . mirko kujaČiĆ, they are collecting coops on hunting grounds. x . from the map “fishermen”, woodprint, , private property. mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar was “the best communist painter is the one who paints the best” (vukotić, , pp. – ). kujačić, together with baruh, bodnarov, seremet, and other painters in paris at that time, belonged to an advanced student movement of the marxist orientation, which was the reason for the frequent attacks by the paris police force (mar- janović, , p. ). the last public performance of the group “life” was at the “ th autumn exhibition” in , after which intensified police control was directed against communists and advanced intellectuals, when Đorđe andrejević kun was arrested and after which it was no longer safe nor possible to organize the exhibitions or meetings of the illegal group such as the group “life” (trifunović, , pp. – ). during the fourth decade of the th century, not many paintings with a social tendency were made. social art in serbia, however, was not developing only within the framework of the group “life” in bora baruh was arrested by the paris police and was deported thhe same year. similar thing happened years earlier, when follow- ing the sarajevo assassination, nadežda petrović, branko radulović, and laza drljača were also deported for safety reasons. for additional information on tthis please see: Марјановић : С. Марјановић, „Бо- ра Барух“, у: Бора Барух ка_алоl излож>е �р. , Јајце: Сqомен музеј Дру- nоn засеqања АВНОЈ, . image no. . mirko kujaČiĆ, fishermen, x , oil painting, not dated (circa ?), private property. collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar and the “showroom of the independent” that represented its core, but it also made a breakthrough into the creativity of artists with different tendencies, such as petar dobrović, milan konjović, marko Čelebonović and zora petrović, and it even found its way to the artwork of petar lubarda, which can be seen in its paintings “workers” and “shiptar” made in and . vinko grdan also gave great encouragement to social art in serbia, where, as an “earthling” he gave a fierce fighting impulse to this kind of paint- ing in serbia, but from the aspect of harmonization of artistic ele- ments and ideas and exceptional pictorial values of his own paintings. his paintings “market in negotin” from , “to the city” from and “at the gate” from are considered the best achievements in the domain of social art in serbia (trifunović , pp. ). this movement in the kingdom of yugoslavia kept pace with europe where artists gradually became the bearers of the idea of the fight for freedom, justice, and new humane society. with his contentiousness, self-confidence, but also with great working inquisitiveness, mirko kujačić deserves a place among the first ones who encouraged and enabled the breakthrough of social and liberal tendencies into the art of serbia and the kingdom of yugoslavia. list of illustrations image no. . mirko kujačić, self-portrait, x , woodprint, not dated, pri- vate property. image no. . mirko kujačić, there is no such thing as a free lunch, , x , woodprint, , private property. image no. . mirko kujačić, the sun is scorching, the sardella must be brined, from the map “fishermen”, , x , woodprint, , private property. image no. . mirko kujačić, they are collecting coops on hunting grounds, from the map “fishermen”, x , woodprint, , private property. image no. . mirko kujačić, “fishermen”, x , oil painting, not dated (circa ?), private property. references Аноним ( , . новем�ар). Ра�инqрана[ Таnоре у Беоnраqу. Поли[ика, с[р. . mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar Аноним ( , . новем�ар). Беоnрађани оqушевљено qозqрављају ве- ликоn инqијскоn qесника. Два qреqавања n. Ра�инqрана[а Таnора. Поли- [ика, с[р. . breton, a. ( ). tri manifesta nadrealizma, kruševac: bagdala. Вуко[ић, М. ( , nоq. xvii �р. ). Нова аванnарqа у с[аром закашње- њу. Разnовор са Мирком Кујачићем. ОВДЈЕ, с[р. - . depolo, j. ( ). socijalna umetnost u srbiji. u: m. b. protić (prired. i ur.), ju- goslovenska umetnosti xx veka. – : nadrealizam. socijalna umet- nost ( – ). beograd: muzej savremene umetnosti. dedić, n. ( ). socijalni realizmi: ka postavangardnoj kritici društva. u: m. Šuvaković (prir. i ur.), istorija umetnosti u srbiji xx veka. realizmi i mo- dernizmi oko hladnog rata, drugi tom ( – ). beograd: orion art. lasić, s. ( ). sukobi na književnoj ljevici – . zagreb: liber. Мирски, Ф. ( , . новем�ар). Инqијски национализам. Повоqом qо- ласка n. Ра�инqрана[ Таnоре. Поли[ика, с[р. . marjanović, s. ( ). bora baruh. u: bora baruh katalog izložbe br. (str. ). jajce: spomen muzej ii zasedanja avnoj. Марковић, С. ( ). Децем�арска nруqа, Беоnраq: Инс[и[у[ за ис[орију уме[нос[и Филозофскоn факул[е[а Универзи[е[а у Беоnраqу. mitrović, a. ( ). angažovano i lepo.umetnost u razdoblju svetskih ratova ( – ). beograd: narodna knjiga. Н. Ј. ( , . аqрила). На среqини �елоn qла[на qрикачена с[ара цокула. Поли[ика, с[р. . Пе[ровић, Р. ( , . аqрил). С[аша Беложански и Мирко Кујачић, сликари. Поли[ика, с[р. . protić, m. ( ). Četvrta decenija: ekspresionizam boje, poetski relizam, in- timizam, koloristički realizam“. u: m. b. protić (prir. i ur.), jugoslovenska umetnost xx veka. Čevrta decenija. ekspresionizam boje, poestki realizam ( – ). beograd: muzej savremene umetnosti. rozić, v. ( ). likovna kritika u beogradu između dva rata ( – ), be- ograd: jugoslavija. tešić, g. ( ). zli volšebnici. polemike i pamfleti u srpskoj književnosti – , knj. . beograd: slovo ljubve, beogradska knjiga matica srpska. Трифуновић, Л. ( ). Срqска ликовна кри[ика. Из�ор, Беоnраq: Срqска књижевна заqруnа. Трифуновић, Л. ( ). Срqско сликарс[во – , Беоnраq: Ноли[. collection of papers of the faculty of philosophy xlviii ( )/ srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar Ће[ковић, В. ( ). Социјална уме[нос[ у Ср�ији између qва ра[а. Нови Саq: Акаqемија уме[нос[и у Новом Саqу. Ćosić, b. ( ). socijalna umetnost u srbiji. u: m. b. protić (pripr. i ur.), ju- goslovenska umetnosti xx veka. – : nadrealizam. socijalna umet- nost ( – ). beograd: muzej savremene umetnosti. Šuvaković, М. ( ). teorija i praksa avangarde. u: m. Šuvaković (prir. i ur.), istorija umetnosti u srbiji xx veka. radikalne umetničke prakse, prvi tom ( – ). beograd: orion art. Šuvaković, М. ( ). avangarde u jugoslaviji i srbiji. u: m. Šuvaković (prir. i ur.), istorija umetnosti u srbiji xx veka. radikalne umetničke prakse, prvi tom ( – ). beograd: orion art. Šuvaković, m. ( ). desne opcije i socijlana umetnost pred drugi svetski rat. u: m. Šuvaković (prir. i ur.), istorija umetnosti u srbiji xx veka. realizmi i modernizmi oko hladnog rata, drugi tom ( – ). beograd: orion art. СРЂАН Д. МАРКОВИЋ УНИВЕРЗИТЕТ У НИШУ ФАКУЛТЕТ УМЕТНОСТИ МАРТА М. ВУКОТИЋ ЛАЗАР УНИВЕРЗИТЕТ У ПРИШТИНИ СА ПРИВРЕМЕНИМ СЕДИШТЕМ У КОСОВСКОЈ МИТРОВИЦИ, ФИЛОЗОФСКИ ФАКУЛТЕТ РЕЗИМЕ МИРКО КУЈАЧИЋ И СОЦИЈАЛНА УМЕТНОСТ У СРБИЈИ Саже[ак. Уме[нос[ че[вр[е qеценије xx века, која као qа је и сама најављивала Друnи све[ски ра[, �ила је qоларизована изме- ђу [зв. „чис[е уме[нос[и“ (l’art pour l’art), анnажоване уме[но- с[и (l’art pour l’idée) и �ор�еноn реализма. Ова оqвојенос[ чес[о је qроузроковала иqеолошке суко�е који су се заош[равали и qрелазили у сферу qоли[ичких суко�а. Два моqела левих иqео- лошких концеqа[а оnлеqају се у социјално анnажованом уме[- ничком раqу qве qроnрамско qекларисане nруqе које су се зала- nале за анnажовани о�лик уме[ничкоn qеловања: nруqе „Земља“ ( – ) из Заnре�а и nруqе „Живо[“ ( – ) из Беоnраqа. Социјална уме[нос[ у Ср�ији имала је снажне заче[ке у qруnој qоловини [реће qеценије qваqесе[оn века и qро[езала се кроз qериоq ра[них qешавања qо . nоqине. У qериоqу између qва све[ска ра[а qочиње Манифес[ом Мирка Кујачића ( – ) о�јављеним . nоqине и излож�ом њеnових наqреалис[ичких колажа, урамљене цокуле, о�јек[а qоq називом „Зимски мо[ив“ mirko kujaČiĆ and social art in serbia srĐan d. markoviĆ, marta vukotiĆ lazar и њеноn qанqана, слике qоq називом „Корен �еоnраqске о[мено- с[и“. Важан qоnађај за нас[авак оваквих уме[ничких [енqенција је формирање nруqе „Живо[“ . nоqине у Беоnраqу, чији је Ку- јачић �ио јеqан оq оснивача и nлавних qро[аnонис[а. КЉУЧНЕ РЕЧИ: јуnословенска савремена уме[нос[; социјална уме[нос[; nрафи- ка; сликарс[во; „Живо[“; „Земља“; Ср�ија. Овај чланак је о�јављен и qис[ри�уира се qоq лиценцом creative commons Ау[орс[во-Некомерцијално Међунароqна . (cc by-nc  .  |  https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /). this paper is published and distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial international . licence (cc by-nc .  | https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /). slide ipfc & asfb conference evaluating how food webs and the fisheries they support are affected by fishing closures in temperate western australia neil loneragan russ babcock hector lozano csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer motivation applications: · dynamics of target species · commercial vs recreational fishing · climate variability scenarios · provide useful ecosystem indicators goal: · evaluate how food webs and the fisheries they support are likely to be influenced by fishing closures · investigate how changes in abundance of key fished species (e.g. rock lobster, snapper, dhufish) are likely to influence other species rationale: · explore the ecosystem impacts of fishing csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer o o green head grey wedge ecopath model : • boundaries of the model: marine park to m depth area = km • period: average year ( - ). • groups (> species) • fishing gears jurien bay marine park commercial ~ tonnes ·year- ( % lobster) recreational ~ tonnes ·year- scientific reference zone sanctuary zone km management zones (wa department of environment and conservation) csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer functional groups • fish = • special interest = • invertebrates = • primary producers = • zooplankton = • non-fish = • non-living = iconic/special interest pink snapper dhufish baldchin grouper breaksea cod foxfish king wrasse stages of rock lobster csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer one column layout ) conservation of energy (between groups): consumption = production + respiration+ unassimilated food ) biomass dynamics: d biomass = growth + immigration – predation - mortality production = yield + predation + biomass acc. + migration gsbqbptmqgsbpbbqb )/() () ()/()/( ecopath & ecosim core equations: ) mass-balance (within groups): csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer • model captures general variability • model can reproduce known history model calibration: wester rock lobster (data from department of fisheries, wa) biomass estimated by depletion analysis biomass predicted by the model panulirus cygnus csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer - . - . - . . . . bivalves roe abalone chaetognaths octopus detritus baldchin grouper sea turtles small sharks lobster - adult fox fish rays lobster - post puerulus crabs lobster - juvenile infauna large herb. gastropods small mobile herbivores epifauna gillnetting longlining rock lobster re lative impact results: trophic role of ecklonia (kelp) ecklonia sp (kelp) • ecklonia, seagrasses and macroalgal assemblages are the major sources of habitat and food for marine invertebrates and fish. • ecklonia provided substrata for food (epiphytes and epifauna) and shelter from predators. e c o -g ro u p s f is h e ri e s csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer ecosim scenario: reduction of f by % over years ( . % year- ) of dhufish and pink snapper pink snapper dhufishrock lobster (adult) baldchin grouper csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer . . . . . . b io m a s s ( t k m - ) pink snapper . . . . b io m a s s ( t k m - ) dhufish . . . . b io m a s s ( t k m - ) baldchin grouper b io m a s s ( t k m - ) rock lobster adolscent b io m a s s ( t k m - ) rock lobster post- puerulus . . . . . . b io m a s s ( t k m - ) mullets ecosim scenario: reduction of f by % over years ( . % year- ) of dhufish and pink snapper csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer - . - - . . . carnivorous jellyf ish ndr reef ass. zoobenthos f eed. chaetognaths squid inshore pelagic zooplankton f eed ndr seagrass ass. carnivore ndr pelagic zooplankton feed. small zooplankton small mobile herbivores inshore reef ass. zoobenthos f eed. ndr sand ass. zoobenthos f eed. ndr sand ass. carnivore breaksea cod ndr reef ass. carnivore inf auna inshore reef ass. omnivore photo. corals/sponges lobster - adolescent large carn. gastropods perenial seagrasses inshore reef ass. herbivore microphytobenthos ndr benthopelagic carnivore ephemeral seagrasses ndr reef aa. zooplankton f eed ndr reef ass. herbivore lobster adult inshore seagrass ass. zoob. f eed. dhuf ish inshore sand ass. omnivore pink snapper lobster-post puerulus proportion of change after years ecosim scenario: reduction of f by % over years ( . % year- ) of dhufish and pink snapper csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer scenario : ~ % of the park deep zone (> m)= out of the park. no considered in the model n ecospace: spatial modelling of jurien bay n scenario : no fishing closures scenario : fishing closures up to % jurien bay green head o o csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer thank you csiro marine and atmospheric research hector lozano-montes phone: + email: hector.lozano-montes@csiro.au web: www.cmar.csiro.au picasso, ecopath models are like cubism art….abstract, ambiguous, with random angles, but (probably/possibly) realistic. csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer b io m a s s ( t k m - ) scenario: reduction of f by % ( . % year- ) of dhufish, pink snapper & baldchin grouper western rock lobster panulirus cygnus csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer model’s performance: mortalities . . . . l a rg e s h a rk s s m a ll s h a rk s d h u fi s h p in k s n a p p e r b a ld c h in g ro u p e r b re a k s e a c o d l o b s te r - a d o le s c e n t l o b s te r - a d u lt r o e a b a lo n e m o rt a li ty ( y e a r - ) fishing mortality (f) predator mortality mortalities predicted by the model p/b= z= f +m f = c/b production = fishery yield + natural mortality natural mortality (m) csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer perenial seagrasses ecklonia large herb. gastropods lobster - adolescent lobster - juvenile octopus squid cuttlefish large crabs large mobile herb. invert small mobile herbivores small mobile epifauna n.r. sand ass. omnivore n.r. reef ass. carnivore n.r. reef ass. omnivore inshore reef ass. zoob. feed. inshore reef ass. herbivore breaksea cod western fox fish king wrasse baldchin grouper dhufish rays large coastal sharks sea lions index of sensitivity trophic level sensitivity analysis - (change biomass of each living group) • index of sensitivity = the number of groups affected (± %) by % of biomass for each group. • the ecopath model is relatively insensitive to parameter values for most living groups (only groups produced index sensitivity > ). • changes in parameters of dead carcasses and sediment detritus exert the greatest influence (living groups) in the system. + - detached seagrass detached brown algae detached algae other dead carcasses bait water column detritus sediment detritus perenial seagrasses ecklonia large herb. gastropods lobster - adolescent lobster - juvenile octopus squid cuttlefish large crabs large mobile herb. invert small mobile herbivores small mobile epifauna n.r. sand ass. omnivore n.r. reef ass. carnivore n.r. reef ass. omnivore inshore reef ass. zoob. feed. inshore reef ass. herbivore breaksea cod western fox fish king wrasse baldchin grouper dhufish rays large coastal sharks sea lions index of sensitivity non-living groups • the importance/sensitivity of the model to sediment detritus emphasises the ultimate desirability of developing atlantis type model. index of sensitivity gropers, blennies, skipjack trevally csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer ecosystem attributes of jurien bay • jurien bay is a relatively complex ecosystem. • this ecosystem could be considered in an intermediate-low development stage, dominated by lower trophic levels. (overall network analysis results). • medium/high productive system. more energy produced than respired within the system (primary production/respiration = . ). • dynamic system. there is a low-medium level of biomass accumulation (primary production/ biomass= . ). • low rates of cycling (proportion of flows originated from detritus ~ %) • ecosystem dominated by the benthic community (ratio of biomass benthic/pelagic groups = . ). • ecosystem function related to bottom-up control, but wasp-waist predator-prey and top-down interactions were identified. csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer trophic structure and fisheries • mean trophic level of the catch = . • total catch = . t/km ( tonnes taken within the park in , where almost % was removed by commercial fishing) • gross efficiency (catch/primary production) = . some of these attributes could be used as ‘indicators’ to identify overfishing in the future. . . . . . . . . c a tc h ( t/ k m /y e a r) trophic level catch by tl (tonnes/km /year) total catch = . t/km ( tonnes) jurien bay marine park csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer outline: results from ecosim ecosim • scenario evaluation: workshop november, : participants + steering group scenario species fishing effort (%) year - duration rationale commercial ( c) recreational ( r) (years) lobster ↓ . ↓ . ecological role lobster ↑ . ↑ . ecological role pink snapper ↑ ↑ ecological role pink snapper ↓ . ↓ . ecological role all ↓ . ↓ . impact of fisheries and closure areas all close ↓ . impact of fisheries and closure areas csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer role of western rock lobster reduction in fishing mortality of the western rock lobster is unlikely to produce important trophic cascade effects in the system. fishing mortality in (f= . ) ↑ lobster ~ % ↓ biomass prey up to % low impact on other groups scenario : reduction of lobster fishing mortality from . to . in years fishing mortality in (f= . ) its prey have high productivity and short life cycles (i.e. coralline algae and crustaceans) lobster adult csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer pink snapper total catch dhufish lobster adult large sharks↓ lobster ~ % ↓ dhufish, pink snapper, king wrasse, up to ~ % ↓ sharks & rays ~ % ↓ ecklonia/seagrass < % ↓ total catch ~ % ↑ herring, mullets, cardinal-fishes ~ % ↑ sea urchins ~ king wrasse herring mullets sea urchins rays csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer pink snapper mullets labrids lobster herring dhufish ↓ pink snapper > % ↓ herring ~ % ↓ fox fish, breaksea cod, octopus, squid ~ % ↑ lobster ~ % ↑ sea urchins ~ % ↑ dhufish ~ % ↑ sharks ~ % ↑ rays ~ % rayssea urchins csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer pink snapper sharks dhufish herring sea urchins ↑ pink snapper ~ . x ↑ sea urchins ~ % ↑ dhufish & sharks ~ % ↓ squid, octopus ~ % ↓ baldchin grouper, breaksea cod, western foxfish < % lobster no change rays csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer pink snapper rays dolphins herring sea urchins ↑ pink snapper ~ x ↑ sea urchins ~ % ↑ dolphins ↓ squid, octopus ~ % ↓ baldchin grouper, breaksea cod, western foxfish < % lobster no change csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer large sharks sea lions small sharks dhufish lobster pink snapper↑ large sharks ~ % ↑ carangids, clupeids ~ % ↑ sea urchins, seagrass ~ % ↓ sea lions ~ % ↓ dhufish, pink snapper ~ % ↓ small sharks ~ % lobster no change carangids clupeidssea urchins seagrass csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer total catch lobster large sharks dhufish pink snapper octopus breaksea cod western foxfish sea urchins ↑ total catch ~ % ↑ breaksea cod, foxfish ~ % ↑ octopus, squid ~ % ↓ pink snapper ~ % ↓ dhufish ~ % ↓ lobster adult ~ % ↓ sea urchins ~ % ↓ sharks ~ % csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer total catch lobster large sharks dhufish pink snapper octopus blennies western foxfish sea urchins ↑ foxfish ~ % ↑ blennies ~ % ↑ octopus ~ % ↓ total catch ~ % ↓ sharks ~ % ↓ lobster adult ~ % ↓ pink snapper, dhufish, > % ↓ sea urchins > % csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer total catch lobster adult large sharks dhufish pink snapper western foxfish small sharks ↓ total catch ~ % ↑ lobsters ~ % ↑ pink snapper ~ % ↑ dhufish & sharks ~ % ↑ sea urchins ~ % sea urchins breaksea cod csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer large sharks lobster adult pink snapper squid sardines labrids octopus ↓ total catch ~ % ↑ pink snapper ~ % ↑ sharks ~ % ↑ baldchin grouper, foxfish, breaksea cod ~ % • lobsters ~ no change ↓ octopus ~ % ↓ sardines ~ % csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer lobster adult pink snapper small sharks dhufish large sharks csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer pink snapper total catch dhufish flatheads csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer pink snapper rays dhufish octopus lobster adult squid ↑ lobster ~ % ↑ dhufish, pink snapper ~ % ↓ octopus, western fox fish ~ % ↓ breaksea cod, squid ~ % csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer relative fishing mortality imposed by all gears ( ) ↓ total catch ~ % ↓ zoop. feed. (clupeids) ~ % ↑ lobster adults ~ % ↑ sharks ~ % ↑ pink snappers ~ % large sharks non depth restricted benthopelagic carnivores (carangids, urolophids) total catch lobster pink snapper inshore pelagic zooplankton feeders (clupeids, atherinids) csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer large sharks sea lions dolphins small gastropods squid lobster mullets ↓ large sharks reduced by % after years. ↑ sea lions ~ % ↓ lobster ~ % ↓ lower trophic levels up by % (potential cascade of effects). csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer total system flow was , ton km- year- internal consumption % respiration % detritus % export % jurien bay trophic structure energy flow in jurien bay csiro insert presentation title, do not remove csiro from start of footer microsoft word - safak_zafer.docx uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi the journal of international social research cilt: sayı: volume: issue: www.sosyalarastirmalar.com issn: - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jisr. modern english novel: the leading traits and voices zafer Şafak* abstract modernism can be defined through the shift of appreciation and perception of diverging spheres of life ranging from architecture to literature. though characteristically associated with technology and with the pace or acceleration of life, modern art, particularly the modern fiction, ultimately produced artists challenging the taken-for- granted truths, attacking taboos and rejecting social norms and moral codes. modern writers were hopeful in the foundation of a solid and thriving society through the utilization of values of the past yet the mass destruction and profound sense of grief caused by the war demolished their faith in humane values. lacking a mainstay to base their arguments on an egalitarian society, literature of the age are rich in rebellious characters with the senses of alienation and insecurity. within the mainstream of such themes as discontent and disintegration of society, writers came up with new technics as well for the depiction of reality. the objective of this study is to present a concise panorama of modern novel including its leading traits, prominent themes and styles, highlights of modern literature and representative works. keywords: modernism, modern fiction, disintegration of society, alienation, insecurity. . introduction: modernism: unfolding a familiar concept although virginia woolf exaggerated the far-reaching developments and great changes taking place in every sphere of life in pinpointing a specific time by suggesting that “on or about december human nature changed and […] all human relations shifted” (woolf, : - ), she was right in recognizing that there was a great shift in the appreciation or evaluation of literature, art, culture and ultimately the life itself. it is commonly accepted that the developments in question can be approximately brought back to the late years of the th century, which lasted right after the second world war. all the changes, which cover the vast fields of architecture, culture, lifestyle, technology, music etc., denote what is then termed as modernism. modernism, as a cultural and literary movement, flourished in the leading capital cities of the western europe such as paris, london, milan and berlin as almost all the modernist works “centre on a great aspect of modernity: life in the city” (butler, : ) and the movement continued to exert influence over the rest of the world until it was both resisted and criticized and the features of which were also exploited by postmodernism. the movement was characterized by the advancement of industry and technology leading to acceleration of life in every respect and causing a restlessness and a profound sense of meaninglessness which were reflected both in the * res. asst. iğdır university, the faculty of science and letters, the department of western languages and literatures, zafersafak @hotmail.com uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: the journal of international social research volume: issue: - - mainstream of modernism and in the sub/branches or extensions of modernism such as cubism in painting, which was “invented by picasso and braque (butler, : ), and surrealism in literature. what ezra pound, virginia woolf, james joyce and many others observed in their rapidly changing environment and produced their works while making use of the harrowing rapidity of these changes and loss of humane values were indeed “heralded” in the works of late th (and early th) century intellectuals such as darwin, nietzsche, marx and freud. darwin challenged the scriptural authority on the origins of human being though the victorian attitude which clumsily tried to “maintain a humanist worldview” against “the deconstructive implications of [the] evolutionary theory” (rohman, : ). nietzsche contradicted the ethical issues, which were held dear both by conventions and religious thought. marx uncovered the fact that classes in a society have been indeed created and the situation is tried to be maintained by the dominant classes. through his views, freud destroyed the intrinsic qualities of man such as rational thought or common sense, affection and mercy, which all have been assigned to man, and he diminished them into the mere goal-oriented bestial urges or instincts. in short, freud, who pays special attention to unconscious in his works, “aligns the unconscious with animality” (rohman, : ). seeing that the mainstay on which they could rely had already been demolished and the impacts of which they inevitably had to face daily, artists of the modern period tend towards finding new ways or styles, integrated with dexterity, to convey their thoughts and feelings so that they can act a role for the creation of the coming/future society. . reverberations to literature and fiction: prominent themes, styles and the variations of the movement the th century recorded an unprecedented advancement in terms of technology and in line with this technology, which was also backed up by the preceding centuries’ industrial development, transportation and communication facilitated man’s life to a great extent. machines, which made it easier to communicate and travel, later proved that they also had the capacity for mass-destruction and murder. modernist writers, particularly those who experienced the world war/s, mostly were afraid of technology and preferred excluding it from their works. when examined closely, joyce, pound and eliot were seen to have either left the progress that technology made or dimly referred it no matter how much the urban life was deeply encircled by it. in relation to technology and literature, greenberg and schachterle argue that in joyce fiction, “there is no attempt to focus on technology on its own sake” (greenberg and schachterle, : ). as they tried to lay the foundations of a new civilization, they opt for looking back to classical era and/or to the period of renaissance and eschew to rely on the outputs of a machine age for they believed this would aggravate their perception to comprehend the intrinsic qualities of man and a true civilization. exception to this was flippo marinetti, who was the precursor and the leading proponent of the futurist movement, was enamored by the technology and heavily employed factories, airplanes and machineguns as a subject matter for his writing. futurist believed the “gleaning ever benefit of science and technology” and “technology would necessarily improve the human condition” (rainey and wittman, : , ). at last, marinetti reached at such a point that he became a champion of the first world war, the phenomenon which nursed the fervor of modernist artists. the second world war was seen to have not only extinguished their enthusiasm but also it almost marked the end of the movement. uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: the journal of international social research volume: issue: - - apart from technology, the theme of alienation, which means separation and the sense of not belonging to somewhere, holds a significant place in modern fiction. it is argued that “[…] in the twentieth century, the relationship between the individual and society […] becomes equivocal […] the protagonist we encounter in the fiction of camus, faulkner, beckett is generally embittered, rebellious or withdrawn; the modern novelist faithfully reflects the spirit of his age by exploring the theme of alienation, impotence or anomie (glicksberg, : ). alienation, in its primary form, characters are portrayed to have specific sensitivity to something and consequently alienated from the outside world, the portrayal of which is usually conveyed to reader through stream of conscious technique. in ulysses, dedalus is alienated from his family and the milieu as he is excessively devoted to art. in the case of woolf’s female characters, they are alienated from their relatives because of their tightly squeezed gender roles dictated upon them mostly by traditions decreeing strict normative rules. the third significant theme in modern writers’ fiction which either achieves to affect the course of events or looms over/behind them and lingers throughout the narration is the ever-presence of the past. joyce is argued to have discovered the “basic strategy of the modernist movement, the recovery of the presence of the past: as t. s. eliot was to say in his famous essay on tradition, not the pastness of the past but its presentness, its presence in the present” (schneidau, : ). as the modern writers poignantly witnessed the loss of all the certainties even by the highly appreciated advances, they took refuge the certainties of the past. after the first world war, which demolished those hypothetically existing values of the past, they lost this “shelter” as well and they ended up with regarding themselves at the end of the history. nevertheless, downfall of the past values does not stop modernist writers from constantly referring and making allusions to past. as for the style, modernist writers did not try to depict the world as it was viewed rather they endeavored to portray it as it was experienced. that’s why modernist writers paid critical attention to narrative techniques; to comply accurately with the experienced subjective reality instead of the objective external reality; they made much use of interior monologue or stream of consciousness technique through which the writer recorded the flux of thoughts passing within the mind of a character without any regular pattern. the other stylistic quality, which is heavily employed by modernist writers, is allusion. while allusions can be a reference to a person, event and a place and even to a specific object or an artifact, in joyce and eliot’s works, they appear to have been made in relation to past. while joyce’s ulysses reminds homer’s odyssey, which is constricted within a day in an unheroic way, eliot’s the waste land proved to be a collection of historical references and specifically made allusions to people such as dante and blind greek oracle tiresias. in the beginning, modernism was a medley of smaller groups or variations of the same movement. among them the dadaists, the vorticist, the futurists, the surrealists and the members of the lost generation were the most notable ones. these groups, which were later called under the unified term of modernists, led by significant literary figures of the age exemplified in the case of bloomsbury group, which included e.m. forster and virginia woolf. the general tendency in these subgroups, as it is seen in the mainstream of modernism, is the pessimism about the present condition of the world, challenge against the taken-for-granted “truths” and uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: the journal of international social research volume: issue: - - traditions and a widespread belief in to the artists who rebel. as opposed to the former victorian literary perception and taste, which had esteem for edification in that literature must morally instruct and reform its audience, modernist literature stands out to be intricate and incomprehensible not only because of its irony, textual resistance and uncertainty embroidered with allusions but also due to the superior intellectual capacity and creativity of its practitioners. in doing so, modernist writers attacked on the social taboos in insulting religion and by rejecting social norms and “proper” conventional codes allotted respectively to each man and woman. as a consequence, modern artists were driven into the role of outcasts and rebels. . highlights of modern english literature and representative works born in missouri in and attended various prestigious universities such as harvard, sorbonne and oxford, thomas stearns eliot was naturalized as british citizen in . (cooper, : - ). in his college years, t.s. eliot engaged with french symbolist poetry and he reserved a significant place to pessimism, emptiness and boredom in his poetry. ezra pound having read eliot’s poems, he decided to include eliot to their literary circle. their friendship gave a chance to eliot to refine his poetry which is claimed to have played a role in the edition of his long and famous poem the waste land. having gained literary fame, he became a major literary critic, and editor of literary journals and publishing houses. through his essays, he appreciated metaphysical poetry, elizabethan artists and dante and he attacked on neoclassical and romantic poets. t.s. eliot, who is noted for his works on literary criticism and poetical drama, dealt with such themes as time, eternity, disintegrating of civilization. his poetry, which is in line with the general tone of modern literary products, is rich in the sense of hopelessness and emptiness and it is characterized thematically with terror and stylistically with difficulty (edward, : - ). james joyce, who was not as prolific as the other modern novelist, he managed to produce works in the genres of drama, short story and novel. joyce, who was born in dublin, dealt with the most prevalent themes that modernist touched upon in their works such as significance of past in one’s life, exile from one’s milieu and culture and “loss, betrayal, and the interplay of psychological and social experience” (attridge, : ). the first noted contribution to modernism by joyce appeared with the publication of portrait of the artist as a young man in in which joyce utilized stream of consciousness technique. in , joyce published ulysses, which has been hailed as the most iconic modernist work of art, through which he retold the myth of odysseus, in an anti-heroic fashion abounded with mundane concern in a modern world. for the two works, it is suggested that “there is a similar fluidity at the borderline between fiction and biography” (attridge, : ). joyce’s ulysses single-handedly achieved to convey the sense of trivialization of individuals in the intersection of daily concerns not matter how much their names connotate the mythic and heroic characters of the past. the other masterpiece joyce came up with is finnegans wake in with which he proved that he was not extinguished as a literary talent and surprised his readers with constant wordplays and meticulous search for the distant possibilities of language. the other major modern novelist is virginia woolf who had the chance of meeting prominent victorian intellectual men of letters in her childhood thanks to the statue of her family and its affairs with members of the upper class (goldman, : ) her intellectual agility was sharpened when she married to journalist leonard woolf uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: the journal of international social research volume: issue: - - with whom she found hogarth press. woolf published eliot’s poems and freud’s works (ellman : ) which she seemed to have internalized the thoughts of freud and reflected them into her works, the traces of which can be followed in jacob’s room ( ), mrs. dalloway ( ), and to the lighthouse ( ). like joyce, virginia woolf utilized stream of consciousness technique and she related her feminist and bisexual concerns through such works as a room of one’s own ( ) and orlando ( ), which were quite unusual for her time and countered with much distaste by some quarters. apart from british-oriented modern writers, there were also other voices, particularly from the other side of the atlantic, who hoisted and waved the flag of modern literature. to exemplify, gertrude stein, who is commonly accepted to have come up with the coinage of the lost generation (daniel, : ) for the expatriate writers residing in europe, dominated the avant-garde literary scene and provided a milieu for intellectuals to come together. another u.s’ subject was nobel laureate novelist william faulkner, who experiments with time particularly in the sound and the furry, opts for presenting various perspectives by means of series of narrator with a fragmented narration. this climaxes in the sound and the furry in which faulkner forces his readers to find out the true version of the story out of a mentally retarded boy’s recounting (towner, : - ). another significant modernist from u.s was ezra pound who laid the foundations of the short-lived modernist movement imagism. pound rejected victorian verse and turned to fragmented and plotless versification. aside from the stylistic features, ezra pound, who translated anglo-saxon work the seafarer and came into prominence with his long poem the cantos, integrated the most conspicuous thematic traits of modernism into his works such as the ills of the modern age and bewildered individuals without any way out or solution. one of the most distinctive features of these artists was “the degree of interaction among the main participants. yeats, for example, put pound in contact with joyce; pound put eliot in contact with harriet monroe” (nadel, : ). with his journalistic technique, particularly he employed in a farewell to arms ( ), ernest hemingway contributed to the evolution of modernism and he almost omitted the use of adjectives and contractions both the technique (journalistic technique) and the preference (the omissions) could thus give the real traumatic experience of the casualties of a war and the sorrow of those who witnessed its fatal nature. he developed his technique by refining the language he was using which means in practice the “deletion of all words and phrases which were in any way false. one of the difficulties with language, as many good writers have felt and as hemingway said, is that ‘all our words from loose using have lost their edge’ recognizing this fact, hemingway always wrote slowly and revised carefully, cutting, eliding, substituting, experimenting with syntax to see what a sentence could most economically carry, and then throwing out all words that could be spared” (bloom, . ). . seeing through the gist of a movement taken as a whole, modernism was not a unified movement at its outset as it is suggested above and its practitioners, who were regarded outcasts in one way or another by the laymen, were characterized with pessimism and discontent the quality of which can be “read” in their art as well. they were mostly critical of the values piled up over centuries and their hostility to the codes of instructive work of art associated with victorian attitude was first countered with discontent as it was outside the scope of “edification” through literature and art. that’s why modernism generated its own uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: the journal of international social research volume: issue: - - critics such as t.s. eliot and ezra pound who came up with their aesthetics conforming to the ethos of the new age. the resistance and discontented against the core values of modernism yielded to widespread acknowledgement after the first world war, the phenomenon out of which the movement was truly ingrained to the extent that views of the artists were seen to be unmistakably true about the state of the world and humanity. references albert, edward ( ). history of english literature, revised by j. a. stone, oxford university press. attritge, derek ( ). the cambridge companion to james joyce, cambridge university press. bloom, harold ( ). bloom’s modern critical views: ernest hemingway, new york: chelsea house publishers. butler, christopher ( ). modernism: a very short introduction, oxford university press. cooper, j. cirox ( ). the cambridge introduction to t. s. eliot, cambridge university press. daniel, lucy ( ). gertrude stein, london: reaktion books. ellman, maud ( ). the nets of modernism: henry james, virginia woolf, james joyce, and sigmund freud, cambridge university press. glicksberg, charles ( ). literature and society, dorthrect: springer sciece+business media. goldman, jane ( ). the cambridge introduction to virginia woolf, cambridge university press. greenberg, mark l. schachterle, lance ( ). literature and technology, london: associated university press. nadel, ira b. ( ). the cambridge introduction to ezra pound, cambridge university press. rainey, l., wittman l. ( ). futurism: an anthology, new haven & london: yale university press. rohman, carrie ( ). stalking the subject: modernism and the animal, new york: columbia university press. schneidau, herbert n. ( ). waking giants: the presence of the past in modernism, oxford university press. towner, theresa m. ( ). the cambridge introduction to william faulkner, cambridge university press. woolf, virginia ( ). mr. bennett and mrs. brown, london: hogarth press. turkish studies volume issue , , p. - doi: . /turkishstudies. issn: - skopje/macedonia-ankara/turkey research article / araştırma makalesi a r t i c l e i n f o / m a k a l e b i l g i s i  received/geliş: Şubat accepted/kabul: Şubat  referees/hakemler: doç. dr. aygül aykut – dr. Öğr. Üyesi gökçen Şahmaran can this article was checked by ithenticate. pablo picasso’nun resİmlerİndekİ fİgÜr anlayiŞinin seramİk ÇaliŞmalarina yansimasi fahrettin geÇen* - tahir ÇelİkbaĞ** Özet . yüzyıl dünya resim sanatı’nın en ünlü ressamlarından birisi olarak görülen ve kübizm sanat akımının öncüsü olarak kabul edilen İspanyol ressam pablo picasso, resim sanatına kazandırmış olduğu eşsiz yapıtlarıyla birçok dünya müzesini süsleyen ve sanat camiasında da önemli yeri olan bir sanatçıdır. sanatçı özellikle resim ve heykel sanatlarında birçok ürün verip seramik çalışmalarıyla da tanınan bir sanatçıdır. sanatçı kendine özgü resimlerindeki üslubunu diğer sanatsal çalışmalarına da yansıtmıştır. sanatçı realist çalışmalarından sonra kübizm akımına çok sayıda eseriyle katkıda bulunmuş, basit kontur çizgilerle çizdiği desen biçimindeki çalışmalarıyla da ön plana çıkmıştır. sanatçının önemli özelliklerinden bir tanesi de sanat tarihine kendisini taşıyan üsluplarını üç boyutlu ve iki boyutlu olarak seramik ve heykel çalışmalarına da yansıtmasıdır. pablo picasso’nun resim çalışmalarında kullandığı geometriksel ifade, eş zamanlı gösterim, iki boyutlu yüzey üzerinde üç boyutlu ifade biçimi, çocuksu çizgisel form ifadesinin çalıştığı seramik çalışmalarında yansımasını ortaya çıkarmak araştırmada amaç edinilmiştir. resimler üzerindeki iki boyutlu yüzey üzerinde üç boyutlu ifadenin ve basitleştirilmiş imgesel ifadelerin seramik çalışmalarında üç boyutlu ifadesi ve basit imgelerin seramiklerin üzerinde iki ve üç boyutlu yansımaları ve başarısını ortaya çıkarmakta araştırmada büyük önem taşımaktadır. araştırmada picasso’nun yaptığı iki boyutlu ve üç boyutlu seramikler evreni seramiklerde yer alan figür imgeleri ise sınırlılığı ve örneklemi vermektedir. araştırma da figür imgesinin ele alınmasının temel amacı ise iki boyutlu düzlem üzerinde figür imgelerini üç boyutlu vermesiyle figür imgesinin ön plana çıkmasıdır. * dr. Öğretim Üyesi, İnönü Üniversitesi güzel sanatlar ve tasarım fakültesi resim bölümü, e-posta: fahrettin.gecen@inonu.edu.tr ** dr. Öğretim Üyesi, fırat Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi güzel sanatlar eğitimi bölümü, e-posta: tcelikbag@firat.edu.tr http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. mailto:fahrettin.gecen@inonu.edu.tr mailto:tcelikbag@firat.edu.tr https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - x fahrettin geÇen - tahir ÇelİkbaĞ turkish studies volume issue , araştırma, nitel araştırma deseni ile yapılmış olup, literatür taranarak picasso ve sanatsal çalışmaları hakkında bilgiler elde edilmiştir. verilerde yer alan sanatçıya ait eser görselleri betimsel analiz yoluyla analiz edilmiş sanatçının resimsel çalışmalarıyla karşılaştırılarak araştırma yapılan konuyla ilgili yeni bilgilere yordama, analiz yollarıyla ulaşılmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: picasso, seramik, resim, kübizm, figür the reflection of figure conception in pablo picasso's paintings on ceramic works abstract seen as one of the most famous painters of the th century world of the painting and regarded as a pioneer of the art movement of cubism, spanish painter pablo picasso, is an artist who graces the walls of museums around the world with his unique works which he redounded to painting art and has an important place in the art community. the artist is recognized ceramic works with many products especially in the arts of painting and sculpture. the artist reflected his distinctive style in the paintings to other artistic works. after realistic works, contributed to the cubism movement with numerous publications studies,the artist come to the forewith his the pattern drawn with simple contour lines in the form of the work. one of the important features of the artist is to reflect styles, carrying himself to the history of art , to ceramics and sculpture works as three-dimensional and two-dimensional. in the research, it is purposed to find out the reflection of the geometric expression that pablo picasso used in his paintings, simultaneous display, a three dimensional expression on a two-dimensional surface and the childish linear form expression in the ceramic works. it has a significant role to reveal the three dimensional reflection and the success of the three dimensional expression on a two-dimensional surface on the paintings, three dimensional expression of the simplified imaginative expression in the ceramic works and simple images on ceramics in the research. in the research, in two-dimensional and three-dimensional ceramics made by picasso gives the universe sample and also figures and symbols on ceramic gives limitation sample. in the researchthe main purpose of engaging with the figure images is to come to the foreground theimages by issuing three- dimensional image of the figure on the two-dimensional plane. the research was made with qualitative design and information about picasso and his artistic work was obtained by scanning the literature. the images of the artist's works in the data has been analyzed through descriptive analysis and research have reached new information on the subject of the procedure by the means of analysis by comparison with the artist's pictorial work. pablo pıcasso’nun resimlerindeki figür anlayışının seramik Çalışmalarına… turkish studies volume issue , structured abstract seen as one of the most famous painters of the th century world of the painting and regarded as a pioneer of the art movement of cubism, spanish painter pablo picasso, is an artist who graces the walls of museums around the world with his unique works which he redounded to painting art and has an important place in the art community. the artist is recognized ceramic works with many products especially in the arts of painting and sculpture. the artist reflected his distinctive style in the paintings to other artistic works. after realistic works, contributed to the cubism movement with numerous publications studies, the artist come to the forewith his the pattern drawn with simple contour lines in the form of the work. one of the important features of the artist is to reflect styles, carrying himself to the history of art, to ceramics and sculpture works as three-dimensional and two-dimensional. in the research, it is purposed to find out the reflection of the geometric expression that pablo picasso used in his paintings, simultaneous display, a three dimensional expression on a two-dimensional surface and the childish linear form expression in the ceramic works. it has a significant role to reveal the three dimensional reflection and the success of the three dimensional expression on a two-dimensional surface on the paintings, three dimensional expression of the simplified imaginative expression in the ceramic works and simple images on ceramics in the research. in the research, in two-dimensional and three-dimensional ceramics made by picasso gives the universe sample and also figures and symbols on ceramic gives limitation sample. in the researchthe main purpose of engaging with the figure images is to come to the foreground theimages by issuing three-dimensional image of the figure on the two-dimensional plane. the research was made with qualitative design and information about picasso and his artistic work was obtained by scanning the literature. the images of the artist's works in the data has been analyzed through descriptive analysis and research have reached new information on the subject of the procedure by the means of analysis by comparison with the artist's pictorial work. picasso moved his artistic works to different artistic applications with the life that directed him. on may , he places his family vallauris. there, he discovers produces in madurapottery factory. among craftsmen, he learns how to turn the wheel, work with clay and knead it by using creative imagination in a relaxed manner. created metamorphosis, picasso can bend a vase with the tip of his finger in order to turn it into a pigeon with the power of clay and he can turn it into a woman by pressing the sides of the pitcher like the painting ‘one-legged round tables with still-life’(herscher, : ) so picasso reflected his the artistic identity to ceramics and enjoyed this by turning a two-dimensional form into three dimensions located on the surface of the painting by feeling clay. in the next years, he would produce pieces (vases, pitchers, bowls)in the image of the figure; he would describe faces, animals and women in ceramics. fahrettin geÇen - tahir ÇelİkbaĞ turkish studies volume issue , picasso used female figures, mythological scenes, still-lifes, faces, clowns, drinkers, musicians, dancers, festivals and etc. inspired by greek mythology as a theme in general in his ceramics. as in the work named picasso's“weeping woman”, he made simultaneous impressions in figure in the ceramic work named “woman’s head with crown of flowers”. the artist made a representation both profile and frontal on the same plane. it can be clearly seen the cubism impact in the ceramic figüre application named “a woman's head with crown of flowers”. pablo picasso reflected his private life in the works. one of the best examples of this is the habit of eating. especially picasso reflected the habit of eating to the art. it is possible to see the fish in his paintings and ceramic work, still-lifes and dishes. although it looks like from the hands of a kid, it is seen that he transfers his feeling to ceramic form and surface with a few brush strokes in the figure images that the artist uses in his works. the patterns drawn to the surface of the ceramic lacks of aesthetic and anatomical concerns (İnan, : ). it is observed that he gives portrait of the figure with each independent curved lines in the work of a ceramic plate named “the musician faun” which is located above. it is seen thatthe outer frame of the plate forms the outer contours of the head and the jaw with outer head form is given artfully with the two extrovert curved lines. in the drawing, given face form and dimension with simple lines settled in the introverts pit reveals not only the personalitybut also the skillfully given identity of the artist. in the work of “fish” made with taking advantage of the handle structure, the artist shaped the clay like a fish keywords: picasso, ceramics, painting, cubism, figure . giriş sanat; insanların binlerce yıldır düşüncelerinin ifadesinde, duygularının yansımasında, estetik hazlarının alınmasında, yaratıcı ifadelerinin sunumunda, yaşamlarının kültürel formunun devamında ve sayabileceğimiz birçok gerekçeli nedenden ötürü varlığını gösterip devam etmiştir. sanat aynı zamanda bir gösterim ve güç aracı olarak da kullanılmaktadır. sanat bir taraftan dinin yansıtılmasında kilisede, vitray, camide hat ve süsleme gibi kendini yansıtmıştır. diğer taraftan düşünsel, toplumsal ve sanatçının tarzı olarak kendini ortaya çıkarmıştır. modern sanata kadar bölgesel, toplumsal, fikirsel benzerliklerle belirli bölgelerde benzer üsluplar görülürken modern sanatla birlikte birden fazla sanatsal üslup sanatçıların sanatsal kişilikleriyle kendini göstermiştir. modern sanatın önemli kişiliklerinden biri de dünyaca kabul görmüş sanatsal şahsiyetiyle kendini göstermiş bir kişi olan pablo picasso’dur. picasso eserlerine kendini ve sanatsal üslubunu yansıtmış özelliklede figür betimlerinde dikkat çekmiştir. picasso resim, heykel ve seramik alanlarında çok sayıda eser üretmiş bir sanatçıdır. pablo picasso’nun resimlerine bakıldığında; kübizm akımında yaptığı resimlerde biçimsel olarak geometriksel formlarda verme, iki boyutlu yüzeyde üçboyutlu resimsel ifade biçimi oluşturma, aynı düzlem üzerinde görünmeyen kısmı göstererek eş zamanlı ifade formu verme biçiminde görülmektedir. sanatçının resimlerinde bu özelliği gösteren bir eser örneği olan “ağlayan kadın” isimli sanatsal yapıtında sanatçı iki boyutlu düzlem üzerinde üç boyutlu resmetmesi (yüzün hem profilini hem de cephesini aynı düzlemde vermesi), geometriksel pablo pıcasso’nun resimlerindeki figür anlayışının seramik Çalışmalarına… turkish studies volume issue , ifade biçimi ile resmi çözümlemesi (şematik dönem çocuklarında görüldüğü gibi resmin formları geometriksel biçimlerle betimlenmiş) örnek gösterile bilinir. resim . pablo picasso ağlayan kadın picasso’nun resimlerinde gösterdiği kendine özgü sanatsal ifade biçimini çalıştığı diğer sanat formlarında (seramik, heykel) başarıyla verebildiği varsayılmaktadır. sanatçının ilgilendiği seramik çalışmalarında resim sanatında gösterdiği sanatsal kimliği gösterip gösteremediği araştırmanın temel problemini oluşturmaktadır. pablo picasso’nun resim çalışmalarında kullandığı geometriksel ifade, eş zamanlı gösterim, iki boyutlu yüzey üzerinde üç boyutlu ifade biçimi, çocuksu çizgisel form ifadesinin çalıştığı seramik çalışmalarında yansımasını ortaya çıkarmak araştırmada amaç edinilmiştir. resimler üzerindeki iki boyutlu yüzey üzerinde üç boyutlu ifadenin ve basitleştirilmiş imgesel ifadelerin seramik çalışmalarında üç boyutlu ifadesi ve basit imgelerin seramiklerin üzerinde iki ve üç boyutlu yansımaları ve başarısını ortaya çıkarmakta araştırmada büyük önem taşımaktadır. . literatür eserleriyle dünya sanatında ses getiren ve yer edinen; “pablo ruiz picasso, ekim ’ de malaga ve andalusia'da doğdu”(praeger, : ). picasso’nun yaşamı kimliğini yaptığı sanatsal eserleri etkilemiştir. “picasso’nun babası desen hocasıydı. Çocuk picasso, edebiyat öğrenimini öteki okullar gibi, resmi “yazı ile öğrendi. ”( buchholz, e. l. ve zimmermann, : ). resmi yazı ile öğrenen picasso’nun kontur çizgileriyle çizilen resimlerinde de yazının çizgisel etkileri görülmektedir. resim . picasso çalışırken fahrettin geÇen - tahir ÇelİkbaĞ turkish studies volume issue , picasso’nun sanat yaşamı tekdüze olmamış, sanat yaşamında çeşitli evreler geçirmiştir. “picasso ilk dönemlerinde realist yönelimleri olmuş ’lu yıllarda paris’e gitmiş daha sonrasında mavi dönem, pembe dönem, kübizm, yeni klasizm, gerçeküstücülük, barbar yıllar, ve biçimleri görünümü bozulmuş eserleriyle”( buchholz, e. l. ve zimmermann, : - ) son dönemlerini yaşamıştır. kübizm akımının babalarından olan “picasso’nun en etkili vurgusu “bir resim, yıkmalardan oluşan bir toplamdır” sözüdür”(eroğlu, : ). kübizmi, en önemli yapısıyla ifadelendiren picasso eserleri ve öncülüğüyle kübizm sanat akımına önemli katkılarda bulunmuştur. “picasso, söz konusu zaman dilimi içinde, iki türlü analitik ve sentetik kübizme dayalı olmak üzere çalışmalar sunmuştur”(eroğlu, : ). kübizm akımına katkıda bulunduğu eserlerden bazıları; avignonlu kızlar, guernica, ağlayan kadın, ma jolie, ayna karşısındaki kızlar ve sayılacak başka birçok eseri başlıca yapıtları sayılabilir. resim . avignonlu kızlar-les demoiselles d’avignon, (new york modern sanat müzesi) picasso sanatsal eserlerini kendini yönlendiren hayatla farklı sanatsal uygulamalara taşımıştır. mayısında, vallauris’e ailesini yerleştirir. burada madoura çömlek fabrikasında üretilen keşfeder. zanaatkârların arasında kille çalışmayı, onu yoğurmayı, yaratıcı hayal gücünü rahat bir şekilde kullanarak çarkı çevirmeyi öğrenir. metamorfozlar yaratan picasso kilin gücüyle vazoyu bir güvercine çevirmek için parmağının ucuyla onun bükebilir, ibriğini yanlarını bastırarak ‘tek ayaklı yuvarlak masalı naturmort’ resmindeki gibi onu kadına çevirebilir (herscher, : ) yani kili hissederek resim yüzeyinde yer alan iki boyutlu formu üç boyuta dönüştürerek picasso sanatçı kimliğini seramiğe yansıtmış ve bundan haz almıştır. sonraki yılda adet (vazo, sürahi, kase) üretecek figür imgelerinde; yüzler, hayvanlar ve kadınları seramiklerinde betimleyecektir(goo.gl/ngjiew). picasso yaptığı seramiklerde tema olarak genelde yunan mitolojisinden esinlenerek kadın figürleri, mitolojik sahneler, natürmortlar, yüzler, palyaçolar, içenler, müzisyenler, dansçılar, bayramlar vs kullanmıştır (goo.gl/mcxdvn). https://www.google.com.tr/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact= &ved= ahukewjn - o baahuk_aqkhe hccgqjrx bagaeau&url=http://www.sacred travel.com/pablo-picassonun-avignonlu-kizlar-tablo-okumasi- - - &psig=aovvaw j_cr- qzh udfz i sas&ust= pablo pıcasso’nun resimlerindeki figür anlayışının seramik Çalışmalarına… turkish studies volume issue , resim . pablo picasso, tetede femme a la courronne de fleurs (woman’s head with crown of flowers), , picasso yaptığı pablo picasso “ağlayan kadın” isimli resim eserinde olduğu gibi “woman’s head with crown of flowers” isimli seramik eserinde de figürde eş zamanlı gösterim yapmıştır. sanatçı hem profilden hem de cepheden gösterimi aynı düzlem üzerinde yapmıştır. “woman’s head with crown of flowers” isimli seramik figür uygulamasında da kübistik etki net bir şekilde görülmektedir. pablo picasso özel yaşamını eserlerine yansıtmaktaydı. buna en iyi örneklerden bir tanesi de yemek alışkanlığıdır. picasso özellikle yemek alışkanlığını sanatına da yansıtırdı. yaptığı resimler de ve seramik çalışmalarında balıklar, natürmortlar ve yemekleri görmek mümkündür. resim . gazete üzerindeki balık, ’ler, nice komünist gazetesi, “la patriote”a alınan kalıba basılmış kil ve boyalı seramik (herscher, : ). “gazete üzerindeki balık” isimli eserinde balık imgesini resimsel çalışmaları gibi basit formlar ve lekesel çizgisel etkilerle verdiği görülmektedir. ayrıca esere bakıldığında sırlanan bu kil kalıp çalışmanın zemininde gazete hissisini vermek amacıyla kahverengi ve siyah renklerinde fahrettin geÇen - tahir ÇelİkbaĞ turkish studies volume issue , çizgisel ve noktasal formların olduğu seramiğin ise tümüyle kıvrımlı boyutlandırıldığı görülür. sanatçının seramik çalışmasının, resim çalışmalarında yer alan basit formsal yapılara benzediği anlaşılmaktadır. picasso seramik çalışmaları dışında resimsel ifadelerini boyutlandırabildiği diğer bir alanda heykeldir. resim . human skull. paris, . bronze. height, ii / (praeger, : ) İnsan başını kendi stili olan basitleştirme formlarıyla yapan sanatçı, bronz heykeli resimsel ifade biçimine uygun şekilde üç boyuta dönüştürmüştür. bu çalışmada figürde anatomik ve estetik kaygı gözetilmemiştir. baş ve göz çukurları geometriksel verilmiş kübistik etki hissettirilmiştir. yaptığı heykel çalışmalarının da üç boyutlu seramik çalışmalarıyla benzerlik gösterdiği görülmektedir. resim . pablo picasso, müzisyen faun, sırlı seramik tabak. sanatçı eserlerinde kullandığı figür imgelerinde çocuk elinden çıkmış gibi görünse de anlatmak istediği duyguyu birkaç fırça darbesi ile seramik form ve yüzeyine kendi duygularını aktardığı görülmektedir. seramik yüzeyine çizdiği desenler anatomik kaygıdan ve estetikten yoksundur (İnan, : ). yukarıda yer alan “müzesyen faun” isimli sırlı seramik tabak çalışmasında sanatçı, portre imgesini birbirinden bağımsız kavisli çizgilerle verdiği görülmektedir. sanatçının, bu seramik tabak çalışmasında tabağın dış çerçevesini başın dış hattı olarak, çene pablo pıcasso’nun resimlerindeki figür anlayışının seramik Çalışmalarına… turkish studies volume issue , kısmını ise dışa dönük iki kavisli çizgiyle dış hattın devamı olarak verdiği görülür. Çizimde içe dönük çukura yerleşen basit çizgilerle verdiği yüz formu ve boyut sanatçının hem kişiliğini hem de sanatçı kimliğini ortaya çıkartmaktadır. resim . pablo picasso, fish, . kulplu yapısından yararlanarak yaptığı ‘fish’ isimli seramik eserinde; sanatçı kili geometrik formda balık şekline benzetmiş, basit noktasal ve çizgisel çizimlerle nesneyi meydana getirmiştir. sanatçı çalışmada hem nesnenin boyutundan hem de kendi resim çizim tekniğinden yararlanarak eserini meydana getirmiştir. böylece üç boyuttan yararlanıp bazı formları verip resimsel çizgileri de kullanıp sanat üslubunu farklı bir yolla icra etmiştir. resim . vase deux anses hautes (vase with two high handles) (the queen), sanatçı “the queen” isimli sırlı vazo seramik çalışmasında kraliçe imgesini meydana getirmek için boyanmış vazo kili çizgisel kazıma tekniğiyle şekillendirmiş, yine kendine has basit çizgilerle yüz vücut imgelerini şekillendirmiştir. vazo nesnesinin kulplarını kol, ağız kısmını baş, alt kısmını ismini ayak bölgesi olarak formlaştırmıştır. https://www.masterworksfineart.com/artists/pablo-picasso/ceramic/vase-deux-anses-hautes-vase-with-two-high-handles-the-queen- - /id/w- fahrettin geÇen - tahir ÇelİkbaĞ turkish studies volume issue , resim . grand vase pékiné (big candy-striped vase), sanatçı bu seramik vazo çalışmasında çukur ve tümsek etkileri kullanılmıştır. sanatçı şekillendirdiği portre imgesinin bazı yerlerini kazımış bazı yerlerine de üst zemine kil ekleyerek boyutlandırmıştır. sanatçı vazoda yer alan portre imgesinde çizgisel basit formlar kullanmıştır. sanatçı basit ve sade formlarla uygulamayı kendi sanatsal üslubuyla tamamlamıştır. resim . grey engraved pitcher sanatçı “grey engraved pitcher” isimli seramik çalışmasında boyanmış vazo çalışma üzerinde kazıma yapıp çizgisel figür desenleri çizmiştir. Çizdiği portre figür imge deseni üstüne siyah çizgisel formlarla çizgiyi güçlendirmiştir. ayrıca sanatçı insan portre imgesinde yüzü profilden gözü de cepheden çizerek, resimlerinde olduğu gibi tek düzlem üzerinde eş zamanlı gösterim yapmıştır. . veri ve yöntem araştırma, nitel araştırma deseni ile yapılmış olup literatür taranarak picasso ve sanatsal çalışmaları hakkında bilgiler elde edilmiştir. verilerde yer alan sanatçıya ait seramik eser görselleri betimsel analiz yoluyla analiz edilmiş ve sanatçının resim çalışmalarıyla karşılaştırılarak araştırma yapılan konuyla ilgili yeni bilgilere yordama, analiz yollarıyla ulaşılmıştır. araştırmada picasso’nun yaptığı iki boyutlu ve üç boyutlu seramikler evreni seramiklerde yer alan figür imgeleri ise sınırlılığı ve örneklemi oluşturmaktadır. araştırma da sanatçının seramik çalışmalarındaki figür imgeleri ele alınıp sınırlaması ile amaçlı örneklem yoluna gidilmiştir. https://www.masterworksfineart.com/artists/pablo-picasso/ceramic/grand-vase-pekine-big-candy-striped-vase- /id/w- pablo pıcasso’nun resimlerindeki figür anlayışının seramik Çalışmalarına… turkish studies volume issue , . bulgular sanatçının figürsel seramiklerinde genelde çizgisel formlar görülmüştür. sanatçının tabak seramiklerinde çizgisel iki boyutlu veyahut boyutlandırılmaya çalışılmış çizgi formları görülmüştür. sanatçının üç boyutlu seramiklerinde ise figür imgelerinin üzerinde konturlu çizgisel müdahaleler mevcuttur. seramiklerde yer alan figür imgelerinin anatomik olarak bozuk olduğu ve estetik kaygısı duyulmadan betimlendiği görülmüştür. seramiklerde yer alan figür imgelerinde, resimlerinde kullandığı kübistik etkilerle oluşturulmuş geometrik formlar saptanmıştır. seramiklerde yer alan figür imgelerinde, resimlerinde kullandığı kübistik etkilerle, düzlem üstünde hem profil hem cephe formunu birlikte kullanmasını üç boyutlu ve iki boyutlu seramiklerde de uyguladığı bulgulanmıştır. birçok seramik çalışmalarında figür imgelerinde formların bozulduğu ve formsal açıdan estetik kaygının duyulmadığı bulgulanmıştır. sanatçının yaptığı seramik tabaklarda ve vazolarda tümsek ve çukur etkileriyle üç boyut verdiği bulgulanmıştır. . sonuçlar pablo picasso yaptığı seramik çalışmalarında resimlerinde kullandığı çizgisel konturleri kullanmıştır. sanatçı seramik tabak çalışmalarında kullandığı çizgisel konturlar ile oluşturduğu çocuksu ifadeli çizimler kimi zaman çizgisel resim gibi kimi zaman ise azda boyutlandırılmış resim görünümünde resmedilmişdir. picasso yaptığı üç boyutlu seramik çalışmalarında kendine has üslubu olan resimsel çizgileri boyutlandırmıştır. sanatçı yaptığı seramik figür imgelerinin üzerine çocuksu resimsel ifadesini çizme ya da kazıma yoluyla güçlendirerek üç boyutlu formla vermeyi başarmıştır. sanatçı birçok seramik çalışmasında figürleri anatomik kaygı taşımadan formlarını bozmuş resimlerinde olduğu gibi geometrik formlarla biçimlendirmiştir. sanatçı yaptığı seramik çalışmalarında güzel etkisi yaratma kaygısı taşımadan vermek istediği formu vermiştir. sanatçı yaptığı bazı seramik çalışmalarında nesneye verdiği tümsek ve çukur etkileriyle düz yüzey üzerine çizdiği figürlere boyut etkisi katmıştır. Örneğin müzisyen faun, sırlı seramik tabak çalışmasında tabağın dış hattındaki yapı tümsek etkisi iç kısımdaki kısım ise çukur yapısıyla içte düzlemsel çizilen yüze boyut katmıştır. bazı seramik çalışmalarında aynı düzlem üzerinde resimlerinde olduğu gibi eş zamanlı gösterimler yapmıştır. seramiklerde yaptığı portre ve figürleri hem cepheden hem de profilden aynı düzlemde biçimlendirmiştir. sanatçı üç boyuttan yararlanmış yaptığı figürün bazı formlarını seramik nesnesinden yapıp resimsel çizgileri de kullanıp sanat üslubunu farklı bir yolla icra etmiştir. Örneğin vazonun ağzını baş, kulplarını kol olarak kullanması gibi. kaynakÇa buchholz, e. l. ve zimmermann, b. ( ), picasso, (dumanoğlu, m. Çev.) İtalya: literatür yayıncılık eroğlu, Özkan. ( ), matisse ve picasso, İstanbul: tekhne yayınları herscher, ermine ( ). picasso sofrası (çev. emine çaykara-şeyda taluk). İstanbul: türkiye İş bankası kültür yayınları fahrettin geÇen - tahir ÇelİkbaĞ turkish studies volume issue , İnan, hasan basri ( ), seramik form ve yüzeylerde resimsel anlatımlar ve İmgeler, yüksek lisans sanat Çalışması raporu, : hacettepe Üniversitesi güzel sanatlar enstitüsü seramik anasanat dalı praeger, frederick a. ( ), picasso, new york: library of congress. stein, g. ( ), picasso.(Özsezgin, k. Çev.) İstanbul: dünya yayıncılık web kaynakları resİm . goo.gl/wgveis, . . resim . goo.gl/v buca, , . . resim . goo.gl/csmex , . . resim . goo.gl/la saa, . . resim . goo.gl/eu g d, . . resim . goo.gl/muhyzo, . . resim . goo.gl/nwzhfy, . . resim . goo.gl/dhyxzl, . . resim . goo.gl/wdq hz, . . goo.gl/ngjiew, . . https://drive.google.com/file/d/ ijjouiokat bbrbcmtrc qhmvl dgesf/view url kısaltma: goo.gl/sfywxt, . . https://drive.google.com/file/d/ aptnddp lntzrtrxjxgghasqklm bf /view url kısaltma: goo.gl/xo ji , . . https://news.artnet.com/market/the-story-behind-picasso-ceramics- url kısaltma: goo.gl/ktx a , . . https://www.masterworksfineart.com/artists/pablo-picasso/ceramics url kısaltma: goo.gl/ky uqm, . . https://www.pablo-ruiz-picasso.net/work- .php url kısaltma: goo.gl/hxntv , . . https://www.entelaylak.com/pablo-picasso-kimdir-hayati-ve-eserleri/ url kısaltma: goo.gl/rj pv , . . https://drive.google.com/file/d/ ijjouiokat bbrbcmtrc qhmvl dgesf/view https://drive.google.com/file/d/ aptnddp lntzrtrxjxgghasqklm bf /view https://news.artnet.com/market/the-story-behind-picasso-ceramics- https://www.masterworksfineart.com/artists/pablo-picasso/ceramics https://www.pablo-ruiz-picasso.net/work- .php https://www.entelaylak.com/pablo-picasso-kimdir-hayati-ve-eserleri/ international journal of social and educational innovation (ijseiro) volume / issue / the concept of “black humour” at french and greek writers nika maklena university of tirana, albania e-mail: maklenanika@yahoo.com received . . ; accepted . . abstract in the article in question, it will be analyzed the concept of “black humour”, one of the four main pillars, which sustained the surrealist creativity. in more specific terms, they are: automat writing, insane love and objective chance. as one of the strongest expressive means of surrelist writers, black humour turned into their symbol in order to better convey the objection against the reality of time. colorations of black humour will be analyzed in comparative platform at the following writers: francis picabia, jacques rigaut and nikos engonopoulos, who converge into a common thematic point – death. through the analysis of several parts selected by them, i will also reveal the similarities in expression, poetical images used, but on the other side, their particularities as well. keywords: surrealism, black humour, poetical image, death, unaware. . introduction the first resource of this term’s origin in english humour derives from the theory of hippocrates on "body liquids". according to such medical theory, there are four mixtures in the human body, where each of them is related to the prevalence of one of these four liquids. when a hamonic mixture of such liquids exists, the man is healthy and in good mood (humour)... several people cannot fairly perceive what role jokes and humour play in their lives, even though freud called it a display of the unawareness (z.i. siafklekis, from the night of lighting to the poetry fact, epikairotita publications, athens, pp. ). it exists a category of people for whom humour is dangerous on the preservation of “seriousness” and of a hypocritical facade. definitely here it is the analysis of mikail bakhtin (bakhtin, m.m. ( ) questions of literature and aesthetics, (russian) progress moscow, ), a famous russian critic, which assists us. he stipulated the role of “carnival” element, subversive spirit (valaoritis nanos, for a theory of writing, eksandas publications, athens , pp. ), as the necessary fallen world, as a recreation, as an alternative, in comparison with the seriousness of scientific ideology. hence, life is neither a farce, nor a continuous tragedy –but an alternating tragicomedy. it is the serious among the ridicule and the ridicule among the serious. mailto:maklenanika@yahoo.com international journal of social and educational innovation (ijseiro) volume / issue / . surrealist humour and its significance in a particular way, surrealist humour, the so-called black humour often has a tragic shade. humor which uncovers, such as the irony of socrates, the infinity, the empty, the unmeasurable, the opening of endless opportunities beyond the narrow boundaries of daily life, the vincible. surrealist humour originates from comte de lautreamont, alfred jarry, jonathan swift, william blake, arthur rimbaud, edgar allan poe, charles baudelaire. in continuation, there were its first followers raymond roussel, guillaume apollinaire, marcel duchamp, francis picabia, tristan tzara, the italian and russian futurists and formalists. through roger vitrac and antonin artaud, it passes to eugene ionesko, samuel beckett, and it comes to us in another form at franz kafka and james joyce. in general, all modernists have adopted it. in , “anthology of black humour” circulated, which is a shelter of an aesthetical and moral attitude towards modern spirit. breton in this anthology collected extracts from the texts of fourier, lachenaire, poe, allais, baudelaire, carrol, lautreamont, swift, picabia, peret, sade ( z.i. siafklekis, from the night of lighting to the poetry fact, epikairotita publications, athens, pp. ) etc. – i.e. from writers who had no connection with surrealism. he inferred that he had found it at almost all the predecessors of surrealism. we can surprisingly convince ourselves that it does not exist a great poet or prose writer without humor, and even the “surrealist” one. relating such tragic humor, i can mention salvador dali, who, when being introduced to surrealists, was in a “psychotic situation” and laughed at large when they talked to him. later, he told them that he had seen each of them in a hat with the form of a wavering cake.... the laughter of psychotics is tragic, because it is not controlled. the laughter of nitzsche, when he got crazy or the laughter of the gotic satanic hero melmoth was a clear grimace. surprisingly, the climate of surrealism is somehow more general than we think it is. modernism, part of which is realism as well, created its humor, with a rare sensibility which converges into a certain humor which is not missing in the works of cubism either, of picasso, gertrude stein and many others. if the automat writing is a way for the creation of a connection between the internal and external reality, black humor, as a technique, serves to the purpose of surrealists in order to reconsider their relations with the traditional literary creativity, by establishing a space where polemic and mining prevail as means of literary expression and elements of social behaviour. the term humor is used by breton time after time in different texts, such as “situation surrealiste de l’objet” ( ), “limites non frontieres...”( ), “dictionnaire abrege du surrealisme” ( ) and infers the preference of surrealists for such expressive means. to him, black humor is the absolute revolution of the soul. according to breton, humour turns without doubt into the expression of triumphing subjectivity, in his connection with daily life, meanwhile such triumph is temporary and in no way eventually solves the antitheses and objections with social space. such brief survival of objective humor, as well as the use of the same epithet for the casual, encouraged breton to use the term black humor for the first time at the “anthology”. international journal of social and educational innovation (ijseiro) volume / issue / annie le brun writes very accurately that: “black humour in relation to objective humour are the same acknowledgement of the insufficient perception of the world and beggining of the reaction on which awareness of life slams” (annie le brun, l’humour noir, at entretiens sur le surrealisme, paris et la haye, , pp. ). pleasure and reality are two images directly affected by the process of black humour. breton at the text of the “anthology” shall seek at freud psychological dimensions in the functioning of the black humour. in particular by making use of the work of freud “humour and its connections with the unaware”, observes that: “humour does not have only the liberating part and economic element, but something greater and more sublime...greatness definitely aims at the triumph of narcism...” (z.i. siafklekis, from the night of lighting to the poetry fact, epikairotita publications, athens) the value of humour is definitely found in this process of distancing from reality and expresses the impossible adjustment of man with the conditions of his existence. in this point of view, black humour appears as a self-protection means against any oppressive environment. the use of the black surname, shows in this manner the game with death, which does not come but to highlight the negation of the real regarding the human existence. the satiric dimension of the black humor function is obvious. it eliberates from sweet sensualities each residual of romantism and at the same time induces literature towards the lost originality. insight of humour allows poetry to find readibility. the same as at the automat writing, at black humor, linguistic expression is found under continuous doubt, regarding not only its “rules”, but also its own structure. use of black humour creates new association states, where logical irregularity of language and its expressive force lose the opportunity to convince the reader, or at least lead him to a concrete orientation selected by the writer. contrary to automat writing, where the unaware has the primary role, in the case of black humour we have a preliminary aforethought and logical organization of the absurd, by continuously and systematically referring to reality. black humour assumes perfect acknowledgement and use of real details of daily life, history, geography and definitely literature. certainly that a work containing black humour should mean without doubt a coherence with the reader. he is invited by the writer to give a new meaning for the text, because he has to perform herein a critical-active reading, not only with the aim of work’s comprehension, but also its framing into his personal mythology. this argumentation may be difficult if we take into account the words of marco ristic that: “humor in its contact with poetry becomes the extreme expression of spasmadic antithesis” (lecherbonnier gerard durozoi-bernard, le surrealisme, paris, larousse , pp. ). and, in the case of black humour, the eliberation of self – continuous request of surrealists in numerous forms - , is made through the work of art. . comparative analysis from selected extracts of nikos engonopoulos – francis picabia – jacque rigaut let us study several texts where death is the main theme and at the same time the main resource of black humour, where inclinations for the autoirony and the automining of the self are created. the international journal of social and educational innovation (ijseiro) volume / issue / question is about texts with strong autobiographical elements, where surreality is created by means of special expressive means. in these texts, death is described not as a kind of antithesis solution between the internal and external reality, but as a passing and overcoming stage into the surreal world, where the individual is released from the rules of conventional reality. it is not the question for texts with metaphysical purposes. on the contrary, the question is about the most serious form in discussing the omnipotence of the self, as well as the absolute character of literary creativity. let us first see a text of nikos engonopoulos from the summary “don’t talk to the driver” ( ): “evening maria” the other day after my death, or better of my murder, i took all the newspapers to read so as to learn as much as possible details about my execution. it seems that they took me to the tripod under strict attendance. i was wearing, it infers, clothes in yellow colour, latticed scarf and a hood. my hair looked like brush, maybe that of a painter. then they threw my corpse far away, into a bog, where sometime it was the limer of french descartes and where, many years ago there was also food for predacious poultries and the shelter of a so- called prostitute evterpi...and the only useful thing, which i happened to read those days, was a long letter of the italian guiliam tsitzi, my only friend of heart, whom i have never known and for whom i still doubt if he exists. in a few words, the whole content of this letter was as follows hereunder: “you are”, he used to say, i definitely mean polikseni, “you are an old gramaphone with bronze funnel down a black fabric. (ikaros publications, athens , pp. - ) in this text, the actuality of narration is identified already with the overcome time, which also creates the first impression for the reader. in a realist style, the narrator presents details of his death, by balancing his words through events and real characters. the real purpose of the narrator is to organize within logical narrator structures an entirety of elements without any logic connections between them. the result is that it is created a system of relations between the deepest and opposite situations, which in combination with the small expanssion of narration, create to the reader the explosive feeling of a tragic blind alley. in general, the bling alley as a motive of black humour creates the feeling of boundaries of self opportunities. herein, irony is the determining element of style, with a double purpose: on one side it allows the narrator to distance from his object, i.e. self and on the other side to be reinforced the credibility of the text, notwithstanding the obscurity of its simasiologic function. irony becomes a functional element of a surrealist writing. the surrealist humour maintains certain forms of the real in order to better transmit the surreal. at “maria of the evening”, the forms of the real are present, but it is also clear the orientation of the writer towards the surreal, the internal reality. narrative technique serves only to a strategy: highlighting of the individual’s interior and his connections maintained with the real (external reality). this is transmitted by means of strong symbols selected from the reality. however, the metaphores used are those which create the feeling of avoidance from the common code of communication and at the same time justify as well the innovatory character of the text (her international journal of social and educational innovation (ijseiro) volume / issue / hair was the same as brush, maybe that of a painter...). the use of poetic images and interposition of proper nouns (existing or not) creates an alegoric meaning of the text. the same interpretation i would also make about the painter and poet of cubane origin francis picabia in his text entitled “cold eye”, which is included in the “anthology” of breton: after our death, we should have been placed inside a sphere. such sphere should have been made of wood particles in different colours. they would glide us to take us to graveyard and the gravediggers would look after, would wear transparent gloves, in order to remind lovers of the memories of fondling, for those who would like to enrich their furnishing with the objective acknowledgement of the correct existence, crystal spheres would exist, through which someone would not distinguish the determining bareness of his grandfather or his twin brother! tracks (impure waters) of smartness, a lamp for the war with barriers, people look like immovable eye corbies, which take their impetuosity on corpses and all the redskins are station chiefs!(anthology of black humour, volume a, aigokeos publications, athens , pp. ) contrary to engonopoulos, the intensive illustration of the text does not match with a system of symbols, but underlines objective situations by aiming at their general acceptance. love, family, society in general are some of the meanings to be highlighted by the poet. at narration level, the analogies with the text of engonopoulos are obvious. cronic continuation on which the process of impressionism is based and where the continuation of “metaphysical life” starts from is the same. description, the basic function of narration, is herein based on real elements or those which seem to be real, heteroclit regarding the form and absurd regarding their place within the poetic image. in the text of picabia the impression of the reader is reached from the first phrases and escalated, such as in the case of engonopoulos. consecutive poetic images do not make anything else, but give greater simasiologic sense, by including as well the title, which is a distance from the content of the text itself. time and death are the two basic meanings in the texts of this kind and which are put in doubt by the surrealist creativity. awareness of the antithesis life – death and its humourous consumption strengthen the confidence in connecting things and lead the individual to a distanced doubt of the world. because, in essence, the word surrealist is nothing else, but a fundamental change of the point of view by which the individual perceives the material reality. in this case, black humour proves such connection of the individual with the reality, without avoidance towards automat writing or hyperbolas of crazy love and the poets use the technique of black humour within a language absolutely “logical” such a comunication where the arbitrarity of the image is linked with a relation reason – consequence, by providing this way the complete surprising of the reader. black humour nourishes the unexpected, by giving this way the possibility to writers to exploit to the maximum their imagination, released from the reconciliations of a normal writing. as in any international journal of social and educational innovation (ijseiro) volume / issue / forms of surrealist writing, even here, the image is the space where the limits of writing and his importance are judged. both distant realities which coexist at this one, are not linked with one another consciously, such as in the case of the automat writing, but through traditional means of written communication. in their case of picabia - engonopoulos the freedom of creation is found in the selection of symbols and situations with which narration and the unexpected are realized. the concrete symbols of engonopoulos and the general situations of picabia are the two aspects of the same message, which is elaborated and organized with the same technique. even in the text below of jacques rigaut, which is introduced in the same category with the above two texts, we have almost the use of the same technique: the first time i committed suicide was in order to bother my girlfriend. this virtuous creature did not accept persistence to sleep with me, by withdrawing into regrets, as she said, to betray the love of her life. i did not know if i really loved her, i doubt that fifteen days away from her would have particularly reduced the need i felt for her; her denial irritated me. how could i go over? did i say that she felt deep and continuous love about me? i committed suicide to bother my girlfriend. i forvige myself about such suicide when i take into account her young age in this season of aventure. the second time i committed suicide was from laziness. poor, having a kind of disdain fro any kind of work, i committed suicide one day without any conviction, the same as i have lived. they keep rampage to me for this death, when they see what kind of bloomed view i have now. the third time... i will make you the honour of not telling you the other suicides of mine, it is sufficient to accept to listen even this: i went for sleeping, after an evening when my gloom was more concerning than any other time....i stood up and went to find the only weapon of the house, a small pistol which one of my grandfathers has bought, filled in with old cartridge...i laid down in my bed, i was bare in the room. it was cold. i hurried up in order to stay under layers. .... then i supported the weapon on a small table, by laughing maybe with a little seriousness. ten minutes later i fell asleep. i think that i made an important little observation, as much as ... definitely! it implies that not for a single moment i really meant to shoot myself for the second time. important was that i had taken the decision to die and not that in reality i died !(anthology of black humour, volume b, aigokeos publications, athens , pp. - ) herein, the action of commiting suicide is extended in meanings, hence it is the self which takes the decision for this initiative. this text is presented as classic, without using daring images. the effort of the narrator is in order to explain and justify consecutive suicides, by highlighting in this manner the dissatisfactions of daily life, feebleness of communication, lack of ideals and in general of purposes and ambitions. the language used is real within a surrealist frame. the logic of absurd may be easily understood by the reader, because the events are simple, with full transparency. contrary to the above two texts, it is highlighted the real life of the individual. the whole strategy of rigaut is based on the humorous investment of events “which could have happened to each of us”. international journal of social and educational innovation (ijseiro) volume / issue / however, on the other side it should be highlighted the fact that the suicide for surrealists is a different meaning from that of the romantic ones. the subject herein is not jostled towards death by an unredeemed passion or dipped into full melancholy. suicide of surrealists is the most sublime expression of social agresivity. . conclusions in the texts of black humour, an important role is played by opposite situations or opposite argumentations by which the writer explains the concrete attitude of the individual and his innovatory relation with the external reality. these situations often originate from the world of dreams and hence we encounter another dimension of dream contrary to that of automat writing. image of death and its approximation with humourous technique, showing of individual’s relativity and mockery of any senses of external world are the main conditions for the creation of the surreality which these texts aim at. black humour, as yvonne duplessis also states: “not only introduces us into the world of imagination, but furthermore gives us the opportunity to achieve a philosophical concept of the world, according to which a logic larger than another would join the world of dream with that of the reality” (duplessis yvonne, le surrealisme, paris, p.u.f. (serie que sais-je?), pp. ) at writing level, black humour is one more case for surrealists in order to reconsider and strengthen theri expressive means. having nothing in common with romantic and symbolists, with the exception of using several symbols, the writers of these texts are the pioneers of a modernism product, which adapts elements from happenings, from self-improvision, but also as a figurative collage about the approximation of two distant realities. more than any other technique, the texts of black humour preserve, maybe owing to their existential dimension, unchanged their diacronic message in form, as well as in content, by proving what breton used to say at “vases communicatives” ( ) that: “poets gave us the possibility to accept, following centuries and allowed us to wait inducement offered in order to re-establish again the man in the center of the universe” (breton andre, the communicating vessels, the interpretation of dreams, aigokeros publications, , pp. ) is is definitely such inducement in the heart of surrealist expression which, in black humour, touches the highest peaks of explosion, which is certainly not expressed only by literary means. references . annie, le brun. ( ). l’humour noir, at entretiens sur le surrealisme, paris et la haye. . bakhtin, m.m. ( ). questions of literature and aesthetics, (russian) progress moscow, . breton, andre. ( ). the communicating vessels, the interpretation of dreams, aigokeros publications. international journal of social and educational innovation (ijseiro) volume / issue / . duplessis, yvonne, le surrealisme, paris, p.u.f. (serie que sais-je?). . engonopoulos, nikos. ( ). “evening maria” ikaros publications, athens . . lecherbonnier, gerard durozoi-bernard. ( ). le surrealisme, paris, larousse. . valaoritis, nanos. ( ). for a theory of writing, athenes: eksandas publications. . siafklekis, z.i. ( ). from the night of lighting to the poetry fact, athens: epikairotita publications. . anthology of black humour. ( ). volume a and b, athens: aigokeos publications. < eb adc f b ed e > journal of fashion business vol. , no. , pp. ~ ( ) a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting + kang heemyung lecturer of department of fashion design, dongduk women's university abstract modern art is getting more comprehensive and diversified regardless of genre in many forms due to the pluralism and anti-aesthetic trend of the time which is impacted by post modernism. this atmosphere is also applied to fashion illustration which creates synergy effect in cooperation with many different genres. this study selected matisse' paper cut-out as the subject which would reflect the minimalism and abstractionism of modern plasticity. by taking this as the motive for fashion illustration, i made seven illustration works with the subject of minimalism of form and color. the conclusion of this study is as following. first, matisse's paper cut out has controlled plasticity related to the modern abstractionism and it well fits the modern trend and sensibility which is appropriate for motive of fashion illustration. second, by upgrading the technique of matisse' paper cut-out in a modern way such as combination of hand drawing and computer graphic using photoshop, i was able to make originative and creative illustration works with background and patterns that were closely connected with each other. third, applying the fashion illustration to other various products is being well received now and i made my illustrations that could lead to follow up studies to apply the fashion illustration to other different products. matisse' paper cut-our has forms, colors and patterns that can contain both commercial and artistic value. therefore it is quite feasible for follow up research to apply into many different areas. key words : art illustration, matisse, paper cut-out, motives, image + this paper is an excerpt from the master's thesis. corresponding author; kang heemyung, tel.+ - - - , e-mail: fashionkhm@hanmail.net journal of fashion business vol. , no. i. introduction modern art is being developed comprehensively and variously regardless of genre in many forms because of the current trend of pluralism and anti-aesthetic open thought which is impacted by post modernism. fashion, as the cultural phenomenon, reflects the current situation. accordingly, fashion illustration which is closely related with fashion, also reflects the times and circumstances. furthermore, as the boundary of fine art, applied art, and pop culture is getting blurred, the combination of art and fashion has become a very clear trend today. as people regard artistic talent and ingenuity as essential components of fashion illustration, this fusion of fashion illustration, art and technology has become more widespread. there were many previous studies which linked fashion illustration to certain style of art, painters, technique and characteristics of certain times. some of them were papers studying the characteristics of art style such as impressionism techniques by sook lee, pop art by hyekyung moon, surrealism by sungjoo kang and art nouveau mode by sunyoung moon, etc. there were papers which studied the expression technique of certain painters such as gustav klimt by myunga jung, egon schiele by sungwoo lee, and yaacov agam by eunyong lee, etc. some papers studied specific techniques such as paper cut-out by seyoon choi, mixed media technique by jieun jung, and quilling by hyejin hur, etc. there were papers which introduced fashion illustration as item such as accessory by jimin kim, fashion product by mijung lee, and bag design by eunjoo jang etc. i found out that fashion illustration studies had some preferred techniques and painters' styles depending on the request of the times. the purpose of this study is to extend the expression area by applying the motive from matisse' paper cut-out to fashion illustration in order to develop creative image. the subject of this study is henry matisse' paper cut-out which has the formative elements that well fit the modern trend of minimal abstractionism. the application of fashion illustration to the motives of many products is being well received today. in this respect, i thought henry matisse' paper cut-out was a very good subject having forms, colors and patterns that could be applied to commercial products with artistic value. in addition, i tried to find the possibility of taking this into many other products of high commercial value. this study was conducted to adopt and apply the work of henri matisse to fashion illustration, a fauvism artist of simplicity and purity. to be more specific, the objective of the study is to adopt and apply the unique simplification method in patterns and color of the artist's paper cut-out to fashion illustration. in the theoretical part, the definition of art fashion illustration, classification of techniques, and history of fashion illustration from its inception to modern date were researched in the past studies published in korean and overseas journals. in addition, the art of henri matisse with focus on paper cut-out was studied. in the art work part, i produced seven fashion illustrations with the motive from henry matisse' paper cut-put. i pursued simplicity with matisse' vivid color and simplified single pattern on clothes in all my drawings. repeated pattern was used as a background to maximize simplification and visual effect. kang heemyung / a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting ii. theoretical consideration on fashion art illustration . definition and history of fashion art illustration 'illustration' has the dictionary meanings of 'an instance', 'a cut', 'an explanatory drawing', and 'an example', etc. the origin of the word is 'to make light', meaning that sentiment of invisible world is clearly opened and defined to public through lighting and visualization. in other words, by lighting the invisible object, it visualizes invisible world such as emotion or thoughts to makes it clear to the public. therefore, illustration is an internal expression of imagination and acts as a communication tool. ) in modern term, illustration is 'communication art' with the concept to reflect culture, the spirit of the times and artists. that is, illustration plays a role not only as the marketing or communication but also as very important media of communication to visualize humanism ) ) before the th century in this time, the main subject was about the recording of clothes, especially the popular clothes of high class or the stage costume. fashion illustration was regarded as the artist's pure work to describe the clothes of the time rather than as precise communication and description of costume itself. the example can be found in renaissance masters' sketches and wood block prints. in addition, the appearance of aubrey beardsley who reflected the style of art nouveau, and toulouse lautrec who was affected by japanese wood block became a starting point of fashion illustration which had a great influence on today.<fig > ) in 's~ 's as the photograph was introduced to mode magazine and fashion advertisement in the early th century, the traditional illustration technique couldn't compete with the photograph in terms of realistic description. the emerging fauvism and cubism and art deco at this time had a big influence on fashion illustration. fashion illustration took bright and splendid color from fauvism and plane and geometric screen composition from the shape theory of cubism. from the 's, the fashion transformed from the rectilinear silhouette to softer and more natural and feminine silhouette. along with the birth of this new silhouette, the fashion illustration word had an aspect of the pictorial image rather than the graphic image. surrealism, which was technically free by collage and empirical photography, was recognized as the art movement which had a great effect on the postwar modern art and illustration ) <fig. > illustration in the 's was based on the orthodox drawing style of the 's to the 's that looked like one piece of painting, and it emphasized line and simplicity. ) in the 's- 's in 's, new fashion trend came out. the concrete formative consciousness of pop art was emerged to revolt against the subjective aesthetics of abstract expression, which affected fashion to use new materials such as metal, glass, paper, vinyl, etc. modernism of pop art and the praise of youth influenced fashion illustration. journal of fashion business vol. , no. after the 's, as the standardization by industrialization affected fashion illustration, the fixed formative image became one of the general features. ) from the 's to the present the most striking feature in 's fashion illustration was the new interpretation of human body and the change of the related expression style. <fig. > the artists in the th century tended to disassemble, distort and reconstruct human body by their own will. nevertheless, fashion illustration was exceptional in this trend ) from the 's, the photography became highlighted while fashion illustration was in decline due to the influence of hyper realism. accordingly, fashion illustration created new image to meet the needs of the times and extended its field by absorbing variety of technique such as collage, air brush, the combination of photography and illustration, block print, cad and hand drawing. recently, fashion illustration makes cubic effects using the various embossing and extends into applied visual art with new technology, media and computer graphics. . classification of techniques the techniques of fashion illustration has been developed by reflecting the trend and artists' preference, and modern fashion illustration uses two or three techniques combined rather than one technique alone to create new images. in this study, i made fashion illustrations by combining hand drawing and computer graphic technique. in the process of production, i applied more appropriate techniques which best fitted my subject. ) woodblock print it had been the mostly used technique in the early fashion illustration before the phography emerged or the press was generalized. in the th century, etching technique was used mainly as the print technique to express the details in spite of its limitation before the photography was invented.<fig. > ) computer graphic the development of computer technique opened the new expression technique. as the connection of science and art creates new shape and new image, computer graphic is extending the field of fashion illustration into unlimited possibilities like combination of picture and drawings, and various forms of color and images.<fig. > ) collage 'collage' came from a french word, coller, mentioned to mean the technique of cut and paste of the common unartistic materials. in other words, it is a way of expressing various material by fashion illustrator. collage was evolved into many forms as it passed thru pop art of 's. the illustration using this collage technique can make unique material, texture and three dimensional expression.<fig. > ) embossing embossing is the technique to make the dress pattern with thick paper which is imprinted by press to show embossing and engraving expression. this technique is easy to express the visual texture of materials. in case the pressure is strong in print, it's proper to call 'press'. even if the material is not kang heemyung / a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting <fig. >aubrey beardsley, ,fashion darwing in vogue,p. . <fig. >benito, fashion darwing in vogue,p. . <fig. >gianfranco ferre, , fashion darwing in vogue,p. . <fig. >francois berthoud, ,fashion darwing in vogue,p. . <fig. >kang hee myung, . <fig. >henri matchavariani, ,fashion darwing in vogue,p. . <fig. >lee mi jung, . <fig. >henri matisse, , the clown(jazz),henri matisse cut-outs,p. . <fig. >henri matisse, , jazz ,henri matisse cut-outs,p. . journal of fashion business vol. , no. thin and soft, press can make unevenness effect by pressure. it can make hand felt expressions and the effect of light by the form of shade<fig. > iii. study on henri matisse' art . influenced by neo-impressionism and post-impressionism matisse learned the strictness of pure geometrical color composition from cezanne, artistic intuition and sensibility from gogh and the sense of color like volcano from gauguin. ) the pointillism and the abstractness of plane and curve were linked to the color and the line of fauvism. . fauvism fauvism was the start of the new painting which replaced the existing realism and naturalism with a new order in the th century. fauvism used the pure light color of new impressionism but its emotional subject was influenced by les nabis and symbolism. fauvism was a naturally born short-term artistic phenomenon which was shared by similar artists at that time, rather than an intentional movement of a specific group. fauvism made a big influence on modern art such as expressionism, dadaism, and surrealism. ) . paper cut-out matisse started paper cut-out after the 's. at the early stage, he used this as a supportive technique for oil painting but later he developed and established it as an independent and new technique in his late art works. while trying various decorative works, matisse became interested in the color especially and he developed the technique called paper cut-out by combination of decorative work. matisse' paper cut-out was focused on colors and simplified forms which contributed to the development of abstractionism painting. the detailed technique is coloring with several primary colors and paper cutting with rhythmical sense having similarity with minimalism art of omission and implication. in this work, he found his own visual signal system and finalized his expression of color by balancing the harmonized manufacturing method and different elements. ) using use the new term " paper cut-out" was naturally made thru his seek of effective expression of the subject. in this process, color was getting more stabilized and became the strong method of expression. in order to make general unity while omitting detail description, matisse thought that simple and strong subject was required and began to make work regarding dance. matisse' work having both decoration and simplicity began to appear in 's work of "dance" and "jazz". with simplified human image and background, matisse' work began to be recognized in his harmony of color, line and space as well as form and contents. matisse excluded the sophisticated element and focused more on the natural and instinctive element of dance. in addition, he pioneered his own area by combination of the elements of painting and sculpture with simplification. with this work, one of his masterpiece, "jazz album", was made. <jazz > and <jazz > are the most representative paper cut-out which are composed of about twenty works. the subject is mostly about circus or theater colored with kang heemyung / a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting gouche. the work shows simplified form and clear movement with unified strong paper cut-out expression (fig. , ). matisse' paper cut-out is fundamentally different from collage of cubism. collage tried to show new expression image by adding newspaper or wallpaper on canvass instead of color paint, but matisse' paper cut-out captured the moment of movement and expressed it with vivid color characterfully. the representative works of this are big nude work, "zulma" and "the sadness of king" (fig. ) his sophisticated and mysterious work image with simplified form and vivid color was carefully planned and the best technique can be seen in vence cathedral which is the work of his later years (fig. ). pater cut-out has its attraction in its combination of drawing, sculpture and painting and it is recognized as an independent art area even today. iv. manufacture . intention of manufacture <fig. >henri matisse, , the sadness of the king,p. . <fig. >henri matisse, , christmas night,p. . i made fashion illustrations with motive from the unique pattern, form and color of matisse' paper cut-out. i also borrowed the production technique of matisse for the production of my work. i drew and colored the body form that matched with the motive and reworked this by using computer graphic. the whole process can be called paper cut-out using computer graphic. matisse' paper cut-out had harmony of decoration and simplicity and by using simplified form and controlled color, it had a strong image which was not monotonous. in addition, it had unity, rhythm and volume of light and dark with sophisticated shape. in this respect, it is connected with creative abstractive painting and modern elements. i think matisse' paper cut-out is appropriate to express the modern minimal abstractive sensibility. fashion illustration is being more widely used as design work for the motive of many other products. in this respect, the introduction of form, color and pattern of matisse' paper cut-out has both commercial and artistic value that can lead to additional follow-up designs for clothes and accessories etc. this is the reason that i selected matisse' journal of fashion business vol. , no. paper cut-out as the subject of my study. for the motive of my work, i chose "jazz" series mainly from his works which is recognized as master piece in the expression of paper cut-out technique. especially i tried to introduce the birds, flowers and paradisical - which is like see plant - which was frequently used in his work to show unique pattern and minimal form. <tab > shows the patterns that i introduced in my work from jazz series of matisse's paper cut-out. <tab > summarizes seven motives that i selected from matisse' paper-cut and their main patterns. <tab > pattern that was shown in matisse's paper cut-out abstract figure circle flower sky sea paradisical / coral line . production method the subject was set as shape and color of minimalism and i made seven illustration arts. in order to maximize the beauty of simplicity, i applied contrast of color and restrained line while seeking my own art with the computer work of color and print. i tried to emphasize the minimal element of matisse paper cut-out in my design. in my color, i expressed sophisticated strong color in general by using complementary contrast. i used pattern as background or print to show the rhythm and image while maintaining the organic harmony. the detailed working procedure is first sketch kang heemyung / a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting on fabriano paper with motive followed by re-design in harmony with matisse's art and final photoshop work to finish. while matisse used paper and scissors, i used hand drawing and computer graphic for paper cut-out. my intention was to show the originality and characteristics of my work by combination of painting and graphic image. <tab > shows hand drawings that i made and their major points that are applied to my fashion illustration works. <tab > main pattern, motive and my illustration main pattern circle, coral paradisical coral paradisical abstract bird abstract abstract dance bronze plaster, body motive applyin g point pattern, light contrast, rhythm organic unity of the form, detailed body and tattoo body drawing, pattern color contrast, body drawing, bag print one piece pattern on the body drawing diagonal line, color contrast space, color contrast, hand drawing, harmony with motive my illustrati on . illustration work and explanation my design intended to show human body with implications and minimalism by using restrained lines and strong contrast of color. <tab > summarizes my seven illustration works that i made from the motives of matisse' paper-cut and the main colors that i applied in my work. journal of fashion business vol. , no. <tab > matisse's , my work , color analysis motive work color lime light, pink carnation, dahlia, pastel green lily green, sweet lavender, starlight blue, aquarius, black aqu, chicory,white moonlight blue, phlox pink, irish green kang heemyung / a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting <tab > continued motive work color deep periwinkle, poison, carmine rose vibrant yellow,green flash mandarin orange,black sunshine, apricot, classic green,strawberry pink journal of fashion business vol. , no. ) work work took the motive from matisse' work “sea-beasts”. <fig. > as the pattern of the "sea-beast" was thought to be well matched with vertical form, i applied this to the print on pants. first, i drew the lower body by hand and colored it with green and black which was the main color of the motive.<fig. > on top of it, i made the print using photoshop. i took the original matisse' work as background by splitting into both sides and i put my illustration in the center. in this illustration, i tried to express light contrast, rhythmic sense and various print harmoniously. <fig. >motive <fig. >hand drawing <fig. >work <fig. >motive <fig. >hand drawing <fig. >work <fig. > ) work work took the motive from matisse' work “the knife-thrower" from jazz.<fig. > i tried to express the fantastic image of elevation from the vertical structure. i materialized the simplified body of matisse's work by hand-drawing and colored them as a woman's body with hair, volume and curve.<fig. > i changed the pattern of the matisse' work and used it as background to match with my hand-drawing figure in harmony and unity. i think the finished illustration can be applied variously by using silk screen.<fig. > kang heemyung / a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting ) work work took the motive from matisse' work “polynesia, the sea”. <fig. > inspired by the movement of birds' wings, i drew the dynamic body and hair by hand and colored it with blue, which is the main color, in harmony with the background.<fig. > inspired by the repeated unit of matisse' work, i combined the two figures in diagonal form by using computer graphic and applied this to the print of one piece in cool and individual style.<fig. > ) work <fig. >motive <fig. >hand drawing <fig. >work <fig. >motive <fig. >hand drawing <fig. >work work took the motive from the matisse' work “the woman swimming in the aquarium" and "destiny" from jazz.<fig. > when i saw these two works of matisse, i felt like they were one work. so i took these two works as one motive and used it as background. this motive especially stood out in the stability of horizontal division and color contrast. using this as background, i drew the sophisticated figure with a bag by hand.<fig. > i colored the body with black and decorated the detail. by using photoshop, i used matisse' work as the print of the bag which cab be applied to commercial product.<fig. > journal of fashion business vol. , no. ) work work took the motive from the matisse' work “the horse, the squire and the clown”. <fig. > i was inspired by the fan shape abstract pattern of this work and used this as background. i drew the body and colored the one piece with the main color of skyblue and black to match with the pattern.<fig. , > ) work work took the motive from the matisse' work “cecole woman dancing”. <fig. > <fig. >motive <fig. >hand drawing <fig. >work <fig. >motive <fig. >hand drawing <fig. >work i drew the dancer figure with the same pause of matisse' work <fig. >and made a strong image with the contract of color. i made three dimensional effect by making shade when i put the figure on the background using photoshop.<fig. > this process turned out very satisfactory result and i think this work can be applied to print and collage for various fashion items. ) work work took the motive from the matisse' work “zulma”. <fig. > kang heemyung / a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting <fig. >motive <fig. >hand drawing <fig. >work <tab > matisse's work and focus of my work matisse' work focus of my work sea-beasts - color contrast with motive - applying pattern on lower body - dynamic pose and vivid color in harmony with print - possibility to apply on pants print. te knife-thrower from jazz - future oriented ideal in the ascending image of vertical line - materialize the abstractive body - tattoo print on hip and upper body - enlargement or reduction of background motive size polynesia, the sea - simplified bird and repetition of color - balanced space construction - dynamic rhythm of hair from the movement of bird's wings the woman swimming in the aquarium 와 destiny from jazz series - two motives that can be combined as one - sophisticated image by complementary color - bag design from the motive of destiny the horse, the squire and the clown from jazz series - asymmetrical expression - vivid fan shape motive on one piece with symmetrical pattern, color contrast and unity cecole woman dancing - repetitive arrangement of motive - dynamic movement and color contrast zulma - divide the zulma into both sides - hand drawing figure in the center with similar color to show organic unity. - vertical line and color contrast to show stability and strong image journal of fashion business vol. , no. by using the photoshop, i divided the matisse' work vertically into both sides. by taking the idea from matisse who shaped the nude from bronze, i re-interpreted zulma's nude in a modern way<fig. > and completed the figure and put it in the center of the divided background in harmony. i maintained the stable vertical structure and made strong and harmonious illustration by using complementary colors.<fig. > <tab > shows the main focus of my work for each motive. v. conclusion this study was conducted to adopt and apply the work of henri matisse to fashion illustration, a fauvism artist who realized liberalization and independence of color, whose work is characterized by autonomy, simplicity, purity. to be more specific, the objective of the study is to adopt and apply the unique simplification method, pattern and color of the artist's paper cut-out to fashion illustration. the conclusion drawn from this study is as follows.: first, matisse's paper cut-out has controlled plasticity related to the modern abstractionism and it well fits the modern trend and sensibility which is appropriate for motive of fashion illustration. it was also found that the color of matisse's paper cut-out that emphasizes beauty of simplicity and vividness through contrast of colors matches well with the sensibility of today that seek creativity and minimalism. second, by upgrading the technique of matisse' paper cut-out in a modern way such as combination of hand drawing and computer graphic using photoshop, i was able to make originative and creative arts having background and patterns that were closely connected with each other. specifically, i changed matisse' work to be modern by adjusting the color and pattern. through this work, i completed new modern fashion illustrations while maintaining the identity of matisse' work. third, applying fashion illustration to other various products is being well received now and i made my illustrations that would lead to follow up studies to apply the fashion illustration to other different products. matisse' paper cut-our has forms, colors and patterns having both commercial and artistic value. in my work, i used the pattern for fashion clothes and bags limitedly but by taking this motive, i think it is possible to produce various items in various ways. therefore it is quite feasible for follow up research to apply into many different areas. fourth, the development of new technologies and multi-media leads to many varieties in regards to the means of expression, and a new chapter is opened to all sectors of art. one of the newly introduced tools is the computer graphic. the use of computer graphic in creating the background and patterns can bring an unlimited world of possibility in expression enabled by new techniques and instruments. reference ) jang andrew( ), the world of illustration, design house, p. . ) young sun yoo( ), "a study on the method of express for fashion illustration visual image after ", kyung hee university, p. . ) william packer( ), fashion drawing in kang heemyung / a study of fashion art illustration employing matisse painting vogue, london: thames and hudson, p. . ) mi rae park ( ), fashion illustration, kyungchunsa, p. . ) keun joon yoo( ),collection of world western art, vol , hankook daily news, p. . ) kwang soo oh( ), seoul modern painting history, ilji publishing company, p . ) young bang im( ),understanding of modern art. seoul national university. p, . ) heung mi kim( ), “study on matisse' plan painting with focus on life philosophy”, hon gik university, p. . ) nicholas darke ( ), fashion illustration today, london: thames and hudson. ) richard martin ( ), fashion and surrealism, london: thames and hudson. ) gilles neret ( ),nhenri matisse cut-outs, london: benedikt taschen. 접수일( 년 월 일), 수정일( 차 : 년 월 일, 차 : 월 일), 게재확정일( 년 월 일) << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo 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d bc f ad c ae c d c c ace d c c b c c c c d f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /noconversion /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /na /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure true /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles true /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /na /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /leaveuntagged /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice should everyone learn anything?: the question of computer literacy naomi s. baron visiting neh chair in the humanities graduate institute of the the liberal arts emory university atlanta, georgia in developing a new area of knowledge, one of the most difficult problems is working out a framework in terms of which to define the area. the emerging subject of "computer literacy" is a case in point. what should colleges and universities teach about computers? and to whom? rather than beginning with such "computer literacy" issues themselves, we start with the more basic question of how educators make any decisions about the appropriate content and audience of higher education. the question of teleology in higher education is examined in terms of four conceptual categories: acculturationj economic considerations, social mechanisms, and mental discipline. these four categories offer one plausible framework for crafting rational procedures for deciding what to teach college students about computers. key words: computer literacy; higher education; i. defining the problem reinventing the wheel appears to be a favorite activity in american hi~her education. every few decades, our colleges and universities decide that the education they require of students is all wron . curriculum committees then set about trying to decide what every modern educated graduate should know. most such committees labor seemingly unaware that their forbears worried over precisely the same questions. as a result, the past is rarely taken as prologue. the newest candidate for' the curricular grist mill is so-called "computer literacy". should we teach it? if so, to whom? this question is currently worrying faculties and administrations at practically every college and university in this country (not to mention their counterparts in lower education). what should we in higher education do about the teaching of "computer literacy? should we teach it to everyone? to only some students? and what is it that we are proposing to teach? do we ~ r m i s s i o n to copy without ~ e all or part of this ma~rial is ~ a n t ~ p r o v ~ e d t ~ t the copies a ~ not made or distributed ~ r d i v o t c o m m e ~ i a l a d v a n t a ~ , t ~ a c m copyright notice and t ~ title of the p u b l i ~ t i o n and im dam appear, and notice is given that copying is by ~ r m i s s i o n of the association ~ r computing machinery. to copy otherwise, or to republish, ~quires a ~ e a n d / o r specific permission. © a c m - - - - / / / $ . intend to teach students about computers? to teach them programming in basic? multiple programming languages? machine hardware? ethical implications of computer use and misuse? each of these possible definitions of computer literacy (and their various permutations) has been proposed by one curriculum committee or another. suffice it to say that there is little agreement. joining the debate, this paper will examine the question of what we should teach about computers, and to whom. however, rather than beginning with the issues of "computer literacy" itself, we will first ask a more basic question: how do we make a_~_ decisions about the appropriate content and audience of higher education? i suggest that by stepping back from the particular issue of computer literacy and considering the broader question of teleology - that is, the rationales behind decision-making - in formal education, we can construct a methodology that will enable us to work out defensible arguments for policies about computer literacy. how does such an argument work? we will begin by talking not about curricular requirements, but about the rationales that underlie our educational policies. drawing upon the history of higher education in the western tradition, we will come to recognize very precise (and often surprising) rationales underlying the types of formal education we have offered to (or required of) students through the ages. the arguments we will be looking at are grouped into four main categories: a. acculturation b. economic considerations c. social mechanisms d. mental discipline we will look at each of these categories in turn, offering definitions and histori- cal illustrations. this framework can then be used for examining rationales for curricular decision-making in particular contemporary instances--such as the teaching of computer literacy. a few caveats before we begin. first, when i speak of "curriculum", i am primarily interested in higher education. yet, the issue of higher versus lower education tends to become muddled, much of what we now teach in universities used to be taught in lower education (e.g,, beginning greek and latin), and some of what we are now teaching in colleges may soon be moved back to lower education (e.g., computer literacy). second, my listing of rationales does not imply i agree or disagree with these arguments. my attempt here is to be as unbiased an historian as possible. third, the list is, i am sure, incomplete. some of the most glaring rationales missing here are "aesthetics" or "personal enjoyment". their omission does not imply they are unimportant. rather, they are absent because these sorts of arguments have historically been offered in defense of learning in ~__eneral rather than in defense of explicit curricular content. my concern in this paper is with rationales for specific subject matter. a fourth caveat concerns my distinc- tion between "individual" and "communal" educational goals. it is often difficult if not impossible to separate the two. yet much of our educational rhetoric espousing the personal benefits of learning subject x is actually a recasting of a socially conceived goal. religion teaches the personal importance of morality, but personal morality also helps prevent social breakdown. scientists of the 's labored to instill within us an individual sense of wonder at the physical universe, but their government contracts promised to beat the russians to the moon. a fifth and final caveat acknowledges that some of the rationales i am presenting here may not have been openly articulated by the people who, i am suggesting, employed them. such silence, however, does not automatically disprove the attribution. hindsight often brings clarity that is not possible in contemporary situations. moreover~ historical rationales may be forgotten by contemporary practitioners. and finally, official spokesmen are often loath to reveal publicly the actual motivations behind decisions. ii. theoretical arguments for curricular decisions a. acculturation the first of the four categories of curricular motivations i want to talk about is what i am calling acculturation. by acculturation, i mean teaching members of a society an existing set of norms, beliefs, or cultural artefacts such that new members of the society, by learning them, can participate in cultural traditions. we are familiar with such acculturation in our normal socialization activities. children are acculturated in the native language of the community, in society's aesthetic conventions, in its folkways (from accepted responses to death to the right feelings about darth vadsr). but acculturation has also been a goal of formal education. in th century (b.c.) athens, a vital component of a young man's education was learning by heart the iliad and the odyssey. the poems were seen as embodying the personal and social values which grounded a citizen's behavior and beliefs. in th century america, we teach our own version of acculturation: "survey of western history", "introduction to world literature", "art from cave fainting to cubism". in offering (or often requiring) such courses, we are saying to students, "to be a functioning member of this society, you need to be familiar with the cultural presuppositions underlying our social activity. understanding references to shakespeare's king lear or picasso's guernica is as important to successful social integration as knowing which side of the street to drive on, or recognizing the difference between a do s and a hot b. economic considerations my second category of curricular motivations is economic considerations, by this i mean, designing curricula with the explicit purpose of bettering the economic prospects of individuals, institutions, or societies. i. individuals perhaps the most forceful curricular example of economic motivations that directly affect individuals is the medieval english university, an institution that is often assumed only to have engaged in learning ufor learning's sake" a brief sojourn into the history books reveals that th century oxford was far more pragmatic in its curriculum than popular academic lore would have it, i there was, for example, a whole program of study called ars dictaminis that trained young men to handle the written affairs of the reigning (though illiterate) nobility (morison ). there was also a program for preparing students to become managers of noblemen's a~ricultural affairs, and the curriculum included such down-to-earth topics as business management and the relative merits of alternative forms of crop rotation (oschinsky ). . institutions another little known (or acknowledged) domain of economic considerations in curricular design is the needs of the educational institutions themselves. many of us are familiar with president charles w. eliot's radical reformation of the harvard university curriculum in the 's, whereby he gradually threw out all course requirements and made the curriculum entirely elective (butts ). in fact, almost years earlier, president francis wayland attempted to do the same thing at brown university (wayland ). what is not generally known is why presidents eliot of harvard and wayland of brown were willing to consider such a radical rejection of the entrenched required classical curriculum. while the motivations were, as you might expect, complex, they were also--as you might not expect--at least partially economic. brown university's president wayland was acutely aware that newly-emerging schools of agriculture and engineering were luring away students from the liberal arts colleges whose curricula were restricted to such traditional subjects as latin, greek, rhetoric, and moral philosophy. wayland argued that if brown didn't begin offering such practical electives as mechanics and chemistry, it risked bankruptcy (wayland ; rudolph ). the case of harvard university was slightly more involuted. while eliot's initial motivations for the new under- graduate elective system were over- whelmingly pedagogical, the plan dove- tailed with growing economic expediencies. in the early 's, harvard began offering graduate-level specialized education. while there were few graduate students in the early years, harvard still needed to hire a number of new faculty members. but who would fill their classes (and thus justify their salaries)? the new undergraduate elective system freed undergraduates to enroll in the specialized courses offered by the new graduate faculty, thereby providing these new faculty members with respectable teaching loads (hawkins ). . society the last of the three subcategories of economic considerations is curricula that are motivated by broader social concerns, an obvious example of this (though not in the realm of higher education) is the birth control education programs found in poorer countries that can't afford their current rate of population growth. moving into the domain of more formal (though again, not "higher") education, we might consider the economic necessity of having a nation's work force speak the same language--and hence the emphasis upon the teaching of grammar both in the outposts of the roman empire and, nearly two millenia later, in immigrant america. less transparent are the national economic policies underlying higher education, yet such motivations are often nonetheless present. a particularly rich example is the university curriculum underlying the administration of the british empire. a thorough grounding in the making and administering of the roman (and what was mistakenly identified as the greek) empires had obvious value for the colonial administrator attempting to manage the "barbarians". motivations behind un~ersity programs in non-western languages or in tropical diseases should also be self-evident. in fact, one prominent anthropologist, melville herskovitz, has argued that the develop- ment of british social anthropology itself is the direct outcome of the british empire's need to understand the local customs and beliefs of the people it was attempting to govern. c. social mechanisms the third, and most diffuse, of my four major categories of curricular motivations i am calling social mechanisms. these provide a means for soc'i~ety to meet its individual and collective needs. obviously, this description encompasses both acculturation and economic considera- tions. however, i would like to reserve the term "social mechanisms" to refer to those arguments that involve other than the basic types of acculturation, and arguments that are not strictly economic. needless to say, there will be much debate on what constitutes "basic" acculturation, or a "strictly" economic argument. i. make citizens able to function well in society there are at least four subcategories of social mechanisms we might identify. for the first, i have coined the admittedly awkward label make citizens able to function well in society. by this i mean--~ teach people t~os~ skills that are not part of basic acculturation (like knowing how to eat with a fork or knowing who napoleon was), but which increase one's chances of attaining a personally satisfying and productive life. obvious candidates here are the more advanced courses in history, literature, and art. but there are other examples which are more distinctive. in th century (b.c,) athens, citizens had to defend themselves in all legal matters (i.e., there were no "professional" lawyers), and athens was becoming an increasingly litigious society. the training provided by the sophists flourished as a means of e~abling the average citizen to develop the rhetorical skills necessary to win favorable adjudication. a more contem- porary example is the educational policy of most western european countries of making their citizenry at least bi- lingual, given the multiplicity of languages spoken in such a small geographic space. . work out social problems a second type of social mechanism argument is one that designs curricula to help work out social problems, now or in the future. contemporary courses on the vietnam war or on nuclear disarmament fall into this category. but so, too, do at least two major curricular revisions in th century american higher education. following world war i, a group of faculty members at columbia university expressed dismay that highly "educated" european societies could have conducted such a savage war. a set of required courses-- on the humanities and on western civilization--was columbia's response. if students could be taught to reflect on the ways of good and evil in times past, they might help avoid such human tragedy in the future (bell ). with much the same motivation, following world war ii, harvard university commissioned a group of faculty members to consider what would be an appropriate "general education in a free society" (~neral education in a free soeiet~ ~ )~ although many of the recommendations were actually aimed at secondary schools, they were later incorporated into harvard's famous "general education requirements". . establish differential status a third--and radically distinct~- sort of social mechanism is the establish- ment of differential social strata through education~ as you know from reading the republic, the idea that education might be used to distinguish between classes of citizens is not a new one. while contemporary europe has perpetuated various versions of this model through "school leaving" or "school entering" examinations, american education has generally moved towards democratization of educational opportunity. homer and hume are proffered to millions of students across the nation each year~ a practice unfathomable in much of the rest of the world. , defrocking the priesthood the last subcategory of social mechanisms i would like to mention is what i ea~defrockin$ the priesthood, that is, educational policy explicitly designed to undo the kinds of status inequities we have just been talking about. statistically, perhaps the most important example of this has been the teaching of literacy as a result of the protestant reformation. d. mental discipline thus far we have looked at accultu- ration, economic considerations, and social mechanisms as factors motivating curricular decision-making. the last of the four categories i want to address is that of mental discipline, that is, the argument that learning subject x (a discipline or skill) will simplify the student's learning of subject y . there is no time here to discuss the details of what popularly came to be known as the "mental muscle" theory. suffice it to say that from the th century to at least the end of the th, it was all but universally agreed that the teaching of latin developed mental acuity that could then be applied to the learning of specific content areas. other favorite th century candidates-for transferable mental improvement included mathematics, logic, and rhetoric (kolesnik ). iii. motivations for teaching computer literacy thus far, i have suggested a frame- work for talking about motivations for curricular decisions in higher education, the question now is, does this framework help us make decisions about whether any- one (or everyone) should learn "computer literacy"? to answer this question, let us consider once again the four categories of curricular motivations we have just been discussing. our aim will be to identify some of the rationales that might be used for advocating the availability (or requirement) of the teaching of particular kinds of knowledge about computers. a. acculturation consider first the issue of acculturation. many educators today are arguing that while the general population doesn't need to know computer programming or computer hardware, we all do need to know about computers: how they function (in broad outline), how they might be used, and how they might be misused. the rationale for such universal training is that as society's functions become increasingly governed by computers, a basic familiarity with computers will become as necessary as knowing how to use a telephone or speak the language. already, spoken english has become rife with computer terms: i/o device, hacker, crash. equally to the point, it is now becoming difficult to transact much of ordinary business without directly using computers. citibank of new york, for example, has actually replaced the tellers at several of its branches with machines. if you won't use the machine, you literally cannot make deposits or withdrawals. (the only exceptions, it seems, are made for customers with especially hefty bank balances.) the issue of acculturation also becomes significant in dealing with questions of computer ethics. here the problem is not so much should we teach ethics, or to whom should we teach it, but how should we teach it? the recent publicity given to computer "peeping toms" has made it clear that the ethical (not to mention legal) limits of electronic privacy are far from clear. in his turing lecture delivered to the annual meeting of the acm in new york, ken thompson of bell laboratories argued that we must "indoct- rinate" the young in the ethics of computer use. but how? it is difficult to inculcate a new ethical standard which contradicts existing ethical norms. computers are increasingly used within the privacy of one's own home, and in america, activity at home that is not blatantly criminal is generally either legal or condoned. no wonder the kids are confused. b. economic considerations what about economic considerations? what can we argue about individual, institutional, and social motivations? we'll start with individuals. i. individuals today's universities openly admit that computer courses may contribute to students' future economic well-belng. while community colleges and state universities have taken the lead here, the private schools are not far behind. what kind of computer learning are we talking about? the deciding factor here is less curricular rationale than available resources. nearly everyone in college today wants to learn programming, and not simply in basic. the overwhelming growth in computer science majors (added to the number of students who are turned away) indicates a clear motivation--typically economic--to learn hardware and to learn software engineering as well. let me hasten to add that individual economic motivations--articulated either by students or administrators--are not necessarily consonant with economic reality, college students graduating with several years of programming courses are now having a difficult time securing programming jobs, and the collapse of osborne computers along with recent financial disasters at texas instruments and atari should warn us that the market can wreak havoc on even well-engineered hardware. . institutions institutional arguments for computers bear more than a shade of resemblance to the economic arguments we saw from presidents eliot and wayland. a number of universities are proclaiming the need for large amounts of sophisticated hardware. (just what they want students to do with that hardware, or which of the students they want to do it, is, in many cases, still unclear). the first order of business appears to be to convince this year's crop of college applicants that panacea u. can match the other schools they are applying to in nobel laureates on the faculty, number of books in the library, size of the student activities budget, and accessibility to computer terminals. . society third, what about the larger social dimension of these economic arguments for computer literacy? the clearest trend is to provide a steady pool of data processors who will be available to handle the vast amount of data that society generates. that means teaching the programming languages that data processing departments in government and industry are using. the problem, of course, is how many people should we train, and in which languages. despite all the talk about the ever-growing flood of data to be processed, there is unemployment among the ranks. moreover, if the current data processing standards of cobol and fortran are replaced by c or ada, what will we do with the thousands of "obsolete" computer monolinguals? an even more uncertain question is the development of software and of hard- ware-software interfaces. latter-day capitalism demands the continual develop- ment of new products, and the computer industry might well form the backbone of the next era of the american economy. for this, students will need to learn low level programming languages, and a reasonable amount of computer hardware. yet before we start requiring everyone to learn assembly language, we should remember, much as in the case of data processing, that the future shape of the market '(that is, "society's economic needs") remains unclear. c. social mechanisms what about curricular arguments for computer literacy relating to what i have called social mechanisms? there are, you will recall, four different categories we might look at. i. make citizens able to function well in society what kind of computer literacy do we need to make citizens function well in society? the ability to handle applica- tions packages is one obvious candidate-- allowing us to balance our checkbooks and avoid embarrassing moments at the bank, or to produce error-free documents, thereby increasing everything from our course grades to our job prospects. facility with manipulating data bases can put vast amounts of information at our fingertips, and knowledge of even simple programming can provide both entertainment and personal satisfaction. . work out social problems how might computer literacy foster the working out of social problems? while computers themselves are impartial to war or peace, justice or injustice, they can become powerful tools for effecting social change. by learning to feel at home with turnkey systems, the general populace can dramatically increase the speed at which it can accurately transmit information. by studying natural language processing and sophisticated computer programming, specialists working with computers might actually make machine language trans- lation a reality (thereby fulfilling some of the social goals of the creators of such universal languages as esperanto). and by learning how to use sophisticated simulation applications packages, political and economic forecasters may be able to foresee the consequences of proposed policies before committing us to actual programs. / . establish differenti~l status/ defrocking the priesthood no one today speaks of intentionally using computer literacy as a way of establishing differential status among sectors of the population. in fact, just the opposite is generally argued: it is necessary for all branches of society, public and private, rich and poor, to have access to computers. but even if this dream comes true, there is still the question of what people are supposed to do with these computers once they have them--the same problem we raised a moment ago in talking about our universities' collective drive to purchase hardware. as we have seen, there are many uses to which the omputer can be put with- out knowing very much about computers--how to operate them, or how they operate. in fact, the current trend towards making computers ever more user-frlendly may actually result in increased gaps between classes of computer users, even though everyone has access to computers. once again, as in the 's and 's, we may revert to "computer wizards" who actually know what is going on in the machine. but the analogy will not, alas, be precise. in the decades to come, computers will exert far more control over our lives than even the "computer wizards" of the past could have imagined, therefore a compelling argument for requiring everyone to learn at least the rudiments of computer hardware and software is to guard against the establishment of a powerful computer priesthood, d. mental discipline finally, let's turn to our fourth category of argumentation: mental discipline, it is curious to see how history repeats itself. in , edward thorndike claimed to have disproven the "mental muscle" theory. over the past years, scores of psychologists have contributed experimental data on the question, and the general consensus now is that the th and th century versions of the thesis are indefensible (kolesnik ). now "computer literacy '~ comes along, and suddenly you can once again hear how learning discipline x (in this case, computer programming) may help in the learning of discipline y (vaguely referred to as "thinking") (seidel et al. ). yet there is a serious question buried here. just as there must be some transference in human learning from one context to another (if there weren't,we literally could not survive as human beings), there may well be some useful transference of what is learned in dealing with computers to other contexts. but what kind of learning? and what kind of transference? will flowcharting do it? basic? before we can answer these questions about the teaching of computer literacy for reasons of mental discipline, we will need not only to examine very carefully the literature on mental discipline, but also to ask ourselves just what we are really teaching (or could be teaching) when we teach a person about computers. iv. should everyone become computer literate? in this paper, i have attempted to develop a framework in terms of which colleges and universities can make rational decisions about who should study what about computers. we began by considering four broad (albeit overlapping) categories of motivations that have historically been used to introduce or justify particular curricular offerings. in the course of this discussion, we discovered, i think, several things: ( i ) to determine if a subject should be "required': or even "available" to a university curriculum, we first need to determine what we need to know in order to make any curricular decision. ( ) what we need to know to make these decisions necessarily goes beyond the scope of the subject matter to be taught itself. ( ) even if we do our homework, it is unreasonable to expect that all of our curricular decisions will later be justifiable in the hindsight of history. i then used these four theoretical categories (and conclusions) as a frame- work for developing precise arguments for teaching particular kinds of knowledge about computers. let me summarize what i think we have learned: i. the computers are coming, whether we like it or not. the sooner we (especially of the "older generation") come to feel comfortable with at least turnkey systems and simple applications programs, the better off we will personally be. . learning at least simple programming (not necessarily in basic) will probably benefit everyone, but there is no way of establishing this now for sure. we still need to understand more about the possibilities of learning transfer and more about the directions the data processing industry is going in. . it definitely will be useful for at least a substantial number of people to become proficient in multiple programmin~ languages and in computer hardware. it is also probably advisable for everyone to have some basic understanding of languages and hardware so as not to lose all epistemic grasp over this omni- present machine. . everyone will have to become acculturated in a new set of computer ethics. however, before such acculturation is possible, we will need to understand the problems inherent in defining a social ethos that in some ways is new, and in some ways actually contradicts existing canons of social behavior, this paper has not offered a definitive answer to the question of whether everyone should develop computer literacy. what i have attempted to show is that this is really the wrong question to be asking. the more appropriate question, i suggest, begins with teleo- logy, not requirements, if we can figure out why we want students to learn particular things about computers, the issue of requirements becomes trivial at best. references bell, daniel ( ). general education. university press. the reforming of new york: columbia butts, r. freeman ( ). the college charts its course. new york: mcgraw- hill. general education in a free society ( ). cambridge (mass.): harvard university press. hawkins, hugh ( ). america. new york: press. between harvard and oxford university kolesnik, walter b. ( ). mental discipline in modern education. madison: university of wisconsin press. morison, samuel eliot ( ). the founding of harvard college, cambridge (mass.): harvard university press, osehinsky, dorothea, ed, ( ), walter of henley and other treatises on estat e management and accounting. oxford: oxford university press. rudolph, frederick ( ). curriculum: a history of the american undergraduate course of study since . san francisco: jossey bass, seidel, robert j., ronald e. anderson, and beverly hunter, eds, ( ) computer literacy: issues and directions for , new yor~: academic press. wayland, francis ( ), report to the corporation of brown unlversity~ on changes in the system of collegiate education. providence, rhode island. césar chávez y la unión: una historia victoriosa de los de abajo by víctor fuentes (review) césar chávez y la unión: una historia victoriosa de los de abajo by víctor fuentes (review) martin camps hispania, volume , number , march , pp. - (review) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /hpn. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /hpn. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ hispania march pain links both loyola’s spiritual exercises and sarduy’s cobra. the ritualistic repetition  and theatrical representation in loyola’s opus encourages the reader to identify with christ’s suffering through hyper-realistic affect, as flagellation. the body is, as part of this spiritual practice, led to spiritual transformation. this same transformation is repeated as sarduy’s main character, cobra, is castrated and is in ecstasy. the theatricality in sarduy, according to baler, is “an exces- sive simulacrum whose only aspiration is that of deifying that gap [that separates language from divinity]” ( ). here, baler points out, is one of the differences between baroque  and neo-baroque. neo-baroque insists on emphasizing the vacuum or void between the logos and object, between simulacrum and subject. the epilogue examines francisco de quevedo’s buscón and osvaldo lamborghini’s story “the proletarian boy.” the two works serve as a final reminder that whereas spanish baroque sensibilities were attempting to push conventions to their limits by insinuating chaos, the latin american neo-baroque breaks those limits and points us toward circularity, whereby annihila- tion is on the verge of renewal or restoration is on the verge of death. the neo-baroque inhabits the space of the in-between. latin american neo-baroque: senses of distortion is more than a guide to understanding the baroque and neo-baroque. it is an interdisciplinary text that offers the multifaceted perspectives to which it alludes. the creative and cogent readings of both visual and literary works construct a convincing paradigm. pablo baler makes a significant contribution to the study of the neo- baroque, and this book should be included in the library holdings as a reference for scholars. dinora cardoso westmont college fuentes, víctor. césar chávez y la unión: una historia victoriosa de los de abajo. moorpark: floricanto, . pp. . isbn - - - - . esta biografía de víctor fuentes, profesor emérito de la universidad de california, santa bárbara, titulada césar chávez y la unión: una historia victoriosa de los de abajo, intercala aspectos de la vida de césar chávez (nacido en yuma, arizona, en y muerto en san luis, arizona, en ), uno de los líderes laborales y activistas más importantes del siglo xx, con la historia de la unión de trabajadores campesinos. fuentes documenta su experiencia de participante en el movimiento chicano en los sesenta, cuando colaboró en la sede de la unión cada dos semanas para apoyar en la redacción del periódico el malcriado. el libro se apoya en otras biografías del líder campesino, como cesar chavez. autobiography of la causa ( ), de jacques e. levy, y sal si puedes (escape if you can)—cesar chavez and the new american revolution ( ), de peter matthiessen. asimismo, el libro de fuentes está ilustrado con fotografías de trabajadores agrícolas en la cosecha, tomadas por cathy murphy, rick tejada-flores y gayanne fiethinghoff. en la primera sección nos relata los inicios humildes de césar chávez. su padre, librado chávez, trabajaba para la hacienda del carmen de peña blanca en chihuahua (hoy flores magón) y se fue de emigrante a el paso, texas, donde hizo un trato con un propietario anglo para limpiar acres de arbustos y malezas a cambio de quedarse con hectáreas de un terreno, pero fue estafado y el terreno que le correspondía fue vendido a otro hombre. para césar chávez, el paso por las escuelas de california de aquella época significó el escarnio por no hablar inglés y ser castigado con palmetazos con una regla por hablar español. según fuentes, una de sus primeras experiencias con la ley ocurrió cuando dos autos de la patrulla fronteriza detuvieron a su familia cuando chávez era niño y fueron hostigados por oficiales que les pedían identificaciones, pruebas de ciudadanía y, solo después de cinco horas de humillación, los dejaron ir. según fuentes, estos hechos fueron los que le animaron a buscar justicia para los campesinos en california. chávez mismo participó en la cosecha de uva, ciruelas y nueces, entre otros vegetales y frutas. la familia de chávez se asentó en el barrio de sal si puedes en san josé, california, que se relaciona con el origen de la expresión “sí se reviews puede”. en efecto, chávez sí pudo salir de allí y llevar el enunciado al nivel de uno de los lemas más representativos de liberación y superación de las comunidades latinas. fuentes relata los recuerdos de chávez cuando fue con su padre a las tres de la mañana a trabajar en indio, california, y al detenerse en una cafetería la tendera le gritó: “we don’t want mexicans here! get out!”, según le confiesa a peter matthiesen. un primer acto de rebeldía ocurrió después de que chávez cumpliera el servicio militar, en la época de los zoot suits, cuando entró a un cine en delano y se sentó en la parte reservada para los blancos. chávez fue detenido y llevado a la comisaría donde le advirtieron que lo podrían detener de por vida. un hecho similar le ocurrió en merced, california, cuando al estar frente a un cine con sus amigos, fueron detenidos por tres patrullas que los obligaron a abandonar el pueblo en diez minutos. para , césar chávez busca organizar una “asociación nacional de trabajadores del campo” y, desde el inicio, tuvo la colaboración de dolores huerta y gilberto padilla. las huelgas, los ayunos, el boicot de la uva y las marchas a sacramento (inspiradas en estrategias de no violencia de gandhi) le dieron al movimiento la proyección necesaria para lograr el reconocimiento de la unión y el capital político necesario para obligar a los grandes empresarios a firmar contratos justos con los trabajadores agrícolas. en el plan de delano, el documento ideológico concebido por chávez y escrito por luis valdés en , habla del movimiento como una “mecha”, dice: “nuestra peregrinación es la mecha para que nuestra causa prenda, para que todos los campesinos vean la luz, vean lo que estamos haciendo aquí; y que se sepa que ellos también lo pueden hacer” ( ). esta mecha, como nota el biógrafo, es también el acrónimo del movimiento estudiantil chicano de aztlán (mecha). fuentes termina el capítulo tercero recordando el libro la causa. the california grape strike de george d. horwitz con fotos de paul fusco. este libro recoge las historias y fotografías de la huelga y está encabezado por esta frase de chávez que sintetiza el espíritu de su pensamiento: “we are not beasts of burden, we are not agricultural implements or rented slaves, we are men” ( ). en la segunda parte del libro, se relatan las luchas del sindicato que enfrentó varios des- calabros, por ejemplo las pugnas con los teamsters cuyos “gorilas” atacaron a los huelguistas, entre ellos al abogado jerry cohen, uno de los pilares legales de la organización. los teamsters firmaban contratos con rancheros de la uva en coachella, dejando fuera a la ufw. como parte de su activismo político, chávez fue encarcelado en , lo cual aumentó su compromiso con la lucha de los campesinos. el movimiento también recibió el apoyo de importantes políticos como robert f. kennedy y el gobernador jerry brown. fuentes también señala las tensiones internas dentro de la unión, incluyendo, por ejemplo, el problema de los indocumentados mexicanos traídos por los rancheros que la unión veía como esquiroles. según fuentes, chávez los caracterizó con estas palabras: “even if my mother breaks the strike she’s a scab” ( ). césar chávez y la unión recupera también la voz impresa del campesino en el periódico el malcriado ( – ) y documenta el movimiento de primera mano. el periódico intentaba un estilo que calentara un poco la sangre, a decir de chávez. el libro también documenta el hostigamiento y declive de la unión en los años ochenta y las tensiones provocadas por la fama que suscitaba césar chávez, que se convirtióo en inflexibilidad para imponer sus decisiones y en el despido injustificado de voluntarios. sin embargo, la unión tuvo un papel primordial en la lucha contra los pesticidas como el ddt, que provocaban cáncer en los campesinos así como defectos en sus hijos. también la unión enfocó sus esfuerzos en mejorar la educación pública como una manera de romper el círculo de pobreza para los campesinos. césar chávez murió el de abril de por causas naturales, con un libro de artesanía de los nativos americanos en la mano y, de acuerdo con su inquebrantable compromiso vital de responsabilidad con los pobres, con solo cincuenta centavos en el bolsillo. junto con el libro chávez: la interminable batalla por la dignidad ( ), la traducción del inglés al español del libro de ronald b. taylor, césar chávez y la unión es uno de los pocos libros que se han publicado en español sobre chávez. fuentes ha logrado resumir mucha de la informa- ción que se ha publicado en inglés sobre el líder campesino. su libro también describe muchas de hispania march las portadas y el contenido de el malcriado, el diario vocero del movimiento. este libro puede ser de valiosa utilidad para cualquier investigador o lector interesado en ampliar sus conocimientos sobre la biografía de césar chávez y su lucha para darles voz a los campesinos agrícolas. martin camps university of the pacific gala, candelas. sinergias: poesía, física y pintura en la españa del siglo xx. trans. isabel palomo. barcelona: anthropos, . pp. . isbn - - - - . candelas gala’s sinergias: poesía, física y pintura en la españa del siglo xx is a deeply researched and well organized series of studies regarding how the rapidly developing field of physics influ- enced poetic and artistic thought and works in early twentieth-century spain. the “synergies” among science, literature, and art during those decades produced effects which gala analyzes in the works of several generación del poets. in the introduction, gala presents a detailed background of discoveries and events relevant to physics and spain in the first three decades of the twentieth century, principally the s. the author emphasizes that the poets and art- ists of thas time learned about scientific developments through popular sources (newspapers, magazines) and social events (presentations, tertulias). the atmosphere of spanish cities in the s is recreated through information gathered from these sources, detailing the sociocultural context, the public reception of new theories (relativity, fourth dimension, energy), and impor- tant figures in science (especially einstein), education, art, and literature. in chapter , the author bases her analyses on the theory of relativity in relation to pedro salinas’s first three books of poetry. within presagios, gala explores the idea of reality—the shifts, shadows, and variables constantly affecting an individual’s perception of time and space (relativity)—parallel to the poetic protagonist. reflected in the title seguro azar, “la contradicción, la amigüedad y la imprecisión” ( ) form the foundation of gala’s analysis, in which she refutes readings by stixrude and mayhew, proposing that this book is really about reality, perception, and poetry, while explaining el azar as a proven concept in quantum mechanics. salinas’s fábula y signo reveals “maneras de creación inesperadas” in relation, or response to, “las dimensiones de lo imponderable” ( ). gala focuses on jorge guillén’s cántico in the second chapter, highlighting the poet’s per- sonal belief that the arts and sciences “se nutren de la misma energía creativa” ( ). according to the author, this book revolutionized “poetic sensibility” in that it focused on material objects and physical reality—here it is examined in relation to physicist ernst mach’s theories on “las sensaciones y la ciencia visual” ( ). details from the five sections of cántico are analyzed regarding objects, sensations, and light. gala concludes that guillén’s book represents “el poder de las percepciones sensoriales para crear la realidad” ( ). chapter presents evidence of juan larrea’s interest in the sciences, particularly atomic theory, and subsequently examines his versión celeste through an analogy to the structure of the atom, with its positive and negative charges. according to gala, he saw the “desintegración” of the atom (and some other scientific advances) as parallel to his own search for personal and artistic identity ( ). in this study, gala studies several poems in relation to the concepts of the fourth dimension, the principle of complementarity, and electromagnetism. the author concludes that, like atoms, larrea’s words and thoughts collide, “se contradicen y se fusionan para alcanzar nuevas configuraciones” ( ). in chapter , gala explores gerardo diego’s poesía de creación, which embodies the early twentieth-century interest in how art, reality, and other dimensions are linked ( ). the author considers the aesthetics of manual de espumas with regard to cubism and cosmic energy, paral- leling the creation of the “más allá” in art with that of the cosmos ( ). in the following section, fábula de x y z is examined as an analogy of poetry and physics based on classical allusion as well as conceptions of light, energy, and cosmology ( ). book review: shadows of reality: the fourth dimension in relativity, cubism, and modern thought, volume , number book review shadows of reality: the fourth dimension in relativity, cubism, and modern thought reviewed by tony phillips shadows of reality: the fourth dimension in relativity, cubism, and modern thought tony robbin yale university press, $ . pages, isbn - the fourth dimension? as la rochefoucauld ob- served of true love, many people talk about it, but few have seen it. h. s. m. coxeter, whose regular polytopes is the primary reference on four-dimensional constructions, says [cox, ix]: “we can never fully comprehend them by direct obser- vation.” but he goes on: “in attempting to do so, however, we seem to peek through a chink in the wall of our physical limitations, into a new world of dazzling beauty.” this is how the fourth dimension appeals to a geometer; for the popular imagination, fired by late nineteenth and early twentieth century science-fiction, theosophy and charlatanism, it be- came a fad with transcendental overtones. just as ufos are interpreted today as manifestations of a superior, alien civilization, so the fourth dimension gave room, lots of room, for the spirit world. tony robbin tells this story in shadows of re- ality: the fourth dimension in relativity, cubism, and modern thought, along with an analysis of the impact of four-dimensional thought on modern art, and its importance in modern science. an additional and more idiosyncratic theme is sounded by the invocation, in the book’s title, of plato’s myth of the cave. the prisoners in the cave can see only shadows projected on the wall before them; and as socrates explains to glaucon: “to them tony phillips is professor of mathematics at stony brook university. his email address is tony@math.sunysb.edu. the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images.” thus our own truth may be only the projection of a more meaningful four-dimensional reality. but there is more. the concept itself of projection has enormous importance for robbin; he systematically opposes, and prefers, projection (from four dimensions to three dimensions, and then usually to two to get things on a page) to the dual perspective on four-dimensional reality, three-dimensional slicing, which he characterizes as “the flatland model”. he is referring to edwin a. abbott’s book flatland, where four dimensions are explained by analogy with the flatlanders’ con- ception of the three-dimensional space we humans inhabit. “consider this book a modest proposal to rid our thinking of the slicing model of four- dimensional figures and spacetime in favor of the projection model.” i will come back to this point later. the jacket blurb for shadows of reality de- scribes the work as “a revisionist math history as well as a revisionist art history.” “revisionist art history” chapter , “the fourth dimension in painting”, contains an analysis of three well-known paintings by picasso: les demoiselles d’avignon ( ), the portrait of ambroise vollard, and the portrait of henry kahnweiler (both ). robbin argues that “at one propitious moment a more serious and sophisticated engagement with the fourth dimen- sion pushed [picasso] and his collaborators into the discovery of cubism,” and that that moment occurred between the painting of les demoiselles and that of the two portraits. the source of the ge- ometry is pinned down: the traité élémentaire de géométrie à quatre dimensions by esprit jouffret notices of the ams volume , number ( ) [jouf], and the bearer of this knowledge to pi- casso is identified as maurice princet, a person with some mathematical training who was a member of the picasso group. this is indeed revisionist, because it claims a hitherto unrecognized mathematical influence on the most famous artist of the twentieth century. the interaction between geometry and art at the beginning of the twentieth century has already been studied in encyclopedic detail by linda dal- rymple henderson [hen]. when it comes to the fourth dimension and picasso, henderson is much more cautious: “although picasso has denied ever discussing mathematics or the fourth dimension with princet, princet was a member of the group around picasso by at least the middle of , and probably earlier. it thus seems highly unlikely that during the several years which followed, picasso did not hear some talk of the fourth dimension. . . ” but she presents eye-witness and contemporary testimony from jean metzinger, an artist member of the group, which states that the influence ran the other way: “cézanne showed us forms living in the reality of light, picasso brings us a material account of their real life in the mind—he lays out a free, mobile perspective, from which that inge- nious mathematician maurice princet has deduced a whole geometry.” [metz] henderson gives solid documentation of the interest in mathematical ideas among the artists of “picasso’s circle”, especially after they drifted away from him in . and if images like jouf- fret’s figures were part of the visual ambience in the – period, they may well have caught picasso’s omnivorous eye. but for a specific math- ematical influence on picasso there is no evidence, and robbin presents no reasonable argument be- yond his own gut feeling: “indeed, as a painter looking at the visual evidence i find that picas- so. . . clearly adopted jouffret’s methods in .” so we have to take his statement in the preface— “pablo picasso not only looked at the projections of four-dimensional cubes in a mathematics book when he invented cubism, he also read the text, em- bracing not just the images but the ideas”—as pure, unadvertised invention. let us leave the last word on this topic to the artist himself: “mathematics, trigonometry, chemistry, psychoanalysis, music and whatnot, have been related to cubism to give it an easier interpretation. all this has been pure literature, not to say nonsense, which brought bad results, blinding people with theories.” [pic] “revisionist math history” the agenda is stated in the preface. “contrary to popular exposition, it is the projection model that revolutionized thought at the beginning of the twentieth century. the ideas developed as part of this projection metaphor continue to be the basis for the most advanced contemporary thought in mathematics and physics.” the rest of the para- graph amplifies this assertion, naming projective geometry, picasso (as cited above), minkowski (“had the projection model in the back of his head when he used four-dimensional geometry to cod- ify special relativity”), de bruijn (his “projection algorithms for generating quasicrystals revolution- ized the way mathematicians think about patterns and lattices”), penrose (“showed that a light ray is more like a projected line than a regular line in space,” with this insight leading to “the most provocative and profound restructuring of physics since the discoveries of albert einstein”), quantum information theory, and quantum foam. “such new projection models present us with an understand- ing that cannot be reduced to a flatland model without introducing hopeless paradox.” these items are fleshed out in the main text of the book, roughly one per chapter. i will look in detail at chapter (“the truth”), which covers the geometry of relativity, and at chapter , “patterns, crystals and projections”. relativity, and time as the fourth dimen- sion for mathematicians, dimension is often just one of the parameters of the object under investigation. their work may be set in arbitrary dimension (“in di- mension n”) or, say, in dimension , as in the work of henry cohn and abhinav kumar, who caused a stir in [cohn] when they nailed down the closest regular packing of -dimensional balls in -dimensional space. so we really should be talk- ing about “a fourth dimension”, and not “the fourth dimension”. for the general public, on the other hand, four dimensions are esoteric enough. they are usually thought of as the familiar three plus one more; hence “the fourth dimension”. so where is this fourth dimension? nineteenth-century work on -dimensional polytopes (reviewed in [cox]) clearly posited an extra spatial dimension. but at the same time a tradition, going back to laplace, considered time as “the fourth dimension”. in fact partial differential equations relating space deriva- tives to time derivatives leave us no choice: their natural domain of definition is four-dimensional space-time. here there is some point to robbin’s anti-slicing strictures. special relativity implies that space-time cannot be described as a stack of three-dimensional constant-time slices. more precisely, the most general lorentz transformation, relating two over- lapping (x,y,z,t) coordinate systems of which one may be traveling at constant speed with respect to the other, mixes the (x,y,z)s and the ts in such a way that the{t = constant}slices are not preserved. but projections do not help. here is minkowski as quoted by robbin: “we are compelled to admit that april notices of the ams it is only in four dimensions that the relations here taken under consideration reveal their inner being in full simplicity, and that on a three-dimensional space forced on us a priori they cast only a very complicated projection.” minkowski is saying that projections from four dimensions to three are not very useful in understanding relativistic reality. robbin gets the word “projection” back into play by describing lorentz transformations as being “revealed when one geometric description of space is projected onto another.” but the projections here are isomorphisms from one four-dimensional co- ordinate system to another; they are not the kind of projections, onto lower-dimensional spaces, that robbin is contrasting to slicing. patterns, crystals and projections chapter begins with a description of nonperiodic tilings and how they may be generated by “match- ing rules” and by repeated dissection and inflation. it then goes on to discuss the fascinating and il- luminating relationship, discovered by nicolaas de bruijn [de b], between nonperiodic tilings in dimension n and projections of approximations of irrational slices of periodic tilings: cubical lattices in dimension n or n + . the simplest example involves dimensions and : take the (x,y)-plane with its usual tiling by unit squares; the vertices are at points (n,m) with integer coordinates. draw the straight line y = ϕx with irrational slope ϕ = . . . . (the “golden mean” number). starting at ( , ), cover the line with the smallest possible subset of the tiling. the squares are shown here shaded. because the slope is irrational, the line does not pass through any lattice vertex other than ( , ), so the choice of covering tile is always unambiguous. now project the center of each covering tile per- pendicularly onto the irrational line. the projected points will define a tiling of the line by intervals: a long interval (l) if the two consecutive tiles were adjacent vertically, and a short one (s) if they were adjacent horizontally. a trigonometric calculation shows that the length ratio of s to l is ϕ. our tiling by intervals is non-periodic because ϕ is irrational, but it has other amazing properties because ϕ is such a special number. for example, if we represent the short tile by s, and the long one by l, the tiling of the positive x-axis corresponds to a sequence of ls and ss. it turns out (the argument requires some linear algebra; see [web]) that the sequence may also be generated as follows: start with s, and copy the string over and over, each time rewriting every s as l, and every l as ls: figure . s l ls lsl lslls lsllslsl lsllslsllslls lsllslsllsllslsllslsl lsllslsllsllslsllslsllsllslsllslls ... figure . the sequence may also be generated like the fi- bonacci numbers, starting with s and l and making each succeeding line the concatenation of its two predecessors. and there is more. instead of drawing a line with golden slope through the -dimensional lattice of unit squares, let us slice a plane (a golden plane—see below) through the analogous -dimensional lattice, cov- er the plane with the smallest possible subset of the -cubes of that lattice, and project the center points of those cubes orthogonally onto the plane. the projected points turn out to be the vertices of penrose’s non-periodic tiling [de b]. in this tiling, the plane is covered by copies of two rhombs (equi- lateral parallelograms), a fat one, with lesser angle π/ , and a skinny one π/ , whose areas, just like the lengths of l and s, are in the golden ratio. notices of the ams volume , number (we use the plane in -space spanned by the vectors ( ,− cos(π/ ), cos( π/ ), − cos( π/ ), cos( π/ )) and ( ,− sin(π/ ), sin( π/ ), − sin( π/ ), sin( π/ )) [web ]; equivalently, in terms of the golden mean, we may scale those vectors to ( ,−ϕ,ϕ − ,ϕ − ,−ϕ) and ( ,− ,ϕ,−ϕ, ). a straightforward linear algebra computation shows that the different unit squares in the -dimensional lattice project to the possible orientations ( each) of the rhombs in the penrose tiling. ) de bruijn’s construction of the penrose tiling is intellectually satisfying. instead of the arbitrary- sounding matching rules, which add one tile at a time, or the stepwise generation of tilings of finite portions of the plane by dissection and inflation, we have a single, intelligible definition tiling the entire plane. furthermore the magical-seeming recur- rence properties of the tiling are anchored back to the well-understood behavior of the fractional part of consecutive integral multiples of an irrational number, which has been studied since kronecker. as an additional bonus, the construction also yields a new insight into the psychological phenomenon noted by martin kemp [kem] in describing how a rhombic penrose tiling affects the eye: “we can, for instance, play necker cube-type games with apparent octagons, and facet the surface into a kind of cubist medley of receding and advancing planes.” the surface in -space, which projects to the tiling, is made up of square facets lined up with the coordinate planes. three by three these facets determine a cube, which projects correctly; but these cubes live in dimensions, and they fit together in a manner inconceivable in -space. robbin puts the impact of de bruijn’s discover- ies eloquently but inaccurately: “once one accepts the counterintuitive notion that quasicrystals are projections of regular, periodic, cubic lattices from higher-dimensional space, all the other counter- intuitive properties soon become clear in a wave of lucid understanding.” the inaccuracy, which is fundamental, stems from robbin’s failure to recognize that these tilings are projections of sec- tions of cubic lattices. at the end of the chapter the language becomes even more vivid, but the thesis is still fundamentally wrong-headed: “quasicrystals show us that objects and systems described by pro- jective geometry cannot be made euclidean without introducing the most mystical and anthropomor- phic properties into the system. making what is generated or accurately modeled by projective geometry into a traditional euclidean static model takes us away from science and moves us towards fetishism.” there are smaller-scale problems also, in rob- bin’s portrayal of penrose’s tilings and de bruijn’s construction. the main ideas are there, with correct references, but a naïve and attentive reader can only be bewildered by the presentation. we read things that are obviously just plain wrong (“the mechanics of the loom enforce a periodic repeat”), things that turn out to be wrong (“originally, the amman bars were equidistant”), and things that are misleading (“it was long thought to be impossible to have a tiling made up of pentagons”) or unnecessar- ily obscure (“the dual net is a mathematical device that is often used to analyze pattern”—no further description). the figures only add to the confusion. figure . is mislabelled, and here is figure . : figure . robbin’s figure . . april notices of the ams figure . “necker” cube: the eye imposes one of two three-dimensional interpretations of this figure as a cube, and oscillates between them. figure . jouffret’s figure , perspective cavalière of the fundamental octahedra. the caption (“the de bruijn projection method is applied to a grid of hypercubes to produce a penrose tiling. only one hypercube is shown here.”) does not mention the slicing plane, and the “projec- tion method” is represented by a four-dimensional hypercube floating in the upper left-hand corner, along with vertical lines attached to the vertices of the penrose tiling drawn in perspective in the cen- ter. i do not believe this figure is meant to be judged as a work of art; but i know that as a mathematical diagram, while it contains some suggestive truth, it is too impressionistic to be useful. conclusion in sum, this is an attractive but very disappointing book. the topic has great potential, and robbin’s earlier work [rob], both entertaining and enlight- ening, promised an idiosyncratic, artist’s-eye look, with perhaps new insights, at these fascinating phe- nomena. in fact i am grateful to robbin for introduc- ing me to de bruijn’s work and for bringing to my attention esprit jouffret, a charming mathematical representative of the belle Époque. but the book is seriously marred by the inadequacy and inaccura- cy of its mathematical component: the author has been allowed to venture, alone, too far above the plane of his expertise. in his acknowledgments he singles out several “readers of the manuscript” and several yale university press staffers. he alone of course is responsible for the text and illustrations, but i am sure that some of those individuals wish now that they had done more to give this beautiful idea a more accurate and intelligible realization. appendix: section, projection, and per- spective cavalière section and projection are mathematically du- al operations. any finite n-dimensional object can be completely reconstructed either from a -dimensional set of parallel (n − )-dimensional slices or from a -dimensional set of (n − )- dimensional projections, by stacking in one case or by a tomographic-style calculation in the oth- er. the total information is the same, although packaged quite differently. when it comes to geo- metric objects, like regular polyhedra, the (innate or trained) ability of the human eye, which can re- solve perspective problems almost automatically, means that a -dimensional projection can often be counted on to be “read” to give a mental image of its -dimensional antecedent. the “necker cube” phenomenon referred to by kemp is a familiar example of this human propensity. but in fact neither of the natural interpretations is even plausible unless we assume that we are look- ing at the projection of a connected polyhedron. the configuration we see might be like one of the con- stellations in the night sky: our mind joining several completely unrelated objects. projection of more general objects is usually less informative. knot theorists work comfort- ably with two-dimensional “projections” of three- dimensional knots, but these projections have been enhanced with clues: at each intersection a notices of the ams volume , number graphical convention gives information (from “the third dimension”) telling which strand goes over and which goes under. to explore the limitations of projection as a means for studying four-dimensional polyhedra, let us look at an image from jouffret, reproduced both in henderson’s book and in robbin’s (figure ). jouffret’s figure is part of his effort to ex- plain the structure of the polytope c , which is a -dimensional object, without boundary (as such it can only exist in -dimensional space), made up of octahedra. this polytope has vertices, edges, and triangular faces. it is the most interesting of the -dimensional regular polytopes because it is the only one of the that has no analogue among our familiar -dimensional poly- hedra (in fact its group of symmetries is the weyl group of the exceptional lie group f [cox]). jouffret works rigorously, in the style of the descriptive geometry épures required of every french candidate to the École polytechnique or the École normale supérieure between and [asa]: he constructs a c of edge-length a in -dimensional space as a polytope with ver- tices at the points (±α,±α, , ), (±α, ,±α, ), (±α, , ,±α), ( ,±α,±α, ), ( ,±α, ,±α,), ( , ,±α,±α), where α = a √ . since each ver- tex is connected to eight others, when you put in all the edges and project the polytope onto a page of the book you get something like one of the two pictures in figure . which one you get depends on the projection you choose from -space to -space. these pictures are attractive, but they do not convey much informa- tion about how octahedra fit together to form an object with no boundary. putting in any indication of where the -dimensional faces fit in would certainly not improve legibility. jouffret credits schoute with the idea of a perspective cavalière: a cavalier bending of the rules in the interest of intel- ligibility. in this case there are two violations. first, sixteen of the octahedra are selected to represent the surface. the sixteen are geometrically projected as before. that projected image is dissected into four pieces, with common edges and faces drawn twice, and common vertices two or four times. the shading, which, as henderson notes, gives the im- age a “shimmering quality of iridescence”, marks the faces that are duplicated. (note here two small errors: the face < , , > in quadrant h should be shifted to become < , , >, and the face < , , > in quadrant h should be moved to < , , >). before trying to understand how these pieces all fit together, and then where the missing eight octahedra should be inserted, we should note how far this picture is, even when restricted to one of the quadrants, from a straightforward projection. when two lines meet in this figure, a heavy dot tells us whether their intersection is essential (they actually meet in four dimensions) or contingent (two of their points happen to project to the same place). the lines themselves come with two differ- ent values: full and dotted, according to a somewhat arbitrary convention of jouffret’s regarding which lines are “seen” and which are “hidden”. finally, even with all the extra information, and despite the accuracy of the épure, the picture is hard to read. there is a clue for modern readers: the rectangular parallelipipeds in each quadrant become a torus when the quadrants are slid back together. the inside and the outside of this torus are partitioned into half-octahedra each by coning the boundary of each inside parallelipiped from an “interior” vertex (one of , , , or ) and by coning the boundary of each outside block from its appropriate middle vertex (one of , , , ). each solid torus contains a necklace of complete octahedra. the remaining seize octaèdres fonda- mentaux are formed when the two solid tori are glued along their boundaries to give a topological -sphere. i write “modern readers” because i do not believe that in this decomposition of the -sphere, even though it is almost unavoidable when s is written as {|z | +|z | = } in complex coordinates, was anywhere nearly as well known as it is today. jouffret remarks that the vertices that span our torus are the vertices of a hypercube (octaé- droïde), but he does not use this information to clarify the combinatorial structure of c . he also remarks that the other vertices define a -cell (hexadécadroïde) of side a √ , and that this parti- tion into + can be done in three symmetric ways. references [asa] boris asancheyev, Épures de géométrie de- scriptive, concours d’entrée à l’ecole normale supérieure, hermann, paris, , [cohn] henry cohn and abhinav kumar, the dens- est lattice in twenty-four dimensions, electronic research announcements of the ams, ( ), – , arxiv:math.mg/ . [cox] h. s. m. coxeter, regular polytopes, second edition, mcmillan, new york, . [de b] nikolaas g. de bruijn, algebraic theory of pen- rose’s non-periodic tilings of the plane, i, ii, nederl. akad. wetensch. proc. ser. a, , – , – , . [hen] linda dalrymple henderson, the fourth di- mension and non-euclidean geometry in modern art, princeton, . [jouf] esprit jouffret, traité élémentaire de géométrie à quatre dimensions, hermann, paris, . [kem] martin kemp, a trick of the tiles, nature ( ), – . april notices of the ams figure . from jouffret’s figure , two projections of the -cell. figure . the two solid tori implicit in jouffret’s diagram, with their interior vertices. the extra edges for two of the “necklace” octahedra are shown in green; those for one of the seize octaèdres fondamentaux are shown in orange. [metz] jean metzinger, notes sur la peinture, pan, oct.-nov. , translated and partially reprint- ed in edward fry, cubism, mcgraw-hill, new york . quoted in [hen] page . here is the whole paragraph: “picasso ne nie pas l’objet, il l’illumine avec son intelligence et son sentiment. aux perceptions visuelles, il joint les percep- tions tactiles. il éprouve, comprend, organise: le tableau ne sera transposition ni schema, nous y contemplerons l’équivalent sensible et vivant d’une idée, l’image totale. thèse, antithèse, syn- thèse, la vieille formule subit une énergique interversion dans la substance des deux pre- miers termes: picasso s’avoue réaliste. cézanne nous montra les formes vivre dans la réalité de la lumière, picasso nous apporte un compte- rendu matériel de leur vie réelle dans l’esprit, il fonde une perspective libre, mobile, telle que le sagace mathématicien maurice princet en déduit toute une géométrie.” [pic] picasso speaks, the arts, new york, may . reproduced in alfred h. barr jr., picasso: fifty years of his art, museum of modern art, new york , reprint edition published for the mu- seum by arno press, . also reprinted in edward fry, cubism, mcgraw-hill, new york . [rob] tony robbin, fourfield: computers, art & the th dimension, little, brown & co., boston, . [web] http://www.math.okstate.edu/mathdept/ dynamics/lecnotes/node .html, david j. wright, oklahoma state university. [web ] http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/ applets/ / .html, greg egan—refers to quasitiler documentation. notices of the ams volume , number http://www.math.okstate.edu/mathdept/dynamics/lecnotes/node .html http://www.math.okstate.edu/mathdept/dynamics/lecnotes/node .html http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/applets/ / .html http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/applets/ / .html editor's introduction: i. writing modern art and science &# ; an overview; ii. cubism, futurism, and ether physics in the early twentieth century science in context ( ), – ( ). copyright c© cambridge university press doi: . /s printed in the united kingdom editor’s introduction: i. writing modern art and science – an overview; ii. cubism, futurism, and ether physics in the early twentieth century linda dalrymple henderson the university of texas at austin i. writing modern art and science – an overview this issue of science in context presents a sampling of current work by art historians examining modern artists’ engagement with science as well as the relationship of photography to both science and art. the essays’ topics span the mid-to-later nineteenth century to the s and, thus, in a series of case studies provide an introduction to aspects of artistic modernism. indeed, it is impossible to understand fully many of the radical innovations of modern art without some knowledge of an artist’s cultural context, and developments in science have often played a critical role in defining that milieu. collected together, these essays also represent methodological models of historical work on art and science that serve as useful examples in this developing field. part i of the introduction surveys the history of writing on art and science, noting near its conclusion the later twentieth-century trends in the history of science and science studies that have problematized the conception of science as the unified field of activity it was taken to be for much of the period in question. similarly, both the expansion of definitions of art itself in the second half of the twentieth century and the recent methodological interest in addressing visual culture more broadly have enlarged the art side of the comparison as well. of course, the terms science, art, and modernism have also had particular significations that varied over time throughout the period in see e.g., hopkins . despite the dates in hopkins’s title, after modern art – , art historians generally agree that the shift in sensibility to what has been termed “post-modernism” in art occurred in the late s and s; significantly, however many artists have continued working in styles grounded in modernism and still consider themselves modernists today. the essays by both petersen and goodyear in this issue provide a sense of the new forms of artistic activity that began to emerge in the s. on art history and visual culture, see elkins . the “sciences” addressed in this text are generally the hard sciences (i.e., physics, chemistry, biology, etc.), as well as related fields such as botanical and zoological morphology, physiology, psychology, and kindred disciplines. because the topic of art and medicine emerged as an active field only in the later twentieth century, particularly in the face of the aids crisis, it is addressed only in passing herein – specifically in barbara larson’s essay as well as in relation to the x-ray as medical image (see n. below). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson question, as in the case of the cubism/relativity question addressed in part ii of the introduction. although historical connections between modern art and science are the primary focus of this volume, there have been a variety of other approaches to the question of art and science since the s, when the first concentration of writing on this topic emerged. discussions of art and science have often centered on attempts to find their commonalities – most often in terms of creativity or aesthetics. well before c. p. snow’s the two cultures of , mathematician and literary critic archibald henderson addressed what he termed the “contemporary battle of the cultures” in a article in american scientist, “science and art: an approach to a new synthesis.” acknowledging both the “exhilarat[ion]” and the “psychotic dread” produced by the atomic bomb’s demonstration of science’s power, henderson sought to bridge the “gap between the humanist and the mathematician, between the artist and scientist” by demonstrating both the shared creativity (“imagination, fantasy, intuition”) and the delight in “elegance” in mathematics and science and in the arts (henderson , , ). responding to the cultural crisis of the war, british physicist and art/music critic martin johnson had already made a similar attempt to overcome “scientific uneasiness in an unscientific community” in his book art and scientific thought: historical studies toward a modern revision of their antagonism, published in london in . in addition to emphasizing the role of imagination in science and art, johnson sounded early a theme that would become prominent in writing on the subject in the s and s: the centrality of “form, pattern, structure, in material or mental images” in both science and art (johnson [ ] , , ). henderson’s focus on creativity would be echoed in countless subsequent discus- sions of art and science. jacob bronowski, for example, explored this subject in his intro- ductory essay “the creative process” in a issue of scientific american devoted to in- novation in science. a exhibition at the cleveland museum of art was devoted to creativity in art and science, – . similarly, a symposium in stockholm also explored “the creative process” (henning ; gustafsson, howard, and niklasson ), as did arthur i. miller’s book insights of genius: imagery and creativity in science and art (miller [ ] ). the periodical leonardo: journal of the international society for the arts, sciences, and technology, founded in by engineer-artist frank malina, has long been an important locus for discussions of art and science, including examinations of creativity in the two fields. in an editorial in the april issue of henderson feared that “young ‘veterans’ of global warfare” would “demand an education dominated by mathematics, the physical sciences, engineering, and technology,” thus threatening the humanities (henderson , ). miller had also addressed creative thinking and the role played in it by “visual thinking” in his book imagery in scientific thought (miller [ ] ). see also, e.g., “creative processes,” leonardo ( ) ( ): – , a section of a special issue on “art and science: similarities, differences and interactions”; and emmer , which includes an article on creativity ( – ) by ilya prigogine, who had also contributed to the stockholm conference. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction leonardo, “artscience: the essential connection,” biologist and historian of science robert root-bernstein emphasizes creativity once again as a basic link between science and art, as he has done in books such as sparks of genius of (root-bernstein ; root-bernstein and root-bernstein ). the issue of “elegance” or, more generally, aesthetics as the commonality between art and science has been pursued in a variety of forums, including the collection on aesthetics in science, assembled by judith wechsler, an art historian teaching at mit in close proximity to the center for advanced studies in the visual arts, directed by artist gyorgy kepes (wechsler b). kepes, who is one of the subjects of anne goodyear’s essay in the current volume and for whose mit retrospective wechsler wrote an essay (wechsler a), played a vital role in the history that follows. “the aesthetic dimension of science” was the subject of the nobel conference held at gustavus adolphus college, with the papers published under that title in (curtin ). more recently, a special issue of hyle: international journal for philosophy of chemistry, edited by tami spector and joachim schummer, was dedicated to “aesthetics and visualization in chemistry,” opening with an essay by nobel- prizewinning chemist roald hoffmann, who has long been engaged with the issue of chemistry and art (spector and schummer ). creativity and aesthetics had also surfaced as themes in a american academy of arts and sciences symposium subsequently published in daedalus and in book form as art and science in (graubard ). that volume included the dissenting response by art historian and critic leo steinberg, “art and science: do they need to be yoked?” here steinberg argued against “unhistorical art-science analogies,” noting, for example, that themes such as “elegance” or “delight” are hardly present in all works of art (steinberg , , – ). well before this thomas kuhn had also rejected the cataloging of similarities between art and science in response to e. m. hafner, dean of sciences at hampshire college, at a university of michigan conference published in comparative studies in society and history in october . kuhn, in particular, emphasized distinctions between ends and means in science and art, asserting that while visual images and aesthetic values are goals for the artist, they are only tools for the scientist. kuhn also noted the transformative effect on scientific images of their inclusion in art exhibitions, which had become standard practice by the s (kuhn , ). oliver botar’s essay in this issue, “lászló moholy-nagy’s ‘new vision’ and the aestheticization of scientific photography in weimar germany,” explores the see, e.g., hoffmann , and hoffmann and torrence . the special issue of hyle also includes, among others, essays by root-bernstein (“sensual chemistry: aesthetics as a motivation for research”) and by james elkins (“four ways of measuring the distance between alchemy and contemporary art”). steinberg concluded that the “animistic charge of art works – the vitality imputed to them by the receiver – . . . is what sets art apart, and so dissociates it from the propositions of science that any procedural similarity between what artists and scientists do pales into insignificance” (steinberg , ). hafner had also discussed abstraction as another commonality between science and art (hafner , – ). the same year werner heisenberg gave a paper in salzburg on “the tendency to abstraction in modern art https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson roots of this phenomenon, suggesting that the interpenetration between aesthetic and scientific values in photography was more subtle than kuhn may have realized. cyril stanley smith’s essay in the on aesthetics in science volume addressed “structural hierarchy in science, art, and history,” and by mid-century a focus on structure and form had become a more fundamental means to compare the two realms (wechsler b, – ). as noted above, martin johnson had already highlighted the concern with “form, pattern, structure” in both science and art in ( johnson [ ] , ). that was the main theme of the london conference aspects of form: a symposium on form in nature and art, assembled by lancelot law whyte in conjunction with the exhibition growth and form at london’s institute of contemporary art (whyte ). the immediate stimulus for the exhibition, organized by artist richard hamilton, had been d’arcy wentworth thompson’s classic study of morphogenesis, on growth and form (thompson ). while whyte acknowledged thompson (and biochemist joseph needham’s contribution was devoted to the biologist), whyte explained the symposium’s primary rationale as the “increasing awareness of the morphological character of many of the sciences, which are now seen to be concerned with complex structures or forms of particular kinds” (whyte , ; see also ibid., ). with a preface by art critic/scholar herbert read, whyte’s volume brought together contributions on crystallography, astronomy, biology (including c. h. waddington), gestalt psychology (including rudolf arnheim), art (ernst gombrich), and early cybernetics (grey walter). “our and science” (heisenberg , – ). for the impact of kuhn’s the structure of scientific revolutions of (kuhn ) on the theorization of abstract art in the s, see jones . smith had already published the essay “structure/substructure/superstructure” in kepes , – ; that essay, along with his on aesthetics in science text was reprinted in the collection of his essays a search for structure (smith ). on hamilton’s exhibition, see, e.g., moffat . the year following whyte’s event hermann weyl would publish his classic volume on symmetry (weyl ), which celebrated the beauty of symmetry in art (especially ornament), biological forms, crystal structure and mathematics. works such as arthur loeb’s space structures: their harmony and counterpoint (loeb ), with a foreword by c. s. smith, carried on the study of structural form in mathematics. waddington’s essay, “the character of biological form,” included a few examples of sculptures by henry moore and jean arp to illustrate what he deemed a true, growth-oriented “organic quality” in art. gombrich’s “meditations on a hobby horse or the roots of artistic form” was a first iteration of the theory of representation he would come to call “making and matching,” which he developed in subsequent books such as art and illusion: the psychology of pictorial representation (gombrich ). i have generally excluded the large field of art and psychology from this essay, but, in addition to gombrich, there are two other authors – both grounded in gestalt psychology – who should be noted. rudolph arnheim, also a participant in whyte’s symposium, first published art and visual perception: a psychology of the creative eye in (arnheim [ ] ); his entropy and art of addresses form in terms of order and disorder. anton ehrenzweig’s the hidden order of art: a study in the psychology of artistic form appeared in (ehrenzweig ). psychology is also the primary emphasis in dolf rieser’s art and science of (rieser ) and in paul vitz’s and arnold glimcher’s modern art and modern science: the parallel analysis of vision (vitz and glimcher ). one of the most recent additions to the literature on perception and cognition is inner vision: an exploration of art and the brain by neurobiologist semir zeki (zeki ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction theme is thus the realization of the unity of spatial form in the complex processes of physics, biology, psychology, and art,” whyte explained (whyte , ). in hindsight, grey walter’s presence at the conference was an early sign of the cybernetics and systems theory that would ultimately make it possible to deal more readily with “complex processes.” both whyte and cyril smith contributed to kepes’ anthology structure in art and in science, in which kepes argued, “structure seems central to our time – the unique substance of our vision. the most powerful imaginative vision is structure-oriented” (kepes , ii). kepes’ vision of the unity of art and science also owed a debt to gestalt psychology, which he had encountered in germany in the s. responding like others to the “chaos” of world war ii, kepes had argued in his book the language of vision that the education of vision was crucial to humanity’s creation of and integration into a “new vital structure-order” in a “dynamic world” being redefined by science and technology (kepes , – ). toward that end kepes himself had organized a exhibition titled the new landscape in art and science, which was published in book form in . that exhibition and book, like his later structure in art and in science, juxtaposed scientific images, including microphotographs, with works of art and architecture to demonstrate hidden patterns of order “where art and science meet on common ground” (kepes , , ). in germany, morphological comparisons of art and science were grounded in the writings of goethe, ernst haeckel’s kunstformen der natur ( ), karl blossfeldt’s urformen der kunst ( ), and, as botar’s essay establishes, the biocentrism of raoul francé and its applications by kepes’ mentor, moholy-nagy. the other root of this tradition, with its focus on morphogenesis in biology, extended back to d’arcy thompson and, beyond him, to theodore cook’s the curves of life ( ) and spirals in art and nature ( ). a exhibition organized by the basel kunsthalle, kunstformen der natur, which simply found scientific photographs to match the configurations of a group of modern paintings, represents the superficial extreme of such formal comparisons (e.g., the juxtaposition of an electron micrograph of aluminum with a cubist painting by george braque) (schmidt and schenk , , – ). if the basel whyte notes at the end of his “chronological survey on form” ( – ) that “there is no sign as of yet of a simple and comprehensive method of describing the changing form or structure of complex relationships” (whyte , ). whyte’s essay in kepes’ structure in art and in science, “atomism, structure, and form,” is an open-ended report on the eve of the emergence of chaos theory and complex systems analysis, which concludes with questions such as “what is chaos, if forms emerged from it?” (kepes , ). in the on aesthetics in science volume, c. s. smith included a note with his bibliography, stating that just as he had excluded “mathematical treatments of group theory and algebraic topology,” the “copious literature on systems analysis and that on structuralism in anthropology and linguistics is not cited despite some similarities in both problems and solutions” (smith , ; wechsler b, ). for smith’s essay, see again n. ; for whyte’s essay, see again n. . kepes’ integrative social vision paralleled that of his mentor moholy-nagy; see the goodyear essay herein. kepes was also aware of the developing field of cybernetics, since norbert weiner was at mit and contributed to kepes’ publications (see, e.g., kepes , – ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson organizers sought to validate modern art in this way, philip ritterbush organized the art of organic forms at the smithsonian’s museum of natural history in in order to “express the creative, imaginative character of science by demonstrating its affinities with the arts” (ritterbush , iii). ritterbush’s catalog text is noteworthy for its fine history of biology’s investigation of form – from goethe to the embryologist/geneticist waddington. in , waddington, who had contributed not only to whyte’s aspects of form but also to kepes’ collection titled module, proportion, symmetry, rhythm (kepes , – ), demonstrated his own conclusions about “the underlying structure of things” in his book behind appearance: the relations between painting and the natural sciences in this century (waddington [ ] , jacket flap). waddington’s behind appearance also addressed history to some degree, but before turning to the somewhat vexed issue of the historical relationships of modern art and science, it is useful to note more recent approaches to this subject that have crossed the borders between the disciplines or set aside the “binary economy” of art and science to consider this subject in new ways (jones and galison , ). just as historians of science and science studies scholars have become increasingly interested in visual imagery, art historian james elkins proposed in that art history should address “images that are not art” (the vast majority of images), including a variety of types of scientific illustrations and engineering drawings as well as “graphs, charts, maps, geometric configurations, notations, plans, some money, bonds, seals, stamps, . . . schemata, and pictographic or ideographic elements in writing” (elkins , ; elkins , – ). elkins demonstrated this approach in his book the domain of images and has recently argued for the inclusion of scientific images in the program of the new field of “visual studies” (elkins , – ). for their collection picturing science, producing art, art historian caroline jones and historian of science peter galison chose, as they say, to move beyond the separate categorization of art and science in order to explore overlapping philosophical and methodological issues in their histories. as a result, contributors “address questions of viewing and knowing in which both artistic and scientific practices are brought into consideration, among many other kinds of cultural practices and productions” (jones and galison , ). the sites of knowledge production explored are organized around the themes of styles, the body, seeing wonders, objectivity/subjectivity, and cultures of vision. in contrast to jones and galison’s volume, the specific exploration of historical relations between art and science is our primary concern here, and a look back at the development of this field provides a perspective on the debates that continue to in their introduction jones and galison also note the work of eighteenth-century scholar barbara maria stafford, who has been a pioneer in examining (and defending) visual language in art and in fields such as medicine and science; more recently stafford has engaged digital imagery as well. see, e.g., stafford , among other titles. in terms of modernism, note should also be made of the work of one of the contributors to the jones and galison volume, jonathan crary, on changing conceptions of vision and the observing subject in relation to nineteenth-century psychology and physiology. see, e.g., crary . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction surround it. the first extended discussions of historical connections between modern art and science appeared in the s. more general analyses of the relations of science and the humanities had a longer history – especially in britain – but world war ii and the atomic bomb brought this topic to the fore with a new kind of urgency. within the art world there were additional new reasons to explore the suggestion made as early as , but far more widely in sigfried giedion’s space, time and architecture of , that picasso’s cubism had some connection to relativity theory and einstein. cubism and modern art in general still perplexed much of the general public, and, while relativity theory was hardly well understood, the aura of einstein, who had come to stand as the emblem of twentieth-century science, offered a means to validate the formal inventiveness of picasso’s cubism. much of the writing on art’s relationship to science was done against this backdrop in the s, and – unable to fathom how picasso might have engaged relativity theory – authors proposed far more nebulous circuits of information or fell back on the notion of a zeitgeist to explain the supposed connection. for example, the painter wolfgang paalen wrote in his essay “on the meaning of cubism today” of cubist painting’s incorporation of time and resultant arrival at a “continuum of space-time unknown until then in painting.” paalen was one of the artists most conversant with science in this period, as gavin parkinson’s essay herein establishes, and he continued, “such analogies in no way indicate that cubism has ever been a scientific art . . . but only that great thoughts in the same period often follow the following overview focuses primarily on english-language books and not on journal articles. for the rich periodical literature in this field, see, e.g., such databases as artbibliographies modern (art + science), as well as published bibliographies, such as the “relations of science to literature and the arts” (originally “relations of literature to science”) published from to in configurations: a journal of literature, science, and technology, the organ of the society for literature and science (sls) and now available on the group’s website (www.litsci.org). in recognition of its greater involvement with visual imagery, that group voted in to change its name to the society for literature, science, and the arts (slsa). the website of the journal leonardo (mit press) features an annotated bibliography, “the visual arts and natural sciences in historical perspective,” compiled in by david topper, who, with john h. holloway, had earlier published bibliographies on the “interrelationships between the visual arts, science, and technology” in leonardo , ( ) and leonardo , ( ). on this background, see porter , and the introduction by stefan collini to snow . lynn gamwell has located what may be the first published reference linking einstein and cubism in czech art historian vincenc kramár’s book cubism, where he connected the style to “the transformation of our idea of the world, as reflected in einstein’s theory and in studies of the fourth dimension” (gamwell , ). for giedion’s argument, which was first presented in his charles eliott norton lectures at harvard in – , see giedion , – . for a detailed discussion of this process, see henderson . for a critique of the zeitgeist, see, e.g., topper . the most egregious example of this approach applied to picasso and einstein is california surgeon leonard shlain’s art and physics: parallel visions in space, time, and light of . drawing on the ideas of jung and teilhard de chardin, shlain argues for the existence of a disembodied “universal mind” that he believes “spacetime generates” (shlain , ). according to shlain, “universal mind would be the moving force behind our zeitgeist, speaking through the works of revolutionary right-brained, intuitive artists first, and later through left-brained, visionary, rational physicists” (ibid., ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson parallel ways without their authors being aware of it” (paalen , – ). in a similar manner critic clement greenberg asserted in his essay “our period style” in , “the affinity between the new style in the visual arts and modern physical science should be obvious from the terms in which i have described the former.” however, it was not “a matter of the modern artist being influenced by science,” he added. rather, greenberg, like virtually all of the advocates of the cubism-relativity hypothesis, saw the connection in vaguer terms: “[the artist’s] relation with science . . . is owed to the fact that, in our age as in every other, the highest aesthetic sensibility rests on the same basic assumptions, conscious or unconscious, as to the nature of reality as does the advanced thinking that is contemporaneous with it” (greenberg [ ] , ). art historian paul laporte, in two oft-cited articles of and , argued more specifically for “correlations” between cubism and relativity theory that could explain the seemingly “wilful” distortions in picasso’s paintings as the result of the changing relationship of the artist and object in space-time, embodied as the “spatial graphic expression of time” (laporte , , ). most discussions of modern art and science in subsequent decades were haunted and hence skewed by the supposed einstein-picasso connection, which led authors to speak in the vague terms of paalen or greenberg, to cite laporte as evidence that strong parallels suggested an innate connection between the two, or to deny altogether that cubism could have had anything to do with science. noting laporte’s texts, edward fry came to the latter conclusion in his anthology cubism: “while undoubtedly a rough metaphorical parallel may legitimately be made, it would seem dangerous to extend it too far, or to seek exact correspondences in this period between the two realms of human activity, which in the early twentieth century were hardly as interrelated as they were in the renaissance or even in neo-impressionism” (fry , – ). and art historian meyer schapiro, who had been observing the developing cubism-relativity literature from the s onward, argued vehemently against the connection in lectures or in private musings, which were only published posthumously (schapiro ). fry, schapiro, and others seem never to have considered the on paalen and science, see also parkinson and winter . the writings of paalen, greenberg, and laporte are discussed in greater detail in henderson . laporte himself published in a letter from einstein asserting that he had misconstrued relativity theory in his attempt to tie it to multiple viewpoints in cubism (laporte , ). gerald holton discusses this exchange and further clarifies the error in the frequent misinterpretation of relativity theory as signifying that “all frameworks, points of view, narrators, fragments of plot or thematic elements are created equal” (holton , ). as lillian schapiro explains in the preface, “the text ‘einstein and cubism: science and art’ has been edited by dr. joseph masheck . . . from a great mass of competing draft sheets, revisions, supplements, and notes that had grown out of a lecture delivered in at the hebrew university of jerusalem symposium commemorating the centenary of albert einstein’s birth” (schapiro , vii). it is a tragedy that schapiro never consolidated or updated his thoughts, since this rambling text sans footnotes does not do justice to this great art historian. the einstein centennial was also marked by the collection of essays einstein: the first hundred years. in contrast to schapiro’s critique, the essay on “einstein and art” by painter philip courtenay focused primarily https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction possibility that other “sciences” besides relativity theory might have been stimulating the imaginations of artists and writers in the early years of the twentieth century. waddington carried forward the cubism-relativity discussion in his behind appearance, although he also noted in passing the challenges the discovery of radioactivity and of the electron represented to conceptions about the nature of matter in this period. however, waddington’s primary focus in addressing cubism was on the changed conceptions of space and time wrought by relativity theory, and he – like others before him – pointed to the references by the poet guillaume apollinaire to the “fourth dimension” in cubist literature as corroborating evidence. waddington nonetheless notes apollinaire’s highly poetic language (“the fourth dimension of space . . . represents the immensity of space eternalizing itself ”) and argues that the poet had “no grasp of the scientific principles he was referring to.” he also observes that these artists and writers would not have been “mathematically equipped to grasp einstein’s ideas, at a time long before these had been expounded for non-scientific readers” (waddington [ ] , ). this is a crucial point: relativity theory simply was not popularized in france in time for it to have had any direct impact upon cubist painting. here, too, is the germ of a more general lesson about historical interactions of modern art and science: popular scientific literature has been a crucial link between artists and science in the twentieth century. the “fourth dimension” or non-euclidean geometry were both important elements of cultural discourse in the early twentieth century. however, they were not reflections of relativity theory but rather of the popular fascination with alternative models of space derived from nineteenth-century geometry, information that i first published in and followed up in my book the fourth dimension in non-euclidean geometry in modern art (henderson ; idem ). as in the case of the fourth dimension, a conscious archeological recovery of science as popularly understood is necessary in order to evaluate the possibility that cubism owed a debt to recent developments in “science.” waddington was on the right track in noting radioactivity and the electron, and his interest in transparency in cubism might have led him to discover the other sensation of popular science in the early years of the century – the x-ray, a subject on cubism and included such statements as “cubism attempted to incorporate einstein’s fourth dimension to gain ‘realism of conception,’” and “how much modern art was aided by einstein’s ideas is an open question; that it was aided is not” (courtenay , , ). einstein became a celebrity only in , when experiments during an eclipse confirmed one of the predictions of his theory. for the delayed response to einstein and relativity theory, see, e.g., kragh , – , as well as henderson (app. a). on the looming figure of henri poincaré in france and the general silence that met einstein’s theories, which poincaré rejected, see goldberg , chap. , and glick , – . independently, john adkins richardson argued in his modern art and scientific thought that “cubism has nothing to do with the theory of relativity and that is the end of the matter” (richardson , ). although richardson noted in passing the existence of a popular “fourth dimension” of space, he chose instead to compare cubism to developments in modern logic; his goal, he has said more recently in a review of the books by waddington, vitz and glimcher, and myself, was “not the discovery of truth so much as the revelation of synoptic commonalities” (richardson , ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson treated, along with radioactivity and the ether of space, in part ii of the introduction below. waddington was far more sanguine about art-science relationships after world war ii, when he believed that artists had actually assimilated scientific information “at a deeper level” (waddington [ ] , ). he knew a number of contemporary artists, such as ben nicholson, barbara hepworth, henry moore, and kepes, and, having lived through the period, he was more generally aware of the information about science that was readily available to artists. in particular, waddington was interested in contemporary biology, atomic theory, and the developing field of cybernetics. instead of exploring specific historical connections, however, waddington’s later chapters juxtaposed separate histories of scientific developments and histories of art, allowing morphological comparisons to suggest general parallels. for waddington, in the end, it was at the base level of creativity that art and science were in “true communication” (waddington [ ] , ). thus, in contrast to stephen petersen’s discussion of painter roberto crippa in the context of the italian “nuclear art” movement in this volume, waddington simply illustrates one of crippa’s works suggestive of orbits within the atom to demonstrate the concern with hidden processes and energy on the part of the new painters (fig. in waddington [ ] ). like waddington, leo steinberg in a partisan review essay, “the eye is part of the mind,” had noted the shared emphasis in contemporary art and science on “nature in its latest undisguise.” moreover, according to steinberg, artists whose energy-filled canvases representing “trajectories and vectors, lines of tension and strain,” might well augment the “visual imagination” of culture at large by “schooling our eyes to live at ease with the new concepts forced upon our credulity by scientific reasoning” (steinberg , ). waddington, too, believed that art could contribute to the growth of science and culture, asserting, “looking at paintings, or experiencing other kinds of art, especially kinds which are not too immediately transparent . . . is one of the best ways for a scientist to loosen the joints of his psyche, to ‘roll the bones’ of his ideas, and give himself a chance to dredge up from the obscure internal depths something . . . which may be fresh enough to be worthwhile” (waddington [ ] , ). for an initial discussion of the importance of the x-ray and radioactivity for art in pre-world war i paris, see henderson . asendorf’s ströme und strahlen ( ) was another of the studies that first examined the turn-of-the-century science known to the general public. kevles addresses the x-ray in the context of the history of medical imaging and the response of artists and the public to its various phases of development. on waddington’s background and debt to a. n. whitehead’s holism, see porter , – . martin kemp has argued that “the discerning of fundamental qualities of structure and process in nature” in the morphogenesis of d’arcy thompson and in the method of waddington’s behind appearance (but now “undertaken with a full awareness of the historical, cultural, and scientific factors”) offers “a particularly promising agenda for the cognate histories of the visual in biology and art” (kemp , ). kemp, writing in an issue of the art journal devoted to “contemporary art and the genetic code” was arguing against losing sight of morphogenesis in the rush to embrace the genetic code. for a sampling of contemporary artistic responses to genetics, see levy and sichel . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction the impact of art on science has always been the direction less discussed. the best-known case of art’s contribution to science may be galileo’s debt to artistic chiaroscuro modeling techniques for his reading of the moon’s craters (see, e.g., edgerton a; bredekamp ). recently, however, root-bernstein has argued that there are numerous instances of science’s debt to art, including the centrality of buckminster fuller’s geodesic domes and tetrahedral structures for scientists modeling the polio virus in the s and the “buckminsterfullerene” molecule in the s (root-bernstein , ). an artist’s powers of visualization, in particular, can contribute to scientific or mathematical insight. topologist scott carter, who studies two-dimensional surfaces knotted in four-dimensional space, reports having had an experience akin to waddington’s in front of a painting by artist tony robbin. in this series of works, which includes the large-scale fourfield of – , robbin combined a complex, geometrically patterned background with both wire constructions and painted outlines representing pairs of slightly shifted sections of the four-dimensional hypercube (see robbin ). according to carter, “tony’s painting spoke directly to me since i had seen glimpses of -space in my own research. he had escaped the plane of the canvas in order to explain escaping the plane of the -dimensional world.” in the university of edinburgh, where waddington had held a chair from until his death in , sponsored the conference common denominators in art and science. acknowledging waddington’s importance to the field, the co-organizers emphasized that their goal was to use an “historical approach” to “uncover similar operative factors in art and science through a study of the work and working methods of selected artists and scientists in the historical period chosen” (pollock , xiv). fuller had contributed an essay entitled “conceptuality of fundamental structures” to kepes’ structure in art and in science volume, and his work can be recognized as part of the larger concern with morphology and structure discussed above. scott carter e-mail to the author, aug. , . he continued, “having spent time staring at facimiles of tony’s paintings, and playing with some of his computer programs, i came to want to develop some programs of my own that showed the objects with which i work. lately, i have been working with these.” for robbin’s deep engagement with mathematics and physics, including quasi-crystals, see robbin . see also his forthcoming book from yale university press, in which he addresses the history of visualizations of four-dimensional geometry, including a close rereading of minkowski’s papers of and that interprets the space-time continuum as based on a geometry of projection rather than the common interpretation of a slicing of worldlines. robbin’s text also recounts his interactions with quantum physicist p. k. aravind, for whom four-dimensional projective geometrical figures have become important to his research on particle entanglement. artists have contributed more often to technological developments, as goodyear’s essay documents in terms of the number of patents that resulted from the artist-engineer collaborations for e.a.t.’s “nine evenings: theater and engineering.” the work of photographer felice frankel in assisting scientists “to make good pictures of good science” stands as another contribution of artistic vision to science, in this case in terms of the effective presentation of results. see, e.g., envisioning science: the design and craft of the science image (frankel , ). mathematician and filmmaker michele emmer showed his films on m. c. escher and on the möbius band at the edinburgh conference, introducing them with “some remarks on the relationship of art and mathematics” (pollock , – ). emmer has been a leading figure in the field of art and mathematics, producing a large bibliography of writings and films, organizing a yearly “matematica e cultura” conference https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson among the contributions were historian of science alex keller’s paper “continuity and discontinuity in early twentieth-century physics and early twentieth-century painting” and peter lloyd jones’ recollection of his design education in the context of the rising tide of cybernetics and information theory in the s (see pollock , – , – ). keller discusses aspects of the history of science that are very relevant to artists of the pre-world war i period. however, his essay focuses instead on the neo-impressionism of georges seurat and paul signac, with its application of pure color in discrete dots, which in signac’s subsequent works became brick-like marks. keller notes only at the end of his text the later adoption of the neo-impressionist brick-like stroke by matisse and picasso (see, e.g., fig. herein). jones in his essay “science and the zeitgeist in the s” rejects an immaterial zeitgeist, noting his “personal inclination towards explanations of cultural diffusion in terms of the contingent interactions of persons through specific institutions of communication: books, articles, academic lectures and seminars, art galleries, and magazines.” he also proposes that for a scholar with a less intimate historical knowledge of a period, studying the language “flow[ing] between science and art” (i.e., “‘software,’ ‘information,’ ‘code’” in the s) would be a more useful strategy than the quest for “common denominators” ( jones in pollock , – ). both of these suggestions are relevant to the method i propose further below. the edinburgh conference was also a barometer of new trends in the field of history, registering the impact of the ideas of michel foucault, in particular, in the contributions of philosopher rom harré and design historian/theorist gérard mermoz. here linguistic structuralism and early post-structuralism met the morphological tradition of waddington. in “on the synchronization between artistic practices: an exploration of hypotheses, – ,” mermoz not only criticized any resort to a “spirit of the age,” but also directed a pointed critique toward what he termed “art history and the search for ‘influences,’” associating it with “the mechanistic model (cause- effect)” (mermoz , – ). citing picasso’s denials of connections to science as well as the negative comments of werner heisenberg and george kubler on the subject of science’s impact on modern artists, mermoz argues that picasso’s disclaimer of external influences “proclaims the irrelevance /irreverence of the search for influences” in venice with published proceedings, and editing the visual mind: art and mathematics ( ) and the visual mind ii ( ) for mit press (see emmer and emmer ). “this divisionism then is the expression of a discontinuity of substance which adds up to the apparent visible continuity” (keller in pollock , ). as discussed in part ii of this essay, with the continued dominance of the ether in this period, it was the “apparent visible continuity” that still dominated, particularly since the very existence of the atom was established empirically by perrin only in (see nye , – ). on the neo-impressionists’ debt to contemporary discussion of the chemical atom, see roslak , which should be considered against the backdrop of robert l. herbert’s pioneering work on seurat and conceptions of art and science in his time (e.g., herbert ). harré’s essay, “what is the ‘zeitgeist’? prospects and problems for the investigation of the interaction of arts and sciences,” argues for a “deep-structure form of explanation of correlations,” which may be supported by a “common metatheory” (pollock , ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction (mermoz , – ). instead, citing roman jakobson and foucault, he proposes the investigation of deep “structural correlations” between art and science that exist between “the various semiological functions of each discourse . . . and ‘extradiscursive’ formations.” unfortunately, mermoz does not put his methodological proposal into practice in his essay. however, his quest for “structural correlations” would subsequently be embraced by literature scholar thomas vargish and physicist delo mook as a means to argue, once more, the cubism-relativity case in their book inside modernism: relativity theory, cubism, narrative. foucault’s ideas would have a profound impact in the s and s on historians, including both those of science and of art, and his focus on discourse analysis can indeed be extremely fruitful. however, mermoz’s resistance to examining an artist’s sources closes off the very possibility of understanding a creative individual in his or her historical context. to accept uncritically picasso’s denial of “influences” and to privilege the “sovereignty of his creative process,” as mermoz does, is a highly questionable stance for an historian, especially one arguing for a “more critical attitude towards quotation data” (mermoz , – ). picasso’s comments themselves are clearly responses to particular situations in the art world in a given period: in the s he decried art defined as “research,” and in the s he claimed that all his art was research. denying he had ever read anything scientific in a interview, in – significantly the year after einstein’s death had led to new adulation – picasso declared, “when i read a book on einstein’s physics of which i understood nothing, it doesn’t matter; that will make me understand something else” (ashton , , , , ). the specific foucault reference for mermoz is “politics and the study of discourse,” published in ideology and consciousness, where foucault uses the term correlation, but not the “structural” adjective both harré and mermoz adopt (foucault ). drawing on both mermoz’s model of “structural correlations” and katherine hayles’ idea of a “field theory of culture” (hayles , – ), mook and vargish establish three “cultural diagnostics” by which to investigate modernism across fields: relativity theory, cubism, and narrative in modern literature. although they acknowledge the accuracy of historical arguments against any connection between the ideas of einstein and picasso, they argue that their cultural diagnostics will nonetheless expose “common values that find contemporaneous expression in disparate fields” and stand as “constituent[s] of modernism” (mook and vargish , – ). for a discussion of the problems with the mook and vargish book, including their dependence on greenberg’s writings on cubism from the s, which are inflected by the critic’s own engagement with the language of relativity theory, see henderson . mook and vargish’s section on literature is more successful than that on cubism, since, as alan friedman and carol donley have established, a number of modern writers responded to relativity theory as popularized (friedman and donley ). but the continued focus on picasso and einstein, while useful perhaps for broad characterizations of the twentieth century, tells us nothing about the cultural milieu in which picasso was actually operating. mermoz quotes sculptor naum gabo asserting that “the creative processes in the domain of art are as sovereign as the creative processes in science” (mermoz , ). however, like picasso, gabo clearly had an agenda of self-promotion; moreover, as martin hammer and christina lodder have established, his ideas on art and science developed in response to sources such as sir james jeans, sir arthur eddington, and bertrand russell as well as d’arcy thompson (hammer and lodder , chap. ). having met kepes in germany in the s, gabo wrote his essay “art and science” for kepes’ the new landscape (kepes , – ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson mermoz had quoted heisenberg’s assertion in , “there is little reason for thinking that modern science has had a direct influence on, say, the artist’s discourse with nature”; he quoted kubler in : “there are few signs that the basic theoretical ideas of science affect artists very much” (pollock , – ). however, heisenberg and kubler should hardly be taken as the last word on the subject of artists’ responses to science. in heisenberg’s talk on “the tendency to abstraction in modern art and science” at a symposium on “the significance for art of the findings and discoveries of modern science,” the physicist confessed, “i know the history of art only at second hand, have not studied it in detail and am therefore in danger of judging superficially” (heisenberg , ). kubler had made his remark at the university of michigan symposium, and, paralleling kuhn’s comments cited earlier, he had reacted to what he described as e. m. hafner’s seeming “to smother contemporary art under a blanket comparison with science” (kubler , ). in his book the shape of time kubler had adopted the language of energy transmission and information theory as a model for the history of style in art, replacing the prevalent biological metaphor (kubler , ). with biological morphology as the primary terrain on which art/science comparisons had been made for two decades, kubler in his response seemed determined to play down any innate connections between art and science. unbeknownst to kubler and contrary to his assertion that scientific theories held little interest for artists, his own book had recently served as a stimulus for artist robert smithson’s developing entropy-oriented art and theory, which was grounded in his extensive collection of science books, including p. w. bridgman’s the nature of thermodynamics. during the s kubler’s own “pluralistic vision” of history would draw crucial support from bohr’s theory of complementarity, especially as set forth by gerald holton in daedalus in . *** a methodological interlude given mermoz’s reduction of art history to a “search for influences,” a moment of clarification is necessary. in his book patterns of intention: on the historical explanation of pictures, michael baxandall wisely urged art historians to reject the term influence. in his “excursis against influence” baxandall argued convincingly for kubler concluded by asserting that artists and scientists “resemble each other more as artisans than as intel- lectuals” (kubler , ). for smithson’s science and technology books, see the listing in reynolds , – . on smithson and kubler, see ibid. and lee . on kubler and complementarity as well as his debt to holton, see the introduction by thomas f. reese in kubler , xxx. kubler’s the shape of time was a response to his mentor henri focillon’s la vie des formes, written in , which wittenborn published in kubler’s translation in (see kubler , xxvi–xxvii). focillon’s morphological study appeared in whyte’s “chronological survey on form” (whyte , ). burnham also addresses focillon in the context of organicist aesthetics (burnham , – ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction replacing the passive connotation of “influence” with a model of the artist as a pro- active seeker of information on those issues that are of interest (baxandall , – ). although baxandall’s subject was artistic sources, the same model applies for any aspect of the discursive field that forms an artist’s cultural context. art grows from art, and an artist picks and chooses what seems relevant both from past art and from the cultural milieu in which he or she operates. by focusing on sources and choices, there is no longer the vague imprecision of “influence” or the suggestion that an artist has responded passively or mechanically in a cause-effect scenario. behind this method lies what baxandall has termed his “skeptical intentionalism,” or the belief that, despite poststructuralist arguments to the contrary, we can indeed recover to some degree an artist’s basic intentions (baxandall , vii, – ). more specifically, as artist/art historian charles harrison has argued, “if we are adequately to assess artists’ intentions and actions in the light of historical conditions, it will be necessary to include among those conditions what it was possible to imagine” (harrison , ). while harrison was actually addressing political utopianism in this statement, contemporary scientific developments and discoveries have a profound effect upon what an artist believes about reality or can imagine as a future prospect. we will never know exactly what an artist was imagining, but a recovery of the science readily available to the public – whether written by scientists themselves or by science writers – is vital in order to establish the parameters of what was possible at a given moment. this popular literature, preserved primarily in newspapers, magazines, and popular books, is a critical interface between art and science. with the advent of paperback editions of books on science and mathematics by publishers such as dover, the amount of information accessible to an interested artist in the s– s (e.g., smithson) increased significantly, and television and the internet have expanded this information exponentially. popularized science would be an important part of the “cultural field” model katherine hayles proposed in her book the cosmic web in opposition to arguments for mechanical causality via “direct lines of influence” between science and literature. according to hayles, it is this “societal matrix” or, “in whitehead’s phrase . . . a ‘climate of opinion’” that makes certain questions interesting to pursue at a certain time. she also emphasizes that “in a field model, the interactions are always mutual: the cultural matrix guides individual inquiry at the same time that the inquiry helps to form, or transform, the matrix” (hayles , – ). borrowing hayles’ idea of the “cultural matrix” and anchoring it historically by analyzing available popular by mid-century scientific american had attracted a good deal of interest among artists and critics, such as richard hamilton and lawrence alloway of the independent group in london in the s (see, e.g., robbins , ). from the s to the present u. s. sculptor athena tacha, for example, has been an assiduous reader of that journal, along with a multitude of science books (personal communications from the artist). on tacha’s artistic response to the morphological tradition as well as to quantum physics and chaos theory, see trulove . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson sources on science, we will never know all that the matrix contained, but we can be fairly certain of what it could not contain. in pre-world war i paris, that was accessible information about einstein and relativity theory. popular scientific literature, along with the writings of artists and critics, is ripe for the discourse analysis mermoz, following foucault, proposed. one last methodological clarification should be made in response to an objection elkins raises in his article on “art history and images that are not art” concerning the work of art historians who explore historical relations between art and science (elkins , ). because his own essay was centered on images, elkins addresses such scholarship as if it dealt only with visual images, with art historians “work[ing] to explain pictures by locating the relevant scientific sources.” he concludes: there are both historical and methodological limitations that prohibit the approach from doing wider justice to the relations between science and art. . . . since the search for scientific sources depends on specific iconographic parallels, . . . it cannot come to terms with more abstract influences on twentieth-century art, such as popular notions of the uncertainty principle, nuclear fission, and fractal geometry. . . . ultimately the approach lacks the flexibility to demonstrate the full relation between science and art – what twentieth-century art is not influenced by modern science? – and it does not yet possess a methodological strategy that would justify concentrating on more literal parallels. (elkins , – ) it may be true that the emphasis in early scholarship on historical connections between art and science was weighted toward images, including the two fine art and science issues of the art journal, edited by renaissance art historian samuel edgerton, a pioneering figure in this area (edgerton b). since a portion of the art- science field has always been devoted to optics and perspective and the primary work of art historians has been image-based, this orientation is not surprising – especially when carried out in the context of traditional museum exhibitions, such as jean clair’s l’ame au corps: arts et sciences – (clair ) or his cosmos: from romanticism to avant-garde (clair ). however, the most striking visual comparisons are generally complemented by textual analyses, and even the essays in exhibition catalogs, such as that by science in context contributor barbara larson on nineteenth-century french astronomy and art in cosmos, regularly engage contemporary scientific writing. in larson’s case, that discussion centers on the books of flammarion (see clair , – ). critical reading of the writings of artists, critics, and historians is a standard part of art historical training, and the fields of literature and science, history of science, and science studies offer excellent models of sophisticated analysis of literary and scientific texts for art historians interested in developing this field further. conversely, for artists and optics from the renaissance to the end of the nineteenth century, see, e.g., kemp . see, e.g., peterfreund , hess , galison , clarke , henry . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction of course, art historians have much to share with scholars of science and culture who have become increasingly engaged in visual imagery. that art historians have engaged far more of the art-science field than simply the image-based comparisons elkins cites is particularly clear in the case of marcel duchamp. in his studies of science duchamp found inspiration for both the verbal form (i.e., his several hundred textual notes) and visual form of his masterwork the bride stripped bare by her bachelors, even (the large glass) of – , a nine-foot tall construction on two glass panels (fig. ). having taken a librarian’s job in paris in , duchamp mulled over large numbers of science books to invent the “playful physics” of the large glass, deriving material for the content of his scientific allegory of sexual quest as well as for the style of his notes and his precision-oriented execution of the glass. based on the theme of electromagnetic wave-borne communication between the biomechanical bride above and the mechanical bachelors below, the work’s narrative draws inventively on such fields as x-rays, radioactivity, atomic theory, the kinetic theory of gases, and thermodynamics – as well as classical mechanics, chemistry, biology, meteorology, automobile technology, and four-dimensional geometry. duchamp even adopted the persona of artist/engineer, disdaining the artist’s medium of oil on canvas in favor of materials associated with the laboratory: he actually utilized glass, lead wire, lead foil, mirror silver, and dust, and he speculated on various acids, mica, and rust, among other substances. for duchamp (in a view that could no longer be held today) science represented a model of pure objectivity and a transparent language free of metaphor. he would certainly have been surprised by the demonstrations by historians of science of the central role that metaphor and analogical thinking play in the activities of the scientist. like duchamp, smithson responded to science on multiple levels beyond visual imagery. in the end, smithson’s engagement with science and mathematics had equally far-reaching consequences for his entropy-based art theory, his form language, and for the content and style of his art writing (see, e.g., reynolds ). as the essays in this issue of science in context make clear, the art historical component of science studies is quite capable of addressing those “oblique references” to science about which elkins worries (see, e.g., parkinson’s essay herein exploring the surrealist response to quantum theory). *** following upon the common denominators symposium, a much larger, international conference, einstein meets magritte, took place in brussels in , bringing together an interdisciplinary group of scholars to “reflect together on the deep nature of reality beyond art historical scholarship in general and elkins’s specific analysis of non-art images, see, e.g., kemp , as well as certain of the essays in jones and galison , latour and weibel , and daston . see henderson , henderson ; for duchamp’s response to x-rays in – , see henderson and henderson , chap. . for duchamp’s notes, see duchamp , duchamp . see, e.g., galison, “judgment against objectivity,” in jones and galison ; and bono . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson fig. . marcel duchamp, the bride stripped bare by her bachelors, even, – , mixed media on glass. philadelphia museum of art, bequest of katherine s. dreier. c© artists rights society (ars), new york/adagp, paris/succession marcel duchamp. photo: philadelphia museum of art. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction and the knowledge and skill humankind has gathered in this field” (aerts , vii). published in eight volumes, the conference addressed a variety of themes (e.g., science, technology, and social change, quantum structures and the nature of reality, and the evolution of complexity), with only one book of proceedings devoted to science and art. the organizers chose magritte – rather than picasso – as the metaphorical figure for art in relation to einstein’s embodiment of science, and the conference sought to find “meaningful keys” at “the place where the two meet” (ibid., vii, xix). with its broad scope the conference produced a new round of meditations on intersections or commonalities between the activity of artists, musicians, and writers and of scientists (here extended to include social scientists) – with an emphasis on psychology and creativity in the science and art volume. the most historically oriented contribution addressing art in that collection is edward shanken’s essay on the artist and educator roy ascott, who has based his “telematic” art and theory as well as his teaching on the principles of cybernetics and systems theory. ascott’s interest in new media technologies actually falls more accurately under the rubric of art and technology – a field that, apart from goodyear’s discussion of the experiments in art and technology group in the s as well as certain aspects of kepes’ center for advanced studies in the visual arts at mit, is not addressed specifically in this issue of science in context. yet, as the evolution of complexity volume of einstein meets magritte demonstrates, in the later twentieth-century systems theory and complexity theory came to play increasingly important roles across a range of scientific disciplines, particularly physics and biology, offering new possibilities for interdisciplinary discussions including art (see heylighen, bollen, and riegler ). indeed, ilya prigogine, who spoke on “einstein and magritte: a study of creativity” at the conference, came to link creativity directly to the uncertainty manifested in far-from-equilibrium systems (prigogine ; see also prigogine ). to conclude this overview of work in the field of modern art/science studies, four contributions published in serve to demonstrate the range of approaches in use at present. these are exploring the invisible: art, science, and the spiritual by lynn gamwell, two collections of essays based on symposia – experimental cultures: configurations bet- ween science, art, and technology, – and from energy to information: shanken’s essay is “technology and intuition: a love story? roy ascott’s telematic embrace”; see aerts et al. , – . art and technology has another historiography and is growing rapidly as a field because of the interest in new media on the part of many artists. jonathan benthall’s paperback science and technology in art today stands as an early survey of this subject and, despite its title, focuses primarily on technology with a far more limited consideration of science (see, e.g., chaps. , ). the same could be said of jack burnham’s more ambitious book beyond modern sculpture: the effects of science and technology on the sculpture of this century, which surveys the history of modern sculpture in relation to technology (especially the developing field of cybernetics) and, to a lesser degree, science. the journal leonardo has played and continues to play an important role in chronicling developments in art and technology. for a sampling of recent work, see, e.g., the volume art@science, a collection of essays by media artists and “media scientists” (sommerer and mignonneau ) as well as wilson . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson representation in science and technology, art, and literature – and the monumental book published in conjunction with the exhibition iconoclash: beyond the image wars in science, religion, and art. gamwell’s exploring the invisible is lavishly illustrated with colorplates and provides the most useful extant survey of developments in science and artists’ responses to them from german romanticism to the late twentieth century. a museum director who has organized a number of art/science exhibitions, gamwell positions her images in a wide-ranging narrative that traverses the space between german idealist philosophy’s vision of unity and the “disunity” she laments in the postmodern era (gamwell , ). as might be expected with any book that spans two hundred years, many topics must be dealt with rather cursorily, and, although she draws on the research of many other art historians, there is no evidence of the impact of science studies in her approach. gamwell’s previous work in the history of psychology and her deliberate focus on germany rather than france account for the volume’s most original elements. the most traditional of this group of four, gamwell’s book, nonetheless, serves as an effective – and strikingly beautiful – introduction to the topic of art and science. although published in , from energy to information grew out of an interdis- ciplinary symposium at the university of texas organized by bruce clarke and myself in . the conference brought together trios of historians of science, literature, and art around five semi-chronological themes: the cultures of thermodynamics; ether and electromagnetism: capturing the invisible; traces and inscription: diagraming forces; representing information [cybernetics]; and virtual spaces/virtual bodies. this structure, basically replicated in the book, was intended to give scholars in the humanities and the sciences a sampling of the historical contexts and theoretical connections among scientific ideas, technological developments, and art and literature in the later nineteenth and twentieth centuries. rethinking representation across disciplinary boundaries raised significant issues, and in this context anthropologist bruno latour’s conception of the “inscriptions” made in the scientific laboratory proved to be a useful means of thinking about mark-making in science and art alike (henderson and clarke , – ). more generally, essays in the volume highlight the prevalence of the theme of energy within modern art and literature and the analogous role of its counterpart, information, in the later twentieth century. latour himself was a participant in the experimental cultures: configurations between science, art, and technology, – , a conference at the max planck institute for the history of science in berlin in . this event was part of an ongoing project at the mpiwg centered on the life sciences in the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. following foucault and the interest of the annales school of french historians in the longue durée, the project seeks to discover a “knowledge landscape of the life sciences” through this period by exploring “experimental cultures” or “cultures that generate difference” rather than bringing closure. it is at this level – with its basic reconsideration of what it is to do science (e.g., “skills, knowledge spaces, model organisms, epistemic objects, ways of doing, and instruments”) – that the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction conference looked across fields to the arts to find similar cultures of experimentation (mpi , – ). peter geimer, whose essay on “picturing the impossible: on blanks in nineteenth-century artistic and scientific pictures” opens the current issue of science in context, focused on physiologist sigmund exner’s exploration of artists’ depictions of the human body in flight in “physiology of the impossible: exner meets mythology” (ibid., – ). finally, the innovative, large-scale exhibition iconoclash: beyond the image wars in science, religion, and art was co-organized by latour and by peter weibel, director of the zentrum für kunst und medientechnologie, karlsruhe. in striking contrast to art/science exhibitions of the past, iconoclash was centered on a conceptual question: why and how have scientific, artistic, and religious images provoked such passionate responses – either negative or positive – in viewers? the images addressed range from ancient to contemporary, and essays by over sixty authors treat a wide variety of topics related to the exhibition’s central theme. history and theory come together in this volume, which also includes essays by science in context contributor peter geimer as well as caroline jones, peter galison, and several of the authors also included in their picturing science, producing art volume. galison’s essay, “images scatter into data, data gather into images,” tracks the oscillating attitudes toward visual images versus pure logic in the sciences since the nineteenth century, concluding that in the digital era the “image to non-image to image” exchange occurs incessantly. looking to art, galison then proposes that rather than the abstraction that has sometimes been cited as one of the commonalities of the two fields, it is the “shifting historical realizations of concrete abstraction or abstract concreteness that the two fields share (see latour and weibel , – ). this issue of science in context will stand as another contribution to the early twenty-first century scholarship on the interaction of art and science. both geimer’s and botar’s texts interrogate the status of photography in relation to art and science. geimer’s “picturing the imperceptible” essay complicates conventional understanding of “scientific photography” by pointing up the crucial role of imagination and intervention on the part of photographers such as a. m. worthington in presenting ostensibly automatic, objective recording of splashes. while geimer comments as well on the painter edouard manet’s “quasi-photographic” reference to the imperceptible in his execution of the emperor maximilian, botar explores the integration of artistic lorraine daston’s recently published essay collection, things that talk: object lessons from art and science, represents yet another approach to interdisciplinary work on art and science (daston ). the product of a “working group” of historians of science and of art at the max planck institute for the history of science in berlin during – , including galison and jones and several other of the contributors to their volume, each essay focuses on a single object in the scholar’s field to understand how “what things are made of and how they are made shape what they can mean” (ibid., dustjacket). these historically grounded studies, which draw also on philosophy and anthropology, offer important methodological lessons for both the history of science and the history of art. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson and scientific representation in photography in the context of moholy-nagy’s “new vision” for art, grounded in the discourse of biocentrism in weimer germany. the other essays in the issue – by larson, parkinson, petersen, and goodyear – all investigate particular cultural moments in which artists responded to new scientific ideas and images – as well as, in goodyear’s case, new technologies. larson examines symbolist odilon redon’s incorporation of the invisible world of microbes into his drawings and lithographs and establishes the context for this interest in the work of pasteur, the germ theory of disease, and contemporary concern about hygiene. surrealist artists were deeply interested in symbolists like redon, but by the s surrealism had found a new science in addition to einsteinian relativity theory: popularized quantum mechanics. in contrast to the standard histories of surrealism, which focus on psychoanalysis, parkinson’s essay carefully tracks the diffusion of quantum mechanics in french sources and establishes the way in which the anomalies of quantum physics suited perfectly the surrealist project, particularly in the work of the painters wolfgang paalen and roberto matta. of modern artists involved with science in the first decades of the century, the major omission in this science in context issue is the russian avant-garde, including kazimir malevich. as in the case of duchamp, however, there is considerable literature on this subject (see, e.g., douglas ; douglas ; looper ; galerie gmurzynska ; state russian museum ; douglas ). petersen’s essay moves to mid-century and explores the response of artists to the atomic bomb, which had itself occasioned much of the early writing on art and science. his pioneering work on the italian artists of the spatial art and nuclear art movements, who sought to manifest in paint the hidden energy of the atom, illuminates a vital episode in the much-understudied area of postwar european art. finally, goodyear investigates the rise of interest in science and technology by artists as well as public officials in the wake of the russian launch of sputnik in . her study centers on the activities of kepes and billy klüver (founder of experiments in art and technology) and, hence, provides a denouement for the vision of art, science, and technology that kepes developed in the early twentieth century, in relation to the bauhaus-based ideals of his mentor moholy-nagy. a preoccupation with the invisible aspects of nature remained a vital theme for kepes to the end, just as it had been for worthington and his splashes, redon and microbes, moholy’s “new vision” of photography (including duchamp and malevich shared an interest in four-dimensional space, although in contrast to duchamp’s geometrical orientation malevich embraced the mystical hyperspace philosophy of p. d. ouspensky (see henderson , chaps. , ). malevich’s scientific interests ranged from physiology to electromagnetism, energetics, and thermodynamics, which came to play a role in the theory of the abstract suprematist style he inaugurated in (see douglas , , n. ). in post-revolutionary russia malevich not only developed a theory of art’s evolution based on the tuberculosis bacilli (looper ), but, as a teacher, sought to produce “a new personnel of scientific artists” (state russian museum , ). malevich’s longtime colleague mikhail matiushin headed the dept. of organic culture at the state institute for art culture (ginkhuk) in the s and focused on the study of perception and its expansion (douglas ; galerie gmurzynska ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction the x-ray), the surrealists and quantum phenomena, and the italian artists in the s who committed themselves to atomic and nuclear art. ii. cubism, futurism, and ether physics in the early twentieth century returning to the question of cubism and science leads us to another key moment in the history of modernism’s engagement with the invisible and imperceptible, which forms a leitmotif within this issue of science in context. in order to determine the parameters of “what it was possible to imagine” (harrison ) for an artist like picasso in the pre-world war i era, we need to investigate the visual evidence of his cubist works (e.g., the portrait of kahnweiler of [fig. ]) within the cultural field of avant-garde art writing, popular scientific literature, and even occult sources in this period. unfortunately, picasso himself remains an elusive subject, a painter’s painter who wrote no statements of his artistic ideas in this period – in contrast to the salon cubists albert gleizes and jean metzinger, duchamp, or the italian futurists, such as umberto boccioni (see his drawing muscular dynamism on the cover of this issue). like duchamp, whose extensive notes for the large glass provide a useful guide to science as popularly known in prewar paris, boccioni was actively engaged with contemporary science. as he queried in a diary entry of , “how, where, when can i study all that chemistry and physics?” (coen , ). thus, chronicling boccioni’s visual and verbal responses to contemporary science serves as a useful counterpoint to an examination of picasso’s cubism, given the considerable artistic and literary exchange between paris and milan. for picasso the case will necessarily be more circumstantial. yet an artist hardly needed to have had the specific interest in science of boccioni or duchamp, since the exhilarating new ideas issuing from contemporary science were readily available in popular journals, newspapers, and books as well as responses to these phenomena in avant-garde literature. in addition, the presence of the erudite poet guillaume apollinaire in picasso’s circle and the record of his library provide important clues to ideas that may have been present within picasso’s milieu, which also included the poet max jacob, the poet and critic andré salmon, and the salon of gertrude stein. on the interests of the salon or “puteaux” cubists, see, e.g., henderson , antliff and leighten . metzinger, initially a member of picasso’s circle, formed a bridge between the two groups. on duchamp’s relation to the salon cubists, see henderson . for boccioni, see, e.g. coen . for duchamp’s interest in science, see again n. and the related text above. on the interconnections, see, e.g., martin , in which futurism’s founder f. t. marinetti is described as “practically commut[ing]” between milan and paris. boccioni’s fellow futurist gino severini lived in paris from onward and married the daughter of french poet paul fort, around whom the avant-garde gathered. see antliff and leighten , – . boccioni and his fellow painters visited paris in october and met both picasso and the salon cubist circle. for the literary response to new developments in science and technology, see, e.g., henderson , – . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson fig. . pablo picasso, portrait of daniel-henry kahnweiler, , oil on canvas. art institute of chicago, gift of mrs. gilbert w. chapman in memory of charles b. goodspeed. c© estate of pablo picasso/artists rights society (ars), new york. photo: art institute of chicago. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction before investigating picasso, we need to de-familiarize his analytical cubist works such as the portrait of kahnweiler, which have come to look so natural to us in the last fifty years, hanging on the walls of collections of modern art. since mid-century we have tended to see cubist painting through the formalist art historical explanations of its evolution as a logical, internal stylistic development, resulting from the lessons picasso and his collaborator georges braque learned from the art of paul cézanne and african art. hence, from cézanne came the initial geometrical orientation and denial of one- point perspective and from african art, the powerfully simplified forms and, ultimately, the conceptual sign language that enabled picasso to communicate information about a sitter in the same way a caricaturist distills a subject’s key characteristics. yet, while the stylistic explanation is convincing for early cubist painting, by later or , such radical changes occur that artistic sources alone are no longer adequate. more recent scholarship has gone a considerable way toward recovering cubism’s larger cultural context, including the fourth dimension, the philosophy of henri bergson, and contemporary politics, but there are still basic questions posed by paintings such as the portrait of kahnweiler. why would picasso and braque so stubbornly deny the solidity and boundaries of forms, causing their sitters to dissolve into the surrounding space? the two painters always considered themselves realist painters, with picasso explaining later, “i paint objects as i think them, not as i see them” (gómez de la serna , ). what can picasso have been thinking or imagining about the nature of reality? over two decades before the public in france first heard of einstein and relativity theory, the decade of the s witnessed a series of scientific discoveries that successively challenged conventional notions of matter and space. these widely discussed developments included wilhelm conrad röntgen’s discovery of the x-ray in , henri becquerel’s discovery of radioactivity in (extended by the sub- sequent work of marie and pierre curie as well as ernest rutherford), j. j. thomson’s identification of the electron in , and the subsequent establishment of wireless telegraphy based on the electromagnetic waves heinrich hertz had identified in . the existence of invisible realms just beyond the reach of the human eye was no longer a matter of mystical or philosophical speculation; it had been established empirically by science. madame curie asserted in regard to radioactivity in , “once more we are forced to recognize how limited is our direct perception of the world around us” (curie , ). röntgen’s discovery of the x-ray caused the greatest popular scientific sensation before the explosion of the atomic bomb in (badash , ). rendering matter transparent, x-rays made previously invisible forms visible. even more importantly, for that narrative, which was promulgated in museum of modern art publications by alfred barr and william rubin, see, e.g., fry . for a thorough, step-by-step tracking of the evolution of picasso’s cubist style, see, e.g., karmel . for these developments, see, e.g., keller , kragh ; for their popularization, see henderson . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson however, the x-ray definitively demonstrated the inadequacy of the human eye, which detects only a small fraction (i.e., visible light) of the much larger spectrum of vibrating electromagnetic waves then being defined. as the astronomer flammarion argued of x-rays in his book l’inconnu, “[i]t is unscientific to assert that realities are stopped by the limits of our knowledge and observation” (flammarion , ). on a practical level, x-rays were quickly adopted in medical practice, and photography journals touted x-ray photography as the natural extension of the amateur photographer’s activity. and the massive amount of popular literature on the subject – including articles, books, songs, cartoons, poems, and cinema – kept x-rays and their subsequent development in the news well into the first decade of the new century (see glasser , chap. ; knight ; henderson ). x-rays offered a radically new way of seeing, breaking down the barrier that the skin had always represented between outer and inner. that same transparency and fluidity are evident in picasso’s portrait of his dealer daniel-henry kahnweiler, a shift the sitter himself described around as “pierc[ing] the closed form” or “skin” (kahnweiler , ). here was a new kind of light that allowed a painter to go beyond the preoccupation of earlier artists with surface appearances. kahnweiler also noted that picasso considered traditional modeling with visible light and shade to be a dishonest “illusion” (kahnweiler , ; karmel , ). beyond the ubiquity of the x-ray in popular culture, picasso was an amateur photographer and would have encountered the advocacy of the new x-rays as “photography of the invisible” in photography journals. further, as john richardson has documented, picasso’s companion, fernande olivier, was x-rayed in a hospital in january . and in picasso queried in one of his sketchbooks, “has anyone put a prism in front of x-ray light?” (richardson , ). all of this is not to suggest that picasso’s images derive from x-ray photographs, but rather that cubist painting employs the general model of penetrating vision as well as the characteristics of transparency and fluidity suggested in x-ray images. although, in contrast to picasso’s static sitter, boccioni’s muscular dynamism depicts a figure in motion, the futurist’s drawings and paintings of this period exhibit a similar fluid relationship of figure and space. it was boccioni who had made the first published mention of x-rays in relation to avant-garde painting, declaring in the “technical manifesto of futurist painting”: “who can still believe in the opacity of bodies . . . ? why should we forget in our creations the doubled power of our sight, capable of giving results analogous to the x-rays?” (boccioni , ). subsequently, he asserted in , “what needs to be painted is not the visible but what has heretofore been although röntgen and others suspected that the new rays were electromagnetic waves akin to visible light and hertzian waves, the wave-nature of x-rays would be confirmed experimentally only in . popularizations of x-rays often included tables or diagrams charting the ranges of known and unknown invisible radiations surrounding the narrow band of visible light perceptible to the human eye (e.g., snyder , ). for theorists of cubism such as gleizes and metzinger, who had been close to picasso in – , such profound, expanded seeing was a central feature of the new style (see, e.g., henderson , – ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction held to be invisible, that is, what the clairvoyant painter sees” (coen , ). given the futurists’ connections to activities in paris, boccioni’s comments testify to the international currency of the new focus on the invisible as well as occultism, in which boccioni was deeply interested. the interpenetration of matter and space in the works of both picasso and boccioni would have been encouraged equally in this period by popular fascination with radioactivity. with the curies’ isolation of two new radioactive elements, polonium and radium, in l and ernest rutherford’s subsequent formulation of the theory of radioactive decay in – , radioactivity captured the attention of the general public (badash ). radioactive substances produced yet another kind of invisible emissions – alpha, beta, and gamma “rays” (actually particles in the case of the alpha and beta emissions) – and, in the process, actually changed their chemical composition, releasing energy. in contrast to the traditional image of matter as stable and constant, the continuous emission of particles by radioactive substances suggested a vibrating realm of atomic matter in the process of transformation. in his best-selling books, such as l’evolution de la matière ( ), scientific popularizer gustave le bon argued that all substances were radioactive and that matter was only “a stable form of intra-atomic energy” in the gradual process of decaying back into the ether of space around it (le bon , ; see also le bon ). le bon was a friend of the philosopher henri bergson, whose import for the cubists and boccioni has been well established. also, certain of bergson’s views stand as counterparts to le bon’s popularization of universal radioactivity (see, e.g., antliff ; antliff and leighten , – ; petrie ). in books such as matter and memory of and creative evolution of , bergson argued that the essence of reality was flux and that “all division of matter into independent bodies with absolutely determined outlines is an artificial division” (bergson , ). anyone could observe the phenomena of radioactivity at home in the popular parlor toy, the spinthariscope, invented by sir william crookes in . holding this tiny cylindrical instrument fitted with a magnifying lens to the eye, a viewer could see the flashes of light produced when alpha particles from a speck of radium struck the zinc-sulphide screen within. in picasso’s portrait of kahnweiler figure and ground are unified by a shimmering, vibratory texture of brick-like neo-impressionist brushstrokes that likewise suggests atoms of matter disassociating into the surrounding space, itself already filled with such particulate emissions. such images likewise deny the “independent bodies” bergson had rejected in favor of reality as continuity and flux. on the futurists’ interest in the occult, particularly spirit photography, see celant . lodge and rutherford also mentioned the possibility of universal radioactivity in their popular writings (lodge , ; rutherford , ). on le bon, see nye . in a prescient article (mitchell ), timothy mitchell pointed to le bon’s possible significance for cubism; however, without reconstructing the larger popular scientific context for le bon himself, this essay had little impact on cubist scholarship at the time. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson boccioni’s paintings of this period, such as his depiction of his mother entitled matter of (giovanni mattioli collection, milan), are likewise executed in a tapestry of discrete brushstrokes with which he deliberately sought to convey the dematerialization of matter. in his writings boccioni spoke of “the electric theory of matter, according to which matter is only energy,” a contemporary theory closely associated with the ether of space, which was also central to boccioni’s aesthetic (boccioni , ). picasso need not have read le bon’s best-selling books himself. his close compatriot apollinaire owned a imprint of le bon’s l’evolution de la matière as well as commandant darget’s book on how to photograph “fluido-magnetic” bodily emanations, such as the “rayons v (vitaux),” one of the numerous varieties of emissions and rays thought to have been discovered in the wake of x-rays. in the context of contemporary views of photography as a revealer of the invisible, picasso seems to have been fascinated by the intrusion into his own photographs of “noise” suggestive of invisible phenomena. like boccioni, apollinaire was deeply interested in occultism, and he owned a number of books dedicated personally to him by occultist gaston danville, including the latter’s magnétisme et spiritisme (boudar and décaudin , ). in fact, occult sources served in this period as an important means for the popularization of the new physics, with texts on the practice of magnetism or on other sort of emissions often drawing on the latest developments in the physics of electromagnetism. given the curies’ prominence as french cultural luminaries and with apollinaire close at hand, picasso could hardly have been unaware of radioactivity’s fundamental reorientation of basic conceptions of matter as well as its occult interpretations. along with radioactivity and le bon’s talk of matter dematerializing into the ether, the recently discovered hertzian waves of wireless telegraphy (as well as x-rays) focused popular attention on the invisible, impalpable ether of space. space was not thought of as empty in this period, and the terms space and ether of space are often synonymous in the written record. the longstanding concept of a world-filling “aether” had returned to physics in the s with augustin jean fresnel’s positing of a “luminiferous ether” as the necessary medium for the propagation of light waves. by the s james clerk maxwell and william thomson (lord kelvin) had concluded that a material ether must also be the source of and vehicle for electromagnetic fields. early conceptions of the imponderable ether ranged from a thin elastic jelly to a swirling fluid, and kelvin for boccioni’s matter in scientific and occult context, see henderson . on the rage for various new rays, see, e.g., kragh , – . for apollinaire’s library holdings, see boudar and décaudin . on apollinaire and the occult, see hicken . see baldassari , , figs. , , . see also, e.g., mareschal , and geimer . for example, albert de rochas added fifteen appendices to his l’extériorisation de la sensibilité, including recent writings by lodge and edwin houston (for rochas’ book, see houston [ ] in the list of references); see also henderson , – ; or henderson , – ). on the ether, see, e.g., cantor and hodge , harman , hunt . for an excellent discussion of the ether as a fictional construct rooted in the commitment of nineteenth-century physicists to a model of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction suggested that atoms might well be whirling vortices in the ether, akin to smoke rings. in the later nineteenth and early twentieth century, additional new functions were proposed for the ether, including its possible role as the source of all matter, as in the “electric theory of matter” propounded by joseph larmor and sir oliver lodge and embraced in the writings of boccioni and in wassily kandinsky’s über das geistige in der kunst (see, e.g., lodge ; kandinsky , ). in order to transmit vibrating electromagnetic waves, including light, the mysterious ether required the rigidity of an elastic solid; at the same time, it must allow the free motion of bodies through it and be rarefied enough to flow through the interstices of even the densest matter. le bon noted the difficulty of discussing this “phenomena without analogy” (le bon , ); not surprisingly, the writing on the ether by both scientists and popularizers is filled with metaphor. the passage of the immaterial ether through matter was compared to water flowing through a sieve (houston , ; houston , ); yet the ether as the very source of matter made this relationship more complex. as science writer robert kennedy duncan declared of this “vast circumambient medium” in : “not only through interstellar spaces, but through the world also, in all its manifold complexity, through our own bodies; all lie not only encompassed in it but soaking in it as a sponge lies soaked in water.” raising a basic question repeatedly encountered in popular literature in this period, duncan declared, “how much we ourselves are matter and how much ether is, in these days, a very moot question” (duncan , ; see also, e.g., de launay ). the same year le bon in l’evolution de la matière emphasized the ether’s elemental role in nature: the greater part of physical phenomena – light, heat, radiant electricity, etc., are considered to have their seat in the ether. . . . all the theoretical researches formulated on the constitution of atoms lead to the supposition that it forms the material from which they are made. although the inmost nature of the ether is hardly suspected, its existence has forced itself upon us long since, and appears to be more assured than that of matter itself. . . . its role has become of capital importance, and has not ceased to increase with the progress of physics. the majority of phenomena would be inexplicable without it. (le bon , – ) historians of culture regularly treat einstein’s special theory of relativity (if not the michelson-morley experiment’s failure to detect an “ether wind” resul- ting from the earth’s motion) as the death knell of the ether. however, not only did the general public not hear of einstein’s theories until , the question of the existence of the ether was hotly debated among scientists skeptical of einstein’s theories during the s and s, with passionate defenses of the ether being made in scientific and continuity in nature, see benson . the ether was discussed in a variety of french popular sources in addition to le bon’s writings; see, e.g., de launay . le bon’s book was still popular in , when a translation was published in london and new york; see le bon , – . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson popular literature, including in france. reflecting the mood of the ether’s adherents, sir j. j. thomson declared in his presidential address before the british association for the advancement of science in , “the ether is not a fantastic creation of the speculative philosopher; it is as essential to us as the air we breathe. . . . the study of this all-pervading substance is perhaps the most fascinating duty of the physicist” (thomson , ). lodge certainly took that position, and his own baas presidential address, published as continuity in , along with his the ether of space and countless popular articles, kept the ether in the spotlight in england and the united states, as well as in france. in einstein’s germany the ether also continued to be championed in the s by scientists such as gustav mie, for whose electromagnetic theory of matter it was central. even with the ultimate scientific triumph of relativity theory sans ether, the concept possessed such a powerful grip on the cultural imagination that it lasted well into the s and beyond. in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century the ether was the ultimate sign of continuity and signified a realm of continuous cohesion and diffusion, materialization and dematerialization, coursed through by forces and vibrating waves. two later statements by picassso are remarkably suggestive of this insubstantial realm. speaking of his paintings of the period – he told curator william rubin, “it’s not a reality you can take in your hand. it’s more like perfume – in front of you, behind you, to the sides. the scent is everywhere, but you don’t quite know where it comes from” (rubin , ). some years earlier he had described his portrait of kahnweiler to françoise gilot in similar terms: “in its original form it looked to me as though it were about to go up in smoke. but when i paint smoke, i want you to be able to drive a nail into it. so i added the attributes – a suggestion of the eyes, the wave in the hair, an ear lobe, the clasped hands – and now you can” (gilot and lake , ). did picasso resort to such language because the ether was no longer in common parlance as it had been? significantly, the association of the ether with smells such as perfume appears in a contemporary text, emile durkheim’s the elementary forms of in addition to lodge, the ether’s most stalwart defender (e.g., lodge ), see, e.g., magie , – ; and marshall , . although paul langevin championed einstein in france, advocacy of the ether there continued into the s; see, e.g., glick , – . lodge’s publications were followed in france (see, e.g., de launay , ). on mie, see kragh , – ; and corry . einstein himself found it necessary to define a “new ether” in his lecture “ether and the theory of relativity.” there he posited a “gravitational ether” without mechanical properties that “determine[d] the metrical relations in the space-time continuum” and could be identified with space itself. einstein concluded with a statement subsequently quoted gleefully by the ether’s proponents: “we may say that according to the general theory of relativity space is endowed with physical qualities; in this sense, therefore, there exists an ether. according to the general theory of relativity space without ether is unthinkable” (einstein , , – ). on literary responses to the ether, including that of d. h. lawrence, see clarke , chap. . leon theremin christened his electronic musical instrument, premiered in and later termed a theremin, an “etherphone.” on the numerous ether references that surrounded theremin and his “ether wave music” – as well as radio, see glinsky . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction the religious life of . in discussing the powers of collective representations to take on “properties that do not exist in them,” durkheim concedes that sensations of smell, taste, and sight “do express the properties of particular material or movements of the ether that really do have their origin in the bodies we perceive as being fragrant, tasty, or colorful” (durkheim , ). the ether is probably the major lacuna in scholars’ understanding of the early twentieth century worldview – both scientific and occult – and, hence, its importance for modernism in general. we need to be alert to its presence in writing of the period, although as in the durkheim example, it may simply appear as a commonplace reference. seen as both an ancient and a modern concept, the ether figured prominently in occultism, and there achieved another kind of ubiquity. apollinaire himself responded to theosophist madame blavatsky’s writing on the subject, echoing her in a letter: “is not every part of the material universe – including the immaterial ether – a microcosm?” (quoted in henderson , ). the ether, along with bergson’s philosophy, figures in apollinaire’s fellow poet jules romains’s theory of collective consciousness, which he termed unanimism (see, e.g., martin ; antliff and leighten , – ). in his prose poem la vie unanime romains celebrated the experience of immersion in a vibrating, energy- filled ether on a paris street. the section of the poem titled “dynamism,” which also speaks of “rays that cannot be seen to vibrate,” begins with the epigram “the present vibrates” and includes this passage: “the current/crowd, which struggles to pass through/and gets hooked on the hedges of molecules, bleeds. the ripples of ether part, [vibrating] with excitement” (romains [ ], ). the salon cubists circle was close to romains, and it has been argued that the presence of smoke in their paintings was an allusion to unanimism’s celebration of urban experience, an idea that takes on new significance in relation to the ether (sund ). the ether was also at the heart of boccioni’s artistic theory. at the conclusion of his treatise pittura scultura futuriste boccioni reveals the formative role of the ether as ultimate sign of continuity in his conception of the sculpture unique forms of continuity in space (fig. ), for which muscular dynamism is a study (henderson , – ). believing that “solid bodies are only atmosphere condensed,” boccioni here creates a remarkable image of successive muscular displacements that deny the boundaries of the body and leave traces or imprints on the surrounding ether, suggesting “ether drag.” in his treatise boccioni specifically equates the “materialization of the ethereal fluid, the imponderable” with “the unique form of continuity in space” (boccioni , ). in the end, muscular dynamism, with its continuous interpenetration of figure and space, may be even more successful as a representation of the fluid continuity suggested by the ether (cover illustration). boccioni also related unique forms of continuity in space to the spatial fourth dimension. he appears to have thought of the sculpture alternatively as a four- dimensional entity passing through three-dimensional space and registering a succession of different appearances – “a continuous projection of forces and forms intuited in their https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson fig. . umberto boccioni, unique forms of continuity in space, , bronze. museum of modern art, new york. acquired through the lillie p. bliss bequest. digital image c© the museum of modern art/licensed by scala/art resource, ny. infinite unfolding” (boccioni , ). in defining a dynamic fourth dimension for futurism in his treatise, boccioni was claiming the fourth dimension for futurism and reacting to the prominent role the spatial fourth dimension played in cubist theory. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction in contrast to later interpretations that attempted to tie picasso’s cubism and apollinaire’s criticism to the temporal fourth dimension of einstein’s space-time world, cubism’s fourth dimension basically signified a suprasensible spatial dimension that might hold a truth higher than that of visible reality. with its roots in n-dimensional geometry and with significations ranging from geometry and science to philosophy, mysticism, and occultism, the fourth dimension generated a huge amount of popular literature in europe and the united states. in tandem with the scientific issues discussed above, the possible existence of an additional dimension of space would certainly have encouraged picasso’s bold pictorial invention. in the portrait of kahnweiler, for example, the geometrical faceting of objects suggests a more complex reality beyond immediate perception. picasso’s painting, in fact, shares with contemporary geometrical diagrams of four-dimensional figures differently shaded angular components in ambiguous spatial relationships as well as a sense of shifting views of an object fused into one (fig. ). ultimately, the interpenetration of form and space – derived in large part from contemporary scientific ideas – denies the possibility of reading the painting’s space as three-dimensional. discussions of picasso and the fourth dimension have hinged on the presence in his circle of the insurance actuary maurice princet as well as apollinaire’s declaration in his les peintres cubistes that the fourth dimension was part of the “language of the modern studios” (apollinaire , ). according to apollinaire’s text, the fourth dimension offered artists a rationale for distorting or deforming objects according to a higher law and for rejecting three-dimensional, one-point perspective, which now seemed quite irrelevant (apollinaire , ; henderson , – ). in their book du cubisme metzinger and gleizes also discussed cubism’s new mobile perspectives in relation to henri poincaré’s advocacy of perception using senses other than vision, i.e., tactile and motor sensations, and his idea that “motor space would have as many dimensions as we have muscles” (poincaré , – ). poincaré and princet are crucial figures for arthur miller in his recent book einstein, picasso: space, time and the beauty that causes havoc. in contrast to the numerous authors who have attempted to find direct links or correlations between duchamp was the one early twentieth-century artists who actually explored four-dimensional geometry itself, and his playful response to the fourth dimension in various guises is central to the large glass project (see henderson , chap. ; and henderson ; see also adcock ). for a fuller discussion of this issue, see henderson , – . artist tony robbin has made a careful analysis of the geometry in jouffret’s traité élémentaire and argues convincingly in his forthcoming yale university press book that picasso’s portrait of kahnweiler, among other works, responds directly to jouffret’s technique of x-ray- like “see-through” views of complex four-dimensional solids. the moment when such formal comparisons are convincing is - , unlike the case for an earlier impact made by arthur miller in einstein, picasso (see n. ). for gleizes’ and metzinger’s discussion, see herbert , ; see also henderson , – , where this connection was first proposed. on poincaré’s importance for cubism as well as duchamp, see ibid., – , – , – ; chap. . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson fig. . “plane projections of the sixteen fundamental octahedrons of the ikosatetrahedroid.” from e. jouffret, traite élémentaire de la géométrie à quatre dimensions (paris: gauthier-villars, ), fig. . picasso and einstein, miller explores the “parallel biographies” of the two, arguing for their common sources in the figure of henri poincaré and the field of four- dimensional geometry (via minkowski and poincaré for einstein, via princet for https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction picasso). nonetheless, miller’s title still evokes for the potential reader the myth that some historical link existed between these cultural icons. as duchamp observed in a interview, “the public always needs a banner; whether it be picasso, einstein, or some other” (cabanne [ ] , ). from the vantage point of the s, duchamp was summing up a phenomenon he had observed developing since the s: the emergence of the perception of picasso as the modern artist and einstein as the scientist of the twentieth century. duchamp was an especially sensitive witness to this, since he knew personally that the art world of prewar paris – including cubism – had involved a variety of artists, including himself, and that the science in question had not been einstein’s. along with giedion’s space, time, and architecture, apollinaire’s les peintres cubistes text on the fourth dimension played a definitive role in the emergence of the cubism-relativity myth in new york in the s. giedion had cited apollinaire’s discussion of the fourth dimension and identified it as time, even though the poet repeatedly referred to space (giedion , ; apollinaire , ). when the cubist painters was published in george wittenborn’s “documents of modern art” series in , its readers could easily have drawn a similar conclusion. reflecting the goal of wittenborn and series editor robert motherwell to establish modern art’s legitimacy, the books of the series bore on the back cover a text emphasizing that modern art “assimilat[ed] the ideas and morphology of the twentieth century” and was “the expression of our own historical epoch” (apollinaire , back cover; italics mine). here the stage was set for what became the classic confusion between cubism then and science now. kepes’ references to space-time in his language of vision of the same year – along with moholy-nagy’s even more influential celebration of einstein and space-time as basic to understanding of modern life and art in his vision in motion – only exacerbated the situation. by the s both the spatial fourth dimension and ether physics had faded from popular consciousness, occluded by einstein and relativity theory. largely forgotten miller, however, is too eager to identify the primary impetus for the development of cubism as four- dimensional geometry, as preached to picasso by the insurance actuary princet. miller places this moment too early (i.e., the demoiselles d’avignon in ) and gives too little credence to sources within art that were also driving picasso’s rethinking of painting. the image of picasso simply as princet’s willing geometry student in is hard to accept, even for someone who believes the fourth dimension played a vital role in the subsequent evolution of the style. any geometrically oriented form in is for miller a sure sign of the impact of princet and poincaré – as is the mere mention of “tactility” by picasso, braque and anyone else (see, e.g., miller , , ). in both cases he misses the central role of picasso’s artistic milieu, in which both african art and cézanne encouraged the geometricizing of form and in which the issue of tactility in painting was a key concern, separate from poincaré’s discussions of “tactile and motor spaces” (poincaré , – ). the cubism-relativity myth also discouraged scholars from investigating the bonafide impact of einstein and the “space-time” world of relativity theory after its popularization began in . these sites of response ranged from s berlin and the paris of the surrealists during the s– s to new york in the s and the kinetic art scene that first coalesced in paris in the s. (gamwell , chap. , expands upon my initial work on space-time and art in the s [henderson ]). parkinson provides the first detailed examination of the surrealist response to relativity theory. the new introduction for the mit reprint of henderson , to appear in , addresses the impact of einstein and space-time on artists in new york and paris in the s. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core linda dalrymple henderson were the scientific heroes of the pre-world war i era in france: the curies, poincaré, and science popularizer gustave le bon, as well as röntgen, rutherford, lodge, and crookes. lodge and crookes, along with flammarion – with their openness to the occult and involvement in the society for psychical research – are pointed reminders of the wider range of activities that were often classed as “science” in the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century. occultists regularly drew on the latest science to support their causes, particularly in the linkages regularly made between x-rays and spirit photography, radioactivity and alchemy, telegraphy and telepathy, and, as noted earlier, electromagnetism and magnetism. such analogies were also drawn from the side of science, as in crookes’ prominent declaration in his presidential address before the british association for the advancement of science that “ether vibrations have powers and attributes equal to any demand – even to the transmission of thought” (crookes , ). that capability of vibratory thought transfer attributed to the ether was vital to the art theory of the painters kandinsky and františek kupka, who conceived their abstract canvases as the source of vibrations meant to resonate in a viewer (see, e.g., henderson ). similarly, the poet ezra pound responded to the theme of ethereal telegraphy/telepathy, comparing artists and poets to antennae “on the watch for new emotions, new vibrations sensible to faculties as yet ill understood” (pound , ). as in the case of these modernists – along with the writings of cubists, futurists, and duchamp – the operative words that emerge from analyzing early twentieth-century cultural discourse are not space-time and relativity, but rather terms such as invisible, energy, ether, vibration, and fourth dimension. late classical ether physics – not relativity theory – was the armature of the cultural matrix that stimulated the imaginations of modern artists and writers before the later s and s. scholars of early modernism in general will surely benefit by turning their attention to this long-eclipsed, but vitally important, moment in the history of science and culture. “sifted science will do your arts good,” james joyce declared in finnegans wake ( joyce , ), and, as this issue of science in context demonstrates, many modern artists clearly agreed. see again n. . for these pairings, see henderson . on kupka’s engagement with science, see also musée d’orsay . for a sampling of contemporary artists who have responded to science, see, e.g., kemp . among young twenty-first century artists nourished by science, some of the most inventive responses are those of artist matthew ritchie; see, e.g., the exhibition catalog matthew ritchie: proposition player (herbert ). in a variation on the tradition of duchamp, who took a job in a library in order to read, and smithson, who purchased paperback books on science, ritchie found his inspiration in students’ cast-off textbooks while working as a building superintendent near new york university. responding to “the exhilaration of connecting with knowledge,” ritchie explains, “i looked at things like high temperature physics and biology and the relationship between them that collectively forms what we would like to believe is an objective truth about the nature of our times. all that was cooking away in my brain, and then bizarrely enough, i decided to force it into the brightly colored waistcoat of contemporary painting” (see ibid., ). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction references adcock, craig. . marcel duchamp’s notes for the large glass: an n-dimensional analysis. ann arbor: umi research press. aerts, diederik, ernest mathijs, and bert mosselmans, eds. . science and art [the red book of “einstein meets magritte”]. dordrecht: kluwer academic publishers. antliff, mark. . inventing bergson: cultural politics and the parisian avant-garde. princeton: princeton university press. antliff, mark and patricia leighton. . cubism and culture. new york: thames & hudson. apollinaire, guillaume. . the cubist painters: aesthetic meditations ( ). edited by robert motherwell. translated by lionel abel. new york: wittenborn. arnheim, rudolf. 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terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core children’s literature and the avant-garde ed. by elina druker and bettina kümmerling-meibauer (review) children’s literature and the avant-garde ed. by elina druker and bettina kümmerling-meibauer (review) julia l. mickenberg children's literature, volume , , pp. - (review) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /chl. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /chl. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ children’s literature children’s literature and the avant-garde, edited by elina druker and bettina kümmerling-meibauer. amsterdam: benjamins, . reviewed by julia l. mickenberg merely perusing the table of contents made it clear that essays in this book would be essential sources for an essay i was writing for the oxford research encyclopedia on “radical children’s literature,” and, reading the book itself, i was not disappointed. this is an important book. children’s literature and the avant-garde is self-consciously inter- national in its approach, although its focus is on europe. the volume emerged from a conference on children’s literature and the european avant-garde, held in sweden in september . despite the explicit focus on europe, the conference call for papers suggests that the impact of the european avant-garde on non-european children’s literature should be investigated as well; however, when it comes to this volume, outside of europe, only the united states and britain, which may or may not be considered part of europe, are represented, although the soviet union seems to play a larger role than the conference organiz- ers had originally anticipated. divided into three sections, “vanguard tendencies in the early twentieth century,” “the impact of the russian avant-garde,” and “postbellum avant-garde children’s books,” this vol- ume’s eleven chapters are richly illustrated with color plates, adding immeasurably to the book’s quality and utility, and contributing to a growing scholarly literature that recognizes children’s literature’s con- nection to modernism, postmodernism, and the avant-garde, a litera- ture the editors cite in their excellent introduction. notably, much of this scholarship and the works themselves are not published in english, making the volume under review especially valuable. editors elina druker and bettina kümmerling-meibauer explain that the term “avant-garde” emerged in late nineteenth-century france to designate progressive and politically engaged art and literature, but note that the term has had various meanings in different times and places. their overarching definition of avant-garde is “a spatial-temporal network that has constituted an artistic alternative to hegemonic art since the beginning of the twentieth century, with peaks in the s and s and again in the s and s, which still lives on in contemporary art” ( ). applied in the context of this book, they add: “avant-garde ideas about children’s literature often reflect a general desire to break free from artistic boundaries and labels, but also from previous norms in children’s literature and traditional conceptions reviews of childhood, similar to the concept of ‘radical children’s literature’ explained in reynolds ( ).” in her book of that title, kimberley reynolds defines “radical children’s literature” as boundary breaking in terms of form and/or content. finally, they emphasize—and indi- vidual essays in the book confirm this point—that avant-garde ideas in children’s books are always related to “movements in arts, education, social systems, and ideologies” ( ). chapters are rooted in varying national and transnational contexts, with some focusing on individual authors or texts and others offering more of a general overview. marilynn olson’s marvelously rich and provocative essay on “john ruskin and the mutual influences of chil- dren’s literature and the avant-garde” actually does both of these things by focusing on an individual who had a wide-ranging influence. olson tackles an earlier period than any other essays, making it a good choice as the volume’s opening chapter. although ruskin is a focus for her essay, olson more broadly “looks at childhood as a touchstone for the overthrow of academic standards in painting, at children’s books and their influence on those who became avant-garde artists and thinkers, and at the power of the victorian avant-garde to influence the ideals of the twentieth-century picturebook” ( ). she points to ruskin’s influence on the pre-raphaelites, early examples of england’s avant- gardes, and also on william morris and, through him in particular, on the arts and crafts movement. ruskin’s emphasis on art and beauty as tools of social reform, as well as his ideas about the grotesque as a vehicle for truth and social critique, influenced a range of important illustrators, such as randolph caldecott, kate greenaway, and joseph tenniel, several of whom moved between work as political caricaturists and illustrators of children’s books. olson suggests that the spirit of reform that infused the arts and crafts movement influenced major illustrators such as the socialist artist walter crane, who absorbed the notion that “children’s literature is an obvious place to start when attempting to reform society through art” ( ). moreover, morris’s attention to “total design” and his emphasis upon utilitarian objects “also legitimates a children’s book project as a medium for avant-garde experimentation” ( ), paving the way for picture books as significant media for avant-garde expression. the two chapters that follow focus on individual authors. in “einar nerman: from the picturebook page to the avant-garde stage,” druker analyzes two picture books by swedish artist einar nerman—crow’s dream ( ) and knight finn komfusefej ( )—in relation to his children’s literature commercial work, caricatures, and work for theater sets. crow’s dream, one of more than twenty he wrote and/or illustrated, “satirizes hu- man society by reversing the conventional order between humans and animals” ( ): a crow flees from his cage at stockholm zoo and leads an uprising, after which “the zoos display humans instead of animals, and pets change places with their owners” ( ). druker suggests that while nerman’s picture books are not representative of swedish picture books in the s and s, in their interaction with other visual media, especially magazine illustrations, they set a precedent for later author/illustrators such as astrid lindgren, lennard hellsing, and the finnish-swedish tove jansson. samuel albert’s “sándor bortnyik and an inter war hungarian children’s book” examines multiple versions of the only children’s book by an important member of the hungarian avant-garde, whose international connections linked him not only to a range of artistic movements including german expressionism, french cubism, and soviet constructivism, as well as the “radical modernist ma group” in hungary, but also to the hungarian soviet republic, which lasted for just six months in , an allegiance that would force bortnyik into exile. bortnyik’s only children’s book, first created in the s, was not self-evidently political—which was not surprising given that in order to return to hungary he was forced to foreswear political activity—but it was groundbreaking in that pictures drive the text rather than vice versa. through extensive archival research, albert found several ver- sions of bortnyik’s book in hungarian, english, and german; in doing so he discovered that the texts accompanying the images in each of these versions are not translations but are actually different stories that writers created in response to bortnyik’s images. echoing his poster art, these images “employ a simplified palette, bold geometric shapes, and elimination of detail for greater impact” ( ). however, unlike his commercial work, in which “where word generates the image, here, the image generates the word” ( – ). it would be interesting to compare bortnyik’s picture book to the wordless picture books that lynd ward created around the same time in the us. kimberley reynolds’s essay, “the forgotten history of avant-garde publishing for children in early twentieth-century britain,” draws from the groundbreaking research in her recent book, left out: the forgot- ten tradition of radical publishing for children ( ), to explore the institutional basis for radical experimentation in children’s literature through a series of publishing houses. noting the great interest in reviews children’s art among the british avant-garde in the s, s, and s, reynolds analyzes several key texts that employ avant-garde de- vices. for example, the city curious ( ), by belgian-born illustrator jean de bosschere, uses surrealistic devices like associative logic in the narrative and dreamlike and grotesque images in the illustrations, and “anticipates the call in the first surrealist manifesto of for artists to return to the unrepressed condition of childhood” ( ). another one of her examples, the football’s revolt ( ), is “at one level . . . a politically pointed, highly topical, parable about the responsibilities and abuses of power supported by illustrations that clearly draw on avant- garde movements from cubism to the absurd” ( ). about a football match from the perspective of the football, the way the story is told is actually more radical than the story itself, reynolds argues: she points to “expressive use of color, experiments with rendering dynamic motion on the page, and incorporation of collage effects, unusual perspective, and a delight in excess” ( ). reynolds is among those who have pointed elsewhere to the impact of the russian avant-garde; that a third of this book is devoted to that subject demonstrates just how important soviet influence was for the european, british, and american avant-gardes more generally. sara pankenier weld’s “the square as regal infant: the avant-garde infantile in early soviet picturebooks” serves as a fitting opening essay to this section of the book in that it suggests not so much the soviet avant- garde influence more generally, but its particular interest in origins, the primitive, and, by extension, childhood. moreover, she argues, rather than simply wishing to address an “infantile audience” ( ), soviet artists cultivated “a participatory ethos that involves the child reader in creative and constructive action,” based on “an artistic attempt to more fully enter into the perception and cognition of the child” ( ) in a process we can see likewise in the interest in children’s drawing among european and american child psychologists (see, for instance, kidd ). in the soviet example, weld emphasizes, an interest in the interiority of children’s minds came from a desire to have children “actively participate in the creation of a new aesthetic [and political] future” ( ). an essay on the amsterdam exhibition of early soviet children’s books is useful as a reference source but reads more like a compendium than an analytical essay, and in that sense it seems out of place with other essays in the book, and i won’t dwell on it here. far more interesting and nuanced is nina christensen’s essay, “rupture. ideological, aesthetic, children’s literature and educational transformations in danish picturebooks around ,” which looks at the concrete ways in which danish children’s literature was affected by an exhibition of russian picture books in copenhagen, especially in relation to progressive educational ideas and practices that increased in popularity around the same time. christensen focuses on four texts that exemplify the reformist or radical ethos that filtered into danish children’s literature through progressive education in general and soviet influence in particular. jørgens hjul ( ) by hans kirk, for instance, celebrates modern technology, “explicitly and deliberately exposes the child to an aesthetics inspired by contemporary art, design, and architecture,” and emphasizes a participatory and communitarian ethos: “you should not speak of “my” but “our”/community is what we seek,” christensen quotes from the book. other books she discusses more directly reveal a debt to the soviet union, as in the illustration, reproduced in the essay, from a book whose title translates to what do we learn in school ( ), which shows people marching and holding a flag with a hammer and sickle. one especially important contribution of this essay is the way in which it demonstrates the soviet influence on progressive education as it visibly played out in the avant-garde. the final essay in this section, evgeny steiner’s “mirror images: on soviet-western reflections in children’s books of the s and s,” builds upon steiner’s analyses in his insightful book, stories for little comrades: revolutionary artists and the making of early soviet children’s books ( ). here he focuses on the “production book” as a site of mutual influence in the soviet union and the united states, a theme that comes up in nathalie op de beeck’s suspended animation: children’s picture books and the fairy tale of modernity ( ) and in some of my own work (see, for instance, mickenberg , ). steiner’s essay reiterates the importance of exhibitions of soviet children’s books throughout europe (in addition to those in amsterdam and copenhagen, he notes ones in paris, berlin, essen, and zurich), and also mentions the large number of russian émigré artists and writers working in the west, especially in france and the us. the final section on “postbellum avant-garde children’s books” includes two essays that overlap somewhat in content, but that over- lap is, on balance, productive rather than repetitive. sandra beckett’s “manifestations of the avant-garde and its legacy in french children’s literature” offers a sweeping yet rich overview of avant-garde tenden- cies in twentieth-century french children’s literature by highlighting several key works and publishers, for example edy le grand’s macao reviews et cosmage et l’experience de bonheur ( ), which is groundbreaking and arguably radical in its illustrations, its design, and its message, privileging images over text (and thus serving as a forerunner to the contemporary picture book); evoking art nouveau, japonism, and other avant-garde artistic movements, and calling into question “industrial and technological progress” ( ). beckett also discusses the impact of surrealism and constructivism, and the importance of a number of publishers including robert delpire, christian bruel, and, especially Éditions harlin quist, several of whose books are likewise featured in the next essay by bettina kümmerling-meibauer, entitled “just what is it that makes pop art picturebooks so different, so appealing?” in the latter essay, kümmerling-meibauer characterizes “pop art picturebooks” partly in terms of a particular visual aesthetic: one that draws on a range of avant-garde movements such as dadaism, expres- sionism and surrealism; that uses or visually alludes to popular media such as advertisements, comics, film, photography, newspapers and poster art; and that tends to show “preference for unmodulated and unmixed color bound by hard edges,” thereby crossing the boundaries between popular culture, children’s literature, and modern art while often suggesting “the attempt to artistically convey innovative matters of perception,” both visually and through linguistic play or unexpected narrative turns ( , ). such works also tackle previously taboo subjects in children’s literature, such as environmental catastrophe, the consequences of war, or adult fallibility, marking a broader shift in thinking about childhood that accompanied the dramatic ruptures of the s. in addition to noting books published by harlin quist such as groundbreaking work by eugene ionesco (story number [ ] and subsequent books) and albert cullum (such as the geranium on the windowsill just died but teacher you went right on [ ] and you think just because you’re big you’re right [ ]), as well as several works illustrated by etienne delessert, including an innovative collaboration with child psychologist jean piaget, she discusses the contributions of several other publishers in germany, finland, the us and elsewhere as well as a range of well-known artists who illustrated pop art picture books, among them heinz edelmann, peter max, and andy warhol. in terms of these works’ impact, kümmerling-meibauer concludes that “the development of an entirely new perception of art and picture- books for children in the quarter century following the arrival of pop art and pop art picturebooks would have been unthinkable without their example” ( ). children’s literature this wide-ranging essay primarily covering material originally pub- lished in the s and s works well as the book’s penultimate essay; philip nel’s “surrealism for children: paradoxes and possibilities” makes for a fitting conclusion to the book, as nel’s essay implicitly invites a rethinking of many of the book’s essays and general points. nel revisits his own discussion of an avant-garde for children in the avant-garde and postmodernity: small incisive shocks ( ), noting the direct allusions to a historical avant-garde in picture books by david wiesner, guy billout, chris van allsburg, and anthony browne (the latter specifically cited in the previous essay by kümmerling-meibauer), but also suggesting that the very notion of an avant-garde is predicated upon audience in ways that are not always acknowledged. for one thing, children do not usually recognize historical allusions such as those noted above. while children may appreciate avant-garde work, they do not appreciate it for the same reasons adults do. that is to say, “works deploying avant-garde strategies may simply resonate with children, without fundamentally altering their perceptions” ( ). still, nel suggests that works affirm- ing the world’s absurdity can in themselves be subversive. he points to works such as dr. seuss’s fox in sox, with tongue twisters that are more challenging for seasoned readers, i.e., adults (who read more quickly) than for beginning readers, i.e., children, who are used to reading more slowly and sounding out every word; in that sense, this playing with expectations can have a liberatory effect. nel’s example of a successful children’s avant-garde is crockett johnson’s harold and the purple crayon ( ): “affirming the child’s creative impulses, johnson’s book suggests that art can change the world” ( ). as with pankenier weld, who warns against fetishizing the “avant- garde infantile” by reminding us that “the infant is the unspeaking subject who cannot protest” ( ), so too nel recalls the racist and colonialist assumptions undergirding the notion of the primitive that inspired many facets of the avant-garde. this is an important correc- tive with which to end, as was pankenier weld’s allusion to the violent projects served by the soviet avant-garde. even so, taken together, es- says in the volume certainly do more to point to the possibilities the avant-garde opens for children than to its limitations. works cited kidd, kenneth. “wild things and wolf dreams: maurice sendak, picture-book psycholo- gist.” the oxford handbook of children’s literature. eds. julia l. mickenberg and lynne vallone. new york: oxford up, . – . reviews mickenberg, julia l. learning from the left: children’s literature, the cold war, and radical politics in the united states. new york: oxford up, . print. mickenberg, julia l. “the new generation and the new russia: modern childhood as collective fantasy. american quarterly . ( ): – . reynolds, kimberley. radical children’s literature: future visions and aesthetic transforma- tions in juvenile fiction. basingstoke, uk: palgrave macmillan, . playful texts and the emergent reader: developing metalinguistic awareness, by anne plummer. bristol: equinox, . reviewed by jennifer farrar we are ushered into this book about the potential of playful texts with a warm welcome that comes straight from the opening pages of janet and allan ahlberg’s famous picture book, the jolly pocket postman. “dear reader!” it begins, “enclosed you’ll find a useful lens. it’s in here—take a look!” ( ). indeed, anne plummer’s informative text does offer its readers a “useful lens,” in that it provides us with a helpful perspective from which to regard, or reconsider, the multifaceted and often underappreciated relationship between play—and playful texts—and the development of young children as readers and thinkers. aimed primarily at teachers, students and scholars who may be relatively new to the field of children’s literature and literacies, anne plummer’s text is underpinned by a drive to celebrate and share the benefits of reading playful texts. according to her quite specific defi- nition, a playful text is one that “plays on words and/or images in the same way that children play in games of make believe, transforming the everyday world of common sense meaning into a self-reflexive play world which works to disclose, and subvert, the rules which sustain it” ( ). as plummer notes in the introduction, such texts tend to delight in the chaotic pursuit of multiple, sometimes contradictory plot lines; are often narrated by disruptive and unreliable storytellers; and frequently invite readers to toy with their linguistic and literary assumptions about how books—and language—ought to work. consequently, plummer makes an explicit connection between the texts she has labeled as textually playful and the concept of metafiction, an approach or set of devices that is said to interrupt or undermine readers’ expectations by deliberately drawing attention to the “artifice of fiction” or the constructedness of a text (pantaleo ). in fact, the extent of this con- ecovisionaries royal academy of arts, london. until february.  sustainability demands creative thinking. at the royal academy, architects, artists and designers are collectively reimagining our relationship with nature amid challenges ranging from climate change to species extinction. new commissioned works include the substitute by alexandra daisy ginsberg. this life-size digital reproduction of the critically endangered northern white rhinoceros (ceratotherium simum cottoni) was made using film footage enhanced by data from artificial-intelligence company deepmind. older works explore endangered fish in africa’s lake victoria (tue greenfort’s | nature | vol | january books & arts in science & culture tilapia) and mining lithium for batteries in the atacama desert (research studio unknown fields’ in the breast milk of the volcano, – ; pictured).   troy: myth and reality british museum, london. until march. the ancient city of troy has many faces. there is the legendary, war-torn troy of homer’s epic iliad and odyssey. and there are the troys uncovered by archaeology in modern-day turkey: a ‘layer cake’ of sites spanning  bc to ad . this blockbuster exhibition covers both, and includes artefacts stretching back three millennia, from athenian pottery (detail pictured) to roman sculpture. evidence suggests that a battle between the hittite empire and greece ( which they called ahhiyawa) might have been the real trojan war.   origins: fossils from the cradle of humankind perot museum of nature and science, dallas, texas. until march. hominin fossils rarely leave their countries of origin. now, two south african skeletons from recently discovered branches of the hominin family tree are on display in the united states: karabo (australopithecus sediba) and neo (homo naledi). both are from digs led by palaeoanthropologist lee berger. researchers will attempt to d-print missing parts of karabo’s skeleton, using scans of rocks from the discovery site. people keen to learn more about hominin history can look to the iziko south african museum in cape town, where the origins of early sapiens behaviour exhibition has been expanded.   sahel: art and empires on the shores of the sahara the metropolitan museum of art, new york city. january – may. africa’s sahel (arabic for ‘shore’) is a vast semi-arid band spanning senegal, mali, mauretania and niger. this culturally rich region, now plagued by war and desertification, has a earth day th anniversary april the new uncanny valley, climate on film, imperilled elephants and earth day at  : what’s coming this year. by nicola jones l t o r : u n k n o w n f ie l d s ; t h e t r u s t e e s o f t h e b r it is h m u s e u m ; m a r io t a m a /g e t t y ; f in e a r t s m u s e u m s o f s a n f r a n c is c o © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. nature | vol | january | nature.com for the latest reviews of books and art events published by nature, visit: go.nature.com/ se n fascinating history. a succession of influential kingdoms held sway here, from the empire of ghana (ad – ) to that of segu ( – ). this show is the culmination of a four-year partnership with academics from yale university in new haven, connecticut, dakar’s fundamental institute of black africa and elsewhere. featured are manuscripts, textiles and sculptures ranging from a -tonne eighth-century senegalese megalith in the form of a lyre to a -centimetre statue of a female torso more than , years old. as the met celebrates its th birthday in , look out for other shows, from making marvels: science and splendor at the courts of europe (until march) to cubism and the trompe l’oeil tradition (  november to  february ).   countryside: future of the world guggenheim museum, new york city. february – summer. cities house more than half of humanity, but cover less than % of earth’s non-icy lands. here, architect and urbanist rem koolhaas turns to the rural. the show will examine artificial intelligence and automation, the effects of genetic experiments, political radicalization, migration, large-scale territorial management, human–animal ecosystems and the impact of the digital.   neri oxman: material ecology museum of modern art, new york city. february – may. can useful structures be grown rather than built? so asks neri oxman, a medically trained architect who directs the mediated matter group at the massachusetts institute of technology (mit) media lab in cambridge — a facility renowned for fomenting academic creativity at the intersection of art and science. this show will feature major projects from oxman’s -year career in ‘material ecology’: the realm of biologically inspired or created products. silk pavilion ( ) used thousands of silkworms to spin a dome in an mit building; ocean pavilion ( ) built structures out of chitosan, a polymer found in crustacean shells.   uncanny valley: being human in the age of ai de young museum, san francisco, california. february – october. in , japanese engineer masahiro mori noted that lifelike androids occupy an ‘uncanny valley’ — a realm between non-human and fully human that evokes discomfort, even revulsion. this exhibition, a few dozen kilometres from silicon valley, explores modern denizens of this uncanny realm. a statue in the museum garden has an active beehive for a head (an allusion to the complex workings of a neural network; pictured); termite mounds symbolize the minions of the crowdsourced marketplace; abandoned patents are d-printed to bring them to life. the biases and pitfalls of artificial-intelligence algorithms are thrown into stark relief by a host of art and film projects. in , some million people across the united states joined the first earth day to protest against the constellation of problems plaguing the planet, from toxic dumping to extinctions. this year, the earth day network is launching a series of events to kick anniversary protests into high gear, including a citizen-science mobile app and a registry of earth-inspired art, theatre, dance and film. see go.nature.com/ xxi e for more. © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. serpentine galleries th anniversary the serpentine gallery, london. march – may. the serpentine galleries will celebrate its th anniversary with events on issues from sustainability to new technologies, guided by curator of ecology lucia pietroiusti. two shows will spearhead the year. cao fei: blueprints will feature virtual reality and installations alongside the artist’s film nova ( ), all examining the urbanization of beijing’s jiuxianqiao district. and amsterdam-based studio formafantasma presents cambio, a project on the ecological legacy of forestry and wood products. a summer exhibition will kick off the multiyear programme back to earth, with works to spur action against the climate crisis (see also ‘climate change on show’).    janet echelman’s . renwick gallery of the smithsonian american art museum, washington dc. april – august . the initial inspiration for janet echelman’s ephemeral installations were fishing nets on indian beaches and lithuanian lace. she scales them up with high-tech materials to create building-sized works that reflect the global impacts of seismicity. her work . — a fibre sculpture sparked by computer simulations of that year’s earthquake and tsunami in chile, which shortened the day by . microseconds — has been hung between buildings, from colorado to singapore. . , another installation of knotted fibres, was sparked by the catastrophic earthquake and tsunami in tohoku, japan, which cut off .  microseconds. hiroshima: th anniversary august. the summer olympic games in tokyo will be threaded with memories of the second world war nuclear attack on hiroshima | nature | vol | january books & arts climate change on show stage and screen events highlighting a climate crisis. climate speaks climate museum, new york city. january — june. the first us museum dedicated to the climate emergency is hosting its second spoken-word programme for teenagers. successful applicants will spend six months exploring links between climate change, social justice and the arts, leading to a may performance (pictured, one of last year’s participants).   last catastrophist boston center for the arts, massachusetts. january – february. in this dystopian science- fiction play by david valdes, climatologists marina and lucia are holed up in iceland, hiding from the threats of anti-climate- science cabal eternal sunshine. the flight of the hummingbird touring schools in british columbia, canada. january – may. based on a graphic novel by indigenous haida artist michael nicoll yahugulanaas, this opera brings issues of climate change, social justice and personal responsibility to an audience aged to .   billie eilish eco-village march – july. alternative singer-songwriter billie eilish has partnered with sustainability-focused non-profit organization reverb to ‘green’ her world tour. venues from miami to london will host ‘eco-villages’ where fans can learn about climate change.   greta vs climate director nathan grossman is planning a documentary on pioneering teenage activist greta thunberg — who founded the friday student climate strikes that have swept the globe. l t o r : s a r i g o o d f r ie n d /t h e c l im a t e m u s e u m ; j a z z e d it io n s /g a m m a -r a p h o v ia g e t t y ; m a r k r o g e r s /u n iv e r s a l p ic t u r e s © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. corrected january | nature | vol | january | science fiction on film apocalypses and ais. bios us opening october. tom hanks is back. playing a sickly inventor and the last human left on a post- apocalyptic earth, he creates a robot to keep him and his dog company, and to protect the dog after he dies. director miguel sapochnik boasts an epic cv, including the game of thrones episode ‘battle of the bastards’. dune us opening december. david lynch’s adaptation of frank herbert’s sprawling cult-classic novel (featuring giant sand worms and battles over a mind-altering drug called the spice) was a box-office failure. fans are hoping that denis villeneuve’s version — the first of a planned two-parter — will prove more satisfying. the division rumoured netflix release. on black friday, bioterrorists in new york city seed banknotes with a modified strain of smallpox called the green poison. jake gyllenhaal and jessica chastain star in this video-game adaptation directed by david leitch. robopocalypse rumoured cinematic release. in the novel of the same name, artificial intelligence archos r- sets out to preserve life on earth — by wiping out human civilization. produced by steven spielberg, this long- delayed project might finally come to fruition in under the direction of michael bay. the invisible man us opening february. loosely based on the novel of the same name by h. g. wells, this psychological thriller — directed by leigh whannell and starring elisabeth moss (of the handmaid’s tale) — follows the tribulations of a woman stalked by an invisible ex-boyfriend.  years earlier (pictured, the august nagasaki attack). the hiroshima peace memorial, for example, will be on the olympic opening ceremony’s torch- relay route. memorial events will also be held around the world. the japanese american national museum in los angeles, california, in partnership with hiroshima and nagasaki, will display artefacts belonging to victims of the attacks (under a mushroom cloud: hiroshima, nagasaki, and the atomic bomb, will show until june). and in hiroshima itself, the annual august peace memorial ceremony will mark the moment with silence, and a procession of thousands of lanterns floating down the motoyasu river.   elephants and us: considering extinction national museum of american history, washington dc. until september. from the nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries, ivory was a luxury commodity used to produce piano keys, billiard balls, buttons and hair combs. african elephant populations plummeted from more than ten million to fewer than one million. this exhibition tracks us work to stem the trade, starting with the enactment of the african elephant conservation act in . yet a poaching surge that began in threatens the bush and forest elephants of africa: a count was the first in years to report a decline in elephant numbers. turner and the modern world tate britain, london. october – march . artist j. m. w. turner was a technophile, famously capturing the industrial revolution in paint. tate britain celebrates his fascination with machine power in this major exhibition. the show — featuring works from the s to the steam boats and railways of the s — coincides with the showing of finalists for the year’s turner prize. elisabeth moss plays cecilia kass in the invisible man. © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. correction in science & culture this article (nature , – ; ) misspelt the title of the novel robopocalypse. see https://doi.org/ . /d - - - © springer nature limited. all rights reserved. arts article reviewing the inclusion of artists’ holograms in the permanent collections of fine art museums sydney dinsmore independent artist, hong kong, china; sydney.dinsmore@gmail.com received: august ; accepted: november ; published: november ���������� ������� abstract: opening in with the exhibition, “through the looking glass”, the museum of holography (moh) emphasized from the beginning the importance of artistic holography with the inclusion of several holograms by artists whose primary practice was holography, articulating for the first time a distinction between artists, scientists and technicians. while the scientific and engineering principles underlying the technology could educate a public, holograms made by artists provided the visual syntax for the creative possibilities holography could offer. the moh continued to encourage and support artists’ work throughout its history, amassing a large collection of holograms representative of the most prolific period of artistic activity from the mid s to the mid s. the massachusetts institute of technology museum (mit museum) in boston acquired the entire archive including artistic and technical holograms as well as all related materials when the moh closed in . this paper will seek to explore whether the medium of holography within the visual arts has led to fine art museum acquisitions in the intervening decades. keywords: holography; hologram; laser transmission hologram; white light reflection hologram; multiplex hologram; installation . introduction from the s, gallery exhibitions of holography featured both artists who were dominant forces in the world of artistic holography and established artists whose occasional holographic work for site-specific installations or projects was outsourced to studio production facilities. concurrently, there were recognized distinctions between galleries and museums that were dedicated to exhibitions of holography such as the moh and galleries whose artists included holograms in their exhibitions. by the s, a few artists whose primary medium was holography had made the transition into the wider art world and were exhibited in art museums. recently, there have been donations to fine art museums of holograms by internationally acclaimed artists who experimented with holography as a tool for dimensional image making but whose formal disciplines were in other forms of expression. in a canadian newspaper review in the globe and mail, culture journalist, sarah nicole prickett, wrote, “[a]nd so do holograms, which already give the appearance of having time-travelled from the past’s idea of today, have less than a century to go? or will they flicker in and out, trendily, never surpassing kitsch?” (prickett ). fifty-five years ago, artists glimpsed the first hologram titled, “train and bird,” by american scientist emmett leith. ever since, the imaging possibilities of holography have intrigued artists from various disciplines and practices. the moh was opened in to provide a focus to both the science and emerging art of what was then a new visual technology. while holograms were collected by museums outside the dedicated centers for holographic art, holography has not received widespread recognition as an art form. reading several articles by writer sean f. johnston, professor of science, technology and society, at the university of glasgow, it appears that a confluence of factors, including the perception that art holography had come late to the “art and technology movement in the s” arts , , ; doi: . /arts www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /arts http://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts https://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= arts , , of formed the accepted rationale about the lack of a formal collections policy for holographic art in most museums (johnston ). the metropolitan museum of art in new york sets out its acquisition policy, in part, in these terms, “[c]urators should propose exceptional works of art for acquisition to the collection that significantly further the museum’s stated mission. all works should be in, or capable of being returned to, an acceptable state of preservation, unless the deteriorated physical condition is integral to the meaning of the work. the museum must be able to display, store, and care for the proposed acquisition according to generally accepted museum practices.” from this mission statement, it is possible to conclude that the collection by museums of holographic art mirrors the collection policy criteria for any other artwork. the getty research institute, as part of the photography collection of the j. paul getty museum in los angeles, announced in march the acquisition of glass plate holograms by artists produced in the s. the donation of laser viewable masters and white light reflection holograms was conceived in collaboration with c-project, a holography studio then operating in new york. in describing the acquisition, senior curator of photography at the j. paul getty museum, jim ganz said, “[w]e are pleased to add these visually compelling and artistically significant holograms of the late th century to our photograph collection, which has such great depth in th-century stereography, including examples by carleton watkins, eadweard muybridge, mathew brady, roger fenton, francis frith, and adolphe braun . . . ” (ganz ). thereby viewing holograms as an extension of th century stereograms within the larger domain of photography. while the properties of holograms are radically different from photographic stereograms, these hologram acquisitions must fit within the context of a museum’s existing collection and provide meaning to the donated artworks within a medium that often slips through the cracks of art and science. donations and bequests often provide a crucial boost to a collection. most fine art museums are non-profit organisations with tight operating budgets that depend on government grants, admissions revenue, investment and donations. few museums have budgets that would allow for the outright purchase of art. reviewing the getty donation, all of the artists’ works included fit the demanding criteria of a museum donation; importantly it’s provenance including the artwork or artist’s exhibition history, any critical writing and previous ownership. . background from the s, holography attracted practitioners from all areas of art and science. the galleries and museums that opened in the s specializing in holography were very popular. to explain the emerging art form, technical explanations were offered addressing the illusion of dimensionality and corresponding parallax, that wide horizontal angle of view that set it apart from two-dimensional imagery. holography was often compared to other media. the pioneering holography artist, margaret benyon, quoted ian lancaster in her phd thesis, how is holography art? “there is still considerable ignorance in the art area about holography, and about what it can and can not do. judgments and expectations learned from more familiar media are often applied to holography, with damaging results. many people are not receptive perceptually, emotionally or intellectually to the achievements of holographic artists, because they fail to understand that holography is a medium in its own right, with its own unique characteristics” (benyon ). the tantalizing promise of being able to create unique dimensional works where the figure or object could be seen in its original physical manifestation was key to the engagement of many artists experimenting with the potential of holography. from the beginning there were established distinctions between artists whose primary medium was holography and had transitioned into the wider art world and recognized artists who chose to experiment with holography but whose formal disciplines and studio practice were in other forms of expression. these artists came to holography to render their existing ideas dimensionally as other media, key to their developing practice, could not provide this opportunity. these distinctions were further refined to encompass the question of whether artists arts , , of making holographic art and light related installations were creating works in their own studios or out sourcing production. ironically, the artists whose works have recently been acquired by fine art museums have for the most part not been artists whose discipline is primarily holography. despite its promise and with few exceptions, the mainstream galleries were not exhibiting holograms unless those artists were already in their stable and that trend continues today. . the importance of the non-holographer salvador dali collaborated with selwyn lissack whose company, international holographic corp., created several holograms for the artist between – . dali said, “[a]ll artists, . . . have been concerned with three dimensional reality since the time of velasquez, and in modern times, the analytic cubism of picasso tried again to capture the three dimensions of velasquez. . . . with the genius of (dr. dennis) gabor, the possibility of a new renaissance in art has been realized with the use of holography” (chimera n.d.). these holograms are still in the collection of the dali museum in pubol, spain. lissack understood that to introduce holography to the art world required a name artist. his perception rings true today. the holograms selected for museum exhibitions and entering major collections are – years old, created by internationally established artists and typically acquired to fill out th century collections of photography. with the getty museum acquisition, it is a progressive step forward that curators are proposing and fine art museum boards are approving the purchase of artists’ holograms to add to their contemporary holdings. while museums such as the victoria and albert museum in london, england, had been at the forefront of acquiring examples of art holography, most recently with the donation in of dr. paula dawson’s , hybrid hologram of dr. john gage, few international museums have been ready to add holograms to their collections. putting aside the important questions of archival storage, display and promotion, this lack of inclusion into institutional collections neglects a formative element in the developing history of technological art. there are many artists working in holography today whose practices transcend the obvious tropes of light, colour, and dimensionality. in the s, american collectors of contemporary art, guy and nora barron, were investors in c-project, a unique collaboration between the new york holography studio of matthew schreiber and twenty noted artists from various creative disciplines including sculptor louise bourgeois, painters chuck close and ed ruscha, and light artist james turrell. these holograms were originally recorded as laser viewable images. in , several were later transferred to white light viewable reflection holograms, a type of hologram that allows it to be mounted on a wall and lighted from above. while the turrell holograms of light recordings have been widely exhibited in galleries and museums, the holograms from c-project that have generated particular interest are a series of eight images, called “untitled,” by louise bourgeois. her work is renowned for its personal content involving the unconscious, sexual desire, and the body, often drawing on events from her childhood. bourgeois transformed these experiences into a visual language using objects such as spirals, spiders, cages, medical tools, and sewn appendages to symbolize the feminine psyche, beauty, and psychological pain (the art story contributors n.d.). this extended to her holograms, which became an extrapolation of her approach to art and philosophical preoccupations rather than intended as original concepts specific to the strengths of the technology. in these holograms, bourgeois had been working with small dioramas that translated well to the technical demands of holography production. in these holograms were shown at the cheim read gallery in new york. reinforcing negative perceptions, the gallery described the works as a spectacle rather than integral to the artist’s ongoing oeuvre, “bourgeois’s compositions takes on the cold, sentient glow of an untrustworthy computer in a vintage sci-fi film.” gifted from the easton foundation to the museum of modern art (moma) in new york, holograms from the same series were exhibited in as part of the exhibition, “new order: art and technology in the st century.” the curators’ intention was to explore the nexus of where art meets technology in the st century. “today, when technology seems utterly smooth and weightless—composed of invisible waves, wireless signals, abstract codes—new order explores the arts , , of ways in which these systems are still stubbornly tied to the physical world. technology, they suggest, is always mired in matter” (museum of modern art ). the marketing of these exhibitions to the public was profoundly different. if holography as an art form is to mature, its artistic integrity has to be paramount and supersede questions about the technology that creates it. the barron’s gift of several louise bourgeois holograms from c-project to the detroit institute of art in and holograms from the same project to the getty research institute in los angeles introduce a seminal point of departure for the acquisition of holographic art and installation by other museums. these important donations to american museums are the most significant to date and acknowledge art holography as a legitimate medium of expression while providing fine art museums with name artists that strengthen their contemporary collections. other recent donations and acquisitions to art museums include multiplex holograms by the italian american choreographer and dancer, simone forti, who recognized the potential of this type of hologram where viewers could experience her dance in the round and began to collaborate with lloyd cross in the s. her focus was improvisational dance and her association with the judson dance theater group revolutionized dance in new york in the s (movement research n.d.). her “striding crawl,” , was acquired by the whitney museum of american art in new york in while “harmonics ( ),” - , was collected by the albright-knox art gallery in buffalo, new york this past year. this type of hologram, invented in , is called an integral stereogram or multiplex hologram. it was an accessible technique where the subject was photographed on a turntable performing a motion. the frames of film were processed as vertical strips of information side by side on a large sheet of film. to reconstruct the dimensional image, the film would be mounted on a transparent cylinder and lit with a light bulb from underneath. for many years one of the only fine art museums with a commitment to exhibiting and collecting artist’s holograms and installations has been the butler institute for american art in youngstown, ohio, and has exhibited and collected holograms by artists whose primary medium is holography. separately, though not a museum, the holocenter in new york has for over twenty years provided education, artist-in-residence programs and exhibitions highlighting fine art holography and installation works. the museum of modern art in new york, victoria and albert museum in london, england, the australia national gallery in canberra, australia, the montreal museum of fine art in montreal, canada are some of the international fine art museums that have collected holography by contemporary artists. in addition, the hologram foundation in paris, france, provides financial assistance to artists and programs for the production of holograms. it is one of the only foundations that continue to underwrite art holography. for artists, conferences and published papers remain the primary platform for the critical examination of art holography. . conclusions the purpose of this paper was to discover whether holography as a medium for artistic expression had in the last few decades found its way into mainstream galleries and fine art museums. initially, celebrated artists from various media including salvador dali, bruce nauman, james turrell, louise bourgeois and michael snow amongst others were commissioned to collaborate on holographic works in an effort to bring artistic credibility and validation to the emerging technology. artists who began their practice in collaboration with scientists often went on to create “labs” of their own and developed and extended the visual and physical language of art holography. today a handful of fine art museum collections are accepting donations of these seminal artworks. current representations by artists working in holography include gallery installations encompassing the broader parameters of the technology including holographic interferometry, light, video and laser projections. taken together, while several private collections and museums have acquired holograms by artists in the decades since the moh closed, the medium has not gained the foothold that would be expected of a visual art that has been in existence for over fifty years. arts , , of physically, the properties of holograms are not especially different from other sensitive material factors found in contemporary media art. the aforementioned considerations of caring for unstable gelatins, aging lasers, the unique requirements of archival storage, specific exhibition and lighting concerns are important contributing factors to a museum’s acceptance of a donation but perhaps the greater paradox for museum curators continues to be the line between technological gimmickry and aesthetic value, hence the preference to collect established artists in other media who have made holograms as an extension of their oeuvre. in time, art world curators will catch up with the existing wealth of holographic art as a specific genre and more than a means of augmenting existing photography collections. in time, the success of an artist’s holographic work will not be whether it projects into deep space or shows unusually bright color or animation. the best fine art holograms will transcend their technology and imbue the viewer with a desire to look further in the same way that a sculpture seductively invites the viewer to move around the object to see all sides and experience the volume of the work as a whole. artists say that creating images that lack material textures but are visible dimensionally as light cannot be compared to other media but that is exactly what is required—holograms and installations that take the medium for granted and stand up to all and any comparison. funding: this research has received no external funding. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflicts of interest. references benyon, margaret. . how is holography art? ph.d. thesis, royal college of art, london, uk. chimera, paul. n.d. “holography was “new house of creation” for dali, the salvador dali society. available online: https://dali.com/holography-new-house-creation-dali/ (accessed on august ). ganz, jim. . los angeles, press release. march . available online: http://news.getty.edu/getty-museum- announces-donation- -holograms-created-by- -noted-artists.htm (accessed on august ). johnston, sean f. . why display? representing holography in museum collections. in illuminating instruments. edited by peter morris and klaus staubermann. washington, dc: smithsonian institution. movement research. n.d. simone forti. available online: https://movementresearch.org/people/simone-forti (accessed on august ). museum of modern art. . new order art and technology in the twenty-first century. new york: museum of modern art, available online: https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ ?locale=en (accessed on august ). prickett, sarah nicole. . after the summer of the hologram, what’s next? available online: https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/art-and-architecture/after-the-summer-of-the-hologram- whats-next/article / (accessed on august ). the art story contributors. n.d. louise bourgeois artist overview and analysis. available online: https: //www.theartstory.org/artist/bourgeois-louise/ (accessed on august ). © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). https://dali.com/holography-new-house-creation-dali/ http://news.getty.edu/getty-museum-announces-donation- -holograms-created-by- -noted-artists.htm http://news.getty.edu/getty-museum-announces-donation- -holograms-created-by- -noted-artists.htm https://movementresearch.org/people/simone-forti https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ ?locale=en https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/art-and-architecture/after-the-summer-of-the-hologram-whats-next/article / https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/art-and-architecture/after-the-summer-of-the-hologram-whats-next/article / https://www.theartstory.org/artist/bourgeois-louise/ https://www.theartstory.org/artist/bourgeois-louise/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	background 	the importance of the non-holographer 	conclusions 	references vendula hnídková, rondocubism versus national style, riha journal riha journal | november rondocubism versus national style vendula hnídková originally published as: "rondokubismus versus národní styl," in: umění ( ) ( ), - , . translation initiated by: institute of art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic (udu), prague abstract there is a range of various terms used to refer to architectural production from the period after the first world war, among the most common being 'rondocubism' and the 'national style'. the terminological ambiguity clearly points to the problem with the very character of the style of expression that lies behind these diverse labels. in the s, figures of the interwar avant-garde were already sharply critical of the post-war decorative style, the leading figures of which were the architects pavel janák and josef gočár. while this negative stigma was later overcome, following several thematic studies, it is still possible to look for other inspiring sources outside aesthetic categories that were directed at clarifying this theme. extensive social projects had architects employed in all sorts of artistic activities, and therefore a possible answer to what the essence of the style was is offered by the wider political and cultural context. after the foundation of the czechoslovak republic, the former protagonists of architectural cubism and their colleagues from the czechoslovak workshop association, artěl and the school of decorative arts attained such social standing that they could effectively influence local artistic development. through the individual conception applied to official commissions they created a visual identity of the new state system. as is apparent from their theoretical writings, they found their sources of information for ornamental decoration of buildings and craft artefacts by bonding with local tradition. this did not of course mean directly borrowing from folk-art prototypes. advanced forms of national art were intended to help establish czechoslovakia in the international scene and were also a conscious attempt through a more folkish form of expression to appeal to the wider strata of the population. contents introduction shaping the representation of the state the role of monuments “in the place of the manor house that had burned down, the masons built the count a magnificent castle, in every possible style, with the predominant architecture being jewish-chaldean, hybridised by janák and gočár.” introduction [ ] the author of these expressive lines, the painter josef váchal, did not hesitate to place the two architects, pavel janák ( - ) and josef gočár ( - ), in extremely disreputable company in his novel krvavý roman [bloodstained romance] ( ). and history shows clearly enough that he was not the only one to consider the way these architects manifested their artistic ideas at the time to be at the very least peculiar. it was this ambiguous, or rather disparaging, reception by theoreticians and historians of architecture of works of architecture and art handicraft produced in the period - that led to an unsatisfactory interpretation of this unique cultural josef váchal, krvavý román, praha , ( st edition ). – [editor's note: all translations of quotes, titles, etc., in this article are by the translator.] license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november phenomenon which established itself in the first years of the existence of the independent czechoslovak state. [ ] the czechoslovak legions bank, the crematorium in pardubice, the riunione adriatica di sicurta palace, and a number of other buildings and unjustly neglected architectural designs by the leading architects josef gočár, pavel janák, and later others as well, have been classified using a variety of terms, adorned by connotations with a range of nuances, most of them pejorative. thus it is common to find coexisting in the specialist literature the terms rondocubism, rounded style, rounded decorativism, rounded cubism, colourful originality, postwar eclecticism, national style, national decorativism, czech decorativism, post-upheaval style, and occasionally also art deco or legiobank style. most recently rostislav Švácha added a further classification to the list, namely third cubist style. in spite of this, as late as the architect and theoretician of architecture jan evangelista koula stated that "we have no terms to describe […] this postwar period". [ ] this lack of any fixed terminology reflects fairly faithfully the ambiguous attitude of the art history community towards this form of artistic expression after , which it was difficult to ignore. the frequent use of a double designation to describe the work produced at that time, for example rondocubism, national style, conceals the more serious issue of the actual nature of the style in question. what, then, is the meaning of these buildings and numerous objects of art handicraft, characterised by a striking wealth of colour and profusion of ornaments, probably derived from folklore sources? [ ] the negative views formulated by the protagonists of the interwar avant-garde on this phenomenon of nationally tinged decorative architecture endured for many decades. it was not until the end of the s that it was rehabilitated as an original form of artistic expression by the art historian marie benešová, in a text whose prosaic title rondocubism did not conceal any ambition to codify this style. however, benešová did not create a theoretical neologism with this title, as is often mistakenly asserted. she simply selected from the broad range of possibilities one of the original terms which had been used, for example, in the mid- s by the architect and critic oldřich starý in the extensive periodical article Česká moderní architektura [czech modern architecture]. at the time, however, starý had seen "rondo-cubism" as an inappropriate term for a clearly reactionary style, bogged down in historical and ethnographic traditions. [ ] the fact that the term rondocubism semantically creates the impression of an interconnection between the prewar and postwar work of these architects brings with it rostislav Švácha, lomené, hranaté a obloukové tvary. Česká kubistická architektura - , praha . jan evangelista koula, nová česká architektura a její vývoj ve xx. století, praha , . marie benešová, "rondokubismus," in: architektura Čsr ( ), - . oldřich starý, "Česká moderní architektura," in: stavba ( - ), . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november the danger of oversimplifying issues relating to this style. already in the period before the establishment of the czechoslovak state their ideas had started to move away from cubism. this is most cogently described by pavel janák in a text written in in which he attempted to take stock of architectural developments since the beginning of the century. in it, he expressed clearly the fundamental change in conception of artistic approach when he said that the year was a watershed, a return to traditional folklore, and a connection with life in the broader sense. it was primarily a reaction against pre- artism. now architects sought forms that would accommodate the general popular understanding. already here it contains the beginning of a major change from an individual artistic form to a broader general comprehensibility and utility, even at the price of a reduction in expressiveness. [ ] the fact that this statement has not been simply made retrospectively is testified to by several articles written by janák in . but the real impetus for seeking inspiration in displays of popular culture can originally be traced to the conclusions of the art historian václav vilém Štech, as rostislav Švácha has indicated. [ ] Štech identified the original nature of the czech cultural tradition in a text intended for the catalogue accompanying an exhibition of czech decorative art at the werkbund exhibition in cologne in . he declared the local genius loci to be the determining factor that constantly catalyses all stylistic forms of expression into their specifically distinctive czech variations. two years later he started to develop in more detail the ideas he had sketched out in this text. he saw the character of czech art as being closely linked with the land, the soil, and the climate, which directly influenced the form taken by local works of art. these influences permanently transform all works of art, not only in the field of visual art and architecture, but also music or literature, into the final ornamental form. buildings are then inevitably characterised by earthiness, to the point of awkwardness, and they are picturesque rather than imposing. Štech emphasises the tendency to "develop all schemes onto the surface, transform the construction and composition of the material into the rhythm of the surface areas, and to convert the structural elements into a system of lavish and living ornamentation". he himself, however, rejected the direct adoption of models from ethnographic material. pavel janák, "Čtyřicet let nové architektury za námi – pohled zpět," in: architektura ( ), - . just to mention a few at random: pavel janák, "opět na rozcestí k svérázu," in: národ ( ) ( ) no. , - ; pavel janák, "národní věc a čeští architekti," in: národ ( ), nos. and , , - ; pavel janák, "nedočkavá procházka," in: umění ( ), here ; pavel janák, "ve třetině cesty," in: volné směry ( ), - . Švácha, lomené, hranaté a obloukové tvary, . václav vilém Štech, Čechische bestrebungen um ein modernes interieur, prag , ; václav vilém Štech, "České cesty k modernímu interiéru," in: v. v. Štech, včera, praha , . václav vilém Štech, "o národním umění," in: Štech, včera, - . václav vilém Štech, "smysl země," in: Štech, včera, - . Štech, "smysl země," . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november [ ] the latent need for a national art was intensified in the second half of the second decade of the twentieth century by the escalation of wartime events. at this time, the search for a source of inspiration in popular art gained strength once more. although pavel janák displayed a certain reserve towards Štech in their personal relationships, which is evident from their correspondence and diary entries from the time of the first world war, Štech's theoretical insights still left their mark on him. in he launched a polemic in the pages of a weekly with the suggestive name národ [nation] about the importance of originality for contemporary works of art. he rejected the banal adoption of stimuli and forms from popular art, and the veristic repetition of specific models from this sphere. he was supported in these views in a lengthy analysis by the art historian antonín matějček, in which the latter concluded that popular art was simply a derivative of higher art, and so could not offer any potential for inspiration. on the other hand, the architect jan koula, a representative of historicism, who in his later work drew heavily on ideas from local popular building styles, felt personally offended by these conclusions. in his view, a national culture could not develop without a profound knowledge of the distinctive features of the nation and a conscious orientation towards its sources. but on the other side of the debate janák proclaimed that it was his endeavour to achieve a sensitive understanding of the essence of local tradition as a universal, timeless principle. in his view, the call for folklore styles was more a populist feature. the architect should become "a poet of the homeland", who would raise public awareness about national ideals. Štech followed a similar line of thought when he expressed in the periodical styl the wish that "art will hopefully long remain cultural work, service, and will not become purely and simply personal expression". the newly embraced endeavour to address the whole nation likewise exactly coincided with the views of another art historian, františek Žákavec, who, in a lengthy essay in the journal volné směry stated that "the czech artistic programme absolutely requires that the artist surrenders himself to the nation in the broadest sense". [ ] the task facing architects in this period was to find the optimum design for the typology of czech buildings. janák's famous essay ve třetině cesty [a third of the way along the road], written in , can be regarded as a genuine manifesto. in it, he defined "national architecture" in terms similar to Štech's conclusions by saying that "the material is identical with the soil – with the motherland, on which grows up the tribe – Štech, "o národním umění," . pavel janák, "opět na rozcestí k svérázu," in: národ ( ) ( ), no. , - . antonín matějček, "o vyschlém prameni," in: národ ( ) ( ), nos. and , - , - . jan koula, "ještě o svérázu," in: národ ( ) ( ), no. , - . pavel janák, "národní věc a čeští architekti," in: národ ( ), nos. and , , - . václav vilém Štech, "vzpomínka na jaro v paříži ," in: styl ( ) ( - ), - , here . františek Žákavec, "slovanský program výtvarnický," in: volné směry ( - ), - . janák, "národní věc a čeští architekti," nos. and , , - . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november the national life and spirit, which arises out of this series of identities, returns to it, and creates out of its individual regions organised architectural wholes". [ ] the aesthetic differences between cubism and the architectural forms after were succinctly captured by another art historian, zdeněk wirth, in the catalogue for an exhibition by josef gočár in . while he saw the artistic principle in cubist architecture as being based on shaping from the core of the material outward onto the surface, in postwar forms, on the contrary, the visual effect of elements applied on the surface area was used, intensified by a very wide range of different colours. [ ] directly linking czech postwar output with artefacts in the art deco style, simply on the basis that they occurred at the same time and had certain formal similarities of form, appears problematic when we recall the quite contrasting starting-points of the two styles. the broad concept of "art deco" first became established in the s as a term for the artistic trends of the s and s which developed loosely out of the art nouveau decorativism of the turn of the century. it took the direction of freeing itself from florally undulating curves, seamlessly absorbing ideas from current artistic movements such as fauvism, cubism, futurism, and expressionism. art deco was further enriched by various sources of inspiration, drawing on stimuli from the art of the orient, of egypt, or japan, still seen at the time as exotic. however, the overall designation for this form of style, which was not art deco but style moderne, was only coined retrospectively, after the exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes held in paris in , and thus its application to the czech cultural scene after would appear to be slightly misleading. the national style attempted in the first instance to capture the character of the czech spirit, and for this elementary reason it seems unlikely that artists deliberately took their inspiration from foreign archetypes. almost programmatically, they drew on the local milieu for their creative ideas, from the rich sources of local tradition. pavel janák literally said that "french tapestries, porcelain from copenhagen, or german models of furniture cannot today bring us anything new in terms of art or content, because they were based on quite different national cultural foundations and are of a different cultural level". [ ] in spite of this proclamation about taking up the national heritage, artists did not create their work in a vacuum of time and space. they achieved their emphasis on the longstanding tradition which lay behind the genesis of modern czech art by references to types that had proved themselves in history. as illustrations we can point to the unobtrusive incorporation of the motif of the triumphal arch into the structure of the façade of the czechoslovak legions bank, echoes of the peripteral ground plan layout and pavel janák, "ve třetině cesty," in: volné směry ( ), - . zdeněk wirth, "josef gočár," genf , . jana horneková, ed., České art deco - , praha . [pavel janák], "úvodník" [editorial], in: výtvarná práce ( ), unpaged. license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november the decorative elements of the florentine proto-renaissance in the final form of the crematorium in pardubice, or the allusions, which have been drawn attention to many times, to the italian renaissance palaces of the trecento in the material composition of the riunione adriatica di sicurta palace. [ ] however, the main difference between art deco and czech works of art handicraft and architecture produced at the same time is derived from qualities outside the aesthetic sphere. the considerably heterogeneous manifestations of art deco in europe and later in the usa are all linked to the dominant imperative of luxury that was typical of fashionable social circles. and this factor stands in stark contrast to the czech national style, which attempted to base itself on the regional heritage, and which above all aspired in theory to become an official style that was particularly accessible to broad strata of the population, not a luxurious veneer intended for the social elite. this is why we do not find within this category many objects intended for luxury use, but rather those meant for ordinary everyday use, prompted by the desire to improve the quality of equipment of the average household by raising awareness. another important group is formed by the search for the artistic canon of the visual identity of czechoslovakia. [ ] rather than formal demarcations over against other styles, the crucial criterion for understanding "rondocubism" is therefore the frequently overlooked fact that works of architecture produced in the postwar period cannot be considered in isolation from other artistic work and especially art handicraft of the same period. the main protagonists of "rondocubism", the architects josef gočár and pavel janák, did not restrict themselves exclusively to the construction aspects of their works, but usually also played an active role in creating the overall appearance of the interiors, spending considerable time on the design of furniture and individual accessories or on cooperation with other colleagues in arranging public areas. indeed, intensive cooperation between representatives of different artistic fields, with artists joining together to create a collective design for specific commissions, is one of the typical features of this period. usually it was not a gesamtkunstwerk by one artist that took shape, but a single style that was created through the cooperation of several artists, linked by a similar creative feel. close collaboration between different disciplines was typical especially of members of the societies union of czechoslovak work and artěl or graduates of the school of decorative art. janák himself revealed in his correspondence with zdeněk wirth during the war that the hotbed of "our expression" was gradually aroused in small-scale art, a typical example of which he considered to be the decorative work of františek kysela. and a vendula hnídková, "pavel janák und der tschechische 'nationalstil'. aspekte einer architektonischen und nationalen emanzipation," in: kritische berichte xxxv ( ), - . pavel janák, letter to zdeněk wirth, . . . zdeněk wirth collection, documentation department of the institute of art history, academy of sciences of the czech republic, correspondence with pavel janák. license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november few years later, as editor of výtvarná práce, he was able to note the encouraging fact that the decorative arts have taken on a czech character, and are increasingly taking root within themselves. they are gaining strength all the time from the awareness that they are based on the materials and spirit of their motherland, should serve domestic requirements, and that they have been predestined to have a quite distinctive character. [ ] the culmination of this cooperation between different artistic disciplines, under the supervision of the union of czechoslovak work, was the exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes, which we have already mentioned. it was held in paris in , and representatives of the czechoslovak cultural scene brought major awards and diplomas home from it. but at the same time, for many of them it signified the definitive conclusion to the application of ornamental elements to works of decorative art and architecture. in the broader context of works of art produced in the postwar period, it is therefore which appears to be a more appropriate milestone for marking the end of the national style than the preceding years, when the various works constructed in this style were completed. as has already been said, the national style was not just a system of architectural form and structure, but also a formal code for the decorative arts, which reached its splendid conclusion at the artistic gathering in paris. this in spite of the fact that its protagonists, particularly in the field of architecture, had already moved in the direction of more purist manifestations of form, as is evidenced most obviously by the exhibition pavilion of gočár himself. [ ] the fact that paris was the definitive swansong of the national style is corroborated by the representative project exhibition of contemporary culture, which was held only three years later to celebrate the first ten years of the existence of czechoslovakia. the entire complex of the exhibition centre in pisárky near brno, including the pavilions of the academy of the visual arts by gočár and of the school of decorative art by janák, enveloped itself in progressive architectural forms, and thus resolutely threw off the decorative coverings of the previous period. not only the buildings themselves, but also the exhibition fittings, the advertising graphics, and the exhibits were linked with the technological development of the industrial sector of the country that was being celebrated, and not with its rich folklore tradition. during the next two decades the visual identity of the progressive republic would be defined by functionalism. nevertheless, a few marginal examples of the national style were still to be found at least till the end of the s, as can be seen from several echoes in the form of a number of regional buildings. <top> [pavel janák], "úvodník" [editorial], in: výtvarná práce ( ), unpaged. license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november shaping the representation of the state [ ] the increased emphasis on the importance of representing the state at this period was an initiative of the artists, art historians, and art theoreticians themselves, who occupied important posts not only in artistic associations and at vocational schools and institutes of higher education, but also in public administration. the feverish tempo of development after the establishment of the czechoslovak state united a number of individuals, professional associations and representatives of public administration in an idealistic endeavour to build up a modern identity for the young republic on a progressive artistic platform, which had its roots in the prewar attempts to capture a different expression of cubism from what was happening in neighbouring germany or in the lands of the austro-hungarian monarchy. the ambitions of a number of artists and state officials thus came together in a joint endeavour to stress the unique character of czechoslovak art in past epochs and present times as evidence of its high standard, comparable with that of the advanced parts of the world, and thus as confirmation of justification for its existence and by extension for the existence of the state itself. its raison d'être was however seen not only in its rich cultural tradition, but above all in its artistically apposite present. the challenge was aptly described by the future director of the museum of the decorative arts, karel herain, when he compared the young state to an individual, who, in his contacts with other countries, must impress people with his "dignified and refined behaviour, and intelligent manner, presupposing a sophisticated outward appearance", because as an unknown newcomer on the international scene stricter parameters of evaluation were applied to him than to established personalities in the cultural sphere. [ ] as the longstanding movement for the emancipation of the czech nation culminated in with the establishment of a new state containing ethnic, historical and religious elements that varied considerably, it was necessary to unify it internally and then present it externally as a homogenous whole. when the two art historians zdeněk wirth and václav vilém Štech (whom karel teige described as "one of the most fervent propagators" of the national style) were appointed to leading functions at the ministry of education and national culture, the office of the ministry became the focal point for endeavours to build up the cultural expression of czechoslovakia. the state institution tried to set an example through the interior designs for its own administrative and representative premises, and so in josef gočár successfully designed and installed in the ministry building in the lesser town district of prague furnishings for the meeting room, the elliptic library, and the office of the state secretary, and also a table with an easy chair for the minister himself. contemporary photographs show that massive karel herain, "státní representace v umění," in: drobné umění ( ), . karel teige, moderní architektura v Československu, praha , . marie benešová, josef gočár, praha , . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november desks, almost neo-baroque in form, fitted in surprisingly easily with the original historical interiors. josef gočár, furniture for ministry of education and national culture, (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) [ ] however, a greater impact than the furniture and fittings in the bowels of the ministry was made by a law that was approved in on the initiative of stanislav kostka neumann, which stipulated that all works of art produced for the purpose of state representation or created using state funds must be subject to the approval of the ministry of education and national culture. this was not just a question of ministerial supervision of public finances but rather of stimulating activity when announcing and organising competitions for public works, which indeed resulted in the ministry's initiative attracting the criticism "that it favours the most modern trends and makes them official". on the basis of this targeted strategy a number of initiatives were soon launched to renew the artistic sphere by means of competitions for public works, the commissions for which regularly included representatives of the union of czechoslovak work, the school of decorative art, and artěl. to a certain extent they thus exercised "zákon o umělecké úpravě předmětů státem vydávaných neb podporovaných," in: umění ( - ), here , . herain, "státní representace v umění," . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november supervision over the production of contemporary works of art and defined their official canon. [ ] this is one of the reasons why the first examples of the new style were pavilions at exhibitions. at the beginning of its existence, czechoslovakia was successfully represented by such pavilions at international expositions in lyon ( , gočár) and rio de janeiro ( , janák). like other buildings in the national style they had in common a strict symmetry in the façade; abstract decoration in the form of groups of half-cylinders, arcs, rectangles, and sections of other geometrical shapes; and numerous floral ornaments, in keeping with the very bright colouring. on the domestic scene these elements were also to the fore in competitions for the buildings of the new czech theatres in prague and olomouc that were announced in the early s. [ ] works of graphic design also presented a distinctive platform for the national style. the new republic naturally needed to have its own banknotes, postage stamps, printed forms, posters, and duty stamps. on them, too, was to be seen very vivid colouring, this time with an additional emphasis on the colours of the national flag in combination with emblematic elements such as linden tree sprays, figures from the state coat of arms or major characters from czech history. jaroslav benda, design for a banknote ( crowns), , x mm (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) jiří hilmera, "mezníky, které zůstaly na papíře. ke třem soutěžím na stavbu nových divadel v ostravě, olomouci a praze v letech - ," in: umění ( ), - . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november františek kysela, design for a banknote ( crowns), , x mm (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) [ ] františek kysela, a professor at the school of decorative art, a member of artěl, a collaborator at the beginning of prague artistic studios, and a member of the union of czechoslovak work, designed the ten-crown banknote, the state coat of arms, the president's standard, the poster for a music festival in paris and london, and a poster publicising the czechoslovak republic. in a new safety curtain designed by him was installed in the national theatre. [ ] pavel janák even argued in favour of creating typical czech lettering emphasising the diacritical signs, because in his view it was not possible simply to adopt foreign fonts, which were not capable of capturing the characteristic features of the czech alphabet. jaroslav benda, a founder member of artěl, perhaps came close to realising this aspiration with his rounded concept of lettering, based on uncials. because of its decorative character he used it for the textual part of important state documents, such as letters of authentication issued by the president of the republic to the czechoslovak envoys at a peace conference for representatives of friendly governments. he also "soutěže," in: umění ( - ), - . pavel janák, "revoluce v plakátě," in: umění ( - ), - . ntm aas, fond -janák, publikační činnost , text of an unpublished lecture by pavel janák entitled "the work of j. benda, v.h. brunner, and f. kysela", delivered on february in the museum of decorative arts. a., "užitá grafika," in: umění ( - ), - . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november made use of rounded numerals and letters on the five- and twenty-crown banknotes, displaying "grand and at the same time very simple ornamental ideas". [ ] both benda and viktor hugo brunner, likewise a member of artěl, also designed postage stamps after , but their major contribution is to be seen in the graphic design of books and magazines. on numerous title pages they made copious use of extremely ornamental, but nevertheless structured shapes, frequently emphasised by contrasting colouring in a similar way to the architecture of the national style. kysela, benda, and brunner, all of them professors at the school of decorative art, likewise guided their students in carrying out similar tasks, which radiated "tremendous youthful vitality and a lively interest in current national affairs". jaroslav benda, title page of the book františek Žákavec, o českých výtvarnících, praha (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) ntm aas, fond -janák, publikační činnost (see note above). františek Žákavec, "dnes zahájená výstava umělecko-průmyslové školy," in: národní listy ( ), no. , . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november jaroslav benda, title page of the journal styl, - (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) <top> the role of monuments [ ] a further acute requirement of the time arose immediately after the destructive wave of iconoclasm, spontaneously sparked off by the euphoria following the establishment of the czechoslovak state. society now sought new idols with which it could worthily identify itself. and so the monument to jan Žižka on vítkov hill neared completion, and competitions were announced for monuments to jan Ámos komenský (comenius) in litomyšl (Štursa – janák) and in amsterdam (Štursa – janák), monuments to božena němcová (gutfreund – janák) and karel havlíček borovský in havlíčkův brod (gočár – kafka), to přemysl the ploughman (Štursa – janák) and to svatopluk Čech in the královské vinohrady district of prague, again by the same pair of artists. above all, the endeavour to portray the wartime activities of the members of the czechoslovak legions as the basis for the newly created czechoslovak army met with a strong response. [ ] artistic circles also took the initiative in becoming involved in working on the cult legacy of the legionnaires after the ministry of education and national culture announced marcel pencák, "soutěž na pomník jana Žižky na vítkově v roce ," in: umění ( ), - . a., "soutěž na pomník svatopluka Čecha pro jungmannovy sady na král. vinohradech" [competition for the monument of svatopluk Čech to be placed in jungmann's park in královské vinohrady], in: umění ( - ), . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november a competition for monuments to the victims of the war and to mark our liberation. the specifications for the work did not reflect the historical contradictions and called for universal types, either for a freestanding or a wall-mounted monument, with the condition that it facilitated a simple design that was not financially demanding and "could be executed in a durable material distinctive for the region". after the deadline for entries, the commission found itself overwhelmed by as many as designs, unparalleled for those days. one of the three second prizes that were awarded was won by the joint design by karel dvořák and pavel janák, painted wood. karel dvořák, pavel janák, competition design for the monument "painted wood“, (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) [ ] whereas janák's designs for monuments when the military conflict was still going on took the form of shallow alcove chapels with uncompromisingly cubist dynamic forms, in the competition he made use of a completely different, much simpler form for the monument. with both projects we are immediately struck by the evident popular nature antonín matějček, "k soutěži návrhů na památníky na paměť obětí války a našeho osvobození," in: styl ( ) ( - ), . minutes of the meeting of the commission for the competition for monuments to the victims of the war and to mark our liberation, announced by the ministry of education and national culture, in: styl ( ) ( - ), . members of the commission: prof. j. benda, architect b. hübschmann, prof. c. klouček, prof. dr. a. matějček, architect o. novotný, capt. Špála (representative of the monument of the resistance movement association) and dr. v. v. Štech. the first prize was won by the lyrical wall-mounted relief by karel pokorný depicting a female figure looking down at a military helmet at her feet. the second prize was shared between three designs: "painted wood" by karel dvořák and pavel janák; "to the heroes and martyrs" by the sculptor jaroslav brychta; and "slovak madonna" by the sculptor rudolf březa and the architect josef Štěpánek. both the last two designs display a sensitive approach, not only to fulfilling the competition specifications in terms of affordability and relatively non-demanding implementation, but above all in their conceptual understanding of the issue, with a simple, almost authentic stele on the grave of a fallen soldier, aptly capturing the everyday reality of war, in contrast to the traditional monumental war memorials erected after the end of the conflict. the design by janák and dvořák, in its aesthetic form and in the material selected, comes close to popular works of art, without any aspiration to higher artistic values other than the quality of the craftwork itself. license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november of the work and the almost contrived naivety of the craftsmanship. the main focus here is the vertical structure of a column constructed as it were out of several wooden battens, to which are attached further decorative elements. giving the impression of wartime authenticity rather than artistic representation, it is most reminiscent of a battlefield grave, without any kind of church insignia. the sensitive, almost unpretentious approach contrasts with the traditional heroic and monumental conception of war memorials. not just the form and the material chosen, but also the title painted wood itself displays a direct association with popular art forms. [ ] prague, too, could not avoid the issues relating to war memorials, in connection with the legendary battle by zborov and the tomb of the unknown soldier that was incorporated into the gothic chapel with a bay window in the old town hall. this was once again designed by pavel janák, this time in collaboration with the monument of the resistance movement association. in a hitherto unpublished text, evidently dating from june , he develops his conception of the ideal location of Štursa's statue wounded as an appropriate symbol for the unknown soldier. in his sculpture wounded, created in , Štursa attempted to give a material form to emotion and to depict the figure of a soldier hit by a bullet on the battlefield. a real experience was here transformed into the emotionally charged level of a male nude, slightly larger than life-size, just at the moment when the dying man stiffens before falling. [ ] janák felt that the most appropriate location for the tomb of the unknown soldier in terms of significance would be the area outside the old town hall where the bohemian nobles were executed in . he viewed the connection with that tragic event in the spirit of contemporary declarations as a symbolic time loop, in which the three-hundred- year subjugation of the czech nation reaches its conclusion. it would therefore be ideal if "all the victims who had fallen for their motherland" might be honoured in a single monument in this historically hallowed place. [ ] after janák had designed a triumphal arch on wenceslas square in , josef gočár gave a talk in march at a meeting of the society of architects about his intention to build a pantheon for the legionnaires in prague. he had an opportunity to "inscription on reproduction illegible," in: styl ( ) ( - ), illustration xlix. ntm aas, fond -janák, publikační činnost, - raněný, úprava staroměstského náměstí [wounded, adaptation design for the old town's square]. the first sketches date from ; Štursa started sculpting towards the end of the war in , and the work was completed in - . the cast bears the date . kamil novotný, jan Štursa, praha , unpaged; jiří mašín and tibor honty (photographs), jan Štursa. - . geneze díla, praha , , . ntm aas, fond -janák, publikační činnost, - raněný, úprava staroměstského náměstí [ - wounded, adaptation design for the old town's square]. ntm aas, fond -janák, protokoly schůzí spolku "Českých architektů v praze" [minutes of the meetings of the union of czech architects]. license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november say something more specific about this plan when he won the competition to construct the czechoslovak legions bank in prague. shares of the czechoslovak legions bank, (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) [ ] the design for the competition included the spatial scheme that was subsequently used, but it differed from the version that was finally constructed in several decorative features. the symmetrical five-axis façade is in its basic contours similar to the eventual form, but the main change occurred on the level of the first two storeys. the original design observed more consistently the pattern of continuous horizontal and vertical lines, which in the final version were erased in the lower part of the façade to such an extent that the original connection with the window axes of the upper storeys disappears in order to emphasise the central feature of the main entrance. the onlooker's gaze is further directed towards the central section by the movements of the soldiers' profiles on Štursa's reliefs, situated in the areas between the windows on the mezzanine. [ ] the concept for the façade in the design that was submitted for the competition included continuous vertical lines such that the six half-columns led directly to six reliefs with features from specific battles at which members of the czechoslovak legions played a part in achieving victory over the central powers. the sober plan was completed by sculpted heads of legionnaires in military caps situated at regular intervals in circular fields. but the alternative design that gočár eventually used is remarkable. there are now only four reliefs, but designed on a more universal, timeless level as allegories of license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november warriors from the past with swords. the design was completed by the figure of a shield- bearer, which was to be situated on a column in the area in front of the bank, in line with the main entrance. [ ] the resulting four reliefs do not form a chronological sequence, either starting from the left or from the right, but their final positioning is once again connected with the idea of a central point, which symbolises the place where the two institutions originated, which later merged to form the czechoslovak legions bank. the composition therefore builds up towards two principal motifs from russian territory, beneath which people enter the bank: the trans-siberian railway and the battle of zborov on july . the insistent dramatic character of the compositions and the expressions on the faces on Štursa's sandstone capitals contrasts with the tranquillity radiating from gutfreund's frieze on the architrave, the rhythms of which are carefully harmonised with the overall architectural layout. although the individual figural scenes on the theme of the return of the legionnaires are strictly separated on the frieze by vertical divisions, they create the impression of unhurried movement, which is again intensified in the central section through the figure of the archetypal woman-mother. [ ] through this sculptural decoration, the architecture of the bank assumed the role of a striking and effective communicative architecture parlante element, because the ornamental reliefs were undoubtedly intended not only for the eyes of passers-by, but also for the employees and shareholders of the bank, the majority of whom were quite intentionally former legionnaires. the latter also recalled their exploits during the war in the privacy of their offices: one contemporary photograph shows a meeting room whose decoration consisted of stabbing weapons ornamentally displayed on the wall. and it was precisely at that time that pavel janák explicitly formulated his appeal for architecture, sculpture and painting to be joined together in a single whole, in which the individual artistic components would merge freely without any demarcations. [ ] another issue that is closely connected with the final appearance of the czechoslovak legions bank is that of the colourfulness of the architecture, something which is burdened with a number of clichés in connection with the national style, as was shown recently by a text by martin strakoš, in which he described postwar art as "red, blue, and white". this automatic link between the national style and the colours of the czechoslovak tricolour once again evokes the connection with art handicraft, where the three colours of czechoslovak statehood were a very frequent feature. this was in they were the central commission and the military savings bank. www.pamatnik.valka.cz [last accessed oct. , ]. mašín, jan Štursa, , . pavel janák, "nedočkavá procházka," in: umění ( ), . martin strakoš, "reprezentace architekturou v českých zemích . století," in: era vii ( ), no. , . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://www.pamatnik.valka.cz/ riha journal | november contrast to architecture, where a two-colour scheme (pejoratively described by vojtěch birnbaum as a "grating" in the case of the juliš house ) was usually used for the enclosing shell, contrasting with the meticulous miniature painting of the interior decorations, often carried out in janák's and gočár's buildings by františek kysela. the interpretation of the colouring is one of the basic guidelines for credibly deciphering the character of the national style in architecture. [ ] v.v. Štech developed a theory about the nature of the distinctive czech character, which finds its suitable expression in the organic incorporation of ornament into material. according to him, the local genius loci determined the transformation of "space and composition into ornament, of sculpture into richness of colour". pavel janák adopted from Štech's texts the causality of the influence of "home soil", where the milieu ineluctably shaped local artistic output into a distinctive lyrical form, which, however, could only be understood by the local population. he also expanded the thesis of national determination to take in the issue of colouring, which became an active component in shaping the expression of buildings. on the basis of his profound knowledge of historical styles he completely rehabilitated the role of colour in architecture, because "it corresponds to our temperament and it is in agreement with the distinctive character of prague". vojtěch birnbaum, "k diskusi o barevnou architekturu," in: styl ( ) ( - ), . václav vilém Štech, "o národní umění," in: Štech, včera, . pavel janák, "cesta uměleckoprůmyslové školy," in: výtvarná práce ( ), ; pavel janák, "ve třetině cesty," in: volné směry ( ), . pavel janák, "barvu průčelím," in: styl ( ) ( - ), . license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november pavel janák, plan for the hydroelectric power station in háj near mohelnice, (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) pavel janák, plan for the hydroelectric power station in háj near mohelnice, (reproduction from: umění/art, journal of the institute for art history of the academy of sciences of the czech republic) [ ] the contextually determined vivid colouring is therefore not an extravagant exhibition on the part of the artist, nor an explicit manifestation of state symbols, but is a consequence of the inner deliberation of the architect. an argument against any superficial interpretation of the symbolic meaning of the colours applied in particular on facades is provided by the several different alternative versions that were drawn up for the design of numerous buildings. a graphic example is the plan for the hydroelectric license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us riha journal | november power station in háj near mohelnice: although janák did submit a design in red, blue and white colours, he also at the same stage sketched other plans with a range of colours as equally valid alternatives. [ ] similarly as with architecture, janák also thought highly of the thoughtfully chosen shades of colour in the posters of františek kysela, because they were "natural to the point of being rustic". he underlined kysela's conscious attempt to achieve a non- artificial, more popular expression, which he described as "a struggle between the tendency towards an abstract decorative style and the drive towards reality". in the unpublished text of a lecture entitled práce j. bendy, v. h. brunnera a f. kysely v tiskovém umění [the work of j. benda, v.h. brunner, and f. kysela in printed art] from the year , janák shifts kysela's style into a personally emotive position when he states that he "desired to continue to create […] from books with a nationally ethical content, through the most fervent and devoted work, books inspired by the national spirit, as it were books of love for the national cause". [ ] the artists and art historians we have mentioned were not involved in any preconceived attempt to create a uniformly presented style in the service of forming a new czechoslovak identity. but the optimistic mood in society and political circumstances in the early years of the existence of the czechoslovak state provided them with an appropriate setting in which to express a distinctive artistic viewpoint. through their hegemony in the leading positions in the cultural sphere, their close personal relationships, and similar means of expression, they were able to shape together the postwar visual style of the young republic. it therefore seems to me to be more apposite to talk of the cultural phenomenon that we have been discussing as the national style rather than as rondocubism. translated by peter stephens <top> pavel janák, "nové plakáty f. kysely," in: výtvarná práce ( ), . janák, "nové plakáty f. kysely," . ntm aas, fond -janák, publikační činnost , text of an unpublished lecture by pavel janák entitled "the work of j. benda, v.h. brunner, and f. kysela", delivered on february in the museum of decorative arts. license: this text is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /de/deed.en_us 	introduction 	shaping the representation of the state 	the role of monuments avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en avant, vol. iv, no. / issn: - avant.edu.pl/en doi: . / . . "they never dance": the choreography of le sacre du printemps, hanna järvinen performing arts research centre theatre academy the university of the arts, helsinki gekko[]iki.fi received november ; accepted december ; published winter / . abstract in this text, i discuss vaslav nijinsky's choreography of le sacre du printemps (henceforth sacre) as it appears in the light of primary source materials from . by focusing on the unique challenges nijinsky posed to his dancers in terms of movement style and composition, i contest many of the frequently- heard claims made about this work, particularly its danced component, and argue that nijinsky's choreographic ideas challenged both dancers and critics by questioning the ontological qualities of (art) dance in contemporary discourse. keywords: le sacre du printemps; nijinsky; stravinsky; choreography; dance. some premises for the analysis the fact of the matter is that there has been far too much talk about theories and too little knowledge of the art of dancing. we talk of dancing in terms of painting, music, and even literature, instead of in terms of dancing. nijinsky is endeavouring to evolve a new school of pantomime. that is quite enough. let us try to take it on its merits and understand what it seeks to express. (the nation . . .) the critic of the nation could be speaking about the current research on the work he describes. although much has been said of the premiere of sacre, not many authors have focused on the actual bodies performing on stage. while the musical score has been canonised as a masterpiece, the choreography was only performed nine times before it was withdrawn from the repertory of the company, leaving only scattered remains of critical reception and reminiscences in the archive. in dance, where notation is not there were six performances (as well as a public dress-rehearsal) in paris, three performances in london. a laboratory of spring standard practice, 'works' are understood as a living tradition, transmitted from one professional or a group of professionals to the next. this embodied practice is, to use diana taylor's ( : esp. - ) term, the repertoire, an ephemeral social practice that can be contrasted with the fixed, hegemonic documents in the archive. in my foucauldian reiteration of taylor's argument, the repertoire becomes a re-enacted, constantly changing reiteration of the past in the present. it is embedded in complex interactions with the archive to which we can return but which also always-already limits what we can claim to know about past performances. thus, the disappearance of a particular work from the active repertory (of all dance companies) does not entail an actual loss of that work as much as its transformation on the level of archive/repertoire. in a sense, the sacre figures prominently in both the archive and the repertoire, even if the specific choreography has not been performed since . however, this epistemological uncertainty of dance − simultaneously ephemeral and static, changing and fixed into a canon of masterworks − is an issue particularly pertinent to the sacre. in , the work was 'reconstructed' by millicent hodson and kenneth archer who collected selected parts of the archive, forcing them together into a new saleable product for the repertory. in the academe, this kind of re-making raised more questions about the processes of "archiving" repertoire and the epistemology of performance, rather than provoked a critical discussion on how exactly this kind of reconstruction fixes the past by stabilising it both epistemologically and ontologically. that is how a large-scale (i.e. very expensive) reconstruction ends up becoming a new original and becoming an archive, suppressing the need to do critical research on a past work, research that is crucial to understanding the significance of the past in the present. today, when dance audiences (including many researchers) think of "nijinsky's sacre" they actually think of millicent hodson's choreography, and they see this choreography as (relatively) unchanging and stable. this means that even dance researchers disregard the huge potential for reimagining dance in − and in − still in the archive. see e.g. acocella ; and fink : esp. - . on the problems with notions like ’authentic’ and ’original’ in dance, see burt ; and carter . as in hoogen : esp. - ; jordan : - ; launay ; solomon : esp. - . in other words, despite their awareness of reconstruction as an imagined original, dance scholars tend to assert the hegemony of hodson's interpretation in their actual analyses referencing her work as nijinsky and taking what is shown on stage now as having also been there in . what they miss is how hodson ( ) builds elaborate arguments about choreography on select, mostly secondary sources, often relying on pure speculation that is obscured in the staged spectacle and by her numerous publications. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en despite its magnificent costumes and sets, a key issue with the so-called reconstruction of sacre is that a source which describes movement does not necessarily describe choreography, understood as the spatial and temporal arrangement of movements and stillnesses, gestures and steps, rhythms and paces of a body or a group of bodies. neither movement nor choreography require musical accompaniment, as these may not necessarily be 'dance' (lepecki : especially - ). in this article, 'choreography' is used in the specific sense of a composition of staged art dance, that is an aesthetic practice with a history and a canon of authors and masterworks, a practice with self- consistent form and temporally and geographically specific conventions acquired through education and practice. one of my points is that the limits of what is understood as 'dance' and how 'dancing' is defined vary; hence, any definitions of what is or is not dance at a given time contain value- judgements, often made in order to exclude certain movement practices from the definition of 'dance' (as with ragtime dances, see järvinen ). indeed, one of the most intriguing aspects of the critical reception of nijinsky's choreographic work is the frequency of this exclusion: il n’y a pas, dans tout le sacre du printemps, une seule ligne, un seul mouvement d’un seul personnage qui ait une apparence de grâce, d’élégance, de légèreté, de noblesse, de l’éloquence et d’expression: tout est laid, lourdement, platement et uniformément laid. danseurs et danseuses, presque toujours serrés en groups épais et compacts, demeurent tassés sur eux-mêmes, ne faisant que des gestes maladroits, raccourcis, rétrécis, étriqués, des gestes d’infirmes et d’ataxiques. ils agitent leurs bras comme des moignons, et leurs jambes comme si elles étaient en bois. ils ne dansent jamais: ils ne font que tressauter, trépigner, piétiner et trembloter convulsivement sur place; et lorsqu’ils ont commencé de faire un mouvement quelconque, ils le répètent indéfiniment, jusqu’à la satiété, jusqu’à l’ennui, jusqu’à l’agacement, jusqu’à l’irritation. (pierre lalo in le temps . . .) here, pierre lalo, the son of the composer eduard lalo, not only lists qualities expected of the kind of dance that claims to be art − "grace, elegance, lightness, nobility, eloquence, and expression" − but also describes the aesthetic qualities of sacre − "ugly" − and even some aspects of nijinsky's choreography − compact groups, repetition of movements, remaining in place − as 'not dancing'. this shows how our understanding of movement, including staged movement, is embedded in assumptions about aesthetic evaluations of beauty and ugliness as well as in codes of appropriateness (propriety and decency), political anxieties about encountering the other (particularly en masse), the historical specificity of bodies, affects and cultural signs. in short, it refers to what reinhardt koselleck ( : - ) has called "the horizon of expectations" at a given time and place. for the parisian audiences of may a laboratory of spring , this horizon of expectations also included (if reminiscences are to be believed) violent protests at the company's audacity of presenting this thing as dance. although lalo is repeating a view about dance (graceful, harmonious movement) hegemonic amongst contemporary dance aficionados, his indignation actually shows the novelty and importance of the kind of choreography he criticised. but lalo, like so many people who have discussed sacre since, never pauses to think why a russian dancer known as a virtuoso in precisely this kind of graceful movement and lauded as a genius of his art form, would be interested in this kind of movement language or these kinds of choreographic devices. moreover, he does not consider how a dancer, accustomed to the same hegemonic view about what they should be doing on stage, might react to the choreographer's demands. primitivism in the russian context in contemporary reviews, the most common justification for the movement qualities that lalo lists − for better or worse − was that nijinsky was representing primitive humans (e.g. boschot in l’echo de paris quoted in bullard (ii): ; lunacharsky in teatr i iskusstvo ./ . . ). leaving aside ridiculous claims about nijinsky and his collaborators recreating a primitive ritual, the question of the primitive clearly did not arise solely from the theme of the ballet, pagan russia, but rather from the western perspective on russia as a primitive nation and on dance as a primitive practice. the prevalence of this discourse is still evident in the research on sacre. see e.g. andré suarès in la nouvelle revue française . . ; crawford flitch : on dance as joy; or how johnson : and the dancing times august represent nijinsky's l'après- midi d'faune ( ) as unnecessarily restricting dancers to a seemingly two-dimensional stage picture. later, this kind of dance, "diametrically opposed to his potentialities and natural gifts" (sert : - ) has been represented as indicative of mental illness, because nijinsky was institutionalised as insane in . as in hodson and b; and hoogen . these interpretations rest on a theoretical tradition associating dance with primitive rituals that has been repeatedly and thoroughly dis- credited in dance anthropology − see buckland / : . specifically, they owe much to the set designer of sacre, nicholas roerich − in particular his interview in rech . ./ . . . alt- hough both stravinsky and nijinsky seem to have respected roerich as an authority on pagan russia, nijinsky specifically requested that he not be present at the rehearsals. diaghilev to stra- vinsky . . / . . in stravinsky (i): . see below on the ballets russes according to jacques rivière, who was merely following a trend in the reviews where the russians were regularly discussed as the guardians of mystical memories of primitive ancestors (to cite le figaro may ) and "the virile impulses of an untamed race" (johnson : ). on dance as the primitive origin of art, see e.g. st.-johnston : - ; flitch : - ; caffin & caffin : - . avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en with sacre, the generally positive tone of russian reviews is also in stark contrast to the generally negative russian view of diaghilev's enterprise and the mixed opinion of western critics (järvinen ). for example, the future commissar of enlightenment in the soviet union, anatoly lunacharsky (in teatr i iskusstvo ./ . . ), discussed how this work overhauled traditional notions of beauty in ballet and, like the former director of the imperial theatres, prince sergei volkonsky (in apollon / ), emphasised that sacre did not aim for archaeological accuracy or ethnographic authenticity in its representation of the primitive. although it never occurred to lunacharsky that nijinsky would have viewed primitive form (as well as primitivist developments in contemporary art) as beautiful in and of itself, he at least did not mistake russians for primitives in the manner of many of the french critics praised in research as truly understanding sacre. as an example of the latter, in his first article on sacre for la nouvelle revue française (august ), jacques rivière claimed that the russians had a kind of a primitive hive mind and he explicitly rested his appraisal of the new work on this presumed racial, that is, biological difference: cette petite troupe d’hommes n’a pas été entamée. [--] entre eux et nous il y a la distance d’une race à une autre. [--] s’il leur est impossible de communiquer avec nous, lorsqu’ils sont entre eux, ils ont une extraordinaire faculté de mêler leurs âmes, de sentir et de penser la même chose à plusieurs. leur race est trop jeune encore pour que se soient construites en chaque être ces milles petites différences, ces délicates réserves personnelles, ces légères mais infranchissables défenses qui abritent le seuil d’un esprit cultivé. l’originalité n’est pas en eux cette balance fragile de sentiments hétérogènes qu’elle est en nous. elle a quelque chose de plus libre, de plus rude, de moins facile à endommager. c’est pourquoi elle peut s’engager et se perdre un instant dans les autres. the fact that rivière explicitly rests his praise of the new work on the inherent and irrevocable difference between the "untamed" russians and the "cultivated" french is why it is so suspect that in his famous second article in both quoted in järvinen . both critics also disliked roerich's costumes: the former thought them unoriginal and the latter called them "губернія" (provincial). in contrast, the usual advocate of diaghilev's enterprise, valerian svetlov (in peterburgskaia gazeta . ./ . . ) focused on roerich's contribution, apparently because nijinsky's choreography made him very uncomfortable. such as rivière - see e.g. kirstein : , - ; garafola : - ; launay . what truly indicates the remarkable orientalism of research on the ballets russes is that familiarity with russian materials or ability to read russian are not deemed necessary for expertise on the company. russian reviews are also conspicuously absent from the reconstruction materials hodson uses. a laboratory of spring la nouvelle revue française (november ), he speaks of sacre as a "biological" ballet. indeed, this blatant racism of contemporary discourse, where race was a natural category, is rarely addressed in research on the ballets russes. primitivism − seeking aesthetic ideas in the products of contemporary cultures perceived as incapable of progress, eternally representing the past of humankind − certainly affected the choreographic ideas of nijinsky who was commissioned to translate the libretto of the new ballet into a misé-en-scène. although no notation of sacre by nijinsky has survived, nijinsky was highly interested in cubism and even claimed that: "Моя новая формула движения подчеркнет механизм жеста и линий. Я применил к хореографии теорию живописцев-кубистов." also the fact that his contemporaries immediately associated particular kinds of gestures with the primitive and the savage − for better or for worse − attests to a shared understanding of what 'primitive' connoted in aesthetic terms. however, the significance of primitive differed greatly between the parisian spectators, who feared that the demise of their empire was already visible in the degenerative effects of over-civilization, and the russian audiences, for whom the primitive was imbued with ideas about neo-nationalist revival. the critics’ own views on the role of this neo-nationalism in russian art greatly influenced how they interpreted what they saw of it in sacre. regardless of whether they liked nijinsky's choreography, russian critics were inclined to see a connection between the danced gestures and old native russian forms of art, notably icons and lubki (popular prints); but they simultaneously stressed the interpretation of these forms in the dance was inherently modern. however, whereas both lunacharsky and volkonsky saw this modernism as a (more or less) positive tendency, levinson clearly posited himself against the narodnik (populist) tradition of neo-nationalism, where true russianness stemmed from a connection to the soil and the there are no hand-written notes to stravinsky's piano score in the manner of nijinsky's notes on debussy's jeux (debussy & nijinsky s.a.) "my new formula of movement emphasises the mechanism of gesture and line. i apply to choreography the theory of cubist painters." nijinsky quoted in peterburgskaia gazeta ./ . . (quoted in zilberstein & samkov (i): , my translation). his interview in comœdia . . headlined "nijinski va faire dans l”après-midi d’un faune’ des essais de chorégraphie cubiste". however, see berliner : on the distinction between the 'sauvage' and the 'primitif'. see lunacharsky in teatr i iskusstvo ./ . . on lubki and primitive painting; levinson in rech ./ . . on "icon-painting-like gestures" and "naïve kustarnost" (kustari being peasant manufactures, kustarnost means their products); volkonsky in apollon / on "cubist icon- painting". all these stress the connection to painting (flatness, stylisation). more in järvinen : esp. - . avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en (idealised) peasants. this observation not only points to the co-existence of different nationalisms in russia and their significance to the critical reception of a work seemingly about russia's past (and its future), but also suggests caution in assuming that any critic (particularly a foreign critic) understood the "truth" of sacre. although it is likely that the frequency of associating nijinsky's choreographies with cubism was due to the choreographer's published claims, it is also crucial to note that russian and western reviews differ in their reading of this cubism. in the west, nijinsky's stylisation − his choreographic focus on simple movements and idiomatic gestures − was usually deemed ugly, unsuited to dance as an art form, and, more specifically, a foreign tendency threatening the 'authenticity' of the russians. in russia, these formal qualities were seen as imbued with national spirit, making the work more russian as well as engaging with contemporary concerns in russian art. this is why it is crucial that nikolai minsky (pseudonym of nikolai maksimovich vilenkin) labelled nijinsky's choreographic style 'neo- realism' − a word he used of the acmeist poets. for minsky, nijinsky's choreographies were a stylised form of everyday reality, a new kind of formalism misunderstood for the same reason similar modernist ideas of beauty were misinterpreted in other art forms. in his review of sacre for utro rossii . ./ . . , minsky distinguished this neo-realism from realism, the style favoured by the narodniki, emphasising that in the former, reality was but a starting point: the goal was artifice, as in all great art. since minsky also chides mikhail fokine, nijinsky's predecessor as the principal ballet master of like most advocates of the 'old ballet' of petipa, levinson was politically aligned with the zapadniki (westernisers), for whom russians imported western cultural products to improve them for the greater glory of the nation. see mikkeli : - ; vihavainen : - ; williams : - , esp. . ballet was one of these 'improved imports' associated with the petrine reforms. in contrast, kustari were the domain of the narodniki (populists) who sought the russian soul in the folk traditions of the peasants. many of the narodniki embraced primitivism, which utilised the crafts of peasants to create designs for the modern consumer. salmond ; also rhodes : - . as a socialist, lunacharsky would have been closer to the narodniki whereas volkonsky, a baltic nobleman, is a more complex case. this is particularly true of the french reviews, e.g. gaston carraud in la liberté . . quoted below. similar claims had already surfaced with nijinsky's l'après-midi d'un faune of , and again with jeux, also to debussy's score, a fortnight before sacre: see e.g. camille mauclair in le courrier musical . . . however, exceptions also exist: octave mauss l’art moderne quoted in bullard (ii): - ; and jean marnold in mercure de france . . , who shared rivière's opinion of the russian race as an atavistic collective. in england, where critics were less hostile towards nijinsky's choreographies, some really made an effort to understand with sacre - see francis toye in the graphic . . (negative); cf. toye in the bystander . . (positive). the acmeists were a loose group of poets including anna akhmatova and osip mandelstam as well as minsky himself. a laboratory of spring the ballets russes, with the words of tolstoy, his point is clearly a modernist re-appropriation of the russian realist tradition. nijinsky's later interest in tolstoy makes this connection almost too neat to be credible. in contrast, western critics had a tendency to represent nijinsky’s works as “une phase nouvelle de la lutte de l’idéalisme contre le réalisme dans l’art scénique” (vuillermoz in s.i.m. revue musicale june ), as a new kind of anti-realist art. however, minsky's reading of sacre is plausible because what he says is also close to nijinsky’s (in le figaro . . ) insistence that dance should utilise contemporary movements: l’homme que je vois avant tout autre sur la scène, dit-il, c’est l’homme moderne. je rêve d’un costume, d’une plastique, d’un mouvement qui seraient caractéristiques de notre temps. il y a sûrement dans le corps humain des éléments qui sont significatifs de l’époque où il s’exprime. lorsqu’on voit aujourd’hui un homme se promener, lire un journal ou danser le tango, on n’aperçoit rien de commun entre ses gestes et ceux, par exemple, d’un flâneur sous louis xv, d’un gentilhomme courant le menuet, ou d’un moine lisant studieusement un manuscrit au treizième siècle. for nijinsky, a man on the modern streets did not walk like a man from the seventeenth century, the dances of the s were not minuets and a newspaper was not read reverentially. what is at stake, here, is more than period style, it is the aesthetic of grace and harmony: when movement is no longer something eternal, ideal or 'natural' in the manner of contemporary dance discourse, dance can no longer act as a 'cure' to modernity. therefore, the role of the primitive in sacre was to allow for experimentation with form, to find an excuse to do away with precisely those aesthetic qualities that were usually seen as ontological: grace, harmony, lightness, flow. for this reason, although meant as a joke, there is no actual contradiction in alfred capus (in a satirical front-page editorial to le figaro . . ) calling one of the characters "le type bien moderne de la femme de trois cents ans", a woman both modern and ancient. during the war, nijinsky began to plan a school of dancing. he drafted charters for the school, beginning each with quotations from tolstoy - see krasovskaya : , . he also became a vegetarian, adopted tolstoyan religious ideas and reinterpreted his life and career in his so-called diary (nijinsky , written between . .- . . under the influence of psychoactive drugs administered by a sports doctor in love with nijinsky's wife - see ostwald : esp. - , ), eerily similar at times to tolstoy . this relates to how, before the first world war, only certain kinds of dance were acceptable in the discourse. ragtime dances or the tango that nijinsky mentions were not; they were a "degenerate" form, the opposite of modern art dance (including ballet) in contemporary dance literature. see järvinen for a discussion; also, first paragraph of the next section. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en simple movements, stylised gestures what, then, were the specific movement qualities associated with sacre? based on the reviews, these could be labelled ) pedestrian simplicity, ) asymmetry, ) repetition, ) stillness, and ) submission to gravity. as i noted in conjunction with lalo's review, all these qualities were seen as refuting the ontological premises of art dance: in order to be art, dance was supposed to be graceful, harmonious, unique, flowing and light movement. in contemporary dance discourse, where the primitive was usually associated with ragtime dance (e.g. caffin & caffin : esp. - ), introducing these qualities to a ballet about primitive russians meant imitating the subject-matter too literally. coming from russians, moreover, it revealed the essential primitivity of the russians themselves, their reversion to type. since nijinsky left no notes on sacre − it being the only one of his four choreographies he does not mention in his so-called diary (nijinsky ) – some aspects of the choreography can be inferred from what is known of these other works. ann hutchinson guest's and claudia jeschke's reconstruction of l'après-midi d'un faune ( , henceforth faune), based on nijinsky's notation for this choreography, should serve as an example of how and why contemporary opinions on movement qualities in nijinsky's choreographies should be taken with a grain of salt. setting aside the problems of recreating performance from the archive, this reconstruction has shown how the qualities of jerkiness and angularity that contemporary critics and later reminiscences and reconstructions have ascribed to this work (and nijinsky's choreographic aesthetic more generally) are contingent upon a hegemonic assumption of what dance should be rather than any intrinsic qualities of the choreography. for today's spectator, there is nothing stiff, constrained or unnatural about faune, because we are accustomed to a different aesthetic. similar responses of critics indicate that with the exception of the extraordinary dance of the chosen maiden in the second act of sacre, there was little virtuosity in this work. see e.g. jean perros in la critique independante june ; victor débay in le courrier musical . . . see guest & jeschke : , - ; gerhard : - ; l’après-midi d’un faune . particularly because the reconstructors stress theirs is an interpretation of a score, this work also shows the critical potential of reconstruction as a practice, as discussed by franko , even if in actual performance practice, such conditioning is only evident in the programme booklets, not on stage. or, rather, the virtuosity is of a different order: it does not lie in physical bravado but in rhythmic precision, a subdued virtuosity of the professional dancer. see e.g. volkonsky quoted in note below. a laboratory of spring in - , it was self-evident that natural movement on stage was always learned and cultivated movement striving for beauty and grace. in the words of louis laloy (in la grande revue . . ), the purpose of dance was to create “combinaisons inédites, plus belles et plus vraies que celles du quotidien usage,” meaning that which was better than the real. the stage was an improved reality, so any staged expressions had to be aesthetically pleasing. as in contemporary theatre (hatt : - ; brewster & jacobs : esp. - , - ), the imperfect, untrained and undisciplined body was offensive − in other words, on stage, 'natural' or 'realistic' movements did not aim at verisimilitude. everyday movement (as in jeux, nijinsky's second choreography that laloy here attacked) was not acceptable in dance that claimed to be art. apart from adherence to grace and harmony, training was imperative because only the cultivated ‘natural’ body expressed emotion directly and without ambivalence. gestures were a universal language that, if executed correctly, conveyed the desired message and affect of dance. nijinsky's predecessor as the principal ballet master of the ballets russes, mikhail fokine, thought awkwardness was always the result of poor training; hence, it was unnatural, ugly and suited only for sideshow material (fokine : esp. - ; nelson : ). together with the critics' concern over grace and 'plastique', these ideas greatly limited what was permissible on stage. it seems that nijinsky was tired of these limits: sacre utilised precisely these 'unseemly' movement qualities to great effect. early silent films may give us an idea what ‘natural’ gestures and mimicry meant for turn-of-the-century audiences – for historical reasons, we see these expressions as excessive, even histrionic. ever since faune, nijinsky had been known for eliminating precisely this kind of acted expression: these views were widespread amongst contemporary dancers as well: see isadora duncan quoted in kinney & kinney s.a.: ; duncan : esp. . see also e.g. koritz : ; carter . see mikhail mordkin's description of how to correctly represent affects on stage in the literary digest . . ; or isadora duncan quoted in flitch : . see nijinsky in the daily mail . . ; also, lady ottoline morrell : reminisced that: “such ballets as le spectre de la rose did not interest him; he said it was trop joli and was rather annoyed when people admired it.” of course, any stage gestures have to convey emotional impact even for members of the audience sitting at the back row. as brewster and jacobs ( : esp. - ) have demonstrated, particular concerns of the cinematic stage space (especially the close-up shot and larger-than-life screens which heightened the visibility of the smallest detail) induced reduced gesturing also in theatre. this new cinematic acting style gradually became the standard by which we now evaluate staged gestures as 'natural'. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en once when a new girl had to learn nijinsky’s sister’s part, in which the nymph suddenly sees the faune, turns away and walks off – he said to her: ‘why do you look so frightened?’ she said she thought she was meant to be. thereupon, quite in a rage, he said that the movement he gave her was all that was required of her, he was not interested in her personal feelings. although nijinsky's notation for faune is impossible to execute, it provides at least some idea on what his first choreography looked like. clearly, nijinsky did not do away with mimicry as much as stylised and conventionalised it, replacing the acted-out expressivity of an individual dancer with choreographed expressivity, set for all dancers dancing a particular role. thus, in faune, the dancers' fingers indicate the character's emotional responses (the faun's thumbs, for example, went up to indicate interest and arousal), no matter who danced this particular part. from the perspective of the dancers, only recently accustomed to the kind of theatrical acting nijinsky opposed, the choreographer seemed to deprive them of precisely those qualities they would have associated with stardom (individuality and self-expression). in the 'new ballet', although the corps de ballet was still the scenery for the main action, it was common for ballet masters to give the dancers in the corps the freedom to improvise their particular tasks for crowd scenes. this not only broke the traditional uniformity of the corps, but also allowed greater liberties in interpretation for precisely the dancers traditionally deprived of such rights – a likely reason for fokine’s great popularity amongst the ballets russes corps-de-ballet dancers. nijinsky's choreographic practice of thinking over the smallest detail before rehearsing the work with the dancers deprived the dancers of the power to influence the end result to the extent to which they were accustomed. hence, the dancers often referred to nijinsky's choreography as ‘unnatural’ and ‘constraining’; the choreography, they said, made them feel like they were made of wood or stone – as if they were materials shaped by the rambert : . according to marian smith : , - , mime passages have been well- nigh eliminated in today’s versions of nineteenth-century ballets. guest & jeschke : especially - on compromises necessary for rehearsing the choreography from nijinsky's notation, where nijinsky “wrote the degree of bend and placement of each finger and thumb for holding the flute.” guest : . also e.g. rambert ; rambert : - on nijinsky’s extraordinary demands for precision. in russia, 'new ballet' was an early-twentieth-century choreographic style emphasising dramatic acting associated with aleksandr gorsky and contrasted with the 'old ballet' of petipa. see e.g. järvinen , . see e.g. karsavina : ; rambert : , ; nijinska : esp. , on fokine. at the time, no choreography was expected to remain the same from one performance to the next: see petipa quoted in wiley : . a laboratory of spring choreographer (nijinska : ; sokolova : - ). this indicates the emergence of the idealist view of dance composition, where the choreography is an abstraction in the head of the singular, new author of dance, the choreographer; and where the dancer is an always-already imperfect executioner of the will of this author-figure (monni : - ). this idealist view is, of course, close to the manner in which music is understood in formalist musicology (e.g. mcclary ), but it is important that it emerges with nijinsky's authoritative statements about his choreographic compositions, made possible because of his celebrity status as a dancing genius. anonymous asymmetrical masses in dance, the concern with grace and harmony links these ideas of a 'natural' cultivated body language to asymetry, the second movement quality i mentioned. lalo's description of the infirm gestures of the ataxic dancers indicates contorted or jerky movements, but as with other nijinsky choreographies, these qualities have been exaggerated out of all proportion in later research. the "jerkiness" in nijinsky's choreographies seems to have been the quality of everyday movement that contemporary dance discourse deemed unfit for the stage, an indication of how the modern world was desperately in need for a cure to modernity (see e.g. flitch : - quoted in järvinen : ). however, asymmetry relates not only to the asymmetry of gestures or the line of an individual dancer's body but to how dance was arranged on stage. there is some evidence that audiences, unaccustomed to intentional asymmetry and arrhythmia in choreography, interpreted their appearance in nijinsky's choreographies as the dancers' "mistakes". in ballet choreography, the conventional manner of arranging dancers on stage was based on the principals. fokine preferred diagonal and circular floor-patterns that emphasised the three-dimensionality of the stage and also skilfully utilised the corps de ballet to emphasise the principals. the effect shows in a review in the lady ( . . ): see järvinen : - ; e.g. chantavoine in l'excelsior . . made a distinction between nijinsky as dancer and nijinsky as choreographer to disparage the latter. for example, pall mall gazette . . . when nijinsky re-rehearsed faune for the second north american tour of the ballets russes in , after the critics had seen a memory-based version of the work, the new york herald . . wrote that "the chorus seemed to dance not quite so smoothly as last season, but, no doubt, it was because of a lack of time for rehearsals." in actuality, the reverse was true. jeschke : - . however, russian critics complained that fokine had lost sight of choreography as composition, his staging was "real, not represented, disorder" according to volkonsky in the nineteenth century and after june ; similarly, levinson in apollon / ; homo novus [aleksandr kugel] in teatr i iskusstvo / june . avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en i remember a circular movement, many figures running round and rising high in the air, and from their centre, as from the middle of a bright, glittering flower in the wind, a man rising head and shoulders above them, pirouetting in the air, resting on the air, a creature who has defied gravitation’s laws – nijinsky! although fokine and other 'new ballet' choreographers did away with some of the geometric rigidity of the 'old ballet', they retained the hierarchy of the dancers that emphasised the principals over the ballet 'crowd', the corps de ballet (see e.g. svétlow : ). contrary to what is often presented, this is true even of the ballets russes ensemble pieces like les danses polovtsiennes, possibly the biggest success of the season, starring adolph bolm. like the fact that dance was graceful and harmonious, the manner in which dance was set on stage was so self-evident that prior to nijinsky breaking the rules, reviews said very little about choreography: how fokine created or developed the ensemble effects on stage, what were the relationships of different dancers (men and women, soloists versus chorists), or how the choreographic devices expressed the plot or related to the music. outside of russia, fokine was almost never interviewed, the star dancers received all the media attention. moreover, in western reviews, dance was quite secondary to the plot, the visual design and the music: descriptions of the actions of even the principal dancers are rare. but nijinsky's faune shows such a drastic change in how dance was discussed that it actually belies the frequently-heard claims about the inability of western critics to write about dance. however, like jeux, which only had three dancers, faune was a small work where critical attention could focus on detail. sacre, in contrast, was a massive piece, involving most of the dancers of the company and a series of events flowing into one another and multiple dances happening simultaneously. hence, the sacre reviews were rather vague about specific choreographed moments outside of a handful of significant instances (notably, the dance of the chosen maiden in the second act). instead of a detailed description of specific movements or choreographic devices, the texts contain general comments on the movement style. having said this, many critics also noted true ensembles, of course, should not have stars in this manner. see e.g. gil blas . . ; comœdia illustré . . . for a rare exception, see gil blas . . where fokine discusses period art and costuming as his "method" for transferring the story to stage. e.g. the times . . said of nijinsky that "his dancing, too, has new elements in it, wonderful, rhythmic patterns of the body which he has not shown us elsewhere." although this was far more than was usually said, nothing followed to tell the reader what these new elements of nijinsky’s dancing actually were. cf. the detailed description of the line of the nymph's body in henri bidou's review for le journal des débats politiques et littéraires . . , quoted in järvinen : . a laboratory of spring similarities between the three works that can be used to infer other similarities on the level of choreography. the choreographer of sacre did not exactly facilitate the formation of this critical discourse. himself a star of unprecedented magnitude, nijinsky had a penchant not to give proper names to the characters in his works. when it comes to sacre, he claimed that, there are no human beings in it. it is only the incarnation of nature – not of human nature. it will be danced only by the corps de ballet, for it is a thing of concrete masses, not of individual effects. in an unprecedented choreographic move sacre had no stars to dominate the attention of the spectator or principals whose story they could follow − none of the characters in the first act appeared in the second. this was not something designated by the libretto, let alone the programme notes (see théâtre des champs-Élysées: saison russe . . ), which, in actuality, allow for a very traditional ballet about the kind of fanciful peasants that lunacharsky ridiculed in his review. this tradition is clearly also what the audiences expected, after the previous successes of ballets russes "ensemble" works like les danses polovtsiennes. sensibly, in casting the work, nijinsky did not engage the top tier of the ballets russes roster of dancers, including himself and his partners in jeux, tamara karsavina and ludmila schollar. yet the fact that nijinsky himself did not dance turned out to be a cause for further critical displeasure − in l’eclair ( . . quoted in bullard (ii): - ), paul souday ended his rant about the ugliness of sacre with an exclamation: “and m. nijinsky did not even dance!” similarly, gustave de pawlowski asked in comoedia ( . . ) whether just one appearance by nijinsky himself would not have brought the ballet back on track. again, the russian critics, familiar with petipa's ensemble effects and with the nationalist ideas of russian spiritual community (соборность), saw nothing wrong in this emphasis on the crowd. prince volkonsky wrote for apollon ( / ) of how this brought forth the element of rhythm in the choreography: whereas nijinsky would have danced "count albrecht" in giselle or "vaiu" in le talisman, in his four choreographies, the only character that had a proper name was "till eulenspiegel" in the eponymous ballet of . in practice, this meant most dancers were not individualised in the programme notes, which again reduced their claim to stardom. pall mall gazette . . . this sounds curiously similar to the ideas of some of his russian contemporaries: see douglas : . "знаменитыхъ пейзанъ въ шелковыхъ рубахахъ и плисовыхъ шароварахъ." i.e. "the usual peasants in silk shirts and corduroy trousers." lunacharsky in teatr i iskusstvo ./ . . , my translation. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en Надо сказать и то, что исполнено это было восхитительно, – ровно, однотонно: двигались не люди, двигалась вся линія, какъ нѣчто одно, само по себѣ живое, – человѣческое ожерелье, связанное невидимою нитьвю ритма... Большое воспитательное значеніе имѣетъ это подтвержденіе хористическаго начала въ томъ искусствѣ, которое до сихъ поръ было самое ‘солистическое’ изъ всѣхъ. Забвеніе своего ‘я’ – первое условіе искусства, и въ этом смыслѣ новое направленіе нельзя не привѣтствовать, какъ элементъ художественнаго здоровья. the emphasis, here, on dance as an art of the individual and of the soloist was even more accurate in contemporary dance outside of ballet − most of the period's famed stars (letty lind, loïe fuller, isadora duncan) danced alone. with sacre, however, this lack of stars drew critical attention to choreographic composition. hence, the critics spoke of how the masses were balanced on stage and how they played against and with the music and décor. they noticed associations between certain dancers and particular instruments; for instance, between the women and the oboes, also evident in stravinsky's notes ( : ). although the dancers would not have been aware of all of these correspondences until the final rehearsals in paris in may , their execution struck several critics as wonderful. the times ( . . ) admired how even the colours of the dresses are to some extent reflected in the orchestration – as, for instance, in the first scene, when a group of maidens in vivid scarlet huddles together to the accompaniment of closely-written chords on the trumpets. movements, too, are mirrored in an equally realistic way, when, a little later on, the dancers thin out into a straggling line, while the orchestra dwindles to a trill on the flutes; then a little tune begins in the woodwind two octaves apart, and two “it must be said that the execution of this was wonderful – steady, monotonous; the people did not move, only the lines moved, as if no-one lived alone, on their own – a human necklace tied by the invisible string of rhythm... the great pedagogic significance [of sacre] is this strengthening of the choristic foundation in an art, which up to now has been the most ‘solistic’ of all. the forgetting of one’s ‘i’ [is] the first imperative of art, and in this sense the new trend can only be welcome as an element of artistic health.” my translation. the dancers had first rehearsed on stage . . (after the premiere of jeux), but the only rehearsals of sacre with the full orchestra took place . and . . , with the public dress rehearsal on . . . although by today's standards this seems like extraordinarily few rehearsals, it would have been normal for a touring company like the ballets russes, where the dancers rehearsed to a piano score over several months - see next fn. a laboratory of spring groups of three people detach themselves from either end of the line to begin a little dance that exactly suits the music. (similarly, propert : ) this kind of design where synesthesia (the mixing of sensory perceptions) is implicit, required an unprecedented amount of forethought on the part of the collaborators, complicated by the fact that nijinsky did not have either the orchestration of the music or roerich's designs at his disposal during most of the rehearsal process − the designer had sent the designs to the composer who, despite several requests, did not forward them to the choreographer. the orchestration also proved to differ in several places from the piano score. however, stravinsky and nijinsky must have discussed the orchestral colour for the effect to have been visible for the contemporary spectators to the extent that it seems to have been; and nijinsky may have focused on it with the dancers as well. despite his later claims, it seems that stravinsky was quite willing to listen to the choreographer, although he was reluctant to live up to his promise to return to help with the rehearsals − and when he did – it proved somewhat counterproductive. in addition to the associations between groups of dancers and the music, the critics also commented on how the choreography utilised counterpoint, setting one group against another − one moving lightly, one heavily, the elders moving twice as slow as the adolescents, and so on. in an attempt to writing to roerich on ./ . . (in stravinsky (i): - ), the composer scolded the designer for sending him the designs he had told him to send to nijinsky. the régisseur of the company, sergei grigoriev, gave the lack of costume designs as the excuse for not beginning the rehearsals in a letter to stravinsky ./ . . (in stravinsky (i): ). diaghilev telegrammed stravinsky . . / . . (stravinsky (i): ) urging him to send the designs, but the costume designs for the second act were not delivered to nijinsky until the end of march at the earliest, as on ./ . . (in stravinsky (ii): ) diaghilev again told stravinsky to send roerich’s books and designs. as jane pritchard and lynn garafola pointed out to me in conversation ( . . ), nijinsky also could not have held on to the designs, as they had to return to st. petersburg for ivan caffi's firm to actually make the costumes by may. the odyssey of the costume designs belies the reconstructors' extravagant use of the designs for the choreographic patterns: hodson : especially n ; hodson : especially , . “[nijinsky] showed me certain passages in the piano score that are not in agreement with the orchestra score, and he told me that the orchestra score is correct.” monteux to stravinsky . . in stravinsky : - . stravinsky was in london in february and certainly conducted one rehearsal with the dancers in paris . . (stravinsky & craft : , ), but the latter may not be the occasion when the composer managed to frighten the dancers, as rambert ( : - ) recalled. e.g. the times . . wrote of the "curious mouse-like shufflings of the old woman against the rapid steps of the adolescents" (the 'reminiscences' of beaumont : largely rest on this review). similarly, kirstein paraphrasing rambert’s letter in stravinsky & craft : ; and propert : , which hodson : erroneously claims to be an observation “at the time of the première”. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en describe the work for american readers, carl van vechten ( : ) pointed to how some individuals counterpointed group movements and how these related to the orchestral score: at the beginning of the ballet the adolescents pound the earth with their feet, while a little old woman runs in and out between their legs, to the reiterated beat of a chord of f flat, a flat, c flat, f flat; g, b flat, d flat, and e flat, all in the bass (begin from below and read in order), while an occasional flute or a piccolo screams its way in high treble. when re-reading his sacre notes in , stravinsky himself was surprised by: the principal choreographic accents and phrase units, which were seldom coterminous with the accents and phrases of the music. in addition, i cancelled the metrical units of the music on the assumption that to count beats instead of measures of irregular lengths would approximate ballet routine [-.-] the dance is almost always in counterpoint to the music. here, stravinsky shows an understanding of ballet routine − in , he would have had experience of writing two other ballets − and directly contradicts his earlier reminiscences on nijinsky's choreography. his cancellation of the metrical units created choreographic phrases that were (usually) easier for the dancers to remember. for example, “count the next six measures in / ”. this concern over how dancing keeps pace with the music is even more striking when one remembers that in the scenario, the only distinct choreographic movement is at the end of the first act: "chacun piétine la terre avec extase." (théâtre des champs-Élysées: saison russe . . .) certainly, this stomping − both at the beginning and at the end of the first act − did receive more than its share in the reviews. it is connected to the third of the movement qualities, repetition, a quality shared by both the choreography and stravinsky's musical score. stravinsky : , see also . according to hodson in les printemps du sacre , nijinsky set five rhythmic elements over the two in stravinsky’s score, but actually it was stravinsky who had marked the jumps for the dancers in the score – stravinsky : . stravinsky : , also , on the surprising complexity. stravinsky brought the piano score to nijinsky in berlin . . . however, nijinsky alludes to sacre already in an interview to l’intransigeant . . . a laboratory of spring beating and falling by all accounts, following the lyrical introduction, the first scene of the ballet shocked, because the dancers kept jumping in place, stomping the ground and, as van vechten notes above, kept repeating these movements. indignant, adolph boschot (in l’echo de paris quoted bullard (ii): ) wrote of how the dancers paw the ground, they stamp, they stamp, they stamp, they stamp and they stamp.... flash! they break into two groups and salute each other. and they stamp, and they stamp, and they stamp.... flash! a little old lady falls on her head and shows us her third petticoat. and they stamp, they stamp.... the recurrence of the stamping motion, together with the musical recurrences in the score that accompanied them, created a strong sense of the work 'going nowhere' − for example, gustave de pawlowski complained (in comœdia . . ) of having to suffer through two acts of primitives doing nothing. it is tempting to see the process of how repetition becomes a non-event as parallel to european contemporary dance choreography half a century later − in other words, with dance that has rejected spectacle and hence required an ontological re-positioning for the audience (see burt ) – however, doing so would easily lead us to read our attitudes into the responses of . such fallacious post hoc arguments aside, new critical dance and dance scholarship have drawn my attention to aspects of past choreography that cannot be fully addressed in this article. as andré lepecki ( : esp. ) has pointed out, repetition is a kind of a fall into temporality because it is "reiterating what is forever not quite the same". this "triggers the possibility for the secretion of a temporality which allows the body to appear under a different regime of attention and stand on a different, less firm (ontological) ground." although lepecki is discussing the still act of contemporary dance, i would say that the critical reception of sacre − specifically, the need to deny the work the ontological status of dance − amply proves the sudden epistemological uncertainty created by and in the choreographed repetition. furthemore, the idea that repetition deducts from rather than adds to meaning cut likens sacre to nijinsky's earlier works, specifically his interest in circular, undramatic storylines that downgraded the importance of narrative to ballet as an art form: un sujet de ballet, reprit alors nijinsky, doit être ‘nul’ ou connu de tout le monde. on ne réfléchit pas plus au cours d’un ballet que devant un tableau ou durant une symphonie. nijinsky according to cahusac in le figaro . . . the idea is curiously similar to what cocteau later wrote to stravinsky . . (in stravinsky : ): "the dance must not express avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en again, this is not to say nijinsky's aim would have been a modernist abstraction − all of his choreographies had a theme if not exactly a conventional plot, and sacre more so than faune or jeux − but they became more like contemporary free-form dance in their narration. the aforementioned replacement of 'natural' gestures with stylised movements required that the audience worked out their own interpretation of the events rather than assumed the kind of straightforward illusionistic mimesis of naturalist theatre for which nijinsky's predecessor, fokine, had striven. similarly, as i will shortly demonstrate, in nijinsky's works, choreographic compositional devices, such as unisono or tableau, became part of the narration. however, the dancers' stomping on stage is significant also because it went against the presumed quality of good dancing as silent and effortless: nijinsky was famous for the noiseless landings of his leaps, which had given a quality of ethereal lightness to his dance. in contrast, the dancers of sacre beat out a complex rhythm that complemented the regular pulse of the orchestra. for example, in the auguries of spring, bar [ ], when the music beat out tempo giusto / , stravinsky marked accents for the jumps of the young men as [ ]: on the nd and th, [ ]: none, [ ]: nd, [ ]: st, [ ]: st, [ ]: nd bar. this thumping was read as "noise" − it was not the sound of one individual occasionally landing with a thud, it was an intentional and prolonged use of a physical action that was considered dangerous: several articles commented on how sacre caused headaches, “shock[ed] the ear and assault[ed] the nerves” , and the daily telegraph ( . . ) even claimed that maria piltz had been forbidden by her doctor to perform the chosen one. upon retrospect, it is remarkable that the dancers would agree to subject themselves to what would have seemed like outrageous demands of the young choreographer. anything. the [dancer’s] body must arouse itself in a burst, becoming another instrument in the orchestra." one of the few to note the significance of specific mimed gestures was louis vuillemin in comœdia . . . e.g. levinson : ; bourman : on nijinsky landing softly; also the athenaeum . . . stravinsky : . the section is reproduced in hodson : who gives all the dancers different movements for this section − something not corroborated by contemporary sources which, if anything, stress the unisono. the fortnightly review september ; similarly, victor valter quoted in taruskin : . the reminiscences of beaumont : ; and the conductor monteux (quoted in schouvaloff : ) noted the work caused headaches. a laboratory of spring few of the critics were as flexible in their attitudes. a massive work lasting three quarters of an hour, sacre clearly was meant to overwhelm the spectator, an experience Émile vuillermoz (in s.i.m. revue musicale june ) summarised as: vous êtes lié à cet orchestre comme mazeppa à la croupe de son cheval et vous êtes bien forcé de galoper, bon gré mal gré, par dessus les monts et les plaines et d'aller où il lui plaît de vous conduire. hurled along by the centrifugal force of the work, the poor critic is recluntantly hurled along by the centrifugal force onstage − the image of the cyclone in the orchestra emphasises his reluctance − vuillermoz is an unwilling victim; he does not wish to lose himself in the work; he resists and fears its power. in part, his reaction may be attributed to the fear of the (racial, primitive) other or the fear of the crowd, likened to the idea of threatening otherness in much of the social theory of the period (see e.g. ledger & luckhurst : - ). but like the chosen maiden, trapped by the unseen gods of her tribe, the off-stage victim also struggles in vain. the last of the movement qualities listed above relates to the prominence of falling in the choreography. like asymmetry and arhythmy, stumbling and falling were read as mistakes, as failures in and to dance. in the stravinsky and rambert notes on sacre, different kinds of falling occur in sacre: for example, the old woman falls at the end of the augurs of spring [ ] “with her little feet in the air”; and during the the games of two cities in [ ] the three maidens throw themselves on the ground. in the second act, the maidens prepare the ground for the sacrifice by falling down in [ ] and [ ]; and the chosen one gets chosen because she stumbles and falls down on the rd and nd bar before [ ]. these falls signify differently but all direct attention to the heaviness of the dancers' bodies, in stark contrast to how, in contemporary discourse on dance, “[d]ancing is not, on the other hand, a matter of leaping in the air, but a matter of annihilating weight and giving one the impression of spirit.” (the bellman . . .) falling, in other words, was corporeal, drawing attention to the weight and to the bodies conditioned by gravity. hodson : notes this. however, her argumentation is simplistic − the significance of falling depends on the context. see lepecki : esp. . hodson : quoting the rambert score. this is apparently the moment boschot (quoted above) describes. stravinsky : - . stravinsky is obviously not clear how long it will take the dancers to execute the dance – he writes “if the abduction is concluded here” (emphasis added) in bars - of [ ]; fink : esp. on stravinsky’s variable tempi; hodson : - , also , - on the other falls. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en geoffrey whitworth ( : ) chose a scientific parallel to describe this quality in sacre, which he deemed a studied demonstration of the attractive force of the earth and of the triumph of gravity. i have heard that if we were transported all at once to a planet like jupiter, much greater in bulk than our earth, the sense of bodily weight would be so increased that we should find it difficult to walk upright. such apparently is the feeling of the people in le sacre du printemps. the earth seems like an enormous magnet which continually drags them downwards to itself and even leaps are purely ritual. whitworth's use of the word 'ritual' to signify 'for the sake of convention or habit' again draws attention to the multivalence absent from 'ritualistic' readings of this choreography (such as hodson’s). more importantly, besides his interesting reference to physics, which recalls other scientific metaphors used to describe sacre, whitworth's description points to the novelty of a dance that did not pretend to lightness. in contemporary aesthetics, showing the actual effort of dance was unseemly: virtuosic movements such as an extended series of pirouettes (the fouettés en tournant for a ballerina) or difficult leaps (such as tours en l'air for male dancers) had to be executed with both precision and apparent ease (again, a feature associated with nijinsky's dancing). virtuosity, of course, emphasised individual skill, and unsurprisingly, the only part acknowledged as virtuosic in sacre was the solo of the chosen maiden in the second act, where she was set in the middle of circles − first of maidens dressed in costumes identical to hers, then, during her sacrificial dance, of (the spirits of) the ancestors (see pastels by valentine gross in kahane : - ). her final dance, the only solo of the work, received a great deal of attention from reviewers, and even those disliking nijinsky's choreography praised the efforts of maria piltz. however, since the chosen maiden was separated from an identically dressed group only through her (choreographed) action, critics professed uncertainty as to what led to this dance (e.g. johnson : ). in other words, the essentially choreographic selection of the chosen maiden may have led to the impression that her choosing was random, which e.g. vuillermoz in s.i.m. revue musicale june spoke of the electrocution of the dancers; rivière in la nouvelle revue française november on sacre as a biological ballet. see e.g. comœdia may : "les difficultés techniques n’étaient que jeux pour lui"; comœdia june ; flitch : ; whitworth : - ; van vechten : - . however, although new ballet choreographers tended to dislike virtuosity, nijinsky ended fokine’s choreography in schéhérazade ( ) by spinning on his head: e.g. beaumont : . see jullien in le journal des débats politiques et littéraires . . ; the times . . ; johnson : - ; levinson in rech ./ . . ; svetlov in peterburgskaia gazeta . ./ . . . a laboratory of spring would have made her death seem senseless – an interpretation that contributed to how sacre became symbolic of the first world war. rehearsing the dance with the kinds of movement qualities listed above, it is no wonder nijinsky had difficulties with the dancers, even if they did not outright refuse to perform in the work. with his first choreographic composition, faune (which had premiered in may, ), nijinsky had already struggled to get the ballets russes dancers to understand what he required of them. perhaps noticing that using ballet vocabulary caused dancers to fall back on what they already knew, he started describing the poses in russian (see nijinsky's notes in debussy & nijinsky s.a.). his notations show extreme precision in co- ordinating dance with musical rhythm, an exponentially more difficult issue with the rhythmically complex score of sacre. from contemporary accounts, it is clear that dancers and audience members alike seemed to expect dance to relate to the musical score in what can only be called simplistic manner: accents of danced movement corresponded with musical accents much like in social dances; accelerando or crescendo were reflected in identical changes in both the pace of movements on stage and the dancers' expansive use of the stage space. in one interview, lydia sokolova ( : ) expressed the view that her fellow dancers equated music with melody. “they played to sounds, to melodies,” and added that her earlier musical studies helped her greatly to come to terms with nijinsky’s choreographic requirements. the solution to the choreographer's dilemma was to hire someone to teach the complexities of musical rhythm to the dancers, and the obvious person to provide such a teacher was the swiss composer and pedagogue, Émile jaques- dalcroze ( - ). nijinsky and diaghilev went to visit dalcroze's school in hellerau near dresden (reported in comœdia . . ), possibly because prince volkonsky ([ ], - ) was a great advocate of dalcroze's eurhythmics in russia. since this visit predates the premiere of nijinsky's first choreography, faune, it has become a common misperception that dalcroze's method was crucial to nijinsky's understanding of choreography. guest & jeschke : especially , - on timing. in a book edited by richard buckle, sokolova : portrays nijinsky as insane but nonetheless claimed faune was a difficult work and cites the choreographer's instructions as “you must try to walk between the bars of the music and sense the rhythm which is implied.” however, in an interview with john drummond for his diaghilev films for the bbc, sokolova ( : ) recalled that "once you mastered it, and you could hear yourself, or feel yourself dancing in sound, it was the most delightful thing to dance in that you could possibly imagine." e.g. barker : believes this so firmly she thinks nijinsky’s going against dalcrozian principles was due to the fact that he composed the work to the piano score. however, her avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en late in , when the rehearsals of sacre were due to begin, diaghilev hired a dalcroze student, marie rambert (miriam ramberg), as nijinsky's choreographic assistant. rambert was to teach musical rhythm and timing to the dancers so that they would understand nijinsky's choreographic instructions − not to teach dalcroze to nijinsky. the fact that the choreographer thought the professional ballet dancers of the ballets russes would need classes in this subject indicates that he doubted their abilities to cope with what he planned for the choreography of a score of which only a piano rendering existed at this stage. unfortunately, the dancers were so opposed to rambert's classes that they were quickly discontinued. rambert also later claimed that dalcroze was of no use to her with the music of stravinsky, and (rather modestly) said she contributed little to nijinsky's choreographic composition. this misperception of nijinsky's choreography as "dalcrozian" also owes something to a letter claude debussy wrote to robert godet, a french advocate of dalcroze's system: permettez-moi de comprendre parmi ces derniers [événements bien inutiles], la représentation de jeux, où le génie pervers de nijinsky s’est ingénié à de spéciales mathématiques! cet homme additionne les triples croches avec ses pieds, fait la preuve avec ses bras, puis subitement frappé d’hémiplégie, il regarde passer la musique d’un œil mauvais. il paraît que cela s’appelle la “stylisation du geste”... c’est vilain! c’est même dalcrozien, car je considère monsieur dalcroze comme un des pires ennemis de la musique! et vous supposez ce que sa méthode peut faire de ravages dans l’âme de ce jeune sauvage qu’est nijinsky! in what is clearly a tongue-in-cheek manner, debussy attacked nijinsky for doing a disservice to his own music − nijinsky's choreography to debussy's jeux that premiered only a fortnight before sacre. however, the composer apparent source, valentine gross in comoedia illustré . . , does not actually say this. similarly, bullard (i): - ; pasler : cf. ; and even odom : attribute too much to dalcroze and rambert; cf. buckle : - ; and next two fn. rambert : - ; rambert . the company régisseur sergei grigoriev : claims it was his idea that rambert’s classes were combined with nijinsky’s rehearsals to save time – the dancers called them “arithmetic classes”. nijinsky's sister bronislava nijinska ( : - ) professed her utter disdain of dalcroze and of rambert. rambert quoted in hodson b: - : “but dalcroze’s method, which is terribly simple, didn’t help because stravinsky didn’t care a hoot if one bar was three-four and the next seven- eight, then from three-four to five-three. i mean it was absolutely impossible.” rambert told buckle : that her only contribution to the choreography was to once suggest to nijinsky that he would use several small circles instead of one big one. debussy’s letter to robert godet quoted nectoux : - ; also odom : . a laboratory of spring certainly misinterpreted nijinsky’s use of stillness as dalcrozian – nothing would have been more contradictory to dalcroze’s thinking than stopping still when the music suggested movement! based on contemporary reviews and illustrations, the choreography of sacre did retain some of the uniformity and emphasis on group movements that characterised the dalcroze system at this time, even if dalcroze favoured much more symmetrical and harmonious groupings than are evident in the surviving drawings of sacre. needless to say, dalcroze intensely disliked nijinsky’s faune, and complained that it lacked "continuity of movement and of plastic phrasing" – qualities notably missing from sacre as well. what nijinsky’s contemporaries usually meant by a 'dalcrozian influence' was a schematic correspondence of danced rhythm and musical rhythm: “if real tears had been forthcoming one is sure that they, too, would have fallen in semiquavers.” (propert : on jeux.) nijinsky's sister, bronislava nijinska, who was originally meant to dance the chosen maiden, recalled one particular incident during the early rehearsals in monte carlo. nijinsky demonstrated a pas-mouvement in the choreography to the musical count of / . during his huge leap he counted ( + ). on count , high in the air, he bent one leg at the knee and stretched his right arm above his head, on count he bent his body towards the left, on count he bent his body towards the right, then on count , still high in the air he stretched his body upwards again, and then finally came down lowering his arm on count , graphically rendering each note of the uneven measure. to clarify the connection between music and choreography, nijinsky counted beats out aloud to the dancers and he kept this up even during the performances. according to sokolova ( : ) and piltz (in krasovskaya see gross : - ; gross in hodson : passim, esp. , , ; the daily mail . . on "twenty-four dances performed by twenty-four dancers to twenty-four different tunes played simultaneously"; rivière in la nouvelle revue française november on how the music and the choreography were both fragmented, their units distinctively free of each other, colliding, meeting, passing each other. jaques-dalcroze : - . in , dalcroze invited stravinsky to visit his school and praised his music in the same letter where he scolded the russian dancers who "do not yet understand music" and nijinsky who "dances next to and against music". dalcroze's letter to stravinsky . .[ ] in stravinsky , - . nijinska : ; cf. hodson in hodson in les printemps du sacre. hodson : used this for act ii, scene , [ ], dance of the chosen maiden where the musical count is / and / , but nijinska : - clearly implies it was a pas in act i: “i had been coming to vaslav’s rehearsals in monte carlo, even though he was working with the artists of the first scene”. nijinska : ; rambert : ; also cocteau : ; stravinsky : . however, nijinsky certainly could not have shouted cues to all the dancers. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en : ), some of the dancers were close to panicking in the orchestra rehearsals when they heard what seemed like a different piece of music. although nijinska's description of the pas-mouvement sounds a little like a dalcroze exercise, as selma odom notes, relatively few critics mentioned dalcroze in the reviews. even prince volkonsky did not claim nijinsky was in any way emulating dalcroze or that the end result looked 'dalcrozian' − after all, dalcroze himself was still modifying and refining his pedagogical ideas and would do so for years to come. Я видѣлъ незабываемую репетицію. Нижинскій проходилъ сцену съ одной изъ танцовщицъ, которая должна была замѣнить другую. Репетиція въ залѣ, - они двое и акомпаніаторъ, больше никого. Это была восхитительная работа переложенія музыки въ движеніе. Тактъ за тактомъ, нота за нотой, воспринимались ухомъ, усваивались сознаніемъ, отбивались въ ладоши и потомъ воспроизводились въ танцовально-мимическомъ движеніи. Только у Далькроза видалъ я такое тѣсное, до полной сліянности тѣсное, сочетаніе музыки и движенія. Какъ эта маленькая сценка, так былъ разученъ весь двухактный балетъ Стравинскаго «Священная Весна». Что меня поразило въ этомъ балетѣ, это, рядомъ съ ритмичностью задуманныхъ балетмейстеромъ картинъ, удивительная ритмичность исполненія. Кордебалетъ, который м о ж е т ъ э т о , представляетъ собой изумительный ритмическій матеріалъ. И вотъ, когда видишь этотъ поразительный матеріалъ и при этомъ вспоминаешь нѣкоторыя наши балетныя постановки, спрашиваешь себя, какъ же это возможно, чтобы такой кордебалетъ осуществлялъ такія антиритмичныя картины, какія мы иногда видали? И приходится заключить, что дѣло не въ кордебалетѣ, а въ балетмейстерахъ. odom : . one example is vuillermoz in s.i.m. revue musicale june . dalcroze advertised profusely in this paper. "i saw an unforgettable rehearsal. nijinsky went on stage with one of the dancers, who had to replace an other [dancer]. rehearsal in the hall - only the two [of them] and the accompanist, no others. this was charming work of arranging music with movement. bar by bar, note by note, receiving by ear, absorbing understanding, taken from his hands and then reproduced in danc- ing-miming movement. only in dalcroze have i seen such strictness, such complete fusion, com- bination of music and movement. like this little scene, so all [dancers] would learn stravinsky's two-act ballet "sacred spring". what struck me in this ballet, next to the rhythm of [stage] pictures conceived by the ballet master, it is their amazing rhythmic execution. a corps de ballet that can [do this] is capable of marvellous rhythmic execution. and so, when you see this amazing execu- tion whilst recalling some of our ballet productions, you ask yourself, how is it possible that such a corps de ballet realised such anti-rhythmic [stage] pictures that we have sometimes seen? one must conclude that what is the matter [there] is not in the corps de ballet but in the ballet master." a laboratory of spring in a description reminiscent of nijinska's recollection of the rehearsals, volkonsky mentioned his hero, dalcroze, as the only one with a similar demand for precision. praising the company, he thought that nijinsky had whipped the ballets russes into shape, showing the dancers to their advantage. volkonsky thus positioned himself against the 'new ballet' of fokine in the contemporary russian debate on the future of the art form. what has confused some researchers is that in contemporary texts, the terms ‘eurhythmics’ and 'rhythmic gymnastics' that dalcroze used to describe his system did not automatically connote the work of this particular theorist − eurhythmy simply means harmonious composition (as in ferdinand hodler's painting eurhythmy, see levinson : ). at the time, many theatrical practitioners were interested in rhythmic movement and gymnastics as means to self-improvement and creation of staged effects − from theatrical forms in the delsarte tradition like those developed by isadora's brother raymond duncan to vsevolod meyerhold's biomechanics. the sketch ( . . ) associated sacre with "swedish-exercise-like movements", teatr i iskusstvo with meyerhold, and nijinsky alludes to the work of raymond duncan in one interview. although this is not to say nijinsky did not take something from dalcroze as well, it is obvious that he, like choreographers before and since, also had other sources for the ideas he wanted to stage − down to the wooden duck that the conductor edwin evans had given the choreographer (pritchard , - quoting evans). in other words, to exaggerate the significance of dalcroze is to downplay the originality of the choreography of sacre and to simplify contemporary reactions to it. therefore, it is good to keep in mind volkonsky's point that, despite grumbling about hard work, the dancers managed to master a difficult and unfamiliar dance idiom and perform it to the hoots and whistles of an audience like the true professionals they were. apollon / , my translation, emphasis in the original. similarly, when the times . . writes that nijinsky "joins hands with such workers as m. jaques-dalcroze", the critic continues to speak of nijinsky's theories on ballet. n.n. in teatr i iskusstvo . ./ . . . minsky in utro rossii . ./ . . had already made the same connection. in l’intransigeant . . . minsky in utro rossii . ./ . . had also made this connection, which may imply that nijinsky had read his review. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en the still tableau besides movement qualities, the choreographic composition of sacre flaunted convention in other ways. the most notable of these was doing away with the principal means for making sense of dance narrative, the tableau (or stage picture). the libretto of sacre and the programme notes let the audience expect a set of pictures from pagan russia (“tableaux de la russie païenne”), but the stage action did not fulfill these expectations. as one contemporary critic complained, "the incidents [--] cannot be called dramatic, for they follow each other without much feeling for rational sequence or climax." this is one reason why critics deemed the authors incapable of communicating their ideas to the audience, but one that has rarely been addressed in research on the work. ben brewster and lea jacobs have convincingly argued that in contemporary theatre and early cinema, the purpose of the tableaux was to divide the scene into easily manageable parts: they punctuated the action, stressed and/or prolonged a dramatic situation, and sometimes also gave allegorical or abstract significance to the events (emphasising the morality of the play, for example). the tableaux were marked by a change of scenery, and/or musical cue, and/or choreographic action, usually an exit/entrance pause that preceded the new scene (brewster-jacobs : esp. - , , - .) as with nijinsky's earlier choreographies, sacre failed to follow this self-evident theatrical convention, and to provide the audience with the necessary cues to 'read' a change of tableau into the stage action. stravinsky, too, was very proud of his smooth musical junctures between the different pieces of the libretto (stravinsky to roerich ./ . . in stravinsky (i): ). as with faune and jeux, nijinsky misplaced the expected choreographed stillness used for marking tableaux. the misplaced stillness 'read' wrong, which broke the ‘flow’ so integral to the meaning of dance for contemporary audiences. however, it also created choreographed counterpoints on stage by, for example, placing one still group against another moving, a still individual amidst a moving group, or a still group with one individual the times . . . also taruskin : - notes the russian critics wrote of the music as immobility, disunity and disjunction. bullard (i): . this relates to the argument above about the presumed racial difference between the russians and the french. e.g. in bar [ ], according to stravinsky : ; for bars in the cortège du sage [ ], according to rambert quoted in hodson : . e.g. the old woman at [ ] bar , falls on her knees amidst the young men (hodson : ) and is apparently still until [ ] where she “moves her head” (op.cit.: ) just to fall in [ ] (op.cit.: ). a laboratory of spring moving. in the first act, stillness is marked at least for bars of [ ]; for bars before [ ]; in th, rd, nd and st bars before [ ]; in the th, nd and st bar before [ ]; and bar before [ ]. similarly, in the second act, bar before [ ]; bar before [ ]; and bar before [ ]. of these, the last one in the first act and the second to last one in the second are traditional tableau pauses, occurring just before the dance of the earth and at the moment of the choosing of the chosen maiden – the culminating points, respectively, of each act. contrary to hodson’s interpretation (based on the disparities between the rambert and stravinsky notes), it seems likely that at some of these points the entire ensemble stopped moving. such a sudden, complete stillness onstage is a striking device that would also emphasise the stop-and-start beat of the orchestra. as pasler ( : ) notes, the orchestra paused at [ ] to allow the dancers to run and surround the sage, contrasting rapid movement with silence, followed by stillness as the music resumed. however, the most striking, unconventional use of stillness in the choreography precedes the solo of the chosen maiden. during the danse sacrale, precisely when the music seems to indicate rapid movement, this soloist stands absolutely still amidst other moving dancers. according to the notes printed in the stravinsky score, her immobility lasts from [ ] to [ ]: “jusqu’à la danse sacrale l’élue reste immobile.” (printed on the musical score hodson : uses.) although nijinsky by no means invented this device – it had even been used in cinema (brewster & jacobs : esp. - ) – it was the direct opposite to the way things had been done − traditionally, the corps de ballet stood still, or at least moved to the sides, when the principals came on stage. moreover, the unprecedented length of this stillness – if the stravinsky score is to be believed, nearly a fifth of the entire ballet – created a very specific experience for the audience. some critics' remarks reveal how this stillness extended the temporal experience of the audience: “it was oddly painful to apparently, the ancestors stand watching the chosen one, and move when she tries to stop her dance from [ ] to nd bar before [ ]: “from here the chosen one again dances”, and they move to catch her when she falls down dead in [ ]. stravinsky : - ; also krasovskaia (i): - quoting nijinska’s recollection. stravinsky : - ; cf. hodson : writes the men do not move in [ ], notes five bars of stillness and - writes no-one except the three tall women move in [ ] (as rambert says they do). also pasler : - on the close association between the musical organisation and the choreography. fink : . several reviews noted this moment, usually to disparage nijinsky's choreographic choice: gaston carraud in la liberté . . ; adolphe boschot in l’echo de paris . . quoted in bullard (ii): - ; la france . . quoted in op.cit. (ii): - . if this was in any manner similar to how nijinsky's notes were transcribed on a piano score of jeux, these were quite precise stage instructions. see debussy & nijinsky s.a. cf. debussy . avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en observe [her] standing in complete rigidity during (it seemed) ten minutes, in the trance which precedes her frenzied dance.” besides bringing in the critic's subjective, emotional reaction to the choreographed action (largely absent from reviews of ballets russes productions prior to nijinsky's works), such remarks point to how sacre created a sense of the work going nowhere, an inertia that the audiences read in conflicting ways. as taruskin ( : ) notes, russian critics actually discussed stravinsky's score as stillness − an impression that emerges from repetition. nijinsky's use of stillness in the choreography also explains the frequent complaints in contemporary press about the jerks and disturbing fragmentation of the action. as with faune and jeux, sacre provoked complaints about excessive theorisation and 'cerebralism'. for gaston carraud (la liberté . . ), nijinsky s'agit, sous prétexte de "stylisation", comme disent les gens bien informés, de prendre pour modèle, non pas nature, ce qui serait trop simple, mais les interprétations que l'art a déjà fournies de la nature; c'est-à-dire de donner l'impression du mouvement par l'immobilité. although meant as an admonishment, this is a striking claim: the impression of movement achieved through immobility. the critic may have thought of the contrasts between movement of certain figures and stillness of others, or the displaced stillness of the tableaux, but nevertheless he managed to point out that the still figure was not without movement but rather, as h.t.p[arker] wrote in his long interview with nijinsky (boston evening transcript . . ), stillness "intensified projection by subtler and keener means than action". just as stravinsky’s music accumulated towards the end of the first act, so did the choreography, until it created “a rhythm of unwearying persistence that throbs through all the festival, so that at last the whole broad earth seems to be throbbing, throbbing to the beat of it” (whitworth : ). a similar accumulation took place in the second act (taruskin : - ), which culminated in the death of the only soloist. this accumulation, predicated on repetition, was yet another reversal of what and how dance signified: in contemporary discourse, dance was about life, not about death, and the ending of sacre lacked the kind of apotheosis that audiences expected of a ballet − an affective justification of the maiden's sacrifice through some kind the daily mail . . . similarly, svetlov in peterburgskaia gazeta . ./ . . ; chantavoine in l'excelsior . . . see johnson : on how the work does not bore; cf. levinson in rech ./ . . on the work as boring. also pasler , on debussy similarly using static moments and repetition in jeux. for example, flitch : ; suarès in la nouvelle revue française august . a laboratory of spring of a resurrection or supernatural intervention (acocella & garafola & greene : - ; scholl : ). here, the sacrifice seemed senseless: even the ancestors in bear-skins could be understood as actors, as human beings dressed in ceremonial garb. the ballet ended in a pessimistic tone, emphasised by the lack of harmonic development in the music. in later interpretations, the death of the maiden became the symbolic death of a generation on the battlefields of the first world war − in the words of jean cocteau ( : ), writing in , “j’y distingue les prodromes de la guerre”. in , when fears of russians as warmongers were on the rise, the association was rather with the foreignness of the aesthetic of nijinsky, whom alfred capus (in le figaro . . ) jokingly called “sorte d’attila de la danse”, a leader of the invading russian horde. for more xenophobic critics, such invasion was distinctly unwelcome (e.g. jean perros in la critique independante . . ). after the war, sacre became a symbol of the lost ability of the avant-garde to shock the audience into rioting: a work about youth, spring, and violent renewal rejected by the conservative audience and (felicitously) lost so quickly that no-one could ever dispute its shocking novelty (e.g. vaudoyer : ; propert : ). however, in the process, certain aspects of sacre had to be suppressed. the nature of sacre as a stage spectacle, programmatic music fused with danced performance, became cumbersome as modernism moved towards formalism and its demands of 'purity' of art forms. stravinsky did everything in his power to dissociate his music from nijinsky’s choreography, and consequently, the ‘craziness’ in the reception of the work was ascribed to the choreographer's mental illness. similarly, the ideas of abstraction as the highest goal for modernist art, the messianic russian nationalism of sacre, and its narrative structure had to be erased from the equation. the easiest way to do this was by forgetting the choreography. e.g. touchard in la nouvelle revue . . commented he would have preferred the development. see e.g. kern : , - on this believed to be the last moment to stop slavic invasion. acocella & garafola & greene : on how nijinsky’s insanity became associated with the loss of the ballet; similarly, hodson : x-xii (however, op.cit., xix she predetermines madness as nijinsky's destiny). the first negative comments on the nijinsky choreography appeared in in les deux sacres, attributed to stravinsky but in reality written by michel georges-michel. quoted in lesure : ; see also bullard (i): - ; stravinsky & craft : - . nijinsky’s madness both confirmed the destructive effect of the ballet and showed how the genius predicted the universal human destiny at the risk of his own life. thus, for the defenders of nijinsky, sacre became important because it was the epitome of his martyrdom, a lost masterpiece, the transcendental truth of which went unnoticed. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en some concluding remarks setting aside the riotous behaviour of the parisian audience, nijinsky’s sacre provoked critics to reflect on choreographic elements, such as how the dances counterpointed the music, or how the groups were balanced on stage. there was no pre-existing vocabulary for the movements, no soloists to focus on, and the narrative made no sense. on the other hand, nijinsky's previous works had already utilised a similar stylisation of gestures, a downplaying of virtuosity, an emphasis on structure and contrasts between stillness and movement, giving the works a signature style attributed to the new author- figure of dance, the choreographer. despite numerous hostile commentaries, in , sacre was clearly seen as a major work − even many of the negative reviews asserted this. but with two very young authors − stravinsky and nijinsky − the work was also seen as important more for the potential it showed than as a finished piece in and of itself. in some ways, of nijinsky's - choreographies, the pagan primitives of sacre were the easiest to accept, and the reputation of the work might have been very different had it remained in the repertory of the ballets russes even for one more season. yet, as i hope to have shown, the disappearance of the choreography from the repertory or the changing meanings it has attained over time (and in various reiterations) in the repertoire do not preclude an analysis of what remains of it in the archive, even if the tendency to treat a much later invention (the reconstruction) as this archive is a fallacy that reduces the potential for such reimagining of choreographic practice. by not dancing in his third choreography nijinsky established himself in the traditional authorial role reserved for the composer of music − a creator not present on stage. although it would have been impossible for him to assume this role without first having become famous not just as a dancer but as a dancing genius, nijinsky's choreographic practice was changing how dance as an art form was defined on the fundamental levels of ontology − what was dance and who was its author − in ways that would have long-lasting repercussions for rehearsal methods and evaluation of works in the repertory (his demands of accuracy) as well as the understanding of 'a work' as an abstraction that could be placed in an archive (his interest in notation) and resurrected at will. it is these repercussions, this coming together of the archive and the repertoire, that dance artists have struggled with far more however, it is dangerous to read too much into the audience behaviour: not only were theatrical riots quite common in paris (e.g. la nouvelle revue française june review of faune and regnault's salomé was titled "deux récentes scandales"), but as svetlov notes in peterburgskaia gazeta . ./ . . , the protests began before the audience could have acquired a clear understanding of the work. a laboratory of spring than the reputation of one man or works that were quickly dropped from active repertory. of course, new epistemes do not replace old ones overnight nor can one author-figure affect an epistemic change. currently, contemporary dance artists seem to be moving away from this kind of idealist notion of choreography and engaging with the specificity of dancers and audiences alike. it is in this sense in particular that the reconstructors have done a disservice to sacre: by fixing it in terms of (ambiguous) authorial intention and (dubious) authenticity. the subsequent canonisation of the sacre lends political and ethical impetus to contesting the now-hegemonic hodson choreography and its (limited, c. ) understanding of 'dance'. since many of the innovations in nijinsky's choreographies were simply dismantling established conventions and thus gradually expanding the possibilities of staged movement, perhaps the most important legacy of his works lies in the manner they questioned the rules that were seen as ontological qualities of dance. this question of what, in fact, is dancing, offers countless possibilities of re-imagining dance by re-examining, critically, that which we have been told is true, universal and self-evident on and off stage. works cited primary sources periodicals apollon , the athenaeum the bellman boston evening transcript the bystander comœdia , , , comœdia illustré , le courrier musical , la critique independante the daily mail see e.g. solomon ; and launay on how nijinsky's choreographies figure in the repertoire as memories of citations where the imagined original is transformed in performance. as with the movement qualities of sacre, this is a topic that merits an article of its own. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en the daily telegraph the dancing times l'excelsior le figaro , the fortnightly review gil blas , la grande revue the graphic l’intransigeant journal des débats politiques et littéraires , the lady la liberté the literary digest , mercure de france the nation the new york herald nineteenth century and after la nouvelle revue la nouvelle revue française , pall mall gazette peterburgskaia gazeta rech , s.i.m. revue musicale sketch teatr i iskusstvo , le temps the times , utro rossii , a laboratory of spring archival materials new york public library dance collection: rambert, m. . interview with j. gruen . . , corrected by m. rambert . . . bibliothèque nationale de france: théâtre des champs-Élysées: saison russe . . . programme booklet. source: gallica.bnf.fr, . . . international music score library project: debussy, c. & nijinsky, v. s.a. jeux. manuscript piano score from the yale university serge lifar collection. source: http://www.imslp.org/wiki/jeux(debussy,_claude) score # , . . . debussy, c. . jeux: poème dansé de nijinsky. piano score. paris: a. durand et fils. source: http://www.imslp.org/wiki/jeux(debussy,_claude) score # , . . . contemporary books caffin, c. & caffin, c. h. . dancing and dancers of today: the modern revival of dancing as an art. new york: dodd, mead and company. duncan, i. . the art of the dance. ed. s. cheney. new york: theatre arts books ( ). jaques-dalcroze, É. . rhythm, music and education. transl. h. f. rubinstein. new york: g.p. putnam's sons. flitch, j. e. c. (m.a.). . modern dancing and dancers. philadelphia and london: j.b. lippincott co. and grant richards ltd. johnson, a.e. . the russian ballet. london: constable & co. kinney, t. & kinney, m. w. s.a. the dance: its place in art and life. rev. ed. new york: f.a. stokes company [ st ed. ]. st.-johnston, r. . a history of dancing. london: simpkin, marshall, hamilton, kent, & co. svétlow, v. . le ballet contemporain. ouvrage édité avec la collaboration de l. bakst. transl. m.-d. calvocoressi. paris & st-pétersburg: m. de brunoff & société r. golicke et a. willborg. tolstoy, l. . what is art? and essays on art. transl. a. maude. new york: funk & wagnalls co. [ , russian ]. van vechten, c. . music after the great war and other studies. new york: g. schirmer. volkonsky, s. [ ]. otkliki teatra. petrograd: tipografiya sirius. whitworth, g. . the art of nijinsky. london: chatto & windus. avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en republications and collections of archival materials bullard, t. c. . the first performance of igor stravinsky’s sacre du printemps. phd thesis, vol. & , eastman school of music, university of rochester. gross, v. . nijinsky on stage. ed. r. buckle. london: studio vista. lesure, f. . igor stravinsky – le sacre du printemps – dossier de presse. geneva: minkoff. levinson, a. . ballet old and new. transl. s. c. summer. new york: dance horizons (russian ). nijinsky, v. . the diary of vaslav nijinsky. [unexpurgated edition.] transl. k. fitzlyon, ed. j. acocella. new york: farrar, straus and giroux. stravinsky, i. . stravinsky: selected correspondence, vol. . transl. and ed. r. craft. london, boston: faber and faber. stravinsky, i. . stravinsky: selected correspondence, vol. . transl. and ed. r. craft. london, boston: faber and faber. stravinsky, i. . the rite of spring – le sacre du printemps: sketches - . facsimile. s.l. bosey & hawkes. stravinsky, i. f. . perepiska s russkimi korrespondentami: materialy k biografii. vol. i: - ; vol. ii: - . ed. and annotated by v.p. varunts. moskva: kompozitor. zilberstein, i.s. & samkov, v.a. . sergei diagilev i russkoe iskusstvo. moskva: iskusstvo. reminiscences beaumont, c. w. . the diaghilev ballet in london: a personal record. rd ed. london: adam and charles black ( ). bourman, a. . the tragedy of nijinsky. london: robert hale ( ). cocteau, j. . le coq et l’arlequin: notes autour de la musique. paris: editions de la sirène. grigoriev, s. . the diaghilev ballet - . transl. and ed. vera bowen. new york: dance horizons. fokine, m. . memoirs of a ballet master. transl. v. fokine, ed. a. chujoy. boston and toronto: little, brown and co. karsavina, t. . theatre street or the reminescences of tamara karsavina. london: dance books ( ). morrell, o. . ottoline: the memoirs of lady ottoline morrell. ed. r. gathone-hardy. london: faber & faber. nijinska, b. . early memoirs. transl. and ed. i. nijinska and j. rawlinson. durham and london: duke university press ( ). a laboratory of spring propert, w. a. . the russian ballet in western europe, - . new york: benjamin blom ( ). rambert, m. . quicksilver: the autobiography of marie rambert. london: macmillan ( ). sert, m. . misia and the muses. new york: the john day co. (french ). sokolova, l. . dancing for diaghilev: the memoirs of lydia sokolova. ed. r. buckle. london: john murray. sokolova, l. . interview with john drummond. in j. drummond, speaking of diaghilev: - . london and boston: faber and faber ( ). stravinsky, i. . an autobiography. london: calder & boyars ( , french ). vaudoyer, j.-l. . impressions et souvenirs. l'art vivant september: - . secondary sources unpublished material bullard, t. c. . the first performance of igor stravinsky’s sacre du printemps. phd thesis, vol. , eastman school of music, university of rochester. hodson, m. k. . nijinsky’s new dance: rediscovery of ritual design in sacre du printemps. phd thesis, university of california, berkeley. hoogen, m. m. . igor stravinsky, nikolai roerich, and the healing power of paganism: the rite of spring as ecstatic ritual of renewal for the twentieth century. phd thesis, university of washington. pasler, j. c. . debussy, stravinsky, and the ballets russes: the emergence of a new musical logic. phd thesis, university of chicago. video material l’après-midi d’un faune. . performed at the juilliard theater, new york, . . . dir. m. topaz and n. s. jordan; reconstruction by a. h. guest. attachment for choreography and dance : . les printemps du sacre. . dir. j. malaterre; script b. hernandez & j. malaterre. la sept/arte – telmondis, in association with télévision suisse romande, centre national de la cinématographie, ministère de la culture of france. yle , . . . avant, special issue, vol. iv, no. / www.avant.edu.pl/en research literature acocella, j. . nijinsky/nijinska revivals: the rite stuff. art in america october: - , , , . acocella, j. & garafola, l. & greene, j. . the rite of spring considered as a nineteenth-century ballet. ballet review ( ): - . barker, b. . nijinsky’s jeux. the drama review ( ): - . berliner, b. a. . ambivalent desire: the exotic black other in jazz-age france. university of massachusetts press: amherst, ma. brewster, b. & jacobs, l. . theatre to cinema: stage pictorialism and the early feature film. oxford and new york, oxford university press. buckland, t. j. / . 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late imperial russia: reviving the kustar art industries, - . usa: cambridge university press. scholl, t. . from petipa to balanchine: classical revival and the modernisation of ballet. london and new york: routledge. schouvaloff, a. . the art of ballets russes: the serge lifar collection of theater designs, costumes, and paintings at the wadsworth atheneum, hartford, connecticut. new haven and london: yale university press and the wadsworth atheneum. smith, m. . the earliest giselle? a preliminary report on a st. petersburg manuscript. dance chronicle ( ): - . solomon, n. . conducting movement: xavier le roy and the amplification of le sacre du printemps. dance research journal ( ): - . stravinsky, v. & craft, r. . stravinsky in pictures and documents. new york: simon and schuster. taruskin, r. . a myth of the twentieth century: the rite of spring, the tradition of the new, and 'the music itself'. modernism/modernity ( ): - . a laboratory of spring taruskin, r. . stravinsky and the russian traditions: a biography of the works through mavra. vols. usa: oxford university press, university of california press. taylor, d. . the archive and the repertoire: performing cultural memory in the americas. durham: duke university press. vihavainen, t. . from globalism in confinement to egocentrism unbound. the spheres of the russian intelligentsia. in j. smith , ed., beyond the limits: the concept of space in russian history and culture: - . helsinki: shs. wiley, r. j. . tchaikovsky’s ballets: swan lake, sleeping beauty, nutcracker. oxford: clarendon press. williams, r. c. . russia imagined: art, culture, and national identity, - . new york: peter lang (© ). sinergias: poesía, física y pintura en la españa del siglo xx by candelas gala (review) sinergias: poesía, física y pintura en la españa del siglo xx by candelas gala (review) maria c. fellie hispania, volume , number , march , pp. - (review) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /hpn. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /hpn. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ hispania march las portadas y el contenido de el malcriado, el diario vocero del movimiento. este libro puede ser de valiosa utilidad para cualquier investigador o lector interesado en ampliar sus conocimientos sobre la biografía de césar chávez y su lucha para darles voz a los campesinos agrícolas. martin camps university of the pacific gala, candelas. sinergias: poesía, física y pintura en la españa del siglo xx. trans. isabel palomo. barcelona: anthropos, . pp. . isbn - - - - . candelas gala’s sinergias: poesía, física y pintura en la españa del siglo xx is a deeply researched and well organized series of studies regarding how the rapidly developing field of physics influ- enced poetic and artistic thought and works in early twentieth-century spain. the “synergies” among science, literature, and art during those decades produced effects which gala analyzes in the works of several generación del poets. in the introduction, gala presents a detailed background of discoveries and events relevant to physics and spain in the first three decades of the twentieth century, principally the s. the author emphasizes that the poets and art- ists of thas time learned about scientific developments through popular sources (newspapers, magazines) and social events (presentations, tertulias). the atmosphere of spanish cities in the s is recreated through information gathered from these sources, detailing the sociocultural context, the public reception of new theories (relativity, fourth dimension, energy), and impor- tant figures in science (especially einstein), education, art, and literature. in chapter , the author bases her analyses on the theory of relativity in relation to pedro salinas’s first three books of poetry. within presagios, gala explores the idea of reality—the shifts, shadows, and variables constantly affecting an individual’s perception of time and space (relativity)—parallel to the poetic protagonist. reflected in the title seguro azar, “la contradicción, la amigüedad y la imprecisión” ( ) form the foundation of gala’s analysis, in which she refutes readings by stixrude and mayhew, proposing that this book is really about reality, perception, and poetry, while explaining el azar as a proven concept in quantum mechanics. salinas’s fábula y signo reveals “maneras de creación inesperadas” in relation, or response to, “las dimensiones de lo imponderable” ( ). gala focuses on jorge guillén’s cántico in the second chapter, highlighting the poet’s per- sonal belief that the arts and sciences “se nutren de la misma energía creativa” ( ). according to the author, this book revolutionized “poetic sensibility” in that it focused on material objects and physical reality—here it is examined in relation to physicist ernst mach’s theories on “las sensaciones y la ciencia visual” ( ). details from the five sections of cántico are analyzed regarding objects, sensations, and light. gala concludes that guillén’s book represents “el poder de las percepciones sensoriales para crear la realidad” ( ). chapter presents evidence of juan larrea’s interest in the sciences, particularly atomic theory, and subsequently examines his versión celeste through an analogy to the structure of the atom, with its positive and negative charges. according to gala, he saw the “desintegración” of the atom (and some other scientific advances) as parallel to his own search for personal and artistic identity ( ). in this study, gala studies several poems in relation to the concepts of the fourth dimension, the principle of complementarity, and electromagnetism. the author concludes that, like atoms, larrea’s words and thoughts collide, “se contradicen y se fusionan para alcanzar nuevas configuraciones” ( ). in chapter , gala explores gerardo diego’s poesía de creación, which embodies the early twentieth-century interest in how art, reality, and other dimensions are linked ( ). the author considers the aesthetics of manual de espumas with regard to cubism and cosmic energy, paral- leling the creation of the “más allá” in art with that of the cosmos ( ). in the following section, fábula de x y z is examined as an analogy of poetry and physics based on classical allusion as well as conceptions of light, energy, and cosmology ( ). reviews gala opens chapter by demonstrating how rafael alberti identified with halley’s comet and valued it as a symbol. in the only chapter containing illustrations (paintings and drawings), the author analyzes connections between these images, alberti’s poetry, and the “lazos que las unen con la ciencia de la termodinámica y el electromagnetismo” ( ). gala examines poems and illustrations from marinero en tierra, explaining how the “dissipation” and “integration” of poetic/artistic energy is similar to principles of thermodynamics. in the following section, sobre los ángeles is studied for its “energía errada,” so different from that of marinero, comparing alberti’s personal crisis to chaos theory. the author affirms in chapter that concha méndez endeavored to “transmitir la vida y energía en la escritura,” and that she was an unconventional, energetic woman who considered physical and artistic activity to be inextricably linked ( ). poems principally from inquietudes and canciones de mar y tierra are considered here in light of méndez’s remarkable vitality and their reflection of “thermodynamical systems” and cosmic energy ( ). gala asserts that méndez’s poetry also portrays the realization of dreams, journeys and movement, and physical and artistic reality. as indicated in an anecdote from this chapter, méndez was largely inspired by lorca, the subject of the last chapter. chapter focuses on two early works of federico garcía lorca, suites and canciones, both composed in the s when he lived in la residencia in madrid. gala explores these books, which embody lorca’s perception of visuality and the physical world of “espacio, aire, tiempo y luz,” through the concept of “el reflejo” ( ). lorca’s drawings are incorporated into the argu- ment as a “forma plástica” and accompany his texts in representing identity, doubt, and poetic innovation in a constantly changing world, showing that “la ‘evanescencia’ está en el núcleo de la realidad” ( ). isabel palomo is the translator of this study from english into spanish, and her translation has widened substantially its potential group of readers (it was first published in english as poetry, physics, and painting in twentieth-century spain, palgrave macmillan, ). sinergias is a valuable reference for scholars and students of all fields involved, especially for those interested in the interplay between the sciences and arts. copious in-text references, footnotes, and an extensive bibliography support this meticulously researched and innovative study. it is likely that synergistic studies such as gala’s will continue to become more common. sinergias, with its clear prose, insightful analyses, abundant data, and solid basis in interdisciplinary investigation, sets an admirable example for future researchers. maria c. fellie the pennsylvania state university, berks jaén, isabel, and simon, julien j., eds. cognitive approaches to early modern spanish literature. oxford: oxford up, . pp. . isbn - - - - . cognitive literary studies represent an interdisciplinary effort to create a conduit through which the humanities and the sciences may communicate and share ideas and methodologies with the purpose of establishing new connections and discourses between diverse disciplines. cognitive approaches to early modern spanish literature aims to consolidate and diversify the epistemo- logical field of cognitive literary studies. editors isabel jaén and julien j. simon bring together an array of eleven academic studies that exemplify the multiplicity of discourses conflating in the dynamic multidisciplinary field, in which “embodiment” and “theory of mind” are the two primary lines of inquiry. this monograph primarily seeks to explore the way in which a blend of cognitive theories can facilitate “our understanding of the relationship between the mind and the arts” in early modern spain ( ). jaén and simon divide the book into five sections, each covering a specific branch of cognitive studies. the first section offers an outline of the epistemology of cognitive approaches to early modern spanish literature. simon’s “introduction” offers a theoretical framework and shieldsquare captcha we apologize for the inconvenience... ...but your activity and behavior on this site made us think that you are a bot. note: a number of things could be going on here. 	if you are attempting to access this site using an anonymous private/proxy network, please disable that and try accessing site again. 	due to previously 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painting? raman identification of modern pigments on a pastel supposedly painted by the renowned artist natalia goncharova tracey d. chaplin, robin j.h. clark and brian w. singer christopher ingold laboratories, university college london, gordon street, london wc h aj, uk faculty of health and life sciences, northumbria university, ellison building, newcastle-upon-tyne, ne st, uk abstract a pastel painting considered to have been painted by natalia goncharova in / has been shown by raman identification of key pigments to have been painted in or after . the implications of this discovery, based on raman microscopy, are discussed. the present investigation of a small painting of this type (figure .) reveals that it could not have been painted around / as believed prior to this investigation, but in the period (when the pigment dioxazine was first synthesised) to (if painted by goncharova, as this is the year in which she died). this result highlights the need for reliable and perceptive dating procedures for valuation purposes. keywords goncharova, pigment identification, oil pastel introduction natalia goncharova ( - ) was a leading artist of the russian avant-garde movement during the early th century. having originally trained as a sculptor, goncharova turned to painting c. and, along with fellow artist mikhail larionov ( - ) who was to become her lifelong companion, she developed a highly colourful painting technique in a variety of styles that included impressionism, neo- primitivism, cubism, rayism and futurism. during her early career, goncharova exhibited her paintings widely in russia and later in paris, spain, rome, london, tokyo and new york, later making paris her long term home (from c. onwards). she was prolific painter, continuing to paint into the late s despite the onset of crippling arthritis; she died in paris in . in the west goncharova was, until recently, known more widely for her set and costume design, working with sergei diaghilev, director of the ballets russes (russian ballet). , however, renewed interest in her paintings has resulted in sales exceeding $ million, making goncharova (in ) the most expensive female artist at auction. in , goncharova and larionov developed the new style of abstract painting which they termed rayism (luchizm; sometimes termed rayonism), based on the depiction of light rays emanating from objects and their intersection. , the early rayist phase was reportedly short-lived, superceded by the development of neo- primitivism and cubo-futurism styles and the increasing importance of goncharova’s set and costume design work. however, during the s goncharova is known to have produced a limited number of rayist paintings and drawing for an exhibition at the galerie de l’institut in . , , goncharova rarely dated her paintings on execution and signed only few of them; her signature where present, varies between simple initials in either cyrillic or western alphabet, or with her full surname included, as “n.goncharova” or “n. gontcharova” to incorporate western interpretation of the russian spelling. the palette of the russian avant-garde painters has been the subject of only limited scientific study. here we present a raman study of a pastel painting in private ownership, signed “n. gontcharova” in black ink in the lower left corner and ascribed a date of c. (fig. ). the untitled work measures . cm x . cm and is executed on a brown paper substrate in the rayist style; it is richly coloured using a range of purple, yellow, orange, blue, green, red and white pigments, with individual areas bordered with bold black lines; no evidence for any restoration or overpaint is present. the investigation was greatly assisted by easy access to libraries of raman spectra of pigments and dyes - . experimental instrumentation raman spectra of the pigments were collected using two different renishaw raman microscope systems (a rm and an invia), each equipped with an lines/mm grating, a holographic notch filter, a thermoelectrically-cooled charge coupled device (ccd) detector, and a leica dm microscope. a he/ne laser provided exciting radiation at . nm and an ar ion laser provided exciting radiation at . nm, with a laser power at the sample of about . - . mw. spectra were recorded in the range - cm- by collecting scans with an exposure time of s each, and an estimated spectral resolution of cm- . fourier transform infrared (ftir) spectra were collected by pressing the paint sample directly onto the central area of the diamond window of a bruker opus fourier transform infra-red spectrometer. the spectra were recorded in the range from to cm- , using scans at a resolution of cm- . the background scan was automatically subtracted and the scans averaged to produce a spectrum. results and discussion raman spectra were collected from - locations in each of the main areas of colour on the painting. the pigments identified are: titanium dioxide white (rutile-type, tio ), zinc white (zno), barium white (baso ), phthalocyanine blue (cuc h n ), phthalocyanine green (cuc h cln ), hematite (fe o ), dioxazine purple (c h cl n o ), pyrazolone orange (c h cl n o ) and carbon-based black (table and figs. - ). although carbon-based black and hematite-based pigments such as red ochre are amongst the earliest materials used by artists , , five of the pigments identified were first synthesised during or after the s. whilst phthalocyanine blue and green pigments and the pyrazolone orange pigment identified here (pigment orange ) have been commercially available since the mid- s , it is the identification of titanium dioxide, rutile-type and particularly violet dioxazine that are the most significant. the synthetic form of rutile has been manufactured since c. , with the polycyclic pigment dioxazine commercially available from . the results therefore indicate that the earliest year in which this painting could have been executed is . further, ftir analysis of a microscopic sample of red pigment from an area of red paint towards the centre of the painting shows that it contains an oil, in addition to hematite and clay (which together may represent natural ochre) and some calcium carbonate (fig. ). pastels, which consist of powdered pigment and a binder, have been in use since c. th century. they were historically manufactured using natural gums such as gum arabic and gum tragacanth, often with some chalk or gypsum added. while oil/wax ‘paint sticks’ were reported to have been invented in and have been found on an early th century work by a norwegian artist ; oil pastels, those with an oil binder, were developed in the mid- s , becoming widely available in europe in the s. however, it is reported that they were difficult to obtain during world war ii until french manufacturers developed a fine art version for professional artists in . , this appears to be further evidence that the painting was not executed until the s at the earliest. conclusions the palette used for the pastel painting has been established to consist of the following nine pigments: titanium dioxide white (rutile-type), zinc white, barium white, carbon-based black, phthalocyanine blue and green, hematite, pyrazolone orange (pigment orange ) and dioxazine purple (pigment violet ). the identification of this form of dioxazine purple, first commercially available from c. , indicates that the painting could not have been executed before this date. the pastel paints have been applied in thin layers over the paper substrate, with paper fibres visible through the painted surface; there is no apparent retouching or overpainting evident, indicating that it is the original surface that has been examined here. further, the use of oil as the binding medium in the pastel also indicates an execution date of post-c. . the original date given to the painting as c. is therefore incorrect and thus the painting cannot belong to goncharova’s main period of rayism (c. - ). although goncharova is known to have produced some new rayist paintings and drawings during the s for her exhibition at the galerie de l’institut, paris in , there exists only a narrow window in which the painting could have been executed ( until her death in ), a period during which she became increasingly afflicted seriously with arthritis. it therefore seems highly unlikely that this painting is her work. references [ ] a. parton, goncharova, the art and design of natalia goncharova, antique collectors’ club ltd. suffolk, uk, . [ ] m. charnot, goncharova – stage designs and paintings, oresko books ltd, uk, . [ ] w. george, nathalie gontcharova: oevres anciennes et recentes: du vendredi au mercredi mai , galerie de l’institut, paris, . [ ]. e. kampasakali, z. e. papliaka, d. christofilos, e. varella, ann. chim. ; , . [ ] i.m. bell, r.j.h. clark, p.j. gibbs, spectrochim. acta part a ; , . [ ] l. burgio, r.j.h. clark, spectrochim. acta part a ; , . [ ] s.p. best, r.j.h. clark, r. withnall, endeavour ; , . [ ] n.c. scherrer, s. zumbuehl, f. delavy, a. fritsch, r. kuehnen, spectrochim. acta part a. ; , . [ ] j. winter, e. fitzhugh, e.w. in artists’ pigments. a handbook of their history and characteristics , (ed: b. berrie), national gallery of art, washington and oxford university press, oxford, , pp - . [ ] n. eastaugh, v. walsh, t.d. chaplin, r. siddall, the pigment compendium – a dictionary of historical pigments, elsevier science . [ ] w. herbst, k. hunger, industrial organic pigments: production, properties, applications, vch weinheim, . [ ] m. laver, in artists’ pigments. a handbook of their history and characteristics . (ed: e.w. fitzhugh), national gallery of art, washington and oxford university press, oxford, , pp - . [ ] t. chamberlain, in high performance pigments, (ed: h.m. smith), wiley vch, germany, , pp - . [ ] ‘m. raffaelli’s invention: exhibition of work executed with his paint sticks’, new york times, november , , p . [ ] b. singer, t. e. aslaksby, b. topalova-casadiego and e. s. tveit ‘investigation of materials used byedvard munch’ studies in conservation, , , pp – . [ ] l. kenneth, oil pastel: materials and techniques for today's artist, watson- guptill publications, . [ ] m.h. ellis, media and techniques o f works of art on paper, new york university conservation center of the institute of fine arts, new york, . [ ] r.l. feller, in artists’ pigments. a handbook of their history and characteristics , (ed: r.l. feller), national gallery of art, washington and cambridge university press, cambridge, , pp - . [ ] h. kühn, artists’ pigments. a handbook of their history and characteristics , (ed: r.l. feller), national gallery of art, washington and cambridge university press, cambridge, , pp - . figure captions figure . the small pastel painting under study which measures . cm x . cm. figure . raman spectra of (a) carbon black; (b) hematite; (c) barium white; (d) zinc white; and (e) rutile. figure . raman spectra of (a) pyrazolone; (b) copper phthalocyanine blue; (c) copper phthalocyanine green; and (d) dioxazine. figure . ftir spectrum obtained from a sample of the red paint (taken from towards the centre of the painting, . cm down from the top edge and . cm inwards from the proper right side), with bands at , , , and cm- characteristic of an oil; the bands at and cm- indicate the presence of hematite (α-fe o ), with the bands at , and cm- indicative of calcium carbonate (caco ) and the bands at , , , , and attributal to kaolinite (clay). table . pigments identified on the painting and their date of first availablity pigment identified year first marketed as a pigment location carbon-based black (carbon) antiquity all black areas tested, including signature iron(iii)oxide - hematite antiquity reds throughout barium white (barium sulfate) early th century minor amounts throughout the whites zinc white (zinc oxide) large white areas near centre phthalocyanine blue (copper phthalocyanine) blues throughout phthalocyanine green (copper phthalocyanine) greens throughout disazo pigment (pyrazolone) pigment orange s yellow/orange/brown shades titanium dioxide white (rutile) whites near top and bottom edges polycyclic pigment (dioxazine) pigment violet post- purples throughout university of groningen outsider's perspectives in dutch biography renders, hans; veltman, david published in: biography; an interdisciplinary quarterly doi: . /bio. . important note: you are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's pdf) if you wish to cite from it. please check the document version below. document version publisher's pdf, also known as version of record publication date: link to publication in university of groningen/umcg research database citation for published version (apa): renders, h., & veltman, d. 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fall , pp. - (article) published by university of hawai'i press doi: for additional information about this article access provided by the university of groningen ( mar : gmt) https://doi.org/ . /bio. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /bio. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ biography vol. , no. , fall © biographical research center outsiders’ perspectives in dutch biography the year in the netherlands hans renders and david veltman in her contribution to the edited volume the biographical turn: lives in his- tory, south african researcher lindie koorts introduces herman giliomee’s the afrikaners: biography of a people as “arguably the most influential contri- bution to post- afrikaner historiography” ( ). the selection of “promi- nent individuals” who were honored with a short biography in this book was not based upon a canon of afrikaner heroes but on a political theory outlined by the american scholar michael walzer. walzer describes the “connected critic” as the individual who is bound to his community, although observing it from the periphery to remain critical of its injustices (xi). this concept of the “connected critic” offers insight into the question how biography can give shape to a community, including or excluding the way a subject criticizes so- ciety’s policies and practices. biographies of “connected critics” will focus on what makes these critics committed to their society. a biography on someone who has chosen to position themselves from an outsider’s perspective will pay attention to the forces that drove the subject to choose a different path, with- out engaging in politics or opinion-making. biographies of connected crit- ics do not necessarily have to be about politicians: biographers choose to de- pict their subjects by underscoring their subjects’ struggles as outsiders whose opinions are eventually celebrated by the public. it is our aim to show that this type of biography is gaining popularity these days in the netherlands. the dutch book market is oriented internationally because a large num- ber of foreign biographies are translated into dutch. examples include si- mon schama’s the face of britain: the nation through its portraits, gareth stedman jones’s karl marx: greatness and illusion, julia bird’s victoria: the queen, victor sebestyen’s lenin the dictator, laurence bergreen’s casanova: the world of a seductive genius, and thore d. hanssen’s brunhilde pomsel: a german life. the weekly newspaper vrij nederland featured in an biography vol. , no. , fall eight-page interview with noted biographer richard holmes (renders and vullings). but there is also a substantial subcategory of biographies of foreign people written by dutch authors. cas j. j. van houtert, for example, wrote a biography of the german medieval emperor friedrich ii, and jaap verheul published a full-length biography of john lothrop motley, the nineteenth- century historian who made holland popular among americans. many contemporary dutch biographers are positioning their dutch sub- jects as outsiders with a personal perspective on dutch society. on the first page of graa boomsma’s leven op de rand, his biography of albert alberts ( – ), this dutch author is called a buitenstaander [outsider]. alberts’s work as a writer is difficult to classify: next to his novels and collections of literary stories, he wrote historical books, biographies, and memoirs. in his home village, blaricum, alberts was called a sfinx (sphinx) for his ability to speak out frankly and to be introverted at the same time. working at the min- isterie van buitenlandse zaken, the ministry of foreign affairs, in den haag, alberts was able to do research for his historical novels during lunchtime: his office was right next door to the koninklijke bibliotheek. these circumstances enabled him to live the life of an outsider who never wanted to draw atten- tion to his own personal matters. alberts was perfectly aware of the way he was representing himself and chose to keep himself far from political debate. his biographer, boomsma, stresses alberts’s role as a journalist at the leftist- intellectual magazine de groene amsterdammer, a job he held from on- ward. even before the netherlands began their ill-fated “police actions” to restore law and order in the dutch indies, alberts, as a former administrative employee, wrote critical articles about the role of the colonial regime. last year another biography of a “connected critic,” in walzer’s sense, ap- peared in the netherlands: elly kamp’s book on ferdinand bordewijk ( – ). as the second biography of the same person, this kind of text is highly unusual in the netherlands. the justification for publishing a second biog- raphy on bordewijk may be that kamp’s text is a dual biography: it also fea- tures the story of bordewijk’s wife, johanna bordewijk-roepman. ferdinand bordewijk is known for texts that incorporate magical realism, including his novellas blokken, knorrende beesten, and bint, but he was made famous by his novel karakter, published in . johanna bordewijk-roepman was a com- poser and, according to kamp, very famous in her time. although much has been written about bordewijk, including reinold vugs’s biography of him in , almost nothing was known about his wife until this latest publication. since kamp’s research is the first to be supported by the bordewijk family, her book contains a good amount of new information. renders and veltman, the year in the netherlands the work of louis couperus, author of eline vere, de stille kracht, van oude menschen: de dingen die voorbij gaan, and de boeken der kleine zielen, is still being read and performed in theaters. in henri van booven pub- lished the first biography of couperus, and from the tone of the biography, it is easy to tell that they were close friends. couperus’s next biographer was frederic bastet, whose biography caused an outrage, because the book was more of an inventory of anecdotes than a story with a beginning and end, although bastet had already defended himself against this kind of criticism in his introduction: “bij couperus kan men er dan niet omheen vrijwel ál het werk bij de biografie te betrekken” [when it comes to couperus, no one could avoid taking almost all his works into account] ( ). now there is the more than one-thousand-page biography by rémon van gemeren. van ge- meren comments on, analyzes, and puts couperus’s entire oeuvre into con- text within the whole of european culture. “ik heb dit feuilleton minstens honderd keer gelezen” [i have read this text at least a hundred times] ( ), van gemeren writes after a quotation of over two pages. the reception of each of couperus’s books by literary critics is described neatly. each school in lit- erature or the arts is explained, and the author even investigates in which way every figure in couperus’s novels represents decadence, narcissism, and more. it is a relief that couperus was appalled by expressionism and cubism, other- wise his biographer would have given an outline of these, too. in this biogra- phy, couperus is allowed to perform on a colossal stage; the problem is only that the scene is put in front instead of behind the main actor. outsiders’ biographies are focused on the mentality of an era, whereas oth- er biographies are primarily praising their hero and downplaying others. this is the case in sylvester hoogmoed’s de moeder van ramses, which adds depth to his biography of dutch singer ramses shaffy ( – ), titled we zien wel!: het wonderlijke leven van ramses shaffy. during his life, shaffy always had the aura of being as free as a bird, hopping from one job, lover, or home to another. shaffy’s father was egyptian, which he knew from his sur- name, but his mother was a complete mystery to him. hoogmoed’s latest bi- ography is of shaffy’s mother, alexandra wysocka. it appears that shaffy’s life as a bohémien was only surpassed by that of his mother, who, thinking she was the only heiress of the last russian czar, always lived under the protection of important noblemen, ambassadors, and high-ranking politicians. hoogmoed was given access to a suitcase with documents that contained the only reliable information on the fanciful life of shaffy’s mother. still, in her biography it remains unclear who she actually was: a spy, a countess, or just a thief? in de moeder van ramses, an outsider’s history is told about someone who was an outsider even to people who thought they knew her best. biography vol. , no. , fall another example of a person who deliberately shaped his life narrative is the publisher johan polak ( – ). as recounted in koen hilberdink’s biography, the young polak hired a room above renowned publishing house van oorschot in central amsterdam at the end of the s. the ambitious tenant had inherited a lot of money from his family and, despite his age, was considered to be a connoisseur of j. h. leopold, a poet whose work was only available in rare bibliophile editions. as an assistant to the famous but ail- ing professor p. n. van eyck, polak proposed to van oorschot an edition of leopold’s collected works. van oorschot accepted polak’s proposal, and the publication was funded by polak himself. polak’s significance is difficult to overstate. with all his money and love for beautiful books, he played a major role as mediator of literature: he funded publications by de beuk and diverse literary magazines, was one of the founders of the publishing house athenae- um-polak & van gennep, and established the athenaeum bookshop. he was also a prolific collector of precious manuscripts and rare books. hilberdink documents all these facets of polak’s life in his biography, which was published by van oorschot, but above all, he stresses polak’s remarkable personality. wim sanders’s biography of the dutch author a. moonen ( – ) is a portrait of an outsider par excellence, even an outcast. moonen’s nov- els are not very well known in holland, probably because many critics and contemporary authors considered him to be too mad to be taken seriously. he was a writer’s writer, writing about his sexual aberrations and his mental strains. but sanders’s recent biography, bel ik u wakker, beste man?, shows that, in fact, moonen was a tragic figure. he was acquainted with many peo- ple in dutch literary society from the s onward, but his chronic mental illnesses prevented people from becoming friends with him. the book is not only about moonen, but also about the conditions that include or exclude a person from literary groups. in the past year, biographies were also written about people who self-con- sciously profiled themselves as outsiders. onno blom published a one-thou- sand-two-hundred-page book on the author jan wolkers; monica soeting presented cissy van marxveldt, an author of books for girls, as being a femi- nist avant la lettre; and eva rovers wrote a biography of the tormented poet and television personality boudewijn büch, who cherished his exclusion from society to the extent that he even invented a rumor that he was a pedophile, a theme that he used in his poetry. although frank lodeizen ( – ) was a fairly successful artist known by a few collectors and fellow artists for his etchings and gouache drawings, he probably would not have had his own biography if he had had a differ- ent last name, which he shares with a young poet with a mythic reputation, hans lodeizen. in fact, frank lodeizen did not know of this famous poet renders and veltman, the year in the netherlands until he saw an obituary in which the death was announced of his twenty- six-year-old grandnephew. still, because of their shared name, frank lodei- zen gained friends in the literary society who assumed the two were close rela- tions. rineke van houten’s recently published biography on frank lodeizen perpetuates this misunderstanding, which is troubled even more by how van houten does not cite the individual quotations in her book, though she does list her sources in the final pages. this lack of direct citations makes the reader wonder if van houten’s biography might not turn to fiction to describe lo- deizen’s life. dutchmen abroad the biography of piet mondrian that hans janssen published in was remarkable, because janssen stressed the spontaneous and outgoing charac- ter of this internationally renowned artist. until now, mondrian’s neoplas- ticist art of rigidly composed straight lines and symmetrical, colored fields was thought to have been made by a neurotic hermit who would get nervous when someone put a box of matches on his table the wrong way. mondrian even trimmed his moustache askew, thus making it look rectangular. born in amersfoort in , mondrian is now world famous, having turned the world upside down, especially with his painting victory boogie woogie, which was left unfinished when he died in new york in . it is not very surpris- ing that a few biographies have been published about him. however, janssen’s approach to his subject diverges from his predecessors. since he is curator of the gemeentemuseum den haag, janssen encounters mondrian’s master- pieces on a daily basis. that is why he can now speak of writing a “schilders- biografie” [artist’s biography] ( ). in his introduction he promises to use the method of a vie romancée: based upon documentation, his own experience of observing mondrian’s art, and his strong writing skills, he occasionally takes the liberty to “de grens naar het fictionele over te steken” [transgress borders with the fictional world] ( ) by daring to write this book from mondrian’s own perspective. janssen therefore writes mondrian’s life “op een manier die de gelijkenis met de roman opzoekt” [in a way that could resemble work- ing on a novel] ( ). after reading such an introduction, readers might wor- ry about the veracity of janssen’s biography, but, fortunately, fiction is only used to make mondrian’s story more readable. janssen simply could no longer stand the image of mondrian as a purist or hermit. janssen also skirts details of mondrian’s life, perhaps to make him more likeable. for example, where- as another biography, by léon hanssen, stresses mondrian’s anti-semitism, janssen does not discuss this at all. janssen may justify this decision because of the perspective he takes in his text: mondrian surely wouldn’t call himself anti-semitic. biography vol. , no. , fall another internationally renowned dutchman gathered his thoughts mostly in belgium, spain, and italy. only by the very nature of his work as a pope, adriaan floriszoon boeyens ( – ) was an outsider. since the first century until now, there have been popes, including the “antipopes” from rome, pisa, and avignon, and only one of them came from the neth- erlands. if you would put all biographies of popes together, you could build a cathedral from them, so it is still surprising that although he represented the holy see for only one year, adrianus vi, the name that boeyens had given himself, continues to inspire biographers to write new books about him. the last one appeared in , under the title of de tragische paus uit de neder- landen. now we have the theologian twan geurts’s biography. politicians also tend to cultivate their role as outsiders. populist politi- cians, no matter how long they have been active in politics, often despise politicians, a group they do not want to belong to. in this regard, the biogra- phy of gijs van hall is interesting, because this connected critic remained ac- tive in politics when his engagement with social problems was strongly criti- cized. biographer dirk wolthekker makes use of the van hall family archive, which includes three hundred years and measures thirty-two meters wide. coming from a family of bankers, professors, and ministers, van hall had the right background to become mayor of amsterdam. in his family, there was a communis opinio that law and order were self-legitimating. this per- spective changed during the s. everything that was considered wrong in dutch governmental policy was called regentesk or “bourgeois.” the marriage of princess beatrix and the german claus von amsberg, which took place in amsterdam, triggered a riot by squatters, which was suppressed violently by the police. when this was all said and done, van hall made an appearance on television, making clear that he no longer belonged to this new age. wolthekker’s biography illustrates how members of the van hall family maintained a certain consciousness of their place in history. every piece of paper was kept, and verbal communication on a simple family reunion was neatly documented “voor het archief ” [for the sake of the archive] ( ). for example, in , van hall’s father wrote a short letter on a lunch he wanted to organize for his wedding anniversary: “ik wil deze uitnodiging schriftelijk herhalen om onder de familiepapieren te worden gerangschikt” [i want to re- peat this invitation in writing, to be filed in the family papers] ( ). the file on van hall’s work as a mayor in this archive will not be publically available until . nonetheless, it is telling that this aristocratic family gave the bi- ographer permission to use it without restriction. renders and veltman, the year in the netherlands another example of how a politician cultivated his status as an outsider is outlined in the biography of jan schaefer ( – ) by louis hoeks. jan schaefer was a socialist, pastry chef, member of the communist party in the netherlands (cpn), member of parliament for the labour party (pvda), state secretary in the ministry of housing during the den uyl administra- tion, and alderman in the amsterdam municipal government. from hoek’s biography, schaefer appears to have been not only an authentic politician (he preferred to wear jeans and used slang instead of formal language), but he could also be an intimidating one. in one of hoek’s countless interviews, schaefer discussed his “losse-tegel-theorie” [loose paving stone theory]: he said that people calling to complain about a paving cobble stone were bet- ter than theoreticians that could “urenlang lullen” [bullshit for hours on end] ( ) on socialist matters. but schaefer did not refrain from threatening to throw such a stone through someone’s window. during the squatters’ actions of the s, he made an appeal on national radio to do so. as state secretary, he called upon members of a neighborhood “te feliciteren” [to congratulate] ( ) a landlord—by throwing a stone through his window—if he was plan- ning to evict a poor elderly lady: “zo’n buurt begrijpt dat ‘feliciteren’” [such a neighborhood understands this “congratulation”] ( ). the biographer’s autobiography can be regarded as a genre in itself. the best-known example is richard holmes’s footsteps ( ), in which he con- ferred upon himself the major role in his search for traces of the lives of rob- ert louis stevenson, mary wollstonecraft, percy bysshe shelley, and gérard de nerval. marja pruis has written a book on her unsuccessful attempt to write a biography of the author nettie nijhoff-wind and, recently, an autobi- ography was published by james atlas, biographer of saul bellow. jan van der vegt, biographer of the dutch poets hans andreus, adriaan roland holst, hendrik de vries and jan elburg, now formulates his personal creed in a book with the appropriate title vierspan, which means “four in hand.” in this intriguing book, van der vegt tells how things were going behind the scenes during the thirty years that he was working on his four biographies. various subjects of recent dutch biographies can be regarded as “connected critics.” they were perfectly able to criticize dutch or foreign policymaking, but often chose to do this from their perspectives as outsiders, without actu- ally engaging in it. many of these biographies reveal the motivations for their struggles for acknowledgment. these motivations give a remarkable view of the mentality of the age these subjects were living in. biography vol. , no. , fall works cited bastet, frédéric. louis couperus: een biografie, em. querido, . boomsma, graa. leven op de rand: biografie van a. alberts. van oorschot, . geurts, twan. de nederlandse paus adrianus van utrecht – . balans, . hilberdink, koen. j. b. w. p.: het leven van johan polak. van oorschot, . hoeks, louis. “in geouwehoer kun je niet wonen”: het leven van jan schaefer. atlas contact, . hoogmoed, sylvester. de moeder van ramses: leven als een tsarendochter. prometheus, . ———. we zien wel!: het wonderlijke leven van ramses shaffy. prometheus, . janssen, hans. piet mondriaan: een nieuwe kunst voor een ongekend leven—een biografie. hollands diep, . kamp, elly. ferdinand en johanna: dubbelbiografie van schrijver f. bordewijk en componiste j. bordewijk-roepman. bas lubberhuizen, . koorts, lindie. “palatable and unpalatable leaders: apartheid and post-apartheid afrikaner biography.” the biographical turn: lives in history, edited by hans renders, binne de haan, and jonne harmsma, routledge, . renders, hans, and jeroen vullings. “interview richard holmes: ‘een biografie moet rech- tvaardigheid brengen.’” vrij nederland, nov. , pp. – . sanders, wim. bel ik u wakker, beste man?: het monisch-manische schrijversbestaan van a. moonen. weideblik, . van der vegt, jan. vierspan: over biografieën en het schrijven ervan. prominent, . van gemeren, rémon. couperus: een leven. prometheus, . van houten, cas j. j. het weergaloze bestaan van keizer frederik ii, – . ijzer, . van houten, rineke. dichter van de droge naald: frank lodeizen – . de arbeider- spers, . verheul, jaap. de atlantische pilgrim: johan lothrop motley en de amerikaanse ontdekking van nederland. boom, . walzer, michael. the company of critics: social criticism and political commitment in the twentieth century. bas books, . wolthekker, dirk. alleen omdat ik een van hall ben: gijs van hall – . balans, . inspire you need to enable javascript to run this app. abstract in that solitude, a composition for violin and piano, was the winner of the creative responses to modernism prize, hosted by king's college london. the work addresses the notion of the musical fragment as a part of modernism, building on analytical work on the same theme. the manner in which it was composed, its form and its sonorities all add to its fragmented nature, and are explored in this brief study. a recording of the work accompanies the article online and it is suggested that this should be heard first. keywords: modernism, composition, music, fragments, creativity, brevity as a composer reading the call for submissions for the creative responses to modernism prize, i could not help but think that anyone composing in the western art music tradition is inevitably writing a response to modernism. this is not true for all composers, i will use the term composer exclusively to mean those working in the tradition of western art music, as the context for those working in other traditions and in commercial music may be very different. view all notes and i can think of plenty i know personally who would not agree; however, i have always felt it necessary to consider, even confront, the history of my profession in order to work within, challenge and to advance the tradition. whilst i find it crucial to be aware of music from every period, modernism has proved the most important area against which to place my work. although musical modernism has many facets dating back to the late nineteenth century, i find the early twentieth century and post-war era to be the most relevant: the music of anton webern, arnold schoenberg, edgard varèse, igor stravinsky and others. i also engage with the music of contemporary composers, but whilst i find it useful to place my work amongst the multitude of approaches found today, it is the historical notion of musical modernism to which i find myself responding in my broader compositional outlook. despite this awareness of history, finding a ‘place’ for my music and understanding where i fit is rarely at the forefront of my mind when composing: the compositional process feels, on the whole, hermetic and each work stands as an example of a personal style i am still yet to understand fully. however, the nature of my phd (which i began in and have recently completed) put my work face-to-face with specific modernist issues as i decided to use composition as a means to explore a set of research questions. bringing this together with musical analysis, the thesis approaches issues related to musical brevity, with each original composition, or set of works, as an exploration of one of four themes – fragmentation, miniaturisation, continuity and organicism – that sits alongside an analytical case study. over the course of three and a half years, much of my compositional work engaged very specifically with these themes: in that solitude ( ) formed a part of this, being composed to explore musical fragmentation. but, whilst it had a specific role within a research project, this did not prevent me from engaging with the usual demands of a creative act, nor did it move my attention away from a concern for the aural result (something that is always of prime importance for me). however, working within the specific notional framework of the fragment, the end result is self-consciously situated against other compositions, ideas and theories. as these are all facets of one aspect of modernism, the work can indeed be seen as a response. this brief article should act as a background to the conception of in that solitude and a guide to my thinking behind it, more than as an elongated programme note. whilst i would encourage one to listen with some of the following in mind, i do not aim to provide a prescriptive reading of the work: consider this a meditation on my relationship with the modernist fragment illustrated by a single composition, a recording of which accompanies this article online. musical fragmentation the literary fragment has associations with romanticism, with similar trends emerging in the late nineteenth century in music. a useful discussion of this can be found in charles rosen, the romantic generation (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ), pp. – . view all notes the starting point for this work, however, was the musical fragmentation of hungarian composer györgy kurtág (born ), whose music is pithy, intense and often characterised by brevity and economy. in particular, a study of his use of fragmentation in kafka fragments ( – ), which formed part of my phd thesis and a subsequent analytical article, see martin scheuregger, ‘fragment, time and memory: unity in kurtág's kafka fragments’, contemporary music review, . (december ), pp. – . view all notes provides the background here. kurtág's hour-long work takes fragments of franz kafka's personal writings – his letters, notebooks and diaries – setting them in forty distinct movements for violin and soprano, ranging from a few seconds to seven minutes. separate parts of kafka's writings are chosen, splintering the texts in the process, whilst many parts appear fragmented in their original form. the starting point is therefore already fragmented, but in their setting to music, further techniques are used to enhance this sense of fracturedness. the specifics of this approach are inevitably unique to kurtág – although seen elsewhere in his oeuvre – but reflect a wider use of the fragment by modernist composers. i conclude that kafka fragments creates unity despite its fragmented nature, and is best understood in terms of its connections; scheuregger, ‘fragment, time and memory: unity in kurtág's kafka fragments’, pp. – . view all notes however, i acknowledge this is only one way to address the fragment. in composing my own works in response to this theme, i have developed an approach that is in its own way a response to kurtág's, but more importantly a reflection of a personal engagement with the fragment that demonstrates how my compositional voice operates within its bounds. in my compositions prior to in that solitude, brevity was an overt theme, with several works taking the form of miniatures. in these, musical material is used in a way that emphasises a sense of completeness within distinct movements or sections: they share the characteristics of larger works, but with honed and concentrated structures and themes. this self-containedness proved to be a stumbling block when trying to generate more extensive, developmental forms, as the structural completeness was difficult to move beyond, whilst the musical material was not pliable enough to evolve. my interest in fragmentation proved a catalyst for change; as i comment in my thesis: a paradigm shift would allow my practice to move forward: by reconsidering my starting material not as rarefied, complete, and hermetic, but as open-ended, splintered and implicative, i could move on to creating more dynamic forms. in short, miniatures became fragments, and these could be used as building blocks. martin scheuregger, ‘conceptions of time and form in twentieth- and twenty- first-century music’ (phd diss., university of york, ), p. . view all notes fragmentation proved the first step in a journey towards writing music concerned with organic, flowing development as it opened up the possibility for brevity to form a part within something more extensive. this switch from miniaturisation to fragmentation highlighted that the concepts in themselves were most useful for me as an impetus for composition. the idea of the fragment simply helped me put pen to paper and begin writing with a degree of certainty: i knew how i might approach material, the sort of structure i would employ and the character for which i was aiming. whether the notion of a fragment is then useful for a listener is another matter: having had in that solitude performed several times and presented on this topic at a number of conferences, many listeners hear the work as complete and unified. nevertheless, the consideration i had for fragmentation in the process of composition – in both how and what i composed – gave rise to its specific characteristic, relating it unquestionably to this concept. in that solitude is one in a series of three compositions that address fragmentation: be silent for solo piano ( ) and be still for harp and marimba ( ) complete the triptych. writing these involved creating a personal vocabulary of compositional approaches and sonic devices that reflected ideas of fragmentation. each of the three works brings new facets to this, some ideas overlapping, others remaining unique to each piece. be still, for example, represents the most overt structural fragmentation in its ten separate movements, whilst in that solitude has more of a surface relationship to miniaturised works. taken together, the three works offer an approach to the fragment that complements the findings of the interlinked study of kurtág, whilst demonstrating the specific hallmarks of my own approach. although much of what can be taken away from these works is concerned specifically with music, i suspect there may be some fruitful parallels with literature and other creative practices. the following exploration of in that solitude will demonstrate how some of these ideas are heard and how they informed the compositional process, in turn illustrating my reaction to the modernist fragment. compositional process as fragmentation the manner in which in that solitude was composed was in itself an act of fragmentation, and whilst this is not apparent in performance, it does provide a useful context in relation to ideas traditionally associated with the fragment. a naive approach might have been to take an extant work, or write something new, and break a section off. the resulting shard would have previously formed a part of a whole: it is a genuine fragment, or what david metzer describes as a ‘remnant'. david metzer, musical modernism at the turn of the twenty-first century (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), p. . view all notes on the other hand, by composing a work to mimic the true fragment, metzer's ‘invented’ fragments are created: ibid. view all notes it was with this idea in mind that i approached in that solitude. for a more detailed discussion of metzer and others in reference to kurtág, see scheuregger, ‘fragment, time and memory: unity in kurtág's kafka fragments’, pp. – . view all notes the first movement began with the jotting down of an idea for which i had no place, purpose or piece in mind. a single, resonant piano chord was the starting point. i filled this out with a little more detail, composing a few bars so as to capture the mood and type of music suggested by the chord at that moment. this is how i record any musical idea that has no immediate place; composing enough detail so that when i revisit the manuscript paper i am able to continue with the same sounds and ideas in mind. this sketch, however, remained undeveloped for nearly a year until i began composing with the specific aim of creating fragments. the sketch itself – undeveloped but suggestive – was the perfect starting point for the first of these fragment works and is found in its original state, bar some slight editing, as the first movement of in that solitude. sitting somewhere between a true remnant and an invented fragment, this process suggested an approach in which i would conceive material not with the explicit intention of creating a fragment, but simply as the starting point of a new work. by leaving it as an undeveloped idea, i am left with my own fragment. i have elsewhere described the result of this process as ‘a series of brief shards of music, windows into many possible pieces that were never completed, which retain their identity of fragments in their potential to form part of larger wholes’. scheuregger, ‘conceptions of time and form in twentieth- and twenty-first-century music’, pp. – . view all notes there is a sense of potential energy in the music that results from this process, as its capacity for development implies a whole world of notes left unwritten. this is exhibited in the first and third movements of in that solitude and can be heard to an even greater degree in be still, the majority of whose ten movements are left as undeveloped ideas and sound distinctly incomplete. this approach can be seen in contrast to that taken in the third and fourth movements of in that solitude. here, the musical material itself rather than the whole movement is treated as the notional fragment. in the first and third movements the listener is presented with a static sonic object that is not taken beyond simple statement; the second and fourth act as frames in which a fragment of musical material is explored, rotated and viewed from different angles. this approach is similar to cubism in visual art – a musical equivalent often cited is stravinsky in particular, see glen watkins, pyramids at the louvre: music, culture, and collage from stravinsky to the postmodernists (cambridge, ma: harvard university press), pp. – . view all notes – and is quite distinct from creating a movement that is itself an invented fragment. there is still a sense of incompleteness created with this technique, however, as no extrapolation takes place: the fragment is examined only to understand its intrinsic characteristics, not to infer a larger whole. the musical result is the use of varied repetition and limited augmentation of material, as if a solid object is being constantly rotated. i consider this quite different to traditional concepts of musical development – where an idea is expanded in ways that can take the music far away from its starting point – and an integral part of my approach to musical fragmentation. the spiralling melody of the final movement aurally conjures this notion of repetitive spinning, but the more varied second movement is also conceived with the idea of limited development in mind: once again, the movement is a window onto a fragment of material. the material here employs a quarter-tone scale: the octave is splint into twenty four notes rather than the usual twelve of standard western tuning (the smallest interval is halved from a semitone to a quarter tone). this scale is the notional fragment, presented as a melodic line unfolding from the violin as it moves between different pitch centres. the approach collides with that seen in the first movement, however, as the piano starts to interject with a single chord and, acting as a resonant body, juxtaposes its static material with the flourishing line of the violin. the two instruments come together in the final bars, presenting a fragment within a fragment: by combining the contrasting material types, a new voice is found in this brief coda. the piano accompanies the violin melody with chords which, for the first time, exert a sense of tension and release as they move from one to the next, demonstrating rich harmonic and melodic potential. the lack of development once again brings us back to the approach observed in the first movement. the sound of fragments the issues addressed so far have been concerned with form and process, but by attempting to conjure sonorities redolent of fragility, delicacy, fracturedness and dislocation, fragmentation is approached more viscerally. these are some of the notions that might come to mind when we think of a fragment and through composing several works with these ideas in mind, i have developed a set of sonic tropes which i associate with a fragmentary sound. the third movement of in that solitude exhibits some of these characteristics, as instrumental techniques, tessitura and tempo come together to create sonorities that aim for delicacy. this is not the delicacy of an intricate wooden sculpture, but that of a hollowed-out artefact on the verge of disintegration: it is delicate both in how it is presented (its physical form of fragile sounds) and what it presents (a melody almost wholly decayed). the movement presents a high melodic line that hints at a lost theme, delivered with sonorities that are in themselves fragile. this is achieved in the violin with the use of harmonics – a technique in which the player lightly touches part of the string to isolate a note higher than the fundamental frequency – which can sound unstable and pizzicato (plucked) chords which have little resonance. the piano plays in a similarly high range, although acts once again as a resonant body, its notes sustaining for much longer than those of the violin. a melody hovers around a few pitches only semitones apart and is heard in the sustained notes of the violin, whilst being echoed and partly shrouded by the piano. its exact shape is never completely clear, although its presence is certainly felt. this sense of a fragmented soundworld in the third movement is quite clear in the accompanying recording, but even in the other movements, techniques are used to create sonorities that are associated with the fragment. in the first, the clear, bell-like chords of the piano sound almost tonal, but carefully chosen dissonances provide cracks in their sonic surface. the second movement slices the very building blocks of the music, halving the semitone to create quarter tones that create an unsettling sonority throughout. even in the final movement – the longest of the work – the extremely high violin line floats with a degree of certainty, but in its searching repetition of similar material, this certainty is undermined. here, and indeed across the work, the music sits between tonal and non-tonal spheres creating an unresolved tension between consonance and dissonance. the overall soundworld might be heard as damaged or imperfect, as if a classical violin sonata has been skewed in its tonality, form and themes. tonal decisions and other aspects of sonority will inevitably be in part dictated by my own stylistic traits, but they nevertheless produce specific effects that maintain connections with fragmentation in my aesthetic. the same can be said for the compositional approaches, but once again these represent idiosyncratic methods that are specific to my ideas surrounding fragmentation, even if similar results might be seen in other works. in that solitude utilises all of these approaches to fragmentation, presenting only one way of tackling a theme that could, no doubt, create countless other responses. disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. in_that_solitude.mp i will use the term composer exclusively to mean those working in the tradition of western art music, as the context for those working in other traditions and in commercial music may be very different. a useful discussion of this can be found in charles rosen, the romantic generation (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ), pp. – . see martin scheuregger, ‘fragment, time and memory: unity in kurtág's kafka fragments’, contemporary music review, . (december ), pp. – . scheuregger, ‘fragment, time and memory: unity in kurtág's kafka fragments’, pp. – . martin scheuregger, ‘conceptions of time and form in twentieth- and twenty-first-century music’ (phd diss., university of york, ), p. . david metzer, musical modernism at the turn of the twenty-first century (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), p. . ibid. for a more detailed discussion of metzer and others in reference to kurtág, see scheuregger, ‘fragment, time and memory: unity in kurtág's kafka fragments’, pp. – . scheuregger, ‘conceptions of time and form in twentieth- and twenty-first-century music’, pp. – . in particular, see glen watkins, pyramids at the louvre: music, culture, and collage from stravinsky to the postmodernists (cambridge, ma: harvard university press), pp. – . journal of art historiography number december seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - madeline h. caviness figure unknown, georgiana goddard king, silver gelatin print, x in ( x cm). new york: hsa grf , by permission in the fall of , enrolled in the doctoral program in fine arts at harvard university, i audited linda seidel’s course in medieval art. we were about the same age but seidel already had a reputation as an inspiring teacher and original thinker. she began by warning the students that she would not stray far beyond the romanesque. a devotee of meyer schapiro ( - ), whose work figured largely in the reading list and whose visual insights permeated her lectures, seidel also insisted that we should be aware of the much earlier work done by georgiana goddard king ( - ; fig. ). i probably did not go into the stacks to find any of i wish to thank many colleagues and friends who contributed to my research on king and lowber: patrick lenaghan, noemi espinosa fernandez, and vanessa pintado at the hispanic society of america in new york; marianne weldon, dale kinney, and lorett treese, at bryn mawr college; katherine a. bussard at the princeton university art museum; also janice mann, steven nelson, francisco prado-vilar, jeremy melius, gabriel quick, and lora webb. seidel had just completed her dissertation at harvard and it was rumored to be short and brilliant: linda seidel, ‘romanesque sculpture from the cathedral of saint-etienne, toulouse’ ( ). madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - figure frontispiece by e. h.lowber to king, georgiana goddard. mudéjar. bryn mawr notes and monographs vol. viii (bryn mawr, pa., london, new york : bryn mawr college & longmans, green and co.) the books and articles king produced between and . the exquisite little books published by bryn mawr college, with tiny black and white illustrations from photographs taken by the author and others, might not have impressed me, nor perhaps would king’s many articles in the early volumes of art studies, the american journal of archaeology, and the art bulletin (fig. ). previous art historical training in paris and london had given me a typical twentieth-century thirst for the newest knowledge built on canonical foundations, and neither women’s history nor historiography were yet scholarly concerns. even agnes mongan ( - ), who then taught the famous museum course at harvard with john coolidge, never mentioned king, although she had been her student at bryn mawr college for women, and took responsibility for the posthumous publication of king’s heart of selected bibliographies of king’s work are in susanna terrell saunders, ‘georgiana goddard king ( - ): educator and pioneer in medieval spanish art’, in women as interpretors of the visual arts, - , ed. claire richter sherman and adele m. holcomb, contributions in women's studies, westport, connecticut and london, england: greenwood press, , - . and janice mann, ‘"hark the herald angels sing": here's to georgiana goddard king ( - )’ in women medievalists and the academy, ed. jane chance, madison, wi.: university of wisconsin press, , - . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - spain. mongan had become a renowned connoisseur of nineteenth-century french drawings, and left other fields of art history to specialists. yet the gulf between the two women was probably much deeper; mongan had had to learn to think and argue ‘like a man’, cite male authorities, and be careful not to make the kind of intuitive judgments that might appear ‘feminine.’ king followed a rich and varied intellectual and personal path throughout a career that encompassed literature and creative writing as well as art history and archaeology. she used past as well as contemporary cultural production in a quest for modernity in all aspects of her life. unlike the stories told in this issue by andrée hayum and christine verzar, this article is not about the immediate legacy of g. g. king and the art history department she founded in ; it is rather about the way she and her co- photographer e. h. lowber slipped into oblivion; this is a tale about the silencing of women. in the second and third decades of the century, king was a friend and intellectual companion to gertrude stein, bernard berenson, alfred stieglitz, and arthur kingsley porter, a pioneer in seeking out and photographing little known medieval buildings in spain and portugal, and in teaching modern art in the united states. her students testify that she was an inspiring teacher, reciting spanish poetry while showing slides of her newest discoveries, and assigning extra-curricular readings in d. h. lawrence, gertrude stein, and robert browning. she demanded her students pay attention to chronology and iconography, and could reel off all the different dates assigned to cluny by her peers, yet she resisted immersion in the discipline of art history, with its unrelenting focus on period style and development. occasional ostentatious gestures toward women’s liberation could appear subversive; for instance a surprise exam question ‘was armpit hair a secondary sexual attribute?’ made a mockery of the discipline of art history, while drawing attention to the feminist issue of the social suppression of body hair along with menses. it is the kind of subject one can imagine being debated in the circle of gertrude stein. georgiana goddard king, [and edith h. lowber] agnes mongan, ed, heart of spain, cambridge, mass.: harvard university press, . ‘mongan, agnes’ in lee sorensen, ed. dictionary of art historians, https://dictionaryofarthistorians.org/mongana.htm (all entries cited were last accessed october ). madeline h. caviness, ‘reframing medieval art: difference, margins, boundaries’ (e-book: http://dca.lib.tufts.edu/caviness), medford: tufts university, , chapters and : http://dca.lib.tufts.edu/caviness/ ; in the context of art historians as much as artists it is unavoidable to think of linda nochlin, ‘why have there been no great women artists?’, in women, art, and power and other essays, new york: harper and row, reprint, first published in , - . saunders, ‘g. g. king’, - , gives a detailed account of king’s courses and the department she built. king’s lecture notes are fragmentary but informative: bryn mawr college, canaday library, special collections, g. g. king files (hereafter cited as bmc king), box . saunders, ‘g. g. king’, ; see also mary douglas, purity and danger: an analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo, nd ed., london and new york: ark paperbacks, ; reprint, . https://dictionaryofarthistorians.org/mongana.htm madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - it has taken a broad understanding of the art-historiography of the early twentieth century, particularly of the phenomenon i once described as a symbiosis between modern artists and medievalists, but also of women’s history in relation to gender studies, to unravel king’s contributions. her infatuation with the landscape, material culture and early literature of a country that many thought ‘primitive’, now appears part of a drive toward modernity, even presaging a post- modern breaking down of disciplinary boundaries; yet those new borders were being policed as other departments formed, and ultimately kept king out of the mainstream of art history. in the process, the art departments that continued to flourish on women’s campuses - at smith, vassar, and wellesley colleges as well as bryn mawr - were surpassed in prestige, funding, and disciplinary focus by those at all-male universities such as harvard, yale and princeton, whose doctoral programs formed the art historians of the future. porter for instance had liberal research leaves and half a dozen colleagues to share teaching, including kenneth john conant. and the prestige of medievalists such as porter is perpetuated in festschriften, and in their university’s archives, ensuring them a place in historiography. another post- modern facet of the king-lowber collaboration in image-making is that it was seamless, so insistence on a single author has confused rather than clarified their roles; their practices already defied the notion of authorship that was to be debated i first gave this paper at a colloquium in santiago, ‘el presente eterno / eternal modern’, in december , organized by francisco prado-vilar. my paper ‘from cluniac to romanesque in cambridge mass’, given at a symposium in honor of linda seidel in , included preliminary observations on the roles of the porters in the harvard department of fine arts. for the symbiosis of medieval and modern, see madeline h. caviness, ‘erweiterung des “kunst”-begriffs: die rezeption mittelalterlicher werke im kontext nachimpressionisticher bewegungen’, oesterreichische zeitschrift für kunst und denkmalpflege xl: , - and madeline h. caviness, ‘broadening the definitions of "art": the reception of medieval works in the context of post-impressionist movements,’ in hermeneutics and medieval culture, patrick j. gallacher and helen damico, eds, albany, n.y.: state university of new york press, , - . janice mann, ‘georgiana goddard king and a. kingsley porter discover the art of medieval spain,’ in spain in america: the origins of hispanism in the united states, richard l. kagan, ed. urbana and chicago: university of illinois press, , , - . cambridge, harvard university archives, ‘papers of arthur kingsley porter, - (inclusive, bulk), cubic feet ( document boxes, flat box, card boxes, volumes, pamphlet binders, folder)’: porter’s typed lecture notes are in hug . xx; kenneth john conant, ‘arthur kingsley porter,’ speculum, : , - ; mrs lucy kingsley porter, the writings of a. kingsley porter, - , cambridge (ma): the fogg art museum, ; wilhelm reinhold walter koehler, ed, medieval studies in memory of a. kingsley porter, harvard-radcliffe fine arts series, vols, cambridge: harvard university press, ; linda seidel, ‘arthur kingsley porter : life, legend and legacy’, in the early years of art history in the united states : notes and essays on departments, teaching, and scholars, ed. craig hugh smyth and peter m. lukehart, princeton, n.j.: dept. of art and archaeology, princeton university, , - ; linda seidel , ‘arthur kingsley porter ( - )‘ ‚ in medieval scholarship: biographical studies on the formation of a discipline, vol. philosophy and the arts, ed. helen damico, new york: garland publishing, , - . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - by michel foucault and roland barthes fifty years later. it must be unusual in the annals of modern art that the same corpus of work has been ascribed to one or another of two artists, despite existing documentation. during the recent two decades, art historians in the usa have addressed historiography with new intensity. research, by scholars such as kathy brush, jane chance, and michael ann holly as well as linda seidel, is providing valuable insights into the intellectual formation and achievements of some of those giants who we fear may dwarf us. or, to borrow another medieval figure, should we fear more that the dragon is swallowing its own tail? inevitably, historiography has instated a canon of founding fathers who were born in the nineteenth century: franz wickhoff, alois riegl, adolf goldschmidt, emile mâle, henri focillon, erwin panofsky, and the occasional desert mother such as sirarpie der nersessian, founder of modern armenian studies. it took determination to ensure that helen damico include der nersessian among biographical studies on the formation of a discipline, and i lost the argument for king. the on-line dictionary of art historians blatantly constructs genealogies, reinforced by links, as if anton springer begat adolf goldschmidt, goldschmidt begat arthur haseloff and georg swarzenski. the entries suggest a genealogical tree for harvard, from the progenitor charles eliot norton ( to ), to whom james turner dedicated a monograph in and for whom a lecture series is named in the fine arts department, to seidel a century later: chandler post begat walter cook; arthur kingsley porter begat kenneth john conant; post and porter begat frederick deknatel; deknatel begat seidel. another trap is that these purportedly formative associations were often – as in seidel’s case – largely bureaucratic arrangements; deknatel had little interest in medieval art by , having become a modernist, and courses on medieval art were taught by others; seidel’s real doctorvater was schapiro, who was in new york where she had taught for a year. michel foucault, ‘what is an author,’ in language, counter-memory, practice: selected essays and interviews, ed. donald f. bouchard, ithaca, n. y.: cornell university press, , - ; roland barthes, "the death of the author," in the rustle of language, berkeley, calif.: university of california press, , - . kathryn brush, ‘adolph goldschmidt ( - )’, in medieval scholarship,vol. , ed. damico, , - ; kathryn brush, the shaping of art history: wilhelm vöge, adolph goldschmidt, and the study of medieval art, cambridge: cambridge university press, ; jane chance, women medievalists and the academy, madison, wis.: university of wisconsin press, ; michael ann holly, panofsky and the foundations of art history, ithaca: cornell university press, . other contributions are cited below. nina g. garsoïan, ‘serarpie der nersessian ( - )’, in medieval scholarship, vol. , ed. damico, , - . lee sorensen, ed., dictionary of art historians: https://dictionaryofarthistorians.org/. james turner, the liberal education of charles eliot norton, baltimore: johns hopkins university press, . deknatel‘s early work was in spain: frederick b. deknatel, ‘the thirteenth century gothic sculpture of the cathedrals of burgos and leon,’ the art bulletin xvii: , - ; c.f. frederick b. deknatel, edvard munch, boston: boston institute of contemporary art, . https://dictionaryofarthistorians.org/ madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - in recent decades walter cahn, susanna terell saunders, and janice mann have published reliable accounts of king’s life with considerable insight into her work. archival sources and obituaries are available. yet at this remove in time it has proved impossible to construct an intellectual portrait of the woman who photographed alongside king, edith h. lowber ( - ). one photograph in the hispanic society of america in new york, and a large collection in the archives of bryn mawr college, are ascribed to her on good authority; the name e. h. lowber appears under a few of the images in king’s publications (e.g. fig. ). even so, many of the prints deposited by king in the hispanic society of america are from the same negatives as the set in bryn mawr that lowber had claimed as hers, and mongan ascribed all the illustrations in heart of spain to king. the best solution may be to designate them all as ‘photos from the king-lowber expeditions’, as suggested by the curator of photography at the society, patrick lenaghan. the two women deserve attention as photographers in the service of art history, in part because of a feminist interest for the special circumstances in which they worked. women of their generation could turn their gaze on the world more freely from their position behind a camera – a situation that protects from the gaze of others in the same way as might an anchorite’s hut, a veil, or a duck-blind from which one can shoot; but importantly, the camera also gives agency, and king and lowber had a purpose that legitimized them as viewers, even voyeurs, getting them the bishop’s permission to enter such monastic houses for women as las huelgas. in distinction from the protection afforded by their conservative long skirts, and broad-brimmed hats and parasols, carrying a camera was a modernist cover (fig. ). king and lowber, and students from bryn mawr who sometimes travelled with them, must have been objects of curiosity, but they countered the stares with that far more aggressive and invasive eye, the camera (fig. ). king occasionally makes remarks about the people they saw that show her as a voyeur, yet the published photographs most often concentrate the gaze on stones and mortar, or landscape vistas, emphasizing a kind of archaeological present (figs. , , , , ). he was still nominally a medievalist when i was a graduate student, but deferred to seidel to advise me in an independent study project. saunders, ‘g. g. king’; walter cahn, ‘king, georgiana goddard’, https://dictionaryofarthistorians.org/kingg.htm. mann, ‘king and porter’, - ; mann, ‘herald angels’, - . in addition to the sources cited here, mann also examined obituaries, and the gertrude stein correspondence in yale university, beineke library, and at syracuse university. i am grateful to her for several references. esther almarcha núñez-herrador, silvia garcía alcázar, and esmeralda muñoz sánchez, fotografía y memoria : i encuentro de historia de la fotografía en castilla-la mancha, colección almud. fotografía vol. , ciudad real: centro de estudios de castilla-la mancha, , . e-mail of october . i am grateful to him for a discussion of the vexed question of attribution. hispanic society of america, georgiana goddard king, amh [arthur m. huntington] correspondence (hereafter hsa king), october . king does not seem to have dressed as a man, nor shortened her skirts in the s. https://dictionaryofarthistorians.org/kingg.htm madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, avila bullocks (g. g. king portrait), silver gelatin print, . x cm ( ¼ x ¼ in). new york: hsa grf: , by permission figure king, g. g. king / e. h. lowber photographic expedition, convento de san francisco (orphanage), lugo. patio from inside cloister, silver gelatin print, ½ x ½ in ( x cm). new york: hsa grf: , by permission it is also becoming clear that women photographers deserve special standing in the annals of the discipline of art history, when an ‘age of emulsion’ began to transform research, teaching and publishing; norton had taught art history into the first decade of the twentieth century without any visual aids. by the next generation, photographs were regarded as scientific documents, and for the first time comparisons could be made without relying on memory or drawings. comparative analysis was now based in the supposed objective reality of photographs, and served to document cross-cultural exchange and establish sources and influences. the projection of pairs of slides structured art historical discourse: heinrich wölfflin ( - ) and paul frankl ( - ) used that binary structure to differentiate madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - period styles; connoisseurs depended on it to decide attributions. american professors depended on slides to introduce their students to european monuments as well as to structure their exams. king used photographs in all of these ways, and she was not the only woman contributing to this new form of documentation. before king, another woman had set out from the usa with a camera to document medieval churches (fig. ). vida hunt francis ( - ), a philadelphia native, graduated from smith college and studied photography and platinum printing with charles pancoast and john c. bullock. she provided lavish photographic illustrations for elise whitlock rose’s books on medieval french monuments; they published two volumes on the south of france , and the two on central france followed in . the books are in the bryn mawr library and seem very likely to have inspired king to seek similar adventures. perhaps it was she who ensured that bryn mawr acquire the set of prints marked up for publication, to be used for art historical study. figure vida hunt francis, ‘view of the choir, the cathedral of beauvais’, c - , silver gelatin print, . cm x . cm. bryn mawr, pa: bmc art collection, . . , by permission heinrich wölfflin, principles of art history. the problem of the development of style in later art, trans. m. d. hottinger, seventh ed., new york: dover publications, inc, , - ; paul frankl, gothic architecture, first ed., harmondsworth and baltimore: penguin books, , - . nathalie t. andrews et al., your loving vida : an introduction to the photographic work of vida hunt francis in the collections of the university of louisville photographic archives ; published on the occasion of an exhibition of her photographs at the j.b. speed museum, may -june , , louisville, ky.: the museum, . elise whitlock rose and vida hunt francis, cathedrals and cloisters of the south of france, new york and london: g. p. putnam's sons, ; elise whitlock rose and vida hunt francis, cathedrals and cloisters of midland france, new york and london: g. p. putnam's sons, . the collection is on-line at www. http://triarte.brynmawr.edu/ madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - in the foreword to the volumes on northern france published in , rose mentions having access to the flying buttresses and clerestory sills of the french gothic cathedrals. one account describes francis gaining access to the clock in the west end of beauvais cathedral in order to get an award-winning shot into the choir without perspective distortion. having enquired when the clock would be wound she prepared that morning by donning all her black underwear to thwart the gaze (knowing a man would insist she go up a ladder first), and pleaded with the man who showed up that he let her go up to the loft. it is not clear whether rose and francis travelled together, but rose maintained a less personal voice in her text than that of king, by constructing an un-named traveller as ‘he.’ more consistently than the work of king-lowber, photographs published by francis and rose show un- peopled monuments that refuse to admit modernity, except of course in the very nature of the medium that recorded them. certainly inspired by king and lowber, if not also by rose and francis, another female presence on the pilgrim roads emerges in the volumes on romanesque sculpture published by porter in . porter’s photographic campaigns are well-known: unlimited resources were at his disposal, including the finest camera equipment and a car to travel in, and he also benefited from knowing richard hamann who founded photo marburg. mounted prints of the porters’ photographs are being carefully archived at harvard, but the next step must be to recognize the major role played by his wife, the new yorker, lucy bryant wallace, as other than mere cataloguer of his photographic material. in fact she seems to have controlled the large-format camera that produced the most extraordinary results. she even had scaffolds to work from – the ends of the poles appear in one of her photographs of the tympanum at cahors (fig. ). scrutiny of the mounted photographs in the archives, and the ones published in the great pilgrimage roads tomes, reveals that the best pictures are by lucy. it seems likely that arthur took a few ½in x ½in exploratory photos of a site first, and then lucy studied the light and picked the time of day to get the most information and luminescence in the shadows. there is a great difference between his pictures at moissac, with too much contrast and sometimes light flare in the film, and the soft light and great detail in the illustrations captioned lwp. most unfortunately, the photographer is seldom indicated on the mounted prints. elise whitlock rose, and vida hunt francis, cathedrals and cloisters of northern france, new york and london: g. p. putnam's sons, . porter, a. kingsley porter, romanesque sculpture of the pilgrimage roads, ed., vols, boston: marshall jones, . for marburg, see chapter in kathryn brush, vastly more than brick & mortar : reinventing the fogg art museum in the s, cambridge and new haven: harvard university art museums: yale university press, , - . as in lee ed. dictionary; also seidel, ‘ life, legend and legacy’, . porter, pilgrimage roads, figs. , - . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - figure lucy warren porter, cahors cathedral north portal (detail of the tympanum photographed from a scaffold), c - . after porter, pilgrimage roads the photographs acquired early in the century by the hispanic society are now being studied by lenaghan and noemi espinosa fernandez. they include the work of anna christian, who was active c. , but about whom little is known. those who were employed by the society during the - war included arthur byne and his wife mildred stapley byne, who went on photographic campaigns together in spain in , , and , focusing on monuments and buildings; both served as curators of architecture and allied art in - . king had occasion to meet them in spain. they were prolific in publishing the material they collected, authoring nearly ten books each. all these photographers left the dynamic realm of social activity and interaction in the spanish towns to ruth matilda anderson ( - ) who graduated from the clarence h. white school of photography in and was hired by the hispanic society in . lenaghan has signalled the importance of some of the results can be seen in patrick lenaghan and luis miguel mata pérez, salamanca en los fondos forográficos de la hispanic society of america, salamanca: junta de castilla y léon, . lenaghan and pérez, salamanca, , . hsa king, november . patrick lenaghan, in the lands of extremadura: ruth matilda anderson's photographs of western spain for the hispanic society, new york: the hispanic society of america, , ; see also lenaghan and pérez, salamanca, - . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - clarence white in new york for the training of a generation of women photographers; white regarded it as a good career for women. anderson was far more prolific and technically advanced than king and lowber; in - her photographer father even devised a system for developing her film as she travelled, whereas king had to wait to visit opportune places. the pictorialism of her work, in which she documented rituals and street parades, local costumes and customs, pleased the hispanic society more than the static archaeological shots of the previous decade. her work pointed toward the photo-journalism of later times, capturing an intensely inhabited, but ephemeral, world. yet king had also sought modernity, through travels that seemed to take her back in time even as they advanced her project to experience modern art, and a modern way of life. her pilgrimages to spain set out from gertrude stein’s paris, and returned there. king’s personal investment in modernity king was broadly educated with a ba and ma from bryn mawr having studied ancient greek and english literature, philosophy and political sciences. she spent a year in europe in - , mainly in paris. subsequently, she lived in new york and taught at a girls’ high school ( - ) while writing plays, some of which are still in the high school repertory in the us. she was also translating late medieval spanish poetry, such as the ecologues of juan del encima, about a shepherd and the god of love, and writing very personal pieces in a similar style. her play the way of perfect love is a strangely convoluted story about a duke’s daughter and a shepherd. king became a close friend of gertrude stein ( - ), who attended johns hopkins medical school not far from bryn mawr prior to , and had a circle of friends from the college when she lived in new york. in - stein wrote fiction based on love affairs between bryn mawr women: q.e.d. was published right away but she delayed the appearance of fernhurst, her first novel, because it was about martha carey thomas, president of bryn mawr from to , and ‘mamie’ gwinn, the partner who left her in to marry. carey thomas fore- noemí espinosa fernández guided me to: clarence h. white, ‘photography as a profession for women,’ news-bulletin of the bureau of vocational information , no. , april ., and bonnie yochelson and kathleen a. erwin, pictorialism into modernism: the clarence h. white school of photography, ed. marianne fulton, new york: rizzoli and george eastman house in association with the detroit institute of arts, . lenaghan and pérez, salamanca, . georgiana goddard king, comedies and legends for marionettes; a theatre for boys and girls, new york and london: macmillan co., ; georgiana goddard king, the way of perfect love, new york and london: macmillan co., . saunders, ‘g. g. king’, - . saunders, ‘g. g. king’, ; leon katz, ‘introduction’ in gertrude stein, fernhurst, q.e.d., and other early writings, new york: liveright, . carey thomas had relationships with live-in female partners that may have been veiled as boston marriages: mary elizabeth madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - swore male company when a teenager, earned a doctorate from zurich, and insisted her girls learn economics and physics as well as languages and the arts. they could do all the things men could do, even if they did dress differently. as emancipated women, both gertrude stein and carey thomas were powerful models for king. she shared stein’s fascination with the new art of the early twentieth century, and understood her struggle for comparable written expression. after gertrude stein and her brother leo moved to paris in , king watched their collection of modern art grow, helped stein publish her writing, and reviewed her books. she saw the work of picasso and juan gris and picabia, there and in the galleries; and she lectured on modern european art at bryn mawr before the famous new york armory show that introduced the european avant-garde to the american public in . that same year, she taught the first graduate course given in the us on spanish art, and also gave a course on chinese and japanese art. in new york she would have seen modern art in alfred stieglitz’s gallery , and in , as she prepared the modern course again, she consulted with him about obtaining slides of contemporary works. for king’s circle, modernity was about life-style as much as about contemporary cultural production. many bryn mawr women took carey thomas’s advice to forge a life without men, and stein and alice b. toklas set an example that king personally aspired to. king’s companion lowber remains a mystery; book reviews and correspondence spell her name indifferently lober, loder, and lowder. yet painstaking examination of all the available documentary sources has begun to yield results. king met lowber at some time before ; for christmas that year she gave her an exquisite little florentine book filled with hand-written poems that garrett ( - ), a wealthy heiress who founded bryn mawr college and the johns hopkins medical school, followed mary gwinn. edith finch, carey thomas of bryn mawr, new york: harper, ; see also helen lefkowitz horowitz, alma mater : design and experience in the women's colleges from their nineteenth- century beginnings to the s, new york: knopf :distributed by random house, , - . towards the end of her career, in , king proudly invited stein to give a lecture at bryn mawr: saunders, ‘g. g. king’, . saunders,‘g. g. king‘, - . janet c. bishop et al., the steins collect : matisse, picasso, and the parisian avant-garde, san francisco, calif. and new haven, conn.: san francisco museum of modern art, in association with yale university press, , ; the reproduction of interior views of the collection is invaluable. charles mitchell, ‘mr. cooper and miss king’, bryn mawr alumnae bulletin , no. , spring , - . saunders, ‘g. g. king’, . spanish art was taught at undergraduate level in chicago from / . mann, ‘herald angels’, and n. , cites correspondence at yale. bmc king, box h folder , ‘g-g-king (gg) - ,’ an unpaginated print-out signed by cella and dydo [probably ulla e. dydo], may , cites king’s letter to stein of may written from château d’oex after a visit to stein and toklas in paris, referring to ‘the friend /whose life with you /your life with whom / i well could envy’. madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - figure unknown, edith h. lowber, passport photo . artwork in the public domain emulate pasturelle; the title, ‘quemadmodum disederat cervus ad fontes aquarum ; a first book of desire by georgiana goddard king’, is from psalm ( ). : ‘as the hart panteth after the water brooks, [so panteth my soul after thee]’. little is known of edith hunn lowber’s origins or early life: according to her passport, she was born in camden, delaware, in , thus seven years younger than king (fig. ); she is described as: ‘ ' with a square forehead, brown eyes, a long nose, a large mouth, pointed chin, brown/gray hair and a long face with a brown and freckled complexion.’ in a later application, with no photograph, she has a ‘dark (freckled) complexion,’ suggesting she may have been a person of colour, though she and her family passed as white in the us census of and . after the death of her father, jonathan h. lowber, a farmer (c. - ) she went to live with her married sister bessie jones; her brother-in-law, george m. jones, was a lawyer. no notes or letters from lowber are in the bryn mawr or hispanic society archives, but she was photographed about when travelling in egypt and india with carey thomas (figs. , ). these images and the passport picture help to identify the younger woman carrying a camera, photographed by king in the doorway of the church in castillal, as lowber (fig. ); seen in enlarged details, she has the same tall, narrow figure and stiff body language (figs. a, a). the title given to that photo in the bryn mawr lowber collection, ‘out of god's grace into bmc king, box h folder . a letter dated in the folder indicates that the book stayed in king’s family long after her other papers went to the college. whether lowber had returned it to her, or whether carey thomas did so as lowber’s executor, cannot be known. through ancestry.com lowber also shows up in public records on the passenger lists of the steamers traveling to and from europe, for instance in , , , , and , sometimes with king; and again in and with a bryn mawr student mary newcomb, both listed as performing ‘home duties’; in , , , , and lowber is also often with carey thomas. in king traveled with newcomb: ‘class notes’, bryn mawr alumnae bulletin / , . ancestry.com also revealed dozens of lowbers in delaware who were classified as black, including one quaker family. madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - the warm sun’, seems like a metaphor for coming out. her station in life is quite ambiguous: there is no record of lowber as student or faculty at bryn mawr. figure unknown, m. carey thomas and edith h. lowber with guides (sight-seeing in india) c , photograph, . cm x . cm. bryn mawr, pa: bmc canaday library, special collections, pa_mct_ , by permission figure unknown, m. carey thomas and edith lowber with guide (sight-seeing in egypt) c , photograph, cm x cm, bryn mawr, pa: bmc canaday library, special collections, pa_mct_ , by permission madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, attributed to edith h. lowber, out of god's grace into the warm sun (castilla, with lowber in the doorway), silver gelatin print, . cm x . cm. bmc art collection, . . . bequest of m. carey thomas, president of bryn mawr college, - . bmc by permission madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - figure a. detail of fig. : lowber (left) and carey thomas. figure a g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, castilla la vieja soria san pedro, [detail figure of lowber], silver gelatin print, x ¼ in ( x . cm). new york: hsa grf: , by permission king’s correspondence with huntington sometimes mentions her coming down to bryn mawr, as if from new york, or to her working on the photographs at the college with one of the other assistants, miss [mary] newcomb, ‘out of her goodness and for the society’. by she was living at yarrow east on the campus. the records in the hispanic society allocate to lowber less than a third of the allowance given to king in , to take photographs. they were probably joined by carey thomas in spain. lowber, among other bryn mawr women, travelled extensively with carey thomas from on. by carey thomas was convinced lowber had radium poisoning (‘radium inflammation’), with which she was familiar since she knew marie curie; she had invited her to speak at the college in when she was already sick. the problem was also well-known by then to johns hopkins medical school, and to the women's voluntary new jersey consumers' league. carey thomas arranged for lowber to go to spas or sanitaria in new jersey, hsa king, april . finch, carey thomas, - . finch, carey thomas, , - . finch, carey thomas, . claudia clark, radium girls, women and industrial health reform, chapel hill, nc: university of north carolina press, c , , - . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - arizona, and colorado, and to her villa in the south of france, where lowber died in . king’s art historical career and the king-lowber expeditions figure ernest walter histed, archer milton huntington, photogravure, , ¼ x ½ in ( x cm). new york: hsa grf: , by permission patronage was essential to support king’s ambitious photography and publishing program that concentrated on spanish art. in she went to new york to see archer milton huntington ( - ), director of the hispanic society of america from to his death (fig. ). for years she corresponded with him in a sort of girlish, anecdotal style that hovers between stream of consciousness and school girl gushing, written in a hand to match. perhaps she took her cue from one of the librarians who sent her a note after their first meeting, to say she allowed her to see him without an appointment because of ‘a certain birdlike note in your voice, especially cheerful in the winter season’. she wrote him some amusing personal details included in her preparations to go back to spain in may : ‘i have a new wonderful camera, the size of the old but twice as good & more than thrice as costly. i have the riding clothes cut to meet the conflicting demands of a mule’s contours & the spanish eye for propriety’. king relied on huntington to get her admission to buildings, and secure passports; she asked his advice and permission to publish articles, and what to work on next. it seems possible she influenced him in the choice of her favourite literary hero, el cid, for one of the bronze sculptures his bryn mawr college, canaday library, special collections, carey thomas letter-books (hereafter referred to as bmc carey thomas), reel , nos. , . hsa king, january . hsa king, may . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - second wife, anna hyatt huntington, supplied for the forecourt of the hispanic society in . huntington appreciated her enthusiasm for spanish culture, and sponsored several photographic expeditions and publications up to about . king took lessons in photography in . she was accompanied overseas by lowber in - if not before; in she first asked huntington to recognize the presence of an unnamed female companion, declaring vehemently ‘for i will never travel again in spain alone’. it was only proper that a respectable woman did not travel without a chaperone, but the custom legitimized her loving relationship with lowber, a double-blind to ward off the curious gaze. king, known as g. g., and her ‘dear friend’ e. h. lowber, set out in with their folding kodak cameras by steamer, train, ox cart and donkey, to follow the pilgrim routes from toulouse to compostela. they collected stories about the sites, and revelled in remote locations. in a letter to huntington, king describes how they ‘had dropped out of the world for three weeks, upon the elegiac (?sic) pyrenees, diligencing along doing churches’; she seems amused to have missed a messenger and three telegrams in barcelona inviting her to speak in cambridge, england, but clearly proud to have been sought out. she had become the pre-eminent scholar of medieval spanish art, having built her reputation early in her career with carefully argued and well-illustrated articles in the american journal of archeology. in the long run the king-lowber photos could not compete with better equipped professional outfits, but between and their efforts in the field had an immediate impact on the discipline. in berenson commented to carey thomas that king was ‘in his opinion, the best equipped student of italian art (sic) in the united states or in england, and that the photographs and slides of bryn mawr college had been better catalogued and classified (by miss king) than any other collection that he knew of’. fortunately, on the basis of this praise, carey thomas secured a tenured appointment for king, not a librarianship. king stayed at bryn mawr as chair of the department until her retirement in , and continued to publish. administrative duties might have slowed writing and publication, yet work on her book the way of st james was approved by the society in and the text was delivered in , despite the difficulty of travelling during the - war. king clung devotedly to preparing this three-volume study, eventually correcting the proofs and composing the index in while travelling in spain to mitchell codding, ‘archer milton huntington, champion of spain in the united states,’ in spain in america: the origins of hispanism in the united states, ed, richard l. kagan, urbana and chicago: university of illinois press, , . saunders, ‘g. g. king’, . neither king nor lowber is on any of the lists of graduates from the clarence white school that are preserved in the princeton university museum. hsa king, october . hsa king, undated letter to huntington. cited by saunders, ‘g. g. king’, . king was in fact well informed about italian painting, which she taught, and published some papers on sienese-style paintings in spain. she had been negotiating over a short-term staff position at the hispanic society. madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - take more photographs. putnam’s did not get the book out until . before then, a younger rival, arthur kingsley porter ( - ), had been pleading (with the support of her friend berenson) to see her negatives, because he regrets the poor quality of reproductions in print, and furthermore: marvels flashed by all too fleetingly on a screen some eight years ago [ ] is all i have to lean upon. all the world is becoming hysterically excited over xii century spain, and you are the only person who really knows anything about it. do come to our rescue. you must be preparing an important book, and how eagerly we await it! when the book came out he wrote immediately: ‘i have read with great interest, and congratulate you on the reputation which you have justly built up’. in fact, whether for reasons of cost or quality, few of the illustrations in the way of saint james are from the king-lowber photographs (they are the ones without a by-line). some had to be purchased from the companies using the old large-format rising- front plate cameras, and some were engraved after earlier publications. king no doubt inspired porter to ‘re-do’ the pilgrimage routes and to go into spain with lucy porter and better cameras. not all were as generous as porter in their reception of the way, but huntington reassured king that he put little store in such opinions. an anonymous reviewer in the times literary supplement was very critical of her for including legendary material about the early cult of st. james: ‘for the devout this, though of considerable interest, seems to be a work of supererogation, since the evidence was reviewed and the facts were found in by the archbishop of santiago’. s/he ends by saying miss king confuses romantic travel sketches with serious work of research, even though she is ‘an authority on the church architecture of northern spain’ and ‘the illustrations could hardly be better’. the review by thomas walsh in the new york times book review and magazine, is largely descriptive, but very critical at the end. oddly at variance with his colleague on the literary supplement, he finds that king is ‘little patient with the legendary beliefs of others’, ending: ‘it is a real pity that a subject so magically ecclesiastical should have been developed in so rationalistic a manner’. in fact, drawing on her considerable literary talent, king had not restricted herself to the kind of écriture masculine that mann, ‘king and porter,’ - , gives a useful synopsis of the way. georgiana goddard king, ‘three unknown churches in spain’, american journal of archaeology , no. , , - , must be the article referred to. hsa king, december , written from new york. hsa king, february . she is quite ambivalent about the preliminary list of illustrations, asking for advice as to which images would be best in photogravure or half-tone: hsa king, april xx (presumably ). hsa king, january . times literary supplement, dec , . clippings of both reviews are in bmc king, box , folder . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - defined scholarship in the modern period, and which she had indulged in articles. she wrote the way in the first person plural, inventing a companion called jehane; it is both a travelogue of her and lowber’s modern experience and a presentation of local folk-lore and historical flash-backs appropriate to each lieu de mémoire. the work had some popularity as a kind of guide book - edith wharton for instance travelled to santiago with it in the late s. the writing appears at times quaint, yet several experimental traits, such as the self-awareness and historical layering, the lack of inhibition about sharing personal experiences and judgments, and the disregard for disciplinary boundaries, belong to a style more like the écriture feminine of post-modern consciousness. king and lowber frequently visited berenson in florence, and likely met vernon lee ( - ) and her partner kit anstruther-thomson through him; the investment by these writers in the experiential aspect of aesthetic response may have influenced king’s writing. in king had organized a publishing partnership between bryn mawr college and the hispanic society to produce a series of volumes on spanish art. the small size stipulated suited the prints that she and lowber could make from their negatives, in contrast to the large and imposing volumes of porter’s photographic survey of pilgrim route sculpture. held in one hand they are like the tiny books of hours that aristocratic medieval women used in the middle ages. the plates in the pre-romanesque churches of spain ( ) have by-lines that differentiate the photos of king ( ) from those of lowber ( ), and a smaller number from professionals such as lacoste, alonso, and gomez-moreno. mudéjar ( ), a path-breaking book on mozarabic spain, was also well-illustrated with a frontispiece by lowber and numerous small photos, many of decorative details, arranged on plates (fig. ). king’s interest in the topic was already evident in an article of , and in her brief account of the military orders in spain ( ). having exhausted the sources for romanesque in spain, king left the ‘spain or toulouse’ debate over primacy to the men and daringly branched out into a wide-ranging hunt for eastern sources, including in tibet (fig. ). carried away by imagined connections between northern spanish medieval art and the middle east and asia, in the vein of josef strygowsky ( - ), whose work she admired, king insisted on going to greece and turkey and beyond. she wrote to huntington quite incoherently in patricia fra lópez, back to compostela : the woman, the writer, the way : edith warton and the way to st. james, santiago de compostela: universidade de santiago de compostela, servizo de publicacións e intercambo científico : xunta de galicia, secretaría xeral da igualdade, , . vernon lee and kit anstruther-thomson vernon lee owed much to discussions with william james, with whom stein had studied at radcliffe. hsa king, march . porter, pilgrimage roads. king, who read german easily, must have known josef strzygowski, orient oder rom : beiträge zur geschichte der spätantiken und frühchristlichen kunst, leipzig: j.c. hinrichs'sche buchhandlung, , and his later publications; in the late s she tried to persuade him to teach at bryn mawr: saunders, ‘g. g. king,’ . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - concerning the sculpture in the puerta de las platerias of santiago cathedral (fig. ): figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, jadraque gate and porch in tibet (without bylines). after king, mudéjar pl. liv figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, cathedral of santiago, south transept portal. tympanum figures of upper range, centre, silver gelatin print, ½ x ½ in ( x cm). new york: hsa grf: , by permission i observed on the site that a rare moment was selected for this angle of light, which clarifies the sculpture. madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - i don’t know whether i ever told you of my long quest after the cypress trees that flank the figure of s. james [...]. well, on sunday night i found my cypress trees in the temple of heliopolis, and with a click, as a cog slipped into place, the whole machine began to move. it was the latest and greatest of the manifestations of the great s. james, it was fairly a theophany. seriously, i have cleared up, since then, & with the help of a great deal that i knew already, the whole situation of s. james […] from the mythological. it is really a jolly big piece of work, & my one regret is that i can’t launch it in the a.j.a. or something continental, before it is swallowed up in the book [the way of saint james]. over and over she stresses to him, almost obsequiously, that she wants only to serve spain and the society, and that going to italy and further is ‘hispanic work’. by king postulated indian buddhist (ghandaran) influence in some spanish sculpture. her academic reputation had begun to decline, and the patronage of the hispanic society had come to an end. its board and the editorial committee were exasperated by the tumult of ideas and projects that king brought to them for support. even in the formal letter that amounted to a contract for her and miss lowber to spend a year in spain and sardinia to work on a series of articles on the towns of spain, had what must be a most unusual clause: ‘i understand that you will undertake to do no further work on the proposed “biographies of sculpture”’. furthermore it is spelled out that: ‘regarding the photographs to be obtained by your companion, it is understood that they are for use by the society as the trustees may direct and no copies shall be sold, nor shall any distribution of these photographs be made without the written consent of the proper official of the society’. in an undated document c. the society announced a formal decision not to publish a book on romanesque and renaissance churches in spain, prevaricating about the bryn mawr series being a better fit - despite the fact that the series had been a joint enterprise with the society - and bluntly stating that king was ‘extraordinarily prolific, a fact which makes it difficult, perhaps, to maintain high standards of scholarly accuracy’. the news was conveyed to king very gently by huntington. the critics had finally hit home, and art history had evolved a discourse that did not admit other kinds of writing. her article for the two-volume hsa king, march (among copies from the syracuse university archive). georgiana goddard king, ‘the problem of the duero’ art studies, medieval renaissance and modern, , - . hsa king, april . another book resulted from the trip: georgiana goddard king, sardinian painting, bryn mawr notes and monographs v, bryn mawr, pa.london, new york etc.: bryn mawr college; longmans, green and co. . six plates have the g. g. king byline. hsa king, undated carbon copy signed by catherine m. allyn, curator of publications; and february . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - festschrift for porter in stands out for its lack of foot-notes. this was her only chance to present these ‘little romanesque churches in portugal’ that she had explored for her next book, having characteristically set out to learn the language. in his review, georg swarzenski lists hers among articles that present unknown works ‘with perfect erudition’, and while applauding the rapid development of the field, concedes that ‘many may deplore the passing of its pioneer stage, when the figure georgiana goddard king, contemplating the bryn mawr notes and monographs, . after fortune magazine. explorer’s spirit was keen, when increase in material was a pleasure and troubles in discriminating between knowledge and connoisseurship were more a personal matter than a problem of sophisticated discussion’. medieval spanish art had become a crowded field in king’s last years, and there was little room for an old lady who was not one of the boys (fig. ). as the history of art history began to be written, it was even forgotten that king had gone to spain first; erwin panofsky and wilhelm reinhold walter koehler, ed, memory of a. kingsley porter, - . georg swarzenski, ‘review’, speculum : , , . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - james ackerman put king with chandler post and porter and all the others, forgetting she was the their forerunner. mann recounted a sad anecdote from meyer schapiro: he and his wife happened to arrive at silos at the same time as king, to request entry to the cloister. he managed to get permission for his wife who was a physician, but king, the only woman elected to two spanish academies, was turned away. there were other disappointments. during the study-trips taken for the way, king and lowber had begun to work on a book they called the heart of spain, an exploration of spanish literature and art, legends and history. they began in and completed the work in . the manuscript was discovered after the death of both, when none of their associates remembered any mention of it. in a letter to gertrude stein, king had poured out her sadness at having ‘never succeeded in selling the one thing i really cared for to any publisher - edith’s and my heart of spain’. as eventually edited by mongan for publication by the harvard university press in , it is larger than king’s usual formats, and perhaps for that reason mongan could not find more than eleven among the small king-lowber photos that she considered publishable; she borrowed more than a hundred negatives from bryn mawr to have prints made at harvard. when she recommended their deposit in the archive of hispanic culture at the library of congress, she was quite dismissive: ‘i do not know just how valuable you may find these negatives, or whether you understand their nature? they are amateur snap-shots of no technical skill or pretension. many of them have been done far better professionally since miss king made hers’, but she adds that some may be of little-known spots and the size might make good lantern slides or prints could be enlarged. it is odd that mongan attributes them to king, whereas the photo credit in the book mentions edith h. lowber as well as the hispanic society of america. presumably mongan did not have access to the set of prints titled to go with the text that had been left with carey thomas, and are now in the bryn mawr photographic collection; to the few that she chose from the same negatives she gives quite different titles. the author’s preface, signed by king on candlemas day, , begins: ‘for the photographs the credit belongs to e. h. lowber; for the text, as for translations, the responsibility must lie with the undersigned. the entire book, as it stands is, however, the outcome of close collaboration and mutual criticism and assistance’; it also explains that they were ‘writing to please rather than to instruct’. in reading the book in conjunction with the large soft photographic prints that stayed at bryn mawr, it is apparent that text and image evolved together, with minds, eyes and hearts working in unity. a photograph captioned segovia citadel james s. ackerman, art and archaeology, ed., rhys carpenter, englewood cliffs, n. j.: prentice-hall, , ; erwin panofsky, meaning in the visual arts, doubleday anchor books ed., garden city, n. y.: doubleday and company, inc., , - , mentions only ‘founding fathers’, and attributes to cook the creation of spanish art as a field. bmc king, h folder , letter from mann, july . saunders, ‘g. g. king’, . bmc king, h folder , correspondence between mongan and the art department about the negatives, - . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - in the book was titled ‘like the prow of a ship in the sea’ to resonate with the verbal description (fig. ): ‘about the base of segovia lisp fresh trees, and grass springs green beside cool running water; in the high, cold blue, full clouds sail; and, like the prow of a ship, the city juts into the plain’ ( - ). the text supplies colour and music to complement the silent grey-toned pictures. the bryn mawr photo titled: ‘all night the poplars talk’ is ‘cuenca, the approach up the gorge’ in heart of spain, whereas the text intones in iambic pentameter: ‘all night long the trees talk together in the mountain airs, and the stream is loud in the dark’ ( ). a very figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, attributed to edith h. lowber, like the prow of a ship in the sea, silver gelatin print, . cm x . cm. bryn mawr: bmc art collection . . . bequest of m. carey thomas, president of bryn mawr college, - . bmc by permission competent interior shot with remarkably even lighting and depth of focus, titled in bryn mawr ‘in ample loveliness’, becomes ‘burgos, cathedral interior’ in heart of spain, where it is characterized in the text ( ) by: ‘the amplest forms of gothic . . .the grand vistas of the aisles . . . largeness and richness, that serene and ample splendor’ (fig. ). most of the photographs at bryn mawr resonate with the text of the book, and it would have had a very different appearance had they all been included - a madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - single page of text might have five or six ‘illustrations’. in fact it would have been a book of pictorial essays, privileging visual images except in the chapters on figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, attributed to edith h. lowber, in ample loveliness (burgos, cathedral interior), silver gelatin print, . cm x . cm. bryn mawr: bmc art collection . . , bequest of m. carey thomas, president of bryn mawr college, - . bmc by permission literature. king seems to have been in the habit of writing on her journeys, and in the process probably picked sites to photograph; but how much of lowber’s voice is in the photographs she took and printed? a print in bryn mawr titled ‘the palace of the sleeping beauty’ corresponds to the text in heart of spain concerning the palace-nunnery in madrigal, avila (fig. ): ‘it looked like the sleeping beauty’s castle, embowered in tree-tops, with window lattices of tiles’ ( ). a print from the same negative in the hispanic society is accompanied by a slightly different view in larger format, suggesting two cameras were next to each other (fig. ). the romantic shot selected for hearts concentrates on architectural detail and is indifferent to the out-of-focus foliage in the foreground; the other leaves open space in the foreground to enhance the spatial depth. probably lowber was more skilled technically, and used a tripod (king is carrying one in fig. ). hsa king, november , mentions two kodak cameras. madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - the king-lowber body of work varies between archaeological, pictorialist, and modernist modes, much as did king’s writing. in recent times the more picturesque of the king-lowber photographs have been selected for publication, including some with prominent figures. the river bank at cuenca with women washing clothes in the river, by lowber, with poplar trees and light and shadow recalls corot, or an impressionist painting. more interesting are the photographs figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, attributed to edith h. lowber, the palace of the sleeping beauty, silver gelatin print, . cm x . cm. bryn mawr: bmc . . . bequest of m. carey thomas, president of bryn mawr college, - . bmc by permission figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, tower and wall of cantalapiedra. close up view, madrigal de las altas torres, silver gelatin print, ½ x ½ in ( x cm). new york: hsa grf: , by permission that are pristine images of the built environment rendered almost cubist by sharp flat shadows that deform its verticals and horizontals, or contrast with rounded forms (fig. ). tiny figures approach the city gate of cuenca, where the vertical masses are framed by sharp shadows at pristine forty-five degree angles flattening the forms, and a stony roadway insists on the long lonely pilgrim’s way (fig. ). almarcha núñez-herrador, fotografía y memoria, , , ; lenaghan and pérez, salamanca, - , , (lower), . hsa grf ; published as ‘ribera del júcar con el puente de san antón. cuenca’, almarcha núñez-herrador, fotografía y memoria, and ; the image is also on-line at http://www.uclm.es/ceclm/fotografia_hispanic/fotografos/edith_lowber.htm. http://www.uclm.es/ceclm/fotografia_hispanic/fotografos/edith_lowber.htm madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - king likely saw the work of giorgio de chirico ( - ) who exhibited in paris in - and also knew picasso. is this king’s eye behind the camera, seeking the modernism she had discussed with the steins in paris, and also taught? still, one cannot rule out that it was lowber who positioned the camera – and certainly the way she printed from the negatives could enhance or down-play some of these modernist effects. figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, tower and wall of cantalapiedra. close up view, madrigal de las altas torres, silver gelatin print, ½ x ½ in ( x cm). new york: hsa grf: , by permission figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, cuenca. old gateway, silver gelatin print, ½ x ½ in ( x cm). new york: hsa grf: . hsa by permission another comparison is especially illuminating. a photo of distant cuenca, titled in bryn mawr ‘the long english silhouette of the cathedral’, invites comparison with one of picasso’s studies of horta de ebro in catalunya that the steins bought about (figs. , ). king had sat in front of the paintings and discussed the equivalency for their cubism in verbal structures (fig. ). she might well have sought intervisuality with her own photographs. the push-pull created by the geometries in these images is analogous. furthermore, when this pictorial abstraction was debated, gertrude stein was able to point out the similarity to in carey thomas reported to king that lowber had enjoyed an exhibition of modern art in new york with her: bmc carey thomas, reel no. , february . bishop et al., the steins collect : matisse, picasso, and the parisian avant-garde, , no. pl. . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - photographs of the site taken by picasso, while asserting that this was the beginning of cubism. like picasso, who reached back into what he termed the ‘primitive’ in early medieval catalunya over and over again in order to find new directions, georgiana goddard king constructed her own modernity through a confrontation with ancient iberian sites and monuments. and the pursuit of them was enabled by her life-style as a ‘modern woman’. figure g. g. king/ e. h. lowber photographic expedition, attributed to edith h. lowber, the long english silhouette of the cathedral [cuenca], gelatin silver print, in. x / in ( . cm x . cm). bryn mawr: bmc art collection . . . bequest of m. carey thomas, president of bryn mawr college, - . bmc by permission madeline h. caviness retired as mary richardson professor emeritus of tufts university where she taught history of art and women’s studies. author of nine books and about articles, she became a leading specialist in medieval stained glass before turning to feminist theory and reception history, as in visualizing women in the middle ages: sight, spectacle, and scopic economy, philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, . she is currently finishing another book, women and jews in the sachsenspiegel picture-books. madeline.caviness@tufts.edu caviness, madeline h., ‘the politics of taste: an historiography of "romanesque” in the twentieth century’, in romanesque. art and thought in the twelfth century. occasional papers from the index of christian art in honor of walter cahn, ed. colum p. hourihane, princeton: princeton university press, , - figs. - . madeline h. caviness seeking modernity through the romanesque: g. g. king and e. h. lowber behind a camera in spain c. - figure pablo picasso, houses on hill, horta de ebro, , oil on canvas, x cm. berlin, staatliche museen, museum berggruen (formerly stein collection, paris). © estate of pablo picasso / artists rights society (ars), new york. reproduction, including downloading of picasso works is prohibited by copyright laws and international conventions without express written permission of artists rights society (ars), new york figure unknown, gertrude stein’s studio at rue de fleurus, paris, winter - (with picasso’s houses on hill, horta de ebro), silver gelatin print, x cm, new haven, yale collection of american literature, beineke rare book and manuscript library, gertrude stein and alice b. toklas papers, object id: , by permission. "we know where we will be taking indonesian art", "we know where we will be taking indonesian art", sindudarsono sudjojono, brigitta isabella southeast of now: directions in contemporary and modern art in asia, volume , number , october , pp. - (article) published by nus press pte ltd doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /sen. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /sen. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ © brigitta isabella s. sudjojono, “we know where we will be taking indonesian art”, translation by brigitta isabella the text was first published in revolusioner magazine and later republished as kami tahu kemana seni lukis indonesia akan kami bawa, penerbit indonesia sekarang, yogyakarta, as indonesians, we admit that the art we make here nowadays has a western style. nevertheless, to say that it is not an indonesian style is not accurate. first, long before raden saleh, we had a history of painting. even though this was not similar to how we paint today, this was because our painting correlated with our way of life and worldview at that time. second, even if we briefly renounce the old way, it does not mean we only follow or copy. it is because we believe the truth in the theories of da vinci, dürer, cézanne and others. realism does not belong only to the west. realism belongs to all of us, to every human being. it is not about being incidentally born as westerners like da vinci, dürer or cézanne. any child of god, whether he is in bethlehem (christ), in mecca (muhammad), in china (lao tzu, confucius, li tai po) or in india (buddha), in egypt (echnaton), in the united states (louis armstrong, a negro) or in europe (socrates, berlage, cézanne), is not entitled to contain and monopolise his theory if it contains truth and is beneficial to the world. a dutch writer said in uitzicht magazine, “undoubtedly, without kokoschka, klee, munch, chagall et al., it would be impossible for us to see the kinds of paintings as seen in both exhibitions in java.” they still assume that indonesian people would not be able to embody impressionist painting, realism, expressionism, cubism or surrealism if people southeast of now vol. no. (october ), pp. – southeast of now: directions in contemporary and modern art in asia like kokoschka, klee, munch, chagall, utrillo and others did not exist. we could build borobudur, which, if it is compared to hunpe bedden or de amsterdamse beurs, would be akin to comparing a prophet and a heiden. thus, it is not an exaggeration if we say, “if europe and the netherlands are completely destroyed it will be us who will continue the civilisation and the art of the world.” asians should not be too proud because muhammad, christ, buddha, einstein and marx were eastern people. on the other hand, western people should not be arrogant if we use their art theories. as we analyse and observe carefully, europeans must remember that they never had the art of painting before. the oldest art of painting in the world is not from europe, but egypt. also, europeans should not feel superior that they have pythagoras, a mathematician who learned from egyptian professors before he became a master and opened his own academy. in addition, the dutch do not need to be conceited and claim that the theosophical society is mrs blavatsky’s idea, thus it is a westerner’s idea. leadbeater concedes that they were actually inspired by an ascetic from the east. greek art, which is glorified as majestic western art, is not sterile from eastern influence. it was only within years that greece can escape from non-greek influence. uitzicht also said, “typically, easterners tend to make technical skills their greatest concern.” the writer might be able to see, but clearly he cannot understand what exactly art is and what the art of painting is. theories can be read, but understanding art is more difficult. it requires the knowledge of brush strokes. hence, understanding brush strokes needs practice and experience. still, practice is not enough, for one should possess an active and genuinely deli- cate sense, which is formed over time. when i read a writer’s sentences, they show that he only utilises his knowledge as a measurement tool. no artist could honestly say that the use of “not-so-eastern” techniques such as perspective or anatomy, impressionism, cubism or surrealism would prevent eastern content from emerging. the “eastern” sense in a painting lies not only in the techniques used but, more significantly, in its subject matter and its artistic soul. uitzicht said, “it is such a shame to see many sources were ignored when impressionism started in europe …” what a pity! this westerner clearly does not understand why impressionism was born. it seems that he is only familiar with angelo, david, zuloaga, de lászló and sargent. impressionism was born not because of constable, jongkind, manet and other impressionist painters. this is not to put aside their roles in the establish- ment of impressionism. but it was born as a consequence of the birth of a new ideology, one that needed to be born and to strike away europeans’ obsolete s. sudjojono, “we know where we will be taking indonesian art”, and incorrect way of thinking and way of life. our european colleagues, whom by chance were born and lived on a continent to the west of the bosporus in the beginning of the th century, used to hum the slogan: “be gone beauty and … deformation.” it is not because they do not understand beauty or tech- nique, but it is compelled by a calculation, an act of eradicating materialism and the egoistic way of life, in favour of a simple yet straight life, as well as to care for others. people should stop loving a man like david, in terms of his character and art, for david and his friends are symbolic of an egoistic and materialistic community. the writer should not complain about the decline of painting since johan jongkind, manet, cézanne and picasso emerged. in fact, he should be gladdened by the arrival of a new genre, as it indicates a new start, and the beginning of a more proper art. of uitzicht’s writer, i ask the following questions: . could expressionism have been born without impressionism? . could paul klee, kandinsky and picasso have realised their painting philo- sophies consciously, if impressionism never become a belief and received any recognition? i know the writer cannot answer those questions, but if he did, it would be as if he were defending something impossible, like a woman who could still remain a virgin even after giving birth. let us see another explanation. would picasso be blamed for his path, for he could walk and talk freely, leaving his chamber, wandering around until he got lost in “hell”? do people recognise that only by walking this path could he be transformed from a wooden toy into a speaking creature? this “leap” is seen as a deviation. yet, people do not know that this deviation had taken him to hell before he was led to the eternal heaven, and then resurrected from “dead” material to a conscious and reflexive being who believes in god. the writer disagrees with vincent being baptised as a culture saint. we also think it is improper to praise him and position him as a god of the cultural journey without any further thought. we are not an uncivilised society, and we are not so stupid as to say that all of his paintings were extraordinary, even though he was vincent. besides, we do not want to imitate him, him who suffered from syphilis and depression, just because he was the founder of expressionism. it is better for us to befriend vincent, who was courageous enough to sacrifice his body and soul for a great aspiration, instead of being like this uitzicht’s writer who stupidly said, “it is rare for a man to have a southeast of now: directions in contemporary and modern art in asia flaming heart [like vincent].” is he brave enough to say that christ does not have a flaming heart? is he brave enough to say that the buddha too does not have a flaming heart? how about muhammad? ramakrishna? lao tzu? li tai po? gandhi? wali songo? don’t they all have a flaming heart? none of these people are westerners. wali songo is not dutch, meneer ! a few lines later he said, “what the western artists have had over the eastern civilisation from the beginning is their proficiency in the mastery of complex forms, which makes these cultures culminate to their peak.” has the writer seen any old chinese paintings? what do you think about these works, sir? don’t you see that they have produced such detailed and intricate works? they may be even more powerful than permeke or kokoschka. and from this point, we learn that impressionism was not born in europe but in china, in the east. yes. you might argue that this might be true but that it was unconsciously done. good! did vincent con- sciously mention that his work should be recognised as an expressive work? no. but you, the dutch, still consider that he was the one who started it, not the germans nor the french. at the end of his essay, the writer proposed two possibilities: first: an art that is led by the aristocracy. second: the art of gemeenschap [collectivity] (communism). however, it is evident that the writer is more inclined towards art that is favoured by the aristocracy. he said that if the aristocrats do not play a strong role [in cultural leadership] “true civilisation will die a slow death and art will wither into a new form of pragmatism or move in other directions”. this dutch writer might be denying the truth of the scientific marxist theory. lenin, as a number one communist and marxist, once said to his communist comrades, “we have not yet achieved our objective. what we have achieved now in russia is only a phase that we must undergo.” what lenin wanted to convey is that it is not enough for people to only be able to read, write, or ride a tank or a car. communism as an ideology is also made up of moral, spiritual and artistic solutions. communism does not reside solely in the material realm. it moves towards a realm of plasticity that exceeds our three-dimensionality. the proof: russia leads the world of cinema with their movies, as well as in literature with young poets who are not as shallow as da costa. on shakespeare’s th anniversary in russia, theatres performed shakespeare’s plays for weeks. radios, magazines and newspapers simulta- neously published news to respect and learn about this great man. on the contrary, there was only a regular notification ad about this event in london. moreover, the people of moscow today demonstrate great understanding of and respect for renoir’s paintings. s. sudjojono, “we know where we will be taking indonesian art”, communism is always against the aristocracy, whether in politics, econo- mics, society, or the arts. yet in his essay, this dutch writer seemed to be praising the aristocracy, and he views communism with some hesitancy. why? beware my comrades in the communist party of holland! one of the reasons why he bears with communism is because he is a coward. he does not dare to decisively choose a party. if tomorrow the communist party wins, he will use his sentences as evidence and say, “see, i told you so!” we have been acquainted with several types of governance recently, so we know what kind of person this man is. now let us return to our subject. i apologise for digressing. we admit that new movement in the art world indeed creates the possibility for people to cause an unintended excessiveness. is there any -ism or even religion that is not excessive? every -ism and religion has its excesses, or will do so sooner or later. there is nothing wrong with this movement. but where is the problem of european painting, such that it has to undergo a constant change and frequently decline? it is getting on top by the goodwill of cézanne et al., but it turns out to be a source of pleasure for those who work without dedication, just to satisfy their ego and to be out of “god’s sight”. the first mistake in europe lies in its lack of moral education, both in general terms and amongst those in the arts. huizinga, the author of in de schaduwen van morgen [in the shadows of tomorrow] admits this. that is why we are not surprised if the efforts of european geniuses always fall through. the freedom that they propounded in the democratic age has decayed into an egocentric freedom. independence and the love of truth hailed by cézanne et al. have transformed into a negative independence and have become: “i want to be different than others.” due to a lack of knowledge, individuals’ freedom has separated them from society. this is not just a european problem. it is the problem of how our society is structured on the whole. it is an international problem indeed. about the future of indonesian art, we as indonesians are quite capable of deciding for ourselves. since the dutch colonial era, in the era of persagi [persatuan ahli gambar indonesia, the indonesian picture-makers’ association], we already know where we will be taking our indonesian art. if the dutch writer in uitzicht wishes to interfere with this matter, we do not need them to meddle in our affairs. they have never really proven to be competent in this matter for the past years. southeast of now: directions in contemporary and modern art in asia we will not blame our european colleagues for their mistakes. we will honour them, for they have worked sincerely, even sacrificing their lives for a great aspiration. we will use their works as a landmark, like a shipwreck in the ocean, of our people’s struggle in this world and in our revolution in indonesia, not only to enable artists to become artistic, but also to make the whole society become artistic, to become artistically conscious as indonesia was before [in the past]. we will accomplish our revolution not only through the intellect but also through artistic means. biography brigitta isabella graduated from the department of philosophy, gadjah mada university, yogyakarta in and continued her studies in critical methodology at king’s college, london. since , she has taken part in a research collective based in yogyakarta called kunci cultural studies center. the collective, established in , has been deeply preoccupied with critical knowledge production and sharing through means of media publication, cross-disciplinary encounters, research-action, artistic interventions and vernacular education within and across community spaces. sindudarsono sudjojono (kisaran, sumatera, indonesia, – ) was an indonesian artist, writer and activist, and is widely regarded as formative in the development of discourses of modernity in indonesia. he was active in jakarta’s keimin bunka shidoso, a japanese-sponsored cultural centre during the japanese occupation in indonesia. later, he was one of the founders of persagi (association of indonesia drawing specialists, ) and sim (young indonesian artists, ). kami tahu kemana seni lukis indonesia akan kami bawa was written as a response to dutch art critic, j. hopman, who commented that an indonesian art had yet to emerge. southeast of now vol. no. (october ), pp. – "a farewell to modernism journal of art historiography issue december a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark raymond spiteri modernism had two great wishes. it wanted its audience to be led towards a recognition of the social reality of the sign (away from the comforts of narrative and illusionism, was the claim); but equally it dreamed of turning the sign back to a bedrock of world/nature/sensation/subjectivity which the to and fro of capitalism had all but destroyed. *<+ modernism lacked the basis, social and epistemological, on which its two wishes might be reconciled. the counterfeit nature of its dream of freedom is written into the dream’s realization. t.j. clark, farewell to an idea, - it is over a decade since the publication of t.j. clark’s farewell to an idea: episodes from a history of modernism. the passage of time presents an opportunity to reconsider clark’s argument and his contribution to the discipline of art history. clark’s name has long been synonymous with the social history of art: his previous books—the absolute bourgeoisie, the image of the people, and the painting of modern life—exemplified what was strongest and most vital for an art history that gave serious consideration to the social and political determinants of artistic endeavour. yet farewell transforms the social history of art’s polemical tone into to an elegy for modernism’s unrealized promise, and an attentive reading of its argument discloses a complex intervention with revisionist accounts of modernism advanced in the wake of the challenge of postmodernism. the study of modernism has changed since the publication of farewell: the cosmopolitan bazaar of the global economy has challenged the eurocentric focus of metropolitan modernism, revealing the parochial concerns of earlier debates on modernism, and remapping the coordinates of values that inform current scholarship. this shift does i would like to thank richard woodfield, terry smith and david maskill for their comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this article. i would also like to acknowledge the support of a hfss faculty research grant in covering the cost of illustrations. t.j. clark, farewell to an idea: episodes from the history of modernism, new haven: yale university press, . t.j. clark, the absolute bourgeois: artists and politics in france, - , london: thames and hudson, ; image of the people: gustave courbet and the revolution, london: thames and hudson, ; the painting of modern life: paris in the art of manet and his followers, london: thames and hudson, . see, for instance, the book series annotating art’s histories, edited by kobena mercer, and published by iniva and mit press: cosmopolitan modernisms, ; discrepant abstraction, ; pop art and vernacular cultures, ; exiles, diasporas & strangers, . raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark not invalidate farewell; rather is sharpens its focus on a specific historical trajectory in modernism—one that has been central to clark’s own career as an art historian—the emergence of a modernist canon associated with the work of courbet, manet, cézanne, picasso and pollock. clark does not seek to overturn this canon in favour of greater diversity. his goal is to understand the conditions that gave rise to this canon, to locate modernism as a complex response to the broader experience of modernity. ironically, there is a remarkable degree of affinity between clark and the passionate advocates of modernism like clement greenberg and michael fried: they share a belief in the power and value of modernism. where they differ is in clark’s rejection of any belief in transcendental aesthetic values; rather, he seeks to expose the social content of these values, their relationship to the unresolved social antagonisms within the experience of modernity. farewell to an idea is a complex and difficult book. it does not attempt to provide a history of modernism so much as a series of interventions in existing histories of modernism. rather than a continuous narrative, farewell consists of a series of episodes; each episode represents a limit-case in the construction of modernism, a point of maximum stress between past events and the retrospective incorporation of these events within a history of modernism. the principal reference point is the construction of modernism by ‘the modernist critics’ of the s and s—passionate advocates like clement greenberg and michael fried, for whom modernism was ‘local and in a sense terminal’ ( ); yet clark is also writing against the new academic orthodoxy in the work of rosalind krauss, yves-alain bois and their acolytes. farewell can be located between two histories of modernism: on one hand the traditional narrative of formal innovation that leads from manet to pollock, a tradition closely identified with the influence of greenberg; on the other hand the ‘postmodern’ revision of this narrative, which reject the emphasis greenberg placed on the essence of modernism in favour of a more sophisticated theoretical armature, often drawn from structural linguistics and psychoanalysis, as in the work of rosalind krauss. whereas both greenberg and krauss approach modernism as a delimited field of endeavour, primarily medium-specific, clark’s goal is at once more limited and more ambitious. it is to demonstrate how the historical logic of artistic modernism arises from the frustrated utopian ambitions of modernism; that the logic of negation within modernism is a specific response to a historically defined situation. it is through a process of thick description that clark ensnares the logic of modernism in the contingency of historical happenstance. yet it would be mistaken to read farewell as a teleological history; the rhetoric of modernism is always located in a specific historical context, so it is important of recognize a counterpoint between moments of revolution political crisis and times of social order. modernism secures its effects through a refusal to cohere; while its ambitions may be clark offers an account of modernism that has been synonymous with the ambitions of the west: its origins are located in the enlightenment; indeed, modernism serves as a vehicle for the assimilation and incorporation of difference produced through the history of contact between cultures since the enlightenment. for the economic transformation of capitalism during the nineteenth century—central to clark’s earlier accounts of courbet and manet—were predicated on european colonial expansion. rosalind e. krauss, the optical unconscious, cambridge: mit press, indeed, krauss attempts to discover an alternative structural logic at work within the history of twentieth- century art—the optical unconscious, the informe—which ultimately legitimizes the practice of art history. raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark totalizing, its means are always specific, and it is the tension between these two levels that animates its enterprise. i am not going to attempt to paraphrase the argument of farewell here—a daunting task even at the best of times; what i will do, however, is concentrate on clark’s analysis of what i shall call, for want of a better term, the ‘rhetoric of modernism’, the series of figures and devices that regulate the relation between representation and experience within modernism. at the outset clark includes a provisional definition of modernism, which is characterized by three features: i) a recognition of the social reality of the sign; ii) the simultaneous belief that the sign was grounded in some experience of world/nature/sensation/subjectivity; and iii) that modernism lacked the social and epistemological basis on which these two beliefs could be reconciled. at the heart of the modernist enterprise is the peculiar status of the sign, suspended between convention and motivation, arbitrariness and origin. this antimony becomes the motor of his dialectical analysis. it reappears in a number of guises: the status of writing in david’s marat; the significance of ‘sensation’ in the work of pissarro and cézanne; or the status of metaphor in picasso and pollock. allied to this peculiar status of the sign is a concern with the social and political context at particular historical moments. indeed, one achievement of clark’s in farewell is to locate the rhetoric of modernism within the specific representational crises produced by contingent political events—namely the reign of terror during the french revolution, and the war communism of that followed the russian revolution. these two events represent moments when there was an intimate connection between art and society, when historical forces neutralized any claim to art’s autonomy; and indeed art was forced to participate in the process of revolutionary renovation. but clark is also concerned to understand the nature of modernism in less revolutionary circumstances: thus he includes chapters on the work of pissarro, cézanne, picasso and pollock, which discuss modernism during periods of relative social stability. from the start clark has advanced an ambitious program to revitalize the discipline of art history. in ‘on the social history of art’—the programmatic introduction to the image of the people, published in —he described the principal goal of the social history of art as being to demonstrate the processes of ‘conversion’, ‘relation’, and ‘mediation’ through which the pictorial ‘text’ incorporates the socio-historical context of its production. clark’s success in realizing this program is debatable: the ‘connecting links’ between particular ‘artistic forms’ and ‘more general historical structures and processes’ are notoriously difficult to establish. ‘modernism had two great wishes. it wanted its audience to be led towards a recognition of the social reality of the sign (away from the comforts of narrative and illusionism, was the claim); but equally it dreamed of turning the sign back to a bedrock of world/nature/sensation/subjectivity which the to and fro of capitalism had all but destroyed. *<+ modernism lacked the basis, social and epistemological, on which its two wishes might be reconciled. the counterfeit nature of its dream of freedom is written into the dream’s realization.’ farewell, pp. – . cf. clark’s analysis of french art during the second republic in image of the people and the absolute bourgeoisie. ‘i want to explain the connecting links between artistic form, the available systems of representation, the current theories of art, other ideologies, social classes, and more general historical structures and processes. *<+ i want to discover what concrete transactions are hidden behind the mechanical image of ‚reflection‛, to know how ‚background‛ becomes ‚foreground‛; instead of analogies between form and content, to discover the network of real, complex relations between the two.’ clark, image of the people, . raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark clark’s subsequent writings have repeatedly encountered a fundamental impasse: the history of modernist art repeatedly exposes the effacement of the social. since the relation between art, society, and politics has become increasingly tentative: whereas clark discussed politics in image of the people and the absolute bourgeoisie, class became the focus of his analysis in the painting of modern life; by the time he discusses the work of picasso and pollock in farewell to an idea, he limits his analysis to the attempt to suspend the metaphoric dimension of the picture through the technical act of painting. however, it would be a mistake to read farewell simply in terms of ‘on the social history of art,’ which, after all, was written in . one of the virtues of farewell is that it foregrounds a dimension of clark’s previous work that sets it above less ambitious approaches to the social history of art; whereas the latter reduce the complexity of artistic endeavour to an ideological effect of dominant class interests, or merely consider an artist’s iconography as an instance of contemporary discursive practices, clark regards aesthetic experience as an over-determined symptom of social contradictions, one that renders an encounter with the sensuous materiality of the world; the aesthetic is precisely the fault line between different orderings of experience. indeed, clark’s methodology represents a sophisticated overhaul of erwin panofsky’s method of the re-creative experience of the aesthetic object. his work recalls the debates of the s that initially informed panofsky’s methodology: the critiques of neo-kantian epistemology and historicism found in the writings of aby warburg and walter benjamin, georg lukács and martin heidegger. however, whereas panofsky was concerned with the art of renaissance europe, clark addresses the art of modernity, which shattered the unity and coherence of the pre-modern world. clark combines aesthetic evaluation of artworks with archival research, seeking to unearth the complex of historical factors that informed the making of the original object. yet clark is no naive beholder who believes that it is possible to re-create the original experience; after all, the objects of analysis have undergone a lengthy process of historical selection, and the reputations of courbet, manet, picasso, or pollock have been validated by the passage of time. indeed, the re-creative experience restages a counterfactual moment when other possibilities inherent in the artwork have not yet succumbed to the vicissitudes of history. the intimate relation between political factors and artistic factors that form the basis of clark’s writings emerge at this point, for his analyses demonstrate the way the production and reception of artworks are inscribed in the social space. that courbet’s burial at ornans or manet’s olympia could become the focus of intense political antagonisms in and respectively discloses something about the on the re-creative experience of the artwork see erwin panofsky, ‘history of art as a humanist discipline’, in meaning in the visual arts, harmondsworth: penguin, , - . on panofsky’s early writings see michael ann holly, panofsky and the foundations of art history, ithica: cornel university press, ; and georges didi-huberman, confronting images: questioning the ends of a certain history of art, trans., john goodman, university park: pennsylvania state university press, . clark discusses his debt to an earlier generation of art historians in ‘the conditions of artistic production,’ times literary supplement, may , . clark has always been an attentive reader of walter benjamin, and the social history of art implicitly or explicitly draws on benjamin’s critique of artistic tradition and historicism. of particular importance here are the essays in illuminations and the writings on baudelaire. see walter benjamin, illuminations: essays and reflections, ed., hannah arendt, trans. harry zohn, new york: schocken, ; charles baudelaire: a lyric poet in the era of high capitalism, trans., harry zohn, london: new left books, . raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark relation between aesthetic experience and an experience of freedom that always has political implications. the logical consistency of clark’s argument is dependent on the immediacy of aesthetic experience, which acts as an articulation between analysis and synthesis, sense and meaning; yet it is precisely the ideology of the aesthetic that the social history of art initially questioned. the social history of art no longer regarded the monuments of high culture as repositories of transcendental values like beauty and truth; rather these monuments were documents of barbarism that revealed social and historical antagonisms. in this context the redemptive smile of the aesthetic succumbs to doubt and uncertainty; in its immediacy the aesthetic harbours a negative, disruptive face, one that grimaced with the torment and tribulation of materialism. indeed, the immediacy of aesthetic experience constitutes a fault line clark is forced repeatedly to traverse in his writings. his arguments alternate between historical determination—the detailed contextual interpretation of themes and subjects—and the direct visual evidence of the painted surface. the persuasiveness of his argument appeals to a process of historical mediation (the process of real, concrete transactions between artist and milieu, how background becomes foreground, etc.), yet this process needs to incorporate aesthetic experience as one moment of its dialectical development. to accommodate and reconcile this impasse clark attempts to restage an encounter with the object of analysis. the status of this encounter is ambiguous, oscillating between panofsky’s goal of a re-creative experience of the original work, and the self-reflexive awareness that this goal is irrevocably metaphysical, and ultimately impossible. it is this awareness that generates the performative mode in clark’s writing. in contrast to the social and historical determinations of context, which act as so many general rules to frame the singularity of an aesthetic experience, clark focuses on the particularity of an artwork’s appearance as a moment that negates these general descriptions; he looks for clues of an immanent reading incorporated into the very structure and appearance of the work. unlike panofsky, for whom the intellectual worldview provides the code for understanding the work, for clark it is the way that the artwork evades and frustrates the intellectual worldview that is productive in his account. however, this escape is only partial, for clark’s account of a specific artwork is always framed by an understanding of its subsequent history, its retrospective incorporation into a history of modernism. it is at this point that clark’s work becomes interesting. the aesthetic extends beyond an articulation between artwork and social context; it also represents the point where art and politics converge and diverge. the aesthetic renders an encounter with the political, that is, the experience of freedom that is the unfounded ground of any contingent political state. as walter benjamin notes in the ‘thesis on the philosophy of history’, ‘there is no document of civilization which is not at the same tie a document of barbarism’. illuminations, . in kant this appears not in the third critique, which attempts to tame experience through the faculty of judgement, but in the transcendental aesthetic of the first critique. see martin heidegger, kant and the problem of metaphysics, trans., richard taft, bloomington: indiana university press, ; and jean-luc nancy, ‘masked imagination’, in the ground of the image, trans., jeff fort, new york: fordham university press, , - . the influence of deconstruction on clark’s writing is felt indirectly through the work of paul de man; this is a topic worthy of further discussion. clark has discussed de man in ‘phenomenality and materiality in cézanne’, in material events: paul de man and the afterlife of theory, ed. tom cohen et al., minneapolis: university of minnesota press, , - . here i draw on the work of ernesto laclau, and jean-luc nancy on freedom. raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark significantly, this dimension of clark’s work does not refer to some positive feature or factual quality; rather it emerges in the formal ruptures of the argument, the points of disarticulation within a configuration of relations between specific details of a work and its context. in the remainder of this paper i want to focus on clark’s analysis of specific works. to bring out this dimension of farewell, i want to look at a review of the book by stephen eisenman that appeared in art in america. according to eisenman: farewell to an idea is an undeniable brilliant and effective book, but it is undermined by fundamental—and mutually aggravating—weaknesses of language and argument. clark’s analysis are often so immured in the rhetoric of contingency, antimony and fracture *<+ as to court obscurantism. alternatively, his writing is highly seductive and self-assured—displaying, indeed, a confidence unwarranted by the subjective this requires a thorough account of the role of negation in clark’s writing, not only in terms of the hegelian- marxist tradition, but also the deconstruction of hegelian dialectic in the work of derrida. see, in particular, jacques derrida, ‘from restricted to general economy: a hegelianism without reserve’, in writing and difference, trans., alan bass, london: rkp, , - ; margins of philosophy, trans., alan bass, chicago: university of chicago press, . this feature would also be the site to explore the common ground between clark’s social historical method and the neo-formalism of rosalind krauss and yve-alain bois. figure camille pissarro, two young peasant women, . oil on canvas, x cm. new york: the metropolitan museum of art. gift of mr. and mrs. charles wrightsman, . raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark nature of the observations. this mix of elusiveness and urgency is especially apparent in passages of formal analysis, the very places where, given his project, incisiveness and discretion are most needed. *<+ it resembles the language of authority, which coerces readers into suspending their own critical faculties in order that the author may do their thinking for them. as an example of this tendency eisenman cites clark’s analysis of pissarro’s two young peasant women (fig. ): it is all a matter of surface and light. but these are the aspects of the picture that are hardest to grasp and describe—the aspects that any viewer (certainly this one) is most likely to lose hold of, or change his or her mind about, as the minutes go by. *<+ the picture now hangs in a room where natural light, shining from above through a partly translucent ceiling, is helped out by a mixture of tungsten and neon. only when the sun is high and unobstructed does natural light overwhelm its substitutes. and that is when two young peasant women comes into its own. on a summer’s day with broken clouds—a typical new york’s summer day—you sit there watching the picture flinch and recede and recover as the original studio light comes and goes. *<+ only slowly, if my experience is typical, does it dawn on the viewer that the key to the picture’s color organization is the fact that its two peasants are taking their rest in a translucent foreground shade, with here and there a trace of sunlight coming through the leaves onto their fists and foreheads. of course that is what they are doing! rest seeks shadow, work usually cannot. ( - ) although eisenman acknowledges clark’s ‘extended, fascinating exposition that shifts back and forth between formal, semiotic, political and philosophical registers,’ he objects to the claim that this evanescent light effect ‘carries the picture’s semantic charge’: ‘since clark’s argument—quite a tendentious one, really—depends almost entirely on a transient impression of light and colour in two young peasant women which no spectator can truly replicate, the reader is forced to accept clark’s interpretation on faith.’ what makes this review interesting is that eisenman recognizes the tenor of clark’s argument only to mistake its tone. it is precisely the ‘tendentious’ character of this evanescent light effect in two young peasant women that underpins clark’s argument about the picture, particularly its relation to the emergence of modernism. here is clark’s comment on the following page: how typical a moment of modernism this is! typical of its strength and its pathos. everything depends on an effect of saturation, and looking at light through shadow, and the effect is marvelous; but it is only on offer, in my experience, to the most sustained (fanatic) attention; and inevitably it is the quality in the picture that is mistaken for tentativeness, or too heavy build-up of color—it is the quality that keeps the picture out of the modernist canon. ( ) stephen f. eisenman, ‘modernism’s wake’, art in america, : , october , . eisenman, 'modernism wake', . raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark the point of clark’s analysis of two young peasant women is as a limit-case; it describes an aesthetico-political program that had to be repressed for modernism to emerge. clark is careful to locate two young peasant women within the visual culture of the s, particularly the work of monet, gauguin, puvis de chavannes, jules breton, maurice denis, and finally matisse as the twentieth-century heir to the pastoral tradition. for two young peasant women was pissarro’s attempt to redo the pastoral, to offer not merely leisure but a politics of leisure to the beholder. ultimately, pissarro’s anarchism was embedded in his re-imagining of the pastoral, in his attempt to give determinate form to his ‘sensations.’ ‚sensation‛ in particular *<+ is pissarro’s way of indicating what for him is the ultimate mystery (and motor) of signification: the way in which the raw contact of sensorium and object is always already infected by a unique totalizing power, the one we call individuality, which is there in the perception and therefore potentially also in the means of registering it. *<+ we are close to the root of pissarro’s anarchism here, and to his view of what made painting truly difficult. signs could admit to their own inimitable ordering power—their belonging to a moment at which object and subject are still (always) being constituted. ( ) i have cited these passages at length because they indicate the ambition of clark’s argument in farewell. indeed, the chapter on pissarro implicitly proposes an archaeology of modernist ‘opticality’, an archaeology that establishes a link between optical sensations that are the stuff of painting, and the anarchist politics of the s. however, as clark well realizes, two young peasant women was never an unqualified success. although he is at pains to grasp hold of pissarro’s ambition, he is fully aware that history has not been kind to the artist. pissarro’s two young peasant women represents an aesthetic program that had to fail for modernism as we know it to emerge. at the epicentre of farewell is the chapter on picasso, ‘cubism and collectivity’. this chapter, which discusses high analytical cubism of – , focuses on a pivotal moment in modernism’s history: when picasso and braque verged on a new language of representation. the key term here is ‘verged’, for their attempt to discover a new language was ultimately a failure, for there was no corresponding shift in social reality to validate the language. yet what is important for clark is that the cubism of – represents a limit-case that is suspended between two representational regimes: the western illusionistic tradition that the experience of modernity had called into question, and a new language of abstraction that emerged in the wake of cubism. part of picasso and braque’s achievement was to refuse to choose between ‘illusionism’ and ‘abstraction’; rather they attempted to figure both sides of the equation. this moment also precedes the breakthrough to synthetic cubism, and although clark does not discuss synthetic cubism at any length, his argument is pitched against the semiotic reading of krauss and bois, particularly the primacy they give to the in this context it is interesting to consider clark’s reading of pissarro in relation to other readings of modernism, such as rosalind krauss’s critique of modernist opticality. whereas krauss understands the optical unconscious as structural (although grounded in the agency of the artist), for clark this unconscious dimension is social. see krauss optical unconscious. raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark arbitrariness of the sign, which in effect defuses the tension that animated cubism during – . for clark, the crux of cubism during – is to understand the role of metaphor in the work. he characterizes his disagreement with modernist critics like william rubin and his semiotic heirs in terms of the place of the ‘figural’: ‘the place, so to speak, where the metaphorical moves get started.’ the question is the relation between materialism and metaphor, between the material fact of paint and ‘the local acts of illusionism’: ‘what metaphors of matter strike us as giving the surface of “ma jolie” or man with a guitar their characteristic tone and consistency; and in particular, what metaphors of painting’s matter?’ (fig. ): the metaphor [. . .] is in the materialism of the works [. . . ]. the question to ask cubism . . . . is what kind of metaphorical structure it gives to its procedures, to the local acts of illusionism which lead us as viewers across the surface, now that those acts are conceived—and, if lucky, actually carried out—as nothing but manual, nothing but matters of fact? ( ) see yve-alain bois, ‘kahnweiler’s lesson, in painting as model, cambridge: mit press, , - ; rosalind e. krauss, the picasso papers, london: thames and hudson, . ‘the picture’s metaphorizing of *<+ the process of representation . *<+ happens in its microstructure: the metaphor, the shifting, is in the relation of procedures to purposes, of describing to totalizing, of ‚abstract‛ to ‚illusionism‛.’ figure pablo picasso, man with a guitar, - . oil on canvas, . x cm. philadelphia: philadelphia museum of art. the louise and walter arensberg collection. raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark clark’s analysis patiently gives body to these abstract formulations, painstakingly taking apart a number of works, examining the scant evidence of the artist’s decision making processes, interrogating the kind of purchase they had on social experience. ultimately, however, the project of analytical cubism—and by extension modernism—is to be understood under the sign of failure. cubism may have sought a new description of the world, but in the end it only provided a ‘counterfeit of such a description—an imagining of what kinds of things might happen to the means of western painting if such a new description arose.’ ( ) for the project to succeed, cubism would have required not only a new description of the world, but also an ‘overall recasting of social practice.’ ( ) in the next chapter clark turns to one such attempt to recast social practice, the russian revolution of . if the antimony between materialism and metaphor was at the heart of cubism, then the antimony between visuality and texuality is central to his analysis of the russian avant-garde. clark’s argument turns on two examples by el lissitzky: a propaganda board from , and a small gouache from – , untitled (rosa luxemburg), although for the sake of simplicity i shall focus on the latter work (fig. ). according to clark: abstract art *<+ was haunted by a dream of painting at last leaving the realm of convention behind, and attaining immediacy. *<+ the old dream of a purely visual totalizing in painting—of escaping from words into seeing and being. ( ) in rosa luxemburg, however: figure el lissitsky, untitled (rosa luxemburg), - . gouache, graphite and ink on paper, . x . cm. thessaloniki: greek state museum of contemporary art. costakis collection. raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark textuality is a force that ironizes the efforts of all the other elements in the picture to ‚take their places‛ and do the decent work of signifying. it is a reminder of the weirdness—the black hole or black square—that signifying ultimately is. (p. ) more importantly, textuality—in this case the name of a martyr to world revolution, rosa luxemburg—imports history into the visual field, but the precise relation between history and abstraction remains undefined. and indeed, this is part of the picture’s success, since it is the indeterminacy of this relation, the way that writing ‘ironizes’ the work of abstraction, that ‘energizes and complicates the picture’s whole economy.’ figure jacques-louis david, death of marat, . oil on canvas, x . brussels : musées royaux des beaux-arts de belgique. writing also plays a central part in clark’s earlier analysis of david’s death of marat (fig. ). here clark focuses on the letter in marat’s hand as offering the key to the picture’s el lissitzky wanted ‘abstraction to be an eternal war between the discursive and the immediate, the total image and the fragile assemblage—between signs with names attached to them . . . and others still floating in the ether of nonsense.’ farewell, . raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark modernism. again, writing introduces indeterminacy into the picture, not simply in referring to the contingency of political events— july , marat’s assassin charlotte corday—but in david’s whole conception of showing the world. painting is ‘forced to include the accident and tendentiousness of politics in its picture of the world,’ but ‘writing infects the picture’s whole economy of illusion,’ and ‘swallows up the figurative in general.’ ( ) the ambivalence introduced by writing is repeated in the indistinct background above the figure of the dead marat: this part of the composition contrasts to the representational strategies in the lower half of the painting, which are all tied to the depictions of specific object—bath, body, packing case, pen, paper, etc.; the upper half, by contrast, is an example of painting in neutral, of the artist falling back on the material practice and procedures of painting. this strategy is typical of modernism—the procedures of picasso or pollock discussed later in farewell—and it justifies clark’s inclusion of david’s marat as an episode in his history of modernism. in both cases, david’s marat and el lissitzky’s rosa luxemburg, writing enters the picture and unsettles the relation between work and world. clark’s analysis turns on demonstrating how these local problems of representation are in fact symptomatic for the culture as a whole, caught in the grip of revolutionary social, political and economic upheaval. questions about looking become questions about reading: *<+ the metaphor of revolutionary totality to be qualified (infected) by the metaphor of endless revolutionary discursiveness—a deferring of meanings, even of perceptions; a shuttling between spaces, and between kinds of materiality, kinds of narrative construction, kind of agreement about reading. this is what it would be like, the propaganda board says, to live in a world where the sign was arbitrary, because subject to endless social convolutions. it is not a world we shall live in without the revolution taking place. ( – ) what makes these works exemplary is that contingency is written into the texture of the works, figured as uncertainty about the very process of representation. this contrasts to the discussion of metaphor in the work of picasso and pollock, where there is an effort to neutralize the linguistic structure of metaphor in the act of painting, or at least ground it in the materiality of process. in place of a general history of modernism, clark advances a thick description of key moments in the modernist enterprise, thereby revealing what had to be excluded to constitute the history of artistic modernism. they are moments through which painting had to pass for modernism to emerge, but moments repressed within the history of modernism. indeed, what farewell offers is less a history of modernism than a series of interventions in the writing of history that disclose the conditions of emergence of modernism. these moments are also moments of intense aesthetic engagement, when the rules that govern judgment are called into radical question, when the beholder is forced to decide matters on the available evidence, to articulate particular in the general, the general in the particular. representation becomes a question of experience, experience a question of representation. it is in this sense that clark’s work is forced to traverse the faultline of the aesthetic. historical knowledge always involves a moment of subjective judgment, a moment when the historian is forced to construct an explanation out of the fragmentary historical record. in the case of art history, this moment pivots on aesthetic experience: when having assembled raymond spiteri a farewell to modernism? re-reading t.j. clark the available evidence, one is forced to establish some kind of connection between what one sees and what one knows. at this point the enterprise of art history converges with the travail of the artist, for each is forced to wrest eloquence from the mute materiality of the world. one of the virtues of clark’s writings is that this moment is also an act of political engagement. indeed, the elegiac tone of farewell to an idea is generated by clark’s fidelity to the politics of modernism, a belated effort to preserve the dream of freedom in a world increasingly hostile to that dream. raymond spiteri lectures in art history at victoria university of wellington, new zealand. his research focuses on the culture and politics of surrealism. he co-edited with don lacoss, surrealism, culture, and politics (ashgate, ), and has contributed articles to art journal, e-maj, and papers of surrealism. he is currently at work on a study of the breton- bataille polemic. raymond spiteri lecturer in art history victoria university of wellington po box wellington new zealand raymond.spiteri@vuw.ac.nz proust’s in search of lost time: the history of a vocation lund university po box lund + - evers, meindert proust's in search of lost time: the history of a vocation frankfurt am main, berlin, bern, bruxelles, new york, oxford, wien: peter lang, . pp., £ . , isbn - - - - li, shuangyi published in: modern and contemporary france doi: . / . . document version: publisher's pdf, also known as version of record link to publication citation for published version (apa): li, s. ( ). evers, meindert proust's in search of lost time: the history of a vocation frankfurt am main, berlin, bern, bruxelles, new york, oxford, wien: peter lang, . pp., £ . , isbn - - - - . modern and contemporary france, ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / . . total number of authors: general rights unless other specific re-use rights are stated the following general rights apply: copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • you may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • you may freely distribute the url identifying the publication in the public portal read more about creative commons licenses: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ take down policy if you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. https://doi.org/ . / . . https://portal.research.lu.se/portal/en/publications/evers-meindert-prousts-in-search-of-lost-time-the-history-of-a-vocation-frankfurt-am-main-berlin-bern-bruxelles-new-york-oxford-wien-peter-lang- - -pp-- -isbn- ( d c-d - f - - e d c a f ).html https://doi.org/ . / . . full terms & conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=cmcf modern & contemporary france issn: - (print) - (online) journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cmcf evers, meindert proust's in search of lost time: the history of a vocation frankfurt am main, berlin, bern, bruxelles, new york, oxford, wien: peter lang, . pp., £ . , isbn - - - - shuaggyi li to cite this article: shuaggyi li ( ) evers, meindert proust's in search of lost time: the history of a vocation frankfurt am main, berlin, bern, bruxelles, new york, oxford, wien: peter lang, . pp., £ . , isbn - - - - , modern & contemporary france, : , - , doi: . / . . to link to this article: https://doi.org/ . / . . published online: mar . submit your article to this journal article views: view crossmark data https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=cmcf https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cmcf https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi= . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorsubmission?journalcode=cmcf &show=instructions https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorsubmission?journalcode=cmcf &show=instructions http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - types while the sharp republican lines betweencitizensandnon-nationalstendto flatten differences between different groups and trajectories. all of this is coherent and convincing although there is perhaps a danger of allowing debates around the republic and its hidden exclusions to obscure other critical pos- itions coming, for example, from a more radical leftist standpoint.overall, however, this is a well-argued and informed book that does important work by bringing some relatively neglected but significant areas of film production into view. martin o’shaughnessy nottingham trent university q martin o’shaughnessy http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . proust’s in search of lost time: the history of a vocation meindert evers frankfurt am main, peter lang, pp., £ . , hbk, isbn - - - this book is based on meindert evers’s doctoral thesis, originally written in dutch in ,revisedandpublishedin , and translated into german in . the author firmly grounds his discussion of proustian aesthetics in the (mainly) european intellectual and artistic history immediately before and during proust’s time. it is impressive how the author, in barely pages in chapter i, surveys an extensive cast of thinkers, writers and artists who may have contributed to the fin de siècle spirit. some are better known than others: kant, heinrich von kleist, scho- penhauer, freud, nietzsche, louis cou- perus, thomas mann, baudelaire, oscar wilde and wagner, to name but a few. this section is followed by more detailed ‘influence studies’ between proust and a few key writers such as ralph waldo emerson, thomas carlyle, john ruskin, as well as those involved in the symbolist movement. however, evers’s account, which is made from an intellectual historian’s perspective, is necessarily sche- matic, and proust specialists today may find some of his observations unsatisfac- torily limited, especially given how many monographs on proust’s relation to the above thinkers and artists have appeared since the s. the flourishing field of proust studies since the s means that many of the author’s arguments may appear less original today than they were then. throughout the book, particularly in chapter ii, evers consistently stresses how proust is not a decadent or aestheticist writer, which he demonstrates primarily through discussions of proust’s characters (swann and charlus) and three paradig- matic relationships between art and life (around notions of mondanité, contradic- tion and commitment), as well as two informative comparative studies with mann and nietzsche. while these various points are very well substantiated with abundant textual analyses, very few scholars today would insist that proust should be defined primarily as a decadent writer. taking into account recent scholar- ship on the relation between decadent aesthetics and proust’s own aesthetic evolution, one may wish that this clear- cut opposition between proust and deca- dence set up by evers could be further nuanced, as the author—perhaps rather too absolutely—asserts: ‘proust, still seen by some as a representative of the fin de book reviews http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . siècle, because his novel portrays this time, has none of the characteristics of a decadent author. proust is radically different. his philosophy differs comple- tely from that of a d’annunzio, a wilde, a couperus, three examples of typical fin de siècle authors’ ( ). chapter iii, which explores aesthetic experience (through ‘involuntary memory’, ‘dreaming and awakening’ and ‘modern means of com- munication’), could best serve as a critical introduction to this particular aspect of proust’s novel, as it has been much more elaborated by later proust scholarship. the last chapter, which discusses proust’s ‘modern’ representations of ‘cultural criti- cism’, ‘the dreyfus affair’, ‘the first world war’, ‘homosexuality’ and ‘the aristocracy and high society’, could be read in a similar fashion. however, evers makes a crucial argu- ment in chapter iv, entitled ‘the re- creation of reality: perspectivism and metaphor’. the part on proust’s perspecti- vism is probably the book’s most original contribution to our current proust scho- larship. the notion of perspectivism is often associated with nietzsche in philos- ophy and cubism in art. but evers first traces proust’s perspectivist aesthetic to ruskin and then—rather intriguingly—to leibniz and hispluralistic andfragmentary visions of the one and only universe consisting of ‘monads’. we have concrete evidence of proust’s passionate reading of leibniz’s work (e.g. monadology). given the sheer volume and complexity of leibniz’s philosophy, one may wish this fascinating investigation to be developed further. the book covers quite a wide range of topics; the chapters are relatively inde- pendent of one another and can be read accordingly. overall, undergraduate stu- dents and lovers of proust rather than proust scholars are likely to benefit most from this book, with its almost jargon- free writing style, lucid explanations and resourceful analyses. in fact, one does not even have to have read proust to follow most of the discussions, as the author rather extensively recapitulates many plots before analysing them. quotations are all in english accompanied by proust’s french original in the footnotes (referring to the pléiade edition rather than the new pléiade) with occasional typos and wrong paginations ( – ). shuaggyi li university of edinburgh q shuangyi li http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . the livres-souvenirs of colette: genre and the telling of time anne freadman london, legenda, pp., £ . , hbk, isbn - - - thetitleofthebookgivesusamajorclueon theinnovativeapproachdevelopedbyanne freadman in her analysis of a particular colette corpus, the one devoted to auto- biographical writing: les vrilles de la vigne, mes apprentissages, la maison de claudine, sido, l’étoile vesper and le fanal bleu. freadman follows the powerful lure of rimbaldian vieilles vieilleries and its echoes with colette’s fondness for collecting objects, people and memories. to this must be added a technical aspect, that of the study of the genre of colette’s writing. freadman argues that, by largely avoiding modern & contemporary france http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . riha journal | september synthetic cubism at war: new necessities, new challenges. concerning the consequences of the great war in the elaboration of a synthetic-cubist syntax belén atencia conde-pumpido abstract when we talk about the synthetic cubism period, what exactly are we referring to? what aesthetic possibilities and considerations define it insofar as its origin and later evolution are concerned? to what extent did the disorder that the great war unleashed, with all its political, sociological and moral demands, influence the reformulation of a purely synthetic syntax? this article attempts to answer these and other questions relating to the sociological-aesthetic interferences that would influence the parisian cubist style of the war years, and in particular the works of juan gris, maría blanchard, jacques lipchitz and jean metzinger during the spring and summer that they shared with one another in , until it consolidated into what we now know as crystal cubism. contents cubism and war. the beginning of the end or infinite renewal? at a crossroads: tradition, figuration, synthesis and abstraction the beaulieu group, the purification of shape and the crystallization of cubism in and epilogue cubism and war. the beginning of the end or infinite renewal? [ ] the exhibition "cubism and war: the crystal in the flame", held in the picasso museum in barcelona in , highlighted the renewed production undertaken in paris during the war years by a small circle of artists who succeeded in taking synthetic cubism to its ultimate consequences. cubism and war: the crystal in the flame, ed. christopher green, exh. cat., museo picasso, barcelona, barcelona . riha journal | september [ ] linking the concepts of war and the avant-garde, or rather, the effects that the former had on the latter, is by no means novel. undoubtedly a pioneering work on this issue, kenneth silver’s well-known publication laid the foundations for a deeper understanding of the dismemberment of the very idea of a parisian avant-garde in those years. silver’s work examined how the avant- garde was undermined by the disruption of the conditions that had made it possible, namely the cosmopolitanism and artistic-cultural liberalism that the french capital had boasted from the end of the th century; these had allowed impressionists and post-impressionists to disassociate themselves from the established art circuit, and had opened the doors to the avid – and for the most part, destitute – foreign bohemians who gradually began congregating in the area between the bateau lavoir of montmartre and the ruche of montparnasse. [ ] silver’s initial contribution was subsequently followed by others which have delved into the consequences of the first world war insofar as the arts are concerned. it is an idea that is always present in the texts of christopher green, the curator of the exhibition at the picasso museum; his in-depth exploration of certain particularly relevant questions in that exhibition deserves further consideration. [ ] the first and most obvious one is the title of the exhibition and what it alludes to. the metaphor of the crystalline to refer to certain cubist works is by no means novel; maurice raynal, amedée ozenfant and jeanneret – le corbusier – made use of it to allude to the work of braque and picasso in , which seemed to shatter into small shards of glass. green however, ever since his early texts and following in the footsteps of maurice raynal and albert gleizes, has recycled the term in order to refer to the very specific production of cubist art by a group of artists in paris during the war years, whose coming together is an intrinsic result and consequence of the armed conflict. on one kenneth e. silver, esprit de corps: the art of the parisian avant-garde and the first world war, – , princeton, n.j. . particularly in christopher green, cubism and its enemies. modern movements and reaction in french art – , new haven / london , and id., art in france – , new haven / london . i would not wish to fail to mention the contributions in this regard by philippe dagen, le silence des peintres. les artistes face à la grande guerre, paris and by mark antliff, inventing bergson: cultural politics and the parisian avant-garde, princeton , both of which are fundamental, i believe, to any approach to these issues. amedée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, "vers le cristal", in: l'esprit nouveau (july ), n.p. by , gleizes was already claiming that it was gris and metzinger who made the greatest effort to delve into the possibilities offered by this new path, in a text that was however published a few years later: albert gleizes, "l'epopée, de la forme immobile à la forme mobile", in: le rouge et le noir, (october ), . raynal himself, in a riha journal | september hand, the term refers to the perception of their works as having "a sharp clarity and the serene balance of a crystalline structure". at the same time, the title "crystal in the flame" refers to a cubism scorched by the war disaster, and looking for a new starting point. [ ] i cannot agree more. in previous texts i have already defended the idea that cubism did not end with picasso leaving for avignon and braque marching off to the front, and that the production of cubist art before the war was not something unique to kahnweiler's four inescapable artists. i have also maintained – and i believe that this is the most important point – that synthetic cubism can in no way be limited to the meagre production created by braque, picasso and gris in and , which by and large involved transferring to the canvas what they had learned from collages and papiers collés. not only somewhat later publication, would affirm that as far as metzinger was concerned, crystal cubism represented a return to a simpler and more emphatic art; maurice raynal, modern french painters, new york , . green uses the analogy for the first time in christopher green, léger and the avant-garde, new haven / london , - . he then retrieves it for cubism and its enemies, - and then again in "the crystal in the flame. cubism and the first world war", in: cubism and war: the crystal in the flame, ed. christopher green, exh. cat., museo picasso, barcelona, barcelona , - . green, "the crystal in the flame", . the division between analytic and synthetic cubism, with the latter understood as a double and simultaneous creative process, arises in the first place from the writings of maurice raynal, daniel-henry kahnweiler and juan gris in the early s; s. maurice raynal, quelques intentions du cubisme, paris ; daniel-henry kahnweiler, der weg zum kubismus, munich , - ; and vauvrecy [juan gris], "juan gris", in: l’esprit nouveau (february ), - . a few months later, waldemar georges took up this same idea when talking about gris’ work, s. waldemar georges, "juan gris", in: l'amour de l'art (november ), - : . the writings of that same year by léonce rosenberg, cubisme et empirisme, paris , or elie faure, histoire de l'art, , paris , , consolidate the idea of this double process which, through contamination, began to be used to distinguish the artistic production of two different chronological periods: the analytical one between and and the synthetic one between and . this distinction appeared for the first time in an anonymous letter dedicated to picasso, which already alluded to "les années heroïques du cubisme": anonymous, "hommage à picasso", in: documents ( ), - , and which gamwell attributes to carl einstein. see lynn gamwell, cubism criticism, michigan , . the division is consolidated in the collective imaginary based on alfred barr’s paradigmatic writing for the exhibition catalogue on cubism and abstract art at the museum of modern art in new york, cubism & abstract art, exh. cat., museum of modern art, new york . the writings for the exhibitions organised in later years by the museum of modern art itself and dedicated to kahnweiler's cubists, such as picasso, forty years of his art, exh. cat., museum of modern art, new york , ; picasso, fifty years of his art, exh. cat., museum of modern art, new york , and riha journal | september did cubism have a second life, but it was during that second life that cubism went from being apparent to fully synthetic; that it took on this crystalline appearance, as discussed below. [ ] this claim, which grants synthetic cubism a greater depth and sophistication than is apparent at first glance, requires taking into account another paramount issue, without which it is unlikely that this development would ever have occurred. with the outbreak of the first world war, the groups of artists who were apparently consolidated around a dealer, a movement or a gallery, dissolved, obliging those who remained in what was by now a sadly dilapidated paris, to reorganise. and that is what happened to cubism. on the eve of the war, braque’s and picasso’s absence from the parisian art scene had made their work less questioned in the art press, as happenned also with gris and léger after their alliance with kahnweiler. the art critics close to them, like salmon and allard, championed them as leaders of cubism, while the salon cubists, generally reviled by the press, were considered to be of lower rank. in truth, the press did not take into account that gris was in many ways closer to the premises of the salon cubists than he was to braque and picasso, while it labelled léger a cubist even though his work did not necessarily have much to do with that of his peers in the gallery. but suddenly, overnight, braque and léger are enlisted, kahnweiler exiled and the galleries and salons closed. whatever separated their alleged respective camps disappeared and, as aeschylus would say, the force of necessity became irresistible. [ ] someone whom the cubists who stayed in paris found irresistible, plagued as they were by the necessities of having to live, work and sell, was the art dealer léonce rosenberg. having followed developments in cubism for a number of years, rosenberg took advantage of kahnweiler’s departure to set himself up as the leader of the movement. his intention was to inaugurate an exclusively cubist gallery at the end of the war, which would be proudly called l'effort moderne; he did not hesitate to sign contracts as early as with those artists whom picasso and gris suggested to him, and with others whose ; georges braque, exh. cat., museum of modern art, new york , ; juan gris, exh. cat., museum of modern art, new york , and , would to a large extent lay the foundation for this chronological-aesthetic division in cubist historiography from the s onwards. in this respect, see daniel robbins, "abbreviated historiography of cubism", in: art journal (winter ), - . from the early days, the fact that léger's work was considered to be strictly speaking cubist caused certain perplexity, as can be seen in texts dedicated to the painter, see "la vie artistique: la curiosité", in: la libre plume ( february ), n.p.; christian zervós, "fernand léger. est-il cubiste?", in: cahiers d’art - ( ), - ; anonymous, "peintres et sculpteurs vous racontent leur première exposition: la critique fut impitoyable par fernand léger", in: les lettres françaises ( - september ), . riha journal | september work appeared to have a certain cubist air. his bench, as he liked to call it, consisted of those previously hired by kahnweiler, namely, gris, léger, braque and picasso – the latter without a contract with the dealer – and a few more names such as jean metzinger, diego rivera, auguste herbin, gino severini, maría blanchard, jacques lipchitz and henri laurens. the war, however, did not end as quickly as some voices had predicted, and the dealer's plans had to be delayed for some time yet. enlisted at the front, like some of the artists in his future gallery, and distant from those who had fled paris during these years, he had no choice but to maintain an epistolary relationship with them, pending all the commercial contracts signed between rosenberg and these artists can be found in the fonds léonce rosenberg in the bibliothèque kandinsky, musée national d'art moderne, centre georges pompidou, paris (hereinafter: mnam), with the exception of those signed by jacques lipchitz, gino severini and maría blanchard. the figure of rosenberg has been highly criticized (see note ). christian derouet is particularly critical of him in his articles and texts in exhibition catalogues, for example in "de la voix et de la plume. les émois 'cubistes' d’un marchand de tableaux", in: europe. revue littéraire mensuelle - (june-july ), - , and "le cubisme 'bleu horizon' ou le prix de la guerre", in: revue de l’art ( ), - . giovanni casini was also quite critical in: "a dealer's 'dictatorship'? giorgio de chirico, léonce rosenberg, and the parisian art market in the late s", annual third year postgraduate symposium, the courtauld institute of art, london, – june , proceedings not published. on this subject, see belén atencia conde-pumpido, "léonce rosenberg y la idea de un cubismo colectivo en la galería l’effort moderne durante la gran guerra", in: arte, individuo y sociedad ( ), no. , - , doi: https://doi.org/ . /aris. . the correspondence exchanged between the dealer and the artists of l'effort moderne is preserved in various centres. the first and most important is that discussed in the léonce rosenberg fonds of the bibliothèque kandinsky in the musée national d’art moderne, centre georges pompidou in paris. additional léonce rosenberg papers are: correspondence relating to cubism, – , in the museum of modern art in new york; major private archives such as the louise leiris archives in paris or the archivio romana severini in the museo d'arte moderna e contemporanea di trento in rovereto; cooper papers preserved at the getty institute, perhaps somewhat more secondary, but nonetheless impressive in relation to the publication of the letters of juan gris by the art critic; and the fonds jules romains of the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris, which preserves some of metzinger’s letters of the time that could be interesting for the reconstruction of some episodes. fortunately, not all of this documentation has remained unpublished. in addition to the early contribution by douglas cooper, letters of juan gris – , london , we need to add the editions of the correspondence exchanged between juan gris and fernand léger with the dealer, by christian derouet, juan gris. correspondances avec léonce rosenberg, - , paris ; correspondances fernand leger – léonce rosenberg, – . une correspondance d’affaires, paris: cahiers du musée national d'art moderne ; as well as the more recent compilation by m. d. jiménez blanco, juan gris. correspondencias y escritos, barcelona . a new compilation of most of this riha journal | september the long-awaited inauguration of the galerie de l'effort moderne, which would only happen in march . denying all of them the chance to participate in the extremely few exhibitions that were held in paris during those years, with the excuse of preserving the impact, that a battery of personal cubist exhibitions would generate, for after the war, rosenberg and his circle saw clearly from the very outset that this new cubism, which sought to rid itself of the flames of war, would have to be reformulated from head to toe. documentation is forthcoming, s. belén atencia conde-pumpido, el cubismo durante la primera guerra mundial en la galería l'effort moderne. historia y correspondencias, madrid: tirant lo blanch . the first opportunity that the public had to return to an avant-garde art exhibition was at the end of in the atelier of mme bongard, the sister of paul poiret, whose associate ozenfant was in charge of selecting the works. a total of three exhibitions were held in the sewing lounge of mme bongard. in , the bongard-ozenfant association became known as les soirées de paris and held at least another two exhibitions. several galleries remained active, albeit with scant activity, for example, the weill gallery, the boutet de monvel, the paul guillaume and the bernheim jeune. we should not forget the equally fundamental role played by the artistic associations, art et liberté and lyre et palette, in the recovery of the art scene during these years. the most significant attempt to restore paris’ exhibition network was that of andré salmon who, sponsored by poiret, organised the most important exhibition of those years, at the salon d’antin, in rue du faubourg saint-honoré , under the title of "art moderne en france". in this respect, see, mark roskill, the interpretation of cubism, london , - and etienne alain hubert, "pierre reverdy et le cubisme en mars ", in: revue de l’art ( ), - : . all these issues are comprehensively treated by malcolm gee, dealers, critics and collectors of modern painting: aspects of the parisian art market between and , new york , and by pierre cabanne, les grands collectionneurs, vol. : Être collectionneur au xxe siècle, paris . some letters exchanged between the artists of the future gallery and rosenberg in the summer of , as well as a confidential circular sent by the art dealer to all of these artists in september , show that, from a commercial point of view, they considered that not exhibiting during the war and to present all their work within a single gallery, would be more impressive to the public and would help in the defense of the much disrespected cubism; see juan gris to léonce rosenberg, paris, may , mnam, paris, - , cfr. derouet, juan gris, ; juan gris to léonce rosenberg, paris, july , mnam, paris, - , cfr. derouet, juan gris, ; henri laurens to léonce rosenberg, etang la ville, , mnam, paris, c , ; jean metzinger to léonce rosenberg, paris, july , mnam, paris, . ; léonce rosenberg to juan gris, september , archives gonzalez-gris, cfr. derouet, juan gris, - . from an aesthetic point of view, rosenberg's suggestions and interference in the creative work of these artists is evident in georges braque to léonce rosenberg, september , mnam, paris, c . ; fernand léger to léonce rosenberg, riha journal | september [ ] and this brings us to the other fundamental issue addressed by green in barcelona, intended to be the central premise of this article. the issue of how synthetic cubism struggled to position itself in the face of two very strong poles of attraction generated during the war: on the one hand, the rappel à l'ordre, a consequence of the natural yet no less frightening conviction that the road to salvation was to be found in multidisciplinary protectionism and in a return to traditional and deeply patriotic values rather than in strange and incomprehensible modernity; on the other hand, abstraction, a result of the simultaneous rejection of realism and reality, of the dehumanizing nature of war. the temptation of both roads opened up to the cubists in the following years, causing them to oscillate between them. of all the members of rosenberg’s gallery, only a few would ever manage to shrewdly implement these two possibilities, in what we might consider a fully synthetic cubism, a crystal cubism. and even in these cases, assertion was not immediate. at a crossroads: tradition, figuration, synthesis and abstraction [ ] what became obvious to the cubists, almost contemporaneously with the outbreak of war, was that the collages of the pre-war period – altogether too chaotic and extra-pictorial for a society that was demanding a return to french tradition –, were no longer satisfactory. the combination of avant-garde and tradition was making its presence felt with increasing and ever greater lucidity as the only plausible alternative to the theoretical organ of the future gallery. with the skilful and resourceful pierre reverdy and his newly released magazine nord sud to the fore, they would strive to fervently defend the syncretism between cubism and tradition, based not so much on the final appearance of the work, unequivocally avant-garde, as on its creative process. and this idea is in itself already revealing when we observe the march and may , edited in: derouet, correspondances fernand leger – léonce rosenberg, and - . these two affirmations are present in the writing of mark rosenthal, juan gris, new york , , and also in green's, particularly in the catalogue of the barcelona exhibition, cubism and war, - , and in cubism and its enemies, - . for the idea of the return to order in french society during the war and its implication in art, see note . throughout the war years and those immediately after it, some of the artists at the gallery, in addition to the supporters of rosenberg’s cubist movement, particularly pierre reverdy, paul dermée and maurice raynal, not to mention the dealer himself of course, published a series of texts that specifically linked the concepts of cubism and tradition. examples of this are texts by gino severini, "la peinture d’avant-garde", in: mercure de france ( june ), - ; pierre reverdy, "sur le cubisme", in: nord- sud ( march ), - ; id., "l’image", in: nord-sud (march ), ; id., "le cubisme, poésie plastique", in: l’art (february ), ; paul dermée, "quand le riha journal | september emphasis that the cubists placed on the modern effort to build, in the face of the palpable destruction that was asphyxiating them. for reverdy, the "purification of forms" involved selecting from nature only those forms that were immutable, avoiding the accidental. with the help of these immutable forms, the artists would be able to build a new pictorial language. the construction of this new pictorial syntax would be progressively translated by those artists into the construction of a series of pre-conceived abstract forms that could be used in their canvases, like puzzle pieces, regardless of the object to be represented. but let us see how these ideas 'crystallized', from a practical point of view. [ ] the first and most obvious solution for artists at the beginning of the war was to transpose the possibilities of collages and papiers peints to oil, that is to say, 'to paint the collages'. this resource had already been used by gris in in works such as verre et paquet de tabac (musée national d'art moderne, paris), or tabac, journal et bouteille de vin rosé (private collection), whose final compositions, as was the case with the collages, underscore the two- dimensional nature of the canvas, thus diminishing the sense of volume. in this device, quite a few authors have perceived relationships analogous to those found in the baroque art of zurbarán. [ ] though most of the historiography that places the end of cubism in has considered this procedure to be justifiably synthetic, cubism would actually still need some time to become fully so, to be not simply a search for a synthetic result, but rather the materialization of a synthetic conception and implementation. crucially, as argued by reverdy, this would not necessarily entail the free and indistinct manipulation of the abstract drawings that symbolisme fut mort…", in: nord-sud ( march ), - ; id., "intelligence et création", in: nord-sud (august/september ), - ; georges braque, "pensées et réflexions sur la peinture", in: nord-sud (december ), - ; maurice raynal, quelques intentions du cubisme, paris ; léonce rosenberg, "introduzione", in: valori plastici - (february–march ); id., cubisme et tradition, paris ; id., cubisme et empirisme, paris . see https://www.centrepompidou.fr/cpv/resource/cabokbr/rqgem x (accessed august ). see http://www.sothebys.com/es/auctions/ecatalogue/ /impressionist-modern-art- evening-sale-n /lot. .html (accessed august ). mark rosenthal, juan gris, new york , ; silver, esprit de corps, ; christopher green, "juan gris, el cubismo y la idea de tradición", in: juan gris – , exh. cat., salas pablo ruiz picasso, madrid, madrid , - : . see also kenneth silver, "juan gris. between cubism and classicism", in: cubism. the leonard a. lauder collection, exh. cat., the metropolitan museum of art, new york, new york , - . reverdy, "le cubisme, poésie plastique". http://www.sothebys.com/es/auctions/ecatalogue/ /impressionist-modern-art-evening-sale-n /lot. .html https://www.centrepompidou.fr/cpv/resource/cabokbr/rqgem x http://www.sothebys.com/es/auctions/ecatalogue/ /impressionist-modern-art-evening-sale-n /lot. .html http://www.sothebys.com/es/auctions/ecatalogue/ /impressionist-modern-art-evening-sale-n /lot. .html https://www.centrepompidou.fr/cpv/resource/cabokbr/rqgem x riha journal | september structured the compositions. this approach would justify the capacity, allegedly immanent to the cubism of those years, to configure, to create a new artistic language, thereby simultaneously dissociating itself from the denial and the mere imitation of reality. [ ] taking as an example gris’ representation of the wine glasses that are to be found in his works in and , we will see how most of them, albeit fragmented and made up of various planes, do nevertheless maintain their individual corporeal entity. in compotier sur un tapis, (moderna museet, stockholm), the inner fragmentation of the glass, which combines views of the same from the front, the side and the top, is framed by the actual contour of the glass, represented in a more or less realistic way. this device becomes even more evident in other examples such as compotier, verre et citron (phillips collection, washington, dc) or compotier, verre et journal (private collection), both from the same year. in these, the inner fragmentation of the object, and even the multiplicity of perspectives, are practically cancelled out, making it therefore possible to individualize – even to eliminate, metaphorically speaking – the object-glass from the rest of the composition without prejudice to the latter. even when the interior structure and the multiplicity of planes of these works becomes complicated, as is the case in le paquet de tabac, (private collection), gris’ wine glasses continue to have an identity of their own. [ ] but let us not focus our attention on gris alone; other artists such as maría blanchard, jean metzinger and jacques lipchitz explored similar possibilities around this same time. and they were not the only ones. diego rivera, henri laurens and gino severini, fellow gallery colleagues and cubists, were also interested in these matters. however, as we shall see, from these opening years of the war, and more precisely between and , the solutions that the former arrived at share specific similarities. [ ] if we analyse the works by blanchard from the same period and compare them to the above-mentioned works by gris, such as composition cubiste. nature morte verte à la lampe (ll-a collection, madrid) or nature morte (private collection), both from , we will see how the conceptual procedure she developed to represent her wine glasses is similar to that of gris. in both cases, the facetation and multiplicity of inner points of view of the glass are not see https://sis.modernamuseet.se/view/objects/asitem/artist$ / /primarymaker-asc? t:state:flow= f a -e - fca- - c db (accessed august ). see https://www.phillipscollection.org/collection/browse-the-collection?id= (accessed august ). see https://www.museoreinasofia.es/exposiciones/maria-blanchard (accessed august ). https://www.museoreinasofia.es/exposiciones/maria-blanchard https://www.museoreinasofia.es/exposiciones/maria-blanchard https://www.museoreinasofia.es/exposiciones/maria-blanchard https://www.phillipscollection.org/collection/browse-the-collection?id= https://sis.modernamuseet.se/view/objects/asitem/artist$ / /primarymaker-asc?t:state:flow= f a -e - fca- - c db https://www.phillipscollection.org/collection/browse-the-collection?id= https://sis.modernamuseet.se/view/objects/asitem/artist$ / /primarymaker-asc?t:state:flow= f a -e - fca- - c db https://sis.modernamuseet.se/view/objects/asitem/artist$ / /primarymaker-asc?t:state:flow= f a -e - fca- - c db riha journal | september called into doubt; however it would appear that they are all enclosed within the interior of the now defined silhouette of the wine glass. [ ] metzinger, having been conscripted to serve in a telegraph station where he spent all of and , was discharged after he developed a heart condition that returned him to civilian life, but not before having spent quite some time in a hospital during . in the meagre output that such a situation allowed him, one can appreciate the gradual abandonment of decorative models, textured surfaces, geometric shapes, and rectilinear grids that had marked his work in previous years, all of which gave way to a more simplified and synthetic form of cubism. [ ] the evolution produced in three of his works confirms these advances. in l ’ Été (statens museum for kunst, copenhagen), the presence of decorative elements is more than evident in the botanical backgrounds and in the details of the protagonist’s costume. at the same time, an interesting analogy is created between object and plane, very much akin to what gris and blanchard were doing that same year, for example in the representation of the fruit in the bowl, whose frontal and manifestly naturalist vision is framed within a single plane. [ ] in my opinion, fruits et pichet sur une table (museum of fine arts, boston) and nature morte à la lampe (museum of modern art, new york), both painted that same year, mark an indisputable progress with respect to l’Été. although in many cases they still maintain the object-plane affinity, and although they resort to such decorative elements as tablecloths and wallpapers, the possibilities offered by conceding one single abstract plane to different elements simultaneously constitute a gigantic step in their own right. the glass of wine, the bottle of banyuls, and the fruit bowl in fruits et pichet this is what the painter himself tells rosenberg in a letter, see jean metzinger to léonce rosenberg, paris, august , mnam, paris, . . to gain a somewhat better understanding of metzinger’s artistic concerns during , it is interesting to read two letters that he wrote in july that year to albert gleizes, in barcelona at that time, with whom the painter shared his progress and concerns. both can be found in the fonds gleizes, mnam, paris. some excerpts from them have been published in peter brook, "metzinger. cubism as realism", in: cubism (spring ), - . see https://collection.smk.dk/#/en/detail/kmsr (accessed august ). jean metzinger, fruits et pichet sur une table, , oil and sand on canvas, . x cm, museum of fine arts, boston, https://collections.mfa.org/objects/ (accessed august ). on the use of decorative elements and more specifically the pointillist resources in the cubism of these years, see rebecca rabinow, "confetti cubism", in: cubism. the leonard a. lauder collection, - . https://collections.mfa.org/objects/ https://collections.mfa.org/objects/ https://collection.smk.dk/#/en/detail/kmsr https://collection.smk.dk/#/en/detail/kmsr https://collection.smk.dk/#/en/detail/kmsr https://collection.smk.dk/#/en/detail/kmsr riha journal | september sur une table, which not only share the same plane but in fact confuse realities – particularly evident in the coinciding representation of the neck of the bottle and the foot of the fruit bowl –, already anticipate the subsequent development of cubism in and . [ ] lipchitz was also immersed in similar issues. the possibility of starting off from indistinct abstract forms to arrive at the representation of a specific object had seduced him from the outbreak of war. sculpture (tate modern, london) arises precisely from these problems. also known as tête, it is a work that would end up being irreversibly included in the cubist movement and would successfully bring to fruition a large part of the cabals that had troubled him in sculptural matters, related to the creation of a genuinely sculptural formula, that owed nothing whatsoever to painting. paradoxically, it also plunged the artist into a major crisis. [ ] the genius of sculpture lies in the fact that, as lipchitz himself said, it was entirely conceived from purely abstract forms which, when combined, created something that we might well identify with a head without such a thing being actually all that clear. in other words, compared to other cubist working methods, which started from abstract forms to become recognizable forms, in the case of sculpture this possibility did not exist, so the subsequent anatomical similarity was something of a surprise for the artist himself. however, sculpture did contain within itself an irresolvable problem: despite the great formal, conceptual and material achievements, lipchitz saw how he jacques lipchitz, sculpture, , bronze sur socle en bois, x . x . cm, tate modern, london, https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/lipchitz-sculpture-t (accessed august ). in this regard, see catherine pütz, jacques lipchitz. the first cubist sculptor, london , - . please also refer to jacques lipchitz, my life in sculpture, with hjoervardur harvard arnason, new york . see the letter by jacques lipchitz to deborah stott, pavía, may , in: frits lugt archives, fondation custodia, paris. unfortunately for lipchitz this fact was contested by cooper and tinterow, who, basing themselves on statements made by rubin lipchitz, jacques’ brother, claimed that sculpture had been conceived by using george landau as a model; in: the essential cubism. braque, picasso & their friends – , exh. cat., the tate gallery, london, london , . from a formal point of view, lipchitz had replaced the human form with an architectural one, thanks to a procedure based on mathematical theories that tried to free the sculpture from extravagant pomposities and symbologies. some authors who discussed lipchitz’ cubist production, deduced certain concepts from his exercise: from the "constructive character" of paul dermée, "lipchitz", in: l’esprit nouveau ( ), - , to "art re-humanized" in jean cocteau, "the technique of jacques lipchitz", in: broom (june ) , sculpture is understood as a dual aspect work that combines the architectural-dehumanized and the anatomic-humanized. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/lipchitz-sculpture-t https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/lipchitz-sculpture-t riha journal | september was hopelessly distancing himself from the subject and was in fact entering the realm of pure abstraction. [ ] the possibilities raised by a work created just a little later, homme à la guitare, (museum of modern art, new york), represent a new step forward for lipchitz. with a more complicated structure than the removable figures of and early , this work consists of varied and intricate rectangular planes, complex shapes that suggest, as did its predecessors, the human form. the key factor of this piece lies in the importance that negative space acquires in it, framed as it is in the very centre of the figure, clarifying it, giving it unity, but above all rendering it independent of nature. from a structural point of view, the ploy between the representative and the abstract is becoming increasingly mature. [ ] therefore, by metzinger, blanchard, gris and lipchitz had already set off down that road. their and works had been based on the mere transposition to canvas of the possibilities of collages and papiers peints, giving the appearance of synthesis, as opposed to the profound decay of the planes that made up works prior to these years. now, these artists, grouped together more or less haphazardly in the promise of a future gallery following the signing of the armistice, delved into similar issues around the idea of re- conceiving the concepts of abstraction, figuration and synthesis. the possibilities suggested by the creation of a new reality, configured through abstract drawings that evoke a figurative element in the mind of the spectator, began to seduce these artists. and it was even more the case for the defenders of the renovated cubism of wartime, who now, more than ever before, had to align themselves with the ideas of order and tradition. however, the process had not yet reached its zenith. for this, we must wait until the spring of , when gris, blanchard, metzinger and lipchitz met in beaulieu-près-loches, fleeing from 'big bertha', as a german howitzer gun type was referred to at the time. see https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ? sov_referrer=artist&artist_id= &page= (accessed august ). if sculpture was still analytical in terms of its resistance to space and its compact nature, the removable figures, which were included in the space, simulated a figure without imitating it. the work thus achieved the filtered figuration that lipchitz was seeking, while implying the use of a construction process, see deborah stott, jacques lipchitz and cubism, new york / london , - . see christian canivez, "quand le vide devient forme", in: journal regional du nord ( december ), - . https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?sov_referrer=artist&artist_id= &page= https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?sov_referrer=artist&artist_id= &page= https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?sov_referrer=artist&artist_id= &page= https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?sov_referrer=artist&artist_id= &page= riha journal | september the beaulieu group, the purification of shape and the crystallization of cubism in and [ ] if throughout , gris, blanchard, metzinger and lipchitz had been exploring the possibilities offered by the manipulation of abstract planes for the configuration of their works, still in many cases maintaining the equivalences between object-plane, a change began however to take root in gris’ work in early . in compotier et fruits sur un guéridon, of january of that year (private collection), the corporeality of the glass in the lower right corner slowly begins to fade. however, even though we come across elements that were still in debt to a figurative conception – for example, the pears on the left side of the canvas –, the configuration of some of them, as is the case of the glass of wine in question, reveals a change with respect to his work. the object cannot now be removed from the composition without prejudice to other compositional planes that allude in turn to other objects. [ ] other works by gris, from september of that same year, confirm that the process of purification of the forms referred to by reverdy in his texts, was not immediate. although in works such as nature morte: le verre (philadelphia museum of art), or verre et as de trèfle (private collection), he once again identifies the abstract plane with the figurative, in bouteille et verre (private collection) he yet again questions himself about the inverse ploy. by november he is making rather bolder proposals similar to those of violon et journal (alicia koplowitz collection, bilbao), where the planes are now virtually indivisible. [ ] the possibilities suggested by the creation of a single reality, by means of several abstract planes, do however persuade gris, particularly so as of the spring of , when he and his wife josette flee to beaulieu-près-loches to escape the explosions generated by the german howitzer shells, which were terrifying paris. the two le verre, created in april (glasgow art gallery and richard s. zeisler collection, new york city), carafe, verre et pipe, from june (art gallery of toronto), and above all, pipe et blague à tabac, probably from july (private collection), reveal the compositional and purely synthetic process that we would be perfectly right to call crystal cubism. on this process see christopher green, "synthesis and the 'synthetic process' in the painting of juan gris – ", in: art history (march ), - , and "purity, poetry and the painting of juan gris", in: art history (june ), - . see reverdy, "sur le cubisme" ( ); "l’image" ( ); "le cubisme, poésie plastique" ( ). also see michel collot, "la syntaxe du visible: reverdy et l'esthétique cubiste", in: reverdy aujourd'hui, ed. michel collot et jean-claude mathieu, paris , - . riha journal | september [ ] in beaulieu-près-loches, gris is visited by metzinger, lipchitz and blanchard, and, accompanying them all, chilean poet vicente huidobro. while each one of them had simultaneously managed to arrive at similar solutions, the discussions, exchanges and borrowings they shared during those months would mark a turning point in their works. once the previous meditations had been overcome, the plane was finally the protagonist, the element that shaped the final object, which made it possible to use it indefinitely regardless of the object being represented. gris himself realized this; he writes to rosenberg: "without being happy with what i am doing, at least i think that these two things mark a quite remarkable advance over what i have done before." based on the catalogue raisonné by cooper, gris is probably referring to harlequin (telefónica collection, madrid) and le meunier (louise leiris gallery, paris), both from may . if we compare harlequin with maisons de beaulieu (kröller-müller museum, otterlo), finished just a month earlier, we will see how certain abstract planes appear in both works. this formal elasticity is total from the point and moment when the theme ceases to have a dominant role; the exchange of forms is made indiscriminately possible between landscapes, still lifes or figures. we know the date metzinger arrived in beaulieu-près-loches thanks to a letter gris sent to dermée, dated july , in which he tells the poet that "metzinger arrived on thursday"; juan gris to paul dermée, beaulieu-près-loches, june , in: juan gris. correspondencias y textos, ed. maría dolores jiménez blanco, barcelona , . vicente huidobro arrived in paris in at the age of , deeply affected by the war. speaking very little french, he quickly fell in with the spanish and latin american community that he encountered there. among them were some members of l'effort moderne such as blanchard, rivera and gris, with whom he built a great friendship that would flourish in such professional collaborations as horizon carré, a work by the chilean with illustrations by gris; keith ellis, "vicente huidobro and the first world war", in: hispanic review (summer ), - . for more on the relationship between the two artists, see "juan gris – : to vicente huidobro", in: litoral ( ), - . gris’ collaboration with the literary world was not an isolated occurrence, in fact he frequently embarked on projects with several poets. on this subject, see rené de costa, "juan gris and literary cubism", an unpublished lecture given at the university art museum in berkeley, california in february on the occasion of the exhibition devoted to the artist from madrid and curated by rosenthal. a spanish version of this lecture was published under the title "juan gris y la poesía", in: juan gris – , exh. cat., ed. gary tinterow, madrid , - . the article was subsequently revised and expanded, see rené de costa, "juan gris and poetry: from illustration to creation", in: the art bulletin (december ), - . juan gris to léonce rosenberg, beaulieu-près-loches, may , paul getty archives, los angeles, ; ed. by derouet, juan gris, . douglas cooper, juan gris, catalogue raisonné de l’œuvre peint, paris , - . riha journal | september [ ] as far as lipchitz was concerned, from the outset, the primary issue had revolved around the elaboration of an autonomous and sensitive sculptural- artistic language, able at the same time to enter into a dialogue between the figurative and the abstract. this road had already been opened by homme à la mandoline, (private collection), and its use of negative space, but it would be after , when his relationship with gris had grown more intense, and more particularly in , during his stay in beaulieu, that his syntax would achieve greater maturity. in , the lithuanian artist resorted to combining techniques akin to those of cézanne, reinterpreted from new constructive and spatial perspectives, with iconographic sources borrowed from such masters of french art as ingrès or poussin; this reached its culmination in his famous we know from wilkinson that lipchitz got to know gris through modigliani, and that it is thanks to the madrid-born artist that he came into contact with rosenberg and l'effort moderne; alan wilkinson, the sculpture of jacques lipchitz: a catalogue raisonné, vol. : the paris years ( – ), london , . thanks to some of the letters that gris sent to rosenberg, we know that gris and lipchitz were both strongly attracted to the occult sciences, alchemy and the transmutation of matter found in eliphas levi’s treatise or in hermes trismegisto’s emerald tablet; see juan gris to léonce rosenberg, paris, february , mnam, paris, ed. by derouet, juan gris, . the relationship between the two, as lipchitz himself would afterwards say, played a decisive role in his production: "i met gris sometime afterwards, also in , at a time when i was rather too mature to accept the taboos and limitations of the orthodox cubists." jacques lipchitz, may , in: letters to lipchitz and some personal notes by the artist, eds. josé francisco yvars and lucia ybarra, madrid , - . lipchitz perceived his relationship with gris to be so intense that he did not hesitate to accuse kahnweiler of conceding too little importance to him in the biography of gris that the dealer published in : "nothing will diminish the pure glory of gris; if we take into account that the years of to , which were creative for us both, were fertilized by our enthusiastic energies that intermingled in a fraternal way. for my part, i bless heaven for having given me this privilege. do you really think that a friendship such as ours, between two creative artists, had nothing more than unilateral effects, to such an extent that in your book you feel able devote to me nothing more than this modest, tiny mention on page : 'there was a sculptor, jacques lipchitz, who was a friend of gris.' i have demonstrated above that i was more than that. i hope that the future does not ratify your sentence", in: letters to lipchitz, eds. yvars and ybarra, . for more on this relationship, see christopher green, "lipchitz and gris: the cubisms of a painter and sculptor", in: lipchitz. un mundo sorprendido en el espacio, exh. cat., museo nacional centro de arte reina sofía, madrid, madrid , - . certain similar work methods used by gris and lipchitz and related to the golden section are highlighted in: stott, jacques lipchitz, . the cubist revision during the war years of the great french masters of the th century and the possibilities they offered, was not exclusive to lipchitz. back in , gris had already revisited corot’s femme à la mandoline, borrowing from him its compositional structure, an idea that was also adopted by some of his colleagues in the gallery. silver posited that picasso, drawing inspiration from gris’ femme à la riha journal | september series of bathers. while in homme à la mandoline his desire to configure this new sculptural language complicated the identification of the subject, the bathers would make a degree turn to recover it. [ ] a good example of this is bather iii, (tate modern, london): though conceived through non-representational forms, when taken as a whole, these suggest the figure of a bather drying herself. this is a decisive breakthrough in lipchitz’s work: if on the one hand it combined the achievements of the manipulation of abstract drawings without renouncing the subject, on the other hand the result, even apparently more abstract than homme à la mandoline, proclaimed itself to be profoundly naturalist and classic. the achievement, therefore, of the manipulation of abstract planes that suggest a concrete subject was already a reality in lipchitz’s work from . moreover, in works such as bas relief i (national gallery of art, washington), from the period spent in beaulieu, we can see the recovery of the same representative plane of the head and shoulders of baigneuse assise (private collection) and the bottle of bas relief i. this reveals the possibility, available from then on, of interchanging the planes of his works, which is just what gris was doing. [ ] in green’s opinion, metzinger began working in a manner akin to that of gris and lipchitz toward the end of . the new method translated into the visible management of geometric frames that would take structural mandoline, would go on to paint l'italienne in , also based on corot; see kenneth silver, "juan gris y su arte en la gran guerra, – ", in: juan gris – , exh. cat., ed. gary tinterow, madrid , - : . however, both daix and carandente claim that the influence came from severini and not from gris, by way of a small woodcut entitled femme au sac which was in apollinaire's studio. at the same time, and to close the circle, l'italienne would be shown to severini by picasso on his return from italy, and this would influence the former when creating his la ciociara in . see pierre daix, la vie de peintre de pablo picasso, paris , and ; picasso. opere dal al dalla collezione marina picasso, exh. cat., palazzo grassi, venice, eds. giovanni carandente and werner spies, florence , . for more on these latter relationships, also see caterina zappia, "severini, picasso e i frères rosenberg: arte e mercato negli anni della grande guerra", in: commentari d’arte - ( – ) [ ], nos. - , - . jacques lipchitz, bas relief i, , polychrome stone, . x . x . cm, national gallery of art, washington, https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page. .html (accessed august ). jacques lipchitz, baigneuse assise, , bronze, . cm, private collection, https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/jacques-lipchitz- - -baigneuse-assise- -details.aspx (accessed august ). in this regard, see jerrold lanes, "work from the cubist period at marlborough-gerson gallery", in: burlington magazine ( ), no. , - . green, cubism and its enemies, . https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/jacques-lipchitz- - -baigneuse-assise- -details.aspx https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page. .html https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/jacques-lipchitz- - -baigneuse-assise- -details.aspx https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/jacques-lipchitz- - -baigneuse-assise- -details.aspx https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page. .html riha journal | september integrations to the limit and would imbue the exchange of forms with great flexibility. the progress is confirmed by the artist himself in his correspondence of that same year. thus in february, he announced to his dealer that he had just "finished a series of paintings that mark a real progress, at least this is the opinion of my comrades", and in march, he assured him that he was endeavouring to "paint in an increasingly simple and aesthetic manner". previously, metzinger had told gleizes that his painting was "more complicated than ever before, even though it looked simpler", an impression that he would go on to ratify to rosenberg: "i try to cast aside certain accidental minutiae and an excessive use of colour that had previously ruined the greatness and unity of my paintings. i am trying to paint in a simpler and more solid way." [ ] the exchange of abstract forms is also evident in his work in , despite the fact that his stay in beaulieu was brief in comparison to that of his companions. if we take homme assis devant une table as an example (private collection), we will see how the plane of the figure in the top left corner is very similar to the right side of the face of the main character, if this is turned around. and not only that, it is also similar to the one used to represent the bottle on the table. the plane itself is recurrent in metzinger, who uses it again in nature morte à la bouteille et poires (private collection) from the same year. that the manipulation of abstract planes is analogous to what gris and lipchitz were doing is a fact, but there is more to it than that. all these abstract planes, very similar in the works of metzinger in , are also very similar to those used by lipchitz in his works, and more specifically to those found in homme à la mandoline from . it is not the only allusion that metzinger makes; clearly aware of how to use circular shapes to recreate the mouths of glasses and bottles, this device was in turn used by laurens, also a member of l'effort moderne and with whom metzinger would play with the ambiguity between the shape of an eye and an olive on more than one occasion. he also letter of jean metzinger to léonce rosenberg, paris, february , mnam . . letter of jean metzinger to léonce rosenberg, march , mnam . . letter of jean metzinger to albert gleizes, december , mnam. letter of jean metzinger to léonce rosenberg, may , mnam . . jean metzinger, nature morte à la bouteille et poires, , oil on canvas, x cm, private collection, http://www.artnet.com/artists/jean-metzinger/nature-morte-á-la- bouteille-et-aux-poires-x v opdvog g nd hlrjyq (accessed august ). the interchanges between laurens’ and gris’ bottles between and explore the ambiguities between content and contingency that are intended to be reinterpreted by the viewer, see christine poggi, "braque/laurens: les collages et constructions", in: braque & laurens. un dialogue autour des collections du centre pompidou, exh. cat., eds. isabelle monod-fontaine and sylvie ramond, paris , - : . contaminations subsequently appear in the work of the sculptor between the http://www.artnet.com/artists/jean-metzinger/nature-morte-%c %a -la-bouteille-et-aux-poires-x v opdvog g nd hlrjyq http://www.artnet.com/artists/jean-metzinger/nature-morte-%c %a -la-bouteille-et-aux-poires-x v opdvog g nd hlrjyq http://www.artnet.com/artists/jean-metzinger/nature-morte-%c %a -la-bouteille-et-aux-poires-x v opdvog g nd hlrjyq riha journal | september exchanged with gris, with whom he would go on to explore the possibilities of playing with space through the representation of mirrors and windows, present in the works of both between and , and indeed the basis of gris’ later work. [ ] metzinger was not the only one involved in these ploys and exchanges. if we look at such works as nature morte cubiste by maría blanchard, dated (guillermo de osma collection, madrid), we will see how her representation of the wine glass, as was the case with gris’ wine glasses around the same time, loses corporeality. the now fuller abstract lines become independent of the figurative, and the plastic language becomes more versatile. in addition to this, blanchard uses similar permutations to those of metzinger, for example, in the light blue plane that forms part of the wine glass and which is very similar to that used for the same purpose by lipchitz in bas relief i. epilogue [ ] in light of the above, it seems clear that much of what cubism meant during these years would not have had any raison d’être without the war. without it, many of the artists that formed the second wave of cubism would not have worked together around rosenberg, forced by their need to be commercially protected by a dealer. without the war, the imperatives of returning to tradition – thematic, stylistic and material – would not have coerced the avant-garde movements in such a way; neither would artists have been obliged to dissociate themselves from reality, from representation itself, to immerse themselves in a coma of the senses that would protect them from everything that surrounded them. [ ] the commitment of the second wave of cubism not to give up their avant- garde essence was unwavering. in the central point of reverdy’s passionate defences lies the key to understanding their eagerness to attach themselves to tradition without betraying themselves. their limitless passion for the chattels of their everyday lives – the desk, the bottle and the wine glass, the packet of tobacco, the pipe – prevented them from turning toward non-figuration. instead, they preferred integrating the possibilities of abstraction through the purification of shapes, which once they had been abstractly recycled, were used in the preparation of their works. in the face of war, their commitment to the creation of a new language was their modern effort to transcend the conflict. [ ] all these efforts, which they had all cultivated from the beginning of the war, with greater or lesser fortune, would very probably not have reached the theme of the bottle and that of the figure or the column, just as the mouth of the bottle itself was becoming an eye, which is exactly what metzinger was doing. riha journal | september climax that crystal cubism entailed – or that climax would have been reached in different ways –, if the german howitzer shells had not tormented paris between march and august , forcing gris, metzinger, blanchard and lipchitz to take refuge in beaulieu. not only did these artists manage to develop a language all of their own, they actually developed a common, collective language. [ ] i emphasize the concept of collective art because the idea of the collective was clearly present in the cubist proposal during the war years. are not the search for a common language and the apparent perception of family protection a consequence of the war? rosenberg in particular had sought to highlight this idea in his texts, and dermée, reverdy and raynal had also alluded to it. it was also the opinion of certain parisian critics when personal exhibitions finally took place in l'effort moderne after the war. yet, i believe that the work carried out during these years by all of them was at first independent, comparable and similar, a result of their meetings, exchanges and personal friendships. then, between those who shared the experience of beaulieu, it evolved into an appreciation of identical plastic communication, which we now know as crystal cubism. and all of this, regrettably, would not have been possible without the war. about the author belén atencia conde-pumpido holds a ph.d. in art history from the university of málaga. her (unpublished) doctoral thesis, el cubismo durante la primera guerra mundial en la galería l’effort moderne, , earned her an extraordinary doctorate award from her university. while working on it she was part of the research group "cubism. epistemological development and historiographic interpretations", funded by the ministry of science and innovation of spain between and . since she has lectured at the department of art history of the university of málaga. with parallel training in conservation and restoration of works of art, she has participated actively in recent years in the restoration of various pieces registered as assets of cultural interest (bic). her in-depth study of the survival of cubism during the first world war, including several research stays at the bibliothèque kandinsky of the musée d’art moderne, centre georges pompidou in paris, has also resulted in a number of scholarly articles published in spanish and international journals. reviewers see green's connections between the political association of union sacrée in france during the war and their notion of collective effort and the 'contamination' of these ideas in the cubist group; green, "the crystal in the flame", - . riha journal | september joana cunha leal, instituto de história da arte, fcsh-universidade nova de lisboa nicholas sawicki, lehigh university, bethlehem, pa local editor begoña farré torras, instituto de história da arte, fcsh-universidade nova de lisboa license the text of this article is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . 	cubism and war. the beginning of the end or infinite renewal? 	at a crossroads: tradition, figuration, synthesis and abstraction 	the beaulieu group, the purification of shape and the crystallization of cubism in and 	epilogue adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso method how to cite: mallen, enrique, and luis meneses. . “adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi. org/ . /dscn. published: december peer review: this is a peer-reviewed article in digital studies/le champ numérique, a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / mallen, enrique, and luis meneses. . “adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. method adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso enrique mallen and luis meneses sam houston state university, us university of victoria, ca corresponding author: luis meneses (ldmm@uvic.ca) picasso started writing poems in april, during a period of personal crisis. this shift to literature is predicated on an assumed irreducible conflict between new verbal expressions and his established visual composition. picasso’s texts provide a window into the artist’s mind that is separate from his own artistic creations —which makes them extremely relevant. this paper investigates two aspects of picasso’s poetry. first, how picasso used subtle differences between the lexical realization of concepts in french and spanish: the two languages he used to compose his poems. and second, how he explored the potential overlap between semantic categories for concepts associated with co-occurring words. when these linguistic phenomena are examined carefully, it becomes clear that the lexical combinations that picasso implemented in his poems were far from arbitrary. keywords: picasso; bilingual; poetry; conceptual domains; semantic categories picasso a commencé à écrire des poèmes en avril , pendant une période de crise personnelle. ce passage vers la littérature se fonde sur le conflit irréductible supposé entre de nouvelles expressions verbales et sa composition visuelle établie. les textes de picasso nous donnent un aperçu de ce qui se passe dans la tête de l’artiste qui est séparé de ses propres créations artistiques – ce qui rend ces textes extrêmement pertinents. cet article enquête sur deux aspects de la poésie de picasso. premièrement, la manière dont picasso a employé des différences subtiles entre la réalisation lexicale de concepts en français et en espagnol, les deux langues dans lesquelles il a écrit ses poèmes. deuxièmement, la manière dont il a exploré le chevauchement potentiel entre des catégories sémantiques pour des concepts associés aux mots coexistants. après un examen approfondi de ces phénomènes linguistiques, il s’est avéré clair que les combinaisons lexicales avec lesquelles picasso a composé ses poèmes étaient loin d’être arbitraires. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. mailto:ldmm@uvic.ca mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of mots-clés: picasso; bilingue; la poésie; domaines conceptuelsl; catégories sémantiques introduction even scholars quite familiar with the artist pablo picasso ignore that he embarked upon a successful writing career in , writing poems in both spanish and french, and that he published them in some of the most prestigious literary journals of the period. our study of picasso’s bilingual poetry proceeds from the argument that verbal expression and visual composition in the spaniard are related, beginning with his cubist visual compositions which already contain verbal elements (words, titles, labels, and even fragments of newspapers), and continuing through his exploration of surrealism not only in his art but also in his poems, which employ strongly visual word arrangements, as well as graphic elements and techniques derived from the visual arts. by demonstrating how picasso explored the relationship between verbal and visual components in two different media (visual art, poetry), this study will not only contribute to digital humanities scholarship, but also to discussions about the relation between verbal and visual media, intermediality, and ekphrasis, in studies of modernism and the avant-garde and more generally in literature, art history, and cultural studies. an additional goal of our investigation is to understand the semantics of picasso’s poetry by analyzing the semantic domains that he operated with. this second aspect of our research is related to the first as we discover that his style was inspired by collage, in both his verbal and visual compositions. one reason for the predominance of collage in picasso’s output might be linked to what elza adamowicz ( ) has suggested in reference to the various techniques of cutting, assembling, and pasting the parts involved in making up the kinds of collage, visual and verbal, constructed by the surrealists. she proposes that one of the goals of collage was the undermining of “established narratives” and of organic wholes by employing “subversive processes of substitution and displacement.” with regards to the semantics of picasso’s poetry, our analysis aims to show correlations between concrete concepts as identified by certain lexical terms and different languages, which becomes particularly interesting in the case of a mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of bilingual poet such as picasso. on first inspection, we had noticed that psychological concepts (such as, madness) are handled preferably in french; while more physical references to his immediate surroundings (such as, scorch) are circumscribed to spanish terms. however, in cases where both languages (spanish and french) are used to communicate a similar concept, picasso chooses spanish when he intends to apply a more folkloric tone (such as, maggot). to carry out a more detailed analysis, we developed computational tools to examine how picasso used subtle oppositions between words within specific concepts in both languages to build his poems. using the extracted list of concepts, we were able to highlight and identify the interconnections between his poems in different languages. another aspect of his poetry that we analyzed is whether those words picasso placed together belonged to a restricted conceptual set, so that their interconnection, while not obvious to the viewer/reader, must have been somewhat determined in picasso’s “view” of reality. it is that determined interconnection which picasso saw that we propose to explore with this study. in other words, we want to get closer to picasso’s “vision” of the world through his poems (understanding vision as something produced by the text, rather than a psychological state) in order to investigate how that “vision” may differ from what he depicted in his graphic works. illustrative examples for purposes of illustration, we will use two poems from , one in spanish and one in french with brackets identifying inserted elements marked as such by picasso. decembre xxxv (figure ) poca vergüenza tiene el [ cristal ] el que hacen correr la voz mentirosa [ de la liebre ] si su capa no flota atada al palo roto de [ su ] barca — que [ ni el ] carajo [ de su cresta ] podrá ya [ nunca ] más reírse [ de la cuerda que cuelga ] del farol — si no fuera — — el azar el que manda — y la forma arbitraria de la mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of sombra afilada [ por ] la seda [ de su ] beso el estribo — y aún [ así ] y todo [ y a pesar ] [ de que ahora ] encerrado [ ya está ] entre los cuatro muros del grano de la uva — — sus ganas de cantarse al compás de la gota de luz de la cazuela [ que se está todo el día ] de rodillas y delante del trapo [ tan ] sucio que gotea — el amor sentado en un rincón de la cocina se entretiene cortándose las uñas (bernadac and piot , – ) décembre xxxv (figure ) sur le dos de l’ immense tranche de melon ardent — arbre morceau de fleuve — table à rire — sous la menace de l’ aile qui serre pour le plaisir de voir expirer entre ses dents — distraite de son ennui — un [ brin ] d’ herbe — les deux petits boutons de prunus tombés si bas — s’ embrassent depuis deux ou trois jours énervés par les pleurs — de la petite fille — (bernadac and piot , ) mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of poetry and collage as mentioned earlier, picasso’s approach to poetry is directly linked to his innovations in the plastic arts. during synthetic cubism, picasso started incorporating verbal language into his pictorial compositions. in these cases, the verbal elements were intended to play a visual role; but simultaneously they introduced a verbal dimension into a previously purely pictorial domain. as kozloff ( ) has declared, with the arrival of collage, the main focus changed to the combinatorial process, transforming picture making into an analogical construction. pictorial language, like poetic language, became multileveled, refusing to accept an absolute interpretation of reality. krauss ( ) has identified this as the birth of the nonreferential plastic sign. the advent of collage introduced a free visual signifier within pictorial space, figure : poca vergüenza ( ), december , . musée picasso, paris. opp. : . mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of independent of any fixed referent. as the reference of pictorial constituents is no longer understood in positive terms, being instead interpreted as relative within the system, their meaning becomes purely a function of that system. by bringing real objects into the picture, picasso additionally managed to circumvent representation. as a result, different realities coexisted at multiple levels, fusing into a whole. in the late s, with the arrival of surrealism, picasso’s pasted elements which had by now almost fully integrated into the cubist composition, combining his prior figure : sur le dos ( ), december , . musée picasso, paris. opp. : . mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of acknowledgment of their arbitrariness with a new recognition of their capacity for establishing a magical presence in his art. he suddenly started integrating in his paintings objects that were close to himself, such as a torn piece from his own shirt, a cloth that had been used as a household utensil, decorative feathers from his wife’s hat, etc. in his poetry, picasso reverses the order he had established in cubism. if words had been integrated in paintings to highlight the linguistic value of pictorial expression, now words gain in physical presence and exert their magical power over the reader, much like real objects had incorporated into the surrealist compositions. words and phrases are distributed on the page as if they were pictorial signs, entering into relations with other visual elements such as dashes, blotches, brackets, etc. phrases link to each other in fluctuant, reversible attachments, intentionally left tentative and ambiguous, open to potential deletions and insertions as the poems undergo revisions, just as pieces of paper had been precariously pinned to the support in the cubist collage and were left opened to the possibility of being removed. furthermore, as was the case with papier collés, lexical items do not lose their physical presence as they enter the realm of signification; they are equally valid as material elements, providing tonality and rhythm to the lines of the poem, as the color and texture of the pasted papers did in the cubist composition. to louis parrot he had declared: “poems? … when i began to write them i wanted to prepare myself a palette of words, as if i were dealing with colors. all these words were weighed, filtered and appraised” rothenberg and joris ( : xv). very few of his poems remain in their pristine state. as in his plastic works, picasso was constantly searching, attempting to uncover through the medium of language that which could not otherwise be revealed. preliminary analysis one of the first things one notices as one skims over the lines of the poem is the persistence of connectors such as “que” and “de” which lose the subordinating effect they have in conventional grammatical constructions to be transformed by picasso into adjunctive elements, allowing readers to connect one object to the next, in multiple ramifications. mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of the inserted constituents (identified in italics below) equally correspond for the most part to adjuncts. furthermore, the phrases between dashes fall within the same category of adjunctive elements. in all these cases, the constituents contribute to the overall interpretation of the poem, but they do so in a non-hierarchical manner. having superseded the domain of the nucleus by their reiterative adjunctive nature, they are free to alter the meaning of any element in the sentence by linking tentatively and simultaneously to any nucleus, complement or adjunct in the sentence. [ ip poca vergüenza tiene el [ np cristal ] [ np el que hacen correr la voz mentirosa [ pp de la liebre]]] — [ cp si su capa no flota atada al palo roto de [ ap su ] barca ] — [ cp que [ dp ni el] carajo [ pp de su cresta] podrá ya [ ap nunca] más reírse [ pp de la cuerda que cuelga] del farol] — [ cp si no fuera el azar el que manda ] — y [ cp la forma arbitraria de la sombra afilada] [ pp por] [ np la seda] [ pp de su] [ np beso] [ np el estribo] v — y [ ap aun [ ap así] y todo [y] [ pp a pesar de que] [ ap ahora] encerrado [ ap ya] [ vp está ] entre los cuatro muros del grano de la uva] — [ np sus ganas de cantarse al compás de la gota de luz de la cazuela] — [ pp [que se está todo el día] de rodillas y delante del trapo [ ap tan] sucio que gotea] — [ np el amor sentado en un rincón de la cocina se entretiene cortándose las uñas] [ pp sur le dos de l’immense tranche de melon ardent] — [ np arbre] [ np morceau de fleuve] — [ np table à rire] — [ pp sous la menace de l’aile qui serre pour le plaisir de voir expirer entre ses dents] — [ ap distraite de son ennui] — [ np un [ n brin] d’herbe] — [ np les deux petits boutons de prunus tombés si bas] — [ vp s’embrassent depuis deux ou trois jours énervés par les pleurs ] — [ pp de la petite fille]. (bernadac and piot , – ) in current syntactic theory, adjuncts are modifiers which freely attach at a higher level in the sentence and provide circumstantial information pertaining to the nucleus of the phrase and its relation to both complement and specifier. in contrast to complements and specifiers, adjuncts are constituents which may be found in iteration, and their relation to the nucleus of the phrase is usually ambiguous. in picasso’s case, we see that the different adjunct phrases interact mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of with other constituents in the poem in strings of metaphoric confrontations shown by coindexation. [cp spec [c’ c [ip spec [i’ i [vp [vp spec [v’ v complement]] adjunct]]]]] [dp spec [d’ d [np [np spec [n’ n complement]] adjunct]]] the adjuncts are also purposely left differentiated by picasso (often placed at a different level, or in the margins, etc.), as if they were footnoted “afterthoughts” to the already validated text. in fact, it is sometimes quite a task for the editor of these poems to decide exactly where the added text must be incorporated, as the writer intentionally leaves this detail ambiguous. the reader is free to choose whether to follow the suggested insertions or to continue with the original text, ignoring the later additions. one interesting thing about this poem is how picasso has inserted dashes in multiple places to indicate some sort of segmentation of the text. when one analyzes the position of the bracketed syntactic constituents in the poem, one notices that they also, for the most part, correspond to adjunct phrases. the adjunct phrases build metaphoric concatenations, being interlinked through chains of coindexations with restricted semantic domains (shown above by coindexation). thus, in the second poem we find: ( ) nature setting: tranche de melon – arbre – fleuve – table – brin d’herbe – deux petits boutons; ( ) positive emotion: ardent – rire – tombés – s’embrassent; ( ) negative emotion: menace – aile – serre – plaisir de voir expirer – dents – ennui – énervés – pleurs de la petite fille. in spite of the adjunctive nature of picasso’s poetry, it becomes clear that the words he employed were still intended to interact with each other in clearly delineated semantic domains. readers are expected to rediscover these preexisting interconnections of coocurring words distributed on the page in non-verbal organization. given these semantic interconnections, it is important to classify the concepts behind the words picasso used and determine how these concepts may then group around specific semantic categories. in this respect, there are similarities between picasso’s poetics and the writings of gertrude stein. randa dubnick discusses a progression from “syntax” to “lexicon” mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of in stein’s literary career, which she divides into two kinds of linguistically consistent obscure styles. stein herself called them “prose” and “poetry”, respectively. when stein stated that the central unit in her “prose” is the sentence, and that functional verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions (which hold the functional structure of the sentence together) are important in this style, she was referring to jakobson’s ( ) horizontal axis of language (or syntagm), where the units are related in praesentia vs. the vertical axis (or paradigm) which creates word associations that are founded on a commonality in conjunction with or in contrast with each other, and deals with word selection (cf. dubnick : ). aside from the syntagmatic plane, the elements which have a similarity are mentally conjoined and thus create associations within which one can see many relationships. the terms are thus united “in absentia”. in her early work, stein underlines the metonymic aspect of the sentence (the value of functional syntax), while simultaneously minimizing the lexical vocabulary, not merely in quantity, but also in its degree of specificity. as it is primarily based in syntax, it stresses the use of verbs, adverbs, and conjunctions, while at the same time it reduces the vocabulary, discarding referential nouns in favor of pronouns and gerunds. the resulting style depends almost entirely on functional syntax, using mainly connective words, such as functional prepositions and conjunctions. this produces sentences containing words that rely on other words for their significance, thus reducing how it is affected when the operation of “selection” is hindered. central words may then be deleted or replaced by abstract anaphoric substitutes, while concrete and specific nouns and verbs can then be substituted for more generic terms. functional categories, like pronouns and pronominal adverbs, or words serving merely to establish the context—such as connectives and auxiliaries—tend to survive. from “prose”, with an enhanced syntax and a constrained lexicon, stein progressed towards “poetry” with an emphasis on lexical vocabulary and a reduced functional syntax, shifting focus—in jakobsonian terms—from the linguistic operation of “combination” (horizontal axis) to that of “selection” (vertical axis) where the lexicon dominates (see dubnick : ). if in her early portraits, stein had freed herself of narrative and presented perceptions one moment at a time, these perceptions had been edited, selected, and generalized so that the person could be “analyzed” mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of in his/her essential reality. the physical world is experienced as immediate in each present moment. what we find in her later style, by contrast, is a concentration upon “objects that existed in her mind”. she perceived that the object was immersed in a continuum of sound, color and association, which she intended to reconstitute in writing. consequently, a book like tender buttons has a less abstract vocabulary in that it contains many more concrete nouns, sensual adjectives, and action verbs than does her earlier style. dubnick notes that stein’s writing gradually shifted from orderly analysis of reality to the immediate perception of the world, dealing increasingly with the lexicon itself; with mental images associated with words (signifieds), and with the qualities of words as things in themselves (signifiers) (see dubnick : ). the new freedom in using words were manifested in a richer, more sensual vocabulary, which contrasts with the spare vocabulary of her earlier work. the evocative power of the word called for a more “decorative” approach. freed from concerns with generalizing and classifying, stein began using concrete nouns, sensual adjectives, and specific verbs. this more obscure style (as picasso’s synthetic cubism) concentrates on the signifying element as a thing in itself and on the art object in its own right as an opaque surface—of paint and pasted paper or of words. special attention is paid to the signifying element (the word) for its own sake. in stein’s association of mental constructs (signifieds), she uses relations based on both contiguity—defined by james ( ) as association of objects habitually found together in time and space, and identified by jakobson ( ) as metonymy— and on similarity—which he identifies as metaphor. the operation of association is stressed not only in images and concepts (semantics), but also in the qualities of the words as words (phonology). by forcing the reader to pay attention to the word, stein revitalizes the lexicon. the poet doesn’t ignore the meanings of words, as so many critics alleged; but by presenting each word in an unusual context, she directs attention not only toward its phonology but also toward its semantics, and the interaction between both levels. this then forces the reader to grapple with each word one at a time. h/she must confront the lexicon and its connection with the rest of the grammar with a sense of bewilderment, wonder, and discovery. thus, one could conclude that this poetry’s final goal is to rejuvenate language at its core. mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of stein and picasso’s concentration on the nature of vocabulary as an essential component of the grammar matches the linguist ray jackendoff’s ( ) interest in psychological and neurological questions about the lexicon, about what linguistic items are stored or memorized as units, and about what relationships can exist between one stored item and another, or between them and linguistic expressions that are constructed “on the fly” from their constituent words in working memory. jackendoff’s representational modularity promotes the lexicon from the periphery of linguistic theory to its very center. it appears that both stein’s second abstract style and picasso’s synthetic cubism exploited a similar type of intuition for aesthetic purposes. background and former analysis for some time now, we have taken different approaches to analyze picasso’s artworks (meneses, furuta, and mallen ), his poetry (meneses et al. ) and its semantic content (meneses and mallen ) within the context of the online picasso project (mallen ). for the semantic content of the words in the poem, we analyzed the semantic concepts behind each word irrespective of the language used, linking concepts with english translations of relevant concepts. given the acknowledged semantic interconnections between words picasso explored in his poetry, we classified the uncovered concepts in order to determine how they could be grouped around specific semantic categories using wordnet as reference (miller ). additionally, we created web-based interfaces to view these semantic relationships, which in turn were also linked to a bilingual concordance of terms. the next thing we did is group the concepts we had identified into semantic categories. a semantic category (taylor ) is a linguistic term that recognizes that languages tend to divide up the spectrum of concepts differently. using the bilingual lexicon derived from picasso’s poetry (audenaert et al. ), we devised a mechanism to extricate the set of semantic domains in his literary creation using the english translations for the spanish and french terms as our basis (figure ). next, we tried to establish whether there was a predominance of certain semantic categories in one of the two languages picasso used. we discovered that this was indeed the case. for instance, picasso is more inclined to refer to food items mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of and everyday objects in his spanish poems. on the other hand, given the influence french surrealist writers exerted on him, his french poems concentrate on more abstract concepts involving politics, religion and sexuality. as a follow-up to our previous research, this paper investigates ( ) how picasso used subtle differences between the lexical realization of concepts in two languages as he composed his poems in french and spanish; and ( ) how he explored the potential overlap between semantic categories for concepts associated with co-occurring words. when these linguistic phenomena are examined carefully, it becomes clear that the lexical combinations that picasso implemented in his poems were far from arbitrary. as preliminary examples of ( ) and ( ), we note that for the concept kill, picasso used four words (and their morphological derivatives) in french, but only one word in spanish; and that for co-occurring concepts fan and wing there is an intentional overlap under the semantic category noun.artifact. in the following section, we will describe our methods and expand on our analysis of these linguistic phenomena with further details. figure : screenshot of the user interface displaying words and their corresponding categories in french. mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of analysis of concepts and semantic domains the repository of poems and plays and the semantic categories for the , spanish words and , french words in the online picasso project are stored in a mysql database (“mysql” ). this database has tables and relations that divide the writings into poems, pages, and lines. the poems are reconstructed using standard join operations—allowing the terms and lines to be retrieved along with additional metadata such as title, section, and line number. we exported the tables of the mysql database into a sqlite database (“sqlite home page” ). we did this to be able to manipulate and access the individual records locally. then we used python (van rossum ) to perform a series of transformations to the records and. we then used the lxml library (“lxml – processing xml and html with python” ) to output the transformed poems into xml files —which freed us from the constraints of using a relational database. we then used beautiful soup (richardson ) to parse the resulting xml files and plotly (“modern visualization for the data era” ) to create graphs and visualizations from them. with the tools we have developed, we examined how picasso used subtle oppositions between words within specific concepts in french and spanish to build his poems. we analyze these contrasts further in order to determine how concepts are either demarcated or left open in his poems. the first question we asked deals with how picasso used concepts depending on the language of the poem. we determined that concepts like beat, break and catch, among others, tend to be expressed in spanish; while concepts like burn, carry or raise, among others, are verbalized in french. figure shows concepts grouped by language with a threshold of combined occurrences. second, we examined how different lexical categories are used depending on the language of the poem —which is shown in figure . we noted that concepts like break or carry are conveyed as verbs; as do bite or jump, although less so. a concept like end is articulated merely as a noun. next, and because of their prevalence in the concepts, we examined the verb morphologies by language. we observed that there is a large number of past mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of participles ( french, spanish), as well as present participles, although in this case it is mostly in french with instances. other predominant morphologies are present tense of transitive verbs in the third person ( french, spanish), present tense of intransitive verbs in the third person ( french, spanish) and infinitives of transitive verbs ( french, spanish). transitive verbs are more dominant than intransitive verbs over all; and present tense is more dominant than past tense. figure shows a comparison of verb morphologies by language. figure : concepts in picasso’s poetry grouped by language with a threshold of combined occurrences. figure : concepts and lexical categories in picasso’s poetry. the categories shown have a combined threshold of or more occurrences. mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of finally, we analyzed how the semantic categories are used depending on the language of the poem. the question we raised is whether there is a preference for certain semantic categories in spanish over french. we linked each concept with its different semantic categories. based on what languages are associated with specific concepts, we then determined if a correlation existed with certain semantic categories as well. we discovered that spanish is predominant in the semantic category noun.event. french, on the other hand, dominates throughout, but significantly in the semantic categories verb.change, verb.motion, verb.stative, verb.social, verb.competition, verb.possession, verb.communication, verb.cognition. figure shows a comparison of the semantic categories by language in picasso’s poetry. by isolating the semantic categories picasso worked with we may start to get a clearer picture of how words in his poems relate to each other. of course, these results are only preliminary since we have not yet classified all the concepts into distinct semantic categories and even those we have completed will have to be further refined. and yet we already see that some of the existing semantic categories are linked to a higher number of concepts than others. for example, we find a high number of nominal artifacts in his poems. some are related to art, such as engraving, fashion, festoon, illumination, image, impression, imprint, ornament, paint, paintbrush, painter, painting, palette; others related to war, such as armor, axe, blade, bomb, figure : verb morphologies by language in picasso’s poetry. mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of bow, bugle, bullet, camouflage, fighter, gallows, gauntlet, knife, knight, rampart, rapier. these may appear antagonistic, but in picasso’s world there is a close relation between destruction in war and creation in art. not surprisingly for a painter and writer, nominal communication is another frequent semantic category, with such concepts as advance, advice, agreement, alert, allusion, alphabet, ambiguity, announcement, answer, argument, art, articulation, canticle, fable, language, news, nonsense, note, noun, outcry, parable. with the tools we have developed, we may examine how he used subtle oppositions between words within specific concepts in french and spanish to build his poems. an example of his choice of words may be found in the concept kill. picasso used four words (and their morphological derivatives) in french for this concept: “abattent” (knock), “égorge”, “égorgeant”, “égorgée”, “égorgées” (slit); “éteignant”, “éteindre”, “éteint”, “éteinte”, “éteints” (extinguish); and “tue”, “tuer”, “tuera”, “tuez-le” (slay). these words impose a clear lexical demarcation within that concept. for spanish, however, picasso chose one single word (and its morphological derivatives) for that same concept: “matar”, “mataran”, “mate”, “maten”, “mato”. that is, he left the concept more ambiguous. an opposite situation occurs with the concept anguish, where three words (and their morphological derivatives) are used in spanish: “angustia”, “angustias” figure : semantic categories by language in picasso’s poetry. the categories shown have a combined threshold of or more occurrences. mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of (“passive”); and “congoja”, “congojas”; or “acongoja” (“active”). here picasso chose words that further specified the patient’s role in the feeling, clearly demarcating the concept in its lexical implementation. in french, however, he used only one word: “angoisse(s)”. we analyzed these contrasts further in order to determine how concepts are either demarcated or left open in his poems. where word-concept relations overlap in spanish and french, common conceptual domains are established between the two languages. where word-concept relations differ substantially, we would have differing conceptual domains in the two. this new approach may be able to answer the question of why picasso chose to write in a specific language about some specific content. figure shows a screenshot of the user interface displaying the relationship between the noun.person semantic category, the actor concept and their related words in picasso’s poetry. the above generalizations are based on a sample of the data so far explored. we see further confirmation of some of these semantic tendencies in the two illustrative poems we have included. in the first poem, picasso chooses “vergüenza” for shame (another possible lexical realization of this concept would have been “lástima”, which he uses elsewhere. he also chooses “cristal” for glass, which has as alternative realization “vidrio”. the specific choice could be triggered by the semantic category noun.feeling which both “vergüenza” and “cristal” share, but that “vidrio” lacks. in addition, both “vergüenza” and “cristal” have negative connotations of a painful emotion that responds to a sense of failure which needs to be covered up. these insinuations are missing from “lástima” and “vidrio”. the sense of cover up is extended with subsequent expressions in the line: “correr la voz” (gossip) and “mentirosa” (liar). these two concepts in turn share the semantic category noun. communication with equally negative connotations. many more such correlations can be identified in the poem between major cooccuring lexical categories, highlighted in bold. [ ip poca vergüenza tiene el [ np cristal ] [ np el que hacen correr la voz mentirosa [ pp de la liebre]]] – [ cp si su capa no flota atada al palo roto de mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of [ ap su] barca] – [ cp que [ dp ni el] carajo [ pp de su cresta] podrá ya [ ap nunca] más reírse [ pp de la cuerda que cuelga] del farol] – [ cp si no fuera el azar el que manda ] – y [ cp la forma arbitraria de la sombra afilada] [ pp por] [ np la seda] [ pp de su] [ np beso] [ np el estribo] v – y [ ap aun [ ap así] y todo [y] [ pp a pesar de que] [ ap ahora] encerrado [ ap ya] [ vp está] entre los cuatro muros del grano de la uva] – [ np sus ganas de cantarse al compás de la gota de luz de la cazuela] – [ pp [que se está todo el día] de rodillas y delante del trapo [ ap tan] sucio que gotea] – [ np el amor sentado en un rincón de la cocina se entretiene cortándose las uñas]. (bernadac and piot , – ) in the second poem we observe similar correlations. the words “melon” (melon) and “arbre” (tree) share the same semantic category noun.plant. while “melon” and “fleuve” do not appear to link to similar semantic categories, their relation to “tranche” and “morceau” associates both lexical entries as the latter two partitives have quite a few of semantic categories in common: noun.possession, noun.object, noun.artifact, noun.food, verb.contact. of special relevance are the last two, as they allow “fleuve” (river) to enter in a relation not only with “melon” (as food), but also with “sur le dos” through a “contact” connotation. the semantic category noun.food also shared with the following “table” (table) allows the latter to link to both “fleuve” and “melon”. the odd combination “table à rire” containing “rire” (laugh) comes from the expression “assise à table à rire” which is associated with the semantic category noun.communication and hence overlaps with the word “menace” (threat) immediately after which falls under the same semantic category. [ pp sur le dos de l’immense tranche de melon ardent] – [ np arbre] [ np morceau de fleuve] – [ np table à rire] – [ pp sous la menace de l’aile qui serre pour le plaisir de voir expirer entre ses dents] – [ ap distraite de son ennui] – [ np un [ n brin] d’herbe] – [ np les deux petits boutons de prunus tombés si bas] – [ vp s’embrassent depuis deux ou trois jours énervés par les pleurs ] – [ pp de la petite fille]. (bernadac and piot , ) mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of as in the spanish poem, many more such semantic correlations can be identified in the poem between major cooccurring lexical categories, highlighted in bold. conclusions among the generalizations that we can make from this data is that picasso prefers verbs that may be accompanied by complements. this confirms our thesis that one of the essential features of picasso’s poetry is the interdependence of concepts, where meaning is not defined separately, but in the combinatory interplay between multiple words. the complements serve to expand and, at time, alter the expected content of the individual lexical items. we also notice that the action expressed in his poems tends to be in the present tense. this is again a confirmation of picasso’s poetic style, where the involved action of the reader of the poem in the present is crucial in determining the meaning of the lines. concerning the preference of certain concepts in one language or another, we have already identified some patterns; however, more data would need to be analyzed before coming to solid conclusions. the same applies to the correlation between certain semantic categories and the specific concepts associated with a certain language. when it comes to conceptualizing nominal events, spanish is the predominant language. conversely, for verbal concepts involving change or motion, as well as social relations, french was the dominant language. this is particularly noticeable when verbal concepts pertaining to communication are involved. future research will serve to further confirm these preliminary observations. our final goal is to group the uncovered semantic categories into adjoined conceptual domains: macro categories that would get us closer to main semantic domains that picasso operated with. again, we know that picasso’s style, both in his visual and his verbal compositions, was very much inspired by collage. an interesting feature is that those elements he placed together belonged to a restricted set, so that their interconnection, while not obvious to the viewer/reader, must have been somewhat determined in picasso’s “view” of reality. it is that determined interconnection that picasso saw that we want to explore with our study of the semantic categories in picasso’s poetry. in other words, the purpose of our work is to mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of get closer to picasso’s “vision” of the world through his poems in order to investigate how that “vision” may differ from what he depicted in his graphic works. competing interest the authors have no competing interests to declare. author contributions enrique mallen: wrote the paper, proposed the analysis, collected and contributed data. luis meneses: wrote the paper, designed and performed the analysis. editorial contributions section/copy editor: nathir haimoun layout editor: mahsa miri works cited adamowicz, elza. . surrealist collage in text and image: dissecting the exquisite corpse. cambridge: cambridge university press. audenaert, neal, unmil karadkar, enrique mallen, richard furuta, and sarah tonner. . “viewing texts: an art-centered representation of picasso’s writings.” presented at digital humanities , – . bernadac, marie-laure, and christine piot (eds.). . picasso: collected writings. new york: abbeville press. dubnick, randa. . the structure of obscurity: gertrude stein, language, and cubism. champaign: university of illinois press. jackendoff, ray. . foundations of language: brain, meaning, grammar, evolution. usa: oxford university press. jakobson, roman. . “two aspects of language and two types of aphasic disturbances”. in fundamentals of language, by roman jakobson and morris halle, – . the hague: mouton & co. james, william. . the principles of psychology. new york: dover. krauss, rosalind. 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https://www.mysql.com/ http://www.crummy.com/software/beautifulsoup/ http://www.crummy.com/software/beautifulsoup/ https://www.sqlite.org/index.html https://www.sqlite.org/index.html https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/ / d.pdf mallen and meneses: adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso art.  , page  of how to cite this article: mallen, enrique, and luis meneses. . “adjoined conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. submitted: october accepted: october published: december copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / 	introduction 	illustrative examples 	poetry and collage 	preliminary analysis 	background and former analysis 	analysis of concepts and semantic domains 	conclusions 	competing interest 	author contributions 	editorial contributions 	works cited 	figure 	figure 	figure 	figure 	figure 	figure 	figure genitourin med ; : - syphilis in art: an entertainment in four parts. part r s morton the nineteenth and twentieth centuries gillray and rowlandson bridge the gap between hogarth and the cartoonists of the th and th centuries. there is one interesting intervening step (fig ). it is a very fine early example of a coloured stippled engraving such as might be called for and used in teaching dermatology at the time. the engraver is fresca, circa , after a painting by moreceau valvile. the woman's condition was diag- nosed as late secondary syphilis by the fine teacher and very nosologically orientated dermatologist, baron alibert ( - ). this work was exhibited at a wellcome institute exhibition in ." two other examples, one from the late th century and from early in the th century, pointedly reveal public attitudes to venereal infections. the first is called traps of the world (fig ). its author, ganiere, symbolises life by three large basket traps representing brawling, the tavern and the brothel. at each a well dressed entrepreneur calls for clients and invites them to enter his basket. those entering any basket are thereupon automatically declared eligible for admission to hospital by the back door. the snatches of poetry which we have seen to be a regular feature since ulsenius, are here for the benefit of those resistant to the sales talk but who are confidently believed by the operators to be potential exhibitors of medico-social pathology. the second french engraving was published by martinet in (fig ). it first appeared in paris during the occupation of that city by the victorious troops after the battle of waterloo, that is, in the summer of . the cartoon pours scorn on the officers ofthe allied armies. the doctor presents the officers with medicines on the occasion of their demobilisation; some purport to be cures for gonorr- hoea. for syphilis, he offers poultices, opiates and mercury pills. one unusual minor art form surfaced in mid- th century england. joseph towne, son of a dissenting parson, was born at royston, hertfordshire, in . early in his life he showed a talent for modelling clay. he secretly modelled a complete skeleton and took it to guy's hospital where the notable surgeon, astley cooper, was so impressed and delighted that the boy was offered a job. until his death in , joseph towne made several hundred, life size, coloured wax models. his work encompassed anatomical, patho- logical and dermatological subjects. he conducted his moulage making behind locked doors and the secrets of his techniques, for example the dyes he employed and how he used them so effectively, died with him. the loving and restorative care and attention long given to towne's moulages by staffat guy's hospital has recently been generously supported by grants from the dunhill trust and other sources. the refurbished moulages now help to form a fine, modern exhibition and high quality teaching facility. two examples oftowne's work have been selected to demonstrate infectious acquired and congenital syphilis (figs & ). in the flesh, as it were, the skin appearance is most realistic and the coppery-redness of the rash true to life. the urnmentionableness ofthe venereal diseases in victorian times reached its apogee when a bill to fig fresca. stippled and coloured engraving after g. moreau valvile. c. . syphilide pustuleuse en grappe. possibly for baron j. l. m. alibert, clinique de l'hopital saint-louis, paris. cormon, pl. . courtesy welicome institute library. sub-department of medical history, university of sheffield, uk r s morton o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. part _~~~~ .a * * . / j fig ganuere. les trois nasses du monde (the traps of the world). engraving c. . courtesy soci_t_des gen de lettres de france, paris. control these infections was named, in , the contagious diseases act. it was an example of how the moral strictures of the time were supported by legislation. the law was enacted because of exces- sively high infection rates in soldiers and sailors in home stations. the act aimed at prevention. it provided for the arrest, compulsory examination and detention of women suspected of spreading syphilis and gonorrhoea. liberal minded people reacted powerfully. mrs josephine butler ( - ) headed the "abolitionists". the law, they declared, denied women their constitutional right of freedom of action and should be abolished. they pursued their objectives relentlessly and after a period of suspension the act was repealed in .' the fight to replace the concept of vd control by regulation and detention with something more civilised and more effective was also under way in other parts of europe and nowhere was it more ardently pursued than in norway. christian krohg ( - ) was a norwegian writer and painter with a strong social conscience. he used his talents to raise awareness in others especially about ill-paid young women. his novel albertine characterised in detail the lot of the contemporary prostitute. norway, no less straight-laced than england, was outraged by this public display of a taboo subject and the book was banned the day after publication. with the inevitability ofnewton's third law of motion, this action prompted an equal and opposite reaction. the cause of women was overtly and fiercely championed. krohg, after several trial studies, produced in a painting, x metres, depicting a scene from his book (fig ). it shows albertine being escorted by a policeman into the doctor's surgery where she is to be compulsorily examined for venereal disease. krohg's public dis- play of this outrageous invasion of a woman's body, combined as it was with a taboo subject, caused a sensation and the humiliating practice ceased. several versions of christian krohg's painting exist. a version shows how the artist has developed. for example, he uses a fully loaded brush with aplomb and introduces adroitly sited highlights with dramatic effect. this production is thought by some to show greater awareness of the tensions o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ morton fig martinet. les adieux au palais royal. (goodbyes to palais royal.) engraving . courtesy societe des gens de lettres de france, paris. fig ) joseph towne. primary and secondary syphilis. moulage, mid-i th century. courtesy of the dean, united medical and dental schools of guy's and st. thomas's hospitals, london. fig joseph towne. infectious congenital syphilis. moulage, mid- th century. courtesy of the dean, united medical and dental schools of guy's and st. thomas's hospitals, london. between the characters, the involvement of each and the misery endured by all albertines. my personal preference, however, is for the painting. like much of his earlier work it has a subtle photographic quality which gives it the instantaneous impact of stark reality. there is no escaping the tension krohg engenders. meanwhile in paris, uncomprehending french- men, with confirming sang froid, were taking their wives and families to visit the local brothels on sunday afternoons. something of this open and objective attitude to one of life's less attractive aspects is reflected in the city's art. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ syphilis in art: an entertainment in four parts. part fig christian krohg. albertine, - . oil on canvas x cms. courtesy nasionalgalleriet, oslo. in his decline into debauchery, toulouse-lautrec ( - ) frequented paris's demi-monde of bars, cafes and music halls with their ambience of aban- donment to forced and false physical expressions of gaiety.' these features contrast markedly with the sense ofresignation and forlorn hope expressed in the relaxed stance and aura of weary movement of toulouse-lautrec's off-duty women as he met and painted them in the brothels. his representations of them evoke more than sympathy although the artist is clearly at one with them. one senses that he is privy to the tragic, even groteseque, life story behind each painted face. it is dramatic simpatico rather than syrupy simpatia. nowhere is this better displayed than in the artist's production medical inspec- tion at the rue des moulins (fig ). the nameless women file sadly past a faceless doctor in an orderly line. their air is one ofhopeless disinterest and weary resignation. of all brothel scenes it must be the most fearsome. clearly, toulouse-lautrec could be audacious, not only technically but in his social comment. figure , an examination at the faculty of medicine was completed by toulouse-lautrec shortly before his death in . durel has recorded many interesting facets on the work. the candidate is the artist's cousin and confidant, gabriel tapie de celeyran, who did in fact present himself for the oral part ofhis thesis examination in . such occasions called for four adjudicators. on this apochryphal occasion, two are recognisable. on the right is professor robert wurtz, founder of the medical school, who was a bacteriologist and hygienist. but it is the central character who is ofspecial interest to us. after the kind of thoroughly detailed research for which he has long been renowned, durel leaves us in no doubt that it is none other than the renowned syphilogist, alfred fournier ( - ). the square head and the moustache overhanging a small mouth are telling features. those of us who have in our time been candidates and examiners at professional examinations will no doubt agree that toulouse-lautrec's use of colours-the harmonies ofgreens and blacks with the violent red-reminds us unmistakably of the atmos- phere associated with a viva voce. durel reminds us also that in and a postage stamp was produced in france using a likeness of fournier. the tax from the sale of this modern minor art form served to finance the cam- paigning of la ligue nationale francaise contre le peril venerien. some artists' social comments are frankly brutal and our next is one such. felicien rops ( - ), a belgian of hungarian ancestry, was left and squan- dered a fortune in his youth. he was a self-taught, o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ fig henri de toulouse-lautrec. rue des moulins. oil on cardboard, mounted on wood, x cm. . courtesy chester dale collection. national gallery of art, washington dc. morton o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. part fig henri de toulouse-lautrec. examen a la faculte de midicine. oil on canvas. x cm. . courtesy musie toulouse-lautrec, albi. cynical caricaturist who published much of his work in the politico-satirical journal uglenspiegl. his marvellously accurate draughtsmanship and brilliant technique was constantly threatened with ruin by the pornographically offensive nature of his most biting cynicism. thus many thought rops more infamous than famous. figure was found in a museum dedicated to him in his home town of namur in central belgium. it leaves one in no doubt that he considered women wicked, and a source of evil and deadly disease. what felicien rops said a la fin de ' siecle, george grosz ( - ) reiterated in the years on both sides of world war i. grosz was a dadaist ("dada" is slavonic for "yes", "yes" to life).' robert hughes in his recent television series charac- terised him as a "master ofradical sourness". ' grosz saw no good anywhere in his early days. he mellowed with age and was honest enough to call his autobiography, in german, "a little 'yes' and a big 'no"'. in the first quarter ofthe th century, grosz saw corruption all around him and found it frequently associated with greed and wicked militar- ism. evil of all kinds stalked the bars, the brothels and the battlefields. he drew prostitutes as harbin- gers of degradation and disease (fig ). while none of his work has been found to specify syphilis, his harsh social comments are certainly germane to the prevalence of venereal diseases at the time; between % and % of big city dwellers in europe had positive blood tests for syphilis. whether grosz's endeavours did anything to prompt women to assert themselves or reformers to liberalise attitudes to venereal disease in europe and america, where his work circulated widely, is a matter for speculation. grosz's work is often exquisitely, even gently, executed and then in a way more brilliantly expresses his fiercely vindictive hatred of man's, and woman s inhumanity to man. there were of course other schools of thought in the art world. one of the prolific contenders for leadership of the th century's young expressionist movement was the norwegian artist, eduard munch ( - ). his work, like that ofother expression- ists such as van gogh, gauguin and klee, reflects his philosphy of life. he spent his formative years in paris and berlin. he was tall and thin and introspec- tive. he was much pre-occupied with love, personal o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ the inheritance was painted in when he was and living in paris (fig ). it shows a tearful young q__ mother with her puny, syphilitic infant on her lap. she sits in the doctor's waiting room alone. the public received the work with a mixture of amusement and indignation. many judged it to have exceeded the limits of permissible expression. munch first called it the syphilitic child. some said he mocked the many artistic representations of the madonna and child and that this was the cause of the violent reactions which prompted the painting's withdrawal and change of name. at first glance one is liable to see only the old familiar victorian story of the "fallen" and infected woman abandoned by her lover when most in need of support. the oftener and longer one looks at the work, however, the more does one find it compelling, poignant and mood provoking. the mother's face is red and contrasts with the greenish skin of the rash- affected baby. the autumn leaves on the dress seem to symbolise the imminence of death. it was and treatment of the child was very unlikely to be successful. all this, with the distortions accompany- ing the near absence of perspective, prompt in one such urgent questions as "did the man warn her?"; "where is he now?"; "is there really no hope for the child?" "how will the doctor, so soon to be seen, fig s felicien rops. mors syphilitica. dry point drawing / - x cm. courtesy musde rops, namur. / i tragedy and death of loved ones. even a short time spent browsing through a book of his (in colour) y paintings gives one a flavour of the kind of / / experience familiar to doctors who listen to, and hear, | | i the illogical distortions of neurotic patients. munch is little concerned with emphasis on artistic form,i perspective, harmonies or colours. his concern is with winning the viewer to an appreciation of what he g feels and what he feels with the intense conviction of the chronic hysteric. x munch was a close friend of the swedish dramat- ist, strindberg, and he knew well his fellow-nor- - / wegian, ibsen. among several pieces concerning / syphilis, munch provided a series ofstage sketches to / - illustrate ibsen's play ghosts. most telling of the series is an oil sketch of the play's final scene (fig ). , it is generally called osvald's breakdown and shows / the near blind and demented congenitally infected son frantically appealing to his distraught parent, "show me the sun, mother". fig george grosz. bordello. drawing c. . courtesy but there is much more to munch. his heritage or courtauld institute of art, london. morton o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. part react? will he match the young mother's anguish and insight?"; "how will this tragedy end?". we are a long way now from the contenting, intellectualising needed for an appreciation of van veen's allegory of indiscreet youth. here we are involved with the artist. munch the expressionist has engendered in us what every expressionist painter seeks in a viewer-a feeling of "inner ten- sion". it may be no more than a mood of helpless, tight-lipped compassion, but our arrest is complete and we know it is inescapable. if munch's call for compassion rather than con- demnation shows him to be ahead of public sen- timent, that cannot be said of our next artist. he was very much a man of his time for all of his time. the spaniard, pablo picasso ( - ), com- pleted his first cubist painting as early as the spring of . his friends thought little of it and it lay in limbo for many years. it was nearly - metres square and called les demoiselles d'avignon (fig ). the scene is a brothel parlour in carre (street) d'avignon in barcelona near picasso's student home. fig george grosz. bordello. drawing x cm. c. . courtesy of the design and artists copyright society ltd., london. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ morton what prompted this first excursion into cubism? rather than follow other artists into the new abstract and pretty look then in vogue, picasso tried to revitalise the representation of reality in art by abandoning perspective and painting objects and figures from more than one angle simultaneously. in this first example (fig ) we also find african and pacific influences, popular at the time, and remnants of his own blue and rose periods. what is new is that his figures have straight outlines, with only angle overlappings to indicate planes. mask-like faces are shown full face and in profile at one and the same time. but even more striking is the stance of the parading prostitutes. note their interrogative stare. these women are not victims like those oftoulouse- lautrec. nor do they demonstrate the simple ritual dignity ofpaul gaugin's south sea island prostitutes in his ta matete (the market) of . picasso's prostitutes present themselves as women of con- sequence-vital, assertive and perhaps to some, even frightening. they disturb us quite differently from those of any other artist and they do it so purposely that we are conscious of their power. some say picasso was afraid ofwomen but there is much in his life story to contradict this view. was he perhaps afraid of something more sinister? some clue to the truth of picasso's thinking can be found in the trials that preceded the production of les demoiselles d'avignon. picasso made no less than seventeen preliminary sketches and three well filled out studies. the third of these studies (fig ) shows the prostitutes grouped around a centrally seated fig eduard munch. osvald's breakdown. oil on canvasfrom a stage sketch. . courtesy munch museet, oslo. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. part i . . fig eduard munch. the inheritance. oil on canvas. . courtesy munch museet, oslo. * %.,; ;t o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ sailor rolling a cigarette. on our left is a medical student holding a skull-a spanish symbol of mor- tality. (in some of the original drawings the figure on the left is a self-portrait.) the normal rounded configuration of the prostitutes makes them appear much less aloof, indifferent, remote and judgemental than those in the final version. there is no disturbing stare or coquettish look. we are not frightened, titillated or invited. in the presence of this prelimin- ary work we are more spectators or, at most, voyeurs. if we have any sense of apprehension it comes only from picasso's title, the wages of sin. clearly this sketch is an allegory of syphilis. he feared the disease rather than the women. ' the early part of the th century showed dramatic advances in the diagnosis and treatment of syphilis. its causative organism, the treponema pallidum, was discovered in and the wasser- mann blood test for the disease in the following year. in ehrlich and hata's research produced its th arsenical compound, salvasan. it was to revolutionise therapy. in a light-hearted french satirical periodical called l'assiette au beurre, with a fine sense of fun, fig picasso, pablo. les demoiselles d'avignon, . oil on canvas, x - cm. courtesy of the collection, the museum of modern art, new york. morton o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ syphilis in art: an entertainment in four parts. part fig pablo picasso. the wages of sin. studyfor les demoiselles d'avignon. courtesy offentliche kunstsammlung, kupferstich kabinett, basel. devoted its th edition entirely to a collection of cartoons concerning syphilis. for the first time since the th century people laughed at the disease, not with bravado out of fear, but from hope born of understanding. the th century cartoonists, in contrast to their predecessors, used humour and laughter to cathartic effect. the media had launched the new era of public education by entertainment. the first example from l'assiette au beurre (fig ) mocks the public view that treponemes are every- where. it was a pertinent comment since screening of parisians with the new blood test had found % to be positive. thus one small boy finds it necessary to reassure his inquisitive friend that the newly dis- covered organism is not the cause ofanother common consequence of sex, pregnancy. a victim of science (fig ) shows that salvasan was not welcomed by everybody. thepharmacist is asked by his friend "how's business?", to which the dejected pharmacist replies, "let's not talk about it; has killed the sale of condoms". little wonder that german students ofthe time were lustily singing in their beer halls : "even ifyou have poxfor sure, sweet wench, i'm yours readyfor tricks since it is easy now to cure with ehrlich and hata's six-o-six." figure shows a familiar out-patient scene. an attentive physician is seated in his clinic at the st louis hospital, paris. his serious, contemplative countenance leaves us in no doubt that the concem displayed by his worn-out romeo patient is well directed. this is clearly no simple case of gonorr- hoea. that it is the more serious syphilis finds some confirmation in the patient's state of deshabille. the last of the examples from l'assiette au beurre was first published in (fig ). it demonstrates how early and how long and determinedly our french colleagues have pursued public education. more than three-quarters of a century ago they were directing their efforts at what they recognised as a target group. the drawing is called education for ladies.the posters on the pissoir advertise doctors offering cures for venereal diseases. such endeavours in such parisian places were publicly acceptable. they demonstrate the pragmatism ofgallic logic and o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ morton fig anonymous. spirocheata pailida is not the cause of fig anonymous. a victim of science. caricature in pregnancy. caricature in l'assiette au beurre, . l'assiette au beurre, . courtesy of springer- verlag, courtesy of springer-verlag, heidelberg. heidelberg. i fig a. dunoyer de segonza. consultation at the st. louis hospital, paris. caricature in l'assiette au beurre, fig anonymous. a practical means of educating ladies. . courtesy of springer-verlag, heidelberg and design caricature in l'assiette au beurre, . courtesy of and artists copyright society ltd., london. springer-verlag, heidelberg. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ syphilis in art: an entertainment infour parts. part the new morality fig papas. the new morality. sunday times. march, . courtesy times newspape match the more relaxed attitudes prevailing in france at the time. they contrast strikingly with those pertaining in britain. the caricatures of our own time are in all respects the mildest ever. figure is a papas caricature published in the sunday times of march . its blandness typifies the cult of non-judgemental com- ment current in the s. penultimately in this collection we have, like the first item, an artist's translation ofan idea into three- dimensional art. not long after the death of john f kennedy several sculptors put forward, around - , ideas for a memorial to him. figures and suggested a monumental stone sculpture-a form of artistic expression, alas, currently finding little favour. john kennedy's absorbing interests and hopes are represented. firstly, medicare in the group of senior citizens, secondly the colour problem and thirdly the problems of the underdeveloped coun- tries. this last is represented by a mother with her children. ofthe several diagnoses on offer in the total piece, note especially the thickened bowed tibia ofthe young mother. this imaginative and skilfully con- structed creation is called a maquette and is of vinyl gel plaster. it is the work ofthe sculpturess, dr mary catterall. syphilis, in the westem world at least, is so much under control as to be no longer a public health or social problem. this has pertained for nearly a quarter of a century. why then conclude with a production? (fig ). and why maina-miriam mun- f . mhoary catterall macq sky's colposcopy? is the colposcope not a modem underprivileged of the third wor instrument to deal with some ofthe new generation of sculptress. wrs ltd. london. luette in vinagel plastic, 'ennedy's interests, the id. by permission of the o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ morton fig mary catterall. macquette in vinagel plastic, . mother with children: mother showing evidence of old yaws periostitis of left tibia. by permission of the sculptress. fig maina-miriam munsky. colposcopy. c)il on canvas. x cm. . courtesy of the nicholas treadwell gallery, womenswold, nr. canterbury. sexually transmitted diseases-genital herpes and warts, chlamydial infection and the increasingly ubiquitous and life-threatening carcinoma of the cervix? well, yes. but all this could change dramatically if non-treponicidal drugs were to be introduced and widely applied as treatment for gonococcal and/or chlamydial infections. then, as only rarely today, genitoirinary physicians and medically orientated gynaecologists would again be confronted with the fact that some % of primary syphilitic sores in women occur on or in the cervix. but perhaps i too readily anticipate tomorrow's history. in conclusion, artists have throughout the cen- turies recorded men's fears, foibles and follies in relation to syphilis. by holding up a mirror, artists have offered an opportunity to men and women to reflect on their attitudes and behaviour. changes have been slow, intermittent, marginal, unsustained and reversible. the future, it seems, offers nothing more certain. acknowledgements my prime debt is to the late erwin panofsky, art historian, whose homage to fracastorius first gave me an interest in art. i am greatly indebted also to colleagues for suggestions and to members of the department of medical illustration, royal hallam- shire hospital, sheffield for technical advice and skill with reproductions. staffs at museums, galleries and libraries have been unfailingly helpful. special thanks are due to anne goodchild, graves art gallery, sheffield, alexander kader, witt library, london and william schupbach, wellcome ins- titute for history of medicine, london. address for reprints: cortworth rd, sheffield s ln, uk alibert jl. descriptions des maladies de lay peau. paris: . (p shows fig as "syphilide pustuleuse en grappe"). catalogue: medicine through the artist's eye for wellcome institute exhibition, the science museum, london: . blanchard r. maladies venerienes dans l'art. deux estampes sur la syphilis. aesculape, - ; : - . petrie g. a singular iniquity. london: macmillan, . ward f. munch and his contemporaries. scanorama, sweden, scandinavian air lines, ; : - . fermigier a. toulouse-lautrec. trans by paul stevenson. london: pall mall press, . durel p. un portrait du syphilographe alfred fournier dans un tableau de toulouse-lautrec. hist. des sciences medicales, ; : - . richter h. dada: art and anti-art. london: thames and hudson, : . hughes r. the shock of the new. london: british broadcasting corporation, ; - : - . dunlop i. edvard munch. london: thames and hudson, . barr ah. picasso: fifty years of his art. london: secker and warburg, . berger j. success and failure of picasso. harmondsworth, penguin books, . vogt h. medizinische karikaturen von bis zur gegenwart. munchen, lehman, first ed. . oller l. (personal communication) . davies ta. primary syphilis in the female. london, oxford university press, , p . accepted for publication: october o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://sti.b m j.co m / g e n ito u rin m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /sti. . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://sti.bmj.com/ i am not who "i" pretend to be: the autobiography of alice b. toklas and its photographic frontispiece i am not who "i" pretend to be: the autobiography of alice b. toklas and its photographic frontispiece corinne andersen the comparatist, volume , may , pp. - (article) published by the university of north carolina press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /com. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /com. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ corinne andersen i amnotwho ‘‘i’’ pretend tobe theautobiographyofalice b.toklas and its photographic frontispiece � � a photograph by man ray (fig. ) serves as the frontispiece for the first edition of the autobiography of alice b.toklas ( ). in the image, a severely cropped ver- sion of man ray’s original composition, a waifish alice b.toklas, in a loose-fitting, floor-length dress, enters the study where gertrude stein sits at her desk, envel- oped in her work. although stein dominates the foreground of the photograph, the caption fails to acknowledge her presence. it simply reads, ‘‘alice b. toklas at the door, photograph by man ray.’’ with the frontispiece, stein establishes a comparison between two purport- edly direct modes of referentiality: autobiography and portrait photography. the medium of photography, in general, complements stein’s deconstruction of auto- biography as a genre. the frontispiece, in particular, reads as the autobiography en abyme. the frontispiece, with its seemingly askew caption, highlights the discrepancy between the book’s title and its content. according to stein’s own specifications, her name did not appear on the spine, front cover, or title page of the first edi- tion. since the first publication, publishers have exhibited a palpable anxietyabout this absence. while not a household name, by stein had achieved a literary reputation in the united states. toklas, in contrast, was completely unknown. the title, therefore, failed to deliverautobiography’s usual pledge;theautobiographyof aliceb.toklas did not promise to provide the details of an exemplary or otherwise extraordinary life. to this day, republications of the autobiography almost always feature stein’s image (sanstoklas) on the coverand stein’s name on the spine, front cover, and title page. in other words, stein’s transgression of autobiographical con- vention still requires considerable explanation in publishers’ eyes. in , the literary guild of new york introduced the book to its members by means of a brief, clarificatory letter. the revised title became the autobiography of alice b. toklas: the life story of gertrude stein, by gertrude stein. as editor- in-chief carl van doren states in the letter: ‘‘it is important to know from the outset that while this book is called the autobiography of alice b. toklas (a com- panion of miss stein), it is actually the story of gertrude stein’s life since .’’ t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f jonathan simpson muse_logo figure . © man raytrust/artists rights society (ars), ny/adagp, paris van doren does not want the reader to judge the book by its cover. with a tone of urgency, he attempts to purge from the title the very ambiguities stein wanted to project. van doren places toklas within parentheses in more ways than one. for one thing, his introduction dismisses toklas’s importance both as a narrative persona and as stein’s lifelong partner. perhaps more importantly, van doren’s imposition hampers the reader’s participation in the construction of the text’s meaning. the the autobiography of alice b. toklas and its frontispiece t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f ‘‘by gertrude stein’’ decreases the reader’s active skepticism about the ‘‘i.’’ van doren’s decided explanation of stein’s ruse of authorship undermines the latter’s interrogation of (self-)representation. readers expect autobiographies to ‘‘tell all,’’ and van doren assures potential readers that while theautobiography does not occupy itself with the details of the lesser-known toklas’s life, it does ‘‘tell the story’’ of the more noteworthy stein’s life. obviously, van doren was more interested in book sales than genre analysis, but his comments compromise one of stein’s main purposes for the project. with theautobiographyofaliceb.toklas, stein asserts that autobiographies reveal much more about the conventions of representation than they do about individual lives. just as stein’s ruse of authorship challenges the ‘‘auto–’’ of the book’s title, the frontispiece undermines the illusion of singularity suggested by the photograph’s caption (‘‘alice b.toklas at the door’’). in man ray’s original photograph,toklas’s figure marks the center of the plane. in the severely cropped frontispiece, however, toklas appears left of center. in other words, the image does not privilege either subject’s form, but bifurcates the viewer’s attention. the frontispiece provides important initial clues about the autobiography’s construction. toklas, whose form is echoed by the long, slender candles on the desk,seemstoprovidesteinwiththelightof inspiration.whiletoklasbathesinthe glow that emanates from behind the doorframe, stein’s bulky form remains partly hidden by shadow. the tomes that occupy the lower lefthand corner of the desk add weight to the broad, horizontal plane of the tabletop. because toklas appears to materialize from the light, within the symbolic space created by the photograph it appears as if stein, the brooding genius who toils away in mental solitude at her desk, has conjured up her muse. for some, the frontispiece highlights a power imbalance that pervades the writ- ten text. leigh gilmore provides the following reading: ‘‘stein sits at the desk, pen inhand.somethinginherposesuggestsprospero’sconjuringskills, foraliceseems summoned to the scene’’ ( ). gilmore claims that stein, like prospero, has be- come too absorbed in the pursuit of knowledge. like prospero’s ariel, stein’s alice, while potentially mischievous, remains a servant. gilmore’s use of toklas’s first name, ‘‘alice,’’ suggests that toklas has been victimized by the more powerful stein. sidonie smith’s reading of toklas’s representation in the text echoes gilmore’s reading of the photograph: ‘‘the camouflaged stein displaces her monumental egotism into the self-effacing voice of ‘alice’’’ ( ). once again, stein is the over- bearing master and ‘‘alice’’ the dutiful servant. according to this reading, toklas exists solely as an instrument of stein’s desire, and, as a result,theautobiography’s ‘‘i’’ becomes nothing more than stein’s foil. sandra gilbert and susan gubar claim that further evidence of stein’s monu- mental ego surfaces in toklas’s declaration of ‘‘gertrude stein’s’’ genius. the comparatist : t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f i may say that only three times in my life have i met a genius and each time a bell within me rang and i was not mistaken, and i may say in each case it was before there was any general recognition of the quality of genius in them. the three geniuses of whom i wish to speak are gertrude stein, pablo picasso, and alfred whitehead ( ). gilbert and gubar interpret that passage as a self-congratulatory statement. stein ‘‘turns collaboration into collusion. . . . the result is a kind of cannibalism, stein makes alice into a character of her own devising who, in turn, certifies stein as the genius who will usher in the twentieth century’’ ( ). this line of argument re- duces theautobiography’s ruse of authorship to a struggle for power. words such as ‘‘collusion’’ and ‘‘devising’’ corroborate gilmore’s vision of stein as prospero and loudly proclaim her intent as sinister. furthermore, the accusation of cannibalism, with its suggestion of predation, again casts ‘‘alice’’ in the role of victim. while his phrasing is more delicate, charles caramello also views stein’s in- tent in the autobiography as self-serving. he writes about ‘‘the morose theme of erasure’’ in stein’s autobiographical work and suggests that, in theautobiography, stein has ‘‘erased the real toklas from history’’( ). the question remains, how- ever, where does one locate ‘‘the real’’ in any text? ironically, critics who interpret the autobiography as ‘‘the auto-referential clothed in biographical dress’’ (neuman ) mistake stein’s critique of genre for a clever disguise of her self-centeredness. although the autobiography of alice b. toklas does not represent toklas’s autobiography, that does not imply that stein fashioned toklas as her mouthpiece merely to disguise her own selfish motives. stein’s innovative ruse of authorship explicitly uncovers the premises of autobiog- raphy’s construction and thereby challenges the genre’s status as a direct mode of referentiality. as bela brodski and celeste schenck state: to the uncritical eye, autobiography presents as untroubled a reflection of identity as the surface of a mirror can provide. the corresponding assump- tion has been that autobiography is a transparency through which we per- ceive life, unmediated and undistorted (i). in the autobiography, stein purposefully distorts toklas’s reflection in order to magnify the genre’s distortion of identity. she crafts theautobiography from tok- las’s perspective in order to denude the ‘‘i’’ of its unified status. the book’s ruse of authorship, like the double portrait on the frontispiece, privileges rimbaud’s ‘‘i is an other’’ over descartes’ ‘‘i think therefore i am.’’ brodski and schenck’s use of a mirror as a metaphor for identity makes implicit referencetolacan’spoststructuralist theoriesabouttheformationofthecogito.ac- cording to lacan, an infant first understands the differentiation between self and the autobiography of alice b. toklas and its frontispiece t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f othereven before the infant can recognize its own reflection.the emerging subject both delights in the coherence exhibited by its reflection and despairs at its inner sense of asymmetry. in other words, the mirror’s surface never provides an ‘‘un- troubled reflection’’ of identity. the ideal image in the mirror, this fictional con- struct of a fullycoordinated self, marks the subject’s alienation and foreshadows its lifelong existential crisis. as ellie ragland-sullivan explains, ‘‘human beings will forever after anticipate their own images in the images of others’’ ( ). although it remains veiled, the illusory image of coherence first found in the reflection fuels the subject’s desire. in order to ease the conflict that emerges as a result of the mirror stage, the subject represses its failure to embody its ideal and builds up conscious defenses against the knowledge. a similar process of denial fuels conventional autobiography. since ancient times, definitions of ‘the self ’ have revolved around the cogito or the belief that a self-reflective consciousness is knowable. conventional autobiographers, how- ever, tend only to construct ‘‘the surface of the mirror’’ or the ego. autobiographies that culminate in the ‘‘always-foreseen fullness’’ of ‘‘the writer’s present life and vocation’’ (clark ) perpetuate a fantasy of self-knowledge because they ignore the other’s alienating effects. subjects deny their alienation when they retrospec- tively establish, then proclaim they have fulfilled, their own definition of self- actualization. as shari benstock suggests, ‘‘autobiography reveals the impossibility of its own dream; what begins on the presumptions of self-knowledge ends in the creation of a fiction that covers over the premises of its construction’’ ( ). theautobiographyand its frontispiece disturb the fundamental logic that drives both conventional autobiography and the ego or the cogito. in theautobiography, steinuncoversthepremisesofautobiography’sconstructionassheinterrogatesthe foundations of the ego ideal. the ruse of authorship that stein employs does not strengthen the illusion of her ego’s stability but emphasizes the alienation of the subject, that is, the self / otherdynamic of subjectivity. intheautobiography, stein investigates the presumption of the autobiographer’s self-knowledge. the narra- tive persona of ‘‘alice b. toklas’’ allows stein to view her own subjectivity from the vantage point of the other. her critique of autobiography requires ‘i’ to sig- nify improperly. stein underscores the dependent nature of the subject, that i exist only in the eyes of the other, as she confounds the transparency of the personal pronoun, that i am not who ‘‘i’’ pretend to be. photography allows for a similar ‘‘disassociation of consciousness from iden- tity’’ (barthes ). when we look at ourselves in a photograph, we better under- stand how the other sees us. because ‘‘‘myself ’ never coincides with my image’’ (barthes ) a photograph repeats for its subject the frustration first experienced during the mirror stage. the frontispiece of theautobiography reminds the reader the comparatist : t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f of this frustration. although the caption (‘‘alice b. toklas at the door’’) suggests the presence of one subject, the image does not fulfill the expectation. the viewer– reader anticipates coherence but does not experience it. this failure of one-to-one correspondences prepares the reader for stein’s critique. with the autobiography, stein suggests that neither photography nor autobi- ography should be thought of as ‘‘a straightforward transcription of an observed reality’’ (owens ). in the image used for the frontispiece, stein cannot be dis- tinctlydiscerned; only her hands and back are illuminated.while light accentuates toklas’s form, shadows obscure the features of her face. in other words, the frontis- piece does not make its subjects accessible to its audience. while the frontispiece can be studied for the internal relationships that structure it, it does not furnish any clues about the inner lives of its subjects (owens ). neither the frontispiece nor theautobiography captures ‘‘reality.’’ man ray de- picts toklas and stein as they pose for the camera, not as they truly are. at first glance, the photograph appears to reproduce a spontaneous moment, just as, on a first reading, ‘‘toklas’s’’ narrative comes across as off-the-cuff. upon further in- spection, however, it becomes obvious that the photograph, like the autobiogra- phy, has been thoroughly constructed. the slight smile on stein’s shadowed face suggests her anticipation of toklas’s arrival, as well as her foreknowledge of man ray’s presence. although she holds a pen, stein does not write upon the papers on her desk, but simulates the activity. toklas’s blank look in man ray’s direction betrays her attempt to ignore the pho- tographer’s position. her stiff posture breaks the illusion that she spontaneously entered the room. instead, it appears that she wants to ‘‘hit her mark.’’ the frontispiece upsets the idea that photographs come closer to reality than other modes of representation. autobiographies, like photographs, are often mis- taken for reality when they are nonetheless only substitutes (owens ). despite autobiography’s privileged relationship to real life, the genre remains highly me- diated. the book’s infamous last paragraph makes this point in an ironic fashion: about six weeks ago gertrude stein said, it does not look to me as if you were ever going to write that autobiography. you know what i am going to do. i am going to write it for you. i am going to write it as simply as defoe did the autobiography of robinson crusoe. and she has and this is it (auto- biography, ). with those closing remarks, stein satirizes the conception of autobiography as a simple translation of experience into discourse. first of all, it is difficult to be- lieve that the composition of either robinson crusoe or the autobiography was a ‘‘simple’’ task. furthermore, the defoe analogy complicates the genre status of the autobiography of alice b. toklas and its frontispiece t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f autobiography in its own right. with this conclusion, stein classifies the textual ‘‘i,’’ as well as the entire autobiography, as fiction. stein did not intend to represent toklas’s identity accurately in the autobiography, nor did she attempt to portray herself accurately in the book. instead, the last paragraph suggests that the auto- biography provides a fictionalized account of toklas’s perceptions of stein. as neil schmitz states, ‘‘the ending of the autobiography, which twice declares: i am not here, at once contradicts the intention of the form, self-revelation, and the obvious appeal of autobiographical narrative, intimacy’’ ( ). likewise, the photographic frontispiece, which obscures stein’s image in its shadows and appears staged, or falsely intimate, reinforces schmitz’s notion of absence, rather than caramello’s notion of erasure. asschmitzclaims,therevelationoftheruseofauthorshipinthefinalparagraph undermines the conventional definition of autobiography. in on autobiography, the influential french theorist philippe lejeune defines autobiography as a ‘‘retro- spective prose narrative written by a real person concerning his own existence, where the focus is his individual life, in particular the story of his personality’’ ( ). the autobiographyof alice b.toklas is a retrospective prose narrative written by a real person, but it does not focus on an individual life. stein’s mind-boggling re- fraction of the ‘‘i’’ calls into question the meaning of such terms as ‘real,’ ‘existence,’ ‘individual,’ and ‘personality.’ instead of providing an intimate portrait, stein constructs the autobiography as a text of exteriorities: a first-person narration whose narrator lacks direct access to the consciousness of her cen- tral figure, executed as a portrait by an author who lacks direct access to the narratorial consciousness (caramello ). when critics mine theautobiography for intimate details about stein and toklas’s relationship, they tend to overlooktheautobiography’s focus on exteriorities (e.g., stimpson). ‘‘toklas’s’’ incessant repetition of the name ‘gertrude stein’ places such an em- phasis on the exterior that it teeters on the edge of farce. rarely ‘‘gertrude,’’ ‘‘miss stein,’’ even ‘‘she’’ or ‘‘her,’’ the full name, ‘‘gertrude stein,’’ appears an average of four times per page. for example, ‘‘maddalena, the old italian cook, came up to gertrude stein’s bedroom one morning to bring the water for her bath. gertrude stein had the hiccoughs’’( ). although critics often interpret the repetition of stein’s name as another masterstroke of her egotism, the reiteration ironically achieves the opposite effect. after hundreds of pages, ‘gertrude stein’ does not exist apart from its shape in the composition (dydo ).the constant repetition ex- poses instabilities in the relationship between signifier and signified until the full name, ‘gertrude stein,’ begins to function as an unstable element within the cycle of resignification. the comparatist : t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f printed in a one-inch circle in the lower righthand corner on the cover of the first edition, stein’s famous device ‘‘rose is a rose is a rose is a rose’’ operates in a similar fashion. this microcosm of a linguistic system suggests that all signs are simulacra, or false copies. ‘rose’ does not refer to a reality outside of the de- vice itself; its meaning changes in relation to its reiteration in the cycle. like the repetition of ‘gertrude stein,’ the endless repetition of ‘rose’ releases the ‘‘signi- fier from its signified into its wordness and sound’’ (smith ). stein’s unorthodox linguistic play typically draws comparisons with the uncon- ventional visual perspectives introduced by picasso and braque at the height of analytical cubism. the broken-down planar components and trompe-l’oeil tech- niques of cubism, with their emphasis on exteriority, remain consistent with the autobiography’s focus. it is photography’s emphasis on its own duplicability, how- ever, that creates a closer parallel with the autobiography. although it would have immediately unraveled stein’s ruse of authorship, to some degree picasso’s proto-cubist portrait of miss gertrude stein ( ) would have been a good choice for the frontispiece. just as stein challenges the traditional mimetic function of autobiography in the autobiography, picasso’s portrait chal- lenges the ‘‘traditional mimetic function of painting’’ (lubar ). furthermore, the portrait serves as a frequent topic of discussion throughout the book. as the in- famous story behind theportrait goes, stein sat for picasso over eighty times, but the latter was never satisfied with the portrait. in the summer of , picasso quit parisforspainandlefttheunfinishedcanvasbehind.whenhereturned,hepainted over the portrait’s naturalistic features and replaced them with anti-naturalistic features inspired by ancient iberian sculpture (hilton , ). in the early pages of the autobiography, stein includes picasso’s now famous quip about the portrait: ‘‘. . . everybody says that she [stein] does not look like it but that does not make any difference, she will . . . .’’ (autobiography ). with the remark, picasso calls attention to his confidence in his ability to change the way people see.while picasso’s later, fully realized cubist works will challenge ‘‘the tra- ditional physiognomic reading of portraits as imprints of the sitter’s soul’’ (lubar ), his portrait ofmissgertrudestein does not. as the previous quotation reveals, picasso believes that his painting does more than reflect stein’s essence; it consti- tutes it (lubar ). and picasso’s later reaction to stein’s short haircut reveals that he feels his painting captures more than stein’s likeness. ‘‘let me see, he said. she let him see. and my portrait, said he sternly. then his face softening he added, mais, quandmême tout yest, all the same it is all there’’ (autobiography ). neil schmitz aptly reads that statement as an example of ‘‘picasso’s masculine authority’’ ( ). schmitz suggests that with the comment, ‘‘picasso speaks a judgment: this iswho you are’’ ( ). by writing her autobiography through the assumed consciousness of alice b. toklas, however, and by purposefully omitting a visual reproduction the autobiography of alice b. toklas and its frontispiece t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f of picasso’s portrait from the autobiography, stein has the last word. to borrow a phrase from schmitz, in relation to both the portrait and theautobiography, stein emphatically asserts: ‘‘i am not here.’’ stein focuses on surface and absence in theautobiography not because, as paul alkon asserts, she wants to conceal ‘‘the moral emptiness of [her] soul’’ ( ), but because she wants to break with the traditional ontological reading of autobiogra- phy as an imprint of the subject’s soul. whereas a painted portrait is often valued for its ability to capture the essence of its subject, a photograph is often valued for its ability to serve as a mirror of the real. the fact that a photograph perpetually retains the fleeting instant underscores its exteriority. ‘‘the photograph mechani- cally repeats what could never be repeated existentially’’ (barthes ). stein’s use of the continuous present produces a similar effect. characterized by simple tran- sitions and lightly punctuated run-on sentences that overflow with present parti- ciples, the continuous present breaks from a concept of time as departure and in- stead suggests a ‘‘monumental temporality, without cleavage or escape’’ (kristeva , ). transitional phrases such as ‘‘as i was saying . . .’’ (autobiography ) and ‘‘before i tell about . . . i must tell about . . .’’ (autobiography ) not only create a casual, conversational spontaneity that establishes an intimacy with the reader, they perpetuate an illusion of a perpetual here and now. no one will ever have the opportunity to enter into stein’s atelier and find picasso and matisse conversing there, and yet the instance perpetually replays itself in the ‘‘snap shots’’ (autobiog- raphy ) of the atelier that toklas looks at, as well as in the text itself. although the events described in the autobiography occurred in the past, ‘‘toklas’s’’ energetic retelling, like a photograph, continuously reproduces a fleeting moment. where paintings are valued for their uniqueness, photographs are valued for their duplicability. photographs ‘‘procure their authoritative status’’ because of their ability to duplicate the external (owens ). once a photographic image is captured, through various printing techniques, it can be reproduced ad infinitum. as rosalind krauss states in ‘‘a note on photography and the simulacral,’’ the photograph’s repeatability upsets the notion that the photograph might capture the subject’s essence or soul. in its ability to break down the distinction between the original and the copy, the photograph challenges the idea of uniqueness. at a certain point, in its precarious position as the false copy—the image that is resemblant only by mechanical circumstance and not by internal, essential connection to the model—served to deconstruct the whole system of model and copy, original and fake, first– and second-degree replication. ( ) stein makes the point, through her use of the photographic frontispiece, that all autobiographies are ‘‘false copies.’’ theautobiography deconstructs the whole sys- tem of model and copy through the narrative persona ‘‘alice b. toklas.’’ stein’s the comparatist : t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f explanation of the ruse of authorship suggests that the ‘‘i’’ of the autobiography resembles alice b. toklas by mechanical circumstance only and not as the result of any internal, essential connection to the real toklas. on the last page of the first edition, stein includes a facsimile of the handwritten first page oftheautobiography’s manuscript.the ability infinitely to reproduce the handwritten manuscript reemphasizes the artifactual nature of all representation. furthermore, the facsimile returns the reader to the book’s opening.the facsimile, therefore, achieves a similar purpose as the ‘‘rose’’ device. although the period in- serted at the top of the circle divides the phrase into a beginning, middle, and end, the device perpetually repeats itself. in this way, it ruptures the notion of ‘‘time as departure, progression, and arrival’’ (kristeva ). the book’s last line also under- mines the notion of progress. while the titles of the autobiography’s chapters maintain the underpinnings of chronological time, the point of arrival, or the end of the book, does not mark a final destination.the point of arrival perpetually dis- solves into the point of departure, or the book’s beginning. the last line, ‘‘and she has and this is it,’’ like the facsimile of the first page, encourages a second reading. the photographic frontispiece, the repetition of ‘‘gertrude stein,’’ the cyclical device on the front cover, and the facsimile of the manuscript all aid stein in her deconstruction of the genre of autobiography. within the autobiography, all ref- erence to an extratextual world becomes nothing more than an illusory effect. stein not only constructs a time indiscernible from space, but also an ‘‘i’’ indis- cernible from language.the ruse of authorship reduces the subject to the status of a grammatical pronoun (de man ). because the ‘‘i’’ of theautobiography does not transparently reflect the identity of the author, it challenges the unified ego as the metonymy of the ‘‘i’’s signification (lacan ). the ‘‘i’’ in conventional autobiog- raphyperpetuatesanillusionofarational,knowable,unifiedself. inotherwords, it reinforces the méconnaissances that constitute the ego and shelter the subject from its own discord. the autobiographyof alice b.toklas does not remain focused on the portrayal of the cogito. the double self-portrait that serves as the autobiogra- phy’s frontispiece, as well as stein’s innovative ruse of authorship, exposes the ego’s investment in coherence as a denial. in thegeographicalhistoryofamerica, stein states, ‘‘i am i because my little dog knows me’’( ). with that quip, she suggests that individual identity requires rec- ognition in the eyes of the other. perhaps more interestingly, through the example of her dog, she claims that this recognition occurs outside of the realm of language or any other form of representation. we might harbor an illusion that photogra- phyand autobiography make their subjects more accessible to an audience, but the concepts and notions of identity that these forms of representation rely on prevent an audience from getting to their subjects. stein does not write theautobiography so that the reading public might get to know her. instead, she stresses that a real the autobiography of alice b. toklas and its frontispiece t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f human being is quite different from a concept, and neither photography nor auto- biography come close to capturing a real being. nonetheless, by disrupting com- municative transparency stein is better able to analyze how language (verbal and visual) exercises power and negotiates desire. she highlights photography’s and autobiography’s conventions in order to test their purposes and strengths. u peace college, raleigh notes born emmanuel radnitsky, man ray ( – ), an american artist–photographer who moved to paris in , often photographed montparnasse’s artists and intellec- tuals. he shot the photograph used for the frontispiece in , a full decade before the autobiography’s publication. ‘‘in the vocabulary of literary criticism, the phrase ‘en abyme’ describes any fragment of a text that reproduces in miniature the structure of the text in its entirety’’ (owens ). in other words, man ray’s photograph reproduces in miniature the structure of theautobiography. for an historical treatment ofmiseenabyme in literary theory, see dallenbach. van doren does not capitalize, italicize, or set off the original title in any way. here ‘the other’ refers to the gaze of the symbolic other and not to the disenfran- chised other. four years later, in everybody’s autobiography ( ), stein issues a similar lampoon of this misconception. ‘‘anyway autobiography is easy like it or not autobiography is easy for any one and so this is to be everybody’s autobiography’’ ( ). stein has ‘‘erased the real toklas from history’’ (caramello ). the chapters are ‘‘before i came to paris,’’ ‘‘gertrude stein in paris – ,’’ ‘‘ – ,’’ ‘‘the war,’’ and ‘‘after the war – .’’ méconnaissances is a lacanian term, meaning misconstructions, or failures to recog- nize. works cited alkon, paul k. ‘‘visual rhetoric in the autobiography of alice b. toklas.’’ critical inquiry ( ): – . barthes, roland. camera lucida: reflections on photography. new york: hill and wang, . benstock, shari. ‘‘authorizing the autobiographical.’’ the private self: theoryand practice of women’s autobiographical writings. ed. shari benstock. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . – . brodski, bella, and celeste schenck. ‘‘introduction.’’ life/lines: theorizingwomen’s autobiography. ed. bella brodski and celeste schenck. ithaca: cornell university press, . – . the comparatist : t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f caramello, charles. henry james, gertrude stein, and the biographical act. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . clark, hilary. ‘‘the mnemonics of autobiography: lyn hejinian’s my life.’’ biography ( ): – . dallenbach, lucien. le récit speculaire: essai sur la mise en abyme. paris: seuil, . dydo, ulla e. ‘‘stanzas in meditation: the other autobiography.’’ chicago review . ( ): – . gilbert, sandra m., and susan gubar. no man’s land: the place of thewomanwriter in thetwentieth century. vol. . sexchanges. new haven: yale university press, . gilmore, leigh. autobiographics: a feminist theoryof women’s self-representation. ithaca: cornell university press, . hilton, timothy. picasso. london: thames and hudson, . kristeva, julia. ‘‘women’s time.’’ trans. alice jardine and harry blake. signs: journal of women in culture and society ( ): – . krauss, rosalind. ‘‘a note on the simulacral.’’ the critical image: essays on contemporary photography. ed. carol squiers. seattle: bay press, . – . lacan, jacques. Écrits: a selection. trans. alan sheridan. new york: norton, . lejeune, philippe. on autobiography. ed. paul john eakin. minneapolis: university of minnesota press, . lubar, robert. ‘‘unmasking pablo’s gertrude: queer desire and the subject of portraiture.’’ art bulletin ( ): – . de man, paul. ‘‘autobiography as defacement.’’ mln ( ): – . neuman, s.c. gertrude stein: autobiographyand the problem of narration. els monographs series . victoria: university of victoria press, . owens, craig. beyond recognition: representation, power, and culture. ed. scott bryson, et al. berkeley: university of california press, . ragland-sullivan, ellie. jacques lacan and the philosophyof psychoanalysis. urbana: university of illinois press, . schmitz, neil. of huck and alice: humorouswriting in american literature. minneapolis: university of minnesota press, . smith, sidonie. subjectivity, identity, and the body: women’s autobiographical practices in thetwentieth century. bloomington: indiana university press, . stein, gertrude. the autobiographyof alice b.toklas. new york: harcourt, brace and company, inc., . �. everybody’s autobiography. . cambridge: exact change, . stimpson, catherine r. ‘‘gertrude stein and the lesbian lie.’’ in americanwomen’s autobiography: fea(s)ts of memory. madison: university of wisconsin press, . – . van doren, carl. rev. of the autobiographyof alice b.toklas: the life story of gertrude stein by gertrude stein.the current literary guild selection. new york: the literary guild, . the autobiography of alice b. toklas and its frontispiece t s e n g . . : t h e c o m p a r a t i s t / v o l u m e / s h e e t o f kabbalah: on spatio-temporal database visualization with historical events: a case study of history flow of chia-yi beimen station t. w. hsua, s. c chioua, j. h. leeb anational yunlin university of science and technology, yunlin, taiwan - (g , chiousc)@yuntech.edu.tw bkorea advanced institute of science and technology, daejeon, republic of korea - jihyunlee@kaist.ac.kr key words: spatio-temporal database, historical city, information visualization. abstract: this system is made for researchers who study pattern of city or spatial transformation by using computational way to interpret data logically. in order to make use of all historical data with gis in system, an exact metadata is necessary and needed to build first. the cubism project is aimed to presume how different historical data normalized to become information in spatio-temporal database. to make temporal map have higher capability with presentation of history context. . introduction . motivation a city formed with numerous classes of historical events. however these records can not completely describe a time- space subject of one city. there are some methods to present historical events by combining with timeline or gis to present its order or distribution position. but to sense and understand one city only according to single dimension of time or spatial is not objective enough. a historical research depends on reading lots of historical data to know well with the target which research focus on. this progress is not only time consuming for researchers who reading history, but also can not avoid to collect wrong information. with the same reading behavior, reading a hypertext is more strength than a linear one. (chen, ). for instance, a gis map accompanied with occurrence order to translate events information into hypertext or even hypermedia. if the traditional behavior combines with these computational methods, to understanding the historical background of one space will be more efficient. . purpose the main purpose of this study is using a symbol system to represent the time-space subject. a conceptual and iconify system may be applied to comprehend the duration of development process. a specific time-space flow will be viewed when focus one target or set rules for seeing complete picture of this city’s history. here are the two goals of this system: . to get the biography of one target: different events may have relationship with each other. by using texts can not present the context of history clearly. . to compare individual with others: multiple dimensions are hard to interpret or make a contrast. the individuals must differentiate before comparing with each other. . literature review . time geography “time and space” is an indivisible unity. in social culture domain, a space issue should be discussed with history. time is generated by interaction of society in one space. what people see the development of society is the objective definition for time and space. during a period of time, space or buildings may change by events. these changes are considered as the attributes of time- space subject. if these changes didn’t influence the existence of time-space subject, the new subject may treat as the continued subject for this space. this calls material continuity. events may include changed attributes of subject with a series orders. time is able to measure these orders by defining measurement, like known units such as year, month, day, hours, minute, and second. (robert levine, ) events or facts occurred in past are hard to trace back. even the most advanced technology is not able to record all attributes of all objects in a city at the same time. . temporal database for a systematic way to record events and changes, space-time composites model (stc) used to ameliorate the snapshot record model. stc model separates components are about to change, as figure shows, the relationship between rural and urban. the basic units of this model are the components divide by changes. this model need only to save the value of attributes for these changed components and may solve the consuming problem with working hours and resources. the specific isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume ii- /w , th international cipa symposium , august – september , taipei, taiwan this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprsannals-ii- -w - - component may be helpful for tracing the different units in not the same time. however, this way still has a potential problem. all the components have to redefine when one space changed. this model is not suitable for constantly inputting data. (langran & chrisman, ) figure . observing changing between rural and urban in different time (from langran, chrisman, , redraw by this study） peuquet and duan ( ) proposed event-based spatio- temporal data model (estdm) for processing temporal information. by storing events as a unit of temporal data, these information can be integrated with spatial information, and unfold on map. leslie mentioned about one temporal data would descript as temporal information (when), spatial information (where), and non spatio-temporal information (what changed). (leslie, c., barnes, g., binford, m., smith, s., ) the contribution of temporal database for history research includes: ( ) to understand the rules that govern changes observed in the world; ( ) to explain the state of the world at some earlier time; ( ) to predict the state of the world in the future; and ( ) to plan a sequence of actions that will lead to a desirable future. these four points make urban development research be able to observe the future trends form evolvement, and adjust the plan or strategy of one city. . methodology the memories of one city’s development are hided in historical buildings in this city. people may use these historical buildings to be junctions connect past and present (as figure ). as historical building play a role of objective subject, this way makes observing the development of entire city by examining every historical event that this historical building experienced see the changing of space in multiple aspects. . expound existence and essence of temporal map. . plan metadata and normalization of spatio-temporal database . put historical events data of beimen station into spatio-temporal database figure . historic building used as the interface from past to current . definition . subject: the highest level of space-rank can be separate into many sub objects, like a time-space subject. the subject in this study is referred to time- space subject chiayi, the historic city. . object: a building, an area, or an organization can be called an object. objects composite subject, and there are subordinative relationships between objects, like government and its department, or a building in one city area. . state: to emblem an object existing. attributes changed bring about a new state. . event: to change attribute of object, and connect two states. a historic event with text can be presented as an event data. . temporal data: the basic element in space-time model, which composite by two states and one event. . primary result the cue-point represents something changed, but it not means all this building or space make a reconstruction. evan a small part repaired or the function of this building had been changed, these are able to be called “variation.”a symbolic represent system may help to present different variation. by using structure of timeline, every single attribute has its sub- timeline. as any attribute of a subject changed, one of a sub- timeline shows a cue-point, and the main timeline may present the same particular time. for one subject, its state is stationary between two cue-points of timeline in different time. every change of an attribute of one subject should mark a cue-point, and also there are multiple attributes changed probably. as figure shows below: isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume ii- /w , th international cipa symposium , august – september , taipei, taiwan this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprsannals-ii- -w - - figure . the state of object and the relationship between object and subject (from langran, g., chrisman, n., r., , redraw by this study） type class includes event type, action, and complement. events type are classified to “social dynamics”(sd) which people cause environment they live changed, “disaster damage” (dd) which natural phenomena makes object transform, “territorial features”(tf) which are initial conditions of space for defining the original state in the beginning of timeline, “urban policies”(up) which are supervisors or strategies make city change. complement is supplement for describing which not mentioned from above metadata. in order to trace not only current value, but also changes in multiple cue-points, attribute class notes changed item, and the value changed before and after. if there are multiple attributes changed in one event, these data should log in multiple and sequentially way also for recording totally. the value records are helpful for observing if there is any other event not logged. for instance, if there are two cue-points of timeline, and the new (after) value of the first cue-point is not the same as the original (before) value of the second point, this proves some events happened between these two cue-points and make things change. the values in different time can inspect the processing of one subject or one object in period of time. the record class notes established time and establisher, or modified information of this data. these events data can be connected with the target descriptions, and generated historic events chain. the historic events chain combined with vertex (event) and edge (relationship). like directed graph (or digraph) in graph theory, every relationship has its “cause” and “effect” with sequential. the after events are not able to affect the previous ones. in other words, the start node and end node of one edge will not be the same. the “loop” will not possible to appear in one vertex, and “cause” can not be “effect” at the same time. for these rules, the historic events chain will present as a simple graph. there is relevance between the four event types mentioned above. one event could be the cause of any other events, but kinds of event types can not give rise to other kinds of event type. there are initial rules for these events combining into chains. like urban policies and social dynamics type could not cause a disaster damage type event. on the contrary, a disaster damage type event may bring about the policies or social changes. however, social dynamics type event will be influenced by other three types. (as figure ) the events related to beimen station list in table as below: figure . the influence relationship between four types of events year initiators action recipients type qing dynasty government build beiman gate up japanese colony government discover alishan forest up a japanese colony government transform japanese builders up b japanese builders open alishan forest railway up a japanese builders open alishan forest railway up b japanese builders build beimen station up japanese builders transform alishan sagyousho up a alishan sagyousho open alishan forest railway up b alishan sagyousho enable beimen station up a alishan sagyousho open alishan forest railway up b alishan sagyousho enable beimen repairing factory up alishan sagyousho enable erwanping station up a alishan sagyousho open alishan forest railway up b alishan sagyousho enable chia-yi material factory up a alishan forest railway service passenger train sd b a service mountaineering people sd alishan sagyousho enable timber storage pool up a alishan forest railway set up new trunk up b a service people sd alishan sagyousho transform the taiwan development co., ltd. up the taiwan development co., ltd. transform forestry bureau up alishan forest railway set up cane transport trains up alishan forest railway service transport package sd isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume ii- /w , th international cipa symposium , august – september , taipei, taiwan this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprsannals-ii- -w - - year initiators action recipients type alishan forest railway experienc e golden age sd a forestry bureau open new beimen station up b a disable beimen station up a fire disaster burn beimen repairing factory dd b a cause angry people sd a beimen station announce city historic site up b fire disaster burn beimen station dd c forestry bureau repair beimen station up forestry bureau hold forest railway festival sd a forestry bureau repair beimen station up b beimen station transform landscape sd forestry bureau repair beimen station up beimen station announce cultural tourism up table . events of beimen station from - the cue-point of one timeline means change appear on an object. there will be two state generate by an event. an event presents year and action with rectangle as figure shows below. states shows name of target (might be initiators or recipients, called pronoun for an instance (as figure ). the final result with all events related to beimen shows as figure below: figure . the event present in symbol with year and action information figure . difference kind of state in event chain figure . the historic event chain of beimen station . concolusion every existing object, like mankind, area, or buildings all have their own timeline. so do a city space. these objects in same city place will generate relationships as time goes by. the historic context analysis research has computational way to observe the subjective perspective of different object. this is the main purpose of this study. establishing this historic event database not only supports the historic space research, but also another way to make preservation for culture heritage in digital method. if there is a good interface and right way to use this database, this system may become a local historic education system to pass the right historic context knowledge on, and to make culture of one city flourish. isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume ii- /w , th international cipa symposium , august – september , taipei, taiwan this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprsannals-ii- -w - - reference cheng, t., , a process-oriented data model for fuzzy spatial objects. phd dissertation, international institute for aerospace survey and earth sciences (itc), netherlands. hsu, t.,w., , clio: a primary study of the image of historical city, proc. international conference on kansei engineering and emotion research (keer), penghu, taiwan. langran, g., chrisman, n., r., , a framework for temporal geographic information. cartographica, vol. , no. , pp. - . leslie, c., barnes, g., binford, m., smith, s. , , a spatio- temporal data model for analyzing the relationship between property ownership changes, land use/land cover and carbon dynamics, proc. american congress of surveying and mapping congress. march, las vegas, usa. peuquet, d., j., duan, n., . an event-based spatiotemporal data model (estdm) for temporal analysis of geographical data. international journal of geographical information systems, vol. , pp. – . yuan, m., , temporal gis and spatio-temporal modeling, proc. the third international conference in integrating gis and environmental modeling, santa fe, new mexico. isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume ii- /w , th international cipa symposium , august – september , taipei, taiwan this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprsannals-ii- -w - - stylistic types in the history of arts procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com - © elsevier ltd. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). selection and peer-review under responsibility of the sports, education, culture-interdisciplinary approaches in scientific research conference. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . sciencedirect sec-iasr stylistic types in the history of arts gabriel bulancea * “dunarea de jos” university of galati, domnească street, galați , galaţi, romania abstract there are classifications in the theory of styles which might help create a unitary vision upon styles by giving up the rigid nature of the notion of style and make its significance more fluid. this text is based on the idea that humans relate to the world in three ways: through senses, intellect and sensibility. the shape they give to their perception of the world depends on the mixture of these three. the will guides humans towards one of the three personal attitudes: the empirical, the rational or the empathic one, this phenomenon being reflected on art as well. © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. selection and peer-review under responsibility of the sports, education, culture-interdisciplinary approaches in scientific research conference. keywords: history of arts, stylistic types,naturalism, idealism, expressionism, the baroque, the classique, the romantic; . introduction when discussing the notion of style, tudor vianu introduces a notion that was not exactly new which he calls artistic type which resembles style because both style and the artistic type organize the works of art according to the similitude of their structures. the differences operated by tudor vianu refer to the fact that “the type groups the works around one of the constitutive moments of art or another” taking into account its organizing manners while “style groups them around their artistic agent, whether an artistic individuality, an era, a nation or even an entire cultural circle.” on the other hand, the type represents a purely systematic, ahistoric notion while style introduces the temporal coordinate as well. in the notion of style the motivations of the unity of the structural elements of the work of art are deeply related to the historic context, the style becoming thus a harmonization between the artist’s originality and the tendencies of the era and of the society. . max deri we would like to mention first the classification made by max deri ( - ) which took into account the * corresponding author: gabriel bulancea e-mail address: bulancea_gabriel@yahoo.com © elsevier ltd. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). selection and peer-review under responsibility of the sports, education, culture-interdisciplinary approaches in scientific research conference. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.sbspro. . . &domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.sbspro. . . &domain=pdf gabriel bulancea / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – distance between nature and the artistic creations. he distinguishes three fundamental attitudes in art: the naturalistic one, the idealistic one and the expressionistic one naturalism aims to reproduce as exactly as possible the model selected from reality, with as little intervention as possible from the author. we could include in this category of styles the realistic searches in the plastic art of the gothic and the renaissance, the futuristic experiences in the musical art, the realism, the naturalism in all arts, the hyperrealism in the plastic arts, the oiseaux style promoted by olivier messiaen in music or the onomatopoeias of all kinds that are used by numerous composers in various musical styles, the pictorial impressionism etc. the artist’s imaginative-creative function is abolished while he is transformed into a mirror reflecting the reality in front of it as accurately as possible. idealism corrects reality; in other words, it understands the ideal of beautiful the way reason perceives it. this category comprises characteristics from the egyptian art but also the greek one, from the roman style, from classicism, neoclassicism, parnassianism, pictorial symbolism, abstract or non-figurative art, neo-impressionism, cubism, futurism, etc. by idealization the artist does not render what he/she sees but what he/she knows he/she sees, distilling the impressions through the filter of reason. he/she adjusts reality till he/she obtains the idea of beautiful, idea which subsists within the symmetry, harmony and proportionality of the components. the work of art becomes an ideal object whose correspondence with reality is generally outlined. the logical construction, the discovery of the mathematics underneath it, underneath the shapes describing the compositional space, becomes a priority. eliminating the accidental complexity of things till the point where the idea of that particular thing infiltrates, this is the basic characteristic of the idealist attitude. the expressionist attitude distorts reality in order to obtain expression effects. the artist is determined to render the particularity of the experienced emotion, the individual character and not the shape of things. he/she perceives reality through the lens of his/her sensibility, being deeply attached to the subjective emotion. the beautiful is no longer justified by reason, but by feeling. reason becomes one of the soul’s faculties controlled by passionateness. this category comprises styles such as: the gothic, the mannerism, the baroque, the rococo, the romanticism, the expressionism, the metaphysical or surrealist painting, the neo-gothic, the non-figurative expressionism or the action painting etc. . lucian blaga preserving the same ternary classification, lucian blaga ( - ) introduces other formative values around which the art’s tendencies are cantered: the individual, the typical and the absolute. to a certain extent, these notions reiterate the classification made by max deri, but the perspective is much ampler and covers a large scope. the individual corresponds to the unique manner through which the human person perceives the world at a given moment. the existentialist philosophy of the beginning of the th century recovers precisely this type of attitude. lucian blaga associates the individual to leibniz’s philosophy focused on the construction of some entities which make the world, called monads, quasi similar but never identical. these represent the unique shape that our sensibility puts on, a sensibility characterized by the ineffable and because of this impossible to be rendered into words or transmitted identically. the individual becomes somehow similar to the expressionist attitude from max deri’s classification while in romanticism it associates with the characteristic or the particular. the typical identifies with the archetype, with the platonist idea, with the ideal which gains formative properties in configuring human conscience. the typical runs away from the accidental aspect of things in order to embrace the essential or the pure idea. the greek philosophy created it and artists of all ages have periodically pondered upon it. the belief was that if one succeeded in discovering the canon, then the idea of beautiful could have perfused the work of art when it was complied with. but this canon, although an abstract, rational construction, came out of the practical experience after having compared thousands of models from which it was subsequently extracted. the euclidian geometry played an important part here. these formative aspirations, as lucian blaga calls them, describe the existing model of the society as well. if the individual breaks its coherence, the typical was a call for unity and harmonization of principles and, respectively, of the individuals. the typical overlaps max deri’s idealism. the absolute dissolves the human will, removes any impulse towards creativity, towards the exertion of human personality possessed by the capacity to imagine, to invent, to discover new forms of expression. it despotically limits the human freedom in order to give humans another kind of freedom, the freedom of grace, of autonomous gabriel bulancea / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – consciousness. the absolute is the most difficult to define and the least similar to max deri’s category. the absolute typically presupposes the overcoming of the intellectual preoccupations. starting from the individual and going through the rationalistic abstractions, lucian blaga considers dogma as the terminus point of the human spirit’s saga. it surpasses the intellectual powers of the isolated man, having a super individual nature. from this point of view, the category of the absolute becomes the image of max deri’s naturalistic attitude only to the extent to which it represses the creative freedom and recommends docility in complying with the dogma or nature as max deri foresaw. the personality, the individual, its particular manifestation has no value; what is important is the alignment of the consciousnesses with the absolute, the conformity of the individuals and the achieving of the unity of the collectivity to which he/she belongs to, as a symbol of spiritual unity. . gilbert durand gilbert durand ( - ) approaches the issue in a similar manner grouping the tendencies in art around three pseudo metaphors, called this way by him after borrowing some images from the greek mythology: zeuxis’ mirror, pygmalion’s mirror and narcissus’ mirror. these metaphors catch the complexity of stylistic amalgamations and distillations, engaged in a permanent game of reflexes which, at a certain point, can reflect, within the same stylistic area, the various facets taken by art. it is the most detailed stylistic analysis which divulges in the framework of the history of styles the mixture, the twists and transmigrations of the three mirrors. zeuxis’ mirror represents the metaphor of naturalism. he chooses zeuxis because he was an ancient greek painter whose paintings were so realistic that the birds used to come and peck the grapes depicted on his canvas. gilbert durand speaks about a realistic nature or the western art of all times where the beautiful conceived under the light of positivism, seriousness and the purity of truth has priority over beauty’s charm, contingency and subversiveness. and here he is recalling numberless european stylistic instances starting from the greek and roman antiquity till the impressionism of the th century, all being hovered by the zeuxis’ mirror, whose privileged locus seems to be the franco-burgundian one. pygmalion’s mirror signifies the soul which represents itself, which seeks fulfilment in creation, which shares the hope of a resurrection of the self, which violently tears itself away from the self in order to induce movement into the inert matter of the art. it searches for the expression, identifies itself with the creative impulse, with that tension that will pull it out of immobility, out of non-creative inertia. being the opposite of the first, pygmalion’s mirror is looking for the passions, the feelings, the emotional depths of the soul, its wishes and aspirations, and it exalts whenever the imitation of what is human is identified in nature. humanistic realism identifies with the intention of reproducing the human nature as faithfully as possible. thus, the two mirror already mentioned are separated by a very thin border where one is facing the exterior, the other is facing the interior; one is searching for the light, the other is searching for the shadow; one proves to be synthetic, the other mystical. pygmalion’s mirror finds its privileged locus in the northern german sensibility and in any form of mysticism, because “the focus of the germanic art is always the expression of the soul through mimics going as far as the tension of the grimace, the contortion, sometimes caricatural, of the bodies, gestures, situations. the torments of passion or melancholy, the uncertainties of faith, the temptations of the devils or of the nibelungs, the burden of the sin of being here, dasein, in the world, confers germanic sensibility that durable seal of the pathetic.” narcissus’ mirror finds its correspondent in the soul seduced by its own rational image. it lets itself spelled and numbed by the contemplation of its essence, by the blurred perspective of the ideal. we do not know who we are in reality, the reason being the one which, underneath the plane surface of the water, reveals from the depth of the sub - conscious our ethereal image. but this mirror that gilbert durand talked about refers to a far more important aspect, that of the human propensity to the ornamental, to the ludic exercises of the imagination. the formalist impulse related to the revealing of an esthetical attitude in art, which evokes the mere indulgement in combining lines, volumes, colours, turns this aspect into a game of virtuosity of the imaginary. . herbert read herbert read ( - ) reflects a similar opinion: “as far as i believe, maybe there is nothing else but these three fundamental approaches – the realism, the idealism and the expressionism. the realistic approach needs no gabriel bulancea / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – explanation; it is, in plastic arts, the effort of representing the world exactly as it presents itself to our senses, without attenuations, without omissions, without counterfeits of any kind. the fact that such an effort is not as simple as it might seem is proven by a movement such as the impressionism, which questioned the scientific bases of the normal or conventional vision and strived to be more and more exact in mirroring nature. idealism, probably the most employed manner of representation in arts, starts from the basis of the realist vision but deliberately chooses and removes some of the multitude of facts. according to the classic definition given by reynolds, «in the art of painting there are qualities that go beyond what is commonly called the imitation of nature ... all arts reach perfection due to an ideal beauty, superior to anything that could be found in the concrete nature». he eye of the artist, he says in the same discurs (the third), «being endowed with the gift of distinguishing, within the general aspect of things, those accidental defects, the excrescences and deformities, of extracting, as far as their shape is concerned, an abstract idea which is far better than any individual object.» idealism, as it will be further seen, starts from an intellectual basis; reynolds realizes that precisely this intellectual dignity, by itself, separates the artist from the simple craftsman. realism, we might say, is based on senses; it records what the senses perceive as faithfully as possible. but the human psychic also comprises another sector that we call the emotional and it is precisely the emotions that the other fundamental type of art correspo nds to. expressionism is the art that tries to depict neither the objective facts of nature, nor some abstract notion based on these facts, but the subjective feelings of the artist. as a method, it should be as entitled as the other two and in various times and in various countries it was most common and the most unanimously accepted form of art.” expressing such an opinion, he aligns himself to the three visions mentioned above. the world, as we perceive it, is mediated by the senses, the intellect and feelings, without the possibility of sacrificing any of these facets. it is a reflection whose image represents a synthesis of the three channels by means of which we access the world. the senses connect us to the physical universe; therefore they belong to the physiological, to the activity of our body, while the others are the sensors which detect mainly the activity of the human soul, invisible somehow for the first category. what is also interesting is the fact that for herbert read “the different styles that were predominant from the last quarter of the th century till the first quarter of the th century were essentially derivations, matters of culture and education rather than the appearance of an authentic spiritual form.” such an approach strengthens his conception which analyses style from the perspective of the domination of the typological vision over the historic one. from this point of view, the one who best seizes the relationship between the creator and the world is gilbert durand who suggests a symbolic terminology meant to enrich, by significance, the concealed nature of concepts. he does speak of a magnifying glass or lens, but of a mirror, an object which through its symbolism refers to the searching for the truth, to the secret corners of the heart or to the discovery of the surrounding universe. it is not accidental that he speaks of a mirror since the unveiling of its content always presupposes a narration more or less evident of the self. it depends on the angle from which we look into the mirror. time determines the shape of the tumultuous spirit the same way a torrent of lava is shaped by the ford it flows through. the spirit digs into the granite limits of the temporal dimension in order to escape form its embrace and to win the freedom which can be translated into the supreme lucidity towards itself. in doing so, invading the territories outside the ford, the spirit will fecundate currents, will influence new tendencies, and will create new channels which will engrave a new paradigm on the destiny of humanity. . adrian marino and romul munteanu adrian marino ( - ) underlines the existence of an “ancient classicism and romanticism, a medieval one, a renaissance one, etc. it results that the entire history of literature would limit to only two, at most three stereotypical, recurrent, permanent currents (including the baroque).” as a matter of fact, romul munteanu ( - ) is also tempted to admit the existence of two stylistic types marking the entire evolution of styles. “both literature, and the aesthetic thinking of the age highlight two different types of sensibility, one classical in nature, situated under the sign of reason, equilibrium and geometrical spirit, other stimulated by the free fantasy, state of dreaming, expansion of affectivity and the artifice generated by the anti- mimetic spirit, inclined towards asymmetry or saturated forms of expression.” in conclusion, the analysis above would generate the following correspondences among the typologies mentioned gabriel bulancea / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – so far: table equivalence max deri lucian blaga gilbert durand herbert read adrian marino naturalism the absolute zeuxis’s mirror realism the baroque idealism the typical narcissus’ mirror idealism the classic expressionist attitude the individual pygmalion’s mirror expressionism the romantic of course, the authors discussed here are not the only ones mentioning the existence of such stylistic types, not even by far. searching through the archive of a history of art histories i have often come across references about these ahistoric structures which the vast majority of historians are aware of. the present study pays extra attention to this set of problems regarding style seen as a kind of archetype which populates the super-individual consciousness of a culture, together with a subsequence of patterns which, according to circumstances, mark the history of western culture. references vianu, tudor ( ), aesthetics, orizonturi publishing, bucurești. durand, gilbert ( ), arts and archetypes – religion art, meridiane publishing, bucurești. read, herbert ( ), the meaning of art, meridiane publishing, bucurești. marino, adrian ( ), dictionary of literary ideas, eminescu publishing, bucurești. munteanu, romul ( ), classicism and baroque, allfa publishing, bucurești. alan m. gillmor. erik satie. boston: twayne publishers, . xxvi. pp. all rights reserved © canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : canadian university music review revue de musique des universités canadiennes alan m. gillmor. erik satie. boston: twayne publishers, . xxvi. pp. alan lessem volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu lessem, a. ( ). compte rendu de [alan m. gillmor. erik satie. boston: twayne publishers, . xxvi. pp.] canadian university music review / revue de musique des universités canadiennes, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ -v -n -cumr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ reviews/comptes rendus alan m. gillmor. eric satie. boston: twayne publishers, . xxvi. pp. we have long awaited a comprehensive study, in english, of the composer erik satie, and can now be especially pleased to see it appear from the pen of alan gillmor, who through his earlier doctoral research and published articles emerged as an authority on the subject. from start to finish, the book strikes an ideal balance between biography, musical description and critical evaluation. it is a pleasure to read for other reasons too: professor gillmor is that rarity among academics who, while in full command of all that it takes to do scholarly research, is also able to write with finesse, wit and charm. the author takes us chronologically through the composer's life and works. while considerable attention is given to lesser compositions, about which we receive valuable new information, the core of the book is to be found in the chapters which examine, in detail, major works such as the piano suites, parade and socrate. from the beginning satie is presented as the "quintessential modernist" who turned his back on much of the musical legacy, felt only con- tempt for those institutions and practices of his day which perpetuated that past, and resisted the tide of french wagnerism. in composing he preferred, above all, to use a kind of shock tactic, elevating the banal and already-too- familiar to the status of high art, that being all mixed up with a rather private brand of whimsical irony which led him ultimately to a kind of music you weren't meant to listen to anyway. gillmor is anxious to show that the funda- mental intent was to breathe fresh air into fin-de-siècle decadence, and by and large he succeeds. with satie, "the passion for destruction is also a creative passion" (p. ), indeed a celebration, all over again, of life itself. the sources of satie's style are shown to lie as much in his resistance to pre- vailing trends and "official" culture as anything else. there was an early immersion in a kind of nationalistic neo-medievalism, together with a pseudo- mysticism deriving from the rosicrucians, and perhaps a more healthy admi- ration for chabrier. the real inspiration, however, was found in childhood things, and in what he heard around him in the streets and cafés of paris, with only the occasional idiosyncratic nod towards the "classics". as gillmor notes, he was more drawn to poets and painters of his time, and what they stood for, than musicians. a chapter entitled "montmartre and the chat noir" provides a succinct and lively description of satie's social and cultural milieu. one is left wondering, however, whether french musical traditions were not more impor- tant to the subject than gillmor allows. long-spun, smoothly contoured mel- odies, modally inflected harmonies and a tendency toward loose metrical organization are just some of the stylistic features which satie surely shares with musical predecessors. more particularly, ways of handling musical declamation in works like socrate surely connect to long-standing french practice. of course, it was the composer's iconoclasm which, in the end, made him what he was, and the persistent nay-saying also manifested itself in some quite nasty personality traits: misanthropy, xenophobia, self-aggrandizement and constant posturing. we learn about his laziness and inability to learn, or apply, the essentials of compositional craft. (one may well ask to what degree his in- difference to the musical past was not due to his incapacity to absorb it). but it is just here that gillmor presents an interesting thesis: satie "almost miracu- lously transformed his alleged technical incapacities into a virtue/' thus "clear- ing the stage for a truly contemporary aesthetic" (p. x). that thesis is essential to the argument that the music cannot be examined or evaluated by traditional criteria, but requires instead its own analytical and critical framework. for the purpose, the author does not attempt to venture any new-fangled theory or method, but simply attends closely to what seems to matter in the music, de- scribing significant stylistic features in readable prose. as a frame of reference, he uses more general ideas and concepts which are not always fully enough de- fined or worked out. thus early in the book satie is said to have achieved (with ives) a "unique coalescence of traditionally antagonistic idioms that opens a path to the future..." (p. ), but it doesn't ever become clear just how that "coalescence" is accomplished in either a technical or aesthetic sense. again, an important element of the music is seen to lie in its "negation of the temporality characteristic of tonal music" (p. ), leading gillmor to use spatial metaphors (drawn, for example, from the vocabulary of cubism) as the more appropriate descriptive means. surely, however, for music of any kind there must be motion somewhere, even if not teleological like the traveller headed for home. thus the challenge for the analyst of music such as satie's is to come up with terms that can adequately convey just how it does move in time — the quality of that motion. the book is illuminating in making its technical points together with obser- vations on what is being expressed by the music. for example, we learn about the block-like construction of parade, its "geometric shapes and interesting cubistic complexes" (p. ), and are told too about its "air of pessimism and bitterness" (p. ). we are not, however, told about the nature of the link between technique and expression, or indeed if there is any link at all. granted, the whole satie phenomenon being as essentially ambiguous as it is, there will always be difficulty in characterizing it with any degree of completeness. what one has to watch out for is a particular kind of complexity, in the man himself as much as the music, which is likely to lay traps even for the wary. when, after discussing the musique d'ameublement, the author states that "in a very real sense all the composer's music might be considered 'furniture music"' (p. ), then we know we are in one of these traps. for the truth of the statement (if it is true) can only be paradoxical; we are dealing here with music which, as satie insisted, isn't meant to be taken seriously at all. if what is really at issue here is a kind of minimal composition (we are shown, for instance, how little inclined satie is to rework his musical source materials), then analysis as such will certainly count for less than a full description of contextual elements: musical, literary, cultural and philosophical too. and it is in this kind of de- scription that the book shows real strength. throughout, emphasis is placed on satie's historical importance for twentieth- century music as a whole; he is considered a precursor and a seminal influence (in regard to the youth culture of the sixties, he is described as a "protohippie"). gillmor does not worry too much about the question of his- torical versus critical interpretation, one that has lately been on the minds of several leading musicologists in north america and abroad. in the case of satie, it could possibly be argued that the historical influence was greater, in the long run, than the music's instrinsic worth. considering his importance for by now several generations of french and american composers in particular, not to mention pop musicians and the music industry at large, there is still much to be done in sorting out the reception of the music and its underlying ideas. gillmor cannot be faulted for making only a few closing observations in that regard, since his central purpose is to provide a critical study of the music itself, seen in its full context. and with this, the book, thoroughly researched and intelligently organized as it is, does a very good job. all satie research to come will use it as a valuable resource, indeed an indispensable point of departure. it comes with an extensive bibliography, catalog of musical works, and discography. alan lessem arturo penÔn et javier garcÎa mÉndez. le bandonéon depuis le tango, montréal, les Éditions du coatl, (réimpression : montréal, vlb éditeur, ), p. en français et p. en espagnol. le bandonéon depuis le tango raconte la longue vie d'un instrument qui est toujours animé du même souffle. ce récit, évoquant odeurs, couleurs et senti- ments, nous présente le bandonéon comme un personnage typique et unique de la vie portuaire de buenos aires. dans ce récit-biographie, le bandonéon — comme l'homme au sein de la société — vit des moments de fusion et de confusion lors de son équipée argentine. sa naissance obscure en allemagne et les nombreuses controverses qu'il a soulevées, son arrivée discrète à buenos aires, sa popularité croissante en milieu ouvrier, ses années de gloire avec les plus grands musiciens, compositeurs, arrangeurs et interprètes, ses tournées dans le monde et, enfin, ses moments plus solitaires sont racontés par arturo penôn et javier garcia méndez. le premier, musicien interprète argentin réputé, l'a transporté et caressé pendant ces cinquante dernières années; l'autre, critique littéraire uruguayen bien connu, l'a admiré et écouté d'aussi loin qu'il puisse se souvenir. tekstilna industrija - .indd tekstilna industrija · broj · fashion during the th century post-war periods marija kertakova *, sonja jordeva , kiro mojsov technological and technical faculty, university goce delcev stip, krste misirkov b.b., republic nort of macedonia * e-mail: marija.kertakova@ugd.edu.mk abstract: th century war and post-war periods are a particularly specifi c time lines that have a dramatic eff ect on the development of fashion. in the post-war period, the problem of fashion appearance took a back seat. this fact, which aff ects both sexes equally, is perceived relatively quietly by men but not by women. as al- ways, there are two trends – attraction and repulsion. the fi rst involves the use of military elements in a civilian costume. the second tendency is to create a line that will allow people to shake off as soon as possible the night- marish memories of the war. the new social ideal of beauty is based on the clear construction and appropriate- ness of the garment, but it already feels the ebb and fl ow of the principle of military production – „cheap and easy”. the new fashion bows to the elements left behind by cubism and constructivism – rigor, clarity, linearity, volume reduction – after the first and – convenience, combination of the incompatible, kaleidoscope of colors, fabrics and forms – after the second world war. after the end of the two world wars, the military and pre-war infl uences were almost forgotten. new generations live their full-blooded lives and are interested in fashionable clothing, and here come the fi rst fashion trends related to youth counterculture. the breakthrough of women in the business world and the trace for emancipation imposes from military emelents, ladies‘ fashion, to begin to shift towards masculine ones. a new wave of segregation and a special attitude towards a brand new women‘s business clothing begins. keywords: th century war and post-war periods, militar elements in a civilian costume, new fashion lines, new generations, youth counterculture, women‘s business clothing. moda tokom posleratnog perioda . veka apstrakt: ratna i posleratna razdoblja . veka naročito su specifi čna razdoblja koja dramatično utiču na razvoj mode. u posleratnom periodu problem modnog izgleda je ostavljen po strani. ovu činjenicu, koja po- djednako utiče na oba pola, muškarci relativno mirno doživljavaju, ali ne i žene. kao i uvek, postoje dva trenda – privlačnost i odbojnost. prvi uključuje upotrebu militarnih elemenata u civilnom odelu. druga tendencija je stvaranje linije koja će ljudima omogućiti da se što pre oslobode nemilih uspomena na rat. novi društveni ideal lepote zasnovan je na jasnoj konstrukciji i prikladnosti odeće, ali već se oseća postepeno slabljenje i protok prin- cipa vojne proizvodnje – „jeftino i lako”. nova moda nadovezuje se na elemente koji su ostali nakon kubizma i konstruktivizma - strogost, jasnoća, linearnost, smanjenje obima – posle prvog i – praktičnost, kombinacija nekompatibilnog, kaleidoskop boja, tkanina i oblika – posle drugog svetskog rata. po završetku dva svetska rata, vojni i predratni uticaji skoro su zaboravljeni. nove generacije žive svoje živote punim plućima i zanima ih moderna odeća a pojavljuju se i prvi modni trendovi vezani za kontrakulturu mladih. proboj žena u poslovnom svetu i trag emancipacije nameće prelazak sa vojnih elemenata, preko ženske mode, ka muškim elementima. započinje novi talas segregacije i stvara se poseban odnos prema potpuno novoj ženskoj poslovnoj odeći. ključne reči: ratni i posleratni periodi . veka, militarni elementi u civilnom kostimu, nove modne linije, nove generacije, kontrakultura mladih, ženska poslovna odeća. professional paper udc: . / .” ” doi: . /tekstind k tekstilna industrija · broj · . introduction: in the twentieth century, wars and revolutions not only did not cease, but they also had a tremendous in- fl uence on the entire socio-cultural life – in this sense including fashion. the two world wars are the begin- ning of a whole new, radically changed social relation- ship and outlook on life, which set off not the search for the ideal, but make it possible for the personal pursuits and achievements of fashion designers to become ide- al. military action, new social disadvantages lead to the rationalization of clothing, which becomes simply eco- nomical and functional (rather than purely aesthetic). the woman begins to play an important role, which results with a change in the very perception of herself as a “woman” – from amusing matron, she transforms herself into an androgenic „boy-ish” vision, a fi ghter who, equally with men, knows how to move with ef- fort on the front, be a nurse or work typically male jobs. all this causes her to break away from th century tra- ditions and to start dressing simpler, more functional, freed from any possible trinkets and curls [ ]. solving the dilemma of appearance, abandoning artifi cial sup- port structures for the garment leads to a rethinking for the role of the length of the lady‘s dress, which trans- forms into a unifi ed, ubiquitous garment that loses its femininity and approaches masculinity and pivotal ap- pearance. the diff erence between men’s and women’s clothing reaches the edge of the most basic anthropo- logical diff erences. the diff erence between male and female origins in youth fashion on the other hand, is almost lost to create diff erent types of clothing that meet the re- quirements of youth fashion culture – so-called „teen- age” fashion. they are indeed becoming a booming branch of industry, and their mass is the subject of various social sciences that seek to explore fashion as a complex human phenomenon, aimed at meeting the basic needs of citizens, which, in addition to its utilitarian functions, is beginning to fulfi ll many oth- ers that have a decisive infl uence. the most signifi cant is the revolution of the pants in the women’s fashion – they are making their way and remain permanently in it during the second half of the twentieth century. the revolutionary views of leading fashion designers, backed by technology and the midst of fashion hous- es in europe, are creating the conditions for more and more democratization, but for special occasions, the custom of retaining the importance of emphasizing the wearing of garments created in past eras remains. to a large extent, what one wears on a daily basis re- mains either eclectic or unifi ed by denim clothing, but when one wants to be contemporary and fashionably dressed, there are generally no obstacles to do so. a women’s airforce service pilots fl ight team walks from the “pistol packin’ mama.” ( ) (photo courtesy/wasp museum) . fashion during the first post-war period: a particularly specifi c period in the development of fashion is the time between the two world wars, which lasts from to . it is distinguished by the fact that in post-war development the problem of fashion appearance goes on second plan (passes in the background). this fact, which aff ects both sex- es equally, is perceived relatively calmly by men, but not by women. rule as always two trends – attraction and repulsion. the fi rst involves the use of military elements in the civil suit, which occurs mostly in the upper cut of clothes. the second tendency is to cre- ate such a line that allows people to shake as soon as possible from the nightmares of the war. moreover, the post-war recovery is proceeding at a rapid pace. there are conditions that are conducive to the entry of young talents born early in the century. they were too young to learn directly from the old coryphae- us or to have notions of pre-war fashion. this allows them to dedicate their talents to fashion with new strength and fresh eye. the other circumstance is that the chemical industry, strongly developed during the war years, is now successfully diversifi ed for the needs of civilian life by producing artifi cial fabrics, replacing silk. the technology allows mass production, includ- ing large-scale production of ready-made clothing, by analogy with sewing a military uniform conveyor. seeing the results achieved during war with the help of the technique, the man continues to bow be- fore the technical power after the last bursts of war. the rigid geometric lines of the technical equipment tekstilna industrija · broj · are perceived not only by the art of constructivists, but also by the designers of women’s clothing. the new public ideal of beauty is based on the clear struc- ture and adequacy of the garment, but already feels retreat from the principle of military production – „cheap and easy”. under laconic forms and deceptive simplicity of functionality is emerging а new attitude towards the results of the intensifi ed searches of fash- ion designers during this period. and they are focused on the trail left by cubism and constructivism – rigor, clarity, linearity, diminishing volume [ ]. war brings another important change in the rela- tionship between men and women – they are becom- ing colleagues at work, labor side by side not only in offi ces but also in workshops and here we must seek the proto-form of feminization of many professions, the result of which we see very clearly today (figure - ). figure : women in trousers were а shocking but common sight during both war periods figure : brave women fi ght hand by hand with men during first world war figure : during the war, women had no choice but to take the place of their husbands in factories figure : working women during first world war figure : ambulance drivers in their shrapnel helmets for duty during air raids tekstilna industrija · broj · the woman from sultry matron and adored lady patronesa turns into a boy – a reminiscence of the war hat gave rise to this bizarre image: thin, very alive and mobile, with long arms, narrow hips and fl at chest with fashion lighted cigarettes, short hairstyle (called again as in the war – a „typhus boy” and in the west, called „babybike”) and yet with bright, almost defi ant, make-up; with lips that are red in the shape of a heart, she is some sort of „bifocal” combination of an inexpe- rienced adolescent and an experienced woman (fig. - ). the brightest visible expression of this ideal is the famous twin sisters dolly (fig. ). figure : dolly twin sisters figure : coat-dress – see fi gure one figure - : working women during first world war with implemented military emelenst in their clothes figure : the tendency of military elements implemented into everyday clothing was mutual for both war periods tekstilna industrija · broj · for the shaping of the business ladies’ suit at that time, dimitrova-popska [ ] noted the following: „the length of the jacket to the skirts is : . it is very important ... to observe the curved line of the jacket at the bottom with high-fastening enlarged lapel and straight skirts emphasizing the rectangular elongated shape of the sil- houette. during this period we also fi nd suits with asym- metrical fastening”. she also recommends that when developing modern fashion collections that are the- matically designed for everyday business suits, „... cos- tumes from to can be used. during this period there are various shaped jackets – from loose to tightly with shoulder seams, tailor-made with elongated lapel, fastened with several buttons. the sacks are of diff erent length – long to the hips or shortened to the waist with two-fold fastening” [ ]. unlike the crinoline and bustle era, where the anchor points of the garment are two – shoulder belt as a natural support and crinoline, fi rm- ly attached around the waist and serving as a second fulcrum, with their removal remains only support for the shoulders. this is why the dresses look like long ladies shirts (figure ). during this period, problems of constructive character appeared – to bring out the plastic image of the suit without additional support. this causes the drapings to reappear, but asymmet- ric patterns are applied to overcome their uniformity. with extreme sharpness, this problem lies in the fash- ion line, shaped by a short dress and a short haircut. here comes the lady’s „clotche” hat and its varieties (figure ). parisian modelers are well off this new range of problems, putting the issue of creating the women’s costume ensemble fi rst, which will be the main prob- lem throughout the th century, to all fashion design- ers without exception. over the course of thе period, the fi rst attempts to solve this problem are made, as the design strategy is reduced to the following: ( ) striving to create a common color harmony; ( ) a rhythmic distribution of one color perceived as a leading one (most often it is declared as the fashion color of the season), which is im- plicated both in the main area of the garment and in the accessories (bag, scarf, gloves, hat, rarely jewelry from precious stones and pre- cious metals); ( ) a rigorous internal coherence between the shape and a line, and each designer takes only one of them as a leading role, while the remaining elements are subordinate. and if the realization of the fi rst two points of the strategy is relatively easy, the realization of the rd point becomes quite diffi cult, because the problems at that time accumulate avalanche – new social rela- tions, new forms of work and leisure, a new pace of life and the search for ideal radically diff erent from the previous. this requires complex design thinking and work, and old prewar designers not only do not realize the problems but cannot even give intuitive solutions. a successful invention in this respect was the established in coat-dress (figure ). from this point on, the analysis of fashion will take place on problematic nuclei in view of how the designing of the artistic ensemble in the ladies’ suit is being solved by the leading designers in diff erent years. an important circumstance here is that in the periods we have seen so far, public forces who are neither artists nor modelers have made the ideal. the work of designers is to wear this ideal in astonishing forms so that it is understandable, and the work of the mass media is to impose and retain this image for a certain time. industry that deals with fashion, manufactures and sells fashion items is particularly interested in this. figure : greta garbo wearing „clotche” hat tekstilna industrija · broj · figure : spring fashion in easter, washington, d.c., . fashion during the second post-war period: after world war ii the situation changes. fashion designers and the mass media have felt their domi- nance and have developed techniques to eff ect soci- ety by infl uencing the leaders of public opinion. the ideal is no longer sought, but it is necessary - the fash- ion line and the fashion design are made by the crea- tion of units - the most gifted, the most charismatic. it is they, the fashion designers imposed over the years, who we have to analyze. initially we will focus on the transition period in the s, which is a bridge between the two halves of the century. although both military confl icts have a revolutionary impact on fashion and accelerate its democratization, there are also signifi cant diff erences that aff ect fashion. if during world war i women just occupy the place of the men killed on the front, they are wartime and not only doctors and nurses, but also active participants during the second world war. in the winning countries, women are also war heroes, like men, embraced by the hall of fame that will be preserved until the early s. therefore, we can eas- ily explain the infl uence of the military line of clothing during these years. the fi rst thing that strikes at criti- cal analysis is that it keeps the silhouette with broad shoulders and a narrow waist (figure – last model). the stability of the silhouette with a pointed shoulder strap, shaped with special padding of ap- parel wool, was also very convenient for the garment manufacturers – so-sewn costumes can be worn with- out adjustments. the rapid development of europe’s industry (the infl uence of the marshall plan) leads both to generational change – post-war generations search for the new silhouette and fi nd it in three basic confi gurations – a right elongated rectangle, a trian- gle placed vertically down on a rectangle, and two tri- angles with intersecting peaks. refl ections of military suits are also felt in many details - external pockets with lids, wide waistbands or belts, buckles directly descended from military conveyors, cuff s both on the sleeves and at the bottom hems. the tendency is for these „masculinizing” details to be gradually replaced with typical ladies – lace collars, various in design and frog fabrics, ribbons and strips. the hairstyle retains its importance – this decade has a struggle between the hat and the hairstyle, which ends with the victory of the open hair for the ready-made fashion and that is why the hairstyle becomes so important here. howev- er, the hat is reserved for collections of high fashion. due to the fact that the dress is shorter, the shoes and socks play a signifi cant role in the visible appearance. they are no longer a hidden element, but one that designers will pay great attention to – both shape and color. it is needed to combine several fabrics and colors in one article. there is also the question of combining and har- monizing diff erent parts of the costume – the hat, the top of the garment (blouse, jacket, bustier) lower part (skirt or part of the dress), socks and shoes. this not only complicates the task but also becomes a fi eld for designers’ experiments in the post-war peri- od and until the end of the th century. initially, the designers of the s launched the ideal of a young woman, actively engaged in sports, dressed in mid-or figure : wide leg pants and blouse, overalls with blouse, tapered pants and blouse, and coveralls with optioned tapered leg cuff tekstilna industrija · broj · low-heeled shoes, short cut (mostly hair-to-shoulder, falling in broad curls) with a bag over her shoulder. but the impact of wartime is felt not only in women’s daily but also in the evening dresses. as a rule, they have very small closed necklines, as well as variants with narrow, sleeve-shaped long sleeves. there is an- other novelty – evening outfi ts in two parts – a long black skirt combined with a blouse. another factor that signifi cantly aff ects clothing is the wider use of synthetic fabrics. it turns out that synthetics is not only the beginning of a new fashion „language” but also requires new cutting skills be- cause it imposes simple (not to say – elementary) pat- terns with a minimum amount of stitches on them. to compensate, new fabrics have unseen until that time texture, as well as new and varied colors. the tensile strength of the new synthetic fi bers makes it possible to produce extremely thin ladies socks, and the age of the s provides ladies with something really prac- tical and useful – the pantyhose [ ], coming down from the stage and permanently housed in everyday lifestyle. since the end of world war ii until the mid s the idea of ensemble suit makes its way and es- tablished itself in the fashion of the twentieth century. the question of compatibility is also on the agenda because of the new aesthetic concepts of beauty, which are particularly problematic in the periodicals about clothing fashion in the s and s. mil- itary and pre-war infl uences are almost forgotten. the new generations live their full-blown life and are interested in fashion clothing, and here are the fi rst trends of fashion related to youth counter-culture – „les incroyables” /the incredibles/ and „merveille- uses” /marvelous/, as if „sleeping” century and a half, fi nd themselves in the fashion fi rst of the hippies and their imitators, and then into the numerous branch- es of youth fashion with their principles – combining the unmatched, kaleidoscope of colors, fabrics and shapes (figure ). the explanation of this phenome- non can be found in the culture of the protest, which borrows ideas from the images of the grotesque. on the one hand, it must be scandalous-looking to pay attention – to show that society has problems that need solutions. the explanation is that the original is always some extreme, as the standard here is the core. there should be a narrow distinction between the original and the extravagant. it is in that while the original retains the connection with the core and the nucleus by making new deviations around them, the extravagant one, so to speak, tries to break its umbil- ical cord with the core, to have nothing to do with it, that is, read in it some super novelty, which according to freud’s followers is explained by the „eruption of deep libidinal energies”. here we can specify all the variations of hippy and teen fashion. if for high fashion the scene of display figure . women’s jeans figure . s teenagers tekstilna industrija · broj · is the fashion defi le, then for the counterculture scene is the street – hence the name street fashion. it is the general principles of expressing the protest and gaining it a visible image that is the foundation that unites the otherwise far-fl edged fashion images from the time of the french revolution to the times of youth riots and protests against war that have spread both in amer- ica and in europe. the rebellion, however, also has its market price - after it is shown on the pages of the printed publications, its tam- ing begins. the principle is that it is a „rule” from a „mistake” and from here there is a step from the fash- ion of the protest to the fashion of conformism and that is the mass sale. there appear shops that sell such fashion, as well as „one-day” de- signers who work hard in this style until it fades. today the incredibles, marvelous and hippies seem equally ridiculous against the yuppies. the fashion industry never lost – it’s always profi ted from youth fashion in the s, especially because then the young (the teenagers – see figure ) are its main users. another factor that indirectly contributes to this is that wom- en’s emancipation then grows extremely – women are no longer so fanatical and do not regard such a tribute to fashion as the youth. another trend that aff ects fash- ion is working time regulation – a massive eight-hour business day and a fi ve-day work week with a two-day rest are being massively introduced into the civilized world. there is an opportunity for sports and tourism and this is no longer the case for individual rich clubs, but for broad sections of the pop- ulation, including the upper layers of the middle bourgeoisie. it is the sports suit that originally is the area where the masculine and feminin- ity are converging together and sublimate in the suit. the scarves (essentially trou- sers) off ered by poire and greeted by his contemporaries with a scandal have evolved and turned into comfortable ladies’ pants and imagine (!) even jeans that women already wear not only at home and when they are doing sports, but also walk- ing with them at work. in this way, the sport and tour- ist clothes enter the everyday life and pave the way for the sport line in the rest of the fashion area. particular- ly important for this is the designer luis dell‘olio, born in , who, together with donna karen, develops original sportswear styles, turning them as o‘hara [ ] says into „modern and comfortable clothes with a clean line” and thus opens the way to many other designers (figure , ). figure . s business clothing figure . s hippie fashion tekstilna industrija · broj · the second breakthrough in children’s fashion. while in the fi rst half of the century it is strictly dis- tinct, but still a work of individual designers, children’s fashion is becoming the subject of well-developed marketing research, powerful factory production and wholesale. in the united states, the fi rst specialized children’s and baby clothes stores are set up to meet the needs of the baby boomers that are soon to be transported across the ocean – originally in london, then in paris and then across europe. the men’s cos- tume and shape is already established and becomes almost constant, but even though it is timidly begin- ning to change, the most noticeable are the use of colored fabrics. if, in the s, the replacement of black with brown is considered a courageous step, now, mainly youth, begins to wear green, blue-green and light blue men’s jackets and trousers. this leads to the next, avalanche-like changes in fashion. the third breakthrough is diff erentiation and spe- cial treatment for business clothing, a trend that clearly emerges in the early s when more and more wom- en occupy well-paid jobs – previously a privilege of men only. this fact places women’s business clothing as an essential part of the fashionable landscape without, of course, being designed solely for women. according to o’hara [ ]: „it is made up of tailor-made suits – skirts and jackets, often made of fi ne striped fabric combined with a men’s shirt and tie or with a blouse and a bow tie or a silk scarf tied around the neck. bleaches are becoming popular in both daily and evening wear. it is worn both narrow and wide skirts or trousers” (figure ). in spite of all, the main problem of the post-war decades remains – to fi nd the complete balance be- tween volume and line in the women’s ensemble. var- iants are possible – line overhang or volume predom- inance, but this often leads to temporary and unsus- tainable decisions. we will immediately analyze the most complicated case – the issue of partial refusal, but with a tendency to balance. a wonderful exam- ple of this gives us the use of the surrealist painter’s ideas made in painting, and then with creative „deep” processing, transferring these artistic and picturesque ideas in the design of the ladies’ costume. a very typ- ical example of this is the transfer of surrealistic prac- tices as an attempt to fi nd the balance in solving the dilemma „line – volume” in ladies’ costume. . conclusion thanks to the immense historic momentum and good masters, as well as the creative conditions, france remains a lawmaker in high fashion, but the emphasis is now shifting to america, which relies on the huge mass production and the advertising indus- try as well. people who will be infl uential today are born in the s, but for the time being, there are still no names to darken the glory of their predecessors. the „loophole / volume” dilemma due to the fact that there is no defi nitive once-and-for-all solution, awaits the individual bright and memorable personal deci- sions that future designers will apply, relying on both the implication in fashion and the solutions proposed by their predecessors. references: [ ] kertakova, m. ( ). analiza rada jednih od na- jeminentnijih modnih kreatora koji su radili u prvoj polovini . veka - Žak duce, pol poare, madeline vionet, mariano fortuni i madrazo i Žana paken. tekstilna industrija, ( ), - [ ] as an example, the successful collaboration be- tween prominent french artists and designers of ladies fashion can be mentioned. a very prominent example of such cooperation is picasso’s work, who creates the damasks of chanel’s fabrics, and the col- laboration between salvador dali and elsa schiapa- relli. [ ] see dimitrova-popska, quote., p. . [ ] there again, p. . [ ] elastic garments, considered to be part of the un- derwear, covering the feet, legs and body to the waist, became an alternative to ladies’ socks in the s – easy to wear and hold, and no need for belt and garter. in the s, all women wear tights that the industry is struggling to off er in diff erent sizes, colors and patterns. this product becomes a major part of both winter and summer women’s suits. the s became the kingdom of unimaginably colorful and richly decorated with colored threads of lace, sequins and tights. appearing in the s, lace patterned pantyhoses are popular even today. very common at the end of the twentieth and the be- ginning of the st century remained the tights and striped pantyhose and hand-painted. reports are according to o’hara, quote. co., p. . [ ] o’hara, quote., p. . [ ] there again p. . tekstilna industrija · broj · bibliography:  boucher, françois & deslandres, yvonne. , years of fashion: the history of cos- tume and personal adornment. „harry n. abrams”, new york, .  Шарлотта, Зелинг. Мода. Век модельеров. – . „konemann”. koln,  Ермилова Д.Ю. История домов моды. „Академия”, Москва, .  Дудникова, Галина Петровна. История костюма. „Феникс”. Ростов на Дону, .  Барт, Ролан. Системата на модата. „Агата-А“, София,  Димитрова-Попска, Пенка. История на костюма и орнамента. „Техника“, София,  О› Хара, Джорджина. Енциклопедия на модата. „Библиотека “, София, ______________________ rad primljen: . . . rad prihvaćen: . . . site suspended - this site has stepped out for a bit 	 		 			this site has stepped out of a 		 		 		 			 				 					if you're the site owner, contact us at - - - . 				 				 					if you are a visitor, please check back soon. 				 			 		 	 s jed .. this section of epidemiology and psychiatric sciences appears in each issue of the journal and is dedicated to all forms of creative production born of an intimate and individual urge, often secretive, unbound from the conventional art system rules. through short descriptions of the outsider art work of prominent artists and new protagonists often hosted in community mental health services, this section intends to investigate the latest developments of the contemporary art scene, where the distances between the edge and the center are becoming more and more vague. carole tansella, section editor marcel storr: a new case of clandestine outsider art l. danchin adivisory board member of the collection de i ´art burt (lausanne), french editor of raw vision, (london) received january ; accepted january key words: art brut, marcel storr, outsider art, art brut, retrofuturism. when i curated the only show of his entire production a few years ago in paris , marcel storr ( – ), a street-sweeper in the bois de boulogne, and an extraor- dinary self-taught draughtsman who worked secretly at home, was completely unknown to the art market and at that time his amazing works had no commercial value. less than years later, after complementary shows in london and new york, a small drawing of a church was sold for us$ and a cityscape of a bigger format for approximately us$ . an inflation of such rapidity does not simply illustrate on the left: marcel storr, untitled, series of the megalopolises, pencil, ink and varnish on paper, ( ), × cm, coll b & l. kempf. on the right: photo of the author. marcel storr, bâtisseur visionnaire, paris, pavillon carré de baudouin, december –march , . the alternative guide to the universe, london, hayward gallery, june –august , . marcel storr: reimagining paris, andrew edlin gallery, september –october , , new york. epidemiology and psychiatric sciences ( ), , – . © cambridge university press doi: . /s contemporary outsider art https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the rarity and value of storr’s work, but it also high- lights the astonishing craze that has invaded the realm of art brut or outsider art in europe and america over the last few years (azimi, ). born in paris shortly before wwi, storr suffered a dickens-like childhood: at the age of three he was aban- doned and sent to work on farms, where he became nearly deaf from the beatings he received. he was then taken care of by nuns in south-western france for a short time, and finally settled in paris, where he was able to survive by doing various odd-jobs until , when he was given his first regular employment and when he married. not much is known about his poor early life. we know only that he rarely attended school, that he always loved to draw and had a foster brother who became an architect, and that his first attempts at art-making began in the s (cloarec, ). in his parallel existence, storr, who loathed the countryside and preferred large cities, subways, sky- scrapers, etc., drew exclusively gigantic, fantasy archi- tectures of a paranoid nature: churches, steeples, towers, palatial cathedrals and basilicas, or retrofutur- istic megalopolises menaced by a nuclear war. from this imaginary world, only big coloured drawings remain, owned by mr. & mrs kempf, the french col- lectors who discovered the work quite by chance in . in his first series of churches, storr used only crayons and, to begin with, his style was naïve yet real- istic. then, in a second period, after wwii, he tried gouache, ballpoint and china ink on large pieces of cardboard assembled in huge diptychs or triptychs. but he eventually discovered his style in his last two series of cathedrals ( – ) and megalopolises ( – ), all drawn in two large spiral copy books and where, still using a sharp black pencil, he now coloured his constructions with transparent inks of various hues, and then covered them with a thin layer of varnish (danchin, ). outsider art or art brut creators are supposed to be compulsive and stereotyped and not display too much evolution in their style (danchin, ). this is not the case with marcel storr, who shows remarkable pro- gress in his art and who gradually reinvents perspec- tive while trying to depict the immensity of the architectures and urbanistic landscapes he has in his mind. to begin with, in his early work, he uses only a frontal view and his big churches are like a flat façade leaning on the void. then parts of the construc- tions begin to emerge like on a relief and in order to enhance the effect of gigantism, low-angle shots are spontaneously used. in the series of cathedrals, storr continues to adopt the frontal view, but this time to show the profile of the buildings while the façades, like in children’s drawings or according to a kind of involuntary cubism, are now warped on the left. and then, when he is halfway into his series of meg- alopolises, he suddenly leaves the ground and adopts the aerial view which definitely gives him the oppor- tunity to clearly distinguish the fore- and backgrounds of his compositions and to induce a new sense of infin- ity. surrounded by water and trees, elevated highways and suspended trains, the utopian towers of storr’s final landscapes are a rather clumsy yet lyrical hymn to colour and freedom, expressing an urgent need to leave this earth like a series of rockets ready for the sky (danchin, ). obsessively inspired and self-taught, but having developed his own skills by a painstaking and cease- less practice, marcel storr is a paradigmatic instance of the outsider or art brut creator. it was only towards the end of his life, sometime after his wife’s death, that he suffered from mental disorders and was institutio- nalised for a short time for a bout of paranoia in , and then treated as an out-patient until his eventual death from cancer, at the age of . not crazy but different to others, he was an untrained genius and he knew it, and his permanent fear of a nuclear apocalypse is no worse than the phantasms of many authors of his time (danchin, ). acknowledgements the author thanks liliane and bertrand kempf. financial support this research received no specific grant from any fund- ing agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. conflict of interest none. references azimi r ( ). la folie de l’art brut. séguier: paris. cloarec f ( ). marcel storr, architecte de l’ailleurs. phebus: paris. danchin l ( ). the revenge of an underground imagination. laurent danchin explores the paranoiac cities and basilicas of marcel storr. in raw vision, no (ed. j maizels), pp. – . london. danchin l ( ). art brut – l’instinct créateur. gallimard: paris. danchin l ( ). marcel storr le génie à l’état brut. in (eds. f cloarec, l danchin, b & l kempf), phebus: paris. danchin l ( ). marcel storr, visions d’un monde flottant. in danchin l, aux frontières de l’art brut – un parcours dans l’art des marges, pp. – . lelivredart: paris. marcel storr: a new case of clandestine outsider art https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core about the author curator, art critic and writer, a former teacher of french literature and ex alumnus of the ecole normale supérieure (rue d’ulm, paris), laurent danchin is mem- ber of the board of the collection de l’art brut in lausanne and the french editor of raw vision. danchin is a leading authority on art brut. his research questioning the ethical and aesthetical devel- opments of this art field provide unique responses to the ongoing debate on the identity of outsider art. he has curated several exhibitions at the halle saint-pierre in paris, including chomo – the spiritual disembarkment in . his -month parisian exhibition marcel storr, bâtisseur visionnaire at the pavillon carré de baudouin in – attracted more than visitors and had enthusiastic media coverage. with his friend jean-luc giraud, computer artist and draughts- man, he runs the web site http://www.mycelium-fr. com and has curated a summer exhibition entitled mycelium – génie savant, génie brut, in auberive (haute-marne) from june till september . among his major publications are: artaud et l’asile (with a. roumieux), paris, ; aux frontières de l’art brut – un parcours dans l’art des marges,paris, ; le dessin à l’ère des nouveaux médias,paris, ; pour un art postcon- temporain, paris, ; art brut – l’instinct créateur, paris; .; jean dubuffet, peintre philo- sophe, paris, . carole tansella, section editor l. danchin https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at http://www.mycelium-fr.com http://www.mycelium-fr.com http://www.mycelium-fr.com http://www.mycelium-fr.com https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core 	marcel storr: a new case of clandestine outsider art 	acknowledgements 	references 	about the author mnras , – ( ) doi: . /mnras/stt advance access publication january a mid-ir comparative analysis of the seyfert galaxies ngc and ngc daniel ruschel-dutra, ‹ miriani pastoriza, rogério riffel, dinalva a. sales and cláudia winge departamento de astronomia, universidade federal do rio grande do sul, bento gonçalves, porto alegre, - , brazil department of physics, rochester institute of technology, lomb memorial drive, rochester, ny , usa gemini observatory, c/o aura, inc., casilla , la serena, chile accepted december . received december ; in original form july a b s t r a c t new gemini mid-infrared spectroscopic observations together with spitzer space telescope archival data are used to study the properties of the dusty torus and circumnuclear star formation in the active galaxies ngc and ngc . our main conclusions can be summarized as follows. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) emission is absent in the thermal-region camera and spectrograph (t-recs) nuclear spectra but is ubiquitous in the data from spitzer at distances above pc. star formation rates surface densities are estimated from the . µm [ne ii] line strengths leading to values close to . m� yr− kpc− . analogous estimates based on photometric fluxes of infrared array camera’s µm images are higher by a factor of almost , which could be linked to excitation of pah molecules by older stellar populations. t-recs high-spatial-resolution data reveal silicate absorption at λ . µm in the central tens of parsecs of the seyfert ngc and silicate emission in the seyfert galaxy ngc . in the case of ngc , this feature is confined to the inner pc, implying that the silicate might be linked to the putative dusty torus. finally, by fitting clumpy models to the t-recs nuclear spectra, we estimate the torus physical properties for both galaxies, finding line-of-sight inclinations consistent with the agn unified model. key words: galaxies: active – galaxies: ism. i n t r o d u c t i o n the unified model for active galactic nuclei (agns; antonucci & miller ; antonucci ) states that seyfert and seyfert (sy and sy ) galaxies are intrinsically the same object, only viewed from different angles. it is proposed that the line of sight to the type objects happens to cross a highly absorptive medium, supposed to be distributed in a toroidal structure. some attempts to describe the torus emission considered it as a continuous density distribu- tion (e.g. pier & krolik ; granato, danese & franceschini ; siebenmorgen, krügel & spoon ; fritz, franceschini & hatziminaoglou ); however, krolik & begelman ( ) pro- posed that for dust grains to survive in the torus environment they should be arranged in clumpy structures. solid dust particles, like silicate and graphite grains, are thought to play a major role in ob- scuring the agn. for instance, hao et al. ( ) showed that quasars and sy are predominantly characterized by silicate in emission at . µm while sy galaxies present weak silicate absorption. while � e-mail: daniel.ruschel@ufrgs.br the sublimation of graphite grains creates ir emission at λ ≥ µm, changing the slope of the continuum, the ∼ . µm feature observed in emission/absorption is attributed to silicate grains (e.g. barvainis ; pier & krolik ; granato & danese ; siebenmorgen et al. ; fritz et al. ; riffel, rodrı́guez-ardila & pastoriza ; rodriguez-ardila & mazzalay ; riffel et al. ; elitzur ; feltre et al. ). models that assume a clumpy torus si- multaneously provide a natural attenuation to uv/optical emission and are able to predict both instances of the silicate feature (e.g. nenkova, ivezić & elitzur ; hönig et al. ; nenkova et al. a,b). analysis of the mid-infrared (mir) spectra is of paramount im- portance to probe the physical processes in regions of elevated optical extinction such as the torus. besides the already mentioned silicate feature, this spectral window is rich in emission features of molecular hydrogen, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pah) and fine structure ionic transitions of which [ne ii] . µm, [ne iii] . µm and [s iv] . µm are the most notable examples (sturm et al. ; weedman et al. ; wu et al. ; gallimore et al. ; sales, pastoriza & riffel ). of particular importance are the pah bands at . and . µm as they can be used to estimate c© the authors published by oxford university press on behalf of the royal astronomical society at u niversidade f ederal do r io g rande do s ul on july , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from mailto:daniel.ruschel@ufrgs.br http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ comparative analysis of seyfert galaxies the nature of the ionizing source (smith et al. b; sales et al. ). to advance our understanding of the interplay between nuclear activity, torus properties and the interstellar medium of the host galaxy, we address here the mir properties of two galaxies of contrasting characteristics, namely the sy ngc and the sy ngc . in this paper, we present new spectral data from the central regions of ngc and ngc , acquired with the thermal-region camera and spectrograph (t-recs) attached to the gemini south telescope. ngc is a nearly edge-on galaxy with a morphological clas- sification of sa or s depending on the authors (sandage ; tully ; de vaucouleurs, de vaucouleurs & shapley ; weaver, wilson & baldwin ) and a nuclear activity type sy (weaver et al. ). x-ray spectral data suggest that this galaxy is compton thick, having a column density of nh ≥ cm− (maiolino et al. ; levenson et al. ). optical studies of ngc have shown the presence of spiral arms and a decoupling between the kinematical and optical nuclei (weaver, wilson & baldwin ; storchi-bergmann et al. ; rossa, dietrich & wagner ) which can be interpreted as additional evidence for heavy obscu- ration of the agn. the hα image of this galaxy shows extended emission in the form of spiral arms (see fig. in storchi-bergmann et al. ). star formation is also reported for this galaxy (weaver et al. ; storchi-bergmann et al. ). in addition, the soft x-ray spectra of this galaxy is well fitted by two thermal models similar to what have been observed in starburst galaxies (la massa, heckman & ptak b). ngc is a sy of morphological type sa viewed at a face-on angle. the broad components of the hα and hβ motivate the sy classification; on the other hand, low-ionization lines like Å [o i] are relatively strong (filippenko & halpern ). in the same paper, the authors attribute this low-ionization characteris- tic to high electron densities (ne ∼ ) in the photoionized gas. storchi-bergmann et al. ( ) have identified hα emission from the nucleus and a ring of h ii regions at a radius of arcsec from the nucleus (see fig. in storchi-bergmann et al. ), and also noted a change in the profile of the hα in relation to the observations of filippenko & halpern ( ). x-ray observations do not show compton reflection, leading to the conclusion that the fe kα line might be produced in a compton-thin torus (bianchi et al. ). throughout this paper, we adopt a hubble constant h = km s− mpc− and the redshifts from storchi-bergmann et al. ( ) as the distance indicator. the redshift z = . × − for ngc leads to a spatial scale of pc arcsec− and a dis- tance of . mpc. for ngc , we have z = . × − result- ing in a distance of . mpc and a spatial scale of pc arcsec− . we also investigate larger spatial scale structures in these galaxies using archival data from infrared array camera (irac) and infrared spectrograph (irs) both aboard the spitzer space telescope. in section , we present a detailed description of the data and reduction processes. section contains a discussion of the star formation in the host galaxies. results from the newly acquired t-recs data and the properties of the putative dusty tori are discussed in section . our main conclusions are presented in section . o b s e rvat i o n s a n d d ata r e d u c t i o n to build a full picture of the physical process that dominate the mir emission of these two galaxies, we used image and spectra from three different instruments: (i) the irac (fazio et al. ); (ii) the irs (houck et al. ), both aboard the spitzer space telescope; (iii) the t-recs (telesco et al. ; de buizer & fisher ) at the gemini south observatory. the latter data set is part of a systematic programme to study the dust and molecular gas in the nuclear region of compton-thick galaxies (gs- a-q- , pi: dinalva a. sales). spitzer data were retrieved from the public archives. each set of data is individually discussed in the following subsections. . spitzer-irac spitzer’s irac is an mir camera capable of simultaneously imag- ing an area of . arcmin × . arcmin in four different filters, with central wavelengths of . , . , . and µm, and wave- length intervals of . – . µm; . – . µm; . – . µm and . – . µm, respectively. the data for ngc were acquired on december , still during the spitzer’s cryogenic mission (programme id: , pi: jack gallimore), and on may , for ngc . we only used the post-basically-calibrated data (post-bcd) from filters . and µm produced by pipeline number s . . . the µm filter includes the pah emission from c–c stretching and c–h in plane-bending modes at . , . and . µm (leger & puget ; tielens ) while the . µm filter samples only the stellar continuum. to obtain an image of pure pah emission, we scaled down and subtracted the . µm image from the µm. the subtraction operation can be summarized as fν (pah) = fν ( µm) − αfν ( . µm), ( ) where fν (pah) is the flux density of non-stellar sources (mainly pah emission), fν ( µm) and fν ( . µm) are the original flux den- sities of the and . µm images and α is the scaling factor for stellar flux at the µm filter. using the starburst (leitherer et al. ) models, helou et al. ( ) demonstrated that the ratio of stellar flux between and . µm is almost independent of metallicity and star formation history, thus validating the use of a constant factor to remove the stellar component from the µm image. following their work, we set α = . as the scaling factor. the resulting im- ages are shown in fig. where we see interstellar emission in ngc extending up to distances of kpc from the galactic centre, resembling a disc and well-defined spiral arms of ngc . . spitzer-irs we used archival data from the irs in mapping mode, which pro- duces d spectra similar to an integral field unit by taking several long-slit spectra in different positions. the original observing pro- gramme id is by jack gallimore (pi) and the observations were made on april . these data were first published by wu et al. ( ) and have also appeared in a paper by gallimore et al. ( ), both of which have focused on integrating the spaxels (spa- tial picture elements that result from the virtual apertures used to extract the spectra) to produce spectroscopic data with very accurate aperture definitions. in this work, we took a different approach as we try to understand the nature of mir sources in different regions interior to and including the extended pah emission. the software cubism (smith et al. a) was employed to build and analyse the data cube from the irs spectra starting from the basic calibration data set. background levels were evaluated from off-source exposures of complementary positions along the slit, e.g. the second order sampled the background while the object was centred in the first order. mnras , – ( ) at u niversidade f ederal do r io g rande do s ul on july , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ d. ruschel-dutra et al. figure . irac images resulting from the subtraction of the scaled . µm filter from the µm filter (refer to section . ). the images from top to bot- tom correspond to ngc and ngc , respectively, and are centred in the optical nucleus of the galaxies. circles shown in white correspond to the unresolved nucleus and enhanced pah emission, as described in the main text. the contours are intervals of . in log fν (mjy sr − ), between . and . . the dashed rectangle represents the field of view of irs spectra in mapping mode. the wavelength coverage of this observation extends from . to . µm with a resolving power between and in multiple spectroscopic orders, which corresponds to the modules short-low (sl) from to µm and long-low (ll) from to µm. the plate scale of each setting is . and . pixel arcsec− for sl and ll, respectively. the larger slit width and plate scale of ll set the lower limit in spatial resolution for a full spectrum to . arcsec. since we are interested in resolving the nucleus and the larger structure seen in the irac images, we focused on the sl module, which allows extractions corresponding to a spatial resolution a fac- tor of higher than that of the ll module, but has the disadvantage of only sampling the spectrum from to µm. the apertures seen as white circles in fig. were chosen for being representative of the pah-emitting regions of the host galaxy or being its nucleus. it should be noted that the irs mapping, which samples the region delimited by the dashed rectangles in fig. , does not cover the figure . spectra from irs map for ngc (top frame) and ngc (bottom frame). pah bands are detected in every spectra. also the high- ionization line [s iv] is present only in the central extraction of ngc . the shaded areas represent the uncertainty evaluated by cubism during the extraction. entire field of view of the irac images. therefore, brighter regions in fig. were not chosen because they fall outside the spectro- scopically sampled area. we used circular apertures with a radius of . arcsec which correspond to ∼ pc for the first galaxy and ∼ pc for the last one. spectra from these extractions are shown in fig. . . t-recs in an effort to probe in more detail the nuclear region of the galaxies, we obtained observations with gemini south’s t-recs, with an angular resolution of . arcsec. the data used here correspond to the µm low-resolution mode of t-recs with a resolving power r ∼ and wavelength range between and µm. the slit has a projected width of . arcsec, which corresponds to and pc for ngc and ngc , respectively. removal of atmospheric emission was achieved via the standard chopping and nodding technique, with chop throws of arcsec. individual frames have an integration time of . ms and for each of the chop cycles in one save set three frames are co-added. the mnras , – ( ) at u niversidade f ederal do r io g rande do s ul on july , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ comparative analysis of seyfert galaxies total on-source time is and s for ngc and ngc , respectively. all the reduction process was performed with gemini’s midir package for iraf (tody , ). most of the work, like chop-nod subtractions, is done automatically with only the aperture definition, tracing, telluric correction and wavelength calibration done inter- actively. wavelength calibration was based on the identification of telluric emission lines in the sky spectra. a fourth-order chebyshev polynomial was fitted to five strong features in the off-source spec- tra resulting in a typical rms below Å. these same five features were then automatically re-identified in different positions along the spatial axis to produce an interactive fit of wavelength versus d position. in order to guarantee less than an hour of interval between science and telluric calibration exposures, two different standard stars were observed for each galaxy. since the spatial profile of these galaxies’ spectra is very close to that of a point source, partly due to the bright agn, we ex- pect a large contamination of the extended emission by the nuclear source. in order to obtain a pure extended spectrum, two extractions were performed: one having the width of the stellar full width at half-maximum (fwhm) and the other encompassing all the light available from the source, meaning almost four times the stellar fwhm. the extended emission spectrum was obtained by sub- tracting . times the central spectrum from the largest possible aperture. this corresponds to the infinite aperture correction for an fwhm extraction of a gaussian profile. in fig. , we show the nuclear and outer spectra. shaded areas in fig. represent the poisson noise, estimated directly from the instrumental analogue- to-digital units, smoothed by a gaussian with σ = pixel. the main features of the nuclear spectrum of ngc are the silicate absorption at . µm and the [s iv] line, while the host galaxy spec- trum shows only an increase in flux towards longer wavelengths due to the interstellar dust. the extended emission at . µm identified by reunanen, prieto & siebenmorgen ( ) cannot be confirmed by our data. the low-ionization characteristic of ngc ’s nu- clear spectra, already identified in the optical spectra (filippenko & halpern ), is revealed in the mir by the prominent [ne ii] at . µm and complete absence of the [s iv] line. in the nuclear spec- trum, we also see the silicate emission which causes a rise in the continuum above µm. the host galaxy spectrum resulted in too low s/n ratio to allow any conclusive analysis. o f f - n u c l e a r s ta r f o r m at i o n the main goal associated with the spitzer data is to study the star formation rate (sfr) in selected regions of the galaxies. to assess it, two different indicators have been used: (a) the . µm [ne ii] ionic line from the irs mapping (hereafter [ne ii] method); (b) the photometric flux of the stellar-subtracted µm image. they will be discussed in detail in section . . it is worth mentioning that the studied regions were selected based solely on the intensity of the µm image. an aperture of . arcsec in diameter was chosen leading to a spatial sampling of twice the slit width per element, although the irac images would allow smaller apertures. this angular diameter corresponds to and pc at the distances of ngc and ngc , respectively. the chosen locations are indicated in fig. . . irac images continuum-subtracted µm images (hereafter pah , fig. ) were obtained following equation ( ). in the extended regions, they reveal figure . nuclear (top) and extended (bottom) spectra of ngc (top frame) and ngc (bottom frame) obtained with t-recs. shaded regions are limited by the poisson noise convolved by a gaussian with σ = pixel. the arrow marks the centre of the silicate absorption feature, which extends through almost the entire spectrum. practically only the interstellar emission, which in this case consists of pah bands and possibly a small contribution from hot dust. it should be noted that equation ( ) assumes a stellar population; therefore, the agn’s power-law continuum will inevitably remain after the subtraction that leads to the pah image. a similar scaling could be applied to remove the non-thermal nuclear component only if we had continuum samples closer to the µm features. in both galaxies, the emission is characterized by an intense flux at the nucleus (mainly due to the power-law continuum) surrounded by larger structures along the spiral arms, which in ngc resembles an elongated ring. an ellipse that fits the peak intensity of this ring in the radial direction has semi-axes of . and . arcsec with the major axis having a position angle of ◦. not considering the intrinsic width of the ring, we obtain an inclination of ◦ which is very close to the value of ◦ found by rossa et al. ( ) for the galaxy’s disc. the semimajor axis correspond to nearly pc from the galaxy nucleus to the centre of the ring. the distribution of the pah emission can be related to the various dust lanes seen in optical images of the hubble space telescope (hst). in fig. , we show the contours from fig. superimposed to the f w image of hst’s wide field planetary camera . mnras , – ( ) at u niversidade f ederal do r io g rande do s ul on july , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ d. ruschel-dutra et al. figure . contours from fig. superimposed to hst’s image with the f w filter. dust lanes seen as highly absorbed regions in the optical image are mostly followed by intense pah emission. table . luminosities measured in spitzer’s images and spectra. region l(pah ) × − l([ne ii]) × − (erg s− ) (erg s− ) ngc centre . . n . . s . . ngc centre . . nw . . e . . s . . in ngc , we see that the interstellar emission follows the spiral arms reaching distances of up to kpc from the centre. additionally, we see several h ii nodes distributed along the bright spiral arm (see fig. ), with the one in the nw extraction being the most luminous. fluxes for the irac images were obtained by summing the flux of each pixel inside the defined apertures. no corrections were made to account for partial pixels, since a . arcsec aperture corresponds to more than pixels in the irac images and variations in the number of pixels in different apertures are less than per cent. the derived luminosities for each of the apertures are presented in table . the centre apertures have almost times the flux of the apertures at the host galaxy, partially because radiation from the agn was not removed by subtraction of the stellar component. . irs spectra the one-dimensional spectra shown in fig. (extracted in the same locations used to obtain the photometric fluxes) were used to mea- sure the fluxes and equivalent widths (ew) of pah bands and ionic lines through the pahfit code (smith et al. b). by fitting nu- merous spectral features of both atomic and molecular origin, along with dust grains emission and absorption and a stellar continuum, this code is capable of producing flux measurements of several spectral features without recurring to a simplistic linear continuum fit. it should be noted that pahfit’s primary motivation for fitting atomic lines is to reach a better fit of the pah features; thus, these measurements might not be as precise as those for the latter. table shows the ew of some prominent features in the irs spectrum and table shows the luminosity of the . µm [ne ii] line. the high-ionization . µm [s iv] line is only detected in the nucleus of ngc . the pah features are notably more pronounced in the outer extractions than in the nucleus in both galaxies. the nw aperture in ngc has notably the largest ew of pah bands, which suggests intense star formation or a very young stellar population. genzel et al. ( ) shows that the ratio . µm pah feature/ . µm continuum decreases from starburst galaxies to agn. similar behaviour is observed for the pah bands at ew . µm and ew . µm for a sample of starburst galaxies and agns. galaxies powered by star formation have a larger ew than sy and sy (see fig. in sales et al. ). the intense star formation in the nw region of this galaxy is confirmed by the optical study of storchi-bergmann et al. ( ). although the apertures in that study are not directly comparable to the ones in this paper, the hβ line in the extraction over nw region has a high ew, which agrees with our conclusion. . star formation in this section, we investigate the star formation in the host galaxies using the pah images and the ionic line . µm [ne ii]. the photometric estimation of sfr from the pah images depends on an accurate subtraction of the underlying continuum sampled by the . µm filter, which in turn is based on an assumption of relative fluxes between these two filters. our approach here was to use the already published results of helou et al. ( ) designed to remove the stellar component. however, the power-law continuum of the agn behaves very differently, and the uncertainties in the exponent would be comparable or greater than the measured values for sfr. in the case of the [ne ii] line, one can never be sure that the agn is not contributing to the gas’ excitation without recurring to additional spectral features, thus rendering this indicator susceptible to sources of radiation completely unrelated with young stars. for these reasons, we refrain from any estimates of sfr in the nucleus of these galaxies and focus only on the extended regions. ho & keto ( ) demonstrated a correlation between the sum of luminosities of . µm [ne ii] and . µm [ne iii] lines and the sfr measured from hydrogen recombination lines, brα in this par- ticular case. this of course warrants the use of these fine-structure features as indicators of sfr. in fig. , we reproduce the data from giveon et al. ( ) and willner & nelson-patel ( ) for h ii regions in the galaxy, magellanic clouds and m , showing the empirical correlation between l[ne ii] and lbrα . it is clear that there is a fair correlation between these two indicators, particularly for lower luminosities. at the high end of the graph, there is much more scattering in the [ne ii] luminosity, reaching more than an order of magnitude between the last three points. since the lumi- nosities in our sample of star-forming regions are high, we should expect a somewhat less reliable assessment of brα luminosity. in the high-luminosity regime, only the sum of the above-mentioned ne features retain its linear correlation with brα while the . µm line strays away from linearity towards lower values. nevertheless, there simply are not enough empirical points in fig. to justify a mnras , – ( ) at u niversidade f ederal do r io g rande do s ul on july , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ comparative analysis of seyfert galaxies table . ew of selected features in the irs spectra in units of µm. ngc ngc feature λ (µm) wλ centre wλ n wλ s wλ centre wλ e wλ nw wλ s [s iv] . . – – – – – – [ne ii] . . . . . . . . pah . – . . . . . . pah . . . . . . . . pah . – . . – . . . pah . . . . – . . . figure . correlation between the luminosities of . µm [ne ii] and brα (giveon et al. ; willner & nelson-patel ). the solid line represents a linear fit while the dashed line is a second-order polynomial. second-order fit; thus, we employ a linear correlation to yield the corresponding brα luminosity log lbrα l� = . × log l[ne ii] l� − . . ( ) to derive the sfr, one can choose from the vast number of available relations between the lyman continuum and h emission. here, we used the sfr estimate based on the hα luminosity (see equation of kennicutt a) for a salpeter imf with masses in the range . – m� and solar abundances. in order to ob- tain an sfr in terms of lbrα , we used the intrinsic intensity ratio jhα/jbrα = . , assuming case b recombination for an electronic temperature te = k and density ne = (brocklehurst ). sfr(m�yr− ) = . × − lbrα (erg s− ). ( ) using equations ( ) and ( ) together with the luminosity of the . µm [ne ii] line, we can estimate the sfr. since the distances to the two galaxies are vastly different, we base the following dis- cussion on the sfr divided by the projected area of the extraction, or the superficial density of sfr (�sfr). the obtained values for �sfr and the estimated luminosity of brα are presented in table . the errors in �sfr include the rms of the fit of equation ( ). our table . sfr surface densities and estimated lbrα . region lbrα × − �sfr(pah ) × �sfr([ne ii]) × (erg s− ) (m� yr− kpc− ) (m� yr− kpc− ) ngc n . ± . ± . s . ± . ± . ngc nw . ± . ± . e . ± . ± . s . ± . ± . estimates are comparable to those found by kennicutt ( b) for normal spiral galaxies. to test the results derived from the ionic emission, we compared those values with the completely independent sfrs derived from the photometric pah fluxes from irac (table ). following the work of wu et al. ( ), we used the relation sfr(m� yr− ) = νlν [ µm] . × l� . ( ) fig. shows the correlation between the sfr surface density �sfr derived from each approach. a linear fit to the data has an inclination of ± and intercepts �sfr(pah) at − . ± . . in other words, there is a factor of more than one order of magni- tude between the two estimates. errors in the subtraction of stellar emission and other unrelated interstellar sources could be at least figure . comparison between the sfr surface density for the three regions of ngc and two regions of ngc . it is clear that the results based on the photometric flux of the pah bands at µm consistently overestimate �sfr. mnras , – ( ) at u niversidade f ederal do r io g rande do s ul on july , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ d. ruschel-dutra et al. partially responsible for the photometric overestimate. this effect has already been reported by calzetti et al. ( ), where the authors argue that these pah bands are also susceptible to excitation from photons of older stellar populations. moreover, the spread in the high-luminosity end of fig. can easily explain this discrepancy, even without invoking any errors in the photometry. despite the disagreement between both sfr indicators, the gen- eral picture is internally preserved, with the h ii regions of ngc having a higher �sfr than their counterparts in ngc . there is no particular reason why the star formation in any circum- nuclear ring should be higher than any random h ii region in a spiral galaxy; so these two results alone cannot be extrapolated to a more general conclusion. furthermore, the galactocentric distances of the extractions set the extended spectra of ngc inside the region that is thought to suffer major influence of the agn (< kpc), an interpretation which is further supported by the close agreement between the sfrs of these two symmetrically located extractions. the same reasoning does not hold for ngc because the three extractions are beyond kpc from the nucleus. n u c l e a r s p e c t r a : a d u s t y t o r u s s i g n at u r e ? the high spatial resolution of the gemini telescope allows us to probe regions within tens of parsecs from the active nucleus. in such small scales, a dramatic change in some spectral features is expected as the structures associated with the agn begin to dominate the light. the silicate absorption at . µm is one of such features since it is expected to be linked to the dusty torus surrounding the accretion disc required by the unified agn model (nenkova et al. , a,b; sales et al. ). in outer regions, where stars dominate the light, the silicate should be less prominent if detectable at all. in fig. , we present the nuclear and extended spectra for both galaxies. although the presence of pah bands is clearly visible in all the spectra from irs, the same bands are completely absent in the higher spatial resolution spectra of t-recs. we can thus safely set a lower limit for the galactocentric distances below which pah cannot be found as pc for ngc and pc for ngc . this observation is compatible with the already observed anticorrelation between the agn radiation and pah emission (o’dowd et al. ; treyer et al. ; la massa et al. a). a shallow but visible depression centred in the silicate band is visible in the nuclear spectrum of ngc while the outer one is almost flat before µm. following the method described by spoon et al. ( ), we measured the strength of this silicate absorption (ssil) by adjusting a linear continuum to the median fluxes at µm windows centred at . and . µm (mason et al. ) and taking the ratio between observed and continuum fluxes at . µm. in symbols, ssil = log fobs( . µm) fcont( . µm) . ( ) the inferred continuum for the central extraction of both ngc and ngc is plotted in fig. . we obtain ssil = − . + . − . and ssil = − . + . − . for the central extraction and outer region of ngc , respectively. these values agree with the published results obtained by wu et al. ( ) for an aperture of . arcsec × . arcsec. the only detectable emission feature in the central extraction is the . µm [s iv] line. approximately at µm in the nuclear spectrum of ngc , we begin to see a rise in the continuum level caused by the emis- figure . continuum fits to evaluate the silicate strength ssil (equation ) for ngc (left) and ngc (right). the dashed grey line represents the inferred continuum and grey circles are at the centre of the two sample regions used for the fit. sion from silicate grains with an estimated ssil = . + . − . . the low-ionization line of [ne ii] at . µm is present in the nuclear spectrum but the high-ionization [s iv] is absent. since the pub- lished optical spectrum (filippenko & halpern ) of this galaxy shows lines of higher ionization potential such as [o iii] and [ne v], the absence of the . µm feature must be linked to the density of the interstellar medium rather than to the ionization parameter. indeed, the transition which leads to . µm [ne ii] has a criti- cal density more than one order of magnitude higher than that of the . µm [s iv]. we therefore conclude that the density in the narrow-line region of ngc is at least × cm− , which agrees with the findings of filippenko & halpern ( ). . fitting of torus models clumpy torus models (nenkova et al. , a) were used to study the continuum of the nuclear spectrum. following sales et al. ( ), the emission lines and the telluric band region were masked and the resulting clear nuclear spectrum was compared to the clumpy theoretical spectral energy distributions (seds). these seds were generated assuming that the torus is formed by dusty clumps, con- strained as follows: (i) the number of clumps, n , along to the torus equatorial radius; (ii) the visual optical depth of each clump, τv; (iii) the radial extension of the clumpy distribution, y = r /rd, where r and rd are the outer and inner torus radii, respectively; (iv) the ra- dial distribution of clouds as described by a power law ∝r−q; (v) the torus angular width, constrained by a gaussian angular distribution described by a half-width σ ; (vi) the observer’s viewing angle i. the best-fitting parameters for the observed nuclear spectrum were obtained via the bayesclumpy inference tool (asensio ramos & ramos almeida ). by using the markov chain monte carlo method, the code investigates a parameter space defined by the first eigenvectors of the principal component analysis of the model grid with more than individual seds. an artificial neural network then assesses the marginal posterior distribution for each of the parameters taking into account the observations. the only a priori information given to bayesclumpy is a limitation in the line- of-sight angle, which was greater than ◦ for the sy and less than ◦ for the sy . the stability of the solution was confirmed by consecutive runs of the algorithm. it is important to keep in mind that fitting clumpy torus models to the spectra is an intrinsically degenerate problem, as changes in a given set of parameters can produce the same observable effect as different changes in another set. for instance, the number of clouds the models are available online at the following address: http://www.pa. uky.edu/clumpy/. mnras , – ( ) at u niversidade f ederal do r io g rande do s ul on july , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.pa.uky.edu/clumpy/ http://www.pa.uky.edu/clumpy/ http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ comparative analysis of seyfert galaxies table . clumpy best-fitting parameters. parameter values with per cent confidence ngc ngc σ + − + − y + − + − n . + . − . . + . − . q . + . − . . + . − . τ v + − + − i + − + − and the optical depth of a singular cloud can both account for the reddening of the spectra. the degeneracy is especially notable when dealing with narrow wavelength ranges such as ground-based mir observations. on the other hand, this spectral window encompasses one of the major spectral features attributed to the torus, the . µm silicate feature, which is very relevant in anchoring the models. the results obtained are in agreement with the general picture of the unified model, with the inclination tending towards low values for the sy ngc and high values for the sy ngc . it is interesting to note that the inclination found for ngc puts the torus in the same plane of the galaxy’s disc. in this particular case, where dust lanes are a major feature of the galaxy’s structure, this coincidence could be evidence that the host galaxy is influencing the parameter estimates for the torus, especially when the fitting relies so heavily upon the silicate feature. this would agree with recent works that attribute the bulk of silicate absorption, in sources which show intense obscuration, to the host galaxy rather than the torus (goulding et al. ; gonzález-martı́n et al. ). moreover, there is evidence of a higher probability for sy ’s to live in face-on spiral galaxies (keel ; simcoe et al. ; lagos et al. ), although there are studies which show no alignment between the plane of the torus and that of the galaxy disc (schmitt et al. ; kinney et al. ). based on the best-fitting parameters summarized in table , we can deduce the number of clouds in the viewer’s line of sight nlos. adopting a standard dust-to-gas ratio, the optical depth τ v of a single cloud can be converted into the hydrogen column density for that cloud. finally, by combining these two results, we get the hydrogen column density in the line of sight. the assumed distribution of clouds leads to the equation nh = . × τvn exp ( − ( − i) σ ) ; ( ) therefore, nh = . + . − . × cm− for ngc and nh ∼ cm− for ngc , which basically means that there are no clouds obscuring the latter. the results for both galaxies agree with the unified model for agns, in the sense that there is a clear line of sight to the sy nucleus of ngc and an obscured one to the sy in ngc . we emphasize that our results regarding the torus properties are based on the assumption that the main difference between the two types of seyfert galaxies arise from the torus inclination. this hy- pothesis, however, has recently been challenged by ramos almeida et al. ( ) with a similar analysis of a sample of seven galaxies, where the authors conclude that the parameters n , σ and τ v are far more distinct than i, and therefore agns of types and have intrinsically different tori. s u m m a r y a n d c o n c l u s i o n s in this work, we present new spectral data taken with t-recs at the gemini south observatory for the compton-thick sy galaxy ngc and the sy galaxy ngc . additionally, we also analyse and discuss archival data from the spitzer space telescope both from imaging and spectral observations. our conclusions are as follows. (i) pah emission was not detected in the nuclear spectra of either galaxy. this is consistent with the view that pah molecules are destroyed by the radiation field of the agn. the strength of the latter is confirmed in this paper by the presence of the s+ ion in the case of ngc and assumed from published optical studies for ngc . (ii) using an empirical relation between the luminosity of the lines . µm [ne ii] and brα, and a well-established relation be- tween the lyman continuum and star formation, we estimate sfrs for two regions in ngc and three regions in ngc . we interpret the close agreement between the first two as evidence of a common relation to the agn. sfr indicators based on µm pho- tometry are – times higher than similar estimates based on the ionic line . µm [ne ii]. this effect could be linked to excitation of pah molecules by old stellar populations or a result of a poor correlation between lbrα and l[ne ii] for higher luminosities. (iii) the nuclear spectrum of ngc shows mild silicate absorption at . µm, and we estimate a silicate strength of ssil = − . + . − . . this feature is confined to the inner pc, being per cent weaker in the extended emission spectrum, implying that the silicate might be linked to the torus predicted by the agn unified model. the same feature is found to be in emission in the sy nucleus of ngc with ssil = . + . − . . both results agree with the unified model for agn. (iv) we employed the clumpy torus models to further investigate the nuclear spectrum. results for ngc show a column den- sity of nh = . + . − . × cm− which is consistent with x-ray estimates and favours the compton-thick scenario. for ngc , the number of clouds in the line of sight is practically zero, with an estimated nh ∼ cm− , in agreement with its sy classification. ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s we would like to thank an anonymous referee for the many sug- gestions which greatly improved the quality of this paper. this work is based on observations obtained at the gemini observa- tory, which is operated by the association of universities for re- search in astronomy, inc., under a cooperative agreement with the nsf on behalf of the gemini partnership: the national science foundation (us), the national research council (canada), con- icyt (chile), the australian research council (australia), min- istério da ciência, tecnologia e inovação (brazil) and ministerio de ciencia, tecnologı́a e innovación productiva (argentina). drd thanks cnpq for financial support during this project. rr thanks cnpq and fapergs for financial support during this project. r e f e r e n c e s antonucci r., , ara&a, , antonucci r. r. j., miller j. s., , apj, , asensio ramos a., ramos almeida c., , apj, , barvainis r., , apj, , bianchi s., matt g., balestra i., perola g. c., , a&a, , l brocklehurst m., , mnras, , mnras , – ( ) at u niversidade f ederal do r io g rande do s ul on july , http://m nras.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ d. ruschel-dutra et al. calzetti d. et al., , apj, , de buizer j., fisher r., , in käufl h. u., siebenmorgen r., moorwood a. f. m., eds, high resolution infrared spectroscopy in astronomy, eso astrophysics symposia. springer-verlag, berlin, p. de vaucouleurs g. h., de vaucouleurs a., shapley h., , university of texas monographs in astronomy no. , second reference catalogue of bright galaxies. univ. texas, austin, tx 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http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/ . siraganian out of air: theorizing the art object in gertrude stein and wyndham lewis siraganian, lisa. modernism/modernity, volume , number , november , pp. - (article) published by the johns hopkins university press doi: . /mod. . for additional information about this article access provided by southern methodist university at / / : am gmt http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/mod/summary/v / . siraganian.html http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/mod/summary/v / . siraganian.html siraganian / theorizing the art object modernism / modernity volume ten, number four pp – . © the johns hopkins university press out of air: theorizing the art object in gertrude stein and wyndham lewis lisa siraganian art without air near the beginning of the essay “pictures” (one of the six lectures that make up her american speaking tour of – ), gertrude stein describes the formative experience—at age eight—when she first sees a large painting of the battle of wa- terloo: it was an oil painting a continuous oil painting, one was surrounded by an oil painting and i who lived continuously out of doors and felt air and sunshine and things to see felt that this was all differ- ent and very exciting. there it all was the things to see but there was no air it just was an oil painting. i remember standing on the little platform in the center and almost consciously knowing that there was no air. there was no air, there was no feeling of air, it just was an oil painting and it had a life of its own. . . . dwarfed by this room-sized panorama, stein compares her feelings inside the gallery to her other childhood experiences, “continuously out of doors.” she loves fresh air, but the painting thrills her in a different way—as an art object with “a life of its own.” the stimulating part of this experience, as she explains it, is not exactly the objects represented (“the things to see”)—she already knew all about napoleon—what excites her is the rep- resentation itself: “the thing that was exciting me was the oil painting” (“p,” ). one way to read her interest in the painting, rather than the things painted, is as an example of what is usually thought of as the modernist critique of referentiality. according to this view, lisa siraganian is the andrew w. mellon post-doctoral humanities fellow in english at dartmouth college in hanover, new hampshire. this essay derives from her recently completed dissertation, breathing freely: the object of art and the subject of politics in american modernism (johns hopkins university, ). . siraganian / / , : pm chf m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y modern works of art and literature attempt to displace the nineteenth-century natu- ralistic emphasis on external reality by problematizing the relation between a repre- sentation and the thing represented. but stein’s focus on air—its absence in the paint- ing versus its presence outdoors—suggests that her actual point is slightly different. it is not that she is concerned to characterize the relationship between the painting and the thing painted as non-referential; what she says instead is that “the relation be- tween the oil painting and the thing painted was really nobody’s business” (“p,” ). thus she compares the panorama to her experience of an actual battlefield in gettysburg not to assess its verisimilitude or lack thereof but to insist that the “oil painting” is “an entirely different thing.” the point of insisting that there is no air in the oil painting will be to shift her focus from the relation between an object and its representation to the relation between an art object (a representation) and its beholder. we can see that her primary interest is not referentiality from her characterization of paintings as individual faces. becoming familiar with oil paintings, she writes, is like the process of becoming “more and more familiar with faces” (“p,” ). to under- stand an oil painting fully is to become intimate with a new person’s face: “faces gradu- ally tell you something . . . as you grow more and more familiar with any and all faces and so it is with oil paintings. the result was that in a way i slowly knew what an oil painting is. . . . ” (“p,” ). whatever else you might feel about a new face—and stein acknowledges that you may feel surprised or “even shocked” by a new face—you can- not dismiss a new face as a copy of another face you already know: “you cannot refuse a new face. you must accept a face as a face. and so with an oil painting” (“p,” ). the point here is that stein is not interested in discovering resemblances between a painted portrait and an actual person (a representation and its referent), but in con- fronting and accepting a painting as a new person, entirely separate from the beholder. she comes to know “what an oil painting is,” in other words, when she understands it as the face of an autonomous person with a “life in and for itself of an oil painting” (“p,” ). a painting for stein is not simply another functional object in the gallery (like the platform), but a self-reliant subject with a place all its own. or consider the unusual, childhood perceptual games she devises in italian muse- ums, when she begins—literally—“to sleep and dream in front of oil paintings”: “there were very few people in the galleries in italy in the summers in those days and there were long benches and they were red and they were comfortable at least they were to me and the guardians were indifferent or amiable and i could really lie down and sleep in front of the pictures” (“p,” ). the activity stein describes is when, upon waking, she can momentarily (albeit sleepily) identify with the paintings as faces “sleep- ing” in front of her. she perceives the paintings as “sleeping” because they are per- petually unaware of her. the painting is never able to see the viewer, that is, to see stein sleeping—and waking—on a red bench in an italian museum. but the impor- tance of this activity is that her sleep dramatizes the fictive irrelevance of the beholder to the work of art. by imagining paintings as faces—and, by extension, as persons with conscious states like her own (sometimes sleeping, sometimes waking)—stein is also imagining paintings that are utterly independent of her own consciousness. in other . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object words, her deep reverie is so complete that she can imagine a painting as another conscious person, even when she herself is sleeping and not consciously beholding the painting. clarifying her point, stein explains that this is not merely about playing an optical trick on yourself (‘convincing’ yourself you are in a pastoral landscape upon awaking): on the contrary, if the painting’s status as representation is effaced the game will fail. thus, unlike a tintoretto or giotto, a naturalistic botticelli is a poor painting to sleep in front of because the illusion (the “thing painted”) overpowers the representation (the “painting”): “i used to walk in the country and then i concluded that the botticellis being really so like the flowers in the country they were not the pictures before which one could sleep, they were to my feeling, being that they looked so like the flowers in the country, they were artificial” (“p,” ). stein is not interested in sleeping in front of a simulacrum of the flowers—this is the substance of her complaint about the “arti- ficial” botticelli flowers. instead, she must sleep in front of a representation that has “a life of its own”—the tintoretto flowers. each experience underscores her understand- ing of painting as representation: “as i say in sleeping and waking in front of all these pictures i really began to realize that an oil painting is an oil painting. i was beginning after that to be able to look with pleasure at any oil painting” (“p,” ). we can begin to see why sleeping in front of an oil painting is such a crucial model for stein, and why i am arguing that stein’s interest is not in the work of art in relation to its referent, but in the work of art in relation to the beholder. when stein realizes, in the midst of the panorama, that “there was no feeling of air, it just was an oil painting and it had a life of its own,” she is claiming that the work of art inhabits a space that is different not only from the space inhabited by the things the painting represents, but is also different from the space inhabited by its beholder. stein captures this idea by claiming that in the painting, there is no air. her interest in the difference between the space of the painting and the space of the beholder explains what is otherwise very hard to explain; namely, her dramatization of the beholder in front of the painting as an insistence that the beholder is asleep. in other words, stein illustrates a distinction between two spaces—the space of the painting versus the space of the beholder—as a distinction between two individuated consciousnesses: the awake person and the sleep- ing person. as idiosyncratic as her preoccupation with air in paintings may seem, stein is not the only major modernist to reflect upon the possibility or impossibility of breathing in painting. in the childermass ( ), wyndham lewis imagines an art full of air by depicting a painting his protagonists can walk into. resembling a chattier and busier version of a samuel beckett play, the novel portrays pullman and his bumbling com- panion satters as they wander around an otherworldly, yet vaguely familiar, landscape. in this modernized version of dante’s divine comedy, they are stuck “outside heaven” in a purgatory resembling england between the wars. as these two ghosts study their new environment, they eventually notice a strange landscape where “nothing seems to be moving on its surface” and everything “is a little faded”: . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y “what the devil’s this?” pullman’s voice is as sober as before it was all on fire. satters does not like to say what he sees . . . there is a wide view stretching as far as the eye can reach across flattish country. it is bounded by rain-clouds, they block the horizon. thenthere is snow. “it’s like a picture,” satters suggests, haltingly, afraid the word may not be right. “exactly!” (tc, ) pullman and satters have inadvertently stumbled into a huge, nearly completed, landscape-painting that appears as “flattish country”. in fact, pullman identifies this painting as the same type that delights stein at age eight: “why we’re in a panorama!” (tc, ). barely distinguishable from the broader environment, the painting is so large that pullman advises satters that they had better “go through it” because walking around it “would take hours” (tc, ). while in it, they notice that the leaves on the bushes become progressively smaller, suggesting that they are walking “into” the illu- sion of depth: “look at that hedge. do you see its perspective? it’s built in a diminish- ing perspective! i believe the whole place is meant to be looked at from behind there, where we have just come from” (tc, ). this painting’s canvas and frame are en- tirely invisible to them—it is only the paint and the painting that they perceive. thus, pullman can only surmise the appropriate spectator position (“from behind there, where we have just come from”) after he has entered the painting, traversed its impercep- tible frame, and examined the shrinking hedges. nonetheless, there are some palpable differences between their world and the painting’s world. consider, for example, the initial moment when they walk “into the picture”: “after taking a few steps forward [satters] encounters what by contrast is an icy surface of air. he stops, catches his breath. for a moment the hot wind beats behind him, then he steps into the temperature of the ‘picture’ or the ‘hallucination.’ it is moist and chilly but windless” (tc, ). the air in this picture is startling: satters “catches his breath,” shocked by the difference in temperature between painting-air and purgatory-air. but despite being colder, thinner, and windless, the crucial issue here is that the painting-air is still encountered as air. painting-air might be slightly different from purgatory-air, but the air is essentially the same type: breathable. satters and pullman can disregard the invisible frame of this painting, treating it as a window frame to step through (although not without some shock), placing them physically in the scene of representation. lewis effectively equates the experience of walking into a place (through a window frame) with the experience of being absorbed in a represen- tation (through a picture frame). at this point, the contrast to stein could not be more striking. where stein, in front of the painting of waterloo, imagines that “there was no air, there was no feeling of air, it just was an oil painting and it had a life of its own . . . ” (“p,” – ), lewis imagines a painting so full of air that his two characters not only describe it in detail, but feel it in their lungs. whereas stein divides the place of a painting and the place of the be- holder, lewis combines these two spaces into one. instead of a painting separated from the spectator’s physical world by its airlessness, the panorama pullman and satters encounter is their world, albeit a slightly different part of their world, where the air . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object “has a rarity of its own—it’s really as though we were on the matterhorn” (tc, ). most crucially, stein invokes the example of painting to illustrate her commitment to the irrelevance of the spectator experience to the meaning of the art object. lewis, in contrast, emphasizes that these purgatory-paintings need active spectators—the physical and mental involvement of pullman and satters is required for the painting to be complete. it is not, however, as if lewis creates this entire episode of pullman and satters strolling into a painting in order to advocate air-filled painting as a theory of art. in fact, it is exactly the reverse. he is satirizing those artists and critics who, if they did not exactly believe that art was full of air, did believe that art was something to be stepped into and completed by its beholders. in lewis’s opinion, this belief was an integral part of a broader cultural trend (which he termed “time-philosophy”) that had be- come all too common in modern, post-impressionist art and literature. when satters mumbles that their new landscape is not exactly a picture but “like a picture”—and pullman immediately agrees (“exactly!”)—lewis is taking aim at the vision of the work of art here embodied (tc, ). in other words, this panorama resembles a painting without actually being one. lewis satirizes art that needs its spectators’ experience to be whole, because such art fails to differentiate between a painting of a panorama and one’s experience of a view at the top of the matterhorn. what i am arguing here, that in stein the phenomenological space of the beholder is different from the space of the art object, is completely contraindicated in the criti- cal consensus on stein (a consensus that begins with lewis himself). instead of pro- ducing an art that merges content and context—that is, a painting and its beholder’s place, a poem and its reader’s point of view—stein wants to make everything about the beholder or reader irrelevant to her art. in the next section, i show how stein accomplishes this aim with tender buttons ( ), her exceptional book of avant-garde poems, by removing punctuation. although in discussing lewis’s dramatization of pull- man and satters intruding into the painting i am describing exactly the opposite of stein’s theory of art, and although lewis himself saw his position as completely op- posed to stein, lewis was, in fact, also advocating an art that imagined the beholder as irrelevant. in the third section, i show how the childermass is an articulate dramati- zation of time-philosophy in painting, and thus an excellent example of lewis’s aes- thetic theory put into novelistic practice. stein’s intrinsic quotation marks stein is primarily interesting to us as a writer, and only secondarily as an art theorist. what does her position on the ontology of art objects (“an oil painting is an oil paint- ing”) have to do with stein as a writer? in part, stein allies herself with painters through- out her career as a form of strategic self-advertisement: the popular success of the autobiography of alice b. toklas (excerpted in the atlantic monthly in ) was fueled by stein’s unabashed affiliation with this parisian avant-garde of henri matisse and pablo picasso. but her motives are also strategic in a different sense. stein aligns . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y her poetry with picasso’s painting to increase the value of her seemingly inaccessible writing as an art with meaning. thus she explains that she “was expressing the same thing in literature” as picasso was in painting. most often, literary critics have interpreted this claim as stein’s support for “literary cubism”—a jumble of words juxtaposed for their overall sound or appearance instead of their meaning. thus michael hoffman interprets stein’s tender buttons as “verbal collage,” and marjorie perloff reads susie asado as matching, “the instability, indeter- minacy, and acoherence of cubism.” but i am arguing that stein does not share hoffman’s and perloff’s view of picasso’s cubist painting—and more pertinently— that her work is not “literary cubist” in their sense of an art of indeterminacy. for one thing, her portrait of picasso—written in the middle of his synthetic cubist (i.e., collage) stage—focuses repeatedly on his ability to produce a definite art object with a precise meaning. picasso creates “a heavy thing, a solid thing and a complete thing” which has “a solid meaning, a struggling meaning, a clear meaning” (“pi,” ). fur- thermore, he entrances a coterie of beholders (“they were always following him,” [“pi,” ]) with his complete meanings. stein champions picasso’s cubism because, like herself, he asserts the completeness of the work of art; that is, when the art object “is completely contained within itself . . . this gives it at once its complete solidity, its complete imagination, its complete existence.” she aims to produce a similarly com- plete, entrancing object—albeit a poetic object—one which could produce that feel- ing of “no air” at the waterloo panorama, and that sensation of waking up in a gallery and realizing “that an oil painting is an oil painting” (“p,” ). she wants her poem to be so completely absorbing and meaningful that where the reader is does not matter: “on one level, she might simply mean that her writing is absorbing for the reader: it is nice that nobody writes as they talk and that the printed language is different from the spoken otherwise you could not lose yourself in books and of course you do, you com- pletely do. i always do.” if losing yourself in books sounds a lot like straying into a painting, stein’s interest in the reader’s engrossment is nonetheless undercut by the logic of her main aesthetic point. it is not the process of completely losing yourself in books that she is focusing on, but rather the irrelevance of the response of the reader to the meaning of the text. in other words, she is describing something much closer to the fiction of the reader’s nonexistence. a poem succeeds as “a complete thing” by ignoring the reader: “an audience is pleasant if you have it, it is flattering and flattering is agreeable always, but if you have an audience the being an audience is their business, they are the audience you are the writer, let each attend to their own business.” to clarify, this is not merely an avant-garde indifference to success, although at times stein does indeed display such an indifference. instead, stein is committed to distinguishing the writer’s “busi- ness” from the reader’s (whose presence is merely “pleasant” and “flattering”). what the reader does is something she is indifferent to, or more properly, what the reader does is something that has no relevance to the meaning of the text. at best, you as a writer can hope that your “force” is felt, that somebody “will have to realise that you know what you mean and so they will agree that you mean what you know, what you . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object know you mean.” the author’s intention to mean must be assumed as an act of faith on the part of the reader, but whether or not the reader offers such good-faith, stein knows what she means when she writes. recall once again her response to the panorama: “there was no feeling of air, it just was an oil painting and it had a life of its own.” the waterloo painting disregards the viewer’s “feeling of air”—that is, it eliminates the relevance of the world outside the painting, the world of the european museum which the painting is literally part of. stein attempts to produce poetry and prose with a similarly “complete existence” by eliminating punctuation, above all commas. the problem with commas is that they let “you stop and take a breath but if you want to take a breath you ought to know yourself that you want to take a breath.” just as the air you inhale while looking at a painting has nothing to do with the picture on the wall (because the painting has “a life of its own” and “no feeling of air”), the air you inhale while reading has nothing to do with stein’s written texts: “gertrude stein said commas were unnecessary, the sense should be intrinsic and not have to be explained by commas and otherwise commas were only a sign that one should pause and take breath but one should know of oneself when one wanted to pause and take breath (“a,” ). she sees punctuation as an effort to dic- tate the literal experience of reading; to focus on the reader would be to sacrifice the autonomy of the text. in fact, stein writes that “the longer, the more complicated the sentence . . . the more i felt the passionate need of [the words] taking care of them- selves by themselves and not helping them” by adding punctuation (“pag,” ). stein extends this point beyond commas, claiming that all diacritical marks (question marks, exclamation marks, apostrophes, quotation marks, etc.) should be eliminated in order to confirm the irrelevance of the reader (“pag,” – ). the only mark of punctua- tion she will finally accept is the period, and not because the period is of any use to the reader, but because it is inevitable that a writer sometimes needs to take a break: “physically one had to again and again stop sometime and if one had to again and again stop some time then periods had to exist” (“pag,” ). the crucial point here is that stein’s use of periods is not a contradiction of her larger critique of diacritical marks, but rather an example of her thorough commitment to the writer’s engrossment in her own writing and of the irrelevance of the reader’s body to the meaning of the text. if periods are a necessary condition for the poet to write—and thus must be used— commas and other punctuation unnecessarily intrude upon the reader’s own “busi- ness” and should be avoided. starting with “objects,” the first section of tender buttons, stein intends some of her words to signify as if they were detached from the sentence by quotation marks— yet she leaves out the quotation marks that would help the reader understand her meaning. “a box” begins, “out of kindness comes redness and out of rudeness comes rapid same question, out of an eye comes research, out of selection comes painful cattle” (“tb,” ). such an apparently random list of words does not make sense until we recognize that stein is abstracting the definition of “boxiness.” a box is a container for particular objects: “boxiness,” stein suggests, embodies the relationship between a set and its examples. thus to define “a box” she writes a sentence containing variations . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y on the formulaic phrase, “out of set-x comes y-example.” blushing (“redness”) might indicate that a compliment has been paid (a “kindness”), hounding someone with a repetitive “same question” is an example of “rudeness,” while “research” is anything produced by looking around (with “an eye”). in each case, stein’s words are potentially replaceable, marked by implied—but not printed—quotation marks. each word is a possible defined value for either x or y. set-x equals “kindness,” “rudeness” or “an eye,” while example-y equals “redness,” “rapid same question” or “research”. to un- derstand her intended meaning, you must not only know what the words mean; you must also recognize the entire sentence’s repetitive formula. you must understand, moreover, that implied quotation marks signal a word as one example of a set, even though these quotation marks are not literally present. such grammar games continue throughout tender buttons, becoming more and more complicated by “rooms.” but regardless of the complexity of her sentences, she always intends to mean with her texts, even when the words she chooses, “were not the words that had in them any quality of description.” a reader might make mistakes when attempting to punctuate, and understand, one of these sentences for himself. but that, as stein would say, is the reader’s “business,” not hers. her aim is to choose words so carefully, and to construct sentences so scrupulously, that punctua- tion marks are not required: the words and syntax are doing the work the punctuation marks used to do. her meaning is there to be found, even if such sentences initially appear nonsensical. “i made innumerable efforts to make words write without sense,” stein wrote, “and found it impossible.” from a purely literary historical standpoint, one purpose of my description is to rectify the mistaken lineage often provided for stein by contemporary literary critics, where she most typically emerges as a poststructuralist poet avant la lettre. in perloff’s words, stein intends to dramatize “the arbitrariness of discourse, the impossibility of arriving at ‘the meaning’ even as countless possible meanings present themselves to our attention” (poi, ). in fact, as i have been stressing, stein is completely indiffer- ent to the reader’s particular perspective. but for perloff, because stein’s meaning “all depends on our angle of vision,” stein’s writing parallels “the instability, indetermi- nacy, and acoherence of cubism” (poi, – ). according to these views, stein intends transgressive indeterminacy, and her most fascinating characteristic, according to charles altieri, is her “freedom of linguistic play.” for critics such as perloff, altieri, and jayne walker, tender buttons is valued for the dramatic effects of its grammar games, syntax disruption, and language obfuscation; it is “a text to play with.” but just as stein does not care where or when the reader breathes, she also does not care how much fun the reader is having. she creates texts that mean what they mean regardless of her reader’s desires to play with them. closely related to these poststructuralist interpretations are depictions of stein as the harbinger of l=a=n=g=u=a=g=e poets such as bruce andrews, charles bernstein, lyn hejinian, and susan howe. these poets readily adopt stein as the poetic matriarch of their “radical modernism”—a kind of incipient postmodernism suggested by the “nonuse value of language in stein.” accordingly, the december . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object issue of the journal l=a=n=g=u=a=g=e contains a special feature of seven poets interpreting tender buttons. but in contrast to my reading of stein (namely, that for her the reader’s experience is irrelevant to the meaning of the poem), these poets value tender buttons for precisely the opposite reason. michael davidson and bruce andrews believe the poem incorporates each reader’s experience into the meaning of the text so that tender buttons increases the “possibilities for meaning” as it is read by more and more people, because “readers do the rewriting.” extending this logic, bernstein understands poetry’s value as the “sum of all the specific conditions of the experience (place, time, order, light, mood, position, to infinity) made available by reading.” if stein’s point is that the waterloo painting eliminates the relevance of the world outside the painting (the world of air, light and time), bernstein’s point—in contrast—is to underscore the total significance of “the specific conditions of the ex- perience” that make up the reader’s world. not only do the l=a=n=g=u=a=g=e poets value stein for exactly the wrong reasons, these poets also contribute to the inaccurate—but canonical—view of stein as the first modernist poet of indeterminacy and reader-derived meaning. in addition to these literary historical aims, my point in discussing stein’s notion of painting and writing is to show that stein understood the irrelevance of the beholder (of a painting) as related to the irrelevance of the reader. in both painting and writing the audience’s “job” is distinct from the artist’s. one might imagine that i am aiming to replace the contemporary description of stein (as a proto-poststructuralist or an an- cestral l=a=n=g=u=a=g=e poet), with another, unlikely label: stein as an expatri- ate new critic in avant-garde clothing, promoting the autonomous poetic object. new critics w. k. wimsatt and monroe c. beardsley, for example, argue that one’s affec- tive responses to a poem do not lead to satisfying critical inquiries: readers must avoid the “affective fallacy,” that situation where the “poem itself, as an object of specifi- cally critical judgment, tends to disappear” in the surge of the reader’s emotional re- sponse. it might appear, therefore, that stein’s theory of poetic meaning resembles the new critical poetic “objects” and their relation to the reader—stein, wimsatt, and beardsley all want more emphasis on the poem as object, and less on the reader’s emotional response to the poem. but there are crucial differences between stein’s account of the irrelevance of the reader and the new critics’ privileging of the poetic object over the reader’s response. for wimsatt and beardsley, the danger of the affective fallacy is that a poem’s mean- ing could—and does—“disappear” in the presence of readerly emotion. in response, wimsatt and beardsley aim to protect the poem (like museum guards around a monet) from the audience members whose enthusiasm might besmirch the work. but for stein, there is no need to protect the poem from the reader because this particular hazard does not exist. or, to put it more precisely, this particular hazard cannot exist. a poem’s meaning is never in danger of being effaced by the reader—however radical the reader’s interpretation—because the reader’s response, by definition, cannot alter the poem’s meaning in any way. the meaning of a poem is entirely indifferent to the reader’s emotion, or, for that matter, indifferent to any type of judgment the reader . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y could deliver. thus, unlike wimsatt and beardsley, stein is not prioritizing objective over subjective responses: each is just as inevitable—and irrelevant—to the meaning of the text. stein’s decision to remove all forms of diacritical, readerly assistance (commas, quo- tation marks, etc.) is the logical extension of her theory of textual meaning. your breath as a reader—and at the most basic level, everything particular to you as a person—is irrelevant to her meaning. not only does stein present a challenge to poststructuralist and postmodern theory—and particularly to those poststructuralist accounts of her own poetry, where meaning “all depends on our angle of vision” (poi, )—she also presents a challenge to the new critical account of poetry as a cultural artifact endan- gered by the reader’s misinterpretation. my literary historical argument about stein, therefore, is also her theoretical argument about literary meaning. lewis’s texts without time considering lewis’s and stein’s shared commitment to avant-garde art and litera- ture, and more relevantly, their common interest in the relation of art to the beholder, one might have suspected some mutual understanding between them. stein was largely supportive of and amused by lewis; lewis, on the other hand, despised stein and her work. in some respects, his repugnance is a predictable version of the received ac- count of lewis as a hostile, misogynous, anti-semite. most often, his antipathy ap- pears as hysterical aversion: stein is a phony member of the avant-garde—“a faux- naif” and “a sham”—because she produced fake art. lewis also implies that she attempts to emasculate young (white) male writers, such as ernest hemingway, by overpowering them with her monstrous, female (jewish) persona. but these deliber- ately offensive accusations are a type of rhetorical camouflage, masking a far greater anxiety. stein threatened lewis’s description of himself as “the enemy”—that is, the outspoken artiste in the liminal world of avant-garde modernism. “i defend my choice of her as an enemy at all times and in all places,” he writes in “the diabolical principle and the dithryambic spectator,” an essay first published in one of lewis’s critical or- gans, a periodical he in fact named the enemy. even this indictment suggests a problem: if stein is “the enemy’s” enemy in the enemy, lewis’s singularity and nov- elty are precarious. although lewis despises what he believes is stein’s “bad philosophy,” that philoso- phy was far closer to lewis’s than he was in a position to admit. like stein, lewis is repeatedly focusing not on the relation between a representation and the object rep- resented, but on the relation between the space of the painting and the space of the beholder. consider, once again, the scene of pullman and satters encountering the painting in the childermass. “milky” wall surfaces dissolve instantaneously, and the dusky shafts of sunlight are more dense than they appear: these solid luminous slices have the consistence of smoked glass: apparitions gradually take shape in their substance, hesitate or arrive with fixity, become delicately plastic, . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object increase their size, burst out of the wall like an inky exploding crysalid. . . . satters surrep- titiously reaches out his hand to the cutting edge of the light. it is hard, it’s more like marble. it is not sunlight or it is frozen beams. he hastilywithdraws his hand, looking to see if pullman has noticed. (tc, ) lewis, a professional painter as well as a novelist, depicts light filtering through air as a thick, viscous substance, perhaps the consistency of oil paint as it is applied to a canvas (initially gooey and finally solidifying). the image of enlarging apparitions which “burst out of the wall like an inky exploding crysalid” also suggests a painting in the process of its creation. but pullman and satters are able to see the paint and the painting—and nothing else: not the canvas, not the paintbrush, not anything surrounding the painting. the artist, who sometimes paints slowly and hesitantly, and sometimes creates forms boldly and quickly, is also invisible: “apparitions gradually take shape in their substance, hesitate or arrive with fixity.” in other words, satters and pullman experience this painting-apparition not as a representation, but as part of the physical world in which they themselves exist, a world in which satters can touch the solid sunlight. by the final scene inside the purgatory-painting, it is clear that this painting—indis- tinguishable from the physical world—does not fulfill lewis’s notion of a representa- tion. the incident begins when satters becomes distraught by the hostile reception he receives from an eighteenth-century “ploughman” in the painting: “his face terrified me! i didn’t tell you at the time—i felt he knew quite well you were looking at him! . . . i feel we ought not to be here. . . . i feel an intruder. . . . i feel i’m trespassing” (tc, – ). satters senses that his gaze is acknowledged by the figures represented, lead- ing him to experience anxiety and dislocation. in a sense, it is as if the painting— through the figural representations in it—wants to exclude him from the representa- tion but cannot (“i feel we ought not to be here. . . . i feel an intruder”). in other words, the invisible frame they have stepped through has failed as a barrier to halt them in front of the painting. satters becomes so disturbed by the hostile reception he receives that he picks a fight with the “ploughman,” eventually mangling the represen- tation “out of human recognition” (tc, ). with this act of disfiguration, satters and pullman are violently expelled from the painting: “the light is extinguished in a black flash and they are flung upon their faces” (tc, ). not only are they expunged from the painting, but the panorama itself disappears. by interacting with painted repre- sentations, satters brings about the destruction of the painting. thus halfway through the novel, lewis reveals the true function of this painting: to provide a satire of the contemporary understanding of painting as a space the be- holder can enter. the disappearance of the painting is the key to this long scene, for satters and pullman are the satiric “puppets” who (unwittingly) bring about the result lewis felt was inevitable: art that a person can enter into will lead to the destruction of art. the childermass is, in fact, one of the sharpest examples of lewis’s satire—a genre so significant to him that he considered it the modern art par excellence, encompass- ing both his fiction and his painting strategies. he does not simply present us with a modern version of purgatory as situational comedy (although the novel often does that . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y too). instead, lewis imagines a visual illustration of “time-philosophy,” the modern preoccupation with temporal experience that he spends pages disparaging and discrediting in time and western man ( ), the aethestic-poltical-philosophical trea- tise he published one year before the childermass. pullman—lewis’s surrogate—is unperturbed to enter a panorama that is “like a picture,” because this panorama fails as a representation: “this is nothing. . . . it’s hollow! it’s only time!” (twm, – ). pullman need not treat it like a painting (that is, by standing in front of it and looking at it), but can walk into it, as an atmospheric disturbance: “it’s a time-hallucination— we don’t get them often but i’ve seen several” (twm, ). it might be disruptive, but it is not art: the experience of air in time is only as interesting or uninteresting as the weather. for lewis, the crucial characteristic of art—such as his own abstract, vorticist paint- ing—is that it is a different order of experience from reality, or “life,” chiefly because it is a form of life that does not rely upon time. thus he writes in blast i ( ), his early vorticist polemic, that art is “in no way directly dependent on ‘life.’ it is no equivalent for life, but another life [what stein calls “a life of its own”], as necessary to existence as the former.” in contrast, the “time-hallucination” pull- man and satters have walked into relies upon the viewer’s experience in life to pro- duce its meaning. tarr (another lewis surrogate) argues a similar point against time- painting: “life is anything that could live and die. art is peculiar; it is anything that lives and yet you cannot imagine as dying.” when anastaysa, tarr’s intellectual part- ner, counters with a familiar rebuttal, “why cannot art die? if you smash up a statue, it is as dead as a dead man,” tarr remains adamant: “no, it is not. that is the difference. it is the god, or soul, we say, of the man. it always has existed, if it is a true statue.” the reason the work of art cannot die is because to die is to stop breathing, and the work of art cannot stop breathing because the work of art never was breathing. in other words, lewis argues, art is a form of life, but with crucial differences: it is a life without air, without the particularities of a certain place at a specific time, and without the possibility of death. for lewis, all these characteristics of art can be redescribed as life without the experience of time. in contrast, the panorama pullman and satters encounter is only a time-experience: they could go around it, but even “that would take hours”; instead they choose to go through it, which also necessarily takes time, albeit “a few minutes” (tc, ). in blast i, caliph’s design and time and western man, lewis presents most of the major modern art movements (including impressionism, futurism and surrealism), as manifestations of “the prevalent time-doctrine” (twm, ). he argues that the impressionist commitment to quick, en plein air painting is, in fact, a commitment to temporality. just as marcel proust “embalms” his past in a la recherche du temps perdu, so does claude monet embalm his experience of a moment of morning light (and, in other paintings, afternoon light, noon light, and dusky light) on the rouen cathedral. futurism fares little better (dismissed as impressionism with cars, or “automobilism”), while surrealism aims to make art “super-real” by mummifying real- ity. . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object oswald spengler’s theory of art, according to lewis, is one of the clearest articula- tions of time-philosophy’s aesthetic philosophy: because spengler conceives of art as a “full, coloured, breathing materiality . . . it not only dies for ever, but everything about it dies for ever. there is nothing ‘universal’ left in it” (twm, ). when spengler conceives of art as alive in time—with a “breathing materiality”—he describes an art with air. such art is flooded by experiences of time, by the particularities and contin- gencies of its temporal existence. lewis presses his point further. the contemporary audience of time-philosophy art is not satisfied with “a picture, a representation.” in- stead, “we exact real blood and tears. we want, in short, reality” (twm, ). by opposing reality (“real blood and tears”) to a representation (“a picture”), lewis un- derscores the opposition between time-art and a representation. by breaking down the distinction between art and life, a time-philosophy object—whether it is a painting by salvador dalí or the painting pullman and satters walk through—is a social phe- nomenon as opposed to an aesthetic one. as lewis puts it, time-art “no longer stands for itself” (twm, ). lewis, who is rarely credited with a coherent theory of representation, is actually consistently—satirically—expressing one. most importantly, what initially appears to be the characteristic of his divergence from stein—the air in the painting—turns out to be an endorsement of her theory (although lewis would never imagine himself aligned with stein). just as stein removes commas from her poetry to exclude the audience’s breath from the meaning of her text, lewis scorns time-art for its “breath- ing materiality” (twm, ). in fact, lewis’s condemnation of the childermass paint- ing as a “time-hallucination” takes stein’s theory and expands on it. by rejecting time from art, lewis is not just ignoring the physical existence of the audience via his or her breath. he is attempting to withhold from art that which any living creature needs to sustain itself: regular, repeated intakes of air, over a sustained period of time. his repu- diation of time-philosophy is, in essence, a sweeping rejection of the experience of the viewer or reader to the meaning of the work of art. however fleeting a human experi- ence might be, it must have duration. i am suggesting that lewis and stein—one hostile to the other and neither of them aligned by critics—actually hold a similar theory of the art object, and from their un- derstanding of the relation between painting and the beholder we can deduce a whole set of other issues. consider, first of all, the literary historical claims: my reading goes against the accepted view of both stein and lewis. in section two, i argued that stein is not trying to produce indeterminate meaning, and thus she cannot be satisfactorily categorized as a poststructuralist or a postmodernist (as is often attempted). while the critical consensus on lewis is less unified (in part because many studies of his work do not tackle his complicated aesthetic theory), the style of his satirical writing has led critics to interpret it as incipiently postmodern. david peters corbett, for example, interprets lewis’s work as, “ . . . radically ambiguous—at once essential to all human experience and claustrophobically private.” jessica burstein provides a provocative account of lewis’s “cold modernism” (characterized by prosthetic devices and beetle shells), also taking its implicit cue from postmodernism. fredric jameson most ex- . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y plicitly claims lewis’s modernism as postmodernism by noting, “the striking similari- ties between lewis’ undertaking and the contemporary poststructuralist aesthetic, which signals the dissolution of the modernist paradigm . . . and foretells the emergence of some new, properly postmodernist or schizophrenic conception of the cultural arti- fact. . . . ” jameson characterizes lewis’s narrative as an unconscious, postmodern critique of political ideology; a lewis novel “frees its ideological content to demon- strate its own contradictions” (foa, – ). according to jameson, lewis’s “protofascism” is, in fact, a sophisticated, life-long opposition to traditional marxism, and thus such “protofascism,” has more in common with althusserian theory than with hitler’s policies. but my point here is that lewis is not producing a postmodern “cul- tural artifact,” and thus his “protofascism” cannot be rationalized as a postmodern ideological critique. instead, lewis aims—quite explicitly—to produce a satire of the most egregious cultural phenomenon (in his view)—the “time cult.” the other effects generated (i.e., narrative discontinuity and prosthetic persons) are not indica- tions of his postmodernism, but side-effects of his comprehensive satirical goal. more- over, by rejecting the idea that the spectator’s experience is part of the meaning of the work, lewis is also rejecting any theory—poststructuralist, postmodernist, reader-re- sponse or some other variation—that values the spectator’s contribution to the work of art. in other words, lewis is producing not the first example of postmodernism, but the first critique of it. the “time-hallucination” painting in the childermass (which has been wholly neglected by critics), does not raise issues in the realist tradition, such as how a painting depicting real life relates to the subject matter it represents. instead, time-painting foregrounds the issue of whether an art work even has an impenetrable frame that stops you, physically, at the surface of the painting. lewis is, in fact, antici- pating a version of michael fried’s central theory of twentieth-century modern paint- ing, articulated decades later in “art and objecthood” ( ). as in stein’s essays and lewis’s novel, in fried’s essay the focus is on the relationship between the art object and its beholder. noting the escalating dominance of the physical object to one’s expe- rience of art, fried argues that the central struggle in modernist painting is to “undo or neutralize objecthood in one way or another,” by opposing all manner of literality (aao, ). in contrast, the minimalist art of the s, represented by tony smith, robert morris and donald judd (among others), “offered their audience a kind of heightened perceptual experience” of the object in its installation space (aao, ). instead of defeating objecthood, minimalist art relished in objecthood by establishing the spectator’s experience as an essential part of a work’s meaning. temporality, as fried notes, is crucially connected to the notion of objecthood. unlike the modern painting and sculpture of frank stella and anthony caro, minimalist art “was preoccupied with experiences that persist in time; the ‘presentment’ of dura- tion, of ‘time itself as though it were some sort of literalist object (aao, ).’” fried and lewis both believe that temporality is part of the destruction of art; for fried, temporality is another version of objecthood, while for lewis, temporality is the cru- cial aspect of experience and thus the chief threat to art. moreover, one crucial aspect of fried’s theory is that art cannot simply disregard literality (or temporality); it must . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object defeat the theatrical presence of the literal object. when pullmann and satters are unable to perceive the physical conditions of painting as distinct from representa- tion—that is, they cannot see the canvas but can perceive the oil painting emerging as “an inky exploding crysalid” (tc, )—the novel is depicting time-painting simply ignoring its physical conditions, instead of acknowledging and overcoming those physical conditions. in a sense, lewis is ridiculing time-painting’s status as only an object in the world, and thus an experience of time. but the essential point here—that the experi- ence of temporality in art is anathema to art—is identical in both fried and lewis. the writers and artists lewis denounces venerate time as a literal object (in his view) instead of aiming to defeat objecthood. the time-art lewis warns against persists in other postmodern movements, such as conceptual, earthworks, happenings, and performance art. earthworks artist den- nis oppenheim notes that, “sculptors have never been as dynamically involved in time as they are now.” the decision by these artists to make art in and of the landscape foregrounds the spectator’s involvement in durational art. most recently, the sum- mer “tempo” exhibition at the museum of modern art (in queens), “focuses on distinct perceptions of time—phenomenological, empirical, political, and fictional,” by including works which require the spectator’s physical involvement. erwin wurm’s one minute sculpture is a performance series that instructs each museum-goer to complete a -second action (“hold your breath and think of spinoza”). such a work illustrates lewis’s point: time-art involves “the merging of art in life” in order to pro- duce a social experience in life—“not an aesthetic phenomenon” (dpds, – ). but besides these literary historical and art historical arguments (that it does not work to see either stein, or lewis, as postmodern), stein’s and lewis’s view that every- thing outside the “frame” of their work is irrelevant to meaning is one version of a major, twentieth-century theoretical debate. by focusing on the ontology of the art object, stein and lewis are in fact calling attention to a more general set of beliefs concerning the relation between a thing and its place. their view is that an object and its place are entirely separate conceptions, and that the artist should aim to maintain that separation. thus a poem is distinct from its reception in the world, a painting is distinct from its frame. in the subsequent chapters of the dissertation, i show how this notion of an object’s connection to place has reemerged in recent literary theory in the guise of a radically different topic: diaspora. but if the problem of the diasporic differs from stein and lewis’s interests in the ontology of the work of art, the basic structure of the debate is the same. specifically, recent theories of diaspora replace the thing with a person, and the place with a nation. instead of the question, how does an object relate to where it is in the world, the question is now, in what sense is a people related to the place they are from? notes . gertrude stein, “pictures,” ( ) in writings, – , vol. (new york: library of america, ), – . “pictures” will henceforth be abbreviated as “p,” stein’s writings, – , vol. will henceforth be abbreviated as v . see also volume one of stein’s writings, – , vol. (new york: library of america, ), henceforth abbreviated as v . . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y . stein is introducing a sophisticated rendering of her relationship to painting here, one which is remarkably akin to michael fried’s revolutionary claims decades later. in a series of essays and books, fried argues, “that for diderot and the french anti-theatrical tradition generally, the painter’s task was crucially to negate or neutralize what i have called the primordial convention that paintings are made to be beheld. this was to be done, in the first place, by depicting figures so engrossed or . . . absorbed in what they were doing, thinking, and feeling that they appeared oblivious of everything else, includ- ing, crucially, the beholder standing before the painting;” michael fried, art and objecthood: essays and reviews (chicago: university of chicago press, ), – , henceforth abbreviated as aao. a successful rendering of absorption could lead to a painter’s “ultimate purpose—bringing actual view- ers to halt in front of the painting and holding them there in a virtual trance of imaginative involve- ment;” aao, . it is precisely this “virtual trance” that stein describes repeatedly in her essays, stemming from painting’s ability to “give me pleasure and hold my attention” (stein, “p”, ). . wyndham lewis, the childermass (london: methuen, ). henceforth abbreviated as tc. . of course, this is complicated by the fact that satters and pullman are already dead, and their experience in the afterlife is as close to life as they can get. but instead of problematizing my argu- ment, this point is in fact a support of it. lewis is suggesting that air-filled painting is nearly indistin- guishable—not just from real-life—but from an attenuated after-life in purgatory. . my larger project concerns the ontology of the work of art, not only in stein and lewis, but also in william carlos williams, charles olson, marcel duchamp, and more contemporary writers and artists including amiri baraka, robert smithson and leslie marmon silko. each is interested in the nature of the object and hence the position of the subject (both reader and writer) in relation to the object. in taking up an aesthetic problem at the heart of modernism—and postmodernism—i also explore related political projects. in fact, i argue that writers with political positions as different as stein’s suffragism, lewis’s anti-communist comopolitanism (and, as i suggest in subsequent chap- ters, williams’s diasporic nativism, olson’s new deal liberalism and baraka’s black nationalism) are all committed to deriving their politics from their vision of the work of art, a vision articulated by each in terms of air. . gertrude stein, the autobiography of alice b. toklas (new york: harcourt brace, ). other members of this avant-garde group included juan gris and francis picabia, both of whom stein befriended and promoted. . gertrude stein, “picasso,” ( ) in v , ; henceforth abbreviated as “pi.” . gertrude stein, tender buttons ( ) in v , – , henceforth abbreviated as “tb”; and “susie asado,” v , . michael hoffman, development of abstractionism in the writings of gertrude stein (philadelphia: pennsylvania university press, ), ; marjorie perloff, poetics of indeter- minacy: rimbaud to cage (princeton: princeton university press, ), – , henceforth abbrevi- ated as poi. . gertrude stein, “what is english literature,” ( ) in v , . henceforth abbreviated as “wiel.” . gertrude stein, gertrude stein: a primer for the gradual understanding of gertrude stein, ed. robert bartlett haas (los angeles: black sparrow press, ), . . from gertrude stein, how writing is written: volume two of the previously uncollected writings of gertrude stein, ed. robert bartlett haas (los angeles: black sparrow press, ), quoted in bruce keller (ed.), a gertrude stein companion: content with the example (new york: green- wood press, ), . . stein’s relationship to success was complicated. on the one hand, she reported being hurt by people’s failure to understand her meaning. she compares the public rejection of her poetry to the initial rejection of matisse’s painting: “she could not understand why it infuriated everybody . . . it bothered her and angered her . . . just as later she did not understand why since the writing was all so clear and natural they mocked at and were enraged by her work” (stein, “autobiography”, v , , henceforth abbreviated as “a”). but on the other hand, she takes this initial confusion and rejection to be a validation of her poetic genius and her poetry’s semi-conscious staying power: “they always say . . . that my writing is appalling but they always quote it and what is more, they quote it correctly. . . . my sentences do get under their skin, only they do not know that they do” (“a,” ). . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object . gertrude stein, “henry james,” ( – ), in v , . . at first glance, it might seem easier to justify the reader’s “business” of absorption than the writer’s absorption in her own words. stein, while interested in both, is aesthetically committed to the writer’s to a greater extent. in her essay, “what is english literature”, she characterizes this pleasure of concentration with the text not in terms of the reader’s engrossment, but the writer’s “choice be- tween serving god and mammon . . . [which] has nothing to do with religion, it has nothing to with success. it has to do with completion” (“wiel,” ). the reference here is to the new testament (“no one can serve two masters. . . . you cannot serve god and wealth”, matt : —“mammon” is greek for “wealth”). if a writer uses words “indirectly” then he or she is serving mammon, and by extension, the reader. thus in choosing to write to a particular audience, the writer is choosing par- ticularity and materialism (hence “mammon”) over god, and losing her “direct” relationship to words. . gertrude stein, “poetry and grammar,” ( ) in v , – , henceforth abbreviated as “pag.” . stein considers and rejects various forms of punctuation for several pages. questions and exclamations are implied in a sentence’s form, “and so why add to it the question mark . . . exclamation marks have the same difficulty” (“pag,” ). other marks are rejected because they resemble com- mas: colons and semi-colons “are definitely more commas than period . . . they really have within them deeply within them fundamentally within them the comma nature” (“pag,” ). . one of the most suggestive and illuminating readings of “a box” is william gass’s, “gertrude stein and the geography of the sentence,” in the world within the word (new york: knopf, ), – . he suggests that stein’s “manifest text” is actually a “coded commentary on the covert texts” (the world within the word, ). gass, however, does not consider how stein’s removal of punctua- tion marks alters the typical interpretation of these poems, nor does he consider stein’s reasons for their removal as part of her larger aesthetic. . consider the following example in which stein presents a series of noun modifiers which are sorted out as the sentence continues: “blind and weak and organised and worried and betrothed and resumed and never startled and not at all bloated, this which is no rarer than frequently is not so astonishing when hair brushing is added,” (“tb,” ). as with “a box,” this sentence is baffling until one recognizes the categorization of words by part of speech. “blind,” “weak,” “organized,” “worried” and so on are examples of adjectives, while “startled” is “never” in this set because it is a verb (“startling” is the correct adjective). “not at all bloated” might appear problematic—“bloated” is an adjective—until we realize that the entire phrase, “not at all bloated” is an adjectival phrase (as in, “the not at all bloated sponge”). thus stein includes “not at all bloated” because it suggests the diffi- culty of categorization when certain words have several possible syntactical functions. “this,” for example, can be either a pronoun or a demonstrative adjective: hence the “astonishing” situation of “this” functioning as both a pronoun (as in the phrase, “this which is no rarer than . . . ”) and as a demonstrative adjective (as in the second “this” of “this is this dress, aider,” v , ). the sentence concludes with an adverb (“frequently”) and verb participle (“hair brushing”) because both have syn- tactically dual roles. . gertrude stein, “portraits and repetitions,” ( ) in v , . . haas (ed.), gertrude stein: a primer for the gradual understanding of gertrude stein, . . charles altieri, painterly abstraction in modernist american poetry: the contemporaneity of modernism (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), . . jayne l. walker, the making of a modernist: gertrude stein from three lives to tender buttons (amherst, ma: university of massachusetts press, ), . . charles bernstein, a poetics (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ). . michael davidson, “on reading stein,” ; bruce andrews, “text and context,” , re- printed in bruce andrews and charles bernstein (eds.), the l=a=n=g=u=a=g=e book (carbondale: southern illinois university press, ). for another account of the l=a=n=g=u=a=g=e poets’ interpretation of stein, see george hartley, textual politics and the language poets (bloomington: indiana university press, ): – . . charles bernstein, “the dollar value of poetry,” , reprinted in andrews and bernstein (eds.), the l=a=n=g=u=a=g=e book. . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y . w. k. wimsatt and monroe beardsley, the verbal icon: studies in the meaning of poetry (new york: noonday press, ), . . wyndham lewis, time and western man, ed. paul edwards (santa rosa: black sparrow press, ), . henceforth abbreviated as twm. . wyndham lewis, men without art, ed. seamus cooney (santa rosa: black sparrow press, ), . henceforth abbreviated as mwa. . wyndham lewis, the diabolical principle and the dithyrambic spectator (london: chatto and windus, ), vi. henceforth abbreviated as dpds. . satire for lewis “is nothing else but the truth”, but “it is the ‘truth’ of the intellect” instead of the “‘truth’ of the average romantic sensualism’” (lewis, mwa, – ). lewis emphasizes the intel- lect in contrast to “romantic sensualism” in order to distinguish his work from escapist fiction, which denies the reality of the modern world. while the “plain-reader” might suppose that “the author . . . is mainly occupied with the problem of taking us out of ourselves . . . making us live for a few hours a more exciting life than our own” (mwa, ), the satirist aims for a permanent art that is altogether different and more substantial because it requires “the entire human capacity—for sensation, reflec- tion, imagination, and will” (mwa, ). satire is also like lewis’s vorticist painting because both aim to criticize modern culture, without merely attempting to escape from it: “vorticism accepted the machine-world: that is the point to stress. . . . this, of course, serves to define vorticism as the oppo- site of an ‘escapist’ doctrine.” from wyndham lewis on art: collected writings – , ed. walter michel and c. j. fox (new york: funk and wagnalls, ), . . vorticism essentially emerged from lewis’s vorticist “manifesto” in blast , the magazine he edited in . the various artists and writers associated with the magazine included ezra pound, rebecca west, ford maddox ford, gaudier-brzeska, edward wadsworth, and jacob epstein (among others). in charles harrison’s words, vorticism was “determinedly anti-victorian and anti-pictur- esque”; “the mechanical and the geometric were upheld against the organic and the naturalistic, energy against sensibility, will against morality.” charles harrison, english art and modernism: – (new haven: yale university press, ), . vorticism has been compared to (and is at least related to), cubism, futurism, and expressionism. . wyndham lewis (ed.), blast (santa rosa: black sparrow press, ), . . wyndham lewis, tarr: the version, ed. paul o’keeffe (santa rosa: black sparrow press, ), . . lewis, tarr, – . . the one major art movement lewis is ambivalent towards is cubism. although he sometimes dismissed cubist still-life paintings with the punning label, “nature mortism”, he was also admittedly indebted to the cubism he sometimes “blasted.” his training at the slade might have left him fairly hostile to new, continental european art movements, but by his painting showed the influence of picasso’s and braque’s developing analytical cubist style. see “chapter : cubism, futurism, vorticism,” in harrison, english art and modernism, – ; and “chapter : matter and creation: painting, – ,” in paul edwards, wyndham lewis: painter and writer (new haven: yale university press, ), – . . lewis’s term “automobilism” comes from blast: “futurism, as preached by marinetti, is largely impressionism up=to=date. to this is added his automobilism and nietzsche stunt,” (lewis, blast i, ). lewis complains that the futurists’ relationship to machinery is more like worship. they are too emotional and not thoughtful enough: “not a deliberate and reasoned enthusiasm for the possibilities that lie in this new spectacle of machinery; of the use it can be put to in art.” wyndham lewis, caliph’s design: architects! where is your vortex?, ed. paul edwards (santa barbara: black sparrow press, ), . but the larger complaint against futurism was that it stemmed from impressionism, without advancing on what the impressionists attempted: “the futurists, and their french followers, have as the basis of their aesthetic the impressionists generally. they are simply a rather abstruse and complex form of the french impressionists” (caliph’s design, ). . his specific argument against surrealism works as follows: the surrealists “pass over into the living material of all art, its ground and what it contemplates, and . . . tamper directly with the cezannesque apples, for instance, before the painter has started his picture” (dpds, ). in other . siraganian / / , : pm siraganian / theorizing the art object words, when the surrealists transform an apple before painting it, they effectively aim to alter life, instead of art. since surrealism is “the merging of art in life” (dpds, ), it is therefore, “not an aesthetic phenomenon” at all, but a social phenomenon (dpds, ). as lewis describes in a later essay, the spectator of art should “not be required to participate in any way in the real”, for art is “something outside ‘the real’—outside the temporal order—altogether” (lewis, “super-nature ver- sus super-real,” in wyndham lewis on art, – ). lewis is fundamentally opposed to art which requires the spectator to experience reality as presence; that is, an art which insists upon the spectator’s experience of the object in real-time. . other critics who propose significant, theoretical interconnections between lewis’s art and writing—as do paul peppis, tom normand, and reed way dasenbrock—tend to focus on the early vorticist manifestos in relation to lewis’s politics, philosophy and painting, instead of the childermass. see paul peppis, literature, politics, and the english avant-garde: nation and empire, – (cambridge: cambridge university press, ); tom normand, wyndham lewis the artist: hold- ing the mirror up to politics (cambridge: cambridge university press, ); reed way dasenbrock, the literary vorticism of ezra pound and wyndham lewis: towards the condition of painting (bal- timore: johns hopkins university press, ). more generally, literary critics have neglected the childermass in favor of tarr, the revenge for love and other lewis works, which also means that critics have ignored the extent to which this lengthy scene of pullman and satters walking into a painting is a powerful narrative example for many of lewis’s aesthetic and philosophical writings. exceptions include hugh kenner, peter caracciolo and daniel schenker, who provide valuable in- sights into the novel, but nonetheless neglect the scene of the painting: hugh kenner, wyndham lewis (norfolk, ct: new directions, ); peter l. caracciolo, “‘carnivals of mass-murder’: the frazerian origins of wyndham lewis’s the childermass,” in robert fraser (ed.), sir james frazer and the literary imagination (london: macmillan, ), – ; daniel schenker, wyndham lewis: religion and modernism (tuscaloosa: university of alabama press, ). . david peters corbett, “history, art and theory in time and western man,” in paul edwards (ed.), volcanic heaven: essays on wyndham lewis’s painting & writing (santa rosa: black sparrow press, ), . . jessica burstein, “waspish segments: lewis, prosthesis, fascism,” modernism/modernity . ( ), - . . fredric jameson, fables of aggression: wyndham lewis, the modernist as fascist (berkeley: university of california press, ), – , henceforth abbreviated as foa. jameson, of course, was also trying to argue that despite lewis’s poststructuralist maneuvers (“stressing discontinuity, alle- gory, the mechanical, the gap between signifier and signified, the lapse in meaning,” foa, ), lewis “cannot be fully assimilated to the contemporary textual aesthetic without anachronism: we will in- deed want to insist on the ways in which these tendencies are over and over again strategically recontained in his work” (foa, ). . in the dissertation, i consider this issue of lewis’s “protofascism” at more length. lewis’s disturbing flirtation with fascism is undeniably problematic, but jameson’s account of lewis’s “protofascism” as a form of postmodern ideological critique does not solve the problem. in fact, in the childermass, the figure pullman and satters nearly kill is none other than thomas paine himself, the father of modern representational democracy. thus lewis is suggesting that stepping inside a painting full of air—an instantiation of time-philosophy—threatens the very possibility of representa- tion. his point is that the frameless art of time-philosophy not only corrupts representation in art; time-philosophy also undermines political representation by creating a world in which persons and representations appear to be equal. the “loutish” satters destroys the figure of paine because he feels that this figure is a threat to himself. it is time-philosophy’s corruption of representation—both aes- thetic and political—that lewis is focusing on here: aesthetic because paine is a figural representa- tion in the painting, and political because paine is a historical symbol of political representation. therefore, lewis is not theoretically opposed to a liberal politics, nor is he postmodern: instead, he contemplates the ultimate fate of the modern democratic state when the very notion of representa- tion is under enormous strain by people as thoughtless as satters. in an effort to avoid the destruction of representation, lewis produces his own version of an art without time: intricate, semi-abstract self- portraits of himself as a beetle on covers of his magazine, the enemy ( – ). . siraganian / / , : pm m o d e r n i s m / m o d e r n i t y . in minimalism, literality manifests itself as framelessness, instantiated for fried in tony smith’s sublime car trip on the unfinished new jersey turnpike. smith describes the moment at which paint- ing ends, when he realizes that his experience of this ride cannot be represented pictorially: “there is no way you can frame it, you just have to experience it” (quoted in aao, ). in other words, tony smith, according to fried, eliminates the frame of a painting by first reconceptualizing it as a frame of window that can be physically traversed in time—precisely like pullman and satters’ journey into the panorama in the childermass. these are both versions of the ruptured frame between art and life. by turning the picture frame into a window frame, both smith and the time-philosophers negate the frame and thus espouse literality. . part of the confusion here is that lewis’s term of attack—“modernist”—is the same term fried uses to defend art. of course, lewis could not have known the minimalist art of the s that fried was responding to, nor did lewis ever formulate his theory in fried’s condensed terms. more- over, the minimalist “new esthetic” fried discredits was, for lewis, already rearing its head in early twentieth-century modernism, while the particular objects of lewis’s polemic do not concern fried. . patricia novell, interview with dennis oppenheim, march in her recording concep- tual art, early interviews with barry, huebler, kaltenbach, lewitt, morris, oppenheim, siegelaub, weiner (berkeley: university of california press, ), . . robert smithson, another major artist of the period, writes that, “art not only communicates through space, but also through time.” robert smithson: the collected writings, ed. jack flam (ber- keley: university of california press, ), . his glue-pours (vats of bright orange glue poured down a slope) and mirror displacements (mirrors cantilevered in the dirt), focus precisely on the issue of art’s duration. . roxana marcoci, tempo brochure ( june– september , moma/qns). available as a pdf file on the web at www.moma.org/exhibitions/ /tempo/flash_content/tempo.pdf. according to marcoci, “each of [wurm’s] time-based sculptures consists of an instruction that can take the form of a drawing – often with a list of the items involved, or with a written proposition, such as ‘hold your breath and think of spinoza’ . . . the artist creates experimental situations in which unorthodox action and the structure of time form the work” (marcoci, tempo, ). see also erwin wurm, one minute sculptures, – : index of works (bregenz: kunsthaus bregenz, ), . . siraganian / / , : pm wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ arxiv:astro-ph/ v apr ar x iv :a st ro -p h/ v a pr mid-infrared spectral diagnostics of nuclear and extra-nuclear regions in nearby galaxies d.a. dale , j.d.t. smith , l. armus , b.a. buckalew , g. helou , r.c. kennicutt , , j. moustakas , h. roussel , , k. sheth , g.j. bendo , , d. calzetti , b.t. draine , c.w. engelbracht , k.d. gordon , d.j. hollenbach , t.h. jarrett , l.j. kewley , c. leitherer , a. li , s. malhotra , e.j. murphy , f. walter abstract mid-infrared diagnostics are presented for a large portion of the spitzer in- frared nearby galaxies survey (sings) sample plus archival data from the in- frared space observatory and the spitzer space telescope. the sings dataset includes low- and high-resolution spectral maps and broadband imaging in the infrared for over nuclear and extranuclear regions within nearby galaxies spanning a wide range of morphologies, metallicities, luminosities, and star for- mation rates. our main result is that these mid-infrared diagnostics effectively constrain a target’s dominant power source. the combination of a high ion- ization line index and pah strength serves as an efficient discriminant between agn and star-forming nuclei, confirming progress made with iso spectroscopy on starbursting and ultraluminous infrared galaxies. the sensitivity of spitzer department of physics and astronomy, university of wyoming, laramie, wy ; ddale@uwyo.edu steward observatory, university of arizona, north cherry avenue, tucson, az california institute of technology, mc - , pasadena, ca institute of astronomy, university of cambridge, madingley road, cambridge cb ha, united kingdom max planck institut für astronomie, königstuhl , heidelberg, germany astrophysics group, imperial college, blackett laboratory, prince consort road, london sw az united kingdom space telescope science institute, san martin drive, baltimore, md princeton university observatory, peyton hall, princeton, nj nasa/ames research center, ms - , moffett field, ca institute for astronomy, woodlawn drive, honolulu, hi department of physics and astronomy, university of missouri, columbia, mo department of physics and astronomy, arizona state university, tempe, az department of astronomy, yale university, new haven, ct – – allows us to probe fainter nuclear and star-forming regions within galaxy disks. we find that both star-forming nuclei and extranuclear regions stand apart from nuclei that are powered by seyfert or liner activity. in fact, we identify ar- eas within four diagnostic diagrams containing > % seyfert/liner nuclei or > % h ii regions/h ii nuclei. we also find that, compared to starbursting nuclei, extranuclear regions typically separate even further from agn, especially for low-metallicity extranuclear environments. in addition, instead of the tradi- tional mid-infrared approach to differentiating between agn and star-forming sources that utilizes relatively weak high-ionization lines, we show that strong low-ionization cooling lines of x-ray dominated regions like [si ii] . µm can alternatively be used as excellent discrimants. finally, the typical target in this sample shows relatively modest interstellar electron density (∼ cm− ) and obscuration (av ∼ . mag for a foreground screen), consistent with a lack of dense clumps of highly obscured gas and dust residing in the emitting regions. subject headings: infrared: galaxies — infrared: ism — galaxies: nuclei — galaxies: active — h ii regions. . introduction the goal of this study is to explore whether mid-infrared diagnostics developed for lumi- nous/ultraluminous infrared galaxies and bright galactic h ii regions can be improved upon and extended to the nuclear and extra-nuclear regions within normal and infrared-faint galax- ies. a traditional method for characterizing a galaxy’s nuclear power source uses ratios of optical emission lines such as [o ii] å, hβ å, [o iii] å, [o i] å, hα å, [n ii] å and [s ii] , å (e.g., baldwin, phillips, & terlevich ; veilleux & os- terbrock ; ho, filippenko, & sargent a; kewley et al. ; kauffmann et al. ). a plot of [o iii]/hβ versus [n ii]/hα, for example, will typically separate seyferts, liners, and starburst nuclei. since nuclei are often heavily enshrouded by dust, especially in lumi- nous and ultraluminous infrared galaxies (lirgs and ulirgs), an important limitation to galaxy optical diagnostics is the effect of extinction. in anticipation of the data stream from space-based infrared platforms, early theoretical work with photoionization models showed that infrared ionic fine structure line ratios could profitably enable astronomers to approach galaxy classification from a new perspective (e.g., voit ; spinoglio & malkan ). the advent of sensitive infrared line data from the infrared space observatory was an important first step to peering more deeply into buried nuclear sources (genzel et al. ; laurent et al. ; sturm et al. ; peeters, spoon, & tielens ). genzel and collaborators were – – the first to show that ionization-sensitive indices based on mid-infrared line ratios correlate with the strength of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) emission features. agn in particular show weak pah and large ratios of high-to-low ionization line emission. inter- estingly, while genzel et al. found that - % of their ulirg sample is mainly powered by starburst activity, the percentage appears to drop for higher luminosity ulirgs (e.g., veilleux, sanders, & kim , but see also farrah et al. ). taniguchi et al. ( ) and lutz, veilleux, & genzel ( ) suggest that optical and infrared classifications agree if the nuclei of liner-like ulirgs are in fact dominated by shocks driven by powerful supernova winds. mid-infrared lines observed by iso were also used to probe the physical characteristics and evolution of purely starbursting nuclei (thornley et al. ; verma et al. ) and galactic h ii regions (vermeij & van der hulst ; giveon et al. ). an important result stemming from these efforts is that stellar aging effects appear to result in h ii regions generally having higher excitations than starbursting nuclei. the unprecedented sensitivity and angular resolution afforded by the spitzer space telescope allow an even more detailed view into the nature of galaxy nuclei (e.g., armus et al. ; smith et al. ). sings takes full advantage of spitzer’s capabilities by executing a comprehensive, multi-wavelength survey of nearby galaxies spanning a wide range of morphologies, metallicities, luminosities, and star formation activity levels (kennicutt et al. ). the sensitivity of spitzer coupled with the proximity of the sings sample allows dwarf galaxy systems fainter than lfir ∼ l⊙ to be spectroscopically probed in the infrared for the first time. in addition, prior to spitzer the only individual extragalactic h ii regions that were detectable with infrared spectroscopy resided in the local group (e.g., giveon et al. ; vermeij et al. ). in contrast, sings provides infrared spectroscopic data for nearly extragalactic h ii regions, residing in systems as near as local group members to galaxies as far as ∼ mpc. the sings dataset thus samples a wider range of environments than previously observed with infrared spectroscopy. this diversity in the sings sample provides a huge range for exploring physical parameters with mid-infrared spectral diagnostics. the high ionization lines historically used in such diagnostics, such as [o iv] . µm and [ne v] . µm, are relatively weak and can be difficult to detect in lower luminosity systems. fortunately, high ionization lines are not the only route to determining whether a galaxy harbors a strong agn. similar to how the [o i] å and [o i] µm lines are agn diagnostics (e.g., dale et al. a), we show below the utility of using the comparatively bright [si ii] . µm mid-infrared line as another effective tool for deciphering a galaxy’s power source. – – . the sample . . galaxy nuclei the sample of nuclear targets analyzed in this study derive from the sings third data release. these nuclei come from a wide range of environments and galaxies: low- metallicity dwarfs; quiescent ellipticals; dusty grand design spirals; seyferts, liners, and starbursting nuclei of normal galaxies; and systems within the local and m groups (see kennicutt et al. ). . . extra-nuclear regions the extranuclear sources studied in this work also come from the sings third data release. these targets stem from the original set of optically-selected sources listed by kennicutt et al. ( ). the optically-selected ob/h ii regions cover a large range of metallicity ( . - z⊙), extinction-corrected ionizing luminosity ( − photons s− ), extinction (av . mag), radiation field intensity (ionization parameter log u = − to − ; habing ), ionizing stellar temperature (teff = − kk), and local h /h i ratio as inferred from co (< . to > ). additional extranuclear targets for the sings project have since been identified, based on their infrared properties, but their observations necessarily came later than the observations of the optically-selected targets. those “second look” data will be the focus of a future paper. . the data the full sings observing program and the data processing are described by kennicutt et al. ( ), smith et al. ( ), and dale et al. ( ). here we briefly summarize the spectral observations and data processing relevant to this paper. . . spitzer infrared spectroscopy observations and data processing high-resolution spectroscopy (r ∼ ) was obtained in the short-high ( - µm) and long-high ( - µm) modules, and low-resolution spectroscopy (r ∼ − ) was obtained in the short-low ( - µm) and long-low ( - µm) modules (houck et al. a). figure shows example spectra for a variety of sources (long-low data are not – – used elsewhere in this work). nuclei were generally mapped with a × grid (short-high and long-high) and a × grid (short-low), utilizing half-slit width and half-slit length steps. extra-nuclear targets were observed with a similar scheme but with a × short-low grid. for a subset of nine sources with extended circumnuclear star formation we obtained slightly larger ( × ) short-high nuclear maps. owing to the different angular sizes subtended by the instruments, the resulting maps are approximately ′′× ′′ and ′′× ′′ in short-low (nuclear and extra-nuclear, respectively), ′′× ′′ in long-high, and ′′× ′′ in short- high (the expanded short-high nuclear maps are ′′× ′′). all integrations are s per pointing, except the short-low nuclear maps are s per pointing. the effective integrations are longer since each location was covered - times. the individual data files for a given spectral map were assembled into spectral cubes using the software cubism (kennicutt et al. ; smith et al. , in preparation). the cube input data were pre-processed using version s . of the spitzer science center pipeline. various post-processing steps within cubism are described by smith et al. ( ). short- low sky subtraction was enabled via the extended off-source wings of the short-low module (and occasionally using spatially- and temporally-proximate data from the archive when our off-source wings do not extend to the sky). several cross-checks on the flux calibration were made between short-low, short-high, long-low, long-high, mips, and irac data. the absolute flux calibration uncertainty for the spectral data is estimated to be %; the uncertainy in line flux ratios is ∼ %. though the short-high, long-high, and short-low cubes all span different solid angles, the same matched extraction apertures were used for all cubes: one-dimensional spectra were extracted from the three-dimensional data using ∼ ′′× ′′ apertures. furthermore, the extraction apertures are centered on the optically-derived coordinates listed by kennicutt et al. ( ); the optical coordinates generally coincide with the infrared emission peak. emission line and pah feature fluxes and equivalent widths are derived from continuum- subtracted gaussian fits to the lines and first- or second-order polynomial fits to the continua. . . archival spectroscopy iso-sws and spitzer irs line fluxes are drawn from the literature for a wide variety of sources including galactic, magellanic cloud, and local group h ii regions (vermeij et al. ; giveon et al. ; peeters et al. ), and starburst and active galaxies (genzel et al. ; sturm et al. ; verma et al. ; armus et al. ; peeters, spoon, & tielens ; weedman et al. ; haas et al. ). equivalent widths of the . µm pah feature were extracted from archival iso-phot and spitzer irs data, when available. – – note that, for a given source, only data from spitzer or only data from iso are used; cross- observatory data are not used in this analysis. the fields-of-view of the iso-phot and iso-sws apertures (respectively ′′× ′′ and ′′× ′′ to ′′× ′′) provide a reasonable match to the ∼ ′′× ′′ extraction apertures described in § . . . . spitzer broadband imaging: µm the sings project did not obtain nearby sky observations in highres mode, so if the underlying hot dust continuum emission is detected, the foreground/background continuum is not subtracted. sings irs highres spectroscopy is designed to measure line fluxes and thus line equivalent width measures via highres are biased by the un-subtracted sky emission. on the other hand, the sings program includes extensive mips (rieke et al. ) µm broadband imaging of all galaxies; the µm data can be used to normalize line fluxes. sky-subtracted mips µm fluxes are extracted from aperture cutouts matched to the short-high field-of-view (§ . ). see kennicutt et al. ( ) and dale et al. ( ) for further details of the sings broadband imaging. . . optical spectroscopy observations and data processing optical spectrophotometry has been obtained for the sings project at the steward observatory bok . m and the ctio . m telescopes (moustakas & kennicutt ). a suite of spectral drift scans, centered on the nuclei, were taken to spatially map the various regions covered with the irs spectroscopy program (see kennicutt et al. for more details). the optical spectroscopy has spectral resolution of ∼ å and covers - å so that the primary nebular emission lines can be studied (e.g., [o ii] å, hβ å, [o iii] å, hα å, [n ii] å). the sings optical spectroscopy and emission line measurements (fluxes, equivalent widths, metallicities, etc.) will be presented by moustakas et al. ( , in preparation). this work utilizes optical spectral drift scans integrated over the central ′′× ′′ regions, approximately matching the ∼ ′′× ′′ circumnuclear regions over which the infrared line and pah feature fluxes are extracted (see § . ). – – . measured quantities . . high-resolution infrared spectroscopy: emission lines several forbidden lines are quite prominent in many of the sings nuclear and extra- nuclear high resolution spectra ([ne ii] . µm, [ne iii] . µm, [s iii] . µm, [s iii] . µm, and [si ii] . µm) along with a few other higher ionization lines that are occasionally ob- served ([s iv] . µm, [ne v] . µm, and [o iv] . µm; figure ). all these lines except [si ii] . µm are nebular lines from hydrogen gas ionized regions; [si ii] . µm comes from a wider variety of regions, including both ionized gas and warm atomic gas such as photodissociation regions and x-ray dominated regions (e.g., hollenbach & tielens ). a series of interstellar molecular hydrogen lines are also detected in the sings spectra; these are explored in a separate paper (roussel et al. , in preparation). the line fluxes utilized in this work are listed in tables and . eight galaxies from the sings third data release are not listed in table because their nuclear regions were too faint to be observed (or detected if observed). . . low-resolution infrared spectroscopy: the . µm pah feature the strength of a pah feature depends on a complex combination of several parameters of the interstellar medium, some of which are interlinked: metallicity, dust column density, the distribution of sizes and ionization states in the dust grain population, and the intensity and hardness of the interstellar radiation field (e.g., cesarsky et al. ; thuan et al. ; sturm et al. ; li & draine ; draine & li ; houck et al. b; galliano et al. ; engelbracht et al. ; madden et al. ; wu et al. ). due to this sensitivity to the properties of the interstellar medium, pah features in the mid-infrared have been used to characterize the physical state of a system. previous efforts have utilized the . µm feature (laurent et al. ; peeters, spoon, & tielens ; weedman et al. ), the . µm feature (genzel et al. ), or a combination of several pah features (e.g., verstraete et al. ; tran et al. ; peeters et al. ; förster schreiber et al. ; armus et al. ; peeters et al. ; madden et al. ). for this work we concentrate on diagnostics that utilize the . µm feature. the . µm feature is the only strong infrared signature of pahs not blended with an emission line or absorption trough, not near the wavelength edges of an irs low resolution module, and for which the blue and red sides of the “continuum” are easy to define. the equivalent widths of the . µm feature are listed in tables and . the equivalent width is used in our diagnostics since the continuum at . µm may contain emission from hot dust heated either by star formation or – – an agn, in addition to a fractional contribution from stellar emission; the . µm equivalent width is (indirectly) sensitive to the presence of an agn. . results . . optical classifications of nuclei not all of the sings galaxies have an optical nuclear classification in the literature (e.g., seyfert, liner, starburst, etc). moreover, online databases such as ned provide a heterogeneous source for such classifications. thus we turn to our own optical spectroscopy. figure displays a traditional diagnostic diagram (e.g., baldwin, phillips, & terlevich ) using optical spectroscopy and ′′× ′′ apertures for sings galaxy nuclei. note that such diagnostics were designed with ratios of lines closely spaced in wavelength to minimize the effects of extinction. filled (open) circles in figure mark galaxies for which the literature indicates a seyfert (liner) nucleus; data points without circles in this diagram represent galaxies without a liner or seyfert classification in the literature. as alluded to in § , the liner classification can be complicated. similar to what is observed for seyferts, the optical properties of liners are consistent with a hard power-law spectrum. but liner- type spectra can also be produced via winds, shocks, and cooling flows (kauffmann et al. ). to further complicate the picture, “transition” objects are thought to be liner or seyfert galaxies with substantial contributions from normal star formation (e.g., ho, filippenko, & sargent ; gonzález delgado et al. ). the dotted lines delineate typical starburst/agn/liner boundaries: [o iii] /hβ ∼ and [n ii] /hα ∼ . (e.g., veilleux & osterbrock ; armus, heckman, & miley ). the long-dashed curve traces the theoretical starburst/agn boundary of kewley et al. ( ), marking the maximum position in this diagram that can be obtained by pure photoionization. objects lying above this curve require an additional power source such as an agn or shocks; objects lying below this curve may still contain an agn responsible for up to ∼ % of the emission line flux ratios. the short-dashed curve traces an empirical starburst/agn boundary based on data from tens of thousands of sloan digital sky survey galaxies (kauffmann et al. ). the kauffman et al. curve aims to define a boundary below which no galaxies contain an agn. objects lying in between the kewley et al. and the kauffmann et al. curves are likely to be composite agn/starburst objects but still dominated by star formation. it is evident that the classification information available from nasa/ipac extragalactic database – – the literature is insufficient or incomplete for a handful of sings nuclei; there is overall good agreement between the literature and our classifications, with a few exceptions. the literature does not indicate that the nuclei of ngc contains liner or seyfert activity, whereas our spectroscopic data place it squarely in the liner category. on the other hand, ned lists ngc , ngc , and ngc as having liner or seyfert nuclei, yet our optical line ratios suggest they are star-forming galaxies. ngc , ngc , and ngc appear to lie in a transitional regime between the starburst and liner/seyfert regions. using the hα/hβ ratio extracted from our optical spectra and a screen model for the dust distribution within a galaxy, the sings nuclei show modest attenuations, 〈av 〉 ∼ . mag with a dispersion of . mag and a maximum of av ∼ . mag for ngc . no sources appear to be heavily buried in the optical so presumably none of the classifications are skewed by large amounts of dust. this result is consistent with the lack of deeply buried objects in comparisons of sings hα and spitzer µm data (e.g., calzetti et al. ). however, as described above, there may be a few transitional objects for which the nuclear classifications are difficult to interpret in the optical. the main reason behind the analysis in this section is to provide classifications for sources that do not yet have them from the literature. our goal is not to carry out a detailed analysis of the relative merits of classifying in the optical versus in the infrared, primarily since the sings sample is not optimally suited for such a test. in the next section we turn to exploring new and existing infrared diagnostics. . . infrared spectral diagnostics of nuclei and extra-nuclear regions . . . emission line ratios and pah strength at least . ev is required to remove an electron from doubly-ionized oxygen. on the other hand, ionizing neutral neon “only” requires . ev. compared to . ev pho- tons, . ev photons are far more likely to stem from accretion-powered disks than star formation (e.g., ob stars; smith et al. ), and thus the ratio of [o iv] . µm and [ne ii] . µm depends on the type of source dominating the energetics of the interstel- similar results are found using [s ii] , å and [o i] å data in place of [n ii] å (e.g., kewley et al. ). the exception is ngc , a deeply obscured system for which the optical data are likely probing only outer layer (foreground) emission (roussel et al. , ). – – lar medium. furthermore, studies show that pah features are quite prominent throughout much of the interstellar medium except for regions characterized by exceptionally hard ra- diation fields such as those that arise in agn and the cores of h ii regions (cesarsky et al. ; sturm et al. ). a mid-infrared diagnostic diagram first put forth by genzel et al. ( ), and later explored by peeters, spoon, & tielens ( ), plots the emission line ratio [o iv] . µm/[ne ii] . µm versus the strength of a mid-infrared pah feature. in such plots agn sources show enhanced [o iv] . µm emission and comparatively weak pah feature strength. however, those two studies focussed on agn-dominated, ulirg, and starburst systems. the upper panel of figure uses the . µm pah feature and the emis- sion line ratio [o iv] . µm/[ne ii] . µm in a similar mid-infrared diagnostic diagram, but one that incorporates “normal” (starbursting/star-forming) nuclei and h ii regions— the sensitivity of spitzer allows us to probe to far fainter levels than heretofore possible. as expected, normal nuclei and h ii regions extend the previously-observed trend: lower- luminosity star-forming nuclei and h ii regions exhibit comparatively large . µm equivalent widths and relatively low ratios of [o iv] . µm/[ne ii] . µm, indicating strong contri- butions from [ne ii] . µm cooling of h ii regions and their pah-rich photodissociation region surroundings, and negligible emission from agn. high ionization lines like [o iv] . µm are somewhat difficult to detect in many sings sources. two alternative diagnostic diagrams are also provided in figure . both the middle and lower panels involve the more easily detectable [si ii] . µm line, which has an ionization potential of . ev. the normalization for the [si ii] . µm line in the middle and lower panels utilizes strong mid-infrared lines with similar ionization po- tentials: [ne ii] . µm ( . ev) and [s iii] . µm ( . ev). an advantage to using [ne ii] . µm as the normalization is that it lies in the much less noisy short-high mod- ule of irs. conversely, the [s iii] . µm line lies in the same long-high module as the [si ii] . µm line, which can improve observing efficiency and minimize cross-module un- certainties involving calibration and aperture matching. in addition, the short wavelength baseline between the [si ii] . µm [s iii] . µm lines minimizes the effects of extinction. why are similar trends seen in the three panels? the answer may lie in the physics of x-ray dominated regions. as pointed out by maloney, hollenbach, & tielens ( ), the [si ii] . µm line is a strong coolant of x-ray irradiated gas. in x-ray dominated regions around agn, the [si ii] emission dominates that from the comparatively small h ii-like regions surrounding the hard-spectrum source. moreover, x-ray dominated re- gions can be quite large since hard x-ray photons penetrate large column densities, and additional high ionization line possibilities include [ne v] . µm and [s iv] . µm, but these are less frequently detected than [o iv] . µm in sings spectra. – – the conversion of x-ray energy to infrared continuum and line emission can be very effi- cient. maloney, hollenbach, & tielens ( ) predict that [si ii] . µm, [o i] µm, [c ii] µm, and [c i] µm are the top four cooling lines within x-ray dominated regions, with [si ii] . µm having an amplitude - % that of the far-infrared luminosity for an extremely large range of physical conditions. an argument based on interstellar density provides another possibility for the high [si ii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm and siii . µm/[s iii] . µm ratios in agn. kauf- man, wolfire, & hollenbach ( ) show that the ratio [si ii](pdr)/[si ii](h ii) increases with increasing density. in fact, for low density h ii regions most of the [si ii] comes from the h ii region and not the surrounding photodissociation region. moreover, meijerink & spaans ( ) show that the ratio [si ii](xdr)/[si ii](pdr) also increases with increasing density. agn may have their emitting gas at higher densities than typically found in star- bursts and normal galaxies, leading to increased [si ii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm and siii . µm/[s iii] . µm ratios. in other words, the prominent [si ii] . µm line for agn sources may be due to strong [si ii] cooling of x-ray dominated regions or enhanced [si ii] emission from the surrounding dense photodissociation regions. a third scenario for enhanced [si ii] . µm in agn involves the extent to which silicon is depleted onto dust grains. heavy elements such as si, mg, and fe may be returned to the gas phase by dust destruction (e.g., sputtering) in regions subject to strong shocks caused by stellar winds, starbursts, and agn activity. so perhaps (gas phase) silicon lines are stronger in active galaxies due to this effect. if the strong [si ii] . µm emission is due to the cooling of x-ray dominated regions, it should be noted that relatively strong low-ionization line emission (e.g., [o i] å and [o i] µm) has previously been observed emanating from the large “partially-ionized re- gions” surrounding agn and infrared-bright galaxies (veilleux & osterbrock ; armus, heckman, & miley ; veilleux ; spinoglio & malkan ; osterbrock ; dale et al. a). hence, strong low-ionization line emission from agn is not a new concept. we take advantage of this concept to present new techniques for distinguishing between agn sources and star-forming regions. these techniques rely on an easily-detectable, prominent cooling line of a low-ionization species associated with x-ray dominated regions, the dense interstellar material illuminated by power-law radiation fields. the regions of figure where seyferts/liners/starbursts mix are quite large, though the bottom panel perhaps shows a cleaner separation (less mixing) between seyferts+liners and star-forming regions; only the top left and bottom right extremes allow for a clean separation between classifications. short solid lines roughly perpendicular to the dotted agn/star-forming curves delineate three regions in the panels of figure . the boundaries – – are: region[ i − ii] : log([o iv] . µm/[ne ii] . µm) = log(ew[ . µmpah]) + . ( ) region[ii − iii] : log([o iv] . µm/[ne ii] . µm) = . log(ew[ . µmpah]) − . ( ) region[iv − v] : log([si ii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm) = . log(ew[ . µmpah]) + . ( ) region[v − vi] : log([si ii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm) = . log(ew[ . µmpah]) + . ( ) region[vii − viii] : log([si ii] . µm/[s iii] . µm) = log(ew[ . µmpah]) + . ( ) region[viii − ix] : log([si ii] . µm/[s iii] . µm) = . log(ew[ . µmpah]) + . ( ) the population statistics for these regions, provided in table , show that regions [i+iv+vii] and [iii+vi+ix] are respectively representative (at the > % level) of seyferts/liners and star-forming systems. regions [ii+v+viii], on the other hand, contain a mix of classifica- tions and thus represent transition regions—either the source classifications in this region are ambiguous or the region simply contains a more heterogeneous mixture of pure types. seyfert nuclei could shift toward the location of star-forming nuclei due to aperture effects— though the same solid angles are used for extracting the line data, the range of distances in the sample leads to a range in physical apertures. conversely, some star-forming nuclei exhibit relatively large line ratios and small pah equivalent widths in figure . perhaps a fraction of the star-forming regions contain significant numbers of wolf rayet stars, leading to enhanced [o iv] emission (e.g., schaerer & stasiǹska ). and maybe a decreased pah equivalent width results from a relatively low ratio of photodissociation region to h ii region contributions (laurent et al. ). the dotted lines in figure represent a variable mix of an agn nucleus and a “pure” star-forming region. the anchors for these mixing models are the following: ew[ . µmpah] ≈ . µm, [o iv] . µm/[ne ii] . µm ≈ . % agn ew[ . µmpah] ≈ . µm, [o iv] . µm/[ne ii] . µm ≈ . % h ii ew[ . µmpah] ≈ . µm, [si ii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm ≈ % agn ew[ . µmpah] ≈ . µm, [si ii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm ≈ . % h ii ew[ . µmpah] ≈ . µm, [si ii] . µm/[s iii] . µm ≈ . % agn ew[ . µmpah] ≈ . µm, [si ii] . µm/[s iii] . µm ≈ . % h ii the dashed line in the upper panel of figure shows the approximate mixing model of genzel et al. ( ; their figure ), obtained after empirically deriving a relation between their . µm pah ‘strength’ (line-to-continuum ratio) and the . µm pah equivalent width. many of the high ionization line data presented by genzel et al. ( ) were upper limits, so it is unsurprising that their original curve lies above our curve (though the discrepancy may also lie in small number statistics). – – . . . line ratios of different ionization states of the same element figure plots a ratio of doubly- to singly-ionized neon as a function of a ratio of triply- to doubly-ionized sulfur (see also verma et al. ). many of the data points in this plot are for galactic h ii regions (vermeij et al. ; giveon et al. ; peeters et al. ; see § . ). clearly the neon excitation tracks the sulfur excitation. to first order, there does not appear to be any sequence in the distribution according to source classification (seyfert, starburst, h ii, etc). however, the low-metallicity h ii regions from the magellanic clouds are preferentially in the high excitation, upper righthand corner of the diagram. presumably the diminished line blanketing for low-metallicity sources results in a harder radiation field and thus higher excitations (see genzel & cesarsky ; mart́in- hernández et al. ; madden et al. ). in addition, agn sources show somewhat lower [ne iii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm ratios than exhibited by star-forming sources, and the locus of the agn detections lie at slightly higher values of [s iv] . µm/[s iii] . µm. the dotted and solid curves show linear fits to the seyfert and star-forming sources, and respectively have slopes of . [± . ] and . [± . ]. . . . a neon, sulfur, and silicon diagnostic if the neon excitation is plotted as a function of [s iii] . µm/[si ii] . µm (fig- ure ), a more obvious separation of the star-forming and agn-powered data points is observed. not only do the low-metallicity magellanic cloud regions exhibit a higher neon excitation, nearly all of the “pure star-forming” nuclei and extra-nuclear regions show rela- tively elevated ratios in [s iii] . µm/[si ii] . µm (see also figure ). note in addition that many of the filled squares representing starbursting/star-forming nuclei are located be- tween the h ii regions and the agn. table quantifies the source type fractions within each of the four regions delineated by the lines drawn in figure . the boundaries are defined by curves with the same slope but differing offsets: log([ne iii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm) = . log([s iii] . µm/[si ii] . µm) + γ, ( ) where γ =[+ . ,+ . ,− . ] for the lines demarcating regions [i−ii,ii−iii,iii−iv]. the num- bers provided in table can be used to determine the statistical reliability of a classification for a galaxy randomly drawn from a mid-infrared line survey. for example, if a galaxy appears in region iii or region iv, it should be classified as a star-forming system with a σ confidence interval of - % and - %, respectively. likewise, a galaxy residing in region i or region ii should be classified as agn-powered with a σ confidence interval of - % and - %, respectively. – – these results can be partially understood in the context of the cooling line physics introduced above. the [si ii] . µm line is a significant coolant of x-ray ionized regions or dense photodissociation regions (hollenbach & tielens ), whereas the [s iii] . µm line is a strong marker of h ii regions. in other words, extra-nuclear regions and star- forming nuclei will show strong signatures of the strömgren sphere coolant [s iii] . µm, while agn and their associated x-ray dominated regions or dense photodissociation regions will exhibit relatively strong [si ii] . µm emission in analogy to the increased strength of [o i] å emission in agn (e.g., veilleux & osterbrock ). in addition, the fraction of photodissociation regions falling within each beam will play a role in the line ratios. the data for magellanic cloud and galactic h ii regions stem from smaller physical apertures and thus are likely to have fractionally higher contributions from strömgren spheres than photodissociation regions. metallicity may be a factor as well. since the central regions of galaxies typically are more abundant in heavy metals (pagel & edmunds ; mccall ; vila-costas & edmunds ; pilyugin & ferrini ; henry & worthey ), and as explained above a lower metallicity can lead to harder radiation fields and thus enhanced high-ionization-to- low-ionization line ratios, it is possible that this agn→h ii nucleus→h ii region sequencing along the [s iii] . µm/[si ii] . µm axis is affected by metallicity. however, the lower metallicity magellanic cloud data are not substantially to the right of the galactic h ii region data, so the effect is not solely due to metallicity. alternatively, perhaps some of the star-forming nuclei have contributions from undetected weak agn and thus are not “pure” star-forming nuclei, resulting in a location for star-forming nuclei on this diagram between agn and h ii regions. . . . density diagnostics the average line ratio of [s iii] . µm-to-[s iii] . µm for the sings sample is . with a σ dispersion of . . this ratio implies an interstellar electron density of 〈ne〉 ∼ + − cm − for the ∼ ′′× ′′ nuclear and extranuclear regions of sings galaxies. the average density is calculated using electron collision strengths from tayal & gupta ( ) and excluding the effects of differential extinction at these mid-infrared wavelengths (which is shown in section . to be relatively small at optical wavelengths). this density on ∼kiloparsec scales is typical of starburst/liner/seyfert galaxies (kewley et al. ), but lower than the ∼ − cm− found for high surface brightness h ii regions using small apertures uncontaminated by the surrounding neutral interstellar medium and lower density h ii regions (e.g., wang et al. ). a visual way to explore this doubly-ionized sulfur – – line ratio is portrayed in figure using the aperture-matched µm flux as a normalization for the line fluxes. the set of dashed lines represent different interstellar electron densities. the correlation in figure extends over two orders of magnitude in the line-to-continuum ratios and encompasses both agn-dominated and star-formation-dominated sources; a non- parametric ranking analysis indicates a global correlation at the σ level. linear fits to the two separate star-forming and seyfert populations emphasize that, though the trends for the two populations are similar, the nuclei with seyfert characteristics (dotted line; slope . ± . ) differ along the diagonal from the starbursting nuclei and the h ii regions (solid line; slope . ± . ). star-forming sources show more pronounced [s iii] . µm- to-continuum ratios compared to seyferts and liners, consistent with the notion that [s iii] . µm is an important coolant of h ii regions. in addition, we are seeing the effects of continuum dilution in the line-to-continuum ratio for seyferts and liners, sources for which hot dust emission is pronounced in the mid-infrared and thus the line-to-continuum ratios are suppressed (e.g., laurent et al. ; dale et al. ; xu et al. ; siebenmorgen et al. ). finally, similar to what is seen in figures and , but perhaps not as prominently, the data in figure suggest that the h ii regions (open squares) occupy a different portion of the diagram than star-forming nuclei (filled squares). h ii regions have higher line-to- continuum ratios than star-forming nuclei, which in turn have higher ratios than seyferts and liners. . summary we have presented mid-infrared diagnostic diagrams for a large portion of the sings sample supplemented by archival iso and spitzer data. a portion of our work solidifies and extends previous iso-based mid-infrared work to lower luminosity normal galaxy nuclei and h ii regions using the spitzer space telescope. we also present new diagnostics that effectively constrain a galaxy’s dominant power source. the power of the diagnostic diagrams of genzel et al. ( ; see also peeters, spoon, & tielens ) for distinguishing between agn and star-forming sources in dusty ulirgs is that mid-infrared lines and pah features are much less affected by extinction than their optical counterparts in a traditional diagnostic diagram. unlike diagrams put forth by genzel et al., which rely on detecting relatively weak high-ionization lines like [o iv] . µm and [ne v] . µm, we provide a new diagnostic that utilizes a strong low-ionization line. the advantage of using a line ratio like [si ii]/[ne ii] is that singly-ionized silicon and neon respectively have ionization potentials of only . and . ev, so they can both be observed over a large range of physical conditions. this is similar in concept to previous efforts that have taken advantage of [o i] lines (e.g., at å or µm) that are coolants of the x-ray dominated regions (or dense photodissociation regions) – – surrounding agn. in plots of [o iv]/[ne ii], [si ii]/[ne ii], and [si ii]/[s iii] vs. . µm pah equivalent width, we identify regions where > % of the sources are seyfert or liner. likewise, additional regions in all three plots show populations comprised of more than % h ii regions or star-forming nuclei. another useful mid-infrared diagnostic is [ne iii] . µm/[ne ii] . µm vs. [s iii] . µm/[si ii] . this plot tracks the excitation power of the radiation field on one axis, while the other axis is a relative measure of the cooling of h ii regions and x-ray dominated regions (or dense photodissociation regions). similar to what is found for the diagnostics mentioned above, both starbursting nuclei and extranuclear regions stand apart from nuclei that are pow- ered by accretion-powered disks. moreover, compared to starbursting nuclei, extranuclear regions typically separate even further from seyfert nuclei, especially for low-metallicity en- vironments. presumably this extranuclear←→nuclear separation occurs since extranuclear regions are cleaner representatives of h ii regions than starburst nuclei, because their stellar populations and interstellar medium structure are less complex. extranuclear regions more likely contain younger stellar populations since they trace a single burst, as opposed to the average of multiple star formation episodes for nuclei (e.g., dale et al. b). finally, we note that it is difficult to clearly distinguish between pure seyfert and pure liner sources using these diagnostics. the line ratio [s iii] . µm/[s iii] . µm yields an average interstellar electron density of 〈ne〉 ∼ + − cm − for the ∼ ′′× ′′ nuclear and extranuclear regions of sings galaxies. this density is much closer (in log space) to the theoretical low density limit of tayal & gupta ( ) than their high density limit, and in fact the data for several sources are consistent with the low density limiting value. in addition to the interstellar gas densities being unremarkable, there are no sings sources sufficiently obscured by dust such that optical and infrared diagnostics provide obviously discrepant classifications of the energy source. this is not surprising, however, since our nuclei exhibit modest extinctions, 〈av 〉 ∼ . mag, and normal star-forming galaxy nuclei in general show . av . mag (ho, filippenko, & sargent b). this relative transparency means the sings sample is not ideally suited for a detailed comparison of the relative merits of optical and infrared classifications. however, the diverse sings sample of nuclear and extranuclear regions provides an enormous range of physical parameters, and this has proved critical in developing the mid-infrared diagnostics in this paper. mike brotherton provided helpful comments. support for this work, part of the spitzer space telescope legacy science program, was provided by nasa through contract number issued by the jet propulsion laboratory, california institute of technology under nasa contract . this research has made use of the nasa/ipac extragalactic database – – which is operated by jpl/caltech, 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sturm, e., sternberg, a., genzel, r., & vacca, w. , a&a, , vermeij, r. & van der hulst, j.m. , a&a, , vermeij, r., damour, f., van der hulst, j.m., & baluteau, j.-p. , a&a, , verstraete, l., pech, c., moutou, c., sellgren, k., wright, c.m., giard, m., léger, a., timmerman, r., & drapatz, s. , a&a, , vila-costas, m.b. & edmunds, m.g. , mnras, , voit, g.m. , apj, , wang, w., liu, x.-w., zhang, y., & barlow, m.j. , a&a, , weedman, d.w., hao, l., higdon, s.j.u., devost, d., wu, y., charmandaris, v., brandl, b., bass, e., & houck, j.r. , apj, , wu, y., charmandaris, v., hao, h., brandl, b.r., bernard-salas, j., spoon, h.w.w., & houck, j.r. , apj, in press xu, c., lonsdale, c.j., shupe, d.l., o’linger, j., & masci, f. , apj, , this preprint was prepared with the aas latex macros v . . – – table . nuclear emission line fluxes and . µm pah feature equivalent widths species pah [siv] [neii] [neiii] [siii] [oiv] [siii] [siii] wavelength . µm . µm . µm . µm . µm . µm . µm . µm ionization (ev) . . . . . . . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc · · · · · · · · · . ± . . ± . < . · · · · · · ngc . ± . · · · . ± . · · · . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · ± . ± . . ± . < . ± ± ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc · · · · · · . ± . · · · · · · < . · · · · · · ngc · · · · · · . ± . . ± . · · · < . · · · · · · ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ± ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . markarian . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · ± . ± . . ± . < . . ± . ± ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc · · · · · · . ± . . ± . · · · < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · ± . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . ± . ± . ± < . ± ± ngc · · · · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ± ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc a · · · · · · · · · . ± . · · · < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ic · · · . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc . ± . . ± . ± . ± . ± < . ± ± ngc . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . note. — fluxes and their (statistical) uncertainties are averaged over ∼ ′′× ′′ and listed in units of − w m− sr− . calibration uncertainties are an additional ∼ %. the . µm pah feature equivalent width is given in units of microns. note. — eight galaxies from the sings data release three are not listed in this table. no short-low, short-high, or long-high data were taken for the optical centers of holmberg ii, ic , ddo and ngc . ddo , holmberg ix, ddo , and ngc (tololo )a were non-detections. athe infrared emission peaks outside of the field of view of the spectral maps. – – table . extranuclear emission line fluxes and . µm pah feature equivalent widths species pah [siv] [neii] [neiii] [siii] [oiv] [siii] [siii] wavelength . µm . µm . µm . µm . µm . µm . µm . µm ionization (ev) . . . . . . . ngc ccm . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc ccm . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc ccm . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc ccm . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc ccm . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc ccm a . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc hk . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc hk . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc hk . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc hk . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc hk . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc hk . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc munch . ± . · · · · · · . ± . · · · < . · · · · · · ngc h . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc hk . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc h . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc h . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ngc h . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc h . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc h . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc h . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . ngc h . ± . · · · . ± . . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . holmbergii hsk · · · · · · · · · . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . holmbergii hsk · · · · · · · · · . ± . · · · < . . ± . . ± . holmbergii hsk · · · · · · · · · . ± . . ± . < . . ± . . ± . holmbergii hsk · · · · · · · · · . ± . . ± . < . · · · · · · note. — fluxes and their (statistical) uncertainties are averaged over ∼ ′′× ′′ and listed in units of − w m− sr− . calibration uncertainties are an additional ∼ %. the . µm pah feature equivalent width is given in units of microns. – – table . archival sources object type reference lmc n a lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc n a lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc n - lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc n b lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc n a lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc n a lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc n b lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc dor lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc dor lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc dor lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) lmc dor lmc hii vermeij et al. ( ) smc n a smc hii vermeij et al. ( ) smc n smc hii vermeij et al. ( ) smc n smc hii vermeij et al. ( ) ngc hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ic hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ii zw hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ngc hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ngc hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ngc a hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ngc b hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ngc hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ngc hii/seyfert verma et al. ( ) ngc hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ngc hii nucleus verma et al. ( ) ngc liner/hii verma et al. ( ) wb a galactic hii giveon et al. ( ) wb b galactic hii giveon et al. ( ) wb galactic hii giveon et al. ( ) note. — the full version would appear as an electronic table in the online journal. – – table . classifications by region in figure region number seyfert liner hii extranuclear of nuclei +hii regions sources (%) (%) (%) (%) i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix note. — “extranuclear + hii regions” implies sings ex- tranuclear/hii regions in addition to milky way and magel- lanic cloud hii regions. table . classifications by region in figure region number seyfert liner hii extranuclear of nuclei +hii regions detections (%) (%) (%) (%) i+ii iii+iv i ii iii iv note. — “extranuclear + hii regions” implies sings extranu- clear/hii regions in addition to milky way and magellanic cloud hii regions. – – fig. .— examples of low- and high-resolution spectra for four different types of envi- ronments found within the sings sample. the irs modules span wavelengths ∼ - µm (short-low ), ∼ - µm (short-low ), ∼ - µm (long-low ), ∼ - µm (long-low ), ∼ - µm (short-high), and ∼ - µm (long-high). each spectral segment has been ex- tracted from a ∼ ′′× ′′ region. the high-resolution data are scaled downwards by . dex for clarity. the variable offset between the low- and high-resolution data is largely due to the lack of sky subtraction for the high-resolution data. – – fig. .— a traditional diagnostic diagram is displayed for the sings nuclei using optical data and ′′× ′′ apertures (uncorrected for reddening). filled (open) circles mark galaxies for which the literature indicates a seyfert (liner) nucleus. the dotted lines delineate typical starburst/seyfert/liner boundaries: [o iii] /hβ ∼ and [n ii] /hα ∼ . (e.g., armus, heckman, & miley ). the long-dashed and short-dashed curves respec- tively trace the starburst/agn boundaries of kewley et al. ( ; theoretical) and kauff- mann et al. ( ; empirical). error bars represent σ uncertainties. – – fig. .— the ratios of mid-infrared forbidden lines as a function of the . µm pah fea- ture equivalent width. sings data are displayed in red with σ error bars based on the statistical uncertainties; archival data without error bars are indicated with black symbols and described in § . . the dotted lines are linear mixing models of a “pure” agn and a “pure” star-forming source (see text). the dashed line in the top panel is a similar mixing model first presented by genzel et al. ( ). the solid lines and roman numerals delineate regions distinguished by seyferts, liners, star formation, etc. (see table and § . . ). – – fig. .— a diagnostic diagram involving ratios of neon and sulfur lines at different ionization levels is displayed (see, for example, verma et al. ). the data are displayed as described in figure . the solid line is a linear fit to the detections of star-forming nuclei and h ii regions, while the dotted line is linear fit to the seyfert detections. – – fig. .— a neon, sulfur, and silicon diagnostic diagram involving ratios of lines at different ionizations is displayed. the data are displayed as described in figure . the lines and roman numerals delineate regions distinguished by seyferts, liners, star formation, etc. (see table and § . . ). – – fig. .— the correlation between two transitions of doubly-ionized sulfur is displayed, normalized by the flux at µm. this plot includes only sings data and σ error bars. the solid line is a linear fit to the detections of star-forming nuclei and h ii regions, while the dotted line is a linear fit to the seyfert detections. the set of dashed lines represent different constant interstellar electron densities. most of the sings data are bounded by the low and high density limiting values, and several are consistent with the low density limiting value of [s iii] . µm/[s iii] . µm= . at . cm− . the sings data typically exhibit ne ∼ cm − . a conservative downscaling of satellite-detected chemical compositions: no column densities of omi, gome- , and cmaq remote sensing article a conservative downscaling of satellite-detected chemical compositions: no column densities of omi, gome- , and cmaq hyun cheol kim , ,* id , sang-mi lee id , tianfeng chai , , fong ngan , , li pan , and pius lee air resources laboratory, national oceanic and atmospheric administration, college park, md , usa; tianfeng.chai@noaa.gov (t.c.); fantine.ngan@noaa.gov (f.n.); li.pan@noaa.gov (l.p.); pius.lee@noaa.gov (p.l.) cooperative institute for climate and satellites, university of maryland, college park, md , usa south coast air quality management district, diamond bar, ca , usa; slee@aqmd.gov * correspondence: hyun.kim@noaa.gov; tel.: + - - - received: may ; accepted: june ; published: june ���������� ������� abstract: a conservative downscaling technique was applied when comparing nitrogen dioxide (no ) column densities from space-borne observations and a fine-scale regional model. the conservative downscaling was designed to enhance the spatial resolution of satellite measurements by applying the fine-scale spatial structure from the model, with strict mass conservation at each satellite footprint pixel level. with the downscaling approach, no column densities from the ozone monitoring instrument (omi; × km nadir footprint resolution) and the global ozone monitoring experiment- (gome- ; × km) show excellent agreement with the community multiscale air quality (cmaq; × km) no column densities, with r = . for omi and r = . for gome- . we further introduce an approach to reconstruct surface no concentrations by combining satellite column densities and simulated surface-to-column ratios from the model. compared with the environmental protection agency’s (epa) air quality system (aqs) surface observations, the reconstructed surface concentrations show a good agreement; r = . for both omi and gome- . this study demonstrates that the conservative downscaling approach is a useful tool to compare coarse-scale satellites with fine-scale models or observations in urban areas for air quality and emissions studies. the reconstructed fine-scale surface concentration field could be used for future epidemiology and urbanization studies. keywords: downscaling; no column density; omi; gome- ; cmaq . introduction the continuous monitoring of tropospheric nitrogen dioxide (no ) is of great importance because it is one of the major pollutants that affects both humans and the biosphere directly and indirectly [ , ], and it plays an important role in tropospheric chemistry. tropospheric no is one of six pollutants regulated by the us environmental protection agency’s (epa) national ambient air quality standards, with the criteria set at ppb for h and ppb for the annual average, according to the clean air act (https://www.epa.gov/criteria-air-pollutants/naaqs-table). no is also a primary precursor for ozone formation, in association with nitrogen oxides (nox = no + no ) and volatile organic compounds (e.g., [ , ]) and serves as an absorber of solar radiation, which affects the radiation budget [ ]. further, no is also an important indicator for traffic and urbanization [ – ], as estimated via nox emissions. remote sens. , , ; doi: . /rs www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing http://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= https://www.epa.gov/criteria-air-pollutants/naaqs-table http://dx.doi.org/ . /rs http://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing remote sens. , , of since the launch of the global ozone monitoring experiment (gome) in [ ], no column density measurements from satellites have proven to be effective at complementing sparse surface no monitoring sites in order to provide global coverage. four instruments have been used to monitor tropospheric no column densities from satellites, with varying resolution and overpass time. the gome ( – , onboard the european remote sensing- ), scanning imaging absorption spectrometer for atmospheric chartography (sciamachy) ( – , onboard envisat), ozone monitoring instrument (omi) ( -present, onboard aura), and gome- ( -present, onboard metop-a and metop-b) have all been used for the detection of nox emission sources, the analysis of multi-year trends, and the evaluation of emission inventories [ – ]. while nox emissions come from both natural and anthropogenic sources, the dominant portion is anthropogenic, mostly from road vehicles and point sources such as energy and industrial productions, where high temperature combustions are required. the no plumes from urban anthropogenic sources usually have a high spatial gradient, which cannot be easily detected with currently operating satellite observations. kim et al. [ ] demonstrated that this geometric resolution issue itself can cause a systematic bias of more than % at urban locations, in addition to existing uncertainties from stratosphere-troposphere separation, air mass factors, priori no model (e.g., vertical profile and/or model surface type resolution), upper tropospheric no (e.g., lightning nox), and diurnal variation in no column densities [ – ]. the spatial inhomogeneity of urban no plumes becomes a practical problem as the focus of satellite data analysis moves from global distribution to regional- or local-scale urban plumes. the need for fine-scale modeling, smaller than the scale of satellite footprint pixels, is required now. the goal of this study is to compare two satellite-retrieved products of varying spatial resolutions with modeling results. we adopt the conservative downscaling technique developed by kim et al. [ ] to compare omi ( × km nadir footprint resolution) and gome- (with × km) no column densities with community multiscale air quality (cmaq)-simulated no column densities in km by km grid spacing. the remainder of the paper is organized as follows. in section we provide basic information on no column data from omi and gome- and describe the cmaq simulation configuration and its emission inputs. section presents the two spatial regridding methods used, namely, “conservative regridding” and “conservative downscaling.” section elaborates on the results, discusses the differences between the two satellite no column observations, and compares them with modeled no column densities. a reconstruction of the surface no concentration field based on the downscaled no column densities, along with a comparison of the surface observations, will be demonstrated in section . finally, section concludes the paper. . data and model . . study domain southern california, which includes highly populated urban (e.g., los angeles) and suburban- to rural- areas, was selected as the study domain. figure shows the geographical coverage of the study, focusing on greater los angeles, its neighboring cities (e.g., san diego, riverside, bakersfield, santa barbara, and mexicali), the surrounding mountains, and the ocean off the coast of the basin. the domain spans km and km in the east–west and north–south directions, respectively. colored circles represent the annual mean surface of no concentrations in from the epa’s air quality system (aqs) surface monitoring sites, showing high no concentrations near urban cores. the background is the blue marble image from nasa’s worldview website (https://worldview. earthdata.nasa.gov/). https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/ https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/ remote sens. , , of remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . geographical coverage of study domain over southern california. circles represent annual mean surface no concentrations from the epa’s aqs surface monitoring sites. . . model descriptions the weather research and forecasting model (wrf) [ ] version . . was employed to provide meteorological fields to cmaq. the wrf simulations were conducted with three nested domains, of which the grid resolutions were , , and km. the model employed layers vertically, with the lowest computational layer being approximately m above ground level and the top at hpa. the initial guess field and lateral boundary values for the outermost domain were compiled from the north american model (nam) [ ]. four-dimensional data assimilation was conducted using vertical soundings and surface measurements. the yonsei university (ysu) planetary boundary layer scheme [ ], wrf single-moment (wsm) -class simple ice scheme [ ], rapid radiation transfer model longwave [ ], dudhia shortwave radiation [ ], and kain-fritsch cumulus parameterization [ ] were chosen for simulations after carefully considering various available options of the wrf [ ]. cmaq was configured with the saprc mechanism [ ], euler backward iterative chemical solver, aero aerosol module, piecewise parabolic method advection scheme in both the horizontal and the vertical directions, multi-scale horizontal diffusion, and asymmetric convective model version- vertical diffusion scheme [ ]. a cmaq-ready emissions inventory was developed using various numerical tools. on-road and off-road mobile sources were estimated using the emission factors model (emfac) and the off-road model from the california air resources board, respectively. biogenic emissions were calculated using the model of emissions of gases and aerosols from nature (megan). the above aggregated emissions were then allocated to spatial and temporal grids using the emissions processing system (eps). details of the emission process are available in scaqmd [ ]. . . gome- and omi no column densities gome- and omi tropospheric no column density data for , retrieved by the royal netherlands meteorological institute (knmi), are used in this study. the gome- sensor, onboard the eumetsat metop-a satellite, takes nadir measurements at approximately : am local time with footprints of × km at the nadir. by contrast, omi, onboard nasa’s earth observing figure . geographical coverage of study domain over southern california. circles represent annual mean surface no concentrations from the epa’s aqs surface monitoring sites. . . model descriptions the weather research and forecasting model (wrf) [ ] version . . was employed to provide meteorological fields to cmaq. the wrf simulations were conducted with three nested domains, of which the grid resolutions were , , and km. the model employed layers vertically, with the lowest computational layer being approximately m above ground level and the top at hpa. the initial guess field and lateral boundary values for the outermost domain were compiled from the north american model (nam) [ ]. four-dimensional data assimilation was conducted using vertical soundings and surface measurements. the yonsei university (ysu) planetary boundary layer scheme [ ], wrf single-moment (wsm) -class simple ice scheme [ ], rapid radiation transfer model longwave [ ], dudhia shortwave radiation [ ], and kain-fritsch cumulus parameterization [ ] were chosen for simulations after carefully considering various available options of the wrf [ ]. cmaq was configured with the saprc mechanism [ ], euler backward iterative chemical solver, aero aerosol module, piecewise parabolic method advection scheme in both the horizontal and the vertical directions, multi-scale horizontal diffusion, and asymmetric convective model version- vertical diffusion scheme [ ]. a cmaq-ready emissions inventory was developed using various numerical tools. on-road and off-road mobile sources were estimated using the emission factors model (emfac) and the off-road model from the california air resources board, respectively. biogenic emissions were calculated using the model of emissions of gases and aerosols from nature (megan). the above aggregated emissions were then allocated to spatial and temporal grids using the emissions processing system (eps). details of the emission process are available in scaqmd [ ]. . . gome- and omi no column densities gome- and omi tropospheric no column density data for , retrieved by the royal netherlands meteorological institute (knmi), are used in this study. the gome- sensor, onboard the eumetsat metop-a satellite, takes nadir measurements at approximately : a.m. local time with footprints of × km at the nadir. by contrast, omi, onboard nasa’s earth observing system remote sens. , , of aura satellite, has a local overpass time of : p.m. with a × km footprint pixel resolution. data are downloaded from the european space agency’s (esa) tropospheric emission monitoring internet service (temis; http://www.temis.nl/airpollution/no .html). tm no a version . data are used for gome- , and domino version . data are used for omi. the differential optical absorption spectroscopy (doas) technique was used for both products. details on the no column retrieval algorithms and error analysis are described in boersma et al. [ , ]. the quality of the data is assured by discarding pixels with high cloud fraction (> %) and contaminated by row anomaly issue. the method used for data processing is described in section . . . surface monitoring surface no concentration data are obtained from the epa’s aqs data (http://www.epa. gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/). it should be noted that most of the aqs surface no measurements are from chemiluminescence monitors with a molybdenum converter, which often overestimates no concentration owing to the interference from other reactive nitrogen species (noz) [ , ]. bechle et al. [ ] also reported that the noz interference is lower near major sources in southern california. in this study, we did not correct any potential bias caused by the interference. . methodology sampling of the data is an essential issue in spatial regridding, which is commonly performed in satellite data processing to convert spatial resolution and map projection from a given configuration to another. among numerous spatial regridding methods, interpolation and pixel aggregation are two of the most common. interpolation is preferred when the target domain resolution is finer than the raw data pixels, whereas pixel aggregation is preferred for averaging all the pixels inside each domain cell when the target grid cell size is larger than the raw data pixel size. despite the fact that the two methods are widely utilized, the need for a more mathematically complete method for spatial regridding has been raised, especially when finer resolution is needed and/or where the conservation of measured quantity is required. emission data are one example where mass conservation is critical to avoid spurious loss or gain. the epa’s spatial allocator used in its sparse matrix operator kernel emissions (smoke) [ ] processing is one way of handling emission data without compromising mass conservation. it calculates the fractional areas of overlapping polygons between raw data pixels (e.g., county shapes) and modeling grid cells. to build a lossless spatial regridding tool, we used polygon clipping algorithms and developed a tool to perform the accurate spatial regridding of satellite data. this section introduces the two core algorithms for regridding, “conservative regridding” and “conservative downscaling”, and describes their applications using satellite data. . . conservative regridding the conservative regridding method reconstructs raw data pixels (e.g., satellite data) into a target domain grid cell by calculating the fractional coverage of raw data pixels within the target grid cell. figure shows an example of the conservative regridding method. the concentration of grid cell cj can be calculated as (p ·f + p ·f + p ·f + p ·f )/(f + f + f + f ). in general, if the raw pixel data are in the density unit (e.g., concentration), one can calculate the overlapping fractions for each data pixel and grid cell and thus calculate the grid cell concentration as a weighted average of data pixels and fractions: fi,j = area ( pi ∩ cj ) area ( cj ) ( ) cj = ∑ pi· fi,j ∑ fi,j ( ) where i and j are the indices of data pixel, p, and grid cell, c, fi,j is the overlapping fractions, and ∑ fi,j = if no missing pixels are involved in grid cell cj. http://www.temis.nl/airpollution/no .html http://www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/ http://www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/ remote sens. , , of remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . example of the conservative regridding method. omi no column densities are regridded onto a -km model domain using fractional weighting. (a) original omi no column density; (b) zoomed in feature (blue box in (a)); and (c) regridded omi no column densities are shown. this conservative regridding method is a similar approach to the variable-pixel linear reconstruction algorithm used in the astronomy community, which was developed to preserve photometry and resolution for the hubble space telescope [ ]. we used subroutines from the cube builder for irs spectra maps (cubism) [ ] based on the sutherland–hodgman polygon clipping algorithm [ ] for the efficient calculation of overlapped fractions. more details are available in the documentation of the development of the idl-based geospatial data processor (igdp) [ ]. . . conservative downscaling the conservative downscaling method conducts a downscaling on top of the conservative regridding. we follow the concept of meteorological downscaling, which is a common practice in figure . example of the conservative regridding method. omi no column densities are regridded onto a -km model domain using fractional weighting. (a) original omi no column density; (b) zoomed in feature (blue box in (a)); and (c) regridded omi no column densities are shown. this conservative regridding method is a similar approach to the variable-pixel linear reconstruction algorithm used in the astronomy community, which was developed to preserve photometry and resolution for the hubble space telescope [ ]. we used subroutines from the cube builder for irs spectra maps (cubism) [ ] based on the sutherland–hodgman polygon clipping algorithm [ ] for the efficient calculation of overlapped fractions. more details are available in the documentation of the development of the idl-based geospatial data processor (igdp) [ ]. remote sens. , , of . . conservative downscaling the conservative downscaling method conducts a downscaling on top of the conservative regridding. we follow the concept of meteorological downscaling, which is a common practice in regional-scale modeling to build boundary conditions from global model output. this approach needs to be distinguished from a simple approach to increase resolution. the meteorological downscaling constrains the boundary condition and allows fine-scale restructuring with its own set of physical and thermal balances. on the contrary, this approach preserves the original coarse pixel quantity from the satellite and reconstructs fine-scale structures inside each satellite pixel coverage. figure shows an example of the conservative downscaling method using no column data from gome- and omi. gome- and omi no column data have different spatial resolutions and overpass times, which complicates the direct comparison of these two data sets. because their spatial resolutions are vastly different (gome- with × km and omi with × km ), the simple regridding method cannot be used in the comparison. if the normal regridding method were applied, the gome- data with coarse resolution would be unable to provide spatial variations between urban source and rural receptor areas. this would result in a lower concentration in near emission sources such as downtown urban and dense road networks, and a higher concentration in suburban or rural areas, compared with the finer resolution omi or in situ observations. remote sens. , , x for peer review of regional-scale modeling to build boundary conditions from global model output. this approach needs to be distinguished from a simple approach to increase resolution. the meteorological downscaling constrains the boundary condition and allows fine-scale restructuring with its own set of physical and thermal balances. on the contrary, this approach preserves the original coarse pixel quantity from the satellite and reconstructs fine-scale structures inside each satellite pixel coverage. figure shows an example of the conservative downscaling method using no column data from gome- and omi. gome- and omi no column data have different spatial resolutions and overpass times, which complicates the direct comparison of these two data sets. because their spatial resolutions are vastly different (gome- with × km and omi with × km ), the simple regridding method cannot be used in the comparison. if the normal regridding method were applied, the gome- data with coarse resolution would be unable to provide spatial variations between urban source and rural receptor areas. this would result in a lower concentration in near emission sources such as downtown urban and dense road networks, and a higher concentration in suburban or rural areas, compared with the finer resolution omi or in situ observations. figure . example of the conservative downscaling of gome- no column densities. (a) original gome- no column densities; (b) cmaq no column densities; (c) spatial weighting kernel; and (d) downscaled gome- no column densities are shown. to lessen this systematic bias due to the discrepancies in spatial resolution and possibly provide a fair platform to compare various datasets with different resolution, we evaluated the use of high- resolution modeling data. as presented in figure b, a cmaq simulation was performed in the study area with -km resolution. figure a shows the raw data pixels from the gome- no column measurement (usually with × km or coarser) for the southern california region on august , . the predominantly smooth pattern in the los angeles region indicates the enhanced no column data. however, the -km cmaq-simulated no column data at the corresponding local time ( : am) show much more detailed spatial distributions, similar to the sources of nox emissions. for each gome- pixel, we retrieved collocated cmaq pixels as shown in figure b. with the usual gome- pixel size and cmaq grid cell size, around cells are available per gome- data pixel. a spatial weighting kernel was constructed next, as a fractional distribution of the cmaq no figure . example of the conservative downscaling of gome- no column densities. (a) original gome- no column densities; (b) cmaq no column densities; (c) spatial weighting kernel; and (d) downscaled gome- no column densities are shown. to lessen this systematic bias due to the discrepancies in spatial resolution and possibly provide a fair platform to compare various datasets with different resolution, we evaluated the use of high-resolution modeling data. as presented in figure b, a cmaq simulation was performed in the study area with -km resolution. figure a shows the raw data pixels from the gome- no column measurement (usually with × km or coarser) for the southern california region on august . the predominantly smooth pattern in the los angeles region indicates the enhanced no column data. remote sens. , , of however, the -km cmaq-simulated no column data at the corresponding local time ( : a.m.) show much more detailed spatial distributions, similar to the sources of nox emissions. for each gome- pixel, we retrieved collocated cmaq pixels as shown in figure b. with the usual gome- pixel size and cmaq grid cell size, around cells are available per gome- data pixel. a spatial weighting kernel was constructed next, as a fractional distribution of the cmaq no concentration corresponding to a gome- pixel. selected cmaq no concentrations were normalized (i.e., divided by the average of all selected concentrations, figure c) and were then applied to the gome- data pixel to reconstruct its spatial distribution as follows: cj = ∑ pi·ki,j· fi,j ∑ fi,j ( ) where ki,j is the spatial weighting kernel of pi in the position of cj. the total kernel ki,j throughout pi equals , meaning that the average of the reconstructed gome- pixel is identical to the original value. with all reconstructed gome- pixels, we re-performed conservative regridding in order to build the whole distribution within the target domain. figure d shows the final output with more detailed structures. one can notice the fine structures in los angeles and other cities, such as san diego, santa clara, bakersfield, and mexicali, as well as i- freeway traffic. the most important point when implementing the conservative downscaling procedure is that the procedure is conducted within each satellite pixel. by conducting downscaling for each data pixel with a unique weighting kernel for each, the quantity in the original pixel never propagates out of the original data pixel’s footprint. indeed, the weighting kernel only helps the fine structures within a certain satellite data pixel, while the general spatial patterns in a domain are determined only by the distribution of the original pixels. comparisons of downscaled no column densities with in situ measurements during several field campaigns are available in previous studies [ , ]. . . averaging kernel in addition to the spatial adjustment required to match horizontal resolutions in the data, the differences in vertical properties between satellites and the model are also considered. for space-borne monitoring, the sensitivity of the instrument to tropospheric composition tends to depend on the altitude, having a vertical profile of systematic errors [ , ]. the averaging kernels (aks), which provide an instrument’s relative sensitivity to the target tracer’s abundance, were applied to each layer’s model density, before being integrated into the column density [ ]. detailed procedures are described in kim et al. [ ]. . downscaling of column densities using the spatial and vertical adjustment methods from the previous section, no column densities from omi and gome- are compared here with cmaq simulated column densities. figure shows spatial distributions of the annual mean omi and cmaq no column densities in over southern california. the two left-hand panels show omi no column densities with (“ds”) and without (“xds”) using the downscaling technique, and the two right-hand panels show cmaq no column densities with (“ak”) and without (“xak”) ak information. in general, both satellite and model data represent the geographical distribution of potential nox emission sources, including the strong emission flux signals from los angeles and its neighboring cities (bakersfield, riverside, and san diego). however, it is also noticeable that the original omi no column density (“xds”) has smoother spatial distribution than the cmaq no vertical column density or downscaled omi no column density. the smoothing effect due to omi pixel size is better shown in scattered plots, and thus figure shows the comparison between omi and cmaq no column densities in scatter plots. over the locations with higher no concentration, omi tends to have lower no column densities compared with cmaq, which is consistent with the result suggested from the smoothing effect. using the remote sens. , , of downscaling method improves both the correlation coefficient (r = . ) and linear square fit slope (slope = . ). applying the ak did not make much difference.remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . spatial distribution of omi and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote omi no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. the smoothing effect due to omi pixel size is better shown in scattered plots, and thus figure shows the comparison between omi and cmaq no column densities in scatter plots. over the locations with higher no concentration, omi tends to have lower no column densities compared with cmaq, which is consistent with the result suggested from the smoothing effect. using the downscaling method improves both the correlation coefficient (r = . ) and linear square fit slope (slope = . ). applying the ak did not make much difference. figure . spatial distribution of omi and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote omi no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . spatial distribution of omi and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote omi no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. the smoothing effect due to omi pixel size is better shown in scattered plots, and thus figure shows the comparison between omi and cmaq no column densities in scatter plots. over the locations with higher no concentration, omi tends to have lower no column densities compared with cmaq, which is consistent with the result suggested from the smoothing effect. using the downscaling method improves both the correlation coefficient (r = . ) and linear square fit slope (slope = . ). applying the ak did not make much difference. figure . scatter plot comparison of omi and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote omi no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. remote sens. , , of the advantage of the downscaling technique is dramatic in the processing of gome- no data, which have a larger footprint pixel size ( × km). figure shows spatial distributions of gome- no column densities and modeled no column densities in the morning (~ : a.m.). clearly, the gome- cannot resolve fine-structure no plumes from los angeles or other cities. it should be noted that variant color scales are used for each plot to represent fully the spatial distributions. the maximum no column density of gome- without downscaling ( × #/cm ) is almost twice that of the same data with downscaling. however, the actual change within the whole domain is negligible considering the difference is less than . % (e.g., ( . − . ) × #/cm / . × #/cm × % = . %). remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . scatter plot comparison of omi and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote omi no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. the advantage of the downscaling technique is dramatic in the processing of gome- no data, which have a larger footprint pixel size ( × km). figure shows spatial distributions of gome- no column densities and modeled no column densities in the morning (~ : am). clearly, the gome- cannot resolve fine-structure no plumes from los angeles or other cities. it should be noted that variant color scales are used for each plot to represent fully the spatial distributions. the maximum no column density of gome- without downscaling ( × #/cm ) is almost twice that of the same data with downscaling. however, the actual change within the whole domain is negligible considering the difference is less than . % (e.g., ( . – . ) × #/cm / . × #/cm × % = . %). figure . spatial distribution of gome- and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote gome- no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. figure shows scatter plot comparisons between gome- no column densities and cmaq no column densities. as previously emphasized, comparisons between gome- column densities without downscaling result in extremely poor agreement when compared with the fine-scale model. when the conservative downscaling method was used, gome- no column density was found to have much better agreement with modeled column densities in terms of spatial variation. it should be noted that using ak vertical adjustment results in worse comparison results. when the ak is used, the regression slope changes from . to . , also with worse variations. this discrepancy may come from the coarse spatial resolution of ak distribution. figure shows examples of the first layer ak distributions on january (a,b) and the annual average throughout (c,d). as the aks are assigned per satellite pixel, they have a sharp gradient at each pixel boundary. this pattern is very clear in the layers near the surface, implying its likely association with the surface type data of the priori model. if these aks are directly applied to the model output, they may lose their fine-scale structure due to the coarse aks. in this case, the application of ak should be used with caution. figure . spatial distribution of gome- and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote gome- no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. figure shows scatter plot comparisons between gome- no column densities and cmaq no column densities. as previously emphasized, comparisons between gome- column densities without downscaling result in extremely poor agreement when compared with the fine-scale model. when the conservative downscaling method was used, gome- no column density was found to have much better agreement with modeled column densities in terms of spatial variation. it should be noted that using ak vertical adjustment results in worse comparison results. when the ak is used, the regression slope changes from . to . , also with worse variations. this discrepancy may come from the coarse spatial resolution of ak distribution. figure shows examples of the first layer ak distributions on january (a,b) and the annual average throughout (c,d). as the aks are assigned per satellite pixel, they have a sharp gradient at each pixel boundary. this pattern is very clear in the layers near the surface, implying its likely association with the surface type data of the priori model. if these aks are directly applied to the model output, they may lose their fine-scale structure due to the coarse aks. in this case, the application of ak should be used with caution. remote sens. , , of remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . scatter plot comparison of gome- and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote gome- no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. figure . spatial distribution of omi and gome- averaging kernel at the first layer on january (a,b), and averaged in (c,d). figure . scatter plot comparison of gome- and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote gome- no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . scatter plot comparison of gome- and cmaq no column densities. “ds” and “xds” denote gome- no column densities with and without the downscaling method, respectively, whereas “ak” and “xak” denote cmaq no column densities with and without the averaging kernel, respectively. figure . spatial distribution of omi and gome- averaging kernel at the first layer on january (a,b), and averaged in (c,d). figure . spatial distribution of omi and gome- averaging kernel at the first layer on january (a,b), and averaged in (c,d). remote sens. , , of . reconstruction of surface concentration we further estimated surface concentration using satellite observations and model simulation. although surface concentration and column densities of no are highly associated due to their proximity to surface sources and relatively short lifetime, their correlation is not exactly linear. following previous approaches [ , – ],we converted the satellite-measured column density to surface concentration by applying the surface-to-column ratios simulated from the model. the satellite inferred surface no concentrations can be estimated as no conc,sat = no column,sat· no conc,mod no column,mod ·α ( ) where α is an additional adjustment due to satellite and model uncertainties. in a perfect world where satellite observations and model simulations produce true numbers, the adjustment factor α might be just one, and the surface concentration could be perfectly reconstructed using satellite observation data and the model’s surface to column ratios. however, in the real world, an additional adjustment may be required to consider uncertainties from satellite and model data, so α can be determined later to minimize the difference between reconstructed and observed surface no concentrations. figure shows comparisons between the epa’s aqs surface no concentrations and reconstructed no concentrations based on the model and satellite-model data. while pure model simulations produce reasonable surface concentrations, the reconstructed no concentrations using downscaled satellite and model data with ak produce the best agreement in terms of mean bias (− . ppb) and correlation (r = . ) for omi’s overpass time. on the other hand, gome- reconstructed no concentration shows the best result, with downscaling but without ak, r = . . the limitation of large ak pixels, discussed in figure , may explain the deteriorated performance of gome- with ak. further, we tried to determine α by minimizing the bias between measured and reconstructed no concentrations. for omi reconstructed no concentration, we applied α = . (= . ppb/ . ppb) to the case with downscaling and ak. for gome- reconstructed no concentration, we applied α = . (= . ppb/ . ppb) to the case with downscaling but without ak. in both cases, correlation coefficients remain the same, and mean biases become . figures and show the spatial distribution of reconstructed surface no concentrations overlaid with aqs surface observations. even with the fixed α adjustment, the reconstructed no concentrations show good agreement with the observations. better adjustment parameter α values can be found through further training of observational data sets. one of the important findings we can draw from this study is that it is possible to maximize the capability of gome- . although gome- is the newest instrument, with two currently operational versions (e.g., gome- a and gome- b), its use in fine-scale research has been limited due to data resolution. in terms of spatial variability of reconstructed surface no concentration field, our results demonstrate that gome- can produce a similar quality outcome to that of omi thanks to the conservative downscaling method. this finding is encouraging because the full use of gome- can add valuable information due to its morning time overpass to monitor nox emission signals from urban traffic. it also should be noted that we tested the reconstruction of the surface no concentration only with a simple α value adjustment. with enhanced data assimilation skills and more training cases, the performance of surface concentration reconstruction will be improved. this was beyond the scope of the current study, and so will be pursued further in future research. remote sens. , , of remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . comparisons of reconstructed no concentrations based on satellite and model data, and the epa’s aqs surface no concentrations. “ds” and “xds” denote with and without downscaling technique, and “ak” and “xak” denote with and without averaging kernel. figure . comparisons of reconstructed no concentrations based on satellite and model data, and the epa’s aqs surface no concentrations. “ds” and “xds” denote with and without downscaling technique, and “ak” and “xak” denote with and without averaging kernel. remote sens. , , of remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . reconstructed surface no concentrations using omi column densities and cmaq column-to-surface ratios at : local time in . figure . reconstructed surface no concentrations using gome- column densities and cmaq column-to-surface ratios at : local time in . . conclusions this study demonstrates an application of the conservative downscaling technique to compare atmospheric chemical composition data sets with different spatial resolutions. due to the geometric smoothing effect, coarse resolution satellite data cannot resolve finer structures and tend to underestimate urban plumes, especially for the chemical compositions that have high spatial gradients like no . without proper adjustment, coarse resolution satellite data may be systematically underestimated in urban areas and overestimated in rural areas, which seriously misleads the evaluation of current emission inventories for air quality modeling. figure . reconstructed surface no concentrations using omi column densities and cmaq column-to-surface ratios at : local time in . remote sens. , , x for peer review of figure . reconstructed surface no concentrations using omi column densities and cmaq column-to-surface ratios at : local time in . figure . reconstructed surface no concentrations using gome- column densities and cmaq column-to-surface ratios at : local time in . . conclusions this study demonstrates an application of the conservative downscaling technique to compare atmospheric chemical composition data sets with different spatial resolutions. due to the geometric smoothing effect, coarse resolution satellite data cannot resolve finer structures and tend to underestimate urban plumes, especially for the chemical compositions that have high spatial gradients like no . without proper adjustment, coarse resolution satellite data may be systematically underestimated in urban areas and overestimated in rural areas, which seriously misleads the evaluation of current emission inventories for air quality modeling. figure . reconstructed surface no concentrations using gome- column densities and cmaq column-to-surface ratios at : local time in . . conclusions this study demonstrates an application of the conservative downscaling technique to compare atmospheric chemical composition data sets with different spatial resolutions. due to the geometric smoothing effect, coarse resolution satellite data cannot resolve finer structures and tend to underestimate urban plumes, especially for the chemical compositions that have high spatial remote sens. , , of gradients like no . without proper adjustment, coarse resolution satellite data may be systematically underestimated in urban areas and overestimated in rural areas, which seriously misleads the evaluation of current emission inventories for air quality modeling. the conservative downscaling technique was designed to enhance the spatial resolution of satellite measurements. fine-scale spatial structures from the model were applied to each coarse satellite pixel to reconstruct inner structures. downscaling was conducted for each pixel level with strict mass conservation, so it did not alter the original observed quantity at each satellite footprint pixel. with the conservative downscaling approach, no column densities from omi and gome- instruments show excellent agreement with cmaq-simulated no column densities; r = . for omi and r = . for gome- . we further constructed the surface no concentration field by combining omi and gome- satellite column densities and simulated surface-to-column ratios from the model. compared with the epa’s aqs surface observations, the reconstructed surface concentrations show a good agreement; r = . for both omi and gome- . it is encouraging that, with the conservative downscaling, gome- can produce high quality concentration fields similar to omi, in spite of the former’s larger footprint pixels. we conclude that the conservative downscaling approach is a useful tool to conduct a comparison between coarse-scale satellites and fine-scale models or observations in urban areas. the concept of mass conservation—treating each satellite footprint as a polygon—is essential when dealing with chemical compositions, especially when interpreted in terms of emission inventory evaluation. a reconstructed fine-scale surface concentration field that uses enhanced satellite products could also be used for future epidemiology and urbanization studies. author contributions: conceptualization, h.c.k.; data curation, t.c. and f.n.; formal analysis, h.c.k. and s.-m.l.; investigation, t.c.; methodology, f.n. and l.p.; resources, s.-m.l. and p.l.; writing original draft, h.c.k. funding: this research received no external funding. acknowledgments: the authors acknowledge the free use of tropospheric no 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[crossref] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.atmosenv. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /acp- - - http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	data and model 	study domain 	model descriptions 	gome- and omi no column densities 	surface monitoring 	methodology 	conservative regridding 	conservative downscaling 	averaging kernel 	downscaling of column densities 	reconstruction of surface concentration 	conclusions 	references ejac ( ) pp. – intellect limited european journal of american culture volume number © intellect ltd article. english language. doi: . /ejac. . . _ keywords tattoos modern primitives body art body modification don ed hardy fakir musafar matt lodder university of reading the myths of modern primitivism abstract re/search publications’ modern primitives (vale and juno ) changed countless lives, bringing what had been a localized and niche set of body modification prac- tices, aesthetics and philosophies out of san francisco to a global audience, dominat- ing scholarly and popular discourse around body modification subculture for more than a decade afterwards. the voice of fakir musafar dominates the book. this article argues that modern primitives as musafar defines them never really existed (and never could have existed) in the terms he suggests, and goes on to address an important sub-strand within modern primitives almost entirely ignored by critics and commentators, who have read the book as generally representative of the body modification culture as a whole. with specific reference to contributors such as infamous tattoo artist don ed hardy who do not frame their practice in ‘primi- tive’ terms, the article concludes with a study of an alternative account presented by vale and juno’s book: body modification as artistic practice. christian klesse defines ‘modern primitives’ as ‘a subcultural movement in the intersection of the tattoo, piercing and sado-masochism scenes’. this ‘movement’, he explains, ‘originated in the s in california, usa, growing in numbers and significance in the following decades’ (klesse ). virginia eubanks’ definition is broader: ‘modern primitives’, she says, ‘are loosely defined as those who participate in contemporary rituals that include extensive body piercing, constriction (binding), scarification, “tribal” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am matt lodder . in modern primitives, musafar says he coined the term in . in other writings, elsewhere, he says (musafar : ). tattooing, and branding’ (eubanks ). michael atkinson describes how the neo-primitives are considered ‘the most influential of the new groups of tattoo artists and enthusiasts’ (atkinson : ). a report by the institute of cultural research floridly describes how today’s ‘modern primitives’ use tattoos, piercings and other forms of skin design to perform almost exactly the same functions as that of our ancestors: they use them to forge ‘tribal’ affiliations – and within that circle they have come to represent a collective common language and set of aesthetic values. (institute for cultural research ) to take such critics at their word would be to assume that there exists or existed a vast community of people coalescing around an organizing philosophy, self- identifying as individuals or groups under the labels ‘modern primitive’, ‘neo- primitive’ and ‘neo-tribalist’. the movement has dominated the sociological, anthropological and cultural studies literature on contemporary body modi- fication practices in the west and is so pervasive in academic discourse that even works that devote themselves to body modification practices, philoso- phies and frameworks beyond the ‘primitive’ paradigm (atkinson ; fenske ; maccormack ; pitts ; sanders ; sullivan ) feel compelled to at least make reference to the notion of modern primitivism, if only to comprehensively reject its tenets. the term ‘modern primitive’ was coined in the mid- s by a body modification practitioner known as fakir musafar (musafar , , ; vale and juno ). according to musafar, a ‘modern primitive’ is ‘a non- tribal person who responds to primal urges and does something with the body’ (musafar in vale and juno : ), with ‘primal urges’ understood to mean some aculturally innate drive to mark, decorate or otherwise alter one’s own body. inspired from childhood by photographs in the national geographic magazine and by anthropology textbooks to ape and appropriate so-called ‘primitive’ body modification practices including tattooing, piercing, scarifi- cation, branding and flesh-hook suspension, musafar and a small clique of associates from southern california developed a philosophy and way of life based on what they called ‘body play’, which they saw as directly oppositional to and as spiritually, ethically and even psychologically preferable to the ‘civi- lized’ culture of america and the west. musafar’s modern primitivism combines participation in a bewilderingly disparate set of tribal body practices with an ill-defined and woolly conception of spirituality. from the piercings of the masai to the ecstatic dances of indian sadhus, from maori tattoos to native american flesh-hanging rituals and from the penile implants of japanese yakuza gangs to the stretched necks of the padung women of thailand, any form of body modification or bodily orientated ritual with an appropriately ‘tribal’ lineage is deemed appropriate for appropriation and redeployment in the pursuit of self-discovery. the concept came to prominence following the publication in of modern primitives – an investigation of contemporary adornment and ritual by v. vale and andrea juno (vale and juno , see figure ) and the book, as nikki sullivan explains, ‘has now achieved something of a cult status’ (sullivan : ). it is the touchstone text for studies of contemporary western body modification practices. every critical engagement with the ‘modern primitives’ or ‘neo-tribal’ movement is grounded in discussions of it; it is treated by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am the myths of modern primitivism commentators as a manifesto or the bible of a defined movement (e.g. in rosenblatt : ) and the ideas expressed within it are often taken for the purposes of criticism as representative of body modification more generally (turner ). the problem is not only that nothing that could truly be called a movement of self-identified ‘modern primitives’ ever existed either before the book was published or afterwards, but also that the book itself has been repeatedly misrepresented, with analysis of large swathes of the interviews within it almost entirely absent from the literature. almost every piece of writing i have cited thus far is harshly and, i would argue, justifiably critical of musafar’s ideas and ideology. they are idealistic, idealizing and even potentially offensive. they rely on some extraordinarily naïve and muddled conceptions of traditional non-western bodily practices. they pick and choose from practices from an figure : modern primitives (san fransisco : re/search, ). cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am matt lodder . a previous version of musafar’s article published elsewhere renders this as ‘atavists’ (favazza : . quotes in original). . see also siorat ( ) enormous range of time-periods and geographical locations and attempt to mash them together into a coherent set of beliefs and aims. in short, they do not hold up to the sustained scrutiny to which they have been subjected. nevertheless, i want to argue that although this criticism is for the most part entirely correct, it is also almost universally quixotic. ‘modern primitives’ in modern primitives there are two distinct mistakes that saturate the discussions of modern primitives: assuming everyone in the book subscribes to a philosophy informed by primitivism, and that this philosophy is reflective of how a larger move- ment of individuals relate to their bodies and the modification practices they undergo. the first error is born out of a shallow reading of the book as a whole: musafar’s ideas do not make up the whole of modern primitives; they occupy only of its -plus pages, and musafar cannot legitimately be said to be ideologically representative of anything other than his own ideas. when writers such as eubanks and klesse write about ‘modern primitives’, they are writing only about fakir musafar and ‘a handful of other activists’ from his immediate social circle (musafar : ). rosenblatt ( ) argues that ‘looking at the book, it seems as though the whole history of western specu- lation about other cultures has been tossed into a blender with more than a little new age mysticism and some contemporary sexual radicalism thrown in besides’, but whilst this certainly applies to much of musafar’s philosophy, this criticism cannot fairly be levelled at the book as a whole. klesse’s article is a particularly glaring example of this tendency to treat musafar’s ideas as presented in modern primitives as not only representative of a coherent philosophy espoused by all those vale and juno interviewed, but also as a synecdoche of all body modification practice in the west then and since. ‘vale and juno’s influential book’, he explains, ‘contains a sample of interviews with people (mainly tattoo artists) who locate themselves within modern primitivism’ (klesse : ). this is simply not true: of the interviews in the book, only two – those with musafar and his close friend and acquaintance jim ward – explicitly describe their own practices in these specific terms. several are inspired by certain aesthetic features of blackwork tattooing, which is quite different from a full-scale, metaphysically inspired appropriation of ‘primitivism’ as a defined set of ethical behaviours. others, like genesis p-orridge, seem to define their relationship with tattooing and body piercing in terms conceptually quite oppositional to those espoused by musafar: ‘i don’t think [these practices] are primitive’, he states (genesis p-orridge in vale and juno : . emphasis in original). and for others, the term ‘primitive’ does not seem apposite at all: how can the term sensibly apply to sheree rose or raelyn gallina, for example, whose interviews reveal both to hold a liberated, queer and resolutely modern model of empowered female sexuality and whose preferred body modifications – genital piercings and sado-masochistic cutting – have no direct analogue in tribal societies? this overly broad conceptualization of the motivations of modern primitives’ interviewees also appears in eubanks’ article zones of dither. whilst she rightly claims that ‘the motivation for modern primitives’ modification of the body varies widely from subject to subject’, she goes on to assert that ‘a common impetus is a fascination with non-european ritualistic practices’ (eubanks : ), a statement that does not apply to gallina, to satanist anton lavey, to sideshow performers tattoo mike and captain don, or to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am the myths of modern primitivism several of the tattoo artists and collectors featured. often, even in interviews where non-european practices are referred to, it is only as part of a broader modification narrative that does not fit within the paradigm of atavistic essen- tialist romanticism eubanks criticizes and musafar’s philosophy normatively requires: bill salmon, who gets a traditional samoan tattoo as only one amongst the vast number of others he has acquired, falls into this category, as does jane handel, who claims ‘i wanted work that was inspired by traditional tribal designs, but contemporary too, and abstract in the sense that it wasn’t rigidly symbolic of any religious or cultural references’ (jane handel in vale and juno : ). modern primitives as movement the second mistake made repeatedly in academic and popular readings of modern primitives and body modification subcultures in the s is that the book either describes or went on to inspire a large and identifiable ‘move- ment’ under that name (atkinson ; atkinson and young ; campbell ; cummings ; demello ; pitts ; rosenblatt ; sweetman ; torgovnick ; wojcik ). in some cases, this second error is intertwined with the implicit assump- tion of the first: that any and all body modifications should inherently be thought to be ‘primitive’. from kleese’s initial error that everyone chronicled in modern primitives either self-identifies with this label or can be defined in the terms musafar demarcates for modern primitivism in the book’s first chap- ter, he allows the assumption of an underlying primitivist philosophy to leak into his more general discussions of the role of body modification in western culture. ‘although modern primitives rigorously reject the materialism of western consumer culture’, he scoffs on the basis of a reading supported only by citations from musafar and other critics such as marianna torgovnick who make the same error (torgovnick ), ‘small-scale businesses of profes- sional piercers and tattoo artists have been established in all larger cities’ (klesse : ). this is a fallacious argument: it is certainly not the case that all or even many tattoo shop owners would subscribe the primitivism kleese is (correctly) critiquing in his article (see for example sanders ). from the simple categorical error formulated in a hasty reading of modern primitives, kleese has proceeded to ascribe to a vast number of individuals an identity, a politics and even a metaphysics which they themselves would likely make no claim to. art and tattooing in the west the drive to call ‘modern primitivism’ a movement is further undermined by the fact that the separation of the aesthetic of traditional tribal tattooing from the ritualism that accompanies it in its original contexts was already well established in the west some years before modern primitives was published. spider webb released pushing ink: the fine art of tattooing in and don ed hardy released tattootime: new tribalism in (subsequently reprinted in ), both focussing on the aesthetic and formal qualities of tattooing as an art form rather than its spiritual or ethical potential. alongside presentations of tattoos from the american naval tradition and tattoos in a fine art context, both works also feature images of tattooing from new zealand, borneo and samoa, but with none of the ethical commentary which categorizes musafar’s contributions to modern primitives. the cover of new tribalism (figure ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am matt lodder features a photograph of a man’s leg, covered in heavy blackwork in a ‘tribal’ style, intersected with a large, brightly coloured purple snake. this tattoo, is certainly not ‘authentically’ tribal in any sense, but something innovative and exciting, drawing upon the aesthetics of heavy blackwork tattooing in tribal contexts in order to create something resolutely new. in cliff raven’s contribution to new tribalism, his interest in tattoo- ing as a decorative art and in the ‘treasure trove of form’ becomes apparent as he waxes at length about the visual qualities of geometric black tattoos (raven ). for hardy himself, ‘neo-tribal’ tattooing ‘does provide a power- ful option for the repertoire of contemporary creative tattooing’ (hardy ). the fascination is in the beauty of the abstract tattoos, which accentuate and ameliorate the body they adorn, not in a particular philosophical narrative they are assumed to represent or even facilitate. these tattoo artists and their contemporaries were already incorporat- ing ‘tribal’ elements before the term ‘modern primitives’ had any currency at all, a point further underlined by arnold rubin’s edited collection marks of civilisation (rubin ). marks was published in – the year before modern primitives. in the book’s final section, a number of essays present the same moment in time as modern primitives, chronicle some of the practices and make mention of several of the same people who appear or are mentioned in modern primitives, yet their analyses of tattooing in the s run entirely figure : the beginning of all things. don ed hardy, . photograph by trina von roesenvinge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am the myths of modern primitivism contrary to the broad-brushed critiques found in those that have used modern primitives as their primary and principal source. as rubin explains in his intro- duction to this final set of papers, ‘contemporary euro-america body-art represents a distinctive and highly idiosyncratic synthesis, where the past is demonstrably prologue’ (rubin : ). rubin identifies in the ‘renaissance’ of tattooing that was already emerging by a fundamental move away from primitivism and atavism towards a ‘new, broad-based investigation of the expressive possibilities embodied in tattoo’. he even identifies the incorpora- tion of ‘tribal’ styles as part of this emergence of an innovative ‘avant-garde’ in american tattooing from the s onwards (rubin : ) – an under- standing of contemporary tattooing almost entirely inverse to those who have read the spread of blackwork tattoo styles as indicative of a retrograde, primi- tive move. the result of all these misreadings and unsupported extrapolations is that other interesting philosophies threaded through modern primitives have more or less been entirely overlooked. amongst the collection of quotations that make up the book’s final section, vale and juno cite one of oscar wilde’s famous aphorisms: ‘one must be a work of art, or wear a work of art’. this quotation encapsulates and epitomizes the most important and most useful of these unexamined strands: the model of the body itself as a work of art. with its imperative verb, wilde’s quote is rousing, inspiring and perhaps even political. it immediately conjures up images of flamboyant dandies, resplend- ent in vivid outfits. it suggests that the body itself be turned into a master- piece for others to gaze upon, ponder and enjoy. moreover, it draws upon every romantic trope of what an artist is and should be, encouraging crea- tivity, dynamism, inspiration and novelty. to see the body as a work of art seems resolutely opposed to musafar’s retrospective philosophies of primitiv- ism, which actively resist novelty and reject creativity. modern primitives and body art don ed hardy grew up in southern california in the s, and developed an interest in tattooing in his childhood, intrigued and inspired by the tattooed sailors he had seen in his neighbourhood (govenar ). whilst he was studying fine art at the san francisco art institute, he describes how he ‘real- ized that tattoo was the great undocumented folk art’ (hardy in vale and juno : ), a realization that propelled him to become both a tattoo artist and a keen historian and ethnographer of tattooing. in their salutary introduc- tion to his interview, vale and juno hail hardy as ‘one of the foremost prac- titioners of the ancient art of tattoo … a philosopher, historian, painter and innovator’ (vale and juno : ), and, over the course of the discussion, it becomes clear that there is a vast conceptual gulf between his philosophy and the primitivism that precedes it in the book’s schema. ‘his goal’, the editors declare, is ‘to raise artistic standards and extend the range and complexity of symbolism depicted, while reinvestigating and preserving traditions’ (vale and juno : ). the first thing that is striking about hardy’s presentation of his work and his attitudes to his profession in the modern primitives interview is just how focused he is on the tattoo and the tattooed body as objects, rather than on the subjectivity of the embodied self which so preoccupies musafar. ‘tattoo is in fact a medium’, he explains – a medium he describes as often more rewarding, but equally often more frustrating than that of paint, a medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am matt lodder bounded in any respects by the limits of the (embodied) material it requires, but a medium nonetheless. whilst hardy does (and is prompted to) discuss the motivational and emotional drives of his clients, the roles tattoos play in their lives and their narrative conceptions of selfhood, and whilst he consid- ers these drives important and exciting, when given space by his interrogators to speak at length about tattooing, he always returns to questions of form, aesthetics and artistic influences. compared with musafar’s interview, which dwells on the purity and universality of the drive to interact with one’s own body, the pain of body modification and the liberatory potential of the proc- esses he espouses, the conversation with hardy is lighter on meditations on the process than it is on straightforward excitement about and reverence for tattoos. in one remarkable section, vale pushes hardy on his metaphysi- cal perspective, stating leadingly ‘it’s like the tattoo opens a door to another dimension’ (vale and juno : ). hardy briefly agrees, though he then turns this question into an opportunity to describe how he is something of a connoisseur of tattooing, able to discern from the iconography of old sailor tattoos the date they were applied and the artist who applied them. in a book which has so often been read as a compendium of individuals who explicitly reject the western and judeo-christian culture, hardy’s interview also stands out for containing two photographs featuring an iconic christian image, the rock of ages that entered the contemporary tattoo lexicon from the designs favoured by early to mid-twentieth century american servicemen (vale and juno : , see figure ). though hardy’s interest in the design is not predicated on its christian allusions – he also ascribes layers of pagan symbolism to the figure : rock of ages flash drawing by don ed hardy, . reproduced in modern primitives, p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am the myths of modern primitivism image – the inclusion of these images completely undermines any homogeneous reading of the book or the culture it has been purported to represent. hardy is as reverent about traditional western tattooing as he is about that from polynesia or japan, and it is difficult to understand why this resolutely non-primitive influence on a key contributor has been overlooked by every critic who has written about modern primitives. the book has so often been read as an rejection of western values, and yet it features hardy talking at length about not only christian symbols but also tattoos obtained during military service and his thoughts on the evocative nature of the images that had become part of the american tattoo vernacular. the interview is liberally interspersed with literate references to art history one would expect from an arts graduate. hardy rapidly intermeshes discussions of tattooing with references to surrealism, impressionism, abstract expressionism, minimalism, the art market, kandinsky, cubism, the role of institutions and even kenneth baker – a far cry from the ninetieth-century anthropology that informs musafar’s modern primitivism. in fact, in what reads like an express rejection of modern primitivist ideals, he even explicitly dismisses those who would directly appropriate traditional non-western tattooing: ‘i mean, it’s all right if some people really want to ape the japanese, or whatever, but the most exciting possibility for me as an artist is to do this fusion’ (vale and juno : ). though he is both aware and respectful of the history of tattooing in tribal cultures, unlike musafar he professes no desire to mimic or simply reproduce them for their own sake. unlike in the normative expression of modern primitivism, which sanctions only specific types and configurations of figure : dna: tattoo to commemorate successful operation curing total paralysis from auto-accident, don ed hardy, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am matt lodder modifications, hardy’s model allows the ‘primitive’ practice to become simply a means of creating something with currency and immediacy. in this conception, tattooing is no more philosophically ‘primitive’ than early forms of painting or sculpture are, even if the label might be chronologically apposite. to further illustrate and emphasize the distance in hardy’s practice from the primitivist discourse in which he has found himself subsumed, images of tattoos hardy produced in are included as figures and : one being a backpiece entitled ‘dna: tattoo to commemorate successful operation curing total paralysis from auto-accident’ (as reproduced in hardy : ), and the other a pair of rib-panels entitled ‘robot surfers: “kemp aaberg arch”’ (left), and ‘mickey munoz quasimoto’ (right) (hardy : ). these pieces are testaments to some of the particularly forward-looking work hardy was producing at the time of his interview with vale and juno; both pieces are imbued with science and science fiction iconography and cannot in any sense be considered primitive, atavistic or appropriational. conclusions understanding the body as an art object is not without its problems or its complexities. nevertheless, it has been sufficient here simply to acknowledge that such a model exists, and exists at the core of a text that has usually been figure : robot surfers: “kemp aaberg arch” (left), “mickey munoz quasimoto” (right), don ed hardy, – . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am the myths of modern primitivism read as a testament to the hollow atavism of contemporary western body modification. modern primitives is undoubtedly the most widely influential work on body modification practices in the west yet written – it cannot unreasonably be said to have been the impetus for the first wave of a nascent body piercing industry, which rippled across north america and europe in the early s, bringing exotic body modifications to the attention of countless people, many of whom were inspired to copy them. and yet its status as a univocal philosophical or ideological text remains unclear, despite scholarly assertion to the contrary. there never has been a ‘movement’ of modern primitives, driven by explicitly and avowedly ‘primitive’ desires to seek a higher state of consciousness though direct manipulation of their own flesh. musafar’s philosophy is too prescriptive and too esoteric for that ever to have been the case. what does emerge from a different reading of modern primitives is that at the same time and the same place as musafar was developing his notions of primitivism, another set of individuals, exemplified by don ed hardy, were asserting a rather different model of body modification. a decade after modern primitives was published, margo demello interviewed hardy for her book bodies of inscription: ‘ed hardy’, she says, ‘is both critical of modern primitiv- ism and how he influenced it’: it’s intriguing to see it [primitivist rhetoric] used by people as essentially the new kitsch. they’re not very original designs, but they pick up on this thing how it’s meaningful for them, how it’s a journey or a rite of passage and all that stuff, and it’s kind of incredible that that’s going on. … i get so sick of hearing all that stuff, and of course i know that i started a lot of it because i started focusing on that in the first tattootime just kind of to make people aware of it, but it’s just so corny now. (don ed hardy interviewed in demello : ) hardy’s attitude here illustrates precisely that he has unwittingly been co-opted by cultural critics and some tattoo collectors into a discourse of primitivism which he wants to have nothing to do with. hardy is clear: his interest is and always has been primarily in the aesthetic dimension of his craft more so than any specific notions of selfhood. what is important, rather, is the art of tattoo, the art of body art. references atkinson, m. ( ), tattooed: the sociogenesis of body art, toronto, on, and london: university of toronto press. atkinson, m. and young, k. ( ), ‘flesh journeys: neo primitives and the contemporary rediscovery of radical body modification’, deviant behavior, : , pp. – . campbell, a. ( ), western primitivism: african ethnicity, london: cassell. cummings, w. ( ), ‘modern primitivism: the recent history of civilization’s discontents’, in b. herzogenrath (ed.), critical studies: from virgin land to disney world – nature and its discontents in the usa of yesterday and today, amsterdam: rodopi, pp. – . demello, m. ( ), ‘“not just for bikers anymore”: popular representations of american tattooing’, journal of popular culture, : , pp. – . —— ( ), bodies of inscription: a cultural history of the modern tattoo community, durham, nc: duke university press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am matt lodder eubanks, v. ( ), ‘zones of dither: writing the postmodern body’, body & society, : , pp. – . favazza, a. r. ( ), bodies under siege: self-mutilation and body modification in culture and psychiatry, nd ed., baltimore, md, and london, johns hopkins university. fenske, m. ( ), tattoos in american visual culture, new york: palgrave macmillan. govenar, a. ( ), ed hardy: art for life, kempen, germany: teneues. hardy, d. e. ( ), tattootime: new tribalism, honolulu, hi: hardy marks. —— ( ), tattootime: art from the heart, honolulu, hi: hardy marks. institute for cultural research ( ), modern primitives: the recurrent ritual of adornment (monograph ), london: institute for cultural research. klesse, c. ( ), ‘“modern primitivism”: non-mainstream body modification and racialized representation’, in m. featherstone (ed.), body modification, london: sage, pp. – . maccormack, p. ( ), ‘great ephemeral tattooed skin’, body & society, : , pp. – . musafar, f. ( ), ‘body play: state of grace or sickness’, in a. r. favazza (ed.), bodies under siege: self-mutilation and body modification in culture and psychiatry, baltimore, md, and london: johns hopkins university, pp. – . —— ( ), spirit + flesh, santa fe, nm: arena additions. —— ( ), ‘body play: state of grace or perversion’, in b. a. perlingieri (ed.), a brief history of the evolution of body adornment in western culture: ancient origins and today, portland, or: tribalife, pp. – . perlingieri, b. a. ( ), a brief history of the evolution of body adornment in western culture: ancient origins and today, portland, or: tribalife. pitts, v. ( ), in the flesh: the cultural politics of body modification, new york and basingstoke, uk: palgrave macmillan. raven, c. ( ), ‘thoughts on pre-technological tattooing’, in d. e. hardy (ed.), tattootime: new tribalism, honolulu, hi: hardy marks, pp. – . rosenblatt, d. ( ), ‘the antisocial skin: structure, resistance, and “modern primitive” adornment in the united states’, cultural anthropology, : , pp. – . rubin, a. ( ), marks of civilization: artistic transformations of the human body, los angeles, ca: university of california press. sanders, c. r. ( ), customizing the body – the art and culture of tattooing, philadelphia, pa: temple university press. siorat, c. ( ), ‘beyond modern primitivism’, in n. thomas, a. cole and b. douglas (eds), tattoo – bodies, art and exchange in the pacific and the west, london: reaktion, pp. – . sullivan, n. ( ), tattooed bodies – subjectivity, textuality, ethics and pleasure, westport, ct: praeger. sweetman, p. ( ), ‘marking the body: identity and identification in contemporary body modification’, unpublished ph.d. thesis, university of southampton, southampton. torgovnick, m. ( ), ‘piercings’, in r. d. l. campa, e. a. kaplan and m. sprinkler (eds), late imperial culture, london: verso, pp. – . turner, b. ( ), ‘body marks in cool societies’, in m. featherstone (ed.), body modification, london: sage, pp. – . vale, v. and juno, a. (eds) ( ), modern primitives: an investigation of contemporary adornment and ritual, san francisco, ca: re/search publications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am the myths of modern primitivism wojcik, d. ( ), punk and neo-tribal body art, jackson, mi: university press of mississippi. suggested citation lodder, m. ( ), ‘the myths of modern primitivism’, european journal of american culture : , pp. – , doi: . /ejac. . . _ contributor details dr matt lodder completed his ph.d. at the university of reading in , having submitted a thesis entitled ‘body art: body modification as artistic practice’. his research is concerned with the artistic status of body art and body modification practices, including tattooing, body piercing and cosmetic surgery, applying art-theoretical and art-historical methodologies to the study of the modified body specifically as an art object rather than a site for psychological, psychiatric, anthropological or ethnographic interest.matt is currently a visiting lecturer at the university of reading, and works as senior administrator for the association of art historians. contact: parade mansions, watford way, london nw jj, uk. e-mail: matt@mattlodder.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd ejac_ . _lodder_ _ .indd / / : : am / / : : am ( / ), pp. – the polish journal doi: . / . . of aesthetics marcello sessa* the modernist iconography of sleep. leo steinberg, picasso and the representation of states of consciousness abstract in the present study, i will consider leo steinberg’s interpretation of picasso’s work in its theoretical framework, and i will focus on a particular topic: steinberg’s account of “picas- so’s sleepwatchers.” i will suggest that the steinbergian argument on picasso’s depictorial modalities of sleep and the state of being awake advances the hypothesis of a new way of representing affectivity in images, by subsuming emotions into a “peinture conceptuelle.” this operation corresponds to a shift from modernism to further characterizing the post- modernist image as a “flatbed picture plane.” for such a passage, i will also provide an overall view of cubism’s main phenomenological lectures. keywords leo steinberg, pablo picasso, cubism, phenomenology, modernism . leo steinberg and picasso: the iconography of sleep the american art historian and critic leo steinberg devoted relevant stages of his career to the interpretation of picasso’s work. steinberg wrote several picassian essays, that appear not so much as disjecta membra but as an ac- tual corpus. in the present study, i will consider them in their theoretical framework, and i will focus on a particular topic: steinberg’s account of “pi- casso’s sleepwatchers” (steinberg a). i will suggest that the steinber- gian argument on picasso’s depictorial modalities of sleep and the state of bmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmbbbbb * universities of florence and pisa email: marcello.sessa@phd.unipi.it m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ being awake advances the hypothesis of a new way of representing affec- tivity in images, by subsuming emotions in what has been called, since the first art theorizing on cubism at the beginning of the twentieth century, “peinture conceptuelle.” according to steinberg, picasso brings in emotional states (well exempli- fied, in our case study, by the emotional hues involved in sleeping and wak- ing) on canvas not much for their “dramatic interest” (fry , ), but as if they were “states of consciousness”, in a sort of conceptualization of emo- tions through painting. this operation corresponds to a shift from modern- ism to the further steinbergian characterization of the postmodernist image as a “flatbed picture plane” (steinberg , - ; b, - ), and al- lows us to draw a explicit analogy between picasso’s conceptual painting and robert rauschenberg’s conception of the work of art as a set of infor- mation. to clarify this passage, an overall view of the main phenomenologi- cal lectures of cubism may be helpful. steinberg undertakes his efforts to shed light on the “so wide a variety of human experience” and the “psychological and physiological realities” disclosed by picasso. for him, the critical point is how picasso managed such a diversity of subject matter (i.e., emotional-pathemic and ideal-conceptual, both involved in depicting couples of figures sleeping, waking, or watching) within the modernist iconic regime. steinberg gets a crucial issue in the in- terpretation of picasso: the contrast between kinds of subject matter that, nevertheless, get through figuration and the modernist handling of the pic- ture plane, which even for picasso (either in its pre- or post- cubist phases), stem from any form of illusionism, symbolism or mimesis. steinberg deals with the specific theme of sleep because it is paradig- matic of the tension between picasso’s figurative impulse and the anti- figurative drive inherent in most modernist paintings. in its review of picasso’s personal iconography of sleep, steinberg is driven towards a pecu- liar declination of the abovementioned dialectics; on the first impression, picasso may display simple variations on content vs. form issues, but deep down, it reveals to be a far more complex interplay. since the blue period ( – ) to les femmes d’alger ( – ), quite a few of picasso’s paintings, etchings, and drawings are often inhabited by sleeping figures i am appropriating—given the closeness of his scholarship to that of steinberg— robert rosenblum’s lines (see rosenblum , - ). for a deep explanation of picasso’s variations on delacroix’s les femmes d’alger, which underscores the operational nature of their seriality, see steinberg c. t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ (mostly female) and awake watchers (mostly male), that “introduce the sub- ject of the watched sleeper” (steinberg a, ). firstly, steinberg acknowledges the theme as an archetype, as a histori- cally-rooted motif that has experienced its articulated grammar: “the subject was old. scenes of sleeping nymphs observed by alerted males—scenes con- cerned with looking and longing—are part of the grand tradition of art” (steinberg a, ). we can draw a parallel between picasso’s intimate concern with a variation of the sleeping figure as a modern nymph and aby warburg’s obsession with the moving nymph as “a proclamation of love to this very same pathosformel” (paskaleva , ): to this peculiar icono- graphic formula that represented for the german scholar the very essence of aesthetic research itself, in all its contradictions. thus, in picasso’s artworks the representation of sleep acquires the war- burgian status of “scientific object” by “the mere inventing of […] an analyti- cal level” (paskaleva , ), because it “enters his work almost like a confession” (steinberg a, ). for picasso, sleep is an obsessive sub- ject with a status comparable to that of the warburgian nymph since it summarizes the most significant issues of artistic and creative research. the theme becomes the battleground in which all the contentions on the image’s very nature take place; from both the creator’s and spectator’s side, thanks to its power of prominently staging, displaying all the problems associated with representation, and to its power of enacting an actual “logic of the gaze” (bryson ): a metapictorial mise an abyme of image recep- tion. the male watcher incarnates the figure of the artist himself, linked to “his cold shadow” and “gloom of the mind,” whereas the female sleeper embodies “brightness,” “radiance,” “light,” and “the pure bliss of the body” “these early pictures [of the blue period] are curtain raisers. they introduce the sub- ject of the watched sleeper which was to become one of the haunted themes that recur continually in picasso’s work and give it constancy” (steinberg a, ). in a famous letter to andré jolles (written in ), warburg associated the figure of the moving nymph to a flying butterfly that you can never catch: “the most beautiful butterfly i have ever pinned down suddenly bursts through the glass and dances mock- ingly upwards into the blue air […] now i should catch it again, but i am not equipped for this kind of locomotion [gangart]” (gombrich , ). this analogy also stands for the continuous efforts of the resercher to interpret the power of images. for this reason, the nymph becomes the emblem of research work. paskaleva’s essay provides a comprehensive survey of the role of the nymph— constantly oscillating between its elusive essence and its embodiment as “the paradigm of pure image” (paskaleva , )—in history of culture from renaissance up to the pre- sent. m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ (steinberg a, ); these contrasts condense the striving between the corporality of experience—of aesthetic experience in particular: that of a perceiving body that equally feels and thinks—and the flat surface of mod- ernist painting. for steinberg, the relevance of picasso’s œuvre largely depends on this discrepancy. the critic identifies a “modernist shift” in the representation of sleep. in antiquity, sleep was depicted according to the order of symbol and allegory, which entailed a merely analogical interpretation system, proceed- ing from recognizing of the pictured characters as sleepers or watchers and their mythological or theological characterization. classical depicted sleep corresponded with “unplanned or delicious encounters” and appeared as quiet and peaceful, when during renaissance it started getting agitated and distracted by the power of imagination, by imaginary forces which “compli- cated” its fortunes (steinberg a, - ). imagination progressively ex- panded the symbology of sleep, increasing its interpretative layers further and further, to the point of obscuring the starting theme and its native un- troubled quietness. this complication increased with modernism and the season of the avant-gardes until sleep became completely desublimated. released from its symbolic nature, the representation of sleep assumed the form of “the study of marginal states of consciousness” (steinberg a, ); at this stage, depicting sleeping bodies meant setting aside all their literary features, so that those figures could work as analytical tools to investigate perception through the image. in modernism, sleep plays both an ambiguous and crucial role. this role is well exemplified—as a literay counterpart evoked by steinberg himself—by marcel proust’s metaphor of sleep as a threshold, as the condition that marks the transitions from “l’intelligence” (pure reasoning) and “la sensation” (pure feeling), occurring when a sen- sation is first “reconnue” by involuntary memory and then incarnated (“s’incarne”) in its “résurrection poétique” (proust , - ). for proust, literary creation operates in the same way with the passage from sleep to waking, and writing coincides with the elusive instant when, just woke up, we realize that we were sleeping: it is a permanent “chercher le sommeil” (proust , ). “almost everything in their [of depicted sleepers and watchers] seems so long famil- iar, yet in their mutual relationship all is new” (steinberg a, ). “mais alors était encore très près de moi un temps, que j’espérais voir revenir, et qui aujourd’hui me semble avoir été vécu par une autre personne, où j’entrais dans mon lit, à dix heures du soir et, avec quelques court réveils, dormais jusqu’au lendemain matin. t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ picasso performs his search on the states of consciousness linked to sleep by overturning the human body’s traditional representation. he no longer represents the human body as seen from a single point of view: his typical poliperspectivism can be read to present it from many different angles, re- flecting all the shades of perception. therefore, the human figure is depicted to bring forward—using representation—new orientations of its phenome- nological axes; in such a perspective, the sleeping figure coincides with a total reversal of the upright posture (fig. ). fig. . pablo picasso, reclining nude with figures, (oil on wood) source: musée picasso, paris. souvent, à peine ma lampe éteinte, je m’endormais si vite que j’avais pas le temps de me dire que je m’endormais. aussi une demi-heure après, la pensée qu’il était temps de m’endormir m’éveillait, […] et j’étais bien étonné de ne voir autour de moi qu’une obscu- rité, […] qui […] apparaissait comme une chose sans cause et incompréhensible” (proust , ). for a monography entirely devoted to the relationship between proust the man and the author, his writings and sleep, see mabin (esp. - ). la prisonnière ( ) is directly quoted by steinberg in “picasso’s sleepwatchers” for its long digressions on waking, dreaming and sleeping conditions; the novel (along with the whole recherche) can easily be focused within the lens of sleep; it cuts across a broad range of occurences, from the narrator who sleeps like a “divinité du ciel déposée sur un lit” (proust , ) to the half-dead albertine, passing from the delusional altered states of bergotte under the effects of opiates: “vers quels genres ignorés de sommeil, de rêves, le nouveau venu va-t-il nous conduire? il est manteinant dans nous, il a la direction de notre pensée” (proust , ). among them, the most extreme case maybe is the analogy of albertine’s sleep- ing body with a dead corpse, which has assumed “une rigidité de pierre” (proust , ) due to its horizontality, and that is tightly marked as ‘processual,’ as if it were a test bench: “et en voyant ce corps insignifiant couché la, je me demandais quelle table de loga- rithmes il constituait” (proust , ). m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ at this stage, we have to be ask what consequences this radical modernist refocusing of the depicted human figure has had on the representation of affects and concepts, now intended as states of consciousness. focusing on the beginning of the cubist period, steinberg goes straight to the point by addressing the decisive issue of cubism as “peinture conceptuelle” (kahn- weiler , ), precociously raised by daniel-henry kahnweiler in the second decade of the twentieth century, when the so-called analytical phase of cubism was still developing. taking a philosophical stance neo-kantian mold, kahnweiler was the first to regard picasso’s paintings as entirely focused on an ideal subject matter, made of the same substance of concepts. steinberg wonders if—and more insistenly how—picasso’s work does cope with conceptual “naked problems” (steinberg , ) as kahnweiler de- manded. i would advance the hypothesis that steinberg embraces the interpreta- tive tradition, inaugurated by kahnweiler and subsequently brought for- ward by several authors close to phenomenology, for which cubist paintings are incarnations of concepts. steinberg, however, goes beyond, and encom- passes even affectivity in the realm of conceptualized painting. his writings on picasso bring out the possiblity that the kahnweilerian “peinture concep- tuelle” may also represent—or rather present—emotions. in a steinbergian way, picasso handled emotions without any urge to empathy, with no need to express or arouse pathos, and free of dramatic interest; indeed, “states of consciousness” are very close to ideas and concepts. as a result of this, i suggest addressing the phenomenological lectures of cubism: to see how steinberg could have come to a similar interpretation of modernist painting as conceptual, and how this reading then leads towards a postmodernist image and a “flatbed picture plane.” in his essay on les demoiselles d’avignon, steinberg quotes directly from kahn- weiler’s seminal book der weg zum kubismus ( ), in which picasso’s famous gallerist states the genesis of cubism as “a desperate titanic clash with all of the problems at once” (steinberg , n), and connects the revolutionary ways of representing time-space relationships of cubism to neo-kantian philosophy. in his further book on juan gris, kahn- weiler describes the cubist treatment of depiction as a strong re-iconization of the world itself through a special kind of pictorial signs: “les ‘emblèmes graphiques’ qu’elle [cubist painting] a créées sont emmagasinés dans l’imagination du spectateur, et c’est avec eux qu’il constitue son monde extérieur, quitte à enrichir, plus tard, d’autres assemblages d’emblèmes graphiques avec les images-souvenirs qui se sont ainsi constitués, jeu d’ac- tions réciproques dans lesquels, toutefois, la peinture reste primaire” (kahnweiler , ). t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ . painting, ideas and emotions: theoretical lectures on cubism since its origins, cubist art has strongly appealed to philosophers, especially phenomenologists, as if it nearly claimed theoretical-interpretative reading. it was not only a matter of superimposing theory to artistic practice, but rather a series of attempts to arrive “à une sorte de réflexion pratique de l’art sur lui-même” (klein , ). a radical assumption was at stake: “the hypothesis that cubism does the same as phenomenology, that it per- forms a parte imaginis the same operation that phenomenology performs a parte philosophiae”; that cubist painting “is in itself phenomenological” (pinotti a, ). the common ground that links together most of the theoretical readings of cubism, from kahnweiler onwards, is the insistence on the loss by the representation of the referent and reference to actual data: “la disparition de ce que nous allons appeler la référence, l’être réel ou idéal auquel se mi- surait l’œuvre” (klein , ). phenomenologists have been the first to recognize this transfer’s importance from a philosophical point of view: cubist image strongly detaches itself to any mimetic-imitative requirement, from traditional modes of representation derived from the perspectival con- ception of the renaissance. according to them, the referent’s absence begins with an increasingly evident awareness of the images’s formal principles, in opposition to the pure forms of appearance. in the early twentieth century, the german art theorist fritz burger played as a precursor by stating the cubist revolution as triggered by the “gestaltungsproblem”: the problem of configuration and conformation (i.e., of form as a result of a creative process), rather than the problem of form (i.e., of pure form as a priori, as a scheme superimposed in advance on the image), brought on by “die erkenntnis […] um das formende prinzip” (burger , - ). hence burger argues the ultimate dismissal of cubist painting—in this respect very close to wassily kandinsky’s abstrac- tion—from every need to reproduce reality through any mimetic procedure, because it “nicht das geformte, sondern das sichformende gestalten will” (burger , ). according to robert klein, this does not necessarily coincide with the move from figuration to abstraction: “l’agonie de la référence commence bien avant la disparition de la figure” (klein , ). burger opposes “der impressionistischen raumillusion,” still built on the mimetic depiction of appearances, and “die schlichten, abstrakten formen” of cubism, that capture the essence of figuration itself (burger , ). an analogy can obviously be drawn with paul klee’s “macht sichbar” mandate for art (klee , ). m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ however, ictorial abstraction, however, moves from the object-like and from any duty to referentiality towards the complete liberation of represen- tation. in contrast, cubism gets close to the same operativity of thought in itself thanks to its capacity to operate through iconic conformations or configurations (that is through representations that capture the essence of the perceptual process of reality), gets close to the same operativity of thought in itself: “der wert dieser kunst wird zunächst darin liegen, daß sie schon durch den wiederspruch zum denken und neugestalten zwingt” (burger , ). cubist art is then for burger an analogon of edmund husserl’s “vision of essences (wesensschau)” (burger , ). thus, thanks to its power to obliterate the mere objects on perception of their essence’s behalf, cubism began to be philosophically bounded to concepts and conceptualization. steinberg seems to accept this perceptual perspective, neither mimetic nor abstract, on cubism (and, by extension, on picasso) as a conditio sine qua non, when he indicates what he calls its desublimated and desublimating emphasis, achieved primarily by making a clean sweep of traditional ways (illustrative, descriptive, lyrical, didactic) to represent emotions: “the cubist enterprise then being launched had no use for its sentiments. but before putting the subject away, picasso stripped it of its private emotional conno- tations” (steinberg a, ). to remain with our case study, the modernist depiction of sleep is also “depersonalized,” as long as “a sensitive private theme becomes neutralized” (steinberg a, ). despite being figures, picasso’s watchers and sleepers are no more strictly figural in the illusionistic and mimetic sense. although picasso de- picts human beings in acts certainly charged with emotional and even erotic overtones, they do not illustrate definite emotional tones, liable to have arisen in the spectator in exact correspondence. they are figurations (or better configurations) that directly embody different states of conscious- “nur macht er [kandinsky] sich hierbei im gegensatz zu van gogh und cézanne völ- lig vom gegenständlichen los” (burger , ). “picasso bringt nicht mehr gegenständliches zur darstellung, die welt als organis- mus ist der gegenstand seiner gestaltung” (burger , ). the analogy of cubist painting and husserlian vision of essences is drawn by burger because, according to him, cubism captures reality as if it nothing had in common with empirical experience. cubist painting, instead, operates as “apprehension of essence (wesenserfassung)” and stimulates vision as a “prehension of essences (wesenfassung),” grasping the essence of objects beyond their existence as mere things (burger , ). burger uses husserl’s terminology by quoting directly from its philosophie als strenge wissenschaft ( ). for burger’s “modernist” and “aesthetologic” turn, see filippi (esp. - ). t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ ness: “picasso’s sleep-watching encounters are no accidents but juxtaposed states of being” (steinberg a, ). picasso’s configurations of sleepers and watchers summarize the affective tones of sleeping and watching bring- ing them to the level of consciousness, thus subsuming feelings and emo- tions in the representation of the concepts of sleep, wake and watch. given the non-objective nature of picasso’s configurations—and the fact that it is not a matter of symbols or allegories: “they are never abstractions alone, nor mere symbols of watch and sleep” (steinberg a, )— we have to wonder how a painting that becomes conceptual, to the point of conceptualizing emotions turning them into states of consciousness, is com- patible with the principles of modernist figuration. in other words: to what extent are picasso’s configurations of sleep and wake conceptuelles and at the same time not neutered of affectivity? we can better understand the assimilation of emotions into concepts by looking at the next step towards a “phenomenological cubism”. this step has been taken by the french scholar guy habasque, who moved from burger’s “mystical” attachment to essences by linking cubist non-objectual paintings of the synthetic phase to husserl’s eidetic reduction. the point here is not platonesque idealism, but the faculty of images to do the same of perception: in synthesizing eidos and body in the apprehensive exercise of consciousness over experience (see habasque ). such an adjustment, which takes into account the corporeal dimension in all its aspects, fits very well with stein- berg’s treatment of picasso’s works—once symptomatically addressed as “a paronomasia induced by the sense of touch” (steinberg , ), rather than by eyesight alone—as arenas in which the whole range of desire, even sexual, is displayed through figuration. hence the link between the repre- sentation of perceptions, at the same time bodily and conceptual, and mod- ernist painting. for steinberg, this synthesis of bodily and conceptual occurs, in picasso’s oeuvre, precisely because his painting strains both hints of per- ception within the iconic regime. contemporary studies of phenomenology and cubism have switched to a parallel between husserl’s concept of epochè and cubist metarepre- sentational figurality, (sepp ). in this perspective, cubism as a “pictorial robert rosenblum as well, considering a painting of marie-thérèse, picasso’s lover in the late s and s, says that the painter “captures the fragile moment of transi- tion between consciousness and sleep, […] and the shift from the awareness of an external world to the liberation of subconscious desires”, and that “this sexual unveiling is almost literal” (rosenblum , ). the suspension of the judgment by parenthesizing the actual world with “eine radi- kale zäsur im welterfahrenden leben” (sepp , ). m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ epochè” incorporates the ideal-conceptual and physical features of depicted figures in their iconic destination; therefore, the stress is placed on the di- mension of iconicity intrinsic to cubist painting. by considering images as philosophical instruments, this point of view brings justice to what is their own “immanent field,” to their “immanenter bereich […], in dem das gege- bensein von selbst sichbar würde.” thus, the cubist image makes its pure figurality and its pure pictoriality visible: “die ‘res,’ die grundtatsache des malerischen selbst” (sepp , - ). most phenomenologists have finally wondered if cubist painting can be juxtaposed or superimposed on ideas: the scope goes from arnold gehlen’s full acceptance of cubism as resulted from the conceptualization of the world of experience (see gehlen ), to hans-georg gadamer’s explicit refusal to overlap rationality on painting as if it were an a priori. steinberg seems to embrace most of the achievments of phenomenology on cubism, whether by the side of conceptual painting, by the side of picto- rial epochè or by the side of iconicity; he brings together their leading sug- gestions, notably when he speaks about the representation of sleep and watch as “iconized states of consciousness.” interpreting the depiction of the bodies in les demoiselles d’avignon, he asks himself: “are these morpho- logical changes metaphors for states of existence?” (steinberg , ). and for him this applies to the entire, vast, and incredibly varied figurative universe of picasso. picasso deals with the ideal-conceptual and emotional features of the figure through the sole means of representation. what steinberg calls “the representations of states of consciousness” is nothing more than the “erkennen wir dem frühen und noch dem analytischen kubismus eine reduktion bezüglich der existenz des wahrnehmungsgegenstandes in einem durchaus phänomeno- logischen sinn zu, so ist die eine reduktion, die letzlich nur darin von der genuin phäno- menologischen unterschieden ist, als ihr woraufhin die reine bildfläche und nicht das reine wahrnehmungserlebnis als einer phänomenologischen gegebenheit ist” (sepp , ). “die leitidee der ‘bildrationalität’ wird m. e. dann entstellt, wenn rationalität hier konstruktiven aufbau aus prinzipien im sinne der anwendung einer zuvor aufgestellten theorie bedeuten soll” (gadamer , ). gadamer argues that an exact comparability of painting and ideas can never be taken for granted, because iconicity always exceeds the parameters of thought: “eine ernüchterte denkweise der einsicht in die wirkliche künstle- rische produktionsweise nähergekommen ist—was gewisse wechselwirkungen nicht ausschließt, aber weninger eine konstruktive lenkung der künstlerischen produktion durch theorie bedeuten würde, als vielmehr die neue entsprechung von bild und bilder- wartung bezeugt” (gadamer , ). t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ attempt to exhibit, in painting, other ways to “inhabit” the body, the figure, and the depicted space, presenting them as if they were apprehensions of consciousnesses; sleeping and watching figures “become readable as alter- nate states, twin phases of a single existence” (steinberg a, ). they are given in configurations that are “materialized thought in which desire and form intersect” (steinberg a, ). furthermore, this is due to the fact a modernist non-objectual treatment of the figure (in the case of picasso neither mimetic nor abstract) can make a sort of embodiment of the figure itself, an incarnation wherein the emotional and the conceptual, mutually interplaying, cohabit on the same ground (viz. the sphere of figurality, that encompasses them). picasso charges figures of desire via a “lifelong practice of projective in- habitation” (steinberg , ), which makes them “complex biological fantasies” (rosenblum , ), often arising from the channeling of sexual drives. what would have been previously represented only through symbol or allegory (like concepts, emotions and desires), in picasso ends up being “eroticized,” and directly presented with full force: form and content, style and will, idea and feeling are inseparably welded in their figural inter- penetration. also by this reason, in his paintings he faces the previously mentioned “naked problems,” concerning concepts and feelings and well exemplified by the couples of watchers and sleepers, “as nude women” (steinberg , ): he makes them act like living bodies, although desublimated and “progressively dehumanized” (steinberg a, ) in their minimum figural trace (fig. , fig. ). in painting, idea and feeling can wake up and make love figuratively, as if they were the same watching and sleeping figures who incarnate them. “picasso’s sense of the inner feel of a gesture conditioned his art from its beginnings and never relaxed” (steinberg , ). “the multiple aspects of sexual experience become a major obsession in his [of pi- casso’s] imagery, a phenomenon that may be explained, in part, by both public and private reasons” (rosenblum , ). m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ fig. . pablo picasso, study, february , (pencil) source: private collection. fig. . pablo picasso, two figures, april , (drawing) source: private collection. t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ . picasso and robert rauschenberg: from “peinture conceptuelle” to “flatbed picture plane” such a heterogeneous conception of the image goes far beyond the circum- scribed boundaries of modernist painting, and this is evident in the way steinberg refers to picasso’s handling of the picture plane. in his sleep paint- ings, picasso’s goal is “to get a plausible accommodation of solid body in a flat ground” (steinberg a, ), e.g. how to fit his conceptualized con- figurations to the unavoidable breakthrough of the avant-gardes against mimesis and illusion. watchers and sleepers’ depicted bodies are acted on the picture plane in order to raise states of consciousness, while bypassing any form of illusion or illusionism; which is why “the whole surface, whether descriptive of solid or void, hardens into a crust, and the illusion of space is impaired” (steinberg a, ). picasso sets up his canvases as a means of giving his figures max- imum expression; their identities are “manifold” and always “oscillating between portraiture and abstraction” (steinberg a, - ), then they need a proper ground of action. this set-up translates into a picture plane that is, to use the lexicon of mi- chael fried, neither “theatrical” nor “literal”: neither illusionist nor object- like (fried , - ). furthermore, even though picasso usually tends to flatten three-dimensionality within two dimensions, his picture flatness is never the sole actor on stage. it is not the same as the issue of “the integrity of the picture surface as a flat continuum” (greenberg , ) that clement greenberg assumed as ontological to the essence of modernist painting. for steinberg, on the contrary, flatness is just one of the many for steinberg, in fact, picasso’s figures do not just enact a relational logic of the gaze, but also unfold a higher degree of conceptualization, although always linked to figurative- ness: “at any moment picasso’s imagery may require one to read his characters not as persons engaged in watching and being watched, but as a figuration of sleeping and wak- ing—dependent states that exclude and presuppose one another, nourish and infect one another, each lacking some richness the other has” (steinberg a, ). as is well known, for greenberg cubism played a crucial and fatal role in achieving pictorial flatness. it has to do with cubist gradual abolition of any difference between actual pictorial surface and visual depth: “contour and silhouetting lines were lost (espe- cially when the object was spread apart so as to show its surface from more than one point of view): the space inside the object now faulted through into surrounding space, and the latter could be conceived of as, in return, penetrating the object. all space became one, neither “positive” nor “negative,” in so far as occupied space was no longer clearly differentiated from unoccupied. and the object was not so much formed, as exhibited by precipitation in groups or clusters of facet planes out of an indeterminate background of similar planes, which latter could also be seen as vibrating echoes of the object” (green- m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ options to embody the states of consciousness in painting; it is not a prereq- uisite, but rather a consequence of what can be called a modernist shift in approaching figuration: “the shallowness of the pictorial space is not given but won” (steinberg , ). picasso’s ‘crusts’ do not sacrifice and, above all, do not neglect anything: they can canalize every stimulus because in them, “every spatial dimension—width, height, and depth—lives under stress” (steinberg , ). in opposition to greenberg and formalist art criticism, steinberg states that planarity and quasi-abstraction are not for picasso the conditions of possibility of the picture, which make possible its evolution towards the self- determination of the medium, following a teleological scheme moreover. albeit “modernist orientation ought to be to the flat picture plane” (stein- berg , ), the case of picasso is peculiar and unique; “the flat picture plane is his whole working world” (steinberg a, ), but this scenario, not being a pre-formed given frame, does not inhibit his figurative language. indeed it makes it flourish. picasso’s ultimate goal is not to resort to flat surfaces and bidimension- ality. for him, it is an inevitable choice, which follows from the desubli- mation and depersonalization needed to represent states of consciousness in all their perceptual shades effectively; thereby, resuming affectivity in conceptual configurations. in picasso’s work, surface and depth flatten just enough to project the states of consciousness on figures; following our case study, depicted watchers and sleepers can turn into the representation of watch and sleep in themselves, in a process that conceptualizes emotions via figuration. with picasso, painting has gone from being illustrative and emo- tional to being eidetic and perceptual: somehow conceptuelle, then. another element that shows the uniqueness of picasso’s achievements in the context of modernism is the issue—once again phenomenological— of horizontality vs. verticality, raised in particular by his watchers and sleep- ers. steinberg says that in representing the theme of sleep vs. watch, picasso is prompted to reorganize pictorial space by questioning the traditional ver- tical orientation of western easel painting. even modernist painters have struggled to get rid of the supremacy of verticality on several occasions, without ever succeeding, while picasso does; in fact, his watchers/sleepers paintings display “a minimal statement of hor- berg , - ). for the greenbergian interpretation of the function of the inclusion of fragments of actual objects in cubist painting, in order to strengthen the impression of pictorial flatness, see greenberg a. for an analysis specifically focused on picasso as a modernist painter, see greenberg b. t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ izontality—which is all the ground that sleep needs” (steinberg a, ). thus, representing sleeping figures, lying or reclining, as modernist concep- tualized configurations bring him to subvert the picture’s characteristics, targeting horizontality. this subversion has substantial implications, both by the artwork’s and spectator’s side, and it ultimately leads picasso’s concep- tion of the image past modernism, and very close to the steinbergian notion of the postmodernist image as a “flatbed picture plane.” steinberg indeed argues that after the culmination of the modernist en- terprise, ended more or less with abstract expressionism, and there has been a revolution concerning the ontology of the image; the new pictures of the s presented themselves with a new look, featured with “a pictorial surface whose angulation with respect to the human posture is the precondi- tion of its changed content” (steinberg , ). their angulation bends horizontally, and implies “the shift from nature to culture” in “the psychic address” of the painting, which now makes possible “a different order of experience” (steinberg , ), rooted in the perception of the picture as an operational and operative recollection of any data. this address is the steinbergian definition of the new surface: “yet these pictures no longer stimulate vertical fields but opaque flatbed horizontals. they no more depend on a head-to-toe correspondence with human posture than a newspaper does. the flatbed picture plane makes its symbolic allu- sion to hard surfaces such as tabletops, studio floors, charts, bulletin boards—any receptor surface on which objects are scattered, on which data is entered, on which information may be received, printed, impressed— whether coherently or in confusion. […] [it] insists on a radically new orien- tation, in which the painted surface is no longer the analogue of a visual ex- perience of nature but of operational processes” (steinberg , ). “i borrow the term from the flatbed printing press.” it’s used by steinberg to de- scribe a radically new treatment of the picture plane as phenomenologically operational: “any flat documentary surface that tabulates information is relevant analogue of his [of robert rauschenberg, the steinbergian prime example of the new art] picture plane— radically different from the transparent projection plane with its optical correspondence to man’s visual field” (steinberg , - ). the relationship between orientation of the human posture, mind and images has precociously been explored by psychologists such as erwin straus, see straus , esp. - , - . for an overall view on aesthetological reflections about orientation, direction and images in authors like wölfflin, schlosser, faistauer, uspenskij, see pinotti b. for the hypothesis of a phenomenological use of laterality by abstract expression- ists, especially barnett newman, see bois . m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ according to steinberg, robert rauschenberg’s works represent the paradigm of flatbed picture planes. rauschenberg was the first to treat the picture plane as a solid horizontal ground, on which all sorts of data could be enacted as artistic facts. his pictures were no longer optical plenums of visual flatness; in this respect, “the picture’s flatness was to be no more a problem than the flatness of a disordered desk or an unswept floor” (steinberg , ). rauschenberg began to handle the materiality of the visual field’s flatness, now turned horizontal, and produced images very close to the realm of objectuality. following rosalind krauss, rauschen- berg’s pictures “embed” objects like images, and “images themselves, within the medium of rauschenberg’s art, are material substances”: in a process of “physical incorporation of the image,” they can be defined as “image-ob- ject[s]” (krauss , - ). the flatbed picture plane is not only a mere transfiguration of an object trouvé, but “a relocation of it;” its virtue lies in its power to re-signify the experience of the actual world through the iconic regime. it raises the marks of what we have called a configuration to a higher degree, since it presents and combines, in the image, every kind of data; even emotional ones, em- bodying them in a process of figural conceptualization (not figurative any- more but, in the case of rauschenberg, objectual and almost literal). one of rauschenberg’s most famous works is closely related to the discourse of sleep. i am talking about bed ( , fig. ), an object-like image that can be read as a forceful index of the artist’s sleep, and in which the sheets, instead of canvases or paper, function as “a pictorial surface that led the world in again” (steinberg , ). “but on the new york art scene the great shift came in rauschenberg’s work of the early s. even as abstract expressionism was celebrating its triumphs, he proposed the flatbed or work-surface picture plane as the foundation of an artistic language. […] rauschenberg began to experiment with objects placed on blueprint paper and exposed to sunlight. already then he was involved with the physical materal of plans” (steinberg , - ). “the flatbed picture plane lends itself to any content that does not evoke a prior op- tical event” (steinberg , ). krauss distinguishes between “the single-image” of modernist painting, conceived as autonomous entity, and the “part-by-part, image-by-image” (krauss , ) of rau- schenberg’s work, associated to materialization and to discoursive ways of fruition. the second one has much in common with steinberg’s flatbed picture plane. “perhaps rauschenberg’s profoundest symbolic gesture came in when he seized his own bed, smeared paint on its pillow and quilt coverlet, and uprighted ita against the wall. there, in the vertical posture of ‘art,’ it continues to work in the imagina- t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ afterward, rauschenberg will take the next step to the complete ob- jectuality in many of his s and s works; the theme of sleep will be developed in his hoarfrosts (fig. , see fernandes ), in which the phan- tom of the canvas has vanished, and the work of art is given through the ostension of printed veils and sheets. fig. . robert rauschenberg, bed, (oil and pencil on pillow, quilt, and sheet on wood supports) source: moma, new york. tion as the eternal companion of our other resource, our horizontality, the flat bedding in which we do our begetting, conceiving, and dreaming. the horizontality of the bed relates to ‘making’ as the vertical of the renaissance picture plane related to seeing” (steinberg , ). m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ fig. . robert rauschenberg, hoarfrost, (solvent transfer on fabric with pillow) source: the menil collection, houston. the steinbergian interpretations, respectively of picasso’s and rau- schenberg’s work, present evident analogies, as if picassian “peinture conceptuelle” were a precursor of the steinbergian flatbed picture plane. it is almost as if picasso had been the only modernist voice with the foresighted- ness to anticipate postmodernist developments within the conception of images as operational and informational processes. at the end of his essay on picasso and sleep, steinberg accords picassian configurations the same operational power of “flat bedding” the “columnar body” (steinberg , ), because of the mutual interaction of verticality and horizontality on the picture plane, all in favor of the latter: picasso’s “upright watchers and reclined sleepers serve him as a means of constantly charting and redefining the ground of his canvas, his paper, or etcher’s plate. […] they stake out an elemental geometry” (steinberg a, ). as has been seen, this exceeds the field of the mere formal organization of the picture or the sole dramatic interest of its characters: “perpendicular to each other and parallel to the margins, they [watching and sleeping figures] t h e m o d e r n i s t i c o n o g r a p h y o f s l e e p . . . __________________________________________________________________________________________________ span and they scale the pictorial plane, so that horizontal and vertical mate- rialize in ever-new personifications. the artist’s will to lay down and erect the forms that perpetually reembody the conditions of his two-dimensional plane—this is more than a technical matter” (steinberg a, ). al- though picasso remains anchored to modernist figurality, and does not tres- pass the threshold of objectuality, his configurations are situated at the bor- der of modernism and tend to postmodernist drives. when steinberg describes the haptic features of les demoiselles d’avi- gnon’s impressions of spatiality, he interestingly employs a metaphor with rauschenbergian echoes: “the space of the demoiselles is a space peculiar to picasso’s imagination. not a visual continuum, but an interior apprehended on the model of touch and stretch, a nest known by intermittent palpation, or by reaching and rolling, by extending one’s self within it. 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trans. j. needleman, london: glencoe-collier-macmillan. m a r c e l l o s e s s a __________________________________________________________________________________________________ totalitarian movements and political religions, vol. , no. , – , june issn - print/ - online/ / - © taylor & francis group ltd doi: . / style versus ideology: towards a conceptualisation of fascist aesthetics ulrich schmid bochum taylor and francis ltdftmp .sgm . / totalitarian movements and political religions - (print)/ - (online)original article taylor & francis group ltd summer abstract scholars of fascism have mostly come up with generic definitions and tried to define their topic by sketching out more or less elaborated lists of characteristics. this paper tries to come to terms with fascism not so much as an ideological but rather as an aesthetic phenomenon which has to be considered in its social functions. fascism wanted to put life on stage – hitler and mussolini referred to themselves as “artists” who designed the state as a ‘gesamtkunstwerk’. fascist aesthetics was eclectic in its stylistic preferences: it could deploy futuristic, expressionistic or neoclassicistic devices; using a formalized language of symbols, it did not depict but rather created reality. fascist aesthetics reinstated art in its premodern social function. art was not segregated from the public sphere and exiled to museums and exhibitions, but social life itself had to assume the fascist design which also included behavioral patterns. it is difficult to grasp the notion of ‘fascism’. the catastrophic experience of fascist movements triggered a whole range of theoretical approaches in the second half of the twentieth century. many scholars tried to come to terms with this phenom- enon which attacked the very core of the ideals of enlightenment and eventually laid a good part of europe in ashes. the explanatory impetus was so intense that scholars like renzo de felice and wolfgang wippermann were able to come up with highly differentiated classifications of theories on fascism only years after the end of the second world war. thus far, it has mostly been historians who have chosen to analyse european fascisms. this disciplinary focus has had a clear impact on the results of research- ing fascism. many scholars have not questioned their presupposition that fascism could be described in terms of political content and institutional organisation. these attempts at a structural description of fascist ideology often came to the conclusion that fascist party programmes are evasive and dim, if they exist at all. in italy, a detailed wording of a ‘dottrina del fascismo’ was available only by ; in germany, the programme of the nsdap of was based on nationalistic slogans and renounced a detailed agenda of political issues. the traditional generic definitions of fascism in the historical sciences have found a preliminary end in stanley payne’s tripartite definition from his history of correspondence address: ulrich schmid, ruhr-universität bochum, seminar für slavistik/lotman– institut, universitätsstr. , bochum email: ulrich.schmid@ruhr-uni-bochum.de. u. schmid fascism. payne splits the fascist reality into three groups: ideology and goals; the fascist negations; and style and organisation. already the very existence of the second category makes it clear that fascist ideology can hardly be conceptualised in positive terms. this important point has also been stressed by norberto bobbio, who called fascism an ‘anti-ideology’ for its prominent idiosyncrasies. payne’s definition may lead to a useful classification of fascism; it remains, however, unsatisfactory at the same time because it suggests that fascism had a clear structure and hence can be compared to any other political phenomenon such as communism or liberalism. interestingly enough, a good part of the latest research on fascism does not originate from historians, but rather from sociologists. these studies approach fascism from a different point of view. fascism is no longer interpreted as a polit- ical ideology, but as a social culture. sociologists focus on collective patterns of behaviour, on the social construction of individuality, on the organisation of public and private spaces, and on the regulation of interaction. emilio gentile’s conceptualisation of fascism as a ‘political religion’ can be subsumed as well within this disciplinary category of research. philologists and historians of art have mostly kept silent about fascism. even the term ‘fascist culture’ seemed to many critics a ‘contradictio in adjecto’. repre- senting a widely spread opinion, george steiner maintains that fascism has not produced a single work of art. those literary critics who approach fascist texts usually make sure to state in their introductions that they share neither the artist’s ideas nor the artist’s stylistic predilections. consequently, most works of art that were produced under fascism have been dismissed as mere kitsch. however, it seems to be very promising to invert the usual approach to fascist aesthetics. more specifically, works of art should not be interpreted as ‘illustrations’ for a fascist ideology, but as constitutive factors in the social culture of fascism. such an approach can be justified through the self-images of fascist leaders. in mussolini stated in a conversation with emil ludwig: ‘politics is the highest of arts, the art of arts, the most godly amongst the arts, because it sculptures the most difficult, living material: man’. earlier, musso- lini had already defined the essence of fascism as ‘beauty’ and referred to the march on rome as to a piece of art. the same holds true for hitler. in goebbels hailed the führer as the first artist to transform the state into a gesamt- kunstwerk: his whole work is proof of an artistic spirit: his state is a building of truly classic measure. the artistic creation of his politics puts him as deserved by his character and nature at the top of all german artists. the fascist project can be understood then as a total work of art where each element has to fit stylistically. consequently, style in behaviour, clothing and manner of speaking are basic manifestations of the fascist reality. thus, the fascist attention to everyday culture should be analysed against this background. more- over, the stylistic imperatives made sure that individual loyalty to the system could be easily controlled. the campaign in italy against the polite form ‘lei’ or the german hitlergruss are only the most prominent forms of the fascist obsession with style. in fact, the fascist stylisation penetrated all aspects of life. yet, it was not only everyday culture that changed its style. the arts were also paid increasing attention by fascist leaders as artistic design was considered trend towards a conceptualisation of fascist aesthetics setting in defining public taste. fascism cared intensely about its appearance and claimed the exclusive right to define the stylistic details. the stylistic design of fascist aesthetics is far from being monolithic. there is a widespread cliché that identifies fascist aesthetics with monumental neo-classi- cism. such an interpretation restricts fascist art to the personal taste of adolf hitler, who declared his profession in the s as an ‘academic painter’. however, the stylistic phenomenology of fascist aesthetics was in fact much broader. a comparative analysis of german and italian pieces of art leads to trou- bling and contradictory evidence. in willy engelhardt used elements of bauhaus architecture to visualise hitler’s modernising position in a poster for elections (figure ). figure . willy engelhardt: poster for german elections, ‘hitter builds up’.in the same year goebbels tried to integrate what he called ‘nordic expression- ism’ into the official nazi art. for the defenders of fascist modernism, expression- ism showed how art was striving towards nordic elementary forms. but goebbels did not succeed in overcoming hitler’s strong preference for monumen- tal art. hitler and his chief ideologue, alfred rosenberg, preferred a neo-classical style which differed from ancient hellenism in terms of heroic attitude. by the end of , expressionistic art was ostracised altogether as degenerate. official art now preferred human bodies shown in mythological settings. figure . willy engelhardt: poster for german elections, ‘hitler builds up’. u. schmid figure . arno breker: the wehrmachtone of hitler’s favourite artists was arno breker, who designed a whole series of allegories including ‘the party’ or ‘the wehrmacht’ for the reichskanzlei (figure ). the heroic attitude became the most programmatic content in such official art. thilo von trotha, a close collaborator of alfred rosenberg, wrote in an article in : the beauty of the nordic race includes heroism. here lies a difference to hellenic art, which often shows a southern softness, which does not belong to the harshness of the nordic-germanic character. heroic matter- of-factness, together with a nordic ideal of beauty, must become the basis of a new age of art in germany – otherwise art will continue to oscillate between southern formalism and asiatic chaos. figure . arno breker: the wehrmacht towards a conceptualisation of fascist aesthetics ‘nordic heroism’ meant toil, labour and monumental achievements. one of the most prestigious objects of hitlerism was the reichsautobahn, which had to receive artistic glorification. figure . josef thork: ‘monument fo labour’ for the reichsautobahn near salzburg.josef thorak planned to erect a huge monument to the reichsautobahn – the workers were meant to be metres tall (figure ). the monument never materialised, but the plan was used later for commercial purposes: an advertisement by mercedes-benz from used thorak’s monument as background (figure ). figure . advertisement for mercedes-benz, ‘expression of powerful beauty’.the merging of politics and business does not come as a surprise. national socialism had to be ‘sold’ to the germans. hitler and goebbels spread their ideology through a huge marketing campaign and with excessive use of brand symbols, namely the swastika. mussolini also relied on the use of a corporate-like identity. the ‘littorio’ was ubiquitous – from matchboxes to sewers, the fascist symbol reminded italian citizens that the fascist movement was not a political party among others but a force which dominated all aspects of life. while the official art policy in germany only allowed a short flirtation with avant-garde forms and soon settled the situation in favour of anti-modernism, the situation in mussolini’s italy was different. emilio gentile speaks about a ‘modernist nationalism’ which provided the basis for official fascist culture. from early on, marinetti tried to establish a special alliance between futurism and fascism, but eventually failed in doing so, for his own dreams of a republic of artists collided with mussolini’s idea of a strict hierarchy of power. the combina- tion of technical imagination and avant-garde design is typical for the futuristic- figure . josef thorak: ‘monument of labour’ for the reichsautobahn near salzburg u. schmid fascist style. a good example is the so-called aeropittura, that is, paintings which employ metaphors of flying. figure . mino delle site: ilpibta alilucemino delle site combined in his painting ‘il pilota aliluce’ ( ) (figure ) avant- gardistic forms with a heroic content. the clear lines and the carefully composed distribution of colours clearly recall cubistic models. there are many futurist paintings with fascist content, but other styles suitably couched a fascist meaning as well. a case in point is mario sironi, who tried to convey fascist ideology in expressionism. of course, sironi had his futuristic roots, but in the s he turned towards an expressionistic style, abandoning the clear geometrical forms of aeropittura. in , sironi created an illustration for a volume with the title ‘viva il duce!’. this painting shows what is known as a ‘squadra d’azione’ (figure ) in an figure . advertisement for mercedes-benz, ‘expression of powerful beauty’. towards a conceptualisation of fascist aesthetics expressionistic style. moreover, sironi uses a quasi-religious language of symbols: ‘black shirts’ are on the van – the new fascist messiah holding the flag and his disciples. figure . mario sironi: squadra d’azioneit is not by chance that sironi resorts to an artistic technique which implies an allegorical meaning. in , he had already produced a painting with the title ‘allegory of work’ (figure ). figure . mario sironi: alegory of workthe strong inclination towards allegory can be explained by the ontological aspirations of fascist art: fascism wanted to replace reality with its own demiurgic project. reality was not accepted as a given fact, but as a deficient material which had to be modelled and turned into beauty. fascist art does not want to depict or represent reality – it creates reality. thus, reality becomes a metaphor of itself – only selected aspects are able to make their way through the fascist grid of perception. the classic definition of allegory is the metaphora continua, an ongoing shift from an actual denotation into a figurative mode of speaking. in a certain sense, the whole fascist movement can be interpreted as an allegorical project as it tries to reduce the empirical world to an abstract background and to supersede it with its own metaphorical reality, eventually becoming the exclusive frame of reference for individuals within the fascist project. fascism narrates an allegorical tale which no longer allows for realistic denotation. the metaphoric level of speaking claims to be the only language which creates an acceptable sense of orientation in a world being reduced to the fascist project. a good example of the dominant use of allegory can be found in the predilec- tion of nazi art for mythological patterns. it is striking that the judgement of paris is a very popular topic in nazi art. there are some versions of the judgement which seem to keep the original sense. consider georg friedrich’s or adolf ziegler’s elaborations (figures and ). figure . george friedrich: the judgement of parisfigure . adolf ziegler: the judgement of parisfriedrich and ziegler couch their paintings in a neo-classical style which however departs from mere imitation of seventeenth- or eighteenth-century art. ziegler in particular unties his approach from the traditional german imagination about ancient greece. he completely renounces a detailed background – the scene seems to take place on a stage. ziegler manages to stress the general meaning of the scene, which obviously can be interpreted as an allegoric prefiguration of nazi eugenics. figure . mino delle site: il pilota aliluce u. schmid this aspect becomes even clearer in ivo saliger’s version (figure ). the alle- gorical content of the scene suppresses the mythological origin: the man looks, and the women are being looked at. the painting does not represent a rivalry of goddesses who chose a mortal to judge their beauty, but instead an average man who examines his eventual sexual partner – and thus decides upon the genetic quality of his children yet to be born. figure . ivo saliger: the judgement of paristhe mythological allegory becomes a model for the future social reality, as the male leaders of fascism have to select their sexual partners carefully in order to breed a new and ideal mankind. the background of the scene is either neutral (ziegler) or idyllic (friedrich, saliger): this kind of setting suggests that eugenic selection is self-evident or supported by nature itself. nazi paintings of the judge- ment of paris provide a new interpretation of the ‘natural’ inclination towards the sexual partner. ‘natural’ is no longer the spontaneous act of falling in love with an object of desire, but rather the deliberate choice of the most apt woman for the procreation of the race. the allegorical meaning of the judgement of paris defines a new pattern of behaviour in sexual choice – and this new behaviour is endowed with both a natural and mythological legitimation. the originary sexual drive is replaced by a carefully designed archetypal scene, which integrates the male spectator into the painting. this aspect can most clearly be seen in ivo saliger’s figure . mario sironi: squadra d’azione towards a conceptualisation of fascist aesthetics painting, where the young man sits with his back to the public – he is a mere extension of the real spectator, who seems to be entering the pictorial setting. the viewer’s identification with the young man representing paris is further fostered by his casual clothing, which by no means fits the mythological context. contrary to italian fascist art, nazi paintings are – at least in the s – clearly anti-modernist in style. but the prevalence of modernist or anti-modernist traits in officially acknowledged italian and german art should not be interpreted in an exclusive sense. the nazi and fascist regimes opted for different aesthetic styles but adhered to a similar function of art: art provided the visible and palpable surface of a fascist ideology which was hard to grapple. it is not by chance that literature was not the leading genre of fascist arts. there are several reasons for this lesser importance. literature is usually consumed individually. but fascism wanted to maintain a control in the process of reception. therefore, it preferred the performative arts which could be staged in front of a mass audience. further- more, literature is not a ‘hot’ medium: it relies mostly on the imagination of the reader. this mode of reception runs counter to the fascist ideal of a careful design of the new state which by no means was to be left to individual initiative. finally, literature encountered a severe problem if it was – like german painting – reduced to a pseudo-realistic mode: in the literary tradition, realism was closely connected to the rational discourse which was hardly compatible with the fascist doctrine. a good example is provided by the nazi-novel, all bohemian waters flow to germany, written in by friedrich bodenreuth. the novel depicts the lamentable situation of the sudeten-germans among the czechs. it is quite strik- ing that the novel also gives the czech side a voice, although their nationalism is figure . mario sironi: allegory of work u. schmid rendered in a rational discourse. the german hero, a sentimental young man who joins hitler’s army, is neither able nor willing to argue against the czech territo- rial claims. the two sides never find a common language in their confrontation; the german protagonist knows that he is right but he sublimates his own position in an irrational murmuring. in a letter to his father he appeals to intuition guiding his actions: ‘the knowledge of emotion and blood is higher and deeper than the knowledge of reason, it is conviction’. the conversation between the germans is restricted to a mere dropping of heavily overloaded semantic terms – and this discourse is being prepared, caught up and continued by the narrator: space. – space. christopher was frightened at this word […] ‘space. – what is space?’ asked christopher. ‘destiny’, said karl fath. his voice was hoarse. his face was white and all of a sudden hollow-cheeked. language is no longer a system of signs with clear denotations. language is reduced to a few key concepts and becomes the only possible sphere of experience for the literary heroes. in bodenreuth’s novel a denotative use of language is still present, but it is always marked as false. the right use of language is demonstrated by the positive hero and the narrator, who blurs the borderline between direct speech and epic narration. the strict distinction between what is true and what is false can be compared to the normative use of language in a religious context. religious language follows ritual patterns, and its correctness very much depends on stylistic criteria. this argument can be developed even further. if emilio gentile’s reading of the ‘sacra- lisation of politics’ is heuristically applied, conclusions can be made about the figure . georg friedrich: the judgement of paris towards a conceptualisation of fascist aesthetics theological purpose of fascist aesthetics. art represents the metaphysical vision of a total state – this state appears neither in bureaucratic structures nor in legal regulations, but in splendid stagings of power. goebbels stated programmatically that ‘the state will transform itself from a constitutional state into a state which will be basically a community of artistic creation’. art carries out a pre-modern function in a fascist society. it can be likened to sacral paintings in the context of medieval catholicism. these paintings were not perceived as ‘art’ opposing to ‘practical life’. art was the essence of popular beliefs. no one could stand aside from this system of values and signs. paradox- ically enough, the pre-modern function of art is not only completed by anti- modernist, but also modernist works of art. fascist aesthetics is an instrument of revelation. the fascist state appears to people in rituals, representations and symbols. the fascists knew exactly that their apparition was basically their essence. to put it bluntly: the fascist state was what it seemed. as soon as the permanent show was interrupted, the whole system collapsed. this general orientation towards visibility and perception is also the reason for the preference in fascist art for allegories. the fascist state was something which was not palpable – it had to be represented. fascist insti- tutions relied on their representation, because they had no functionalist legiti- mation. the same held true for religious art: god had to be represented in his son – and his son could only be represented as man (ecce homo). god’s repre- sentation as man was an allegory for the godliness of jesus christ. similarly, the fascist state as staged in mass events, everyday culture and art was an alle- gory for the higher aspirations of fascism which were expressed in terms like moeller van den bruck’s ‘third reich’ or mussolini’s ‘spiritual community’. figure . adolf ziegler: the judgement of paris u. schmid scholars attempting to explain the attractive force of fascism cannot give fascist aesthetics a wide berth. the look, the design and the rituals of fascism are not its secondary attributes, but its very essence. the average citizen had to be attracted by the beautiful spectacle and to be bound by ritual. this strategy is of course modelled upon religious patterns. it does not come as a surprise that fascist aesthetics carries out similar pragmatic functions to sacral art. to conclude, the significance of the stylistic dimension of fascism can be summed up in the follow- ing five points: . fascism is, to a considerable extent, a phenomenon of style. in fascist systems a ‘pure’ ideology which would offer itself to structuralistic description can hardly be found. in other words, the fascist phenomenality cannot be split into form and content – the content is always given in a specific form. musso- lini was very conscious about this fact. in a speech from he stated: democracy has deprived people’s live of ‘style’. fascism brings back ‘style’ in people’s lives: that is a line of conduct, that is the color, the strength, the picturesque, the unexpected, the mystical; in sum all that counts in the souls of the multitudes. we play the lyre on all the strings, from violence to religion, from art to politics. fascism advocates a holistic conception: ideological convictions, behavioural patterns and aesthetic representations melt into one life design, which encom- passes the valid guidelines for all aspects of human existence. figure . ivo saliger: the judgement of paris towards a conceptualisation of fascist aesthetics . fascist aesthetics is not restricted to one specific style. for example, nazi aesthetics cannot be reduced to the monumental/neo-classical style of official art in the late s. right after hitler’s rise to power, there were quite a few high officials in the nazi administration who tried to integrate modernist tendencies into the design of the new state. another striking example is the case of futurism: in the s marinetti tried and partly managed to establish futurism as the official art of fascism. at the same time, a prominent tendency to represent the new bolshevist ideol- ogy in futurist works of art could be observed in soviet russia. nor was fascist aesthetics intrinsically classicist. fascism tried to adopt any artistic style which seemed efficient and powerful enough to fulfil the purpose of political propaganda and corporate design. . in many fascist societies a very ambivalent attitude towards modernism can be observed. on the one hand, modernism was associated with the political system that preceded fascism and therefore had to be rejected. on the other hand, fascism wanted to inaugurate a new powerful society – a modern society. fascism aimed at an exclusive power of definition over the term ‘modernity’. it is for this reason that fascism was engaged in a constant rivalry with other forms of modernism. fascism wanted to establish a utopian model resembling a heroic past. future and past were amalgamated into a timeless present. this conflation of chronology explains why many fascist theories went back to mythological roots and wanted to reinstate these cultural models in a radiant present which at the same time anticipated the future. fascist modernism would then be – as roger griffin would have it – a palingenetic phenomenon. symbols from the past were recycled in new strength. this holds true for the myth of ancient rome in fascist italy or the revival of germanic pagan rites as propagated by himmler. jeffrey herf called this most aptly a ‘reactionary modernism’. . fascist realism should be treated in a similar way as scholars have analysed socialist realism under stalin. the ideologically overloaded realism, which can be observed in many works of art in the s, is not a mimetic realism. it does not depict reality, but rather tries to annihilate the real reality and super- impose another, a heroic reality on the reality of facts. fascist art does not imitate reality, but it creates reality. this is probably the main reason why fascist aesthetics always fought against pure forms. abstract art like supre- matism or cubism could not provide a model for what the new reality fascism wanted to create. therefore fascist aesthetics resorted to a syncretistic mixture of styles: hyper-realistic figures were placed in a mythological setting; the background provided a limited field of experiment for modernist implementation of coloured spatiality. in literature, fascist realism stepped out of the traditional forms of nineteenth-century realism. the fascist hero is not portrayed as an individual character with a differentiated psyche, but as a prototypic figure which should facilitate the reader’s identification with the protagonist. . fascist aesthetics reinstates art in its pre-modern social function. art is not segregated from the public sphere and exiled to museums and exhibitions. instead, social life itself has to become art. fascist art defines not only the design of life, but also its behavioural patterns. fascist aesthetics had a clear pragmatic function, perhaps comparable to a trap. first, it should attract people to the fashionable outlook, and secondly tie them irrevocably to the u. schmid fascist project. in doing so, fascist aesthetics repeats the captive strategies of the medieval catholic church, where the believers were overwhelmed by the beauty of sacral art. design and ritual completed each other and defined a community with highly elaborated stylistic norms. the aesthetic rivalry between fascism and the church may well be one of the main reasons for the difficult alignment of these semantic projects, with both projects aspiring to provide a universal sense of life. bibliographical information figures – : berthold hinz (ed.), die dekoration der gewalt. kunst und medien im faschismus. (giessen: anabas, ). figure : bruno mantura, patrizia rosazza-ferraris, livia velani (eds.): futurism in flight ‘aeropittura’ paintings and sculptures of man’s conquest of space. – . (roma: deluca edizioni d’arte, ). figures – : fabio benzi (ed), mario sironi – . (milano: electa, ). figures – : berthold hinz, die malerei im deutschen faschismus. kunst und konterrevolution. (munchen: hanser, ). notes . renzo de felice, le interpretazioni del fascismo (bari: laterza, ); wolfgang wippermann, faschis- mustheorien: zum stand der gegenwärtigen diskussion (darmstadt: wissenschaftliche buchgesellschaft, ). . stanley payne, a history of fascism – (madison, wi: university of wisconsin press, ). . norberto bobbio, dal fascismo alla democrazia: i regimi, le ideologie, le figure e le culture politiche (milano: baldini and castoldi, ), p. . . mabel berezin, making the fascist self: the political culture of interwar italy (ithaca, ny, and london: cornell university press, ), p. . . emilio gentile, le religioni della politica: fra democrazie e totalitarismi (roma: laterza, ). . eva hesse, die achse avantgarde-faschismus: reflexionen über filippo tommaso marinetti und ezra pound (zürich: arche, ), p. . . simonetta falasca-zamponi, fascist spectacle: the aesthetics of power in mussolini’s italy (berkeley, ca: university of california press, ), p. . . franz dröge and michael müller, die macht der schönheit: avantgarde und faschismus oder die geburt der massenkultur (hamburg: europäische verlagsanstalt, ), p. . . hildegard brenner, die kunstpolitik des nationalsozialismus (hamburg: rowohlt, ). . thilo von trotha, ‘der heros des deutschtums’, die völkische kunst ( ), p. . . ingo bartsch, die malerei des futurismus in italien und ihre beziehung zum faschismus (berlin: diss. fu berlin, ). . emily braun, ‘expressionism as fascist aesthetic’, journal of contemporary history / ( ), pp. – . . berthold hinz, die malerei im deutschen faschismus: kunst und konterrevolution (münchen: hanser, ), pp. – . . friedrich bodenreuth, alle wasser böhmens fliessen nach deutschland (berlin: hans von hugo verlag, ), p. . . ibid., p. . . brenner (note ), p. . . hans belting, bild und kult: eine geschichte des bildes vor dem zeitalter der kunst (münchen: c.h. beck, ), p. . . falasca-zamponi (note ), p. . . roger griffin, the nature of fascism (new york: routledge, ), p. . . jeffrey herf, reactionary modernism: technology, culture, and politics in weimar and the third reich (cambridge: cambridge university press, ). the spitzer spectroscopic survey of the small magellanic cloud: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emission from smc star-forming regions the magellanic system: stars, gas, and galaxies proceedings iau symposium no. , jacco th. van loon & joana m. oliveira, eds. c© international astronomical union doi: . /s the spitzer spectroscopic survey of the small magellanic cloud: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emission from smc star-forming regions karin m. sandstrom , alberto d. bolatto , snežana stanimirović , j. d. t. smith , jacco th. van loon and adam k. leroy dept. of astronomy, university of california, berkeley, campbell hall, berkeley ca usa email: karin@astro.berkeley.edu dept. of astronomy & laboratory for millimeter-wave astronomy, university of maryland, college park, college park, md usa dept. of astronomy, university of wisconsin, madison, madison, wi usa ritter astrophysical research center, university of toledo toledo, oh usa astrophysics group, lennard-jones laboratories, keele university, staffordshire st bg, uk max-planck-institut für astronomie, königstuhl , d- heidelberg, germany abstract. because of its proximity, the small magellanic cloud provides a unique opportunity to map the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) emission from photo-dissociation regions (pdrs) in a low-metallicity ( + log(o/h) ∼ ) galaxy at high spatial resolution in order to learn about their abundance and physical state. we present mid-ir spectral mapping obser- vations of star-forming regions in the small magellanic cloud obtained as part of the spitzer spectroscopic survey of the smc (s mc) project. these observations allow us to map the dis- tribution of pah emission in these regions and the measure the variation of pah band strengths with local physical conditions. in these proceedings we discuss preliminary results on the physical state of the pahs, in particular their ionization fraction. keywords. dust, extinction, hii regions, ism: molecules, galaxies: individual (smc), magel- lanic clouds, infrared: ism . introduction dust grains span a range of sizes from the ∼ . μm “classical” grains which pro- vide most of the optical extinction to the few å-sized polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs), which straddle the line between very small dust grains and large molecules. pahs are ubiquitous in the milky way, as shown by the widely-observed mid-ir emission bands (for a recent review see tielens ). pahs have significant roles in ism heating, partic- ularly in photodissociation regions (pdrs) where pahs can be the dominant source of photoelectrons; grain surface chemistry; and charge balance, particularly in low-uv flux regions where they can efficiently mediate charge exchange reactions (bakes & tielens ). the physical state of pahs is intimately tied to their roles in the ism. for ex- ample, the charge state of pahs in a pdr determines the efficiency of the photoelectric effect in the far-uv dominated regions of the pdr. the physical state of pahs also has a direct impact on their destruction by uv radiation fields. pahs that are small, highly https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pah emission from smc star-forming regions ionized, and/or dehydrogenated are more susceptible to photo-dissociation (allain et al. ). observations with spitzer and iso have convincingly demonstrated that there is a deficiency in pah emission from low-metallicity galaxies (madden et al. ; engel- bracht et al. , ; draine et al. ). this deficit has been attributed to a variety of causes: delayed injection of pahs into the ism because of the long lifetimes of their evolved star progenitors (galliano et al. a), destruction of pahs by supernova shock waves (o’halloran et al. ) and/or destruction by harder and more intense uv ra- diation fields (madden et al. ). in the smc, the deficiency of pah emission has been observed in the -to- μm ratio in the southwest bar region by bolatto et al. ( ). the smc is a particularly interesting object for studying pah emission from low-metallicity galaxies because its metallicity of + log(o/h) ∼ puts it right at the observed transition where more metal-rich galaxies show normal pah emission and more metal-poor galaxies have mid-ir colors and spectra consistent with litte to no pah emission. if pahs are being destroyed by more intense uv radiation fields in low-metallicity galaxies, we may expect to see some signature of this process in their ionization state or size distribution. these properties can be diagnosed by examining the ratios of the mid-ir emission bands (allamandola et al. ). ionized pahs exhibit higher ratios of c–c/c–h band strengths compared to neutral pahs. for instance, the ratio of the . μm and . μm c–c bands versus the . μm c–h band traces the ionization of the pahs, (see recent work by galliano et al. b). in the following, we present observations of the mid-ir emission bands from pahs in star-formation regions in the smc obtained as part of the spitzer spectroscopic survey of the smc (s mc). we discuss preliminary results on the ionization state of pahs and the variations of the mid-ir band ratios. . observations & data reduction s mc covered six of the major star-forming regions of the smc with spectral mapping observations using the low-resolution orders (sl and ll) of the infrared spectrograph (irs) on spitzer. the maps were fully sampled spatially and had integration times per slit of and seconds for sl and ll orders, respectively. the maps cover typically ∼ arcmin in ll and ∼ arcmin in sl. the sl map of the smc b region covers ∼ arcmin with second integrations per slit in order to get higher signal-to-noise in this unique region. a dedicated “off” position was used to remove the galactic and zodiacal light foregrounds from the observations. a more detailed discussion of the s mc observations and data reduction can be found in sandstrom et al. ( ). the spectral maps were calibrated and assembled in idl using the cubism package (smith et al. ). in the following we discuss only the data in the sl orders, which range from – μm. each wavelength slice of the cubes was convolved to match the lowest resolution point spread function of the sl observations (i.e. that of the λ = . μm) using convolution kernels derived from the predictions of stinytim †. more information on the convolution kernels can be found in sandstrom et al. ( ). the cubes were aligned to match the sl pixel grid. the pah feature strengths were measured in idl using the program pahfit (smith et al. ). figure shows the spectrum of the peak of pah emission in smc b with the best-fit results of pahfit overplotted. † http://ssc.spitzer.caltech.edu/archanaly/contributed/stinytim/index.html https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core k. m. sandstrom et al. figure . the pah emission spectrum of the brightest position in smc b overlayed with the results of pahfit. pahfit decomposes the spectrum into contributions from starlight continuum, dust continuum, emission lines and pah band features. . results . . smc b molecular cloud smc b # is a quiescent molecular cloud in the southwest bar of the smc. there are no h ii regions or massive stars in its vicinity, so the dust is heated by a combination of the overall smc radiation field and possibly a few nearby stars. the first detection of pah emission from the smc was from this region by reach et al. ( ) using iso observations. they noted the unusual strength of the . μm feature relative to the . μm feature. we also observe a low ratio of the . / . bands in this region. figure shows a map of the integrated intensity of the . μm band with a few selected regions highlighted. figure shows the average spectrum in the highlighted regions. the . / . band ratio in smc b has an average value of ∼ and does not show any significant spatial variations. comparing these ratios to those in galliano et al. ( b) we find that the pah emission from smc b is consistent with a low ionization level. . . n star-forming region n is the most luminous h ii region in the smc containing o stars (massey et al. ). pah emission from n has been studied previously by contursi et al. ( ). the higher angular resolution of spitzer allows us to observe pah emission tracing out the filamentary structures of the h ii region. figure shows the integrated intensity of the . μm feature in this region with boxes showing the regions over which we have extracted spectra. figure shows a few of those spectra. the . / . band ratio shows a wider range of variation in n than in smc b . this is consistent with some regions having a higher pah ionization fraction than achieved in smc b . however, we also observe band ratios as low as those observed in smc b . this https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pah emission from smc star-forming regions figure . this figure shows the integrated intensity of the . μm pah feature in the smc b region. in order to increase the sig- nal-to-noise we have extracted spectra from the cube in ′′ boxes. the spectra from the numbered boxes are plotted in figure . figure . spectra from the numbered boxes in figure . the spectra are normalized to the . μm band and then shifted by mjy sr− for clarity. the band strengths in smc b show little variation across the region. is particularly interesting because previous theoretical studies have had difficulty repro- ducing the band ratios in smc b without adjusting the intrinsic band strengths (li & draine ). excess hydrogenation and/or excitation by reddened starlight (rather than the average smc radiation field) have been proposed as explanations for the band ratios in smc b . seeing similar . / . ratios in both n and smc b , two very different regions, suggests that different intrinsic band strengths may be the best explanation. . . band ratio variations in addition to variations in the . / . band ratios, we observe variations in the ratios of different c–c bands as well, something that has not been observed in previous studies of more metal-rich galaxies (galliano et al. b). figure shows the variations in the . / . and . / . ratio, the latter of which is a ratio between two c–c emission bands. in our observations these band ratios appear to be positively correlated in n and n , with n offset towards larger . / . ratios. it is interesting that the band ratios from these regions seem to fall in distinct groups on the plot, suggesting different physical states for the pahs, possibly related to different processing by the uv radiation field in each region. . summary & conclusions we detect emission from pahs in all of the regions mapped by the s mc project. although it has been shown that pah emission is deficient in the smc relative to more metal-rich galaxies bolatto et al. ( ), pahs are not absent from the smc. in this proceedings we present a preliminary investigation of the band ratio variations. we find . / . ratios that are consistent with a range of ionization states for the pahs across the smc. in the quiescent molecular cloud smc b the . / . ratio indicates a lower ionization level. our observations of the band ratios in smc b agree with the values determined by reach et al. ( ). in addition, however, we see similarly low . / . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core k. m. sandstrom et al. figure . integrated intensity of the . μm band in n . figure . spectra of selected regions from n , nor- malized to the . μm band strength and then shifted by mjy sr− . the strong emission line at . μm is from [s iv]. ratios even in n , suggesting that the intrinsic band strengths may be different in the smc and the milky way, rather than smc b having excess pah hydrogenation or some other unique excitiation conditions. we also observe variations in the . / . ratio which are positively correlated with the . / . ratio. these observations will be explored further in an upcoming paper (sandstrom et al. , in preparation). references allain, t., leach, s., & sedlmayr, e. , a&a, , allamandola, l. j. and hudgins, d. m., & sandford, s. a. , apj, , l bakes, e. l.o. & tielens, a. g. g. m. , apj, , bolatto, a. d., simon, j. d., stanimirović, s., et al. , apj, , contursi, a., lequeux, j., cesarsky, d., et al. , a&a, , draine, b. t., dale, d. a., bendo, g., et al. , apj, , engelbracht, c. w., gordon, k. d., rieke, g. h., werner, m. w., dale, d. a., & latter, w. b. , apj, , l engelbracht, c. w., rieke, g. h., gordon, k. d., smith, j.-d. t., werner, m. w., moustakas, j., willmer, c. n. a., & vanzi, l. , apj, , galliano, f., dwek, e., & chanial, p. a, apj, , https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pah emission from smc star-forming regions figure . a plot of the . / . vs. . / . ratio in the n , n and smc b regions (the points are extracted from the boxes shown on previous plots). the ratios are positively correlated in n and n . galliano, f., madden, s. c., tielens, a. g. g. m., peeters, e., & jones, a. p. b, apj, , li, a. & draine, b. t. , apj, , madden, s. c., galliano, f., jones, a. p., & sauvage, m. , a&a, , massey, p., parker, j. w., & garmany, c. d. , aj, , o’halloran, b., satyapal, s., & dudik, r. p. , apj, , reach, w. t., boulanger, f., contursi, a., & lequeux, j. , a&a, , sandstrom, k. m., bolatto, a. d., stanimirović, s., van loon, j.th, & smith, j. d. t. , apj, submitted [arxiv: . ] smith, j. d. t., armus, l., & dale, d. a. , pasp, , tielens, a. g. g. m. , araa, , https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contributors / collaborateurs all rights reserved © canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : canadian university music review revue de musique des universités canadiennes contributors collaborateurs volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce document ( ). contributors / collaborateurs. canadian university music review / revue de musique des universités canadiennes, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ -v -n -cumr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ contributors/collaborateurs lynn cavanagh is assistant professor of music at the university of regina and received her ph.d. from the university of british columbia. her doctoral disserta- tion was an analysis of tonal techniques in schoenberg's first string quartet, op. . she has published in fermata and taught at memorial university of newfound- land. beverley diamond is currently director of the graduate program in ethno- musicology and musicology at york university. she has published widely on the music cultures of first nations communities, on canadian historiography, and on issues relating to gender and music. her publications include visions of sound: musical instruments of first nations communities in northeastern america (uni- versity of chicago press, ). with york colleague, robert witmer, she has co-edited canadian music: issues of hegemony and identity (canadian scholars' press, ). michel duchesneau a soutenu en une thèse de doctorat en musicologie à l'université laval sur la société nationale et la société musicale indépendante. boursier postdoctoral du crsh et du fcar, il est l'auteur de plusieurs articles sur la musique française ainsi que du livre l'avant-garde musicale et ses sociétés à paris de à (pierre mardaga, ). il est aujourd'hui directeur général de la société de musique contemporaine du québec. harold e. fiske is a professor of music at the university of western ontario where he teaches and conducts research in the psychology of music. his research specialty is music perception and cognition. he serves on the boards of the journal of psychomusicology and the bulletin of the council for research in music education. he is a past chair of the research commission of the international society for music education. his most recent book is entitled selected theories of music cognition (edwin mellen, ). rebecca green received a ph.d. in musicology from the university of toronto in on the goldoni operas of joseph haydn. she has taught music and cultural studies at trent university, and held a killam postdoctoral fellowship at dalhousie university in - . she has contributed articles to the new grove dictionary of opera and the encyclopedia of music in canada. her articles on haydn's operas have appeared in goldoni and the musical theatre (legas, ) and haydn and his world (princeton university press, ). jacinthe harbec est professeure adjointe à l'École de musique de l'université de sherbrooke. titulaire d'un doctorat en analyse musicale de l'université mcgill, elle mène ses travaux de recherche dans le domaine du langage et de l'esthétique de la musique française du début du xxe siècle. ses travaux analytiques sur les œuvres de germaine tailleferre et son étude interdisciplinaire axée sur le cubisme et la musique d'erik satie dans le ballet parade l'ont amenée à prononcer plusieurs conférences au canada et aux États-unis. cumr/rmuc ken mcleod is a sshrc post-doctoral fellow and visiting scholar at mit' s school of music and theatre arts. he recently completed his ph.d. in historical musicology at mcgill university with a dissertation entitled "the ideology of the aesthetic in early eighteenth-century masques." he has several forthcoming articles on topics pertaining to the aesthetics and ideology of both popular and seventeenth- and eighteenth-century theatre music. carl morey occupies the jean a. chalmers chair in canadian music at the faculty of music, university of toronto. he has been professor of musicology there since and was dean of the faculty, - . his recent publications include music in canada: a research and information guide (garland, ), an edition of essays by sir ernest macmillan, macmillan on music (dundurn press, ), and three volumes of the musical works of glenn gould (schott, , , ). marc-andré roberge is an associate professor of musicology at the faculty of music at laval university. he has published extensively on twentieth-century music and musical life in german-speaking countries, with special emphasis on ferruccio busoni and musical journalism. he is currently writing the first biography of kaikhosru shapurji sorabji. erich schwandt, who teaches at the university of victoria, is recognized for his contribution to the history of music in new france. he is also active as a performer, both as harpsichordist and organist. howard spring is an assistant professor at the university of guelph and an adjunct professor in the graduate program in music at york university. he is the author of "the use of formulas in the improvisation of charlie christian," jazzforschung ( ) and "swing and the lindy hop: dance, venue, media, and tradition," american music ( ). he teaches jazz history, popular music, ethnomusicol- ogy, and music of the twentieth century. pierre vachon prépare une thèse de doctorat en musicologie à l'université de montréal sous la direction de marcelle guertin et qui s'intitule « le pouvoir symbolique du titre : étude titrologique d'œuvres pour piano seul de robert schumann ». ellen waterman received the ph.d. in critical studies and experimental practice from the university of california, san diego, in . her dissertation was an ethnographic analysis of r. murray schafer's environmental music drama p atria the epilogue: and wolf shall inherit the moon. she is a professional flutist and has performed with schafer for the past ten years, participating in several patria works. her analysis of brian ferneyhough's flute piece cassandra's dream song appeared in perspectives of new music , no. ( ), and as a chapter in the first spanish book of feminist music criticism, mujer y musica: genera y poder. currently, she teaches in the cultural studies program at trent university. www.e-neurospine.org commentary: artificial intelligence for adult spinal deformity this superb summary emphasizing that predictive modeling, analytics, and machine learning forming a foundation for artificial intelligence (ai) will play a critical role in the evaluation and treatment of adult spinal deformity (asd) is quite logical. asd is one of the most complex medical problems seen as it involves not only evaluation of the entire spinal column from the upper cervical spine to the sacrum, but also the entire skeleton from the skull to the feet for radiographic completeness. it also has tremendous heteroge- neity in its clinical presentations, extensive variability in current nonoperative and opera- tive treatments prescribed with uncertain clinical outcomes, high complication rates and high costs associated with these treatments. there is no universally accepted asd classifi- cation scheme, no accepted surgical algorithm for the most common types of pathologies seen, no accepted complication scheme to standardize the seriousness of adverse events nor their impact on recovery any required interventions or outcomes, and no definitive way to accurately predict who is going to do well with a major surgical intervention at a specific time in the patient’s life. thus, it seems logical that computational data analytics using ai would be quite helpful for the personalized treatment of the unique asd patient that suf- fers from this often heavy disease burden. so far, all of the work using predictive analytics and early ai for asd has been done by a few individuals and study groups intimately involved in asd surgical treatment. the ability of cluster ai algorithms to group these heterogenous asd patients into specific categories of similar attributes seems logical and will be very helpful. also, the ability to use various patient demographics to create a risk stratification based on the preoperative patient condi- tion, the surgical invasiveness, and the treatment team has been done and will only improve over time. however, since this data generation is coming from only a few specific centers and surgeons, one of the unknowns is whether pooled data from purported centers of ex- cellence in asd care can be generalizable to all centers, surgeons and physicians evaluating and treating asd patients around the world? will this group data suffice or will more per- sonalized data from individual centers and surgeons be required for the type of individual- ized health care that these unique patients require? having travelled extensively to many spine centers both in north america and also to many countries around the world, i have had first-hand experience in the extreme variability that exists in the provision of nonoper- ative and operative care of asd patients. truthfully, the benefits of ai are obvious at face value, but the implementation of optimal care models may be much more difficult in the “real world” given the unique health care delivery models seen globally. one other concern that we must always remind ourselves is that not only is every asd patient truly unique, but so is every asd spinal surgeon and spine center providing the care. so will optimal care pathways for the evaluation and treatment of asd patients require in- put for both the patient and surgeon/center provider? any spinal fellowship director knows that the spinal surgeons that are trained around the world finish their training with differ- neurospine ; ( ): - . https://doi.org/ . /ns. edi. neurospine eissn - pissn - editorial corresponding author lawrence g. lenke e-mail: ll @cumc.columbia.edu https://orcid.org/ - - - the daniel and jane och spine hospital at new york-presbyterian/allen, new york, ny, usa see the article “artificial intelligence for adult spinal deformity” via https://doi. org/ . /ns. . . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. copyright © by the korean spinal neurosurgery society http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /ns. edi. &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - commentary: artificial intelligence for adult spinal deformitylenke lg https://doi.org/ . /ns. edi. www.e-neurospine.org ent skill sets even with the same training program. the early data suggests that the complication profiles and ultimate patient outcomes from asd surgery seem to correlate almost entirely from the patient demographic and psychosocial profile along with the surgical invasiveness, and not from the surgeon or cen- ter where the surgery was performed. however, this seems coun- terintuitive to almost all surgical disciplines where surgeons and centers with high volume performing the same procedure have lower complication rates and better outcomes. why would asd surgery be any different? if anything, because of the admitted high technical complexity, it would seem logical that the sur- geon performing the operation and the facility caring for the patient following surgery would play an even more significant role in the early complication rates and outcomes. so, there is no doubt that we are headed towards a new era of personalized medicine and asd is the prototypical spine dis- ease where ai and all of its computational benefits will provide truly revolutionary changes and improvements to our patients. my personal theory is that these types of efforts will need to be performed on a microscale and not a macroscale. so eventually, ai programming will be needed for both the patient presenting with asd, but also the surgeon and center providing the care for the patient. this will mandate that those surgeons and cen- ters taking care of these challenging patients with such complex procedures have the necessary computational resources to ad- just the personalize care required to decide who to operate on, when the best time to perform the procedure (e.g., following a prescribed set of patient optimizing nutritional, therapeutic, psychosocial, and other requirements), the optimal procedure performed in the most standardized manner (e.g., use of robot- ic and navigational technologies among others), and a postop- erative individualized protocol to ensure a safe and expedient recovery. this will certainly all be possible with ai technology and the future is certainly bright for all asd patients and pro- viders when these conditions have been met. conflict of interest the author has a royalty and consulting relationship with medtronic, and a consulting relationship with eos technolo- gies, and acuity surgical. reference . joshi rs, haddad af, lau d, ames cp. artificial intelligence for adult spinal deformity. neurospine ; : - . title: ma jolie artist: pablo picasso year: - ma jolie (my pretty girl) was the refrain of a popular song performed at a parisian music hall picasso frequented. the artist suggests this musical association by situating a treble clef and music staff near the bold, stenciled letters. ma jolie was also picasso’s nickname for his lover marcelle humbert, whose figure he loosely built using the signature shifting planes of analytic cubism. this is far from a traditional portrait, but there are clues to its representational content. the central triangular mass subtly indicates the shape of a woman’s head and torso, and a group of six vertical lines at the painting’s lower center represent the strings of a guitar, which the woman strums. in cubist works of this period, picasso and georges braque employed multiple modes of representation simultaneously: here, picasso combined language (in the black lettering), symbolic meaning (in the treble clef ), and near abstraction (in the depiction of his subject). more information: https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ © - succession pablo picasso - sack (korea) role of geometry on architecture role of geometry on architecture ar. apoorva ajmera (b.arch., pgp acm, pgdupdl, griha cp) assistant professor, buddha institute of architecture and town planning udaipur, rajasthan . abstract man develops geometry, geometry is the language of man, which is used in different ways the basic definition of geometry given in 'a visual dictionary of architecture" by francis d.k.ching states that ' a branch of mathematics that deals with the properties, measurement and relationship of points, lines and angles, end solids, deduced from the defining conditions by the means of certain assumed properties of space " . but there are several other definitions by the different use of geometry. it brings sense of continuity and structural qualities to the building. geometry is the means, created by human beings whereby they perceive the external world and express the world within them. geometry is the world use "common language'. geometry is the foundation of life; it is also the material basis on which we build those symbols that represent us perfection and divine. keywords- geometric forms, building forms, curves and angles of building . introduction it is an overview of the basic elements, systems, and orders that constitute a work of architecture. all of these constitutes can be perceived and experienced. some may be readily apparent while others are more obscure to our intellect and senses. some may dominate while others play a secondary role in a building’s organization. some may convey images and meaning while others serve as qualifiers or modifiers of these messages. in all cases, however, these elements and systems should be interrelated to form an integrated whole having a unifying or coherent structure. architectural order is created when the organization of parts makes visible their relationships to each other and the structure as a whole. when these relationships are perceived as mutually reinforcing and contributing to the singular nature of the whole, then a conceptual order exists- an order that may well be more enduring than transient perceptual visions. as this analysis is based on geometry, in various aspects, i have tried to find relationship with geometry and so, all the criteria are based on geometry. in various architects work, geometry is manifested in form & shape. geometry is evident in plan as space sequence and in details. the whole building is visualized in form of geometry and philosophies are attached to them. all these criteria are discussed in later part of this dissertation report. . elements of geometry . point the fundamental element of basic designing process is a point. point is the basis of all geometry. point is the most basic and prime geometrical element, it is not dimension less but infinitely tiny elements. it can be said that its smallness is always relative to a respective frame. a point indicates position, and has no-length, width or depth. it is just there and is therefore static centralized and directionless, and does not occupy any area of space. it is the beginning and end of a line and is where two lines meet or intersect in the form of a center in various geometric elements. a point marks a position in space. conceptually, it has no length, width, or depth, and is therefore static, centralized and directionless. in architecture a point is used as an organizational element, and is the only organizational element that gives’ constancy’ in relationship between the point and various peripheral components. as the prime element in the vocabulary of form, a point can serve to mark: ▪ the two ends of a line ▪ the intersection of two lines ▪ the meeting of lines at the corner of a plane or volume ▪ the center of a field . line as a point moves, its path becomes a line. line is perhaps the most fundamental elements of design, since civilization began. people have been fascinated by lines. lines fill every part of ones world, from the endless of the horizon to the delicate venis in a leaf, from the soaring to the vertical drawing or painting. the natural world abounds with lines of every description. if one studies the world around one self one finds a wealth of natural configuration in line. sometimes the line is also called as a distance between two points (axis). 'line' is a vector scale which has length but no width or depth, where as a point is by nature static. a line in describing the path of a point in motion, is capable of visually expressing direction, movement and growth. it forms the border of a plane. it can serve to: join, link, support, surround or intersect other visual elements. describe the edges of and give shape to planes. a form is organized as a line because of two reasons: (a) its breadth is extremely narrow and (b) its length is quite prominent. . plane if a line moves in a direction other than the intrinsic direction, the trace of its path describes a plane. on a two dimensional surface, all flat forms that are not commonly recognized as points or lines are forms as planes. plane has length and breadth but no depth (third dimension). a planar form is bound by international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , june- www.ijert.org www.ijert.org www.ijert.org conceptual lines which constitute the edges of the form. the characteristics of these conceptual lines and their interrelationships determine the shape of planar form. vertical and horizontal are the most basic planes of spatial unit. they are the primary areas of interest in architecture. in the composition of a visual construction a plane serves to define the limits or boundaries of a volume. if architecture as a visual art deals specifically with the formation of three dimensional volumes of mass and space, then the plane should be regarded as key element in the vocabulary of architectural design. basically the horizontal is the plane for human activities and movement. the vertical plane is the limit for each space and there by the limit for horizontal movement. horizontal and vertical are most basic two planes. . volume a plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume. conceptually, a volume has three dimensions: length, width and depth. all volumes can be analyzed and are understood to consist of: ▪ points or vertices where several planes come together ▪ lines or edges where the planes meet ▪ planes or surfaces which define two limits or boundaries of a volume . form form is an inclusive term that has several meanings. it may refer to an external appearance that can be recognized, as that of a chair or the human body that sits in it. it may also allude to a particular condition in which something acts or manifests itself, as when we speak of water in the form of ice or steam. in art and design, we often use the term to denote the formal structure of a work— the manner of arranging and coordinating the elements and parts of a composition so as as to produce a coherent image. in the context of this study, form suggests reference to both internal structure and external outline and the principle that gives unity to the whole. while form often includes a sense of three-dimensional mass or volume, shape refers more specifically to the essential aspect of form that governs its appearance—the configuration or relative disposition of the lines or contours that delimit a figure or form. . the prime generators of form: . proportion proportion is an ordered relationship between two comparable entities, visible or invisible. it can be manipulated and experienced by geometry; arithmetic ratios and visual perception. certain proportion have been found to be generally satisfying to the human senses. proportional system is evolved out of geometrical principles. this system sets interrelationship of parts to form harmonized composition. it helps in achieving ordered relationship in design. it is a system used to relate parts in an overall composition. this system divides larger areas into parts and forms an integrated as a whole. it establishes a system of ratios to interrelated elements of different sizes and shapes within one composition. it generates an order and harmonizes elements of different sizes and shapes within one composition. it generates an order and harmonizes elements of different scales. proportion is a means by which elements are composed to achieve the qualities of unity, balance, rhythm etc. . organization organization is the systematic arrangement, connection and co-ordination of parts to form a coherent totality which is not only conceivable but also perceivable and which serves a desired purpose for the vital functions and processes. organization brings about a harmonized composition interrelating to the various parts, leading units of purpose to the whole composition. it establishes sequence by ordering and structuring relationship between solids-voids, solids-solids and voids-voids. organization is a combination of an order of linkage between the number of elements, which coordinate the parts for vital functions, and make a unified as whole. . circulation the path taken in getting from a starting point to the destination can be termed as a “route of movement" a route without a destination is difficult to traverse and hence to an observer the route linking him to his destination is prime importance. the path of our movement can be conceived as the perceptual thread that links the spaces of a building, or any series of interior or exterior spaces, together. since we move in time through sequence of spaces, we experience a space in relation to where we've been and where we anticipate going. . form & space 'geometry' is related to form and space. so a try has been made to inquire the depth of geometry in different forms and spaces as building. form is inclusive term that has several meanings, which may refer to an external appearance that can be recognized. an approach to architecture is based on an individual understanding of an architect. the idea of form and space is always as the starting point and at the center while beginning any new project. form suggests reference to both internal structure and external outline and the principle that gives unity to whole. but most of projects, concentrated on external configuration of form. while form often includes a sense of volume, shape refers more specifically to the essential aspects of form that governs its appearance (characteristic outline). in addition to spaces (shape) and forms have visual properties of size, color, texture. forms also have relational properties which govern the pattern and composition of elements, position, orientation, visual inertia etc. international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , june- www.ijert.org www.ijert.org www.ijert.org . constructed and deconstructed qualities of space let us consider what a vista, which is absent in one type of garden and available at all points in the other, means. a french garden is not only extremely artificial but constructed. its flowers and trees do not appeal to ones feelings about nature but rather constitute material subordinating the entire plan. form and material are clearly divorced and the former clearly dominates the latter. although trees are continuously changing and being created, the consequences of such activity are not acknowledged, the trees are identified as conical a cubic forms. all plants as plants have been banished from the garden and it is only rectangles and circles that are placed and arranged on the extensive, level site paved with gravel, creating a symmetrical, geometrical pattern. there is only a completely static surface that will remain forever unchanged. to create a unified garden by compelling materials whether they may be trees or water, to take unchanging forms with no concern for diversity or generative transformations represents the complete dominance of the intellect. the result is a highly constructed space. making the object insubstantial confers on it a transparency and endows vision with a privileged character. visual transparency is a quality or state allowing one to penetrate all parts of the object. it is as if the source of light and power of vision residing within the self were situated god- like at the vertex of a cone-shaped world and the self could see into the furthest depths of the cone. no doubt, transparency according to the law of perspective approaches this conical situation. as soon as them is a disfigurement or distortion for some reason, it must be discovered and eliminated, each time new leaves appear on plants and grow unchecked, threatening to distort conical forms and other geometrical patterns, the gardener must wield his shears with utmost seventy to correct even the slightest aberration. the planting in conical or cubic form constitutes an enclosure that confines meaning and prevent it form strring, dissolving or straying. consequently, a french garden where the spatial order converges on one point can be said to have only one landscape. the diversity or polysyllabic of landscape and vision is to he completely ignored. that is the basic principle behind a constructed garden. but what happens when, unlike a french garden, the garden is outcropped and the landscape is left to sway and stir as it may? what would happen if, instead of heightening perception, enlarging the cone of vision, and thereby achieving integration of the landscape through transparency at a larger scale, vision traveled from one distorted fragment to another in accordance with shifts in the point of view or the actions of the buy? japanese garden might be the result. as has already been pointed out, the absence of vista in characteristic of a japanese garden. this absence of vista is a consequence of the multi-layered quality of the landscape, evident in the planting, the rock arrangement and the trees. rock obstructs rock and the landscape is always fragmented. vision is not allowed in the whole of this garden either. as in the garden of tenryuji or nanzenji, the landscape becomes a set of overlapping and contiguous landscapes that deviate slightly from each other. multiple landscapes coexist. as a result of overlapping, there are always parts that are hidden. a hidden part, if one changes one's view point, becomes patent, and what had been visible now becomes latent. this mechanism makes it difficult to apprehend the entire garden. for the viewer, the landscape at each moment certainly exists in front of his eyes, but the plan of the whole is difficult to structure. it is difficult to him to measure his creation relative to the entire garden or the distance to a given plant or rock, and without a clear order, multiple landscapes are generated as one’s point of view shifts. the absence of a transcendent center or vision that can give order to space robs a japanese garden of perspective and transforms it into un- constructed space. however, the japanese garden is after all an object deliberately created by man, and negative terms such as ‘without order’ or ‘unconstructed’ are surely inadequate descriptions. a deconstructionist principle that actively promotes irregularity must be behind what appears at first glance to be without order. the multilayered, contiguous landscapes constitute parts, but these parts do not simply and willfully link themselves. perhaps then there is something to be discovered in the way the parts are connected. . evolution of geometry from history to present day geometry is the foundation; it brings with it the noble joy of mathematics. machinery is the result of geometry. the age in which we live is essentially a geometrical one. all the ideas are oriented in the direction of geometry. modem art and thought, after a century of analysis, are now seeking beyond what is merely accidental. geometry leads them to mathematical forms, a more and more geometrical attitude. geometry is used as a form of an organizational tool. geometry is being related to different mythological theories of a form. as man developed geometry, they attached various theories to geometrical forms. different symbols have different meanings according to hindu philosophy: the 'square' represents the 'earth' in conformity with the cardinal points. it is also thought of as an abode of deity. it is mystical, absolute and a basic geometric element. it permits no changes during the process of transformation due to its religious origin. the ‘triangle' symbolizes the indian ‘trinity' and is the principal governing element. based on natural form, people developed basic geometric forms. in islamic architecture, the 'circle' is thought as a symbol of eternity, a form without a beginning or an and. it is the most perfect and an expression of justice. circle is the most basic and parent figure of all the geometric polygons. the 'dome', a highly geometric element has become' an increasingly a characteristic feature of islamic buildings. it is thought of as an 'image of heaven'. the 'square' is international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , june- www.ijert.org www.ijert.org www.ijert.org thought as the most externalized form of creation and a symbol representing the 'earth'. these various basic geometric forms are used in religious, public buildings in many ways. the courtyards of king's tomb and queen's tomb are square in shape. the domes of both tombs are built in traditional islamic ways. like wise 'square' is being used as courtyards in most of the mosques & 'dome' is used to represent tombs. the development of mosque was done with combination of square and circles. the romans wished to create a symbolic form of a new kind of systematic world order, which embraced a unified religion, a unified body of laws, and a unified civilization. this organizational spirit is revealed in their manner or grouping buildings as done in the forums, in the organization of business activities in common centers, in combination of three orders on the exterior of the building as in the colloseum (tuscan doric on first, ionic on second and corinthian on third and fourth); in the combination of ionic and corinthian to form the composite order, in the development of the multi family apartment house; various forms of recreation in baths and finally in the erection of a super temple for the principal gods; as in the pantheon. an organization of expansion of interior space is reflected in the great halls of the baths, basilicas and the partheon 'ref. (as written by fleming in ). romans are supposed to be main inventors of geometry', ancient civilization. its geometry is based on the union of a cylinder (rotunda) and a hemisphere (dome) over a circular ground plan. the design of pantheon displays a harmonious disposition of a circle and a rectangle. the rectangle contains two squares and a diagonal of each square is equal to the diameter of the circle. thus, the 'latent geometry' clearly establishes a relation between the width of the portico and rotunda of the pantheon. it unifies a celestial dome and a longitudinal axis with the vertical rising freely to the heavens through the opening zenith into a meaningful whole. the point to be stressed was the center of the floor and not the center of the sphere. the pantheon with its utter simplicity laid the foundation of the idea of the centralized building. the form was revitalized in different periods, each in its own manner. even the lighting of a dome gained an almost mystic connotation in the later centuries. by creating pantheon, romans gave a very good example of form as geometrical organizational tool. greeks were able to find some of use of geometrical forms. greek took first step to the conception of independents forms detached from any unitary word view. in medieval and gothic architecture, basic form was syntheses of rectangular planes with conical domical roof over it. most of the buildings were centric forms. besides the single space building there were examples of the extension of the centric from into rich and complex spatial compositions, a high centric space surrounded by a ring of lower space. in s.constanza, rome, in a.d., principle was introduced - the modestly dimensioned dome was surrounded by a barrel vaulted ambulatory. the pure circular form was broken in s. lorenzo, milan, by an ambulatory and three axial chapels. the octagonal central space of s. vitale in ravenna, gave rise to the sixteen sided water shell. the form was steadily becoming richer and more complex. during the medieval ages, centric form and linear form were developed together and had been juxtaposed on each other to develop the interior spaces and the exterior forms of turkish mosque, gothic and renaissance cathedrals. the linear path passing through a centric space illustrates the crossing of the two fundamental ideas. overlaying the cross onto the circle creates a powerful symbolic pattern, a form of mandala, where passage and destination are fused in a powerful story of faith and exhalation. a few fundamental principles based on geometric elements were manifested by inherited spatial form in early christian architecture. from here, the aspect of 'third dimension' distinguishes byzantine architecture from early christian architecture. from here the basic principles remained constant with development in the third dimension. the skeletal structure and an additional tower are main character of romanesque architecture. after byzantine, gothic architecture was characterized by use of pointed arch, the rational system of vaulting & buttressing. in renaissance architecture, geometry played a key role. the spatial geometry was determined by functions. larger organizations were achieved by adding different geometric units retaining an identity, yet responding to the entire configuration. functions were pre supposed by perfection form as the circle being the most perfect and divine form, as it is evident in his work. the building that marks development of the renaissance is st. peters in vatican. papal service in the sixteenth century witnessed geniuses of this time, bramante, vinci, michelangelo and raphael, in action in rome. bramante in was first to draw two plans for the church. he interpreted the ‘pentrigion’, as the central plan with four towers at the corners. the first alternative modified the greek cross by widening the crossing, making the dome as a domical centre. this was a completely centralized church with the inner arms forming a square ambulatory around the centre. the second attempt was at general strengthening of load bearing piers and the addition of four semi-circular north axis around the four apses of the main space. the central space was crowned by a semi-spherical dome which exaggerated the meaningful centre for not only rome but to the christians as a whole. in the century industrialization transformed the goals and methods of human creativity. the specific forms employed in roman byzantine, romanesque, gothic, renaissance and baroque periods have become symbols of this epoch, with new dimensions, new character and new style. in italy, futurism was born of a demand for the cultural rejuvenation of the country. putting together the similar kinds of forms created a unity. the new paintings denies the cube and wants the dynamic arabesque such as the sphere, the ellipse, the spiral and all other dynamic forms which artists can discover. in the bauhaus was founded on the remains of the arts and crafts movement in germany, it resulted in an unprecedented success in influencing architectural international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , june- www.ijert.org www.ijert.org www.ijert.org education all over the world. bauhaus initiated the study of architecture by manipulating abstract shapes without any reference to building functions or the ultimate strength of materials. it was solely with a view of achieving ornamental appeal, in terms of a magnificent form’. the art of architecture turned into a kind of large-scale abstract sculpture. the art of utilizing the vocabulary of the newly fashionable cultural shapes to serve the functional and structural requirements of a specific architectural program. the extent to which severe geometrical planes were used as a form of ornamentation is evident. the comment of hans mayer, director of bauhaus from to : despite gropies declarations that architecture has built sociology; theirs was an artificial world of forms whose limits ended in a cube whose sides were yellow, red, blue. white, grey and black within which people sat and slept on furniture like colored geometry and lived in houses like colored sculpture”. in holland in , the ‘de stijl’ moment developed. the use of vertical and horizontal lines at right angles offered a balanced relationship of unequal parts. the architect’s task in the movement of de stijl, was to produce metaphorical images which foreshadow the dissolution of art into the new harmony do, the from was not really used as organizational tool for geometry. rietveld’s famous ‘schrodler house’ in utrecht, built , is a good example of de stijl. it seems to demonstrate that de stijl’s contemporaneous manifestation on architecture could in fact be translated into actual building. in , another movement was started in france called 'purism'. it was to purify the application of cubist forms to machine iconography. andee ozenfant ( e ) and charles edourd jeanneret ( ): published apre's le cubism' (after cubism) in the same year. cubism has degenerated into a form of elaborate decoration so the stress was on a pure form of art. le corbusier developed a vocabulary of purist aesthetics. taking his clues, painting was developed. his idealization of platonic solids with notion of mechanization and modernity was highly influential. either for studying to a general rationalization of building design processes, or to the regulation of surface is a charesteric feature of avant garde architecture. often the general rationalization into rectilinear geometry of the plan and section resulted in surface regulation. it was usually beyond purely utilitarian needs. the works of le corbusier once again lead the form as the basic organizational tool for geometry. along with le corbusier and after him many architects developed architecture with different criteria of geometry. aldo rossi was the most fascinating figure of neo rationalism. his forms were drawn from geometry and passed through the filter of history. it was an attempt of identification, which can occur only by appealing to consciousness and to mental image. rossi's composition method is based on the atonal and unexpected assemblage of archetypes, which can be rearranged as form, which have flowered from memory and can be used to interpret new architectural possibilities. for him analogy is more than a tool for pervading to images with mnemonic reference and unconscious meanings. . conclusion ▪ this study, throughout this presentation of the geometrical elements of form and space, has been concerned primarily with the visual aspects of their physical reality in architecture. ▪ points, moving through space and defining lines, lines defining planes, planes defining volumes of form and space. ▪ beyond these visual functions, these elements, by their relationships to one another and the nature of their organization, also communicate notions of domain and place, entry and path of movement, hierarchy and order. ▪ architectural forms and spaces also have connotative meanings: associative values and symbolic content that are subject to personal and cultural interpretation, which can change with time. ▪ geometry, in combining forms and space in to a single essence, not only facilitates purpose but communicates meaningful organization of elements can be achieved with conscious use of geometrical ordering principles. ▪ geometry is used as a form as on ordering principles. ▪ geometry makes our existence not only visible but meaningful. ▪ i had a myth that de-construction does not follow any geometrical principle, through the case studies of different buildings like guggenheim museum by frank o gehry and house projects of eisenman. ▪ through this dissertation, i have come to a conclusion that de-construction follows hidden geometry in their buildings. ▪ deconstruction is relatively a new concept, so i was keen to know about it, through this dissertation i have come to a conclusion that de- construction led to the enhancement of geometry and has taken geometry to a new level. ▪ if we compare constructivist and de-constructivist design we can find that only constructivist designs follows geometric principles. international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , june- www.ijert.org www.ijert.org www.ijert.org . bibliography/ references ▪ “architecture form space and order” by francis d. k. ching. ▪ “architecture for the future” by sheila de vallee. ▪ “the master architects series” eisenman architects. ▪ “new forms in architecture” by phiup jodidio, publisher: taschen. ▪ “a + d magazines. ▪ “inside outside” magazines. ▪ “the early work of great architect” by frank lloyed wright. ▪ “le corbusier the creative search” by geoffrey h. baker. ▪ “de-construction in architecture” by lavinas chap. web references ▪ www.geometry.com ▪ www.artandarchitecture.com ▪ www.geometryandart.com ▪ www.googlesearch.com ▪ www.greatbuildings.com ▪ www.eisenmanarchitect.com ▪ www.architecturaldesign.com ▪ www.petereisenman.com ▪ www.deconstructioninarchitecture.com international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: - http://www.ijert.org ijertv is (this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license.) published by : www.ijert.org vol. issue , june- http://www.geometry.com/ http://www.artandarchitecture.com/ http://www.geometryandart.com/ http://www.googlesearch.com/ http://www.greatbuildings.com/ http://www.eisenmanarchitect.com/ http://www.architecturaldesign.com/ http://www.petereisenman.com/ http://www.deconstructioninarchitecture.com/ www.ijert.org www.ijert.org www.ijert.org neurobiology and the humanities neuron neuroview neurobiology and the humanities semir zeki ,* university college london, london, wc e bt, uk *correspondence: s.zeki@ucl.ac.uk http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.neuron. . . this is an open access article under the cc by license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). can the arts and humanities contribute significantly to the study of the brain? similar brain processes are involved in humanistic and scientific inference, and in this essay, i argue that conclusions reached by one are relevant to the other. can the arts and humanities contribute significantly to brain studies? do they frame questions regarding human experi- ence that can be tested experimentally and are these fundamentally different from those posed by neuroscience? is there any present need or imperative to appropriate questions from them in neurobiological studies, or should that be deferred until more is known about the functions and functioning of the brain? these questions impose themselves forcefully at a time when a significant pro- portion of human brain studies are ad- dressing questions that are of importance to human experience. common questions science and the humanities have much to separate them but much to unite them too. artistic and scientific questions are commonly the same, though addressed differently, and hence, the former provide hints and guesses for scientific experi- mentation. i have written of artists and humanists as being, in a sense, neurobiol- ogists who explore the brain, though with techniques that are unique to them (zeki, ). paul cézanne’s preoccupation, and artistic experimentation, with how color modulates form is but a variant of the neurobiological question of how the separate representations of form and color are integrated in the brain to give us a unitary percept of both (zeki, ; livingstone and hubel, ). the exper- iments of picasso and braque in the early, analytic, phase of cubism—of how a form maintains its identity in spite of wide variations in the context in which it is viewed—resolves itself scientifically into the neurobiological problem of form constancy. the quest of piet mondrian for the ‘‘constant truths concerning neuron , october , ª the au forms’’ (mondrian, ) is an artistic version of the question of what the neural building blocks of all forms are (often pre- sumed to be the orientation-selective cells of the visual cortex), while kinetic art, which sought to represent motion artistically, reached conclusions that are consistent with conclusions reached later by neurobiology (zeki and lamb, ). all truths are subjective these are, in a sense, facile rallying points that merely serve to emphasize different approaches to what are, at heart, com- mon questions. more difficult to address are shared questions regarding human experience and what they signify about brain operations and the world in which it has developed. here the boundary between neurobiological and humanistic questions is faint and separating the two, i believe, does both a disservice even if, at present, the relationship be- tween neuroesthetics and the humanities is asymmetric, in that neuroesthetics has a good deal more to gain from the humanities than the latter from us. many of the critical questions now addressed experimentally by neuroesthetics have been addressed in philosophical dis- course for centuries. prominent among these is the problem of knowledge, a pri- mordial function of the brain and a central issue in philosophy. using color vision as an example, arthur schopenhauer argued that ‘‘a more precise knowledge and firmer conviction of the wholly subjective nature of color contributes to a more pro- found comprehension of the kantian doc- trine of the likewise subjective, intellectual forms of all knowledge’’ (schopenhauer, ), since color is a subjective experi- ence that is the result of a transformation of the objective reality of the outside world thor by rules that govern the operations of the mind (brain). the only knowledge we can therefore have of color is ‘‘brain knowl- edge’’. the brain, far from representing colors (or indeed the sensory world) passively and veridically, constructs them through inherited programs (algo- rithms) (zeki, ). neurobiology has yet to unravel the details of these opera- tions, but their purpose is to stabilize the colors of surfaces in spite of continual fluctuations in the wavelength-energy composition of the light reflected from them, leading to a constancy of colors. while we can be (subjectively) sure that a leaf is green even when it reflects more long-wave (red) light (as is common at sunset or sunrise), we can never be sure, unless armed with light-measuring de- vices, of the ‘‘objective’’ reality in terms of the precise wavelength-energy com- position of the light reflected from a sur- face and from its surrounds. generally speaking, the only truths that we can be certain of are those that we experience, namely subjective truths. this is but one example of a shared general question in neurobiology and the humanities—of how objects and situations maintain their identity in spite of continual changes in the signals reaching the brain from them, summarized for western philosophy in the heraclitan doctrine of flux and for eastern (buddhist) philosophy in the statement that ‘‘nothing is permanent except change.’’ similar inferential processes in scientific and humanistic approaches the primacy of subjective truths extends from an apparently elementary process such as color to much more complex experiences, such as those of beauty, mailto:s.zeki@ucl.ac.uk http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.neuron. . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.neuron. . . &domain=pdf neuron neuroview desire, and love as well as to abstract con- cepts such as the experience of mathe- matical beauty. the path to acquiring knowledge—whether grounded in scien- tific experimentation or through philo- sophical (cellucci, ) or humanistic speculation—must use similar mental processes. there is no reason to suppose that thebrain processes leading to subjec- tive truths—in terms of inference, which is the result of observation and of inductive, deductive, and analogic reasoning—are different for the sciences and the human- ities. indeed, the similarity may extend to metaphoric and metonymic reasoning. the humanistic approach—be it in art or philosophy—is equally grounded in experimentation, of a different, more speculative kind but one that is neverthe- less also subject to the logic of the brain. its results, significantly, lend themselves to scientific experimentation. hence, in seeking to understand human nature and the human condition, conclusions reached by humanistic debate and dis- cussion are no less or more valid than those reached by scientific experimenta- tion, even if translation from humanistic achievements to scientific experimenta- tion is neither straightforward nor easy. a major difference is that, to attain scientific status as valid for populations instead of individuals, subjective truths require scientific validation, usually through sta- tistical inference. indeed, given their longevity and the similarity in brain pro- cesses leading to inferences in both the sciences and humanities, subjective truths revealed by humanistic discourse can in fact be said to have also been sub- ject to scientific experimentation and sta- tistical validation and hence provide rich material for scientific experimentation. the works of plato, sophocles, kant, shakespeare, dostoevsky, and balzac, among others, have a longevity even sur- passing those of scientific works because they reveal subjective truths that are generally applicable to all humans. one is likely to acquire as much experimentally testable knowledge, for example, from reading kant on aesthetics or balzac and zola on creativity than one would from any presently available scientific text. the experience of beauty perhaps nowhere is the interdependence of humanistic enquiry and experimental investigation more intertwined than in the study of one of the most ubiquitous of (subjective) human experiences—that of beauty; it serves as a powerful ground, as well as an example, for uniting the humanistic and neurobiological ap- proaches. neuroesthetics does not enquire into what beauty is and does not (contrary to common belief) confound it with art. it also acknowledges the importance of culture and learning in shaping aesthetic experience. but its pri- mary concern at present is to understand the neural mechanisms that allow all humans, regardless of race or culture, to experience beauty. since an aesthetic experience implies having made a judg- ment, it also aims to unravel the neural systems underlying aesthetic judgments and address the question, first posed by kant, of whether aesthetic judgments precede or succeed aesthetic experi- ences. in short, like the art critic clive bell, neuroesthetics seeks to understand what, in aesthetic experience, is ‘‘com- mon to all and peculiar to none’’ (bell, ), which is not to deny that, superim- posed upon the commonality, there are subjective differences in experiences that science must account for. it was, after all, a philosopher, edmund burke, who defined beauty in significantly neurobiological terms, as being ‘‘largely a property of objects acting upon the human mind through the intervention of the senses’’ (burke, , my emphasis). today, much of the inspiration for the paradigms used to study the neurobi- ology of aesthetic experience, whether acknowledged or not, comes from philo- sophical studies. though bell thought of aesthetic expe- rience as a ‘‘purely subjective business,’’ he, like others before and after him, sought for ‘‘objective’’ characteristics that constitute an essential ingredient of beauty. whether such a characteristic exists has been debated but without a consensus. this is not surprising. sym- metry, for example, is not considered to be characteristic of beauty in all cultures; it does not therefore qualify as a charac- teristic that is ‘‘common to all and pecu- liar to none.’’ characteristics such as proportion or size, though of importance in domains such as architecture, are meaningless when applied to the aes- thetics of, for example, color. as well, neuron there is the functional specialization in the brain and in vision, for example, different areas of the (visual) brain are specialized to process different attributes such as color, motion, and form (zeki, ; zeki et al., ). this suggests that, in the visual domain, there may be many different visual characteristics (which i have termed ‘‘significant configu- rations’’; zeki, ), belonging to dif- ferent visual domains, each one capable of activating the relevant visual area in a manner that arouses the ‘‘aesthetic emotion’’ in that domain, as appears to be the case for kinetic stimuli (zeki and stutters, ). but there is a common characteristic that is independent of learning, culture, and ethnic origin to all that is experienced as beautiful, one that is ‘‘common to all and peculiar to none.’’ it lies in a simple neurobiological fact—that whenever an individual experi- ences beauty, regardless of whether the source is visual, musical, moral, or math- ematical, there is a correlate in the form of activity in a part of the emotional brain, namely field a of medial orbitofrontal cortex (a mofc) (ishizu and zeki, ). interestingly, this area is also active when subjects have pleasant or rewarding experiences—both of which have been strongly linked to beauty in the philosophy of aesthetics (gordon, ), providing a good area for future experimentation designed to reveal the relationship, in neural terms, between these subjective experiences. this raises the question of what role the sensory areas of the brain play in translating significant visual configurations into an aesthetic emotion, a neurobiological problem of importance that extends well beyond neuroesthetics. whether stimuli such as faces, for example, are perceived as ugly or beautiful, they activate com- mon areas critical for the perception of faces (kanwisher et al., ; haxby et al., ). but faces that are perceived as beautiful correlate as well with activity in mofc (o’doherty et al., ), while those experienced as fearful correlate with activity in amygdala (morris et al., ). some feature of these stimuli must activate the common areas differ- entially, leading to different outputs from them. neurobiologically, the question resolves itself into the broader one of the pattern of activity within a common , october , ª the author neuron neuroview area that dictates the selective output from it to one destination or another. the larger significance of beauty if all truths, whether sensory, aesthetic, or derived from higher cognitive and intel- lectual sources such as mathematics are subjective, it becomes interesting to ask whether the (subjective) experience of beauty in general is a pointer to universal truths about ourselves and the universe in which we have evolved, just as sensory experiences such as those of color are pointers to truths about ourselves and the ever fluctuating world in which we have evolved. the experience of color, derived from a sensory source, reveals a truth about how our brain obtains knowledge by stabilizing the continually changing world in which it has evolved sensorially. that the experience of mathe- matical beauty, just like the experience of musical and visual beauty, correlates with activity in field a of mofc not only shows the abstract nature of beauty but also raises the question of whether beauty, regardless of its source, is also a pointer to deeper truths, a sort of yard- stick for determining the truthfulness of what that experience reveals. put simply, to what extent is the structured order, or the ordered structure, of the universe in which we have evolved reflected in the organization of our brains and to what extent is the experience of beauty a pointer to that structure? beauty, which lies at the heart of these questions, is a topic that has traditionally been more speculated on in humanistic debate, though one that is becoming of increasing interest to science and especially neuro- biology. a neurobiological quest for what enables us to experience beauty and what that experience signifies is vastly impoverished without significant reliance on speculations in the humanities. the many uses of beauty in the descent of man, charles darwin made sexual selection the centerpiece of his views on beauty and there seems little doubt that, for example, plumage on male birds, often perceived as beauti- ful by humans, reveals a (subjective) truth in the females about desirable male char- acteristics in that species, making the bearer a suitable mate for reproductive selection. but, as rothenberg ( ) has neuron , october , ª the au emphasized, this raises the question of why a particular combination of colors is chosen, and why particular structural patterns are used by, for example, bow- birds to create their bowers to attract females. basing beauty on sexual selec- tion alone also leaves out of account other examples of beauty such as camouflage, which have functions the opposite of attracting sexual attention (rothenberg, ). hence, an enquiry into why partic- ular patterns or colors are chosen to act as sexual attractors also constitutes an enquiry into whether what is experienced as beautiful is related as well to what coincides with patterns in our brain, which has evolved to construct a picture of the external world. that fundamental laws governing the structure of our universe can be ex- pressed in mathematical formulations that arouse the ‘‘aesthetic emotion’’ has long been emphasized by mathemati- cians, who in general place a high pre- mium on beauty. plato and the platonic tradition suppose that mathematical for- mulations are experienced as beautiful because they give insights into the funda- mental structure of the universe and hence its beauty. kant went beyond and supposed that such formulations arouse the aesthetic emotion because of the feeling that ‘‘they make sense’’ (breiten- bach, ). what ‘‘makes sense’’ is of course what corresponds to the workings and above all the logic of the brain. hence the aesthetic emotion, even in the ‘‘queen of sciences,’’ may be a pointer as much toward truths about both the universe as about the workings of the brain. it leads one to enquire, for example, whether humans would have developed string theory, for which there is little if any exper- imental evidence, if we did not possess the kind of brain organization that we have. it is a fascinating question. in summary, once we acknowledge that all knowledge is mediated through the operations of the brain and its cognitive apparatus, and is therefore subjective, and that similar brain processes are involved in humanistic and scientific inference, we are led ineluctably to the view that conclusions reached by one are relevant to those reached by the other and that the humanities provide a rich source of hints about the operations of the brain, which neurobiology and more thor particularly neuroesthetics should be ready to exploit and is doing so. acknowledgments the work of this laboratory is supported by the wellcome trust, london. i am grateful to carlo cellucci, marco federighi, tomohiro ishizu, konstantinos moutoussis, and dragan rangelov for their comments on earlier versions of the manuscript. references bell, c. ( ). art. (london: chatto and windus). breitenbach, a. ( ). eur. j. philos. , – . burke, e. ( ). a philosophical enquiry into the origin of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful. (london: r & j dodsley). cellucci, c. ( ). philosophia. published online september , . http://dx.doi.org/ . / s - - - . gordon, g. ( ). philosophy of the arts. (london: routledge). haxby, j.v., hoffman, e.a., and gobbini, m.i. ( ). trends cogn. sci. , – . ishizu, t., and zeki, s. ( ). plos one , e , http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. . kanwisher, n., mcdermott, j., and chun, m.m. ( ). j. neurosci. , – . livingstone, m.s., and hubel, d.h. ( ). science , – . mondrian, p. ( ). toward the true vision of real- ity. in the new art – the new life. the collected writings of piet mondrian, h. holtzman and m.s. james, eds., . (boston: gk hall & co.), pp. – . morris, j.s., frith, c.d., perrett, d.i., rowland, d., young, a.w., calder, a.j., and dolan, r.j. ( ). nature , – . o’doherty, j., winston, j., critchley, h., perrett, d., burt, d.m., and dolan, r.j. ( ). neuropsy- chologia , – . rothenberg, d. ( ). survival of the beautiful. (london: bloomsbury publishing). schopenhauer, a. ( ). uber des sehn und die farben: ein abhandlung, translated by e.f.j. payne as on vision and colors: an essay. (oxford: berg). zeki, s.m. ( ). nature , – . zeki, s. ( ). a vision of the brain. (oxford: blackwell). zeki, s. ( ). front. hum. neurosci. , . zeki, s., and lamb, m. ( ). brain , – . zeki, s., and stutters, j. ( ). open biol , . zeki, s., watson, j.d., lueck, c.j., friston, k.j., kennard, c., and frackowiak, r.s. ( ). j. neurosci. , – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. 	neurobiology and the humanities 	common questions 	all truths are subjective 	similar inferential processes in scientific and humanistic approaches 	the experience of beauty 	the larger significance of beauty 	the many uses of beauty 	acknowledgments 	references dewey, russell, whitehead: philosophers as educators (brian hendley) ©, don cochrane ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : paideusis dewey, russell, whitehead: philosophers as educators (brian hendley) don cochrane volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian philosophy of education society issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu cochrane, d. ( ). compte rendu de [dewey, russell, whitehead: philosophers as educators (brian hendley)]. paideusis, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/paideusis/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/paideusis/ -v -n -paideusis / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/paideusis/ brian hendley, deweu, ruueu, educator• (carbondale: southern ) whitehead: philo opher• a illinois university press, brian hendley's dewey, rv.aae/ , whitehead: philoaophera aa edv.catora is both a call for the revitalization of philosophy of educa- tion and an instance of how the author thinks this should be under- taken. he asks, "need philosophy of education be so dreary?" his answer can be summarized in these five propositions: . h the emphasis on conceptual analysis was not misplaced from the outset, it certainly is an exhausted movement now. . philosophers of education can and probably should engage in theory-building. . theories need to be tested in experience. . among its sins, analysis cut us oft from the con- tinuity of philosophical ideas and from experience. . philosophy of education could benefit greatly from studying the theories and practice of philosophers who at- tempted to implement their ideas either by establishing schools (as in the case of dewey and russell) or by work- ing energetically within the system (as did whitehead). hendley begins his study by quoting sven erik norbendo with approval: analytic educational philosophy emerged out of nothing at the end of the fifties ... bloomed through the sixties and has in the seventies been exposed to pressure. in his own words, philosophy of education once fuelled by analysis "... has gradually tapered oft into the present state of stagnation and increasing self-doubt." (p. ) hendley traces the rise in interest in philosophy of education and offers an interpretation of its alleged demise by reviewing attempts of philosophers to analyse the concepts of education and indoctrination. he does not provide a full fledged critique but just enough "to convey a sense of its ultimate futility" (p. ). wise enough not to look for single essences or one set of con- ditions, hirst and peters "... consider the family resemblances among different processes and activities which enable us to distinguish central cases of 'education' from peripheral ones" (p. ). hendley's quarrel with all of this "... is that it seems unnecessarily cut off from any sense of continuity in the history of ideas." hirst and peters are accused of paideuaia . almost stumbling upon a definition from the th century, . failing to provide an explanation of who propounded such a view, . not considering arguments used to justify the ideal, and . not demonstrating how it applies to our high technology society today. the efforts of many to analyse concepts such as indoctrination come in for an even more severe drubbing: a whole sub-literature has been built up around them ... much of the writing ... has now taken on the flavour of an in-house dispute or the proceedings of a private, rather boring debating society ... !andj has become more and more "professionalized" and further and further removed from the very real problems that initiated such reflective thinking in the first place. (pp. - ) what are we to do about this? if the field is to grow and be effective we must wean our- selves from the single-minded attachment to conceptual analysis and begin once again to develop general theories of education and pay attention to what is happening in the classroom. (p. ) one way to do this would he for us to "learn from what ... !dewey, russell, and whiteheadj said and did and then move on to current issues in education that require critical thought and informed action" (p. is). but who are those with a "single-minded attachment to concep- tual analysis"? surely not peters whose range of work-hobbea ( ), the concept of motivation ( ), social principle• and the democratic state ( ), john dewerj recon idered ( ), and euar • on educator~ ( )-belies the accusation. even when he is most analytically inclined, his purpose is always propaedeutic: the conceptual ground is cleared in order to tackle important philosophi- cal (usually ethical) questions. it is also apparent from surveying this work that peters and hendley share the belief that it is impor- tant to work within a philosophical tradition. ironically, were peters not the ox to he gored, he might have been substituted for whitehead in hendley's study. their work inside educational institu- tions has interesting parallels though with respect to educational { !}, spring, theory whitehead made only a few suggestions, while peters worked out ideas in considerable detail. the portrait of hirst is somewhat different. true, "what is teaching?" and "the logical and psychological aspects of teaching" are in the analytical mode. it is true also that in his writing he is not as bedded down in the history of philosophical ideas as peters. but the relationship between self-consciously working in a philosophi- cal tradition and doing good philosophy is a contingent one. a criticism of hirst's work must be made independent of the genealogy of his ideas. hirst's major contributions have been to clarify the na- ture of educational theoryl and to lay the epistemological groundwork for a curriculum designed to to develop the rational mind. the "practical. test" of his work akin to that which hendley applies to whitehead could be begun by turning to the minutes of the cambridge university senate for the past ten or so years. when he criticizes the "london school," hendley's target may be (a) particular analyses which he thinks are disastrously incon- clusive (on indoctrination, for example) or unsuccessful (say, on education), or (b) students of peters and hirst who may not be as well grounded in the history of philosophy as their mentors. much could be said on both of these points as well as hendley's own inter- pretation of peters' analysis of education and its practical usefulness. let me venture two observations. first, why the analyses of in- doctrination were so inconclusive while those on teaching proved more stable is an interesting and perhaps profound puzzle all of its own. second, many efforts in analytical philosophy of education conducted on this side of the atlantic show how threadbare this mode can be when it is cut off from the life-line of philosophical tradition (did komisar add anything to the analysis of "needs" that dearden had not laid out in a perfectly satisfactory way?) this last point cer- tainly offers partial support for one of hendley's contentions. there is no doubt that the heyday of analytic philosophy is over. in art, so is the heyday of cubism. in both cases, those who follow should learn much from the movements that have preceded it. we do not have to disown conceptual analysis unless it is completely discredited. this hendley has not shown. indeed, there are several references throughout his book to the need for clarification though what view of language he espouses and what methods he thinks should be used in its analysis are never addressed. my major concern is the tests that are to be used to judge what constitutes good philosophy of education and good theory of education. what sort of inquiry must we undertake in order to answer such a question? i submit that such a critical meta-question is precisely what paul hirst has been endeavouring to answer for the past twenty years. without such criteria, no judgment is possible. schools based on good and bad educational theory sometimes succeed and sometimes fail to survive. their survival is only contin- gently related to the soundness of their theory. the same is true for whether students learn or do not learn what they were supposed to in these schools. that is, the relationship between theory and prac- tice in education is much more tenuous than is portrayed in this book. the school is not always a reliable crucible for "testing" theory. and at least some of the tests for good philosophy of educa- tion are internal to the discipline of philosophy. some ideas that are badly grounded last for a considerable length of time (surely this is true of values clarification, for example). other theories which are carefully argued for and articulated fail to survive. some modes of thinking can fall into disfavour with students and administrators alike. such disciplines may be less valued for a period, though not less valuable. so, i agree, with hendley that philosophers as educators ought not to decline on principle the opportunities to engage in educational theorizing. it does seem possible, however, to philosophize well in education without much involvement in theorizing. it is distinctly possible that dewey and russells were both inept at philosophizing and theorizing about education, but that neither shortcoming had anything or much to do with the failure of their schools. thus, i am not certain what can be gained for revitalizing philosophy of education by studying the theory in practice. a fortiori, i do not know what strength we can gain by following whitehead's conduct on various education committees. while i do not believe, therefore, that hendley has achieved the objective he set for himself and the field, he has written a very en- gaging book. his research has been careful and thorough. in his narrative, he has captured tantalizing details of the lives of major figures in twentieth century philosophy and education. he fills out many of the human details of these three great thinkers as they tried to wrestle with difficult educational problems. philosophy with a human face may add interest to our field. he has provided one, but not the only, beacon into the future. reviewed by don cochrane, university of saskatchewan { ?), spring, notes he records changes in his own position over the past twenty years in "educational theory," educational theory and its foun- dation disciplines ( ). philosophy and history are two current examples at many universities. when jobs are on the line, there is a danger that in the pur- suit of relevance, disciplines may lose their virtue. one should reflect a moment, for example, before collapsing foundations of education departments into policy studies units. s robert dearden's analysis of the concept of needs any less telling for educational theorists because he was or was not actively engaged in educationally theorizing at the time? historically, many philosophers who have turned their hands to philosophy of education seem to have been unable to bring their professional acumen to bear on the educational domain. platitudes have often been the end result. miranda, | miranda revue pluridisciplinaire du monde anglophone / multidisciplinary peer-reviewed journal on the english- speaking world  | thomas spence and his legacy: bicentennial perspectives gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen to me (g. stein, e. morin) entretien avec lise avignon et emma morin emeline jouve Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ doi : . /miranda. issn : - Éditeur université toulouse - jean jaurès référence électronique emeline jouve, « gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen to me (g. stein, e. morin) », miranda [en ligne], | , mis en ligne le novembre , consulté le février . url : http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ ; doi : https://doi.org/ . /miranda. ce document a été généré automatiquement le février . miranda is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives . international license. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen to me (g. stein, e. morin) entretien avec lise avignon et emma morin emeline jouve lisa avignon : biographie [figure ] lise avignon, le monde est rond. coline lubin biographie : née à toulouse en , lise avignon se forme au conservatoire national de région de toulouse puis à l'oeil du silence (centre de mimodrame contemporain dirigé par anne gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | sicco). en parallèle, elle poursuit des études en littérature anglaise. s'ensuivent quelques années d'expériences extrêmement variées, avec des compagnies entre bordeaux, toulouse et montpellier. en , une rencontre décisive vient chambouler sa pratique : elle suit une série de stages avec delphine eliet, membre fondatrice de la cie nordey et actuelle directrice de l'ecole du jeu à paris. elle appréhende là des outils qui ne la quitteront plus et une manière de poser le corps au centre de tous les apprentissages. elle garde de ce moment un goût bien précis de ce que peut être, sur scène, la liberté et la joie. entre et elle travaille pour et avec bernard guittet au sein du gatt, groupe de recherche orienté sur l'élaboration d'une théâtralité radicalement contemporaine appuyée sur un renouvellement du jeu de l'acteur. ces recherches donnent lieu à des performances publiques, séminaires, conférences-spectacles et créations. elles constituent un socle fort sur lequel se construit la suite de son parcours. elle a joué des auteurs tels que shakespeare, botho strauss, tchekhov, duras, strindberg, tarkos, brontë, llamas ; a travaillé régulièrement avec des danseurs, des musiciens, des psychotiques ; a écrit des textes pour certains projets, notamment lors de résidences à la chartreuse de villeneuve-lez-avignon. elle est depuis étroitement liée au théâtre le hangar (toulouse) et à la compagnie lohengrin : elle participe en tant que lectrice au cycle histoires d'art impulsé par laurence riout et joue plusieurs spectacles sous la direction de didier roux. avec ce dernier elle s'engage activement dans des recherches dont émerge une pratique nommée déplacement d'objets, travail d'actions, d'espace et de temps à la frontière de la danse, situé résolument en dehors de tout souci de narration. en , afin de développer son propre travail, elle monte la cie cristal palace. son premier spectacle, le monde est rond, adaptation du livre éponyme de gertrude stein dont elle est à la fois metteur en scène et interprète, est créé en avril à toulouse. depuis elle intervient comme metteur en scène et/ou pédagogue pour différentes structures (scène nationale, théâtres indépendants, centre de la protection judiciaire de la jeunesse, institut médico-éducatif, conservatoire de musique...) et pour différents publics. depuis elle dirige régulièrement des stages pour jeunes comédiens et intervient, à la demande, pour des compagnies professionnelles. elle est intervenante au sein de la formation professionnelle présences d'acteurs, au théâtre le hangar à toulouse. dans ces cadres elle développe un travail bien spécifique sur la naissance de la parole, autour de la notion d'endophasie – littéralement langage intérieur. sa pratique articule ainsi jeu, recherches et pédagogie. le théâtre qu'elle défend est poème, musique ou paysage de mots et de corps. elle aime les acteurs, la forme de liberté qui peut être la leur et leur capacité à être non seulement interprètes mais bien écrivains de plateau. pour plus d’informations : http://lemondeisround.blogspot.fr/ emma morin : biographie gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | http://lemondeisround.blogspot.fr/ [figure ] emma morin, listen to me carole cheysson biographie : formée au violon et à la danse classique, emma morin commence à travailler comme comédienne au théâtre, avec madeleine marion, dominique frot et christian rist, avec lequel elle créera le studio prosodique. invitée en résidence dans le cadre des rencontres pluridisciplinaires du centre d'art du domaine de kerguéhénnec, elle participe à différentes réalisations – lectures, pièces sonores, diaporama, expositions, films. pour france culture elle enregistre trois ateliers de création radiophonique consacrés à dante, tarkovski, et le corbusier. en , elle crée et joue avec le danseur sylvain prunenec et christian rist, rimbaud illuminations, fragments improvisés, puis accepte la direction de la pratique d’élèves de terminales théâtre dans un lycée parisien. en avec manon avram et le collectif ko.com elle s’engage pour trois créations entre marseille, le festival des arts de malte et charleroi danse, minutes de pose i et ii, et la ville dans les plis. parallèlement elle travaille avec des musiciens et enregistre pour les compositeurs mikael nyvang (te quiero, vers l’arête) et sébastien roux revers ouest. avec philippe grandrieux elle tourne grenoble, film/installation sonore et visuelle. en elle rejoint le collectif les possédés dirigé par rodolphe dana pour la tournée du pays lointain de jean-luc lagarce. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | accueillie en résidence à la fonderie/le mans elle crée en listen to me, une pièce avant les actes, de gertrude stein (théâtre de la bastille paris, de nîmes, garonne toulouse, espaces pluriels pau, l’avant scène cognac, l’académie royale de la cambre bruxelles), et en nothing to do - textes de pascalle monnier (théâtre de la bastille paris, de nîmes, garonne toulouse ). simultanément, elle réalise pour l’artiste julien bismuth des performances tant corporelles que sonores (galerie valois/paris , cac la ferme du buisson/noisiel), et propose une lecture d’un léger défaut d’articulation de stéphanie chaillou. de à elle assiste le metteur en scène pierre meunier à la dramaturgie de du fond des gorges, et joue pour lui molette et vloum dans deux productions jeune public . ces dernières années elle intervient en atelier au centre pénitentiaire de nîmes, quartier des hommes, avec poèmes de samuel beckett, lit pour pascale petit à la maison aragon triolet, et en met en scène le texte inédit de l'artiste sculpteur graveur anton prinner la femme tondue. pour plus d’informations : www.lecerclenombreux.jimdo.com entretien emeline jouve : il était une fois gertrude stein... emma, lise, quel fut votre première rencontre avec stein ? emma morin : une table de présentation des dernières éditions dans une librairie ; un livre ni carré ni rectangle dont la couverture est moitié blanche moitié bleue : tendres boutons, stein. j'ouvre :"... un silence n'est indiqué par aucun mouvement, moins est indiqué par un mouvement, plus n'est pas indiqué il est séduit. si maussade et si bas, tant de résignation, tant de refus et de place pour un haut et un bas, tant et plus de silence, pourquoi un haut et un bas, tant et plus de silence, pourquoi un haut fait ne dort-il pas pourquoi n'est-il pas et quand y a-t-il décharge quand. jamais ..." je ne comprends pas mais j'entends la voix qui dit ; quelque chose s'arrête en moi stupéfaite. une nomination inouïe des choses, une écriture fulgurance, en avance sur moi, une écriture venant de devant, du loin devant, qui parle au texte. je suis sortie avec le livre et très vite ai appelé l'éditeur pour avoir le contact du traducteur. naît alors un mouvement de travail vibration gertrude stein. lise avignon : en répétition dans un théâtre, une personne de l'équipe a laissé un livre dans les loges. j'ouvre, je lis, à la dérobée. c'est la première page de le monde est rond. c'est tellement simple, c'est pas si simple / ça me déplace, ça me replace / enfin ! / c'est évident / ça me surprend / ça me suspend / ça m'accélère / c'est ce que j'ai toujours voulu lire / des gens rentrent, je referme le livre. dix ans plus tard, la nuit. j'en ai marre, je veux faire ce que je veux. je vais faire un spectacle, et je vais travailler avec le monde est rond. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | j'ai décidé de travailler sur, avec gertrude stein alors que je n'avais lu que la moitié d'une page d'un de ses livres. quand, enfin, j'ai lu le monde est rond en entier - d'une traite et à haute voix - j'ai pleuré sans savoir pourquoi. e.j. : ces premières rencontres avec l'auteur semblent avoir en commun l'incompréhension ou plutôt l'incompréhensible. emma, vous dites ne pas "comprendre" la voix de tendres boutons mais vous l'entendez ; lise, vous pleurez à la lecture de le monde est rond "sans savoir pourquoi." qu'est-ce qui animent des femmes de plateau comme vous à aller vers un texte qui, à la première lecture, "ne fait pas sens" ? lise avignon : c'est une écriture en prise directe avec de l'innommable. de l'indicible. ca touche l'indicible de mon corps, de mon être au monde. c'est très précis, ça. je pense que c'est ma matière de base de comédienne : ce que le langage ne peut recouvrir. je crois que c'est ce qui fait que le théâtre m'est nécessaire. dire, avec des mots qui ne sont rien mais sont tout ce que l'on a. qui n'expliquent pas. va t'en expliquer une musique, une couleur. va t'en expliquer une personne !... ne pas comprendre ne m'a jamais posé problème. chez gertrude stein, je sens d'abord le rythme. et puis stein, elle insiste. alors à force quelque chose cède. se défait. ca finit par toucher quelque chose d'irréductible, que je connais de très loin (intimement de très loin !) et qui ne m'appartient pas, quelque chose que j'ai envie de protéger et de chérir. j'avais ce sentiment-là, pendant les répétitions, de travailler avec une matière que je ne voulais pas abîmer. paradoxalement j'ai eu la sensation que ça me rendait très libre. peut-être aussi parce qu'elle ne te dit jamais que "c'est comme ça et pas autrement"... comment pouvez-vous dire si une cloche est une cloche ?... pas de prise de pouvoir, ni sur les êtres, ni sur les choses. en fait, c'est l'inverse d'un langage "de communication". emma morin : je n'ai pas compris ce que je lisais mais j'entendais la voix du texte en train de me parler, j'entendais l'écriture dialoguer avec le texte, comme si l'écriture était en train de formuler la parole du texte, comme s'il y avait dimensions la table d'écriture - le texte - la voix du texte. une chose très active, pleine de célérité et de blancs aussi. quelque chose en train d’interroger-placer-chercher-déformer- questionner-former-déplacer des sons et des idées. les premières lignes de stein ont profondément et fondamentalement fait sens pour moi. et ce bien au delà d'une compréhension narrative, qui d'ailleurs ne m'a pas manquée et n'a fait qu'aiguiser mon attention et acheter le livre. et je trouve que stein fait sens dans ce sens qu'elle éclaire l'invisible dans sa concrétude, et le concret dans son invisible ; elle dit ce qu'elle est en train de dire, elle capte l'insondable d'une pensée en train de se faire, un mouvement dans ses diffractions les plus infimes. c'est un autre sens, fait d'une multiplicité de sens en expansion. la poésie ne fait pas sens pour moi, justement elle délie le sens. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | anime, c'est un bon mot, emeline, pour moi : l'écriture de stein anime, met en branle, active, décuple la vibration voix /corps / espace. la théâtralité est imprimée dans la sonorité de l'écriture, et la lettre agit d'elle-même dans l'espace dès lors qu'un corps s'en fait l'émetteur. cet élan m'a tout de suite fait dire, instinctivement j'ai lu à haute voix car on entend ce qui est dit quand on lit stein à haute voix : le texte existe dans un absolu quand il est dit, il y a une évidence et un jaillissement alors, qui donnent l'ampleur. l'oralité est constitutive du travail d'écriture, il me semble pour beaucoup de ses écrits. et puis ludique et joueuse et rieuse et espiègle et sérieuse, cherchant à nommer pour chaque chose, ce qui, par essence, échappe aux mots. d'où le désir instantané du plateau. e.j. : ce désir que stein a éveille en chacune de vous, comment se concrétise-t-il à l'issue de votre première rencontre avec l'auteur ? emma, vous contactez très vite le traducteur et l'éditeur de tendres boutons : comment réagissent-ils ? lise, suite à votre lecture si bouleversante de le monde est rond, quelles furent les démarches que vous avez entreprises pour monter le texte ? pouvez-vous, chacune, revenir sur la mise en place du projet ? emma morin : l'éditeur m'a communiqué le contact du traducteur qui est resté très froid et n'a montré aucun intérêt à mon projet. j'ai donc cherché un autre interlocuteur et ai très vite trouvé marc dachy. je l'ai joint, il a accepté de me rencontrer, et lors de ce rendez-vous m'a donné son avis : tenders boutons est un mauvais choix, ce texte est " intraduisible " et trahirait l'écriture de stein. il m'a demandé alors de lire les premières pages d'un manuscrit inédit listen to me, une pièce avant les actes, et je suis repartie avec. a ce moment ont commencé les lectures, explorations, mémorisations du texte, je promenais dans le texte, seule pendant des heures, puis la mémoire a fait son chemin et je le marchais par bout dans la ville, toujours seule et puis, ensuite avec une oreille, un répétiteur complice. nous nous donnions rendez-vous chez lui et je déroulais ce que je savais encore et encore, assez vite dans l'intégralité, encore et encore. l'univers artistique des années de l'époque du texte - , la place de la peinture, la vie de stein en même temps, la littérature et la poésie de l'époque, lectures en amériques ... c'était ma première réalisation personnelle, un solo puisque c'est un texte pour une voix. j'ai obtenu une résidence d'une semaine à la fonderie le mans, et suis partie avec un éclairagiste ; nous avons présenté à l'équipe les premières minutes du texte et avons été invités à revenir poursuivre la recherche. a commencé une longue attente pour l'obtention des droits de représentation avec les héritiers américains. devant cette difficulté, nous avons avec marc pérennès monté une compagnie afin d'assumer la responsabilité des représentations. il assure depuis l'administration du cercle nombreux. le travail s'est étalé sur trois années et demie, avec résidences plateau d'une semaine et un travail parallèle permanent. la création a eu lieu à la fonderie. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | nous avons obtenu les droits deux jours avant de jouer au théâtre de la bastille à paris et ainsi avons pu tourner la pièce en toute légalité. est-ce que cela répond à ta question ? e.j. : oui, merci emma ! lise ? lise avignon : il me semble important de dire que ce qui a été premier, pour moi, ce n'est pas le choix de stein mais la décision de faire mon propre spectacle. cela vient dans un contexte où, en travaillant pour d'autres, j'entendais sans cesse une petite voix intérieure qui voulais autre chose, sentais, pensais autre chose... a l'instant où j'ai pris cette décision, stein s'est imposée. ce qui est étrange, c'est d'avoir décidé de travailler sur le monde est rond alors que je n'en connaissais que quelques lignes, avant même cette lecture bouleversante dont tu reparles, emeline... c'est important, parce qu'au départ ce n'est pas tant "monter stein" que mettre en scène une rencontre - entre cette langue et moi. j'avais envie d'un certain type de théâtre, d'un certain rapport à l'espace, au jeu et à la langue, et il allait falloir voir si entre stein et moi ça marcherait... qu'est-ce qu'elle accepterait de moi, qu'est-ce que j'accepterais d'elle... il y avait juste cette intuition, qu'elle pouvait m'emmener là où je voulais aller. donc, après cette décision, j'ai acheté le monde est rond et j'ai pris mon agenda. j'ai fais en sorte de réserver heures par semaine pour ce projet, pendant les cinq mois à venir. j'ai commencé par lire le texte à haute voix, ça m'a fait pleurer (j'ai beaucoup pleuré, en fait, tout au long de ce travail). et puis j'ai relu encore. parallèlement, j'ai pris un cahier et j'ai commencé à écrire. des mots, jetés : sur le texte, sur ce que j'aimais au théâtre, sur ce que je ne voulais pas, sur des films que je voyais, la musique que j'écoutais à la même époque, sur des souvenirs, sur comment s'organiser concrètement pour monter un spectacle... pendant cinq mois, heures par semaine, j'ai fait ça. lire et relire le texte, et puis écrire, jeter des mots sur tout ce que je traversais en lisant. je me suis mise à me renseigner sur gertrude stein, à écouter des enregistrements de sa voix, à lire des choses sur son travail. et toujours, je notais, dès que quelque chose m'intéressais, m'éclairait ou me questionnait. très vite je me suis mise à lire le texte en anglais, et puis à voir ce qui changeait quand je disais en anglais ou en français. en anglais c'était tellement plus juste ! ! ! et puis il y avait les chansons que chante rose. très très subjectivement, j'ai cherché quelles musiques j'avais envie d'écouter, qu'est-ce qui pour moi allait bien avec tel ou tel moment du texte. j'ai passé tout un temps à écouter diverses formes de litanies. j'ai réécouté beaucoup patti smith, surtout quand elle dit des poèmes. tout doucement s'est insinuée une envie d'un travail très musical, avec une bande son assez présente, et un travail sur le texte allant chercher du côté de la poésie sonore... j'avais envie, à cette époque, de prendre beaucoup de libertés. j'y allais prudemment, mais ce texte semblait autoriser beaucoup de choses... j'ai vite eu l'impression de dialoguer avec un matériau qui tout en étant très fort permettait beaucoup... quelque chose de très rigoureux et de très généreux. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | toujours parallèlement aux lectures (à voix haute, à mi-voix, murmuré, à ma table ou bien dehors, dans des parcs ou tournant dans mon appartement, ou au bord de la mer...), je me suis renseignée sur des points précis qui me posaient question. sur le cubisme. grande question : en quoi l'écriture de stein est-elle liée au cubisme ? ce qui m'a amenée à chercher de plus près du côté de la question du point de vue. un scientifique m'a fait une histoire du point de vue en sciences physiques de l'antiquité à nos jours. j'ai aussi ouvert des bouquins de linguistique, j'avais des questionnements liés à la temporalité, entre autre... je me suis beaucoup renseignée, mais sans rien résoudre, je n'ai jamais voulu m'expliquer ce texte. ces recherches sont en moi quelque part, nul doute qu'elles m'ont influencées mais je les ai oubliées. je suis toujours revenue au texte pur, au mouvement - pensée du texte, à la voix qui parle par-à travers-avec-derrière-devant ces mots. bon, ces mois passés, j'avais un peu plus de temps devant moi. oui, parce qu'en même temps, je travaillais beaucoup pour pouvoir me permettre de passer du temps à travailler sans argent. j'avais donc deux mois pleins devant moi. je suis allée voir jean-claude bastos, qui dirige la gare aux artistes, juste à côté de toulouse. je lui ai parlé de mon projet et lui ai demandé une résidence. il m'a dit : "si tu veux tu peux venir travailler ici pendant un mois et demi." normalement, ils demandent un peu d'argent pour l'utilisation du lieu, mais là il m'a accueillie gratuitement ("t'as pas d'argent, et alors ? tu viens travailler quand-même"). j'ai travaillé toute seule - parfois avec une caméra. j'ai un souvenir extrêmement heureux de cette période. au bout d'un mois et demi j'avais une première ébauche de spectacle. j'ai demandé à didier roux, metteur en scène avec qui je travaille souvent, de venir voir. suite à cette première rencontre, il s'est associé au projet, lui et la structure qu'il coordonne, le théâtre le hangar. j'ai refait des résidences, encore un mois et demi. on a commencé assez vite, avec serena andreasi, à travailler sur la lumière. je la payais avec mon argent personnel, économisé sur ce que je gagnais par ailleurs. j'ai commencé à courir et à prendre des cours en technique vocale : ce spectacle allait me demander plus d'endurance physique et plus de souffle que je n'avais, et une bien meilleure connaissance au niveau voix et chant. un peu plus d'un an après le tout début du projet, on a montré le spectacle à l'état de "maquette," comme on dit. trois fois, à la gare aux artistes. j'ai également montré un extrait, les premières minutes, lors de la présentation de saison du théâtre du pont neuf, théâtre toulousain qui allait accueillir la création du spectacle, encore un an après. ont suivi encore d'autres périodes de résidence, toujours accompagnée principalement par didier roux et serena andreasi. deux mois, en tout, si je me souviens bien. j'ai monté des dossiers pour demander des subventions à la mairie et au conseil général. j'ai obtenu en tout euros ce qui, vue l'économie qui est la mienne, m'a soulagée considérablement. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | pour les droits d'auteur ça a été facile, en revanche il y avait les droits des traducteurs. ça m'a amenée à prendre contact avec les éditions esperluète, petite maison en belgique. anne leloup (la directrice) et anne attali (la traductrice) m'ont donné toute licence pour utiliser cette traduction, sans contrepartie. deux ans et trois mois après le tout début du projet, nous avons créé le spectacle. au théâtre du pont neuf, puis au théâtre le hangar, tous deux sur toulouse. c'était en avril - mai . e.j. : le pont neuf et le hangar vous ont donc suivis dans cette belle aventure ! l'écriture de stein fait souvent peur : ces deux lieux ont-ils accepté de suite ou a-t-il fallu les convaincre, lise ? lise, emma, avez-vous dû rassurer votre entourage artistique quant aux projets ? ont-ils compris de suite votre désir de monter ces textes d'une auteur réputée comme difficile ? en d'autres termes, moins politiquement (et artistiquement) corrects : a-t-il était facile d'obtenir du soutien (de la part des financeurs et des théâtres) pour vos projets respectifs ? lise avignon : l'équipe du théâtre le hangar connaissait et aimait l'écriture de stein et a montré immédiatement un intérêt pour mon projet. ils m'ont soutenu dès que je les ai sollicités (accueil en résidence, aide administrative). plus tard ils m'ont aussi programmée, après avoir vu une étape de travail. la gare aux artistes, pareil. eux n'avaient jamais lu stein mais ont été vivement intéressés. et puis, ils me connaissaient et avaient envie de me faire confiance, je crois. après avoir vu une étape de travail ils ont été carrément enthousiastes, touchés. pour les autres, ça a été plus compliqué. pour le théâtre du pont neuf, je crois que c'était plus dû au fait que c'était mon premier spectacle qu'au choix de l'auteur. ils m'ont fait une première proposition que j'ai refusée car je ne la trouvais pas digne de ce que j'avais à proposer. après cela ils m'ont fait une autre proposition que j'ai pu accepter. j'ai été accueillie en résidence et pour la création du spectacle, avec un tout petit peu d'argent (de quoi faire cachets en tout). mais ça a été pour une période moins longue, et pour jouer moins que les autres compagnies en résidence ! finalement, ils ont été ravis, et je crois qu'ils sont rentrés sans mal dans l'écriture de stein. l'équipe du théâtre du grand rond était, je crois, partagée sur cette écriture. ils ont accueilli le spectacle dans un temps à part, un peu en dehors de leur programmation habituelle. j'ai eu plusieurs discussions avec l'un des principaux coordinateurs du lieu qui m'avouait être franchement dérangé par ce texte. il me disait que ça le gênait, qu'il ne savait pas comment l'appréhender : "avec ce texte je sais pas où je suis. je ne peux même pas me dire que c'est un univers absurde, ce qui d'une certaine manière m'arrangerait !" c'est une parole que j'ai retrouvée chez certains spectateurs : "univers spécial", "on comprend rien", "mais alors, c'est un conte ou pas ?"... et chez d'autres, enthousiasme, enthousiasme, émotion... quand la rencontre se fait, qu'est-ce qu'elle est belle. pour ce qui est du soutien financier, de la part des institutions, je n'ai pas eu l'impression que stein posait problème. ils ne connaissaient pas mais se montraient gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | assez vite intéressés. après, on reste dans le cadre d'un premier projet avec une demande d'argent extrêmement modeste... pour ce qui est de la programmation, en revanche, oui, stein fait peur. certains programmateurs m'ont dit avoir aimé le spectacle et l'écriture, mais n'être pas sûr de pouvoir proposer ça à leur public. la plupart de ceux qui vont me programmer dans les temps qui viennent sont en mesure de défendre eux-même cette écriture, et aussi la question de la poésie, et d'un théâtre pas forcément centré sur la représentation et le personnage (oui, ça fait longtemps que le théâtre a évolué, mais pourtant !). emma morin : pour ma part personne ne m'a rassurée jamais nulle part. soit les gens ne connaissaient pas, soient ils pensaient connaître et me ne comprenaient pas ce choix. stein ? une intellectuelle, pénible, compliquée, homosexuelle grosse, disgracieuse, "prise de tête", qu'il n'y avait pas d'intérêt à faire entendre. c'est ce que j'ai beaucoup entendu. a croire que stein était vraiment trop moderne pour ce milieu ? je suis totalement d'accord avec lise sur la plus que relative évolution du théâtre public en france ; et il me semble que pour assister à des représentations qui engagent plus que la tête raisonneuse et raisonnable, il faut se tourner vers les compagnies étrangères. en tout cas je n'ai trouvé d'écho spontané qu'en dehors du théâtre, auprès de personnes connaissant sa relation à l'art et sa collection personnelle. il y a une exception c'est michel vincennot qui dirigeait espaces pluriels théâtre saragosse de pau, qui m'a reçue en rendez-vous sans me connaître et sans passe droits, et qui, fervent lecteur de stein, a décidé de programmer sans avoir rien vu du travail de cette première mise en scène, ni de moi comédienne. il était très excité d'offrir à "son" public cette proposition, et nous avons échangé dans la joie, la fluidité et le bonheur de stein. j'ai réfléchi et organisé la lecture conférence en amont, h entrée libre pour toute personne venant voir le spectacle ou pas, michel m'a demandé un atelier de jours autour de la poésie, et je suis allée présenter l'oeuvre aux lycéens qui allaient venir. les deux représentations ont été un succès : le public était heureux, en contact avec un inconnu ludique, vif, énergétique, profond, lumineux. par la suite michel a influé personnellement pour ma programmation au théâtre de cognac, scène conventionnée danse : plus qu'à un lieu, s'adresser à des personnes capables de vraie curiosité artistique. pour ce qui est du soutien financier je n'en n'ai eu aucun. parce que j'ai toujours travaillé dans le réseau du théâtre public, j'ai sollicité les scènes nationales et cdn. j'ai constitué et déposé une demande de subvention à la drac île de france : bien que cette institution n'allouait pas d'aide à une première mise en scène, mon dossier est passé une seconde fois en commission parce que le texte les intéressait, mais ils n'ont finalement pas dérogé à ce principe. nous avons travaillé années sans le moindre salaire ni argent pour quoi que ce soit : décor costume administration. j'ai même au contraire, assuré le minimum personnellement : billets de trains, bus, repas pendant les résidences de travail. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | de fait chercher un financement est un métier qui n'est pas le mien et où je n'ai pas brillé. mais, surtout, l'existence de cette création est indissociable du travail de la fonderie le mans, qui m'a accueillie une première fois en résidence d'une semaine et ne m'a ensuite jamais lâché la main. la fonderie est un espace colossal - + de m , plateaux, auditorium, une salle de musique, une salle verrière, chambres, cuisines et sanitaires, bureaux, atelier de construction - dirigé par françois tanguy et laurence chable : c'est le fruit de ans de travail de la compagnie du radeau et de la volonté de ces deux personnes que le lieu de recherche - répétition soit incessant, ouvert à d'autres, espace d'échange et de mise en commun perpétuel. après cette première résidence, j'ai eu la sensation que quelque chose était concrètement lancé, sortait de la chambre, du salon, du privé. "je n'ai pas compris mais j'entends !" et "comment faîtes - vous ?" sont les phrases qui me seront désormais les plus dites. le théâtre de la bastille à paris a programmé une lecture publique du texte en , puis le spectacle dans sa première édition du festival hors - série, : bastille avait le désir d'ouvrir sa scène a des formes "émergentes", stein était émergente... e.j. : revenons sur les textes de stein que vous avez montés. pouvez-vous nous expliquer comment vous avez appréhendé le passage du texte au plateau ? vous avez chacune joué vos propres mises en scène des textes de stein. vous nous expliquiez que vous cherchiez chacune des textes à interpréter mais pensez-vous que ces textes se prêtaient tout particulièrement à un travail solitaire, de soi à soi ? emma morin : le travail d'intégration - mémorisation de listen to me a pris du temps et comme je n'avais pas d'espace pour travailler, il a peuplé mon appartement et les rues de paris pendant un an. en entrant dans le texte ainsi, avec patience, lenteur, errance, sans aucun souci de résultat ou de deadline, apprenant le texte pour moi, l'espace s'est inscrit profondément : il était là, grand, très grand et le corps émetteur, dedans. le corps n'est pas personnage, mais une voix cherchant à haute voix le théâtre : l'espace est dans le texte qui s'invente mot après mot. le texte parle au texte, c'est comme un dialogue du texte avec lui-même. c'est quelqu'un qui écrit qu'il est en train d'écrire une pièce de théâtre : l'écriture parle avec celui qui écrit qui parle à l'écriture, et à la fin rien n'est arrivé, le théâtre n'a pas commencé, il est à venir. je cherchais un texte pour un solo, que je puisse travailler seule, pendant un temps indéterminé ; la découverte du manuscrit m'a convaincue à la première lecture que l'écriture de listen to me m'offrait ce mouvement, cependant le passage du soi à soi, vers d'autres a exigé une oreille extérieure qui vagabonderait elle aussi dans ce mouvement. il fallait éprouver et inscrire dans le travail, l'élan vers l'autre, la contagion de l'écriture qui peuple tout d'un coup le monde, inverse les perspectives et ouvre à une perception nouvelle. il fallait que quelque part quelque chose s'entende : la mise en scène était la forme du partage, de la mise en circulation, et avec un tel texte il fallait déjouer les habitudes et réflexes du spectateur. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | pour passer du texte au plateau, j'ai installé un "sas de décompression," décadré l'espace et le temps de la représentation, privilégié absolument l'appréhension de la perception, et chercher une forme qui ouvre à cette disponibilité. j'ai vidé le plateau, laissé la cage de scène à vue, utilisé un cyclo en fond de plateau, émetteur et réflecteur de lumières et de couleurs, et un écran x m milieu plateau cour. la pièce commence avant l'ouverture public : le film d'erwan mahéo tourne projeté sur l'écran avant et pendant l'installation public. un temps prolongé avec une œuvre muséale, dans une salle de théâtre. le film la casa ideale est une respiration, un temps silencieux de vide, de blanc et de la lumière : dans l'atelier vide de pier paolo calzolari le soleil va et vient. un temps hors temps en fait, mis en commun dans une salle, comme une réunion avant que ça commence. il continue après le noir salle un certain temps, le film est silencieux. le texte arrive, le prologue est dit dans cette lumière du film, puis à l'acte ça bascule. [figure ] la casa ideale, film d'erwan mahéo erwan mahéo gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | [figure ] la casa ideale, film d'erwan mahéo erwan mahéo lise avignon : dès le départ j'ai envisagé le texte comme un matériau. c'est un texte "non théâtral", comme on dit, et le passage à la scène l'a passablement modifié : il y a des coupes, certains passages sont dits en anglais, d'autres sont répétés... l'adaptation s'est faite très lentement et toujours en fonction du concret du plateau : qu'est-ce que le plateau demande ? qu'est-ce que le texte accepte ? prendre beaucoup de libertés avec un texte ne m'a jamais posé problème, paradoxalement, je crois que c'est parfois comme cela qu'on peut entendre. je voulais autant monter le monde est rond que développer mon propre univers. le travail a donc été de chercher l'endroit où, entre le texte et moi, ça se mélange. la manière de faire s'est inventée au fur et à mesure. j'étais sûre de ne pas vouloir représenter le texte, ni jouer rose comme on jouerait un personnage. le projet : se laisser traverser par une langue. le point délicat : sans que jamais je ne joue rose, que l'on puisse projeter, parfois, rose en moi. autrement dit, peut-être : que l'on puisse se laisser embarquer dans la fiction. que ceux qui regardent et moi nous laissions peu à peu envahir par la langue et par la fable. au début : lectures à voix haute, rêveries, documentation. rose pense, pleure et chante des chansons, willy aussi aime bien chanter... la question de l'invention des chansons s'est vite posée. j'ai essayé des choses et cela a ouvert une façon de travailler avec la musique, avec des fragments de musiques mis en boucle. la musicalité, les rapports texte-voix-son, cela est devenu un fil rouge. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | « de la ritournelle i. un enfant dans le noir, saisi par la peur, se rassure en chantonnant. il marche, s'arrête au gré de sa chanson. perdu, il s'abrite comme il peut, ou s'oriente tant bien que mal avec sa petite chanson. celle-ci est comme l'esquisse d'un centre stable et calme, stabilisant et calmant, au sein du chaos. il se peut que l'enfant saute en même temps qu'il chante, il accélère ou ralentit son allure ; mais c'est déjà la chanson qui est elle-même un saut : elle saute du chaos à un début d'ordre dans le chaos, elle risque aussi de se disloquer à chaque instant. il y a toujours une sonorité dans le fil d'ariane. ou bien dans le chant d'orphée. » gilles deleuze, félix guattari, mille plateaux au bout de quelques mois a débuté le travail de plateau, toujours seule. le premier jour j'avais d'une part le livre, d'autre part une liste de verbes et de questions (commencer / recommencer / quelque chose de merveilleux / plus on est près du but plus ça met du temps / mot et réalité : rapport impossible / revenir mais c'est toujours la première fois...) j'ai pris deux chaises et une table et, parfois le livre à la main, parfois avec les bribes restées dans ma mémoire, j'ai commencé à travailler les mots et l'espace. quel espace pour ces mots ? quand et comment ça change ? quand l'espace fait changer les mots, quand les mots font changer l'espace, etc. les chaises, la table, ma présence, statiques ou en mouvement : ce qui fait que l'espace se structure. tant que je ne peux pas dire, tant que ma voix sonne faux : l'espace n'est pas trouvé, et cela n'a rien à voir avec une recherche de confort. l'espace : le vide entre les choses, et quand c'est juste c'est comme une traduction de l'espace intime que les mots ouvrent dedans. comme des retrouvailles. une fille, deux chaises, une table, plus tard s'est ajoutée une planche : toujours les mêmes choses jamais pareilles ; toujours moi, toujours les deux chaises, toujours la pulsation d'un rythme vital. d'une certaine manière, c'est un travail de variations, un travail à facettes. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | [figure ] dessins de la lune, par galilée galilée au bout de deux mois, le squelette du spectacle était là. j'ai demandé à quelqu'un de venir pour voir ce qui se passe quand quelqu'un regarde. deux trois fois, avec des personnes différentes. il m'est apparu qu'il y avait encore un autre fil rouge, non formulé jusqu'alors mais essentiel : la notion de jeu. non pas jouer le texte, mais jouer avec le texte. jouer, éperdument, coûte que coûte, de tout mon être-chair-voix-mémoire. a partir de là la création a continué avec deux autres personnes. on a travaillé la lumière en cherchant le minimum d'effets, en allant vers une autonomie, une indépendance entre comédienne et lumière : quasi aucun "séquençage," une lumière qui ne souligne jamais les changements dans le texte ou dans le jeu. comme base, on a voulu quelque chose de solaire, avec des intensités plutôt fortes, peu d'ombres (en deuxième partie du spectacle, ça change, ça devient plus nocturne). et puis il y a, suspendues, des ampoules électriques. pour le ciel, la fragilité, le scintillement, le merveilleux. je ne m'appesantirai pas sur les conditions matérielles - pauvres, oui, on peut le dire ! - tant les nôtres que celles des lieux qui nous ont accueilli - mais je me dois de le mentionner car cela impacte forcément ce que nous inventons. oui. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | en réalité je ne me suis jamais sentie seule, il y avait tant à rencontrer. l'inverse de l'ennui ! il me semble que tout travail sur le langage demande de la solitude. avec stein, je suis renvoyée à la manière dont la parole se formule, se reformule, se dé-formule... aux jeux et grincements qu'il y a entre la pensée et le dire, entre les mots et l'innommable. cela résonne à un endroit profondément intime et oui, il me fallait dans un premier temps être seule pour être avec cette chose-là, très puissante mais très fugace, rapide comme les pensées. dans le monde est rond, il y a aussi une fable : rose qui escalade la montagne, toute seule, avec une chaise bleue. Être seule, poser dans le monde un acte personnel... faire un spectacle, ça me semblait être un peu ça. une façon de se confronter à ce dont parle le livre. si je traverse cette chose qui est "faire un spectacle toute seule", il se peut qu'il y ait un écho... le spectacle n'est pas une représentation, c'est une montagne. et il faut que cela soit une montagne à chaque fois. chaque soir. d'où le côté "performance", fréquemment souligné par rapport à ma proposition. e.j. : emma, le théâtre est souvent considéré comme l'art de "l'ici et maintenant." vous dites : "le théâtre n'est pas à commencer mais à venir" ; cette non-actualisation, ce devenir- icietmaintenant rompt avec l'approche traditionnelle des arts de la scène. est-ce votre vision du théâtre, de la mise en scène des textes en général ou de ce texte de stein en particulier ? pouvez-vous revenir sur ce travail du "devenir-texte" sur le plateau ? dans quel état ce jeu met l'actrice ou dans quel état doit se mettre l'actrice pour se rendre disponible à ce "devenir-texte" ? emma morin : théâtre n'est pas à commencer parce qu'il a commencé dès la première rencontre entre deux humains ; il est à venir parce qu'il se défait à l'instant même où il se fait, et qu'il est, de fait, incessamment à ré-inventer. listen to me, est au cœur de ce mouvement : après les derniers mots, "rideau peut venir", le rideau - écrit à ce seul endroit en italique - cesse d'être personnage et naît concrètement comme rideau, il tombe et le théâtre peut commencer ; tout ce qui précède, le texte lui-même n'est qu'une préparation à l'arrivée du théâtre. maintenant ils discutent s’ils n’aiment pas le voir et lequel est lequel, et ils discutent s’ils se sont jamais rencontrés. enfin ils disent tous. tous les caractères et qu’est-ce qui est arrivé. il est arrivé qu’aucun des caractères ne les a rencontrés il ne rencontre aucun des actes n’a rencontré aucun des actes et ils ne se sont pas encore rencontrés ils ne se sont pas rencontrés encore. et doux william. doux william n’a pas rencontré. doux william a sa rencontre mais pas encore et lillian aussi. lillian va se rencontrer. a-t-elle rencontré doux william oui ils ne se sont pas rencontrés encore ni doux william ni les caractères ni les actes tous ils ne se sont pas encore rencontrés. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | et doux william. doux william n’a pas rencontré. doux william a sa rencontre mais pas encore et lillian aussi. lillian va se rencontrer. a-t-elle rencontré doux william oui ils ne se sont pas rencontrés pas encore ni doux william ni caractères ni les actes tous ils ne se sont pas encore rencontrés. ... comment pouvais-je arriver qu’il pouvait être qu’on pouvait dire que c’est moi qu’un est deux, et deux est trois, et trois est quatre, et cinq est deux et un est un et un rideau peut venir et venir, le seul mot en deux syllabes est william le seul mot en deux syllabes est lilian le seul mot en trois syllabes est caractères et le seul mot en une syllabe est acte. actes rideau. caractères caractères rideau. acte il n’y a pas un un et un personne n’a rencontré personne rideau peut venir. rideau . ce devenir est au cœur de ma pratique du théâtre, de la mise en scène, et de mes choix de textes ; et stein me touche tout particulièrement parce que son écriture est au cœur de cette pensée. son travail de répétition exprime, pour moi, parfaitement cette circonvolution autour du présent qui n'est présent que dans l'infime interstice temporel de l'énonciation physique des syllabes. sa pratique de la répétition fait, de plus, parfaitement écho au travail de répétition théâtrale : faire, refaire, dire, redire, alors que l'ici maintenant se dérobe perpétuellement à notre capture de l'instant pur, de l'instantanéité de chaque chose. restent l'écho, la résonance, la trace de cette tentative en chacun de ceux qui travaillent à faire passer des mots et l'univers qui s'y déploie, ainsi qu'en ceux qui y assistent, écoutent, regardent. il n'y a pas d' "état" d'acteur pour moi, mais une disponibilité, une concentration, un lâcher prise mêlé à une capacité de silence et d'accueil. une exigence, une attention particulière d'occupation de l'espace avec curiosité, humilité et gourmandise. c'est un long travail, une recherche, une pratique du monde, un exercice qui ouvre les portes de la perception et de l'inconnu. embrasser tous les possibles d'une sensibilité, exercer ses instincts et ses capacités de corps à corps avec les matières. il y a beaucoup d'intangible, d'invisible, d'irrésolu ; rien n'est acquis, il n’est question que de tentatives successives. giacometti le dit mieux que moi : « je veux rentrer dans les choses. je crois à l’abstraction dans la mesure où elle me permet de m’approcher un peu plus de la réalité. » gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | e.j. : lise, vous ne jouez pas le texte mais vous jouez avec lui. le texte est donc comme un partenaire sur scène. lui arrive-t-il de vous surprendre ? de vous amener là où vous n'aviez pas prévu d'aller ? je n'emploierais pas le mot surprise. peut-être que c'est plutôt de l'ordre du réveil. un profond réveil. "jouer avec le texte," c'est une chose qui a guidé l'invention du spectacle, et c'est complètement paradoxal : je joue avec le texte, j'en fais ce que je veux et ne considère pas qu'il y aurait, quelque part, une "bonne façon de dire", qui ferait autorité. mais pourtant : le texte n'accepte pas tout. certaines choses - qui pourraient pourtant sembler très osées, ou très radicales - il les accepte. d'autres choses, il les rejette... je dis "chose" mais c'est plutôt "rapport." le spectacle est très écrit, c'est une partition, du coup je ne suis pas vraiment en position d'être surprise, je suis un peu comme une musicienne ou une chanteuse. il se trouve que c'est une partition très exigeante, qui demande une disponibilité totale. je sais à quoi je joue, jusqu'à quand, à quel moment ça change... je sais toujours où je vais. ce qui change, sans cesse, c'est l'instant. a certains moments, je peux avoir l'impression que le texte se dit tout seul et que le jeu se fait tout seul... que je suis un passage, un canal. traversée, juste traversée, à chaque seconde. ce sont les meilleurs moments, ceux que je chéris et pour lesquels je travaille. e.j. : avant de conclure ce très généreux échange, je souhaitais vous laisser un espace de dialogue. j'ai été très égoïste et vous ai posé toutes les questions. j'imagine que cette discussion épistolaire a suscité des réactions à la lecture des réponses de l'autre quant à son appréciation et interprétation de stein. lise, quelle question poseriez-vous à emma ? emma, s'il y avait une chose du travail de lise sur laquelle vous souhaiteriez revenir, quelle serait-elle ? je disparais un peu et vous laisse dialoguer. lise avignon : emma, quand nous nous sommes vues pour la première fois, au café, tu as dit une chose comme "le texte me précède, il est en avance." je n'ai pas une question précise, j'aimerais juste que tu m'en dises un peu plus à ce sujet, ou en lien. emma morin : ce qui est clair c'est que listen to me, une pièce avant les actes précède la pièce de théâtre, le théâtre lui-même, telle est la proposition de stein, qu'elle tient du titre au dernier mot du corps du texte. par extension en entrant dans celui-ci et son apprentissage c'est devenu très concret : il est avant moi où quiconque qui voudrait s'en saisir ; certes c'est vrai de tout texte, mais celui-ci est élaboré sur cette idée précise de quelque chose qui a lieu avant, qui prépare à. et cette sensation perdure quand je le dis : il n'y a pas d'incarnation, il n'y a qu'une voix qui fait entendre le texte qui parle avec texte. le texte dialogue avec lui même, se construit, s'écoute, s'interroge, se répond, cherche, invente, se joue de lui-même. et de fait il est effectivement toujours en avance sur moi, il ne m'appartient pas, n'est pas sorti de moi en tant que "personnage." quelqu'un s'assoie à sa table et se demande ce que c'est qu'écrire une pièce de théâtre, ce qu'est le théâtre, et comment cela s'écrit, de quoi cela est fait. ce n'est donc pas une pièce au sens classique ou traditionnel, c'est déjà à l'origine un pied de nez au théâtre, un jeu : ensemble de mouvements de choses ou d'êtres gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | produisant un effet agréable ou curieux, ensemble des mouvements de choses ou d'êtres produisant un effet agréable ou curieux, libre exercice de quelque chose. et toutes les composantes sont là - scènes, actes, rideau, personnages - mais sans légitimité propre si ce n'est celle d'être quelque part, pour, peut-être à un moment, quelque chose. feu d'artifice dans un crâne, une pensée qui s'amuse, une perte joyeuse dans un labyrinthe d'idée et de sensations. la célérité particulière de stein me fait dire aussi, qu'il est en avance sur moi. je ne peux que tenter de le suivre, au mieux au plus près, mais jamais, jamais je ne le devance et je ne peux anticiper quoi que ce soit, je suis à son service, comme une enceinte émettrice, une membrane acoustique. un passeur de questionnements et de découvertes. listen to me est une partition, pour une voix ; il faut, à mon sens, une oreille et une sensibilité musicale affirmée pour ne pas trahir l'écrivain et le rejoindre. ce travail demande beaucoup plus d'humilité que ce que l'on demande normalement aux acteurs, et c'est dans l'effacement de soi que peux surgir la présence nécessaire à la transmission du texte de stein. il n'y a rien à prendre en charge, surtout ne pas prendre en charge d'ailleurs, et n'être que le véhicule, corps respiratoire, souple et disponible à tout étonnement. emma morin : lise, si, aujourd'hui, "augmentée" de ce que tu as découvert, lu, réfléchi, éprouvé de l'écriture de stein, de son univers et de son œuvre, si donc aujourd'hui tu montais un texte de stein, choisirais-tu le monde est rond ? pourquoi ? lise avignon : après mûre réflexion... oui, je choisirais à nouveau le monde est rond. je pourrais avoir envie de monter d'autres textes de stein, mais le monde est rond reste le premier que je choisis. parce que la théâtralité de ce texte me semble évidente, peut-être aussi, surtout, parce que je devais passer par ce texte dans mon parcours, parce que pour une raison un peu mystérieuse je me sens capable de faire du théâtre avec ce texte. je peux assumer cette responsabilité ! peut-être parce que, dans le monde..., le corps peut être pris dans beaucoup de mouvement. c'est difficile de répondre à cette question, parce que si je n'avais pas monté le monde est rond je voudrais monter le monde est rond ! ! ! il y a aussi une autre raison, bien moins intime, et qui n'est pas la raison principale. avec le monde est rond, je pensais que je montais un texte très facile d'accès... et j'ai été extrêmement surprise de voir que pour la majorité des gens ce n'était pas le cas. alors, si le monde... n'est pas facile d'accès, que dire alors du reste de l’œuvre de stein ! la majorité des théâtres auxquels j'ai accès, où je peux espérer être programmée, pour l'instant, n'ont pas l'habitude de programmer des choses qui vont sur des terrains pas trop balisés... certains aimeraient bien mais veulent aussi remplir leur gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | salle... bref, c'est compliqué, disent-ils. apparemment mon spectacle et le texte posent un problème de "classement." alors voilà : je ne sais pas si les portes ne se fermeraient pas toutes devant moi si je montais un texte encore moins "accessible." j'ai envie de partir du mot "incarnation". pendant longtemps je n'ai pas aimé ce mot parce qu'il est d'ordinaire relié à la notion de personnage qui ne m'a jamais trop parlée. mais la chair ?... et la peau, le cœur, les organes... je pourrais dire que je ne travaille pas sur le corps, mais que le seul moyen d'accéder à ce que je veux toucher, c'est le corps ! lise avignon : et toi ? comment ça se noue, pour toi, corps et texte ? tu donnes pleins d'indices, je crois que, plus précisément, j'aimerais que tu me dises des choses sur ton rapport au mouvement. emma morin : le texte est corps et mouvement. corps, toujours je pense ; par exemple la lecture d’un récit va imprimer en nous la sensation physique qui se produisait dans le déchiffrage instantané de la lecture des pages. quand il s’agit de lire à haute voix ou de dire un texte c’est l’organe physique qui est alors en jeu avant tout autre chose. véhicule. le texte est corps en lui - même aussi, par sa structure d’écriture. mouvement par ce qu’infléchissant des vibrations, que le corps physique peut accueillir et laisser être. j’ai surtout eu une pratique musicale et sportive avant de m’intéresser à y ajouter la parole, et je crois que c’est cette appréhension du corps dans l’espace depuis enfant qui conduit ma sensibilité. après plusieurs années sur la poésie d’arthur rimbaud - qui est la plus vaste et incroyable écriture qui soit pour moi -, j’ai découvert avec l’étude de la prosodie, qu’elle est comme le cœur de la recherche, car elle est l’espace physique où la lettre et la syllabe sont vibratoires unissant dedans et dehors. la formulation du mot est corps et mouvement, il faut se défaire du reste, longue pratique il me semble. avec stein c’est affirmé une sorte d’ascèse, d’économie, concentration corporelle plus aigüe. peut-être parce que l’écriture elle-même n’est pas théâtrale mais poème, et que l’adresse est présentation plus que représentation. le corps est passage, canal, d’un mouvement de sons assemblés en une partition, il n‘est question que de ça au plateau pour moi. gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | e.j. : un grand merci à vous deux ; merci pour ce bel échange et merci de rendre hommage comme vous le faites à l’œuvre de gertrude stein. rÉsumÉs entretien croisé avec lise avignon et emma morin, metteurs en scène et interprètes de le monde est rond et listen to me de gertrude stein. l’entretien a été réalisé par courriels de juin à août . interview with lise avignon and emma morin, directors and actresses of le monde est rond and listen to me by gertrude stein. the interview was conducted by emails from june, to august, . index keywords : gertrude stein, theatre, unnamable, movement, space, voice, body mots-clés : gertrude stein, théâtre, innommable, mouvement, espace, voix, corps thèmes : theater auteur emeline jouve maître de conférence/ associate professor inu champollion/université toulouse jean-jaurès emeline.jouve@gmail.com gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen... miranda, | 	gertrude stein au théâtre : le monde est rond (g. stein, l. avignon) ; listen to me (g. stein, e. morin) polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti francesca polacci resumo: questo saggio si propone di mostrare il ruolo svolto dal trompe-l’œil in seno alla produzione cubista di picasso. cercheremo di metterne in luce il ruolo centrale sia nell’articolazione degli spazi della rappresentazione sia per la realizzazione del primo collage. sarà centrale la relazione tra mimesi e trompe-l’œil laddove sul supporto è iscritto un frammento di tela cerata, come nel primo collage, ma proveremo altresì a mostrare, passando attraverso le analisi, come il collage sia anche un’operazione teorica, che si fonda su di una discontinuità di ordine plastico (cromatico, tattile, etc.). parole chiave: semiotica visiva; teoria dell’arte; trompe-l’œil; picasso; cubismo abstract: “tricking the eye” or presenting it the regard? the trompe-l’œil through cubist collages - this paper highlights the role of trompe-l’œil in picasso’s cubist production. in particular, on its role in the articulation of spaces in the representation and in the first collage’s realiza- tion. the analysis will focus on the relationship between mimesis and trompe-l’œil, where an oilcloth fragment is present on the support like in the first collage. moreover, we will try to demonstrate that the collage is also a theoretical operation founded on a plastic discontinuity (chromatic, tactile, etc.). keywords: visual semiotics; art theory; trompe-l’œil; picasso; cubism polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . introduzione il trompe-l’œil svolge un ruolo centrale nell’ambito della scomposizione volume- trica cubista, proponendosi, inoltre, come elemento su cui si incardina una parte della trasformazione che rende possibile il primo collage. attraverso una simile ipotesi, che proveremo a sviluppare anche con analisi di singole opere, vorremmo porre in luce i rapporti tra trompe-l’œil e cubismo con particolare attenzione alla produzione di picasso. cercheremo di mostrare, inoltre, come il collage sia prioritariamente un’operazione teorica, che si fonda su di una discontinuità di ordine plastico (cromatico, tattile etc.), indi- pendentemente dalla presenza o meno di un frammento di stoffa o tela inserito sul supporto. peraltro attraverso quanto incollato o dipinto si innesta la cultura di massa all’interno delle opere cubiste, e vedremo come l’introduzione del colore sia fondamentale in tal senso. È centrale, inoltre, la relazione tra trompe-l’œil e articolazione dei piani, in quanto strettamente imbricata con la realizzazione del collage: ne costituisce una delle chiavi di accesso formali. l’artificio del trompe-l’œil sembra essere funzionale ad aprire un movimento «presentativo» – nell’accezione di autoriflessivo – in rapporto alla rappre- sentazione. ma non solo: l’utilizzo del trompe-l’œil è inoltre da porre in relazione con un genere classico, la natura morta, al quale picasso attinge costantemente per rivisitarlo e riflettere sul dispositivo della rappresentazione. si intravede sin d’ora una tensione che vena gran parte del lavoro del picasso cubista, ovvero, quella tra una costante sperimen- tazione intorno alle dimensioni della rappresentazione e la concomitante presenza della tradizione classica, convocata e continuamente rimessa in discussione. il collage come operazione teorica la modulazione di grigi e ocra che prevale nelle opere cubiste di picasso e braque (a partire dal ) è sospesa nella primavera del mediante una serie di artefatti in cui la reintroduzione del colore è relazionata alla rappresentazione di elementi appartenenti alla cultura di massa. a questo proposito sono interessanti le considerazioni che buchloh ( ) avanza per paysage aux affiches , (d.-r. ): «there [in paysage aux affiches] we have one of the quintessential pre-collage moments of mass-cultural incorporation, which is also one of quintessential pre-collage moments signaling the reincorporation of colour» (buchloh, , p. ) . questo contributo prende le mosse dalle pagine che calabrese ( ) dedica al trompe-l’œil cubista. il riferimento implicito è alle formulazioni di marin ( ). un’immagine dell’opera è reperibile al seguente indirizzo: http:��blistar.net�images�photos�medium�f e ec e-un’immagine dell’opera è reperibile al seguente indirizzo: http:��blistar.net�images�photos�medium�f e ec e- a c f a b e d .jpg l’argomentazione di buchloh così prosegue: «one could speculate that, after the systematic decomposition (to avoid the word «deconstruction») of representation, space, pictorial practices, colour was the most resis-«deconstruction») of representation, space, pictorial practices, colour was the most resis-deconstruction») of representation, space, pictorial practices, colour was the most resis-») of representation, space, pictorial practices, colour was the most resis-) of representation, space, pictorial practices, colour was the most resis- tant element of painting for the reinvestigation of the conceptual and the tactile, the two perspectives within which cubism operates in the analytic phase. colour was so highly invested and overdetermined, even in its most advanced scientific status within neo-impressionism, that none of its options was literally practicable or polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . colore funzionale a porre in rilievo i tre prodotti commerciali: «kub c», «pernod fils», «leon» . le tre porzioni colorate emergono e si differenziano dal paesaggio retrostante non solo per cromatismo e proporzioni, ma anche in virtù dell’ombra portata dietro ciascuna di esse che le rende percettivamente più vicine allo spettatore, il quale peraltro viene interpellato dall’elemento in trompe-l’œil parzialmente sovrapposto alla bottiglia di pernod. inoltre il trompe-l’œil, insieme ai caratteri alfabetici, svolge un’importante funzione nell’articolazione dei volumi: la tipografia «evoca sistematicamente la piattezza letterale» e il trompe-l’œil descrive uno spazio in aggetto. È così aperto un piano intermedio che permette al volume descritto dalle sfaccettature-piano di non appiattirsi sulla superficie geometrica dell’opera. in paysages aux affiches è narcotizzato il modellato a favore della griglia disegnata dai contorni delle case – e ciò principalmente in virtù della vernice bianca che con contorni irregolari sospende la possibilità di iscrizione di una profondità (in quanto interrompe la modulazione cromatica) e apre a un movimento di verticalizzazione dell’opera all’interno del quale si iscrivono i tre frammenti colorati . come anticipato, nella proposta di buchloh la reintroduzione del colore segna un esito centrale dell’incorporazione della cultura di massa in funzione anche della realizzazione dei collages. nel caso di paysage aux affiches ( ) non si tratta di una precedenza di ordine cronologico (il primo collage infatti è di poco precedente), quanto di uno scarto di ordine logico, ossia il cromatismo sembra svolgere la stessa funzione di un frammento di carta ritagliato e incollato sul supporto. un simile punto di vista è interessante in quanto mette a fuoco un esito formale dell’incorporazione della cultura di massa e offre, contemporanea- mente, una chiave interpretativa circa il valore della reintroduzione del colore nelle opere accessible or manageable for the cubist project, at the time. when it comes back into cubism, it is linked to mass culture and material surfaces. it’s a totally new kind of colour reading» (buchloh , pp. - corsivo mio). riflessioni che non sono ulteriormente sviluppate dall’autore in quanto presentate durante una discussione nel corso di un convegno al moma dedicato a picasso e braque e poi trascritte negli atti, cfr. rubin ( ). si tratta tuttavia di una delle più significative considerazioni proposte circa il valore del colore nelle opere precedenti o coeve ai collages di picasso e braque che merita pertanto di essere ripercorsa. le etichette rimandano rispettivamente a una marca di prodotti alimentari, «kub» e il suo relativo prezzo « c», di assenzio «pernod fils» e di cappelli, «léon». si veda a proposito daix ( ). il lettering è fedele a quello delle marche rappresentate e i tre elementi sono disposti su di una diagonale ascendente da sinistra verso destra, che termina con il colore più brillante, il rosa di «leon», «etichetta» che si istalla nella parte in «non finito» dell’opera. si veda il saggio collage ( ) di greenberg. e, ancora, a proposito del trompe-l’œil: «il trompe-l’œil poteva essere utilizzato per disilludere, oltre che per ingannare l’occhio. poteva cioè essere utilizzato sia per palesare sia celare la superficie reale» (greenberg, ; trad. it. , p. ). si noti la differente modalità di stesura del bianco rispetto alle due porzioni cromatiche coincidenti con le etichette dei prodotti industriali: il bianco è irregolare, maculato, crea un gioco di intravisione con lo sfondo, viceversa il verde e il rosa sono uniformi, saturi e brillanti. una simile difformità contribuisce a creare un effetto di messa in rilievo delle due etichette poste in alto a destra. la porzione che reca la scritta «kub c» sembra svolgere una funzione di mediazione tra lo sfondo e le altre due sezioni cromaticamente evidenti. l’etichetta «kub» non solo è dello stesso colore del fondo, ma accoglie al proprio interno un frammento di tinta bianca, impostando una continuità con il paesaggio che la ingloba. polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . cubiste . proposta che si differenzia rispetto alla più classica interpretazione del cromatismo nei termini di «colore locale», originariamente formulata da kahnweiler ( ), e che, al contempo, prende fortemente le distanze sia da letture «mimetiche», in cui interessa sem- plicemente indicare l’effetto di verosimiglianza ottenuto, sia da altre interessate al significato simbolico del colore, come ad esempio quella fornita da l. nochlin ( ) . buchloh apre su di un problema più generale che concerne la realizzazione di un «ef- fetto collage» indipendentemente dall’effettiva presenza di ritagli di carta o stoffa incollati sul supporto, rivolge pertanto lo sguardo alla possibilità di installare una discontinuità all’interno dell’omogeneità della pittura a olio (peraltro l’olio è un materiale viscoso, omogeneo, che restituisce un effetto di forte uniformità). si profila dunque una dimensione propriamente teorica e sintattica del collage, dimensione che prende forma nelle relazioni tra unità plastiche. il collage nella discontinuità plastica a partire dalle brevi considerazioni appena ripercorse prenderemo in esame quelle opere, composte nella primavera del , in cui si ipotizza sia realizzato un effetto colla- ge, mimando l’eterogeneità materica di un frammento «già fatto» di carta o tela. si tratta di realizzazioni in cui, principalmente mediante l’utilizzo della lacca («ripolin» ), è messa in forma una discontinuità rispetto al resto della composizione, simulando la frattura rea- lizzata con l’inserimento di un materiale eterogeneo come sarà poi con il collage. È quanto avviene ad esempio in nature morte espagnole , ( ), dove il ripolin , utilizzato per i colori di una bandiera (in basso a destra), ha un aspetto più liscio, più uniformemente saturo e brillante rispetto all’olio, tale da creare una cesura rispetto al resto della composizione. per quanto concerne l’articolazione dei volumi è particolarmente significativo il trat- tamento delle lettere alfabetiche e, nella parte bassa, il pennello in trompe-l’œil, elementi che, unitamente alla porzione colorata con la lacca , creano un effetto di voluta ambiguità circa la disposizione reciproca dei piani. per quanto concerne i papiers collés uno dei primi a portare l’attenzione sul valore del colore è stato braque, nella riflessione che consegna a d. vallier: «la mise au point de la couleur est arrivée avec les papiers collés. c’est un fait que la critique n’a jamais bien compris. là on est arrivé a dissocier nettement la couleur da la forme et à voir son indépendance par rapporte à la forme, car c’était ça la grande affaire: la couleur agit simultanément avec la forme, mais n’a rien à faire avec elle» (vallier , p. ). a proposito della serie: notre avenir est dans l’air, , nochlin ( ), offre una lettura attenta unicamente al significato veicolato dalla bandiera francese e dunque interpreta queste opere come espressione di un forte nazionalismo. si tratta di una pittura a smalto inventata da riep (da cui il nome) e impiegata per usi industriali poi introdotta in pittura. picasso ne sfrutta l’effetto cromatico brillante anche in funzione del contrasto con la pittura ad olio. un’immagine dell’opera è reperibile al seguente indirizzo: http:��blistar.net�images�photos�medium� af d fb bb eab a c e d f f c .jpg di differente tenore è lo sfondo rosa, dipinto a olio (e non con la lacca), in cui è visibile l’irregolarità delle pennellate. qui il colore indica il piano più retrostante della composizione, il suo sfondo. porzione che riproduce i colori della bandiera spagnola alla quale è sovrapposta la scritta in capitali: “sol” e “somb[ra]” (“sole” e “ombra”, possibile rimando all’universo della corrida). scrittura in capitali in cui il profilo bianco dà consistenza volumetrica alle lettere alfabetiche con il risultato di proiettarle in avanti e creare una rima con il pennello in trompe-l’œil. polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . le opere in cui picasso usa la lacca, precedenti al primo collage, pur non essendo numerose, sono significative di una trasformazione in corso . l’utilizzo del ripolin secondo un procedimento analogo a quello presente in nature morte espagnole ritorna in violon, verres, pipe et ancre , (d.-r. ) e souvenir du havre , (d.-r. ). in questa seconda, peraltro, picasso realizza per la prima volta il falso legno mediante l’utilizzo del pettine (introdotto da braque), a conferma di una ricerca volta a simulare un’eterogeneità materica e percettiva insieme. le strette continuità tra l’introduzione di una discontinuità cromatica e l’inserzione di un frammento «già fatto» sembrano essere esplicitamente dichiarate da picasso nella serie di opere notre avenir est dans l’air. si tratta di composizioni che precedono immediatamente il primo collage, in cui è riprodotta una brochure di propaganda dell’aviazione militare: «notre avenir est dans l’air», i cui frammenti di scrittura hanno come sfondo i colori della bandiera francese – la coquille saint-jacques , (d.-r. ), come rappresentante l’intera serie. il formato ovale e alcuni degli elementi riprodotti all’interno delle tre nature morte sono i medesimi di quelli presenti in nature morte à la chaise cannée , (d.-r. ): nello stesso pe- riodo picasso utilizza il medesimo formato – che dispone in orizzontale – per realizzare quattro opere con soggetto simile (di cui però solo una di esse è un collage). la coquille saint-jacques presenta esplicite continuità formali con il primo collage, nature morte à la chaise cannée, continuità che non si limitano alla cesura cromatica introdotta con la brochure in lacca alla quale corrisponde il frammento di tela cerata, ma convoca anche il dispositivo di visione. in entrambe sono infatti co-presenti una visione frontale (veicolata dalle sfaccettature-piano) e una visione dall’alto (introdotta dal fram- mento di tela cerata e dalla riproduzione della brochure). inoltre, nel momento in cui picasso mette in causa i limiti del dispositivo rappresen- tazionale (sino a introdurre un frammento di tela cerata), contemporaneamente riflette sul trompe-l’œil. in questo stesso periodo l’indagine sul colore non muove solo in tale direzione (che qui interessa indagare in funzione anche della stretta analogia con il collage), ma in alcune opere il cromatismo interviene nell’articola- zione dei volumi per evidenziarne le sfaccettature-piano, come ad esempio femme nue (“j’aime eva”), (d.-r. ), o in bouteille, guitare, pipe, (d.-r. ). la scansione ritmica messa a punto attraverso il colore presenta forti affinità con le nature morte composte da léger nello stesso periodo (si veda ad esempio contraste de formes, ). un’immagine dell’opera è reperibile al seguente indirizzo: http:��blistar.net�images�photos�medium�af e c b ad bb c fc .jpg un’immagine dell’opera è reperibile al seguente indirizzo: http:��blistar.net�images�photos�medium� fa c f acdf f a d b.jpg per quanto concerne la datazione si veda daix ( ) e daix ( , p. ). un’immagine dell’opera è reperibile al seguente indirizzo: http:��www.berbec.com�rberbec�images�picas-un’immagine dell’opera è reperibile al seguente indirizzo: http:��www.berbec.com�rberbec�images�picas- so works�picasso% - �picasso% �slides�picasso% la% coquille% saint-jacques% (notre% avenir% est% dans% l’a.html un’immagine dell’opera è reperibile al seguente indirizzo: http:��blistar.net�images�photos�medium� e c fbfbf c df b db d c f.jpg la disposizione in orizzontale del formato ovale (prevalentemente utilizzato in verticale, soprattutto per i ritratti) è con ogni probabilità non casuale. l’orizzontalità assunta dal formato rende ancora più complesso il gioco tra verticalità vs orizzontalità dei punti di vista iscritti in queste opere. polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . trompe-l’œil e mimesi in nature morte à la chaise cannée ( ) se, come anticipato in apertura, il trompe-l’œil nelle opere del cubismo analitico permette di aprire lo spazio in cui collocare le sfaccettature-piano (diversamente i volumi squadernati sulla tela tenderebbero a coincidere con la superficie bidimensionale), ne la coquille saint-jacques e in nature morte à la chaise cannée la pipa in trompe-l’œil inter- viene attivamente nell’articolazione della struttura dell’opera. inoltre, in nature morte à la chaise cannée, la pipa contribuisce a iscrivere due differenti punti di vista che definiscono due «spettatori modello», deputati ad accogliere la rappresentazione. a questo proposito si dimostra densa di ricadute la riflessione di calabrese: si tratta dell’unico genere pittorico che prende il nome non dal contenuto delle figure rappresentate o dalla tecnica di rappresentazione, ma dall’allusione al fruitore. gli occhi «ingannati» dal trompe-l’œil sono per forza gli occhi di chi lo guarda. le varietà che si manifestano nel corso della storia finiscono dunque per corrispondere a una differente idea di spettatore che ogni epoca ipotizza: quello delle visioni teatrali, quello delle feste patrizie, quello del coinvolgimento emotivo delle comunità religiose nelle chiese, quello delle abitazioni borghesi, quello delle città metropolitane. ecco apparire, dunque, un ulteriore motivo di interesse, quello di capire come ogni società presupponga un comportamento visivo particolare da parte dei suoi membri, e definisca per loro il ruolo di uno spettatore ideale, di uno spettatore-modello (calabrese, ; trad. it. , p. , corsivo mio). nature morte à la chaise cannée prevede un doppio punto di vista: la parte in alto, in virtù delle sfaccettature-piano e della pipa in trompe-l’œil, inscrive una profondità, suggerisce una verticalità, versus la tela cerata posta nella parte bassa fa ruotare l’opera in orizzontale, impostando una visione dall’alto verso il basso. peraltro si tratta dei due assi di visione che convocano le dimensioni culturalmente previste di scrittura e immagine . lo spettatore modello di nature morte à la chaise cannée è uno spettatore che viene interrogato sul concetto di mimesi, concetto rispetto al quale il primo collage offre un’indagine complessa. ci preme rimarcare come la lettura proposta prenda le distanze rispetto a una più classica interpretazione di nature morte à la chaise cannée, tesa a porre in luce il gesto rivoluzionario – in rapporto alla storia della pittura – dell’inserzione di un frammento di tela cerata, indicando nell’introduzione di un oggetto «reale» la carica rivoluzionaria del collage . viceversa, per il punto di vista qui assunto, un grumo materico di pittura è altrettanto «reale» di un frammento di tela cerata, e la distinzione è semmai inerente alla costruzione o denegazione di effetti di mimesi e all’introduzione o meno di una discon- tinuità in seno alla rappresentazione. ci sembrano quindi particolarmente interessanti non ho modo di sviluppare in questa sede una simile tematica, tuttavia il riferimento è allo scritto di benjamin malerei und graphik - (ben�amin, ) dove sono indicati due diversi assi che contraddistinguo- - (ben�amin, ) dove sono indicati due diversi assi che contraddistinguo- dove sono indicati due diversi assi che contraddistinguo- no rispettivamente pittura e disegno�scrittura, ossia l’asse longitudinale e quello trasversale (alias verticale e orizzontale). per un’approfondita premessa al saggio di benjamin, si veda y. a. bois ( ). si veda ad esempio la proposta di golding ( ). polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . quelle interpretazioni che aprono una riflessione sulla trasformazione dello statuto della rappresentazione, come proposto dai lavori di bois ( ), krauss ( ; ; ), steinberg ( ; ; ). tornando a rivolgere lo sguardo a nature morte à la chaise cannée il trompe-l’œil sembra svolgere un ruolo di mediazione tra i livelli di mimesi costruiti, in cui la tela cerata riproduce l’impagliatura di una sedia, la quale trova il proprio corrispettivo materico nella cornice in corda. l’indagine sui livelli di mimesi chiede di porre in relazione una serie di elementi: la scomposizione dei volumi degli oggetti rappresentati, l’inserimento di un frammento di tela cerata, la cornice in corda e la pipa in trompe-l’œil. essi contribuiscono infatti a riformulare le soglie della «frontiera estetica»� sino a quel momento stabilita. picasso la- vora a ridefinire i contorni epistemologici di ciò che è rappresentazione e lo fa mettendo in scena un problema di «cornici». detto altrimenti, manipola la distinzione tra «realtà» e «finzione» per renderne incerti i confini. ad esempio la tela cerata è inserita in quanto «oggetto» all’interno del quadro, anch’esso oggetto del mondo. tuttavia la sua funzione viene trasformata. essa non significa infatti semplicemente in qualità di elemento «già fatto». al contrario, ad assumere rilevanza è la riproduzione dell’impagliatura di una sedia che dà forma a una tessitura di luce e ombra, mentre un diverso trattamento è riservato alla cornice in corda di cui vengono magnificati la consistenza oggettuale e l’effetto tattile prodotto. la corda, inoltre, è lasciata evidente in quanto tale e traspone, amplificandone la portata, quanto mimeticamente riprodotto sulla superficie della tela cerata. una simile dinamica, che vede un lavoro volto a rendere complessi i limiti e lo statuto dell’opera d’arte quale sino a quel momento concepita, è ulteriormente articolata attraverso la pipa in trompe-l’œil. questa infatti deborda l’effetto di mimesi mediante un’«ipersimulazione» che non solo invade lo spazio dell’osservatore, ma ne ridefinisce la posizione privilegiata dello sguardo: non più occhio che domina la rappresentazione, ma occhio «invaso» da una presenza simulacrale (baudrillard, ). se, come vuole calabrese ( ), per il trompe-l’œil non è corretto parlare di un effetto di «illusione», ma di un effetto di «presenza», può essere interessante cercare di porre in luce le ricadute di un simile effetto di «presenza». il trompe-l’œil spinge la rappresentazione al suo colmo, collocandosi sul limite della rappresentazione stessa: se la rappresentazione mimetica prevede un dominio, un controllo da parte del soggetto conoscente sugli oggetti rappresentati, viceversa, il trompe-l’œil nel suo eccesso di mimesi fa sì che la «cosa» stessa sia presente in pittura. non si tratta di un effetto di «realtà», ma di un effetto di «presenza». ma ancora, una riflessione sul trompe-l’œil, intesa come indagine sui limiti della rappresentazione, pone un interrogativo sulla rappresentazione mimetica stessa, e a questo proposito può essere proficuo intrecciare la riflessione di calabrese con quella di marin, proposte che presentano, a nostro avviso, molti punti di contatto. l’effetto del trompe-l’œil, secondo marin, non è «quello di farci credere alla presenza della cosa nel quadro, ma di farci sapere qualcosa sulla posizione del soggetto che pensa polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . e contempla il quadro» (marin, ; trad. it. , p. ). dunque ogni rappresenta- zione è intesa come riflesso del soggetto epistemico che l’ha prodotta: l’imitazione rappresentativa conserva in effetti la distanza la tra copia e il modello, proponendo all’ispezione della mente il dominio della mimesi, la legge di produzione e controllo delle apparenze nella profondità aperta sulla superficie della tela. [...] in un certo senso ogni rappresentazione, ogni mimesi, è regale o teorica. con essa si istituisce un soggetto dominatore dell’apparenza, che in questo modo se ne appropria e in questa stessa appropriazione si costituisce come soggetto giuridico di verità (ibidem, pp. - , corsivo mio). È a partire da una simile accezione di rappresentazione, in cui gli «oggetti» sono cos- truiti sulla tela a partire da uno sguardo teorico che li produce e li domina, che marin isola la specificità del trompe-l’œil, inteso come rovesciamento della rappresentazione, ovvero, come il «doppio» della cosa che si manifesta sulla e oltre la superficie della tela. rovescia- mento in quanto non si dà un «oggetto» costruito da uno sguardo teorico, ma è lo sguardo che accoglie quanto rappresentato: «la “cosa” sporge dalla tela, l’apparizione viene incontro allo sguardo» (ibidem, p. ), secondo un movimento speculare e inverso. ecco allora un effetto di «presenza» che si sostituisce all’effetto di «realtà», di mimesi della rappresentazione. in nature morte à la chaise cannée il rovesciamento della rappresentazione si com- pie attraverso il trompe-l’œil, ma non solo. l’effetto di presenza restituito da quest’ultimo è tale da denegare lo spessore materico della tela cerata, spessore effettivo che, in virtù dell’aggetto simulato dalla pipa, è – paradossalmente – respinto in profondità. schizofrenia del dispositivo rappresentazionale in cui la costruzione mimetica riposa su di uno spessore materico in aggetto (il frammento di tela cerata su cui è stampata l’impagliatura di una sedia), il quale, in virtù dell’effetto di «presenza» costruito dal trompe-l’œil, è spinto su di un piano posteriore, più lontano rispetto al soggetto osservatore . la cornice in corda sembra installarsi proprio nella sincope del dispositivo rappre- sentazionale appena descritta, in quanto rima con il trompe-l’œil, ne rende iperbolico l’effetto di «presenza» e, contemporaneamente, dà consistenza materica alla mimesi della sedia impagliata. nature morte à la chaise cannée condensa una riflessione sullo statuto della rappresen- tazione articolata su più livelli: mette in discorso una tensione tra un dispositivo mimetico e un effetto di «presenza» che contraddice la mimesi appena costruita. contraddizione, questa, che si intensifica nella presenza «oggettuale» della cornice che costituisce il «colmo» della rappresentazione, luogo troppo pieno, in cui l’elemento utilizzato signifi- ca denotativamente se stesso e contemporaneamente sussume quanto messo in discorso attraverso il trompe-l’œil e l’inserzione del frammento di tela cerata. generalizzando i tratti più significativi di quanto appena descritto, ossia il dispositivo di denegazione sotteso, risulta che picasso istalla uno spazio materiale in aggetto e contemporaneamente lo nega mediante uno simulato in aggetto e tale andamento per denegazione contraddistingue molta parte della sua produzione cubista. polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . francesca polacci è dottore di ricerca in semiotica presso l’università degli studi di siena, dove attualmente è assegnista e docente a contratto di semiotica delle arti. È stata borsista post-dottorato presso l’istituto italiano di scienze umane (sum) di firenze e ha svolto soggiorni di ricerca all’École des hautes Études en sciences sociales di parigi. francesca.polacci@gmail.com referências baudrillard, j. ( ). le trompe-l’oeil. in: documents de travail et pré-publications - università di urbino, n. , serie f. ben�amin, w. ( ). malerei und graphik. in: gesammelte schriften. frankfurt am main: surhrkamp [trad. it.: ( ). pittura e grafica. in: metafisica della gioventù. scritti - . torino: einaudi. p. - ]. ______. ( ). das passagen-werk. frankfurt am main: surhrkamp [trad. it.: ( ). tiedemann, r. (ed.). parigi, capitale del xix secolo. torino: einaudi]. bois, y.-a. ( ). la leçon de kahnweiler. in: cahiers du musée national d’art moderne, n. , p. - . ______. ( ). présentation à peinture et graphisme. de la peinture ou le signe et la marque di walter benjamin. in: la part de l’oeil, n. , p. - . ______. ( ). the semiology of cubism. in: rubin, w. (ed.). picasso and braque. a symposium. new york: the museum of modern art. p. - . buchloh, b. ( ). discussion. in: rubin, w. (ed.). picasso and braque. a symposium. new york: the museum of modern art. p. - . calabrese, o. ( ). l’art du trompe-l’oeil. paris: citadelles&mazenod [trad. it.: ( ). l’arte del trompe-l’oeil. �aka book: milano]. ______. ( ). la macchina della pittura. roma-bari: laterza. ______. ( ). problèmes d’énonciation abstraite. in: actes sémiotiques – bulletin, n. , . daix, p. ( ). le cubisme de picasso. in: daix, p.; rosselet, j. (ed.). le cubisme de picasso. catalogue raisonné de l’oeuvre peint - . neuchâtel: ides et calendes. p. - . ______. ( ). dictionnaire picasso. paris: laffont. greenberg, c. ( ). collage. in: art and culture. critical essays, boston: beacon press [trad. it.: ( ). collage. in: arte e cultura, torino: allemandi]. golding, �. ( ). cubism. a history and an analysis - . london: faber and faber. kahweiler, d.-h. ( ). la monté du cubisme. in: confessions esthétiques. paris: gallimard, . ______. ( ). les sculptures de picasso. paris: les editions du chêne. kalifa, d. ( ). la culture de masse en france - . paris: la découverte. krauss, r. ( ). the cubist epoch. in: artforum, ix, n. , february, p. - . polacci, f. «ingannare l’occhio» o presentare lo sguardo? il trompe-l’œil attraverso i collages cubisti. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . ______. ( ). re-presenting picasso. in: art in america, n. , p. - . ______. ( ). in the name of picasso. in: october, n. , p. - . ______. ( ). the picasso papers. london: thames & hudson. marin, l. ( ). imitation et trompe l’oeil dans la théorie classique de la peinture au xvii siècle. in: l’imitation. aliénation ou source de liberté? paris: la documentation française. p. - . ______. ( ). de la représentation. in: d. arasse et alii (ed.). paris: puf [trad. it. parz.: ( ). della rappresentazione. corrain, l. (ed.). roma: meltemi]. nochlin, l. ( ). picasso’s colors: schemes and gambits. in: art in america, n. , p. - . rubin, w. ( ). picasso and braque: pioneering cubism. new york: the museum of modern art. ______. (ed.). ( ). picasso and braque: a symposium. new york: the museum of modern art. steinberg, l. ( ). other criteria. in: other criteria. new york: oxford university press. ______. ( ). what about cubism?. in: picasso in perspective. englewood cliffs: prentice hall. ______. the polemical part. in: art in america, , n. , p. - . ______. ( ). post-scriptum. in: seckel, h. (ed.). les demoiselles d’avignon. paris: réunion des musées nationaux. p. - . ______. ( ). touring the stockholm collage. in: baldassari, a. (ed.). cubist picasso. paris: flammarion. p. - . stoichita, v.i. ( ). l’instauration du tableau. paris: klincksieck. vallier, d. ( ). braque, la peinture et nous. propos de l’artiste recueillis par d. vallier. in: cahiers d’art, , p. - . artigo recebido em setembro e aprovado em novembro de slavic review the need for similar expositions of the vocabulary structure of other slavic lan- guages, and provides a useful tool for pinpointing translator's "false friends"— for example, russian otperet' (to unlock), polish odeprzec (to repel), czech odepfiti (to refuse), serbo-croatian odaprijeti (to open)—for linguistic study of the routes of semantic or phonetic change, or for moments of pleasant and use- ful browsing. p h i l i p j. regier university of southern california r u s s i a n c u b o - f u t u r i s m , - . by vahan d. barooshian. the hague and p a r i s : mouton, . pp. literature on futurism—as a movement both in literature and in the other arts— has grown considerably during the last decade. while russian futurism was virtually unknown to western readers (except a small group of specialists) some ten or fifteen years ago, they now have available a number of monographs, trans- lations, reproductions of original materials, and so forth. vladimir markov's russian futurism: a history has competently documented and put in perspective the main phenomena of the movement in russia, and thus has laid the ground- work for further studies of specific groups, or of individual contributions. barooshian's study, entitled russian cubo-futurism, - , is, in effect, a presentation of the five major members of the so-called "gileia" group. that these members were khlebnikov, mayakovsky, burliuk, kruchenykh and kamen- skii should not be questioned, although it might be noted that contributions by some other artists, especially benedikt livshits and elena guro, could have been afforded at least a brief subchapter to make the picture more complete. the presentations of the five artists are quite lucid and well documented. they are preceded by a brief introductory chapter, "the background of early russian cubo-futurism in brief historical perspective." perhaps because the perspective is so "brief," the triangle symbolism-cubism-futurism appears a little too idyllic and too "equilateral." it is true that cubism made itself felt in russia earlier, but the question of the role of cubism in the program of the russian futurists could have been afforded a little more discussion. on the other hand, the chapter entitled "french surrealism and russian futurism" tends to con- centrate, at times, on some less "intrinsic" aspects; it assigns too much impor- tance to the french artists' ideological declarations. the interesting chapter on "futurism in the post-revolutionary period" contributes some valid remarks, al- though in some places a slight uncertainty in delineating the subject is evident. at one point, for example, the author speaks of "the avant-garde which included the russian cubo-futurists" (p. ), and on the next page of "the avant-garde and the cubo-futurists" (p. ). on the whole, this study is a valuable piece of research. it is a welcome addi- tion to the body of "futurisiana." z. f o l e j e w s k i university of british columbia licit international traffic in cultural objects for art's sake licit international traffic in cultural objects for art's sake hugo keith weihe* introduction the movement of works of art and cultural properties has at all times been beneficial to the development of new cultural values in new places and eras. there is no question that it encourages the mutual understanding and respect between people. major historic events throughout the world have always entailed the relocation of cultural goods when victors took their tributes from the defeated. these goods were treasured and highly regarded for their level of human achievement. in a series of lectures entitled 'on the removal of works of art from the conquered territories to rome', held in leipzig at the casselischen alterthumer-gesellschaft in , l. volkel justifies napoleon's seizure of works of art in italy and the netherlands at that period, by relating it to the romans abducting sculptures from greece to rome. the latter had captured the sculptures of greek gods, robbing them of their protective function in their native terri- tories, but continued to worship them and were inspired by their artistic beauty. now they were being captured once again to be placed in a new temple, a temple of art, the louvre. what formerly was a standard procedure by the victorious, making hostages of the guardian gods of the defeated, had now become.a full tribute to their cultural status. to possess these great pieces naturally reflected on the grandeur, knowledge and style of the new owners, apart from being a token of their martial superiority. at no time were they inter- ested in destroying them. in the same year, , napoleon had taken with him to egypt a staff of scientists who immediately set about registering the monu- ments and making exact drawings which some years later led to the first major publication in the field. the famous rosetta stone un- earthed by his troops was to become the actual key to egyptian culture when it was deciphered by francois champollion. however, in an unprecedented change of fortune napoleon was cornered by * artibus asiae, museum rietberg zurich, switzerland. use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core hugo keith weihe the british, who captured the material assembled by him and trans- ferred it to the british museum. this institution then and now ful- filled the important function of making it easily available to the general public as well as to foreign scholars who were able to estab- lish its cultural value in a global perpective. with some justification the director of the british museum considers his museum a master- piece in its own right. in this new context the seized cultural goods actually advanced the recognition of egyptian culture as well as the establishment of a whole new field of science, which equally ben- efited the source nation. furthermore, it spurred a whole artistic movement in france, the empire. this is a characteristic of all cultural transfers throughout history. if not warlords, then there are connoisseurs somewhere else in the world, who are eager to obtain foreign cultural objects. this is in the first place a tribute to the curiosity of mankind, to learn about and to cherish other peoples' achievements. a priori there is no arrogance, reckless exploitation or derogatory attitude of the politi- cally superior, or of the 'civilized' nations towards the third world countries. the only exceptions to this were blinded by the obvious material value, as were the spanish faced with the gold treasures of the aztecs, which they chose to cast into ingots. had they known the potential market value they would certainly have refrained from this brutal act. cultural heritage consists of various goods that bear a distinctive relevance to a people's origin and development. the term 'national cultural patrimony' is applied in a broad sense to cultural goods and works of art created within a nation, but not necessarily by an artist of that specific nationality. this would apply, for instance, to the works of pablo picasso, a spanish artist spending most of his cre- ative life in france. at the same time he remains a unique artistic talent — as every artist essentially is — at various stages of his life venturing into new artistic realms, initially perhaps indebted to french impressionism but probably more so to african art, later truly independent — or rather becoming influential himself. it is a remark- able phenomenon that the work of an individual should become rep- resentative for a whole nation, apart from the fact that he may not even be of that nationality. some categories of cultural heritage, for example music and lit- erature, stand apart for their specific properties. although there is an original score or manuscript, they factually exist only as a perform- ance or as printed matter, whereby the problem of uniqueness is eliminated. without this burden and the lack of a singular material base they have transgressed all borders and in a quite straightforward way exploit their potential to become the cherished good of the world. the aspects of nationality and internationality have thereby already been overturned, without the loss of a specific identity. in view of this and with regard to the three images of the international cultural property milieu in mind, ( ) 'national cultural heritage', use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core licit traffic for art's sake ( ) 'cultural heritage of all mankind' and ( ) 'cultural context', why should this kind of liberation not be possible for all embodiments of cultural heritage? in the following i will choose to speak mostly of works of art, but generally imply cultural goods in a broader sense. culture in context the 'context' is the crucial point of view of the art historian. i would like to provide various aspects of this term beyond the object/context relationship as employed in archaeology. the art historian is trained to adopt both a local historical perspec- tive as well as a concept of 'global positioning', the assessment of mutual influences on a national and international level and cross- cultural exchange. art history is as much about individual masters as it is about anonymous workgroups, their predecessors and followers, embedded in a cultural context, whose work may or may not become a gradient, a stepping stone in the artistic evolution. one of its most powerful tools is comparison, both within a cultural context and beyond. art itself thrives on relative values; mostly there is an el- ement of technical accomplishment, for example of taking architec- tural structures to ever greater heights and more splendid decoration. but beyond that there is vision, innovation, singularity, creativity, genius. this is what we cherish and which is to the benefit of all humankind. an interesting aspect in view of cultural importance is the fact, that cultural goods in their making are very often not recognized as such. naturally many cases are obvious by the sheer magnitude and effort employed in the construction of objects of national status right from the start, for example the great pyramids of giza and their contents, but there are others that are first passed by, generally 'mo- bile' works, like the paintings of vincent van gogh or the im- pressionists. still others may slip into oblivion for a while, like the works of the pre-raphaelites, to be rediscoverd at a later point in time. these latter cases are most interesting to our argument, stress- ing the volatility of judgement. one of the crucial aspects is how we perceive art over a period of time. why is it possible that works of art like the paintings by vincent van gogh were not considered to be art when they were first created and virtually unsellable at any price, only to become unchallenged masterpieces less than a century later and commanding the highest prices ever achieved by cultural goods at auction? true, the letters published by his widow revealed a powerful personality of great insight totally determined in his artistic quest and this has undoubtedly helped to form his image, but should that not have been clearly visible in the paintings themselves right from the start? how are we to know which of the goods of today are the cultural heritage of tomorrow? use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core hugo keith weihe it is the liberality that has always existed in the contemporary art market — at any given time and undisputed today — that has been instrumental in the making of an artist. his work needs to be disco- vered, i. e. needs to be shown around to as broad an audience as possible. the collector buying from a dealer, a gallery or an auction is making a 'cash commitment', he needs to be sufficiently con- vinced of its quality to entail a financial suffering. this commitment to art by individuals is its status nascendi. it needs to be perceived as such and placed within its cultural context. this cultural context does not therefore exist per se, but is formed by growing consent in the relevance of an individual work for a community. more collec- tors might begin to compete, the prices would rise, themselves be- coming an indication of value and relative importance. there is no guarantee however that a once fashionable artist might not become forgotten again, whole artistic movements (re)considered to be sec- ondary. the failure to recognize art in the making is therefore ex- tended by a perpetual uncertainty in its potential as national heritage. however, the more time elapses, the more precise this evaluation will probably be. this would cast considerable doubt, for example, on the justifi- cation of considering a painting by matisse as cultural property, par- ticulary as the time factor becomes overly important. when does a matisse in italy become a national treasure? in , or ? the owner intending to move the painting might just miss his chance by a few years. the time element is decisive, there is movement in the perception of art and the status and influence it exerts at any given time in past, present and future. commodification and collecting turning cultural objects into commodities is sometimes considered morally questionable. however, it is an inevitable historic fact and mostly a sign of recognition and respect. speaking merely of specu- lation is too simple, there always is a relationship between market value and cultural relevance at any given time. the market is not out to destroy, but to intermediate and to supply to other more strongly interested parties. futhermore, the market guards itself from overly excessive activities. the apparent eagerness of the art market in rich nations has encouraged fakes which to some extent act as an inbuilt protective measure for the real thing and have made many fields of collecting far less desirable, for example pre-columbian ceramics. from the history of collections and the building of artists' repu- tations it cannot be emphasized enough how important the role of the private collector is as the main driving force of artistic discovery. at the initial level of collecting there is no restriction, but why should the fruit of individual connoisseurship eventually result in a use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core licit traffic for art's sake ban? should the collector not be entitled to profit from rising market values and to freely dispose of his property. in europe, since the renaissance, many works were not only cre- ated by commission, but for a free market. art became a highly unique product, the work of a gifted individual, as opposed to a group-effort or the work of a nameless craftsman. the notion of artistic genius became apparent. the pricing for art gradually shifted from purely technical aspects, as the cost of the pigments involved and the total labour employed, to the aspect of artistic quality. al- brecht diirer argued in the case of the so called 'heller-altar', that the more time he would invest in this commission the finer the result would be - thereby trying to coax out an extra guilders from his client. essentially he was not willing to compromise his artistry by a modest price level. this awareness of market value on the part of artists, culminating in the contracts between the paris art dealer daniel-henry kahnweiler and picasso, braque, gris, leger and others in the early s, guaranteeing them a certain sum per can- vas of a specific size, established art in the making as a commodity. the history of the making of an artist generally proves that the dealer who makes works available and assembles exhibitions and the private collector who buys .from him are instrumental in this process. to discredit the private collector would be equally detri- mental to the public interest, as museums heavily rely on donations from private sources. to that extent, private collections very often represent an intermediary state. the private collector, as opposed to any institution, is only responsible to himself, drawing on his own funds and therby generally being far more enterprising and taking greater risks. a museum, as a rule, has to reach a decision within a large premium and be in a position to publicly justify any acqui- sitions. this will often prevent it from acquiring avantgarde art at an early stage. the image of the private collector might have been tinged by the avaricious approach, particularly in the eighties, of investors new to the art market, but the true collector still is the carrier of connoisseurship. it should not be forgotten that works of art very often are highly individualistic products and likewise require a personal approach. it is a false conception to believe that by becoming a sellable commodity a cultural object ceases to be an object of cultural ident- ity. naturally its actual cultural value cannot be priced; none the less it has a market value at any given time which may vary according to location. if 'commodification' is an inevitable attribute, it is by no means a priori detrimental. at any time the actual or potential market value is an indication of the importance of a given cultural object or of its momentary perception. most importantly the status of works of art has been established by their effective or potential market value reflecting back on them. the market offers a manag- able reference to relative values between objects. without trade art would only have an intrinsic value. the market-place does not neces- use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core hugo keith weihe sarily spoil the objects or their aura, high prices rather reflect their very special status. the trade actions of peter paul rubens provide a fine example of the workings of artistic exchange and the total lack of any negative connotation. through his achievements as a painter and his diplo- matic skills rubens became an influental political figure conversing with the powerful people of his time. being himself a collector of antiquities, he longed to acquire the collection of roman antiquities of the british emissary to holland, sir dudley carleton. he set about in offering his own works in exchange, some of which he had sold previously and bought back at higher prices, thereby underlin- ing their importance. an agreement was ultimately reached, in which sir dudley accepted a number of paintings up to a specific total value, insisting on the difference being made up by gobelin tapestries, a highly prized good at that time. subsequently both par- ties parted again with their newly acquired treasures, sir dudley offering the rubens' to the king of denmark, rubens being asked by the infanta isabella of spain in a move of appeasement with england to pass on his collection to the duke of buckingham, to which he obliged. both the paintings by rubens as well as the an- tiquities are cultural goods today. the status of tradable goods they enjoyed in the past not only asserted their importance, but helped alleviate political tension. a distinction should therefore be made between these 'mobile' cultural goods, and those commissioned for a specific function. a vast majority of the cultural goods handled in the art market will at one point become part of a public collection. private collectors, seen in a historic context, are part-time owners. the main concern is for archaeological and ethnographical mate- rial which is most prone to looting. the fact that there is a demand for archaeological objects is in line with the general interest in all cultural artefacts and should neither be condemned nor indeed sup- pressed. the market, the private collector as well as institutional collections, are to some extent the driving forces for further dis- coveries. the uncovering of hitherto unknown cultural objects fur- thers the general knowledge. there is no question that excavations today must be undertaken in controlled conditions to ensure the ob- ject/context image. however, once this has been established and re- corded, there is no immediate reason why objects should not be dispersed other than that they should remain together to form a study collection. it could be argued that without the outlook of market- ability, many excavations could or would not be undertaken. any art historian, particularly so in a museum, must be interested in the furthering of public interest, knowledge, and awareness of cultural values. the more material surfaces, the better. the denial of expertise to pieces of questionable source by experts and scholars would boomerang scientific advance, apart from the fact that 'em- bargos' of this sort never work in a global perspective. naturally there can be no interest in a black market, where objects submerge use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core licit traffic for art's sake and thereby pass scientific recognition. a possible way of preventing this might be the encouragement of private enterprise in supervised land excavations, as has been practised in shipwreck incidents. the incentive would be a share in the potential hoard, at the discretion of the responsible government. there is a certain irony in the fact that sporadic finds and illicit trade brought things to light and initiated scientific research and artistic evaluation. for example max loehr correctly established the development of archaic chinese bronze styles in the shang period based on careful observation of existing objects of which most had no record, just by deducing a logical sequence of development. many objects had been found by farmers ploughing their fields in the vicinity of ancient tomb sites, who would later sell them in the market place, where subsequently all traces of origin were lost. his analysis supported by theory alone, which was no easy task, proved to be correct based on pieces later found in controlled excavations in hunan province. the fact that the nationalist image dominates in third world source nations notably has to do with the fact that they have been exploited and have not profited financially to the full extent. if they have been stripped of their heritage almost completely, there will have to be some consideration placed in the restitution of individual pieces by a body like unesco. otherwise, the solution can only be to further awareness and knowledge locally to guard what remains. however, there must be a strict line of conduct to avoid a double- faced approach. in a phase of economic strain there must not be any semi-official sale of works formerly considered 'national heritage' in an attempt to alleviate this condition. there is to be no tolerance of clandestine excavations in order to profit from commissions. exchange and perception the mutual understanding between people and above all, the 'com- mon heritage of mankind' (chom) are concepts strongly supported by the unesco. both in effect strengthen the argument for a liberal approach of exchange. ever since the times of albrecht durer, prints of all kinds have become a very effective means of distributing art and the knowledge of cultural achievements. today, in the age of luxurious book publi- cations with beautifully printed colour plates throughout, the status of the original work has changed. masterpieces thereby become gen- erally known and are accessible from all over the globe, in some cases already via electronic databases. however, there can be no doubt that the ability to reproduce cultural goods, both physically as well as in high quality photographs, always fails to substitute the original, as its 'aura' and uniqueness in time and location ('hie et nunc') remain irreproducible. only an original has the attributes of a cultural property. the high level of mobility we enjoy today can use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core hugo keith weihe never make up for actually having works in our immediate vicinity or even living with them. still, the increasingly easy access through various media might justify a reconsideration of this position, par- ticularly in an era of computerized communication and the concept of the world as a 'global village'. cultural exchange should not just be left to acts of war. exchange and dislocation is a strong driving force in the making of cultural values, if not a catalyst in cultural evolution. probably every culture in history has profited from foreign imports influencing and affect- ing the perception of its own culture. african cultures adopted new shapes and utensils brought to them by the portuguese, while african masks triggered the development of cubism in france. persian scroll- work was adopted by the chinese in the yuan period blue-and-white porcelain which in turn became highly prized collectables in persia, whereby influences and goods were exchanged via the silk route. just as their works, the creators of cultural goods may potentially profit from moving around, as naturally every artist is strongly influ- enced by his surroundings. so he might sometimes precisly choose to escape in search of new input: for example, van gogh moved from holland to paris and then to the south of france. his dark early works were now replaced by much brighter ones. the vivid colours he experienced in the vibrant sun of the provence were most ben- eficial to his artistic development, but more striking is the fact that he described this landscape as his personal view of japan, a far more distant culture of which he formed a vision through the colour woodblock prints that had been introduced to the western art world around the mid s. the strong colours he found in these 'off- prints' from the land of the rising sun had led him to this belief. it might therefore be said that a high level of liberality in exchange of goods, thoughts and visions is often instrumental in an artistic process. why not pledge for an interchange of cultural property on the basis of loans? after all, among the most successful exhibitions to- day are the blockbusters bringing together the output of a lifetime of the likes of braque, cezanne, picasso, rembrandt, to name just a few. it might therefore even be argued that it would appear more practical if these works had always remained together. but van gogh or picasso would certainly not be the internationally renowned masters they are today if their work had not been distributed world- wide and thereby granted the opportunity of being viewed and disco- vered internationally. today, the exchange of loans of cultural ob- jects is becoming increasingly difficult. many objects are too fragile or too unique in their importance to risk frequent dislocation, apart from the insurance premiums and the cost of safe transport being prohibitive. while this may be seen as a repercussion of the art market, it is foremost an account of the importance of each work. at all times contemporary art is exempt from any restrictions. age barriers concerning cultural goods are set at fifty or one hundred use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core licit traffic for art's sake years, but are purely technical measurements lacking actual justifi- cation. the making of a cultural object is fluent and not determined by precise age barriers. at one time all cultural products were 'con- temporary'. because they have not yet proven their cultural import- ance, they cannot be looked back on and seen within a cultural de- velopment. they are granted total freedom so that they can prove their importance — and rightly so, although this would appear incon- sistent from a protectionist point of view. spreading also guarantees a higher level of survival of cultural objects by distributing the risks of destruction by natural causes, by vandalism or theft. the keeping of cultural objects in their source nation alone does not guarantee the best rate of survival, on the contrary. naturally this does not just apply to third world source nations. finally, it could be argued that strong protective measures as im- plied by the unesco convention to some extent damage cultural objects by making them untouchable ('noli me tangere'). they might thereby lose a certain degree of accessibility within a source nation most interested in preventing this. conclusions foremost, it is imperative to further strengthen the awareness of all peoples of their own local heritage, to further education, knowledge and ethics in all fields including culture in a broader perspective. with regard to archaeological excavations it is vital for govern- ments to gain control, in order to conduct them with the necessary care and to record existing objects and the context of those yet to be discovered. in order to assure this, a certain amount of private enterprise in this field could be considered along the lines drafted. even looters and smugglers could be trained to use more care and develop more knowledge, as the financial rewards are greater the better the condition of an object and the more they are aware of its importance. blaming destruction of monuments in third world countries on a receptive market in the rich countries focusses away from the lack of necessary control in the countries themselves. preventing clandestine looting by killing.the market might prove an uphill battle rather like fighting drug abuse. the causes of collecting cultural goods are generally noble and not detrimental to health or a financial burden to society. rules as expressed by the american journal of archaeology not to publish any works that have not knowingly been in a collection for more than thirty years prior to the rules could backfire in the sense that important but illegally exported works would have to be withheld from general knowledge, thereby seriously hindering scientific advance. use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core hugo keith weihe with regard to the concept of 'global treasures', the preservation of each cultural object would be of foremost importance. it would therefore be necessary to assure its best possible protection in the safest available haven wherever that might be. after controlled as- sessment of its historic context, it should be made generally available and placed in the most suitable surroundings regarding accessibilry. regulations for the movement of cultural objects should be as simplistic and unbureaucratic as possible. the british and canadian export regulations appear to be the most workable as they respect the workings of the art market. the long tradition in the sale of works of art through auctions in england has established a liberal approach. the problem of third world countries often being unable to afford buying back their own cultural goods would be alleviated, if they were to sell goods under controlled conditions and fully docu- mented at their true market value. this would also be a way of assuring true exchange, allowing them to acquire cultural goods from other source nations. art has always flourished by exchange. we are obliged not only to look back, but also to look forward. cultural objects should be allowed to be there where they are most treasured and can unfold their greatest potential. notes l. volkel, 'uber die wegfiihrung der kunstwerke aus den eroberten landern nach rom, eine vorlesung in der casselischen alterthiimer-gesellschaft ge- halten von l. volkel,' leipzig, . cf. sources unesco, no. (july/august ), p. . commissioned from the artist by jakob heller in and destined for the dominican church in frankfurt am main. cf. hugo weihe, 'kiinstlerische qualitat und marktwert,' diss. phil., zurich , pp. ff. it is important to consider these values as relative rather than absolute. for example, according to present legislation, the same matisse painting might be 'worth' less if it were in italy rather than in england, for the fact that it cannot be moved. this fact would be reflected in its market value. jeffrey m. muller states: 'through his active choice and seeking out, rubens became, in effect, a collector of his own work.' in 'the artist as collector,' princeton , p. . max loehr, 'the bronze styles of the anyang period,' archives of the chi- nese art societ of america, new york , vii, pp. - . cf. walter benjamin, 'das kunstwerk im zeitalter seiner technischen repro- duzierbarkeit,' gesammelte schriften, vol. , frankfurt am main, . van gogh expresses an admiration for japan and japanese colour woodblock prints in various letters to his brother written in aries between and , cf. johanna gesina van gogh- bonger (ed.), vincent von goghs briefe an seinen bruder, frankfurt am main , vol. ill, pp. , , , letters , , . use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. university of basel library, on jul at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https:/www.cambridge.org/core on the use of the dempster shafer model in information indexing and retrieval applications shirnon schocken' stern school of business, new york university robert a . flurnrnep courant institute of mathematical sciences, new york university workina pader series stern is- - department of information systems, management education center, stern school of business, new york university, w. th street, new york, ny . courant institute of mathematical sciences, new york university, mercer street, , new york, ny . center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - on the use of the dempster shafer model in information indexing and retrieval applications the dempster shafer theory of evidence concerns the elicitation and manipula- tion of degrees of belief rendered by multiple sources of evidence to a common set of propositions. information indexing and retrieval applications use a variety of quantitative means - both probabilistic and quasi-probabilistic - to repre- sent and manipulate relevance numbers and index vectors. recently, several proposals were made to use the dempster shafer model as a relevance calculus in such applications. the paper provides a critical review of these proposals, pointing at several theoretical caveats and suggesting ways to resolve them. the methodology is based on expounding a canonical indexing model whose relevance measures and combination mechanisms are shown to be isomorphic to s hafer 's belief functions and to dempster's rule, respectively. hence, the paper has two objectives: (i) to describe and resolve some caveats in the way the dempster shafer theory is applied to information indexing and retrieval, and (ii) to provide an intuitive interpretation of the dempster shafer theory, as it unfolds in the simple context of a canonical indexing model. keywords: theory of evidence, dempster shafer model, relevance measures, information indexing and retrieval. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - introduction consider a finite and exhaustive set of mutually-exclusive propositions and a body of evi- dence t h a t supports some subsets of propositions and discounts others. many theories were put forward t o describe how one should represent and update one's degrees of belief in such propositions when new or additional evidence is brought to bear. the classical approach is t o cast degrees of belief as probabilities - a set of numbers between and that obeys the axioms of subjective probability - and use bayesian inference rules to revise them in light of new evidence. one problem with this approach is that it doesn't offer a clear way t o model the various degrees of 'uncommitted beliefs,' or 'second order uncertainties,' that characterize most realistic inference problems. fbr example, consider the extreme case of 'insufficient reason,' in which one knows absolutely nothing about a given set of n propo- sitions. t h e common solution, which goes back t o laplace, is to assign a degree of belief of l / n t o each of the propositions under consideration. incidently, this is also the solution t h a t emerges from maximizing the unconstrained entropy function associated with the n unknown probabilities. over the years, many students of belief revision theories have objected to this crude quan- tification of insufficient reason. why, the argument goes, should ignorance be translated to the strong statement that every proposition (or state of nature) is equally likely? this criticism has led to several alternative models that attempt t o capture the elusive notion of uncommitted belief by modifying the axiomatic framework of probability theory. perhaps the best known model in this category is the 'theory of evidence,' originated by demp- ster's ( , a) , work on upper and lower probabilities. dempster's ideas, which were center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - based on a frequentist view of inference, were refined and extended by shafer ( ), who also gave them a subjective interpretation. this led to the dempster shafer model - an elaborate formalism for representing and revising degrees of support rendered by multiple sources of evidence to a common set of propositions . when the work of dempster and shafer was 'discovered' by the artificial intelligence com- munity, it immediately stirred a considerable interest in two application areas in which normative models of belief formation play a key role: expert systems, and information indexing and retrieval systems. for expert systems, the dempster shafer (ds) model pro- vides a mathematically-sound model for representing and manipulating rule-based degrees of belief, an area that was traditionally dominated by ad-hoc belief revision calculi whose relationship t o probability theory was a t best murky. for information indexing and re- trieval systems, the ds model can be used as a relevance calculus, designed t o quantify and revise the degrees of relevance between documents, keywords, and user-supplied queries. this line of thought has led t o the development of several ds-based information indexing and retrieval applications. for example, biswas, bezdek, marques, and subramanian ( ) built a document retrieval system in which the relevance of documents t o taxonomical classes was measured and manipulated, respectively, by belief functions and dempster's rule: "we choose to define similarity functions based on the dempster shafer theory of evidence ... one of the advantages of this approach is that it rejects the process of belief revision and updating just as in human reasoning processes." (biswas et al, ). coming from a different direction, turtle and croft ( ) describe a canonical representation in which relevance is handled through inference networks that are structured as directed l i n this paper, the terms the dempsier shafer theory of evidence and the dempster shafer model are used interchangeably. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - acyclic graphs. the nodes in the networks correspond to keywords, documents, and queries, and "the arcs joining the nodes are interpreted as assertions that the parent node provides support for the child node." turtle and croft proposed to operationalize these degrees of support through either subjective probabilities, or ds belief functions. a similar approach was undertaken in rubric, a full-text information retrieval system described by tong and shapiro ( ) . rubric can be instantiated to operate with several alternative relevance calculi, the ds model being a prime example. the importance of such applications is obvious, as they attempt t o take the ds model 'out of the lab' and implement it in realistic settings. n doing so, however, many adopters of the ds model have taken the model's validity for granted, either explicitly or implicitly. with that in mind, i t is important t o point out that both the cognitive and the normative roots of the ds model are still a matter of intense controversy: whereas shafer ( ) argues that the theory of evidence is a natural extension of probability theory , many critics, e.g. lindley ( ) , view it as a reformulated version of a specialized, albeit interesting, case of classical probabilistic inference. the debate is not helped by the somewhat forbidding notation of the ds model, which prevents an intuitive understanding of its underlying structure and philosophy. in fact, the gap between the theory and practice of the ds model seems to be two- directional. on the one hand, many practitioners believe that the normative correctness of the ds model is a 'closed case,' proceeding to implement i t without questioning its underly- ing rationale. on the other hand, many researchers try t o defend the ds model on complex philosophical and mathematical grounds, without realizing t h a t simpler justifications can be found in the field, i.e. in the way t h e model is actually used in certain canonicalsettings. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - the latter point is worth emphasizing: a close examination of certain applications of the ds model can provide not only a better understandi~g of the model, but, furthermore, a compelling normative justification. . the plan of the paper is depicted in figure and described as follows. $ presents the notion of index vectors and the challenge of eliciting and measuring relevance in a normative, rather than ad-hoc, fashion. gives an overview of the ds model, as it unfolds in the context of a typical information indexing and retrieval (ir) application. this sets the stage t o four critical questions regarding the theoretical fit between the general features of the ds model and the specific requirements of ir applications. in order to answer these questions, $ presents a canonical indexing model in which the notions of lexicons, taxonomies, and relevance, are treated formally and unambiguously. it is then shown that the canonical model is completely isomorphic t o the ds model, leading to a new intuitive understanding of the latter. $ offers concluding remarks about the implications of the research on the ds model and on ir applications. p u t figure around here the problem models of bibliographical indexing concern the construction of data structures that enable rapid content-based access t o collections of documents. given a document, on the one hand, and a keyword lexicon, on the other, the goal of the indexing model is t o select a . subset of keywords that 'best' describes the document t o its prospective users. since some . center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - keywords are more relevant to the document than others, a numeric scale is often used to express the strength of association 'between the document and the selected keywords. the result is an index vector, consisting of pairs of keywords and their respective relevance weights. several models exist for representing and manipulating such relevance vectors, and the reader is referred to salton and mcgill ( ) and to salton and buckley ( ) for comprehensive treatments of the general approach to the subject. formally, let d be a set of documents about a certain domain of interest, and let k: = {isl,. . . , k,,,) be a lexicon, or a set of domain keywords. the index of each document d e d is a set of pairs of the form: where ii'; e k: and t ; , i = i,. . . , n. the i'i's are iezical subsets, representing different groupings of keywords, and the ri's are called relevance numbers. taken together, the pair (i(;,r;) e sd says that the degree of relevance between the document d and the lexical subset ici is ti. had we restricted the ig's to be singletons only, ( ) would become the familiar 'term-weight vectors' that are normally used in information indexing and retrieval applications. further, had we required that all the r; be or only, ( ) would be reduced to the familiar keyword list (also called 'subject headings') that is normally used to classify articles in professional journals. given the obvious simplicity of a boolean indexing scheme, why bother about developing formalisms for weighted indexing? the answer is that relevance is a subjective and composite relation, based on an aggregation center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper - - of several indexing opinions. specifically, each document has many classifiers, or discerning characteristics, that determine its relevance. for example, the title of a document can sug- gest one index, whereas the abstract can suggest another. other aspects of the document, obtained through lexical, linguistic, and citations, analyses will yield additional indexing opinions that must be taken into consideration. hence, even if the individual opinions were forced t o be binary, their aggregation would probably induce a continuous index. in addi- tion, the indexing opinions are not cast automatically; ;ather, they are elicited from human catalogers who inject yet another level of uncertainty and subjectivity to the indexing pro- cess. that is, when two catalogers are given access to the same classifier as background information, they may well supply two different (but hopefully similar) indexing opinions. different ir applications use different models to handle this pluralism in a formal way. from a theoretical perspective, the credibility of these models hinges on their capacity t o elicit, represent, and synthesize, relevance opinions in a normative, rather than ad-hoc, fashion. in order t o do so, the relevance numbers and the rules that combine them must be given a compelling interpretation. so far, the leading interpretation in the study of relevance has been probabilistic, beginning with the seminal work of maron and kuhns ( ). recently, however, several attempts were made t o handle relevance in ir applications using the dempster shafer model, which is widely considered to be a less restricted extension of probability theory. the strengths and weaknesses of the latter approach are discussed in the next section. center for digital economy research stem school of business \vorking paper is- - a dempster-shafer indexing model the ds theory of evidence concerns the representation and manipulation of degrees of support rendered by different sources of evidence to a common set of propositions, denoted and called the frame of discernment. in contrast to a standard bayesian design, in which degrees of belief are normally assigned to elements of directly, the ds model assigns degrees of belief to subsets of propositions, i.e. to members of the power set e, also called 'possibilities.' the ds model offers several complementary ways to express evidential support in possibilities. in particular, the model defines three mappings from ' to [ , termed mass, belief, and plausibility, functions. the three mappings are mathematically equivalent in the sense that knowledge of any one of them (for every possibility) can be used to compute the other two. therefore, we view them as alternative means t o keep score of the same primitive set of degrees of support. in the standard model, when several sources of evidence support a common set of possibilities (the support can be cast in terms of either mass, belief, or plausibility functions), the overall support in the possibilities is computed through dempster's rule of combination. , what is the nexus of the ds model and information indexing and retrieval applications? in one way or another, all ds-based ir applications are based on the following premises: (i) the ds notion of degrees of support can be used to operationalize the ir notion of relevance numbers; and (ii) when two or more classification criteria supply different sets of relevance numbers concerning the same document, dempster's rule provides a plausible mechanism to combine them into a composite index (said otherwise: revise the relevance of the document to certain keywords in light of new evidence). the goal of this section is center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - to motivate a critical analysis of these premises. specifically, we intend to: first, provide a rigorous but accessible overview of the ds model, as it unfolds in the familiar context of an ir application; second, present a series of questions regarding the theoretical fit between the general features of the ds model and the specific characteristics of ir applications. the f'rame of discernment: the frame of discernment ' is an exhaustive set of mutually exclusive elements that can be interpreted as hypotheses, propositions, or simply 'labels.' the power-set that contains all the subsets of ' (including ' itself and the empty set) is denoted '. in general, the semantics of the labels depends on the context in which the ds model is applied. in information indexing and retrieval applications, the frame of discern- ment is normally taken t o be a keywords lexicon k: = {kl,. . . , k,). to illustrate, a lexicon that supports a collection of documents about modern art might be k: = { ~ r p , b r a q u e , cezanne, . . . , ~ o r n ) , enumerating all the major artists of the twentieth century. the power set in this case is ' = {{arp), {braque), {cezanne), . . . , {arp, braque), { ~ r p , cezanne), { ~ r a q u e , cezanne), , . . . , { ~ r p , braque, cezanne}, . . . , , k), the last two elements beings the empty set and k: itself. each element in k represents a disjunction of keywords, denoted hereafter a lexical subset. the act of indexing a document using x: amounts t o choosing, among all the indexing possibilities in ', the one or more lexical subsets t h a t best describe the document to its potential users. for example, suppose that an art scholar is asked to index the document "the influence of cezanne on early cubism" using k, based on partial information such as the docu- ment's title or abstract. without loss of generality, assume that (i) the main focus of center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - the document is cezanne; and (ii) the only cubist artists in the lexicon are braque and picasso. under these assumptions, the scholar will probably supply an index of the form s = {({cezanne) , ti), ({braque, picasso), rz)) , with rl > - . this would entail the follow- ing information: (i) the document is relevant to cezanne; (ii) it is also relevant, to a lesser extent, to either braque or to picasso. this is quite different from the indexing opinion st = ( ( ( ~ e z a n n e ) , ti), ( ( ~ r a q u e ) , r ), ( {picasso), rz)), which would be more appropriate if the document's title were, say, "the influence of cezanne on the early work of braque and picasso". we arrive a t our first question: question q : when the ds model is applied to information indexing and retrieval applications, the keyword lexicon x: is taken t o be the frame of discernment, and indexing possibilities are taken to be elements of the lex- ical power set '. what are the taxonomical implications and limitations of this representation? to motivate this question, consider again the document "the influence of cezanne on early cubism". note that the most reasonable index of this document would be sn = {({cezanne), r l ) , ({cubism), r z ) ) , especially if the document's abstract makes no references to specific artists other than cezanne. however, cubism is not an element of the original lexicon x:, so it doesn't entail an indexing possibility. to solve the problem, we may want t o extend the original frame of discernment, creating a lexicon of the form k t = ku (cubism}. however, the keywords braque, p i c a s s o and cubism, have a great deal in common from a bibliographical standpoint. therefore, k t is not a valid frame of discernment, because center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - some of its elements are no longer mutually exclusive. before we present a solution t o this problem, we have to be very specific about the proper relationship among frames of discernment, keyword lezicons, and tazonomies of classes. we'll return to this issue in section , where an answer to q is given. mass f'unctions: a mapping m : ' -+ [o, with the properties: is called a mass function , in the ds model, the mass m(x) represents the degree to which a certain source of evidence supports the possibility x, where x e . as a convention, the mass which is 'left over' after all the proper subsets of have been assigned masses is allocated to itself and denoted the uncommitted belief displayed by m, or m( ). in ds-based ir applications, where is taken to be a keywords lexicon k, the mass m ( x ) is taken to represent (to a first approximation that will be discussed shortly) a degree of rel- evance, or, more accurately, the degree of belief that the document is relevant to the lexical subset x c ic, according to a certain classifier. hence, if a classifier (say, classifier number ) supplies the relevance opinion sl = {({~ezanne), o. ), ({braque, picasso), . )), then the mass function that is induced by this opinion is defined as follows: throughout the paper, upper case variables refer to sets and lower case variables refer to scalars. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - ml({cezanne)) = . ml ( { ~ r a q u e , picasso)) = . rnl(k) = . ( ) ml(x) = for all other proper subsets of k note that the uncommitted belief induced by the opinion is assigned by default to the frame of discernment by means of ml(k) = - . - . = . . the rationale for this assignment is as follows. if a certain classifier provides no information whatsoever about indexing possibilities, the classifier's 'ignorance' can be represented by the indes s = {(k, i)}. this implies the mass function m ( ( ~ r p , braque, cezanne, . , . , ~ o r n } ) = and m ( x ) = elsewhere, reflecting the (not very useful) opinion that the document is relevant t o arp, or t o braque, or to cezanne, or to any other artist in the lexicon. other classifiers can provide more focused relevance opinions, resulting with lower levels of m(k). hence, unlike a standard probabilistic design, where the notion of uncommitted belief is not well-defined, the ds model provides explicit means to quantify and manipulate it via m(k). although uncommitted beliefs, or 'second-order uncertainties,' can and have been treated in the standard framework of subjective probability, (e.g. baron, ), there is no simple way to do it. the theory of evidence is unique in that it treats the notion of uncommitted belief explicitly, a t the axiomatic level. it's important to observe that mass functions represent indivisible, or atomic, degrees of belief. for example, the magnitudes of m({braque, ~ i c a s s o } ) , rn({braque}), and m ( { ~ i c a s s o } ) are unrelated, and a mass function like m((braque, ~ i c a s s o } ) = . , m({braque)) = , and rn({picasso}) = is not inconsistent with the theory. this par- ticular function represents a cataloger who strongly believes that the document is relevant to either braque or to picasso, although he is not willing to say anything more specific center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper - - beyond this assessment. but what does this notion of relevance mean? we arrive at our next question: question q : a mass function is a formal, domain-independent, component of t h e ds model. relevance is an informal, but highly intuitive, concept that plays a key role in information indexing and retrieval applications. if a mass function is taken to represent relevance, then what is the exact semantics of this representation? said otherwise, what type of relevance do mass functions represent? question q suggests the premise that mass functions are not necessarily a natural rep- resentation of the intuitive notion of relevance, a s it is typically construed in information indexing and retrieval applications. for example, if mass functions are used to represent relevance, then the relevance numbers in each index must sum up to . that is, the set of allowable indexing opinions {(ii; , r l ) , . . . , (i(,, r,)) is constrained by xy ri = . many would argue that this constraint doesn't make sense, and that an indexing opinion like, say, { ( { ~ l b e r s ) , . ) , ({kandisnki), . ), ({klee), . )) is perfectly reasonable, the only 'wrong' thing about this opinion is that it is inconsistent with the ds notion of a mass function, but this seems to be a limitation of the model's application, not of the opinion. one pragmatic solution is to treat the relevance numbers not as absolute, but rather as relative, measures of subjective relevance. according to this position, the two indexes s = {(a, o. ), (b, . , )(c, . )) and s' = {(a, . ), (b, . ), (c, . )) are equally informative, as both imply exactly the same relative information: the document is twice as relevant center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - to a as it is t o b, and it is as relevant to b as it is to c. however, this immediately leads to another snag: according to the same principle, the index is also equivalent to st' = { ( a , . ), (b, . ), (c, . )). yet st and st' reflect two different states of uncommitted belief ( . and . , respectively), and thus they don't induce the same mass function. to get around the problem, we can elicit uncommitted beliefs directly from the catalogers . for example, having specified a relevance opinion, say { a , . , b, . , c, . , the cataloger can be asked t o rate his confidence in the opinion on a scale of to . if the confidence level is , the index is normalized to { a , . , b, . , c, . , reflecting an uncommitted belief of . if the confidence level is . , the index is normalized to { a , . , b, . , c, . , reflecting an uncommitted belief of . . in general, for any unconstrained indexing opin- ion (( , rl), . . . , ( i ' , rn)) and a confidence level c, we can find a unique mass function {m(kl), . . . , m ( i l ) , m(k)) such that (i) the m(i<;)'s preserve the relative properties of the unconstrained rib; and (ii) m ( k ) = - c. the shift from an absolute to a relative scale of relevance has several justifications. first, a significant body of psychological and cognitive evidence indicates that relevance is indeed a relative property (saracevic, ). second, we are motivated by the observation that ultimately, an ir application must satisfy the information needs of library patrons, and that relevance numbers should be used pragmatically to that end. for example, according to maron ( )'s 'ranking principle' , the chief objective of relevance numbers is to present to the patron a set of documents, sorted in decreasing order of perceived relevance to .his or her query. a similar principle is used in diagnostic expert systems, where ordinal, rather than cardinal, degrees of beliefs are often used to guide the inference engine to n this section, the terms classifier and caialoger are used interchangeably. t h e distinction between the two terms is made explicit in the next section. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - promising directions and to explain the system's reasoning to the people who consult it. if we accept maron's ranking principle a s a working assumption, then normalization is not an issue, since rankings are invariant under normalization. however, when multiple indexing opinions are aggregated into a pooled index (something that we haven't done yet), normalization becomes a tricky manipulation. specifically, let sl and s be two indexing opinions, $ an aggregation operator, and n a normalization operator. in many cases (depending on the specific definitions of $ and n), it can be shown that n(sl $ s ) # n(sl) $ n(s ), i.e. that n is not homomorphic. in conclusion, we see that even though relevance numbers can be represented by mass functions, the representation has some theoretical caveats. clearly, these limitations are related to the fact that we are still lacking explicit domain semantics. that is, we don't know yet what is the exact meaning of relevance numbers. this analysis is taken up in section , where a complete answer to question q is given, t h e core: the core of a mass function m : ' -t [ o , ] is the set of possibilities x e ' for which m ( x ) > . when the frame is taken to be a keyword lexicon k, the core becomes a list of indexing possibilities, in the view of one particular classifier. for example, the core of the mass function induced by classifier (eqn. ) is cl = { { ~ e z a n n e ) , { ~ r a q u e , p i c a s s o ) , k). suppose now that the same document is indexed by another classifier (classifier no. ), whose indexing opinion is captured by the following mass function: m ( { ~ i c a s s o ) ) = . m (ac) = . m ( x ) = for all other proper subsets of k: center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - the core of this mass function is c = {{picasso), k). is there a credible way to combine - the two indexing opinions ( ),( ) into an aggregate index? as a first approximation, one can focus on all the lexical subsets that both classifiers agree are relevant to the document. in particular, if classifier thinks that x is relevant and classifier thinks that y is relevant, then both classifiers agree that x n y is relevant (recall that both x and y are interpreted as disjunctions of keywords). this leads to the following definition of a pooled core: let ml, rn : ' [o, be two mass functions with cores c and c . the pooled core c = c @ c will be: for example, the pooled core of cl = {{cezanne), {braque,picasso),k} and cz = { { ~ i c a s s o ) , k) is cl $c = {{cezanne), { ~ i c a s s o ) , {braque, picasso), k)". in general; then, the pooled core can be viewed a s a first approximation of the degree of consensus or disagreement displayed by two independent indexing opinions. if cl c = cl = c , we have a consensus regarding which possibilities are likely. if cl $ c = , the classifiers agree on nothing. if c $ c is not empty, we have an overlap of some opinions. of course the problem of ( ) is that it merely identifies areas of mutual agreement (or lack thereof) between two classifiers. in order to compute the intensity of such agreements, a more sensitive pooling mechanism is required. dempster's rule provides one such mechanism. dempster's rule: the most fundamental (and debateable) pillar of the ds model is the convention that once degrees of support are cast in terms of mass functions, demp- note that ic acts a s an attractor, in that a n k = a for all a e k. center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - ster's rule provides a proper mechanism to combine them. let ml and m be two mass functions defined over the same frame of discernment: ml, m : ' -+ [o, , with cores cl = {al, . . . , a,, and c = {bl, . . . , bn , respectively. dernpster's rule computes the pooled mass function m = m l $ m : ' -t [ , as follows: the rationale behind ( - ) can be explicated through an 'intersection table.' in our two- classifiers scenario ( - ), the table has the following form: the top row of the table records the mass function of the first classifier excluding its zero elements, i.e. the set of values ml ( a l ) , . . . , ml (a,, ) for elements a; in the core cl. t h e left column of the table records the mass values of the second classifier for its core elements, center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - i.e. the set of values m (b ), . . . , m (b,, ) (the curly brackets are dropped for the sake of brevity, e.g. m(picasso, braque) stands for m({picasso, ~ r a q u e ) ) , etc.). inside the table, t h e (i, j)'th cell records the pooled mass contributed t o a; n bj by t e pair a; and bj, which is taken t o be the product m(ai) . m(bj). using these entries and combining cells with equivalent intersections following ( - ), one obtains: ml(cezanne) = . , m l ( ~ i c a s s o ) = . + . = . , m f ( p i c a s s o , braque) = . , m (lc) = . , m'( ) = . , after multiplying by & = . one obtains: m(cezanne) = . m(picasso) = . m ( p i c a s s o , braque) = . m(k) = . m( ) * o since the m(-)'s sum up to and m( ) = , the mapping m = ml-$ mz that emerges from dempster's rule is also a mass function, consistent with ( ). in words, dempster's rule computes a measure of agreement between two sources of evi- dence concerning various possibilities drawn from a common frame of discernment. t h e rule is conservative in the sense that it focuses only on those possibilities t h a t both sources support. the magnitude of the pooled support that a possibility x collects is computed by summing the products of the two masses rnl ( x ) and mz(x), which explains the product center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - operator in ( ). because the sources of evidence express their opinions over * rather than over , a joint agreement on a possibility can occur in more than one way, i.e. whenever the two sources support supersets of x. this explains the summation operator in ( )' which runs over all the possible supersets of x , finally, when a pairing of two opinions results in a null possibility (the empty set), the multiplication of their masses may still be positive. this is an anomaly, since the definition of a mass function ( ) requires that the mass of the null possibility be zero. this explains the role of ( )' in which r n l ( ) is deducted from the total mass and the remaining mass is divided by ( - m'( )) t o ensure that the pooled mass will sum up to . dempster's rule is often compared to and contrasted with bayes rule, because both rules concern the combination of probabilistic opinions into an aggregate (posterior) opinion. it is crucial to observe however that unlike bayes rule, which is a trivial consequence of the axioms of probability theory, dempster's rule is a prescriptive pooling mechanism which is neither right nor wrong, and thus it is less of a 'rule,' and more of a 'recipe.' therefore, we take the position that the ultimate justification of dempster's rule should be sought in the field, i.e., in the various applications in which the rule is supposed to have a certain sense of domain validity. this leads t o the following question: question q : what is the intuitive justification of dempster's rule in the context of information indexing and retrieval applications? if one wishes to aggregate indexing opinions via a certain pooling mechanism, then why use ( -s) and not another set of formulae? a typical way to avoid this question is to invoke the argument: "if one uses mass functions center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper - - to represent relevance numbers, then one should combine them using dempster's rule, be- cause that's how mass functions are combined in the ds model." this argument could have been valid if dempster's rule had a normative, domain-independent, and non-controversial justification. but this is not the case. in fact, many researchers have struggled to make sense of dempster's rule, and the debate is still going strong: "shafer's theory has been strongly criticized for its failure to give a meaning to the measures of belief and plausibil- ity, or to show how someone might am've at a particular numerical assessment. in the absence of a definite interpretation, it is difficult to see how the rules of the theory, and in particular dempster's rule, can be justified " (buxton, ). given this controversy, the importance of question q is obvious. hence, our goal is to clarify, and to a certain extent defend, the meaning of )empster's rule in the specific bibliographical context of an information indexing and retrieval application. this analysis is carried out in section , where a complete answer to q is presented. belief functions: building on the elementary notion of a mass function m : ' -t [ , ], the.function be : ' -+ [o, , denoted a belief function, can be defined as follows: whereas m ( x ) measures the support rendered to x ( a subset of propositions) directly, bel(x') measures the total support rendered to x and t o all its subsets (each being a more specific proposition). this relationship is depicted in figure , which illustrates how a bel(.) function can be derived from the m(.) function given by ( ). note that ( ) and ( ) c imply that bel( ) = and bel( ) = always. in fact, ( ) implies that the be function center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - is completely determined by the mass function m, and, likewise, that m can be recovered from bel's definition (shafer, , , p. ). plausibility functions: whereas bel(x) measures the total support rendered t o a pos- sibility x, the plausibility of x, denoted pl(x), measures the maximal support that x can possibly attain under a given mass function m. specifically: in words, pl(x) records the total mass allocated to all the possibilities with which x intersects. for a pictorial description of this relationship, refer again to figure . put figure around here the intuitive relationship between the three functions m(.), bel(.), and pi(.) can be de- scribed as follows. beginning with the definition of bel, consider the two possibilities x , a e . since both x and a are disjunctions of propositions, the set-theoretic statement a x is equivalent to the logical rule a -+ x, which we will interpret as: 'if the truth lies in a, it must also lie in x.' therefore, the sum of all the masses associated with premises a that imply x can be viewed as a measure of the total support rendered to x. as regards pi's definition, suppose now that a n x # (but a is not necessarily a subset of x ) . since the possibility a is a disjunction of propositions, the mass m(a) rendered to it can 'float' freely to any one of its subsets, including those that intersect x. in the extreme case, the center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - intersection a f l x may inherit the entire mass of a. it follows that p l ( s ) is the upper bound of bel(x). to do justice t o the theory of evidence, it should be noted that the construction of be and p using m is only one way to define these functions. shafer provided direct definitions of mass, belief and plausibility functions in terms of each other. he has also emphasized the key role that subaditivity plays in the theory of evidence, a point which we now turn t o discuss in the specific context of information indexing and retrieval. sub additivity: the complement of a set x c , i.e. the set of all propositions that are in and not in x, is denoted hereafter w. definitions ( ) and ( ) imply the following important relationships: if a certain belb were a bayesian representation of degrees of belief, the additivity axiom of probability theory ( x i l y = implies belb(x u y ) = beb(x) + belb(y)) would mean that center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - yet ( ) and ( ) imply that in the general case bel(x) < - bel(x), leading to the famous subaditivity property of the theory of evidence: in other words, the belief that one holds in a possibility does not automatically imply one's disbelief in the negation of that possibility. in information indexing and retrieval applications, where is taken to be a keyword lexicon k, this tenant has important im- plications. for example, if the admittance of new evidence causes a cataloger to increase his belief in the document's relevance to a lexical subset x, the same evidence should not necessarily decrease his belief in the document's relevance to lexical subsets in x, espe- cially if the cataloger is not confident in his relevance opinion. in particular, the difference - bel(x) - bel(x) is called the uncommitted belief with respect to x. if be were a bayesian representation of degrees of belief, the uncommitted belief would be zero by definition. this is best illustrated in the 'state of insufficient reason,' in which one knows absolutely nothing about a set of propositions = {ql,. . . , q,). whereas the common so- lution is to set bel(q) = l / n for all q; f , the theory of evidence would set bel( ) = l and bel(x) = for all the other proper subsets of . this is the case when the uncommitted belief is at maximum. the interpretation of bel(.) and pi(.) as lower and upper-probabilities has led many t o view the theory of evidence as a novel calculus for eliciting and manipulating interval- valued, rather than point-valued, degrees of beliefs, indeed, the theory allows one t o express the belief in every hypothesis x by means of the interval [bel(x), pl(x)], which i center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - may be updated as new evidence about x is admitted. further, the width of the interval, p l ( x ) - bel(x), is by definition - bel(x) - bel(x), or the uncommitted belief with respect t o x. if the uncommitted beliefs induced by a certain mass function rn were zero for all the hypotheses under consideration, the intervals would degenerate to zero widths and be would be a standard probability function. yet in the more general case in which the mass reflects some 'second-order uncertainty,' or 'ambiguity,' the degree of belief in possibilities x drawn from is allowed to 'float' between bel(x) and pl(x). one benefit of such a model is that it is more robust and less prone to human errors in assessing subjective degrees of support. we arrive a t our last question: q u e s t i o n q : the designer of a ds-based ir application can choose to elicit and represent relevance through three alternative languages: mass func- tions, belief functions, and belief intervals. what is the relationship among these three representation in the specific context of information indexing and retrieval applications? recall that the three functions m, bel, and p , are mathematically equivalent, in the sense that knowledge of any one of them (for every possibility) can be used to compute the other two. this equivalence might lead one to concur that the question of whether to use m , bel, or [bel, pl] to elicit and manipulate degrees of support depends on cognitive and efficiency considerations. as it turns out, this conclusion is quite naive. for example, belief intervals are not as flexible a representation as we would like them to be. that is, when one elicits [bel, pl] intervals from a source of evidence, it is not true that the only restriction is that center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - < be < p < . again, a full understanding of these constraints requires a semantic interpretation, which we now proceed to present. a canonical indexing model as figure illustrates, the key theme of this paper is the interplay of the theory and practice of the dempster shafer model, as viewed through the 'lens' of a particular application. the previous section was structured around the key constructs of the theory: the frame of discernment, mass and belief functions, and dempster's rule. coming from the other extreme, this section is structured around the key constructs of the application: taxonomies, relevance functions, and index aggregation operators. this leads to the development of a canonical indexing model, around which the remainder of the paper evolves. in building this model, our intention is to articulate an indexing mechanism which is simple, intuitive, and, most importantly, probabilistic. the main result that we are aiming at is this: notwithstanding its domain-specific origin and its strict probabilistic nature, the canonical model that is expounded here is completely isomorphic t o the ds model. this has several important implications. first, the canonical model provides concrete answers t o all the questions that were raised about the theoretical fit between the ds theory and information indexing and retrieval applications. second, because the limitations of the former will be explicit, implicit limitations of the latter will become apparent. third, because the canonical model makes no use of extra probabilistic arguments, it also provides a simple probabilistic interpretation t o the ds theory, which is often claimed t o be an extension of probability theory. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - . the taxonomy in most ir applications, documents are indexed and sought within a data structure that is called a tuzonomy. the taxonomy is a finite set of classes, or categories, designed t o organize documents in a particular subject of interest. for example, consider the follow- ing set of classes, taken from an art-related taxonomy: c = {~rt , braque, cubism, dada, i m p r e s s i o n i s t , janco, modern, picasso). taxonomies are constructed by domain experts - in this case art scholars - who provide two types of information: (i) a set of classes; and (ii) a taxonomical data structure, expressed as ordered pairs of classes. specifically, if we let (x, y) code the assertion 'y is a direct sub-class of x', then the expert might specify a rela- tion like h = {(art, modern), (art, impressionists), (modern, cubism), (cubism, ~ r a q u e ) , (cubism, picasso), (dada, picasso), (dada, janco)), resulting with the taxonomy depicted in figure . put figure around here formally, a taxonomy is a rooted directed acyclic graph < c, h >. the nodes set c represents taxonomical classes, and the edges set h represents a relation on c (i.e., a subset of c x c, giving directed pairs) with two restrictions: (i) no cycles exist in t h e digraph, and (ii) the digraph contains exactly one root, i.e. a class r f c such t h a t no edge ( x , r ) exists in h . the descendants of a class x are the subclasses of x, and t h e predecessors are the generalization of x. the root of the taxonomy is the only class t h a t (i) has no predecessors, and (ii) generalizes all other classes, e-g. the class a r t in figure . since the taxonomy is a finite and acyclical graph, it contains a 'boundary,' or a set of center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - terminal classes. a class k e c is said to be terminal if has no descendants, i.e. if no edges of the form (k, x) exist in h. in the example of figure , the terminal classes are { ~ r a ~ u e , p i c a s s o , ~ a n c o } . we will denote the set of terminal classes by k. this notation is not coincidental, a s k is precisely the keyword lexicon discussed in the previous section. in a taxonomy, each class c e c is characterized by two sets that we denote lib(c) and vol(c) and call the library rooted in c and the libraries that intersect c, respectively. lib(c) contains all the classes that can be reached by paths beginning at c and following edges all the way 'down' to the terminal classes. this set of classes, which includes c itself, represents the entire set of classes into which c may be decomposed. conversely, vol(c) contains all the classes that can be reached by following 'upward' paths beginning at c and ending a t the taxonomy's root. this set, which also includes c itself, representi all the classes to which c can be generalized. for example, cubism) ism) = {cubism, braque, p i c a s s o ) and ~ ~ ~ ( ~ u b i s r n ) = {cubism, modern, ~ r t ) . these sets can be given a recursive definition, as follows: lib(c) = {c} u {x e c y e lib(y) with (y,x) e h} ( ) vol(c) = {c) u {x e c( y f v o l ( ~ ) with (x, y) e h ) ( ) a taxonomy is similar to a hierarchical tree structure, with a difference. unlike a common tree, each class in the taxonomy can have as many parents as we desire. for example, in figure { ~ i c a s s o ) is a subclass of both {cubism) and { ~ a d a ) . also note in passing center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - that definitions ( - ) imply that (i) lib(too~) = c, so that the root library contains all the classes in the taxonomy; (ii) ~ o ~ ( r o o t ) = {root), the root library is not contained by any other library, and (iii) lib(^) = {k) if and only if k e k, so that terminal classes are characterized by libraries that contain singleton classes only. the indexing process: the act of indexing a document within a taxonomy can be de- scribed as a top-down, depth-first search process. to illustrate, suppose that an art-related document is t o be indexed within the art taxonomy from figure . without loss of gen- erality, assume that the document is relevant to modern art. beginning at the first level under modern and proceeding left to right, we test if the document is relevant to cubism. if the answer is 'yes,' we step down one level and test if it's relevant to braque. if the answer is 'yes,' we index the document in braque. if the answer is either 'no' or 'unsure,' we test if it's relevant to picasso. if the answer is either 'no' or 'unsure,' and assuming that p i c a s s o is the last class below cubism, we backtrack one level, index the document in cubism, and proceed to explore dada. if the document is deemed irrelevant t o any one of the classes thus visited, we backtrack one level and index the document under modern. this would reflect the notion that even though the document is related to modern art, the existing taxonomy fails t o discern the exact category t o which it belongs. thus the indexing process involves a depth first search which is cut off a t any class that is deemed to be irrelevant to the indexed document. we see that the notion of relevance that is consistent with this process is defined over subsets of classes, not over individual classes in li. that is, if a document is indexed under, say, cubism, it implies that the document belongs to the library ~ ~ ~ ( c u b i s r n ) , i.e., t o the collection of documents about cubism, braque, or picasso. this definition of relevance is center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - convenient because it allows us to be as specific as we wish in our relevance statements. if we're sure t h a t a document is relevant to a certain class, we index it under that class. if we're not sure, we can step back and index the document in a library that contains the class. we can do this all the way up to the root of the taxonomy, at which point the indexing decision r o o t would express the opinion that the document belongs somewhere in the library, without specifying exactly where. relationship to the theory of evidence: the relationship between a taxonomy < c, h > and a lexical frame of discernment k: is simple, but not trivial. from a mathe- matical perspective, the taxonomy can be viewed as a subset of a graph g whose vertices are indexed by '. in the graph g, there is an edge from the vertex indexed by the subset a e k t o the vertex indexed by the subset b f ' if and only if a b such that no other subset c satisfies a c b. in the taxonomy, which is a subset of g, each vertex c corresponds t o the vertex of g that is indexed by the subset of k: obtained from the terminal elements in lib(c). thus, each class in the taxonomy can be associated with an element in k , namely the subset obtained from the keywords of the terminal classes that can be reached by looking 'downward' from the class in the taxonomy. while there is this mathematical association, there are important differences between the notion of a taxonomy and the power set of k: as used in the ds model. first, we may distinguish between two types of taxonomies: static and adaptive. a s t a t i c t a x o n o m y consists of a fixed and unmodifiable set of classes, like the dewey decimal system or t h e library of congress index. an a d a p t i v e t a z o n o m y is a dynamic data structure that evolves from the indexing process itself. such a taxonomy consists of a fixed set of keywords, center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - denoted k, and an 'open-ended' set of classes, each class being a different grouping of keywords frorn k. that is, when a new document is deemed relevant to a subset of keywords that don't make up an existing category, we simply announce this subset a new class and add it to the taxonomy. hence, a document titled "a letter from braque to junco" may well be indexed in the class { ~ r a ~ u e , ~ a n c o ) , something that would have been impossible in a static taxonomy that doesn't contain such a predefined category. the only restriction that is placed on an adaptive taxonomy is that it must contain at least all the elements in k (as singletons, or classes that are made up of single keywords), as well as k: itself. hence, we begin with the initial set of classes c = {(kl}, . . . {kn)), k), and add more classes to it as we go along. thus, the precise relationship between the ir notion of a taxonomy and the theoretical ds notion of a lexical frame of discernment k: can be described in two steps. first, any static taxonomy is conceptually a 'frozen' and 'named' version of some adaptive taxonomy. second, any adaptive taxonomy, in turn, is a subset of the lexical power set '. an exarnple is illustrated in figure , using the simple lexicon x: = {braque, picasso, ~anco}. figure . -a depicts the lexical power set k (excluding ). in practice, dealing with the power set of keywords is unrealistic, since the set of all possible classes becomes prohibitively large even with only a few dozen keywords. however, once the semantics of the lexicon is taken into consideration, many if not most of the classes in n become irrelevant, since they represent arbitrary grouping of keywords that can be excluded from the taxonomy for all practical purposes. if we choose to focus on tree taxonomies only, the power set can be restricted further by disregarding all its non-hierarchical subsets.' figure -b depicts a =using the notation x to represent the cardinality of a set x , characterize each class x e c by the set l ( x ) = {y e cllxl = iyi). a taxonomy < c, h > will be a tree tazonomy if and only if for every class x e c, l(x) contains only disjoint sets. center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - specific adaptive taxonomy that might have emerged from a hypothetical indexing process. by definition, this taxonomy is a subset of the exhaustive -a taxonomy. finally, figure -c depicts a 'frozen' and 'named' version of the -b taxonomy. the naming procedure is domain-dependent: if certain classes 'make sense' on semantic grounds, they can be given descriptive names that refiect their contents. for example, the class ( ~ r a q u e , p i c a s s o ) can be named cubism, the class {braque, picasso, janco) modern, etc. put figure around here we now turn to question , which asked whether the ds concept of a lexical power set provides an adequate 'skeleton' for indexing documents in iir applications. the answer to this question is 'yes,' but there is a caveat. note that there is a subtle difference between a bibliographical taxonomy and a subset of the ds power set: in the former, the classes have names; in the latter, the classes correspond to anonymous lexical subsets. that is, in the logical context of the ds model, to say that a document is relevant to {kl, k } is tantamount to saying that the document is relevant to either kl, or to k . yet in the context of a bibliographical taxonomy, most lexical subsets have meaningful names, like cubism aad dada, just like the elementary keywords that make up their contents. p here fore, indexing i a document in a named class might mean something quite different than the implication that the document should be indexed in one or more of the class's constituent keywords. for example, suppose that a cataloger decided to index the title "cubist landscapes" directly in the class cubism. in the standard ds model, this indexing opinion would imply that "the document is relevant either to picasso, or to braque, or to another cubist artist." although this interpretation is logically correct, it clearly entails a loss of concrete center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - information about the document's direct relevance to cubism at large. also, it leads to a situation in which the set of documents relevant to a class is larger than or equal to the union of the sets of documents relevant to all of its children classes, which is inconsistent with the disjunctive interpretation of a standard ds power set. how can we augment the power set representation of the ds model so as not to force a cataloger to disregard information about a documents's direct relevance to non-singleton classes? by viewing the power set (qr the portion of the power set that is in use for indexing) as a taxonomy < c, h >, the problem may be solved by adding to the taxonomy a new set of net classes, as follows. for each non-terminal class c f c, add (i) a new class named net-c to c, and (ii) a new link (c,net-c) to h. the new class net&, which is a direct terminal descendant of c, can now serve as the index of the documents that are relevant specifically and directly to c. with this modification, each class c becomes a mere tag, or a pointer, and the proposition 'the document is relevant to the class c' is once again equivalent to the proposition 'the document is relevant to the library rooted at c.' since the net classes are terminal classes, they become elements of the lexicon. therefore, in a taxonomy which is augmented with a set of net classes, every indexing decision can be interpreted as selecting subsets of relevant keywords (which may include net classes) from the lexicon, so we are back in the familiar disjunctive stance of the ds frame of discernment. purists may find this solution crude, but the adjustment is necessary if one wants to apply the ds model to information indexing and retrieval applications without violating, or misinterpreting, the set theoretic premise of the model. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - . relevance functions the fundamental rule of indexing is that a document should be indexed using certain keywords if prospective users of the document would find it relevant to these keywords. in its most primitive form, then, relevance is a boolean and subjective relation, indicating categorically that a document d e d is relevant to a lexical subset x = {kl,. . . , km) in the view of a particular library patron. however, due to the fact that bibliographical classes don't have crisp boundaries, and due to the multitude of relevance opinions expressed by different catalogers and library patrons, a more reasonable question is not whether d is relevant t o x, but rather what is the intensity of this relation. in other words, we seek to represent relevance in terms of a mapping r : k x d --+ [o, , rather than in terms of a characteristic function r : r x d --+ { , ). there have been many efforts to interpret relevance on probabilistic grounds, maron and kuhns ( ) being the defining article. one of the fundamental problems in this area has been the proper definition of the sample space from which relevance propositions are drawn. this point was alluded to by maron, as follows: "the notion of probability of relevance can be interpreted in two different per- spectives: of the document, as the proportion of patrons of a given type who would judge that document relevant, and of the patron himself, as the propor- tion of documents of a given type which he would judge relevant. the first model leads t o a theory of probabilistic indexing; the second model leads to a theory of probabilistic query formulation (maron, ) ." center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - in what follows we will focus on maron's first perspective, in which multiple patrons form relevance opinions about a fixed document. consistent with maron's observation, this perspective yields a model of inexact indexing. unlike maron, though, the uncertainty associated with the indexes in our model will lead not to probability functions, but rather to dempster shafer mass functions, i.e. functions that conform to definition ( ). let u = { u ~ , . . . , u,,) be a set of catalogers, and let x: be a keyword lexicon. suppose that each cataloger in u is asked to index the same document using ac, i.e. to specify one or more keywords from k: that are relevant to the document. suppose that cataloger u; supplies the opinion that the document is relevant to the lexical subset c k; we then record this opinion by means of the following boolean function: v;(x) = { if u; indexed the document using x otherwise since each cataloger ui supplies one set of relevant keywords, there will be exactly one subset x e n such that v;(x) = . also,. the empty set is not allowed to be a valid relevance opinion. if a cataloger is unwilling to give an opinion or is unsure about the proper classification of the document, the document is indexed by default in the root class f c , which is also an element of '. this convention makes sense because the root class represents the entire library, and is therefore the natural place t o store documents whose specific class membership is undiscernible. after all n catalogers have cast their indexing opinions regarding the same document d, we center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - compute for each lexical subset x e n three 'relevance counters,' as follows: (x) = c r(y,d) lib y clib(x) ( x ) = c r(y,d) vol y €vol(x) in words, r ( x ) , riib(x), and r v o l ( x ) count the number of catalogers who classified the document in x , in the library rooted in x, and in libraries that intersect (or in a hierarchical taxonomy, contain) x, respectively. (when d is fixed in our analysis, we will suppress the explicit dependence, and write r ( x ) instead of r(x, d).) relationship t o t h e theory of evidence: suppose now that the boolean relevance opinions of the catalogers are averaged over the space of catalogers u through the following computation: the resulting function m ( x ) is a ds mass function over the lexical space k. formally, we have the following proposition (the proofs are given in a separate appendix): center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - proposition : let u = {ul, . . . , un) be a set of catalogers with their boolean relevance opinions vl, . . . , v, : k -+ {o, . the real function m : " -+ [o, defined by m ( x ) = i . r ( x ) = $ c:', v i ( x ) is a mass function, satisfying definition ( ). the consequence of the proposition is that ds mass functions arise naturally when we view the relevance functions as derived from averages of multiple boolean indexing opinions. we begin with a space u of n catalogers who are asked to index the same document using the same lexicon k. each cataloger supplies an individual opinion that specifies which keywords are relevant to the document. note that the cataloger's indexes are not restricted, and that they are free t o choose any keyword or combination of keywords that, in their opinion, are relevant to the document. next, shifting our attention from the catalogers space u t o the lexical space k, we compute for each lexical subset x e x: a measure of 'average relevance,' n r ( x ) , which represents the fraction of catalogers who thought that the document was relevant t o x. disregarding the lexical subsets that no cataloger has chosen, we obtain a set of pairs of the form (( ' , rl), . . . , ( i ' , %)} in which i{; e k and < r; = i - r ( i ' ; ) n < . we are now in a position t o answer question , regarding the 'type' of relevance that ds mass functions represent, given the context of multiple relevance opinions. first, the canonical model has yielded the type of relevance numbers that are a t the center of any probabilistic indexing model. second, according to proposition , these numbers form a mass function, consistent with the standard ds model. finally, the meaning of the mass m ( x ) is simply the fraction of catalogers who thought that the document was relevant t o the set of keywords x. following the same line of reasoning, we can also provide an answer t o question q , t h a t center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - sought an ir interpretation of the meaning and relationship of mass functions, belief func- tions, and belief intervals. given the ir context in which tc, it is easily seen that the relevance counters ( - ) are proportional to the mappings that represent degrees of belief in the ds model. specifically, dividing each counter by n - the number of cata- logers - yields the mass, belief, and plausibility, functions defined in ( ), ( l l ) , and ( ), respectively: i bel(x) = - . r (x) n lib if we combine these observations with the interpretation of the power set of the lexicon as a taxonomy, we see that the mass on a lexical subset x is given by the fraction of catalogers who indexed the document using x directly. similarly, the belief in .x is the fraction of catalogers who indexed the document in libraries within x, and the plausibility of x is the fraction of catalogers who indexed the document in libraries that intersect (in a hierarchical taxonomy, contain) x. the key component of the canonical model that enables this interpretation of the ds functions is the assumption of multiple patrons and the v ; ( - ) functions that keep track of their individual indexing opinions. in the canonical model, the assumption of multiple patrons is explicit and is the foundation on which the entire analysis rests. in the ds model, the assumption of multiple boolean opinions and their respective v i ( - ) functions are implicit. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - . aggregating relevance so far, we have assumed that (i) relevance is a two-place function r ( x , d) between a doc- ument d and a lexical subset x, and that (ii) all the catalogers from whom r ( x , d ) was elicited were of the same 'type,' using maron's terminology (see quote in section . ). in this section we retract both assumptions. specifically, we argue that relevance, in its most elementary form, is a three-place relation r(x, d, q) in which q is the classifier dimension, or context, in which d is judged to be relevant to x. with that in mind, r ( x , d) can be viewed as a measure of aggregate relevance that runs over all the possible contexts in which d's relevance to x is judged. we now turn t o describe a pooling mechanism that implements such an aggregation. let ul = {ul, . . . , u,,} be a group of nl catalogers who are asked t o index a document d using a keyword lexicon x: based on a certain classifier, denoted ql. similarly, let u = {u:, . . . , u:,} be a group of n catalogers who are asked to index the same document, based on another classifier, denoted . the semantics of the classifiers depends on the indexing scenario. for example, ql might be the document's title, whereas might be the document's abstract. alternatively, in a dynamic model in which the relevance indexes of documents are continuously revised t o reflect actual use, ql and can represent two different information needs, or queries, in the context of which the relevance of d t o x was judged, either explicitly or through an automatic keywords extraction algorithm. for example, let k = { a , b, c) and let ul and u consist of and catalogers, respectively. assume that within the u group, two catalogers index the document in {a, b), one in {a}, and one in {b). within the u group, one cataloger indexes the document in {b, c}, center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - one in ( a , b), and one in {b). these indexing opinions are tabulated in the two tables on the left side of figure . the columns of each table represent the common lexicon x" = { a , b , c) . the ith tuple in each table represents the relevance opinion elicited from the i t h cataloger in the respective group as a binary vector. to be precise, in the (i, j)th table entry indicates that cataloger i has included the j t h keyword in his indexing opinion and indicates that he didn't. put figure around here in what follows, we denote the binary vector that represents the relevance opinion of cataloger u; by w;. similarly, the set of all relevance opinions of a group of catalogers will be denoted w = {w;lu; e u}. finally, the group of catalogers u together with their relevance opinions w will be denoted t =< u, w > and referred t o as a model. with this notation, consider two groups of catalogers ul and u together with their relevance opinions wl and w . h a l l the catalogers in both groups are considered equally qualified to cast relevance opinions, then a variety of different pooling mechanisms may be used to compute the aggregate index induced by all the catalogers. symbolically, we seek an operator t o compute t h e model <'u, w >=< ul, w; > @ < ul, vv >. the pooling mechanism depicted in figure , denoted hereafter by @, implements an op- erator that was described by hummel and landy ( ) as "a consensus opinion formed by the committees of two." here, the set of all possible committees is u = ul x u , con- sisting of all the nl - nz unique pairs of catalogers that can be drawn from ul and from u . the combined relevance opinion associated with the pair (u;, u s ) f u is defined t o be the binary conjunction of t h e individual opinions of u; f u and us e u , which we denote center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - w;,j = w; . w i . for example, consider the first tuple in the u table in figure . this tuple gives the opinion of the committee (ul, ui), i.e. wl,ll = ( , , ). this opinion is the binary conjunction of the individual opinion wl = ( , , ) and wi = ( , , ) as given by catalogers ul and u i respectively. t h e pooling operation qd is completed by treating u a s a new group of catalogers and using ( ) t o compute the mass function that i t induces: note that m' is not necessarily a mass function, since qd can yield a result like mf( ) > . this happens when there is a pair of opinions (e.g. and u\ in our example), such t h a t the conjunction of the opinions gives the empty set even though neither opinion gives the empty set individually. to resolve the problem, we normalize mf(-) as follows: in words, for each lexical subset x e x, m t ( x ) is the fraction of the (paired) catalogers who classified the document in that subset. next, the fraction of the catalogers who agreed on nothing - m' ( , ,o) - is distributed evenly among the fractions of catalogers who agreed on something, yielding a new mass that sums up t o unity. this function is now taken t o center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - be the 'aggregate index' of the document d, implying the taxonomy depicted at the top right of the figure. we may also view m(x) as the fraction of (paired) catalogers who index the document in x among those paired catalogers who do not index the document in the empty set . that is, if we discard pairs that agree on no relevant keywords, then the remaining pairs can compute their pooled relevance and then yield a mass function m. r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e t h e o r y of evidence: in order to explore the relationship of the multiple catalogers/multiple classifiers scenario to the ds model, we first have to step back and say a few words about the role of 'sources of evidence' in the latter. basically, the ds theory models a situation in which a finite set of 'pieces' or 'sources' of evidence e = {el,. . . , en) is used to discern the likelihoods of various possibilities x drawn from a common frame of discernment. yet the identity of the sources of evidence is rather implicit in the model's language. that is, the common notation m;(x) and bel;(x) is meant to be shorthand of the inass and belief functions m(xjei) and bel(xle;), where e; is the source of evidence whose 'support' of the possibility x we are trying t o capture. the total support that the body of evidence e lends to x is computed through dempster's rule ( - a), which yields a new function of the form m(xlel,. . . , e n ) = m(xlel)$, . . . , $m(xle,). for simplicity's sake, we denote the latter function m(x), which reads 'the mass that the possibility x attains after all the available evidence has been taken into consideration.' with that, the relationship between the canonical model and the ds model is as follows: possibilities correspond to lexical subsets, and sources of evidence correspond to classifiers, i.e. to different aspects of the document (title, abstract, author, etc.) that help discern the dempster's rule ( - ) is commutative and associative, so its extension from to n operands is straightforward. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - document's proper classification. the missing piece in the analogy is the set of catalogers who inspect each classifier individually and cast boolean relevance opinions based on that information. in the ds model, these catalogers are implicit. in the canonical model, they are the driving force of the entire analysis. another way to interpret the group of catalogers is t o view them as a group of l i b r q patrons who approach the same document with different information needs (or queries) in mind, each corresponding t o a piece of evidence that highlights one facet of the composite relation that we call 'relevance.' how should we combine this multitude of relevance opinions into an aggregate index? in the canonical indexing model, the opinions are combined at the catalogers level, through the cartesian consensus operator @. in the ds model, where the catalogers space is implicit, the opinions are combined at the classifiers level, via dempster's rule @. the key point, as illustrated in figure , is that both combination methods lead to precisely the same result. formally, we have the following proposition: p r o p o s i t i o n : let tl =< ul, wl > and t =< uz, w > be two sets of catalogers together with their boolean relevance opinions, and let t =< u, w > be the outcome of t = ti qz, t , as follows: (i) u = ul x u ; and (ii) w = {wij = w ; w;~w; e wl and w; e w ). let @ be dempster's rule a s it is applied to mass functions. let mtl, mt , and m be the mass functions induced by the models ti, t , and ti @ t . then we have the following: mriet = mt, $ mt . proposition serves to shed light on the prescriptive nature of dempster's rule. that is, once we accept the fact that dempster's rule @ is isomorphic to the cartesian product operator @, a whole set of questions emerges: ( ) why are the individual catalogers forced center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - to specify only boolean, and not probabilistic, relevance opinions? ( ) why are the groups of catalogers joined using a set product operator, a s opposed to other set combination operators, e.g. union? ( ) why committees of two, and not, say, comatous of three? ( ) why are the individual relevance opinions combined using a binary conjunction rule? ( ) why are all cataloger opinions given the same weight, where in practice some opinions may be more informed or worthy than others? a proper answer to these questions requires an elaborate research program, involving both theoretical and empirical work. also, the exact nature of the combination rule can vary from one situation to another. in the specific context of information indexing and retrieval, one can think of a family of indexing models, designed to operate under different sets of assumptions. for example, if the catalogers prefer to express binary relevance opinions, we can use dempster's rule (or the equivalent ) to combine them. if they wish t o express relevance by selecting a number between and , we can modify the combination rule t o accommodate this language as well (this will be similar t o the way yen ( ) extended dempster's rule in the gertis system ). if the catalogers wish t o use a discrete language such as 'remotely relevant,' 'somewhat relevant,' etc., we can develop a fuzzy version of the rule. the key point here is that the precise definition of , along with proposition , provide clear guidelines as t o (i) which aspect of the combination rule has to be modified, and (ii) what will be the normative relationship between the modified rule, dempster's rule, and probability theory. center for digital economy research stem school of business \vorking paper is- - conclusion all the major implications of the research were already discussed in the body of the pa- per. we conclude with several comments regarding (i) efforts to apply the ds model to information indexing and retrieval applications; and (ii) efforts to interpret the theory of evidence on logical or probabilistic grounds. i n f o r m a t i o n i n d e x i n g a n d retrieval: one .objective of the paper was to articulate a concrete relationship between the dempster shafer model and information indexing and retrieval applications. the relationship that we expounded can be summarized as follows: keyword lexicon (k) taxonomy (< c, h >) classification criteria ( q i ) groups of catalogers (uj) individual indexing opinions (kk) relevance .measure to class ( r ) relevance measure to library (r (x) lib relevance measure to volume (rvol (x)) relevance aggregation operator ( ) ir application frame of discernment ( ) named subset of ' sources of evidence (e;) implicit implicit mass function (m) belief function (bel) plausibility function (pl) dempster's rule ($) dempster-shafer model we hope that the details of this 'mapping,' as discussed in the paper, will promote a better understanding of the proper way to apply the ds model to ir applications. in addition, center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - the mapping provides a practical foundation for building a variety of different indexing algorithms. these algorithms can use the combination rule, or versions thereof, as called by the application. ultimately, the success of one relevance calculus or another will depend on face validity and on field performance considerations. t h e d e m p s t e r shafer t h e o r y of evidence: several authors provided canonical exam- ples that explain the rationale of the ds model in the way of analogy, zadeh ( ) illustrated how mass functions and dempster s rule can be mapped on fuzzy queries about i n t erval-valued, rather than point-valued, attributes, in a relational database . gordon and shortliffe ( ) gave a compelling interpretation of how a ds calculus can be used t o rep- resent and combine the degrees of belief that clinical symptoms (pieces of evidence) render to classes of bacterial organisms (disjunctions of hypotheses), whose set relationships forms a hierarchy. coming from a different, domain-independent, direction, hummel and landy ( ss) analyzed the probabilistic foundation of the theory of evidence in general, without making any assumptions on the underlying domain or the logical structure of the hypothe- ses . in contrast to other researchers who attempted to interpret high-level constructs of the ds model directly (e.g. baron , , kyburg, , , and schocken and kleindorfer, ), hummel and landy took a more fundamental viewpoint that showed how t h e the- ory's constructs were implicitly linked t o statistics of the opinions of hypothetical experts. however, their abstract mathematical analysis made no use of canonical examples, and it is difficult to interpret its implications on practical domains of application. with that in mind, one objective of this paper was to illustrate how constructs of t h e ds model that up until now defied simplistic interpretations yield to a plausible interpreta- tion in the practical context of a multi-classifier/multi-cataloger model. we have seen, in center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - propositions and , that the canonical model leads to exactly the same set of functions and fdrmulae of the ds model. hence, from a mathematical perspective, the canonical model is isomorphic to the ds model. yet from a semantic perspective, it invokes the notion of multiple catalogers. although the notion of multiple patrons appears in several major interpretations of bibliographical relevance (maron and kuhns, , maron, ), it may or may not exist in other applications. to what extent, then, are we forced to accept the canonical interpretation of multiple cata- logers in principle? one can simply reject the notion, avoiding the isomorphism by denying the possibility of multiple opinions, and relying simply on the ds theory as presented in section . in t h a t case, however, one is left with philosophical questions like q through q . there could, of course, be other interpretations. however, in a real sense, all valid iilterpretations must be accepted or explained. that is, either the interpretation is ac- cepted as is, or one must show how another set of semantic constructs provides a plausible interpretation of the theory. one advantage of our approach is that new calculi can be developed, different from the ds combination rule, that might better suit particular appli- cations, based on modifications of the canonical model. i t is precisely the unsatisfactory elements of this canonical model that permit us to systematically seek improved methods for managing uncertainty. since our analysis was strictly probabilistic, it seems to be consistent with lindley's ob- servation that "anything that can be done with belief functions can better be done with probability theory" (lindley, , , p. ). however, we believe that this argument misses an important point. to use a crude but useful analogy, it will be unreasonable to write off a programming language like pascal simply because every pascal program can be rewritten center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - in machine language. just like high-level languages provide complex structures for dealing with specialized problems, the ds model provides non-elementary functions and operators t h a t lend themselves nicely to certain domains of application, information indexing and retrieval being one such example. we conclude that the dempster shafer theory of evidence provides an attractive framework for supporting information indexing and retrieval applications, and that these applications, in turn, serve t o highlight the internal validity and limitations of the theory. dempster's rule remains a controversial operator for combining degrees of beliefs,. but this paper has illustrated that it is just one member in a family of parameiric combination rules, and that the question of whether to use this rule or another is more a matter of reasoned choice than a matter of adhering t o a fixed set of formulae. appendix: proofs p r o p o s i t i o n : let u = {ul , . . . , u,) be a set of catalogers with their boolean relevance opinions vl, . . . , v , : " + { o , l ) . the real function m : " + [o, defined by m ( x ) = ! r ( x ) = c:=, v ; ( x ) is a mass function, satisfying definition ( ). p r o o f : for each class x e h, either all, some, or none of the catalogers indexed the document in x . hence, r ( x ) = n , or r ( x ) < n, or r ( x ) = , respectively, implying that m ( x ) _< . hence, m(.) is a mapping from h to [o, , satisfying the first requirement of being a mass function. the second requirement is that the function will sum up t o over all the subsets of k. this is proved as follows. for each cataloger u;, exactly one center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - of the subsets x k: is such that vi(x) = . for all other subsets y, vi(y) = . thus x , ~ vi(x) = . we thus have the following: further, since no cataloger gives as his opinion, it is always true that v ) = . therefore, the third requirement of definition ( ) is satisfied. thus m is a mass function. definition of t h e @ combination rule: let u = {til,. . . , u,) be a set of catalogers with their boolean relevance opinions vl, . . . , v, : k - { o , l ) . to denote the fact that the keyword k e x: was included in the indexing opinion of the i t h cataloger, we use the following notation: if vi(x) = and k f x wi(k) = otherwise if k: = {kl,. . . , k,), the binary vector obtained by wi(kl), . . . , wi(kn) is denoted wi and called the boolean relevance opinion of ui. the collection of all such opinions of members of u is denoted w = {w;(u; e u). to combine the relevance opinions of two sets of catalogers < ul, wl > and < uz, wz >, we use the following formulae ( ): center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - where wi(k) and wi(k) are as defined in ( ) for u; e u and of u: e u . in section . we have shown how a mass function can be constructed from a set of catalogers (proposition ). specifically, recall that the mass function induced by the model t = < u, bv >, denoted hereafter mt(x), gives the fraction of catalogers in u, among those catalogers who express an opinion (i.e. w; #o), whose relevance opinion exactly matched x . this is the same as those catalogers for whom w;(kj) = if and only if k, e x. for t =< u, w >, this fraction can be written down exactly: for x # . of course, m ~ ( ) = . we are now in a position to prove the following. proposition : let ti =< ul, wl > and t =< u ,w > be two sets of catalogers together with their boolean relevance opinions, and let t =< u, w > be the outcome of t = ti d t , as follows: (i) u = ul x u ; and (ii) w = {wij = w; w:lw; e wl and w: f w). let $ be dempster's rule a s i t is applied t o mass functions. let mt , mt , and mt ,%, be the mass functions induced by the models ti, tz, and tl @ t . then we have the following: mtlet = m, @ m,. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - proof: this proposition asserts a relationship between the general dempster shafer model and the canonical indexing model presented in section . the fact that the mapping from one model to t h e other is homomorphic follows from hummel and landy ( ) , but we will supply an independent argument here in the context of the indexing model. let us assume t h a t there are nl catalogers in ul and n catalogers in u , and let us fix a particular nonempty lexical subset x of the lexicon k. we wish to show that beginning with the right hand side of ( ) and using the definition of dempster's rule @, (mtl @ m t ) ( x ) is equivalent to multiplying top and bottom by nl . n and distributing, we obtain z a ~ b = x nlmtl ( a ) ' n mt ( b ) cnnl + n l m t l ( a ) . n mt ( b ) ' recalling how mass functions are induced from the opinions of groups of catalogers (eqn. in section . ) , we may interpret this expression as follows. the value nlmt ( a ) counts the number of catalogers in ul who have indexed the document in the lexical subset a. likewise, n mt ( b ) counts the number of catalogers in t who have indexed the document center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - in the lexical subset b. hence, the product nlmtl ( a ) n mt ( b ) counts the number of distinct pairs of catalogers ( u ; , u j l ) in ul x uz where u; e ul has indexed the document in a and u j f f uz has indexed the document in b. now, according t o the way is defined, if u; has indexed in a and u j l has indexed in b, then the pair of catalogers ( u ; , u j l ) end up indexing the document in a n b = x. thus, the numerator of expression ( ) counts all the cataloger pairs that end up indexing the document in x. precisely the same argument can be used t o show that the denominator of ( ) counts all the pairs of catalogers who don't index the document on . thus ( ) gives the fraction of cataloger pairs in ui x u that have indexed the document in x out of the pairs of catalogers in ul x u who have indexed the document in some non-empty lexical subset, which is exactly the definition of mtlqt , the left hand side of ( ) . center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - 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( ). a simple view of the dempster-shafer theory of evidence and its implication on the rule of combination. the .ai magazine, - . center for digital economy research stem school of business working paper is- - e x t e r n a l v a l i d i t y i shafer i indexing model & retrieval ( theory i indexing model i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y figure : a pictorial description of the paper's methodology. section uses the termi- nology and rationale of the dempster shafer theory to derive a ds indexing model for ir applications (top arrow). taking the opposite direction, section builds a canonical index- ing model that is based on the domain specific requirements of ir applications. as it turns out, the canonical model provides a probabilistic and domain-independent interpretation of the dempster shafer theory of evidence. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - art . . . modern . . . impressionist . , . . . . cubism . . . dada . . . . . . braque . . . picasso . . . janco . . . figure : an excerpt from an art-related taxonomy designed to classify documents on major artists and artistic movements. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - figure : an illustration of the relationship that exists among t h e a mass (top), belief (left), and plausibility (right) functions t h a t represent the same set of primitive degrees of support. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - (braque, p i c a s s o ) (braque , janco ( p i c a s s o , janco) (braque) ( p i c a s s o ) (janco) (braque) ( p i c a s s o ) (janco} modern cubism \ braque p i c a s s o janco figure : t h e evolution of a taxonomy from a lexical power set center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - the u taxonomy the u taxonomy ' w i t h m ( ~ , d , q l ) v a l u e s : w i t h m(x,d ,q ) valu'es : u l : u : u : u : the u taxonomy w i t h m(x,d) v a l u e s : u a b ' c = ulxu a b ' c ---- ------------- ------ ------------- u l ' : u l , u l ' : u ' : i o ~ ~ ~ : u ' : u l , u ' : i l , u l j : figure : t h e individual indexing opinions of two groups of catalogers (u, and u ) are recorded a t the bottom of the figure. these opinions induce two different taxonomies and two different relevance functions, m(x, d,q,) and m(x, d, g ), depicted at the top of the figure. t h e combination of t h e relevance taxonomies via dempster's rule @ a t t h e c l a s s i j e r s level and t h e combination of the opinions via t h e cartesian consensus rule a t the catalogers level leads t o the s a m e pooled index depicted a t t h e top right of t h e figure. center for digital economy research stem school of business ivorking paper is- - buying beauty: buying beauty: on prices and returns in the art market luc renneboog and christophe spaenjers* this version: december abstract: this paper investigates the price determinants and investment performance of art. we apply a hedonic regression analysis to a new data set of over one million auction transactions of paintings and works on paper. based on the resulting price index, we conclude that art has appreciated in value by a moderate . % per year, in real u.s. dollar terms, between and . this is a performance similar to that of corporate bonds – at much higher risk. a repeat-sales regression on a subset of the data demonstrates the robustness of our index. next, quantile regressions document larger price appreciations in higher price brackets. we also find variation in historical returns across mediums and movements. finally, we show that both high-income consumer confidence and art market sentiment forecast art price trends. key words: art; auctions; hedonic regressions; investments; repeat-sales regressions; sentiment. * luc renneboog (luc.renneboog@uvt.nl) is professor of corporate finance, tilburg university, the netherlands. christophe spaenjers (spaenjers@hec.fr) is assistant professor of finance, hec paris, france. the authors would like to thank sofiane aboura, richard agnello, david bellingham, fabio braggion, michael brennan, peter carpreau, geraldo cerqueiro, gilles chemla, mark clatworthy, craig clunas, peter de goeij, neil de marchi, alberta di guili, elroy dimson, kevin evans, julian franks, rik frehen, edith ginglinger, victor ginsburgh, marc goergen, william goetzmann, tom gretton, duncan hislop, noah horowitz, jonathan ingersoll, martin kemp, marius kwint, geraldine johnson, benjamin mandel, david marginson, bill megginson, allison morehead, thierry morel, michael moses, kim oosterlinck, liang peng, rachel pownall, clara c. raposo, catarina reis, keith robson, frans de roon, geert rouwenhorst, ahti salo, sofia santos, marie shushka, mick silver, myron slovin, cindy soo, matthew spiegel, darius spieth, peter szilagyi, nick taylor, svetlana taylor, radomir todorov, hans van miegroet, joost vanden auwera, stephen walker, jason xiao, roberto zanola, and participants at seminars and workshops at antwerp university, cambridge university, cardiff business school, duke university, iscte business school, london business school, manchester business school, paris-dauphine university, tilburg university, ucl-core, universidade catolica portuguesa, universidade nova de lisboa, yale university, the fma meetings, the lbs annual art investment conference, and the multinational finance conference for valuable comments and suggestions. spaenjers would like to thank the netherlands organisation for scientific research (nwo) for financial support, and london business school for its hospitality. i. introduction stories about the baffling amounts of money paid for first-tier art frequently entertain newspaper readers around the world. yet, high prices do not necessarily imply high returns. consider, for example, claude monet’s “dans la prairie”, the star lot of the impressionist and modern art evening sale at christie’s london in february . the canvas changed owners for the substantial sum of million british pound (gbp), and was the top seller in an auction that, according to the wall street journal ( ), “showed that there's plenty of life” in the impressionist and modern sector. however, the same painting had been sold twice before in recent history – in june at sotheby’s london for . million gbp, and in november at sotheby’s new york for . million u.s. dollars (usd). by any standard, the rate of return on the monet was dismal. nevertheless, the growth in the number of multi-million dollar sales, the expansion of the global population of high-net-worth individuals, and the increasing need for portfolio diversification have all brought increased attention to art as an investment in recent years. in turn, the belief in art as a viable alternative asset class has led to the creation of several art funds – not all very successful (horowitz, ) – and art market advisory services which cater to affluent individuals who consider investing in art. the wall street journal ( ) recently reported that almost % of total wealth is held in so-called “passion investments”: art, musical instruments, wine, jewelry, antiques, etc. of all such luxury assets, art is the most likely to be acquired for its potential appreciation in value (capgemini, ). there is a growing academic literature on art investments, but previous studies have utilized relatively small data sets of sales (pairs) at the high end of the market. the resulting indices are prone to a number of estimation issues and selection biases (cf. section ii). the current paper therefore uses a comprehensive new data set of nearly . million auction sales to re-examine the price formation and returns in the art market, over a period from to . we perform a hedonic regression analysis which relates transaction prices to a wide range of value- determining characteristics and year effects. our results show that artist reputation, attribution, signs of authenticity, medium, size, topic, and the timing and location of the sale are significantly correlated with price levels. based on the regression coefficients on the year dummies in our model, we can build a price index that controls for time variation in the composition of the market (and corrects for changes in price dispersion). we find that constant-quality art prices increased by a moderate . % in real usd terms on a yearly basis over the - period. between and , the geometric average annual real return is . %. for the second half of the twentieth century, our estimates are substantially below those reported by goetzmann ( ) and mei and moses ( ). our baseline hedonic index proves robust to alternative specifications and estimation methods. for example, allowing for time variation in the hedonic coefficients does not materially affect our results. importantly, also applying a repeat-sales regression to a subset of our sample leads to nearly identical return estimates for the - period. quantile regressions over the same time frame show that historical rates of appreciation vary across the price distribution; the annualized real return at the th percentile is almost percentage points higher than the return at the th percentile. in line with this finding, but in contrast to previous research (and to what the monet example may suggest), we do not find that portfolios of masterpieces underperform the rest of the market. moreover, a “value” strategy, in which one focuses on important but relatively less expensive artists, has outperformed our baseline index by . percentage points on an annualized basis. next, we show that oil paintings and post-war movements have outperformed other art over the last few decades. overall, the risk-return profile of art has been inferior to that of financial assets, even before transaction costs, especially in the second half of our time frame. however, art has outperformed other physical assets, such as gold, commodities, and real estate. while we find a low correlation between changes in the art price index and same-year equity returns, the correlation with lagged equity returns is substantially higher. finally, we examine the determinants of art market returns. we find evidence that (lagged) equity market returns and changes in high-income consumer confidence predict art returns, highlighting the importance of luxury consumption demand. however, we document that also a novel art buyer sentiment measure (based on volume and buy-in rates at high-profile auctions, and on media reports) forecasts price changes. this suggests that time-varying optimism about the potential of ‘art as an investment’ can partially explain the existence of art market cycles. ii. literature on art returns researchers have used different methodologies to calculate the financial returns on art investments, starting from public auction records. stein ( ) considers the auctioned objects in each year as a random sample of the underlying stock of art (by deceased artists), and constructs an index based on the yearly average transaction price. baumol ( ) and frey and pommerehne ( ) calculate the geometric mean return on works that sold at least twice during the considered time frame. unfortunately, however, these simple methods do not enable the construction of a price index that adjusts for variations in quality. most recent studies have therefore used either repeat-sales regressions or hedonic regressions to measure the price movements of art and other infrequently traded assets (e.g., real estate). repeat-sales regressions (rsr) explicitly control for differences in quality between works by only considering items that have been sold at least twice. the method uses purchase and sale price pairs to art is not only sold at auction, but also privately, for example through dealers. total turnover in the art and antiques market is roughly split equally between the two transaction types (mcandrew, ). however, it is generally accepted that auction prices set a benchmark also used in the private market. estimate the average return of a portfolio of assets in each time period. pesando ( ), goetzmann ( ), mei and moses ( ), and pesando and shum ( ), among others, have applied the methodology to art investments. there are three problems with existing rsr studies. first, since art objects trade very infrequently (and resales can be hard to identify), only considering repeated transactions decimates any data set to a relatively small number of observations. for example, mei and moses ( ) include , sales pairs over a period of years; goetzmann et al. ( ) use even fewer sales pairs, although their focus is not on the resulting price index itself. meese and wallace ( ) show that the use of such small databases renders rsr estimators sensitive to influential observations. second, most repeat-sales studies suffer from selection issues. for example, the sample used by mei and moses ( ) includes sales pairs with a first transaction anywhere in the world, but a resale at sotheby’s or christie’s new york – arguably the most expensive sales rooms in the world. moreover, the initial purchase is identified using the provenance entries in the new york sales catalogues; this information could be more likely to be included when a high price is expected. an index estimated based upon such a sample may thus be biased upwards. other studies, including goetzmann ( ), have utilized repeat-sales information from the so-called “reitlinger data” – books with auction price data until the s – of which is well known that they are incomplete and focus disproportionately on famous artists (guerzoni, ). third, even abstracting from the issues just outlined, items which trade twice may in general not be representative for the overall population of art works. hedonic regressions control for quality changes in the transacted goods by attributing implicit prices to their “utility-bearing characteristics” (rosen, ). in the often-used time-dummy variant of the hedonic pricing methodology, all available transaction data are pooled, and prices are regressed on a set of value- determining attributes and one or more time dummies. under the assumption that all omitted characteristics are orthogonal to those included (meese and wallace, ), the coefficients on the time dummies account for constant-quality price trends over the sample period. since no information is thrown away prior to the estimation, hedonic regressions make efficient use of available data, and may therefore give more reliable estimates of price indices than rsr. not surprisingly, one of the key difficulties is the choice of hedonic characteristics (ashenfelter and graddy, ). observable and easily quantifiable features such as size, medium, and the location of sale are frequently used (anderson, ; buelens and ginsburgh, ; chanel et al., ; agnello and pierce, ), but the number of hedonic variables often remains relatively limited. the literature has failed to systematically include variables that measure reputation or the strength of attribution, an important price-determining factor for old masters (robertson, ). also, just like in studies using rsr, the utilized samples have been relatively small and selective. research has been based although there are omitted variables in every model, hedonic pricing is particularly suitable for luxury consumption goods markets, in which a limited number of key characteristics often determine the willingness to pay for an item (e.g., the cs of a diamond). in any case, butler ( ) argues that the omitted variable bias is often negligible; “approximate correctness can be achieved with significantly fewer characteristics than is generally supposed”. either on the problematic (and old) reitlinger data mentioned before (buelens and ginsburgh, ; chanel et al., ), or on samples of art from one country (agnello and pierce, ; renneboog and van houtte, ; higgs and worthington, ). the estimated returns on art vary with data, methodology, and the time period under consideration (ashenfelter and graddy, ). with respect to paintings, the two most influential repeat-sales studies report relatively high real returns over the second half of the twentieth century. goetzmann ( ) calculates an average annual real appreciation of . % between and , but with a “long and strong” bull market, in which annualized returns average around %, since . mei and moses ( ) reports a real return of . % over the period - , but a higher annualized return estimate of . % after . (for prints, pesando and shum ( ) report much lower returns over the period - .) in general, studies that use hedonic regressions have found somewhat lower returns, but to date no exhaustive hedonic analysis has been undertaken. iii. data and methodology in this paper, we construct a price index for art using the hedonic regression methodology. as outlined before, the main advantage of this approach is that information on all observed transactions can be taken into account. our model relates the natural logs of real usd prices to year dummies, while controlling for a wide range of hedonic characteristics: ∑ ∑ = = +++= m m t t ktkttmktmkt dxp ln εγβα ( ), where pkt represents the price of art object k at time t, xmkt is the value of characteristic m of item k at time t, and dkt is a time dummy variable that takes the value one if object k is sold in period t (and zero otherwise). the coefficients βm reflect the attribution of a relative shadow price to each of the m characteristics, while the antilogs of the coefficients γt can be used to construct an art price index that controls for time variation in the quality of art sold. the value of the hedonic index in year t is: *)exp( tt γ≡Π ( ), with γ set equal to for the initial, left-out period. the return in year t is then: − Π Π ≡ −t t tr ( ). however, a subtle (and often neglected) point is that such an index will track the geometric – not the arithmetic – mean of prices over time, due to the log transformation prior to the estimation. this is especially important for our estimation of returns if there is time variation in the heterogeneity-controlled dispersion in prices, i.e., the hedonic regression residuals (silver and heravi, ). if we assume that the residuals of our hedonic regression are normally distributed in each period, with variance tσ in period t, then we can correct for this transformation bias by defining the corrected index values as follows (triplett, ; silver and heravi, ): *)( exp *     −+≡Π σσγ ttt ( ). the corrected return in year t, can then be defined as follows: * * * − Π Π ≡ −t t tr ( ). we describe our data in subsection a. the hedonic variables that will be used in the estimation of eq. ( ) are presented in subsection b. a. data we focus on the market for oil paintings and works on paper (i.e., watercolors and drawings), which account for a substantial proportion of all transactions – and about % of total turnover – in the art market (artprice, ). we start by compiling a list of artists. this selection of artists has to be as exhaustive as possible, so as not to have a bias towards artists that are popular today, and therefore we consult several authoritative art history resources from different time periods. our artist selection procedure, of which details can be found in appendix a, culminates in a list of , artists. we classify , of those artists in at least one of the following art movements: medieval & renaissance; baroque; rococo; neoclassicism; romanticism; realism; impressionism & symbolism; fauvism & expressionism; cubism, futurism & constructivism; dada & surrealism; abstract expressionism; pop; minimalism & contemporary. we then collect data on all relevant sales by matching our list of names with all artists in the online database art sales index [http://www.artinfo.com/artsalesindex]. this resource contains auction records for different types of art. prices are hammer prices, exclusive of transaction costs. historically, the art sales index, just like many other databases, has not included buy-ins (i.e., items that do not reach the reserve price and remain unsold). although the first sales in the art sales index date from the beginning of the s, data are unavailable or sparse in many years until the second half of the s. therefore, we start our analysis in , the first year for which we have more than , observations. (unfortunately, however, for the data coverage is limited, with only some of the highest priced sales included.) the art sales index only includes london sales until the late s, but it has an exhaustive worldwide coverage afterwards. the most recent auction records available for this study are from the autumn auctions of . our final data set consists of , , sales; about % of these transactions concern oil paintings, with the remainder split roughly evenly between watercolors and drawings. the artist with the highest numbers of sales ( , ) is pablo picasso. the magnitude of our database enables us to draw a complete picture of the price formation and the returns in the art market, in contrast to most previous studies which are based on more selective samples. we translate all nominal prices in our data set to prices in year usd, using the cpi as a measure of inflation. in real terms, the most expensive transaction is ‘portrait du dr. gachet’ by vincent van gogh, which sold for million usd in may at christie's new york. (in nominal prices, it is ‘garçon à la pipe’ by pablo picasso, which was auctioned off for million usd in may at sotheby's new york.) while such high-profile sales attract ample attention, the average price level is much lower. the mean (resp. median) sales price over all observations for is , usd (resp. , usd). goetzmann ( ) argues that survivorship could cause upward bias in the estimation of art returns, since artists who “fall from fashion” are typically not traded. the impact of this bias on our results may be rather small. first, as goetzmann ( ) points out himself, the rate of artist obsolescence is relatively low. second, in contrast to previous work, we do not require a work of art to trade twice and/or to sell at a large auction house. our sample thus also includes many sales of less popular artists at smaller auction houses at any point in time (especially after ). finally, pieces that are donated to museums after a substantial increase in an artist’s fame – or items that are sold through private transactions in the early part of artists’ careers – are not observed at auction either (goetzmann, ; mei and moses, ), partially offsetting the upward bias. nevertheless, our return estimate should probably still be considered as an upper bound on the rate of return (before transaction costs) realized by art investors over our time frame. b. variables our hedonic regressions include a number of variables that capture the characteristics of the artist, of the work, and of the sale. the descriptive statistics for these hedonic variables are presented in table . [insert table about here] first, in addition to artist dummies capturing each artist’s uniqueness, we consider the following exogenous reputational measure: textbook dummy. we manually check which of our artists were included in several editions of the classic art history textbook ‘gardner’s art through the ages’ ( , , , , and ). in total, of our artists are listed in at least one edition. the dummy variable textbook equals one if the artist was featured in the edition of – or the last edition prior to – the year of sale. two other characteristics related to the artist’s career are included in the late-twentieth-century movement- specific models (cf. section iv.e), but not in our general models, as they could potentially pick up price differences between various eras or movements: exhibition dummy. the variable exhibition equals one once the artist has been represented at documenta in kassel. inclusion in this prestigious exhibition evidences an artist’s rise to fame. in total, of our artists were represented at one of the eleven exhibitions between and . dead artist dummy. it is often assumed that prices for art works increase after the death of an artist. the dummy variable deceased, which equals one if the sale occurs subsequent to the artist’s death, should capture this effect. second, we also consider a range of price-determining variables that capture the attribution and authenticity, the medium, the size, and the subject matter of the work of art: attribution dummies. attribution can be an important factor influencing the price of art objects, especially of older works. different levels of attribution are used in the auction world: attributed (to), studio (of), circle (of), school (of), after, and (in the) style (of). about % of the observations in our sample carry such an attribution. authenticity dummies. more than half of the art works is signed, while about one third is dated. medium dummies. we introduce dummies for the different medium categories: oil, watercolor (including gouaches), and drawing. size. the height and width in inches are represented by height and width (with squared values height_ and width_ ). the average work has a height and a width of about inches ( cm). topic dummies. the subject matter can significantly affect the aesthetic appreciation of art objects. we therefore categorize the works in different topic groups based on the first word(s) of the title. we create eleven categories, based on the search strings listed in appendix b: abstract, animals, landscape, nude, people, portrait, religion, self-portrait, still_life, untitled, and urban. furthermore, we create a dummy study that equals one if the title contains the words “study” or “etude”. the largest categories are portraits and landscapes. third, we include dummies that indicate the timing of the sale, and the reputation and location of the auction house: month dummies. since important sales are often clustered in time, we include month dummies. the busiest months are may, june, november, and december. auction house dummies. we make a distinction between different fine art auction houses that have been important throughout our sample period. for sotheby’s and christie’s, we introduce dummy variables for their london, new york, and other sales (e.g., soth_london, soth_ny, and soth_other). together, these two institutions are responsible for about half of all sales in our sample. for two other big british auction houses, bonhams and phillips, we make a distinction between their london sales rooms and other activities (e.g., bon_london and bon_other). we also create two dummies to account for the sales by important european and american auction houses (auction_european and auction_american) – see appendix c. iv. the returns on art a. baseline indices table shows the parameter estimates of the hedonic variables for our baseline model. eq. ( ) is estimated using ordinary least squares (ols) and the dependent variable is the natural log of the real price in usd. for , , sales we have complete information on all hedonic characteristics presented in the previous section. because of the very large number of observations, nearly all coefficients are statistically highly significant. hence, we focus on economic significance as well: table shows the “price impact” of each hedonic variable, which can be proxied by taking the exponent of the coefficient, and subtracting one. it is important to note that the variables are in most cases picking up otherwise unobservable differences in quality, and that the regression coefficients thus reflect correlation instead of causality. for example, works sold at sotheby’s or christie’s mainly catch higher prices because of their high attractiveness, not necessarily because of auction house certification. [insert table about here] table reveals that works are on average priced . % higher after the inclusion of the artist in an important art history reference book. also the strength of the attribution has an important effect on the price of an art object. whenever an attribution dummy comes into play, the price level drops by more than %. not surprisingly, larger discounts are recorded for works that are “in the style of” or “after” a master than for “attributed” or “studio” works. we also observe that signed and dated works carry higher prices: a signature increases the price by as much as % on average, while a date adds almost % in value. works on paper are priced lower than oil paintings, and drawings are less valuable than watercolors. furthermore, prices increase with size, up to the point that the work becomes too large, as indicated by the negative coefficients on the squared terms. regarding the topic dummies, there are significant discounts associated with studies and portraits, while self-portraits trade at a premium. the coefficients on our month-of-the- year dummies confirm that the most expensive auctions are clustered at the ends of the spring and the autumn. finally, the highest prices are paid at the main offices of sotheby’s and christie’s. based on the coefficients on the time dummies and the variance of residuals in each period, we construct both an uncorrected art price index Π, and a price index Π* that corrects for log transformation bias. the results are reported in table ; the price levels in are standardized to . as mentioned before, the coverage of the data is very selective for the year , so we geometrically interpolate index values for that year. (previous studies showed very small price movements in .) table indicates that the index values have high statistical precision. in most cases, the standard deviation on the regression coefficient is around . , which implies tight confidence intervals around each index value. figure graphically depicts the evolution of the indices over our time frame, and compares them to the evolution of deflated average and median prices in our data set. [insert table and figure about here] the corrected price index in figure illustrates that, in boom periods, prices can increase very fast: they more than tripled in real terms between and . the yearly increase in prices between and exceeded %. however, prices also rapidly decreased after , and no large changes in price levels occurred between the mid- s and the first years of the s. in the most recent art boom period of - , the annual real price appreciation averaged . %. the figure documents that an index based on average or median prices would overestimate the volatility of prices, because of the lack of control for quality differences over time. indeed, a key contribution of this paper is to disentangle changes in market composition from those in heterogeneity-controlled price levels. at the same time, however, the average and median series serve as a check on the order of magnitude of the overall price appreciation (at least over the last two-three decades, when the coverage of the data set is no longer expanding notably). figure also illustrates the quantitative importance of the correction for the log transformation; while the end-of-period index values are very similar, we observe marked deviations between Π and Π* over some periods. annualized (i.e., geometric average) returns are reported in panel a of table . we focus on the corrected price index. on average, art has appreciated at a yearly real rate of . % between and . over the last years, the geometric mean real return is somewhat higher ( . %). the nominal equivalents (not reported), obtained by correcting the index for the year-to-year changes in the cpi series, are . % ( - ) and . % ( - ). these numbers are substantially below the return estimates reported in goetzmann ( ) or mei and moses ( ) for the periods in common. for example, over the period - , mei and moses ( ) report an annualized nominal return of . %, while our index appreciated by . % on an annual basis – a difference of over %. [insert table about here] table also reports standard deviations of the time series of annual returns. for our corrected index, the standard deviation over the full time frame is slightly above %. however, we will later note that this number still underestimates the true riskiness of art investments (cf. section v). b. robustness checks we now check the quantitative robustness of our baseline results. first, we repeat our analysis using a number of different set-ups: (i) excluding the topic dummies (as these may capture the subject matter rather imprecisely), (ii) excluding the more than , artists with fewer than sales (as these artists are less liquid), and (iii) excluding minimalism & contemporary art (as selection and survivorship issues may be more of a concern for more recent artists). panel b of table shows the uncorrected real return estimates for - and - , which can be compared to the performance of price index Π, as shown in panel a. our estimates do not change substantially, with annualized price appreciations over the period - that differ by less than . % from those reported earlier. second, a potential problem with the hedonic approach is that coefficients are constrained to be stable across the whole sample window. this is a strong assumption as shadow prices of hedonic characteristics (i.e., tastes) may change over time. an adjacent-period model can mitigate this problem: by dividing the sample in subperiods, it enables the hedonic coefficients to fluctuate (triplett, ). we apply this method to our data set by performing a separate hedonic regression for every two consecutive years since (and then chain-linking our returns). we restrict our analysis to the second half of our time frame, because the methodology would underestimate the returns over the full time frame due to the expansion of coverage by the database over the first - years. the adjacent-year model generates an uncorrected return estimate ( . %) that is very similar to the one we obtained from the pooled data, lending further support to our benchmark index. third, the main advantage of rsr is that is controls for the uniqueness of each work. also, in contrast to a hedonic price index, it can be thought of as an investable index, at least in theory. unfortunately, our data set does not uniquely identify each artwork – let alone each repeated sale. yet, we aim to identify multiple transactions of the same item indirectly. we consider two items as being identical if they are from the same artist (not from a pupil or follower), have the same dimensions, carry the same title (but not “untitled” or “composition”), are of the same medium, and do not differ with respect to the presence of a signature or date. strikingly, this reduces the data set from . million individual transactions to , ‘repeat sales’ with a holding period of at least a year. for similar reasons as before – an rsr over the full sample would underestimate average returns because of the focus on higher-priced items in the first half of our time frame – we look at the , transactions between and . (this number compares favorably to the size of the databases used in previous repeat-sales studies.) in line with goetzmann ( ) and mei and moses ( ), we apply a three-stage estimation procedure on our sample of repeat sales, based on case and shiller ( ). in a first step, we regress returns on a matrix (containing a row for each item and a column for each time period) with dummy variables indicating the holding period of each item, using ols. in a second stage, we regress the squared residuals from the first step on an intercept and the time between sales. in a third step, we redo the rsr, using weighted least squares, with the fitted squared residuals as weights. the last line of panel b of table shows that, over the time frame under consideration, the rsr implies an average annual increase in the geometric mean price of . %, compared to . % for the (uncorrected) hedonic regression index. the standard deviation is only slightly higher than before. the correlation between the repeat-sales returns and the hedonic returns (not reported) is . . c. quantile regressions despite some work on the “masterpiece effect” – which examines the question whether more expensive art out- or underperforms the overall market (e.g., pesando, ; mei and moses, ) – prior literature has not systematically explored the potential variation of returns across price brackets. this is surprising, given that the art market is likely to be segmented for a number of reasons. first, art is indivisible, and therefore small investors are generally not able to invest in higher-end works. second, wealthy individuals may be less tempted to buy in the lower-end of the market, where works do not signal the same social status (mandel, ). third, the more expensive parts of the market may be more prone to speculation. the distribution of returns may thus be skewed over and above a potential masterpiece effect. in such a setting, quantile regressions may be particularly useful (zietz et al., ; scorcu and zanola, ). while ols regressions provide estimates for the conditional means only, non-linear quantile regressions can characterize the entire distribution of the dependent variable (koenker and hallock, ). we estimate price trends for the percentiles . , . , . , . , and . , using the adjacent-year set- up outlined before. (we split our sample in subperiods to avoid that the hedonic coefficients measure variation in premiums or discounts across time rather than across price brackets). we denote the price indices by q , q , etc. we show the results, again since , in panel c of table and in figure . an interesting pattern emerges. the low performance of q is particularly striking: it has an annual growth rate of only . %, compared with . % for q (i.e., the constant-quality median price level). over the last years, prices have gone up more in the higher price brackets. for example, for q , we record an annualized return of . %. paired-sample t-tests on the return series (not reported) show that the difference in (arithmetic) average return between q and any of the other quantile series is statistically significant at the . level. the outperformance of the higher quantiles is mainly due to strong price rises in times of increasing demand for art. this finding seems in line with “superstar economics”. the higher as with the hedonic regression, the rsr implies an index that is related to the geometric mean price in each period. goetzmann ( ) proposes to correct for log transformation bias by adding half of the cross-sectional variance of the returns in each period to the estimated coefficient, where this variance is estimated in the second step of the case- shiller method. however, goetzmann and peng ( ) argue that the nature of the bias due to the log transformation is generally not uniform through time. there is also a danger of misspecification of the error structure (meese and wallace, ) which may lead to an overestimation of the relevant correction term. since we are mainly interested in testing the robustness of our baseline index to a change in methodology, we compare the pre-correction indices to each other; they should give similar results. in rosen ( ), a small number of superstars earn large amounts of money, and increases in demand make the earnings distribution ever more skewed. a condition is that there is “imperfect substitution among quality average growth and higher volatility of the upper price range can also be associated with increases in both income inequality (goetzmann et al., ) and the income cyclicality of high-income households (parker and vissing-jorgensen, ), although we do not formally test these hypotheses in this paper (because of lack of a sufficiently long time series). in contrast, at first sight, the results seem at odds with the finding of mei and moses ( ) that masterpieces underperform – an issue that we turn to next. [insert figure about here] d. the performance of “masterpiece” and “value” portfolios the quantile regression results shows that prices have generally gone up more for high-value items. to further examine the profitability and riskiness of buying high-end art, we estimate the historical performance of two different investment strategies, based on our repeat-sales data. first, we consider a “masterpiece” strategy: we ‘buy’ in year t all auctioned works by the artists that were most expensive over years t- and t- (as measured by an adjacent-period hedonic regression model over those years). this strategy comes close to how other authors have examined the masterpiece effect, although we do not select works endogenously on realized transaction prices. second, we implement a “value” strategy: we buy in year t all observed works by the least expensive artists over t- and t- that were nevertheless included in the art history textbook described earlier at the start of year t- . such a strategy could exploit fluctuations in taste, or a lag in appreciation by the market relative to the recognition of the artist’s art-historical significance. (of course, the items included in this portfolio are in general still expensive compared to the overall sales distribution.) in both cases, we apply the rsr methodology to estimate returns; in other words, we ‘sell’ whenever the owner sold in practice. the results are shown in panel d of table , and compared to our earlier constructed rsr index in figure . [insert figure about here] we find no evidence of underperformance of a “masterpiece” strategy, which is not inconsistent with our quantile regressions, but stands in contrast to mei and moses ( ). the described strategy yields an annualized growth in price levels of . %, compared to . % for our earlier constructed rsr index. the differentiated goods”. this is certainly the case in the art market: ten mediocre works do not add up to a single masterpiece. in a recent paper, gyourko et al. ( ) rely on superstar economics to rationalize why the gap in house prices between “superstar cities” and less attractive locations keeps increasing over time; the authors note that “living in a superstar city is like owning a luxury good”. mei and moses ( ) and ashenfelter and graddy ( ) argue that idiosyncratic overbidding and mean reversion could be one explanation for the seemingly negative effect in studies that identify masterpieces based on transaction prices. goetzmann ( ) provides an alternative explanation: if only larger auction houses are taken into account, expensive items that drop in value are more likely to be included in the sample than lesser-quality works that underperform. of course, the relative performance of masterpieces may also vary over time, for example if it depends on evolutions in aggregate demand or the income distribution (cf. supra). “masterpiece” strategy realized strikingly high returns in the boom in the late s (when indeed “blue chip” art was very much in favor), but lost much in the subsequent bust. for the “value” strategy, we record an annualized return of . %; it has performed notably well since the mid- s. both high-end strategies thus have end-of-period index values above those for the overall sample, although the outperformance is not statistically significant at the traditional levels. the (unreported) p-value of a t-test on the difference between the “value” returns and the benchmark returns is . . e. indices per medium and per movement we now return to our baseline hedonic model and repeat the hedonic regression analysis on three complementary subsamples of our data set: oil paintings, watercolors, and drawings. the coefficients on the hedonic variables (not reported) are in line with the previous results. although the trends are similar across the different types of art, we find faster price increases for oil paintings. in real terms, watercolors and drawings were on average still priced lower in than in and . panel e of table reports the (corrected) returns over the different time frames. over the last half century, prices for oil paintings have appreciated at a yearly average real rate of . %, while watercolors and drawings have increased by . % and . % annually. oil paintings have strongly and significantly outperformed works on paper in the second half of our time frame – a finding that is related to the discrepancies in returns between price categories reported before. the lower performance of art items other than paintings is also consistent with pesando and shum ( ), who find an average real return on prints of . % between and . finally, we run a separate hedonic regression for each movement, based on the classification of each artist. we add the variables exhibition and deceased to the models for the three most recent art movements (abstract expressionism, pop, and minimalism & contemporary). most artists of these movements have been active over our time frame, which will enable a correct measurement of exhibition and death effects. we find that exhibition is significantly positive in the abstract expressionism and minimalism & contemporary set-ups; in the latter model we also observe a clearly positive death effect (not reported). in general, the results on the other hedonic characteristics are in line with the earlier findings, although there is some variation in the coefficients on the topic dummies (e.g., a premium is paid for nudes only in pop) and on the auction house dummies (e.g., auctions at the large continental european houses generate premiums for the earliest art movements). the average yearly real returns for the different art movements since and since are also reported in panel e of table . since , the indices have increased by between . % and . % on average per year. between and , only the post- war art movements abstract expressionism, pop, and minimalism & contemporary have shown real price appreciations of more than % per annum, on average. however, the standard deviations show that these movements have also been the more volatile ones. romanticism, realism, impressionism & symbolism, and fauvism & expressionism record mean appreciations of less than % over the same time frame. the indices for three art movements from different time periods (rococo; cubism, futurism & constructivism; and pop) are plotted in figure from onwards. the figure confirms that a post-war art movement like pop has been more profitable – the outperformance is statistically significant at the . level – but is also more risky. [insert figure about here] v. comparison of investment performance and correlation with other asset classes we want to compare the performance of art investments to that of other assets. however, we first need to address the underestimation of risk by our hedonic indices. since our methodology aggregates sales information per calendar year, our returns will suffer from spurious first-order autocorrelation and have understated standard deviations. we can unsmooth our baseline index Π*, a technique originated in the real estate literature, but later also applied to collectibles (e.g., campbell, ; dimson and spaenjers, ). based on working ( ), we can calculate that taking a yearly average of daily prices induces spurious first-order serial correlation in the hedonic coefficients of about . . we therefore re-estimate our standard deviations, removing this spurious autocorrelation from the return series. over the period - , the standard deviation of our desmoothed art index is now equal to . % (instead of . %). over the second quarter century, the standard deviation rises less sharply, from . % to . %. we collect data from global financial data on indices measuring total returns on u.s. t-bills, -year u.s. government bonds, dow jones corporate bonds, the gfd global index for government bonds, s&p stocks, the gfd world index for equity, gold prices, and the crb commodity price index. we borrow data on residential real estate prices in the u.s. from shiller ( ); unfortunately, commercial real estate price indices have only been available for shorter time periods. panel a of table shows the average yearly real returns and volatilities calculated over the periods - and - . the same table also presents the ex-post (arithmetic) sharpe ratios, using the returns on t-bills as the risk-free rate. [insert table about here] over the longer time frame, the art index clearly underperforms stocks. the s&p and the gfd global equity index have appreciated at average real rates of . % and . %, respectively, while our art index increased by . % annually over the same period. the reward-to-variability, as measured by the sharpe ratio, is higher for stocks and corporate bonds than for art. the art index has a higher average return even these new numbers are still a lower estimate of the true riskiness of art investments, for two reasons. first, the standard deviations reported here refer to the aggregate art market; panel d of table made clear that the volatility of most art portfolios is likely to be higher. second, our analysis does not take into account buy-ins. if reserve prices in the art market follow recent sales prices, this implies a return measurement bias when the market reverses (goetzmann and peng, ): returns may be underestimated (resp. overestimated) in boom (resp. bust) periods. since than both government bond indices, but the sharpe ratios only surpasses that of u.s. government bonds. nevertheless, compared to the other tangible assets in table (gold, commodities, and real estate), art does relatively well. over the shorter time frame (since ), the risk-return profile of art only compares favorably to that of other real asset classes. our comparison does not take into account differences in transaction costs, which are high for art investments. for most of our time frame, auction houses charged buyer’s premiums and seller’s commissions of around % (pesando, ; ashenfelter and graddy, ). however, in recent years, while important consignors have sometimes been able to obtain lower commission rates, the buyer’s premium has grown to around % for many smaller purchases. the large transaction costs emphasize the need for long holding periods in collectibles markets (dimson and spaenjers, ). moreover, art buyers have to take into account storage and insurance costs. we now turn to the correlations between the asset categories. panel b of table shows the correlation matrix of real returns for the - time frame. the correlations between our art index on the one hand and the gold, commodity, and real estate price indices on the other are . or higher. in contrast, we find very little comovement between art and financial assets. yet, additional (unreported) analysis shows correlations of art returns with lagged equity returns of . (s&p stocks) and . (global stocks). this suggests that wealth effects may drive art prices – something we examine in more depth in the next section. vi. explaining the returns on art art is ultimately a durable luxury consumption good, and consumption indeed seems to dominate the art purchase decision for a representative agent (mandel, ). the fundamental value of a work of art can thus be thought of as the present value of all future flows of consumption services. since supply is inelastic, the market price of these consumption flows will be determined by the strength of demand in each period. the importance of investment income for wealthy households, together with the discretionary nature of luxury consumption, may then induce positive correlation between art prices and financial asset values (aït-sahalia et al., ). previous literature (e.g., hiraki et al., ; goetzmann et al., ) has indeed found a strong relation between stock prices and art prices. in line with this work, in column ( ) of table , we regress our art returns on same-year and lagged global stock market returns over the period - . below each coefficient, we report newey-west standard errors that control for heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation up to two lags. adjusted r-squareds are reported at the bottom. the results confirm that stock returns significantly affect art price growth rates. in unreported analysis, we also control for changes in top incomes (using updated u.s. data from piketty and saez ( ), available from emmanuel saez’ webpage), real interest rates, and equity market sentiment (baker and wurgler, ), but this does not materially change our results. [insert table about here] to further examine the role of consumer demand, we add in column ( ) a variable that measures whether high-income (upper third) consumers think it is a good time to purchase “major household items”. (ludvigson ( ) notes that “there is some evidence that consumer confidence surveys reflect expectations of income and non-stock market wealth growth”.) the information is taken from the university of michigan’s survey of consumers, and we use the data for december of the previous year. the measure has been standardized to have zero mean and unit variance. we find that consumer sentiment strongly significantly affects art returns. we also see an increase in adjusted r-squared from . to . . the results in columns ( ) and ( ) of table highlight the importance of consumption demand. however, they cannot fully explain the pattern of art markets booms and busts that we have witnessed over the last decades. this may be because the fundamental value of art, as defined before, is hard to grasp. combined with the impossibility of short-selling, this uncertainty implies a potential role for art buyer sentiment, which could be defined as unjustified optimism (or pessimism) about future resale values. furthermore, because auctions are held infrequently, sentiment may only slowly exert pressure on observed aggregate price levels. we thus expect high sentiment to be followed by price appreciations – at least in the short run – rather than by low returns as is the case in more liquid financial asset markets (baker and wurgler, ). we propose three proxies for art buyer sentiment which can be measured by the end of each year (so that they can be related to price levels in the year starting immediately after). a first factor is the year-on- year change in fourth-quarter sales volume at sotheby’s and christie’s (london). baker and stein ( ) argue that in markets with short-sale constraints liquidity can proxy for sentiment. moreover, they suggest that the “liquidity-as-sentiment approach” is particularly relevant for “real” asset markets. our second variable equals the rate of items sold (and thus not bought in) at the impressionist and/or modern art evening auctions in the fall of each year (since ) in new york. these high-profile auctions are considered a barometer for the market, and buy-ins at these sales are widely commented upon in the press. we proxy for the sales rates by dividing the number of observed transactions by the maximum lot number for each auction. for our third proxy, we turn to the historical archives of the economist. we look up all articles dated between and which mention “art market”, “art prices”, or “art auctions”. we read each article to verify that it is indeed about the state of the art market, or about art investment. we then analyze the content of each of the selected articles using a software package called general inquirer. general inquirer counts the number of words belonging to certain categories in a text, and is also used by tetlock ( ) in his analysis of wall street journal columns. in each year, our measure of sentiment is the relative use of “positive outlook” versus “negative outlook” words in the latest article of the year, using the built-in dictionaries of the software. our main sentiment measure is then the first principal component of these three sentiment proxies (which have positive pairwise correlations of between . and . ). applying a principal components procedure reduces the idiosyncratic noise in each individual measure (baker and wurgler, ). we show the evolution of our standardized sentiment measure since in figure . sentiment was negative in the early s, s, and s, and generally positive in the second half of the s and the mid- s. [insert figure about here] in column ( ) of table , we regress the returns on art on the lagged sentiment measure, controlling for same-year and lagged global equity returns and the lagged consumer confidence measure, over the period - . the lagged stock return variable is still positive but loses significance at the traditional levels. in line with expectations, we find a positive impact of art market sentiment that is statistically significant at the . level. this strongly suggests that time-varying optimism about art investment impacts art pricing. unreported analysis shows that pop and minimalism & contemporary art, which may be harder to value, are more sensitive to changes in art buyer sentiment. vii. conclusion many collectors are acutely attuned to the financial value of their assets (burton and jacobsen, ). moreover, investors are increasingly turning to collectibles markets to diversify their portfolios. this underlines the importance of an accurate measure of the financial returns to art. therefore, in this paper, we have investigated the price determinants and historical investment performance of art, by applying an extensive hedonic regression framework to a data set of more than one million paintings and works on paper. our hedonic art price index indicates that art prices have increased by a moderate . %, annually, in real usd terms between and . this return estimate is lower than that reported in previous papers that used smaller samples of high-quality paintings sold at top auction houses. during art market booms, however, prices can skyrocket. for example, between and , our index shows a real return of . % per year. we also document larger price appreciations at the upper end of the market, and variation in average returns across mediums and movements. in general, art’s risk-return profile is much less attractive than that of financial assets, even before transaction costs. finally, regression results show that art price cycles are determined by both luxury consumption demand and variation in art market sentiment. appendix a – compilation of list of artists we start by consulting grove art online [http://www.oxfordartonline.com], a database published by oxford university press that contains all articles of the -volume ‘the dictionary of art’ ( ) as well as ‘the oxford companion to western art’ ( ). we select all , individual artists from the categories ‘graphic arts’, ‘painting and drawing’, and ‘printmaking’. we subsequently expand our set of artists by means of another online database, artcyclopedia [http://www.artcyclopedia.com]. this raises the number of artists to , . we then compose a list of thirteen art movements: medieval & renaissance; baroque; rococo; neoclassicism; romanticism; realism; impressionism & symbolism; fauvism & expressionism; cubism, futurism & constructivism; dada & surrealism; abstract expressionism; pop; and minimalism & contemporary. when possible, we classify our artists into one of these categories, based on the ‘styles and cultures’ from grove art online and ‘art movements’ of artcyclopedia. we can put , artists into at least one art movement. next, we expand our data set in two more ways, to correct for the possible underrepresentation of modern and contemporary art. we compare the index of the influential book ‘modern art’ (britt, ) to our data set and add modern artists to our list (with classification). the book also enables us to assign another artists not yet classified to a specific art movement. next, in order to have a representative and up-to-date sample of contemporary artists, we consult wikipedia [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_contemporary_artists] in april . we can add artists, bringing our list to , artists in total; other artists can now be classified in minimalism & contemporary. finally, we check for pseudonyms and different spellings of all artists’ names. appendix b – titles and topics we use the first word(s) of the title to classify works in topic categories. most titles in our database are in english, but we also include french keywords in our analysis. we avoid search strings that can be used in different contexts. sometimes we only search for titles no longer than one word or in which the word is followed by a space (e.g., “cat_”) to avoid misclassifications due to longer words with identical first characters (e.g., “catholic”). these are the topic categories, along with their search strings: abstract (“abstract”, “composition”), animals (“horse”, “cheval”, “chevaux”, “cow_”, “cows”, “vache”, “cattle”, “cat_”, “cats”, “chat_ “, “dog_”, “dogs”, “chien”, “sheep”, “mouton”, “bird”, “oiseau”), landscape (“landscape”, “country landscape”, “coastal landscape”, “paysage”, “seascape”, “sea_”, “mer_”, “mountain”, “river”, “riviere”, “lake”, “lac_”, “valley”, “vallee”), nude (“nude”, “nu_”, “nue_”), people (“people”, “personnage”, “family”, “famille”, “boy”, “garcon”, “girl”, “fille”, “man_”, “men_”, “homme”, “woman”, “women”, “femme”, “child”, “enfant”, “couple”, “mother”, “mere_”, “father”, “pere_”, “lady”, “dame”), portrait (“portrait”), religion (“jesus”, “christ_”, “apostle”, “ange_”, “angel”, “saint_”, “madonna”, “holy_”, “mary magdalene”, “annunciation”, “annonciation”, “adoration”, “adam and eve”, “adam et eve”, “crucifixion”, “last supper”), self-portrait (“self-portrait”, “self portrait”, “auto-portrait”, “autoportrait”), still_life (“still life”, “nature morte”, “bouquet”), untitled (“untitled”, “sans titre”), urban (“city”, “ville”, “town”, “village”, “street”, “rue”, “market”, “marche”, “harbour”, “port_”, “paris”, “london”, “londres”, “new york”, “amsterdam”, “rome_”, “venice”, “venise”). appendix c – important european and american auction houses the auction_european category includes all sales by: lyon & turnbull (scotland), francis briest / artcurial briest (france), ader, picard & tajan / ader & tajan / tajan (france), bruun rasmussen (denmark), dorotheum (austria), koller (switzerland), lempertz (germany), neumeister (germany), finarte (italy), bukowskis (sweden), stockholms auktionsverk (sweden). the auction_american category includes all sales by: butterfields (until ), swann auction galleries, skinner, doyle new york, freeman’s, leslie hindman. references aït-sahalia, y., parker, j., yogo, m. “luxury goods and the equity premium.” journal of finance ( ), - . agnello, r., pierce, r. “financial returns, price determinants, and genre effects in american art investment.” journal of cultural economics ( ), - . anderson, r. “paintings as an investment.” economic inquiry ( ), - . artprice. art market trends . artprice.com ( ). ashenfelter, o., graddy, k. “auctions and the price of art.” journal of economic literature ( ), - . baker, m., stein, j. “market liquidity as a sentiment indicator.” journal of financial markets ( ), - . baker, m., wurgler, j. “investor sentiment and the cross-section of stock returns.” journal of finance ( ), - . baumol, w. “unnatural value: or art investment as floating crap game.” american economic review (aea papers and proceedings) ( ), - . britt, d. 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examining the pros and cons of allowing passion into your portfolio.” the wall street journal europe, the journal report: wealth adviser, september ( ). working, h. “note on the correlation of first differences of averages in a random chain.” econometrica ( ), - . zietz, j., zietz, e., sirmans, g. “determinants of house prices: a quantile regression approach.” journal of real estate finance and economics ( ), - . table – descriptive statistics hedonic variables table displays the descriptive statistics for the hedonic variables used in this study. textbook is a dummy variable that equals one if the artist was included in the last edition of ‘gardner’s art through the ages’ ( , , , , or ) prior to the sale. exhibition is a dummy variable that equals one once the artist has exhibited at the documenta art exhibition in kassel, germany. deceased equals one in case the artist is dead at the time of the sale. the attribution dummies attributed, studio, circle, school, after, and style equal one if the auction catalogue identifies the work as being “attributed to” the artist, from the “studio” of that artist, from the “circle” of the artist, from the artist’s “school”, “after” the artist, or “in the style of” the artist, respectively. the authenticity dummies signed and dated take the value of one if the work carries a signature of the artist or is dated, respectively. the medium dummies oil, watercolor, and drawing indicate whether the work is an oil painting, a watercolor (or a gouache), or another work on paper. the variables height and width measure the height and the width of the work in inches. the topic dummies are based on the first word(s) of the title of the work (cf. appendix b). the month dummies indicate the month of the sale. the auction house dummies soth_london, soth_ny, soth_other, chr_london, chr_ny, chr_other, bon_london, bon_other, phil_london, and phil_other equal one if the sale takes place at sotheby’s london, sotheby’s new york, another branch of sotheby’s, christie’s london, christie’s new york, another branch of christie’s, bonhams london, another office of bonhams, phillips london, or another sales room of phillips, respectively. auction_european and auction_american are dummy variables that equal one if the sale takes place at a large continental european or a large american auction house, respectively (cf. appendix c). for each variable, we report the number of observations (n), the mean, and the standard deviation (s.d.). for dummy variables, we also show the number of zeros and ones. n mean s.d. artist characteristics textbook , , . . , , exhibition , , . . , , deceased , , . . , , work characteristics attribution dummies attributed , , . . , , , studio , , . . , , , circle , , . . , , , school , , . . , , , after , , . . , , , style , , . . , , , authenticity dummies signed , , . . , , dated , , . . , , medium dummies oil , , . . , , watercolor , , . . , , drawing , , . . , , size variables height , , . . width , , . . topic dummies study , , . . , , , abstract , , . . , , , animals , , . . , , , landscape , , . . , , , nude , , . . , , , people , , . . , , , portrait , , . . , , , religion , , . . , , , self-portrait , , . . , , , still_life , , . . , , , untitled , , . . , , , urban , , . . , , , sale characteristics month dummies january , , . . , , , february , , . . , , , march , , . . , , april , , . . , , may , , . . , , june , , . . , , july , , . . , , , august , , . . , , , september , , . . , , , october , , . . , , november , , . . , , december , , . . , , auction house dummies soth_london , , . . , , soth_ny , , . . , , soth_other , , . . , , , chr_london , , . . , , chr_ny , , . . , , , chr_other , , . . , , , bon_london , , . . , , , bon_other , , . . , , , phil_london , , . . , , , phil_other , , . . , , , auction_european , , . . , , auction_american , , . . , , , table – baseline hedonic regression results table presents the baseline hedonic regression results. eq. ( ) is estimated using ols. the dependent variable is the natural log of the price in year usd. the descriptive statistics for the independent variables are shown in table . for each variable, we report the coefficient (β), the standard deviation (s.d.), and the price impact (i.e., the exponent of the coefficient minus one). the number of observations (n) and the r-squared (r ) are presented at the bottom of the table. β s.d. exp(β) - year dummies [included] artist characteristics artist dummies [included] textbook . . . % work characteristics attribution dummies attributed - . . - . % studio - . . - . % circle - . . - . % school - . . - . % after - . . - . % style - . . - . % authenticity dummies signed . . . % dated . . . % medium dummies oil [left out] watercolor - . . - . % drawing - . . - . % size variables height . . . % width . . . % height_ - . . - . % width_ - . . - . % topic dummies study - . . - . % abstract - . . - . % animals - . . - . % landscape - . . - . % nude - . . - . % people - . . - . % portrait - . . - . % religion - . . - . % self-portrait . . . % still_life . . . % untitled - . . - . % urban . . . % sale characteristics month dummies january [left out] february - . . - . % march . . . % april . . . % may . . . % june . . . % july . . . % august - . . - . % september - . . - . % october . . . % november . . . % december . . . % auction house dummies soth_london . . . % soth_ny . . . % soth_other . . . % chr_london . . . % chr_ny . . . % chr_other . . . % bon_london . . . % bon_other - . . - . % phil_london . . . % phil_other . . . % auction_european . . . % auction_american - . . - . % n , , r . table – baseline art price indices and art returns table presents the art price indices and returns for the baseline hedonic regression model detailed in table . for each year, we report the dummy coefficient (γ), the standard deviation (s.d.), the variance of the residuals (σ ), the uncorrected price index and return (Π and r), and the price index and return that are corrected for changes in price dispersion over time (Π* and r*) (cf. section iii). index values for are geometrically interpolated. year γ s.d. σ Π r Π* r* . . . - . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . - . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % - - - . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . - . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . - . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . - . % . - . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % . . . . . % . . % table – annualized returns for baseline indices, robustness checks, and extensions panel a of table presents the annualized (i.e., geometric average) returns and standard deviations (s.d.) over the periods - and - for the baseline art price indices detailed in table . it also shows the number of observations (n) included in the estimation. panel b shows the results for a number of robustness checks (cf. section iv.b). panel c repeats the adjacent-period hedonic model using quantile regressions (cf. section iv.c). panel d presents the rsr results for two different trading strategies (cf. section iv.d). panel e shows the return estimates (corrected for changes in price dispersion over time) for the different mediums and movements considered in this study (cf. section iv.e). n real returns - - mean s.d. mean s.d. panel a: baseline indices art price index Π , , . % . % . % . % art price index Π* , , . % . % . % . % panel b: robustness checks (compare to Π) drop topic dummies , , . % . % . % . % exclude artists < sales , . % . % . % . % exclude min. & cont. , , . % . % . % . % adjacent-period model - - - . % . % repeat-sales regression (rsr) , (x ) - - . % . % panel c: quantile regressions q , - - . % . % q , - - . % . % q , - - . % . % q , - - . % . % q , - - . % . % panel d: trading strategies (compare to rsr) “masterpiece” strategy , (x ) - - . % . % “value” strategy (x ) - - . % . % panel e: indices per medium and per movement oil , . % . % . % . % watercolor , . % . % . % . % drawing , . % . % . % . % medieval & renaissance , . % . % . % . % baroque , . % . % . % . % rococo , . % . % . % . % neoclassicism , . % . % . % . % romanticism , . % . % . % . % realism , . % . % . % . % impressionism & symbolism , . % . % . % . % fauvism & expressionism , . % . % . % . % cubism, futurism & constr. , . % . % . % . % dada & surrealism , . % . % . % . % abstract expressionism , - - . % . % pop , - - . % . % minimalism & contemporary , - - . % . % table – art versus other assets panel a of table displays the geometric mean real returns on art and other assets since and since . the real returns on art are based on our corrected price index Π*, and are shown in table . the return data for the financial assets, gold, and commodities come from global financial data. data for u.s. real estate come from shiller ( ). the panel also includes the standard deviation (s.d.) of the returns, and the arithmetic sharpe ratio (i.e., the arithmetic average excess return divided by its standard deviation). the standard deviations for art are based on a desmoothed return series (cf. section v). the return on t-bills is used as a proxy for the risk-free rate. panel b shows the pairwise correlations between the returns since . correlation coefficients that are significantly different from zero at the . level are displayed in bold. panel a: comparison of investment performance real returns - - mean s.d. sharpe mean s.d. sharpe art . % . % . . % . % . t-bills . % . % n.a. . % . % n.a. u.s. government bonds . % . % . . % . % . dj corporate bonds . % . % . . % . % . global government bonds . % . % . . % . % . s&p stocks . % . % . . % . % . global stocks . % . % . . % . % . gold . % . % . - . % . % - . commodities . % . % . . % . % . u.s. real estate . % . % - . . % . % . panel b: correlations of returns a rt t -b ill s u .s . g ov er nm en t b on ds d j co rp or at e bo nd s g lo ba l g ov er nm en t b on ds s& p st oc ks g lo ba l s to ck s g ol d c om m od iti es u .s . r ea l e st at e art . t-bills . . u.s. government bonds - . . . dj corporate bonds - . . . . global government bonds - . . . . . s&p stocks - . . . . . . global stocks . . . . . . . gold . - . - . - . - . - . - . . commodities . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . u.s. real estate . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . table – explaining the returns on art table presents the results of a linear regression of art returns on a number of independent variables, over the period - . below each coefficient, we report newey-west standard errors that control for heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation up to two lags. the real returns on art are based on our corrected price index Π*, and are shown in table . model ( ) only includes same-year and lagged global stock returns, from global financial data, as independent variables. column ( ) adds (lagged and standardized) data from the university of michigan’s survey of consumers on the attitude of high-income (upper third) consumers with respect to the purchase of “major household items”. model ( ) adds a newly constructed (lagged and standardized) art market sentiment measure, based on volume and buy-in rates at high-profile auctions, and on media reports (cf. section vi). the number of observations (n) and the adjusted r-squared (r ) are presented at the bottom of the table. ( ) ( ) ( ) dependent variable: real returns on art same-year global stock returns . . . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) previous-year global stock returns . ** . * . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) high-income consumer confidence . *** . ** ( . ) ( . ) art market sentiment . ** ( . ) n adjusted r . . . figure – hedonic price indices figure presents the baseline art price indices detailed in table . Π is the uncorrected price index, while Π* corrects for changes in price dispersion over time. the figure also includes the average and median real price for each year in our data set. figure – quantile regressions figure presents the art price indices that result from repeating the adjacent-period hedonic model using quantile regressions (cf. section iv.c). Π (uncorrected) Π* (corrected) average real price median real price q q q q q figure – trading strategies figure presents the index that results from applying an rsr to all item pairs that are considered to be repeated transactions (cf. section iv.b), and the art price indices for a “masterpieces” and a “value” trading strategy (cf. section iv.d). figure – indices per movement figure presents the (corrected) art price indices for three different movements: rococo; cubism, futurism & constructivism; and pop (cf. section iv.e). rsr masterpiece value , , , rococo cubism, futurism & constructivism pop figure – art market sentiment figure presents the end-of-year values for the art market sentiment measure used in this study. it is based on volume and buy-in rates at high-profile auctions, and on media reports (cf. section vi). it is standardized to have zero mean and unit variance. - - - fin.indd © nature publishing group :.::..: :__ __________ cqrrespqndence-----n_a_tu_re_v_o_l. _ _to_m_a_rc_h_i particle physics programme sir-steven weinberg's commentary article (nature , ; ) presented the prevalent view that particle physics (defined as quantum field theory, general relativity and related areas of astrophysics and cosmology) is "at a level which is in fact in absolute terms quite deep, perhaps close to the final source". this optimistic view needs to be balanced by a more criti- cal look at current problems in particle physics. the 'standard model' of particle phy- sics has not been able to retrodict, let alone predict, the masses of quarks and leptons or to provide an explanation for the organization of particles into regular families. the mass and interaction charac- teristics of the hypothetical higgs boson, a key particle, cannot be predicted. many variants on the particle physics theme require more dimensions than the familiar four of space- time, but there is no known way to test for them. the hypothesized unification of the four forces is predicted to occur at energy levels that will probably never be accessible to experiment. quark confinement, charm, the 'quark-antiquark sea', gluons, the higgs mechanism and renormalization all 'work', but they are ad hoc theoretical fixes to contradictions between theory and observation. the hypothetical magnetic monopole is another key particle in the elementary particle pantheon, yet after years of assiduous searching (and readjusting of parameters) physicists are still waiting for a real detection of a mag- netic monopole. one wonders if particle physicists would allow nature to answer in the negative on this crucial issue. the fundamental prediction of the standard model, that spin would be irrelevant to high-energy elastic scattering, has been falsified by kirsch's scattering experi- ments over the past decade. in summary, there are at least basic parameters that are crucial to the particle physics programme (such as particle masses, coupling strengths, magnitudes of cp-violations and so on) that cannot be rigorously derived and are therefore manually adjusted to agree with observa- tions. superstring theory, which has most particle physicists in a highly excited state, is completely untestable, for now and for the foreseeable future. on the cosmological front, things are somewhat worse. in the standard cos- mological model, the big bang (with or without inflation), the key events in the evolution of the universe are supposed to have taken place within - s of the big bang, and thus are empirically unveri- fiable. none of the popular and much- touted models predicted the existence of the dark matter, the large-scale streaming of galaxies or the existence of structures on scales larger than million light years. the very existence of galaxies has never been adequately explained by any of the widely accepted theories of cosmol- ogy, astrophysics or particle physics. one could go on, but perhaps the point has been made. the particle physics pro- gramme and its offshoots in astrophysics and cosmology are plagued by funda- mental gaps, untestable assumptions and ad hoc fixes. it is possible that these prob- lems will be overcome gradually in the coming decades, but the contention that we are on the verge of a complete unifica- tion of physics, "perhaps close to the final source", is still wishful theoretical whistling against a stiff empirical wind. robert l. ldersha w west pelham road shutesbury, massachusetts , usa exploiting authors sir-the publication of increasing num- bers of multi-author scientific works may be leading to the exploitation of contribut- ing authors. in the past couple of years, i myself have been invited to contribute to four such books, with three us publishers and one european. each publisher offered to pay about £ a printed page. some very approximate sums indicate what contributors lose by accepting such offers. consider a book of pages with chapters, each with a different author, the volume costing £ . at £ a page, each author receives £ ; but were per cent royalties (a usual rate for ordinary scienti- fic books of reputable publishers) divided equitably among the authors on a sale of, say, , copies, each author would receive £ , . even if i have over- estimated sales by a factor of two, the argument would still be valid. five years ago, watkinson (nature , ; ) told us that most of the royal- ties on multi-authored works went to the editors. this arrangement is absurd as, in my experience, few editors do much editing and, indeed, they seldom earn their per cent, or whatever. although there must be some honourable excep- tions, editors seldom do most of the work. young scientists have a special need to publish as much as they can to further their careers. they are delighted to receive any money for an article, which they would usually be glad to have accepted by an academic journal, without remuneration. so they are easy prey for the rapacious publisher. professional institutes and learned societies might well join together to negotiate minimum rates and other conditions, such as compensa- tion for unduly delayed publication. this would especially benefit those of their members who are inexperienced or do not have the clout to deal with commercially minded enterprises. the publishers them- selves should appreciate that they would also benefit, because appropriate royalties would give authors a stronger motive to complete contributions on time, so that a book would be more up to date when published and, hence, more worthwhile buying. james a. barnett school of biological sciences, university of east anglia, norwich nr tj, uk an artist's eye sir-as a corollary of recent correspond- ence (nature , ; ) about eye de- fects inferred from the paintings of el greco, what are we to make of lowry's matchstick men? can van gogh's vibrant use of colour be attributed to x-linked colour blindness, or braque's cubism to possession of a compound eye by goldschmidtian macromutation? the preceding letter on the same page was headed: "god does not need science ... " -neither does the art critic. graham wallis , redfern street, subiaco, wa , australia sir-the theory that el greco had astig- matism was floated in the paris medical chronicle in ; and it was taken up vigorously in the following decades by (largely german) oculists, who ingeniously countered - as did a.c. dornhorst (nature , ; ) - the obvious objections that had been raised. these were discussed in a book i wrote years ago (the world through blunted sight, thames & hudson, london, ), con- cluding that in the astigmatic artist "some such influence" was "just conceivable", because, as nicholas evans pointed out (nature , ; ), perceptual aesthetics can never be linked securely to organic anomalies, such as the shape of the eyeball. when i first read sir peter medawar's passage ridiculing the "nameless ophthal- mologist" who surmised that el greco was astigmatic (which you so applauded in your leading article , ; ) i did draw his attention to the words i had actually used - labelling it as "this time- honoured (and indeed least probable) of all the theories propounding an organic influence on the artist's style". i was hoping that, if proved to be that nameless culprit, i had been misquoted to him, and so might be exonerated. his secretary confirmed that he had received my letter, but declared that he was "too unwell to deal with such correspondence". patrick trevor-roper park square west, regents park, london nw u, uk 	particle physics programme an application for the study of art movements procedia computer science ( ) – - © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the international conference on virtual and augmented reality in education (vare ) doi: . /j.procs. . . sciencedirect available online at www.sciencedirect.com international conference on virtual and augmented reality in education an application for the study of art movements j. arámburo-lizárragaa*, jorge c. sanabriaa a centro universitario de ciencias económico administrativas. cucea-universidad de guadalajara. periférico norte n° , núcleo universitario los belenes, zapopan, jalisco, c.p. , méxico. abstract this work presents a general architecture for creating an application called the art movement learning app (amla), whereby students can familiarize themselves with key characteristics of a given art movement (such as surrealism), using technology, and appropriate the experience through their own artistic creation in a mixed reality environment. the architecture consists of two modules. the first is an apprentice art-and-technology familiarization module, wherein a specific art movement is introduced through a cumulative sequence of six phases, using a digital surface: ( ) observation, where students analyze images portraying key characteristics of the chosen movement; ( ) combination, including a set of tools that enables the combination of d images and d models, in light of these characteristics; ( ) association, where key elements abstracted from a given artwork are matched with their location in the original artwork; ( ) grouping, where students determine the characteristics shared by a given set of artworks; ( ) discernment, where students choose from a pair of images, one of which belongs to the art movement that the amla was configured to introduce; and finally ( ) evaluation by peers, where the artworks created in phase are evaluated by other students, using a preset scale. the major features of the art movement to be used as stimuli are selected in advance, after which the amla configures the respective phases. the second amla module is an augmented reality module, enabling students to create artworks displayed in mixed reality scenarios. this module consists of two phases: one wherein a student creates an artwork in a specific real-world environment, which is associated, by gps coordinates or location-based services (lbs), with a physical object; and a second phase, wherein artworks are displayed as part of the app, so that anyone downloading the application can view the students’ work, and evaluate it using an affective-response scale. user registration is necessary in order to access the first module; thus, if the application is downloaded without registration, only the final phase, of the second module, will be shown (i.e., artworks are displayed with augmented reality using gps coordinates or lbs). the objective of the amla is to present an interactive process, through various stages, involving a set of actions enabling students to learn more about the characteristics of art movements, while enhancing both their creative skills and their art-perception experience. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under the responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on virtual and augmented reality in education (vare ). keywords: art movement learning app (amla); gradual immersion method (gim); augmented reality (ar); application development. * corresponding author. tel.: + ( ) ext. e-mail address: jaramburo@cucea.udg.mx © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the international conference on virtual and augmented reality in education (vare ) http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.procs. . . &domain=pdf j. arámburo-lizárraga and jorge c. sanabria / procedia computer science ( ) – . introduction the increasing adoption of augmented reality (ar) by digital artists is not surprising, given the medium’s interactivity and the potential use of the world as a canvas. defined as a system that supplements reality by incorporating virtual elements that coexist in the same space, ar allows interaction in real time with d images and graphics, though it may also be applied to the broader senses (e.g., in the form of audio or tactile feedback) [ ]. museums and multidisciplinary laboratories around the world continue to explore potential implementations of ar through innovative exhibitions which seek to draw audiences into interactive tridimensional scenarios, as demonstrated by the seven-year joint study at the louvre-dnp museum laboratory in tokyo [ ][ ]. however, art education presents its own outreach challenges, beyond the artistic motivation and desire to entertain an audience, since pedagogical methods must often be suited to appropriate technologies in order to provide evidence of learning and/or visitor impact [ ]. the application of ar as a means for creative skills development in educational contexts has proven to be a useful tool, with significant promise of further learning enhancement [ ]. as the access of institutions and individuals to technologies increases, so does the need to provide software tools that support institutional curricula, and can leverage both non-formal and informal learning (for instance, after visiting a museum), given the increased recognition gained by both types of learning with regard to educational and training policy [ ]. in addition, software tools should be designed with consideration of the current devices available, in order to improve the user experience; and different combinations of devices, simultaneously or alternately employed, should be considered, in order to exploit students’ potential to accomplish learning tasks individually and/or collectively (e.g., tablets and mobiles, pcs and tablets, etc.) [ ]. art exhibitions have for some time incorporated multimedia elements, and now audiences are witnessing the potential of ar to generate a physical-digital mixed reality world. within the broader notion of mixed reality, itself part of the “reality-virtuality continuum” [ ] (fig. ), ar typically involves a predominance of the physical world with a few digital elements, in contrast to augmented virtuality (av) where the virtual world predominates over the physical. the present study can be clearly located in the ar band of the continuum, given the software’s implementation in an open real-world environment. fig. . reality-virtuality continuum. [ ] the basic hardware required to implement an ar system includes a video camera and a user interface, to combine real-world and digital elements, with optional technologies (such as gps technology or image recognition software) used to enhance the experience [ ]. in the diagram below (fig. ), three types of ar display are depicted in relation to the physical environment and the user: head-attached, hand-held, and spatial [ ]. given the increasing use of portable devices, the hand-held display system has found increasing usage with ar apps, and this system was employed in the present study. learning acquired alternatively to school (formal learning), but more flexible, which may lead to qualifications and other recognitions by means such as validation and accreditation processes. [ ] “learning that occurs in daily life, in the family, in the workplace, in communities and through interests and activities of individuals. through the recognition, validation and accreditation process, competences gained in informal learning can be made visible, and can contribute to qualifications and other recognitions. in some cases, the term experiential learning is used to refer to informal learning that focuses on learning from experience.”[ ] j. arámburo-lizárraga and jorge c. sanabria / procedia computer science ( ) – fig. . ar visual display techniques and positioning. [ ] in light of the foregoing, this study proposed and tested a software tool, supported by digital surfaces (i.e., interactive white boards) and an ar system, with the objective of enhancing both creative skills and the study of art movements. ultimately, the proposed application aims to provide supplementary support for the creative study of art movements introduced in school or in museums. . art movement learning app (amla) the art movement learning app (amla) was conceived to support an art-and-technology research project focused on enhancing creative skills. the amla’s goal is to familiarize students with key characteristics of a given art movement (such as surrealism), while appropriating the desired technological experience through their own artistic creation in a mixed reality environment. the project was developed based on the gradual immersion method (gim) [ ], an approach that facilitates student familiarization with a learning objective (content) and relevant technologies, by performing intuitive tasks. as aforementioned, the amla’s architecture consists of two modules: ( ) an apprentice art-and-technology familiarization module, and ( ) an ar art creation module. . . apprentice art-and-technology familiarization module in the first module, groups of students learn about the essential characteristics of a given art movement, understanding and responding to key characteristics of the movement, and finally evaluating related work done by their peers from this acquired point of view. a specific art movement is introduced through a cumulative sequence of six phases (fig. ), using a digital surface: ( ) observation, where students analyze images portraying key characteristics of the chosen movement; ( ) combination, including a set of tools that enables the combination of d images and d models, in light of these characteristics; ( ) association, where key elements abstracted from a given artwork are matched with their location in the original artwork; ( ) grouping, where students determine the characteristics shared by a given set of artworks; ( ) discernment, where students choose from a pair of images, one j. arámburo-lizárraga and jorge c. sanabria / procedia computer science ( ) – of which belongs to the art movement that the amla was configured to introduce; and finally ( ) evaluation by peers, where the artworks created in phase are evaluated by other students, using a preset scale. the major features of the art movement to be used as stimuli are selected in advance, after which the amla configures the respective phases. fig. . phases of amla module . the amla was developed using the unity d engine [ ], a d and d development platform for creating interactive experiences. the architecture of the amla considers four concepts that unity incorporates to create any application: ( ) assets, content files (e.g., images, audio files, d models) required to make an app; ( ) ‘gameobjects’, containers which users program and design to execute an action (e.g., an image viewer within a graphical user interface (gui)); ( ) scenes, where gameobjects are kept (e.g., in a level-based game each scene can be a level); and ( ) scripts, the necessary codes for creating events to provide the expected interactive experience (e.g., to validate the input from a user). the global architecture of the amla, based on this developmental structure, is shown in fig. , including all implemented components. the amla uses unity as its engine to create the phases, processes, and behaviors, as a mirror match of the unity structure, where assets are translated as contents such as graphic work, d objects, codes, and particularly artwork stimuli carefully selected by experts in the targeted art movement (e.g., surrealism, cubism). the scene configurations are constructed using the provided assets, to determine the target behavior for each phase, which in turn requires the programming of different processes in order to achieve such behavior. fig. . global proposal architecture matching amla to unity structure. regarding the contents of each phase, there are three types of components: customized (c), required (r), and optional (o) (fig. ). the customized component in the amla, referred to as the ‘avatar’, is an icon chosen by each group of students as part of a previous registration process, and includes three characteristics: ( ) group team name, ( ) an image to identify the group, and ( ) each student’s id number. the required components, referred to as the ‘instruction panel’, ‘goal phase’, and ‘user interface’, describe the topic that identifies each phase: the instruction panel provides directions about the task to be performed by the students in each phase; the goal phase is the main component, containing the necessary processes for the student to achieve the phase objective; and the user interface integrates the typical navigation events in a given phase (e.g., command buttons). finally, the optional component, unity scene gameobjects scripts amla engine phases processes behaviors j. arámburo-lizárraga and jorge c. sanabria / procedia computer science ( ) – referred to as the ‘criteria panel’, allows students to individually input text, as required by the instructions at the beginning of the task. fig. . amla phase components. the processes involved in achieving each goal phase of the amla are shown below (fig. ). each phase integrates a number of processes, either performed by the users or automatically executed by the app, which are implemented to achieve the particular goal phase. for instance, in the ‘observation’ phase, where students are instructed to analyze images portraying key characteristics of a chosen movement, three processes are required: ‘browse within the reel’, ‘load images’, and ‘display images in a horizontal reel’. the processes involved are translated into scripting behavior so they can be compiled by the unity engine. fig. . processes to achieve goal phases of amla module . . . augmented reality module this module, used to create artworks displayed in mixed reality scenarios, consists of two phases: field mounting, and work exhibition (fig. ). scripting was programmed using c# language. j. arámburo-lizárraga and jorge c. sanabria / procedia computer science ( ) – in the first phase, field mounting, each student creates an artwork in a specific real-world environment, by combining a physical and a digital object. the gim for d digital creation involves a sequence of d capture in the field, d capture in the lab, d-model mounting in the lab, and field mounting of the final artwork. however, only the last stage of the gim is performed by the amla; that is, the resulting d digital object is associated, either by gps coordinates or location-based services (lbs), with the physical object. in the second phase, work exhibition, students’ final d artworks, already associated with gps or lbs coordinates, are displayed as part of the app, such that anyone downloading the application can view the students’ work in the physical environment, and can evaluate their work using an affective-response scale. fig. . phases of amla module . fig. shows the processes necessary for completing the augmented reality module. user registration is necessary in order to access the first module; thus, if the application is downloaded without registration, only the final phase, of the second module, will be shown (i.e., artworks are displayed with augmented reality using gps coordinates or lbs). the objective of the amla is to present an interactive process, through various stages, involving a set of actions enabling students to learn more about the characteristics of art movements, while enhancing both their creative skills and their art-perception experience. fig. . processes to achieve goal phases of amla module . activate camera load final d artworks load gps or lbs coordinates apply actions to the final artworks • select • move • rotate • scale • add tags or additional elements associate artworks with gps or lbs coordinates activate camera show artwork evaluate works using scales save evaluation capture screenshot j. arámburo-lizárraga and jorge c. sanabria / procedia computer science ( ) – . . amla app prototype after determining which processes are necessary for each of the amla modules and , an app prototype was developed. fig. shows a screenshot of amla phase (‘observation’) of module , with the relevant components and processes involved. fig. . processes and components of amla module -phase . fig. screenshot of amla phase (‘field mounting’) of module using ar, with the relevant components and processes. the text in the interface reads: “project ra-s; phase ; instructions: observe the following images and reflect on their common characteristics. when you are done, individually enter the digital keyboard and type these characteristics in the file named ‘criteria’. remember to include your participant id (a , b , etc.) at the beginning of each contribution; back, forward (command buttons)”. main picture by max shoes ©. browse within the reel load images display images in a horizontal reel browse within the reel j. arámburo-lizárraga and jorge c. sanabria / procedia computer science ( ) – fig. . processes and components of amla module -phase . . conclusions the amla’s global architecture software can be easily adapted to a wide range of configuration possibilities, to suit the given pedagogical context; for example, by varying the content in the ‘goal phase’ component (adjusting the input assets to reflect different art-movement educational objectives, based on a given institution’s curricula). the interface, both for the digital surface and for the portable devices, properly introduces the intended objectives of the respective modular phases. the software was initially configured to incorporate the chosen art movement (surrealism) in all the structural phases, but will be further augmented, with the participation of high school students, in the near future. the second module, which employs ar as a creative tool, integrates key ar characteristics from the mutually beneficial perspectives of the art creator, using the app for artwork field mounting, and the audience, using the app for observation of the created artwork. the amla app prototype will be updated and enhanced through future implementations with students. acknowledgements conacyt supported this study with a postdoctoral research grant for - . the authors would like to thank the ati-center of experiences for providing the equipment and laboratory required to perform tests of amla module in the mind building in guadalajara city, mexico. the text in the interface reads: in the left column from top down, “latitude; longitude; erase, labels, audio”; in the right column, “activate, d, associate data”. load gps or lbs coordinates apply actions to the final artworks • select • move • rotate • scale • add tags or additional elements associate artworks with gps or lbs coordinates activate camera load final d artworks j. arámburo-lizárraga and jorge c. sanabria / procedia computer science ( ) – references . azuma r. a survey of augmented reality. presence: teleoperators and virtual environments. ; ( ): - . . miyashita t, meier p, tachikawa t, orlic s, eble t, scholz v, gapel a, gerl o, arnaudov s, lieberknecht s. an augmented reality museum guide. proc. th ieee/acm international symposium on mixed and augmented reality ; pp. - . ieee computer society. . sanabria j. new approaches to outreach in art museums. journal of japan society of kansei engineering. ; ( ): . . hooper-greenhill e, dodd j, moussouri t, jones c, pickford c, herman c, morrison m. measuring the outcomes and impact of learning in museums, libraries and archives. research centre for museums and galleries & museums, libraries and archives council. . . bower m, howe c, mccredie n, robinson a, grover d. augmented reality in education – cases, places and potentials. educational media international, ( ): - . unesco institute for lifelong learning. unesco guidelines for the recognition, validation and accreditation of the outcomes of non- formal and informal learning. uil, germany. . available from: < http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ / / e.pdf> . piazza t, fjeld m, ramos g, yantac a, zhao s. holy smartphones and tablets, batman!: mobile interaction's dynamic duo, in proceedings of the th asia pacific conference on computer human interaction. acm. , pp. - . . milgram p, kishino f. a taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. ieice trans. information and systems. ; e -d( ): – . . johnson l, smith r, levine a, haywood k. the horizon report: australia – new zealand edition. austin, texas: t. n. m. consortium; . . bimber o, rakar r. spatial augmented reality. merging real and virtual worlds. a. k. peters, ltd.; . . sanabria j. el método de inmersión gradual (mig): transición a la realidad aumentada en la educación. in: chan me, editor. modelos y estrategias educativas en ambientes virtuales. university of guadalajara; (forthcoming). . available from: <https://unity d.com/unity>. in my last column i discussed a problem faced by film-makers who want to show simultaneous action hap- pening in different places. if two or more locations are near one another, we might be able to catch them all with a single camera. but if the actions are happening far away from one another, or a single image doesn’t capture everything the way we’d prefer, we have a challenge. one common solution is to use a split-screen effect, where two or more images are shown simultaneously and separated by a black bar, as figure c shows. another common technique is to edit the piece togeth- er in such a way that the audience realizes that what they’re viewing sequentially (or in alternation) repre- sents action that should be interpreted as simultaneous in the world of the story. i wanted to find another option, which would allow me to show disparate events in a single frame, imaged by different cameras in different places, yet all smooth- ly joined together visually. i developed a technique that i call the multicamera collage, or mcc. figure d shows how mcc could handle the split-screen example. figure recaps the basic idea behind creating figure d. the following summary is a brief overview of the approach; you can find more details and discussion in my may/june column. to make a single image using the mcc, you first render several views of your scene. you can make each render- ing with any camera located in any position; the cameras can even be custom camera shaders if they’re useful to you. figures a through c show three such images. after running a program that processes the images, load the resulting pictures up into any image-editing pro- gram that supports layers, such as adobe photoshop or corel painter. then use any selection tool you like to choose the pieces of each image you want in the final frame. place a black background behind your images to fill in the holes. you can choose from the images any way you like: pick one big blob from this camera, five little blobs from another, and a circle from the third. there’s no restriction on how many image pieces you can use for each camera, or what the shapes of those pieces should be. the result is a collage. figure d shows one possible collage for our example. at this point you can also cre- ate an optional region image, which i’ll discuss later. that’s it for your involvement. just run another pro- gram that processes the collage (as well as some other files automatically created when you made your ren- dered images) and then hand it back to your d model- ing or rendering system to create a new, smoothly interpolated image. figure e shows the results for our collage in figure d. if you’re working in animation, you can create as many keyframes this way as you like. each keyframe can have a different number of cameras, a different number of regions, and so on. in fact, keyframes need not even have any cameras in common. just choose the cameras you want for each frame and draw the collages that you like, and the frames in between will interpolate smooth- ly just like the still images themselves. now that we’ve quickly reviewed the workflow, let’s open the hood and look inside to see what programs are involved and how they work. under the hood the mcc is a collection of five programs: two shaders and three standalone programs. the shaders capture andrew glassner digital cubism, part ______________________________ andrew glassner’s notebook http://www.glassner.com july/august published by the ieee computer society - / /$ . © ieee (a) (b) (c) (d) (a, b) two people having a chat in their local cafe. (c) split-screen version of the scene. (d) multicamera collage version of the same shot. data from the rendering program when making the ini- tial images, and supply new data for rerendering. the standalone programs prepare the images for collaging, process individual collages, and build in-between frames for animation. let’s run through the general flow again, pointing out where each of these programs is involved. for simplicity, i’ll assume we’re just making a single frame, rather than an animated sequence. start off by rendering your scene from as many dif- ferent points of view as you like, using your d system’s built-in cameras. during this process, you tell the pro- gram to use a custom lens shader, which i call the lens writer. this writes an auxiliary data file during the ren- dering process, saving information about each screen ray fired by the renderer. when the frames are rendered, run them through the camera tagger program. this mod- ifies the pixels in each rendered image so that we can later identify which camera was used to create each pixel. load up these modified images into any image-edit- ing program that supports layers. behind them, place a black background. using a selection tool, cut away the parts of each image that you don’t want in the final, and save the result as a collage. now run another program— called the lens builder—which creates a new file that provides one ray per pixel to guide the rerendering process. now open up your d scene again, but tell the ren- derer to use a camera shader i call the lens reader, and render the image. it reads the file created by the lens builder to build rays that generate a new image that looks like your collage, but with the black regions smoothly filled in with scene views. if you’re making an animated sequence, you’ll prob- ably want to make several collage files at different points in the sequence. you’d then run the in-betweener, which creates one rerendering file per output frame. the pro- gram smoothly interpolates the keyframe collages, pro- ducing a smooth animation with your changing cameras. let’s look at the details of these programs. taking shade shaders were invented by rob cook to break open the traditional rendering pipeline. shaders are little nuggets of programming that tell the rendering system what to do at various steps along the way of creating an image. the mcc depends on a pair of custom (but easy to write) lens shaders. most ray tracers let you plug a lens shader into the pipeline. after the system has built an eye ray, but before it starts using it to find illumination from the environ- ment, it calls your lens shader. this little piece of code can do anything: compute the square root of pi, simu- late the flow of wind over a wing, or more commonly, adjust the ray parameters. if there are several lens shaders, they’re simply called one after another in the order you specify. once a lens shader finishes its work, the system uses the potentially modified eye ray to find the color associ- ated with the ray’s corresponding spot on the film. if the system wants to perform antialiasing, motion blur, depth of field, or any other process that requires more eye rays, it simply makes and traces them as usual. the lens shad- er is called just before the ray goes into the world. len shaders typically have at least two sections: the initialization routine and the shader proper. the ini- tialization procedure is usually called at the start of each new frame, and the shader itself once per ray. the mcc uses two lens shaders. the lens writer is used when you’re rendering the initial images of your scene, which you’ll later use to create the collage. the initial- ization routine for the lens writer creates a new file, whose name is a combination of the camera number and the frame number. for example, if we’re rendering frame from camera , the file might be called frame camera .txt. the initialization routine saves the name of this file internally, writes out the image’s width and height, and closes the file. in this dis- cussion, i’ll assume that all the files are plain text. this is a good choice during development and debugging, since you can open the files and read them yourself. when everything is working, it’s reasonable to use a binary format, which is typically smaller than text and faster to process. let’s return to our pipeline. during the image’s ren- dering, each time the lens writer is called, it simply opens up the file, appends to the end a plain-text line containing the ray’s d screen location, d origin point, and d direction vector, and then closes the file. then it returns and lets the system trace the ray as usual. for convenience in later processing, i configure the renderer during this step to create exactly one ray per pixel while rendering these initial images. so if the image has dimensions of w by h pixels, there are wh + lines in the text file (the first line declares the image width and height). of course this means that the image can have jaggies and other aliasing artifacts, but these images are just for use in the collage and the artifacts never show up in the final, rerendered output. let’s jump to the end of the mcc process, when we’re ieee computer graphics and applications (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) recapping the multicamera collage process. (a–c) three shots of a couple at a cafe. (d) collage made from these images. (e) interpolated result from multicamera collage. rendering the new, interpolated image. the lens reader carries out the lens writer’s process roughly in reverse. it assumes that the lens builder program has been run already. that program creates one file per frame, in the same format as that of the lens writer: one line per ray, containing the ray’s screen location, origin, and direction. when the lens reader is initialized, it opens the file for that frame (for example, frame might be reren- der-frame .txt). it reads in all of the ray descriptions and saves them in local memory, then closes the file. from now on, each time the lens reader is called, it uses its input ray’s d screen location to access the data- base of rays that it read. it uses the screen coordinates to interpolate the input rays, as figure shows. i blend the ray positions using linear interpolation, and the direc- tions using direction interpolation (which i’ll discuss later). i overwrite the origin point and direction vector of the screen ray created by the system with this com- puted ray, and then return it to the rendering system, which follows it into the scene. so although the renderer is generating eye rays and setting them up for rendering, the lens reader overwrites those rays before they head out into the environment. the renderer doesn’t know that, of course, so it antialias- es and does motion blur and everything else as usual. the result is a picture in which every ray has been inde- pendently placed and directed by the lens reader to cre- ate the smooth scene we desire. let’s now look at the standalone programs i’ve mentioned. camera tagger the job of the camera tagger is very simple: it over- writes a few bits in every pixel of your original rendered images with the number of the camera that created that image. for example, suppose we open a rendered frame called frame camera .tif, which tells us that the image was rendered by camera . the camera tagger reads each pixel in the image one at a time, and puts the number into the color value of every pixel. i think of the low-order bits of each color component as together forming a single -bit binary number. the low-order bits of blue correspond to the highest-order bits in the number, the low-order bits of green are in the middle, and the low-order bits of red make up the lowest-order bits of the number. in our example, camera corresponds to binary . so i’d put in the low-order bits of the blue color, in the low-order bits of green, and in the low-order bits of red, and save the pixel. i do this for every pixel in the image. of course, this can introduce some visible artifacts into the image, such as color shifting and banding. but these modified pixels are only used in the collaging process, and don’t appear in the final, rerendered image. as long as the image is still legible enough to be useful in making the collage, no harm is done. since i’m using bits, i can represent cameras (as we’ll see later, the number is reserved to mean no cam- era). i’ve never wanted that many cameras in a single frame, but if you wanted more, you could just use more bits. taking bits per channel, for example, would let you encode different cameras. lens remapper the collage file is an image that contains two types of pixels: those that are from the black background (that is, they have in all three color channels), and those that are from a camera (so at least one of the lowest bits in at least one of the color channels is a ). note that the background black is different from black in one of the camera images. for example, if camera was look- ing at a pitch-black object and thus originally wrote ( , , ) in the rgb channels for some pixels, those pixels would become ( , , ) after the camera tagger went to work (red = , green = , blue = , which go togeth- er in the order , forming the binary number ). so pixels with the color ( , , ) mean no camera, and those are the ones we’ll fill in. the lens remapper’s job is to create a new input file for the lens reader, giving it the location and direction of one ray in the center of each pixel. the lens reader (our lens shader in the final step) will interpolate these rays as necessary for screen rays generated by the renderer. the lens remapper is the largest program in the sys- tem, and it’s where we create the visual look of the reren- dered image. the lens remapper starts by assuming that the pixels in the collage that have a camera number associated with them are pixels you want to see in the final image. that is, the regions you selected to keep in the collage should also appear in the output. so if a given pixel in the collage is labeled with camera , then in the output file the ray for that pixel will come from the text file stored with camera , which gives the exact origin and direction of the ray that was used for that pixel by that camera. on the other hand, pixels that have no camera asso- andrew glassner’s notebook july/august schematic view of how camera rays are combined to create a new, interpolated ray for rerendering. yellow rays at the corners are our input. i interpolate pairs to find the blue rays, and then interpolate them to find the red ray. ciated with them receive a computed ray. the compu- tation is designed so that the rays sample the visual field smoothly over the entire image. i do this by finding the nearest pixel from each camera, and coming up with a weight for those cameras, so the nearer ones make more of a contribution than those far away. then i go to the text files for each camera, weight the rays associated with those pixels by the given amount, and then add them. the key is to remember that the text files let us retrieve the ray information associated with every cam- era and every pixel. the first step in the process is to find the edges for each camera, as figure shows. the edge-finder is pret- ty straightforward. it marches through the collage image, and calls a routine that returns true or false, iden- tifying whether the pixel is considered on an edge. the identifying routine begins by extracting the pixel’s camera number. if the camera is (that is, the pixel is from the black background) the routine returns false. continuing on, if the pixel is on the outermost border of the collage, the routine returns true. otherwise, the rou- tine compares the pixel’s camera number to the camera number of its eight neighbors. if any of those eight cam- eras are different, the routine returns true; otherwise, it returns false. figure shows these tests visually. when i find an edge pixel, i add it to a list of edge pix- els for its associated camera. so later on, when i want to look through all the edge pixels for any camera, i can eas- ily access them all without any additional processing. with the edge lists completed, i now start computing weights. let’s say that ai(x, y) is the ray origin saved at pixel (x, y) for camera i, and di(x, y) is the ray direction saved at pixel (x, y)for camera i. let’s package this infor- mation together as a ray ri(x, y). the weighting process involves finding a set of scalar weights that i can apply to these points and vectors to create a new ray. for each camera i, i find a scalar weight αi, and a particular pixel (xi, yi), so the new ray r drawn from c cameras in the collage is in other words, to find the ray at (x, y), i find a pixel (xi, yi) for each camera i, get the ray information ri for that pixel from the text file for that camera, weight it by αi, and add it into the running total for the new ray. just how the rays are scaled and added up requires a little discussion, which i’ll get back to in a bit. for now, let’s concentrate on the problems of finding the pixel we want for each camera, and then the right weight for it. i compute all of this information across the whole pic- ture before i actually build the new rays, because i process the weights after they’ve all been calculated. one way to think of this is that if the input image has dimensions w × h, then i build c d data structures (one for each camera). each element of these data structures contains a floating-point number (the weight α) and two integers identifying the pixel (x, y) that should be used from that camera to contribute to the pixel where it’s located. let’s process a single pixel p from the collage, locat- ed at (xp, yp). i first retrieve the pixel from the collage and look for its camera value. if it has one (that is, the camera number encoded in those low bits is nonzero), then i know i want that output pixel to have exactly the same ray as the one used by its camera. let’s say it was made by camera c. then i set αc = and all the other αi to . i also set the pixel coordinates in all data structures for all the cameras to (xp, yp). the result is that when i go to build the ray for this pixel later, the ray used by camera c at this pixel will be what i compute. then i move on to the next pixel. on the other hand, if the pixel has no camera, then i need to work harder. first, i scan through the edge list for each camera, and locate the edge pixel that’s nearest to p. the coordinates of that pixel get written into the data structure for each camera. figure (next page) shows this idea. now i need to compute the weights. for this, i use the r x y r x y i i i i i c ( , ) ( , )= = ∑α ieee computer graphics and applications edge images from the cam- eras in figure . finding the edges. red pixel: if a pixel is in the back- ground, it’s not on an edge. yellow pixel: if a pixel is in a camera but on the border, it’s an edge. cyan pixel: if a pixel is on the border of a camera region and black, it’s an edge. green pixel: if a pixel is on the border of two camera regions, it’s an edge. andrew glassner’s notebook july/august multipoint weighting technique i described in my march/april column, “tricks of the trade” (see the “further reading” sidebar for pointers to book versions of this and other columns). to summarize this idea quick- ly, let’s call each camera pixel ci for i = [ , c]. i start by finding the distance from p to each of these pixels: di = |p − ci| now i normalize these so they sum to . i call the nor- malized distances gi: now i find a strength vi that tells me how much each of the pixels is affecting p: to get our weights wi, we just normalize the vi: although the weights produced by this method are continuous across the image, they’re not necessarily con- tinuous in their first derivative. figure shows an exam- ple of the weight applied to a camera as we move from a region where that camera is present into the black zone next to it. any first-derivative discontinuities in the weights could show up as artifacts in the final image. to smooth things, i apply a little bit of filtering. each filter runs on the weights for each camera independent- ly. it’s important to double-buffer these filters, which means that i process all of the weights and compute new values for the entire camera before i write them back. first i blur the weights using a box filter of radius . this just means that for each black pixel p, i add all of the weights applied to the × block of pixels centered around p, divide by , and use that for the new value at p. (for boundary pixels, i only divide by the number of pixels that are actually in the image and get added to the average.) then i apply an ease curve to the weights. this is sim- ply an s-shaped curve that smoothes the edges a bit more. returning again to my march/april column, i use the ease curve described there with a premapped control value of . (see figure ). after this i blur with another box filter of radius , which smoothes out any remaining rough edges. i then pass through each pixel one at a time, and renormalize the weights so that they sum up to again. to do this, i just add up the weights and divide each one by that sum. now that i have everything i need, i just run through the pixels and apply the formula we saw at the start of w v g i i j j c = = ∑/ v g g i i j j j i c = − = ≠ ∑( ) g d d i i j j c = = ∑/ further reading in my last column (see the may/june issue of ieee computer graphics and applications) i offered a variety of references on topics, from the optics of pinhole and complex cameras to the artistic school of cubism. please refer to that column for further details on any of those topics. shaders play a key role in this technique. the seminal paper on shaders is r.l. cook’s “shade trees,” proc. siggraph, vol. , no. , , pp. - . i’ve referred in the text to a number of my previous columns. my discussion of vector interpolation and the formula for computing circular interpolation appears in my article “situation normal,” ieee computer graphics and applications, vol. , no. , mar./apr. , pp. - . my discussion of camera shutters appears in “an open and shut case,” ieee computer graphics and applications, vol. , no. , may/june , pp. - . multipoint interpolation and the burp algorithm both appear in “tricks of the trade,” ieee computer graphics and applications, vol. , no. , mar./apr. , pp. - . these columns are now all available in book form, where they have been revised and expanded. “situation normal” is chapter of andrew glassner’s notebook (morgan-kaufmann, ), and the other two columns are chapter and chapter , respectively, in andrew glassner’s other notebook (ak peters, ). i wrote this implementation of the multicollage camera (mcc) with a variety of software tools. i wrote all of the programs in c# using microsoft’s .net programming environment. to make the images, i used discreet’s ds max production system. i wrote my lens shaders for mental images’ mental ray . , which i used to create the rendered images. i created the collages in adobe photoshop cs. i’ve been thinking about these ideas for a long time. i wrote my first implementation in when i worked at microsoft research. a summary of my work at that time is available under the following listing: a.s. glassner, cubism and cameras: free-form optics for computer graphics, tech. report msr-tr- - , jan. , available online at http://research.microsoft.com/research/pubs/ view.aspx?msr_tr_id=msr-tr- - ). α α α schematic of the weighting process. this section, weighting and combining the camera rays at each pixel to create a single new ray. i said that i’d return to how that’s done later, and now the time has come. weighting and adding the ray’s origins is a snap: i just scale the three coordinates by the weight and add them, just like interpolating any real numbers. since the weights sum to , no further normalization is needed: the direction vectors are trickier. as i discussed in my march/april column, “situation normal,” if we simply interpolate the vector coordinates independent- ly and then renormalize the result (as we do in phong shading), we don’t quite get circular interpolation. what we want is to interpolate the direction vectors as vec- tors, not points. in that column i gave a formula for inter- polating two unit vectors p and r: where α is our interpolating variable that sweeps from to , ψ = αθ, and θ is the angle between the two vec- tors: θ = cos− (p ⋅ r). that’s fine when only two vec- tors exist, but here we need to combine c vectors, which will usually be three or more. the solution comes from my march/april col- umn, where i presented a method for bilinear uniform interpolation called burp. i’ll summarize the essential details here. we want to find a linear sum p as using a series of two-point interpolations. we can decompose this result into several small pieces. we want to find p = r : we’ll start by computing rn− and then working our way back up to r : you can find more details on this technique, along with an example in the original article (see the “further reading” section). now that i have both the ray origin and direction for this pixel, i simply write these six num- bers out to a plain-text output file. the file has one line per ray, and one ray per pixel. this is the file that’s read in by the lens reader shader to make the final image. regions the previous algorithm does a pretty good job on some images, but it can make mistakes on others. the essential problem is that the algorithm finds the new ray by combining a ray from every camera. but there are times when we don’t want all of the cameras to con- tribute to a pixel. for example, consider figure . this collage uses just a few simple colors to represent camera regions. i’ve denoted which pixel we’re interested in computing weights for by coloring it red. a nearby camera, in yel- low, would normally contribute its nearest pixel, shown in green. but in this collage, we probably don’t want the r p r p r n n k k k k k k k k k j j k n − − + = − = = + − = ∑ α β β α β β α r p i i i n i i = = = − = ∑ ∑α αwhere p p i i i n i i n = = = − = − ∑ ∑α α where q p r( ) sin( ) sin sin sin α θ ψ θ ψ θ = − + a x y a x y i i i c i ( , ) ( , )= = ∑ ieee computer graphics and applications . . . . (b)(a) (c) (a) weight associated with this camera region. (b) plot of the weight. (c) derivative of figure b. . . . . . . . . ease curve i apply to the weights. yellow camera to contribute at all, since there’s anoth- er camera between the red and green pixels. in this case, we’d like the yellow camera to make no contribution to the red pixel. to bring this about, you can draw a region image when you make the collage image. figure shows a typical region image. it’s just a bunch of areas of arbitrary shape, each filled with a different color. when there’s a region image available in the same directory as the collage image, i use it to guide the selec- tion of pixels from each camera. when i start process- ing a pixel p, i first check to see what region it’s in (i just use the color of that pixel in the region image). now when i run through the list of edge pixels for each cam- era, i retrieve the region for each pixel, and if it’s not the same as the region for p, i skip it. if i get to the end of the list and i haven’t found any pixels from that camera in the same region as p, i just mark that camera as a non- participant for that pixel. if there’s no region image, then implicitly every pixel in the picture is in the same region. the shapes in the region image can have any shape or size, they can be filled with any color, and there can be any number of them. just draw them as you like, but use a drawing tool that doesn’t antialias your selection (otherwise those blended pixels will each be their own -pixel-large region). regions aren’t a perfect solution, though, because they can introduce visible discontinuities in the final image. figure shows the bound- ary between two regions. in one region, we’re interpolating cameras and , and in the next, cameras and . to minimize the effects of this problem, i use my eye when i draw regions, and try to avoid creating sharp edges. the filtering and blur- ring steps that i apply to the weights help smooth out this crease, but i’d rather not create it in the first place. details i implemented this system using discreet’s ds max and mental images’ mental ray . rendering system that ships with it. mental ray is good at taking advantage of parallelism, and will make use of as many processors as it can find. on my home comput- er, i have two pentium processors. running two processors at once caused me endless andrew glassner’s notebook july/august in this collage, we want to compute weights for the pixel marked in red. although the pixel marked in green (belonging to the yellow camera) is near the red pixel, it probably shouldn’t contribute to the red pixel at all. using hand- drawn regions to control which cameras contribute to which pixels in figure . possible problem with regions. camera is on the left, camera is in the upper right, and camera is in the lower right. the upper and lower edges of this boundary join cameras and and and , respectively. this would probably display a crease if the weights weren’t smoothed. headaches while i was trying to get my lens writer shad- er to work, because different but parallel copies of the shader were trying to write to the same output file at the same time. once i realized what was happening, i took the easy way out and put the code that writes to the file inside a locked region, which means that only one instance can be running at a time. the locked region opens the text file, writes a ray, then closes the file. it’s inefficient and you can definitely see a slowdown, but because i’m only firing one ray per pixel, and this is just a testbed, this quick-and-dirty solution was okay. it did mean that i had to precede each line with the (x, y) coordinates of the pixel being written, since they could be written in any sequence. the lens remapper uses those coordinates to make sure the correct data goes into the correct pixel. similarly, the lens reader initialization routine is locked, because i want to make sure that it finishes read- ing in the data before any rendering occurs. after that, there’s no locking, since the reader is only looking up data from its database of per-pixel ray information, which remains constant. it’s important to use selection tools that don’t antialias when building the collage and region images. the rea- son is that antialiasing versions of these tools typically blend nearby pixels to create a smooth edge. in the col- lage, such blending will mess up the camera values that we’ve written to our pixels, which will create extrane- ous cameras and misidentify pixels on the edge. in the region image, antialiased pixels will become tiny -pixel- large regions, each of their own color. the collage and region boundaries should be hard edged, and very like- ly will show ugly jaggies. as with the other image arti- facts we’ve seen, this has no effect on the final image. examples let’s look at some examples of the mcc system in action. figure shows two images from a chase in an alley. the man with the crutch is being run down by agents from both ends of the alley, while someone watches from high above the building he’s trying to enter. figure shows four images of this scene, and figure shows a collage built from them. figure shows the rerendered output. figure shows a scene from a bad night at big light. poor timmy is hanging onto the lighthouse by one hand while a skeleton reaches for him from below. hobbled by a broken ankle, sally watches from the side as her two dogs attack the skeleton. figure shows several dif- ferent mcc collages for this scene. finally, figure shows a scientist working late in her lab one night. figure shows two different mcc col- lages for this scene. ieee computer graphics and applications two views of a scene from my short film, rundown. four rendered images of the scene in figure . collage built from the images in figure . animation this algorithm is frame based, which makes it easy to use for animation. think of the creation of collage images like the creation of key points: you create one where something interesting is happening, and let inter- polation handle everything in between. suppose that you want to create a -frame ani- mated sequence using eight cameras. let’s say you cre- ate collages at frames , , , and . the system processes those four collages and creates four lens read- er files named, for example, rerender-frame .txt, rerender-frame .txt, and so on. then the in-between program uses the ray informa- tion at those frames to compute lens reader files for all the other frames, saving one text file per frame. now you simply render the animation using the lens reader shader. when it’s initialized at each frame’s start, it reads in the data from the corresponding file. if you want to include motion blur, you can read in pairs of frame files for each rerendered image, and use each ray’s time value to interpolate between the data in the two frames. figure shows two keyframes for a -frame shot starring our couple from the cafe. these keys corre- spond to the first and last shot frames. figure shows several of the intermediate frames created to complete the shot. figure (see p. ) shows the five keys used to create an -frame shot from rundown. the agents are running toward sharky (the man with the crutch) as he tries to get the door open. figure shows several of the intermediate frames created from these keys. discussion note that the mcc technique doesn’t slow down the rerendering step when we produce the final output frames. there’s a short pause at the start of each frame to read in the database of rays, and then there’s a bit of work done by the lens reader to compute each new eye ray. but this small amount of computation is insignifi- cant compared to the overall task of rendering an image. in my nonoptimized, testbed implementation, i mea- sured a quarter-second pause at the frame’s start to read in the database; the processing performed by the lens andrew glassner’s notebook july/august rerendered mcc version of the collage in figure . scene from a bad night at big light. four collages of the scene in figure . reader during the actual rendering process was too small to detect. i typically build my collages at a smaller resolution than the final output. because the lens reader interpolates the input rays, everything is still smooth even when the out- put resolution is larger than it is in the collages and regions. i usually work at one quarter of the final output size, which means my files are one-sixteenth the size of the final out- put images. this means the mcc files consume less disk space, and processing is faster. i only work at higher reso- lutions when there are fine details in the collage or region images that i want to preserve in the output. the mcc technique raises some interesting artistic and technical ideas. suppose we have a collage where the top half is one rendering, and a small blob appears somewhere on the bottom edge, as in figure a. what should happen in the lower corners? the general prob- lem is that outside the convex hull of the renderings, we don’t have data to interpolate. one reasonable solution might be to use some kind of parametric extrapolation. an alternative would use an iterative approach that “grows” extrapolated data beyond the interpolated con- vex hull using incremental techniques. my general solu- tion to this is to render images slightly larger than i need, ieee computer graphics and applications scientist working late into the night. two mcc versions of figure . two key frames for the first and last frame of a - frame sequence. five intermediate frames from the sequence created by the two keys in figure . these are frames (a) , (b) , (c) , (d) , and (e) . (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) so that i can always include a frame of in-camera pixels along the outermost border of my collages, as in figure b. after my new frames are computed, i crop them and discard the border. i’ve thought about building a painting interface on top of the rendering system. imagine starting with a blank image, selecting a camera, and then painting over the image. in this approach, the camera is rendered and immediately displayed where paint is placed. the direc- tor can work with these image regions like camera view- ports in the rendering system: they can be moved around, cut, pasted, and changed in shape. the director can select controls like those in the rendering interface, and directly change the camera’s location, direction, field of view, and so on. the system could produce low-reso- andrew glassner’s notebook july/august five key frames for an -frame shot from rundown. these are frames (a) , (b) , (c) , (d) , and (e) . eight intermediate frames from the sequence created by the five keys in figure . these are frames (a) , (b) , (c) , (d) , (e) , (f) , (g) , and (h) . (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) lution interpolation results in as close to real time as pos- sible; when the director ceases to paint for a moment, the system takes the idle time to compute an ever-denser smattering of interpolated pixels, giving an ever-better impression of the final result. the director could then respond immediately and adjust the cameras and ren- derings as desired. this might be more convenient than building a collage from prerendered images. the mcc approach computes the pixels missing in the collage by ray tracing a synthetic environment. an alter- native approach would use image-based rendering (ibr) to retrieve environment data from scene images. the director could start the process with rendered images built from the ibr data, or with real photographs taken on a scene, where another program takes the camera cal- ibration information and writes the ray data that corre- sponds to the camera’s image. if during the interpolation phase the mcc algorithm needs pixels that aren’t avail- able from the ibr data set, it could tell the user where to place and direct a camera to gather the missing imagery. i think we could integrate both ibr data and synthetic d renderings in the same scene, either mixing them seamlessly for a single continuous image, or deliberate- ly making it clear which is which for artistic reasons. � acknowledgments thanks to steven drucker, ned greene, tom mcclure, and claude robillard for discussions, ideas, and help. readers may contact andrew glassner at andrew@ glassner.com. ieee computer graphics and applications (a) (b) (a) blob problem. how do we find weights for the pixels in the lower right corner? (b) my solution is to always include a frame of camera pixels in the collage. great reasons to renew your ieee computer society membership . new for , an online reference book membership benefit – free! . access to any or all of distance-learning courses – free! . personal subscription to computer magazine – free! . opportunity to subscribe to the complete ieee computer society digital library or individual periodicals in your specialty area at the lowest available rates. . advance notice of more than ieee computer society conferences, symposia, and workshops—plus generous discounts on registration fees. . discounts on print books, tutorials, conference proceedings, and extended online reference book collections too! . opportunities to participate in + technical committees and over standards working groups. . membership in the nearest of over local chapters worldwide – free! . prestigious email alias of your.name@computer.org – free! . be part of the profession and a network of over , of the best and brightest computing professionals around the world. www.ieee.org/renewaldo it today! pii: - ( ) - advances in mathematics , - ( ) book reviews h. p. f. swinnerton-dyer, analytic theory of abelian varieties, cambridge, , pp. a no-nonsense, crystal clear account of a difficult and critically important subject. will make a good introduction to other treatments of the subject, such as mumford’s. j. a. richardson, modern art and scientific thought, illinois, , pp. what does cczanne have in common with non-euclidean geometry? how does cubism relate to the principia mathematics ? does kandinsky relate to the rise of quantum mechanics ? read this book and you might find out. d. h. fflemlin, topological riesz spaces and measure theory, cambridge, , pp. some subjects are easier to write about than others, and riesz spaces is one; hence the spate of texts and surveys. this is one of the best. the idea of deriving measure theory from riesz space should be adopted. the author’s discussion of boolean rings and his s(a) would have been greatly simplified by use of the valuation ring of a boolean ring, developed by l. geissinger and others. also, one misses references to caratheodory’s mass and integral and to linton’s categorizations. d. g. northcott, a first course in homological algebra, cambridge, , pp. it is rare to find an advanced algebra text which is not written by the author for his dozen-odd friends, but this seems to be one. the material is central to presentday mathematics, and we are grateful that it is at least being made accessible to a wide public. j. f. hofmann, leibniz in paris, cambridge, , pp. the author was one of the foremost experts ever on leibniz, and this is his lifetime work. unlike most historians, he writes engagingly and accessibly. this book should go a long way to do away with the perniciously inaccurate romantic image of the superior-to-all, universal, saintly “genius,” an image which is still inculcated, with criminal disregard for the truth and catastrophic results, to schoolchildren all over the world. n. biggs, algebraic graph theory, cambridge, , pp. most-though not by any means all-known results relating graphical enumeration to linear algebra are collected here, at long last. a useful reference. m. audi, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, chicago, , pp. philoso- phers of quantum mechanics usually trail current research by about one generation. no wonder: the mathematics is too tough. one wonders of what conceivable use to physicists these johnny-come-lately-accounts stressing the “what if” aspects of past research can be. d. c. gazis, ed., trafic science, wiley, , pp. the mathematical theory of traffic lies at the intersection of fluid mechanics, stochastic processes, optimization, and perhaps other currently fashionable disciplines as well. it is a testing ground and an effective way of making contact with some of the current problems in applied mathematics. i. r. shafarevich, basic algebraic geometry, springer, , pp. at long last, an introduction to algebraic geometry that does not require four years of background in copyright by academic press, inc. all rights of reproduction in any form reserved. microsoft word - -bojana nikolic.rtf Пиротски зборник, бр. , - УДК: : doi: . /pirotzbor n оригиналан рад original work Бојана Николић, Висока школа струковних студија за образовање васпитача, Пирот bojana nikolic, college of professional studies for pre-school teachers, pirot СТВАРАЛАШТВО ЈОВАНА ГРГУРОВИЋА creative work of jovan grgurovic Сажетак: Рад се бави анализом стваралачког опуса пиротског уметника Јована Гргуровића. Методе примењене у овом раду су биографска и аналитичко-дедуктивна. Истраживање се служи поступцима структурално-функционалне анализе (специјализација, класификација одређених дела кроз развојне уметничке периоде или фазе), и синтезе (сагледавање целокупне уметникове личности у светлу актуелних културних дешавања). Дела уметника која су анализирана у тексту као представници појединих фаза уметничког развоја сагледана су како са аспекта ликовне форме, тако и са аспекта њихове садржине, јер је формалне и садржинске аспекте уметничког дела немогуће посматрати одвојено. Иако су форма, идеја и садржај од самог почетка његовог стваралаштва снажно и јасно дефинисани, дело Јована Гргуровића тешко је сместити у само једну стилску оријентацију. На његовим сликама, мозаицима, муралима, скулптурама и витражима препознајемо утицаје кубизма, експресионизма, енформела, поетског реализма, симболизма. Најједноставнија периодизација уметникових дела могла би се сагледати кроз три основне фазе: монументалну, интимистичку и поетску.  bojanusk@gmail.com Посебну захвалност ауторка текста дугује Ани Гргуровић на уступљеним фотографијама дела Јована Гргуровића. Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - abstract: this study presents the analysis of the creative work of art of the artist jovan grgurovic from pirot. methods used in this study are biographic and analytical and deductive. the research is made using the structural and functional analysis (specialization, classification of certain works in artistic periods or phases of development) and synthesis (analyzing the entire artist’s personality in the light of real happenings in culture). the works of the artist which were analyzed in the text as representatives of certain phases of the artist’s development, were perceived both from the aspect of artistic form and from the aspect of their content because formal and content aspects of the work of art are impossible to be perceived separately. although the form, idea and content were clearly and strongly defined from the very beginning of his creative work, the work of jovan grgurovic is difficult to be defined as belonging to only one style orientation. in his paintings, mosaics, murals, sculptures and stained glass we can recognize the influence of cubism, expressionism, enformel, poet realism, symbolism. the simplest periodization of artist’s works could be made through three basis phases: monumental, intimate and poetic. Кључне речи: Јован Гргуровић, сликарство, кубизам, експресионизам, енформел, поетски реализам. Кey words: jovan grgurovic, mosaic, mural, painting, sculpture, cubism, expressionism, informel, poetic realism УВОД Постхумна ретроспективна изложба (јануар ) уједно је и прва самостална изложба истакнутог пиротског уметника Јована Гргуровића ( - ) у Галерији „Чедомир Крстић“. Изложба је изазвала неочекивано велико интересовање пиротске и шире јавности, што је још један доказ да је стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића заиста оставило упечатљив и неизбрисив траг на пиротској ликовној сцени. По речима Радмиле Влатковић ( , стр. ), „Јован Гргуровић је био уметник изузетне снаге и креативности, уметник склон монументалним формама, али и меком обликовању. Овог аутора великог броја слика тешко је представити изложбом од тридесетак експоната.“ Уметничко образовање Јована Гргуровића трајало је пуних десет година. Средњу уметничку школу у Нишу похађао је у периоду од . до , Академију ликовних уметности у Београду од . до , а у класи угледних професора Лазара Возаревића, Младена Србиновића и Ђорђа Бошана. Од . године укључује се у ликовни живот Пирота кроз педагошки рад и редовну Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - стваралачку и изложбену активност. Радио је као професор у oШ „ . септембар“; и у средњим школама: Учитељској, Млекарској, Техничкој, Економској. Његова биографија бележи и учешће у конзервацији фресака у Манастиру Студеница и другим српским манастирима. По речима Ане Гргуровић ( ), уметникове ћерке, тачан и јасан увид у обим Гргуровићевих радова (преко хиљаду дела) немогуће је остварити, јер су сва расута по Србији и Европи. Мозаик, зидна слика, витраж, скулптура, слика и цртеж су медији у којима је уметник остварио своје дело. Уметникова дела на отвореном простору још увек красе јавне просторе Пирота. ПОДЕЛА НА ФАЗЕ Свака хронолошка подела уметничког стваралаштва је условна: како подела историје уметности на правце, тако и подела уметниковог опуса на фазе. Фазе развоја уметниковог израза се могу формирати на много различитих начина, зависно од карактера анализе који се врши и метода које се користе у истраживању. Историја уметности и уметничка критика се ипак служе овим поделама као помоћним средствима у разумевању сложене уметничке праксе. У овом раду је понуђена подела која сасвим легитимно може да буде предмет даљих испитивања, или чак оспоравања користећи неке друге истраживачке методе: – Монументална фаза ( - ) – Интимистичка фаза ( - ) – Поетска фаза ( - ) У оквиру ових грубо утврђених фаза могле би се издвојити још неке међуфазе, као и сасвим нове фазе, што би био предмет обимнијих истраживања, са више доступних података. МОНУМЕНТАЛНА ФАЗА ( - ) Прва фаза стваралаштва се веома логично надовезује на београдску уметничку атмосферу шездесетих година двадесетог века: аналитички кубистички цртеж као одјек европске сцене с почетка двадесетог века кроз визуру Децембарске групе у спрези са баластом византијске традиције оличеном у геометризованом цртежу издужене људске фигуре. Децембарска група је очигледни носилац француског утицаја на развој модернистичког српског сликарства у то време. Француски утицај на уметност у Србији се, по Лидији Мереник ( ), види у референтности према кубизму, Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - посткубизму и послекубистичком миту личности Пабла Пикаса. „Главне заједничке одлике су честa употреба валерског сликарског обликовања, задржавање конвенције штафелајног сликарства и у неким случајевима више него очигледних референци на синтетички кубизам кроз доминацију геометризованог цртежа као и присутних асоцијација на предметни свет.“ (merenik, , стр. ). Ако повежемо Гргуровићев боравак у Паризу током , и јак утицај Лазара Возаревића (иначе члана Децембарске групе), уметников ликовни језик нам постаје лако читљив. У том, „монумeнталном“ стилу, рађен је и мурал Борба за слободу . године на зиду Основне школе „ . септембар“. Композиција монументалног мурала ( м²) почива на цртежу, на чврстим хоризонталама и вертикалама. Местимични акорди топлих боја подлегли су свечаној атмосфери плаве гаме. Мозаик Распевана младост рађен је година касније, . године. На мозаику Распевана младост већ препознајемо смиренију компoзицију. Колористичка гама вођена је самим избором технике рада: венeцијански мермер и природни камен покривају фасаду на површини од м². Префињени тонови црвенкастих, смеђих и плавих боја указују нам на тежњу ка контрастним бојама које делу дају својеврсну динамику. Гестови уметника су смиренији, линија промишљенија, што би се могло приписати и различитим технолошким процесима у смислу одабира технике: велика зидна површина лакше се покорава потезу четке, него медитативном и дуготрајном слагању коцкица мозаика. Уметник је у процесу свођења форме дошао до саме њене суштине: пар овалних линија описује тело, а овал представља главу централне фигуре. Мешавина симбола и апстрактних форми приповеда маштовиту причу која се завршава чистим уживањем у боји и форми. Распевана младост се може посматрати и кроз призму Екоoве идеје отвореног дела, која оставља могућност да уметничко дело буде интерпретирано на сасвим различите, чак супротне начине. Реципијент је позван да перципира дело по својим сопственим склоностима. Прегршт симбола повремено прелази у чист естетски знак или елементе декоративног типа. Оно што плени у овом мозаику је начин на који уметник комбинује строгу и сведену форму са лирским и симболичним елементима. У рукама мање доброг мајстора, ово би дело лако могло постати еклектицизам усвојених уметничких праваца. Кључ за читање Гргуровићевих дела, идеја која мири све супротности материјалног света јесте духовност. Појам духовности заузима посебно место у Гргуровићевој личној поетици о којој сазнајемо из поезије и прозе коју је писао: Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - „Треба ухватити духовност.“ Или „Мука љубави измучиће тело да духом створиш ново сјајно дело. Дело настаје у тренутку том кад постигнеш духовни лом, кад нова искра духовне ватре крене и дух сјајно бљесне. Новорођенче тада се роди да духу живом угоди.“ У Гргуровићев опус мозаика спадају и портрети великана: Николе Тесле и Вука Караџића из . године, који се такође налазе у Техничкој школи у Пироту. Још једно дело које заслужује посебну пажњу, првенствено по мотивима и начину на који их интерпретира је фонтана у атријуму Техничке школе. Фонтана је оивичена мозаиком са мотивима пиротског ћилима, а у њеном центру налази се скулптура у белом мермеру под именoм Гугутке на диреци. Спој пиротске традиције и модерног уметничког израза плени својом свежином и актуелношћу. Прошлост и традиција овде није слепо, некритички и механички репродукована, већ је схваћена кроз личну призму уметника. Симбол пиротског краја на тај начин је прилагођен тренутку садашњице, и може бити препознат као универзална вредност. „Корени наше прошлости утичу на моја специфична схватања, али им не треба дати приоритет, јер ако се не би водило рачуна о достигнућима у ликовном изражавању света, националне уметности би пропале. Да би могле да се одрже, потребно је да се користе ликовном азбуком двадесетог века.“ (Возаревић, према Зековић, ) Мера којом то Гргуровић чини у овом делу је права: дводимензионална шара у мозаику (мотив гугутки) остаје препознатљива, док нам скулптура у мермеру показује опредмећене „гугутке“ у стилу конструктивизма, футуризма и геометријске апстракције. Не случајно, ова уметничка целина и носи два наслова: Гугутке на диреци и Голубови мира. Скулптура Лане на фонтани Предшколске установе „Чика Јова Змај“ представља још једно вајарско дело у отвореном простору. Лане је стилски прилично различито од скулптуре Гугутке на Преузето из документа Вечне поуке. Аутор Вечних поука и Песама је Јован Гргуровић. Поменути документи припадају архиви ауторке текста. Песме, као и Вечне поуке нису до сада издате. Одломак из песме Пут. Архива ауторке текста. Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - диреци. Грациозна фигуративна представа ланета по својој љупкости, питомости и енергији коју емитује сасвим добро стоји у отвореном дворишту ПУ „Чика Јова Змај“. На једном другом нивоу читања, узмемо ли у обзир мутацију тела представљене животиње, лане асоцира на митска чудовишта. Међутим, Гргуровићево лане је далеко од митских Химера и Хидри, јер одише благошћу и припитомљеном снагом. Укратко, лане представља чисту поезију. ИНТИМИСТИЧКА ФАЗА ( - ) Период између . и . године је назван интимистичким најпре због карактера уметникових дела из тог периода (претежно слике и цртежи галеријског формата, без великих композиција као што су мурали и мозаици), као и извесном потребом за повлачењем из друштвеног живота која је вероватно узрокована и ширим контекстом друштвено-политичке неизвесности у којој се наша земља тада налазила. Немонументална дела Јована Гргуровића обухватају цртеже и слике. Слике су рађене углавном у техници уља на платну. Као што смо већ поменули у уводном делу текста, тешко их је лоцирати и одредити њихов тачан број. Већина слика се налази у приватним колекцијама у земљи и иностранству. Слике понајвише откривају интимни свет уметника. Теме којима се Гргуровић бави кроз уљано сликарство су класичне: мртва природа, пејзаж и фигуралне композиције. Међутим, теме нису пресудне за тумачење формалног богатства уметниковог израза: „Не лутај вечно да тражиш теме, разоткриј смело само своје семе. Да ухвати зрачак светлости, оно ће заблистати.“ Слике настале деведесетих година су експресивне, студиозне, на њима је често видљив потез шпахтле, док је колорит прилично загасит, са доминацијом дубоких тонова париске плаве. Умеће и богатство Гргуровићеве сликарске технике огледа се у веома широком распону тонова боја које употребљава на слици, као и у поступности грађења сликане површине и материје. Потреба за сталним грађењем плохе и простора резултира великим распоном и богатством сликарске материје: некад у тамној гами, а некад у узбудљивој борби између светлог и тамног. Лазурни и пастуозни Одломак из песме Пут. Архива ауторке текста. Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - тонови међусобно се допуњују и наглашавају на сликама из овог периода. Слика Руже је изврстан пример овог динамичног односа: прилично сладуњав мотив ружичастих ружа је тако пастуозно и формално драматично представљен, да мотив ништа није успео да задржи од своје потенцијалне сладуњавости. Снажни потези сликарском шпахтлом дочаравају нам мистичан спој лепог и трагичног. Метод сликања је експресиван и снажан, нанос боје дебео и слојевит, што је у колизији са карактером представљеног мотива. Још један мотив који уметника окупира кроз цео стваралачки опус, и коме се често враћа, јесу пастрмке. Пастрмке се појављују кроз све периоде Гргуровићевог сликарског опуса. Мотив пастрмки може се тумачити двојако: у светлу уметниковог хришћског убеђења: „Добро јутро, љубави и надо, добро јутро, ево ја устадох да с тобом шетам, да ником не сметам. Да ти руку пружим, с тобом да се дружим, да моја шетња од среће блиста, изворна, кристална, распевана, чиста. Да будем личност, ни са ким да немам сличност.“ У мотиву пастрмки се може препознати и сасвим супротна, готово дионизијска интенција: пастрмка представља симбол уметниковог боемског живота, уживање у плодовима овоземаљског живота. По усменом сведочанству уметникове ћерке, Гргуровић је био страсни риболовац. Најчешћи мотиви Гргуровићевих пејзажа су пиротски кеј и тврђава. Уметник је налазио велико надахнуће у природи, у наизглед обичним и свакодневним појавама чија нам лепота под теретом чињеничне стварности измиче. Искрено, готово детиње дивљење показивао је према свитању, смирају дана, готово апстрактној игри различитих форми у природи. На основу темељности ликовног приступа темама пејзажа, можемо закључити да је уметник био заљубљеник у природу и свој родни крај. Одломак из песме Јутро. Архива ауторке текста.. Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - ПОЕТСКА ФАЗА ( - ) За Гргуровићеву поетску фазу се поуздано може рећи да се као нека танка нит провлачила кроз све фазе његовог плодног стваралаштва. Фигуративна композиција као лајтмотив поетске фазе, у духу новог реализма, поетског реализма, нове фигурације, фантастичног реализма, јавља се кроз све фазе уметниковог стваралаштва. Као да је поетски реализам био генерички најближи уметниковом сензибилитету. Гргуровићева последња фаза у формалном смислу открива топлији колорит, интензивније коришћење светлијих и смелијих боја. Тонови париске плаве уступили су место жутој, ружичастој и црвеној. Мотиви остају исти. Кроз све фазе уметниковог развоја провлачи се женска фигура: некад је представљена у загрљају са мушком фигуром, некад са дететом у рукама, често је обавијена плавичастом измаглицом. Она обитава у неком тајанственом свету између сна и јаве. Фигура је стилизована, a њен идентитет нам остаје вечна тајна. Располажући скромном фотодокументацијом уметникових дела, нисам наишла на представу виле која је сликана дебљим наносом боје, као што је то случај са мртвом природом и пејзажима. Величанствене представе жене сликане су тананим лазурима, чини се у једном даху. Као да је уметник према овом мотиву гајио посебно осећање. Вила може бити схваћена као персонификација лирске, танане душе уметника. Фигуративно сликарство нам нуди шири распон изражајности кроз могућност експресије афективних расположења, као и психолошко читање симбола. Можда Гргуровићево стваралаштво управо и треба проучавати кроз генезу женске представе на његовим делима. ГРГУРОВИЋЕВ СТВАРАЛАЧКИ ОПУС У КОНТЕКСТУ АКТУЕЛНЕ УМЕТНИЧКЕ СЦЕНЕ Српска уметност краја двадесетог и почетка двадесет првог века представља врло сложен и динамичан скуп различитих појава, личности и покрета који су углавном били условљени дешавањима на светској уметничкој сцени. До краја двадесетог века, центар уметничких збивања био је Париз, док се у двадесет првом веку у свету појављује више уметничких центара: Њујорк, Барселона, Базел, Берлин, итд. Наша анализа биће везана за другу половину двадесетог века, јер су у том периоду настала и најуспелија уметникова дела. Гргуровићево уметничко школовање се дешава током седме деценије двадесетог века, која је у српској уметности била дубоко условљена дешавањима из шездесетих. По Денегрију Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - ( ), овај период започиње паралелним токовима сликарства поетске фантастике и сликарства енформела. Сликарство поетске фантастике произилази из индивидуалне подсвесне склоности или из интелектуалног опредељења уметника за неко идеализовано прошло време, док се оријентација енформела испољава у изванисторијској пројекцији постојања израженој метафизичким значењем саме примарне материје. Будући да у Гргуровићевом делу препознајемо карактеристике и енформела и поетске фантастике, можемо извести закључак да је уметник стварао свестан времена у коме живи. Уметникова монументална фаза се директно надовезује на посткубистичко сликарство Возаревића и Србиновића, док склоност ка енформелу он прилагођава миметичкој организацији слике, без трага жеље за коришћењем непиктуралних средстава. Дела из Гргуровићеве поетске фазе рефлектују тежњу уметника и уметности седамдестих да се заобиђе сучељавање са чињеницама егзистенцијалне реалности, као и извесну склоност ка нарацији и сликарском предочавању литерарних и метафоричких садржаја. По том расположењу интимног отпора према објективним околностима, Гргуровићева дела се могу повезати и са идејним ставовима Медиале, као и неким од протагониста овог покрета (Шејка, Љуба Поповић). Струјања у оквиру пиротске ликовне сцене у то време нису се много разликовала од националних уметничких стремљења: „овај период ће указати на сву разноврсност уметничких стилова и опредељења. Од реализма и интимизма, експресије и симболике до апстракције и нове фигурације без претеране емоционалне засићености.“ (Влатковић, , стр. ). ЗАКЉУЧАК Ако се потрудимо да не изгубимо из вида целину Гргуровићевог стваралаштва, у њему ћемо пронаћи међусобно формално удаљене, али суштински и духовно ипак блиске тенденције поетске фантастике, експресионизма и енформела. Форма, идеја и садржај су били снажно сједињени у његовој личности и делу. Из угла уметника, критичара или историчара уметности, као и обичног реципијента, не може се донети естетски суд који ће бити објективан и непроменљив. Оригиналне интенције уметника понекад не могу бити досегнуте ни синтетичком интуицијом. У том смислу Николај Хартман, формулишући принципе своје четвороструке анализе, каже да ништа није тамније и тајанственије од рада уметника ствараоца. „Чак и сопствени искази генијалног уметника уносе само мало светлости у суштину Б. Николић: Стваралаштво Јована Гргуровића Пиротски зборник ( ) - ствари. Они најчешће доказују да ни он не зна више од других о чуду које се у њему и кроз њега збило.“ (hartman, , стр. , ) Са правом и сигурношћу, дело Јована Гргуровића можемо сматрати вредним и достојним поштовања не само кроз уметнички допринос који је дао локалној заједници, већ као допринос на националном и интернационалном плану. Озбиљан стваралачки опус заслужује даље истраживање у циљу издавања монографије која ће се детаљније позабавити стваралаштвом овог уметника. ЛИТЕРАТУРА denegri, j. ( ). teme srpske umetnosti - . od socijalističkog realizma do kinetičke umetnosti, beograd, atoča : topy. Гргуровић, А. ( ). Јован Гргуровић: стваралаштво, љубав, слобода [текст у каталогу изложбе], Пирот, Галерија „Чедомир Крстић“. hartman, n. ( ). estetika, beograd, bigz. merenik, l. ( ). ideološki modeli: srpsko slikarstvo - , beograd, beapolis. Влатковић, Р. ( ). Неострашћена духовност Јована Гргуровића. Слобода, . . , стр. . Влатковић, Р. ( ). Ликовни живот у Пироту - , Пирот, Графика. Зековић, Љ. ( ). Лазар Возаревић [текст у каталогу изложбе], Цетиње, Народни музеј Црне Горе. Преузето . . . url http://www.mnmuseum.org/dado/pdf/lazar% vozarevic.pdf Примљено/ received on . . . Ревидирано/ revised on . . . Прихваћено/ accepted on . . . Слика Борба за слободу, мурал на зиду школе „ . септембар“, . figure freedom struggle, mural painted on the wall of the school “september th”, . Слика Распевана младост, мозаик на зиду Техничке школе, . figure singing youth, mosaic on the wall of technical school, . Слике и Гугутке на диреци (Голубови мира), бели мермер и природни камен, атријум Техничке школе, . figures and pirot kilim ornament gugutke na direci (dove of peace), white marble and natural stone, atrium of technical school, . Слика Лане, скулптура у бронзи, ПУ „Чика Јова Змај“, . figure fallow deer doe, bronze sculpture, kindergarten „Čika jova zmaj“, . Слика Руже, уље на платну, . figure roses, oil on canvas, . Слика Пастрмке: лепотице путују у други свет, уље на платну, . figure trouts: beauties travell to another world, oil on canvas, . Слика Пиротска тврђава Кале, уље на платну, . figure pirot fortress kale, oil on canvas, . Слика Загрљај, . Слика Сунцокрети, . figure embranchment, . figure sunflowers, . microsoft word - runco final simplifying theories of creativity mark a. runco simplifying theories of creativity and revisiting the criterion problem a comment on simonton’s ( ) hierarchical model of domain-specific disposition, development, and achievement mark a. runco torrance center for creativity and talent development, university of georgia, athens, and the norwegian school of economics and business administration address correspondence to mark a. runco, torrance center for creativity and talent development, aderhold hall, university of georgia, athens, ga ; e-mail: runco@uga.edu. abstract—simonton’s ( , this issue) hierarchical model represents a useful contribution to studies of creativity and eminence. simonton breaks all kinds of new ground by extrapolating the hierarchy to the arts and humanities, interpolating it within disciplines, and relating it to family background and disposition. this commentary poses a few questions with the hierarchical model and proposes an alternative. i also introduce a candidate for a simple theory of creativity that focuses on a universally shared capacity. this simple theory complements simonton’s hierarchical view, though his applies best to actual performance and the simple theory of creativity applies to creative potential. problem finding may be more important for creativity than problem solving. in fact, the latter may actually depend on the former in that good solutions may be possible only when they are directed at a good problem. that being said, simonton’s article, “varieties of (scientific) creativity: a hierarchical model of domain-specific disposition, development, and achievement,” ( , this issue) begins in a compelling fashion. it clearly identifies several good problems. these are framed as questions, including, “is the creative thought of an albert einstein comparable with that of a pablo picasso? or must we draw the contrary conclusion that there is no such thing as a “one- size-fits-all” creative process? is the thinking that produced the general theory of relativity fundamentally distinct from that which created a painting like guernica?” (p. xxx). simonton then develops an argument about a hierarchy of sciences, which, very significantly, can be applied to the arts and humanities as well. as is typical of his research, simonton’s logic and the data he cites are rigorous and convincing. i was especially intrigued by his testing of auguste comte’s theory that the sciences vary in a systematic fashion and can be ordered with hierarchy that captures the distinction between the “hard” and “soft” sciences. simonton goes well beyond the existing hierarchy, however, and breaks all kinds of new ground by extrapolating the hierarchy to the arts and humanities, interpolating it within disciplines, and relating it to family background and disposition. for the sake of brevity, this commentary focuses on additional questions that are suggested by a careful reading of simonton’s article. the first of these represents a minor concern about labels and wording. simonton stated that “to be more accurate, the hierarchical placement of sciences shown in figure should incorporate error bars” (p. xxx). figure shows different sciences, and his description of their differences is convincing. but error is the wrong label for what he is describing. although there is a psychometric tradition that labels unreliable or inexplicable variability as “error,” it can be misleading. what simonton is describing should be viewed as variability rather than error. it represents individual differences and can be taken as a reminder that creativity and achievement depend on both universals and individual differences. if i understand simonton correctly, he is simply acknowledging a statistical fact that means are hypothetical things. they are averages and may not even describe any one individual! everyone in a sample may in fact be somewhere around the mean (some above, some below). and different distributions will have variations around their respective means, so although the means are apart, large portions of the distributions may overlap. this is very clear in studies of sex differences (runco, cramond, & pagnani, in press), but it applies to an even broader range of subjects. although most males may do one thing, and have an average at one point, and females may tend to do another thing, and have an average at a different point, most males and females may be similar. in fact, many males may be beyond the female average, and many females may be beyond the male average. this is just a matter of distributions around the mean. it applies to sex differences, cultural differences, or any group differences. simonton is well aware of it and go on to describe how “each science is placed according to its center of gravity or central tendency, but it is incorrect to assume that all practitioners operate at that mean level. it is probably the case that there is sufficient variation within each discipline that the distributions overlap” (p. xxx). my point here is not with his logic or argument, but merely with the terminology and in particular the word error. as that concern does touch on the debate about universals and individual differences, it is related to the much more important question quoted above about einstein and picasso. in particular, it does not follow that if einstein’s thinking was different form picasso’s, then there is no universal creative process. this may sound like a minor point, and certainly it is not a problem with the idea of a hierarchy of the sciences. the problem is that any model or theory built on information about einstein, picasso, or other luminaries, should not be interpreted as indicative of everyone else. granted, there is a good reason to focus on einstein and picasso and the others. their creativity is unambiguous. the problematic implication is that creative talents are not normally distributed and are not universal capacities. sticking with the psychometric perspective, this is an issue of generalizability. it is also a reflection of the long-standing criterion problem (shapiro, ). put briefly, one theory (which relegates universals) might be built if we use fame and high-level creative performance as our criteria, but at the same time there is a tenable theory (which allows universals) constructed from a broader everyday definition or criterion of creativity. having such varied criteria and theories is not very parsimonious and may be unnecessary. it is much better to have a simple theory that applies to the eminent and the noneminent. candidate for a creativity universal elsewhere, i have suggested that at least one part of the creative process is universal. i described this as assimilatory and interpretive. briefly, the idea is that creative things all depend on original interpretations of experience. the experience may be scientific (as in the case of einstein), visual and emotional (as in the case of picasso), or even day-to-day. humans do not understand anything without constructing an interpretation or drawing meaning from long term memory, and the latter is not at all original or creative. it is not even mindful or consciously done. the concept of assimilation is a good way to describe how an individual can consider information (again, be it scientific, artistic, or day-to-day information) and construct an original interpretation. einstein did this when he thought about riding on a beam of light or train, and picasso did it when he observed a woman sleeping (and presumably dreaming)—one of my favorite paintings. this is not all there is to creativity, but assimilation will provide original ideas and interpretations. and everyone can construct original ideas and interpretations. we do not always do so—it is easier to use routine, assumption, and memory if we can get away with it— but we all do have the capacity. it is an example of one universal part of the creative process. as noted above, an accurate theory of creativity will need to take universals and individual differences into account. examples of the latter include judgments (e.g., when to put the effort into construction of an original interpretation) and interests (e.g., intrinsic motivation). clearly high-level creative people are highly motivated. they invest huge amounts of time to developing their talents and to thinking about the topic at hand, be it relativity, cubism, or whatever. they may be extraordinary in their drive and commitment, but just like the rest of us in their capacity to construct original interpretations. my concern about accurate theories is surely shared by simonton. as a matter of fact in his article, he expresses a parallel concern about the state of the creative sciences. there is fragmentation and too little integration of the various perspectives on creativity. as he puts it, “what we currently posses is a chaos of miscellaneous puzzle pieces that we hope can be placed together to form a single coherent picture of how the creative process in person might systematically vary across different domains of creativity” (p. xxx). although i don’t see the idea of domains as playing such a central role in our understanding of the creative process, i certainly understand the concern about what simonton calls fragmentation. this same concern led me recently to propose a simple theory of creativity. i began by questioning the assumption that creativity is a syndrome or complex. the view that creativity is a syndrome goes back at least to and is very broadly accepted (e.g., mackinnon, / ; mumford & gustafson, ). creativity is supposedly a syndrome in that there are a number of cognitive requirements (e.g., associative tendencies, divergent thinking fluency, flexibility, originality, and intuition), emotional and motivational influences (e.g., intrinsic interest and determination), personality traits (e.g., openness, wide interests, and autonomy), and contextual factors (e.g., support, resources, benefits, and minimal costs). yet research on creativity suggests that there are benefits to questioning assumptions, and the idea of a syndrome has been around so long that it is taken for granted. so while preparing two extensive reviews, i avoided the syndrome assumption, and sure enough, i uncovered a very small set of commonalities—almost like higher order factors in a principle components analysis, only theoretical rather than empirical (runco, ). in this simple theory of creativity, then, creativity boils down to a kind of freedom of thought, which is in turn related to all of those other possible influences and requirements. freedom of thought is related to the autonomous and unconventional personality tendencies, for example, but is also a reflection of intrinsic (and personal) interests and motivation, as well as ideational flexibility and originality. empirical tests of this new theory have yet to be conducted. and this is another thing shared with simonton: the need for empirical tests. empirical hypotheses simonton’s ideas lead nicely to testable hypotheses about domain differences. in fact, in addition to the tests he himself suggested, much of his reasoning can be used by others to test hypotheses about creativity. surely, that is a good index of quality scholarship: it leads in a fruitful direction. i have long wondered how to best test a hypothesis from the psychoeconomic theory of creativity (rubenson & runco, , ), and with simonton’s article, i now see several possibilities. psychoeconomic theory describes the costs and benefits of creative efforts as well as the idea of a market to support such efforts. it also explains what has been called “age and the rigidities” (chown, ), which is the tendency of older adults to become less and less flexible. this is a problem for creativity because flexible ideation is one of the best ways to find creative solutions. the psychoeconomic explanation is that older adults have invested a great deal into their routines and personal paradigms, and thus they have a great deal to lose if there is some sort of change or depreciation. this is true of economic investments, and it demonstrates why this line of thought is called psychoeconomic. investments may be financial, but they are also necessary for expertise and a number of psychological influences on the creative process. the important thing here is that there is a tendency for older adults and persons with large investments (e.g., experts) to protect their investments. for that reason, they may not consider alternatives as frequently or as thoroughly as younger or less experienced persons. this might be tested using some of the indicators identified by simonton. he lists consultation rate, for example, as one of the factors, and psychoeconomic theory would predict that individuals with less invested would consult more frequently than would persons with large investments (and further into their careers). simonton also lists citation immediacy, which might be adapted to test the idea that individuals with less invested will cite a broader range of sources than will persons with more invested. perhaps the indicators of “scientific status” could also be adapted such that they represent the degree of expertise and investment. these are just three possibilities. potential and performance to be thorough, i must underscore that expertise is quite often useful for creative work. there can be a cost or price to it (e.g., rigidity), but there are also potential benefits. i have, then, come the full circle in this commentary. early on, i voiced my concern over generalizing from eminent individuals to everyone else, and i have returned to the same topic, at least in that eminent persons are most often also experts with a great deal invested in their work and careers. there are clear practical implications. consider, for instance, the fact that although the research on experts and eminent persons is fascinating and compelling, it does not necessarily tell us about the creativity of children or the creativity of an adult whose creativity is only apparent in day to day activities and not in any professional arena. this is not just a limited generalization from the eminent to everyday creativity. there is another side to it, as eminent people already possess everything it takes to actually perform in a creative fashion. if they did not, they would not be eminent, or at least productively and creatively eminent. but many of us may lack something and only have creative potential. the key problem, then, is that studies of actual performances (and individuals already performing) may not help us to understand how mere potential can be fulfilled such that the individual develops what it takes to actually perform in a creative fashion. i used this distinction between performance and potential in my own modest reorganization of the field of creative studies (runco, ). briefly, instead of the typical alliterative framework with creative persons, places, processes, and products (and simonton’s [ ] own persuasion), i suggested a hierarchy that has performance and potential at the highest level, with the former divided into products and persuasion and the latter into processes, personality, and places. with this in mind, from my perspective one of the most important parts of simonton’s article is his conclusion. though brief, his conclusion makes the following statement i have put forward three interconnected arguments. the first is that the diverse domains of creative achievement can be arrayed as a hierarchy....that hierarchy was then extrapolated to include the humanities and the arts and interpolated to deal with within- domain variation. the underlying assumption of the hierarchical arrangement is that domain-specific creativity varies from the logical, objective, formal, and conventional to the intuitive, subjective, emotional, and individualistic. i should probably admit that the assertion that the former disciples reside at the top and the latter rest at the bottom is totally arbitrary. an artist might reasonably decide to invert the hierarchy, placing poetry at the apex and physics at the base. indeed, this inversion might be justified if we wish to use originality of creative thought as the primary criterion....” (p. xxx) studies of creativity do indeed use originality as the primary criterion. studies of potential and everyday creativity do this by recognizing the original insights and solutions of noneminent persons, even if those insights and solutions are personal and not socially acknowledged and broadly persuasive. they may be creative only in a person sense. they may be original and useful, but only for the individual. in the conclusion to his article, simonton’s theory is useful no matter how we approach creativity. creativity may be associated with expertise, eminence, and actual performance, in which case the hierarchy works as he initially uses it, or it may be associated with potential and a personal kind of effective behavior, which may be artistic or simply self-expressive, in which case the inverted hierarchy may indeed be more appropriate. references chown, s.m. ( ). age and the rigidities. journal of gerontology, , – . mackinnon, d. ( ). the highly effective individual. in r.s. albert (ed.), genius and eminence: a social psychology of creativity and exceptional achievement (pp. – ). oxford, united kingdom: pergamon. (original work published ) mumford, m.d., & gustafson, s.b. ( ). creativity syndrome: integration, application, and innovation. psychological bulletin, , – . rubenson, d.l., & runco, m.a. ( ). the psychoeconomic approach to creativity. new ideas in psychology, , – . rubenson, d.l., & runco, m.a. ( ). the psychoeconomic view of creative work in groups and organizations. creativity and innovation management, , – . runco, m.a. ( ). creativity. theories and themes: research, development, and practice san diego, ca: academic press. runco, m.a., cramond, b., & pagnani, a. (in press). sex differences in creative potential and creative performance. in d. mccreary (ed.), handbook of gender research in psychology. new york: springer. shapiro, r.j. ( ). the criterion problem. in p.e. vernon (ed.), creativity (pp. – ). new york: penguin simonton, d.k. ( ). exceptional personal influence: an integrative paradigm. creativity research journal, , – . simonton, d.k. ( ). varieties of (scientific) creativity: a hierarchical model of domain- specific disposition, development, and achievement. perspectives on psychological science, , xxx–xxx. issn - [print] issn - [online] www.cscanada.net www.cscanada.org canadian social science vol. , no. , , pp. - doi: . /j.css. . copyright © canadian academy of oriental and occidental culture the comparison and development of color between east and west du xuehui[a],* [a]college of fine arts, harbin normal university, china. *corresponding author. supported by youth academic backbone support program of general institute of higher learning in heilongjiang province. project number: g . received march ; accepted august abstract take a panoramic view of the painter’s application of color, almost everyone strengthens his self-cultivation positively. chinese ancient ancestors established “the five elements” as the symbol of color to the space, and it’s a kind of presentation of spontaneous philosophy. chinese painting values verve highly, while western painting lionizes are more about similarity in shape. but the appearance of modernism in the end of century makes them close, in the mean time the art between east and west had achieved a considerable unification which means there is no border between the arts. key words: color; the chinese painting; the western painting; development d u x u e h u i ( ) . t h e c o m p a r i s o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o l o r b e t w e e n e a s t a n d we s t . c a n a d i a n s o c i a l s c i e n c e, ( ) , - . av a i l a b l e f r o m h t t p : / / w w w. c s c a n a d a . n e t / i n d e x . p h p / c s s / a r t i c l e / v i e w / j . c s s . . doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.css. . . introduction profit from the difference of color theory and sense between east and west, we have more opportunity to appreciate and borrow ideas from each other. western painting before impressionism can be defined as the server of the religious system, and the discovery of dynamical color in impressionism is originated from the chromatogram of the sun. the formative character of chinese painting is namely the “five color” philosophical aesthetics of color. the color of western painting is scientific while chinese painting is emotional. there are unique laws and processes of the color application in chinese painting. it rules out the superficiality of nature and shadow. it emphasizes the inherent color of the materiality and expects less in color relationship. it has a direct relation to the “five color” philosophy and the similarity and difference of the material. an excellent painter should be a person with a keen sense of color. because color in painting is not the pronoun of color we use in our daily life, it endows with more symbolic significance. it can be national, regional, hierarchical and personalized. the painters obtain a new cognition towards the harmony of color. and their own color- discovery drives the development of epochal character on the knowledge of color. the reasonable cognition from confucius saying “men’s natural instinct are much the same, but their habits are widely different”, before years is the antecedent leading to the knowledge of color for the contemporary era painters. take a panoramic view of the painter’s application of color, virtually everyone strengthens his self-cultivation positively. so that it can play a dynamic role during the transmission of effects and emotion in the frame. virtually every work with huge image beyond the idea that has been handed on from age to age has depended on vivid color and image. it transcends its intrinsic quantity and intensifies repeatedly. “the mountain is in the entirely imaginary” is the kind of artistic conception. t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f i m p r e s s i o n i s m e m b o l d e n s t h e perceptual knowledge of color based on the foundation of rationality. as far back as in the th century, the impressionism exerts the function of color superlatively. they actualized “the dynamic expression of color” in heptachromic system and established the methodical system of color grounded on the physical optics. the key factor is the painter drawing directly with the inspiration of the heliolamp, namely to seek the variation of the copyright © canadian academy of oriental and occidental culture du xuehui ( ). canadian social science, ( ), - color relationships. it also sharpens the painter’s inner sensibility of color. post-impressionism showed the power of emotional color adequately to personalize the color. fauvism and expressional artists achieve the vivid flavor of various modern color elements via the comprehensive representation of color. the chinese painting color belongs to “inducible color” which is ruled as “enduing with the color based on the category” by xie he. the author’s opinion is the color application in western painting from the renaissance to impressionism can be classified as above. both are putting the inherent color on the observed image. the appearance of impressionism is to return to the rationality and scientific, while the chinese painting color is perceptual all along. the aesthetic analysis of chinese and western color chinese ancient color is on the foundation of “the five elements”. it established the stable color structure. the symbol of color is changed to the decorative function gradually from the qin dynasty. chinese ancient color trended to a rich and varied development. the color aesthetic in this period is “the five colors”, and it’s the foundational character of eastern color art. it is different from the theory of optic in western. the ancient color symbol is created on the spontaneous rational conception and it is distinguished from the western. chinese ancient ancestors established “the five elements” as the symbol of color to the space. the symbol of “the five elements” is a kind of presentation of spontaneous philosophy. as “the painting is mixed by the five colors” recorded in the chou rituals, the articles about black, white, blue-green, red and yellow conveyed various color related cognition. it represents the earliest color rationality. everyone who has seen the silk painting in mawangdui or the dunhuang mural can feel the demeanour of chinese strong coloring. the character of applying rich color leads the human beings. “the painters in ancient like to use the five colors together, so the gentlemen in tang and jin prefer the strong colors and delineation.” said by dong qi, qing dynasty. chinese ancient painting formed the strong coloring of five colors which represented the whole world. chinese ancient strong coloring of five colors related to the character of “the five elements” and “the five moralities”. it constituted the spirit and aura of eastern people’s color activity. according to the color formation of structure, chinese painting strong coloring pertains to the comparison of the hue of color. ancient painter inherited the necessity of spontaneously applying monochrome from the primitive instinct. it abuts the biotic color. and the creating of the juxtaposition of the saturated color and five colors products the relative and relatedness. the pure hue of color can be limited by coaly and gold or silver string in chinese remote antiquity drawing from. red yellow and blue-green has its own inherent quality in the limited district. these hues of colors on the entire painting produce the grave and strong characters of the strong coloring simultaneously. chinese strong coloring painting realized the epochal character of human beings. the character is the change of spontaneous natural ability of color to color consciousness from remote antiquity to the ancient. chinese remote antiquity strong coloring stands for the preliminary consciousness of color. the theory of “the chinese ink has five different colors” in chinese traditional drawing theories is the archetypal concept of “ink is a kind of color”. the ink not only means black in chinese painting color but also a “color” to adjust the relationship of the frame. chinese ancient ink and wash paintings manifest the extreme developmental character of mono-color in the period of human beings’ color consciousness. t h e a c a d e m i c e v o l u t i o n o f western color an ultimate change occurred to the western oil painting from the last years of th century. the narrow art function and all-in-one realistic of traditional oil painting had attained the high saturation for autologous’ system. thus it tended to disassembly by the revolution of philosophy and art concept. the creative principles of oil paintings are not the copy or recurrence of the nature. artistic images of oil paintings constructed freely by the painters are regarded as the new reality. the artists did not portray the nature by means of oil paintings but a medium to convey own spirits and emotions by it. the painters conceive their works by imagination and fantasy. three painters after impressionism showed initiative to abandon the customary pattern of oil painting. vincent van gogh chose untrammeled and fast or drawing to impart the power in the fully saturated and bright color, and by this means to express worry of the inner soul. paul gauguin preferred color and modeling to construct the painting. the space of the work is violated from the traditional form, and the works complete with an atmosphere of mystery. paul cezanne groped for using geometric figure to form art image, and the frame he created is a world with autologous order. their works became the marks of a tremendous change in the oil painting history. among the oil paintings in the th century, different art conception formed different schools. and they protected the art situation from appearing so many trendy. some elements of the traditional oil drawing skills are treated as embodying of art concepts. they were strengthened frequently or pushed to an extreme. the language of oil painting form is highly valued. for instance: the cubism ignoring the color and choosing the free construction of form and structure, the fauvism emphasizing the balanced effects in the strong color state, the expressionism using the disorderly application of copyright © canadian academy of oriental and occidental culture the comparison and development of color between east and west color and brush work to express the innermost distortion, the abstract art constructing the frame with point, line and plane simply and the abstract expressionism drawing with the paint cast, splashed and dropped on the canvas. schools of western contemporary oil painting are numerous and complicated in the last years. they subrogated each other in succession. the conceptive conformity of blending the east and the west some chinese artists counted the western fine art as the reference object to their autologous artistic creation intentionally or unintentionally during the hundred developing and revolution. especially for some chinese painters who persist to explore the innovation from the traditional art and to absorb and appreciate the effective elements in contemporary western art so that they can enrich their art language. there are three aspects for giving a specific analysis of it. first and foremost, chinese painters abandon the idealistic color completely and turn to present the intimate world of humanity under the influence of irrational philosophy. the substance is to deny the classicalism utterly and apply unsophisiticated and deeply expressive means to reflect the dignified and holy religion. from actual-life point of view, arrange a new angle to describe the objective world and life the artists scientifically and authentically by different quarters. so as express their cognition of perceptual and rational. secondly, form comes first. they treated “raising forms into individual position” as the basic language of artistic creation. it displays the objective world and the abundant human’s subjective spiritual world. it expands human’s appreciated area of the beauty. the third point is to absorb the outstanding achievement of systematic progress positively. it means to create the painting with artistic character plus the style and features of modern by absorbing and combining dissection, modern chemistry, chromatology, composition studies, perspective science, sociology and psychology together. these three aspects are not only playing a positive role in the development of the western modern art, but also influenced profound and lasting in chinese painting development. it changes chinese painting from a traditional form to the modern form. gao jianfu, the archetypal figure of ling nan school, had gone abroad to japan with his team, and he maintains to compromise the ancient and modern, western and eastern. it refers to the new japanese painting school which formed by drawing lessons from the color and shadow of western painting. it was named as “the mix school of china and japan” by contemporaries. nevertheless, in fact it was the result influenced by western art. the discontentment of the chinese painting color and the desire of pioneering the new thought precipitate some painters to reform and open-up of the painting system, while four books and the five classics are controlling them at the same time. the painting is no longer the simple following of tradition, because the old net cannot hold the hope of insatiable thirsts. the revolution of painting began with s. accompanied by the deeper revolution in s, the innovatory view of chinese painting color became stronger and stronger. finally, the first discussion forum of chinese painting color problems was held in beijing. the forum discussed the cultural value and the existing of painting forms, also it explored the material, skill and the language form of painting. it had compared the history and reality, eastern and western. it is the conclusion of these passing days and the securement for the future. the forum can be regarded as a theory pageant of carrying forward the tradition to chinese painting color. in the colorful morphological space, the shape and color are the leading factors of painting system. shape as the main elements of any kind of painting should not be despite. and color influences the visual psychology more directly and irritatingly. chinese painting is one of the very important forms in world culture. it has the closely and nonseparable relationship with the shape, color and texture. we can be aware of the important value of color by the development of chinese painting. the element of color had gone through the culture baptism from the early stone painting with the trend of color to the painted pottery culture, from the strong color of tang and song density to the elegant of ming and qing. so the painting field is a hundred flowers blooming and a hundred schools of thought striving. the three main stream of contemporary art circle is traditional ink and wash painting, the experimental chinese ink and wash paintings and the chinese and the west union paintings. with looking back these histories help a lot to the cognition of color developing nowadays. the frame color is the main representative language in both eastern and western painting. and we concern more about impressionism when we talk about color. it was impressionism that exerted the perfection of color in th. but our chinese painters are still arguing about the chinese painting skills at that time. and only a few persons were supporting the color elements in chinese painting. no one can deny that china ink and wash painting have the splendid accomplishment. “chinese ink presenting five colors,” only says to express the material with several color gradation. with the fundamental interests of color, ink and wash painting is only a black tone painting with one single color. and it cannot replace the color expressing material. there are different forms, seasons and areas which can represent diverse color feelings and stimulate human’s sympathetic response of emotion. in this way can introduce the painter using color to express the emotion. chinese painting is swiftly developed during the chinese revolution and open-up. the pattern-form theory of western modern painting in s made the young artists raring to learn more about western. the aesthetic copyright © canadian academy of oriental and occidental culture du xuehui ( ). canadian social science, ( ), - concepts of modernism and post-modernism flooded to the painting circle. the young put their mind on the modern art after impressionism. and they tried to get help from the achievement of geometric modeling and chromatics to break through the immovable color and modeling. painting with meticulous detail has a special growth in the modern time through the curriculum reform of chinese painting. in that territory, except the viridity and gold-and-green landscape became the lost body of knowledge, chinese realistic painting personages and fine brushwork flower- and-bird painting have a high occupancy. there is also a large eclosion of meticulous detail painters. excellent works like tang pictures of music players and night breeze. during the development process, some expressive artists deviated from the traditional artistic interests and standard, such as li shinan and li jin. the latter intensified the power of string and color obviously in a series painting of tibet. “the color does not bother the ink. so does the ink” became the unchanged persuasion of some painters. they inherited the tradition created by lin fengmian to introduce the color lump into the art of ink and wash when relied on the western expressionism. representatives are hairihan and zhu zhengeng. tian liming even put large color lump to analyze the relation between ink and pen into a facula effect. ling had pointed out “it needs a definite correction of the painting material, skill and method so that it will not restrict or bind the trend of free description.” in the exploration of light, color and ink. it is not happening by chance that the pioneer who insisted on doing things in his own way finally won many successors. lin fengmian is very learned in painting. he studied chinese traditional chiefly when he was young, and later went abroad to france. he concentrated on studying the modeling and color of western painting. that is why he has a deep realization towards chinese and western esthetic spice. he takes harmonizing chinese and western and revitalizing the chinese art as his personal responsibility. his paintings unite the traditional line drawing of chinese painting, folk interest, the style of cubism and fauvism and the conception of western color. he founded the new way to express the still life and landscape and created to paint with deep ink and color. it advocates the unique flag among the artistic sea. his works lay paint on canvas freely and completely. moreover repeat pigmentation in the rich and gaudy area and lighten the elegant of pure and transparent. the paintings are endowed with the poetic sense of beauty for the inherent color and shadow. the infiltration of chinese and western makes the chinese painting blend into literalism. the fundamental of eastern and western is totally different, so the expression of art before modernism is different too. eastern art placed extra emphasis on subjective, while western painting from objective. eastern art is similar to the poem and western art are more like drama, therefore chinese painting is great at verve, and western painting is strong in similarity of shape. the appearance of modernism in the end of th century makes these two paintings closer, and finally the art running up to a border less situation. the development of chinese painting needs a new thread. the most effectual method is combining the ancient chinese philosophy and the study of the color system in western painting. it is not the simple copy of western phenomenon on the painting form, but the leading painters to bring the human color essence and modern color to further development and exploration of initiatively. based on these thoughts, painters should continue the new visual angle to cogitate and research the main theory advocated as “deep thinking of philosophy”. the content of it is to improve the color conception and color creation to a theoretic knowledge, and exert the expressiveness of the chinese paintings which have the splendid color potential. thus to rich the thought and develop chinese painting, furthermore, it is the direction of positive exploration of “the pen and ink should follow the age”. following closely to the language character of the color in chinese painting and digging deeper on its character in philosophy become the theme of promoting chinese painting. the plenty cultural deposits and organic amalgamation of foreign culture provide a broader space and more expressive and visual impact power to the creation of chinese painting color. besides the elements above-mentioned the reflection of humanism, the formation of the painter’s creative appearance and the consociation of colors is more important. the analyzed mentally philosophy theory leads the author’s practice field. as a university teacher, the teaching technique of philosophy and the color concept have influenced the students admiring the tradition and thirty to innovation. chinese paintings value the artistic conception and it determines whether the frame is perfect or not. in conclusion, painters should exploit their private thought, disposition, emotion and imagination in the creation of painting, and make “self”, “foreign teachers” and “tradition” as a triunity. and let the specific and limited color converge to measureless color rhyme. references chen, zhidong ( ). the function and significance of chinese painting color. the observation of art, ( ), - . kong, xingmiao ( ). the comparison of chinese and western. henan art press. li, guangyuan & li, li ( ). the comparison of chinese and western. hebei art press. lin, fengmian ( ). chinese painting new tradition chinese art research institution (doctoral dissertation). xiong, wei ( ). the collision of aesthetic conception of chinese painting and philosophical. the observation of art, ( ), . zhao, xinge ( ). the century collection of chinese paintings people ( st ed.). art press. art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – [rhead – r]parallel modernities [rhead – v]ticio escobar [artitle]parallel modernities. notes on artistic modernity in the southern cone of latin america: the case of paraguay [au]ticio escobar [trans]translated by hilary macartney [source]first published in spanish as “modernidades paralelas. notas sobre la modernidad artística en el cono sur: el caso paraguayo,” el arte fuera de sí, [abs]abstract the author of this article is one of the most important intellectuals in the latin american artistic scene. focusing on the particular case of paraguay, which was governed by the dictatorship of alfred stroessner from until , escobar traces the modernist impulse in paraguay and traces its complicated and disturbed relationship with european and north american models and antecedents: neo- impressionism, cubism, expressionism, abstraction, and similar. while they reflect the particular political conditions under which the artists worked, the diverse and many-voiced paraguayan responses also offer an exemplary set of responses that shed light on the development twentieth-century modernist art and visual culture across the broader south american continent. [key]keywords: paraguay, latin americas, modern art, colonialism, post-colonialism, dictatorship, mestizo, creole, hispano-guarini, martinfierrista revolution, arte nuevo, los novísimos, postmodernism, utopia, re-figuration [inta]introduction by gabriela siracusano [intx]in this article, ticio escobar, one of the most outstanding latin american art critics, aims to put into discussion the several and disrupted ways modernity takes place in the latin american artistic art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – scene, focusing on paraguay. by rethinking the tension between central and peripheric models and the debate around the concepts of appropriation, transgression, copy, distortion, or infidelity, the author shows how modern artistic language in paraguay found its way in order to create a different modernity. escobar describes some significant moments of the development of modern art in paraguay named by him as: modernidades (from to the first half of the s), desmodernidades ( to ), and modernidades paralelas ( to the present). the key to this classification is supported by an interaction between art and politics, which the author aims to explain in order to offer to the reader some indicators through which to understand the cultures in question. from an anthropological point of view and related to his position as art critic, escobar analyzes present modernities in which urban and native-indigenous artists, artisans, and community groups find their way to creation between the local and the global, the popular and the modern. finally, this text gives an original and significant view of how modernity in art must be conceived in the roots of cultural diversity, and how global art history and visual studies should consider its variety of forms and the ways in which this variety develops in peripheral art scenes. [#] [#] [#] [#] [artitle]parallel modernities. notes on artistic modernity in the southern cone of latin america: the case of paraguay. [au]ticio escobar [a]introduction [b]distortions art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – [tx]the question of modernity, and particularly that of modernity on the periphery, has constituted a central theme in the debate on latin american art from the beginning. this article uses this question as the nucleus from which to examine briefly three historical moments (not necessarily occurring sequentially) that are defined around it in the realm of artistic practice: the cycle of modernity affiliated to the avant- garde, critical postmodern positions, and popular modernities. these moments are considered in the light of the disruptions through which modern developments are produced: those that derive from hegemonic relationships at a global level (the asymmetries between the art of the metropoles and that of the peripheries) and those caused by the inevitable faults in the mechanisms of representation (the imbalances between the languages of art and the realities designated). [txt]the first dislocation stems from the different positions that peripheral cultures occupy in relation to the figures proposed or imposed by central modernity. even though hegemony is no longer exerted from geographical locations, nor enunciated in absolute terms, the different positions the centers assume with regard to its precepts or its siren songs continue to constitute a fundamental reference in latin american art, defined largely by exchanges of glances that intersect with the center, by struggles over meaning. and thus, the tension between central models and appropriated forms, transgressed or copied by the peripheries, or imposed on them, constitutes a theme that remains current and requires continual reassessment. this conflict occurred from the outset and, in a way, continues to occur. european colonization of latin american territories was based on a systematic program of substitution of indigenous cultures with metropolitan ones. but the designs on domination can never be entirely realized. and this is the case not only because the strategies for power get out of control to a certain extent, but also because the areas of the symbol are essentially mistaken and cover a central vacuum that cannot be completely filled. even the harshest processes art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – of cultural domination, the most ferocious cases of ethnocide, cannot cover the whole field of colonization and leave, to their regret, a vacant fringe. in this waste land difference operates: from there, first the indigenous peoples, and then the mestizos and creoles, sometimes produced particular (sub)versions, works that were able to seize some moment of truth of their own and, in this way, escape the spurious fate assigned to them by the colonial plan. in many cases, the indigenous people began meticulously to imitate western patterns and ended up bending the meaning of the models. likewise, in the course of the split time which then began, the best forms of latin american art were (are) those that were able to affirm themselves in that brief void exposed by the disruption of power and the misplacements of the image, and to nourish themselves with the condensed energies that took refuge there. the modernity of latin american art develops out of the mistakes created by the central modern language in naming other histories or in being named by other subjects. its best forms originate in equivocations and misunderstandings, involuntary wrongs and inevitable lapses. but they also arise out of the distortions produced by successive copies, out of the difficulties in adopting signs that assume different techniques, motives, and sensibilities and, of course, out of the conscious attempt to adulterate the meaning of the prototype. thus, many works intended to constitute degraded transcriptions of metropolitan models recover their originality as, through error, inefficiency, or transgressive will, they betray the course of the first meaning. faithful, at times, to their anticolonialist aspirations or to the rhythm of their own times; prisoners, at other times, of vain acts, blunders, and confusions, the latin american avant-garde movements made dramatic alterations to the tenses, logic, and contexts of the modern proposals. this prolific violation of the central paradigms is observed not only in the reflective tendencies of modern art but also in its most irrational moments, the necessary counterparts of modernity. on the one hand, latin american art does art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – not want, or is not able, to follow the plundered, analytical, and self- referential modern path. on being transplanted to latin america, the rationalist movements are rapidly contaminated by the imperatives of a history that require the disengagement of the self-sufficient compass of language. on the other hand, in latin america, even the forms that follow the most irrational directions incorporate organizing principles and formalist solutions that serve to underpin, if not to put in order, an image more threatened by obscure outbursts than by conceptual excesses. the second disconnection (common in all forms of modern art) arises from the disjuncture between the signs of art and the reality that they pursue. superimposed on the previous discrepancy, this redoubles the distortions of peripheral modernity and increases its waste lands. perhaps the most important art of latin america occurs in the open space exposed by these imbalances. this is because the works nourished by knots of conflict and grown in no-man’s land toughen and temper their forms through the hard determination required to survive; the strongest latin american artistic production is reinforced by its link with the raw nerves of history. placed in extreme points of tension, courageously suspended in the void, artists manage to invert adversity, appealing to powerful figures, producing substantial works that signify not exactly the surmounting of conflict or expressions of their hidden reality, but charged and vigorous ciphers, capable of expounding in rhetorical code the great questions of the moment. these works show the impact of the distortions that cause the transfer of signs and accumulate the passage of history. it is not their role to correct them, but through them, art can relocate the positions from which meaning is disputed. thus, paradoxically, the distortions caused by modern asymmetries enable certain productions of the peripheries fleetingly to achieve an unexpected, desperate clarity of focus that the models of the metropolis themselves, content with their advantages, absorbed by great commitments, or dimmed by postmodern apathies, take longer to achieve. art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – with these considerations as its starting point, this article seeks to emphasize some significant moments of the evolution of the modern art produced in the southern cone of latin america. it does so by considering certain aspects of the history of the art of paraguay, whose circumstances, questions, and responses can be schematically compared with those of the regional artistic production. on the other hand, this history, isolated for centuries and doubly peripheral, presents several basic problems in a clear and concentrated form that facilitates its analysis. obviously, this work in no way claims to cover the whole spectrum of modern art in paraguay: it refers strictly to some productions which serve to illustrate the concepts and support the arguments. thus, many of the fundamental names of the history of this art are not mentioned and, by the same token, other, sometimes lesser, names appear, which serve to exemplify particular directions. [b]histories [tx]even though it often tries to cover its scars, the art produced in paraguay is marked, like any other, by the accidents, fractures, and silences that jar and quell the successive undercurrents of its time. given that all artistic production is considered within the sphere of the theory of representation and, therefore, becomes charged with the responsibility of giving clues about what is going on outside itself, the question is to determine the extent to which peripheral forms can do so. that is, up to what point can they take account of their own histories, forms colonized by other systems of representation, forms dependent on hegemonic models and, later, forms kept hidden by official history or directly suffocated by dictatorship? when we talk about “taking account,” we assume that the corresponding testimony will always be based on a biased and partial record, truly partisan; an obscure and coded way of saying what cannot be said, not so much because it is forbidden but because it has no name. art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – [txt]with regard to the antecedents of this complicated history, let us set aside the indigenous pre-colombian worlds, not because they lack importance, but because they are resistant to being placed in the categories of western history of art. let us begin, then, by mentioning the colony that signified a process of dismantling native cultures and of violent imposition of the imperial languages. and so, as far as a suitable position can be taken with regard to this situation (whether of resigned acceptance or angry rejection, complacent appropriation or calculated seizure), colonial art manages to define particular expressive forms. the so-called “hispano-guaraní art,” produced by the indigenous peoples in the franciscan, and especially jesuit, missions during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, preserves in its origin the memory of brutal processes of ethnocide and resentment, of emptiness and persecution (figure ). [ts – figure near here] but its forms do not faithfully translate these conflicts, and they certainly do not resolve them, either in reality or symbolically. they simply affirm, enlivened by their tensions, by the effort involved in confronting them, by the energies they release—perhaps. like the ancient, indigenous guaranís who began submissively copying the baroque models and ended up dismantling the meaning of the prototypes, so too, many other forms are capable of twisting the course of the design imposed by the hegemonic direction. popular art produced during the nineteenth century was strengthened despite, and by means of (and perhaps thanks to), grand foreign ideals and ferocious battles: engravings in the newspapers of the war constitute a compendium of creole-guaraní humor, of rural sensibility and its perceptive sketches, of second-hand european portrait art, of romantic and neoclassical forms known through reproductions, of the great nationalist proclamations of marshal lópez, etc. (figure ). [ts – figure near here] but their images escape the mere formulation in image code of what that tense and confusing reality would have been. art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – this is because the actions of art transcend the different forces that intervene in history. and, in this context, i would like the verb “transcend” not to be read in idealistic or dialectical code: to transcend signifies here simply to go beyond the edges supporting them; to penetrate beyond the concrete factors conditioning a creative act in order to gain an extended view simultaneously from the inside and the outside; to feed on the intimate forces of a situation in order to detach oneself to some extent from it and be able to name it fully, the image being contaminated with the details of memory, open to the desire of a moment that history cannot record because it does not yet exist. modern paraguayan art coincides in its development with the long period of the military dictatorship of alfred stroessner ( – ). this does not mean that the former was a consequence of the latter, but neither does it necessarily mean that it constituted the reverse. however, it is indisputable that the great figures of artistic modernity grew up in paraguay endorsed by the characteristics of that dark period: they suffered the dictatorship, they expressed it, they faced its proposals, displayed its moments; perhaps in some way they legitimized others. all forms both validate and challenge history; this ambivalence allows other sides of things to be suggested. present-day art in this country coincides with the disenchantment of a confused transition to democracy that is setting up an unprecedented scene of new public liberties at the same time as it is also preserving the scheme of power hatched under the dictatorship. but it also coincides with the banalizing expansion of the cultural industries, with experiences of regional integration whose implications elude us, with the emergence of new scenarios of corruption, violence, and misery, and even with stubborn hopes that are advancing in the opposite direction. the most solid artistic expressions will be those capable of naming this convulsed or too tepid present from the very depths of its complicated interior and out of the old and vain zeal to forget it or transform it. this is because everything that speaks from the art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – immediacy of the events and across the insurmountable distance of desire opens up a space from which to watch the situation and, in front of it, to imagine a form. a beautiful, obscure form that can give to history only coded clues that hint at the angle of the direction and, briefly, another path. [b]notes on methods [tx]in a necessarily simplified form, for reasons of length, this work takes modernity as its central theme and studies the different positions of the art of paraguay with regard to its patterns, its traditions—such as it has—and the pompous display of its forms. the development of this theme is carried out in three sections. the first, modernities, refers to the saga of modern paraguayan art (from the s to the first half of the s). the second, demodernities, deals with production by sectors which regain a protest position during the confused period of the so-called transition to democracy, a stage begun after the fall of the dictatorship and coinciding with the criticism of modernity (the middle of the eighties to the middle of the nineties). the third section, parallel modernities, concerns certain specific entries within modernity. starting from the relevance of codes that are very deep rooted in their respective cultural traditions, certain popular sectors develop their own responses to the challenges of modernity; responses which, in many cases, end up constituting a refutation of the modern program and, in fact, tally with certain contemporary objections (questionings of formal autonomy, originality, good taste, stylistic relevance, etc.). [txt]these three moments are considered in terms of their differences from modern and postmodern paradigms respectively. indeed, all the peripheral postures assumed around modernity imply different degrees of translation, of betrayal, of the modern ideology. as its figures and its discourses are differentiated or reappropriated, modernity suffers important distortions. so much so that the essential notes of its concept come to compromise and at times to hinder the art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – possibility of talking about the modernity of certain forms of art. but this misunderstanding constitutes the central point of any theory about difference in art. distortion, mistiming, infidelity of transcription open up possibilities for the particular. as already acknowledged, the disconnection produced by differentiation facilitates a margin for the inscription of difference. but, even at an angle and fleetingly, the distortion of the central models suggests not only a defense against the tyrannizing expansion of the modern logos but also an exit in the middle of the depressed postmodern western landscape. subirats calls certain luso-hispanic cultural productions and “the modern artistic contribution of the countries of the third world” in general avant-gardes of the south. and he sees in them “a contribution to the aesthetic of modernity and postmodernity often obliquely slanted in the essays of theoretical interpretation of the avant-gardes.” thus, against the grain of the end-of-century mood, this article has a certain inevitable optimistic tone. to read the art produced in one region or country—like that realized elsewhere— following strictly the milestones that mark certain itineraries of meaning, necessarily yields a favorable balance. and it does so because it considers only the outstanding points and leaves aside a large part of the artistic production of that place, the majority of it, if not more, mediocre like that of anywhere else. the first section is developed from a modern reading of modernity. this is because one possible way of following certain clues to modern art is to travel its much trodden routes, perhaps making out other directions from the corner of one’s eye. thus, in order to revise the modern itinerary it can prove effective in some cases (in this one) not so much to question its evolution, impelled by the course ordained by reason and its marked direction, but to surmount this current. they could discern from within other channels and other shores; impetuous flows that advance in the other direction; secret tributaries, new art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – volumes that overflow the level previously fixed. in the case of the art of paraguay, the detailed observance of a modern logic of styles can express not so much the adherence to a strange rationality as the necessity to seek an ordering principle in the middle of a too obscure history, the desire to inscribe temporality in a petrified landscape. thus, in order to study the modernity of paraguay it can prove fruitful to do so in historicist code: to analyze its own logical developments and compare the imbalances of its stages in relation to the stages of the modern art which serves as its guide. through those lapses in synchronization, its own rhythm can be stressed. the last two sections resist being read in sequential code and promote a more disordered approach. [a]i. modernities [b]broken modernity [tx]artistic modernity began very late in paraguay. officially, it happened with the opening of an exhibition of the arte nuevo group in . that same year the dictatorship of general alfred stroessner began, whose shadows gathered over the country’s history during more than three decades and whose signature still marks the difficult present. modern art completed its cycle in the course of those years; it can be said—if it were possible to establish an exact date for such occurrences—that it reached the culmination of its process at the end of the s. that is, in the same period in which stroessner was overthrown and a different age commenced. even protected from the temptation of determinist simplifications, it is a fact that this coincidence sealed the evolution of modern paraguayan art, whose images could not be separated from the adverse climate that besieged its production. [txt]the entire project of modernity carries stigmas of the time of stroessner. it is a cloistered and doubly peripheral modernity; an obscure and disarticulated modernity, unevenly formed by the corruption that created opulent oligarchies and by the many forms of art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – oppression and marginality that regularly renewed the old miseries. a modernity deformed by the coarse militarist myths of the “national being” and implanted at the margin of modern ideology: without civil liberties or political guarantees, stroessner’s military dictatorship ruled (or tried to rule) citizens who were silent, silenced. a modernity, then, profoundly contradictory, like many latin american modernities. undoubtedly simplified, this was the basis of the history. upon it was sketched the modern project of the arts in paraguay. its programmatic bases interpreted faithfully enough the great principles and strategies of the international avant-gardes. nevertheless, the burden of history itself was so heavy that, under its weight, that project ended up adulterating, if not being ignorant of, many of the fundamental suppositions of modernity. [b]redemptions, falsifications [tx]the question is complicated because, in itself, the development of modern art carries its own paradoxes. on the one hand, it is centered on the autonomy of the signifier: it begins to define itself from the specificity of language, from the reign of the form. thus, concrete artistic processes correspond to moments in the development of forms—styles that are linked almost in syllogistic form and are considerable, nevertheless, in their internal order. on the other hand, this unpredictable, self-reflective evolution is obliged to take account of reality and even to amend it. just as elsewhere, modern art is, from the start, committed to rectifying society and redeeming history in a direction which contradicts the very autonomy of its signs. this contradiction was the cause of anxious attempts to reconcile form and content (signifier and signified, language and object, art and society, etc.). but it was also a fertile source of the best moments of modernity. [txt]resolving this tension between the disdainful seclusion of its field and its passionate commitments to history has charged modern forms with energy. how can this opposition be resolved between faithfulness to the diaphanous order of the signs, on the one hand, and duties to art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – the turbulent dominions of society, existence, and “objectivity,” on the other? how does the self-absorption of the language adapt to a project beset by temporality, thrown outside itself towards the clear course that utopia signals? here a founding charter of modernity appears: those contradictions can be overcome through the action of the avant- garde movements, by means of permanent innovation that forces the language to the limit, obliging it to release other names of the reality out of which to transform it. modern art is conscious of its own development in the course of stages that synthesize successive contradictions according to a coherent sequence driven by the avant-garde movements. the latter develop an impeccable choreography: they move assuming positions around precise problems that unfold their questions and find responses in counter-positions which, in turn, will pose their queries according to the order of a well-oriented guide. but, on being projected onto barbarous terrains, these secret rationalities become distorted. or are obliged to readapt themselves to the requirements of other times and other rhythms. [b]the premoderns [tx]dark and enclosed times; staccato rhythms, strident, quiet. although, it has been said, the avant-garde slogans were late in appearing in paraguay, the ground was quietly being prepared for them through a slow and relatively long route. when, once the war of the triple alliance against paraguay is over in , this country is ready to resume the course of a devastated history, it does so from a base of utter dependency. in the first recipients of scholarships are sent to italy to be trained in the profession of the “fine arts.” however, they go there not because italy is of much interest to paraguay, but because it was of considerable significance to argentina, whose aesthetic models of the beginning of the century came from the old italian academies. paraguay then, receives the models filtered through regional submetropoles: primarily buenos art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – aires and, later, são paolo, and thus sums up, in a way, the path of european/north american art through the mediation of river plate and brazilian models. the wages of being a colony of colonies, as eduardo galeano would say. but what is interesting about these duplicated mediations is that, with so much traffic and handling, the paradigms end up losing definition and potency. and the artists, such as there are, have opportunities to exploit the natural erosion that the twice-copied original suffers and of working on the imbalance exposed by the difference. the second-hand copy, the bad copy, has always been a good ally when it comes to reversing the meaning of colonial signs. [txt]but the mediations not only adulterate the original codes, they also displace their effects. and so, in this way, in passing through the successive lock-gates of hegemonies and subhegemonies, the time that elapses within the subcolony between the exemplar and its copy is extended. such a delay, of relevance in a process obsessed by being up to date, offers the opportunity for local artists to take up the foreign forms according to the rhythm of their own times. the first scholarship holders brought from italy a form of painting framed within a fin-de-siècle academism confusedly stuffed with loose ingredients from romantic and realist systems that were not fully digested. but this image is incubated by secret renovative principles that go on to be manifested later according to the requirements of different occasions: they come to the surface encouraged by circumstances of their own and induced by influences from buenos aires, which sends weak impressionist tremors during the s (exhibition of the argentinian centenary, which was attended by paraguayan painters) and delegates expressive and constructive reinforcements of postimpressionist origin from the following decade on. but these novelties do not yet have a mission of rupture: they do not enter into dispute with the naturalist concept of representation; they scarcely dynamize it. exempted from the obligation to dismantle an academic tradition that it did not have, paraguayan painting did art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – not encounter any conflict between fine arts representation and modernist figuration, which was slowly gestating in the background of bucolic landscapes and stiff historical portraits. nevertheless, paraguay’s delay, its redoubled dependence, and its isolation carry on designing a modernity that is solitary and different, differentiated. the painters lend a hand to successive stylistic elements, not following the internal impulses of a necessary process but responding to the requirements, always delayed, of subtropical climates. neither the break with the past, already mentioned, nor the enunciation of a utopian ideology, nor the displays of modernization signified themes or motifs that preoccupied or seduced the premodern artists at that time. however, they could not avoid a condition that seems to be indispensable for the development of peripheral modernity: the faithful observance of each one of the stages traced by the historical route of the avant-garde movements. but compliance with this requisite was secured to the detriment of another, which ended up distorting the meaning of the first: the successive steps delineating the sequence did not control the tendencies and movements charged with carrying out the great modern missions. whether this was, at first, through the scarcity of artists and means; or whether it was, later, through the pressures of the dictatorship (the latter opposed to the constitution of collectives that might conceal subversive programs) or through characteristics particular to the local temperament, what is certain is that, in general, the itinerary of modernity was controlled by individuals. during the early decades, only one artist represented one stage, one current: a necessary link so that the process could reproduce the whole exemplary sequence. thus, juan samudio, one of the first scholarship holders, embodies the impressionist moment. a timid and conciliatory impressionism, as we saw, but sufficient to respond to the necessities of his time and to tick the corresponding box. art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – representing the impressionist moment against the background of a time that seemed frozen allowed many of the modern struggles and upsets to be prevented; the effort had taken up nearly quarter of a century. suddenly history appears to be accelerated; the great war waged against bolivia, the so-called guerra del chaco ( – ), prompts conflicts as yet hardly contained to surface and reveals a convulsed scene, shaken by the crisis of political hegemony that will explode in the revolution of and will only be resolved in with the rise of stroessner to power. the second stage begins in the middle of the thirties (samudio dies in , as if to draw a line). perhaps under pressure from the postwar mood of urgency, that stage summarizes in its way, in the course of two decades, the postimpressionist panorama prior to the eruption of the european isms of the beginning of the century. this summary, as we already know, is sketched via buenos aires: it consists, in reality, of an interpretation extracted from the postimpressionism of the river plate prior to the martinfierrista revolution of (preliminary to those isms of buenos aires). a late version, adapted to the necessity of naming a different history, too different. according to a possible (simplified and modern) reading of modern art, the impressionist moment flows into a sphere known as “postimpressionism,” ruled by the figures of cézanne, gauguin, van gogh, and the symbolists. from this quadrivium the historical avant- garde movements are drawn: cubism starts out from the first of these figures; expressionism takes the second two as its reference; surrealism will follow the way marked by the symbolists. by being transplanted and re-transplanted, and by being so on foreign soils, this scheme undergoes important alterations. but the most profound changes do not derive so much from the re-adaptations required by the peculiarities of a specific medium so much as from the work of appropriation and dismantling performed in the subordinate regions. reproduced (counter to the ideal of originality that was there at its outset), differentiated and subdued (beyond its proclamations of art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – rupture and of permanent updating), converted into a personal resource (outside the framework of collective programs and tendencies), the beginnings of the avant-garde movements as much as their strategies end up being profoundly adulterated. for example, if we return to the above-mentioned scheme: of the major directions latent in postimpressionism, the paraguayan artists take, with much delay, only the two that will afterwards be the foundation of the modernist breakaway: that direction which privileged the formal organization of the work and that which insisted on its expressive intensity. the third, that which will end in surrealism, is ignored for now. and that happens simply because it is not of much use: a poetic challenging of the rationalist myth has little to do in paraguay. excess rationality was never a serious problem in these lands: what octavio paz claimed, referring to superficial latin american romanticism, is valid here: “the artists could not rebel against something they had never suffered: the tyranny of reason.” during the period of “transition towards modernity” (the s and s) the phenomenon in which a name represented a moment occurred once more. and so, each one of the above-mentioned directions is summed up in the work of one artist. through solid forms and a schematized and assured composition, jaime bestard takes charge of the formalist moment, while wolf bandurek (figure ) [ts – figure near here] assumes the historical task of laying the foundations of expressive content by means of a vehement and tormented figuration: the postimpressionist (pre-avant-garde) cycle is closed and is referred to the following moment. dramatic and, at the same time, firmly structured, the works of andrés guevara and ofelia echagüe could be interpreted as a synthesis between these two moments (figure ). [ts – figure near here] but whether because it was developed outside the country (argentina and brazil)—in the case of the former—or whether because it grew up withdrawn into itself and had few links with local art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – production—in the case of echagüe vega—neither of them produced any continuity or generated a process. thus, the particular expressionism of bandurek and the formalism peculiar to bestard (figure ) [ts – figure near here] will only be superseded from the work of the grupo arte nuevo onwards, though the out-of-place precedent represented by the works of guevara and echagüe vega cannot have been unknown. [b]arte nuevo formed by olga blinder (figure ), [ts – figure near here] lilí del mónaco, josé laterza parodi, and josefina plá, the grupo arte nuevo is created in , and is the first of the avant-garde movements to present certain features of its own: it emerges with explicit intentions of breaking away and brings together a collective around a basic ideology defined as “modern” (the series of exhibitions shown by the group, which is later joined by artists such as edith jiménez (figure ), [ts – figure near here] leonor cecotto, and hermann guggiari, is called primera semana de arte moderno paraguayo (first week of modern paraguayan art), in undoubted allusion to the distant brazilian experience). but the movement is prepared to sacrifice other features of modernity to the exigencies of its own tempo: the artists take the resources and arguments of tendencies which they adapt to the “necessities of the medium” independently of the validity that these have in the (sub)metropoles (the model of the primera semana in são paolo was already years old). what are those necessities of the medium? based in this case on the dichotomous model of modernity, the group understands that the tension between the autonomy of the language and the force of the expression constitutes the central question to be confronted. josefina plá, the theorist of the movement, states it plainly and categorically: “what unifies the artists . . . is their sincere anxiety to renew, in parallel with the form, the content of paraguayan painting . . .” it was already claimed that this anxiety was one of the great motives of art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – modern art. now the novice modernity must conciliate its terms however it can. it does so by remembering simultaneously the lessons of bestard and the experience of bandurek: it resorts as much to a controlled constructive and geometrizing organization as to a passionate distortion of expressionist origin. arriving opportunely from são paolo in , livio abramo brings his own model of synthesis between the severe order of the form and the productive confusion of historical content. the result of the complex appropriation of the s is a figuration firmly underpinned in its construction and emphasized in its dramatic meanings: a sort of “cubistized” expressionism. or rather, crystallized, given that cubism, invoked then as a reference, is reinterpreted so liberally that it maintains little of its original meaning. in reality, just as has been said about surrealism, cubism did not have any mission to accomplish in the plastic arts of paraguay: it was not confronting a well-affirmed naturalist representation whose spaces it had to disarm; it was seeking only to give solidity to the new forms and to establish principles of order, to constitute—it is worth mentioning—that useful moment of structural clarification of the modern latin american image, which, in the words of juan acha, represents a “salutary corrective,” which frederico morais qualifies as a “period of cleaning and disinfection” and tarsila do amaral understands as an “obligatory military service.” before finishing this point, it is appropriate to explain here certain conditioning factors affecting the flexibility of the new peripheral avant-gardes in adapting themselves freely to different situations and comfortably adulterating the central models. modern art grew up in paraguay as a marginal and minority practice, isolated from the rest of latin america, away from the great cultural majorities, ignored by the middle classes, who did not see in its forms sources of utility or elements of prestige, and on the sidelines of any official interest. these conditions certainly impeded any type of support and encouragement art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – for its manifestations and had a negative effect on the professional training of the artists and their international reputation. but, on the other hand, they constituted a certain guarantee against the intervention of an authoritarian state and the maneuvers of an ignorant and presumptuous middle class. [b]the cosmopolitans [tx]the abstraction with which the s duly begins institutes a new purge of the image: another historical rite of “cleaning and disinfection”; another necessary moment for the modernizing evolution in operation. on the one hand, it enables the underpinning of the process of updating demanded by this stage: it is connected to the movement of internationalization begun in latin america in the previous decade and, paradoxically, bestows a certain family air on latin american art. on the other, free of thematisms and figurative rhetorics which compromise the sovereignty of the form, abstraction underpins another basic modern conquest: the autonomy of the aesthetic. artists such as edith jiménez, carlos colombino, lotte shulz, laura márquez, and michael burt, among others, successively purify the image until they reach a non-figuration that oscillates between organic and geometric tendencies and results in the material informalism of fernando grillón, alberto miltos, and ricardo yustman and, later, in the op art and kinetic image of enrique careaga (figure ). [ts – figure near here] [txt]it is clear, from what has been shown, that the abstract artists work immersed in the historical logic of modernity, but they do so in a dispersed form and on the margin of clear programs; without the aim of registering their works historically. the second tendency formally instituted in an organic group and following an avant-garde proclamation appears in the middle of the s. the name of the group, los novísimos, clearly denotes their zeal for renewal and their affinities with the expansive cosmopolitist front that was then advancing across the map of latin america. but, paradoxically, the art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – group los novísimos (formed by enrique careaga, josé pratt, william riquelme, and angel yegros) acted more as proclaimers than as executors of avant-garde actions (figure ). [ts – figure near here] another imbalance can be detected here between the exemplary avant- gardes and their disturbed paraguayan versions; the local avant-garde drives occurred in a dissociated and unfocused form, according to the particular interests of the artists or the programs of the group. in effect, beyond their impassioned revolutionary slogans, the concrete proposal of the group los novísimos consisted of a readaptation of action painting and neofiguration, while the “experimentalists” such as ricardo migliorisi (figure ), [ts – figure near here] bernardo krasniansky, and laura márquez, who presented daring happenings and mounted disconcerting environments, acted on the margin of any ideology or body of proposals. on the other hand, the group los novísimos lasted very little time; immediately some of their representatives passed into the ranks of more radical experimentalism. the latter were formed by artists who, through the influence of the instituto di tella in buenos aires ( – ), startled the provincial atmosphere of asunción with the audacious acrobatics of a hasty and somewhat banal experimentalism. banal but necessary: it accomplished the function of shaking an overly prudish sensibility in order to include aspects which, with the opening up of international awareness, brought the winds of the time. it has already been said that the group arte nuevo, like the artistic production of the s in general, had felt responsible for resolving the antagonism created between the clarity of the artistic language and the confused pressure of the historical content. the following moment—which now comes under consideration and which coincides, approximately, with the decade of the s—has as its mission to confront another modern disjunction: the opposition between the particular and the universal: how to be faithful to contemporaneity without betraying the particular experience and its own history. we art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – already know that in a modern register this question is solved dialectically: the central–peripheral poles (or hegemonic–subordinate, dominant–dependent, etc.) constitute terms of a process that advances by feeding on its own tensions: latin american art is the result of a synthesis between the local and the international. nevertheless, the role of the dependent avant-garde movements is to appropriate the metropolitan innovations in order to adapt them to the requirements of their own history. but paraguayan history itself was profoundly marked at this moment by the dictatorship of stroessner. in this way, the local–international opposition once more coincides with the need to express a period that is too intense; that is, it ends up being connected to the form–content disjunction, although the reasons do not fit together so easily and its edges do not overlap neatly. [b]utopias [tx]to explain further, at this moment paraguayan art is faced with one of the great modern themes, namely, that relating to the utopian perspective of artistic creation and the emancipatory commitment of its practice. the art grows in spite of the dictatorship and, partly, in opposition to it. the modern “commitment to history,” which seals a moment in the task of the avant-garde, is related here to the inescapable anti-dictatorial position. although some artists, like olga blinder and carlos colombino (figure ), [ts – figure near here] dare to denounce the outrages of the system directly, in general the references at this time require the creation of a particular rhetoric, full of suggestions, of course, and driven by an insistent truth. many artists develop a strong critique of the military authoritarianism but they do so obliquely, through powerful metaphors, obscure ciphers, allusions that constantly mobilize the language and force it into ingenious, at times desperate, games. [txt]but the obscure maneuvers of metaphor not only allowed the dissimulation of critical discourse and transgressive desire; by means of its evasions and veils, its semblances and silences, they also art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – contributed to questioning in the code of representation the legitimacy of a vertical order and a unique meaning. that is, they promoted critical, non-denunciatory rhetoric. in this sense, perhaps without intending to, the art offered its best anti-dictatorial arguments: out of its deviations it helped to unnumb dulled sensibilities; through its deflected focuses, to suggest the conflicts concealed by the militarist myths. myths that invoke the “national being” as the foundation of an essential identity and expel all difference considered threatening. in this direction, and not always consciously, certain improvised “vanguards of the south” could fulfill a role which, if not revolutionary, was at least critical and protesting. [b]ripe times [tx]the anxiety to be up to date at all costs placated, the s recover the temperate tone. it is a very different moment, marked by an unusual process of economic growth which permits, for the first time, the consolidation of an art market and the investment of the artist with a certain social prestige. even though art continues to be scorned by the government and developed at the margin of any official interest and of an efficient system of middle-class patronage, it now has discrete commercial circuits that increase its production and the professionalization of more than a few agents of its own. equipped with the institutional recognition that the market signifies, matured by two decades of intense development, and faced with the necessity of adjusting forms that had been born late and grown in a hurry, paraguayan art during the seventies and part of the eighties acquires a more conservative tone (on a formal level) and a clearly reflective direction. [txt]paradoxically, however, the s had begun with a movement played at the other extreme of reflection and oriented in the opposite direction to that of the linguistic purges of the two previous decades (the “cubistization” of the s and the abstraction of the s). although outlined during the last years of the previous decade, the art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – eruption of the so-called “fantastic figuration” coincides exactly with the direction of the seventies. the design of jenaro pindú, ricardo yustman, selmo martínez, luis alberto boh, and, later, miguel heyn clears away ominous climates loaded with delirium, deviation, and menace: the fateful ciphers of a time that could not be revealed. obviously, the antithesis this tendency marks in respect of the reflective direction, which had already been incubated and will now emerge, betrays a secret link between the two movements and allows interpretation of the disorder of this fantasy design as the necessary and obscure obverse of the wise reflections of the language upon itself. this moment seeks to exorcize the monsters remaining from the previous scene in order to prepare the following one. but the latter, as we shall see, will not be able to evade the nightmares lying in wait for a continuing history. the analytical tendencies, linked to metropolitan conceptual art, now begin to be profiled. the appropriation carried out by the paraguayan artists of certain resources of the conceptual avant-gardes (the latter in the strict sense) is interesting since it implies once again the adulteration of the metropolitan models. it is known that the analytical option, an opportune term suggested by menna, erupts like one of the most solid forces that define the horizon at that moment. the great cycle of artistic modernity closes with great self-reflection that highlights its own rhetorical mechanisms and equips itself with aseptic fields of language. reality is observed, with a lack of confidence, from the peephole of concepts, the ultimate principle of representation: so much so that the idea of the work ends up displacing its execution. this self-reflective tendency, proclaimer of postmodern criticism, which is already prepared and will make its entrance immediately after, appears in paraguay in the first years of the seventies. but in doing so, it becomes refracted, unfocused, contaminated with the pressing contents of a dramatic time, forgets its tautological proclamations, escapes from the pure, self-conscious circle of the language and, at times, is dissolved by the muddy current art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – of history. a history certainly more preoccupied by its own misfortunes than by the intimate mechanism of the codes or the specular play that enables the manipulation of the signs. developed in asunción by artists such as carlos colombino, osvaldo salerno (figures and ), [ts – figures and near here] bernardo krasniansky, and luis alberto boh, this tendency is known as “re-figuration” and arises midway between the seclusion of aesthetic forms and the claims of the historical drama. this is because this reflection of the language on itself did not occur in paraguay to the detriment of the image strongly committed to expression. thus, although reflective and formalized, the peculiar paraguayan version surpasses the aseptic schemes of the concept and embraces a dense and very solid figuration: the “re-figuration” serves not only to consolidate the significant frame of the work but also to accommodate profuse social content, connect with the figurative tradition of an expressive stamp, pass furtive messages, metaphorize oppression, and evade censorship. but, above all, to announce the possibility of different perspectives of enunciation, the existence of other margins of inscription. the task of disembedding a syntax run in a closed circuit and opening it to the inclemencies of a climate that presses from outside helped to overcome the not inconsiderable risks of conceptual narcissism of that moment. but also, and at the other extreme, it allowed a denunciatory and pamphleteering sense of the critique to be avoided. this unfocused manner of working the language could, in this way, often avoid the contentism of the motif as much as the self-sufficiency of the form consumed, something which marked a primordial achievement in terms of the modern paraguayan program. thus, following its own paths, the image, simultaneously reflective and dramatic at this moment, is presented as surmounting the conflicts that disturbed and mobilized the difficult course of artistic modernity in paraguay. in the first place, it builds a bridge between the serene kingdom of language art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – and the turbulent fields of history; in the second, it proposes a convincing model of mediation between the need to tune to the international timetable and that of following the rhythm of its own circumstances. in this way, this moment is considered the most intense and prolific in paraguayan plastic arts, in which they reach the culmination of their process of modernity. but that same idea of time completed and consumed, so dear to modern thought, has a different scope in peripheral cultures from that which it possesses in the center. with reference to the latter it seems inappropriate to suppose a model realized, and to the former the idea of a synthesis that satisfies differences, of a circle that is closed, spent, and satisfied, is unthinkable. thus, although one may talk of a different time in order to name its passing immediately after overthrowing the ferocious military tyranny, many questions, surviving and dispersed, will continue to fill the postmodern air with ghosts. here too a modern illusion is woven. and a short breach is opened. [a]ii. de-modernities [b]the slips of the transition [tx]on february , , in the early morning, the dictatorship of stroessner fell, pushed by former accomplices of his who had been able to smell the new air of their time. officially, the period of the so- called transition to democracy begins then, which corresponds with the ambiguous time of the post-dictatorships in south america and coincides, in exact date, with the fall of the berlin wall and the melancholy post-historic rituals. the moment known as that of the post-dictatorial transitions in the southern cone elapses in a passing place; a “displace” which, by its own provisional definition, is transitory: a “mistime”. and it does so immersed in a new atmosphere, supplied with lights less crude and scenes not as dramatic. a climate that is confused with that of the clouded postmodern landscape. art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – [txt]but the fiction of a time suspended and temperate—a fiction associated with the fall of the military dictatorships and in tune with the innocuous global present—could not last too long. soon the neutral postmodern horizon was clouded with the return of unburied ghosts and the shadow of new threats and, very soon, the “post- democracies” of the south allowed glimpses of the effects of new corruptions, violence, and serious disruptions linked with brutal processes of transnational neo-liberalization. the ever more serious environmental, political, economic, and social crises that shook the countries of the south during that agitated end of century are reconciled with difficulty with the lightweight models and the apathetic airs that surround globalized culture. the pressures of their own histories, which increased, no doubt, with universal events, once more adulterated the meaning of certain central paradigms. moreiras finds in the post-dictatorial situation of chile, argentina, paraguay, brazil, and uruguay the prototype of the postmodern cultural impasse. that is, the southern cone well represents the postmodern paradox, according to which certain peripheries, heterogeneous in their modes of production and relatively resistant to the fetishization of the world as merchandise, have greater possibilities than the center of keeping alive the sense of a channel of history. in the context of a general weakening of the historical sense, overwhelmed to the end by the symbolic power of transnational capitalism, “the possibility of historicity would, nevertheless, be less exhausted on the periphery than that which is in the center.” that adulteration of the central paradigms of postmodernity, increased no doubt by this different position on the construction of history, provoked a new slide in the production of some latin american art, driven more by the pressures of their difficult time than by the bland seductions of transnational imageries. already during the s in the southern cone, some tendencies in contemporary art began to attempt new forms of dissidence again and to recover, art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – nevertheless, their diminished political commitment and their weakened argumentative vocation. but as much to oppose the indulgent globalized images, it is worth comparing these critical tendencies in the art of the southern cone in the eighties and nineties with equivalent, contemporary directions developed in the metropoles, especially the different models of activist, political, or alternative art produced in new york: the most defined and influential proposals and the best supported theoretically. these are centered basically on the obsessive questioning of the system of art itself (institutionality of museums, galleries, curatorships, publications, criticism), the emergence of new identities (ethnic, racial, sexual, cultural) and certain locations of (micro)power (sexuality, gender, body). correspondingly, the peripheries inherit these preoccupations but, in doing so, they again displace them; they re- send them to other places. they convert them into an obsession with the tortured or disappeared body; they link them with the theme of the construction of memory and the reconstruction of the public; they confront them with discussions about the relation of center–periphery, global–local; they involve them in the horrors of hunger and violence, in the necessity to re-imagine utopias in contrast to an unfortunate present. once more, certain questions that are well formulated at the center lose definition once resituated in marginal zones. in this way, the self- questioning of the system of art does not signify the same for regions lacking a well-established institutionality in this sphere: an institutionality partly necessary, or at least demanded by the most critical sectors. thus, the protest positions of the south, more than against an institutionality of art lacking in strength and prestige— incapable of constituting itself in hegemonic counter-pole—orient their forces against the mediocre aestheticism propagated by the global markets and, even against certain stereotypes of the art of the art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – mainstream (the politically correct, the multiculturalist cliché, the exoticist readings of latin american art, etc.). also the theme of the politics of difference functions differently in the north and the south. the south american art of the eighties happily makes space for “alternative” figures and images, but soon recognizes that, translated into a different artistic practice, against a background of complex historical experiences relative to the theme of the ethnographic, the pluricultural, and the multiethnic, “the policies of identity” end up being, at best, forced. and even more: it warns that, posed in multiculturalist code, such policies tend to substantialize the differences, atomize sectorial demands, and hinder the possibility that these are articulated in group projects. the slogan appeared, therefore, to introduce the theme of difference but to do so facing a certain common range of meaning that might facilitate a social construction: to think of the diverse as closer to the figure of citizenship than to that of identity. this is because, during the post- dictatorship, as much as or more than the respect for difference, social cohesion was presented as a basic requirement for a region faced with the exigency of laboriously recomposing its worn social scheme and attempting shared projects. [b]the return [tx]in paraguay, these critical directions hatched suddenly, once the nineties had already begun, immediately after a brief, suffocating situation of stagnation. around the middle of the s, in effect, the creative tension that was driving the activity of the plastic arts had begun to lose impetus. certain great names were being repeated, and it became impossible to discern the prospect of the arrival of changes or, at least, generational reinforcements. it seemed as if, with the culmination of the modern experience, the artists had not completed recognition of their new functions and places. as has been indicated, this situation of uncertainty and paralysis coincided with the lack of appetite of the postmodern atmosphere and, from , was linked to art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – the stage of post-dictatorship. a stage awaited with delayed anxieties; a moment of flaming liberties. but also a time of new disenchantments. soon after the fall of the dictatorship, the presence of artistic and cultural sectors began to fade; they lost drive and enthusiasm and softened their gaze. this was because positions were then no longer so definite nor certainties so clear. the space in which power is played, traditional field of heroic battles, became a confused scenario of multiple actors and unstable positions. [txt]this ambiguous diversity acted as a propitious agent for the affirmation of the difference and complexity of social forces but, as has been said, it also became a factor that dissolved collective identities and certainties. this was because, although the dictatorship of stroessner had managed to impede the constitution of a firm social fabric, the resistance to the system constituted a strong utopian reference point around which diverse sectors of civil society were allied and against which many artists fervently constructed their metaphors. thus, the dramatic script of the dictatorship was succeeded by a confused and unfocused libretto. disorientated, the artists needed to reformulate their positions and adapt themselves to an unknown script, a choreography created in the theater without markers or contrasts. at that point, that soft and deflated moment for the culture occurred: the hoped-for transition was experienced more as a loss of reference points than as a restorative stimulus of historical meaning. against this anemic background the emergence of new forces began to show itself from the early years of the nineties. alongside artists who had already produced a significant body of work, such as carlos colombino, osvaldo salerno, ricardo migliorisi, bernardo krasniansky, and félix toranzos (figure ), [ts – figure near here] other new names appear, not always so young, such as fátima martini, karina yaluk, carlo spatuzza (figure ), [ts – figure near here] engelberto giménez, marité zaldívar (figure ), [ts – figure near here] mónica gonzález, feliciano centurión, alejandra art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – garcía, marcos benítez (figure ), [ts – figure near here] gustavo benítez, pedro barrail, and adriana gonzález, among others. and afterwards, the last batch formed by very young artists such as claudia casarino, fredi casco, bettina brizuela, marcelo medina, and others. from different places and across distinct and mixed media, all of them aim at a critical reassessment of representation and attempt new treatments of the public–private relationship and new registers of the historical gaze. in this search they meet names from disciplines that, until then, were operating separately and that now exchange positions and share places; names that come from previous decades, like that of jesús ruiz nestosa, or that are defined during this time, such as, among others, those of jorge sáenz, juan britos, carlos bittar, gabriela zuccolillo (photography), as well as those of paz encina, tana schémbori, and juan carlos maneglia (video). in different degrees and with disparate scope, these artists adopt the rhetorical strategies of the international art of the eighties and nineties (the conceptual anestheticism, the emphasis of the narrative and discursive dimension, the allegorical resources, the intertextuality, the technological hybridity) and they appropriate its basic themes (the media culture, the anthropological dimension, the repositioning of subjectivity and memory, etc.). but in the best cases, those resources and these themes are brought to a parallel scene where they are forced to deal with local or global problems linked to their own experience. perhaps the return of extra-aesthetic content implies a reaction against excessive modern formalism. but it is indubitable that it also signifies a reply to the unbearable lightness of postmodern aestheticism: the eagerness to return to scrutinize, uselessly, the real; to adopt positions, perhaps transitory, faced with the intricate tasks that history proposes and to anticipate sustainable futures from them. [a]iii. parallel modernities [b]shortcuts art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – [tx]up to now, we have been analyzing the imbalance operating between the metropolitan modernities and their peripheral versions; a differentiation exploited by the latter in order to twist the original meaning indicated by the former or to attempt to reinvigorate it or to supplant it when it was exhausted. but now we find ourselves facing another case. that of subjects which, without offending too much the language or the concept, could be called “sub-peripheral.” they are popular, suburban, and indigenous sectors, communities, or individualities that do not pretend to imitate or construct particular versions of european–north american signals but to pursue their own historical paths, generally of traditional origin (colonial or pre- hispanic), and naturally to assume that the obscure reasons of the time brought them, each time with greater frequency, to penetrate into territories ruled by modern codes (economic, social, cultural, aesthetic codes). that is, these collectives or these persons do not reveal a preoccupation with being modern, nor an anxiety to preserve “authenticity.” nor do they fear adopting, sometimes with great rapidity and almost always with self-confidence, modern models when they are convenient for expressive or functional requirements. nor are they uncomfortable with obstinately maintaining archaic forms when these retain validity. no mention is made here, since they are very well known and irrelevant in this instance, of the cases of mutilation, devastation, and coercive imposition of cultural forms, as well as those concerning the preservation, more or less uncontaminated, of the traditional models; this point refers exclusively to the processes through which certain modern forms are filtered and redefined from continuing practices of histories outside modern experience. [txt]these impure processes perhaps constitute the most characteristic expressions of what comes to be called “cultural hybridity” in order to designate certain notes of intermixed postmodern globalization. but although coincidences and intersections between the popular and the postmodern imageries exist, it would be extravagant to talk about a “popular postmodernity”: art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – if, on its own, each term is problematic, together they would comprise an unnecessarily complicated concept and, as such, one that is of little use. it seems improper to apply categories arising from a saturation of modernity to cultures governed by traditional symbolic systems, amodern modalities, and mixed, fractured, and incomplete experiences of modern times. the daring seizure that certain popular sectors carry out of the complex iconography of modernity does not imply adherence to the modern program, nor, much less, affiliation to avant-garde principles or recognition of the autonomy of the aesthetic. the popular artists do not conceive their productions as sequences of a linearly ordered history: they take the necessary figures directly and insert them in the course of a different path, their own, and at the level of different times. pressurized by new conditions that compromise its survival, those cultures develop different symbolic strategies of appropriation of images, techniques, and modern codes, and even contest circuits particular to modern institutionality (on the level of art: market, publications, distinctions, participation in international competitions and events, etc.). contrary to discriminations and preconceptions that seek to reduce popular expressions to banal folkloric productions, examples of ethnographic (if not archaeological) collections, petrified national essences, or curious residues of a world in extinction; contrary to these prejudices, of strong ideological sign, many popular artists, integrated or not in communities or sectors, re-create and re- accommodate the scenarios of their production, and even try to widen them, competing with the learned sectors and even with industrialized culture. [b]the four scenarios [tx]continuing in the direction of taking examples from the culture of paraguay, brief mention is made of some particular situations, produced in four different scenarios. the first of these concerns the specific modernity of certain urban or suburban artists whose art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – sensibilities are to be found forged in popular matrixes, even though their works come to be circulated in learned institutions of art. the most significant case is that of the work of ignacio núñez soler (figure ), [ts – figure near here] which has been produced without any contact with the development of artistic modernization, although it anticipated many of its consequences in a parallel and separate scene. like other painters (juan bautista rojas, carlos reyes, or, more recently, benjazmín ocampos), he is linked to the modern desire to follow shortcuts of his own, and naturally mixes different contents and linguistic repertoires of the avant-garde movements and the culture of the masses; without major procedures, he jumps directly from his iconographic quagmire of references to formal and expressive triumphs which enlightened modernists achieve by means of long and laborious processes. [txt]in the second scenario, indigenous artists incorporate techniques, images, and modern usages either to replace their diminished iconographies or to oxygenate them with new reinforcements or, directly, to explore alternative survivalist sources. for example, certain avá-guaraní and nivaklé groups compete with design, producing sculptural forms intended for utilitarian functions foreign to their daily life (figure ), [ts – figure near here] just as mak’a communities invest in the urban market, substituting synthetic materials for vegetable fibers, and ishir populations create for sale strange baskets, intruders in their history but connected, no doubt, with their exalted aesthetic. one particular case is that of ogwa, an indigenous ishir-chamacoco who has invented for the delight of ethnographers and benefit of the galleries of asunción, beguiling and assured drawings, teeming with gods, shamans, and nameless beasts, which dialog with the febrile neo-baroque imagery of some of the learned artists. in the third scenario are represented rites based on obscure indigenous-catholic syncretisms that are firmly rooted in certain art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – peasant communities. offered to the patron saint of the community, these profane religious festivals preserve the formulas of the traditional libretto as much as they are open to the dramatization of strictly contemporary events of the present day. the most illustrative case is that of the festival of the patron saints peter and paul which takes place in altos, and whose tangled scenic structure obsessively preserves the narrative nucleus of the ancient ritual: the archaic dispute around the mastery of fire and the mythical rape of primitive women by the historical adversaries of the indigenous guaraní, the ferocious guaykurú. those who personify them attack, dressed up in rustling costumes of dried leaves and, like many of the characters who appear in the scene, with their faces hidden by masks of wood or cloth. around this fixed kernel of the storyline, which begins to develop after liturgical worship, a delirious succession of performances occurs, referring to events of burning local, national, or global significance: peasant demands, cases of public corruption, political or social scandals, elections of queens, disputes between neighbors, fashion parades, or international conflicts, represented in a mood of parody and tone of media spectacle with impeccable scenic effects. to the sequence of the mass, the fervent worship, the obscure rite, and the theatrical extravaganza is added the popular expression of jubilation: the dance which rounds off the festival and greets the peasant dawn with polkas sung in guaraní and monotonous tropical rhythms. the last scenario is intersected by the experience of rural artist– artisans whose work invades modern territories without deviating from the path of indigenous and mestiza tradition. i take the case of two peasant ceramists who look out onto the scene of contemporary plastic arts from the threshold of their pre-capitalist world and over the intact foundation of their own memories. in november , juana marta rodas and her daughter julia isídrez, resident potters of the caaguasú company in the village of itá, received from the international jury the most important prize for the plastic arts that art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – was then awarded in the country (gran premio de la bienal martel de artes visuales). from pre-colonial times it was the mothers who transmitted to their daughters the secrets of ceramics, a craft which, since then, has survived the impact of different adversities, preserving the original alchemy of the technique and the sure outline of its forms. but although well secured to the foundations of this tradition, the images of these ceramists unexpectedly acknowledge the challenge of new influences, of distinct functions, of other airs of their own time. well then, what do they have to do with mestiza history and the tradition of earthenware, these capricious pieces, these dramatic sculptures that appear to respond more to the deliriums of an urban artist than to the serene invention produced in the fields? it is unquestionable that these artist–artisans continue naming a territory that already produced forms in clay long before the colony. but likewise it is obvious that they express a definitively different sphere, a space into which have filtered other perceptions and other ways of seeing the same landscape, which is already no longer the same. these disturbing sculptures demonstrate that, considered in themselves, neither tradition nor modernity offers guarantees, nor do they constitute threats; what legitimizes the symbols that the one or the other produces is the truth that feeds them both. and the truth of juana marta and of julia is that of an ambiguous time and a torn present. the labour of expressing it fully supposes an intense effort and requires secure, solid forms, figures that are further behind the origin and above the barrier traced by the modern threshold. these stubborn, difficult to catalog desires proliferate in different places in latin american cultures. they operate at different levels of a blurred spectrum that moves between the popular and the modern (or the global and the massive) sliding from form to form along an indeterminable range of positions and behind a dream restored a thousand times. in these confused tasks are to be found some of the strongest arguments of the difference in the indefinite terrains of latin american art. art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – [a]notes [nt] . during the war of the triple alliance ( – ) waged by argentina, brazil, and uruguay against paraguay, newspapers were published on the battlefronts, such as the cabichuí (“wasp” in guaraní) and el centinela, profusely illustrated by wood engravings made by the soldiers. these expressions constitute a significant example of latin american popular art. [nt] . this article was written in . [nt] . eduardo subirats, linterna mágica. vanguardia, media y cultura tardomoderna, madrid: ediciones siruela, , p. . [nt] . on the one hand, paraguayan culture suffered a long tradition of enclaustration which was broken just after the fall of the dictatorship of stroessner; on the other, it bears the weight of a double hegemonic mediation: at least during the modern moment in the strict sense that it received metropolitan paradigms through the regional submetropoles of, first, buenos aires and, then, são paolo. [nt] . octavio paz, “palabras al simposio de austin, texas,” in damián bayón, el artista latinoamericano y su identidad, caracas: monte avila, , p. . [nt] . josefina plá, “movimiento renovador en nuestra pintura,” la tribuna newspaper, asunción, . . . [nt] . frederico morais, artes plásticas na américa latina: do trance ao transitorio, río de janeiro: civilização brasileira, , p. . [nt] . the flow of capital resulting from the accelerated internationalization of the paraguayan economy, the hydroelectric project at itaipú, and the investments of multinational companies, many of them based on the unbridled corruption promoted by the stroessner oligarchy, prompted the sudden reactivation of the national economy during the decade of the seventies. art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – [nt] . filiberto menna, la opción analítica en el arte moderno. figuras e íconos, colección punto y línea, barcelona: editorial gustavo gili s.a., . [nt] . alberto moreiras, “posdictadura y reforma del pensamiento,” in revista de crítica cultural, no. , santiago de chile, november . [nt] . with reservations, the term “popular” is used here as an essential reference and for practical reasons located on the margin of any discussion regarding its relevance. in this article, “popular” is understood as the whole group of great majorities or minority sectors excluded from an effective participation in the social, economic, cultural, and/or political and self-affirmed in its difference through a symbolic production alternative to the hegemonic cultural models. [ts – captions] [fig]figure virgin of the immaculate conception, th century, franciscan workshop, caazapa, collection museo del barro. [fig]figure cabichui. periodical published during the war of the triple alliance, , collection museo del barro, paraguay. [fig]figure wolf bandureck, storm, oil on canvas, c . private collection [fig]figure ofelia echagüe, untitled, oil on canvas, . collection museo del barro. paraguay. [fig]figure jaime bestard, untitled, not dated. private collection. [fig]figure art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – olga blinder, still life, oil on canvas, . private collection. [fig]figure edith jimenez, flowers, oil on canvas, . private collection. [fig]figure enrique careaga, propuesta luminico cinetica para una partida de ping pong (proposal for light kinetics for a ping-pong match), [fig]figure angel yegros, icon a, . collection museo del barro, paraguay. [fig]figure ricardo milgliorisi, el banquete inconcluso (the unfinished banquet), . collection fundación migliorisi. [fig]figure carlos colombino, e.t. serie. reflexiones sobre durero (reflections on dürer), . collection museo del barro. paraguay [fig]figure osvaldo, composition impression, , collection museo del barro, paraguay. [fig]figure osvaldo salerno, la pileta (the pool), installation, , collection of the artist. [fig]figure felix toranzos. sueños robados (stolen dreams), installation, . collection carlos colombino. [fig]figure carlo spatuzza, corazonada, – , collection of the artist. [fig]figure art in translation, volume , issue , , pp. – marite zaldivar, estampas patrias (native prints), installation, . collection of the artist. [fig]figure marcos benitez, hacer y desahacer la vida cotidiana (doing and undoing everyday life), installation, . collection museo del barro. paraguay [fig]figure ignacio nuñez soler, corrida de toros en (bullfight in ), oil on canvas, . collection museo del barro, paraguay. [fig]figure money-box by angelica duarte (ava guarani), . collection museo del barro. paraguay editorial art, (in)visibility, and ebola “what are the consequences of a digitally-created society in the psyche of the global community?” leigh e. rich & michael a. ashby & david m. shaw received: october /accepted: november /published online: november # journal of bioethical inquiry pty ltd [v]isibility is central to the shaping of political, medical, and socioeconomic decisions. who will be treated—how and where—are the central ques- tions whose answers are often entwined with is- sues of (in)visibility … [and] the effects that me- dia visibility has on the perception of particular bodies (pietrzak-franger and stoddard holmes , ¶ –¶ ). in a documentary entitled paris: the luminous years (adato ), writer janet flanner (who wrote for the new yorker under the penname genêt) describes the intense friendship of pablo picasso and georges braque. both were inspired by paul cézanne and his retrospective at the salon d’automne—which, according to paris: the luminous years, marked in janus-like fashion the end of the th and the beginning of the th centuries in art. flanner tells of the frequent visits between the two painters, where they “talked and talked … two or three months that they just spent gabbling, gabbling.” and from their camaraderie and gabble emerged something new, something hinted at in the earlier work of cézanne. “[b]ack and forth it went,” flanner says of picasso and braque’s dialogue. “and they hammered out between them the beginnings of cubism.” at the time, their revelatory work wasn’t particularly well received. the jury of the salon d’automne rejected braque’s landscape paintings of the french village of l’estaque (though “two jurors voted to save one of his pictures”), and it was henri matisse, a friend and member of the jury, “who famously described braque’s pictures as having been composed ‘avec les petits cubes’—a phrase that the french art critic louis vauxcelles promptly picked up and published” (mcauliffe , ). vauxcelles had intended the term “cubism,” as mary mcauliffe explains in twilight of the belle epoque, “as an epithet” ( , ), much in the same way he had scorned matisse’s own femme au chapeau ( ) and similar boldly colored works by andré derain, maurice de vlaminck, and others at the salon d’automne— dubbing these painters “les fauves” (wild beasts). what perhaps seemed shocking at the time, whether in response to fauvism, cubism, or the other th- century post-impressionist movements, was these bioethical inquiry ( ) : – doi . /s - - - l. e. rich (*) department of health sciences (public health), armstrong state university, abercorn street, university hall f, savannah, ga , usa e-mail: leigh.rich@armstrong.edu m. a. ashby palliative care service, royal hobart hospital, southern tasmania area health service, and school of medicine, faculty of health sciences, university of tasmania, st floor, peacock building, repatriation centre, davey street, hobart, tas , australia e-mail: michael.ashby@dhhs.tas.gov.au d. m. shaw institute for biomedical ethics, university of basel, bernoullistrasse , ch- basel, switzerland e-mail: david.shaw@unibas.ch artists’ straying from realistic representations of their subjects (and even the painting of surreal subjects). like claude monet’s loose brush strokes captured in impres- sion, sunrise (impression, soleil levant ) or vincent van gogh’s late- th century “freeing of color from a simple descriptive function” to an expression of “more subjective, emotional states” (dreishpoon – ), cubism was “a very occult, new way of regarding what you could not see,” flanner explains. “after all,” she adds, quoting gertrude stein, “you paint what you know is there. not what you can see” (adato ). in this way “cubism is a kind of realism,” beth gersh-nesic says. “it is a conceptual approach to real- ism in art, which aims to depict the world as it is and not as it seems” (gersh-nesic n.d., ¶ ): for example, pick up any ordinary cup. chances are the mouth of the cup is round. close your eyes and imagine the cup. the mouth is round. it is always round—whether you are looking at the cup or remembering the cup. to depict the mouth as an oval is a falsehood, a mere device to create an optical illusion. the mouth of a glass is not an oval; it is a circle. this circular form is its truth, its reality” (gersh-nesic n.d., ¶ ). thus, earlier art that seemingly recreated reality was actually concealing the truth (and, as futurists and sur- realists later depicted, concealing other forms of knowing). the perspective of the cubists and other post- impressionists is particularly poignant for illness and suffering. how can we understand someone else’s pain or convey our own to others? how do we make sense of the nonsensical, whether the chaos of life-as-lived or the inscrutability of dying? how do we answer the ques- tions “why me?” and “why now?” when we are diag- nosed with disease? how do we paint what we know is there but cannot see? modern medicine, like much pre- impressionistic art, tried to square this circle by institut- ing a technical and professional gaze that filters out the ephemera of the individual in order to identify and name what is hidden by opaque bodies (see, of course, fou- cault ). but this was not cubism’s aim; it was not a reductive attempt to discover the building blocks com- mon to all landscapes or buildings or humans or musical instruments. it was to uncover the essence of a thing, that particular thing, in order to reveal more. our representations of dis-ease may actually conceal even as they seek to reveal. nowhere is this more evident than the media coverage of the current ebola epidemic, particularly in the united states. since the first case of ebola was diagnosed on u.s. soil on sep- tember , the american media, with the complicity of politicians and public health professionals, have turned the individual identified as “patient zero” into an oval and believe this depiction of him is real. thanks to – news coverage, most probably know this patient’s name (which we will not repeat here), though few know much about ebola or anything about the man. and no thanks to – news coverage—which could offer through its technological reach and skilled personnel in-depth, nuanced exploration on a wide range of issues—we know nothing of this person’s narrative, who he was as a unique irreducible and irre- producible being. nor have we asked whether naming him was appropriate or necessary. his image has been displayed countless times, his name invoked in profes- sional and casual conversations. he likely will be re- membered—by a mediated society of onlookers—in relation to a handful of “facts” in his last days of life. in another case, an american doctor from new york was the subject of headlines that not only revealed his identity but also his detailed movements across the city, thanks to highly developed contact tracing (hartocollis ). this type of hysterically specific information was inevitably broadcast and reported repeatedly, increasing the misplaced sense of panic while also turning a human being into a mere vector of disease (although the risk of transmission was virtually nil). identifying these patients within and by the media trampled principles of privacy, dignity, confidentiality, and nonmaleficence. public health practices to prevent further spread of the disease did not require or justify the release of their names. while, according to cnn, “[n]ei- ther the hospital nor government officials … identified [the first patient] by name” (shoichet, fantz, and yan , ¶ under “friend: i called the cdc with con- cerns”), few, if any, have emphasized these basic ethical standards in the aftermath. the media have used the patients as a means to a self-serving end (in the guise of informing the public), and it seems as though health care and government professionals see the media’s cov- erage as something distinct from their own roles and ethical and legal responsibilities. but health care, government, and the media are intertwined, perhaps more so today, and the ebola cov- erage may be one more reminder of the difficulties and weaknesses in how identifiable public health bioethical inquiry ( ) : – information (e.g., notifiable diseases) is protected and used. as fairchild et al. note: contemporary decisions about whether to reveal the identity of those with disease who posed a public health threat have turned on assessments of the risk to the community. in texas, in response to a investigation of a case of fatal hantavi- rus, state health officials refused to disclose the name of an infected individual to the local media. a case of meningitis in a maryland school was not sufficient for the county’s director of community and environmental health to identify the student by name. the official, however, sug- gested that had more people been at risk for contracting the disease, it may have been deemed appropriate to identify the infected student by name, even over the objections of her parents. such criteria were met in the case of sars. in the outbreak in toronto, the names of the first two cases, a mother and son, were released to the press for the purpose of identifying and advis- ing people who might have had contact with them (fairchild et al. , ). new technologies also pose new challenges in this context. in a recent case in britain, a friend of a student with meningitis posted this information on the patient’s facebook timeline and warned possible contacts of the potential risk. when this came to the attention of the local health protection unit, health officials surprising- ly edited and endorsed the facebook post rather than deleting it and contacting at-risk individuals through other means (shaw ). there of course can be a power to being named, to being recognized. in a dallas morning news article, mark wingfield, an associate pastor of the church where the family of the first u.s. ebola patient are members, stated that if the patient “had not been able to get on that airplane to come to the united states, none of us would have ever known his name. … he would have died of ebola in liberia and been another nameless person dying of a disease we think of being someone else’s problem” (staff reports b, ¶ ). the caveats here, however, are that the patient did not seek to be a public figure or a counter to our global health and human rights myopia. now deceased, he also cannot ask, like the u.s. nurses who subsequently contracted ebola, that the media respect his and his family’s privacy (neuman ; staff reports a). the media also have highlighted “differences” be- tween certain ebola patients, such as “patient zero” and his nurses (and other health care professionals returning from western africa). the latter are being deemed “brave nurses and determined [hospital] administrators. a story of heroes, frankly,” while the initial u.s. patient has been painted as “[w]hether intentionally or not … mis[leading] authorities about his exposure to ebola” and not being “wholly honest,” despite how he “bravely helped carry an ebola-infected woman to a local hospi- tal in liberia” (diamond , ¶ , ¶ , and ¶ ). similar- ly, the doctor from new york was labeled a “liar” who misled authorities about his movements (schram and golding ). these depictions in the media, whether from profes- sional journalists or readers posting comments, have “other-ized” these individuals (not to mention those suffering in countries in western africa) and turned them into spectacles. as prof. karla f.c. holloway ( ) emphasized in the opening plenary of the recent american societies for bioethics+humanities confer- ence, bioethics often has relied on spectacle (e.g., re- peatedly highlighting the same egregious examples) in the name of educating and motivating students, policy- makers, or the public, when many ethical issues within medicine and public health are rooted in the dull day-to- day (komesaroff ). holloway asks why we must prioritize the display rather than the action we wish to promote. in doing so, there is a “privilege in healthcare ethics,” a “privilege of being the nominator—the one to do the naming—[that] effectively absents the nominator from inhabiting the category” (holloway , ). with regard to the first u.s. ebola patient, holloway also noted that his liberian citizenship and african ethnicity can’t be overlooked within the context and history of a texas emergency department. playing into the media’s coverage of infectious dis- ease epidemics is the social psychology of infection. be it leprosy, plague, or hiv/aids, it is the notion of contagion and attendant social exclusion that the media (and others) lock into and stoke. in australia, one talks of the “dog whistle” to express the playback of peoples’ prejudices and fears to them, and it is easy to do in today’s media-saturated world and, in the process, shape public policy responses. no government can afford to be seen to have failed an epidemic test, and the press will ensure that any perceived lapse in surveillance and action, however unscientific or unfair or unreasonable to the leaders and technical advisers concerned, means bioethical inquiry ( ) : – that there is one “rational” and one public side of each measure. risk management not only has to be done but it must be seen to be done. the naïve modern obsession with safety and certainty guarantees that only hyper- cautious approaches are acceptable. the sense of the untouchable nature of infected or potential carriers of disease provokes fear and alienation of “particular bodies.” witness the nurse from maine (and volunteer with doctors without borders who re- cently returned from treating patients in sierra leone) who clearly was not a danger to her community, but the state governor enforced a home quarantine to be seen as keeping his citizens safe (malone and zargham ; alman ). this contentious approach even has been tentatively credited with helping him win reelection on november : despite being “consistently underwater with his approval ratings” and one “of the most vulner- able incumbent governors in the country” (woodard , ¶ ), “many supporters felt he was putting politics aside and acting like a leader” in his legal battle with the nurse (paletta , ¶ ). although both ultimately prevailed in their quests (the governor in terms of re- election, the nurse in getting the quarantine lifted), not everybody (every body) possesses the cultural, social, and/or financial capital to recapture their narrative in the media or fight political injustice. another interesting contrast that has made news is between human and non-human victims of ebola. the spanish nurse who contracted the virus while caring for spain’s “patient zero” (a priest who returned from africa with the virus and then died) was treated with some sympathy, despite initial sug- gestions from her superiors (similar to the govern- ment’s response in the united states) that she had deviated from protocol. however, her pet dog ex- calibur received much greater expressions of sym- pathy and support, particularly when excalibur was ultimately euthanized as a precautionary measure regardless of showing no symptoms of ebola or scientists possessing much knowledge of canine sus- ceptibility to the virus (wilson ). also problematic has been the comparison the u.s. centers for disease control and prevention (cdc) director made between ebola and hiv. in early octo- ber, dr. thomas frieden said at a world bank forum: “this is a fluid and heterogeneous epidemic. it’s changing quickly, and it’s going to be a long fight. … i will say that in the years i’ve been working in public health, the only thing like this has been aids. we have to work now so this is not the world’s next aids” (westcott , ¶ ). while frieden likely was attempting to underscore the potential scope of the epidemic, especially if (resource-rich) countries don’t respond, he may have undermined his intention and obscured an accurate un- derstanding of the risks and needs within and beyond ebola-affected areas. unfortunately, many today still see hiv/aids as a disease of an “other,” rooted in africa and/or homosexuality, and even “just desserts” for stigmatized behaviors. while ebola was initially viewed (and also disregarded) in the same way—as an african phenomenon—this has very rapidly changed as individuals “closer to home” have become infected. moreover, ebola and hiv are different. although both are viruses spread via bodily fluids (and neither is very durable outside the human body), “ebola is transmitted when a person is sick, usually very sick, and you have to come into direct contact with bodily fluids. so it’s difficult not to know you’re exposed” (anthony fauci cited in siegel , ¶ ). those with hiv, on the other hand, may remain symptomless but infectious for years, making it much harder to identify and combat infection. treatments also vary; where one is acute and relies on “good supportive care and the patient’s immune re- sponse” (cdc , ¶ ), the other is ongoing and requires multiple, expensive antiretrovirals. where frieden’s comparison may be apt is in regards to the u.s. response to hiv in the s as one of indifference and disdain (because it was seen primarily as infecting and affecting gay men), and even today many politicians and organizations in the united states support abstinence-only sex education, disapprove of needle exchanges, and never think about why condom advertisements are not seen on broadcast tv. the com- parison frieden failed to make clear was our complicity with allowing the epidemic to grow. as holloway noted in “made vulnerable: notes on privilege; or, how when you say their names, the bodies go missing,” there is much concealed in public health terms such as “target population,” “priority pop- ulation,” and “vulnerable population” or by prioritizing the needs of “our own” health care workers over local (i.e., “foreign”) health care workers living within the most-affected regions. what structures do we ignore and the next paragraph notes: “frieden did not make any further remarks on how the two health crises were similar” (westcott , ¶ ). bioethical inquiry ( ) : – who in power do we absolve by such phrasing? isn’t it more honest and more revealing to say “populations made vulnerable by …” (holloway )? we know that socioeconomics and other social de- terminants (e.g., discrimination, exposure to violence, lack of education and social support, etc.) are tied to health and risk of illness and disease. we also know that socioeconomics and other social determinants affect prognosis and recovery. and we know that while the “exotic” like ebola captures our attention (however fleetingly), in fact the greatest threat of incurable infec- tion comes from the global overuse of antibiotics in medicine, veterinary practice, and agriculture. resistant microorganisms are now challenging health systems worldwide on an unprecedented scale. yet research and development into new antimicrobials have dwin- dled on the basis of profitability, and governments, industry, clinicians, and patients have been resistant to change current behaviors. although the media love to highlight the enemy on our borders threatening to disrupt our safe worlds insu- lated from many of the realities of danger and suffering, it is actually our capacity for self-destruction that con- stitutes our greatest foe: poverty, poor nutrition, lack of access to care, neglect of mental illness, climate change, and war, both declared and undeclared. but far easier to wind up a distant epidemic and see a remote danger to ourselves (while thousands die in a distant place) than address our real threats. despite many genuine human- itarian responses from wealthier “first-world” countries, it is still clear that we have primitive protective re- sponses (at home and abroad) that largely ignore the real wolves at the door. frieden and others in the united states (and else- where) have assured the public that “there is no doubt that … we will stop it [the spread of ebola] here” (frieden cited in st. james and davis , ¶ ) and that “the united states has ‘been prepared for this possibility for a long time. america has the best doctors and public health infrastructure in the world, so we’re ready to deal with it’” (white house senior adviser dan pfeiffer cited in hudson , ¶ )—intimating, like others have stated more explicitly, that the shortcomings in african health care infrastructures don’t exist in the western world (see, e.g., welsh and jennings ; the daily targum ; editorial board ). but as the events that began on september at the texas health pres- byterian hospital in dallas have illustrated, people in public health glass houses shouldn’t throw (shepherd’s crook-shaped) stones. through political posturing and colonialist bravado, the united states has created a house of mirrors optical illusion in representing its health care system as “the best in the world,” “with the best health care professionals on earth, the finest health care insti- tutions, the best medical research, the most so- phisticated technology,” this despite the fact that u.s. morbidity and mortality rankings make the american health system “arguably the worst in the developed world” (rich and simmons , – ). amid the warped reflections then come calls for closing borders and the creation of vaccines (as if this were the first ebola case or the first ebola epidemic in the world). such actions simultaneously prioritize the protection of the newly at risk (and at low risk) and prolong an indifference to the needs of those most affected. in seeing the ebola outbreak that began in december (baize et al. ) through the eyes of the u.s. media, one is reminded of artist margaret noble’s mul- timedia installation dorian’s gray ( ), a series of six increasingly smaller wooden frames—from one larger than the human body to one the size of a small portrait— that resemble fractured mirrors (see http://www. margaretnoble.net/dorians_gray/). light and sound from behind the viewer cast shadows and reflections of one’s image, warped and twisted and appearing in multiple places simultaneously. one doesn’t know where to look but at the same time can’t look away. the plaque accompanying the piece perhaps says it all: [dorian’s gray] integrates physical materials, light, and sound to construct a reflective metaphor on identity in today’s digital age. the work ex- plores the complicated yet timeless questions of influence, superficiality, and entertainment as put forth in two books—the portrait of dorian gray by oscar wilde and the narcissism epidemic: living in the age of entitlement by twenge and campbell. if the digital world fosters isolation, one need also only look at how the united states handled hurricane katrina and its aftermath for a reality check on how well prepared the country’s health care and public health infra- structures are, even with “non-exotic” and yearly occurring risks (fink ). bioethical inquiry ( ) : – http://www.margaretnoble.net/dorians_gray/ http://www.margaretnoble.net/dorians_gray/ what evokes empathy? which of our personas do we believe in—our social media portraits or our reflections in the mirror? what are the conse- quences of a digitally-created society in the psy- che of the global community? references adato, p.m., writer, director, and producer. . paris: the luminous years: towards the making of the modern. new york: thirteen for wnet.org, the elegant image llc, and ina & arte france. alman, a. . maine gov. paul lepage sends state police to enforce ebola quarantine. the huffington post, october . http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ / / /paul-lepage- ebola-quarantine_n_ .html. baize, s., d. pannetier, l. oestereich, et al. . emergence of zaire ebola virus disease in guinea. the new england journal of medicine ( ): – . cdc. . ebola (ebola virus disease): treatment. centers for disease control and prevention, october . http://www.cdc. gov/vhf/ebola/treatment/. diamond, d. . “ minutes” just broke new details on the dallas ebola case. here’s what they revealed. forbes, october . http://www.forbes.com/sites/dandiamond/ / / / -minutes-just-broke-new-details-on-the-dallas- ebola-case-heres-what-they-revealed/. dreishpoon, d., curator. – . gauguin to warhol: th century icons from the albright-knox art gallery. exhibition at the san diego museum of art, october , –january , , in san diego, california, u.s.a. editorial board. . west africa can’t manage the ebola out- break. the washington post, june . http://www. washingtonpost.com/opinions/west-africa-cant-manage-the- ebola-outbreak/ / / / f c -fee - e -b f - e c c b_story.html. fairchild, a.l., l. gable, l.o. gostin, r. bayer, p. sweeney, and r.s. janssen. . public goods, private data: hiv and the history, ethics, and uses of identifiable public health informa- tion. public health reports (suppl ): – . fink, s. . five days at memorial: life and death in a storm- ravaged hospital. new york: crown publishers. foucault, m. . the birth of the clinic: an archaeology of medical perception. translated by a.m. sheridan smith. new york: vintage books. originally published as naissance de la clinique (paris: presses universitaires de france, ). gersh-nesic, b. no date. cubism—art history basics: – present. about education. arthistory.about.com/od/ modernarthistory/a/cubism_ one.htm. hartocollis, a. . tracking one man’s contacts in a city of million: retracing ebola patient’s movements creates host of challenges for new york city. the new york times, october . http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/tracing- patients-possible-contacts-creates-host-of-challenges-for- the-city.html?_r= . holloway, k.f.c. . made vulnerable: notes on privilege; or, how when you say their names, the bodies go missing. opening plenary at the th annual meeting for the american society for bioethics+humanities, october – , in san diego, california, u.s.a. see also http://www. asbh.org/uploads/files/meetings/annual/pdfs/asbh _prbk.pdf. hudson, d. . cdc confirms first case of ebola diagnosed in the u.s. the white house blog, september . http://www. whitehouse.gov/blog/ / / /cdc-confirms-first-case- ebola-diagnosed-us. komesaroff, p. . riding acrocodile: a physician’s tale. austin: river grove books. malone, s., and m. zargham. . maine governor vows to use full extent of authority on ebola nurse. reuters, october . http://www.reuters.com/article/ / / /us-health-ebola- usa-maine-iduskbn ij f . mcauliffe, m. . twilight of the belle epoque: the paris of picasso, stravinsky, proust, renault, marie curie, gertrude stein, and their friends through the great war. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield. neuman, s. . dallas nurse nina pham, now “ebola free,” discharged by nih. npr, october . http://www.npr.org/ blogs/thetwo-way/ / / / /dallas-nurse- nina-pham-now-ebola-free-to-be-discharged-today. noble, m. . dorian’s gray. multimedia installation at the san diego art institute’s “beyond limits: postglobal mediations, ” curated by g. shulick porcella and d. carvalho, october – november , in san diego, california, u.s.a. paletta, d. . paul lepage projected to win governor’s race in maine. the wall street journal, november . http://blogs. wsj.com/washwire/ / / /paul-lepage-projected-to- win-governors-race-in-maine/. pietrzak-franger, m., and m. stoddard holmes. . disease, communication, and the ethics of (in)visibili- ty. journal of bioethical inquiry ( ). doi: . / s - - - . rich, l.e., and j. simmons. . heidegger and “house”: the twofold task in working out the question of american med- icine. film and philosophy : – . schram, j., and b. golding. . ebola doctor “lied” about nyc travels. new york post, october . http://nypost.com/ / / /ebola-doctor-lied-about-his-nyc-travels-police/. shaw, d. . communicating about communicable diseases using facebook: whisper, don’t shout. public health ethics ( ): – . shoichet, c.e., a. fantz, and h. yan. . hospital “dropped the ball” with ebola patient’s travel history, nih official says. cnn, october . http://www.cnn.com/ / / /health/ebola-us/. staff reports. a. amber joy vinson’s family releases state- ment thanking everyone for support, nina pham arrives in maryland. the dallas morning news, october . http:// thescoopblog.dallasnews.com/ / /cdc-director-frieden- we-do-not-yet-know-exactly-how-ebola-transmissions- occurred-at-texas-health-presbyterian.html/. staff reports. b. ebola patient thomas eric duncan dies at dallas hospital. the dallas morning news, october . http:// www.dallasnews.com/ebola/headlines/ -ebola- patient-thomas-eric-duncan-dies-at-dallas-hospital.ece. siegel, m. . ebola and aids: a tale of two viruses. new york post, october . http://nypost.com/ / / /ebola-and- aids-a-tale-of-two-viruses/. bioethical inquiry ( ) : – 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http://www.wfaa.com/story/ news/health/ / / /dallas-presbyterian-hospital-ebola- patient-isolation/ /. the daily targum. . we got problems, ebola ain’t one: outbreak in u.s. unlikely, focus must remain in affected countries. the daily targum, october . http://www. dailytargum.com/article/ / /we-got- -problems- ebola-aint-one. welsh, j., and k. jennings. . here’s why you shouldn’t panic about the first us case of ebola. business insider, september . http://www.businessinsider.com/ebola-virus-in-us-dallas- dont-panic- - . westcott, l. . cdc director draws parallels between ebola outbreak and hiv/aids epidemic. newsweek, october . http://www.newsweek.com/cdc-director-draws-parallels- between-ebola-outbreak-and-hivaids-epidemic- . wilson, j. . “save excalibur” fails: madrid euthanizes ebola patient’s dog. cnn, october . http://edition.cnn.com/ / / /health/save-excalibur-ebola-dog. woodard, c. . how did america’s craziest governor get reelected? how the confounding victory of maine’s paul lepage helps explain the national gop wave. politico, november . http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/ / /paul-lepage-craziest-governor-reelection- .html#. vfvplvlduli. bioethical inquiry ( ) : – http://www.wfaa.com/story/news/health/ / / /dallas-presbyterian-hospital-ebola-patient-isolation/ / http://www.wfaa.com/story/news/health/ / / /dallas-presbyterian-hospital-ebola-patient-isolation/ / http://www.wfaa.com/story/news/health/ / / /dallas-presbyterian-hospital-ebola-patient-isolation/ / http://www.dailytargum.com/article/ / /we-got- -problems-ebola-aint-one http://www.dailytargum.com/article/ / /we-got- -problems-ebola-aint-one http://www.dailytargum.com/article/ / /we-got- -problems-ebola-aint-one http://www.businessinsider.com/ebola-virus-in-us-dallas-dont-panic- - http://www.businessinsider.com/ebola-virus-in-us-dallas-dont-panic- - http://www.newsweek.com/cdc-director-draws-parallels-between-ebola-outbreak-and-hivaids-epidemic- http://www.newsweek.com/cdc-director-draws-parallels-between-ebola-outbreak-and-hivaids-epidemic- http://edition.cnn.com/ / / /health/save-excalibur-ebola-dog http://edition.cnn.com/ / / /health/save-excalibur-ebola-dog http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/ / /paul-lepage-craziest-governor-reelection- .html% .vfvplvlduli http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/ / /paul-lepage-craziest-governor-reelection- .html% .vfvplvlduli http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/ / /paul-lepage-craziest-governor-reelection- .html% .vfvplvlduli 	art, (in)visibility, and ebola 	references the journal of academic social science studies international journal of social science doi number:http://dx.doi.org/ . /jasss number: , p. - , spring ii yayın süreci / publication process yayın geliş tarihi / article arrival date - yayınlanma tarihi / the published date . . . . resmİn soyut ve soyutlamadakİ yÜzÜ: yenİ-plastİsİzm neo-plasticism: the abstract face of art, and the face of art in abstraction yrd. doç. dr. melek akyürek abant İzzet baysal Üniversitesi güzel sanatlar fakültesi resim bölümü Öz xx. yüzyılda, sanatta nesnel dünyanın terk edilişiyle birlikte, sanatın da yü- zünde değişimler meydana gelmiştir. İnsan duyularının ötesinde akılla kavranan resim, kendi plastik öğelerini ortaya koymuş ve sanatçıların bakış açılarında köklü bir değişik- lik olmuştur. sanat, doğanın taklidinden uzaklaşmıştır. geometrik öğelerin hacimlendi- rilmeye başvurulmadan, ana renklerle kullanıldığı, dengeli kompozisyonlar ortaya çık- maya başlamıştır. bu akım neo-plastisizm (yeni-plastikçilik) olarak karşımıza çıkmak- tadır. piet mondrian, theo van doesburg, bart van der leck, georges vantongerloo, vilmos husz{r gibi sanatçıların oluşturduğu bu neo-plastisizm akımı, xx. yüzyılda et- kili olmuştur. bu çalışmada, neo-plastisizm akımının anlamı, amacı ve resim sanatında, akımı kullanarak çalışmalar üreten sanatçıların eserleri çözümlenmeye çalışılmıştır. akım, - yıllarında özellikle etkili olmuş ve bu akım üzerinde kuramsal ve plas- tik araştırmalar yapılmıştır. sanattaki biçim ve içerik farklı bir boyuta taşınmış, soyutla- ma ve soyut eserler üretilerek, evrensel öğelerle yeni biçim anlayışı ortaya çıkarılmıştır. temsilden vazgeçilen bu sanatta, yüzyıllardır süregelen doğa taklitçiliği bir tarafa itilmiş ve yenidünya görüşüne uygun eserler ortaya konmuştur. Çalışmada sanatçıların sanat felsefeleri ve sanatçıların eserlerinin çözümlemelerinde betimleme araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. araştırmada, konuyla ilgili görsel ve yazınsal literatür taraması yapılmış ulusal ve uluslararası kitap, dergi, makale, bildiriler vb. taranmıştır. Çalışma, konuyla il- gili resimler üreten sanatçılarla sınırlandırılmıştır. yapılan araştırma doğrultusunda so- nuç bölümü oluşturulmuştur. anahtar kelimeler: neo-plastisizm (yeni-plastikçilik), soyutlama, soyut, piet mondrian, theo van doesburg abstract with the abandonment of the material world in art in the th century, when humans produced their plasticized versions of art understood by the mind beyond the senses, the face of art as well as the perspective of the artists underwent a profound melek akyürek change, which led to balanced compositions that avoided representing nature and de- picted geometric objects without volume using primary colours. this movement, led by artists such as piet mondrian, theo van doesburg, bart van der leck, georges van- tongerloo, and vilmos husz{r was called neoplasticism. this study aims to describe the basics and the aims of neoplasticism and to analyze the works of art by artists of this movement. neoplasticism was especially dominant between and , and theoret- ical and plastic studies were made in this period. it added a new dimension to style and content of art, and through the use of abstraction and production of abstract works of art, introduced a new understanding of style of universal items. by abandoning simile, this movement of art brushed aside the centuries long tradition of imitation of nature, and its works of art were in line with the new view of world. for the purposes of this study, books, journals, articles, reports on the movement were reviewed, and the philos- ophies and analyses of the works of art of the artists were described. the pictures ana- lyzed in this study are limited to the artists who were part of this movement. conclu- sions were made according to the analyses performed. keywords: neo-plasticism, abstraction, abstract, piet mondrian, theo van doesburg gİrİŞ xx. yüzyılda birçok alanda değişme meydana gelmiştir. xx. yüzyıl, sanat akımla- rının doğumunun yaşandığı bir yüzyıl olmuş- tur. ‚xx. yüzyılın başında fovizm, kübizm, fütürizm, konstrüktivizm gibi birbirinden farklı pek çok akımın genel ilkesi ‘soyutlama’ olmuştur. dış gerçekliğe tam anlamıyla sırtını dönmeyen bu akımlar, dâhilinde ele alabile- ceğimiz pek çok sanatçı, izleyicinin önüne ancak ‘biçimsel çözümleme’yle algılanabile- cek yapıtlar çıkartmıştır. ancak biçimlerin parçalanarak soyutlandığı, nesnelerin tanın- maz hale geldiği analitik kübist resimlerle saf bir soyuta varılmamış; nesne, varlığını koru- muştur‛(antmen, : ). soyut sanatla beraber nesnel dünyadan tamamen vazgeçil- miştir. ‚soyut sanat, xx. yüzyıl modenizmini başlıca ifade biçimi olmuş, xix. yüzyıl so- nunda İzlenimciler’den başlayarak gelişen soyutlama eğilimi, sanatçıların görünen dün- yanın gerçekliğinden aşama aşama kopuşu beraberinde getirmiştir. tek bir sanatçıya ya da akıma atfedemeyeceğimiz bu kopuşu, dış gerçekliğin yerine sanatın kendi öz gerçekli- ğini koyan, böylece renk, çizgi, espas gibi biçimsel öğelere odaklanan pek çok sanatçı birlikte gerçekleştirmiştir. xx. yüzyıl başına tarihlenen her akım, genel bir eğilim olarak soyutlamayı benimsemiş, ‘sanat için sanat’çı bir yaklaşım içinde akademik ve natüralist ifadeden ayrılmıştır‛( antmen, : ). so- yut sanatın temsilcilerinden kandinsky, sana- ta yeni bir boyut getirmiştir. ‚sanat ve doğayı birbirinden ayıran, sanatın da doğa gibi ken- dine özgü bir gerçekliği olduğuna inanan kandinsky’ye göre sanat doğayı taklit etmeyi bırakmış, kendi doğasını ortaya koymaya başlamıştır. kandinsky, ‘Über das geistige in der kunst’ adlı kitabında ( ) soyut resim- den ne anladığını ve bu yoldan ne anlatmak istediğini açıklamıştır. kandinsky, tin sözcü- ğünü maddesel, ruhsal ve düşünsel anlamda kullanıyor< kandinsky o yıllarda aralarında mondrian’ın da bulunduğu birçok sanatçının ilgisini çeken teosofi akımından çok etkilen- miştir< bu akımın temel düşüncesine göre madde ve tin karşıtlık değil, aynı ilkenin deği- şik aşamalarıdır. İnsan duygularını aşarak en üst düzeye, tinselliğe ulaşabilir. tinin belir- ginleştiği, duyularla algılanabildiği tek alan, sanattır‛(İpşiroğlu, : ). sanatta da tin- sellik ön plana çıkarak yeni bir bakış açısı geliştirilmiştir. bu bakış açılarıyla değişen dünya görüşüyle beraber evrenselliğin önem kazandığı, geometrik biçim anlayışı benim- senmiştir. bu anlayış, bizi ana renklerin kulla- nılarak, rasyonel bakış açısıyla neo- plastisizm’e getirmiştir. resmin soyut ve soyutlamadaki yüzü: yeni-plastisizm neo-plastİcİsm (yenİ plastİ- sİzm) neo-plasticism (yeni plastisizm)'in tanımını ilk olarak ele alırsak: neo- plasticism, "mondrian'ın, hollandalı felsefeci m.h.j. schoenmaekers'in doğanın bütünlüğüne ve bu bütünlüğün çizgilerin geometrik kesişme- leriyle ifade edilmesine ilişkin mistik ve tran- sandantal (aşkın) düşüncelerinden etkilenerek de stıjl akımı içinde geliştirdiği estetik kav- ram olarak açıklanmıştır. mondrian, schoen- maekers'in de nieuwe beelding (yeni plas- tik/biçim) deyimini "yeni plastisizm" olarak kullanmış ve le néoplasticisime ( ; yeni- plastisizm) adlı kitabında yeni plastik sanatın, biçim ve rengin dikdörtgen bir düzlemde bir bütün olarak tanımlanmasıyla başladığını öne sürmüştür. mondrian, yeni plastisizm ilkele- rini en yetkin biçimiyle 'lerin başında yatay-dikey çizgiler, ana ve nötr renklerle oluşturduğu kırmızı, sarı ve mavi kompo- zisyon ( ; belediye müz., lahey) gibi ya- pıtlarında uygulamıştır "(eczacıbaşı sanat ansiklopedisi, cilt ). neo-plastisizm, kübizm'den çıkmıştır ve mondrian'ın 'den 'ye kadar süren kuramsal ve plastik araştırmalarının sonucu- dur. dik açı ile üç ilkel renk (mavi, sarı, kır- mızı) ve renk sayılmayan siyah, beyaz, gri neo-plastisizm'in öğeleridir. neo-plastisizm daha sonra geometrik soyutlamanın kökeni olmuştur. avrupa rasyonalizminin biçim anlayışı neo-plastitizm'e dayanmaktadır. ‚neo-plastisizmin kuruluş prensibi, theo van doesburg tarafından açık bir şekilde şöyle tanımlanıyordu: ‘akıl, henüz yapmaya başlamadan önce sanat yapıtını bütünüyle algılamalı ve şekillendirmelidir< ne doğa- dan ne duyulardan ne de sezgilerden edinilen yapısal izlenimleri taşımalıdır<lirikliği, dramatikliği, sembolizmi ve benzeri her şeyi bir kenara atıyoruz.’ demiştir‛(thompson, : ). ‚theo van doesburg ile piet mond- rian arasında - ’te, paris’te yaşanan fikir ayrılığının sebebinin, genellikle, doesburg’un neo-plastisizmin biçim haznesine çaprazları dahil etmesi olduğu söylenmektedir. ama bundan fazlası söz konusudur. pratikte, mondrian, hem doğal hem de manevi düzen- de insan öznesinin ‘düşey’ konumunu en uygun şekilde karşıladığına inandığı bir ‘ger- çeklik modeli’ne-bir felsefeye, dünya görüşü- ne- ulaşmıştır. mondrian, doesburg’un tavrını ve - yıllarında yapıtlarıyla da destek- lediği çaprazlarla ilgili-iyi veya kötü- görüşü- nü, bu modelin istikrarını bozan bir şey olarak görüyordu. itibariyle van doesburg’un, karşıt kompozisyon xiii ( - ) gibi yapıt- larında da görüldüğü gibi, sadece çapraz kul- lanmaya başlaması, eş zamanlı karşıt kom- pozisyon’daki ( ) gibi yapıtlarda fark edi- lebilen daha akıcı ve baş döndürücü dinamik- lerin gelişmesine yol açmıştır< ’ların ortaları mondrian’ın, neo-plastisizm'in ya da de stijl’in–kesişecek şekilde özenle yerleşti- rilmiş yatay ve dikey çizgilerle, içi ana renk- lerle doldurulacak, sınırları belli alanlar yara- tan bir kafes sisteminin oluşturulduğu- geliş- kin haznesini en rafine, en geniş şekliyle kul- lanmaya başladığı yıllar olmuş- tur.‛(thompson, : ). neo-plastisizm (yeni-plastikçilik) mondrian’ın inandığı, fizik ötesi bir dünya tasarımının sanattaki yansı- masıydı. hakikat, ona göre, gözlerimizle gör- düğümüz ve nesnelerle dolu bu dünyanın ötesinde, ancak akılla kavranabilen tanrısal bir şeydi. ‚neo-plastisizm terimi, de stijl akı- mının ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır. terim, grubun siyah, beyaz ve griye ek olarak üç ana renkle sınırlandırdığı renk paleti yaklaşımını tanım- lıyordu; kompozisyonun öğeleri yatay, düşey çizgiler ve dikdörtgen düzlemlerle kısıtlıydı< de stijl tarzı soyutlamaya giden yolu, sanatçı- ların giderek daha az kullandığı doğal form- larla açmıştır. ..‛(farthing, : - ). de stijl hareketi, ‚algılama nesnelerinin rastlantı- sal görünümünü, eserlerin dışında bırakmak, sanatçının kişiliğindeki ve dolayısıyla sübjek- melek akyürek tifliğindeki keyfiliği dıştalamak, evrensellik, katı bir objektiflik ve sistematik söz konusu hareketin temel ilkeleridir. ‘Şeyleri birbirin- den farklılaştıran şeyi değil, kendi aralarında ortak olarak sahip oldukları şeyleri plastik olarak sunmak(<) bir zorunluluktur, çünkü bu şekilde, bizleri temel olandan saptıran özgünlük ortadan kalkmış olacaktır; genel olan şey var olmaya devam eder; şeylerin tasvir edilmesi, yerini ilişkilerin tasvirine bı- rakır’(de stijl, cilt:ii). evrensel ve genel olma istenci, kaçınılmaz bir biçimde soyuta varır; fakat bu, anlamı gerekli kılan bir soyutlama- dır, çünkü anlamı postüla alarak ortaya koy- maktadır‛(farago, : ). bu görüşlerle neo-plastisizm temel felsefesini açıklamıştır. soyutlama ve soyut Çali- Şan sanatÇilardan Örnekler theo van doesburg yılında doğan hollandalı ressam mimar ve sanat eleştirmeni olan theo van doesburg, de stijl grubunun kurucusudur. mondrian ile 'ten sonra yeni-plastisizm akımından etkilenerek dergi çıkarmıştır. " 'ten başlayarak resimlerindeki yatay ve dikey öğelere kompozisyona hareket kazandı- ran eğik yüzeyleri eklemiş ve bu resimlere karşıt-kompozisyonlar adını vermiştir. bu yeni gelişme karşısında mondrian, does- burg'la anlaşmazlığa düşmüş ve gruptan ay- rılmıştır" (eczacıbaşı sanat ansiklopedisi, cilt : ). ‚theo van doesburg’un meşhur ve etkili tablosu İnek resmi, inek resminden yola çıkarak aynı konuyu artık bir ineğe hiç ben- zemeyecek şekilde kübist tarzda ineği nasıl soyutladığını evreler halinde göste- rir<nitekim inek ile tablo arasında gözle görülen herhangi bir benzerlik olmadığı gibi, serinin ilk ve son resimleri arasında da hiçbir benzerlik yoktur. van doesburg, soyut sana- tın doğadan-nesnel görsel gerçeklikten- yol çıkması gerektiğini anlatmaya çalışmıştır. o dönemde, soyutlamaya giden yol bir şekilde geometrikleştirmekten geçiyordu; modern neredeyse bu anlama geliyordu (danto, : ). resim : theo van doesburg (christian emil marie küpper),kompozisyon (İnek), , kağıt üzerine kurşun kalem, . x . cm, moma müzesi. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en resim 'de sanatçı, ineği kübist anla- yışla ele almış, mekânı boşluk olarak kullan- mıştır. sanatçının çalışmasında ineğin baş kısmı dikdörtgenlerden oluşturulmuş, boyun gövde ve bacaklarda ise geometrik şekillere dikdörtgen, üçgenlere yer verilmiştir. Çizim- de yuvarlak hatlar ve ayrıntılar kullanılma- mıştır. resimde soyutlamaya başvurulmuş hacimlendirme yapılmamıştır. derinlik az da olsa perspektif tekniğiyle belirli bölümlerde resmin soyut ve soyutlamadaki yüzü: yeni-plastisizm verilmiştir. resim : theo van doesburg (christian emil marie küpper), kompozisyon (İnek), , kağıt üzerine guaj boya, yağlıboya ve füzen, . x . cm, moma müzesi. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en resim 'de van doesburg tarafından, kübist tarzda ele alınmış olan inek, geometrik şekillerde çizilmiştir. parçalar düz olarak be- yaz, siyah, mor renklerle, boşluk ise yeşille hacimlendirme yapılmadan boyanmıştır. nesnel görüntüden uzak, akıl yoluyla yapılan ve keskin çizgilere başvurulmuş bir biçim anlayışı benimsenmiştir. Çalışmada geometrik şekiller arasında bir denge söz konusudur. resimde ineğin ayrıntılarına girilmediği gö- rülmektedir. resim : theo van doesburg (christian emil marie küpper), kompozisyon viii (İnek), , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, . x . cm, moma müzesi. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en resim 'te baktığımızda duyular dünyasına seslenen, bilinen bir nesneden söz etmenin mümkün olmadığını söylemek mümkündür. boşluk olarak değerlendirilebi- lecek bir alanda, tamamen soyutlaşmış kare ve dikdörtgenlerden oluşturulmuştur ve tüm yüzeye yayılmış, geometrik şekiller görül- mektedir. bu şekiller sarı, yeşil, mavi, kahve- melek akyürek rengi ve siyahtan meydana getirilmiştir. ge- ometrik şekillerin dağılımında bir denge gö- zetilmiştir. Çalışmada beyaz bir zemin üzeri- ne şekillerin gelmesiyle çalışma oluşturulmuş- tur. bart van der leck bart van der leck, yılında, boyacı bir babanın oğlu olarak doğmuştur. yirmi iki yaşında, amsterdam'da uygulamalı sanatlar devlet akademisi'nde okumak için burs elde etmeyi başarmıştır. ’te mezuniyetten son- ra van der leck, kendi tarzını geliştirmiştir. destekçisi helene kröller-müller, - arasında ' den fazla resim ve çizimleri satın almıştır. sanatçı bir süre cam ressamı olarak çalışmıştır. ’da resim stilini değişti- rip amsterdam’daki emprestyonistlerin etkisi altında bir seri portre (bir bölümü yaşlı kadın- lar) yapmıştır. bu çalışmalar titiz, gerçekçi ve monokrom çalışmalardır. van der leck, fran- sa’daki kötü koşullardan etkilenerek tematik bir değişim içerisine girmiştir. hollanda’ya döndükten sonrada yeni bir sanat dili yarat- maya, yeni topluma katkı sağlamaya çalışmış- tır. paris'te gördüğü mısır sanatından esinle- nerek, yavaş yavaş daha soyut çalışmalar üretmiştir. kişisel, anıtsal bir gerçekçilik geliş- tirmiştir (https://www.codart.nl/guide/exhibitions/bart -van-der-leck/). resim : bart van der leck, kompozisyon, , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, . x . cm, tate müzesi. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/leck-composition-t van der leck, 'da piet mond- rian'la karşılaştıktan sonra tamamen soyut kompozisyonlar üretmiştir. bunu takip eden yılda de stijl' in kurucularından olan sanatçı, geometrik abstract sanatta eserler üretirken diğer yandan figüratif elemanları da kullan- mıştır. resim ' de, dikdörtgen ve karelerden oluşan beyaz bir fon üzerine tamamen soyut, yüzeye dağıtılmış bir çalışma görülmektedir. bilinen nesnel bir objeden yola çıkılmadan, tamamen soyut ve hacimsiz bir düzenleme yapılmıştır. dikdörtgen ve kareler kendi için- de neredeyse eşit boşluklar bırakılarak mekâna dağıtılmıştır. Çalışmada ana renkler kullanılmıştır. resmin soyut ve soyutlamadaki yüzü: yeni-plastisizm resim : bart van der leck, fırtına, , tuval üzerine yağlıboya. http://krollermuller.nl/en/bart-van-der-leck-the-tempest- bart van der leck, resim 'de radikal renk, biçim ve içerik olarak sadeleştirmeye gitmiştir. Çalışmada iki balıkçı kadın görül- mektedir. Çalışma, kesin çizgilerle sınırlandı- rılmış formlar ile kurgulanmış ve güçlü renk- ler kullanılarak yapılmıştır. kadın figürleri düz siyah renk ile sadece dış kontur çizgile- riyle belirtilmiştir. formun iç yüzeyleri düz renge boyanmış, biçimler soyutlanmış ve bu tarzın genel yapısına uygun olarak tüm ayrın- tılar resimden atılmıştır. arka fonunda sarı renge yer verilmiştir. figürlerin karşısına bir deniz manzarası yapılmıştır. mavi olarak boyanan deniz ve denizin üstünde bir gemi formuna benzeyen şekil bulunmaktadır. gemi formu koyu kırmızı ve siyahtan oluşturul- muştur. Çalışmada formlar, renkler tamamen kurgusal olarak yapılmıştır. pİet mondrİan yılında hollanda’da doğan de stijl sanat hareketinin kurucularından mond- rian, protestan eğitimi aldıktan sonra ’de amsterdam sanat akademisine girer. bu yıl- larda ki çalışmaları natüralist, empresyonist tarzda yaptığı manzara çalışmalarıdır. mondrian, ’da teozofi toplulu- ğuna katılmıştır. sanatçının daha sonraki geli- şimini, blavatsky’nin çalışmaları ve ruhani bir akım olan rudolf steiner’ın antropozofi este- tik görüşü etkilemiştir. mondrian’ın hayatının geri kalanında yapacağı çoğu çalışma bu ru- hani anlayış üzerinde yapacağı arayıştan il- ham alınarak yapılacaktır. mondrian daha sonraki çalışmalarını, ’de amster- dam’daki moderne kunstkring cubism sergi- sinden derinlemesine etkilenerek yapacaktır. ’de mondrian paris’e taşınmıştır‛( https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/piet_mondrian). paris’li yıllarda picasso ve braque’nin etkisiy- le kübist eserler üretmiştir. ’de teozofi çalışmalarıyla, doğadan kopyalardan kaçın- mıştır. bart ven der leck ve theo van does- burg’le tanışmasıyla de stijl akımıyla neo- plastisizm’i kurmuştur. ‚ - tarihleri arasında doğadan soyutlamalar yapmaya başlayan, yılına geldiğinde resimlerinde dikey/yatay çizgiler ve temel renkler dışında hemen hiçbir öğeye rastlanmayan hollandalı ressam piet mond- rian xx. yüzyılda soyut sanatın en önemli figürleri arasındadır. mondrian, ‘yeni- plastisizm’ olarak adlandırdığı geometrik soyut anlayışa göre sanat, evrenin değişmez yasalarının bir tür yansımasıdır. bu yasalar, mondrian’ın tuvaline çeşitli boyutlardaki dikdörtgenlerin oluşturduğu asimetrik bir ağ olarak yansımaktadır. kompozisyonda her- hangi bir merkezi odak noktası bulunmaması, izleyicinin gözünü tuvaldeki ilişkiler ağına https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/piet_mondrian melek akyürek çekmektedir: dik ve yatay çizgilerin ve temel renklerin birbiriyle ilişkisi< mondrian’ın resmi tümüyle zihinsel, rasyonel, geometrik bir disiplin üzerine temellenmiş, bu yönüyle modernist anlayışın tam bir yansıması olarak görülmüştür< yeni bir dünyanın yeni bir sanatsal ifade biçimine gereksinim duyduğu- na inanan mondrian da neo-platonik fikirle- rin etkisinde kalmış, görünüşlerin ötesindeki öze varmak, bu özü ifade edecek biçimsel dili geliştirmek çabasında olmuştur‛(antmen, : ). ‚mondrian, ve yılları ara- sında ‚de nieuwe beelding in de schilder- kunst‛ makalesini yayınlamıştır. mondrian’ın bu teori üzerine yaptığı en iyi ve sıkça alıntı- lanan ifadesi, h.p. bremmer’e ’e yazdığı bir mektupta ortaya çıkmıştır. ‚Çizgileri ve farklı kombinasyonlardaki renkleri düz zemin üzerine yansıtarak genel güzelliği en belirgin şekilde ifade etmek için kullanıyorum. doğa bana ilham kaynağı oluyor beni diğer ressam- larda olduğu gibi farklı bir duygusal pozisyo- na sokuyor ve bu bana bir şeyler yapmamı tetikliyor. fakat ben hala varlıkların en basit ve gerçek haline ulaşmak istiyorum ta ki onla- rın özünü bulana kadar. enine ve boyuna çizgilerin hesaplamayla olmayan onun yerine farkındalık ile yaratılarak estetiğin en basit halinin uyumunu yansıtacağına inanıyorum ve bu uyum renkler eklenerek gerçek kadar güçlü bir sanat eseri haline getirilebilir (https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/piet_mondrian). sanatçı, ulaşmak istediği hedefi net bir biçim- de belirtmiş ve araştırmalarına devam etmiş- tir. ‚kandinsky’den dört yıl sonra ilk so- yut resim denemelerine başlayan piet mond- rian soyut sanatı artık öznel yaşantıların anla- tım aracı olarak değil, evrensel bir biçim dili olarak görüyordu. ’da yayınlanmaya başlayan ‘de stijl’ adlı dergide çıkan ‘resim sanatında yeni biçimlendirmeler’ adlı yazı- sında: ‘günün uygar insanının yaşamı gide- rek doğadan uzaklaşıyor ve soyut yaşama dönüşüyor’ diyor. mondrian’a göre, sanat da bu gelişmeye adım uyduracak ve natüralist sanat yerine soyut sanata bırakacaktı. soyut sanat bireysel değil, evrensel olacaktı. bireysel özellikler gösteren doğa biçimlerini ve renkle- rini tekrarlamayacak, onlardan soyutlanmış olan evrensel bir biçim-dili yaratacaktı. soyut- lama sözünden mondrian, bilincin eleme gü- cünü anlar ve bu gücü yerine göre ‘yok etme’ ve ‘yıkma’ diye tanımlar. yazılarında sık sık geçen evrensel-bireysel, nesnel-öznel, dış- iç, düşünce- madde, erkek- dişi deyimleri onun dünyayı karşıtlıkların savaşı olarak anladığını gösteriyor. bu karşıtlıklardan doğan denge bozuklukları, mondrian’ın sanatının çıkış noktasıydı; bu sanatın ereği ise uyum ve den- geye ulaşmaktı. mondrian’a göre geleneksel sanat bu dengeyi bulamamıştı< bu yüzden mondrian, düşüncesinde doğayı yıkarak, yok ederek dengeye varabileceğine inanıyor- du‛(İpşiroğlu, : - ) mondrian’ın çalışmalarında denge söz konusudur. sanatçı bunu yaparken de resim yüzeyini yatay ve dikeylere bölmekte- dir. dikey ve yataylar temel yönler olmakla beraber, dikeyler; nesnel, evrensel ve erkeksi olanı, yataylar; öznel, maddesel ve dişi olanı temsil etmektedir. salt gerçeklik için doğadaki temel biçim ve renkleri ele almaktadır. bun- lardan olan mavi, kırmızı, sarı gibi ana renk- lerdir. mondrian, ’da şunları belirtir; ‚neo-plastik, resim oluşturucu öğeleri ve bunları kompozisyonunu doğal şeklinde çı- karmıştır. bu nedenledir ki, neo- plastik re- sim gerçek soyut resimdir. doğallıktan çıkar- mak, soyutlamaktır. soyutlama ile saf soyut ifadeye ulaşırız. doğallıktan çıkarmak, derin- leştirmektir.‛ mondrian’ın sanatı bir düzlem sanatıdır. onun çizdiği dikgenleri dinamikleş- tiren bir gerilim vardır. mondrian’ın sonlu kompozisyonlarında, sonsuzluğun yaratımı söz konusudur (farago, : ). ‚mondrian, stijl dergisinin dışında diğer avrupa dergilerinde yayınlatmak için ve dağıtmak için neo-plastisizm’i anlatan bildiriler dağıtmış ve şunları eklemiştir: ‘neo- plastisizm, kişisel bir görüş olarak anlaşılma- malıdır. neo-plastisizm, eski ve yeni bütün https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/piet_mondrian resmin soyut ve soyutlamadaki yüzü: yeni-plastisizm sanatın mantıklı bir aşamasıdır. onun yolu herkes gibi açık olup, bir prensip olarak kul- lanılması gerekir’. ‚bizim hale, içinde bulun- duğumuz yaşamın zıt kuvvetlerinin keskin çizgilerle belirdiği makinalaşmış dünyamızda, gerçeği keyfi hisle öğrenmeyi denemenin, bizi bir hal çaresine götürebileceğini düşünmek mantıksızdır. sanatın hala, sadece görüntüle- re, olaylara ve geleneklere dayanarak (değişici bir gerçek) yaratmasına hiçbir gerek yok- tur‛(turani, : ). ‚mondrian, dostu sweeey’e kübizm- den ayrılık edenlerini şöyle açıklar: ’biliyor- sunuz ki, kübizm’in niyeti oylumları ifade etmekti. Üç boyutlu oylum (doğal olanı) de- mek ki mevcuttu. bu gene gösteriyor ki, kü- bizm gerçekte doğasal kalıyor ve soyutlaşma- ya gidiyordu, fakat soyut değildi. bu benim soyutlaştırma anlayışıma zıttı. benim soyut anlayışıma göre oylumun yok edilmesi gere- kiyordu. bundan ötürü en satıh’a hizmet ile hacmi tahrip etmeye yardım. bundan sonraki sorun, yüzeyi de tahrip etmekti. ben bunu, yüzeyleri boydan boya kesen hatların yardımı ile yaptım. fakat yüzeylere pek o kadar do- kunulmuş olmadı. nihayet yalnız çizgiler çizdim ve bunları renklendirdim. Şimdi biri- cik problem bu çizgileri aynı şekilde karşılıklı kontrastlarla yok etmekti. belki kendimi açık olarak anlatamadım, fakat bu size benim ken- dimde kübist etkiye nasıl son erdiğimi açık- lar’(turani, : ). ‚mondrian’ın bütün amacı, doğayı resminden atmaktı. sanat, doğaya egemen bir dünya idi ona göre. ’de yazdığı bir yazı- sında şöyle diyordu: ‘<resim yaparken, mümkün olduğu kadar saf olan ilkel renkler, doğal renklerin soyutlaştırılmasını gerçekleş- tirirler. objeye bağlı olmayan sanat gösteriyor ki, sanat ne bizim tasarladığımız gibi bir dış görünüşün ifadesidir, ne de bizim yaşadığı- mız yaşamın ifadesidir. sanat daha çok tam gerçekliğin ve gerçek hayatın tayin edilme- yen, fakat plastik sanatlarda gerçekleştirilebi- len ifadesidir‛(turani, : ). ‚benim, resimde değiştirmeye zorun- lu olduğum ilk şey renkti. saf renk rehine olarak doğa rengine son verdim. doğa rengi- nin tuval üzerinde gösterilemeyeceğini his- setmeye başladım. İçgüdüsel olarak duymaya başladığım şey, resmin doğa güzelliğini anla- tabilmesi için, yeni bir yol bulmanın zorunlu olduğu idi.‛ mondrian yazısına şöyle devam ediyor: ‚benim, içinde iki şeyi kavradığım problem aydınlanmıştı. birincisi: tasvir eden sanatta, gerçeğin, yalnız renk ve biçimin di- namik hareketlerinin dengesi ile anlatılabile- ceği; ikincisi: saf araçların, amaca ulaşmak için en etkili yolu garanti ettiği<.gittikçe, kom- pozisyonun sonunda bütün eğik çizgileri, dikey ve yatay hatlardan ibaret kalıncaya kadar çıkardım. bu yatay ve dikey çizgiler, birbirinden ayrık ve serbest haç şekilleri mey- dana getirdiler. denizi, göğü ve yıldızları gözlemleyerek, bunların fonksiyonlarını, bir- birini kesen birçok dikey ve yatay çizgilerle biçimlendirmeyi denedim. doğa, oylumda biçimler meydana getirir. gerçekte her şey oylumdur. bizim boş oylum olarak baktığımız biçim de bunun gibidir. bir birlik meydana getirmek için, sanatın, doğanın dış görünüşü değil, aksine doğanın gerçeğini izlemesi gere- kir‛(turani, : ). mondrian - yılları arasında hollanda’da kübist ressamları araştırma yapmıştır. resmin zemininde çizgi ağı oluş- turmuş, renk paletini azaltmıştır. mondrian, - yıllar arasında paris'te yaşadığı za- manlar ağaç ve bina resimleri yapmış ve so- yutlama sürecini daha ileriye götürmüştür. ‚mondrian’ın sanatı evrensel değerle- ri ve (yin ile yang birleşmesinde olduğu gibi) karşıtların yan yana geldiği varoluşu dile getiriyordu; ona göre, yaptığı dinamik fakat uyumlu tablolar henüz gerçekleşmemiş fizik- sel ve ruhsal dünyanın modelleri olarak gö- rülmeliydi, böyle bir dünyada da resmin ge- reği olmayacaktı‛(lynton, : ). melek akyürek resim : mondrian, büyük kırmızı bir uçak, sarı, siyah, gri, mavi ile kompozisyon, , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, , x . cm, gemeentemuseum, the hague , the nederlands http://www.pietmondrian.info/lifetime-evolution/lifetime-evolution.html resim 'da yatay ve dikey çizgilerin iki zıt gücünü ifade eden bir çalışma görül- mektedir. bunlar her yerde ve her şeyde bas- kındırlar. geometrik düzenlemede solda bü- yük bir kırmızı kare ve onun çevresinde siyah kontur çizgileriyle bölünmüş dikdörtgen ve kareler görülmektedir. Çalışmada asimetrik bir düzen benimsenmiş, renkler düz olarak boyanmış, nesnel dünyadan hiçbir öğe kulla- nılmamıştır. resim tamamen soyut olarak ve beyaz, sarı, kırmızı, mavi renklerden oluştu- rulmuştur. tüm geometrik şekiller ve renk- lerde denge söz konusudur. resim : mondrian, kırmızı, mavi ve sarı ile kompozisyon, , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, x cm, kunsthaus zürich. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:piet_mondriaan,_ _- _mondrian_composition_ii_in_red,_blue,_and_yellow.jpg resim 'de çalışma, geometrik şekil- lerden kare, dikdörtgenden oluşturulmuştur. sanatçı, eserinde kırmızı bir kare, siyah kon- turlarla çevrelenmiş beyaz dikdörtgenler, mavi ve sarı kareler kullanmıştır. sanatçının çalışmasında asimetrik bir düzen benimsen- miştir. resimde dengeli bir yapı görülmekte- dir. mondrian, bireysellikten çıkararak evren- https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:piet_mondriaan,_ _-_mondrian_composition_ii_in_red,_blue,_and_yellow.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:piet_mondriaan,_ _-_mondrian_composition_ii_in_red,_blue,_and_yellow.jpg resmin soyut ve soyutlamadaki yüzü: yeni-plastisizm sel değerlerle çalışmalarını yapmıştır. mond- rian, karşıtlıkların dengesi, simetrisizleşme, boşluk ve doluluk, içsellik ve dışsallık, madde ve tinin ilişkilerini ele almıştır. resim : mondrian, sarı, mavi ve mavi ile kompozisyon, - , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, . x . cm, tate müzesi. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/mondrian-composition-with-yellow-blue-and-red-t resim 'deki çalışma, beyaz zeminin siyah kontur çizgileriyle dikey ve yataylara ayrılarak sadece birer parçanın sarı, kırmızı ve maviye düz olarak boyanması ile oluşturul- muştur. Çalışmada saf renkler kullanılarak oluşturulmuş, asimetrik bir kompozisyon görülmektedir. resimde mümkün oldukça az renk kullanılmış ve siyah konturlarla dikey ve yatay çizgiler belli bir ritme göre düzenlen- miştir. resmin geneline beyaz fon hâkimdir. eserde ızgara düzeni benimsenmiş ve kurgu büyük bir dikkatle yapılmıştır. vİlmos husz[r yılında doğan macar sanatçı, de stijl hareketinin kurucu üyelerindendir. 'te hollanda'ya göç etmiştir. kübizm ve fütürizm'den özellikle de mondrian ve theo van doesburg'u da kapsayan sanatçılardan etkilenmiştir. birçok eserini bu hareketin te- mel prensipleriyle oluşturmuştur. 'da ilk soyut işlerini üretmiştir. tekstil ve mobilya alanında dizaynlar yapmıştır. resim : vilmos husz{r, kadın figürü ile kompozisyon, , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, x . cm, the riklis collection of mc crory corporation https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en melek akyürek resim 'da geometrik keskin hatlardan oluşturulmuş bir kadın figürü görülmektedir. dikey ve yatay çizgilerin yanında diyagonel çizgilerde kullanılmıştır. figür, bu çizgilerin kesiştiği yerlerin sarı, kırmızı, mavi ve siyah renklere boyayarak oluşturulmuştur. figürün yüzü geometrik şekillerden yapılmıştır. vücudunda büyük beyaz biçim egemendir. dikdörtgenlerin kesisen kısımları renklendirilmiştir. kollar beyaz ve gri dikdörtgenlerden yapılmıştır. resimde soyutlama yapılmış ve hacimlendirmeye başvurulmamıştır. Çalışmada bir denge söz konusudur. nesnel dünyadan bir öge alınarak resmin plastiği içinde kurgulanmış ve çalışma temel renklere indirgenmiştir. resim : vilmos husz{r, kompozisyon, - , mukavva üzerine yağlıboya, . x . cm, museo thyssen-bornemisza, madrid. http://www.museothyssen.org/en/thyssen/zoom_obra/ resim 'da üçgen, kare, dikdörtgen- lerden oluşturulmuş beyaz zemin üzerine soyut bir düzenleme yapılmıştır. Çalışmada asimetrik bir tarzda, temel renkler kullanıla- rak oluşturulmuştur. Çalışmanın merkezinde sarı büyük kareye yer verilmiş çevresinde de beyaz zemin üzerine kırmızı küçük üçgen ve gri üçgen resmedilmiştir. resmin alt tarafında mavi dikdörtgen vardır. Çalışmanın üst sol kısmında mavi üçgen, sağ üstte ise siyah dik- dörtgen kullanılmıştır. resimde kurgu bir denge içindedir. sanatçı, non-figüratif bir çalışma olarak tasarlamış ve gerçek dünyadan herhangi bir öğeye yer vermemiştir. georges vantongerloo georges vantongerloo, tarihinde antwerp’da (brüksel) doğmuştur. de stijl grubu üyelerindendir. yaklaşık ’larda anvers’de, (brüksel) académie des beaux- arts'da okumuştur. - yıllarında hol- landadaki işi, kraliçenin dikkatini çekmiştir. burada mimari tasarımlar üzerinde çalışırken sanatçı, piet mondrian, bart van der leck ve theo van doesburg ve onlarla birlikte 'de kurulan dergi de stijl ile karşılaşmış- tır. 'de brüksel'e döndükten sonra men- ton’a (fransa) taşınmıştır. vantongerloo, fransa'da birçok sergiler düzenlemekte olan sanatçı ve mimar max bill ile yakın bir dost- luk geliştirmiştir. sanatçı, yılında antwerp kitapçığını ‚l d'art et son avenir‛ yayınlamıştır. yılında, paris’te çeşitli köprü ve havaalanının modelleri yaparak bunları musée des arts décoratifs’de sergilenmiştir. http://www.museothyssen.org/en/thyssen/ficha_artista/ resmin soyut ve soyutlamadaki yüzü: yeni-plastisizm İlk solo sergisini the galerie de berri’de (pa- ris) açmıştır. yılında, vantongerloo, max bill ve saint peter ile, zürih antoine pevs- ner’de bir sergi yapmıştır. resim : georges vantongerloo, kompozisyon (gv a), , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, - cm,chantal & jacob bill koleksiyonu, İsviçre. http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /georges-vantongerloo-antwerp- -paris.html resim ’deki çalışmada biçim ve içe- rik olarak ana renkler kullanılarak dikdört- genlerden oluşan dengeli bir resim görülmek- tedir. resimde merkezde kırmızı büyük dik- dörtgen, sol üstte dikey olarak ele alınmış kırmızı dikdörtgenle dengelenmiştir. Çalış- mada renkler arasındaki dağılımda bir denge söz konusudur. asimetrik olarak kurgulanan bu resimde çerçeve olarak tasarlanan yapıda da siyah beyaz birlikteliği bulunmaktadır. resim .georges vantongerloo. kompozisyon ii, eşkenar Üçgenden türemiş Çivit mavisi menekşe, , karton üzerine monte edilmiş tuval üzerine yağlıboya, x . cm, modern sanat müzesi, new york. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en resim ’de kompozisyon’da farklı kalınlıktaki ve genişlikteki çizgilerin dikey ve yatay şekilde bölünerek çeşitli boyutlarda dikdörtgenler oluşturulmuş bir çalışma gö- http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /georges-vantongerloo-antwerp- -paris.html https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en melek akyürek rülmektedir. resmin alt yüzeyinde ana renk- lerin yanında yeşil ve mor ile de bir üçgen oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. resmin üst kıs- mında siyah konturlarla çevrilmiş beyaz dik- dörtgenlere yer verilmiştir. sanatçı doğada yer almayan öğeler seçerek tamamen resmin kendi plastiğini kurgulamıştır. dengeli bir çalışma olan bu kompozisyonda hacimlen- dirme kullanılmamıştır. sonuÇ xx. yüzyılda, insanın giderek doğa taklidinden kaçınarak, kendi iç gerçekliğine yönelmesi ve sanatta bireyselliğin yerine ev- rensel olanın almasıyla beraber, sanatta yeni biçim ve içerik anlayışı ortaya çıkmıştır. du- yulara dayanan somut dış gerçeklik soyutla- maya ve soyut sanata yerini bırakmıştır. bu biçim ve içeriği benimseyen sanatçılar özellik- le - yılları arasında neo-plastisizm (yeni-plastikçilik) akımında eserler ortaya koymuşlardır. bu akımda eserler üreten sa- natçılar, estetiğin en yalın basit halini kullan- maya çalışmışlardır. renkleri ana renklere indirgemişler, çizgileri dikey ve yatay olarak kullanarak dengeli kompozisyonlar yaratmış- lardır. geometrik bir düzen benimseyen baş- ta piet mondrian, theo van doesburg, bart van der leck, georges vantongerloo, vilmos husz{r gibi sanatçılar, neo-plastisizm’in teo- rik ve uygulama alanında araştırmalar gerçek- leştirmişlerdir. kompozisyonlarında merkezi bir odak sistemi ve hacimlendirmeyi kullan- mayan bu sanatçılar saf soyut kompozisyon üretmeye çalışmışlardır. Üç boyutlu hacim duygusunu bir ta- rafa itmişler onun yerine düz yüzeyler yarat- mışlardır. doğa renkleri yerine saf renk pale- tini kullanmışlardır. resimlerinde tasviri kul- lanmayarak gerçeğin saf renk ve biçimlerle elde edilebileceği düşüncesini benimsemişler- dir. Çalışma xx. yüzyılın önemli bir akı- mı olan neo- plastisizm’in ve bu alanda ça- lışmış önemli sanatçıların eserlerinin belirtilen amaçlarla açıklanması açısından önem taşı- maktadır. bu doğrultuda, çalışmada belirtilen sanatçıların sanat anlayışları ve eserlerinin çözümlemesi yapılmıştır. resİm lİstesİ resim : theo van doesburg (christian emil marie küpper), kompozisyon (İnek), , kağıt üzerine kurşun kalem, . x . cm, moma müzesi. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en erişim tarihi: . . resim : theo van doesburg (christian emil marie küpper), kompozisyon (İnek), , kağıt üzerine guaj boya, yağlı- boya ve füzen, . x . cm, moma müzesi. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en erişim tarihi: . . resim : theo van doesburg (christian emil marie küpper), kompozisyon viii (İnek), , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, . x . cm, moma müzesi. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en erişim tarihi: . . resim : bart van der leck, kompozisyon, , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, . x . cm, tate müzesi. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/leck- composition-t erişim tarihi: . . resim : bart van der leck, fırtına, , tu- val üzerine yağlıboya. (http://krollermuller.nl/en/bart-van-der-leck- the-tempest- ) erişim tarihi: . . resim : mondrian, büyük kırmızı bir uçak, sarı, siyah, gri, mavi ile kompozis- yon, , tuval üzerine yağlıbo- ya, , x . cm, gemeentemuseum, the hague , the nederlands x (http://www.pietmondrian.info/lifetime- evolution/lifetime-evolution.html) erişim tarihi: . . resim : mondrian, kırmızı, mavi ve sarı ile kompozisyon, , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, x cm, kunsthaus zü- rich. resmin soyut ve soyutlamadaki yüzü: yeni-plastisizm https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:piet _mondriaan,_ _- _mondrian_composition_ii_in_red,_ blue,_and_yellow.jpg erişim tarihi: . . resim : mondrian, sarı, mavi ve mavi ile kompozisyon, - , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, . x . cm, tate müze- si. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/mondria n-composition-with-yellow-blue-and- red-t erişim tarihi: . . resim : vilmos husz{r, kadın figürü ile kompozisyon, , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, x . cm, the riklis collection of mc crory corporation https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en erişim tarihi: . . resim : vilmos husz{r, kompozisyon, - , mukavva üzerine yağlıboya, . x . cm, museo thyssen-bornemisza, madrid. http://www.museothyssen.org/en/thyssen/zoo m_obra/ erişim tarihi: . . resim : georges vantongerloo, kompozis- yon (gv a), , tuval üzerine yağlıboya, - cm, chantal & jacob bill koleksiyonu, İsviçre. http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /geo rges-vantongerloo-antwerp- - paris.html erişim tarihi: . . resim :georges vantongerloo. kompozis- yon ii, eşkenar Üçgenden türemiş Çivit mavisi menekşe, , karton üzerine monte edilmiş tuval üzerine yağlıboya, x . cm, modern sanat müzesi, new york. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en erişim tarihi: . . kaynakÇa antmen, a. ( ). . yüzyıl batı sanatında akımlar, İstanbul : sel yayınları. baljeu, j & blok, c. ( - ), reviewed works: theo van doesburg by joost baljeu; piet mondriaan: een catalogus van zijn werk in nederlands openbaar bezit by cor blok, , simiolus: nether- lands quarterly for the history of art, vol. , no. , - . stichting neder- landse kunsthistorische publicaties beckett, j. ( ), dada, van doesburg and de stijl, journal of european studies, vol. , - : - . calosse, jp.a. ( ), mondrian, parkstone international. danto, a. ( ), sanat nedir, (Çev: baransel, z.), İstanbul : sel yayınları. eczacıbaşı sanat ansiklopedisi,( ), cilt : - - , İstanbul: yem yayınları. farago, f. ( ), sanat,(Çev: doğan, Ö.) an- kara: doğu batı yayınları. farthing, s., (ed.) ( ), sanatın tüm Öykü- sü, (Çev: aldoğan, g., candil Çulcu, f.), Çin : hayalperest yayınları. fineberg, j.( ), ’tan günümüze sanat, (Çev: atay eskier, s., yılmaz, g.e.), İzmir : karakalem yayınları. golding, j.( ), paths to the absolute : mondrian, malevich, kandinsky, pol- lock, newman, rothko and still, lon- don : thames & hudson. heartney, e. ( ), sanat & bugün, (Çev: akınhay, o.), İstanbul: akbank ya- yınları. hollingsworth, m.,( ), dünya sanat tarihi, (Çev:küçükerdoğan, r., ergüder, b.), İstanbul: İnkilap kitabevi. kuspit, d. ( ), sanatın sonu, (Çev:tezgiden, y.), İstanbul : metis yayınları. leppert, r.d. ( ), sanatta anlamın görün- tüsü, (Çev: türkmen, İ.), İstan- bul:ayrıntı yayınları. locher, p& overbeeke, k. & stappers, p. j. ( ), spatial balance of color triads in the abstract art of piet mondrian, perception dergisi, volume , - . lynton, n. ( ), modern sanatın Öyküsü, http://www.museothyssen.org/en/thyssen/ficha_artista/ http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /georges-vantongerloo-antwerp- -paris.html http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /georges-vantongerloo-antwerp- -paris.html http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /georges-vantongerloo-antwerp- -paris.html https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en melek akyürek (Çev: Çapan, c.& Öziş, Ş.) Çin : remzi kitabevi. İpşiroğlu, n.& İpşiroğlu, m.,( ), sanatta devrim, İstanbul: hayalbaz yayınları. salcman, m. ( ),piet mondrian's ( − ) composition a, : on the road to perfection, world neuro- surgery dergisi, volume , issues - , - . petra, h., ( ), van doesburg and the in- ternational avant-garde: construc- ting a new world, border crossings; winnipeg, kanada, - . susanne, d.( ), piet mondrian: - : structures in space, köln :benedikt taschen. Şahiner, r.( ), sanatta postmodern kırıl- malar ya da modernin yapı bozumu, İstanbul : yeni İnsan yayınevi. pomie`s, a., tissier-desbordes,( ), e. constructing the object of research in the manner of piet mondrian: an in- tegrative epistemology for consumer research, marketing theory, volume ( ), - . thompson, j. ( ), modern resim nasıl okunur, (Çev: Çulcu, f.c.), İstanbul: hayalperest yayınları. turani, a. ( ), dünya sanat tarihi, İstan- bul: remzi kitabevi. https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/ georges-vantongerloo https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/leck- composition-t http://krollermuller.nl/en/bart-van-der-leck- the-tempest- http://www.pietmondrian.info/lifetime- evolution/lifetime-evolution.html https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:piet _mondriaan,_ _- _mondrian_composition_ii_in_red,_ blue,_and_yellow.jpg http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/mondria n-composition-with-yellow-blue-and- red-t https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en http://www.museothyssen.org/en/thyssen/zoo m_obra/ https://www.moma.org/collection/works/ ?locale=en http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /geo rges-vantongerloo-antwerp- - paris.html https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/piet_mondrian https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/piet_mondrian http://blog.kavrakoglu.com/tag/bart-van-der- leck/ https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/georges-vantongerloo https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/georges-vantongerloo http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /georges-vantongerloo-antwerp- -paris.html http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /georges-vantongerloo-antwerp- -paris.html http://anartlovers.blogspot.com.tr/ / /georges-vantongerloo-antwerp- -paris.html forum closural because a set of formal expectations has been satisfied. we understand that if after a comes b, then after b comes c, and so forth. based on that perception, we .further understand that if after c comes b, then after b comes a. therefore, by the limits of the set with which we are dealing, there is no prace else to go. hence, closure. in a narrative that, by its nature, is not purely formal, such a formal closural device (here, the reversal of shots and movement) will gain credibility only insofar as it is perceived as related thematically to the rest of the work. to put it differently, our perception of the device's thematic relation to the work diminishes our perception of its "gimmickry." thus, in citizen kane, it is important that the opening and closing shots suggest the plot's essential "no trespassing" theme. but it is more important that in doing so these shots also shape our feeling about the film's structure. viewed rhetorically, then, the ending of citizen kane shows more complexity than carringer's fine symbolic analysis suggests. in sum, it brilliantly embodies what another great modernist-henry james-knew: "really, universally, relations stop nowh~re, and the exquisite problem of the artist is eternally but to draw, by a geometry of his own, tne .. circle within which they shall happily appear to do so. he is in the perpetual predicament that the continuity of things is the whole matter, forhim, of comedy and tragedy; that this continuity is never, by the space of an instant or an inch, broken, and that,: to do any- thing at all, he has at once intensely to consult and intensely to ignore it" (the art of the novel, new york: scribners, , p. ). jerry w. carlson university of chicago to the editor: robert l. carringer's "rosebud, dead or alive: narrative and symbolic structure in citizen kane" (pmla , , , - ) is more than a little decep- tive in its persistent tendency to ignore the obvious. too often, the essay demonstrates complexity in the motion picture's structure by disregarding its sim- plicity. carringer's model takes viewers in the wrong direction. he associates the use of multiple points of view to tell a story with "the modernist period's general preoccupation with the relativism of points of view" (p. ) and with the idea "that all mediums of transmission are inherently distorting; that there is no such thing as an objective or definitive account of a personality or event; that all mediated (that is, narrated) information is suspect" (p. ). as examples of works in this mode, he mentions the ring and the book, the sound and the fury, and rashomon. his argument mixes one modem artistic strain with a close cousin: he confuses a style of cubistic portraiture which attempts to manifest inner nature in a series of "objective" external fragments with a narrative mode whose emphasis is the relativity of human perspectives. to borrow some terms from wylie sypher's rococo to cubism in art and litera- ture, carringer would have us see charles foster kane as merely a series of relationships, to observe in the reporter's .search a disappearance of the object instead of a revelation of meaning. while this may be the tendency of pure form in the movie, the content-the dogged literary development of the theme-bespeaks something quite different. in the middle of the picture, jed leland quite explicitly analyzes kane's character: "love ... that's why he did everything. that's why he went into politics. . . . he wanted all the voters to love him, too. all he really wanted out of life was love. that's charlie's story. how he lost it." the story idea has the quality of a cliche. throughout the movie, kane is the man who, because he was snatched from the bosom of his family at an early age, searches for some love rela- tionship to take its place but fails to find the emo- tional understanding and acceptance he seeks. though fragmenting the narrative, the structure con- sistently develops this theme. much of the story con- centrates on kane's marriages and his friendship with jed leland-and, as bernstein tells us, "there were plenty of girls in the early days." these relation- ships with individuals are complemented and compli- cated by kane's relationship to what he likes to imagine as an adoring public. his newspaper career and his political adventure are orchestrations of his affair with his public and it is quite fitting that the happy days in this relationship are manifested in the song and dance number that features young charhe and his musical fan club. under kane's aggressive management, the inquirer cultivates a personal rela- tionship to its readers, its impulses to a crusading honesty always confined within the context of kane's emotional dramatics (as evidenced by charlie's "noble gesture" of finishing leland's negative review). from the young boy's headline-like cry while sled- ding-"the union forever"-politics and patriotism (perhaps with a notion of togetherness) are part of the dream of being loved again. thatcher, of course, represents the lovelessness characteristic of a capital- istic enemy of the people. (the cold indifference of the sterile images of his library and the emotionally neuter librarian are echoed ironically in the cavern emptiness of xanadu.) as leland discovers, kane's crusading in politics is also personal in a childishly egotistical manner. not much is made of his first wife's political association, but the reaction to the wedding announcement hints this may have been an obscure part of her attractiveness for kane. forum initially, susan's sole appeal seems to be that she likes charlie without knowing who he is. then, when his political relationship to the public collapses, kane uses her as a means to regain the affection and ap- plause of an audience by becoming a svengali im- presario. the fact that susan obviously has no talent and tha't the opera career is manifestly an emotional strain for her indicates that she is reduced rather quickly from a source for love to a device for gaining approval. after such a relentless emphasis, for ,carringer to see rosebud and the globe kane drops as symbols of such recondite complexity is to ride a thesis.particu- larly hard. harkening back to the brief, almost insig- nificantly presented, childhood situation does seem rather simplistically sentimental. but bernstein's anecdote of the impression a glimpse of a young girl in a white dress made upon him has in effect provided an argument for the "real" nature of such sentiments. the link between the globe and the colorado boyhood reveals the same sense of subjective signifi- cance. and when the boy is first presented, he does seem like a small figure in one of those snowstorms stirred by the tipping of such a liquid-filled globe. the grownups pathetically reassure him that he won't be lonely, but it turns out that he is. rather than presenting us with "a sense of his [kane's) complexity," the film seems rather to show us how simple human impulses get complicated by the refusal to recognize the otherness of the world. carringer's other point-"in kane~s attachment to what he calls rosebud, we ought not to think of how the past intrudes into the present" (pp. - )-also seems quite unconvincing in terms of what we are shown in the film. walter shear kansas state college of pittsburg mr, cam'nger replies: i think there was a stage in the evolution of citizen kane when even welles would have agreed he was doing the kind of story walter shear outlines. a sense that kane ought to be provided with a definitive psychological motive persisted well into the film's production, though the burden seemed to fall more heavily on different motives at different stages. only a week before the script was to go to the hays office, for instance, kane's final break with leland, his best friend, over the opera review was being placed early in the story, where it would emphasize the psycho- logical compulsion associated with kane's name. only gradually (as i tried to show in my essay) did welles come to realize where his narrative method was leading him-toward a "prismatic" view of his subject. kane, as welles said, is all the things said about him, or none-it "depends on who's talking about him." to ignore this warning and look for a real kane in one of the stories told about him inevi- tably will be to do what shear does, to distort and trivialize the story. in my essay i tried to provide an alternative to his view that the obvious, surface mean- ing represented by rosebud is the only acceptable one. i think if shear felt obliged to comment he ought to have tried to discredit my methods or refute my arguments, rather than just to repeat a familiar old interpretation of the film. robert l. carringer university of illinois unity identity text self to the editor: heinrich henel's comments on norman holland's "unity identity text self" raise several im- portant issues that holland's reply did not address (pmla, , , - ). any theory, for example, that requires that we rule out of court all shared responses to literary works as mere accidents. is itself ignoring a potentially fruitful avenue for inquiry. for all the popularity of the notion of "plurisignifi- cance" (whether it be new critical ambiguity or holland's brand of idiosyncratic response), the experience of most teachers of literature is that there are important shared inferences when we read (say) king lear. good evidence for this assertion was provided by the audience's response to a paper holland read at the mla convention in san francisco. in trying to demonstrate that readers "match up" their own unique identities to texts, holland argued that when he read king lear he found himself glad at the end of the play when lear and cordelia die .. lear, it seems, has been guilty of causing all the trouble, and cordelia has been irre- sponsible in allowing the old fool to get away with it. holland reacted this way, he explained, because he had always resented weak father figures. i venture to say-from my conversations with others who attended this session-that a uniform response was that this was the most original and idiosyncratic interpretation of king lear they had ever heard. something, in other words, required many of holland's listeners intuitively to reject such an interpretation as somehow false to their own ex- perience with the play. although holland rejects the notion of a "regulative force" that "limits" response, precisely such an immanent force had functioned for most of his listeners when they had read the play. this is not to say that even two members of the audience would have agreed on one interpretation of king lear, evidence holland alludes to when he Études photographiques, | juillet Études photographiques | juillet institutions photographiques/ressources de la photographie jacques-henri lartigue et la naissance du modernisme en photographie kevin moore Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ issn : - Éditeur société française de photographie Édition imprimée date de publication : juillet pagination : - issn : - référence électronique kevin moore, « jacques-henri lartigue », Études photographiques [en ligne], | juillet , mis en ligne le , consulté le avril . url : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ ce document a été généré automatiquement le avril . propriété intellectuelle jacques-henri lartigue et la naissance du modernisme en photographie kevin moore "pour lartigue, dès le départ, la pratique de la photographie comportait un élément essentiellement ludique." pierre apraxine, the waking dream, . image plus que tout autre nom, celui de lartigue suggère spontanéité, authenticité et invention, qualités que l'on désigne volontiers comme "ludiques". dès l'été , pendant lequel il fit un début prometteur en tant que photographe au moma de new york, s'est installée l'opinion critique incontournable (et pourtant fausse, il faut le préciser d'emblée) que ses photographies étaient la production aléatoire et inconsciente d'un enfant débordant d'imagination, non encore encombré des règles et des conventions qui régentent la créativité adulte . seul un "authentique primitif", écrivait john szarkowski, le nouveau conservateur de la photographie au moma, "était en mesure de produire une oeuvre aussi généreusement radicale ". si cette oeuvre semble radicale, c'est par sa candeur, sa vivacité et son dynamisme formels, mais aussi du fait qu'elle a été produite pendant les premières décennies du xxe siècle, avant l'invention du leica, de l'ermanox, et des autres appareils compacts . pour szarkowski, les photographies de lartigue ressemblaient à une version infantile du reportage* de grand style tel que henri cartier-bresson l'avait popularisé dans les années . mieux encore, elles paraissaient annoncer la "photographie de [p. ] rue" délibérément acerbe et provocatrice de garry winogrand, l'inventeur de ce qu'on a appelé l'"esthétique de l'instantané ". tout d'un coup, les photographies de lartigue ont rencontré un vaste public et éveillé l'intérêt de la critique. bien que ce public ait en général montré une immense admiration, il n'a pas manqué de s'interroger sur la nature de cette photographie, sur la lignée à laquelle elle appartenait. dans les modestes limites du corpus photographique "innocent" de lartigue, ce public était curieux de découvrir ses propres valeurs. image est-ce vraiment une coïncidence que la notion de spontanéité, ce mot qu'utilisent les adultes pour parler de jeu, soit devenue si essentielle chez les artistes et les critiques de l'amérique d'après-guerre? daniel belgrad, dans son livre the culture of spontaneity, définit l'émergence d'une "esthétique cohérente de la spontanéité" dans la jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet culture américaine des années . le geste spontané, selon belgrad, était dans l'air du temps, et signifiait, pour les artistes d'avant-garde et le public, un rejet simultané de la culture du vieux monde et de l'idéologie dominante américaine de consumérisme et de progrès technologique. la spontanéité promettait "une troisième voie, opposée à la fois à la culture de masse et à la "haute culture" académique des années d'après-guerre ". pour les peintres de l'expressionnisme abstrait, la spontanéité signifiait une approche de la pratique artistique novatrice par la forme, capable de fonder une fois pour toutes un "style américain", et une production empreinte d'un contenu psychologique, authentique, chose qui n'avait guère cours dans le vaste panorama matérialiste de la vie américaine. image par rapport à ce phénomène, l'art photographique américain occupait une place particulière. À l'écart de la structure traditionnelle qui opposait académisme et avant- garde, confinée dans le domaine de la presse illustrée de l'entre-deux-guerres, la photographie ne fit son entrée dans l'institution qu'à partir des années et . bien que complexe, la priorité devint alors de définir pour l'art photographique un statut cohérent avec les efforts antérieurs du moma pour légitimer cet art , qui le différencie du travail commercial vulgarisé par les revues illustrées, de l'essor de la photographie d'amateur et des évolutions dans les autres médias. la spontanéité incarnée par lartigue offrait une solution, tandis que la stase classique d'eugène atget en fournissait une autre. ensemble, ces deux sensibilités artistiques établissaient les frontières de la pratique photographique. ainsi l'alternative se situait entre [p. ] une approche spontanée et une démarche raffinée entre "fenêtre" et "miroir", pour reprendre les termes de szarkowski en . dans un cas comme dans l'autre, le photographe se devait de respecter les limites de son médium, selon l'indiscutable axiome de la photographie depuis la fin du pictorialisme. image la mission que szarkowski s'était fixée de modifier le cours de l'art photographique dans les années rencontra la complicité de lartigue si ce n'est sa complaisance. par ignorance, à cause d'interprétations erronées, ou simplement faute d'un véritable questionnement des sources (il faut dire que lartigue, encore vivant, contribua largement à sa propre mythification ), szarkowski s'appliqua à ce que lartigue "intégrât" les principes théoriques qui étaient siens. pour illustrer son récit de la naissance du modernisme en photographie, le conservateur mit l'accent sur la forme, l'intuition et l'expérience au mépris du contenu, du savoir-faire et de l'art. ce regard sur lartigue était aussi biaisé qu'il pouvait être influent: scénario typique de la nature générale du transfert historique. quand nietzsche écrit dans de l'utilité et de l'inconvénient des études historiques: "toute action exige l'oubli", il soutient qu'un peu de fiction dans l'histoire aide à la rendre plus efficace et plus "utile" pour engendrer la modification du présent . l'intrusion de lartigue dans les sacro-saintes galeries du moma en dit plus long que les simples déformations qui se produisent quand un moment historique cherche son inspiration dans un autre; elle amplifie aussi les effets d'un tel geste dans ce cas, une requalification théorique radicale de la photographie, une révision de son histoire, et la naissance d'un nouveau "maître". prélude image dans les années , il y avait sans doute en france quelques visionnaires au sujet de la photographie, mais elle ne disposait pas d'une institution telle que le moma, ni d'une publication telle que aperture pour promouvoir l'idée d'une photographie artistique . il y avait bien des agences photographiques, telles que magnum, et des jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet éditeurs spécialisés comme robert delpire, mais leur rapport au travail des photographes restait inspiré par la photographie de presse . quant aux institutions, la bibliothèque nationale servait depuis longtemps de dépôt légal des photographies et privilégiait le contenu de la photographie, au point de la classer par sujet plutôt que par auteur. on rapporte par exemple en : [p. ] "m. prinet, du cabinet des estampes, à la bibliothèque nationale, et plus spécialement chargé de la section photographique, me disait combien il lui était difficile de trouver des photographies de la vie quotidienne des intérieurs et des images des moeurs de notre temps , alors qu'il avait pour des époques plus lointaines, sur ces mêmes sujets, des gravures innombrables ." image ce texte fut publié dans point de vue, revue qui entendait élever la photographie au rang d'oeuvre d'art. malgré les ambitions du rédacteur en chef, albert plécy, la photographie était envisagée de même qu'à la bibliothèque nationale, comme un fournisseur de contenu. plécy adressait les conseils suivants aux lecteurs: "en dehors des grands faits historiques illustrés en général par des professionnels, il existe tout un monde à fixer sur la pellicule qui, avec le temps, se valorise comme le bon vin. c'est pourquoi les amateurs doivent classer avec soin leur album photographique et protéger leurs négatifs, "un trésor est caché dedans" ." image plécy n'était pas à la tête de la bonne publication pour lancer une avant-garde de la photographie. point de vue était une revue illustrée comme life et s'adressait à un public populaire. une discussion sur le médium photographique risquait d'ennuyer les lecteurs. quand plécy décida de publier une série des premiers travaux de lartigue en , [p. ] il agença les images comme des documents d'intérêt historique, accompagnés de longues légendes écrites à la main traitant les images exactement comme les "photographies de la vie quotidienne" étiquetées et cataloguées à la bibliothèque nationale . le commentaire précisait: "j.-h. lartigue avait trouvé dans sa propre famille les sujets et les éléments pour la constitution de véritables archives photographiques ." image la première diffusion publique des fameuses "photographies d'enfance" de lartigue suivit une organisation thématique. en septembre , point de vue publiait un choix d'environ cinquante photographies de voitures anciennes regroupées sous l'item: "aux temps héroïques de l'automobile". en février paraissait une autre sélection: "toute l'aviation dans une vie d'homme", suivie d'une autre rubrique consacrée aux avions intitulée: "quel sera l'aspect des avions que lartigue photographiera dans quarante-cinq ans, en l'an ?". enfin, un choix de photographies de mode, "courses d'hier...", est publié en juin . voilà donc à quoi se résuma l'entrée en scène de lartigue, du moins dans les pages de point de vue. les rédacteurs d'autres publications européennes remarquèrent le photographe et lui consacrèrent quelques rubriques peu après, mais leur approche était la même que celle de point de vue centrée sur le document d'archives et d'actualité . il fallait un autre climat pour que les photographies de lartigue s'épanouissent et rencontrent un public critique. il fallait new york et . szarkowski et le modernisme en photographie image le museum of modern art fut conçu comme une institution pédagogique, chargée du double rôle d'éveiller le public aux développements révolutionnaires dans l'art moderne, et de révéler les origines historiques de l'art moderne en montrant sa relation avec l'art plus familier du passé . dans les divers départements et au cours du jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet temps, ces deux objectifs n'ont pas toujours revêtu une même importance . john elderfield nous a mis en garde contre l'erreur consistant à supposer une "idéologie institutionnelle monolithique", et cette précaution est particulièrement nécessaire si l'on enquête sur le département de photographie . depuis sa création en , le département de photographie a dû s'atteler à la tâche singulière de reconstruire une tradition photographique, tout en faisant découvrir au public des oeuvres nouvelles. dès , paul strand notait avec regret: "les photographes [p. ] n'ont pas accès à leur propre tradition, aux travaux expérimentaux du passé. alors que le peintre peut s'instruire du développement de son médium, c'est impossible à l'apprenti photographe ." bien que le mandat d'edward steichen ait pu faire exception, on pourrait résumer la mission du département de photographie comme une réponse institutionnelle à la doléance de strand. image beaumont newhall avait déjà défriché le terrain en synthétisant une histoire technique du médium, à partir de laquelle il avait extrapolé un ensemble de règles esthétiques. sur fond d'une revue des aspects pratiques du médium, ce traitement culminait dans une liste succincte des maîtres de la photographie . toutefois, à cause d'un faisceau de circonstances politiques et financières, le vaste projet de newhall fut abandonné, et c'est l'approche plus populaire et même populiste de steichen, successeur de newhall, qui prévalut au département de photographie pendant les années et . la passation de steichen à szarkowski a ainsi pu être décrite comme un retour à la perspective de l'histoire de l'art qui avait été ébauchée par newhall . c'est un point qu'il convient particulièrement de souligner puisque le changement d'orientation opéré par szarkowski en tant que conservateur, moment aujourd'hui quasi mythique, semble avoir résulté pour l'essentiel d'une réaction consciente à ses prédécesseurs, notamment steichen . [p. ] image pour commencer, szarkowski a détourné son attention des thèmes héroïques chers à steichen pour se consacrer à un examen critique du médium lui-même. comme newhall, il a approché la photographie en historien de l'art et a repris (dans une certaine mesure) l'étude des grands maîtres pour étoffer son analyse du médium. mais ce qui est le plus important et qui le distingue de newhall est que szarkowski s'est attelé à une enquête théorique sur les photographies elles-mêmes, en adoptant une sorte de formalisme greenbergien comme principal modus operandi . le formalisme proposait à la photographie un vocabulaire pour définir une syntaxe picturale qui lui serait propre et qui à son tour fournissait le critère indispensable pour déterminer le statut artistique de telle ou telle photographie au sein du large spectre des diverses pratiques photographiques. le recours au formalisme fournissait ainsi à szarkowski une certaine souplesse théorique, qui permettait d'intégrer la catégorie problématique du "vernaculaire" dans le canon de la photographie comme discipline artistique. szarkowski estimait cette procédure indispensable car, à ses yeux, les racines vernaculaires du médium constituaient un aspect crucial de son développement et de son avènement en tant que forme artistique . image il y avait néanmoins, il faut le souligner, quelques points communs entre les approches de steichen et de szarkowski. d'abord, en parfait accord avec la mission globale d'éducation du public assignée au musée, steichen et szarkowski adoptaient tous deux une conception didactique de leur rôle de conservateur. pour ce faire, steichen considérait fondamentalement la photographie comme moyen de communication, et traita par ce moyen de grands sujets de politique et de société, à peu près de la même manière que le magazine life prenait position, sans trop de nuances, jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet par le truchement de la photographie . quant à la leçon de szarkowski, elle portait moins sur le contenu des photographies que sur leurs propriétés formelles en tant qu'oeuvres d'expression. par ses expositions et des publications telles que the photographer's eye ( , catalogue ), from the picture press ( ), looking at photographs ( ) et mirrors and windows ( ), szarkowski inculquait à son public des "manières de voir" correspondant à sa théorisation formelle du médium. image un autre point commun à steichen et szarkowski était leur exploitation commune des individualités de photographes pour servir leurs grands projets didactiques. tout comme steichen subordonnait la [p. ] vision individuelle des photographes à la communication de grands thèmes sociaux ou politiques (le nom des photographes de "the family of man" n'était même pas mentionné), szarkowski avait tendance à voiler les différences entre les individus de manière à satisfaire un schéma global. il concevait la photographie de façon toute hégélienne, comme un organisme clos découvrant sa propre nature formelle à travers la contribution cumulative d'une collectivité photographique docile, aux éléments quasi interchangeables. rien n'est plus éloquent à cet égard que le commentaire souvent cité de szarkowski déclarant que le plus grand photographe s'appelle "anonyme ". image dès le début, le moma avait dû répondre à une critique qui voulait qu'il y ait une contradiction interne entre les mots de "moderne" et de "musée", objection rendue célèbre par la phrase adressée par gertrude stein à alfred barr: "un musée peut être musée ou peut être moderne, mais pas les deux à la fois ." le problème était celui de l'institutionnalisation, processus par lequel le musée allait inéluctablement tarir sa propre source, l'avant-garde. c'était pourtant le prix à payer pour que le moma ait le pouvoir de valider et canoniser un nouveau groupe de maîtres modernes, pouvoir que le musée a exercé avec tant d'insistance que l'on en perçoit encore du ressentiment dans les études consacrées au modernisme . la dynamique qui permit au moma de s'ériger en autorité académique effective s'appuyait justement sur l'équilibre précaire entre une tradition de l'avant-garde en pleine évolution et une scène artistique contemporaine encore rudimentaire. pour szarkowski, qui avait reçu pour tout héritage de steichen l'image populaire de la photographie comme média de masse, il était urgent de faire émerger à la fois un corpus d'artistes photographes reconnus et une tradition sous-jacente de précurseurs modernistes, et ce double défi trouva sa solution dans la structure préétablie . autrement dit, szarkowski en est venu à faire ce que d'autres conservateurs du moma avaient déjà fait: il a remodelé le passé afin de valider le présent. image l'exemple classique de cette stratégie est l'exposition phare d'alfred barr, "cubism and abstract art" de , qui consacra l'abstraction comme principale fin de l'art moderne, et le cubisme comme son mouvement prépondérant. pour parvenir à ses fins, barr avait employé les méthodologies d'historiens de l'art alors en vigueur, en concevant l'histoire de l'art comme un phénomène autonome de développement stylistique, isolé de toutes influences extérieures, telles que les conditions [p. ] politiques ou sociales . À l'aide de sa fameuse table de l'art moderne, barr présentait le cubisme comme un style historiquement achevé, pourvu d'antécédents et de descendants bien définis. par là même, il isolait ce mouvement de tout contexte historique, social ou politique. aujourd'hui, cette analyse est bien sûr considérée comme arbitraire et limitée . jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet image szarkowski n'a jamais produit une table telle que celle de barr; pourtant, les patterns de l'histoire, pour reprendre la métaphore favorite de szarkowski, sont assez faciles à percevoir . alors que barr présentait l'abstraction incarnée par le cubisme comme le principe organisateur majeur du modernisme du vingtième siècle, szarkowski conçut une "esthétique de l'instantané", exprimée par l'oeuvre de winogrand, pour la photographie des années . et tout comme le cubisme et l'abstraction représentaient l'aboutissement de "grandes traditions" sortant de l'obscurité de l'avant-garde pour prendre leur juste place au musée, winogrand et l'esthétique de l'instantané signalaient l'émergence de l'arrière-fond vernaculaire venant revigorer la photographie d'art . image szarkowski découvrit winogrand juste à temps pour sa première exposition au moma, "five unrelated photographers", qui fut présentée de la fin mai au juillet et qui chevaucha pendant presque un mois celle qui était consacrée à lartigue . winogrand, jugé le plus grand photographe de sa génération par szarkowski, semble parfois fonctionner comme une matière première pour le conservateur, dont les accrochages orientés et l'énergique rhétorique verbale contrôlent fortement le contexte dans lequel se joue le sens d'une oeuvre. ce scénario du "conservateur en tant qu'artiste" est le code qui permet de comprendre le rôle de promoteur d'artistes de szarkowski au moma, tant il apparaît que le succès d'un photographe est presque subalterne par rapport à la mission plus vaste du conservateur, qui est de diffuser le message du modernisme photographique. assimilant winogrand à une muse de szarkowski, un critique déclarait: "winogrand et szarkowski sont aussi liés que frank stella et william rubin; chaque artiste représentant pour son conservateur un personnage héroïque qui a fait avancer le modernisme ." image dans mirrors and windows, la synthèse consacrée à la photographie des années et , szarkowski présente winogrand comme un explorateur, un homme en quête des "qualités intrinsèquement nuisibles de la description photographique". il poursuit, pour préciser la nature exacte du talent de winogrand: [p. ] "la limite que winogrand fixe à son art est une conséquence de sa plus grande force: une absolue fidélité à une conception de la photographie à la fois puissante, subtile, profonde et restreinte, et entièrement vouée à l'exploration de la vision photographique nue, essentielle ." image cette esthétique photographique dépouillée n'est pas l'invention de winogrand; elle est le fait du médium lui-même. winogrand a un rôle de hiéroglyphe dans cette définition très romantique de l'artiste. pour szarkowski, le résultat formel avait plus d'importance que la vision personnelle. aussi écrit-il: "les moyens par lesquels la photographie traduit le monde extérieur ne constituent pas essentiellement une question personnelle mais formelle ." en d'autres termes, les idéaux artistiques en ce cas, le destin de la photographie en tant que forme artistique autonome transcendent et dépassent l'activité individuelle. winogrand ne signifie pas grand-chose au regard des grands objectifs du médium adroitement configurés par szarkowski . lartigue: le précurseur image la conceptualisation de la photographie comme médium indépendant, autosuffisant, opérée par szarkowski était au service d'un but pratique. elle fournissait un ordre à un monde chaotique d'images et de photographes. limitant son analyse et son discernement au cadre de l'image, szarkowski bornait son jugement de valeur au style. ce critère embrassait le domaine photographique dans sa totalité, du cliché jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet d'amateur au tirage artistique . qui plus est, il n'était plus besoin de se soucier outre mesure des détails de la généalogie d'un artiste ou des influences qu'il avait pu connaître. la conception de la photographie que proposait szarkowski, celle d'un organisme constitué d'un univers d'images amorphe, ignorait opportunément les réseaux réels par lesquels les idées visuelles étaient censées se propager, via des photographes vivants en exercice. image toutefois, la culture occidentale conserve une idéologie de l'auteur. celle-ci demeure un principe d'organisation central, notamment au sein d'une institution artistique dont la validité économique et stylistique dépend essentiellement de la légitimation de l'artiste. le rétablissement par szarkowski d'une approche inspirée par l'histoire de l'art exigeait ce mode traditionnel de reconnaissance de l'auteur. le modèle de l'histoire de l'art exigeait que les artistes soient canonisés et, malgré la détermination de szarkowski, d'établir l'autonomie de la photographie par [p. ] rapport aux autres arts. les bénéfices à tirer d'une reconnaissance de la photographie comme art et des photographes comme artistes ne pouvaient être ignorés . image la construction par szarkowski d'une généalogie photographique de winogrand était conforme aux pratiques des conservateurs en vigueur dans les autres départements au cours des années . ces pratiques étaient si communes que john elderfield en était venu à les définir comme les "expositions de précurseurs". selon elderfield, elles étaient consacrées à "d'autres périodes de l'histoire de l'art dont on a négligé l'esprit moderne, ou qui ont eu une influence sur des artistes modernes ". le phénomène des précurseurs a constitué l'une des stratégies du moma à ses débuts et a connu dans les années un certain renouveau . on l'attribue aux changements radicaux qui ont affecté l'art dans cette période, et au désir concomitant d'expliquer cette production en fonction d'un territoire connu l'art du passé. l'exposition "turner: imagination and reality" ( ), qui tentait de faire un lien entre les abstractions nébuleuses de j. m. w. turner et les surfaces colorées de rothko en est un parfait exemple. l'exposition de précurseur prouvait alors son efficacité, par la validation de l'oeuvre contemporaine en la rendant plus compréhensible, et en contribuant à réactiver et à enrichir une tradition de l'art moderne d'une autre potentialité expressive, pertinente dans son rapport au présent. image selon elderfield, l'exposition de précurseur remplit deux fonctions interdépendantes: "d'abord, rendre l'historique contemporain, puis rendre le contemporain historique ." szarkowski s'est employé à rendre lartigue contemporain tant conceptuellement que spatialement. par le biais d'une série d'allusions directes au travail photographique réalisé avec un appareil compact des années et , szarkowski projette lartigue dans le futur. ainsi écrit-il, dans le bulletin du moma consacré à l'exposition: "avant d'avoir dix ans, lartigue faisait des photographies qui semblent étonnamment préfigurer le travail qui sera fait à l'aide d'appareils compacts une génération plus tard ." szarkowski expose ainsi une recontextualisation conceptuelle de lartigue en l'extrayant de son environnement historique pour lui faire rejoindre, au nom de similarités formelles, un groupe de photographes d'un temps futur. dans un autre exemple tiré du dossier de presse réalisé pour l'exposition, szarkowski situe lartigue par rapport à atget et à cartier-bresson, traçant quelques parallèles formels avec ce dernier. ainsi note-t-il: [p. ] "les photographies de lartigue, liées au mouvement et au changement continuel d'image qu'il produit, et qui suggèrent le travail effectué un quart de siècle plus tard jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet par cartier-bresson, ont pourtant été réalisées à l'époque même où atget, avec l'approche et les techniques photographiques du xixe siècle, brossait le portrait de paris ." image si l'on traduit ceci en termes "conceptuels", szarkowski suggère ainsi que lartigue est un contemporain de cartier-bresson; atget, contemporain de lartigue, est convoqué quant à lui pour servir de repère a contrario dans le dispositif d'actualisation de lartigue. image jusqu'où la comparaison avec cartier-bresson amène-t-elle lartigue? théoriquement, le lien reste indéterminé, dans la mesure où cartier-bresson avait été célébré pour ses innovations dès les années et continuait d'exercer une influence considérable en . avant la construction spatiale de l'exposition, l'actualisation de lartigue n'est pas totalement accomplie. l'accrochage des épreuves de lartigue opère une recontextualisation tout à fait littérale, et, à mon humble avis, bien plus convaincante que la rhétorique verbale de szarkowski. exposées sur des murs blancs dans des cadres modernes et élégants, les photographies de lartigue sont allégées de leur contexte historique . la croyance en l'hégémonie du visuel de szarkowski est accentuée par la mise à l'écart de la vocation première des oeuvres de lartigue, la documentation personnelle . en isolant ainsi dans la galerie les photographies, le conservateur dévoile une stratégie clef, qu'il emploiera tout au long de son exercice: projeter des intérêts critiques pour la photographie des années sur des images du passé qui n'ont jamais été réalisées dans un but artistique . [p. ] image plus important encore, l'agencement des épreuves de lartigue sur les murs est excessivement formel, et permet d'apprécier la mise en oeuvre du scénario du conservateur/artiste. en usant de répétitions, chaque mur souligne un élément formel choisi. le premier mur (fig. . premier mur de l'exposition "the photographs of jacques-henri lartigue", moma , coll. moma/scala/art ressource, new york.) est organisé autour des demi-coupoles formées par les ombrelles que l'on retrouve dans les images centrales (n° d'exposition et ), et qui réapparaissent dans la robe bouffante de la fille (n° ) et dans les chapeaux sophistiqués des femmes (n° ). et tout comme un équilibre de clairs et d'ombres habite chacune des images une robe blanche et un chien noir, des habits noirs et des tenues claires , le mur est équilibré de personnages noirs et blancs qui se détachent sur des fonds contrastés. À noter que la première image celle du jeune lartigue avec sa caméra est isolée de cet ensemble, accrochée à gauche, au- dessus du texte apposé sur le mur. cette photographie clef assied le mythe de l'enfant- photographe et remplit alors un rôle plus informatif que formel. elle est donc dissociée des autres images pour accompagner le texte à valeur d'information. image l'élément formel dominant qui gouverne le deuxième mur est la verticalité. elle est particulièrement manifeste dans l'image centrale en bas (n° ) où les raies verticales des robes de femmes font écho aux barreaux de la balustrade métallique. on retrouve ce modèle tout au long de cette "composition murale" dans les postures élancées des personnages sveltes. formellement, c'est le troisième mur (fig. . troisième mur de l'exposition "the photographs of jacques-henri lartigue", moma, , coll. moma/scala/art ressource, new york.) qui est le plus "espiègle", puisqu'il obéit à une diagonale qui se devine dans les ailes inclinées des aéroplanes et des cerfs- volants, dans leurs câbles d'attache, et dans l'envolée des membres de ces formes humaines gesticulantes. le portrait du frère de lartigue, zizou, flottant dans sa poche en caoutchouc* (n° ) sert d'ancre burlesque à cette séquence pleine de vie. le quatrième jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet mur [p. ] (fig. . quatrième mur de l'exposition "the photographs of jacques-henri lartigue", moma, , coll. moma/scala/art ressource, new york.) s'articule autour du cercle, parfaitement distribué et répété par le biais des roues de divers véhicules. deux exceptions remarquables les n° et à l'extrême droite s'unissent au groupe par la présence d'un volant et d'impressionnantes lunettes, tandis qu'un cercle tordu dans le cadre n° apporte une touche de fantaisie formelle. enfin, le cinquième mur est conçu comme un récapitulatif, rassemblant tous les éléments formels en trois images qui produisent une apothéose polymorphe. les parasols ovales et la verticalité de l'image centrale, les diagonales des images extérieures, et les cercles de la course de voitures consacrent l'évidence de la puissance formelle dans une image triple. szarkowski a synthétisé là les quatre points fondamentaux de lartigue. image szarkowski se rendait parfaitement compte que l'actualité des sujets contenus dans les photographies de lartigue séduisait vraiment les spectateurs. c'est pourquoi il prévenait contre la facilité consistant à tomber dans la nostalgie, et qui risquait de masquer l'importance formelle de l'oeuvre. dans son essai destiné au catalogue, il guide le spectateur loin des charmes du sujet, vers une apréciation subtile de la forme: "le temps travaille pour la photographie sincère, et, en cinquante ans, transforme un cliché anodin en émouvant souvenir, empreint d'une poésie toute nostalgique. mais il en va autrement pour la photographie de lartigue: ici, le charme pénétrant d'un monde disparu peut dissimuler la beauté cachée de l'oeuvre. car ses images sont les observations d'un génie: des perceptions fraîches, poétiquement ressenties et graphiquement fixées ." image par son dédain pour la nostalgie et son emphase pour l'universel, ce passage révèle plus que tout autre le désintérêt de szarkowski pour [p. ] l'histoire. le "génie" des photographies de lartigue, la véritable ampleur de leur succès, ne provient pas du "charme" des documents personnels, culturellement ancrés, mais de leur relation muette aux valeurs formelles de photographes contemporains comme cartier-bresson ou winogrand. si les images de lartigue avaient des résonnances avec les sensibilités modernes en , c'était grâce aux travaux de photographes contemporains qui avaient révélé la possibilité d'un dialogue sur une base formelle. tel était le pré carré que défendait szarkowski contre toute autre interprétation des éléments présents dans l'oeuvre de lartigue. image l'exposition de précurseurs historicise aussi le contemporain, et, au vu de la théorisation que propose szarkowski d'un champ photographique clos, cette dynamique revêt une importance particulière. avec son arrivée sur la scène de la photographie d'art contemporaine, la fonction de légitimation de lartigue, comme précurseur de winogrand, remplit un rôle généalogique crucial . en présentant lartigue comme un génie naïf, szarkowski était en mesure d'établir une histoire vernaculaire du médium. empruntant certaines idées au discours de georges kubler sur l'évolution de la forme et ses manifestations dans toutes les sphères de la culture matérielle, szarkowski postulait que les photographes vernaculaires véhiculaient la trace des plus anciennes découvertes concernant les propriétés "natives" du médium, et que c'était à travers la naïveté* de l'opérateur béotien que ces découvertes pouvaient s'opérer . pour faire valoir son point de vue, szarkowski proposa un autre candidat au rôle de génie naïf dans sa troisième exposition au moma, "the photographers and the american landscape", qui ouvrit en septembre et se tint parallèlement à l'exposition de lartigue pendant plus d'un mois. dans le catalogue de l'exposition, jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet szarkowski décrétait le vernaculaire "tradition centrale de la photographie", et faisait de timothy o'sullivan un opérateur clé . comme lartigue, qui heureusement n'avait "ni tradition ni formation", o'sullivan ne photographiait "sous l'autorité d'aucun maître" et sans intérêt pour les "tendances artistiques ". szarkowski qualifiait cette "tradition indigène" de projet global du médium qui rassemblerait les photographes en particulier ceux qui travaillaient dans leur coin comme lartigue, o'sullivan et agtet , de toutes provenances et de toutes époques pour servir la reconnaissance de la photographie. qui plus est, il s'agissait des seuls photographes pouvant enseigner aux autres le véritable potentiel [p. ] du médium. selon szarkowski, les précurseurs vernaculaires comme lartigue et o'sullivan étaient essentiels à la construction d'une continuité du développement du médium et servaient à identifier les origines formelles des innovations apparues dans les années . en tant qu'héritiers d'une tradition, les photographes novateurs tels que winogrand endossaient une paternité photographique équivalente à celle que les peintres devaient assumer. image le chaînon manquant de la théorie de szarkowski est évidemment le point de rencontre entre tradition vernaculaire et art photographique. si des photographes inconnus et vernaculaires comme lartigue et o'sullivan jouissaient du bonheur d'exercer dans un isolement esthétique ce qui, bien entendu, n'était pas le cas , où et quand, en dehors des expositions du moma, leurs découvertes pouvaient-elles être connues de descendants légitimes? qui lartigue avait-il directement influencé avant ? image dans une interview de , szarkowski tentait d'expliquer l'influence du cas problématique d'un autre naïf*, atget (fig. . e. atget, "au tambour : , quai de la tournelle", papier albuminé, , x , cm, ,coll. dép. des estampes et de la photographie, bnf.). au début, szarkowski affirmait qu'atget était "le principal photographe moderne". puis, pressé par son interlocuteur d'expliquer cette affirmation d'influence "atget travaillait dans une quasi-solitude... et n'avait pas d'influence sur ses contemporains", soutenait l'interviewer , szarkowski évoquait une suite de "personnages clefs", en narrant les profondes répercussions des photographies d'atget sur l'oeuvre de berenice abbott, walker evans, ansel adams et cartier-bresson. cette "histoire" ne repose nullement sur un quelconque rapport avéré entre atget et ces photographes, mais sur un parallèle stylistique: "cartier-bresson n'a jamais écrit sur [atget], mais l'a vu très tôt et a réalisé dès le début des photographies de style "atget" ." l'explication de szarkowski peut avoir une [p. ] part de vrai, mais ce qui s'y révèle (comme le suggère l'interlocuteur), c'est que le conservateur cherche des faits pour corroborer un jugement totalement subjectif. image en fait, attribuer à lartigue une quelconque influence se révèle encore plus difficile que pour atget, dans la mesure où ses photographies étaient à peine connues avant . l'association théorique que szarkowski réalise entre lartigue et son compatriote cartier-bresson, et la juxtaposition muséale de lartigue et de winogrand suggère l'influence plutôt qu'elles n'affirment. il est par là insinué que lartigue représente plus qu'une paternité pour ces photographes. par métaphore, lartigue personnifie l'enfance de la photographie à lui tout seul. plus encore qu'un "photographe/découvreur" comme o'sullivan ou winogrand, ou un "révélateur" excentrique comme atget, lartigue est alors l'incarnation même de la vision de l'appareil photographique. szarkowski décrit lartigue comme "un enfant [qui] adorait l'action physique de voir", et comme celui qui voyait le monde moderne "pour la première fois ". la métaphore qui assimile lartigue à l'appareil photographique trouve jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet sa pleine expression dans la description que lartigue fait de son jeu d'enfant baptisé piège d'ange*, citation que szarkowski répète à l'envi: "en ouvrant et refermant les yeux d'une certaine façon, j'ai trouvé le moyen d'attraper toutes les images qui me plaisent!... c'était une invention surhumaine! j'attrapais tout !" cette métaphore atteint des proportions mythiques, au point même que szarkowski renonce à fournir la [p. ] moindre explication sur la précocité du travail formel de lartigue. le conservateur justifie ce phénomène par le mythe du primitivisme: "on ne peut croire que l'aspect visuel du travail de l'enfant remarquable par son économie de moyens et sa franchise résulte d'un intérêt conscient pour les valeurs formelles. il est plus probable qu'une oeuvre aussi généreusement radicale ne puisse être que celle d'un authentique primitif: celui qui travaille sans se sentir redevable à la tradition, ou aux spécificités du médium ." image la source d'inspiration de lartigue reste cachée, et l'on est alors libre de supposer que la voix de la photographie parle à l'oreille de l'enfant . dans toute l'histoire du médium, c'est ce qui ressemble le plus à un mythe wagnérien la photographie émergeant de la brume, pour se contempler avec effroi et émerveillement. image on ne pouvait soutenir cette fable que pour autant que lartigue demeurait dans les limbes de l'enfance, cet univers de désirs, d'intentions et d'aptitudes ignorées, dans lequel szarkowski s'est appliqué à le cantonner. il n'avait choisi que des photographies "de jeunesse" (le cliché le plus récent de l'exposition était daté de , alors que lartigue était âgé de vingt-huit ans) pour rejeter les images plus tardives, auxquelles il manquait cette "fraîcheur prophétique" des débuts . en se limitant à cette partie de l'oeuvre, szarkowski ne présentait que des images censées suggérer jeunesse et spontanéité au travers des formes . szarkowski usa aussi d'autres stratagèmes. bien que lartigue n'ait eu en moyenne que dix-sept ans lorsqu'il réalisa les photographies présentées dans cette exposition, szarkowski orientait cependant la discussion autour de l'enfant photographe. quand il faisait état de l'âge de lartigue, il le rajeunissait toujours: "avant d'avoir dix ans, lartigue prenait déjà des photographies qui semblent être aujourd'hui l'anticipation étonnante des meilleures oeuvres réalisées une génération plus tard au moyen d'appareils compacts"; ou encore: "[...] il a découvert la photographie moderne à cinq ans". qui plus est, il évoque souvent lartigue en l'appelant "l'enfant lartigue", "l'enfant", "le garçon" . on a l'impression que ces images sont celles d'un adolescent d'un garçon de dix ans, peut-être plus jeune encore . cette sensation est confirmée par le portrait de lartigue, chaperonné par sa mère et sa grand-mère, qui se trouve à l'entrée de l'exposition (fig. . j.-h. lartigue, "au bois de boulogne. grand-mère, maman et moi avec mes jumelles", , tirage moderne, , x , cm, coll. ministère de la culture, france/a.a.j.h.l.). petit pour un enfant de neuf ans, sur la photographie, lartigue tient un [p. ] énorme appareil, une jumelle* portative. deux questions suffisent à mettre à bas cette construction: combien de photographies de l'exposition ont-elle été réalisées avant que lartigue ait neuf ans? une. combien ont été réalisées à l'aide de la grosse jumelle*? aucune. même en sachant cela, l'image de lartigue enfant-photographe persiste. en fin de compte, toutes les expositions et toutes les publications consacrées à lartigue depuis celle du moma ont utilisé ce cliché pour édifier cette seule identité du photographe. image le personnage de lartigue incarnant l'enfance de la photographie correspond parfaitement à l'idée d'une obscure tradition vernaculaire qui hante szarkowski. une jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet telle tradition, essentielle au conservateur pour expliquer l'art de la photographie des années , demeure floue et sans assises historiques. définir l'importance d'une foule d'amateurs anonymes dans l'art de la photographie relevait de la gageure. pour développer cette approche, szarkowski a choisi la théâtralisation métaphorique plutôt qu'une laborieuse investigation historique. ainsi le rôle de lartigue dans la généalogie établie par szarkowski est-il métonymique. lartigue n'est alors plus un photographe inscrit dans un milieu historique et social donné, mais le symbole d'une tradition vernaculaire anonyme. lartigue ne renvoie plus à "jacques", fils d'henri lartigue, mais à un ensemble de photographies d'amateurs anonymes du début du siècle. lartigue a donné une identité au "photographe vernaculaire" qui n'avait jusqu'alors jamais eu d'existence en tant que tel et a fourni une oeuvre qui légitimait la pertinence d'une telle catégorie. pour l'amour de l'histoire, lartigue était sacré auteur. image selon michel foucault, la notion d'auteur a pour fonction cruciale de cerner l'ensemble d'une oeuvre et d'y manifester une intention artistique particulière. plus précisément, la "fonction-auteur" obéit à un ensemble de facteurs. l'auteur est: ) censé avoir une valeur constante; ) capable de signifier un domaine de cohérence tant conceptuelle que théorique; ) conçu comme une unité stylistique; ) reconnu comme un personnage historique à la rencontre d'événements supposés importants. en fin de compte, un auteur est un principe d'unité, auprès duquel toutes les disparités doivent se résoudre . image ici, les termes clefs sont ceux de valeur constante, de cohérence stylistique et d'importance historique. considérons alors le passage de szarkowski, dans lequel il envisage une plus grande signification de l'évidente "qualité graphique de l'oeuvre de lartigue": [p. ] "les caractéristiques visuelles de l'oeuvre de lartigue ne sont pas de son fait. elles sont intrinsèques au travail de l'appareil, et se retrouvent de plus en plus souvent, à mesure qu'on avance dans le dix-neuvième siècle. mais ce qui n'était qu'une tendance aléatoire de l'appareil devient dans l'oeuvre de lartigue une "manière de voir" cohérente une nouvelle forme de clarté ." image il ne s'agit pas de la révélation d'un individu photographe, mais d'un moment clef du développement général du médium. lartigue est pour szarkowski un acteur dans la mise en scène* de la naissance de la photographie moderniste. l'émergence d'une "manière de voir cohérente" est incarnée par l'ingénu lartigue, dont la présence fortuite, à ce moment historique précis, favorise la mise en oeuvre d'une simplification historique. par son autorité reconnue au sein du moma, szarkowski cautionne, dans sa construction historique révisionniste, la valeur de ce moment, et, finalement, celle de lartigue, fraîchement estampillé artiste. [p. ] (traduit de l'anglais par pierre camus) kevin moore est l'auteur d'une thèse de doctorat consacrée à jacques-henri lartigue, soutenue à l'université de princeton en . jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet notes . maria morris hamburg et al., the waking dream: photography's first century: selections from the gilman paper company collection [le rêve éveillé...], new york, the metropolitan museum of art, , p. . . comme je l'ai montré par ailleurs, lartigue a d'abord été formé par son père, avant de prendre pour modèle les clichés de photoreporters qui travaillaient alors pour les nouveaux magazines illustrés tels que la vie au grand air, fémina et je sais tout. qui plus est, les images de lartigue s'inspiraient de situations dénichées dans les illustrations satiriques d'artistes comme sem. dans les oeuvres les plus connues de l'artiste, on retrouve une habileté technique doublée d'une intuition sociale. kevin moore, "jacques henri lartigue ( - ): invention of an artist", thèse de doctorat, princeton university, . . john szarkowski, the photographs of jacques henri lartigue, new york, the museum of modern art, , n. p. . on pouvait déjà facilement se procurer des appareils compacts, dont de nombreux modèles fabriqués par gaumont et cie, dans les années . lartigue et son père possédaient alors une grande quantité d'appareils sophistiqués. . l'esthétique de l'instantané est un terme qui a connu une certaine vogue à la fin des années . voir, par exemple, jonathan green, éd., "the snapshot", aperture : , . . daniel belgrad, the culture of spontaneity: improvisation and the arts in postwar america, chicago et londres, the university of chicago press, , p. . . le moma resta aux États-unis le fer de lance de la photographie jusqu'aux années . l'exposition novatrice de beaumont newhall de aboutit à la création d'un département photographique et à la collection telle que nous la connaissons aujourd'hui. voir "photography", dans the museum of modern art, new york: the history of the collection, new york, the museum of modern art, , p. - . . j. szarkowski, mirrors and windows: american photography since , new york, the museum of modern art, . . szarkowski, parmi d'autres, a demandé à lartigue de raconter sa vie de photographe. lartigue n'a pas tardé à enjoliver des passages de ses journaux, ou agendas, qu'il a finalement publiés sous le titre mémoires sans mémoire, paris, robert laffont, . au début des années , lartigue s'est mis à revisiter ses albums photographiques, probablement pour donner une vision plus fouillée et plus linéaire de sa vie. . f.nietzsche, seconde considération intempestive [ ] (trad. h.albert), paris, flammarion, , p. . . fondé en , aperture était le forum photographique créé par minor white, beaumont et nancy newhall, ansel adams, et d'autres. . delpire a publié une remarquable collection de livres de photographie pendant les années , notamment les parisiens tels qu'ils sont de robert doisneau ( ), les danses à bali ( ), d'une chine à l'autre ( ), moscou ( ), de cartier-bresson, le séville en fête de brassaï ( ), la guerre à la tristesse d'inge morath ( ), le japon ( ) et carnet de route ( ) de bischof, et bien sûr, les américains de robert frank ( ). delpire était appelé à devenir le meilleur agent de lartigue, en produisant la première importante rétrospective de son oeuvre en , au musée des arts décoratifs. jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet . anon. [albert plécy], "de la valeur d'évocation de la photographie", point de vue, mai , p. . . ibid. . parmi les premières photographies de lartigue à être publiées se trouvait une série de clichés d'automobiles: "aux temps héroïques de l'automobile, par le peintre j.-h. lartigue", point de vue, septembre , p. - . . anon. [albert plécy], "toute l'aviation dans une vie d'homme", point de vue, février , p. . . "aux temps héroïques de l'automobile" et "toute l'aviation dans une vie d'homme", point de vue, février , p. - et - . guy michelet, "quel sera l'aspect des avions que lartigue photographiera dans quarante-cinq ans, en l'an ?", point de vue, février , p. - . "courses d'hier...", point de vue, juin , p. . on retrouve tous ces articles dans les "revues de presse" de lartigue à l'association des amis de jacques-henri lartigue à paris. . pour le public germanophone, voir "aus der heldenzeit des autos: ein veteran des volants öffnete uns zum genfer jubläums-salon sein archiv", schweizer illustrierte zeitung, mars , p. - . en anglais, " years on wheels", lilliput, avril , p. - . . cf. l'histoire générale classique du moma dans russell lynes, good old modern: an intimate portrait of the museum of modern art, new york, atheneum, . nombre d'études récentes examinent des questions critiques relatives à l'histoire du moma: susan noyes platt, "modernism, formalism, and politics: the `cubism and abstract art' exhibition of at the museum of modern art", art journal, , hiver , p. - ; john o'brian, "moma's public relations, alfred barr's public, and matisse's american canonisation", racar [revue d'art canadienne], , , p. - . concernant spécifiquement le département de photographie, voir douglas crimp, "the museum's old/the library's new subject" ( ), et christopher phillips, "the judgment seat of photography" ( ), in the contest of meaning: critical histories of photography, richard bolton, éd., cambridge, massachusetts et londres, the mit press, . . voir le chapitre de r.lyne "eruptive interlude", good old modern, et particulièrement les pages - , où il éclaire la divergence entre les intentions didactiques du moma et la perception prestigieuse mais controversée que le public a du musée. . voir la préface de j. elderfield, in the museum of modern art at mid-century: at home and abroad (studies in modern art ), john elderfield, éd., new york, the museum of modern art, , p. . . paul strand, "the art motive in photography", the british journal of photography, , , p. - . . je me reporte ici à l'exposition de newhall en , "photography: - ". pour un compte rendu des débuts de l'exposition et de la création du département de photographie qui en a découlé, voir r.lynes, good old modern, op. cit., p. - . pour une analyse plus critique du projet de newhall, voir c. phillips, "the judgment seat of photography", art.cit., p. - . . il faut le reconnaître, steichen a spectaculairement accru l'intérêt du public pour la photographie au moma, et a ainsi contribué à attirer celui-ci avant la remise en question critique du médium par szarkowski. on trouve la meilleure analyse de cette période de transition dans c.phillips, "the judgment seat of photography", art. cit., p. - . le point de vue de steichen, selon lequel l'art se doit d'être apolitique (mais qui jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet est complètement contredit par l'impression produite par ses expositions, et notamment par "the family of man"), est fermement asséné dans son autobiographie, edward steichen: a life in photography, new york, the museum of modern art et doubleday, . . peter galassi, qui a pris la place de szarkowski en , insiste en déclarant clairement ses allégeances, et affirme: "À mesure que nous nous en éloignerons, les années steichen apparaîtront comme une aberration", cit. in richard b. woodward, "picture perfect", art news, , mars , p. . . szarkowski est demeuré parfaitement diplomate en ce qui concerne steichen et ses propres choix professionnels à la fin de l'exercice de steichen au moma. voir, par exemple, douglas nickel, "john szarkowski: an interview", history of photography, , été , p. - . . joel eisinger reconnaît qu'il n'est pas aisé de cerner la façon dont szarkowski appréhende la théorie formaliste: "dans les années , le formalisme était une théorie si communément admise qu'il est difficile de déceler quelques influences particulières. l'attitude formaliste mise en application par ce que irving sandler appelait le sentiment anti-anthropocentriste, perception des objets sans lien avec l'expérience ou les émotions humaines régnait sans partage dans le monde de l'art américain. il ne fait aucun doute que szarkowski réagissait à l'émergence de la nouvelle critique en littérature et aux théories de clement greenberg.", joel eisinger, trace and transformation: american criticism of photography in the modernist period, albuquerque, university of new mexico press, , p. . . on retrouve l'analyse des principes théoriques de szarkowski dans j.eisinger, trace and transformation, op. cit., et dans c.phillips, "the judgment seat of photography", art. cit. pour développer la notion de "vernaculaire", szarkowski s'est essentiellement inspiré des travaux de john kouwenhoven, dont l'ouvrage the arts in modern civilization, new york, norton, , théorisait la relation instaurée entre la culture technologique vernaculaire des amériques et l'esthétique héritée de la culture européenne. . voici comment szarkowski comparait l'approche de steichen à la sienne: "je crois que l'on pourrait dire que le principe central du travail de steichen au musée reposait sur la mise entre parenthèses de toute approche analytique ou critique concernant la photographie en tant que construction, en tant que produit d'un travail. il croyait de son devoir d'encourager les gens à penser que la photographie représentait la vérité, que son processus était entièrement transparent, qu'on pouvait la considérer comme un médiateur, un substitut, une représentation de la vie. là est sans doute la principale différence entre nous.", in d.nickel, "john szarkowski: an interview", art. cit., p. . . "anon." pour anonyme renvoie aussi à la tradition vernaculaire si chère à szarkowski. cité, par exemple, dans mark haworth-booth, "john szarkowski: an interview", history of photography, , hiver, , p. . . cit. in o'brian, "moma's public relations", art. cit., p. . . les critiques du moma, et particulièrement celles qui lui ont été adressées au milieu des années , ont eu un impact considérable. voir, par exemple, rosalind krauss, the originality of avant-garde and other modernist myths, cambridge, massachusetts et londres, the mit press, . . c.phillips développe cette idée plus amplement que je ne puis le faire ici. cf. c.phillips, "the judgment seat of photography", art. cit., p. - . jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet . s. platt remarque que cette analyse correspond à un modèle d'histoire de l'art essentiellement "rieglien". elle étudie les influences et la formation historique de barr dans "modernism, formalism, and politics...", art. cit., p. - . . ibid., p. et . voir aussi patricia leighton, "cubist anachronisms: ahistoricity, cryptoformalism, and business-as-usual in new york", the oxford art journal, , , , p. - . . szarkowski utilise la métaphore du modèle [pattern] pour suggérer une compréhension organique, naturelle de la pratique d'archivage et d'écriture de l'histoire. une collection est un groupe d'objets admirables qui composent un motif et, écrit-il: "le motif suggère la trame de l'histoire.", szarkowski, "photography" in the museum of modern art, new york, p. . il semble que l'on retrouve l'origine de ce concept dans l'oeuvre de j. kouwenhoven, où les motifs formés par les éléments de la culture quotidienne révèlent prophétiquement "la plus claire expression des élans vitaux dont dépend le futur de la civilisation moderne", j.kouwenhoven, the arts in modern civilization, op. cit., p. . . voir notamment ben lifson, "garry winogrand's american comedy", aperture, , , p. - ; carl chiarenza, "standing on the corner... reflections upon winogrand's photographic gaze: mirror or self or world?", re et e parties, image / , automne- hiver, printemps-été - , p. - et - ; helen gary bishop, "looking for mr. winogrand", aperture, , automne , p. - . nombre de publications apparues pendant les années et se sont intéressées à l'esthétique de l'instantané et à la photographie populaire en général. voir par exemple, jonathan green, éd., "the snapshot", aperture, , , ; j. kouwenhoven, "living in a snapshot world" ( ), half a truth is better than none, chicago, university of chicago press, ; et brian coe et paul gates, the snapshot photograph: the rise of popular photography, - , londres, ash & grant, . . szarkowski n'avait rencontré winogrand que quelques mois plus tôt, mais il avait tant apprécié son travail qu'il l'avait inclus dans cette exposition collective, avec les oeuvres de ken heyman, george krause, jerome liebing et minor white. szarkowski raconte sa découverte de l'oeuvre de winogrand dans m.haworth-booth, "john szarkowski: an interview", art. cit., p. . . r. woodward, "picture perfect", art. cit., p. . . j. szarkowski, mirrors and windows..., op. cit., p. - . . ibid., p. . . pour autant que je sache, winogrand n'a pas pris ombrage de cette attitude, même si d'autres artistes ont peu apprécié ce type de traitement. s'élevant contre la présentation formaliste de son propre travail par szarkowski, chancey hare écrit que szarkowski "semble rechercher du sens dans l'immédiat tout en voulant trouver du superficiel dans l'obscur. quand j'ai vu l'exposition de mes photos au moma... on voyait bien que les photographies n'étaient pas présentées de sorte à être comprises. les photographies étaient accrochées de façon à ce que leurs éléments "artistiques", formels ou intellectuels, soient mis en valeur, et non pas en fonction de leur contenu, bien plus chargé de sens", cit. in j.eisenger, trace and transformation, op. cit., p. - . . max kozloff s'est élevé contre cette approche, affirmant: "c'est une posture aristocratique. considérer que le photographe possède une lumineuse mais inexplicable présence, hors de tout contexte social, n'est qu'une attitude modernisme.", m. kozloff, cit. in r.woodward, "picture perfect", art. cit., p. . . cf. virginia dell, "john szarkowski's guide", afterimage, , oct. , p. - . jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet . j. elderfield, "the precursor", in the museum of modern art at mid century, op. cit., p. . . la catégorie "exposition de précurseurs" est une notion assez large, qui recouvre l'occidental aussi bien que le non occidental. elderfield cite environ une douzaine d'expositions d'importance consacrées à des précurseurs. on y retrouve, dans les premières années du moma: "corot, daumier" ( ), "persian fresco painting" ( ), "american sources of modern art" ( ), "african negro art" ( ), "pre-historic rock pictures in europe and africa" ( ); puis, dans les années et , "masters of british painting, - " ( ), "claude monet: seasons and moments" ( ), et clou de l'article de elderfield "turner: imagination and reality" ( ), j. elderfield, "the precursor", in the museum of modern art..., op.cit., p. . . ibid. p. . . j. szarkowski, the photographs of jacques henri lartigue, op. cit., n. p. . id., dossier de presse, moma, n. p. . en règle générale, les galeries de la collection permanente du moma étaient laissées nues [undesigned], c'est-à-dire aux murs blancs, et dépourvues de toute signalétique encombrante, alors que les expositions spéciales pouvaient s'écarter de cette norme et recevoir des modifications de couleur, d'organisation de l'espace pour aboutir à un effet plus théâtral. les galeries de la collection permanente du département de photographie, placées en haut du bâtiment, étaient en blanc, contrairement aux galeries de l'auditorium, situées au rez-de-chaussée juste à côté du théâtre, qui recevaient souvent des couleurs. pour l'exposition de steichen consacrée à l'oeuvre d'aaron siskind installée dans la galerie de l'auditorium en , on avait fait peindre les murs en noir. sur l'histoire des installations du moma, voir mary anne staniszewski, the power of display: a history of exhibition installations at the museum of modern art, cambridge, massachusetts et londres, the mit press, . sur l'encadrement au moma, voir reesa greenberg, "moma and modernism: the frame game", parachute (montréal), , mars-mai , p. - , et matthew armstrong, "on public hanging", art press, , avril , p. - . . j.eisinger expose cette stratégie d'ensemble dans trace and transformation, op. cit., p. - . . c'est d'une même manière que szarkowski traitera w. eggleston, e. j. bellocq, e. atget, t. o'sullivan et nombre de photographes de presse anonymes présentés dans l'exposition "from the picture press" de ; cela vaut aussi pour l'oeuvre de photographes documentaristes comme dorothea lange, dont les clichés étaient destinés à des magazines d'actualité ou à des archives gouvernementales comme témoignages de la crise économique. . j.szarkowski, the photographs of jacques henri lartigue, op. cit., n. p. . la préférence de szarkowski pour les photographes dépourvus d'une formation artistique classique se retrouve dans ses remarques qui célèbrent la "vie" plus que "l'art". sur un cartel figurant dans l'exposition "new documents" de , qui réunissait des oeuvres de winogrand, friedlander et arbus, szarkowski avait rédigé, à propos de winogrand: "son goût de la vie, plus fort que son intérêt pour l'art, le rend de taille à affronter la comédie de notre époque." l'apprentissage du photojournalisme à la new school, sous la direction d'alexey brodovitch, semble bien à l'abri de cette "théorisation" que szarkowski rejette énergiquement. sur un autre cartel, à "new documents", on pouvait lire: "ce que ces trois photographes partagent, c'est la conviction que le lieu commun mérite d'être observé, et le courage de le regarder avec jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet un minimum de théorisation." pour les photographes, qui diffèrent des artistes utilisant d'autres médiums, le contact direct avec le monde était la clef de toute oeuvre sincère. . cf. j.eisinger, trace and transformation, op. cit., p. . . j. szarkowski, the photographer and the american landscape, new york, the museum of modern art, , p. . . ibid., p. . . comme lartigue, o'sullivan opérait selon les paramètres d'un milieu visuel donné. si lartigue photographiait en fonction de codes picturaux fixés par des amateurs éclairés, des magazines illustrés ou du cinéma, o'sullivan travaillait au sein de la culture visuelle de la geographic survey, dans un environnement esthétique de cartes, de croquis de paysages et autres formes de documentation topographique. robin kelsey à ce sujet dans photography in the field: timothy o'sullivan and the wheeler survey, - , thèse de doctorat, université de harvard, . . bob powell, "john szarkowski", the british journal of photography, , déc. , p. - . atget, comme lartigue, captivait szarkowski qui les tenait tous deux pour des incarnations du génie naïf et les traitait d'une même manière. il faut remarquer l'emploi très problématique du terme "primitif" [primitive]. Également, l'attribution de paternité peu regardante [extensive authoring] à atget par le moma, dans le recueil en quatre tomes the work of atget (j.szarkowski et m. morris hambourg, new york, the museum of modern art, ), a suscité de vives polémiques. cf. molly nesbit, atget's seven albums, new haven, yale university press, , et "the use of history", art in america, , fév. , p. - ; abigail solomon-godeau, "canon fodder: authoring eugène atget", the print collector's newsletter, , janv.-fév. , p. - . . powell, "john szarkowski", p. . . j. szarkowski, the photographs of jacques henri lartigue, op. cit. . ces points d'exclamation soulignent l'émerveillement enfantin. cit. in j. szarkowski, ibid. . ibid. . plus loin dans son texte, szarkowski propose curieusement des raisons extra- photographiques à l'esthétique de lartigue: "si la qualité graphique de l'oeuvre de lartigue suggère les tableaux de degas, de toulouse-lautrec ou d'autres, c'est sans doute parce que ces artistes avaient pris connaissance de l'image que produisait la caméra sûrement pas grâce à ce qu'un enfant de dix ans pouvait savoir des peintres ou des estampes japonaises." la certitude qu'a szarkowski de l'ignorance de lartigue est particulièrement irritante. comme howard gardner le souligne dans son ouvrage, artful scribbles: the signifiance of children's drawings, new york, basic books, , même les jeunes enfants sont influencés par les stimuli visuels qui les entourent. . on sait que szarkowski, faisant son choix pour l'exposition, eut ce commentaire concernant les oeuvres plus tardives: "après le début des années , ses photographies démontrent un moindre pouvoir d'observation", j. szarkowski, the photographs of jacques henri lartigue, op. cit. . comme je l'explique dans ma thèse sur lartigue, dès les années , l'intérêt de lartigue pour l'instantané* en soi s'est fondu dans un projet de narration autobiographique plus ambitieux qui, pour sa forme, s'inspirait des structures cinématographiques. en accord avec ses objectifs photographiques des années et , les images de lartigue de cette période sont plus étudiées, composées avec plus d'élégance ce qui est, évidemment, ce que leur reproche szarkowski. comme pour les jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet images de la période précédente, celle de à , le photographe demeure un observateur mordant des comportements sociaux, et parfaitement au fait de la comédie de l'élégance dénaturée. la série des fumeuses, prise dans les années , trahit son regard désabusé sur les clichés hollywoodiens. ces photographies n'ont été publiées qu'à la fin des années . voir "playing with smoke: photographs by jacques henri lartigue", esquire, déc. , - ; et les femmes aux cigarettes (cat. d'exp.), new york, viking press, . . j. szarkowski, the photographs of jacques henri lartigue, op. cit. cette affaire d'âge va plus tard être mise sur le compte d'une prétendue négligence. dans le catalogue, comme dans le dossier de presse, la date de naissance de lartigue indiquée était , ce qui portait les spectateurs à croire que l'artiste était de deux années plus jeune qu'il ne l'était réellement. cette bévue a été corrigée en , année de la publication du livre de guichard, qui précisait que sa véritable date de naissance était : boyhood photographs of j.-h. lartigue: the family album of a gilded age, introduction de jean fondin, paris, ami guichard, . . les journalistes qui couvraient le sujet avaient sûrement cette impression ou n'étaient que trop contents de participer au mythe de l'enfant génial. voir par exemple roger jellinek, "shutterbug at seven" ["mordu de l'obturateur à sept ans"], compte rendu de boyhood photographs of j.-h. lartigue, in the new york times book review, août , p. - . . michel foucault, "what is an author?" dans art in theory, - : an anthology of changing ideas, charles harrison et paul woods, éd., oxford, blackwell publishers, , pp. - . ["qu'est-ce qu'un auteur?" ( ) dans dits et Écrits, paris, gallimard, , t. .] . j. szarkowski, the photographs of jacques henri lartigue, op. cit. jacques-henri lartigue Études photographiques, | juillet 	jacques-henri lartigue ejels qershor .indd vol. no. june, european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org expressionism, truth and beauty in american modern drama "the hairy ape" by eugene o'neil flutura boci american drama it is well known for its dramatic "experimentalism". american drama would not have been recognized as it is now without its various styles, characters and scenes without this major change, giving it a special place in the last decades of the th century to us theater, which was dominated by melodrama with naturalistic acting style. however, the early american modern dramatists had their infl uences from european constructs, such as those of chekov; in order to represent life within drama in a more realistic style. known as modern realism, he represented everyday reality in a style that would seem familiar to the audience that had come to see these new performances. this style quickly became canonized, and in particular it became more popular during the growing social and cultural changes such as the escalation of immigration and poverty, women's rights, depression, the crisis of religious belief, america's "mechanical" development, and ongoing eff orts towards "american dream". realism had an impact on the american scene in this period, but mostly in terms of realistic scenes (walker, ). this can be seen in arthur miller's works, especially at "a view from a bridge." the show shows all the realistic styles of a realistic drama, "the apartment, clean, simple, welcoming with tables and windows with a naturalist approach as for example a rocking chair. a more naturalistic background allows for less focus on action and the public is able to follow the story and be involved rather than remain distanced, as another form of experimentalism of that period, "expressionist drama". you will be able to experience history as it is, a tragedy, rather than quitt ing and analyzing the way expressionist dramas tend. the dramatic language of realism was supposed to be close to everyday language. in "a view from a bridge " miller uses the daily language of the italian shipyard workers, as seen in eddie, who uses a typical naturalist slang of brooklyn. his lecture is simple but full of hues. this allows the audience to know closely and fi nd themselves in a society as theirs. for social issues that miller and other dramatists have commented during this period, such as family relationships, american dreams, a realistic approach is more appropriate. main purpose of this manuscript is the analysis of eugene o'neil work, compared to other american authors. keywords: expressionism, truth, eugene o'neil, arthur miller. introduction as realism took place in the american drama, expressionism began to become a major part of the experimentalism that was happening during this movement. "expressionism on the american scene represents a critical stage in the development of american modern drama" (walker, ). expressionism was a style that many such dramatists such as susan treadwell and edward albee used to portray a changing society as well as the oppression and misfortune that this new emerging society had created, allowing viewers to see it critically. tennessee williams and arthur miller used aspects of the form and “in doing so, they not only innovated a new dramatic form, but re- defi ned playwriting from a theatrical craft to a literary art form, heralding the birth of american dramatic modernism” (walker, ). european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria vol. no. june, issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org miller's scenic guidelines for his earliest part "the death of a salesman" ( ) depicts an expressionist structure - a family in a transparent house similar to a guasch and no walls. when the action is set in the present, the characters behave as if they are in wall- to-wall rooms, when action is taken in the past, they walk through the empty space to another stage, giving the impression that scene events evolve as a "dream." while "a view from a bridge" ( ) has been very realistic in its structure and language, the "salesman" avoids the naturalism that had overtaken the american scene to the point of adopting the use of the expressionism of the scene events as a symbol for the endearing nature of willy's life and american daily life in general. meanwhile "emperor jones" ( ) eugene o’neill is another expressionist piece, which has expressionistist parameters. it begins and ends with realistic scenes in the present, but his six main scenes are played in the twisted mind of the emperor, while his journey takes him back into the past. here, technical expressionism equipment - lighting, stage elements, sounds - are used to design the visions of the emperor to discover his spiritual state. if it was the same scene, o'neill achieves the same eff ects as to the "long days journey into night."( ) he used a well-known expressionist lighting technique and the weather refl ects the emotional or mental state of the characters, he used the time to show mary’s mind, as the fog becomes denser, her use of drugs becomes more violent and consequently, so does her confusion. it is also used in "emperor jones" through the use of lighting, passing from the fl are of the sun to the scene for fi rst, where the mind of the hero is clear, in the light of the moon "merged into a veil of bluish mist" in the seventh scene, where fear undermines the clarity of his mind. such techniques have been used throughout the drama. expressionist technology was also refl ected in williams's "glass menagerie"( ) due to his growing frustration towards "the exhausted theater by realistic conventions" (williams, ). he is determined to fi nd a new way to express the content of his drama and through expressionism can do it well. his use of drama symbols, such as "blue roses," are examples of expressionistism that allow a deeper characterization. "blue rose" is a symbol of the casual beauty of laura and her isolation, as blue roses do not exist anywhere in the real world. expressionism around , a vast revolution took place in the western art and literatue world of art and literature, which can be seen in accordance with radical changes in natural sciences. between and picasso and his supporters developed cubism in art, while apollinaire and max jacob presented a "cubistic poetry", which was later called "surrealism" by apollinaire. in marinett i wrote his futuristic manifestation. ts elliot began writing "prufrock" in , and james joyce "ulysses" in . in strawinsky's work "sacre du printemps" threw the audience of paris into a riot. moreover, einstein's study on the specifi c theory of relativity came out in , when only a few years ago was published the traumdeutung of freud ( ). these people revolutionized the world by changing our concepts of the universe and the ego. this meant the beginning of a new tradition, precisely the tradition of modern vol. no. june, european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org times. despite the shocking eff ects on contemporaries, this was not the birth of a new era, but only a culmination of developments that were characteristic of the entire nineteenth century. so the term expressionism involves only one aspect of this modern revolution in art and literature. it was fi rst applied to painting and was invented by french painter julien - auguste hervé in . in this term was especially used to distinguish the early impressionist paintings from the most energetic individualism of van gogh and matisse. while the goal of impressionism was to paint the external reality, expressionistism was intended to produce and make alive his own reality, his inner idea, or vision, of what he had seen. according to him, it is not only the creation of an imitation of the world, and therefore, it prefers to be against any realistic style. "new expressionism," writes jl styan, was entirely subjective, imposing his intense and oft en eccentric thoughts on the world in what he painted" (styan, ). the usable general term was quickly separated from other forms of art. expressionism was rapidly applied to music, architecture, poetry and prose, but was particularly concerned with drama. the reason for this was that now the scene could be removed from the realistic game of those productions that showed life in a very personal, ideosyncratic way in which the form of expression expressed its content. such pioneers of imaginative stage such as adolphe appia and edward craig gordon tried to simplify and purify the design of the scene in order to emphasize "the importance of a unifi ed theatrical eff ect that would highlight the inner life of the play" (valgemae, ). characteristics and techniques of expressionist drama in the earlier stages expressive drama was the dramatization of subconsciousness or a kind of writt en dream. consequently, the motivation, character, and rational development of the subject in a well-worked drama were almost lost. aside from being unformed, the game gained its internal unity through the author's vision. however, the interest of expressionism in subjective ideas or visions forced them to create specifi c dramaturgical techniques by distorting reality and forming a world of dream-like images. like romanticism, expressionism does not have a defi nite defi nition. regarding today's use of the term "expressionism", it is clearly related to the group and the basic techniques that go aft er the early german drama and not with a distinct conception. as we strive to appreciate the impact of this european movement on american drama, it is evident that american playwrights were most interested in using the techniques of expressionist dramaturgy. this was probably because of the american temperament that was not open to excessive continental philosophies and topics. so, in order to realize the main purpose of an expressionist drama, one must fi rst discover the soul of man, the particular characteristics and techniques that have become essential parts of it. first, the atmosphere was oft en overwhelming and dreamlike, achieved through unrealistic lighting and visual shift s in the group. the dream eff ect was also aided by pausing or silence of unusual duration during dialogues or monologues. the scenes were no longer executed in detail as was the case in the naturalist drama. european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria vol. no. june, issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org simplifi cation was emphasized and images were more of a symbolic character rather than a photographic one. moreover, the display structure was divided into many episodic scenes that were arranged in a very fast sequence, almost as in a movie. however, its coherence was maintained by the joining strength of the construction of the dream. characters lose their individuality by being reduced to cartoons or types. in order to get into the light that was essential to man, he exudes all the superfi cial characteristics. such characters oft en represented social groups more than special people and were described in an unrealistic, exaggerated manner. finally, the dialogue has oft en had a shortened style or short phrase. this could also appear in the form of long monologues sometimes being too (ironically) poetic / lyric. or being replaced by the eff ects of sound or music in order to support diff erent spiritual states. by off ering these formal innovations, european expressionism had given a major boost to the development of modern american drama, with eugene o'neill as one of its key fi gures. the hairy ape subject and structure when it fi rst appeared on stage, o'neill's the hairy ape drama caused many misunderstandings among critics. and it was not just because of the theme of the drama, but also because of its form and style. because of the very clear criticism of the capitalist society he never fl utt ered in such a radical way, people were very frustrated by the mode of expression. for a similar approach to this topic, a realistic presentation was expected (erzgräber and paul goetsch, ). the hairy ape consists of eight scenes that all can be seen as certain situations in which the main character has to pass. the structure of the drama is circular and thus the initial situation is equal to the last one: the yank which appears in the small window of the furnace is apparently behind the bars as an animal. however, he is not aware of this situation and still fi rmly believes in his false self-portrayal:. "i'm the end, i'm the beginning, i can move the world, i'm mine, and i'm steel - steel - steel" - so at fi rst it has a strong sense of belonging to modern civilization, that is, as he perceives himself as an integrated part of a meaningful whole although he does not refl ect this. here, one of the main motifs is characterized by repeated and diff erent phrases like "we come and dey not" or "dat belongs " (o’neill , ). when he sees mildred shakes back with horror from him, his pride and self-confi dence are robbed. doubt and hatred enter into his soul causing a process of thought that will lead him to refl ect on his alienation. on one hand, this process is expressed by another motif (pantomime): "he is seated forward on a bench in the exact att itude of rodin′s "the thinker"( )". on the other hand, action itself is not just a sequence of scenes , but it also serves as a spatial and chronological visualization of yank's spiritual quest. scenes - show the inner confl ict of a man who is trying to emerge from a brutal state of existence in which he can no longer fi nd pleasure. these scenes can be seen as diff erent steps of yank's way toward realization, becoming more and more aware vol. no. june, european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org of being locked out of "real", civilized life. aft er trying hard to fi nd his affi liation in human society, yank tries to become a brother with a gorrille in the zoo. but being a civilized human being, with the mind he thinks he can not fi nd fulfi llment in the pure animal instinct for the initial harmony with nature is lost forever. thus, yank is again at its starting point. like at fi rst he is in a steel cage. it is undeniable that the circular form of action reveals a fundamental philosophy that is pessimistic. concluding remarks - which is quite ironic - "and, perhaps, the hairy ape at last belongs" ( ) makes it clear that every hope that man faces is in vain. all the signs are that o'neill's criticism is focused on the emotional consequences of society instead of the physical consequences. yank becomes aware of his alienation not because of inhumane working conditions, but because of being insulted his own self-esteem and consequently he understands that he is not anywhere. so the theme of the hairy ape fi ts very well with the expressionist drama as it deals with certain human states whose search for essential beliefs becomes an indispensable part of life. as to the structure of the part, it becomes clear that o'neill uses fast-moving scenes. in this way, action takes on a dynamic fl ow and confusion within the mind that yank intensifi es. the interaction of fi re, engines and steel produces here an incompatibility, though rhythmic with the "music" of the modern era. in addition, it can also be understood as a warning of the future confl ict. • so for the fi rst time, yank becomes aware of the barrier between his world and the world in which mildred belongs: "this startles yank to a reaction. . . . he feels himself insulted in some unknown fashion in the very heart of his pride." ( ) his approach to the world and perception of himself has been att acked. from now on his fate is to seek his belonging within society. here, it fi nally becomes clear that excellent overlapping illustrations can relate to yank's mind. the surface of reality is distorted so that we can see these scenes just as they look at the troubled mind of yank. at fi rst, the inner war still lies hidden in its subconscious - in the same way as everything is diffi cult to do in a small, pale, dull window of the oven. but it is to note yank's confrontation with mildred, which represents a world that rejects it. in contrast to the "clean, regular and wide general atmosphere" yank and long are depicted with an almost exaggerated appearance - dirty and fi lthy: "he has not shaved for days...the black smudge of coal dust still sticks like make-up" ( ). however, dealing with "puppets" on fift h avenue reveals much of yank's naturalness. compared to it, these people look very unmatched and almost artifi cial. a group of people who are leaving the church have been dressed too extravagantly, "yet with something of the relentless horror of frankensteins in their detached, mechanical unawareness" ( ). here is a good example by which o'neill describes yank's inner thoughts in concrete, visual terms. even though he was angry with people, they remained calm and even completely indiff erent, "they seem neither to see nor hear him" ( ). this irritates yank and he tries to hit people, but "rather it is he who recoils aft er each collision" ( ) this puppet procession becomes also a cage against whose bars he collides in vain". then a fat gentleman accuses him of missing the bus and calling the police, "many police european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria vol. no. june, issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org whistles shrill out on the instant and a whole platoon of policemen rush in on yank from all sides. the crowd at the window have not moved or noticed this disturbance" ( ). the scene ends with a gong sound of a patrol wagon as if signing another step of yank's path to his fatal end. confl ict in this scene is more than a class struggle. on the contrary, the internal human confl ict is refl ected and strange incidents result from yank's ego radiation. typifi cation of characters and their speech typifi cation is very marked in this drama. this of course also applies to the main character yank. he is a primitive man who tries to fi nd something that he belongs to you. as the author explains, he is "a symbol of man who has lost his old harmony with nature, the harmony he has had as an animal and has not yet gained in a spiritual way." (cargill, fagin, fisher, , ). as a typical character, yank becomes important, not for what he does in a given environment, but for what he symbolizes in a universal eff ort. a good illustration of "ego radiation" is in the form of monologues and murmurs of the main character expressing diff erent ideological att itudes, as well as clarifying yank's internal war, and its main function is not to inform the public but to express a wretched state of a troubled mind. references to the word "steel" are repeated as a kind of dialogue with musical theme. o'neill adapts the dialogue to an emotional eff ect by selecting phrases and repeating them as in a musical composition. so on the fi rst scene yank is so proud of his strength as he boast, "and i'm steel - steel - steel ... for describing numerous secondary characters o'neill uses mostly contrast and exaggeration tools. thus, on stage iii, mildred's appearance as "a girl of twenty, slender, delicate, with a pale prett y face marred by a self-conscious expression of disdainful superiority" ( ) and her aunt as "a pompous and proud - and fat - old lady"( ) illustrates their character of caricaturistic type , symbolizing the degeneration and exasperation of the rich bourgeoisie. the important contrast does not lie between "two incongruous, artifi cial fi gures", but between them and the environment: "the impression to be conveyed by this scene is one of the beautiful, vivid life of the sea all about." ( ) as a consequence, their separation from nature and artifi cial character unfolds surprisingly. the same thing applies to the "top ranking" puppets of fift h avenue - in an even more exaggerated way. here, their highly artifi cial appearance "overdressed to the nth degree" is highlighted by gestures and dialogues. they acted as if they were not aware of yank and his wild explosions, and their speech is usually snobbish and shallow. as they all respond mechanically to the chorus, their resemblance to lifeless machines becomes even more apparent. the same way of mechanic speech can be seen in the workers; their voice in the chorus has a metal sound. the fact that they are more stereotypical than individuals - "all civilized white races are represented."( ) - that is why the grotesque and unreal are expressed by the appearance of the neanderthal man. long and paddy stand outside this group, being special stereotypes and the only vol. no. june, european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org ones who have diff erent opinions about yank. long is a typical marxist follower who makes society with the class responsible for the suff ering of the proletariat. "poet" paddy is characterized by his nostalgia for the past when man and nature were still in harmony. here, paddy's language is aff ected by poetry. a good example of lyrical poetry is on the fi rst stage in which paddy recalls the golden seasons of sailing ships. “oh, to be scud- ding south again wid the power of the trade wind driving her on steady through the nights and the days! full sail on her! nights and days! nights when the foam of the wake would be fl am- ing wid fi re, when the sky’d be blazing and winking wid stars“ ( ). in contrast to the rhythmic eff ects that he uses throughout the entire section, o'neill includes lyricism in order to achieve a stronger emotional eff ect. conclusions o'neill's infl uence from continental expressionist dramas and european dramatists, especially strindberg, is more than obvious. drama “the hairy ape“ is full of expresionist elements and techniques that have their origins in this european movement. however, a careful study of o'neill's drama also proves his genius as a dramatic artist. obviously he developed his own style in expressionist dramas and was not just inspired by his idols abroad. in none of his plays o'neill has expressed such radical criticism of modern society as in the hairy ape. bearing in mind only social criticism, it is easy to be frustrated by the grotesque form of o'neill's presentation, which is incompatible with such a serious topic. but, in fact, he was especially worried about yank's character, a human being like anyone else, “a symbol of man who has lost his old harmony with nature.“  in order to show what yank's tragic character faces, he creates the inner reality with the unrealistic surface techniques partially symbolically expressed, partly abstractly and partially grotesque. we also have a picture of distorted imaginary fi gures and and their refl ection in the inside of man. o'neill implies so many expressionist factors at “the hairy ape“ as in any other drama he wrote. there is no diffi culty in fi nding the elements that pervade continental expressionism and also strindberg. of the expressionist elements, the most striking ones are ego radiations, typing, sound eff ects, dialogues with the music theme and the monologue. modern american drama can not be defi ned simply and just in a few words. it does not constitute a vocabulary term that has a defi nite defi nition. the modern american drama can be described as a period in which american writers began to fl ourish with their works, producing dramatic new and modern pieces. however, aft er exploring this period, it may be noted that it consists of a summary of experimentalism in forms such as expressionism and realism, topics such as the one of reality versus illusion, a language that refl ects the society in which they were writing, such as and an exploration of social and cultural change. it may also be noted that the purpose of the american modern drama was to talk about a world in which the individual was totally disconnected in an unbelievable way from traditional "anchors", social affi liation, family relationships, and self-determining image. modern american drama was a refl ection of an extremely emotional and convincing work that paved   o’neill, o’neill talks about his plays . european journal of economics, law and social sciences iipccl publishing, graz-austria vol. no. june, issn - acces online at www.iipccl.org the way for the next generations: it is an essential part of literary study in a world that has begun to change and its collection of dramatic works establishes its clearest defi nition. references cargill, o. fagin, b. and fisher, w. ( ). o’neill and his plays: four decades of criticism, ed. new york: n. y. up. ergi, p. ( ). “belonging“ lost: alienation and dramatic form in eugene o’neill’s the hairy ape,“ critical essays on eugene o’neill, boston: g. k. hall. miller, a. ( ). a view from the bridge/all my sons –penguin classics. styan, j. l. ( ). expressionism and epic theatre, modern drama in theory and practice, vol. , cambridge: cambridge up. walker, j. ( ). expressionism and modernism in the american theatre; bodies, voices, words – cambridge university press. williams, t. ( ). glass menagerie", penguin books. 호목차 http://dx.doi.org/ . /jkiid. . . . journal of the korean institute of interior design vol. no. serial no. _ . 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 르 코르뷔지에의 회화를 통해 본 여성의 몸에 대한 사유 reasons on the body of women from the painting by le corbusier author 전영미 jun, young-mi / 정회원, 동주대학교 크루즈․해양 인테리어과 교수, 디자인박사 abstract this study is intended to identify various reasons on the 'body' of women described in the paintings by le corbusier. as a great artist in the field of modern architecture, various figures of 'body' of women he painted were not a mere physiological body of a woman but a meaningful figure combined with many different types of concept in the social and cultural context. in the field of art, body is recently seen as a 'tool for thinking' that studies dealing with it are being actively conducted. seen in this context, it is feasible to read the situations and causes at that time through movement and changes in the figure of women's bodies described in his painting. even if it was a speculative inference, this study aimed examining what reasons and perspective le corbusier had when painting women's bodies and what message he intended to convey. reasons on the 'bodies' of women derived in this study serve as an essence of mentality in understanding the spatial design that was constructed around the time of period. adopting a different view from many of previous studies in the aspect of skills and spaces, it was intended to study changes in the complex and integrated causes in both spatial design and painting and re-interpret an essence of mentality of the spatial design in the humanistic approach according to the notions in society and culture. keywords 르 코르뷔지에, 회화, 몸, 사유, 퓨리즘, 초현실주의 le corbusier, painting, body, reason, purisme, surréalisme . 서론 . . 연구의 배경과 목적 르 코르뷔지에의 금욕적이고 모범적인 일상의 기록과 달리, 그의 그림에는 민망할 정도로 과감한 포즈를 취하 거나 무리지은 벌거벗은 여성들의 ‘몸’이 주로 그려져 있 다. 공간디자인 분야 역시 보는 이에 따라 해석이 다르 겠지만, 유니테다비타시옹 옥상에 설치된 여성의 젖무덤 같은 조형물이나, 여성의 자궁 속으로 들어가는 듯 의도 적으로 작게 설계된 롱샹성당의 북측 출입구, 그리고 여 성의 신을 섬기는 인도 찬디가르에 마지막 유작을 남긴 점 등을 보면, 그의 작품과 여성(gender)에 대한 문제는 깊은 관련이 있어 보인다. 르 코르뷔지에는 ‘회화’라는 도구로 시 지각이 끌어가는 세계를 담아내던 화가였다. 이후 공간디자인을 하면서도 그림을 그렸고, 근대건축 거장으로서 그가 그린 여러 형태의 여성의 ‘몸’은 그저 생물학적 여인 그대로의 몸이 아니라 사회와 문화적 맥 락에 따라 여러 관념들이 복합된 하나의 의미체와 같은 것이다. 심리학자 베라 존 스타이너가 몸을 ‘사고의 도 구’로 보듯이 ) 르 코르뷔지에가 그린 회화 속 여성의 몸 의 움직임과 형태변화로 당시 시대상황과 사유를 읽을 수 있다. 비록 사변적 추론이긴 하나 그가 여성을 주제 로 그린 그림을 통하여 어떠한 사유와 시선으로 여성을 바라보았는지 그리고 그 이면에 담긴 메시지는 무엇인지 연구하고자 한다. 본 연구에서 도출된 여성의 ‘몸’에 대 한 사유는 비슷한 시기에 건축한 공간디자인을 이해하는 정신의 본질로서 작용한다. 기술과 공간적인 측면에서 연구된 많은 선행연구와 관점을 달리하여, 공간디자인과 회화라는 두 분야를 아우르는 융 복합적인 사유의 변천 을 추적함으로써 그의 공간디자인의 정신적 본질을 사회 와 문화적 관념에 따라 인문학적 접근으로 읽는 것에 연 구의 목적과 의미를 둔다. . . 연구 방법 및 범위 ) robert root-bernstein 외 인, spark of genius, 생각의 탄 생, 박종성 옮김, 에코의 서재, 서울, , p. 과 장 몸으로 생 각하기 pp. - 참고. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > ① 년 월 일자 Élan n° 표지 ② 년 월 일자 Élan n° ③ Élan n° 에 실린 ‘라 마르세예즈’ 국가를 부르는 어머니상, p. mainssieux 작 ④ Élan n° 호에 삼국협상을 여신의 선물로 선전하고 있는 포스터, 오장팡 작 르 코르뷔지에는 세계 양차대전을 겪은 건축가이다. 제 차 대전이 끝나갈 무렵에 파리로 올라와 꿈꾸던 화가 활동을 하였으나, 지독히 가난했던 그는 오장팡처럼 부 유한 화가들과 문화적 괴리와 예술관점차이로 결국 건축 가로 전향하게 된다. 이후에도 경제공황과 제 차 대전을 겪으며, 죽기직전까지 일기처럼 그림을 그렸다. 건축가로 활동하면서 그린 것들은 전시나 발표를 통해 알려지지 않았지만, 파격적인 형태와 개념으로 변화한 그의 후기 공간디자인을 풀어내는 사유의 단초들이다. 선행연구에 서 르 코르뷔지에의 작품시기가 학자들마다 혹은 연구자 의 연구목적에 따라 달라지지만 ), 본고의 연구범위는 극 명한 대조를 이루는 회화적 관점에서 세계 양차대전을 기준으로 초기와 후기회화로 나눈다. 분류된 초기와 후 기의 회화시기에 지배했던 사상과 사회, 문화의 통섭된 맥락에서 여성의 ‘몸’과 관련된 그림을 분석하여 공간디 자인의 정신적 본질로서 작용한 주요사유를 도출하였다. 초기회화에서 도출한 사유는 사회적 요구에 따라 민족주 의, 이원론, 기하학적 측면에서 분석하며, 이해를 돕기 위해 주요 공간언어와 접목하여 설명하고자 한다. 후기 회화에는 초기와 다르게 자신의 시학을 드러내며 여러 분야의 예술과 종교, 사상이 혼용된 은유적인 사유를 보 인다. 사유의 근원은 초현실주의 화가와 예술가들 그리 고 문학 등에서 영향 받은 종합예술적인 영감이다. 이를 배경으로, 여성의 ‘몸’을 매개로 투영된 초현실적, 일원 적, 현상적 측면에서 그의 후기회화에 나타난 사유를 분 석하고자한다. 미국의 건축가 라이트의 경우도 르 코르 뷔지에처럼 후기 공간디자인이 예리한 각을 지닌 기하학 에서 유기적인 형태로 변화하였다. 형태의 변화는 전쟁 을 겪으면서 발달된 군사기술의 영향도 있겠지만, 인생 후반부에 삶과 죽음의 경계에 선 거장들의 공통된 사유 (la pensée) )가 담긴 표현일지 모른다. 본고에서는 이점 을 주목하여 연구를 진행하고자 한다. . 초기회화에서 여성의 몸에 대한 사유 . . 초기회화의 시대상황 본고의 초기회화 시기는 르 코르뷔지에가 ‘샤를르 에 두아르 장느레’라는 이름으로 화가활동을 한 제 차 대전 전후이다. 그는 오장팡과 ‘퓨리즘(purisme, 순수주의)’ 회 화를 제창하였지만, 미술사에서 ‘큐비즘(cubisme, 입체 파)’ 만큼 주목받지 못하였다. 년 오장팡과 헤어지면 ) 전영미, 르 코르뷔지에 공간디자인에 표현된 회화의식 연구, 동아 대 박사논문, , pp. - 작품시기 분류와 전영미, 르 코르뷔지 에 회화와 공간디자인의 상호관련에 관한 연구, 한국실내디자인학 회 제 권 호, , p. 참고바람. ) le corbusier, mise au point, 르코르뷔지에의 사유, 정진국 옮김, 초판, 열화당, 파주, 참고바람. 서 퓨리즘은 해체되었고, 이후 ‘르 코르뷔지에’라는 이름 으로 건축가로 활동하였다. 이즈음 프랑스는 전쟁의 피 해로 경제적 어려움 뿐 아니라 정치와 사회적으로 다양 한 이념이 난무하여 불안정했다. 특히 독일과 민족 간의 분쟁으로 민족주의 성향이 강한 프랑스는 민족의 정체성 확립과 전쟁폐허를 재건하는 힘과 정신을 고취하는데 주 력하였다. 이런 사회 분위기에 편승한 듯 그의 첫 번째 전시회에서 ‘큐비즘 이후(après le cubisme)’라는 소책자 장에 ‘퓨리즘’을 선언한다. 말 그대로 이전의 큐비즘 업 적을 비판하고 단호한 선 긋기를 한 것이다. 그 내막을 보면, 피카소의 큐비즘이념이 프랑스 전통회화 방식을 무시하고, 독일에서 선호하는 미술이라는 이유로 일부 프랑스 화가들에게 외면을 받았다고 한다. ) 일찍이 르 코르뷔지에는 독일에서 베렌스 사무실에 일한 적도 있지 만, 역시 프랑스 민족주의 시각에서 ‘큐비즘’의 지나친 장식성을 규탄하고 그 대안으로 ‘퓨리즘’을 만든 것이라 하겠다. 퓨리즘이라는 용어의 뜻처럼 ‘순수함’은 역으로 큐비즘을 ‘불순함’으로 보는 대립되는 시각이다. 여기서 ‘순수함’이란 데카르트의 수학적 사고와 프랑스 전통 고 전주의에 내제된 합리성을 표방한 이성적인 정신을 말한 다. 년에 창간되어 년까지 총 호를 발행한 ‘에스 프리누보(l'esprit nouveau)’ 잡지는 퓨리즘의 ‘순수함’ 즉 프랑스의 이성을 본격적으로 전파하는 선전물 역할을 했다. 그러므로 르 코르뷔지에의 에스프리누보 즉 ‘새로 운 정신’은 개인의 예술적 이념이라기보다, 당시 프랑스 민족사회가 당면한 과제였다. 퓨리즘의 ‘순수함’이 이렇 게 민족주의 사유와 관련됨을 프랑스 출신 오장팡의 예 술 활동에서 더욱 뚜렷하게 나타난다. 오장팡 )은 당시 큐비스트와 섞이지 않고, 독일철학에 대항했던 베르그송 의 이념을 지지하며, 프랑스 민족의 한사람으로서 민족 부흥을 위한 비평잡지 ‘엘랑(l'Élan)’을 출간하였다. 엘랑 잡지에 그려진 삽화와 글을 보면 <그림 >처럼 ) 이슬비, 르 코르뷔지에의 작업에 나타나는 민족주의적 특성, 이화 여대 석사논문, , p. ) amédée ozenfant( - )은 프랑스 화가로 - 년 l'Élan 을 발간, 이후 르 코르뷔지에와 purisme회화를 제창하면서 après le cubisme, l'esprit nouveau 공동집필. 년에서 차 대전에 이르기까지 프랑스 예술과 문학, 과학, 철학에 이르기까지 전 분야 에 영향을 준 henri bergson( - )의 사상을 지지. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > ①번 페르낭 레제, 빨간 바탕 위에 세여인, 년 ②번 아메데 오장팡, 모성, 년 ③번 르 코르뷔지에, 가슴을 만지고 걸어가는 여인, 년 ④번 피카소, 엄마와 아기, 년 <그림 > 르 코르뷔지에 그림에서 여성의 변형과정 ①번 위, 명의 나부, 년도미상 ①번 아래, 목걸이를 한 앉아 있는 두 여인, 년경 작 ②번 ‘등 돌린 여성’, 년 작 ③번 위, 명의 뚱뚱한 여인, 년 작 ③번 아래, 벌거벗은 두 여인, 년 작 ‘라 마르세예즈’ 국가를 찬양하며 비장한 마음으로 행진 하는 군인, 아들을 기다리는 어머니상, 프랑스의 승리를 기원하는 니케상, 여신들의 선물 등 애국심을 고취시키 는 내용들로서, 당시의 시대 상황을 짐작하게 한다. 이상 을 토대로, 르 코르뷔지에의 초기회화는 전후 프랑스 민 족주의와 전통을 바탕으로 재건에 필요한 새로운 정신을 수학적 사고와 순수이성을 통해서 보편화하려는 시대배 경 속에서 그려진 것이라 할 수 있다. . . 초기회화에서 표현된 여성 르 코르뷔지에가 여행을 하면서 그린 그림은 건축을 ‘기억’하기 위한 수단으로 주변풍경과 순간의 느낌을 스 케치한 것이다. 년 스케치에서부터 건축을 배경으로 그 지역 특성을 지닌 여성들을 그렸고, ) 원시자연의 ‘몸’ 을 통해 생명을 잉태하고 자연의 일부분으로서 섭리에 순응하며 살아가는 인간본연의 모습으로 여성을 묘사했 다. 파리에서 그린 그림도 어머니 마리와 부인 이본느를 모델로 순수모성을 느끼게 하는 풍만한 여성의 몸을 자 주 그렸다. 가족 외, 아틀리에 소속 직업모델로 추정되는 대담한 포즈의 벌거벗은 여성의 몸도 자주 그렸지만, 그 그림 역시 에로틱보다 여성의 강인함이 묘사되었다. 이 처럼 강인하고 원시모성을 느끼는 여성의 벌거벗은 ‘몸’ 은 본인 스스로도 ‘순수한 인간’으로 ) 부르고 있지만, 당 시 프랑스 사회가 요구하는 ‘애국적인 몸’으로서 민족의 다산과 풍요를 상징했다. 그래서 전쟁이 끝나고 년 대까지 <그림 >처럼 프랑스에 거주한 화가들이 앞 다 투어 여성의 풍만한 누드, 일하는 여성, 모성적인 여성을 회화주제로 그린 것도 출산을 장려하고 애국을 유도하는 사회분위기와 연관된다. 이러한 사회분위기에서 여성은 가족의 중심이 되는 순 수한 모성을 지닌 ‘어머니’로서의 역할만 해야 하는 남성 중심의 사회가 추구하는 암묵적 세뇌 대상이었다. 르 코 르뷔지에의 초기회화에 그려진 여성들도 이러한 사회현 상을 수용하며 위계적인 이분법으로 표현되었다. 특히 ) le corbusier, le corbusier une encyclopédie, centre georges pompidou, paris, , p. , flc, 데생 no. , 데생노트 no. ) le corbusier, précision, 프레시지옹, 정진국, 이관석 공역, 동녘, 서울, , p. 어머니를 중심으로 가족풍경을 많이 그린 페르낭 레제를 알고부터 그는 대량생산하는 기계의 힘과 움직임을 여성 의 ‘몸’으로 표현했다. 그의 일상 속 여인 ) 중에 조세핀 베이커를 그린 그림에서는 몸의 각 부위를 드럼통 같은 형태로 연결하여 춤추는 동작을 표현하고, 얼굴과 눈, 코 등은 기하학적인 형태로 변화하여 기계적인 느낌을 더했 다. 당대 재즈복장과 원초적인 관능의 춤으로 유명했던 그녀의 절도 있는 춤동작에서 여성의 ‘몸’이 움직일 때 만들어내는 아름다움을 기계의 대량생산하는 움직임과 결부하여 새로운 시대의 이미지로 표현한 것이다. 그렇 지만 여성의 움직임을 마치 기계가 움직이는 것으로 연 상한 점은 그도 역시 가부장적인 시각에서 어머니를 제 외 한 여성을 정신과 몸을 분리하여 바라본 것이 아닌가 여겨진다. 이러한 예증은 <그림 >처럼, 처음 반듯하게 서있던 여성은 앉거나, 옆으로 누운 자세로 바뀌고, 점점 등을 돌리거나, 얼굴 없이 몸통만 움직이듯 누가 누구인 지 알 수 없는 덩어리처럼 묘사한 것에서 볼 수 있다. 이렇게 초기회화를 통해 본 여성은 개인의 인격과 정 신, 그리고 내면을 느낄 수 없는 존재이지만, 생명을 탄 생하고 종족을 번식하여 가정과 국가를 지키는 역할을 하는 순수한 인간 즉, 원시모성의 ‘몸’으로서 프랑스 민 족주의적 함의를 지닌다 할 수 있다. . . 여성의 몸에 대한 사유 ( ) 민족주의적 사유 외젠 들라크루아가 그린 ‘민중을 이끄는 자유의 여신’ 에서 볼 수 있듯이 순수하고 강인한 여성을 앞장세워 위 기를 극복하는 이미지는 곧 프랑스의 국가 이미지였다. 누드화가 금지된 전통회화 속에서 가슴을 노출한 여성은 ) 르 코르뷔지에의 일상 속 여성은 세까지 함께한 어머니 마리 ( - )와 cote d'azur의 작은 마을 문지기(집시) 딸로 태어 난 부인yvonne gallis( - ), 가장 오랫동안 함께 일한 가구 디자이너perriand charlotte( - ), 가구와 인테리어, 건축디 자이너 eileen gray( - ), 년대 파리의 검은 비너스 josephine baker( - 년)이다. 林 美佐著, 再発見／ル コル ビュジエの絵画と建築, 版, 東京, 彰国社, , pp. - 참고. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 대부분 여신을 상징한다. 이렇게 들라크루아의 신격화된 여성이나, 오장팡의 엘랑 잡지에 그려진 신화 속 여신들 은 언뜻 보기엔 여성숭배처럼 느껴진다. 그러나 이면에 는 특정집단이나 지배계급에 의한 ‘대상화된 여성’으로서 프랑스 민족을 융합하고 공동체 의식을 고취시키려는 목 적으로 계몽되는 순수한 ‘몸’의 이미지이다. 여기에 르낭 은 프랑스 민족주의를 원초적인 민족이 아니라 프랑스 혁명을 기점으로 새로운 통치방식이 필요한 엘리트 집단 이 민족의식이나 충성을 애국심으로 조장하며 민족을 하 나로 결집하려는 집단 이데올로기로 정의한다. ) 르낭의 정의대로 프랑스 정부는 하나의 민족공동체를 구성하기 위해서 지역주민의 융합과 ‘대상화된 여성’으로서 사회의 기초단위가 되는 가족개념을 중요시해야했다. 이때 가족 의 가치는 봉건적 가문의 의미가 아니라 근대사회의 초 석이 되는 ‘가정’이다. 그 속에 남성은 공적인 역할을 담 당하고, 여성의 몫은 가정과 가족을 지켜야하는, 당시 사 회문화 전반에 깊게 뿌리를 내린 남녀의 전형적인 성역 할이 존재했다. 그래서 전후 남성적 관점에서 여성은 어 머니와 주부의 역할을 해야 하는 프랑스의 순수한 ‘몸’ 이미지였다. 이를 바탕으로, 르 코르뷔지에가 그린 벌거 벗은 여체는 자연을 연상시키는 여성의 원시성과 순수함 에 모성신화가 더해지면서 여성 우상화로 보인다. 하지 만, 여성의 나체성은 남성중심의 사고에서 보면 여성의 활동을 제한하는 시선과 중첩된다. 회화에서 옷 )은 특 정한 사회의 소속을 의미하고, 옷의 부재는 사회에 대한 거부, 또는 그 사회로부터의 추방으로 해석된다. 부연하 면, 옷을 입은 모습과 벌거벗은 모습 사이의 거리는 문 명과 자연이라는 이원론과 여성들이 남성들의 사회에 편 입하지 못하고 남성지배하에 있음을 암시하는 것이다. 이러한 수직적 사고는 프랑스 민족주의 사유의 핵심이 다. 르 코르뷔지에도 종족에 대한 글을 언급할 정도로 가족의 테두리 내에서 성적욕망을 억제하고 열심히 일에 매진하는 것이 민족을 구성하고 부흥할 수 있다는 사회 적 함의에 동의했는지 모른다. 이는 자신의 작품을 사회 적, 정치적으로 무관하다 하지만, 그의 말처럼 ‘가정을 가족의 신전으로 만드는 것’은 가정이라는 사적영역의 최고권위를 여성에게 부여하기 위해 주택을 성전의 여신 이 머무는 신전처럼 만들겠다는 것이다. 그리고 년 ) joseph ernest renan( - )은 프랑스의 언어학자, 철학자로 서, 세기 유럽의 민족개념은 태고에 존재한 것도 아니고, 혈통을 공유하지도 않고, 공통된 문명을 가지고 뭉쳐진 여러 국가들의 공 동체로 보고 인종, 언어, 역사, 종교가 같아서라기보다 함께 살려 는 의지와 동의가 민족을 구성한다고 했다. renan, e., qu'est-ce qu'une nation, 신행선 옮김, 민족이란 무엇인가. 서울, 책 세상, , p. 를 보면, 스위스출신의 르 코르뷔지에가 프랑스 국적을 얻기 전에도 프랑스 민족주의를 적극 수용한 점은 르낭의 민족주 의 관점에서 자연스런 일이다. ) 조윤경, 초현실주의와 몸의 상상력, 초판, 문학과 지성사, 서울, , pp. - 경제적 유형의 시트로앙 주택을 비롯하여 년 페삭 주거단지, 년 에스프리누보관의 표준화된 집합주택 모델, 그리고 부아쟁 계획 등과 같은 지역주민이나 가족 단위의 공동체 공간을 계획한 것을 볼 때 이러한 민족주 의 사유를 적극적으로 수용했음을 알 수 있다. ( ) 이원적 사유 르 코르뷔지에가 그린 강인하고 풍만한 여성은 민족주 의 관점에서, 이상적인 여성상을 강요하는 남성이 창조 한 이데올로기였다. 그러나 다른 사상적 측면에서, 계몽 주의와 같은 근대철학은 인간을 신에서 분리하여 모든 근원을 자연에 두었다. 그래서 자연 속에서 자연의 일부 가 되어 생명을 잉태하고 생산하는 어머니는 우주를 이 루는 근본원리로 존경의 대상으로 보았다. 이런 측면에 서 그가 그린 벌거벗은 여체는 원시모성을 지닌 원초적 상태로의 회귀로 봐진다. 비록 지적이고 정신적 교류를 나누는 대상이 아닐지라도, 덩어리로 군상을 이루는 여 성의 ‘몸’은 생물학적 여성보다 자연과 대립되는 순수한 인간의 표현에 가깝다. 그래서 자연과 대립되는 인간으 로서, 여성이미지에 투영된 우주로서 어머니상, 그리고 남성과 대립되는 비인격적인 존재로서 여성이 그의 화폭 에 혼재해 있다. 어느 쪽이든 이원적 사유를 주목하면, 건강한 몸과 정신을 분리한 여성의 몸은 ‘기호로서의 몸’ 이미지로 변화한다. 몸 이미지가 기호화하면서 자연과 대립되는 인간에게는 몸에 달린 눈이 아닌 정신의 눈으 로서 자연을 바라보는 새로운 사유가 형성된다. 그래서 군상을 이루는 몸 덩어리는 정신의 눈으로 바라보는 그 의 확장된 사유의 표현이다. 정신과 몸의 이원화로, ‘몸’ 에서 분리된 정신은 ‘순수의식’ 그 자체로 ‘몸 없음’ )을 뜻하지만, ‘정신’은 단지 보는 수단에 불과한 ‘몸’에 비해 보는 주체가 되기 때문에 이러한 형태변형이 가능한 것 이다. ‘정신’의 눈으로 사브아 주택의 ‘수평연속 창’을 보 면, 창을 통해 들어오는 자연은 덩어리화 된 여성의 ‘몸’ 처럼, 그것을 바라보는 나의 ‘정신’과 대립되는 배경이 된다. 이때 ‘몸’은 단지 움직이는 도구가 되고, ‘정신’이 주체가 되어 각 방을 연결하는 좁고 긴 복도와 경사로를 따라서 창밖 자연과 끊임없이 상호관계를 가지며 나의 존재를 확인하는 데카르트적 코기토 )를 형성한다. 그래 서 그의 ‘수평연속 창’은 순수 기하학에서 존재하는 순수 코기토로 몸과 정신의 이원화를 예증하는 픽처레스크 개 념이 담겨있기에 창을 통해 지각되는 모든 만물을 사유 의 내용으로 만드는 즉, 사유하는 공간언어인 셈이다. ( ) 기하학적 사유 ) 이지훈, 예술과 연금술, 초판, 창비, 파주, , p. ) descartes, rené( - )는 각 개인을 주체로 확립한 근대성의 선구자로 서양 사상에 중요한 의미를 차지. 데카르트적인 코기토 (cogito, 사유하는 나)는 ‘육체적 나’가 아니고 ‘정신적 나’의 원적 대립으로 ‘정신’을 바탕 한 철학. 임석재, 기계가 된 몸과 현대 건 축의 탄생, 초판, 인물과 사상사, 서울, , pp. - 참고바람. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > 오브제타입의 기하학적인 형태들의 중첩 및 규준선 ①번 charles-Édouard jeanneret (le corbusier)의 ‘책과 접시 더미가 있는 정물화’ ( 년) 위에 : 비율의 규준선 (필자편집) ②번 오브제들의 중첩 (필자편집) ③번 라로쉬 주택( - 년)의 식당 브릿지 부근의 벽면 중첩 르 코르뷔지에는 주택을 살기위한 기계라고 정의하면 서 인간의 정신을 창조하는 것은 기계가 지니는 역할 중 하나로 보았다. 그래서 그의 퓨리즘은 프랑스 정신을 기 계미로 표현한 것으로, 그가 주장한 에스프리누보이며, 이성을 통한 사유이다. 이성은 경험과 대립되는 인식의 문제로, 보편성을 지닌 수학적 바탕에서 순수기하학으로 읽혀지는 지성적 공간을 형성한다. 이런 지성적 공간은 몸과 몸이 처해있는 세계 상황으로부터 성립되어 나온 다. 예를 들면 순수기하학 공간에서 만들어지는 각도와 방향 등은 우리의 ‘몸’이 세계 속에서 일정한 위치를 잡 고, 다시 다른 위치로 향하면서 공간을 인지하게 되는데, 조광제의 책에서 이런 길잡이를 역선에 의한 것이라 한 다. ) 역선은 기하학적 공간에서 우리의 눈에는 보이지 않지만, 이미 여러 방향으로 존재하고, 보이지 않는 구조 나 지각의 상황을 ‘몸’은 상상을 통해 형태를 지각하고 이념화하면서 기하학적인 사유를 생산한다는 것이다. 이 러한 기하학적 사유는 ‘전형적 오브제(l’objet-type)’로 그 려진 그의 퓨리즘 회화에서 눈에 비친 오브제의 속성대 로 보지 않고 <그림 >처럼 오브제가 겹쳐지는 선과 면 을 보는 이의 감각, 태도, 양식에 따라 대상과 대상을 융 합하여 새로운 구조로 인지하면서 그림을 보는 것과 같 은 맥락이다. 그래서 기하학적 공간을 흔히 정신적 혹은 관념적이라 고 하는 것도 여기에 있다. 기하학적 사유는 기계에 의 해서 확장되고 보편화한다. 그의 자료에서 직각 )에 대 한 찬미는 기계로 은유된 궁극의 기하학적 사유이다. 그 리고 여기에 움직임을 개입하면, 몸과 정신으로 이원화 된 여성의 ‘몸’은 움직이면서 지속과 시간이 공존하는 공 간의 무한성을 표현한다. 공간의 무한성에는 보이지 않 ) 조광제, 몸의 세계, 세계의 몸, 초판 쇄, 이학사, 서울, , pp. - , 역선(lignes de force)에 대한 설명 참고. ) ‘직각은 인간이며, 우주의 큰 몸짓’이라고 했다. 그의 건축은 직각 에 의해서 세워지고, 수평과 수직의 직교에 의해서 계획된다. 직각 은 건축만이 아니다. 인간 사고의 근원이다. 그가 아버지를 보낸 후 ‘죽음을 수직에 대한 수평으로 정의’하였다고 한다. 년 월 일 ‘수직으로 서있던 그의 마지막 모습이 수평선(바다)에 누워 잠들었다’고 보겐스키는 회상한다. f.l.c., le symbolique, le sacré́, la spiritualité, éd. de la villette paris, , pp. - 는 역선에 의해 바라보는 주체가 지각하는 범위를 만들 어낸다. 르 코르뷔지에 회화에서 나타나는 화면의 분할 선은 역선처럼 무한 반복하는 움직임을 분절하고, 또 다 른 구조를 지닌 세계로 유도하는 역할을 한다. 화면의 분할 선은 공간디자인에서 규준선(tracés régulateurs)이 라 부르는 것과 같으며, 이는 기하학적인 사유에서 비롯 된다. . 후기회화에서 여성의 몸에 대한 사유 . . 후기회화의 시대상황 본고의 후기회화는 퓨리즘 해체 이후 독일군 점령으로 피레네로 피신하여 생애 가장 음울했던 과도기와 제 차 대전 전후에 작업한 것이다. 이 시기는 프랑스 지성인과 예술가들도 세계대전에 대한 반성과 유일 신앙에 대한 비판 그리고 이원화로 분열된 의식의 양면성, 이성에 대 한 회의 등으로 사상적 방향을 잃은 때이다. 특히 기계 생산은 일상을 표준화, 획일화하여 모든 것을 보편화하 였고, 순수이성으로 인간의 주체성을 나타내는 한계에 부딪혔다. 그래서 후설, 하이데거, 헤겔 등의 독일철학을 공부한 사르트르의 실존주의 철학이 대전 후에 큰 영향 을 주었으며, 여기에 다른 이론이 결합하여 다양한 프랑 스 실존주의가 생겼다. 사르트르는 예술작품의 본질을 존재하지 않는 대상에 두고, 비현실적인 상상력으로 대 상을 보았다. 이는 인간본성을 무의식에 두고, 무의식 세 계를 탐구한 도스토예프스키와 프로이트, 그리고 초현실 주의자들이 추구하던 이념과 같은 맥락을 보였다. 르 코 르뷔지에는 피카소와 사르트르, 프로이트 등의 급진적인 사상에 영향을 받았고 ) 기존의 관례와 전통을 타파하는 예술가들과 친분을 가졌다. 그래서인지 오장팡과 결별한 후 그의 후기회화에는 퓨리즘의 명확한 기하학적인 선과 다르게 유기적인 선으로 무엇을 그렸는지 보는 이에 따 라 해석이 다른 불명확한 형태의 모티프가 나타난다. 현 실을 초월한 잠재의식에서 분출된 관념들이 무작위로, 미완성된 그 자체에 의미를 두고 그려진 것들이다. 이러 한 르 코르뷔지에 그림들은 기법과 회화주제를 보면 초 현실주의 화풍과 흡사하지만, 퓨리즘과 달리, 미술사에서 인정받지 못했다. 그러나 후기회화에 그려진 모티프는 인생에 대해, 인간에 대해, 사물의 본성에 대해, 그의 무 의식 세계를 폴 엘뤼아르 )처럼 시와 그림으로 드러내고 있다. 이점에서 초현실주의 화풍의 후기회화는 당대 지 ) nicholas fox weber, c'était le corbusier, fayard, paris, , p. ) ibid., p. 와 조윤경, op. cit., pp. - 를 참고하면, 부부모임을 할 정도로 친분이 있는 엘뤼아르가 형상화한 몸 이미지와 여성의 몸, 풍경에 관한 생각, 손에 대한 생각 등이 르 코르뷔지에 판화집 에 실린 도상들과 비슷한 점에서 엘뤼아르의 영향도 받은 듯하다. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > 르 코르뷔지에 그림 중, 여성의 자리에 황소가 등장하는 과정 ①번 앉아있는 두 여인, 년 작 ②번 서커스, 여성, 말, 년 작 ③번 벽화, 년 추정, ④번 taureau(황소), 년 작 성인의 사상을 받아들이고 다양한 분야의 예술까지 섭렵 한 르 코르뷔지에의 후기 공간디자인의 정신적 본질이 되는 사유로 읽을 수 있는 근거만으로도 충분한 의미를 지닌다. . . 후기회화에서 표현된 여성 <표 >처럼 후기로 접어드는, 포스트 퓨리즘 시절은 기 하학적 표현이 사라지고, 전형적인 초현실주의 화풍은 아 니지만, 년에 본인 스스로 ‘시적 반응을 일으키는(à réaction poétique)’ 것이라고 언급한 오브제를 대상으로 서 정적 그림을 그렸다. ) 이즈음에도 여성을 꾸준히 그렸지 만, 그는 ‘시적 반응을 일으키는’ 또는 ‘일으킬 수 있는’ 모 든 사물에 무한한 창조적 에너지가 잠재되어 있다고 생각 하였다. 물론 사물을 시적 대상으로 보는 것은 초현실주의 작가 브르통에 의해 이미 사용된 것 )이지만, 대상을 어떤 상황에서 어떤 시선으로 바라보느냐에 따라 다양한 모티프 로 변화하고 거기에 새로운 상징적 의미가 부여된다. 구분 초기 후기 이미지 특성 자연과 대립되는 순수 모성을 지닌 여성과 남성과 대립되는 비인 격적인 존재로서 이원 화. 주로 일하는 여성, 움직이는 여성을 그렸 다. 르코르뷔지에, 음 악 홀 no , 년 작 좌) 배는 바다를 연상, 초기의 주택처럼 조직된 세계를 실현하는 에스프리누보를 상징하고 여 성은 배경으로 존재한다. 르 코르뷔지에, 여성 과 밧줄 그리고 배, 년 습작. 우) 자연의 언어로 말하는 무수한 증거들 또는 시적반응을 일으키는 대상이 여성형상으로 변 신하는 습작. 르 코르뷔지에, 시적반응을 일으 키는 오브제, 년 습작 <표 > 초기와 후기의 여성 이미지 초기회화에서 사물을 이성적으로 바라보던 시선이 이 렇게 서정적으로 변화한 이유는 건축적 불황, 자식처럼 키우던 개의 안락사, 가까운 지인들의 죽음 등과 같은 일상 속 슬픔을 요인으로 들 수 있다. 그래서 우리 주변 의 비활성인 개체에 감정을 불어넣어 삶과 죽음에 대해 깊은 생각, 그리고 그 경계에서 모든 자연적인 대상에 에너지를 생성하고 부활하려는 초월적 힘과 같은 그 무 엇을 원한듯하다. 이런 추측은, 보는 이의 상상력에 따라 후기회화에 표현된 오브제가 지니는 감정이 달리 해석되 ) post-purism은 - 년 사이로, mise au point에서 년을 기 준으로 회화주제를 나눌 정도로 중요한 시기이다. 년대 시적반 응을 일으키는 회화는 전영미, op.cit., pp. - 와 jean jenger, op.cit., p. 설명 참고바람. ) kenneth frampton, le corbusier, thames & hudson, london, . p. 듯, 마네킹과 같은 모티프는 초기회화 속 비인격적인 여 성의 몸을 부활시키는 상징으로서, 장갑은 생명의 따스 함, 조가비는 탄생 등과 같은 은유적인 표현들로 뒷받침 한다. 사물을 시적 대상으로 바라보고, 여기에 음악적 감 흥까지 더해지면서 점점 감각적으로 변화하는 후기회화 에서 주목할 부분은 추상적인 모습의 여성 옆에 명확한 선으로 화면을 분할한 자리에 ‘황소’가 등장하는 것이다. 이즈음 초현실주의 멤버들은 신화와 연금술에 흥미를 느 껴 황소를 다양한 시각에서 묘사한 내용을 잡지에 개제 하였는데 이때 르 코르뷔지에도 황소신화에 영향을 받았 다. 이는 그가 그린 황소가 초현실주의 화풍으로 그려진 피카소 )의 황소와 아주 흡사한 점에서 확인할 수 있다. 일반적으로 황소는 이중섭의 ‘소’ 그림처럼 작가 자아의 모습이다. 르 코르뷔지에도 황소를 년부터 수년간 시리즈로 그렸다. 처음엔 여성 옆에 나란히 앉아 있다가 어느 듯 여성의 모습과 형체가 섞여 폭력적인 황소로 변 모하기도 하고, 황소 각 부위가 분해되어 날아가는 모습 등 다양한 형체의 황소로 <그림 >처럼 변화하였다. 황소 외에 자아표현은 여성의 몸을 빌리기도 하고, 당 시 유명한 연극 주인공 위비를 ) 통해서, 혹은 새, 돌과 같은 다양한 화신으로 묘사했다. 따라서 후기회화에서 여성의 ‘몸’은 ‘몸’ 그 자체가 아니라 사상과 꿈을 일으키 는 도구로서 다른 것을 환기하는 기능을 한다. 환기의 궁극은 자아표현으로서 초현실주의 작가처럼 연금술과 범신론적 사상으로 몸의 내부를 새롭게 배열, 재현하면 서 여성의 ‘몸’을 제 의 혼종적인 형상으로 일원화했다. ) 르 코르뷔지에는 평소 피카소의 재능을 높이 인정하고 존중하였다 한다. 피카소의 황소머리 조형물과 년 석판화, 토템조각 등을 보면, 르 코르뷔지에의 황소시리즈와 석판화집 ‘직각의 시’ 화풍과 유사함을 알 수 있다. brassaï, conversations avec picasso, 피카 소와의 대화, 정수경역, 초판, 에코리브르, 서울, , p. 와 andré wogenscky, les mains de corbusier, 르 꼬르뷔제의 손, 이상림 옮김, 초판, 공간사, 서울, , p. 참고정리. ) alfred jarry( - )의 연극 ‘위비왕’에서 어리석음을 상징하는 주인공 위비를 자신으로 표현. 년 번째 ‘작품전집’에 실린다. 년 데생수첩에는 년 출판된 라블레의 pantagruel에 나오 는 식탁과 병을 그린 그림이 있다. 인간이 육체를 통해서 바라본 육화된 세계의 모습과 팡타그뤼엘의 그로테스크한 이미지들이 그 의 후기회화에 교묘하게 결합되어있다. 후기는 이렇게 문학과 연극 에 걸쳐 주요예술의 종합화를 추구했다. f.l.c., le symbolique, le sacré́, la spiritualité, éd. de la villette paris, . pp. - 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 일원화한 혼종적인 몸은 다시 뿔, 코, 손 등 몸의 각 부 위가 해체되어 육화 )된 몸의 형상으로 신성화하여, 또 다른 차원의 감각적인 세계를 창조한다. 이는 곧 후기 공간디자인의 정신으로 이어지는 사유의 근원이 된다. . . 여성의 몸에 대한 사유 ( ) 초현실적 사유 년경 피레네 오종마을에 은둔하던 시기는 미술사로 보면 초현실주의가 무르익은 때이다. 초현실주의자들은 전쟁을 겪으면서 뒤엉키는 인간의 욕망과 부조리 상황에 주목하였다. 이는 인간 누구나 꿈을 실현하고자하는 본연 의 모습을 ‘욕망(désir, 에로스)의 실현’ )으로 보는 프랑 스 실존주의 철학이론에 근거를 둔 것이다. 앞에서 언급 한 ‘시적 반응을 일으키는’ 대상을 그린 은유적 표현의 그 림에서부터, 그 은유로 르 코르뷔지에 자신의 내면에 있 는 자아표현이라는 ‘욕망’을 주목하면, 후기회화는 초현실 적 사유가 기본이 된다. 부연하면, ‘욕망의 실현’이라는 관 점에서 연맹회관과 같은 프로젝트가 무산된 후의 씁쓸함, 세간의 외면과 오해, 그리고 지인의 죽음 등으로 심적 고 통을 받으면서 무의식적으로 ‘힘을 가진 자아’ 혹은 ‘자기 애’로 자신을 스스로 위로하고 해명하려는 마음에서 기록 하듯이 초현실주의 사유로 그림을 그린 것이라 설명할 수 있다. 그는 그리스 신화를 좋아하긴 했지만, 언급한 바와 같이 자신의 화신으로서 황소를 오랜 시간에 걸쳐, 형태 를 변형하고, 신화 속 다양한 인물로 바꿔가면서 ‘힘 있는 자아’ 표현에 주력하였다. <표 >처럼 자아표현은 일찍이 베렌스의 영향 )으로 자신을 불멸의 힘을 지닌 독수리로 동일시했던 시절부터 시작된다. 이후 독수리 표현은 약간 음울한 이미지이지만, 자신의 이름과 연관된 ‘까마귀’로 바 뀌었다. 인도 찬디가르 의사당 정면에 걸린 벽화에는 까 마귀가 범(梵)의 화신처럼 자신이 다녀간 흔적으로 보이 는 사인이 있다. 이러한 까마귀, 독수리, 황소 등과 같은 화신은 영혼불멸의 힘을 지닌 무한한 존재로 초현실주의 작가들도 자주 다루는 주제였다. 그 중에서 황소는 과도 기에서 후기로 넘어오면서 어느덧 여성의 모습은 사라지 고 남성인지 여성의 몸인지 구분 할 수 없는 제 의 황소 모습 하나의 형태로 변화한다. 제 의 황소모습은 자신의 몸과 타인의 몸이라는 구분과 경계를 없애면서 초월적인 자아의 욕망이 분출하여 창조된 혼종적인 몸이다. ) 조윤경, op. cit., p. ) le corbusier, la maison des hommes, 인간의 집, 손세욱, 스페 이스타임, 서울, p. , 거장의 도표 참고. ) kenneth frampton, op.cit., pp. - 과 f.l.c., op. cit., p. , 참고. 이미지 특성 독 수 리 좌) 년, 부모에게 보낸 카드에 자신을 독 수리로 표현. 우)태양 아래 끊임없이 선회하는 독수리로 니체의 영원회귀 법칙의 전형을 묘사. 찬디가르 의사당 벽화 중 일부 발췌. 황 소 좌) taureau iii, 년 작. 우) 직각의 詩 알파벳c층의 몸(chair, 육체, 살)을 나타내는 곳에 황소형상을 한 악마 벨 제부브를 자신의 분신으로 표현한 도상. 까 마 귀 좌)자신이 장 퍼티와 함께 다녀감을 알리는 듯 까마귀로 사인을 한 부분. 찬디가르 의사 당 출입구 에나멜벽화 중 일부 발췌. 우) unité, 년 작. 현 자 의 돌 좌)조개껍질을 시작으로, 바다의 돌은 연금술 의 최종 목적인 ‘현자의 돌’로 변화한 직각의 시b 스케치. 우)여인과 소라, , 직각의 시 c층 도상. 위 비 어리석음 상징하는 위비왕을 자신으로 표현 한 조각. 좌) ubu, 우) ubu, 다색채 조각 습작, <표 > 후기회화에서 자아표현 혼종적인 몸은 몸의 특정부위가 강조되거나, 해체, 다시 융합하는 재구성 과정을 거쳐 영원히 새로워지는 몸으로 거듭난다. 일종의 순환이고 윤회이다. 그의 유명한 ‘열린 손’은 몸의 부위가 파편화하면서 기존가치와 현실을 전 복시키는 동시에 우리의 내면을 다시 바라보게 하는 메 시지가 담겨있다. 이렇게 몸의 일부로 육화된 메시지는 ‘몸’이 지니는 현실과 형이상학적인 차원을 융합한다. 조 윤경의 책에서 조르주 말킨, 앙드레 마송 등과 같은 초 현실주의 화가들의 그림에서 한 무리를 이루는 나체의 여성은 자연풍경과 동일시된다고 한다. 르 코르뷔지에와 마지막까지 대화를 나눈 브로샤이의 작품에도 풍경으로 변신한 누드사진이 있다. ) 이러한 경향은 전후 황폐화 된 국토를 다시 복원하고자 풍경화를 회화주제로 전시했 던 화단의 영향도 있지만, 여성의 ‘몸’을 대지, 바다, 창 공의 풍경과 같은 자연으로 은유하여 <그림 >처럼 자 연과 몸 사이에 주체와 객체라는 의식과 무의식의 간격 과 경계를 없앤 완전한 합일체로 자연을 바라본 시각이 다. 어쩌면 르 코르뷔지에가 아크로폴리스의 높은 장소 에서 아래로 넓게 펼쳐지는 시선에서 받은 감응이 이와 ) 조윤경, op.cit, p. 와 brassaï, op. cit., p. 참고. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > 뿔 달린 여성의 다양한 모습 ①번 유니콘 여인과 검은 황소, 년도 미상 ②번 알제의 시 표지, 년 ③번 직각의 시 d 도상, - ④번 너의 손에 나의 날개를 달아줘, 년 작. <그림 > 르코르뷔지에 그림에서 몸과 풍경의 일체화 과정 ①번 파란 수영복을 입고 옆으로 누워있는 여인, 년 습작 ②번 deux figures en gris, 년 작 ③번 둘 사이(entre-deux) 번 석판화, 여성의 몸이 외부로 나와 대지와 함께 풍경으로 변화. ④번 변화한 풍경을 배경으로 픽처레스크한 창을 통해 사유한다. 같을 것이라 짐작해본다. 이러한 예증은 여성의 ‘몸’이 서 있는 자세에서 누운 자세로 바뀌면서 자연의 유연한 굴곡처럼 악기형태로 보이기도하고, 몸과 배경을 이루는 풍경처럼 자연과 혼연일체가 되는 제 의 선으로 그려진 그림에서 볼 수 있다. ‘몸’과 ‘풍경’의 일체화는 언급한 픽 처레스크한 창을 통해서 그리고 롱샹성당의 언덕 진입로 에서부터 느껴지는 형언 할 수 없는 감응처럼, 자연과 몸 과 건축의 완전한 일체에서 느껴지는 현상적인 것이다. ( ) 일원적 사유 후기에 들어 르 코르뷔지에의 민족주의 사유는 피카소 의 권유로 잠시 프랑스 공산당에 가입하여 파시즘으로 흘렀지만, 곧 민족의 ‘하나됨’을 지향하는 사고를 보였다. 이는 그의 애국심 발로로 볼 수 있지만, 당시 민족성을 영혼인 동시에 육체로 보고, 둘을 합쳐 하나로 된 영혼 을 민족의 정신적 원리로 주장한 르낭의 민족주의를 수 용한 듯하다. 특히 가정이 확장된 것을 사회적 집단이라 고 정의하며, 조상들에 대한 숭배를 가정의례로 강조한 르낭의 민족적 감정에 그는 같은 생각을 보였다. ) 예를 들면 자신의 이름 르(le)가 태양을 의미한다거나, 본명 샤를르(charles)는 성(聖) 로쿠스 (라틴어:카를로)와 같은 성인의 후예 )로서 로쿠스의 아이콘인 ‘가리비’를 자신의 묘소나 롱샹성당에 사인처럼 넣는 등, 후기에 들어 조상 의 종교와 관련한 도상이나 자료들이 많은 점에서 느낄 수 있다. 일찍이 동방여행에서 ‘종족은 달라도 인간 본연 의 모습은 같다’는 그의 인본주의 인간관을 보인 기록도 있지만 ), 다른 한편으로 무한한 우주 속에 인간의 무능 과 나약함을 자각하여 그리스도교의 성인처럼 초월적인 자아를 꿈꾸며 신성과 닮아가려 한 것은 아닌지 생각해 보게 한다. 그래서 욕망의 실현이라는 관점에서 초월적 자아를 꿈꾸던 사유가 민족과 조상, 그리고 자신의 종교 를 돌아봄으로써 신과 같은 존재의 강력한 힘으로 거듭 ) renan, e., op.cit., pp. - , 르낭의 유럽중심의 민족주의와 종교 관, 의식, 가정의례에 관한 내용 참고바람. ) 林 美佐著, op. cit., p. 와 kenneth frampton, op.cit., p. “my origins lie...(중략) the name jeanneret is...(중략) we are albigensians...(중략)" 참조 ) jean jenger, op. cit., p. 나고 부활의 의지도 함께 더해진 듯하다. 이러한 욕구는 신화와 연금술로 응축된 후기회화의 다양한 모티프에서 여러 정체성을 담지한 몸의 형태로 읽을 수 있다. 년에서 년까지 작업한 그의 석판화 집, ‘직각의 시’ 구성 체계 )의 중앙에 ‘내 가정의 수호천사’의 이미지로 거대한 손에 덮인 한 쪽 날개를 가진 뿔 달린 여성이 등 장한다. 그의 부인 이본느를 의미화한 것이다. 뿔이 달린 여성은 년 ‘알제의 시’의 표지에도 나타난다. 현실과 상상의 세계를 아우르며, 옆으로 날아가기도 하고, 수직 으로 오르내리며 하늘의 빛깔로 동화한다. 이때 여성의 몸은 현실적인 육체를 잃고 곧 풍경이 되기도 한다. 이 렇게 후기는 초기회화에서 정신과 몸으로 이원화한 세계 관이 확장된 연금술에 의해, 정신과 몸이 융합되어 새로 운 의미를 지닌 한 몸을 이루고, 마치 성상화를 보듯 신 성한 거듭나기로 이어진다. 부연하면, 뿔 달린 여성은 <그림 >처럼 연금술로 변형된 황소처럼 대립하던 남성 과 여성이 하나로 융합하여 얻어진 새로운 창조물이라 할 수 있다. 이렇게 남성과 여성, 인간과 자연, 신과 인간 등 대립 하는 것의 ‘일치’라는 것은 어떤 의미에서 보면, 대립하 는 것들의 ‘공존과 소통’을 상징하고 곧 존재의 근원은 하나임을 암시한다. 르 코르뷔지에 인생 후반부는 이렇 게 그의 내면적인 욕망에 따른 깊은 사유를 연금술사적 은유법으로 보여준다 해도 과언이 아니다. ‘직각의 시’ 에 적힌 詩에는 피카소의 연금술적인 詩처럼 현자의 돌 을 꿈꾸며, 내적인 자기갱신을 위한 그의 욕망을 영지주 의 사유 )로 표현하기도 한다. 빛과 어둠의 원리에 따른 부활이 핵심이다. 전술한 까마귀는 전통적 연금술에서, ‘창조자가 되기 위해 언제나 파괴하여야하는 것’처럼 부 활하기 위해 선행해야하는 죽음과 같은 암흑을 상징한 다. 유럽신화에서 까마귀는 선과 악의 경계를 드나들며, 신의 전령을 전하는 헤르메스 같은 존재로 여긴다. ) 이 ) 전영미, op .cit., pp. - 직각의 시 구성 체계 및 도상 설명 참조 ) f.l.c., op. cit., p. 에서 오르페우스교(l'orphism)와 관련된 영지 주의가 그의 사유에 깊은 영향을 미친다. ) 르 코르뷔지에의 애칭 까마귀는 유럽에서 길조와 전쟁이나 죽음을 예고하는 흉조로도 나타난다. 그리스 신화에서 태양신 아폴론이 종 종 까마귀로 변하는 등, 동양에서도 태양토템 관련 ‘삼족오’신화와 태양을 상징하는 성스런 새로 전령이나 수호자, 영혼관념과 결합한 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . <그림 > ①번 둘 사이 번 석판화(손, 위비, 까마귀의 합일 표현) 년 ②번 유니테 다비타시옹, - 년 ③번 롱샹성당, - 년 ④번 라투렛 수도원, - 년 <그림 > ①번 ‘직각의 시’ e. 도상 ‘성격’에서 자신을 돌아보면서 아기를 앉고 있는 마리아에게 간절한 마음을 기원하는 삽화 ②, ③, ④번 롱샹성당( - 년)의 종탑에서 내려오는 빛과 어둠 속에서 마리아를 향한 간절함으로, 자기갱신과 지복을 구하는 기도실 러한 상징과 르 코르뷔지에를 니체주의자로 분류하는 기 록을 근거 )로, 차라투스트라의 알레고리 중 인간에게 다시 돌아가 영원회귀 사유를 알려야 하는 방랑자의 운 명을 자신으로 생각하여 자신의 애칭을 까마귀(코르보, corbeau)로 한 것 아닌지 짐작해 본다. 어찌되었든 후기 회화의 핵심은 여성의 ‘몸’을 통하여 모든 것의 근원은 같으며, 대립의 일치 즉, ‘둘이면서 하나’ 임을 깨닫는 사 유가 담겨있다. 그래서 어머니 자궁으로의 회귀처럼 롱 샹성당은 그 자체가 하나의 큰 생명체로서 연금술사가 물질을 변형하여 완벽한 물질을 얻듯이 <그림 >처럼 ‘빛’과 ‘어둠’이 서로 공존하며 신적인 힘이 무한으로 이 어지는 영원회귀의 장소이다. ( ) 현상적 사유 전술한 ‘초월’과 ‘혼종’ 등은 인간의 순수한 의식이 독 립된 주체로서 끈임 없이 사물세계와 교섭하고 일체화하 면서 생겨나는 감각적인 현상들이다. 이런 감각적 현상 과 의식들은 실재하지 않기에 대개 예술가의 눈을 통해 서 관조되고 체험하게 된다. 르 코르뷔지에는 피레네 산 맥의 작은 마을 오종에서 토템과 오종, 위비 등을 조각 하면서 현상적 이미지를 실험하였다. 초현실주의 화가들 처럼 배열된 ‘몸’의 체계를 무너뜨려 특정부분을 강조하 거나 해체하기도 하고, 육화된 형태로 신의 소리를 듣듯 이 소리를 내보내고 듣는 청각적인 현상을 주로 실험하 였다. 이러한 실험은 ‘몸’의 감각과 지각에 의한 공간과 의 소통을 위해 한 것이지만, 여기에는 청각적인, 공간적 인, 영적인 등의 조사가 붙여지는 ‘공간의 의미화’로 이 어진다. 이런 측면에서 그가 토템이나 위비조각을 통하 여 본 궁극의 사유는 ‘세계’와 ‘의식’(사유)이 겹치는 부 분을 ‘몸’으로 보는 퐁티의 ‘몸의 현상학’ )과 관련이 깊 다. 간략하면, 나를 둘러싸고 있는 주위 환경, 즉, 주체가 되는 ‘나’의 밖에 있는 일체의 외부환경을 ‘세계’로 보고, 상징적 의미를 지닌다. 아울러 고흐의 그림에서도 까마귀는 부정적 연상이 아니다. 농부나 씨 뿌리는 사람, 밀 혹은 밀밭과 함께 등장 함으로써 죽음과 소생 모두를 시사하며, 자연의 순환의 일부로서 죽음과 부활의 순환을 상징한다. 인터넷 자료 정리. ) 년 르 코르비지에는 밑줄쳐가며 니체의 ‘자라투스트라는 이렇 게 말하였다’를 읽었다한다. kenneth frampton, op.cit., p. ) 조광제, op. cit., p. 그 세계와 인간(몸)의 관계는 패각류처럼 뗄 수 없는 관 계로서 함께 변화하고 성장하게 된다. 이때 ‘몸’에 의해 직접 체험되는 가시적인 자연을 진짜 자연으로 간주하는 것인데, 이를 ‘현상으로서의 자연’이라고 표현한다. 르 코 르뷔지에의 후기 공간디자인에서 자주 나오는 ‘형언 할 수 없는 공간’(l'espace indicible) )은 이런 현상적인 자 연이 최적화한 공간에서 느껴지는 우리 몸의 지각반응을 언어화한 것이다. 이는 정신과 혼융된 ‘몸’에서 지각되는 것이 아니라, 주어진 세계와 관계하는 ‘상황속의 몸’이 지각하는 것으로서, 상반되는 모든 개념들이 일치되었을 때 느껴지는 사유의 일종이다. 여기에 베르그송의 지속 개념이 개입하면, 그 세계 안에서 대응하고 운동하는 몸 이 되는 것이다. 이처럼 현상적인 것은 ‘몸’을 통해 지각 되고 관계 맺어지는 것으로서, ‘시적 반응을 일으키는’ 그 반응이 일어날 때, 주변의 반작용에서 느껴지는 미묘 한 질서, 그 상황을 예술작품으로 승화시킨 르 코르뷔지 에의 감각 역시 현상적인 것이다. 그의 인생 마무리 단 계에서 ‘둘 사이’(entre-deux) )라는 회화와 ‘해명’(mise au point)이라는 책에 본고에서 언급한 사유의 단초들이 총망라 되어있다. <그림 >에서처럼 ‘둘 사이’라는 회화 의 메시지는 ‘연결’(reliés, 교감)이다. 공간디자인에서 연 결, 교감이라는 키워드들은 공간과 인간이라는 극단적으 로 나누어진 감각의 세계가 그가 그린 깍지 낀 손의 형 태처럼 서로 융합하여 합일을 이룰 때 이루어진다. 이때 몸의 지각이 체험하는 것이 세계를 사유하는 근원으로 작용한다. 그래서 우리가 롱샹성당을 니체의 디오니소스 적 공간이라 표현하기도 하고, 플라스틱 음향학적 공간이 라 부르는 것은 공간과 몸이 융화된 현상 속에서 공명하 는 우리 몸의 지각놀이를 언어화 한 것으로 볼 수 있다. . 결론 본고는 회화에 그려진 여성의 ‘몸’을 통해서 르 코르뷔 지에의 인생전반에 걸친 다양한 사유의 흐름을 추적한 ) 전영미, op.cit.,pp. - 형언할 수 없는 공간 해석 및 전영미, 르 코르뷔지에 회화를 통해 본 롱샹성당의 공간디자인변화에 관한 연 구, 기초조형학회 vol. no , , p. 부연설명 참고바람. ) entre-deux는 점의 석판화로 년 인쇄. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 것으로 다음과 같이 정리 할 수 있다. 첫째, 초기회화에서 여성은 대전 이후, 민족주의적 사 유에 의해서 가부장적인 시선으로 여성을 비인격적인 존 재로 보았고, 생명을 잉태하고 생산하는 어머니는 우주 의 근원으로서 모성신화적인 존경의 대상으로 보았다. 그래서 초기회화는 여성이미지에 투영된 어머니로서의 여성숭배와 남성과 대립하는 여성의 이원적인 사유가 바 탕이 되었다. 그리고 벌거벗은 강인한 여성을 민족과 가 정을 지키는 순수한 인간의 모습으로 보고, 그러한 ‘몸’ 의 움직임을 기계미학으로 보편화한 것이 그의 에스프리 누보임을 알 수 있었다. 둘째, 후기회화는 초월적인 힘을 가진 자아표현이 핵 심이었다. 두 차례의 전쟁을 통해 그는 니체처럼 선과 악을 이분법으로 나누지 않고 선 악 저편에 있는 것을 이상으로 삼았기에, 제 의 혼종적인 몸을 창조하였다. 혼종적인 몸은 이원론적 사유의 확장이라 볼 수 있으며, 이를 연금술로 모든 사물의 구분과 경계를 없애면서 사 물을 하나로 일치하고, 일치된 하나의 모습이 다시 파편 화하여 영원히 새로워지는 육화된 ‘몸’으로 거듭나는 자 아표현을 하였다. 이는 곧 화가 장느레와 건축가 르코르 뷔지에는 둘이면서 하나이고 그의 회화나 공간디자인 작 품으로서 우리와 영원히 ‘연결’(reliés, 교감)되고 거듭나 고 있음을 재확인한 것이다. 아울러 건축가로서 다방면 의 지식인과 예술가를 만나 체험한 의식은 그의 공간디 자인을 형언할 수 없는 차원의 경지로 이끌듯이 본고를 통해서 문화, 사회, 예술을 통섭한 사유로 그의 공간을 바라본다면 또 다른 창조의 단초를 발견하게 될 것이라 결론짓는다. 참고문헌 . 이지훈, 예술과 연금술, 초판, 창비, 파주, . 임석재, 기계가 된 몸과 현대 건축의 탄생, 초판, 인물과 사상 사, 서울, . 조광제, 몸의 세계, 세계의 몸, 초판 쇄, 이학사, 서울, . 조윤경, 초현실주의와 몸의 상상력, 초판, 문학과 지성사, 서울, . andré wogenscky, les mains de corbusier, 르 꼬르뷔제의 손, 이상림 옮김, 초판, 공간사, 서울, . brassaï, conversations avec picasso, 피카소와의 대화, 정수경 역, 초판, 에코리브르, 서울, . jean jenger, le corbusier, l'architecture pour émouvoir, 르 코르뷔지에․인간을 위한 건축, 김교신 역, 초판, 시공사, 서울, . le corbusier, la maison des hommes, 인간의 집, 손세욱 역, 초판, 스페이스타임, 서울, . le corbusier, mise au point, 르코르뷔지에의 사유, 정진국 옮 김, 초판, 열화당, 파주, . renan, e. ( ). qu'est-ce qu'une nation? 신행선 옮김, 민 족이란 무엇인가. 초판, 책세상, 서울, . robert root-bernstein 외 인, spark of genius, 생각의 탄생, 박종성 옮김, 에코의 서재, 서울, . s. von moos, le corbusier-element einer synthese, 르꼬르뷔 제의 생애, 최창길·예명해 공역, 기문당, 서울, . f.l.c., le symbolique, le sacré́, la spiritualité, éd. de la villette paris, . kenneth frampton, le corbusier, thames & hudson, london, . le corbusier, le corbusier une encyclopédie, centre georges pompidou, paris, . nicholas fox weber, c'était le corbusier, fayard, paris, . le corbusier, le dessin comme outil, éd. fage, lyon, . 林 美佐著, 再発見／ル コルビュジエの絵画と建築, 版, 東京, 彰国社, . 이슬비, 르 코르뷔지에의 작업에 나타난 민족주의적 특성, 이화 여자대 석사논문, . 전영미, 르 코르뷔지에 회화와 공간디자인의 상호관련에 관한 연구, 한국실내디자인학회 제 권 호, . 전영미, 르 코르뷔지에 회화를 통해 본 롱샹성당의 공간디자인 변화에 관한 연구, 기초조형학회, vol. no , . 전영미. 르 코르뷔지에 공간디자인에 표현된 회화의식 연구, 동 아대 박사논문, . www.fondationlecorbusier.fr . www.galeriezlotowski.fr www.labellerevue.blogspot.kr . www.place-des-arts.com/fr . www.sdrc.lib.uiowa.edu/dada/elan/ /index.htm . www.voila.fr [논문접수 : . ] [ 차 심사 : . . ] [게재확정 : . . ] avant / niestymulująca tradycja wpływ temperamentu na preferencje w sztuce joanna rządkowska, alicja paracka, natalia frankowska w tekście zostały przedstawione wyniki badań nad wpływem temperamentu na preferencje dotyczące sztuk. preferencje te zależą od wielu zmiennych osobowościowych. opisane badanie było powtórzeniem badań prowadzonych w nurcie teorii opanowywania trwogi (tot), z ujęciem struktur temperamentu jako różnic indywidualnych. wyniki ujawniły znaczne różnice w preferowaniu sztuki tradycyjnej i nowoczesnej, zależnie od stopnia harmonizacji struktur temperamentalnych. sangwinicy i melancholicy w warunkach kontrolnych oceniali najwyżej sztukę nowoczesną, zaś w warunkach eksperymentalnych (mających wywołać u badanych poczucie lęku) najwyżej oceniali sztukę tradycyjną. wyniki potwierdzają wpływ różnic indywidualnych, a także zmiennych sytuacyjnych, na preferencje dotyczące sztuki. wstęp teoretyczny psychologowie tacy jak burt ( ) i eysenck ( ) jako jedni z pierwszych podjęli się badań nad związkiem osobowości z preferencjami dotyczącymi sztuki. w ostatnich latach ukazały się – między innymi – wyniki badań: furnham’a i avison ( ), furnham’a i walker’a ( ) zwiegenhafta ( ), axelssona ( ), które badają relację osobowości z preferencjami muzycznymi czy plastycznymi (również tymi dotyczącymi fotografii). avant / | www.avant.umk.pl open access niestymulująca tradycja większość nowoczesnych metod badawczych korzysta z teorii wielkiej piątki (ekstrawersja, ugodowość, sumienność, neurotyzm i otwartość na doświadczenia), stosowanej od lat -tych ubiegłego wieku (chamorro- premuzic, furnham, reimers ). badania te unaoczniają, że chęć obcowania ze sztuką jest związana z otwartością na doświadczenie (tamże). niektóre badania wskazują na związek między poszukiwaniem doznań (thrill and adventure seeking) a preferencją odnoszącą się do sztuki reprezentacyjnej: przedstawiającej głównie klasyczne, charakteryzujące się subtelną symboliką kompozycje (furnham, walker ). natomiast inne publikacje próbują udowodnić, że poszukiwanie wrażeń (sensation seeking) jest powiązane z wyborem sztuki surrealistycznej oraz odrzuceniem sztuki reprezentacyjnej (furnham i avison ). powyższe stwierdzenia potwierdzają badania terenowe (mastandrea, bartoli, bove ), podczas których przy pomocy odpowiedniego kwestionariusza przeanalizowano osobowość gości odwiedzających muzea sztuki starożytnej i nowoczesnej. okazało się, że wszyscy zwiedzający nie różnili się pod względem otwartości na doświadczenia. jednakże ludzie zwiedzający muzeum sztuki nowoczesnej osiągnęli wyższe wyniki w skali poszukiwania wrażeń. sygnalizuje to być może, że otwartość na doświadczenie decyduje o tym, czy w ogóle lubimy sztukę i tym samym będziemy pojawiać się w muzeum, natomiast sam temperament determinuje wybór poszczególnych tendencji artystycznych. cechy wielkiej piątki rzadko uzasadniają więcej niż % wariancji (zmienności wyników) (chamorro-premuzic, furnham, reimers ). cecha „poszukiwanie doznań” tłumaczy najwięcej wariancji: plasuje się ona na dwóch krańcach skali, jeśli chodzi o sztukę nowoczesną i tradycyjną. warto zwrócić uwagę na zmienne związane z poziomem pożądanej stymulacji, gdy pragniemy wytłumaczyć preferencje odnośnie sztuki. strelau ( ) pisze, że temperament odnosi się do formalnych i względnie niezmiennych cech osobowości. zgodnie z regulacyjną teorią niestymulująca tradycja temperamentu (rtt) składa się on z sześciu elementów składowych: żwawości, perseweratywności, wrażliwości sensorycznej, reaktywności emocjonalnej, wytrzymałości i aktywności (strelau ). z rozważań tych wynika, że temperament – jako instancja psychiczna regulująca dopływ oraz odporność na stymulacje – może mieć jakiś pośredni wpływ na preferencje bodźców wzrokowych (w tym także i sztuki). co więcej, autor sugeruje, że na podstawie owych cech można wydzielić dwa typy osobowości: zharmonizowany (umiejący zapewnić sobie optymalną dawkę stymulacji; w typologii hipokratesa-galena odpowiadają mu sangwinicy i melancholicy) i niezharmonizowany (niepotrafiący właściwie dozować sobie stymulacji; odpowiednio: cholerycy i flegmatycy). wielu badaczy sugerowało powiązania między sztuką i różnymi typami emocji oraz nastrojów. warto omówić ten związek w kontekście teorii rtt, która zawiera istotny komponent emocjonalny: przekonuje ona mianowicie, że emocje mogą być istotnym źródłem stymulacji. koneĉni ( ) uważa, że najbardziej autentycznymi, choć rzadkimi stanami wywołanymi przez muzykę mogą być: estetyczny podziw, poruszenie lub dreszczyk emocji (aesthetic awe, being moved and thrill). koresponduje to w jakimś stopniu z wymienioną wcześniej koncepcją furnhama i walkera ( ), która sugeruje, że poszukiwanie doznań ( thrill and adventure seeking) może być powiązane z percepcją sztuki czy poszukiwaniem stymulacji. silvia ( ) poddaje krytyce starsze koncepcje łączące emocje estetyczne z pobudliwością (arousability), przykładowo: odrzuca poglądy berlyne’a (za: silvia ). tłumaczy zarazem swoją krytykę tym, iż teorie berlyne’a opierają się na podłożu psychobiologicznym i uwzględniają tylko dwie emocje: przyjemność oraz awersję (związane z obszarami kar i nagród w mózgu); berlyne nie bierze w ogóle pod uwagę tematyki indywidualnego odbioru sztuki (silvia ). niestymulująca tradycja silvia odwołuje się do teorii oceny (appraisal theory), która postuluje, że złożone lub nieoczekiwane dzieło sztuki nie wystarczy, aby wzbudzić emocjonalną odpowiedź. powinno ono być uznane przez postrzegającego za złożone, jak również poddane ocenie dotyczącej tego, w jakim stopniu sobie z tą złożonością poradziło (ibid.). mając na względzie te informacje, przyjmujemy, że każde dzieło sztuki posiada pewien potencjał stymulacyjny. w naszym badaniu będziemy traktować sztukę tradycyjną jako mniej złożoną i stymulującą niż sztuka nowoczesna. analogicznie do założeń z zakresu teorii opanowywania trwogi oraz „amebowej teorii ja” (burris, rempel ; landau, greenberg, solomon, pyszczynski, martens ) zakładamy, że osoby, u których wzbudzimy lęk, zmienią swoje preferencje odnośnie dzieł sztuki. zmiana ta ma być uwarunkowana tym, że ich stymulacyjna dawka będzie większa. zakładamy również, że lęk może wzbudzić poczucie zagrożenia (burris, rempel ), które może prowadzić do wyboru bardziej tradycyjnej i „znanej” sztuki. z drugiej strony brak wzbudzania lęku może zwiększać uznanie dla sztuki nieznanej, złożonej lub „obcej” (landau, greenberg, solomon, pyszczynski, martens ). metoda przebieg badania i osoby badane uczestników badania rekrutowano na terenie trójmiejskiej uczelni. większość to studenci uniwersytetu gdańskiego, szkoły wyższej psychologii społecznej w warszawie oddział w sopocie oraz politechniki gdańskiej, ponadto kilku badanych to uczniowie liceum ogólnokształcącego w kartuzach. Łącznie w badaniu wzięło udział osób. niestymulująca tradycja zastosowane narzędzia psychometryczne w badaniach dokonano pomiaru cech temperamentalnych, stanu i cech lęku oraz poziomu zainteresowania prezentowanymi dziełami sztuki, co było warunkiem wprowadzenia lub niewprowadzenia badanych w stan lęku oraz zobiektywizowaną ocenę atrakcyjności dzieł sztuki. do pomiaru cech temperamentalnych zastosowano kwestionariusz fcz-kt (formalna charakterystyka zachowania – kwestionariusz temperamentu) (strelau i zawadzki ), diagnozujący podstawowe, biologicznie zdeterminowane wymiary osobowości, które opisują formalne aspekty zachowania. test ten zawiera skal dotyczących: Żwawości, perseweratywności, wrażliwości sensorycznej, reaktywności emocjonalnej, wytrzymałości oraz aktywności. inwentarz stanu i cechy lęku (sosnowski, wrześniewski, jaworowska, ferenc ) służył do rozróżnienia lęku: a) jako chwilowego stanu emocjonalnego (state - anxiety); b) oraz lęku rozumianego jako utrzymująca się, trwała cecha osobowości. kwestionariusz stai składa się z dwóch niezależnych części, które zawierają po stwierdzeń każda. przy pomocy pierwszej części stai (x- ) można badać poziom lęku traktowanego jako aktualny stan emocjonalny. do badania oceny atrakcyjności zastosowano przygotowaną do tego ankietę, która obejmuje piętnaście pozycji. ankieta sondowała poziom atrakcyjności prezentowanych dzieł sztuki na pięciostopniowej skali likerta. w badaniu zastosowano również dwa filmy krótkometrażowe stworzone przez autorów badania: kontrolny (nie wzbudzający lęku) oraz eksperymentalny (mający wywoływać lęk). obrazy podlegające ocenie tworzyły trzy kategorie i przedstawiano je losowo w postaci slajdów. na te kategorie składały się obrazy zgromadzone na podstawie cech wspólnych: tematyki, ogólnej konwencji i stylu. założono, że każda z podanych kategorii jest źródłem odmiennego rodzaju stymulacji. niestymulująca tradycja wykorzystano następujące kategorie i dzieła malarskie: sztuka tradycyjna/konwencjonalna: pieter boel, large vanitas still life, ignacy henri theodore-fantin latour, the rosy wealth of june, théodore rousseau, fontainebleau, titian, portrait of the man, eugene brudin, laundresses by a stream; sztuka kubistyczna: georges braque, le portugais, juan gris, bottles and knife, pablo picasso, siedząca naga kobieta, georges braque, blue bird, philip absolon, cassie thinking about cubism; oraz sztuka modernistyczna: gilbert and george, bloody mooning, andy warhol, skull, salvador dali, premonition of civil war, francis bacon, figure with meat, andy warhol, heinz box. procedura podstawą wyników opisywanych w tym opracowaniu jest badanie przeprowadzone przez studentki psychologii wiosną roku (był to projekt realizowany na potrzeby przedmiotu: „praca empiryczna i”). badanie to miało charakter quasi-eksperymentu. zastosowany pakiet narzędzi diagnostycznych używany był w odpowiedniej i ustalonej kolejności. przed podaniem kwestionariuszy badani byli przydzielani losowo do grup: kontrolnej oraz eksperymentalnej. następnie uczestnicy dostali do wypełnienia kwestionariusz fcz-kt, po czym zostali poproszeni o obejrzenie dwuminutowego filmu: kontrolnego albo wzbudzającego lęk. projekcję za każdym razem uruchamiał prowadzący, każdy z badanych miał zapewniony identyczny poziom głośności. kolejnym krokiem było wypełnienie przez badanych części x- kwestionariusza stai. po wypełnieniu arkusza badani oglądali pokaz slajdów, który składał się z zdjęć dzieł sztuki, a następnie oceniali je w przygotowanej do tej czynności ankiecie. o celu badania informowano jedynie wówczas, gdy badani wyrazili wyraźne zainteresowanie. odpowiadano, że badanie dotyczy analizy wpływu różnych rodzajów stymulacji na wrażliwość sensoryczną i emocjonalną. niestymulująca tradycja wyniki w celu sprawdzenia zależności między zmiennymi przeprowadzono analizę korelacji pearsona, która wykazała zależność pomiędzy oceną sztuki abstrakcyjnej oraz nowoczesnej na poziomie: r = . , p < . . nie uzyskano natomiast korelacji między zmiennymi: oceną sztuki nowoczesnej oraz oceną sztuki tradycyjnej (p = . ), co oznacza, że skale te są od siebie niezależne. korelacja potwierdzająca przesłanki teoretyczne to ujemny związek między oceną sztuki nowoczesnej a wynikami stai (x- ) na poziomie r = . , p < . . w celu weryfikacji zakładanych hipotez przeprowadzono wieloczynnikową analizę wariancji w modelu mieszanym. uzyskano istotne statystyczne efekty interakcji i efekty główne, zarówno dla typów zharmonizowanych i niezharmonizowanych. dla typów zharmonizowanych istotny okazał się efekt interakcji obu czynników: f ( , ) = . , p < . , eta = . , który oznacza, że preferencje w sztuce zależały od warunku eksperymentalnego. oznacza to, że o ile osoby ryc : preferencje typów zharmonizowanych wobec rodzajów sztuki. niestymulująca tradycja o typach zharmonizowanych w warunkach kontrolnych oceniały jednakowo wysoko każdy rodzaj sztuki, to po wzbudzeniu lęku wyraźnie preferowały sztukę tradycyjną m = . , mniej abstrakcyjną m = . , a najmniej nowoczesną m = . , ps < . (wyniki przedstawia ryc. ). co ciekawe, typy niezharmonizowane, niezależnie od warunku zawsze preferowały sztukę tradycyjną, zaś abstrakcyjną i nowoczesną oceniały równie nisko (wyniki przedstawia ryc. ). dyskusja zakładany związek między temperamentem a preferencjami dotyczącymi sztuki okazał się niejednoznaczny i zależny od sytuacji. wyniki temperamentów niezharmonizowanych (choleryków i flegmatyków) nie różniły się w warunkach eksperymentalnych i kontrolnych, co może być spowodowane nieelastycznością tych typów, charakteryzujących się nieumiejętnością dostarczania sobie właściwej dawki stymulacji (zawadzki i strelau ). reakcje typów zharmonizowanych (melancholików oraz ryc : preferencje typów niezharmonizowanych wobec rodzajów sztuki. niestymulująca tradycja sangwiników) znacznie różniły się zależnie od sytuacji. w niewzbudzających lęku warunkach kontrolnych nie było różnic między preferencjami rodzajów sztuki, natomiast w warunkach eksperymentalnych (po wywołaniu lęku) rosło uznanie dla sztuki tradycyjnej, zaś spadało dla sztuki nowoczesnej. może to świadczyć o elastyczności zachowania i umiejętności dostarczania sobie właściwej dawki stymulacji. zróżnicowanie między sangwinikami i melancholikami nie jest jednoznaczne. mniejsze zainteresowanie względem sztuki nowoczesnej u melancholików w warunku eksperymentalnym dosyć jednoznacznie świadczy o potrzebie ograniczenia stymulacji. ale czy wzrost zainteresowania dla sztuki tradycyjnej u sangwiników to odstymulowanie czy dostymulowanie się? czy sztuka tradycyjna podwyższa, czy może obniża aktywację układu nerwowego? i wreszcie: jeśli podwyższa, to dlaczego ten efekt nie występuje w warunku kontrolnym? w kontekście teorii opanowania trwogi (landau, greenberg, solomon, pyszczynski, martens ) nie przewidywano wzrostu zainteresowania dla sztuki tradycyjnej, którą jednak odnotowano w naszym badaniu. badacze promujący tot odrzucali także aktywację układu nerwowego jako możliwe wytłumaczenie zmian w percepcji sztuki, dowodząc, że to tylko lęk jako taki ( anxiety) – a nie pobudzenie (arousal) – prowadził do zmian w percepcji sztuki. w niniejszym badaniu założono jednak za strelauem ( ), iż pobudzenie oraz poziom stymulacji w sytuacji eksperymentalnej wpływał na to, w jaki sposób badani reagowali na dzieła sztuki. aby dowieść, jakie typy stymulacji rzeczywiście wpływają na percepcję sztuki, a jakie nie – należałoby przeprowadzić kolejne badania. odnośnie tego, co koneĉni ( ) pisał o różnych emocjach wywoływanych przez muzykę, wydaje się interesujące następujące pytanie: czy lęk zainicjowany filmem i doznania budzone przez dzieła sztuki mogą być pewną klasą emocji, czymś podobnym do poruszenia lub dreszczyku wrażeń (being moved and thrilled)? uczucia te mogłyby korespondować z poszukiwaniem doznań zuckerman’a i zostać powiązane z wymiarami temperamentalnymi. mógłby o tym świadczyć fakt, że oglądanie filmu wywołującego niepokój wpłynęło na sposób, w jaki ludzie postrzegali różne kierunki czy prądy w sztuce. niestymulująca tradycja silvia ( ) apelował, odwołując się do teorii oceny, że istotne jest uwzględnienie subiektywnej percepcji sztuki. w teorii rtt strelaua każdy typ temperamentalny indywidualnie odbiera bodźce i działa w świecie. wyniki badań potwierdzają tę zależność; badani reagowali na prezentowane im w warunku eksperymentalnym dzieła sztuki rożnie: zależnie od tego, w jaki sposób odebrali film. z drugiej strony, rezultaty nie współgrają z krytyką strelaua odnośnie połączenia behawioralnej pobudliwości z emocjami estetycznymi. unaoczniają one raczej, że możliwy jest między nimi pewien związek lub że czynniki wpływające na poziom aktywacji mogą również wpływać na percepcję sztuki. mogłoby to sugerować, że sztuka (pomijając jej walory artystyczne), dostarcza nam stymulacji i wpływa na poziom aktywacji. podział emocji estetycznych na przyjemne oraz awersyjne być może nie pokrywa się z wachlarzem emocji estetycznych, które są doświadczane w warunkach neutralnych, jednak to badanie ukazuje, że emocje awersyjne mogą mieć pewien wpływ na to, jak postrzegamy sztukę. wyniki naszego badania korespondują bezpośrednio z wynikami uzyskanymi przez mastandrea, bartoli i bove ( ). dowiedli oni, że odwiedzający muzeum sztuki nowoczesnej mocniej przeżywali lęk i podniecenie od odwiedzających muzeum sztuki starożytnej. potrafiący dostarczyć sobie odpowiednią dawkę stymulacji badani (czyli typy zharmonizowane), u których wzbudzono lęk za pomocą filmu, mogły zgodnie z własnymi potrzebami gorzej oceniać sztukę nowoczesną, gdyż stanowiła ona dodatkową dawkę lęku, natomiast uznanie dla sztuki tradycyjnej rosło ze względu na jej "niegroźny" charakter. inny możliwy wniosek, który można wyciągnąć z badania: nie ma czegoś takiego jak stały „smak”, zaś preferencje wykazują zmienność sytuacyjną. fakt, że inaczej odbieramy sztukę w warunkach neutralnych i lękowych może też mieć pewne implikacje np. dla terapii sztuką. czy niskie uznanie dla sztuki nowoczesnej wszystkich temperamentów w warunku lękowym, a także negatywna korelacja między sztuką nowoczesną i wynikami w stai sugerują, że nie warto zapraszać współczesnego artysty do szpitala psychiatrycznego? niestymulująca tradycja reasumując, temperament może oddziaływać na zmiany naszych preferencji, kiedy odczuwamy strach lub silne pobudzenie. każda analiza uwzględniająca wpływy temperamentu musi wziąć pod uwagę zmienność sytuacyjną oraz optymalną ilość stymulacji, jak pokazały wyniki tego badania. literatura . axelsson, Ö. . individual differences in preferences to photographs. psychology of aesthetics, creativity, and the arts, vol. : - . . burris, ch, t., rempel, j. k. . “it’s the end of the world as we know it”: threat and the spatial–symbolic self. journal of personality and social psychology, vol. : - . . burt, c. . the psychology of art. how the mind works. allen and unwin: london. . chamorro-premuzic, t., furnham, a. . the artistic personality. the psychologist, vol. : - . . eysenck, h. j. . the general factor in aesthetic judgements. british journal of psychology, vol. , – . . furnham, a., avison, m. . personality and preference for surreal paintings. personality and individual differences, vol. : – . . furnham, a., walker, j. . personality and judgments of abstract, pop art, and representational paintings. european journal of personality, vol. : – . . koneĉni, v. j. . does music induce emotion? a theoretical and methodological . analysis. psychology of aesthetics, creativity, and the arts, vol. : - . . landau, j., m., greenberg j., solomon, s., pyszczynski, t., martens, a. . windows into nothingness : terror management, niestymulująca tradycja meaninglessness, and negative reactions to modern art. journal of personality and social psychology, vol. : - . . mastandrea, s., bartoli, g., bove, g. . preferences for ancient and modern art museums: visitor experiences and personality characteristics. psychology of aesthetics, creativity, and the arts, vol. : - . . silvia, p. j. . emotional responses to art: from collation and arousal to cognition and emotion. review of general psychology, vol. : - . . sosnowski, t., wrześniewski, k., jaworowska, a., ferenc, d. . inwentarz stanu i cechy lęku (stai). podręcznik. pracowania testów psychologicznych polskiego towarzystwa psychologicznego: warszawa. . strelau, j. . temperament jako regulator zachowania. gdańskie wydawnictwo psychologiczne: gdańsk. . zawadzki, b., strelau, j. . formalna charakterystyka zachowania – kwestionariusz temperamentu (fcz-kt). podręcznik: pracowania testów psychologicznych polskiego towarzystwa psychologicznego: warszawa. . zweigenhaft, r. l. . a do re mi encore: a closer look at the personality . correlates of music preferences. journal of individual differences, vol. , - . international journal of management and humanities (ijmh) issn: - , volume- issue- , october published by: lattice science publication retrieval number: . /ijmh.b doi: . /ijmh.b . ‘reflection of existentialism in albert camus’s ‘the outsider’ manab jyoti bora abstract: albert camus is closely associated with french literature in europe. he is one of the major contributors of existentialism philosophy. his first novel that deals with this idea are, “the outsider”/ the stranger” published in . following ‘the outsider’ his novel ‘the plague’ and ‘the fall ‘were published in and respectively. it is for his novel ‘the plague” that got him nobel prize for literature. camus ‘the outsider’ reflects the existential crisis of human life. it is through the action and works of the main protagonist and his relation with other characters, and thus we can considered the novel as existentialism, and we have critically analyzed the novel. keyword: existentislism, absurd, camus, philosophy i. introduction albert camus was a french algerian philosopher, author and journalist. he won the nobelprize in literature at the age of in , the second-youngest recipient in history. camus wasborn on november in a french algerian family.camus’s views contributed to the rise of the philosophy know as absurdism and also he considered tobe an existentialist, though he rejected onseveraloccasion. “the stranger”, enigmatic first nobel by albert camus, published in french as l’etrangerin . it was published as ‘the outsider’ in england and ‘the stranger’ in the united state. following “the outsider”, the plague, published in , that tells the story of a plague sweeping the french algerian city of oran, for this nobel he achieved the nobel prize in . “the fall” published in , and he wrote many shortstories and plays, and gained many literaryfame. two of camus’s works were publishedposthumously. the first entitled ‘a happy death’ and second was an unfinished novel‘the first man’, which camus had writing before he died. many philosophersconsidered him an existentialist, even though he firmly rejected the term throughout his lifetime. in , in an interview hestates that, “no, i am not an existentialist, sartre and i are always surprised to see our names linked”. though he rejects to called himself as existentialist, yet his themes and outlook are after sighted as examples of existentialism. ii. objective: existentialism is defined as “aphilosophicaltheory or approach that emphasize the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining his or her own development through acts of the will” the novel expose the true self and cold nature of human being, the freedom to choose and the chaises and the characters and their actions paved a way for discussion and try to demonstrate the novel as a existentialism text. revised manuscript received on september , . manab jyoti bora, ph.d scholar dept. of assamese gauhati university mail : manabjyoti @gmail.com among many other novels written by albert camus, researchers tries to discuss the novel ‘the outsider’. through this novel researchers seeks to reflect the existentialism / human precadement in the world. iii. source the primary source of this research the researcher takes methew ward’s ‘the stranger’ which he translate the from french to english, while preparing this paper. and the researcher has taken various journals, reference as secondary sources of research. iv. methodology: the sources of data, that are used in this study will be both primary and secondary. the data will be acquired from various books, journals and articles. analytical method in mainly used in this study. . the contemporary french literature is considered to be the richest literature in the whole world. the french literature is expandedaround in three art movement, viz, cubism, surrealism and the third one is existentialism. albert camus one of the strongest writer of this existentialismmovement. one such writers who is closely associated with the term existentialism, jean paul sartre , was a french philosopher, playwright, novelist and literary critic. during second world war, initially germany defeated french and they ruled france for over years. albert camas, with sartre an many others worked very hard to form the independent france and they try to restore its literature and the art culture. camus was highlyinfluenced by the philosophicalthoughts of sartre, but after sometimes he started to oppose this philosophy. though camus’s philosophy was highly developed from the philosophy of sartare, but he always tried to portrayed himself differently from sartre so he named his philosophy as secular humanism. many times he rejected to be called himself and existentialist but his philosophy ismainlyinfectedon the basis of existentialism. the major achievement of camus’s science of philosophy was that he could influence the human mind to live in righteous manners. in a conversation he stated that whatever might ideology a man subscribed to, there are chances of being pained by slight changes in such ideology. an ideology must have its own limitation, any deviation from such limitation might caused pain to human being, camus stated. ‘reflection of existentialism in albert camus’s ‘the outsider’ published by: lattice science publication retrieval number: . /ijmh.b doi: . /ijmh.b . v. existentialism: before we to discussing ‘the outsider’ anexistentialism text, first we should learn what exactly existentialism is. it is a tradition of philosophical enquiry which takes as its starting point the exprerice of the human subject. it is associated mainly with certain th and th century european thinker, who despite have many doctrinal differences, shared the belief in that beginning of philosophical thinking. this philosophical movement is believed to have originated in the writings of th century danish philosopher soren kierkegaard existentialism is basically a philosophy which developed as reaction to the existing social situation of two world wars, this era witnessed the lack of respect for human life and dignity, it was this social situation that existentialism responded to. it is in existentialism that dignity and right of a human person is paid attention to. one of the most important issue it deals with the human authenticity. existentialism views authenticity as the highest of all virtues. in existentialism, “the individuals starting point is characterized by what has been the existential attitude or a sense of disorientation in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.” existentialism became fashionable in the post world war years as away to reassert the importance of human individuality and freedom. it was during this time that existentialism sprtad all over the world and especially in europe. the chief term of existentialism is “existence precedes essence”. but the existence is more important than essence, for in essence; we are not able find out individuality the id, ‘ man is the centre of the universe’ in the man doctrine of the existential philosophy. existence, thus is the first principle from which all else flows. it is only later , by living, thinking and acting that man defines he nature and forms what is called his essence-that which he in and will be. sartre believes that human existence is the result of chance or accident. there is no meaning or purpose of his life other than what his freedom creates, therefore he must rely an his own resources. among the most famous ideas associated with existentialism is that of ‘absurdity’ specially in the works of camus; the notion of absurdity is explained very broadly. in his “the myth of sisyphus”, he explained,“ the absurd is born, out of this confrontation between the human need and the unreasonable silence of the world.”the same view also shared by sartre, is that humanity must live in a world that is an will forever be hostile towards them. the universe will never truly care fore humanity the way we used to seem to want it to. the philosophy that encompasses the absurd is referred to as absurdism. while may be considered as a brunch of existentialism, it is specific idea that is not necessary to an of existentialist view. a key existentialist, soren kierkegaard, all though religious, declared fight in god be absurd, since it impossible to know god, or to understand his purpose. it is on his book “concluding unspecific postscript” the word ‘existence’ in used for the first time and paularisiedleter. in europe as well as in the world. vi. reflection of existentialism in ‘the outsider’ the idea ‘existentialism’ is not only limited to philosophy but spread across many literature also. ‘crime and punishment’ by russian author fyodor dostoevsky have seen the existential crisis to some extend. but the author has not mentioned any definition about it. in the works of franz kafka, albert camus and sartre, all three formulate a foundation of the whole existentialism thinking. the existential idea of human being’s cold nature and true self is highly used reseed throughout the literary works ‘the outsider’ by camus. camus showed his existentialist beliefs by using his characters to make social commentary on multiple social situations, includingmarriage, time and society itself. it is through the novel’s protagonist mersault the existentialist belief is reflected, his life experiences, his relationship with marie, the death of his mother maman, the murdering of the arab and mersault’s trial and execution, which show that mersault’s life have no meaning. about the novel‘the outsider’ sartre comments “amidst the literary production of our time this noitself was a stranger”. the first sentence of the novel-“mother died today or yesterday maybe, i don’t know’ is enough to consider the novel as an existentialist text. the unattached response to the death of his mother shows mersault’s existentialism; he accepts life or death without looking for a deeper significance. when he get to marengo for mother’s funeral, he does not even want to see the body, instead of mourning he sits back and relaxes drinking coffee and smoking. mersault seems more concerned about taking time off work to go to his mother’s funeral. that he has nothing to do with, the actual death of his mother. another aspect of the existentialism portrayed in the outsider is that mersault focuses mainly on physical sensation with his relationship with marie. he believes that life has no meaning other than existence itself. the way mersault handles his mother’s death also emphasize the ‘ accept everything’ viewpoint that existentialists seems to have. similarly, the killing of the arab seemed meaningless to him. he states that does not feel any true regret for the murder. what interesting is that before he shot the arab, he never realyhad any intention to kill him. even when the arab withdraw knife, it was the intense heat of the sun which made him feel uncomfortable and lead to him shooting. when he discover he has to go to the court , he finds it difficult to understand, throughout part two he refers how the situation is ‘simple’ and that he must pay for action of murder. while in prison, mersault seemsconstantly looking towards the future, imagining if he has to spend a long time in perison and how he will adjust. again , the constantly looking forward in a very nature of existentialism, ignoring the past. at one point in the novel, he is standing by the sea, and says ‘i denied myself the water for a bit longer.’ the fact that he is ‘denying himself’ shows that he is going against what his body craves, but in a sense that makes him more in control. international journal of management and humanities (ijmh) issn: - , volume- issue- , october published by: lattice science publication retrieval number: . /ijmh.b doi: . /ijmh.b . he speaks as if he is two different individual, the person what is structured by society, expecting to feel certain emotions and reacting in certain ways, and what can be considered his ‘true self’. camus describes him as an ‘outsider to society’, as throughout the book we see him go against what would be considered normal human relations. vii. conclusion the idea of existentialism is reflected in all of camus novel. but the novel is truly based on human cold nature and camus seem to suggest that there is no natural basis of morality in the novel. going deeper into the text, a reader can easily find that it contains multitude in themes and meaning. existential question and absurd realities have been cardinal parts of the protagonist’s character. in the last part of the novel, he seems to have been quite satisfied with his eminent death, because ‘he refuses to lie’. albert camus created mersault as a singulars and incomparable character that cannot be confined to a particular definition on final judgment. but from the reason and the protagonist’s character and action we can consider the novel as an example of existentialism. references: . carrall, devid.“albert camus the algerian : colonialism, terrorism, justice”. columbia university press, . . hakutani, yoshinobu : “richard wright’s “ the outsider” and albert camus’s “the stranger”, the mississippi quarterly, vol. , no- , record wright’ issue ( fall ), pp. . - , mississippi state university. https://www.jstor .org/stable/ . . hanna, thomas. “the though and art of albert camus”. chicago: regrery, . . hudson anne. “the plight of the modern outsider”, n.p., n.d. web. . slochower, harry. “camus’ “the stranger”: the silent society and the ecstasy of rage”, american imago, vol. , no. (fall ), the johns hopkins university press. https.//www.jstor.org/stable/ . . word, matthew. “the stranger”, first vintage international editon, . . warsh, lewis. “albert camus’s the stranger”, woodburry, ny: barons educational series, . author profile manab jyoti bora: i am currently working as a junior research fellow (phd scholar) in department of asssamese at gauhati university. completed my maters in arts from cotton university in thr year . former mphil scholar in dept. of foreign languages of gauhati university. fictive art in new media - multimedia, ieee “curiouser and curiouser!” —lewis carroll my first encounter with the work no othersymptoms—time travelling with rosalind brodsky by suzanne treister (http://ensemble.va. com.au/tableau/suzy/) occurred at a small gallery in sydney in . at first glance the astonishing collection of articles, photos, pictures, drawings, and written descriptions seemed intriguing but incomprehensible. yet i wondered, who is ros- alind brodsky? luckily there was a cd-rom to take home accompanied by a beautifully pro- duced booklet that introduced the extraordinary fictional character of rosalind brodsky and her time travel episodes. both the cd-rom and the booklet purport to be an archive or a sort of museum tour of the research done by brodsky for an imaginary insti- tution of the future—the institute of militronics and advanced time interventionality (imati). this institute now holds records left by brodsky (see figure ), which you can peruse on the cd-rom. for example, brodsky seems to appear in case his- tory notes from some of the th century’s top analysts (such as sigmund freud, jacques lacan, and julia kristeva). readers can peruse detailed notes from these analysis sessions. brodsky also has time travel costumes from each of her trips. one trip she traveled back through time to rescue her grandparents from the murderous concentra- tion camps of nazi germany. another trip was to visit russia on the eve of the russian revolution. she seems to have even shown up on the movie set of schindler’s list (see figure ). included in the cd-rom and booklet is an eccentric recipe for a polish pierogi made exclusively from a german black forest cake—backwards. that is, brodsky dis- mantles the black forest cake and uses the ingre- dients to recreate the polish pierogi. rosalind brodsky is in fact a sort of alter ego of the artist suzanne treister. this complex work exists across all sorts of different media as an installation, cd-rom, music cd, and web site. it weaves a hilarious web of fictions and non- sense that nevertheless make remarkable sense. it’s an excellent example of something we can loosely identify as fictive art. fictive art most people are familiar with role-playing games on the internet. this is where people enter a made-up or virtual world to play or build more worlds, usually appearing as an avatar of their choice. players control and develop their avatars over time as well as gaining new skills and collect- ing weapons to fight both other avatars or mon- sters within the game. in networked role-playing games (rpgs) players can also socialize with other players. common rpgs are everquest or quake. however, another form of game exists involv- ing fiction that’s proliferating on the internet and in art installations and cd-rom. this form of fiction-as-game isn’t as well known as rpgs but - x/ /$ . © ieee published by the ieee computer society artful media editor: dorée duncan seligmanavaya labs maria miranda sydney college of the arts fictive art in new media figure . rosalind brodsky singing on the boardwalk at brighton beach, new york, . c op yr ig h t , s u za n n e t re is te r has a long history stretching back to early works of fiction like gulliver’s travels or alice’s adventures in wonderland through th century modernism and postmodernism in both art and literature. it’s here that i would place suzanne treister’s work. so why is this sort of work appearing within the new media arts? and what is its relationship to earlier fictive artwork? in , antoinette la farge called for papers for the annual college art association conference’s panel titled “fictive art.” i was immediately struck with how appro- priate this term is for this form of fiction that i had become interested in. the call for papers requested “works in which artists deliberately combine textual and visual strategies to produce works that straddle the boundary between art, fiction, and history” (see the complete call for papers at http://www.english.upenn.edu/cfp/ archive/ - / .html). these works use narrative and fictions to create made-up worlds, imaginary situations, and odd conjectures which transgress boundaries and create nonsense. one such work is the museum of jurassic tech- nology in los angeles. curated by david wilson, this strange yet compelling “museum” purports to be an “educational institution dedicated to the advancement of knowledge and the public appre- ciation of the lower jurassic” (see the museum’s homepage at http://www.mjt.org/index.html). this so-called museum is in fact a fiction. its exhibits fall somewhere between natural history, social history, and the fantastic, “inserting the visitor into the interstice between wondering-at and wondering whether.” christian bök has compared the muse- um to a medieval wunderkammern (miracle cham- ber) with cabinets of curiosity and detailed dioramas of strange animals. it offers an extremely detailed history of the life and creations of the jesuit scientist and alchemist athanasius kircher. along similar lines is sputnik: the odyssey of the soyuz (http://www.telefonica.es/fat/esputnik. html) by joan fontcuberta. this photographic installation details the life of ivan istochnikov, noting that he is a russian cosmonaut who, we are told, disappeared during the flight of soyuz in and was then removed from history by the soviet bureaucracy. photographs of istochnikov were retouched to remove his likeness, his family was moved to siberia, and his friends and colleagues were threatened. (fontcuberta’s work is also available at the online catalogue false witness; see http://www.brown. edu/facilities/david_winton_bell_gallery/ false_witness.html.) the exhibition uses archival footage and photos as if they’re real. they’re in fact photos of the artist himself, and the images are either manipulated or completely false. the exhibition’s attention to detail was so successful that when first exhibited in madrid in the russian embassy registered its protest. the term fictive comes from literary anthro- pologist wolfgang iser. in his book the fictive and the imaginary (johns hopkins university press, ), iser outlines a theory where fiction and reality are no longer binary opposites. iser’s the- ory suggests a triadic relationship to understand the fictionalizing act, which he states comprises the real, the fictive, and the imaginary. for iser the fictive is an act of boundary crossing where the referential world is disrupted and doubled— where the act of fiction becomes an act of trans- gression. the important word here is act. in other words, fiction is no longer defined against an idea of the real, nor is it tied solely to the literary. ‘pataphysics and its influence on art to understand these electronic and new media works in relation to earlier fictive artwork, we must briefly look at art history. we usually associate modern art with abstraction and with the rejection of representation as well as any form of figuration. from cubism to abstract expressionism, modern art—which generally means painting and sculpture—is usually described as engaged in a subjective investigation a p ril–ju n e figure . rosalind brodsky (in her electronic time- traveling costume) attempts to rescue her grandparents from the holocaust. she mistakenly ends up on the set of schindler’s list. krakow, poland, . c op yr ig h t , s u za n n e t re is te r of perception. beginning with cubism and its break with previous pictorial modes of represen- tation, and moving on to the later investigations of the medium itself (like pollack’s drip paint- ings), the story of modern art has been seen as a progressive development or natural evolution of abstraction. however, parallel to this trajectory of modern art was another development—linked to the avante-garde movements in europe—that could be characterized as engaged with fictions, narratives, and made-up worlds. mimesis was considered more appropriate for photography or film. given that film and photog- raphy seemed to depict “reality” more efficiently, other arts became less concerned with accurately depicting appearances and more concerned with the nature of artmaking. however, parallel to this trajectory of modern art was another develop- ment—linked to the avant-garde movements in europe—that could be characterized as engaged with fictions, narratives, and made-up worlds. an important contributor to this other trajec- tory is the invention of ‘pataphysics, an imaginary science created by writer alfred jarry. at the turn of the th century the character ubu burst onto a parisian stage shouting “merde!” at the time this caused quite a riot, as merde had never before been uttered onstage. professor ubu was jarry’s creation, and jarry’s neologism, ‘pataphysics, is a play on metaphysics. while metaphysics is placed above physics, ‘pataphysics seeks to sit beside it, separate but parallel. ‘pataphysics stud- ies the exceptions to the rules, the anomalies, where “a difference makes a difference.” the artistic strategy of ‘pataphysics has occu- pied a paradoxical place in the art history of the th century. its existence has been almost invisi- ble, yet its influence has been profound and exten- sive, informing most of the century’s avant-garde movements—for example, dadaism, surrealism, italian and russian futurism, as well as major artists like marcel duchamp with his imaginary creations of machinic love. (see, for example, his major work the bride stripped bare by her bachelors, even, which is also known as the large glass). corporate interplay it isn’t difficult to link the present appearance of fictive art to earlier ‘pataphysical patterns. just as ‘pataphysics plays with the logic and reason of science to create a pseudoscience where rational- ism is taken to its extreme, the internet artwork airworld (http://www.airworld.net) takes the logic and discourse of corporations to an extreme. air- world is a web-based art project by jennifer and kevin mccoy, commissioned by gallery / walker art center in minneapolis. it began in as banner ads for a commercially based company called doubleclick.com. airworld used the doubleclick.com network to distribute one million banner ads over one month, starting mid- august . doubleclick.com didn’t inform the sites on which the ads appeared that they would host a conceptual art piece—in fact, the banner ads appeared randomly. the ads were like an ode to corporate blandness, with clean design and meaningless slogans such as “welcome we are air” or “business as usual.” if a web surfer clicked on an ad, it then displayed the airworld site. the airworld site feeds on the text content of these corporate sites much like crawlers, search engines, and bots. it uses software that creates a database based on parameters set by the artists. the program then combines and collages corpo- rate speak into meaningless but intelligible text that appears in the airworld skin. this imaginary corporation is consistently bland and yet dis- turbing at the same time. the text—sampled from all sorts of different corporate sites—com- bines together seamlessly, reflecting the current flattening and dulling of language in the com- mercial world. like many of the current web art projects, airworld uses an algorithm for generat- ing content. with the advent of global real-time computer networks, businesses are finding it more efficient to create content dynamically. art- work like airworld imagines a future that’s already upon us, where content is generated automati- cally through machinic algorithms. it’s as if we’re living in a strange ‘pataphysical world first imag- ined more than years ago. another project mimicking the corporate structure of the contemporary global economy is the international corporation of lost structures (icols). suzanne treister founded icols (see http://www.icols.org/) in november and shortly afterwards bronia iwanczak joined as codirector. it humorously mimicks the contem- porary corporate structure with department titles such as department of global disenchantment, department of revolutionary nostalgia, depart- ment of future projections, local unit of missing links, and so forth. collaborators post their ideas and exist in virtual departments as part of the corporation. it also includes exhibitions, instal- lations, media events, newsletters, and email postings. the project is a collaboration between international artists who enter a fictive world ini- ie e e m u lt im e d ia artful media tiated by treister and iwanczak. the lost struc- tures in the title evoke both the loss of the soviet bloc as well as the ideals and dreams that many westerners projected onto the world behind the berlin wall. but lost structures could also mean the possibility of being found again, lost but not gone. maybe there is hope after all. spiraling toward the center down, down, down. would the fall never come to an end? “i wonder how many miles i’ve fallen by this time?” she said aloud. “i must be getting some- where near the centre of the earth.” in february i was invited, along with my collaborator in out-of-sync (http://out-of-sync. com/) norie neumark, to participate in a new media residency on maria island, off the coast of tasmania, australia. as a result of our stay on the island, we created the work journey to the c/enter (http://out-of-sync.com/journey/), which also involved the collaboration of other artists on the island. the work follows the investigation by dok- tor rumor and professore rumore, both rumorol- ogists, following a rumor that jules verne traveled to maria island (see figure ) sometime in the s in search of the entry to the center of the earth. the work itself plays with recent web forms like vogs (video), blogs (web logs), and what could be a new australian form called flogs (field logs). flogs are a fabrication, acting as if they’re a daily log of events. unlike blogs and vogs, which are usually a diary posted daily to the web through programs like blogger, our flogs are made in flash. flogs aren’t only text based, but incorporate video and sound to create an experiential space. flogs play with the tension between the personal/ public diary—which blogging has unleashed on the internet—and the reporting of empirical data from the field (that is, field notes). these two forms couldn’t be more different—one a personal and subjective account, the other an objective account used for scientific analysis. using flogs, the work creates a made-up world of rumorology and a jour- ney into scientific anomaly. conclusion are we now seeing a ‘pataphysical world where scientific anomaly is the concern of scientists as well as nonscientists, and where the convincingly portrayed worlds are as compelling as so-called real- ity? perhaps the proliferating worlds of fictiveness owe something to the nature of new technologies which allow for seamless “alterations,” endless play, and algorithmic inventiveness. programs like adobe photoshop, for instance, allow anyone to play with reality, limited only by their imagination. only last week i received a web picture showing a friend standing as if in the center of an erupting volcano. in the hands of fictive-minded artists, these new technologies are opening a whole new set of ‘pataphysical strategies. mm references . c. bök, ‘pataphysics: the poetics of an imaginary sci- ence, northwestern univ. press, , p. . . a. jarry, ubu roi, théâtre de l’oeuvre, . . l. carroll, the annotated alice: the definitive edition, penguin, , p. . figure . a photo from maria island, where norie neumark and i made journey to the c/enter (see http://out- of-sync.com/journey/). fictive art sites here are some other fictive art sites that might be of interest: ❚ world of awe: a traveller’s tale, http://worldofawe.net/index.html ❚ magnus-opus, http://www.magnus-opus.com/index .html ❚ janet cardiff’s the dark pool, http://www.banffcentre.ca/wpg/nmsc/ darkpool/index.html ❚ false witness, http://www.brown.edu/facilities/ david_winton_bell_gallery/false_witness.html ❚ the internet wildlife foundation, http://iwlf.org/ ❚ us department of art and technology, http://www.usdept-arttech.net ❚ museum of forgery, http://yin.arts.uci.edu/~mof/ c op yr ig h t , m a ri a m ir a n d a 	index: 	ccc: - - - / /$ . © ieee 	ccc: - - - / /$ . © ieee 	cce: - - - / /$ . © ieee 	index: 	index: 	ind: microsoft word - it [ ].doc abstract antoni gaudi santiago calatrava calatrava gaudi naturalism omantic calatrava gaudi’s calatrava gaudi biomorphic calatrava keywords julian vincent janine benyus “organism” “behaviour” “ecosystem”. a. historical background religious cosmologic” symbiotic” exploitative” theological” metaphysical” positive stage” victorian architecture” world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of architectural and environmental engineering vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , a rc hi te ct ur al a nd e nv ir on m en ta l e ng in ee ri ng v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/bio-inspired-design-approach-analysis:-a-case-study-of-antoni-gaudi-and-santiago-calatrava/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / mycenaean palaces” corinthian columns egyptian” vitruvius da vinci b. nature in fine arts romanticism” medieval period “naturalism” religious nationalism jules- antoine castagnary arno holz johann ludwig tieck tieck william carlos leonardo da vinci wassily kandinsky goethe plato derrida kant plato aristotle “romanticism” renaissance” classism” elizabeth lawrence d’archy thompson horatio greenough “indirect experience” baroque” art nouveau” john ruskin louis kahn modern frank lloyd wright louis sullivan wright “organic “ classicism” “bionic” pneumatic” “biomorphic” “zoomorphic” eugen tsui aldersey-williams world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of architectural and environmental engineering vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , a rc hi te ct ur al a nd e nv ir on m en ta l e ng in ee ri ng v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/bio-inspired-design-approach-analysis:-a-case-study-of-antoni-gaudi-and-santiago-calatrava/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / biophobic” biophobic” imre makovecz’ aiken picasso morphogenesis” parametric” gaudi calatrava bio-inspired” gaudi calatrava a. practical parameters “structural”, “textural”, “isolated pictorial” vitruvius maillart, nervi, wright, otto modernist” world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of architectural and environmental engineering vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , a rc hi te ct ur al a nd e nv ir on m en ta l e ng in ee ri ng v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/bio-inspired-design-approach-analysis:-a-case-study-of-antoni-gaudi-and-santiago-calatrava/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / b. theoretical parameters gaudi’s calatrava gaudi calatrava' a. metaphor sagrada familia” casa calvet” casa mila” “baroque” casa vicens” parc guell calatrava calatrava valencia science centre” heritage square” kuwait pavilio cathedral of saint john” sagrada familia” gaudi parc guell” casa mila” calatrava “winery for bodega& bebidas” “the national wall” gaudi parc guell” gaudi casa mila” guell pavilion” casa calvet” sagrada familia” casa batllo” parc guell” calatrava bio-inspired lyon satolas tgv station” calatrava quadracci pavilion calatrava montjuïc communications tower” turning torso” milwaukee art museum” kuwait pavilion”’ calatrava planetarium opera house” calatrava l’ hemispheric” b. proportion calatrava c. form and function gaudi gaudi vitruvius sagrada familia” calatrava gaudi tgv station” stadelhofen” calatrava gaudi d. movement and growth gaudi gaudi parc guell sagrada familia cathedral” calatrava calatrava calatrava world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of architectural and environmental engineering vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , a rc hi te ct ur al a nd e nv ir on m en ta l e ng in ee ri ng v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/bio-inspired-design-approach-analysis:-a-case-study-of-antoni-gaudi-and-santiago-calatrava/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / milwaukee art museum e. material gaudi calatrava calatrava calatrava gaudi gaudi calatrava calatrava montjuic tower gaudi la pedrera f. pattern gaudi calatrava g. geometry gaudi gaudi calatrava calatrava h. sustainability gaudi gaudi calatrava a. geographical influence gaudi gaudi gaudi calatrava mediterranean calatrava mediterranean b. ideological influence gaudi gaudi’s gaudi gaudi calatrava c. influence of the industry and culture gaudi gaudi modernist” gaudi calatrava biomorphic d. architectural inclinations gaudi avant-garde” gaudi cubism” surrealism” xpressionism” fernando chueca gaudi goya picasso alexandre cirici gaudi romantic” walter pater john ruskin william morris viollet le duc and ruskin’ gothic” gaudi le duc ruskin morris gaudi parc guell catalonian” salvador dali joan miro eduardo torroja felix candela pier luigi nervi gaudi calatrava paul cezanne rodin brancusi robert maillart pier luigi nervi felix candela calatrava’s gaudi’s calatrava’s gaudi’s world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of architectural and environmental engineering vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , a rc hi te ct ur al a nd e nv ir on m en ta l e ng in ee ri ng v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/bio-inspired-design-approach-analysis:-a-case-study-of-antoni-gaudi-and-santiago-calatrava/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / calatrava’s calatrava gaudi’s gaudi’s calatrava’s calatrava gaudi’s gaudi calatrava’s calatrava poetics of architecture : theory of design / anthony c. antoniades bio-architecture / javier senosiain biomimicry as an approach for bio- inspired structure with the aid of computation. biomimicry as a problem solving methodology in interior architecture. biomimicry in architecture / michael pawlyn architecture follows nature : biomimetic principles for innovative design / ilaria mazzoleni in collaboration with shauna price the nature of physical existence biomimetic approaches to architectural design for increased sustainability the sb nz sustainable building conference house form and culture human aspects of urban form: towards a man— environment approach to urban form and design. auguste comte an intellectual biography. volume ii / mary pickering the contradiction between form and function in architecture ornament as idea: indirect imitation of nature in the design reform movement. the sea in the greek imagination tree-inspired dendriforms and fractal-like branching structures in architecture: a brief historical overview. magnificence and the sublime in medieval aesthetics: art, architecture, literature, music (book review) naturalism and romanticism: the evolution of american literary naturalism in the nineteenth century a history of english romanticism in the eighteenth century naturalism’and the interpretation of cave art. anthropology with a paintbrush: naturalist–realist painting as “thick description”. on the language of nature in ludwig tieck’s der runenberg. the poetry of william carlos williams of rutherford. remapping reality: chaos and creativity in science and literature (goethe, nietzsche, grass),volume of internationale forschungen zur allgemeinen und vergleichende the evolution of designs : biological analogy in architecture and the applied arts / philip steadman architectural lessons from environmental psychology: the case of biophilic architecture. the sacred bee, the filthy pig, and the bat out of hell: animal symbolism as cognitive biophilia.the biophilia hypothesis on growth and form world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of architectural and environmental engineering vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , a rc hi te ct ur al a nd e nv ir on m en ta l e ng in ee ri ng v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/bio-inspired-design-approach-analysis:-a-case-study-of-antoni-gaudi-and-santiago-calatrava/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / design on trial: critique and metamorphosis of the contemporary object building for life: designing and understanding the human- nature connection evolved responses to landscapes. john ruskin: the critical heritage architectural theory of modernism : relating functions and forms / ute poerschke architecture as an organism proceedings of the international conference on industrial engineering and operations management organicism in nineteenth-century architecture : an inquiry into its theoretical and philosophical background / carline van eck bionic optimization in structural design: stochastically based methods to improve the performance of parts and assemblies influences of the living world on architectural structures: an analytical insight. applying the electroforming process to bio- inspired architecture: the case of castelbuono estate winery. the biophilia hypothesis biophilia, biophobia, and natural landscapes analogies and metaphors in creative design. architecture and identity architecture and identity : responses to cultural and technological change architecture, building design: design, materials, equipment, technologies of xxi century form follows nature: the origins of american organic architecture. varieties of living things: life at the intersection of lineage and metabolism architecture and the motion of life college of arts & architecture nature and the hopeful city eco-architecture vi: harmonisation between architecture and nature geometric proportions: the underlying structure of design process for islamic geometric patterns. antoni gaudi, - : from nature to architecture culture and values: a survey of the humanities, volume santiago calatrava: movement as the key. santiago calatrava antoni gaudí architecture in use : an introduction to the programming, design and evaluation of buildings / theo jm van der voordt, herman br van wegen architecture in use architecture d'aujourd'hui calatrava in athens. the architect as financier and the iconic city. terror and wonder: architecture in a tumultuous age santiago calatrava, city of arts and science: the similarity of the elements. structural design in the work of gaudí. art in life lower secondary structure as architecture : a sourcebook for architects and structural engineers / andrew w. charleson architecture of spain bio-architecture santiago calatrava: form, function, and structure follow gesture. the geometry of organic architecture: the works of eduardo torroja, felix candela and miguel fisac bridges architects today / kester rattenbury, robert bevan, kieran long reading gaudí's great book of nature:reconsidering the peripheral reception of proto-environmental architecture. sustainable design lessons from gaud urban machinery : inside modern european cities / edited by mikael hard and thomas j. misa antoni gaudí: casa bellesguard as the key to his symbolism historical dictionary of architecture urban change and the european left: tales from the new barcelona world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of architectural and environmental engineering vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , a rc hi te ct ur al a nd e nv ir on m en ta l e ng in ee ri ng v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/bio-inspired-design-approach-analysis:-a-case-study-of-antoni-gaudi-and-santiago-calatrava/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / art history theory and methods journal of art historiography number december meyer schapiro on style in art and science: notes from a theory and methods of art history graduate seminar lecture course, columbia university, new york, terry smith introduction why present this material now, nearly forty years after the fact? indeed, why make available what is after all simply a set of lecture notes, one amongst the many taken by the hundreds who heard meyer schapiro lecture on these topics over the decades of his teaching? a short answer to the first question is that, while these notes inevitably contain ideas and observations that appear in the considerable number of schapiro’s books, collected essays and posthumous publications, they also contain many thoughts, comments, formulations and speculations that are not to be found in those volumes. this does not, of course, in itself guarantee their value or interest, and certainly there is no suggestion that they represent material that he might have wished to see published. nor, on the other hand, is there any reason known to me that he would not have wanted them to be made available as what they are: one record of his lecture series on art historical methodology, as presented in . allowing of course for the limitations of the recorder, they provide a distinct access to the mind of the most theoretically alive american art historian of his generation, a man passionately devoted to the task of communicating the excitement of the discipline of art history as it confronts the most challenging problems of its time, and thinks itself forward by working through them. this commitment is evident in some of the published collections of his writings, but not the sense––striking in these notes––of schapiro consumed by his task as he strives to induct a group of students into the fundamental drives of the discipline. more particularly, in the years around schapiro was deeply concerned with the connections and differences between modes of inquiry into art’s history and into the history and philosophy of science, and those between artistic creativity and scientific enquiry, including information theory. these concerns are, i believe, more apparent in these notes than in the material published to date. whether these notes stand as a useful record is a judgement that only each reader can make. in general, i have altered my original notes only when i had misspelled or misunderstood a name, or used intolerably poor grammar, or unnecessarily abbreviated his remarks. to compensate a little for my extremely utilitarian style of note taking, and to assist the flow of reading, i have added definite articles and conjunctions. i have nowhere changed any word of significance, or added any words that might bear on meaning. to assist the reader, i have proposed titles [in terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science square brackets] for those lectures when schapiro did not announce one. taking down as exactly and efficiently as possible, and for later contemplation, the sense of what i heard him to say was, after all, the point of my being there in the first place. i have added in the footnotes full references to the many texts that he mentioned, usually in passing. i have tried to locate editions that he would have been likely to read. they are testimony not only to the depth and range of his erudition, but also to his openness to contemporary publishing in a variety of fields, to texts both arcane and populist. i have not incorporated any material from schapiro’s published work, although endnote reference to these volumes is made when that seems appropriate. most of the published material, as it happens, is based on texts written before . schapiro had lectured on the topics covered in these notes since , did so for the years and in systematic series, and subsequently returned to many of these topics in lectures on a variety of subjects. my sense at the time––and i still believe this––is that the lectures constituting art history g x, given to a class of, at first, over (mine was seat # ) but by the end, regrettably, perhaps a dozen graduate students, were schapiro’s theory-in-progress seminars. he would bring into the lecture room a set of catalog cards on which he had written some notes and references, as well as, occasionally, a handful of slides. the cards would be released from their rubber band, shuffled, one chosen for a glance that would trigger ten or more minutes of free-flowing discourse, then the process would be repeated throughout the hour, sometimes an hour and a half. the notes that follow, then, provide a window into schapiro the scholar-teacher during a few months of ; mostly serious, sometimes playful but always inspiring, and above all wise, as he works to demonstrate what it is to interpret art accurately and passionately, what it is to do art history well, and how art historical inquiry might take its place as one of the great systems for thinking through the questions thrown at us by the world we live in. so, while i could offer some speculations as to why many of schapiro’s preoccupations of have particular relevance to us now, this glimpse of him in action is the best answer to my opening question. a few remarks on the person who, in the early months of , took these notes. obviously, the concerns and competencies of the translator inflect any translation. i took this course, for registration credit, because the institute of fine arts at new york university, where i was enrolled in the graduate program, was unable to offers courses in methodology. my adviser, robert goldwater, recognizing my need, arranged for me to take schapiro’s course. i had come from the university of sydney on a harkness fellowship to undertake further work on my masters thesis, “abstract expressionism: ethical attitudes and moral function.” i took courses at the institute from goldwater (modern sculpture), william rubin (painting since pollock) and robert rosenblum (american painting and the north european romantic tradition). rosenblum also supervised my major paper (on de kooning’s picasso sources). schapiro found this repertoire rather limited, and invited me to take his course on romanesque art. during this period i was also drawn into the work of the new york branch of the art & language group: this, along with writing my thesis, became the main focus of my activity for the next few years. terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science before coming to new york, i had graduated in art history from the fine arts department at the university of melbourne, where i had been taught by representatives of three major art historical traditions: professor sir joseph burke (connoisseurship), franz philipp (wiener schule iconography) and dr bernard smith (marxist art history). i had also written art criticism for national newspapers and weeklies, edited a contemporary art journal, curated some controversial exhibitions, and taught in the first years of the power institute at the university of sydney. my criticism was profoundly influenced by formalism, but was in crisis after the doubts induced by clement greenberg’s visit to sydney to give the power lecture “avant-garde attitudes,” perhaps his least successful statement. all of these factors, it seems to me now, colored my note taking, but the influence of my daily work within the art & language group is strongest. at that time, in an effort to model our own artistic practice, we were reading intensely in philosophy (analytic, especially wittgenstein), linguistics (especially formal logics and natural language theory) and history and philosophy of science (kuhn, lakatos and feyerabend). so, while it is obvious from the content of schapiro’s lectures that he was, at the time, deeply interested in the history and philosophy of science (to the extent that, were i asked to give the lecture series an indicative title, it would be “style in art and science”), the degree of emphasis on this connection in these notes may also reflect a strong, coincidental convergence between lecturer and note-taker. something of this emerges in the questions that i asked, although not always in the answers given. (schapiro sometimes broke off the lecture to ask for questions. i was a regular hand-raiser.) the relatively flat tone of this text is, however, mine, not his. because i was concentrating on tracing the structure of his arguments, and the details of the content of his statements, the easy grace and pragmatic clarity that characterized his speaking style, as it does his writing, is sacrificed. in some passages, the note taking is more schematic than in others. one reason for this is that i had, prior to taking the course, read certain of schapiro’s key writings. at melbourne university in , franz philipp had included the essay on “style” in his honors aesthetics course (this consisted of one semester comparing a variety of interpretations of las meninas, and a second reading art and illusion word by word), and the essay on cézanne’s apples was on the reading list for bernard smith’s course on modern art. the “style” essay i read chiefly for its summaries of the views of authors whose books were difficult to find in australia, but i vividly recall being struck by schapiro’s concluding challenge: that a theory of style adequate to psychoanalysis and social responsibility was yet to be formulated. my conclusion at the time was that such a quest was essential to art history as a discipline, but was doomed if it remained subservient to the concept of style per se. if, however, art historical methodology as a whole took on this challenge, along with those raised by the meta-conceptualization of all of its terms of analysis, then it could, i believed, be revived as a discipline––as a theoretical practice, engaged with contemporary art and issues. terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science these attitudes doubtless colored my note taking. i shared with schapiro a loathing for formalism, and a disappointment in the timidity of orthodox iconography. perhaps, as well, we shared a certain anger (or in his, more mature, case, a sadness) toward current art history’s failure to live up to the achievement and the challenges left by its modern founders. all of these factors, and the example of schapiro as someone thinking himself through and out from these challenges, are evident my first exercise in art history: theory and method, “doing art history,” the fox, # , . finally, this effort to transform my miniscule scribbles in a columbia university notebook into a form now universally accessible is, for me, above all else a small gesture towards repaying a debt. meyer schapiro, arguably the leading member of the profession in the united states, took an interest in a young man from sydney, not only by admitting me to an already overflowing course, but, most weeks, inviting me to sit with him in his office and chat while he was preparing his thoughts for the lecture to come. he also took the trouble to read my jejune thesis draft, comment encouragingly on it, and introduce me to the living protagonists of my researches. in all respects, he set an example that we can only aspire to follow. this restorative work was mostly done during my period as getty scholar at the getty research institute, los angeles, during the fall of . i thank the institute, the library staff and especially my assistant christina wegel. i returned to the text in - while at the university of pittsburgh, with the able assistance of nadav hochman. when the schapiro papers were made available in the archival collections of the columbia university libraries in i examined those bearing on these lectures with a view to checking the accuracy of my own notes, and that of the references i had unearthed. the note cards were there, covered with schapiro’s feathery, elusive handwriting, in files dating from the s onwards. specifically, there are sets of annotated transcripts relating to the versions of this course offered in - , , and . for most years, these are accompanied by his notes taken while reading the books referred to, and by notes of thoughts to be developed. for the spring of , however, annotated typescripts are not present in the files, and may not have been made. this adds some archival value to my notes. the and series, retitled “theories and methods in the investigation of art” (as, erroneously, were the files) were recorded, and the tapes transcribed under the supervision of mrs schapiro. professor schapiro reviewed them, according to a note in the files. the annotated transcripts differ from my notes not only in that the lectures changed somewhat each year as new material appeared and professor schapiro developed further his thoughts on each topic, but also in that they do manifest the quasi-conversational style in which he lectured. my notes, on the other hand, were as i have said focused exclusively on my getting down the ideas as i heard them. for a useful finding aid to these materials, see http://findingaids.cul.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_ /summary. among the many commentaries on schapiro’s methodology the most relevant to this material is http://findingaids.cul.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_ /summary terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science thomas crow, the intelligence of art (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ). see also cindy persinger, meyer schapiro: american art historian (forthcoming), based on her dissertation, the politics of style: meyer schapiro and the crisis of meaning in art history, completed at the university of pittsburgh in under the supervision of professor barbara mccloskey. for some background to my training in australia prior to going to new york, see “inside out: outside in: changing perspectives in australian art historiography,” journal of art historiography, no. (june ), at http://arthistoriography.wordpress.com/number- -june- /. ts sydney, june , terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science art history - g x: art history theory and methods professor meyer schapiro, columbia university, new york, spring the preliminary reading list: julius von schlosser, die kunstliteratur (comment: this is an anthology of art texts placed in their ideas context). it was translated as letteratura artistica. katherine gilbert and helmut kuhn, history of aesthetics leonelli venturi, history of art criticism (comment: your attention is drawn to the passages on croce) paul frankl, systeme der kunstwissenschaft (systems of art history) (comment: a brief summary of frankl may be found in an essay on “style” in kroeber, anthropology today ) arnold hauser, philosophy of art history . january, . [introduction] most art history works from unexamined concepts, which seem somehow to be made to fit the concrete objects discussed. but different terms are differently viable and the same term tends to produce different results. therefore we need to study viewpoints. the framework of these lectures, the topics to be covered, will be these: . concepts underlying classifications (style terms); . criteria for defining or distinguishing styles (form and expression); . meaning of the work, expression. grounds for accepting/rejecting interpretations of a work; . explanations of style. how to account for the existence of a certain work in a certain time and at a certain place. assumptions from psychology, social history, etc., come into this; . knowledge derivable from neighboring fields––details, and models of explanation. (this also includes the secondary sense in which artworks are useful to understanding in other fields, e.g. freud, kepler, mathematics, etc.); . value judgements––their bearing on the construction of art history as a systematic field dealing with objects arranged through time and in place. julius schlosser, die kunstliteratur. ein handbuch zur quellenkunde der neuerern kunstgeschichte, wien: a. schroll & co., julius schlosser magnino, letteratura artistica. manuale delle fonti delle storia dell 'arte moderna, transl. filippo rossi, firenze: la nuova italia, katherine gilbert and helmut kuhn, a history of esthetics, london: thames and hudson, nd ed. lionello venturi, history of art criticism, transl. charles marriott, new york: dutton, paul frankl, die systeme der kunstwissenschaft (systems of art history), brünn and leipzig: r.m. rohrer, alfred louis kroeber, anthropology today. an encyclopedic inventory, chicago: university of chicago press, . [typically, schapiro did not say that the summary of frankl was part of his magnificent essay “style” in kroeber’s book, pp. - .] arnold hauser, the philosophy of art history, new york: knopf, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science there are two deep concerns, we might call them “imagination” and “curiosity,” that could be put forward if someone asks you to justify doing art history. i) art historical study leads to stronger and deeper enjoyment of art, develops skills in making distinctions, leads to personal growth, increases abilities in problem- solving, and patterns of thinking and creating. the non-historical study of artworks sees the discernment of value as a large part of art history. close observation and study of anything (any artwork) is good in principle because it entails the possibility of enriching our experience of beauty. art historical study enables you to apply various resources––for example, paleontology––to bring to bear any feasible, relevant method. the artwork is either valuable itself, or pertains to objects of value. ii) human history, considered as a totality, can be viewed through the history of art. art history has a privileged position because it deals with concrete objects, entities that are present and universally visible, that is, in principle available for anyone to see. art objects precede others (in the sense of having survived, of having arrived at the present first). nothing else apart from works of art offer such a great and deep prospectus of man’s history. artworks are the model, the ideal witnesses, through which historians form their view of the age as a whole. “greek mind,” “greek man”––these ideas make sense because of the example of plato. one doesn’t have to live in china to respond to an idea of china. there is a physiognomic sense in which one can discover through artworks the characteristics of a past people acting in their present. the idea of art history as a construction of the totality of art works through time and space: this presumes that through style, etc. we see a panorama, recurrent patterns, a degree of unity of mankind presumably bound to common principles (such as an “aesthetic surface” and “aesthetic expressive depth”). herder, hegel, shelley announced this concept of art history’s importance. conversely, history acquires a new possibility for coherence, one that was inconceivable before . peel in was the first to propose it. why not earlier? lack of material. engravings, for example those of capt. cook’s voyages, brought forward new information. but there was lack of sympathy, non-european art objects were not regarded seriously; j. ruskin in political economy of art claimed only europe has art (!). in the nineteenth century primitive workmanship was admired, but not the work as a whole. winckelmann begins his history of ancient art with egyptian art, because it seemed to him similar to early archaic. he had a taste for the mysteriousness of the egyptian, “hieroglyphic world”––alongside greek and roman. in the early nineteenth century, in / , the first history of medieval art describes it as decadent: there is a strong relationship to revival notions in architecture and taste. according to michel foucault, courtiers in the seventeenth john ruskin, unto this last. the political economy of art: essays on political economy, london: dent, johann joachim winckelmann, history of ancient art, new york: f. ungar pub. co., terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science century reconstructed a pedigree for the french kings, using documents of a dynasty to confirm that its power was legitimate. this was one of the causes of the destruction, during the revolution, of the “kings of france,” the christian portals on, for example, the church of st germaine-de-pres. british empire civil servants used to send back “curious” artworks from the colony they governed to the british ministry. yet many became interested in these cultures– –this is the acculturating effect of colonialism. explorers make maps, learn languages, and collect specimens and artworks––military men/ archaeologists, the roles merge. apperceptive theory holds that we can appreciate in artworks only what we have today, yet classicists admire the classicism of the past. the theory is untrue––there is a range of taste in every aesthetic judgement––broader than our practice might imply. for example, in dürer admired pre-columbian art in antwerp, but was not influenced by it. in the early nineteenth century maubert’s was the first real reaction to the romanesque. yet he appreciated a wide variety of art. is a universal art history possible? certain tastes and norms limited the earliest histories of art. in the first half of the nineteenth century, there were some attempts at universal histories, but they were not emphasized or treated seriously. aesthetic judgements operate in the selection, the amount of attention, and the discrimination or judgement applied to art works from cultures regarded as “odd.” berenson called the book of kells “tattooing.” often the work is admired but not the culture, for example, abstract expressionism in europe now. the nineteenth century distinguished what in a work was bound to its time and what was timeless (for example, baudelaire talking about the mode and the timeless––but treating modishness as a necessary pre-condition). charles baudelaire, “the painter of modern life.” why did people in western europe and america after the middle of the nineteenth century look for the totality of art? at the end of the nineteenth century ethnologists and classical scholars wrote about our customs as survivals of primitive customs. why did ethnology museums show their materials as artworks? did this occur in cologne in the s for the first time? in nineteenth century western europe, aesthetic judgement demanded that for things to be artworks they had to be figurative, to have a completeness, naturalism, grace, inner harmony, etc. this is a post-renaissance viewpoint. it employs the norm of the human body as an ideally constructed figure. as well, certain compositional principles were regarded as essential: symmetry, balance, closed order, coloring had to be unified tonally and distributed in a balanced way. so, the basis was that every artwork is a unity and the object represented belonged to a superior world. artworks had to bear a set of charles baudelaire, the painter of modern life, and other essays, new york: praeger, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science values, to be “high art,” to possess decorum, to be elevated above the ordinary world, to embody the good and the beautiful and the true. each of these were esthetic ideas, not logical, ethical, etc. they constituted a screen through which all works of art had to pass. the ideal form and the proportional values of an ideal human being were applied. savages were seen as “noble” in the south pacific in the s [sic. as bernard smith shows, both french and british explorers were doing this already in the s]. they were presented in plays as the basic image of humanity, before culture and civilization. western europeans believed that certain cultures do attain ideal harmony––for example, themselves––whereas the other cultures had an inadequate sense of scale. how does this norm disappear? or is it suspended? is there a new norm, current today? riegl’s late roman art industry excluded pre-historical cave paintings, although his system incorporated everything else. he came to it from political history. he believed that the late romans and wandering barbarians combined to produce medieval art. what he called the kunstwollen moved from the tactile to the optical––this was natural to the human mind and each people had a role to play in this great civilizing process. his dutch group portraits is a wonderful book. the emphasis on change is a modernist art notion––norms of representation are replaced by norms of abstraction. from a modern perspective, the value of an artwork adheres in its forms––all marks, if structured and expressive, are admirable. thus all of the art of the world becomes available to esthetic valuing. . january, [modern art and the history of art] review of last week. the aims of art history are i) evaluation ii) construction of long- term continuous history. the latter works within the former and is relevant to many other fields of history and science. this relevance increases from day to day. these views follow from a fundamental change, during the mid- to late-nineteenth century, from representation based on the human figure to abstraction, thereby opening every artwork or artifact to study. the modern history of art. relatively speaking, compared to earlier views, modernist thinking assumes a necessary connection between stylistic features in art and a moment of time and space. thus interaction provides the conditions for understanding. variety and change of types are referred to period conditions. these have a bearing on the quality, aims and characteristics of contemporary art works. attitudes, worldviews, value systems, inventions of belief are revealed in art works (“universal history”). in contrast, the pre-modern approach assumed that study of the patterns of development in art add up to the assumption that there are processes rooted in the nature of art/mind/spirit, processes with their own laws and features, alois riegl, spätromantische kunstindustrie (late roman art industry), ; transl. rolf winkes, rome: g. bretschneider, alois riegl, das holländische gruppenportrait (the dutch group portrait), ; see the group portraiture of holland, transl. evelyn m. kain, los angeles: getty research institute, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science independent of specific conditions. both approaches depend on large-scale, systematic evidential art history––before and after situations are crucial––each work has its place in the chain of works, an order of genesis, evolution. these patterns are built out of known works, then applied to unknown works, placing them within the known. art history begins in the renaissance with ghiberti and vasari. modern art history, however, believes that attributions etc. exist in a field of studies, with many scholars increasingly critical of all statements that emerge from it. this is an ideal of knowledge, most exact, refined––like that of science. what has brought about this change from classical and renaissance art as the key standards of how we behave towards art? the main reason has been the actual development of modern art: during the past years art has introduced new values, concepts, attitudes. these have affected the appreciation of many “primitive” art styles, treating them as being on the same plane of form construction and expressive energy as classical and renaissance art. this amounts to an equivalent downgrading of classical and renaissance art. there has been a universalizing of the concept of form. older criticism expected more than order and unity––it wanted a form that corresponded to naturalism or idealized naturalism. the subject matters of art were “noble,” “elevated” ones. the key values of the religion and ethics of the times were based on striving to become ideal human beings. against this, modern artists disengaged the energies of form construction and expression from subjects per se, and attributed artistic intention to children’s art, to the art of the insane. this concept wasn’t spelled out––it was applied broadly and thus opened up other areas of art. in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there developed an appreciation for lively form and flecked brushstrokes. the concept of the “painterly” was problematic during the seventeenth century, when definite forms were blurred. it led to the controversy between the rubenistes versus the poussinistes, the ancients against the moderns. new science versus old science debates were paralleled in art. the new style was notable for its malerisch manner and its choice of “low life” subjects. modern styles are more or less free, and, when the artist has a choice between them, newer forms more likely to be fertile. in the nineteenth century there emerged the romantic notion of perpetual movement and freedom in art––a freedom from norms. delacroix and baudelaire looked for a “supernorm” above the classic/romantic difference. increasingly, the notions of harmony, order and expression were generalized, and linked with formal and expressive content (raphael and rembrandt could be equally valued). until representation was abandoned in the first quarter of the twentieth century, these constructed relationships became the content of art and were fitted into the universal plane of art. changes in art sprung from the changing values in social life and thought. older art had a content, subject matter that sprung from institutions, religions, the state, the terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science aristocracy, etc. subjects were commissioned by non-artists. we cannot understand the art unless we comprehend the social structure it was made within, the collective occasions and institutions, the super-individual necessity. old norms grew out of the values of these institutions as well as from formal problems: artists tried to invent expressively adequate forms. artists were selected by patrons on these grounds. since the seventeenth century, and especially during the nineteenth and twentieth, the choice of subject becomes free and belongs to personal life of the artist. this life also has a profound social dimension, for example, the subject matter of walking as an activity. in the middle ages walking was processional, a ritual practice not determined by the individual, it was a parade. in the nineteenth century there was the promenade, for example, the german spaziergang––we can predict who will be where, when; there were institutional procedures for taking this kind of walk, these are important in balzac’s descriptions of paris in the nineteenth century. private walking entails a new look at the city, a new look for the city. it became as statistically predictable as ritual procession. note the five types of strollers between and . thus the personal and the social were no longer mutually exclusive. the personal, therefore, became a more open social phenomenon. modern art becomes a function of individuals who have a greater freedom in organizing their own lives––to move about, change, and effect others. this outlook was then applied to all previous cultures, making them more recognizably human. in this way, we distinguish ourselves from others without implying their inhumanity. (this perspective, of course, was applied to europe and america, not to “less free” countries.) there was a change in the sense of “being human” in psychology and social thought. mostly, this was motivated by concepts of the irrational. these were viewed as partially destructive but also as indicating that the sources of uncertainty were unconscious. this allowed a primitive basis for all art, and brought man closer to “primitive” art itself and to children’s art. from the early nineteenth century, this view becomes obvious. in töppfler saw children’s art as similar in different cultures: the “direct expression of an idea through forms which are signs” was held to be true for all children. an ideal narrative of an artist’s life arises: as students we assimilate our whole culture, then we have to tap our children’s creativity, after which it is possible for us to become great artists––pope, baudelaire, and many others held this view. it is a key background to the late nineteenth century breakthrough. all this was sustained by psychology, which gives the human a more complex configuration, with stress on the subjective moment as crucial. freedom of art as a manifestation of human freedom. in some societies the warrior is the model human being, sometimes the priest, often the gentleman, or the good bourgeois businessman. in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the artist becomes the model because he is the example of the free human being, because he shows the greatest freedom of choice in his work, he is not influenced by others, and also exhibits development, self-criticism more than any others. other disciplines are divided into various different labors, and hackwork becomes important. the artist terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science embodies the warrior, priest, and businessman––a synthesis of these––with an added element of pathos, because only one in a hundred artists is successful. the effort is regarded highly and success is well rewarded. scientists are parallel, but scientists are controlled and their work is divided in tasks, yet sometimes scientists conceive of themselves as artists. all this adds up to a more richly universal history of art when placed into a totality. scientific thinking has had great effects on art and on audiences’ view of it. the artwork as open, self-transforming and public; criticism in the form of imitation or not, as influence, as practical approach: all this is scientific in character. science’s tendency to universalism, its speculative experimentation, admits many potentially false notions under the control of an on-going, venturesome activity. the scientific taste for elementarism, for basic universal features is less evident in normal science but, in theoretical science, such definitions are the bases of the science itself. thus the tendency to axiomatization. so, too, artists ask what are the root, underlying elements of an artwork? thus the possibility of a minimal or elementarist art. this can be applied to earlier styles. one isolates aspects of forms, just as linguists isolate phonemes, etc., to build up the whole of art. axiomatize and then systematize. at the same time, there is a consciousness of political and social development. the notion of progress arises: “mankind on the march,” michelet’s history of france , “christ the engineer driving the locomotive of history.” progress is the necessarily implicit goal: human destiny, together with a faith in freedom and inventiveness, is linked to an idea of art providing a notion of the succession of generations. world economy, world market, world culture. opening up of the rest of the world to western thought. all this creates awareness of alternatives and the need to grasp something about the colonies. the stoics had a notion of universalism–– monotheism––the sun as the source of all light shining on everyone. but the stoics would not have accepted the independent status of other peoples. classification and attribution enters into all art historical explanation and even some evaluation. the statement “ this is a rembrandt” entails a classification, so does “this is a copy of rembrandt.” even when one is dealing with a single work these factors enter in: for example, homer’s odyssey is not all by homer, indeed, homer might be a later anthologist. this implies a configuration of the homer texts, one in which fine discrimination is needed, close scrutiny, and awareness of the other poets. jules michelet, history of the french revolution, transl. keith botsford, wynnewood, pa: livingston publ., terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science there is a conception of art as belonging to geisteswissenschaft rather than naturwissenschaft, that it is part of knowledge of the whole of man, not just the knowledge of nature. this distinction rests on sets of opposed categories. man, a unique individual, each person with a specific history, is subject to judgements of value, to empathy and intensity, paying attention to mind, soul, spirit, imagination and feeling, and is therefore a less exact object of understanding. in contrast, nature is seen as general, universal, entailing no valuation, consisting entirely of all samples, thus explanation cannot get “inside” atoms. nature has none of the “human” characteristics and so we can be exact about it. the study of art, therefore, many say, has nothing to do with classifying, except for museums, dealers and owners. (cf. wilhem dilthey’s books.) wölfflin posited the possibility of a “history of art without names”; that shocked die geisteswissenschaftler. croce and venturi said that great works transcend classification, friedlander that classifying only captures the “little fish.” but this is a false set of dichotomies. geology, for example, uses historical evidence, information about the history of the world, such as evolutionary theory, modern genetics. the concept of a law is an empirical observation, or a generalization from evidence. kohler challenged the notion that science was value free: he argued that the understanding of nature entailed a concept of “requiredness,” a detail required by the whole of a given situation, that it was subject to the tendency to equilibrium. value in science is explored in norman campbell’s what is science? there are esthetic choices in physical equations, for example, we might see kepler’s ellipses in the context of mannerist art (they are not really ovals). dagobert fry has drawn attention to the mannerist preference for asymmetry. galileo refused to accept kepler’s notions because of his preference for circles. he was wrong, but his preference was also a possible direction. beauty in mathematical theory: this is seen when a theory is both surprising and economic. we don’t have an aesthetic of scientific research, we only have accounts of representations of theories. great and less great science is a value distinction. polanyi has shown us how natural scientists work with a map of the world: they discover cities, rivers, landmasses, and ultimately the poles. polanyi’s personal knowledge explains the acceptance or rejection of scientific theories, but he is talking about scientists, not sciences. on the question of translatability, whitehead argues that good math results do not reveal their national setting, but each nation has its own style of error. goethe believed that the test of a good poem was its translatability. but an artwork is very much changed in translation, in science not quite so. therefore science is less personalist in its results, although not its methodology or presentation. we might say that the personal element is, obviously, crucial in invention, but doesn’t carry through to the outcome. norman campbell, what is science?, new york: dover publications, michael polanyi, personal knowledge; towards a post-critical philosophy, london: routledge and kegan paul, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science . february [classification in science and in art history] classification is a basic procedure of art history. yet there are philosophers who regard classification as misleading, wasteful, insignificant. to attribute a work to the “school of…” does not get to the important uniqueness of artworks. when this is generalized to a broad view of culture––to geistes- and naturwissenschaft–– irreducible distinctions are drawn. dilthey ( - ) wrote systematic geisteswissenschaft. (see h. rickert, limits of concept formation in natural science) which puts forward logical and practical differences between nature and man with regard to the logos. around there was a movement to make history more scientific by applying scientific method. rickert criticized this. one might compare it to the current interest in “psycho-history.” particular/ general contrast the human field cf. the single artwork, artist. universal, ahistorical/ historical prefers particular artwork, overviews utopian. objects value free, unaffected is it useful, susceptible to analysis? cf. judgement/ evaluative cf. beautiful, good etc. abstracts, isolates, no sense whole of artwork of the unity, totality objects meaningful as data only, artwork meaningful in itself, has no intended purposive meaning purposive, intended to communicate objects related to others, artwork exists for itself and beyond its “verbindung,” that is, systematized time lichtenberg, in a dialogue written in the s, described “the dream.” a chemist has a vision of a being who offers him a sphere, which he analyses quantitatively and qualitatively, but finds no new elements. then suddenly he saw it as the globe, but when he dusted it off he wiped off the earth. next, there appeared a strange paper that he wanted to analyze as paper, not as writing. (new york review of books, schapiro’s translation. ) the moral? the scientist explains and is shallow, deals with the surface phenomena, whereas the humanities student has intuition, insight and achieves a deeper communication with the object. heinrich rickert, die grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen begriffsbildung: eine logische einleitung in die historischen wissenschaften, tübingen: j.c.b. mohr, ; limits of concept formation in natural science, new york: cambridge university press, georg christoph lichtenberg, “a dream,” translated by meyer schapiro, new york review of books, august , , vol. , no. , available at: http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/ /aug/ /a- dream/ http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/ /aug/ /a-dream/ http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/ /aug/ /a-dream/ terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science natural science versus human science. there are some questions about the validity of this distinction: science achieves coherence and advances by communities working together. science is historicist in many of its questionings, for example, origins of the earth (predictions?). geology, biology, and physics (entropy)––genetics. biologists’ ideas are often used about artforms, for example, “organic,” etc. blum time’s arrow (princeton) , in explaining the development from molecules to organic life, uses a comparison to gothic architecture as an example of non-purposive growth. physicists have laws “without dates,” yet all statements about art must have a time dimension. for astronomy and geology time is crucial, yet all statements are limited to the existence of the globe. does a physical law hold forever, has it held forever, all over the universe? (e. zilsel––genies ––the notion of unique prime number individuals became well known, for example, geniuses). some physical laws have a narrow range, for example, biological, cultural ranges, one individual’s life span. an artwork may be thought of as a law-like system with a narrow range but of growing value. have the laws of physics changed in time? this is impossible to answer. if the whole universe were contracted, would we know? gravitational constant. general concepts. we do need them in art discussion? if we have a prior concept of art, then some categorizable features are universal, for example, color, line, etc. style categories are usually limited to one period, although mannerism can reappear throughout art history, as can baroque elements, that are not confined to the baroque period. this is a question about the fitness of language to characterize a group of phenomena and their range, for example, “the homeric.” meaningfulness (sinnhaftigkeit) is crucial for the arts, for all social thinking (schutz ). purposive human activity, that which is intended to communicate, for example, speaking, gesture, transactions, effort––all this is meaningful here. what of involuntary gestures? do they communicate? to freud, neuroses are purposive. animals communicate often. schachtel: art occurs when freud’s drive orientations are mastered (compare this to freud himself). what are the meaningful characteristics of the species man, a member of the natural world? george mead of chicago (student of charles morris) in mind, self and society, philosophy of the act, harold francis blum, time's arrow and evolution, princeton: princeton university press, edgar zilsel, “history and biological evolution,” philosophy of science, jan., , vol. , no. , pp. - alfred schutz, the phenomenology of the social world, evanston, ill.: northwestern up, ernest schachtel, metamorphosis. on the conflict of human development and the psychology of creativity, hillsdale: analytic press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science and history of thought in the th century, offers a biological, pragmatic view of how meaning arises in the natural world; and does so in a behaviorist manner. compared to skinner, watson is responsive the subtleties of the levels of the mind. animal speech: we tend to have folk knowledge of this. in the seventeenth century scientists developed a syntax and dictionary of animal speech, but with no sentences in it, and no syllogisms. linguistics: post-mathematical theory of linguistics, syntactical structures (when we are making statements about a person we are not actually making a statement about the molecules of which he is composed). scientists of all sorts can see artwork from many different viewpoints. q: what is the meaning of one human action compared to for example, a speech by president nixon and a symphony by beethoven? this is not a question that would submit to a lowest common denominator answer. a: we could appreciate it through a distinction between signs and symbols, the latter being deliberate human actions. semiotics, according to c. s. peirce, is based on distinguishing three types of sign: indexical signs, for example, dark clouds equal rain, man friday’s footprints; symbolic signs, for example, human speech conventions; and iconic signs, for example, naturalistic artworks, signs that look like that to which they refer. these three are separate from each other, mostly. the scientist looks to indexical signs, but he also uses iconic signs when he looks at screens, etc. but does he use symbols? does a different criteria of valid statement operate in regard to artworks compared to natural objects? scientists emphasize beauty, economy and elegance but prior to that the theory has to be true and tenable. prematurity? art and science not so special in this regard: as shown in a scientific american article. there are unproved theories in mathematics: “every even number is the sum of two primes” is true george herbert mead, mind, self, and society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist, chicago: university of chicago press, ; philosophy of the act, chicago: university of chicago press, ; movements of thought in the nineteenth century, chicago: university of chicago press, burrhus frederic skinner, science and human behavior, new york: macmillan, ; beyond freedom and dignity, new york: alfred a. knopf, ; about behaviorism, new york: alfred a. knopf, john broadus watson, psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist ( ), charlestown, sc: nabu press, charles hawthorne, paul weiss and arthur w burks eds., collected papers of charles sanders peirce, cambridge, ma: harvard university press, - ; charles sanders peirce, peirce on signs: writings on semiotic, james hoopes ed., chapel hill: university of north carolina press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science because it is beautiful. golbach’s conjecture. but this is really a comment about intellectual work that comes together in form––in any field. truth testing––observation, interpretation, judgement, etc. during goethe’s italian journey he visited paestum. at first, he disliked the temples there, but he pulled himself together, via winckelmann, that is through art history, and came to like them. “olympian child with brown eyes, almost black.” apollonius of tyana came to olympia and saw and admired an archaic statue of milo. the tight treatment of hands and legs and the meaning of the pomegranate is given a physical explanation, but he also sees milo as a hera priest and then examines the sculpture on stylistic grounds as a second century bc, archaic greek work, revived into taste. artworks have value, and are therefore worth studying. scientists are attracted to astronomy, therefore to the beauty and mystery of the heavens. we see this parallel in such books as hardy’s two on a tower, and zinner’s the stars above us. medicine is guided by value-goals; for example, “pathology” is a value statement. applied sciences have value-goals. the lines between fundamental and applied science are not really discernible. in scientific truth-testing there is always a goal, without reference to a value-term. for example, the safety of a bar is not a consideration for testing its tensile strength, when the goal is to measure the breakage point. an exception is köhler’s theory of equilibrium as inherent in all nature––“forgetting,” “unfinished actions”––not relational but an inherent tendency in all matter to homeostasis. in aesthetics he saw equivalences to “requiredness” in, for example, dress choices, completion of tasks, a certain symmetry between the demands of nature and of the human mind. gestalt perception and structure. but value for whom? for the molecule? for köhler, this was its preferred state of nature. was it a mental preference? köhler’s answer is no, but he points out that in nature there is a style of an eagle (species and being), and a culture’s style is not the conscious creation of individuals. this leaves us with a methodological dilemma. art history does not require measurement, in the sense of the accuracy that is required by scientific method, but it does require a different kind of measurement, one productive of the same kind of see, for example, uwe kraeft, goldbach's conjecture and structures of primes in number theory, aachen: shaker, johann wolfgang von goethe, italian journey - , transl. w h auden and elizabeth mayer, new york: pantheon books, johann joachim winckelmann, history of the art of antiquity ( ), los angeles: getty research institute, flavius philostratus, the life of apollonius of tyana, cambridge, ma: harvard university press, - thomas hardy, two on a tower, london: macmillan, ernst zinner, the stars above us, or, the conquest of superstition (new york: scribner, ) on köhler’s theory, see for example: john m wallace and peter victor hobbs, atmospheric science: an introductory survey, new york: academic press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science truth. this is an acceptable conclusion: truth is the aim, even if it will always be partial. . february [classification in art history] last week we began to compare knowledge of nature to knowledge of art. we did not compare art to nature: logos and subject should not be confused. take the idea that we have qualitative knowledge of art in contrast to a quantitative knowledge of science. this is hardly a clear distinction. math has to do with qualities often, and it measures without numbers but by qualities––for example, the diminishing height of people, the hardness of materials, the ordering of a gradient, or clusters with uneven curves. (see oppenheim, the concept of type in the light of modern logic. ) forms of deviation, irregularity, or family resemblance groups are measured––for example, in anthropology. these are vague, not readily definable concepts (for example, lévi- strauss’s elementary structures of kinship ). fluid properties, a degree of vagueness, are accountable, for example, statistically. how do we get to know things effectively? what constructs do we need to make? the objective/subjective distinction: can it be defined by its objects?––that is, can we say that all statements about art are subjective, but those about molecules are objective? “subjective” may mean idiosyncratic compared to collective beliefs, yet one person might be right, especially if his statement shows a defect in the general reasoning. “subjective” statements may mean those made about an experience that is available only to the subject––for example, internal pains that are unobservable from outside, or the whole field of unconscious feeling, emotion, etc. currently, there is an assumption that there is a distinction between what can and cannot be observed or communicated to others, as if there were two types of knowledge. but science deals with many unobservables, for example, atoms whose effects are observable but not the atoms themselves. some of these observations are not yet generalized into laws. can we make objective statements about “private” matters? can we take measure of sensations as responses to stimuli? koestler noted that astronomers gave different reports of intensities, etc. of the stars that they see, which leads to the need to produce a law of invariant relations to cover the differences in these subjective reports . the idealistic dualism, the mind/body distinction, is crucial here. first person statements about objects, ourselves, etc., are protocol for objective science. how does quantifying relate to artworks? measurement has practical uses to describe the properties of solid material objects. to see whether an artwork is the same as the one described by so-and-so, or the same as it was when so described. paul oppenheim and carl gustav hempel, der typusbegriff im lichte der neuen logik, leiden: a.w. sijthoff, claude lévi-strauss, the elementary structures of kinship, london: eyre and spottiswoode, arthur koestler, the sleepwalkers: a history of man’s changing vision of the universe, london: hutchinson, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science dating by carbon or tree-rings is crucial to prehistoric studies. entasis may be used to measure the dating of greek temples, that is, if you presume an even rate of bulging originally, that diminishes regularly through time, this gives exact dates once certain works are taken as standard. gardin at the centre national de la research scientifique in paris is collaborating with a topologist to specify curves on pottery to match eye/type classifying with analytic formulas for curves. the theory of proportions may be used in a normative sense: certain of these will guarantee order and harmony, for example, the golden section. (there is a long history to this––ghika, wittkower’s renaissance and humanism studies this - also applied to music since pythagoreas). discerning the differences between the script of a long- term manuscript, one on which scribes develop their script throughout their lives, is an example of measuring the collective transformations of a medium which is, in some sense, physiognomic, related to the individual. in the eleventh and twelfth century “r” is replaced by “s”, which first appeared at the end of a line only. frequency counts can be useful to determine date, authorship; but there is always a problem with determining the proper size of the sample. when studying who wrote the text imitation of christ, someone discovered a manuscript that suggested that thomas à kempis was the translator only. stochastic method predicts sequences and the likelihood of certain words (and paintings) occurring. all this is rudimentary, because art theorists are not interested in maths. art history: a conviction that being able to say when and where a work was made, then being able to set it in context, enables us to grasp many features we wouldn’t otherwise be able to register. we can also see effects on other works. there are many difficulties, beyond the usual allowance for exceptions, in applying this approach. we do not have a sufficiently strong body of principles to connect one type of event with another. should we, then, treat history as a succession of unique events? history is very abstract; often there is no direct contact with objects, no traces of them. in art we have the objects, as well as these lost unobservables. documents allow us to reconstruct the past––after we have developed criteria for the veracity of the documents. we always understand events in classes, for example, the history of the french revolution is not everything that occurred - , but the events crucial to the social change before and during this period, all depending on your theory of what the french revolution amounts to. leonid andreyev has a story of the tradesman of jerusalem who was preoccupied by his bad toothache during the day of the crucifixion. all knowledge is understood as a relation to something else other than itself, and to thinking and seeing too. signs are the only marks available if the references are not read. sign means “stands for.” rudolf wittkower, architectural principles in the age of humanism, london: a. tiranti, thomas à kempis, the imitation of christ ( ), transl. ronald knox and michael oakley, new york: sheed and ward, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science a value preference regarding one’s theory––one’s interests, goals, engagements, who focuses on which parts of the world-field. we don’t have an exhaustive relationship to anything. the all is obscure, the whole is possible as a segregated selection, grasping the all is an unachievable aim. events are selected because they exhibit properties that fit with our preferences in classifying. classifying is an arrangement of materials. compare the situation in science: evolution owes a lot to classifying. it is wrong to say that darwin’s theory of evolution was the first biological overview, the first systematic theory. it depends on observing forms in the environment. taxonomy––groups which cohabit and interbreed in a particular environment––this is a typical art historian’s procedure. classifying seems to use an arbitrary language, but it is not arbitrary as a procedure. yet classifying is not natural. there is no defining the essence of nature, a singular sense of nature––for example, the statement “man is an animal, who is rational,” is absurd. image that you were the international director of the museum of the twenty-first century. how would you store works from all over the world against the atomic bomb? shopping centers have this problem: how do you store objects so as to be able to retrieve them? size? assign numbers according to size and a magnitude; then they could be found easily. this would incidentally show that large works have certain properties in common, for example, pyramids, mayan ziggurats, etc. but there are too many differences: for example, large and small egyptian works have a lot in common. substance? stone, glass. materials are still crucial for aesthetic features of artworks. (see smith in proceedings of the american philosophical society , recent issue.) subject matter? narrative, portrait, literature, poetry, still-life etc. those with different architectural functions… all of these classifications are objective, that is to say, the work does or does not have x property. although there are vaguenesses, they could be handled statistically, etc. place and time? once there is an historical consciousness there will be dating. traders found places for the work they pilfered. cultures typically distinguish their own work from before, set their own period in a good light usually! patriotism, belief in progress, reinforce this. inheritance. rulers–– dynasties. religions. artworks are used to show that the saints existed right cyril s. smyth, “metallurgical footnotes to the history of art,” proceedings of the american philosophical society, vol. , no. , apr. , , pp. - terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science back to the time of christ, or were an object of cults. early christian art is still studied to fill the gap in evidence, as the catacombs date to around ad. locating the works in time and place permits special things: it leads to the recognition of the cultural segmentation of styles in a certain place, and shows prior and later differences. a unity cutting across the quantitative criteria listed above. thousands of works are needed as evidence. the historical character of art is therefore evident. michelangelo follows leonardo, not precedes him, as their work shows. this approach allows us to access documents contemporary with the work; we know where to look if we have the rough date. you read around the time. test what you are saying about the intention of the artwork against the times and the other works of the time. in reverse: art gives evidence to music historians, literary historians, etc. time-space is the richest resource. but does not exclude the others. time-space classifying does not give any essence; it permits us only to isolate features for discrimination and comparison. on the universal order of human art activities. we would like to include even more things, if we were able to notice them. our present preferences lead us to start looking at new areas and cultures, even earlier stages of primitive art. subdivisions in time and region within art styles are relevant. regional groupings through styles, for example, of the migrating tribes of europe and central asia via study of the changing styles of fibula. with regard to individuals, individual artists, we can discern stages of style in their oeuvres. time-space gives a proximate sense of unity of styles, one that holds for every order of magnitude; even up to all art. (can we compare the romantic to the classical in all art?) your approach to classification is affected by your concept of style. two style-concepts: (i) one feature is sufficient to identify a fixed style, because it occurs within time-space; or (ii) style depending on current esthetics, norms, preferences, that suggests criteria not available before. in general, style is a means of classifying and characterizing the constants in the art works of many individuals, groups, regions, nations, peoples, etc. . february [style – “time-space,” names, diagnostics] last week: classification of artworks––size, material, technique, subject matter. all classifications arise from our interest in some aspect of a whole. the cherry tree meant something different to george washington and to its grower. is there not a supra-interested way of approaching artworks? art as art is better understood, experienced, realized if artworks are distinguished according to style and time- space. further, such classification reveals unexpected unities. terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science q: are all these classification statements of the same logical type, or are they different? a: all the same type. determining membership of a class is a matter of fact, except in borderline cases. the decision to form a class out of one quality or another is, however, arbitrary. style and time-space classifying is generative of new information. correspondences between style and time-space features––how do you establish their similarity? for example, mannerism as a style. its time and place, to , italy, france etc., how do all these factors relate? unequivocal demonstration of the characteristics is difficult. another example: apples, macintosh, degree of survivability, size. the george washington story leads to questions of value. time-space value is a useful experiential measure. people are from certain places, of certain ages. we habitually make groupings of a classificatory time-space sort. we cannot act without making distinctions of this sort. they are vague boundaries, but it is still possible to work logically in this vagueness. when we study history we transfer to these past times and places our time-space sense, because we can’t experience their time-space directly. our own immediate past is crucial here. time-space is established for artworks by evidence of time and place, for example, through comparison to dated works, by checking against dated documents. we can say that works must have been done at such and such a time in the past. but why are we so confident about “similar looking” past work, when locally, now, in downtown new york, there is a plethora of variety? because we know of thousands of works, not just a few; we have many documents, usually of all sorts (all external to aesthetics). it is the same as constructing a map of a new country, first, note the general outstanding features, then more detailed observation, followed by surprises. the continuing collective work over decades by many scholars with well- documented works, and with undocumented but related work, guarantees the large scale mapping of a region, a period, or connections between periods, of places all over the globe at a given time, but it is never fully covered. it follows that works produced at a wide spread in time and place have family resemblances. but within generational periods, say twenty-five years, they have more features in common than they have with the work of the next generation. experts give much importance to internal evidence, to features of form, composition, and structure. some evidence is both external and internal, for example, costumes of a period, style of lettering is datable, so, too, buildings in the background. the style of the painting should be compared to the style of the objects represented in the artwork. racial expressions are relevant, for example, a flemish compared to an italian person of a period––social, physiognomic types come into play, for example, the uptight dutchman. artists have typical physiognomies, too, typical ways of doing drapery. all of these are vague, but nonetheless they are useful and are widely used. terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science this bears on the history of art as art history. such procedures enable us to form law-like properties (propositions). for practical purposes it is certain that if a work has x features, you can guess its time-space details roughly. we can make law-like statements, which tell us something about a society. we compare the common language of a period and place, its structural laws, for example, about consonants. law-like characteristics seem true of social behavior as a whole, not because they are done together but because they are done alike. this shows us, however, only what is so, not why it is so. but we nevertheless have a naive sociology built into our classifying––a limited view of how imagination, generations and people behave, and we can make out those who act against or differently from the types we set up. we fit stylistic groups with time-space locations to these values (and vice-versa). notions of originality, the avant-garde, imitation, the idea that everybody is original. these so-called objective characteristics of history are actually based on naive notions of social behavior. the overall map is, however, full of variances. which inventions take? do most neologisms fail because of their prematurity? when we compare one set of time-space mappings to another, for example, the shift from attic to classical in greek art around bc or that from romanesque and gothic to ad, or han to wei compared to tan to sung, we can find shared features. are there inherent forms of development? without the overall taxonomic mapping we could not even begin to ask this sort of question. stylistic mapping. works of art are not mapped arithmetically (time) nor spatially (geography), but rather a different language is used: “greek of the archaic period,” “realism.” these two have different sounds––a national designation, a relation to nature. or we use terms such as middle minoan i, ii, and iii, or magdalenian. there is arbitrariness in the choice of name. “gothic” is not the art of the goths. romanesque does not mean neo-roman. q: because style characteristics are spread over all the arts, does this mean that they have a spiritual essence in common? a: handwriting, shipbuilding, manners, posture, economics––all of these have styles. kröbler demonstrated the biological style of animals. we speak of the “style of a president,” the form of his behavior, or of a mathematical style. “style” is a universal, cheap word. too little is done to make these distinctions explicit and explanatory. style names. “gothic” had to do with the disrespect toward, and lack of repair of, actual gothic buildings. naming gives a certain value, history, etc. to a work. naming generates new names, it is heuristic, it tells you where to look for style features. how are they formed? these names need to be classified: –– of peoples, nations, pro or con; terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science –– dynastic: roman imperial, han; –– place, region: school of paris, school of new york, “school of the pacific,” that is, recent art on the west coast of this country; –– aesthetic: the word “baroque” derives from the portuguese for “pearl,” which is a positive naming, but also from an old scholastic syllogism, which is a contra, negative naming. the name “impressionism” was given by enemies of the art, but the artists loved it. it led to the term “post-impressionism.” futurism was named one and half years before the works were made. it was chosen by the artists involved, as were “suprematism” and “vorticism.” these correspond to an idea of art history, the urge to separate oneself as group, in the public mind, from others; –– biological naming: a plant might have a scientific name and a vernacular name. geology has jurassic (place), triassic (triple layer of rock), metazoic (animals found in rock). naming is nevertheless subservient to the collection of style features to which it refers. style names embody a theory that there is some deep connection between the actual artworks and a time and place. we do need to examine social circumstances to understand the form of the artwork, for example, the four musicians in a carolingian illustration of david, the four ministers around carolingian emperor. merolingian art is generally folkloristic, handicrafty, employing few figures, and is simple compared to carolingian narrative, with its use of classical figures. the latter expresses the founding of the holy roman empire, and the resumption of a classical culture. whether we use the word “carolingian” or not, we still can localize artworks to times and places which are connected by being in the area and duration of charlemagne and charles the bald. this localization leads us to see connections with other historical configurations, for example, those of empire. time-space boundaries are, finally, cultural and community-based. they are not significantly tied to latitudes and longitudes (someone tried to do this––strzygowski ). they are theory-laden, the product of holding a theory(s) about a body of art. the practice of art is social and communal; thus there is a law-like relationship between the place, the time and the work. florentine art has distinct characteristics. there is an explanatory weight to this knowledge of sources, for example, we can identify a gothic chapel within a great romanesque building: “it was built in the fourteenth century.” but we can’t contrast all things one to the other in this way. mapping provides an explanation of sorts, but it does not explain the process itself, such comparisons are impossible: why things are as they are is a second order of the problem. joseph strzygowski, origin of christian church art: new facts and principles of research, oxford: clarendon press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science compare biology: classifications are done by morphology, for example, whales are the biggest fish. criteria such as whether interbreeding was possible, and factors of habitat, were taken as basic until recently. art history has done just this for many years, for example, “school of raphael,” “flemish school.” this sort of term follows from our beliefs about artists learning from one another in, say, flanders at a certain time, that is, it is about interbreeding and habitat. initially, we pick out diagnostic style features––those which distinguish perugino from raphael. according to giovanni morelli, a painter changes his way of working depending on subject matter, but certain elements remain the same, for example, the treatment of the ear, the fingertips. he applied the ideas of a physician, that is, comparative anatomy. he was an italian patriot, disturbed by the principalities of italy, who were very proud of their local masterworks. morelli tried to clear all these fakes away and unite italy by pointing to authentic shared possessions. some see so many details that they deny imagination or invention, claiming that only the scientific is useful. this tells us nothing about the thing itself, only that it exists; it is a means of identifying, not of explaining. style as a more deeply formative and operative structure needs to be studied. a style might be shared by a school in some fine sense, or minutely changed. a diagnostic view of style as a means of classifying features is very important, therefore, because it leads to (i) a deeper sense of style, and (ii) to interpolation in mapping: artworks made in the year have qualities , , , compared to works made in which have qualities , , , , , . we find an undated work with qualities , , , , but not , and cannot therefore exclude the possibility that it was made between - . are all these qualities are useful. we need features that change sufficiently and steadily through time (neither unchanging nor too quickly changing), for example, in medieval art, we focus on profiles, moldings. this enables us to get specific about dating, to use a diagnostic clue without explanation of the work or the cause of change. it just occurs, for example, changes in drapery. diagrams of drapery and cross-sections through the body: terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science there is a progressive articulation through the medieval period towards complexity, concavity, etc. this would not be true of proportions, but would be true of hair, forms, and letters. those features that can give us a notion of the whole, not just the parts, are useful. how are all the gradients related? sometimes they do not fit for all regions, and vary because of regional factors, notably the northern and mediterranean renaissance. this sort of problem might lead you to consider how different features function within a style category, for example, giotto visiting padua, assisi, rome, from florence. if a culture is open, receptive, and mobile we need to follow it with our style categories. in case of egypt, by contrast, pharoic art is to be found all over the mediterranean but not practiced elsewhere. the permeability of boundaries is grounded in the changes a culture goes through. in the case of north greece during the bronze age, in thessaly, during the neolithic era, cultures and art in different stages coexisted for a thousand years directly across the river from one another. there are no world historical principles to sort this out. . february [style – contexts, limits] review of last week: a large body of questions clusters around the idea of style, and the constitution of adequate style terms. time-space is more fruitful than any other classificatory device. contexts are crucial because of their imposition on the actual creation of art works. contexts help us date artworks. they are a partly internal, partly external way of mapping all the artworks in the world in time and place. their looking alike leads us to connect them. style criteria are about degrees of resemblance. how do we decide degrees of resemblance? long and detailed acquaintance makes you form groups for reasons of economy and understanding. groupings are constantly contested as to their characteristics and membership, and will be modified. this is okay, part of the process (it is comparable to other countries being viewed as good guys one year, bad the next). constituting larger classes is associated with naming, and thus subdivision. these are fairly arbitrary. they express a theory about the work with which they deal: (i) the work is of a fairly constant type, (ii) it is associated with a circumstance, for example, a civilization, a dynasty, a tradition. style terms are a condensed statement of many particulars, resembling a theory in science. but they are not scientific. the term “gothic” is based on a wrong-headed notion that the barbarians had created such superstitious junk as chartres––this is, obviously, a judgement that assumes classical theory and values. style terms apply beyond art, to music, even to politics. see friedrich of harvard on “baroque” politics : a large scale horizontal unity was sought across many phenomena. existentialism worked from philosophy into art. style terms are not used consistently; for example, “byzantine” can mean simply “of the empire,” or be carl j. friedrich, the age of baroque, - , new york: harper, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science applied to all pre-gothic work. in different disciplines, style terms are used to cover different periods, to mean different things. nevertheless, some consensus usually forms. sometimes, however, the same style in different places has different names. scholars know each country’s quirks in this, but it is confusing for others, the non- art historians. often proposals for terms do not take, even when they seem more sound than the ones in use. by “gothic” we know what we mean, roughly, we can point to paradigm cases. but when quichart defines the romanesque as “no longer roman but not yet gothic” he depends on us being clear about what we mean by “roman” and by “gothic.” style terms do point to some absolute facts: a work that is being made in paris in is independent of whatever style terms we use. these facts are independent of the theories about the work. but often we are not sure about the date, then we go back to many examples, construct a class of types, etc., which can give us certainty as to sorts of dates. after doing this we often find that the way we originally constituted the class was wrong. the collectivity of art making: this depends on the context of many artists, often studios, the city, and the beliefs that were held. for example, to understand giotto we have to understand giotto himself, florence, the church at the time, etc. these contextual factors suggest information about the work. later information can be relevant, later works, later patrons. if you want to understand a certain work it might be that later works exemplify where the artist thought he was going. this idea is part of riegl’s theory of kunstwollen. later works are often a reaction against earlier ones, thus the earliest post-impressionist works reacted against impressionism. what sort of evidence is pertinent to the work done in, for example, the year x? later information can be got from, for example, a drawing done of it a hundred years later that shows that the work as we have it is not complete. shift of sensibility within a whole culture can be important, for example, diderot and the early enlightenment. but bougainville wrote in this manner earlier––and a poitiers abbé named dechamps laid the groundwork for these ideas, more famously put later by diderot. these were published in , which changed our picture of the whole thing. often there are delays in getting the information out. joyce’s concept for ulysses was preceded by du jardin, in paris in , from whom joyce may have got the notion. copies of documents are crucial as historical documents: greek history is dependent on roman descriptions of lost originals. scholars try to reconstruct them, for example, polygnotus’s wall paintings in delphi and athens from copies on vases, etc. therefore we should pay attention to traces and consequences in time. fossils work this way for geology. but this later information is not the same as the events of james joyce, ulysses, new york: random house, Édouard dujardin, the bays are sere and interior monologue, london: libris, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science the time. later we can discover information about the previous point in time; when we discover it later is not significant, the features of later time are irrelevant to the previous one. returning to dating from internal evidence, we face the question: why could not a datable detail have been inserted later? what is it that gives a terminus post-quem? take the example of dating a trans-jordan temple. we know that the time of building was related to the star’s disposition, but this was too vaguely done by the builders. yet portraits of certain rulers in the same temple showed monarchs, one of whom died on date x and the other ascended the throne on date y, therefore x and y gave terminus antequem and postquem. what are the limits of such mappings? sources of error, not quite fitting details, etc. copies and fakes are the first and most obvious challenge to style related to time and space. we are talking here about style in a diagnostic, not aesthetic, sense. fingerprints identify but tell us nothing in themselves about the person. artists are able to work in a style previous to their own, they may start over again from their own earlier work. if you map a time-space in general terms all over a society you misdate the young innovators. without these innovations there would not be a historical procedure that would enable us to date so exactly. egyptian art is difficult to date exactly precisely because of its stability, compared to europe since the seventeenth century, since when there have been decade by decade changes in painting, sculpture and architecture. language is so stable because everything has to be said in the same words, compared to art, where fewer things have to be said in a more restricted form. there is more likely to be change in a specialized area. each speaker in a molecular way influences the gradual drift of language. in art, many styles may coexist; styles may develop in parallel. what happens when styles succeed each other? for example, masaccio’s work done when he was aged / was seen by old men, young men, apprentices, etc. the varied reactions were influenced by age, habits, ends and capacities, the tasks of the different artists. all this may be true of primitive societies as well. when a new style is being assimilated, there will be different degrees of assimilation at the one place. further, there may well be two parallel developments. expressionism, fauvism, and cubism in paris, germany, etc. around to . can you see what is shared amongst all these things? further, there are variations in the purposes of the artwork: cartoons, drawings, drawings for paintings, compared to drawings for murals. can the criteria for style features in drawing and in painting be the same? and, within the one work, the artist can use different techniques, for example, van eyck in his landscape backgrounds. diagnostic style attribution requires an awareness of all these modifiers. terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science it may be that, recently, the availability of so many styles has lead to a point where we cannot any longer hold to our cohering view of style. does not the case of picasso suggest this? the vagueness of political and social boundaries is a problem. what are the boundaries of italy throughout history? space as a culture, as community, may not be homogenous, for example, women might make different work from men in the cathedral compared to the house. anything that helps us classify correctly, that is, gives us a better notion of the work from its context, is valuable. is the notion of the individual so precious? rembrandt can be copied, but a circle is something that we all see the same way, as true or untrue. some works are part rembrandt, part not. the assisi frescoes are usually attributed to giotto, but in rintelen examined the spacing of the work, structures, and composition to show that the st francis cycle is not by giotto, when compared to the padua frescoes, which are. unoriginal factory-made works are easier to date, therefore they are not considered as part of art precisely because they add so little and are so easy to see, like parisian tourist art. when someone says, “my child could do that,” you might reply, “well, until your child grows up we have to rely on what we have got, that is, this.” we do have more knowledge, have made more tests, than in the nineteenth century, therefore our judgements should be better than they were. judgements are confined to one’s general preferences. the boundaries of individual artists’ work can be difficult to determine. can we discuss giotto’s participation as a student in a group project? later, we might ask: how much did he give to the assistants? these questions amount to a modification of the notion of the homogeneity of an individual’s style. take the master of vezelay: we know him definitely through one work, so what do we do with early work, etc.? is the “isaac” painter at assisi the young giotto or is he giotto’s teacher? good questions, but they do not necessarily prove one thing or the other. . march style [classification, unity, schema] style is classification. the criteria may be slight, trivial, not give us great insight into the artwork qua artwork, and be adequate only to placing it in time and place. nonetheless, no matter how mechanical our time-space criteria, we still refer it to a sense of the whole of the work. we could compare it to recognizing a person from a friedrich rintelen, giotto und die giotto-apokryphen, munich and leipzig: g. müller, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science distance, to the ways we note the unverbalized appearance of the whole, plus extra details. most art historians do little more than look for fingerprints. diagnostic features rarely give us, may or may not give us, insight into the artwork. taking a “physiognomic” approach, we begin from large general characteristics, for example, the “look” of a botticelli. but a work by “amico della sandro” looks alike, so we examine it for details. if the work of artist “x” is usually “soft,” a work which is not soft will be rejected by us. admitting the vagueness of boundaries, we seek more detailed diagnostic factors. statistical models of the occurrence of words, of features, give a profile distinctive to each artist. but this does not describe style of artist, merely diagnoses the work as by him. “style” originally meant a pen, a stylus, as well as the manner of different writing instruments. then people noticed different qualities in say english, italian, in spoken compared to written latin. why is the style problem so closely related to art? because our aesthetic theories are based on art practice. artists work at composing, they work at finding the style appropriate to the subject, they are experts in certain subjects, moods, techniques, more than others (so commissioners of work look for these). in these situations we look for style features. we see distinctive styles in “german,” “french” art, etc. wölfflin recognized differences between a german and an italian artist within the common framework of renaissance style (he claimed to be able to distinguish italian and german shoes). distinctions are made with reference to a particular goal. style concepts may never have emerged were it not for a need to say something about this sort of impulse. every field that has a number of variable objects, for example, chemistry, seeks to form ordering groups. we want to make the distinctions, and do it as clearly as possible. excellence is a concept of style. we might say: “henry james has style, but writer x has none.” this is not strictly true, it is the same as saying of someone: “he has no heart.” consider the statement: john f. kennedy was a president with style. who would like to ask a question about style? ts: your remark about president kennedy, do you mean to say that he had a certain achievement of grace beyond accomplishment, beyond technical explanation? ms: as “grace” is a feature of style at one time, “power” can be so at another. there is a notion of style as a kind of unity, when unified is seen as better than diversification, for example, gothic style for churches, moorish for a bathhouse, roman for courthouses, romanesque for a library. why not truly gothic? therefore, in real gothic there is a oneness throughout the whole. beyond this, there is a norm erwin panofsky, perspective as symbolic form ( ), mimeographic circulation in english ; cambridge, ma: zone books, mit press, . heinrich wöfflin, classic art. an introduction to the italian renaissance, london: phaidon, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science of pure style, a high style towards which all quality judgements aspire, compared to style as a pervading set of characteristics in the different parts of the work. kroeber said that every species is a style of nature, and compared this to art styles. the artist matta would imitate particular track photos from scientific american during the war. can the style terms we apply to his work be applied also to the objects photographed? are the fields of nature distinguishable stylistically? q: is intentionality a criterion? s: a child’s drawing does not intend, how do we know if he does, he does not verbalize it. a mature person’s work is characteristic of him, yet it is not necessarily intentional. there is a lot of parallel, unintentional, unspecifiable material in artworks. kroeber’s argument about style unity in nature concerned me initially, but i could not find a cogent form of disagreement. later, i found that, in nature, kroeber’s assumption of thoroughgoing unity is not borne out by common features in many species. this also applies to art––style is not homogenous. look at the increased modeling of the human figure during the fifteenth and the end of the sixteenth century, when it was associated with depth in order to move the figure. but in tyrol, normandy, etc., powerfully modeled figures are set in gold, against a flat background. is this contradictory? in regard to shakespeare, the french objected to his shifting from verse form to prose, to his knockabout scenes that violated unity. shakespeare, they felt, did not take style seriously. but we admire him because we have extended our concept of style beyond unity to incorporate styles that are unified, others that are not––or are unified in different places, for example, in diction but not plot. kroeber’s notion depends on the survival of ideas of absolute fitness, an idea going back to the ancient notion that god created creatures of organic perfection. this may be applied to twentieth century art, machinery, society, etc. but it is based on a misconception of what an organism is––in fact, they grow into differentiation, and even the smallest elements have inside and outside, detailed articulations, different internal parts. that is to say, unity occurs not on the level of likeness or constancy of form but according to workability of interrelationships within a body. q-a: historians readily use the term “style” as “a style” and “having style.” this goes back to the notion of style underlying both, of style as a pervading unity: in the statement “he has style” it means that he has more pervading unity. but shelley says that great style unifies opposites, whereas lesser styles do not, and proust notes that flaubert uses the imperfect tense when wanting to change his style––that is, grammar is seen as a function of style. different contexts of use of the word “style”: we mentioned before the idea of an “organism” transferred to art, and then we examined the content of that notion. schapiro, “style,” in kroeber, anthropology today, pp. - marcel proust, on art and literature, - , new york: meridian books, ; marcel proust, by way of sainte-beuve (contre sainte-beuve), london: chatto & windus, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science compare this to “stylistics” in literature. during the last years in france and germany, these have been seen as a property of language, for example, by changing your syntax from “he fell down” to “down he fell,” that is, by deviations from so- called “ordinary speech,” by accent, rhythms, you introduce elements of style. these are mechanisms of expressivity, means of emphasizing something. ordinary language has such stylistics, which some regard as catalytic of language, such that language changes because of felt contents, affective changes. stendahl strove for the lack of stylistics used in the language of the code d’napoleon. in art and illusion, gombrich advances a “schema of representation” encompassing egyptian, greek, modern art. but what of non-representational art, abstract painting, and buildings with cross-media style features? how would gombrich incorporate architecture? perhaps through the proportion of parts, the schema of construction. what is a schema? this is too inclusive a term, because there is much in artworks that is not stylistic. schema is a diagram, a reductive representation, and a use of symbols that are “like” the object they represent. but this is a formal structure that leaves out the expressiveness of the work. schema of what? maybe only a schema of what we perceive in the work, compared to a schema in the artwork of the observation represented. gombrich does not see this problem. a norm of what is real is required here. ts: are schema instantial diagrams or are they like the intensional structures that generate a sentence? ms: when we examine handwriting, we can exhibit styles but not share the schema. the ideas that one’s life-style is unified to one’s art style––there are people like this, but is it true for all? when we examine a whole page of handwriting, another style situation occurs. the same goes for a chapter and a whole book of handwriting. constructive and physiognomic features make gombrich’s notion dubious. schema: symbols, maps, electronic diagrams. is a style a schema in this sense? is style a set of principles from which a great number of individual works can be generated? style is not a schema, but our description of it could be given schematically, thus: stendhal, the red and the black, transl. joan charles, garden city, ny: international collector’s library, ernst hans gombrich, art and illusion. a study in the psychology of pictorial representation, th ed., london: phaidon, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science neutral containers, any elements can occupy “x” or “o.” neutral representations. structural features may be common to all works but not specific to any individual work, which would not exhibit it clearly. wallpaper pattern might be compared to patterning in painting, for example, where pattern is usually an integrative form, not repeated again and again in the work. anthropologists neglect this difference when they speak of the pattern of a culture (for example, ruth benedict ). pattern should be understood as an ordering principle by which unlike things can work together. it is more than a mode of relating things simply, more than a repetition of parts. . march style [practice, meaning, interpretation] diagnostic style features such as those emphasized by morelli are important for attribution of authorship, but tell us nothing about the character or quality of the work. thus we need to explore the aesthetic/evaluative aspects of style. constant features enter into the constitution of the work qua art: sometimes these become value grounds, we want to be with the work again and again. perception of constancies of the structure of the artist’s work. the elgin marbles were relevant to an early controversy regarding the greeks’ “infelicities.” benjamin robert hayden––who was a laborious, quasi-romantic painter––said that even a fragment of the marbles would be great, that there was a quality of finesse, subtlety in every part of the work. note the contrast with the usual way of seeing greek work as beautiful above all in its proportions. this is a microconcept of style, based on an organic concept of the artwork. there is confusion here between the organic as merely uniform and as a multiple unity of different parts––the first is also true of the inorganic. organicity is to do with the whole, not the parts, unless the whole is previously known. the twentieth century increasingly emphasizes this microconcept of style. our style concepts are constructed in the practice of art at a given moment. artists and critics find concepts, descriptors in the process of making, for example, the use of concepts such as linear/painterly by wölfflin, or sculptural/painterly in the eighteenth century. any general theory of style has to allow for two historically and expressively connected aesthetics (ways of making art) being possible--into which any art style could be fitted. the rubeniste-poussinist controversy about the norms ruth benedict, patterns of culture, boston, new york: houghton mifflin co., giovanni morelli, italian painters: critical studies of their works, transl. constance jocelyn ffoulkes, london: j. murray, - . see also richard wollheim, giovanni morelli and the origins of scientific connoisseurship, london: allen lane, , and carlo ginzburg, morelli, freud, and sherlock holmes (bloomington: indiana university press, ) benjamin robert haydon, the diary of benjamin robert haydon, cambridge, ma: harvard university press, vols., - terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science of art opposed rubens, a flemish artist who painted in paris, to poussin, a frenchman who painted in italy. classical/baroque, color/form, ancients/moderns were opposed to each other. but during the sixteenth century a concept of progress begun to evolve, and by the seventeenth century it had crystallized. for example, pascal argued that better worlds were possible––better people of better taste. sir william temple and the author jonathan swift debated the controversy. can the moderns match the past? should we innovate at the risk of losing connection with past? roman art was studied for its copies of greek art; an aesthetic based on largely absent works was created (winckelmann). teilhard de chardin’s idea of “evolutionary christianity” is merely amusing; he has a peculiar version of genesis myth. seventeenth century ideas of evolution, of scientific progress. fontenelle and others expressed pride in modern discoveries, such as the printing press, gunpowder, etc. why not also in art? st. john of salisbury famously said: “we are dwarfs who stand on the shoulders of giants, dwarfs see further.” poussin, who actually is a distinctive model of achievement, was described as if he were one of the ancients. rubens was described as if he were an impressionist. in the academy, painterly painters triumphed until the mid-eighteenth century, when neo-classicism was revived (lessing’s laocoön). an order of louis xiv encouraged great interest in the classics as models for art in contrast to what was seen as the lack of dignity of watteau, his petit manieur. taxes were heavier; the academy tried to give dignity to authority. david and his group came at these questions from a different angle. we must not forget that boucher and chardin were contemporaries (note diderot’s change of language when he shifts from describing one to the other). polar approaches to art making as such: either one or the other, or a combination of both. so, we can see that concepts of style depend on actual art practice. the demands of practice oblige us to reformulate our concepts of style. in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century the widespread use of the arabesque and cubism evoked terms of reference for art works which could be applied to previous art, for example, medieval art. cubism exploded the microconcept of style: this approach cannot cope with collage, the lack of homogeneity of style in picasso. collage implies that the artist’s hand is not always in every part of the work, he uses other materials arthur e. case, “swift and sir william temple--a conjecture,” modern language notes, vol. , no. , apr., , pp. - pierre teilhard de chardin, christianity and evolution, new york: harcourt brace jovanovich, john of salisbury, the metalogicon of john of salisbury: a twelfth-century defense of the verbal and logical arts of the trivium, transl. daniel d mcgarry, berkeley: university of california press, , p. . this statement, a favorite aphorism of newton’s, is also sourced to bernard of chartres; see robert king merton, on the shoulders of giants: a shandean postscript, chicago: university of chicago press, nicolas poussin, blind orion searching for the rising sun, , oil on canvas; / x in. ( . x . cm), metropolitan museum of art denis diderot, salons, oxford: clarendon press, vols, - terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science (compare the eighteenth century use of “quotations” in poems). style does not any longer mean a fixed sense; style does not follow directly from the artist himself but the work is unified at a deeper level or idiosyncratically (picasso). style cannot cope with this problem diagnostically, but may be able to do so aesthetically. older style concepts were based on the constancy of artists such as giotto. modern art has extra freedom. nor can it be dismissed as an exceptional or “crisis period” (see first lecture). the universalizing of art during the nineteenth century was based on the belief that certain things are common to all art––not style––but the requirements of unity and expressiveness. problematic here, we have to accept the tentative, incomplete character of our concepts. they are not altogether arbitrary concepts, because they are pegged into experience at some point, and they react to the demands of practice. systematic efforts to characterize styles, such as that of riegl, were all influenced by the works contemporary with them, but we test them by their adequacy over the whole scale (to be dealt with later). how small need the sample be to see the genius, stylistically, of, for example, shakespeare? what sense could we make of someone citing shakespeare as saying “what?” the micro details of paintings, word counts of writers, etc: we do not actually read such things when we read the book, we do not read for diagnostic measurement techniques. nevertheless, no matter what we say of a work, we have to be able to point to it in the work, whether intentionally known by the artist or not. statistical literary study, such as that by giroaud on french poets, defines individual styles as a deviation from the norm, écart. ordinary speech counts are compared to written word counts to produce style definitions. but painters deviate from the norms all the time: this tells us nothing about the work aesthetically. what is this norm in painting, sculpture and architecture? are norm-conforming works without style? statistics can only give indicators of an artist’s interests––in gide “placidemont,” in mallarmé “blue.” this relates to the conventional view of style: if a work displays very unusual features it is said to have “style.” but we will learn much more from the aesthetic view of the art than the statistical. roman jakobsen, “on the verbal art of william blake and other poet painters.” linguistic inquiry, ( ). questions of interpretation /meaning may be seen as the province of iconography and iconology in art history. but this approach is limited, depending as it does on extracting ideas from texts and applying them to pictures, etc. meaning is a broader matter, with three key senses: i) representation, symbolizing, ii) structural, and iii) genetic. roman jakobson, “on the verbal art of william blake and other poet-painters,” linguistic inquiry, vol. , no. , jan., , pp. - terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science i) meaning, in the first place, is that which is identified through a title or label, for example, adoration of the magi, then matched with the gospels, or with one’s general knowledge of the attributes of certain figures. this is difficult to apply to architecture, even though it contains elements of symbolism. subjects such as baptisms, the resurrection of christ three days after the crucifixion are representations, but not wholly representations, as they are also symbolic. ii) what is the meaning of this line, or of separating the upper and lower parts, why no frame on this painting? answering questions of type i) mean that we look for connectors outside the picture, whereas, for answers to question of type ii) one looks more closely into the picture, calling on past experience of painting, for example, this line balances these two color masses. iii) why was this work made? why was this man painted? we look outside the work for similar intentions, functions, and aims. history, sociology, psychology, and context. corollary: we can see the artwork’s role in the culture, for example, the parthenon’s role in periclean and post-periclean greek culture. to do good iconography, we have to see the whole context. we might overemphasize one iconographic matching, and thus mistake the configuration; for example, in a manuscript in the metropolitan museum, the cloisters, the angels holding up the virgin’s house, in itself, seems like the loreto miracle story, but throughout the manuscript all buildings are held up by all manner of people. similarly, we must know the position of a painting in the church. the same image might serve different functions; for example, daniel in the den may be a priest bringing a wafer to st ursula. in abstract art, a red blot might balance other colors rather than operate symbolically or expressively. methodologically, we should work i), ii), and iii) together whenever we seek knowledge. expressive components are different from iconography. communication and information theory (message/noise, input/output, coding/decoding), teach us that the message is transmitted against the background noise; clarity requires redundancy and repetition to be clear, in order to avoid the overlapping of similar components of two messages. is all art intended as a communication? does a whole building communicate? it may convey a message about the wealth of the owner. ledoux’s “speaking architecture” contained signs evoking something about the owner, but what if he had to build a house for an architect? to say that a building is a representation is to confuse iii) and ii) into the claim for i). is abstract painting communicative? a painting presenting, expressing the most general characteristics of being, such as power, etc. and the norms of qualities such as straightness, roundness, etc. (dewey felt that this gives art a metaphysical terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science status. compare this to the belief that logical statements exhibit the general features of experience, such as contradiction, the excluded middle, etc. but to nagel everything one says about the world is contingent––that is, open to change, yet some logical statements claim to be uncontingent. a problem.) abstract art offers not a message, but rather an expression. this is the distinction between overt speech and involuntary expression. communication has to differ from nature––is nature communicating to you? metaphorically perhaps, but not really. why can an artist not be making something parallel to a carpenter making a chair, with no communication intended? a football game is analogous to art without communication. (corot said: “i paint for the little birds,” and barnett newman said: “aesthetics is to painting what ornithology is to the birds.”) performance, making an object for use––added to this, communication introduces the extra element of message. the analogy between art and games is limited, because in games the rules are known by both players and spectators. communication, when taken as necessary, gets too demanding on the artist, there are accusations of failure, of not doing his duty. communication sets up a normative model. information theory models tend to lose sight of this fact: when a message is sent it contains many features extra to the final message, whereas the valuable work of art is believed to count all over, every part of it. repetition in art compared to repeating to get message across, in contrast to noise, background is relevant in artwork. when a linguist speaks of messages his largest unit is the sentence. all artworks are larger than a sentence. the poet is interested in larger entities than the units of the linguist; he uses a different scale and set of constraints than the linguist. exceptions: chinese painting contains messages from the owners of the painting––it does not correspond with our notion of an integral unity, of the whole, as something with which one cannot interfere. prehistoric cave painting abounds in superimposition, because there was no idea of permanence or the isolation of parts. this leads us to imagine style change in subway graffiti: what an idea! [schapiro becomes uncontrollably amused at this thought, so much so he cannot go on with the lecture.] . march [semiotics of art – verbal and pictorial meaning] in previous lectures we discussed, and applied, hermeneutics, the science of interpretation. we noted alexandrian, medieval and later interpretations of homer, the bible, and other texts and images. what was meant? what meaning can be given to overcome anomalies and repugnant beliefs? the search for meanings and a certain sort of order are intertwined. in literature, this developed into close reading, detailed empirical scrutiny, in the new criticism, which emphasized analysis. when examining the fake documents of the middle ages, language analysis was john dewey, art as experience, new york: minton, balch & company, ernest nagel and james b. newman, gödel’s proof, new york: new york university press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science used to sort out the genuine. historical documents depend on this––thus hermeneutics deals with the anomalies of contradictions in canonical authors. dilthey advanced a history of interpreting, of interpretation. we might take this up by asking these questions about meaning in works of art: i) what is represented, said? ii) how does a given element function within the painting? iii) how does it come about that i) and/or ii) were done? [ts: the third question is, therefore, why were i) and ii) done the way they were?] knowing when or where the work was made helps us interpret it in particular ways–– idea ‘x’ is impossible because it did not arise until later because of “y.” these are three important concepts of meaning, but not the only ones. last week we discussed communication, information theory, the ideas of background noise, entropy, in relation to meaning being discerned. structural analysis depends on much from information theory. but there are two problems: first, not all works are communicative, and not all elements in communicative works are communicative, for example, architecture, music, ceramics, furniture, calligraphy have many simply functional elements. to pick out manifestations of the author in the work, it is not necessary for us to see many works. intentions can be seen, but works of art are not purposive in all cases, in all their aspects. second, in information theory, there is a message heard or seen against background noise, whereas in art there is usually a focussing of attention, with a maximum of message and a minimum of noise. everything works in a work of art and is essential to the meaning. redundancy is important for communication (repetition) in information theory, compared to painting where everything is operative. excess is deplorable unless it is itself expressive––as it is, for example, in rabelais’s novels. ts: your usage of the concept of information seems like that of carnap, which is built around sentence structure. what about the ideas of shannon, and others, which emphasize quantitative information? a: the latter is not a good model. linguists study phonemes, morphemes, sentences, phrases, and clauses. but a poem is larger than these, and is subject to constraints and closed forms. gestalt psychologists project simple images, much reduced, as their objects of analysis, yet most artworks, except recently, are more complex. invariant models like symmetry, drawn from mathematics, are inadequate. in an artwork, such as charles demuth’s i saw the figure in gold wilhelm dilthey, patterns and meaning in history. thoughts and history and society, new york: harper and row, rudolf carnap, meaning and necessity: a study in semantics and modal logic, chicago: university of chicago press, claude elwood shannon and warren weaver, the mathematical theory of communication, urbana: university of illinois press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science ( ), the “ ,” being in a nonfigurative field, is different from any other . psychologists’ models are smaller in scale. roman jakobsen has seen structural categories in blake’s poems and paintings, treating the artwork as a stylistic ensemble of tiny elements. morosov also. but stochastic analysis does not get you to the aesthetic qualities of the work. information models based on qualitative elements only are relevant to minor aspects of the artwork. we can approach a semiotics of art through the theory of signs. this was set out by charles sanders peirce, a bohemian professor, who could not hold a job for more than a few years. he divided the sign into three components: i) indexical signs, for example, smoke indicates fire. ii) iconic, for example, footprints, a sign that looks like a foot and tells us that someone has passed by. all pictures are iconic in this sense. the term “icon” is normally used for religious art, but here we have to cope with two meanings. the relationship is one of resemblance, of a connection, or likeness, being recognized. iii) symbolic, that is, arbitrary signs. in plato’s crytalis, socrates asks: “do words sound like what they represent?” some words were mimetic, but there is a much greater usage of non-mimetic words. compare opaque and transparent words (you can derive the former from its parts, not the latter). some people believe that the order of the sentence is iconic with regards to its object, for example, plural words are longer. this is not so in most languages, but poets have shown a pattern of order in both a poem and the poem’s subject. so, there is an important interplay between ii) and iii). during the early christian period, in sacred books, every word and letter had profound meaning, more than its place in a sentence. in the jewish kabbala, a word has a necessary connection with its subject; god created the pen first, in the sense that the names of things were dictated and then the things came into existence. the early christians believed everything pointed to a deeper meaning. st augustine perceived an anti-aristotelian arbitrariness: “a sign is a thing which beyond the appearance it presents to senses brings something other than itself to mind.” was this insight an exception to prevailing attitudes? association needs to be added to peirce’s list. if we think of a person, we think of something he did, but he is not necessarily a sign for this thing. whenever we hear “roosevelt,” we think of fdr, but the connection might not be there. abstract or non-figurative imagery in art––are these signs? they are meaningful, but not charles demuth, the figure in gold ( ). oil on cardboard, ½ x in. metropolitan museum of art, new york. “…a sign is something which is itself sensed and which indicates to the mind something beyond the sign itself.”––saint augustine, de dialectica, transl. belford darrell jackson, dordrecht, boston: d. reidel pub. co., , chapter v, signification. terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science necessarily signs. does mark tobey think of his ‘calligraphic’ models as signs? mathieu’s paintings with their allusions to signatures, to signing one’s name––are these signs? or even louis xiv’s signature, with its elaborate serifs, is it expressive in the way that the word “louis” is expressive of louis himself? some words acquire new meanings because their aesthetic form is so promising. verbal signs compared to iconic signs. meanings other than mimetic ones dominate % of words, but some grammars are mimetic. the word “house,” compared to a diagram, offers no connection between word and image. a reductive drawing of house is conventional, and adding or taking away features changes the type of house––nearly every component has a purpose. and in an iconic sign you do not need all the sign to convey the idea (therefore it is not completely mimetic), whereas in a word you do, otherwise it means something else. for example, a diagram of a human face signifies even with the most minimal indication. as you increase the indicators, further meanings will be quickly attracted. recognizability is essential to this. nelson goodman, in his languages of art, denies resemblance as sufficient ground for a sign or indication. recognizing the intention to create resemblances is sometimes difficult. iconicity is vague in that people talk to themselves or draw resemblance of objects without the desire to communicate. in ordinary behavior, we depend on cues from the world for distance––size, for example, or perspective, which is reliable for far distance, but unreliable for a bent stick in water. so, simple configurations can serve as signs unless they contain a cue serving to indicate another thing (for example, a person at a distance might be green, that is, a bronze sculpture). so we can ask many questions about this relationship. in the past few years, the word “amerika” has conveyed a special idea of this country. sacred names in medieval art, such as ds pns sps xc, work as contractions. others work as abbreviations by suspension, for example, “quib” is “quibus.” contracted sacred names, such as “adanoi” for “jehovah” was done because one had to avoid direct pronunciation of the name of god. let us compare signs belonging to art and the sign when merely conventional. artists have been fascinated by analogies to mathematics, for example, often reminding us of mathematical illustration. the difference is that the mathematician does not care how he draws the diagram, because the proof does not depend on exactness of drawing, it is merely an illustration. “let this be a square, then all sides are equal, etc.” a painter, however, worries about placing, size, proportion to other shapes, variations in drawing lines, that is, all have expressive purposes, in the artwork every little element counts for meaning and significance. i have tested children on their affective readings of various geometric forms; for example, children read squares as “like” themselves, and see god as an infinite circle. nelson goodman, languages of art. an approach to a theory of symbols, london: oxford university press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science “closed,” “perfect,” “regular” squares contrast to “open,” “rough,” “irregular” ones––these have associations to personality. recognizing a circle with signs in it for eyes, nose and mouth as a human face [schapiro draws a schematic diagram] will be accompanied by feelings about what kind of a face this is compared to others. we are very acute in responding to the slightest changes in these lines and their positioning. [schapiro draws the lines for the features lower down in the “circle.”] physiognomics of the facial features are a model for the concerns of the artist. this is also true of the proportions of a building façade. in great art we are constantly impressed by the complexity of relating parts to the whole. the determination of meaning shifts in different art works that treat the same subject. “subject” in the nineteenth century meant “literary subject.” “theme” was used for an element or part; “content” means the subject, plus the vision of the world implied, etcetera. moving from verbal to pictorial meanings: translating cannot be complete between both. goethe said the opposite, that test of the work is how it survives translation. there is the idea that the best translation of a painting is a poem, not a prose description, but a kind of writing that is equally elusive. we might say, in parenthesis, that philosophy is too abstract to encompass the world, but art can unify both the abstract and the concrete. for example, in exodus : - , there is the story of moses holding up his arms to guarantee the victory of the israelites against the amalekites. picturing this theme depends on factors extra to the original text. current styles of representation govern the way the text is read. ideological and stylistic modifiers operate on a text through time and place. there are two ways of dealing with meaning. the literal “antioch school” approach compared to the historical, mystical or moral, perspective. such a fourfold interpretation was typical of middle ages, for example, the utrecht psalter illustration to psalm ( ) shows god in bed, “the enemy at the gate” is literally represented (words and pictures, fig. ), whereas the original descriptor was metaphorical. another example is the middle ages practice of setting old testament motifs alongside new testament motifs. history for these authors was teleological, guided towards divine plan; this is a messianic view of the old testament. a thirteenth century image of isaac carrying the faggots, such as one from the moralized bible in the bodleian library, oxford, shows isaac as prefiguring christ carrying the cross: the faggots are in a cross shape (words and pictures, fig. ). meyer schapiro, words and pictures. on the literal and symbolic in the illustration of a text, the hague: mouton, , chapter , ff terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science in the exodus story, moses triumphed, we are told, because he made the sign of the cross. joshua first appeared here, and it is the hebrew name for jesus. thus it also means victory, the victory of christianity. in a fifteenth century mosaic in the nave of sta. maria maggiore, there is a representation that does not agree with the biblical text. in the bible, the rod of god strikes water from a rock, holds back the red sea. this rod was preserved in the royal place in constantinople. in this work, however (as the text specifies), not one but both hands are raised to hold back the sea (words and pictures, fig. ). then, in later bibles the translations were changed to the plural and the idea of the rod given up, forgotten. thus, moses was fitted into the role of predicting christianity. raising your hands in prayer evokes the image of christ. there are many images of daniel in the lion’s den, in the roman catacombs, adopting a cross posture (words and pictures, fig. ). it is also based on the classical pose of the hero. in the middle ages, in the ninth century homilies of gregory nazianzen, moses is shown with aaron holding up his arms (words and pictures, fig. ). from the seventh century onwards, leaders in battle constantly appealed to moses’ example, and priests were asked to keep their arms raised. moses was the model of a victorious theocratic leader. in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the holy roman empire and charlemagne were in dialogue: “i will fight for you if you keep your hands up,” “i will, if you support the church, that is, my arms.” the raised hands became a church-state theme, an image of unity. in an eleventh century image in the library of the staatsbibliotek, munich, emperor henry ii is crowned by christ, while two bishops/saints hold up his arms (words and pictures, fig. ). from thirteenth century paris, from the s, there is an image of moses praying, with his hands held up by aaron and hur. this is a jewish counter-representation of the theme: it is an “inhibitory symbol,” deliberately un-christian (british museum, words and pictures, fig. ). there is a parallel in the book of genesis, when jacob comes to egypt to see joseph, and he blesses his grandsons on his death-bed. jacob crosses his hands and gives his blessing the other way around, his right hand going to ephriam. the jews said that this indicates that he was looking to the future. christians say it proves the forthcoming crucifixion, and that the blessing of the younger son fits christianity rather than judaism. (words and pictures, figs. , ). at dura in ad, in the synagogue, the jews there represented the incident without any hand crossing (words and pictures, fig. ). this is evidence against the christian view, or at least implies that a modification was felt to be necessary. in the psalter of st. louis, from the s, in paris, there is an image of moses shown from the side—a new sign for prayer. in an eleventh century epic, moses is engaged, in his separate space, in his form of the battle. he is represented as “he” rather than an “i,” no longer such a hero but a worker, like a soldier (words and pictures, fig. ). terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science another moses image in the moralized bible in the bodleian library, shows a bishop conducting mass with his hands in prayer held up by the father and the son (words and pictures, fig. ). the congregation thus can witness victory over evil. so the symbol has changed from predicting christ on the cross, to symbolizing the mass celebration of good versus evil. during the fourteenth century, the emerging secular process tends to minimize moses’ role. a contemporary philosopher said that the old testament was only in an analogous relationship to the new. we can conclude that representational styles are not technical but depend on general attitudes of a period. . april, [semiotics of art – meaning and form] last week: a single theme, represented through time, was interpreted and explained on grounds larger than those of the words of the original text on which it was ostensibly based. of course, the text may not have been homogenous, for example, the bible was oral for three centuries, and even when it became canonical its reading remained subject to interpretation. recovering the original meaning is difficult because of distance in time, and our tendency to be selective of features congenial to our own interests. successive generations bring new ideas. we can only achieve a certain range of interpretation, but this is not, compared to natural science, a subjectivist form of knowledge. imagination is constrained by the need to correspond to a set of observables. our selecting these observables is tricky, but we can refine our selection. artworks that take on the task of representing current ideas are subject to the same demands as science, which is itself a representation of the world. we noted last week the introduction of an image of prayer, a sign that by joining the hands canceled out the cross image. praying figures became figures in action. this was typical of a growing tendency towards the diminution of themes of state (for example, the hero, a state-idea) in favor of themes of action. “i” = christ = in stasis = from the front. “he” = in action = profile. this becomes important in the middle ages. the subject of the adoration of the magi requires the artist to represent the magi in contrast to mary. in a twelfth century example at st. gilles-du-gard, the virgin is enthroned in a niche of her own. she becomes an iconic figure, a sacred image, and a type of cult image. in contrast, the magi are shown in depth and profile, the angels also (words and pictures, fig. ). compare this to figures from neuilly-en-donjon, a tympanum showing the virgin and angels in profile, dynamically over two serpents/fish (words and pictures, fig. a). or we might consider representations of the daniel story, such as one from ad, a spanish manuscript (words and pictures, fig. ). in the earliest representations, the disposition of figures is symmetrical and their arms are raised. this is a faux-arabic image. terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science in the eleventh century in southern france, romanesque representations show figures in profile but there is a lack of symmetry. habbakuk is bringing the bread, carried by the angel (words and pictures, fig. ). action is conceived differently, it converts a biblical event into a theme of state. both profile and frontal viewpoints are used for different reasons. there are different qualities of expression latent in each one. frontal is direct communication, confrontational at times, whereas profile is the world observed by us without it knowing, and thus implies “objectivity.” consider this eleventh century image of raganaldus blessing his clergy and laity (words and pictures, fig. ). it is from a book that explains the structure of this church, its hierarchy of rank. hierarchy of place in a field is important: whether a figure is to the left, or to the right, or closer to the border. clustering occurs according to an organizational chart. out of this notion of hierarchy a formal conception emerges; for example, closeness to the center makes you the boss. the key figures at top and center are frontal, the less important ones are shown in half- view, the lowest in profile. in life, crowds assemble themselves in pictorial hierarchy, as it were. elevated positions for kings, who typically wear a crown and do not turn their heads left or right. (see alferdi on dress, posture, etc., in the roman world.) this is a mixture of art as a living experience and as arbitrary invention. the profile/frontal variation is a means of conveying the polarity of values. in greek art the profile is favored to convey action, to contribute to narrative, for example, in red figure vase painting. when the frontal face is introduced, it is a shock. the scene of maenads offering gifts to dionysus, on a greek vase in the museo nazionale, naples, fifth century, is actually a simulation of dionysus, showing him as a fetish, and thus depends on the polarity between living/artificial, sacred/profane (words and pictures, fig. ). another vase, in the national museum, athens, of a mother playing with child shows these two in profile, whereas the servant is frontal, because she is marginal (words and pictures, fig. ). in representations of christ and the apostles, particularly the last supper, the disciples are typically shown in frontal or / position, whereas judas is the only one in profile. or vice-versa. whichever, judas marked as an outsider. in this case, emphasis on the profile amounts to caricature, possibly to emphasize the nose. the contrast is indented and projected. perhaps there are inhibitions on eye-to-eye projection, where it might imply aggressive intent on the part of the artist? the profile/frontal variation has the potential to carry all other possible contrasts. we see this in works as diverse as titian’s danäe, in works by munch that use a frontal portrait with low relief profile of a previous member of the family (in white), or a father and son—this calls on our lived experience of the differences. vuillard’s interior, the artists’s mother and sister (c. , moma) shows the old mother frontally, the retiring daughter in profile. goya’s portrait of himself undergoing a terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science heart attack, but saved by his surgeon (minneapolis museum), is revelatory via frontal images. in truffaut’s film four hundred blows, there is a scene where a key actor turns back from water to look directly at us. in giotto’s kiss of judas in the arena chapel, all figures are in profile, judas and jesus are shown in an exchange of unspoken thought, their two heads the centerpiece of a cinematic rotation of heads around judas and christ. this dynamicizes the profile as a point of movement of the head. previously, judas as shown on the side, kissing the unnoticing jesus. consider the question of form. can line, form, and color be the carriers of quality independent of meaning, intentions, subject, and iconography? flaubert spoke of writing a novel based on the color yellow. melville’s ahab had a dream of a painting all of one color. that music as a non-mimetic art is a well-known idea. in the twentieth century, representation has been given up as a major goal of art. parallels are drawn to the non-empirical, “non-designatory” content in pure mathematics. but this is true neither for math nor for abstract art. the word “abstract” has a variety of meanings: i) “non-objectivity,” nothing represented. ii) to represent general features of the world––form in general, space in general, etc. iii) simplified forms resembling geometric forms, flatness of the background, that is, repression of identification with a part of the world (for example, the yellow background in van gogh’s l'arlessiene). iv) every mark in the painting counts for meaning, whereas a mathematician’s diagram can be given in any way. abstract painting is concrete and specific; there is no “noise” (in contrast to science, math, and communication theory). phony comparisons have been made between cubism and quantum mechanics. this is “night school” philosophy. when questioned by schapiro, sigfried gideon did not know the physics that he compared cubism to. when he was asked about the parallel, einstein said, “shit.” abstraction in painting is different from abstraction in science, math and in general knowledge. there are only metaphorical links to “abstractness” as a quality, thus you could read painting as the outcome of a process of measurement, exactitude, etc., and the mathematical as a “quality,” a “look” rather than part of the content of the work. for example, in his self portrait of de chirico juxtaposed two plaster casts of feet crossed over each other, an egg, a rod (a rolled up drawing?), an inscribed x and two “chimney stacks.” one cast is cut by the frame, the other is shown cut off. of the two chimneys in the background, one is cut by the frame and the other finishes within the painting. the top point of the x ends at the frame, or its other points indicate a central mark and a corner. the x is not related to objects, but signs, sigfried gideon, mechanization takes command, new york: norton, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science it signifies “unknown quantity,” or “cross.” this points us to the duality common throughout the work. x is the “metaphysical” symbol of the self as conflicted, dual and mysterious in structure. there is no way of verifying exactly what the work is about. we might compare it to a later self portrait, of which de chirico said: “what shall i love if not the metaphysics of things?” in this one, the artist’s self image is tied to the image of the colonnade. in picasso’s head of woman, there is also a lot of pairing and crossing, but this has seemingly nothing to do with physiologistic interpretation. no one characteristic will capture the whole of the painting. in chagall’s i and the village, the diagonal lines and boundaries between peasant and calf are a device owed to cubism, in which lines could be traced freely as marks scrambling the structure of planes rather than be well-ordered sets in a metrical space. cubist crossing of lines, and painting up to the edges, does this, but cubism had its own requirements for balanced composition. chagall’s big x gives scrambled depth to communication between cow and peasant, blossoms, fragrance, animals as a smelling creature, affection, a woman milling, and male and female peasants tied together. his drawing of a circle around the points of the x is a magical device for enclosing. thus the village has horses upside down. this is a meaningful abstraction, not a representation but a sign ordering a range of associations with the imagery. in picasso’s artist and model of , note the face depicted on the canvas, on the easel in the center: this is projective in a psychological sense, not that of geometry. jour d'esprit. the painter’s hand holding the brush creates a man-brush, and a brush-canvas. in the weeping woman painting of , related to guernica, picasso shows the pain internalized inside the woman's head; her eyelashes become pricks to the eyes, ears reversed, internalized, propreoceptive. he was acquainted with anatomical pictures of the nervous system, in which the eye nerves are crossed. here he uses this as a means of intensifying the imagery of pain. this exemplifies the cubist freedom towards all forms. in kandinsky’s black lines in the guggenheim museum, the crossings are painted and drawn in ink. they seem to be nerve lines when compared to the mood of color patches and expressionistic devices picked up by picasso in the last example. on the interpretation of artworks by reference to unconscious motivations. artists have realized this since montaigne. how does one validate artworks if they are unconscious? can we posit a theorem: if x appears in the work, then it is the result for a more extensive discussion, see meyer schapiro, “philosophy and worldview in painting,” in meyer schapiro, worldview in painting–art and society, selected papers, new york: george braziller, , pp. - giorgio de chirico, self-portrait [et quid amabo nisi quod aenigma est? ("what shall i love if not the enigma?")], marc chagall, i and the village, , oil on canvas, ' / " x / " ( . x . cm), moma, new york schapiro writes at greater length about chagall in his modern art, th & th centuries, london: chatto & windus, , pp. - terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science of unconscious processes? take the case of the representation of apples by cézanne. why so many? just because they were spheres, close to pure forms? no, they were not neutral; rather, they were involved with pleasure/evil/etc. for him. how does cézanne in particular use apples? in large numbers, or by obsessively repeating one apple? in his painting the judgement of paris (actually the amorous shepherd) - the main male figure gives to the smallest of the girls a whole armful of apples. we know that cézanne loved latin poetry and read virgil’s eclogues, but there is no reference in them specifically to so many apples. in the elegies of propertius, however, there is a story of the love of a girl won by the gift of ten apples. but why do apples appear in his still lifes? . april [psychology and art] why did cézanne paint apples at certain times and places? courbet, in prison in , painted gigantic apples. i showed last week that in his the judgement of paris, or better, the amorous shepherd, cézanne drew from elegies by propertius. ok, so this is why he paints apples. but why place them in a still life? in the art news annual, i argued that the still life allowed him a psychological displacement; the apple was identified with sexuality. zola in his novel l' oeuvre, draws analogies between fruit and the serving girl, whereas in theory the artist figure (frenhofer; with whom cézanne identified) says that still life is neutral. would such a still-life displacement have taken place in the fifteenth century? no, the still life has to be developed as a genre before such displacement can occur. thus we can discern meaning in three ways: i) accurate description; ii) knowledge of the artist’s reading, temperament, etc.; iii) repression, with subsequent displacement (non-religious, allegorical symbolism); iv) if unconscious tendencies, the historical question becomes: why is still life the carrier of meaning and not, say, landscape? in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, schools of painting—from chardin to kitsch—people were represented in their absence or by association with flowers, cards, and objects on the table related to casual pleasures, etc. all these were indicators of distinctive individual choices. but together, these objects became mobile, manipulable, they satisfy senses, or belong to a position, that is, they amount to values in the world. poets use tables, and personal objects. philosophers, too, in their conception of “sedentary mentalism,” of thinking at the desk. but displacement functions are inadequate to explain everything about the use of still life subjects. manet paints oysters, renoir open melons, picasso the guitar (indeed, he got upset at rousseau painting a guitar). artists adopt attitude to virgil, virgil's eclogues, transl. len krisak, philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, sextus propertius, the elegies of propertius, transl. e h w meyerstein, london: oxford university press, see schapiro’s essay “the apples of cézanne: an essay on the meaning of still-life,” art news annual, no. ( ): - ; also in his modern art, th & th centuries, pp. - ibid emile zola, l’oeuvre, paris: chapentier, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science subjects, for example, the disputes among the early modernists about who painted squares first. but once an object represents a real choice by the artist, it becomes characteristic of him. the fourth kind of meaning, you remember, was that of association. cézanne’s still life with plaster cast of armor, c. , in the courtauld museum, london, places a statuette representing love amidst a number of apples, and connects apples with onions. it is a visual poem, connecting love with a man in agony. in his early works, cézanne painted both clothed and nude people, for example, his pastoral or luncheon on the grass, , a picnic scene with still-life objects all around, brooding, including a tree with a clearly phallic projection. is this is an “innocent” example of an unintended giveaway, outside the emphatic areas of the painting? how far one can go in such interpretations is hard to say for there are no adequate ways of testing these conclusions. our own experience is a guide. psychological interpretation essentially is causal, no matter how uncausal it may seem. meaning can be i) iconic, ii) have a formal purpose, be functional, and also be iii) genetic, that is, how did “x” come to be this way in painting? all these refer implicitly to causes - if “x,” then there was or is “y.” cézanne’s world experience was relevant to our interpretations before, but in most cases such generalities will not stand up. we hold to them because we do it in life until a contradiction comes up; we keep it up as long as we can get away with it. special cases force us to add supplementary notions. compare this to the situation in science: we begin from a commitment to investigation, we are committed to specific notions, that is, we cannot think through all consequences, draw on all possible reflection and wisdom, before we act. theoretically this is extremely shaky, but when we investigate we have to think of everything, offer all plausible ideas, then correct them as we go on. when we look at buildings, we don’t worry much about the personality of those involved, but we can, if we wish, see it in our own time. we make a guess from the building as to the character of the architect. we make psychological assumptions when we experience the physiognomy of art works. certain shapes we call “violent,” and we can distinguish between the violence of the violent man and the violence of the peaceful man. we sense a personality at work over a whole range of work, for example, cézanne’s change from early rough works, full of revolt, to the still lifes, to a less drastic, less passion- arousing phase after the romantic violence of the earlier phase. we might say that this gives his classicism a degree of vitality, his having ordered chaos. there are conventional psychological images of artists. for example, the idea that an inner defect inspires the artist. the artist has a wound, melanie klein argues, an extended discussion of this issue may be found in schapiro’s “the apples of cézanne: an essay on the meaning of still-life.” melanie klein, new directions in psychoanalysis. the significance of infant conflict in the pattern of adult behaviour, new york: basic books, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science because of his hostility to his mother, so he atones by beautifying things, making them whole. between and freud emphasized sublimation, but it disappeared from his views. it is an old classical notion, to be found in catullus. max scheler, in the nature of sympathy argues that sublimation is part of women’s nature. it would be interesting to assemble these universal folk wisdoms regarding art and science. a lady once said to casanova, when he failed to satisfy her: “give up women and study math.” when studying neurotic, rational, and reflex behavior, psychologists chose different sets of features to observe. asking about the range of a theory is a way of testing it: for example, gestalt psychologists tackle perception but not meaning, thus complex objects are incompletely described. when one turns to other material, previous explanations are ignored. but we are committed to forms of cogency of argument derived from the study of uncomplex objects in the natural sciences. consider the manuscript image, from the cluny museum, paris, virgin with open door. the religious view is of the virgin as a closed door, that is, a virgin. but the open door in her abdomen suggests sexual interpretation; is this an addition on the artist’s part? or consider a painting of doubting thomas, with his finger in christ’s wound, his arm erect. “are you a man?” he says. “yes,” is the visual answer. perhaps there are universal unconscious processes. is there a psychology of art in general, and a quite different one that refers only to particular works? freud’s first writing on art concerned jensen’s “gradiva.” a girl saved a man who was disturbed, his hang-up was based on knowing the girl previously but having forgotten. it is a book about psychology, behavior, about the formation of a psychosis and the treatment of it. but freud does not analyze the author. vasari’s lives is full of examples of how personality enters into the work: for example, andrea del sarto took his wife as the virgin. leonardo criticizes artists who projected their own image in their art works. in the eighteenth century, style became the way a man thinks, feels and perceives. style was distinguished by temperament. a little man makes big figures, big makes small, it is compensatory. but the same trait can be explained in quite the opposite way. modern graphologists say small writing is a sign of scholarliness/timidity, big writing of bad eyesight, boastfulness/muscular structure of some kind, that is, lots of things. graphology started with diplomats trying to see behind the scripts presented to them officially. guy lee ed., the complete poems of catullus, oxford: clarendon press, m. schlaer, the nature of sympathy, english edition by werner stark, transl. peter heath, th ed. graham mcaleer, piscataway, nj: transaction, sigmund freud, “delusions and dreams in jensen’s gradiva,” ( [ ]), the standard edition of the complete psychological works of sigmund freud, vol. ix, london: hogarth press, , pp. - giorgio vasari, the lives of the artists, harmondsworth, new york: penguin books, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science can one speak of the psychological trait of a culture as whole? compared, for example, to the individual? do all mediterraneans speak quickly? are the same criteria applicable to the collective and the personal trait? abstraction as a way of evading reality, a theme in the psychology of children: is this a personal trait or the collective traits appearing in the personal situation? we cannot draw conclusions, only naïve interpretation. on the role of personality in a work of art. “style is the man,” many artists believe this. sainte-beuve wrote about single literary figures, showing the peculiarity of the person in the work. proust detested this general view and argued in contre sainte- beuve that a writer becomes an author by surmounting his personality. to flaubert, god was everywhere but not observable, yet he strove to write a “seamless” work of art. a bad writer is visible in the work. only when there is something jarring do we worry about its genetic history. thus there are two views. some painters have a constant physiognomic no matter what subject they paint, for example, el greco. it has been proposed that giotto saw the romanesque sculptures at rheims between painting the passion and the wall opposite at padua, and thus his style became more monumental. but this is wrong because giotto was an artist who fitted style to subject. some painters are “objective” relative to the accepted content of the subject, others put themselves into whatever they do. compare change in the art of kandinsky and mondrian. there is a typology of how artists’ relations to their tasks affect the way they do it, and the subjects they choose. in his famous essay on leonardo’s cartoon, virgin, child and st anne, freud tells of leonardo remembering a dream in which the tail feathers of a vulture touched his mouth when he was a child. freud interprets this as indicative of the artist’s repressed longing for his mother, and offers explanations of key elements of the cartoon in its light. but in mcclagget showed that the text freud relied on included a mistranslation of the word for “kite,” thus it was not a “vulture” in leonardo’s dream. freud’s connection between vultures being only female, and virgin births, the unmarried mother, and thus mary, was wrong. freud’s interpretation was a failure as explanation, but it remains a beautiful account of the mature leonardo. freud omits leonardo’s more evidently masculine paintings, for example, last supper. it was at the time a typical usage to represent allegorical figures as young. freud did not look at what people thought at the time, nor at their attitudes to illegitimate children. similarly, vasari named the mona lisa, “la gioconda” and claimed that it was a portrait of francesca giocanda. but “la gioconda” means “happy person”–– the title has stuck because of the enigmatic smile. marcel proust, contre sainte-beuve, london: chatto & windus, freud, “leonardo da vinci and a memory of his childhood ( ),” the standard edition of the complete psychological works of sigmund freud, vol. xi, pp. - schapiro, “leonardo and freud: an art-historical study,” journal of the history of ideas, vol. , no. , april , pp. - terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science there is a popular general theory that if an artist has had traumatic experiences in childhood, his experience later on allows him to call upon it and thus produce images. but freud teaches us nothing about leonardo as artist. what are we trying to explain when we apply psychoanalytical theory? why did he use certain shadows on the face and on the mountains in the background? kubie, in neurotic distortion of the creative process, argues that if an artist repeats himself he is neurotic, inhibited, and compulsive. but we all have habits and can develop new habits––all human nature is like this. we must develop automatic actions in order to function at all, but they should be open to growth. the ego theory approach, in contrast, emphasizes conscious behavior, organized precision. is psychoanalysis an adequate ground for explaining artists’ choices of forms, colors, etc.? no one does it adequately. freud says that the triangle or pyramidal composition in leonardo follows from his need to show the relationship between the two women. but elsewhere it signifies differently, for example, in the last supper. other explanations of artists’ choices include innate capacity, or pleasure-giving. there seem to be two views: i) a man becomes an artist because he has to project, fulfill wishes; ii) then he goes on to produce beautiful forms which the viewer can read as beautiful if we share the same genetic predisposition. . april expression every style is said to have an expressive character. there is a wide range of meaning to the concept “expression,” from the self expression of the artist to qualities described only in terms of another domain, for example, color as warm or cool, line as slack or energetic. such terms are utterly embedded in our language, for example, goethe: “all theory is gray, but green is the golden tree of life.” musical tones are characterized as “high” and “low,” implying above and below, loud and soft colors. that is, they are described by reference to a modality other than their own. people agree on ranges like this, they agree on ordering qualities, although they perceive them differently (that is, a tall man does not see a ’ ’’ man as tall, a ’ ’’ man does). a painting might be seen as cold and blue, meaning either the tones of the whole work, or its character (timid, reserved). we cannot escape using these words, they are the “tertiary qualities” in aesthetics. do they belong to the object or the spectator? are they properly called subjective? we are part of nature, but we can also isolate our perceptions and try to approach them directly, for example, a doctor can be objective about pretended symptoms. an appeal to subjectivity, to vagueness lawrence schlesinger kubie, neurotic distortion of the creative process, new york: farrar, straus and giroux, mephistopheles says “my worthy friend, gray are all theories, and green alone life’s golden tree.” johann wolfgang goethe, faust, part , transl. bayard taylor, leipzig: f.a. brockhaus, , . terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science of reference, does not dismiss the problem. statements about our feelings, and perception statements, are shared by many observers and can be related to the observed (“objective”) qualities of objects. expressivity is separate from expression. balzac once said of a place that “this is an expressive little town,” meaning that it did not have a particular, special quality, but rather the quality of attracting our attention, of being appealing, in a loaded sense. contrast this with musical indications for performances or scores such as “con expressione.” a desired energy of performance is meant here, every music student knows what it means. we often say of a thing that it is “inexpressive,” this is an effect of the whole. we say things like “a heavy book,” or “a light touch.” “intermodal colors” are tested by psychologists. we recognize peaks of distinctness of, for example, red. logicians and others try to find profiles of distinctness. “expressivity” is a quality of attractive art, usually, although piero della francesca was admired by berenson for his “inelegance.” we speak of “hot art.” expressionistic art compared to that which is not very expressive is art that has allowed the artist’s momentary feelings to become very pronounced in the work through the use of high value contrasts, strong directions of form, pathetic or elated subjects. after expressionism, the “neue sachlichkeit” style seems very cold, for example, dix’s portrait of a doctor uses a stark electric light, a do-not-touch cactus. in max weber’s last letter he wrote “down with expressionism.” this is cited in a biography of max weber by his widow. it was a typical s feeling in germany. some expression in works does not touch us. why? some artists say work “x” is not “cold” it is merely “dead.” some configuration of forms in the work must support this statement, which also needs reference to connotations, inferences, references. there is no alternative to this, even formalists use tertiary terms. expression is attributed to certain styles, for example, the recurrent features in rembrandt are typical of him in all his subjects, in paintings which add up differently. is style an expressive structure? do we say the same things about all the works of an artist as we do of the expressiveness of individual works? do terms like “roman” mean a class of qualities of an abstraction? are they derived from paradigms? introductory generalizations about an artist––are these valid generalizations or projections from just some works? often disagreements about the characterization of an artist are based on the two sides of this distinction, or based on choosing different works as typical of the artist. for example, balzac may be seen as having had an extraordinary range or as a monomaniac. style is given in the execution of the painting, not its subjects. raymond queneau wrote exercises on style, as a story about a man on a bus, in forty different styles. marianne weber, max weber: a biography, new york: wiley, raymond queneau, exercises on style, london: gaberbocchus, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science but we can object that some writers would take a more dramatic subject or treat a piece of past history. he might reply that in the renaissance many different artists painted the same subject in their different styles. the meaning of expression changes when, in modern art, art could become biographical. art became conditioned by the conventions of becoming an artist, the sense of repetition, etc. all these conditions govern expressivity choices. during the renaissance, in contrast, there were notions of appropriate moods for certain subjects. so expressivity is this not the state of a line, shape, color, etc. the work as a whole has expression, for which there is no term. we say “giotto’s quality,” and speak of the “i do not know what,” the indescribable but easily recognized quality. since the greeks, since plutarch, this point has been made. leibniz’s analogy was to the roar of the ocean: thousands waves create this roar, but we do not hear every wave. beauty of content is vague but it is discriminable––our perception holds in suspension many fine distinctions––but we can do this only after much training. why do some people have better “eyes” and “ears” than others do? degree of aptitude and relationship to experience has to be left an open question. in the church of san vitale, in ravenna, there is a mosaic showing the sacrifice of isaac, including angels. panofsky, in his book perspective as a symbolic form, points out that the gold ground stands in contrast to the figures, the colors are related such that they come to the plane of the picture, that is, flat. the enclosure defines the field as a single picture plane; the rocks are therefore tilted to follow the line of the plane because otherwise virtual space would be implied. but why does the horse sarah stands in go through the frame? why are rocks elsewhere straight, for example, moses giving his laws? because isaac is tilted, submissive, the rocks are tilted in the same angle as him––an expressive device? but the little tree has a tilted mass of foliage to follow the line of the frame. so what if the rocks are vertical? they would continue to mount sinai, the moses scene in the next frame. compare cézanne’s placing of chimney stacks on roofs: he changes their positions, weighs them. thus the choice of tilted rocks satisfies a whole series of functions: it is expressive, it has its own identity, it fits with other murals in the series, that is, there are a number of non-identical functions in the one work. a word in a poem must convey sense, be grammatical, and fit the flow of sounds–– it has to satisfy these many functions. let us consider some of the attempts to give some rational character to expression. there is the physiognomic approach, the effort to assign meanings to various shapes. classical approach––socrates, plato, aristotle especially emphasize the mimetic, the direct representations of expressive movements. in xenophon's memorabilia, socrates says that expression is carried by the gestures of the human body. poetry and music are differently expressive. aristotle comments on painting’s mimetic limitations, saying that emotion is motion, movement in the gottfried wilhelm leibniz, new essays concerning human understanding, lasalle, ill.: open court pub. co., erwin panofsky, perspective as symbolic form, new york: zone books, xenophon, memorabilia, oeconomicus, symposium, apology (loeb classical library, no, ), terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science time, therefore music can articulate its movement in such a way as to parallel that of real emotion. the same is true of quintillian on eloquence. see karel svoboda’s aesthetics of aristotle. there was a moral didacticism attached to this: only measured music should be played to young people. aristotle in the politics says that good citizens should have judgement, so music is one way of training the young, especially in a military state because it has a civilizing influence on people. now, music is separate, technically learned. the totality of viewpoint that the greeks had is long gone. but the distribution of accents in the placement of the metopes in greek temples reflects the emotion of the subject of the friezes. in other words, the mimetic alone was not the only means of expression. vase paintings especially were differently treated according to subject. why did the theorists not take note of this? because the isolated, freestanding monument was the paradigm of art, especially the figure in repose, narrative or action were regarded as secondary. the freestanding figure was also a hero, often a god. but the artists did respond to details of expressiveness, in their choice of proportions, contrasts, repetitions, colors, and the like. during the middle ages and into the renaissance there arises a musicality of the visual partly because of the influx of primitive arts, and new languages full of color words. in the seventeenth century musical and mimetic theory were at last fused. thus poussin’s letter to chantelou defending his employment of different means for different subjects–– lyrical, martial, ecstatic are the greek modes, so we used to do it this way; he takes zarlino’s sixteenth century text on music for his reference. anthony blunt’s contention that poussin was just showing off his learning is inadequate––we can see by looking at the paintings that these distinctions are relevant. poussin was saying: “in our style, this mode is used in such and such a way, in another it would be used differently.” the inherent character of music is also qualified by its frequent association with the text. the idea of “pure music” is associated with lack of expression because it does not have meaning. yet no words does not mean lack of meaning. for example, milton wrote of the “unexpressive sounds” of the heavenly choir at christ’s birth. opera brought words and music, as well as theater, into a new set of relationships. by the end of the eighteenth century, poussin’s idea was used to characterize these different modes. treatises on caricature were written. superville wrote on the unconditional signs in art (the british museum has a copy). the human mind has a disposition to experience calm as horizontal, happiness as up and down as gloomy. architecture fits this. colors. blue, yellow, red. minerva, venus, juno. naturphilosophie tried to synthesize all of natural phenomena into triads, dualities. saint augustine, aesthetics of aristotle. ed. by karel svoboda, san francisco: western classics, aristotle, politics, oxford: clarendon press, anthony blunt, nicolas poussin, london: phaidon, humbert de superville, essai sur les signes inconditionnels dans l’art, leyden: c.c. van der hoek, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science blanc utilized these ideas, and influenced seurat, yet added a concept of difference, of emphasis, that is achieved when the horizontals are more pronounced. he talked of the effects of lines above and below the horizon. charles henry spoke of kinetic, potential, dissipating energy applied to the arts––this also influenced seurat. in the twentieth century matisse and kandinsky believed in the inherent powers of forms to be expressive. but there is no serious experimental study of these matters. we have to rely on intuitiveness, itself modified. all expression is conventional, and depends on learned codes. codes are congealed chunks of the relevant experience; they are never larger than the experience. they are habit, with the possibilities of leaps beyond the habitual. when we hear “ring” in relation to a bell, we relate the word to an imagined source. when we associate “ring” with a finger, nothing is heard, but the word is felt differently because of the changed context or meaning. are there no meanings without context? no. in order to determine context you must have unequivocal meaning somewhere (for example, “finger” in regard to “ring”). somewhere in the context something is unequivocal. text is where an unequivocal statement is rendered equivocal by its entire context. how does expression relate to the idea advanced earlier that art is a group product, the result of collectivities? dutch art is clearly different from italian art. are the criteria we apply to individual works the same as those for national style of differences? we can either characterize the works but not the makers, or characterize the makers, for example, the greek character in greek art. similarly, we spoke of the physiognomy of handwriting. coded descriptions of handwriting, and in history. psychohistory is important here: can changes of institutions, for example, be explained by psychoanalytic theory? this is a difficult problem, not clearly stated in the literature. we tend to see the art of a people as on the same level or order as that of individuals. . april [systematic art history] [i was in washington, so missed this lecture. the text below is my notes on the summary/review, given by professor schapiro at the beginning of his may lecture.] in the nineteenth century, art historians set out to construct large-scale explanatory systems of art throughout the world. this task is not yet approaching completeness. wölfflin criticized his own work in when he published a retraction in a magazine, especially his tendency to use nationalistic types, which he now felt were too exposed to exploitation by nationalists and racialists. issues of race and the differences between places [italian and germanic art]. this incompleteness of view forced him back to expressionist, psychological and extra-art considerations. if there terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science are cycles, how does a new cycle begin? that linear leads to painterly is an observable phenomenon but does painterly always then lead to linear? how much conscious recognition is there on the part of the artist of, say, the exhaustion of painterly means at a given time? what was the impact of moral criticism in the late eighteenth century? twentieth century art challenges wölfflin’s axiomatic-like system (his search for independent postulates undeducible from others), for example, how could it explain mondrian’s geometric lines with “open” forms in the s or picasso’s simultaneous styles? in wölfflin’s classic art, and renaissance and baroque, his categories may apply there as special in the conditions. perhaps they do fit their contexts, but they are not necessary or neutral, relevant to all art everywhere, even to all western art. there are problems also with style in primitive art. his categories reflect the art of his own time, especially his german context. so, art history faces the question of the scale of explanations. are centuries-long explanations applicable to the careers of individual artists? wölfflin dreamt of an “art history without names,” that is, an epochal, macro approach. the principles that apply are difficult: every soldier has a stomach and needs to be fed, but an army does not have a stomach, it simply needs food. to what extent may we take worldviews and philosophies as clues to understanding great styles of art? dilthey raised this question. dvorak’s idea of kunstgeschichte and geistesgeschichte: because of him, mannerism became familiar as an art style. kokoschka was evoked when dvorak was read. historians took it up, for example, karl mannheim in his book ideology and utopia. he studied art history in vienna, and was a friend of the art historian frederick antal. “art and world view” applied epistemology and sociology to world-view notions. this was a structuralist approach, based on inherent principles in formal relationships, on elementary concepts or pairs that could serve as the nucleus for expressive interpretation. for example, gestalt psychology emphasizes parts/whole, parts as functions of wholes, parts as subdivided wholes. paralleling this, sedlmayr in the s and s wrote on borromini. yet, there was a weakness in his approach because of its disregard of history, of the concrete individuality of works, of the existence of alternate readings; it used too few elementary principles. confidence was inspired by the success of linguists, such as lévi-strauss and jakobsen (structural anthropology ). they showed that synchronic structure allows diachronic interpretation, when it is based on belief that language is an open system, yet with a stabilizing tendency. but lévi-strauss could not reassert these. pure structuralism implies the belief that the fundamental properties heinrich wölfflin, classic art: an introduction to the italian renaissance ( ) london: phaidon press, , and renaissance and baroque ( ), ithaca, n.y.: cornell university press, karl mannheim, ideology and utopia. an introduction to the sociology of knowledge, london: routledge and kegan paul, hans sedlmayr, die architektur borrominis, berlin: frankfurter verlags-anstalt, claude lévi-strauss and claire jacobson, structural anthropology, new york: doubleday, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science of the known, whole universe could be predicted: that is silly because what is the universe, what are these properties? (see bruno snell's the discovery of the mind. ) . may valuation why do we talk about certain objects/artists and not others? (we do so within a style.) this is a crucial choice. does it always amount to the exercise of subjectivity and lead to inaccuracy? but in pathology, criminology or engineering one starts from a preference; we prefer the building to stand rather than fall. the issue becomes: can you encourage others to engage in the same process in the same way? undefined propositions are typical starting points in philosophy, science, etc. so one cannot criticize art historians for advancing the same kinds of ideas. pascal spoke of non-arbitrary axioms, unprovable but acceptable. there are, however, choices by art historians that do not satisfy succeeding generations, for example, the space allotted to artists in vasari’s lives compared to our relative valuations. there were special conditions such as vasari’s love of the anecdote. art historians presuppose a selection based on the preferences of their peer groups, and do so mostly unconsciously. this is a dynamic process, changing often, so we need to allow for the points of change. judgements as to whether a work is titian’s, his school, or an imitation are one kind. (friedlander said: “an incorrect attribution reveals your ignorance of at least two artists.”) judgements of the quality of the whole work of an artist is another kind, it does not seek diagnostic features. (the german painter max liebermann said: “the experts exist in order to deattribute our worst works.”) different weights are given to various periods of art. some styles are not accepted as whole styles, some are seen as transitional, or as the decline of a “greater school.” others say that all judgements of value are worthless in contrast to giving an account. in doing this you discover the importance of, say, michelangelo. “importance” thus becomes later influence (this relates to the distinction between a history of morals compared to a history of ethics). parallel in the history of science: did science change because of the quality of newton’s mind, his range, or because of the internal history of science’s development? yet in art history we emphasize artists such as grünewald, el greco and vermeer who were without influence in their time, and did not have a consistent later influence, but whose work exhibits, perhaps later “elective affinities” with, in the case of grünewald and el greco, the expressionists. the le nain brothers were celebrated by champfleurey: unheralded in their time, yet a precedent for courbet. in all, we can say that the concept of later influence is not adequate to displacing judgements of value. we would miss these bruno snell, the discovery of the mind. the greek origins of european thought, new york: harper, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science artists––they may be relevant to us because of things in our own time not connected with art. science is regarded as value free in its operations, its stress on tests of confirmability, etc., but scientists do have aesthetic preferences for theories. scientists are usually vague about these enthusiasms. polanyi, in personal knowledge, argues that theory choices are very influenced by personal and social commitments; in this sense, conservative scientists parallel negative artists. but these are contextual comments; scientific work does not have a recognizable physiognomy, whereas the value of artworks depends on this. artworks cannot be translated into another language or form, while scientific operations can. maxwell’s law is the same in whatever language or demonstration, but a copy of titian and an original titian are fundamentally different. is style a theory in a generative sense, that is, does it generate its instances? some qualities in art are translatable, others are not. goethe wanted to test all great works of literature by having them translated. but to what extent does the valuing of art works and of scientific works rest on the same criteria? there is a temporal history of science such as that of polanyi, which contrasts to a marxist view of science. art history often arises from local pride. this is one of oldest sources of art writing. it is a value-prompted activity, full of fake statements. within science, some scientists practice an attitude like that of art criticism. eminent scientists often investigate the way discoveries are named. system de monde was published in vols. ernst mach’s history of mechanics examined nineteenth century mechanics, paradoxes, distinctions between mass and light, and vagueness about time and space concepts. there is a history of theories of heat. annaliese maier’s studies of galileo’s forerunners show the prejudices that had to be overcome. there are current proposals for a journal of scientific criticism. what is meant by the “value-free” character of something, of an artwork, or of science? there is a distinction to be drawn between the personal and social factors which lead a man to a problem, influence the way he deals with it, the battles between conservatism/innovators, the influence of the other members of the group, the impact of success, the values of the “sacrifice ethos,” etc., and the actual scientific work. michael polanyi, personal knowledge; towards a post-critical philosophy, chicago: university of chicago press, pierre simon laplace, the system of the world, dublin: printed at the university press for longmans, ernst mach, the science of mechanics. a critical and historical account of its development, la salle, ill., london: open court pub. co., see: anneliese maier, on the threshold of exact science: selected writings of anneliese maier on late medieval natural philosophy, steven d. sargent, ed. and trans., philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science art history is influenced by all these factors but art is still its subject, unchanged by this. many art writers fail to recognize qualities in a work that any practitioner would see straight away. but writers about art and the artists often share the same assumptions, for example, wilhelm worringer and the german expressionists. the taste of an artist often screens out works later regarded as valuable, for example, the taste for primitive art in the early twentieth century led to a distaste for bernini. a single judgement by a whole community is rare: individuals attach themselves to one of the stratifications of taste of their time. the same artwork may be admired for very different reasons; for example, the structuralists admire borromini because of his formal inventiveness, yet riegl saw borromini as an expressionist. historical study can take us beyond these singular preferences. a “taste,” an insight, a judgement is incapable of passing severe tests. differences of judgement occur randomly. direct experience and intuition requires confirmation through the looking of others (it is not self-perpetuating). the fallibility of the most experienced “eyes,” like our perception of nature, changes. judgement, then, is a collective process. it is about hard looking and exposing many fallacies. our perception is only our self’s responses; it has to be re-experienced by ourselves and shared with others. culture carries itself forward in this way. experience is both analytic and intuitive, it is always open to question and further enrichment. we can see artworks in different contexts as different, including seeing them as better. museums are the “hospitals of art,” places where paintings go in the hope of getting better with time. there is a community of interests in the “objective” approach that might seem to be widespread in the art world. can we achieve objectivity of value judgement? scientists disagree with each other, for example, astrophysicists these days. personal attitudes are not appropriate to scientific aims, they amount to subjectivity. but a man with a passion to discover, and who succeeds, is no longer subjective. he has risked making a mistake. taste changes, judgements vary. what are the grounds for asserting the correctness of a judgement? not right/wrong but preference, attitudinal. or as croce, venturi, and birkhoff in aesthetic measure argue: value = order over complexity. geometrical forms are susceptible to measure, while connotative shapes have great effect but there is no way of measuring this. birkhoff overlooked things like the effect of orientation - proportions cannot be stated numerically or quantitatively. wilhelm worringer, abstraction and empathy. a contribution to the psychology of style, london: routledge and kegan paul, george david birkhoff, aesthetic measure, cambridge, ma: harvard university press, terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science birkhoff’s formula is a version of the old greek preference for variety in unity/unity in variety. is there no objectivity? is the measure of qualities too wide a net? mathematical net, science’s experimental net: no one has developed a theory for more complex forms. but there is a kind of objectivity (a sense of satisfying requirements) that artists hold to when they work. understanding rembrandt is understanding that he accomplished something that was right for him. (and did so, partly, collectively.) he sees that other artists respond to these works rather than others, or to this or that aspect of his work, and adjusts. if taste were idiosyncratic or voguish, would a work survive the succeeding waves of changing taste? if they did not, there would be no tradition, unless we assume that certain attitudes are shared by all human beings. judgements of contemporary art are notoriously difficult: malicious people, arguing against objectivity, point to howlers. to them we can reply: “wigglesworth will be remembered when milton is forgotten but not until then.” is there an ongoing assimilative process of judgement, one that acquires new works as it goes along? on what grounds would we retain the same artists, acquire new ones, see same artists from different viewpoints, etc.? all artists face the problem of creating a valid (true) work of art. all artists know what might fit and what will not. there are different orders of requirement: i) holding, attracting, refreshing the eye, that is, “form” values. but artists may be mistaken in their idea of coherence, or drawn to extraneous factors (for example, a cute face). that may cause the artist to lose his hold on the unity of the work. or ii) the artist may choose forms which add up to the order, inflect it, add details to it, or he may want to express ideals (freedom) or attitudes (tragic, austerity). he may feel a moral ideal within these qualities, relative, say, to baroqueness or to the state of his time. every artist wants to make the work as good as possible; formally, but content-wise as well. artists affirm that they have goals that pertain to their attitudes as believers, etc. so their goal is not just coherent work, but a realizing of certain possibilities of forms. between and the idea of a universal aesthetic, of the needs of perceptual order and the inner expressiveness of shapes won over many artists but did not create a style of itself. formalists made selections of certain forms, ideological features. rectilinearity has to do with human social orders, for example, mondrian. symbolists were, in contrast, mystics. this can produce good and bad works: therefore, we should understand forms as contents to be operated on. a family of forms may equal a certain type of order. all values are to be realized. to have a program of objective aesthetics plus the artist’s commitment is not sufficient to terry smith meyer schapiro on style in art and science constitute a work of art in itself. if it were possible, could the resultant work be judged objectively? expressiveness is what counts ultimately - the forms are the body to this end. terry smith, faha, ciha, is andrew w. mellon professor of contemporary art history and theory in the department of the history of art and architecture at the university of pittsburgh, and distinguished visiting professor, national institute for experimental arts, college of fine arts, university of new south wales. in he won the mather award for art criticism conferred by the college art association (usa), and was named australia council visual arts laureate. he is the author of making the modern: industry, art and design in america (university of chicago press, ; inaugural georgia o’keeffe museum book prize ); transformations in australian art, volume , the nineteenth century: landscape, colony and nation, and volume , the twentieth century: modernism and aboriginality (craftsman house, sydney, ); what is contemporary art? (university of chicago press, ) and contemporary art: world currents (laurence king, london, ). terence e smith [tes @pitt.edu] children's creative work – a comparative approach to teaching visual art and music procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – - © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. selection and peer review under responsibility of prof. dr. ferhan odabaşı doi: . /j.sbspro. . . sciencedirect wclta children’s creative work – a comparative approach to teaching visual art and music nada miletic a*, natasa vukicevic b a faculty of education, jagodina, serbia b faculty of education, jagodina, serbia abstract the purpose of this work is to present some innovative methods and possibilities for preparing and motivating students in the process of visual and musical creative work. within children’s musical and visual creative work, expressive creativity is primarily developed by means of unrestricted and spontaneous expression through visual art and music, where the products are not assessed according to their aesthetic value but according to their educational and functional purpose, evaluated in the course of the process of creation. the comparative approach to teaching music and visual art means using a musical work as a means of motivation leading to visual art creativity, and using a visual work of art as an incentive in children’s creative work. selection and peer review under responsibility of prof. dr. ferhan odabaşı. available online at www.sciencedirect.com © the authors. published by elsevier ltd. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. selection and peer review under responsibility of prof. dr. ferhan odabaşı keywords: work of art, motivation, comparative approach,children’s musical creative work, children’s visual art creative work. . introduction the process of children’s creativity is conditioned by innate abilities, creative predisposition, stimuli given by the family and environment, motivation, and certain features of the teaching process. a teacher can have a direct influence on motivation by choosing the right teaching methods, prompts, types of work, goals, and tasks. the need to have variety and unconventionality are basic characteristics of creative thinking but at the same time they are components of children’s creativity. this is why the means of motivation used in teaching visual art or music should be varied and unusual. remaining within methodology, terminology and subject content is usual and expected when a lesson is in process. however, such an approach restricts motivation, which is essential in the development of creative thinking. the potential of motivating students to think and create in a creative way are extended by combining contents, expanding the meaning of terms, transferring from one field to another, and adjusting methodology procedures. a creative approach to teaching visual art and music means that a work of art is used to motivate children’s creativity: a piece of music is used in creating visual art, and visual art is used for the creation of music. a comparative approach to the teaching process provides a foundation for the further development of all types of ability and intelligence (spatial-visual, lingual, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, musical and physical-kinetic). * corresponding author: natasa vukicevic. tel.: + - - - e-mail address: vukicnatasa@yahoo.com © published by elsevier ltd. all rights reserved. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / nada miletic and natasa vukicevic / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – thanks to these types of intelligence, it is possible to compensate for lesser domains with better-developed intelligence types. artistic subjects are not only especially suitable for simultaneous development of these, but also for enhancing the emotional and motivating spheres of a personality, due to wide, multi-layered levels of meaning. . aa com parative approach and a creative process by means of a lesson structure for visual art and music lessons where works of art are used to motivate the creation of works of art in another medium, abilities, values, motivation, emotions, and goals are set into motion. these personality parts interact, setting in motion a system in any part, using music or visual art, to activate other parts of personality as well. a creative process activated in this way can result in a visual or musical work of art, which is not a goal in itself, but is part of a continuous process. the correlation between visual and music elements requires the activation of a higher level of musical and intellectual abilities. it is necessary to indulge and motivate students continuously to recognize individual elements within the chosen work of art, and the work of art itself is used as means of motivation. setting a musical work as a visual task, or vice versa, the following features of creative thinking are set in motion: • ability to define and redefine - definition of the structure of the “model” work of art and redefining it the through expressive means of another art; • analysis of the model work, synthesis of the experience prior to translation, repeated analysis while selecting elements of another art; • visualization of the audio experience; • metaphorical features, reflected in the process of translating the experience gained using one sense into the domain of another sense by using symbolic notions; • flexibility to accept such an unusual task; • fluency, transposition, and transformation seen as processes activated when the problem of listening to a painting or painting music is set . visual expression while under the impression of music is the simplest form of children’s musical creative work. children present their musical experience using visual art, and the elements of both arts are connected spontaneously. children listen to music actively, without superfluous information about the work, the composer, or detailed analysis associated with certain visual notions, and thus direct music experience. the musical work of art and the influence it has on children’s visual work created on the basis of experiencing music is just the first level of motivation in children’s creative work. the value the topic has as motivation is in reverse proportion to the age of students. following the age of children, the value of the topic as motivation should be skillfully transferred to the value of the form, using the nature of relations between the form and content of a work of art. this is why we should start with vocal forms when choosing a composition, and in the case of instrumental music, programmed compositions should dominate, with descriptive elements to help children depict a musical work of art. the tasks of a comparative approach to teaching artistic subjects should consider the choice of musical works used for motivating visual expression on the basis of a previous analysis of musical elements. it is necessary to choose compositions of a various character so that individual components could be more easily differentiated. within such approach it is impossible to anticipate the results with great accuracy. for example, the rhythm of a musical work is clearly defined in comparison to melody, but its share in the overall experience of the composition is inseparable from the influence of melody, dynamics, harmony and shapes. if rhythm is used as motivation for developing the rhythm of shapes of a visual work, it is possible for the rhythm to be emphasized not only in shape, but also in colour or direction. likewise, the experience of a composition cannot be transferred exclusively to rhythm in disposition of shapes but to all visual elements. also, the tone pitch can be experienced as a quantity of light value, or as its chromatic value, then as a satiated colour but also as directions of lines or textures. however, experience of the tone pitch can be expressed through all these elements simultaneously. the tone colour can be translated to texture or to chromatic value of the colour but to a type of shapes in a visual composition. all components of a musical work can be individually analyzed but it is impossible to anticipate accurately the level of nada miletic and natasa vukicevic / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – their influence on the overall experience of the work. setting a visual task using a musical work has to be precise enough so that children could have a reliable matrix for translation from the field of one art to the field of another one. at the same time, the task should be flexibly set due to the fact that we cannot predict the children’s experience and expression. musical elements define arrangement and choice of lines, the speed of strokes, rhythm, structure within the visual work being created. the rhythm, change of pace or dynamic shading define the character of composition, the character directs musical experience and it is further expressed through visual elements. connecting musical elements with visual elements is illustrated by the following examples: paganini violin concerto no. ( of ): this composition is characteristic because of its harmonious structure and reconciled expressive elements: a joyous melody, dancing rhythm, richness of sound colours produced by various instruments, alternating performance of the soloist and the orchestra. each musical element sustains the development of the others in the same directions. the lyrical melody does not come as a surprise although the beginning announces dramatic conflict by its dynamics, pauses and unexpected appearance of percussion instruments. this music, although by its form not intended for younger school children, develops children’s experience which can be presented in their visual work by light colours, swift strokes of a wide tactile range. visual elements of paintings created in this way would support and sustain each other, a line supports the colour, a shape repeats the direction. we can expect compositions with a clearly emphasized first and second level which complement each other. the interaction of visual elements attach themselves in a cheerful and dynamic continuity, but nevertheless still expected. r. schumann "kinderszenen op. " – (scenes from childhood), gluckes genug (happiness): the composition is very simple. the theme is melodic, easily remembered, recognizable, and present from the beginning to the end. the melody shifts from one voice to another by means of imitation, and it is repeated in the same voice but in another tonality. the rhythm is emphasized by articulation and a fast pace. simplicity of form, melody and rhythm almost inspire the listener to apply a drawing approach, using playful lines which differ in lightness, thickness and direction, short broken strokes, shapes similar and standing independently, without overlapping. just as a musical work can induce visual expression, a visual work can inspire students to compose a melody. a comparative approach means that there is analogy in choosing and applying visual works as motivation for children’s creation of music. visual expression under the impression of a composition represents a preparatory form of work in the process of creating the most complex form of children’s creation of music – composing. on the basis of visual elements students have perceived and remembered, rhythm, form and melodic flow of music are produced. visual compositions of close values of light quantity, warm general tones, without huge oscillations in the length of strokes, inspire students to compose a cheerful melody of small ambit, with uniform rhythm, short note values, at a moderate pace, in a / beat. paintings with minor changes in the direction of strokes, close chromatic values, with a single colorist or light quantity accent indulge students to compose a simple melody in a three-quarter beat, with repetition of the same rhythmic motive and melodic climax at the end. the following examples show how students indulged to create music on the basis of a visual work (figure ): figure . the sheperds (jean-antoine watteau, oil on canvas) and banks of the marne (paul cezanne, nada miletic and natasa vukicevic / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – oil on canvas) the painting the sheperds, jean-antoine watteau, has pastel colouring of close values of light quantity and transparent texture. the changes in colours and light quantity in one part of the composition is more dynamic, and in another part the same relations are repeated but with reduced contrast. the mentioned features would inspire students to create a melody with a balanced but cheerful rhythm and continuous melodic flow. visual elements bring associations with melodic variations of bright tones. features of post-impressionists painting are suitable for introduction of the above proposed comparative method. a painting of a significant painter from this period, paul cézanne, is a landscape, banks of the marne. this painting has satiated colouring, chromatic gradation instead of the gradation of light quantity, strokes with minor shifts of hot-cold relations, and it would motivate students to make a musical improvisation with certain features: balance in melodic sequence repetitions in one-third interval, rhythmic uniformity, unbroken flow, without colour contrasts. figure . georges braque, still life with a violin, collage making motifs unrecognizable in cubism collages has a positive effect on students’ creativity because it frees them from narrative and directs them to expressive elements of form. musical characteristics of a work which would be motivated by a painting by georges braque, still life with a violin (figure ), are clearly defined: noticable three- part element, small changes in the tone plan in the third part in comparison to the first. the simplicity of form is realised by one topic which remains present until the end of the composition. the influence of this approach on children’s creative development is great. emotional and aesthetic impressions caused by a work of art move creative expression, externalization of an experience through an act of creation. developing the ability to communicate with oneself and the world, and getting feed-back, are some of the goals of visual and musical creative work. . cconclusion each artistic work can be used as inspiration for the creation of a new work of art within the same art. well- known composers often found their inspiration in the works of their contemporaries and predecessors, and valuable works of numerous visual artists were made under strong influence from paintings or sculptures of other artists. but influences and inspirations did not stay within the framework of one art form only. aesthetic experience has often been expressed by means of another medium, not the one which provoked it. the relation between inspiration and realization of a work of art in the creative process is universal at all levels of creative work. a child listening to or nada miletic and natasa vukicevic / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – looking at a work of art feels nice, the work of art moves his/her emotions, and the emotional experience stirs further and develops his/her artistic/aesthetic experience. on the basis of that experience the following are developed: fantasy, the ability to explore independently and compare/analyze works of art, and creative expression using visual art and music. translation of one artistic work into the language of another sets into motion cognitive and emotional processes and their interaction within a personality. a work created in this way is a means of evaluating the learning process for a teacher, and for children it is a motive for further work and development of their creativity. the universal value of artistic expression provides the possibility to communicate without using non-artistic content. varieties of artistic creativity can be used in teaching visual art and music, for the development of emotional intelligence, creativity and invention, unrestricted expression and creativity, enabling their wider application in teaching practice. the harmonious development of a student’s personality is not based on the simple extension of all levels of different types of intelligence. the density and quality of relations between different types of intelligence and the individual sensibility of a child are more important than levels of ability, or the intuitive and later conscious ability of a child to use them in solving different problems. achieving aesthetic goals using such a comparative approach to teaching visual art and music is in second place their to huge integrating effects on personality. rreferences becks-malorny, u. ( ). cezanne. new york: taschenhttp://www.amazon.com/gp/product/ /ref=pd_lpo_k _dp_sr_ ?pf_rd_p= &pf_rd _s=lpo-top-stripe- &pf_rd_t= &pf_rd_i= &pf_rd_m=atvpdkikx der&pf_rd_r= xmvj vvvqh zjjgq z - # bratic t., filipovic lj. ( ). muzicka kultura u razrednoj nastavi. jagodina – pristina: uciteljski fakultet u jagodini, fakultet umetnosti u pristini. lauterbach i. ( ). watteau. new york: taschen ganteführer-trier a. ( ). cubism. new york: taschen panic v. ( ). psiholoska istrazivanja umetnickog stvaralastva. beograd: naucna knjiga. sefer, j. ( ). kreativne aktivnosti u tematskoj nastavi. beograd: institut za pedagoska istrazivanja. vidulin-orbanic, s. ( ). izvannastavne (glazbene) aktivnosti. rovinj: os vladimir nazor. colin rowe: – colin rowe: - profoundly gifted as both a studio teacher and a scholar, colin rowe's erudition was legendary, his insights extraordinary, his influence immense. james stirling was just one, if perhaps the most distinguished, of his many students. but perhaps his greatest significance is, as robert maxwell suggests, the fact that he 'established a crucial continuity in architectural culture". he is remembered here by maxwell, john sergeant, peter carl and leon satkowski. also reproduced is a perspective of the building designed by colin rowe and brian richards during theirfirst visit to north america. colin rowe was an architect who made his mark through his ideas and writings rather than his built work. in he was awarded the royal institute of british architects' gold medal, only the second scholar in the twentieth century to receive the honour. from the beginning, he seems to have inhabited an ideal landscape, that landscape where thought and feeling combine in an event. it is as if he faced the world the way the figures do in a claude lorrain painting, overwhelmed by the architectural constructions, yet not intimidated by them. his observations were best heard in front of the evidence, and, since his subject was architecture, that meant walking. there was a period when the coincidence of colin rowe and henry-russell hitchcock meant prolonged walks through the city of london, extending into the small hours, examining the evidence as it presented itself to the eye. this immediacy had a lot to do with rowe's appeal, and it is represented in both his writing and lecturing style as a letters arq • v i • noi • io arq • v i • noi • obituary characteristically conversational tone, as with most of the essays in his bookas i was saying ( ). rowe could force a photograph to give up its hidden qualities, to move before one's very eyes. colin rowe was born in in yorkshire, at rotherham, but his accent was metropolitan. he won a scholarship to liverpool university in to study at the school of architecture, graduating in following war service. he continued his studies at the warburg institute in london under rudolf wittkower - his thesis was on the theoretical drawings of inigo jones - and spent a year on a smith-mundt/fulbright scholarship at yale, studying with henry-russell hitchcock. as a contemporary of rowe's at liverpool university i succumbed to his charm at once, and found it difficult to throw it off. after he was invalided out of the parachute regiment in with a broken back we were students together, and after i returned from war service in india he was lecturing at the university and was my tutor for thesis. he was and remained my mentor, the one who awakened me, as so many others, to the excitement of the idea built. rowe was attracted by the openness of american society (he became an american citizen in ), and by the extraordinary effect this freer horizon had on architectural models imported from europe. after his year at yale, he travelled in the united states, working on a number of architectural projects before accepting a post in at the university of texas at austin. during only five semesters when he taught there he not only revolutionized the teaching of architectural design by bringing in european models, but he alerted americans to their own heritage by his praise for the city of lockhart in texas and generally, by pointing to the dynamic quality of american settlements, and the american revitalization of the classical. it was his peculiar virtue to be able to imbue the present moment of creation with an excitement derived from past moments of creation, and students were often sent to the library to check out a plan of a palladian villa before drawing up their plan for a secondary school. between and rowe was a lecturer at cambridge university, where among other things he became adviser to peter eisenman and encouraged h i m to study terragni. rowe's enthusiasm for the inherent contradictions within italian mannerism, allied to frequent trips to italy, created something of a legend, and when he came to inhabit the palazzo massimi, during a spell running the rome programme of cornell university, it seemed perfectly appropriate, a personal apotheosis, even though his rooms were in the attic. from that eyrie he could hear the footsteps of the last scion of the family promenading in the salone. the italian inheritance seemed like a prolonged and radiant sunset. some warmth from italian art may also have promoted his long friendship with the new york architect judy de maio. where rowe had found austin disruptive, he found cambridge exasperating. in he returned to america, and from then on taught at cornell university, except for prolonged visits to italy which, by his own admission, made him more or less italianizzato. at cornell his influence was directed at city planning, not in the direction of management, but of exploring that margin where city form and architectural form act together to create a sense of place and occasion. the current movement in new urban design is a direct result of the enthusiasm he inspired. in his half-basement room at cornell, hemmed in by seemingly eternal snows, he confirmed his opinions through the books that surrounded him, and his erudition was based on an unerring sense of character, and hence of provenance. rowe will be remembered for his conversations as much as for his writings, which nevertheless, through the good offices of his editor, alex caragonne, form in the end a considerable corpus, committed to paper only in his final years. his life was bent on the discoveries that come only through close reading; he did not pursue a career. a master of hermeneutics, he thought nothing of cultural studies and preferred to ignore 'the whole semiology thing'. his first essay, 'the mathematics of the ideal villa' (first published in the architectural review, ), was in some ways his best, but all his essays were tremendous in showing how modern architecture can be understood through, the subtleties of form that it employs. in this way he established a crucial continuity in architectural culture. robert maxwell colin frederick rowe, architectural educator and critic: born rotherham, yorkshire, march ; lecturer, university of texas, austin, - ; lecturer, university of cambridge, - ; professor of architecture, graduate school of architecture and urban design, cornell university, - ; andrew dickson white professor in architecture, - (emeritus); died washington dc november (reprinted with the consent of the editor, the independent - in which it was published on december ) scrutinizing buildings like a text it was probably october : or p.m., pitch dark, freezing cold with folds of damp fog wrapping themselves round cambridge's yellow streetlights. it was my first tutorial session with colin. i had just come from rowing on the river. the flat was in a college house near magdalene (the curved-wall end flat in the s causewayside block of general memory was yet to be). he greeted me, wearing white shorts, perhaps a white tennis shirt, and barefoot. the temperature inside was tropical. there was a chrome pither stove which he tended religiously, maintaining the conditions of a sauna. i was shell-shocked. nothing in my small life had prepared me for this. colin must have got me over my embarrassment and started the conversation, but i cannot remember it. nothing was said about supervisions but i was to see him every week until my fifth year when he abruptly disappeared, to be replaced by jim stirling. of course i assumed that he had had this role for aeons, but in truth it was probably one of his own first supervisions. what we embarked on was a close interrogation of the oeuvres completes of le corbusier. with colin i mentally crawled through every centimetre of the villas of the ' s and ' s. we did this through photographs, plans and sections and the paintings, which he compared more with those of leger than ozenfant, corb's fellow purist. the material we had was grey, or black and white photographs, and showed buildings to my eyes of such alien boxiness that i dared say nothing. but so well did colin do obituary arq • v i • n o i • proposed sailors' home, vancouver, designed by colin rowe and brian richards, - for sharp, thomson, berwick and platt. perspective of garden court. this building was later built in slightly modified form as the blue cross seamen's institute. (collection brian hemingway architect ltd.) his work that i became myself a proselytizer, until that is, my own first exposure to the villa savoie. today's wealth of analysis, of curtis, of von moos, of a dozen more, was all in colin's head; he was writing it, or laying its foundations. with hindsight, it was a huge privilege to be working with just him, and the oeuvres in all their didactic freshness. there were numerous deviations from our road, many far above my head, and all i now realize following some current or recent rowe work. for example he had a passion for mannerism, and i remember writing my only essay for him, trying to wring something cosmic from my analysis of parmegiano's madonna del collo lungo. however, what was ostensibly a taste for giulio romano, turned out think to be a more general predilection for the warping and subversion of given rules (laurenziana library stair-lobby, florence). indeed i suspect that in the clubby workings of those days this more general trait may have brought about his departure. in design, the given rule was modernism, corbu's maison domino, and he would grind the wall-free column grid into our skulls. he never tired of drilling this into our overlays or our sketchbooks: he did it in that quivering, intense way with a stub of pencil pushed round and round so hard that it often went right through the paper or left an indelible mark on the board beneath. once he felt that he was understood he would urge its subversion, but the problem was how, not just for me, but also i think, for him. he did not or could not draw, and words were his guide. he spoke frequently of the polish school at liverpool; among their number had evidently been an individual who could achieve this alchemy; near-symmetries were set up, but broken, and by so doing, ambiguities introduced. my friend sumet jumsai showed him plans of thai and indian temple complexes and colin was silent. i like to think that his later american students translated the challenge into complete work, but this may have been wrecked on the rather littoral reefs of early michael graves or all richard meier. my closest contact with colin in the studio was in second and fourth years. first year studio had been firmly and refreshingly run by sandy wilson, so imagine our reaction to the amazing combination of colin and peter bicknell as joint second year masters. colin started us off with a block planning project - a shopping centre, bank, perhaps a library, complex along the south side of a large open green space in the city, parker's piece. i did this well and seemed to go up in his estimation. he also seemed to enjoy my interpretation of our next project, dons' housing for peterhouse. the brief called for accommodation for a number of couples without children, and i assumed that this was because they were old rather than young, and disposed them into a severe, asymmetrical group of mastabas, in effect a funerary complex. colin encouraged individual struggle for vocabulary at a time when the school was overwhelmingly brutalist in expression and i suspect that this catholic attitude showed in our design examinations. it would be fascinating to exhume that work, but it was probably destroyed. in third year peter eisenman appeared as colin's phd student and our last contact was during fourth year while i was involved in a gigantic housing project. he helped me find the context for my fifth year project: the cadogan estate in knightsbridge, where the leases were about to fall in.' it was salutary to complete it without him. colin showed us how to scrutinize buildings like a text; his scholarship was erudite and breathtaking for us and he won our admiration. it was good that so many of us were there at the riba to witness him receiving the gold medal. john sergeant notes . a supervisor at cambridge is appointed by a director of studies, her/himself being responsible to the college of the student, not the department of the university. to this day i do not know what colin's role was: he never told me, and i remember no supervisions with anyone else. universal practice was learn as you go'. . there was a student legend that the cambridge senior common rooms had been set aflutter by colin's ma ceremony (this honorary degree is conferred on all non-cambridge lecturers in order to enable them to 'belong'). on being introduced to the congregation, in latin, colin had seemingly failed to walk across the senate house to kneel before the vice chancellor, but had crawled as before an eastern potentate to finally end up prostrate with his head on the cushion. there was even a version, which went on, that so encumbered with scarlet and ermine was the vc that he could not lay his hands upon colin's, which were fluttering at his feet (the correct position being clasped in prayer, a quaint medieval memory). so bulldogs (non-academic university servants with great boots and legendary running powers deputed by proctors to catch any student not wearing a gown on the streets by night) were dispatched to elevate him for this purpose. however arq • v i • noi • obituary these gentlemen were themselves either carrying an axe, or chained to a copy of the statutes. so, all in all, his degree induction was less solemn than the norm. even if it was untrue this story was for us bound into colin's mystique. . at that time, the liverpool university school of architecture where colin studied and later taught was, together with the architectural association, the leading british architecture school. during colin's time in liverpool, the polish school, made up of exiled staff and students, was established there and operated parallel to its english host. . peter bicknell was the architect for the s fen court at peterhouse and lectured on british architecture. we thought him past the best of his powers and knew nothing of his polymath nature. he was an authority on j. m. w. turner and the picturesque and his annual firework parties were apparently a local sensation. . these took the form of brief and site given cold, and designed and drawn up in the examination room; six hours or one day for first year, two days for second and three days for third. i suspect that today's students would be distraught at the prospect, with no opportunity to seek a tutor's opinion. they should be revived. . peter set us a sketch design for a pedestrian bridge over the mi motorway and came over like a football coach: 'you gotta work like hell'. . on our walks in west london a bump in the road would identify a building campaign or change of titled estate. he knew every event, every date, acquisition by marriage or inheritance. the streets spoke with him. the gossipy nature of these footnotes has been intentional, and tries to echo the endless sub-texts and anecdotes of our mentor, without perhaps his occasional waspishness, nor, of course, his virtuosic sentence structure. j. s. a distant recollection colin rowe was always a fairly remote figure - even when we worked together briefly, i gave him less than he gave me. perhaps this was more common than others who worked with him longer led me to suspect; but none of these earned specific annoyance in print ... a matter of personal regret, therefore. however, the remoteness itself had many levels which required several years to understand. architecture at princeton in the late ' s was dominated by le corbusier and colin rowe. their physical absence - le corbusier had died the previous year and rowe was teaching at cornell - allowed them to mingle as one authoritative voice. my teachers at that time included peter eisenman and anthony vidler, both rowe students at cambridge, as well as anthony eardley and michael graves, both close adherents of rowe's interpretation of architecture. ken frampton was a more independent member of this circle; but even emilio ambasz, who arrived from argentina as a proselyte of semiotics, was responsible for assembling a samizdat collection of rowe's articles nearly years before the publication of mathematics of an ideal villa and otheressays. eisenman concentrated upon the formalistic side of rowe's interests, vidler upon the political side and graves the architectural synthesis of le corbusier, cubism and terragni. rowe was the spiritual, largely legendary, centre of this triangular division of a fairly comprehensive approach to architecture and its possibilities. the importance of rowe's concern for decorum eluded us at that time. where, for example, we indulged in elaborate analyses of a recently completed addition to the institute for advanced study, rowe asked simply, 'can you imagine einstein having to work here?' nor did we strive to link this question of decorum to rowe's argument, which had the strange quality of deploying examples from history as if they were his own works. in many senses they were, since his interpretations were unlike those of conventional architectural history or the pronouncements of architects themselves. however, the effect was to make him transparent for the history of which he spoke, a history which only came through him. the uniqueness was enhanced by his manner. by comparison with my american colleagues, colin spoke, or rather declaimed, like the house of lords, or r. h. tawney, and his intense eyes always seemed to be focused somewhere beyond immediate circumstances. once heard, one could not forget the voice; and he wrote as he spoke. rowe's arguments were always aimed at current practice and understanding - he seemed to operate in an eternal present more nuanced and relevant than that of giedion. it was possible to travel from italian mannerism via letarouilly to le corbusier and terragni without pause. even when the argument was concerned to demonstrate the great difference between the richness of mannerist architecture and urbanism by comparison with the present, the argument itself depended upon the intrinsic properties of the architecture. born out of rowe's remarkable powers of observation, such demonstrations paradoxically made it possible for students to be far more attentive to architectural physiognomy than to the culture which the architecture seemed so effectively to embody. emblematic in this respect was his apercu that the unite d'habitation was effectively cast from the mould of vasari's uffizi. everything that needed to be said about the urban discontinuity and the architectural continuity seemed to reside in that pair of slides. correlatively, the cultural integrity and richness of present proposals depended upon a fastidious attention to a particular physiognomic complexity that possessed its highest horizon in the issue by which rowe attained his ultimate remoteness - phenomenal transparency. the formalism which supported such exercises did not become apparent until the appearance, in the early ' s, of a counter- argument launched by robert venturi and vincent scully at yale. they deployed similar means - readings of plan-configuration, architectural physiognomy and iconography - to reach cultural ends opposite to those of rowe. what was known on the east coast of america as the battle of the whites and the greys effectively summarized the instability of formal argument - the accusations of'elitism' levelled at rowe came from a species of populism made safe for university consumption. however, the conflict had the effect of displacing attention from the means to the cultural content, and it was on this that tafuri pounced shortly afterwards in his article 'l'architecture dans le boudoir'. at this time, american architectural debate was divided roughly between the massive industrial icons of kevin roche, a revived international style, the small town iconography of venturi and the typology emerging from obituary arq • v i • n o i • the fifteenth triennale. in , michael graves arranged that i work with judy dimaio and, later, stephen peterson, assisting rowe on his portion of the nolli plan (the forum, palatine, aventine and celio) for the roma interrotto exhibition. i was extremely surprised to discover that rowe intended to pursue this exercise in re-opening a dialogue with tradition by adopting a scenario in which napoleon's son - the roi de rome - inhabited a renovated palatine palace, and by developing our contribution strictly within those historical circumstances. i was even more surprised to discover that all the formal apparatus that had been transmitted to me by his students was, for rowe himself, only the visual support for an elaborately detailed cultural vision, for which the roma interrotta contribution was a minor manifesto. the most significant memory of the event was rowe devouring in an afternoon an entire roll of yellow- trace in re-drawings of the urban lay-out, all the while accompanying his efforts with a running commentary upon the presumed inhabitants and their disposition in the plan. princes, princesses, nobles, courtiers and members of every other level of society were summoned as if they were known to him personally and were very much alive. this was - and still is - utterly unique in my experience: as if baedeker and goethe of the italian journey had taken up a felt- tip pen and were recalling the town from which they had come for the benefit of a contemporary american audience. indeed, i was so perplexed by the historicism that i missed the point. moreover, i think the historicistic and iconographic excesses of the immediately ensuing post- modernism have contributed to a general missing of the point, particularly since much of its imagery seemed so similar to rowe's. from the early essay, 'lockhart, texas', through collage city to the architecture of good intentions (each separated by years), rowe's affirmation of nineteenth-century towns and architecture was only partly concerned with spatial sophistication or even the details of planning, ornament and furniture which so obviously absorbed his consummate depth of perception and passion. all this was the scenography of a society dependent upon individual strength of character, depth of commitment, profound sensitivity, and a wit occasionally touching on the violent (neither, therefore, the mono-cultures of early modernism nor a vacuous pluralistic polyculturalism). the 'aristocratic' content of this society had little to do with birthright and far more to do with a moral or political imagination, integrity and generosity of understanding. what athens or rome had been to earlier generations, the nineteenth-century european city was for rowe, useful particularly since it required less of an exercise in translation for present consumption. it was not 'laid up in heaven' but, like his conception of utopia, a 'tragic' manifestation of human possibilities in this world. unable to find a setting suitable for einstein in even the best modernist architecture, he resorted to, for example, early romantic munich as an approximate paradigm. the 'problem of conscience which no responsible person can evade' (the architecture of good intentions) is intrinsically remote from everyday needs and desires. it is a matter of cultural imagination, and resides in its freedom. if this, ultimately, is the source of rowe's remoteness, it is also so remote from present architectural or cultural preoccupations as to pass unrecognized. of rowe's rich legacy, however, it deserves to be recalled first. peter carl looking with colin in his writings and teaching, colin rowe fundamentally altered our understanding of modern architecture by demonstrating its relationship to the world of ideas. although this notion is considered self-evident by many architects, it is not universally embraced by historians of art and architecture. in part this is due to a misunderstanding by those who saw his writings as an apology for a kind of formalism while ignoring his readings of modernism's historical, ideological and aesthetic roots. in part this is also due to colin's generosity in sharing ideas with friends and colleagues before their (often much-belated) appearance in print. but most of all, colin's historical method - if he can be said to have one - combined aspects of formal study, literary biography and political history, the history of ideas, and his own experiences. this form of speculation ran against the current of germanic positivism, still the prevailing ideology in the study of architectural history. this can be illustrated by colin's sometimes tenuous relationship with rudolf wittkower, his first and major teacher. colin frequently remarked that the mathematics of the ideal villa and mannerism and modern architecture were not well received by wittkower, though both were close to his mentor's interests both in and out of print. there were suggestions that the articles involved the misuse of historical concepts and their evidence was wrong. presumably colin's historical career would be best served by a strong dose of that german elixir, archival research. although the relationship between the two men remained cordial, colin was miffed when he was not invited to contribute to the wittkower festschrift. the architectural essay rather than the scholarly book or article was colin's preferred literary form. for this task he was self-taught but remarkably well prepared. blessed with a prodigious memory, he could recite long passages from poets as diverse as shakespeare and byron, or historians as dissimilar as mary mccarthy and henri focillon. his personal library was extensive and reflected his catholic taste for serlio or scamozzi in their original editions, the collected works of sir arthur conan doyle, the diaries of james lees-milne, or the biographies of the notable families of europe and america. colin took particular delight in reciting the family trees of royalty, and when princess diana died, all work stopped because friends continually telephoned for his prediction on the future of the house of windsor. colin's fondness for the minutiae of interpersonal relationships allowed him to detect subtleties of wit and (sometimes biting) humour. as an outsider to the rarefied world of art history, colin had little patience for the attribution of late medieval paintings and once described hitchcock's unfinished phd dissertation as the 'designated pursuit of merovingian bric-a-brac'. about minneapolis he remarked how skyways could be anchored by an upper level hotel lobby at one end and the ladies' lingerie section of a department store on the other. arq • v i • n o i • obituary on the other hand, colin observed that in charlotte irony had become a tragedy; here skyways were an agent of racial segregation, with black on the street and whites in the passageways above. above all, colin recognized the mythic dimension of writing history and was not above creating a good myth just when one was required. the classic example is, of course, the fictitious late father vincent mulcahy, s.j., invented by colin for the romalnterrotta exhibition in . even though fake scholarship was in keeping with the idea of the exhibit, there were unintended consequences of the spoof. it surprised colin how many readers thought that the yarn was genuine, and discretion prevents me from revealing the name of a noted historian of roman urbanism who, knowing my ties to colin, wanted to borrow my copy of father mulcahy's magisterial achievement, the catalogue to rome: the lost and unknown city. when infirmities confined colin to his washington apartment, his appetite for reading increased, as evidenced by the heavy cartons of books that would arrive with regularity every several weeks. although he never consciously attempted to keep up with 'the literature', friends would bring him books by richard sennett or henri lefebvre, usually for their mutual provocation. the new york review of books and book review section of the sunday new york times were inexhaustible resources for conversation. even if colin read widely, he was disarmingly candid about his lack of interest in specific areas, most notably in ancient and medieval art and architecture. colin's writings and teaching were the consequences of the authors whom he read with admiration. his respect for karl popper and isaiah berlin is well- known, but none mattered more to him than bernard berenson. although colin appreciated berenson's perceptive observations and frequently quoted bb in his writing, i suspect that his respect for the renaissance art connoisseur and passionate defender of western culture went deeper. the core of the admiration lay in berenson's capacity for the sustained visual study of paintings and the emphasis on their intrinsic values. to claim that berenson's aesthetics influenced colin's concept of modern architecture would be a gross exaggeration. admittedly, the influence of berenson is indirect and reached colin through s. j. freedberg's painting of the high renaissance in rome and florence. still, something of berenson's concept of tactile values underlies the transparency articles and those that deal with italian subjects. rightfully colin never took up berenson's case for 'life enhancing' qualities of art, which he must have considered overly utopian. colin's last years vacillated between self-imposed isolation and the legendary admiration that consumed berenson throughout his long life. to me, the accounts of colin's drives into the virginia countryside recalled descriptions of berenson's giri to assisi and vallombrosa in the last years of his life, though without bb's enfeeblement. even more so than his house in ithaca, the apartment in washington became his own i tatti, an exile's habitable museum and library with its own stream of guests. here the collective efforts of former students brought an order to colin's affairs that signor gioffredi did for berenson. in an irony of biblical proportions, two sisters, each named mary, cared for colin's personal needs at the kennedy-warren with the same care that nello and liliana did for bb at i tatti. 'you must look, look, and look until you are blind with looking', berenson was reputed to have said, 'and out of blindness will come illumination.' all of us who have looked with colin are the better for i t . leon satkowski robert maxwell is emeritus professor of architecture at princeton university john sergeant practises in england and spain peter carl is a lecturer at the university ofcambridge leon satkowski teaches architectural history at the university of minnesota and studied with colin rowe at cornell. he wos working with rowe at the time of his death on a book surveying sixteenth- century architecture in italy cambridge ciulio romano manfredotafuri the giulio romano exhibition in mantua in was the occasion for the publication, for the first time, of a full and thorough account of giulio's art. now this lavishly illustrated book, selected from the original italian catalogue by the late manfredo tafuri, brings together essays by a distinguished team of scholars to provide a full picture of giulio's activities as an architect. £ . hb pp architecture in early modem italy a history of venetian architecture ennioconcina and judith landry ennio concina's comprehensive survey of venetian architecture draws on extensive original research on the city's cultural history. from its classical roots, to the twentieth-century battles against flood and economic decline, concina discusses the influence of venice's extraordinary position in history and geography on architectural styles. e . hb pp the architectural treatise in the italian renaissance architectural invention, ornament and literary culture alina payne vitruvius's ten books of architecture was the fountainhead of architectural theory in the italian renaissance. this treatise did not, however, address all of the questions that were of concern to early modern architects. this study examines the italian renaissance architect's efforts to negotiate between imitation and reinvention of classicism. £ . hb opp wren's 'tracts' on architecture and other writings lydiam.soo this book examines the theoretical work of one of the most important architects of early modern europe. wren posited a new version of the origins and development of the classical style, thereby becoming one of the first to challenge theoretical principles of architecture that had been upheld since the renaissance. £ . hb pp decoding homes and houses julienne hanson decoding homes and houses uses a computer-based method of analysis to explore the relation between the design and layout of traditional, vernacular, speculative and architect-designed houses and people's evolving tastes, lifestyles, habits and domestic routines. £ . hb pp space is the machine a configurational theory of architecture bill hillier in this ground-breaking book, bill hillier looks at a wide range of architectural and urban problems. using new techniques of configurational analysis he shows that the patterns of space created by buildings are the key to how buildings and cities work for people. £ . pb x pp now in paperback) lewis mumford and american modernism eutopian theories for architecture and urban planning robert wojtowicz lewis mumford and american modernism examines the career and writings of america's leading critic of architecture and criticism. his numerous books on the history of architecture have proved to be prescient, forming the basis for architecture and urban planning at a time of transition and redefinition at the end of the twentieth century. £ . pb pp unity temple frank lloyd wright and architecture for liberal religion joseph m.siry this is the first in-depth study of one of the seminal works of america's most renowned twentieth-century architect. unity temple is treated as a work of art that embodies both wright's theory of architecture and his liberal religious ideals. £ . pb pp now in paperback) cambridge books are available from good bookshops, alternatively phone uk + ( ) to order direct using your credit card, or fax uk + ( ) . c a m b r i d g e the edinburgh building university press cambridge, cb ru, uk http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk www.e-neurospine.org s neurospine endoscopic spinal surgery, nd issue the technical advancement of endoscopic spine surgery is inexorable and fascinating. indications are expanding, the number of surgeons who are beyond their individual learn- ing curves is increasing. technical skills especially of the younger generation of spine sur- geons are getting better and better. the instruments available for different surgical tecniques are getting more and more sophisticated. this is the second issue of a nass-neurospine visualized endoscopic spine surgery pub- lication on endoscopic spine surgery which contains papers/video technical tutorials, of which i had the pleasure to read/view. there is an introductory paper which describes the clinical and economic advantages of endoscopic spine surgery with a focus on the benefits for patients life quality. two articles focus a on new indications of endoscopic surgery in the cervical spine. i be- lieve, that the very interesting transcervical retropharyngeal approach to the odontologisch process has the potential to replace transoral surgery. a case report which describes multisegmental full-endoscopic posterior drainage of cer- vical epidural abscess opened a new perspective to deal with this severe disease. for the treatment of central spinal stenosis, the inside-out full-endoscopic cross-over ap- proach is presented including the year clinical follow-up of patients. even though there is a considerable learning curve, i believe that this technique can produce clinical re- sults comparable to the standard microsurgical cross-over decompression in degenerative lumbar spinal stenosis. four papers/videos in this issue focus on biportal endoscopic approaches for lumbar de- compression, discectomy, minimally invasive transformational lumbar inter body fusion and even revision surgery e.g., in case of postoperative epidural hematoma. this technical variation of posterior full-endoscopic approaches allows for wider fields of endoscopic vi- sion and a perfect way of triangular surgery such as in knee-arthroscopic techniques. espe- cially for fusion surgery this might be a promising technique. the clinical application in the cervical spine is described for bilateral foraminotomy in cases with bilateral radiculopathies. last but not least another microsurgical approach has been ‘transformed’ to a full-endo- scopic technique: the translaminar approach for cranial migrated disc herniations. this is a technically demanding approach but i believe that when it is performed with full-endoscop- ic technique it can be even less invasive as compared to microsurgery. in summary, the papers i could read are excellent examples of the ongoing technical evo- lution (revolution?) of endoscopic spine surgery and i congratulate the authors for their pi- oneering work. neurospine ; (suppl ):s - . https://doi.org/ . /ns. . neurospine eissn - pissn - this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (https://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. copyright © by the korean spinal neurosurgery society editorial corresponding author michael mayer https://orcid.org/ - - - schön klinik münchen harlaching, harlachinger str. , d- münchen, germany e-mail: michaelmayer @me.com see the article “inside-out approach of lumbar endoscopic unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression: a detailed technical description, rationale and outcomes” via https://doi. org/ . /ns. . . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /ns. . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - neurospine endoscopic spinal surgery, nd issuemayer m neurospine ; (suppl ):s - .s www.e-neurospine.org title: accordionist artist: pablo picasso year: picasso’s still life carafe, jug, and fruit bowl, painted two summers before, shows an earlier stage of this style. surfaces are broken into sharply defined planes but are not yet complexly fragmented; forms still retain an illusion of volume; and perspective, though dramatically shortened, is not obliterated. at its climax, braque and picasso brought analytic cubism almost to the point of complete abstraction. among such works is picasso’s accordionist, a baffling composition that one of its former owners mistook for a landscape because of the inscription “céret” on the reverse. with diligence, one can distinguish the general outlines of the seated accordionist, denoted by a series of shifting vertically aligned triangular planes, semicircular shapes, and right angles; the centrally located folds of the accordion and its keys; and, in the lower portion of the canvas, the volutes of an armchair. but picasso’s elusive references to recognizable forms and objects cannot always be precisely identified and, as the museum of modern art’s founding director alfred h. barr, jr. observed, “the mysterious tension between painted image and ‘reality’ remains.” more information: https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/ © - succession pablo picasso - sack (korea) microsoft word - amended _ _.doc northumbria research link citation: cook, tina ( ) the purpose of mess in action research: building rigour though a messy turn. educational action research, ( ). pp. - . issn - published by: taylor & francis url: http://dx.doi.org/ . / <http://dx.doi.org/ . / > this version was downloaded from northumbria research link: http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/ / northumbria university has developed northumbria research link (nrl) to enable users to access the university’s research output. copyright © and moral rights for items on nrl are retained by the individual author(s) and/or other copyright owners. single copies of full items can be reproduced, displayed or performed, and given to third parties in any format or medium for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge, provided the authors, title and full bibliographic details are given, as well as a hyperlink and/or url to the original metadata page. the content must not be changed in any way. full items must not be sold commercially in any format or medium without formal permission of the copyright holder. the full policy is available online: http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/pol i cies.html this document may differ from the final, published version of the research and has been made available online in accordance with publisher policies. to read and/or cite from the published version of the research, please visit the publisher’s website (a subscription may be required.) http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/policies.html tina cook northumbria university: uk tina.cook@unn.ac.uk the purpose of mess in action research: building rigour through a messy turn. the purpose of mess in action research: building rigour through a messy turn. abstract mess and rigour might appear to be strange bedfellows. this paper argues that the purpose of mess is to facilitate a turn towards new constructions of knowing that lead to transformation in practice (an action turn). engaging in action research, research that can disturb both individual and communally held notions of knowledge for practice, will be messy. investigations into the ‘messy area’, the interface between the known and the nearly known, between knowledge-in-use and tacit knowledge as yet to be useful, reveal the ‘messy area’ as a vital element for seeing, disrupting, analysing, learning, knowing and changing. it is the place where long-held views shaped by professional knowledge, practical judgement, experience and intuition are seen through other lenses. it is here that reframing takes place and new knowing, that has both theoretical and practical significance, arises: a ‘messy turn’ takes place. key words: action research, mess, seeing, knowing, rigour, transformational background discussions abound about what characterises action research. such discussions generally include notions about collaboration and participation, empowerment, acquisition of knowledge and social change. kemmis and mctaggert ( ) describe action research as: ...a form of collective self-reflective inquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of these practices and the situations in which these practices are carried out. (p ). the outline framework for action research enquiry is based upon a spiral of activity (carr and kemmis, ) that includes planning the research, carrying this out, observing outcomes and reflecting on outcomes to inform a new turn through the activity spiral. against the backdrop of this description of action research, this paper is concerned with unpicking and illuminating how and where changes in understandings and practice occur within the research process. it considers both what mess in action research offers researchers in terms of opportunities for seeing and knowing and how mess relates to the contemporary debate about notions of rigour. it builds upon a paper written in (cook, ) when i was increasingly aware of the importance of mess but was not, at the point, able to articulate its purpose. the issue of mess as a novice researcher in the early s i was influenced by a particular version of action research in the united kingdom exemplified by the work of stenhouse ( ). this research was located in educational settings and concentrated on self-development through collaborative endeavour. such research, specifically located in my own practice with the intention of changing and improving that practice, was characterised by reason and torbert ( , p ) as first person research practice. in i was part of a focus group attached to a european funded project, the management of organisational and human development (mohd). ten action researchers from various backgrounds gathered together to discuss their main concerns and identify key questions about research within organisations. as our conversations developed, questions in relation to our personal experiences of methodological ambiguity and its effect on our development as researchers began to take precedence over organisational issues. we felt we were using an action research process to address issues, to learn and to develop knowledge in a manner that was appropriate to the task, but we did not see ourselves as following any given model of research processes found in the literature. we could not say we were following a particular path of enquiry or a spiral of action research as we kept branching off into other areas of discourse and discovery. we kept adapting our research, either by shifting our spiral to another plane, or by adding new loops and pathways. we felt, however, that this process of adding to, shifting and branching off, thinking and sifting, was important to our research. it helped us recognise inter-connectedness and complexities involved in our enquiries although it left us unable to isolate clear lines of progression. we then felt unsure where to go next in our enquiry and often described ourselves as ‘being in a mess’. comfort was not found through consulting accounts of other action research projects. they appeared to have followed relatively untroubled methodological paths and like thomas we felt that their accounts tended to involve: …categorisation, crystallisation, codification, making things clear, taking a line, developing constructs through which the world can be viewed. they are logical, clear, tidy, parsimonious, rational, consistent. the disordered or undisciplined is frowned upon and rejected. (thomas, , p ) we saw a gap between our more convoluted practice and published models of neat research. this led to doubts as to whether we were doing ‘proper research’ or whether we were doing ‘research properly’. perceptions of self as researcher tended to be linked to portrayals in the literature of neat and tidy research models. not following a path that others had apparently successfully negotiated led to feelings of being deviant. one participant in the mohd project felt that: it’s not really action research or anything like that because action research to me is something where you have got a fairly clear plan, you do some observation and you act and you monitor it and there is a fairly clear cycle. (cook, , p ) when researchers informally describe their research, be they novice or experienced, they invariably recount being ‘in a mess’ at some point. that mess occurs in research appears to be generally accepted but is usually absent from published accounts: it was not included in methodological outlines or summative descriptions and was never advocated as a process to be undertaken as part of the research cycle/spiral/model. we speculated that other researchers also experienced times of mess whilst engaged in their endeavours but that they chose not to report the messy sections as to do so might be seen as inappropriate and/or undesirable by the writers. mess tends to have connotations of being sloppy, of not being a good researcher. by tidying away the ‘messy area’, however, we believed that research reports were not only giving researchers a false sense of what participation in research might look and feel like but also were not reporting what we were beginning to articulate as a valuable part of the process itself. what the role of mess might be and where it sits in the methodological descriptions therefore remained relatively unexamined. why articulate the mess? mess needs to be articulated, firstly, because it is there. it is the ‘swampy lowlands’ identified by schön ( ). if accounts of research omit descriptions of the messy areas experienced by so many researchers, descriptions of research in practice remain incomplete and do not offer a true and honest picture of the research process. secondly, denial of the existence of mess may undermine the confidence of researchers who find themselves ‘in a mess’. mellor ( ) talked honestly about the personal mess he found himself in when overwhelmed by data for his phd. rather than seeing this as a part of the process of enquiry he saw it as his own particular problem; was he an inadequate researcher? he was driven by a presumed need to find a pattern in things and to put things in their place. this general obsession with clarity, specificity and the definite, is, states law ( ) commonly found in descriptions of research and shape our perceptions of what ‘good’ research should look like. thirdly, as it exists, regardless of its lack of public face, i believed mess must have a purpose, the identification of which became central to my deliberations. if descriptions of the processes of engaging with mess remain unreported in methodological accounts, its existence not acknowledged despite its endemic nature, its purpose would be lost to open debate and discussion. staying hidden meant it would continue to be inappropriately characterised as negative and it would remain misunderstood and under-utilised. what is articulated strengthens itself and what is not articulated tends towards non-being (heaney, quoting czeslaw milosz, , no page numbers) ways of seeing in research, having multiple view points, where each new view and theory is a springboard for further reflection, is an important way of finding new ways of seeing. drawing inspiration from those who specialise in using different milieu to see can help develop understandings about what is happening when we use collective self-reflection as part of the research process and how we might use the articulation of multiple perspectives that such ways of seeing can engender. david hockney (artist), when addressing the problem of depicting both what he could see and what the viewer could see, employed the use of a collage of multiple view points to ‘break down the wall between the viewer and the view’ (hockney, : ). this way of presenting visual information allowed more to be seen, from a number of perspectives, and enabled viewers to engage with the sweep of the artists gaze (hockney, ). when multi-faceted reflections on practice are brought together in one space, this too can provide opportunities for new ways of seeing, thinking and theorising. the cubists, a th century avant-garde art movement, depicted their subjects from a multitude of viewpoints and perspectives. the subjects of the painting were broken up, analysed, re-assembled and re-presented in a way that meant the viewer had to engage with the image in an active and enquiring manner. seeing was no longer easy; the view was muddled; understandings were challenged. when considering the importance of cubism to his own thinking, hockney reflected that the multiple viewpoints used by the cubists not only created a far bigger space but allowed the artist and viewer the facility to move within that space rather than settle in one area. cubism was about the destruction of a fixed way of looking. a fixed position implies we are standing still, that even the eye is still. yet we all know our eyes move constantly, and the only time they stop moving is when we’re dead – or when we are staring. and if we’re staring we’re not really looking. (hockney, , p ) as artistic representations moved from ‘life-like’ to complex representations, the work became more than a transfer of meaning from artist to viewer. the viewer had to work hard to organise the information that has been offered and as such become engaged in the process of meaning making. collaborative/participatory research is a way of facilitating engagement in multiple perspectives, capturing kaleidoscopic views and finding new ways of interpreting what is seen. such a kaleidoscopic lens, providing a new or alien view (sanger, ) can enhance opportunities to see beneath the generally perceived and accepted view. when participants and researchers work together they mimic a kaleidoscopic lens to work with the myriad of ideas that occur in the mess of research. it is not easy and participants may wish to reject it for the comfort of a single lens view. this way of seeing does, however, offer greater insight into what underpins participant understandings and theorising and what creates effective and informed transformation of practice: the action turn (reason ). ways of knowing the work of philosopher roland barthes ( ), in particular his notion of studium and punctum, offers a way of conceptualising mess and its purpose in relation to revealing what is known and what could be known through the application of research approaches. barthes describes studium as the general awareness, recognition, even enthusiastic commitment we have for certain photographs, objects or events that we recognise and with which we can affiliate. such events can be aligned with our knowledge and previous experience and coded against what we already know. coding is part of the comfort of studium. even if the ideas are disturbing, such as aggression or hate for example, we have the codes for their identification. the studium contains the common ‘rules’ by which we frame our seeing. the punctum is an area we are aware of but cannot code for. we know it is there but not what it contains or how to articulate it at that point in time. it is a place of hidden (or tacit) knowing. it resides just beneath the surface of our conscious recognition and cannot yet be articulated; whilst there it is yet to be known. if the studium has the ‘rules’ the punctum is where we have to improvise based on both our knowledge of those rules and the need to move into new spaces. its presence is felt, it disturbs and unsettles, but it is not explicit. in photography barthes could recognise the aspect of the photograph that contained the punctum, but not articulate the punctum itself. in research we are aware of the punctum but may shy away from articulating its presence given our presumed need to be definite, to know rather than risk engaging with half understood ideas and theories that have yet to emerge and crystallise. hauling apart rhetoric and reframing and developing new ways forward is likely to be a variable, unstable and messy process. when participants and researchers zigzag between intuitive and analytical modes of thinking thoughts and ideas are not immediately clear. conditions for knowing are located where participants in research flounder and then find their way again, where tensions are held and dissipated. the ‘messy area’ is formed where participants have deconstructed well rehearsed notions of practice and aspects of old beliefs, are aware of the dawning of the new, but as yet have not made sense of it. it is where “mutually incompatible alternatives” (feyerabend, ) are debated and wrestled with and where co-labouring takes place. co-labouring involves engaging in “...toil, distress, trouble: exertions of the faculties of the body or mind...an activity which is at times likely to be uncomfortable” (sumara & luce-kapler, : ) where co-labouring takes place it is likely that confusing ‘messes’, incapable of resolution through the imposition of predetermined technical frameworks, will reside. this ‘messy area’ is a forum for the exchange of perceptions and beliefs, a place of co-construction where strands of knowledge and learning are unearthed and critiqued. these strands ultimately act as catalysts for new knowing leading to development and change. it is the space for imaginative freedom and new ideas. it is a place to celebrate “the importance of not always knowing what you are doing” atkinson and claxton ( ). in this space the four ‘knowings’, postulated by reason ( ) come together and jostle with each other. these are: i) experiential knowing (knowing through empathy and resonance that is almost impossible to put into words); ii) presentational knowing (that which emerges from experiential knowing and provides its first expression through forms of imagery such as poetry, story and so on; iii) propositional knowing (that comes through ideas and theories and is expressed in abstract language) and iv) practical knowing (‘how to’ do something: the skill or competence). the ‘messy area’ can now be framed as a communicative space where participants delve into individual and collaborative understanding to disturb current knowing. it is a place where expert (practitioner) knowledge, experience, judgement, creativity and intuition are used to embrace multiple and new ways of seeing. the ‘messy area’ is the punctum. the combination of perceiving, knowing, critiquing and learning from multiple perspectives enables participants to articulate notions of theory or practice that they may not have been able to see if their own perceptions had not been critiqued by the ideas of others. when the general picture enjoyed by practitioners is punctured, and the articulation of the ‘almost known’ becomes an imperative, the ‘messy area’ provides the space for clarification of the already known (explicit knowledge) and what is nearly known (implicit or tacit knowledge). this is the precursor to the creation of something entirely new (transformational knowledge). destabilising and disrupting ways of thinking can offer ways into creativity and erudition affording a space for participatory learning. when new understandings are revealed, developed and articulated, this is the ‘messy turn’. the messy turn: experiences from practice over the last years i have been using action research for a variety of purposes: for self development, service development and evaluation, knowledge-building, communication, development and change within systems and change of systems, for the benefit of participants (both short and long-term benefit) and the benefit of organisations. now, as my professional role encompasses a range of funded research and evaluation projects, i am most likely to be engaged in developing facilitated collaborative action research in and across organisations (characterised by reason and torbert ( ) as third person research practice). this work has provided me with opportunities to practice research and evaluation using the ‘messy area’ to facilitate a ‘messy turn’. experiences from one commission to evaluate the implementation of inclusive policy in practice across early years settings in an early years development and childcare partnership (eydcp) are used here to demonstrate the purpose and importance of the ‘messy area’ and subsequent ‘messy turn’ to transformational research. the nature of the work with the eydcp was to make an account of, and account for, inclusive practice using three dimensions: understanding notions of inclusion, making it work in practice and knowing what enabled it to take place (see cook, ). the remit was to investigate contexts for development rather than the intrinsic worth of the programme itself. i chose a facilitated collaborative action research (car) approach to draw upon and develop a theory of group dynamics that accepts that people act and respond to situations based on the meaning those situations hold for them. such meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation (symbolic interaction) to engage participants in thinking, reflecting, learning and delivering change. i particularly wanted to explore both the use of collaborative research as a process of co-construction through learning and how it might act as a bridge between theoretical understandings and practical change. all early years and childcare settings in the city were invited to participate in the project. the only criterion for acceptance on the project was that they had to be committed to developing more inclusive practice in their setting. nine settings drawn from toy libraries, childminders, out of school clubs, private and voluntary nurseries, playgroups, parent and toddler groups and lea nursery provision, participated in the project. each setting had a mentor who came to a monthly meeting to engage with notions of inclusion and establish a broad set of agreed indicators of inclusion. their role was then to support the establishment of setting-based research projects using the indicators as starting points. the setting based research focussed on a particular aspect of inclusive practice chosen by that setting (whether that be with children, families or other professionals). practitioners within each setting then worked with mentors to develop a small research project. the notion of ‘authentic participation’ new labour policy initiative towards integrated childcare settings: uk where participants share “in the way research is conceptualized, practiced, and brought to bear on the life-world” (mctaggart : ), was at the forefront of this work. all participant researchers collected data, had active involvement in its analysis and instigated change based on their work. they were researchers, teachers, thinkers, learners, innovators and evaluators but, as one participant researcher confirmed, this was hard work! it was hard, especially at the beginning because you [the project co-ordinator] didn’t really tell us what to do, but then i realised that you couldn’t anyway and we had to do the thinking (participant researcher: eydcp project) the thoughts of goldsworthy, an artist who works with the elements of the natural world, mirrors the type of struggles we, as participant researchers, engage with. i have become aware of how nature is in a state of change and how that change is the key to understanding. i want my art to be sensitive and alert to changes in material, season and weather…i am sometimes left stranded by a change in the weather with half-understood feelings that have to travel with me until conditions are right for them to reappear. (goldsworthy, , no page numbers). he recognises that opposites and conflicts, whilst uncomfortable, are creative tensions which he uses to “sharpen my relationship with nature” and which he refuses to resolve prematurely to make his own position easier. yet within the eydcp project these areas of discomfort were often seen as negative. participant researchers were unhappy with unfamiliar views and were often striving to tidy away anything that was disturbing their equilibrium rather than engage with different viewpoints. stepping outside everyday presuppositions and working beliefs, mining the tacit underpinnings that frame perceptions of reality, led to a loss of certainty for the researchers. where challenges took place to current orthodoxies, both personal and organisational, commonly held understandings and ways of practicing had to be re-examined, critiqued and in some cases relinquished. engaging with dialectical processes that genuinely prise apart familiar ideologies and facilitate the move from recognising multiple interpretations to a critiqued synthesis for reformed, committed action (praxis), is complex. it can be an exciting place to be, as articulated by a participant in a recent facilitated collaborative action research project. i just love having information and coming up with new things for it. just love it… i’ve got my little drug going where i’ve had all the discussion and everything going. and information going and flying all over the place. and it’s just like, yessss!....aye. i just love learning. (cook and inglis, , p ) but, as demonstrated by a participant in the eydcp project, very frustrating. if you just tell me what to do, i will do it, i’m getting lost in all this thinking. (cook, , p ) some participant researchers in the eydcp project felt as though they were floundering when bombarded with many ideas that they felt unable to fit into current frameworks they had for knowing in practice. they had to both build on and let go of some of their beliefs and understanding to make room for the new meanings revealed through collaborative critique and reflection on their actions. personally held theories of inclusion were challenged by both their own stories of inclusion from practice and those of others. one participant researcher described how the work of defining inclusion in her setting highlighted the need to make changes in order for the setting to become more inclusive, and, more importantly, who needed to make those changes. i think we had been fairly at an integration level [as opposed to inclusion]. now it’s not just the case of people coming into the nursery and fitting in with our routine … it’s about us changing too. (cook, , p ) recognising the need to reassess her practice in terms of what being inclusive really meant, another participants researcher realised that whilst she had thought she was being inclusive, there were still issues to address: although we had accepted him into our playgroup, he was only in the building and now we had to work on helping him be part of what goes on here. that is the difference really, the difference i now see between integration and inclusion. (cook, , p ) deconstructing the notion of inclusion had taken them into the ‘messy area’ of what it might mean to be inclusive. the ‘messy turn’ occurred where their thinking changed due to their engagement with the mess. changes in thinking led a personal need to change practice rather than an external directed change the basis for which may not have been well understood or well received. for example all the settings had identified themselves as inclusive already and requiring a change in the way they carried out their inclusive policies, without engaging in understanding the need for such change, was likely to meet with some resistance. one participant researcher explained that deconstructing the notion of inclusion and inclusion in practice had radically altered policy and practice in her setting. our initial comments when we first started on the project were that we thought that our policy was a good one. and we didn’t know where we were going to improve it but we knew that were we open to do that...but it has changed beyond recognition really...we had to do that because of what we know now. (participant researcher: eydcp project) however, the gap between wanting to improve and the improvement, entering the ‘messy area’ of change and recognising what change was necessary (achieving a ‘messy turn’) could be somewhat tense and uncomfortable. participants did not like the feeling of ‘being in limbo’ and a number agreed with this participant who said: there were times when i thought none of us knew what we were doing anymore and i don’t really like that feeling. we had these good ideas and every time we talked about them someone would say ‘ahh, but...’, - often that was you [the facilitator]...(laughs). and sometimes you wanted to say well if you don’t like my idea you tell me what you think it should be or keep your ideas to yourself. i think we grumbled a bit at times. but i’m glad you didn’t tell us now ‘cos once we realised where our ideas fitted together it made much more sense for the playgroup – and for the children and parents i think. (participant researcher: eydcp project). engaging with the mess is, as mellor ( ) states, …a complex process of inquiry, involving a wide range of techniques, where messy is taken to mean difficult, not careless. (abstract: phd thesis). the ‘messy area’ is a tough place to be. it does not signify lazy behaviour rather it is an indicator of serious critique taking place. we have to work for and wait for knowing; wait for ‘messy turns’. more than one ‘messy turn’ might occur following a messy stage and this may necessitate re-entering a ‘messy area’ before a way forward can be gouged out and agreed. engaging with the ‘messy area’ and ‘messy turn’ is part of the hermeneutics and has epistemological importance in the forming and grounding of new understandings leading to new knowledge and change in practice: the ‘messy turn’. every so often i feel as birds must before their first migration – a gut instinct that something is wrong where they are, a strong sense that they must now go where they have never been before. (goldsworthy: : no page numbers). facilitating the messy turn entering the ‘messy area’ can be professionally and personally uncomfortable but vital to research that seeks to engage in contesting knowledge leading to changes in practice. if people are comfortable in the ‘studium’, within the general framework they use for understanding their work, it can become difficult to move beyond that phase. it is difficult for those who are embedded in their work (and workplace stories) to take themselves from the descriptive mode to the analytical especially when an immediate consequence of such dialectical engagement can be that participants are left open to feelings of confusion, doubt and uncertainty rather than enlightenment. there are times when participant researchers need support to move from the studium to the punctum and to experience a ‘messy turn’. mellor ( ) articulated the difficulties he experienced when faced with trying to make meaning from what he termed ‘serendipitous thoughts’ contained in his original notes. i am amazed to find my notes suddenly becoming ‘knowledge’. colin [supervisor] could do that, i could not. ... it is a giant, terrifying leap for me to do that. (p ) this is where a facilitator with the skills to both support disruption in participants’ thinking, whilst at the same time enable them to maintain sufficient confidence in themselves as knowledgeable practitioners, has an important part to play. in the work with the eydcp i had taken on a role as facilitator both to allow participants in the research to undertake their own thinking, learning and planning and to capture what hogan ( , p ) terms ‘the serendipities that emerge from people and groups working towards joint goals’. like stringer ( ) i came to see that my expertise and knowledge of research processes was often secondary to my role as a facilitator. my role as a facilitator was to open the floor to discussion in a stimulating way, to get ideas into the open, to help members of the group listen to each other, debate and reflect. hunter et al ( ) characterise facilitation as an artful dance, with the role of the facilitator offering: …an opportunity to dance with life on the edge of a sword – to be present and aware – to be with and for people in a way that cuts through to what enhances and fulfils life. (hunter et al, : , in hogan, , p ) it was important to help participants use reflection as critique; as a way of moving beyond normative states of fitting happenings into previously experienced frameworks (creating a studium), towards a vision of what could be constructed from the bringing together of a range of knowings to harvest new meanings for practice from the debate (a ‘messy turn’). the role of a facilitator differs from that of chairperson at a meeting who might focus on reviewing progress and agreeing action by working through a strict agenda (cameron, ). facilitation, in the context of the work presented here, has the primary intention of enabling people to interact both with their own thoughts and ideas and those of others. the facilitator leads participants into the ‘messy area’ and then supports them in moving forward within the mess, and with the mess, towards a ‘messy turn’. it is about helping people “get their wading boots on” and do “the mucking out” (caro-bruce, : ). facilitated car is used as dialectic to puncture and critique a general picture enjoyed by practitioners that may mask underlying issues and to reveal complexities not previously articulated. it is to enable participants to recognise their own current understandings and those of others: to be more comfortable about living and working in changing environments and to enable new ways of working to be revealed and articulated. the facilitation role is not to find or establish a new framework or a final truth but to keep conversations going. it helps provide a lens for new ways of seeing; the precondition for a ‘messy turn’. mess as rigour lincoln and guba ( , pp - ) have identified a bifurcation of what they term the “extended controversy about validity” into two key arguments; one arguing for interpretive rigour, the second arguing for rigour in the application of method. accepting the need to recognise the different roles interpretation and methods play in ensuring rigour in research design, the ‘messy area’ has a role to play as both an interpretive tool and as method. looking firstly at the role of mess in interpretative rigour and the contribution it makes toward the debate about the embededness of practitioners in research, and going on to consider the impact of the messy area and subsequent messy turn on the validity of research, this paper now reunites them in research in practice. interpretative rigour traditionally, one indicator of rigorous research has been the distance between the interpreter and their subject. talking about the use of investigator distance in evaluations scriven ( ) argues that when the evaluator is distanced from participants in a project, and not drawn into the complexity of their discussions, their perceptions and formulations about what constitutes programme quality are less likely to be distorted towards those of the participants. externally imposed measures and indictors have traditionally been held up as more objective on the basis as they are less likely to encompass bias. ….the closer we come to them [distance and objectivity], the more accurate our conclusions are likely to be, other things being equal. (scriven : ) he considers the cost of deviation from this policy as being far too high to make an alternative general policy acceptable. tempering validity with mercy (or the like) is a violation of validity – and validity is the highest professional imperative... (scriven : ) it is argued that situating research in participatory engagement can lead to the danger of losing critical perspective. if the researcher remains aloof their judgements are characterised as being untainted by participants who are perceived as necessarily biased towards their own particular beliefs and ways of working. building democratic, participative, pluralist communities of inquiry is, however, considered to be central to an effective action research approach (reason & bradbury, ; reason and torbert ). stakeholders are not separate from reality; their reality is the dynamic part of the picture and it is their notions of reality that ultimately shape practice. it is argued that claims for accountability that use predetermined preconceptions and standardised external measures are not always helpful in making judgements about the relative merits of programmes and practices. externally imposed systems and measure are not necessarily sufficiently finely tuned to enable researchers and evaluators to get to the heart of what gives a project or programme meaning. they can be a blunt tool that reduces the ‘knowing about’ complex situation to the measures of particular variables. blumer ( ) warned, however, that remaining aloof as a so-called ‘objective’ observer, refusing to take the role of the acting unit is: …to risk the worst kind of subjectivism – the objective observer is likely to fill in the process of interpretation with his own surmises in place of catching the process as it occurs in the experience of the acting unit which uses it. (blumer, , p ) the embededness of practitioners in research is the subject of many learned discussions in respect of rigour (lincoln and guba, , winter, , seale and silverman, , bradbury and reason, ). suggesting that evaluators and participants might work together in making decisions about worthwhileness, good practice and quality using an insider-researcher/evaluator approach requires a paradigmatic shift from an approach aimed at proving something against a given standard. grounded in a theory of learning that uses a symbolic interactionist/social constructivist approach, and based on freire’s ( ) belief that a pedagogy which can help people must be forged with them not for them, the ‘messy area’ is a milieu for the revealing of tacit or hidden theories, beliefs and realities that frame actions. as somekh ( ) suggests: …knowledge constructed without the active participation of practitioners can only be partial knowledge. (somekh, , p ) if we accept that we are agents who act in the world on the basis of our own sense-making, and that human community involves mutual sense-making, then to do research on rather than with people can exclude much of the knowledge in context, especially tacitly held knowledge. it is however, beholden on researchers to capture the very essence of what is under scrutiny. when investigating the lynch pins of programme/organisational effectiveness and drivers for change, a search for what is (or even what has been) and how it is currently perceived, is less likely to offer information about programme quality, and less likely to be a sound basis for programme development, than one where notions of quality have been disturbed to capture the essence of programme complexity. capturing and negotiating personal realities within a discursive milieu (the ‘messy area’) provides a communicative and dialectic engagement that allows understandings of philosophies, principles and practice to surface. as such it reduces opportunities for building practice on rhetoric and builds in fought-for interpretations that go beyond the individual, lending both triangulatory (the need to bring together different data, methods and theoretical schemes to contest knowing) and construct validity (the way in which the research recognises the perspectives of the participants as opposed to importing predetermined frameworks) to the process. manning ( ), in her discussion of the notion of a ‘properly done study’ in constructivist inquiry, describes an array of authenticity that is found in ‘appropriate and informed choices’ [her words] made by researchers rather than a single path to be followed. validity is not about straightjacketing research into the known, but a discipline that forces us to question, critique and engage with data in a way that allows us to delve into various forms of knowing. lather ( , a, , ) has consistently argued against the use of singular notions of validity. as well as triangulatory and construct validity (see above) she describes face validity; the need to check that what is found makes sense to participants (that they recognise the story being told) and catalytic validity; which …represents the degree to which the research process reorients, focuses and energizes participants toward knowing reality in order to transform it (lather, , p ). these notions of validity are particular pertinent to the argument for mess as rigour where mess is seen as the space for contesting interpretations. through facilitating argumentative interpretations of perceptions of theory (both professional and academic) and practice, the ‘messy area’ aids participants to delve beneath rhetoric into deeper knowing. if research merely describes what we already know, rather than revealing what we nearly know or could learn about together, it is likely to restrict programme development to what is rather than what could be. suggesting that collaborative engagement in mess might be part of a process of building rigour into a research process requires a shift in perception. it is clear, however, that it can provide the context for purposeful change based on shared, but mutually contested, interpretations and understandings and hence has a vital role to play. method as rigour if one type of rigour is distance and its impact on interpretation, another has been characterised as method. practice that fits neatly into given research frameworks has historically been associated with reliability and credibility. rigorous research can then be seen as that which has followed a given method providing the wherewithal to reproduce and replicate that particular research practice. the construction of adherence to method as rigour has therefore led to regulatory procedures in respect of method that masquerade as guardians of rigour, quality and credibility. writing about quantitative research and its emphasis on reliability and replicability, deutscher et al ( ) suggest that a consequence of the over-reliance on method as rigour can be that: … we may have been learning a great deal about how to pursue an incorrect course with a maximum of precision (deutscher et al, , p ) the pull towards a neat model of research has the possibility of limiting researchers to reporting what fits rather than what is or finding out what could be. carr ( ) recounts that, in ancient greece, adhering to an agreed procedure was seen as an alternative to the difficulties of philosophising in seeking truth. law ( ) suggests that if adhering to method and the neatness of a research process is construed seen as an indicator of rigour this can lead to the “systematic exclusion of mess”. law’s main argument for the inclusion of mess in research reports was, however, for the acceptance of methodological pluralism, and pluralism of method, with mess occurring where pluralities merged. my argument, whilst linked with that of law, is that mess is an integral and purposeful part of the process of research, not merely a description of where approaches merge, and has an important and dynamic part to play in getting below rhetoric and achieving interpretative rigour. if this is so, then by including a ‘messy area’ into a collaborative research we build in an arena for contesting knowledge and meaning making across all participants thus generating an argument for the “systematic inclusion of mess” to build rigour into method. mess takes its place thomas ( ), taken by the idea that “finding out is best done by a kind of anarchy” (p ), suggested that significant additions to knowledge are characterised by departures from, as opposed to adherence to, method. i conclude, however, that anarchic as it may initially seem, for rigorous research to take place researchers need to both create and delve into the ‘messy area’. the ‘messy area’ and the subsequent ‘messy turn’ should be recognised as part of the action research approach and celebrated as part of a process that encourages and legitimises exploration and development. rather than prejudging the ‘messy area’ as negative we need to celebrate the positive role it plays in creating depth and rigour within the participatory research process. winter ( : ) suggests that descriptions of action research need to get “sufficiently close to the underlying structure to enable others to see potential similarities with other situations”. i argue that mess can be facilitative of this process and therefore needs to be recorded and interpreted as a vital element in transformational research. the systematic exclusion of mess hides from public view the area where we engage in the ‘difficult thinking’, the place where unlearning and learning takes place, the area that forges change in practice. such exclusions can obscure both the pivotal point and the purpose of the action research process from view and so make it difficult for future researchers to understand how outcomes were achieved and how they might build on those outcomes. the ‘messy area’ is not an easy place to be. the road in and out is not clearly defined and is unlikely to be direct or smooth. the ‘messy area’ itself is unsettling, worrying, exciting and challenging. it is disruptive of habit and custom. the purpose of entering this mess is to enable and allow new directions to emerge; to enable diversity and multiplicity to work together to challenge the given, to recognise the nearly known and to support the creation of trustworthy, transformational knowing. the honest embodiment of the mess, its process, practice and purpose, will help researchers understand the drivers behind changes in thinking and transformational action in enquiry; how to reach the ‘messy turn’. if an indicator of our successful work as action researchers is the integration of the development of practice with the construction of research knowledge then we must provide honest accounts of that process and incorporate mess as an integral part a rigorous approach. 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( ) ‘truth or fiction’: problems of validity and authenticity in narratives of action research. paper given at the philosophy of education seminar european education research association conference, edinburgh. september. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) : entre tradition occidentale et modernité indienne the encounter between asian and western art, th- st centuries how to cite: nercam, n les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) : entre tradition occidentale et modernité indienne. open library of humanities, ( ):  , pp.  – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /olh. published: january peer review: this article has been peer reviewed through the double-blind process of open library of humanities, which is a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: open library of humanities is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /olh. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / nicolas nercam, ‘les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) : entre tradition occidentale et modernité indienne’ ( ) ( ): open library of humanities. doi: https://doi.org/ . /olh. the encounter between asian and western art, th- st centuries les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) : entre tradition occidentale et modernité indienne nicolas nercam université bordeaux montaigne, fr nicolas.nercam@free.fr le groupe de calcutta (calcutta group), fondé en , fut le premier mouvement artistique indien (bien avant la constitution du progressive artists’ group de bombay en ) à vouloir s’inscrire ouvertement dans les mouvements de la modernité internationale. proches des intellectuels de la bengal progressive writers’ and artists’ association et fortement intéressés par les innovations formelles et esthétiques des mouvements d’avant-garde européens, les artistes du groupe s’engagèrent dans la recherche de nouvelles théories artistiques. leurs orientations esthétiques et politiques firent l’objet d’un véritable manifeste, intitulé le calcutta group et publié par ses auteurs en à calcutta. cet article se propose de montrer en quoi les prises de positions idéologiques et les productions artistiques des principaux artisans du groupe de calcutta constituent un véritable creuset où ont pu être négociées des interfaces complexes entre les apports d’une modernité occidentale et l’affirmation d’une créativité locale. les conditions de circulation des idées, des imaginaires et des reproductions d’œuvres d’art font l’objet d’une attention particulière. la relation spécifique des membres du calcutta group avec les formes et les idées de la modernité occidentale, de même qu’avec les traditions artistiques locales s’est structurée en marge des institutions gouvernementales, par l’intermédiaire du réseau international des associations culturelles marxistes (mises sur pied depuis la fin des années – ), dans un contexte d’accélération des échanges imposée par l’entrée en guerre de l’inde. the calcutta group, founded in , was the first indian artistic movement, long before the creation of the bombay progressive artist’s group in , which aspired to be a part of the international modernity’s movements. close to the intellectuals of the bengal progressive writers’ and artists’ association and interested by the formal and aesthetic innovations of the european avant-garde, the artists of the group were engaged in the search for new artistic theories. their aesthetic and political orientations were exposed in a manifesto, titled the calcutta group that was published in https://doi.org/ . /olh. mailto:nicolas.nercam@free.fr nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) calcutta in . this article describes how the ideological orientations and the art productions of the main members of the group build a kind of cultural melting pot in which were negotiated complex interfaces between western modernity and local creativity. the circulating information and ideas and also the traffic condition of fine-art reproductions are of key importance in this article. the specific relationship of the members of this group with the ideas and the forms of western modernity, and that of the local artistic traditions was structured on the margins of colonial and governmental institutions, through the international network of the marxists cultural associations (developed during the s and s) in a context of rapid exchanges that took place in india due to world war ii. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) dans son ouvrage formes de l’intention, sur l’explication historique des tableaux ( ), l’historien de l’art michael baxandall considère le concept d’influence artistique comme l’un des fléaux de la critique d’art, car la grammaire induit le sens d’une relation transitive : quelqu’un agit sur un autre qui, lui, ne fait que subir. la démonstration de baxandall pourrait être résumée de la sorte : influencé par un artiste x, un artiste y réalise une production plastique. en disant que x a influencé y, on semble effectivement dire que c’est x qui a agi sur y. or lorsqu’on analyse l’œuvre de y, on s’aperçoit que c’est bien y le véritable moteur de l’action. car lorsque y se réfère à x, son comportement ne peut qu’obéir à une certaine motivation. il y a donc forcément des raisons qui expliquent pourquoi y s’est référé à x. on est donc en droit de s’interroger sur la nature de ces raisons et de les situer dans leur contexte économique, historique, idéologique et esthétique. pour suivre la pensée de baxandall, plutôt que de parler d’influence, il paraît préférable d’user de termes dont la nuance paraît plus pertinente car plus proche du travail des créateurs : s’inspirer de, faire appel à, user de, s’approprier, se confronter à, etc. la question de l’emprunt, en particulier dans le domaine culturel et artistique, a été parfois traitée sous l’angle des relations au pouvoir. les tenants de la théorie dite diffusionniste du xixe siècle justifiaient l’approche évolutionniste des cultures en soutenant que le courant d’une culture à une autre passait irréversiblement de celle qui est la plus ‘développée’ à la plus ‘primitive’. la croyance en un apport unilatéral fonde le dogme de l’incapacité d’invention de la société classée au bas de l’échelle du processus civilisationnel (mattelart, ). dans ce cadre idéologique, l’avènement d’un primitivisme au sein des avant-gardes occidentales semble avoir marqué un tournant significatif – les productions primitivistes constituant dorénavant des référents pour la création moderne européenne. pour autant, lorsque paul sérusier ou félix vallotton empruntent aux estampes japonaises, lorsque pablo picasso emprunte aux masques baoulés ou lorsqu’emil nolde emprunte à la sculpture uli de la nouvelle-irlande, leurs emprunts respectifs peuvent s’inscrire, naturellement pour certains, dans le dogme diffusionniste. l’équation emprunter = dominer est d’autant plus convaincante qu’une partie de l’afrique est alors sous domination française et que la nouvelle-guinée et certaines îles du pacifique font partie de l’empire nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) colonial allemand. par contre, lorsque des artistes de la ‘périphérie’ empruntent à l’occident, cela est interprété soit comme une audace idéologique et politique aspirant à renverser les rapports de domination, soit comme une marque manifeste de l’infériorité de cette civilisation. dans ces deux interprétations on souligne le désir d’émancipation survenu grâce au contact avec la culture occidentale, mais on ne tient pas compte de la portée artistique de ces démarches. c’est bien le cas de l’approche adoptée par l’historien de l’art britannique william george archer, dans son ouvrage india and modern art ( ), concernant la démarche de l’artiste indien gaganendranath tagore ( – ). véritable pionnier de l’art moderne en inde, gaganendranath tagore fut le premier artiste du sous- continent à adapter, durant les années – , la syntaxe formelle du cubisme et de l’expressionnisme afin de produire une série d’œuvres picturales. w. g. archer considère cette appropriation occidentale par l’artiste indien comme contre-nature, débouchant sur une pratique artistique manquant de sincérité et dans laquelle l’identité indienne ne peut s’exprimer. d’après archer, l’utilisation du vocabulaire formel cubiste par un artiste indien enferme immédiatement ce dernier dans une relation de dépendance, celle d’une culture colonisée ‘inférieure’ vis-à-vis d’une culture coloniale ‘dominante’. l’artiste indien empruntant à la culture occidentale se trouve ainsi pris dans une véritable tenaille ; soit ‘l’imitation parfaite’ est une forme manifeste d’assujettissement (le colonisé ne peut que ‘singer’ le colonisateur), soit ‘l’imitation imparfaite’ est un signe d’imperfection culturelle (l’art occidental, dans ses fondements, est inaccessible au colonisé). de tels cadres idéologiques ont dressé un obstacle majeur à la reconnaissance des productions artistiques modernes conçues hors d’occident (araeen, ; clark, ). pourtant, indéniablement, ce qui caractérise la modernité artistique c’est bien sa pluralité, son extraordinaire hétérogénéité à travers le monde. ainsi, l’historien gaganendranath tagore ( – ), écrivain, acteur, peintre, homme politique, est à l’image de cette aristocratie bengalie éclairée et pluridisciplinaire. en , ses premières peintures furent marquées par le style de l’École du bengale créée par son jeune frère abanindranath tagore ( – ) puis au début des années , il s’engage dans une production picturale qualifiée de ‘cubiste’ par la critique indienne (série wonderland, par exemple). en adoptant cette facture, gaganendranath tagore participait tant à la réaction contre le crédo naturaliste européen de l’art colonial que contre les canons esthétiques et plastiques de l’art orientaliste de l’École du bengale. analysant l’approche de w. g. archer, l’historien de l’art partha mitter en dégage le concept de ‘syndrome du picasso manqué’. partha mitter ( : – ). nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) de l’art kobena mercer, dans son introduction à l’ouvrage collectif cosmopolitan modernisms ( , – ) considère la notion de ‘différence culturelle’ comme une notion constitutive de la modernité artistique. l’historien de l’art partha mitter, en prenant en considération le contexte de l’inde coloniale, avance deux termes à substituer au terme inopérant d’influence : celui de paradigm shift ( ) et celui de virtual cosmopolis ( ; ). ces notions éclairent le double mécanisme de la relation entre l’art indien et l’art occidental à l’époque coloniale : − paradigm shift (changement de paradigme). d’une part les impératifs artistiques changent dans un monde globalisé. ils remettent en cause les pratiques traditionnelles et refusent les anciens systèmes de représenta- tion. l’adoption de nouvelles formes artistiques par les artistes indiens, à partir de la seconde moitié du xixe siècle, a été une nécessité imposée par l’instauration d’une globalisation colonialiste. et d’autre part, l’art moderne occidental s’inscrit lui-même, en partie et à sa manière, dans ce changement. − virtual cosmopolis (cosmopolitisme virtuel). le monde artistique indien ainsi que toute l’intelligentsia indienne n’ont pu découvrir les productions européennes que grâce à quelques reproductions, rarement par un contact direct avec les œuvres. la modernité a créé ainsi, à travers le monde, ce que l’on pourrait appeler une communauté de l’image, fondée sur une pratique de la reproduction. cet article se propose d’analyser les négociations complexes de ces croisements entre apport d’une modernité artistique occidentale et affirmation d’une créativité culturelle locale, au travers de l’étude des principes idéologiques et des productions artistiques du calcutta group. ce collectif, fondé en dans la ville de calcutta, fut l’une des associations artistiques les plus significatives des années en inde. elle contribua à poser les fondations esthétiques et formelles d’un art moderne dans le sous-continent, en une époque particulièrement troublée de son histoire. jean-luc racine écrira : ‘la guerre, la famine, les massacres, la partition, les blessures des années noires auront nourri chez les créateurs, engagés ou non, une volonté de forger un nouveau langage, marque d’une nouvelle histoire ou du moins d’une nouvelle sensibilité’ ( : ). nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) le groupe de calcutta et la india progressive writers’ association situons, tout d’abord, le cadre historique et artistique dans lequel s’inscrivent les débats esthétiques engendrés par le groupe de calcutta. historiquement, le groupe de calcutta s’est constitué à la veille de l’indépendance indienne, à une époque où le combat pour la libération nationale se radicalise et où l’inde est marquée par les affres de la guerre contre l’armée japonaise, déjà aux frontières du pays, comme par la terrible famine qui ravage le bengale de à . ces années sont également caractérisées par une effervescence culturelle et intellectuelle considérable au cœur même de calcutta. l’art colonial et orientaliste, défendu par les écoles gouvernementales d’art (government art schools), est alors fortement remis en cause par le monde intellectuel et culturel bengali. esthétiquement, le groupe de calcutta, malgré la brièveté de son existence ( – ), constitue un jalon essentiel dans la mutation de l’art indien contemporain. il fut le premier mouvement artistique indien à vouloir s’inscrire ouvertement dans les mouvements de la modernité internationale. l’apport des innovations formelles des avant-gardes occidentales autant que la découverte d’un art populaire local constituent les fondements des recherches artistiques des membres du groupe. les artistes du groupe étaient proches des milieux culturels marxistes de l’époque. a l’image des regroupements des intellectuels progressistes occidentaux, les associations culturelles marxistes et les organisations communistes indiennes montrèrent dès leur capacité à mobiliser le monde intellectuel et artistique du pays. ce fut en particulier le cas de la all india progressive writers’ association (ipwa) qui jouera un rôle majeur dans le débat intellectuel durant toutes ces ‘années de cendres’. elle tint sa première conférence à lucknow, le avril . lors de cette réunion, l’association précisa ses statuts, adopta un premier manifeste et l’écrivain munshi premchand fut alors élu secrétaire général de l’ipwa. le groupe de calcutta n’aurait pu voir le jour sans l’apport essentiel d’individualités qui, depuis les années , ont pu montrer la voie d’un art moderne indien. ainsi, les artistes du groupe ne manqueront pas de se référer aux œuvres des tagore (rabindranath et gaganendranath en particulier), d’amrita sher-gil, de jamini roy, de nandalal bose et des artistes de shantiniketan tel que ramkinker baij et binode behari mukherjee. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) les orientations esthétiques et politiques des membres du groupe donnèrent lieu à l’écriture d’un véritable manifeste, intitulé le calcutta group, publié par ses auteurs en à calcutta. ce manifeste appelait en termes policés les créateurs à se pencher sur les problèmes fondamentaux de la société indienne (malnutrition, pauvreté, sous-développement social, assujettissement politique). l’union idéologique au sein de l’ipwa reposait, comme le précise l’historien sudhi pradhan ( ), sur la volonté de construire un front culturel uni pour la paix, contre l’impérialisme et le fascisme. d’après les principaux animateurs de l’ipwa – syed sajjad zaheer ( ), mulk raj anand ( ) et hiren mukherjee ( ) – l’association voulait militer pour la libération du pays et combattre certaines tendances artistiques et littéraires, qualifiées de ‘réactionnaires’ ou de non ‘progressistes’, parce que fondées sur la pérennisation du passé. l’héritage orientaliste de l’École du bengale était ici particulièrement visé. l’influence du parti communiste et des organisations syndicales qui lui sont proches fut particulièrement sensible au bengale (puis au bengale occidentale après ), ainsi qu’au kerala. l’histoire du parti communiste en inde, de la période du combat anticolonial jusqu’aux années , est marquée par les tiraillements de la pensée marxiste, entre alignement sur moscou, intérêt pour le maoïsme et volonté de trouver une voie socialiste proprement nationale. ces tiraillements vont occasionner une série de scissions et de refontes. ainsi, le cpi (communist party of india), fondé en , éclata en pour former le cpi(m) (communist party of india marxist) qui lui-même se scinda en pour donner naissance au cpi(ml) (communist party of india marxist leninist). dans les années – , les mouvements marxistes jouèrent un rôle moteur dans la vie artistique et culturelle indienne. sous l’impulsion de son secrétaire général pc joshi, le pc indien va définir une ligne d’action culturelle afin de rallier un large public à la cause socialiste, anticoloniale et antifasciste. (carrère d’encausse & schram, ; gavi, ). a partir des années , le terme de ‘progressiste’ est adopté par certains mouvements politiques indiens afin de qualifier leurs engagements idéologiques, sociaux et culturels en référence à la mouvance internationale associant humanisme et rationalisme portée alors en occident principalement par les partis de gauche (d’obédience marxiste et socialiste en particulier), les mouvements anticoloniaux et une partie significative des artistes modernes avant-gardistes. en inde, si les défenseurs d’une pensée ‘progressiste’ étaient, pour la plupart, des militants ou des compagnons de route du cpi (communist party of india), ils se trouvaient également au sein de l’aile gauche du parti du congrès (proche des idées défendues par jawaharlal nehru). après , cette notion devient le trait d’union de toutes les forces qui soutiennent l’union soviétique stalinienne. mais, le mouvement progressiste indien se distingue de cette mouvance internationale d’une part parce qu’il défend l’idée d’une nation indienne comme antithèse au projet colonial. ensuite, dans son approche des cultures populaires du sous- continent, il considère ces dernières comme de potentiels outils idéologiques pour un changement social (l’avènement d’une société qui revendique la diversité de son héritage culturel, au nom du combat contre la culture colonialiste impérialiste). née à calcutta au début du xxe siècle, la dite École du bengale (bengal school), avec à sa tête le bengali abanindranath tagore et le britannique ernest binfield havell, fut le premier mouvement artistique à avoir nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) quant au comité bengali de l’ipwa, il réussit même à attirer des personnalités littéraires pourtant réputées pour leur peu de sympathie à l’égard de l’idéologie marxiste, les écrivains pramathanath bishi ou sajanikanta das. il devint rapidement le moteur du mouvement progressiste en inde. mulk raj anand en témoigne : la contribution prééminente du bengale doit être reconnue. bien sûr, de toutes les zones linguistiques, le bengale a une tradition plus ancienne dans l’activité créatrice des arts et de la littérature et il fut probablement plus facile d’attirer l’attention des écrivains bengalis sur nos objectifs (…). la qualité du débat dans les divers locaux de la conférence des ecrivains progressistes au bengale fut plus élevée que n’importe où ailleurs. il était demandé aux écrivains et aux artistes progressistes de jouer un rôle social actif. artistes et intellectuels ne vont pas hésiter à s’engager dans le domaine syndical, dans la création d’associations de quartier et d’organisations culturelles, dans la publication de journaux et de magazines locaux. les réflexions et les partis pris esthétiques de l’ipwa et de la bengal progressive writers’ and artists’ association (bengal pwaa) s’inscrivent dans le contexte artistique mondial des années – où, de par la dimension internationale du mouvement antifasciste et de par le caractère social et politique contestataire de l’action culturelle, les conceptions sociales du travail artistique se développaient dans tous les continents. trouvé, au nom d’un retour à un art ‘authentiquement indien’, une alternative au naturalisme occidental imposé alors par les institutions artistiques coloniales. les artistes de l’École empruntèrent à l’art princier des miniatures des cours indiennes des xviie et xviiie siècles, à la peinture japonaise, mais également à des mouvements artistiques britanniques tel que les préraphaélites et le mouvement arts & crafts. “the pre-eminent contribution of bengal must be recognised. of all the linguistic zones, of course, bengal has a longer tradition of creative activity in the arts and literature, and it was more easily possible for our aims to engage the attention of bengali writers. (…) therefore, the quality of discussion at various local progressive writers’ conferences in bengal was much higher than anywhere else”. anand ( : – ). traduction n. nercam. citons en particulier, le taller de la grafica popular au mexique (leopoldo mendez, angel bracho, isidoro ocampo…), le mouvement de la gravure au brésil (livio abramo, oswaldo goeldi…), ainsi que les productions réalisées, aux États unis, sous la bannière du works progress administration et du four arts project (clare leighton, eli jacobi, jack markow, reginald marsh…). nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) ainsi l’ipwa mit à la disposition des artistes et des intellectuels de l’association un nouveau réseau de diffusion et de communication qui, sans avoir l’ampleur de celui du système colonial, ouvrait de nouvelles relations bilatérales (institutionnelles et non institutionnelles) avec l’europe, l’union soviétique et nombre de pays asiatiques et d’amérique latine. par l’entremise de la ligue des écrivains de gauche, l’ipwa contribua à faire connaître au milieu artistique indien les travaux des artistes chinois de l’association de l’art de l’an du lac de l’ouest, de shanghai (andrews, ), créée en , sous l’impulsion d’un groupe d’artistes communistes animé par le peintre et graveur jiang feng. les gravures, sur bois ou sur linoléum, réalisées par les artistes de cette organisation abordaient des thèmes nouveaux liés à la condition sociale des classes les plus démunies. ainsi, aux côtés de jiang feng, les artistes zhang hui, li hua, yefu, xu tiankai et lan tia représentaient des ouvriers au travail, des piquets de grève, les rues des quartiers populaires, les ateliers d’usine, etc. les estampes, saturées d’aplats noirs et blancs, répondaient aux critères de simplicité et de puissance expressive propre à un art de large diffusion (janicot, ; janicot, ). la connaissance des travaux des artistes de shanghai a favorisé l’adoption, par les plasticiens indiens membres des associations culturelles progressistes de calcutta, de la gravure sur bois et sur linoléum comme moyen artistique privilégié d’expression d’un message politique. encouragés par les associations culturelles communistes, les artistes zainul abedine, somnath hore, chittoprasad bhattacharya et sudhir ranjan khastagir useront grandement de cette technique. la gravure sur bois devient, tout comme en chine, le support d’un art engagé, une arme politique au service du combat anticolonial et de la propagation des idéaux révolutionnaires marxistes. elle permit aux artistes de témoigner, dans l’urgence, de la terrible famine de qui causa près de trois millions de morts au bengale (mukherjee, ). c’est sous l’impulsion de la bengal pwaa que le calcutta group vit le jour, en . l’artiste subho tagore lança l’idée de la formation d’un groupe artistique de la ligue des écrivains de gauche est une organisation d’écrivains chinois, fondée en à shanghai sous les auspices du parti communiste. la ligne idéologique de l’organisation était de combattre la politique de répression du kuomintang par la propagation des idéaux révolutionnaires, en particulier par la création de revues et d’organisations culturelles. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) plasticiens et créa le groupe avec le concours de nirode mazumdar, rathin maitra, prankrishna pal et gopal ghosh. probablement la même année, prodosh dasgupta, kamala dasgupta et paritosh sen les rejoignirent. ces huit artistes constituèrent le noyau permanent et le moteur du groupe auquel, au fil des années, abani sen, gobardhan ash, hemanta mistra, ratin mitra et sunil madhab sen intégrèrent. ils y resteront jusqu’à l’éclatement du groupe en . groupe de calcutta et principes esthétiques dans leur volonté de renouvellement des pratiques artistiques, les membres du groupe de calcutta se tournèrent vers les expériences picturales et sculpturales des avant-gardes occidentales. ils en connurent les grandes orientations esthétiques grâce à de nombreux articles signés par les correspondants en europe ou en amérique des magazines indiens, en particulier, ceux des deux revues spécialisées, the modern review et prabasi. par contre, le contact direct avec les œuvres, ou même avec de simples reproductions, leur manquait. au cours des entretiens que nous avons pu avoir avec les artistes de cette génération, tous, sans exception, ont confirmé ce manque cruel de rapports directs avec les objets artistiques. l’exposition d’une sélection des travaux du bauhaus, en décembre à calcutta, avait été l’unique événement artistique de cette première moitié de siècle ayant permis un contact direct avec la modernité européenne. cette manifestation se tint sous les auspices de la society of oriental art à la samayava mansion hall, en grande partie grâce à l’action du poète et prix nobel rabindranath tagore et de l’historienne de l’art autrichienne stella kramrisch. il s’agissait de la première présentation en inde d’œuvres d’art moderne européen. elle comprenait des œuvres (principalement des estampes) de lyonel feininger, johannes itten, george muche, paul klee, gerhard marcks, lothar schreyer, sophie korner, margit tery-adler et wassily kandinsky. nombre d’intellectuels bengalis étaient particulièrement enthousiasmés par la modernité occidentale, à l’instar de l’universitaire benoy cette remarque fait suite aux entretiens que nous avons menés en – , à calcutta et à shantiniketan, auprès des artistes somnath hore, kalpathi ganapathi subramanyan, paritosh sen, rathin maitra, rathin mitra et probash sen, ainsi qu’auprès des critiques asok mitra, r.p. gupta et asok k. bhattacharya. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) kumar sarkar, qui rédigea, dès , un article controversé : the futurism of young asia (sarkar, ). il paraît difficile d’estimer l’impact véritable de cette exposition sur la production picturale du calcutta de l’époque. cependant, elle paraît avoir notablement influencé la manière de peindre de gaganendranath tagore. les membres du groupe de calcutta étaient trop jeunes pour avoir pu la visiter et en tirer profit. de plus, la government art school de calcutta, dont la plupart des artistes du groupe avaient suivi la formation, ne pouvait guère leur être utile. en ce domaine, l’école gouvernementale n’était en rien ouverte aux révolutions de l’art moderne. aussi, ces peintres se trouvaient-ils quelque peu démunis pour donner corps aux théories séduisantes mais abstraites qu’ils avaient pu lire. ils ignoraient les œuvres qui avaient été à l’origine comme à l’application de ces concepts. autre élément de ce contact avec l’occident, l’installation à calcutta en des troupes anglaises et américaines. elle s’accompagna de l’arrivée de vivres, de matériels et surtout de publications, journaux et revues occidentaux. les artistes du groupe en furent des lecteurs assidus. ils établirent des contacts fraternels avec les soldats alliés. prodosh dasgupta décrit ainsi l’une de ces nombreuses réunions tenues dans la demeure de subho tagore, au a s.r. das road et auxquelles les militaires participaient : nous commencions à nous réunir tous les soirs et ces heures passées étaient pleines de discussions, d’ambitions, de projets et de plans. souvent, des conférences et des débats sur l’art étaient aussi organisés. parmi les visiteurs de renom que nous avons reçus à cette époque, e. m. forster le romancier anglais, f. mc williams aujourd’hui slade professor de sculpture à dans cet écrit, benoy kumar sarkar condamnait violemment l’art orientaliste de l’école du bengale. il invitait les artistes indiens à s’ouvrir aux innovations formelles et conceptuelles des avant-gardes européennes et plaçait l’expression subjective de l’individu au cœur de la production artistique. le magazine indien rupam se fit l’écho de cette polémique en publiant dans l’article the aesthetics of young india du n° de janvier , les opinions de benoy kumar sarkar et celles d’ordhendra coomar gangooly, défenseur des valeurs nationales en art (sarkar, ). a propos des interrelations entre l’avant-garde bengalie et l’esthétique du bauhaus, voir bittner et rohmberg ( ). nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) l’université de londres et des artistes et des sculpteurs membres des forces alliées (dasgupta, : ). les quelques noms recueillis des artistes membres des forces britanniques connus permettent d’imaginer la qualité et la diversité des échanges : le soldat martin kirman, écrivain et poète, qui s’était lié d’amitié avec prodosh dasgupta, le poète john gawsworth, les écrivains harold leventhal et john irwin. d’autres étaient peintres ou sculpteurs. rathin maitra ( ) affirme que l’un d’entre eux était un membre proche du london group. grâce à ces rencontres animées, abordant toutes les formes d’expression, les artistes bengalis eurent la possibilité de percevoir l’occident autrement qu’au travers du filtre imposé par les institutions gouvernementales. les anglo-saxons apportèrent aux membres et aux amis du groupe de calcutta un éclairage nouveau et parfois le témoignage direct des idées et des productions des avant-gardes. l’apport le plus apprécié fut la découverte des reproductions, de qualité pour l’époque, des œuvres contemporaines occidentales provenant des musées et des galeries de grande-bretagne et des États-unis dont pouvaient disposer les militaires. rathin maitra se souvient avec émotion des reproductions couleur sur papier marouflé “we started meeting every evening and those evening hours were full of our talks, ambitions, plans and schemes. often, lectures and discussions on art were also arranged. of the many distinguished visitors we had in those days were e. m. forster, the english novelist, frederic mc williams, now slade professor of sculpture in london university, and artists and sculptors from among the members of the allied forces”. traduction n. nercam. en , prodosh dasgupta sculptera le portrait en buste de martin kirman. le journal communiste indien, people’s war, du / / , vol. iii, n° , annoncera la mort du soldat m. kirman, sur le front de birmanie, en février . john irwin réalisa, par la suite, une monographie du peintre jamnini roy en collaboration avec l’écrivain et poète bishnu dey (irwin et dey, ). la demeure de bishnu dey à calcutta fut un de ces lieux de réunion très fréquenté par le monde intellectuel de l’époque tout comme celle du poète buddhadeb bose où fut créé un club littéraire du nom de kabita bhavan (maison de la poésie). là, outre les peintres et sculpteurs dont certains déjà assez célèbres comme jamini roy, d’autres en passe de l’être comme chintamoni kar et somnath hore, se côtoyaient le sitariste ravi shankar, le cinéaste satyajit ray et son scénographe banshit chandragupta, les poètes bishnu dey, jyotirindra maitra, kamal kumar mazumdar, subash mukherjee, samar sen, les historiens de l’art stella kramrisch, niharranjan roy, o.c. gangooly, prithwish neogy, l’éditeur hirankumar sanyal, asok mitra, le photographe sunil janah (roy, : – ). nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) sur tissu que lui procuraient ses amis soldats : peintures impressionnistes, cubistes, œuvres de picasso, matisse, miro. il découvrait ainsi des aspects de l’art contemporain occidental qu’il n’avait jamais soupçonnés. c’est en faisant allusion à l’apport de ces soldats que rathin maitra nous confia : ‘c’est en partie grâce à eux que je suis devenu un peintre du monde’. parmi les membres fondateurs, le sculpteur prodosh dasgupta joua le rôle de mentor. ses textes, sans avoir été officiellement considérés par les artistes du groupe comme leur manifeste théorique, ont contribué à en définir la ligne esthétique et à fixer l’enjeu philosophique de l’action collective. prodosh dasgupta connaissait certaines des théories occidentales sur l’art moderne. lors de son séjour en angleterre, de à à la central school of art & design de londres, il s’était intéressé au livre vision and design du peintre et critique d’art roger eliot fry, publié en et très apprécié par le milieu artistique londonien des années . de cet ouvrage, prodosh dasgupta semble avoir été particulièrement sensible à l’approche formaliste de l’art proposée par le peintre britannique (approche fondée sur l’analyse des composants plastiques d’une œuvre comme porteurs de significations). mais ce sont surtout les principes définis par la progressive writers’ association que l’artiste reprend dans ses écrits. il considère que seule, et de façon fondamentale, la prise de conscience de la réalité sociale et politique en inde et dans le monde permettra l’avènement d’une nouvelle esthétique et le développement de pratiques artistiques novatrices. en , à l’occasion de la première rétrospective du groupe, dasgupta rédigea un texte de présentation des orientations artistiques de l’association qui, sous forme intégrale, résumée ou complétée, servit systématiquement d’introduction aux expositions du mouvement jusqu’à sa dissolution en . l’expression utilisée ici par rathin maitra fait probablement référence à une aspiration (ou une utopie) des plasticiens de cette époque de faire partie d’une communauté internationale d’artistes, unie autour d’une même modernité, transcendant les différences nationales et associant changement formel et progrès social et politique. entretien de l’auteur avec rathin maitra, février , calcutta. ce document fut rédigé en étroite collaboration avec l’écrivain bengali bishnu dey. ce texte sera partiellement repris par prodosh dasgupta, ans après, dans un article (dasgupta, ). nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) de ce manifeste, nous retiendrons deux points essentiels qui caractérisent la pensée esthétique de prodosh dasgupta et l’action artistique du groupe de calcutta : l’affirmation d’un humanisme ‘laïque’ (secularist) – ‘l’homme est suprême’ – et la nécessité de s’ouvrir au monde – l’art est sans frontière. le caractère contestataire du groupe déboucha sur la revendication d’une position laïque, généralement antireligieuse et parfois même athée. cela choqua, en une période où l’affirmation d’une appartenance religieuse et le développement de la pensée communaliste contribuaient à renforcer le mouvement pour l’indépendance. les dieux et les déesses ont été descendus de leur orgueilleux piédestal et l’homme (sic) a été intronisé à leur place. ‘l’homme est suprême, il n’y a personne au-dessus de lui’. cela fut le principal slogan lors de la fondation du groupe de calcutta en (dasgupta, : ). le groupe de calcutta se voulait rigoureusement anti-traditionnel. dans leurs productions, les thèmes religieux, empruntés à la mythologie hindoue et aux épopées, étaient délibérément écartés. a leurs yeux, le registre de l’iconographie traditionnelle devenait incompatible avec la quête d’un renouvellement artistique et plastique. ainsi, au niveau de ses intentions, le groupe de calcutta se démarquait nettement de l’orientation nationaliste de l’art indien qui séduisait alors nombre d’artistes en cette période de combat anticolonial. l’affirmation d’une indianité à préserver de toute souillure étrangère, telle que la concevaient les nationalistes de l’époque, n’était pas de mise dans l’esthétique du groupe. au contraire, une conception internationale de l’art y était fortement revendiquée. “the gods and goddesses are being pulled down from their lofty pedestals and man has been enthroned in their place. ‘man is supreme, there is none above him’ – this was the guiding slogan when the calcutta group was formed in ”. traduction n. nercam. les orientations artistiques nationalistes, obnubilées par l’affirmation d’une indianité en art et que rejetait le groupe de calcutta, étaient incarnées dans la peinture académique et religieuse de ravi varma ( – ), ainsi que dans l’historisme artistique des miniatures (nostalgiques de la grandeur artistique des cours princières indiennes des xviie et xviiie siècles) des artistes de la bengal school. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) ‘l’art doit être international et interdépendant’. en d’autres termes, notre art ne peut progresser si nous sommes toujours tournés vers nos gloires passées et si nous restons attachés à n’importe quel prix à nos traditions. le monde de l’art, vaste, riche, diversifié et créé par les maîtres du monde entier, à toutes les époques, nous interpelle. (…) nous devons tous les étudier en profondeur, développer sur eux notre appréciation critique et en retirer ce qui peut être profitablement synthétisé avec nos exigences et nos traditions. cela est plus que nécessaire car notre art stagne depuis le xviie siècle. mais le monde, hormis l’inde, a fait de grands pas en art, à différentes époques, faisant des découvertes dans la forme et dans la technique. il est absolument nécessaire pour nous de régler ce hiatus en tirant profit des développements du monde occidental. (dasgupta, : ). prodosh dasgupta développe son argumentation à partir du constat, alors unanimement partagé, d’un appauvrissement de l’inde dû à l’installation du british raj. partant de ce même argument, les nationalistes indiens insistent sur la dégradation de l’art et de l’artisanat du sous-continent et sur l’ignorance du patrimoine culturel indien dans laquelle s’était enfermée la bourgeoisie anglicisée. pour sa part, prodosh dasgupta met l’accent sur un autre aspect négatif de l’acculturation liée au colonialisme. il insiste “art should be international and inter-dependent’. in other words, our art cannot progress or develop if we always look back to our past glories and cling to our old traditions at all cast. the vast new world of art, rich and infinitely varied, created by masters the world over in all ages, beckons us. (…) we have to study all of them deeply, develop our appreciation of them and take from them all that we could profitably synthesise with our requirements and traditions. this is all the more necessary because our art has stood still since the seventeenth century. but during the past three hundred years the world outside of india has made vast strides in art, has evolved epoch – making discoveries in forms and techniques. it is absolutely necessary for us to close hiatus by taking advantage of these developments in the western world”. traduction n. nercam a partir de la seconde moitié du xixe siècle, une élite économique indienne anglicisée cultive un goût prononcé pour l’art académique occidental (valeur esthétique néoclassique témoignant de leur réussite sociale), apporté par les colons britanniques et enseigné dans les écoles d’art gouvernementales. ainsi, le marble palace de calcutta, villa palladienne construite par le puissant marchand raja rajendra mullick en – , regorge d’objets néoclassiques et de copies de raphaël, de guido reni ou encore de reynolds. a cette époque, cet engouement se fait au détriment de la valorisation d’un art indien (aristocratique ou populaire) ignoré, voire méprisé par cette même élite. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) d’abord sur l’isolement de l’inde colonisée et sur la profonde autarcie économique et culturelle dans laquelle est plongé le pays, en raison du protectionnisme britannique. de plus, il affirme que cette coupure avec le reste du monde entraîne, sur le plan culturel, la stagnation et même la régression de la production artistique indienne, la contraignant à se replier sur des valeurs anciennes et périmées. reconnaissons qu’à partir du même constat, celui des méfaits du colonialisme, deux conceptions artistiques différentes trouvent à s’exprimer : la première prônant une redécouverte et une renaissance du patrimoine culturel indien, la seconde appelant à briser l’isolement de l’inde et à affirmer sa liberté en s’ouvrant, sans réserve, aux formes artistiques étrangères. en théorie, les membres du groupe de calcutta furent les partisans convaincus de cette seconde conception. le mouvement artistique se reconnut souvent dans les révolutions idéologiques et formelles de la modernité occidentale, curieuse, elle aussi des diversités culturelles. prendre en compte la modernité était nécessaire afin, comme l’écrit ordhendra coomar gangooly, de retrouver en toute indépendance, sans a priori antioccidental, sa propre vision du monde (gangooly, : – ). prodosh dasgupta prolonge cette pensée. il écrit dans la préface de son ouvrage autobiographique : a l’ouest, avec l’avènement d’une nouvelle organisation sociale sous l’influence directe de la machine et de l’industrie, un nouveau type d’art s’est développé où l’homme devient partie de la machine, d’un côté comme un automate (un manœuvre) de l’autre comme un cerveau (concepteur) pour ajuster la machine à ses projets. ce double rôle de l’homme du temps présent et l’invention de nouveaux matériaux ont fondamentalement révolutionné l’ensemble des conceptions artistiques (dasgupta, : ). “in the west with the advent of a new social organisation directly under the influence of the machine and industry a new kind of art developed where man became a part of the machine, an automaton (labourer) on the one hand and the brain (designer) to adjust machine to his designing advantages on the other. this dual role of man in the present age and the invention of new materials to work with have actually revolutionised the whole dogma of artistic conceptions”. traduction n. nercam. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) et, dans cette même préface, il ajoute : il n’y a donc pas de doute, la face de l’art d’aujourd’hui a également changé. l’impact de la vie mécanisée s’est fait sentir dans tous les pays de l’est à l’ouest et du nord au sud. il est inutile de nier le fait que la science et l’industrie modernes sont des legs de l’occident et aujourd’hui il nous est impossible de refuser ses avantages dans notre vie matérielle. cette attitude scientifique et industrielle est l’axe autour duquel aujourd’hui s’articulent nos activités politiques, économiques, sociales ou culturelles (dasgupta, : ). certains des mythes de la modernité sont ici repris, en particulier celui de l’avènement de l’âge de la machine annonçant l’intensification du travail et la domination humaine sur la nature. fruit de la science et de l’industrie, la machine devient le symbole à la fois de l’exploitation sociale et contradictoirement, de la libération du travail aliénant. l’art de la modernité occidentale n’a cessé de cultiver cette ambivalence : la glorification du caractère émancipateur de la science ou la dénonciation d’une standardisation des formes de la vie sociale. pour sa part, le groupe de calcutta considérera toujours comme plutôt fructueuses les associations de l’art et de la technologie, de l’homme et de la machine. les écrits de prodosh dasgupta alimentent le mythe d’une modernité universelle, d’un ‘inévitable caractère planétaire’, s’étendant ‘de l’est à l’ouest et du nord au sud’, négligeant délibérément la situation concrète de la société indienne, essentiellement rurale et encore fort peu touchée, en (date des écrits), par les révolutions technologiques de l’âge moderne. “there is no doubt, the face of art today has also changed. the impact of mechanized life has been felt in all countries from east to west and from north to south. it is useless to deny the fact that modern science and industry are legacies of the west, and today it is impossible for us to deny its advantages in our material life. this scientific and industrial attitude is the axis around which today we articulate our political, economic, social or cultural activities”. traduction n. nercam. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) l’aspiration à un renouvellement radical des formes artistiques et la fascination des membres du groupe pour l’art moderne occidental poussèrent certains d’entre eux à entreprendre le voyage en europe. déjà, bien avant la création du collectif, subho tagore ( – ) et prodosh dasgupta ( – ) y avaient effectué un séjour de formation artistique. le premier avait séjourné en europe de à et avait pu étudier les arts appliqués à londres. le second partit en grande-bretagne et en france de à et étudia la sculpture tout d’abord à la royal academy of arts de londres, puis à l’académie de la grande chaumière à paris. a la suite de ces deux artistes, nirode mazumdar partira en france en , une bourse d’études du gouvernement français en poche (et fera de paris sa résidence principale). puis, ce sera au tour de paritosh sen d’effectuer, de à , un séjour à londres et à paris, où il travailla dans l’atelier d’andré lhote et rencontra picasso. pour sa part, rathin maitra entreprendra un court voyage aux États- unis et en europe en – . seuls, parmi les membres fondateurs prankrishna pal et gopal ghosh n’effectueront aucun séjour en occident. on peut voir dans ces départs successifs une des raisons majeures de la dissolution du groupe en . groupe de calcutta et renouvellements formels si ces relations, directes et indirectes, avec les avant-gardes artistiques occidentales eurent des répercussions sur la dimension conceptuelle des démarches des artistes du groupe, elles eurent, bien évidemment, des retombées dans la pratique et les orientations formelles de ces mêmes artistes. une nouvelle fois, il s’agit d’insister sur la complexité et la diversité des emprunts à l’œuvre dans l’élaboration de leurs productions plastiques. ainsi, certains d’entre eux ont souhaité inscrire leurs œuvres dans une tradition indienne revisitée et enrichie de l’apport des écoles extrême-orientales. au sein des productions bidimensionnelles et tridimensionnelles du groupe, deux grandes orientations se dessinent: le peintre gopal ghosh, par exemple, fut fortement intéressé par l’art japonais. les paysages réalisés par l’artiste japonais sesshu togo ( – ) ont été probablement des sources d’inspiration pour l’élaboration de ses paysages et scènes de genre. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) − la recherche d’une forme simplifiée, stylisée, dépouillée de tout artifice décoratif ou anecdotique, afin de poursuivre la quête d’un langage plas- tique épuré. − l’exploration des formes diverses du divisionnisme de l’espace afin de re- nouveler radicalement les conventions et les codes établis des figurations. l’huile sur toile de prankrishna pal the wrestling ( ) est un exemple de cette recherche moderniste d’une épuration formelle. la peinture propose ici une représentation extrêmement simplifiée du corps humain. aucun élément ne vient préciser une quelconque inscription sociale ou culturelle des personnages, leur anatomie étant réduite à l’essentiel. devant une sorte de palissade de planches inégales, deux combattants s’affrontent dans un corps à corps violent : l’un brun foncé, la tête prise dans l’étau du bras de son adversaire bleu outremer. la recherche formelle d’une figuration elliptique semble ici l’emporter sur toute préoccupation d’ordre social ou politique. on pourrait lire, dans ce combat fratricide de deux titans aussi méritoires l’un que l’autre et dont les couleurs des corps renvoient au bleu de krishna et par contraste esthétique à un brun pour l’islam, les affrontements communautaires liés à la partition récente du bengale. dans le domaine de la sculpture, prodosh dasgupta s’engagea également dans cette perspective de recherche formelle et de clarté du sens. dans son ouvrage my sculpture ( ), il met l’accent sur le peu d’intérêt des artistes indiens contemporains pour la sculpture. il aura fallu attendre les années pour que ramkinker baij ( – ), à shantiniketan, dégage la pratique sculpturale l’École du bengale avait été exclusivement picturale, avec un seul sculpteur, il s’agit de l’artiste de l’orissa sri giridhari maharana qui emprunte fortement aux sculptures du xiiie siècle du temple de surya à konarak. il fut professeur à l’indian society of oriental art. sa production, dans une veine très revivalist, n’aura quasiment pas d’impact sur la production contemporaine bengalie. entretien de l’auteur avec le sculpteur ajit chakravarty, avril , shantiniketan. a une centaine de kilomètres au nord de calcutta, dans la campagne bengalie s’ouvre le centre de shantiniketan. cet ashram de la famille tagore, transformé par la suite en université internationale – la visva-bharati – par la volonté du poète rabindranath tagore, connut rapidement, à partir des années , un essor artistique remarquable. loin de la ville coloniale de calcutta, le site bucolique nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) indienne contemporaine de son académisme venu de grande-bretagne. prodosh dasgupta poursuivra le renouvellement des formes et des pratiques sculpturales initiées par ramkinker baij. en , il réalise le bronze in bondage (national gallery of modern art, new delhi), représentant un personnage masculin nu agenouillé, les mains liées dans le dos. cet esclave contemporain est doté d’un corps puissant et massif, d’un torse bombé et de larges épaules. la surface est rugueuse et les aspérités du bronze non poli donnent à l’ensemble un aspect brut et expressif. lors de sa première présentation en , cette sculpture fut interprétée comme une métaphore plastique de l’assujettissement humain (au colonialisme, au fascisme, à l’esclavagisme, au système des castes). dasgupta écrira dans my sculpture : j’ai exprimé dans ce travail mon indignation face à la domination d’un pays sur un autre. mon cœur éprouvait de la sympathie pour l’humanité piétinée et opprimée, ces multitudes silencieuses que l’on prive de liberté, la lumière de la connaissance. j’ai symbolisé cela sous la forme d’un noir se débattant (…) (dasgupta, : ). par ailleurs, l’artiste précise, dans ce même ouvrage, que cette œuvre fait écho aux événements de la grande famine du bengale. mais, sa sculpture ne ressemble en rien aux représentations contemporaines des martyrs de la famine tel qu’on les trouve dans les dessins expressifs de zainul adedin et de chittoprasad bhattacharya des années – sur la grande famine du bengale, représentant les paysans affamés et squelettiques sous la forme de personnages fantomatiques. loin de l’image d’un être humain faible, brisé, voire résigné face à son destin, in bondage, nous offre un prisonnier au corps robuste et vigoureux, redressant le torse et la tête, se contorsionnant avec la volonté de s’extraire de sa condition. prodosh de shantiniketan offrait un cadre neuf et stimulant à de nouvelles expériences sociales et artistiques qui cherchaient à renouer avec les modes de vie et les techniques traditionnels. “i have voiced in this work my protest against the domination of one country by another. my heart went out in sympathy to the down-trodden and oppressed humanity, those mute millions who have been denied freedom, the light of knowledge. this i have symbolised in the struggling human form of a negro …” traduction n. nercam. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) dasgupta fut, avec paritosh sen, l’artiste du groupe qui revendiqua avec le plus de véhémence le contenu social et politique de ses productions. de à , dasgupta réalisa de nombreuses œuvres à thème politique, parmi lesquelles : war and humanity, food queue, mother india. les trois aquarelles et gouaches sur papier de subho tagore, réalisées autour de – rabindranath the poet, subhas the fighter et jawaharlal the builder – sont assez symptomatiques de l’intérêt du groupe pour le divisionnisme pictural, comme principe de renouvèlement formel. ces trois peintures constituent un triptyque, composition relevant d’un héritage occidental. elles célèbrent les trois grandes personnalités de la modernité indienne : le poète rabindranath tagore, le combattant nationaliste subhash chandra bose et le constructeur de la nouvelle société jawaharlal nehru. le portrait de tagore montre le poète à un âge avancé, barbe et cheveux longs et blancs. c’est de manière très géométrique que les traits allongés du visage sont évoqués. le visage de subhas chandra bose occupe toute la surface du paper. l’image du guerrier est rendue abstraite par un traitement en lignes verticales et horizontales. seules, ses lunettes sont rondes. la dimension militaire du personnage est seulement évoquée par le col droit de l’uniforme. dans le portrait de jawaharlal nehru, l’aspect rectiligne de la représentation renforce l’image du ‘bâtisseur de la nation’. sur le traditionnel topi de l’homme politique sont figurées des silhouettes de bâtiments et d’usines : illustration directe de l’utopie politique de nehru ; l’émancipation sociale par le progrès technologique. ce sont trois portraits en buste, de petites dimensions relevant aussi bien de l’intimité des miniatures indiennes que de l’art du portrait européen. elles furent réalisées suivant un même principe de composition : un jeu de lignes droites orthogonales fractionnant la figuration. le principe de divisionnisme adopté par subho tagore possède une double origine. cette stylisation évoque les productions des tisserands, travail dont le divisionnisme des formes est induit par la mécanisation du métier à tisser. en effet subho tagore, en raison de sa formation à londres, s’intéressa cette série de trois peintures fut exposée en au government house de calcutta, puis en , à la national gallery of modern art de new delhi et au government industrial museum de calcutta. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) tout aux long de sa carrière à l’art décoratif, aux arts appliqués et à la production textile. il dessina nombre de cartons (pour la tapisserie, les tissus d’ornementation et d’ameublement) que réalisait l’entreprise d’État crafts and industries. il était fréquent, lors de ses expositions, que soient présentés les textiles, les cendriers, les marque-pages, les jouets ou les théières réalisés par l’artiste (anonyme, ). mais, de manière indéniable, l’œuvre fait référence au fractionnement initié par le cubisme. dans jawaharlal, the builder, le partage de l’espace pictural associé à un traitement quasi monochrome (jeu en harmonie à partir de tons ocre jaune et bleu) rappelle la facture picturale chère au cubisme analytique. notre référence à l’art moderne des avant-gardes européennes est ici d’autant plus fondée que subho tagore, éduqué à jorasanko, fut très vite initié aux innovations artistiques de l’occident. dans cette œuvre tripartite, tous ces apports fusionnent étroitement, ils deviennent totalement indissociables et donnent ainsi corps à une œuvre singulière et unique. conclusion a la fin des années , alors que le groupe vit ses dernières années, de nombreux mouvements artistiques progressistes s’inspirant largement de l’expérience de calcutta, naissent dans toute l’union indienne. dès , le progressive group of kashmir se crée. en , se forme à delhi le delhi shilpi chakra et en , le progressive artists’ group se constitue à madras. le mouvement, dont les affinités avec le groupe de calcutta ont été les plus fortes, fut le progressive artists’ group de bombay, fondé en suite à l’exposition du groupe de calcutta organisée en dans cette ville. francis newton souza, maqbool fida husain, sayed haider raza, hari ambadas gade, krishnaji howlaji ara et sadanand k bakre en constituaient le noyau fondateur. ces artistes de bombay la demeure seigneuriale des tagore à jorasanko (quartier nord de calcutta) fut, dès la fin du xixe siècle, un haut lieu de l’activité culturelle de la ville. véritable mecque du calcutta artistique (guha-thakurta, ), les intellectuels et les artistes indiens et britanniques s’y rencontrèrent et y échangèrent. en , f. n. souza rédigea le manifeste du groupe (newton souza, : – ). nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) partageaient la même prédilection pour l’art moderne occidental, ainsi que la même orientation politique proche des mouvements de gauche. une exposition commune progressive group / calcutta group fut organisée à calcutta en avril , au chowringhee terrace. pour bon nombre d’observateurs du monde artistique contemporain indien, le groupe progressiste de bombay fut la principale manifestation d’un art moderne en inde, à tel point que le rôle historique du groupe de calcutta, instigateur du mouvement, s’en trouve totalement occulté (hyman et mcevilley ). cette omission malheureuse paraît liée aux différences considérables entre les deux capitales indiennes en ce qui concerne la promotion et la diffusion des œuvres. dès la fin de la guerre, le marché de l’art à bombay sera fortement dynamisé par de puissants investissements privés (la communauté parsi joua un rôle important). cela permettra à des artistes comme maqbool fida husain, francis newton souza, ou krishnaji howlaji ara d’être rapidement connus. comparativement, les artistes bengalis ne bénéficieront pas du même contexte et leurs réalisations n’auront, pour la plupart d’entre elles et indépendamment de leurs qualités artistiques respectives, qu’un rayonnement local. le groupe de calcutta, par ses prises de positions esthétiques, constitua un véritable foyer, dans le calcutta des années , où ont été interprétés – entre autres – les apports des avant-gardes occidentales et de l’art traditionnel asiatique. il s’agit ici d’insister sur deux aspects fondamentaux de ces phénomènes de transferts artistiques et culturels : leur caractère dynamique et leur transversalité. les artistes du groupe de calcutta, tout en reconnaissant l’occident comme le berceau de la modernité, ne vont pas manquer d’adopter une attitude critique et sélective à l’égard des théories esthétiques de la modernité européenne dont ils avaient connaissance. les canaux de circulations des informations et des idées ont ici toute leur importance. dans les années , le groupe voulait rompre avec le système colonial de diffusion du savoir et s’est lié pour ce faire aux circuits les premières réunions du progressive group se tinrent dans les locaux du parti communiste de bombay, ainsi que dans ceux de l’association friends of the soviet union. nercam: les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) de communication associés à l’ipwa, au mouvement pour l’indépendance et à l’internationale communiste (wolikow, ). cela permit à ses membres d’entrer en contact avec des formes d’art engagé dans des thématiques sociales et politiques, tout particulièrement de découvrir la gravure sur bois d’allemagne, d’union soviétique et de chine. en ce cas, le transfert culturel et artistique, loin d’être passif, résulte d’un choix critique, d’une dynamique propre. les différents apports théoriques et pratiques à l’origine de la constitution et du développement du groupe de calcutta doivent aussi être appréhendés dans leur perméabilité et leur transversalité. car les emprunts culturels d’occident et d’orient se sont nourris les uns les autres, dans une véritable synergie, tant dans les écrits théoriques que dans les productions plastiques des membres du groupe. le terme ‘d’influence’ paraît donc bien mal approprié pour qualifier le creuset que représente le calcutta group dont l’apport est décisif dans le développement de l’art contemporain indien. certes ses membres ont revendiqué d’appartenir à la modernité, ce que l’histoire canonique et officielle de l’art moderne a totalement ignoré (les artistes extra-occidentaux demeurant pour elle invisibles). mais cette aspiration ne doit pas être interprétée comme une forme d’assujettissement à un diktat occidental, mais bien comme une volonté d’ouverture articulant dans les réalisations artistiques et les discours théoriques, le local (enjeux spécifiquement indiens, voir bengalis) et le global (désir de participer au devenir commun de l’humanité) donnant forme à la formule de l’écrivain portugais miguel torga ( ) ‘l’universel c’est le local moins les 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(dir.), calcutta: pustak bipani, pp. – . how to cite this article: nercam, n les artistes du groupe de calcutta ( – ) : entre tradition occidentale et modernité indienne. open library of humanities, ( ): , pp.  – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /olh. published: january copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access open library of humanities is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. https://doi.org/ . /olh. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / 	le groupe de calcutta et la india progressive writers’ association 	groupe de calcutta et principes esthétiques 	groupe de calcutta et renouvellements formels 	conclusion 	competing interests 	références – – doi: . / - - УДК . . revisiting the issues of studying the creative heritage of kazimir malevich: russian and foreign bibliography ekaterina m. tolstikhina* and marina v. moskalyuk dmitri hvorostovsky siberian state academy of arts krasnoyarsk, russian federation received . . , received in revised form . . , accepted . . abstract. the article considers issues related to the study of the creative heritage of kazimir malevich. it characterizes russian and foreign researchers and their main works, highlights and analyzes the difference of domestic and foreign researchers’ approaches to the study of the artist’s heritage. besides, the article reveals the basic principles used by researchers and including mainly a chronological study of life and creative biography, philosophical and art history analysis, art history and linguistic analysis of graphic sheets, attribution and technology in the works of k. malevich, and determines the predominance of art history analysis in both western and russian bibliography. keywords: kazimir malevich, avant-garde, suprematism. research area: theory and history of art. citation: tolstikhina, e.m., moskalyuk, m.v. ( ). revisiting the issues of studying the creative heritage of kazimir malevich: russian and foreign bibliography. j. sib. fed. univ. humanit. soc. sci., ( ), – . doi: . / - - . journal of siberian federal university. humanities & social sciences ( ): – © siberian federal university. all rights reserved * corresponding author e-mail address: ekaterinamuseum@gmail.com orcid: - - - (moskalyuk) – – ekaterina m. tolstikhina and marina v. moskalyuk. revisiting the issues of studying the creative heritage… the heritage of kazimir malevich invari- ably arouses interest among a wide circle of people interested in art, including the scientific community. the modern volume of art criti- cism, philosophical, cultural publications on malevich’s work is a complex, heterogeneous field, and therefore the problem of its system- atization becomes more and more urgent. it is necessary to identify the main methodological approaches to the study of malevich’s work in domestic and foreign humanities. hence, the objective of this work is to analyse the main publications and study methodological ap- proaches to malevich’s work. a review of the writings of authors who address the life and work of malevich is further proposed not in chronological order, but in terms of impor- tance and volume of publications (although, of course, this approach is not without a certain degree of subjectivity due to the need to rank articles). in general, in the work we rely on the main works in the vast bibliography of the fa- mous artist, the value of which is generally rec- ognized today. d.v. sarab’ianov ( - ), who com- prehensively studied the biography and works of k. malevich, is an outstanding researcher of malevich’s work in russian art criticism, as well as his student a.s. shatskikh, who dated malevich’s black square, reconstruct- ed februarism, and composed -volume col- lected works of k. malevich. many works of sarab’ianov, first of all, the article malevich in the era of the great change (sarab’ianov, ), raise the problem of dating. in this re- gard, it is also important to note shatskikh’s work kazimir malevich and supremus society (shatskikh, ), which uses historical docu- ments that build an accurate biographical view of malevich’s life, starting with the februarism movement, which appeared in , and ending with the supremus society. the basis of research is the use of general scientific meth- ods, the historical method, stylistic, philosoph- ical and art history analysis. a comprehensive methodology is nec- essary in the works of d.v. sarab’ianov and a.s. shatskikh, since malevich’s biography is full of inaccuracies and contradictions; art historians clarify them through the use of his- torical materials. philosophical, art history and stylistic analyses not only contribute to a true understanding of the facts of biography, but also open up the possibility of arranging se- mantic accents in the artist’s work. the article by e. luk’ianov suprematist insight of leo tolstoy and the philosophical revelations of k. malevich (luk’ianov, ), in which portrait as a way of transforming real- ity is considered through the prism of the main development vectors of malevich’s creativity, seems unusual to us. this thesis unfolds in the characteristics that divide the concept of “por- trait” into a series of blocks. the portrait-ho- logram indicates the principle of holism as a reflection of the whole in parts. a portrait-re- bus speaks of the process of perceiving the world, but not of reproducing a holistic pic- ture of the world. besides, portrait-still-life and portrait-archetype are also distinguished, when it regards the disappearance of objects, after which their archetypes remain. here, ref- erences to exact sciences are important, first of all, physics, the idea of the fourth dimension and going beyond the boundaries of the binary system, the image of the incalculable. separate blocks include portraits-icons and metaphysi- cal portraits. luk’ianov uses philosophical and art history analysis and general scientific meth- ods that allow him to form an art history clas- sification of malevich’s portraits through the prism of evidence. e.v. basner also uses the methodology of philosophical and art history analysis in his article painting by malevich from the collec- tion of the state russian museum (problems of the artist’s creative evolution) (basner, ). e.f. kovtun ( - ) also carries out the study the beginning of suprematism (kovtun, ) in the methodology of philosophical and art history analysis. in addition, we should pay attention to the article by i.a. azizyan ( - ) kazimir malevich: universalism and messianism (azizyan, ), in which the au- thor considers the philosophical tradition of russian messianism, namely, the concept of all-unity by v.s. solov’ev and the idea of an- thropodicy by n.a. berdyaev. justification of man by creativity is combined with the gener- al idea of russian spiritual culture about the – – ekaterina m. tolstikhina and marina v. moskalyuk. revisiting the issues of studying the creative heritage… transformation of man through the transforma- tion of the world. the article uses malevich’s philosophical treatises and works, the analysis of which allows us to draw a number of con- clusions, for example, that malevich’s denial of the mimesis and assertion of the life-creating role of art are associated with the conscious de- nial of causal rationalism and positivism. the same principle can be seen in the comparison of black, red and white periods in the work of k. malevich with the fundamental ontology of martin heidegger, which d.v. sarab’ianov and a.s. shatskikh in the work kazimir malev- ich. painting. theory refer to (sarab’ianov & shatskikh, ). studies dedicated to the opera victory over the sun should be singled out in a separate group. the article by j. kiblitskii regarding the black square in the opera “victory over the sun” (kiblitskii, ), as well as the article by t.v. kotovich the futuristic opera “victory over the sun” (kotovich, ) show the rela- tionship of opera and creation of malevich’s main work the black square. a.s. shatskikh and d.v. sarab’ianov write about the same in their works. in a narrower aspect i.a. vakar touch upon this topic in his work academic years of kazimir malevich in moscow. facts and fiction (vakar, ). i.n. karasik in his article malevich in the judgments of contem- poraries (karasik, ) speaks of such histor- ical documents as notes by yudin and punin, but does not draw new conclusions of his own. another block of research on the work of k. malevich is devoted to the problem of attribution and the technologies that charac- terize the colourful surface of his works. for example, the article by e. petrova malevich’s works in the state russian museum and their new dating (petrova, ) is devoted to that. technological analysis allows the attribution of works and clarifies the creation date on the basis of historical documentation and scientific analysis of the colourful surface. the article by s. rimskaia-korsakova on the technological study of malevich’s paintings (rimskaia-kor- sakova, ) is devoted to the same direction. it speaks of a colourful surface: colouration (colour and light), while scientific analysis, for example, images in the light, allows trac- ing malevich’s creative career, discovering improvements and corrections made by the artist before the completion of the work. the article by o. klenova features of the creative method of malevich revealed during the resto- ration of his works (klenova, ) points to the knowledge gained from studying the doc- umentation from the state russian museum. it covers technological issues, for example, the use of varnish by malevich, the technology of applying the paint layer in terms of the safety of work, the problem of oil breaks. the arti- cle by b.p. toporkova from the experience of restoring malevich’s architects (toporkova, ) is also of a technological nature. the new study of the heritage of k. malevich also makes some discoveries. the recent study by the staff of the state tretyakov gallery of the black square showed that initially malevich painted a cubofuturistic composition, and on top of it he painted a protosuprematist one. its colours can be seen in crack patterns in the paint, explained by ekaterina voronina, one of the researchers on this issue, whose publication is being prepared for printing. thus, the whole variety of domestic stud- ies of the work of k. malevich can be divided into several blocks, such as: a diverse philosophical and art history analysis of the work of k. malevich as a whole; philosophical and art history analysis of certain areas of creativity of k. malevich (for example, portrait); a chronological study of the life and cre- ative biography of k. malevich based on doc- uments; attribution and technology in the works of k. malevich. further, we find it important and interest- ing to compare the methodology of scientific publications on the work of k. malevich in russian art criticism with the methodology of foreign authors. we will pay special attention to the latest and most complete work malevich. tate publishing ( ), which consists of sever- al large semantic blocks. in the first section the icon of the new time, the conversation about malevich begins with the exhibition “ . ”. there is a compar- ison of the black square with the icon. it is – – ekaterina m. tolstikhina and marina v. moskalyuk. revisiting the issues of studying the creative heritage… noteworthy that the work appeals to russian history. on the one hand, this is due to the need to immerse the european reader in a historical context that is not required in such a detailed form in domestic works. on the other hand, this is an important methodological move, which allows drawing conclusions about the development of malevich’s work as a result of historical changes in the sociocultural environ- ment that surrounded him. a parallel is drawn between the social revolution in society and the revolution of methods and views taking place in the creative development of malevich. an analysis of various influences on malevich’s work is undertaken, and historical facts are used that confirm that malevich was at an ear- ly stage familiar with the works of c. monet, p. gauguin, p. cezanne, a. matisse, p. picasso. a thesis appears on the synthesis of western european and russian traditions, which allows obtaining a new quality in the works of ma- levich. the analysis of the historical sociocul- tural situation and the analysis of biographical information are used as a way to determine the causes and consequences of the development of malevich’s creative path. the second section of the aforementioned publication k. malevich becomes russian gives biographical information about the birth and family of the artist; determines the source of the development of creativity from symbolism to suprematism as a result of the influence of the works shown by p.m. tretyakov (icons, rus- sian realistic art) and french art (p. cezanne, p. gauguin, pierre bonnard, maurice denis, a. matisse and p. picasso) shown by i.a. moro- zov and s.i. shchukin in moscow. the section provides an analysis of the work of k. malev- ich the shroud of christ ( ), self-portrait ( - ) from the perspective of the influ- ence of french artists on malevich. in relation to the works presented by malevich at the exhibition, an important thesis “iconic peas- ant life” is formulated. further, this thesis is expanded by comparison with p. gauguin and n. goncharova, who introduce cubism into the russian icon. another thesis that appears when analysing the works presented by malevich in france, is kazimir malevich as a world artist. the next block is alogisms. the works the en- glishman in moscow ( ), the cow and the violin ( ) are considered. historical and art history analysis cause important observations. for example, between and malevich borrowed from french symbolism, fauvism, cubism and italian futurism; he is defined as tacking between styles and trends in art. in the third section language, space, ab- straction, an art-philosophical analysis is ap- plied, which allows revealing the principles of russian futurism on the basis of the opera vic- tory over the sun, identifying the opera as the first appearance of geometric figures in malev- ich’s work. in conjunction with the opera, the cover three and futuristic book design are con- sidered. arithmetic and grammar, rarely cited in russian publications, is also mentioned. we also note the uniqueness of the analysis of lin- guistic principles and expressive means, which are presented in the analysis of small works by malevich, which include font compositions. the fourth section k. malevich as a cura- tor considers the organization of the exhibition space for malevich’s works at the exhibition “ . ”, which was the first to show suprema- tist works. there is a discussion of the iconos- tasis and special characteristics of the artist’s works, which he placed at the exhibition in the red corner. the various exhibitions in which the artist participated or which were initiated by him are also indicated; the causal relation- ships of the specificity of the exhibitions and the development of the work of k. malevich are determined. in addition, the work includes the sections colour of the masses, suprematism in the streets. malevich in vitebsk, architecture, modernism. k. malevich draws up diagrams, from suprematism to supernaturalism. we note the completeness of the study, the publi- cation of rare materials and sketches, the use of the entire set of methodological tools, start- ing from philosophical and art history analysis and ending with the problems of attribution and confirmation of historical facts. thus, we have characterized the monu- mental collective monograph malevich. tate publishing ( ); we emphasize once again that philosophical and art history analysis is the leading method in it with very interesting sharp style comparisons; in addition, an introduction – – ekaterina m. tolstikhina and marina v. moskalyuk. revisiting the issues of studying the creative heritage… of new material in the circle of study compared to russian art history can be noted. let us turn to other foreign authors. in the article by ch. douglas on the philosophi- cal origins of subjectless art (douglas, ), malevich is included in a single historical pro- cess with the west, the significance of the art- ist’s work is brought to the global level. the author uses knowledge in the field of art histo- ry and philosophy, draws a number of conclu- sions, interfaced with cubism, orphism, italian futurism. douglas also evaluates western art ideas in comparison with malevich’s ideas. this allows us to distinguish four aspects of the aesthetics of modernism: understanding the na- ture of sensations; the role of the psyche in the work of the artist; the idea of universal dyna- mism; the role of colour in painting. we should note that when comparing western european trends and their theoretical basis with the work of malevich, douglas highlights and constantly emphasizes the new quality that malevich re- ceives in his works. in another article nonob- jectivity and decorativeness (douglas, ), ch. douglas raises the issue of decorative art as the possibility of expressing the cosmic prin- ciple and universal meanings through emblems and symbols, concluding that suprematism is a universal form of expression, while the ground for the nonobjectivity in painting is prepared by the evolution of the ornament of decorative fabrics. in our review, we should also refer to the popular publication malevich (neret gilles, ) by gilles neret ( - ), in which the narrative is arranged in chronology and consists of several thematic sections: roots of abstraction, the all-seeing eye, malevich’s cosmos, waiting for the doomsday. we should note the analysis of the historical situation, in particular the influence of western euro- pean movements and artists on the work of malevich. historical and art history analysis allowed us to reveal the influence of popular print; in addition, the author analysed patriot- ic popular prints, which had never been seen in articles on malevich’s works. the appeal to the works in pencil on paper with the texts of olga rozanova and the primitivism of malev- ich is remarkable. conducting a philosophical and art history analysis, gilles neret draws a conclusion about iconography, supplementing the information with expertise facts, for ex- ample, writing about the cross that is the sym- bol of christ, which received an erotic mean- ing (horizontal line is a woman, vertical line is a man). in addition, philosophical and art history analysis allows comparing the paint- ing workers ( ) with the icon our lady of hodegetria. thus, foreign articles on the work of ma- levich can be characterized by highlighting the following blocks: chronological study of the life and creative biography of k. malevich; philosophical and art history analysis, in- cluding on the basis of a comparison with rus- sian art material of past centuries; philosophical and art history analysis, in- corporating malevich’s work in the global art space; art and linguistic analysis of graphic works by malevich, including the appeal of foreign authors to graphic works, sketches by k. malevich, reproductions of which are ex- tremely rare; historical and art history analysis of the role of curatorial practice in the life and work of k. malevich. summing up, we can talk about the pre- dominance of art history analysis both in the western and in the domestic bibliography of kazimir malevich’s work, while attribution of works and appeal to technological aspects are inherent mainly in domestic works. with all the abundance and diversity of literature, it should be noted that the final fundamental monograph, which fully includes both biographical materi- al and creative heritage, has not yet been pub- lished. the complete catalogue with updated chronological data, taking into account private collections, is no less relevant. in addition, we can also state that there is no generally accept- ed periodization of malevich’s work. all this shows that, with the seemingly complete study of the famous russian avant-garde artist, the problems of further research work are very ex- tensive. – – ekaterina m. tolstikhina and marina v. moskalyuk. revisiting the issues of studying the creative heritage… references azizyan, i.a. ( ). dialog iskusstv serebrianogo veka [the art dialog of the silver age]. moscow, progress and traditions, p. basner, e.v. ( ). zhivopis’ malevicha iz sobraniia russkogo muzeia. problemy tvorcheskoi evoliut- sii khudozhnika [the kazimir malevich’s art from the collection of the state russian museum of fine arts. the evolution problems of malevich’s art]. in kazimir malevich v russkom muzee [kazimir malevich in the state russian museum]. saint-petersburg, palace editions, - . douglas, ch. ( ). bespredmetnost’ i dekorativnost’. voprosy iskusstvoznaniia [nonobjectivity and decorativeness. art issues]. in zhurnal mezhdunarodnoi assotsiatsii iskusstvovedov [art critics interna- tional association journal], - . moscow, ao tsitp, - . douglas, ch. ( ). o filosofskikh istokakh bespredmetnogo iskusstva [concerning philosophical origin of non-objective art]. in malevich. khudozhnik i teoretik [malevich. artist and theorist], - . mos- cow, soviet artist, - . karasik, i. n. ( ). malevich v suzhdeniiakh sovremennikov [malevich judged by contemporaries]. in malevich. khudozhnik i teoretik [malevich. artist and theorist]. moscow, soviet artist, - . kiblitskii, i.k. ( ). k voprosu o chernom kvadrate v opere “pobeda nad solntsem” [revisiting black square in the opera «victory over the sun»]. in kazimir malevich v russkom muzee [kazimir malevich in the state russian museum]. saint-petersburg, palace editions, p. klenova, o. ( ). osobennosti tvorcheskogo metoda malevicha, vyiavlennye v protsesse restavrat- sii ego proizvedenii [features of malevich’s creative method identified in the process of restoration of his works]. saint-petersburg, palace editions, - . kotovich, t.v. ( ). futuristicheskaia opera pobeda nad solntsem [the futurism opera «victory over the sun»]. in al’manakh [almanac]. minsk, ekonompress. - p. kovtun, e. ( ). pobeda nad solntsem. nachalo suprematizma [victory over the sun. the beginning of suprematism]. in nashe nasledie [our heritage], ( ), p. luk’ianov, e. ( ). suprematicheskoe prozrenie l’va tolstogo i filosofskie otkroveniia k malevicha [suprematist insight of leo tolstoy and philosophical revelations of k. malevich]. in malevich. klassich- eskii avangard. vitebsk [malevich. classic avant-garde. vitebsk]. minsk, ekonompress, - . malevich. tate publising ( ). london: achimborchardt-hume, p. neret, gilles ( ). malevich [malevich]. moscow, taschen, p. petrova, e. ( ). proizvedeniia malevicha v russkom muzee i ikh novye datirovki [malevich’s works in the state russian museum and their new dating]. saint-petersburg, palace editions, - . rimskaia-korsakova, s. ( ). o tekhnologicheskom issledovanii kartin malevicha [on the techno- logical study of paintings by malevich]. saint-petersburg, palace editions, p. sarab’ianov, d.v. ( ). malevich v epokhu velikogo pereloma [malevich in the era of the great turn]. in malevich. khudozhnik i teoretik [malevich. artist and theorist]. moscow, soviet artist, - . sarab’ianov, d.v. & shatskikh, a.s. ( ). kazimir malevich. zhivopis’. teoriia [kazimir malevich. art. theory]. moscow, art, p. shatskikh, a.s. ( ). kazimir malevich i obshchestvo supremus [kazimir malevich and supremus community]. moscow, tri kvadrata, p. toporkova, b.p. ( ). iz opyta restavratsii arkhitektonov malevicha [from the experience of resto- ration of malevich’s architectons]. saint-petersburg, palace editions, p. vakar, i.a. ( ). gody ucheniia kazimira malevicha v moskve. fakty i vymysly. [kazimir malev- ich. academic years in moscow. facts and fiction]. in malevich. khudozhnik i teoretik [malevich. artist and theorist]. moscow, soviet artist. - . ekaterina m. tolstikhina and marina v. moskalyuk. revisiting the issues of studying the creative heritage… К вопросам изучения творческого наследия Казимира Малевича: российская и зарубежная библиография Е.М. Толстихина, М.В. Москалюк Сибирский государственный институт искусств имени Дмитрия Хворостовского Российская Федерация, Красноярск Аннотация. В статье рассмотрены вопросы, связанные с изучением творческого наследия Казимира Малевича. Дана характеристика и изучены основные труды российских и зарубежных исследователей. Выделена и проанализирована разница подходов к изучению наследия художника у отечественных и зарубежных исследователей. Выявлены основные принципы, используемые исследователями и включающие преимущественно хронологическое изучение жизненной и творческой биографии, философско-искусствоведческий анализ, искусствоведческо- лингвистический анализ графических листов, атрибуцию и технологию в произведениях К. Малевича. Определено преобладание искусствоведческого анализа как в западной, так и в отечественной библиографии. Ключевые слова: Казимир Малевич, авангард, супрематизм. Научная специальность: . . – теория и история искусства. agathon.qxd nel , anno nel quale viene forma-lizzata a vienna la nascita della ve-reinigung bildender künstler Öster- reichs secession , josef hoffmann, già promet- tente allievo di karl hasenauer e che però con- clude la sua formazione presso la spezialschule con otto wagner (successore di hasenauer), pub- blica sulla prestigiosa rivista der architekt una selezione di schizzi che ritraggono esempi di edi- lizia e di agglomerati vernacolari di capri accom- pagnati da un suo sintetico testo dal titolo ‘archi- tectonisches von der insel capri’. È il primo di una serie di articoli sull’architet- tura spontanea pubblicati da der architekt anche con firme autorevoli, come quella josef august lux. appena un anno prima, la serie cui apparten- gono i suoi disegni su capri aveva destato non poche perplessità al momento della presentazione nell’aula magna dell’aulica nuova sede dell’anti- ca akademie der bildenden künste wien (oramai da venti anni nell’edificio realizzato da theophil hansen) che campeggia sui vicini fabbricati costruiti ai lati della shillerplatz, vicina alla ringstrasse . in attesa che robert musil, nel suo der mann ohne eigenschaften, assegnasse alla stessa valenze inquietanti nella sublimazione del disagio collettivo dell’incomunicabilità, josef hoffmann (pirnitz – vienna ) disorien- tava il compassato corpo docente e le dame e i gentiluomini, abituali frequentatori delle esposi- zioni dell’accademia, con una brillante produzio- ne grafica relativa ad un genere architettonico endemicamente comunicativo, ma considerato ‘minore’. si trattava di quell’architettura mediter- ranea che, a dire il vero, tanto aveva attratto il fon- datore del classicismo romantico tedesco, karl friedrich schinkel, in quanto improntata ad assemblaggi di stereometrie elementari, corredate da terrazzamenti, pergole, portici e fornici ed esen- ti da vincolanti regole compositive, che non fosse- ro quelle dell’utilità ed economicità; un’impronta oggettiva, dunque, se non astila, garantita anche dall’uso di intonacature a stesura unitaria (preva- lentemente di colore bianco). di lì a qualche anno quasi tutti gli esponenti della cultura del progetto moderno dei primi decenni del xx secolo (non ultimo charles- edouard jeanneret) saranno letteralmente calami- tati dalle forme pure dell’architettura generica- mente definita ‘mediterranea’ . ma nel hoffmann ne produceva graficamente le forme in abstract otto wagner, fra il e il , mette in atto una rifor- ma ‘verticistica’ di quel principio della riorganizzazione del visibile che è uno dei cardini della rivoluzione esteti- ca dell’art nouveau. a differenza delle altre compagini di protagonisti del modernismo il nucleo di allievi della sua scuola (tra cui hoffmann, plečnik, deininger, schönthal, hoppe, fuchs), così come i suoi assistenti (fra cui primeggia j. m. olbrich) e i fiancheggiatori esterni (valga per tutti il caso di m. fabiani), pur non differenziandosi sul piano dell’orientamento interdisci- plinare si distinguono, data la formazione, per una pecu- liare impronta accademica della loro preparazione ‘al moderno’ tale da consentire loro di conseguire risultati eterogenei sul piano formale ma coerenti in quanto a metodo (per l’ordinamento architettonico) e a variabili di una pur articolata gamma di codici figurali; un profi- lo riconoscibile nel tempo e che ha permesso alla wagnerschule, nonostante il suo essere un fenomeno di nicchia, di segnare una svolta decisiva nella cultura del progetto d’età contemporanea. otto wagner, between and , carries out a ver- tical reform of that principle of the reorganization of the visible which is one of the cornerstones of the art nouveau aesthetic revolution. unlike other modernist protagonists, the core of pupils of his school (including hoffmann, plečnik, deininger, schönthal, hoppe, fuchs), as well as his assistants (among whom jm olbrich stands out) and the external supporters (applies to all the case of m. fabiani), although not differentiated on the level of interdisciplinary orientation are distin- guished, given the formation, for a peculiar academic footprint of their preparation modern such as to allow them to achieve heterogeneous results on the formal but consistent as regards the method (for the architectural arrangement) and the variables of an even wide range of figural codes; a profile recognizable over time and that has allowed wagnerschule, despite its being a niche phe- nomenon, to mark a decisive turning point in the culture of the project of the contemporary age. keywords wagnerschüle, accademia, insegnamento, moderne ar- chitekture. wagnerschüle, academy, teaching, moderne architecture. un contesto istituzionale di diverso orientamento: in quanto vincitore per quell’anno dello staatsreisestipendium, detto più informalmente rompreis (che comportava l’assegnazione di una ricca borsa di . corone e il diritto ad allog- giare nella torre di san marco di palazzo venezia a roma, allora sede dell’ambasciata dell’impero austroungarico), doveva per statuto al suo ritorno esporre in accademia i relativi reiseskizzen, che normalmente erano elaborati grafici relativi al patrimonio architettonico e artistico del passato. solo l’appartenenza alla pur recente wagner- schule può aver scongiurato una censura, anche informale, dell’operato di hoffmann. la storia avrebbe dato ragione ad hoffmann; ma bisognerà attendere quattro anni perché la scuola di wagner ne recepisca pienamente il messaggio, tanto da allineare per quasi un triennio, a partire dal , il programma didattico alla ricerca di nuove forme architettoniche astile, con temi incentrati sulla cosiddetta ‘casa italiana’. a quella data l’attività di insegnamento di otto wagner (penzing – vienna ) aveva compiuto appena sette anni; è, infatti, nell’autunno del che wagner, chiamato a subentrare nella titolarità di quella spezialschule neorimascimenta- le della akademie der bildenden künste wien tra- dizionalmente in antitesi con l’altra di orientamen- to medievista (di luntz), disorienta i convenuti alla prolusione ufficiale con teorizzazioni allora classificabili come eterodosse. a differenza degli altri protagonisti dell’art nouveau, otto wagner opera una rivalutazione ‘verticistica’ di quella ‘riorganizzazione del visibile’ che è uno degli assunti fondamentali dell’art nouveau. questa particolare ricerca di una ‘nuova via’ alla moder- nità, è in realtà perfettamente in linea con un più vasto fenomeno di rinnovamento di cui è partecipe un’aliquota cospicua di quella compagine intellet- tuale, artistica e scientifica, viennese di fine secolo affetta da un’irriducibile vocazione accademica. un profilo messo bene in evidenza da marco pozzetto nel suo volume del sulla mostra della wagnerschule organizzata dall’università e dal comune di trieste. wagner ha cinquantatré anni quando diventa cattedratico senza aver consumato in precedenza una vera esperienza didattica. la famosa, e forse sopravvalutata, prolusione al corso del , subi- to dopo pubblicata a berlino con il titolo moderne architektur, si inserisce con vigore, visto il conte- agathÓn | - international journal of architecture, art and design | - issn: - (print) - issn: - x (online) - doi: . / - / ettore sessa* la wagnerschule (vienna - ): wagner e la moderne architekture the wagnerschule (vienna - ): wagner and the moderne architekture sto accademico, nel filone di revisione tanto della prassi quanto della teoria della cultura del progetto inaugurata trenta anni prima da eugène emmanuel viollet-le-duc. ma se all’epoca del suo insedia- mento wagner è sostanzialmente estraneo al mondo accademico istituzionale ha già, però, al suo attivo ben tre decenni di apprezzata professio- ne nel solco della sicura formazione classicista, da lui poi declinata in positivista chiave eclettica, impartitagli con robusto impalcato didattico schinkeliano presso la königliche bauakademie di berlino e, in seguito, ricondotta a più quotidiani formalismi comunicativi nel segno degli insegna- menti, proprio presso l’akademie di vienna, di august sicard von sicardsburg e da eduard van der nüll, due fra i più stimati interpreti della nuova immagine della vienna del ring. nell’arco di tempo compreso fra il e il la spezialschule diretta da otto wagner fu effettivamente frequentata da allievi; molti di questi erano già laureati e non pochi già attivi in ambito professionale, solitamente presso studi affermati oppure presso importanti imprese edili. wagner praticò una regola non scritta, in base alla quale a frequentare il suo corso di studi dovevano essere all’incirca otto allievi per ognuno dei tre anni previsti nel percorso formativo di quella che, tutto sommato, era dai più percepita come una scuola di perfezionamento. la durata di tre anni del percorso formativo prevedeva un biennio intenso sotto la guida diretta di wagner (il cui studio era attiguo all’aula di dise- gno) con lezioni (di taglio teorico) ed esercitazioni estemporanee, o relative al tema principale annua- le, tutte le mattine dal martedì al venerdì. tutti i lunedì mattina, invece, erano dedicati discussione su quanto appreso dai periodici. l’ultimo anno era interamente incentrato sul tema a scelta; gli allievi, dopo un difficile iter progettuale con verifiche continue da parte di wagner, presentavano tavole redatte con formalistica eleganza, spesso con alcu- ni elaborati prodotti secondo la tecnica di rappre- sentazione definita dai manuali dell’epoca ‘alla tedesca’, cioè con prospettive sovente impreziosite da studiate smarginature e sempre con inserto pla- nimetrico. alzati e sezioni dovevano essere rap- presentati evidenziando il comporsi in aggetto delle superfici e delle sporgenze; inoltre i progetti, per i quali era d’obbligo la cura dell’immediato contesto (solitamente in simbiosi compositiva con la fabbrica), comprendevano anche la definizione di alcuni ambienti significativi. all’esame finale arrivavano, per il giudizio severo del collegio degli autorevoli docenti di tutta l’akademie der bildenden künste wien, solo ipotesi progettuali considerate da wagner realizzabili, prodotte in tavole redatte secondo modalità grafiche idonee alla partecipazione a concorsi di architettura. durante il percorso di studi, in effetti, gli allie- vi più dotati partecipavano, quasi monopolizzan- doli, ai tanti concorsi di architettura con borse riservate agli specializzandi. fra questi concorsi i più importanti erano: il premio haggemüller, con- sistente in una borsa di cento corone; il premio rosenbaum, triennale di corone; il premio speciale della scuola, annualmente assegnato dal solo wagner, di corone; il premio olbrich, consistente in corone, istituito nel in memoria di quello che wagner considerava il suo migliore collaboratore di studio, oltre che il più affine dei suoi ‘fiancheggiatori’; il premio otto wagner, di corone; il premio hansen; il premio füger; il premio della corte imperiale; lo staatsreisestipendium, di gran lunga il più presti- gioso e cospicuo, nonché l’unico sicuro passa- porto per carriere ad alto livello, anche universi- tarie. infine va ricordato l’ambìto ma discusso premio schwedenwein che era riservato agli allievi di lingua tedesca e precluso a quelli delle tante altre etnie dell’impero. le modalità della borsa schwedenwein, dav- vero odiose, erano in realtà abbastanza in linea con alcuni malcelati orientamenti contraddittori della buona società viennese, cosmopolita per au- todefinizione, e, al tempo stesso, erano alquanto distanti dal tenore gradevolmente multietnico del- la pur autoreferenziale, anche in quanto ad im- pronta austriaca, wagnerschule. È vero che fra gli iscritti ufficialmente alla scuola ben erano viennesi, provenivano dalla bassa austria, da salisburgo, altri da regioni austriache periferi- che, ma il ventaglio delle provenienze era alquan- to ampio con alcune aree particolarmente rappre- sentate come la boemia con allievi, la moravia con , la boemia settentrionale e la slesia con , la slovenia con e l’ungheria con e altre, non necessariamente dell’impero, con uno o due allievi (per l’intero arco di esistenza della scuola) quali la bosnia, il bremenhaven, la croazia, la bulgaria, la dalmazia, la galizia, la polonia, la renania, la sassonia, lo schleswig hollstein, la svizzera, la transilvania, il trentino e la venezia giulia, mentre un solo allievo risulta provenire d’oltreoceano, e cioè dall’argentina. quindi gli allievi in quota austriaca sono solo poco più della metà dei iscritti dal al . l’accesso alla scuola era soggetto al solo giu- dizio di wagner e si partecipava alla selezione pro- ducendo degli elaborati e sostenendo un colloquio di soli venti minuti. una prassi, questa, non sempre valutata positivamente dagli allievi, come nel caso del praghese pavel janak (allievo fra il e il , quando compie il formativo viaggio in italia, con la borsa turek di istituzione boema) autore di ben due manifesti cubisti ed esponente di spicco della ‘nuova’ architettura praghese, insieme a jan kotera (futuro rettore dell’accademia di praga e allievo della scuola dal al , anno in cui ha lo staatsreisestipendium), a josef chochol (allievo fra il e il ) e al più famoso fra gli allievi non austriaci, nonché erede mancato alla successione di wagner verosimilmente perché slo- veno, jože plečnik (che frequenta la scuola nello stesso periodo di kotera e nel ha lo staatsreisestipendium). janak finì per considerare troppo formalistica la didattica di wagner, quasi si concentrasse troppo su graficismi, anche nelle pre- sentazioni dei progetti; in effetti il filo diretto con der architekt e con le rinnovate tecniche tipografi- che è percepibile nella svolta di inizio del xx seco- lo nei criteri di redazione delle tavole di progetto. anche il viennese marcel kammerer (allievo fino al e vincitore dei premi hansen, rosen- baum e schwedenwein) ebbe, poi, modo di criti- care l’eccessivo virtuosismo grafico. kammerer con i concittadini wunibald deininger (insignito fig. - otto wagner in his professional studio in vienna with colleagues and collaborators, including j. hoffmann and j. plečnik (marchetti, ). fig. - cover for the annual binding of the files of der architekt. fig. - cover of the first issue of the ix year of der architekt (januar ). sessa e., agathÓn ( ) - del premio della corte, della borsa gundel e, nel , del conclusivo staatsreisestipendium), otto schöntal (anche lui pluripremiato che nel ha lo staatsreisestipendium e che nel succede a ferdinand von feldegg nella direzione di der ar- chitekt) ed emil hoppe (vincitore di un solo pre- mio, lo schwedenwein, nel ma destinato ad influire più degli altri colleghi sul ‘modo’ vienne- se di fare architettura prima del conflitto mondia- le) condivide la breve ma intensa esperienza della stagione astila della wagnerschule; fenomeno che, stando alla produzione progettuale di questa rosa di colti ‘eletti’, sembra distinguere il raffinato gu- sto di questi viennesi , già concettualmente pronti al conseguimento di un’oggettività oltranzista (an- che se ancora ben lontani dall’agile e confortevole rigore di adolf loos), dall’affiorante storicismo o dalle propensioni regionaliste degli allievi prove- nienti da altre aree dell’impero. in realtà non sappiamo quanto fosse esteso il bacino di provenienza degli allievi e di interesse per la scuola, in quanto i tentativi ammissione fu- rono ben maggiori delle effettive iscrizioni; fra i tanti esclusi figura anche il giovane adolf hitler, collaboratore di studio di max fabiani (cobdil – gorizia ). quest’ultimo fu forse il più quotato fra i professionisti di livello della vienna fine impero a poter essere considerato un vero e proprio ‘fiancheggiatore’ della wagner- schule, nonostante la sua versatile vena storicista abile, tuttavia, a conseguire esiti prossimi a quelli di alcuni degli indirizzi della scuola di wagner. fra questi indirizzi, talvolta in mera succes- sione ma spesso in sovrapposizione, ve ne erano anche tipologici come nei casi, fra i più praticati, di edificio per albergo e di ‘casa italiana’, oppure di edifici per il tempo libero (soprattutto termali, per ristorazione o spettacoli), monumenti, residen- ze-atelier, residenze e padiglioni per ipotetiche committenze dinastiche, padiglioni effimeri, com- plessi espositivi o per l’istruzione, edilizia com- merciale o da pigione, ma anche di case per il po- polo o perfino per associazioni iniziatiche (piutto- sto raramente) e, ancora meno di frequente, di ar- chitetture ecclesiastiche o di ideali sistemazioni urbanistiche. È una gamma di ricerche tipologiche che sembra riflettere la positiva aura di levità e vi- talità sociale dell’ambiente viennese; un orienta- mento con infinite e soggettive varianti, smentito solo da poche eccezioni, fra le quali eccellono le fantastiche e strutturate evocazioni monumentali di leopold bauer, i massivi e spesso silenti fuoriscala ideati da mario sandonà o da bohumil hübsch- mann (da considerare fra le più incisive delle varia- bili wagnerschule all’origine dell’architettura futu- rista di antonio sant’elia) e le cupe strumentazioni stereometriche gigantiste, di vago tenore visiona- rio, di vjekoslav bastl, karl bruckner, karl ernst- berger e persino di oskar felgel (peraltro capace anche di solari virtuosismi mediterranei, quali la ‘casa per il borsista austroungarico a roma’, pub- blicata nel su der architekt). altri indirizzi si sovrapponevano a quelli tipo- logici: dalle ricerche cromatiche, intraprese dal , alla riforma della nomenclatura architettoni- ca e, quindi, anche alla messa a punto di formulari stilistici bidimensionali; dalla rivalutazione critica delle architetture regionali, sulla scorta dell’inte- resse per gli spontaneismi ma anche delle deriva- zioni periferiche degli stili colti, alla risemantizza- zione vitalistica dell’endogeno biedermeier (caro a leopold bauer, successore di wagner subito inviso a non pochi allievi che decisero di continua- re privatamente gli studi con il loro ‘maestro’, ma anche ad otto schöntal e persino a joseph maria olbrich, il suo più geniale manipolatore); dalle ipotesi astile, soprattutto in relazione al tema della ‘casa italiana’, alla geometrizzazione dei codici e delle strumentazioni formali, fra i cui esiti più sin- golari sarebbe stato il cubismo praghese. questi ed altri indirizzi seguiti dalla wagnerschule river- beravano l’esigenza di una robusta volontà di riforma dell’architettura; pur agendo nell’ambito della sfera delle connotazioni figurali, l’esigenza di una serrata corrispondenza fra strumentazioni formali e impalcato compositivo se da un lato sca- giona la scuola dai sospetti di epidermicità e di convenzionalismo dall’altro ne svela il portato ideologico squisitamente accademico. È, in fin dei conti, l’inquieta vienna fin de siècle il teatro nel quale si consuma la vicenda della wagnerschule; la capitale di un impero me- tastorico, multietnico, pluriconfessionale ma agi- tato da latenti, inconfessabili e inconfessate re- more razziste, sindromi ataviche (fra cui il sem- pre temuto ‘risucchio’ balcanico), ancestrali ansie protocollari e identitarie. una capitale ‘decentra- ta’ (e non solo geograficamente, come sottilmente annota musil che la considera irrimediabilmente ‘fuori posto’), ostaggio di splendidi rituali collet- tivi, ma in fin dei conti affetta da una sofisticata aura provinciale, e che accoglie nel ventre delle gerarchie accademiche, proprio perché sicure del proprio ‘mandato’, anche fenomeni eteronomi. È così che, pur con qualche cedimento compromis- sorio, a meno dell’irriducibile karl kraus, nel gi- ro di pochi anni, prima dello scadere del secolo, i vertici accademici viennesi si potranno fregiare dell’affiliazione di innovatori, a maggior gloria della mitologia della sedicente liberale felix au- stria, come ernst waldfired josef wenzel mach per la filosofia, alois höfler per la psicologia, adolf stöhr per la logica, sigismund schlomo (sigmund) freud per la neurologia e la psicoana- lisi, alois riegl, divenuto cattedratico proprio nel , per la storia dell’arte, camillo sitte per la teoria dell’urbanistica, invero sistematizzata solo a partire da quando nel (dopo diciotto anni spesi a formare validi tecnici presso la prestigiosa gewerbwschule di salisburgo) viene chiamato ad insegnare nella capitale (senza però aver an- cora dato alle stampe il suo der städte-bau nach seinen künstlerischen grundsätzen), e otto wa- gner per l’architettura. per non parlare di gustav klimt che nel può capeggiare altri diciotto artisti e intellettuali nella fortunata avventura della secession dalla potente wiener künstlerhaus, distinguendo gli albori viennesi del modernismo artistico, ad art nouveau già manifestatasi, per quell’impronta istituzionale che certamente non avevano avuto i precedenti movimenti tedeschi di secessione arti- stica. analogo discorso andrebbe fatto per gustav mahler, che sempre nel (nonostante la con- sueta preclusione agli ebrei di alcuni dei più auto- revoli incarichi imperiali) diventa direttore della k. k. hofoper wien, oppure per gli eterodossi, e meno pubblicizzati, maestri defilati delle agguerri- te pattuglie di nicchia di epistemologi o di mate- matici attivi a vienna nei primi decenni del xx secolo che, con i militanti delle ricerche musicali d’avanguardia , avrebbero contribuito in maniera sessa e., agathÓn ( ) - figg. - - from the top: plan of the ringstrassezone, project presented at the competition of by e. van der nüll and a. sicard von sicardsburg (wurzer, ); house of the viennese secession, prospective study of j.m. olbrich and plants, raised of the main facade and perspective view from the bottom of villa al mare, project of w. deininger (der architekt, and ). determinante a riscrivere le pagine degli ideali di modernità del ‘secolo breve’. in un certo senso la stessa formazione di wagner annuncia il solido portato accademico dei suoi modi progettuali e del suo impalcato didatti- co; esso era votato al rinnovamento ma non al tra- dimento delle venerande certezze. il suo algido accademismo schinkeliano, ricondotto a quotidia- nità dal pur eclettico gusto calligrafico dei suoi ‘maestri’ austriaci, si dimostra abile a ricondurre le tensioni einfühlung, che all’epoca agitavano l’an- sia di rinnovamento dei primi esponenti dell’art nouveau fino ad indurli in emotive trasfigurazioni vitalistiche di componenti e forme architettoniche, in una dimensione pienamente idealista di rilancio, attualizzato dall’ethos soggettivista, del principio di ‘essenza unitaria della forma’ e della volontà di perseguire un’oggettività concettuale quale rifles- so di un ideale classicista non imitativo, ma di ine- dito ordinamento superiore. un impalcato difficil- mente trasmissibile agli allievi; soprattutto in un’e- poca nella quale i progettisti scrivono poco, e dise- gnano tanto. solo annotazioni postume o testimo- nianze dirette hanno tramandato le modalità di insegnamento di quella che, unitamente alla scuola di theodor fischer , è da considerare l’unica cen- trale accademica di diffusione del modernismo. la sua linea culturale, votata alla sperimenta- zione di una sistematica della modernità per filiere di strumentazioni compositive declinabili, ampia- mente propagandata da der architekt (periodico la cui diffusione in europa e in america ancora attende una più attenta valutazione ai fini di asse- gnare una più consona e documentata collocazione alle ‘matrici’ wagneriane), di fatto ha connotato gran parte dell’architettura contemporanea del xx secolo; dai modernismi iberico e italiano all’art nouveau nei paesi slavi e in scozia, dall’architet- tura organica americana al fenomeno wendingen, dal cubismo praghese al futurismo italiano, dal- l’architettura sovietica stalinista al classicismo moderno scandinavo e, infine, dal novecentismo all’architettura del drittes reich. english in , the year in which the birth of the vereini- gung bildender künstler Österreichs secession was formalized in vienna, josef hoffmann, al- ready a promising student of karl hasenauer and who concludes his training at the spezialschule with otto wagner (successor of hasenauer), pub- lishes in the prestigious der architekt magazine a selection of sketches showing examples of vernac- ular buildings and agglomerations of capri ac- companied by a synthetic text entitled architec- tonisches von der insel capri. it is the first of a series of articles on sponta- neous architecture published by der architekt al- so with authoritative signatures, such as josef au- gust lux. just a year before, the series to which his drawings belonged on capri had aroused con- siderable doubts at the time of presentation in the aula magna of the new building of the ancient akademie der bildenden künste wien (now twenty years in the building created by theophil hansen) that stands on the nearby buildings built on the sides of the shillerplatz, close to the ringstrasse . waiting for robert musil, in his der mann ohne eigenschaften, to assign the same disturbing val- ues in the sublimation of the collective discomfort of incommunicability, josef hoffmann (pirnitz – vienna ) disoriented the compassion- ate teaching staff and the ladies and gentlemen, habitual exhibitions of the academy, with a bril- liant graphic production related to an architectural genre endemically communicative, but considered minor. it was that mediterranean architecture that, to tell the truth, had attracted the founder of ger- man romantic classicism, karl friedrich schinkel, because it was based on assemblies of elementary stereometries, accompanied by terraces, pergolas, arcades and arches and free from binding compo- sitional rules, which are not those of utility and economy; an objective impression, therefore, if not astila, also guaranteed by the use of unitary plas- tering (predominantly white). in a few years, almost all the exponents of the modern design culture of the first decades of the twentieth century (not least charles-edouard jeanneret) will be literally magnetized by the pure forms of the generally defined mediterranean ar- chitecture . but in hoffmann graphically produced the forms in an institutional context of different orientation: as the winner for that year of the staatsreisestipendium, said more informally rompreis (which involved the assignment of a rich bag of , crowns and the right to stay in the tower of san marco of palazzo venezia in rome, then the seat of the embassy of austro- hungarian empire), owing to its status on his re- turn, he exhibited his reiseskizzen in the acade- my, which were normally drawn up on the archi- tectural and artistic heritage of the past. only be- longing to the recent wagnerschule may have averted a censorship, even informal, of hoff- mann’s work. history would have justified hoff- mann; but it will be necessary to wait four years for wagner’s school to fully understand the mes- sage, so much so that for almost three years, since , the didactic program has been researching new architectural forms with themes focusing on the so-called italian house. at that time otto wagner’s teaching activity (penzing – vienna ) had made just seven years; in fact, in the autumn of wagner, called to take over the ownership of that neo- renaissance spezialschule of the akademie der bildenden künste wien traditionally antithetical with the other of medieval orientation (of luntz), disoriented the defendants to the official prolusion with theories then classifiable as heterodox. unlike the other protagonists of art nouveau, otto wagner operates a vertical revaluation of that reorganization of the visible which is one of the fundamental assumptions of art nouveau. this particular search for a new way to modernity, is in fact perfectly in line with a broader phenomenon of renewal which is part of a large share of that intellectual, artistic and scientific group of nine- teenth-century viennese affected by a irreducible academic vocation. a profile highlighted by marco pozzetto in his volume on the wagnerschule exhibition organized by the university and the municipality of trieste. wagner is fifty-three years old when he be- comes a professor without having previously con- summated a true didactic experience. the famous, and perhaps overvalued, prolusion in the course of , soon after published in berlin under the title moderne architektur, fits with force, consid- ering the academic context, in the vein of revision both of the practice and of the culture theory of the project inaugurated thirty years before by eu- gène emmanuel viollet-le-duc. if at the time of his inauguration wagner is substantially foreign to the institutional academic world, he has al- ready, to his credit, three decades of appreciated profession in the wake of the sure classicist for- mation, which he then declined into an eclectic key positivist, imparted to him with a robust deck schinkelian education at the königliche bau- akademie in berlin and, later, led to more formal communicative formalisms in the sign of the teachings, right at the akademie in vienna, by au- gust sicard von sicardsburg and eduard van der nüll, two of the most respected interpreters the new image of the ring vienna. during the period between and the spezialschule directed by otto wagner was actual- ly attended by students; many of these were already graduates and not a few already active in the professional field, usually at established stu- dios or at major construction companies. wagner figg. , - from the top: perspective of an interior for the residence of an aristocrat (project by r. tropsh) and overall perspective view of a holiday home, project of o. schöntal (der architekt, ). sessa e., agathÓn ( ) - practiced an unwritten rule, according to which he would have to be about eight students for each of the three years foreseen in the training course of the one that, all in all, was most perceived as a school of improvement. the three-year course of the training provided for an intense two-year period under the direct guidance of wagner (whose study was adjoining the drawing room) with lessons (theoretical) and extemporaneous exercises, or related to the main annual theme, all the mornings from tuesday to friday. every monday morning, on the other hand, discussions were held about what was learned from the periodicals. the last year was entirely focused on the theme of your choice; the students, after a difficult design process with con- tinuous checks by wagner, presented tables drawn up with formal elegance, often with some elabo- rates produced according to the representation technique defined by the manuals of the german era, that is, with perspectives often embellished with studied bleeds and always with a site plan. elevations and sections had to be represented highlighting the protruding composition of the surfaces and protrusions; the projects, for which the care of the immediate context (usually in sym- biosis with the factory) was obligatory, also included the definition of some significant envi- ronments. for the final examination, only the design hypotheses considered by wagner, pro- duced in tables drawn up according to graphic modalities suitable for participation in architec- tural competitions, arrived for the severe judg- ment of the college of the authoritative teachers of the entire akademie der bildenden künste wien. during the course of studies, in fact, the most gifted students participated, almost corner its, in the many architectural competitions with scholar- ships reserved for specializing students. the most important competitions were: the haggemüller prize, consisting of a bursary of crowns; the rosenbaum prize, a triennial grant of crowns; the special prize of the school, annually awarded by wagner, of crowns; the olbrich prize, consisting of crowns, established in in memory of the best collaborator of wagn- er professional study; the otto wagner prize, of crowns; the hansen award; the füger prize; the imperial court award; the staatsreises- tipendium, by far the most prestigious and con- spicuous, and the only sure passport to high-level careers, even university. finally, it should be not- ed the ambition but discussed schwedenwein prize which was reserved for german-language students and foreclosed to those of the many other ethnic groups of the empire. the very hateful schwedenwein scholarships were actually quite in line with some ill-concealed contradictory orientations of the good viennese society, cosmopolitan by self-definition, and at the same time, were quite distant from the pleasantly multiethnic content of the self-referential wagnerschule. there were students from vienna ( from lower austria, from salzburg, from peripheral austrian regions), but the range of backgrounds was quite large with some areas par- ticularly represented as bohemia with students, moravia with , northern bohemia and silesia with , slovenia with and hungary with and others, not necessarily of the empire, with one or two students (for the entire life span of the school) such as bosnia, bremenhaven, croatia, bulgaria, dalmatia, galicia, poland, rhineland, saxony, schleswig hollstein, switzerland, transylvania, trentino and venezia giulia, while only one pupil appears to be from overseas, namely from argentina. austrian students are only slightly more than half of the enrolled from to . access to the school was subject to the sole judgment of wagner and participated in the selec- tion producing works and supporting an interview of only twenty minutes. the practice was not al- ways positively evaluated by the students. this is the case of the prague pavel janak (student be- tween and , when he completes the for- mative trip to italy with the turek scholarship of a bohemian institution) author of two cubist posters and leading exponent of the new prague architec- ture, together with jan kotera (future rector of the prague academy and pupil of the school from to , year in which he has the staatsreises- tipendium), to josef chochol (student between and ) and to the most famous of the non- austrian students , as well as heir to the succession of wagner, jože plečnik (who attends school at the same time as kotera and in obtains the staat- sreisestipendium). janak ended up considering wagner’s teaching as too formalistic, as if he was concentrating too much on graphics, even in pro- ject presentations; in fact the direct line der ar- chitekt with the renewed typography is perceptible in the turning point of the beginning of xx century in the accounting standards of the drawings. also the viennese marcel kammerer (student until and winner of the hansen, rosenbaum and schwedenwein awards) was able to criticize the excessive graphic virtuosity. kammerer with fellow countrymen wunibald deininger (awarded with the court award, the gundel scholarship and, in , the final staatsreisestipendium), otto schöntal (also awarded in to the staatsreisestipendium and in to ferdinand von feldegg in the der architekt) and emil hoppe (winner of only one award, the schwedenwein, in but destined to influence more than the other colleagues on the viennese way of making archi- tecture before the world war) shares the short but intense experience of the wagnerschule astila sea- son; with reference to the design production of this educated rose, this phenomenon seems to distin- guish the refined taste of these viennese, already conceptually ready to achieve an extremist objec- tivity (even if still far from the agile and comfort- able rigor of adolf loos ), from the emerging his- toricism or from the regionalist tendencies of the students coming from other areas of the empire. we do not know how extended the basin of ori- gin of the students and of interest for the school, as the admission attempts were much greater than the actual enrollments; among many figure excluded the young adolf hitler, who worked with max fabiani (cobdil - gorizia study) . the latter was perhaps the most quoted between level professionals vienna late empire to be considered a real supporter of wagnerschule, despite its versatile skilled histori- cist vein to achieve results next to those of some of the addresses of the wagner school. among these addresses, often overlapping, there were also typological as in cases of building the hotel and italian house (among the most com- mon), or buildings for leisure (especially thermal, for restaurants or shows), monuments, studio-res- idences, residences and pavilions hypothetical dy- nastic patrons, ephemeral pavilions, exhibition complexes or for education, commercial construc- tion or rent but also of houses for the people, or even for initiation associations (rather rarely) and, even less frequently, ecclesiastical architec- tures or ideal urban plannings. it is a range of typological research that seems to reflect the positive aura of the levity and social vitality of the viennese situation; an orien- tation with infinite and subjective variations, de- nied only by a few exceptions, among which excel the fantastic and structured monumental evoca- tions of leopold bauer, the massive and often out-of-focus silts conceived by mario sandonà or bohumil hübschmann (to be considered among the most incisive of wagnerschule variables at figg. , - from the top: perspective view of a fountain for a park (project by p. palumbo) and plants and raised of the main prospect for villa loser in vienna, project of w. deininger (der architekt, and ). sessa e., agathÓn ( ) - of the secession by the powerful wiener künstler- haus, distinguishing the early viennese artistic modernism, art nouveau already manifested, for that institutional impression that certainly had not previous german movements of artistic secession. the same applies should be done by gustav mahler, always in (despite the usual foreclo- sure jews to some of the most respected imperial assignments) become director of k. k. hofoper wien, or for the heterodox, and less publicized, de- filed masters of the fierce niche patrols of episte- mologists or mathematicians active in vienna in the early decades of the twentieth century who, with militants of avant-garde musical research , would have contributed decisively to rewrite the pages of the ideals of modernity of the short century. in a sense, the very formation of wagner an- nounces solid academic lead of its design ways and his teaching deck; it was devoted to renewal but not to the betrayal of venerable certainties. his schinkelian scholarly scholarship, brought back to everyday life by the eclectic calligraphic taste of his austrian masters, proves able to bring back the einfühlung tensions, which at the time stirred the anxiety of renewing the first members of art nouveau to induce them in emotional vital- istic transfigurations of components and architec- tural forms, in a fully idealistic dimension of re- vival, actualized by the subjectivist ethos, of the principle of unitary essence of form and of the will to pursue a conceptual objectivity as a reflec- tion of a non-imitative classicist ideal, but of un- precedented superior ordering. a deck difficult to transmit to students; especially in an era in which designers write little and draw so much . only posthumous annotations or direct testimonies have handed down the teaching methods of what, together with theodor fischer’s school , is to be considered the only academic center for the diffu- sion of modernism. his cultural line, devoted to the experimentation of a system of modernity for a series of declining compositional instruments, widely propagated by der architekt (periodical whose diffusion in europe and in america still awaits a more careful evalua- tion in order to assign a more appropriate and doc- umented collocation of the wagnerian matrices) has in fact connoted much of th century contemporary architecture; from the iberian and italian mod- ernisms to the art nouveau in the slavic countries and in scotland, from the american organic archi- tecture to the wendingen phenomenon, from the prague cubism to the italian futurism, from the stalinist soviet architecture to the modern scandinavian classicism and finally from the novecentism to the architecture of the drittes reich. notes ) hutter, h. r. ( ), “la secessione viennese – storia di un’associazione di artisti”, in marchetti, m. (ed.), le arti a vienna. dalla secessione alla caduta dell’impero asburgico, catalogo della mostra, venezia, palazzo grassi, maggio- settembre , edizioni la biennale di venezia, pp. - ; joseph maria olbrich - , architektonické dílo ( ), brno, galerie stará radnice, kabinet architektury / - / / , brno. ) schorske, c. e. ( ), vienna fin de siècle, bompiani editore, milano; wurzer, r. ( ), planung und verwirklichung der ringstrassenzone in wien, technische universität, wien. ) sessa, e. ( ), “architettura modernista nel mediterraneo”, in pavan, g., barillari, d. and valcovich, e. (eds), trieste mitteleuropa mediterraneo. marco pozzetto, storico dell’architettura. atti del convegno, società di minerva, trieste, pp. - . ) pozzetto, m. ( ), la scuola di wagner - . idee-premi-concorsi, catalogo della mostra, trieste, comune di trieste, p. . the archive of marco pozzetto (ljubljana – trieste ) was donated by his sons barbara and luca to the university of palermo in and is currently part of the heritage of the scientific collections of the department of architecture of the polytechnic school of palermo. ) on max fabiani see: pozzetto, m. ( ), max fabiani ( - ), catalogo della mostra, gorizia, musei provinciali di palazzo attems, settembre- novembre , biblioteca cominiana di casier (tv); idem ( ), max fabiani, mgs press, trieste. ) pepe, d. ( ), “il circolo filosofico di vienna”, in de masi, d. (ed.), l’emozione e la regola, laterza, bari, pp. - . ) levi, v. ( ), “la vita musicale a vienna all’inizio del secolo”, in pozzetto, m. (ed.), la scuola di wagner - . idee-premi-concorsi, cit., pp. - . ) godoli, e. ( ), “l’architettura art nouveau negli archivi europei”, in aaa italia, associazione nazionale archivi architettura contemporanea- bollettino, n. , pp. - . ) nerdinger, w. ( ), theodor fischer-architekt und städtebauer, wilhelm ernst, berlin. * ettore sessa, associate professor, teaches his- tory of architecture and history of garden and landscape at the degree courses in architecture of palermo and agrigento of the polytechnic school of the university of palermo. he is head of the scientific collections of the department of architecture. he participated in the venice bien- nials ( , , ) and at the milan trienni- al ( ); he has organized numerous national conferences and exhibitions and has participated in national and international conferences. he car- ries out research on sicilian architecture of the middle ages and contemporary, on historical gardens, on architecture and urbanism both ital- ian and overseas and in tunisia. he has just over three hundred publications to his credit. e-mail: ettore.sessa@unipa.it the origin of the futurist architecture of antonio sant’elia) and the gloomy gigantic instrumenta- tions, of vague visionary tenor, of vjekoslav bastl, karl bruckner, karl ernstberger and even oskar felgel (also capable of solar mediter- ranean virtuosities, such as the house for the austro-hungarian scholar in rome, published in on der architekt). other addresses overlapped with the typologi- cal ones: from the chromatic research undertaken since , to the reform of the architectural nomenclature and, therefore, also to the develop- ment of two-dimensional stylistic forms; from the critical reappraisal of regional architectures, on the basis of the interest in spontaneism but also of the peripheral derivations of cultured styles, to the vitalistic re-seeding of the endogenous bieder- meier (dear to leopold bauer, wagner’s successor immediately notorious to many students who de- cided to continue privately studying with their teacher, but also with otto schöntal and even with joseph maria olbrich, his most brilliant manipu- lator); from the astile hypotheses, above all in re- lation to the theme of the italian house, to the ge- ometrization of the codes and the formal instru- ments, among whose most singular outcomes would have been the prague cubism. these and other addresses followed by the wagnerschule re- verberated the need for a strong will to reform the architecture; while acting within the sphere of the figurative connotations, the need for a close cor- respondence between formal instruments and compositional scaffolding on the one hand exon- erates the school from the suspicions of conven- tionality on the other reveals the exquisitely aca- demic ideological purpose. vienna fin de siècle is the theater in which it consumes the story of wagnerschule; the capital of a metamorphic, multiethnic, multi-confessional empire but agitated by latent, unconfessable and unconfessed racist remorse, atavistic syndromes (including the ever feared balkan suck), ancestral protocol and identity anxieties. a decentralized capital (and not only geographically, as subtly annotates musil who considers it irremediably out of place), hostage of splendid collective rituals, but ultimately affected by a sophisticated provin- cial aura, and which welcomes in the womb of hierarchies academics, precisely because they are sure of their own mandate, also heteronomous phenomena. this is how, even with some compro- mising yield, less than the irreducible karl kraus, within a few years, before the end of the century, the viennese academic leaders will be able to boast the affiliation of innovators, to the greater glory of the mythology of the self-styled liberal felix austria, as ernst waldfired josef wenzel mach for philosophy, alois höfler for psychology, adolf stöhr for logic, sigismund schlomo (sigmund) freud for neurology and psychoanaly- sis, alois riegl, who became a professor in , for history of art, camillo sitte for the theory of urbanism, indeed systematized only since when in (after eighteen years spent to train valid technicians at the prestigious gewerbwschule of salzburg) is called to teach in the capital (without having yet published his der städte-bau nach seinen künstlerischen grundsätzen), and otto wagner for architecture. in gustav klimt can lead other eighteen artists and intellectuals in the successful adventure fig. - overall perspective view of a complex for thermal treatments in a park at teplitz-schönau, project of m. kammerer (der architekt, ). sessa e., agathÓn ( ) - received: february , accepted: march , original scholarly paper udc . . Башичевић Д. . . Брудерс М. Остин Џ. Л. ivana bašičević antić art theoretician and manager in art ibasicevic@yahoo.com the central concepts of ordinary language philosophy in the art of marcel broodthaers and dimitrije bašičević mangelos abstract: while claiming that there are no fixed meanings behind words, wittgen- stein has focused attention on the possibilities of manipulation with linguistic categories. ‘lan- guage game’ can be changed by rotations of the semantic field. on the trace of this philosophy, language became the most important media in many practices of visual arts of the second half of the th century. i will focus on two cases: dimitrije bašičević mangelos and marcel broodthaers. wittgenstein’s concept of ‘language game’ and austin’s concept of the ‘performative’ have become the main tools in building delicate art projects like broodthaers’ museum or mangelos’ noart strategy. here i’d like to prove that broodthaers’ construction of a museum (musée d’art moderne) was based on the same concept as austin’s ‘performative’ and that the revolutionary act in this art project was to show that saying that something is art is not a given, it is not a statement. who is declaring what art is, and how is this ‘action performed’ (austin), is the main subject of mangelos’ picasso phenomenon. when mangelos asks the spectator to think about the concept of ‘kitsch’ he draws our attention to those who have the power or the license to declare that some art is ‘kitsch’ and some is true art. this issue could be related to clement greenberg’s attempt to discard everything popular, commercial in art by naming it ‘kitsch’. the main ideas of ordinary language philosophy were important for both mangelos and broodthaers. the idea that the language and more precisely, grammar of the language that defines the rules of connecting names and things is a place where the solution (solution meaning the answer to questions about the nature and definition of art) is hidden (behind the obvious), provided a very fruitful basis for their research. keywords: conceptual art, language games, performative, speech act, institutional critique art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april introduction conceptual art pointed to the parallels between the world of visuality, plas- ticity and the systems of linguistic signs. major influences on this art were made by duchamp’s critique of visuality and ideas of analytical philosophy. in considering lan- guage as a artistic tool, the thoughts of many artists were directed towards ludwig wittgenstein. his proclamation that there are no fixed meanings behind words gave freedom to many artists to investigate possibilities of manipulation with linguistic categories. in terms of understanding, early conceptual art specifications of text and discourse given in analytical philosophy are of the greatest importance. at the same time, as a consequence of the process of the negation of art as mere a thing of techne and under the influence of the enlightenment’s legacy, art entered the field of philosophy. artist robert morris approached duchamp’s legacy in a way best described as readymade in analogy with a saussurean model of language; “a model where meaning is generated by structural relationships.” further on, morris declared that his “fascination with and respect for duchamp was related to his linguistic fix- ation, to the idea that all of his operations were ultimately built on a sophisticated understanding of language itself.” language has become the place of understanding and the place of creating art at the same time. language has also become the primary tool for many other disciplines. in psychoanalysis, the unconscious was defined by language, according to lacan’s writings. culture and ideology were defined, built and learned through language. heidegger claimed that there is no other approach to da- sein than through language. traditional painting which symbolized everything emo- tional and irrational in art was attacked by language from inside its frames, starting from analytic cubism and going all the way until no visual information was given in painting, as in the works of analytic conceptual art. those new developments in the field of forms raised the question as to what would be considered art in the future? in his manifesto art as art, ad reinhardt declared: “no lines or imaginings, no shapes or composings or representings, no visions or sensations or impulses, no symbols or im- pastos, no decorations or colourings or picturings, no pleasures or pains, no accidents or readymades, no things, no ideas, no relations, no attributes, no qualities – nothing that is not of the essence.” but who determines what is ‘of essence’? miško Šuvaković, teorija umetnosti i analitička filozofija – ii deo, unpublished text of doctoral dissertation, . benjamin buchloh, “conceptual art – ”, october, vol. , winter, , . robert morris, from ibidem. “cubism, then, originated the two dominant modes of the physical presence of words in modernist art: words actually painted onto the surface freehand or with stencils or other devices and words from preexistent printed sources juxtaposed by collage.” john c. welchman, “image and language: syllables and charisma”, in: howard singerman (ed.), a selected history of contemporary art – , new york, abeville press publishers, , . ad reinhardt, “art as art”, art international, december ; reprinted in: barbara rose (ed.), art as art: the selected writings of ad reinhardt, new york, viking, , . discussions | art+media language in visual art “the criticism of the essentialism is the result of radicalization of criticism of traditional continental aesthetics, philosophy of art and criticism, i.e. the attempt to prove that the aspects of one object which are accepted as art works, are conditioned by the linguistic surrounding in which this object is offered as an artwork i.e. cultural conditions of linguistic (discursive, linguistic, semiotic) nature.” at the same time when language has become the main tool for understanding problems of psychology or structure of ideological and cultural mechanisms, language in general, but also more specifically language as the linguistic surrounding in which an object is offered as an artwork, becomes the field of research for an artist on a quest to discuss and decipher the nature of art. mangelos and broodthaers are paradigmatic examples of this type of art. what i wish to prove in this essay is that they were employing the basic principles of austin’s performatives when they were building their artistic and philosophical systems, whether they were aware of that or not. the question of power in the art world, and those who temporarily ‘own’ posi- tions of power, was a subject of those artistic practices defined as institutional critique. “in the absence of any specifically visual qualities and due to the manifest lack of any (artistic) manual competence as a criterion of distinction, all the traditional criteria of aesthetic judgment – of taste and of connoisseurship – have been programmatically voided. the result of this is that the definition of the aesthetic becomes on the one hand a matter of linguistic convention and on the other the function of both a legal contract and an institutional discourse (a discourse of power rather than taste).” the name of marcel broodthaers stands at the beginning of this practice. his idea was that in order to understand the way the art world functions, one must see its institutions from the inside (or backside). the same was wittgenstein’s goal when investigating language and illuminating the processes considered as objective and fixed. “but how we group words into kinds will depend on the aim of classification and on our own inclination.” the influence of ideology and our own goals is immense but not obvious. at this instance, the legacy of analytical philosophy became important for these two artists. the starting point for this analysis is wittgenstein’s investigation of the pro- cess of naming things or, in his terminology, ‘language games’. “what is the relation between name and thing named? – well, what is it? look at language-game ( ) or at another one: there you can see the sort of thing this relation consists in. this relation miško Šuvaković, “ludvig vitgenštajn i analitička estetika”, in: miško Šuvaković and aleš erjavec (eds.), fig- ure u pokretu. savremena zapadna estetika, filozofija i teorija umetnosti, beograd, atoča, , . what those two artists did, could be well described with the following quote: “[a] person who, using informa- tion, knowledge and material from different disciplines, artistic, humanistic or scientific, creates the networks of meaning which he afterwards uses for creation of the art work itself.” radoš mitrović, “pozicija i status auto- ra, dela i umetničkog doživljaja u okviru koncepta estetike odsutnosti hajnera gebelsa”, am journal of art and media studies, issue no. , , . benjamin buchloh, op. cit., – . ludwig wittgenstein, philosophical investigations, oxford, basil blackwell, , . art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april may also consist, among many other things, in fact that hearing the name calls before our mind the picture of what is named: and it also consists, among other things, in the name’s being written on the thing named or being pronounced when that thing is pointed at.” as wittgenstein pointed out, the process of naming things is something we learn similar to when a child learns a language. the thing is pointed at and the name is pronounced. it is a process that some neo-avant-garde artists found to be of crucial importance when defining art’s nature and creating new art practices. in this context, the following ‘group’ of statements should be considered: kosuth: “if someone says it’s art, then it is art…” robert rauschenberg: “this is a portrait of iris clert if i say so.” r. mutt’s urinal was an art object if marcel duchamp said so. this logic was defined as declaration of art by ‘speech act’ or the practice in which intentional declaration is foregrounded over contextualization. this type of investigation went further on in the field of relations between artwork, object and the name. rené magritte, in his famous artwork the treachery of images has written: “ceci n’est pas une pipe” under the image of a pipe. dealing with relations between images and objects and words, magritte warned the spectator that obvious things have become forgotten since they are too obvious to consider. it is so obvious that that was not a pipe but an image of pipe. in wittgenstein’s attempt to abandon metaphysical language and put philosophy in the realm of everyday language, exactly the same point was made. we need words for things that can’t be shown, but not the ones that are difficult to under- stand (being difficult, they cause more problems than they solve) but those from everyday language. for magritte, it was not possible to show where the act of deception takes place without words. he needed to put words on the canvas as well as image. and the words were simple, everyday words. magritte made a statement. in case of broodthaers, the use of language was necessary because “through thinking about language, the problems that art faces take a new shape, and ultimately shift out of the familiar, constraining frameworks.” the museum of marcel broodthaers and performative of j. l. austin developing two principles, those of duchamp’s act of appropriating industrial object and and converting them into art objects by the act of his will, and magritte’s act of stating what something is or i.e. what something is not, marcel broodthaers created ibid, . joseph kosuth, “art after philosophy”, in: gabriele guercio (ed.), art after philosophy and after: collected writings, – , massachusetts, mit press, . robert rauschenberg, this is a portrait of iris clert if i say so, , ink on paper and two paper envelopes, / x / in, envelopes approximately / x / in. each, ahrenberg collection, switzerland. miško Šuvaković has named three important notions from analytical philosophy: propositional statement, performative statements and speech act. cf. miško Šuvaković, teorija umetnosti i analitička filozofija, op. cit., , , , . benjamin buchloh, op. cit., . rachel haidu, the absence of work, london, the mit press, , xxi. discussions | art+media one of his most important artworks, musée d’art moderne. richly detailed and delicately constructed employing different media, this work is primarily based on language. even the objects exhibited or used purposely to build the museum must be explained or de- scribed by words. the artist became a curator, and at the same time was a theoretician or a philosopher who was deciphering the nature of art at the moment when the old museum was already being attacked by avant-garde movements, from the beginning of the th century as well as when the notion of artwork was attacked by duchamp’s readymades. artists have decided to employ the ‘speech act’ as an artistic maneuver, by which they appropriated the power usually reserved for other participants of the art world. at the same time, they put end to art’s historical position as something sacred, mysterious and related solely to genius. the act of asking ‘what is art?’ – is destroying that sacred- ness. when god was creating man, the procedure consisted of the following acts: “[…] let it be – create – give a name.” nobody should raise the question about that name af- terwards. but, how to appropriate the position of the one who ‘gives name’? is it enough to give a statement like the one by rauschenberg (‘this is a work of art because i say so’)? this important question caused many doubts about the nature of those statements as well as this specific way of using language in art. “first came the view, not always formu- lated without unfortunate dogmatism, that a statement (of fact) ought to be ‘verifiable’, and this led to the view that many ‘statements’ are only what may be called pseudo-state- ments” . the question is whether a statement “this is a work of art” is a statement at all? could it be verified? or is this something else, pseudo-statement or even something different than that. trying to define the group of those ‘pseudo-statements’, austin has listed four most often used examples from everyday life: “examples: (e.a) ‘i do (sc. take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife)’ – as uttered in the course of the marriage ceremony. (e.b) ‘i name this ship the queen elizabeth’ – as uttered when smashing the bottle against the vessel’s bow. (e.c) ‘i give and bequeath my watch to my brother’ – as occurring in a will. (e.d) ‘i bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.” those sentences are specific because although they do look like statements they do not describe anything and they are not stating anything. they are neither true nor false. what they do is make one person ‘indulge’ in one act or state. when one person during the marriage ceremony says ‘i do’, he/she indulges in this marriage. taking with those words all the obligations of specific legal act (marriage). those type exactly at that time ( ) institutions of social power were attacked by students’ demonstration and marcel broodthaers was very active in this process. walter benjamin, “o jeziku uopšte i jeziku ljudi”, in: eseji, beograd, nolit, , . j. l. austin, how to do things with words, oxford, oxford universtity press, , . ibid, . austin’s word for that state. art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april of sentences austin named performative sentences, or in short, ‘performatives’. the structure of austin’s procedure of grouping and naming similar sentences as perfor- matives is important for the analysis and understanding of the structure of brood- thaers’ museum. this specific performative could be described as being built on “anal- ogy of performative act and the act of declaring a readymade [...].” at the beginning of the process of creating a museum, broodthaers has appro- priated the power / function of a “curator, administrator, press agent and museum founder, all in one” . he was organizing one museum: defining its field of expertise (musée d’art moderne, département des aigles, section xixéme siècle) and select- ing the objects to be exhibited, and finally organizing the opening ceremony as well as supporting printed material (invitations, posters). the appropriation took place through the act of speech i.e. language: broodthaers said ‘this is a museum.’ this mo- ment of declaration was best described by the artist: “i took delivery of the crates and installed them here in a fairly particular manner, in fact as if they were artworks them- selves. so i said to myself: but essentially that’s it, that is the museum.” the context is the post-revolutionary atmosphere in brussels, after the protests in september that resulted in parliamentary chaos and, afterwards, governmental collapse. brood- thaers was an active participant of this event, fighting against bureaucracy and the ad- ministrative order built as a way of managing all the issues of one society. he invited a group of artists, critics, collectors and ‘gallery people’ to his studio “to analyze what wasn’t working in the belgian artistic world, to analyze the relations art-society.” . as a result of this ‘discourse-in-the-making’ (rachel haidu), the museum was created. what makes one statement a performative and how can broodthaers’ statement ‘this is a museum’ become a performative? first of all, austin stated that with the sen- tence ‘i do’ one does not report a marriage but does ‘indulge in it’. but merely saying a few words is not enough in order to get married. and that is the next step in analyzing broodthaers’ museum. he didn’t just declare: this is a museum. he made numerous steps out of which the museum’s life was consisted (he indulged in it). “the uttering of “the name is derived, of course, from ‘perform’, the usual verb with the noun ‘action’: it indicates that the issuing of the utterance is the performing of an action – it is not normally thought of as just saying something.”, j. l. austin, op. cit., – . “approaches to performative statements in art are different, but in conceptual art three specific approaches could be separated: ) analogy of performative act and the act of declaring a readymade, ) formal presentation of ‘nature of performative’ in work of art, when the work is realized by reading the text or when artist is pronouncing in performance and realizing the pronounced, and ) deconstructive approach to performative, i.e. performative statements are said or offered in the form of text so that some social convention could be discovered, so that it could be subverted or caricatured for example, the typical form of performative conceptual texts is presentation of performative text from specific context (commercial, ideology, moral, etc.) in the context of art where they are seen as performative statements but nobody expects them to be executed or any effect from them, but only carica- ture of social customs.” miško Šuvaković, teorija umetnosti i analitička filozofija, op. cit., . dirk snauwaert, marcel broodthaers, musée d’art moderne, département des aigles, section des figures, , http://moussemagazine.it/taac -a/, ac. . . . marcel broodthaers in: rachel haidu, op. cit., . ibidem. j. l. austin, op. cit., . discussions | art+media the words is, indeed, usually a, or even the, leading incident in the performance of the act, […]. speaking generally, it is always necessary that the circumstances in which the words are uttered should be in some way, or ways, appropriate, and it is very common- ly necessary that either the speaker himself or other persons should also perform cer- tain other actions, whether ‘physical’ or ‘mental’ actions or even acts of uttering further words.” at this time, the circumstances of broodthaers’ museum should be analyzed. a group of artists, art critics and ‘gallery people’ – the type usually found at gallery openings – were gathered for the museum’s opening. on that evening, dr. johannes cladders, director of the städtisches museum, mönchengladbach, gave a speech, a typi- cal and defining moment of every museum opening. we can conclude that broodthaers created all the necessary circumstances of one conventional/accepted museum opening. doing this, he has fulfilled the first condition for his speech act to be effective. the next important condition for a performative to be effective is, according to austin, the following: “thus, for naming the ship, it is essential that i should be the person appointed to name her, for (christian) marrying, it is essential that i should not already be married with a wife living, sane and undivorced, and so on: for a bet to have been made, it is generally necessary for the offer of the bet to have been accepted by a taker (who must have done something, such as to say ‘done’), and it is hardly a gift if i say ‘i give it to you’ but never hand it over.” this raises one of the most important questions of the art world after duchamp and that is who is appointed to do this perfor- mative, in this case to say what art is or what a museum is? so the question is whether or not this austin’s condition was fulfilled in case of broodthaers’ declaration of museum. could broodthaers be appointed to do that? at first glance, one could conclude that he wasn’t, since he is an artist and his position is not the one entitled to declare what is a museum or even to create one. but, if this were true then, according to austin, this performative wouldn’t be effective. in this case “in no case do we say that the utterance was false but rather that the utterance – or rather the act, e.g. the promise – was void, or given in bad faith, or not implemented, or the like.” . because the performative can’t be true or false, it can be void. so it will take place but it will fail to cause an effect. one might than conclude that broodthaers didn’t have the power to declare a museum that: “his utterance is perhaps misleading, probably deceitful and doubtless wrong, but is not a lie or misstatement.” the essence of this artwork was that by making very precise and realistic moves, similar to everything related to creating a real museum broodthaers appropriated all the necessary attributes to be in position to declare a museum so that at the end his statement ‘this is a museum’ was not wrong or misleading. or it was so, but purposely – because it was an artwork and not a real museum? ibid, . according to austin performative can’t be false or truth, just void or effective. j. l. austin, op. cit., – . ibid, – . ibid, . but, at the same time it can be concluded the broodthaers wanted us to conclude that he mislead us so that he could prove where the problem in the art world lies. both ways are efficient for broodthaers’ point. “with the art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april the following point in austin’s discussion about performatives equaled brood- thaers’ concept of museum. in case one or both of those rules – existing accepted con- ventional procedure and that the particular persons and circumstances in a given case are appropriate for the invocation of the particular procedure – are violated, “[…] our performative will be unhappy.” . in those cases, what could be said is that the process has been undergone but not that this process has been finalized. the main question here is whether there is an existing accepted procedure for declaring one museum and also, whether there is proof that broodthaers is not an appropriate person for this proce- dure (of declaring a museum). it should be pointed out that the search for those answers is exactly what broodthaers was pointing at when making this artwork. those questions were unanswered, and the artist wanted to demonstrate that to the public. dimitrije bašičević mangelos and picasso phenomenon the other artist whose work is an example of the adoption of rules of ordinary language philosophy in art practice is dimitrije bašičević mangelos ( – ), a cro- atian proto-conceptual artist and a founding member of the group gorgona. creating art on the border between word and painting, mangelos considered language an im- portant tool in his noart strategy. whether the primacy is on the side of word or image is a major dilemma of his work. words inscribed on different materials have become his most important instrument in creating art. here, i would like to analyze his picasso phenomenon series of works. the artist defined it as “a critique against picasso i.e. critique of painting.” using different media, sometimes combining them in a single artwork , mangelos expressed the idea that there is no genius – picasso is no genius – and therefore all about picasso is a myth. who has created this myth and why does difference, however, that a work of fiction allows you to capture reality and at the same time what it conceals.” marcel broodthaers, “musée d’art moderne, départment des aigles, section art moderne et publicité” ( ), in: gloria moure, marcel broodthaers: collected writings, barcelona, ediciones poligrafa, , . j. l. austin, op. cit., – . ibid, . in the case of marriage, in case that some rule is being violated, one can say that he/she has ‘went through a form of marriage’ by contrast with ‘married’. ibid, . mangelos, am beginn war es kein wort, c. – , tempera on gold leaf over hardboard, . x . cm, coll. fundação de serralves – museu de arte contemporânea, porto. mangelos’ first solo exhibition took place in in novi sad. the name of the exhibition was picasso phenomenon. mladen stilinović, “mangelos – umetnik u prvom licu”, in: vojin bašičević (ed.), drugi o njemu, novi sad, , . one possible explanation how the use of collage improves the deconstruction of myths in art: “collage is an instrument used by avant-garde artists in order to tear the unity of painting apart, to destabilize its traditional position [...]”, ivana bašičević antić, “being ‘the other’ – analysis of three artistic cases: nancy spero, cy twombly and dimitrije bašičević mangelos”, am journal of art and media studies, issue no. , , – . american poet getrude stein often used to remind picasso..., c. – , tempera and collage on cardboard, . x cm, private collection. discussions | art+media everyone accept it? “is this man a kind of midas, turning whatever he touches into the gold of pure art?” this question reminds us of wittgenstein’s remark: “[…] the concept of naming as, so to speak, an occult process.” mangelos saw the same occult’ness in creating a myth about picasso as well as the other important wittgenstein’s principle: “a child uses such primitive forms of language when it learns to talk. here the teaching of language is not explanation, but training.” this is how, according to mangelos, the myth about picasso was spread. nobody asked any questions only, as child does, they were conditioned to accept and use this myth-creating approach to the name and work of picasso. so, how did mangelos attempt to deconstruct this myth? austin defined several different types of breaching the rules of making a suc- cessful performative, developing ‘the doctrine of the infelicities’ for this cause. in some cases there are conventional, accepted procedures but a person ‘sins’ against those accepted procedures, and in some cases there are no conventional, accepted procedures so the person ‘sins’ exactly because of that. a person doing a performative is either aware of this and sins intentionally (this is abuse), or is violating those proto- cols without knowing it. in the case of mangelos’ picasso phenomenon, the scenarios of sinning are to be analyzed since he is not making a performative; on the contrary, he has doubts about those who did it. “there is no genius. what naïve thinking declares genius is a worker who in his narrowly defined field of work inserted several thousands of working hours more than a routine worker on the same job.” the question is whether those critics, collectors and curators knew that there is no genius or they didn’t? from this question one can conclude whether when declar- ing that picasso is a genius and generating a myth about him they made an effective performative or a void one. for mangelos, this performative “picasso is a genius”, is void. because there is no accepted conventional procedure and there are no officially appointed persons to do that. if it is said that those people (critics, curators, collec- tors) are appointed for this procedure, then he pointed our attention to the question of whether the creators of this performative sinned against the rule intentionally, know- ing that there is no accepted conventional procedure. in this case, they committed abuse; the act of performative is achieved but can be called in question because of the abuse. arthur danto, “the artworld”, in: joseph margolis (ed.), philosophy looks at the arts, philadelphia, temple university, , . ludwig wittgenstein, op. cit., . ibid, . austin’s lectures ii, iii & iv (from: how to do things with words) are devoted to those cases. d. b. mangelos, manifest o geniju, in: vojin bašičević (ed.), drugi o njemu, novi sad, , . “the particular persons and circumstances in a given case must be appropriate for the invocation of the par- ticular procedure invoked.” j. l. austin, op. cit., . in order to apply austin’s rules precisely, i have put the terms he used in italics. art+media | journal of art and media studies issue no. , april “information that provides the foundation for theories and histories of art is unreliable therefore theories and history lose their utilitarian value with information of the legend-generating type instead of history mythology is formed and instead of critical analysis of the activity of a man who may or may have not been in prison because of his resistance or ideas but certainly had not stopped playing since childhood even marxist critics create a myth of the hero of rebellion hero of thought and a genius” example . the same analysis could be applied in the case of mangelos’ theory of kitsch. here, his goal was to deconstruct the moment of declaring a kitsch art. he attempted to prove that to declare that some art is kitsch is a void performative, because nobody is assigned to make this kind of declaration and because there is no accepted conventional procedure. this abuse is made intentionally in order to demean the value of some art. “kitsch does not exist in der kunst kitsch is just an instrument for negating the value of feeling another kind of beauty” conclusion in this essay, i have attempted to demonstrate that in order to conduct a critique of the art world by investigating its frames and revealing it from the inside, those artists have used the same principles that j. l. austin developed in philosophical theory. their investigation (which has become art) was initiated by doubting the reverence and silence traditionally associated with the word ‘art’. the difference between the mockery and the true statement is minimal and only by analyzing their statements and the nature of those statements per se, can one see where the artists directed our attention. in the same man- ner in which wittgenstein embarked on a quest to make metaphysical language use- less in philosophy, mangelos tried to find painting beyond the borders of metaphysical d. b. mangelos, american poet gertrude stein often used to remind picasso…, c. – , tempera and collage on cardboard, , x cm “kič ne egzisitra, in der kunst kič je samo instrument negiranja vrednosti osećanja druge vrste lipote”, d. b. mangelos, a sketch for the kitsch manifesto, c. – , gold leaf and acrylic on globe made of plastic and metal, x (diameter) cm discussions | art+media character of painting. in this quest he used letters in a way similar to broodthaers. or manzoni. letters were on the beginning; not words. and letters are for mangelos the symbol of rational thinking; nothing emotional, aesthetical or metaphysical. what if in both cases an artist was not sincere when giving those ‘statements’? “[…] where there is not even a pretence of capacity or a colourable claim to it, then there is no accepted conventional procedure; it is a mockery, like a marriage with a monkey.” for austin this case defines a mockery but in case of broodthaers and mangelos it is not mockery – it is art. “in order to give more power and realism to its lie […] the fictive museum tries to plunder the authentic and original museum.” finally what is definite is that both artists were investigating the nature of art and art institutions in the field of language and grammar. the legacy of analytical philosophy gave them important material for their work, and what they found specif- ically useful was the investigation of the procedure of naming things, i.e. how names and objects are related. for them, the problem of defining art and works of art is situated in this specific dimension of language usage. could the non-precision of the naming of things – its duration based only on learning established relations and not questioning them – be the place of importance for new, different and ‘progressive’ art? example : dimitrije bašičević mangelos, american poet gertrude stein often used to remind picasso…, c. – , tempera and collage on cardboard, , x cm j. l. austin, op. cit., . marcel broodthaers, in: rachel haidu, op. cit., . criticizing architectural education through abstraction available online at www.sciencedirect.com procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – - © published by elsevier ltd. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . wclta criticizing architectural education through abstraction asu besgen gencosmanoglua *, seda nezorb aassist. prof. dr., karadeniz technical university, faculty of architecture, department of architecture, trabzon, , turkey barchitect, ph.d. student, karadeniz technical university, faculty of architecture, department of architecture, trabzon, , turkey abstract as a result of the researches conducted so far, it is determined that the individuals who have received architectural education, gain a differentiation in perception, and therefore, the architectural education is somehow directive and distinctive. for this reason, in the paper, it is tried to analyze the differences of the perception and expression of abstraction by the effects of architectural education. in the lights of learning and teaching relationship, the change and/or changes occurring through abstractions among the individuals who have newly started to receive the architectural education and who are about to complete the architectural education are put forward. © published by elsevier ltd. keywords:architectural education; abstraction; learning; teaching. . introduction man has been trying to rule nature since he existed in the world. in order to make the environment that he has lived in a more liveable place, he has defined, organized and tried to save it from chaos, he has made its presence existent and he himself has become existent in the process of doing so. while trying to save his world from chaos, although man is not aware of it, his existence brings about an action that starts with his own existence. perhaps the reason why this state of action has not been defined for many years is the fact that it has been nestling deeply and intrinsically within human beings. and finally man defines the action that will differentiate himself from other living creatures: abstraction… * asu besgen gencosmanoglu. tel.: + - - - ; fax: + - - - . e-mail address: abesgen@ktu.edu.tr open access under cc by-nc-nd license. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. core metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk provided by elsevier - publisher connector https://core.ac.uk/display/ ?utm_source=pdf&utm_medium=banner&utm_campaign=pdf-decoration-v http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / asu besgen gencosmanoglu and seda nezor / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – . abstract, abstraction abstract is the name of the living thing or being which is accepted via thinking (anonym, ). the act of abstraction is a mental process that relies on isolating the common element of a group of objects or defining the common relationship of more than one object (anonym, ). abstraction is the intellect designing something that is not distinct and independent in reality as separate and abstracting it from its own material (agakay, ). abstraction is done in order to achieve abstract concepts that realize the most competent stage of the enlightenment process. it is not possible to obtain knowledge of the essence and reality of anything without first obtaining abstract concepts. concrete phenomenon and events can only give a formal and outward reality; it is abstraction that gives essential information. in reality abstraction is a method, a tool that is used to approach the concrete again and perceive the concrete wholeness totally also in its parts, in its relations with each other (hancerlioglu, ). human beings, since their existence, have realized the action of abstraction instinctively or fictionally for many purposes and with regard to these purposes abstraction has been expressed in many different ways. . perception, abstraction and architecture in architecture abstraction exists in various stages of design process from beginning till the end and presents itself in the final product. abstraction is used as a method in the environmental knowledge acquisition and developing opinion phases of designing process. the rough sketches and drafting, that transform concrete form into abstract and that unfold the whole notwithstanding their simplicity are also known as abstractions. the abstractions approach of the designer is classified by uraz as “purifying from details, decreasing / reducing, differentiating / emphasizing and making comparisons” (uraz, ). also the meanings that the architectural result product gained through abstraction were determined as “differentiating, isolating, correlativity, generality, simplicity, geometrization and reaching the essence” (besgen, ). the common point in these distinctions is the desire and purpose of “reaching the reality; the essence” (besgen, ; yavuz, ). the human being abstracts what he/she perceives and perceives what he/she abstracts, and can express the environment as much as his/her ability in environmental perception. for this reason the types of abstraction in architecture can be considered not from the point of result but with the types of environmental perception of human beings including the intellectual process. according to the perception theories of gibson ( , ), rapoport ( ), appleyard ( , ) and gestalt theory, the types of abstraction are shown in table (besgen gencosmanoglu & nezor, ). table . relationship of perception and abstraction types of perception types of abstraction literal perception schematic perception perceptive cognition gibson symbolic cognition formal abstraction world of perception rapoport world of connotation syntagmism pragmatism gestalt semanticity functional abstraction image / distinctiveness of physical form visibility feature of structure role for usage and other behaviours appleyard cultural associations semantic abstraction asu besgen gencosmanoglu and seda nezor / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – . . types of abstraction it can be remarked that the results achieved and the theories of perception based on the works of gibson, rapoport, gestalt and appleyard, show three different types of abstraction those are formal, functional and semantic abstraction. . . . formal abstraction formal abstraction is a type of abstraction that is generated by expressing the concrete forms with a simplified and abbreviated method. expression of a concrete form by a pure expression language, reducing the form into its geometrical properties or expressing with the help of abstract structural lines and contours are all examples of formal abstraction. the pictures on the walls of a cave, alphabets of symbolic origin are the early examples of formal abstraction. the geometrical language of cubism and the universal nature of modernist primary geometrical forms can be named as formal abstractions. mainly the sketches, drawings and descriptions done in the preparation stage of design process can be considered as the examples of formal abstraction in architecture. in architectural education, the sketches, drawings and descriptions help to gain background information and systematic thinking (inceoglu, ). formal abstraction is figurative, but it does not say anything directly about the object in the way a photograph can. it is selective. it expresses the perceived characteristic of the object, not the visible. thus, it can be said that it is related to sensual responses. formal abstraction is a method that the designers use, before starting designing, in the period of environmental knowledge acquisition, in the period of developing ideas on formal search in is/her drawings. it expresses itself in the designs as purifying from details. briefly formal abstraction can be characterized as the universal expression mode of the perceiver related to his/her sensual and cognitive responses, stable background, the direct expression of the forms of the objects, figurative expressions that keeps the modal-formal expression as the primary, although it carries semantic characteristic inside, it depends on visible forms and has formal characteristic of the real object. . . . functional abstraction in architecture, function shows itself within the relationship between action and location (aksoy, ). whereas functional abstraction is the expressions that relate the human being’s relations of action and environment both in and out of a place. functional abstraction can be either pictorial representations or has a language that goes further to schematic display. compared to other types of abstraction, it has more technical knowledge and more common modes of expression. when considered in terms of architecture, the abstractions expressing environment, locations of usage and circulation space relations of the structure can be called functional abstraction. the environmental factor, circulation space and spatial fiction analyses, circulation schemes and function schemes are some examples of functional abstraction. functional abstraction consists mainly of the spatial analyses for the purpose of knowledge acquisition such as in the stage of designing, and the functional comparisons between environments in order to reach the solution more comfortably. it can be said that functional abstraction has a common language derived from the fact that they are more schematic when compared to other types of abstraction. apart from schematic expressions, the pictorial expressions that emphasize the human actions are within this kind of abstraction. by making a historical evaluation, kuban remarked that different types of building were generated as a result of social work-sharing or functional organization (aksoy, ). if the architectural product is considered based on this definition, the building types that generate as a result of functional organization can be evaluated as functional abstractions. briefly functional abstraction can be characterized as pragmatism indispensable expressions, reflecting the personal activities, the human behaviours and uses, the relations with spatial and environmental factors. . . . semantic abstraction human perceives the visual world as pragmatic-semantic with the exception of physical-spatial (erturk, ). in gibson’s spatial perception analysis, the pragmatic and semantic perception type is combined under a single topic. asu besgen gencosmanoglu and seda nezor / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – although the function which corresponds to the concept of pragmatism includes meaning, the types of abstraction can be considered in two separate topics as functional and semantic, because man perceives objects by their meanings apart from their forms and benefits. that is, he/she can abstract the meaning from form and function. for this reason the third abstraction type is known as semantic. meaning defines as an interface that includes all dimensions of relationship between user and the used, and that gives information about both parties. in addition to this, meaning carries a wholeness that reflects both the subjective values of the user and the physical characteristics of the object (aydinli, ). from here it can be deducted that the meaning is unstable and that the semantic abstractions depend on the individual, life experiences, culture and knowledge. thus it can be said that semantic abstraction is subjective, relates to the past and unstable. in other words, semantic abstraction is the individual’s periphrasis of the objects that characterizes them with the conglomeration that comes from the past. in these kinds of abstractions the use of expressions that the individual correlates to sui generis objects and that is revealed by the associations of the object and characterize it indirectly is in question. semantic abstraction can be summarized as expressions that are generated via association, that defines the subjective, changing object related to the sensual and cognitive responses of the perceiver with expressions such as metaphor and symbols that include the cultural meaning. . . drawings, abstractions and architectural education the purpose of this paper is to observe the change that architectural education caused in the thinking system of the people. from this point, an attempt was made to analyze the differences of the perception and expression of abstraction within the context of abstraction by considering the effects of architectural education on students who have just started it and those who are about to finish. the change and/or changes that occur during such action were also determined. a group of st grade students who were at the preliminary stage of their architectural education and th grade students who had completed their education in karadeniz technical university, department of architecture were selected as test subjects in order to observe the change of abstraction with architectural education. in the pilot study applied to the test group, they were asked to express, by drawing and writing their ideas about “the house” which is a concept that is very closely related to the discipline of architecture and on which an individual, with or without having an architectural education can comment. during the study the students were not directed to make abstraction in any way whatsoever; they were asked to express the meaning of “the house” that first came to their minds on their working sheets independently and without being under the influence of anything. from their drawings it was aimed to determine to which type of abstraction that each group was inclined to and the changes in the thought and expression structure of the individuals during architectural education. it can be said that the results of the studies of the st and th grade students show three different types of abstraction -formal, functional and semantic abstractions- parallel to the perception types of gibson, rapoport, gestalt, appleyard, moreover, the relationship between the perception and abstraction types, (see: table ). tables , and were prepared to present the similarities and differences in terms of perception and abstraction types of the study about “the house” that was conducted among st and th grade students of karadeniz technical university, department of architecture. table . formal abstractions some typical “house” interpretations of st grade architecture students some typical “house” interpretations of th grade architecture students asu besgen gencosmanoglu and seda nezor / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – table . functional abstractions some typical “house” interpretations of st grade architecture students some typical “house” interpretations of th grade architecture students table . semantic abstractions some typical “house” interpretations of st grade architecture students some typical “house” interpretations of th grade architecture students . conclusion the results of the study that aim to examine the criticism of architectural education on individuals particularly on the basis of abstraction can be opened to discussion under two topics. the first of these is the evaluations to be done about “perception, abstraction and criticising the works of abstraction” whereas the second one is that of “criticising the architecture education and architecture”. as a result of the study done with the st and th grade students of architecture, the percentage distribution of “the house” interpretations is shown in table , in proportion to the number of questionnaires. table . distribution of “the house” interpretations according to the types of abstraction formal abstractions functional abstractions semantic abstractions st grade architecture students % % % th grade architecture students % % % asu besgen gencosmanoglu and seda nezor / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – with the help of tables , and it is seen that there are no intellectual and perception differences between the student studies particularly on the concept of “the house”. whereas in the abstraction and expression step it is seen that the given concept -“house”- is expressed with too many lines and details by the st grade students, and with less lines and details by the th grade ones. from this point of view, it can be deducted that architectural education increases the ability of abstraction which is the articulation that is more distinct and that reaches the essence with the proceeding architectural education; that by architectural education, students gain a development of abstraction action. table puts forward the change between architectural education and percentage of the abstraction as decrease in formal abstraction, an increase in functional abstraction and as no difference in semantic abstraction. however it is seen that the change in the abstraction types in architecture focuses on functional, semantic and finally formal abstraction respectively. the fact, that the functional abstraction rate is % in st grade students and % in th grade ones, shows that received education is effective in featuring the functional characteristic of the concept that students are asked to interpret. this result gives rise to the thought that the increase and decrease in the percentage of abstraction approaches between st and th grade students are such as to rather which type of abstraction that is supported and affected by architectural education than the change in the types of abstraction. it is concluded that as the study was held among the architecture students of karadeniz technical university, the derived result is the reflection of technical university education rather than to be attributed to the whole architectural education. nevertheless, in order for the architectural students to make original designs and to propose pragmatic solutions on structured or physical environment, it is regarded that abstraction should be learned and taught through education and performed consciously. with the consciousness to be given to the architectural students through their educations, it is considered that abstraction shall bring out essential, creative and original designs, which increase the creativity of the designer and also present various options for the users. when architecture is defined as the art and science of constructing buildings and physical environment where people lead their lives, it can be accepted that the action of abstraction in architecture is affected by the changes in art and science. architecture is also in the struggle for reaching the essence of reality and true knowledge, just like the art and science. the basic purpose of education is to realize a systematic consciousness and make individual the subject of a working intellectuality by realizing the abstraction activity with such a consciousness. thinking means abstraction, the ability to think means to build bridges between abstract and concrete (timurcin, ). when the ability of abstract thinking gained with architectural education is carried to the design, pragmatic and meaningful products, geometrical formations purified from details, catching the essence are seen in the product world of architecture. the power of abstract designs justifies the interest for architectural designs known recently as abstract. when we look at the buildings of our time, the designs of the architects who have the understanding of abstraction and who are aware of the power of this understanding have the same power. the success of the architects in question supports how important the abstraction in design process is. hadid explains the design process as: “something in which you learn your own way of doing and something very personal. first i study on the conditions and at the same time i think about how it can be explained. you determine how you can start by evaluating this condition in an abstract way and at the same time how your thought can be in here by observing the prevalent conditions. this is a lengthy process, it can take a few minutes or years” (url , ). while saying that he is trying to catch the vital union between the abstract geometrical form in the house designs and life and that his constructions that he characterizes as abstract gain life with the movement coming by the natural and human life, ando explains this situation in his designs as: “geometrical abstraction and the concreteness of man intertwine and thus the evident dilemma is solved around their incongruity. architecture created at the time of this solution, is filled with a provocative and inspiring environment” (url , ). as all these show, it is a fact that the awareness of the abstraction shows its influence in each area of designing from product design to a structured environment. thus, it is believed that the change to be experienced with the asu besgen gencosmanoglu and seda nezor / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – abstraction that starts in architectural education finds its reflections in each scale belonging to architectural design and will continue to do so. . references agakay, m. a. ( ). turkce sozluk. ( th ed.).,turk dil kurumu yayinlari, bilgi basimevi, ankara. aksoy, e. ( ). mimarlikta tasarim bilgisi. hatiboglu yayin evi, ankara. anonym. ( ). turkce sozluk. kültür dil ve tarih yüksek kurumu, ankara. . anonym. ( ). anabritannica. ana yayincilik a. s. & encyclopaedia britannica inc, istanbul. appleyard, d. ( ). notes on urban perception and knowledge. image and environment, aldine publishing company, chicago. appleyard, d. ( ).why buildings are known: a predictive tool for architects and planners. meaning and behavior in built environment, john wiley and sons ltd. aydinli, s. ( ). konut ve anlami uzerine bir degerlendirme. konut degerlendirme sempozyumu, itu, istanbul. besgen, a. ( ). the effects of cubist movement on modernism and post modernism. master thesis, karadeniz technical university, department of architecture, trabzon. besgen gencosmanoglu, a., & nezor, s. ( ). the story of a change in architectural education: abstractions. nd international building & life congress, - march, bursa, turkey. erturk, s. ( ). mimari mekanin algilanmasi uzerine deneysel bir calisma. ph.d. thesis, karadeniz technical university, department of architecture, trabzon. gibson, j. j. ( ). the perception of the visual world. houghton-mifflin, boston. gibson, j. j. ( ). the senses considered as perceptual systems. gerorge allen and unwin ltd., london. hancerlioglu, o. ( ). felsefe ansiklopedisi kavramlar ve akimlar. remzi kitabevi, istanbul. inceoglu, n. ( ). dusunme ve anlatim araci olarak eskizler. helikon yayinlari, istanbul. rapoport, a. ( ). human aspects of urban form. pergamon press ltd., oxford. timurcin, a. ( ). felsefe logos felsefe ve egitim/ . bulut yayinevi, istanbul. uraz, t. u. ( ). tasarlama dusunme ve bicimlendirme. itu mimarlik fakultesi baski atolyesi, istanbul. url . ( ). http://www.boyutpedia.com/default~id~ ~aid~ ~link~hadid_ile_konusma.html url . ( ). http://mimar.uludag.edu.tr/download/okumalar/mimarlikta-yeni-ufuklara-dogru-t.ando.pdf yavuz, e. ( ). yirminci yuzyilda sanatta ve mimarl kta soyutlama iliskisi. master thesis, gazi university, ankara. riha journal | july barradas' vibrationism and its catalan context m. lluïsa faxedas brujats universitat de girona abstract rafael barradas' vibrationism is often recognised, together with planism and ultraism, as one of the first avant-garde movements to emerge in spain. however, little attention has been paid to its intellectual roots and its catalan and european context. this paper will examine the birth of vibrationism as the uruguayan painter's response to his contact both with the european avant-garde, in particular futurism and simultaneism, and especially with the catalan context in which it appeared. the brief story of the movement shows us how some of the more consistent answers to the pictorial issues raised by the european avant-garde of the s were to be found in what has traditionally been understood as its periphery. contents introduction barradas and vibrationism torres-garcía, a vibrationist painter? barradas and lagar the intellectual and artistic context: junoy, solé de sojo, salvat-papasseit and miró possible influence on other artists conclusions introduction [ ] vibrationism occupies a particular place in the history of the many avant-garde artistic movements. it was the first -ism created by the uruguayan painter rafael barradas ( - ) who, as it turned out, was its only practitioner (although joaquín torres-garcía did feel very close to it for a while), and it exerted a great influence on other spanish artists. from the very beginning, most art critics agreed that vibrationism was the result of barradas' own personal understanding of futurism, simultaneism and, to a lesser extent, cubism. having adopted a similar view, most art historians have also seen his vibrationist work as having been influenced by the this article is a revised and extended version of the paper "noucentisme and the avant-garde: the case of barradas, vibrationism and torres-garcía" presented at the international conference southern modernisms: critical stances through regional appropriations, esap, oporto, - february . riha journal | july european avant-garde. however, the movement originated and developed in barcelona, in a very specific historical and cultural context, and this article, by reviewing the relationship between barradas and the catalonia of - , aims to show how the birth of vibrationism was very closely connected to its catalan context. barradas and vibrationism [ ] barradas came to europe in december and, until may , he travelled to paris, switzerland and milan where he discovered the works and texts of the european avant-garde, especially in relation to futurism, cubism and simultaneism; and his discoveries were immediately reflected in his painting. at the end of may or the beginning of june he undertook his first visit to barcelona, staying till the end of that year when he moved to zaragoza. in this first catalan period he published some drawings in the periodical l'esquella de la torratxa, but there is no other evidence of any further contact with the catalan artistic scene. it was not until his second stay in barcelona, which ran from the end of february or the beginning of march to august , that the implications of what he had seen and learnt during his european journey would find full expression in his work. [ ] at some point between the end of and the beginning of barradas began to use the concept of vibrationism to refer to his new artistic proposal; it lasted until . even though the connection to the aforementioned european avant-garde movements is clear, the fact that there are some examples of contemporary criticism of barradas' work: "he is almost completely at one with italian futurism: the portrait of the painter j. torres- garcía has, above all, a gracile intent." f.v., "les exposicions," in: la revista, april , ; "we must look, then, to the epigones of cubism and the french simultaneists for evocative references in order to characterise a new artist such as barradas." guillermo de torre, "el vibracionismo de barradas," in: perseo ( ), - , here ; "perhaps it would suit barradas to be labelled a simultaneist; but we do not know if, in effect, he would not assign any other label to himself." juan de la encina, "notas sueltas. exposición barradas," in: españa ( ), - , here . – unless otherwise stated, all translations are mine. three examples: raquel pereda, barradas, montevideo ; jaime brihuega, "saturn al sifó. barradas i l'avantguarda espanyola," in: barradas. exposició antològica, - , eds. jaime brihuega and concha lomba, l'hospitalet del llobregat , - ; and, in the same volume, eugenio carmona, "rafael barrades i l' 'art nou' a espanya, - ," - . the most significant exception to this general view is that of david jared morse, rafael barradas and vibracionismo: science and spirituality in spanish avant-garde art, m.a. thesis, university of texas, . the connections he draws between barradas and the philosophical and scientific trends of the time in spain, particularly regarding bergsonism, do not contradict, but rather supplement the arguments in this article. rafael santos torroella, "autoretrat de barradas. els dibuixos de barradas a l'esquella de la torratxa," in: barradas. exposició antològica, - , eds. j. brihuega and c. lomba, l'hospitalet del llobregat , - . riha journal | july three years had passed between his arrival in europe and the presentation of his first vibrationist works makes its seemingly sudden appearance somewhat difficult to explain. vibrationism did not appear from a void, and it can only be understood by taking its theoretical and aesthetic context into consideration. [ ] it should be noted at this point that the concept of "vibration" was widely recognised and had attained much importance in the avant-garde artistic scene, mainly in futurist artistic theory, but also in the work of artists such as delaunay, kupka or kandinsky. it has been widely reported by different authors that at the end of the th and the beginning of the th century, the concept of vibration was understood as an intangible and invisible phenomenon that facilitated the connection between elements that were different in nature. particularly, the essential vibratory unity between sound and colour that some scientists had "discovered" would seem to have supported the idea that there existed a universal harmony of an essentially vibratory nature. this powerful idea contributed to the broad use of the concept of vibration in the artistic theory of the time, particularly in the symbolist milieu, and also later in the avant-garde groups, who adamantly argued that the issue of relationships between the different arts was of major importance. increasingly, the concept of vibration extended its meaning until it came to express a true "monism of sensations", that is to say, a unity not just between what the different physical senses perceive, but also between the perceiver and what is perceived; it is in this sense especially that the concept of vibration became a key aspect in futurist literature. in short, the concept of vibration was used by the european avant-garde movements with different meanings, all of which were mutually related: first of all, to refer to the physical phenomenology of light and to the assumed vibration of colours; second, to establish a field of comparison between light and sound which would become the starting point for all kinds maria lluïsa faxedas brujats, "el vibracionismo de rafael barradas: genealogía de un concepto," in: archivo español de arte , n. ( ), - . see also morse, rafael barradas and vibracionismo, and david jared morse, "art-evolució and vibracionismo: torres-garcía, barradas, and an art of higher consciousness," in: barcelona and modernity: picasso, gaudí, miró, dalí, eds. william h. robinson, jordi falgàs and carmen belén lord, new haven/london , - . georges roque, "¿qué onda? la abstracción en el arte y la ciencia," in: arte y ciencia. xxiv coloquio internacional de historia del arte, ed. peter krieger, méxico , - ; georges roque, "ce grand monde des vibrations qui est à la base de l'univers," in: aux origines de l'abstraction, - , eds. serge lemoine et al., paris , - ; linda dalrymple-henderson, "vibratory modernism: boccioni, kupka and the ether of space," in: from energy to information. representation in science and technology, art and literature, eds. bruce clark and linda dalrymple- henderson, stanford , - . roque, "ce grand monde des vibrations", . riha journal | july of research into synaesthesia; and finally, to describe a certain connexion or emotional unity between the individual and his or her environment. [ ] in barradas' vibrationism we can find echoes of all of these ideas, even if it is almost impossible to know exactly how he came to discover them, besides his already cited contacts with different european avant-garde movements. although he continued to think about these issues during his stay in zaragoza, the work he produced there can be described as both symbolist and naturalistic. it would not be until his return to barcelona in that he would feel the impulse to create a new artistic proposal of his own. it seems important to ask what factors played a role in this new approach. one of the most significant would surely be his connection with the galeries dalmau; this space promoted avant-garde exhibitions by several important european artists who were then refugees in the city, and it was there that barradas had the opportunity to see, for instance, works by charchoune, gleizes and the delaunays. undoubtedly, this reconnection with the latest european avant-garde trends would help him recover his own previous avant-garde pictorial practice. torres-garcía, a vibrationist painter? [ ] was a crucial year in the artistic development of the catalan- uruguayan painter joaquín torres-garcía ( - ). beginning with the important lecture he gave at the galeries dalmau on february nd, and ending with the cancellation of his commission to paint the frescoes at the palau de la generalitat, he went through a period in which he increasingly distanced himself from noucentisme as a collective and ideological project. for example, the critic Ángel abella would write about barradas in : "he sees colour in everything: in the sounds of words, in the harmony of a sonata, in the rhythm of a dance, in the noise of the tram as it slides over the rails. he is overwhelmed by colour." Ángel abella, "pérez barradas," in: paraninfo ( ), - , here . concha lomba, "barradas a aragó," in: barradas. exposició antològica, - , eds. jaime brihuega and concha lomba, l'hospitalet del llobregat , - . josep casamartina, "serge charchoune y su arabesco," in: serge charchoune, - . entre dadá y la abstracción, madrid , - ; pascal rousseau, "la galería dalmau. la introducción de la abstracción en cataluña y la vanguardia durante la primera guerra mundial," in: parís – barcelona, - , barcelona/ paris , - . noucentisme was a catalan cultural movement of the early th century ( - ), that originated as a reaction against modernisme and the fin-de-siècle decadentism. the term was coined by eugeni d'ors in , playing with both senses of the catalan word "nou": "nine" (analogous to the italian novecento) and "new". noucentisme was in fact a political and artistic project, involving both the catalan bourgeoisie and the artists and intellectuals that agreed to collaborate on its regenerationist aims. besides its anti-romanticism and anti-individualism, noucentisme is characterised by a collective idea of the catalan nation rooted in its riha journal | july this personal evolution was reflected in many articles he published during that year, and especially in a book of fictional correspondence tellingly entitled el descubrimiento de sí mismo. cartas a julio, que tratan de cosas muy importantes para los artistas [self-discovery. letters to julio dealing with very important things for artists]. in it, he wrote: forget the past, including your own. look upon it as a dead thing that must have nothing to do with the present so that none of that past will overcome you, and, thus, the originality that shall sprout from you at all times, as from a fountain, shall have the freshness of living things. (...) in the end, my friend julio, be a new man in every moment, and don't bother to check whether or not this new man looks like the old man, the dead man, the man from yesterday or the one from an hour ago! [ ] it was in that torres-garcía and barradas met for the first time, an encounter that would have a lasting impact on both artists. this is evidenced by the article on barradas that torres-garcía published in the uruguayan newspaper el siglo, in which he describes him as a "painter of the present time". years later he would write about this encounter having left "such an imprint within me, all of it, that for a long time i heard that divine music of barradas". the impact was powerful in both directions: that same month of august, torres-garcía had published an article in the avant- garde journal un enemic del poble. fulla de subversió espiritual [an enemy of the people. gazette of spiritual subversion], which consisted of three separate pieces entitled "a vibration", "a scream", "an intelligent laugh". it began with these words: "a vibration, an instant, an agreement of ideas and of words and sounds, on either side of nothingness." the appearance of the word "vibration" in precisely the same month that barradas and torres- classicist past and its mediterranean context; other key concepts of the movement, both in its political and aesthetic sense, are those of arbitrarism, civilism and imperialism. its theoretical precepts were developed in tandem with the deployment of the catalan institutions, made possible by the creation of the mancomunitat ( ). although its aims were never completely fulfilled, it exerted a long-lasting influence on catalan culture and society and contributed to its renovation. for a broad overview of the movement, see el noucentisme: un projecte de modernitat, exh. cat., barcelona . joaquín torres-garcía, el descubrimiento de sí mismo. cartas a julio, que tratan de cosas muy importantes para los artistas, girona , . as recorded by their correspondence; see pilar garcia-sedas, joaquim torres- garcia i rafael barradas. un diàleg escrit ( - ), barcelona . joaquín torres-garcía, "los artistas uruguayos en europa. rafael barradas," in: el siglo ( november ), . joaquín torres-garcía, universalismo constructivo [buenos aires ], vols., madrid , here vol. , . joaquín torres-garcía, "una vibració – un crit – un riure intel·ligent," in: un enemic del poble ( ), . riha journal | july garcía first met is surprising and significant. in its use by torres-garcía we can find echoes of the notion of the simultaneity of sensations and ideas which, as we have seen, some european avant-gardists had associated with the concept of vibration. undoubtedly, the use of this word by torres-garcía would have been a source of inspiration for barradas that would have helped him choose the concept of vibrationism to define his work during this period. [ ] even though it is obvious that torres-garcía's painting had already begun to evolve and to move away from classicist iconography in , it is also true that his meeting with barradas helped to encourage his own research and to get forward on the new path. torres-garcía's work from autumn and the first months of has sometimes been defined as vibrationist. it certainly shares with barradas' oeuvre an interest in the modern city and everyday life: cafés, tramways, wagons, crowded streets, posters, etc. all of these motifs are combined on a flat surface, without using perspective, as a collage. but it is also true that there existed important differences between the two artists, as torres-garcía himself summarized years later: something which is ours! something identical and yet very different at the same time. [...] something radical separated us deep down: he conceived a dynamic painting, because, as a whole, it was based on a real event, including the plastic aspect, real activity of people or things, qualities, sounds, noises, character, moral expression (drama), etc.; whereas i was drawn to something static, like architecture, to the idea of the thing, to proportion as a foundation, to what is constant, to the law, to what is general; and not so much to the modern aspect, but rather to this centuries- old human tradition. [ ] the difference between them is what separates a dynamic simultaneism linked to futurism, on one side, and a structuralism with cubist roots, on the other. the similarities and differences are more obvious if we compare two of their most important works from the vibrationist period, barradas' street of barcelona ( ) (fig. ) and torres-garcía's vibrationist composition ( ) (fig. ). they share iconographic elements linked to the modern city (the clock, the carriage wheels, the presence of letters and numbers, etc.) – a theme that torres-garcía had already enthused about in his february "vibration" is a word that torres-garcía would use very often from this moment on throughout his life; in his autobiography historia de mi vida (barcelona ), for instance, it appears everywhere, and in universalismo constructivo, there's even a chapter entitled "el arte en la vibración de hoy" ["art in today's vibration"]. torres- garcía, universalismo constructivo, vol. i, - . juan manuel bonet, "alrededor del reloj: joaquín torres-garcía, rafael barradas, joan salvat-papasseit," in: joaquín torres-garcía, - , ed. emanuel guigon, barcelona , - , here . torres-garcía, universalismo constructivo, vol. , . riha journal | july lecture. but this does not hide the important differences in the conception, composition and execution of the two works. in his watercolour, barradas endeavours to visualize the diversity of the modern urban experience as it is seen in a specific moment via the simultaneous rendering of different, fragmented elements that recall many sensual perceptions, all painted in bright colours. even the human figures are almost unrecognisable, lost among the multi-faceted reality the artist is trying to convey. meanwhile, in his oil painting, torres-garcía places the elements he has picked up from reality in a solid structure, relying more on juxtaposition than on simultaneity. with a more homogeneous palette of colours, he reinforces the fact that what matters here is the composition. and the objects represented, including a portrait, are individually depicted, not broken into intersecting planes. rafael barradas, calle de barcelona, , oil on canvas, . x . cm. museo patio herreriano, valladolid (© c.a.c. sgl carbón s.a.) torres-garcía, "conferència a can dalmau" [originally published in la veu de catalunya, barcelona, march and and april ], in: idem, escrits sobre art, ed. francesc fontbona, barcelona , - . riha journal | july joaquín torres-garcía, vibrationist composition, , oil on canvas, x cm. private collection (reproduced with permission) [ ] according to robert lubar, the essential points of contact between both artists (besides their obvious personal affinity) are not to be found in style or even iconography, but rather in a common ideological substratum which holds that social freedom can be placed on the same level as creative freedom. they are also to be found in their keeping back from the political content of art as it had materialized in the noucentista mythology, and, instead, in their emphasizing the autonomy of the work of art, as they were both leaning towards certain conceptions of the european avant-garde. nevertheless, torres-garcía himself would eventually prefer to use the concept of plasticism to refer to his work of the time rather than that of vibrationism. [ ] not only was torres-garcía not a vibrationist painter, but his transition from noucentisme to the avant-garde never implied a complete rejection of all of the noucentistas’ artistic principles; concepts such as architecture or construction, for instance, would reappear even in the texts he wrote for the journal cercle et carré in . nevertheless, his personal influence on robert lubar, "art-evolució: joaquín torres-garcía y la formación social de la vanguardia en barcelona," in: barradas – torres-garcía, exh. cat., ed. galería guillermo de osma, madrid , - . for instance, in the "note to the public" by torres-garcía that was reproduced in an unattributed article entitled "les exposicions. exposició d'en torres-garcía i exposició barradas" in la veu de catalunya of december , , he talks about "biological plasticism" to refer to both his work and barradas'. marie-aline prat, peinture et avant-garde au seuil des annés , lausanne . riha journal | july barradas was strong, and their relationship was crucial in helping the younger painter establish and develop his own artistic ideas. barradas and lagar [ ] another important issue to consider is barradas' relationship with the castilian painter celso lagar ( - ). lagar had travelled to paris as a sculptor in , and he had been in contact there with almost all the avant- garde trends of the moment. the outbreak of the first world war forced him to go back to spain, and he settled in barcelona at the end of . this same year, he devoted himself to painting rather than to sculpture, and he immediately engaged in significant activity that led to three one-man shows in (at the galeries dalmau, athenea and la cantonada) and subsequent shows in the galeries laietanes in , and . he also exhibited in madrid, where he lived from november to may or june , and in bilbao, before he moved back to paris for good in . [ ] a drawing by lagar dedicated to barradas, which has been dated to the year , adds support to the idea that barradas and lagar first met at some point between march and november while lagar was in barcelona and the uruguayan artist, who had just moved back from zaragoza, was going through a period of very little artistic output (indeed, no works by barradas have been reliably dated to the year ). [ ] both painters had much in common: they were almost the same age, they had been in contact with avant-garde art in paris, and neither of them was catalan but here they were in catalonia, struggling for artistic recognition. at the very latest, they had met by the end of spring or the beginning of summer , when lagar was back in barcelona. the fact that torres-garcía in his memoirs erroneously reports that lagar took barradas to visit him in his home in terrassa for the first time suggests that by the end of the summer they all had met each other (de facto it was the poet salvat- papasseit who brought barradas to torres-garcia's house, and it probably was lagar who introduced barradas to salvat-papasseit, whom he may have met at the galeries laietanes). [ ] when they were first acquainted, lagar's involvement in exhibitions and the critical attention he had already received placed him in a far better position than barradas, who was almost completely unknown. despite this, the relationship they established in their catalan period, in or , isabel garcía, celso lagar, madrid . isabel garcía, orígenes de las vanguardias artísticas en madrid [phd thesis, universidad complutense de madrid, ], madrid , . pereda, barradas, . joaquín torres-garcía, historia de mi vida, . lubar would later show that according to torres-garcía's diary, it was salvat-papasseit who would take barradas to his house for the first time. lubar, "art-evolució," . riha journal | july until they met again in madrid in , played a key role in the development of their respective careers. in barradas resumed his artistic activity, participating in four exhibitions: a cartoonists' exhibition in madrid; a collective exhibition of affiches in barcelona; the exhibition organized by the galeries dalmau to honour french artists (to which he sent two drawings), and, most importantly, also in the galeries dalmau, the exhibition that he had in december together with torres-garcía where a still nameless vibrationism was shown publicly for the first time. [ ] one of the aspects of lagar's work that would interest barradas was the fact that he had already developed his own vanguard stance, called planism. its birth is attested to by a very brief text that heads the catalogue of his exhibition in the galeries dalmau: "beyond the feeling, the colour and the form contained within planism and volume are the elements of fine art." this is the only theoretical statement about planism offered by its author and only practitioner. it seems that planism was born in paris, but no mention of it was made in the titles of the works shown in this first exhibition. however, in the exhibition that lagar opened in september in the galeries laietanes, he exhibited a work entitled light essay for planism; and in , he had another show in the same gallery where there was a section specifically called "planism", with works, one of them being the famous painting raid – guynemer somme alsace ( ), dedicated to the poet and art critic josep maria junoy. the brief statement about planism, along with the works we can clearly associate with it, suggest that it was born from lagar's own assimilation of the parisian avant-garde. even if he was hesitant to embrace cubism, he assumed some of its principles such as the negation of perspective and three-dimensionality and the emphasis on a constructive composition rooted in cézanne's work. to this he would add the futurist dynamism and deconstruction of planes and a richness of colour inspired by gauguin, references that, together with fauvism, were often mentioned by his critics. [ ] lagar's invention of planism may have exerted a positive influence on barradas' process of developing his own vibrationism; and under lagar's influence it was easier for him to reconnect with his own avant-garde works once he had started to paint again in barcelona. at the same time, barradas' first one-man show held in the galeries laietanes in march , where he according to pereda, barradas, . this is apparent from the fact that lagar invited other artists living there, such as the catalan painter domènec carles, to join him in the movement; see santos torroella, revisiones, . junoy had published his calligram dedicated to the famous french fighter pilot guynemer on october , , in the journal iberia, . romà jori, "una exposición: celso lagar, pintor 'fauve'," in: vell i nou ( ), - ; joan sacs, "la pintura de celso lagar," in: la publicidad, september , . riha journal | july presented a full vision of vibrationism, may have encouraged lagar to present the section devoted to planism in his own exhibition later that year. planism and vibrationism show certain affinities in the colour intensity of the images, their modern, urban iconography, and the use of words and numbers written in print letters; in fact, some critics used the concepts of vibrationism and planism to refer to either artist's work. lagar's paintings, however, do not express the synaesthetic dimension that is so important in barradas' work; planism is also much more structured and constructively organized than vibrationism. [ ] the consolidation and artistic development of the two friends' careers took place in barcelona and is closely related to their meeting and the relationship they established within the catalan context. lagar's critical reception in barcelona, however, did not exclusively assign him to avant- garde circles. as happened with other artists, including picasso, there were attempts to associate his work with noucentisme. eugeni d'ors (under his pseudonym xènius), for instance, wrote a positive review of lagar's exhibition in which, even if he did not adopt him as an outright noucentista, he pointed out certain values in lagar's painting that revealed his own interest in cubism, which d'ors and others had previously related to noucentisme. the connection between cubism and noucentisme was established precisely through notions such as structure and construction. according to d'ors, lagar, though he might have seen himself as a rupturist, bore with him the virtues of the castilian and spanish tradition which could at the same time be interpreted from a modern point of view: "and if world literature can show us a great cubist, well, he would be castilian and his name was don francisco de quevedo." d'ors discovers in lagar a "solid and very modern willingness toward construction". the article ends with a warning addressed to sunyer and other mediterraneist artists: they should not get distracted because, as shown by lagar and picasso, "although the light may still come from the north, it may be that the chariot of the light shall reach us pulled by the fiery young colts of western breeds." [ ] this positive attention expressed by a person as influential as d'ors probably encouraged lagar to make approaches to noucentisme, as demonstrated by some of his drawings, or by paintings like pastor en el camp ( ) or maternity ( ), in which sunyer's influence is evident. there is further evidence of this rapprochement: in girona, he exhibited his work in athenea, a space consecrated to noucentisme, and published an for example, eduard puig (pseudonym of joaquim folguera) mentions vibrationism in his criticism of lagar's exhibition. eduard puig, "celso lagar," in: la revista ( ), ; some years later, planism would be used to talk about barradas' work, and he himself even entitled one of his drawings guignol planista; see garcía, lagar, . mercè vidal, : l'exposició cubista de les galeries dalmau, barcelona . eugeni d'ors, "las obras y los días. celso lagar," in: españa ( ), . riha journal | july article in the journal cultura, "el renacimiento del arte después del cubismo," which he dedicated to xènius. in this article, lagar attempted to theorize his artistic proposal (albeit without mentioning planism), relating his work to cézanne's and, like him, appointing himself the primitive of a new art. lagar uses concepts such as cubism, architecture and structure, together with other, more personal ideas, which make the text somewhat confusing. he tries to express the idea that painting, which is flat and two- dimensional, must endeavour to capture volume while at the same time making its flatness clear, anticipating a key idea in later discussions about modern painting. [ ] lagar's proximity to noucentisme – as superficial as it may have been for a painter who is usually discussed in the context of avant-gardism – is not at all exceptional, considering the characteristics of the catalan artistic scene of the time. noucentisme aimed at assimilating almost everything that could be deemed 'modern' or else construed as an attack on the fin-de- siècle decadentism, and this could include a wide range of art, from cézanne to certain aspects of cubism. the barrier that isolated noucentisme from the avant-garde was more porous than may have seemed at first glance, especially around ; if, on the one hand, we can clearly identify compositional influences from picasso's les demoiselles d'avignon ( ) in such an iconic work as sunyer's cala forn ( ), we can also, on the other hand, find the poet salvat-papasseit dedicating a poem, linòleum ( ), to xènius. and in the avant-garde journals that flourished in barcelona at this time, it was not uncommon to find contributions by prominent figures of noucentisme. the fact that barradas' work, unlike that of torres-garcía and lagar, could never be approached from a noucentista point of view, explains to a large extent the poor reception of vibrationism when it first appeared in barcelona in . the intellectual and artistic context: junoy, solé de sojo, salvat- papasseit and miró [ ] another example of the heterogeneous nature of the artistic and ideological activities of the contemporaries concerns the careers of josep maria junoy ( - ) and his friend and collaborator, vicenç solé de sojo ( - ). their work sheds light on another key aspect of the context celso lagar, "el renacimiento del arte después del cubismo," in: cultura ( ), - . joaquim molas, la literatura catalana d'avant-guarda: - , barcelona , . maria josep balsach, "l'atzur i les arrels noucentistes de joan miró," in: la imaginació noucentista, ed. antoni marí, barcelona , - . eugenio carmona, "novecentismo y la vanguardia en las artes plásticas españolas, - ," in: la generación del . entre el novecentismo y la vanguardia, ed. fundación mapfre, madrid , - . riha journal | july that allowed the emergence of vibrationism. junoy's position as a poet and art critic in the s has been already comprehensively studied, and this has helped us to understand that his closeness to noucentisme implied neither a complete assumption of its ideas nor a total identification with its aesthetic model. solé de sojo, a much lesser known poet and art critic, began his poetic career as a parnassianist, then moved closer to noucentisme, and eventually, around - , stood alongside junoy as a practitioner and defender of the avant-garde; he wrote a number of visual poems that are important examples of the genre in catalan literature. [ ] although limited in extent, their work between the end of and the first months of offered a real critical context for the avant-garde artists operating in barcelona. both contributed to the newspaper el poble català; solé de sojo published his art criticism under the penname florián from the beginning of , and on december he also began an anonymous daily column called "ecos". in the same newspaper, junoy published some of his art criticism in a poetic form, which would then be republished in the avant-garde journal he promoted, trossos (originally troços); the name of this journal appears in at least two of barradas' works of , afiche (fig. ) and acuarela (museo nacional de artes visuales, montevideo). in this journal, we can find some of solé de sojo's avant-garde poems alongside drawings by lagar and torres-garcía, and brief critical reviews of exhibitions by barradas and lagar. the concept of vibration appears quite often in the texts of both poets – always with positive connotations, even before torres- garcía mentioned it in un enemic del poble or barradas himself adopted it. jaume vallcorba, "introducció," in: josep maria junoy, obra poética, barcelona , lxv-lxxiv. molas, la literatura catalana d’avant-guarda, - . in the ecos column of february , , , solé de sojo mentions that a french newspaper had described barcelona as a "vibrant" great city, and not only did he consider this to be "praise [...] that greatly excites us", but added that the french journalist could search every dictionary he could find and "he would never have found another word as flattering". torres-garcía, "una vibració – un crit – un riure intel·ligent," in: un enemic del poble ( ), . faxedas, "el vibracionismo de rafael barradas", . riha journal | july rafael barradas, afiche, , collage on paper, x cm. museo nacional de artes visuales, montevideo (reproduced with permission) [ ] these references to vibrations appeared at the same time as other comments that both junoy and solé de sojo made concerning cubism, futurism, and whether a confluence between the two movements was appropriate. although their ideas on the possible convergence of the two most important trends in the european avant-garde of the time seem to be slightly contradictory, they definitely contributed to the diffusion of both movements in catalonia, to the point that solé de sojo even compared sunyer to the "vibrant" boccioni and severini, considering him close to futurism and crediting him with an artistic vision that would seem more typical of barradas' vibrationism. it's also worth remembering that, as an vallcorba, "introducció", lxv-lxxiv. in the "ecos" column in el poble català of february , , , solé de sojo writes that "a little cubism and futurism is necessary in a country in which three quarters of its [artistic] production is tainted with the sin of olotism […]," but in his critical review of helene grunhoff's exhibition, published in march , , , he condemns what he sees as her attempt to fuse both cubism and futurism in her work. "this is our carrer nou [new street] de la rambla. to paint it, you need to follow the ways of futurism [...] you sit at a table in any one of the innumerable terrace bars that populate the carrer nou. after a while, the planes begin to change and move themselves about and you do not know if the candle is steel or the steel is a candle. the table, round, becomes a well. in the cheeks of a passing woman there is a jeweller's display-case. no one knows where the guitars in their cases come from. the tankard of beer you're drinking grows and grows to an immense size. a tram arrives and pulls into the tankard of beer. the tram guard appears with a candle riha journal | july art critic, solé de sojo wrote positive reviews on exhibitions by lagar and barradas as well as by torres-garcía, whom he had already supported in . junoy also wrote about barradas, and his relationship with lagar is proved by the aforementioned guynemer painting which lagar dedicated to the poet. [ ] another very important relationship for barradas was his friendship with the poet joan salvat-papasseit ( - ), who, together with j. v. foix, was one of the most important catalan avant-garde poets. he was the editor of the aforementioned avant-garde journal un enemic del poble ( - ), a key publication in our understanding of the artistic context in which the incipient catalan avant-garde was trying to develop. torres-garcía was a frequent collaborator of this periodical, publishing up to eight theoretical texts (including his important manifesto "art-evolució" [art-evolution] in november ) and a number of illustrations; drawings by celso lagar appeared twice, and drawings by barradas three times. it is worth remembering that the title of a series of haikus that salvat would later include in his poetry book l'irradiador del port i les gavines [the irradiator of the port and the seagulls] ( ) was, precisely, "vibrations". salvat, torres and barradas may have been influenced in their use of the concept of vibration by a text by the french author paul-louis couchod, "les épigrammes lyriques du japon" (first published in , but republished in ), in which he described haikus as being "like a vibration that is not limited by any other and which stretches itself out almost indefinitely". salvat, torres-garcía and barradas also promoted the journal arc voltaic whose first and only issue (february ) carried on its front page, as a motto, their main artistic ideas: "plasticity of the vertical – forms in emotion and evolution - vibrating ideas - poems in hertzian waves." some years later, salvat-papasseit would write an article on barradas in which, reflecting on vibrationism, he would state that "in reality it is vibration, that is to say, holder in his hand. [...] this is the vision transmitted by our painter joaquim sunyer" (vicenç solé de sojo, "ecos," in: el poble català, february , ). vicenç solé de sojo, "hablando con torres-garcía," in: el día gráfico, december , . josep maria junoy, "nòtules," in: la revista ( ), . "when, one day, they want to study the roots of what, in years to come, will be sumptuous and mature work, they'll need to seek out the rare examples of these pages [in reference to un enemic del poble] as though it were something precious." vicenç solé de sojo, "ecos", in: el poble català, december , . see un enemic del poble and ( ) and ( ). quoted in jordi mas lópez, josep maria junoy i joan salvat-papasseit: dues aproximacions a l'haiku, barcelona , - . mas also suggests an influence of the psychiatrist and writer diego ruiz on the theories of all three, salvat, torres- garcía and barradas. joan salvat-papasseit, ed., arc voltaic, barcelona . riha journal | july sensation," an idea that might open a whole new field of contacts with other artistic movements, as for example, with the sensationism of fernando pessoa and mário de sá-carneiro. [ ] this review of the catalan artistic context of - , which made the emergence of vibrationism possible, would not be complete without a reference to joan miró ( - ) who in was an active observer of the lively artistic scene in barcelona; on september he wrote in a letter to j. f. ràfols: i believe that tomorrow there'll be no more schools ending in "ism" and we'll see a canvas of a speeding train painted in a way that is completely different from a landscape done at midday. within a free spirit, every aspect of life will produce a different sensibility, and all we'll want to see via the canvas is the vibration of a spirit, a fully heterogeneous vibration. [ ] miró would also refer to the concept of vibration in other letters of the same period. was the year of his artistic emergence: some of the principal events involving miró that year include his first one-man show at the galeries dalmau and the publication of one of his drawings in the front page of arc voltaic; his being claimed as "one of us" in trossos by j. v. foix (march); the creation of the agrupació courbet and its participation in the saló dels evolucionistes, which also included barradas and torres-garcía (april), and his participation in the official exposició d'art at palau de belles arts (may - june). it may be worth remembering that, as some authors have consistently argued, miró's artistic roots lie also in noucentisme, and that he himself emphasized the classicism of his work. in any case, his painting can be placed in the same avant-garde context shared by torres-garcía, lagar and barradas; it may not be a coincidence that paintings by barradas and miró were reproduced on the same page of an article reviewing the exposició d'art, nor was it strange that all these artists shared certain iconographic motifs such as the carriage wheel. the numerous interconnections between these artists would itself be worthy of a study. [ ] as we have seen in this section, vibration was not only a key concept in discussions of the european avant-garde of the time, but it was also heavily used by the catalan artists and writers who represented the core of the quoted from lidia roig, "joan salvat-papasseit: textos desconeguts," in: els marges ( ), - , here . joan miró, epistolari català, barcelona , . joan maria minguet, joan miró: l'artista i el seu entorn cultural ( - ), barcelona , - . balsach, "l'atzur i les arrels noucentistes de joan miró." minguet, joan miró, . o. f., "les tendències artístiques en l'actual exposició de l'art," in: d'ací, d'allà, june , - , here . riha journal | july barcelona avant-garde; i believe, therefore, that the fact that his colleagues made use of the term vibration in their articles and texts was an important factor in barradas' decision to name his new artistic proposal vibrationism. at the same time, and even though barradas was, in - , a fairly marginal figure in the catalan cultural context, i believe that his own understanding of the concept of vibration may also have influenced other catalan artists, as we will see in the next section. possible influence on other artists [ ] barradas' vibrationism is the most widely known use of "vibration" in the catalan context, but the concept was also important in the work of other, younger artists, whose main influences were probably similar to those barradas had experienced, but who were, i believe, further influenced by barradas himself. between october and may (that is, when barradas no longer lived in barcelona), ten issues of the journal la columna de foc: fulla de subversió espiritual [the column of fire: gazette of spiritual subversion], whose main promoter was salvador torrell, were published in reus. contributors to this publication included jaume aiguader, gabriel alomar, josep maria de sucre, Àngel samblancat, eugeni d'ors and, last but not least, joan salvat-papasseit. it has been pointed out that there are links with salvat's work, discernible in the title of this marginal journal, inspired by salvat's visual poem "columna vertebral: sageta de foc" [the vertebral column: arrow of fire] ( ), as well as in its list of contributors, many of them having participated also in un enemic del poble. furthermore, there were texts by salvat in issues , , and ; the ninth issue (january ) featured his article "nature and art", an incomplete version of which had been published in un enemic del poble in october . in this article, he makes an interesting reference to delaunay: "there is something in delaunay's [work], one would say, that is wrought by prisms, and nevertheless it has extraordinary merit – and perhaps that is precisely why." [ ] whether through salvat-papasseit's work or through the publications he had promoted (particularly, un enemic del poble and arc voltaic), the concepts of vibrations and vibrationism – sharing and reflecting barradas' own use of the terms – are very present and active in the journal. particularly, they are used by the poet bonaventura vallespinosa i salvat, who published a visual poem in the fourth issue of the journal (january jaume vidal, "episodis de l'art abstracte a barcelona," in: revista de catalunya ( ), - , here . la columna de foc: fulla de subversió espiritual [ - ( - )], facsimile, barcelona . which, in turn, was inspired by gabriel alomar's book la columna de foc [the column of fire] ( ). joan salvat-papasseit, "natura i art," in: la columna de foc, january , . riha journal | july , double issue) in the centre of which we can read about "vibrationism of ideas", a direct quote from the arc voltaic's front page which is usually considered to be a contribution by barradas. the same word "vibration" appears repeatedly in the text "time", published by the same author next to this poem, the central metaphoric figure of which is, in fact, a clock. in the issue of february , more texts by vallespinosa were published that make continuous references to vibrations; and in the seventh issue (june and july ) we find a poem by him that refers to "vibrant plasticity". there is also a reference to the concept of vibration in the first issue of the journal, in an unattributed article entitled "polyphony" and devoted to the question of the relationships between the arts; it describes "an authentic torrent of harmony [...] it vibrates within our very soul". [ ] it should also be pointed out that another of the contributors to the journal was pere march, pseudonym of the painter ernest enguiu ( - ), who was the author of an interesting review of barradas' exhibition (together with torres-garcía) in the galeries dalmau that had appeared in another publication. enguiu, founder of the artists' group els evolucionistes, whose name comes directly from torres-garcía's manifesto, published under his pseudonym a section entitled "d'art" that appeared in the second and sixth issues of la columna de foc. the proximity of the journal members to barradas' circle is reinforced by the fact that, in the seventh issue, we can find a drawing by the sculptor hortense begué (partner of celso lagar), whose work is quite unknown to us. barradas himself appears only once in the journal, in its sixth issue (march, april and may ), which commemorates the untimely death of the poet and critic joaquim folguera. the front page reproduces an issue of un enemic del poble dedicated to folguera, which included a portrait of him drawn by barradas. [ ] in july , in the catalan town of sabadell, the one and only issue of another avant-garde journal called vibracions [vibrations], promoted by armand obiols and esteve serra, saw its publication. this journal, like la columna de foc, is also thought to have been influenced by salvat-papasseit, mainly because of its long subtitle: primera fulla de gimnàstica espiritual. fulla de subversió espiritual [first gazette of spiritual gymnastics. gazette of spiritual subversion]; the obvious connections with salvat, however, should not conceal the fact that the use of the concept of vibrations is also closely related to barradas' work. a quote from this text: "time, concept, evolution time, vibrant spirit time, manifest vibration; hertzian waves; sound running through the vacuum." on the importance of the clock as an iconographic motive in barradas' and torres-garcía's work, see bonet, "alrededor del reloj". this text is reproduced in pereda, barradas, - . however, the author does not give any information about its original publication, nor is it included in the bibliography of the book. riha journal | july [ ] as mentioned before, the influence of barradas' work and personality on the artistic groups in madrid from the moment he established himself there in august , particularly regarding ultraism, and by extension his impact on the flourishing iberian avant-garde at large, has already been well assessed and recognised. however, the use of the concept of vibration in these catalan journals, promoted by people who were closely related to his own circle of acquaintances, would suggest that in fact his vibrationist activity during his barcelona period ( - ) also had a certain impact, at least on this small group of catalan artists. conclusions [ ] this review of the artistic avant-garde scene in barcelona around - reveals that barradas' work in this period is interwoven in a much richer tapestry of relationships than may have seemed at first glance. barradas' vibrationism, therefore, was not an artistic eccentricity or a spontaneous creation; quite the contrary: its birth and its evolution during its catalan period are closely connected to a very specific artistic environment where the artistic ideas that barradas had discovered in europe found a context where they could mature and develop. [ ] his relationship with painters such as torres-garcía and lagar helped him to define his own artistic style, and his connections with writers such as junoy, solé de sojo or salvat-papasseit may have helped him develop his theoretical statements. the fact that the artistic scene he immersed himself in was embedded in noucentisme, and that both his work and his sense of himself as an artist were and remained completely alien to the contemporary catalan artistic traditions – and to noucentisme itself, was no obstacle to his establishing productive relationships. it may, however, have been a powerful factor in his decision to relocate to madrid in . in any case, one thing is sure: barradas was an innovative artist who made a strong contribution to the emergence of avant-garde, modernist poetics in catalonia and the whole of spain. local editor joana cunha leal, instituto de história da arte, fcsh-universidade nova de lisboa reviewers jed morse, nasher sculpture center, dallas juan manuel bonet, "barradas y el ultraísmo," in: barradas – torres-garcía, madrid , - ; juan manuel bonet, el ultraísmo y las artes plásticas, exh. cat., valencia ; juan manuel bonet, "rafael barradas, ultraísta," in: barradas, exh. cat., montevideo , - ; morse, rafael barradas and vibracionismo. beyond the ultraists, we can cite dalí, garcía maroto and alberto as artists most influenced by vibrationism. riha journal | july enric bou, università ca' foscari, venice license the text of this article is provided under the terms of the creative commons license cc-by-nc-nd . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / 	introduction 	barradas and vibrationism 	torres-garcía, a vibrationist painter? 	barradas and lagar 	the intellectual and artistic context: junoy, solé de sojo, salvat-papasseit and miró 	possible influence on other artists 	conclusions apollinaire’s favourite music edinburgh research explorer apollinaire's music citation for published version: dayan, p , 'apollinaire's music', forum for modern language studies, vol. , no. , pp. - . https://doi.org/ . /fmls/cqq digital object identifier (doi): . /fmls/cqq link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: peer reviewed version published in: forum for modern language studies publisher rights statement: © dayan, p. ( ). apollinaire's music. forum for modern language studies, ( ), - . . /fmls/cqq general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the edinburgh research explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the university of edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that edinburgh research explorer content complies with uk legislation. if you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. download date: . apr. https://doi.org/ . /fmls/cqq https://doi.org/ . /fmls/cqq https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/apollinaires-music( fc dd- - f - a - a be f f ).html apollinaire’s music abstract: there is a peculiar paradox in apollinaire’s attitude to music. on the one hand, he took little apparent interest in the music of his (or any) time; he clearly did not appreciate it much, and his enjoyment of concerts was at best ambiguous. on the other hand, music as an abstract concept (including what he calls, in his poems, “le chant”) stands, in his writing, for the very essence of art: there is no higher praise for a poem or a painting, in apollinaire’s vocabulary, than to say it is, or is analogous to, music. this essay seeks to explain why actual works of music, of specific audible music, have such a low position in apollinaire’s value system, while the concept of music has such a dominant one. the answer is to be found in the relationship between art and the dynamics of representation, as apollinaire understood them. works of art, for him, are born of a struggle between reality and creativity. in that struggle, music, which never represents reality, stands for the purely creative pole; hence, it figures the goal of all truly modern art, which refuses simply to imitate what exists. however, actual successful works of music are difficult for apollinaire to imagine, precisely because the struggle with reality seems to him absent from music. the result is an aesthetic system in which the highest value can never be realised in a work, and a poetics in which unrealistic ambition is as essential as frustration. keywords: apollinaire, music, word and music studies, cubism, savinio, calligrammes, soirées de paris academic interest in apollinaire’s attitude to music goes back half a century. it seems to have been sparked off by an article entitled “apollinaire et la musique”, published in by georges auric. auric was doubtless one of the two composers who knew apollinaire best (more of the other shortly). he describes an apollinaire whose knowledge of and interest in music were strictly limited (limited, indeed, almost entirely to short songs), and who showed no desire to know more; “pourquoi aurait-il feint la connaissance et l’amour d’un art dont il ne niait point la grandeur, mais auquel il était insensible?” james lawler, writing in , jacqueline bellas, in , and catherine miller, in , all cite auric’s article, and see it as quite plausible. michel décaudin, in , agreed: “c’est un fait qu’il n’était pas mélomane, ni même très sensible aux séductions de l’art musical”. but all five are also sensitive to a strange contradiction at work in apollinaire’s attitude to music. on the one hand, he generally professed both to know little about music, and to have little interest in it. it was, he maintained, an art that had remained behind the times, taking no part in the great artistic revolution of the th century, whose most visible achievement was cubism. and yet at the same time, he defined the very nature of that great artistic revolution as musical. cubism was, he suggested, more musical than previous types of painting. his own poetry he presented constantly as musical. orpheus was the patron saint of apollinaire’s artistic time. the new art, it seemed, was music. but music had little value as art. how could this add up? james lawler’s answer to this question is contained in a lapidary sentence: “a writer’s sense of music may (on occasion) be in inverse proportion to his capacity for enjoying concerts”. apollinaire, then, did not enjoy concerts; yet his “sense of music” was strong. why should this be? what, exactly, if not the kind of music one hears in concerts, was the music of which he had a strong sense? an answer is suggested, but not developed, by jacqueline bellas, who cites a letter of in which apollinaire, still a soldier at the front, wrote: “je me suis ennuyé à parsifaal [sic] parce que je ne supporte pas longtemps la musique sans que mon esprit divague au loin et que je m’obstinais à être attentif [...]”. this, as bellas points out, does not mean that he does not like music. between apollinaire and music, the problem, rather, is one of proximity. when he has to pay close attention, he finds it intolerable. he needs a certain distance: space for his spirit to wander “au loin”. why? what is the nature of this distance, and why is it necessary? those are the questions which this essay will seek to answer. apollinaire certainly did not shrink from proclaiming his indifference to music in general. “la musique n’a pas le moindre attrait pour moi et je la tiens en peu d’estime”, he is reported to have said in (p. ); “la musique”, he wrote to the critic louis dimier in the same year, “m’est étrangère” (p. ). before the war, he hardly ever admitted to being interested in any of the art music performed in paris. with one exception (to which we shall return), he has very little to say about it in his published work, and certainly nothing positive. in , he condemned the programme of diaghilev’s “ballets russes”: nous jugeons à propos de reprocher ici à m. de diaghilev le peu d’intérêt que sa récente saison à l’opéra suscita parmi nous. sauf les décors de mme de gontcharova, trop de fadaises! (p. ) the ballet that apollinaire found so uninteresting in was doubtless rimsky-korsakoff’s le coq d’or. but how could he be so dismissive, one is tempted to exclaim, of the troupe that only one year earlier had dared to present debussy’s jeux, and astonished paris with stravinsky’s sacre du printemps? apollinaire never mentions those, or stravinsky’s other revolutionary ballets, performed in the preceding years. when he is writing as a critic of the visual arts, apollinaire’s judgements are always careful, well-informed, and thoroughly contextualised, drawing on his quite encyclopaedic knowledge of contemporary painting. it seems all the more extraordinary, on the face of it, that he should condemn out of hand the music of his time, a sphere of artistic endeavour of which he knew so little. might one suspect that the condemnation is powered, not by what he knew of the actual musical life of paris at the time, but rather by an aesthetic principle that tended to the refusal of any actual musical life? the suspicion is confirmed, i think, by the content and context of the one extended essay he published on music, “musique nouvelle”, and by the type of music to which, in that essay, he seems to be attracted. “musique nouvelle” was published in paris-journal on may . its main aim seems at first to be to publicise a concert to be given that evening, “dans les bureaux des soirées de paris, ce dimanche mai” (p. ) – though apollinaire gives neither the time, nor the address of the venue; as if he were not really trying to drum up an audience. but before the puff for the concert, apollinaire spends three paragraphs deploring, with an apparent lassitude that reflects what he had to say about the “ballets russes”, the state of contemporary music – or is it the state of music in general? si pauvre est la musique d’aujourd’hui, et si mince est le rôle qu’elle joue parmi les autres arts, que bien des fois j’ai entendu dire que la faute en était à la musique elle-même plutôt qu’aux musiciens. (p. ) who might have told apollinaire that there was a problem with music itself, rather than simply with contemporary musicians? one plausible answer to the latter question is: albert savinio. albert savinio is little remembered, today, as a musician; he is better known for his activities as a writer and painter. however, he is the only composer whose music is described in any detail in apollinaire’s published work. it is his contribution to the forthcoming concert that is the focus of apollinaire’s article; and it seems to me more than likely that what apollinaire has to say, here, about music in general, is strongly influenced by savinio. a month earlier, savinio had published an article in les soirées de paris entitled “le drame et la musique”. his argument concerning the current state of music is forceful, and his starting point uncompromising: “il m’est avis que modernement on ne saurait construire une œuvre seulement musicale”. the reason for this is simple: music as it was known in his time was defined formally, by specific “formules protocolaires [...] échafaudant autour du sens musical tout un support de formes artificielles et hétérogènes”. any such formal definition of any art was, to him, essentially anti-artistic. therefore, the music of his time, as it was universally defined, was actually “antimusicale”. this fits with apollinaire’s general principle, which he affirms in “musique nouvelle”, that only art that is truly new can be truly art, and that contemporary music is not really new; therefore, it is not art. according to apollinaire as, it would seem, to savinio, the musicians of their time have failed (unlike painters and poets) to escape from the dead hand of academic tradition, of pre-defined aesthetics, of: ces orgies de bon goût auxquelles les musiciens soi-disant modernes nous avaient habitués jusqu’ici et qui font que les plus avancés d’entre eux ne s’élèvent pas au-dessus d’un art que l’on pourrait comparer, pour une part, à celui de m. maurice rostand et, d’autre part, à celui des peintres de la nationale. (p. ) i do not know if either claude debussy or erik satie ever read this article; but if they did, they would have been quite disgusted by it. their most fundamental aesthetic principle had been, for the previous quarter of a century at least, precisely such a rejection of the academic tradition. they had sought the new; they had been frequently condemned by traditionalists for doing so; and apollinaire, like savinio, was simply dismissing their efforts. was this out of pure ignorance? certainly, apollinaire had heard of both. satie (with whom his relationship was marked, as ornella volta writes, by “le malentendu” ) was well known to many in the circle of les soirées de paris, including to michel-dimitri calvocoressi, who was the composer of most of the works listed in the programme of the concert on may (though apollinaire does not mention him). calvocoressi certainly thought of satie as a great musical revolutionary. apollinaire, on the other hand, has only this to say of satie in his article: je ne parle pas, bien entendu, de musiciens comme erik satie ou william molnard qui, s’ils n’ont pas indiqué de voie nouvelle, ont du moins contribué à détruire dans l’esprit de la jeunesse ce bon goût plein de tristesse qui la faisait dégénerer. (p. ) at least there is, here, some recognition of satie’s refusal of “bon goût”. however, apollinaire clearly thinks that for one seeking the new music of the future, savinio is a more interesting case than satie. why? i will give an answer which at first will seem strange: it is because savinio’s music is received by apollinaire as destructive of all audible music. *** we have seen how savinio, in his article, states that all music composed according to the rules of music is antimusical. if music itself cannot suffice to guide the musician, can words help? apparently not. a large part of the article is taken up with what was, by , quite a well-worn condemnation of the wagnerian alliance between words and music. savinio rejects absolutely “cette chose horipilante appelée jusqu’à maintenant la musique dramatique”; all “conceptions wagnériennes” belong to the past, and can have no influence on “l’art moderne”. music, for savinio, simply ceases to be music if it attempts to follow, describe, or support words. indeed, it must not follow, describe, or support anything. he condemns, for this reason, the contemporary viennese school: though their musical language may seem new, it is, he says, at the service of the tired old principle that music should be illustrative or descriptive, “car elle s’emploie à décrire des états d’âme. et comment pourrait-il en être autrement alors que la production de ces musiciens se compose surtout de chants écrits sur des paroles?”. savinio seeks a music which would not be “tenue à illustrer des phénomènes indépendants d’elle-même”. this obviously links back to the concept of “musique pure” as it had existed since the middle of the nineteenth century. but whereas half a century earlier, many had thought this pure music existed, for example in the quartets of beethoven, savinio clearly believes that it does not exist. for the reasons given above, no music that is merely music can be music. nor can any music that supports words be music. what is needed is a music that relates to words, more specifically to drama, but without that relationship being one of support, illustration, expression, or translation. is such a music possible? savinio seems to dream of it: j’ai la conception d’une œuvre constituée à la fois d’éléments dramatiques et musicaux, mais où ces éléments – contrairement aux méthodes usées – ne se soutiendraient par aucune dépendance mutuelle. however, he never tells us what the relationship between music and drama in such a work might be (would it be a simple unmotivated juxtaposition? that hardly seems satisfactory, since it would, again, leave music fatally dependent on its own devices); he never suggests that such a work does or even could actually exist, or that his own work satisfies these criteria. it is hard to avoid the impression that like apollinaire, albert savinio had an abstract notion of what new music ought to be like, but was unable to find it in any sounding reality. what, then, of savinio’s music itself? the question is certainly worth asking, and it could be answered to some extent, for the work has not vanished without trace. les chants de la mi-mort, which were performed at the concert announced by apollinaire, are available on cd, and the text was published by les soirées de paris in july ; as we shall see, it has a profound fraternal echo in apollinaire’s work. but there is no space to address that question here, and, fortunately, i think, no need to. what matters to us is apollinaire’s reaction. the sole aspect of savinio’s work that caught his attention was its destructiveness. he had already expressed, in the article which he published before the concert, his approval of the extraordinary violence with which savinio attacked the piano. in a brief note written after the concert, that destructiveness is the only quality of savinio’s performance which he sees fit to record: j’étais charmé et étonné à la fois, car il maltraitait si fort l’instrument qu’il touchait qu’après chaque morceau de musique on enlevait les morceaux du piano droit qu’il avait brisé pour lui en apporter un autre, qu’il brisait incontinent. et j’estime qu’avant deux ans il aura ainsi brisé tous les pianos existants à paris, après quoi il pourra partir à travers le monde et briser tous les pianos existants dans l’univers. ce qui sera peut-être un bon débarras. “bon débarras”, the destruction of all pianos? apollinaire seems here to be taking to its logical conclusion the idea expressed by savinio and echoed in apollinaire’s own “musique nouvelle”: there is a problem with music itself, to which no solution has been found. if all music is unsatisfactory, then why not get rid of it? but at this point, a distinguo must be introduced. all the music that apollinaire heard may have seemed to him, in , unsatisfactory, and most attractive when it tended to the destruction of the means by which it made itself heard. but whereas he was happy to see savinio destroy pianos, he was equally happy to see musical instruments survive in art – provided they remained silent. *** in the number of les soirées de paris which published albert savinio’s essay, there are black and white reproductions of eight paintings. all are cubist works by georges braque. the first is entitled “portrait de femme”. it takes some effort to distinguish the figure of the woman in the painting; what is most readily apparent, in figurative terms, is not the woman, but a fragmented guitar, whose strings, sound-hole, and curvature are immediately visible. one or more of these features of the guitar, as well as parts of violins, musical staves, and other musical elements, may be found in all of the other seven paintings (all entitled “nature morte”). apollinaire has relatively little to say about the reasons for the figurative motifs in braque’s cubist paintings. however, he has a great deal to say about the relationship between those paintings, and music. indeed, it would hardly be an exaggeration to say that for him, just as poets in the previous century had sought to “reprendre à la musique leur bien”, so picasso and braque, in the years of their collaboration, revolutionised their art by making it, precisely, musical. in that context, it is more than tempting to see braque’s guitars, violins, and staves as a materialisation of the character of the new art. in méditations esthétiques. les peintres cubistes, published in , apollinaire had written: on s’achemine ainsi vers un art entièrement nouveau, qui sera à la peinture, telle qu’on l’avait envisagée jusqu’ici, ce que la musique est à la littérature. ce sera de la peinture pure, de même que la musique est de la littérature pure. (p. ) what is the quality of music that allows it thus to symbolise purity in art? apollinaire’s answer is traditional enough: music is not an art of reproduction. the purity of music lies in the fact that it is not received as imitation of anything that exists outside it. hence it stands for the nature of all art whose value is not one of reproduction. this function of music (not of heard music, but of the concept of music), so close to savinio’s dream, was already apparent in the preface which apollinaire had written for braque’s exhibition at the galerie kahnweiler in : puisant en lui-même les éléments des motifs synthétiques qu’il représente, il est devenu un créateur. il ne doit plus rien à ce qui l’entoure. son esprit a provoqué volontairement le crépuscule de la réalité et voici que s’élabore plastiquement en lui-même et hors de lui-même une renaissance universelle. [...] un lyrisme coloré et dont les exemples sont trop rares l’emplit d’un enthousiasme harmonieux et ses instruments de musique, sainte cécile même les fait sonner. (p. ) sainte cécile, the “musicienne du silence” of mallarmé’s famous poem “sainte”, is alone able to sound the instruments of braque’s music. it is a music that cannot be heard, because it exists as a pure concept, which can never take the form of a concretely existing work. the cubist painting, as apollinaire describes it, becomes a work in the moment of the “voici que”, as reality enters its “crépuscule” and braque’s creative force emerges. but music, music as it must be defined for this dynamic to be articulated, cannot know that moment, cannot appear in the form of a work born from the “crépuscule de la réalité”, because, for apollinaire, it was never attached to “la réalité” in the first place. painting certainly had been attached to reality, by the traditional dynamics of reproduction; cubism can therefore be a struggle against those dynamics, and in that struggle, the artist’s creativity appears. music, however, never having been an art of reproduction, cannot follow this trajectory. in other words: each work of art can only operate as a process, somewhere between two positions that it cannot occupy: the reproduction of reality; and pure creation. reproduction is not art; pure creation cannot be appreciated by human eyes or ears, for we have no means to understand the absolutely new, with the result that all attempts to create a purely non- reproductive art founder either in incomprehension, or in that formalism which savinio was concerned to reject. the work of art lives only in movement between the two poles, of reproduction and creation; without both, without the tension between them, it has no place. music, lacking one of those poles, it seems, can produce no works. in practice, then, poets and painters would have an easier task than musicians. the temptation to be purely creative, to create purely, to create pure art, is constant, and a threat for artists in all media. but there is a means to contain that threat within the poem or the painting. it is to stage creativity’s triumph over reality, and to portray the result: a “crépuscule”, a twilight, a götterdämmerung, a dramatic death of the real. it is perhaps too comfortable to conceive of a cubist painting as a reconfiguration of the object. perhaps the true force of cubism lies in the way its creativity threatens the representation of objects; perhaps that is what apollinaire’s music invites us to see. that same threat to representation clearly haunts apollinaire’s own poetry, as both its source of value and its ever-impending death. if orpheus is such an obsessive presence in apollinaire’s aesthetics, it is not only because he was a musician whose music we can never hear; it is also because he killed the thing he loved. that is why, in apollinaire’s poetry, music is ever present: not in the form of musical works, of music whose sound we can imagine, but of music whose sound we cannot imagine, music that stands for a purity that can never strike human ears. hence the distance that his spirit needs, as we saw, from music as it is heard in concerts. savinio condemned the viennese composers of his time because their music, expressive of “des états d’âme”, consisted largely of songs with words: music, to him, had to be divorced from words. apollinaire accomplishes that divorce not by getting rid of the words, but by rendering the music in his poetry inaudible. it is no exaggeration to say that most of the poems in the collection calligrammes contain some reference to music. many contain references to instrumental music. but it is song that predominates. the verb “chanter” is one of the commonest in the book. of course, the idea that the poet sings is as old as poetry itself. however, in the traditional concept of sung poetry, the tune to which the poem was sung actually existed; this is the music that savinio calls “barbare”, whose reign ran, it would seem, from prehistory to “les conceptions wagnériennes”, and survives in vienna – after all, schoenberg, like wagner, associates words with audible music. what distinguishes the tunes of apollinaire’s poetry is that, like the music of mallarmé’s saint cecilia, they cannot be heard. we cannot even imagine that we could hear them, as reproducible sound. two of the poems in calligrammes have music as their central theme: “le musicien de saint-merry” and “un fantôme de nuées”. they were written in and ; “le musicien de saint-merry” was first published in les soirées de paris in february . the first occurrence of the verb “chanter” in the text is in the fifth line: je ne chante pas ce monde ni les autres astres je chante toutes les possibilités de moi-même hors de ce monde et des astres je chante la joie d’errer et le plaisir d’en mourir the next line begins a narration which is clearly situated in contemporary paris: le du mois de mai how does this precisely dated and localised narration relate to the exordium in which apollinaire had maintained he sings, not this world, but the possibilities of himself out of this world? the only possible answer is that the words of the poem are not synonymous with the “chant” he has evoked. poetry begins from the earth-bound concrete. but song was always, from the beginning, elsewhere. clearly, then, song is not the same as poetry; rather, it behaves like music. and this is indeed confirmed in the course of the poem. a few lines later, a man appears, “sans yeux sans nez et sans oreilles” – logically, then, unable to read or hear music. he is, nonetheless, playing the flute: jouant l’air que je chante et que j’ai inventé what is this “air” that the poet invented and sang? to begin with: this is further confirmation that “chanter”, here, is not merely a conventional term for what poets do with words. there is clearly a tune here, a tune that can exist independently of words, independently enough to be played on a flute. but did that the tune actually exist? should we try to find it? there is indeed a temptation to do so. apollinaire said more than once that when composing verse, he did have tunes in his head, quite simple ones, which max jacob noted down. did he actually sing his poems to these tunes? in december , he recorded three of his poems, for a project entitled “les archives de la parole”. the recordings still exist. five months later, “une audition” took place at the sorbonne of “poèmes symbolistes dits par les poètes eux-mêmes et enregistrés aux archives”. apollinaire was there, and heard two of his own poems, read by him, played back. he commented: d’ailleurs, comme je fais mes poèmes en les chantant sur des rythmes qu’a notés mon ami max jacob, j’aurais dû les chanter comme fit rené ghil, qui fut avec verhaeren le véritable triomphateur de cette séance. should he, or could he, have sung his poems to his little tunes? the answer is clearly no. as margaret davies shows, it simply is not possible, if only for prosodic reasons: the little tunes do not fit most of his poems. and in any case, if one re-reads the passage carefully, apollinaire is not saying that he should have sung his poems to the “rythmes qu’a notés mon ami max jacob”. he is saying that he should have sung them “comme fit rené ghil”. but ghil certainly did not sing them to a tune, to any tune that a flute could play. here is apollinaire’s description of ghil’s performance: le chant vertigineux de rené ghil, on eût dit des harpes éoliennes vibrant dans un jardin d’italie, ou encore que l’aurore touchait la statue de memnon et surtout l’hymne télégraphique que les fils et les poteaux ne cessent d’entonner sur les grandes routes. what “air”, then, should we imagine being played by the flute-player in “le musicien de saint-merry”? the little tunes noted by max jacob? or something more like the hymn of telegraph wires? listening to apollinaire’s recordings, one certainly hears what one might call a sing-song quality (they are, indeed, peculiarly haunting); but there is nothing recognisable as a tune, nothing that would make any sense transposed to a flute; any more than would rené ghil’s “chant”. the “air” invented by guillaume apollinaire and played on a fictional flute by a man with no eyes, nose, or ears remains impossible to materialise. within the poem, this unmaterialised tune works rather like that of the pied piper of hamelin, except that the procession that forms behind the flute-player is not of rats or of children, but of women. they enter an old, abandoned house in the rue de la verrerie, then disappear: sans regretter ce qu’elles ont laissé ce qu’elles ont abandonné sans regretter le jour la vie et la mémoire they have left, it seems, their lives, for that which apollinaire had told us he sings. music leads out of this world. and in the process, it dies itself, before it can be recorded. the flute-player disappears with the women, and the poem ends thus: o nuit toi ma douleur et mon attente vaine j’entends mourir le son d’une flûte lointaine “un fantôme de nuées” similarly gives us a narration precisely dated (“c’était la veille du quatorze juillet”) and localised in paris; and it, too, ends with a disappearance. this time, however, the inaudibility of the music that causes the disappearance is more openly marked; for there is, in the poem, a contrast between two musics: one of which we can imagine having heard, the other not. the audible music is that of an “orgue de barbarie”. it precedes the performance of a troup of “saltimbanques”. when they decide to begin their “séance”: de dessous l’orgue sortit un tout petit saltimbanque habillé de rose pulmonaire this little “saltimbanque” then performs. as he does so, he becomes a music, a “musique des formes”, which clearly has no audible substance, and destroys both humanity, and the audible music of the “orgue mécanique”: et quand il marcha sur une boule son corps mince devint une musique si délicate que nul parmi les spectateurs n’y fut insensible un petit esprit sans aucune humanité pensa chacun et cette musique des formes détruisit celle de l’orgue mécanique the music of forms is not of this world, not of humanity, and the child disappears like the women following the flute: musique angélique des arbres disparition de l’enfant and like the poet who, having seen the women disappear, looks only for what he knows he cannot find on earth, but is only to be located in “les possibilités de moi-même hors de ce monde et des astres”, so the spectators seek the child: chaque spectateur cherchait en soi l’enfant miraculeux siècle ô siècle des nuages *** albert savinio smashing pianos, like the child destroying the music of the mechanical “orgue de barbarie” in “un fantôme de nuées”, seems to symbolise, for apollinaire, the sheer poverty of all music that can be heard, and the superiority of imagined music over real music. his ears could hear no music worthy of contemporary art. wagnerian music, representative music, he could not listen to without suffering. pure music, on the other hand, he could not imagine ever being materialised in a work. between the two, he knew nothing; he saw no musical possibilities. there certainly were musicians in his time – debussy and satie, but also stravinsky – who were similarly exercised by the difficult position of music, between reproduction and purity; but they thought they had been able to create music in that difficult position, by suggesting an always elusive relationship between music and words, a relationship based not on that mutual support which savinio derided, but on a subtle web of connivences and hostilities, a dynamic of attraction and repulsion, a play on the differences between the two. the music of the time was actually far closer to cubism or to contemporary poetry in its aesthetic development than apollinaire or savinio seemed prepared to acknowledge. it is hard to avoid the impression that apollinaire, in , simply did not want to know, because he wanted to maintain the fiction of music’s absolute, aboriginal, essential, otherworldly purity. he would rather see music destroyed than allow it to lose that privilege. one episode in apollinaire’s artistic life might suggest he had a change of heart in : his public support for the ballet parade, which was performed by the very “ballets russes” in which he had shown so little interest three years previously. the décor and costumes were by picasso; the music, by satie. apollinaire wrote the programme note. however, in that note, he only mentions satie’s music once. he presents it as a “transposition” of cocteau’s “poème scénique”, and “une musique étonnament expressive” (p. ). this might appear to be praise. but expressive music, according to the principles of apollinaire as of savinio, is, as we have seen, not really music at all. the very function of music in calligrammes is to stand for the opposite of expression: music does not express, it creates. it is hard to avoid the conclusion that, behind this innocent turn of phrase, apollinaire is denying to satie’s score the status of true music. and that would explain his quite startling revision, in the following paragraph, of the nineteenth-century ambition to join the arts together. apollinaire salutes a new relationship between dance and décor, between the plastic arts and choreography - but excludes music from the alliance. le peintre cubiste picasso et le plus audacieux des chorégraphes, léonide massine, l’ont réalisé en consommant pour la première fois cette alliance de la peinture et de la danse, de la plastique et de la mimique qui est le signe de l’avènement d’un art plus complet [...] de cette alliance nouvelle, car jusqu’ici les décors et les costumes, d’une part, la chorégraphie, d’autre part, n’avaient entre eux qu’un lien factice, il est résulté, dans parade, une sorte de sur-réalisme [...] (p. ) this text is most often cited as the first in which the word “sur-réalisme” appears. it is worth noting that this sur-realism is born from an alliance between the arts from which music is conspicuously absent. thus music remains beyond the reach of any reality – even sur-reality. but there is a price to pay for this exclusion of music; a price that both apollinaire and savinio had to pay. if “musique pure” stands for the highest form of art, and there can be, in reality, no works of that art, then every creator, the poet as much as the painter or the musician, is condemned eternally to produce works which fall short. the artist should always be conscious that every work of art points to its own inadequacy. indeed, the more successful the work of art, the more acute and immediate that sense of inadequacy – and of the inadequacy and frustrations of its creator. the title of savinio’s work, performed at the concert apollinaire attended in , was les chants de la mi-mort. the last words of that work are exactly the same as the last words of calligrammes, published four years later: ayez pitié de moi peter dayan division of european languages and cultures university of edinburgh george square edinburgh eh ju peter.dayan@ed.ac.uk g. auric, “apollinaire et la musique”, revue musicale (january ), pp. - (p. ). r. lawler, “music and poetry in apollinaire”, french studies ( ), pp. - . j. bellas, “apollinaire devant la musique et les musiciens”, in: guillaume apollinaire, . colloque apollinaire à varsovie, ed. m. décaudin (paris: revue des lettres modernes, ), pp. - . according to auric’s account, the dreadful experience of sitting through parsifal put apollinaire off classical music for life (“apollinaire et la musique”, p. ). c. miller, cocteau, apollinaire, claudel et le groupe des six (sprimont: mardaga, ). m. décaudin, “présentation”, in: apollinaire et la musique. actes du colloque journées apollinaire, stavelot, - août ed. m. décaudin (stavelot: éditions les amis de g. apollinaire, ), pp - (p. ). lawler, op. cit., p. . bellas, op. cit., p. . all such references in brackets in this essay are to the second of the three volumes of apollinaire’s Œuvres en prose complètes in the bibliothèque de la pléiade, ed. p. caizergues and m. décaudin (paris: gallimard, ). les soirées de paris was a journal, of small circulation, behind which apollinaire was the moving literary force. its central place in the chronicle of apollinaire’s relations to music in will become apparent. - . his real name was andrea de chirico. he was the brother of the painter giorgio de chirico. for further information on him, see: w. bohn, “sur la butte: apollinaire et savinio”, que vlo-ve?, second series, ( ), pp. - . see les soirées de paris, april , pp. - . ibid., p. . see e. satie, correspondance presque complète ed o. volta (paris: fayard / imec, ), p. . auric confirms this (“apollinaire et la musique”, p. ). the name of molnard seems to have left no trace in music history. savinio, op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid. ibid., p. . g. apollinaire, Œuvres en prose complètes vol iii, ed p. caizergues and m. décaudin (paris: gallimard, bibliothèque de la pléiade, ), p. . i am speaking here, i should stress, not of music as it existed at the time for musicians, but of music as it must be conceptualised by apollinaire, for it to play this role in his description of the development of art. subtitled “poèmes de la paix et de la guerre ( - )”, and first published in april , seven months before apollinaire’s death. to be precise, it is the seventh commonest, after “être”, “avoir”, “faire”, “aller”, “mourir” and “savoir” – and more frequent than “parler” and “dire” put together. “musique” is also more than twice as common as “poème” and “poésie” – though “poète” is more frequent than “musicien”. i glean all these facts from: g. apollinaire, calligrammes: concordance (besançon: centre d’étude du vocabulaire, larousse, ). philippe renaud points out this inaudibility of the music in calligrammes: “cette musique s’adresse à [...] cette «musicienne du silence» dont rêva mallarmé”. see “‘ondes’, ou les métamorphoses de la musique”, in: apollinaire et la musique, ed. cit., pp. - (p. ). pp. - . see also, for the text of the poem: g. apollinaire, Œuvres poétiques ed m. adéma and m. décaudin (paris: gallimard, bibliothèque de la pléiade, ), pp. - . Œuvres en prose complètes vol iii, p. . see: m. davies, “la petite musique d’apollinaire”, in: apollinaire et la musique, ed.cit., pp. - . Œuvres poétiques, pp. - . certainly, as auric noted, he was fond of popular tunes; but for him as for savinio, they could not constitute a “musique nouvelle”, an art for modern times. as catherine miller remarks, after an analysis of this passage: “l’attitude d’apollinaire à l’encontre de la musique n’est donc pas celle du poète prêt à faire collaborer les deux arts, à les unir dans des œuvres de synthèse” (op. cit., p. ). "designing with light": carlotta corpron and the new bauhaus thesis presented to the graduate council of the university of north texas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts by erin l. waugh, b.a., b.s.j. denton, texas august, /vo waugh, erin l., "designing with light": carlotta corpron and the new bauhau.l. master of arts (art history), august, , pp., illustrations, bibliography, titles. a major figure to emerge in the history of american photography is carlotta corpron ( - ), who taught art at texas woman's university in denton, texas from - . the rediscovery of her abstract images created during the s reflects the growing recognition of the experimental photography at the new bauhaus in chicago from - . corpron's abstract photographs were stimulated by her interaction with lazlo moholy-nagy and gyorgy kepes. corpron was an innovator in the development of abstract photography in the united states. this thesis connects her work to that of moholy-nagy and gyorgy kepes as well as other major figures in american photography of the twentieth century. copyright by erin l. waugh iii table of contents page list of illustrations..................................... v chapter i. introduction...................................... statement of the problem review of the literature methodology ii. carlotta corpron and the bauhaus.................. early biography the bauhaus moholy-nagy and kepes: philosophy association with moholy-nagy and kepes corpron's teaching philosophy iii. corpron's context in photography and later biography--.-.................................. history of abstract photography in the u.s. corpron's place in twentieth-century photography: a comparative study late biography iv. evaluation of abstract photographs produced by corpron during the s....................... nature studies light drawings light patterns light follows form space compositions fluid light designs v. conclusion- ---.......................................... illustrations-- - --............................................. appendix - -- - - --................................................ chronology selected bibliography-- ---.................................... iv list of illustrations figure page . caladium leaves................................. . nature dancer...................................... . three oil tanks near jefferson. texas........... . design with oil.tank........................... . solarized calla lilies ......................... . church in havana................................... . commentary on civilization...................... . a walk in fair park, dallas..................... . bisymmetric design ................................ . white paper shapes against white background-- light from a venetian blind.................. . six cubes....................................... . suspended glass.cubes............................. . light follows f r ............................ ... . illusion of male and female ...................... . nautilus and concave mirror...................o.. . chambered nautilus in space composition .......... . eggs reflected and multiplied.................... . fun with eggs ...................................... . eggs encircled .................................. . captured light.................................. . light creates symbols....................... . ... . flowing light................................... v chapter i introduction a major figure to emerge in recent years in the history of american photography is carlotta corpron ( - ). the rediscovery of her substantial production of a broad range of abstract images created primarily in the s reflects the growing recognition of the experimental photography at the new bauhaus in chicago during the years to as well as the recent interest in the neglected work of women artists. corpron's place in twentieth-century photography can be seen as that of an independent artist who can be associated with the abstract experimental spirit of the bauhaus and the new bauhaus. statement of the problem this study will examine the relationship of corpron's work to the principles and teaching of bauhaus artists lazlo moholy-nagy and gyorgy kepes in terms of the investigation of light patterns in corpron's abstract compositions produced during the s. review of the literature the literature on corpron discusses her life and accomplishments only briefly. two articles written by corpron from an educator's point of view ( , ) explain her methods of teaching creative photography. the articles give details about photograms and light modulators, both of which were essential to her teaching and her photography. these articles strongly suggest the influence of moholy-nagy and his method of teaching photography. corpron's first major exhibition since the s was marjory mann's "women of photography" ( ), a travelling show organized in by the san francisco museum of art,which included a range of artists and works from the late s to the early s. the text on corpron consists of three paragraphs: one about her style, one about her life, and one citing locations of some of her photographs in various collections. during this period, the majority of women photographers were working as commercial or documentary photographers, rather than exploring the possibilities of complete abstraction. in this show there are few abstract works. lotte jacobi is represented by several cameraless abstractions, and corpron is represented primarily with her fluid light abstractions. jacobi produced photograms as a diversion from portrait photography, for which she is better known. jacobi's simple abstractions are playful and carefree in contrast to corpron's carefully thought out compositions. margaretta mitchell's book, recollections: ten women of photography ( ), written in conjunction with a travelling exhibition that included corpron is more extensive. the book is based on interviews with the photographers. sections about each photographer present a selection of words and photographs mutually agreed upon by the editor and photographer. the text material gives biographical information and explores their relationship as photographers and as women in the history of the medium. another exhibition catalogue, light abstractions, written by jean s. tucker, was published by the university of missouri-st. louis. included are ten photographers who dealt with light and abstraction in their work. each artist makes a brief statement about his work illustrated by several images. also included in the exhibition were moholy-nagy, kepes, as well as only two other women, jacobi and barbara morgan. in the prologue beaumont newhall says, "it is strange that the concern of photographers with light as subject, as well as light as medium, has received such little attention". the most recent publication, aside from exhibition reviews, is the amon carter exhibition catalogue ( ). carlotta corpron: designer with light, by martha a. sandweiss, discusses corpron's life and her works produced during the s. it contains statements by corpron and corpron says she was directly influenced by kepes without further discussion. corpron worked with both men but does not acknowledge moholy-nagy's influence on her. the literature on and by moholy-nagy and kepes documents the visual relationship of their art to corpron's works produced in the s. moholy-nagy wrote extensively about photography. two well-known books are vision in motion ( ) and moholy-nagy: experiment in totality ( ); both give detailed information about the experimental potentialities of photography and his light experiments. kepes wrote about the visual arts as a whole focusing on the optical revolution and our present-day conception of space and the visual approach to reality in his book, language of vision ( ). kepes was primarily a painter who did some work in photography in order to understand light. a discussion of his photography, and specifically light which is the common element of all kepes's work, is in gv-rav kepes: the mit years, - ( ). a recent publication, photography at the bauhaus ( ), edited by jeannine fiedler, has background information on the bauhaus and its masters, which includes moholy-nagy. this publication accompanied an exhibition based on the collection at the bauhaus-archiv, berlin, which had been accumulated over almost thirty years. it is a comprehensive catalogue covering the broad range of work produced by bauhaus photographers. it was not until , after the appointment of walter peterhans, that bauhaus students really were able to learn photography in a photography class. the catalogue only pays homage to two women, lucia moholy and florence henri. rolf schasse says: when lucia moholy came to the bauhaus in weimar in april it was as laszlo moholy-nagy's wife. it was expected that she would be involved in her husband's work, and help with projects and exhibitions, but not that she should develop ideas of her own, nor create an image for herself, possible at the expense of her husband, who was already quite controversial enough among his colleagues. until quite recently bauhaus historiography kept to patriarchalist models that allotted minor roles or inspirational functions to women, and did not allow them to impinge upon the stories of great men. florence henri took a preliminary course in photography in at the bauhaus in dessau. while she was at the bauhaus she investigated the design possibilities of photography as well as painting. at first she was just involved in photographic exercises at the bauhaus as she studied under moholy-nagy. later, in , when she moved to paris, she started to be seriously involved in photography. henri was rediscovered in at the age of by ann and jurgen wilde, owners of a photographic gallery in cologne, germany, who sought to find photographers who had disappeared. the influence of the bauhaus style on corpron has never fully been explored. general sources on the history of photography have shown a lack of inclusion of women in photography. there are two general sources which include women with acknowledgement of their contributions to photography. beaumont newhall's the history of photography from to the present ( ) includes a chapter addressing experimental and abstract photography. the number of women mentioned in the book includes less than twenty and they fall into the categories of portraiture and documentary photography. naomi rosenblum's a world history of photography ( , ) is a more comprehensive history of photography discussing far more women artists. however, she only has two sentences on corpron and her experimental photography, suggesting the influence of kepes's work with light. corpron's image mardi gras (c. ), is also included in the book. mardi raa is a fluid light design, an investigation into abstraction in which rosenblum says corpron was reacting to the teachings of kepes. on women artists in general, one source for information is charlotte streifer rubinstein's american women artists: from early indian times to the present ( ). she discusses the circumstances surrounding women artists during the years corpron was active. she provides insight into the position of women in their chosen field and the social consequences of that choice. she says, "as the united states entered world war ii, american scene painting and regionalism began to seem isolationist, stale, and narrow-mindedly chauvinistic". she goes on to point out that the forties, fifties, and sixties turned out to be a time of increased discrimination with the leading galleries carrying few works by women and offering very few solo shows for women in major museums. corpron had approximately six individual exhibitions between the late s and mid s, and was included in approximately five group exhibitions during the same time period. this may seem like quite a few exhibitions, but it must also be noted that between the early s and the mid s corpron's work was not shown. included in some group exhibitions in the mid s, she finally had a retrospective at a major museum in . methodology primary data for this study consisted of corpron's portfolio of photographs and papers from her estate located at the amon carter museum, fort worth, texas. the amon carter has catalogued as part of their collection fifty-three of corpron's photographs. the museum has created a detailed record of her estate materials including personal letters and correspondences, books corpron owned, and other images. the only documented surviving negatives of corpron's are housed at the amon carter. corpron's negatives, of which there are about eight hundred, are currently being contact printed by the amon carter to facilitate future research. a special urgency for this thesis was the fact that many people that knew corpron are still alive. research included interviews with marguarite stauver, a personal friend of corpron and executor of her estate; professor don schol, who arranged a show of corpron's photographs in the north texas art gallery in the s, and was responsible for her rediscovery leading to her inclusion in the travelling exhibition "women of photography: an historical survey"; as well as carol roark, a friend of corpron's and former curator at the amon carter museum. additional research included information from the artist files located at the amon carter library; ( ) an interview with corpron produced for cable television which includes footage of her photographs ( ); ( ) archival resources at texas woman's university art department and administrative office; as well as ( ) books and articles on moholy-nagy and kepes consulted to view images of their works and obtain information about their philosophies. notes jean s. tucker, light abstractions (university of missouri at st. louis, ), . ibid., . jeannine fiedler, photoaraphy at the bauhaus (cambridge, mass.: mit press, ), . ibid., . ibid., . naomi rosenblum, a world history of photography (new york: abbeville press, ), . charlotte streifer rubinstein, american women artists: from early indian times to the present (new york: avon books, ), . chapter ii carlotta corpron and the bauhaus early biography carlotta m. corpron was born in blue earth, minnesota, in , but moved to india in with her mother, sister, and missionary-surgeon father. she spent fifteen years of her childhood in india. margaurite stauver, a friend of corpron's, said that during corpron's childhood and as an adult the artist was closer to her father than her mother. corpron often referred to her father and possibly as an afterthought, her mother. - she attended english boarding school in the himalayan mountains away from her parents and did not return to the united states until she was ready to attend college in : i was frustrated growing up in india. the boarding school was a cold, remote place. i felt frustrated because i saw things all around me that i wanted to know more about. but it was a very british school and they tended to look down on anything indian. she spent the winter months at home in the plains where the hospital at which her father worked was located. corpron says early on her mother encouraged her to think in terms of a career instead of marrying. the reason for this was that her sister, ruth, carried a hereditary disease, neurofibromatosis, which is a genetic disorder characterized by brown patches on the skin, neurofibromas of the skin and internal organs, and in some cases skeletal deformity. corpron's parents felt that this could be passed on. when she was young, a doctor told her that if she wanted to live a full life she would have to live a very controlled life. she had to avoid nervous habits and getting upset. as a result she could sit for hours, quietly thinking. she thought perhaps that her years in india influenced her philosophy of life. if you have a kind of acceptance of what comes as you get older, you can adjust to whatever the limitations might be: being alone and away from my family, i had to develop self-reliance. i was tall and dignified and gave the impression of being more self-sufficient than i was. i always felt more english than american, in a way, having gone to a british school. these experiences taught corpron to become independent and to trust her own intuition. corpron said that the fact that she did not have any time alone when she was younger may have influenced her life. in boarding school there were two dorms, one for the big girls and one for the little girls. the thing that bothered her was that there were one-hundred people sleeping in one room and there was no privacy. as a result she became a loner in many ways, "i can live alone and never be lonely". stauver confirms this statement by describing her friendship with corpron as unconditional. selecting her friends carefully, corpron was very committed to those friendships. in , corpron returned to the united states and enrolled at michigan state normal college, now eastern michigan university, in ypsilanti. she received her b.s. in art education in , then moved to new york to continue her studies at teachers college of columbia university. she studied art education and fabric design, intending to become a teacher or textile designer, and graduated with an m.a. in . that same year, corpron accepted a job teaching at the woman's college of alabama, now huntington college, in montgomery. after two years she moved to cincinnati in to accept a position at the school of applied arts at the university of cincinnati. while she was teaching at the university of cincinnati ( - ), she became interested in learning more about oriental art. she went to the university of chicago for a summer session to study the religions of india. she had some knowledge of buddhism, hinduism, and mohammedanism, having lived in india, but was interested in studying the architecture and sculpture of the country. during these same years corpron began to practice photography. as part of a course on textile design she wanted to expose the students to designs in nature. when corpron first bought a camera in , it was to use as an instructional aid for her courses: i was teaching a course in textile design at the time. i had always been fond of nature forms and i thought if i could somehow do interesting photographic designs made with tendrils, different parts of the flowers, leaves, it might inspire my students to design a little more originally. she would photograph flowers and leaves and other natural forms to try to motivate the students. with the camera she could also keep a record of the work of her students and their original designs. "when i had the camera in my hands, i was at home. i did not think of it as a mechanical thing". corpron did not have a darkroom in which to work, so she joined a camera club in order to learn about enlarging negatives. after corpron purchased her first camera, the images she created for herself were the result of her desire to become a better teacher. according to j. brough miller, former chairman of the texas woman's university art department, corpron was "a superb teacher of pure design". from the beginning corpron was concerned with abstract patterns and natural objects and with pure form and shape. in , corpron moved to texas to accept a position teaching art history and advertising design at texas state college for women, now texas woman's university, in denton. the first year she taught in denton she was asked to photograph the department heads of the college, an assignment she resented: "i just could not- be a general portrait photographer trying to please everybody. it would not work. it is my way to like just a few people, and not to reach out to the whole world". soon after corpron arrived, mary marshall, head of the art department ( - ), asked her to give a course in photography. at this time corpron knew very little about the technique of photography. as a result, in the summer of , corpron went to los angeles to study at the art center. although her technical knowledge increased, corpron found the formal photographic assignments in los angeles trivial and uninteresting: they'd just give me problems like photographing the seventh street bridge or the beverly hills courthouse. what do you learn from that? all the time, being a teacher first, i thought in terms of really understanding light so that i'd be able to help my students understand too. returning to denton, corpron began her first experiments with light and photography. she drew her students along with her, cautioning them always to be original--not imitative. corpron's own experiments with light were closely related to the assignments she gave her students, even in her use of the same objects and ideas for subjects. they were still primarily traditional images in - : landscapes, old houses, flowers, children, light reflections on water: with my rolleiflex i captured moving lights in amusement parks and created abstract light drawings. this was the beginning of my fascination with light. then i observed the way light transformed simple objects into exciting things of beauty by literally following the countours and penetrating the shadows. at texas woman's university corpron taught history of art, freshman design which covered general concepts, advertising design, and lettering, as well as creative photography. teaching made it difficult for her to find time and energy for her own work, which is often a dilemma for teachers: i love teaching above all else, and i have found that as i developed as a creative photographer, the work of my students has become more interesting and creative. as the students work, my thinking is stimulated by their fresh approach to problems. i am keenly aware of the contribution that my students have made to my development as a creative artist, and i have been most fortunate in having the privilege of teaching in a progressive art department. corpron was one of the fortunate individuals whose vocation and avocation merged. the progressive atmosphere was the result of the formidable achievement of mary marshall, head of texas woman university's art department from - , which she modernized. marshall was a graduate of pratt institute in brooklyn, new york and had received bachelor's and master's degrees in art from columbia university in new york in . she came to texas state college for women in denton in and was an associate professor of art until when she became the head of the department. dr. betty copeland, current head of texas woman's university art department, said she felt that marshall was trying to give the department a broader scope and make it more progressive. to move beyond traditional plaster casts to twentieth-century design marshall decided to build the department aggressively. marshall was responsible for bringing thomas hart benton, moholy-nagy, and frank lloyd wright to denton to lecture: "they kept the highway between dallas and denton hot because these people were not coming to dallas." marshall also interacted with jack finney in the architecture department at texas a&m, another avant-garde thinker. in as part of her desire to modernize her program at texas woman's university, marshall went to chicago to study with the new bauhaus at the institute of design, and particularly under moholy-nagy. on her return she encouraged the teachers to begin to think in terms of the abstract design principles and exercises that the bauhaus had initiated. marshall also asked moholy-nagy to come to denton and give a workshop in the summer of . this was a turning point for corpron: moholy-nagy's workshop in denton would give her first-hand exposure to the bauhaus philosophy and style of photography. the bauhaus the ideas that moholy-nagy, and later kepes, brought to denton stem from the german bauhaus ( - ) approach to art that replaced the romantic individualism of contemporary expressionist or surrealist art with an ideal based on the potential of the machine in various fields of art. therefore it is necessary to look at some length at the original bauhaus to understand the philosophies about art that these two men developed. in its technical teaching the bauhaus initially was experimental; it neither attempted to "propagate nor did it achieve a particular style or doctrine; instead, the school sought to come to some kind of artistic reconciliation with the machine age, to open it up to new forms and new potentialities of creativity". the bauhaus generated an awareness throughout the world that the machine and its products were capable of producing beauty in art based not only on craftsmanship but also upon functional appropriateness, clarity, and precision- a beauty not of applied ornament but of abstract forms. moholy-nagy's importance at the bauhaus has been said to be second only to that of walter gropius, the director. moholy-nagy brought about significant change in bauhaus aesthetics following his arrival in . in place of the individualistic expressionism and mysticism about materials employed in its original teaching, the bauhaus distinctively shifted to an atmosphere of controlled laboratory exercises, rejecting traditional plaster casts for teaching art. moholy-nagy stressed objective and rationalist methods in his teaching. taking advantage of the many aspects of modern technology, such as visual experiences from photography, and using industrial materials, such as clear plastics, moholy- nagy organized his teaching around a core of constructivist aesthetics. when the nazis became more powerful in germany and closed the bauhaus in , moholy-nagy and many other teachers at the bauhaus emigrated to great britain and then to north america. in the united states their theory and design methods eventually entered the basic teaching curricula of innumerable art and architecture schools. foremost among the sources for bauhaus ideas in the united states was moholy-nagy's new bauhaus in chicago. the new bauhaus opened in the remodeled marshall field mansion on october , , with thirty-five students. moholy-nagy opened the new bauhaus under a contract with the association of arts and industries in chicago. he planned that the students would get instruction in biotechnique [sic] and biology, chemistry and physics, mathematics and geometry. psychology, philosophy, and sociology would supplement painting, sculpture, architecture, photography, weaving, and all branches of product design. due to financial reasons the new bauhaus was closed after one year. moholy-nagy was not easily defeated and reopened the new bauhaus in . this new venture of moholy-nagy's was called the "school of design" in chicago. the bauhaus had a direct impact on both american design and fine arts, and it became an important force in establishing in the united states the international abstract traditions of the european avant-garde. because of the centrality of moholy-nagy's principles for corpron's development, it is worthwhile to examine them in detail. moholy-nagy had always been fascinated with light and space. walter gropius, founder of the bauhaus in germany ( ), described moholy-nagy: his greatest effort as an artist was devoted to the conquest of space. his genius ventured into all realms of science and art to unriddle the phenomena of space and light. in painting, sculpture and architecture, in theater and industrial design, in photography and film, advertising and typography, he incessantly strove to interpret space in its relation to time, that is, motion in space. sybil moholy-nagy describes moholy-nagy in the introduction to experiment in totality: the total framework of his influence included painting, sculpture, architecture, the printed word, the kinetic picture, implements, machines, dance, poetry, theatre. moholy's profusely misinterpreted and ridiculed axioms that "everyone is talented' and that 'to the artist an ink-bottle label is as important as a painting or the planning of a town' referred to the perceptive potential of each designed object, not to their hierarchical order. the raw materials of all visual creation were the eternally present visual fundamental: line-color- texture-light, and the three dimensions of form, space, and movement. everyone in possession of his senses could be a creative participant. in , for the catalogue of his first photographic exhibition, moholy-nagy wrote about light and and its importance in photograms: the concretization of light phenomena is peculiar to the photographic process and to no other technical invention. cameraless photography (the making of photograms) rests on this. the photogram is a realization of spatial tension in black-white-gray. through the elimination of pigment and texture it has a dematerialized effect. it is a writing with light, self-expressive through the contrasting relationship of deepest black and lightest white with a transitional modulation of the finest grays. although it is without representational content, the photogram is capable of evoking an immediate optical experience, based on our psycho-biological visual organization. by exploring photograms and photography at the same time moholy-nagy arrived at clear definitions for both. he said, the photogram was the creation of elemental optical relationships, and basically one with constructivist painting. photography was representation of symbolic form, bound by the associative content of plant, animal, structure, and man. moholy-nagy wrote extensively about light and photography and in his book vision in motion the relation of light and shadow in black-and-white photography: black-and-white photography revealed for the the first time light and shadow in their interdependence. the development of reliable artificial illumination, like electricity, brought an increasing adoption of flowing light effects and richly graduated shadows. through these elements a greater animation of surfaces and more delicate visual intensification was possible. this multitude of gradations is one of the fundamental 'materials' of photography. this fact holds true even when we pass beyond the immediate sphere of black-white- gray values and begin to think in terms of color. moholy-nagy wrote that in order to learn about the properties of light sensitive emulsion, which is the basic element of photography, it is best to start with the making of cameraless photographs, or photograms: the photogram exploits the unique characteristic of the photographic process--the ability to record with delicate fidelity a great range of tonal values. the almost endless range of gradations, subtlest differences in the gray values, belongs to the fundamental properties of photographic expression. the organized use of that gradation creates photographic quality. the photogram can be called the key to photography because every good photograph must possess the same fine gradations between the white and black extremes as the photogram. for moholy-nagy, the second step in learning the elements of photography was the light modulator. the function of the light modulator is to catch, reflect and modulate light: a flat surface does not modulate, it only reflects light. but any object with combined concave-convex or wrinkled surfaces may be considered a light modulator since it reflects light with varied intensity depending upon its substance and the way its surfaces are turned toward the light source. as the rays of light strike a light modulator some are reflected, others absorbed, others pass through it if it is transparent. if the light modulator is translucent, it diffuses the rays of light. the variety of modulators is endless. "each light modulator is the product of the individual's own ingenuity, dexterity and interest". moholy-nagy wrote that one of the photographer's tasks is to identify unmistakably for the spectator the true shape and nature of his object. this can be achieved by lighting, from one or many angles, or with different combinations of light. the light modulator represents the "object." "the task remains to use the light sources in such a way that the light defining the object immediately communicates the content". content lay in the endless variation of light reflections. moholy-nagy suggests using the light modulators in a "light box." a "light box" is an instrument "made from a carton, two sides of which are perforated so that spotlights, some of them fitted with filters, can be placed at the holes. objects hung on strings stretched within the box. the spotlights can then be arranged to strike the strings and objects in any manner desired. he referred to the light box as a particularly effective "laboratory" for the study of receding and advancing values of the lit surfaces: these effects produce direct emotional reactions which can be enlarged upon through the combinations of visual fundamentals, shape, contour, texture, black and white and gray values and color. thus, one may paint with light as surely as one can paint with oil and pigment. nathan lerner, a colleague of moholy-nagy's at the institute of design in chicago, was the first to make creative use of the light box: anyone working with light soon discovers that freedom of selection, a necessary factor in the creative activity, is limited unless there is some method of separating the accidental qualities of light from those qualities desired. i felt that if i could create a virtual world of darkness, which i could then develop into a disciplined world of light, i would be approaching the solution of the problem of controlled selection. light is one element, material object another, and the relationship of one to the other makes up our visual world: in the light box they become easily understood elements of visual communication. the light box, therefore, has significance for any artist. working with it can give him a deeper insight into the visual-psychological elements that play an important role in making any picture exciting and meaningful. gyorgy kepes worked closely with moholy-nagy. they collaborated in europe, and later in the united states they both worked together at the new bauhaus, which later became the institute of design in chicago. sybil moholy-nagy gives a comparative description of the two men on her first meeting of kepes in berlin: a few days later i went to moholy's studio, to return a film manuscript which he had urged me to read. the face of the young man who took me in the elevator to the top floor of the studio building on the 'kaiserdamm' reflected intense concentration. he was gyorgy kepes, a hungarian painter who had come to work with moholy a few years earlier. his reticence, and the perpetual solemnity of his mien, seemed to contrast strangely with moholy's enthusiastic eloquence and outgoing cordiality. in time i came to understand their partnership. it was founded on their common devotion to 'seeing' as a philosophy of life. their differences of temperament and social orientation, often aggravated by their furious hungarian egos, were settled through a deep mutual understanding about the fitness of demonstrative means. it was a matter of common emphasis and common taste. later, in their american years, they added to this unifying vision the dedication to teaching. on behalf of the shared responsibility for the future of universal design they formed a team which lasted for twelve years. it added much to the visual pedagogy of our time. kepes was primarily a painter. his activities as a painter, photographer, educator, and writer culminated in the center for advanced visual studies at the massachusetts institute of technology which he conceived, founded and directed until his retirement in . in kepes did not consider himself a painter by profession, but in his retirement he is ready to be judged on his record of a painter, no less than on that of an educator and pioneer in the use of artificial light as an expressive medium. around - he gave up painting to pursue photography, photomontage, and film: kepes's photograms starting with his work in budapest took their starting point form nature. . . . the photogram, with its essentially abstract image, lies metaphorically between science and poetry: it is a dematerialized light recording of natural processes having close links with kepes's later interest in scientific records. only a few of kepes's works of the s survived the war and his many moves. kepes met moholy-nagy in berlin as a result of his interest in film making. he felt that film was a vital medium for social beliefs. kepes wrote moholy-nagy in berlin and asked to join him. from to they collaborated intermittently, first in berlin and then in london. in berlin, kepes's interest in the developing social and aesthetic ideals had opportunities for an even greater scope. in addition to his friendship with moholy-nagy, he came to know the hungarian sculptor laszlo peri, the architect walter gropius, and the filmmakers, vertoff and dovzhenko, who wechsler says, "were admired particularly for their ability to mobilize social imagination through the union of art and technology". moholy-nagy asked kepes to found the light and color department at the new bauhaus in . moholy-nagy wanted "to form a nucleus for an independent reliable educational center where art, science, technology will be united into a creative pattern". in kepes's light and color workshop in chicago a variety of forms and techniques for visual elements were researched and related to their potential social and psychological impact. kepes's purpose in these exercises was to increase understanding of visual organization by using many media in different contexts: although kepes didn't see photography as primary it was mediator between eye and world, filtering and framing, an instrument of crystalization and transformation. photography is a link between his painting and his technological and environmental art projects. light, the essence of photography, is the common element of all kepes's work. nature is the source of kepes's photographic images as well as his paintings, and more specifically the four basic elements: earth--his celebration of nature; the here and now; the sand ground of his paintings; earth materially and metaphorically; air--the mediating element for light; fire--a predominant image in his painting, and the theme of his project 'flame orchard', fire with all its primal associations--prometheus, enlightenment, force, harnessed energy, potential destructiveness; water--the scene for urban celebrations, the water purification plant, his project for a water garden, the proposed gateway to boston harbor. the eye is a predominant image in kepes's photography and the camera's analogue is the eye's accomplice. one photograph taken in chicago in , juliet with a peacock feather eye, presents the eye of the feather superimposed on juliet's eye. in other photographs of this time kepes begins to abandon the figure and concentrate on the abstract qualities created by light. there is a thematic play of forms and the shadows in juliet in shadow cage ( ), in which her head is placed within a three-dimensional frame. the frame casts a shadow on her face; her face casts a shadow on the background; her hair is both figure and shadow, contrasting with the geometric lines. this photograph appears simultaneously personal and structural. there are also some abstract studies of form and light, such as fluid patterns and optical transformations, both of , magnetic pattern ( ), and calligraphic light play ( ). these abstract studies of form and light occurred during the same time corpron was pursuing her experiments with light. kepes experimented with the light box and light drawings. moholy-nagy and kepes: philosophy moholy-nagy wrote extensively about his fascination with light. when he was twenty-one years old he wrote the creed of his life. he wrote about light which he never quit exploring from that point on. corpron's fascination with light is similar to that of moholy-nagy's. they both became interested in light and ended up pursuing its qualities, characteristics, and potentials for the rest of their lives. in the first of his new bauhaus books, the new vision ( ), moholy-nagy said that ever since the introduction of high-powered, intensive artificial light, it has been one of the elemental factors in art creation, although it had not yet been elevated to its legitimate place. reflectors and neon tubes of advertisements, the moving lighted letters on store fronts, and the rotating mechanism of colored electric bulbs were all elements of a new field of expression. through the development of black-and-white photography, light and shadow were fully revealed for the first time. in he wrote: through the development of reliable artificial illumination, and the power of regulating it, an increasing adoption of flowing light and richly graduated shadows ensued; and through these again a greater animation of surfaces, and a more delicate optical intensification. this manifolding of graduations is one of the fundamental 'materials' of optical formalism: a fact which holds equally good if we pass beyond the immediate sphere of black-white-gray values and learn to think and work in terms of colored ones. he felt that photography, through its black-white-gray reproductions of all colored appearances, had enabled recognition of the most subtle differentiations of values in both the gray and chromatic scales. these differentiations represent a new and until his time unattainable quality in optical expression. moholy-nagy's light modulators were based on his "light- space modulator" a six-foot high apparatus of moving aluminum and chrome-plated surfaces driven by an electric motor and a series of chain belts. moholy-nagy, in beyond modern sculpture, states: "to achieve its full effect the machine must be experienced in a room darkened, with spotlights alternately thrown upon its turning members. the result: a myriad of dissolving shadows passing over walls and ceiling". at the new bauhaus in chicago his basic design course included several problems to demonstrate how sculpture in the round could be transformed by alterations of lighting. this emphasis on form through light became the impetus for "light modulator" problems. students were taught not only to see form, but form as it could be created by beams of light and the resulting shadows. kepes had collaborated with moholy-nagy in berlin and london, and when moholy-nagy opened the new bauhaus he asked kepes to be on the staff. both men were concerned with the effects of light and their artistic output is unique to each of them. kepes took a leave of absence from the institute of design in chicago in order to write his book the language of vision. this book would establish him as a leading analyst of the structure and function of graphic imagery. kepes came to denton to teach and work on his book in . kepes, simultaneously with man ray and moholy-nagy, experimented with the photogram in the late s shortly after his graduation from the royal academy of art, budapest. kepes wrote, "we preserve the present and retrieve the past with light-sensitive emulsions coated on film, on glass, on metal printing plates". though there is impressive richness communicated with the light media, there is a growing gap between the scientific perfection of information, and the poetic vision of human sensibilities. kepes said he felt that spontaneity was crucial in the simplest graphic expression: i felt the strong need to give the photographic media the freedom and richness of the graphic quality. my wish is to bring photographic processes into direct contact with inner events and utilize kinesthetic experiences in the same way as the very best of the great masters in graphic art. kepes's goal was not to make "abstract art," but rather to utilize the richness of the light-form tonal ranges--"to seek out in myself not-yet-seen poetry". he wanted to link rather than separate in his photography by using modulation of light effects created by painted glass surfaces, fusing different viscosity of liquid pigments, inks and paints. he responded to the accidental configurations and he called these images photogenic images, "they are produced by light, and if i am lucky, generate light". association with moholy-nagy and kepes in the early forties corpron learned bauhaus techniques directly from moholy-nagy and kepes while they were in denton. moholy-nagy was the first to arrive with new ideas for creative photography. moholy-nagy suggested two problems for his light workshop, held at texas woman's university in . one was the photogram, a design made without a camera of light and shadow on sensitized paper; the other was what he called a "light modulator." corpron incorporated photograms into her photography courses. she felt it was a challenge to creative expression. corpron suggested students explore various materials, solid, perforated, semi-transparent and transparent with a flashlight: as shadows are cast on a piece of white paper the size of the sensitized sheet, fascinating abstract designs result. the direction of the light determines the length and density of the shadows which are later translated into many photographic tones ranging from white to black. when two flashlights are used, the crossed shadows create unusual designs. after experimenting with the light and the objects the students could create photograms. although corpron did not create many photograms herself, she found that they were a useful teaching device. photograms were the first step in seeing light, the next step was the light modulator. moholy-nagy's students at texas woman's university in denton worked with white paper, folding, curving, and lighting it so that certain planes or surfaces would be distinct in the light, and others would retreat into shadow. the students then learned to use a view camera to photograph their light modulators, and at the end of the three-week workshop they were able to put up an exhibit of about fifty photograms and light modulators. moholy-nagy later commented on the empathy between corpron and her students. moholy-nagy complimented corpron on her teaching methods and praised the, work of her students. in contrast, corpron made few photograms, and moholy-nagy gave no encouragement to her more creative work, "the advice he gave me," she said, "which was so ridiculous in a way, was to photograph the girls who were working their way through school. he didn't understand my need, my desperate need to work and to do something original in photography". on the other hand, corpron and moholy-nagy talked often about photography and he had a professional influence on her in that he felt that she was a good teacher. when corpron saw the photograms of kepes, she felt that he was the one person in the world who could direct her work. she decided to take a year off from teaching to go to the school of design in chicago to study with kepes: i received a letter from the school informing me that he had resigned to work on his book the language of vision. the next thing i knew, mr. kepes came to denton to teach for a year at north texas state university, now the university of north texas, while writing the book. this was an extraordinary break for me. when i asked him if he would give me lessons, he said, at first, that he was too busy. after seeing my photographs he suggested that we meet once a week, at his house or mine, and talk about photography. good fortune had smiled upon me when mr. kepes came to denton, instead of my having to go to him. during the year kepes was in denton, corpron met with him informally once a week for several months and corpron said she was greatly inspired by these discussions of photography: "we became friends and although our work is not a bit alike, his sensitivity appealed to my sensitivity: we understood each other". kepes later stated, "we shared the belief that photography could offer important aspects of a poetry of light. (but] no doubt i learned from her as much as she credits me with her learning from me, for she hardly needed my guidance, or anybody's". at this time corpron was investigating light in the studio with a x view camera. kepes told her about the light box. the light box was used for making controlled photographic studies of light, and light modulator's could be used with the light box. corpron began experimenting with a two-by-three foot light box, shining flashlights and low wattage bulbs through the holes onto the light-modulating forms she placed inside. light always determined the character of the photograph and corpron never approached any subject matter with preconceived ideas. before taking a single photograph, corpron would explore the forms with light for hours, watching the tonal variations and the ever-shifting patterns of light and shadow: personally, i don't like these paper designs except as a means to an end. i never wanted to go too far with them by creating beautiful structures. i wanted to see what i could do with light and shading by manipulating the lighting and the white paper. i never thought of them as finished works of art. to me it was a step forward, and it was one that mr. kepes suggested to me. he said to work until i photographed light instead of paper. i did. corpron and kepes became very good friends during his stay in denton and remained in contact after his departure. kepes was a source of encouragement and a personal influence on corpron's photography. in a letter to corpron dated august , , kepes commented: your photographs are definitely some of the finest, most wonderful examples of contemporary photography, and i enjoyed them immensely. i think you must know, as well as i, how much you have developed in your work so i will not tell you anything further in this general sense. i think the greatest thing that you achieved is the wonderful use of light as a fluid medium. i really have never seen such a logical, natural use of light. in a second letter dated may , , kepes wrote: the greatest contribution you have made with your work-- as i see it--is that you handled light with freedom and understanding as a good sculptor handles a clay. you really mold your photographs from light--and in this way you have found the answer. this genuine use of the media gives an incredible richness of light pattern that i enjoyed tremendously. prior to kepes, corpron was sustained primarily by her own faith in the originality and merit of her work during her early years in denton when she had little contact with other photographers. although corpron said moholy-nagy was not a source of encouragement for her photographic endeavors, she adopted his problems of photograms and light modulators and incorporated them into her teaching and her own work. in , corpron wrote an article about photograms and abstract photography for design magazine. in , she elaborated on this concept for an article in art education by including the importance of light modulators. her commitment by then was the study of photography approached creatively, as an art that can become as dramatic as painting or sculpture. "the exploration of possibilities is limitless, and the results of such creativity deepen the appreciation of all existing forms". corpron kept in touch with moholy-nagy after he left denton. when moholy-nagy saw what corpron was capable of, he became more supportive of her creative work. in a letter to corpron dated august , , moholy-nagy wrote: i was most delighted with your letter of august th and the wonderful photographs enclosed. i do not know whether you will permit me to keep them or whether i can use them in any of the future publications i might put out. fortunately during our many years of contact i was able to 'snatch' one of your photographs from tri-color and put it into my new book which will come out in october and is entitled vision in motion. corpron's teaching philosophy corpron was fascinated with light early on and she pursued its pharacteristics and qualities all of her life. she encouraged her students to study and understand light in her photography courses because light was an integral part of photography. even after she retired from teaching she did not retire from her fascination with light. corpron was always aware of and always watching light; she was always a teacher even after she retired. before corpron concentrated on her own creative work, seven years after coming to denton, her students were creating photograms and light-and-shadow patterns. mary marshall, head of the art department, believed that everyone should have a course in photography in order to learn to see that the world is an exciting place. every year they were able to put up an exhibit of student work that was entirely different from that of the year before. corpron always wanted to be a teacher and she purchased her first camera to use in her teaching. corpron always felt that her photographic art was a result of her intense desire to enhance her role as a teacher: i always wanted to teach. i sometimes felt that i was a born teacher because i liked to explain things. to me, the most exciting experience is to have a really creative student. i didn't have more than two or three a year that i knew would go places but those were enough to stimulate me and make me feel that teaching was worthwhile. i felt that teaching was a giving process, and sometimes i'd want to go into a room and embrace the whole class. i have to give and when you're dealing with young people they give back to you. they respond. it's like watching a flower open, it's wonderful. i would have put teaching above photography, but i am thankful i could teach photography which i loved too, so i could have my two interests combined. all of these bauhaus-related experiments, then, were to help corpron become a better teacher teaching light. corpron was not sure that she could have taught photography in a school where technique was the important thing. teaching in a progressive art department where fine arts and the growth of the individual were stressed, corpron was able to get away from mediocrity and develop standards of quality and originality. corpron told her students that she wanted their photographs to "sing." she said her students gave her something all the time, "it was not a case of my just giving to them". corpron's philosophy about teaching and her methods of teaching has similarities to those of the new bauhaus in chicago. the interraction with moholy-nagy and kepes profoundly influenced corpron's methods not only in her teaching but in her own photography as well. notes 'marguarite stauver, interview by author, denton, texas, september . martha a. sandweiss, carlotta corpron: designer with light (fort worth: amon carter museum of western art, ), . margaretta mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography (new york: viking press, ), . marguarite stauver, interview by author, denton, texas, september . mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . ibid., , . leslie phillips, "corpron," twu focus ii (sprint ): . marguarite stauver, interview by author, denton, texas, september . sandweiss, designer with light, . mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . phillips, "corpron," , and sandweiss, designer with light, . mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . carlotta corpron, carlotta corpron: designer with light, golden triangle communications, . ibid. ibid. mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . marshall was an associate professor of art from - , and head of the art department from - at texas woman's university, denton, texas. mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . sandweiss, designer with light, . ibid. from corpron's artist's statement in texas woman's university archives, and mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . ibid. corpron's artist's statement, texas woman's university archives. mary hollers george, letter to margaret b. mcdougal, ca. february , texas woman's university archives. there is no date on the letter from george, but a reply from mcdougal is dated march . sam hunter and john jacobus, modern art: paintina/sculpture/ architecture (new york: harry n. abrams, inc., ), ibid. ibid. ibid., . ibid. ibid. ibid., . laszlo moholy-nagy, experiment in totality, ed. sibyl moholy-nagy, (cambridge, mass.: mit press, , first ed. published by harper & brothers, ), . ibid., - , - . due to financial problems the association of arts and industries closed the new bauhaus after one year. the executive committee refused to give moholy-nagy a free hand in saving the school. enrollment had risen to eighty students for the second year, but the new bauhaus was gone. moholy-nagy, not easily defeated, decided in , to start his own school. with $ , in the bank he hired five members of the previous new bauhaus faculty, including kepes. these men agreed to teach without pay for at least one semester in order to get the school started. moholy-nagy, experiment in totality, viii. ibid., xiii. ibid., - . bid., . lazlo moholy-nagy, vision in motion (chicago: paul theobald, ), . ibid., . ibid., . ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid., - . ibid., . ibid. moholy-nagy, experiment in totality, . marjory supovitz, gyorgy kepes: the mit years. - (massachusetts institute of technology: the mit press visual arts series, ), . as of this writing kepes is still alive ( - ). ibid. ibid., . ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid., - . ibid., . ibid. ibid. ibid., . ibid., . ibid., . ibid., . lazlo moholy-nagy, the new vision: fundamentals of design, painting, sculpture, architecture (new york: w. w. norton & company, inc., ),, . ibid. richard kostelanetz, moholy-nagy (new york: praeger publishers, ), . ibid., . ibid. kostelanetz, moholy-nagy, . ibid. ibid., . ibid. ibid. sandweiss, designer with light, . jean s. tucker, light abstractions (st. louis: university of missouri at st. louis, ), . ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. carlotta corpron, "light as a creative medium," .t education (may ) : . mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . ibid. ibid. sandweiss, designer with light, . ibid. marguarite stauver, interview by author, denton, texas, september . mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . ibid. janet kutner, "'designs with light' bring ms. corpron dame at ," dallas morning news, november , sec. c, p. . ibid. sandweiss, designer with light, . ibid. kutner,dallas morning news, . sandweiss, designer with light, . marguarite stauver, interview by author, denton, texas, september . gyorgy kepes, letter to corpron, august , , texas woman's university archives. gyorgy kepes, letter to corpron, may , , texas woman's university archives. sandweiss, designer with light, . corpron, "light as a creative medium," . lazlo moholy-nagy, letter to corpron, august , , texas woman's university archives. marguarite stauver, interview by author, denton, texas, september . mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . sandweiss, designer with light, . mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography, . ibid. chapter iii corpron's context in photography and later biography history of abstract photography in the united states corpron combined the bauhaus ideas with other concerns and issues in twentieth-century american photography. corpron's place in twentieth-century photography appears to be independent in the respect that the work she was producing was farily unique for a woman at that time. she was not working closely with any other group of photographers. her abstract photographs are not without precedent though. the history of abstract photography includes experimentation in light and abstraction from its beginning and is heavily related to the modern art movements of the early twentieth- century. art, photography, and modernism all came together during the time between the two world wars. this was a time when photography was not only developed by expanded roles in journalism, advertising, and publicity, but it was also supported by acceptance within the avant-garde movements in the graphic arts. this was a world-wide phenomena with different countries displaying distinctive national characteristics. this time of experimentation in photography is often referred to as the "new vision." in the s there was an emergence of a wide variety of techniques, styles, and approaches in photography. following world war i, greater economic opportunities developed in the medium and many photographers became conscious of the effects of technology, urbanization, cinema, and graphic art on the camera expression: in addition to the 'isms' of prewar avant-garde art-- especially cubism--the aesthetic concepts associated with constructivism, dadaism, and surrealism inspired a climate of experimentation, with photo-collage, montage, cameraless images, nonobjective forms, unusual angles, and extreme close-ups marking the photographic expression of the era. the search for new forms led to visual experimentation, including the increased production of cameraless photographic images. "photogenic drawing," which was william henry fox talbot's ( ) name for prints made by exposing real objects placed directly on light sensitive paper, actually preceded photography through the use of a camera. photographers of the s and s updated this concept by using a variety of objects and light sources to create nonrepresentational images. experimentation in photography has been present since its discovery in the early s. since photography is a young medium in the history of art it has been and still is conducive to exploration in search of its fullest potential. in , alvin langdon coburn produced some completely abstract photographs by devising an optical device based on the kaleidoscope. coburn "clamped three mirrors together facing one another to form a hollow triangular prism through which he photographed bits of crystal and wood on a glass table top." coburn's friend ezra pound, spokesman for the vorticist group of english abstract painters, called the instrument a "vortoscope " and the results "vortographs. " coburn's experiments in abstraction were brief. christian schad, a member of the zurich dada group, produced abstractions made photographically without the camera in which he called "schadographs," and in the early s man ray and moholy-nagy simultaneously re- invented cameraless images calling them "rayographs" and "photograms" respectively. during the early twentieth-century artists found photography a liberation and felt they were free of the need to produce representational pictures. thus, cubism and abstract art developed in photography and painting simultaneously. this new vision saw distorted reflections in which photographers used special mirrors and lenses, or photographed objects refracted in spherical forms. these photographs echoed the formal experiments of cubist painters as well as expressing the disturbing personal or social realities. the distorted image was first seen in , when louis ducos du hauron produced a series of experimental portraits, and was reintroduced in the late s by andre kertesz, a hungarian photographer whose interest had been aroused in the beginning as he photographed the bodies of swimmers refracted in a pool. some photographers actually included the typical geometric furnishings of constructivist and cubist paintings in their photographs. cones, spheres, and overlapping transparent planes found their way into the work of herbert bayer and walter peterhans, both of the bauhaus. as early as in america, morton schamberg incorporated abstract machine forms in painting and he used the camera to create complex cubist-like juxtapositions of geometric shapes in the urban landscapes that he photographed. charles sheeler photographed rural architecture and the industry of the city during the s. he produced photographs showing the clarity of simple geometric relationships. also during the s, the clarence white school of photography proved to be a source of modernist ideas despite the pictorialist outlook of its director. the school had to train photographers for jobs in advertising and publicity and therefore it needed to stress modern design. the transformation of the vocabulary of the new vision into personal and commercial expression can be seen in the work of ralph steiner and paul outerbridge. photographers on the west coast became aware of the new vision through personal contact, as well as american and european periodicals. edward weston, one of the leading photographers of the west coast "f/ " group, began to focus on specific objects or object-oriented images in the late s. he said he was revealing "the very substance and quintessence of the thing itself. " at times his concentration on form transmuted the object into abstraction. these photographers on the west coast referred to their work as precisionist. they were impressed by weston's photographs and a group of photographers, including ansel adams, imogen cunningham, and weston, formed a society which they called "group f/ ." between the end of the first world war and the depression of the s, industry grew throughout the world providing boundless opportunities for the images to be recorded. the major sources of the new visual language essentially represented a mixture of the fantasy of abstract surrealism and the geometric vocabulary of cubism, the absorption in science, engineering, and the new industrial materials of constructivism. the widespread belief in progress through technology that was held by followers of the bauhaus, soviet constructivists, and american industrialists provided inspiration and, in conjunction with rise of pictorial advertising, made possible unprecedented opportunities to photograph industrial subjects and places. in , when the second world war broke out in europe, many artists had escaped the continent for england and the united states. with them, they took the ideas, style, and language of the art of their generation; for most of them that meant surrealism as well as the bauhaus philosophy. corpron's place in twentieth-century photography: a comparative study both early and later abstract photography in the united states impacted corpron's work. prior to moholy-nagy's visit during the s she explored the approach of sheeler and weston, who primarily depicted abstraction in an objective manner. after moholy-nagy's visit to denton, corpron's images grew increasingly non-objective the more she experimented. her experiments in photography were varied throughout the s. corpron's photographs began as objective works with hints of abstraction, similar to the work of sheeler and weston, and developed into completely abstract studies of light. as rubinstein has pointed out, the middle of the twentieth-century was a time of discrimination towards women artists. there were few women represented by galleries and few major solo exhibitions of women artists. even at the bauhaus in germany there were women artists who were not recognized until much later. florence henri made her first photographic experiments at the bauhaus and was influenced by lucia moholy-nagy. both women were not recognized until long after they left the bauhaus. women photographers during the thirties, forties, and fifties are primarily associated with documentary photography: referring to women artists as 'independents' is already an arbitrary and misleading designation for no artist is independent of the complex of economic, social, and cultural practices through which art is produced. nor can lumping together a diverse group of women be intellectually or theoretically justified when it produces alliances reducible only to gender. yet at the same time, many women artists working in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had an ambiguous relationship with the developing mythology of the vanguard artist. during the early twentieth-century, figurative and abstract art coexisted. the majority of work by women photographers was figurative: women have photographed since the process was invented, and they have found the medium satisfying both as an art form and a profession. while there have been fewer women than men who have photographed, women have been creative artists, and they have been successful in every field of professional photography- portraiture, photojournalism, industrial, architectural, scientific, and advertising photography. while other women were pursuing photography from a journalistic or commercial pictorial aspect, corpron was pursuing the abstract with regards to controlling light. other women have pursued the abstract, but they are the minority in the history of the medium. one crucial comparison with corpron can be made by looking at the work of florence henri. henri was an artist who was also directly influenced by the bauhaus and like corpron created some abstract photographs using mirrors. although both artists were women, working in abstraction, and influenced by the bauhaus, they were working in different environments. corpron was isolated in texas which was not a center of cultural activity during the s. corpron's stated occupation as a teacher rather than an artist was probably due to the fact that she was a woman, supporting hrself, and had little interaction with the avant-garde artistic community in new york and chicago at this time. she loved photography and pursued it on her own in addition to teaching. henri's background is quite different, she was at the center of the avant-garde in europe and had many friends within that circle, including lazlo and lucia moholy-nagy, michel seuphor, piet mondrian, sonia and robert delaunay, luigi russolo, and andre kertesz. lucia moholy, moholy-nagy's first wife, came to the bauhaus as moholy-nagy's wife, and was not recognized as an artist in her own right until much later despite the fact that she was known at the time to have had superior intelligence, and the sober working disciplining of a scholar. henri was a painter in paris and decided to visit the bauhaus in dessau in the spring of . here she made her first photographic experiments and was influenced by lucia moholy-nagy. lucia moholy-nagy's portrait of henri is a close-up in which distracting background details have been eliminated in order to focus intense interest on the geometry of the individuals features. the result was a view of henri as an independent woman with a commanding appearance, but also with an introspective, even melancholy side to her nature. according to rolf schasse, lucia moholy "seemed to be proud of having influenced henri in taking up photography . . . henri surely was a student of both lazlo and lucia. . . the only one i know." corpron was in the same sense a student of lazlo moholy-nagy's and she was a strong independent woman. kepes described corpron as an independent, solitary artist: with admirable consistency she insists on the quality of the photographic image and searches for a broader horizon of photographic vision. for many years she has lived and worked in denton, texas, away from the explosive, tough, hustle-bustle of the competitive art world of the large cities--but she is not behind. with calm, caressing attention she has created work which is undoubtedly her own--honest and, in the best sense, contemporary. while henri was attending the bauhaus, photography was not formally taught, but experiments using photography were carried out in moholy-nagy's portion of the vorkurs. the most important bauhaus instruction to henri was the vorkurs, a two part foundation course, the first part of which was taught by josef albers and the second by lazlo moholy-nagy. moholy-nagy's part of the course emphasized experimentation with basic abstract shapes and elemental colors, industrial materials and processes previously thought unfit for art and new concepts of space. moholy-nagy's influence on henri extended beyond russo-german constructivism; his aesthetic theories planted the seeds of an artistic transformation that would soon result in her decision to pursue photography. at the bauhaus henri explored radical new perspectives, such as worm's-eye and bird's-eye views; double and multiple exposures; montage; photograms; microphotographs; and negative prints. experimental activity was intense, and there were no distinctions between the amateur and the photographic artist. with the spirit of new vision photography henri experimented with radical new methods. the most distinctive aspect of her photography in its early period is her extensive use of the mirror: i use mirrors to introduce the same subject seen from different angles in a single photograph so as to give the same theme a variety of views that complete each other and are able to expound it better by interacting with each other. all this is much harder to explain than to do. corpron too experimented with reflection, using a ferrotype which is similar to a mirror in that it has a reflective surface. as an effective pictorial means of creating new sensations of time, space, and form, the mirror actually had an earlier history in avant-garde photography seen in the vortographs of alvin langdon coburn in the early twentieth-century. following the bauhaus, in paris henri was associated with the trend toward pure abstraction. her affiliation with the bauhaus, the cercle et carre in paris, and her experimentation with purism and late synthetic cubism, helped prepare the way for her involvement with geometric abstract art in paris. the pursuit of abstraction in painting and film as charted by cercle et carre provides context for henri's investigations into abstract photography. diana c. dupont, former assistant curator of photography at the san francisco museum of modern art, discussed henri's pursuit of abstraction: although she herself did not experiment with filmmaking (despite the work of leger and moholy-nagy in that medium), her explorations, too were linked to the most current ideas in contemporary painting. early examples of abstract photography, all inspired by cubism, such as the abstractions of paul strand of , the vortographs of alvin langdon coburn of , and the light abstractions of francis bruguiere that began in the mid- twenties, are precedents for henri's abstractions, but they were not her source. even moholy-nagy's abstract photograms do no offer a satisfactory parallel. although henri tried her hand at many of the new vision stratagems, she did no experiment with cameraless photography by means of which moholy-nagy sought extreme abstraction. she clearly and consciously manipulated the camera's special eye, but she never crossed the line into pure non-objectivity. henri's compositions are abstract in intent, but they exploit the dialogue between abstraction and reality. they have an insistent connection to the physical world which explains why henri's mirror compositions are both still lifes and abstractions. her abstract composition (rolled foil with mirrors) (c. ) presents elements that are obviously from the physical world. the rolled foil, at the top of the composition, has two rows of holes punched in it from one end to the other, and part of the coil is extended diagonally from the coil on the right down towards the lower left of the composition. a mirror is placed directly beneath the roll of foil and part of the roll is reflected as well as all of the extended foil. the reflection from outside of the composition and from the foil depicts diagonal lines creating the abstraction. if the image is viewed close-up, the planar forms and diagonal lines demonstrate abstract qualities in a manner entirely keeping with international constructivism. thus, corpron and henri were both producing abstract photographs based on the bauhaus, but in completely different environments. they both had the desire to manipulate the camera, to control the subject, and to create their own unique images. henri's focus is on the geometric abstraction created by the use of mirrors, and corpron's focus is on the quality of light and the abstraction that could be created by it. both of these women were slow to be recognized for their contributions to photography, receiving recognition years after their works had been produced. late biography corpron went to new york during the summer of to make a pilgrimage to alfred stieglitz's gallery, an american place. stieglitz had helped to promote the careers of photographers from gertrude kasebier and edward steichen to paul strand and ansel adams. stieglitz was eighty-years-old at this time and a well known promoter of american art and photography. looking at corpron's portfolio, he told her that her "photographs changed the way he saw the world. " he asked her to send him contact prints of her new work, mentioning that he might want to exhibit her photographs, though he had not exhibited photography in his gallery since an eliot porter exhibition in . corpron did send him contact prints after she returned to texas. in july, , stieglitz died; his widow, georgia o'keeffe, wrote to corpron: i am returning your little prints to you. they came too late. i opened your letter with other mail after he was gone. he had said to me that he thought of showing your photographs, but i think he did not have the energy. he would want you to go on--it is the only way. corpron continued her experiments with light and abstraction until the early s when her health began to fail. corpron's photographs were included in several group exhibitions between and , as well as several individual exhibitions between , at the dallas museum of fine arts, and , at the art institute of chicago. corpron was not included in any major exhibitions for the next twenty years. retiring from texas woman's university in , she remained in denton. in the early s she became friends with professor don schol, who was then the director of photography at north texas state university, now the university of north texas. he had seen corpron's photographs and become very interested in her work. as their friendship grew, he decided in to put together a show of her photographs, as well as his own work. the exhibit, "two generations: two photographers," was held at the university art gallery, university of north texas, in october. schol felt that corpron's work deserved more recognition. he had heard of a show about women photographers being organized by marjory mann in san francisco. schol sent mann some prints of corpron's work and they discussed corpron's inclusion in the show. schol said that mann definitely felt that corpron should be included and he helped corpron to print up some of her old negatives for the show "women of photography: an historical survey" in . the show travelled to the museum of new mexico, santa fe, the university of wisconsin, milwaukee, and wellesley college museum, wellesley, massachusetts. in margaretta mitchell organized "recollections: ten women of photography," which included images by corpron. the exhibition opened at the international center of photography in new york city. after showing in new york the exhibition travelled around the united states for two years beginning in january . in , the amon carter museum purchased two corpron images: eggs reflected and multiplied ( ) from the afterimage gallery in dallas, and solarized calla lilies ( ) form marcuse pfeifer gallery, new york city. both prints were modern gelatin silver prints made from negatives taken in . in , the amon carter museum, fort worth, exhibited corpron in a retrospective. after this showing of her work corpron was satisfied with the recognition she had received as a photographer. corpron had only wanted to be recognized as a photographer at some point in her life and she felt the retrospective at the amon carter was enough recognition, and that her work would go on from there and her photographs would have a life of their own long after she was gone. in , corpron presented a gift of seven images of her work to the amon carter museum. in the last ten years of her life, corpron focused on organizing her work. when corpron was active in creating photographs in the s she had not kept her negatives or prints in any particular organization. in her last years she wanted to organize everything before she died. corpron had offered her negatives and prints to the amon carter museum in hopes of having all of her work catalogued, but they were "dragging their heels" and corpron was anxious to have this completed. at this point walter hardgraves, "who was supposedly an archivist," came to denton to catalogue corpron's negatives and place everything in order. up to this point corpron had kept her negatives in envelopes and expandable files in the garage. corpron gave hardgraves free reign in her house and would even leave to go have lunch while he was working. it has been alleged that hardgraves had stolen some of corpron's negatives and copies of some of her prints, as well as a photogram that had been given to her by moholy-nagy. this was not realized until later. hardgraves was active in organizing a retrospective of corpron's works at the avron gallery in dallas in . he had permission to have some of her negatives reprinted. this retrospective, which included forty prints from private collections and museums, coincided with corpron's eighty- fourth birthday. when corpron suspected that something was not quite right with hardgraves, she told him not to come back to her house and told him he would not be cataloging her works any longer. a short time after that, hardgraves showed up on corpron's doorstep with a stack of prints that he had had made and requested that she sign them. she refused and told him to go away. stauver said that corpron was so upset that she requested that stauver go into dallas and retrieve her prints and negatives while they were in his possession. barry fellman, a gallery owner in miami, florida, called regarding some of corpron's photographs he had seen in a sotheby's auction catalogue, as well as a photograms by moholy-nagy. it was the photogram that had belonged tu corpron. fellman also said that he had seen some of corpron's photographs in a christie's auction catalogue. stauver said that she and corpron felt that this must have been the work of hardgraves, who had long since disappeared from dallas. the amon carter museum finally accepted corpron's gift and began cataloging her work. stauver said she felt this was the result of some of corpron's images hitting the art market through christie's and sotheby's. carol roark, who worked in the photography collection at the amon carter, came to corpron's home to take the bulk of corpron's gift in , which consisted of a large amount of prints, negatives, slides, and prints by other photographers. in , corpron gave four more images to the amon carter. after corpron died in , the amon carter museum received additional photographs, negatives, and estate materials pertaining to the collection from stauver, executor of corpron's estate. as corpron had reflected on her life, she said she was content with it. she felt that she was liberated long before the women's movement, as far as attitudes were concerned. she enjoyed living alone, adding that she had never been entirely alone. summing up her experiences as a photographer she said, "i have been 'neither fish nor fowl.' that is, most photographers could not understand what i was doing, and very few artists were willing to accept photography as an art. i hope that my photographs have a life of their own." stauver claimed corpron was happy with the bits and pieces of recognition that came along: she did photography for herself, she did it because she loved it. she did photography for the the joy of it not realizing her work was worth anything until much later. teaching was pulling everything along and after a few big shows she felt that that was enough. corpron died april , , in denton. it has been several years since corpron's photographs have been shown. once again her work surfaced into the spotlight in two soho galleries in new york during the spring of . corpron's wish that her work would go on after her death had been granted. notes 'naomi rosenblum, a world history of photography (new york: cross river press, ltd., , , c/o abbeville press, inc.), . ibid. ibid. beaumont newhall, the history of photography: from to the present (new york: museum of modern art, ), . ibid. bid., . rosenblum, world history of photography, . ibid. ibid., . ibid., . the promotion of the photograph to the status of an art object was the goal of a movement known as pictorialism. rosenblum says white images of unusual artistic sensitivity and sweet compassion, with the people and places of his intimate surroundings as subjects. his best images reveal a perceptive appreciation of the special qualities of domesticity and feminine activities, themes that also attracted a number of the painters of the time. rosenblum, world history of photography, . ibid., . ibid. newhall, history of photoaraphy, . sam hunter, and john jacobus, modern art: painting/sculpture/architecture (new york: harry n. abrams, inc., ), . rosenblum, world history of photography, . van deren coke, signs of the times: some recurring motifs in twentieth-century photography (san francisco: san francisco museum of modern art, ), . charlotte streifer rubinstein, american women artists: from early indian times to the present (new york: avon books, ), . diana c. dupont, florence henri: artist-photographer of the avant-garde (san francisco: san francisco museum of modern art, ), . whitney chadwick, women, art, and society (new york: thames and hudson inc., ), . marjory mann, women of photography: an historical survey (san francisco: san francisco museum of art, ), introduction. lazlo moholy-nagy, experiment in totality, ed. sibyl moholy-nagy (cambridge, mass.: mit press, , ), . dupont, henri: artist-photographer, . ibid. martha a. sandweiss, carlotta corpron: designer with light (fort worth: amon carter museum of western art, ), . dupont, henri: artist-photographer, . ibid., . ibid., . ibid., . ibid., . cercle et carre was an association, organized in , devoted to promoting the ideal of abstract art with an emphasis on structure and geometry and opposing the irrationality of surrealism. the international character of this group reveals that pure abstraction developed in paris in good part from the energies and enthusiasms of foreign artists and critics. dupont, henri: artist-photographer, . ibid. ibid., . sandweiss, corpron: designer with light, . ibid. georgia o'keeffe, letter to carlotta corpron, dated july , texas woman's university archives. schol, don, interviews by author, denton, texas, periodic conversations throughout and . stauver, marguarite, interview by author, denton, texas, september . ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. margaretta mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography (new york: viking press, ), . ibid. stauver, marguarite, interview by author, denton, texas, september . chapter iv evaluation of abstract photographs produced by corpron during the s corpron's photographs produced during the s demonstrate the influence of moholy-nagy and kepes in terms of the investigation of light patterns in abstract compositions. corpron made her own innovations in photography as she further developed the technical experiments of the new bauhaus. among the bauhaus experiments of moholy-nagy and kepes were abstract light images formed in the light box, the calligraphic use of the pen light in a darkened environment, the radical distortion of images using unusual projections of light and mirrors, and image manipulation through camera movement. through adopting and expanding on these experiments, corpron produced photographs that are characterized by an exceptionally refined and thoroughly disciplined vision. corpron's photographs fall into six main groups of work which she calls: nature studies, light drawings, light patterns, light follows form, space compositions, and fluid light designs. each of these groups represents a different phase of her exploration of light as a medium for creative expression. each photograph represents the working out of a conceptual problem, and carefully and thoughtfully composing a work of art. corpron said she was not a quick person, she had to create the moment. corpron had what moholy-nagy defined in as a "photocreative mind." she basically saw abstractly and: . . .focused on the control of the effects for photographic purposes rather than on the event itself. . . he will not only select what he finds, but he will produce situations which for him contain the necessary qualities for photographic expression with devices so far unused and neglected. corpron sought originality with her photography. the camera was an extension of herself and allowed her to express what she in particular wanted to say with and about light. nature studies corpron's nature studies were centered around the abstract patterns inherent in natural forms as well as studies of pure form and shape. these photographs grew out of the work she did for her textile design classes in cincinnati. in caladium leaves ( ) [figure ], prior to moholy- nagy, she closed in on her subject so that only parts of the leaves filled the frame. these images are similar to the images produced by imogen cunningham. cunningham worked on the west coast, primarily in california with group f/ , producing close-up, controlled images of flowers accenting shape and form through lighting. the large white forms of the leaves in corpron's image are accented by the contrast of the black lines throughout which begin at the lower center of the leaves and branch outwards to the edges. the emphasis is more on the pattern within the leaves than of the leaves themselves. another image, sea turtle in aquarium, centers around shape and form found in a natural object set in the confines of a man-made object. the photograph depicts a sea turtle seen through the glass of a large aquarium. the composition is balanced asymmetrically with the dark shape of the turtle in the lower right and the bright light from above illuminating the water on the left. the composition is similar to kasimir malevich's victory over the sun ( ) with a curved diagonal line between light and dark creating balance. the focus becomes the contrast between light and dark in the natural form of the sea turtle and the water framed by the window of the aquarium. corpron's early nature studies were made outdoors where the photographer has less control over the composition. she did produce some nature studies in a studio setting where she could control every element of the composition. although there is no documented date for this image, which is common for corpron's body of work, the content places the image in the early s before she began her experiments with non-objective abstraction. in nature dancer ( ) [figure ], corpron carefully places the light to transform the head of chinese cabbage into an evocation of a dancing creature. corpron says she had not preconceived the idea of the cabbage resembling a dancer but after she had printed the negative and looked at the image in every conceivable way, she decided to turn the picture upside down to create a composition she was pleased with. once turned upside down, she said it was then that it resembled a "dancer" and she saw what appeared to be a face in the upper part of the cabbage. corpron said, "i see things, i always have. ever since i was a child i've seen faces and patterns in the clouds. " even though several of her nature studies seem to reveal hidden creatures, she maintains, it is important that the image perceived in the object not overwhelm the overall composition or the beauty of the design itself. her central concern in these photographs is the abstract pattern inherent in natural forms as well as studies of pure form and shape. nature dancer can be compared to the earlier work of edward weston as seen in his photograph cabbage leaf ( ). here weston also uses a studio setting and focuses only on the shape of the cabbage. the sharp focus accentuates the lines and ridges in the cabbage, suggesting the relationship to a woman as well as depicting a study of abstract shape and form evoked by the cabbage rather than a documentary image of a cabbage. the photographs of texas oil storage tanks are studies of pure form and shape. often shot against a cloudless sky, which lessens the chance of distraction from the forms, these photographs celebrate the industrial aesthetic of the s and s in america. ' they are related to the precisionist industrial photographs of edward weston and charles sheeler, and they testify to corpron's ability to see and compose bold and exciting images out of doors. in oil tanks with bridge ( ), the composition is almost symmetrical. the oil tank on the left side of the image dominates only slightly. there are two semi-circular, spherical shapes of large oil tanks that fill the sides of the picture in the foreground. they are spanned by a bridge which is divided in the center by stairs rising up from the bottom of the picture. cylindrical oil tanks fill the background between the two large oil tanks. by closing in on a portion of the scene, corpron emphasizes repetition of spheres, cylinders, and lines which accent the pure form and shape depicted in objective abstraction within the frame in conjunction with what is known to exist outside the frame. in three oil tanks near jefferson, texas ( ) [figure ], corpron once again demonstrates her sense of design. the three spherical oil tanks cut diagonally across the scene diminishing in size in the distance. there is repetition of circles and straight lines in the positive space. the straight lines are formed by the bases of the oil tanks rising from below. the cloudless sky creates the negative space and backdrop for the study of the forms created by the oil tanks. corpron saw these images as only preparatory sketches. these images of corpron's can be compared with weston's plaster works. los angeles ( ) and gulf oil, port arthur, texas.( ). these are similar to corpron's industrial images of oil tanks. here weston shows only part of the scene, concentrating on the shapes created by the building itself or the pipes and oil tanks. by eliminating a definitive background, shape and form created by the subject are more important than the actual setting subject. another image also related to corpron's is charles sheeler's well known river rouge photograph ford plant, detroit ( ), where he presents vertical and diagonal lines of the factory filling the frame. by focusing on a part of the building he offers his interpretation of form in a precise clean photograph. he presents the clarity of simple geometric relationships in untitled (c. ), a photograph from which u perddeck was painted in . untitled is an arrangement of stacks and funnels on the upper deck of a ship. by closing in on a portion of the scene and eliminating the telltale background, sheeler composes a scene of rectangles, cubes, spheres, circles, and lines. the shapes and forms are without specific names, they are merely shapes and forms. sheeler celebrates the machine age in his compositions, where corpron's images focus on the abstraction rather than on the subject of the abstraction. in design with oil tank ( ) [figure ] corpron creates a print composed with two overlapping negatives that makes an abstract geometric design, the true subject of the photograph. by crossing the two negatives corpron has taken control of her subject and made it more abstract. the design subtly displays the spiritual glorification of an object of industrial america. the subject is industrial, the effect is abstract. prior to moholy-nagy, corpron was experimenting with different ways of using light to reveal the structure of natural forms in her flower studies. she experimented with solarization, a process which results in a value reversal from positive to negative. corpron said she would expose the film to light during the developing process to obtain the value reversal on film. solarization was in vogue in art schools across the country at this time. in solarized amaryllis ( ) corpron closed in on two blooms and fills the frame with the the natural form of the plant. the experimentation with light effected of the value reversal creating a mysterious scene. the change from a natural view to an experimental view emphasizes the overall shapes represented rather than a study of flowers. the same can be seen in ray ann with amaryllis (c. ), a portrait of a woman with flowers and leaves at the base of her neck. the solarization technique causes the content of the photograph to be connected as one large shape at a first glance. the experiment with tonality creates a.curious scene for the viewer in which the hair of the woman and the flowers at the base of her neck seem to be similar in shape and appearance. a thorough investigation of the photograph leads to a true understanding of the image and a separation of the shapes and forms within. there are few solarized photographs in corpron's body of work, although she did continue to work with it later in her career. one later photograph, solarized calla lilies ( ) [figure ], a picture of three calla lilies which seem to be floating in center of the photograph, isolated the form. corpron may have used solarization for this later print, because it was appropriate for the subject or, possibly, she developed the negative much earlier and decided the make the print later. the three blossoms are positioned so that they create a slightly curved line from the top to the bottom of the frame. the white lilies on white background exhibit strong black lines along the major contours, a result of the solarization technique. the image presents a delicate study of natural forms from nature. solarization predates moholy-nagy although he also wrote about it and practiced it. moholy-nagy said that through the reversal of the values a new world arises out of the hidden: "a supernatural glow with sublime magnificence, a play of mysterious light sources with radiating aura enveloping the objects, giving them fresh potentialities for new relations. " in his book vision in motion, moholy-nagy said that in photography one may find visual sensations just as surprising as in the direct records of light which are seen in photograms. he suggests several particular developments, including solarizations, which he said opened up a new field of visual presentation. "photography imparts a heightened and increased power of sight in terms of time and space." he enumerated eight varieties of photographic vision, which he says enables the student to divine the power latent in the elements of time and space. number seven, part "b", on his list states: "mechanical and chemical manipulation of the negative during or after developing, using oil drops, suds, soaps, etc.' lighting, heating or freezing, resulting in distortion, reticulation, solarization, etc.", negative prints are more prevalent in moholy-nagy's work than solarizations, although the two have similar attributes. the negative print is a complete reversal of values from black to white. moholy-nagy often "caused 'positive' photographs made with the camera to be converted into negative prints in order to gain an effect of bright light forms on a black ground, a result that was closer to that of a photogram." in a negative print of a cat, cat negative (c. ) moholy-nagy has produced an image that resembles a photogram. abstraction is created with the strong contrasts of black and white. moholy-nagy described the photograph: in any photograph the white spaces always produce an 'active' effect. through the reversal into the negative the shape of the cat's body, normally immediately recognizable, is eliminated, and the internal pattern of the fur becomes the lambent principle feature of the composition. moholy-nagy made several sets of images that would pair a positive and negative print of the same photograph together. he produced several sets of nude figure studies in which the positive and negative print were presented side by side: the frequent negative rendering of pictures of nudes corresponds, as in the portraits, to moholy's tendency to keep 'visual experience' free from any intellectual harmony and association. like renoir's disuse of light- play around bodies, so moholy's photograph reveals patches of light adapting the curves of the body, sublimating tactile into optical sensation. corpron experimented with solarization and other chemical manipulation techniques only briefly and there is no evidence that she produced negative prints. she said she wanted all of her experimentation to be with light and she wanted to catch it on the negative. her next step was to experiment with artificial illumination and capture the light on film. light drawings the early s was a time of freedom and spirit of experimentation. with the light drawings series corpron began her intense investigation of light as both the creator and subject of her photographs: a painter works with color as the medium, a photographer works with light. i began looking around for a teacher who could help me most, because i wanted to be sure i was on the right track. in the early forties everything in art was geometric and abstract. i decided that experimental photography appealed to me most. the light drawings convey a sense of motion and thus a sense of the fourth dimension, time. corpron did not know in advance what would appear on the negatives. she said she would swing her camera before the moving lights of the carnival rides on the midway to catch the light on film. corpron said her photograph of the decorative lights in a church interior, church in havana ( ) [figure ], was a prelude to her photographs of moving lights. here she presents a motionless staccato of small lights outlining the interior to the church against its darkened walls. the image conveys an illusion of three-dimensional space, and her light drawings convey a sense of motion, as well. concentrating on carnival rides and the excitement of the midway, corpron captured moving lights in pyramid of light ( ). against the darkness of night the lights zig- zag vertically in continuous lines, and they have the appearance of coils of light that are swirling and springing in the darkness. in this photograph, as well as light circles ( ), the moving rides are still discernible as the bases for the abstract image. light circles depicts circular movement with the lights forming sets of concentric circles. two other light drawings, commentary on civilization ( ) [figure ] and a walk in fair park, dallas ( ) [figure ], have no apparent motif in nature as a source for their design. commentary on civilization depicts long vertical lines in a circle with another circle in the distance which has vertical lines as well as a portion of a star-shape within. the photograph was a visual metaphor; on the back of the print corpron wrote, "most people go around in circles, a few have luminosity, and some are individuals and can move away from the crowd." . the delicate lines of light in this photograph and pyramid of light have a simple and formal elegance that underscores the close relationship between them and ink drawings. a walk in fair park, dallas is less repressed. this photograph anticipates corpron's later fluid light series. here the lines of light are vertical, horizontal, and diagonal. the lines flow smoothly, curving and bending throughout the picture and each other. whether the source for the design is apparent or not, all of these light drawings have one thing in common: light functions not as a modeller of form or an illuminator of space but simply as line. the line rhythms fascinated corpron. the photographs were made by just moving the camera with the shutter open and knowing when to stop. in these light drawings corpron had little control over the source of light. her desire was to be able to direct the light with accuracy and command rather than relying on chance and circumstance. light patterns corpron began experimenting with a x foot light box, shining flashlights and low wattage bulbs through holes onto the light-modulating forms she placed inside. corpron said she explored the forms with light thoroughly, watching the tonal variations and shifting patterns of light and shadow before ever taking a photograph. with the lightbox, corpron could control all aspects of the composition. corpron experimented with the light modulators and often created her final image by overlapping negatives of images created by light modulators. bisymmetric design ( ) [figure ] and abstract white paper design ( ) are two early images created by overlapping negatives. the image on film was created by white paper light modulators placed in the light box. both images create a subtle illusion that borders on three-dimensionality created by corpron's manipulation of the light and placement of the overlapping negatives. another image created by overlapping negatives, lu shapes. ( ), has the appearance of a photogram. she used white paper shapes in the light box but the appearance is more two-dimensional. the final image has the appearance of a collage. corpron refers to the flat amoebic shapes and broad areas of clearly delineated tonal values as her "homage to miro," a surrealist painter. she uses these same or similar white paper shapes in white paper shapes against white background--light from a venetian blind ( ) [figure ]. this photograph was not composed inside of the light box. the freestanding paper shapes placed against a white paper background are illuminated by the bands of light entering through a nearby venetian blind. the bands of light and the placement of the paper light modulators give some depth to the image by means of value contrasts. the light modulators are arranged so that they reflect different amounts of light giving them their own density and causing them to have individuality within the group. these shapes have been compared to calder stabiles: flat, standing forms boldly defining the space around them, but in corpron's composition there is sense of continuity in that the the paper shapes together complete the composition rather than standing alone as individuals within the composition. the venetian blinds became a dominant and recurring theme in corpron's work. they functioned as light modulators or filters in studies of abstraction. in the isolation of denton, corpron unknowingly adopted the formal device that alfred stieglitz had used in his photograph sun rays--paula-- berlin ( ), a boldly patterned print of a seated woman in a room filled with bands of light. stieglitz's print is considered one of the first truly "modern" photographs. once again corpron combines two negatives in white paper forms with venetian blinds ( ). one negative is the study made in a light box of straight-edged paper constructions, the other a shot of a nearly closed venetian blinds lit from behind. the overall effect is a three-dimensional geometric pattern of horizontal bands that intersect, overlap, and penetrate the receding white paper shapes. continuing her experiments with light modulators, corpron tried to photograph light as it passed through glass forms, using translucent and transparent light modulators. in light. white paper, and glass ( ), corpron uses the same paper shapes used in bisymmetric design ( ). here she combines the negative of the white paper shapes composed in the light box with a negative of light as it passes through glass. the glass has a vertical fluted pattern and corpron photographs the glass at an angle so she has diagonal lines for the composition. the effect is mysterious, as if looking into rippling water and seeing the images below. corpron abandoned the light box for woven light ( ). this is a photograph of artificial light flickering through the irregular surface of a glass brick. it has the glassy appearance of light reflections on water. her interest in the way light could be photographed with glass light modulators led her to use glass cubes for some compositions. she made several compositions which appear to be simple photographic studies of light, pattern, texture, and depth, such as six cubes ( ) [figure ] and glass cubes and patterned glass ( ). with these studies corpron began combining different negatives in order to obtain the perfect design which is achieved in suspended glass cubes ( ) [figure ]. here she overlaps two negatives of glass cubes and patterned glass at an angle that produces designs of reflected and transmitted light. the intersecting cubes are suspended over the design of patterned glass. the patterned glass has evenly spaced lines that corpron photographed at an angle to create a repetition of diagonal lines for the background. the overall composition is almost a mirror-image diagonally, falling short of this due to the asymmetrical balance of the composition in the final image. although the glass cube compositions are very different from the paper light modulators in that they appear more three-dimensional, corpron categorizes them all as light patterns which can be seen in the end result. suspended glass cubes ( ) obtains the effect she was creating with the white paper shapes. corpron said she did not really like the paper designs except as a means to an end. she wanted to see what she could do with light and shading by manipulating the lighting and the white paper. they were a step forward and she said kepes told her to work until she photographed light instead of paper, and she did. they became very good friends while kepes was in denton and remained in contact after he left. stauver said kepes was a personal influence on corpron. light follows form corpron abandoned the light box and continued using the venetian blinds as a filter for the natural light that illuminates her subjects in her light follows form series. her subjects are light modulators but her photographs have a completely different appearance from the photographs with paper light modulators. she uses solid forms which the bands of light follow, remolding the shapes and giving a strong three-dimensional quality to the photographs. in light follows form ( ) [figure ] she arranges three rounded rock-like shapes on a tabletop and lets the sun from the venetian blinds illuminate them. the bands of light follow the curves of the shapes, curving to follow the contours of the shapes. the curved bands of light on the forms are juxtaposed against the straight bands of light on the tabletop, which emphasizes the smooth, rounded shapes contrasted by the flat tabletop. corpron made three studies of a plaster cast light modulator and all three have a different aspect. the plaster cast of a greek head is depicted in sunlight through a venetian blind ( ), light follows form of a greek head ( ), and illusion of male and female ( ) [figure ]. the bands of light hug the forms, remolding the shapes and giving a strong three-dimensional quality to the photographs. the greek head appears differently in each of the three prints. in sunlight through a venetian blind the features seem sharp and well defined. the lighting creates strong contrasts and accents the details, such as pores and imperfections in the plaster. in light follows form of greek head part of the cast is reflected in glass placed directly in front of it. as the light filters through the glass it follows the form of the cast and creates a texture on the surface of it. illusion of male and female appears to be soft and sensuous. the androgynous cast is half illuminated and half in shadow with lines of light following the contours on the shaded side. the photographs are less a study of greek sculpture than a study of light as a sculptor of form. this experiment led corpron to realize that light modulators did not have to be confined to a light box. moholy-nagy said the entire world could be conceived of as a collection of light-modulating surfaces and, "the human face is the best-known of all light modulators, and it ranks near the top of the list in complexity. " space compositions taking a break from her investigations of light as a modeler of form, corpron began to study light as it creates an illusion of space and depth. corpron said: the bauhaus group was very interested in space, and it seemed an interesting idea to explore. i hadn't done it much. but i became very concerned with getting space and composition because i thought that a photographer could suggest three-dimensional design almost better than a painter. corpron's space compositions are a series of photographs composed with found objects. she used two chambered nautilus shells, some eggs, glass paperweights, and a curved ferrotype to act as a reflecting surface. these compositions were created on a table top and none of these photographs were put together in a conventional composition. each photograph expresses corpron's desire to be original rather than copy photographs of this subject matter previously done by well- known photographers, such as weston who focused primarily on the shell in a straight forward manner, objectively suggesting male and female connotations in his arrangements rather than creating unusual composition with light. corpron produced four compositions with a chambered nautilus shell over a period of five years and each of the. compositions conveys space in a different way. the first, chambered nautilus with created light and shadow background ( ), shows her concerns for creating composition with shadows by controlling the light. this is similar to using light modulators only this time corpron uses a piece of twisted plastic behind the nautilus shells to create the shadows and a soft receding background. the shadows created by the plastic accent the shape of the nautilus shells and unify the entire composition. in the second photograph, nautilus and concave mirror ( ) [figure ), she used a mirror to obtain depth in the composition. the shell is backed up to the mirror creating an identical image opposite the real image. she has controlled the lighting in the background so that there are continuous wavy lines of light and dark which also mimics the outer shell of the nautilus shell. the background is reminiscent of the lines created by venetian blinds in her light follows form series. as in previous photographic studies, corpron never eliminates the possibilities created by the use of double negatives to create an image. in chambered nautilus ( ) she overlaps two negatives of the nautilus shell and creates a floating swirling pattern. the shell itself fills the frame with a dark background. the curved lines of the two images overlapped create a sense of space and depth in the areas that are transparent. the image almost appears to be a skeleton for a dome or sphere. the fourth composition, chambered nautilus in space composition ( ) [figure ], contains a new element, which corpron calls a "ferrotype," a piece of flexible reflective metal, to achieve the feelings of depth. the curved ferrotype, the bottom edge of which is visible as the fine dark line that curves across the image, reflects the pattern that corpron has created out of view with lights and sheets of white paper. the reflection of paper in the ferrotype echoes the shape of the nautilus shell, curving and swirling, revealing a tight, well-composed photograph. corpron had begun to use the ferrotype, trying to achieve the feeling of depth in her photographs. in surly faces ( ) she used glass objects that were reflected in the ferrotype and the result was multiple distorted reflections creating the illusion of receding space. the composition is made with a glass bowl, one glass paperweight, and several small liquor glasses. the dominant part of the image is the distorted reflections. after she printed the photograph, corpron said she saw odd "faces" staring out from the ferrotype. one reflection impressed her with its resemblance to stalin and the photograph became a metaphor for her. she saw it as above all, a study of space, but it is also a statement about the cold war. departure in its title from formalism suggests surrealism. the ferrotype is the key formal element in the egg compositions which corpron considered to be one of her best series because of the purity of the shape of the egg. the egg as a subject for writers and artists appeared in the s. in sherwood anderson's book of impressions from american life entitled the triumph of the eag ( ) he mused: i awoke at dawn and for a long time looked at the egg that lay on the table. in wondered why eggs had to be and why from the egg came the hen who again laid the egg. the question got into my blood. it has stayed there, i imagine, because i am the son of my father. at any rate, the problem remains unsolved in my mind. and that, i conclude, is but another evidence of the complete and final triumph of the egg--at least as far as my family is concerned. the egg has a history with photography and can be linked strongly to the bauhaus. from about - is the period that gave birth to the rise of the egg in the art photographic movements. a survey of bauhaus photography and other noted photographers of the twenties and early thirties finds the periodic recurrence of the egg. this period of "egg photography" could begin with edward steichen's the triumph of the egg ( ), which depicts a microscopic version of the oval which is distorted under concave glass and end with the triumph of the egg ( ) by paul outerbridge, who claimed to have made , photographs of eggs during his lifetime. bauhaus photographers incorporated the egg in their compositions which can be seen in moholy-nagy's once a chicken, always a chicken ( ), and cameraless photogram ( ), hannes meyer's construction / ( ), herbert bayer's breakfast eggs (c. - ), ringl + pit's the egg of columbus ( ), and many others. the variety of compositions range from straight photographs to abstract photographs, with underlying meaning and without. giving a title to this period of egg photography, louis kaplan suggests "the triumph of the egg" gives way to the period that became known as "the triumph of the will" to usher in the political and artistic repression which closed the bauhaus: "the triumph of the egg" provides an index for the period emblematic of its playfulness in the construction and dissemination of meaning in opposition to the fascistic rigidity of "the triumph of the will", which defended the purity of the origin and which willed the expurgation of difference in the breeding of "proper" eggs. corpron adopts the theme of the egg in her own unique, abstract way. she took six eggs to the darkroom one sunday and planned to let the light guide her. she said, "i knew that most people photographed eggs either alone or in bowls, but i was very interested in what could be done with distortion.,, she used one -watt bulb to light the room and the ferrotype that she had been using before in her experiments with distortion. she curved the ferrotype into three or four curves and put it in back of the eggs. the dim light reflected back from the ferrotype. since the light was so dim she could not use an exposure meter so she experimented with one- and two-minute exposures. she said all at once the eggs began to do amazing things. they stood on end and cast shadows and became distorted into very strange forms. she captured many different images on film and then created her images by cropping, enlarging, and overlying the negatives. the least complex of the egg photographs is egga reflected and multiplied ( ) [figure ]. the elements of the composition are easily identifiable. the eggs set on a tabletop in front of the ferrotype creating reflections of many eggs. though the ferrotype reflects more eggs than are visible in the foreground, the mechanics of the photograph are easy to understand. in ouiet harmony ( ) corpron deletes the majority of the foreground so that only a small portion of the tabletop is visible. there is only one egg shown in the photograph, but the other eggs out of sight of the camera create the illusion of many eggs seen in the reflection from the ferrotype. the multiple reflections of the eggs create a sense of a far-reaching depth. corpron takes the effect of the reflections one step further in panorama ( ). the foreground is completely eliminated and the image reveals only the reflections of the eggs in the ferrotype. there is a surreal dream-like quality about the photograph as some of the eggs float out of focus while others are distinct in their shape. some of the reflections appear to be connected creating an unusual distortion of the egg. in composition with eggs (floating ega garden) ( ) and fun with eggs ( ) [figure corpron used two negatives to create a single image. each of the images reveals eggs as transparent and opaque shapes floating back and forth in space. she achieved a three-dimensional quality with these images through the variation in egg-size between the two negatives, and the use of the ferrotype to reflect many more eggs than actually existed. another egg composition, egas encircled ( ) [figure ], is a combination of her experiments with eggs and her experiments with fluid light. five eggs are reflected in the ferrotype, doubling and even tripling the amount of eggs seen in the distance. she considered her egg photographs series and her fluid light designs series to be her best and most original work. her fluid light designs involve light reflections on plastic and in this photograph she has combined a negative of eggs reflected in the ferrotype with a negative of light reflections captured on plastic. the lines of light reflected on the plastic appear to create a large overall shape that mimics the eggs and their reflections in the ferrotype. the combination of the two negatives is cohesive for an overall effect that accents the beauty and purity of the shape of the egg. fluid light designs corpron said the fluid light designs, her last series of pictures, (exp. dates) were conceived in a moment. she said late one afternoon, as the thin light poured through the nearly closed venetian blinds in her workroom, she watched as the light struck the rippled plastic wrapped around a print on a nearby table. the fluid, abstract designs that formed were unlike those she had achieved in her earlier experiments with light modulators of venetian blinds. the props were unobtrusive; all she saw was light. the first photograph of the series, captured light ( ) [figure ], shows the frame of the plastic-wrapped print. the light bends and moves diagonally across the image in thin lines creating abstract forms within the confines of the frame of the print. this early print has a two- dimensional appearance due to the restrictions of the frame and the vantage point. as corpron worked with these fluid light designs they became increasingly complex. she began to print only sections of her negatives. it's a matter of selection. so much of modern painting has been that. the painters who splash paint on a canvas will find a part that's very good and frame it off. when i did the fluid light pictures my control was not complete and so i had to select certain details of my negatives. corpron did not restrict her studies to light reflections on plastic. in fluid light design ( ) she captures the rippling effect of sunlight on water. the light appears to flow and bend as it is captured on film. corpron experimented with overlaying negatives in this series as well. corpron's photograph mardi gras (c. ) appears to combine several techniques that she had used before individually with success. the abstracted image seems to be reflecting itself, possibly in the curved ferrotype. the dividing line is not directly in the middle nor is it a perfectly straight line. the two forms on either side appear to have similarities and meet each other at the division. there is also evidence of double printing. the ghostly lines of a different fluid light design are seen in the foreground forming a flat plane that seems to project out from the vertical line of intersection from the dominant reflecting lines. this gives the photograph a feel of three- dimensionality. in light creates symbols ( ) [figure ] she creates a symmetrical print from two negatives. the result is a geometric pattern created by intersecting lines of light. within the design of light there appears to be a bat-like creature floating in the center. in flowinglight ( ) [figure ] corpron used only a section of the negative for the print. the lines appear to to be floating in deep space floating through and around one another. the plastic onto which the light is reflected is flat, yet corpron presents an image with convincing three- dimensionality. some critics have found it mysterious. the image has two qualities at once. it appears ephemeral, as though the lines of light could be turned off or disappear without a moment's notice and at the same time it also appears tangible, as if you could reach out and actually touch the lines created by the light. in one photograph, corpron has combined all of her concerns for light as it creates design, reveals space, and charts time and motion. in one negative, she has succeeded in capturing the very essence of :light. notes martha a. sandweiss, carlotta corpron: designer with light (fort worth: amon carter museum of western art, ), . ibid. lbid. ibid. ibid., . ibid. there is no documented date for this image. many of corpron's prints and negatives have no date recorded. judging from the content of this photograph it was probably taken in the early s before she had begun her experiments with complete abstraction. ibid. sandweiss, corpron: designer with light, . ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. carlotta corpron, carlotta corpron: designer with light, golden triangle communications, . corpron's reexposure of the film during development is correctly termed sabbatier effect. sabbatier effect is a partial reversal of tones in an image, caused by reexposing the film or paper to light during development. named after armand sabbatier, who discovered the phenomenon in . sabbatier effect is often called solarization by photographers although the definition for solarization is a reversal of image tones that occurs when film is massively overexposed., lazlo moholy-nagy, vision in motion (chicago: paul theobald, ), . ibid., . ibid. ibid., . ibid. ibid. andreas haus, moholy-nagy: photographs and photograms (new york: pantheon books, ), . ibid., . ibid., . sandweiss, corpron: designer with light, . margaretta mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography (new york: viking press, ), . sandweiss, corpron: designer with light, . ibid. ibid. ibid., . ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid., . ibid., . ibid. ibid. ibid., . ibid., . ibid., . ibid. ibid., . ibid. corpron's "ferrotype" was a piece of reflective metal that could be used flat or curved as a mirror-like surface for her compositions. ibid., . ibid., . sherwood anderson, the triumph of the egg: a book of impressions from american life in tales and poems (new york: b.w. huebsch, inc., ), . jeannine fiedler, ed., photography at the bauhaus (cambridge, mass.: mit press, ), . ibid. ibid. sandweiss, corpron: designer with light, . ibid. ibid. ibid., . ibid. ibid. chapter v conclusion corpron's production of a wide range of abstract images are unique in terms of her place in time and her gender. although women have been active in the medium of photography throughout its entire history, the difference between corpron's output and that of other women photographers is her subject matter. corpron was fascinated with light and she pursued it from the beginning of her photography up to her death. reflecting on corpron, kepes said, "though i am sure that she very rarely rationalized about her intentions, or packaged her goals into words, her fundamental aspiration is to bring order into disorder and unity to the manifold, endless variety of visual phenomena." contact with bauhaus ideas was, then, one major turning point. the rediscovery of corpron's work through her friendship with don schol in the s was a second turning point in her life. only a few women have been acknowledged as photographers in the abstract mode. with the assistance and encouragement of schol, corpron was included in two major exhibitions, marjory mann's "women of photography: an historical survey" in and margaretta mitchell's "recollections: ten women of photography" in - . these exhibitions were seen around the country and led to corpron's inclusion in other shows concerning abstract photography, including the "light abstractions" show at the university of st. louis, st. louis, missouri, where corpron was noted as one of the ten important abstract photographers in this century. corpron's photographs are an integral part of the history of abstract photography. she was pursuing the qualities of light and she produced unique compositions. corpron recognized both her sources in weston and sheeler, as well as the crucial help of moholy-nagy and kepes. corpron never lacked confidence in her ability, even during the years of little public exposure. she sustained herself by maintaining the belief that her work was good, knowing that was best for her development as an artist. corpron photographed with persistence for more than forty years before she was recognized and her true contributions to photography were acknowledged. her discipline enabled her to overcome the myths of the s and s that a woman's place is in the home, that only men can be successful artists, and that successful artists must live in new york in order to obtain success and recognition. corpron inspires women by her example to break from tradition and have the courage to be successful artists. although her documented output is small, there are hundreds of negatives that have never been printed. the question arises, what might have happened if her health had not failed and she continued to produce, and what might have happened if stieglitz had lived to exhibit her work? a teacher, photographer, and artist, corpron described herself as a maverick: ". . . most photographers could not understand what i was doing, and very few artists were willing to accept photography as an art. i consider myself a designer with light. " her photographs are images both as pure abstractions and as symbolic forms that are significant as both abstract aspirations and as nature's clarity and order. corpron's development as an abstract photographer in the twentieth-century begins with objective abstraction, similar to the images of edward weston and imogen cunningham. weston and cunningham were working on the west coast where the emphasis tended to be more on objective vision in the early twentieth-century. as corpron developed as an artist, her abstraction tended to be more non-objective as a result of the bauhaus influence. she began to experiment with different objects and brought them to a totally abstract depiction, similar to the mirror compositions by florence henri. corpron considered many of her images as metaphors of contemporary society, similar to the abstract expressionists of the new york school, who were creating compositions with emotional content. to get from the tangible to the intangible an apparent contradiction of some kind is frequently helpful: for the photographer to free himself of the tyranny of the visual facts upon which he is utterly dependent, a paradox is the only possible tool. and the talisman paradox for unique photography is to work 'the mirror with a memory' as if it were a mirage, and the camera a metamorphosing machine, and the photograph as if it were a metaphor. . . . once freed of the tyranny of surfaces and textures, substance and form [the photographer] can use the same to pursue poetic truth. on the other hand, in corpron's images identification of subject can be so difficult that a title is required to promote further experience of the picture by the viewer. the abstract photographs of the s produced by aaron siskind challenge straight photography by transforming everyday subject matter into spontaneous abstract compositions. siskind concentrates the world in the picture. similar to corpron, he chooses the insignificant for his subjects. another similarity is siskind's regard for the picture as "a new object to be contemplated for its own meaning and its own beauty." but siskind always uses nature conceptually as a starting point: his images are less abstract than corpron's. corpron's metaphorical images were accidental. only after concentrating on the structure and light for the composition, and after printing the image, did she see metaphorical qualities in her photographs. her primary concern was the use of light to create abstraction, and after viewing the result of her experiments, she often found deeper meaning in the photographs. corpron's image surly faces ( ), which began as a study of space, also became a statement about the cold war. corpron's isolation in denton, texas did not restrict her explorations into abstraction. her images have similarities to the objective abstract photographs being produced in the united states on the west coast during the s, as well as literal abstract expressionists of the s and s on the east coast. direct contact with bauhaus artists linked her to an international group of artists, particularly moholy-nagy, kepes, and henri. corpron's experimentation with abstraction is an integral part of the history of abstract photography. from this study we can see that corpron's production of a broad range of abstract images shifted from slight abstraction to total abstraction due to her interaction with bauhaus artists moholy-nagy and kepes. she is contemporary with the abstract expressionists and she was exploring compositions that were seldom expressed by other contemporary photographers. corpron's father was a missionary surgeon in india in the early s and in many ways, corpron was a missionary during her eighty years. notes martha a. sandweiss, carlotta corpron: designer with light (fort worth: amon carter museum of western art, ), . leslie phillips, "corpron, " tufocus vol. ii (spring ), . margaretta mitchell, recollections: ten women of photography (new york: viking press, ), . sandweiss, corpron: designer with light, . beaumont newhall, the history of photography: from to the present (new york: the museum of modern art, ), . ibid., . illustrations fig. . caladium leaves --- om, - - fig. . nature dancer fig. . three oil tanks near jefferson, texas fig. . design with oil tank - =~=~ -. .* ;....... fig. . solarized calla lilies fig. . church in havana fig. . commentary on civilization fig. . a walk in fair park, dallas fig. . bisymmetric design fig. . white paper shapes against white background-- light from a venetian blind fig. . six cubes i fig. . suspended glass cubes fig. . light follows form fig. . illusion of male and female fig. . nautilus and concave mirror fig. . chambered nautilus in space composition fig. . eggs ref lected and multiplied fig. . fun with eggs n fig. . eggs encircled fig. . captured light ~ 'v (i a fig. . light creates symbols fig. . flowing light appendix chronology chronology of carlotta m. corpron born in blue earth, minnesota, december . - grew up in india; educated in english boarding schools. - moved back to the united states to study art at eastern michigan university and teacher's college of columbia university. - taught design and art education at the woman's college of alabama in montgomery (now huntington college). summer in europe. attended an international art congress in prague. summer in england to study medieval architecture and the arts of india in the museums of london. - taught at school of applied arts, university of cincinnati. bought her first camera as instructional aid for a design course. - taught design, advertising design, art history, and creative photography at texas woman's university in denton, texas. studied photographic technique at the art center in los angeles for the summer. worked with moholy-nagy. worked with gyorgy kepes. participated in "captured light" exhibition, norlyst gallery, new york. participated in "design with light" exhibition at the art alliance, philadelphia. met alfred stieglitz. one-person exhibition, dallas museum of fine art. participated in "contemporary photography" exhibition, contemporary arts association, houston. participated in "abstraction in photography" exhibition, museum of modern art, new york. participated in "design in nature" exhibition, contemporary arts association, houston. one- person exhibition at the louisana art commission, baton rouge. one-person exhibition at art institute of chicago. one-person exhibition at university of georgia, athens. one-person exhibition at woman's university of north carolina, chapel hill. one-person exhibition at ohio university, athens. participated in "women of photography: an historical survey" exhibition, san francisco museum of art. one-person exhibition at marcuse pfeifer gallery, new york, "carlotta corpron form and light: - ." participated in "works on paper: southwest " exhibition, dallas museum of fine art. one-person show, galleria del milione, milan. participated in "recollections: ten women of photography" exhibition, international center of photography, new york. one-person exhibition at the amon carter museum, fort worth. participated in "photography's response to constructivism" exhibition, san francisco museum of modern art. participated in "light abstractions" exhibition, university of missouri at st. louis. retrospective of corpron's works shown at the avron gallery, dallas, december through january . died in denton, texas, april . retrospective at the virginia lust gallery, new york, "carlotta corpron: the first abstract expressionist photographs - ," april through june . exhibition of photographs at brent sikkema fine art, new york, in april. selected bibliography chadwick, whitney. women. art, and society. new york: thames and hudson, inc., . coke, van deren. signs of the times: some recurring motifs in twentieth-century photography. san francisco: san francisco museum of modern art, . corpron, carlotta. carlotta corpron: designer with light. produced by joan young and paul bean. directed by paul bean. golden triangle communications in association with amon carter museum, . videocassette. corpron, carlotta. "designing with light." desi (october ): - , . corpron, carlotta. "light as a creative medium." art education (may ): - . dupont, diana c. florence henri: artist-photographer of the avant-garde. san francisco: san francisco museum of modern art, . ennis, michael. "lady on the edge." texas monthly , issue (july ): - . fiedler, jeannine, ed. photography at the bauhaus. cambridge, mass.: mit press, . george, mary hollers. letter to margaret b. mcdougal, dated c. february . texas woman's university archives. haus, andreas. moholy-nagy: photographs and photograms. new york: pantheon books, . hunter, sam, and john jacobus. modern art: painting/sculpture/ architecture. new york: harry n. abrams, inc., . kepes, gyorgy. letter to carlotta corpron, dated august , . texas woman's university archives. kepes, gyorgy. letter to carlotta corpron, dated may , . texas woman's university archives. kostelanetz, richard. moholy-nagy. new york: praeger publishers, . kutner, janet. "'designs with light' bring ms. corpron fame at ." dallas morning news november , , (c). kutner, janet. "luck keeps increasing for denton's corpron." dallas morning news october , (a). mann, marjory. women of photography: an historical survey. san francisco: san francisco museum of art, . mitchell, margaretta. recollections: ten women of photography. new york: viking press, . moholy-nagy, lazlo. vision in motion. chicago: paul theobald, . moholy-nagy, lazlo. experiment in totality. ed. sibyl moholy-nagy. cambridge, mass.: mit press, , . moholy-nagy, lazlo. letter to carlotta corpron, dated august , . texas woman's university archives. newhall, beaumont. the history of photography: from to the present. new york: museum of modern art, . o'keefe, georgia. letter to carlotta corpron, dated july . texas woman's university archives. phillips, leslie. "corpron." twu focus ii (spring ) - . rosenblum, naomi. a world history of photography. new york: cross river press, ltd., , , c/o abbeville press, inc. rubinstein, charlotte streifer. american women artists: from early indian times to the present. new york: avon books, . sandweiss, martha a. carlotta corpron: designer with light. fort worth: amon carter museum of western art, . schol, don. interviews by author, denton, texas, periodic conversations throughout and . sherwood, anderson. the triumph of the egg: a book of impressions from american life in tales and poems. new york: b.w. huebsch, inc., . stauver, margaret. interview by author, denton, texas, september . supovitz, marjory. gyorgy kepes: the mit years, - . cambridge, mass.: the mit press visual arts series, . tucker, jean s. light abstractions. st. louis, mo: university of missouri at st. louis, . international journal for digital art history, issue # showing digitized corpora figure : illustration of our system for classification of fine-art paintings. we investigated variety of visual features and metric learning approaches to recognize style, genre and artist of a painting. introduction in the past few years, the number of fine-art collections that are digitized and publicly available has been growing rapidly. such collections span classical and modern and con tem po- rary artworks. with the availability of such large collections of digitized artworks comes the need to develop multimedia systems to archive and retrieve this pool of data. typically, these collections, in particular early modern ones, come with meta data in the form of annotations by art historians and curators, including in formation about each painting’s artist, style, date, genre, etc. for online galleries displaying con temporary art- work, there is a need to develop auto- mated recommendation systems that can retrieve “similar” paintings that the user might like to buy. this high- lights the need to investigate metrics of visual similarity among digitized paintings that are optimized for the domain of painting. the field of computer vision has made significant leaps in getting digital systems to recognize and abstract: in the past few years, the number of fine-art collections that are digitized and publicly available has been growing rapidly. with the availability of such large collections of digitized artworks comes the need to develop multimedia systems to archive and retrieve this pool of data. measuring the visual similarity between artistic items is an essential step for such multimedia systems, which can benefit more high- level multimedia tasks. in order to model this similarity between paintings, we should extract the appropriate visual features for paintings and find out the best approach to learn the similarity metric based on these features. we investigate a comprehensive list of visual features and metric learning approaches to learn an optimized similarity measure between paintings. we develop a machine that is able to make aesthetic- related semantic-level judgments, such as predicting a painting’s style, genre, and artist, as well as providing similarity measures optimized based on the knowledge available in the domain of art historical interpretation. our experiments show the value of using this similarity measure for the aforementioned prediction tasks. keywords: similarity metric, visual features, metric learning, convolutional neural net- works, style, genre, artist large-scale classification of fine-art paintings: learning the right metric on the right feature peer-reviewed babak saleh, ahmed elgammal dah-journal large-scale classification categorize objects and scenes in images and videos. these advances have been driven by a wide spread need for the technology, since cameras are everywhere now. however, a person looking at a painting can make sophisticated inferences beyond just recognizing a tree, a chair, or the figure of christ. even individuals without specific art historical training can make assumptions about a painting’s genre (portrait or landscape), its style (impressionist or abstract), what century it was created, the artists who likely created the work and so on. obviously, the accuracy of such assumptions depends on the viewer’s level of knowledge and exposure to art history. learning and judging such complex visual concepts is an impressive ability of human perception [ ]. the ultimate goal of our research is to develop a machine that is able to make aesthetic-related semantic- level judgments, such as predicting a painting’s style, genre, and artist, as well as providing similarity measures optimized based on the knowledge available in the domain of art historical interpretation. immediate questions that arise include, but are not limited to: what visual features should be used to encode information in images of paintings? how does one weigh different visual features to achieve a useful similarity measure? what type of art historical knowledge should be used to optimize such similarity measures? in this paper we address these questions and aim to provide answers that can benefit researchers in the area of computer-based analysis of art. our work is based on a systematic methodology and a comprehensive evaluation on one of the largest available digitized art datasets. artists use different concepts to describe paintings. in particular, stylistic elements, such as space, texture, form, shape, color, tone and line are used. other principles include movement, unity, harmony, variety, balance, contrast, proportion, and pattern. to this might be added physical attributes, like brush strokes as well as subject matter and other descriptive concepts [ ]. for the task of computer analyses of art, researchers have engineered and investigated various visual features that encode some of these artistic concepts, in particular brush strokes and color, which are encoded as low- level features such as texture statistics and color histograms (e.g. [ , ]). color and texture are highly prone to variations during the digitization of paintings; color is also affected by a painting’s age. the effect of digitization on the computational analysis of paintings is investigated in great depth by polatkan et al. [ ]. this highlights the need to carefully design visual features that are suitable for the analysis of paintings. clearly, it would be a cumbersome process to engineer visual features that encode all the aforementioned dah-journal large-scale classification artistic concepts. recent advances in computer vision, using deep neural networks, showed the advantage of “learning” the features from data in- stead of engineering such features. how ever, it would also be impractical to learn visual features that encode such artistic concepts, since that would require extensive annotation of these concepts in each image within a large training and testing dataset. obtaining such annotations require expertise in the field of art history that can not be achieved with typical crowed-sourcing annotators. given the aforementioned chal- lenges to engineering or learning suit- able visual features for painting, in this paper we follow an alternative strategy. we mainly investigate different state- of-the-art visual elements, ranging from low-level elements to semantic-level elements. we then use metric learning to achieve optimal similarity metrics between paintings that are optimized for specific prediction tasks, namely style, genre, and artist classification. we chose these tasks to optimize and evaluate the metrics since, ultimately, the goal of any art recommendation system would be to retrieve artworks that are similar along the directions of these high-level semantic concepts. moreover, annotations for these tasks are widely available and more often agreed-upon by art historians and critics, which facilitates training and testing the metrics. in this paper we investigate a large space of visual features and learning methodologies for the aforementioned prediction tasks. we propose and compare three learning methodologies to optimize such tasks. we present results of a comprehensive comparative study that spans four state-of-the-art visual features, five metric learning approaches and the proposed three learning methodologies, evaluated on the aforementioned three artistic prediction tasks. related work on the subject of painting, computers have been used for a diverse set of tasks. traditionally, image processing techniques have been used to provide art historians with quantification tools, such as pigmentation analysis, statistical quantification of brush strokes, etc. we refer the reader to [ , ] for comprehensive surveys on this subject. several studies have addressed the question of which features should be used to encode information in paintings. most of the research con- cerning the classification of paintings utilizes low-level features encoding color, shadow, texture, and edges. for ex ample lombardi [ ] has presented a study of the performance of these types of features for the task of artist clas sification among a small set of artists using several supervised and un supervised learning methodologies. in that paper the style of the painting was identified as a result of recognizing the artist. dah-journal large-scale classification since brushstrokes provide a sig- na ture that can help identify the artist, designing visual features that encode brushstrokes has been widely adapted. (e.g. [ , , , , , ]). typically, texture statistics are used for that purpose. however, as mentioned earlier, texture features are highly affected by the digitization resolution. researchers also investigated the use of features based on local edge orientation histograms, such as sift [ ] and hog [ ]. for example, [ ] used sift features within a bag-of- words pipeline to discriminate among a set of eight artists. arora et al. [ ] presented a comparative study for the task of style classification, which evaluated low-level features, such as sift and color sift [ ], versus semantic-level features, namely classemes [ ], which encodes object presence in the image. it was found that semantic-level features significantly outperform low- level features for this task. however, the evaluation was conducted on a small dataset of styles, with paintings in each style. carneiro et al [ ] also concluded that low-level texture and color features are not effective because of inconsistent color and texture patterns that describe the visual classes in paintings. more recently, saleh et al [ ] used metric learning approaches for finding influence paths between painters based on their paintings. they evaluated three metric learning approaches to optimize a metric over low-level hog features. in contrast to that work, the evaluation presented in this paper is much wider in scope since we address three tasks (style, genre and artist prediction), we cover features spanning from low-level to semantic-level and we evaluate five metric learning approaches. moreover, the dataset of [ ] has only images from artists, while we conducted our experiments on , images painted by artists. bar et al [ ] proposed an approach for style classification based on features obtained from a convolution neural network pre- trained on an image categorization task. in contrast we show that we can achieve better results with much lower dimensional features that are directly optimized for style and genre classification. lower dimensionality of the features is preferred for indexing large image collections. methodology in this section we explain the meth-od ology that we follow to find the most appropriate combination of visual features and metrics that produce accurate similarity measurements. we ac quire these measurements to mimic the art historian’s ability to categorize paint ings based on their style, genre and the artist who made it. in the first step, we extract visual features from the image. these visual features range from low-level (e.g. edges) to high- level (e.g. objects in the painting). more importantly, in the next step we learn how to adjust these features for diff er- ent classification tasks by learning the dah-journal large-scale classification appropriate metrics. given the learned metric we are able to project paintings from a high dimensional space of raw visual information to a meaningful space with much lower dimensionality. additionally, learning a classifier in this low-dimensional space can be easily scaled up for large collections. in the rest of this section: first, we introduce our collection of fine-art paintings and explain what are the tasks that we target in this work. later, we explore methodologies that we consider in this work to find the most accurate system for aforementioned tasks. finally, we explain different types of visual features that we use to represent images of paintings and discuss metric learning approaches that we applied to find the proper notion of similarity between paintings. . dataset and proposed tasks in order to gather our collection of fine-art paintings, we used the publicly available dataset of ”wikiart paintings”; which, to the best of our knowledge, is the largest on line public collection of digitized artworks. this collection has images of , fine- art paintings from , artists ranging from fifteen centuries to contemporary artists. these paintings are from different styles (abstract, byzantine, baroque, etc.) and different genres (interior, landscape, etc.) previous work [ , ] used different resources and made smaller collections with limited variability in terms of style, genre and artists. the work of [ ] is the closest to our work in terms of data collection procedure, but the number of images in their collection is half of ours. we target automatic classification of paintings based on their style, genre and artist using visual features that are automatically extracted using computer vision algorithms. each of these tasks has its own challenges and limitations. for example, there are large variations in terms of visual appearances in paintings from one specific style. however, this variation is much more limited for paintings by one artist. these larger intra-class variations suggest that style classification based on visual features is more challenging than artist classification. for each of the tasks we selected a subset of the data that ensure enough samples for training and testing. in particular, for style classification we use a subset of the date with styles where each style has at least paintings with no restriction on genre or artists, with a total of , images. for genre classification we use a subset with genre classes, where each genre has at least paintings with no restriction of style or genre, with a total of , images. similarly, for artist classification we use a subset of artists, where each of them has at least paintings, with a total of , images. table lists the set of style, genre, and artist labels. dah-journal large-scale classification . classification methodology in order to classify paintings based on their style, genre or artist we followed three methodologies. metric learning: first, as depicted in figure , we extract visual features from images of paintings. for each of these prediction tasks, we learn a similarity metric optimized for it, i.e. style-optimized metric, genre-op- ti mized metric and artist-optimized metric. each metric induces a projector to a corresponding feature space op- ti mized for the corresponding task. having the metric learned, we project the raw visual features into the new op ti mized feature space and learn clas- si fiers for the corresponding prediction task. for that purpose, we learn a set of one-vs-all svm classifiers for each of the labels in table for each of the tasks. while our first strategy focuses on clas sification based on combinations of a metric and a visual feature, the next two methodologies that we followed fuse different features or different metrics. feature fusion: the second meth- od ology that we used for classification is depicted in figure . in this case, we extract different types of visual figure : illustration of our second methodology – feature fusion. dah-journal large-scale classification features (four types of features as will be explained next). based on the pre diction task (e.g. style) we learn the metric for each type of feature as before. after projecting these features sep arately, we concatenate them to make the final feature vector. the clas- si fication will be based on training clas- si fiers using these final features. this feature fusion is important as we want to capture different types of visual information by using different types of features. also concatenating all features together and learn a metric on top of this huge feature vector is com- pu tationally intractable. because of this issue, we learn metrics on feature separately and after projecting features by these metrics, we can concatenate them for classification purposes. metric-fusion: the third meth od- ol ogy (figure ) projects each visual fea tures using multiple metrics (in our experiment we used five metrics as will be explained next) and then fuses the resulting optimized feature spaces to obtain a final feature vector for classification. this is an im por- tant strategy, because each one of the metric learning approaches use a different criterion to learn the sim- i larity measurement. by learning all metrics individually (on the same type of feature), we make sure that we took into account all criteria (e.g. information theory along with neigh- bor hood analysis). figure : illustration of our third methodology – metric fusion. dah-journal large-scale classification . visual features visual features in computer vision literature are either engineered and extracted in an unsupervised way (e.g. hog, gist) or learned based on optimizing a specific task, typically categorization of objects or scenes (e.g. cnn-based features). this results in high-dimensional feature vectors that might not necessary correspond to nameable (semantic- level) characteristics of an image. based on the ability to find a meaning, visual features can be categorized into low-level and high-level. low-level features are visual descriptors that there is no explicit meaning for each dimension of them, while high-level visual features are designed to capture some notions (usually objects). for this work, we investigated some state-of- the-art representatives of these two categories: low-level features, gist: human observers can rapidly capture the “gist” of a scene in a quick feed-forward sweep. therefore, a computational model for “gist” seems a reasonably essential tool for rapid scene classification. gist has been modelled as average pooling of low-level biologically-inspired fea- tures (i.e. gabor-like features) over non-overlapping subregions ar ranged on a fixed grid. the term “spatial envelope” has been also used to refer to this very low dimensional rep- re sentation of the [ ]. indeed, gist model bypasses the procedures that are usually applied in scene classification, such as segmentation and processing of individual objects. the dominant spatial structure of a scene is represented in a set of per ceptual dimensions (naturalness, openness, roughness, expansion, rug- gedness). the gist model estimates these dimensions using spectral and coarsely localized information. to calculate the gist features, each image is divided into bins, and then oriented gabor filters (in orientations) are applied over different scales ( scales) in each bin. finally, the average filter energy in each bin is calculated [ ]. we followed this procedure and extracted -dimensioanl feature vector of gist for each image. learned semantic-level features: for the purpose of semantic representation of the images, we extracted three object-based representation of the images: classeme [ ], picodes [ ], and cnn-based features [ ]. in all these three features, each bit (element) of the feature vector represents the confidence of the presence of an object-category in the image, therefore they provide a semantic encoding of the images. the list of object categories is user-specified and not covering all object categories in the real world. despite the limited number of categories in this type of modeling, these semantic encoding of images have shown remarkable results for the task of image search. dah-journal large-scale classification however, for learning these fea- tures, the object-categories are generic, mostly used for realistic images and are not specifically designed for the purpose of art. first two features are designed to capture the presence of a set of basic-level object categories as following: a list of entry-level categories (e.g. horse and cross) is used for downloading a large collection of images from the web. for each image a comprehensive set of low-level visual features are extracted and one classifier is learned for each category. for a given test image, these classifiers are applied on the image and the responses (confidences) make the final feature vector. we followed the implementation of [ ] and for each image extracted a dimensional real-valued classeme feature vector and a dimensional binary-value picodes feature. convolutional neural net works (cnn) [ ] showed a remarkable performance for the task of large-scale image categorization [ ]. cnns have four convolutional layers followed by three fully connected layers. bar et al [ ] showed that a combination of the output of these fully connected layers achieve a superior performance for the task of style classification of paintings. following this observation, we used the last layer of a pre-trained cnn [ ] ( dimensional real-valued vectors) as another feature vector. . metric learning these aforementioned extracted visual features are meant to be used for real images, therefore, we should tune these features to perform reasonable on paintings as well. we consider using these features for the task of classifications in fine- art paintings, which is equivalent to put similar paintings close to each other. for the purpose of similarity measurement, we apply a list of metric learning approaches to find a reasonable approach. metric learning is an active research area in the field of machine learning and we encourage interested readers to check surveys on this topic. in a formal notion, metric learning is defined as finding a real- valued mathematical function that assigns a score to each pair of its input. this score shows how similar are these items, where smaller number shows less difference and higher similarity. for this paper, we consider the following metric learning approaches: neighborhood component analy sis (nca): this approaches focuses on analyzing the nearest neigh- bors. this analysis is mainly based on putting neighbors of the same class (e.g. painting style in our study) close to each other. large margin nearest neighbors (lmnn): lmnn [ ] is an approach for learning a mahalanobis distance, dah-journal large-scale classification which is widely used because of its global optimum solution and su pe- ri or performance in practice. the learning of this metric involves a set of constrains, all of which are defined locally. this means that lmnn enforces the k nearest neighbor of any training instance belonging to the same class (these instances are called “target neighbors”). this should be done while all the instances of other classes, referred as “impostors”, should be far from this point. for finding the target neighbors, euclidean distance has been applied to each pair of samples. this metric learning approach is related to support vector machines (svm) in principle, which theoretically engages its usage along with svm for the task of classification. due to the popularity of lmnn, different variations of it have been introduced, including a non-linear version called gb-lmnn [ ] which we used in our experiments as well. however, its performance for classification tasks was worse that linear lmnn. we assume this poor performance is rooted in the nature of visual features that we extract for paintings. boost metric [ ]: the idea behind this approach follows this intuition: instead of learning a universal metric that works the best on all data, it might be better to learn and combine a set of weaker metrics that are not universal (giving the best performance across all data), but have a reasonable performance on a subset of the data. shen et al [ ] use this fact and instead of learning a metric directly, finds a set of metrics that can be combined and give the final metric. they treat each of these matrices as a weak learner, which is used in the literature of boosting methods. the resulting algorithm applies the idea of adaboost to mahalanobis distance, which has been shown to be quiet efficient in practice. this method is particularly of our interest, because we can learn an individual metric for each style of paintings and finally merge these metrics to get a unique final metric. theoretically the final metric can perform well to find similarities inside each style/genre of paintings as well. information theory metric learning (itml) [ ]: this metric learning algorithm is based on information theory rather than numerical distances. in other words, the learning part of this metric is rooted in entropy measurement and probability models. metric learning for kernel regression (mlkr): this approach performs similar to nca, which minimizes the classification error. weinberger and tesauro [ ] learn a metric by optimizing the leave-one-out error for the task of kernel regression. in kernel regression, there is an essential need for proper distances between points that will be used for weighting sample data. mlkr learn this distance by minimizing the leave-one-out error for regression on training data. dah-journal large-scale classification although this metric learning method is designed for kernel regression, the resulted distance function can be used in variety of tasks. experiments . experimental setting visual features: as we explained in section , we extract gist features as low-level visual features and classeme, picodes and cnn-based features as the high-level semantic features. we followed the original implementation of oliva and torralba [ ] to get a dimensional feature vector. for classeme and picodes we used the implementation of bergamo et al [ ], resulting in dimensional classeme features and dimensional picodes features. we used the implementation of vedaldi and lenc [ ] to extract dimensional feature vectors of the last layer of cnn. w object-based representations of the images produce feature vectors that are much higher in dimensionality than gist descriptors. in the sake of a fair comparison of all types of features for the task of metric learning, we transformed all feature vectors to have the same size as gist ( dimensional). we did this by applying principle component analysis (pca) for each type and projecting the original features onto the first eigenvectors (with biggest eigen values). in order to verify the quality of projection, we looked at the corresponding coefficients of eigen values for pca projections. in- figure : pca coefficients for cnn features dah-journal large-scale classification dependent of feature type, the value of these coefficients drops significantly after the first eigenvectors. for example, figure plots these coefficients of pca projection for cnn features. summation of the first coefficients is . % of the total summation. this shows that our projections (with eigenvectors) captures the true underlying space of the original features. using these reduced features speeds up the metric learning process as well. metric learning we used im ple- mentation of [ ] to learn lmnn metric (both version of linear and non-linear) and mlkr. for the boostmetric we slightly adjusted the implementation of [ ]. for nca we adopted its im ple- mentation by fowlkes to work on large scale feature vectors smoothly. for the case of itml metric learning, we followed the original im ple mentation of authors with the default setting. for the rest of methods, pa ra m e ters are chosen through a grid search that finds the minimum nearest neigh bor classification. regarding the training time, learning the itml metric was the fastest and learning nca and lmnn were the slowest ones. due to com pu- tational constrains we set the pa ram- eters of lmnn metric to reduce the size of features to . nca metric re- duces the dimension of features to the number of categories for each tasks: for style classification, for artist classification and for genre clas- si fication. we randomly picked samples, which we used for metric learning. these samples follow the same distribution as original data and are not used for classification experiments. . classification experiments for the purpose of metric learning, we conducted experiments with labels for three different tasks of style, genre and artist prediction. in following sections, we investigate the performance of these metrics on different features for classification of aforementioned concepts. we learned all the metrics in section for all styles of paintings in our dataset (e.g. expressionism, realism, etc.). however, we did not use all the genres for learning metrics. in fact, in our dataset we have genres, some of which have less than images. this makes the metric learning impractical and highly biased toward genres with larger number of paintings. because of this issue, we focus on genres with more than paintings. these genres are listed in table . in all experiments we conducted -fold cross validation and reported the average accuracy over all partitions. we found the best value for penalty term in svm (which is equal to ) by three-fold cross validation. in the next three sections, we explain settings and findings for each task independently. style classification: table contains the result (accuracy per- dah-journal large-scale classification centage) of style classification (svm) after applying different metrics on a set of features. columns correspond to different features and rows are different metrics that are used for projecting features before learning style classifiers. in order to quantify the improvement by learning similarity metrics, we conducted a baseline experiment (first row in the table) as the following: for each type of features, we learn a set of one-vs-all classifiers on raw feature vectors. generally, boost metric learning and itml approaches give the highest in accuracy for the task of style classification over different visual features. however, the greatest improvement over the baseline is gained by application of boost metric on classeme features. we visualized the confusion matrix for the task of style classification, when we learn boost metric on classeme features. figure shows this matrix, where red represents higher values. further analysis of some confusions that are captured in this matrix result in interesting findings. in the rest of this paragraph we explain some of these cases. first, we found that there is a big confusion between “abstract expressionism” (first row) and “action paintings” (second column). art historians verify the fact that this confusion is meaningful and somehow expected. “action painting” is a type or subgenre of “abstract expressionism” and are characterized by paintings created through a much more active process– drips, flung paint, stepping on the canvas. figure : confusion matrix for style classification. confusions are meaningful only when seen in color. dah-journal large-scale classification another confusion happens be- tween “expressionism” (column ) and “fauvism” (row ), which is actually expected based on art history literature. “mannerism” (row ) is a style of art during the (late) “renaissance” (column ), where they show unusual effect in scale and are less naturalistic than “early renaissance”. this similarity between “mannerism” (row ) and “renaissance” (column ) is captured by our system as well where results in confusion during style classification. “minimalism” (column ) and “color field paintings” ( th row) are mostly confused with each other. we can agree on this finding as we look at members of these styles and figure out the similarity in terms of simple form and distribution of colors. lastly some of the confusions are completely acceptable based on the origins of these styles (art movements) that are noted in art history literature. for example, “renaissance” (column ) and “early renaissance” (row ); “post impressionism” (column ) and “impressionism” (row ); “cubism” ( th row) and “synthetic cubism” (column ). synthetic cubism is the later act of cubism with more color continued usage of collage and pasted papers, but less linear perspective than cubism. genre classification: we narrowed down the list of all genres in our dataset ( in total) to get a reasonable number of samples for each genre ( selected genres are listed figure : confusion matrix for genre classification. confusions are meaningful only when seen in color. dah-journal large-scale classification in table ). we trained ten one-vs-all svm classifiers and compare their performance in table . in this table columns represent different features and rows are different metric that we used to compute the distance. as table shows we achieved the best per formance for genre classification by learning boost metric on top of classeme features. generally, the performance of these classifiers are better than classifiers that we trained for style classification. this is expected as the number of genres is less than the number of styles in our dataset. figure shows the confusion matrix for classification of genre by learning boost metric, when we used classeme features. investigating the confusions that we find in this matrix, reveals interesting results. for example, our system confuses “landscape” ( th row) with “cityspace” ( nd column) and “genre paintings” ( rd column). however, this confusion is expected as art historians can find common elements in these genres. on one hand “landscape” paintings usually show rivers, mountains and valleys and there is no significant figure in them; frequently very similar to “genre paintings” as they capture daily life. the difference appears in the fact that despite the “genre paintings”, “landscape” paintings are idealized. on the other hand, “landscape” and “cityspace” paintings are very similar as both have open space and use realistic color tonalities. figure : confusion matrix for artist classification. confusions are meaningful only when seen in color. confusion matrix for artist classification figure : confusion matrix for artist classification. confusions are meaningful only when seen in color. dah-journal large-scale classification artist classification: for the task of the artist classification, we trained one-vs-all svm classifiers for each of artists. for each test image, we determine its artist by finding the classifier that produces the maximum confidence. table shows the per- formance of different combinations of features and metrics for this task. in general learning boost metric improves artist classification better than all other metrics, except the case of cnn features where learning itml metric gained the best performance. we plotted the confusion matrix of this classification task in figure . in this plot, some confusions between artists are clearly reasonable. we investigated two cases: first case, “claude monet” ( th row) and “camille pissaro”( rd column). both of these impressionist artists who lived in the late nineteen and early twentieth centuries. interestingly, based on art history literature monet and pissaro became friends when they both attended the” acade ́mie suisse” in paris. this friendship lasted for a long time and resulted in some noticeable interactions between them. second case, paintings of “childe hassam” ( th row) are mostly confused with ones from “monet” ( th column). this confusion is acceptable as hassam is an american impressionist, who declared himself as being influenced by french impressionists. hassam called himself an “extreme impressionist”, who painted some flag-themed artworks similar to monet. by looking at reported performances in tables - , we conclude that, all three classification tasks can benefit from learning the appropriate metric. this means that we can improve the accuracy of baseline classification by learning metrics independent of the type of visual feature or the concept that we are classifying painting based on. experimental results show that, independent of the task, nca and mlkr approaches are performing worse than other metrics. additionally, boost metric always gives the best or the second best results for all classification tasks. regarding analysis of importance of features, we can verify that classeme and picode features are better image representations for classification purposes. based on these classification experiments, we claim that classemes and picodes features perform better than cnn features. this is rooted in the fact that amount of supervision for training classeme and picodes is more than cnn training. also, unlike classeme and picodes, cnn feature is designed to categorize the object insides a given bounding box. however, in the case of paintings we cannot assume that all the bounding boxes around the objects are given. integration of features and metrics we investigated the performance of different metric learning approaches and visual features individually. in the next step, we find out the best per- formance for aforementioned clas si- dah-journal large-scale classification fication tasks by combining different visual features. toward this goal, we followed two strategies. first, for a given metric, we project visual features by applying the metric and concatenate these projected visual features together. second, we fixed the type of visual feature that we use and project it with the application of different metrics and concatenate these projections all together. having this larger feature vectors (either of two strategies), we train svm classifiers for three tasks of style, genre and artist classification. table shows the results of these experiments where we followed the earlier strategy and table shows the results of the later case. in general we get better results by fixing the metric and concatenating the projected feature vectors (first strategy). the work of bar et al [ ] is the most similar to ours and we compare our final results of these experiments with their reported performance. [ ] only performed the task of style classi- fication on half of the images in our data set and achieved the accuracy of % by using two variations of pi- codes features and two layers of cnn. however, we outperform their ap- proach by achieving . % accuracy for the task of style classification when we used lmnn metric to project gist, class eme, picodes and cnn features and concatenate them all together as it is reported in the third column of table . our contribution goes beyond outperforming state-of-the-art by learning a more compact feature representation. in this work, our best per formance for style classification happens when we concatenate four -dimensional feature vectors. this results in a dimensional feature vectors that we train svm classifiers on top of them. however [ ] extract a dimensional feature vector to their best reported performance. as a result we not only outperform the state-of-the-art, but presented a better image representation that reduces the amount of space by %. our efficient feature vector is an extremely useful image representation that gains the best classification accuracy and we consider its application for the task of image retrieval as future work. to qualitatively evaluate extracted visual features and learned metrics, we did a prototype image search task. as the feature fusion with application of lmnn metric gives the best per- formance for style classification, we used this setting as our similarity measurement model. figure shows some sample output of this image search task. for each pair, the image on the left is the query image, which we find the closest match (image on the right) to it based on lmnn and feature fusion. however, we force the system to pick the closest match that does not belong to the same style as the query image. this verifies that although we learn the metric based on style labels, the learned projection can find similarity across styles. dah-journal large-scale classification conclusion and future works in this paper we investigated the applicability of metric learning ap- proaches and performance of different vi su al features for learning similarity in a collection of fine-art paintings. we implemented meaningful metrics for measuring similarity between paint- ings. these metrics are learned in a su per vised manner to put paintings from one concept close to each other and far from others. in this work we used three concepts: style, genre and artist. we used these learned metrics to transform raw visual features into an other space that we can significantly im prove the performance for three im- por tant tasks of style, genre and artist classification. we conducted our com- par ative experiments on the largest pub licly available dataset of fine-art paint ings to evaluate the performance for the aforementioned tasks. we conclude that: . classeme features show the superior per for mance for all three tasks of style, genre or artist classification. this su- per ior performance is independent of the type of metric that has been learned. . in the case of working on individual type of visual features, boost metric and information theoretic metric learning (itml) approaches improve the accuracy of classification tasks across all features. . for the case of using different types of features all together (feature fusion), large-margin nearest-neighbor (lmnn) metric learning achieves the best performance for all classification experiments. . by learning lmnn metric on classeme features, we find an optimized representation that not only out performs state-of-the art for the task of style classification, but reduce the size of feature vector by %. we con sider verification of applicability of this representation for the task of image retrieval and recommendation systems as future work. as other future works we would like to learn metrics based on other annotation (e.g. time period). bibliography [ ] a. e. abdel-hakim and a. a. farag. c-sift: a sift descriptor with color invariant characteristics. in ieee conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, cvpr, . 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[ ] k. weinberger and l. k. saul. distance metric learning for large margin nearest neighbor classification. jmlr, . tables table : list of styles, genres and artists in our collection of fine-art paintings. numbers in the parenthesis are index of the row/column in confusion matrices , & accordingly. dah-journal large-scale classification table : accuracy for the task of style classification. metric / feature gist classemes picodes cnn dimension baseline . . . . boost . . . . itml . . . . lmnn . . . mlkr . . . . nca . . . . table : accuracy for the task of genre classification. metric / feature gist classemes picodes cnn dimension baseline . . . . boost . . . . itml . . . . lmnn . . . . mlkr . . . . nca . . . . table : accuracy for the task of artist classification. metric / feature gist classemes picodes cnn dimension baseline . . . . boost . . . . itml . . . . lmnn . . . . mlkr . . . . nca . . . . dah-journal large-scale classification table : classification performance for metric fusion methodology. task / feature gist classeme picodes cnn style . . . . genre . . . . artist . . . . table : classification performance for feature fusion methodology. task / metric boost itml lmnn mklr nca style . . . . . genre . . . . . artist . . . . . table : annotation of paintings in figure . each row corresponds to one pair of images, labeled with the name of painting, its style and its artist. first six rows correspond to the six pairs on the left in figure and next six rows correspond to the pairs dah-journal large-scale classification babak saleh is a phd candidate in the department of computer science at rutgers university, where he conducts research in the intersection of computer vision, machine learning, and human perception. inspired by human visual perception, he has developed computational models for measuring typicality of an image and its application in learning more robust visual classifiers. he holds a ms in computer science and a second ms in statistics from rutgers university. he completed his undergraduate studies in computer science and mathematics at sharif university of technology in tehran, iran. he is the recipient of outstanding student paper award from aaai , and nsf i-corps award. his research has been recognized by major media and press outlets, including nbc news, pbs, new york times, washington post, wired, fast company and ieee multimedia. correspondence e-mail: babaks@cs.rutgers.edu dr. ahmed elgammal is an associate professor at the department of computer science, rutgers, the state university of new jersey. he is a member of the center for computational biomedicine imaging and modeling (cbim) at rutgers and affiliate member in rutgers university center for cognitive science (ruccs.) and the director of the art and artificial intelligence at rutgers and the human motion analysis lab (human lab.) correspondence e-mail: elgammal@cs.rutgers.edu mailto:babaks% cs.rutgers.edu?subject=dah-journal mailto:elgammal% cs.rutgers.edu?subject=dah-journal 	contents 	editorial 	big image data as new research opportunity in art history 	big image data within the big picture of art history 	figuring out art history 	showing digitized corpora 	large-scale classification of fine-art paintings: learning the right metric on the right feature 	gugelmann galaxy. an unexpected journey through a collection of schweizer kleinmeister 	artistic data and network analysis 	images as data: cultural analytics and aby warburg’s mnemosyne 	social network centralization dynamics in print production in the low countries, - 	interview 	in conversation with george legrady: 
experimenting with meta images. 	case studies 	direct visualization techniques for the analysis of image data: the slice histogram and the growing 	linking structure, texture and context in a visualization of historical drawings by frederick willia 	workshops 	computing art 	visualizing venice abstracts_ - _p t .indd abstracts daniel brown, wilde and wilder the use of oscar wilde’s salome as the ground for the silent-screen star norma desmond’s film script and character is central to billy wilder’s sunset boule- vard but oddly neglected by the film’s critics. this essay reads the film through its engagement with salome, discussing its adoption from the play of a self- consciousness about the conditions of its art, which extend beyond the film’s pro- duction to cultural history and film aesthetics. norma asserts the image and ideology of the hollywood star through her identification with the aestheticist fig- ure of salome, while joe gillis not only writes film scripts but, with his peers betty schaefer and artie green, also foregrounds narrative conventions in his ef- forts to organize and control his own life and experience in the film. through its main characters, sunset boulevard presents an allegory of hollywood cinema in which the complementary filmic principles of image and narrative culminate re- spectively in madness and death. (db) michael rothberg, the work of testimony in the age of decoloniza- tion: chronicle of a summer, cinema verité, and the emergence of the holocaust survivor the trial of adolf eichmann, in , is generally considered a turning point in the history of holocaust memory because it brought the holocaust into the public sphere for the first time as a discrete event on an international scale. in the same year, jean rouch and edgar morin’s film chronicle of a summer appeared in france. while absent from scholarship on memory of the nazi genocide for over forty years, chronicle of a summer contains a scene of holocaust testimony that suggests the need to look beyond the eichmann trial for alternative articulations of public holocaust remembrance. this essay considers the juxtaposition in chronicle of a summer of holocaust memory and the history of decolonization in order to rethink the “unique” place that the holocaust has come to hold in dis- courses on extreme violence. the essay argues that a discourse of truth and testi- mony arose in french resistance to the algerian war that shaped and was shaped by memory of the nazi genocide. (mr) elizabeth yukins, an “artful juxtaposition on the page”: memory, per- ception, and cubist technique in ralph ellison’s juneteenth while scholars have appreciated the influence of jazz on ralph ellison’s composi- tional strategies, this essay examines how ellison’s interest in the visual idiom of modernism—namely, cubism—influenced the prose style of his posthumously published novel juneteenth. evidenced by his friendship with romare bearden and his expressed fascination with the visual arts, ellison’s knowledge of cubist practice informed his textual experiments with time, space, and the narrative ren- dering of memory. cubist techniques such as fragmentation and the combining of [ p m l a [ © by the modern language association of america ] multiple perspectives offered ellison formal methods to configure the complex consciousness of his main characters and the vexed history of race relations in america. his literary and political visions meet in the mercurial relation between fragmentation and pluralism, for in his multifaceted, nonlinear prose one sees the fraught simultaneity of past and present, memory and vision, historical violence and continued democratic aspiration. (ey) susan cannon harris, clearing the stage: gender, class, and the free- dom of the scenes in eighteenth-century dublin this essay investigates the conditions and consequences of thomas sheridan’s at- tempt to bar spectators from behind the scenes at the theatre-royal in dublin’s smock alley. sheridan succeeded in revoking the “freedom of the scenes”—a privilege by which aristocratic men were allowed to roam the green room, dress- ing rooms, and stage during the performance—because dublin was the cultural and political center of a colonial society whose members were struggling for con- trol over the spaces outside the theater. the reform provoked a conflict known as the kelly riots, which began with a spectator’s attempted rape of an actress in sheridan’s production of john vanbrugh’s aesop. contextualizing the kelly riots in the political and cultural situation of eighteenth-century ireland, this article il- luminates the role that the theater plays in the construction of subjectivity and in the interrelation among gender, class, and national identities. (sch) . ] abstracts space changing in the art with the digitalisation - © published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer review under responsibility of prof. ay e Çak r lhan doi: . /j.sbspro. . . procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – artsedu space changing in the art with the digitalisation meral batur anadolu university, faculty of fine arts, part of art, eski ehir, turkey c abstract development of digital technologies accelerated with the intensive technological changes which are with a return of the machi ne age, digital technology into all areas of our lives and has become widely accepted; thence our lives have greatly changed. this is such a progressive technology and its reflection of the art which is closely related with technology, it also changed the per ception of space n the art. space change from traditional forms which are we are accustomed to, that is physical space, to the virtual reality space. in this study, with using the literature searching method, i aimed to demonstrate the changing the sense of space in the art with the changing technology. keywords:art, technology, digital art, digital technology, space. . introduction from past to the present, the phenomenon of space in art has several changes and improvements. these changes and improvements have come up today in different ways passing through a rapid process due to especially the environment, the time and the events that occur over time. in the represents the tradition of art, there is a clear distinction between virtual space and physical space and this limit is usually drawn with a rectangular frame. for example, a mural is divided from physical space with a wall and describes its location within the boundaries within that wall. pictorial traces on the cave walls are painted by the people of ancient have a great importance for monitoring the birth and development of styles through the ages, in developments of creative and civilized humanity arrived today. they may have been painted with based on the magic, for the first time, clearly show space in the picture. differentiation and changes continued to show themselves in the process. in these changes, working about space by artists had been varied in accordance with social changes. . . changing space middle ages artist, has taken space in the picture depending on their legion, make a spiritual impact on using the gilt behind figures. there are not shading behind the figures, so deep in the space can not be mentioned. the main aim of icon painting is show the religious to illiterates with the visual way, for this they expressed their divinity with symbols (say n, ). th century in giotto's works figures are a monumental property, there is a space, breathe and occur figures in. also giotto brought a case of volume to painting. but the audience is outside of the event. the idea of space and the illusion of volume first appeared giotto's work in a strong way and then has been in the art of painting (art in turkey, ). after giotto, masaccio found the first conception of unfragmented space. using the perspective, he has brought an illusion of depth of space system. during the same period pierrodella francesca brings out the atmosphere by © published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer review under responsibility of prof. dr. ayse cakir ilhan available online at www.sciencedirect.com © published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer review under responsibility of prof. ay e Çak r lhan open access under cc by-nc-nd license. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / meral batur / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – including the light at the painting and creating a depth effect. with the redevelopments, concluded the expression of the renaissance space. in ’th century, for the first time with the contributions of brunelleschi determined laws of perspective based on the rules of mathematical and reality, with a scientific sharpness, with the help of anatomy knowledge and mathematical calculations, tried to be applied to art exactly as. with perspective of many escaped, real and natural spaces started painting with the flooring stone and also given importance to figures in space (krausse, ). renaissance art is a linear style and figures and space independent of each other (ero lu, ). in each type of renaissance room artists provided the viewer to see the exterior of the space with concave mirrors and illusory games (batur, ). at that time, leonardo, via the perspective expanding real-space with the depth of the space created by illusion. for the first time leonardo, in his work named mona lisa gived sunlimited space with using a combination of portrait and landscape with landscapes infinite in the background (lhote, ). also painting which is named the last supper, is one of the first paintings started to move the composition to interior. its the monumental effect left over us stems from the relationship between space and domination of light and it gives a depth to painting gives the impression of the hall extension (vezzosi, ed.). artists in mannerist sometimes highlighted the spatial effect utterly; sometimes space is completely excluded by. figures and space are depicted exaggerated a long way. baroque art, the main objective is to give a convincing seems to be the way as it really is, light in its painting will cause to changes in, creating moving forms in space. so that the color that appears in space, creates wealth with the contribution of light (little, ) in cezanne's paintings, aiming to ensure harmony of form and volume space approaches the surface. instead of the illusion of space, color creates shape and volume, space is limited. neo-impressionists’ paintings, seurat was a pioneer, looking from a distance allows to illusion of space and figure. so, this approach to piece space and surface is an important milestone in the history of art. in impressionist artists’ paintings, for melting the contour, join with each other form and space. most importantly, they applied air perspective in space. form approaches the surface corresponding to given color with the color, using the degrees of color for defining the space and providing to relation the front and back. at fovistartists's paintings a sense of incompleteness and searching for balance between nature and imagination away from the mutual distance, space and the concerns of bulking. for example, matisse affected gauguin' wants to placement in space by removing the floor and a large colored surfaces and directed to flat and thin painted color areas, creates a new understanding of space and light in the painting. artist moved away from the concept of three- dimensional space in the painting (Öztopçu, ). in expressionist artists’ works, an abstract production is dominated by, is reached an artistic synthesis is with objects in place and emptiness around them, the remarkable contrasting colors are used without planning and figure is deformed. cubist artists pieced the form, texture, color and places in nature instead of imitating. in paintings, describing the objects from different perspectives they researched the movements in time and space (tunal , ). space abstraction started with cubism. with analytical cubism, space is fragmented, volume is opened so multi-surface formats have become synonymous with space. in synthetic cubism surfaces are expanded and areas of color are smoothened. changes occurred in place with the contrast effect between the light-dark. thus, forms, converging and away from the surface of the canvas, occurred. for example, picasso's "the avignon young girls" has created great astonishment with shredding figures and space, undo style. so that the art become abstract and therefore as a space, abstract space can be mentioned. thus traditional art collapsed with cubism. surrealist artists who described objects with unusual ways in their works while painting space in paintings, they were not only turn upside down the space but also take up a single the image more than one place. after these developments, with the effect of the industrial revolution, come into prominence of the machine aesthetic and the spread of industrialization, motion and speed with a universal dynamism has managed to take its place in the modern world. futurist and cubist artists became a pioneer in for the development of digital technologies during the period of industrial age, since . meral batur / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – in the second half of ’th century, like action painting, pop art, op art, kinetic art, performance art, happening and land art, all of these disciplines are used elements of machinery, technological equipment and so on also noteworthy that the use of interactive digital technologies. in addition, the combination and interaction of these disciplines with technology led to the formation of different expansions for contemporary art. especially kinetic art and performance art also adding the audience 'transactional', 'participatory' known as begun to be felt the basics of the disciplines of art. the discovery of the internet in with the advancement of computer technology formed the starting point of doing the interactive art works with digital technology. furthermore, all of these new searching and formatting in art, re-questioning of art have led people quite different orientations exposed in lived environment and age. th e most important reason of this is non-stop and fast-growing technology and effect of technology to art. contribution of technology to contemporary art is certainly very important. recent times the arts, especially it is attention that the technology art, art affected by technology. some of contemporary artists whose digital technologies with the computer system for a creative as an element, the greatest purpose is undoubtedly by including to the viewer into works of art that they produce, become to the audience an important part of the work, show off the interaction between the viewer and work of art and this interaction results to be obtained and with this interaction, to do different work for the art. th century have been an era of technological and scientific advances. technological innovations have used for the gun industry during the second world war, after the end of the war, they were moved other areas. thanks to these investments, the first electronic computer was invented. this rapid progress and inventions that trigger each other, caused changes in all areas of life including art. while for some artists, the computer is a simple design tool, for some is a serial production form, for the others is as an asset on its own creative. computer technology provide to artists the different working areas and experience. the computer by some an artist was used as only an assistance that does, a canvas or a sensitive palette they can do to painting using different methods. artists used to computer for the first time to obtain simple images. with the rapid development of computer images this simple emerged from one dimension to a two-dimensional and from two dimensions to three- dimensional images. all of these developments have reached in many disciplines from the pictorial image to video, installations, performances, games, etc. by using the computer support gradually. interactive art works, is a dialogue between art product and participant. participant has a chance to act on a work of art. work arouses curiosity with content so it may encourage visitors to affect works. like robert smithson's earth works, the work of robert morris's not land scape determine their own space, create three-dimensional spatial visualizations by linking a deceptive with the physical space. at first glance even if smithson's works seems a continuation of the physical space, these works are actually smithson’s virtual earth. it’s same for the work performed by morris in exterior with mirrors. but morris did it with a material that does not belong to earth repeated texture of the earth. in both examples, works which appears to be a part of physical space by creating an illusory space, actually offer their own space the audience. installationals creates virtual environments. installation with in the spatial arrangements combines images, video, text, graphics and the elements of -d. a virtual space which are created in installation surrounds the viewer and the audience besieged usually left to free to acts in this space. sophie calle' installation "take care of yourself", exhibited at the venice biennale , consists text and video. in the placement consisting of a few rooms, while audience is left free in the entire space, is also siege versatile. at bruce nauman's "live taped video corridor," the movement of the viewer's determined and restricted by the artist in space. described as to assemble a place, its broadest meaning of the installation, at the same time space has the subject position in the some works in. the gallery has become itself the art object. ex: yless klee "empty room". in paintings, sculptures, as well as installations virtual spaces created by are, places is usually completed in the viewer's imagination. however, the virtual spaces created by digital technologies, creates a virtual-reality spaces.virtual environments are completed by the viewer's imagination in traditional works, are enabled to visible with digital art, the movement of the viewer within this space is provided. virtual reality spaces with the meral batur / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – technological developments, transformed into audience drawn into the spaces and these places stimulated the viewer's more than one of sense so it is enabled to live a full experience. thus the viewer is now faced with a new experience. in simon biggs’ work, dated , solitary named, space, in an interactive projection image, projected on the wall in a dark space is dark just as the physical space. if the audience doesn’t move, he can not see anything and he remains in the dark. when he acts, a big man forms begins to follow the viewer, which direction the person goes, the forms go with him. thus, by using remote visual sensing techniques, the audience is pulled into the installation, so the focus of the work establishes its dominance over the audience. http://hosted.simonbiggs.easynet.co.uk/installations/solitary/solitary.htm ( , september) references batur, e. ( ). metamorphoses i-x. ( rd ed.). stanbul: yap kredi publications. batur, e. ( ). metamorphoses xi-xx. ( th ed.). stanbul: yap kredi publication. berger, j. ( ). forms of vision. ( th ed.). trans. yurdanur salman, stanbul: metis publications. brion, m. ( ). geschichte der abstrakten kunst. köln. daniel, h. ( ). “cubism: the new way to rebuild the world”, p art culture and antiques. . eczac ba art encyclopedia. ( ): c, . c., . c., stanbul: yem publications. ergüven, m. ( ). towards the comment. ( th ed.). stanbul: yap kredi publications. florenski, p. ( ). reverse perspective. trans. ye im tükel. stanbul: metis publications. germaner, s. ( ). art after the . stanbul: kabalc publications. gombrich, e. h. ( ). art and illusion. trans. ahmet cemal. stanbul: remzi bookstore publications. gombrich, e. h. ( ). the story of art. trans. bedrettin cömert. stanbul: remzi bookstore publications. klee, p. ( ). about modern art. ( rd ed.). trans. rahmi g. Ödül. stanbul: alt k rkbe publications. krausse, anna c. ( ). the story of art from renaissance to today. literatür publications. little, s. ( ). ...tracks, understanding the art. stanbul: building-industry centers publications. lhote, a. ( ). unchanged plastic values in arts. trans. kaya Özsezgin. stanbul: mge bookstore publications. lynton, n. ( ). the story of modern art. ( th ed.). trans. Çapan c. ve Özi s.. stanbul: remzi bookstore. sa lam, m. ( ). “on the problems of space and depth in the painting”. art in turkey, journal of the plastic arts. . may -august. - . toman, r. ( ). the art of the italian renaissance. ( rd ed.). spain: könemann. . tunal , . ( ). modern paintings in the light of philosophy. ( ’th ed.). stanbul: remzi bookstore publications. vezzosi, a. (?). science and art of the universe, leonardo da vinci. stanbul: yap kredi publications. general culture series. wölfflin, h. ( ). basic concepts of the art history. ( th ed.). trans. hayrullah Örs. stanbul: remzi bookstore publications. http://hosted.simonbiggs.easynet.co.uk/installations/solitary/solitary.htm ( , september) .indd lena m. hill when ralph ellison arrived in new york during the summer of , he focused on two passions: music and sculpture. he hoped to supplement his studies in music at the tuskegee normal and industrial institute with connections to musicians and composers, and at the same time to pursue his interest in visual art. as chance would have it, the day after his arrival ellison became acquainted with langston hughes, who introduced him to the world of harlem artists. with the help of robert savion pious, ellison met sculptor richmond barthé, with whom he had corresponded briefly after viewing barthé’s masks. the respected artist accepted ellison as his first apprentice, and in august ellison wrote to hughes describing his progress as well as his assessment of his instructor: i’ve done two heads and have started my first torso. after seeing the work of several of our so-called sculptors, i quite agree with you about barthé. not only does his work excel theirs in anatomi- cal truthfulness, but in artistic feeling as well; i think i have been objective in this matter because i waited to study with the person who could give me the most regardless of the opinion of the negro press. ellison admired barthé’s style of integrating african themes with classical forms in his bronze sculptures, but african american crit- ics disparaged the sculptor’s work as too conservative and reliant on western aesthetics. ellison, whose musical training in oklahoma had embraced such artistic integration, identified with barthé’s aesthetic the visual art of invisible man : ellison’s portrait of blackness american literature, volume , number , december doi . / - - © by duke university press american literature notions. the sculptor’s declaration that he did not consider his work a commentary on race relations, although he did believe african ameri- cans could “better portray inner feelings of negro people,” resonated deeply with ellison’s budding creative sensibility. the artistic incli- nation that led ellison to barthé points to a fundamental aspect of his creative perspective that spawned the novel invisible man ( ). my essay demonstrates that examining ellison’s interest in visual art recovers a critical tool for analyzing his protagonist’s journey from idealizing a simple, realistic notion of identity to appreciating a more complicated, abstract definition of african american humanity. in particular, the novel’s manipulation of visual art theory and plastic art objects—pieces of visual art notable for their multidimensional presence and malleability, such as framed pictures, sculptures, and handled artifacts—plays a crucial role in this transformation. by focus- ing on the deployment of these objects and the theories embedded in their representation, i clarify ellison’s dedication to and advocacy for producing an african american literary aesthetic capable of unveiling black american interiority. although ellison’s hands-on work with barthé was brief, he re- mained involved in the visual arts scene. when he traveled to new york from alabama, the literary harlem renaissance waned amid the leanness of the depression, but the black visual arts scene bloomed fully. art historian richard powell notes that the late s and early s marked a kind of “renascance [sic] in negro art,” and although most of the artists were not from harlem, the major artists converged in the city. the period marked a moment of experimentation and tran- sition as black artists gained a reputation for their portrayal of the crucial relationship between folk experience and modern existence in african american life. from to , no fewer than ten major art exhibitions devoted exclusively to the work of black artists opened throughout the country, receiving critical attention. black artists also began experimenting with abstraction and collage, illustrating black consciousness and rebelling against the social realist genre dominat- ing african american visual and literary art. one such artist, painter romare bearden, became a good friend of ellison’s in the s. in “romie,” ellison discovered a peer equally devoted to creating a multi- faceted picture of african american existence. building on his train- ing with barthé, ellison found bearden’s plastic portrayals of african american identity refreshing in their rejection of stereotype and ideal- visual art of invisible man ization. additionally, he and bearden shared a devotion to the blues and jazz, art forms that successfully combine folk culture and modern experience. in his essay “the art of romare bearden,” ellison describes bear- den’s collages as “eloquent of the sharp breaks, leaps in conscious- ness, distortions, paradoxes, reversals, telescoping of time, and sur- real blending of styles, values, hopes, and dreams which characterize much of negro american history” (ce, ). ellison also extols bear- den for his ability to “reveal a world long hidden by clichés of soci- ology and rendered cloudy by the distortions of newsprint and the false continuity imposed upon our conception of negro life by tele- vision and much documentary photography” (ce, ). bearden’s dedication to moving beyond realistic portrayals of african american life agreed with ellison, who “chided visual artists committed to social protest.” yet in he had responded to richard wright’s mil- lion black voices ( ), a photographic documentary of black life, in strikingly different terms: “after reading [ million black voices] and experiencing the pictures, the concrete images, i was convinced that we people of emotion shall land the . . . destructive-creative blows in the struggle. and we shall do it with books like this!” ellison valued the intensity of wright’s work, even calling million black voices “lyrical,” but as he grappled with portraying african american con- sciousness in prose, he sought to adopt a literary aesthetic that would complicate the sociologically determined images that documentary photography and protest-realist writing often reified (ce, ). ellison’s shifting assessment of his peer’s visual work exposes the evolution of his literary philosophy. notwithstanding his eventual reservations concerning wright’s naturalist style, ellison’s authorial impulse was motivated by wright’s example and encouragement. in fact, hughes connected ellison to wright in the summer of . although wright had not yet published uncle tom’s children ( ) or native son ( )—texts that would make him famous—ellison had perused his work in new masses and respected his technique (ce, ). wright was consumed with the philosophical, political, and aes- thetic issues related to writing african american literature, and in the widely read and intense ellison he found a kindred spirit. ellison soon concluded that their shared commitment to revitalizing african american literature moved them beyond the realm of mere friendship to the status of “brothers.” the two exchanged long letters as ellison american literature wrestled with whether he should commit to writing as a profession. in he confessed to wright: i have considered the possibility that i may not be a novelist my- self. . . . anyway, it isn’t the prose, per se, that worries me; it’s the form, the learning how to organize my material in order to take the maximum advantage of those psychological and emotional currents within myself and in the reader which endows [sic] prose with meaning; and which, in the writer, releases that upsurge of emotion which jells with conceptions and makes prose magical. ellison’s deliberation over the prose form best suited to his purposes hints toward his growing disenchantment with naturalist-realist meth- ods like wright’s. he had breathlessly read the manuscript of native son as wright typed it into being (ce, ), but in the years leading up to his composition of invisible man, he embraced a more modernist aesthetic. wright in turn questioned ellison’s potential as a writer. he reflected in his journal that ellison “writes because he is a negro; he really wanted to be a sculpture [sic], but he found he could not say what was hotly in him to say with stone and marble.” in actuality, ellison was formulating his metaphor of invisibility, a philosophical idea indebted both to wright and to his own interest in visual art. “richard wright’s blues ( ),” ellison’s essay on black boy ( ), announces the fundamentals of his aesthetic approach for explaining african american life with the resistance to sociology and realism he applauds in bearden’s work. the essay hints at why ellison’s visual art philosophy—a belief that characters’ confrontations with the produc- tion, display, and interpretation of plastic art reveal their conscious- ness—became significant to his literary technique. in his review, he applies a music-based critical apparatus to wright’s autobiography, dis- playing his early penchant for exploiting various art forms to explain character complexity. the ambitious nature of his analysis also illus- trates his sense of the importance of personal narrative as a genre in african american literature. henry louis gates jr. notes that as early as , blacks began narrating and writing autobiographies in an effort to create “in words, a portrait of a human being” and to com- bat the derogatory images prevalent in american visual art forms. yet this quest to present exceptionality was often at odds with repre- senting the larger african american experience in generative terms. to characterize black life in an idiom capturing its challenges as well visual art of invisible man as its resiliency, ellison labels wright’s history a “blues.” he defines the blues as “an autobiographical chronicle of personal catastrophe expressed lyrically” and concludes that wright’s personal history is undeniably a “negro blues” (ce, ). wright praised his friend’s shrewd critique and urged ellison to consider devoting himself solely to literary criticism. ellison, however, discovered that his essay elu- cidated his ideas about depicting african american existence in fic- tion. he committed himself to a literary aesthetic combining several artistic registers to produce an image of blackness freed from realist strictures. invisible man in manuscript shows ellison coming to terms with the portrait he aimed to create. as he secluded himself on a vermont farm to cultivate his novel, he observed in a letter to wright that “[t]he cubists, or at least the great cubists such as picasso, worked through the phase of abstraction only to return to natural objects and events—although they learned through their explorations to present an essence of the real world, the plastic essences of people of human figures.” by “plastic essences” he indicates the malleability he sought to capture in his presentation of african american experience. he found himself both working through and discovering the value of “abstraction” in his own work, and his manuscript charts his journey. his seven-year road of composition produced an original manuscript numbering over eight hundred pages. countless outlines, elaborate notes, and numerous scenes excised from the published text docu- ment the genesis of the novel. the drafts and typescripts also attest to ellison’s meticulous revision practices. for example, twelve folders are titled “brotherhood,” and several others include pages pertinent to these scenes. some of these folders enclose two hundred pages of typed manuscript, including scraps of paper with pencil-scrawled sentences transferred to the published text. studied in conjunction with his collection of newspaper clippings, art exhibit programs, and various other articles, the manuscript unveils ellison’s composition process. ellison’s final revisions focus on the prologue and epilogue. in reworking these sections, he deftly navigates issues of objectifica- tion by replacing realistic examinations of art with a kind of formal modernist packaging of his text. within this frame he chronicles his protagonist’s journey from naive reader of visual images to criti- cal visual observer. ellison constructs a relationship between nar- american literature ration and visual culture that redefines traditional perspectives on african american identity as static reality and instead seeks “plas- tic essences.” indeed, the term “invisible” is itself calculated to chal- lenge narrowly conceived images of black humanity. through close examination of the novel, amplified by manuscript drafts of numerous scenes, the first three sections of my essay examine the inability of the protagonist, referred to only as “invisible man,” to read visually constructed meaning. the final section puts an extraordinary draft episode in conversation with the published conclusion to refine the significance of invisible man’s hard-earned socioracial literacy. the essay concludes by demonstrating how attention to ellison’s interest in visual art reveals the parallel road he travels with his protagonist as both develop writing styles that divulge african american interiority. reading traditional portraits ellison enlists traditional portraiture to trace invisible man’s quest for power. he suggests that such portrayals fail to account for the com- plexity of humanity, and by extension, the protagonist’s obsession with emulating such figures displays his shallow understanding of modern existence. as ellison revised his text, he had to decide how heavily to wield this critique of the representational reliability of visual art. he admired authors such as henry james, known for connecting a char- acter’s ability to interpret objects of art to a maturing consciousness, but he questioned the efficacy of james’s broader aesthetic for depict- ing african american individuality. nevertheless, he clearly shared the sense that traditional portraits, trading on the grand manner in their commitment to conveying a sitter’s authority, attractiveness, and historical importance, offer rich opportunities for spotlighting the u.s. fascination with crafting powerful appearances. the atten- dant refusal of such images to acknowledge the difficulties of formu- lating an american identity heightens the danger for individuals like invisible man who naively emulate such likenesses. the published version of invisible man designates certain charac- ters as “men of power,” and more often than not, these men appear in portraits and redefine interiors as rooms of display ( ). robert stepto first labels spaces in the novel as portrait galleries and muse- ums. he contextualizes ellison’s portraits within a larger historical trajectory and imagines him spectacularly building on earlier liter- visual art of invisible man ary portraiture strategies. stepto claims that the portraits in invisible man display ellison’s fundamental suspicion of “simple dichotomies” and instead function to “enlarge a fresh narrative space.” this claim helpfully positions my approach, though my reading marries a discus- sion of plastic art with a contemplation of the portraits and artifacts populating the novel in order to understand how these items contrib- ute to ellison’s development of his protagonist. ellison was undeniably interested in the theoretical underpinnings of exhibition spaces. by transforming ordinary rooms into these heavily charged places, he acknowledged the growing importance of “high” visual art culture in the early s. boston’s elma lewis school of fine arts, the earliest african american museum, appeared in as a testament to the growing belief that in order to present black u.s. history accurately, african americans must take charge of institutions responsible for the task. in conjunction with the growing number of national magazines such as our world, ebony, sepia, and flash, marketed to black readers and based on the work of african american photojournalists, black museums in the united states coun- tered disparaging images of blacks in popular culture while teaching their constituents the importance of reading, comprehending, and producing positive images of african american life. ellison’s atten- tion to portraits and visual artifact collections reveals his awareness of the power inherent in modes and institutions of display as well as the need to understand principles of visual consumption. yet for ellison these spaces were not only charged because of institutional histories but also because of the visual means of representation they celebrated. his text probes the line between portraiture’s visual and historical reliability for black america: to what extent can the visual convey the particularities of racial blackness? the picture of invisible man’s grandfather represents the first power portrait in the novel, and it demonstrates the inscrutability of such images. after the battle royal, the protagonist recalls, “i stood beneath his photograph . . . and smiled triumphantly into his stolid black peas- ant’s face” ( ). his confrontation with his grandfather’s portrait vividly dramatizes his psychological confusion. invisible man wonders whether his speech of accommodation represents a success or marks him as a traitor. his face-to-face meeting with the wall-mounted por- trait gives space to his internal quandary. in a manuscript draft, the grandfather reappears in the form of “an old post-card photograph” that american literature falls from a stack of invisible man’s college books and “lays staring at [him] from the bed.” ellison observes photographic history in choos- ing this visual format. following the carte de visite and the cabinet card, the photo postcard appeared around the turn of the century, and its general availability distinguished it as the form making photographs widely accessible. ellison’s deletion of this scene suggests he pre- ferred presenting the grandfather in the visual form most clearly indi- cating a position of power rather than accessibility. in the published text, the grandfather appears solely in the guise of a wall portrait. invisible man’s college experiences expand the imposing power of portraiture by introducing museum culture. when bledsoe sum- mons him to his office for disciplinary action, the protagonist notes the “framed portrait photographs and relief plaques of presidents and industrialists, men of power—fixed like trophies or heraldic emblems upon the walls” ( ). his office symbolizes the first museum in the novel and draws upon principles of these institutions. museums embody three forms of symbolic space that sheldon annis terms “cognitive space,” “social space,” and “dream space.” in other words, museum visitors interpret objects, exchange individual and commu- nal memories, and respond personally to exhibits that induce fanta- sizing. invisible man, lacking the necessary knowledge to participate fully in museum culture, never simultaneously experiences the three spaces annis identifies. in bledsoe’s office, he remains virtually blind to the rules of the exhibition space. while the grandfather’s portrait becomes an occasion for invisible man’s self-doubt, the portraits he encounters in dr. bledsoe’s office at first elicit no such uncertainty. he determines that the pictures and plaques have been transformed into “trophies or heraldic emblems” by their placement on the wall ( ). while this discovery allows him to classify the pictured individuals as “men of power,” he cannot grasp the ordering principle that explains their presence in bledsoe’s office. ellison’s construction of the collection in the office echoes the collec- tion’s function in the museum. as tony bennett argues, with respect to the formation of museums, the collection manifests an invisible abstraction, the perception of which acts to distinguish the gazer who knows from the gazer who does not. the protagonist, as he stands in bledsoe’s office, is clearly the unknowing gazer. blind to complicated social codes ordering interactions between black and white people, he naturally fails to perceive the principles determining the construc- tion of bledsoe’s museum. he cannot see through the collected pieces visual art of invisible man to recognize that they reify bledsoe’s rhetoric of accommodation and hypocrisy. this invisible philosophy explains the visible collection, and the protagonist’s inability to penetrate the surface meaning high- lights not only his powerlessness but also the unreliability of visual depictions of sociohistorical experience. for viewers lacking proper interpretive tools, formal images neither accurately represent african american existence nor facilitate the critical comprehension of the world that structures it. while he intuits some degree of the “cognitive space” of the museum in bledsoe’s office, it is not until his arrival in new york that he begins to understand the museum as a “social space.” upon entering emerson’s office, the protagonist determines that it is “like a museum” ( ). he transforms emerson’s office into a “social space” when he allows the displayed objects to revive memories of his college museum, the only traditional museum in the novel. looking at the dif- ferent objects, he muses, “there was nothing like this at the college museum.” the artifacts in the school museum include slave relics like “a set of ankle-irons . . . an ugly ebony african god . . . and a leather whip” ( ). their representation of a past too close to admire leaves invisible man unable to fathom the kind of artistic value ellison later assigns such art objects in his discussion of leroi jones’s blues people ( ). criticizing jones’s failure to recognize the depth of expression slave musicians divulge through their art, ellison insists slavery “was not . . . a state of absolute repression” denying artistic productivity (ce, ). the protagonist, unable to envisage the worth of african american art, misses the irony the college collection unintention- ally conveys by displaying objects of u.s. brutality beside examples of african artistry. instead, he remains dedicated to converting him- self into a traditional figure of power like those he contemplates in the office of mr. bates, the first wall street trustee he visits. there he admires pictures of quintessential u.s. power in “three portraits of dignified old gentlemen in winged collars who looked down from their frames with an assurance and arrogance” ( ). bates’s gallery reinvigorates invisible man’s reformative ambition while emerson’s relics complicate his goal by recalling a racial history he misreads. his endorsement of traditional portraits of power and rejection of indige- nous artifacts illustrates his rejection of the african american past as well as the truth of u.s. history. after merely visiting the spaces of powerful men, invisible man finally obtains an office of his own. with a portrait of frederick doug- american literature lass adorning his wall, he imagines he possesses a fuller understand- ing of visual images, and his office becomes a kind of museum “dream space.” he ruminates over “how magical it was that [douglass] had talked his way from slavery to a government ministry” and imagines that “something of the kind is happening to” him ( ). he places douglass in the same company as the other portraits representing ideas he cannot follow, but he envisions himself filling a similar frame. the portrait also recalls the complicated self-imaging douglass prac- ticed. in addition to writing three autobiographies that established an early standard for african american writing, douglass constructed his identity in countless daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, and paintings displayed throughout the world. gates concludes that douglass’s “public, reproducible image” allowed african americans “to recon- struct” their public faces and, to a large extent, set the stage for wash- ington’s new negro project. ellison’s presentation of douglass as a traditional portrait connects him to a thorny legacy shared with the new negro and showcases the ex-slave’s attempts to establish himself as a visual representative of black america. both initiatives reinforce ellison’s larger point regarding framed pictures on museum walls. he hints at the ideas they represent and questions both the truth of their doctrines and the ability of average americans to dissect ideas in visual packaging. by interrogating ide- ologies ranging from booker t. washington’s notions of african ameri- can education, to corporate america’s terms for success, to doug- lass’s manipulation of his role as a visual symbol of black achievement, ellison finds cracks in black and white images of accomplishment. through the flat materiality of the power portraits and the compli- cated spaces housing them, he suggests that facile presentations of complex philosophies must be dismantled and examined before one can formulate a critical subjective frame for the world. to guide his protagonist to this realization, ellison charts a path riddled with visual images whose representations of race and social power force invisible man to reassess his internalized concepts of individual success. gender, race, and shared frames of objectification starting with his famous battle royal scene, ellison expands and com- plicates his protagonist’s interaction with plastic imaging by linking the visual objectification of white women and black men. critics of visual art of invisible man invisible man regularly question the absence of significant female characters in the text. drafts of the manuscript, however, reveal elli- son’s early intentions of constructing scenes around more developed women. different versions show invisible man engaging in a sexual relationship with a black woman at mary’s house, joining the brother- hood to pursue a white woman in the organization, experiencing inti- macies with emma (brother jack’s mistress) and consistently think- ing of his sexual appeal. in contrast, the finished novel contains only ambiguous love scenes with white women. though editors undoubt- edly insisted on excising many of these scenes because of their sexu- ally explicit nature (ellison jokes in a letter to albert murray that he had to remove the “sour cream in the vagina” part because “it was too ripe for ’em” ), a larger logic seems to order his revisions. while the drafts dramatize the stereotype of black men’s desire for white women, the finished text stresses the social parallel between white women and black men. ellison’s persistent imaging of both groups introduces the traditional paradigm of the gaze and hints at the danger of accepting racial objectification. the implications of scenes such as the battle royal emerge most forcefully in the context of ellison’s broader appeal to visual culture. shelly eversley begins with a similar contention in analyzing the role of women in the text. her shrewd readings focus on ellison’s use of light, which she notes is integral to producing photographic images, in scenes featuring women as visual artifacts. while i agree with evers- ley’s conclusion that these scenes pave the way for the protagonist’s realization that invisibility extends beyond black men, i also probe the larger significance of his visually inspired knowledge. the powerful white men at the smoker form a circular frame around the dancer, dramatizing their authority over her and the boys. after showcasing the stripper’s failure to control her frame, ellison frames and reframes the boys to symbolize the portraits white men systematically create of black masculinity. the portable fighting ring, replacing the white male faces “ringed around” the blonde, represents a metaphorical frame in which the blindfolded boys cannot see themselves, a foreshadowing of invisible man’s first speech for the brotherhood ( ). maurice wallace illustrates how the racial gaze requires such framing to fetish- ize the black male body. designating the practice as “spectragraphia,” a “chronic syndrome of inscripted misrepresentation” that “implies imperfect—indeed, illusory—cultural vision,” wallace concludes that american literature white racialists’ “spectragraphic gaze . . . cannot see . . . their own self-serving blindness.” the problem for the protagonist, however, is that he accepts, even endorses, the spectragraphic gaze under which he labors. ellison’s focus on the canvas of boxing rings provides an inventive background for invisible man’s portraits. even when he sees his own blood “glistening and soaking into the soiled gray world of the can- vas,” the boxing ring floor substituting for a painting canvas, invisible man fails to understand the portrait the men around him create ( ). in addition to sharing the same term as the painting’s material sur- face, the boxing canvas supplies a focal point for a picture, and it, too, absorbs the color of its subject. that its colors derive from the blood, sweat, and dirt of fighters only intensifies the aptness of the compari- son. like a painting canvas, the boxing ring surface demarcates an off- limits space for viewers: they can observe but should not touch. but at the battle royal, the white men play the roles of spectator and art- ist. they create the picture on the fight canvas, so they retain rights to violate its space. ellison underscores this point with the additional framing device of the electrical rug. when the carpet replaces the portable ring, the protagonist wonders whether “he will stand on the rug to deliver [his] speech” ( ). he yearns to be framed by the white men, but he fails to understand that the men who choose the frame also control the picture it surrounds. moreover, the physical violence unleashed in both spaces illuminates the disjuncture between the fixed quality of portraiture and the volatile nature of race relations. the protagonist’s failed attempt to pass for a picture of african ameri- can success and progress animates the irony of this scene. invisible man’s interaction with mr. norton provides him an addi- tional opportunity to fill a frame a white woman occupies before him. once again, he misses the implications of his circumstances when the trustee confesses that his philanthropic motivation issues from his devotion to his dead daughter, whose image he carries around in the form of a miniature. primarily created as tokens of mourning, these diminutive portraits popularized in the mid-eighteenth-century united states commemorated marriages, births, and a general growth of affection for children. unlike traditional portraits that facilitate “face- to-face” meetings, miniatures add touch to the interaction, lending an erotic dimension to the images that often made children, in susan stewart’s formulation, the “object of an adult gaze.” most scholars visual art of invisible man attribute such depravity specifically to men who, unlike women who displayed their miniatures on bracelets or necklaces, concealed these tokens in vest pockets. miniatures also distinguish themselves from traditional portraits in that they have a reverse side: on the back intri- cate designs woven with the hair of the pictured person transform him or her into a wearable “fetish.” the history of the diminutive portrait fleshes out the implications of norton’s relationship with his daughter as well as his habit of collecting individuals to expand his collection of curiosities. moreover, his framed miniature recalls the framing at the battle royal, a point ellison makes in his notes as he contemplates using the “same symbolism as battle royal” to show that “incest is the ultimate expression of monopoly.” once again a powerful white man frames and possesses a beautiful white woman whom the protagonist is forced to gaze upon and, in this instance, touch. in these early scenes invisible man fails to connect the framing of white women with his own visual objectification, but his awareness grows as he deals with the brotherhood. after his first speech on the “woman question,” he goes home with a mysterious woman. her apartment represents another museum; upon entering the living room he observes “a life-sized painting of a nude, a pink renoir. other can- vases were hung here and there, and the spacious walls seemed to flash alive with warm, pure color” ( ). by designating the painting a renoir nude, ellison introduces renoir’s belief that depictions of the female nude show women in a natural, less inhibited state than mod- ern dress imposes. the natural settings of the paintings, reflected in the models’ skin tones, celebrate women’s earthy natures, but renoir’s classical touches trap them in a traditional heritage of art that objec- tifies the female body. like the renoir nude, the mystery woman is clearly an object bought for her husband’s museum. in an earlier draft, ellison makes this point more clearly. upon entering the room, the protagonist notes, “i suddenly saw a life-sized painting of a pink nude looking out languid-eyed from a dull gold frame. it seemed alive.” here, the detail of a particular artist is removed in favor of emphasiz- ing the connection between the painting and the woman. the protago- nist in the published version does not understand that in an attempt to alter her status, the woman seeks to assume the role of collector and add him to her collection. this intent becomes strikingly clear when invisible man enters her bedroom. the mirrors reflect images that invoke the impressionist american literature technique of painting scenes that change from moment to moment. facing each other, the two mirrors create instant portraits. invisible man notes that the mirrors toss their “images back and forth, back and forth, furiously multiplying the place and circumstance” ( ). this repetition signifies the long tradition of black male sexual exploi- tation at the hands of white women, but more emphatically, it under- scores the significance of framed bodies. when the woman’s robe reveals her nakedness, invisible man describes her body as if she is the “life-sized” renoir painting hanging on the wall: “i went breath- less at the petite and generously curved nude, framed delicate and firm in the glass” ( ). in a preliminary draft ellison stresses this point by changing his initial verb, “revealed,” to “framed.” indeed, the mirrors become frames arresting their images, connecting while juxtaposing their objectifications. notwithstanding the numerous incidents linking invisible man to white women, it is not until sybil, the brotherhood wife he seduces to gain information about the organization, unequivocally requests that he enter the world of performance that he suspects the full extent of his objectification. he does not, however, comprehend the relationship between the role white women ask him to assume and the similarity in their statuses. although he acknowledges that sybil’s ideas of him spring from hollywood stereotypes and popular myths, he only par- tially grasps her astute acknowledgment of their mutual subjugation: “[y]ou’re not like other men. we’re kind of alike” ( ). thus, while invisible man concedes that white women see him as a “domesticated rapist . . . with a convenient verbal push-button arrangement for the ladies’ pleasure,” he is unable to extend his reasoning to decipher the attitude of the brotherhood men ( ). like the white women who have no interest in his words, the white brothers use him as a visual example of their inclusiveness. as jack bluntly states, “you were not hired to think” ( ). in truth, he is hired to embody a talking picture within the enervating confines of the brotherhood frame. complex harlem images: grasping more than meets the eye as ellison stages invisible man’s framing by various groups, his protagonist reflects on metaphorical portraits both created by and imposed on the harlem population. in like fashion, ellison nurtured his own growing interest in photography, and specifically portrai- visual art of invisible man ture, staring at harlem dwellers from behind his camera lens. yet even as he fixed harlem with his increasingly sophisticated cameras, the composition of his photography as well as his writing exposes an eagerness to emphasize the mutability of african american life, its unremitting resistance to static imaging. the eviction scene in invisible man concretizes the protagonist’s struggle to appreciate the ever-evolving nature of black identity. stumbling over the household objects strewn across the snow and listening to the grumbling of the crowd, he muses, “now i recognized a self-consciousness about them, as though they, we, were ashamed to witness the eviction, as though we were all unwilling intruders upon some shameful event; and thus we were careful not to touch or stare too hard at the effects that lined the curb; for we were witnesses of what we did not wish to see” ( ). with an awakened sense of cultural pride, he identifies the crowd’s, as well as his own, inner response to the outer spectacle. his detection of the collective desire not “to see” announces the crowd’s realization that the artifacts littering the snow constitute a forced exhibition of private effects. the jumbled items represent the old couple’s knotty life history, their complicated insides pushed outside by the evicting agent, a symbol of white power and injustice. invisible man’s intense response highlights his incipient status as a reader of visual images: “i turned and stared again at the jumble, no longer looking at what was before my eyes, but inwardly-outwardly, around a corner into the dark, far-away-and-long-ago, not so much my own memory as of remembered words, of linked verbal echoes, images, heard even when not listening at home” ( ). he stands on the precipice of realizing a fully formed consciousness that successfully detects personal and communal meaning taking shape through the visual spectacle. ellison’s careful register of the items displayed in the street includes a number of pictures. beginning with a “portrait of the old couple when young,” the protagonist proceeds to identify “a faded tintype of abraham lincoln,” an “image of a hollywood star,” a “white man in black-face,” and “a yellowing newspaper portrait of a huge black man with the caption: marcus garvey deported” ( – ). these visual images, jumbled together with a melee of objects, create a col- lage defined by invisible connections linking the items. in fact, the household articles embody the definition of collage: they form a single image on a shared plane in which their juxtaposition and varying tex- ture interact to achieve an artistic result. the collage chronicles the american literature old couple’s life and emblematizes the shared and convoluted history of black americans. as such, it recalls ellison’s remarks regarding bearden’s collages. like bearden’s art, the eviction collage uncovers the complexity and incongruity of african american experience. in contrast to traditional portrayals of blackness, it enables images of african american pride, family and cultural history, and political activism to mingle with images of black self-exploitation and white racism. the evicted man and woman embody the reality bearden’s collages convey, but they lack the corresponding control over how to frame themselves. to rescue the exhibition of their lives from exploit- ative chaos and transform it into a collection of african american strength, the protagonist haphazardly asserts control by leading the crowd in dismantling the collage and returning it to the couple’s home. despite his bold actions, he only subconsciously senses the power of the household objects: they represent the vital incongruities charac- terizing african american life as well as the need to understand the potential strength in a paradoxical past. the “veil that threaten[s] to lift” as invisible man contemplates the eviction is firmly resecured by his decision to join the brotherhood ( ). as the leader of the brotherhood’s harlem district, the protago- nist organizes a placard campaign that trumpets racial diversity with “a color photograph of bright skin texture and smooth contrast” ( ). his determination to picture the goal of his brotherhood work estab- lishes his return to a conventional visual mode of countering racism. in ellison’s manuscript this episode is more explicit in its purpose, and the placard picture includes the protagonist’s face. after the plac- ards are posted all over harlem, they mysteriously begin to disappear. invisible man explains his own reaction thoughtfully: i was used to seeing negroes caricatured, and had long identified myself with such things. . . . aunt jamima, shoe shoe sam, the cream of wheat man and the ham what am man were familiar along with the attitudes that went with them, but this was some- thing new. god, the things that happened to paper and cardboard. what would happen to my image now? the inclusion of his own face on the poster makes the theft of the plac- ards personally disturbing, and he imagines someone has launched a direct assault on his effort to redefine u.s. race relations. his reflec- tion on the african american image in popular culture reveals the visual art of invisible man larger battle he subconsciously wages as well as his desire to escape a legacy of visual derogation. ironically, in this draft version, it turns out that the people of harlem are stealing the placards from public spaces and transferring them to the privacy of their homes. when invisible man visits african american brotherhood members, he sees the poster displayed between “family portraits in cheap ornamental fold- ers.” instead of an assault on his attempt to reimage race relations, the stolen placards disclose the success of the protagonist’s plan. black men and women view the photograph as a hopeful picture of their future, and they display it among their personal portraits. one couple informs the protagonist, “folks we know are crazy about that picture. i know at least four of my friends got them on their walls. hester cook and lizzie sanders even had their’s [sic] framed.” for harlem dwell- ers, the rainbow poster visually combats racist images of their present lives with a realistic image of racial harmony. still, the brotherhood’s ultimate betrayal of the harlem community, closely modeled after ellison’s evolving view of the communist party, highlights the danger of placing too much confidence in such shallow images. ellison drives this point home in the published novel where the poster features tod clifton, the “very black” brother with “chis- eled, marble-like features sometimes found on statues in northern museums,” who ends up peddling sambo dolls, the ultimate image of black degradation ( ). kimberly lamm argues that clifton’s char- acter exemplifies ellison’s dedication to producing art that challenges “image repertoires” that black males “have been historically consti- tuted within.” she concludes that like bearden’s photomontages, clifton “complicates rigid definitions of race, masculinity, and activ- ism” enforced by institutions like the brotherhood. this assertion not only connects bearden’s and ellison’s aesthetic concerns, but pushed further, it begins to acknowledge the importance of interpret- ing visually laden performances and objects. in early drafts, clifton attempts to convince invisible man of the brotherhood’s duplicitous relationship to the black community by relating his personal odyssey in the organization. he admits that he married a white woman in the brotherhood, but when he realized that he and his wife would always be viewed as symbols, he bought a sunlamp to make her “a plain, un-symbolic human being” and to res- cue himself from the role of “nigger bait.” the sambo doll scene that replaces clifton’s divulgence denies invisible man access to the american literature youth leader’s decision process. instead, clifton forces the protago- nist to interpret his actions and the visual object that represents his renouncement. invisible man has previously noted moments when the youth leader’s “eyes were turned inward,” and upon finding clifton peddling the dolls, he observes, “[h]is eyes looked past me deliberately not seeing” ( , ). he must reconcile his detection of clifton’s introspective vision with the young man’s purposeful out- ward blindness; his “not seeing” eyes redirect the protagonist’s gaze to the sambo doll and its frantic dance. when invisible man spits on the doll, a visual confirmation of the stereotypical image he fears society affixes to him, a fat man makes the connection and laughs bois- terously, “pointing from [the protagonist] to the doll” ( ). his failure to escape the image replicates his violent effort to dispose of mary’s sambo bank and mocks his attempts to subvert complicated pictures of black humanity. only clifton’s death prods invisible man to question the reliability of narrowly defined visual appearances. after witnessing the shooting, he gazes upon three african american boys in full zoot suit apparel and recalls the words of his college professor: “you’re like one of these african sculptures, distorted in the interest of design.” with newfound curiosity, he wonders, “what design and whose?” ( ). the boys share the extreme position of the sambo doll, projecting an image that defies historical containment or scientific explanation in an effort to control the terms of their identity. their existence forces invisible man to reassess the accuracy of brotherhood ideology, and as he delivers clifton’s eulogy, he gains a new perspective on the harlem residents: “and as i took one last look i saw not a crowd but the set faces of individual men and women” ( ). his ability to see individuals composing the mass signals his growing perception of african ameri- can consciousness, and when the brothers attack his actions, he holds his ground with newfound confidence. to their insistence that clifton was a traitor, he responds, “he was a man and a negro; a man and a brother; a man and a traitor, as you say; then he was a dead man, and alive or dead he was jam-full of contradictions” ( ). invisible man no longer feels compelled to fit clifton into a flat, uncomplicated frame; instead, he recognizes the fundamental contradictions at the center of his friend’s character and determines that his paradoxical actions are not damning but enlivening. like the harlem community, he sees clifton’s humanity in his contradictions and declares to jack, “[t]he visual art of invisible man political consciousness of harlem is exactly a thing i know something about” ( ). the visual spectacle of the sambo doll facilitates his com- prehension of african american interior life, a consciousness too rich in its historical experience to be confined to the brotherhood frame. shattered pictures and ascendant words as ellison hammered out his manuscript, his inclination to connect the modern visual art surrounding him to significant scenes assumed varying forms. he saved copies of contemporary paintings like eldzier cortor’s room no. ( ) in personal folders dedicated to cataloging visual art. in the same way that cortor’s depiction of a sculptural naked woman reflected in a bureau mirror evokes the novel’s bedroom scene between the sensual brotherhood woman and invisible man, the tenor of other paintings ellison cataloged reverberates with key moments in his text. in the manuscript drafts, directly before invisible man witnesses clifton’s death, he enters a bookstore where a white brother fails to recognize him. describing the space, he notes, “paint- ings flashed upon the walls, gauguin’s. . . . a phrase, ‘the anonymity of the mass’ whirled up in my brain. the crowd . . . cancelled you out. we, he and i, wore the lenses of brotherhood. we were not blind like the crowd, i thought.” in a different version, invisible man observes, “bright reproductions flashed from the walls, gauguin’s, dufy’s, leger’s.” invisible man’s identification of the artwork defining the space in which he begins to suspect brotherhood hypocrisy frankly advocates learning to read visual art as a means of becoming more discerning interpreters of social reality. each of the artists he names depends heavily on the use of vivid color to represent interiority and draws on artistic movements such as expressionism and cubism. mov- ing forward from the documentary-style photographs ellison extols in wright’s million black voices, the visual forms he admired in the late s produce introspective pictures through a range of artistic innovations, often subtle in meaning. ellison’s manuscript revisions reflect a similar shift in his deployment of visual art. in place of repeated references to particular artists or overt invocations of paint- erly styles and movements, individual scenes simply bear traces of visual art schools and artists while demanding that readers decipher the implications. early manuscript drafts show ellison depending heavily and clum- american literature sily on modern art theory to portray his protagonist’s consciousness. leroy, a former boarder at mary’s house who is drowned at sea, becomes a kind of intellectual guide for the protagonist. when invisible man arrives at mary’s, the boarders have just learned of leroy’s death, and he instantly views the dead young man as a competitor. mary allows him to live in leroy’s room, where he peruses the dead sailor’s jour- nal. as invisible man grapples with the young man’s politically radical ideas, he tries to “visualize leroy,” who despite the journal passages remains “vague, formless.” his desire to see a picture of leroy prom- ises to be fulfilled when a fellow sailor delivers a portrait of leroy to mary. as treadwell, leroy’s white friend, unwraps the portrait, mary exclaims, “ ‘lawd, i never had no painted picture of nobody before.’ ” when the portrait is revealed, invisible man responds intensely: “i was filled with a sense of repulsion as the baroque geometrical forms of the painting met my eyes, and outraged, for it was more like the plan of a man than a portrait, a plan for a blown assembly chart or dis- integration.” treadwell explains that the painter was a “cubist” who “felt that by breaking up the details of leroy’s figure and rearranging them . . . he would give a stronger impression of leroy’s personality.” invisible man, confused by the portrayal, admits, “i was annoyed with my own ignorance of painting. i felt that although i disliked the por- trait i should have understood it.” later, as mary prepares to hang the portrait of “the willfully dismembered leroy,” another boarder notices a sketch on the back of the painting that presents a traditional draw- ing of leroy’s face. mary decides, however, to display the fractured picture since that is how leroy “wanted to be remembered.” her fidelity to displaying leroy in the manner he desires celebrates the interpretive capacity of the black folk mind. upon hearing treadwell’s explanation of cubism, mary willingly revises her attachment to real- istic imaging and accepts a radically abstract one. by the time of his death, leroy no longer believes that traditional portraiture captures the essence of his being. in turning to cubism, a style that flattens images onto the canvas in order to show differ- ent sides simultaneously from different angles, the sailor asserts his multifaceted identity. ellison was enamored with this revolutionary style, which gave rise to a reassessment of the interaction between form and space, and he considered its implications in his letters, inter- views, and essays. he admired picasso, the painter critics credit with infusing portraiture with a psychological depth not achieved visual art of invisible man by traditional portrayals. ellison describes picasso as “the greatest wrestler with forms and techniques” because he “never abandoned the . . . symbolic forms of spanish art . . . that allow the artist to speak of complex experiences and to annihilate time with simple lines and curves.” he proceeds to aver that picasso’s method allows “the viewer an orientation, both emotional and associative, which goes so deep that a total culture may resound in a simple rhythm, an image” (ce, – ). ellison believed that the success of black writers depended on a similar approach, and through leroy’s abstract portrait, he forth- rightly exploits cubist philosophy. yet the published text omits leroy’s portrait and, as such, mani- fests ellison’s maturing style. he continued to regard abstract visual art highly, but he developed a more writerly sense of its place in his fiction. similar to picasso in his dependence on elemental symbols in spanish and african culture, ellison relies chiefly on black folklore and music to depict his protagonist’s complicated consciousness. the numerous portraits and visually constructed scenes woven through- out the narrative compose a kind of collage that ultimately rejects any parallel to a direct visual representation. we see invisible man solely through the lens of his evolving view of the visual objects, voices, and music surrounding him; in turn, he comes to esteem his individuality only as he learns to reject uncomplicated portrait styles that repudiate a chaotic picture of humanity. by becoming a savvy reader of visual images, invisible man embraces his individuality as well as his rela- tion to the founding principles of his country. he no longer seeks to craft a surface, fixed representation of himself or consents to being objectified visually; instead, he admits he has “been trying to look through” himself to assess his place in society ( ). as he concludes that the american democratic ideal, in its unperverted form, insists on the inclusion of his mind in its portrait, he acknowledges that his “attempt to write” down his experiences facilitates his comprehension of his identity ( ). ellison’s intimation that his protagonist prepares to write by becoming a sophisticated reader of plastic art objects elucidates his view regarding the relationship between visual culture and the role of u.s. fiction more broadly. considering the literary represen- tations of african americans that writers like john steinbeck and ernest hemingway proffered (when they included them at all), elli- son laments that “it is unfortunate for the negro that the most power- american literature ful formulations of modern american fictional words have been so slanted against him that when he approaches for a glimpse of himself he discovers an image drained of humanity” (ce, – ). ellison’s incorporation of visual art theory reveals his artistic attempt to rectify this problem and points to his admiration of the abstract art philoso- phies engaged by contemporary black visual artists. nevertheless, his invisible portrait ultimately acknowledges his partiality for portrayals of american blackness not dependent on or dedicated to an emphasis on outer appearance. his insistence that his protagonist learn to ana- lyze the visually structured society around him only to represent him- self through writing about his past points to ellison’s belief regarding the work of the novel. he explains that the novel seeks to communicate a vision of experience. therefore, whatever else it achieves artistically, it is basically a form of com- munication. when successful in communicating its vision of experi- ence, that magic thing occurs between the world of the novel and the reader—indeed, between reader and reader in their mutual soli- tude—which we know as communion . . . and it achieves univer- sality, if at all, through accumulating images of reality and arranging them in patterns of universal significance. (ce, ) by presenting invisible man’s tortured journey to self-knowledge, ellison imagines himself contributing another stroke to a complex, ever-evolving american portrait that cannot be contained by any sin- gular frame. his words disclose the ongoing conversation he imagines between his work and his readers, communication empowering his image of black america to escape stasis and simplicity. the completion of the prologue and epilogue brought ellison full circle to his early contemplation of creating prose as magical in mean- ing as in form. invisible man unequivocally declares his invisibility as the result of a state of mind rather than a physical predicament, thereby beginning and ending by directing his audience beyond his outward appearance. yet his explanation is by no means simple. the cyclical reasoning he engages casts a wide net of reproach, which elli- son outlines in his working notes. he explains “[i]nvisibility” as spring- ing from both white america’s prejudice and the “great formlessness of negro life wherein all values are in flux.” ultimately, invisible man celebrates african american cultural variability as vigorous and vibrant so long as he comprehends it. in composing his novel, ellison visual art of invisible man travels a similar trajectory. as he switches lines from the prologue to the epilogue and back again, he seems less focused on using the frame to free his narrative of contradiction than on making invisible man’s discoveries meaningful. the framing sections turn the text into a kind of verbal portrait. in the years following the publication of the novel, ellison remained wary of projects aiming to provide a visual equivalent for his text. after a spread on invisible man photographed by his friend gordon parks appeared in life magazine, ellison writes to wright, “being a photog- rapher and a writer, you will appreciate the tremendous difficulty of translating such intensified and heightened prose images into those of photography. at best, the essay turned out to be an excellent ad.” he eventually acquiesced to allowing franklin library to publish two illustrated versions of the novel, but found the results disappointing. to the several propositions for turning his book into a movie, he stead- fastly refused. he wrote to one hopeful producer, “i deeply regret to inform you that my novel, invisible man is not available for adapta- tion and never has been.” he continues, “i have been consistent in my refusal because i prefer that the book rest on its merits as a novel to be read rather than transposed into a form for which it was not writ- ten.” a proposition that the novel be adapted into a marvel comic also met with rejection. in each of these instances, ellison seems wary of contributing to a concrete picture of blackness. instead of seeking propitious visual depictions of blackness, he devotes his novel to por- traying interior truth. this mature consciousness demonstrates the malleability he associates with the power of the word. celebration of this power became a refrain in the lectures and essays he presented for the remainder of his life. although he had become increasingly active in the world of visual culture by the s—amass- ing an impressive collection of african art, helping found public tele- vision, and, in the s, sitting on museum boards—ellison grew more invested in the supremacy of the novel as a means for under- standing u.s. culture. he insisted that only the word could capture the complexity of american identity. this complexity consisted of the tension arising from the collision of the country’s written ideals, as outlined in the founding documents, and the historical and contempo- rary experiences molding the national consciousness. invisible man’s very invisibility, a state he embraces after rejecting all forms of visual representation as too restrictive to convey his interiority, demands american literature a concentration on his words, his mental sense of self. his memoir constitutes the ultimate abstract portrait through its power to trans- form the reality of his experiences into a comprehensive picture of his humanity. for ellison, only words, controlled through the process of countless revisions, hold the capacity for such a feat. university of iowa notes i am grateful to my former advisers at yale university for responses to early versions of this essay and to my colleagues at the university of iowa for more recent readings. i offer special thanks to horace porter, naomi greyser, adam bradley, sara blair, karin roffman, and michael hill. arnold rampersad, ralph ellison: a biography (new york: knopf, ), . ralph ellison to langston hughes, august , box , folder “cor- respondence,” – , langston hughes papers, beinecke rare book and manuscript library, yale university. ralph ellison’s letters and manuscript are quoted with the permission of his literary executor, john callahan, and the ellison estate and trust. although alain locke and james porter praised barthé’s formal skill, many african americans disagreed with white critics who applauded barthé’s classical celebration of the male nude. black critics accused him of “perpetuating damaging stereotypes” and objectifying “black people for personal gain.” see margaret vendryes, “casting feral benga: a biog- raphy of richmond barthé’s signature work,” anyone can fly foundation, www.anyonecanflyfoundation.org/library/vendryes_on_barthe_essay .html; and barthé: a life in sculpture ( jackson: univ. press of missis- sippi, ), . lawrence jackson thoroughly examines ellison’s early musical training in ralph ellison: emergence of genius (new york: wiley, ), – . ibid., . margaret vendryes recounts that “ellison’s apprenticeship under barthé was tumultuous and short-lived”; see “the lives of richmond barthé” in the greatest taboo: homosexuality in black communities, ed. delroy constantine-simms (los angeles: alyson books, ), – . ellison recalls, “i came up [to new york] during my junior year hoping to work and learn a little about sculpture. and although i did study a bit, . . . after a while i blundered into writing” (the collected essays of ralph ellison, ed. john callahan [new york: modern library, ], ). further refer- ences to ellison’s essays are to this edition and will be cited parentheti- cally as ce. visual art of invisible man richard powell, black art and culture in the twentieth century (london: thames and hudson, ), , . horace a. porter provocatively examines ellison’s friendship with bear- den in jazz country: ralph ellison in america (iowa city: univ. of iowa press, ). kimberly lamm also considers the connection between ellison’s and bearden’s work in “visuality and black masculinity in ralph ellison’s invisible man and romare bearden’s photomontages,” callaloo ( july ): – . porter, jazz country, . ralph ellison to richard wright, november , box , folder , richard wright papers, beinecke library. all material from these papers comes from this box and folder, hereafter cited as rwp. ellison often denied wright’s impact on his fiction, but the influence is unquestionable. essays such as michael fabre’s “from native son to invisible man: some notes on ralph ellison’s evolution in the s” and joseph skerrett’s “the wright interpretation: ralph ellison and the anxiety of influence” convincingly illustrate wright’s bearing on elli- son’s artistry. for both essays, see kimberly benston, ed., speaking for you: the vision of ralph ellison ( washington, d.c.: howard univ. press, ), – , – . ellison to wright, november , rwp. ellison to wright, august , rwp. jackson, emergence, . henry louis gates jr., “the face and voice of blackness,” in facing his- tory: the black image in american art, – (san francisco, calif.: bedford arts, ), xxx. jazz is the register ellison depends upon most heavily, and he expounds on its integral place in his creative philosophy in essays such as “living with music” (ce, – ). for further critical discussion of jazz in elli- son’s work, see porter, jazz country; berndt ostendorf, “ralph waldo ellison: anthropology, modernism, and jazz,” in new essays on “invisible man” (new york: cambridge univ. press, ), – ; kevin bell, “the embrace of entropy: ralph ellison and the freedom principle of jazz invisible,” boundary ( july ): – ; and timothy spauld- ing, “embracing the chaos in narrative form: the bebop aesthetic and ralph ellison’s invisible man,” callaloo (april ): – . ellison to wright, august , rwp. for an overview of the invisible man manuscript, see michael hill and lena hill, ralph ellison’s “invisible man”: a reference guide ( westport, conn.: greenwood, ), – . ellison’s attention to “packaging” extended beyond narrative to the material book itself. the cover of the first edition of invisible man recalls memento, a painting ellison discovered at an exhibition he visited in (artist unknown). see box , “art, catalogs” folder , ralph ellison american literature papers, library of congress; further references to this collection will be cited as rep. in his introduction to invisible man, ellison describes doing “free-lance photography (including book-jacket portraits of francis steegmuller and mary mccarthy).” see ralph ellison, invisible man (new york: vintage, ), x; further references to invisible man are to this edition and will be cited parenthetically. robert stepto, from behind the veil: a study of afro-american narrative, nd ed. (urbana: univ. of illinois press, ), . spencer crew helpfully reviews the history of black museums in “african americans, history and museums: preserving african american history in the public arena,” in making histories in museums, ed. gaynor kava- nagh (london: leicester univ. press, ), – . deborah willis charts the rise of black photography in the s in reflec- tions in black: a history of black photographers, to the present (new york: norton, ). box , “chapel” folder, rep. this photographic history comes from peter palmquist’s lecture, “the material culture of american photography,” beinecke master class, bei- necke rare book and manuscript library, yale university, may . sheldon annis, “making histories, making memories,” making histories in museums, ed. gaynor kavanagh (london: leicester univ. press, ), – . for these formulations, i am indebted to tony bennett’s discussion of museum culture in the birth of the museum: history, theory, politics (london: routledge, ). henry louis gates jr., “the trope of a new negro and the reconstruc- tion of the image of the black,” representations (october ): . john stauffer details douglass’s belief in the redemptive power of photog- raphy for fighting slavery and racism. see prophets of protest: reconsider- ing the history of american abolitionism, ed. timothy mccarthy and john stauffer (new york: new press, ), – . ellison takes direct aim at washington’s ideology through the protago- nist’s contemplation of the founder’s statue. his memory of the “bronze statue of the college founder” with “his hands outstretched in the breathtaking gesture of lifting a veil” represents the only truly ekphras- tic moment in the novel by evoking the booker t. washington monument on tuskegee’s campus ( ). it emphasizes ellison’s dependence on visual art to probe racial philosophies. for further consideration of women in the novel, see claudia tate, “notes on the invisible women in ralph ellison’s invisible man” in benston, speaking for you, – ; carolyn sylvander, “ralph ellison’s invisible man and female stereotypes,” negro american literature forum (octo- ber ): – ; and mary rohrberger, “ ‘ball the jack’: surreality, sexu- ality, and the role of women in invisible man,” in approaches to teach- visual art of invisible man ing ellison’s “invisible man”, ed. susan resneck parr and pancho savery (new york: modern language association, ), – . the most substantial relationships documented in the drafts occur between invisible man and a black woman, cleo, and a white woman, louise. see box , “at mary’s” folder and box , “brotherhood” folder, rep. ralph ellison to albert murray, january , in trading twelves: the selected letters of ralph ellison and albert murray, ed. albert murray and john f. callahan (new york: vintage, ), . see shelly eversley, “female iconography in invisible man,” in the cam- bridge companion to ralph ellison (cambridge, eng.: cambridge univ. press, ), – . this metaphorical framing evokes ernest hemingway’s double framing of the bull and brett ashley in the sun also rises ( ). the arena, as well as a group of dancing boys, frames the bull, and later, also frames brett. the framing symbolizes the shared status of the bull and brett, spectacles to be admired and feared. ellison’s respect for hemingway, along with his blatant allusions to the sun also rises, suggests his famil- iarity with hemingway’s modernist technique of relating ideas through double metaphorical frames. maurice o. wallace, constructing the black masculine: identity and ide- ality in african american men’s literature and culture, – (dur- ham, n.c.: duke univ. press, ), – . invisible man similarly stands on a “soiled canvas” to deliver his maiden brotherhood speech in the arena ( ). earlier drafts reveal ellison selecting this language over his initial description of the flooring as a “flag-draped platform” (box , “brotherhood, arena speech” folder, rep ). susan stewart, “the eidos in the hand” (lecture, andrew carnduff ritchie lecture series, yale art gallery, new haven, dec ). see robin jaffee frank, love and loss: american portrait and mourning miniatures (new haven: yale univ. press, ), . stepto astutely comments on this picture but designates it a “cameo” (from behind the veil, ). my designating it as a miniature acknowl- edges ellison’s attention to distinct forms of portraiture and their socio- historical significance. box , “campus” folder , rep. for these formulations i am indebted to tamar garb’s discussion of renoir in bodies of modernity: figure and flesh in fin-de-siècle france (london: thames and hudson, ), . box , “red robe” folder, rep. ibid. rampersad notes ellison’s expert work in photography with a specific “emphasis on portraiture” ( a biography, ). for a comprehensive, american literature richly nuanced discussion of ellison and photography, see sara blair’s superb chapter in harlem crossroads: black writers and the photograph in the twentieth century (princeton, n.j.: princeton univ. press, ), – . marc conner’s keen analysis of the text’s investment in material objects draws a similar conclusion about the eviction scene and expounds upon the significance of memory and history. see “the litany of things: sacrament and history in invisible man” in ralph ellison and the raft of hope: a political companion to “invisible man” (lexington: univ. press of kentucky, ), – . ellison also appeals to the concept of collage to describe the multifaceted nature of u.s. existence. at bearden’s funeral, ellison claimed, “[w]e are a collage of a nation, a nation that is ever shifting about and grousing as we seek to achieve the promised design of democracy” (ce, xvii). box , “brotherhood” folder , rep. box , “hattie and julius franklin” folder, rep. in “ambivalent man: ellison’s rejection of communism,” african ameri- can review ( january ): – , jesse wolfe examines ellison’s relationship to communism and its deployment in invisible man. barbara foley insightfully suggests that the manuscript reveals ellison’s complex attitude toward communism; see “from communism to brotherhood: the drafts of invisible man,” in left of the color line: race, radicalism, and twentieth-century literature of the united states, ed. bill v. mullen and james smethurst (chapel hill: univ. of north carolina press, ). lamm, “visuality and black masculinity,” . ibid., . box , “brotherhood” folder, rep. the manuscript includes a long scene crafted around these remembered words. following his browbeating by bledsoe, the protagonist visits woodridge, a brilliant young professor rumored to be homosexual. he finds woodridge drunk in his apartment decorated with “prints of mod- ern paintings which [the protagonist] could not understand” (ellison pencils above the typescript to describe the paintings as “a maze of won- derful colors and meaningless forms.” ) a different version notes, “prints of abstract paintings puzzled me from the walls.” woodridge points to “a chest on one end of which there stood a nude male torso and on the other an ugly primitive african statue,” and he tells the protagonist, “relax like the white boy there. you live like the other all the time. . . . forced into extreme positions. distorted in the interest of design.” in keeping with the general philosophy of his revisions, ellison excludes this museum episode, which features a character verbally challenging invisible man to reassess his projected image (box , “chapel” folder ; and box , “woodridge” folder , rep ). roderick ferguson provocatively con- siders the unpublished woodridge scenes at length; see aberrations in visual art of invisible man black: toward a queer of color critique (minneapolis: univ. of minnesota press, ), – . box , “brotherhood” folder , rep. box , “brotherhood” folder , rep. leroy’s journal entries offer highly intellectual, radical analyses of race relations. jackson notes that the deletion of leroy’s writings removed the “international political consciousness” from the novel and left ellison “more vulnerable” to criticism from the left (emergence, ). box , “at mary’s” folder, rep. elizabeth yukins considers the relationship between ellison’s interest in cubism and his writing in “an ‘artful juxtaposition on the page’: memory, perception, and cubist technique in ralph ellison’s juneteenth,” pmla (october ): – . this major revision was also encouraged by a reader whose initials are “hf,” likely harry ford of knopf: “careful reading leads me to feel quite strongly that leroy’s diary should be dropped entirely. prolix, didactic and inimical to the narrative—a crutch for the narrator which never entirely works. . . . it seems to me that either leroy has to be introduced as a character (if it is really necessary to project his highly sophisticated viewpoint) or eliminated entirely. i would prefer the latter.” see box , folder , rep. box , folder , rep. ellison to wright, january , rwp. see letter from fanny ellison to john groth, october , box , folder , rep. box , folder , rep; box , folder , rep. copyright of american literature is the property of duke university press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. however, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. < dc ccc a e > doi : . /jkca. . . . 게임 캐릭터의 아이덴티티 개선방안 : 게임 캐릭터 제작방식의 기호학적 분석 중심으로 improving game character design identity : focus on game character design method through semiotic analysis 이제, 경병표, 유석호, 이완복 국립공주 학교 학원 게임디자인학과 je lee(lide@kongju.ac.kr), byung-pyo kyung(kyungbp@kongju.ac.kr), seuc-ho ryu(seanryu@kongju.ac.kr), wan-bok lee(wblee@kongju.ac.kr) 요약 본 논문은 캐릭터의 기호학 분석을 통해 효과 인 게임 캐릭터 디자인 방법에 해 제안하 다. 다양한 콘텐츠의 캐릭터 게임 캐릭터만이 가진 특징을 알아보고, 그 특징에 scott mccloud의 "아이콘화"의 개념을 도입하여 캐릭터와 기호학의 계에 해 고찰하 다. 그리고 추상화된 기호 캐릭터와 사실 캐릭터를 구분하여 각각의 특징과 장 , 단 을 악하고, 디자이 의 캐릭터 제작 과정과 수용자의 캐릭 터 인지과정을 단계별로 나 어 기호학 으로 해석해보았다. 그 결과 두 과정을 서로 역순으로 진행된다 는 것을 알 수 있었으며 수용자의 기호학 인식과정을 고려한 캐릭터 디자인 과정이 게임 콘텐츠 반의 특징을 더 효과 으로 달할 수 있다는 것을 확인할 수 있었다. ■ 중심어 :∣게임∣캐릭터∣기호학∣디자인∣아이덴티티∣ abstract this paper proposed an efficient game character design method through semiotic analysis of character. it inquired into the characteristics of game character of various contents characters, added the concept of "iconic abstraction" of scott mccloud to its characteristics, and studied on the relation between the character and the semiotics. the semiotic character from the factual character, seized the strong and weak point of each character, and divided them in the designer's character production process and gamer's character recognition process step by step for its semiotic interpretation. as a result, two processes were reversely progressed, and the character designing process considering this gamer's semiotic recognition process is expected to be the efficient character design element that can deliver the whole characteristics of game contents. ■ keyword :∣game∣character∣semiotic∣design∣identity∣ * 본 논문은 한국콘텐츠학회 iccc 국제학술 회 우수논문입니다. 수번호 : # - 수일자 : 년 월 일 심사완료일 : 년 월 일 교신 자 : 유석호, e-mail : seanryu@kongju.ac.kr i. 서 론 만화, 게임, 애니메이션 등의 문화 콘텐츠 산업에서 캐릭터는 콘텐츠를 표하는 요한 역할을 한다. 고부 가가치 산업의 심에 있는 캐릭터는 그 디자인에 따라 무한한 경제 , 문화 가치를 갖는다. 게임 캐릭터의 아이덴티티 개선방안 : 게임 캐릭터 제작방식의 기호학적 분석 중심으로 국내 게임 콘텐츠 산업은 속도로 양 팽창을 하고 있는 것에 비해 인기 장르에 유사 이방식을 용한 게임들이 다량 제작되어 질 인 성장은 더딘 상황이다. 비슷한 스토리, 설정, 디자인은 각 게임간의 차별성을 해하고, 세계시장 진출 시 경쟁력을 상실하게 한다. 특히 온라인게임분야에서 선 하고 있는 세계 인 게 임제작 국가인 우리나라에서 세계 으로 성공하여 상 품화되고 있는 게임캐릭터는 히 은 편이다. 캐릭터는 그 콘텐츠 체와 유기 으로 호흡하기 때 문에 각각의 캐릭터가 콘텐츠 없이 그 디자인의 독창성 만으로 성공하는 경우는 극히 드물다. 캐릭터는 콘텐츠 의 스토리와 세계 을 포함한 함축 인 그래픽 표 이 고 콘텐츠가 성공하기 해서는 캐릭터로의 감정이입 이 선행되어야 한다[ ]. 감정이입은 수용자가 콘텐츠를 할 때 캐릭터와 동화되어 새로운 경험을 할 수 있게 만드는 기본조건이다[ ]. 수용자가 효과 으로 캐릭터로 감정이입이 되는 것 에 한 연구는 지속 으로 진행되어 왔다. 가장 표 인 사례 스콧 맥클라우드(scott mccloud)의 “만 화의 이해(understanding comic)”에서는 “아이콘화 (iconic abstraction)”라는 개념을 주장하 는데, 이는 기호학을 바탕으로 캐릭터 디자인을 인류학 인 이해 를 바탕으로 설명하고 있다. 본 논문에서는 카툰 캐릭터의 “아이콘화”를 이해하 고, 그것을 기 로 게임 캐릭터의 특징과 제작과정, 수 용자 인지과정을 기호학 으로 분석하여 효과 인 아 이덴티티 개선방안에 해 고찰하 다. 논문의 구성은 장에서 캐릭터의 정의와 게임 캐릭터의 차별 특징 에 해 서술하고, 장에서는 캐릭터 디자인에 용할 아이콘화와 기호학의 주요이론을 정리하고, 장에서는 기호학을 심으로 캐릭터 제작과정과 수용자 인지과 정을 단계별로 나 어 설명하여 장에서 결론을 맺었다. ii. 게임 캐릭터의 개요 . 캐릭터의 정의 캐릭터는 생명체를 의미하는 것으로 콘텐츠에서의 사람처럼 성격과 개성을 가진 등장인물이나 그림을 일 컫는다. 캐릭터는 고유한 디자인요소( , 선, 면의 세 가 지 요소)로 구성되어 있으며. 이러한 요소들이 결합하 여 만들어진 이미지로 인해 형성된 정체성(매력, 개성) 으로 생명력이 생긴 결합체라 할 수 있다[ ]. . 게임 캐릭터의 특징 . 상호작용 게임이 기존 매체인 화, 만화, 등과 다른 은 수용 자가 인칭 간 경험이 아닌 인칭 체험을 하게 된다는 이다. 수행성은 게임 고유의 특징이라고 할 수 있다 [ ]. 게임의 입력방식에는 키보드. 마우스, 조이스틱, 조 이패드, 센서, 카메라, 마이크 등이 있으며 이를 이용하 여 수용자는 객체(게임 캐릭터)를 직 조종한다. 반응 방식에는 그래픽, 사운드, 동작 발생기 등이 있으며 이 는 수용자에게 가상 실의 반응을 실에 한다. 게임 은 수용자의 수행성을 가상의 환경 속에 캐릭터에 용 함으로서 다른 콘텐츠보다 몰입이 쉽게 이루어진다. . 상호작용으로 인한 정체성 확대 마샬 맥루헌은 사람들이 비 생명체와 상호작용을 할 때 비시각 인 인식과 비슷한 상이 일어난다고 주장 했다. 상호작용을 통해 확장된 정체성은 상을 흡수하 여 버린다. 를 들면 차를 타고 가다가 사고가 났을 때 “ 사람 이 날 받았어”라고 인식하는 것과 같다. 실제로는 “ 차가 내 차를 받았어.”가 맞지만 운 자는 정체성을 확 장시켜 차를 자신에게 흡수시킨다[ ]. 이는 이싱게임 에서 화면상의 차량을 조종하는 사람에게, 그리고 한 단계 더 나아가 그 차량에게 같이 자신의 정체성을 확장시키는 것과 같다. 이러한 정체성의 확장은 콘텐츠 로의 몰입으로 이어지고, 게임이란 장르가 수용자에게 오락 요소를 가장 많이 제공하는 이유이기도 하다. . 새로운 디지털그래픽 기술의 시험대 게임 산업은 기술발 과 하다. 신기술의 용이 가장 활발하며, 게임이라는 매체의 오락 인 특징으로 인하여 이며 인기가 높기 때문에 기술의 특징을 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. 가장 효과 으로 에게 시연할 수 있는 매체이다. 특히 디지털 그래픽 분야에서의 그 상이 높다. 를 들어 정 한 d-modeling 기술이나 물리시스템 등은 사진사실주의(photorealism)를 시뮬 이션 하는데 어 려움이 없을 정도로 발 하고 있고, 이는 게임에 극 용되고 있다. 게임에서 사진사실주의를 추구하는 이 유는 감각자극이 실세계의 것과 유사할수록 수용자 의 몰입을 극 화 할 수 있기 때문이다[ ]. 게임 콘텐츠에서 단순하고, 추상화된 그래픽만 고집 하는 것은 그 콘텐츠의 특징을 제 로 이해하지 못한 결과일 수 있다. 실제 비디오 게임 콘텐츠 시장에서 사 실 인 표 방식의 콘텐츠들은 새로운 디지털 그래픽 신기술로 시장을 주도하고 있기도 하다. iii. 캐릭터의 아이콘화 . 아이콘화란 아이콘(icon)이란 사람이나 장소, 사물 혹은 발상을 표상하는 모든 형상을 뜻한다. 아이콘화(iconic abstraction)는 사실 인 모델을 추상화하여 보다 은 그래픽요소로 상을 표상할 수 있게 단순화하는 것이 다. 아이콘화의 효과는 인물을 추상화하여 카툰화하면 보편 인간상으로 보이게 되고 이는 몰입과 공감을 이 끌며, 동일시하는데 도움을 다는 것이다. 모든 매체에 서 동일시는 서사의 몰입과 흥미를 느끼게 하는 요한 요소가 된다[ ]. 그림 . 만화의 이해 도표 [그림 ]은 사실 인 이미지(realistic image)와 언어 (language), 도형(abstract shapes)으로 카툰 스타일을 나 도표이다. 스콧 맥클라우드는 사실 인 스타일과 추상 인 스타일 모두 가치가 있지만 는 더 상징을 지향하는 문화가 되어가고 있다고 지 했다. 아이콘화는 인간의 인지심리학에서 발 한 내용이고, 인류학 인 근이므로 을 상 하는 캐릭터 산업 에서 보편 으로 용되는 가치를 도출할 수 있다. 이 를 게임 캐릭터 개발에 용하면 더 많은 에게 강 력한 감정이입 효과를 발휘할 수 있다. . 수용(perceived)과 인지(received) 비주얼스토리텔링의 캐릭터와 감상자 사이에는 도상 (圖像) 형태의 인지를 통한 감각 커뮤니 이션이 발생하게 된다[ ]. 이미지는 수용되는 정보이고, 언어는 인지되는 정보 이다. 이미지는 즉각 인 인상을 주고 은 교육되어졌 기 때문에 달하는 개념의 오차가 고 추상화된 념 을 한다. 그래픽 디자인에서 포스터(poster)는 이미지 와 언어의 조합으로 효과 인 커뮤니 이션을 실 하 다. 캐릭터는 이미지로서 수용되지만 동시에 그 각각의 형태는 인지되기도 한다. 를 들면 슈퍼마리오의 경우 이미지는 수용되지만 이 후에 “모자를 쓴 수염 난 작은 아 씨”라고 인지된다. 이는 도상 형태로 인지를 통 해 언어(개념)로도 장하기 때문이다. 수용자는 캐릭 터의 시각 자극이 사라진 후에도 그 캐릭터를 기억하 기 해 추상화된 개념이나 언어로 정보를 기억한다. 오히려 시각 인 수용은 언어가 수 없는 강한 시각 인상을 주지만 자극 후에 자세한 묘사에 한 기억 은 희미해지기도 한다. . 기표와 기의 그림 . 소쉬르의 기표와 기의 기표와 기의는 “의미하다”라는 뜻의 불어 동사 게임 캐릭터의 아이덴티티 개선방안 : 게임 캐릭터 제작방식의 기호학적 분석 중심으로 signifier에서 생된 것으로 기표는 “의미하는 것”기의 는 “의미되어 진 것”이라는 뜻이 된다. 이 보통명사가 소쉬르(saussure)의 구조언어학에서 기표와 기의라는 명 인 개념으로 변했다. 우리가 말하는 단어들은 기 표이고, 그 단어들의 의미는 기의이다[ ]. 나타낸 형식인 기표(이미지)는 수용되고, 사물의 개 념인 기의(언어)는 인지된다. 기표와 기의의 계에 해서는 소쉬르는 “기표와 기의의 계는 자의 이다.” 라고 이야기하 지만 퍼스(peirce)는 그 계를 세 가 지 유형으로 나 고 상의 특징을 찰하 다[ ]. 퍼스 의 분류 한 기표와 기의의 자의 인 계 안에서 정 의되었다. 표 . 퍼스 기호학의 삼분법 삼분법에서 인간은 다양한 의미와의 근거를 통해 기의와 기표를 연결한다는 을 알 수 있다. 가장 보편 인 형태인 언어를 비롯하여, 시각 인 유사함과 인과 계를 통해서도 우리는 기표와 기의를 연결 짓는다[ ]. . 언어의 특징 언어라는 기표는 실제 이미지와는 아무런 형태 유 사성이 없으나 기의를 표상한다. 이는 차 으로 교육 을 통해 이루어진다. 교육을 통해 이루어졌기 때문에 보편 이며 의미체계가 정확하다. 퍼스의 기호학 삼분 법에서 상징(symbol)에 해당한다. 캐릭터를 인식할 때 이미지를 기표로 수용하고, 그 이미지는 동시에 기의들로 변환되어 인지된다. 인지된 기의들은 다시 수용자 내에서 기표를 기억하는 시발 이 되고, 이는 다시 캐릭터를 시각 으로 인식할 때 기 표와 연결된다. 이러한 작업이 반복, 학습되면서 캐릭터 자체를 상징(symbol)으로 인식하게 만들어 다. 미키 마우스를 로 들면 두 개의 동그란 귀, 검은색 쥐, 꼬리 와 장갑 등의 각각의 기의의 조합으로 인지하기 시작하 다가 이것이 반복되면 우리는 그 캐릭터 이미지를 “미 키마우스”라는 하나의 상징으로 인지하게 된다. 동시에 “두개의 동그란 귀를 가진 검은 쥐”만 들어도 미키마우 스의 캐릭터 이미지를 떠올릴 수 있다. 아이콘화가 단순히 추상화가 목표라 한다면 캐릭터 는 언어로 이루어지는 것이 가장 이상 인 것처럼 보일 수도 있겠지만 소설에서처럼 언어로만 이루어질 수 없 다. 캐릭터는 이미지로 수용되는 개체이고. 언어로만 이루어진다면 기의의 조합 일뿐 다른 심미 인상이나 개성을 해주지 못한다. . 도형(abstract shapes) 의 [그림 ]에서 나온 이미지와 언어의 단계 외에 상단 꼭지 부분의 도형(abstract shapes)의 단계가 있다. 사실 인 이미지가 추상화와 계없이 도형으로 바 는 것은 큐비즘(cubism:입체 )을 연상할 수 있다. 일종의 추상미술로의 변화이다. 이것을 캐릭터에 용 하 을 때 기의를 연상하게 하지 못하고 시각 인상으 로만 끝날 수도 있다. 그림 . 변형한 만화의 이해 도표 하지만 큐비즘의 원류인 폴 세잔느(paul cezanne, - )의 “모든 것은 원통, 원뿔, 구로 환원된다.” 라는 주장은 자연을 도형으로 재구성하는 추상화의 시 작이라고 할 수 있다. 이것은 의 디자인에도 큰 향을 끼쳤다. 이는 도형을 언어와 같이 최고 수 의 추 상화 단계로 이해한다[ ]. [그림 ]은 도형을 언어와 같은 개념으로 해석하여 [그림 ]을 변형한 도표이다. 기본 도형을 활용하여 만 들어진 캐릭터들이 세계 으로 사랑받는 이유는 가 장 추상화된 조합으로 이루어졌기 때문이다. 수용자는 기본도형을 언어와 같은 기표로 인지하기도 한다. 추상 화된 캐릭터는 의미작용 상에서 수용자에게 명확함을 제공한다. 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. . 기호적 캐릭터, 사실적 캐릭터 기호 캐릭터는 실제 외양에서 추상화되었으나 여 히 비슷한 도상 법칙기호를 말하며 사실 캐릭터 는 실재와 닮은 사실 이미지인 도상 개별기호를 말 한다[ ]. 사실 인 것과 도상 인 것의 순환은 석기시 부터 시작한다. 이는 시 의 념에 따라 환되는데 석기시 , 르네상스 회화, 그리스, 하이퍼리얼리즘 등은 사실 이미지가 발 하 고, 신석기시 , 이집트 벽화, 세시 , 카툰, 만화는 추상 이미지가 발 하 다. 인쇄 기 시 에는 인쇄품질이나 경제성 면에서 도 상 이미지가 발 하 지만 의 디지털 그래픽 시 에는 사실 인 이미지, 도상 인 이미지의 제작상의 경제 인 차이가 어들었다[ ]. 기술 인 발 으로 인해 캐릭터 산업 인 측면에서도 도상 캐릭터가 상 품화가 용이하므로 기 발 이 활발하 으나 재에 는 기호에 따라 다양한 상품이 개발되고 있는 상황이다. 특히 게임에서 기호 캐릭터는 추상화되어 수용자 의 감정이입을 돕고, 사실 캐릭터는 실세계의 감각 자극을 도와 몰입감을 높여 주기 때문에 기획 의도에 따라 선택 으로 용하여야 한다. iv. 게임캐릭터 아이콘화 단계 . 캐릭터의 기획과 제작 프로세스 . 게임 캐릭터 개발 프로세스 그림 . 게임 캐릭터 개발 프로세스 [그림 ]는 일반 인 게임 캐릭터 개발 로세스를 설명한 그림이다. 게임의 총 기획이 끝나면, 시나리 오, 세계 들의 구체 인 게임 내용을 설계하고 이를 바탕으로 캐릭터들을 창조한다. 캐릭터 설정 시에 시나리오와 세계 에서 도출된 기 의를 활용해야 캐릭터의 이미지로 시나리오와 세계 을 떠올릴 수 있으며, 캐릭터 이미지로 체 콘텐츠를 표상할 수 있게 된다. . 게임 캐릭터의 기호학적 의미과정 그림 . 캐릭터제작의 기호학적 의미과정 ① 게임의 장르와 시나리오, 세계 같은 기기획이 끝나면 캐릭터 설정에 들어간다. 여기서 캐릭터의 성향이나 특징을 부여한다. 를 들어 “ 세시 왕 다툼 속에서 왕 를 되찾는 왕자”라면 “정의 로움”,“강인함” “ 명함”과 같은 기의를 뽑아낼 수 있다. 이러한 기의는 기기획에서 도출한다. 기 의의 설정에서 캐릭터의 개성이 시작된다. ② 이것은 다시 기표로 환된다. 기표의 선택은 자 의 이기 때문에 디자이 와 기획자의 선택에 달 려있다. [강인함-근육]처럼 보편 인 연결일 수도 있고, 특정한 기표를 설정할 수도 있다. 특정한 기 표 설정 한 시나리오나 세계 과 연 되어야하 며 콘텐츠를 했을 때 그 이유의 당 성이 있어 야 한다. ③ 설정된 기표를 조합하고 스타일을 가미하여 캐릭 터를 디자인한다. 디자이 의 시각 심미성이 표 되는 단계이다. 기표의 다양한 용을 통해 여 러 시안이 나올 수 있으며, 완성된 디자인은 기표 가 효과 으로 달되어야 한다. . 캐릭터의 수용과 인지과정 . 사실적 게임 캐릭터의 인지 과정 그림 . 사실적 캐릭터 인지 과정 게임 캐릭터의 아이덴티티 개선방안 : 게임 캐릭터 제작방식의 기호학적 분석 중심으로 사실 캐릭터는 수용될 때 실세계와 흡사한 시각 자극을 다. 치 한 묘사와 실성은 콘텐츠의 몰 입을 돕는다. 하지만 사실 인 묘사는 다양한 시각 장식으로 인해 기표의 도출이 어려운 단 이 있다. ① 사실 인 캐릭터에서 디테일한 묘사는 자극 후에 차 희미해지고 수용자는 캐릭터를 기억하기 해 특징을 찾아내 추상화하여 기억한다. 특징을 찾아내기 힘들다면 이는 사실 이미지에 불과하 다. ② 이미지는 기표를 심으로 추상화된다. 추상화는 기표를 심으로 특징 이외에 정보는 삭제하는 작 업이라고도 할 수 있다. 캐릭터를 여러 기표의 조 합으로 수용하는 단계이다. ③ 기표는 기의를 표상한다. 기표와 기의의 계는 자의 이기 때문에 수용자는 기표에 한 다양한 해석이 가능하다. 하지만 시나리오를 알아가면서 기표와 련된 기의를 이해할 수 있다. ④ 기표는 시나리오, 세계 과 결합하면서 기획된 기 의로 더욱 명확하게 인지된다. ⑤ 기표와 기의의 연결 작용으로 인하여 캐릭터 디자 인의 당 성이 확인된다. 다시 사실 인 캐릭터의 시각 자극이 일어나면 이는 이미 학습하 던 기 표와 기의와 맞물리면서 하나의 아이콘이 된다. 캐릭터를 수용할 때 수용자는 사실 이미지의 자극 에서 기의로까지 침투한다. 이는 [그림 ]의 제작 워크 로우의 역순으로 진행되며 이는 게임 기획과 설정에 서 나온 기표와 기의가 캐릭터 디자인 설정의 상당한 부분을 차지한다는 것을 알 수 있다. . 기호적 게임 캐릭터 인지 과정 그림 . 기호적 캐릭터 인지 과정 ① 기호 캐릭터는 추상화 과정을 거쳤기 때문에 사 실 캐릭터보다 쉽게 기표를 도출 할 수 있다. 기 표로 인식되지 않는 다양한 기하학 형태가 존재 할 수 있는데 이는 그 형태 자체를 기표로 수용하 면 된다. ② 기표는 상이 가능한 기의로 변환된다. 한 가지 기표에 한 다양한 기의가 상될 수 있다. ③ 상된 기의는 시나리오와 세계 과 보완작용을 하며 그 당 성이 확인되며, 이는 캐릭터 디자인 과 체 콘텐츠가 유기 으로 호흡할 수 있게 해 다. ④ 수용자는 반복 으로 기호 캐릭터 이미지를 수 용하면서 기의와 기표는 캐릭터 이미지로 함축되 어 단일 상징으로 기억된다. . 아이콘화 프로세스 사실 캐릭터와 기호 캐릭터의 인지 과정을 비교 해보면 기호 캐릭터의 단계가 기표로 환되는데 효 과 임을 알 수 있다. 이로 인해 기호 캐릭터가 더 쉽 게 게이머에게 수용, 인지됨을 상할 수 있다. 캐릭터 인지 과정의 특징은 수용자가 캐릭터를 수용 과 인지하는 단계가 게임 캐릭터를 제작하는 단계에 역순으로 진행된다는 것이다. 게임의 기획과 설정, 세계 , 시나리오는 캐릭터를 통해 고스란히 수용자에게 달되는 것이다. 철 한 기표나 기의의 기획 없이 디테 일에 주력하거나 심미 인 스타일만 추구한 캐릭터는 추상화 과정에서 아무것도 남기지 못한 캐릭터로 락 할 수 있다. 게임 캐릭터 디자이 는 기획자와의 커뮤니 이션을 통해 기표와 기의를 도출하고, 시각 심미성을 추가하 여 캐릭터를 디자인하여야 한다. 그 과정에서 기표는 무리 없이 수용자에게 달되어야 하며, 이는 캐릭터의 아이덴티티를 구성할 수 있게 도와 다. 캐릭터 디자이 의 요한 역할 하나는 기의를 기 표로 이미지화하고 기표가 잘 표 될 수 있게 그 개수 나 비 을 조 하는 것이다. 기표와 기의의 연결에 해서는 기의를 쉽게 도출할 수 있게 보편 인 기표를 선택할 수도 있고, 캐릭터에 개성을 부여하기 해 생 소한 기표를 선택할 수 있다. 보편 인 연결은 자칫 다 른 캐릭터들과 차별성이 떨어질 수 있는 단 이 있고, 한국콘텐츠학회논문지 ' vol. no. 생소한 기표는 자칫 기의로 연결되지 않을 수도 있다. 생소한 기표는 시나리오나 세계 을 통해 그 이유를 충 분히 납득시켜야 수용자가 캐릭터를 이해할 수 있게 된다. . 게임 캐릭터의 기호학적 표현 예시 그림 . 갓 오브 워의 크레이토스 ready at dawn사의 액션게임 갓 오 워(got of war)의 크 이토스는 사실 이고 정교한 묘사의 캐릭 터이지만 여러 기표를 쉽게 찾아낼 수 있다. 장신구, 무 기의 디자인과 캐릭터의 외모 같은 기표에서 수용자는 게임 콘텐츠 반에 흐르는 기의를 찾아낼 수 있다. 게 임 캐릭터의 특징인 커스터마이즈(customize:사용자화) 기능으로 의상을 바꾸어도 캐릭터 본래의 기표 표 을 조 하여 캐릭터 아이덴티티를 유지할 수 있다. 그림 . 닌텐도의 슈퍼마리오 닌텐도의 슈퍼마리오는 게임캐릭터의 고 부가가치를 증명하는 일본의 인기캐릭터이다. 오랜 시간동안 여러 게임 시스템을 거치면서 다양한 표 방식으로 캐릭터 를 재생산하 다. 주목할 은 해상도 그래픽에서 d 표 에 까지 다양한 변화가 있었으나 동일한 기표를 사 용함으로서 일 된 아이덴티티를 유지하고 있다는 이다. 게임 캐릭터의 아이덴티티에는 표 방식보다 기 표의 구성이 더 큰 향을 주는 것을 알 수 있다. 이러한 을 통해 닌텐도의 다른 캐릭터인 “젤다”, 일 본의 “건담”의 경우 sd캐릭터와 실제 비율 캐릭터를 자유롭게 변형하며 캐릭터를 재생산하지만 일 인 아이덴티티가 유지된다. v. 결론 캐릭터는 기표와 기의의 집합이며, 심미성을 추가하 여 그 자체가 단일기호(symbol)가 되는 것을 목표로 한 다. 캐릭터 디자인은 시각 완성도도 요하지만 그 내면에는 철 한 생성구조와 인지구조를 가지고 있어 서 수용자는 자신도 모르게 기표를 찾고 기의를 발견하 여 그 캐릭터 디자인의 당 성을 찾아낸다. 게임 콘텐츠의 기획에서부터 하게 련된 기의 는 캐릭터와 게임 이를 통해 수용자가 인지하게 된 다. 따라서 치 하고 차별화된 기의 설정 없이 디자이 의 미 능력에 기 어 캐릭터를 디자인한다면 디자 이 의 능력이 뛰어나더라도 캐릭터는 콘텐츠를 표상 할 수 있는 아이덴티티를 잃게 된다. 이 논문에서는 카툰 캐릭터의 아이콘화와 기호학 분 석을 통하여 캐릭터의 인지 과정을 기표와 기의 개념을 용하여 해석하고, 기표와 기의 설정과 의미작용의 요성에 해 이야기하 다. 하지만 디자이 가 캐릭터 의 기표들을 조합하고 스타일을 추가하는 디자인 작업 한 매우 요하며, 추가로 게임 캐릭터의 움직임, 커 스터마이즈 시스템, 캐릭터 음성 한 캐릭터 디자인의 큰 기표가 될 수 있다. 이에 한 내용 한 향후 추가 연구되어야 할 부분이다. 참 고 문 헌 [ ] scottmccloud, understanding comics, kitchen sink press, . 게임 캐릭터의 아이덴티티 개선방안 : 게임 캐릭터 제작방식의 기호학적 분석 중심으로 [ ] 최혜실 ,문화콘텐츠 스토리텔링을 만나다, 삼성경 제연구소, . [ ] 정 태, “캐릭터 디자인을 한 감성 선호 분 석”, journal of the ergonomics society of korea vol. , no. pp. - , . [ ] 오 주, “게임 캐릭터의 조형성에 한 연구”, 한 국콘텐츠학회, vol. , no. , . [ ] marshall mcluhan, understanding media, mit press, . [ ] 백승국, “소쉬르 기호학 이론과 게임 콘텐츠 연구 ", 한국 기호학회 제 집 pp. - , . [ ] 최여정, “안구 운동 추 과 뇌 측정을 통한 기호 만화 캐릭터와 사실 만화 캐릭터의 시 각 주의집 공감 연구”, 한국과학기술원, . [ ] 소쉬르, 일반언어학 강의, 민음사, . [ ] 조문식, “컴퓨터 게임에 한 기호학 분석 -퍼 스의 기호학을 심으로”, 경희 학교 학원, . [ ] 에 베르나르, 세잔느의 회상, 열화당, . [ ] philipb.meggs, history of graphic design, johnwiley&sonsinc, . 저 자 소 개 이 제(je lee) 준회원 ▪ 년 월 : 국민 학교 시각디 자인학과 졸업 ▪ 년 월 ～ 재 : 공주 학 교 학원 게임디자인 학과 재학 < 심분야> : 캐릭터 디자인, 애니메이션 경 병 표(byung-pyo kyung) 정회원 ▪ 년 월 : 일본 큐슈 술공과 학 술공학과 정보 달 공 ( 술공학석사) ▪ 년 월 ～ 재 : 공주 학 교 게임디자인학과 교수 < 심분야> : 게임디자인, 컴퓨터그래픽, 멀티미디어 유 석 호(seuc-ho ryu) 종신회원 ▪ 년 월 : 뉴욕공 커뮤니 이션아트 졸업(공학석사) ▪ 년 월 ～ 재 : 공주 학 교 게임디자인학과 교수 < 심분야> : 게임그래픽디자인, 멀티미디어 이 완 복(wan-bok lee) 종신회원 ▪ 년 월 : kaist 자 산 학과 기 자공학 공(공학 박사) ▪ 년 월 ～ 재 : 공주 학 교 게임디자인학과 교수 < 심분야> : 게임엔진, 시뮬 이션, 이산사건시스템 << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false 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cf be ef ee f f f e e e c f ad c f > /cht <feff f f e b a d b a efa acb ef b f ad f cf e ea ff c fbf bc d c cea ef ef ee f f f c e ca f b c f b f > >> >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version cubism and the fourth dimension chiara ambrosio department of science and technology studies ucl c.ambrosio@ucl.ac.uk abstract: this article revisits the historiography of cubism and mathematics, with a particular focus on pablo picasso’s uses of geometry at the end of the first decade of the twentieth century. in particular, i consider the artistic appropriation of the concept of the fourth dimension, and its pictorial uses as a conduit for a conceptual reformulation of pictorial space. i investigate picasso’s distinctive adoption of this geometric framework in relation to one of his experiments across painting and photography, and advocate the possibility of drawing novel historiographical lessons from picasso’s work - lessons that bring the historiography of cubism in a closer dialogue with recent debates in the historiography of science. i conclude with an appeal to consider the continued relevance of this past experiment in art and science when assessing the contemporary drive toward art-science collaborations, and use the case of cubism and the fourth dimension as a springboard for a critical reflection on the future directions of art-science collaborations. keywords: cubism, fourth dimension, art and science, interdisciplinarity introduction “the new painters do not claim to be geometricians any more than painters of the past did. but it is true that geometry is to the plastic arts what grammar is to the art of the writer. nowadays scientists have gone beyond the three dimensions of euclidean geometry. painters have been led quite naturally, and one might say intuitively, to take an interest in the possibilities for measuring space which in the modern artist’s studio were simply and collectively referred to as the fourth dimension” (apollinaire [ ] , ). it is with an appeal to the role of geometry in painting that the poet, playwright and art critic guillaume apollinaire opens the third chapter of his book, les peintres cubistes [the cubist painters]. a central source in the history of art criticism, apollinaire’s text contains an invitation to connect cubism with mathematical ideas “which in the artist’s studio were simply and collectively referred to as the fourth dimension”. in pointing to the well-established trope of geometry as providing a visual language for the plastic arts, apollinaire here evokes a newly discovered (at least by artists) mathematical concept that captivated the attention of painters especially in the first two decades of the twentieth century. the fact that, by , apollinaire could refer to the fourth dimension without delving into further qualifications suggests that he expected his audience to be mailto:c.ambrosio@ucl.ac.uk ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version relatively familiar with it – and indeed, as i will show in the course of this article, the historical record suggests that this was very much the case. that a technical, mathematical notion was appropriated and used by artists at the beginning of the twentieth century is no longer an astonishing discovery, at least for art historians. the past decades have seen the emergence of a lively body of literature offering conjectures on how the concept of the fourth dimension, and the visual sources associated to it, participated in the reformulation of pictorial space that characterised cubism in particular, as well as a range of subsequent avant-garde movements. in this article i want to revisit the historiography of cubism and mathematics and argue for the continuing relevance of the debates it generated. my aim is twofold. on one hand, i want to explore the historiographical lessons and tensions emerging from the scholarly study of the influence of concepts such as the fourth dimension on artistic practice at the beginning of the twentieth century. as will become evident in the course of my discussion, a primary concern for art historians has been to move away from celebratory accounts of cubism in which the figure of pablo picasso occupies centre stage, at the expenses of the “most intellectual” strands of the movement such as the puteaux group. while i acknowledge this shift of emphasis as crucial for the development of a new historiography of cubism, i propose that the role and influence on mathematical ideas on picasso’s own artistic production can be seen as complementary to the study of how later cubists such as albert gleizes and jean metzinger appropriated mathematical ideas and turned them into the very philosophy underpinning their pictorial reformulation of space. more specifically, i will propose that geometry, far from reinforcing the rhetoric surrounding picasso as the unquestioned ‘master’ of twentieth century painting, should be interpreted as part of a process of re-contextualisation of the early stages of cubism. i will suggest that this process of re- contextualisation can be framed in ways that share important points of contact with historiographical trends emerging in the history of science. on the other hand, and perhaps at a more theoretical level, my aim is to place the historical connection between cubism and mathematics in dialogue with the present revival of interest in the relationship between art and science. apollinaire here is my cue. the quote i used to open my discussion begins with a cautious disclaimer: “the new painters do not claim to be geometricians”. why would apollinaire deem it important to specify that the appropriation of geometric concepts by artists did not entail a conflation of painting and mathematics? chapter three of les peintres cubistes does give us a vague indication of what might have motivated apollinaire’s disclaimer: “the new painters”, he states only a few lines earlier, “have been roundly criticised for their interest in geometry” (ibid.). here i am not particularly interested in an exegetic study of who might have advanced such criticisms. instead, i want to show that apollinaire’s concerns resonate with tensions and preoccupations that are still very much alive, especially in the rhetoric surrounding contemporary art-science collaborations: what kinds of expectations should be placed on the current demand to foster interdisciplinary interactions between artists and scientists? what is distinctive of the outputs of such interactions, and why should we consider those outputs desirable? this line of inquiry was first explored by the art historian linda dalrymple henderson, whose work i discuss extensively below. ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version in revisiting the history and historiography of cubism and mathematics, i want to suggest that the most productive way to tackle these current questions is with an eye to the past. the conceptual approach i pursue in this article owes a great deal to andrew barry and georgina born’s ( ) recent work on interdisciplinarity, and particularly their critical analysis of ‘art-science’ – an emergent interdisciplinary field spanning an array of practices at the interface between art, science and technology. drawing on contemporary experiments, barry and born propose that this kind of interdisciplinary collaboration does not – and should not – serve only the instrumental purpose of providing new audiences for science, nor should it be merely construed as a simplified method to illustrate and celebrate scientific achievements. instead, they propose that the relation between science and the arts is best conceived as a kind of public experiment, “a type of public knowledge…that is in principle unfinished, in process and dialogical, developing through the reflexive relations between participants who are both the subjects and objects of knowledge (ibid. , emphasis in the original). the idea of public experiment follows directly from barry and born’s broader view of interdisciplinarity as the manifestation of a logic of ontology, “an array of efforts to transform the practice of research and training, inside and outside the academy, leading to the generation of novel problems, objects and relations of research, as well as interdisciplinary subjectivities” (ibid., ). barry and born’s claims about the transformative nature of art and science collaborations forms the conceptual background to my investigation of the relations between cubism and mathematics, and underpins my arguments about the distinctive kind of knowledge emerging from this interaction. in focusing on contemporary case studies, however, barry and born run the risk of overplaying the distinctiveness of ‘art-science’ collaborations as an invention of our time. in what follows, my aim is to investigate whether it may be instead the case that artists and scientists have been involved in the kind of generative, transformative experimentation that barry and born identify with a logic of ontology all along. thus, revisiting the relations between cubism and mathematics as an episode in the much longer history of art and science can serve the purpose of contextualising current practices and place them in dialogue with a much longer tradition, a tradition where both disciplines have served as each other’s critical counterpart in a sustained and still enlightening way. the historiography on the fourth dimension in art the scholarly literature on the relations between cubist art and science dates at least as far back as the s. a key source is stephen kern’s monumental the culture of time and space - ( ), a sweeping account of how changes in culture (broadly construed, as comprising emerging technologies and the natural and human sciences, as well as literature, philosophy, architecture and the visual and performing arts) created new modes of experiencing and understanding the two fundamental phenomenological categories of space and time. in a central chapter on “the nature of space”, kern tentatively suggests that the cubists’ rendering of multiple points of view might have had deeper roots in popular debates around the concept of the ‘fourth dimension’: “there was a popular interest in the fourth dimension in france at the time”, kern maintains, citing apollinaire’s writings on the subject, “which might have inspired the cubists” (kern ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version [ ] , ). in drawing this connection, kern refers to a seminal article by linda dalrymple henderson, “a new facet of cubism: ‘the fourth dimension’ and ‘non euclidean geometry’ reinterpreted”, published in in the art quarterly. the article’s main claims appeared in an expanded version in henderson’s book the fourth dimension and non-euclidean geometry in modern art, now a standard reference in studies of the relations between modern art and the popularisation of n-dimensional geometries in the twentieth century. henderson’s pioneering work paved the way for a revival of scholarly interest in the historiography of modernism and science, a revival that reached its height in the early s. the concept of the fourth dimension in painting features in central reference texts in art history, such as christopher green’s art in france ( ). “for many of those who found modernity in cubist art”, green explains, “that modernity was tied up in a quasi-scientific, quasi-philosophical view of the world which…went beyond observation and logic, so that in fact a major attraction of the notion of fourth dimension was its very resistance to representation” (green , ). from the perspective of the history of science, arthur i. miller’s einstein, picasso ( ) singles out the figure of henri poincaré as the common source for cubism (via the insurance actuary maurice princet, to whom we shall return later) and relativity (in conjunction with herman minkowski’s four- dimensional representations of space-time). far from tracing a direct relationship between cubism and relativity, and in response to the literature that in previous decades had simply assumed such a relationship, miller’s ‘parallel biographies’ approach identifies poincaré as the conceptual common denominator between einstein and picasso, the two main protagonists of his story. in doing this, miller acknowledges henderson’s original efforts to clarify that relativity only had an effect on art at a later stage, and certainly not on cubist artists in the s. it is now fairly established that the henderson’s book has recently appeared in a new edition with a revised and expanded introduction (henderson ). i refer to the latest edition throughout this article. here i only focus on the literature on the fourth dimension. however, a much larger and now well- established literature extended the scope of henderson’s original project to broader aspects of the relation between modernism and science. see for example clarke and henderson ( ), a collection of essays that examines the shifts and changes in modes of artistic and literary representation between the nineteenth and twentieth century. parkinson ( ) offers a thorough overview of how surrealist artists responded to, and adopted, themes and concepts from relativity and quantum physics. brain ( , and ) traces the origins of modernism in late nineteenth-century physiological aesthetics and the emergence of recording and graphic technologies. holton, galison and schweber ( ) explore the legacy of einstein in art and culture. on the front of artistic practice and computer visualisation, robbin ( ) dissects the legacy of concepts of hyperspace in contemporary computational techniques, while steingart ( ) explores the legacy of higher dimensions in the contemporary work of thomas banchoff. while the conflation of cubism and modernism is by no means straightforward, here green offers an example of how cubism has been interpreted as the vehicle of a particular conception of modernity. in referring to modernism i will adopt green’s relatively flexible use of the terminology, but i also aim to tone down its most extreme connotations. if cubism stands out as conveying a particular conception of modernity, it is, in my account, precisely through its capacity to relate in new ways to the nineteenth century. this aspect of my discussion will become clearer in the next section. henderson ( , ) offers a thorough overview of how the concept of the fourth dimension in painting has been misleadingly interpreted with relativity. she identifies gideon ( ) and laporte ( ) as primarily responsible for seeking in einstein’s special relativity “a means to validate new forms of artistic expression and to argue for their grounding into culture at large” (henderson , ). laporte’s line of argumentation has been also questioned by holton ( , esp. p. ) and miller ( , note ). ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version reception of relativity on artistic practice should be understood in relation to the popularity and visibility that einstein obtained after arthur eddington’s famous eclipse expedition, which confirmed the prediction of the curvature of light. this clarification is important because of the far too common association between the concept of the fourth dimension and time, understood primarily as the four-dimensional space-time continuum formulated by hermann minkowski’s in . even well established experts on cubism, henderson shows, fell into the dangerous trap of implying a direct relationship between cubism and relativity precisely by interpreting the fourth dimension often invoked by cubist artists as time. an example of this is alfred barr’s ( ) influential discussion of picasso’s cubist paintings, cited by henderson as typical of the attitude that still occasionally characterises some accounts of the relations between cubism and relativity: “this introduction of a time element into an art usually considered in terms of two- or three-dimensional space”, barr states, “suggests some relationship to einstein’s theory of relativity in which time is thought of mathematically as a fourth dimension” (barr , ; see also henderson , ). what henderson crucially points out is that the fourth dimension invoked by cubist artists at the beginning of the twentieth century was a “forgotten spatial fourth dimension” (henderson , ), the roots of which lay in the late nineteenth-century preoccupation with unobservable phenomena, a preoccupation that had a continued impact on at least the first decade of the twentieth century. the context for this concern was the range of discoveries that pointed toward alternative conceptions of matter and space from the late s onward. along with j.j. thomson’s identification of the electron, ernest rutherford’s work on radioactivity, pierre and marie curie’s isolation of radioactive elements, and more broadly the strong anchoring of physical research in conceptions of the ether, henderson singles out the discovery of x-rays by wilhelm röntgen as a particularly powerful visual influence on the conceptualisation of alternative spatial dimensions. “x- rays”, she claims, “paved the way for the artistic investigation of higher spatial realms in the years before world war i” (henderson , ). it was thus the spatial fourth dimension advocated by edwin abbott in flatland ( ), the elusive but representable fourth dimension that charles howard hinton aspired to visualise and teach in his a new era of thought ( ), and especially the highly visual representations of projections of hypersolids that would culminate in esprit pascal jouffret’s traité Élémentaire de géométrie á quatre dimensions (elementary treatise of geometry in four dimensions) which offered artists a well established medium to translate, visually, their efforts to push representation beyond the boundaries of directly observable phenomena. henderson’s account exposes an illuminating paradox in cubism, and modernism more broadly: that the most subversive aspect of these emerging art movements lay precisely in their conceptual continuity with the very traditions they aimed to reject. thus, emphasizing the spatial concept of the fourth dimension artists adopted in the early twentieth century is a move of historiographical significance, in that it repositions and re-contextualises figures and movements that have traditionally been the object of a rather uncritical celebration of modernity, especially in the second half of the twentieth century. i shall return to this important point later. see henderson , appendix a, henderson , and miller , esp. p. , note . see also parkinson ( ). this line of investigation has been now extended well beyond painting: see for example beatriz colomina’s work on x-rays as the guiding metaphor and logic for architectural transparency (colomina ). ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version the forgotten, ‘spatial’ fourth dimension how exactly did this spatial concept of the fourth dimension enter the artistic imaginary? the literature on the fourth dimension began gaining public visibility in paris in the first decade of the twentieth century. intellectual debates on the subject populated the pages of specialised journals such as the revue philosophique and the revue de métaphysique et de morale since at least the late s, where the concept of the fourth dimension was often discussed within the broader context of philosophical and mathematical controversies around the status of geometrical axioms and the possibility of consistent non-euclidean geometries. this broader aspect of the debate had a much longer history, and it came to an important turn in the s, when karl friedrich gauss advocated explicitly the possibility of geometries alternative to euclid. the principles of a consistent non-euclidean geometry were formalised in the late s by nikolai ivanovich lobachevsky, and by bernhard riemann in the late s. what lobachevsky and riemann’s approach to non-euclidean geometry had in common was the hypothesis that space might be curved – that it might have constant negative curvature in lobachevsky’s case, positive curvature in riemann’s case. lobachevsky and riemann’s conceptions of space challenged euclid’s famous fifth ‘parallels’ postulate, the self-evidence of which had been questioned even by euclid’s early commentators. thus, in lobachevsky’s hyperbolic space, straight lines are replaced with arcs of a hyperbole, so that through a point external to a given line there are at least two parallel lines to the given one. in riemann’s spherical geometry, straight lines are replaced with great circles which will all intersect at the poles. riemann’s spherical geometry contained the additional implication that there may be spaces or surfaces where curvature may vary, and this latter implication became particularly appealing to artists such as the cubists, and later to marcel duchamp (henderson , ). variable curvature negated the principle of the indeformability of objects (a principle which was implicit in euclidean geometry), so that figures moved on a surface with variable curvature would undergo changes in shape and properties. this aspect of non-euclidean geometry would impact substantially on the rendering of pictorial objects in cubism. the emergence of debates around the fourth dimension, and more generally n-dimensional geometry is more difficult to trace, as it received a far less systematic treatment. mathematicians initially considered n-dimensional geometry as a particular case of analytical geometry, to which further spatial coordinates could be added. what these approaches offered was an important perceptual challenge: they required the need of visualising one or more dimensions coexisting with the three that govern perception under normal conditions. new terms were coined, such as ‘hyperspace’ – the space of four or more dimensions – and ‘hypersolids’, solid figures generated by the motion of polyhedra in a fourth direction, in analogy with the generation of three dimensional solids by plane figures moving perpendicularly to themselves. euclid’s fifth postulate states “that if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles of the same side less than two right angles the two lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than two right angles”. i take this formulation from heath’s ( , vol , ff) translation of euclid, whose lengthy critical apparatus on euclid’s fifth postulate traces the history of how commentators questioned its supposed self-evident status since very early on. ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version a particularly influential visualisation of hypersolids was in charles howard hinton’s ( - ) a new era of thought ( ). trained in oxford as a mathematician, hinton had little luck in pursuing an academic career in england and moved first to japan in , and then to america. he left his manuscript for a new era of thought in the hands of alicia boole (daughter of the mathematician george boole) and john falk, who jointly wrote the book’s preface. hinton conceived a new era of thought as an attempt at training his readers to visualise higher dimensions. it did so in a non-mathematical, non-technical language. his motivations were primarily philosophical, and were rooted in a somewhat unconventional reading of kant. according to kant, hinton explains, the intuition of space (or the ‘space sense’, as hinton calls it), is fundamental to structure our experience. neither kant nor the following philosophical traditions, however, produced a systematic elaboration of how this space sense can be trained and educated. this is puzzling, hinton notices, as “according to kant and according to common experience the trained thinker is one in whom the space sense has been well developed” (hinton , ). the “true successors of kant”, in this respect, “are the mathematicians gauss and lobachevsky”, hinton maintains (ibid., ), as their works extends the kantian idea of spatial intuition beyond the limitations of absolute space. in hinton’s own terms: “if our intuition of space is the means by which we apprehend, then it follows that there may be different kinds of intuition of space. who can tell what the absolute space intuition is? this intuition of space must be coloured, so to speak, by the conditions of the being which uses it” (ibid.). a new era of thought sets out to investigate these philosophical claims empirically, through the progressive geometric construction of a system of cubes into a four-dimensional hypercube, or ‘tessaract’. “just as a cube has various plane boundaries”, hinton explains in his chapter on four- dimensional solids, “a tessaract has various cube boundaries” (ibid., ). a representation of the tessaract in colour would later appear on the frontispiece of his book, the fourth dimension. hinton’s ideas reached paris indirectly, via a number of popular sources on the fourth dimension. one of these sources was esprit pascal jouffret’s ( - ) traité Élémentaire de géométrie á quatre dimensions ( ), an illustrated treatise that summarised the state of four- dimensional geometry and provided detailed illustrations of four-dimensional polyhedra projected onto a two-dimensional surface. here hinton’s writings, partly translated and partly cited in the original in english, appear alongside the works of another authoritative source on the subject: henri poincaré. in particular, jouffret’s treatise contains references to an paper entitled “space and geometry”, originally published in the revue de métaphysique et de morale, where poincaré discusses an important distinction between geometric space and perceptual space. geometric space is isotropic, homogeneous and three-dimensional, whereas perceptual space consists of three further components – visual, tactile and motor space – which render it neither continuous nor isotropic, nor reducible to three dimensions. jouffret singles out the explanation poincaré gives of the functioning of visual space. we claim that we perceive in three dimensions, but this is a result of the convergence of our eyes and of an effort to accommodate two initially distinct two-dimensional images formed on our retina, jouffret explains via poincaré (jouffret , vi; poincaré[ ] , ). from an experimental point of view, this convergence is nothing but an observed regularity, however: nothing prevents us to conceive a state of affairs where these indications remain as in a new era of thought hinton uses the spelling ‘tessaract’ instead of the currently more common ‘tesseract’. ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version independent variables rather than in a constant relation. in poincaré’s own words: “a being who should achieve in such a world the education of his senses would no doubt attribute four dimensions to complete visual space” (ibid.). it was this less systematic, but more vividly illustrated literature on the spatial fourth dimension that captured the attention of artists in the early twentieth century. both henderson ( ) and miller ( ) emphasize the role of jouffret’s treatise as a conduit of fundamental ideas about the fourth dimension among cubist artists. yet, where miller identifies jouffret’s projections of four-dimensional solids as playing a key role in the completion of picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon, henderson places their reception later, and associates it primarily with the completion of picasso’s portrait of ambroise vollard. both relate the visual input deriving from jouffret’s treatise, as well as the broader circulation of poincaré’s ideas, to the well documented presence in cubist circles of the insurance actuary maurice princet ( - ). princet joined the group gravitating around picasso in paris roughly at the same time as his actuary’s license examination, in - (henderson , ). his presence is consistently recorded in accounts of the early days of cubism, where he is clearly identified as the person who introduced mathematical concepts to artists – indeed this role earned him the title ‘le mathématicien du cubisme’ (salmon , ). among the most notable documents attesting princet’s presence among artists in montmartre is a short piece by the writer andré salmon, then particularly close to picasso. in his regular column “courier des ateliers” ( may ) for the paris journal, salmon announces the imminent publication of a “curious work on aesthetics” by maurice princet, “a mathematician…who preoccupies himself especially with artists who disdain perspective. he praises them for no longer trusting the illusionary optics of not long ago and takes them for geometers” (salmon , ). the same year, jean metzinger’s “note sur la peinture” published in the october-november issue of the journal pan explicitly mentioned the names of princet and picasso: “cézanne showed us forms of living in the reality of light, picasso brings us a material account of their real life in the mind – he lays out a free, mobile perspective from which that ingenious mathematician maurice princet has deduced a whole geometry” (metzinger , ; fry , ). in the following years, princet’s name would feature prominently in metzinger’s writings and would form the basis of the separate identity that the members of the ‘puteaux group’ would craft for themselves partly in response to picasso’s cubism. in her account of the role of the fourth dimension in twentieth-century painting, henderson privileges the influence of mathematical ideas introduced by princet “on the more theoretically oriented puteaux artists” (henderson , ). in doing this, she explicitly plays down the role of picasso in the appropriation and elaboration of visual sources from mathematics in the early years of cubism. her motivation is twofold. first, she observes that the most substantial accounts of princet’s this striking piece of evidence was first located by lynn gamwell. see gamwell , . alas, princet’s book was never published, but he did, eventually, have the opportunity to write some of his ideas in the preface of the catalogue of robert delaunay’s first solo exhibition at the galerie barbazanges in . the full text of princet’s preface is in antliff and leighten , pp. - . the puteaux group included metzinger himself along with albert gleizes, robert delaunay, juan gris, and later fernand léger and marcel duchamp. ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version presence amongst cubist artists are reported by the very founders of the puteaux group, particularly albert gleizes and jean metzinger. she shows, for example, that gleizes and metzinger drew on princet’s lessons in geometry to combine their interest in the fourth dimension with a broader grounding in debates on non-euclidean geometries. their writings contain clear – albeit occasionally imprecise – references to the broader scientific literature on the subject (henderson , chapter ). thus, for example, along with extensive discussions of poincaré’s ‘tactile space’ – which gleizes and metzinger considered far more fruitful for painting than his notion of ‘complete visual space’ – their essay du cubisme explicitly connects the space of cubism to “certain of rieman [sic] theorems” (gleizes and metzinger, [ ] in fry , ; cf also henderson , and - ). secondly, and perhaps more crucially, henderson’s motivations are historiographical. in emphasizing the reception of mathematical ideas by the members of the puteaux group, henderson’s aim is to redirect the historiography of art and science in the twentieth century from a celebration of picasso as the sole mind behind cubism to a more nuanced understanding of less discussed, and yet more theoretically oriented strands of the movement. in this she is most successful, as evidenced by the literature that at present forms the legacy of her pioneering approach. however, discarding the influence of science on the early beginnings of cubism might actually have the opposite effect of leaving the interpretation of works such as les demoiselles d’avignon confined within the domain of art alone. henderson herself partly falls into this trap, when she claims: “picasso’s art was the product of his own artistic genius in its quest for alternatives to the classical figural tradition and to renaissance perspective space. the sources of cubism are to be found within art itself, primarily in african sculpture and the paintings of cézanne” (henderson , ; emphasis mine). while i partly agree with the justification she provides for this claim – that a straightforward causal relationship between higher-dimensional geometries and the early sources of cubism is impossible to trace – the danger is that her conclusions might result in restricting even further the scholarship on picasso, at the same time encouraging the perpetuation of the very rhetoric that her work purports to challenge. rather than reopening the much debated controversy of the ‘sources’ of les demoiselles d’avignon and the painting’s relation with cubism, in what follows i will adopt an alternative strategy. elsewhere, henderson herself calls for a re-contextualisation in art along the lines that historians of science have adopted for figures such as einstein (henderson , ). yet, historians of science have not stopped talking about einstein, nor have they left the sources of relativity confined within science itself: on the contrary, an achievement of the recent historiography of science has been precisely a reconfiguration of einstein’s work within the broader material and social context surrounding it and constraining it. i claim that similar methodological and historiographical considerations can be applied to key figures in art – picasso here being a case in point. showing that picasso’s art was not just “the product of his own artistic genius” is thus a necessary step to challenge the celebratory tones that still accompany several accounts of his artistic for two different – but not necessarily incompatible – accounts of this issue see miller ( ) on the role of science on picasso’s painting and green ( ) on the artistic context and influences on the painting. see, for example, galison and galison, holton and schewber . ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version production. along similar lines, assuming with henderson that “the sources of cubism are to be found within art itself” has the effect of rebuilding old fences around art and around the methodologies and domains of competence of history of art – fences that henderson herself, and the legacy of her work, contributed to dismantle in the first place. it is in the spirit of reintegrating scientific ideas in the wider cultural context surrounding cubism that i intend to look at one of picasso’s less reproduced and less examined works, in a brief attempt at ‘re-contextualising’ some of his early cubist experiments. a photograph, a portrait, and the fourth dimension the photograph in fig. is part of a collection that is very much treasured by historians of art. it captures a group of paintings and sketches completed by picasso while on a trip to horta de ebro during the summer . the photograph was taken by picasso himself. the summer of has been repeatedly singled out as a turning point in the consolidation of cubism. john golding, for example, states that this was the time in which picasso “produce[d] the most important paintings of his early cubist period” (golding , ). edward fry argues that at this point picasso’s elaboration of the shifting perspectives of cézanne converged into a coherent geometric faceting technique (fry , p. ). paul hayes tucker ( ) and anne baldassari ( ), on the other hand, have pointed out that photography might have played a crucial role in the synthesis of pictorial planes and perspectives that is characteristic of picasso’s mature cubist style. the summer trip to horta de ebro, on which picasso embarked with his then companion fernande olivier, was planned especially to combine painting with photography (baldassari , ). both tucker and baldassari focus on picasso’s use of the camera to record the spanish landscape, and on the complementarity of such a recording with works such as houses on the hill and the reservoir ( ). baldassari, on the other hand, briefly considers a group of photographs of the interior of picasso’s studio, including the image in fig. , to notice how they “provided a kind of spatio-temporal précis of the work in progress” (ibid. ). along similar lines, miller associates the photographic recording at horta to picasso’s continued interest in the creative metamorphosis of his works, or “the conceptual transformations in the work itself and in relation to other works” (miller , ). the primary focus of all the photographs of picasso’s studio is ambiguous, and it is this ambiguity that renders them particularly interesting. it usually consists of two paintings captured photographically side by side, so as to create an intentional visual dissonance. this is usually accomplished by the juxtaposition of two paintings of roughly the same size. in one particular case, picasso superimposes two different negatives to obtain the synthesis of four paintings into a single a similar line of argumentation has of course been pursued by art historians, but with a special attention to the relations between art, culture and politics without necessarily bringing science in the picture. green ( ) explicitly invokes the need of a closer investigation of the tensions between movements, individuals and the socio-political context of art in paris at the turn of the century. in more explicitly polemic tones, t.j. clark’s recent picasso and truth ( ) attacks specifically the scholarship on picasso and denounces “the abominable character of most writings on the artist” (clark , ). clark proposes to separate the “wild swings between fawning adulation and false refusal-to-be impressed” (ibid.) that characterises a great deal of biographical works on picasso from the artworks themselves, and their relationship with the broader cultural and political context surrounding them. ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version photograph. the image in fig. , in this respect, is unusual and distinctive in that it collates four completed portraits of different sizes, as well as several sketches pinned on the wall. i want to concentrate on the smaller portrait on the left side of the photograph, and the drawings just above it. unlike other paintings captured in the photograph, this image has been very little discussed in the literature – so much so that there is no consistency over its exact title. john richardson briefly mentions it as an example of picasso’s ‘creative’ use of the suffering of his partners for artistic purposes (richardson , ). a kidney infection affected fernande for most of her trip to horta, and in several of her letters to gertrude stein she voices her frustration at picasso not taking any notice of her condition (olivier , ). richardson qualifies the portrait as one of the most anguished representations of fernande (richardson , ), but in his (rather characteristic) fixation with the details of picasso’s cruel treatment of his lovers, he misses a unique opportunity to look at this image a little more in detail. [note: i would love you to see this image. it is a great image, and i am aware that the argument i pursue in this section of my article simply makes no sense in the absence of the figure. unfortunately, open access publishing and copyright law do not seem to agree on this particular case: at present there is no license i can pay to reproduce online (and in perpetuity) a picasso image protected by copyright. it is a clear case in which the very important cause of open access goes precisely against its purported aims, and i can only apologise for this. you can find a reproduction of the image in the catalogue picasso and the camera, curated by john richardson, new york: gagosian gallery, p. ] fig. pablo picasso, femme assise dans l'atelier de horta, summer . gelatin silver print. / x / inches / . x . cm. private collection picasso’s portrait of fernande has not been investigated, at least in the literature, in relation to geometry. and yet the composition is geometric through and through, even in a more accentuated form than the larger piece, seated woman, which occupies the larger portion of the photograph. fernande’s head is composed of shaded folding planes; her nose is a slightly tilted wedge; her diamond-shaped eyes emerge from the equally geometric spaces of the eye sockets; the sharpness of her cheekbones geometrically separates her face into several distinguished picture planes. even the mantilla that frames her face is reduced to its essential geometric details, so that all that remains of it is a mere suggestion of its presence marked by the pointed endings of its edge. it a thorough examination of this particular photograph is in baldassari ( , ). miller interprets this image as a visual attempt at “exploring how the fusion of two sets of cubist images can give rise to a second-order cubist reality” (miller , ). alfred stieglitz’s publication in camera works (see note below) leaves the image untitled. richardson ( , ) labels it fernande in a mantilla; baldassari ( , ) labels it head of a woman (fernande); miller ( , ) labels it head of a woman in mantilla (fernande). ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version is hard to establish a direct connection between this particular portrait of fernande and the preparatory drawings on the wall above it, but when examined closely they seem to suggest that picasso worked on the geometric shape of individual compositional elements before merging them together in this or any of the other paintings surrounding fernande’s portrait. it is less hard to see, however, how the conceptual reformulation of spatial relations that characterises this portrait stands out as a pictorial reformulation of geometric ideas that picasso might have visually borrowed from jouffret’s traité (fig. ). fig. esprit pascal jouffret, perspective cavaliere of sixteen fundamental octahedral, traité Élémentaire de géométrie á quatre dimensions ( ), p. . surprisingly, fernande’s portrait has been glaringly overlooked in the literature on cubism and geometry. one of the problems might be that the artworks produced at horta have usually been investigated as central to cubism, but somehow separately from the cultural (and scientific) context surrounding picasso’s parisian production. yet, even henderson acknowledges that by the only person who elected this particular work as representative of picasso’s cubist style was the photographer alfred stieglitz, who published a half-tone reproduction of fernande’s portrait in the august special issue of his journal, camera works. see philippi and kyeyeser ( , ). a pioneer of avant- garde art and a crucial intermediary of modernism between europe and america, stieglitz had specifically planned the issue around the works of picasso and matisse, accompanied by gertrude stein’s ‘prose portraits’ of the two artists. golding ( ) and rubin ( , ), for example, focus on how the summer of consolidated the relationship between picasso and braque. the two artists had met just after the completion of picasso’s demoiselles d’avignon, but it is in the summer that their styles begin to converge, especially in their ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version his relationship with princet was fairly well consolidated, and his acquaintance with debates around n-dimensional geometry fairly established (henderson , ). even more striking is the fact that, at least visually, the geometric construction of this particular work presents just the kind of multiple viewpoints and intersecting picture planes that henderson singles out in picasso’s portrait of ambroise vollard, explicitly linking this later image to esprit jouffret’s projections of four- dimensional solids. her main argument is that, as far as picasso’s case is concerned, the observation that there was a visual affinity between the multi-faceted geometry of cubism and visual sources such as jouffret’s traité, came only later, and cubist painters subsequently adapted to it. “if someone familiar with n-dimensional geometry, such as maurice princet” henderson maintains, “had pointed out a visual similarity between picasso’s latest painting and a geometrical diagram such as jouffret’s, it would have seemed to confirm the direction cubism had taken” (henderson , ). but it is not entirely clear from henderson’s discussion why the ‘official’ starting point of the reception of n-dimensional geometry in cubism should be placed in rather than earlier on. in the absence of more specific documentation, ‘visual affinities’ between artistic and scientific imagery is all we have to form a judgment on this issue. the extreme faceting and multiple picture planes that characterise most of the works at horta de ebro, and particularly the portrait of fernande shown in fig. , show that cubism had taken a geometric direction, along the lines suggested by princet and possibly inspired by jouffret, well before the completion of the portrait of ambroise vollard. rather than focusing narrowly on issues of dating that might never be settled with absolute certainty, there are two important historiographical and methodological points that i hope my discussion will contribute to elucidate. one is the very place of picasso within the broader rhetoric of modernism and modernity usually associated to cubism. one of the reasons for including the photograph in fig. in a discussion on cubism and science is that it exposes a most singular paradox right at the core of a movement traditionally considered at the forefront of modernism. in working simultaneously with an artistic reformulation of n-dimensional geometry and photography, picasso is combining two quintessentially nineteenth-century pursuits. it is the very continuity with this tradition, rather than a sudden rupture with it, that renders cubism one of the most interesting movements of the twentieth century. indeed, this has been a concern that art historians have tried to address by distancing cubism from the nineteenth century as much as possible. an example of this is the response produced by edward fry to paul hayes tucker’s argument about the pivotal role of photography during the summer of at horta de ebro. connecting cubism and photography, fry argued, would amount to reducing picasso’s works to “a more sophisticated formal and visual development of nineteenth-century positivist attempts to apprehend the data of nature and appropriation and geometric reformulation of cézanne’s concept of passage (the integration of objects and space and the merging of overlapping planes into one another). the debates around the summer of are also skewed towards the observation that it was indeed braque, at least in golding and rubin’s accounts, the initiator of cubism. braque’s cubist landscape paintings of were completed during his trip to la roche- guyon, approximately at the same time as picasso’s journey to horta. this naturally prompted a tendency to read braque and picasso’s landscapes together; however braque himself had embraced the role of landscapist explicitly paying tribute to cézanne at least a year earlier, as exemplified by his paintings of the landscape and houses at l’estaque. an alternative account, based on emphasizing the differences, rather than the commonalities, in braque and picasso’s approaches to landscape is in green ( ). ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version experience” (fry , ). the immediate association between photography and positivism, at least in the basic formulation that seemed to concern fry in the s, has been long dispelled by historians of science. in her nature exposed, for example, jennifer tucker shows that the crowd of ‘dissenters’ to the supposed objective status of scientific photography far outnumbered, even in the context of nineteenth-century positivism, those who claimed to adhere to it. cubism is the legacy of this particular approach to photography and science more broadly – one in which judgment and conceptualisation are essential to analyse and synthesise data from experience. my second historiographical point concerns the debate around the ‘sources’ of cubism. following henderson’s line and accepting that the source of cubism is to be located within picasso’s ‘genius’ and within art itself seems an easy way to perpetuate the old idea that paying attention to the cultural and socio-political context surrounding art should be construed explicitly in contrast with scientific ideas – as if science were itself separate from politics, social dynamics and the broader cultural context surrounding it. on the other hand, however, trying to draw a straightforward causal connection between cubism and science will not be unproblematic either. while it would partly answer broader concerns about the lack of integration between disciplinary methodologies, it would do so in science’s own terms, somehow suggesting that cubist art was made better, or at least ‘special’, by its engagement with mathematical ideas. if this is the case, one would then have to ascertain that picasso, or the cubists of the puteaux group, had a correct understanding of the mathematical notions they adopted in painting, and this is very much open to question. my discussion has hopefully disclosed a different way of looking at this issue, where ‘correct understanding’ is beyond the point, and where the distinctiveness of cubism consists precisely in a new type of pictorial knowledge which is not reducible to art or science alone. the assimilation of science (or the suggestion of a ‘visual affinity’ with it, if we want to follow henderson’s argument) by cubist artists, including picasso, generated a transformation of science in cubist terms, opening new possibilities to conceptualise and experience space. art and science, then and now in concluding my discussion i want to return briefly to barry and born’s ( ) work on interdisciplinarity, introduced at the beginning of this article. specifically, i want to connect the story of cubism and science to the kind of transformative experimentation described by barry and born as a logic of ontology, a set of interdisciplinary practices that lead to the generation of new problems, new objects of inquiry, and new interdisciplinary subjectivities. far from asserting that cubism provides us with the same kind of knowledge we would attribute to (or expect from) science, i hope my arguments provided a way of understanding cubism as a conduit for genuinely novel possibilities to experience and represent space. in this, art served as a form of knowledge in its own right, knowledge that is not in competition with science, but complements it in important critical ways. it is this particular feature of cubism, in my view, that offers a possible historical counterpart to barry and born’s account of interdisciplinarity as the manifestation of a logic of ontology. that artistic practice can play a distinctive critical role seems uncontroversial when it comes to evaluating and understanding the relations between art and politics. what i want to suggest is ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version that the times are now ripe to transfer this fairly established idea to the relations between art and science. in the work dissensus. on politics and aesthetics ( ), the philosopher jacques rancière argues that art is first and foremost a means of disclosing ways of “distributing the sensible” (rancière , ). artworks are concrete, historically contingent manifestations of what we are able to experience and conceptualise in a particular cultural and historical context. the critical aim of art, and of aesthetics construed in its broadest sense, is thus for rancière to disturb the current distribution of the sensible, and propose new criteria for ordering and partitioning what we have access to. art should make new configurations of experience possible, and it is in this sense that it acts as a way of producing knowledge in its own right. rancière’s ideas about the critical role of art resonate with barry and born’s characterisation of interdisciplinarity as a logic of ontology, and i contend that his claims should be transferred from the relations between art and politics to the relations between art and science. they apply especially to the conceptual reformulation of space that cubist artists developed and opened up, as a pictorial possibility, in response to ideas coming from the field of n-dimensional geometry. far from constituting a threat to the scientific knowledge of the time, the cubists’ appropriation of geometric concepts served to generate new pictorial problems, and with them new modes of conceptualising and experiencing space. indeed, the distinctive use of geometry in cubism left a lasting legacy in art and in science (henderson , pp. - ), and is still very much alive in experiments at the boundaries between artistic and scientific visualisation, such as the works of tony robbin and thomas banchoff. in this respect, i see cubism as fitting in what i have elsewhere defined as “artistic visualisation as critique” (ambrosio , ff), an interdisciplinary attitude that aims at carving a distinctive epistemic space and critical role for artistic practitioners in their past and present conversations and controversies with scientists. this particular approach to interdisciplinary research regards the role of art in its specific relation with science as being in many respects very close to the role usually attributed to philosophy of science: that of questioning and critically engaging with assumptions and modes of working that would otherwise be taken for granted by scientific practitioners. this particular critical mission for art adds an important historical dimension to barry and born’s idea of interdisciplinarity as a logic of ontology, and applies well to the aims and motivations that compelled the cubists to look at the concept of the fourth dimension to extend their visual quest for an alternative, conceptual reformulation of space. the new artistic knowledge produced through the cubists’ experimentation with science was not taken as the ultimate pronouncement on the subject of space – no artistic experiment would be animated by such an aspiration. it was instead knowledge of a distinctively dialogical and unfinished kind, with a transformative power that still has effects in the present: even the simple use of ‘cubism’ as a metaphor continues to evoke powerful associations with a radical redefinition of pictorial space. in looking at cubist art as an example of interdisciplinarity that presents the characteristics of a logic of ontology, my account of the relations between cubism and mathematics has thus hopefully suggested the possibility, and desirability, of exploring the continued relevance of a past experiment in art and science that still offers important historiographical and epistemological lessons. in a time see robbin ( ). on banchoff’s mathematical work see steingart ( ). ambrosio – cubism and the fourth dimension to appear in interdisciplinary science reviews, vol. , no. - please cite from the published version where ‘art-science’ is embraced unquestioningly , often more as a fashionable trend than as a mode of knowledge, the story of cubism and mathematics compels us to think very seriously about the products of interdisciplinary collaborations in relation to the environments, subjectivities and interactions that makes these collaborations possible, fruitful, and sustainable. that an episode in the history of art and science from the past century might offer a template for our contemporary ways of thinking about interdisciplinary collaborations will certainly perplex contemporary scientists, and perhaps even contemporary artists. but if we are committed to interdisciplinarity and the knowledge we demand from interdisciplinary collaborations, perhaps the best way forward is to approach the problem with an eye on the past, and use it to disturb and re-distribute the assumptions we make about the present. chiara ambrosio is a lecturer in history and philosophy of science at the department of science and technology studies (ucl). her research focuses on representation across art and science, with a specific focus on nineteenth and twentieth century visual culture. her published works combine philosophical accounts of representation with historical investigations into particular modes of image-making, such as painting, diagrams and photographs, and the debates around their epistemological status at the turn of the century. the conceptual framework underpinning her research draws substantially on american pragmatism, especially the philosophy of charles s. peirce. acknowledgments i am grateful to j.v. field and frank james for their encouraging and thought-provoking comments on an early draft of this paper. james mckee at the gagosian gallery and pete woronkowicz at dacs provided prompt help in locating picasso’s photograph of fernande’s portrait and invaluable advice on copyright permission. niall le mage ventured with me on yet another journey through the fourth dimension, asking questions all along. the honesty and sharpness of his criticism added a great deal to the final shape of this piece. references ambrosio, chiara, . “objectivity and representative practices across artistic and scientific representation”, in carusi, a. hoel, a.s., webmoor, t. and woolgar, s. visualisation in the age of computerisation. london: routledge, pp. - 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( ), - . no answer is the term dalibor vesely often used to summarise what recent thought had to say in response to one or another of the difficult and decisive questions that face architecture, cities, and our lives within them today. it is also the reply many will give to the question why now, why this unwelcome silence from a voice that still had so much to say? no answer . resignation wasn’t intended with his use of this term; instead, an invitation to thought, to think again. the questions that motivated his work survive his death, for they were not only his but ours, such was his grasp of contemporary conditions, his penetration into primary issues. facing his themes without him, resuming the enquiry into the city and its culture, architecture and its articulations, or technology and its mixed blessings, means not only thinking with him but beyond him, accepting the fact that his work is unfinished and ours continues. the answer to his silence cannot be no answer. yes, the conversations he sought so passionately and enjoyed so fully have come to an end. all we have now are some memories and a body of writings, texts now seen anew, all together, because nothing more will be added. perhaps the questions he asked bear witness to his legacy no less truthfully than the writings. prague, the city of his birth, served vesely throughout his life as an emblem of the continuity of european culture, its heritage, promise, and task. other capitals fascinated him, too: vienna and paris, also london and berlin, but none of these indicated so clearly what he would have described as the real possibilities for the creative transformation of modern civilisation. europe was, for him, both an idea and a living reality, the continuance and renewal of which required disciplined reflection, creative expression, and a sense of common purpose. it was in prague that he met and attended the seminars of the czech philosopher jan patoc̆ka. while widely influential there and elsewhere in europe, patoc̆ka’s teaching career was a painful struggle, one that gave intellectual and moral orientation to vesely’s own life and work. under the corrosive influence of successive totalitarian regimes – first nazi, then communist – patoc̆ka was free from censorship and could teach as he chose for only eight of his forty-two active years. as one of three spokesmen for charter , he had argued that political freedom included personal responsibility and an orientation toward the good. hardly inflammatory principles, but nevertheless ideas that were renounced by the functionaries who sought to implement brezhnev’s doctrine in occupied lands. patoc̆ka’s death in resulted from a brain haemorrhage suffered under police interrogation, preceded by ten weeks of intense persecution. by this time vesely had already emigrated to britain. but his teacher’s life and lessons remained with him, and not only him. when vesely introduced himself to the philosopher paul ricoeur years later, the very first mention of patoc̆ka’s name brought tears to the french philosopher’s eyes. no less emotional was vesely when he told this story. dalibor vesely: – obituary arq . vol . no . obituary david leatherbarrow doi: . /s dalibor vesely arq ( ), . , – . © cambridge university press arq . vol . no . obituary vesely, but one manifestation – perhaps one of the most articulate manifestations – of the richness of european culture. when the organisers of the central european university sought his advice on their curriculum, he recommended concentration on baroque culture. after his academic training in architecture, vesely worked with a number of the leading czech modern architects: josef havlicek, karel honzik, and jaroslav fragner. much later, he would return to these figures and this architecture, also that of pavel janák, in a paper that reassessed the nature and meaning of what is commonly called czech cubism. in his early years of professional work in architecture, he also practiced stage set design, examples of which, he once admitted, had appeared in some operatic productions. in , he continued his academic work in munich, where he had contacts with the art historians hans sedlmayr and hermann bauer, key figures in the study of baroque and rococo art and architecture. while there he also studied with the great humanist ernesto grassi, who had been one of martin heidegger’s students. seems also to have been the year of vesely’s first lengthy publication – at least the earliest that has appeared in english – a study of czech secular buildings, usually called castles, from the time of the middle ages to the twentieth century. that text ended in a way that anticipated much of his later work, particularly the theme of continuity. he offered a critique of so-called ‘purism’ in restoration practices: erasing historical accumulations in order to simulate original appearances rendered the works themselves lifeless. vesely’s deep concern for art in its several forms was not only academic, nor did it begin with his formal study. his father was a leading painter among czech modernists. late in life, he fondly recalled hours in his father’s studio. surrealism in both its czech and wider european manifestations remained a lifelong preoccupation, one that coupled fascination with critique, the latter a matter of principle for him because the encounter with reality, always bitter for andre breton and the poets and painters he promoted, was, vesely maintained, inescapable in architecture. after munich, he spent extended periods in paris. while there in , he met with members of the situationalist group. his set of colleagues called themselves the continualists. with that name in mind it is not surprising that the title he and mohsen mostafavi chose years later for the summary catalogue of much more promising and no less influential were his teacher’s early years. in , the year of vesely’s birth, patoc̆ka read at the world philosophical congress in prague a lecture written by his own teacher edmund husserl, also czech, and founder of the phenomenological tradition, the style of thought vesely brought to architecture. the mutual respect between the two philosophers was profound. as a sign that patoc̆ka was heir to a rich intellectual tradition, husserl gave his student a desktop lectern he had received from tomás̆ masaryk, the founder of modern czech democracy. patoc̆ka’s own writings, often circulated samizdat, developed husserlian ideas, together with those of his other teachers, henri bergson and martin heidegger. when vesely attended the patoc̆ka seminars he was among artists, philosophers, poets, and playwrights, including václav havel, future president of the country. the interrogative habit of mind vesely exhibited throughout his life was no doubt exemplified by many in this circle, certainly that of its leader. husserl’s reply to patoc̆ka’s request to come to freiburg to study with him in contained the following condition: that you truly wish to understand and that you bring no preconceived philosophical convictions. reversing the roles of the clear and obscure – reconsidering what had been taken for granted – was for husserl philosophy’s first step, as it was for both patoc̆ka and vesely. dalibor vesely’s formal education was not, of course, in philosophy; he studied architecture, engineering, and art, obtaining both professional and research degrees. he received his phd from charles university, having researched central european baroque architecture. his early interest in the work of kilián ignác dientzenhofer, balthasar neumann, johann santini-aichel, and fischer von erlach, and later that of guarino guarini and francesco borromini, continued throughout his life. a friendship developed over many years with mojmir horyna, a profound scholar of santini-aichel, was very important to him, as was his long and very close association with werner oechslin, to whose annual barocksommerkurs in einsiedeln vesely made regular contribution for a couple of decades. in the months before his death, he was assembling and revising his many papers and lectures on baroque architecture, rethinking and enlarging those texts as chapters for his next book. baroque was not a category of architectural style for architectural work they had guided at the architectural association school in london was architecture and continuity ( ). between and , vesely also visited london on a few occasions. in addition to curiosity about the architecture being developed there, a more personal concern motivated the visits: his younger brother drahosh, with whom he was always close, was a postdoctoral fellow, later a physics professor at oxford university. after the end of the prague spring in , when a return to that city became impossible, england became the permanent home of both brothers. in the years before the velvet revolution of , his distance from prague was a source of deep regret for vesely, however of which he mostly kept silent. london held the promise of a stable base of operations. among the colleagues he first met there were two with whom he collaborated in different ways for several decades: joseph rykwert and alvin boyarsky. rykwert created and led a new course in the history and theory of architecture at the university of essex. vesely and rykwert co-taught the seminar from its earliest years to . boyarsky was head of the aa school where vesely led a diploma- level studio during the same ten-year period. these were intensely creative and productive years of teaching. the unit system at the aa allowed vesely and a sequence of teaching colleagues to pursue design work at the urban scale in several london locations, while the essex programme – the seminars of which were mostly held in london in various locations – allowed him to pursue his work in the philosophical and historical dimensions of architecture. dawn ades, a specialist in surrealist and dada art was also at essex. their friendship and collaboration continued for many years, the most influential outcome of which was the exhibition titled dada and surrealism revealed, held at the hayward gallery in london in . a widely-read issue of the magazine ad, titled surrealism and architecture and guest edited by vesely, was another influential outcome. in the early years of this decade of teaching, he also developed collaborations in architectural practice, with figures such as james stirling and james gowan. vesely believed that advancements in thinking and understanding depended greatly on dialogue. intellectual preparation seems to have been somewhat less important than cultural background; but most important of all was a double commitment: to the expression of obituary arq . vol . no . one’s own point of view and a corresponding willingness to listen and learn from another person with similarly strong convictions. vesely was particularly good at expressing his own point of view, but that didn’t prevent him from listening to – and later selectively adopting – alternative ideas and interpretations. among the conversations he started in those years several continued and remained important to him for decades. the interlocutors included: kenneth frampton, alan colquhoun, and robert maxwell; slightly later, robin middleton and peter carl. his students from these early london years took part in comparable discussions, a number of whom also remained in close contact: daniel libeskind, alberto pérez-gómez, eric parry, robin evans, homa fardjadi, mohsen mostafavi, helen mallinson, and the author of this obituary. such lists could be extended at some length, for vesely’s teaching was no less welcoming than challenging for a very great number of people. the theme of sharing, not just of ideas in dialogue but of all that we value in life became an important theme of vesely’s teaching and writing. the topic had one manifestation in his rather early embrace of ecological thinking, on the premise that scarcity and poverty are not overcome by abundance but by justice. an even more striking evidence of his commitment to the principle and ethos of sharing was a topic that appeared with increasing frequency in his writings: communicative space. similar themes had, of course, been taken up in the philosophy of jürgen habermas. but the thinker whose work exercised the greatest influence on this dimension of vesely’s writing and thinking was hans-georg gadamer, the principle proponent of philosophical hermeneutics. vesely established both a working relationship and warm friendship with gadamer over many years, as a result of frequent visits to heidelberg university and the philosopher’s private home. the essex course and aa teaching were followed by vesely’s engagement with the university of cambridge, where he taught from until his retirement. he was attached to emmanuel college, where he served as director of studies and was later made a fellow of the college. an equivalent to the essex course was established in the department of architecture at cambridge, again by vesely and rykwert. it was called the graduate programme in history and philosophy of architecture. after rykwert’s retirement from cambridge and move to the university of pennsylvania, peter carl collaborated with vesely in the development and teaching of this course. wendy pullan joined them and succeeded vesely as co-director after his retirement. throughout his two decades of cambridge teaching vesely also led design studios, sometimes in collaboration with peter carl, other times with younger co-teachers, who themselves developed under his guidance. thus at cambridge, as at the aa, vesely not only taught architecture students a practical and intellectual discipline, but also taught teachers, and did so as aristotle recommended by example. he also taught outside of europe. in the s and s he was a frequent visitor to penn state university. in , he taught courses at princeton university, where he developed friendships with both anthony vidler and michael graves. he also had a regular commitment at the university of pennsylvania, running a seminar in that university’s phd in architecture programme. while there he resumed contact with rykwert, who had in those years moved to philadelphia. at penn he met and had several enjoyable exchanges with karsten harries, who often visited there from yale university. he also collaborated occasionally with marco frascari and very closely with this author. when vesely’s major work, architecture in an age of divided representation: creativity in the shadow of production was released in , it was announced as a long-awaited book. its genesis and development were concurrent with his cambridge teaching and echoed that coupling of the productive and philosophical dimensions of architecture. many of the book’s key concepts – human situations, the tension between embodiment and articulation, communicative movement, and so on – were equally apposite to project making and historical-philosophical study. it was a well-received book, also widely read. vesely was particularly pleased to see it appear in czech translation. among the many awards and honours he received throughout his life, a few were personally very significant. in , he was recipient of the bruno zevi book award granted by the international committee of architectural critics. one year later, the royal institute of british architects honoured him with the annie spink award for excellence in architectural education. and in , he was made an honorary fellow of the riba. vesely expressed pride in the fact that he was raised in a catholic country, although he never practiced that religion in his adult years. he once asked this author if he believed in god. limiting the ensuing pause to no more than a few moments he answered his own question with the observation that a world as rich and beautiful as ours makes one wonder… while the subject of transcendence, or what he called primary order, occupied his attention for years and was addressed in a number of his writings, he was no less concerned with secularisation. the shelves of books in his large personal library that were dedicated to religion and myth were aligned with those that addressed the history of science and the philosophy of technology. despite his lifelong dedication to urban culture and both the principle and practice of dialogue, vesely was a man of great personal strength who enjoyed solitude. only half-jokingly he often reminded his friends of pascal’s injunction against leaving home. music, mainly from the baroque period, was a much-loved companion from the time of his youth to his last years. strings were his passion, with an obvious preference for the violin over the viola, if that’s a fair inference from the fact that the violin case was generally left open in his workroom. for a number of years he was a member of a quartet that met irregularly. mostly he played on his own, he said, but every now and then for one friend or another, giving the performer and listener equal pleasure. vesely left behind a large literary estate, a considerable portion of which remains unpublished. he is survived by his brother drahosh vesely, also by three former wives, blanka von der becke, jana vesely, and efrossyni pimenides. what might be called his extended family numbers many colleagues throughout the world, also many former students, and still more readers. those whose lives were enriched by knowing him personally will never forget his exceedingly acute mind, surprising memory, great learning, and disarmingly delightful wit. his jokes and riddles always left those who heard them with a smile, and fairly often no answer. david leatherbarrow david leatherbarrow is professor of architecture and chair of the graduate group in architecture at the university of pennsylvania school of design, philadelphia. illustration credits arq gratefully acknowledges: david leatherbarrow, for free online content visit: http://journals.cambridge.org/jcp international journal of cultural property provides a vital, international, and multidisciplinary forum for the broad spectrum of views surrounding cultural property, cultural heritage, and related issues. its mission is to develop new ways of dealing with cultural property debates, to be a venue for the proposal or enumeration of pragmatic policy suggestions, and to be accessible to a wide audience of professionals, academics, and lay readers. this peer-reviewed journal publishes original research papers, case notes, documents of record, chronicles, conference reports, and book reviews. contributions come from the wide variety of fields implicated in the debates -- law, anthropology, public policy, archaeology, art history, preservation, ethics, economics, museum-, tourism-, and heritage studies -- and from a variety of perspectives and interests -- indigenous, western, and non-western; academic, professional and amateur; 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technology, ( ). pp. - , october . it is available online in leonardo, at: http://dx.doi.org/ . /leon. . . . © massachusetts institute of technology the westminsterresearch online digital archive at the university of westminster aims to make the research output of the university available to a wider audience. copyright and moral rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. users are permitted to download and/or print one copy for non-commercial private study or research. further distribution and any use of material from within this archive for profit-making enterprises or for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the url of westminsterresearch. (http://www.wmin.ac.uk/westminsterresearch). in case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail wattsn@wmin.ac.uk. color plate e abigail reynolds, mount fear east london, sculptural installation of police crime statistics, . (© abigail reynolds) see general article by tom corby. tom corby (artist, educator), flat , wells way, london se gb, united kingdom. e-mail: <tom.corby@btinternet.com>. g e n e r a l a r t i c l e landscapes of feeling, arenas of action: information visualization as art practice tom corby this article identifi es experimental practices in information visualization (iv) that are situated in the digital and fi ne arts and occur outside of normative science contexts. by referring to my art practice, my curatorial projects and my ideas from the sciences, art history and theory, i set out a num- ber of arguments toward an appreciation of visualization as a form of image-making able to function and be applied to a wider range of topics than is cur- rently the case. i explore how sci- entifi c and visual arts domains may inform and learn from each other. this leads toward new understand- ings of the role and value of images produced using iv by showing how its processes can extend contempo- rary understandings of the image in the visual arts. the discussion shows that images are a vehicle capable of enabling comprehension of mate- rial realities. equally, by referring to specifi c artworks, i demonstrate that the analytical function of iv can be overridden to produce types of images capable of producing critical, aesthetic and affective experience [ ]. a b s t r a c t discussing his recent art- works alongside those by abigail reynolds, lucy kimbell and christian nold, the author examines emerging phenomena in the digital and wider fi ne arts whereby information visualiza- tion practices are approached as creative media. by laying bare points of convergence and divergence between artistic and scientifi c approaches, the article develops a number of arguments that show how the pictures produced by infor- mation visualization may be reframed within wider aesthetic and critical frameworks. thus the author explores how models of image production derived from processes of scientifi c inquiry expand possibilities for the visual arts to develop new types of hybrid images that consist of data grounded both in material realities and in symbolic and aesthetic elements. fig. . gavin baily and tom corby, cyclone.soc, . (© tom corby and gavin baily. photo © john marshall.) immersive installation visualizing newsgroup postings as weather formations. article frontispiece. lucy kimbell and andrew barry, pindices project, website component, . (© lucy kimbell and andrew barry) the front page of the website provided an “at a glance” view of the types and frequency of activities that individual participants were engaged in. © isast leonardo, vol. , no. , pp. – , corby, landscapes of feeling bedded in the wider communities of users and creators than is the norm in science. feeling data the process of visualization involves translation of data into visual, symbolic form or pictures. the oft-quoted phrase, “the purpose of visualization is insight, not pictures” [ ], suggests that, as an instrumental practice, it is possible to separate the results of visualization from the pictorial artifacts that produce them: i.e. visualizations are valued according to their ability to effi ciently enable ac- cess to literal concentrates of data with minimal interference from aesthetic “noise” that might cloud interpretation. however, encounters with images of any kind involve interpretive and subjective responses on behalf of the viewer. these are infl uenced by personal experience, education, knowledge of the subject in hand, wider histories and social and cultural contexts [ ]. if an image is worth a thousand words, the meaning within an image is necessarily fl uid and resists assimilation to singular interpreta- tion—which is as true for iv as for other disciplines. epistemological issues of ob- jectivity—the truthfulness of the image and its interpretation—have long been debated in iv; its veridical function as a clear window onto the phenomena studied is compromised by the layers of mediation through which it travels. while jack van wijk [ ] argued that the value of iv as a practice within scientifi c process is not questioned, data is not an asocial phenomenon untouched by hu- man hands, but is processed according to specifi c data parameters, hardware, chosen algorithms as well as the fi nal visual output or pictorial metaphor em- ployed to represent it—producing what donna cox has argued is a “culturally contingent” form grounded in wider vi- sual cultures and histories of interpreta- tion [ ]. james elkins has persuasively argued that scientifi c processes produce pictorial forms with both “propositional” and “nonpropositonal” content. what he means by this is that they contain informational components that clearly describe data and can be analyzed to propose or illuminate theories in a cogni- tive sense and also aesthetic constituents more akin to pictures in the fi ne arts that produce different effects. these aesthetic elements, he suggests, have the potential to be more prominent, enabling images concerned with data analysis to “mean more freely,” i.e. to produce more ex- pressively nuanced images that override explanatory interface between science and the public, media and policy mak- ers [ ]. despite this cultural penetration, un- til recently the fi ne arts have rarely used iv as a vehicle for creative activity. there are some notable exceptions to this rule, including ad reinhardt’s satirical pic- tures of the american art scene [ ] and mark lombardi’s complex drawings of political and fi nancial interdependen- cies [ ]; but the visual representation of data in the visual arts has traditionally been a prerogative of graphic artists, who in the contemporary context work in what donna cox has characterized as “renaissance teams”—that is, cross-disci- plinary groupings of artists and scientists who jointly contribute their expertise in order to solve the problems of pictur- ing and communicating specifi c bodies of scientifi c knowledge [ ]. this work, while important, is not the remit of this article, as it generally adheres to an in- stitutional focus that is predominantly, if not exclusively, framed by scientifi c rather than broader critical and aesthetic discourses. recently, however, the creative land- scape has changed: an increasing num- ber of independent artists have begun to explore the aesthetic and critical poten- tials of iv, as evidenced by the growing numbers of projects and online initiatives [ ]. despite this, little has been written that seeks either to understand how this emerging work relates to scientifi c visu- alization or to develop a broader cultural analysis of what is being produced by these practices. these and other issues were used as a platform for the exhibition the infor- mation, which i co-curated with michael maziere at the university of westminster’s art gallery in november . taking the form of screen projection, sculpture, in- stallation and workshops, the exhibition sought to map how artists were assimi- lating insights and processes from the sciences in relation to aesthetic, critical and conceptual knowledge in the visual arts. it developed three overlapping ar- guments: • iv is capable of functioning as a sen- sual and critical art medium able to handle complex affective and emo- tive subject matter • the visual arts can learn from scien- tifi c iv insofar as it offers them an ef- fective means of producing new types of images that are hybrids of data grounded in material realities and symbolic and aesthetic elements • forms of iv that are possible (and perhaps necessary) are directly em- background: visualization and cultural production before proceeding, i should perhaps clarify what i mean by information visu- alization and review how it is presented to and interfaces with wider public and visual cultures. conventionally, the term refers to the application of computer graphics to data derived from external objects in order to generate visually un- derstandable pictures of phenomena. it is generally considered to have originated in the mid to late s [ ] as an attempt to manage contemporary increases in the quantity and complexity of informa- tion. this practice, as edward tufte has pointed out elsewhere [ ], is but the lat- est manifestation of the “cognitive arts,” which historically have included maps, scientifi c diagrams, mri scans, mathe- matical projections, charts and schemat- ics, among many other visual expressions of data. computer-based iv is differenti- ated from these historical precedents by its ability to represent data interactively in multidimensional, navigable form, thus making it a particularly effective tool for handling large data sets and model- ing differing views and perceptions of the phenomena studied. by translating data into pictures, with iv we aim to capitalize on humans’ natural ability to spot patterns and relationships in visual fi elds (cognition). this enables an intuitive identifi cation of structures, which would not be available if presented in purely numeric form. in its role as part of the scientifi c discovery process, iv is routinely employed as an aid to inspire hypotheses and a mechanism to devise further questions and forms of data. other prefi xes such as “scientifi c” and “data” are also employed to refer specifi - cally to the representation of naturally oc- curring objects and processes, such as the climate and the human body, and in the visualization of data, i.e. non-physically occurring abstract phenomena, such as stock market behavior and internet traf- fi c. for the sake of consistency, i will con- tinue to use the term iv as a convenient catch-all label capable of encompassing all these approaches [ ]. outside of their immediate investi- gative function, visualizations play an important public role as a communica- tion medium and are regularly used by architects [ ], employed in documentary and weather broadcasts, and utilized in venues that promote scientifi c ideas as spectacle, such as imax cinemas. vi- sualization then has been established as a broad cultural form that acts as an corby, landscapes of feeling gail reynolds’s project, mount fear east london (color plate e); however, un- like cyclone.soc, reynold’s project does not rework an existing visualization, but instead creates one from scratch using police statistics of violent crimes that have occurred over a year-long period in east london. the statistics were initially plotted in a d modeling program that extruded the data and then mapped it to the specifi c geographical location per- taining to the event. from this, reynolds developed a sculpture made up of layers of cardboard whose resultant form dra- matizes the data by transforming it into a landscape of sheer mountains and plunging gorges, with peaks and valleys signifying high and low levels of violent incident. mount fear could feasibly be used as an analytical tool to determine where more police resources or social programs are needed in london, but its material pres- ence suggests a more nuanced range of cultural meanings. the sculpture is large ( . × . m, with a height of . m), which allows the audience to walk around and peer into its undulating features. developing an experience of cyclone.soc uses an edited concentrate of data from different storms derived from publicly available satellite forecast- ing for the eastern coast of the united states during the autumn of . this information was then re-worked as vector animations traced from the original iso- bar projections using adobe illustrator and given depth, dimension and inter- activity by being re-programmed using the open gl platform. in this way, the work “shadows” scientifi c practice, be- cause it does not image a specifi c event, but rather constructs a fi ctive space that is an amalgam of different data. thus, a mutant or hybrid image is produced that threads information derived from social interactions into a pre-existing meteorological topology. in resituating newsgroup postings as weather phenom- ena, the project frees pictorial elements to act as metonyms for different types of cultural and ideological tension enabled and produced through technological do- mains. it also develops a suggestive link between extreme belief systems and their potential wider impacts on the material world. a similar approach is evident in abi- the propositional function of the scien- tifi c image [ ]. the fi rst two artworks i discuss in this article, cyclone.soc ( – ) (which i produced in collaboration with gavin baily) and mount fear east london ( ) by abigail reynolds, take this potential as a starting point to explore how iv has the potential to generate sensual and affec- tive experiences for audiences through the use of intricate formal assemblages of information, space, material and im- age [ ]. intense conviction is the subject mat- ter of cyclone.soc (fig. ), an immersive interactive environment that combines internet debates between extremist re- ligious and political groups with severe weather conditions. streamed live, dif- ferent newsgroup postings are fi tted to the atmospheric topologies of a num- ber of cyclonic weather fronts of differ- ing strengths, giving the overall effect of a conversational churn and eddy of argument and counter-argument. post- ings can then be read by either walk- ing around the space or using controls to maneuver to specifi c formations and conversations. fig . abigail reynolds, acrylic and wax pencil study on card, × mm, . (© abigail reynolds) corby, landscapes of feeling forms of visual epistemology capable of reducing complex social relations to tan- gible structures. thus we might argue that (even inadvertently and unconsciously) the scientifi c image is subject to histori- cal forms of pictorial production rooted in experiments in wider visual and fi ne art cultures, while, as evidenced by the work discussed here, iv is simultaneously cycling back into visual culture the new pictorial forms produced by emerging technologies. visualizations for the people visualizations are used to inform govern- mental policy in areas as diverse as na- tional defense, climate change, economic performance, education, industry and law [ ] and thus impinge on our lives at the level of social, economic and envi- ronmental planning. access to tools that generate information privileges its users (“information is power”), retrenches sys- tems of fi xed privilege and builds divides between information “haves” and “have knowledge. it is an aesthetically situated knowledge that arises when audiences encounter and negotiate complex inter- changes of data, feeling and sensation. both artworks also make historical connections to older art traditions and therefore locate iv techniques in other frameworks of history and meaning. in particular, the intense visual and immer- sive landscapes produced by these works are reminiscent of th-century land- scape painting and its fascination with the un-representable, that is, the sub- lime. in addition, each also evokes early and mid-period modernist abstraction. for example, the looping spiraling texts of cyclone.soc contain a cultural memory of the visual organization of concrete poetry, and the drawings that reynolds produces in her sculptural practice share art-historical “dna” with late or synthetic cubism and the formal experiments of russian constructivism (fig. ). as has been suggested by lev manovich [ ], the ability of visualization to pictorially render invisible phenomena equates to early modernism’s efforts to produce data in this manner is not arbitrary, an aesthetic act for its own sake. rather, as the project visualizes the consequences of hidden social behavior in subtle, criti- cal ways, it goes beyond mere decoration. experiencing the data tangibly gives what reynolds has described as a “psychologi- cal dimension” to a work that images a hidden experience of urban life, one that is both shocking in its physicality and fas- cinating as a discharge of memory. in oc- cupying the same space as the audience, the work produces a physical equivalence for abstract facts, which enables the au- dience to reconnect to the situated acts they measure. cyclone.soc and mount fear show that, when unshackled from analytics, visual- izations can convey complex subjective experiences in novel aesthetic forms. while they share an interest with scien- tifi c iv in the production of pictorial sur- rogates for invisible objects and forces, these experimental arts-based visualiza- tions are not strictly concerned with cognition. rather, these are productions of a more ambiguous kind of embodied fig. . christian nold, bio mapping project, . (© christian nold) participants wearing the response measuring units. corby, landscapes of feeling visible. working with sociologist andrew barry [ ], kimbell decided not to for- mulate a prescriptive framework of what it meant to be political, but rather to de- velop a context within which it would be possible for participants to express what they considered it to be, by enabling them to associate specifi c activities with various forms of public visual display. pindices consisted of a number of com- ponents: the interdisciplinary research carried out with andrew barry described above, a website, a gallery installation and the active input of self-selecting par- ticipants. a humble button badge was chosen to operate as both a unit of mea- surement and a visible demonstration of political preference and was employed in both website and installation versions of the work. the website [ ] invited each user to participate in the project by cre- ating and nurturing a “personal political index” (pindex) published as an activity graph that measured his or her political endeavors over a set period. each pindex could be annotated and was accessible and usable by others, therefore providing a public accounting that encouraged an awareness of the role and prevalence of political acts in participants’ lives (article frontispiece). the gallery installation offered a simi- lar way for audiences to identify with political acts, albeit in a different pub- lic context and manner (fig. ). this part of pindices consisted of clear vi- nyl tubes, each initially full of different colored badges printed with slogans in any way they see fi t. thus, the work provides an alternative to institutionally directed visualization practices that is rooted in what nold has described as so- cial or “bottom-up” data gathering [ ]. including the user as an interpretive agent in the work means that its results are ambiguous and deny fi xed meanings. the gsr mechanism itself is unable to distinguish between stress and excite- ment, implying that there is no “result” or “truth” to be discovered; rather bio mapping engenders an open-ended dis- cursive event whereby meanings emerge from the shared subjective responses of groups of users. lucy kimbell’s project pindices ( ) shares some similarities with nold’s proj- ect because it actively encourages user participation and is a “socially engaged” work. however, unlike bio mapping, it is less directly concerned with technologi- cal computer visualization, but rather brings together an assemblage of pro- cesses in order to measure and make tan- gible political activity, toward developing wider cultural conceptions of democratic processes. existing tools, such as opinion polls, function effectively to show aggregates of public opinion, but are less useful as tools for the representation of indi- vidual conduct or belief. the pindices project sought to develop a way in which these normally hidden activities could be tracked, with the aim of developing an expanded conception of what politi- cal activity is and how it might be made nots.” christian nold and lucy kimbell’s artworks in the information exhibition ask what might happen if, rather than be subject to these top-down processes, people were able to develop their own customized information tools in order to aid social and personal empowerment [ ]. christian nold’s bio mapping ( – ongoing) allows the generation of data visualizations that link a user’s emotional response to location. the work consists of two elements: a wearable mechanism consisting of a lie detector and global positioning satellite (gps) technology, which detects a user’s galvanic skin re- sponse (gsr) and position, and visual- ization software that maps this change to specifi c locales (fig. ). the unit works according to the theory that it is possible to capture and defi ne measurable parameters of a person’s internal emotional “state” through the levels of sweat users secrete through their hands. as part of the university of westminster exhibition, self-selecting stu- dent volunteers were introduced to the project in a workshop situation. each was fi tted with a device and sent out on an hour-long walk of the university and its immediate environs, which includes a hospital and a densely built-up urban environment. while this was happening each student’s changing location and level of arousal were sampled every seconds by the device and the data down- loaded to a memory chip. this informa- tion was then fed into google earth and visualized as three-dimensional forms to produce, what nold calls, an “emotion map” of the area (fig. ). after the students returned from the walk, another phase of the project was in- stigated whereby students were debriefed and asked to notate and analyze the sub- sequent visualization of their journeys, e.g. by commenting on how they felt at specifi c times and locations. this allowed a customization of the function of the work, in which some students tagged the map with subjective commentary while others preferred prosaic descriptions. the “emotion map” was then projected within the gallery space as an aggregate of the tagged walks enabling further group discussion of results to be developed. these conversations allowed a number of interesting outputs to accrue. for ex- ample, consensual interpretive processes allow participants a deeper purchase on ownership of their data. by taking analy- sis and information-gathering out of the hands of experts, persons normally con- sidered as “subjects” of study are enabled to construct understanding of results fig. . christian nold, bio mapping project, . (© christian nold) screen shot showing aggregate of routes taken by student participants; peaks of greater height indicate strong physiological arousal. corby, landscapes of feeling closing remarks the works discussed in this article high- light some of the ways artists have found to bind scientifi c visualization processes to cultural activity. it is not my purpose to set these experimental artist-led ap- proaches against scientifi c visualization, but rather to lay bare useful correspon- dences and points of interest in order to build upon and extend current under- standings of the subject area. the relationship of these artist-based visualizations to scientifi c practice (and vice versa) is complex, as the works dis- cussed are cross-disciplinary but do not involve direct collaboration between scientists and artists. while the two disci- plines converge in terms of attempting to image invisible phenomena through data visualization, they diverge in terms of the types of knowledge and experiences they seek to create and their attitude to- ward the image as a locus of meaning. production processes are also novel and generally bear little resemblance to ap- proaches in the sciences. the featured artists treat visualization processes as a form of creative media capable of func- tioning in broader aesthetic, critical and historical contexts. they work with an un- western culture consists of fractured eco- nomic and social spheres that result from advanced, technologically driven, capital- ist, political and media hegemonies. as a result, these forces produce an illegible, discontinuous reality, its scrambled rela- tions functioning to confuse socioeco- nomic structures and disperse effective alternative political and cultural develop- ments. in response, jameson has called for the visual arts to produce pictorial forms, or “cognitive maps,” which would both enable the comprehension and ori- entation of these abstract structures and prototype alternative modes of being and acting in the world [ ]. both bio mapping and pindices may therefore read as forms of “cognitive map” as envisaged by jameson, as they make visible hidden social, environmen- tal and political realities by transferring them into comprehensible material forms. they also produce a visualization practice that models a role for the art- ist/visualizer as an enabling agent, rather than a top-down interlocutor insofar as contexts for participation in information visualization processes are designed that provide ordinary members of the public with ways of grasping, accounting for and investing in their lives. derived from the list of activities identi- fi ed in the initial research phase: “i kept myself informed,” “i raised issues,” “i signed a petition,” amongst others; that is, each tube represented a political act. a dispensing mechanism at the bottom of each allowed visitors to select the badge they felt most empathy with, thus reduc- ing the level of buttons in any particu- lar tube. simultaneously a visualization and a method for creating data directly, the visible effect of this process was the generation of a dynamic bar chart that made public the personal preferences of its users. however, for kimbell, “hard results,” i.e. the level of badges in specifi c tubes and their fi nal destination, were of less importance than the effective- ness of the project to generate discourse around what its users considered politi- cally important. thus framed, the work is explicitly concerned with consciousness- raising, in fi nding ways and means of threading together technological meth- ods with social processes, in order to en- able people to refl ect upon the political dimensions of their lives and their capaci- ties to act on individual and collective levels [ ]. in his writing since , frederic jameson has argued that contemporary fig. . lucy kimbell and andrew barry, pindices project, , installation component. (© lucy kim- bell and andrew barry) corby, landscapes of feeling . d. cox. “metaphorical mapping: the art of vi- sualisation,” aesthetic computing, p.a. fishwick (ed), cambridge, mass: the mit press, , – . . j. elkins, “art history and images that are not art,” the art bulletin, , no. , , p. . . more information about corby and baily’s work can be found at <http://www.reconnoitre.net>; doc- umentation of abigail reynolds’s work can be found at <http://www.abigailreynolds.com>. the version of cyclone.soc exhibited in the information was a proto- type, one of a series of versions of a project that was developed throughout . . l. manovich, the anti-sublime ideal in data art, au- gust , manovich, <www.manovich.net/docs/ data_art.doc> (accessed november ). . kallick-wakker, p. . . further information about christian nold and lucy kimbell’s work can be found respectively at <http://www.biomapping.net> and <http://www. lucykimbell.com>. . c. nold, “christian nold ittaca project,” bio mapping, january , <http://www.biomapping. net/leafl et.pdf> (accessed march ). . dr. andrew barry is a member of the school of geography at the oxford university centre for the environment. . the version of pindices shown in the informa- tion did not include the website component of the project. the pindices website no longer exists but documentation may be found at <http://www.lucy- kimbell.com/pindices/prototype/index.htm>. . see lucy kimbell’s discussion of pindices in “if networked art is the answer: what is the question?” in network art: practices and positions, t. corby (ed) london routledge, , – . . f. jameson, “cognitive mapping,” marxism and the interpretation of culture, c. nelson & l grossberg (eds.) urbana and chicago: university of illinois press, – . . j. baudrillard, simulacra and simulation (the body, in theory: histories of cultural materialism) s. glaser (trans.) ann arbor: university of michigan press, . acknowledgments the author would like to thank the arts and humani- ties research council of the united kingdom for providing the research leave to complete this work. manuscript received january . tom corby is an artist who currently holds the position of reader in interdisciplinary arts at the university of westminster. his artworks made in collaboration with gavin baily have been exhibited internationally, and he has re- cently edited a collection of essays on internet art: networked art: practices and posi- tions (published ). these works set out arguments for a pos- sible wider role for iv as a vehicle for cul- tural production that shifts its practices to wider areas of attention and is inclu- sive of different constituencies of users and publics. references and notes unedited references as provided by author. . the term “affect” is complex and is often used in place of “emotion” or “feeling”; when used here it refers to a sensation of embodied intensity generated through an encounter between affecting agencies, i.e. an artwork and audience. or, as brian massumi puts it in his introduction to deleuze and guattari’s a thousand plateaus, rather than a personal emotion, affect is “a prepersonal intensity corresponding to the passage from one experiential state of the body to another”—an embodied condition that exists out- side of consciousness. see: g. deleuze and f. guat- tari, a thousand plateaus: capitalism and schizophrenia, london: the athlone press, , p. xvi. . b.h. mccormick, t.a. defanti, and m.d. brown (eds.) “visualization in scientifi c computing: report of the nsf advisory panel on graphics, image pro- cessing and workstations,” computer graphics, , no. , nov., . . e.r. tufte, envisioning information, connecticut: graphics press, . . s.k. card, j. mackinlay & b. shneiderman (eds.) readings in information visualization: using vision to think, morgan kaufmann publishers: san francisco, ca, . . m. benedikt, “information in space is space in information,” images from afar: scientifi c visualization an anthology, a. michelsen and f. stjernfelt (eds.) akademisk forlag: oslo university press, . . i. kallick-wakker, “science icons: the visualiza- tion of scientifi c truths,” leonardo, , no. , , – . . examples of this form of reinhardt’s work are featured on the silverstein gallery website: “ad reinhardt—art comics and satire – ,” <http://www.silversteingallery.com/pop_ad.html>. . lombardi’s work can be found at the pierogi gal- lery website, <http://www.pierogi .com/fl atfi le/ lombardi.html>. . d. cox, “what can an artist do for science: ‘cosmic voyage’ imax film,” art @ science, c. som- merer and l. mignonneau (eds.) springer-verlag: new york. . see for example vande moere’s blog: “info aes- thetics,” <http://infosthetics.com>. . card et al [ ], p. . . m. kemp, “from science in art to the art of sci- ence,” nature, , issue , , – . . j.j. van wijk, “the value of visualisation,” c. silva, e. groeller, & h. rushmeier (eds.) proceed- ings of ieee visualization , , – . derstanding of the image as a producer of meanings that are often ambiguous or multi-leveled and that produce embod- ied, affective, sensory experiences that elude rational description and measure- ment. this approach offers a contrast to scientifi c visualization, which fi rst and foremost strives for clarity of interpreta- tion in order to service analysis of specifi c phenomena. the tension between these different conceptions of the image provokes inter- esting questions for both subject domains about the limits of representation. if, for the sake of debate, we can broadly charac- terize understandings of the contempo- rary image in the arts as being dominated by post-modern debates as imagined by baudrillard, i.e. a hobbled form (simula- cra) incapable of functioning as an en- abling agency for comprehension of the real, then what the sciences teach visual artists is that ways of producing images that are anchored to material realities are possible and that data visualization offers a route that enables a reconnection to it [ ]. the models of visualization prac- tice produced by these artworks develop a new type of image that consists of ob- jective and subjective, informational and aesthetic components. it operates at the limits of what the image is understood to be in the visual arts. in doing so, these images also expand our understanding of what iv is and what it might be. they show that visual arts can usefully contrib- ute to the ongoing debates in science concerning epistemological issues of ob- jectivity of the image in iv, through the production of models of practice that ac- tively highlight and foreground the role of the general public in data gathering and interpretation of results. in other words, what is normally seen as prob- lematic in scientifi c iv—i.e. the ability of images produced to contain multi-level meanings—is productively turned to show that images grounded in objective data can be aligned with a more general- ized and discursive function in the visual arts as a system that produces affective experience and alternative narratives or perceptions of the world. in such terms 	leon. 	leon. microsoft word - viner.docx westcliff international journal of applied research vol. , no. . fall licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial . international license. the formal deviant: the innovative features of e. e. cummings’s ‘next to of course god america i’ c.b. viner, faculty christopher.viner@westcliff.edu abstract this article explores the modernist american poet, e. e. cummings, and his experimentations with the traditional sonnet form in poetry. e. e. cummings was an influenced by cubism and used the principles of this form to stylize his poetry. he changed the nature of the sonnet form, as seen in his political poem and satire, ‘next of course god america i’, which this article will explore through close reading and literary analysis. _______________________________________________________________ westcliff international journal of applied research. vol. , no. . fall perfectly beautiful is (cummings, , p. ) the poet must become more and more comprehensive, more allusive, more indirect, in order to force, to dislocate if necessary, language into his meaning. (eliot, , p. ) the immediately recognizable visual quality of e. e. cummings’s poems is a result of his ingenious decision to transmute the stylistic principles of european modern art movements—predominantly cubism—into poetic practice. the most innovative and distinguishable poetic features—namely, the tendency for lower-case typography, the omission of punctuation, and the syntactical disturbance (by means of grammatical displacement)—have the effect of fracturing the surface of his subject, creating a multifaceted image, in which his reader, in norman friedman’s ( ) words, “grasps… all at once” (p. ). the scientific and industrial surge in the nineteenth century in america and europe, and its further expansion in the early twentieth century, aided cummings practically. there were now many avant-garde artistic movements available through more efficient methods of production and transportation links; although, paradoxically, the principles of such a surge, namely, the belief in homogeneity, and the loss of confidence in a ‘soul’ or ‘self’, were principles cummings opposed. ideologically, he is in a traditional lineage of visionary romantics and rebels who retained the importance of feeling at the dawn of the new mechanical age; william blake, charles baudelaire, and john ruskin all share the principles of cummings’s rebellion. in the poem, ‘next to of course god america i’, an almost machine-like monotone juxtaposes with the speaker’s human feeling of nervousness, exposing the unnatural tension at work between forcibly orchestrated propaganda—represented in the subject’s speech—and the human beneath the governmental product of a mechanical and increasingly sterile epoch. in opposition to rationality and homogeneity— and to realism—various avant-garde movements, such as cubism and futurism, flowered in europe, and particularly, in paris. whilst a student at harvard, cummings befriended s. foster damon who introduced him to a number of contemporary european influences not cited on his university reading list, such as achille-claude debussy, igor fyodorovich stravinsky, and the first anthology of imagist poems, ezra pound’s des imagistes ( ). in , damon took cummings to the armory show, which showcased the works of some of the most exciting modernist artists, including pablo picasso, henri matisse, and the ‘father’ of cubism, paul cézanne, with whom cummings became obsessed. in , cummings became less enthusiastic about cubism, distrusting its “cold and frozen grammar” (cohen, , p. ), and eventually yearned for fracturing and fusion, combined with “that precision which creates movement” (cummings, , p. ). his vision of poetry from a painter’s perspective, the cubist influence, and a yearning for language to move—channelled through traditional form—resulted in a new style; a radical hybridity was forged by utilising an avant-garde mode (cubism) in an historically-established form (the sonnet). cummings’s disturbance of syntax comprises a large portion of his method. the prism, with its complex spectrum of colours and multiple sides, which fuse together to form a centre of light, or ‘truth’, is a fair analogy to the principles of modernism and is the poet’s “symbol of all art” (kennedy, , p. ). cummings ruptures syntax and dislocates language, predominantly, by morphing adjectives, adverbs and verbs into nouns, rearranging words in a clause, and omitting punctuation. this innovation explodes language into a myriad of potential currents of meaning. for example, one could read the adjective ‘early’ as a noun, in, “say can you see by the dawn’s early” which would give some syntactical sense to the following (theoretical) clause, “my / country ’tis of centuries…” the lack of punctual markers provides a dissonance, causing a spectrum of potential meaning. the hauntingly idiosyncratic nuances that can be fathomed from this syntactical disturbance is one of cummings’s most sophisticated successes; through it, the reader explores their individuality, _______________________________________________________________ westcliff international journal of applied research. vol. , no. . fall and thus, reaffirms it. by omitting punctuation, the readerly position is one of an interior vantage within our most idiosyncratic readerly faculties; we reclaim ‘i’ and press into the text our own intuitive cadence, idiosyncratic rhythms of being, of is. for example, the poem’s lack of punctual address in the first line gives licence for the reader to fathom multiple meanings (friedman, ). the word ‘america’ in “god america i”, for instance, could be construed as a metonymic term, indicating the audience in front of the political speaker. furthermore, the listing aspect of ‘god america i’ may be representative of the state’s ethically-unsound hierarchy of importance: ‘god’ first, ‘america’ second, and its citizens—the small ‘i’s’ that comprise the country—last. alternatively, it could indicate state power, on an international political scale, but more so symbolically, representing the untouchable nature of the government itself by its citizens: the ‘god’ that is ‘america’, connoting totalitarianism, and anti- democratic values. indeed, the ‘god america’ that through a system of propaganda after declaring war on germany on th april sent its citizens to a mindless, “roaring slaughter”. cummings’s message, later, is less ambiguously compacted into his subject’s speech, “they did not stop to think they died instead”. conformity kills; not thinking for oneself, not growing into an individual, but instead, succumbing to homogeneity is the most dangerous way for one to live. cummings’s fusion of individualism, platonic dualism, the principle of growing, or rather, making, and the childhood vision informs his practice. friedman ( ) states that cummings possesses “anarchist beliefs”, and his poetics apply “anarchist techniques” to form (p. ). cummings views authority as a live predator, which vanquishes individualism and transforms human potential into homogeneity. in the enormous room ( ), he observes: “the police… swooped upon their helpless prey with the indescribable courage which is the prerogative of policemen the world over” (cummings, , p. ). the enemy to cummings’s principles of ‘feeling first’ and individualism are manmade socio-political tools that homogenise and institutionalise the government, the army, and social conformity—his objects of satire. the acceleration of the speaker’s speech is achieved through omission of punctuation and lower-case typography, portraying the subject’s nerves and hypocrisy. punctuation is used sparingly to raise questions on the ambivalence of authority, national identity and statehood officialdom. the apostrophe at “land of the pilgrims’…”, for example, not articulated aloud, means cummings is able to play on the ambiguity of this line, and its two meanings, i.e. ‘america’ is a land in which there are pilgrims and also a land belonging to pilgrims. capitalised letters, which are used after a stream of jingoistic clichés (the reference to the american national anthem, to macbeth, america’s patriotic song, ‘my country, tis of thee’, etc.) at the end of the speech, combined with a countering of terse punctuation, reinforce the figure’s recital speed. acceleration is also achieved through ‘telescoping’, seen at line : “in every language even deaf and dumb” (ahearn, , p. ). politicians, then, are seen as almost inhuman, antithetical to authenticity and individuality. however, in the poem, the ostensible politician’s nerves are what humanises him. behind the mask of uniformity and propaganda is a human being in a compromising position, which is finally hopeful. the subject is not a tyrannical member of authority, with no faculty for compassion but a fumbling charlatan coerced into a propagandist tool by a dehumanizing system of government. the figure’s nervousness, therefore, innovatively portrayed by, for example, the cubist effect of syntactical fracturing and fusing is finally what makes cummings’s satirical target, not the speaker, but the system by which even the speaker himself is controlled and exploited. the fact that the political figure is uneasy about what he is saying—nervously requiring a “glass of water” post jingoistic rant— exposes the hypocrisy of the government’s search for new military recruits. if pound’s poem, ‘the return,’ provided cummings with, in his words, “[the rudiments] of my writing style,” then dante gabriel rossetti’s house of life ( ), provided him with his favourite form (cummings, , p. ). the _______________________________________________________________ westcliff international journal of applied research. vol. , no. . fall sonnets in house of life were the reason he’d been, “writing sonnets ever since” (dickey, , p. ). giacomo da lentino invented the sonnet during the duocento. cummings’s sonnet is also historically bound; he scores the ancient tradition of the sonnet by imposing his anarchist techniques within it. in one sense, cummings’s defacement of such a noble tradition as the sonnet—of which william shakespeare and william wordsworth, for example, are major players—is analogous to his allegiance to the avant-garde, over his (lesser) adoration of historical form and even the canon itself, as a symbol of aristocracy, or conservative hierarchy. that the sonnet, as oppenheimer states, “is the first lyric of self-consciousness, or of the self in conflict” is fitting— since the authenticity/ homogeneity power-struggle in the poem reflects cummings’s anxieties of originality (oppenheimer, , p. ). in his pressing of eccentric experimentation into traditional (sonnet) structure, cummings’s paradoxes become transparent; his classical education and avant-garde influence, his want to please his conservative father, his tendency for radicalism, his belief in the infant’s vision, and the concept of growing, all work to inform a style that pivots on oppositional forces. cummings’s aporia is seen in his title choice for the harvard lectures in as i:six nonlectures. cummings is also in some respects, unoriginal. for example, the meter of the poem, with some ambiguities in the first two lines and metrical inversions to a trochaic rhythm, is predominantly in regular ‘heartbeats’ of iambic pentameter. the rhyme scheme during the octave is shakespearian: ababcdcd, and the rhymes themselves are relatively full, e.g. ‘i’ and ‘my’, ‘oh’ and ‘go’. rhyming innovations become apparent during the sestet, however, unless cummings uses an unusual scheme of efgfeg. furthermore, some rhymes in the sestet are more innovative. the tmesis that occurs at line , for example, ‘beaut-’, sets up an inventive rhyme with ‘mute’ in the penultimate line. typographically, this symbolises the government’s breaking of the ‘beautiful’ in half. the volta at the penultimate line and conclusive line of the narrator’s observation, is a unique feature. however, there is also a turn— which structurally subscribes to the sonnet’s origin and its observation/response dynamic—between the octave’s end, and line nine which begins the sestet and ends in a question, representing authoritarian dangers on personal liberty: “then shall the voice of liberty be mute?” this anxiety of authenticity is the cause, happily, of his most innovative features: the lower- case typography, the omission of punctuation, and the genuinely radical disturbance of syntax, which comprise cummings’s “literary cubism” (kennedy, , p. i). his innovation was one of re- appropriation, taking a painterly movement and imposing it on traditional form. cummings’s artistic energies were stylistic. it is through traditional form that he practices poetical stylistic deviance. indeed, he possesses a strong respect for form, and particularly the sonnet, making paul muldoon’s comment in , that cummings is “less iconoclastic than has often been supposed— including by himself” very apt (muldoon, , p. ). technically, however, his ingenious exportation and transmutation of cubism into a literary one by means of stylistic innovation, is highly original. he took a stylistic leap of faith, crossing artistic modes and the atlantic, and with it, he changed the ‘face’ of the sonnet. cummings’s experimental risks are something from which a new generation of poets are still learning. the black mountain school, the beat movement, and the l=a=n=g=u=a=g=e poets, have all taken stylistic elements from cummings’s technical anarchism. furthermore, his influence can be traced even today, in contemporary british poetry especially. sam riviere’s collection, austerities ( ), for example—winner of the forward prize for best first collection—uses hardly any punctuation, is printed in mostly lower-case lettering, and disturbs conventional syntax in similar ways to cummings, and with similar results. stylistically, cummings is a strong contender for the most innovative poet in the canon—he remains an individual, an ‘i’. _______________________________________________________________ westcliff international journal of applied research. vol. , no. . fall references ahearn, b. (ed.). ( ). the correspondence of ezra pound and e. e. cummings. michigan, us: university of michigan press. beach, c. ( ). the cambridge introduction to twentieth-century american poetry. cambridge: cambridge university press. bergman, d. ( ) marianne moore and the problem of “marriage.” american literature, ( ), – . cheever, s. ( ). e. e. cummings: a life. new york, us: pantheon. cohen, a. m. ( ). e. e. cummings: modernist painter and poet. smithsonian studies in american art, ( ), – . retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/ . cummings, e. e. ( ). complete poems: – . new york, usa: norton. cummings, e. e. ( ). is . new york: boni & liveright. cummings, e. e. ( ). selected letters. london: andre deutsch. cummings, e. e. ( ). i: six nonlectures. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. cummings, e. e. ( ). the enormous room. new york, united states: boni & liveright, inc. cummings, e. e. ( ) tulips and chimneys. new york: liveright. dickey, f. ( ). the modern portrait poem. london: university of virginia press. dumas, b. k. ( ). e. e. cummings: a remembrance of miracles. london: vision press limited. norman, f. (ed.). ( ). e. e. cummings: a collection of critical essays. london: prentice-hall. friedman, n. ( ). (re)valuing cummings: further essays on the poet, – . florida, us: the university press of florida. friedman, n. ( ). e. e. cummings: the art of his poetry. london: oxford university press. friedman, n. ( ). three views of poetic form. college english, ( ), – . fuller, j. ( ). the sonnet. new york: metheun. kennedy, r. s. ( ). dreams in the mirror. new york: liveright publishing corporation. kennedy, r. s. ( ). e. e. cummings: revisited. new york: twayne publishers. kidder, r. m. ( ). cummings and cubism: the influence of the visual arts on cummings' early poetry. modern literature, ( ), – . indiana, us: indiana university press. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/ . kidder, r. m. ( ). e. e. cummings: an introduction to the poetry. new york: columbia university press. kirsch, a. ( ). the rebellion of e. e. cummings: the poet’s artful reaction against his father—and his alma mater’. harvard magazine. retrieved from http://harvardmagazine.com/ / /the-rebellion-of-ee-cumm.html% kleinzahler, a. ( ). little lame balloonman. london review of books, ( ), - . retrieved from http://www.lrb.co.uk/v /n /august-kleinzahler/little-lame-balloonman lever, j. m. ( ). the elizabethan love sonnet. london: methuen. macgowan, c. ( ). twentieth-century american poetry. oxford: blackwell publishing. muldoon, p. ( ). capital case: the poetry of e. e. cummings. the new yorker. retrieved from http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/ / / /capital-case nicholson, g. ( ). plato’s phaedrus: the philosophy of love. united states: purdue university press. oppenheimer, p. ( ). the birth of the modern mind: self, consciousness, and the invention of the sonnet. oxford: oxford university press. plath, s. ( ). the journals of sylvia plath. new york: ballantine books. sawyer-lauçanno, c. ( ). e. e. cummings: a biography. ma, united states: methuen. sterritt, d. ( ). the beats: a very short introduction. united kingdom: oxford university press. tal-mason, p. b. ( ). the whole e. e. cummings. twentieth century literature, ( ), - . new york, us: hofstra university. the prince of patchin palace. ( , march). in vanity fair. retrieved from http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/ / /e-e-cummings-susan-cheever-biography. villa, j. g. ( ). selected poems and new. new york: obolensky mcdowell. warley, c. ( ). sonnet sequences and social distinction in renaissance england. massachusetts, us: cambridge university press. Études photographiques, | mai Études photographiques | mai photographie et hallucination/l'utopie chronophotographique le dernier tabloïd image de presse et culture médiatique dans l'oeuvre d'andy warhol vincent lavoie Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ issn : - Éditeur société française de photographie Édition imprimée date de publication : mai issn : - référence électronique vincent lavoie, « le dernier tabloïd », Études photographiques [en ligne], | mai , mis en ligne le , consulté le mai . url : http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ ce document a été généré automatiquement le mai . propriété intellectuelle http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/ le dernier tabloïd image de presse et culture médiatique dans l'oeuvre d'andy warhol vincent lavoie le avril , nelson rockfeller, gouverneur de l'État de new york, et robert moses, organisateur de l'exposition universelle ( ), censurent les "most wanted men" d'andy warhol, une murale composée des portraits photographiques de treize fugitifs activement recherchés par le fbi (fig. . andy warhol, "thirteen most wanted men", ¤uvre installée sur le pavillon de l'État de new york à l'exposition universelle de new york en , sérigraphie sur aggloméré, panneaux de x cm, photographie : eric pollitzer). accrochée à la façade du pavillon, l'oeuvre de warhol, commandée par l'architecte philip johnson, tout comme celles de roy lichtenstein et de robert indiana, également présentées dans le cadre de cette exposition, devait exprimer la nouvelle tendance pop, et une certaine désinvolture de l'art américain actuel. rockfeller exigea le retrait des "most wanted men" au prétexte que les criminels en question n'étaient plus recherchés par les services de police, et qu'il était donc injustifié d'exhiber ainsi leur portrait. warhol eut ainsi vingt-quatre heures pour retirer le panneau délictueux. il proposa de remplacer ses portraits de délinquants par l'effigie de robert moses. johnson refusa cette solution par trop subversive. warhol décida alors de recouvrir son oeuvre d'une couche de peinture d'aluminium, laissant ainsi au nouveau monochrome argenté le soin d'énoncer l'acte de censure. les circonstances de cet incident, que l'on pourrait assimiler à un fait divers, sont révélatrices du contexte artistique de l'époque: émergence du pop art dans une conjoncture marquée par l'héritage de l'expressionnisme abstrait, essor d'une imagerie associée à la culture consumériste, remise en cause du lyrisme de la peinture monochrome, réhabilitation de dada et du modèle duchampien et, aspects plus spécifiquement warholiens, recours aux techniques de reproduction [p. ] mécanique, recyclage d'images photographiques, prédilection pour les iconographies funestes et "glamour". ce que la censure des "most wanted men" traduit plus manifestement, c'est une désapprobation vis-à-vis d'un acte (duchampien) consistant à déplacer vers l'institution artistique des images normalement montrées dans les commissariats de police, et d'un geste (warholien) qui gomme toute trace d'intervention manuelle, de le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai talent artistique et de créativité, et met au contraire en avant la pauvreté esthétique, les effets rhétoriques et la violence ici signalée par la représentation métonymique de ses "auteurs" de la photographie de masse. les "most wanted men" participaient de la mise à mort symbolique du sujet (et de l'auteur en premier lieu), thème central de la série "death and disaster" à laquelle warhol travaillait depuis . accidents de voiture, empoisonnements, suicides, émeutes raciales, exécution capitale, [p. ] destruction nucléaire, tels sont les contenus de représentation de cette série, gigantesque tabloïd à sensations. si les sérigraphies de warhol introduisent la photographie de presse dans l'institution artistique, elles magnifient surtout (ou banalisent, c'est selon) les attributs de l'image de masse, et constituent le voyeurisme morbide en mode de réception esthétique. l'usage de sources photographiques à des fins artistiques est parfois qualifié d'annexion de la photographie au monde de l'art. le sectarisme manichéen de cette position ne nous sera d'aucun secours dans l'examen de l'oeuvre de warhol où la photographie, bien plus qu'un simple "matériau" artistique, est une marchandise. accidents et autres bavures le célèbre aphorisme de warhol, "i want to be a machine", est avant tout la réponse à la question posée par le critique g. r. swenson sur les intentions de l'artiste . depuis quelques années déjà, warhol utilisait des procédés de reproduction mécanique (pochoirs, tampons en caoutchouc, écrans de sérigraphie) afin de réaliser des oeuvres assimilables à des travaux commerciaux. la facture de ses travaux scandalise alors le monde de l'art qui, ayant oublié les incidences de l'oeuvre de francis picabia ou de marcel duchamp, désavoue encore les rapprochements entre culture savante et culture de masse. le projet de warhol d'"être un bon industriel d'art ou un bon artiste industriel " est incompatible avec l'idéalisme des peintres expressionnistes abstraits qui [p. ] dominent alors la scène artistique new-yorkaise. sa formation au carnegie institute of technology, distincte de celle des écoles des beaux-arts traditionnelles, n'est certainement pas étrangère à sa volonté de "mécaniser" la pratique artistique. dans un important essai consacré à warhol, benjamin h. d. buchloh rappelle que l'institut "proposait une version américaine, dépolitisée et plus technocratique dans son esprit, de la pédagogie du bauhaus, diffusée aux États-unis à partir de chicago, où lászló moholy- nagy avait pris la direction du new bauhaus dans l'entre-deux-guerres ". les écrits de moholy-nagy, notamment the new vision ( ), représentent d'ailleurs pour warhol, et ce dès la fin des années , une référence en matière de théorie de l'art. en effet, warhol adhère à nombre d'idées prônées par le directeur de l'institute of design de chicago: la démocratisation de l'art par l'industrie, la fusion de l'art et de la technique, les possibilités d'expérimentation propres aux dispositifs machiniques, la fin de l'unicité de l'oeuvre, etc. au début des années soixante, warhol réussit à introduire dans le monde de l'art des techniques empruntées au dessin publicitaire, et renonce aux conventions picturales en vigueur. les deux versions de la bouteille de coca-cola dont l'une est qualifiée de "merde" et d'expressionniste par emile di antonio , qui préfère largement le traitement graphique et industriel de la seconde illustrent bien ces transformations. [p. ] la première interview de warhol est également l'occasion pour lui d'annoncer le thème de ses travaux actuels: la mort en amérique . l'année précédente, le marchand henry geldzahler invitait warhol à abandonner les représentations de boîtes de soupe et de bouteilles de coca au profit d'une iconographie de la mort et de la catastrophe: "it's time le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai for death" injonction à l'origine semble-t-il de " die in jet" ( ) , une acrylique reproduisant la première page du new york mirror consacrée à une catastrophe aérienne. que ce crash ait endeuillé le monde de l'art en tuant des amis et mécènes du high museum of art d'atlanta aura certainement inspiré warhol pour qui "art de la violence" et "violence de l'art" constituent désormais les termes d'une nouvelle dialectique. dans l'art de warhol, la violence est machinique, technique, industrielle, sérielle. est-il alors surprenant que la série "death and disaster" coïncide avec l'utilisation des premiers écrans de sérigraphie obtenus par des procédés photomécaniques? la suppression quasi totale des traces d'intervention manuelle par la mécanisation du processus créatif parachève le projet de warhol de déshumaniser la genèse matérielle de l'oeuvre. comme l'explique marco livingstone, le procédé sérigraphique "repose exactement sur la même méthode que le pochoir: l'écran est un tissu tendu sur un châssis, dont on bouche avec de la colle ou du vernis certaines portions, de sorte que le pigment, étendu à l'aide d'une raclette en caoutchouc, ne traverse les pores que [p. ] dans les zones correspondant à l'image. [¤] de l'écran artisanal, warhol passe bientôt à l'écran fabriqué par clichage, à partir d'un document en noir et blanc. le tissu est recouvert d'une émulsion photosensible: les parties exposées à la lumière durcissent, et l'encre ne peut plus passer que dans les parties correspondant au motif, constitué par d'innombrables petits points ". le résultat comporte néanmoins des irrégularités bavures, traces, dérapages et encrassage de la toile indiquant que le facteur humain n'a pas été totalement évacué. warhol aurait pu faire exécuter ses sérigraphies par l'industrie, mais cela aurait occulté l'expression d'un décalage profond entre précision mécanique et imperfection humaine. ces incidents de surface révèlent le caractère aléatoire des actions accomplies par l'homme, comme dans les sérigraphies de la série "death and disaster", et plus particulièrement les accidents de voiture ("orange car crash fourteen times", ou encore la "saturday disaster", ), lesquelles représentent sous une forme allégorique ce que les "bavures" d'encre énoncent matériellement: l'humain est source de catastrophes, car toujours en deçà de la perfection machinique. c'est l'opinion de christopher phillips qui, reprenant les thèses de günther anders sur la prolifération des images et des biens de consommation, rappelle la vulnérabilité et la finitude de l'individu face à la machine pourvue d'un pouvoir de "réincarnation industrielle ". la voiture survit à l'humain, car elle est tout simplement remplaçable. issue de la production industrielle, elle est assurée d'une pérennité à laquelle l'individu ne peut aspirer. les sérigraphies d'accidents de voiture représentent de manière exemplaire le caractère presque superflu de la présence humaine dans un monde machinique parfait. en multipliant les images de conducteurs ou de passagers suspendus à de la tôle froissée ou encore empalés sur le crochet d'un poteau téléphonique situé à quelques mètres d'une voiture en flammes ("white burning car iii", ; fig. . andy warhol, "white car burning iii", sérigraphie sur toile, x cm, ), warhol représente des personnages littéralement expulsés de leur mécanique. l'inadéquation de l'homme et de la machine est également flagrante dans la "ambulance disaster two times", où le véhicule d'urgence achève pour ainsi dire le blessé qu'il transporte. une autre catastrophe, celle du thon contaminé ("tunafish disaster", ; fig. . andy warhol, "tunafish disaster" (détail), sérigraphie et acrylique sur toile, x cm, ), montre qu'une simple boîte de conserve peut aussi tuer. À la différence des sérigraphies de boîtes de soupe campbell's réalisées l'année précédente, cette oeuvre ne constitue pas un commentaire sur [p. ] la standardisation des produits de le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai consommation. la catastrophe du thon est plutôt l'expression du dysfonctionnement de la production alimentaire de masse et "commémore le moment où se détruit la prétention du supermarché à offrir des marchandises saines et abondantes ". elle aura également permis de soustraire mrs brown et mccarthy à leur anonymat. la célébrité de la victime et le spectacle de la mort fascinent warhol, dont la production artistique de l'époque alterne entre hommages aux stars réifiées par l'industrie du cinéma et "panthéonisation" d'anonymes. c'est avec sa série des chaises électriques que warhol appréhende la mort dans sa dimension la plus spectaculaire (fig. . andy warhol, "silver disaster" (détail), sérigraphie et acrylique sur toile, , x , cm, ). l'exécution capitale est un spectacle que les treize témoins requis par la législation américaine observent d'ailleurs en silence, comme l'exige l'écriteau représenté dans le document photographique utilisé par warhol. les sérigraphies de chaises électriques constituent les représentations les plus radicales mettant en scène la suppression du facteur humain par la technique. image-marchandise et communication de masse le triomphe de la machine sur l'homme a pour corollaire le triomphe de l'industrie sur l'art, autre catastrophe. la série "death and disaster" coïncide avec l'utilisation de documents photographiques réalisés pour la diffusion de masse. le recours à la photographie est d'autant plus déterminant qu'il participe d'un acte visant à redéfinir le statut de l'auteur, mais également à réintroduire du réel dans l'art actuel, plus encore à investir l'oeuvre d'un contenu issu de la culture populaire, celui de la presse illustrée. c'est ainsi que warhol, puisant dans life, newsweek, national enquirer, et parfois dans les archives de police et d'agences de presse, des images reproduites par les médias de masse, recycle des représentations déjà "consommées" par la culture populaire. avant que warhol ne les sérigraphie, les célèbres photographies de charles moore réalisées en lors des émeutes raciales en alabama paraissent dans les principaux quotidiens et hebdomadaires américains . la publication de ces images dans les journaux garantit une diffusion rapide de clichés devenus emblématiques de la lutte de la population noire pour l'obtention des droits civiques. les photographies de moore sont ainsi soumises à divers traitements éditoriaux et plastiques tributaires non seulement de la qualité de l'impression, mais également de la mise en page, du cadrage, de l'accompagnement textuel, etc. est-ce à dire que les [p. ] sérigraphies de warhol participent de la diversité des usages affectant à l'époque les clichés de moore? les conditions d'émergence et de réception de ces oeuvres caractérisent un champ disciplinaire qui n'est évidemment pas le même que celui, alors en pleine mutation, dans lequel évoluent les photojournalistes. l'avènement de la télévision, la naissance des premières agences d'envergure internationale dans les années , les enjeux économiques des médias de masse, les développements technologiques montrent à l'évidence que le photojournalisme doit répondre à de nouveaux impératifs. ce qui provoquera d'ailleurs une division au sein même du milieu photographique entre photojournalisme et photoreportage, encore que la distinction ne soit pas toujours très claire. le plus souvent, ces deux approches "désignent indifféremment la photographie qui a pour motivation première une fonction d'information, liée à une actualité plus ou moins "chaude "". pourtant, les conditions de réalisation de ces deux types d'images ne sont pas du tout les mêmes. sous la pression des lois du marché, le photojournalisme, contraint de s'organiser en un secteur économique efficace et rentable, a en quelque sorte cédé au photoreportage les "privilèges" d'une tradition "forgée selon une conception exacerbée de l'auteur ". le photojournalisme est assujetti à une industrie de l'image et de la communication, alors que le photoreportage est encore assimilé à tort ou à raison à une pratique artistique, le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai voire à un acte moral. l'"héroïsation" de reporters tel robert capa est emblématique de cette tendance à canoniser une catégorie de photographes refusant de réduire l'image à une simple marchandise destinée à alimenter les médias. si warhol remet en cause certains présupposés artistiques, c'est précisément parce qu'il convoque des références à un domaine de compétence, le photojournalisme, qui valorise l'image-marchandise. la critique d'art le lui reproche d'ailleurs à l'occasion de sa première exposition personnelle à la stable gallery, où il présente ses sérigraphies de stars. dore ashton estime par exemple que warhol se limite à la simple transposition picturale de techniques issues du journalisme, alors que michael fried, critique pour la revue art international, émet quelques doutes sur la valeur "journalistique" des oeuvres exposées . quant au milieu du photojournalisme, il ne reconnaît aucune propriété informative aux images de warhol qualifiées de "non fonctionnelles" par willy fleckhaus, directeur artistique de la revue twen . l'appréciation de howard chapnick est plus sévère. il déplore l'ambiguïté [p. ] de ses images, incompatibles selon lui avec le photojournalisme qui exige clarté et lucidité. l'ancien président de l'agence black star rappelle qu'il "existe des endroits pour le mystère et l'abstraction en photographie. cette place n'est pas dans les pages des journaux et des magazines qui sont chargés d'interpréter l'expérience humaine. le nihilisme de warhol est contagieux ". l'auteur de la série "death and disaster "pervertit les paramètres régulant la transmission efficace de l'information. il parasite notamment la représentation visuelle de "bruits optiques" que les professionnels du journalisme et de la communication s'emploient normalement à éliminer. dans un article de intitulé "signs, channels and icons", michael j. o'leary explique que dans le domaine de l'édition, la qualité du papier ou l'intensité de l'encre sont des facteurs susceptibles "d'introduire du bruit et d'affecter la transmission du signal ". la haute résolution est de rigueur et constitue un impératif qu'il importe de respecter, même si parfois des "images techniquement imparfaites peuvent être acceptées, encore que rien ne peut justifier les bavures d'encre si fréquentes dans les journaux ". si, comme le soutiennent certains critiques, les bavures d'encre rencontrées dans les sérigraphies rappellent les irrégularités de facture et les effets de matière de l'expressionnisme abstrait , elles constituent surtout, au regard des règles canoniques de l'édition, des interférences optiques rendant les images de warhol "impropres" à la communication de masse. les "bruits optiques" rencontrés dans ces sérigraphies mettent également à jour les artifices rhétoriques de la photographie de presse. ainsi de ces effets de trame que warhol accentue volontairement comme pour souligner le caractère industriel de la reproduction photomécanique. dans le domaine de l'édition, l'exacerbation des aspects matériels de la photogravure sert généralement à dramatiser la représentation . la mauvaise qualité de la reproduction atteste même du caractère exceptionnel du contenu représenté, la pauvreté esthétique de l'image fonctionnant comme indice de rareté ou d'urgence. de même pour les agrandissements qui, en accentuant la présence du grain et les défauts de l'image, accroissent l'impact visuel de la photographie. il semble d'ailleurs que la dialectique entre résolution de l'image et valeur expressive du contenu soit particulièrement opératoire dans le domaine de la représentation de faits divers. le film blow up ( ) de michelangelo antonioni en est certainement l'une des plus remarquables illustrations. [p. ] le musée comme magazine surdimensionné le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai par le recours à l'image de presse, warhol bouleverse les distinctions habituelles entre les champs disciplinaires. si douglas crimp estime que cette "contamination" positive du domaine de l'art par les médias est salutaire, et même indispensable à la remise en cause du musée en tant qu'institution séparée du reste de la culture et de la société , certains contemporains de warhol, comme barbara rose, condamnent cette perte d'autonomie du domaine de l'art: "je trouve ces images choquantes. je n'ai pas envie de voir dans une galerie ce que je suis obligée de regarder au supermarché. je vais dans la galerie pour échapper au supermarché, pas pour retrouver la même chose ." la critique de rose porte moins sur l'apparente trivialité du pop art que sur le déplacement vers l'institution artistique d'une iconographie et de symboles issus de la culture populaire. de même, howard chapnick, bien que pour des motifs différents, reproche à warhol de "décontextualiser" et d'exacerber le caractère équivoque de ses images . du point de vue du photojournalisme, l'entrée de la photographie de presse au musée apparaît suspecte lorsqu'elle s'effectue dans les conditions fournies par l'exemple de warhol. car la question n'est pas tant de savoir si la photographie de presse doit intégrer ou non l'institution artistique, mais bien de déterminer les modalités et les artifices rhétoriques employés afin d'en promouvoir l'accès. les rapports entre institutions muséales et médias de masse sont complexes, puisqu'ils révèlent les alliances parfois difficiles entre culture savante et culture populaire, entre autonomie de l'art et réalisme social, entre tradition et actualité, cela à une époque où la photographie détient pour ainsi dire le monopole de la représentation historique. si bien que la photographie de presse semble assumer la fonction jadis attribuée à la peinture d'histoire qui consiste à transformer les moments cruciaux de l'histoire politique et sociale en images emblématiques. or les événements retenus par warhol sont principalement des faits divers, genre mineur, mais auxquels il donne parfois l'envergure d'un drame épique. c'est précisément ce que la critique, tout comme le photojournalisme, désapprouve. l'image de presse est autorisée à intégrer le musée dans la mesure où elle prend en charge la représentation des grands événements de l'histoire. les gigantesques expositions patriotiques organisées par edward steichen pendant la seconde guerre mondiale sont exemplaires de la [p. ] nouvelle fonction historiographique assumée par la photographie de presse. dès le début des années , le futur directeur du département de photographie du moma souhaite, conformément aux voeux des administrateurs du musée en faveur d'actions plus générales et populaires, instaurer une formule d'exposition inspirée du modèle offert par la presse illustrée. de l'avis de beaumont newhall (qui démissionne en après avoir appris l'adoption du plan de steichen), ce dernier "se tournait toujours plus vers la photographie en tant qu'illustration, sous l'influence en particulier des grandes masses populaires ". newhall envisage la photographie dans une perspective historique et mène une politique d'expositions et de publications axée sur l'évolution esthétique du médium et la diversité de ses usages, sans pour autant occulter l'histoire de ses développements techniques. preuve en est l'exposition "photography - ", organisée par newhall à l'occasion du centenaire de la photographie, qui s'inscrit dans le cadre d'une programmation de manifestations didactiques incluant "cubism and abstract art" ( ), "fantastic art, dada and surrealism" ( ) et "bauhaus: - " ( ). si newhall conçoit son exposition sur le modèle du "fotokunst" proposé par moholy- nagy, l'un de ses principaux conseillers, et dans l'esprit des grandes manifestations photographiques organisées en allemagne entre et le début des années trente, il le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai cherche néanmoins à isoler la "valeur esthétique" de la photographie. la direction du département de photographie (créé en ) est confiée à newhall, et la commission destinée à le superviser est présidée par david h. mc [p. ] alpin, banquier d'affaires, photographe amateur et financier de l'exposition "photography - ", assisté d'ansel adams, fer de lance du modernisme photographique. ce triumvirat promeut la photographie en tant que mode d'expression artistique spécifique, en concordance avec les positions d'alfred h. barr jr., directeur du moma, revendiquée dans le domaine de la peinture et de la sculpture. newhall emprunte d'ailleurs au célèbre schéma de l'évolution de la peinture moderne élaboré par barr les principales thèses formalistes: "l'existence d'un champ, autodélimité et autoréférentiel, de facteurs purement esthétiques, vierge de toute influence de forces historiques ou sociales plus larges ". l'indépendance de l'histoire de la photographie face aux événements politiques et à l'actualité est plus difficile à défendre à partir de décembre , alors que les États-unis s'engagent dans la seconde guerre mondiale. la participation militaire du pays aura du reste des répercussions sur le fonctionnement du musée et du département de photographie en particulier. comme d'autres institutions, le moma participe à l'effort de guerre, non seulement en diminuant son budget de près de vingt pour cent en et en sollicitant le soutien financier de l'industrie photographique, mais surtout en organisant des expositions "conçues pour soutenir le moral de la nation bien plus que pour alimenter la réflexion esthétique ". c'est là qu'intervient edward steichen, qui transformera progressivement le département de photographie en atelier de communication de masse. plus que l'illustration d'un changement de politique culturelle, l'exposition "road to victory" organisée en par steichen consacre le pouvoir tentaculaire des médias de masse, et cela au sein même du musée. telle la maquette d'un "magazine surdimensionné", la scénographie de cette exposition est conçue de manière à "produire un récit visuel combinant les procédés les plus spectaculaires du cinéma et du journalisme photographique style life ". la plupart des visiteurs, "canalisés par une allée qui serpentait au milieu d'agrandissements de photographies documentaires énormes dont certaines mesuraient trois mètres sur seize", découvrent le moma à cette occasion. le succès de l'exposition auprès d'un public familier de la presse illustrée tient en outre à la scénographie ingénieuse de herbert bayer, artiste et designer issu du bauhaus. l'importance des assemblages typographiques et photographiques, le rôle de la couleur, de l'échelle et de [p. ] l'élévation sont autant de techniques issues des expérimentations révolutionnaires de el lissitsky et de leur rationalisation au sein du bauhaus, qui ont conduit bayer à privilégier une conception de l'exposition calquée sur la "psychologie de la publicité ". ce type de scénographie correspond à la mise en espace du populaire "essai photographique", une forme de reportage visuel reposant sur la réunion de deux ou plusieurs images étroitement liées par un contexte graphique. les principes de l'essai photographique ont donné naissance au photojournalisme moderne tel qu'il apparaît dans les grands magazines allemands, le berliner illustrirte zeitung ou le münchner illustrierte presse, destinés aux ouvriers de la république de weimar. le parti pris narratif de la scénographie de bayer a pour conséquence d'assimiler le commissaire de l'exposition à un "picture editor", ce que souhaite précisément steichen, devenu totalement indifférent à la qualité expressive et esthétique des tirages artistiques. c'est ainsi que steichen n'hésite pas à présenter des tirages sur "des supports épais (incompatibles avec l'archivage)" ou encore à installer des "transparents géants en le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai couleurs, des pages de la presse commerciale et des épreuves bon marché réalisées à partir de diapositives ". [p. ] un cliché monumental le modèle des médias de masse permet à steichen de désacraliser le médium photographique, de l'intégrer à une culture de la marchandise, d'exploiter dans l'institution muséale même des inventions graphiques et des stratégies rhétoriques normalement rencontrées dans la presse illustrée. l'identification de la photographie aux médias de masse a pour conséquence d'assimiler le photographe à un producteur d'illustrations que le commissaire coordonne tel un directeur artistique. la perte d'autonomie de l'image et de l'auteur est flagrante dans l'exposition "the family of man" ( ), où l'exacerbation des formules muséographiques mises en oeuvre dans "road to victory" et dans "power in the pacific" ( ) conduit à l'abolition de toute distinction statutaire entre auteurs et pratiques. si la politique de steichen préfigure à certains égards la "mise à mort" de l'auteur opérée quelques années plus tard par warhol, elle exprime surtout la volonté d'hypertrophier l'image de presse et de promouvoir la photographie d'actualité au titre de document commémoratif.les "machines" photographiques alors exposées au moma constituent la forme monumentale et exacerbée d'un contenu [p. ] patriotique et humaniste certes popularisé par la presse illustrée, mais que le musée idéalise. steichen se sert de l'institution comme d'un instrument de valorisation de l'image de presse, et d'amplification de la fonction pédagogique attribuée aux documents historiques. par un accrochage calqué sur le modèle de l'essai photographique, non seulement steichen assimile le musée à un magazine illustré, mais il lui attribue un rôle narratif et commémoratif.sous la houlette du commissaire de "power in the pacific", la narration de l'actualité politique se substitue au récit de la modernité artistique tel qu'il est revendiqué au sein du moma depuis alfred h.barr jr. À partir de , john szarkowski, successeur de steichen à la direction du département de photographie, tente de réhabiliter l'autonomie du champ photographique passablement mise à mal par son prédécesseur. les excentricités scénographiques de steichen cèdent alors la place à des accrochages dépouillés de photographies d'un format modeste et uniforme. les salles du musée deviennent aseptisées, et pour ainsi dire parées contre les effets de la contamination de la culture de masse. c'est dans ce contexte de "réparation autonomiste" que warhol impose le fatalisme morbide de "death and disaster". le paradigme du photojournalisme s'installe à nouveau sur le terrain de l'art en s'incorporant aux oeuvres elles-mêmes, mais surtout en transfigurant des biographies ordinaires en drames épiques. le caractère emblématique des contenus de représentation rencontrés dans les sérigraphies de warhol est lui aussi tributaire d'une monumentalisation de l'image de presse par l'exacerbation des attributs matériels d'un cliché esthétiquement pauvre, par le grand format, mais surtout, dans le cas précis des "most wanted men", par l'inscription dans l'espace public. transformer la façade extérieure d'une institution officielle en fichier de police surdimensionné n'est pas sans rappeler l'écriture scénographique de steichen à ceci près que warhol érige en effigie le criminel ou la victime, plutôt que le héros et ses victoires. [p. ] critique et historien d'art, collaborateur du centre georges pompidou et correspondant de la revue parachute, vincent lavoie a enseigné à l'université d'ottawa, à l'université paris viii et paris i. il prépare une thèse de doctorat intitulée "esthétiques et politiques de l'archive", sous la direction d'yves michaud (paris i). le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai une première version de cet article a été présentée en conférence le octobre au centre georges pompidou, à l'invitation de daniel soutif. l'auteur tient à remercier yves michaud pour ses commentaires judicieux, ainsi que jean-pierre criqui pour sa lecture attentive du manuscrit. [p. ] notes . "the reason i'm painting this way is that i want to be a machine, and i feel that whatever i do and do machine-like is what i want to do", gene r. swenson, "what is pop art?", art news, n° , novembre , p. . . h. d. benjamin buchloh, "l'art unidimensionnel d'andy warhol", andy warhol, rétrospective, paris, centre georges pompidou, , p. - . . ibid. . lászló moholy-nagy: "not the single piece of work, nor the highest individual attainment must be emphasized, but instead the creation of the commonly usable type, developed toward "standards"", the new vision ( , trad. angl. d. m. hoffman), new york, documents of modern art, , p. ; cit. in patrick s. smith, andy warhol's art and films, ann arbor, michigan, umi research press, , p. . . le cinéaste emilio di antonio: "un soir [c'était durant l'été ], je suis passé chez lui et on a pris quelques verres. il a posé deux grands tableaux contre le mur, l'un à côté de l'autre. [¤] il avait peint deux tableaux d'environ six pieds de hauteur, représentant chacun une bouteille de coca. sur l'un, il y avait une simple bouteille de coca en noir et blanc. l'autre était recouvert d'une multitude de marques typiques de l'expressionnisme abstrait. j'ai dit: "allons, andy, le tableau abstrait, c'est de la merde, l'autre est remarquable. c'est notre société, c'est ce que nous sommes, c'est extrêmement beau et dépouillé. tu devrais jeter le premier et montrer l'autre."" cf. arthur danto, "la bouteille de coca-cola expressionniste abstraite", après la fin de l'art (trad. de l'anglais par c. hary- schaeffer), paris, le seuil, , p. . . "my show in paris is going to be called "death in america". i'll show the electric-chair pictures and the dogs in birmingham and car wrecks and some suicide pictures", cit. in g. r. swenson, art. cit., p. . il s'agit de la première exposition personnelle de warhol à la galerie ileana sonnabend, en janvier-février . . "i bought the first newspaper that he did, the " die in jet". this was june ` . we met at serendipity for lunch one day and i brought him his headline and i said that's enough life¤ it's time for death. he said what do you mean? i said it's enough affirmation of soups and coke bottles", john wilcock, the autobiography and sex life of andy warhol, new york, , cit. in p. s. smith, op. cit., p. . . marco livingston, "À faire soi-même: notes sur les techniques de warhol", andy warhol, rétrospective, op. cit., p. . . "it is the human body itself comparatively unadaptable, vulnerable, mortal that is to be the ultimate obstacle to the perfection of the machine environnement. not that such le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai objects are imperishable, of course; but they are limitlessly replacable, and thus serve to exemplify what anders calls the serial principle of "industrial reincarnation"", christopher phillips, "desiring machines: notes on commodity, celebrity, and death in the early work of andy warhol", in public information, desire, disaster, document, san francisco, san francisco museum of art, , p. . . thomas crow, "saturday disaster: trace de référence de la première période de warhol", artstudio, "spécial andy warhol", n° , printemps , p. . . les images de moore sont parues à l'époque dans time ("dogs, kids, and clubs", mai , p. ), life ("they fight a fire that won't go out: the spectacle of racial turbulence in birmingham", mai , p. - ); newsweek ("birmingham, u.s.a.: "look at them run"", mai ); new york times ("rioting negroes routed by police at birmingham", mai , p. . cf. vicky goldberg, the power of photography. how photographs changed our lives, new york, abbeville press, , p. - . . emmanuel hermange, "petite histoire du photojournalisme", in une aventure contemporaine, la photographie - , paris, maison européenne de la photographie- paris audiovisuel, , p. . . ibid., p. . . "warhol simply lifts the techniques of journalism and applies them witlessly to a flat surface", dore ashton, "new york report", das kunstwerk, vol. , n° - , novembre- décembre , p. - , . "i am not all sure that even the best of warhol's work can much outlast the journalism on which it is forced to depend", michael fried, "new york letter", art international, vol. , n° , décembre , p. - . . "andy warhol and the work of his friends has nothing to do with photography. their photography is not fonctional. i'm sure it is art, but it has nothing to do with photography", willy fleckhaus, "overdesigned" ( ), in r. smith shuneman, photographic communication: principles, problems and challenges of photojournalism, new york, hastings house publishers, , p. . . "i think that journalist photography demands clarity and lucidity and the avoidance of ambiguity wherever possible. there is a place in photography for mystery and abstraction. the place is not in the pages of newspapers and magazines charged with interpreting the human experience. warhol's nihilism is contagious", howard chapnick, truth needs no ally: inside photojournalism, missouri, university of missouri press, , p. . . "generally speaking, the man who attempts to control noise in an industrial publication channel is the editor, who is in charge of the magazine. he is or should be responsible for its content not only the words and pictures he carries, but also its physical appearance, right down to the quality of the paper, the intensity of the ink and size of display of body type. all of these elements in one way or another, and in varying degrees, can introduce noise and adversely affect transmission of the signal of the reader", michael j. o'leary, "signals, channels and icons" ( ), in r. smith shuneman, op. cit., p. . . "what is required is sharp detail, broad patern, and a full gradation of tone. [¤] of course some news pictures have to be accepted despite being technically imperfect, but nothing can justify the frequency with which newspapers present inky blobs", harold evans, pictures on a page: photojournalism, graphics and pictures editing, londres, heineman, , p. . . cf. john coplans, "andy warhol: the art", andy warhol, new york, n. y. graphic society ltd, s. d., p. - . le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai . les manuels techniques consacrés au photojournalisme proposent même d'employer des trames grossières afin de produire des effets dramatiques. cf. h. evans, op. cit., p. . . douglas crimp, "ancien et nouveau: de l'objet de musée à l'objet de bibliothèque", les cahiers du musée national d'art moderne, n° , printemps , p. . . barbara rose, "pop art at the guggenheim", art international , , p. - . cit. in b. h. d. buchloh, art. cit., p. . . "several years ago, jerry adler, a new york daily news columnist, described the artistic merit of the now-departed andy warhol, the darling of pop art and pop culture, as "emptiness in depth". some photographs are ambiguous and lend themselves to several possible interpretations. this inherent ambiguity is predicated on their selection and isolation from the totality of events. they may be taken out of context and are often dependent for interpretation on the mind-set of individual viewer or the selective eye of the photographer. [¤] my quarrel is not with the fact that pictures are ambiguous. it is rather with picture and people who exacerbe ambiguity and find straightforward, explicit, understandable photographs pedestrian. they also find obscurity, uncertainty, vagueness, and equivocation the preferred criteria in making photographs interesting and exciting. i disagree", h. chapnick, op. cit., p. . . edward steichen dirige le département de photographie du moma de à . pour un historique du département, voir également peter galassi, "une double histoire", photographie américaine de à , new york/paris, moma/centre georges pompidou, , p. - . . interview de newhall par wxxi-tv, rochester, , transcription reproduite en partie dans christopher phillips, "le tribunal de la photographie", les cahiers du musée national d'art moderne, op. cit., p. . . ibid., p. . . p. galassi, op. cit., p. . . c. phillips, "le tribunal de la photographie", art. cit., p. . . herbert bayer, "fundamentals of exhibition design", p. m., décembre-janvier - , p. . cit. in c. phillips, art. cit. . ibid., p. . le dernier tabloïd Études photographiques, | mai 	le dernier tabloïd untitled royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos research cite this article: lisi e, malekzadeh m, haddadi h, lau fd-h, flaxman s. modelling and forecasting art movements with cgans. r. soc. open sci. : . http://dx.doi.org/ . /rsos. received: november accepted: march subject category: computer science and artificial intelligence subject areas: pattern recognition keywords: vector autoregressive, generative models, predictive models, art movements author for correspondence: edoardo lisi e-mail: edoardo.lisi @gmail.com © the authors. published by the royal society under the terms of the creative commons attribution license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited. note that by art ‘movements’ we mean periods. modelling and forecasting art movements with cgans edoardo lisi , mohammad malekzadeh , hamed haddadi , f. din-houn lau and seth flaxman department of mathematics, and dyson school of design engineering, imperial college london, london, uk school of electronic engineering and computer science queen mary university of london, london, uk el, - - - ; fd-hl, - - - x conditional generative adversarial networks (cgans) are a recent and popular method for generating samples from a probability distribution conditioned on latent information. the latent information often comes in the form of a discrete label from a small set. we propose a novel method for training cgans which allows us to condition on a sequence of continuous latent distributions f( ), …, f(k). this training allows cgans to generate samples from a sequence of distributions. we apply our method to paintings from a sequence of artistic movements, where each movement is considered to be its own distribution. exploiting the temporal aspect of the data, a vector autoregressive (var) model is fitted to the means of the latent distributions that we learn, and used for one- step-ahead forecasting, to predict the latent distribution of a future art movement f(k+ ). realizations from this distribution can be used by the cgan to generate ‘future’ paintings. in experiments, this novel methodology generates accurate predictions of the evolution of art. the training set consists of a large dataset of past paintings. while there is no agreement on exactly what current art period we find ourselves in, we test on plausible candidate sets of present art, and show that the mean distance to our predictions is small. . introduction periodization in art history is the process of characterizing and understanding art ‘movements’ and their evolution over time. each period may last from years to decades, and encompass diverse styles. it is ‘an instrument in ordering the historical objects as a continuous system in time and space’ [ ], and it has been the topic of much debate among art historians [ ]. in this paper, we leverage the success of data generative models such as generative adversarial networks (gans) [ ] to http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /rsos. &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - mailto:edoardo.lisi @gmail.com http://orcid.org/ http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - x http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / figure . sample of images generated by the proposed framework. these images estimate ‘future’ paintings. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : learn the distinct features of widely agreed upon art movements, tracing and predicting their evolution over time. unlike previous work [ , ], in which a clustering method is validated by showing that it recovers known categories, we take existing categories as given, and propose new methods to more deeply interrogate and engage with historiographical debates in art history about the validity of these categories. time labels are critical to our modelling approach, following what one art historian called ‘a basic datum and axis of reference’ in periodization: ‘the irreversible order of single works located in time and space’. we take this claim to its logical conclusion, asking our method to forecast into the future. as the dataset we use covers agreed upon movements from the fifteenth to the twentieth century, the future is really our present in the twenty-first century. as it can be seen in figure , we are thus able to evaluate one hypothesis about what movement we find ourselves in at present, namely post-minimalism, by comparing the ‘future’ art we generate with our method to post- minimalist art (which was not part of our training set) and other recent movements. we consider the following setting: each observed image xi has a cluster label ki ∈ { , …, k} and resides in an image space x, where we assume that x is a mixture of unknown distributions f( )x , . . . , f(k)x . for each observed image, we have xi � f(ki)x . we assume that, given data from the sequence of time- ordered distributions f( )x , . . . , f (k) x , it is possible to approximate the next distribution, f (kþ ) x . for example, each xi could be a single painting in a dataset of art. further, each painting can be associated with one of k art movements such as impressionism, cubism or surrealism. in this example, f(kþ )x represents an art movement of the future. in this work, we are interested in generating images from the next distribution f(kþ )x . however, modelling directly in the image space x is complicated. therefore, we assume that there is an associated lower-dimensional latent space c, such that each image distribution f(k)x is associated with a latent distribution f(k)c in c and every observed image xi is associated with a vector ci in the latent space which we refer to as a code. we chose a latent space of lower dimension than that of the image space to facilitate the modelling process: for example, if xi is an image of × pixels, ci could be a code of dimension . thus, we consider the image-code-cluster tuples (x , c , k ), …, (xn, cn, kn). our contribution is as follows: we use a novel approach to conditional generative adversarial networks (cgans, [ ]) that conditions on continuous codes, which are in turn modelled with vector autoregression (var, [ ]). the general steps of the method are: (i) for each image xi learn a coding ci; i = , …, n. (ii) train a cgan using (x , c ), …, (xn, cn) to learn x|c. (iii) model latent category distributions f( )c , . . . , f (k) c . (iv) predict f(kþ )c and draw new latent samples c � , . . . , c � m � f(kþ )c : (v) sample new images x�j � xjc ¼ c�j using cgan from step ; j = , …, m. as the real paintings from recent movements are copyrighted, they cannot be shown here. for visual comparison, see https://github. com/cganart/gan_art_ to find links to the original paintings. https://github.com/cganart/gan_{a}rt_{ } https://github.com/cganart/gan_{a}rt_{ } https://github.com/cganart/gan_{a}rt_{ } royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : typically, the aim of gans is to generate realizations from an unknown distribution with density fx(x) based on the observations x , …, xn. existing approaches for training gans are mostly focused on learning a single underlying distribution of training data. however, this work is concerned with handling a sequence of densities f( )x , . . . , f (k) x . as mentioned earlier, our objective is to generate images from f(kþ )x using trend information we learn from data from the previous distributions. to do this, a var model is used for the sequence of latent distributions f( )c , . . . , f (k) c . cgans generate new samples from the conditional distribution of the data x given the latent variable c. the majority of current cgan literature (e.g. [ , ]) considers the latent variable c as a discrete distribution (i.e. labels) or as another image. in this work, however, the variable c is a continuous random variable. although, conditioning on discrete labels is a simple and effective way to generate images from an individual category without needing to train a separate gan for each, discrete labels do not provide a means to generate images from an unseen category. we show that conditioning on a continuous space can indeed solve this issue. our cgan is trained on samples from k categories. based on this trained cgan, ‘future’ new samples x� from category k + are obtained sampling from x|c, where c � f(kþ )c . in other words, we use a cgan to generate images based upon the prediction given by the var model in the latent space, i.e. generate new images from f(kþ )x . in this paper, the latent representations are obtained via an autoencoder—see § . later. it is important to point out that the method does not aim to model a sequence of individual images, but a sequence of distributions of images. recalling the art example: an individual painting in the impressionism category is not part of a sequence with e.g. another individual painting in the post-impressionism category. it is the two categories themselves that are to be modelled as a sequence. the novel contribution of this paper can be summarized as generating images from a distribution with observations by exploiting the sequential nature of the distributions via a latent representation. this is achieved by combining existing methodologies in a novel fashion, while also exploring the seldom-used concept of a cgan that conditions on continuous variables. we assess the performance of our method using widely agreed upon art movements from the public domain of wikiart dataset [ ] to train a model which can generate art from a predicted movement; comparisons with the real- art movements that follow the training set show that the prediction is close to ground truth. to summarize, the overall objectives considered in this paper are: — derive a latent representation c , …, cn for training sample x , …, xn. — find a model for the k categories in this latent space. — predict the ‘future’, i.e. category k + , in the latent space. — generate new images that have latent representations corresponding to the (k + )th category. there exist some methods that have used gans and/or autoencoders for predicting new art movements. for instance, vo & soh [ ] propose a collaborative variational autoencoder [ ] that is trained to project existing art pieces into a latent space, then to generate new art pieces from imaginary art representations. however, this work generates new art subject to an auxiliary input vector to the model and does not capture sequential information across different movements. on the other hand, sigaki et al. [ ] proposed an alternative approach to measure the evolution of art movements on a double scale of simplicity–complexity and order–disorder, both related to the local ordinal pattern of pixels throughout the images. this latter method is, however, not used to generate new artwork, from existing movements nor future predictions. the idea of using gans to generate new art movements has also been explored by elgammal et al. [ ] via creative adversarial networks. these networks were designed to generate images that are hard to categorize into existing movements. unlike our work, there is no modelling of the sequential nature of movements. the essential difference between our proposed model and other conditional generative models such as [ , ] is that existing work does not aim to capture the flow of influence among the several art movements to predict what is happening in the near future art movement. what they care about is how to generate new art instances based on a desired condition of users’ interests. hence, we cannot directly compare the artefacts generated by existing methods with what we aim to generate as the near future art movements. finally, modelling the sequential nature of a dataset is not limited to images/paintings: for instance, the history of music can also be interpreted as a succession of genres. using gans for music has been explored by mogren [ ], but again modelling the sequential nature of genres has not been explored. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : . methodology we now describe the general method used to model a sequence of latent structures of images and use this model to make future predictions. the full procedure is outlined in algorithm . the remaining subsections are devoted to discussing the main steps of this algorithm in detail. . . generative adversarial networks a gan comprises two artificial neural networks: a generator g and a discriminator d. the two components are pitted against each other in a two-player game: given a sample of real images, the generator g produces random ‘fake’ images that are supposed to look like the real sample, while d tries to determine whether these generated images are fake or real. an important point is that only d has access to the sample of real images; g will initially output noise, which will improve as d sends feedback. at the same time, d will train to become better and better at judging real from fake, until an equilibrium is reached, such that the distribution implicitly defined by the generator corresponds to the underlying distribution of the training data—see [ ] for more details. in practice, the training procedure does not guarantee convergence. a good training procedure, however, can bring the distribution of the generator very close to its theoretical optimum. cgans [ ] are an extension of gans where the generator produces samples by conditioning on extra information. the data that we wish to condition on is fed to both the generator and discriminator. the conditioning information can be a label, an image or any other form of data. for instance, [ ] generated specific digits that imitate the mnist dataset by conditioning on a one-hot label of the desired digit. more technically: a generator, in the gan framework, learns a mapping g : z → x where z is random noise and x is a sample. a conditional generator, on the other hand, learns mapping g : (z, c) → x, where c is the information to be conditioned on. the pair (x, c) is input to the discriminator as well, so that it learns to estimate the probability of observing x given a particular c. the objective function of the cgan is similar to the standard gans: the conditional distribution of the generator converges to the underlying conditional distribution of x|c [ ]. in our setting, a cgan is trained on a dataset of images x , …, xn where every imagexi is associated with a latent vector ci [ r dc. the latent vectors are considered realizations of a mixture distribution with density fc(c) ¼ xk k¼ wkf (k) c (c), where xk k¼ wk ¼ : ( : ) each density f(k)c corresponds to an artistic movement, and f ( ) c , . . . , f (k) c is considered to be a sequence of densities. we again stress that c is assumed to be a continuous random variable. see § . for details of how to train cgans with a continuous latent space. the conditional generator is trained to imitate images from density fx|c(x|c). after being trained, the generator can be used to sample new images. this can be achieved by sampling from the latent space c. note that we are capable of sampling from areas of c where few data are observed during training. then the generator is forced to condition on ‘new’ information, thus producing images with novel features. . . continuous cgan: training details usually, cgans condition on a discrete label [ ] and are straightforward to train: training sets for this task contain many images for each label category. then training g and d on generated images is a two-step task: (i) pick a label c randomly and generate image x given this label, then (ii) update model parameters based on the (x, c) pair. when training a continuous cgan, however, each xi in the training set is associated with a unique ci. picking an existing ci to generate a new x is an unsatisfactory solution: if done during training, g would learn to generate exact copies of the original xi associated with ci. we would also lose the flexibility of being able to use the whole continuous latent space, instead selecting individual points in it. as mentioned in § . , the latent vectors c , …, cn are considered realizations of mixture distribution fc with components f( )c , . . . , f (k) c and weights w , …, wk. we propose the novel idea of approximating the latent distribution as a mixture of multivariate normals, and of using this approximation to sample new c� during and after training. we compute the sample means and covariances (m̂( )c , ŝ ( ) c ) . . . , (m̂ (k) c , ŝ (k) c ). then each density component f(k)c is approximated as n(m̂ (k) c , ŝ (k) c ). the weights wk are estimated as ŵk, the proportion of training images in category k. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : generating new x for the purpose of training, or for producing images in a trained model, is then done by (i) picking category k with probability ŵk, (ii) drawing a random c � n(m̂(k)c , ŝ (k) c ), and (iii) using the generator with the current parameters to produce x|c. note that by assuming a fixed (gaussian) form for the conditional distributions, we are appealing to the same sort of (laplace) assumption that underpins variational bayes. this speaks to the possibility of using approximate bayesian (i.e. variational) inference to describe, or indeed implement, the current scheme. . . obtaining the latent codes via autoencoders so far we have assumed that each image xi is associated with a latent vector ci [ r dc. in principle, these latent representations of the images can be obtained with any method. some reasonable properties of the method are as follows: — if images xi and xj are similar, then their associated latent vectors ci and cj should be close. here the concept of closeness or ‘similarity’ is not restricted to the the simple pixel-wise norm kxi � xjk , but is instead a broader concept of similarity between the features of the images. for instance, two images containing boats should be close in the latent space even if the boat is in a different position in each image. — sampling from fc(c) needs to be straightforward. autoencoders are an easy and flexible choice that satisfies the two points above. for this reason, we choose to use autoencoders in this work. however, we stress that any method with the properties described in the list above can be used to obtained the latent codes. an alternative choice could be the method used by sigaki et al. [ ] to measure artwork on two scales of order–disorder and complexity–simplicity. johnson et al. [ ] made use of a perceptual loss function between two images to fulfil the tasks of style transfer and super-resolution. the method, which builds on earlier work by gatys et al. [ ], is based on comparing high-level features of the images instead of comparing the images themselves. the high-level features are extracted via an auxiliary pre-trained network, e.g. a vgg classifier [ ]. the same concept can be applied to autoencoders, and the resulting latent space satisfies the above point about preservation of image similarity. we use this perceptual loss specifically for art data: the details are in § . . note that the latent space is learned without knowledge of categories k = , …, k. it is assumed that, when moving from x to c, the k distributions f( )c , . . . , f(k)c are somewhat ordered. this is, however, not guaranteed. the assumption can be easily tested, as it is done in § . . . . predicting the future latent distribution we make the assumption that f( )x , …, f (k) x have a non-trivial relationship, and that they can be interpreted as being a ‘sequence of distributions’. furthermore, we assume that this sequential relationship is preserved when we map the distributions to f( )c , . . . , f (k) c using the autoencoder. the key part of our method is that we assume the latent space and latent distributions to be simple enough that we can predict f(kþ )c , which is completely unobserved. then we aim to use the same conditional generator trained as described in § . to sample from f(kþ )x , which is also unobserved. in our setting, the sequence of densities f( )c , . . . , f (k) c represents, in the case of the wikiart dataset, a latent sequence of artistic movements. the underlying distribution of f( )c , . . . , f (k) c is unknown. suppose we have realizations from each of these distributions (see § . ); then we model the sequence of latent distributions as follows. we assume that each f(k)c follows a normal distribution n(m (k) c , s (k) c ). denote m̂ (k) c , an estimator of m (k) c , as the sample mean of f(k)c . then the mean is modelled using the following vector autoregression (var) model with a linear trend term: m̂(k)c ¼ a þ kb þ am̂(k� )c þ e, e � n( , se): ( : ) vectors α, β and matrices a, Σe are parameters that need to be estimated. estimation is performed using a sparse specification (e.g. via lasso) in the high-dimensional case. once the parameters are estimated we can predict m̂(kþ )c , the latent mean of the unobserved future distribution. the covariance of f(kþ )c is estimated by ŝ (kþ ) c ¼ k (ŝ ( ) c þ � � � þ ŝ (k) c ). for the wikiart dataset we observed little change in the empirical covariance structure of f( )c , . . . , f (k) c , and therefore elected to use an average of the observed covariances. algorithm . predicting using cgans. : train a cgan with generator g(zjc) and discriminator d(xjc) on real and fake pairs {xi, ci}. : estimate m̂( )c , . . . , m̂ (k) c , the sample means of the k categories of latent codes. : fit a var model on m̂( )c , . . . , m̂ (k) c and predict m̂ (kþ ) c . : draw ‘future’ code c� � n(m̂(kþ )c ,ŝ (kþ ) c ), where ŝ (kþ ) c ¼ k (ŝ ( ) c þ � � � þ ŝ (k) c ). : generate new images by sampling from g(zjc�). ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) autoencoder c g a n c g a n predict future sa m pl e la te nt s pa ce im ag e sp ac e futurepast fx fx fx fx fc fc fc fc figure . diagram illustrating our method. the latent space c is chosen to be lower-dimensional than the image space x . moving from x to c does not necessarily need to be done via an autoencoder, as noted in § . (images from public domain of [ ]). royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : the future latent distribution f(kþ )c is therefore approximated as n(m̂ (kþ ) c , ŝ (kþ ) c ). the entire method described in § is outlined in algorithm . . . theoretical notes on the procedure the autoencoder, or any alternative method that satisfies the properties laid out in § . , maps each image xi to a low-dimensional latent vector ci. this mapping implicitly defines a distribution in the latent space, and our assumption is that each distribution f(k)x of images is mapped to a distribution f (k) c in the latent space. the conditional generator produces samples from distribution fgxjc, where the latent code c can come from any of the latent distributions f(k)c , k = , …, k. note the superscript ‘g’ in f g xjc, indicating that the distribution implicitly defined by the generator does not necessarily equal the theoretical training optimum fx|c (as mentioned in § . ). nevertheless, we will proceed under the assumption that a good training procedure results in a conditional generator close to the theoretical equilibrium. the conditional generator, just like the autoencoder, does not know which movement x and c belong to. recall that the overall distribution of all latent codes was modelled as a mixture of the k movement- wise distributions in equation ( . ). our method is based on the premise that, while the conditional gan is trained on the whole space of the k movements, new samples can be generated from an individual movement f(k)x by conditioning on random variable c from f (k) c . that is, if we draw c , . . . , cm � f(k)c , the conditional generator will produce sample x , …, xm whose empirical distribution is close to f (k) x . this is motivated by marginalizing x out of fgxjc(xjc):ð c fgxjc(xjc) df(k)c ¼ f(k)x (x), ( : ) table . summary of the wikiart dataset. ‘year’ is the approximate median year of the art movement, n is number of images. movement year n movement year n early renaissance fauvism high renaissance expressionism mannerism cubism baroque surrealism rococo abstract expressionism neoclassicism tachisme/art informel romanticism lyrical abstraction realism hard edge painting impressionism op art post-impressionism minimalism royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : where f is the cumulative distribution function associated with f, and fgxjc is the distribution implicitly defined by the generator. the overall procedure is illustrated in figure . . results the performance of our method presented in § is demonstrated on the public domain of wikiart dataset, where each category represents an art movement. all experiments are implemented with tensorflow [ ] via keras, and run on a nvidia geforce gtx . after the introduction of the setting, the structure of the resulting latent spaces is discussed in § . . finally, § . describes the prediction and generation of future art from f(kþ )x . . . wikiart results the dataset considered is the publicly available wikiart dataset, which contains images categorized into various movements, types (e.g. portrait or landscape), artists and sometimes years. we use the central square of each image, re-sized to × pixels. note that a small number of raw images are unable to be reshaped into our desired format, reducing the total sample size to . additionally, note that all images considered are paintings; images that are tagged as ‘sketch and study’, ‘illustration’, ‘design’ or ‘interior’ were excluded. the remaining images can then be categorized into notable and well-defined artistic movement from western art history (table ). in order to apply algorithm , each image xi in the dataset needs to be associated with a latent vector ci. as described in § . , a non-variational autoencoder with perceptual loss is utilized. note again that the category labels associated with each image are not revealed to the autoencoder when training it. two autoencoders are separately trained with content loss and style loss which are now defined: content loss lcontent(xa, xc) ¼ cjhjwj kf j(xa) � f j(xc)k , where ϕj( · ) is the jth convolutional activation of a trained auxiliary classifier, while cj, hj, wj are the dimensions of the output of that same jth layer. johnson et al. [ ] and gatys et al. [ ] explain how this loss function is minimized when two images share extracted features that represent the overall shapes and structures of objects and backgrounds; they also discuss how the choice of j influences the result. each image x is thus associated with a content latent vector cc. see https://www.wikiart.org/. all the code is available at https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_ . https://www.wikiart.org/ https://www.wikiart.org/ https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_ https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_ renaissance baroque romanticism impressionism abstract exp. op art minimalism (future) n eo cl as si ci sm r om an ti ci sm r ea li sm im pr es si on is m p os t- im pr es s. f au vi sm e xp re ss io ni sm c ub is m s ur re al is m a bs tr ac t e xp r. t ac hi sm e l yr ic al a bs tr . h ar d e dg e o p a rt m in im al is m neoclassicism romanticism realism impressionism post-impress. fauvism expressionism cubism surrealism abstract expr. tachisme lyrical abstr. hard edge op art minimalism (a) (b) figure . (a) evolution of artistic movements as generated by our method. the last column, labelled ‘future’, is the prediction x� , . . . , x � m � f (kþ )x , where k = . note that there is no relationship between images in the same row but different column (images from public domain of [ ]). (b) matrix of within-cluster variance (diagonal elements) and between-cluster variance (off-diagonal elements) for all pairs of artistic movements. the values are averaged across all dimensions of the latent space. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : style loss lstyle(xa, xc) ¼ cjhjwj kgj(xa) � gj(xc)k , where gj( · ) is the gram matrix of layer j of the same auxiliary classifier used for the content loss. this loss function is used to measure the similarity between images that share the same repeated textures and colours, which we collectively call style. each image x is thus associated with a style latent vector cs. the auxiliary classifier is obtained by training a simplified version of the vgg network [ ] on the tinyimagenet dataset. the vgg classifier is simplified by removing the last block of three convolutional layers, thus adapting the architecture to × images rather than × . once each image x has its content and style latent vectors, these are concatenated to obtain c ¼ [cts , ctc ]t. finally, the cgan is trained by conditioning on the continuous latent space, as described in algorithm . details about network architecture and training can be found in appendix a. figure contains examples of generated images from various artistic movements, together with a quantitative assessment of within- and between-movement average latent variance. some qualitative comments can be remarked (whereas quantitative evaluations are in §§ . and . ): — there is very good between-movement variation and within-movement variation. it is hard to find two generated images that are similar to each other. see https://tiny-imagenet.herokuapp.com/. https://tiny-imagenet.herokuapp.com/ https://tiny-imagenet.herokuapp.com/ table . performance when regressing movement label on movement-means of various types of latent spaces. standard style content joint concat. r . . . . . cor. . . . . . royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : — one of the main reasons that guided the use of a perceptual autoencoder was the fact that movements vary not only in style (e.g. colour, texture) but also in content (e.g. portrait or landscape). from this point of view our method is a success. each movement appears to have its own set of colours and textures. additionally, movements that were overwhelmingly portraits in the training set (e.g. baroque) result in generated images that mostly mimic the general structure of human figures. similarly, movements with a lot of landscapes (e.g. impressionism) result in generated images that are also mostly landscapes; the latter tend to be of very good quality. — more abstract movements (e.g. lyrical abstraction) result in very colourful generated images with little to no structure, as is to be expected. interesting behaviours can be observed: op art paintings, for instance, are generally very geometric and often remind of chessboards, and the generator’s effort to reproduce this can be clearly observed (figure ). the same can be said of minimalist art, where many paintings are monochromatic canvas; the generator does a fairly good job at reproducing this as well. a drawback of using the wikiart dataset is that the relatively small number of movements (k = ) forces the use of a very sparse version of var [ ]. as a result, the predicted future mean m̂(kþ )c is almost entirely determined by the linear trend component of the var model, α + kβ; the autoregressive component am̂(k)c is largely non-influential, as the parameter matrix a is shrunk to by the sparse formulation. . . latent space analysis section . mentioned that it is not guaranteed that the k categories will actually be ordered in the latent space, although it is expected. we implement a simple heuristic to test this in the wikiart case: suppose that y = [ , …, k]t and that m [ rk�dc is a matrix with m̂( )c , . . . , m̂ (k) c as rows (dc is the dimension of the latent space). then we can fit a simple linear regression y = mβ + e, where e ∼ n( , σ i) and β and σ are parameters. we do this for various types of latent vectors obtained with different loss functions: pixel- wise cross-entropy, style-only, content-only, the sum of the latter two ( joint), and a concatenation of style-only and content-only. table displays the r values (the coefficient of determination) for each type of latent vector, which can be directly compared, as matrix m always has size k × dc. the mean of the absolute correlations between pairs of the dimensions of each latent space is also presented in table . this is a simple measure of how the various dimensions of the latent vectors are correlated with each other. the results suggest using a perceptual loss instead of a pixel-wise loss: the results for the last four columns (the different types of perceptual losses) are much better than the ‘standard’ latent space obtained via pixel-wise cross-entropy. further, the results suggest using two separate autoencoders for style and loss, and then concatenating the resulting latent vectors: the last column has the highest r of all five methods, while also having a between-dimensions correlation that is lower than using a sum of style loss and content loss. overall, this is an impressive result: recall that the autoencoders do not have access to the movement labels k ∈ { , …, k}. despite this, the latent vectors are able to predict those same movement labels quite accurately. this result confirms that there is indeed a natural ordering of the art movements (which corresponds to their temporal order), and that this natural ordering is reflected in the latent space. this can also be seen in the means of the clusters of latent vectors in figure . figure displays a heatmap of distances between pairs of movements in the latent space. most notably, the matrix exhibits a block-diagonal structure. this means that (i) movements that are chronologically close are also close in the latent space, and (ii) there tends to be an alternation between series of movements being similar to each other and points where a new movement breaks from the past more significantly. figure also shows the position of predicted and real ‘future’ (or current) movements relative to the movements in the training set. more detail can be found is § . . n eo cl as si ci sm r om an ti ci sm r ea li sm im pr es si on is m p os t- im pr es s. f au vi sm e xp re ss io ni sm c ub is m s ur re al is m a bs tr ac t e xp r. t ac hi sm e l yr ic al a bs tr . h ar d e dg e o p a rt m in im al is m (p os t- m in im al is m ) (p re di ct ed ) neoclassicism romanticism realism impressionism post-impress. fauvism expressionism cubism surrealism abstract expr. tachisme lyrical abstr. hard edge op art minimalism (post-minimalism) (predicted) figure . matrix of euclidean distances between the means of individual movements in the latent space. the movements are ordered chronologically. the last two columns/rows represent true post-minimalist paintings as well as our prediction. note the block-diagonal tendencies. – – – . – . – . . . . . latent dim. la te nt d im . st yl e la te nt d im . – . – . – . – . – . content latent dim. – – – (a) (b) figure . (a) visualization of the latent space. the two dimensions of c that best correlate with movement index were chosen, and plotted in the x- and y-axes. three movements are highlighted: early renaissance (blue, top-left), impressionism (red, centre), and minimalism (green, bottom-right). the clustering and temporal ordering are clearly visible. (b) means of all training art movements (table ) visualized to emphasize the temporal progression. the first pca component of content and style latent spaces are shown in the x- and y-axes, respectively. royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : . . future prediction once the cgan is fully trained on the dataset of k training set categories, autoregression methods are used to generate from the unobserved (k + )th category (the future). as described in § . , we use a simple linear trend plus sparse var on the means m̂( )c , . . . , m̂ (k) c of the k categories in the latent space. this results in predicted mean m̂(kþ )c , while the predicted covariance ŝ (kþ ) c is simply the mean of the k training covariances. then we sample new latent vectors from n(m̂(kþ )c , ŝ (kþ ) c ), and feed them to the trained conditional generator together with the random noise vector. the result is generated images that condition on an area of the latent space which is not covered by any of the table . two types of distances between real recent movements (columns) and either future predictions (k + ) or last movement in the training set (minimalism, k). post-minimalism new casualism euclid.(k + ) . . euclid.(k) . . mmd(k + ) . . mmd(k) . . royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : existing movements. instead, this latent area is placed in a ‘natural’ position after the sequence of k successive movements. a collection of generated ‘future’ images can be found in figure . as summarized in table , the wikiart dataset only contains large, well-defined art movements up to the s, the most recent one being minimalism. the same dataset, however, also contains smaller movements that were developed after minimalism. in particular, post-minimalism and new casualism can be considered successors of the latest of the k = training movements, but they contain too few images to be considered for training the cgan. they can, however, be used to compare our ‘future’ predictions with what actually came after the last movement in the training set. we use the same autoencoder to map each image in post-minimalism and new casualism. then, after generating images from predicted movement f(kþ )c , we compute the euclidean distance of the means and mmd distance [ ] from the real small movements in the latent space. the results are summarized in table and are included in the distance matrix in figure . the results indicate a success: according to all metrics, the distance between the generated future and the real movements is small when compared with other between-movement distances shown in figure . in particular, the generated images are closer to post-minimalism and new casualism than they are to the last training movement, i.e. minimalism. this indicates that our prediction of the future of art is not a mere copy of the most recent observed movement, but rather a jump in the right direction towards the true evolution of new artistic movements. this positive result can be contrasted with a simpler approach described in appendix b, where a standard autoencoder is used for both latent modelling and generation of new images. . discussion in this paper, we introduced a novel machine learning method to bring new insights to the problem of periodization in art history. our method is able to model art movements using a simple low-dimensional latent structure and generate new images using cgans. by reducing the problem of generating realistic images from a complicated, high-dimensional image space to that of generating from low-dimensional gaussian distributions, we are able to perform statistical analysis, including one-step-ahead forecasting, of periods in art history by modelling the low-dimensional space with a vector autoregressive model. the images we produced resemble real art, including real art from held-out ‘future’ movements. a number of modifications could be applied to the method. for instance, the learning architecture could be directly extended to predict art movements in the reverse direction, namely towards the past, when the time ordering of the input is reversed. the method described in this paper can be applied outside of the context of art. for instance, appendix c describes the generation of photos of human faces from different years. the temporal succession of years is treated in the same manner as the temporal succession of art movements in the main body of this paper. data accessibility. data are available at https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_ and at the dryad digital repository at https://doi.org/ . /dryad. cj pq [ ]. authors’ contributions. e.l. developed the methods, undertook the implementation, and drafted the manuscript. m.m. contributed to designing and implementing the experiments with cgan and autoencoder, participated in the data analysis, and helped in writing and draft the manuscript. h.h. contributed to the research conception and overall direction. f.d.-h.l. contributed to the research conception and overall direction. s.f. contributed to the research conception and overall direction. competing interests. we declare we have no competing interest. funding. we received no funding for this study. https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_ https://github.com/cganart/gan_art_ https://doi.org/ . /dryad. cj pq appendix a. neural network architecture royalsocie tables and describe in more detail the architecture used in the conditional generator and conditional discriminator (respectively) of the cgan. generator architecture table . architecture of cgan conditional generator. layer activation output dim. noise input latent input concatenate inputs fully connected and reshape relu × × fractionally strided conv. ( × filter) relu × × fractionally strided conv. ( × filter) relu × × fractionally strided conv. ( × filter) relu × × fractionally strided conv. ( × filter) relu × × fractionally strided conv. ( × filter) tanh × × typublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : discriminator architecture table . architecture of cgan conditional discriminator. layer activation output dim. image input × × convolution ( × filter, dropout) relu × × convolution ( × filter, dropout) relu × × convolution ( × filter, dropout) relu × × convolution ( × filter, dropout) relu × × reshape and fully connected (dropout) relu concatenate with latent input fully connected (dropout) relu fully connected (dropout) sigmoid appendix b. comparison with simple autoencoder section . described how the use of content and style losses enables the conditional gan to model the temporal evolution of different elements of paintings. the availability of the two latent spaces (content and style) was among the justifications for using a conditional gan for the generative process, as opposed to directly using the same autoencoder that models the latent space. table . two types of distances between real recent movements (columns) and either future predictions (k + ) or last movement in the training set (minimalism, k). post-minimalism new casualism euclid.(k + ) . . euclid.(k) . . mmd(k + ) . . mmd(k) . . s s s s s s s s (pred.) figure . evolution of yearbook faces over various decades. the last column contains a prediction from the model trained on all previous decades. the prediction is a mix of images from some of the predicted distributions f (kþ )x , . . . , f (kþ ) x . note that there is no relationship between images in the same row but different column (images from [ ]). royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : a comparison can be performed between the model described in § and a simple model where a standard autoencoder is used both for modelling the latent space and for generating images (including estimated future after fitting the var framework to the latent space, as described in § . ). the main results via content and style losses (table ) showed that the distance between predicted future and ‘actual’ (out of training set) future are relatively small, compared to a similar distance between consecutive recent real art movements. however, table shows that this is not the case for the simple autoencoder method described in this section. appendix c. yearbook results the yearbook dataset introduced by ginosar et al. [ ] contains photographs of faces of male students and female students from us universities. each photo is labelled by the year it was taken, where the oldest images are from while the latest are from . post- pictures are kept out of the training set, since they are going to be used as ground truth when comparing with our prediction of the future. the model summarized in algorithm is applied to this dataset. however, unlike the wikiart example, a standard autoencoder is used to learn the latent space; the autoencoder is trained on the male images and used to predict the latent codes of the female images, and vice versa. a conditional gan is then trained on the pairs of images and latent codes. although smaller than wikiart, this dataset has the advantage of having well-defined ‘year’ labels, as opposed to an ordinal succession of artistic movements. the number of years covered, being more than , also provides benefits when fitting the var model in the latent space. a collection of generated images is presented in figure . a few qualitative comments can be made: — as the years progress, various changes can be noticed. most prominently we observe the evolution of hairstyles and makeup, the diversification of race, and the increasing prevalence of smiles. — the model is able to capture the fact that images in older years are more uniform (e.g. same hairstyles and expressions) while more recent periods show more variety. references . schapiro m. criteria of periodization in the history of european art. new literary history , – . (doi: . / ) . kaufmann t. periodization and its discontents. j. art historiogr. , – . . goodfellow ij, pouget-abadie j, mirza m, xu b, warde-farley d, ozair s, courville a, bengio y. generative adversarial nets. adv. neural inf. process. syst. , – . . barnard k, duygulu p, forsyth d. clustering art. in proc. of the ieee computer society conf. on computer vision and pattern recognition. cvpr , kauai, hi, – december, vol. , pp. ii–ii. los alamitos, ca, ieee computer society. . shamir l, tarakhovsky ja. computer analysis of art. j. comput. and cultural heritage (jocch) , – . (doi: . / . ) . mirza m, osindero s. conditional generative adversarial nets. (http://arxiv.org/ abs/ . ) http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://arxiv.org/abs/ . http://arxiv.org/abs/ . http://arxiv.org/abs/ . royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos r. soc. open sci. : . sims ca. macroeconomics and reality. econ. j. econ. soc. , – . . isola p, zhu j-y, zhou t, efros aa. image- to-image translation with conditional adversarial networks. in proc. of the ieee conf. on computer vision and pattern recognition, honolulu, hi, – july, pp. – . los alamitos, ca, ieee computer society. . gauthier j. conditional generative adversarial nets for convolutional face generation. technical report. class project for stanford cs n: convolutional neural networks for visual recognition, winter semester. . wikiart dataset. see https://www.wikiart. org. . vo tv, soh h. generation meets recommendation: proposing novel items for groups of users. in proc. of the th acm conf. on recommender systems, recsys ’ , vancouver, canada, october, pp. – . acm. . li x, she j. collaborative variational autoencoder for recommender systems. in proc. of the rd acm sigkdd int. conf. on knowledge discovery and data mining, new york, ny, august, pp. – . acm. . sigaki hyd, perc m, ribeiro hv. history of art paintings through the lens of entropy and complexity. proc. natl acad. sci. usa , e –e . 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(http://arxiv.org/abs/ . ) . johnson j, alahi a, f.-fei l. perceptual losses for real-time style transfer and super-resolution. in european conf. on computer vision, amsterdam, the netherlands, – october, pp. – . springer international publishing. see https://link.springer.com/ chapter/ . / - - - - _ . . gatys la, ecker as, bethge m. image style transfer using convolutional neural networks. in proc. of the ieee conf. on computer vision and pattern recognition, las vegas, nv, – june, pp. – . los alamitos, ca, ieee computer society. see https://www.computer. org/csdl/proceedings/ /cvpr/ omnqh hnp. . simonyan k, zisserman a. very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. in proc. of the int. conf. on learning representations, san diego, ca, – may. . abadi m et al. tensorflow: large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous systems. software available from tensorflow.org. . kilian l, lütkepohl h. structural vector autoregressive analysis. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. . gretton a, borgwardt km, rasch mj, scholkopf b, smola a. a kernel two-sample test. j. mach. learn. res. , – . . ginosar s, rakelly k, sachs s, yin b, efros aa. a century of portraits: a visual historical record of american high school yearbooks. in extreme imaging workshop, iccv, santiago, chile, december, pp. – . . lisi e, malekzadeh m, haddadi h, lau d-h, flaxman s. data from: modelling and forecasting art movements with cgans. dryad digital repository. (doi: . /dryad. cj pq) https://www.wikiart.org https://www.wikiart.org https://www.wikiart.org http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://arxiv.org/abs/ . http://arxiv.org/abs/ . http://arxiv.org/abs/ . http://arxiv.org/abs/ . http://arxiv.org/abs/ . http://arxiv.org/abs/ . https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . / - - - - _ https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . / - - - - _ https://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/ /cvpr/ omnqh hnp https://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/ /cvpr/ omnqh hnp tensorflow.org http://dx.doi.org/ . /dryad. cj pq 	modelling and forecasting art movements with cgans 	introduction 	methodology 	generative adversarial networks 	continuous cgan: training details 	obtaining the latent codes via autoencoders 	predicting the future latent distribution 	theoretical notes on the procedure 	results 	wikiart results 	latent space analysis 	future prediction 	discussion 	data accessibility 	authors' contributions 	competing interests 	funding 	head 	appendix a. neural network architecture 	appendix b. comparison with simple autoencoder 	appendix c. yearbook results 	references new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences volume , issue , ( ) - issn: - www.prosoc.eu selected paper of th world conference on design and arts (wcda ), june– july , university of zagreb, zagreb, croatia. eiffel tower through the eyes of painters sibel almelek isman a*, buca faculty of education, dokuz eylul university, izmir , turkey. suggested citation: isman, s. a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu selection and peer review under responsibility of prof. dr. ayse cakır ilhan, ankara university, turkey. © sciencepark research, organization & counseling. all rights reserved. abstract the eiffel tower, the global icon of france, was erected as the entrance to the paris international exposition in . it was a suitable centrepiece for the world fair, which celebrated the centennial of the french revolution. although the tower was a subject of controversy at the time of its construction, many european painters have been inspired by the majestic figure of the eiffel tower. they picturised the tower in their portraits and cityscapes. paul louis delance, georges seurat, paul signac and henri rousseau were the first artists to depict this symbol of modernity. robert delaunay and marc chagall used the image of the tower most frequently. maurice utrillo, raoul dufy, fernand léger, diego rivera, max beckmann and christian schad can also be counted among the artists who picturised the tower. the eiffel tower appears differently in the eyes of pointillist, expressionist, orfist, cubist and abstract painters. keywords: eiffel tower, european art, painting. * address for correspondence: sibel almelek isman, buca faculty of education, dokuz eylul university, izmir , turkey. e-mail address: sibel.almelek@deu.edu.tr / tel: + http://www.prosoc.eu/ http://www.prosoc.eu/ mailto:sibel.almelek@deu.edu.tr isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu . introduction it was the engineer gustave eiffel ( – ) who gave paris its most remarkable and most visited monument. eiffel, an engineer of exceptional distinction, had designed many bridges, including the frame of the statue of liberty. the tower was the signpost of the exposition universelle of , and for many years it was the world’s tallest structure. however, it was much disliked and criticised at the time; it was a work of engineering that demonstrated spatial possibilities for later structures and also for the decorative arts (nuttgens, ). the tower rests on four giant supports connected by gracefully arching open frame skirts that provide a pleasing mask for the heavy horizontal girders needed to strengthen the legs. the transparency of the structure blurs the distinction between the interior and the exterior to an extent never before achieved or even attempted (kleiner, ). in addition to its commercial, cultural and imperial aims, the international exhibition also coincided with the centennial celebrations of the french revolution. within this context, historian miriam levin considers the eiffel tower as a conscious and pragmatic artistic expression of the republican social ideal. its design, construction and materials are symbolic of the transformative powers of science and technology towards social progress and cohesion (jones, ). the tower was a gesture of faith in the new technology. its metallic construction and use of prefabrication were not novel in themselves. the method chosen was more than a hundred years old: abraham darby’s all iron bridge at coalbrookedale in england had been built in , and joseph paxton’s crystal palace in . what was novel about the eiffel tower was its flamboyant use of forms hitherto associated only with engineering rather than with architecture (lucie-smith, ). the tower that served as a triumphal arch of science and industry owed much of its success to the fact that for a small sum anyone could take its elevators to see a view of paris that was previously reserved for the privileged few able to afford hot-air balloon rides. thus, it helped to define a distinctive feature of modern architecture, one that it shares with modern technology as a whole: it acts on large masses of people without regard to social or economic class (janson & janson, ). once the tower was up, many french voices rose in anger against it. a petition of names, including guy de maupassant, emile zola, charles garnier and alexandre dumas the younger, was presented to the city government in protest against its construction. they expressed how strongly they disliked the tower: we, the writers, painters, sculptors, architects and lovers of the beauty of paris, do protest with all our vigour and all our indignation, in the name of french taste against the useless and monstrous eiffel tower.’ the novelist, guy de maupassant, who claimed to hate the tower, ate there everyday. when asked for the reason, he replied that it was the one place in paris you could not see it (aaltonen, ). on the other hand, it is the experience of climbing up the eiffel tower and viewing the expansive vista around him that the writer francois coppee described with such enthusiasm in his poem: gripping the rail in my hand, / stunned, drunk with fresh air, / i climbed like a spider, / in the immense iron web, / here i was able to see, covering leagues, / paris, its towers, its dome of gold, / the circl e of blue hills, / and in the distance more, more! (foa, , p. ). roland barthes, the french philosopher, critic and semiotician emphasised the powerful impact of the tower: ‘it is an object when looked at, it becomes a lookout in its turn when visited. the tower is an object which sees, a glance which is seen.’ (barthes, , p. ). artists inspired by this great symbol of paris created various depictions. the aim of this paper is to see the tower through the eyes of painters. isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu . depictions of the eiffel tower the french painter paul louis delance ( – ) painted one of the first depictions of the eiffel tower (figure ), which was opened on march . delance’s oil painting was dated january , three months before the grand opening. there were many photographs showing the construction phase of the masterpiece of the metallic industry. but a few paintings were executed during the stages of building. for this reason, delance’s work was considered precious (www.carnavalet.paris.fr ). figure . paul louis delance, eiffel tower and champ de mars in january , , oil on painting, , x , cm, musee carnavalet, paris the french pointillist artist georges seurat ( – ) depicted the tower (figure ) in the same year as delance. seurat drew inspiration from the art of theoretician charles henry and saw himself as the pioneer of a scientific painting that is based on objective principles and defined rules. illuminating in this regard is a small wood panel, which seurat executed in , showing the still unfinished eiffel tower. the tower was at that time painted in bright enamel, which only served to heighten the revulsion for the structure felt by conservative-minded artists. the choice of motif clearly reveals seurat’s acceptance of technology and progress, which he wanted to contribute to, in the field of art, through his pointillist method (duchting, ). figure . georges seurat, the eiffel tower, , oil on wood, x cm, fine arts museum of san francisco, san francisco http://www.carnavalet.paris.fr/ isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu the spanish impressionist artist luis jimenez aranda ( – ) picturised the tower with the figure of an elegant lady (figure ), as a part of the paris exposition in the same year of its opening. the painting shows a woman fashionably dressed with a black jacket over a white shirt and a small red hat on her head, leaning against a stone balustrade. in her right hand she holds a tan leather glove, and in her left hand she holds a closed red parasol. to her right are two chairs and a table. in the seat of one of the chairs is a black umbrella and on the table rests the newspaper le figaro, and two beer mugs. in the background, several pavilions of the paris exposition on the champs de mars, and a section of the eiffel tower in its original red brown colour can be seen (www.meadowsmus eumdallas.org ). figure . luis jimenez aranda, lady at the paris exposition, , oil on canvas, , x , cm, meadows museum, dallas the french artist robert delaunay ( – ) was very interested in the image of the eiffel tower. he painted in an impressionist style, but in he began the experiments with the abstract qualities of colour that were to provide the central theme of his career. his starting point was neo- impressionism, but instead of using seurat’s pointillist technique he investigated the interaction of large areas of contrasting colours. he was particularly interested in the interconnections between colour and movement. by , he was making an individual contribution to cubism, combining its fragmented forms with vibrant colours and depicting the dynamism of city life rather than the standard repertoire of still life. he did a memorable series of paintings of the eiffel tower, in which the huge monument seems to be unleashing powerful bursts of energy (chilvers, , pp. – ). in the spring of , he produced the first of the interior views of the gothic church of saint severin in paris, which were his earliest mature works, and these were followed by his eiffel tower series, mostly painted in – (lucie-smith, , p. ). in both the series, delaunay varied his position and the perspective only minimally or not at all. the eiffel tower series comprised over thirty pictures and among them were oil paintings and works on paper. delaunay took up the subject again from to (gantefuhrer-trier & grosenick, , p. ). the eiffel tower dated (figure ) shows how delaunay explored the developments of cubist fragmentation more explicitly. in his series of paintings of the eiffel tower, the artist presented the tower and the surrounding buildings from various perspectives. delaunay chose a subject that allowed him to indulge his preference for a sense of vast space, atmosphere and light, while evoking a sign of modernity and progress. like the soaring vaults of gothic cathedrals, the eiffel tower is a uniquely french symbol of invention and aspiration (www.guggenheim.org ). http://www.guggenheim.org/ isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu figure . robert delaunay the eiffel tower, , oil on canvas, solomon r. guggenheim museum, new york this painting titled the window ( ) (figure ) belongs to a series of works produced between and . influenced by the reading of ‘the principles of harmony and contrast of colors,’ written in by the french chemist gustave chevreul, delaunay constructed his composition using just colour, which replaced design and drawing, volume, perspective and chiaroscuro. during his ‘deconstructive’ period, he painted volumes exploded by the action of light into coloured areas, thereby losing illusionist depth. the windows series ushered in a more ‘constructive’ period, described by guillaume apollinaire as orphic cubism. the prism of colours is put back together in a two-dimensional space, while the image of the eiffel tower, an evocation of the modern world, can be just made out in the middle of the composition (museedegrenoble.fr). figure . robert delaunay the window, , oil on canvas, musee de grenoble, grenoble isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu the russian artist marc chagall ( – ), who had a strong sense of fantasy, depicted the eiffel tower many times just like his friend delaunay. russia’s young artists were likelier to be better received in paris than in their own country. sergei diaghilev’s russian ballet, the entire troupe of dancers, musicians, writers and painters had created a sensation there with their mixture of sublimity and exoticism. alexei von jawlensky, vassili kandinsky, jacques lipchitz and all the artists who were to achieve worldwide fame, took advantage of the fashion to get to know modernism in its place of birth. chagall expressed the inspirational significance of paris for his work with the following words: at that time i had grasped that i had to go to paris. the soil that had nourished the roots of my art was vitebsk; but my art needed paris as much as a tree needs water. i had no other reason for leaving my homeland, and i believe that in my paintings i have always remained true to it (walther & metzger, ). after chagall moved to paris from russia in , his paintings quickly came to reflect the latest avant-garde styles. in paris through my window dated (figure ) chagall’s debt to the orphic cubism of his colleague delaunay is clear in the semi-transparent overlapping planes of vivid colour in the sky above the city. for both the artists, the eiffel tower served as a metaphor for paris and perhaps modernity itself. chagall’s parachutist might also refer to contemporary experience, since the first successful jump occurred in . other motifs suggest the artist’s native vitebsk. this painting is an enlarged version of a window view in a self-portrait painted one year earlier, in which the artist contrasted his birthplace with paris. the janus figure has been read as the artist looking at once westward to his new home in france and eastward to russia. chagall, however, refused literal interpretations of his paintings, and it is perhaps best to think of them as lyrical evocations, similar to the allusive plastic poetry of the artist’s friends blaise cendrars (who named this canvas) and guillaume apollinaire (www.guggenheim.org ). figure . marc chagall, paris through my window, , oil on canvas, guggenheim museum, new york bridal pair with the eiffel tower dated (figure ) is another sensational depiction of the eiffel tower by chagall. his jewish russian memories can be traced in the traditional wedding scene, village houses, musical instruments and dear animals such as donkey and cockerel. http://www.guggenheim.org/ isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu figure . marc chagall, the bridal pair with the eiffel tower, , oil on linen, musee national d’art moderne, paris mexican artist diego rivera ( – ) had also contributed to the collection of eiffel tower images with a canvas dated (figure ). in the summer of , as the european political situation was reaching a crisis point, rivera and several other artists and writers travelled to the balearic islands, off the spanish coast, for a walking and sketching tour. while executing naturalistic landscapes, he continued his experiments with cubism. their sojourn was interrupted by the news of the eruption of world war i. rivera openly proclaimed his patriotism for france during the period. the painted record of his patriotic fervour, a work entitled eiffel tower was executed in spain in november . his innovative composition highlights the eiffel tower, merging its structure with the great wheel. the tower was also an appropriate symbol for france during the conflict, as it functioned as a radio transmitter and flashed electric light in the blue, white and red of the french tricolour. rivera was not content with simply creating homage to his adopted homeland, but added another banner on a building on the lower right that echoes the mexican national colours of green, white and red (www.nga.gov ). figure . diego rivera, eiffel tower, , oil on canvas, national gallery of art, washington http://www.nga.gov/ isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu french painter, graphic artist and designer raoul dufy ( – ) created several watercolour vistas of paris, including the images of the tower. the eiffel tower dated (figure ) is a good example of his mature style, showing his love for the city. his early work was impressionist in style but he became a convert to fauvism in . however, he soon returned to a lighter style, and in the next few years he developed the highly distinctive personal manner for which he became famous. it is characterised both in oils and watercolours by rapid calligraphic drawing on backgrounds of bright colours and was well suited to scenes of luxury and pleasure he favoured (chilvers & glaves-smith, ). figure . raoul dufy, the eiffel tower, , watercolour, private collection the german artist christian schad ( – ) was associated with neue sachlichkeit (new objectivity), a movement in german painting in the s and early s, reflecting the resignation and cynicism of the post-war period (chilvers, ). as one of the leading exponents of the neue sachlichkeit movement and according to the austrian art historian and critic, wieland schmied schad is the prototypical possessor of the cool gaze which distinguishes this movement from earlier forms of realism (stremmel, ). schad gained international fame with portraits of artists, intellectuals and aristocrats. he was born in munich; lived in zurich, geneva, vienna and berlin; and visited rome and naples (dantini, ). although he had experiences with many european cities, he preferred to depict his own image with the great symbol of paris. in his portrait with eiffel tower (figure ), a young but tired-looking man in a suit can be seen with one of the feet of the tower in the background. the gaze of the artist as well as the weather of paris is cool. figure . christian schad, portrait with eiffel tower, oil on canvas, private collection isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu . conclusions the eiffel tower, a symbol of modernity, the jewel of the parisian skyline, has been an inspirational monument for artists. most naturally, french painters included the image of the tower in their artworks. however, spanish and german artists and even the south american painter rivera created compositions comprising the grand vista of the tower. the pictorial eiffel tower contributions of the artists delance, seurat, signac, delaunay, chagall, dufy, rivera and schad are aforementioned. but there are many other significant names in the european art that immortalise the tower, such as pierre bonnard, maurice utrillo, henri rousseau, jules ernest renoux, louis beroud, louis welden hawkins, fernand léger and max beckmann. some grand buildings become the emblem of a city with its great architecture and historical significance. notre dame cathedral ( ), arc de triomphe ( ) and garnier opera ( ) may be counted among the symbols of paris. saint mark’s basilica ( ), doge’s palace ( ), rialto bridge ( ) and the church of santa maria della salute ( ) are the first magnificent buildings that come to mind when one thinks of venice. houses of parliament ( ) and westminster bridge ( ) symbolise london, whereas the colosseum ( ), pantheon ( ) and the trevi fountain ( ) remind of rome. there are many paintings depicting these grand works of architecture in european art history. the eiffel tower is the most recent structure among these landmarks. being built at the end of the th century, it presaged and heralded th century modern architecture. it is interesting to see that sculptors were not keen on the the eiffel as much as painters. it would be exciting and rewarding to see the image of the tower in three dimensions created by the hands of sculptors. since the first half of the th century witnessed various approaches to painting, the eiffel tower had also different appearances reflecting the artistic styles of the time. therefore, it may be considered as natural to see the tower in pointillist, expressionist, orfist, cubist and abstract forms. some artists regarded the tower as the city’s new visual element. on the other hand, artists such as chagall and schad created more personal pictures by adding their self-portraits and autobiographical traces. references aaltonen, g. ( ). the history of architecture: iconic buildings throughout the ages. london, uk: arcturus. barthes, r. ( ). the eiffel tower and other mythologies (r. howard, trans.). berkeley: university of california press. carnavalet, paris. retrieved april , from http://www.carnavalet.paris.fr/fr/collections/la-tour-eiffel-et-le- champ-de-mars-en-janvier- . chilvers, i. ( ). oxford dictionary of art & artists. oxford, uk: oxford university press. chilvers, i. & glaves-smith, j. ( ). dictonary of modern and contemporary art. oxford, uk: oxford university press. dantini, m. ( ). modern & contemporary art. new york, ny: sterling. duchting, h. ( ). georges seurat, - : the master of pointillism. koln, germany: taschen. foa, m. ( ). georges seurat: the art of vision. london, ny: yale university press. gantefuhrer-trier, a. & grosenick, u. ( ). cubism. koln, germany: taschen. janson, h. w. & janson, a. ( ). history of art. new york, ny: harry n. abrams. http://www.carnavalet.paris.fr/fr/collections/la-tour-eiffel-et-le-champ-de-mars-en-janvier- http://www.carnavalet.paris.fr/fr/collections/la-tour-eiffel-et-le-champ-de-mars-en-janvier- isman, s.a. ( ). eiffel tower through the eyes of painters. new trends and issues proceedings on humanities and social sciences. [online]. ( ), - . available from: www.prosoc.eu jones, c. ( ). eiffel tower, france. in g. lees-maffei, ed., iconic designs: stories about things. london, uk: bloomsbury. kleiner, f. ( ). gardner’s art through the ages: a concise western history. wadsworth, oh: cengage learning. lucie-smith, e. ( ). visual arts in the th century. singapore: laurence king. lucie- http://www.museedegrenoble.fr/tpl_code% /% tpl_oeuvre/par_tpl_identifiant/ / -english.htm http://www.museedegrenoble.fr/tpl_code% /% tpl_oeuvre/par_tpl_identifiant/ / -english.htm https://www.nga.gov/index.html https://www.guggenheim.org/% artwork/ https://www.guggenheim.org/% artwork/ changes in the life of society, initiated by the revolutionary turmoil, actualized the need to re- think the role of art; as a result, a discourse on the role of the artist in the new world happened. con- structivists believed that an artist had not so much a craft function as before, but was able to antic- ipate development trends, “create”  a new world and a new person. the concept of new art, which took on a transforming role, was supposed to have a completely new artistic language, understandable . rodchenko, a. experiments for the future. moscow: grant, . pp. – . galina s. ignatenko master of arts e-mail: galina.s.ignatenko@gmail.com moscow, russia orcid - - - researcherid aar- - doi: . / - - - - - - clothing design and ornament function in the constructivist fashion of the s– s summary: the development of clothing of the s- s and its role in the formation of new produc- tivist art are considered in the article. at the beginning of the th century, the world underwent not only enormous changes but also the loss of self-identification, both on a personal level and on a social level. the russian avant- - garde of the early th century became the prototype of not only new art but also claimed to have created a unified system of values. artists turned their attention to clothing as a new widespread form of language. at the same time, finding a functional application to their creativity was the task. reconstructing the role of clothing in human life was part of the “life building” concept of the early th centu- ry. the implementation of this idea was seen in the crea- tion of a universal formula not only for creative work but also for life. the utopian idea of the unification of clothing formed the basis for the creation of anti-class functional working clothes. the project of creating universal cloth- ing for mass production is a vivid example of the practi- cal embodiment of the new productivist art. the search for a new form of dress, as a new cultural code, seemed an extremely attractive idea both from an ideological and artistic point of view. the new concept of universal cloth- ing for work and sports transmitted the idea of creating a person of a new world – the builder of a new life. at the same time, denying fashion as a gender- oriented art form, constructivists tried to use concise forms, avoiding deco- ration and deliberate embellishment. the creation of in- novative clothing for mass production also brings up the subject of the appearance of a new canon of the image of a woman, which changed not only the idea of an aesthet- ic ideal but also its role in society. at the same time, lab- oratories, which in their work synthesized the trends and challenges of the new time already existing in the world of western fashion, were working. an attempt to unite west- ern fashion trends, national traditions, and mass produc- tion can be traced both in the practices of constructivist artists and in the works of artists who collaborated with atelier of fashion. new interpretations of folk traditions, as part of the search for self-identity, influenced the inclu- sion of a number of ornamental techniques in the artistic practices of the early th century. on the example of the creative work of v. stepanova, l. popova, and n. lamano- va’s design, different approaches to the formation of new dress are compared. the article analyzes how the transfor- mation of the approach to clothing design becomes an in- dicator of sociocultural, political, and ideological changes. keywords: working clothes, constructivism fashion, so- viet fashion, atelier of fashion. to a wide range of people. fashion, as one of the spheres that take over the impulses and demands of society with great speed, became one of those languages with which constructivists expressed their ideas and values. artists’ influence on the develop- ment of fashion of that time is a vivid example of the synthesis of arts. responding to the need for a new visual and semantic code, the fashion had to be completely transformed and even, in a way, be born again. “artists stand in front of fashionistas, their forerunners- innovators stand in front of artists…”  , bakst wrote in the journal apollo. mikhail larion- ov, who initiated the fashion trend experimenting with face painting, can be called one of the first innovators. one of the most important thoughts appeared in the futurism manifesto: “it’s time for art to invade life”  . artists began the realization of new ideas starting with themselves, distinguishing themselves from society through their appearance. the new appearance was a demonstration of a man of a new time. however, larionov focused on ex- periments with makeup and with his own clothes whereas his wife, one of the “amazons of the rus- sian avant- garde”  , devoted a lot of time to mod- ern women’s clothing. goncharova’s interest in the development of dress can be seen in her sketches created for natalia lamanova, a famous moscow fashion designer, and “supplier to the court of her imperial majesty empress alexandra fedorovna”  in the past. the sketches that goncharova created for her were an organic interweaving of national mo- tifs, actual silhouettes and geometric patterns. rus- sian folk ornaments, for which she had love since childhood, were always an inspiration for her. gon- charova even saw the origins of cubism in russian kurgan stelaes and russian wooden dolls. natalia goncharova’s talent was fully revealed after in work with diagelev and his russian seasons. having left for emigration, she began to interpret russian motifs in a new way, using their exoticism, which so much attracted western admirers of her talent. goncharova’s work in the field of fashion was not revolutionary. the artist did not try to reform the dress but brought her signature style to it and, of course, influenced its development. it is important to say that lamanova worked not only with goncharova and other artists, but she her- self made a number of major changes in the fash- ion world of the beginning of the century. after the revolution, in , nadezhda lamanova was arrest- ed as an enemy of the proletariat; however, thanks to maria andreeva, maxim gorky’s wife, she was re- leased and continued her career. according to la- manova’s memoirs, the revolution changed her life . bakst, l. s. ways of classicism in art. apollo. . no. – . p. . . zdanevich, i. why do we paint ourselves. argus. . no. . p. . . b. k. livshits [web resource] url: http://rusavangard.ru/online/ history/amazonki/ (accessed on . . ). . avant- garde- theater- fashion. exposition catalog. moscow: severniy palomnik, . p. but did not change her life ideas. in august , speaking at the first all- russian conference on the art industry, she said: “artists should take the initi- ative in the field of clothing, work on creating sim- ple, beautiful forms of clothing from simple materials that are suitable for a new working life”  . obviously, the october revolution introduced sig- nificant changes in the social composition of socie- ty. outfits, luxurious but useless from a labor point of view, inherent in the noble estate, ceased to ex- ist. in general, clothes, as an identifier of special sta- tus, were ideologically impossible. the imitation of western fashion was replaced by the need to create new clothes for the working class. “for lamanova, with her idea of obligatory matching the dress not only with the external but also with the internal ap- pearance of a person, it was quite natural to think that it was impossible to dress a russian woman in parisian fashion. if the nature, climate, lifestyle of russian life, the physical makeup of people, their spiritual appearance and temperament are different from western ones, then the appearance of people and their clothing cannot be the same, and lamano- va did not forget that she was working on clothes for a russian woman”  . nadezhda lamanova and a group of artists who shared her values actively worked in the laboratories of the state academy of art sciences to create new modern clothes. the na- tional character of the dress, the appeal to national forms, as well as the use of its maximum utilitarian- ism were the basis of its concept. artists v. mukhina and a. exter took the main part in this experiment. the opening of the atelier of fashion in caused great creative debate even before it started work- ing. even the word “fashion” itself caused many contradictions among the creators, it managed to acquire too bourgeois connotation. nevertheless, simple dresses made of hopsack with national em- broidery were a huge success, as was the fashion show itself. exceptional functionality, convenience, and elegance were the main features that united all lamanova’s models. the nationality of the dress was emphasized by expressive forms and decorative el- ements, which often became its center. embroidery and old russian ornament were probably chosen not only due to their aesthetic characteristics but also for their ideological neutrality. lamanova set . strizhenova, t. k. from the history of the soviet costume. moscow, . p. . . temerin, s. m. russian applied art. soviet years. essays. moscow: soviet artist, . p. . herself an extremely difficult task in the conditions of the total deficit. she wanted to make fashion as accessible as possible to all segments of the pop- ulation. dress ensembles were created from a lim- ited selection of materials that she could dispose of, namely: linen, homespun wool, semi-bleached linen. exter also assigned the selection of fabric an important role. in , atelier of fashion under the moskvosh- vey union published the first and only issue of the soviet fashion magazine atelier, which was to be- come a soviet alternative to french fashion mag- azines. the magazine was released in a circulation of copies and was a great success. the aim of the publication was, of course, to draw attention to the work that was carried out in the atelier of fashion. an important place was occupied by the article “on constructive clothing” by a. exter, re- flecting the main area of work that was mentioned earlier, namely the requirement of simplicity and functionality. in addition, much attention was paid to the design features of clothes and their aesthet- ic tasks: “when choosing the form of clothes,” the artist wrote, “one must reckon with the natural pro- portions of the figure; with the help of the correct design of clothing, you can achieve its conformity to the shapes and sizes of the body. working clothes should ensure freedom of movement, so they can- not be narrowed. one of the main requirements for such clothes is the ease of use”  . the rejection of complex forms (constructivists came to the same idea in painting at that time) was also reflected in exter’s article: “a consumer dress should consist of such simple geometric shapes as a rectangle, a square; the rhythm of color embed- ded in them will completely diversify the content of the form”  . nevertheless, according to the sketch- es of the artist, we can see that her desire to com- bine beauty and practicality is visible in her works. her clothes are functional, often multi- component but by no means devoid of elegance and decora- tion. in the film aelita, for which exter was a dress designer, the artist’s imagination and artistic taste are fully demonstrated. the illustration for the cover of atelier magazine was also created by exter. and a sketch of the bud-dress of vera mukhina is one of the most famous sketches from this magazine. the fluffy drapery of the skirt, the slim waist, and bright black stripes look both traditional and inno- vative at the same time and, possibly, anticipated the appearance of the new-look silhouette in . . [web resource] url: https://lobgott.livejournal.com/ . html (accessed on . . ). . ibid. ill. . a page of the album “art in life”, in , lamanova and mukhina together with artists and constructive architects released the al- bum “art in life”. the dress pattern album was for ordinary women, not tailors. it is worth emphasiz- ing that this album can be called a real instruction or guide to life in the country of the victorious pro- letariat. it had everything that a citizen of a new country needed – from a drawing of a hut to a dress pattern. lamanova and mukhina created a series of sketches for this album. this series represented the whole range of clothes that the family could need: a school uniform, a tracksuit, a coat, clothes for out- side and work. there were twelve pages, among which was a caftan from vladimir towels and a tu- nic dress from a scarf. despite their emphasized utilitarianism, it should be noted that the works of lamanova and mukhi- na were of compromising nature, they cannot be called adherents of the constructivism ideas of the eradication of aesthetic practices historically asso- ciated with clothing. in , the soviet union was invited to participate in an international exhibition in paris. in conditions of severe material shortages, lamanova and mukhina were able not only to ad- equately present their work but to win one of the grand prix. at the same exhibition in paris, the work of two other outstanding artists, v. stepanova and l. popova, was presented, which made a significant contribution to the development of soviet fashion. their approach to creating modern clothing had significant differences. constructivist artists sought, as is known, to fill their works of art with creative meaning, creating them not for influential customers but for the benefit of the people. so lyubov popova wrote: “the organ- ization of material means of life is our new goal <…> and all active artistic creativity should be directed in this area”  . she considered her artwork to be a pre- paratory stage for future “constructions”  . a begin- ning was made at the verbovka studio in . the creator of the studio, natalya davydova, was pas- sionate about the promotion of decorative and ap- plied art, and by her order, the embroiderers’ artel created a variety of products based on sketches by prominent artists of the time: exter, stepanova, pop- ova, rozanova and many other avant- garde artists made abstract compositions, and the artisans trans- . adaskina, n. l., lyubov popova. the path of becoming an artist- - designer. technical aesthetics. moscow, . p. . . adaskina, n. l., lyubov popova. the path of becoming an artist- - designer. technical aesthetics. moscow, . p. . ferred them to bags and pillows. some of them took up this work solely because of the difficult financial situation, for others, household items and clothes were still the same plane for an artistic experiment. on november , , the exhibition of con- temporary decorative art was held in the lemersie gallery in moscow, where works in which traditional crafts were combined with non-objective painting could be seen. these were one of the first avant- - garde experiments to introduce art into the subject environment. undoubtedly, the experience gained during the preparation for the exhibition gave art- ists the opportunity to experiment in an area that allowed more liberties. another exhibition of dec- orative and applied art, which became the last, was held in . until , stepanova and popova were not very passionate about the production of cloth- ing whereas the revolution gave them the opportu- nity to bring the utopian ideas of constructivism to life. considering the easel painting being obsolete and useless for the new society, they turned their at- tention to production, where, in their opinion, their creative potential should have been applied. one of the main slogans of constructivist artists in their work on clothing design was an article by varvara stepanova in the lef magazine in which she, under the pseudonym warst, proclaimed: “working clothes is the clothing of today”  . lamanova’s at- elier of fashion had the task of combining aesthet- ics and functionality whereas the idea of working clothes was much more radical: “fashion, which psy- chologically reflects everyday life, habits, aesthet- ic taste, gives way to clothes organized for work in various industries”  . and one more curious state- ment: “there is no suit at all, there is a suit for some production function”. clothing, in the opinion of stepanova and her colleagues, carried an exclusively production function, it was not endowed with oth- er meanings. aesthetics were not important, only functionality was important. clothing could change depending on the occupation. working clothes for various kinds of work and a sports suit differed. here several important trends in the development of the dress can be highlighted. the concept of “pro- ductionism” was a response to a request for improv- ing the economic situation, and this was a signal to the masses about the image of a new person – the . stepanova, v. f. “today’s costume is working clothes.” lef. . no. . [web resource] http://lamanova.com/ _ prozodezhda.html (accessed on . . ). . ibid. builder of a new life. the rationalization of forms of clothing helped create a new work and sport agen- da. the formation of new gender roles can also be distinguished as having fundamental importance. the appearance of working clothes, exaggeratedly masculine, constructed the image of a new woman – a toiler, dressed in simple and comfortable clothes. it is significant that along with the appearance of the atelier of fashion magazine in , the rabotnitsa  magazine was published. the woman in a red scarf and a work dress depicted on the cover contrasted strongly with exter’s sophisticated illustration. nev- ertheless, the image of a strong worker, a woman of the new state, to whom everything bourgeois is alien, . bartlett, j. fashioneast: a ghost wandering in eastern europe. trans. from english e. kardash. moscow: new literary review, . p. . did not quite correspond to the aesthetic ideas of the construc- tivists. popov’s visual language, which was also formed in the west, was much wider than the bolshevik slogans. the aesthetics of cubism, perceived by the artist in france, was taken as a basis in her work on theatrical costumes. it was the theater, which was ac- tively developing in the s, that turned out to be the most suitable place for demonstrat- ing innovative ideas. in , the play le cocu magnifique, for the design of which popova was invited, was shown on the stage of the vsevolod meyer- hold theater. the costumes of the actors were deliberately sim- ple, consisted of the simplest ge- ometric forms and looked like a uniform or working clothes, which was supposed to be for a person employed in the theat- er. lyubov popova wrote that the costume was created “<…> for everyday life and work of an actor, and therefore it was nec- essary to make it utilitarian for this purpose replacing all oth- er clothes”  . the costumes of the heroes that were presented in this performance were similar in color and material but differed from each other in functional content: the presence of an apron, belt, pockets. meyerhold’s next work was the play the death of tarelkin, which the director staged in col- laboration with varvara stepanova. this performance can also be considered a demonstration of options for working clothes. if we look at each clothing indi- vidually, then tarelkin’s clothes were the prototype of the working clothes of an official, the clothes of jan- itor pakhom were a uniform of a worker, and tarel- kin’s “children” demonstrated examples of sportswear. it was the appearance of sportswear that became one of the most inventive innovations in construc- tivist fashion. in the catalog for the exhibition fash- . lavrentiev a. n. “working clothes and fashion” // artist. clothes. fashion: collection of articles; comp. m. l. bodrova, a. n. lavrentiev. moscow: soviet artist, . p. . ill. . projects of actor’s working clothes. l. s. popova. ion for the people! from constructivism to design, a. lavrentyev called the appearance of mass sports- wear “a symbol of liberation”  . stepanova’s work- ing clothes had a strict geometric shape and had an almost identical base, like popova’s, changing un- der the influence of functional tasks. a decorative role was played by contrasting seams, fasteners, and color blocks. in the sketches for the play, the motif of stripes can be seen, for example, in the costume of mavrusha, tarelkin, and others. later, this motif be- came one of the main ones in her work with fabrics. in , the dean of vkhutemas, professor vik- torov, wrote a letter to the newspaper pravda and asked artists to respond to the needs of the indus- try. popova and stepanova responded to this call and became textile designers. despite the experi- ence in the field of arts and crafts, the artists faced a completely new task. the textile industry set be- fore them the goals not only to decorate clothes with the artistic techniques known to them but to bring “an artistic moment to the principle of creating the most utilitarian piece of clothing”  . the com- plexity of this work was determined by many fac- tors. in working with fabrics, artists had to combine their own visual ideas, the specifics of production, as well as the ideological ideas of constructivism. in addition, the economic situation required a re- duction in funds for production. textile experiments by stepanova and popova met all the necessary re- quirements. in their drawings, they used no more than four colors, which made production economi- cal. they created fabrics with objectless suprematist designs that contrasted very much with the pre- dominantly floral textiles of the previous period. thus, the task of updating the assortment was ful- filled, since floral ornaments were associated with the “bourgeois” way of life and did not correspond to the new reality. stepanova and popova began to work with great enthusiasm. “she (popova) sat days and nights over the drawings, trying to combine the requirements of the economy, the laws of external design, and the mysterious taste of a tula peasant woman in a sin- gle creative act”  . since lyubov popova focused on ordinary people in her works, the appeal for inspi- . avant- garde- theater- fashion. exposition catalog. moscow: northern pilgrim, . p. . . khan- magomedov s. o. pioneers of soviet design. moscow: galart, . p. . . “in memory of l. s. popova” // lef. . no. . [web resource] url: http://www.ruthenia.ru/sovlit/j/ .html (accessed on . . ). ration to folk roots was quite logical. many of the artist’s drawings can be interpreted as a combina- tion of her own artistic ideas with peasant traditions. ornamental inserts that can be seen on popova’s sketches are similar to the models of nadezhda la- manova’s dresses. popova takes the circle as the ba- sis of her many drawings, modifying and combining it with the simplest geometric forms. with seem- ing simplicity, they are surprisingly diverse, and in addition, they are exclusively innovative in nature, the entire scale of which could only be appreciat- ed by the contemporaries of the artist. despite per- haps a radical innovation, popova clearly managed to “guess the chintz”  , in the summer of , these fabrics were very popular. jacob tugenhold wrote that “last spring [ . – comp.], all moscow, not knowing it, was wearing fabrics according to popo- va’s drawings, drawings that were bright, sharp, full of movement, like the nature of the artist herself”  . varvara stepanova’s textile sketches are close to the works of popova based on the artistic style; however, they certainly differ in character and over- all impression. lyubov popova was passionate about finding a universal method of work that would help create the greatest variety of textile options, which explains her incredible productivity. stepanova’s work was meticulously verified with a ruler and compass. in her textile works, we again meet the motif of a stripe, in various interpretations, layering circles, as well as many other artistic techniques. the artis- tic techniques of stepanova and popova, as men- tioned earlier, were unconditionally innovative. a rare artifact that allows us to appreciate this is footage from the film a cigarette box from moselprom, which was released in . a dress with art by varvara stepanova definitely looks like a thing from anoth- er world, contrasting significantly with the situation. the attention of the artists was riveted not only to the drawings themselves but also to the specifics of the textile, as such. stepanova believed that the artist should be involved in the production of fab- ric at all levels. unfortunately, many plans were not destined to come true. already in the early s, the work of constructivists was increasingly criticized and re- placed by the propaganda textiles of socialist real- ism. in addition, despite the manifestos and attitudes, no matter how hard the artists tried to deny the . tulovskaya, y. a. avant- garde textiles. drawings for fabric. yekaterinburg: tatlin, . p. . . ibid. role of fashion in society, the artist prevailed over the production worker in the process of creativity, and excessive unification faced a number of con- tradictions. perhaps the words of varvara stepanova in are connected with this: “it is a mistake to think that fashion is only an unnecessary append- age of a speculative nature”  . . strizhenova, t. k. from the history of the soviet costume. moscow: soviet artist, . p. . . adaskina, n. l. . “lyubov’ popova. put’ stanovleni- ya khudozhnikom- dizaynerom” [“lyubov popova. the path of becoming an artist- designer”], tekhniches- kaya estetika [technical aesthetics], no. , pp. – . (in russian) . amazonki avangarda [amazons of the avant- garde]. collection of articles edited by g. f. kovalenko. mos- cow: nauka, . p. . (in russian) . avangard- teatr-moda [avant- garde- theater- fashion]. exposition catalog. moscow: severniy palomnik, . (in russian) . bakst, l. s. . “puti klassitsizma v iskusstve” [“ways of classicism in art”], apollon [apollo], no. – . . bartlett, j. . [fashioneast: prizrak, brodivshiy po vostochnoy yevrope] fashioneast: a ghost wandering in eastern europe. moscow, p. . (in russian) . gorbova, e. n. . “idei zhizni russkogo avangarda v estetike rabochey odezhdy. proyekt nachala xx veka “ [“the ideas of the russian avant- garde life in the aes- thetics of the working clothes. project of the begin- ning of the th century”], vestnik kazanskogo gosu- darstvennogo universiteta kul’tury i iskusstv [bulletin of kazan state university of culture and arts], no. – , pp. – . (in russian) . khan- magomedov, s. o. . pionery sovetskogo dizayna [pioneers of soviet design]. moscow, p. . (in russian) . lavrentiev, a. n. . “rabochaya odezhda i moda” [“working clothes and fashion”], khudozhnik. odezhda. moda: sbornik statey [artist. clothes. fashion: collection of articles], moscow, p. . (in russian) . adaskina, n. l., krasnyanskaya, k. & kostaki, a. . lyubov’ popova. forma. tsvet. kosmos [lyubov popova. form. colour. space], moscow, p. , ill. . (in rus- sian) . in memory of l. s. popova. [obituary], lef. no. . . pp. – . (in russian) references the idea of the avant- garde on the existence of an artist- creator capable of creating a new system of life was not brought to an end but perhaps com- pletely failed. nevertheless, the experiments of the “amazons of the avant- garde” in the field of fash- ion play an extremely important role, both for the art history and for the history of fashion. referenc- es to their ideas were massively reproduced in the s, and in addition, they still appear on podi- ums, inspiring artists in all areas of art. . rodchenko, a. . eksperimenty na budushcheye [ex- periments for the future]. moscow, p. . (in russian) . stepanova, v. f. . “segodnyashniy kostyum – rabochaya odezhda” [“today’s costume is working clothes”], lef. no. . available at: http://www.ruthe- nia.ru/moskva/origins/design/varst.htm (accessed: . . ) (in russian) . strizhenova, t. k. . iz istorii sovetskogo kostyuma [from the history of the soviet costume], moscow, p. . (in russian) . temerin, s. m. . russkoye prikladnoye iskusstvo. sovetskiye gody. esse [russian applied art. soviet years. essays]. moscow, p. . (in russian) . tulovskaya, y. a. . avangardnyy tekstil’. risunki dlya tkani [avant- garde textiles. drawings for fabric], yekaterinburg: tatlin, p. . (in russian) . zdanevich, i. . “pochemu my raskrashivayemsya” [“why do we paint ourselves”], argus. no. , pp. – . (in russian) . bartlett, d. . “léon bakst and fashion: beyond and after the ballets russes”, costume, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . /cost. . (in english) . tiramani, j. . “janet arnold’s patterns of fash- ion”, costume, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . / z. (in english) . ng, s. . “gendered by design: qipao and soci- ety, – ”, costume, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . / z. (in english) . pecorari, m. .” fashion archives, museums and col- lections in the age of the digital”, critical studies in fashion & beauty, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . / csfb. . . _ (in english) . kuldova, t. .” fashion exhibition as a critique of contemporary museum exhibitions: the case of ‘fashion india: spectacular capitalism”, critical stud- ies in fashion & beauty, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . /csfb. . . _ (in english) Инициированные революционными потря- сениями изменения жизни общества актуали- зировали необходимость переосмысления роли искусства, вследствие которого возник дискурс о роли художника в новом мире. Конструктиви- сты считали, что художник несёт в себе не только ремесленную функцию, как ранее, но и способен предвосхищать тенденции развития, «сотворить»  . Родченко А. Опыты для будущего. М., . С. – . Галина Сергеевна Игнатенко магистр искусств и гуманитарных наук e-mail: galina.s.ignatenko@gmail.com Москва, Россия orcid - - - researcherid aar- - doi: . / - - - - - - ДИзАйн КОСтюМА И фунКцИя ОРнАМентА в КОнСтРуКтИвИСтСКОй МОДе – -х гОДОв Аннотация: в статье рассматриваются развитие ко- стюма – -х годов и его роль в формировании нового производственного искусства. в начале ХХ века мир претерпевал не только колоссальные изменения, но и потерю самоидентификации — как на личност- ном уровне, так и на общественном. Русский авангард начала ХХ века стал прообразом не только нового ис- кусства, но и претендовал на создание единой систе- мы ценностей. Художники обратили своё внимание на одежду как на новую форму языка, имеющую боль- шое распространение. наряду с этим ставилась задача найти функциональное применение своему творче- ству. Переконструирование роли одежды в жизни человека являлось частью концепции «жизнестрои- тельства» начала ХХ века. Реализация этой идеи ви- делась в создании универсальной формулы не только для творчества, но и для жизни. утопическая идея об унификации одежды легла в основу создания анти- сословной и функциональной «прозодежды». Про- ект создания универсального костюма для массового производства является ярким примером практическо- го воплощения нового производственного искусства. Поиск новой формы костюма как нового культурно- го кода казался крайне привлекательной идеей — как с идеологической, так и с художественной точки зре- ния. новая концепция универсальной одежды для тру- да и спорта транслировала идею создания человека нового мира — строителя новой жизни. вместе с тем, отрицая моду как гендерно ориентированный вид ис- кусства, конструктивисты старались использовать лако- ничные формы, избегая декорирования и нарочитого украшательства. Создание новаторского костюма для массового производства также затрагивает тему по- явления нового канона образа женщины, что меняло не только представление об эстетическом идеале, но и её роль в жизни общества. в то же время работали лаборатории, синтезирующие в своём творчестве уже существующие в мире западной моды тенденции и вы- зовы нового времени. Попытка объединения западных модных течений, национальных традиций и массово- го производства прослеживается как в практиках ху- дожников- конструктивистов, так и в работах художниц, которые сотрудничали с Ателье мод. новые интерпре- тации народных традиций как часть поиска самоиден- тичности повлияли на включение ряда орнаментальных приёмов в художественные практики начала xx века. на примере творчества в. Степановой, Л. Поповой и ди- зайна н. Ламановой произведено сравнение разных подходов к формированию нового костюма. в статье проанализировано, как трансформация подхода к ди- зайну одежды становится индикатором социокультур- ных, политических и мировоззренческих перемен. Ключевые слова: прозодежда, мода конструкти- визма, советская мода, Ателье мод. новый мир и нового человека. Концепция ново- го искусства, которая брала на себя трансформи- рующую роль, должна была обладать совершенно новым художественным языком, понятным широ- кому кругу людей. Мода как одна из сфер, кото- рая с большой скоростью перенимает импульсы и запросы общества, стала одним из тех языков, с помощью которого конструктивисты выража- ли свои идеи и ценности. влияние художников на развитие моды того времени является ярким примером синтеза искусств. Откликнувшись на по- требность в новом визуальном и смысловом коде, мода должна была полностью трансформировать- ся и даже в некотором смысле родиться заново. «впереди модниц идут художники, впереди ху- дожников идут их предтечи- новаторы…»  , — пи- сал Бакст в журнале «Аполлон». Одним из первых новаторов можно назвать Михаила Ларионова, за- родившего модную тенденцию, экспериментируя с раскрашиванием лица. в «Манифесте футуриз- ма» прозвучала важнейшая мысль: «Пора искус- ству вторгнуться в жизнь»  . Претворение новых идей художники начинали с себя, выделяя себя из общества посредством внешнего вида. новый внешний вид являлся демонстрацией человека нового времени. но если Ларионов был сосредо- точен на экспериментах с гримом и собственной одеждой, то его супруга и одна из «амазонок рус- ского авангарда»  много времени уделяла совре- менному женскому костюму. Интерес гончаровой к развитию костюма можно увидеть в её эскизах, созданных для натальи Ламановой — известно- го московского модельера, а в прошлом — «По- ставщицы двора ея императорского величества Императрицы Александры фёдоровны»  . Эски- зы, которые гончарова для неё создавала, являли собой органичное переплетение национальных мотивов, актуальных силуэтов и геометрических узоров. Любовь к русским народным орнамен- там, которую она питала с детства, всегда была источником вдохновения для её творчества. Даже истоки кубизма гончарова видела в наших скиф- ских каменных бабах и русских деревянных кук- лах. талант натальи гончаровой в полной мере раскроется после года в работе с Дягилевым и его «Русскими сезонами». уехав в эмиграцию, она по-новому станет интерпретировать русские мотивы, используя их экзотичность, которая так сильно будет привлекать западных почитателей её таланта. Работа гончаровой в области моды не носила революционный характер. Художница не пыталась реформировать костюм, но привнес- ла в него свой фирменный стиль и, безусловно, повлияла на его развитие. . Бакст Л. С. Пути классицизма в искусстве // Аполлон. . № – . С. . . зданевич И., Ларионов М. Почему мы раскрашиваемся // Аргус, . № . С. . . цит. По: Лившиц Б. К. [Сетевой ресурс]url: http:// rusavangard.ru/online/history/amazonki (дата обращения: . . ). . Авангард- театр-мода. Каталог экспозиции. М.: Северный паломник, . С. . важно сказать, что Ламанова работала не толь- ко с гончаровой и другими художниками, но и сама совершила ряд важнейших изменений в мире моды начала века. После революции, в году надежда Ламанова была арестова- на как враг пролетариата, но благодаря Марии Андреевой, жене Максима горького, была осво- бождена и продолжила свой творческий путь. По воспоминаниям самой Ламановой, революция изменила её жизнь, но не изменила её жизнен- ных идей. в августе года, выступая на первой всероссийской конференции по художественной промышленности, она говорила: «Художники дол- жны в области одежды взять инициативу в свои руки, работая над созданием из простых мате- риалов простейших, но красивых форм одежды, подходящих к новому укладу трудовой жизни»  . Очевидно, что Октябрьская революция внес- ла значительные изменения в социальный состав общества. Роскошные, но бесполезные с трудо- вой точки зрения наряды, присущие дворянско- му сословию, перестали существовать. в целом, одежда, как идентификатор особого статуса, была идеологически невозможна. Актуальное до это- го момента подражание западной моде смени- лось необходимостью создать новый костюм для рабочего класса. «Для Ламановой, с её идеей обязательного соответствия костюма не толь- ко внешнему, но и внутреннему облику чело- века, вполне естественным был приход к мысли о невозможности одевать русскую женщину по парижским модам. если природа, климат, уклад русской жизни, физический склад людей, их ду- ховный облик и темперамент отличны от запад- ных, то и внешний облик людей и их костюм не могут быть одинаковы, и Ламанова не забы- вала, что она работает над костюмом для рус- ской женщины»  . надежда Ламанова и группа художниц, разделявших её ценности, вели ак- тивную работу в лабораториях государственной академии художественных наук по созданию но- вого современного костюма. Основой его кон- цепции была народность костюма, обращение к национальным формам, а также использова- ние его максимальной утилитарности. Основное участие в этом эксперименте приняли художни- цы в. Мухина и А. Экстер. Открытие в году . Стриженова т. К. Из истории советского костюма. М., . С. . . темерин С. М. Русское прикладное искусство. Советские годы. Очерки. М.: Советский художник, . С. . Ателье мод вызвало большие творческие спо- ры ещё до начала его работы. Даже само слово «мода» вызывало много противоречий у созда- телей — слишком буржуазную коннотацию оно успело приобрести. тем не менее простые пла- тья из рогожки с национальной вышивкой име- ли огромный успех, как и сам показ советских мод. Основными чертами, которые объединяли все модели Ламановой, стали исключительная функциональность, удобство и элегантность. на- родность костюма подчёркивалась выразитель- ными формами и декоративными элементами, которые нередко становились её центром. вы- шивка и древнерусский орнамент вероятно были выбраны не только благодаря своим эстетиче- ским характеристикам, но и за свою идеологи- ческую нейтральность. Ламанова ставила перед собой исключительно сложную в условиях то- тального дефицита задачу. Она хотела сделать моду максимально доступной всем слоям насе- ления. Костюмные ансамбли были созданы из ограниченного выбора материалов, которыми она могла распоряжаться, а именно: лён, домо- тканая шерсть, полуотбелённое полотно. важную роль к подбору ткани отводила и Экстер. в году Ателье мод при объединении «Мо- сквошвея» выпустило в свет первый и единствен- ный выпуск советского журнала мод «Ателье», который должен был стать советской альтерна- тивой французским журналам мод. Журнал был выпущен тиражом экземпляров и имел боль- шой успех. Издание, конечно же, должно было привлечь внимание к той работе, которая ве- лась в Ателье мод. важное место занимала статья А. Экстер «О конструктивной одежде», отражаю- щая основное направление работы, о котором говорилось ранее, а именно — требование про- стоты и функциональности. Кроме этого, боль- шое внимание было уделено конструктивным особенностям одежды и её эстетическим зада- чам: «При выборе формы одежды, — писала ху- дожница, — следует считаться с естественными пропорциями фигуры; с помощью правильно- го конструирования одежды можно добиться её соответствия формам и размерам тела. Рабочая одежда должна обеспечить свободу движений, поэтому она не может быть зауженной. Одно из главных требований к такому костюму — удоб- ство в работе»  . . [Сетевой ресурс] url: https://lobgott.livejournal.com/ . html (дата обращения: . . ). Отказ от сложных форм, к которому в это вре- мя приходили конструктивисты в живописи, так- же нашёл отражение в статье Экстер: «Костюм широкого потребления должен состоять из та- ких простейших геометрических форм, как пря- моугольник, квадрат; ритм цвета, вложенный в них, вполне разнообразит содержание фор- мы»  . тем не менее по эскизам художницы мы можем видеть, что в её работах видно её же- лание соединять красоту и практичность. её ко- стюмы функциональны, часто многосоставны, но отнюдь не лишены элегантности и украшатель- ства. А в фильме «Аэлита», для которого Экстер выступила художником по костюмам, в полной мере демонстрируются фантазия и художествен- ный вкус художницы. Иллюстрацию для обложки журнала «Ателье» также создала Экстер. А од- ним из самых знаменитых эскизов из этого жур- нала станет эскиз платья- бутона веры Мухиной. Пышная драпировка юбки, тонкая талия и яркие чёрные полосы выглядят одновременно тради- ционно и новаторски и, возможно, предвосхи- щают появления силуэта new look в году. в году Ламанова и Мухина совместно с ху- дожниками и архитекторами- конструктивистами выпускают альбом «Искусство в быту». Альбом с выкройками предназначался для обычных жен- щин, а не для портних. надо сказать, что этот аль- бом можно назвать настоящей инструкцией или руководством к жизни в стране победившего про- летариата. в нём было всё, что необходимо гра- жданину новой страны, — от чертежа избы до выкройки платья. Ламанова и Мухина создали для этого альбома серию эскизов. Эта серия пред- ставляла весь спектр одежды, которая могла по- надобиться семье: школьная форма, спортивный костюм, пальто, костюм для улицы и работы. все- го страниц, среди которых были кафтан из вла- димирских полотенец и платье- туника из платка. несмотря на подчёркнутую утилитарность, нельзя не отметить, что работы Ламановой и Му- хиной носили компромиссный характер, — их нельзя назвать приверженцами идей конструк- тивизма об искоренении эстетических практик, исторически связанных с одеждой. в году Советский Союз был приглашён к участию в ме- ждународной выставке в Париже. Ламанова и Му- хина, в условиях тяжёлого дефицита материала, смогли не только достойно представить свои . там же. работы, но и завоевать один из grand-prix. на этой же выставке в Париже было представлено творчество двух других выдающихся художниц, которые внесли значительный вклад в развитие советской моды, а именно в. Степановой и Л. По- повой. Их подходы к созданию современного ко- стюма имели значительные различия. Художники- конструктивисты стремились, как известно, наполнить свои произведения созида- тельным смыслом, создавая их не для влиятель- ных заказчиков, а на благо народа. так, Любовь Попова писала: «нашей новой целью является организация материальных средств жизни <…> на эту область и должно быть направлено всё активное художественное творчество»  . Свои художественные работы она считала подготови- тельным этапом для будущих «конструкций»  . начало этому было положено в году в ате- лье «вербовка». Создательница ателье наталья Давыдова была увлечена продвижением деко- ративно- прикладного искусства, и по её заказу артель вышивальщиц создавала самые разные из- делия по эскизам выдающихся художников того времени: Экстер, Степанова, Попова, Розанова и многие другие авангардисты делали абстракт- ные композиции, а мастерицы артели переносили их на сумки и подушки. некоторые из них бра- лись за эту работу исключительно из-за сложной финансовой ситуации, для других же предметы быта и одежды были всё той же плоскостью для художественного эксперимента. в Москве ноября года в галерее Лемер- сье прошла «выставка современного декоратив- ного искусства», на которой можно было увидеть работы, где традиционные ремёсла сочетались с беспредметной живописью. Это были одни из первых опытов авангарда по внедрению искус- ства в предметную среду. Бесспорно, опыт, по- лученный во время подготовки к выставке, дал художницам возможность поэкспериментиро- вать в той области, которая позволяла больше вольностей. ещё одна выставка ДПИ была про- ведена в году, она же и стала последней. если до -го Степанова и Попова не были сильно увлечены производством одежды, то ре- волюция дала им возможность воплотить утопи- ческие идеи конструктивизма в жизнь. Считая . Адаскина н. Любовь Попова. Путь становления художни- ка- конструктора//техническая эстетика. № . М.: внИИ- ЭтЭ, . С. . . там же. станковую живопись отжившей и бесполезной для нового общества, они обратили своё внима- ние именно на производство, где, по их мнению, должен был найти применение их творческий потенциал. Одним из главных лозунгов худож- ников- конструктивистов в их работе над дизай- ном одежды станет статья варвары Степановой в журнале «Леф» года, в котором она, под псевдонимом варст, провозглашала: «Костюм се- годняшнего дня — прозодежда»  . если в Ателье мод Ламановой стояла задача совместить эсте- тику и функциональность, то идея прозодежды была куда более радикальна: «Мода, психологи- чески отражавшая быт, привычки, эстетический вкус, уступает место одежде, организованной для работы в различных отраслях труда»  . И ещё одно любопытное высказывание: «нет костюма вообще — есть костюм для какой- нибудь про- изводственной функции». Одежда, по мнению Степановой и её коллег, несла исключительно производственную функцию, другими смысла- ми она не наделялась. Эстетика была не важна — важна только функциональность. Одежда могла видоизменяться в зависимости от рода занятий. Различались спецодежда для разного рода ра- боты и спортивный костюм. здесь мы можем выделить несколько важных тенденций развития костюма. Концепция «про- изводничества» являлась ответом на запрос об улучшении экономической ситуации, и это был сигнал народным массам об образе нового че- ловека — строителя новой жизни. Рационали- зация форм одежды помогала создавать новую повестку дня — труд и спорт. формирование новых гендерных ролей также можно выделить как имеющее принципиально важный характер. Появление «прозодежды», подчёркнуто маску- линной, конструировало образ новой женщины- - труженицы, одетой в простую и удобную одежду. Показательно, что наряду с появлением журнала «Ателье мод» в году был издан журнал «Ра- ботница»  . Женщина в красном платке и рабо- чем платье, изображённая на обложке, сильно контрастирует с утончённой иллюстрацией Экс- тер. тем не менее образ крепкой работницы — . Степанова в. ф. Костюм сегодняшнего дня — прозодежда. // Леф. . цит. по. [Сетевой ресурс] url: http://lamanova. com/ _prozodezhda.html (дата обращения: . . ). . там же. . Бартлетт, Дж. fashioneast: призрак, бродивший по восточ- ной европе / Дж. Бартлет; пер. с англ. е. Кардаш. М.: но- вое литературное обозрение, . С. . женщины нового государства, которой чуждо всё буржуазное, — не совсем отвечал эстетическим представлениям конструктивистов. визуальный язык Поповой, сформированный в том числе и на западе, был значительно шире большевистских лозунгов. Эстетика кубизма, воспринятая худож- ницей во франции, была взята за основу в её работе над театральными костюмами. Именно те- атр, который активно развивался в -е годы, оказался самым подходящим местом для демон- страции новаторских идей. в году на сцене театра имени всеволода Мейерхольда был пока- зан спектакль «великодушный рогоносец», для оформления которого была приглашена Л. По- пова. Костюмы актёров были нарочито просты, состояли из простейших геометрических форм и были похожи на униформу или «прозодежду», которая полагалась человеку, занятому в театре. Любовь Попова писала, что костюм создавал- ся «<…> для каждодневной и обыденной жиз- ни и работы актёра, и поэтому необходимо было сделать его утилитарным и для этой цели и заме- няющим всякую другую одежду»  . Костюмы геро- ев, которые были представлены в этом спектакле, были похожи по цвету и материалу, но отлича- лись друг от друга функциональным наполнением: наличием фартука, ремня, карманов. Следующей работой Мейерхольда стал спектакль «Смерть та- релкина», который режиссёр поставил в сотруд- ничестве с варварой Степановой. Этот спектакль также можно считать демонстрацией вариантов «прозодежды». если рассмотреть каждый костюм в отдельности, то костюм тарелкина был прототи- пом «прозодежды» чиновника, костюм дворника Пахома представлял собой униформу рабочего, а «дети» тарелкина демонстрировали образцы спортивной одежды. Именно появление спор- тивной одежды стало одним из самых новатор- ских нововведений конструктивистской моды. в каталоге к выставке «Мода — народу! От кон- структивизма к дизайну» А. Лаврентьев назвал появление массовой спортивной одежды «сим- волом освобождения»  . Прозодежда Степано- вой обладала строгой геометрической формой и имела практически идентичную основу, так же, как и у Поповой, видоизменяясь под влиянием функциональных задач. Декоративную роль ис- . Лаврентьев А. н. Производственный костюм и мода // Художник, вещь, мода: Сб. статей / Сост. М. Л. Бодрова, А. н. Лаврентьев. М.: Сов. художник, . С. . . цит. По: Авангард- театр-мода. Каталог экспозиции. М.: Се- верный паломник, . С. . полняли контрастные швы, застёжки и цветовые блоки. в эскизах к спектаклю можно увидеть мо- тив полос, например в костюмах Мавруши, та- релкина и других. Позже этот мотив станет одним из основных в её работе с тканями. в году декан вХутеМАСА профессор викторов написал письмо в газету «Правда» и попросил художников откликнуться на нужды промышленности. Попова и Степанова отозвались на этот призыв и стали текстильными проекти- ровщиками. несмотря на наличие опыта в обла- сти декоративно- прикладного искусства, перед художницами стояла совершенно новая зада- ча. текстильная промышленность ставила перед ними цели не просто украсить одежду известны- ми им художественными приёмами, но привнес- ти «художественный момент в принцип создания самой утилитарной вещи»  . Сложность этой ра- боты обуславливалась множеством факторов. в работе с тканями художницам необходимо было соединить собственные визуальные идеи, спе- цифику производства, а также идеологические идеи конструктивизма. Кроме того, экономиче- ская ситуация требовала сокращения средств на производство. текстильные эксперименты Степа- новой и Поповой отвечали всем необходимым запросам. в своих рисунках они использовали не больше четырёх цветов, что делало производ- ство экономным. Они создавали ткани с беспред- метными супрематистскими рисунками, которые очень контрастировали с преимущественно цве- точным текстилем предыдущего периода. тем самым была выполнена задача по обновлению ассортимента, так как цветочные орнаменты ас- социировались с «буржуазным» бытом и не со- ответствовали новой реальности. в. Степанова и Л. Попова приступили к рабо- те с большим энтузиазмом. «Дни и ночи проси- живала она (Попова) над рисунками, стараясь в едином творческом акте сочетать требования экономии, законы внешнего оформления и та- инственный вкус тульской крестьянки»  . так как в своих работах Любовь Попова ориентировалась на простых людей, обращение за вдохновением к народным корням было вполне логичным. Мно- гие рисунки художницы могут интерпретироваться как соединение её собственных художественных . Пионеры советского дизайна / С. О. Хан- Магомедов. — М.: галарт, . С. . . Памяти Л. С. Поповой // Леф. . № . [Сетевой ресурс] url: http://www.ruthenia.ru/sovlit/j/ .html (дата обра- щения: . . ). идей с крестьянскими традициями. Орнаменталь- ные вставки, которые можно увидеть на эскизах Поповой, схожи с моделями платьев надежды Ламановой. за основу множества своих рисунков Попова берёт круг, модифицируя и комбинируя его с простейшими геометрическими формами. При кажущейся простоте они удивительно разно- образны, а кроме того, носят исключительно но- ваторский характер, весь масштаб которого могли оценить только современники художницы. не- смотря на, возможно, радикальное новаторство, Поповой явно удавалось «угадать ситчик»  — ле- том года эти ткани пользовались большой популярностью. яков тугенхольд писал, что «ми- нувшей весной [ . — Сост.] вся Москва носила ткани по рисункам Поповой, не зная этого, — ри- сункам ярким, резким, полным движения, как на- тура самой художницы»  . текстильные эскизы варвары Степановой близки к работам Поповой и по художествен- ному стилю, но безусловно, отличаются по ха- рактеру и общему впечатлению. Любовь Попова была увлечена поиском универсального метода работы, который помог бы создать наибольшее разнообразие вариантов текстиля, что объясняет её невероятную продуктивность. Работы Степа- новой скрупулёзно выверены с помощью линей- ки и циркуля. в её текстильных работах мы снова встречаем мотив полосы в различных интерпре- тациях, наслоение кругов, а также множество дру- гих художественных приёмов. Художественные приёмы Степановой и Поповой, как говорилось ранее, носили безусловно новаторский характер. Редким артефактом, который позволяет нам это оценить, являются кадры из фильма «Папиросни- . цит. по: туловская ю. А. текстиль Авангарда. Рисунки для ткани. екатеринбург: tatlin, . С. . . указ. соч. С. . ца из Мосельпрома», который вышел на экраны в году. Платье с рисунком варвары Степа- новой определённо выглядит вещью из другого мира, значительно контрастируя с обстановкой. внимание художниц было приковано не только к самим рисункам, но и к специфике текстиля как такового. Степанова считала, что художни- ку нужно участвовать в производстве ткани на всех уровнях. К сожалению, многим планам не суждено было воплотиться в жизнь. уже в начале -х годов ра- боты конструктивистов всё больше подвергаются критике, и на смену им приходит агитационный текстиль социалистического реализма. Кроме того, несмотря на манифесты и установки, как бы ни пытались художницы отрицать роль моды в социуме, но в процессе творчества художник брал верх над производственником, а чрезмер- ная унификация сталкивалась с рядом противо- речий. вероятно, с этим связаны слова варвары Степановой в году: «Ошибочно думать, что мода является лишь ненужным придатком спе- кулятивного характера»  . Идея авангарда о существовании художни- ка- творца, способного создать новую систему жизни, не была доведена до конца, а возможно, и вовсе потерпела неудачу. тем не менее опы- ты «амазонок авангарда» в области моды игра- ют исключительно важную роль как для истории искусствоведения, так и для истории моды. От- сылки к их идеям были массово воспроизведе- ны в -х годах, а кроме того, появляются на подиуме до сих пор, вдохновляя творцов во всех областях искусства. . Стриженова т. К. Из истории советского костюма. М.: Со- ветский художник, . С. . . Адаскина, н. Л. Любовь Попова. Путь становления художника- конструктора / н. Л. Адаскина // техни- ческая эстетика. . № . С. – . . Амазонки авангарда. Сб. статей под ред. г. ф. Кова- ленко. М.: наука, . с. . Авангард- театр-мода. Каталог экспозиции. М.: Се- верный паломник, . . Бакст, Л. С. Пути классицизма в искусстве / Л. С. Бакст // Аполлон. . № – . БИБЛИОгРАфИя . Бартлетт, Дж. fashioneast: призрак, бродивший по восточной европе / Джурджа Бартлет; пер. с англ. е. Кардаш / М.: новое литературное обозрение, . с. . горбова, е. н. Идеи жизнестроительства Русского авангарда в эстетике проекта «прозодежды» нача- ла xx века / е. н. горбова, О. ю. Астахов // вестник Казанского государственного университета культу- ры и искусств. . № – . С. – . . зданевич, И. Почему мы раскрашиваемся / И. зда- невич, М. Ларионов // Аргус. . № . С. – . . Лаврентьев, А. н. Производственный костюм и мода / А. н. Лаврентьев // Художник, вещь, мода: Сб. статей; Сост. М. Л. Бодрова, А. н. Лаврентьев. М.: Советский художник, . с. . Адаскина н. Л., Краснянская К., Костаки А. Любовь Попова. форма. цвет. Пространство. М.: Кучково поле, Музеон, . с.: ил. . Памяти Л. С. Поповой. [некролог] // Леф. № . . С. – . . Родченко, А. Опыты для будущего / А. Родченко. М.: грантъ, . с. . Степанова, в. ф. Костюм сегодняшнего дня — Проз- одежда. [Электронный ресурс] / в. ф. Степанова // Леф. . № . [Сетевой ресурс] url: http://www. ruthenia.ru/moskva/origins/design/varst.htm . Стриженова, т. К. Из истории советского костюма / т. К. Стриженова. М.: Советский художник, . с. . темерин, С. М. Русское прикладное искусство. Со- ветские годы. Очерки / С. М. темерин. М.: Советский художник, . с. . туловская, ю. А. текстиль авангарда. Рисунки для ткани / ю. А. туловская. екатеринбург: tatlin, . с. . Хан- Магомедов, С. О. Пионеры советского дизайна / С. О. Хан- Магомедов. М.: галарт, . с. . bartlett, d. «léon bakst and fashion: beyond and after the ballets russes», costume, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . /cost. . . tiramani, j. . «janet arnold’s patterns of fashion», costume, vol. , no. , pp. pp. – doi: . / z. . ng, s. . «gendered by design: qipao and society, – », costume, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . / z. (in english) . pecorari, m. .» fashion archives, museums and collections in the age of the digital», critical studies in fashion & beauty, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . / csfb. . . _ (in english) . kuldova, t. .» fashion exhibition as a critique of contemporary museum exhibitions: the case of ‘fashion india: spectacular capitalism», critical studies in fashion & beauty, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . /csfb. . . _ (in english) s jra .. “in a place parallel to god”: the draft, the demonic, and the conscientious cubist nathaniel berman rahel varnhagen professor of international affairs, law, and modern culture, cogut center for the humanities, brown university abstract the question “what is religion?” has again been roiling the academy, the courts, and public debate. in , the supreme court of the united states opined on this question, deciding the fate of would-be conscientious objectors who would not afrm the existence of god. relying largely on paul tillich, the court ruled in their favor, expanding the notion of “religious belief” beyond its conventional western connes. this article reexamines the issues raised in this case by exploring the theology of paul tillich, particularly its critique of religion as a separate sphere and its challenge to basic tenets of liberal political theory inherited from john locke. the article, however, also juxtaposes the religion-expanding aspects of tillich’s thought with his strictures about “demonic” distortions of religion, requiring an excursus into tillich’s notions of the divine/demonic relationship. tillich’s rejection of the compartmentalization of “religion” led him to declare that more religious meaning may be found in putatively “secular” artifacts, such as cubist art, than in conventionally “religious” symbols and institutions, including the church. this approach both demands a radically interdisciplinary approach to “religion” and casts a skeptical eye on some putatively “religious” claims. the article concludes by jux- taposing tillich’s anti-essentialist critique of “religion” with more recent, and dramatically different, critiques, particularly those advanced by talal asad and saba mahmood. keywords: conscientious objection, construction of religion, paul tillich, demonic, aesthetics from the demonic depth arise all the higher . . . forms of religion; in the battle with the demonic they gain their peculiar form; in the demonic element . . . they exert their compulsory power over consciousness. —paul tillich, [t]he disruptedness of expressionism, surrealism, and all the other recent forms of styles, such as cubism and futurism, is nothing else than an attempt to look into the depths of reality, below any surface and any beau- tication of the surface and any organic unity. it is the attempt to see the elements of reality as fundamental powers of being out of which reality is constructed. . . . from this point of view, such a picture [as braque’s “table”] can have a tremendous religious power. —paul tillich, tillich, the demonic: a contribution to the interpretation of history ( ), in the interpretation of history , , (elsa l. tamley trans., ) ( ). tillich, existentialist aspects of art, in christianity and the existentialists , , (carl michalson ed., ). journal of law and religion , no. ( ): – © center for the study of law and religion at emory university doi: . /jlr. . journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core a fatal question in the mid- s, as resistance to the vietnam war escalated together with the war itself, the u.s. supreme court found itself preoccupied with a seemingly arcane question: what is religion? young men seeking to avoid the draft as conscientious objectors were confronting the statutory require- ment that their objections be based on “religious training and belief.” the statute dened the key term, religious, as an individual’s belief in a relation to a supreme being involving duties superior to those arising from any human relation, but [not including] essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views or a merely per- sonal moral code. in distinguishing between “religion,” on the one hand, and “politics,” “sociology,” “philosophy,” and “personal morality,” on the other, the statute inscribed itself in post-enlightenment concep- tions of the separation of social spheres, divisions between academic disciplines, and, implicitly, delimitations of the distinctive competence of legal analysis and institutions. the statute posited two key markers of “religion”: a “belief in relation to a supreme being” and “duties superior to those arising from any human relation.” in something of a performative con- tradiction, the legislation thus accorded federal law and, ultimately, federal courts—quintessential products of “human relations”—the competence to decide matters that, by its own denition, tran- scend those relations. to be sure, at least upon a rst consideration, this legal competence over law- transcending questions concerned not those questions themselves (for example, whether such a “supreme being” or “duties” exist), but only whether their objects dwelt within an individual’s “belief.” nonetheless, the notion that one can separate the question of whether an individual believes in something from that of the believability of that something—and thus the boundary between law and theology—has long been contested. in any case, the potential entanglement with theology was not limited to this question, as we shall see. a number of would-be conscientious objectors were denied that status after they refused to pro- claim their belief in a “supreme being,” let alone “god.” instead, they offered formulations of their “religion” that seemed at odds with the statute—for example, “the consciousness of some power manifest in nature which helps man in the ordering of his life in harmony with its demands . . . the supreme expression of human nature.” this immanentist vision of a pervasive “power manifest in nature” that “expresses human nature” pushed against the demarcation of spheres implicit in the statute. it also raised the question of whether an “expression of human nature” could justify a legal exemption based on “duties superior to those arising from any human relation.” the claims thus entailed both a radical social expansion of the “religious” sphere and the legitimation of the replacement of god (or the “supreme being”) by other beings or powers—two distinct challenges to the conception underlying the statute, yet both seemingly limitless in import. the theoretical conundra raised by such questions, and their seeming transgression of the line between law and theology, did not diminish the fact that the debate over the denition of “religion” had here become the opposite of a merely academic quarrel. on the contrary: for young men seek- ing to avail themselves of the exemption, and for the vietnamese upon whom they were being united states v. seeger, u.s. , ( ). see, e.g., united states v. ballard, u.s. , – ( ) (jackson, j., dissenting). see seeger, u.s. at . nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core drafted to direct their weapons, these questions were literally a matter of life and death. that the decision in these cases would affect only a relatively small number of participants in the war did not lessen these lethal stakes, though the exceptionality of the exemption will loom large in the discus- sion that follows here. in the half-century since the court decided these cases in favor of the would-be conscientious objectors, the problematization of “religion” as a distinct domain of analysis and experience has grown into something of an interdisciplinary academic specialty, a fertile eld for legislators and litigators, and a site of political and social struggle around the world. this problematization has included challenges related to both kinds of innovations implicitly broached in , the expansion of the social reach of religion and the substitution of unfamiliar for familiar deities or “powers.” the global sense of a growing intertwining of religion and politics, whether a source of panic or celebration, has never been stronger than it is today. in academia, the encounter between “secular critics,” who would defend and sharpen the skeptical rationality of the enlightenment, and “gene- alogists of the secular,” who would relativize it, has set in opposition even those whose ethical and theoretical perspectives have deep afnities. moreover, the interdisciplinary character of scholarly debates on “religion as a category” is a symptom of the crucial role that the secular/religious divide plays in sustaining traditional academic divisions. in an indication of the depth of these debates, even the notion that “autonomy,” that ultimate enlightenment value, should be the cherished goal of the formation of national and individual subjectivity has been put into question. debates over the substitution of unfamiliar for familiar “supreme” beings, values, or practices have played no lesser a role. the past several decades have seen not only an expansion of a broad ecumenism extending the label “religion” to a wide variety of phenomena, but also the very opposite: renewed erce struggles over the true meaning of “religion,” in relation to so-called cults, as well as, far more importantly, public, often international, debates, about the “true” inter- pretation of particular religions, debates often provoked by “fundamentalist” claims to represent the authentic version of a particular religion and counterclaims by their opponents that they have “perverted” that religion. in the course of such debates, each side stigmatizes the other in the strongest terms and each accuses the other of “demonizing” it—a word that may appear to some as medieval, but whose prominence in modern debates about the meaning of “religion” has been, and remains, fundamental, as we shall see below. conicts between different religions and between religious publicists and secularists are equally marked by charges of truth, perversion, and demonization. the sense that the real-world stakes in these questions are nothing less than life and death per- vades the current zeitgeist. the current dormancy of the draft in the united states means that the precise legal questions raised in the vietnam era-cases practically affect only “in-service” conscien- tious objectors, soldiers who seek discharge from the armed forces on the grounds of beliefs that arose after their enlistment. but the deeper questions and anxieties about the demarcation of “reli- gion” and the competition among rival truths have only proliferated, underlying both some of the highest-prole american legal disputes over the past several years, as well as the often lethal it seems unlikely the specic objectors in the cases would themselves have gone to vietnam, since by the time the cases reached the supreme court, their original draft notices were more than a decade old. but the cases were closely watched by all those who objected to the draft and the war more generally. see, e.g., bruce robbins, secularism, elitism, and other transgressions, social text – ( ); talal asad, wendy brown, judith butler & saba mahmood, is critique secular? blasphemy, injury, and free speech ( ). see, e.g., talal asad, formations of the secular: christianity, islam, modernity – ( ); dipesh chakrabarty, minority histories, subaltern pasts, economic and political weekly ( ). “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core struggles over the construction of political, legal, and even military order at all levels around the world. in this context, a reection on the draft cases is urgent, both for their legal analysis and for the innovative theological thinking upon which they drew, in order to reopen the question of the scope of “religion,” as well as to understand the competition among rival truths that so often result in mutual charges of “perversion” and “demonization.” the rhetoric of “god”: from law to theology . . . to quintilian in deciding the draft cases in , the supreme court turned to a number of its theological con- temporaries who seemed to reconceive “religion” by attenuating its conventional western associa- tion with a personal deity. the most eminent of these was paul tillich, perhaps the most inuential protestant thinker of the twentieth century, who had emigrated to the united states from nazi germany in . the court quoted him as follows: and if that word [“god”] has not much meaning for you, translate it, and speak of the depths of your life, of the source of your being, of your ultimate concern, of what you take seriously without any reservation. the court ordered that draft exemptions be granted in the cases before it, ruling that the test of “religious belief” was not faith in “god,” but whether a given belief that is sincere and meaningful occupies a place in the life of its possessor parallel to that lled by the orthodox belief in god of one who clearly qualies for the exemption. elsewhere in the opinion, the court offered a slightly different version, replacing the requirement of “parallelism” with “sameness,” albeit a sameness within difference: the claimed belief [must] occupy the same place in the life of the objector as an orthodox belief in god holds in the life of one clearly qualied for exemption[.] william o. douglas, in his concurring opinion, offered the examples of hinduism and buddhism, neither of which, he claimed, embraced conventional understandings of the jewish or christian notions of god—and yet both of which, douglas afrmed, should satisfy the test for “religious belief” under the selective service act. douglas argued that, despite what he called the “super- cially polytheistic” nature of hinduism and buddhism’s lack of “interest” in a notion of god as a “personal creator of the universe,” they could both be interpreted as maintaining a belief in a “supreme being” —a phrase, he noted, that has no “narrow technical meaning in the eld of religion.” even these short quotes evoke the image of justices perched on the precarious border between theology and putatively secular areas of thought and practice, a border whose demarcation law, seeger, u.s. at (quoting paul tillich, the shaking of the foundations ( ) (emphasis added)). id. at (emphasis added). id. at (emphasis added). id. at . id. at . douglas’s views on buddhism and hinduism should not, of course, be taken as anything other than his idiosyncratic interpretations. nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core though sitting on one side, was also charged with determining. in doctrinal terms, this could be construed as a clash between the values underlying the free exercise of religion, here embodied in a statutory exemption for conscientious objection, and the values underlying the prohibition on the establishment of religion, here embodied in the oft-proclaimed refusal of courts to involve them- selves with ecclesiastical matters. as in so many first amendment or statutory religious freedom cases, the court here faced the task of deciding what is “religious” without acting as a theological arbiter, a task whose “impossibility” has been forcefully argued by winnifred sullivan. in turning to tillich, however, the court opened up a conundrum of a very different kind, a very different conguration of both possibility and impossibility. the point of departure: an excursus on locke in order to highlight the distinctiveness and provocative nature of that other conguration, i rst set forth the more familiar conception from which it departs, that of john locke. in his “letter on toleration,” locke declared his intention “to distinguish exactly the business of civil government,” particularly property, “from that of religion,” and “to settle the just bounds that lie between the one and the other.” uninhibited by the theological prudery that modern u.s. courts continually profess, locke made the exactness of his distinction rest squarely on a pro- nouncement about “true religion”: “all the life and power of true religion consist in the inward and full perswasion of the mind.” to be sure, while hardly free of ambiguity, this denition may also be read as identifying only the locus and modality of “true religion” and not its content. in this reading, the force of the adjec- tive “true” would be that it provided a criterion for religiosity as such; a religiosity that did not reside in the “inward and full persuasion of the mind” was simply not worthy of the name. it is important to note, though, that the converse for locke was not true—a religion that was not sub- stantively true would not be so even if it did reside in the mind with the proper “fullness.” this denition has enabled locke’s text to serve as the basis for at least three enduring features of liberal conceptions of law and religion. first, it provides the basis for the distinction between belief and action which underlies the continually reiterated axiom of american jurisprudence on religion: the notion of absolute freedom of belief in contrast with the susceptibility of religious prac- tice to regulation under a variety of conditions. second, by seemingly dening “true religion” in terms of modality and locus, rather than content, it secures “toleration” by creating the very cat- egory of “religion” under which many otherwise heterogeneous traditions, practices, social forms, and so on, may be subsumed and compared: homogenization, indeed, invention, of a distinct domain of human life as the fulcrum of toleration. finally, as a variety of critics have pointed out, while the modern legal appropriation of locke’s denition/invention of “religion” purports to be agnostic as to the content of religion, its core dichotomies—between inward and outward, between belief and practice, between the “conviction of the mind” and all that which signies, implements, see generally, winnifred f. sullivan, the impossibility of religious freedom ( ). id. john locke, a letter concerning toleration, in john locke, a letter concerning toleration and other writings , (mark goldie ed., william popple trans., liberty fund inc. ( ) ( ). id. at . cf. jonathan z. smith, religion, religions, religious, in critical terms for religious studies – (mark c. taylor ed., ); tomoku masuzawa, the invention of world religions: or, how european universalism was preserved in the language of pluralism ( ). “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core or constructs that conviction (the “external pomp,” in locke’s words)—give authority to a partic- ular conception of religion, variously portrayed by the critics as “post-enlightenment,” “modern,” “western,” or “protestant.” to be sure, the interest of historical accuracy would be greatly served if one added the phrase “a particular strand of” before each of these terms offered by the critics, as those familiar with the history of the varieties of protestantism, let alone the “modern,” the “west,” and so on, will attest. in perhaps the most provocative version of this critique, saba mahmood associates this concep- tion with “protestant semiotic ideology”—whose key propositions, belatedly formulated by saussure, she sees as the radical dichotomy between “the signier” and the “signied,” as well as the “arbitrariness” of the former. in mahmood’s exposition, this ideology, particularly its cen- tral dichotomy, is homologous with, and perhaps subtends, the liberal legal framework, particu- larly the belief/action dichotomy. she also argues that this ideology reects an “impoverished understanding of images, icons, and signs,” and, perhaps more importantly, “fails to attend to the affective and embodied practices through which a subject comes to relate to a particular sign —a relation founded not only on representation but also on . . . attachment and cohabitation.” in offering an alternative portrayal of the relationship to “signs,” mahmood also offers a critique of the entire liberal legal framework concerning freedom of religion (in a manner quite different than does sullivan). i return to mahmood’s alternative in the concluding section of this article. to be sure, this critique does not fully capture locke’s own ideology, though it applies in part. rather than positing a detachment of arbitrary signiers from their objects—a detachment with the potential, as highlighted by post-saussureans, for unleashing a free play of signiers, even for reversing the hierarchy between signiers and signieds—locke was suspicious of all signiers, indeed, would perhaps “have liked nothing better than to be allowed to forget about language alto- gether.” it is perhaps what one might call this “anti-semiotic ideology” that made locke lump all “external pomp” under the broad category of “indifferent things” for which he had no use: thereby placing “low church” theology at the very foundation of liberal political theory on the basis of “anti-semiotic” theory. i return shortly to this suspicion of all signiers, including “god” and its synonyms. in any case, what might be called an “agnosticized” version of locke’s “true religion” may be said to serve as the baseline of what american courts have generally understood as that “religion” deserving of protection, as well as the source of their putative disorientation when confronted with groups whose claims to protection were predicated on the notion that their “religions” reject those distinctions—including amish, native americans, and satmar hasidim. in the heyday of their legal realist-inspired jurisprudence, some supreme court justices insouciantly acknowledged (or “humble-bragged,” to use a current idiom) that locke’s “exact” distinction had been replaced by an “elusive line,” which they could only “dimly perceive” —a transformation that, as so often with such legal realist pronouncements, at times served to authorize bold legal innovation. saba mahmood, religious reason and secular affect: an incommensurable divide?, critical inquiry , ( ). id. at – . paul de man, epistemology of metaphor, critical inquiry , ( ). wisconsin v. yoder, u.s. ( ); lyng v. northwest indian cemetery protective association, u.s. ( ); board of education of kiryas joel village school district v. grumet, u.s. ( ). abington school district v. schempp, u.s. , ( ) (brennan, j., concurring). lemon v. kurtzman, u.s. , ( ). nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core the turn to tillich in turning to tillich, however, the court, perhaps unwittingly, entered a quite different framework with quite different problems. it would be a mistake to understand tillich’s denition of religion as “ultimate concern”—or, in its fuller form, “being grasped by an ultimate concern” —as simply an idiomatic mid-twentieth-century pronunciation of locke’s “inward and full persuasion of the mind.” the replacement of enlightenment “persuasion” by heideggerian “concern,” which in tillich’s version is also heavily inected by psychoanalysis, marks a sea change between two very different phases of the “modern”: the one highlighting the value of individual autonomy and a condence in the human mind to ground the existence of god in reason, the other focusing on nitude, “thrownness,” and the giving over of the subject to pre-reective, unconscious compul- sions. “being grasped,” tillich declared in the same year as the draft cases, is not a state “produced by active, reective, voluntary processes”; on the contrary, it “has already grasped us when we begin to reect on it.” indeed, in the paragraph just prior to that quoted by the court, tillich barely stopped short of identifying the depths in which the divine resides with the psychoanalytic unconscious. in order to highlight different kinds of departure from locke, one must distinguish the notion of “ultimate concern” as it appears in the court’s rendition from that in tillich’s work. upon rst consideration, the court seemed to deploy tillich’s phrase in order to ground the inquiry into “reli- gious belief” on what one may call a “comparative functionalism”: the court’s criterion for such a belief was that it “occupy” a specic “place” in the life of an individual. the court nonetheless dened what one might call the “religious function” with reference to the baseline of western con- vention: the required “occupation” and “place” were those that were either “parallel to” or “the same as” those of god in “orthodox beliefs” that “clearly qualied” as “religious” in the eyes of the court and its imagined readers. i note that such an inquiry would be alien to the spirit of tillich’s thought on a number of grounds—not the least of which was his erce hostility to the reduction of “religion” to a “special function of man’s spiritual life.” in application, however, the court replaced this functionalist inquiry with something quite dif- ferent: textual interpretation. the court made no serious inquiry into the economy of the individual applicants’ spiritual lives to determine the functional role of their beliefs therein. rather, it quickly disposed of this kind of inquiry as a matter of “sincerity,” with which the applicants were credited without much ado. the real work of the opinion was hermeneutic, indeed a specic kind of herme- neutics—that of reading the conscientious objection applications in relation to another text postu- lated as authoritative: an “orthodox” religious credo. there are two rhetorical gures that may be used to understand the court’s hermeneutic proce- dure, each roughly suggested by one of the two words (“same” and “parallel”) it used to portray see, e.g., paul tillich, ultimate concern: tillich in dialogue (d. mackenzie brown ed., ). id. tillich, the shaking, supra note , at – : [t]he so-called “psychology of depth” . . . leads us from the surface of our self-knowledge into levels . . . which we knew nothing about on the surface of our consciousness. . . . it can help us to nd the way into our depth, although it cannot help us in an ultimate way, because it cannot guide us to the deepest ground of our being and of all being, the depth of life itself. the name of this innite and inexhaustible depth and ground of all being is god. tillich, theology of culture ( ). see also tillich, systematic theology – ( ). “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core the proper relationship between the two kinds of texts. first, metaphor: the court’s statement that the unconventional belief in question must “occupy the same place” as an “orthodox belief in god,” from which it nonetheless apparently diverges in some way—a framing that insists both on identity and disparity between doxai—suggests the kind of relationship of similarity and differ- ence, familiarity and unfamiliarity, signier and signied, historically dened as metaphor. indeed, metaphor, both etymologically and as dened by classical rhetoricians such as quintilian (rst cen- tury), involves a transfer of a word from one “place” to another —a “place” in which the meta- phorical “object is put instead of the thing itself.” the reader of the conscientious objection application should, in this view, look for an unfamiliar word in the “same place” as one would conventionally expect the name of god. it is the latter that is the true signied, the “thing itself.” not surprisingly, given this anchoring in the “thing itself,” classical rhetoric also warns against the abuse of metaphor, which must be “moderate and judicious,” not “mean” or “repulsive,” and, most generally, not “based on a resemblance not sufciently close.” the court’s quote from tillich seems, at rst, to support this interpretation: and if that word [god] has not much meaning for you, translate it, and speak of the depths of your life, of the source of your being, of your ultimate concern, of what you take seriously without any reservation. “translation,” the word that tillich uses for the status of the three phrases that substitute for “god” (“depths,” “source,” “ultimate concern”), is, of course, taken from the latin term translatio, which quintilian uses for metaphor. and, in the sentences prior to those the court quotes, tillich indeed suggests that these three phrases are mere substitutions for the proper name, “god”: the name of this innite and inexhaustible depth and ground of all being is god. that depth is what the word god means. and if that word has not much meaning for you, translate it. nonetheless, the rest of tillich’s paragraph, also quoted by the court, suggests that a different kind of trope may be at work here, one that breaks the bounds of a reassuring use of metaphor: perhaps, in order to do so, you must forget everything traditional that you have learned about god [perhaps even that word itself]. despite its initial use of the word “translation,” and its initial declaration that “god” is “the name” of the ground of being, the rest of the paragraph thus suggests something more destabilizing. there are at least two ways of understanding this other possibility. one is that, rather than “god” being the proper name and the three phrases mere “translations,” all are somehow equivalent. we would be faced with an indenite play of semantic references not anchored by the characteristics of a proper name—and with a correspondingly indenite play of “religions” not anchored in those “clearly qualied.” for such a play of references, the term “parallel” would seem more apt— indeed, an endless series of parallels, never converging with each other, let alone testable by the quintilian, institutes of oratory (john selby watson trans., ). id. at . id. at – . seeger, u.s. at (quoting tillich, the shaking, supra note , at (emphasis added)). quintilian, institutes, supra note , at . nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core criterion of whether they are legitimate substitute-occupiers of the “place” normally “occupied” by “orthodox” beliefs. the court’s willingness to envision other terms/beings as “occupying” a “place” either the “same as” or “parallel to” god considerably expands anything locke would have countenanced. for locke, with the suspicion of language i noted above, even the use of a single word for the deity was not decisive, “since those people who agreed in the name [of god], had, at the same time, far different apprehensions about the thing signied” —manifesting his “anti-semiotic” ideology through scorning all signiers in favor of the signied. moreover, in direct contrast to the court’s trope-based hermeneutics, he made no effort to hide his contempt for the proposition that “the variety of deities worshipped by the heathen world were but gurative ways of expressing the several attributes” of the “incomprehensible being” of god. yet, it is nonetheless telling that the words i have placed in square brackets above (in the clause “you must forget everything tradi- tional that you have learned about god [perhaps even that word itself]”) were omitted by the court and replaced with an ellipsis—for this kind of unmooring from the anchor of the “thing itself” may have been too much for even this court’s aspiration to expand the legal category of “religious belief in a supreme being” through a hermeneutics of guration. the name of the trope not anchored by a “proper” term is not metaphor, but catachresis, which quintilian called a “necessary abuse” of language—necessary when no proper term exists. this “necessary abuse” distinguishes catachresis from the path of negative theology, with its ban on afrmative terms for the divine due to the latter’s ineffability. catachresis unleashes the very oppo- site of such a ban: a potentially indenite proliferation of terms. the court’s drawing back from the implications of tillich’s words, signaled by its ellipsis, may be quite understandable—for, as paul de man explained, catachresis, unmoored from the “proper,” constantly verges on the evocation of the “monstrous”: [catachreses] are capable of inventing the most fantastic entities by dint of the positional power inherent in language. they can dismember the texture of reality and reassemble it in the most capricious of ways, pairing man with woman or human being with beast in the most unnatural shapes. something monstrous lurks in the most innocent of catachreses: when one speaks of the legs of the table or the face of the mountain, cat- achresis is already turning into prosopopeia, and one begins to perceive a world of potential ghosts and monsters. i emphasize that we have been led into this realm of the “monstrous” purely through an inquiry into the rhetoric of the divine in the court’s rendition of tillich. yet, it is by entering into the court’s ellipsis, perhaps a mark of its fear of the “monstrous” lurking in the trope of catachresis, that we approach a crucial feature of tillich’s theology unmentioned by the court: the vital, yet destabilizing, role played by the “demonic.” led by a purely rhetorical inquiry from “god” to the “monstrous,” we have thus reached the theme of the precarious border between the divine and the demonic, a decisive ontological feature of tillich’s theology, and, as we shall see, one of the keys to the pandora’s box opened up by the court’s use of it in the draft cases, as well as its resonances today. locke, an essay concerning human understanding ( ). id. (emphasis added). quintilian, institutes, supra note , at . de man, epistemology, supra note , at (emphasis added). “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core trading “places”: the demonic double this dark side of tillich’s theology, as i have shown, lurks in the clause elided by the court. the clause suggests that it may be necessary to “forget” the name of god in order to free up the inden- ite “translation” process, the proliferation of terms, even religions. this “forgetting” suggests that the unmooring from the anchor of the “thing itself” is not due to a mere lack of a proper name, but to an afrmative act, an act of “forgetting” made necessary by the hollowing out of the meaning of that word by cultural-historical developments. we nd ourselves here somewhere in the realm of modern philosophical discussions of “forgetting,” somewhere between its very different uses in nietzsche and heidegger (though a full discussion of this assertion would take me way beyond this article). in any case, the loss of meaning of the word “god” and the need to “forget” it brings us squarely to the theme of “demonization,” central to tillich’s theology, especially in its early, pre- emigration phases, in which tillich was immersed in the upheavals of early twentieth century cul- tural modernism and the avant-garde. for christian tradition, in which tillich “occupies a place,” even if a thoroughly unusual place, the court’s valorization of substitution, by either the “same” or the “parallel,” is deeply problem- atic. in that tradition, there is a word to describe the “occupation,” by something that is not god, of “the place” that the bible says should be occupied by god. it is not a attering word: “idolatry.” tillich himself favored the word “demonic,” a more provocative, and intransigent, appellation. such terms signify the exact opposite of both comparative functionalism and rhetorical substitu- tion: they entail a rejection of moving something that is not intrinsically absolute into the “place” of the absolute. rather than an empirical-psychological or rhetorical-tropic frame, which would allow for functionalist comparison or rhetorical substitution, tillich’s “ultimate concern” is thus best understood as a prescriptive norm, a theological criterion, with both subjective and objective com- ponents. only that which is truly ultimate can properly be the object of ultimate “concern”; con- versely, only that which is the object of ultimate concern can truly be “ultimate.” it is not only the treatment of a nite as an absolute, the classic feature of idolatry, that is a fatal misprision, but also the treatment of god as a particular being, however “supreme”—the latter deviation referred to by tillich as “the demonization” of god. it is important to note that tillich uses the word “demon- ization” not in the conventional current sense of an exaggerated prejudice projected unjustly onto something or someone, but rather in the sense of an ontological transformation of something or someone into a “demonic” form. such a demonization can befall even “the god of monotheism, the theistic god,” which “can become an idol like an animal god or the half-animal gods of egypt.” this last formulation points to some key departures by tillich from conventional christian understandings of religious history. tillich declares that “all religious history is lled with this demonization of the divine” —epitomized in dostoyevsky’s “grand inquisitor,” where religion, specically the church, “makes itself absolute and therefore must destroy the saint in whose “and we call all that is not concerned with the truly ultimate—that is something nite but worshiped as ultimate— we call that idolatry. that is the idolizing danger of religion. i have also termed this the demonic danger of reli- gion. . . . [e]ven monotheism can be idolatrous, which means that the god of monotheism, the theistic god . . . can become an idol like an animal god or the half-animal gods of egypt.” tillich, ultimate concern, supra note , at . id. see generally louis c. midgley, ultimate concern and politics: a critical examination of paul tillich’s political theology, western political quarterly ( ). i am indebted to this excellent essay. tillich, the demonic, supra note , at . tillich, ultimate concern, supra note , at . tillich, the demonic, supra note , at . nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core name it is established—the demonic will to power of the sacred institution.” at the same time, tillich’s discussion of buddhism took for granted that it should be viewed as a “religion” with “ultimate concern,” albeit one which, unlike christianity, conceived of the “ultimate in transper- sonal categories” —and which, like christianity, was subject to a fall into “demonization.” thus, on the one hand, “ultimate concern” as the denition of “religion” seems to allow no pos- sibility of limiting its range by anchoring it in conventional models of “clearly qualied” religions, or indeed in any model. tillich’s proclamation of the “god above the god of theism” only high- lights the destabilization of conventional creeds to which he was devoted. comparison among religions in this vein seems only possible, to appropriate the court’s term, as a series of “parallels” without a privileged referent, without any way of stopping the signifying train. on the other hand, however, tillich insisted on a distinction between “demonized” and holy gods—a distinction that seemed to provide a criterion for distinguishing between monstrous, catachretic names and “ulti- mate,” proper names, between true and false religions. how can we understand the relationship between the broadly ecumenical tillich, whether in the court’s version, or even that of a more exacting application of “ultimate concern,” and his ercer, demon-haunted twin? this question about the relationship between these two tillichs may be posed not only to the court, but to all interpreters of tillich, as well as to tillich himself. the for- mer gure could come to be viewed as the “unacknowledged theoretician” of the “entire enter- prise” of academic religious studies, setting the agenda for the putatively objective, comparative study of “world religions.” indeed, this use of tillich would even come to be criticized as having infused that supposedly scientic study with a hidden theological bias. the same critique, one could add, might be marshaled to convict the supreme court in the draft cases of transgressing the values of the establishment clause by adopting a particular theology. conversely, the spirit of the second tillich, the theologian of the demonic, might lead one to reject the self-construction of religious studies as a neutral and objective eld of inquiry of homogenized “religions.” with its lack of existential “concern,” such a discipline might be construed as precisely a “demonization” (or at least “profanization”) of “religion” (that is, “ultimate concern”)—thus inevitably eliding, or distorting, its professed object of study. indeed, this second tillich could even be imagined in the role of a rigorously, if unconvention- ally, “strict scrutinizer” of conscientious objection applications. rather than an insouciant embracer of an uncontrolled proliferation of religious “translations,” this tillich might be bound to question the “ultimacy” of many of them, on the grounds that they may absolutize a nite being, or reduce an innite being to a nitude. in the latter vein, he might be constrained to reject applications from conventionally pious christians or jews for having “demonized” their god, while accepting those of nontheistic buddhists, or even, rather more unexpectedly, cubists, as we shall see. indeed, since none are immune from the danger of “demonization,” this tillich would make a rather fearsome member of a draft board. id. at . see generally tillich, christianity and the encounter of world religions ( ). tillich, courage to be ( ). jonathan z. smith, tillich[’s] remains, journal of the american academy of religion , ( ). id. at . for a critique of the construction “world religions,” see masuzawa, the invention of world religions, supra note . cf. smith, tillich[’s] remains, supra note , at . it should go without saying that the speculations in these paragraphs about the “second tillich” do not relate to how the empirical paul tillich might have viewed the vietnam war or might have actually acted on a draft board! “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core even more fundamentally, if one really takes “being grasped by ultimate concern” seriously, one can even imagine a tillichian disapproval of conscientious objection as a legal exception. conscientious objection, after all, is designed to uphold the general legitimacy of the selective service system precisely by granting a narrowly tailored exemption from its rules. from a certain tillichian perspective, it could be viewed as perversely moving the “place” of what should be “ulti- mate concern” to the sidelines of public life, rather than its proper locus at the center. conscientious objectors opt out of war, the “ultimate” act of power a society can undertake, as a purely personal act, constructing a marginal site in which to sit out the violence. while at times it may be the only way to refuse to take part in an immoral war, and while the writer of these lines would most certainly have sought that refuge during vietnam, it hardly seems to comport with tillich’s lifelong opposition to the relegation of “religion” to a marginal role in the life of societies, as well as individuals. indeed, as early as , in what would prove to be something of a manifesto for his life’s work, tillich wrote that the “autonomy of the life of the spirit is in danger, even annulled [aufgehoben]” when, in any form, science stands next to a dogma, society next to a “community [gemeinschaft],” the state next to a church, with each claiming a distinct sphere for itself. there would then emerge a double truth, a double ethics, a double law. . .this doubleness, under all circumstances, must be annulled [aufgehoben]. it is intol- erable . . . it destroys consciousness. in short, if religion is “directedness toward the unconditional,” then the “specically religious spheres of culture” must be “fundamentally annulled [aufgehoben].” in light of such statements, there is an evident irony in tillich serving as an authority for a religious exception to state law—an irony, as i discuss in this article’s penultimate section, that must be examined in light of the ambiv- alent evaluation of the existence of distinctly religious institutions in his later work. for the moment, and as a necessary preface to that examination, i turn to an exploration of the often sur- prising paradoxes of the divine/demonic relationship in tillich, in which the two dimensions, which at rst seem to be necessarily and absolutely opposed, as we have seen above, turn out to share profound afnities and origins, even to the point of intextricability, rendering the task of distin- guishing between them difcult and dangerous. i present this exploration in the context of a theme i have been pursuing from the outset, that of signication and representation. from ontology to aesthetics, or, “religion” and the avant-garde “in the depths of the divine, there is both a divine and a demonic.” this kind of metaphysical pronouncement, suggesting a primordial, dangerous intimacy between opposites, points to the path toward understand the bafing relationship between the “two tillichs” evoked above. tillich portrays this primordial intimacy between opposites in complex and not always compatible ways, sometimes as a relationship between two forces, sometimes, and, in my view, more pro- foundly, as different congurations of divergent features of the divine—or, more precisely, of the depths that precede the crystallization of the distinction between divine and demonic. tillich, Über die idee einer theologie der kultur ( ), in gesammelte werke , – ( – ). for my translation i have borrowed from those of james luther adams and nicole grondin. id. at . paul tillich, philosophical background of my theology ( ), in main works: philosophical writings , (gunther wenz ed., ). nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core in the latter strand, tillich locates the genealogy of the distinction in a paradox, situated on both the ontological and experiential levels. on the one hand, the primordial divine (or proto-divine) is the “unconditioned” and can never be “reduced to form.” it is a vital force that “bursts form open,” and is thus “perceptible in the ecstatic, the overwhelming, and the dreadful.” no particular being, therefore—whether a creature, a word, or an institution—can fully express or embody the divine. particulars can be “symbols” that “point” to the divine, or in their best form, be that “through which” the “divine appears,” but must never be taken for the divine itself. on the other hand, the divine gives rise to form and is itself “never formless.” it is thus both that which makes creation possible and which transcends all particular creatures. religious experience, in which the “uncondi- tional element” becomes a matter of “ultimate concern,” can thus only occur when the divine “appears in a concrete embodiment” —and yet must never confuse that concrete embodiment with the ultimate. to recur to the terms of the discussion above, religious signiers, indeed entire religious systems, should neither be fetishized nor be experienced as “arbitrary.” nonetheless, confounding a “concrete embodiment” with the “unconditional”—or, on the con- trary, viewing the two as distinct—are not mere errors, but rather, possibilities inscribed in the basic conditions of both human experience and divine ontology. the possibility of the demonic is based on: rst, that the sacred is at the same time the absolute support and the absolute demand, that it is the depth and the form, abyss [abgrund] and ground [grund]; and, second, that, in the creature, these elements may separate. in this passage, it is in the ever-present possibility of the dissociation of the two dimensions of the [proto-]divine that the demonic lies. “living form,” results from “the conjoined effect” of the two dimensions, “depth and form,” “abyss and ground.” the demonic, by contrast, results from their dissociation, and the danger lies at both poles, as we shall see throughout this discussion. to complicate matters further, tillich also asserts that the demonic, no less than the divine, only exists insofar as it embodies itself in form, albeit disharmonious form. demonic entities, no less than holy entities, contain both a dimension of form and that which transcends form. when it comes to demonic forms, tillich calls this the relationship between the dimensions of “form-creation” and “form-destruction,” which is the demonic equivalent of the dimensions of “ground” and “abyss” in the divine. that the divine and demonic mirror each other makes the dis- tinction between them dangerously indeterminate, for we now see that it is not the complete disso- ciation of form and abyss that characterizes the demonic but rather their perverse, “destructive” combination. this mirroring relationship makes distinguishing one from the other highly fraught, and highly pertinent to questions of the existence of a homogeneous category of “religion,” and thus of comparability, of nding “parallels” and “translations” among diverse “religions.” the question of cross-cultural comparison reaches an acute form in tillich’s early discussions of “primitivism” in visual art, that fascination with the “eruption” of the “exotic other” so central to paul tillich, basic principles of religious socialism ( ), in political expectation (james l. adams & victor nuovo trans., ). paul tillich, the formative power of protestantism ( ), in the protestant era (james luther adams trans., ). tillich, theology of culture, supra note , at . paul tillich, der begriff des dämonischen und seine bedeutung für die systematische theologie ( ), in gesammelte werke, supra note , at , . this somewhat free translation, which i have slightly modied, is taken from james luther adams, paul tillich’s philosophy of culture, science and religion ( ). i thank kevin goldberg for help with this translation. “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core western artistic innovation in the early twentieth century. thus, at one extreme, the demonic emerges from the “isolation and formless eruption of the abyss,” the “form-destroying eruption of the creative basis of things.” such an “eruption” of the “creative abyss” can yield artistic cre- ations tillich experienced as disharmonious, even “monstrous.” for the tillich of the s, still the era of the primitivist fascinations of cultural modernism and the avant-garde, a key example was the “art of primitive peoples and asiatics,” which “disrupt[s] the organic form . . . violate[s] radically the organic coherence presented in nature . . . mocks all natural proportion.” in this art, the “organs of the will for power, such as hands, feet, teeth, eyes, and the organs of procreation, such as breasts, thighs, sex organs, are given a strength of expression which can mount to wild cru- elty and orgiastic ecstasy.” with quintessential cultural modernist ambivalence about the “prim- itive” within and without, tillich declares that this art, which he pronounces geographically other, nonetheless expresses “depths of reality which had, to be sure, escaped our consciousness, but in subconscious strata had never ceased to determine our existence,” a depth also revealed by the “new psychology of the subconscious” —an allusion to the “id” of psychoanalysis. it is, of course, self-evident from this passage that this ambivalence was associated with racialized fears and fantasies, widely shared by other cultural modernists, particularly those whose “primitivism” was such a key feature of the art of the period. and it is, of course, the question of the commen- surability of judeo-christian religion with that of the cultural other that was partly at stake in the draft cases, as the douglas opinion makes explicit. this ambivalence took many expressions throughout tillich’s career. most strikingly, the dis- ruptive force that the early tillich named “demonic”—and which seems indistinguishable from the divine “abyss”—he later described as the “tremendous religious power” of such art. as i dis- cuss below, he described the avant-garde artistic movements most inected by various forms of primitivism, such as expressionism, cubism, and surrealism, as impelled by the desire to “look into the depths of reality, below any surface and any beautication of the surface and any organic unity,” to “see the elements of reality as fundamental powers of being out of which reality is con- structed.” it is the disruption of the surface that tillich views as the key to “religious” experience —even though, if that disruption perversely fuses with form, it can lead to demonic distortions. it may be that tillich could characterize the primitivism of avant-garde movements as both “demonic” and “religious” because that distinction was both crucial and indeterminate—or, per- haps, because the experience of the “demonic” was necessary for the “religious.” it is, indeed, the key paradox of tillich’s vision that the “same” abyss [abgrund] can “appear, by turns, as divine and demonic.” this “appearance” occurs as an “eruption” in both cases. in tillich’s early, pre-emigration, writings he reserved a different german word for each of the two kinds of eruptions. this rather unpersuasive terminological difference only serves to highlight the ontological and interpretive ambivalence it attempts to manage. tillich, the demonic, supra note , at . id. at – . id. at . id. at . tillich, existential aspects, supra note , at . id. at . jean richard, le démonique comme perversion du divin d’après paul tillich, thÉologiques , ( ) (my translation). id. durchbrechen, for the “eruption” of the divine, hervorbrechen, einbrechen, and zerbrechen, for the “upsurge,” “effraction,” and “rupture” of the demonic. nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core i now turn to the second kind of “demonization.” if i have, up to this point, described the demonization resulting from form-destroying energy, the danger at the other extreme lies in the absolutization of a particular form, its claim to denitively embody, or, more precisely, to “exhaust,” the primordial creative force. at this pole, the creature desires to take possession of the inexhaustibility of the divine depth, to have it for its own. by this means the creative potency becomes destructive. in the religious domain, this can take the familiar form of idolatry. but tillich also extends it to the “highest god of monarchial monotheism” who “remains a demon, a nite thing that wants to exhaust the absolute.” if the challenge of “primitive art” is its strangeness, confronting the western subject with its repressed and disintegrative unconscious, the challenge of the “nite that wants to exhaust the absolute” is its uncanny familiarity, the confrontation of the holy with its all-too-solid double—the divine god with the demonic god, the divine church with the demonic church—a doubling made possible by the seizure of the energies of the abyss by the nite form. at its most terrifying in the period of rising fascism, this confrontation was posed, as tillich wrote in , when the “totalitarian claim of the state upon man clashed with the unconditional claim which god makes upon him.” fascinated and repelled by this confronta- tion, tillich set forth an elaborate set of what can only be called “parallels” between the totalitarian demonic and the unconditional divine. terrifying disruption and monstrous reication—these were the twin dangers of the demonic, both rooted in the primordial depths, that of the “demonic divine.” tillich was also concerned with a rather different danger, that of “profanization,” a challenge seemingly less formidable, though perhaps more insidiously pervasive, than the demonic. “profanization,” as tillich uses it during his early period, is much more akin to weber’s “disen- chantment,” a form of rationalization that affects the religious as well as the secular domains, than to conventional notions of secularization. “profanization” is a “form of the combatting of the demonic,” not through opening up nite forms to transcendent life forces, but rather, through tillich, der begriff, supra note , at . tillich, the demonic, supra note , at . tillich, the totalitarian state and the claims of the church, social research , ( ). tillich identied these parallels as follows: the totalitarian claim of the state upon man clashed with the unconditional claim which god makes upon him. the myth of the german nation and empire confronted the message of the people and kingdom of god; the myth of blood, the community of sacrament which transcends blood relationship; the unconditional tie of the individual to his nationality, the requirement to be able to leave homeland and father’s house for the sake of god; the disparagement of the individual, the doctrine of the absolute value of the human soul; the leadership of the national state, the sovereign claims of christ; the coordination of the spirit, the directing judgment of the spirit of god; the consecration of the present, the hope of the future. the destiny of both the totalitarian state and the german churches, with either their possible union or their fundamental irrecon- cilability, is involved in the conict between these opposing currents. id. at – . “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core suppressing all consciousness of cosmic depth. the lance of profanization in both ancient and mod- ern times was philosophy: both “greek” and “modern” philosophy sought to see and make visible divine clarity in the perfection, completion, and rationality of form. but in the emphasis on divine clarity, the divine depth was lost: that which is inexhaustible, self-manifesting, uncondi- tioned, and transcendent. thus, “profanization,” often against its intentions, only overcomes the demonic “by tearing itself free from the divine at the same time.” indeed, given tillich’s metaphysics of the primordial inti- macy between the divine and demonic, it is hardly surprising that the experience of the demonic is inextricable from that of the divine, that “demonic disruption” and “religious power” may almost be indistinguishable. it was, of course, precisely the attening of human experience wrought by this kind of “profani- zation” that had led avant-garde western artists to fantasize about the raw, vital energies they pro- jected onto a “primitive” by turns racialized, orientalized, ethnicized, sexualized, and sought in their own unconscious. and it is precisely this kind of “profanization” that cultural modernist-era theo- logians like tillich most disdained in the liberal theology of the late nineteenth century. whether projected onto the art of the cultural “other” or onto that internal otherness explored by psycho- analysis, highly charged ambivalence toward the “primitive” was central to early twentieth century cultural modernism, well encapsulated in theological language by tillich’s “divine demonic.” this primitivism was deeply linked in cultural modernism across a wide variety of domains with the seemingly opposite emphases on radical experimentation with form and technique. indeed, tillich’s early work may provide the most explicit, self-conscious link between the diverse manifes- tations of the quintessential cultural modernist “alliance” between innovative creativity and primi- tivism. there are good reasons to think that tillich modeled his entire theology of the paradoxical “divine/demonic,” creative/destructive, energy of the cosmos on the image of the avant-garde artist, who drew on “demonic” energies to shatter the ossied forms of nineteenth-century art and create bold, often shocking, forms. the french phrase monstre sacré, often applied to picasso, the artist much venerated by tillich, might suggest the experience that underlies tillich’s early theology. although i have written mostly in terms of “paradox” and “ambivalence,” tillich also, and cen- trally in his later work, uses the word “ambiguity” to portray the inextricability, as well as oppo- sition, of divine and demonic in all spheres of life: one can call this ambiguity divine-demonic, whereby the divine is characterized by the victory of the creative over the destructive possibility of the holy, and the demonic is characterized by the victory of the destructive over the creative possibility of the holy. tillich, der begriff, supra note , at . the translation is from adams, paul tillich’s philosophy of culture, science and religion, supra note , at , with minor changes by the author. j.c. middleton, the rise of primitivism and its relevance to the poetry of expressionism and dada, in the discontinuous tradition: studies in german literature in honour of ernest ludwig stahl , (p.f. ganz ed., ) (“the alliance of primitivism and abstraction is one of the most copiously documented facts of the [cultural modernist] period.”). i have argued, in a series of studies, for the usefulness of this “alliance” in understanding the transformation of international law after world war i. see, e.g., berman, modernism, nationalism, and the rhetoric of reconstruction, yale journal of law and the humanities ( ). see tillich, on the boundary ( ) ( ). daniel henry kahnweiler, mes galÉries et mes peintres – ( ). tillich, dynamics of faith ( ). i thank mary ann stenger for directing me to this passage and for a very instructive e-mail exchange. the “ambiguous,” divine/demonic composite of all areas of life is perhaps the central theme of volume of tillich’s systematic theology, supra note . nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core at the human level, an irreducible form of this “ambiguity” permeates every moment of life: [s]elf-integration is countered by disintegration, self-creation is countered by destruction, self-transcendence is countered by profanization. every life process has the ambiguity that the positive and negative elements are mixed in such a way that a denitive separation of the positive from the negative is impossible: life at every moment is ambiguous. since both divine and demonic have dimensions of form and disruption of form, “ambiguity” high- lights the difculty of interpretation, of distinguishing between these putative antagonists—a dif- culty that can have the gravest moral and religious, let alone legal, consequences, a task in comparison with which identifying the line between “religious” and “nonreligious” seems a child’s game, or, perhaps, a diversionary defense mechanism. the issue here is not that of the “arbitrari- ness of the signier,” but of the impossible, yet unavoidable, necessity of distinguishing between intimate opposites—a distinction made no less necessary, though perhaps all the more impossible, for a thinker whose early work continually afrmed that [f]rom the demonic depth arise all the higher . . . forms of religion; in the battle with the demonic they gain their peculiar form; in the demonic element, which never disappears as the basis, they exert their compulsory power over consciousness. from the theology of aesthetics to the aesthetics of politics three decades after the essay in which he identied the demonic as the “basis” of the “higher forms of religion,” tillich framed a complex discussion of the relationship between religion and art by distinguishing between two “senses” of “religion.” on the one hand, “religion in the narrower sense,” the more conventional notion, is dened by “a set of symbols, normally of divine beings or a divine being, having symbolic statements about activities of these gods or this god, having rit- ual activities and doctrinal formulations about their relationship to us.” on the other hand, “reli- gion” in the “largest and most basic sense” means “being ultimately concerned, asking the question of ‘to be or not to be’ with respect to the meaning of one’s existence.” this distinction, which had become well established in tillich’s work by the time of this essay ( ), had broad interdisciplin- ary roots in the intellectual ferment of europe in the early twentieth century—forming a series with such related, though by no means identical, distinctions as that between “religiosity” and “reli- gion,” formulated by the german sociologist georg simmel and taken up by theologians like martin buber; between the “left sacred” and “right sacred,” central to the work of avant-garde french thinkers like georges bataille; and between “grace” and “religion,” central to the swiss theologian karl barth. tillich himself further complicated our discussion by adding the couple “antireligious/religious” to this series: tillich, systematic theology, supra note , at . tillich, the demonic, supra note , at . tillich, existentialist aspects, supra note , at – . id. at . id. simmel, essays on religion (h.j. helle trans., ). e.g., bataille, attraction and replusion ii: social structure ( ), reprinted in the college of sociology – , – (denis holier ed., b. wing trans., ). barth, the epistle to the romans ( ) – (edwyn s. hoskins trans., ). “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core religion in the larger sense is . . . a special consequence of events in some of the great religions which are in a sense antireligious. jesus was antireligious and buddha was antireligious, and there are others like them. to make matters worse, and to further highlight the destabilization effected by tillich, the term “religious” in this “religious/antireligious” couple does not at all track its meaning in the “reli- gious/nonreligious” couple to whose complex vicissitudes, so crucial for current discussions as well as for the draft cases, i now turn. in his essay, tillich described the relationship between art and religion by dividing artistic works into four categories, along the two axes of “content” and “style”: ( ) nonreligious content, nonreligious style; ( ) nonreligious content, religious style; ( ) religious content, nonreligious style; ( ) religious content, religious style. it is the relationship between the second and third of these categories that is of particular interest for my discussion here. by “religious content,” tillich intends images drawn from “religion in the narrower sense,” such as depictions of jesus. by “reli- gious style,” he intends the kind of artistic technique capable of evoking the “depth dimension,” the “abyss,” that which transcends form and makes it possible, the dimension whose “eruption” can give an experience of the divine. tillich’s discussion of the second category (nonreligious content, religious style) focused on the series of pathbreaking artistic movements associated with cultural modernism and the avant-garde. tillich saw cubism as a key example of the way “religious” experience can be evoked in the absence of any its conventional symbols, indeed, any coherent images at all: the forms of our existence are no more organic. they are atomistic, disrupted. these disrupted forms of our existence are taken by themselves by modern artists as the real elements of reality. . . . they reduce the col- orful world of the impressionists and of the beautifying idealists of the past to more and more cubic forms. . . . cubic forms are the unorganic forms out of which the world is constituted. but the artists do not accept the statement that these forms are only unorganic. embodied in this very unorganic form is the power of being itself. in this way the disruptedness of expressionism, surrealism, and all the other recent forms of styles, such as cubism and futurism, is nothing else than an attempt to look into the depths of reality, below any surface and any beautication of the surface and any organic unity. it is the attempt to see the elements of reality as fundamental powers of being out of which reality is constructed. it is signicant for my analysis here that tillich associated such works with a verse fragment from the book of job, part of an extended passage about human mortality, which tillich translated as “and his place does not know him anymore.” indeed, it is precisely the loss of “place,” as we have seen throughout, that unmoors religion from conventional words and symbols and launches its indenitely proliferating “parallels.” this privilege accorded to loss of place in authentic modern religious and artistic experience renders deeply problematic the supreme court’s use of tillich in anchoring the sphere of “religion” in the “place occupied by god.” when read in relation to tillich’s portrayal of the divine as both a force of “eruption” and as a force of form-creation, of abgrund and grund, one can understand his assertion that cubist works—with their “disruption” of the “surface,” their refusal of conventional beauty, their “dis- solution” of the taken-for-granted world into the “urelemente . . . which in the physical realm tillich, ultimate concern, supra note , at . tillich, existentialist aspects, supra note , at – . id. at – . the king james version translates the entire verse, job : , thus: “he shall return no more to his house, neither shall his place know him any more.” nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core are cubes, planes, colors, lines, and shadows”—exert a “tremendous religious power.” tillich emphasizes the “nonreligious content” dimension of this religiously powerful art by giving, as his key example, georges braque’s painting of a cubistically dissolved “table.” if one recalls tillich’s earlier writings, associating this power of disruption of conventional form and beauty with the demonic and “the art of primitive peoples,” one becomes even more acutely aware of the unstable nature of the relationship between the putatively opposite realms of divine and demonic, and its implications for the relationship between “clearly qualied religions” and those whose status is in doubt, or cultural self and other. if “disruption,” the source of “religious power,” may be identied with the demonic and the cultural other, then the stability offered by conventional western religions (those “clearly qualied” creeds in the eyes of the court) may be the very opposite of tillichian religiosity. and, indeed, by contrast with his praise of “religious style/nonreligious content,” epitomized in cubism and other avant-garde movements, tillich portrays works with “religious content/nonreli- gious style” in the harshest terms. in germany towards the end of the nineteenth century, and in america with the building of riverside church in new york, many pictures were produced by two men, oude and hoffman. these pictures all portray jesus either in terms of a sentimental, religious man, as does the hoffman work in riverside church, or in terms of a rheumatic or otherwise sick, dull school teacher walking through little villages. now, this kind of picture was supposed to be very religious at that time. i would say that for me, however, religious art must show something of god and the basic structures out of which he has made his reality, and not these sentimentalisms. it is not, however, aesthetic and theological impoverishment alone with which tillich charged these conventionally religious works. rather, such “religious content/nonreligious style” works are actu- ally “dangerously irreligious.” indeed, they are in league with the very worst danger of the twen- tieth century, fascism, in their attempt to deny the fundamental depths of reality, the urelemente, especially in the modern era of disrupted forms. tillich associated this denial with the attempt by fascism to maintain an old social and political order in the face of its dissolution, an effort which can only be launched through violence. and thus, tillich declared, it should come as no surprise that the same “petty bourgeoisie” that rejected modern art was also a fertile ground for the nazis: the petty bourgeoisie of germany also went to these exhibitions [of avant-garde art] and i will never forget the smiling and laughing, or hostile and malignant faces in front of these pictures. what they expected in a museum was idealized naturalism. these pictures, however, had neither nature in the surface sense of the word in them, nor idealizing beauty. instead of this they had shocking disruptions, distortions, elements of reality brought out of the depths to the surface by the painter. these petty people fought against this. this was, in the realm of art, the ght between the coming nazism, produced by the same petty bourgeoisie, against the progressive intelligentsia which realized the dangerous situation in the industrial society. the petty bourgeoisie did not want to see that its situation had fundamentally changed, and fascism was the attempt to maintain the old situation by means of suppression and terror. tillich, existentialist aspects, supra note , at . id. at . braque painted a number of cubist “tables,” and tillich does not specify which painting he has in mind. i speculate that it was one of the “analytic cubist” renderings of , such as “the table (still life with fan)” or “candlestick and playing cards on a table.” id. id. at (emphasis added). id. at . “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core with this nal turn in the essay, tillich seems to denitively close the door on the court’s notion of anchoring comparison in “clearly qualied religions,” certainly when it makes that phrase synon- ymous with “orthodox belief.” the puzzle i broached above of the relationship between the “two tillichs”—the broad ecumen- icist and the divisive demon-hunter—should now seem less bafing. tillich both thoroughly dis- persed the possibility of religious experience beyond anything like a separate social sphere, and yet insisted that the dividing line between divine and demonic cuts through all spheres. and even the demonic is divided in two: the eruption of the form-disruptive demonic may be a precondition for true religious experience, as in avant-garde art; the form-absolutizing demonic, by contrast, closes off further experience, as in the case of demonized churches. all of these considerations point to an inescapable conclusion: for tillich, a conscientious cubist may well be more entitled to the appellation, “religious,” than a pious parishioner. institutional demonology: the church, the law, and the state this portrayal of tillich’s simultaneous dispersion and division of religion begs the question of his stance toward specically religious institutions—for, someone may well ask, was not tillich a man of the church?—as well as other social institutions of a distinct character, of which the two most important for our purposes are the law and the state. tillich’s call in for the “specically reli- gious spheres” to be “fundamentally annulled [aufgehoben]” was consistent with the dispersion of religion (“in the larger sense”) stressed in his art essay. much of his post- writing on the church, though, took a somewhat different turn, afrming its value as well as its danger, while emphasizing its necessarily “ambiguous,” divine/demonic nature. this same strategy may be seen in his analyses of the law and the state. and it is through an analysis of this theology/demon- ology of the three institutions most crucially involved in conscientious objection issues, the church, the law, and the state, that i will return to the themes with which i began this article. in the third volume of his late magnum opus, the systematic theology ( ), tillich seemed to relativize his youthful call for the “annulment” of the “specically religious spheres,” as well as the view expressed in the art essay about the “dangerously irreligious” character of traditional religious forms. while declaring that “according to the denition of religion as the self-transcendence of life, there should be no religion, individual or organized, as a particular function of the spirit,” and that, “in accordance with their essential nature, morality, culture, and religion interpenetrate one another,” he nonetheless contended that they must “separate in order to become actual.” “becoming actual” refers to the conditions of human life in which form and the disruption of form, sacred and profane, divine and demonic are locked in eternal struggle, rendering every moment “ambiguous.” while distinguishing “religion,” the particular, historically contingent forms, from “revelation,” a distinction central to karl barth, he nonetheless declared, [t]heologians have protested against applying the term “religion” to christianity. they have contrasted reli- gion with revelation and have described religion as man’s attempt to glorify himself. this is indeed a correct readers of a hegelian disposition may nd a bridge between the essay and the later work by pointing to the complexity of the word aufgehoben (literally, “lifted up”), which in the hegelian tradition can mean a simultane- ous preservation and transcendence. tillich, systematic theology, supra note , at . nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core description of demonized religion, but it ignores the fact that every revelation expresses itself in a religion. the ever-present possibility of the demonization of religion, however, is not a contingent circum- stance, but indelibly inscribed in its nature, particularly in the church: one can read the history of religion . . . as a continuous inner religious struggle against religion for the sake of the holy itself. christianity claims that in the cross of the christ the nal victory in this struggle has been reached, but even in claiming this, the form of the claim shows demonic traits; that which is rightly said about the cross of the christ is wrongly transferred to the life of the church, whose ambiguities are denied, though they have become increasingly powerful throughout its history. to be sure, already in , tillich had declared that it was “beyond any human effort, even the christian, to escape from the demonic control of everything real,” and, thus, “even the church has again and again succumbed to demonry.” but by , tillich viewed this phenomenon not as an avoidable “succumbing,” but as inscribed in the “ambiguous” nature of religious and ecclesiastical institutions—a trait they shared with all areas of human life. referring to ecclesiastical institutions and their representatives, he declared that the power of the bearers of the holy is the unconditional character of the holy. . . . the source of the solidity of holy institutions, sacred customs, divinely ordered systems of law [etc.]. . . . but this very solidity betrays its divine-demonic ambiguity. church history is thus beset by “all the disintegrating, destructive, and tragic-demonic elements which make historical life as ambiguous as all other life processes.” in short, in the kind of par- adoxical statement about the relationship between divine and demonic pervading tillich’s entire oeuvre, he proclaimed that the churches may even represent the demonic kingdom. but the demonic kingdom is a distortion of the divine kingdom and it would have no being without that of which it is the distortion. in the theology of culture, tillich summarized the “ambiguity” of religion, and his ambiv- alence toward distinctly religious institutions, by declaring that “religion as a special sphere among others, in myth, cult, devotion, and ecclesiastical institutions” is due to the “tragic estrangement of man’s spiritual life from its own ground and depth.” while “religion” may be necessary in such a tragically estranged world, one must never forget that “beside its glory lies its shame.” i now turn to tillich’s reections on law. these reections mostly focused on the moral law, par- ticipating in a long tradition of protestant polemics about antinomianism. on the one hand, id. at . id. tillich, the demonic, supra note , at . tillich, systematic theology, supra note , at . id. at . id. at . tillich, theology of culture, supra note , at . id. mydiscussionoftillich andmorallaw isindebtedtokimberlyr.miller,how doesthe letterkill? the tillichianand lutheran understandings of law, north american paul tillich society newsletter ( ). “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core “protestantism denies the security of sacramental systems with inviolable forms, sacred laws, eter- nal structures. it questions every claim of absoluteness.” any “identication of grace” with such “nite forms” is “demonic hybris.” indeed, law only appears as something external to a person, as command, when that person is estranged from his or her essence: [m]oral law is experienced as law only because man is estranged from . . . his essential being . . . it is his nature, and it would never become a commanding law if he did not try to break through it. but if he is estranged from it, if he contradicts it in his existence, it becomes law for him. legality as such thus comes perilously close to a form of demonization. when experienced as an external command, even a religious code becomes “an arbitrary law laid down by a heavenly tyrant, who is strange to our essential nature and therefore whom we resist justiably” —a for- mulation reminiscent of gnostic imprecations against the demon whom they identied with the god of the old testament. on the other hand, protestantism does not call for a thorough “dissolution of form,” or what he called “venture in general.” at the experiential level, tillich referred to this necessity to retain form as the “unity of ecstasy and structure.” tillich longed for “nite forms,” including norms, that “point beyond themselves” and through which the “divine appears,” which he called “forms of grace.” these forms are not experienced as external, as in a command-obedience rela- tionship, but neither are they exhaustively identied with the subject, as in a kantian autonomy: for both of those experiences would be forms of demonization. rather, they are experienced as coming from within, but as pointing beyond, an experience that tillich dubs “theonomy.” in most of human experience, however, there is a disjunction between the “essence” of a person and his “exis- tence”—a disjunction that results in morality appearing as an external, “commanding law.” tillich’s description of the vicissitudes of the moral law highlights dangers of demonization sim- ilar to those i have described above. dissociation between the two poles of “theonomy” can lead either to demonic law-fetishism or to dissolution into a pure antinomianism—the latter, indeed, a charge which has been made against tillich by his traditionalist critics. yet tillich never embraced the antinomian possibility lurking in his “divine demonic” in the way he embraced the “disruptive” forces of the “primitive” or cubist “dissolution” in the realm of artistic representa- tion. despite his elaboration of the dangers of the demonization of law, he never welcomed the anti- nomian dissolution of ossied normative systems to break open the “depths,” the abyss, the abgrund of morality. an explanation for this reluctance to embrace the implications of what might have seemed to be a clear analogy between the realm of art and the realm of law may lie in the crucial experience of the growth of fascism during the formative years of tillich’s thought—and here we are brought to his reections on the state. writing in , tillich portrayed a number of “dialectical tensions” tillich, formative power, supra note , at . id. at . paul tillich, morality and beyond ( ) (emphasis added). id. at . tillich, formative power, supra note , at . tillich, systematic theology, supra note , at . tillich, formative power, supra note , at . id. at . see, e.g., john gerstner, primitive theology ( ). nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core between “the state and the gospel,” the rst of which is that between “power and law.” the cleavage between power and law, on the level of the state, is closely analogous to that which pro- duces the experience of the moral law as external command on the personal level: a disjunction between the “essence” of the state, as a just order, indeed an anticipation of the kingdom of god, and its “existence” as the “demonic will to power” that is “connected with everything which has [a] state character.” as long as this disjunction exists, law is necessary to restrain the state in its demonized form. tillich expressed the fear that an antinomian stance would elim- inate the possibility of any critical stance in relation to the state’s “demonic will to power,” a famil- iar fear of the legal imagination that became acute for many during the period of rising fascism. nonetheless, siding with the normative “essence” against the will-to-power “existence” of the state was not an unproblematic stance for tillich, who saw such disjunctions as potentially demon- izing both terms of this kind of dichotomy. the ultimate example of this danger is the situation of the anti-nazi segment of german protestantism in , the “confessional church,” the discussion of which brings together the three institutions under discussion here. no union of norm and power was possible, and still less desirable, at that time, for compromise with the nazi state was out of the question. the only way left for anti-nazi protestants was the way used by the old church in the days of persecution, to become an underground church in order to save the christian message for its members and for coming generations. this way is used today by the radical wing of the confessional church in germany. it is unavoidable but it also is dangerous. it works in the direc- tion of a sectarian seclusion, of dogmatism, pharisaism and hierarchical dictatorship. these dangers already have become visible in the life of the confessional church. these transformations (“sectarian seclusion, dogmatism, pharisaism, hierarchical dictatorship”) of the underground church, the church for which tillich otherwise had much sympathy, amount to what he elsewhere referred to as the demonization of religion. this splitting-off from society of the bearer of the “christian message” was one more aspect of the horror of the nazi period for a thinker who would later write “sin is separation” —a dictum made famous by martin luther king, jr., in his “letter from birmingham jail.” however, in the context of tillich’s work as a whole, the problem of demonization-through-separation goes beyond the uniquely tragic dilemma of the german church under nazism; it is inherent in the institutional forms of religion itself, and thus in all churches “in every time and place.” and we could add the same gloss on the law and the state. to return to the legal issue framing this article: that the dictum “sin is separation” comes from the same work by tillich quoted by the court in the draft cases serves to highlight the prob- lematic quality of conscientious objection. as i suggested above, this legal category is designed to uphold the general legitimacy of the selective service system precisely by separating the religious objector from the system as a whole. the disjunction between the exemption and the rest of the system is accentuated by the denial of the exemption to those who object to a particular war rather than war in general. the supreme court justied this denial on the grounds that such objections tillich, the gospel and the state, crozer quarterly , ( ). id. id. at . id. at . tillich, the shaking, supra note , at . tillich, systematic theology, supra note , at . see gillette v. united states, u.s. , ( ). “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core are “likely to be political and nonconscientious,” by which it seems to have meant “political and therefore nonconscientious”—in short, would involve a transgression of the proper boundaries between religion and politics, precisely the kind of transgression tillich saw as essential in order to avoid the dangers of demonization. indeed, as i suggested above, one might imagine a tillichian refusal of conscientious objection, except perhaps under extreme circumstances, such as those facing the german church in . the conscientious objector does not attack the draft in general, but only as applied to himself. the objection must be constructed in terms of the individual’s characteristics as an individual, the claim that this specic person may not be drafted because of his religious particularity. conscientious objection is thus one way the law constructs religion as a particular, very limited sphere of social life, while legitimating state power over the other spheres. religion becomes one social “function,” among others, that repeated target of tillich’s ire. moreover, as a particular, the objector claims the role of the absolute: he claims that an otherwise valid general law is inap- plicable to him on the basis of his unconditional nature, transcending all social, political, and his- torical contingencies. a conscientious objector is precluded from arguing about the specicities of a particular war, which would require engagement in socially controversial and contingent judg- ments; rather, he must object to war as such to qualify. he must thus present his very being in its particularity as an absolute—almost a tillichian textbook denition of “demonization.” the particular-absolute that is the conscientious objector then takes his place alongside an other particular-absolute that is the war-making state—a confrontation of two tillichian “demons.” as ever with tillich, however, things are not so simple. to be sure, he made very clear his oppo- sition to pacism (though he was also very active in the movement to oppose nuclear weapons). it was perhaps both tillich’s experience with nazism, as well as his principled objection to separating religion in a separate sphere, that underlay his opposition to pacism, which he saw as an abdica- tion of the aspiration to unite “essence” and “existence.” or, in the language of theological vision: “spirit is the dynamic unity of power and meaning. the depreciation of power in most pacist pro- nouncements is unbiblical as well as unrealistic” —even if he thoroughly rejected the use of any tools of coercion “for spreading the message of the christ.” nonetheless, by contrast with the tragic tones of the essay about the lamentably necessary “seclusion” of the church under nazism, tillich wrote in rather more afrmatively, if still ambivalently, about the value of preserving a separate sphere for “the peace of the kingdom of god,” including for conscientious objectors, in a world beset by war: all this implies that the pacist way is not the way of the kingdom of god in history. . . . the churches must reject political pacism but support groups and individuals who try symbolically to represent the “peace of the kingdom of god” by refusing to participate in the compulsory element of power struggles and who are willing to bear the unavoidable reactions by the political powers to which they belong and by which they are protected. this refers to such groups as the quakers and to such individuals as conscientious objectors. they represent within the political group the resignation of power which is essential for the churches but cannot be made by them into a law to be imposed on the body politic. id. see sources cited, supra note . tillich, systematic theology, supra note , at . id. at . id. nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core pacist churches, such as the quakers, and individuals, the conscientious objectors, thus play a “representative” role, something like a work of art, depicting the “peace of the kingdom of god” which cannot as yet be fully implemented in human society. despite the evident tension between this passage and tillich’s overall vision, it should be noted that tillich’s support (as a non-pacist) for pacists is not due to their freedom from the “ambiguities” that beset all human life. it is an ambivalent support for an “ambiguous” stance, conditioned on pacists’ acceptance of the nonabsolute value of that stance—as is evident from his implication that they must accept the “unavoidable reactions by the political power,” not to mention his earlier refer- ence in the same work to the “theoretical error and practical failure” of what he calls “legalistic pacism.” in all this, tillich is, as ever, true to his vision of the eternal struggle and inextricable intimacy between form and the disruption of form, with the danger of demonization lurking both in their separation and in their improper conjunction. if religion and its institutions must acquire a dis- tinct existence under conditions of human self-estrangement, they must always retain the aware- ness of their divine/demonic ambiguity. even the predicate of “holiness” can only be ascribed to the church “with the addition of ‘in spite of’” —above all, “in spite of” the fact that the “dis- integrating, destructive, and demonic features of life are shown in it as strongly, and often even more strongly, than in secular history.” in his insistence on the irreducibility of the tension between form and disruption of form, tillich’s social analyses ever insisted on the dialectic between institutions and anti-institutionalism, norms and antinomianism, religion and anti-religion. let us for the stake of contrast, imagine a very different path, an antinomian path, to resisting conscription for an unjust war: agrant violation of the draft law, rather than its reinforcement through haggling over narrow legal exceptions; an attack on the foundations of the war-making state rather than its legitimation; anarchic political theatrics in the sober halls of power rather than respectful, procedurally proper pleas to the architects of slaughter; infusing with “ultimate concern” the critique of specic political choices, thereby collapsing the walls between discourses, rather than assigning the religious and the political to hermetically divided spheres of the timeless and the situational; making explicit “ultimate concern” with the morality of the conduct of partic- ular wars, rather than seeking refuge in an otherworldly pacism. i have here, of course, briey sketched just some of the manifold tactics of the movement against the vietnam war in the late s, particularly its countercultural strand. such tactics may be viewed as embodying the kind of “disruption” of taken-for-granted social forms analogous to the aesthetic disruptions so prized by tillich in the works of the expressionists, cubists, and surrealists. whether tillich, who died shortly after the draft cases were decided, and before the height of the antiwar counterculture, would have endorsed such tactics is uncertain—some of his fellow émigrés, like herbert marcuse, did so, while others, perhaps traumatized by the fascist youth movements of the s, did not. of course, many of the tactics described above are only feasible in situations markedly different from those that prevailed for the “confessional church” in —except for those inclined to martyrdom. id. at . id. at . id. at – . “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core demonology and genealogy: toward an engagement between two critiques of “religion” much of this article has been devoted to showing that the supreme court, in foregrounding tillich in the draft cases, opened the door to something very different than a simple expansion of the category of “religion.” rather, taking tillich seriously means a thorough undermining of the basic lockean framework underlying american jurisprudence on religion since the nineteenth century. the “exact” divisions between social spheres, the anthropological vision of the individual as split between “inward persuasion” and “external pomp,” the clear demarcation of the competence of civil authority from that of religious faith—all these are put into question by tillich. above all, tillich radically undermines the notion that one can denitively identify a proper “place” of reli- gion, whether it be on the individual, aesthetic, or institutional level—thus rendering highly prob- lematic the determination of what would occupy a site “parallel to” or the “same as” that “place.” if a conscientious cubist may well be more entitled to exemption from the draft law than a pious parishioner, then the legal exception has become both radically unpredictable and a constant threat to the coherence of the rule. saba mahmood, as i noted above, links the lockean conception to “protestant semiotic ideol- ogy,” characterized by “the distinction between object and subject, between substance and meaning, signiers and signied, form and essence,” associated with the saussurean notion of the “arbitrar- iness of the signier.” it should by now be clear that this “protestant semiotic ideology” does not adequately characterize the work of paul tillich, a theologian who nonetheless ceaselessly pro- claimed the “protestant principle” as the cornerstone of his project. tillich portrayed the kinds of divisions and dichotomies underlying enlightenment theology, political theory, and jurisprudence as symptoms of a fallen state at best, “demonization” at worst and most of the time. moreover, tillich’s theological aesthetics (or aesthetic theology) cannot be associated with the notion of the arbitrariness of the signier. tillich devoted much effort to distinguishing among specic artistic rep- resentations in light of his ontological framework of depth and form, abgrund and grund, divine and demonic. in drawing a sharp contrast between the “disruptive” avant-garde art in which he found “religious power” and the sentimental “idealized naturalism” in which he found the aesthetic analogy to, even propagandistic support for, fascism, tillich made the differences in signication a matter of existential urgency—and even a literal matter of life and death. the symbols tillich prized were those which were neither “arbitrary” nor “determined”; they were particular forms which pointed beyond themselves—though always subject, depending on the social, cultural, political, or psychological conditions of their reception, to the possibility of demonization. my analysis, therefore, opens up a deeper inquiry into the relationship between tillich’s critique of the lockean idea of “religion,” and more broadly, the pervasive critique of “religion” in radical strands of early twentieth-century european thought, on the one hand, and that posed by current “genealogists of religion,” often associated with postcolonial theory, such as talal asad and saba mahmood, on the other. to be sure, it may seem counterintuitive to search for similarities between the twentieth century’s leading protestant theologian and those writers who seek to explicate the phenomenology of pious muslims (both in our own time and in past periods), as well as an under- standing of key portions of medieval christianity. and yet it is also, i think, urgent: even if, in this concluding section, i can only broach some points of contact and difference. mahmood, religious reason, supra note , at . e.g., saba mahmood, politics of piety: the islamic revival and the feminist subject ( ); talal asad, genealogies of religion: discipline and reasons of power in christianity and islam – ( ). nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core above all, these very different critiques share a rejection of a conceptual limitation of “religion” to a xed, separate sphere either within the individual or society. such a limitation makes most of human existence available for regulation by the market or the modern state, due to locke’s notion that everything other than “inward persuasion” consists of “indifferent matters” or “external pomp”—thus necessitating exceptions, like conscientious objection, which must remain narrow in order for the system to stand. for tillich, one is just as likely, often more likely, to nd true “reli- gious power” in a cubist painting of a table as in a depiction of jesus displayed in a church; for asad and mahmood, the formation of subjectivity through specic, routine practices, including such everyday sartorial details as headscarves, may be just as crucial to religiosity, above all to the formation of the pious subject, as the recitation of a creed. both conceptions reject the lockean notion that one can, or ought to, “distinguish exactly” the “just bounds” that demarcate the sphere of “religion.” they thus both put into question the foundation upon which the legiti- macy of the modern state’s authority rests. in this light, it is perhaps not surprising to nd certain overlapping formulations in the writings of the twentieth-century protestant theologian and the postcolonial “genealogists of religion.” for example, one nds very similar rejections of the de-politicizing constructions of privatized religion. tillich, as we have seen, declared that it was “unbiblical as well as unrealistic” on the part of pacists to deny that “spirit is the dynamic unity of power and meaning.” asad, for his part, asserted that the “separation of religion from power is a modern western norm, the product of a unique post-reformation history.” these two propositions—one theological, the other foucauldian/historicist—are by no means identical, most obviously in their contrasting evaluations of the signicance, or ranges of signicance, of protestantism (or protestantisms). the “post-reformation” history to which asad refers might be understood by tillich as something like the “demonized transmogrication of the reformation.” what is clear, however, is that both stand in opposition to a lockean separation of the religious and political spheres. it remains, of course, self-evident that differences abound between tillich’s conception and the kinds of portrayals advanced by asad and mahmood. while all nd religiosity in sites that a mod- ern lockean would view as quintessentially secular, they do so for very different reasons. i have already alluded to the insistence by asad and mahmood on the formation of subjectivity as an aftereffect of specic practices; by contrast, tillich’s subject seems to arrive (or be “thrown”) onto the scene of life already in the midst of its dialectic between surface and depth, reection and unconscious compulsion, essence and existence. perhaps most importantly, true religious expe- rience is, for tillich, most closely related to shattering the self-certainty of the subject, revealing the “abyss,” the “depth of being”; in direct contrast, in the conceptions portrayed by asad and mahmood, the essence of religious practice lies in the way it produces and forms the subject. a closely related difference concerns the role of tradition. tillich’s radical critique of the differ- ence between the conventionally “religious” and “nonreligious” spheres is guided by a wariness of tradition—above all, by a concern that traditional practices and discourses may have lost their power to evoke the depths of being, or have even become “demonized” over time. it is for this non- or anti-traditionalist reason that one should look for “religious power” in all kinds of unex- pected places, in any and every social sphere. in sharp contrast, asad and mahmood stress the importance of tradition, the emergence of individual and collective subjectivity as a by-product of commitment to traditional practices and discourses. indeed, for asad, islam is best understood see, e.g., mahmood, feminist theory, embodiment, and the docile agent: some reections on the egyptian islamic revival, cultural anthropology , ( ). asad, genealogies of religion, supra note , at . “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core as a “discursive tradition”—which he denes as “discourses that seek to instruct practitioners regarding the correct form and purpose of a given practice that, precisely because it is established, has a history.” to be sure, it must be immediately emphasized, it is intrinsic to asad’s conception that that tradition is intrinsically heterogeneous, ever-changing, and that “any representation” of it is “contestable” —that, in short, “there clearly is not, nor can there be, such a thing as a univer- sally acceptable account of a living tradition.” nevertheless, although, like tillich, asad and mahmood portray religiosity as cutting through the lockean division between social spheres, they trace this feature precisely to the traditional practices that form religious subjects, however much the latter also inevitably reappropriate and transform tradition. finally, and this issue will take us to the limit of this essay, the status of “religion” at any given historical moment (for example, our own) differs quite markedly in the two kinds of critical writ- ing. tillich, as we have seen, multiplies a number of non-synonymous dichotomies—divine/ demonic, religion-in-the-broad-sense/religion-in-the-narrow sense, religious/ “irreligious,” reli- gious/“anti-religious,” holy church/demonized church, and so on—which render the very word “religion” a highly indeterminate term, at times valorized, at times condemned, often both simul- taneously. the center of gravity of the divine/demonic “ambiguity” of “religion,” of a particular religion, and of particular religious symbols is conditioned not only by an individual’s relationship to them, but by changing social and historical circumstances. thus, tillich, in the art essay, links the afnity between “idealized naturalism” and fascist sympathies to the particular conditions in german society at that time; elsewhere in the essay, tillich discusses how traditional religious symbols or creeds can become “empty,” detached from the depth dimension, and expresses his doubts about whether certain christian symbols can be revivied in his time with the requisite “reli- gious style.” for asad, the poles of the kinds of dichotomies tillich evokes, particularly the “religious/secu- lar” divide, must also be understood as inextricably and agonistically intertwined, and their mean- ings as historically contingent. however, in keeping with his fundamentally foucauldian/historicist perspective, these are not situated at the level of ontology or the human condition, but rather emerge at identiable moments in history, constituting each other through speciable struggles. “religion” and “secularity,” for example, emerged at the same time historically, and only through their combat with each other—a combat that is never more than provisionally and precariously resolved. there is no “religion,” for asad, except as a domain whose contours and meaning are shaped and reshaped in struggle with the “secular,” and vice versa. there is no easy application of these differences to the issue of conscientious objection which frames this article. i have argued above that one could imagine a tillichian draft board member as broadly ecumenical in relation to the denition of “religion,” with cubism as plausible a “reli- gion” as buddhism or episcopalianism, but as a strict scrutinizer of whether the would-be objec- tor’s own relation to his creed is “religious.” for asad, the existence of “religion” and its delimitation at any given time is an artefact—perhaps a lamentable artefact—of a power struggle between competing forces in western modernity and the world shaped by it. however, precisely because it lacks an essence, every act dening its “place,” even its exceptional place as a refuge for conscientious objectors, participates in this power struggle—and may, perhaps must, depart, asad, the idea of an anthropology of islam, qui parle , ( ). id. at – . id. tillich, existentialist aspects, supra note , – . see, e.g., asad, genealogies of religion, supra note , at . nathaniel berman journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core whether marginally or dramatically, from any previous such acts. for both tillich and asad, there is no way to legitimate legal decisions dening “religion” by grounding them in timeless essences or standing precedent, though for quite different reasons. and, of course, for both, though again in different ways, the potential pervasiveness of religion threatens the very existence of conscientious objection as a limited exception from a general rule. in any case, in an era in which the boundaries between the religious and the secular, between religion and religion, and between rival claims to the “truth” and “perversion” of particular reli- gions have once again become as fraught as perhaps at any other time in history, a period in which charges and countercharges of “demonization” abound, a consideration of the relationship between these very different departures from the post-enlightenment lockean framework has never been more urgent. whether in the destabilization of the boundaries between public and private practice of religion in cases like burwell v. hobby lobby, or of the destabilization of the borders of the middle east by forces like the so-called islamic state, ours is an age in which “religion” can- not be counted upon to remain in a reassuringly stable “place.” turning to the most acute thinkers of this displacement has never been more timely. s. ct. ( ). “in a place parallel to god” journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core 	&ldquo;in a place parallel to god&rdquo;: the draft, the demonic, and the conscientious cubist 	abstract 	a fatal question 	the rhetoric of &ldquo;god&rdquo;: from law to theology &hellip; to quintilian 	the point of departure: an excursus on locke 	the turn to tillich 	trading &ldquo;places&rdquo;: the demonic double 	from ontology to aesthetics, or, &ldquo;religion&rdquo; and the avant-garde 	from the theology of aesthetics to the aesthetics of politics 	institutional demonology: the church, the law, and the state 	demonology and genealogy: toward an engagement between two critiques of &ldquo;religion&rdquo; on heidegger’s sofa: some remarks on psychotherapy from historical and philosophical points of view this is a self-archived version of an original article. this version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. author(s): title: year: version: copyright: rights: rights url: please cite the original version: cc by . https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / on heidegger’s sofa : some remarks on psychotherapy from historical and philosophical points of view © the authors published version sampolahti, timo; laitila, aarno sampolahti, timo; laitila, aarno ( ). on heidegger’s sofa : some remarks on psychotherapy from historical and philosophical points of view. philosophia, ( ), - . doi: . /s - - - on heidegger’s sofa: some remarks on psychotherapy from historical and philosophical points of view timo sampolahti & aarno laitila received: july /revised: august /accepted: september # the author(s) abstract our starting point in this article is that the question of the essence of psychotherapy has to some extent been neglected. its medical context has strengthened the tendency to interpret psychotherapy in general from a technical and overtly rationalistic standpoint. instead, we would underline the importance of the philosophical and historical roots of all psychotherapies. in our view, it is imperative to acknowledge the antirationalistic underpinnings that have always informed the discipline. we show how speculative mysticism and the late philosophy of martin heidegger have proved to be indispens- able tools in setting psychotherapies in their philosophical and historical context. robert stolorow has also recently emphasised that heidegger’s philosophy in time and being can be used to both understand and develop thinking in psychotherapies. we find it surprising that heidegger’s late philosophy has not previously been considered a promising standpoint for theoretical research and show how heidegger’s concepts of twofold thinking and gelassenheit are useful conceptual tools in understanding various dimensions of psychotherapies. keywords psychotherapy. heidegger. wittgenstein. freud . intellectual history “i cannot totally grasp, what all i am. thus the mind is not large enough to contain itself: but where can that part of it be which it does not contain? is it philosophia https://doi.org/ . /s - - - * timo sampolahti timo.sampolahti@gmail.com aarno laitila aarno.laitila@jyu.fi department of psychology, university of jyväskylä, jyväskylä, finland http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:timo.sampolahti@gmail.com outside itself or within? how can it not contain itself [how can there be any of itself that is not in itself?].” saint augustine of hippo ad – . “reason, for a long period, meant the activity of understanding and assimilating the eternal ideas, which were to function as goals for men. today, on the contrary, it is not only the business but the essential work of reason to find means for the goals one adopts at any given time.” max horkheimer ad . introduction a friend told me the other day that his attitude to the polar night had changed. earlier, when the days got shorter and nights longer and darker, he had found it horrifying. he tried to get more light into his home and he had started planning holidays abroad – as far south as possible. this happened every year. but then, a few years ago, something happened, just like that, spontaneously. something he could not explain or understand at all. he found he could live with darkness, enjoyed it and welcomed it as a beloved friend. we conceptualise the moment described above as comprising three components. the frst is the change itself, which is concretely observable; the second is the set of psychological and neurobiological processes underlying it; and the third is the issue of the nature or the essence of this deeply personal and intuitive experience. on the one hand, moments like the above can be described using the concept of the now moment, or moment of meeting, introduced into psychotherapy research by the boston change process study group (stern ). on the other hand, following william james ( / ) and ludwig wittgenstein ( / ), these experiences can be decribed as mystical. romain rolland, in turn, in his letter to sigmund freud, described such moments as experiences of oceanic feelings (freud ). the mystical as a part of human nature was a focus of interest for all three of the above-mentioned creative minds around the beginning of the twentieth century. for freud, it was something he was impregnated with through his hasidic roots and which he sought to rid himself of. for james, it was an undeniable part of the human predicament and being in the world. wittgenstein understood that while the mystical as something that we cannot comprehend with language, it is at the same time self- evidently a part - and perhaps the most meaningful part - of human experience. psychotherapy arose in a cultural landscape characterised by both flourishing in the natural sciences and a strong interest in the mystical layers of human subjective experience. to us, it seems natural and inevitable that in seeking to understand psychotherapy in its philosophical context, we have to acknowledge the mystical. having said this, it is clear that by the word mystical we are referring on the one hand to a certain quality of subjective experience and on the other to loosely defined attitudes or ways of being that resonate with this dimension of human experience. we philosophia are not proposing a new psychotherapeutic technique or theory; instead, we are pointing towards an ontological dimension that lies outside the rational construction of humankind and its situation in the world. the term mystical/das mystische does not necessarily refer to a religious world view. according to james ( / ) a mystical experience entails four aspects: . it is beyond language and rationality. . it has a cognitive dimension, that is more than just a feeling. . the experience is temporary. it is not a constant state of consciousness. . the role of the subject is passive. he does not try to induce the experience but simply allows him to become caught up it. mystical experiences do not tell us anything about the world as we see it. reality is understandable from the logical and linguistic points of view. but as wittgenstein eloquently stated, even if we knew every fact about the world, we would not have even started to understand life. the meaning of the world has to lie outside the world (wittgenstein / , . ). instead of claiming anything about the world, mystical experiences are connected to an unmediated sense of meaningfulness, purposefulness and beauty. although that this last aspect could be said to be unimportant, to be too philosoph- ical, to have irrelevant religious underpinnings or to be unnecessary or even harmful, we consider it to be of relevance in psychotherapy and psychotherapy research. we agree with enckell and enckell ( ), that the concept “moment of meeting” proposed by the boston change process study group (bcpsg) links philosophical contempla- tion and empirical research in a promising way. it is an empirical and rational concept, but at the same time it presents, at least hypothetically, an opportunity to address the question about the possible mystical nature of such moments in psychotherapy. in this article, we underline the apophatic nucleus of subjective experiences in psychotherapy and propose an alternative way to analyse this mystical dimension from the standpoint of intellectual history. thus, we do not refer to the change itself but instead seek to capture, or at least point to, a mystical dimension that has been neglected in empirical psychotherapy research and that seems to explain empirical findings and behavioural and subjectively felt changes. we offer an auxiliary context of meaning to explain the bewildering fact that, after years of modern psychotherapy research, it continues to be unclear why and how psychotherapy helps patients in emotional distress. we interpret this situation as indicating that perhaps this dilemma cannot be resolved only by doing better and more accurate empirical research. we believe that an alternative, hitherto neglected, dimen- sion exists and in this article try to articulate what it might be. we claim that this dimension can be found in the intellectual heritage of the fin de siecle and that it helps to understand psychotherapy, its development and paradigms and the above-mentioned perplexities in empirical psychotherapy research. it was was a period of rich and heterogenous cultural development impregnated with both decadence and optimism. it is somehow appropriate that this period of despair, decadence and hope of a new dawn fertilised the intellectual soil in which psychother- apy came into being. during this period, many genuinely new approaches to old problems were also invented. it was a time when analytic philosophy, psychoanalysis philosophia and expressive art started moulding the cultural landscape. in the arts, symbolism and expressive language opened up new opportunities to contemplate the human predica- ment (schorske / ; kandel ). as, along with the first world war, the cultural current increasingly distanced itself from romanticism, it paved the way for existentialism and modernism. in this article, we investigate what coming into being in this kind of cultural and intellectual enviroment meant for psychotherapy. as is well known, meta-analyses have encountered difficulties in identifying the specific factors that could explain the results of psychotherapy (wampold and imel ). nevertheless, such research continues to be carried out. we are aware that no consensus exists on whether the medical model continues to be the best metamodel for psychotherapy research or whether it should be replaced by a contextual or some other model. in both cases one question remains unanswered. this question concerns the antirationalistic and mystical dimension in psychotherapies. we consider this question of paramount importance and will try to explain why. theoretically, there are a few ways of investigating the question. first, we could analyse the concept from a philosophical point of view. second, we could analyse the ways different psychotherapeutic schools have treated the question. and third, we could attempt to operationalise the concept and approach it empirically. although each of these alternatives could be interesting and fruitful, we have chosen another path. to state it somewhat vaguely, we consider the question of psychotherapy from a human- istic point of view. in the present context it means that we will attempt to think psychotherapy in the context of human beings in general. putting it in another way, we approach psychotherapy as a cultural artefact instead of considering it solely as a form of medical treatment. and because we define our task in this way, it is obvious that we find it crucially important to focus on the european intellectual landscape in which psychotherapy emerged, that is, the fin de siècle and its philosophical and intellectual dilemmas. martin heidegger together with ludwig wittgenstein, reformulated the intellectual dilemmas of the fin de siècle in a way that made them relevant to understanding of the inner dilemmas in psychotherapy. we know that heidegger had been a figure of interest in psychotherapy and psychoanalysis on many earlier occasions: ludwig binswanger and medard boss approached psychoanalysis from heidegger’s standpoint and created dasein analysis. recently, the psychoanalyst and philosopher robert stolorow has re-introduced heidegger to the psychotherapeutic audience. he sees in heidegger’s being and time ( ) an opportunity for psycho- analysis to be reinterpreted and reformulated as a contextual, phenomenological and intersubjective project. from stolorow’s point of view, this would be a way of setting psychoanalysis free from its positivistic and cartesian ties (stolorow ). this article contributes to the same objective of connecting psychotherapy and heidegger’s phi- losophy. in contrast to stolorow, we focus, not on heidegger’s being and time, but rather on his late philosophy after the “turn”. the concepts of paramount importance from this point of view are twofold thinking and gelassenheit. thus, we are continuing the project of robert stolorow, medard boss and ludwig binswanger in contextualising psychotherapy from heidegger’s philosophical standpoint. in bringing together psychotherapy and heidegger’s late philosophy, we also end up, at least to some extent, with contextualisations that differ from those of stolorow. our views on psychotherapy underline its mystical and antirationalistic underpinnings. philosophia there are three reasons for focusing on heidegger’s late philosophy. first, we are interested in finding out if his late philosophy could offer something more than or different to the philosophy of psychotherapy than his philosophy in sein und zeit. as far as we know, this has not been done earlier. second, because we are interested in the mystical dimension of psychotherapy, heidegger’s later antirationalistic views seem promising to our project. in his late philosophy, heidegger turned away from rational language. he started looking at literaure, lyrical poetry and his own highly idiosyncratic philosophy for ways of thinking about the human predicament. third, although heidegger did not elaborate his late philosophy until after the second world war, it can be interpreted as a reply to the philosophical dilemmas of the fin de siècle. to be more precise, in his late philosophy heidegger tries to salvage a dimension lost after kant’s epistemological revolution. thus it represents ideas and paradigms that were moulding the intellectual enviroment when psychotherapies began to emerge. at the same time as recognising the importance of this kind of analysis, we have to admit that in the present intellectual and cultural situation such speculative thinking about psychotherapy has, at least to some extent, been lost and is considered as of no value in psychotherapy research. the change in emphasis becomes obvious if, for example, we compare the forewords to the first and second editions of the history of psychotherapy ( , ). in , rollo may expressed concern that psychotherapy seemed about to lose its existential dimensions: we have discovered that we also tend to lose our sensitivity and that we also face dangers similar to those faced by the ama [american medical association] before us. there is a serious dilemma occuring in our vocation and in our practice of helping people with their personal problems. the question is, are we training technicians or professionals? (may ) in the foreword years later, the discourse has changed. now, the emphasis is on empirical quantitative research and on psychotherapy as a part of medicine and as an intervention designed to treat various health issues across a multicultural population. although stanley sue, in his foreword, considers the question, “what is psychother- apy?”, the context has changed. unfortunately, the suggested psychological or socio- logical answers fail to address the challenges that we are about to meet. we are convinced that while the general understanding of psychotherapy has expanded enormously, something has also been lost. if we consider psychotherapy as an artefact with a mystical experiental nucleus, we see something other than what we see if we try merely to build theories for various subdomains of psychotherapy and investigate their interrelatedness. a mystical view leads us to ask what forms the experiential core of psychotherapy and how that core is related to its cultural back- ground. we agree with liran razinsky ( , ), who claims that psychoanalysis – and, we would add, psychotherapies in general – has to strengthen its dialogue with the humanities. doing so would benefit not only the humanities but also psychotherapies and psychotherapy research. furthermore, we would also like to see a revitalisation of transsendentalism in efforts to understand psychotherapy. it is promising that at the same time as rational construc- tions of psychotherapy have improved, something else has also been evolving. in philosophia classical psychoanalysis, this has meant a new interest in jewish, or, more accurately, the kabbalistic and hasidic roots of freudian thought. kabbalism and hasidism are both mystical currents in jewish thought. at the same time, relational psychotherapies have also incorporated mystical currents into their philosophical foundations. this, in turn, has led to an increased interest in buddhist philosophy, transcendentalism and heidegger’s idiosyncratic philosophy we start with martin heidegger and his philosophy. heidegger’s philosophical mysticism and” gelassenheit” our starting point is the late philosophy of martin heidegger ( )/ , / , / ) with special interest in his idea of twofold thinking and in his concept of gelassenheit. we interpret both psychotherapies and heidegger’s philosophy as being simultaneously a part of and a reaction to the sociocultural situation in europe during the early s. both tried to escape from the intellectual dead end that formulations of the kantian epistemological revolution had led to in the nineteenth century. both tried to say something fundamental about human existence. the intellectual background to this situation was the secular interpretation of speculative mysticism (weeks ) by arthur schopenhauer and friedrich nietzsche. the term refers to the imtellectual tradition that started with plato and neoplatonism, and continued in the speculative mysticism of medieval times and meister eckhart up to jacob böhme, the romanicists and the antirationalists like nietsche and schopenhauer. its most prominent belief is, that beside the rationally and linguistically understandable dimension of the world, there is something else, that cannotbecome understood through rational speculation. the most prominent and original fin de siecle philosophers, martin heidegger and ludwig wittgenstein, were familiar with schopenhauer’s thinking, as also was sigmund freud. as we will see, psychotherapy was, and remains, heavily influenced by this development in which mysticism and modernism were intertwined with each other. heidegger’s philosophy is at the same time both concrete and highly theoretical. paradoxes and neologisms make it difficult to understand. his unique way of using language, especially in his late philosophy, resembles the language that mystics use when they try to grasp and express something that is not expressible, at least not in propositional language. generally speaking, it seems that philosophers who try to comprehend the borderland between the expressible and inexpressible create language that is beyond the scope of everyday language. in this article, we focus on three philosophers of this kind: martin heidegger, sigmund freud and ludwig wittgenstein. in his speech gelassenheit (heidegger / ), heidegger reflects on the legacy of the composer konradin kreutzer. he continues a project that he had already started in being and time and analyses human existence. or, more accurately, he invites us for a walk to encounter the mystery of being. heidegger’s late philosophy is far from the neutrality of traditional speculative and analytic philosophy. heidegger writes about the crisis of modern man that came about when he lost his ability to think, or at least became restricted to only one of the two modes of thinking, i.e., calculating thinking. this mode of thinking sets the world as its object and manipulates it according to its interests. it resembles habermas’s technical interest in philosophia knowledge and uses the world as raw material moulding it to fulfil its goals. in contrast, meditating thinking is open and slow, and it does not know where the thinking process will eventually lead. on top of that, meditating thinking does not define but patiently awaits what and how the world will reveal itself. meditating thinking explicates the late heideggerian understanding of truth as dialectic interplay between hiddenness and revelation. meditating thinking does not aim at anything but waits openly at the door of being. (heidegger / ). yet calculating thinking is not useless either. heidegger does not, like kierkegaard and nietzsche, belong to the antirationalistic tradition. he values both modes, even if he considers meditating thinking more essential and original to human beings. if modern man forgets meditating thinking, he becomes severed from his roots and dehumanised. (heidegger / ). when seeking to explicate the nature of meditating thinking, heidegger uses the word “gelassenheit” and refers to meister eckhart, a theologian and mystic, who first coined this term. the reference to to meister eckhart is both interesting and complex. while it is true that eckhart used the word “gelassenheit”, heidegger did not use it to describe the same concept. the contents are not identical. eckhart introduced the word “gelassenheit” into the german language. the word means giving up and turning away from the world. the word has biblical roots in the latin word “relinquere”, which has a very concrete meaning, as in matthew : : “at illi continuo relictis retibus sunt eum” (at once they left their nets and followed him). “relictis” comes from the verb “relinquere” meaning to relinquish or abandon. eckhart ontologised the content of the word to mean turning away in a profound and existential way (panzig ) in contrast to its concrete and practical original meaning. heidegger defines the word differently. to him, gelassenheit refers to man’s willingness to slowly become open to the world, without power or force, as it both presents and conceals itself. for eckhart, gelassenheit is a way of turning away from the world in order to be open to an encounter and union with god. the encounter between man and god, in which the act of god meets the intellect of man, is called gescheidenheit. gelassenheit is an act of the will whereas gescheidenheit is an act of the intellect (panzig ). in fact, roughly speaking, the concept of gescheidenheit and the concept of gelassenheit become fused in heidegger’s use of the word gelassenheit. although heidegger’s and eckhart’s ideas are conceptually different, their philosophical agendas are similar. both use metaphorical language, create neolo- gisms, expand the domain of language and seek to explain something essential about the human predicament. a good example of this is found in theologia germanica. although not by eckhart, it is written in the eckhartian mystical tradition. the metaphor of two eyes is at least an elegant exposition, if not antecedent, of heidegger’s theory of twofold thinking: “but these two eyes of the soul of man cannot both perform their work at once; but if the soul shall see with the right eye into eternity, then the left eye must close itself and refrain from working and be as though it were dead.” theologia germanica, . surprisingly, the history of logic and its application to art history and understandng of cubism, invites a fresh look at the dualism mentioned above. it also shows that the idea philosophia of twofold thinking that heidegger introduced was not only a philosophical theory. above all, it was an explication of a general and basic intellectual dilemma in the beginning of the twentieth century. jean van heijenoort ( ) pointed out that logic can be understood either as a calculus or as a universal medium. logic as a calculus means that the relationship between logic and the world is transparent. thus semantics is analysable. in contrast, logic as a universal medium means that the relationship is opaque and thus semantics is mute and not analysable. the finnish philosopher hintikka ( a, b, ); hintikka and hintikka ( ) was one of the first to understand that the dichotomy has broad philosophical consequences. applying hintikka’s interpretation, martin kusch and jaakko hintikka ( ) showed that heidegger’s late philosophy of language and the idea of meditating thinking are semantically based on the idea of language as a universal medium. according to hintikka ( a, b), the contrast between traditional art and cubism illustrates the distinction. for example, one feature of cubism was that it tried to view its objects from different angles at the same time. the rationale was that it attempted to view reality as it is, not as it presents itself. so, cubism presents a radically different epistemological stance from that of kantianism. it also differs from heidehgger’s idea of meditating thinking. heidegger thought that there are dimensions in the world that are not rationally explicable but can become revealed through meditative thinking. in cubism the representational function is rationally explicable, and more than that, it can be varied. in contrast, traditional art had conceived this relation as self-evident and historically constant. picasso’s portrait of dora maar ( ) makes this epistemolog- ical stance explicit: in the painting the face of dora maar is simultaneously perceived from two angles. picasso seems to have tried to perceive his mistress as she was, not as she appeared. hintikka ( a, b) correctly pointed out that friz novotny’s reading of modern art as “gemalte erkentnisskritik” applies even more to cubism than to cezanne. novotny had interpreted cezanne’s way of fusing traditional perspectivism as an attempt to show that in reality the shapes in the painting in a way grow on the surface of the canvas. in other philosophia words, cezanne had also been interested in the concrete reality of the painting, not only in mimicking an optical illusion (blaha ). this contrast between reality and phenomenalism later evolved to become one of the typical characteristics of cubism. the representational relationship between art and reality became emancipated from the straightjacket of renaissance perspectivism. in contrast, heidegger’s meditating thinking is in line with the traditional understanding that the function of representation is constant and opaque. calculating thinking, in turn, represents an epistemological stance that is transparent and contingent. it is exemplified in cubism and also in atonal music (schönberg, webern, berg), which changed the view of self-evident tonality and replaced it with the epistemologically transparent twelve-tone technique. tonality became interpreted as a calculus. there was no natural, self-evident musical language. instead music could be freely structured. both cubism and atonal music are attempts to step out of the box, which is impossible from heidegger’s point of view; as family therapists in the s used to say: only a fish doesn’t understand that it is swimming in water. in a sense, heidegger ‘s view was antithetical to modernism and represented a critical stance against the idea of a language as a calculus. nevertheless, heidegger did not, unlike kant, claim that the domains of reality that are beyond the rational mind are totally unattainable. meditating thinking captures, from heidegger’s point of view, domains that do not admit of rational specuöation. meditating thinking, by underlining the opaqueness of experience, opens up a new domain in the psychotherapy process. this dimension cannot become an object of calculating thinking. it can’t becone an object of the rational eye. these areas of vague experience can only be opened up by meditating thinking. this domain is not neces- sarily transempirical per se. neurological and somatic markers can be used in finding and pointing to moments or areas like these. for example, the research project relational mind (lampinen et al. , paananen et al. etc), conducted at the university of jyväskylä, has been pioneering this promising field of research. notwithstanding, the innermost essence of the realm of meditative experiencing cannot be approached solely from the viewpoint of calculating thinking. calculating thinking is useful in marking and indicating it, but its core remains hidden from rational speculation. in addition to the modern integrative research projects and heideggerian philosoph- ical stance, more traditional empirical psychology and psychoanalysis have also tried to conceptualise the domains of the transrational and translinguistic. for example, donald winnicott’s concepts of transitional space (winnicott ) and the use of an object (winnicott ), the ideas of the analytic third proposed by thomas ogden ( ) and benjamin ( ), lev vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development (vygotsky ) and the importance of uttering not-yet-said thoughts in the dialogical therapies (seikkula and trimble ) are all attempts to grasp something of this phenomenon of becoming. in other words, the concepts listed above seek to grasp something that is not yet here and now, but which is in the process of evolving. these concepts nevertheless refer to other domains than heidegger’s. the focus in the above-mentioned concepts has on the process of actualising the not yet existent. thus, the question has generally been “how does human experience become transformed from the domain of meditating thinking to that of calculating thinking?” from the heideggerian point of view this is a mistake. this approach seems to entail the idea that the potential or not yet existent cannot as such become an object of thinking. moreover, the interest shown by this tradition in the idea of evolving philosophia denotes a belief that it is the process of becoming rationally explicable that is interest- ing, and not the domain of meditative thinking as such. heidegger flatly rejects this conclusion. he claims that meditating thinking can include itself to the potential and inexpressible. in his lecture der satzt vom grund ( ), heidegger interprets the famous saying of wilhelm leibniz, nihil est sine ratio. heidegger points out that the word ratio has two different etymological roots. on the one hand it stems from the latin word reor that has echoes in the german language, for example in the words “rechen”(to calulate) and “rechende” (calculating), while on the other hand it is a translation of the greek word logos. logos in turn stems from verb legein (to say, to speak) and at the same time refers to the ultimate basis of reality in both christianity and neoplatonism. if psychotherapy is considered from this stand- point, it seems that, apart from the process of actualisation, an important part of psychotherapy also relates to the so-called nonexistent, or more accurately, to the ultimate basis of existence, which cannot be apprehended by calculating thinking. later, ludwig wittgenstein referred to the same dilemma when he said that the meaning of the world cannot be found in the world (meaning the verbally understand- able world). it must come from outside (wittgenstein / , . ). for wittgen- stein outside means inaccessible to language and rational thought. hence, wittgenstein can be understood as thinking along the same lines as heidegger few decades later. both are representatives of the tradition of speculative mysticism. rationalty, language and beyond two other contemporaries of heidegger have also been interested in the same zone between immanence and transcendence: sigmund freud and ludwig wittgenstein. both attempted to solve the question of whether knowledge about ultimate reality is rationally attainable or not. heidegger ( / ) states already in being and time that the human way of being in the world is impregnated with practicality. we do not perceive objects as such, that is, how they are independently. thus far, heidegger accepts kant’s epistemology. but in contrast to kant, heidegger concludes that the only way we as humans can relate to the world is through our various practical down-to-earth activities: it is these that determine how we perceive the world. it seems that heidegger subsequently moved away from this only partially kantian idea. he explicitly says that his philosophy changed after being and time. heidegger ( ) names this change the “turn” (die kehre). in the present context of psycotherapy, it is is useful to interpret heidegger’s turn as an attempt to revive the question about the relationship between human intellect and ultimate reality. heidegger seemed to have brought noumena back into the human situation. in so doing, he gradually lost reliance on the ability of propositional language to understand whole reality and its dimensions. like his alter ego, the poet hölderlin, he tried to find a suitable language and form of expression to articulate human experience at its most profound level. he turned more and more to the language of art and poetry, where he found, at least to some extent, what he was looking for (heidegger / ). on one hand, heidegger was a heir of the antirationalistic tradition that started with romanticism and continued with kierkegaard, nietzsche and schopenhauer towards the end of he century. heidegger gave up conceptual language as a means to explore philosophia ultimate reality. however, he did not abandon rational thinking altogether. it continued to have a place in the area of calculating thinking. in a way, heidegger followed augustine, who, in his de civitate dei, believed that the phenomenal world comprised two worlds intertwined together. he called them civitate dei and civitate terrene (augustine ). augstine’s politico-theological pamphlet and attempt to integrate the greek and roman cultural traditions with christianity. it invoked the idea that the world consists of two dimensions – the rationalistic and the mystical – that are inseparable and dependent on each other. heidegger’s philosophy, sharing augustine’s basic view, played an important role in the rich cultural situation that prevailed in europe in the first half of the twentieth century. at the same time, psychoanalysis, expressive art, atonal music, modern logic, relativity theory and quantum mechanics were all part of european culture. in pictorial art, the cubists refused to accept the traditional view of how art was supposed to represent reality, and marxist movements questioned existing socio-political structures. the crisis of representational function and revolutionary political movements fertilised each other and new ideas and modes of thought arose. questions about certainty and representation started a process that led to new ways of approaching the dilemma of the world as mundus rationalis and as mundus reconditus. analytic philosophy and logical empiricism emerged (jones ). although, later, heidegger and ana- lytic philosophy drifted apart as representatives of contradictory philosophical positions, both positions had roots in the same intellectual soil. and that same soil was also fertilising psychotherapy, its origin and development. linguistic turn the result of this process was called the linguistic turn. it was a critique levelled against the constructivistic epistemology that was dominant in the late nineteenth century. immanuel kant had started a development leading to a relativistic epistemology that understood the phenomenal world as a product moulded by the human intellect. although in kant’s original view the world as such (das ding an sich) was preserved, the concept had more or less disappeared from epistemological speculation by the late nineteenth century. descartes had sought to prove that knowledge of the external world is possible. kant and subsequent thinkers, at least temporarily, demolished the carte- sian dream. gottlob frege wanted to restore the idea of objective reality in philosophy. however, as a mathematician, he approached it in a different way. first, like plato, he considered mathematical objects to be non-phenomenal entities that exist in the external world. and secondly, he considered the laws of mathematics and logic to be the laws of the real world. thus, frege thought that because the invariant laws of logic are valid in objective reality, this solved the puzzle of constructivism. the laws of thought are also laws of reality. the world as an object of knowledge consists of atomic sentences. logic is a science that explains the relationships between these modular entities. the world as a meanngful entity and the laws of mathematics and logic became identified. the antirationalist movement in philosophy and also the transempirical aspects of psychotherapy became labelled as nonsense. philosophia ludwig wittgenstein ( / ) continued this linguistic revolution launched by frege and bertrand russell. however, wittgenstein’s tractatus contains an important amendment. wittgenstein shared the idea that a meaningful linguistic expression consists of elementary perceptual sentences and of logical form. only sentences structured like this are meaningful. but language does not account for the whole of reality. something else, that manifests itself otherwise exists outside language. this something can be called mystical. in contrast to later logical empiricism, this something is not nonsense but instead something important and valuable. in a sense, both wittgenstein and heidegger – and psychotherapy too – seek to point to the territory beyond that which is linguistically meaningful. while wittgenstein is content to state that the mystical manifests itself otherwise, hei- degger looks to art and poetry in trying to gain a hold on the propositionally inexplicable. freud the rationalist, freud the mystic yet another viennese, sigmund freud, tried to understand reality and its mean- ingfulness. specifically, he was interested in what terms symptoms of hysteria and dreams could be understood as logical/meaningful (freud and breuer ; freud ). the theory that he came up with, however, was also part of the linguistic turn. according to freud, the obscure logic of dreams conceals their true meaning. this meaning can be revealed, and thus dreams thoughts under- stood, if the dream text is decoded. the dream is par excellence a text in which logic is blurred and obscure. when the logical form of the dream is clarified, its content will be seen as logically fulfilling the dreamer’s desires. thus, it becomes obvious why the early logical empiricists saw psychoanalysis as heralding a new dawn in the social sciences (uebel ). in some way, freud was drawing on russell’s logical analysis (e.g. russell ) in interpreting dreams. while this was not, of course, a conscious effort, both russell and freud played a part in the same cultural and intellectual revolution. russell and freud were both realists and rationalists. thus, it is understandable that the early freud took a different path from that of heidegger and wittgenstein. his path did not lead beyond the rationally explicable. although freud’s trust in a heroic intellect and heroic psychoanalyst faded, he did not abandon his trust in rational thinking. this is clear in his discussion with the poet and mystic rainer maria rilke. freud prefered to bow his head before the goddess necessitas than turn towards the mystical. in his new lectures on psychoanalysis freud ( / ) was already comparing science and religion – and he chose science. he was, above all, a scientific realist. there is no doubt that freud would have respected the” holy oath” of the physio- logical society of berlin. emil du bois-reymond wrote in : “brücke and i pledged a solemn oath to put into effect this truth: no other forces than the common physical-chemical ones that are active within the organism. in those cases which cannot at the time be explained by these forces one has either to find the specific way or form of their action by means of the physio- mathematical method, or to assume new forces equal in dignity to the physical- philosophia chemical forces inherent in matter, reducible to the force of attraction and repulsion.” holt , . freud also wanted to base his new science on mechanical physiology and neurology. he never gave up his scientific program (entwurf) for psychology (freud ). psychoanalysis was to be assimilated into materialistic science. it is for this reason that freud would probably have been delighted to witness psychonalysis and the cognitive sciences sharing common ground a hundred years later. freud believed in his project and could relate to mysticism only by reducing it in the same way as his admired teacher ludwig feuerbach had done (gay ). in the psychopathology of everyday life ( ), he wrote: …in the construction of a supernatural reality, which is destined to be changed back once more by science into the psychology of the unconscious. one could venture to explain in this way the myths of paradise and hell, the fall of man, of god, of good and evil, of immortality, and so on, and to transform metaphysics into metapsychology. freud , . in his letter of august to his friend and colleague lou andreas salome, he vividly expresses his uneasiness reading schopenhauer’s antirationalistic philosophy: “ich habe mir jetz als altenteil das thema des todes ausgewählt, bin uber ein merkwurdige idee von den trieben aus gestolpiert und muss jetz allerlei lesen, was dazu hört, z.b. zum ersten mal schopenhauer. ich lese aber nicht gerne. [and i have to read anything that it entails. for example, for the first time, schopen- hauer. i don’t do it with pleasure.]” freud, s. & salome, l.a. , . it is interesting that both wittgenstein and freud knew schopenhauer and his concept of the metaphysical will. in fact, as magee, von wright and malcolm have pointed out (magee ), schopenhauer was, for wittgenstein, one of the most influential phi- losophers. he drew on schopenhauer’s mysticism and kantianism in his own idiosyn- cratic thiunking. freud, too, started to read schopenhauer when he tried to conceptu- alise the theory of the death instinct. in contrast to wittgenstein, freud, as a rationalist, had obvious difficulties in reading schopenhauer. neverthelss, freud was also a mystic. he was both a rationalist and non-rationalist. in the end, it can be questioned whether freud carried out his early programme in practice. it seems that he did not. and on top of that, there is also the question about freud as a jew. he saw himself as a godless jew. yet in many contexts, such as in his letters to his wife martha and romain rolland, freud saw himself as a cultural jew. it has often been pointed out that striking similarities exist between freud’s psychoanal- ysis and jewish mysticism, especially kabbalism and hasidism. kabbalism was de- scribed in literary form in the twelfth century but its history was intertwined with that of neoplatonism in the third century. neoplatonism and kabbalism share, for example, the same understanding of creation through emanative processes (jones ; starr ). philosophia kabbalism started as a movement aiming at reforming jewdaism. the kabbalists wanted to do away with what they saw as a stagnated spirituality and revitalise the life-form informing judaism at that time. however, from its very beginnings, kabbalism had another, more personal layer. it also aimed at helping people to transform and renew their personal being. the concept tikkun ha-lev, restoration of the heart, points to this objective. it refers to finding one’s authentic self, to becoming whole again through the process of repentence, atonement and sorrow. the poet and kabbalist pinchas sadeh illustrates the process as he felt it: …time, fate, life and death – all these powerful forces prevent the possibility of repairing that which is broken. if so, what is possible? what remains for a man to do, after all? what can save and rescue the things that are smashed? maybe only – and even this only through tremendous effort, through difficult struggle, through great pain – this; repairing the heart. in other words, repairing the heart, which was broken when all those things were broken. (berke ). although psychoanalysis and jewish mysticism share many views on both the content and process levels, it can be questioned whether freud really was influenced by kabbalism. it is well known that freud both cultivated the spirit of enlightment throughout his life and renounced religion. his explicit weltanschauung was a scien- tific one (freud ), even if freud was a jew, his closest friends and the first scientific audience were jewish, and his family stemmed from hasidic roots in galicia, which was saturated with jewish mysticism, as described by david bakan (bakan ; berke ). we should also mention, that it was in galicia that ludwig wittgenstein had one of his mystical experiences (mcguinnes ). freud had many books on judaism on his book shelves (bakan ) and he also owned the zohar, which is a kabbalistic book offering mystical interpretations of the torah. he also told hasidic stories to his patients, when he wanted to make a point. at the same time freud sought to diminish jewish influence on his theories, partly because he did not. want to be subjected to antisemism, and partly because he was an heir of the enlightment and natural scientific progress in the last half of the nineteenth century. it can hardly be a coincidence either that he decided to die on yom kippur, which is the last of the ten days of repentence that start at rosh hashanah, the jewish new year. during yom kippur, every jew has an opportunity to repent and start over again. doctor max schur assisted freud in his death (gay ; schur ). thus, freud deliberately chose the day he was ready to die. in so doing, he can argued to have made a covenant with his past as a hasidic jew and made atonement with his life. in the hasidic jewish tradition, yom kippur was an especially favourable day to die and leave this world (berke ). it was partly owing to freud’s jewishness and partly to schopenhauer and nietzsche that the tradition of mysticism found its way into freud’s rationalistic mind. the contradictory aspects of freud’s legacy continue to mould psychothera- peutic thinking and psychotherapy research. while psychoanalysis has been decried by some as nonsense or pseudoscience, the hermeneutic tradition and critical theory at least have adopted psychoanalysis and cited it as an example par excellence of a scientific attitude. in the same way, evaluations in psycho- therapy research have varied from dismissal to high regard. these contradictory philosophia views on freud are not informative only about him. instead, both freud and evaluations of him have been evolving in the intellectual soil, that has been fertilised by both positivism and mysticism. both the contradictions in freud’s thought and contradictory evaluations of his thought show how the intellectual dilemmas of the fin de siecle have influenced both freud and the development of psychotherapy in general. often, in conversations about the essence of psychotherapy, the importance of the mystic and antirationalistic under- pinnings in the development of european thought around the beginning of the twentieth century have been neglected, as also have the importance in the development of psychotherapies. psychotherapy has inherited the ambivalence concerning positivism and mysticism. psychotherapies and the so-called mystical the so-called mystical has been a part of the psychotherapeutic endeavour in three ways. first, freud’s psychoanalysis was influenced by jewish kabbala mysticism and hasidism. second, from the philosophical point of view, psychotherapy, or at least an important part of it, has grown in soil fertilised by speculative mysticism from platon to wittgenstein. third, from the historical and empirical points of view, psychotherapy is the heir both of ancient healing ceremonies and of modern science. this becomes obvious if we consider the ideas of, among others, fromm and suzuki ( ), wilfred bion (cooper ), alan watts ( ) and takeo doi ( ) for whom western psychotherapy and the asian spiritual heritage are parts of the same picture. in psychotherapy, interest in the orient and its philosophy and healing practices started in the s, when c.g. jung wrote a commentary on the chinese text the secret of the golden flower that was published in english in . thus interest in asian spirituality among western psychotherapists was aroused long before the third wave of cognitive therapies popularised mindfulness and buddhism in western medical thinking. a few decades later alan watts combined buddhism with western psychology in his book psychotherapy east and west and takeo doi researched dependency and independence in japanese amae spirituality. the psy- choanalytic philosophy of wilfred bion is also influenced by indian religious thinking. buddhist philosophy has also become more and more popular recently in relational psychoanalysis. for example, discussion on this topic was actively initiat- ed by the buddhist psychoanalyst safran ( ). the ancient roots of psychother- apies are again visible in conversations about psychotherapy. at the same time the ancient roots of psychotherapy has also been revived in another way. since the beginning of the twenty-first century there have been further attempts to place spirituality and psychotherapy in the same picture (post and wade ). it is well known that the relationship between psychotherapy and spirituality has been an issue from the very beginning of psychotherapies. in addition to the mystical tradition in which freud grew up, the correspondence between freud and oscar pfister and freud and romain rolland make this obvious (berke ; freud and pfister ). we interpret this as being at least indirect proof that psychotherapy is not solely a medical treatment. psychotherapy has also its phiolosophical, antirationalistic and mystic underpinnings. philosophia because, historically, psychotherapy evolved from premodern healing practices, it is also connected in its practice to the most profound, transcendent dimension of human existence. this dimension is easily neglected or forgotten, if psychotherapy is interpreted only in a rational objectifying way, as in heidegger’s calculating thinking. we would like to preserve the larger area of the inexplicable as a legitimate part of psychotherapy. following heidegger’s terminology, we want to preserve the ultimate ground of being as a dimension also in modern psychotherapies. we are convinced that a profound understanding of psychotherapy presupposes that we also take into account the so-called mystical layers of psychotherapy that stem from its sometimes forgotten roots in the intellectual atmosphere of the fin de siècle. it seems, then, that if we borrow the insurance specialist reinhard a. hohaus’s famous analogy of a three-legged-chair (used frequently in evidence-based medicine), psychotherapy as a totality is like a chair with three legs: one leg is psychotherapy as a part of modern medicine; another leg is psychotherapy as a social healing practice with its premodern roots; and the last leg is psychotherapy as an application based on a philosophical stance aimed at meaning-generating processes. it seems obvious to us that all three legs have not developed evenly. the medical leg has grown the most. the social healing leg has been a focus for both systemic family therapies and the contextual paradigm of psychotherapy proposed by bruce wampold and zac e. imel. the last leg – the philosophical, existential, humanistic or mystic leg – has been starved. it flourished briefly after the second world war and during the the flower power era of the s, but has since declined in importance (wampold and imel ; rice and greenberg ). the medical aspect of psychotherapy naturally underlines the importance of rational control. so, the other legs that tend to enhance vagueness and plurality are easily neglected. wampold ( ) has tried to re-establish the importance of the last leg with his claim that the general factor common to psychotherapies is humanism. we contend, however, that the last leg of the chair consists of the tradition of speculative mysticism in the secular form that it took around the beginning of the twentieth century, especially in the philosophies of wittgenstein and heidegger. this last leg is elegantly articulated in wittgenstein’s tractatus ( . ): “the world of the happy individual is a different one from the one of the unhappy individual”. the world consists of something that is rationally explicable and also of something that cannot be uttered in language. it is something (das mystische) that shows itself otherwise, as wittgenstein said, or something that can become known only through meditative thinking, as heidegger might have have said. the relationship between the so-called mystical and rational in psychotherapy can be conceptualised in different ways. first, the mystical can become reduced to rationality. this is basically a freudian alternative. second, it can be claimed that research based on calculating thinking is the best way to understand the essence of psychotherapy. what this point of view leaves out is considered either not crucial or not significant or even meaningless. third, both aspects can be considered as necessary aspects of psychotherapy. in the heideggerian philoso- phy, choosing between alternatives is not expected. rather, psychotherapy and psychotherapy research should include elements from both modes of thought. however, as heidegger reminds us, meditating thinking needs to be considered the primary mode. philosophia we claim that if we fail to take into account the mystical dimension, we lose an irreplaceable aspect or standpoint from which to view the philosophy of psychotherapy. moreover, we lose a necessary perspective on the subjective experience of the indi- vidual when we consider the “moment of meeting”, as daniel stern puts it, that takes place in psychotherapies. an understanding of the mystical layers in psychotherapies is needed to capture and conceptualise the meaningful dialogical exchanges that occur in psychotherapeutic conversations. thus, to fully conceptualise psychotherapies and to carry out even better and more comprehensive research, empirical psychotherapy research needs an understanding of the antirationalistic and mystical dimensions of psychotherapies and psychotherapeutic encounters. in other words, psychotherapy research needs philosophical research. we would like to see more empirical psychotherapy research projects focusing on subjective experiences in psychotherapies. economic factors and the medical paradigm has led to a situation in which quantative research in general and effectivity research in particular have become major trends in psychotherapy research. as a result, we know quite a lot about the effectiveness and efficacy of psychotherapy, but surprisingly little about patients’ and therapists’ subjective experiences of being in the siuation called psychotherapy. conclusions from time to time it is important to reprise the question ““what is psychotherapy?” the question cannot be answered by referring to specific psychotherapies alone, to outcome studies, to psychotherapeutic discursive processes or to somato-neurological aspects of psychotherapy. psychotherapy is also essentially a cultural project and as such an artefact with humanistic dimensions. we are not seeking to undermine empirical research, but instead we underline the importance of the largely neglected socio- cultural, basically philosophical, dimension of psychotherapy and psychotherapy re- search. as a part of this project, it is utterly important, if we want to understand the inner nature of psychotherapy, that we do not neglect the intellectual heritage of the fin de siecle, with its rational and mystic underpinnings. it is obvious, as we see it, that philosophical issues have been present in psycho- therapy from the very beginning, they are not something added on. instead, philosophy has played an important role continuously as well as in the formative years of modern psychotherapies. this means that psychotherapy cannot be properly understood with- out due consideration to its philosophical background. in this respect, psychotherapeu- tic traditions differ from each other. a vast amount of research on psychoanalysis and its historical, philosophical and sociological origins has been carried out. research has not examined other therapies in the same way or in comparable depth. we believe we have been able to show that although it is crucial to study the philosophy of psychotherapies from specific and narrowly focused viewpoints, it is also of interest to view psychotherapies from larger philosophical perspectives. the history of ideas and intellectual history are also part of psychotherapy research. for example, we found that the tradition of speculative mysticism helps to understand certain aspects of modern psychotherapies. we also feel that heidegger’s idea of twofold thinking along with heijenoort’s twofold understanding of logic either as calculus or as language philosophia elegantly illustrates this tradition and provides conceptual tools with which to analyse psychotherapy and its history. it is well known, that psychotherapy has been evaluated in accordance with heidegger’s philosophy in being and time. this was first done by ludwig binswanger and medard boss, and then by robert stolorow. we have shown, we believe, that heidegger’s late philosophy opens up new horizons that are useful in understanding dimensions in the psychotheraputic encounter that are difficult to grasp in any other way. lately this domain of psychotherapy has been elaborated specially in relational psychotherapies, for example in relational psychoanalysis. funding information open access funding provided by university of jyväskylä (jyu). compliance with ethical standards conflict of interest the authors declare that there are no potential conflicts of interest in this article. humans and animal studies since the article is purely a theoretical, there are no participants, humans or animals, whose rights might have been violated. so, no consent was needed. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references augustine. 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( ). psychotherapy, east and west. new york: pantheon books. weeks, a. ( ). german mysticism from hildegard of bingen to ludwig wittgenstein. a literary and intellectual history. new york: state university of new york press. winnicott, d. w. ( ). transitional objects and transitional phenomena. international journal of psychoanalysis, , – . winnicott, d. w. ( ). the use of an object. the international journal of psychoanalysis, , – . wittgenstein, l. ( / ). tractatus logico-philosophicus. london: routledge & kegan paul. publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. philosophia 	on heidegger’s sofa: some remarks on psychotherapy from historical and philosophical points of view 	abstract 	introduction 	heidegger’s philosophical mysticism and” gelassenheit” 	rationalty, language and beyond 	linguistic turn 	freud the rationalist, freud the mystic 	psychotherapies and the so-called mystical 	conclusions 	references journal of art historiography number june what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ jessamine batario when presented with the observation that a painting by barnett newman looks like a byzantine mosaic, donald judd replied, ‘a lot of things look alike, but they’re not necessarily very much alike.’ judd responded to what he likely viewed as a truism – the assertion that modern art looks like byzantine art – with a truism of his own. visual resemblance does not indicate ontological equivalence. in this instance, judd precludes further discussion with his interviewer on the topic. yet the comparative approach, especially pertaining to the relationship between medieval and modern, has found renewed interest amongst contemporary art historians. by virtue of their specialized training, many scholars who transgress the boundaries of conventional periodization tend to be pre- or early modernists. a perspective from the modernist side of the border comes from clement greenberg in his essay, ‘byzantine parallels,’ written in . prior to judd’s dismissal of the byzantine-modern connection, greenberg reached the same conclusion. but if things that look alike are not alike after all, if the relationship between the two winds up in a pseudomorphic cul-de-sac, then why expend the effort to make the association in the first place? for greenberg, the comparative approach was a defensive tactic meant to legitimize modern abstraction in the face of criticism leveled specifically by art historians. an account of the intellectual history surrounding ‘byzantine parallels’ not only reveals greenberg’s unrealized investment in such a defence, but also the ways in which the study of byzantine art history in the early twentieth century was intertwined with modernist discourse. look-alikes are less about the objects in question and more about those who are doing the looking. donald judd, as said in an interview with bruce glaser. see lucy lippard, ed, ‘questions to stella and judd’, artnews , no. , september , . i thank richard shiff, terry smith, and jeannie mcketta for their thoughtful criticism of this essay. see for example alexander nagel, medieval modern: art out of time, new york: thames and hudson, ; and amy k. powell, depositions: scenes from the late medieval church and the modern museum, new york: zone books, . for an example in exhibition practice, see glenn peers, ed, byzantine things in the world, houston: menil collection, . clement greenberg, ‘byzantine parallels’, ( ) in art and culture: critical essays, boston: beacon press, , - . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ look-alikes greenberg wrote ‘byzantine parallels’ in the spring of with the goal of seeing it in the pages of paris review. after an initial submission to the journal, he revised his draft and sent a final manuscript later that same year. the exact reason for the editor’s decision remains unknown; whatever the case, ‘byzantine parallels’ was published for the first time not in the periodical but in greenberg’s anthology, art and culture, three years later in . the initial rejection of ‘byzantine parallels’ hints at the hidden context to which it belongs: greenberg’s unrealized attempts to write a book-length feature that compared older art to modern art. before delving into a history of the unpublished oeuvre, it would be fruitful to examine ‘byzantine parallels’ for what it is: an anomalous text in greenberg’s published body of work. the essay is one of eleven that fall outside the purview of what greenberg would consider modern art, out of over texts. other essays belonging to this ‘non-modern’ category tend to have been written on the occasions of exhibitions or as book reviews, whereas ‘byzantine parallels’ is an autonomous attempt not so much at criticism but at long-range historical theorizing. at the outset, the title of the essay indicates a conception of a flattened history. visualized on spatial terms, parallel lines exist on a two-dimensional plane. the parallels in the argument are not the categories of byzantine and modern as set against one another, but a comparison between the stylistic changes that would lead from previous traditions to the opticality prominent – in greenberg’s eyes – of the art of both time periods. greenberg perceived a pivot from haptic to optic, tactile to visual, non-decorative to decorative, that occurred in the shifts from greco-roman to byzantine, and the western renaissance tradition to modern. the parallels can be visualized as follows: haptic  optic greco-roman  byzantine western  modern for greenberg, the relationship of the binary pairs from one end of each segment to the other are dialectic in nature, with ‘cubism and byzantine mural art’ as the wrenches that reverse the trajectory of the sculptural to orient art toward the pictorial. the linear terms evoke a determinist teleology, though for greenberg these shifts occur not as a result of evolution but devolution, a ‘turning inside out’ of naturalism by both byzantine and modern makers of art, especially as it relates to clement greenberg papers, - , the getty research institute, los angeles, accession no. , series ii, box , appointment book, - march, hereafter cited as cgp. cgp, series ii, box , appointment book, - september. greenberg, ‘byzantine parallels’, . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ the flatness of the picture plane. one might concede the point of flatness and accept this as a fair narrative, though only in a very general sense. as with all binary structures, it invites a surfacing of exceptions to the rule. long on generalizations and short on specifics, ‘byzantine parallels’ demands a literate readership to fill in the blanks of greenberg’s arguments. modern qualities considered wholesale are the flatness of cubism, the vivid colour of ‘[paul] gauguin and late impressionism’, and the ‘polemiciz[ing] of value contrasts’ by barnett newman, mark rothko, and clyfford still. though excised from the final version of the essay, greenberg considered large size as a common feature between the latter three mid-century artists and byzantine mosaics. newman’s, rothko’s, and still’s paintings, like the [byzantine] mosaics, . . . are unthinkable in a small size. the glitter of the tesserae makes it hard to define anything but large and simplified shapes by their means, the pulsation of warm dark, uncontrasted color demands (as monet already sensed) a large amount of space in order to state pictorial forms. in addition to these three artists, greenberg singles out jackson pollock for his luminous color, particularly in the artist’s works using aluminium paint. the specifics did not survive the final editing, but greenberg was thinking of pollock’s lavender mist and number a of as exemplars of ‘the sheerest light seen in painting since the gold leaf and mosaics of the byzantines.’ greenberg makes a passing reference to david talbot rice in his essay, indicating a source for his knowledge of byzantine art. in the spring of , greenberg read talbot rice’s byzantine art as he prepared his first draft of ‘byzantine parallels.’ one might be tempted to use talbot rice as a guide, to find clues in greenberg’s essay and locate examples from the byzantine survey book to pair with modern works. for instance, an ivory plaque of st. john the baptist with four saints could stand in as a ‘byzantine carving tend[ing] toward pictorial, nontactile effects’, a bas-relief ‘made. . . lower, less rounded and modeled, more greenberg, ‘byzantine parallels’, - . greenberg, ‘byzantine parallels’, - . cgp, series iii, box , folder . see typewritten manuscript on blue paper, . greenberg, ‘byzantine parallels’, . cgp, series iii, box , folder . see handwritten notes on gold paper. greenberg, ‘byzantine parallels’, . cgp, series ii, box , appointment book, - march. see also david talbot rice, byzantine art, baltimore: pelican books, . talbot rice’s survey was first published by clarendon press in . greenberg’s note identifies the pelican second edition as the one he read. jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ undercut and perforated, than it had been in greco-roman practice (fig. ).’ and as greenberg mentioned constructivist sculpture in a general way, one might compare the byzantine ivory to naum gabo’s linear construction in space no. , based solely on the formal grounds of opticality (fig. ). gabo’s work could stand in for a sculpture that is, in greenberg’s words, ‘more and more an art of aerial drawing in which three-dimensional space is indicated and enclosed but hardly filled.’ figure plaque of st. john the baptist and four saints, late tenth century. elephant ivory with traces of gilding, . x . x . cm. © victoria and albert museum, london. figure naum gabo, linear construction in space no. , c. - . perspex with nylon monofilament, . x . x . cm. solomon r. guggenheim museum, new york. solomon r. guggenheim founding collection, . . the act of trying to remedy greenberg’s generalizations by finding specific works to suit those observations points to a larger criticism, that the critic himself was engaged in a cherry-picking through one millennium of byzantine art. he treats byzantine art as a homogeneous entity, jumping across several hundred years to present his case. the essay begins with a transition from greco-roman to byzantine (fourth and fifth centuries) and at one point brings up iconoclasm (eighth and ninth centuries) as an ‘echo of certain aesthetically felt objections to the figurative’ despite its ‘entirely religious’ motives. the generous view would be to afford greenberg with some latitude as he is, after all, a critic and not a historian. in comparing greenberg, ‘byzantine parallels’, and talbot rice, byzantine art, plate . greenberg, ‘byzantine parallels’, . greenberg ‘byzantine parallels’, . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ modern to byzantine, greenberg crosses the boundaries of conventional periodization, an enterprise that at the start can be designated more leniently as trans-historical, or less forgivingly as ahistorical. a far less simplistic binary comes at the conclusion of the essay, when greenberg collapses byzantine transcendence and modern literalness, identifying these two opposing aims as leading to the same qualities in art. the byzantines excluded appeals to literal experience against the transcendent, whereas we seem to exclude appeals to anything but the literal; but in both cases the distinction between the firsthand and the secondhand tends to get blurred. . . a radically transcendental and a radically positivist exclusiveness both arrive at anti-illusionist, or rather counter-illusionist, art. in other words, things that are not alike lead to things that look alike, to invert judd’s truism. in this same discussion of the ontological differences between byzantine and modern art, greenberg refers to talbot rice, albeit in passing: ‘the parallels between byzantine and modernist art cannot be extended indefinitely, but – as david talbot rice has suggested in a different context – they may help us to discern at least part of the extra-artistic significance of modernism.’ the discipline of art history has cast greenberg as a staunch formalist, so to see a nod at context is noteworthy. even more significant, greenberg arrives at the interpretation as a result of reading the work of talbot rice, a byzantinist. the concluding section of the present essay traces and contextualizes this non-formal strand of greenberg’s understanding of modernism, demonstrating that talbot rice gleans his interpretation of byzantine abstraction through the theoretical framework of wilhelm worringer, who in turn was inspired by georg simmel’s ideas on modern experience. while byzantine and modern may be two separate temporal sub-fields in art history with seemingly little in common beyond superficial similarities in form, the production of scholarship on byzantine art occurred against the contextual backdrop of modernist thought. accordingly, interpretations made in both fields may inform one another. a history of the ahistorical as far as exposure to the idea of a connection between byzantine and modern art, greenberg likely read george l. k. morris’ essay, ‘relations of painting and sculpture’ of in partisan review, a publication for which greenberg served as greenberg ‘byzantine parallels’, . greenberg ‘byzantine parallels’, . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ editor at the time. this essay, too, was a tract on the haptic and optic qualities of the two media, advancing the ‘hereness’ of sculpture and the illusionist quality of a ‘window into another world’ exemplified by traditional painting since the renaissance. morris praised paintings that ‘assert themselves most intensely as paintings,’ echoing the distinctions greenberg had made three years earlier in his essay, ‘towards a newer laocöon’, also published in partisan review. in addition to the impressionists, morris ascribed this quality to the work of paul cézanne, whose visible brushstrokes achieved the same effect of byzantine mosaics. though not painted at all, strictly speaking, byzantine mosaics nevertheless ‘project the qualities of painting’, according to morris. in the mosaics there is a definite recession of planes and a strong modeling of the figures, yet over all lurks the mosaic-technique, creating a surface life with its occasional stone of intensified color that acts as a spot to keep the eye unconsciously on the surface. just as the digital quality of cézanne’s passage technique forces the eye to acknowledge the picture plane, the fragmented tesserae of a mosaic reinforce the materiality of the medium. the extent to which morris influenced greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ should not be overstated. perhaps the question of influence is a mutual one. greenberg had already advanced these ideas on the properties of painting and the self-assertion of the medium in his seminal text, ‘towards a newer laocöon.’ yet that essay of , published three years prior to morris’ text, served as a ‘historical apology for abstract art’, focusing on the ‘corrupt influence’ of ‘literature’ on painting, without mention of byzantine mosaics as an antecedent example of a self- assertive medium. a figure who looms large in the background of this analogical thinking that connected byzantine and modern in the mid-twentieth century is meyer schapiro. george l. k. morris, ‘relations of painting and sculpture’, partisan review , no. , january/february , - . morris, ‘relations of painting and sculpture’, . morris ‘relations of painting and sculpture’, . emphasis original. see also clement greenberg, ‘towards a newer laocöon’ ( ), in john o’brian, ed, clement greenberg: the collected essays and criticism, vol. , chicago: university of chicago press, , - ; hereafter cited as cg:cec. morris ‘relations of painting and sculpture’, . morris ‘relations of painting and sculpture’, . the two critics were debating in public by in the pages of partisan review and horizon, not about the byzantine issue but on the specifics of cubism. see clement greenberg, ‘reply to george l. k. morris’, ( ) in cg:cec, vol. , - . see also george l. k. morris, ‘the present prospects of american painting and sculpture’, horizon, october . greenberg , . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ morris thanked schapiro for calling his attention to byzantine art, and the problems of ‘realness’ posed by sculpture in debates on idolatry during the iconoclasm period. schapiro also ran in the same intellectual circles as greenberg, participating in a life roundtable on modern art with the critic in . this encounter had a lasting effect on greenberg. as late as , nearly thirty years after the life seminar, greenberg recalled fragments of his conversations with schapiro at this event in his private journals. in , greenberg and schapiro collaborated on selecting artists for talent, an exhibition at the kootz gallery. and when judd’s interviewer compared barnett newman’s zip painting to a byzantine mosaic depicting a vertically oriented madonna, he cited schapiro as the source for this observation. three months before greenberg and schapiro participated in a symposium together, greenberg recorded some thoughts about the medieval picture plane in comparison to the modern one. in a private journal entry dated march , greenberg considered the relationship between figure and ground in medieval painting, noting how a flat background asserts itself in negative fashion, subordinately but necessarily, in relation to the forms upon it. ‘in modern ptg (sic) the background has come forward again’, though in this instance the forms become ‘submerged.’ greenberg reconsiders the hierarchical presentation of this relationship, when he writes, ‘or else there is an established ambiguity of stress, so that the background and forms take turns as protagonist.’ unsurprising is greenberg’s attraction to medieval art as a formal precedent for the phenomena he sees in the paintings of his contemporaries, and so too is the nature of the content: thoughts solely on the formal aspects of the picture plane. this journal entry ends morris ‘relations of painting and sculpture’, n. see russel w. davenport, ed, ‘a life round table on modern art’, life, vol. , october . for an interpretation of schapiro’s and greenberg’s comments at this event, see richard shiff, ‘unexplained’, the art bulletin, vol. , no. , september , - . georges duthuit was also a participant at this round table; duthuit wrote of connections between byzantine and modern art, via the encompassing totality of byzantine space as compared to henri matisse’s understanding of vibratory space. see georges duthuit, ‘matisse and byzantine space’, transition, vol. , , - . finally, for schapiro’s friendships and influence on several modern artists, see thomas b. hess, ‘sketch for a portrait of the art historian among artists’, social research, vol. , no. , spring , - . cgp, series ii, box , folder , journal , entry dated june . greenberg recalled schapiro discussing the demonstrability of aesthetic judgment on the way to the life roundtable. lippard ‘questions to stella and judd’, . cgp, series ii, box , folder . cgp, series ii, box , folder . cgp, series ii, box , folder . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ with an intriguing conclusion that links the ‘ambiguity of stress’ between figure and ground to ‘the general relativity of all experience.’ at this stage, greenberg’s handwritten thoughts remained inchoate. yet the context to which the journal entry belongs in greenberg’s oeuvre is in his failed attempts to write and publish a book on the relationship between the old masters and modern art. greenberg first conceived of the old masters revisited no later than . in his proposal, greenberg lamented that the art-historical authorities on the old masters – namely bernard berenson, max friedländer, and lionello venturi – consider cubism as ‘a passing aberration’ and are ‘unable or refuse to enjoy’ modern painting. as a remedy, greenberg proposed to present ‘what in art of the past meets the test of modern taste and what does not, what in the oeuvre of each master still remains intrinsically valuable.’ this -page series of comparative studies was to begin with the byzantine mosaics at ravenna. the scope and chronology of the work would have included cimabue and giotto, the siena school, artists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in italy and flanders, and individually identified painters such as diego velasquez, peter paul rubens, el greco, jean-antoine watteau, and françois boucher, before finally concluding with francisco de goya. though such a project would have integrated the work of canonical figures in western painting, greenberg was quick to admit that what he envisioned was not the production of an art-historical account: ‘i am less interested in background or history than in quality.’ this presentist outlook complements the means by which he was to arrive at his conclusions. ‘the writing will have to be done, literally, in the presence of the works of art themselves; i am not an art scholar and am concerned with the immediacy of my experience rather than with the rendition of facts and theories.’ greenberg underscores this insistence on embodied viewership in the section on proposed images. he anticipated to half-tone plates, but went on to admit that he ‘distrust[s] all reproductions and would be just as well satisfied to see the book without any: the main thing is to drive the reader to the originals.’ cgp, series ii, box , folder . cgp, series iii, box , folder , pages. greenberg concluded the proposal with a timeline: ‘the manuscript should be finished, i estimate at this point, by at least the fall of – finished, that is, in its final form. knowing my working habits, i would expect to have a first draft ready by the end of .’ one might recall that greenberg was working with schapiro on the talent exhibition for kootz gallery in , and hazard a connection between that venture and this proposal; however, the lack of a firm date and of specific mention of schapiro in the proposal leaves the connection uncertain. cgp, series iii, box , folder , . cgp, series iii, box , folder , . cgp, series iii, box , folder , . cgp, series iii, box , folder , . cgp, series iii, box , folder , . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ as a precedent for his book, greenberg identified eugène fromentin’s les maîtres d’autrefois, an account of northern european art of the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries originally published in . though greenberg did not provide specific reasons as to why he viewed fromentin as having set a high standard, his affinity for the nineteenth-century writer becomes clear in light of fromentin’s explication of his own method: ‘i shall describe, in the presence of certain pictures, the effects of surprise, pleasure, astonishment, and no less exactly of disappointment, which [the artworks] happened to cause me.’ using fromentin as a model, greenberg proposed to produce his writing ‘in the presence of the works of art’ and valued the primacy of experience. in his assessment of fromentin, schapiro praised this type of writing as ‘plein-air criticism.’ just as the impressionists recorded their immediate perceptions using paint on canvas, fromentin, as their contemporary, documented his direct experiences with the medium of language. what fromentin achieved, and what greenberg proposed to do, is to write ekphrases. jas elsner interprets the ekphrasis, or the textual description of a work of art, as the foundational root of all art history. despite greenberg’s insistence on the absence of background, history, facts, and theories, his project would have been a modernist – in his conception of the term – work of art history. if the asserted flatness of the picture plane is the result of the complete reduction of the medium to its purest form, then a book of ekphrases constitutes a modern equivalent in art- historical writing. yet ekphrases are not mere descriptions. historically speaking, since the second sophistic period and the codification of literary styles in the progymnasmata treatises from the late second to the fifth century ce, the ekphrasis belongs to a tradition of rhetoric with the intention to persuade. this type of illocutionary speech is evident in fromentin’s work, as seen in his treatment of rubens. fromentin describes rubens’ style as ‘what would be called in literature an orator’s style. . . in all cases it is surpassingly convincing and persuasive.’ though fromentin ascribes rubens with the power of persuasion, the former’s own language exhibits these very same qualities. consider fromentin’s rhetoric in his description of rubens’ martyrdom of st. livinus (fig. ): cgp, series iii, box , folder , . see also eugène fromentin, the masters of past time; dutch and flemish painting from van eyck to rembrandt, trans. andrew boyle, london: phaidon press, . originally published as les maîtres d’autrefois ( ). fromentin the masters of past time, xv. meyer schapiro, ‘eugène fromentin as critic’ ( ) in theory and philosophy of art: style, artist, and society, new york: george braziller, , . jas elsner, ‘art history as ekphrasis’, art history, february , . for the importance of ekphrasis as a rhetorical device in the intellectual and social context of the second sophistic period, see shadi bartsch, decoding the ancient novel: the reader and the role of description in heliodorus and achilles tatius. princeton: princeton university press, , - . fromentin, the masters of past time, . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ forget that the subject is an ignominious and barbarous murder of a holy bishop. . . forget the three executioners torturing him. . . only look at the white horse which rears itself in the white sky; the bishop’s golden cloak, his white stole; the dogs, speckled with white and black, four or five of them black; two red bonnets; the flushed red-bearded faces; and all around in this vast field of canvas the delightful harmony of the greys, blues, the whites either dark or pale – and you will only have an impression of a beautiful blending of color, the most wonderful perhaps and most unexpected that rubens ever used to express, or, if you wish, to help out and lighten, a scene of horror. fromentin communicates with the reader in the second person – (you) ‘forget’ – telling her or him to momentarily set aside the iconography of the work in favor of the formal aspect of its color, a rhetorical move greenberg would have appreciated. at the most basic level, fromentin provides a description of rubens’ painting. yet this passage also serves as a record of fromentin’s having seen the work in person. more explicitly, and in reference to the miraculous draught of fishes, another work by rubens, fromentin asserts his embodied presence with the artwork as follows: ‘do you mind if we come back to the picture once more for a moment? it is here before me, and this is an opportunity which one seldom has, and fromentin, the masters of past time, - . figure peter paul rubens, martyrdom of st. livinus, . oil on canvas, x cm. © royal museums of fine arts of belgium, brussels / photo: j. geleyns – art photography jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ which i shall never have again. i shall take it.’ noteworthy in this passage is fromentin’s direct address to the reader, again virtually situating her or him with fromentin in the presence of rubens’ painting. ekphrases might wear the guise of passivity, as they purport to be mere observations of form. yet as elsner argues, ekphrases are ‘tendentious’ translations of visual experience; as such, they cannot be divorced from the author’s original purpose in writing them, often to serve as evidence for a larger argument. denying this aspect of persuasion, greenberg wrote, ‘i do not. . . propose to tell the reader how to look at art; i am not interested in writing a primer; but i do want to show him how i look at paintings and pieces of sculpture.’ this proclamation is likely an implicit barb toward venturi, whose primer greenberg rebuked in . nevertheless, such a conceit raises the question, ‘to what end?’ even to ‘drive readers to the originals’ and to invite the reader to check her or his experience with greenberg’s is a form of persuasion. moreover, greenberg’s primary motivation, as he presented in the introduction to his proposal, is to convince readers that a connection exists between older art and modern art, saving the latter against criticisms made especially by art historians. any ekphrases written by greenberg to serve this purpose are by definition tendentious. initially proposed c. , the old masters revisited was never realized. greenberg tried to re-initiate the project once more in when he applied for funding from the ford foundation. looking back to his first proposal, he wrote that ‘its shape has changed a good deal in everything but its essentials.’ as with the first venture, this one dismissed ‘the injection of scholarship and literary research’, instead opting for observation and writing ‘on the spot.’ this application to the ford foundation is less thorough than the first, and presents its scope as ‘from giotto on’, no longer starting with the ravenna mosaics as initially conceived. perhaps at this point, greenberg was satisfied in how he addressed the byzantine connection, as he submitted a copy of art and culture to the foundation as evidence of his writing skills. while fromentin makes no appearance in this second proposal, greenberg also submitted ‘the early flemish masters’ as a second sample of his writing on pre-modern art, and perhaps also as an implicit nod toward his nineteenth-century model. fromentin, the masters of past time, . elsner, ‘art history as ekphrasis.’ cgp, series iii, box , folder , . emphasis original. clement greenberg, ‘on looking at pictures: review of painting and painters: how to look at a picture, from giotto to chagall by lionello venturi’ ( ) in cg: cec, vol. , - . cgp, series iii, box , folder . cgp, series iii, box , folder . cgp, series iii, box , folder . see also clement greenberg, ‘the early flemish masters’ ( ) in cg: cec, vol. , - . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ despite the slight chronological shift in scope of the new book project, greenberg remained interested in byzantine art even after writing ‘byzantine parallels.’ throughout the course of his travels, he saved various postcards of artworks. the existence of these souvenirs in his collection belies his outward disavowal of viewing works in reproduction. regardless of the specific nature of their personal significance, the collection reveals a marked interest in byzantine art. of the thirty-nine postcards greenberg saved, nine (or nearly a quarter) are of mosaics or exterior shots of the chora church and the hagia sophia in istanbul. though undated, the printed text on the reverse of the cards show that they came from the ‘khora museum’, indicating that the trip must have been after , the year that restorations were complete and the building opened to the public. perhaps greenberg collected these postcards during a european trip in the early summer of . a journal entry from athens reveals more thoughts on byzantine art, this time venturing into the medium of architecture. dated may , greenberg jotted down the following notes: byzantine: antithesis of th- th century bce greek. (but same insistence on roundness and symmetry as shape of the precincts of the sacred: tholos + rotunda.) nothing more different from parthenon [than] main interlocking vaults of byzantine churches. (icons seen in athens mostly over-rated.) don’t forget roman mosaics in museum in old corinth. these observations never developed into a published essay, though perhaps greenberg intended to do something with the information. the phrase ‘don’t forget’ implies as much, as well as the inclusion of a postcard of a roman villa mosaic from the museum of corinth in his collection. additionally, he cared enough about the journal entry to revisit it and make insertions and modifications, as indicated by the two different colours of ink used for the entry. perhaps the byzantine postcards served as visual memory aids for a future project, a work that once again never materialized. into the early s, greenberg continued to tout the byzantine and modern connection. in the spring of , he rehearsed some ideas during a comparative literature conference sponsored by the claremont colleges in california. this talk would later become the ‘beginnings of modernism’, an essay that located the origins cgp, series vi, box , folder . a trip to italy in might have been the occasion to see the ravenna mosaics in person. however, pages from greenberg’s usually informative appointment books from that summer trip remain blank. archives containing the journal entries from that period are sealed until . cgp, series ii, box , folder , journal # . cgp, series iii, box , folder . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ of modernism, both in terms of literature and the visual arts, in france. as far as the byzantine is concerned, greenberg largely rehashed the contents of ‘byzantine parallels’, discussing the transition from greco-roman/western to byzantine/modern in terms of the flatness of the picture plane, decorative qualities, and the lower bas-relief sculptures. to supplement his initial arguments from , greenberg added a more sustained discussion of ‘creative devolution’, as well as the public’s responses to this development, in both periods. he presents the main problem as follows: ‘the question is why modernity, together with art for art’s sake, should have compelled innovation in such a way as it had never, apparently, been compelled before: disturbingly, shockingly, provocatively.’ the resistance to modernism, according to greenberg, can be explained in part by ‘the devolution of a tradition’, namely the tradition of naturalism as prescribed by the renaissance. he defines ‘devolution’ as ‘the unraveling – not so much the dismantling’, which draws a line that separates it from the notions of decline as well as rupture. far from a decline, greenberg envisions ‘devolution’ as ‘generat[ing] a greater momentum of innovation, a greater urgency.’ this type of ‘creative devolution’, rather than breaking with the past, preserves a sense of continuity. greenberg then presents the byzantine example as a similar situation of ‘creative devolution’, though in that case such a transition, he posits, did not meet with public resistance. the endpoints of the parallel segments here are not plotted on the terms of reality or transcendence as chief aims, but with the public’s reception and the passage of time. the change from greco-roman to byzantine gradually unfolded over years, writes greenberg, whereas the modern devolution occurred in the span of approximately sixty years, from the s to the s, ‘not that it’s finished yet.’ accordingly, greenberg posits that the abruptness of the modern transition resulted in critical resistance. talk of public resistance to byzantine art seems misguided here, especially because greenberg is only considering church-commissioned and imperially sponsored works – ‘products installed straightaway in churches, palaces, other official places.’ as official art, the byzantine imagery that greenberg evokes would be more aptly paired with the art clement greenberg, ‘beginnings of modernism’ ( ) in robert c. morgan, ed, clement greenberg, late writings, minneapolis: university of minnesota press, , - . greenberg, ‘beginnings of modernism’, . greenberg, ‘beginnings of modernism’, . greenberg, ‘beginnings of modernism’, . greenberg, ‘beginnings of modernism’, . greenberg, ‘beginnings of modernism’, . greenberg, ‘beginnings of modernism’, . greenberg, ‘beginnings of modernism’, . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ produced by the french academy, which undermines the entire argument about public reception. resistance to all things byzantine in intellectual circles in fact coincided roughly with the resistance to modernism in the nineteenth century. robert s. nelson traces the ‘othering’ of byzantine art in survey texts to the first art history handbooks written by franz kugler and carl schnaase in the s. kugler and schnaase were students of georg wilhelm friedrich hegel, whose scathing assessment of the byzantine spirit presented the empire as ‘a disgusting picture of imbecility.’ in the mid-nineteenth century lies a byzantine-modern parallel that requires art-historical arbitration. intellectual antipathy towards byzantium was already underway by the s, the temporal origin of artistic modernism per greenberg. contemporary with this sentiment was the antagonistic relationship between academic art and modern art. a parallel configuration transforms into an intersection. in art history and in art criticism, to revere byzantium and to defend modern art would be to assume an anti-academic position. consciously or unconsciously, this common perspective facilitates the ability to see look-alikes. separated by years, the bookends of ‘byzantine parallels’ and ‘beginnings of modernism’ are the remaining published hints of the comparisons greenberg might have written in the old masters revisited. the major difference between these essays and the unrealized book project lies in their form. without the appropriate funding, greenberg could not write ekphrases, ‘on the spot.’ the essays remain general and in want of analyses of specific works. additionally, while the essays center on formal aspects, they also venture into contextual territory, a manoeuvre that likely had no place in the old masters revisited. at the heart of both the essays and the potential book is a justification for modern art that involves relating it to the art of the past. greenberg was not alone in this strategy. as richard meyer has shown, alfred h. barr’s exhibition practice at the museum of modern art in new york during the s and s sought to indirectly pair the new with the old. although installed on different floors in moma, exhibitions of prehistoric imagery, of italian master paintings, and of russian icons suggested formal connections to the twentieth-century works elsewhere in the museum. in , moma was in the planning stage of a large-scale exhibition called ‘modern art, past and present’, a show that would have been more specific in its direct juxtapositions and broader in its geographic and temporal a discussion of iconoclasm – a mode of actual resistance – might have served greenberg better, but then again that phase in byzantine history happened years after the end of the transition period that fascinated him. robert s. nelson, ‘living on the byzantine borders of western art’, gesta, vol. , no. , , - . as quoted in nelson, ‘living on the byzantine borders’, . richard meyer, ‘prehistoric modern ( )’ in what was contemporary art?, cambridge and london: the mit press, , - . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ reach. alongside modern works in the same exhibition space, barr intended to show objects from various historical periods: ancient egypt, pre-columbian mesoamerica, sixteenth-century europe, and t’ang china, to name a few. similar to greenberg’s motivation for the old masters revisited, barr’s aim in this show was for the public to ‘learn to tolerate the strange even though it is contemporary’. just as greenberg’s book never materialized, barr’s larger exhibition was never staged. meyer speculates that ‘modern art, past and present’ was ultimately thwarted by logistical and financial difficulties. in addition to practical hurdles, barr’s bridging of old and new also incited external criticism and internal resistance. contemporary american artists such as george l. k. morris and ad reinhardt begrudged barr the italian masters show, a sentiment underscored by moma’s own advisory committee’s decision to censure the exhibition. that both barr’s and greenberg’s projects saw similar fates indicates that the comparative approach itself might have been institutionally unpalatable, at least to the venues that rendered their judgments. the comparative approach reveals plainly the active and discerning hand of the interpretant in its process of making formal juxtapositions, a type of indexicality unwelcomed in the mid-twentieth century. in his review of art and culture, the sole venue for ‘byzantine parallels’, robert goldwater castigated greenberg for writing a formal narrative of modern art that was obsessed with cubism at the exclusion of surrealism. goldwater’s strongest criticism of greenberg’s interpretation is that it ‘reduces the whole history of modern art to the successive solutions found to an immanently developing formal problem.’ though goldwater likely meant this to be a rebuke, greenberg might have conceded that he was indeed invested in the idea of continuity. despite his other criticisms of venturi’s work, greenberg praises the italian art historian on his ability to make formal connections across historical periods. in a review of venturi’s four steps toward modern art, greenberg writes, ‘it is possible that professor venturi overemphasizes the continuity of our western art, but if so, it is a welcome corrective to the opposite and far more prevalent tendency to treat modern art as an utter historical novelty.’ however, greenberg takes issue with venturi’s chosen starting point to illustrate said continuity. ‘why start. . . with giorgione, the appearance of whose art is less modern than that of piero della francesca’s, which is in turn less modern than that of many a byzantine mosaic and meyer, ‘prehistoric modern’, n . as quoted in meyer, ‘prehistoric modern’, . meyer, ‘prehistoric modern’, . meyer, ‘prehistoric modern’, n , - . robert goldwater, ‘art and criticism’, partisan review, vol. , nos. - , july , - . goldwater, ‘art and criticism’, . clement greenberg, ‘review of four steps toward modern art by lionello venturi’ ( ) in cg:cec, vol. , . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ fresco?’ in light of greenberg’s desire to write and publish the old masters revisited, this criticism takes on the form of both a corrective and a poignant appeal to what could have been and never was. the context of form in his survey, initially written in , talbot rice presents the byzantine style as one of ‘fusion’, with formal origins stemming from six geographic regions within the empire: greece and the hellenistic world, rome and italy, asia minor, syria and the semitic east, western persia and lower mesopotamia, and north-eastern persia. the section on syrian influence likely resonated with greenberg, because talbot rice identifies this region as contributing the stylistic exaggeration of forms with the tendency towards abstraction. talbot rice explains this syrian tendency towards abstraction as a result of the ‘material conditions’ of the environment. he discusses a major drought that led to a decimation of the population and surmises that a difficult life may have led to ‘an avoidance of the superficial.’ one could imagine an alert greenberg reading the following interpretation posited by talbot rice in byzantine art: just as the severe conditions of industrialism on the one hand and of political instability on the other have produced in the art of today a love of abstraction and an avoidance of mere prettiness, so in the early christian age did the troubles of life bring about similar results. perhaps greenberg had this exact passage in mind when he credits talbot rice for considering ‘the extra-artistic significance of modernism’ in ‘byzantine parallels.’ this line of thinking – that a difficult life inspires abstract art – is by no means a novel interpretation. though uncited, talbot rice is calling upon the main thesis presented by wilhelm worringer in his text, abstraction and empathy, a doctoral dissertation written in that subsequently gained particular renown in the art-historical milieus of early twentieth-century europe. as a british scholar, talbot rice could have been exposed to worringer via t. e. hulme, who was a greenberg ‘review of four steps toward modern art’, . talbot rice, byzantine art, - . talbot rice, byzantine art, - . talbot rice, byzantine art, . talbot rice, byzantine art, . talbot rice, byzantine art, . wilhelm worringer, abstraction and empathy: a contribution to the psychology of style, trans. michael bullock, london: routledge and kegan paul ltd, . originally published as abstraktion und einfühlung ( ). jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ prominent figure in spreading worringer’s ideas in britain. another possible point of contact for talbot rice is herbert read, a friend of worringer’s who translated the german’s writings to english and was talbot rice’s predecessor as professor of fine art at the university of edinburgh. as geoffrey c. w. waite notes, ‘the anglo- american reception of worringer’s text is characterized by uncritical enthusiasm.’ regardless of the specific nature of the transmission of ideas from germany to england, this interpretation of abstract art was widespread enough by the mid- s not to merit a citation in talbot rice’s book. relying on aloïs riegl’s notion of kunstwollen, a will-to-form or artistic volition, worringer argued that artistic style is not to be explained by a lack of technical ability, but by an artistic will inspired by ‘people’s feelings about the world’, or what he called their ‘psychic attitudes.’ a positive relationship with the world produces an artistic volition that tended toward ‘the organic truths of life’, generating naturalistic art. on the other hand, abstraction stems from ‘a great inner unrest inspired in man by the phenomena of the outside world.’ hence, talbot rice postulates that a severe climate in syria led to abstract forms in syrian art. for worringer, the value of a work of art lies in its ‘power to bestow happiness.’ the two different psychic attitudes – happiness and unease – lead to different modes of aesthetic enjoyment. happiness with the world allows for empathy; an individual my self-project onto an object of the world, a positive connection that leads to naturalistic forms. on the contrary, an artist living in relatively turbulent times would ‘wrest the object of the external world out of its natural context’, ‘approximate its absolute value’, and eternalize it through abstract forms. aesthetic enjoyment in abstraction, according to worringer, has to do with the impulse of self-alienation, speaking to a desire for ‘deliverance from the fortuitousness of humanity.’ worringer’s idea of alienation as a form of deliverance evokes georg simmel’s arguments in the latter’s text on the modern condition, ‘the metropolis and mental life’, written in , five years prior to worringer’s first publication of geoffrey c. w. waite, ‘worringer’s abstraction and empathy: remarks on its reception and on the rhetoric of its criticism’, in: neil h. donahue, ed, invisible cathedrals: the expressionist art history of wilhelm worringer, university park, pa: pennsylvania state university press, , . hulme has advanced that he arrived at similar conclusions before reading abstraction and empathy, which is why he subsequently aligned his own thought to worringer’s. see t. e. hulme, ‘modern art ii: a preface note and neo-realism’ ( ) in: karen csengeri, ed, t. e. hulme, the collected writings of t. e. hulme, oxford: clarendon press, , . waite, ‘worringer’s abstraction and empathy’, . worringer, abstraction and empathy, . worringer, abstraction and empathy, . worringer, abstraction and empathy, . worringer, abstraction and empathy, - . worringer, abstraction and empathy, - . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ abstraction and empathy. the two texts are connected not only on a superficial level of common themes, but also through a direct personal encounter. in , worringer wrote of an earlier serendipitous meeting with simmel at the trocadéro. a young worringer had previously attended simmel’s lectures prior to this encounter, but their long conversations in this instance inspired worringer’s dissertation. simmel opens his essay on the metropolis with a diagnosis on the modern condition: ‘the deepest problems of modern life derive from the claim of the individual to preserve the autonomy and individuality of his existence in the face of overwhelming social forces, of historical heritage, of external culture, and of the technique of life.’ simmel stakes his argument along the sociological lines of a binary: structure vs. agency. the modern individual, an agent, needs to navigate the structures of modern life in a metropolis. simmel identifies these social forces as industrialization and capitalism, external structures further intensified by the transitory experiences and fleeting imagery of city life. as a result, the modern individual develops a psychological outer shell of ‘intellectuality’ and ‘reserve’ in order to process experiences and cope with the external pressures. for simmel, this trait of ‘reserve’, or ‘blasé attitude’, contains within it an ‘overtone of hidden aversion’, one that allows for a distinction between self and other, which is a necessary step in gaining social freedom. in other words, alienation is a condition of possibility for a modern individual to ‘preserve [his] autonomy and individuality.’ both simmel and worringer address the issue of man’s relationship with the external world, though simmel is more specific in keeping his interpretation to the social realm. both writers also discuss the psychic attitudes that reflect on this relationship between individual and external phenomena, be it city life or natural environment. for simmel, the unease with the world, brought on by the ‘increased nervous stimulation’ found in a metropolis, leads to the development of a psychic attitude. worringer adopts simmel’s conclusions, turning them into a premise for his own text, and presents the anxious psychic attitude as a source of an artistic volition toward abstraction. the tracing of greenberg’s understanding of ‘the extra- artistic significance of modernism’ through the texts of talbot rice, worringer, and simmel is not meant to suggest that greenberg was exposed to this line of thinking only as late as , or that he even adopted the ideas in wholesale fashion. georg simmel, ‘the metropolis and mental life’ ( ), trans. h. h. gerth and c. wright mills, in: richard sennet, ed, classic essays on the cuture of cities, englewood cliffs: prentice- hall, , - . worringer, abstraction and empathy, vii-xiii. simmel, ‘the metropolis and mental life’, . simmel, ‘the metropolis and mental life’, - . simmel, ‘the metropolis and mental life’, - . simmel, ‘the metropolis and mental life’, . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ however, greenberg did read worringer in between writing drafts of his essay, indicating at the very least that those ideas may have been in the background of the conclusions of ‘byzantine parallels.’ figure arch of constantine frieze, north face, constantine giving a speech, - . rome. image in the public domain / photo: steven zucker figure bust of a tetrarch (formerly called licinius), early fourth century. porphyry, cm. cairo: egyptian museum. image in the public domain. elsewhere, greenberg exhibits a familiarity with the works of worringer and riegl in a review of bernard berenson’s book, the arch of constantine, written three years previously in . berenson, as one might recall, is one of the identified art historians with whom greenberg took issue in his original book proposal for the old masters revisited. in this assessment, greenberg lamented the major premise of decline that forms the crux of berenson’s argument. ‘rejecting the notion that we are confronted with the first emergence of a proto-byzantine or proto-romanesque style, [berenson] ascribes the “newness” of these reliefs [on the arch of constantine] to simple ineptitude.’ greenberg counters berenson’s argument with a favorable analysis of the friezes depicting constantine distributing largess and delivering a speech, characterizing these scenes as original by virtue of their ‘frontality, repeated verticals, and the geometrical rigidity and symmetrically centered design (fig. ).’ greenberg makes a more striking remark in his evaluation of berenson’s method in the arch of constantine. ‘[berenson’s] chief object is to trace the phenomena as such of decline, and to describe and define them – he implies – in the cgp, series ii, box , appointment book, july. clement greenberg, ‘review of piero della francesca and the arch of constantine, both by bernard berenson’ ( ), in cg: cec, vol. , - . see also bernard berenson, the arch of constantine; or, the decline of form, london: chapman and hall, . greenberg, ‘review of piero della francesca’, . greenberg, ‘review of piero della francesca’, . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ autonomous terms of art.’ though receiving his own share of criticism on his writings about art’s autonomy, greenberg levels one at berenson: ‘it is not of course as simple as that.’ the most telling difference comes in a disagreement about the bust of a tetrarch (fig. ). berenson characterizes this work as distant from humanization and ‘terrifyingly sinister’. greenberg responds as follows: the large, staring eyes. . . which become so conspicuous in representations of the human face from constantine’s time on, cannot be taken simply as evidence of a failure of feeling and skill: it is just as easy to carve or paint eyes small as large. obviously – and i am surprised mr. berenson does not accept it – the large eyes mean a new attitude to the human person, and the ‘will’ to show it in art through a new style. by evoking an ‘attitude’ and a ‘will’ to explain the manifestation of form, greenberg wields a coded language that permeates the writings of both worringer and riegl. additionally, by disapproving of berenson’s characterization of decline, greenberg casts the art historian as siding with the outdated camp of gottfried semper and his technical-materialist explanation for the development of art, the very same interpretation that riegl initially opposed when formulating the notion of the kunstwollen. greenberg firmly situates berenson in semper’s camp when he writes, ‘[berenson] lets a standard of naturalism on the hellenic model decide too much, as if all representations of the human form were to be judged by their distance from it, and had no qualitative dependence in relation to other aims.’ that greenberg aligned his thinking with two of the major philosophers of art since the nineteenth century is not the significant issue here. after all, both worringer’s and riegl’s tracts on art constitute ‘apologies’ for abstraction as well, even specifically as it pertains to byzantine art. by characterizing these types of interpretations as ‘obvious’ – and conversely, berenson’s views as antiquated – by , greenberg perhaps no longer felt the need to explain ‘the extra-artistic significance of modernism’ beyond a reference to talbot rice. what is notable is that greenberg’s implicit nods to context as it relates to abstraction (and by extension, modernism at large in greenberg’s view) occurs in his writing on topics that involve pre-modern art. as his book proposal explicitly greenberg, ‘review of piero della francesca’, . greenberg, ‘review of piero della francesca’, . this statue is now referred to as the bust of a tetrarch. previous scholars, including berenson and greenberg, identified it as licinius. as quoted in greenberg, ‘review of piero della francesca’, . greenberg, ‘review of piero della francesca, . aloïs riegl, problems of style: foundations for a history of ornament, evelyn kain, trans, princeton: princeton university press, . greenberg, ‘review of piero della francesca’, - . jessamine batario what could have been and never was: the intellectual context of clement greenberg’s ‘byzantine parallels’ states, it is the negative views of modern abstraction coming from art historians such as berenson that prompted the proposal of a book project in the first place. by connecting multiple time periods, the old masters revisited was to redeem modern abstraction, to legitimize it in the face of criticism coming from such scholars. such fluidities in periodization may have seemed outlandish to the original recipient of the book proposal, and likewise to the ford foundation, as the old masters revisited was never written. yet by tracing one strand of thought in ‘byzantine parallels’, the trans-historical was not such a foreign notion during the mid-twentieth century. in the case of talbot rice, an undercurrent of modernist thought propels an interpretation of byzantine abstraction, adopted in turn by greenberg. the confluence of thought results in an intellectual eddy fed by multiple currents of sociology and aesthetic theory, as well as two temporal sub-fields of art history. for greenberg, this type of constellational thinking may have been ‘obvious’, as self-evident as it was to donald judd to dismiss the very same thought process: ‘a lot of things look alike, but they’re not necessarily very much alike.’ nevertheless, greenberg found value in such visual analogies, and sought to use them in order to validate modern art. looking back on the situation in the early twentieth century, hans belting noted, ‘art history as an academic discipline was established before modern art appeared. it was often practiced alongside modern art, as if the latter did not exist at all.’ it is in this larger context – modern art history’s inability to account for modern art – that a modern critic endeavoured to insert himself. the old masters revisited in its full intended scope never materialized, though not for lack of trying. jessamine batario is a doctoral candidate in art history at the university of texas at austin. she is a recipient of a research grant from the getty library (los angeles), and of dissertation fellowships from the dedalus foundation (new york) and the vivian l. smith foundation at the menil collection (houston). the submitted article is a version of a section of her dissertation in progress, ‘the art and intellectual history of byzantine modernism’. jmbatario@utexas.edu this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution- noncommercial . international license hans belting, the end of the history of art?, chicago: the university of chicago press, , . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi / the journal of international social research cilt: sayı: nisan www.sosyalarastirmalar.com volume: issue: april issn: - doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /jisr. . gertrude stein’İn ÜÇ yaŞamin’in sanatÇi olarak atİpİk yapisi atypical pattern of gertrude stein’s three lives as an artist b. cercis tanritanir Öz bazı yazarlar için kariyerleri konusunda oldukça fazla ilgi alanları vardır. gertrude stein bunlardan biri olduğunu k anıtladı. makalenin konusu olan bu roman, bu tür bir uyum ve sanat ile edebiyatın örtüşmesine tanık olabilmemiz için yararlı bir araç olacaktır. bu çalışma, gertrude stein'in bize bir avuç sanatsal yaratıcılığını ne kadar güzel sunduğunu ayrıntılarıyla anlatmaya çalışacak. gertrude stein ( Şubat - temmuz ), hayatının çoğunu fransa'da geçiren bir amerikan-yahudi yazar, şair ve sanat koleksiyoncusu olarak sanatla çok ilgilendi ve cezanne, braque ve picasso gibi etkili sanatçılarla iyi arkadaşlıklar kurdu. bu insanlardan hoşnuttu ve evinde küçük bazı sergiler düzenliyordu. hepsini başaramamasına rağmen, çoğu yazar hayatlarındaki yeniliği araştırır. geleneksel düşüncelerle başa çıkmaya çalışıyorlar. ancak kesin olan bir şey varsa o da, stein asla bir konvansiyonel yazar olmamasıdır. buna karşılık, her zaman yeni bir soluklanma olarak kabul edilmiştir ve edebiyat alanına deneysel bir yenilik getirmştir. geo rgia johnston'un dediği gibi, "yüzyılın başında stein geçmişle ilişkisini koparttı. o dönemin edebi gerçekçiliği kavramlarını değiştiren bir metin hazırlamak ister. Üç yaşam'da, yazılı olarak yepyeni bir perspektife doğru yenilikçi eğilimini oldukça açık bir şekilde gösterir. pek çok açıdan "ondokuzuncu yüzyıl tarzlarından ayrılarak daha dairesel bir anlatı ile bilgilendirilen bir estetizme doğru ilerlemek istedi. kübizm sanatından çok etkilenen stein, sanat akımlarından birin,i kübizmi kullanır. oldukça normal olarak, sanatçı bu sevecenliğini yazılarına taşıdı. İlk romanı three lives, bu anlamda oldukça örnekleyici bir çalışma niteliğindedir. stein’ın ilk eseri olan ve ’da yayınlanan “Üç yaşam” kitabı, hayata tutunmaya çalışan üç kadın karakterin, almanyalı hizmetçiler anna, lena ve si yah genç bir kadın olan melanctha’nın hikâyesini, dönemin toplumsal gelişmeleriyle harmanlayarak anlatıyor. deneysel yazılarıyla, kübizmin resimde gerçekleştirdiğini edebiyatta var etmek isteyen stein’ın bu kitabı, yayımlandığı dönem büyük bir ilgiyle kar şılandı ve olağanüstü bir gerçekçilik ürünü olarak nitelendirildi. makalenin amacı ilk olarak stein'in sanatsal kaynağı, romanın seçkin kübist yapısı hakkında bilgi vermek ve nihayet stein'in Üç yaşamı'nda kadın figürlerin ilişkilerini ele almak olacaktır. romanın nana figürleri olan kadınların yaşam mücadeleleri stein’in gözüyle okuyucuya alışılmışın dışında bir anlatı tekniğiyle sunuduğundan dolayı, çalışma yeni bir soluk olarak kabul edilen çalışmayı kübist açıdan inceleyecektir. anahtar kelimeler: gertrude stein, Üç yaşam, sanatsal yaratıcılık, cubist. abstract some authors have a variety of knowledge about their professions. gertrude stein has proved himself to be one of these writers. the subject of this article is a device exemplifying the harmony and overlapping between art and literature. this study will provide the readers with the details of how gertrude stein presents his artistic creativity. gertrude stein ( february - july ) who spent most of his life in france as an american-jewish writer, and an art trover concerned with art and formed close relations with foremost artists like cezanne, braque and picasso. he was content with his relations with such artists and carried out some e xhibitions personally. many authors search for innovations in their lives although they are unable to achieve all of them and try to cope with the traditional ideas. it is a fact that stein is not a conventional author. he has always been regarded as an innovative writer and introduced an experimental domain into literature. stein lost his ties with his era and tended to prepare a work changing the literary and conceptual realities of that period. he displayed his innovative perspective in three lives and tended to employ an aesthetic ism shaped according to circular depiction. stein uses cubism by which he was affected as a consequence of his interest in art, he employed his tendency and interest in his writings. his first novel titled three lives is a prominent work exemplifying his interest in art. stein’s first novel three lives that was published in depicts the story of three female figures- german maids anna, lena and a black young woman melanctha- by mingling them with the social conditions of the period. stein who was tended to use cubism in his novel was appreciated for his successful employment of cubism in his novel and his work was defined as the product of a supernatural reality. the aim of this article is, first of all, to give information about stein’s artstic inspiration and the distinguished cubist pattern and finally to handle female relations in the novel. as the struggles of three women- main characters in the novel- are reflected in an unusual depictive view, this study will analyze the work from a cubist perspective. keywords: gertrude stein, three lives, artistic creativity, kübist. . giriş stein'in kurgusal eserinin yapısı, daha önce de ifade edildiği gibi geleneksel bir yapı değildir. three lives' ı 'da hareket bilinmediğinde yazdı. nitekim stein, hareketin gelişmesine yardımcı olmakta büyük  *doç. dr., van yüzüncü yıl Üniversitesi- edebiyat fakültesi- ingiliz dili edebiyatı bölümü uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: nisan the journal of international social research volume: issue: april - - bir role sahipti. roman üç kat içerir: "İyi anna", "nazik lena" ve "melanctha". her bir hikaye, tıpkı küp resimlerde olduğu gibi, adı verilen kahramanın psikolojik bir portalıdır. marilyn rose'un önerdiği gibi "stein'in Üç yaşamaya olan küpçüklü ilgisi, metni çevrimsel biçimi için kritik öneme sahip olan süreç ve nesne düzenleme konusundaki bir ilgisini yansıtıyor" ( , ). stein başlangıçta "the good anna" yı yazdı ve ardından "the gentle lena" yazdı. metnin son halindeki üç öykünün ikincisi olan "melanctha" son yazılmıştı. Üç yaşam'ın nihai şeklini o şekilde yaparak; "İyi anna", "melanctha" ve "nazik lena"; stein, metnin düzenlenmesinde bilinçli bir çaba, bir öykü döngüsü yaratmanın ayrılmaz bir çaba sergiliyor. stein'in öykü döngüsü ve kübizm'in ön plandaki ortak noktası çoktur. daha özel olarak, kübist sanat, Üç yaşam ve kısa öykü döngüsü birbirine paraleldir ve bölüm ile bütün arasındaki koşullu ilişkilere dikkat çekmek için çok yardımcı olur. kübist stratejileri içeren bir Öykü döngüsü olarak Üç yaşam'ı okuma, hem stein'in kübizme olan ilgisine ve o dönemin dil deneylerine yeni anlam kazandıran kısa öyküde stein'in ilgisini anlamanın ferahlatıcı bir yolunu sunar. stein'in kendisi kübizme olan derin ilgisini şu sözlerle ifade eder: cezanne, kompozisyonda bir şeyin başka bir şey kadar önemli olduğunu düşünüyordu. her bölüm bütün olarak önem taşıyor ve bu beni çok etkiledi ve o kadar çok etkilendim ki, bu etki altında Üç yaşam yazmaya başladım ve bu kompozisyon fikri ve şu an kompozisyona bu bölümde daha fazla ilgi vardı, bu arka plan yaptığım bu okumadan bana ulaşan kelime sistemi. bu kompozisyon fikrine saplantılıydım ve zenci hikâye (Üç yaşamda "melanctha"), onun özünden çıktı (stein, picasso, , ). bu nedenle stein, kübizm'i , kübist bir resimdeki şekiller gibi kelimelerle yeniden yaratır. kahramanların benzerliği ve sözcüklerin döngüsel tekrarları kübizm'in canlı yansımalarıdır. Örneğin üç ana karakterin tamamı romanın sonunda aynı kaderi paylaşıyor. Çökümde hepsi gayri resmi olmayan bir şekilde ölürler. bir mulatto siyahı olan melanctha'nın aksine, anna ve lena almandır. bununla birlikte, kaderleri küp resimdeki şekillerde olduğu gibi aynı yolu gösterir; hiçbiri kendi başına gibi görülse de hiçbiri diğerinden tamamen farklı değildir. karakterler, yine de, birbirlerinden tamamen ayrı bir biçime sahipler; bridgepoint kasabasında yaşamak, hizmetkâr olarak alt sınıftan olmak ve hikayenin sonunda ölmek gibi bazı temel noktaları paylaşıyorlar. Örneğin, good anna evde kalıyor ve tamamen onun yaptığı hayat boyu, benzer şekilde, nazik lena hikayesinde de aynı şeyi yapıyor. melanctha da anna ve lena gibi çevrelerindeki insanların yükü büyük ölçüde alıp götürür. steiner, "ilk evrede stein'in ve cezanne kübizminin konunun zaman ve hafızanın bir fonksiyonu olarak tasvir ettiğini" ileri sürüyor; ki bu "nesnenin özü," hafıza verilerinin karmaşık kütlelerden birleşik bir kavram olarak ortaya çıkdığı bir konudur "( , ). steiner'in iddia ettiği gibi, tüm veya birleşik kavram, parçalarında veya verilerin parçalarında bulguları ulaşır. steiner'in yorumları ayrıca, ortaya çıkan nesnenin birleşik bir kavram olarak keşfedilmesinde izleyicinin önemli rolünü işaret eder. başka bir deyişle, parça ile bütün arasındaki ilişki, izleyicinin, birbirinden farklı ve karşıt kısımlardan bütünlük duygusu oluşturma kabiliyetine bağlıdır. stein, bir bütün olarak ve aynı anda bağımsız olarak romanın tamamını okurken, parça ve bütün yöntemini etkili bir şekilde kullanmaktadır. hiç şüphesiz stein bunun için büyük çaba sarf etmişti. yapının döngüsel özelliği keşfedilecek olan okuyucuya açıktır. eleştirmenler tarafından çoğunlukla kabul edildiği gibi stein, kübizm'in okur için yazdığı yazarlıktaki sanatsal etkilerini yeniden şekillendirmeyi ve birbirine karıştırmayı başarıyla gerçekleştirir. bu bağlamda, heldrich'e göre, "bu tür bağlantıları oluşturması gereken kişi, tıpkı kısa hikayenin döngüsünün okuyucusu gibi, izleyicidir. bununla birlikte, işte bir de çelişki var. parçaların tümle ilişkisinde bağımsızlığa vurgu, kişinin parçalanmasına katkıda bulunur. Öngörülen her bölüm, kısa öykü döngüsünde bile, birlik ve bölünme arasındaki doğal gerilimi dramatik hale getiriyor "( , ). başka bir deyişle, okuyucu ayrı ayrı bölümlerde bağımsız noktaları bulacakmış gibi veya tam tersi. ancak o zaman stein'in sanatsal amacı hedefine ulaşacaktır. romanın bir diğer göze çarpan özelliği, anlatımdaki sürekli tekrardır. roman boyunca, sözcükler ve cümleler kendi içinde sürekli olarak tekrarlanır. Örneğin aşağıdaki iki farklı paragrafta, benzer sözcük sırası ve aynı sözcükler açık ve ardışık olarak kullanılır: “melanctha herbert, annesi tarafından dindar yetiştirilmişti. melanctha annesini çok sevmemişti. komşuları onu aradıkları gibi bu anne, 'mis' herbert, tatlı görünen, onurlu ve hoş, soluk sarı, renkli bir kadındı. 'mis' herbert her zaman dolaşıp esrarengiz ve yöntemleri pek belli olmayan biri olmuştu” (stein, ). daha sonra stein, birkaç paragraftan sonra tekrar şunu yazıyor: “melancthaa'nın annesi ve babasının düzenli bir evlilikleri vardı. melanctha'nın babası iri bir zenci erkekti. sadece arada bir melanctha ve annesinin yaşadığı yere gelirdi, ama her zaman hoş ve tatlı görünen soluk sarı bir kadın vardı;gizemli ve kararsız ve kendi halinde aylak aylak dolaşan, sempatikti ve o iri zenci kocasını düşünmeden edemezdi” (stein, ). dolayısıyla, bu tekrarlar, romanda oldukça sıklıkla gerçekleşir. stein, tıpkı kelimeler gibi, daha önce belirtildiği üzere romanın uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: nisan the journal of international social research volume: issue: april - - yapısını oluşturmasında tekrara başvurur. hikâyelerde, aynı veya en azından benzer nesnelerin sürekli, tekrar eden bir şekilde bir şekilde ortaya çıktığı görülür. . Üç yaşam’ın sanatçı olarak atipik yapısı picasso'nun tabloları gibi, stein de portrelerini sürekli ve benzer vuruşlarla çiziyor. her vuruş yansır ve kendi içinde gizlenmiş olan diğer gölgeleri tamamlar. melanctha'da tutarlı psikolojik temelli monologlar ve diyaloglar bizi stein'in yeni, deneysel stiliyle açısından aynı noktaya götürür. bildiğimiz gibi stein mezun olmadan önce johns hopkins tıp fakültesi'nden atılmıştı, ancak üçüncü sınıf derslerini tamamlamadan bırakmamıştı. o özellikle psikoloji ile ilgileniyordu ve william james'in lisans mezunuyken öğrencisi olmuştu. stein, üç öyküsünde kişisel ve psikolojik karakterizasyonları genişletiyor. karakterizasyon yazarın bazı psikolojik yönlerini taşır ve yansıtır. stein psikoloji hakkında çok şey biliyordu ve bu yüzden karakterlerin kendi adlarına konuşmasını sağlıyor. melanctha'da, stein çok seçkin bir üslup anlatımı yaratır. melanctha'nın ve sevgilisinin zihin ve psikolojisinin karmaşıklığını daha açık bir şekilde göstermek için böyle bir yol kullandığına inanılır. İçinÖrneğin, jefferson'un sözleri şu şekilde: kesinlikle merak ediyorum, bayan melanctha "sonunda jeff campbell başladı," kesinlikle merak ediyorum, eğer çok iyi biliyorsak, sen ve ben, birbirlerimizin gerçekten ne düşündüğünü. kesinlikle merak ediyorum, bayan melanctha, eğer hep birbirimizin söyleyeceği şey ile ne demek istediğini gerçekten biliyorsak. "kesinlikle, söylediklerine bakılırsa kötü biri olduğumu düşünüyorsun demektir, jeff campbell, " melanctha yıprattı. "neden hayır, bayan melanctha, neden böyle bir şey demek istemediğimden, ne olduğumdan eminim sana söylediğimden yola çıkarak. benim gibi sen de biliyorsun bayan melanctha, sanırım her gün seninle ilgili daha iyi şeyler düşüneceğim, seni anlıyorum ve şu an hep seninle konuşmayı istiyorum, bayan melanctha ve ben kesinlikle birlikte olduğumuz zaman ikimizi de çok beğendik ve bana benziyor diye düşünüyorum her zaman daha çok, herkese karşı çok iyi ve tatlısın, sadece, bana göre çok yavaş işleyen bir zihnin var bayan melanctha, herkes çok hızlı konuştuğu için sana söylemekten hoşlanmıyorum emin olmadığım şeyleri biliyorum ve kesinlikle her şeyin ne demek istediğini her zaman bana söylediklerini bildiğimden emin değilim. görüyorsun, bayan melanctha, bana sormak istediğinde sana söylediklerimi söylettiren de bu (stein, ). benzer şekilde, melanctha'nın takıntılı sevgilisi dr. jefferson campbell ile yaptığı konuşma,kişisel olarak, aynı düşüncenin aynı kelimeyle kesintisiz görünüşü nedeniyle okurken takip etmek zorlaşır. stephen, melanctha ve jefferson campbell'in uzun zamandır devam eden bu iç konuşmalarının yardımıyla karakterleri kendi düşüncelerimizi özgürce düşünmek ve canlandırmak istediğimiz gibi bırakmamız gerektiğini düşünüyorum. tıpkı picasso'nun bir hayranı onun için bir tablo görüp yorum yapması gibi, stein'in muhtemelen okuyucularının romanını bir resim gibi algılamasını ve üzerine istedikleri gibi yorumlamasını istediğini düşünüyorum. elbette ki, bu, bir yazarın kendi edebi, kişiliği hakkında ayrıntılı olarak hazırlanması açısından büyük önem taşır. görünüşe göre "melanctha" kısmı romanın merkezinde, paradoksal olarak, hiç olmadığı anlaşılıyor. alman görevlileri olay örgüsünün kenar boşluklarını dolduruyorlar ve böylece melanctha ortada yalnız kalır. heldrich, "ortada metin üzerinde bir yapı oluşturmayı başaramayan belirgin bir yokluk var" diyor ( , ). tıpkı kübist resimlerde olduğu gibi, merkezi nesne asla merkez figürüne işaret etmemelidir ve yapıya vurgu yapılan merkez figürden daha fazla yapıya vurgu yapılır. Üç hayat romanın öykü yapısının köşelerine yerleştirilir, her biri bu anlamda birbirine bağımlıdır. tüm cihazların temelde aynı olması gerekirişin kendisi için önemi. "İyi anna" ve "nazik lena", "melanctha" ile aynı yapısal güce sahiptir. ayrıca, metninin ortasına "melanctha" koyarak stein, renk ve gölgelemenin kübist bir resimde kullanılışına benzer bir hareketle kontrast yaratıyor. "melanctha" üç katlı hikayenin en deneysel hikayesi ve aynı zamanda üçlü bir beyaz, alman ve hizmetkâr sınıfı kahramanı olmayan tek hikayesidir. "melanctha" diyaloğa ve karakter bilincinin sınırlı yansımasına dayandığı için, anlatıya müdahale etme miktarı diğer iki katlıdan da azdır. "melanctha" üç kattan en uzun olanı, diğer ikisinin uzunluğunun neredeyse iki katıdır. yapısal olarak, lisa ruddick'in açıkladığı gibi, melanctha'nın dolaşan zihninin sembolü olan stein'in anlatımı hem "doğrusal ve aşamalı" hem de "dairesel ve ritmik" tir ( ). hikaye içindeki ve hatta hikayeler arasındaki bu tür hareket, kübist benzeri yan yana durmalar oluşturur. karakter ve temayı vurgulayan tekrarlı ilgi bu gibi çıkarları ileri götürür (maynard, , ). birçok yönden, bu stratejiler yalnızca stein'in kübist etkilerini değil aynı zamanda önemli bir döngüsel çerçeve içinde hikayenin konumunu da yansıtıyor. stein, her bir uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: nisan the journal of international social research volume: issue: april - - hikayeyi yapısal olarak benzer kılarak her parçanın kahramanın ölümüyle sonuçlanmadan önce orta çözünürlükte başlamasıyla, parçalar arasındaki tekrar eden, tekrarlanan benzerliği vurgular. "İyi anna", hikayenin üç bölümlük bölümünün daha da vurguladığı bu yapıyı simgeliyor. İzleyen parçalar üç bölümlü benzer bir yapıya sahiptir: anna'nın hikayesi üç alt bölümden oluşur: bölüm i, İyi anna'nın yaşamı ve İyi anna'nın Ölümü. ayrıca harriet chessman, Üç yaşam'da, metnin döngüsel yönlerini doğrulamaya yardımcı olan bir öneri olan, bir bütün olarak "diyalogda dolaşmaya doğru doğrusallıktan uzaklaşma" bulur (berry, , ). ayrıca, ellen berry'nin stein'in erken dönem metinlerinin "giderek yuvarlak ve öz-yansıtmalı" olduğu fikri (berry, , ) benzer şekilde Üç yaşam'ın dairesel doğasından bahseder. açıkçası, bu kavramlar, metnin öyküleri arasındaki ve içindeki bitişik, kayan yüzeylerin işleyişini netleştirmeye yardımcı olur. daha önce de belirttiğimiz gibi öyküler ayrı ayrı var gibi gözükse de, pek çok temel ortak noktası var. Örneğin, harriet chessman'a göre, aile soyu ( , ), kadın sesleri ( ) ve evlilik ( ) hikayeleri birbirine bağlar; ve her öyküde kahramanın ölümü (dekoven, , ). eleştirmenlerin göz ardı ettiği bir başka bağlantı aracı, her öykünün aynı kasabada gerçekleşmesi gerçeğidir. kadınlar ve bu kadınların çeşitli dostlukları arasındaki samimi ilişkiler, hikayeler arasında ve içindeki hikâyesel olarak işleyen diğer önemli bağlantılardır. anna, bayan lehntman'la arkadaş, melanctha da jane harden ve lena'nın arkadaşı bayan mathilda'dır. ve bu dostlukların her birinde, başörtülü kişilere adanmış ve özverili doğalar karşılığında karşılık verilmez. İlginçtir ki, bu üç kadından birinin bile, onların eşit olmayan ve geri dönüşü olmayan dostluğu hakkında eleştirel düşünme olmaz. bana göre, öyle görünüyor ki hepsi, hayatlarındaki şeyleri gördükleri ve algıladıkları halde algılamaktadır. bu anlamda hayatlarında hiçbir soru sorulamaz. romanın adı, Üç yaşam bile, okuyucuyu, bu bridgepoint topluluğunda çeşitli şekilde tanımlanmış yaşamları karşılaştırıp farklılıkları görmeye itiyor. ayrıca, üç bölümden oluşan başlıklar: "İyi anna", "melanctha" ve "nazik lena", sanatsal şekillendirilmiş öyküleri belirlemek için yeterlidir. adlar okunduğunda, anna, melanctha, lena oldukça melodiktir ve iyi ve nazik olan sıfatlar romanın başlangıcındaki işe biraz daha yumuşaklık katar. sözcüklerin tekrarı romanda bir şarkının koro parçası gibidir, bazen aralıklıdır ve çarpıcı bir şekilde dalgalanır ve bazen yavaş yavaş uzaklaşır. İsimler, özellikle melanctha adıyla, metne dokuma için oldukça işlevseldir ve pratiktir. melanctha isminin, ilk okuduğunuzda melankoli düşüncesini uyandırdığının farkında olmak zor değildir. melankoli "derin bir hüzün hissi" olarak tanımlanır; (oed) “melankolik; melanctha'nın hikayesinin arsa için oldukça doğrudur: İstenmeyen bir kişi olarak görülüyor, hatta annesi onu hiç sevmiyor, arkadaşı jane harden onu çaresiz bırakıyor ve davranışlarından çok sert eleştiriyor ve kırıldığında jefferson campbell'le görüşün. melanctha, romanın öteki iki başrol oyuncudan farklı bir mulatto. stein melanctha'nın mulatto olması ve diğerlerinden farklı özellikler sunması için renkli bir portre oluşturuyor. Örneğin, melanchta her zaman gerçek benliğini ve yeni şeyleri araştırıyor ve böylece kademeli olarak "her geçen gün arzusunda daha da büyüdü. gerçekten anlayın "(stein ). bunun nedeni, etrafındaki eşyalarla yetinmemesi. Çevresinde dönen dünyayı anlamaya çalışıyor ve mutlu olacağı bazı şeyler arıyor. jane harden, dünyayı keşfetmeye başladığı ve böylece küçük yaşta kendi iç dünyasını tanımaya başladığı ilk kişidir: melanctha herbert, jane harden'la ilk tanıştığında onaltı yaşındaydı. jane olumsuz bir şeydi, ama çok beyazdı ki hiç kimse tahmin edebiliyordu. jane çok iyi eğitim aldı. renkli bir üniversitede iki yıl olmuştu. kötü davranışlarından dolayı terk etmek zorunda kaldı. melanctha'ya birçok şeyi öğretti. ona bilgeliğe yol açmanın yollarını öğretti (stein, ). stein bunu şöyle anlatır: jane harden anlamaktan korkmadı. gerçek deneyim duygusuna sahip melanctha, burada anlamak için öğrenmiş bir kadın olduğunu biliyordu. artık, gün ışığında bile, bu iki kişinin dolaşımda öğrenmeyi öğrendiği daha pürüzlü adamlar vardı ve melanctha için daha iyi sınıflar artık biraz daha yüksekti. artık öğrendiğini öğrendiği açık ajanlar ve katipler değildi, fakat iş adamları, ticaret gezginleri ve hatta erkeklerin üstü erkekti ve jane ve konuşacaktı, yürüyüp gülüp hepsinden çok kaçıyordu. melanctha için herhalde aynıydı; çünkü melanctha şu anki durumundan farklıydı; çünkü melanctha şu anki durumundan farklıydı; çünkü melanctha, bir kadınla yaşıyordu. bilgeliği ve loş gibi görünce o anlamak için ne olduğunu görmeye başladı (stein, ). bununla birlikte, melanctha'nın etrafındaki olayları keşfetmeye olan açlığı boşa çıktı. İronik olarak, bu onun bu eğiliminden çok acı çekiyor. mesela, dr. jefferson campbell, melanctha'nın sevgisi fikriyle götürülür. her seferinde sevip sevmediğini sormaya devam ediyor. tıpkı stein'in diğer iki kahramanı melanctha'da olduğu gibi ölümle biter. bir örnek vermek gerekirse, "melanctha şimdi hep onun dünyasal uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: nisan the journal of international social research volume: issue: april - - bilgelik sahibi olduğunu hissetmeye başladı. elbette onu gerçekten de biliyordu, ona öğrettiği jane'di, ama aralarındaki sıkıntıyla kapatılan her şey giderek daha da güçlendi "(stein, ). dikkatimizi çekerken, melanctha ve jane harden daha fazla dayanamazlar. jane harden, romandaki geri kalan kısım için melanchta'nın uzun süredir düşmanı gibi dönüyor. bu nedenle, romanı okuduğumda, bir çeşit kararsızlık gözlemledim. romandaki her üç dişinin ilişkileri. her ne kadar birbirleri için olması ve birbirine yapışması gerekiyorsa, bunlar çekişme halindedir. stein'de tüm kadın karakterler diğer kadın arkadaşlarıyla istikrarlı bir dostluk kurmakta başarısız oluyorlar. bu dişilerin gelgitlerinden gözlemlediklerim, birbirleriyle yaptıkları görüşmelerin dengesiz yansımalarıdır. stein'in alışılmadık özellikleri yine yorumlanabilmesi için orada. stein belki de kızların ne kadar çok göründüklerine ya da yaptıklarına bakılmaksızın birbirlerine iyi niyetli olmadığını düşünüyorlardı. belki de bu onun yaşamındaki lezbiyen seçimi yüzündendir. her iki durumda da, kadınların gözünde stein'in portresi, istenilen ve keyifli bir portre değildir. romanı okurken, her öykü satırı aynı şekilde ilerlemektedir. lawren farber'ın belirttiği gibi "Üç yaşam'daki herşey her şeye ilerledikçe birbiriyle kesişen bir önem kazanır" ( , ). bu şekilde hareket ederek, temanın tekillikle ilgili geleneksel kavramları, kübist tuval genelinde temanın işleyişinde olduğu gibi, tematik bir konuyla çeşitli perspektifler sunarak çoğullaştırılır. dubnick açıklığa kavuştuğunda, "şu an böyle bir kübist yapıda ve görüşlerin çokluğu üzerinde bir vurgu var" ( , ). böyle bir strateji berry ve chessman tarafından tanımlanan dairesellik veya dokunuş hissi yaratır. bu strateji aynı zamanda benzerlik ve farklılık, birlik ve bölünmeyi de vurgular; kübist resim ve kısa öykü döngüsü. tekrarlama ve dairesel bir anlatı satırı ile anlam, bağlama bağlı hale gelir (bowers, , ). Örneğin, bayan lehntman anna'nın hayatında çok önemli, "dul eşi bayan lehntman anna'nın hayatındaki romantizm" (stein, ) ve bu deyim the good anna bölümünde yeniden anlatıldı. karakterler arasındaki ilişkiler, karakterler arasındaki benzerlikleri yakalamak için oldukça belirleyicidir. Örneğin, anna ve bayan lehntman'ın ilişkisi melanctha ve rose johnson arasındaki ilişkiyi şekillendirir. aynı şekilde, melanctha ve rose johnson'un ilişkisi, melanctha ve jane harden'ın ilişkisini, anna ve bayan lehntman'ın ilişkisini hatırladığı gibi şekillendirirler ve böylece metin boyunca dairesel bir tarzda. bir sanatsal benzersizlik (veya fark) verilen ilişkiyi ve çevredeki diğer ilişkilerle olan benzerliğini bu anlamda açıktır. anna'nın hayatının romantizmi bayan lehntman ve devam eden bir ilişki var ikisinin arasında. bununla birlikte, iki kadın nihai olarak ilişkilerini sürdüremiyorlar: "burada, konuşamadıkları çok fazla şey var, açıklanamayan ve affedilmemiş olan şeyler" (stein, ). bayan lehntman, anna'yı, arkadaşlarını eleştirdiği, duygularıyla oynadığı ve hatta geri ödeme niyeti olmaksızın biraz para ödeyerek yararlandığını söyledi. bu tür bir ilişki, bayan lehntman'ı koşulsuz olarak seven anna için fazla bir şey ifade etmez. benzer şekilde, melanctha ve jane harden'ın ilişkisi anna ve bayan lehntman'ın ilişkisine çok benzer. melanchta çok samimi ve ona yakın olsa da, jane harden melanchta'nın hislerini hiç düşünmez. melactha evine bile bakar ve her zaman ona samimi ve cömert el verir. rose johnson ve bebeği ile ilgilenmeye yardımcı olur, ancak rose melanctha'nın yardımına hiç şükran getirmez: "melanctha herbert, ince, zeki, çekici, yarı-beyaz bir kız melanctha herbert'i seviyor ve yapıyor ve kendisini bu kaba, terbiyeli, suratsız, sıradan, siyah çocuksu gül "(stein ). jane, melanctha'yı ve dr. jefferson campbell'la olan sevgi ilişkisini eleştirirken çok acımasız ve kararlı görünüyor. melanctha'nın gitmesi gereken bir yeri yoksa, jane onu yalnız başına yabancı gibi bırakıyor. kısmen bütün fikri burada açıktır; gibi heldrich, "her belirli ilişki daha büyük bütün, kübist resimde parça-bütünlük ilişkisine benzer bir işlev" e aittir ( , ). bridgman için bu süreç, "seslerin birinde şarkı söylediği bir düpe benzemektedir ( ). anna'nın bayan lehntman'a duyduğu gibi, "[melanctha] jane'i sevmeyi öğrendi ve bu hissi çok derinden hissetti" (stein ) anna gibi, melanctha, "keskin bir şekilde melanctha'nın çekebileceğini" de öğrenir (stein, ) bu tür bağlantı ilişkileri, anna ve melanctha arasında benzeri bir ilişki kurar ve benzer koşullarda sevgililerinden yararlanan umutsuz romantiklerden biridir. sonuç genel olarak, gertrude stein, amerikalıların olağanüstü bir figürü olmuştur edebi kariyeri bakımından edebiyat. bazı orijinal sanatsal üsleler üzerinde deneyler yaparak edebi dünyadaki geleneksel kurgunun ötesine geçmeyi başarmıştır. kübizm hareketi, eserlerinde kullandığı en baskın kaynak olmuştur. Özellikle ilk kitabı Üç yaşam'da, kübist özelliklerin yansımalarının romanın atipik yapısının belirleyicileri olduğu kanıtlanmıştır. yapısal tarzı için konuşan romanın ayırt edici noktalarını gösterilmeye çalışıldı. stein'in sanata olan büyük ilgisi, orijinal ve alışılmadık bir şekilde yazmaya yönlendirecek kadar etkili oldu. Üç katlı hikaye yavaşça tuval üzerine kübik bir tablo gibi ortaya çıkıyor. her öykü, diğerlerinden bağımsız görünen ötekilere bağlayan bir şey taşır. stein, öykülerinin diğer parsallerin gölgesinde uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: nisan the journal of international social research volume: issue: april - - büyümesine asla izin vermez; tıpkı picasso'nun kübik tablolarında olduğu gibi, her şekli birlikte çizer, aynı anda kendi başlarına boyalar. resme baktığınızda şekiller hep birlikte görünüyor, ancak kendi varlıklarını bağımsız olarak alacaklar. resmin bir kısmı aynı anda bir parçası ve bir bütün oluyor. stein'i bu kadar derinden ve bütünüyle çeken nokta budur. stein yeni bir şeyden sonraydı ve inandığım oldukça titiz bir amaca ulaşmıştı. kaynakÇa berry, e. e. curved ( ). thought and textual wandering: gertrude stein's postmodernism. ann arbor: u. of michigan p. web. mar . bowers, j. p. ( ). gertrude stein's writing/gertrude stein's writing. gertrude stein. women writers. new york: st. martin's . - . web. mar . chessman, h. s..( ). the public is invited to dance: representation, the body, and dialogue in gertrude stein. stanford: stanford up. web. mar . dekoven, m ( ). a different language: gertrude stein's experimental writing. madison: u. of wisconsin p. web. mar . dubnick, r. ( ). the structure of obscurity: gertrude stein, language, and cubism. urbana: u. of illinois p. web. mar . farber, l ( ). fading: a way. gertrude stein's sources for three lives. journal of modern literature, , - . web. mar . heldrich, p. ( ). connecting surfaces: gertrude stein's three lives, cubism, and the metonymy of the short story cycle. studies in short fiction, web. mar . johnston, g. ( ). "reading anna backwards: gertrude stein writing modernism out of the nineteenth century. studies in the literary imagination, . : - . web. mar . maynard, r. ( ). abstraction in gertrude stein's three lives. ball state university forum. . . - . web. mar . melancholia. oxford english dictionary, web. mar . rose, m. g. ( ). gertrude stein and cubist narrative. modern fiction studies, , - . web. mar . stein, g. p. ( ). london: batsford, . web. mar . -----------------. three lives. bartleby. web. mar . steiner, w. ( ). exact resemblance to exact resemblance: the literary portraiture of gertrude stein. yale studies in english, new haven: yale up. web. mar . ed-col_ - _p t .indd editor’s column: collateral damage it is the photographs that give one the vivid realization of what actually took place. words don’t do it. the words that there were abuses, that it was cruel, that it was inhumane, all of which is true, that it was blatant, you read that and it’s one thing. you see the photographs, and you get a sense of it, and you cannot help but be outraged. —donald rumsfeld in an interview following his may testimony to the senate armed services committee, donald rumsfeld, the united states secretary of defense, admitted knowing about abuses at the abu ghraib prison since they were first exposed in january. he also knew of the existence of photographs documenting the abuses, but he had not studied the images until shortly before they were shown to the public during the first week of may. in asserting that “[i]t is the pho- tographs that give one the vivid realization of what actually took place” and that “[w]ords don’t do it,” rumsfeld expressed, and even surpassed, one of the prime clichés of our time, that a picture is worth a thousand words. before the power of visual images, the subject has an uncontrol- lable emotional response: “you cannot help but be outraged.” no wonder, then, that images from the iraq war have been so strictly controlled by the government; no wonder that their revelation—whether they are images of coffins, of wounded soldiers, of scenes of torture per- petrated by or against americans—has been so explosive. general rich- ard b. myers, chairman of the joint chiefs of staff, even went so far as to ask cbs’s sixty minutes ii to delay showing the photographs of prison abuse to the public lest their dissemination do harm to the troops abroad, and throughout may and june of this year pictures from abu ghraib were printed and distributed slowly and with an unusual degree of cautionary . ] [ © by t h e mode r n la nguage as s o c i at ion of a m e r ica ] framing. congress members first saw hundreds of images in closed, tightly protected settings (hulse and stolberg). they described them to the press but were prohibited from showing them to the public. the ethics of revelation was debated among commentators and politicians weighing freedom of information versus the victims’ right to privacy. but clearly more was at stake. it is ok, it seems, to read descriptions of photographs; it may not be ok to look. even as the government tried to control access to images, however, fearing their political fallout—their “collateral damage”—they surfaced and were disseminated on the internet. in the fall of , immediately following the attacks on the world trade center, mayor rudolph giuliani of new york banned cam- eras from the area around ground zero; photo- graphs of persons falling or jumping from the world trade center towers, such as the one by richard drew, appeared in newspapers around the world on september only quickly to be censored by these same papers (junod). the second iraq war began as a spectacle staged for the american television viewer, with its “em- bedded” journalists and photographers, but as soon as americans were being wounded and killed in significant numbers, the dissemination of images was strictly controlled. american and european photographers have been harassed and detained by the united states military on several occasions when they attempted to cover the continuing bloodshed in iraq (cole). it took months and a journalistic request under the freedom of information act for the public to be allowed to view photographs of coffins, and, ironically, it took garry trudeau and his comic strip “doonesbury” to generate powerful empathy with the wounded soldiers, who so far have remained largely absent from mainstream media. perhaps trudeau’s character bd, an en- thusiastic soldier, had to have his leg amputated because the wounds had until then been made invisible in the news pages of the paper. the government’s fearful, even paranoid, treatment of images echoes sentiments frequently expressed by some of us who work with words in the academy—that in the current media age our students (never mind our public officials) have lost their verbal literacy and have given them- selves over to an overwhelmingly dominant, un- controllable visuality that impairs thought. but the contributions to this issue of pmla, interro- gating visuality and visual-verbal intersections in literature, film, performance, and the visual arts, reveal to me that our field has already moved beyond this anxiety. the essays and the position papers on “literary studies and the visual arts” for the changing profession articulate how the methods of interpretation emerging from the fields of literary studies, film studies, and visual culture illuminate one another, leading to richer, deeper insights into visual, verbal, and performa- tive texts and into their interrelations. whether addressing intertextuality and cinema in oscar wilde and billy wilder (brown), oral and vi- sual testimony in jean rouch and edgar morin’s chronicle of a summer (rothberg), literary and artistic cubism in ralph ellison and romare bearden (yukins), conflicts over spectatorship on the eighteenth-century dublin stage (har- ris), or the use of masquerade in the formation of american national identity (smith-rosenberg), the essays in this issue gesture toward a word- image conjunction that would replace the word- image opposition that has dominated literary and visual studies for decades. these essays, espe- cially read in relation to the position papers in the special feature on literary studies and the vi- sual arts, also show that there is a great deal yet to say about words and images and their expres- sivity in specific cultural and historical contexts. having worked on both literary and visual texts for the last two decades, i was pleased to assem- ble an issue that would focus some of these ques- tions, and i looked forward to introducing them in theoretical terms in this column. beginning to write the column in may of , however, i was faced with a very particular set of images and the words generated about them in the me- dia. and i found that the interdisciplinary direc- editor’s column [ p m l a tion many of us have taken in our field, toward film, performance, and visual arts, toward sound and digital media, together with the sensitivity to language in which we have been trained, not only enables but compels us to address the inter- action of words and images in the political arena in a time of war. a sustained discussion of words and images, of reading and looking, seems especially urgent at a moment when trauma is instrumentalized as an alibi for censorship. the relation of visu- ality to the experience and the transmission of personal and cultural trauma—trauma that may be unspeakable but may be communicated vis- cerally and emotionally through the alternative cognitive structures of the visual—is a signifi- cant preoccupation of the essays in this issue. even while some of the authors in this issue, like tobin siebers, continue to perceive linguistic prejudices underlying our critical methods and our language about images, the contributors also affirm the extraordinary power and what siebers terms the “excessive expressivity” of visual im- ages. mieke bal, mary ann caws, and siebers highlight the detail as the site where we enter and, indeed, “read” images. attention to the vi- sual detail singles out the untranslatable power of visuality and its alternative, nonverbal, structures of meaning: “my attention was systematically arrested by the detail that seems out of place, the contradiction that tears open the work, the mon- strous element that reveals flaws and disparities and, because it provokes astonishment, offers never-ending possibilities for the understanding of these works,” writes bal. for siebers, the iso- lated detail is a sign both of materiality and of disability: “to detail is to cut, and many details preserve this primordial association with the slic- ing, abrading, or disturbing of a surface, whether the disr uption involves f lesh or nonorganic skin. . . . what [the detail] pictures is a certain excess that . . . might be called disability. . . .” in the word-image relation, siebers maintains, the image is akin to the disabled body, and it elicits similar prejudice and disparagement. roland barthes’s notion of the “punctum” in his camera lucida, an enabling trope for several contributors to these pages, allows us to imagine the “excessive expressivity of images” as a form of wounding. barthes describes his re- lation to photographs, in particular, as an open- ing to the piercing quality of details that shock and disturb, grab, puncture and wound ( – ). “the image may teach nothing,” siebers writes, “but it does open wounds.” and peggy phelan cites samuel beckett’s description of seeing: “for it is not at all about a sudden awareness, but a sudden visual grasp, a sudden shot of the eye. just that.” if, as these essays suggest, seeing is a form of wounding and being wounded, a “shot of the eye,” then to see, to be a spectator, is to respond through body and affect, as well as through the intellect. how do these forms of response deter- mine the use to which images are put? indeed, in the context of the war in iraq, visual images function not just as evidence of violence but also—and herein lies their collateral damage— as actual instruments of torture and humiliation. it is no wonder that iraqi insurgents and ameri- can prison guards knew how to exploit images as powerful weapons of intimidation by staging some of their own brutal acts for still and video cameras. torturers also know about the “exces- sive expressivity of images.” they may know that potential victims who confront photographs of tortured bodies will not merely look at these as representations of trauma suffered by others but also experience the trauma affectively and viscerally, in their own bodies. using charlotte delbo’s notion of “sense memory”—the mem- ory residing in the body of the auschwitz sur- vivor and remaining split off from the “ordinary memory” that produces narratives about life in the camp—the art historian jill bennett argues that although “words can be put into the service of sense memory, vision has a very different relationship to affective experience, experience which whilst it cannot be spoken as it is felt, may register visually. the eye can often function . ] editor’s column as a mute witness through which events register as eidetic memory images imprinted with sensa- tion” ( ). but if torture scenes were staged and photographed to intimidate and humiliate new potential victims through the workings of sense memory, they have the same effect on spectators outside this specific context, who thus become unintended victims. the workings of sense memory imprinted on the body through vision have produced an explosive impact on the world stage, uniting rather than dividing victims, per- petrators, and bystanders in their embodied sub- jectivity. the wounding effect of images blurs the boundaries between these positions: specta- tors and even perpetrators experience themselves as victims, however unintended, of the images themselves or of their unplanned circulation. before images of violence and torture, we find ourselves like beckett’s didi and gogo, as evoked by phelan, faced with “the impossibil- ity of seeing and the impossibility of not look- ing.” we have previously seen images of atrocity made by perpetrators such as the abu ghraib prison photos: pictures of lynchings showing not just victims and executioners but also cheering crowds of onlookers; photographs by the wehr- macht and the ss of their own crimes in world war ii, mailed home as tourist snapshots; violent and coerced pornographic images disseminated for the international scopophilic viewer (brison). before / , theorists of visuality feared that overpublication of atrocity images would inure the public to their effect and would diminish their power to shock. commentators warned that, in the society of the spectacle, images of war and atrocity and images from popular films and tele- vision programs simulating war, violence, and disaster would meld and produce compassion fatigue and even indifference. photographs and other still images are flat and two-dimensional, limited by their frames. they can contain and domesticate atrocity, making it manageable, comprehensible. they quickly assume symbolic meaning and so remove themselves from the real (zelizer ). in the work of cultural memory, their multiplicity may be overwhelming, and thus the archive of atrocity photos is quickly limited to just a few emblematic images repeated over and over. in their iconicity and repetition, they may lose their power to wound. recently, however, even susan sontag, a harsh critic of photography, has changed her mind about the medium. “i am not so sure now,” she writes in regarding the pain of others: “what is the evidence that photographs have a diminishing impact, that our culture of spec- tatorship neutralizes the moral force of photo- graphs of atrocity? ” ( ). at the same time, sontag chastises us for succumbing to the se- ductiveness of war, for our ability to look away, to close our eyes and turn the page. vision is both piercing and distant for her. the pain of others remains so tragically remote that, as she emphasized in the new york times magazine in may , perpetrators are “posing, gloating, over their helpless captives” (“regarding” – ) and themselves distributing images of their crimes to family and friends. the same image can be entertaining for one set of viewers and traumatic for another. what kind of visual-verbal literacy can respond to the needs of the present moment? the analyses of words and images, reading and spectatorship in this issue contain suggestions, as do the hybrid texts on which these articles are based. “you don’t have to look,” gogo says to didi. “you can’t stop looking,” didi responds, characterizing our current position in relation to the power of visuality. like beckett’s char- acters, we see but are unable to look and unable to transform the field of vision into insight and meaning—unable to articulate, in clear terms, the relation between images and words. phelan speaks of beckett’s “biocularity,” his reading of images as words, of words as images: “seeing was always already a way of saying for beckett, and so too was saying a way of seeing.” in the shadow of no towers, art spiegel- man’s reflections on / , from which the cover editor’s column [ p m l a of this issue is borrowed, is both a manifestation of this kind of visual-verbal biocularity and a meditation on traumatic seeing. in the first of the ten comics pages making up in the shadow of no towers, spiegelman asserts that “i live on the outskirts of ground zero and first saw it all live—unmediated.” this is to distinguish his view from that of the comics characters on the upper part of the page, watching their tele- vision screen (and, presumably, the collapse of the towers), eyes bulging and hair standing on end. but when he draws his own experiences on the morning of / in lower manhattan on subsequent pages, spiegelman admits to every- thing he did not, in fact, see. “he didn’t actually see the first plane smash into the tower a few blocks south of his soho home. . . . they heard the crash behind them while heading north. he did see the face of a woman heading south . . .” ( ). the word-image “roarrrrrrrr!!” almost covers the statement about not seeing, occlud- ing it to the point of near illegibility. not seeing becomes visible and even audible, as graphic as the absent towers. words, images, and word- images work together to enact the impossibility of seeing and the impossibility of not looking. through its comics form, in the shadow of no towers complicates any clear differentia- tions between word and image. with words al- ways already functioning as images and images asking to be read as much as seen, comics are biocular texts par excellence. asking us to read back and forth between images and words, com- ics reveal the visuality and thus the materiality of words and the discursivity and narrativity of images. but in the shadow of no towers, like its predecessor maus, also performs an aesthet- ics of trauma: it is fragmentary, composed of small boxes that cannot contain the material, which exceeds their frames and the structure of the page. architecturally mirroring the structure of the towers and thereby allowing us to keep them in view even as they collapse in front of our eyes, again and again, in the shadow of no towers operates on a number of levels at once. enabling reality and fantasy, historical and fic- tional figures, human and cartoon characters to coexist and morph into each other, it demands an extraordinarily complex response beyond just combining reading and looking. comics highlight both the individual frames and the space between them, calling attention to the compulsion to transcend the frame in the act of seeing. they thus startlingly reveal the limited, obstructed vision that characterizes a historical moment ruled by trauma and censorship. “i wanted to sort out the fragments of what i’d experienced from the media images that threatened to engulf what i actually saw,” spie- gelman writes in his introduction to the book. “what i actually saw,” he insists, was “burned into the inside of my eyelids,” seared into his skull forever, and thus in no towers those scenes are drawn as a set of photographs strewn across the page ( ). at the moment of trauma, time stands still, images are frozen, like the glowing tower that is repeated over and over in the pages of spiegelman’s work. to see is to be wounded, seared, burned. even as he insists on specifying what he “actually” saw, however, spiegelman also admits to being “haunted now by the images he didn’t witness” (no towers ), drawing, on the entire left side of one of the pages, a troubling image of a falling man based on the censored photograph by richard drew. vision is faulty, mediated, unreliable, blocked. as siebers writes, “the image may teach noth- ing, but it does open wounds.” those who wit- nessed the collapse of the towers and those who saw the photographs of the towers collapsing and the people jumping—many millions, in this moment of global witness—also became the victims of the attacks. the wounding by images was the collateral damage of the attacks on the world trade center. at the same time, spiegelman also exposes the protective mechanisms that are deployed by the ways in which vision typically operates in our culture. “he saw the burning towers as he and his wife ran to canal street, toward the . ] editor’s column school . . . but his view was obstructed as he ran up the next block. . . . he could only see smoke billowing behind a giant billboard. . . . it was for some dopey new schwarzenegger movie about terrorism.” the next panel is dominated by a giant poster for the film, collateral dam- age, with dark smoke billowing all around. the panel reads, “oddly, in the aftermath of sep- tember th, some pundits insisted that irony was dead.” the film collateral damage, adver- tised in september , was deemed inappro- priate after the attacks and was not released to theaters until several months later. but the giant poster obstructing the view of the burning tow- ers itself exemplifies the movie’s title, “collat- eral damage”—a euphemism for the destruction of people and property not directly targeted by the military. but in the context of / (and the wars that followed), “collateral damage” also describes both the cost of seeing the traumatic real and the costs of not being allowed to look. euphemism (“abuse” for torture, “collateral damage” for unintended killing or for undesir- able political consequences) is the linguistic equivalent of obstructed, censored, vision. in another context, diana taylor has termed this obstruction “percepticide,” “the self-blinding of the general population,” the “fear, denial and tacit complicity” that bring a population “to see without being able to do.” taylor’s term refers to the argentinian “dirty war” of the s, which relied on another euphemism, “disappear- ance” for abduction, torture, and murder ( ). euphemism is also an assertion of the power and danger of language. and this is where the study of language and literature connects to the study of visual culture. media representations function like euphe- misms to obstruct seeing, saying, and under- standing. the collapsing towers on television looked just “like” the disaster movies to which we are habituated. media representations shield us from the “excessive expressivity” of the visual to the point where, through the self-blinding of “percepticide,” we can live with ourselves as we look without seeing, see without doing, under- stand without saying or writing. what, spiegel- man’s text seems to ask, might enable us to see photograph by art spiegelman of canal street in lower manhattan a few days after / . editor’s column [ p m l a what we “actually” witness? how might we see beyond what kaja silverman, following lacan, has termed “the given-to-be-seen” ( – ), be- yond the ready-made tropes and clichéd images that frame our look, dominating the visual field and protecting us from trauma? in the frames on spiegelman’s pages, words and images that in their media representation and repetition threaten to lose their wounding power reappear in newly alienated, and thus freshly powerful, form. in this work, spiegel- man mobilizes comics and the acts of seeing and reading they demand in an attempt to see beyond the given-to-be-seen and to say what cannot otherwise be said. marianne hirsch notes shanker and schmitt a . as quoted in the new york times, myers said, “what i asked cbs news to do was to delay the release of the pic- tures given the current situation in iraq, which was as bad as it had been since major combat ended, because i thought it would bring direct harm to our troops. it would kill our troops” (shanker and schmitt a ). additional photos were first printed in the washington post on may , along with the testimonies of detainees. on that day, in a long on- line chat, executive editor leonard downie, jr., explained the post’s decision to make the photos and documents, as well as related videos, available to the public. carl hulse and sheryl gay stolberg write, “the ex- plicit nature of the photographs left the lawmakers deeply conflicted over whether the images should be made public. some who previously favored a public release said they had changed their minds and were swayed by remarks from military personnel that to do so would violate the prison- ers’ right to privacy and protection from humiliation under international law” (a ). i understand that the term visual literacy exhibits linguistic prejudices, and i use it not only because i don’t know a better term and because it is commonly in use but also to make the point that the word-image conjunction to which the essays in this issue aspire will require that those who work in literary and in visual studies borrow from each other’s conceptual and lexical registers. on trauma, collateral damage, and concomitant loss, see kacandes. works cited barthes, roland. camera lucida: reflections on photogra- phy. trans. richard howard. new york: farrar, . bennett, jill. “the aesthetics of sense-memory: theo- rising trauma through the visual arts.” trauma und erinnerung, trauma and memor y: cross- cultural perspectives. ed. franz kaltenbeck and peter weibel. vienna: passagen, . – . brison, susan j. “connect the pixels: fact and fiction in a pornographic world.” chronicle of higher education review june : b . cole, juan. “we are losing the war over pictures.” history news network. may . july <http://hnn .us/articles/ .html>. downie, leonard, jr. “iraq: new abuse details.” wash- ington post may . july <http://www .washingtonpost.com/ac /wp-dyn/a - may >. hulse, carl, and sheryl gay stolberg. “the struggle for iraq: congress; lawmakers view images from iraq.” new york times may : a +. junod, tom. “the falling man.” esquire sept. : +. kacandes, irene. “ / / = / / : the changed post- traumatic self.” trauma at home: after / . ed. judith greenberg. lincoln: u of nebraska p, . – . shanker, thom, and eric schmitt. “rumsfeld accepts blame and offers apology in abuse.” new york times may : a +. silverman, kaja. the threshold of the visible world. new york: routledge, . sontag, susan. regarding the pain of others. new york: farrar, . ———. “rega rding the tor ture of others.” new york times magazine may : +. spiegelman, art. in the shadow of no towers. new york: pantheon, . taylor, diana. disappearing acts: spectacles of gender and nationalism in argentina’s “dirty war.” durham: duke up, . zelizer, barbie. remembering to forget: holocaust mem- ory through the camera’s eye. chicago: u of chicago p, . . ] editor’s column proceedings , , ; doi: . /proceedings www.mdpi.com/journal/proceedings proceedings art is thinking in images † (viktor shklovsky), for whom “animagism” was a form of illiteracy of thought. francesco cervellini school of architecture and design, university of camerino, camerino , italy; francesco.cervellini@fastwebnet.it † presented at the international and interdisciplinary conference immagini? image and imagination between representation, communication, education and psychology, brixen, italy, – november . published: november abstract: the theme of the conference regards images. since the theme is so vast, i have handled it by dedicating to it some basic general reflections. therefore, i maintain that the best choice is to evoke the aphorism in the epigraph: i propose a series of fragmented memories or annotations taken while reading and looking at images, or even citations. keywords: ars; master of ars; painting; image; imagination; disegno; sketching . introduction the true sense of the aphorism in critical theory is precisely this: writing with urgency, starting from a concrete figure, throwing flashes of theory here and there with the awareness that one cannot do better. (stefano petrucciani). the theme of the conference regards images. since the theme is so vast, i have handled it by dedicating to it some basic general reflections. therefore, i maintain that the best choice is to evoke the aphorism in the epigraph: i propose a series of fragmented memories or annotations taken while reading and looking at images, or even citations, although i am often guilty of lacking the author’s name. i offer “flashes of theory” proposed in concurring or even contradictory sequences, “without chronological or narrative order, but with the coherence of a detonation moving along the entirely proustian thread of a memory that proceeds through figurative madeleines”, as gianni canova would say (see below). these are notes, therefore, that try to trace a border around my main interest and a line within, which is perhaps discontinuous and contorted where it intersects materials and essential techniques. my interest is overtly for the formed image: the one intentionally given a form with aesthetic goals (which in many experiences in modern art can also be “unformed”, as rosalind krauss has demonstrated). having said this explicitly, another preliminary caution is important. as the writer of the italian wikipedia page states, the image in a literally rigorous sense is a “visual, non-solid representation”. as clarified then in a footnote, “the image is not the physical support on which it can be fixed or visualized. it is the visual information fixed or visualized upon the support”. this affirmation— increasingly valid today in the digital age—seems to suggest the essential conceptual nature of the techniques used to produce actual images, that is, an inventive search for meaningful ways and procedures that are mostly virtual. on the other hand, throughout history, the image was inseparably fixed in works with a physical substance, even if it was sometimes only represented allusively. beyond those preceding the pure conceptualization of an appearance, it also refers to other techniques—material production to use kandinsky’s term—of the artificial references of the images, production as the fruit of knowledge and ancient traditions or very modern experimentation. proceedings , , of but in this age of transition, the subsistence/coexistence within images of both types of techniques does not constitute an insoluble conflicting condition. better yet, on the one hand, it reconfirms both their specific cognitive value—that is, not only descriptive/illustrative—and the mandatory need for systematic experimentation with them (as an unavoidable need to verify the law of facts). on the other hand, it finally pushes towards the desired start of systematic investigation of the means from which the work of art is born, setting aside both the spiritual abstractions of romantic aesthetics and the likewise abstract institutionalism of superperforming advantages of the digital medium. all of this is initially oriented towards a reflection on the possibility/opportunity for a linguistic structure of the systems of formed visual images, beginning with an attempt to indicate their possible grammatical foundation. all of what follows is basically notes that intersect with the various techniques, to be collected and developed (figure ). figure . picture of the author visiting in orbit— tempoarary exhibit of tomás saraceno in standenhaus, kunstsammlung nordrhein-westfalen, düsseldorf. . on images and imagination  “we make pictures of the world for ourselves”, ludwig wittgenstein said in his tractatus. today’s technoscience has only increased the capacity of scientists to work with images and representations.  various types of images can be classified: the image as a picture (figure on supporting material), the mental or representational image, the dreamlike and mnemic image, the image as a figured proceedings , , of trope of language, the image as an object of individual and collective imagination and unconscious; from a. pinotti and a. somaini, cultura visuale, einaudi, turin, .  like memory, imagination does not only sanctions the step from the sensible to the intelligible, from physis to all its opposite extremes (logos, techné, nomos, etc.) but is specified in a nature and a culture that it has made possible on its own. (maurizio ferraris)  seeing oneself. seeing is not a neutral or naïve act separable from the person who sees or is seen. with regard to the anatomy lesson by rembrandt in amsterdam, valery loved to say that the eye is the most spiritual of the senses. words, like an image, a reflection, a representation, converge on the ophthalmic scene. the eye is the inevitable organ both of knowledge and its distortion. all that pertains to the experience of looking is a mental refraction of matter …. the maximum of reality and the maximum of theatricality come into contact with artifice, reflex, interference on reality, of reality, with reality. the viewpoint is to be used as a great metaphor, only by knowing itself to be unknown to itself without certainty or identity, is it possible, can one try to reposition oneself as objects of the world. (magrelli). . notes on the techniques of invention  repetition is impartial and a null sum of variations and unaltered identities.  “repetition is recollection carried forward”. (kierkegaard)  editing: composing what is simultaneous into a sequence, connecting what is iconic to what is discursive.  metre is a measure and ordering value. the measure fixes a value as an opportune limit, but gives a hint of the sense of limitlessness, of what lies beyond.  every work in some phase of its development acquires its own “normativeness”, becoming a model of “rule-making creativeness”. . notes on the techniques of inventing the disegno and some expressive methods  manual disegno [ ] is one of the oldest means of experience and human knowledge, certainly predating writing and history. its “effective, subtle artisanship” recalls the myth of daedalus, whose work expressed creative fantasy and the community’s productive ability. today the sense of community seems rather weak, yet like the disegno, it survives and does not disappear, even if we must accept that it changes. the “new pencil”, however, should allow and authorize the meaning of sentiments that we mistakenly claimed were stable to change freely, but not to reduce or delete them.  the private worth of the disegno as a memorandum remains unaltered; looking at another’s disegno has always meant immersing oneself in a dimension separate from the mental field of its creator.  to understand the aspect (and the value) of a disegno that was just made, one should imagine it as terrain whose superficial similarity highlights the stratification of its elaboration (and its sense). immediately after observing its format and the approach with which it was set, it is first necessary to concentrate on analysing the visible surface (with the graphical techniques that produced it). its consistency is given concretely by a “humus” of sensible phenomena—physical matter and manual practices to distinctively recognize and classify: shading and light, colouring and staining, collage and superposition of the most varied materials, dry and desiccated or, in contrast, viscous and thickened, disposed to “texturizing” larger or smaller fields or to mark the linear outlines of figures.  tracing the sign and the space together: the magical capacity of the design consists in fencing in the space but also the time, the “iconographic instant of the archetypical sign”, consigning it definitively to the present.  any invention disegno is also a self-portrait, or better yet, “the disegno is a double transfer: from reality to the author and then back to artificial reality” (franco purini).  “thought does not descend from the sky, nor does it bypass the head. it is, rather, the result of practice, of habits of externalization that retrospectively constitute our inner reality”, maurizio proceedings , , of ferraris in il pensiero manuale in la repubblica, february —(like the disegno. author’s note).  cézanne says, “the instant the paint becomes a gesture, the painter thinks in paint”. figure . claude monet ninfee, , national gallery, london. . notes on the techniques of the masters  vasari writes, “giotto discovered, in part, something of the gradation and foreshortening of figures”.  michelangelo’s disegni grew not through layers of technical determination, but instead, according to him, as occurred for the form, which was nestled in the heart of the marble and awoken by “force of removal”, that is, by erosion and excavation far from any simple talent and by naturalistic mimesis, although so easy for him, but empty of sense and aimed at an arduous identity of their making.  raphael opened the s with the marriage of the virgin [ ].  wislawa szymborska (polish poet) states that vermeer “is the painter of silence. each of his paintings is painted silence”.  according to federico zeri, ingres was “the minister of the line”. his line is absolute.  rembrandt had, like few others, the ability to represent the glare of metals.  john constable ( – ) was one of the best landscape painters: the inventor of the modern landscape (the so-called “constable country”). to find a parallel it is necessary to think of the provence of cézanne and van gogh or the Île of corot and monet).  poussin defined his own position with respect to colour: he indicated, in fact, a sort of theory of the “methods” to be applied as a function of the “genre”.  delacroix: colour as a luminous mass that coagulates its own edges. assembler les rêves (assembling dreams) is the title of delacroix’s diary.  the lemon by manet ( ) disavows the chromatic naturalism of caravaggio. . monet’s turning point  “gather the nature of the fact”, monet said. for this it was not necessary to work more than two hours continuously. the effect of the luminous-chromatic condition for monet lasted about min and the goal of painting was to render the history of those min.  it is probably with one of his famous water lilies, painted around , that monet abolished the horizon. he physically expels it above the “window”, which therefore ceases to be such; between observed reality and representation, the relationship that is instituted becomes completely different: a relationship of instantaneous correspondence, as monet himself said many times about wanting to search and establish. (figures and ) proceedings , , of figure . claude monet stagno di ninfee, – , chichu art museum, naoshima, kagawa. . notes on the modernism masters  critical syntheses on the origin of painting in the s “rest upon” a binary scheme of two complementary evolutionary lines: (a) the line from fauvism to divisionism and (b) the line from cézanne to cubism [ ] (figure ).  “in nature everything is modelled according to three fundamental modes: the sphere, the cone, the cylinder. you must learn to paint these very simple figures, then you can do what you want”. (cézanne)  is the year of les demoiselles d’avignon, that is, the year when modern painting began [ ].  in franz marc, one of the promoters—with kandinsky—of der blaue reiter, painted and exhibited a painting called blaue fohlen [blue foals]. he was asked by a visitor when he had ever seen blue horses and he responded curtly with what could be considered one of the most blunt summaries of modern art: “i didn’t paint horses. i painted a painting”.  “here for the first time,” says shklovsky, “iron is standing on its hind legs and seeking its artistic formula. in the age of construction cranes, as fine as the wisest martian, iron has the right to go on a rampage … the monument is made of iron, glass, and revolution”.  the modern painter no longer considers the image as a simple substitute for a sensible reality. the great painting tradition of the s cannot be understood without also rediscovering the icon. the metaphysical world of a malevic is the icon in an anti-icon sense. but also mondrian. in mondrian there is a search for the archetype. (the variations are variations on something identical.) these influences are very noticeable not only in theory but also in certain figurative choices: as malevic said and as mondrian would repeat, in the elimination of what is retinal, in a solely mental depiction, in the strong push towards intellectualization. it is a painting of pure intelligence where feeling counts for absolutely nothing: it is a revelation of archetypes, of geometrical figures. it is a revelation of reality in a platonic, not empirical, sense.  klee and german idealistic metaphysics, which embraced the romantic details of what was close and what was far away, close-up detail and a cosmic panorama.  “klee invented his pentagram—elegant and unstable—of forms and colours that are imposed to be an arpeggio always in a precarious balance between a steadfast calling for an encoded realism and the slow irresistible calling to be freed from any concrete fact”. (cesare de seta in an article probably in la repubblica about a klee exhibit in bonn in some unknown year).  for klee, figurative is not the representation of the object, but the internal construction of the image (in this sense what is visible also has an abstract conception).  duchamp’s rotoreliefs create problems in some perceptual certainties, due to which it is a “celibate machine”.  for the abstract expressionists, the abysses of i represented the main element generating the work.  detournement, wandering through a labyrinth of random correspondences.  the sculptural machines created by jean tinguely (the reference is the so-called kinetic painting).  magritte is a figurative painter of abstract thought. proceedings , , of  marcel duchamp, responding to a request from tzara who invited him to participate in a show, said “i have nothing to exhibit—that the word exhibit is like the word marriage for me”. figure . pablo picasso, – , les demoiselles d’avignon, moma, new york. . notes on film techniques  “the close-up originated in the images of kings on coins”. (j. l. godard)  perhaps histories (a history) today can only be done so. a history (of design? of cinema?), with all the other possible histories within … in the approach and the themes, but also in the supports and languages. without any chronological or narrative order, but with the coherence of a detonation moving along the entirely proustian thread of a memory that proceeds through figurative madeleines, twists around itself, opens illuminating flashes of inspiration, sinks into the darkness of black images and then re-emerges with surprising, always revealing combinations”. (gianni canova, il cinema è una madeleine (cinema is a madeleine), in alias no. , january ).  “i look for plasticity, especially the plasticity of the image, along a path which i can never forget, begun by masaccio: his proud chiaroscuro, his black and white—or the path, if you like, of archaic painters, in a strange union of subtlety and crudeness. i can’t be an impressionist. i love the background, not the landscape”. (pier paolo pasolini on mamma roma, rizzoli, milan, ). proceedings , , of . notes on digital techniques  the digital age has defined a form of taylorism in the decomposition of commonly synthetic cognitive activities into as many parcelled functions.  many contemporary digital images show a tendency for a figurative change. in the meantime, the precondition is merely quantitative order: because the figural intent, that is, the manifestation of a formative intention expressed through disegni or schemes, is increased significantly (and open to everyone) with digital design. then, in a richer sense, because the potential transformability of the images—to which animation procedures, with their dynamic and chromatic variations, can also very easily be applied—has begun to go beyond the absolute visual determinism of static representation, towards possible continuous changes and manipulations. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. notes . the italian term disegno was not deliberately translated into the entire article. . there was a double exhibit of this iconographic theme at the accademia di brera this year. . before reaching the final version of les demoiselles d’avignon, picasso created a large number of versions, reworking and transforming them, which would lead him to the known version. but not even that could be considered the true final version because what we see now is the last draft made by the artist, who at a certain point simply stopped working on it. . in its simplification, this scheme sets aside an important series of phenomena; e.g., the conquest of pure colour that would give rise to all of impressionism or the esotericism of gauguin’s school or even symbolism, etc. © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . style et atmosphère denis bertrand résumé. en hommage à omar calabrese et à son aura particulière, l’auteur présente un par- cours d’analyse sur le rapport entre perception visuelle et signification. il appréhende l’engendrement des formes depuis l’exercice de l’informe – à partir de remarques de paul valéry –, pour envisager ensuite l’émergence de la forme au sein de la vision – en suivant le regard de peintre de paul cézanne –, et fonder enfin sur la forme le concept d’atmosphère – à travers deux de ses valences possibles –, en relation avec celui de style. mots-clefs. vision, forme, informe, atmosphère, calabrese, cézanne, valéry. abstract: style and atmosphère - as a tribute to omar calabrese and his particular aura the author presents an analysis path about the conection between visual perception and significance. he captures the génération of forms from the exercise of informing – from paul valéry’s notes in order to envision the form emergence in sight – followed by the painting regard of paul cézanne and finally founding the form over the concept of atmosphere – through two of its possible valences related to the one of style. keywords: vision; form; inform; atmosphere ; calabrese ; cézanne ; valéry parce que ses travaux ne sont pour l’essentiel pas traduits en français, et parce que la sémiotique des arts, son grand domaine, était jusqu’à récemment à l’extérieur de mes champs d’étude, omar calabrese est longtemps resté pour moi un sémioticien prestigieux et lointain. c’est ainsi que j’ai surtout perçu d’omar une aura qui l’enveloppait, une atmosphère – un peu siennoise – qui filtrait la perception que j’en avais, un charme qui émanait de lui… mais nos histoires séparées se sont croisées il y a quelques années, autour du projet commun d’approfondir le concept sémiotique de semi-symbolisme qu’il avait lui-même repris et avait été le seul à exploiter après les premières esquisses de greimas et, texte de la conférence présenté à l’université de sienne, le mai , inaugurant un cycle de conférences en hommage à omar calabrese. bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . à sa suite, de jean-marie floch. prolongeant la définition structurale du semi-symbolisme, et apercevant l’extension que nous pouvions donner à ce concept, nous souhaitions y intégrer la dimension sensible et énonciative de la signification. nous avons ainsi tenu deux colloques, l’un à paris et l’autre à sienne sur ce sujet passionnant, et nous préparons avec francesca polacci le projet d’une troisième réunion sur un nouveau prolongement de cette problématique qui noue les formes du contenu à celles de l’expression dans la trame de la corporéité, lectrice du sens : ce projet a pour thème l’atmosphère. je précise: les atmosphères, les ambiances et les climats, au sens de charme et d’aura… ce phénomène par exemple qui faisait que le poète rilke, jour après jour, en octobre , ne pouvait s’empêcher de revenir, au salon d’automne, dans la salle où étaient exposés les tableaux de paul cézanne. il écrit: je suis retourné aujourd’hui voir ses tableaux; l’ambiance qu’ils créent est unique.» qu’est-ce que cette «ambiance» et qu’est-ce que cette «unicité»? voilà notre objet. les atmosphères» sont ces phénomènes de signification vécue, à la fois incontestables dans l’expérience sensible et pourtant imperceptibles, à la fois évidents par leur inscription corporelle et mémorielle – comme en témoigne la nostalgie – et cepen- dant résistants à l’analyse par leur caractère limite, intangible, insaisissable. ce sont des phénomènes volatiles et aériens, comme les catachrèses qui les nomment le suggèrent en faisant appel à ces mouvements imprévisibles de l’air ambiant qu’on respire. j’aimerais donc ici suggérer quelques réflexions sur cette thématique, en hommage à omar, à la rencontre de son aura. et si j’ai voulu associer imprudemment la notion d’atmosphère à celle de style – dont la problématique nous a intéressé tous deux éga- lement – c’est parce que l’angle, aigu, à travers lequel je vous proposerai de l’aborder est celui d’une expérience centrale de la création visuelle, celle de paul cézanne que je viens d’évoquer, qui associait précisément le style à l’atmosphère. style, atmosphère… ces notions font partie, avec la «nature», la «vie», la «forme» – notions qu’on écrit sou- vent avec des majuscules –, de celles dont valéry disait qu’elles tirent «toujours vers des incertitudes éternelles et d’invincibles ambigüités» . il les opposait aux notions techniques, comme celles de la marine ou de la météorologie, qui sont monosémiques et étroitement référentielles. comme celles aussi de la sémiotique. greimas se méfiait avec raison du retour de ces notions longtemps combattues; je me souviens notamment du «style » – qui a pourtant été réacclimaté, on va y revenir. car si nous voulons ainsi réhabiliter ce type de notions, c’est pour les transformer en concepts descriptifs; et cela implique de les envisager avec des exigences supplémentaires, ou avec la conviction que les avancées de la théorie rendent aujourd’hui leur accessibilité et leur définition meilleures. ainsi, pour les «tmosphères» et les «climats», l’intérêt pour ces concepts, et même pour les évanescences qu’ils recouvrent, s’inscrit à mon avis dans la cohérence d’une évolution conceptuelle de la sémiotique dont on peut assez facilement retracer les grandes rainer maria rilke, lettres sur cézanne, trad. ph. jaccottet, paris, seuil, , p. . paul valéry, degas, danse, dessin, ( ) paris, gallimard, « folio. essais », , p. . bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . étapes. ces étapes définissent des conditions différentes de saisie du sens, à mon avis plus intégratives et cumulatives que disjonctives et exclusives. on a eu d’abord le sens saisi par différence et par opposition, avec le triomphe de la relation et de la catégorisation, robuste structuralisme. et puis, avec la querelle continuiste, on a envisagé le sens saisi comme co- présence de grandeurs en compétition, c’était l’avènement de la sémiotique tensive dont on commence à sentir l’efficacité descriptive. et puis, intégrant plus clairement les sujets en interaction, on a eu le sens saisi par coalescence, dans une visée d’union plutôt que de conjonction, avec les propositions d’une sémiotique de la contagion développées par eric landowski. et enfin aujourd’hui on évoque, en prolongeant ces effets de contagion, le sens saisi par diffusion, propagation d’effets signifiants difficilement isolables et même perceptibles, indiscrétisables en tout cas, ceux de ce qu’on appelle un climat – climat «délétère» d’une fin de règne par exemple – ou une aura – rayonnement d’une personnalité qui imprègne son environnement. c’est donc la perspective d’une sémiotique de l’atmosphère que nous chercherons à appréhender dans ce projet de colloque que nous réunirons en hommage à omar calabrese (avril ), avec pour objectif de préciser les contours et la portée signifiante de ce concept. les quelques propositions que je vais faire ici ne souhaitent, modestement, qu’entrouvrir les perspectives de cette vaste problématique. voilà, autour de quatre mots, le parcours que je propose : l’informe d’abord, la forme ensuite – à partir du regard de peintre de paul cézanne, et puis l’atmosphère – ou plutôt deux valences de l’atmosphère, et enfin le style. l’informe l’atmosphère ou l’aura qui émanent des personnes, des œuvres et des choses, nous dirigent vers ce qui se trouve en deçà ou au delà des formes. est-ce le lieu de l’informe ? peut-être. en tout cas l’«exercice par l’informe» dont je veux parler peut être compris, en amont des formes elles-mêmes, comme ce qui conduit vers leur saisie, comme condition de leur appréhension sensible. en évoquant «l’informe», je fais référence à un court passage du livre que paul valéry a consacré à son ami degas, degas danse dessin ( ), dans un chapitre précisément intitulé «du sol et de l’informe» . comme sa morphologie et son étymologie l’indiquent, le nom «in-forme» implique du négatif. mais de quelle nature est ce négatif et quel lien noue-t-il avec le positif dans l’événement et la création visuels? c’est sur l’horizon de cette double question que je me suis intéressé au texte de valéry. qu’est-ce que l’informe tout d’abord? ce sont ces choses qui, selon valéry, ont une existence de fait» dans la perception, et qui sont opposables à toutes les choses «sues». il dit précisément de ces choses: «elles ne sont que perçues par nous, et non sues». qu’est- paul valéry, op. cit., pp. - . bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . ce que cela veut dire, «non sues»? cela signifie qu’elles ne peuvent être immédiatement prises en charge, lors de la perception, par une opération cognitive de structuration et de prévisibilité: par exemple une opération de causalité, faisant immédiatement apparaître l’agent-origine de la forme, comme un galet sur la plage roulé et formé par les vagues; ou bien une opération de symétrisation, comme un battant de fenêtre qui appelle son pendant, ou un bras gauche son bras droit; ou bien une opération d’orientation qui fait immédiatement percevoir la structuration de bas en haut, ou du devant au derrière ; ou bien une opération méréologique, distribuant la partie appréhendée par les sens au sein des autres parties à l’intérieur d’un tout qui lui donne sens; ou encore une opération taxinomique, qui nous fait immédiatement ranger un objet perçu dans une classe d’objets ; et bien d’autres opérations sans doute. les manipulations cognitives qui font corps avec la perception pour faire être les choses sous nos yeux et les transformer en langage – en sémiotique du monde naturel –, sont nombreuses, on le sait. et il faudrait immédiatement leur ajouter les opérations affectives et passionnelles de l’attraction ou du dégoût, du désir et de la crainte, etc. bref, les objets non informes sont ceux qui délivrent, de l’intérieur, une sorte d’intention. cette intention les présente au regard et à la main comme des objets sou- mis à des opérations signifiantes instantanées: la déduction, l’induction, l’anticipation, l’analogie, la prévision de saisie, l’intérêt, etc. ce que nous percevons à travers eux, à travers une seule de leurs parties, c’est aussi la possibilité d’envisager l’ensemble d’un seul coup d’œil, coup d’œil qu’on n’a du même coup pas besoin d’exercer, car c’est davantage cette intention immanente prêtée aux objets, cette structure signifiante incrustée en eux, cette narrativité incluse qui nous les rend familiers… et nous dispense en somme de les regarder. de les regarder vraiment. voilà précisément ce qui ne se passe pas avec l’objet informe. en effet l’informe n’est pas, comme le souligne valéry, une absence de forme, il n’est pas la négation d’une ou de toute forme. plus profondément et plus précisément, l’informe est une forme sur laquelle je ne peux pas appliquer un acte cognitif de structuration, une forme sur laquelle je ne peux déposer, comme sur un écran, un schème interprétatif qui la transforme en plan d’expression pour un contenu que je vais m’approprier. dire d’une chose qu’elle est informe, c’est dire que sa forme ne trouve en nous, précise valéry, «rien qui permette de [la] remplacer par un acte de tracement ou de reconnaissance nets» . bref, l’informe ainsi compris c’est le tracé aléatoire d’une flaque d’eau, une suite de notes frappées au hasard sur un piano, un caillou ou un rocher, un mouchoir froissé, un nuage qui, se déformant sans cesse, fait alterner forme et informe : il est un instant éléphant, il devient papillon et puis rien du tout, puis il s’étire à nouveau et redevient chrysalide… on pourrait voir dans cette absence de règles internes de formation, tout à l’opposé des fameux points de non-généricité analysés par jean petitot comme des marqueurs paul valéry, op. cit., p. - . bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . d’esthéticité, la manifestation du négatif dans l’informe. mais valéry va bien au delà de ce constat. parlant de peinture et de création, il envisage la relation de l’informe avec l’acte de dessiner ou de peindre. c’est là qu’il suggère ce qu’il appelle «l’exercice par l’informe» . il ne faut pas confondre en effet «ce qu’on voit avec ce qu’on croit voir» . base de l’épokhè phénoménologique, la fameuse suspension des savoir et des croire dans la perception, la vision est une construction qui multiplie les écrans devant les choses et em- pêche de les voir en elles-mêmes. nul besoin de les voir parce que nous les «pré-voyons». l’habitude de voir et la force de l’usage, comme celle de la praxis énonciative sur les expressions verbales, dispense de considérer les choses dans leur étroite singularité de chose. nous en captons les significations que nous inscrivons dans nos schèmes narratifs et passionnels de connaissance, d’action, de communication et d’échange, au point que nos impressions sur l’œil s’arrêtent le plus souvent aux effets utilitaires de cette lecture. toute vision comporte ainsi sa part d’occultation, de rejet et négation. on suspend le voir dans la vision. on lui fait crédit à d’autres fins. or, l’informe oblige à voir et à interroger la vision; il contraint le dessinateur à le regarder, à trouver en lui quelque règle secrète qui en assurera la représentabilité, à des- cendre en quelque sorte dans la matérialité et la substance de la chose pour en dégager la forme. l’informe impose ainsi un regard neuf, il met le regard à nu, il prescrit le voir. il donne la leçon aux choses sues, et invite à réapprendre à les regarder en les débarrassant des écrans cognitivo-passionnels qui en définitive et en réalité les masquent. ainsi donc, le négatif de l’informe m’informe sur un autre négatif, sur le négatif inhérent à la saisie perceptive des choses, sur la part négative – ou niée – dans la percep- tion ordinaire, celle qui croit voir alors qu’elle saisit au vol, à l’appel furtif d’un signal de chose, le paquet de relations que cette chose commande sous le poids de l’usage et de l’habitude. le négatif de l’informe est ainsi chargé de positivité dans la mesure même ou il délivre le négatif de la perception enfoui sous l’illusion de positivité. c’est je crois le regard de cézanne que je viens de décrire. il remonte d’abord dans l’informe de toute forme. et c’est pourquoi, s’il reste impérieusement figuratif, il ne s’intéresse pas à l’objet en tant qu’il est promesse ou fonction, il s’intéresse à la forme en tant qu’elle advient dans la vision, en tant qu’elle est vision. la forme nous connaissons les phrases fameuses de cézanne sur la saisie des formes géomé- triques: «tout dans la nature se modèle selon la sphère, le cône et le cylindre» , ou encore ceci, que rapporte deux de ses interlocuteurs, rivière et schnerb: «“je m’attache, disait- -il, à rendre le côté cylindrique des objets”. et, précisent les auteurs, l’un de ses axiomes paul valéry, op. cit., p. . paul valéry, ibid. p. m. doran, éd., conversations avec cézanne, paris, macula, , p. , puis , etc. bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . favoris, que son accent provençal faisait sonner d’une musique admirable, était: “tout est sphérique et cylindrique.”» ces déclarations ont été mal comprises car elles sont ambiguës. on a cru y voir la réduction de la perception des formes à des schémas géométriques – cylindre d’un tronc d’arbre, boule sphérique d’une tête, etc. – et du même coup une annonce en réalité bien réductrice de l’avènement du cubisme. en réalité, et avant tout, cône, sphère et cylindre ont une propriété en commun, celle d’être convexes: ils viennent vers le regard, ils font converger leur forme vers le regard ou la main de l’observateur. ils s’opposent ainsi au plan. or, pour cézanne, tout est profondeur et convexité. ainsi, parmi les quarante deux aphorismes supposés du peintre, rapportés par léo larguier d’après, dit-il, son fils même, on lit celui-ci, aphorisme xxxi: «la nature est en profondeur. les corps vus dans l’espace sont tous convexes.» cela veut dire que non seulement la pomme est convexe, mais également la table sur laquelle elle se trouve, et aussi le mur sur le fond duquel elle se détache. et pourquoi cette convexité? parce que chacun des points du visible focalisés par mon unique point de vue lui renvoie une lumière différente, une intensité et des timbres chromatiques distincts, qui en déterminent le modelé dans la vision. la quête de cézanne est celle du modelé dans la vision, indépendamment des natures, des formes et des fonctions d’objets. ils sont immédiatement déchargés de toute opération interprétative, connotative ou autre, ils sont tous à égalité devant la perception, ils sont réflecteurs de lumière et c’est cela, au seuil de leur caractère informe, que cherche à capter cézanne pour en dégager la forme à coups de couleurs. on comprend ce qu’écrit rilke: comme toutes choses sont pauvres chez lu: les pommes sont toutes des pommes à cuire, les bouteilles auraient leur place dans de vieilles poches de veste évasées par l’usage.» car ce qui compte, ce n’est pas que l’objet peint soit pomme ou diamant, ce n’est pas l’objet «su» comme dirait valéry, mais c’est le dialogue des couleurs entre elles qui lui donne forme, quel qu’il soit, qu’il soit vieille chaussure ou prostituée élevée en allégorie sous le nom de «sorrow» comme chez van gogh, ou pomme frippée à cuire chez cézanne. plus loin rilke écrit: «il se retourna vers la nature et sut ravaler son amour pour la pomme réelle et le mettre en sureté pour toujours dans la pomme peinte.» et plus loin encore, rilke ajoute, à propos du tableau madame cézanne au fauteuil rouge: «tout n’est plus qu’une affaire de couleurs entre elles», ou: «c’est comme si chaque point du tableau avait connaissance de tous les autres.», et plus encore, introduisant une narrativisation des relations internes aux couleurs elles-mêmes, et construisant leur logique d’immanence, rilke précise : «ainsi se produisent à l’intérieur de chaque couleur des phénomènes d’intensification et de dilution qui leur permettent de soutenir le contact des autres.» notre objet n’est pas d’entrer ici dans la théorie de le peinture et de la vision chez cézanne, mais nous pouvons indiquer que cette position perceptive sur la convexité et p. m. doran, éd., conversations avec cézanne, op. cit., p. . rainer maria rilke, lettres sur cézanne, op. cit., p. . rainer maria rilke, lettres sur cézanne, op. cit., p. , puis p. - pour les citations suivantes. bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . les rapports de points – entre point de vision et points de l’être vu – constitue une entrée majeure dans la pensée cézannienne de la forme, éclairant ses différents aspects: il en résulte le caractère central du modelé ; il en résulte la conception chromatique des ombres; il en résulte la relation couleur / dessin et la question du contour, celui-ci émanant de la couleur; le rôle décisif de la touche est de cette manière également impliqué; et plus encore la conception polémique de la composition – qui n’est pas comprise comme l’organisation préméditée du tableau, mais comme le résultat du « balancement entre parties lumineuses et parties ombrées» . enfin, et globalement, la convexité explique la genèse des formes à partir de la réflexion de la lumière – en tout point différente et déterminant le modelé – où l’unicité du point du voir se trouve confrontée à la multiplicité des points de l’être vu. de cette conception est issu le statut de l’« atmosphère » dans le système cézannien. les deux atmosphères le modelé prend forme par la médiation d’un écran entre le sujet voyant et l’objet vu : cet écran est l’atmosphère. on peut lui donner ce nom, premier type d’atmosphère, l’atmosphère-écran. elle est le « plan » qui s’interpose entre moi et les choses vues. ce parcours des choses à moi, à mon regard fixé en un lieu et en moment, cette remontée des choses dans le regard passe à travers l’écran ou le filtre de l’atmosphère. deux aphorismes de cézanne définissent cette atmosphère : xxxi. la nature est en profondeur. entre le peintre et son modèle s’interpose un plan, l’atmosphère. les corps vus dans l’espace sont tous convexes. xxxii. l’atmosphère forme le fond immuable sur l’écran duquel viennent se décomposer toutes les oppositions de couleurs, tous les accidents de lumière. elle constitue l’enveloppe du tableau en contribuant à sa synthèse et à son harmonie générale. on peut trouver là un premier titre de problème. le mot atmosphère est employé dans un sens absolument littéral et concret: c’est un espace à l’intérieur duquel se passe un certain nombre d’événements, un nombre considérable d’événements: tous les accidents de lumière», «toutes les oppositions de couleurs». quel est le statut de cette «atmosphère»? cet espace est-il le lieu, le support et la médiation des simulacres signifiants premiers? en quoi s’interpose-t-il entre le peintre et son modèle, comme un médiateur s’interpose entre des forces en conflit? mais on pourrait surtout considérer, à travers une analyse qui reste à articuler, le concept d’atmosphère chez cézanne comme un «modèle», à la fois concret car ancré dans la perception, et abstrait car généralisable. un modèle pour mieux comprendre le sens des «atmosphères» qui innervent nos perceptions et nos appréciations sensibles. ces atmosphères nous parlent, car elles sont le support d’inscription d’un langage; elles nous p. m. doran, éd., conversations avec cézanne, op. cit., p. . léo larguier, in p. m. doran, éd., conversations avec cézanne, op. cit., p. - . bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . parlent de ce qui se diffuse dans un espace, de ce qui s’échappe des choses, des êtres, des personnes qui l’occupent, à leur insu naturellement, et ce sont ces propriétésqui en font le «climat». tout se passe comme si une multitude d’instances venaient des choses pour se greffer sur des instances en attente au sein du sujet, des capteurs sensibles qui conver- tissent ces micro-perceptions en signification et en discours, faits à la fois de perceptions et de mémoire, d’aspectualité où se croisent l’inchoatif et le terminatif, de modalisations, de tensions, bref d’éléments constituants qui restent à localiser, à identifier et à analyser. l’«atmosphère» dans ce sens pourrait être appréhendée un peu à la manière du biologis- te généticien qui cherche à identifier, en remontant à partir des effets réalisés, les gènes responsables et les opérations qu’ils ont effectuées en passant de l’adn à l’arn pour donner lieu à ces éléments actifs et transformateurs que sont les protéines. tout comme les opérations de la lumière réfléchie qui conduisent, mystérieusement, à la touche hésitante, longuement réfléchie elle-même, de cézanne. atmosphère et style cette atmosphère-là résulte d’une globalité discernable de réseaux signifiants. et cette globalité fait une singularité. elle définit un style. il faudrait naturellement prendre le temps de se pencher sur l’histoire compliquée des rapports entre sémiotique et style pour avancer sur ce point. ce n’est pas notre objet ici. je rappellerai seulement que l’avancée peut-être la plus intéressante dans ce domaine a été celle de ce qu’on a appelé, en sémiotique générative, le « style sémiotique ». il est défini par un pli, une courbure donnée, une déformation cohérente transversale à un discours, à une réalisation langagière qu’elle soit verbale, plastique ou autre, une déformation qui affecte, dans le même sens, les différents étages du parcours génératif, depuis la gestion de la tensivité et des dynamiques catégorielles, jusqu’aux figurativisations – rhétoriques par exemple –, en passant par les formes aspectuelles privilégiées, les priorités modales, les réitérations narratives, etc. l’hétérogénéité apparente des constituants d’une atmosphère pourrait être ap- préhendée comme les marqueurs d’un style. le style étant par exemple ce qui détermine l’engendrement de telle ou telle atmosphère. conclusion pour conclure, je voudrais évoquer un texte d’omar calabrese, encore à paraître en français, dans les actes de notre premier colloque sur le semi-symbolisme, tenu à l’université paris . il y a écrit un texte intitulé «la bataille sacrée. un thème iconogra- phique à la recherche de sa propre figuralité.» il y montre comment la sacralité se dégage d. bertrand, m. costantini et o. leguern, éds., semi-symbolisme et signification sensible, saint-denis, presses universitaires de vincennes, à paraître en . bertrand, d. style et atmosphère. galaxia (são paulo, online), n. , p. - , dez. . des formants plastiques et figuratifs du motif de la bataille, outrepassant l’action, le récit et ses acteurs, mais se diffusant à travers eux au moyen d’éléments précis qu’il identifie soigneusement, au point qu’il en arrive à se demander si la sacralité n’est pas une cons- tante du tableau de bataille, liant la violence guerrière à la transcendance. cette sacralité rayonne, et parfume l’atmosphère dans le champ de la perception. de même que l’aura d’omar, qui fait rayonner sa présence dans l’absence et au nom de laquelle, ensemble, nous poursuivons son œuvre. denis bertrand est professeur de littérature et de sémiotique à l’université paris -vincennes-saint-denis. il enseigne la sémiotique du discours social à l’ecole de la communication de sciences po-paris. il co-dirige le séminaire de sémiotique de paris (avec j.-f. bordron, i. darrault, j. fontanille, a. hénault). il a publié plusieurs ouvrages (l’espace et le sens, précis de sémiotique littéraire, parler pour convaincre, etc.) et de nombreux articles et contributions à des ouvrages collectifs. il s’intéresse actuellement aux relations entre discours politique et médiatique, et aux relations entre écriture et peinture. dcotar@club-internet.fr referências bertrand, d., costantini, m. et leguern, o. (éds.). (à paraître en ). semi-symbolisme et signification sensible, saint-denis, presses universitaires de vincennes. doran, p. m. (éd.) ( ). conversations avec cézanne, paris, macula. larguier, l. ( ). in p. m. doran, éd., conversations avec cézanne, paris, macula. rilke, r. m. ( ). lettres sur cézanne, trad. ph. jaccottet, paris, seuil. valery, p. ( ). degas, danse, dessin, ( ) paris, gallimard, «folio. essais». artigo recebido em setembro e aprovado em novembro de tracing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and warm dust emission in the seyfert galaxy ngc justin h. howell, joseph m. mazzarella, ben h. p. chan, steven lord, jason a. surace, david t. frayer, p. n. appleton, lee armus, aaron s. evans, greg bothun, catherine m. ishida, dong-chan kim, joseph b. jensen, barry f. madore, , david b. sanders, bernhard schulz, tatjana vavilkin, sylvain veilleux, and kevin xu received april ; accepted july abstract we present a study of the nearby seyfert galaxy ngc using mid- and far-infrared data acquired with the irac, irs, and mips instruments aboard the spitzer space telescope. the images show extensive and �m emission coinciding with star formation in the inner spiral approximately ( kpc) from the nucleus and a bright complex of star formation � ( kpc) southwest of the nucleus. the brightest �m polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) emission regions coincide remarkably well with knots observed in an h� image. strong pah features at . , . , . , and : �m are detected in irs spectra measured at numerous locations inside, within, and outside the inner spiral. the irac colors and irs spectra of these regions rule out dust heated by the active galactic nucleus (agn) as the primary emission source; the spectral energy distributions are dominated by starlight and pah emission. the equivalent widths and flux ratios of the pah features in the inner spiral are generally consistent with conditions in a typical spiral galaxy interstellar medium (ism). interior to the inner spiral, the influence of the agn on the ism is evident via pah flux ratios indicative of a higher ionization parameter and a significantly smaller mean equivalent width than observed in the inner spiral. the brightest and �m emissionpeaks in the diskof thegalaxy, evenat distances beyondtheinner spiral, are located within the ionization cones traced by [o iii]/h�, and they are also remarkably well aligned with the axis of the radio jets. although it is possible that radiation from the agn may directly enhance pah excitation or trigger the forma- tion of ob stars that subsequently excite pah emission at these locations in the inner spiral, the orientation of collimated radiation from the agn and star formation knots in the inner spiral could be coincidental. the brightest pah- and �myemitting regions are also located precisely where two spiral arms of molecular gas emerge from the ends of the inner stellar bar; this is consistent with kinematic models that predict maxima in the accumulation and compression of the ism, where gas gets trapped within the inner lindblad resonance of a large stellar bar that contains a smaller, weaker bar. key words: galaxies: individual (ngc ) — galaxies: seyfert — infrared: galaxies . introduction polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) appear to be ubiq- uitous in the interstellar medium (ism) of massive disk galaxies. pahs emit copiously near regions of active star formation, where molecules are heated by ultraviolet radiation, and are usually as- sociated with the photodissociation regions (pdrs) in molecular clouds. the infrared spectra of active galaxies generally lack the pah emission lines characteristic of starburst galaxies (roche et al. ). freudling et al. ( ) reported the detection of hot dust and weak pahs in type active galactic nuclei (agns), and cooler dust and strong pahs in type agns, similar to the results of clavel et al. ( ), buchanan et al. ( ), and p. n. appleton et al. ( , in preparation). these results are interpreted as an indication that the high-energy photons from the agns destroy pah molecules exposed to extreme uv radia- tion from the nucleus, with any observed pah emission coming from star-forming regions shielded by intervening material (voit b; allain et al. ; maloney ; freudling et al. ). the spitzer space telescope provides the opportunity to inves- tigate the distribution of pah emission in a variety of galaxies through its correlation with the zone of influence of the agn and/or star-forming regions. ngc is a prototypical nearby seyfert galaxy (antonucci & miller ) and was the first agn to be detected (fath ). with an infrared luminosity lir ¼ : l�, ngc is a lumi- nous infrared galaxy (lirg) and is a member of the iras revised bright galaxy sample (rbgs; sanders et al. ) consisting of extragalactic objects with �m flux greater than . jy. in addi- tion to the agn, the galaxy contains a bright inner spiral with active star formation approximately kpc from the nucleus; this structure has often been referred to as a ‘‘starburst ring’’ (myers & scoville ; schinnerer et al. ; spinoglio et al. ). infrared processing and analysis center, california institute of technology, ms - , pasadena, ca , usa; jhhowell@ipac.caltech.edu, mazz@ipac .caltech.edu, bchan@ipac.caltech.edu. nasa herschel science center, infrared processing and analysis center, california institute of technology, ms - , pasadena, ca , usa; lord@ ipac.caltech.edu, frayer@ipac.caltech.edu, apple@ipac.caltech.edu, bschulz@ipac .caltech.edu, cxu@ipac.caltech.edu. spitzer science center, california institute of technology, ms - , pasadena, ca , usa; jason@ipac.caltech.edu, lee@ipac.caltech.edu. department of physics and astronomy, state university of new york at stony brook, stony brook, ny - , usa; aevans@orchid.ess.sunysb .edu, vavilkin@grad.physics.sunysb.edu. physics department, university of oregon, eugene, or , usa; nuts@ bigmoo.uoregon.edu. subaru telescope, national astronomical observatory of japan, hilo, hi , usa; cat@subaru.naoj.org. department of astronomy, university of maryland, college park, md , usa; kim@astro.umd.edu, veilleux@astro.umd.edu. gemini observatory, north cherry avenue, tucson, az , usa; jjensen@gemini.edu. the observatories of the carnegie institution of washington, santa barbara street, pasadena, ca , usa; barry@ociw.edu. institute for astronomy, university of hawaii, woodlawn drive, honolulu, hi , usa; sanders@ifa.hawaii.edu. the astronomical journal, : y , november # . the american astronomical society. all rights reserved. printed in u.s.a. telesco & decher ( ) estimated that star formation would consume the available gas within . gyr at current star forma- tion rates. yuan & kuo ( ) showed that the inner spiral re- sides at the outer lindblad resonance. the inner spiral arms begin at the ends of a stellar bar (schinnerer et al. ), at the location of peak collisional energy dissipation (combes & gerin ). fabry-pérot imaging of the [o iii] k line shows clearly de- fined ionization cones from the center of ngc , inclined such that the disk of the galaxy is illuminated out to r � kpc (fig. , adapted from bruhweiler et al. and veilleux et al. [unger et al. ; veilleux et al. ]). the [n ii] kk , line-profile data of cecil et al. ( ) showed that the kinematics of the ionized gas are well fit by a model in which the ionization cones intersect the plane of the galaxy, rather than illuminating halo gas seen in projection onto the disk. the brightest region of [o iii] emission corresponds with the region of peak radio contin- uum flux, extending � northeast of the nucleus (condon et al. ; morganti et al. ). a knot of [o iii] emission is seen at the distance of the inner spiral, with further [o iii] emission ex- tending several kiloparsecs farther out into the disk of the galaxy. kinematics show that the gas in the ionization cones is ionized in situ by the central engine and is not ejecta from the nuclear region. spectral line ratiosalso confirm that the agn is the ionizingsource even at r � kpc (veilleux et al. ), although the inner spiral itself shows line ratios typical of star-forming regions. the opening angle of the ionization cones is � , centered at position angle � (unger et al. ). veilleux et al. ( ) showed that the [o iii] emission is biconical, although it is much fainter to the southwest than the northeast. this is consistent with the conclu- sion of cecil et al. ( ) that the ionization cones are inclined with respect to the plane of the disk, illuminating the near side of the disk to the northeast and the far side of the disk to the south- west. bruhweiler et al. ( ) showedthat the [o iii]/h� ratio both interior and exterior to the inner spiral along the cones is consis- tent with photoionization from the agn without significant con- tribution from shocks. usero et al. ( ) detected the inner spiral in sio, which is typically interpreted as a signature of shocks. in- frared emission peaks have been detected along the ionization cones at the distance of the inner spiral (telesco & decher ; le floc’h et al. ; marco & brooks ). bland-hawthorn & voit ( ) and bland-hawthorn et al. ( ) argued that the ir emission results from dust grains near the surface of mo- lecular clouds heated by the x-ray and uv flux from the agn. using the infrared space observatory (iso), le floc’h et al. ( ) detected the peaks in the . �m pah band, indicating that at least some of the emission is from pahs rather than large dust grains. is it possible that the inner spiral is not illuminated by the agn, but simply appears to be illuminated due to projection effects? if the inner spiral lies in the plane of the disk, the agn ionization cones would have to be inclined well out of the plane of the disk and have a small opening angle so as not to intersect it. as noted previously, the [n ii] and [o iii] data sets provide strong evidence that the ionization cones intersect the disk. packham et al. ( ) used near-ir polarimetry to produce a three-dimensional model of the electron scattering cone, concluding that it is inclined by � to the plane of the sky, corresponding to aninclination of � � to the plane of the galaxy. with an opening half-angle of � , it clearly intersects the disk. the remaining possibility is that the inner spi- ral is inclined relative to the disk such that the inner spiral is not il- luminated by the agn. the packham et al. ( ) model requires an inclination of at least � for the inner spiral to lie outside of the ionization cone. such an inclination is both physically implausible and would havebeen easily detected in kinematic data (e.g., co or h�). we therefore conclude that the agn illuminates the inner spiral in the region of the pah knots. the fact that optical-line ra- tios characteristic of agn ionization are seen both immediately interior and exterior to the inner spiral indicates that material in the inner spiral cannot be completely shielded from the agn by in- tervening material. in this paper we present the results from analysis of new infra- red observations of ngc from the spitzer space telescope. observations with the irac (fazio et al. ), irs (houck et al. ), and mips (rieke et al. ) instruments are discussed in x . analysis of the data is presented in x , and conclusions are given in x . fig. .—diagram of ngc ionization cone. left: view in the plane of the disk, from bruhweiler et al. ( ). right: r continuum image with ionization cones illustrated (adapted from veilleux et al. ). large tick marks are at intervals. pahs and warm dust emission in ngc . observations and data analysis . . imaging ngc was observed with irac by the guaranteed-time observation (gto) program of fazio et al. (project id no. ). mips observations were carried out as part of the great obser- vatories all-sky lirg survey (goals; go- rbgs lirg/ ulirg program of mazzarella et al.; project id no. ). the general data reduction procedures used on the irac and mips data were described in detail in mazzarella et al. ( ). here we discuss the special processing required for ngc . for refer- ence, the bright star-forming regions are at a radius of ( kpc). muxbleed saturation artifacts (see the irac data handbook for details) in the . and �m images presented challenges in the nuclear region of ngc within a radius of ( kpc). a rough correction for this problem consisted of measuring each artifact in a suitable aperture and subtracting off the flux density of an identical aperture measured atthe same galaxy surface bright- ness level in a region outside the artifact. this procedure resulted in a correction (reduction) of the flux density inside a aperture by . jy ( %) at . �m and . jy ( %) at . �m. since muxbleed is a result of saturation, an additional correc- tion was needed to account for the lost flux density. such satura- tion corrections were estimated by comparison with available data in the literature. the flux density measured within a diameter aperture was : � : jy at . �m (rieke & low a) and � jy at . �m (rieke & low b). a simple linear in- terpolation from these values to the irac wavelengths predicts : � : and � jy at . and . �m, respectively. the blue end of the transmission window of the filter used by rieke & low ( b) extends to . �m (low & rieke ), so the �m measurement includes the majority of the flux density from the . �m pah feature. the spitzer flux densities measured in a diameter aperture centered on the nucleus of ngc are . jy at . �m and . jy at . �m. (we note that the first muxbleed artifact in the �m point-spread function [psf] is located at a ra- dius of about , which is well outside this comparison region with a diameter.) the . �m value measured from our cor- rected irac data agrees with the estimate based on the rieke & low measurements within the uncertainties of our correction method. however, since our �m irac estimate is jy below the estimate based on interpolation of the rieke & low data, we have added . jy to the �m irac aperture measurements for ngc to account for the flux density lost to saturation. photometry of the inner spiral was measured by taking the difference between measurements of and radius ( y pc). extended-source corrections were applied to each aper- ture measurement according to the equation derived by t. jarrett. the emission peaks on the inner spiral were measured using small elliptical apertures. the wings of the psf of the bright agn would bias the observed flux densities if the emission peaks were mea- sured relative to the sky background, so instead the peaks were measured relative to a local background elsewhere on the inner spiral. in the case of the northeast knot, the local background mea- surements were chosen to also lie along diffraction spikes at . and . �m. the mips �m image of ngc is dominated by a bright unresolved central point source (the agn) which was saturated within radius � . to measure the spatially resolved features we subtracted a psf model of the central point source. the idl pack- age idp was used to centroid the galaxy and psf images; then, the scale factor of the psf image was interactively adjusted to best subtract off the point-source component of the galaxy image. as recommended by the mips data handbook, an object of sim- ilar color was chosen to create the psf image. the ulirg iras f � served as a satisfactory psf for this purpose, as it is both very bright and unresolved by spitzer at �m. iras f � is also a seyfert galaxy, and it is the best match to the iras �m/ �m color of ngc , with a color of . , compared to . for the latter. the only galaxies in the goals sample with colors more closely matching ngc were spatially resolved in the mips �m images. contours of the psf-subtracted �m image of ngc are overlaid on the �m image in figure . the elongation of the masked region on the �m image is due to the muxbleed residuals discussed above. the best-fit psf for ngc was also used to estimate the total �m flux density, which could not be measured directly due to saturation. the point-source component of the total flux density was estimated by taking the flux density of iras f � ( . jy) and multiplying by the best-fitting psf scale fac- tor ( ), resulting in an estimate of . jy. in addition, the ex- tended �m emission from ngc was measured directly from the psf-subtracted image. combining the . jy extended component with the point-source component yields an estimated total �m flux density of ngc (before aperture and color corrections) of . jy. the uncertainty in the empirically deter- mined psf scale factor ( . ) is about %, and this dominates the uncertainty in this �m total flux density measurement. table presents the spitzer flux density measurements and es- timated uncertainties. as described in detail in mazzarella et al. ( ) mips color corrections have been applied based on the iras and mips spectral energy distributions (seds). with aper- ture and color corrections, the total estimated �m flux density fig. .—the �m image of ngc (gray scale), with contours of the psf-subtracted �m image. the brightest contour levels are shown in light gray for clarity. the saturated data in the nucleus have been excluded from both images. residual banding is visible on the �m image as the streak running southeast- northwest. the ring of spots is also an artifact of the �m psf. the �m data show many of the features seen at �m, including the two knots on the inner spiral, the northeast tip of the southern arm of the inner spiral . kpc ( ) east-northeast of the nucleus, and the peak kpc ( ) southwest of the nucleus. available at http://ssc.spitzer.caltech.edu/irac/dh/. see http://spider.ipac.caltech.edu/staff/jarrett/irac/calibration/ext_apercorr .html. available at http://mips.as.arizona.edu/mipspage/idp /idp example.html. available at http://ssc.spitzer.caltech.edu/mips/dh/. howell et al. vol. using the spitzer data is . jy. comparison with the iras �m measurements of : � : jy (sanders et al. ) indicates that this �m estimate from spitzer is low by about %. this is consistent with the systematic mean offset of % (with a � scatter of %) observed between the �m spitzer measure- ments and �m iras measurements across our entire sample of systems (mazzarella et al. ). we are therefore con- fident in the psf-fitting procedure, from which it can be stated that more than % ( . / . ) of the �m emission from ngc originates within a radius of � (the first airy ring). ap- proximately % of the �m emission originates within the saturated region r < . ngc also saturated the �m array, and a flux density estimate could not be recovered. . . spectroscopy the nucleus of the galaxy was observed at high spectral reso- lution by the gto program of houck et al. (program id no. ), and mapped at low resolution by the go- program of gallimore et al. (program id no. ). the short-low (sl) irs maps con- sisted of half slit-width ( . ) steps for the first- and second- order slits. the maps were centered on the nucleus. there were no dedicated off (sky) observations, but a local background was subtracted by using the nonprimary slit, which is centered approx- imately from the nucleus, for both the sl and sl maps. the irac �m surface brightness at the locations selected for the background are typically � to � of the level at the nucleus. cubism was used to perform the local background subtraction and form the sl spectral cubes. from these cubes we were able to identify regions over which to extract one-dimensional spec- tra, and we used cubism to perform this extraction in matched apertures in sl and sl . in addition, we used cubism to gen- erate a pure pah map over the area covered by the irs slits. aper- ture locations and the pah map are shown in figure . fluxes and equivalent widths of the low-resolution data were measured using pahfit (smith et al. ). the regions closest to the nucleus suffered from saturation and did not yield usable spectra; see fig- ure (bottom). table presents the equivalent widths and line fluxes of the emission features measured in each aperture. the short-high and long-high irs observations do not suf- fer from saturation, but they only cover a single position at the center of the galaxy. no background subtraction was performed due to the lack of a background-slit observation. spectra were ex- tracted using spice, and lines were measured on the extracted spectra using smart (higdon et al. ). our high-resolution spectral line measurements are presented in table . . . separating nonstellar from stellar emission in seyfert galaxies althoughirs spectra provide the ideal measure of the presence and strength of pah emission, the available data cover only a por- tion of the inner spiral. irac and mips imaging is required to investigate the region outside of the spectral map. there are sev- eral possible sources for the ir emission from seyfert galaxies. the power-law continuum from an agn can contribute to all irac wavelengths. the . and . �m data are dominated by the rayleigh-jeans tail of stellar photospheric emission. the . �m channel covers the wavelength range that includes the . �m pah line, while the �m channel includes the . and . �m pah emission features. hot dust can also be a signifi- cant contribution at all irac wavelengths. stellar continuum emission is insignificant compared to pah emission in the irac �m band in nearly all nearby lirgs (mazzarella et al. ). the stellar continuum flux density at �m is estimated to be %y % of the . �m flux density (pahre et al. ; dale et al. ); based on this we estimate that stars contribute only a few percent (for example, ngc kpc aperture: : ; : / ¼ : ) of the �m flux densities of this galaxy. to test for spatial variations between the starlight and pah emission in ngc , a scaled . �m image was subtracted from the �m image. the ratio of this nonstellar emission image to the �m im- age is constant with little variation across the galaxy (excluding the central region, which saturated at �m, as noted previously), showing that starlight accounts for � % of the �m emission throughout the disk of ngc . determining the presence of pahs using irac and mips pho- tometry requires the measurement and modeling of the contribu- tion of agn continuum and hot dust at �m. several color-color diagnostics have been used to distinguish agn-dominated sys- tems and starburst-dominated systems in the literature (e.g., stern et al. ). the goals sample (mazzarella et al. ) is shown in the [ . ]�[ . ] versus [ . ]�[ ] color-color space in figure . also shown are the colors of hot dust and agn power laws. since the vertical axis is the ratio of two channels normally dominated by starlight, galaxies without significant agns or hot dust lie near zero. the horizontal axis separates galaxies with little or no pah emission (left) from those dominated by pah emission (right). the [ . ]�[ ] color measures the jump from the rayleigh-jeans tail of starlight at . �m (plus agn continuum, if present) to the bright pah emission at �m. the better known stern et al. table spitzer flux density measurements irac mips feature within ngc aperture radius (arcsec) aperture radius (kpc) . �m (jy) . �m (jy) . �m (jy) �m (jy) �m (jy) �m (jy) total ........................................ . . kpc........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . northeast pah knot................ . a . . . . . . . . . . southwest pah knot............... . a . . . . . . . . . . inner spiral.............................. y . y . . . . . . . . . . . notes.—the approximate uncertainties are indicated by the number of significant figures; specifically, % at irac wavelengths and % at �m. see text for a discussion of the �m uncertainties. a effective radius of custom aperture. flux densities for the pah knots are relative to the local background elsewhere in the inner spiral. available at http://turtle.as.arizona.edu/jdsmith/cubism.php. available at http://ssc.spitzer.caltech.edu/postbcd/spice.html. pahs and warm dust emission in ngc no. , color-color space uses [ . ]�[ ] on the horizontal axis instead of [ . ]�[ ]. since both the . and �m channels include pah bands, [ . ]�[ ] is preferred due to the clearer physical interpretation. combinations of irac images can be used to create spatial maps of different components of ir emission. pahre et al. ( ) used . and . �m data to estimate the contribution of starlight, which was then scaled down in proportion to a rayleigh-jeans tail and subtracted from the �m image to create a map of non- stellar (typically pah) emission. as noted above, this technique has little effect on lirg and ulirg data such as those examined here since the �m images are dominated by nonstellar emission. a similar method can be used to identify nonstellar emission at . �m. no pah emission lines are present at such short wave- lengths, so the nonstellar emission sources are direct radiation from the agn and hot dust only. making an assumption about the form of the nonstellar emission, this technique can be used to quantitatively estimate the emission from stars and the assumed nonstellar source at . and . �m. the ratio of stellar emission at . �m to that at . �m, f�, is known; using pahre et al. ( ), f� ¼ : . a similar ratio, fpl, is easily calculated for any given power-law slope �. for typical values : < � < : , : < fpl < : . image subtraction is then performed, with the power-law component of the . �m image given by ipl( : ) ¼ f�i( : ) � i( : )½ 	/ f� � fpl � � , where i(k) is the irac image at a given wavelength. similar equations are easily derived for the stel- lar components of each image or the power-law component of the . �m image. note that if the nonstellar emission arises from hot dust this method will only reveal the locations of such emis- sion, and one can simply use i( : ) � i( : )/f� without attempt- ing to account for the nonstellar contribution to the . �m flux (engelbracht et al. ). a quantitative flux density estimate fig. .—extraction apertures for the sl irs spectra are overlaid on the . �m irac mosaic (top, green numbered boxes). also shown are the area covered by the sl map (blue box) and the position of the sh slit ( yellow box). banding and psf artifacts are as described in fig. . north is up, and east is to the left. the map of the . �m pah feature is shown in the bottom panel. the center of the galaxy has been masked out. howell et al. t a b l e e m i s s i o n f e a t u r e s ( l o w r e s o l u t i o n ) p a h . [a r i i ] . p a h . p a h . h . [s i v ] . p a h . p a h . [ n e i i ] . a p e r t u r e � r . a . (j . ) (a rc se c ) � d e c l . (j . ) (a rc se c ) r ( k p c ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) f lu x ( � w c m � ) e w ( � m ) in n e r s p ir a l .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . � . � . � . � . � . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . . . � . � . � . � . � . � . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . . . � . � . � . � . � . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . . . � . � . � . � . � . � . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . � . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . � . . � . .. . .. . � . � . .. . .. . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . in si d e th e in n e r s p ir a l .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . � . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . � . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . � . . � . : � : . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . � . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . � . . � . : � : . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . a p e rt u re s n e a re st th e n u c le u s .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . � . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . � . . . � . � . � . � . : � : . : � : . � . � . : � : . o u ts id e th e in n e r s p ir a l .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . � . . � . .. . .. . � . � . : � : . .. . .. . : � : . � . : � : . would require an assumed dust temperature from which fdust could be calculated, replacing fpl in the above prescription. in either case, the assumed nonstellar emission can also be extended to �m to better constrain the pah emission. . discussion . . spitzer data the irac colors of the region within kpc of the nucleus and the total emission from the galaxy place ngc in the agn region of the irac color-color diagram defined by stern et al. ( ). emission at irac wavelengths is highly concentrated, with %y % of the flux density coming from the central kilo- parsec (table ). high-resolution spectra of the nucleus show strong agn signatures in a number of diagnostic line ratios. line fluxes and equivalent widths are presented in table . the [o iv] . �m/ [ne ii] . �m line ratio is used as a diagnostic for the fractional contribution of the agn to the luminosity of a galaxy (genzel et al. ; armus et al. ). the ngc nucleus has a ratio of . as measured from the irs spectra, compared to . as mea- sured from the iso data of sturm et al. ( ). [ne v] . �m/ [ne ii] . �m is a similar diagnostic ratio; the nucleus of ngc has a ratio of . , compared to the iso ratio of . . although these agn diagnostic ratios are higher than the iso measure- ments of sturm et al. ( ) this is not surprising since the irs slits are smaller than the corresponding iso aperture by roughly a factor of . with less light from the disk of the galaxy, the line ratios might be expected to show higher ionization. using the [ne v] . �m/[ne iii] . �m and [ne ii] . �m/[ne iii] . �m line ratios measured using the high-resolution spectrum, the diagnostic diagram of voit ( a) indicates an ionization pa- rameter log u � � and a power-law input spectrum of index � � � : . compared to nearby agns, starbursts, and ulirgs (armus et al. ), the line ratios in the nucleus of ngc are in excellent agreement with the agn sample, consistent with a % agn contribution to the observed mid-ir nuclear spectrum. the irac images show bright �m peaks (also detected in the other irac channels) along the northeast and southwest arcs at p:a: � � in the inner spiral (fig. ) at the locations first de- tected by telesco & decher ( ). of the total �m flux den- sity within the annulus pc < r < pc from the nucleus, % is emitted by these two knots. the surface brightness of the knots ( y mjy sr� ) is more than twice that seen elsewhere in the inner spiral (� mjy sr� ). compared to the central kilo- parsec of the galaxy, these knots are bluer by more than half a magnitude in [ . ]�[ . ] and redder by . y . mag in [ . ]� [ ]. since the wavelength range of the �m channel includes both the . and . �m pah features, the latter color strongly suggests that the knots are dominated by pah emission. the low-resolution irs data confirm the predominance of pah emission in the knots observed in the irac �m image. the . , . , and . �m pah features, plus the pah : �m þ ½ne ii	 : �m blend, are clearly visible throughout the inner spiral. figure shows representative spectra, including the inner spiral, the region interior to the inner spiral, and the region out- side of the inner spiral. fluxes and equivalent widths of each mea- sured emission feature are presented in table . the pah features are strongest in the inner spiral (apertures y , y ; fig. , top). however, such features are also present in the innermost usable apertures (apertures , , and ; fig. , middle). although the pah equivalent widths in these innermost apertures are small due to the bright hot dust continuum near the agn, the fluxes of the pah lines are several times as bright as in aperture (outside the inner spiral) and typically half as bright as in the inner spiral. these innermost apertures also show the strongest [s iv] . �m emission, while [ar ii] . �m and h . �m emission are strongest on the inner spiral. for comparison, the average starburst galaxy spectrum from brandl et al. ( ) was also analyzed using pahfit. line fluxes and equivalent widths measured using pahfitcannot be directly compared with measurements made using other techniques be- cause pahfit takes into account the flux in the extended wings of the spectral lines; see smith et al. ( ) for details. pah equiv- alent widths are . , . , . , . , and . �m ( . , . , . , . , and . �m features, respectively). although the inner table nuclear emission features ( high resolution) line flux ( � w cm� ) equivalent width (�m) [s iv] . ...................... � . [ne ii] . .................... � . [ne v] . ...................... � . [ne iii] . ................... � . [s iii] . ...................... � . [ne v] . .................... � . [o iv] . ..................... � . [s ii] . ....................... � . [si ii] . ...................... � . [ne ii] . ....................... � . fig. .—irac colors of the rbgs lirgs and ulirgs from mazzarella et al. ( ). ngc is marked ( kpc radius [red circles] and total apertures [black circles]), as are the colors of the two bright knots on the inner spiral and the colors of the galaxy disk (r > kpc) and the inner spiral. small red circles indicate the central kpc radius aperture measurements of the rest of the goals sample, while black circles indicate total magnitudes. unit vectors indicating the change in color from the central aperture to the total aperture are shown; note that there is not a one-to-one correspondence between central and total aperture measurements due to a combination of resolution and multiple interacting galaxies. the median change in color from the central kpc aperture to the total aperture is shown by the arrow at the top right. colors are expressed in the vega magnitude system, so by definition a pure starlight sed would appear near zero in both color axes. also shown are the colors of a pure agn power-law spectrum (open squares; from lower left to upper right: � ¼ : , clavel et al. ; � ¼ : , neugebauer et al. ), and hot dust (blue circles; for and k). howell et al. vol. spiral is the source of the strongest pah emission in ngc , this emission is significantly weaker than that seen in starburst galaxies. with the detection of bright pah emission lines throughout the inner spiral, the model of bland-hawthorn & voit ( ) in which the ir peaks on the inner spiral originate from dust grains heated by the agn can be ruled out. a composite model in which the ir peaks are due to a combination of pah emission plus con- tinuum from hot dust heated by the agn can also be strongly con- strained. as shown in figure , apertures and both lie within the ionization cones and are the closest apertures to the pah knots on the inner spiral. if hot dust made a significant contribution to the flux in these apertures, the pah equivalent widths would be lower than in apertures on regions of the inner spiral falling out- side the ionization cones (apertures y , , and ). instead, the pah equivalent widths measured in apertures and are as high or higher than those measured elsewhere on the inner spiral. any contribution of continuum flux from hot dust heated by the agn must be too small to significantly affectthepah equivalent widths. we estimate the amount of additional continuum flux within the ionization cones compared to the rest of the inner spiral by com- paring the flux ratios and equivalent width ratios of the pah fea- tures. pah fluxes in apertures and are brighter than the average values in the rest of the inner spiral by factors of %y %; equivalent widths are brighter by factors of %y %. the sig- nature of a greater contribution from the continuum is a larger increase in flux than in equivalent width. this is seen in aperture , with a flux increase of % and equivalent width increase of % in the . and . �m features that would be most affected by hot dust continuum. these ratios indicate a continuum increase of : / : ¼ % compared to the average value in the rest of the inner spiral. however, in aperture the increase in pah equiva- lent width is greater than or equal to the increase in pah flux for every feature, indicating a continuum level equal to or less than that seen in the rest of the inner spiral. comparing the aperture and spectra to the average spectrum of the inner spiral apertures outside the ionization cones confirms the conclusion that little or no excess continuum is seen within the ionization cones. figure shows the three spectra normalized to a common flux density at �m. the apertures within the ionization cones clearly show brighter pah features than the average spectrum, while the con- tinuum shows very little variation between the three spectra. warm dust visible at �m (fig. ) is present at the locations of the peaks on the inner spiral, although it is unclear whether the agn or local star formation activity is the primary heating source. ratios between the . , . , and . �m pah features are shown in figure . lines adapted from draine & li ( ) show the locations of pah emission from a cold neutral medium (cnm) model, a warm ionized medium (wim) model, and a photodisso- ciation region (pdr) model. also shown is a portion of the bound- ary of the region of pah line ratios, which can be reproduced by the composite ism model of draine & li ( ). with the ex- ception of aperture , the pah measurements of the inner spiral all lie above the boundary, within the region consistent with a composite model. aperture is the outlier in the direction of a colder environment and smaller pah molecules. the h . �m line is nearly a factor of brighter in this aperture than in the other apertures. interestingly, aperture —only pc from the nucleus—also lies in this cold ism region of the diagram. it is also interesting that aperture on the inner spiral and aperture outside the inner spiral both lie in the region requiring more ion- izing radiation than the composite ism model, with pah ratios similar to the majority of the apertures interior to the inner spiral. since apertures and are both well outside the [o iii] ioni- zation cone, ionization from the agn is unlikely. aperture co- incides with the location of the peak co emission in the map of schinnerer et al. ( ) suggesting the formation of massive stars as a likely ionization source. the general picture presented by the ratios of pah features is that pah molecules in the inner spiral are smaller and lie in a cooler, less ionized environment than pahs closer to the nucleus. the cnm-like pah ratios of aperture suggest that radiation from the agn may be absorbed within a few hundred parsecs fig. .—irs sl spectra of ngc . the top panel shows the average of eight apertures on the inner spiral, the middle panel shows the average of the three apertures nearest the nucleus, and the bottom panel shows aperture , outside the inner spiral. fig. .—low-resolution spectra of the inner spiral within the ionization cones (aperture , blue; aperture , red) compared with the average spectrum of the inner spiral outside the ionization cones (black). the three spectra have been normal- ized to a common flux density at �m. no difference is found between the con- tinuum flux density within the ionization cones compared to outside the ionization cones. pahs and warm dust emission in ngc no. , along the northeast ionization cone. the radio jet of condon et al. ( ) ends abruptly near the same location. however, optical- line ratios also show that radiation from the agn is ionizing gas up to kpc from the nucleus within the northeast cone (veilleux et al. x . ). althoughthe �m mips data are saturated (r < , pc), the innermost available isophotes are elongated along the same northeast-southwest axis corresponding to the arcs seen at other wavelengths (fig. ). in addition to the pah knots, a weaker fea- ture is visible in both the irac and mips �m images, corre- sponding to the northeast tip of the southern arm of the inner spiral ( from the nucleus at p:a: ¼ �). two additional peaks are seen � ( kpc) to the southwest of the nucleus at p:a: ¼ �. the nonstellar emission map (fig. ) shows that hot dust is present in these locations. thesubtraction of thenuclear psf (right panel) suggests that there is little hot dust emission in the inner � outside of the nucleus; widespread heating of dust to � k can be ruled out. it is curious that every peak of ir emission in the disk of ngc , including the three such locations on the inner spiral as defined by the schinnerer et al. ( ) co map, lie within the ionization cones of the agn. . . comparison to other wavelengths the radio continuum emission (condon et al. ) comes to an abrupt end at a distance of y pc from the nucleus, roughly halfway to the inner spiral, as shown in figure . the �m knots on the inner spiral lie � ( pc) farther along the radio axis. cecil et al. ( ) found that the high-velocity nu- clear outflow ends abruptly at the northeast radio lobe and the southwest radio hotspot ( . from the nucleus). the co observations of schinnerer et al. ( ; fig. ) show a coherent spiral structure. the �m emission peaks coincide with regions of bright co emission, although the converse is not true. the two brightest pah knots are seen at precisely the loca- tions where the radio jet axis intersects the inner spiral (fig. ). the y pc distance between the ends of the radio jets and the inner spiral indicate that the agn is unlikely to trigger shock- induced star formation, however. the optical emission-line imaging of veilleux et al. ( ) pro- vides important insight into the origin of the observed pah knots. the pah knots coincide with strong h� emission (fig. , left) and with small [o iii]/h� ratios ( . y . ; fig. , right). the �m fig. .—left: contours of an estimate of the nonstellar emission overlaid on a . �m gray-scale image of ngc . as expected, the agn dominates the nonstellar emission, but the pah emission regions outside the inner spiral (southwest and east-northeast of the nucleus; arrows) are also visible. the method used to estimate the nonstellar component of the . �m flux density is described in x ; � ¼ was used as the power-law slope. right: the . �m nonstellar emission from the pointlike nucleus has been removed by psf subtraction. the circle marks the location of the inner spiral kpc ( ) from the nucleus. this image shows that there is very little detectable emission from hot dust outside of the nucleus. fig. .—relative strengths of three pah emission features. apertures along the inner spiral are shown as open circles. apertures inside the inner spiral are shown as filled circles. the aperture exterior to the inner spiral is shown as an open triangle. outliers have been labeled by aperture number. uncertainties are � . in each pah flux ratio, and are not shown. the lines are adapted from draine & li ( ). the solid line corresponds to the cnm model, the dashed line corresponds to the wim model, and the dotted line corresponds to the pdr model. for all three models, pah molecule size increases to the left. the red dotted line shows part of the boundary of the region above which a simple ism model can reproduce observed pah features. data below this line require greater ionization. howell et al. vol. and h� images show strikingly similar morphologies, tracing ac- tive star-forming regions across a wide range in wavelength. the [o iii]/h� ratio is an indicator of mean ionization and tempera- ture; highratios (> , as a rule ofthumb)are typical of agns, while lower ratios are typical of h ii regions (veilleux & osterbrock ). as veilleux et al. ( ) pointed out, high [o iii]/h� ra- tios are seen out to r � kpc in ngc , most visibly in the northeast ionization cone. figure clearly shows that both the starburst knots and the three fainter ir emission peaks have optical-line ratios indicative of star formation. although the h� and [o iii]/h� data confirm the conclusion of le floc’h et al. ( ) that the pah knots are due to star formation in those lo- cations on the inner spiral, it is still surprising that bright pah emissionshould bepresent from regions that are being illuminated by ionizing radiation from the agn. while the galaxy disk is illuminated by the agn, it is unclear how opaque the pah-emitting regions are to radiation from the agn (e.g., see fig. , left). the galaxy evolution explorer (galex ) data (gil de paz et al. ) provide little guidance on this issue. figure (right) is a galex fuvimage of ngc shown with contours of both the spitzer �m and psf-subtracted �m emission overlaid. as is apparent in the figure, the regions showing strong pah and warm dust emission are clearly uv lu- minous, indicating that ( ) the pah-emitting regions are op- tically thin to uv photons and thus unshielded by the agn, ( ) the uv emanates from the optically thin outer envelope of a much more embedded, optically thick starburst responsible for producing the observed pah emission, or ( ) the uvemission is agn light scattered by optically thick clouds. the latter possi- bility is unlikely; a simple assumption of a pc spherical cloud with an albedo of one would reflect a flux � fainter than the flux of the agn. comparing measurements within (galex fwhm) radius apertures centered on the nucleus and on each pah knot, the galex data show that the pah knots are � % as bright as the nucleus in the fuv, and therefore scattering from the agn is unlikely to be a significant contribution. thus, the uv emission is associated with stars, but it cannot be used to rule out whether the pah regions are shielded from the agn. further interpretation is complicated by the near-coincidence between the axis of the agn jet and the position angle of the in- ner stellar bar. intense star formation is common at the ends of a bar (combes & gerin ), so the agn may have no effect on the pah knots at all. it is also possible that the agn is either trig- gering increased star formation or directly exciting pah emission. either the high-energy photons capable of destroying pahs are fig. .—the �m image of the center of ngc , with . ghz radio con- tinuum contours from condon et al. ( ; red) and co ( y ) contours from schinnerer et al. ( ; white) overlaid. note that the peaks of �m emission lie at the locations where the radio jet axis intersects the inner spiral. fig. .—left: h� image of ngc from veilleux et al. ( ) overlaid with �m contours. right: [o iii]/h� image of ngc from veilleux et al. ( ) overlaid with �m contours. the orientation of the ionization cones is shown, and the pah knots on the inner spiral are labeled. the [o iii]/h� ratio is low throughout the inner spiral (the light gray regions on the inner spiral have ratios � ). elsewhere in the ionization cone, particularly to the northeast, the [o iii]/h� ratio is several times as large (the dark gray regions have ratios � ), indicating that the agn is the ionizing source. pahs and warm dust emission in ngc no. , absorbed near the agn while lower energy photons are unob- structed over the entire � kpc of the illuminated disk, or the high-energy photon flux within kpc produces a pah destruction rate less than or equal to the pah formation rate in the star-forming regions. for details on the parameters governing the formation and destruction of pah molecules, see maloney ( ). the radiative- transfer model of siebenmorgen et al. ( ) supports the latter hypothesis, finding that even in the optically thin regime pahs survive exposure to a l� agn at distances of pc or more. however, voit ( b) calculated that pahs could only survive direct exposure to a : ; l� agn at distances kpc. . conclusions we have investigated the influence of the agn on pah emis- sion in ngc , a lirg with a seyfert nucleus. bright pah knots are detected in the inner spiral in ngc . these knots lie directly along the axis of the ionization cone, which extends well beyond the inner spiral in the disk of the galaxy. the knots also coincide with the ends of the inner stellar bar. contrary to the model of bland-hawthorn & voit ( ) the spectra and colors of the pah knots are consistent with starlight and pah emission, with very little if any hot dust. three other star-forming regions are also detected: the northeast tip of the southern arm of the inner spiral andtwo regions . y kpc to the southwest. all three regions lie within the agn ionization cones and show pah emission at �m and a slight excess of . �m emission relative to star- light, suggesting dust heated by young stars. irs spectra near the pah knots indicate that pahs are the dominant energy source, and show that pah emission is present within a few hundred parsecs of the agn. pah line ratios on the inner spiral are gen- erally consistent with a cool, neutral ism, while pah line ratios interior to the inner spiral generally indicate a more ionized me- dium. these data show that the agn is not destroying all pah molecules within the ionization cone. the enhanced pah emis- sion within the ionization cones indicates that the agn is either triggering increased star formation, directly exciting the pahs, or has no effect on the dust properties in the ionization cones. this research has made use of the nasa/ipac extragalactic database (ned), which is operated by the jet propulsion lab- oratory, california institute of technology, under contract with the national aeronautics and space administration. we would like to thank j. condon for making his vla radio continuum maps available to us, p. shopbell for h� and [o iii] images of ngc , e. schinnerer for the co image, b. brandl for pro- viding his average starburst galaxy spectrum, and j. d. smith for assistance in using the pahfit software. we thank the anony- mous referee for constructive comments. support for this work was provided by nasa through contracts , , and (d. c. k. and s. v.) issued by the jet propulsion laboratory, california institute of technology. references allain, t., leach, s., & sedlmayr, e. , a&a, , antonucci, r. r. j., & miller, j. s. , apj, , armus, l., et al. , apj, , bland-hawthorn, j., lumsden, s. l., voit, g. m., cecil, g. n., & weisheit, j. c. , ap&ss, , bland-hawthorn, j., & voit, g. m. , rev. mex. aa, , brandl, b. r., et al. , apj, , bruhweiler, f. c., miskey, c. l., smith, a. m., landsman, w., & malumuth, e. , apj, , buchanan, c. l., gallimore, j. f., o’dea, c. p., baum, s. a., axon, d. j., robinson, a., elitzur, m., & elvis, m. , aj, , cecil, g., bland, j., & tully, r. b. , apj, , clavel, j., et al. , a&a, , combes, f., & gerin, m. , a&a, , fig. .—left: diagram showing the optically thick (top) and optically thin (bottom) scenarios described in the text. the diagram is not to scale. blue lines represent uv photons from the agn or massive stars; red lines represent pah emission. right: the galex fuv ( ; gray scale) data from gil de paz et al. ( ) is compared with spitzer �m (blue) and psf-subtracted �m (red) data. the regions of the inner spiral showing strong pah and warm dust emission are also bright in the uv, indicating that these star-forming regions are not optically thick to uv photons. the slight offset (� north-northeast) between the galex and mips emission is real; the validity of the galex wcs solution was confirmed by plotting the positions of usno catalog stars on the galex image. howell et al. vol. condon, j. j., helou, g., sanders, d. b., & soifer, b. t. , apjs, , dale, d. a., et al. , apj, , draine, b. t., & li, a. , apj, , engelbracht, c. w., gordon, k. d., rieke, g. h., werner, m. w., dale, d. a., & latter, w. b. , apj, , l fath, e. a. , popular astron., , fazio, g. g., et al. , apjs, , freudling, w., siebenmorgen, r., & haas, m. , apj, , l genzel, r., et al. , apj, , gil de paz, a., et al. , apjs, in press higdon, s. j. u., et al. , pasp, , houck, j. r., et al. , apjs, , le floc’h, e., mirabel, i. f., laurent, o., charmandaris, v., gallais, p., sauvage, m., vigroux, l., & cesarsky, c. , a&a, , low, f. j., & rieke, g. h. , nature, , maloney, p. r. , ap&ss, , marco, o., & brooks, k. j. , a&a, , mazzarella, j., et al. , aj, submitted morganti, r., killeen, n. e. b., & tadhunter, c. n. , mnras, , myers, s. t., & scoville, n. z. , apj, , l neugebauer, g., green, r. f., matthews, k., schmidt, m., soifer, b. t., & bennett, j. , apjs, , packham, c., young, s., hough, j. h., axon, d. j., & bailey, j. a. , mnras, , pahre, m. a., ashby, m. l. n., fazio, g. g., & willner, s. p. , apjs, , rieke, g. h., & low, f. j. a, apj, , l ———. b, apj, , l rieke, g. h., et al. , apjs, , roche, p. f., aitken, d. k., smith, c. h., & ward, m. j. , mnras, , sanders, d. b., mazzarella, j. m., kim, d.-c., surace, j. a., & soifer, b. t. , aj, , schinnerer, e., eckart, a., tacconi, l. j., genzel, r., & downes, d. , apj, , siebenmorgen, r., krügel, e., & spoon, h. w. w. , a&a, , smith, j. d. t., et al. , apj, , spinoglio, l., malkan, m. a., smith, h. a., gonzález-alfonso, e., & fischer, j. , apj, , stern, d., et al. , apj, , sturm, e., lutz, d., verma, a., netzer, h., sternberg, a., moorwood, a. f. m., oliva, e., & genzel, r. , a&a, , telesco, c. m., & decher, r. , apj, , unger, s. w., lewis, j. r., pedlar, a., & axon, d. j. , mnras, , usero, a., garcı́a-burillo, s., fuente, a., martı́n-pintado, j., & rodrı́guez- fernández, n. j. , a&a, , veilleux, s., & osterbrock, d. e. , apjs, , veilleux, s., shopbell, p. l., rupke, d. s., bland-hawthorn, j., & cecil, g. , aj, , voit, g. m. a, apj, , ———. b, mnras, , yuan, c., & kuo, c.-l. , apj, , pahs and warm dust emission in ngc no. , doi: . /csis j a grammar-based model for the semantic web hyosook jung and seongbin park  department of computer science education, korea university, seoul, korea {est , hyperspace}@korea.ac.kr abstract. the semantic web is an extension of the web where information is represented in a machine processable way. in this paper, we present a two-level model for the semantic web from the perspective of formal language theory. the model consists of two grammars where the first level grammar is for creating ontologies and the second level grammar is for creating ontological instances. based on the model, we implemented a system by which one can easily construct a small-scale semantic web environment. keywords: semantic web, ontology, grammar. . introduction the semantic web is a vision for the future of the web in which information is given explicit meaning, making it easier for machines to automatically process and integrate information available on the web [ ]. in this paper, we present a grammar-based model for the semantic web. as in [ ], we view the semantic web as the set of ontologies and ontological instances, where an ontology is a document or file that defines the relations among concepts. the proposed model consists of two grammars. the first level intends to represent an ontology about a domain of interests. ontologies are strings generated by the first level grammar. the second level intends to represent ontological instances which are resources described using concepts and relationships based on the ontology defined at the first level. while there are approaches to model the semantic web [ , , ], the advantage of the proposed model is that users can easily create a small- scale semantic web environment where various experimentations such as whether a current web browser needs a new functionality or not can be done. to construct the environment, one can define a grammar for an ontology and generate ontological instances. our system can serve as an education tool for teaching the semantic web. for example, non-experts learn about the conceptualization and formalization of ontologies during lectures. although there are different ontology language  to whom correspondence should be addressed. hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january standards, in teaching level the general understanding about the ontology language might be more important than the specific understanding about a certain ontology language standards. using our system, they can practice how to create ontologies by defining their simple ontology languages. while the languages that they define are not full-fledged ontology languages, they can understand the roles of ontologies and how ontologies are used. our system is different from ontology development tools such as protégé- owl editor [ ], ontoedit [ ], ontokick [ ], webode [ ] etc. in that it allows non-expert users to generate ontologies by using simple languages defined by themselves without the knowledge of owl and rdf which are not simple concepts to understand [ ]. they can understand the essential elements of ontologies and how they are used. figure shows the idea behind our approach. fig. . a grammar-based model for the semantic web this paper is structured as follows. section describes related works. in section , a two-level model is explained. illustrative examples are given in section and section describes how a small-scale semantic web can be constructed using the proposed model. finally, section concludes the paper. . related works the semantic web is an environment where web contents are represented in a form that is machine processable [ ]. there are several languages to represent machine interpretable content on the web. xml offers a surface syntax for structured documents and xml schema is a language for restricting the structure of xml documents. rdf is a data model for objects and their relations and supports a simple semantics for the data model. rdf schema is a vocabulary for representing properties and classes of rdf resources. owl adds more vocabulary for describing properties and classes: a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january among others, relations between classes, cardinality, equality, richer typing of properties, characteristics of properties, and enumerated classes [ ]. owl ontology represents a domain by defining classes and properties of those classes and defines individuals and asserts properties about them. ontologies contain computer-usable definitions of basic concepts in the domain and the relationships among them. they encode knowledge in a domain and also knowledge that extends domains [ ]. an owl instance is a description about a resource created by using properties and classes defined in the owl ontology [ , ]. in ontobroker [ ], ontologies are defined in a representation language based on frame-logic which supports queries by using instances of an ontology. the representation language used to define ontologies enables elementary expressions such as classes, attributes, relationships, and axioms. it also allows complex expressions such as facts, rules, double rules and queries. the defined ontology is composed of concept hierarchy which defines the subclass relationship between different classes, attribute definitions given for classes and a set of rules which defines relationships between different concepts and attributes. the semantic web has been modeled in various ways. [ ] describes a semantic web space as two-tuple <o, r>, where o is a set of ontologies and r is a set of resources such as web pages, databases, and sensors. [ ] describes the semantic web as a notebook + memex where, the memex emphasizes on engaging with information, developing it, and working with it, the notebook focuses on both the more writerly and the more personal side of engaging with information. it can perform the automatic and logical processing of repetitive thought tasks and the creation of associative links across different resources by connecting into either the similar tasks or creative thought processes. [ ] describes a semantic network as a directed labeled graph. for the semantic web, a semantic network substrate is represented by the constraints of the rdf which describes a semantic network as a set of triples where a subject resource points to an object resource according a predicate resource. subject and predicate resources are identified by uri (uniform resource identifier) and object resources are a literal or uri. the semantic web can be defined as g  (u  u  (u  l)), where u is the set of all uris and l is the set of all literals. linked data is about using the web to create typed links between data from different sources. it basically uses the rdf data model to publish structured data on the web and rdf links to interlink data from different data sources [ ]. it is associated with the semantic web because the semantic web isn't just about putting data on the web, but about making links, so that a person or machine can explore the web of data [ ]. our tool lets people represent data based on ontologies, which is a basic process to make semantic links between data. cloud computing is a term to describe both a platform and a type of application. a cloud is a pool of virtualized computer resources. a cloud computing platform dynamically provisions, configures, reconfigures, and hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january deprovisions servers as needed. cloud applications are extended applications to be accessible through the internet. these cloud applications use large data centers and powerful servers that host web applications and web services [ ]. although the cloud computing providers are publishing various clouds over the internet, there are no standard, open protocols and discover mechanisms for different kinds of clouds [ ]. so, the cloud computing interoperability forum (ccif) focus on being placed on the creation of a common agreed upon framework or ontology that enables the ability of two or more cloud platforms to exchange information [ ]. a common cloud ontology can support the expression of cloud computing and its related parts by using a common data model. our tool allows people to define ontologies to represent data semantically. they can experience the way of creating a data model for cloud computing. social semantic web is related to the creation of explicit and semantically rich knowledge representations. it can be seen as a web of collective knowledge systems that which can provide useful information based on human contributions and get better as more people participate. instead of relying entirely on automated semantics with formal ontology processing and inferencing, humans are collaboratively building semantics aided by socio- semantic information systems [ ]. our tool enables users to create ontologies and represent data based on the ontology by using their own description languages instead of rdf/owl. the users can also create a small-scale social semantic web that supports semantic browsing by using user-defined ontologies. a reasoner is a service that takes the statements encoded in an ontology as input and infers new statements from them. in particular, owl reasoners such as fact++ and pallet can be used to reveal subclass or superclass relationships among classes, determine the most specific types of individuals, and detect inconsistent class definitions [ ]. our tool checks whether the ontology is defined without syntactic and semantic errors and whether the instances are defined by using the classes and properties of the ontology. fig. . related research areas to our work a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january figure shows how our research is related to linked data, cloud computing, social semantic web, and ontology reasoners. . a grammar-based model in this section, we describe a grammar-based model for the semantic web. the proposed model consists of two grammars. the first grammar is for generating ontologies and the second grammar is for generating ontological instances. more specifically, the first level grammar in our model is used to generate ontologies that describe information about classes or properties. a class has certain restrictions, where a restriction is a data type of a class or a condition about data value. datatype properties define relations between instances of classes and rdf literals and xml schema datatypes. object property defines relations between instances of two classes by connecting instances in a domain class into instances in a range class. a data range is used as the range of a data-valued property such as string, integer, boolean, and float. the syntax of the first level grammar is as follows. ontology ::= 'ontology' ontologyid directive*; directive ::= import | class | property; import ::= ‘ns:’ namespaceid=referrenceid class ::= 'class' classid description*; description ::= 'subclassof' classid | restriction*; restriction ::= 'restriction on property'(datatypepropertyid datatype | objectpropertyid objecttype); datatype ::= datarange | cardinality; objecttype ::= classid | cardinality; cardinality ::= 'min' digit+ | 'max' digit+| 'equals' digit+; property ::= datatypeproperty | objectproperty; datatypeproperty ::= 'datatypeproperty' datatypepropertyid ('domain' classid)* ('range' datarange)*; objectproperty ::= 'objectproperty' objectpropertyid ('domain' classid)* ('range' classid)*; datarange ::= 'string' | 'integer' | 'boolean' | 'float'; ontologyid ::= identifier; terminals are quoted (i.e., „ontology‟) and non-terminals are not quoted (i.e., ontologyid). alternatives are either separated by vertical bars(|) or are given in different productions. components that can occur at most once are followed by „+‟ and components that can occur any number of times including zero are followed by „*‟. hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january using this grammar, an ontology about a movie can be defined. for example, a movie ontology can have class film and genre, and property genreof which creates a relation between film's and genre's instances. class film has at least one instance of class genre as the value of objectproperty genreof. using the grammar, a movie ontology can be derived as follows. 'ontology' ontologyid directive* →'ontology' movie directive* →'ontology' movie class directive* →'ontology' movie 'class' film description* directive* →'ontology' movie 'class' film restriction directive* →'ontology' movie 'class' film 'restriction on property' objectpropertyid objecttype directive* →'ontology' movie 'class' film 'restriction on property' genreof cardinality directive* →'ontology' movie class film 'restriction on property' genreof 'min' directive* →'ontology' movie 'class' film 'restriction on property' genreof 'min' class directive* →'ontology' movie 'class' film 'restriction on property' genreof 'min' 'class' genre directive* →'ontology' movie 'class' film 'restriction on property' genreof 'min' 'class' genre property →'ontology' movie 'class' film 'restriction on property' genreof 'min' 'class' genre objectproperty →'ontology' movie 'class' film 'restriction on property' genreof 'min' 'class' genre 'objectproperty' objectpropertyid ('domain' classid)* ('range' classid)* →'ontology' movie 'class' film 'restriction on property' genreof 'min' 'class' genre 'objectproperty' genreof 'domain' movie 'range' genre now, this ontology serves as the second level grammar. according to the movie ontology, class genre has instance fantasy and adventure and class film has harry_potter_and_the_sorcerers_stone whose genre is fantasy and adventure. the classes and properties of the ontology become terminals and strings are variables. an instance of the movie ontology can be derived as follows. a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january ('genre' genreinstance)+ ('film' filminstance 'genreof' (genreinstance)+)+ →'genre' fantasy 'genre' adventure (film filminstance ('genreof' genreinstance)+)+ →'genre' fantasy 'genre' adventure 'film' harry_potter_and_the_sorcerers_stone ('genreof' genreinstance)+ →'genre' fantasy 'genre' adventure 'film' harry_potter_and_the_sorcerers_stone 'genreof' fantasy 'genreof' adventure figure shows movie ontology and its instances. fig. . movie ontology and its instances . illustrative examples in this section, we show how the proposed model can be used to describe various aspects of the semantic web environment. . . scenario in the semantic web, an instance of an ontology can be semantically related to an instance of another ontology. for example, figure shows how two domains (movie and travel) are connected. hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january fig. . movie, travel, movie_travel ontology and their instances this situation can be easily described using the proposed model. movie ontology has film and genre class, and genreof property which creates a relation between film‟s and genre‟s instances. ontology movie class genre class film restriction on property genreof equals objectproperty genreof domain film range genre based on movie ontology, film class has harry_potter_and_the_ sorcerers_stone in-stance and genre class has fantasy. genre fantasy film harry_potter_and_the_sorcerers_stone genreof fantasy travel ontology has location and spot class, and locatedin property which creates a relation between location's and spot's instances. ontology travel class location class place restriction on property locatedin equals objectproperty locatedin domain place range location based on travel ontology, location class has london instance and place class has gloucester_cathedral. a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january location london place gloucester_cathedral locatedin london we create movie_travel ontology by importing movie and travel ontology. it uses film class of movie ontology and spot class of travel ontology. it has filmedin property which creates a relation between film's and spot's instances. ontology movie_travel ns:m=movie ns:t=travel class t:place class m:film restriction on property filmedin equals objectproperty filmedin domain m:film range t:place based on movie_travel ontology, film class has har- ry_potter_and_the_sorcerers_stone instance and place class has gloucester_cathedral. t: place gloucester_cathedral m: film harry_potter_and_the_sorcerers_stone filmedin loucester_cathedral people can get information for traveling a place where a famous movie is filmed by combining film and travel ontology. . . scenario historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. therefore, the events and developments might be organized based on historical periods such as ancient history, middle ages, early modern period, modern era and post-modern. assume that there are three types of ontologies which define different classes and properties as follows. ontology ancient_history class nation class machine restriction on property inventedby equals objectproperty inventedby domain machine range nation ontology middle_ages class area class invention restriction on property introducedfrom equals hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january objectproperty introducedfrom domain invention range area ontology modern_era class country class technology restriction on property developedin equals objectproperty developedin domain technology range country assume that a person wants to organize information on technology in history by using an ontology, but historians already organized the information on technology as well as war, religion, or science based on different ontologies by the historical periods. the person tries to extract the classes or properties related to science and technology from different ontologies and to integrate them in an ontology. that can be done by importing the three ontologies. so, the person can define the namespace for each ontology. ontology history_of_technology ns:ah = ancient_history ns:ma = middle_ages ns:me = modern_era ah:nation egypt ah:machine ramp ah:inventedby egypt lever ah:inventedby egypt ma:area east ma:invention compass ma:introducedfrom east gunpower ma:introducedfrom east silk ma:introducedfrom east astrolabe ma:introducedfrom east me:country britain me:techology streamengine me:developedin britain program code . . scenario people organize resources based on their interests or needs. one resource can be classified differently because their interests or needs are different. the proposed model allows users to create a specification file which contains the lexical definitions and the grammar of their own ontology language and define ontology which represents the meaning of terms and the relationships between those terms by using the ontology language. if the web resources a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january are reorganized based on their own ontologies, the users can conveniently navigate the web resources according to their interests or needs without wasting a lot of time. as an example, assume that a user wants to search web resources in an internet art museum. an internet art museum has lots of art works and users navigate them based on their interests. some search the art works of the artists who they like such as van gogh, picasso, millet, etc. others search the art works according to the trend of art such as realism, impressionism, cubism, etc. the others search the art works of art forms which they are interested in such as drawing, painting, sculpture, etc. if the artworks re- organized by their interests are displayed, the users navigate them conveniently and find out desired resources easily. if user a wants to browse the art works based on painting styles, the user can use the following ontology. ontology painting_style class work restriction on property belongto equals class art_movement objectproperty belongto domain work range art_movement art_movement realism impressionism cubism work work_ belongto realism if user b wants to browse the art works based on artists, the user can use the following ontology. ontology painting_artist class work restriction on property belongto equals class artist objectproperty paintedby domain work range artist artist picasso van_gogh millet work work_ paintedby millet if user c wants to browse the art works based on art forms, the user can use the following ontology. ontology painting_medium class work restriction on property madeof equals hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january class medium objectproperty madeof domain work range medium medium fresco oil watercolor work work_ madeof oil figure shows how the resources can be organized according to users‟ interests. . fig. . organization of resources based on users‟ interests . . scenario the proposed model can be used to create linked data. each user can build an ontology about a certain domain by using our model and create instances based on the ontology. each instance can be regarded as the description about a raw data that each user has and so they are similar to the descriptions of data in linked data by using the standards like rdf. linked data is an approach to expose, share, and connect pieces of data, information, and knowledge on the semantic web using uris and rdf. if some users can define a common ontology together, create instances to describe their raw data, and share the instances by using our model, it is possible to construct linked data. for example, there are people who are interested in art. they open a community in a social network for sharing their data. they first build a general ontology about art domain as follows; ontology art class painting class artist objectproperty artist domain painting range artist a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january datatypeproperty title domain painting range string datatypeproperty year domain painting range string they also create the instances which describe their data based on the art ontology as follows; table . instances created by each user user a user b user c user d ontology art artist van_gogh painting work_ artist van_gogh painting work_ title sunflower painting work_ year ontology art artist van_gogh painting work_ artist van_gogh painting work_ title self_portrait painting work_ year ontology art artist picasso painting work_ artist picasso painting work_ title guernica painting work_ year ontology art artist picasso painting work_ artist picasso painting work_ title massacre_in_korea painting work_ year then, they share the instances in their community. it is possible kind of linked data services. for example, they can find all data linked to a certain artist such as van_gogh or picasso. even though each user has small data, they can get an amount of linked data and also create new information from the linked data. . constructing a small scale semantic web environment in this section, we show how a user can construct a small-scale semantic web environment using the system we implemented. in order to create a small-scale semantic web environment, a user defines a grammar for the ontology language and creates a parser by using sablecc [ ] that is a parser generator which creates object-oriented frameworks for building compilers, interpreters, and other text parsers. for describing the ontology, the user needs to create a sablecc specification file which contains the lexical definitions and the grammar productions of an ontology language. figure shows how a user can construct a small-scale semantic web environment using the system. first, a user defines an ontology language grammar. the grammar file is written in a sablecc specification file format. then, the user creates an ontology compiler by launching sablecc on the grammar file. the user writes and compiles java sources for an ontology compiler that checks grammatical errors of the ontology defined by the ontology language and is aware of its classes and their relationships. if there are no errors, an ontology in xml format is written. the user writes and saves the instances in a xml document if it is defined based on the classes and properties of the defined ontology. hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january fig. . steps for constructing a small-scale semantic web environment. figure shows the screenshot of the user interface captured when a user creates an ontology. fig. . art ontology and its instances figure shows the situation used in the example that follows. a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january fig. . art ontology and its instances we assume that the environment consists of an art ontology and its instances. more specifically, in the art ontology, there are a painting class and an artist class. the title datatype property defines the painting class as its domain and a string type as its range. an individual of the painting class has a title value. the workedby object property defines the painting class as its domain and the artist class as its range. an individual of the painting class has an individual of the artist class as its workedby value. instances of of art ontology are created by creating two individuals and assigning their properties. we define a painting with an id of work_ and specify that it is worked by (workedby) vincent_van_gogh and its title is sunflower. we also define a painting is an id of work_ and specify that it is worked by (workedby) pablo_picasso and its title is guernica. the steps for constructing a small-scale semantic web environment are as follows. . a user defines the grammar of an ontology language to be compiled and saves it as a specification file. figure shows the screenshot of the the specification file. hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january fig. . screenshot of the specification file . the user launches sablecc on the specification file by clicking [build]- [launch] (figure ). it generates a framework which consists of four packages such as lexer, parser, node and analysis. fig. . launching sablecc on the specification file . the user creates working classes which inherit fields and methods from the classes of the java packages. the working classes contain the core compiler functionalities. if an input is an ontology file, it finds classes and properties of the ontology and saves them and their relationships as an xml file. if an input is an instance file, it finds individuals, their properties and values, and saves them as an xml file. . the user also creates a main compiler class which activates lexer, parser, and working classes. the main class reads an ontology file which is a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january defined by the user. if an input is an ontology file, it checks whether the ontology is defined according to the grammar of the ontology language. if an input is an instance file, it checks whether the instances are defined based on the vocabulary of the ontology. . then, the user compiles the main compiler with a java compiler and the application generates an ontology language compiler. if the main compiler has any error, the user can debug it. in this example, the user saves a compiler program as "main.java" and compiles it by clicking [build]- [compile]. . the user creates an ontology which contains classes and properties about a domain according to the ontology language grammar and compiles it with the ontology language compiler. the application generates an ontology xml file. for example, the user defines an art ontology and saves it as "simple.ont". the ontology can be created if the user clicks [build]-[make ontology]. if there is no syntax and semantic error, the system produces an ontology. . the user also creates its instances which are defined by the classes and properties of the ontology and compiles it with the ontology language compiler. the application generates an instance xml file. in this example, the user defines instances based on art ontology and saves it as "simple.ins". the user creates instances based on the ontology by clicking [build]-[make instance]. if the instances are defined by using the classes and properties of the ontology, the system produces an ontology(figure ). fig. . creation of instances hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january . comparison with other ontology development tools in this section, we compare the proposed system with two well-known ontology development tools, protégé [ ] and apollo [ ]. specifically, we show how the scenario given in section can be realized using protégé and apollo in section . and . , respectively. in addition, we show parts of an ontology and an instance from three systems to illustrate the differences in section . . the following table summarizes briefly the differences. table . comparison between protégé-owl, apollo, and our system protégé-owl and apollo are developed for implementing metadata of ontology using the languages used to encode the ontology. they generally require users to be trained for the languages, knowledge representation, and predicate logic. for example, protégé-owl supports the web ontology language (owl) and exports ontologies to owl/rdf (resource description framework). it requires users understand the vocabularies of rdf(s) and owl and their functions. apollo is a knowledge modeling application based on the internal model of the okbc (open knowledge base connectivity) protocol and export ontologies to clos (common lisp object system) and ocml (options configuration modeling language). it also requires users understand the meaning of each concept, the operations, and the naming and argument conventions provided in okbc specifications. our system allows users to use languages that they define. it requires the users to have a basic understanding of formal languages and parsing which undergraduate students generally learn from a compiler course. protégé-owl and apollo are developed for all stages of the ontology lifecycle such as creation, population, validation, deployment, maintenance and evolution. however, our system is developed for undergraduate students to construct an environment that is structurally similar to the semantic web which consists of ontologies and their instances so that they can understand the structural properties of the semantic web while studying the semantic web. the combination of theory and practice can help them understand the semantic web clearly. on top of this, they can also conduct system language prerequisite usage protégé- owl owl/rdf understanding owl/rdf(s) vocabularies building general ontologies & their instances apollo okbc model understanding okbc knowledge model building general ontologies & their instances our system user-defined language understanding formal languages & parsing constructing a semantic web environment easily a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january experimentations on semantic web applications that run in the environment so constructed. the ontologies in protégé-owl or apollo are represented by using general languages or knowledge representation such as rdf(s), owl, okbc model, etc. they can be reused and shared with other applications using the same language. however, users should understand the technical terminologies of the language or its specification and it can be difficult [ , ]. in our system, users can simply build ontologies and their instances which do not use technical terminologies and logic. even though the ontologies are not represented by the general ontology language, the system can be helpful for the undergraduate students who have basic knowledge about computer science to understand the semantic web. in addition, although our system now represents the ontology by xml, it can be easily extensible to represent the ontology by owl/rdf(s). . . protégé-owl the steps to create an art ontology given in section are as follows. . we start protégé-owl and create a new owl project by clicking “create new project”. when “create new project” wizard appears, we select a project type, “owl/rdf files” and specify a unique uri that will become the identifier for the ontology. then, we select an owl/rdf dialect such as owl dl. . we create classes for concepts in the ontology. we select the “owl classes” tab. it shows the hierarchy of classes. all the classes will be created subordinate to owl:thing. we click the create subclass button. a class is created with a generic name such as “class_ ”. we rename the class using the “class name widget” to “artist”. fig. . creation of classes hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january we repeat the previous step to add the class “painting” (figure ). fig. . creation of an object property . we create properties of these classes, for example, the title of the painting and the artist that painted it. we switch to the “properties” tab. we click the “create object property” button to create a new object property. an object property is created with a generic name. we rename the property to “workedby”. then, we specify a domain and a range of the object property. we press the “add named class” button on the “domain widget” and select the class “painting”. we also press the “add named class” button on the “range widget” and select the class “artist” (figure ). fig. . creation of a datatype property . we click the “create datatype property” button to create a new datatype property. a dataproperty is created with a generic name. we rename the a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january property to “title”. then, we specify a domain and a range of the datatype property. we press the “add named class” button on the “domain widget” and select the class “painting”. we select the item “string” on the “range widget” (figure ). fig. . creation of instances of the class artist . we create some instances of the classes. we switch to the “individuals” tab. we select the class “artist”. we press the “create instance” button. an instance is created with a generic name. we rename the instance to vincent_van_gogh. we also create another instance called “pablo_picasso” (figure ). fig. . creation of instances of the class painting . we select the class “painting” and press the “create instance” button. an instance is created with a generic name. we rename the instance to “work_ ”. we press the “add new value” button in the datatype property hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january “title” and type “sunflower” as its value. we also press the “add new value” button in the object property “workedby” and select the instance “vincent_van_gogh” as its value. . we repeat step to create another instance called “work_ ”. we press the “add new value” button in the datatype property “title” and type “guernica” as its value. we also press the “add new value” button in the object property “workedby” and select the instance “pablo_picasso” as its value (figure ). . . apollo the steps to create an art ontology given in section are as follows. . we start apollo and a new project. we click “create new project” and open the “create new ontology” dialog and enter its name, “art”. . we create classes for concepts in the ontology. we open the “new class” dialog in the focused ontology and type the class name “artist”. we repeat the previous step to add the class “painting” (figure ). fig. . creation of classes . we create property slots of the classes. a slot contains a number of facets such as value, value type, and value class, etc. we open the “new slot” dialog in the class “artist”. we type its name “workedby” and set its value type “instance” and its value class “painting”. we also open the “new slot” dialog in the class “painting”. we type its name “title” and set its type “string” (figure ). a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january fig. . creation of property slots . we create some instances of the classes. we select the class “artist” and open the “new instance” dialog. we type the instance name “vincent_van_gogh” and its type “artist”. we also open the “new instance” dialog again. we type the instance name “pablo_picasso” and set its type “artist” (figure ). fig. . creation of instances of the class artists . similarly, we select the class “painting” and open the “new instance” dialog. we type the instance name “work_ ” and set its type “painting”. we also open the “new instance” dialog again. we type the instance name “work_ ” and set its type “painting”. . we specify the facets of the instances of the class “artist”. we select the class “artist” and the instance “vincent_van_gogh” in sub-classes panel. hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january we double-click the value of the slot “workedby” and select the instance “work_ ”. we select the instance “pablo_picasso” in sub-classes panel. we double-click the value of the slot “workedby” and select the instance “work_ ” (figure ). fig. . specifying the facets of the instances of the class artist . similarly, we specify the facets of the instances of the class “painting”. we select the class “painting” and the instance “work_ ” in sub-classes panel. we edit the string value of the slot “title” to “sunflower”. we select the instance “work_ ” in sub-classes panel. we edit the string value of the slot “title” to “guernica”. . . comparison of the results fig. . two classes and instances to illustrate the differences and similarities among our system, apollo, and protégé-owl, we extract parts of the documents where they save the ontology and its instances. protégé-owl saves them in owl format, and apollo and our system do in xml format. there are two classes “artist” and “painting” and the property “workedby”. there are also instances “work_ ” a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january and “vicent_van_gogh” which are connected with the property “workedby” (figure ). the following table shows the ontology generated from the three systems. table . ontologies generated by protégé-owl, apollo, and our system the ontological instances generated from the systems are as follows. table . ontologial instances generated by protégé-owl, apollo, and our system task apollo (xml) protégé-owl (owl) our system (xml) creating ontology <classes> <class name=”artist”/> <class name=”painting”/> <slots> <slot name=”workedby”> <type value=”instance”/> <is_own value=”false”/> <value_class value=”artist”/> <value_type value=”instance”/> </slot> </slots> <classes> <owl:class rdf:id=”painting”/ > <owl:class rdf:id=”artist”/> <owl:objectprop erty rdf:id=”workedby ”> <rdfs:range rdf:resource=”#ar tist”/> <rdfs:domain rdf:resource=”#p ainting”/> </owl:objectprop erty> <class name= „painting‟/> <class name=„artist‟/> <objectprop erty name=‟workedby ‟> <domain name=‟painting‟/ > <range name= „artist‟/> </objectprop erty> task apollo (xml) protégé-owl (owl) our system (xml) creating instance <instance name = “vincent_van_gogh”class =”artist”/> <instance name =“work_ ” class=“painting”> <slots> <slot name=”title”> <value value= “sunflower”/> </slot> <slot name= “workedby”> <value value=”artist: vincent_van_gogh”/> </slot> </slots> </instance> <painting rdf:id= “work_ ”> <workedby> <artist rdf:id=”vincent_v an_gogh”/> </workedby> </painting> <artist name= ‟vincent_van_go gh> <painting name= „work_ ‟> <workedby value = ‟vincent_van_go gh‟> </workedby> </painting> hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january . conclusions and future works in this paper, we presented a two-level model for the semantic web. the model consists of two grammars, where one grammar is used to model ontologies and the other grammar is used to model ontological instances. we implemented a system by which a user can easily construct a small-scale semantic web environement. our model can be utilized as follows. first, a personalized semantic web can be easily constructed. the semantic web is a linked information space where data is being enriched and added based on the standards to formalize the syntactic and semantics of web contents. it encourages users to create, share, and reuse resources related to their needs and interests. especially, the rapid increase of communities promotes the interaction with each other and development of a shared repository of resources. however, it is not easy for average users to handle the languages to construct the semantic web such as rdf or owl. our model enables the users to design an ontology language for a domain of their interests and represent web contents by using the language. the users can represent their own contents and connect to others in a shared domain of interests easily because they use languages that are easier than rdf or owl. they can construct their personalized semantic webs. second, constructing knowledge is easily done. people construct their knowledge by connecting existing knowledge into new knowledge, but their knowledge construction is different each other. although they are given the same resources, they organize them in different ways because they have various views about the resources. the proposed model enables users to define and utilize resources according to their views easily. they define ontologies and describe resources based on the ontologies to organize the resources. they can reuse resources made by others in new and exciting contexts as well. it can help them build knowledge. third, a semantic social network can be easily created. in the semantic web, users create online communities where they can create, collect and share resources. especially, a social network is a community where members with a shared interests interact and develop shared contents. if they can construct a small semantic web suited to their own community, they can represent resources semantically and share meaningful information. the proposed model enables them to construct a semantic social network according to their interests and needs. we are currently investigating ways by which a logical inference mechanism can be supported in the proposed model. we are also working on a tool that that can exploit the structural properties of the semantic web such as magpie [ ], piggy bank [ ], potluck [ ], etc. using a structurally similar environment to the semantic web created by our system. a grammar-based model for the semantic web comsis vol. , no. , january references . mcguinness, d. l. and van harmelen, f.: owl web ontology language overview, w c recommendation, http://www.w .org/tr/owl-features. 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( ) . boss, g., malladi, p., quan, d., legregni, l., hall, h.:cloud computing. ibm corporation ( ) hyosook jung and seongbin park comsis vol. , no. , january . sheu, p. c-y, wang, s., wang, q., hao, k., paul, r.: semantic computing, cloud computing, and semantic search engine. ieee international conference on semantic computing, - . ( ) . http://www.cloudforum.org . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social_semantic_web . http://syntheticbiology.org/semantic_web_ontology/software.html . http://projects.kmi.open.ac.uk/magpie/main.html . http://simile.mit.edu/potluck . http://apollo.open.ac.uk . wang, h., horridge, m., rector, a.: debugging owl-dl ontologies: a heuristic approach, proceedings of iswc , lncs ( ) . chung, m., oh, s., kim, k., cho, h., cho, h.: visualizing and authoring owl in ezowl, international conference on advanced communication technology, - . ( ) hyosook jung received bachelor's degree in the department of elementary education from seoul national university of education in seoul, korea, master's degree in the department of elementary computer education from seoul national university graduate school of education in seoul, korea and doctoral degree in the department of computer science education from korea university in seoul, korea. her research interests include semantic web, adaptive hypermedia and computer science education. seongbin park received bachelor's degree in the department of computer science from korea university in seoul, korea, and both master's degree and doctoral degree in the department of computer science from the university of southern california. he is currently an associate professor at the department of computer science education of korea university in seoul, korea. his research interests include semantic web, adaptive hypermedia and computer science education. received: october , ; accepted: february , . Ŕ periodica polytechnica architecture / ( ) – doi: . /pp.ar. - . web: http://www.pp.bme.hu/ar c© periodica polytechnica research article application of the techniques of traditional and modern fine arts in the architectural graphics gábor nemes received - - abstract the fundamental devices of the artistic representation. possi- bilities of light / tone handling: xylographs, chiaroscuro, low tone differences, impressionistic tone handling. the use of colours in architectural graphics: emotional suggestivity, space suggestive role of the colours. pen/ink techniques: line drawings, brush and wash technique. the coloured drawings. aquarelle. pastel techniques. coloured prints. abstract plan compositions – the collage. relation of architectural representation to modern abstract art. keywords architectural graphics · pen · aquarelle · pastel · collage gábor nemes department of design, bme, h– budapest műegyetem rkp. ., hungary e-mail: gnemes@rajzi.bme.hu motto: "the drawing, named also as art of the draft, is the essence of the painting, sculpture and architecture." (michelangelo) in the architect there always was and will be acclaim for the creation of plan graphics, presentations of independent value having aesthetic value, in addition to the technical plan docu- mentation with its individual way of expression, characteristic to the architect and his architectural style. plan graphics bearing the mark of the personality and unrepeatable individuality are expressing, beyond the technical content, already in the presen- tation projected into the plane, something about the spirituality of the planned building. drawings act at the spiritual and also at an emotional level on the viewer, bringing the spectator nearer to acceptance of the architectural conception. if this striving is successful, then it can be safely stated that the design and sight plans may become equal associates to the artistic graphics by meeting the modern aesthetic criterion of projecting beyond it- self. architectural graphics education just aims to familiarize and drill the students with the techniques and procedures which may promote the establishment of their independent graphic ap- proach, choosing the one best suited to their architectural style i.e. their "messages" and individual habitudes. it does not re- quire any special explanation that a faculty where education of the visual, aesthetic aspects of architecture is considered as the main profile, has to provide help to the architects to be, in shap- ing of their own graphic language, introducing and so to say offering the possible – existing – procedures so that the students then become able to start in the way most attractive for them, leading to the creation of graphics of artistic value. another im- portant goal of the education of this orientation is to increase the visual culture of the students – not feasible so efficiently by any other way– and to excite their interest for a more thorough cognition of the attendant arts. the t h century provided magnificent preliminaries for those dealing with architectural drawings of a graphic nature, here il- lustrated by a few examples: between the graphical and architectural graphical activities of károly kós, the great master of the secession opening the application of the techniques of traditional and modern fine arts in the architectural graphics http://www.pp.bme.hu/ar century, the boundaries are blurred; his tinted drawings recalling the superb, dramatic sombreness of the xylographs remind us of the creator essential in the wide sphere of visuality. pioneers of modernism, the de stijl or the bauhaus pro- claimed the unity of the visual arts and simultaneously formu- lated the demand for fine-art determined architecture and archi- tectural presentation of artistic rank, they created graphics ex- actly expressing the world of thought of the buildings. the contemporary hungarian architectural graphics may also attribute essential life-works as its own; in the thought-concise drafts of györgy jánossy, sensitive drawings of györgy vadász, inspired presentations of imre makovecz or just in the impres- sionalistically fresh aquarelles of lyrical intonation of dr. istván balogh former professor and head of the department of design the borders are equally blurred between the artistic creations of sight plan initiation and those "pour l’art". in a certain sense, architects of the present day have a more difficult task as compared to their historical predecessors since none of the architectural trends – likewise none of the fine-art trends – expresses entirely unambiguously the aesthetic stan- dards. the various conceptual and visual worlds live in parallel equality naturally liberating the creative imagination but failing to give an exact basis for selection of the graphic representation adequate to the architectural thought. only a thorough knowl- edge of the techniques and the modes of expression may help, as in ariadne’s yarn, it requires an orientation in the labyrinth of possibilities to find the holy grail of the authentic graphic expression at an artistic level, equal to that of its predecessors. after this preamble, let us look at the devices and techniques concerned and familiarize ourselves with their details. the fundamental devices of the artistic representation are: the line, the light tone and the colour. in case of black-and-white representation the line and the tone are devices of artistic expression but at the same time the tone is also one of the fundamental elements of the colourful represen- tation and thus it is natural that the tone – light-shadow values – have a distinguished role in the representation. possibilities for handling light / tone the drawing can be imagined with application of only black and white tones: this recalls the world of the xylographs. here the black and white are not devices of the spatial expression, but they have a decorative role and function, acting on the emo- tions. by this means it is an artistic procedure suitable for the creation of expressive and elegant graphics of intense messages and decorative appearance. another peculiar possibility of the powerful light and tone handling is the chiaroscuro technique, giving a mysterious light researching contemporary hungarian architectural graphics is the special- ist field of the author’s phd research. the author naturally does not forget the fundemental importance of the composition, but the teaching of this is an important point of origin for all sub- jects of the architects’ education correlating with the design and visuality. effect to the picture. its essence is the concentration of the light on the image surface, which is suitable for the establishing of dramatic, sometimes mystic effects, capturing the viewer, mak- ing it to part of the theme, and leading to the world of the com- position. users of this technique improved their skills by paint- ing often in candlelight, whose illumination brings the object to an entirely new tonal position, helping in the selection of the essential elements. the chiaroscuro effect can be observed on the creations illustrated. the drawings of high tonal difference feature dynamic and powerful effects. fig. . info building, student work (e. szobota) in case of drawings created with balanced tone conditions – where there is a great distance between the light and dark tones but the composition is amended by rich intermediate tonal val- ues – rational, elegant but slightly dull graphics are obtained. the "pale" compositions of low tonal difference can be inter- esting, where just the lack of the tonal dynamism awakens the viewer’s interest and the value of these creations is given instead of the impetus, by fine aesthetic, lyrical or dramatic "emptiness". naturally in this "tonal greyness" many finely tuned tonal val- ues participate and each picture element of striking lightness or darkness may have an especially high accent. if the tonal value of the picture is darker, then a picture of more gloomy and dramatic effect is obtained whilst if the tone is lighter, then the effect is naturally more cheerful and facile but the lack of the contrast remains in both cases sensible and makes the viewer an emotional part of the image world, which is an essential tool for the creator – let the composition be of fine art or architectural graphical incentive – in the transfer of the message. in poor light contrast, the dominating effects can be readily observed in per. pol. arch. gábor nemes the illustrated examples, where in one of the pictures there is a complete lack of the light, whilst in the other the light floods everything. fig. . info building, student work (a. hajas) a similarly important possibility of handling the image’s light – opposite to the chiaroscuro – is the creation of vibrating – impressionistic – light effects that magically transforms the im- age and its theme, both facile and playful, causing the viewer to readily become a fan. such airy and picturesque handling of the light is naturally one of the big achievements of french impressionism and, among others, this makes the architectural aquarelles of istván balogh so attractive. the colour an even more rich possibility of the representation is inher- ent in utilizing the suggestiveness of colours. colour and tone are naturally coherent notions, thus the above applies also to the colourful representation. usage of colour at the same time can make the architectural graphic compositions even more pleasur- ably expressive. naturally to achieve this, one also has to be fa- miliar with the fundamental regularities of the colour contrasts as with the emotional and spatial suggestivity of the colours. it is of general validity that powerful and expressive composi- tions are obtained with the utilization of so-called complemen- tary colour pairs, where the dominant colours existing in the composition are located opposite to each other on the colour wheel. conscious usage of the complementary colours is one of the definitive characteristics of the painting since impression- ism. the more intensive, saturated colours present in the com- position the more intensive stress is achieved. similarly dramatic effect is exerted also by the usage of the so-called cold-soft contrast, where the contrast is constituted by the blue and red colours. very great significance is attributed in the architectural graph- ics to the space suggestive role of the colours. the saturated, soft colours appear optically nearer than the non-saturated resp. the cold ones. thus in a composition they "jump out" from the picture plane, becoming more accented whereby proper usage of the colours may provide a help in correct interpretation of the spatial conditions. conscious usage of the emotional suggestivity of the colours is also an important factor of the graphical composition. here it is worth citing goethe who in his colour theorem writes the following about the emotional effects of the colours: “yellow: this colour is nearest to the light and it features a certain kind of sunny, cheerful and slightly stimulating property; the warmth and pleasure of the eyes can be attributed to the rubescent yel- low; the red equally exerts the impression of earnestness and dignity as that of charm and grace. lilac: features a certain vivacity without being jolly, more perturbing than exhilarating. the blue stimulates the feeling of cold, likewise it resembles the shadows. in its sight somehow the contradiction of the stimulus and the tranquillity is combined. green: our eyes find a realistic satisfaction in this colour. accordingly, to achieve the requested emotional effect one may choose the basic colour mood of the graphics, then the fur- ther colours present in the composition and their superficial pro- portions can be selected to suit them”. and now, let us examine the various graphic techniques and the peculiarities of the visual effects that can be achieved with them. black and white techniques black and white are sufficient to create a masterpiece. (de- gas) with the most direct and simplest of the drawing techniques – the pencil and the expressive possibilities thereof – the stu- dents are already thoroughly familiarized during the first few semesters, and thus the discussion of this technique will be ig- nored in this case. indian ink (pen) techniques the indian ink pen respectively indian ink as a paint mate- rial facilitates the creation of very versatile compositions of high suggestivity. indian ink, as a line drawing from the discussion of the above mentioned triumvirate – line, tone, colour – not by chance is placed here the descrip- tion of the possibilities offered by the line drawing, since the so-called "split" indian ink pen hides rich possibilities of for- mulation in lines, as this device is pressure sensitive and thus it results in thicker lines as it is pressed more strongly to the paper. the line is a result of an intensive abstraction since in nature only spatial forms exist and their sublimation into lines is cre- ated by the activity of the human brain. accordingly, the line drawing is suitable for production of very sensitive, intellectu- ally saturated works of art. the already mentioned variation of the line thickness only further enhances the suggestivity of this technique. these so-called "single-line or linear" graphics facilitate the creation of very puritan and rational but at the same time emo- tionally heated drawings, capturing the essence of the reality – either "the underlying reality" or representation focusing on this application of the techniques of traditional and modern fine arts in the architectural graphics essence. these are very informative and concentrated drawings where minimum usage of the expressive devices nevertheless re- sults in maximum intensity. let us check these statements with the drawings of béla kondor and lajos varga. the line drawing has another, more dynamic version, where from the tanglesome mixture of lines thrown vigorously to paper the form to be depicted makes itself felt. brush drawing with indian ink, the ink and wash technique a branch of indian ink drawing approaching to painting is the so-called washed indian ink, where connection between the individual forms is established by picturesque, spot-like tones. here the indian ink is partly a line drawing device (suitable for creation of more filled, "sensual" lines with the use of a brush), and partly it is a medium diluted with water similar to the aquarelle, to be used in a similar way. by the contradiction of soft, mysterious transitions and the exactly formulated forms it can make the compositions created with the use of this tech- nique very rich. according to the intention of the creative expression the gauntness of the line drawing or placing the picturesque effects to the foreground can equally be a dominant feature of the graph- ics. the charcoal / chalk drawing the charcoal respectively black, brown and red chalks of- fer wide-scale possibilities to the creator’s presentation mode. picturesque line drawings, compositions of dramatic tonal rela- tions, or drawings of "breath like" fineness operating with cir- cumstantial tonal differences can be created alike. fig. . market hall, student work (n. hajdu) anyhow, rather coordinated drawings can be created with the fig. . interior study, student work (a. schreck) application of this medium, which can be very helpful primarily in architectural graphics, in the creation of drafts and in quick illustrations of the mass conditions. the charcoal drawing was, for example, a favoured sight plan drafting device of the early, expressive age of l. mies van der robe. peculiar, interesting and beautiful combinations of the appli- cation of the indian ink drawing and charcoal can be imagined, the compositions of which simultaneously bear the characteris- tics of the gauntness of the line drawing and the soft picturesque of the charcoal. colour techniques . aquarelle one of the most popular devices of the graphic, thus that of architectural graphics, a painting procedure created with the use of water soluble paints, built from transparent (glazing) layers. art of the "moment", whose essence is the rapid representa- tion coming straight to the point, bearing the characteristics of the creator’s impetus and freshness which then becomes one of the most important features of the beautiful aquarelles. the aquarelle paint is a transparent and not densely covering paint and thus on the layers placed on one another the colours of the lower layers and even the white base colour of the paper are translucent, rendering these paintings alive with a peculiar light. it is expedient to solve the required accurate details with the device of the line drawing thus avoiding humdrum effects caused by possibly excessive accuracy of the painting, in contrast to the grandiose, energetic painted areas. the aquarelle technique accompanied almost the entire his- per. pol. arch. gábor nemes tory of the painting. its master was the british artist turner, who in the t h century exploited to the greatest extent the light and atmosphere displaying capabilities of the aquarelle technique. in turn in the t h century, paul klee of switzerland – a teacher at bauhaus – splendidly expressed the atmospheres of the various lands, ages and music in his aquarelles. from the cited masters much was learned by the perhaps greatest hungarian artist of the architectural aquarelle, the al- ready mentioned istván balogh. let us observe the lightness of his pictures, the play of the light, the richness of the colours which, however, are always subordinated to the dominance of the ruling colour domain. . the pastel the pastel – and primarily the powder pastel – is a direct drawing device; its usage is similar to that of charcoal. by means of this technique, graphics of very versatile colour and of an emotional world can be created. the scale ranges widely from pictures of a dark, gloomy mood, to those of a fresh, healthy, light-infiltrated atmosphere. an effect similar to that of the aquarelle can be achieved by washing – water-diluted painting – off the powder pastel. of the great hungarian practitioners of the pastel technique must be mentioned istván nagy, the lowland master, whose heavy pastel pictures are characterized by their dramatic effects and, from the other end of the emotional scale, józsef egry, whose sunny lake balaton pastels illustrate the sensitive har- mony interpreting the lightness of the medium. by means of the pastel very fine transitions and fade-outs can be illustrated, either in the combined displaying of the visible or non-visible forms.thus, this technique is perfectly suiting to the illustration of glass and its reflection, having so great an impor- tance on modern architecture. . coloured prints a favoured technique of the modern fine arts – originating pri- marily from the pop-arts - is the (re)colouring of prints. the se- ries illustrating andy warhol, m. monroe, or e. presley, painted in various colours is nowadays already a classic. creators of the present day also readily use the artistic device of the "subjec- tivized technique". naturally, the procedure can also be applied to architectural graphics, since the black and white printed drawings provided by the computer offer a magnificent base for creation of mood and content solutions for such coloured series. anyone of the above mentioned procedures can be applied to the original sur- face and in this manner very versatile results and pages of rich graphical appearance are obtained. expressive spaces of dra- matic, sombre mood can be plotted or, by means of the same technique, architectural graphics of a quiet, elegant colourful world can be created. fig. . central building, student work (g. jaszai) fig. . info building, student work (cs. buella) . abstract flat compositions – the collage according to jonescu: "since klee, kandinszky, mondrian, braque and picasso the art of painting does nothing else than try to liberate itself from anything that is not painting: from literature, the anecdote, history and the photo." the above citation exactly describes the objectives of the ab- application of the techniques of traditional and modern fine arts in the architectural graphics stract arts. this aims to create the visual experience, the picto- rial representation saturated with aesthetic content, merely with forms and colours, proportions and the harmony thereof. one of the most important trends of the modern arts to the present day is the so-called geometric abstract painting which, starting from the cubist world of thoughts, wants to reach the above out- lined objectives through graphic representation of the geometric formations of lines, regular surfaces and forms. the architectural graphics – mainly the plan graphics, the graphics of plane projections – is tightly bound to this trend of the modern arts, since it also works with these picture elements and its aesthetic content depends on the format, proportion and colour conditions of these picture elements. the architectural plan graphics can be rightly considered as a special area, a variation of the geometric abstract arts, since "abstract is every composition which provides nothing in ad- dition to the composition and the elements of the pure colours. the picture itself is the content and the statement of the compo- sition." (michel seupor) continuing further along this thought it is not an exaggera- tion to state that a good architect must also have painter’s virtues which are indispensable for the creation of the qualities of the building appreciable as an abstract plane composition, for exam- ple the face-work or even a ground plan of elegant composition. an introduction of the relations of abstract composition prin- ciples and architectural planning do not form a part of this study, but at the drawing and form faculty important research works are in already in progress in this direction. it is naturally com- monly known that the geometric abstract fine arts and modern architecture are in close relationship with each other since they developed mainly parallel to and interacting on each other in such long-acting artistic workshops of the t h century as the de stijl movement, or the bauhaus school of dessau. as previously mentioned, the geometric abstract art derives from cubism – from the so-called "synthetic" summarizing age thereof – which style trend employed the peculiar device of the expression, the collage technique, creating an independent im- age world from assembling, pasting together different materials and surface structures (from here originates the name: coller(fr.) = to paste). the collage technique can be effectively applied to both the plan graphics and to the sight plan representation. one of the early and fine examples of the sight plan collage is represented by an interior drawing of l. mies van der rohe, where the sensitive line drawing is completed to form a com- posite picture by the photo-realistic, glued elements. using a simple technique, compositions of serious aesthetic value can be created from the strongly abstracting, abstract drawing and the counterpoint of the exact, detailed reality, by means of the collage. another wide area of the utilization of the collage as architec- tural graphics is the plan graphic. magnificent, material-like collages can be created with the fig. . info building, student work fig. . info building, student work use of wood, metal or possibly glass. collages of this kind con- sisting of surfaces laminated on each other are already capable of stimulating the illusion of the spatial, three-dimensional rep- resentation, the aesthetics of the relief. this technique makes the spatial arrangement of the individual architectural elements easily perceptible, whereby more and more commonly under- standable information can be transferred about the building de- signed. a further advantage of the collage is that it can be quickly produced and it results in an elegant surface appearance (facil- itating a further graphical solution but this is by no means nec- essary), thus it can be superbly employed as the graphics of de- sign competitions and architectural exhibitions, furthermore, it is an excellent device for the implementation of the individual ideas, offering a wide assortment of materials to be used to meet per. pol. arch. gábor nemes the requirements of individual representation mentioned in the preamble. as an example, let us look at a collage of the famous amer- ican architect michael graves and, a few from students’ works created at our faculty, where the three-dimensional character of the original work fades only slightly through the flatness of the reproduction. fig. . floor plan collage, student work (m. toth) fig. . floor plan collage, student work (p. asztalics) thus by and large the procedures and drawing techniques available from the history of fine arts for architectural graph- ics have been discussed. the procedures merely by themselves provide a facility for the creation of very individual and personal graphics and naturally when they are alloyed with each other the possibilities of the individual works are further expanded and, limits are drawn only by the skill, graphic sensitivity and fantasy of the creator, designer or architect. at our faculty we strive to give all possible help and not least stimulation for future architects to become familiar with these techniques and capable of using them as basic elements of their set of representation devices in the creation of compositions of independent graphic value. should the reader by chance miss the discussion of computer graphics in this study, it is done consciously due to the following reasons: of the computer graphics two sharply deviating types are discriminated by me: the computer generated drawing and the computer-aided graphic. on computer generated drawing those works are produced where after entering of the required data the computer, on basis of adequate programs, prepares the plan documentation. the sight of either hyper-realistic accuracy cre- ated in this manner, which although provides a great help in the introduction of the building to non-professionals, may not be considered as an artistic product because the contribution of the creative person, the "personality" of the graphics – forming one of the major criteria of the artistic creation – is just very limited. contrary to this, the computer-aided drawing – where the computer is "only" a drawing device in the tool set of the creator – may result in compositions having already considerable value. however, the artistic tool set of the graphics produced in this manner is broadly identical to the graphic procedures already discussed in this study, furthermore, just the computer (and its programs) as a drawing tool – due to their still rather high tech- nical complexity – requires considerable preliminary training in this field. at the drawing faculty naturally we are dealing at a high level with teaching the utilization of the computer – as a creative drawing tool – within the framework of the subjects covering this area. this study is intended primarily to discuss the graphic tech- niques of the fine arts, their suggestivity and graphic applica- bility however, drawing to the end of the study i want also to explain a few thoughts on the theme of "architectural graphics – the style of graphics". knowledge of the fine arts may provide help not only in the techniques, but in the way of individual presentation respec- tively in the creation of the graphic way of expression also strengthening the architectural concept. in the recent world of different architectural styles living together it is fortunate if the graphic representation prepared on the planned building and the inspiration of the building are in harmony. the architectural in- tention and proposition become evident already in the phase of the graphic representation for the customer and the professional public alike. in this respect the architectural graphics unambiguously re- ferring to the style eras may provide a great help. but even if the conformity will not be so unambiguous, the stylistics borrowed from the fine arts can always be an enhancing factor to the aesthetic content of the architectural graphics. with a few examples i will try to illustrate my thoughts: the gaunt, puritan line drawing is a perfect conveyor of the application of the techniques of traditional and modern fine arts in the architectural graphics pure simplicity of a neo-modern architectural world. let us see, how aldo rossi utilizes the chirico’s image world on the perspective picture created for his modena’s cemetery tender, undertaking the common emotional and spiritual con- tent; the spiritual unity of the surrealist architectural composi- tion and the mysterious neo-classic world dreamt by the painter decades earlier. on the perspective drawing prepared by helmuth jahn for a bank building in houston one may accurately feel the effect of the urbane aesthetics of the art-deco, also the visual effect per- fectly expressing the idea of "urban life" on the creation titled radiator building created by g. o’keefe in . these few examples are perhaps sufficient to indicate how illustrious creators of individual ages of the fine arts can con- tribute to development of the image world of the architectural graphics, although a detailed explanation of this theme forms the subject of a scheduled future study. however, the first step for the development of an individual, personal architectural graphics style is to familiarize ourselves with the fundamental techniques. this associated with adequate practice, on which basis a drawing style of individual and artis- tic quality, suiting the approach and architectural style of the de- signer architect, characteristic as a business card and trademark maybe born. postscript: the presented student’s drawings have been created on the author’s "artistic drawing" and "architectural representation" courses. per. pol. arch. gábor nemes 	possibilities for handling light / tone 	the colour 	black and white techniques 	colour techniques 	aquarelle 	the pastel 	coloured prints 	abstract flat compositions -- the collage preliminary researches on the effect of essential oils on moulds isolated from surfaces rata g. et al./scientific papers: animal science and biotechnologies, , ( ) teaching taboo in the classroom georgeta raţă, elena-mirela samfira banat’s university of agricultural sciences and veterinary medicine “king michael i of romania” address: - timişoara, , calea aradului, romania abstract the goal of the paper is to show how important it is to teach taboo in the classroom. the teaching of taboos is a rather new approach in education. based on both classical (language dictionaries) and modern (internet sites) sources, the authors define taboo with the help of both english language dictionaries and specialised dictionaries and encyclopaedias, and provide the etymology and the typology of the word taboo (acts/actions/activities/behaviours, objects, people, places, times, and words) going from traditional to current ones. the degree of novelty of the paper is rather high. research limitations are due to the lack of studies on this topic in romanian literature. the implications are deep and closely related to the degree of relevance of the paper. keywords: taboo, teaching taboo, definition of taboo, etymology of taboo, typology of taboo. . introduction teaching taboo in the classroom is a rather new approach in education [ ] because, though our world has been constantly changing, our schools have not. curricular reforms in this respect were advocated in the s and s, and language courses were suggested as vectors due to their communicative approach and because controversial topics encourage students to speak [ , ]. given the current european context, constant exposure to both taboo language and taboo topics can no longer be ignored. teaching taboos such as abortion, addictions, aids, animal rights, anxiety and depression, bad breath, begging, big brother, boxing, bribery and corruption, bullfighting, changing sex, cheating, children who kill, compensation culture, cosmetic surgery, death, death penalty, designer babies, gay families, gays and jobs, guns, human cloning, immigration and racism, the ku klux klan, legalising drugs, marriage, national stereotypes, * corresponding author: georgeta rata, tel + , e-mail geta_rata@yahoo.com nudity, old age, politically incorrect jokes, prostitution, questions you cannot ask, right to die, sale of human organs, sexual harassment, sport and money, swearing, telling lies, thin legs, torture, turning the other cheek, vanity [ ] with courage and imagination [ ] is important from the perspective of critical thinking, cross-cultural competence, cultural awareness, and intercultural competence. before we introduce taboo in the classroom – and, with it, problem-posing and question-asking [ ] – we need to know what a taboo is, where it comes from and how many types of taboo there are. . material and method based on both classical (language dictionaries) and modern (internet sites) sources, the authors define taboo with both english language dictionaries and specialised dictionaries and encyclopaedias, and provide the etymology and the typology of taboo (acts, actions, activities or behaviours, objects, people, places, times, and words). mailto:geta_rata@yahoo.com rata g. et al./scientific papers: animal science and biotechnologies, , ( ) . results and discussion . . definition of taboo taboos have been studied by anthropologists: the british mary douglas ( - ); archivists and librarians: the french georges bataille ( - ); captains: the british james cook ( - ); cultural anthropologists: the american margaret mead ( - ); ethnologists: the british robert ranulph marett ( - ) and the czech franz baermann steiner ( - ); ethnographers: the french charles-arnold kurr van gennep ( - ); folklorists: the soviet vladimir yakovlevich propp ( - ); linguists and anthropologists: the american roger keesing ( - ); neurologists: the austrian sigmund freud ( - ); orientalists: the scottish william robertson smith ( - ); social anthropologists: the scottish james george frazer ( - ), the english alfred-reginald radcliffe-brown ( - ), the british edmund ronald leach ( - ), the norwegian fredrik barth ( -), and the british alfred antony francis gell ( - ); sociologists: the french david emile durkheim ( - ) and the british hutton webster ( - ). the english word taboo/tabu can be a noun, an adjective or a verb. as fowles [ ] noted, “when we talk about taboo, we frequently have in mind prohibitions surrounding access to, contact with, or consumption of things.” but what is a taboo? english language dictionaries define the noun taboo/tabu as: - “ . a ban or inhibition resulting from social custom or emotional aversion. . a. a prohibition, especially in polynesia and other south pacific islands, excluding something from use, approach, or mention because of its sacred and inviolable nature. b. an object, word, or act protected by such a prohibition.” [ ]; - “a refusal to allow: ban, disallowance, forbiddance, inhibition, interdiction, prohibition, proscription.” [ ]; - “ . (sociology) any prohibition resulting from social or other conventions. . (anthropology & ethnology) ritual restriction or prohibition, esp. of something that is considered holy or unclean.” [ ]; - “prohibition, ban, restriction, disapproval, anathema, interdict, proscription: not all men respect the taboo against bedding a friend's woman.” [ ]; - “ . a prohibition or interdiction of anything; exclusion from use or practice: one of the strongest taboos in all modern societies is against incest. synonyms: ban, proscription, embargo, interdiction; no-no. . a. the system, practice, or act whereby things are set apart as sacred, forbidden for general use, or placed under a prohibition or interdiction. b. the condition of being so set apart, forbidden, or interdicted. . exclusion from social relations; ostracism.” [ ]; - “ . a cultural or religious custom that does not allow people to do, use or talk about a particular thing as people find it offensive or embarrassing: an incest taboo, a taboo on working on a sunday, to break/violate a taboo, death is one of the great taboos in our culture. . a general agreement not to do something or talk about something: the subject is still a taboo in our family.” [ ]; - “ . a prohibition or interdiction of something; exclusion from use or practice. . the system or practice of setting things apart as sacred or forbidden for general use. . exclusion from social relations; ostracism.” [ ]; - “ . a word of polynesian/melanesian origin which is used in anthropology to refer to an action, object, or space which society regards as forbidden. for example, in many societies, incest is taboo. . a prohibition that a society places on a particular form of behaviour. [ ]; - “ . a prejudice (especially in polynesia and other south pacific islands) that prohibits the use or mention of something because of its sacred nature. . an inhibition or ban resulting from social custom or emotional aversion.” [ ]. a taboo is, therefore, anathema, avoidance, ban, disallowance, disapproval, embargo, exclusion from use/practice, forbiddance, inhibition, interdict, interdiction, no-no, ostracism, prohibition, proscription, refusal to allow, or restriction excluding something from use (object, people, word), approach in space and time (act/action/behaviour, object, people, word), or mention/talk (act/action/behaviour, object, people, word). the act/action/behaviour, object, people, or words are, thus, protected by such a prohibition resulting from emotional aversion, http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ban http://www.thefreedictionary.com/disallowance http://www.thefreedictionary.com/forbiddance http://www.thefreedictionary.com/inhibition http://www.thefreedictionary.com/interdiction http://www.thefreedictionary.com/prohibition http://www.thefreedictionary.com/proscription http://www.thefreedictionary.com/prohibition http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ban http://www.thefreedictionary.com/restriction http://www.thefreedictionary.com/disapproval http://www.thefreedictionary.com/anathema http://www.thefreedictionary.com/interdict http://www.thefreedictionary.com/proscription http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ban http://www.thefreedictionary.com/disallowance http://www.thefreedictionary.com/forbiddance http://www.thefreedictionary.com/inhibition http://www.thefreedictionary.com/interdiction http://www.thefreedictionary.com/prohibition http://www.thefreedictionary.com/proscription rata g. et al./scientific papers: animal science and biotechnologies, , ( ) religious custom, social convention, or social custom. specialised dictionaries and encyclopaedias define the noun taboo/tabu as: - “avoidance of a specific behaviour for fear of harm by a dangerous power, or of dangerous pollution caused by the intermixing of incompatible powers.” [ ]; - “prohibition.” [ ]; - “a social prohibition or restriction sanctioned by suprasocietal (innate) means or a socially sanctioned injunction alleged to have the force of such a prohibition.” [ ]; - “a collective prohibition which is to be obeyed categorically, without question.” [ ]; - “prohibition grounded in custom or religion rather than in bureaucratic law or common sense and hence bearing some moral weight.” [ ]; - “a wide range of vernacular beliefs that forbid certain actions for fear that they will lead to a catastrophe afflicting the surrounding community.” [ ]; - “a descriptive term for words, objects, actions, or people that are forbidden by a group or culture.” [ ]; - “a ban or an inhibition resulting from social custom or emotional aversion.” [ ]; - “a place, food, activity that is forbidden. [ ]. symbol systems expressing complex relationships between nature and culture [levi-strauss].” [ ]. in this case, taboo is synonym only of avoidance, prohibition, and restriction, which points to its normative, prescriptive role. here again, prohibition excludes something from use (object, people, place, word), approach in space and time (action/activity, object, people, place, word), or mention/talk (action/activity, object, people, place, word). the action/activity, object (food), people, place, or word, are, thus, protected by such a prohibition resulting from emotional aversion (mainly fears: fear of dangerous pollution caused by the intermixing of incompatible powers, fear of harm by a dangerous power, fear that action will lead to a catastrophe afflicting the surrounding community), religion, or social custom [ ]. austrian neurologist sigmund freud was the first to consider the contrary meanings of taboo words to be of particular significance for both language and the unconscious: “it is difficult for us to find a translation for [the word taboo], since the concept connoted by it is one which we no longer possess. it was still current among the ancient romans, whose sacer was the same as the polynesian taboo… the meaning of taboo, as we see it, diverges in two contrary directions. to us it means, on the one hand, ‘sacred’, ‘consecrate’, and on the other ‘uncanny, ‘dangerous’, ‘forbidden’, ‘unclean’.” [ ] . . etymology of taboo the word taboo or tabu comes from the proto- polynesian *tapu < proto-oceanic *tabu ‘sacred, forbidden’. the noun and verb are english innovations first recorded in captain james cook's book, “a voyage to the pacific ocean” ( ) [ ]. cook was the british explorer who led three expeditions to the pacific ocean and greatly broadened european knowledge about the peoples living on the pacific islands. . . typology of taboo are taboos acts/actions/activities/behaviours, objects, people, places, times, and words: - acts/actions/activities/behaviours: begging (discouraged in islam, but promoted as a spiritual ideal on hinduism and buddhism), committing incest (all over the world), committing suicide (in christianism, islam, judaism), corpse loving (necrophilia), cross- dressing (among the amish, orthodox jews), cutting hair (identified with sexual potency, on all continents), dreaming (because, according to goya, “the sleep of reason produces monsters”), dying (because corpses are a source of pollution in hinduism, judaism), eating corpses (necrophagy), fishing (in japan, scotland), having sex (mentioning how people cope or what their sexual identity is), joking (in reaction to political censorship), knotting or tying hair (in india, indonesia, lapland, north borneo, scotland), listening to the song of the siren (in ancient greece), living alone (in judaism), looking (because of the evil eye, in ancient greece, romania), man-eating (anthropophagy or cannibalism), painting (abstraction, buddhist art, cubism, dadaism, expressionism, fauvism, perspective, surrealism, traditional chinese art), playing music (atonal music, jazz, the diminished fifth or augmented fourth, twelve- tone compositions), playing ragas (depending http://www.thefreedictionary.com/prohibition rata g. et al./scientific papers: animal science and biotechnologies, , ( ) on season, in india), polluting (through birth of twins, childbirth, death, eating polluted food, engaging in forbidden pursuits, initiation, profanation of a sacred precinct, non-observance of shinto norms, touching a polluted person, war, woman’s menses), practicing cunilingus (in christianity), practicing fellatio (in the u.s.a.), practicing fetishism (using the christian crucifix, religious relics and icons, goods in capitalist economy, substitutes for the sexual object), practicing onanism (in christianity), praising (in iran, israel, romania, russia, scotland, and turkey, because of the evil eye; remedies: blessing those who sneeze, tipping the waiters), procreating (in babylon), seeing (because of the evil eye, in ancient greece, romania), speaking (among neophytes), staring (because of the evil eye), trading (pigs, in hawaii), urinating against certain trees (among neophytes of zimbabwe), washing hair (in hinduism), whistling (associated with deserting houses in romania, with sorcery and the casting of spells in islam), writing (in dictatorships); - objects (and their features): colours – blue (denotes brutality and the obscene – blue movies), green (is the colour of malignant fairies), red (linked with danger, passion, and shame – in hawaii, madagascar, new guinea, north america, new zealand), yellow (symbolises both envy, jealousy, treachery – judas is painted in yellow garments and the doors of traitors and felons were daubed in yellow in th century france – and disease); foods (fasting in preliterate societies, hinduism, buddhism, jainism, judaism – where it has to be halal, ancient greece and rome, christianity, islam – where it has to be halal) – beans (in antiquity, because they upset the tranquillity of mind necessary for prophetic dreams), bears (in buddhism), camels (in hinduism; in judaism, because they are ruminants that do not have the requisite cloven hoofs; in mandaeism; in zoroastrianism), cereals (in taoism, because they are the main food of the malicious spirits inhabiting the body), cows (because it is sacred in buddhism, hinduism), dogs (in buddhism, hinduism, islam, and zoroastrianism, but they are eaten in china, hawaii, new zealand, nigeria, and tahiti), eggs (the ancient greeks, the indigenous people of central australia, the inuit, the keffi yegomawa of nigeria, the konde of tanganyika), elephants (in buddhism), ergot fungus (for its use as a drug under the name lsd), fish (in syria), fish with a red belly (to neophytes of zimbabwe), frogs (in buddhism, in new guinea), garlic (in buddhism, hinduism), horses (in buddhism, christianism, hinduism, islam, judaism), human flesh (among cannibalic peoples), hyenas (in buddhism), lions (in buddhism), milk (in east africa, china, israel – in combination with milk, in angola, burma, congo, guinea, indonesia, japan, korea, malaysia, mozambique, among vegans), mushrooms (in papua new guinea), onions (in buddhism, hinduism), otters (in thailand), oysters (in buddhism, judaism), panthers (in buddhism), peyote cactus (because of its high content of mescaline), pigs (in judaism, islam), pomegranates (in ancient greece), possum (in new guinea, south america), rice boiled with red beans (on board japanese boats), rabbits, rice gruel (on board japanese boats), salt (in new guinea, it is produced from plants resembling the tail of a possum, a forbidden animal), san pedro cactus (because of its high content of mescaline), scallion (in buddhism, hinduism), snails (in new guinea), snakes (in buddhism), soma (in hinduism), tigers (in buddhism), tortoises (in thailand), vinegar (on board japanese boats), wine (in islam); items – cannabis (illegal in most western countries, but sacred for the ancient world and for the rastafarians of jamaica), chopsticks (in japan, to eat rice), clothes (among neophytes, in ancient rome, christianity, hinduism, islam, judaism), dolls (invested with the powers and taboos of idols and effigies), flutes (in columbia, new guinea), icons (in ancient egypt, ancient greece, christianity, islam, judaism), mirrors (dangerous for the dead, demons, spirits and vampires, in europe, india, madagascar, north america), pornography (books, films, paintings, photographs, sculptures, and videos intending to sexually excite the observer – in christianity), puppets (invested with the powers and taboos of idols and effigies), tobacco (in christianity); rata g. et al./scientific papers: animal science and biotechnologies, , ( ) - people: body – corpse (because it contaminates the living and the sacred), nudity; body secretions – excrement or faeces (in christianism, hinduism, islam), menstruation (retirement of women to menstrual huts in japan), spittle (in christianism, hinduism), sweat, urine (in hinduism); body parts – clitoris, the left hand (associated with sorcery and evil in nigeria, with treachery and fraud, with impurity in islam), vagina (in christianity); disabilities and deformities – bad nails (in hinduism), black teeth (in hinduism), blind people (in judaism), deformed people (in judaism), disfigured people (in judaism), dwarfs (in judaism), eunuchs (in judaism), flamen dialis (the ancient rome priest), freckles (in ancient greece), hunchbacks, lame people (in judaism), one-eyed men, overweight people (in hinduism), people with a disease of the eyes or of the skin (in judaism), people with an injured arm or foot (in judaism), people with open wounds (in hinduism); individuals – parents-in-law (in north america), strangers (a universal taboo manifest today in the suspicion of refugees and immigrants, racist abuse and attacks and the exaggerated nationalism of certain football fans; strangers are considered cannibals, dangerous people, drug peddlers, infectors of citizens, infidels, magicians, malicious people, monsters, possessors of evil eye, rapists, spies, underminers of morality, witches – and they become the useful scapegoat towards whom all the aggression of the populace can be directed), twins (considered anomalous in africa and north america), untouchables (a group of social outcasts in india); - places: cross-roads (in antiquity, because they were places of dangers, haunted by spirits, demons, ghosts, gods), direction (in taoism), harem (in islam), mosques (that need to be haraman, in islam), mountains (because of the demons and ghosts they hide), north- east (as an inauspicious direction; according to the laws of the feng-shui, the bathroom and kitchen of a house should never be placed on the n-e side of a house), precincts of shrines and sacred buildings (in taoism); - time – certain days (in taoism); - words – language taboos when stalking game (in japan), naming. breaking taboos consists in attending a carnival, synonymous to breaking taboos before the austerity of lent; playing “rough music” (charivari, in france; haberfeld-treiben, thierjagen, and katzenmusik, in germany; scampanate, in italy) is a manifestation of social disapproval; sin-eating, i.e. appropriation of somebody else’s sins (in great britain). current taboo ideas/subjects are extensions of taboos to other aspects of social life, pointing to a shift from sacred to profane: - social class, in the u.s.a. [ ]; - age of ladies, discriminatory language, income, marital status, politics, religion, salary, weight in the u.s.a., but not in china [ ]; - academic freedom, adoption rights, age of sexual consent, capital punishment, child molestation, colonialism, corporal punishment, debunking cultural, religious, scientific, etc. “truths”, drugs, environment, harassment, infanticide, innate group differences, iq, legalisation of distasteful but victimless practices, misuses of the holocaust and other disasters, organ transplant, overuses of charges of anti-semitism, profiling, racism, sexism, prostitution, race, rape, religion and atheism, revenge, taboo language and freedom of speech, the rights of the accused, and torture (issues of a course at the harvard law school) [ ]. . conclusion teaching taboo in the classroom has become a must since it has shifted to such aspects of social life as social class, age of ladies, discriminatory language, income, etc., or academic freedom. acknowledgements this paper has been written within the framework of the research centre “sustainable agriculture”, faculty of agriculture, banat’s university of agricultural science and veterinary medicine “king michael i of romania” from timisoara, romania. rata g. et al./scientific papers: animal science and biotechnologies, , ( ) references . tekin, m.,. discussing the unspeakable: a study on the use of taboo topics in efl speaking classes. journal of theory and practice in education, , ( ): - . . hartmann, d., faulkner, m.“to boldly go...”: taboos in german as a foreign language ... and beyond. gfl journal, , : - . . banville, s. ( ). creating esl/efl lessons based on news and current events. the internet tesl journal, xi ( ). . mcandrew, r. & martínez, r. ( ). taboos and issues. boston, ma: heinle & heinle. . ayers, r. ayers, w. ( ). teaching the taboo: courage and imagination in the classroom. new york, ny: teachers college press. . fowles, s. m. ( ). steps toward an archaeology of taboo. in l. fogelin (ed.), religion, archaeology, and the material world. centre for archaeological investigations, southern illinois university carbondale, occasional paper no. . - . . american heritage® dictionary of the english language, fifth edition. ( ). boston, ma: houghton mifflin harcourt publishing company. . the american heritage® roget's thesaurus. ( ). boston, ma: houghton mifflin harcourt publishing company. . collins english dictionary – complete and unabridged. ( ). new york, ny: harpercollins publishers. . collins thesaurus of the english language – complete and unabridged nd edition. ( ). new york, ny: harpercollins publishers. . dictionary of unfamiliar words. ( ). london: diagram visual information limited. . taboo. (n.d.). oxford dictionaries. retrieved june , , from oxford dictionaries website: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/learner/ta boo. . random house kernerman webster's college dictionary. ( ). tel aviv: k dictionaries ltd. . wordnet . , farlex clipart collection. ( - ). princeton university, farlex inc. . stevens, p., jr. ( ). taboos. in h. j. birx (ed.), encyclopaedia of anthropology, . thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. - . . rashkow, i. n. ( ). taboo. ( ). in k. brown (ed.), encyclopaedia of language and linguistics, , nd edition. amsterdam: elsevier. . . wagner, r. ( ). taboo. in l. jones (ed.), encyclopaedia of religion, , second edition. farmington hills, mi: thomson gale. - . . knight, c. ( ). taboo. in a. barnard and j. spencer (eds.), encyclopaedia of social and cultural anthropology. london & new york: routledge. - . . lambek, m. ( ). taboo. in n. j. smelser and p. b. baltes (eds.), international encyclopaedia of the social & behavioural sciences, t-z. oxford, uk: pergamon press. - . . ellis, b. ( ). taboos. in w. a. darity jr. (ed.), international encyclopaedia of the social sciences, , nd edition. boston, ma: cengage learning. - . . taboo. (n.d.). the american heritage® new dictionary of cultural literacy, third edition. retrieved june , , from dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo. . taboo. (n.d.). the american heritage® stedman's medical dictionary. retrieved june , , from dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo. . taboo. (n.d.). dictionary.com unabridged. retrieved june , , from dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo. . bruce, s. and yearley, s. ( ). the sage dictionary of sociology. london: sage publications. . . holden, l. ( ). encyclopaedia of taboos. oxford – santa barbara, ca: abc-clio. . horn, l. r. ( ). etymythology and taboo. second triennial conference “methods past & current. methods of study in corpus linguistics, varieties, dialects and standard english. june - , , boston, ma. p. . taboo. (n.d.). online etymology dictionary. retrieved june , , from dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo. . gilbert, r. ( ). raising awareness of class privilege among students. diversity and democracy ( ): - . . gao, c. ( ). a sociolinguistic study of english taboo language. theory and practice in language studies ( ): - . . morality and taboo syllabus. (n.d.). retrieved june , , from http://stevenpinker.com/files/pinker/files/morality_and _taboo_syllabus.pdf. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/_/misc/harpercollinsproducts.aspx?english http://www.thefreedictionary.com/_/misc/harpercollinsproducts.aspx?english http://www.thefreedictionary.com/_/misc/harpercollinsproducts.aspx?englishthesaurus http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo op-art and personal practices in contemporary ceramic art procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – - © published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer review under responsibility of prof. ay e Çak r lhan doi: . /j.sbspro. . . artsedu op-art and personal practices in contemporary ceramic art pinar baklan onal erciyes university, fine arts faculty department of ceramic and glass design, melikgazi, kayseri , turkey abstract while working on all experiences related to real life such as wars, riots, happiness and sadness, depressions, births and deaths and presenting art to the audience in this way are artistic manners, idea that it is unnecessary of transferring subject and ideas in an emotional and narrative theme is also an artistic manner. op art ( , america) which results from this idea is response to narrative expressions, emotional manifestations and searching for subject. trend which has a base in which optical effects, named as visual illusion, form main theme aims to create emotional changes with illusions in well -established works which are formed by striking aesthetic elements, to form illusions in perception, to show non-existing forms as if existing and so to impress audience in terms of vision.the subject of this work is to transfer development process in its relationship with other artist ic trends and practicing samples from past to present belonging to op-art trend with theme of visual illusion which emerges in america and europe in s as being one of forms of expressing emotion and ideas by status of the world and artists at the end of two great world wars in responding to this situation and to present practicing samples with personal ceramic works in contemporary ceramic art. keywords: op-art, optical illusion, illusion, optical effect; . introduction history is one of the most important effects which determine the sense of art of the communities in the periods they live in. experiences, senses, felt for experiences and socio-cultural structure of the communities play a fundamental role in the embodiment of the art. when all stages of history of a community are analyzed to the core, it is inevitable to see the effect of the history on art. artists experiencing the second world war and all the negativeness brought by the war tended to doing different things while expressing their opinions. expressive and emotional narrations are among these tendencies. opt-art is a part of the movements against the emotional art after the war. pioneers of the movement which is described as “modern art movement emerging in s; it tries to reflect the optical perceptions of people geometrically and benefits from severe contradictions especially black and white contrast and geometric patterns” (germaner, ) and aim to create visual illusions, targeted to present the two- dimensional image as three dimensional, moving and vibrating. they produced impressive works with visual effects. “op-art includes abstract art works aiming to create sense of depth or three dimensional illusions. west art has striven to give the effect of three-dimension on two-dimensional images since the renaissance. op art is the p nar baklan Önal. tel.: + - - - e-mail address: pinarbaklan@gmail.com © published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer review under responsibility of prof. dr. ayse cakir ilhan available online at www.sciencedirect.com © published by elsevier ltd. selection and/or peer review under responsibility of prof. ay e Çak r lhan open access under cc by-nc-nd license. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / pinar baklan onal / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – outcome of this tendency on abstract art. in op art pictorial work is abstracted from other characteristics and reduced to only three-dimensionality illusion. in order to obtain this effect, rhythmical arrangement of geometric patterns and modeling on geometric patterns with colors.”(sözen & tanyeli, ). it is possible to make most of these effects more creative and aesthetic by using ceramic materials. despite the technical difficulties of ceramic, it presents endless advantages with respect to the created works and their artistic values. ceramic, gaining plastic and artistic value with the imagination and notion of artist has been used as the sole modern art material in many places of the world with the modern art movements after ; and with the creation of first ceramic works it started to secure its existing position in the art field. in this period, aim, interaction, techniques and aesthetic searches of preliminary ceramics underlie the basics of today’s modern ceramic art with the artistic perception. in the modern ceramic art, as well as the theme which enriches the work, visual, artistic balance and style-content relation are important. perceptions of the receivers (viewers) are fundamental as well as the expressed thing. when considered from this perspective, the importance of the strong construction function necessary for a work on the success arises. if all these values can be rendered through creative intelligence in a systemized an aesthetic ways, it is possible to mention the artistic value of that work. this general concept has formed the basis of works of the pioneer artists presented in this paper and individual ceramic works with visual illusions. . op-art and visual illusion visual illusion, a phenomenon deceiving the viewer visually and perceptively, composes the main aim of op-art movement took root in europe and usa in s and gained popularity within a short time among artists. “op-art artists dealing with optical effects of styles and colors especially, want to create an interaction on the canvas with unexpected flashings and dazzling.”(gombr ch, ) artistic compositions, created by assembling various color and textures, lines and stripes in a planned, calculated and aesthetically coherent way, cause an optical illusion. the viewers perceive the colors and styles differently or are mistaken by being aware of new styles which are not possible in reality because of that illusion. the impression indented to be created through this way underlies op-art. thus the first thing coming to the mind about op-art is visual illusion that is optical illusion. in most of the resources, dictionary meaning of visual illusion also called optical illusion, optical art, illusion, delusion, deception: “the situation of not seeing the lines and shapes as they are because of their position, illusion.” (ero lu, ) “eye deception resulting in misconception of objects under certain conditions” (turkish language foundation glossary of cinema and television (electronic version, access: . . ) artists wanted to express this wording in various ways in the periods they live in. contrast, vibration, swirling, warping, contradiction and stretching moves have added the works characteristics having optical effects. another definition of illusion in art is that: “illusion which is an art term means recognition of the figures in an artistic work as objects and facts in the real world. figures are artistic elements referring to the facts; it is only possible in the existence of illusions to receive them as the facts they are referring to. so, illusion means «reproduction» of reality in an art work and it usually enables description of three-dimensional real objects on a two-dimensional surface. with this purpose, illusion techniques such as light-shadow and model are used. it is not possible to mention illusion in the arts of communities which does not or very rarely use these techniques and thus not going beyond the fact that art surface is two- dimensional.” (sözen & tanyeli, ) “optical art which is arranged by composing recession and ridges and which gives different images when looked from different perspectives became more common with the usage of optic art in sculpture, ceramic, architecture and graphic arts ”(turani, ) . . relation between visual illusion and perception and other art movements visual illusion is interrelated with perception and psychology. vision and perception compose the basics of visual perception. the definition of the perception underlying the illusion is that; “perception means receiving, interpreting, choosing and arranging the sensual information in psychology and cognitive sciences” (büyükçelen, c. ) seen geometric units are perceived, interpreted and arranged in pinar baklan onal / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – geometric illusion. the relationship between visual illusion and perception arises from the geometric illusion of perception. the name of optical art was firstly used in “the responsive eye” exhibition in museum of modern art in new york city (moma) for the works composed of geometric compositions enabling perceptional duality. however, optical art started to come forward in when josef albers first produced his theories and works based upon important resources. in this period while many artists of the movement created works focusing on moving, waving and vibration feeling and eye movement, they were largely affected by kinetic art movement. kinetic art created with the description of the movement notion is one of the most important movements of s. effects of the movements’ works arise from not because they are moving but they give the impression of movement. “op-art includes structures effect of who depend on light or movement, and this shows it has the same notion with kinetic art” (dictionary of twentieth-century art, ) op-art is also interrelated with constructivist geometric figuration methods and widely utilized them. movement having works based on optical illusions represented by josef alberts and vasarely (figure , figure ), brought a new optical image to constructivism and a new optical image which does not respect for scientific perspective. illusion artists have the coherent eye phenomenon like constructivists being aware of the constructivist notion and importance of coherency and balance. because of this, they aimed to create images causing physical effect in brain or eye and leading the receiver to amazement and deception. figure : josef albers ( – ) “sanctuary”, figure : victor vasarely ( - ), “torony ii”, lithography, x . cm, , acrylic painted wood sculpture, , www.moma.org - modern museum of arts new york . x . x . cm, ( . . ) www.masterworksfineart.com ( . . ) “with the domination of abstract art, classical arts have been reduced; expression and perception gained importance. abstract art defined as “not being objective and figurative” includes arrangements created with geometric or morph images composed as a result of usage of style elements such as color, line, body, tone in a way which is not similar to known objects.”(eczac ba encyclopedia of art, ) the most general usage of abstract art visually is among decoration examples. the movement being on the same line with op art with this respect and it improved in th century. op-art caused many art movements containing geometric abstractions to arise and also it gave birth to movements such as expressionism, minimal art. arts, sculptures and spatial works aiming perceptual content such as space, movement, vibration with the relationship of style elements considering optic operation are created. intertwined link between op-art and abstract art arises from this. the movement arose from the effects of abstract art and it is again interrelated indirectly with the orphism movement which is again an abstract art product. orphism, aiming to examine the color and light effects without dependence to a natural object, is the representation of a new structure composed of artist’s imagination. op-art is in harmony with cubism movement which is based on comparting the objects by analyzing and assembling these parts with a geometric interpretation, with respect to visual coherency, geometric plan and move phenomenon. and again futurism has been affected from cubism, because they have a common geometric coherency, and composes a new comparted visual phenomenon. it aims to assemble the different simultaneous images of the expressed moves. suprematism focused on assembling the basic geometric forms with a constructive method, has a very interrelated notion with optical art. in suprematism which is an abstract art movement and philosophy developed by soviet artist malevic, the first examples were produced with composition formed with geometric shapes such as square, rectangular and circular, like op-art. in later development periods, various color and cut geometric shapes assemble and overlapped reproduced and thus structures gained three-dimensionality pinar baklan onal / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – . from past to present visual illusion work examples maurits cornelis escher ( - ) bridget riley ( - ) figure : “swans”, , figure : “untitled”, screen printing, (www.mcescher.com/) ( . . ) ,www.karstenschubert.com( . . ) jesus raphael soto ( – fransa) renate buser ( , barmelweid) figure : “metamorphosis”, x cm, , figure : “tower piece”, print on branda, www.jr-soto.com ( . . ) , x , m, - , www.renatebuser.ch ( . . ) . . work examples have visual illusion from ceramic art elizabeth fritsch ( , ngiltere ) beate andersen ( , danimarka ) figure : “optical pot”, stoneware, x cm, figure : “thrown bowl”, stoneware, cm, www.elizabethfritsch.com ( . . ) , www.beate-andersen.dk ( . . ) jonathan middlemiss ( , ngiltere ) robert dawson ( , ngiltere ) pinar baklan onal / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – figure : “illusion vessel ”, , www.middlemissart.com ( . . ) figure : “tiled room”, x x cm, , www.thebesttimeoftheday.blogspot.com ( . . ) greg payce ( , alberta) figure : “untitled”, cm, , kanada. (postmodern ceramics, p. ) . . personal practices figure ( personal photo archive) figure ( personal photo archive)) figure ( personal photo archive) figure ( personal photo archive) figure ( personal photo archive) figure ( personal photo archive) figure ( personal photo archive) figure ( personal photo archive) figure ( personal photo archive) pinar baklan onal / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – . conclusion transfer of feelings and opinions, concerns, wishes and emotions for life through art and presenting these with the works created by attributing a meaning are among the reasons for why art exists. however, it is a fact that the concern to transfer a message through art does sometimes limit the artists. this limitation results in creating not original works. in this work through which original and personal examples of op-art movement, formed in order to show that it is possible to produce aesthetically and artistically valuable works without being concerned about transferring social or communal message, in ceramic art are analyzed, i wanted to reflect and prove the notion that effective and artistic works can be produced without any emotional expression. op-art, in contradistinction to the movements arose in parallel with the worlds existing situation in s, is formed as a reaction to the expressionist movements of the period and it aimed to show that works can be produced without any concern as to give an emotional message. with this respect, the movement hides that it is also expressionism to react a notion and produce works with this reaction. this movement has been mostly used in painting and graphic arts since the period it arose; works produced in ceramic field is rare. in this work formed on a deficiency from this aspect, it is believed that original applications are important in that they set a precedent to visual illusional works in ceramics field. personal practices in this work which aims to show the energetic and stunning characteristics of op art in three- dimensional ceramic forms and surfaces, and object come into prominence in pictorial notion. when we look at ceramics history, it is seen that optical works are mostly used in glazed image tiles among decoration notion. in glazed tiles, the aim is not to process op-art. however, the most prominent features of this movement are provided on glazed tiles with the repetition of the shapes and it gave the impression of illusional moving by covering the atmosphere. these artistic features used even in past are exhibited among modern approaches of the world with applications presented in this work and in a way old and new are harmonized and presented in a modern approach. different from the works produced in old times, many innovations may be brought with sufficient technological qualities and contribution can be made to the works. in personal ceramic practices presented through this work, new visual illusion patterns, many elements exist together and compose an order, are used in shapes and voluminous forms having a plastic value and visual illusion is processed with various ceramics techniques. surface-form relationship is evaluated with many respects, unit usage and level areas are tried to be transferred voluminous. elements strengthening the visual illusion are added to individual works and tested illusion can be created under these circumstances or not. references büyükçelen, c. ( ). the effects of perceptual illus ons in the design of physical space, p: . master thesis, kocaeli university, kocaeli del vecchio, m. ( ). postmodern ceramics. ( st ed.) london: thames & hudson publishing, p: . dictionary of twentieth-century art. ( ). london: oxford university publishing eczac ba encyclopedia of art. ( ). stanbul: yem publishing ero lu, Ö. ( ). glossary of painting. stanbul: nelli art shop publishing germaner, s. ( ). sonras sanat. stanbul: kabalc publishing gombr ch, e.h. ( ). the story of art. ankara: remzi publishing p journal of world art ( ). from a to z . century movements. stanbul, p: sözen, m. & tanyeli, u. ( ). glossary of art concepts and terms. stanbul: remzi publishing turani, a. ( ). dictionary of fine arts. ankara: turkish language foundation publishing turkish language foundation glossary of cinema and television (electronic version) access: . . , http://www.tdkterim.gov.tr/?kelime=g%f z+yan%fdlmas%fd&kategori=terim&hng=md www.artnet.com (access: . . ) www.beate- andersen.dk (access: . . ) www.elizabethfritsch.com (access: . . ) www.jr-soto.com (access: . . ) www.karstenschubert.com (access: . . ) www.masterworksfineart.com (access: . . ) pinar baklan onal / procedia - social and behavioral sciences ( ) – www.mcescher.com (access: . . ) www.moma.org “modern museum of arts”, new york (access: . . ) www.middlemissart.com (access: . . ) www.op-art.co.uk (access: . . ) www.renatebuser.ch (access: . . ) www.thebesttimeoftheday.blogspot.com (access: . . ) arq _ _ g.indd c o m e n t a r i o t r a n s v e r s a l palabras clave: arquitectura, lugares de trabajo, fábrica, oficinas, crítica. key words: architecture, work places, factory, offices, critique. ideología, técnica y práctica / trabajo es por cierto una palabra muy gene- ral, que refiere tanto a hacer algo, como a algo hecho, y a muchas de las acciones que ello implica. en la diversidad de significados que la pala- bra asume cotidianamente, hay que distinguir unos pocos que permiten centrar el discurso. la noción de trabajo está asociada a un esfuerzo por ganarse la vida; y tal vez, a una ética laboral que organiza la vida de las personas al menos en occidente desde hace, al menos, unos doscientos años . por una parte, implica una cierta constancia, al mismo tiempo que una cierta regula- ridad. por otra, la obtención de un efecto, sea una obra, un producto, o algo más difuso, incluso un reconocimiento. el uso habitual del término advierte sobre la significación amplia de una ocupación en algo, retribuida de alguna manera. en tiempos de la cultura agrícola, el trabajo significó asegurar la alimentación, la sobre- vivencia, por medio de la labor de la tierra . en tiempos más recientes, desde el desarrollo de las relaciones productivas capitalistas, la especia- lización del término alude a una ocupación regular con una retribución en dinero, sea en las formas del desempeño de un oficio, una profesión o una práctica de manera liberal, así como simplemente un empleo regu- lar y pago. de hecho, el tiempo en que no se trabaja es –en la sociedad actual– habitualmente referido como tiempo libre, es decir, no sujeto de regularidad, procedimientos instituidos, horario, cierto tiempo de dura- ción y concurrencia al lugar donde el trabajo se desarrolla. por cierto que el trabajo en su organización moderna ha considerado al lugar como un tópico de importancia. más recientemente, la tecno- logía informática, ha motivado intentos de ordenamiento de la secuen- cia laboral por medio de redes, con la consecuente deslocalización del trabajo. pero por cierto que, aún cuando crece el trabajo vehiculado por redes, los lugares del trabajo siguen siendo importantes, al menos así lo verifica el aumento sistemático de la superficie de oficinas ante la terciarización de la sociedad y el grado de significación que alcanzan en las ciudades. los lugares de trabajo han sido –históricamente– muchos y variados, nadie duda que hay en los más diversos edificios personas trabajando: en las escuelas, en los comercios, en los parlamentos, o en los parques temáticos, entre otros. sin embargo, es indudable que desde fines del s. xix hay dos tipos de edificios que se han llevado la primacía en relación con la signifi- cación que el trabajo adquiere en la sociedad: la fábrica y la oficina. muchos autores los han relacionado con la experiencia de la arquitec- tura moderna. banham expuso con claridad cómo la fábrica, junto con el elevador de granos, fue uno de los tipos que influyeron radicalmente en la configuración ideológica y estética de la arquitectura moderna . las fábricas de albert kahn en detroit y otras ciudades norteamerica- nas en torno a los grandes lagos, fueron paradigmas constructivos tanto para los arquitectos de europa occidental, como para los soviéticos. los edificios de oficinas de sullivan o de burham en chicago estarían en igual medida fuertemente presentes. en el deslumbramiento de los arquitectos europeos por la realidad norteamericana, había un contenido conceptual clave: la organización del trabajo. algo que, por cierto, deslumbraba también a los políticos, a los administradores, y a muchos sectores de la sociedad, desde lenin hasta clemenceau, desde ginzburg a le corbusier . en taylor publicó the principles of scientific management, que resu- mía su experiencia de más de años en la organización de plantas de cortes de metal y exponía muchos de los tópicos que había aplicado sistemáticamente en la organización racional del trabajo . la propuesta de taylor fue básicamente un método de disciplina del trabajo y de orga- nización de la producción basado en investigaciones científicas sobre la eficiencia laboral por medio de la aplicación de un sistema de pago por rendimiento . el método de taylor prácticamente inundó el pensamiento occiden- tal, trasladándose a las más variadas disciplinas e incluso a formas de la organización social. pero, obviamente, su impacto mayor lo obtuvo a partir de la incorporación de sus ideas y reformulación en la empresa de henry ford y la concepción de la línea de montaje, por medio de la organización diferenciada del trabajo. en arquitectura, indudablemente influiría en la concepción del espa- cio del trabajo en relación a las rutinas, a las jerarquías y obviamente a la división de funciones, en los edificios. pero también fueron clara- mente asumidas por le corbusier para su aplicación urbanística en el plan voisin y en la propuesta de la ville contemporaine . se refirió, junto con ozenfant en acerca del purismo, a las posibilidades que brindaba “el programa riguroso de la fábrica moderna”; y más específicamente al taylo- rismo, advirtiendo que no se trataba “sino de explotar inteligentemente los descubrimientos científicos. el instinto, el tantear, el empirismo son substituidos por los principios científicos del análisis, por la organización y la clasificación” . pero no fue sólo un hálito genérico que sobrevoló las mentes de los arquitectos para adecuar la disciplina a los tiempos, sino que también se procesó y formuló como base del propio trabajo del arquitecto. las formas de la organización taylorista se transferirían también como un instrumental para la concepción del proyecto de arquitectura y constituirían un paradigma para la práctica y técnica del proyecto funcionalista. moisei ginzburg abogaba en por un nuevo método de pensa- miento arquitectónico, en el que “un problema arquitectónico, como cual- quier otro problema, sólo se resuelve mediante la exacta determinación de las incógnitas y la búsqueda del método justo para llegar a la solución”, porque a su juicio la investigación del arquitecto es “una invención que se plantea como tarea la organización y la construcción de un objetivo práctico concreto” . no parece extraño que la administración como actividad se convir- tiera en la gran demandante de espacio para su desarrollo. siendo la el proyecto de los lugares del trabajo horacio torrent profesor, escuela de arquitectura, pontificia universidad católica de chile debido a las nuevas dimensiones que adquiere la secuencia laboral por medio de redes informáticas, los lugares de trabajo mantienen su relevancia y significación en la ciudad contemporánea. la fábrica y la oficina se constituyen en lugares de trabajo emblemáticos que la arquitectura ha enfrentado a través de variadas opciones. a partir de estos referentes, el autor pone en contexto las obras publicadas en este número. most due to the new dimensions that the labor sequence acquires through information networks, work places maintain their relevance and meaning in the contemporary city. the factory and the office become emblematic work places that architecture has come to grips with through various options. through these references the author puts the works published in this number in context. lecturas readings lecturas readings ver la voz: trabajo duro en saul, john r. diccionario del que duda: un diccionario de agresivo sentido común. ed. gránica, buenos aires, . william, raymond. palabras clave: un vocabulario de la cultura y la sociedad. ed. nueva visión, buenos aires, . banham, reyner. la atlántida de hormigón. ed. nerea, madrid, . ver cohen, jean-louis. el tío sam en el país de los soviets: el tiempo de las vanguardias. en strigalev, a. a.; cooke c. y cohen, jean-louis. constructivismo ruso. ed. del serbal, madrid, . taylor, frederick winslow. the prin- ciples of scientific management. ed. harper & brothers, nueva york, . para taylor la administración científica se basaba en el estudio de tiempos y estándares de producción; estandarización de herramientas e ins- trumentos, la verificación de excepcio- nes o desvíos de patrones normales; la utilización de instrumentos destinados a economizar tiempo, las guías de ins- trucciones de servicio; la idea de tarea asociada a incentivos de producción por su ejecución eficiente, la clasifica- ción input-output de materias primas de productos y el diseño de la rutina de trabajo. el punto más original fue la racionalización del trabajo operativo y la organización de una estructura general de empresa coherente con la aplicación de esos principios. mc leod, mary. “architecture or revolution”: taylorism, technocracy and social change. en art journal vol. , n˚ (summer, ) pp. - . ver ozenfant, a., jeanneret, ch. e. après le cubisme ( ). en ozenfant, le corbusier. acerca del pursimo. escritos - . ed. el croquis, madrid, . p. . ver ginzburg, moisei. los nuevos métodos del pensamiento arquitec- tónico. en hereu, pere; montaner, josep maría y oliveras, jordi. textos de arquitectura de la modernidad. ed. nerea, madrid, . p. . vista interior edificio larkin en buffalo, estados unidos (demolido). frank lloyd wright, . lecturas readings lecturas readings tarea administrativa, la que estudiaba los tiempos, planeaba las tareas, controlaba el input-output de la fábrica, establecía estándares y rutinas de trabajo, necesitaba entonces de una definición arquitectónica. las preocupaciones de la arquitectura moderna tanto en torno a la fábrica como a la oficina, estuvieron centradas básicamente en la orga- nización de la planta, como espacio de la secuencia de tareas, y en la iluminación, como requerimiento básico del ambiente laboral. fue en efecto la fábrica la que le prestó su método de secuencia al edificio de oficinas. el programa de oficinas que hoy parece inocuo y repetido se canonizó como problema de arquitectura en los primeros años del s. xx. hay dos casos en que método, pensamiento y creación parecen situarlos como claros paradigmas de la consideración del trabajo de oficina en el pro- yecto de arquitectura: el edificio larkin de wright y el proyecto de un rascacielos para la friedrichstrasse de mies van der rohe. el primero fue construido por frank lloyd wright en , como sede administrativa de la compañía larkin. como parte de la planta produc- tora de jabones que la empresa tenía en buffalo. como ha sostenido frampton fue el primer intento de wright de convertir un espacio de trabajo en un dominio sacramental . luego wright lo desarrollaría aún más en el espléndido salón de la administración de la johnson & son en racine, wisconsin en - . el edificio larkin era un gran edificio de planta rectangular, cerrado hacia fuera por muros de ladrillo, con cuatro macizas torres en las esqui- nas. el interior era básicamente una nave central de la totalidad de la altura, con iluminación cenital y tres pisos que la circundaban. la orga- nización de los puestos de trabajo se daba en un plano abierto, tanto en el espacio central en el piso bajo, como en las alas laterales superiores. este plano abierto, para la disposición de los escritorios, es decir para la organización de un estándar administrativo, es germen explícito de lo que hoy denominamos planta libre. además, la liberación del espacio para el orden de los puestos de trabajo, establecía en principio un orden aparentemente neutro que venía reforzado por el retiro a los planos late- rales de toda la utilería administrativa: los muebles de archivo modula- res quedaban incorporados en los muros laterales, bajo las altas ventanas lineales. la luz diáfana proveniente del centro y de las ventanas laterales completaba la homogenización del ámbito de trabajo. el larkin fue pionero también en el acondicionamiento climático. wright instaló un sistema de aireación por medio de grandes conductos para mover y calentar el aire –hasta la incorporación de aire frío en lecturas readings lecturas readings salón de la administración de la johnson & son en racine, estados unidos. frank lloyd wright, - . planta piso tipo, proyecto rascacielos friedrichstrasse en berlín, mies van der rohe, . perspectiva desde el norte, proyecto rascacielos friedrichstrasse en berlín, mies van der rohe, . bellucci, alberto. los envases de la sociedad terciaria. en summa n˚ (febrero, ) p. . frampton, kenneth. frank lloyd wright: larkin building, buffalo, new york, u.s.a. en ga document special issue : - modern architecture. p. . lecturas readings lecturas readings – con tomas de aire que estaban en la parte superior de las torres. como anota banham, el principal mérito radicó en que la propuesta de la amplia nave y la disposición de los servicios para lograr la ventilación, dio la forma magistral al exterior . en palabras del propio wright era: “una expresión sencilla de una llanura, un tipo utilitario con muros enteros en ladrillo y unas simples líneas superiores en piedra” , a la vez que era “un ensayo sobre la tercera dimensión, un conser- vador reconocimiento de los elementos de la máquina en la vida moderna” . en cambio, según lewis mumford: “las oficinas –en su masa brutal– exhiben la inquebrantable intensidad de la vida moderna en este tiempo” , entendiendo que la clave de resolución arquitectónica estaba en la presencia del edifi- cio. sin embargo, la correspondencia entre el tipo utilitario y la idea del ensayo maquinista parece haber sido la clave más importante y defini- tiva. y ello no radica en un tipo particular de expresión en relación con los nuevos tiempos o con algún estilo maquinista, sino más bien en la disposición y alineación de los trabajadores en un ambiente controlado climáticamente. el segundo fue el proyecto para el concurso de un rascacielos en la friedrichstrasse, en berlín en . fue la oportunidad en que mies van der rohe desarrolló su aporte inicial a la evolución del tipo del edificio de oficinas. bajo el seudónimo panal, –una referencia indirecta pero fre- cuente al trabajo– mies presentó un proyecto que ocupaba completa- mente el sitio de referencia y desconocía en parte las bases del concurso. era un prisma de base triangular, subdividido en tres cuerpos, de pisos de altura –unos m– enteramente revestido en cristal, con face- tados y algunos ángulos. en el centro geométrico disponía el núcleo de circulaciones que estaba dividido en tres partes –en relación con cada una de las partes del edificio–, cada una con seis ascensores, un sistema de escaleras, un sector de posibles recintos sanitarios. diría mies hacia : “el sitio era triangular, traté de usarlo completo, la profundidad del sitio me obligó a agrietar los frentes, para que el centro interior recibiera luz” . lo que mies aportaba con esta definición del proyecto era una consideración básica en la configuración del edificio de oficinas: la relación entre el perímetro y el núcleo. claramente la operación de proyecto consistente en penetrar el volumen con estas grietas para con- seguir iluminar la totalidad de la planta con luz natural, es dependiente de esa relación. en una figura geométrica perfecta, a mayor perímetro le corresponde mayor superficie y por tanto mayor distancia al centro geométrico. la extensión del perímetro, por medio de la inserción de vacío de tres figuras con ángulos, despliega el problema en tres partes y asegura una menor distancia al centro geométrico de las nuevas partes en que se ha dividido la planta. de este modo, la máxima iluminación se aseguraba no sólo por la mayor altura de piso a cielorraso, sino por las entradas que cortaban el volumen, por los pliegues de la piel y definiti- vamente por la fachada completamente cristalina. en relación con un proyecto posterior, el edificio de oficinas en hormi- gón armado, de , mies sostuvo que: “el edificio de oficinas es una casa del trabajo, de la organización, de la claridad, de la economía. grandes salas de trabajo luminosas, diáfanas, sin obstáculos para la vista, sin subdivisiones, articuladas únicamente a semejanza de la propia organización de la empresa. máximo efecto con el menor empleo de medios” . inmediatamente más abajo, incorporaba un nuevo criterio en la relación antes establecida: “la dis- tribución más adecuada de los puestos de trabajo determinó la profundidad del edificio” . por tanto, determinar la profundidad de la planta es al mismo tiempo determinar el perímetro y la figura de la planta. pero fue también wright quien había ya racionalizado los componen- tes de la planta del edificio de oficinas, en el proyecto de un rascacielos en hormigón armado que desarrolló para san francisco en . propuso maqueta de un rascacielos en san francisco, estados unidos. frank lloyd wright, . planta baja de un rascacielos en san francisco, estados unidos. frank lloyd wright, . lecturas readings lecturas readings en relación con el edificio surgió frente al anonimato que impone el espacio de las oficinas, aparentemente desprovisto de carácter, y al des- arraigo que propone para el empleado . la arquitectura ha enfrentado algunas opciones. una de ellas, parece estar definitivamente asociada a una escala inmediata al cuerpo. la ofi- cina mínima, que se ubica disciplinariamente entre la arquitectura y el diseño, como es ampliamente conocido, ha llevado a innumerables pro- puestas en el campo de diseño de interiores y mobiliario, llegando hasta dispositivos diseñados para contener en un mínimo espacio la mayor cantidad de útiles de oficina. ya con autonomía del edificio, el módulo de trabajo con diseño total integrado, permitió una libertad de organiza- ción de la planta, de acuerdo con los cambios que el organigrama de la empresa podría asumir. para le corbusier, el concepto de planta libre se equipara con la no correspondencia entre estructura portante y subdivisión programática; lo que habitualmente llamamos planta libre en el edificio de oficinas, se corresponde también con una planta neutra, es decir liberada de condi- ciones programáticas específicas y al mismo tiempo capaz de permitir una amplia variación en el trazado de los alimentadores de los distin- tos sistemas de acondicionamiento, básicamente lumínicos, eléctricos y de aire acondicionado. a ello contribuyó el cielorraso suspendido, pero también una nueva formulación de la estación de trabajo y un método de proyecto por módulos, que permitieron máxima flexibilidad para asumir distintas condiciones de formalización del espacio de trabajo. las técnicas del proyecto del edificio de oficinas estarán dominadas desde ese tiempo por las relaciones entre iluminación, núcleo de circu- laciones, disposición posible de mobiliarios y superficie disponible de planta neutra. ver banham, reyner. la arquitec- tura del entorno bien climatizado. ed. infinito, buenos aires, , pp. - . wright, frank lloyd. in the cause of architecture. first paper. march . en frank lloyd wright. the complete wendingen series. dover publi- cations, nueva york, . p. . wright, frank lloyd. in the cause of architecture. third dimension. may . en Ídem. p . berlage, h.p. frank lloyd wright. en Ídem. p . si bien algunos autores dan a conocer una posible referencia a sullivan, que había usado el término en su ensayo the tall building artisti- cally considered en , la referencia a la colmena como sociedad traba- jadora era vigente. ver riley, terence y bergdoll, barry. mies in berlin. ed. moma, nueva york, . ver riley, terence y bergdoll, barry. mies in berlin. ed. moma, nueva york, . p. . mies van der rohe. edificio de ofici- nas ( ). en neumeyer, fritz. mies van der rohe: la palabra sin artificio. ed. el croquis, madrid, . p . Ídem, p. . belluci, alberto. op cit. p. . entonces un esquema de planta lineal y bipartita, con el núcleo de circu- laciones en posición lateral. la estructura portante recaía en la fachada, en una serie ritmada de columnas que dejaban entre sí líneas acristala- das. la secuencia de líneas verticales marcaba una tensión ascendente y una visera superior otorgaba una sensación de liviandad a un edificio que era esencialmente bastante pesado. internamente, las posibilidades de organización y subdivisión estaban dadas por la relación entre la cir- culación al interior de la planta y la correspondencia entre subdivisión y columnas de la fachada. la planta, más larga que ancha, permitía una organización del espacio de trabajo, modulado por las líneas de las venta- nas entre columnas que daban luz natural. nuevamente, la relación entre planta e iluminación natural estaba presente, pero esta vez, con un crite- rio diferente que establecía además condiciones diferenciales al espacio. el espacio inmediato de trabajo fue ensayado por wright en el edifi- cio larkin y posteriormente fue más desarrollado en la johnson wax. su concepción estaba en las líneas del edificio, como una obra de arte total. en principio, suponía una continuidad estilística entre edificio y puesto de trabajo, pero iba más allá, en la consecución del diseño total del entorno. en el larkin se asumía que la repetición en extensión de escritorios debería tener un tratamiento que mediara la situación alienante del lugar de trabajo entre tantos otros trabajadores con el total del edificio; es decir asumir condiciones del edificio en el puesto de trabajo para intentar anular la distancia entre el operario y la gran nave. sus preten- siones de diseño total llegaban desde el mobiliario hasta los teléfonos, cuestión que la empresa abortaría tempranamente. si bien la pretensión wrightiana es muy de época y se corresponde a una gesamtkunstwerk –obra de arte total–, el diseño del puesto de trabajo lecturas readings lecturas readings comentario obras y proyectos / los casos incluidos en esta revista, que motivan este comentario transversal, nos muestran una gama bastante amplia de resultados sobre algunos de los tópicos expuestos. en todo ellos se supone que hay o habrá algún número de personas ocupadas en sus trabajos; mayoritariamente son oficinas, y con algunas variacio- nes, proponen distintas lecturas de las técnicas más habituales para la configuración de los lugares de trabajo. un primer grupo, conformado por cinco casos de edificios de nueva construcción, muestra las posibles variaciones en la determinación de la planta, en relación con la ilumi- nación natural, la superficie disponible y el perímetro. si bien en todos los casos las propuestas surgen de las particulares condiciones del sitio y de las normativas vigentes, las memorias destacan con claras referen- cias el problema de la configuración de la planta en relación al núcleo y a la iluminación natural. el abu dhabi commercial bank, aún cuando pudiera relacionarse con el rascacielos de san francisco de wright, incluso por su visera, presenta una planta tipo singular, de proporciones similares al edificio larkin. al ubicar los dos núcleos de circulaciones en los lados, libera al centro la superficie útil para la disposición flexible de los puestos de trabajo. la opción propone una jerarquía en la iluminación sólo por los otros dos lados del perímetro. sin embargo, la utilización de planos transparentes en los núcleos de ascensores completa las posibilidades de recepción de luz natural al interior, como un dispositivo de proyecto superador de las formas y relaciones ya tradicionales. el edificio consorcio en concepción muestra una opción por ubicar el núcleo en posición lateral, en relación con el medianero, que se con- figura como un volumen que define la relación con el mismo. las plan- tas neutras, con el máximo de superficie libre con orientación norte, se manifiestan como otro volumen vidriado que recibirá el tamiz de luz que proponen los perfiles de madera laminada y la vegetación. en el caso del edificio santa maría se manifiesta la intención de ale- jarse de la configuración del volumen compacto con planta rectangular que caracteriza habitualmente al edificio de oficinas. la ubicación cen- tral del núcleo de circulaciones y su exposición al frente del edificio per- miten configurar lo que en apariencia son dos volúmenes acentuados por los diferentes tratamientos de las fachadas. el edificio costanera en puerto montt muestra, de manera convin- cente, la relación entre planta neutra, iluminación y estructura por- tante. como en el rascacielos de wright, a la liberación de la planta le corresponde la presencia estructural en la fachada, y por tanto su condi- ción de regularidad y alternancia para permitir la presencia de la luz al interior. la decisión de configurar una planta rectangular en el medio del sitio es acompañada por la posición simétrica y central del núcleo de circulaciones. los planos de iluminación son directos en el frente y el contrafrente, y articulados por quiebravistas en los costados laterales. el edificio ccu contrasta claramente con sus vecinos en el área, y no es tan solo por su relación urbana, siendo el único que ha sido gene- roso con el lugar, sino que también por poner en juego de manera reno- vada las temáticas arquitectónicas del edificio de oficinas. se trata de una planta racionalmente establecida en una relación entre longitud y ancho, y la posición del núcleo de circulaciones verticales, en relación con el perímetro, para la obtención de mayor iluminación natural. la disposición de una planta más alargada tiene las ventajas que se seña- laron en el edificio de wright y que se verifica en los pisos altos, una planta similar, con el núcleo en un lateral. asimismo, la fachada con rol estructural en los cabezales anula la superficie plana del reflejo. el segundo grupo está conformado por intervenciones en el interior de edificios existentes, por lo que ponen el acento en la disposición de los módulos de trabajo y la relación con el perímetro disponible. en una excepción, las oficinas de la dirección del zoológico, probablemente por su situación, proponen otros temas y problemas. en las oficinas turner, la intervención en el antiguo edificio propone la creación de un jardín interior, en correspondencia con el lucernario existente, para generar una doble entrada de luz. el recurso larkin es evi- dente y a la vez superado por la ubicación de las oficinas más cerradas hacia el interior de la planta, envolviéndolas en vidrio rojo, y dejando los puestos de trabajo hacia los bordes. en las oficinas philippi, yrarrázaval, pulido & brunner, las caracterís- ticas distributivas vienen fuertemente dictadas por la proporción de la planta y la ubicación del núcleo. la utilización de un dispositivo espacial como son los pilares que ritman el espacio y dejan pasar la luz, permite la disposición de las oficinas sobre el perímetro, sin ahogar el centro. a la vez, los vacíos en las losas en los extremos refuerzan la condición de iluminación, aproximando otras dimensiones espaciales. la intervención en las oficinas bbdo, la opción es bastante radical. si en el edificio larkin, el muro-mueble-archivo reforzaba la neutralidad de la planta, en este caso, la relación entre superficie de oficina y super- ficie de archivo es determinante en el proyecto. los puestos de trabajo están en relación con la luz plena. el muro-mueble es, en definitiva, el proyecto de arquitectura. el tercer grupo radicaliza la opción del espacio de trabajo como el módulo mínimo y aislado, lo que pone en evidencia muchas otras rela- ciones. la pequeña escala de aproximación aparece representada en este contexto por dos obras: la consulta cubo y el cabanon de le corbusier. ambas emplazan una relación distinta: en aislamiento, construyen un mundo íntimo. en la consulta cubo, para el trabajo domiciliario pero aislado de la casa, construyendo un abstracto. en el cabanon, para el tiempo libre, o para una modalidad más libre del trabajo (mi oficina lo llama en la carta). la condición de mínimo propone un concepto de eficiencia que puede asumirse como la neutralidad total o como el esta- blecimiento de dispositivos arquitectónicos ajustados a fines precisos. la práctica del proyecto se enfrenta a los componentes clave que han tenido vigencia durante el s. xx: la organización de la planta, la luz y, consecuentemente, la definición de la fachada, la concepción de un clima artificial –aire acondicionado–, la relación entre mobiliario de archivo y espacio, y la relación entre mobiliario y espacio íntimo. obviamente, no quedan fuera otros intereses, como la relación con el lugar u opciones más particulares o personales sobre arquitectura. pero en edificios que son dispositivos para orientar las prácticas en relación con la eficiencia el método de creación funcional todavía sigue pesando. sobre todo porque la práctica arquitectónica en este tema tiende a la eliminación de todo lo superfluo. para ginzburg, del método de la crea- ción funcional se derivaba necesariamente un ascetismo, que obligaba a “rechazar lo inesencial y a buscar la expresividad artística en lo más importante y necesario” . porque, como dijo tafuri en referencia a loos: “la reali- dad de la división del trabajo contiene en sí la superación de todo acto superfluo” . ginzburg, moisei. op. cit. p. . ver tafuri, manfedo y dal co, francesco. arquitectura contemporánea. ed. aguilar, madrid, . p. . lecturas readings .. who art thou? personality predictors of artistic preferences in a large uk sample: the importance of openness tomas chamorro-premuzic *, stian reimers , anne hsu and gorkan ahmetoglu department of psychology, goldsmiths, university of london, london, uk department of psychology, university college london, london, uk the present study examined individual differences in artistic preferences in a sample of , participants ( % women and % men), aged – years. participants completed a big five personality inventory and provided preference ratings for q different paintings corresponding to cubism, renaissance, impressionism, and japanese art, which loaded on to a latent factor of overall art preferences. as expected, the personality trait openness to experience was the strongest and only consistent personality correlate of artistic preferences, affecting both overall and specific preferences, as well as visits to galleries, and artistic (rather than scientific) self-perception. overall preferences were also positively influenced by age and visits to art galleries, and to a lesser degree, by artistic self-perception and conscientiousness (negatively). as for specific styles, after overall preferences were accounted for, more agreeable, more conscientious and less open individuals reported higher preference levels for impressionist, younger and more extraverted participants showed higher levels of preference for cubism (as did males), and younger participants, as well as males, reported higher levels of preferences for renaissance. limitations and recommen- dations for future research are discussed. why do we like some forms of art and not others? are our individual art preferences formed just from miscellaneous aesthetic experiences? the enduring presence of art in human history suggests that its connection to humanity is deeper than merely an arbitrary medley of random aesthetic inclinations. moreover, understanding the psychological determinants of art preferences is likely to offer a number of benefits to society. for instance, knowing what types of art resonate with different personality traits can be useful to promote art in the community, inspire individual learners, and appeal to individual consumers. likewise, knowledge of generic art preferences (what most * correspondence should be addressed to dr tomas chamorro-premuzic, department of psychology, goldsmiths, university of london, london se nw, uk (e-mail: pss tc@gold.ac.uk). in the context of the current manuscript ‘art’ is used predominantly to refer to visual art, i.e. paintings. bjp — / / —rajadurai— the british psychological society british journal of psychology ( ), , – q the british psychological society www.bpsjournals.co.uk doi: . / x dislike or like) can be used to create common environments that appeal to all individuals rather than providing pleasure to some and causing dislike in all others. finally, from a more theoretical standpoint, any connection between psychological dispositions (such as personality traits) and artistic preferences is likely to enrich our understanding of the psychological consequences of individual differences, that is, what makes one person different from another. in light of the above questions it is unsurprising that for the better part of the last century researchers investigated the connection between personality and visual art preferences (carroll & enrich, ; child, , ; eysenck, ; juhasz & paxson, ; robertoux, carlier, & chaguiboff, ; rosenbluh, owen, & pohler, ; tobacyck, myers, & bailey, ; wilson, ausman, & matthews, ). some of this work has focused on personality correlates of aesthetic preferences for basic visual features using varying-sided polygons (looft & baranowski, ; rawlings, twomey, burns, & morris, a; eysenck, ) or line drawings of varying complexity (dellas & gaier, ; zuckerman, bone, neary, magelsdorff, & brustman, ). more recent work on this subject has focused on personality and preferences among specific painting styles (feist & brady, ; furnham & avison, ; furnham & bunyan, ; furnham & walker, a,b; tobacyck, myers, & bailey, ; zuckerman, ulrich, & mclaughlin, ). indeed, art preferences have been found to be related to a variety of personality traits such as extraversion (chamorro-premuzic & furnham, a; b), neuroticism (furnham and walker, b), schizotopy (rawlings, ), behavioural approach versus inhibition (rawlings & bastian, ), conservatism (furnham and walker, a; wilson, ausman, & matthews, ), conformity (feist et al., ), intelligence (chamorro-premuzic & furnham, a; b),q scientific attitude (mcmanus, ; mcmanus & furnham, ), as well as other individual characteristics such as sex (furnham and walker, a; rawlings, ), age and education (mcmanus and furnham, ). the five factor or ‘big five’ model of personality with the widespread adoption of the five factor or ‘big five’ personality framework, it has been easier to compare the findings from different investigations into individual difference determinants of artistic preferences. according to the big five, non-clinical individual differences can be classified on the basis of five main personality factors (chamorro-premuzic, ; chamorro-premuzic & furnham, ; matthews, deary &q whiteman, ), namely extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness and openness to experience. extraversion measures quantity and intensity of interpersonal interaction, activity level, external stimulation and capacity for joy. conscientiousness measures degree of organisation, persistence, dependability and goal-directed behaviour. neuroticism measures emotional instability and predisposition to experience psychological distress and have maladaptive coping responses. finally, openness measures intellectual curiosity, creative interests, and preference for new experiences and toleration of the unfamiliar. it is therefore unsurprising that openness has been suggested to be the most salient big five correlate of art. openness a wide range of studies have consistently found that more open individuals engage in more general art and visual art activities, identify more with art and have greater preference for general visual arts relative to people with lower openness several studies tomas chamorro-premuzic et al. bjp — / / —rajadurai— reported correlations in the range of . –. between openness and various measures of artistic interests and preferences (chamorro-premuzic and furnham, a; b; feist & brady, ; furnham & avison, ; ; a; b; mccrae, ; mccrae & costa, ; rawlings, ; rawlings, twomey, burns, & morris, b). this is consistent with mccrae and costa’s ( , p. ) conceptualization of high openness as a core characteristic of artists: ‘as neurotics can be used as examplars of high scores on the dimension of neuroticism, so artists can be considered primer examples of individuals high in openness to experience’. consequently, a recent study by mcmanus and furnham ( ) found that individuals who score high on openness display more positive aesthetic attitudes such as beliefs that art can be appreciated without complete emotional understanding, appreciation of aesthetic quality and aesthetic relativism, and a value for arts in general. in terms of painting preferences, open individuals, have been shown to prefer art in general (feist & brady, ), pop art (furnham and walker, b), and in particular abstract art (feist & brady, ; furnham & walker, a). open individuals have higher levels of imagination, need for cognition, and divergent thinking; they also display low authoritarianism, liberal attitudes and non-conventional preferences. these qualities are harmonious with the notions of abstract art being more modern, un-traditional, and depicting subject matter through intrinsic qualities rather than literal representational forms. openness is also associated (typically in the region of . ; alujaq et al., ) with higher levels of sensation seeking, a trait that has been found to correlate positively with artistic preferences in the range of . –. (furnham & avison, ; a; b; rawlings, twomey, burns, & morris, b, ; zuckerman et al., , ). extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism and agreeableness other big five traits have also been associated with art preferences and interests, albeit less consistently. extraversion has been linked both positively and negatively with art judgment ability, depending on the task used (chamorro-premuzic & furnham, a; b). additionally, extraversion has been associated with appreciation of aesthetic quality and aesthetic relativism (mcmanus, ). conscientiousness on the other hand has been negatively associated with visual as well as general art activities (mcmanus, ), a preference for representational art and a dislike of pop and abstract art (furnham & walker, a). correlations between conscientiousness and art judgments have been shown to be both positive and negative (furnham & rao, ). neuroticism has been shown to positively correlate with preference for abstract and pop art (furnham and walker, b). agreeableness has been correlated with a lesser preference for pop art (furnham & walker, a), a greater preference for representational art (furnham & avison, ), as well as a lesser tendency to participate in general art activities, despite the fact that agreeable people seem to value aesthetics more (mcmanus, ). while all these other four factors of personality have been associated in some form with art interests, the results were often either not replicated or inconsistent across studies. science versus art, sex and age another important determinant of individual differences in artistic preferences is vocational interest, particularly whether one sees himself or herself as more of a scientist or an artist. the historic divide between science and art was famously highlighted in the personality and art bjp — / / —rajadurai— much referenced and often criticised lecture by snow ( ) on the two cultures, which divided western society on the basis of two opposite intellectual worlds, namely science and art. in line, ackerman and heggestad ( ) conducted an extensive meta- analysis of the correlations among personality traits and vocational interests, obtaining separated clusters or trait complexes for science/math on one hand, and intellectual/cultural on the other. more recently, mcmanus ( ) found that science students participated significantly less often than other students in all but one out of cultural activities measured. the largest differences were for the activities of drawing and painting, going to museums and art galleries, reading about art, reading poetry, and going to the theatre, opera and ballet. this study also found that while both science and non-science students had similar scores on the personality dimension of openness, the correlation between the trait of openness and cultural arts activity is lower in scientists than in non-scientists. finally, a few studies also found significant effects of sex-differences on art preference, including males’ preferences over those of females for unpleasant paintings of all types (rawlings, ) as well as pop, representational and japanese paintings (furnham & walker, a). in a recent much larger study, however, sex-differences in general art interests and attitudes were not observed (mcmanus, ). our study a significant limitation of previous studies is the small and non-diverse subject samples employed. most studies consisted of undergraduate student subjects and the few studies with adults had around or fewer subjects (furnham & avison, ; furnham & walker, a,b). studies which use student subjects may contain several confounds. first, such studies cannot account for potential differences in course-workload and free- time between students in different programs, which may account for differences in arts activities and exposure to artistic styles. second, students in art-related disciplines may have more opportunity to hear about available art-related cultural activities and events which would also broaden their exposure and affect preferences. third, personality traits are likely to be correlated with particular programs of studies, such that the use of student subjects may confound the correlations observed between personality and art preferences and art activity. fourth, adults should have had more opportunity to find the artistic experiences that interest them. thus an advantage of using adult subjects is that their preferences are less likely to be influenced by peer group and immediate circumstance (though it is difficult to rule out such confounds entirely). to this end, the present study set out to examine the personalities and preferences of over , subjects covering wide ranging demographics. specifically, we attempted to assess the extent to which preferences for paintings from different artistic movements, as well as overall preferences, could be explained by individual differences in personality. in line with the above reviewed literature, we expected more open individuals to report greater preferences for art in general and also predicted openness to correlate positively with art activity and self-identification as an art-oriented person. the large sample size and wide demographics of the current sample also enabled us to examine the effects of sex, age and education on art interests, and whether personality throughout this manuscript, the terms ‘effects’ and ‘affected’ are used predominantly to refer to hypothetical causal pathways; strictly speaking they denote only that one variable predicts another one. tomas chamorro-premuzic et al. bjp — / / —rajadurai— traits still predict artistic preferences when these variables are taken into account. most previous studies have not encompassed a wide enough demographic range to address the relationships between age or general education and art preferences, though some studies have shown a correlation between openness and education levels (mcmanus, ). a clear advantage of sampling non-students is the variability in educational attainment; when using students, education has restricted range or a ceiling effect for those still in the education system. despite this lack of research into the relationship between artistic education and specific art preferences, the importance of art in formal education has been the subject of recent government and media interest in the uk. most notably, the uk ministry of education recently proposed that all schools reform their curricula to allow for at least h of ‘high culture’ per week, including visits to museums and other art activities (curtis, ). this makes an examination of the individualq differences underlying artistic interests and preferences especially relevant from an educational point of view. method participants in all, , people completed the survey. their ages ranged from to (m ¼ . , sd ¼ . ) years; . % were aged over or under , with % aged or below, and % being or above. of the total sample, % were women, and % men. with regard to participants’ educational background (coded – ) % had completed primary school, . % had completed up to secondary school, . % had completed technical training, . % had completed undergraduate college degrees, and . % were educated at the postgraduate level (e.g. postgraduate diplomas, professional training, masters or doctoral degrees). relative to uk census data (office for national statistics, n.d.), our sample was, on average, younger than the population in general (uk: approx. % under , % aged – , % aged þ ), and female respondents were somewhat over represented (uk: . % female). the proportion of participants with university or higher qualifications was over twice that of the general population (uk proportion of – -year-olds with a degree or higher: . %). however, compared with much of the existing research on art preference and judgment, which typically draws participants from the undergraduate student population, our sample was relatively diverse in terms of age and educational background. measures personality was assessed by the international personality item pool (ipip; goldberg, ). the ipip comprises items assessing extraversion, agreeableness, conscien- tiousness, emotional stability (low neuroticism) and openness to experiences (intellect) (goldberg, ). each item is rated on a -point likert-type scale (ranging fromq ‘ ¼ very inaccurate’ to ‘ ¼ very accurate’). the a’s for the present sample (see table ) are in line with previously reported internal consistencies (which tend to average . ). goldberg ( ) reported substantial correlations (corrected: from . to . ) between these factors and their equivalent factors as assessed by the neo-ffiq q (costa & mccrae, ), another widely used measure of the big five. personality and art bjp — / / —rajadurai— t a b le . in te r- co rr e la ti o n s am o n g ta rg e t m e as u re s m (s d ) g e n d e r . . . . . . . . . . a ge . ( . ) . . . . . . . . . a . ( . ) . . . . . . . . . o . ( . ) . . . . . . . . n . ( . ) . . . . . . . c . ( . ) . . . . . . e . ( . ) . . . . . im p r e s s . (. ) . . . . ja pa n . (. ) . . . r e n a is . ( . ) . . c u b is m . ( . ) . n o te . n ¼ , . a ll co e ffi ci e n ts (c o lu m n s – ) ar e b iv ar ia te co rr e la ti o n s (p e ar so n ’s r) an d ar e si gn ifi ca n t at p , . if . ^ . . g e n d e r co d e d ¼ fe m al e , ¼ m al e , a ¼ ag re e ab le n e ss , o ¼ o p e n n e ss to e x p e ri e n ce , n ¼ n e u ro ti ci sm , c ¼ co n sc ie n ti o u sn e ss , e ¼ e x tr av e rs io n ; p re fe re n ce ra ti n gs fo r ar t st yl e s: im p r e s s ¼ im p re ss io n is m , ja pa n ¼ ja p an e se ar t an d r e n a is ¼ re n ai ss an ce ar t. tomas chamorro-premuzic et al. bjp — / / —rajadurai— artistic preferences were assessed using a purpose-built on-line test that included paintings, shown individually, consecutively, and in randomised order, together with a - point likert-type rating scale ranging from ‘ ¼ dislike very much’ to ‘ ¼ like very much’. paintings were chosen from six different artistic movements, namely abstract (theo van doesburg, rudolf bauer; europe, th century), cubism (pablo picasso, juan gris, jacoba van heemskerck; europe, th century), northern renaissance (jan brueghel the elder, pieter brueghel the elder, matthias grunewald, hieronymus bosch; europe, th century), japanese ukiyo-e woodblock prints (toyohara chikanobu, utagawa kunisada, katsushika hokusai, toyota hokkei; th to mid th centuries), impressionism (berthe morisot, paul gauguin, john singer sargent, albert dubois-pillet; europe, th century), and secular islamic art (unknown artists, th to th centuries). to minimise the effect of variation in the subject depicted across movements, for each of the six movements we selected one painting depicting an animal, one depicting a person, one landscape and one still life. (clearly it was not possible – by definition – to do this for abstract art). principal component analysis was applied to the ratings of the paintings and identified a clear -factor solution (total variance explained ¼ %) corresponding to four of the six movements described above (items for abstract and secular islamic art did not load on to clear factors and these scales were not computed due to low reliabilities). the eigenvalues were cubism ¼ . ( % of variance explained), impressionism ¼ . ( % of variance explained), japanese ¼ . ( % of variance explained), and renaissance ¼ . ( % of variance explained). the internal consistencies for the four factors are shown in table . average item scores were computed for each of these movements. procedure participants completed the survey on-line, through a bbc website (http://www.bbc.co. uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/art/) that was advertised during a television broadcast of a programme on art (first shown in may on bbc two). the website, which is still active but collected data for months, invited participants to provide their responses to a personality inventory as well as ratings to various paintings. in the instructions, participants were told that ‘the art [you] like says something about the kind of person you are. take part in an experiment and find out more about [yourself] and art’. first, participants completed a section on demographics including educational level. then, they completed a section on artistic preferences, which presented them with paintings in random order, with sizes of approximately £ pixels (for all stimuli it was possible to enlarge to approximately £ pixels) and asked them to rate each painting at a time. after this, they completed the personality inventory. after completing the survey, participants were thanked for taking part in this study and given feedback on their personality profiles and artistic preferences. only data from participants who completed the entire study was saved to a database hosted on the bbc’s servers, which was then transferred on to spss. ethical clearance for this study was obtained by the first and second author from their departments. analyses missing values (, % per variable, as suggested by tabachnik & fidell, ) were replaced with the series mean at the item level – prior to computing the feedback is available at the web-site given above or from the first author on request. personality and art bjp — / / —rajadurai— factor scores – in order to use the overall sample for the analyses. prior to analysis, variables (factor scores) were standardised across the whole sample to a mean of zero and unit variance. we used standardised variables in our analysis because personality and art preference composite scores lie on different scales, as suggested by loehlin ( ). results descriptive statistics and inter-correlations for all measures are presented in table . as noted, all coefficients .. are significant at p , . (due to the large sample size). thus discussion of results will focus on correlation coefficients .. . as shown, preference for impressionist paintings correlated positively with age and agreeableness; preference for japanese art correlated positively with age and openness, which also correlated positively with preferences for renaissance and cubism (the highest correlation between any art preferences and individual difference factor, at r ¼ . ). cubism was also negatively correlated with age. in addition, all preferences were positively intercorrelated except for impressionism and cubism which correlated only at r ¼ . . next, a structural equation model (sem) was tested using amos . (arbuckle &q wothke, ). the choice of ordering – determining what variables are endogenous, mediators, and exogenous – is rarely straightforward in sem studies (davis, ;q kenny, ; pearl, ), and a model was tested primarily to provide a general picture of the relationship among the target variables. the variables included in the model were divided into three subgroups, whereby personality traits, gender and age were exogenous or covariates, educational level, artistic interests and ‘artistic person’ (whether people considered themselves an artistic rather than a scientific individual) were mediators, and the latent factor of general artistic preferences, on which the four movements/styles loaded, was endogenous (this is in line with mcmanus & furnham’s, sem). the model’s goodness of fit was assessed via the x statistic, the goodness of fit index (gfi) and its adjusted version (agfi), as well as the root mean square residual (rmsea) and the parsimony goodness-of-fit index (pgfi), and akaike’s information criterion (aic) (akaike, ; loehlin, ; kelloway, ; maruyama, ). in the hypothesised model, saturated paths from the covariates to the mediators, and from the mediators to the latent factor of general artistic preferences were added. thus no direct paths from either the covariates or the mediators to either general or specific artistic preferences were added. the model, with parameters between the covariates and the mediators, and parameters between the mediators and the latent factor of art preferences, did not fit the data well: gfi ¼ . , agfi ¼ . , pgfi ¼ . , rmsea ¼ . (. –. ), aic ¼ . . the model was modified accordingly, removing one parameter at a time, starting with the lowest t-value, and adding new paths in accordance to the modification indices (these included inter-correlations among the covariates and among the mediators, and correlated errors of two specific art preference factors). the modified model fitted the data well: gfi ¼ . , agfi ¼ . , pgfi ¼ . , rmsea ¼ . (. –. ), though the x ¼ . ( df, p , . ) was significant (which, in large samples, tends to occur even in well-fitting models ; joreskog & sorbom, ). q non-significant x values are indicative of good model fit. tomas chamorro-premuzic et al. bjp — / / —rajadurai— the modified model is graphically depicted in figure (which does not show paths from the covariates to art preferences) and figure (which does not show the mediators or inter-correlations among the covariates). note that the depiction of the model is split in two figures. for the sake of clarity (both figures represent different sections of the same model). art total cubism impress japan renais sex e a c o age . . . . –. education galleries artist n . . –. . . –. . . . –. –. –. –. . . . . . . . –. . figure . modified model for predictors of art preferences. note. all paths are standardised parameter estimates significant at p , . . direct paths from individual differences to art preferences (total or specific) are shown in figure . sex coded ¼ female, ¼ male. a ¼ agreeableness, o ¼ openness, c ¼ conscientiousness, e ¼ extraversion, impress ¼ impressionism, renais ¼ renaissance, japan ¼ japanese. art total cubism impress japan renais sex e a c o age . . . . –. . –. . –. -. . . . . –. . figure . modified model for predictors of art preferences (whilst controlling for education, visits to galleries, and artistic self-perception). note. all paths are standardised parameter estimates significant at p , whilst controlling for mediators (education level, visits to galleries and self-perception as an artist. sex coded ¼ female, ¼ male. dashed lines are paths added after modification indicators and represent significant effects of the exogenous variables on individual art styles whilst controlling for overall preferences. correlations among exogenous variables and their effects on mediators are shown in figure . a ¼ agreeableness, o ¼ openness, c ¼ conscientiousness, e ¼ extraversion, impress ¼ impressionism, renais ¼ renaissance, japan ¼ japanese. personality and art bjp — / / —rajadurai— as shown in figure , there were positive effects of age and openness on education, and openness on visits to galleries. on the other hand, participants were more likely to define themselves as artists (as opposed to scientists) if they were female, less agreeable, and more open. visits to galleries and defining oneself as more of an artist than a scientist positively affected general preferences, and visits to galleries also affected (negatively) preferences for impressionism after controlling for overall preferences. finally, figure shows the effects of individual differences (personality, sex and age) on general art preferences as well as specific preferences when general preferences are controlled (dashed paths). as shown, the strongest effect on general art preferences was by openness, followed by age (both open and older individuals tended to report higher levels of overall preferences); there was also a more modest, negative effect on general art preferences by conscientiousness. in regards to specific art preferences (whilst controlling for general preferences), agreeableness and conscientiousness both positively affected preferences for impressionism, which was negatively affected by openness. liking of renaissance paintings was affected by sex (being male rather than female) and age (being younger), whereas preferences for cubism were influenced by age (negatively), and to a lesser extent extraversion (positively) and sex (liked more by males). in combination, the relevant covariates and mediators accounted for % of the variance in general art preferences. a series of alternative models were then tested in order to assess the significance of direct paths from both covariates and mediators to general and specific art preferences (in line with hampson, goldberg, vogt, & dubanoski, ). in all, different models were tested, and fit indices for each model are presented in table . chi square tests of significance were conducted to establish pairwise comparisons of fit. as shown, the best fit was found for the model , depicted in figures and (which includes direct paths from both individual differences and mediators to both general and specific art preferences), with slightly worse fit for models that did not include paths from mediators to specific (model ) or general (model ) preferences, or both (model ). discussion the present study examined the relationship between art preferences and individual differences (the big five personality traits, sex and age), self-identification as artist or scientist, frequency of visits to art galleries, and educational level. overall results showed that, in line with predictions, openness to experience was the strongest and only consistent personality predictor of artistic preferences, and that age (positively) and to a lesser extent conscientiousness (negatively) also affected overall artistic preferences, which were also positively influenced by age. although the current study only examined a limited selection of artistic movements, the results clearly indicated that artistic preferences can be examined both at the specific or general level. accordingly, we modelled general/overall preferences as a latent variable on which preferences for the four different styles loaded, and examined how it was affected by individual differences and the mediators. more specifically, sem revealed that even after controlling for the effects of broad interests (i.e. considering oneself an artist rather than a scientist and visiting art galleries), personality traits – notably openness – and age affected general artistic preferences. moreover, several individual difference variables (including age and gender) affected preferences for specific artistic paintings after taking into account general or overall preferences: more agreeable, more conscientious, and less open individuals (matched on general preferences) showed higher levels of tomas chamorro-premuzic et al. bjp — / / —rajadurai— t a b le . a co m p ar is o n o f fi t in d ic e s fo r al te rn at iv e m o d e ls fo r th e p re d ic ti o n o f ar t p re fe re n ce s x g f i a g f i r m s e a p g f i a ic d ir e ct p at h s fr o m id an d m e d ia to rs to b o th ge n e ra l an d sp e ci fi c a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . , p , . – . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m m e d ia to rs to sp e ci fi c a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . , p , . – . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m m e d ia to rs to ge n e ra l a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . – , p , . . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m m e d ia to rs to e it h e r ge n e ra l o r sp e ci fi c a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . – , p , . . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m id to sp e ci fi c a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . , p , . , , . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m id to ge n e ra l a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . , p , . , – . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m id to e it h e r ge n e ra l o r sp e ci fi c a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . , p , . . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m e it h e r id o r m e d ia to rs to sp e ci fi c a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . , p , . , , . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m e it h e r id o r m e d ia to rs to ge n e ra l a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . , p , . , , , . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o d ir e ct p at h s fr o m e it h e r id o r m e d ia to rs to e it h e r sp e ci fi c o r ge n e ra l a rt p re fe re n ce s d f ¼ , . , p , . . . . , lo w ¼ . , h ig h ¼ . . . n o te . b o ld e d fi gu re s sh o w b e st fi tt in g m o d e l ac co rd in g to th at cr it e ri o n . s u p e rs cr ip ts n e x t to p va lu e s in d ic at e w h at m o d e ls h ad si gn ifi ca n tl y w o rs e fi t (t e st o f c h i- sq u ar e d if fe re n ce s) . m o d e l is gr ap h ic al ly d e p ic te d b e tw e e n f ig u re s an d . m o d e l fi tn e ss w as as se ss e d b y: th e c h i- sq u ar e (b o lle n , ; te st s th e h yp o th e si s th at an u n co n st ra in e d m o d e l fi ts th e co va ri an ce /c o rr e la ti o n m at ri x as w e ll as th e gi ve n m o d e l; id e al ly va lu e s sh o u ld n o t b e si gn ifi ca n t) ; th e g f i (t an ak a & h u b a, ; go o d n e ss -o f- fi t in d ic at o r) is a m e as u re o f fi tn e ss an d va lu e s cl o se to ar e ac ce p ta b le ; th e p g f i (m u la ik et a l., ; p ar si m o n y go o d n e ss -o f- fi t in d ic at o r) is a m e as u re o f p o w e r an d is o p ti m al ar o u n d . ); th e r m s e a (b ro w n e & c u d e ck , ; ro o t- m e an -s q u ar e e rr o r o f ap p ro x im at io n ), va lu e s o f . o r b e lo w in d ic at e re as o n ab le fi t fo r th e m o d e l; th e a ic (a k ai k e , ; a k ai k e ’s in fo rm at io n cr it e ri o n ) gi ve s th e e x te n si o n to w h ic h th e p ar am e te r e st im at e s fr o m th e o ri gi n al sa m p le w ill cr o ss -v al id at e in fu tu re sa m p le s. personality and art bjp — / / —rajadurai— preference for impressionist paintings, whilst younger, male and extraverted individuals (again, matched on general preferences) tended to prefer cubism. finally when matched on general preferences male and younger participants tended to prefer renaissance paintings. interestingly, when individuals were matched in general preferences those who liked impressionism tended to dislike cubism and vice-versa, and frequency of visits to galleries was negatively linked to preferences for impressionist paintings. these results highlight some intuitive associations between individual differences and art preferences. first and foremost, openness is both conceptually and empirically related to artistic preferences, and having an ‘artistic profile’ in general. this is consistent with a number of previous, smaller-scale, studies, that reported modest to moderate significant correlations between openness and different measures of artistic interests (chamorro-premuzic & furnham, a; b; feist & brady, ; furnham & avison, , , a; b; mccrae, ; mccrae & costa, ; rawlings, ; rawlings, twomey, burns, & morris, b), and a more recent, larger-scale, study showing that more open individuals display more positive aesthetic attitudes and values for arts in general (mcmanus and furnham, ). in regards to other personality traits, results are less consistent though some associations did replicate correlations found in past, smaller-scale studies. the negative link between conscientiousness and general preferences is in line with mcmanus and furnham ( ) finding that conscientious people are less interested in visual as well as general art activities, and furnham & walker ( a) finding of a negative link between conscientiousness and preference for pop and abstract art (furnham & walker, a). moreover, the present study’s results showing higher male preferences for renaissance paintings (after controlling for overall preferences) could be related to previous suggestions that males tend to prefer ‘unpleasant’ paintings more than women (rawlings, ). although the current study did not assess the degree of ‘pleasure’ evoked any of the paintings, renaissance paintings clearly received the lowest average rating (see again table for means). interestingly, when matched on general preferences, more open subjects also showed a significant negative preference for impressionist paintings. a previous investigation had shown open subject’s preferences were negatively correlated with neutral and natural paintings (rawlings, twomey, burns, & morris, b), suggesting that the impressionist paintings may have been preferred less for similar reasons. indeed, the traits that were positively associated with preference for impressionism after controlling for overall preferences were agreeableness and conscientiousness, which, combined, are reflective of dispositional conformity – just as openness reflects non- conformity (deyoung, peterson, & higgins, ). naturally, there are limitations to the present study which limit the generalisability of our findings and beg for caution when interpreting the current results. first, our study was correlational and the single-wave nature of our design means that any causational interpretation is purely speculative. however, the relative representativeness of our sample (especially compared to previous studies) lends weight to the current results. second, our data were exclusively self-report, increasing the risk of spurious correlations caused by shared method variance. yet it is noteworthy that artistic preferences refer to variability in attitudinal domains (aesthetic liking), personality traits assess dispositions, and the background variables (art exhibitions and educational level) refer to behavioural or biographical data, albeit self-report. third, our study only assessed preferences for four different styles (as sated, two more styles were initially planned but there was no statistical justification for including them in the analyses); tomas chamorro-premuzic et al. bjp — / / —rajadurai— clearly, more styles, schools and even artistic products other than paintings ought to be examined to provide a ‘clear picture’ of the relevance of personality traits as predictors of aesthetic preferences. it would be particularly interesting to examine the extent to which preferences for different artistic products (e.g. films, plays, books, songs, etc) can also be explained in terms of a latent, overall art preference factor, which would probably correlate with openness. in addition, personality sub-facets, notably of openness, should also be investigated in connection to art preferences. last, but not least, the current study also examined the big five personality traits but the incremental validity of other traits, such as schizotopy (rawlings, ), behavioural approach versus inhibition (rawlings & bastian, ), conservatism (furnham & walker, a; wilson, ausman, & matthews, ), conformity (feist & brady, ), intelligence (chamorro-premuzic & furnham, a; b), and, in particular, sensation-seeking (furnham and avison, ; a; b; rawlings, twomey, burns, & morris, b, ; zuckerman et al., , ) should also be examined. given that the current study explained only % of the variance in general artistic preferences more predictors are needed to explained a more substantial amount of variance in artistic preferences. based on the previous literature, as well as the magnitude of the current associations, there are three salient findings in the present study, namely (a) the fact that preferences for paintings corresponding to quite different periods and styles are clearly intercorrelated, such that differences between people (in overall preferences) are stronger than differences between painting styles; (b) the fact that openness is a consistent correlate of aesthetic attitudes, interests, and preferences and (c) the effect of age on artistic preferences (positivefor general preferences, but negative forcertain styles after overall preferences are controlled for). these findings indicate that art preferences are only partly style-specific, that personality factors other than openness are weak predictors of artistic preferences, and that age differences in artistic preferences are almost as salient as differences in openness (even after controlling for aesthetic interests, attitudes, and other traits). taken in combination, these findings suggest that aesthetic inclinations can partly be attributed to psychological dispositions and age, such that knowledge of individuals’ age and personality – notablyopenness – can be used to predict the extent to which they will be interested in and like different examples of visual art. likewise, knowledge of generic art preferences can be used to infer people’s personality, in particular 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( ), kenny ( ) and pearl ( ) have been cited in text but not provided in the list. please supply reference details or delete the reference citations from the text. q please provide expansions of the acronyms ‘neo-ffi’ and ‘spss’. q references feist ( ) and zuckerman ( ) are provided in the list but not cited in the text. please supply citation details or delete the reference from the reference list. q please provide complete details for reference mccrae and costa ( ). q please update the year of publication in reference office for national statistics (n.d.). q we have inserted a journal title for reference rawlings and bastian ( ). please check and approve. q as per the style, we have deleted the ref citation in abstract. please check and confirm. tomas chamorro-premuzic et al. bjp — / / —rajadurai— milena bartlová journal of art historiography number june continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history milena bartlová although the history of czech art historiography may seem for some a matter of merely local interest, it has considerable wider international relevance, for it represents a rather close following of the vienna school. as such, its workings can shed light on the character of the viennese tradition itself. admittedly, many studies of the topic written by czech scholars are not exactly self-reflexive. indeed, there is an indigenous discourse that offers little more than a legitimizing genealogy of leading czech art historians in a direct teacher-to-pupil line of succession starting with max dvořák. the czech scene rests assured that this genealogy comfortingly solves the topic of methodological continuity and discontinuity, but recently a new interest has been initiated from abroad. on the invitation of matthew rampley i spoke at a conference in london ( ) which was devoted to art historiography that stemmed from vienna but was written in languages other than german. my paper originally questioned the relationship between the czech art historical tradition and its viennese source this article develops the talk given there, while its sequel concerning czech marxist art historiography after the second world war was published in this journal last year. the main source of information on the history of czech participation in the vienna school of art history, accessible to an international readership, was, until recently, an article by hugo rokyta published in austria in . it reveals quite unambiguously the superior status attached to max dvořák in czech art history. rokyta describes dvořákʼs relationship with his teacher wickhoff as similar to that a critical survey of ideas is given from an involved but more detached position by the slovak author ján bakoš, ‘viedenská škola a český a slovenský dejepis umenia’ in: ján bakoš, Štyri trasy metodológie dejín umenia, bratislava: veda , - . interpretive texts concerning the czech art history and vienna school include otto m. urban,ʽthe beginnings of modern art history and art criticism in the czech landsʼ. centropa , , - ; matthew rampley, ʽart history and the politics of empire: rethinking the vienna school’, art bulletin , , - . cf. rampley . milena bartlová, ‘czech art history and marxism. journal of art historiography , . i would like to express here my sincere thanks to marta filipová and matthew rampley for their insightful comments and suggestions and for considerable improvement of my english. hugo rokyta, ʽmax dvořák und seine schule in den böhmischen ländernʼ. Österreichische zeitschrift für kunst und denkmalpflege, , , - . this was clearly the sole source for the dictionary of art historians (www.dictionaryofarthistorians.org). as a result, the website lists six only czech-speaking art historians as well as max dvořák (not to mention such mistakes as labelling frederick antal as czech), some of them of minor stature. six others are included from pre-war czechoslovakia who were german speakers. in , a brief survey of czech and slovak art historiographies was published in english with further references: milena bartlová, ‘art history in the czech and slovak republics: institutional frameworks, topics and loyalties’ in: matthew rampley et al. eds., art history and visual studies in europe, leiden: brill , - . http://www.dictionaryofarthistorians.org/ milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history of a relationship between father and son. the family paradigm continued at a metaphorical level in the rhetoric used to describe the relationship between dvořák and his assistant of one year, antonín matějček ( - ), again in terms of father and son. matějček was one of the most influential czech art historians between the wars and until his death in ; he became professor of art history at prague university in and served as the dean of the philosophical faculty of charles university during the controversial second czechoslovak republic (which covered the period between the munich agreement in autumn and the occupation of the rest of the country by the nazis in spring ). after the communist takeover in , matějček joined the communist party and in addition to teaching he worked on the legislation that would adapt the artistic and cultural life of the country to the new stalinist rules. only his premature death saved him from more open engagement with the totalitarian practices of the new political regime. metaphors aside, matějčekʼs daughter married the art historian jaroslav pešina ( - ), who became a literal heir not only to the scholarly projects of his father- in-law but also to his prominent position with both the art historical institute at prague university and at the newly founded academy of sciences in prague. this ‘genealogical’ continuation of the vienna school in the art historical system of the new czechoslovak republic (or, to be more precise, in the dominant czech part of it, as in slovakia an art historical system and tradition only developed after ) seems to be completely natural in retrospect. generally speaking, the ties between czech culture and the capital in vienna before the dissolution of the habsburg monarchy in were deep, strong and decisive. in spite of the period rhetoric to the contrary, the dominance of what in political economy is called path dependency, can be clearly recognized after the creation of the czechoslovak republic: the structures of political, social and intellectual life tended to continue rather than to be severed. among the personae of the vienna school it was not only max dvořák who was born in what was to become czechoslovakia; one can also mention rudolf eitelberger (born in olomouc, moravia), moriz thausing (born in Čížkovice in bohemia), karl maria swoboda (prague-born) and hans tietze (also originally from prague), alongside such other better known examples as sigmund freud, edmund husserl or josef a. schumpeter. dvořák differed from these men in respect to his acknowledged national identity; in spite of his decision to stay in vienna and his use of german as the language of his publications, he considered himself to be czech and maintained close personal ties to leading czech historians, above all josef Šusta, who formed the founding generation of the intellectual élite of the new state after . for art history students from bohemia and moravia, jaroslav pešina, ‘antonín matějček – život a dílo’ in: jan royt ed., antonín matějček - , praha: karolinum , - ; jan royt, ‘doslov’ in: antonín matějček, cesty umění, praha: odeon , - . vít vlnas, ‘od Šestky k trojkám’ in: roman prahl – tomáš winter eds., proměny dějin umění, praha: eminent , - . more on this topic in bartlová . dvořák’s national self-identification can be inferred from his letters. see max dvořák, listy o životě a umění (letters on life and art) ed. jaromír pečírka, prague: jan laichter . see also jaromír pečírka, ‘max dvořák. Životopis’ (max dvořák. biography). in: max dvořák, umění jako projev ducha (art history as the history of spirit), prague: jan laichter , - . on dvořák see further rudolf chadraba, ‘max dvořák a vídeňská škola dějin umění’ in: rudolf chadraba et al. eds, kapitoly z českého milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history therefore, vienna was the obvious first choice of large international metropolis’ before as well as after. on the other hand, it was not necessary to go there in order to study art history at all, because the university in prague had its own art historical institutes. the plural denotes the existence, after the language split of the charles university in into two chairs, the czech and the german. the art history department in prague was founded in and was among the first of seven german speaking academic institutions in the field. neither the czech nor the german institute was, however, capable of gaining more than a provincial significance. the art historical agenda at both institutes was strongly informed by the long-standing controversy aimed at recognizing either the czech (slavic) or the german national identity of artists and artworks of the past. when karel chytil ( - ) received the extraordinary professorship as the czech art history chair in – he became ordinarius in , a position he was awarded in preference to max dvořák – the meaning from the point of view of national cultural politics was clear: the prestigious position must be held by a devoted czech patriot who had spent his life working in the local framework and according to its linguistic rules of conduct. chytilʼs first study was published in german in , but all others were only in czech; dvořák, on the contrary, published mostly in german with only a few exceptional publications in czech . around and in the following decades, his engagement with the institute for austrian historical research (institut für Österreichische geschichtsforschung), which was strongly identified with the political structures of the monarchy, was a decisive issue that ruled out the idea of offering a possible appointment to dvořák in prague. dvořák’s reluctance to engage with the czech art historical world might have been due to his loyalty to the empire or to his preference for metropolitan vienna as opposed to provincial prague, but it was construed by his czech friends and followers as a disaffection with the conservative dějepisu umění (chapters in czech historiography of art), vol. , prague: odeon, , - ; mitchell schwarzer, ‘cosmopolitan difference in max dvořák’s art historiography’. the art bulletin , , - ; matthew rampley, ʽmax dvořák: art history and the crisis of modernityʼ, art history , , - ; ján bakoš, ‘max dvořák – a neglected re-visionist’ in: michael v. schwarz – maria theisen eds., wiener schule. erinnerung und perspektiven = wiener jahrbuch für kunstgeschichte, , , - ; nicholas sawicky, ‘modernist paradigms after the war: the case of max dvořák’ in: vojtěch lahoda ed., local strategies, international ambitions. modern art in central europe - , prague: artefactum , - ; jiří kroupa, ‘max dvořák dnes. od duchovních věd ke vědám kulturním’, opuscula historiae artium , . - . werner höflechner, ‘zur etablierung der kunstgeschichte an der universitäten in wien, prag und innsbruck. samt einem ausblick auf ihre geschichte bis .’ in: werner höflechner – götz pöchat eds., jahre kunstgeschichte an der universität graz, graz: karl-franzens universität , - ; milena bartlová, naše, národní umění, brno: barrister & principal , - . heinrich dilly, kunstgeschichte als institution. studien zur geschichte einer disziplin. frankfurt am main: suhrkamp . josef krása, ‘karel chytil’ in: chadraba , - ; pavla krchňavá, karel chytil – život a dílo (unpublished ma thesis, faculty of education, charlesʼ university in prague, ). these include his early contributions from - and his share on the book written jointly with bohuslav matějka, soupis památek historických a uměleckých v politickém okresu roudnickém, ii. zámek roudnický (index of artistic and historical monuments in the roudnice county. part ii: castle of roudnice), prague . milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history resistance in the local milieu of prague when faced with the modern scientific intellectual horizons being opened up in vienna. during the twenty years of the czechoslovak first republic, the battle-cry of popular politics was ‘away from vienna, away from rome!’ chytil gave a programmatic public speech early in and he called for the anticipated future for czech art history: to break free from both german and viennese influences and to devote itself more intensively to the study of the czechoslovak art historical heritage. the focus on the transnational concept of ‘ars una’, art as a single, global, phenomenon with a unified history, which was characteristic of the vienna school, was far removed from the general atmosphere in czech society. from this point of view, it was not at all self-evident that former vienna school students should establish themselves in all the art historical institutions of the new state, founded as one of the successors to austro-hungarian habsburg monarchy in . their success in the s was due to their concentrated efforts to achieve this desired aim. the finishing line was reached in , when dvořákʼs last assistant, karl maria swoboda ( - ), was appointed professor at the german art historical institute in prague. the german university officials were afraid that the ministry of education and national enlightenment might obstruct the final appointment, because such retarding strategies were common in czechoslovakia in the s and s, as the government was often openly inimical to its large german minority. to their utter surprise, the vienna dozent swoboda was named immediately. the reason behind this was the fact that the divisional head at the ministry was the art historian zdeněk wirth ( - ), the single most powerful man in czech art politics of the first republic, who immediately hailed the moment as a final triumph for the viennese circle. although wirth had personally not studied in vienna but rather in prague, he was convinced of the superiority of viennese approaches to art history and formed a life-long friendship with its most prominent czech representatives. art historical research and teaching in german in the country was completely suppressed after the wholesale expulsion of the german-speaking inhabitants of czechoslovakia in the aftermath of wwii and czech art history was retrospectively construed as a purely czech-language national enterprise. for many subsequent decades, the czech art historical establishment was a sort of intellectual family. the resemblance of its inner workings to familial psychology is rather embarrassing, complete with emotional quarrels among chytil’s and dvořák’s lines karel chytil, ʽo příštích úkolech dějin a historiků umění ve státě Čslʼ, naše doba , , - . ján bakoš, ‘from universalism to nationalism. transformations of vienna school ideas in central europe’ in: adam labuda et al. eds., die kunsthistoriographien in ostmitteleuropa und der nationale diskurs, berlin: gebrüder mann verlag , - ; ján bakoš, vienna school disciples and ‘the new tasks’ of art history, ars , , - ; ján bakoš, ‘paths and strategies in the historiography of art in central europe’, ars , , - . bartlová , . wirth is considered a controversial personality and historical evaluation of his activities remains selective and scarce. cf. jiří roháček – kristina uhlíková eds., zdeněk wirth pohledem dnešní doby, prague: artefactum . milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history of descent down to the late s. indeed, one could argue that until recently, czech-language commentaries on the history of czech art history seemed to be more intent on glossing over the hidden fissures and unpleasant facts than with critically analyzing it, in order to present, as it were, a pleasing family picture. among the founding generation of czechoslovak art historians oriented towards the vienna school there were two intellectually dominant and important personalities: vojtěch birnbaum ( - ) and vincenc kramář ( - ). although they studied in vienna they were not dvořákʼs students because both were only three years younger than him; instead they defended their dissertations in and with franz wickhoff and alois riegl respectively. birnbaum was the more influential of the two, because although he was materially able to afford the sheltered life of private scholar, he was persuaded to take up the second chair – beside that of chytil – which was created for him with the help of wirth at the czech speaking prague university in . prior to his early death in , he educated an extensive group of students who ensured the firm establishment of the viennese art historical tradition between s and s. birnbaum introduced riegl and dvořákʼs ideas on monument protection into the newly created system of state monument (heritage) protection and he also participated in the attempt to write the first concise history of czech art, which did not, however, have enough momentum to continue beyond the end of the middle ages. he was most influential, however, through the methodological system he passed on to his students and which remains until this day as a basis for the majority of czech art historians. the main art historical objective and research tool is the construction of a narrative of artistic development, construed according to laws which birnbaum believed to be accessible with the help of a scientifically rigorous method and are thus objective and true. birnbaum elaborated on riegl and dvořák’s concept of the genetic continuity of art historical development to formulate his own ‘law of transgression’ (the term does not refer to morally transgressive practices but to a shift of a vital artistic energy), which combined the vital idea of stylistic development and the concept of the national character of artistic production. such a synthesis was a necessary prerequisite for vienna school methodology to gain acceptance in the czech context, in which a central focus consisted of intellectual elaborations on the conflict between slavs and germans. birnbaumʼs ‘law’ supposes that artistic styles follow each other in a spiral of quasi- organic growth and that each has the tendency to fulfil all of its inherent the czech-german conflict is described from a psychoanalytical viewpoint by jindřich vybíral, ʽwhat is ‘czech’ in art in bohemia? alfred woltmann and defensive mechanisms of czech artistic historiographyʼ, kunstchronik, , , - . julius schlosser, die wiener schule der kunstgeschichte. mitteilungen des Österreichischen institus für geschichtsforschung, erganzungs-band , innsbruck , - list of dissertations. ivo hlobil, ‘vojtěch birnbaum – život a dílo v dobových souvislostech’ in: vojtěch birnbaum, vývojové zákonitosti v umění, prague: odeon , - ; jiřina hořejší, ‘vojtěch birnbaum’ in: chadraba , - . the leading figures were františek matouš, vladimír denkstein, jan květ, emanuel poche, růžena vacková, hana volavková, vojtěch volavka, václav richter. zdenìk wirth ed., dìjepis výtvarného umìní v Èechách, vol. , prague: Èeskoslovenská vlastivìda . bartlová ; bakoš . milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history possibilities. the vital energy is taken up by the nation, whose inherent capabilities and virtues are closest to the intrinsic character of the period in stylistic development. according to this notion, it was the sensuality typical of the czechs (and the slavs in general) that ensured that the nation’s single most important contribution to european artistic development should be the dynamic architecture of the baroque. according to birnbaum, this was proof of the high artistic achievements of the slavic czechs, as the baroque was the most mature phase in the development of classically inspired art of the renaissance and, as such, it was the most valuable phase in the lifespan of any style. vincenc kramář differed from birnbaum profoundly in many respects, but kramář felt, too, that he must serve the new nation state in spite of his personal inclination to the life of an independent private scholar, an option that was possible for him, like birnbaum, thanks to the financial independence he enjoyed as the member of a wealthy bourgeois family. kramář became director of the main art historical museum in the country, the picture gallery, which belonged to the private society of patriotic friends of arts (gesellschaft patriotischer kunstfreunde), founded in . he managed to bring together the collection of the picture gallery with that of another private corporation, the modern gallery. the life-long efforts of kramář were dedicated to bringing these collections under state ownership and patronage. the aim was successful only after his forced retirement during the second world war, when the state of czechoslovakia fell apart and the protectorate of bohemia and moravia was incorporated into the third reich. kramář provided the museum with firm foundations thanks to his deep and informed interest in the restoration and conservation of artworks – a field which stood in contrast to the position of vienna school art historians who, for all their theoretical pronouncements, were not inclined to attribute much importance to the concrete material state of their research objects. kramář was a kind of self-proclaimed outsider to the academic art historical establishment, a position he acquired not only because he had ‘difficult personality features’ but also because he was a superior, quite original thinker, a quality often not much appreciated in self-contained intellectual communities. although he wrote extensively, most of his texts have remained unpublished, due, perhaps, to his excessively self critical attitude. vojtěch birnbaum, ‘doplněk k vývojovým zákonům?’ in: birnbaum , - ; vojtěch birnbaum, ‘metoda dějin umění’, ibidem, - . – cf. review of the birnbaum collection by jaromír homolka – karel srp – milan sláma, umění , , - josef krása, ‘vincenc kramář’ in: chadraba , - ; karel srp, ‘situace českého dějepisu umění ve dvacátých letech’ ibidem, - ; josef krása, ‘dílo vincence kramáře v českých dějinách umění’ in: vincenc kramář, o obrazech a galeriích. prague: odeon , - ; vojtěch lahoda – olga uhrová eds., vincenc kramář: od starých mistrů k picassovi, exhibition catalogue národní galerie v praze . vít vlnas ed., obrazárna v Čechách - (the picture gallery in bohemia, - ). exhibition catalogue, národní galerie v praze ; vít vlnas, ‘vincenc kramář jako ředitel veřejné galerie’ in: lahoda – uhrová , - . zuzana bauerová, konzervovanie – reštaurovanie umeleckých diel v Československu - . phd thesis defended at masaryk university brno in , accessible online http://is.muni.cz/th/ /ff_d/konzervovanie_restaurovanie_v_ceskoslovensku_ _ .pdf vlnas . http://is.muni.cz/th/ /ff_d/konzervovanie_restaurovanie_v_ceskoslovensku_ _ .pdf milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history kramář differed from birnbaum in maintaining a reserved distance toward the idea of art historical evolutionary constructions. he belonged to the first generation of vienna school followers who studied modern art systematically with the help of the conceptual apparatus developed to understand pre-modern periods. his conviction that the art historian naturally appreciates affinities between historic and contemporary art contrasted with the prevailing belief that an artwork is a historical phenomenon closed on itself. kramář is best known today for the fact that while in paris before the first world war, he recognized the qualities of the early picasso and of cubism. he published an important study on cubism in and was a notable collector of cubist works. his private collection nowadays forms the core of the modern exhibition at the national gallery in prague. a firm believer in the state ownership of museums and artworks, kramář gave his own cubist pictures and sculptures to the state before his death in . he joined the communist party in and in the early s participated in the discussions concerning both communist and marxist approaches to art and art theory. in order to conclude this survey of the dialectics of continuity and discontinuity in czech art history after , it is worth briefly commenting on the developments in art history in moravia. the university in brno was not founded until after the new czechoslovak republic had been established, with a chair in art history being installed there in . with the single exception of eugen dostál ( - ), who had studied with max dvořák, the art historians in brno were prominent representatives of the second generation of czech vienna school followers, i.e. they had no direct experience of having studied in vienna. the medievalist albert kutal ( - ) is considered as an informal pupil of kramář, while václav richter ( - ) was the only one of his generation to have engaged in theoretical questions concerning art history. although he studied with matějček in prague, richter’s critical review of his teacher’s monumental book on world art history may have been the most extensive and self-conscious theoretical text in czech before the war, and in the s he developed his own theory of art that drew heavily on the work of martin heidegger. it may be useful to complete this picture of connections between czech art history and vienna with a comment on the ‘dark side’ of the vienna school humanist project, namely, its archetypal enemy at the first institute, josef strzygowski. if it were not for the enmity between the two art history institutes in karel srp, ‘umění na jiném základě’ in: lahoda – uhrová , - . vincenc kramář, kubismus. brno: moravsko-slezská revue, . kramář’s text has since been translated into french and german as le cubisme , paris, ecole nationale supérieure des beaux arts, and as ‘der kubismus,’ trans. kristina kallert, in heinke fabritius and ludger hagedorn, eds, frühling in prag oder wege des kubismus, munich, deutsche verlags-anstalt, , - . for more detail, see bartlová . jiří kroupa – lubomír slavíček eds., almanach sedmdesát let semináře dějin umění masarykovy univerzity v brně – , brno: masarykova univerzita . václav richter, ʽreview of antonín matějček: dějepis uměníʼ, Český časopis historický , , - . most of richter’s output is unfortunately not accessible in international languages; cf. václav richter, umění a svět (art and the world), prague: academia . eva frodl-kraft, ʽeine aporie und der versuch ihrer deutung: josef strzygowski – julius v. schlosserʼ. wiener jahrbuch für kunstgeschichte , , - ; ernő marosi, ‘josef strzygowski als milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history vienna, strzygowski would have been, in fact, a much more likely candidate as the dominant influence in czech art history, even though he had no czech students of his own. the czechoslovak state was conceived of in as a national state of the slavic ‘czechoslovak nation’ and its extended shape on the map suggested the common metaphor of a bridge between the east and the west. attention to the art historical heritage of the orthodox east fitted well into this concept and it conformed to the long-standing and popular tradition of patriotic ‘love for the slavs’. czechs admittedly lacked interest in strzygowskiʼs project of including non-european art into the program of art historical research, because the landlocked country had never had any overseas imperial contacts. nevertheless his championing of the intrinsic value of the artistic traditions of the ‘barbarians’ outside of the mediterranean area was potentially inspiring. the leading historian of architecture václav mencl ( - ) was receptive to the evaluation of wooden folk architecture and he collaborated with florián zapletal ( - ), a rather obscure defender of strzygowskiʼs ideas who was based in olomouc. mencl spent the early part of his career in the s at the university in bratislava and following his forced retirement during the second world war he wrote a theoretically ambitious book on medieval architecture, in which he developed birnbaumʼs idea of ‘czech / slavic sensuality’ as the defining formal quality of bohemian architecture in the second half of the fourteenth century, which was, brought to its highest form by peter parler. echoing the methodological approach being pioneered by the representatives of the ‘second vienna, school,’ he placed the concept of the artistic gestalt at the heart of his approach. any dialogue with hans sedlmayr that might have been present in menclʼs book was not permitted to evolve, however, in the post-war years. under the communist party- led authoritarian regime in czechoslovakia, cross-border intellectual exchange was forcibly restricted and connections severed. moreover, in the early s, mencl did not conform to the new political situation and thus he was not allowed to take up any formal academic position; as a result he remained active in the institutional care of monuments. birnbaum and matějček wrote bitter criticisms of both chytil’s and zapletal’s desire to sever intellectual ties between art history in the new national state and vienna or germany. nevertheless, in order to satisfy the political demands placed by the interwar czechoslovak state on art history, institutional solutions were found, including admission of the collaborators of the russian art historian nikolaj entwerfer von nationalen kunstgeschichten’ in: olaf peters, ruth heftrig, barbara schellewald, eds, kunstgeschichte im dritten reich. theorien, methoden, praktiken. berlin: akademie verlag , - ; georg vasold, ʽriegl, strzygowski und die entwicklung der kunstʼ, ars , , - . chytil ; vojtěch birnbaum, ʽzápad nebo východ?ʼ (west or east?). zprávy volných směrů, , - ; františek hýbl ed., florián zapletal – život a dílo (florián zapletal: life and work), přerov: muzeum komenského v přerově . vlasta dvořáková, ‘václav mencl’ in: rudolf chadraba , - ; klára benešovská, ‘václav mencl’ in: anděla horová ed., nová encyklopedie českého výtvarného umění, praha: academia , ; on zapletal see hýbl . václav mencl, Česká architektura doby lucemburské (czech architecture of the luxemburg era), prague: sfinx . later marxist-leninist writers never mentioned menclʼs work in their criticism of sedlmayr. cf. luděk novák, ʽreview of hans sedlmayr: kunst und wahrheitʼ, umění , , - . milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history pavlovič kondakov ( - ) to the specially created seminary of eastern orthodox art at the czech prague university institute in . the true patriarch of art history in russia, kondakov had been given personal refuge in prague by president masaryk after he fled the communist revolution in russia and arrived there via constantinople in , only to die a few years later. somewhat surprisingly, the first and rather strong revival of interest in strzygowski in europe took place in czech art history in the s, when a leading art historian, rudolf chadraba ( - ), explicitly drew on strzygowskiʼs work when arguing that there was massive persian and middle eastern influence on czech medieval art, which he claimed to be able to identify in the art of the era of charles iv in the fourteenth century. his construct was based on formal comparisons between, for example, parthian sculpted reliefs and theoderic´s panel paintings of saint at karlštejn castle, and its main aim was to reconfigure medieval art in bohemia as pagan in its nature and aims. chadraba interpreted rather far- flung relationships as direct influences based on the ethnic relationship of the slavic czechs with cultures in the territory now occupied by iran. chadraba´s claim that there was an intrinsic alliance between medieval slavs in bohemia and their eastern family, which chimed with the arguments of other leading medievalists, enabled czech art history to satisfy the demands of the neo-stalinist political authorities, namely, that the historical sciences should prove the deep and inevitable affinities between the czechs and the east, above all the russians. in the same decades, however, the same rudolf chadraba wrote an extensive essay on the vienna school for an authoritative publication on the history of czech art history. in this essay he argued that the sole truly scientific art historical method was the viennese tradition that culminated with the work of max dvořák, and indeed his treatment of dvořák borders on hagiography. if it is possible that in the mind of this devoted follower both dvořák and strzygowski shared equal prominence as representatives of the vienna school, might it not suggest that their ways of thinking were in some respects closer to each other than it was possible to discern in their own time? wide apart in their pronounced intentions, they nevertheless shared a propensity to use rather generalized concepts as direct explanations of key art historical questions. one might go further and suggest that the emotional anger ventured by the members of the second institute against strzygowski itself, betray that what hana j. hlaváčková ed., ze sbírek bývalého kondakovova institutu. ikony, koptské textilie (from the collections of the former kondakov institute. icons, coptic textiles), exhibition catalogue, prague: národní galerie v praze, . rudolf chadraba, profetický historismus karla iv. a přemyslovská tradice (the prophetic historicism of charles iv and the přemyslid tradition). in: václav vaněček ed., karolus quartus, prague: karolinum , - and numerous other essays on the topic. most important is the book by rudolf chadraba, staroměstská mostecká věž a triumfální symbolika v umění karla iv. (the old town bridge tower in prague and the triumphalist symbolism in the art of charles iv), prague: academia . the core of the argument here is backed by citations from strzygowski. milena bartlová, ‘ʽslavonic featuresʼ of bohemian medieval painting from the point of view of racist and marxist-leninist theories’ in: adam labuda et al. eds., die kunsthistoriographien in ostmitteleuropa und der nationale diskurs, berlin: gebrüder mann verlag , - . chadraba . milena bartlová continuity and discontinuity in the czech legacy of the vienna school of art history happened in the confrontation was a repression of the shadow which mirrored what the subject did not want to realize in itself. the relationship between czech art history and the vienna school took another rather surprising turn around . jaromír neumann, a prominent marxist-leninist art historian and pupil of antonín matějček, mined the late texts by max dvořák and created a specific synthesis of the latter’s notion of art history as geistesgeschichte with panofsky’s ‘second iconology’, and introduced the result as a tool for a marxist historical dialectic approach to history. czech art history thus claimed to achieve a formalist, direct and objective approach to the ideological superstructure of past times without any recourse to the social history of art. such paradoxical ‘marxism without classes’ proved extremely effective and successful during the neo-stalinist period of the - s when its predominance assured czech art historians a relatively sheltered position towards political demands. the reputation of a field that protected eternal spiritual values from ideological attack has continued to work well after the demise of the communist regime. young students who enter art historical departments at the three major universities in prague, brno and olomouc are offered the proud self-proclamations of the respective institutes that they can join a long and respectable line of descent in art historical scholarship. from this longer perspective it can be concluded that czech art history was and remains an especially enduring branch of the viennese art historical tradition. milena bartlová teaches at the academy of arts, architecture and design in prague after thirteen years at the department of art history at masaryk university in brno. professor since , she is until now the only female art history professor in her country. she writes about medieval art history in central europe, about art theory and she is one of the very few czech art historians to also do research into art history´s history. her book our own, national art (naše, národní umění, brno ) analyzed the construction of national identity through medieval art history and the history of german-czech relationship in the field. this year she published a book on the performative theory of medieval images skutečná přítomnost: středověký obraz mezi ikonou a virtuální realitou (real presence: medieval image between icon and virtual reality) which she started to write as a fellow at the institute of advanced study in berlin ( ). bartlova.m@seznam.cz the topic of the post-war developments in the tradition of czech art history is elaborated in detail, with arguments and bibliography in bartlová, ‘czech art history and marxism,’ journal of art historiography, , . possible contact or even collaboration of jaromír neumann with jan białostocki is not clear at the moment and the topic is in need of further international research effort. aesthetic investigations conceptual painting. an artist’s investigation. . . author katrina blannin affiliation sara lane studios, london abstract: on conceptual art, from a painter’s perspective. part in her essay, ‘conceptual art’, from roberta smith quotes ‘conceptual- ist’ mel bochner from the s: a doctrinaire conceptualist viewpoint would say that the two rel- evant features of the ‘ideal conceptual work’ would be that it have an exact linguistic correlative, that is, it could be described and experienced in its description, and that it be infinitely repeatable. it must have absolutely no ‘aura’, no ‘uniqueness’ to it whatso- ever. the comment that smith makes next is perhaps more puzzling: ‘ulti- mately, few conceptual works achieved this ideal state, but some came close, and in doing so achieved an unsettling blend of aesthetic purity and political idealism.’ what is meant by aesthetic purity is unclear but it triggers the idea that ‘form’, even in the most ruthlessly text-based or verbal/proposal- based artworks, was still an unavoidable, even desirable, attribute of any of these artworks; the aesthetic arena of which had just broadened out a bit. c© aesthetic investigations vol , no ( ), - conceptual painting. figure : katrina blannin, four by four, . collograph polyptych: handmade ink on paper x cm. copyright artist. political idealism, or any kind of political didacticism, also seem to be the wrong generic qualities to assume of these artworks. some may have pre- sented a central thrusting polemic but critiquing; poking fun at society and its politics, dada in its truest sense, might be a closer description. you could argue that all artistic practice (including painting) is a kind of polemical social enterprise and, whether it is the intention or not, artworks, and often the artists themselves, are a part of society’s dialogue: its narratives and mirror images. you could also say that all artworks have distinctly formal attributes; that it is impossible to avoid form-based or compositional choices and outcomes of design. text-based or text-framed art can directly spell out the dialectical, or perhaps more specifically socio-political, premise of a work. or, frustratingly for many viewers, form may be the only or primary intended subject for discourse—frustrating because language and the lexicon employed for such a discourse on the ‘visual’ has never been truly developed. but whether dialogue takes place inside the studio or outside it, whether they are easy to read or not, the inescapable originality, or form of artworks has been generated from in<formed choices and concepts: what we read, who we talk to—who we are. we are all part of the human context—no artist is alone. katrina blannin the human abstract was the title for an exhibition of painting organised by artist and curator katie pratt who wrote that: ‘abstractionists employ various tacks to transpose creative impulse and thought into imagery with leg- ibility and coherence: chance, deconstructed observation, repetition, systems and intuition are all frequent strategies.’ one may ask about the origins of these ‘creative impulses’ and the nature of this ‘thought’, and about the idea that abstract art can be of anything tangible that mirrors both the ‘simple structures’ and the complex mechanisms ‘of modern life’; intuitively re-stated or re-presented in non-representational form. depending on where you are coming from, however, the notion of abstract art is that it is cold-blooded and unnatural unless it is obviously rooted in or derived from a figurative image of the imagined or real world about us. but whether artworks are non-representational, representational or something in between, the question is about the process of abstracting. the photographer abstracts; as soon as something is rendered two-dimensional; the painter grasps some thing in exis- tence and recreates an alternative view—new form. so, if human abstraction generates form then is all form conceptual? what is conceptualism? if some sort of starting point, or seed, is a pre- requisite for the development of a new idea (we have to start somewhere) then does that starting point need to begin at a moment in time when a particular configuration of mental attributes, information, notions, concerns and desires, occurs and thereby creates a new condition for the production of art? is this happenstance or are we in control? medieval philosophical thinkers formed the radical view that universals (relations, properties) ex- ist only in the mind: meaning is constructed internally through subjective thought processes and not from any kind of universal determinism of objects that exist outside it. this kind of inward looking conceptualism, where ideas are formed individualistically and subjectively presents a rather narrow view of where the development of ideas takes place. in the world of avant-garde art, and in the artists’ studios, their cameras or their desk/s (-top computers): the kitchens of creation where ideas are cooked up into new dishes, often the idea of the self-reliant ‘genius’ chef persists—there is no desire for decisions made by committee. despite the specified avoidance of form or a ‘traditional’ aesthetic, and conceptual art was not supposed to be discussed in this way, looking back now we can see that form is nevertheless innate. furthermore, it would seem that many surviving low tech objects: texts (often generated by typewriter), found images, multiples, variables, repetitions, photographic documentation and films have now taken on an historically situated fetishistic aged or charming dated quality, which it most certainly did not have the original intention to acquire. conceptual art is not about forms or materials, but about ideas and meanings. it cannot be defined in terms of any medium or conceptual painting. figure : peter lowe, permutations of rows, . black and white perspex on wood x cm, courtesy of waterhouse dodd, london. style but rather by the way it questions what art is. in particular, conceptual art challenges the traditional status of the art object as unique, collectable or saleable. because the work does not take a traditional form it demands a more active response from the viewer, indeed it could be argued that the conceptual work of art only truly exists in the viewer’s mental participation. leafing through tony godfrey’s conceptual art from where this introduc- tion comes one notes that far from being dry or dull much of the work was visually arresting and comedically driven: either set up like a wittgensteinian ‘game’ or riddle, or realised as a kind of theatrical performance. and therein, surely, lies an aesthetic that it could call its own—perhaps we could call it ‘sensation’: a configuration of either linguistic or image based witticisms (di- atribes, instructions, proposals, installations) that were designed to tweak at the intellect but also to engage us in their structures and materialities. today we would argue strongly against the idea that these kinds of art- works demand more attention than, say, a constructivist sculpture, or an abstract expressionist painting, but what is more alarming, is that these art- katrina blannin works were not considered to have form: and that the aesthetic purity or its literalism is assumed to be ‘anti’ art. conversely, now we would argue that painting itself can be non-traditional, non-unique, demands the interaction of the viewer and can question the status of the art object—the expanded field is expanding. part constructivism is something else and has a different history. if you become interested in the idea of construction, as an artist, then you might encounter a contradiction to the notion that all art is abstraction: a kind of trans- formation or transposition. in the methods of constructivism form becomes the beginning, middle and the end: both the verb, the noun, and its own sentence. all artworks are produced, but the real question when considering constructivism is more specifically about construction: how and with what are they constructed? so, if an artwork is a construction then what are the building blocks and how will it be put together? and if so how to start? what do we need? if the starting point is to construct in non-mimetic form then, conceptually speaking, this is known as concrete and is the opposite of abstraction. this would be the process of working with form—not with a language/word or image based transformation (abstraction) of concepts or ideas, and what is known as conceptual art. in an interview, peter lowe, one of the participants of the systems group founded in , was asked: ‘the systems group has been described as being involved in the promotion or practice of “syntactic art”. how would you describe the concept of artistic syntax?’ he answers: jeffrey steele proposed the word ‘syntactic’ as an alternative to, or subtext to ‘systems’. i argued that the word ‘systems’ was prefer- able to ‘syntactic’ since it was the more common usage. we could have translated the term ‘art concret’ but decided not to because, although ‘concrete’ is the antonym to ‘abstract’, it also has the misleading connotation in english of a mix of stones, sand and cement. syntactic tendencies are found in most cultures whereas western european art is preoccupied with mimesis and symbol- ism. i directed my work towards system and syntax because of my dissatisfaction with abstraction, mimesis and symbolism. if the word ‘syntax’ means the arrangement of things in order to generate a clearer meaning through some kind of logical order, the systems artists never had the intention to obfuscate and make it difficult for people to understand and enjoy the artwork, but wanted to present something that in its declared rationality was there to be interpreted by the viewer. peter lowe: conceptual painting. there is more than one way of seeing syntactic works and this ambiguity adds to their richness. some people say that to un- derstand something ruins their enjoyment. sometimes ignorance is bliss but understanding heightens perceptions. viewers are en- couraged to look at syntactic art without interpreting it in literary or figurative terms. it is not always appropriate to look at things as metaphor. so, going back to the idea of construction can we use the analogy of the constructivist artist as builder (or the word ‘constructionist’ which some artists preferred)—a builder with the intention of creating something concrete— perhaps something new in the sense that it has never been seen before—not an abstraction? so, then this builder needs to have some building blocks with which to build. peter lowe describes his as ‘units’—‘how can you ‘con- struct’ something if you haven’t got the blocks with which to do it?’ he once exclaimed. when or where to start and stop ordinarily besets creative enter- prise. the martins used permutations which contain a beginning and an end. i invented an alternative conclusive method using identical units. four units combined, layer upon layer, form a cube. this allows me to convey direction, growth and scale. is one aim of systems art to eliminate all evidence of the personality of the artist? peter lowe again: not only the constructivists but also some of the dadaists and surrealists shared this aim when they experimented with chance. syntactic art does not glorify idiosyncrasies of craftsmanship like the brush mark. bravura performances of technical skill or lack of it are not essential. but, for better or worse, the personality of the artist will emerge whatever systems or structures are in place. part did cézanne become, in the later paintings of his career, an abstract painter or a constructivist painter? when lawrence gowing discusses cézanne’s ‘patches’ of paint in his essay ‘cézanne: the logic of organized sensations’ he uses terms like systematisation, composition, arrangement, fragmentation, and importantly disintegration, which he suggests was the first phase towards the most significant development: modulation. ‘the move toward a disinte- gration of the object in some of the most memorable works of a painter so attached to objects is the attraction and the riddle of cézanne’s last phase.’ in , earlier in cézanne’s career, he had used a palette knife, for a time, to shape his patches of paint: patches of paint with straight edges. but although this had been done before, as gowing says: katrina blannin figure : jeffrey steele, square in cinematic rotation through degrees, . gouache on paper cm x cm, collection british museum, london. he instinctively knew that if this approach was to be used at all it should be done consistently throughout the picture—and that the handling was the picture.’ the consistency of facture that cézanne achieved makes a new kind of intrinsic material unity, which links the picture not only with the material significance of the objects, but with the common consistency of the material world. a few years later, patches applied with a knife, together with new ideas about colour differentiation, appeared in the painting l’etang des soeurs in and were, as gowing suggests, crucial to the development of his method. gowing’s essay sets out in detail the development of a modular approach and how cézanne began to organise colour systematically in sequences. for him colour modulation was the sense of the painting. . . cézanne himself [later] referred to the colour patches that he was using in as abstractions, and he felt them to be in need of expla- nation. but he made it clear that they possessed a systematic figurative function, a function which though not descriptive was expository—the history of these expository systems of colour ap- peared in the later watercolours and now ultimately permeated cézanne’s whole art. conceptual painting. gowing’s analysis of cézanne’s late paintings reveals how his thinking as a painter translated itself into the construction of the paintings, and pro- poses that ‘he was well aware that his mutations of colour originated as much in theory as in observation.’ in perfect synchronicity, the theory originated in ideas about form: ‘modulation implies a transition through perceptible stages. smooth monochromatic modelling always seemed to cézanne a falsi- fication.’ part extracts from an interview with jeffrey steele, a founder of the systems group : kb: can you clarify the importance for ‘systems’ art of staying with painting—as opposed to say relief, sculpture or architecture inspired instal- lation pieces, which became an important new vocabulary for the construc- tionists? why is it important to develop or advance the historically charged process of ‘paint on canvas’? js: i hadn’t worked this out theoretically during the s and although it seemed sometimes as if i had been producing constructivist art then in fact i spent the whole time experimenting with how to be a painter: talking about it and exchanging ideas with whoever would participate and avidly looking at everything. it was a ‘given’ that painting was the thing and i have always wanted to try to justify the supreme importance of painting. as [charles] biederman said: art is the evolution of visual knowledge and visual knowledge is knowledge. and then knowledge or cognition affects our actions and this in turn is political. it is the fundamental question in its widest sense. i am interested in what happens to people’s psychology and the collective ideation or ideology borne out of encounters with painting and imagery in all its visual manifestations: comic strips, mass media, advertising, different sections of fine art: in fact, the whole notion of ‘bildlichkeit’ as set out by feuerbach, who influenced marx and engels when they wrote the german ideology in . it was feuerbach who recognised the crucial effects of christian images on society. painted images of the madonna and child were for instance key to the forming of german romanticism and this impact could not have been created by anything except through the art of painting— and it’s inescapable—to this day! to turn one’s back on painting and all its political effects throughout history would be foolish. rather than taking a stand against painting, as anthony hill and the martins were said to have done at the time, i became interested in tachisme and painters like michaux and hartung. in when i was living in paris i saw a group exhibition with the wonderful title ‘antagonismes’ which in- cluded vasarely’s s paintings and they influenced me greatly. although i am not a complete vasarely apologist, (earlier and later works were infe- rior: rather tinselly and cheap), here i could see everything: the geometric, katrina blannin the mathematical, the cartesian and a bid for rationality. here was every- thing combined from the history of painting: poussin, uccello, chardin and watteau and crucially the pictorial architecture of cézanne. here you could see the birth of cubism in cézanne’s last paintings. here was tatlin and malevitch. here was a realist facing all the problems of picture making and dealing with the clash of mimetic and constructed imagery. kb: i have seen your works in the setting of a gallery and they are so much more pleasing to the eye than reproductions with regard to materiality and sensation. can you say something about the aesthetic values that we might bring to systems painting? js: this is a very fine question because i can’t answer it readily at all. it is a central problem but i don’t really know the answer. take my newest painting for example, which is a set of square paintings, each cm x cm, the culmination of many years of research. we were just talking about the white, which is actually the priming of the canvas and then there are colours. in a sense they are like a set of drawings and the whole piece could be seen as a prototype for a work which could go on to be realised again in different materials—i don’t know, i don’t have an engineer’s outlook. it is like a mine of visual structural information and is, i think, perfect. yes, there is perfection here in the offing, waiting in the wings. this perfection of course raises problems and to clarify i just mean that nothing can be added or taken away without damaging the whole. now, why should the prototype be superior to the eventual product in the case of a painting, when this is obviously not the case with an aeroplane or other utilitarian objects? the question begins to answer itself doesn’t it? the artists who i was influenced by or working alongside in the early s, such as getulio alvani, were interested in having their works made for them in a factory. they were against the idea of the artist’s touch. they believed that the artist was the manager in a way: a bauhaus idea of course. however, in this process you lose the evidence of the ‘journey’. and for me the ‘journey’ is worth knowing and the traces of that ‘journey’ are important to see. kitt.pet@googlemail.com notes . smith . . idem. . notes by katie pratt. see urls. . godfrey , . . steele on ‘concrete’ (from an interview): js: well, if you have something that is completely abstract: a mathematical structure like for example a euclidian tri- angle, in order to make it concrete you need to invent a syntax. ah, and this is where it gets genuinely problematic. cézanne, in one of his letters to emile bernard (aix, may ), uses the word ‘concrete’ probably for the first time in re- lation to painting. the phrase he used was ‘[. . . ] le peintre concrète [. . . ]’. note the final ‘e’. he was using it as a verb—not as in ‘concretises’ as in the english mean- mailto:kitt.pet@googlemail.com conceptual painting. ing to concretise from the abstract—turn the abstract triangle into a drawing - but something else—it’s a different meaning. he didn’t mean ‘to concretise’ it but to ‘make’ the triangle or ‘concrete’ the trian- gle. . peter lowe interviewed by alan fowler, may . see urls. . idem. . idem. . idem. . gowing . . idem. . idem. . blannin . references blannin, katrina. . “jeffrey steele in conversation with katrina blan- nin.” turps banana magazine. godfrey, tony. . conceptual art. phaidon press ltd. gowing, lawrence. . “cézanne: the logic of organized sensations.” in conversations with cézanne ( ), edited by michael doran, – . university of california press. smith, roberta. . “conceptual art.” the new york times. urls pratt, katie: https://thehumanabstraction.wordpress.com/ peter lowe interviewed by alan fowler, may : http://www.peterllowe. plus.com/pages/page .htm https://thehumanabstraction.wordpress.com/ http://www.peterllowe.plus.com/pages/page .htm http://www.peterllowe.plus.com/pages/page .htm untitled i like cities; do you like letters? introducing urban typography in art education ricard huerta jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd this article proposes a study of the letters and graphics found in the city, while at the same time opening up unusual spaces linked to the cultural arena and visual geographies for the creation of learning spaces in art education, introducing urban typography for training teachers. the letters in urban spaces can help us reinterpret the patrimonial fabric of cities. with the help of typog- raphy, visual arts educators have a powerful graphic resource with which to articulate the complex communicative network of streets. we suggest walking as an aesthetic practice; stroll- ing around the city as a very cultural means to motivate our students. we have at our disposal in our cities a genuine museum woven together with the threads of the alphabet. abstract jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd ricard huerta why do we offer street letters as a persuasive and educational element? this is an invitation to a typographic stroll, and a bridge towards a persuasive wealth of visual contact. from an early age we are taught how to read, to write, to interpret texts. but the eficacy of letters goes beyond their mere verbal mean- ing, and we should be attentive to the repercus- sions these legible forms (street signs) end up having on the landscape of the city – very espe- cially on account of their creative and political potential (freedman ). the city presents itself to us full of messages, of elements that can turn out to be very attractive if we observe them from new, interdisciplinary, suggestive or creative standpoints. in this article we are not proposing to go deeply into pedagogical detail but open up a new rich seam which we hope will be mined by other teachers interested in the ield. following letter trails we ind trajectories that lead us to heritage, to literature, to photography and to the educational context. calligraphy and typography has powerful communicative effects in arts, as antoni tàpies, joaquín torres-garcía, robert indiana, edward ruscha, cy twombly, jenny holzer and other artists have shown. important art movements such as cubism or conceptual art have used letters as a creative support. we have the respon- sibility (as professionals in art education) to contemplate values, references, parameters and information about multiple visual artefacts. letters and writing symbols offer us new oppor- tunities in order to creative exigencies in art education. admittedly, we have to consider the necessities of our pupils when developing learn- ing strategies. certain cultural aspects belonging to everyday practices, such as typography or calligraphy (even the design of letters), should be better valued by visual arts educators – some- thing which is not currently taking place. if we considered the forms and the cultural load of letters in art classes, both from the theoretical viewpoint and in image creation workshops, we will be encouraging a new link between the tradi- tion of the arts, certain aspects of urbanism, computer graphics and especially ict. in this way we will be able to approach certain of the pupils’ interests, taking advantage of historical and patri- monial aspects as well as the more pressing issues related to technology such as computer design or the manipulation and creation of char- acters. this would also help us to improve the appreciation and observation criteria of some visual products coming from the arts, design, urbanism or the media. big city streets are illed with graphic docu- ments in which letters and symbols occupy a central place, not only as verbal texts, but also as a privileged graphical and visual register. also posters, signs and grafiti constitute a powerful typographical ensemble peculiar to the environ- ment of the city. when designers manage their ideas and creations they really place their work, which is usually born from commercial approaches, within our reach. usually, this is a mass-production model (think, for example, of the m in mcdonalds); these are the objects with which producers and creators defend their posi- tions in the form of a dialogue with the target client. in offering these products in the public space of the street, these visual devices bear a low committed to users, that is, to us citizens who people the streets (also when we go by car, bus, underground or bicycle). as careri ( ) argues in his work, posters, signs and grafiti constitute a powerful typographical ensemble peculiar to the environment of the city. one of the most fruitful settings in the urban encounter with letters is the advertising poster. whether they are permanent or temporary posters (papers stuck onto a fence or a wall), they are usually advertis- ing products and activities, and therefore gener- ate an information model that enriches changes in the urban landscape. even in cuba, a country in which commercial advertisements are not distrib- uted, we can still see them in the streets, albeit with a political and social slant. the encounter with urban signboards produces an experience that we can compare to certain perceptions activated in the user when visiting a museum. our contention starts from the premise that the museum is not solely a container of pieces – protected, mythologised, institutionalised and geographically located (this is shown and transgressed by a growing interest ricard huerta jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd in museums’ virtual versions displayed on the web). we propose that it is rather the attitude of the visitor which causes a signiicant experience, both in the museum and outside it (chang ; fontal ). if we transfer this idea of relective enjoyment to the citizen who roams the city (their own, or any other they may visit), then we lift the barriers which keep the museum isolated from certain sociological realities, and turn a public environment, such as the streets of the city, into one which serves the learning needs of every person. starting methodologically with the analy- sis carried out by colette dufresne-tassé ( , � ) of studies on museum visitors, we under- stand that our proposal would be located in section of the categories deined by the cana- dian author: studies in which the visitor is consid- ered in terms of the enjoyment and the satisfac- tion that the experience provides them. in addition to conceiving of the city as a space apt for enjoyment and learning, we propose that the walker generates their own cataloguing when walking the city (francesco careri establishes a clear connection between walking and the history of art), not only in the places where the city shows its traditional charms (monuments, historic sites, commercial areas), but mainly in the so-called non-places, spaces located on the border, dowdy places, metaphors of social abandonment (careri ). we want to encourage the city walker to generate their own visual speech from images, from photographs taken by pupils interested in their own urban environments (this creative argu- ment was defended three decades ago by donis dondis). in contrast to the traditional imposition of the museum space, where it is usually forbid- den to take photos, the urban environment is revealed as an open landscape, without aesthetic restrictions. digital devices easily allow us to turn whatever we perceive into images. while we capture a living moment or a discovered territory, we also decide the way of doing it, the composi- tion we wish for it, and certainly what we overlook or emphasize. prohibitions are part of popular iconography. expressions like ‘no ly-posting’ or ‘no entry’, are used repeatedly on the walls. as designers we jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd opposite page: figure the ‘versus bloqueo ’ campaign filled the city of havana with messages related to the interna- tional economic blockade against cuba. posters were designed with a firmly typographical approach, since they displayed only capital letters on a monochrome background. this page: figure cemeteries constitute a splendid typographic showcase. photography is forbidden in the verano cemetery in rome, something unusual in most cemeteries. ricard huerta would pay attention to the ways of laying out the graphic composition of such posters. but from other areas we can deal with different issues to do with these posters: like citizens’ rights, public and private spaces, the charm they generate, or the information that they convey. we are exposed to textual interests, because typography is present at every step that we take, every space that we use displays texts on the walls, the objects that we manipulate contain texts, and we are all guided by texts on computer, mobile phone or television screens (huerta ; ). anyone trying to develop some type of written work will have to make decisions about the aspect and the composition of letter design, even when ques- tions appear at the level of mere information, since the use of the computer keyboard acquaints us constantly with the use of typographical char- acters. in spite of a certain overuse of typography on computer screens, it is surprising that we know so little about the alphabet as a cultural form. it is unusual, in most cases, to know exactly to what extent the shapes of letters have inluenced our history, especially in the last ive centuries, with the progressive development of printing and engraving techniques, all the way to the compu- ter as the logical outcome of the process. profes- sionals in art education can take a new approach to typography as an educational discourse, since the borderline nature of the typographic letter (halfway between graphic language and verbal written language) allows us to address a number of processes from the standpoint of transversal- ity. we believe that the present moment encour- ages the recognition of typography as a deter- mining factor in our communication processes, without rejecting the ideological potential of the aesthetic aspect surrounding our involvement (duncum ). beginning with teacher training as we see it from our early-twenty-irst century standpoint, considering the changes that are taking place in the university context, it would be convenient to approach the letter as a visual element in the same way that we access contem- porary art (lachapelle ). the study of typog- raphy might offer transversal material, very much in line with the teaching of visual arts in primary and secondary education (even at university), with a special emphasis on the education of teaching staff (future oficial masters of teachers’ training). we believe that the key moment lies precisely in teacher training. let us recall that in all oficial primary school teachers’ curricula in spain before (precisely when teacher training studies entered the university) writing skills were decisively valued (even with its own subject called ‘calligraphy’). neglect increased after reform plans in , when the subject ‘new technologies applied to education’ was intro- duced. an excellent opportunity was lost due to the fact that these subjects were located in areas of knowledge to be taught by specialists in general didactics and/or mathematicians, with- out anybody noticing something which stood out: the fact that the screen is a graphical space. in fact, it is often thought that an aspect of knowl- edge is not adequately addressed in the curricu- lum if it does not have its allotted hours per week in the school schedule, or if it does not at least have one speciic subject that covers it. in this situation we need new ideas in art education. from the perspective of art education we manage the different images, uses and strategies which qualify us to transmit the graphic value of written texts. in fact, even at present, one of the main functions of teachers consists in teaching children how to read and write. if a few decades ago an art teacher could help future teachers to develop certain skills with the materials of writing (in the name of consistency with reality), a person ricard huerta jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd who is going to dedicate themselves to educa- tion would need to know a series of essential aspects related to typography, and by extension, to graphic design. taking into account the signii- cant presence of typography in the uses of ict, it would be very rewarding for teachers to know the history, the functioning and the compositional rules of this graphic aspect of texts. it is dificult to connect with students at nurs- ery, primary or secondary levels of schooling unless proper teacher training has taken place. it is convenient to introduce visual culture issues in the humanistic training of teachers. marzilli ( ) points up certain complexes haunting educators, who neither consider themselves specialists in art nor artists, and who are afraid of not being able to approach their art classes appropriately. the author suggests that their own colleagues, specialist teachers and museum educators, should encourage teachers in educational uses of artistic learning. classroom proposals can also increase conidence and draw students to art. although most education professionals like to read and expand their cultural capital in multiple ways, on very few occasions are they allowed explore the architectural and visual aspects of letters and the alphabet. this is especially serious if we consider that the alphabet and numbers are their raw materials of communication. educators are not provided with sufficient information about the visual contribution and cultural tradition of letters, calligraphies and typographies – what they do know was probably acquired by chance or out of sheer curiosity. yet this is not enough, since a relevant element in visual training is ultimately left to personal discre- tion. institutions should assume the challenge of better teacher training in a ield which iscentral to their activity: the alphabet, the letters. beyond the verbal meanings of words, letters hide a graphic and symbolic code that connects directly with our cultural heritage (huerta ). it is not enough to decipher contents: the layout of texts acquires an additional value when it can relate to other disciplines. the abc of the question we know something about letters, but we know little about them. what kind of rationale governs the alphabet? what countries have the letter ‘ñ’ on their keyboards? why was it decided that letter shapes were to be displayed on the top left- hand corner of computer keys? what happens with keyboards in countries such as russia, jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd figure typographies and calligraphies are interwoven into certain culturally significant traditions. in argentina, so- called filetes constitute a singular heritage, which in this example is applied to a buenos aires kiosk installed provisionally in a storage container. ricard huerta china, israel, india or saudi arabia, where other alphabets are used? all these questions betray a lack of knowledge about the code that helps us communicate, a visual instrument that cities display at every corner. art educators vindicate creative spirit to solve problems, a type of intui- tion analysed by paul duncum, and recently by john steers ( ). in order for this type of knowl- edge to reach the classroom, we must try and engage future teachers in this task. we suggest one possibility through studying letters as graphic and cultural signs in the urban context. it is advisable to endow educators with indis- pensable notions for their work, such as a knowl- edge of the history, social and cultural develop- ment, technical factors and also the ideological patterns that have marked the signs of writing, so we can better understand current uses of informa- tion technologies. the place where this renewed interest in typography should start is the university classroom, where future teachers receive their training, as well as professional development courses for practising teachers. we have obtained very good results when expert training in this area has been given to teachers. we found out that they feel more at ease researching about letters, as a graphic area which do not cause them discomfort. these teachers were originally trained with handwritten texts, whereas children nowa- days use computer keyboards or mobile phones even before developing writing skills with a pen or pencil on paper. in this sense, calligraphy is rapidly giving way to computer-typographical characters. future teachers (who are currently switching from analogue to digital systems) should be prepared to tackle these issues from a very permeable posi- tion in close connection with other work-related and sociological issues (mirzoeff ). kathy marzilli has studied the degree of apprehension and dissatisfaction felt by many of these teachers in art teaching. as they are not professionals specializing in art education, the need to teach art subjects causes a profound unease in them. the author shows in her study that this anxiety stems from the teachers’ alleged lack of competence in art-related matters. we are aware of the validity of arguments such as those outlined by marzilly ( ). in our teacher-training classes, we have seen that the introduction of calligraphy and typography as sources of study and appropriation makes art more accessible. when asking prospective teachers about their relationship to art, marzilli elicited the following answer: ‘i am not an artist, i can’t draw.’ we handle this initial answer by asking another ques- tion: ‘can you write?’ the answer of the students is rewarding and resounding: ‘yes, of course we can write.’ from there, we ask them to do some exercises in which drawing and writing go together. in this way, initial fears and apprehen- sions are overcome. this process needs a more generous approach in dealing with cultural aspects as essential as the graphic design of letters or signs. this has implications for the further understanding of the graphic design of letters, which affects the drawing ability of both students and teachers. given the fact that there is disagreement between the interests of students and what is conveyed by their teachers (different generations, analogue and digital systems), we may use typography as a permeable material, as a graphic vehicle for multiple contents capable of bridging the gap between pupils and teachers, in the art education scene. letters invite a relection on the city, evaluating local aspects versus global perspectives, as suggested by freedman ( ) in her review of critical aspects such as creativity or identities in art education. evaluation results through pictures for this study, we focus on the surveys conducted on a group of university students on the optional course ‘introduction to photography’. they were students, from many different disciplines, although the highest percentage ( %) was drawn from education students, as this course was taught at a university of valencia teacher training centre in . the students did not know basic aspects of graphic composition or elemen- tary issues about the language of images (except for two students who were studying audiovisual communication). they were given four tasks, to develop over a four-month period (the time avail- able for this course between march and june). the irst sessions of the workshop were some- what complex, as the students neither knew each ricard huerta jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd other, nor were familiar with photography or other aspects of the visual arts. these shortcomings were evident in the initial anonymous survey carried out on the irst day. through this question- naire, it was found out that never before (at any of the education levels they had gone through) had they discussed photography or photographers, let alone typography. they were unaware of the fact that a director of photography has a determin- ing role in a ilm or that press photography requires specialist professionals. after a month of work- shop activity, these students presented the results of their first piece. the project entitled ‘land- scape: letters from the city’ involved choosing a city tour and taking pictures in which letters have their own compositional space. twelve of these images were selected and were then shown to the whole group. to observe and describe the city (drawing, photographing, recording video, painting) involves the acceptance of graphic messages that cover their architecture. the processes of urban change are constant, sometimes traumatic, and can be analysed both by using theory and by creating our own images. thus the student develops a new reading of the city by looking more closely at their surroundings. when we come to know more about our surroundings, we manage to establish a critical relationship with them. discovering the city, preferably on foot, means tracing its history, its weaknesses, its peculiarities, its innovations. the idea of becoming a tourist in your own city is rather shocking for students. can you be a tourist in the place where you live? in fact, this relection reveals a broader paradox: usually we do not know our immediate environment. we found that our students had come to ‘rediscover’ their own city when engaged in this task. it is about using the identity references. this approach to the city is a way of reclaiming heritage (agra ; csikzent- mihalyi ; fontal ; huerta ). with these proposals we generate processes around cultural heritage from an emotional dimension, without losing sight of sociological and cultural aspects (lynch ; romano ). we collected anonymous surveys focused on the exercise ‘landscape: letters from the city’ ( women, men). all of those asked shared a jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd opposite page: figure calligraphy has powerful communi- cative effects, as artists like antoni tàpies and cy twombly have shown. the strength of the calligraphic gesture is present in this metal door photographed in montevideo. this page: figure in the theoretical sessions prior to the workshop, students received basic information about scenery, photogra- phy, art and typography. the sculpture located on the museumplein in amsterdam was the subject of an advertising campaign for tourism, aimed at countering doubts and prejudices. ricard huerta positive or very positive opinion of the project. they had never before worked with this methodology (except in four cases). a student acknowledges: ‘it seems to me a good method because it makes you grasp the work rationale rather than just do it’. or: ‘before, when taking pictures, i only focused on what i wanted to convey, without attaching importance to ideological and cultural aspects’. some % of those asked pointed out that ‘it helped me to learn more about my own city”’. when asked about the creative and communi- cative ability of the proposal, a student answered: ‘i think that now i am a bit more of an artist when i take photos … i try to capture things than before i didn’t even perceive’. and also in a sociological sense: ‘i have photographed my neighbourhood. my intention was to show its beauty but also its poverty: el carmen is an area full of historical rich- ness, but very messy. it is striking to see the number of beautiful drawings on the walls, the whole world can see them, but they are not an exhibit in a museum.’ a student acknowledges the discovery: ‘never before had i photographed my own neighbourhood’, while another student said: ‘i’ve had the opportunity to discover an artis- tic gift that i didn’t know i possessed.’ another reconstructs his intentions: ‘in photographing my own city, but not my neighbourhood, i intended to convey the everyday.’ the anonymous questionnaire, as a tool of analysis and evaluation of the proposal, has helped us redeine many aspects: the students’ relation- ships with the class group, their personal connec- tions with the portrayed city, and of course their contact with art and artistic production. practical experiences are recorded in the class book, in which each student registers their impressions, as in a portfolio: ‘in this exercise i had the intention of enjoying myself, that is to say: i was literally lost in a neighbourhood that i already knew.’ when the experience is gratifying, feelings of satisfaction emerge – ‘i have enjoyed the creative freedom that was granted by the exercise’, – without losing sight of the technical and expressive achieve- ments: ‘it has given me a greater understanding of the camera and the techniques of photography’. another writes: ‘i have developed an interest and now i’m taking pictures of other cities”. it is impor- ricard huerta jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd tant that the university students can count on this kind of curricular proposals (huerta ; wexler ), especially those who do not study for art and graphic design. conclusions experience of the city, especially one’s own city, considered from the angle of its typographic wealth, is related to enjoyment and learning. in a similar way to what we experienced in the museum visits by creating significant actions (chang ; hooper-greenhill ), our atti- tude as visitors to the city can be articulated in relation to the texts which cover the urban fabric. in order to get citizens to think critically about their environment, we suggest walking as an aesthetic practice, and the creation of pictures as a personal artistic intervention. in this sense, calligraphy and typography should be considered an important graphic resource in art education exercises, and used by teachers to educate. for this interest to reach new generations, we consider the training of educators to be a critical rung on this ladder. in this way, writing under- stood as drawing and representation, facilitates the practice of artistic activities – a standpoint from which it is much easier to bring art to college students. the positive results offered by photog- raphy as a relection on the city (following the plot threads of urban letters), allows us to rethink our social, cultural and educational roles. as hernán- dez ( ) indicated over deining pedagogical guidelines is contra-productive to a subject dependent on the freedom and intuition of the intervention, we have preferred to leave this part open. however in general, we have been able to verify the value of this approach, based on a qual- itative study with a group of university students. the positive results offered by photography as a relection on the city (following the threads of urban letters), allows us to rethink our social, cultural and educational roles. becoming tourists in our own city implies reinventing the concept of tourist, of city, and of citizenship. acknowledgement i am grateful to jara díaz, andrew duncun, andreu balius and luis hernán errázuriz for their comments and advice on various drafts of this article. references agra, m. j. ( ) geografías personales: un lugar donde detenerse, in r. calaf, o. fontal & r. e. valle [eds] museos de arte y educación. construir patrimonios desde la diversidad. gijón: trea, pp. – careri, f. ( ) walkscapes. el andar como práctica estética. barcelona: gustavo gili chang, e. ( ) interactive experiences and contextual learning in museums, studies in art education, vol. , no. , pp. – csikzentmihalyi, m. ( ) the art of seeing: an interpretation of the aesthetic encounter. los angeles: the j. paul getty trust dufresne-tassé, c. ( ) andragogy (adult education) in the museum: a critical analysis and new formulation, in e. hooper-greenhill [ed.] museums, media, message. new york: routledge, pp. – duncum, p. ( ) holding aesthetics and ideology in tension, studies in art education, vol. , no. , pp. – fontal, o. ( ) ¿se están generando nuevas identidades? del museo contenedor al museo patrimonial, in r. calaf, o. fontal & r. e. valle [eds] museos de arte y educación. construir patrimonios desde la diversidad. gijón: trea, pp. – freedman, k. ( ) leading creativity: responding to policy in art education, in r. mason & t. eça [eds] international dialogues about visual culture, education and art. bristol: intellect, pp. – hooper-greenhill, e. ( ) museums and their visitors. london: routledge jade . ( ) © the author. journal compilation © nsead/blackwell publishing ltd ricard huerta huerta, r. ( ) funció plàstica de les lletres. picanya: bullent huerta, r. ( ) sangre o tinta. la tipografía como argumento liminar para una educación artística, ponencias primer congreso de tipografía. valencia: adcv, pp. – huerta, r. ( ) apaga-la! valència: institució alfons el magnànim huerta, r. ( ) museo tipográfico urbano. paseando entre las letras de la ciudad. valencia: puv lachapelle, r. ( ) aesthetic dispositions and hypotheses formulation as evaluations of non-expert viewers’ responses to public contemporary art, in e. nardi [ed.]thinking, evaluating, re-thinking. milan: franco angelli, pp. – lynch, k. ( ) la imagen de la ciudad. barcelona: gustavo gili marzilli, k. ( ) attitudes of preservice general education teachers toward art, visual arts research, vol. , no. , pp. – mirzoeff, n. ( ) una introducción a la cultura visual. barcelona: octaedro romano, m. ( ) la città come opera d’arte. turin: giulio einaudi editore steers, j. ( ) creativity: delusions, realities, opportunities and challenges, international journal of art and design education, vol. , no. , pp. – wexler, a. ( ) museum culture and the inequities of display and representation, visual arts research, vol. , no. , pp. – modern intellectual history, , ( ), pp. – c© cambridge university press doi: . /s art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture thomas ort department of history, queens college, cuny e-mail: thomas.ort@qc.cuny.edu in the opening pages of his remarkable book about marcel duchamp, jerrold seigel writes that the french artist “cared more about his personal independence than he did about art itself. beneath the succession of avant-garde movements there had always lurked an impulse of radical individualism, and no one represented it better than marcel duchamp” (pw, ). given the subject matter of this essay—the place of art in seigel’s thinking—it may seem odd to say so, but in one respect seigel’s attitude to art mirrors that of duchamp: he cares less about art itself than about the impulse of radical individualism in modern society revealed through it. this is not to say that seigel is indifferent to art or that his attitude to it is identical to that of duchamp—far from it. but as much admiration as seigel possesses for the heroism of a figure like charles baudelaire, who remained wholly committed to art even as he mined the unstable ground of individual experience on which it stood, he has been preoccupied above all with, let’s say, modern art’s antiheroes, with those figures who have indulged individualism in its most extreme forms, resisting all limits on their subjectivity, and who in the process have carried art outside the boundaries of art. the chief exemplar of this current is undoubtedly marcel duchamp, but seigel traces its arc from its roots in bohemia, through figures like alfred jarry and arthur rimbaud, and finally to its culmination in the avant-garde of the early twentieth century. this current is by no means exclusive to the sphere of art (and has been examined in its different forms elsewhere by seigel, notably in the idea of the self), but has been powerfully present within it because of what seigel calls art’s “potential orientation toward pure individual autonomy” (mbl, ). unmoored from any shared system of values, art in modern society, he argued in bohemian paris, has been tasked with the necessity to “create meaning out of the confrontation of an individual consciousness with the world of direct experience” (bp, ). but this difficult project has been fraught with danger: terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://doi.org/ . /s mailto:thomas.ort@qc.cuny.edu http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s &domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort “because modern art had only the resources of individual personality to invest in the transcendence of everyday life, it had to employ dark energies that had seemed inimical to art before . . . [a]rtists had now to construct the ideal out of the very elements of existence that threatened to corrode and dissolve it” (bp, – ). the heroism of baudelaire’s life was to shoulder this burden self-consciously, to indulge his private fantasies and derange his senses, in order to map the world’s imprint on them and transform the experience into art. in the private worlds of marcel duchamp, seigel approached modern art’s individualistic orientation somewhat differently, from the perspective of the changes in urban life that seemed to encourage the liberation of the subjective imagination. drawing on robert herbert’s study of french impressionism, he emphasized the way the mixture of physical closeness and psychological distance characteristic of life in the modern metropolis seemed to make the city “more freely available as a receptacle for the observer’s imagination or fantasy” (pw, ). as a result of its anonymity and objectivity, the city became a kind of canvas onto which individuals could project their moods, states of mind, and private preoccupations. impressionist painters like eduard manet, claude monet, or gustave caillebotte made this condition a theme of their work, but it was baudelaire, again, who described it with the greatest precision. seigel cites a passage from paris spleen ( ) in which the poet glimpses an unknown woman through a closed window and then constructs a story of her life that is the pure product of his imagination: out of her face, her dress and her gestures, out of practically nothing at all, i have made up this woman’s story, or rather legend, and sometimes i tell it to myself and weep . . . perhaps you will say “are you sure that your story is the real one?” but what does it matter what reality is outside myself, so long as it has helped me to live, to feel that i am and what i am? (baudelaire, “windows,” cited in pw, ). here, the anonymous world of the city nourishes the creative imagination and deepens the poet’s sense of his self, but also threatens to cut him off from reality outside the self. because modern art required that the poet or painter process experience through the screen of individual temperament, it also risked substituting private visions and subjective fantasies for any recognizable reality. as early as the s, the critic jules castagnary warned that, for some painters, external reality had become little more than a “pretext for reveries” (pw, ). while impressionist painters and poets like baudelaire may have sometimes indulged their imaginations at the expense of reality, they did not at the same time deny that their private visions were the products of their own robert l. herbert, impressionism: art, leisure and parisian society (new haven and london, ). terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture subjectivity. yet seigel identifies another, even more radical, strand of modernism whose adherents downplayed any role of their selves in the generation of such reveries. “these more radical figures,” he writes, “pushed the cultivation of inner experience beneath the level where reality and particular temperament mutually nourished each other, to a point where individuality itself gave way to the impersonality of objective conditions” (pw, ). stéphane mallarmé, for example, denied that his poetry was born of the externalization of his inner experience, maintaining instead that it was impersonal, that through it he had become a mouthpiece of the universal. rimbaud similarly proclaimed that his self was not the agent of his own thoughts, that rather than thinking he “was thought,” and that the same unspecified external power that did its thinking through him made his poetry “objective” (pw, ). it is this path that is the chief object of seigel’s attention, the path forged by a form of individuality so radical and so free of the usual limitations that hem it in, that it appears objective and universal. seigel’s interest in this current is to unravel the claims of vanguard figures like duchamp to have dissolved their individual subjectivity and subverted their personal coherence, thereby opening themselves up to an unprecedented kind of liberty grounded in chance and fluidity. he boldly argues that far from dismantling subjectivity, such claims are actually a bid to “give the self greater purity and a more exalted claim to independence” (pw, .) as such, they are part and parcel of the individualistic orientation they wish to transcend rather than a rebellion against it. they represent the aspiration to a form of subjectivity that is lighter, purer, more elemental, and more fluid than the one that takes as its starting point the heterogeneous elements of social and cultural life—the usual building blocks of personal identity. the claim to dissolve the self, therefore, is best understood as an attempt to live “outside of culture,” to free the self from the limitations that society and culture impose on individuals (pw, – ). this extravagant program, first elaborated by avant-garde artists like duchamp, has since taken on a multitude of forms, all of which seigel views with suspicion. indeed, a significant part of his project has been to show that the attempt to generalize or institutionalize the kind of exalted freedom to which duchamp and others aspired is a utopian endeavor that can never be realized. ∗ ∗ ∗ seigel embarked on his analysis of these grand programs of individual liberation though an exploration of the institution of bohemia. in bohemian paris, he argued that bohemia is a space within bourgeois society—not external to it— for the dramatization of ambivalence about its values and social identities. that is, it is a space wherein individuals can enact the tensions and conflicts of bourgeois terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort society and demand that they be faced. perhaps the central conflict dramatized by bohemians concerned the place of the individual in postrevolutionary society, namely the balance of individual emancipation and social cohesion. the development of each individual’s “free subjectivity” threatened all too easily to devolve into selfishness and egotism, corroding social bonds. while in seigel’s explanation bohemia is not coextensive with the world of artists, the place of artistic life in modern society nonetheless lies at its core. with the end of the patronage system in the arts and the triumph of market relations, artists lived out the postrevolutionary social transformation. on the one hand, they were now subject to the utilitarian values of the marketplace; on the other hand, they were liberated from dependence on aristocratic patronage and became free to develop their talents in any way they wished, leading to a wealth of aesthetic innovations. success in the market might therefore be interpreted as the realization of the emancipatory possibilities of the new society. lack of success, conversely, could be understood as the incapacity to make the most of the new freedoms and thus as a sign of personal failure. in this way, the new society rendered a harsh verdict on those individuals who failed to find room in it for their artistic inclinations. in doing so, it seemed designed to discourage sensitive, poetic natures before they had a chance to blossom and, more broadly, to circumscribe the space available to all people of strong feeling and vigorous imagination, whether they be artists or not. and yet, one of the earliest commentators on bohemian life, félix pyat, writing in the s, noted a peculiar paradox of postrevolutionary society: even as artists grew apart from the rest of society, increasing numbers of people were claiming to be artists. pyat understood this expansion of the ranks of artists in terms of a search for originality, a desire for separation from the mores and expectations of existing society. he remarked that these young “artists” were turning themselves into gypsies—“the bohemians of today”—in their ambition to live more freely and spontaneously, outside the bounds of workaday society (bp, ). most of them, he felt certain, would never find success as actual painters or writers, but they persisted in the illusion that they might, and in the meantime neglected their other affairs and responsibilities. pyat dubbed this malady “artistism” (bp, ). although pyat did not put it in these terms, it seems clear that the rise of artistism is intimately linked to the emancipatory possibilities that individuals experienced in postrevolutionary society. that is, the appeal of the realm of art lay precisely in its provision of a space to explore one’s free subjectivity outside the bounds of traditional constraints and responsibilities, and whether or not one had any chance of actually becoming a working artist. “art” became a place to test the limits and possibilities of one’s freedom as an individual. for seigel, artistism is part of the prehistory of bohemia, before bohemia became fully elaborated in the late s and the s as the reverse of bourgeois terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture life. but the notion already contained one of bohemia’s essential elements: its association not with the creation of artworks but with the life of the artist and its attendant freedoms. many denizens of bohemia, to be sure, were true artists, wholly committed to their craft as the materialization of their imagination. but others were drawn to it chiefly as a way of life, as a space wherein they could exercise the full freedom of their senses and imagination without having to translate them into a finished aesthetic form. these were the bohemians “for whom art meant living the life, not doing the work” (bp, ). as henry murger, author of scenes of bohemian life—the inspiration for puccini’s la bohème—put it, “their everyday existence is a work of genius” (cited in bp, , ). seigel contrasts this trajectory with that of charles baudelaire, who unquestionably inhabited bohemia but staunchly resisted the confusion of art and life endemic to it. baudelaire loathed the disorder of bohemian existence and always emphasized the discipline required to produce genuine works of art. at the same time, bohemia possessed for him a kind of gravitational allure that he could never escape. imagining his self as at once centralized and vaporized, concentrated and diffuse, baudelaire’s centralized self corresponded to the contained and controlled dandy in him, while the vaporized self pertained to the dissolute bohemian. baudelaire experimented with all manner of self-diffusion, with losing his self in crowds, in sex, in drugs, in nature, in political causes, in whatever really, because it allowed his self to take on the shape and texture of things outside so that he could then reproduce them from within. for him, the bohemian “cult of multiplied sensation” was a critical part of artistic creativity (bp, – ). but only a part, for the other half of the equation was concentration, without which there could be no real art at all. in his dazzling portrait of the poet, seigel puts it this way: the person who first lost himself in the world in order to impress its shape on his spirit had then to condense his being into himself like vapor returning purified from the surrounding air. then he was ready to give forth a distilled vision that was both nurtured by external reality and born wholly from within (bp, ). this distilled vision is art, and it required both bohemian self-diffusion and dandyish self-containment. in either case, it was wholly dependent on the individual, on the processing of experience through the prism of the self. whereas intoxication diffused the self, allowing it to receive the world’s imprint, the centered individual gave new shape and form to this impress, transforming it by mind and hand into art. for seigel, baudelaire’s heroism consisted of his willingness to live for the bohemian multiplication of sensation while upholding the boundary between art and life that other bohemians obscured. but many of the poet’s modernist successors either were unprepared to shoulder this burden or willfully forsook terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort it. one of these was undoubtedly the writer alfred jarry, who, in the eyes of andré breton, paved the way for the twentieth-century avant-garde’s wholesale annihilation of the distinction between art and life. seigel ties jarry’s breakdown of this boundary to an aesthetically grounded individualism derived from symbolist poetics and anarchist politics, both of which maintained that no external force had the right to restrain an individual’s visions or ideals. on this basis, he argues that jarry turned his own interiority into confrontation with the world and the limits it imposed on his imagination. seigel’s analysis of ubu roi ( ) emphasizes jarry’s partial identification with the play’s central character, the bumbling and aggressive père ubu, who claws his way to the throne of poland, only to be deposed soon after he achieves his goal. he draws particular attention to ubu’s aggression and its meaning for jarry. what they both shared is a dread of the limitations of material existence so intense that the only possible reaction to it was violence. jarry, like ubu, was a man who would be king or be nothing, who was “unable to live in a world that did not reflect his own selfhood back to him” (bp, ). renowned for his outrageous and provocative behavior—and also for carrying a revolver with him—jarry wished to abolish the distinction between his thoughts and his actions, his dreams and the world in which he lived. he sought to live by his literary program alone, only to discover that his fantasies were forever circumscribed by the reality of material existence. this made the everyday world practically uninhabitable for him and accounts not only for his exceptional eccentricity, but also for his relentlessly self-destructive behavior. in the end, jarry drank himself to death and apparently welcomed his demise as the ultimate liberation of his dreams from the materiality of his bodily self. unlike baudelaire, who embraced the derangement of his senses through drugs and drink as a byway to art—the only realm of genuine transcendence—jarry accepted derangement for its own sake, as an escape from the bonds of ordinary existence. though breton hailed jarry for his breakdown of the boundaries between art and life and considered him one of the surrealist movement’s most important predecessors, he always resisted the tendency toward nihilism and personal dissolution that jarry represented. breton was likewise drawn to the poetry of rimbaud, another of surrealism’s key guides, but remained wary of his well- documented descent into systematic sensory disorganization. what he saw in their examples, however, was the attempt to throw off all external constraints on the imagination and to live life according to its claims alone. indeed, he went further than they in aspiring to transform reality itself from the perspective of dreams and unconscious life, that inexhaustible reservoir of the imagination. with surrealism, art ceased to be an end in itself and became a vehicle for the remaking of life, a kind of advertisement for a way of life that reached beyond the limitations of the present. “its purpose,” seigel writes, “was to draw people terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture out of the here and now, and into that better life . . . [t]he claim to be a poet or an artist was now justified only because it contributed to a life beyond art” (bp, ). in this way, breton and the surrealists effaced the boundary between art and life, making art serve ends external to art itself. and yet, the surrealists were still committed to the production of art, at least most of the time, as a special signpost to transcendence, and, as such, differed from their dadaist counterparts’ more aggressive program of anti- art. despite the groups’ shared influences and personalities, seigel sharply distinguishes between the two, arguing that while the surrealists remained largely committed to the renewal of art, the dadaists forsook it as a special sphere of activity altogether, indeed reveling in its destruction. to be sure, surrealism’s original method of “psychic automatism” possessed much in common with dadaist practices, namely its grounding of artistic activity in unconscious mental processes unguided by reason, morality, or aesthetic tradition. seigel maintains, however, that these emanations of unconscious life were not meant to replace art but rather to extend the poetic imagination; they were the starting point of artistic activity, not its terminus. breton, moreover, remained wary of the flirtation with the irrational inherent to psychic automatism, and so in steered surrealism toward other, less disorganized repositories of unconscious life. he found these mainly in modern urban existence: in advertising, in shopping arcades, in restaurant menus, in chance encounters, in anything that aroused hidden desire. these were all incitements to an individual’s fantasy and therefore potential gateways to transcendence. through their “explicitly freudian identification of the psychic depths as the real source of the energy earlier sought in a free life,” writes seigel, the “surrealists modernized the bohemian unification of art and life” (bp, ). if this program attained its most characteristic embodiment in works of literature such as louis aragon’s trance-like paris peasant ( ), seigel also makes clear that the boundaries between surrealism and dadaism were permeable and unstable. while the surrealists continued to produce more or less recognizable objects of art, they forever justified their activity as aiming “beyond art.” they also identified themselves with the spirit of provocation and confrontation more typically associated with dada and were not immune to mystification and obfuscation, sometimes deliberately driving a wedge between themselves and their audience in order to avoid the false comfort of public approval. and if in practice most surrealists continued to produce recognizable objects of art, they were in principle committed to the devaluation of art. with the arrival of dadaism and surrealism, the purpose of art was thus fundamentally altered. now, the vocation of art, seigel maintains, was “to call men to a freer and more fulfilling existence by releasing the transformative energy present in life itself, and directing that energy against the resistances and barriers that repressed or terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort impeded it” (bp, ). for the avant-garde, art ceased to be associated with the creation of a special category of objects standing apart from the rest of life and became identified instead with a posture of liberation from any limit placed on an individual’s imagination. no artist better embodied this transformation than marcel duchamp, who was the first to substitute industrially produced objects for traditional works of art. his readymades called into question the notion of art as a form of creative expression guided by the artist’s personality, not to say the existence of the category of art at all. seigel ends bohemian paris with some brief reflections on duchamp’s legacy, anticipating his next major project—a sustained examination of the french artist’s career. the private worlds of marcel duchamp is significant not only for completing a line of inquiry first developed in bohemian paris, but also for deepening seigel’s investigation into modern selfhood. in his reading, duchamp’s abandonment of art and proclaimed dissolution of personal subjectivity represent one of the most radical claims for the autonomy of the self heretofore imagined. the form of subjectivity aspired to by him is the model for the purified form of selfhood fully described in the idea of the self. the path to seigel’s magnum opus runs through marcel duchamp and twentieth-century avant-garde art. ∗ ∗ ∗ the brilliance of seigel’s analysis of duchamp resides chiefly in his ability to discern consistent patterns of meaning in those works of the artist that had long been celebrated for their purposive meaninglessness or free-floating signification. seigel’s distinctive psychobiographical approach enables him to link duchamp’s mysterious and seemingly impenetrable creations to long-term preoccupations partly rooted in his familial and personal relations. in making sense of what others have dismissed as insensible, seigel exposes as false duchamp’s claims to have dissolved his own subjectivity. rather than slipping the bonds of his own subjectivity, duchamp developed a private language that, due to its inscrutability, only seemed driven by accident and chance, whereas it was in fact a vehicle for the persistent exploration of his inner concerns and for the maintenance of the purity of his self. one key to these preoccupations, according to seigel, is a note first written by duchamp in and subsequently published by him in in reference to his work the large glass (formally known as the bride stripped bare by her bachelors, even, fig. ), his most complex and arguably most important creation. the note describes—in rather cryptic terms—the experience of gazing into shop windows, of having one’s desire aroused by the displayed objects, and of the inevitable disappointment that accompanies their possession. the note suggests that a state of perpetually aroused desire had for duchamp far more terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture fig. . (colour online) marcel duchamp, the bride stripped bare by her bachelors, even ( – ). c© succession marcel duchamp/adagp, paris/artists rights society (ars), new york, . terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort appeal than the satisfaction thereof because, as seigel states, “desiring carries us outward toward a still-imagined state, promising an expanded and altered form of existence; but once satisfaction occurs, we have only the particular things chosen, and we return, frustrated and chagrined, to the previous boundaries of the self.” or, to put it another way, duchamp preferred his transactions with the external world to be governed primarily by (unfulfilled) desire because it allowed “the self to set the terms of its relations with objects” (pw, – ). in such a state, the self is not required to make any compromises with external reality; it resides in a hermetic realm of pure aspiration. once desire is fulfilled, however, the seal is ruptured and the self is subject to the social and material limitations of that which is possessed. what duchamp was seeking, in seigel’s view, was a kind of selfhood “freed of the particular opinions and practices of a given culture, and able—at least in the imagination—to transcend the limits that any and every culture imposes on its members” (pw, ). this is the meaning of seigel’s assertion that duchamp and other avant-garde artists aspired to live “outside of culture.” the contrast between duchamp’s work and that of his cubist contemporaries also helps clarify his inclinations. although duchamp was a sometime member of the puteaux cubist circle along with his brothers gaston and raymond, he was never comfortable in a group setting and definitively parted ways with it in when its leading personalities, albert gleizes and jean metzinger, rejected nude descending a staircase—the painting that made him famous in america—for an exhibition they were organizing. in their well-known pamphlet on cubism, gleizes and metzinger described the act of contemplating a cubist painting as effecting “a sensitive passage between two subjective spaces,” that between viewer and artist. they acknowledged cubism to be an art of subjectivity, but insisted that those working in the new style endeavored to enclose their subjective experiences “in a symbol likely to affect others.” that is, they emphasized the importance of communication between subjective spaces, the necessity for crafting symbols that would enable a passage between the two. they harshly condemned as obscurantist art that failed to effect such a transition, that reveled in its unintelligibility or deliberately attempted to “fabricate puzzles” (cited in pw, ). although it is impossible to know if gleizes and metzinger had duchamp in mind when they penned this critique or when they rejected his painting for their show, seigel clearly believes that this may have been the case, for duchamp was already pushing in his most recent book, between cultures, seigel further explores the resistance to the limits that all cultures impose on individuals. here, however, his interest is on self-conscious attempts to straddle two cultural situations, to inhabit a space “between cultures”—to be at once part of and distanced from both cultures—rather than to live, more extravagantly, “outside of culture,” in a state of pure individual autonomy. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture aesthetic subjectivity to its limits, even in his early works. he was renouncing the passage between subjectivities for the freedom of his own private world. whatever notoriety nude descending a staircase brought him in , duchamp became best known for his readymades: ordinary or slightly altered objects elevated to the status of art. the readymades, in seigel’s words, “stand as duchamp’s signatory challenge to artistic tradition, his irreparable violation of the sacred precinct where art had reposed in sovereign independence from the rest of life” (pw, ). they once and for all abolished the line between art and nonart, showing that any object that could be experienced aesthetically could be understood as art. as art historian clement greenberg explained, through the readymades duchamp effectively redefined the meaning of art as “an act of mental distancing—an act that can be performed even without the help of sense perception. any and everything can be subjected to such distancing, and thereby converted into something that takes effect as art” (cited in pw, ). as insightful as such readings are, seigel suggests that duchamp came to the readymades for other reasons as well: he saw them as a “defense against personal fixity,” as a way of avoiding repetition and becoming linked to any particular style, taste, or habit that might stabilize his personal identity. crucially important to his designation of objects as readymades was that they be chosen out of “visual indifference”; that is, more or less randomly, without advance planning and without regard for the nature of the object. the idea behind such indifference was not merely to demonstrate that any object could be appreciated as art, but rather to forestall the possibility that any trace of the artist’s personality would enter into the process of selection. as such, readymades were “a way to preserve an undefined, fluid existence, in contrast to that of the conventional artist, whose presence in a series of works could be recognized by known elements of style” (pw, ). they were thus conceived not only as a means of challenging the traditional boundaries of art, but also as a vehicle for the dissolution of artistic subjectivity. but in this aspiration at least, they failed, for, as seigel strikingly reveals, the readymades were by no means selected out of indifference. on the contrary, they are marked by duchamp’s long-standing preoccupations and form part of the private symbolic language he was developing through his other works, especially the large glass. for one thing, duchamp did not articulate the concept of the readymade until , two years after he had begun working with found objects. his well-known bicycle wheel (an inverted wheel of a bicycle mounted on a stool, fig. ) dates to , while bottle rack (a bottle-drying rack) dates to . these readymades avant la lettre were not originally conceived as the substitutions for art of which they would later become representative, but rather are best understood, according to seigel, as akin to duchamp’s many puns and thus as fully laden with significant though largely private meanings for the artist. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort fig. . (colour online) marcel duchamp, bicycle wheel ( , reconstruction of lost original). c© succession marcel duchamp/adagp, paris/artists rights society (ars), new york, . terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture bicycle wheel, for example, was created at a time when duchamp was engrossed with the idea of motion and seeking to transcend linear movement in favor of the kinds of movement that produced no directional progress, or what he called “delay,” a central feature of the large glass. bicycle wheel likewise visually echoes elements of the large glass, namely its waterwheel and chocolate grinder, both notable for their nonlinear, rotational movement and thus also symbolic of “delay.” bottle rack is similarly marked by duchamp’s preoccupations. the phal- lic implications of the rack’s prongs—extended upward, awaiting wet bottles to be fitted onto them—are difficult to overlook, and duchamp, apparently, did not deny such a reading, belying his claim to have selected the object out of indiffer- ence. but seigel suggests an even more pointed interpretation of bottle rack, link- ing it directly to the themes of the large glass: “what makes the rack resonate so perfectly with the large glass is the absence of the bottles for which the prongs call out . . . so that the female counterpart to the symbolic male anatomy exists only by being imagined; male and female await each other in fantasy, while being denied— or spared—physical contact” (pw, ). these proto-readymades, then, were by no means the product of a dissolved subjectivity; on the contrary, they form part of a private language designed to express duchamp’s persistent concerns. even duchamp’s most notorious readymade, fountain (fig. ), the porcelain urinal he submitted to an exhibition in new york in , well after he had articulated the concept of the readymade, is not free of the artist’s personality. for one thing, it was clearly intended to provoke and offend and, as such, was hardly selected out of indifference. more importantly, it too contains the marks of duchamp’s preoccupations and can be readily linked to the large glass. the one way duchamp altered the urinal was by displaying it on its side, inviting viewers to contemplate it from the perspective of the hole—the orifice—normally used to pipe water into the curvilinear, almost uterine, space of the urinal. (and what else is a urinal besides a receptacle designed to capture the bodily fluid of a man?) as such, fountain “called up the imaginary relations between male and female personae that existed in his conception of the large glass” (pw, ). it functions too as a sort of female counterpart of the bottle rack. in this case, it is a female presence that beckons for a male complement that never arrives, again echoing the suspended desire or “delay” of the large glass. in seigel’s analysis of the readymades (and many of duchamp’s other works), the french artist’s brilliance seems to reside less in the successful effacement of his personality than in the consistency and thoroughness with which he explored his private concerns and constructed a symbolic language to express them. and yet, it is important to reckon with duchamp’s claims to have slipped the bonds of his subjectivity because, in doing so, he believed he had attained a special kind of liberty characterized by fluidity and instability, and free from the usual constraints of culture. seigel concludes private worlds with a discussion terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort fig. . (colour online) marcel duchamp, fountain ( , original, photographed by alfred stieglitz). c© succession marcel duchamp/adagp, paris/artists rights society (ars), new york, . of the nature of the freedom aspired to by duchamp, contrasting it to other liberatory projects pursued by modernist and avant-garde artists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. in the process, he lays out his understanding of the differing kinds of freedom the sphere of art offers in modern society. as such, this discussion serves as a useful coda to this essay. ∗ ∗ ∗ while duchamp never became a fully fledged member of the french surrealist movement, andré breton admired him greatly because he saw in him an artist who found his way around one of the central dilemmas of avant-garde artistic terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture practice. if the shared aim of vanguard movements was to reinvigorate life from a basis in art, infusing it with the freedom of the imagination previously confined to the sphere of art, then they seemed to forever miss their mark. the necessity to articulate their goals through a new artistic style or program meant that each venture had a tendency to become a matter of habit and routine, soon arresting the imagination in a prescribed form that had at first lent it wings. it was this tendency toward fixity and the ossification of the imagination that duchamp had eschewed through his readymades. seemingly lacking any consistent stylistic features and apparently selected at random, they embodied the freedom from every fixed condition of life that breton exalted. seigel contrasts this form of freedom to that which the poet paul éluard located in picasso’s art. éluard saw in picasso an artist who traveled the difficult “path from subject to object,” who found a means of translating his intensely subjective inner experiences into external forms that were nonetheless accessible to others. the symbolic language he constructed possessed a “poetic reason” that enabled communication across subjectivities rather than closing it off (pw, – ). seigel maintains that what éluard appreciated in picasso was his articulation of a style, “a visual synthesis of a subjectivity with the objects that confront it” (pw, ). a style in this sense opened people up to new dimensions of experience by allowing them to participate in an artist’s highly personal encounter with the world without losing their way. in short, picasso invented a style that expanded rather than contracted shared forms of experience and enabled rather than foreclosed what gleizes and metzinger called “a sensitive passage between two subjective spaces” (quoted in pw, ). it was this transitional space that duchamp renounced in the large glass and the readymades. duchamp found freedom precisely in the dismantling of common ground between artist and audience because it ensured the preservation, for him at least, of a private space uncontaminated by exchange with the external world. according to seigel, the disparity in the kinds of freedom represented by the examples of duchamp and picasso arise from the differing ways they conceive of the relationship between the self and the world. the clarity and force of his explanation deserves quotation at length: duchamp’s pure freedom requires that the inner play of fantasy meet the world of material things wholly on the former’s terms: it is lost when one breaks the shop window and discovers that the objects which beckon there only yield to possession by imposing the actuality of their limitations on desire’s infinite wish. such freedom cannot be experienced through direct interaction with the world, but only at a remove . . . such spaces are worlds in themselves, into which objects enter only as symbols, so that the ideas they stand for encounter no material, mundane resistances, but echo endlessly off each other in a kind of constant interior reverberation. (pw, ) terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort the kind of freedom embodied by picasso’s art, on the other hand, is less pure but also less isolated, is fulfilled not in self-reference but in representation, the power to see the world in some independent way. being able to give the world a personal shape does not liberate anyone from the conditions of living in it but testifies to an individual’s ability to discover possible ways to think and act that had not been visible before; each style sets up a particular mode of interaction with the external world, giving to it an order it does not possess in itself. (pw, ) this latter form of freedom may be modest as compared to duchamp’s, but its emancipatory potential lies in its recognition that every individual may also be, or perhaps already is, the author of another such personal world. in this vision, the self finds its freedom in ongoing exchange with the external world, in the ceaseless invention of new representations of this interaction—new styles. no one representation is true or universal; all are partial and particular, the product of one subjectivity’s relations with the world. art constituted in this way belongs “to the self that forms its being within the world” (pw, ). the readymades do not. they are animated by a type of selfhood free of the usual limitations that society and culture impose on individuals; they are unalloyed receptacles of the imagination, ready to embody any private symbolic intention projected onto them. it may seem paradoxical that industrial products are more open to such intentions than traditional objects of art but, as seigel explains, it is precisely their anonymity and impersonality that make them so available to individual fantasy. it should be clear, then, that one way of thinking about art locates its freedom within the heterogeneous elements of social and cultural life, and seeks to craft ever new resolutions to its multifarious demands. the other kind—duchamp’s— finds it outside: it casts off “the burden of reconciling contradictions that membership in complex cultures imposes on individuals, opening the way to a lighter, more elemental kind of selfhood” (pw, ). the abolition of the boundary between art and life is nothing less than the abolition of the distinction between the self and the world, between the realm of the imagination and the world of material and cultural limitations. the attempt to live life as if it were a work of art is an attempt to live by way of imagination alone, undiluted and unadulterated by the constraints of society and culture. under the guise of a dissolved subjectivity, it represents the most radical form of individualism that modern culture has spawned: a form of selfhood purified of any contamination by the external world. and it is precisely in this aspiration that the central irony of the avant-garde project inheres. conceived in rebellion against bourgeois society, it actually represents the most complete unfolding of its core individualistic principles: duchamp and his predecessors and heirs pushed art’s “potential orientation toward pure individual autonomy” to its limits (mbl, ). in other words, for all of its sound and fury, the revolt of the avant-garde was a revolt from terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core art: to be “inside” or “outside” culture within the culture of bourgeois modernity, not external to it. or, as seigel puts it, “increasingly we understand that the avant-garde belongs to our culture, the culture of modernity, and never more wholly and loyally than in its claims to be in revolt against it” (pw, ). in short, it is not possible to be “outside of culture.” the dreams of absolute rebellion and the freedom of a dissolved subjectivity were born squarely within modern culture, not outside it. paradoxically, as much as duchamp has become the standard-bearer for the avant-garde abolition of the boundary between art and life, he may have understood the limits of this project better than most because for him the endeavor was always a private one. unlike so many of his disciples and admirers, he did not believe that the freedom sought therein could be generalized or institutionalized, that it could be realized through a project of political transformation. scrupulously keeping himself at arm’s length from the revolutionary political projects of his day, duchamp aspired to a kind of freedom that belonged to the “realm of pure inwardness” and could not be extended to the public or material world (pw, ). indeed, he may have pointed to this distinction in his confounding and much-reviled final work, given (fig. ). inviting viewers to peer through a peephole in a heavy wooden door, given reveals a totally nude woman, legs spread in possible postcoital satisfaction. for seigel, this crude, almost pornographic, work was duchamp’s way of completing his “definitively unfinished” large glass, of transporting the bride and her bachelors from the arena of expectation and unfulfilled desire to that of possession and fulfilled desire—to the world of ordinary material existence. duchamp left instructions that given not be displayed until after his death, as if to say, in seigel’s words, “when the breath of desire no longer lifts me into the world of unrealized aspirations, then the elements of my picture will return to the dead world of time and space, where we can examine them as they would be in a state that belongs wholly to the here and now” (pw, ). given is the condition in which nothing is left to the imagination and in which there is no transcendence: everything is given, materialized, satiated, and, ultimately, dead. it is “an account of what art becomes when erotic energies, preserved as engines of fantasy within the delay of the large glass, turn from imagination to ordinary life” (pw, ). and it was precisely what duchamp believed art should never be (and why so many of his admirers were perplexed and repulsed by it). this may be why, perhaps, he resisted the impulse of his peers to realize in politics the freedom he sought through art. to do so would be to materialize that which belongs to the realm of imagination and desire, to break the glass of the shop window and submit to the limitations of material possession, a transaction that can only issue in disappointment and disillusion—or worse. in respecting the boundary between private fantasy and shared reality, duchamp also preserved something of the boundary between art and life. art for him remained a sphere terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core thomas ort fig. . (colour online) marcel duchamp, given . the waterfall . the illuminating gas ( – ). c© succession marcel duchamp/adagp, paris/artists rights society (ars), new york, . of transcendence from ordinary life and the limitations of material existence, albeit an entirely private and personal one. in this sense, for all the extremity of his assault on the category of art, duchamp may have in fact remained an artist. for seigel, then, duchamp’s legacy is a mixed one. he is a figure who pushed individual autonomy to its limits, reveling in the unbounded freedom of the imagination, while also sundering the bonds of communication between artist and audience. at the same time, recognizing that his refuge was a private and personal one, he resisted the attempts to generalize the freedom he located therein, maintaining the boundary between private and public reality, the freedom of the individual imagination and that which is possible to materialize and institutionalize. if he is seigel’s exemplary antihero of modern culture, then duchamp is not without his heroism either. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core 	* * * 	* * * 	* * * visualizing genome and systems biology: technologies, tools, implementation techniques and trends, past, present and future review open access visualizing genome and systems biology: technologies, tools, implementation techniques and trends, past, present and future georgios a. pavlopoulos *, dimitris malliarakis , nikolas papanikolaou , theodosis theodosiou , anton j. enright and ioannis iliopoulos * abstract “Α picture is worth a thousand words.” this widely used adage sums up in a few words the notion that a successful visual representation of a concept should enable easy and rapid absorption of large amounts of information. although, in general, the notion of capturing complex ideas using images is very appealing, would words be enough to describe the unknown in a research field such as the life sciences? life sciences is one of the biggest generators of enormous datasets, mainly as a result of recent and rapid technological advances; their complexity can make these datasets incomprehensible without effective visualization methods. here we discuss the past, present and future of genomic and systems biology visualization. we briefly comment on many visualization and analysis tools and the purposes that they serve. we focus on the latest libraries and programming languages that enable more effective, efficient and faster approaches for visualizing biological concepts, and also comment on the future human-computer interaction trends that would enable for enhancing visualization further. keywords: biological data visualization, network biology, genomics, systems biology, multivariate analysis review introduction in the current ‘big data’ era [ ], the magnitude of data explosion in life science research is undeniable. the bio- medical literature currently includes about million abstracts in pubmed and about . million full text arti- cles in pubmed central. additionally, there are more than established biological databases that store in- formation about various biological entities (bioentities) and their associations. obvious examples include: dis- eases, proteins, genes, chemicals, pathways, small mole- cules, ontologies, sequences, structures and expression data. in the past years, only . million eukaryotic species (out of the approximately . million that are es- timated to be present on earth) [ ] have been identified and taxonomically classified in the catalog of life and the world register of marine species [ ]. the sequen- cing of the first human genome ( ) took years and cost over $ million to complete. although the cost for de novo assembly of a new genome to acceptable coverage is still high, probably at least $ , , we can now resequence a human genome for $ and can generate more than genomes per week [ ]. notably, few species have been fully sequenced, and a large frac- tion of their gene function is not fully understood or still remains completely unknown [ ]. the human genome is . billion base pairs in length and consists of over , human coding genes organized into pairs of chromosomes [ , ]. today over , solved protein structures are hosted in the protein data bank [ ]. nevertheless, many of the protein functions remain un- known or are partially understood. shifting away from basic research to applied sciences, personalized medicine is on the cusp of a revolution allowing the customization of healthcare by tailoring decisions, practices and/or products to the individual pa- tient. to this end, such information should be accom- panied by medical history and digital images and should guarantee a high level of privacy. the efficiency and se- curity of distributed cloud computing systems for medical * correspondence: g.pavlopoulos@med.uoc.gr; iliopj@med.uoc.gr bioinformatics & computational biology laboratory, division of basic sciences, university of crete, medical school, heraklion, crete, greece full list of author information is available at the end of the article © pavlopoulos et al. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : doi . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:g.pavlopoulos@med.uoc.gr mailto:iliopj@med.uoc.gr http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / health record organization, storage and handling will be one of the big challenges during the coming years. information overload, data interconnectivity, high di- mensionality of data and pattern extraction also pose major hurdles. visualization is one way of coping with such data complexity. implementation of efficient visua- lization technologies is necessary not only to present the known but to also reveal the unknown, allowing inference of conclusions, ideas and concepts [ ]. here we focus on visualization advances in the fields of network and systems biology, present the state-of-the-art tools and provide an overview of the technological advances over time, gaining insights into what to expect in the future of visualization in the life sciences. in the section on network biology below, we discuss widely used tools related to graph visualization and j a b c d e f g h i simple graph ppi network and protein complexes d visualization multi-layered graphs hive plots time series remote navigation virtual realitypathway fig. visualization for network biology. a timeline of the emergence of relevant technologies and concepts. b a simple drawing of an undirected unweighted graph. c a d representation of a yeast protein-protein interaction network visualized in cytoscape (left) and potential protein complexes identified by the mcl algorithm from that network (right). d a d view of a protein-protein interaction network visualized by biolayoutexpress d. e a multilayered network integrating different types of data visualized by arena d. f a hive plot view of a network in which nodes are mapped to and positioned on radially distributed linear axes. g visualization of network changes over time. h part of lung cancer pathway visualized by ipath. i remote navigation and control of networks by hand gestures. j integration and control of d networks using vr devices pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : table visualization tools for network biology standalone applications for network analysis tool and references description url arena d [ , ] d visualization of multi-layer networks http://www.arena d.org biana [ ] data integration and network management http://sbi.imim.es/web/biana.php biolayout express d [ ] d/ d network visualization http://www.biolayout.org/ biologicalnetworks [ , ] efficient integrated multi-level analysis of microarray, sequence, regulatory and other data http://www.biologicalnetworks.org biominer [ ] modeling, analyzing and visualizing biochemical pathways and networks http://www.zbi.uni-saarland.de/chair/projects/biominer cell illustrator [ ] petri nets for modeling and simulating biological networks http://www.cellillustrator.com copasi [ ] analysis of biochemical networks and their dynamics http://www.copasi.org/ cytoscape [ , ] network visualization and analysis. over plugins [ ] http://www.cytoscape.org/ dizzy [ ] chemical kinetics stochastic simulation software http://magnet.systemsbiology.net/software/dizzy/ dyconet [ ] gephi plugin that can be used to identify dynamic communities in networks https://github.com/juliemkauffman/dyconet genevis [ , ] network and pathway visualization http://tinyurl.com/genevis/ gephi [ ] interactive visualization and exploration for any network and complex system, dynamic and hierarchical graph. https://gephi.org igraph [ ] collection of network analysis tools with the emphasis on efficiency, portability and ease of use http://igraph.sourceforge.net medusa [ , ] semantic and multi-edged simple networks https://sites.google.com/site/medusa visualization/ navigator [ , ] visualizing and analyzing protein-protein interaction networks http://tinyurl.com/navigator / n-browse [ ] interactive graphical browser for biological networks http://www.gnetbrowse.org/ neat [ ] topological and clustering analysis of networks http://rsat.ulb.ac.be/neat/ ondex [ ] data integration and visualization of large networks http://www.ondex.org/ osprey [ ] visualization and annotation of biological networks http://biodata.mshri.on.ca/osprey/servlet/index pajek [ ] analysis and visualization of large networks and social network analysis http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/ pathwayassist [ ] navigation and analysis of biological pathways, gene regulation networks and protein interaction maps. http://www.ariadnegenomics.com/downloads/ pivot [ ] layout algorithms for visualizing protein interactions and families http://acgt.cs.tau.ac.il/pivot/ procope [ ] prediction and evaluation of protein complexes from purification data experiments http://www.bio.ifi.lmu.de/complexes/procope/ proviz [ ] visualization and exploration of interaction networks. gene ontology and psi-mi formats supported http://cbi.labri.fr/eng/proviz.htm spectralnet [ ] network analysis and visualizations. scatter plots and dimensionality reduction algorithms https://www.broadinstitute.org/software/spectralnet tulip [ ] enables the development of algorithms, visual encodings, interaction techniques, data models and domain-specific visualizations http://tulip.labri.fr/tulipdrupal/ vanesa [ ] automatic reconstruction and analysis of biological networks and petri nets based on life-science database information http://agbi.techfak.uni-bielefeld.de/vanesa/ vanted [ ] network reconstruction, data visualization, integration of various data types, network simulation http://tinyurl.com/vanted/ yed creation of diagrams manually and import external data http://tinyurl.com/yedgraph/ pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://www.arena d.org http://sbi.imim.es/web/biana.php http://www.biolayout.org/ http://www.biologicalnetworks.org http://www.zbi.uni-saarland.de/chair/projects/biominer http://www.cellillustrator.com http://www.copasi.org/ http://www.cytoscape.org/ http://magnet.systemsbiology.net/software/dizzy/ https://github.com/juliemkauffman/dyconet http://tinyurl.com/genevis/ https://gephi.org http://igraph.sourceforge.net https://sites.google.com/site/medusa visualization/ http://tinyurl.com/navigator / http://www.gnetbrowse.org/ http://rsat.ulb.ac.be/neat/ http://www.ondex.org/ http://biodata.mshri.on.ca/osprey/servlet/index http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/ http://www.ariadnegenomics.com/downloads/ http://acgt.cs.tau.ac.il/pivot/ http://www.bio.ifi.lmu.de/complexes/procope/ http://cbi.labri.fr/eng/proviz.htm https://www.broadinstitute.org/software/spectralnet http://tulip.labri.fr/tulipdrupal/ http://agbi.techfak.uni-bielefeld.de/vanesa/ http://tinyurl.com/vanted/ http://tinyurl.com/yedgraph/ analysis, we comment on the various network types that often appear in the field of biology and we summarize the strengths of the tools, along with their citation trends over time. in this section we also distinguish be- tween tools for network analysis and tools designed for pathway analysis and visualization. in a section on gen- omic visualization, we follow the same approach by dis- tinguishing between tools designed for genome browsing and visualization, genome assembly, genome alignments and genome comparisons. finally, in a section on visualization and analysis of expression data, we distin- guish between tree viewers and tools implemented for multivariate analysis. network biology visualization in the field of systems biology, we often meet network representations in which bioentities are interconnected with each other. in such graphs, each node represents a bioentity and edges (connections) represent the associa- tions between them [ ]. these graphs can be weighted, unweighted, directed or undirected. among the various networks types within the field, some of the most widely used are protein-protein interaction networks, literature- based co-occurrence networks, metabolic/biochemical, sig- nal transduction, gene regulatory and gene co-expression networks [ – ]. as new technological advances and high-throughput techniques come to the forefront every table visualization tools for network biology (continued) web tools for network analysis apid [ ] unified protein-protein interactions from bind, biogrid, dip, hprd, intact and mint http://bioinfow.dep.usal.es/apid/ arcadia [ ] translates text-based descriptions of biological networks (sbml files) into standardized diagrams (systems biology graphical notation process description maps) http://arcadiapathways.sourceforge.net/ avis [ ] viewer for signaling networks http://actin.pharm.mssm.edu/avis biopixie [ ] discovery of biological networks from diverse functional genomic data http://pixie.princeton.edu/pixie cellpublisher [ ] interactive representations of biochemical processes http://cellpublisher.gobics.de/ graphle [ ] distributed network exploration and visualization of interactive large, dense graphs http://tinyurl.com/graphle/ graphweb [ ] web server for graph-based analysis of biological networks http://biit.cs.ut.ee/graphweb/ hubba [ ] web-based service to explore the essential nodes in a network http://hub.iis.sinica.edu.tw/hubba networkblast [ ] analysis of protein interaction networks across species to infer protein complexes that are conserved in evolution http://www.cs.tau.ac.il/~bnet/networkblast.htm pathview [ ] tool set for pathway-based data integration and visualization http://pathview.r-forge.r-project.org/ pina [ ] integrated platform for protein interaction network construction, filtering, analysis, visualization and management http://cbg.garvan.unsw.edu.au/pina/home.do rematch [ ] web-based tool for integration of user-given stoichiometric metabolic models into a database collected from public data sources http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/group/sysfys/software/rematch/ snow [ ] gene mapping on a reference or human protein-protein interaction network that snow hosts http://snow.bioinfo.cipf.es stitch [ ] resource to explore known and predicted interactions of chemicals and proteins http://stitch.embl.de/ string [ ] protein interaction networks and integration of data such as genomic context, high-throughput experiments, conserved coexpression and previous knowledge derived from the literature http://string-db.org tvnviewer [ ] an interactive visualization tool for exploring networks that change over time or space http://www.sailing.cs.cmu.edu/main/?page_id= tyna [ ] system for managing, comparing and mining multiple networks http://tyna.gersteinlab.org/tyna/ visant [ , ] visualization, mining, analysis and modeling of biological networks, metabolic networks and ecosystems http://visant.bu.edu/ pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://bioinfow.dep.usal.es/apid/ http://arcadiapathways.sourceforge.net/ http://actin.pharm.mssm.edu/avis http://pixie.princeton.edu/pixie http://cellpublisher.gobics.de/ http://tinyurl.com/graphle/ http://biit.cs.ut.ee/graphweb/ http://hub.iis.sinica.edu.tw/hubba http://www.cs.tau.ac.il/~bnet/networkblast.htm http://pathview.r-forge.r-project.org/ http://cbg.garvan.unsw.edu.au/pina/home.do http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/group/sysfys/software/rematch/ http://snow.bioinfo.cipf.es/ http://stitch.embl.de/ http://string-db.org http://www.sailing.cs.cmu.edu/main/?page_id= http://tyna.gersteinlab.org/tyna/ http://visant.bu.edu/ few years, such networks can increase dramatically in size and complexity, and therefore more efficient algorithms for analysis and visualization are necessary. notably, a net- work consisting of a hundred nodes and connections is incomprehensible and impossible for a human to visually analyze. for example, techniques such as tandem affinity purification (tap) [ ], yeast two hybrid (y h) [ ] and mass spectrometry [ ] can nowadays generate a signifi- cant fraction of the physical interactions of a proteome. as network biology evolves over time, we indicate standard table visualization tools for pathways standalone applications tool and references description url bina [ ] drawings of metabolic networks supporting hiding of cofactors and drawing of chemical structures http://bina.unipax.info/ biotapestry [ ] interactive tool for building, visualizing and sharing gene regulatory network models over the web http://www.biotapestry.org/ caleydo [ ] visual analysis framework targeted at biomolecular data. visualization of interdependencies between multiple datasets http://www.caleydo.org/ celldesigner [ ] a modeling tool for biochemical networks http://www.celldesigner.org/ edinburgh pathway editor [ ] edit and draw pathway diagrams http://epe.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/ epe.html genmapp [ ] visualization of gene expression and other genomic data on maps representing biological pathways and groupings of genes http://www.genmapp.org/ ingenuity ipa data integration platform and manually annotated pathways http://tinyurl.com/ingenuitypath jdesigner [ ] graphical modeling environment for biochemical reaction networks http://jdesigner.sourceforge.net/site/ jdesigner.html kappa view [ ] plant pathways http://kpv.kazusa.or.jp/ kegg atlas [ ] interactive kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes pathways http://www.genome.jp/kegg/ omix [ ] visualizing multi-omics data in metabolic networks https://www.omix-visualization.com pathvisio [ ] biological pathway analysis software that allows drawing, editing and analysis of biological pathways http://www.pathvisio.org/ vitapad [ ] application to visualize biological pathways and map experimental data to them http://tinyurl.com/vitapad/ web tools for pathways arrayxpath [ ] mapping and visualizing microarray gene-expression data and integrated biological pathway resources using svg http://tinyurl.com/arrayxpath/ gepat [ ] integrated analysis of transcriptome data in genomic, proteomic and metabolic contexts http://gepat.sourceforge.net/ ipath [ , ] web-based tool for the visualization, analysis and customization of pathway maps http://pathways.embl.de/ kegg-based viewer [ ] kegg-based pathway visualization tool for complex high-throughput data http://www.g-language.org/data/marray/ mapman [ ] user-driven tool that displays large datasets onto diagrams of metabolic pathways or other processes http://mapman.gabipd.org/web/guest/mapman metpa [ ] analysis and visualization of metabolomic data within the biological context of metabolic pathways http://metpa.metabolomics.ca omics viewer [ ] data mapping on biocyc pathways (collection of pathway/ genome databases) http://www.biocyc.org/ pathway explorer [ ] interactive java drawing tool for the construction of biological pathway diagrams in a visual way and the annotation of the components and interactions between them http://genome.tugraz.at/pathwayexplorer/ pathwayexplorer_description.shtml pathway projector [ ] zoomable pathway browser using kegg atlas and google maps api http://www.g-language.org/pathwayprojector/ patika [ ] integrated environment composed of a central database and a visual editor, built around an extensive ontology and an integration framework http://www.cs.bilkent.edu.tr/~patikaweb/ reactome skypainter [ ] visualization of over-represented pathways and reactions from gene lists http://www.reactome.org/skypainter- wikipathways [ ] wiki-based, open, public platform dedicated to the curation of biological pathways by and for the scientific community http://www.wikipathways.org/ pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://bina.unipax.info/ http://www.biotapestry.org/ http://www.caleydo.org/ http://www.celldesigner.org/ http://epe.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/epe.html http://epe.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/epe.html http://www.genmapp.org/ http://tinyurl.com/ingenuitypath http://jdesigner.sourceforge.net/site/jdesigner.html http://jdesigner.sourceforge.net/site/jdesigner.html http://kpv.kazusa.or.jp/ http://www.genome.jp/kegg/ https://www.omix-visualization.com http://www.pathvisio.org/ http://tinyurl.com/vitapad/ http://tinyurl.com/arrayxpath/ http://gepat.sourceforge.net/ http://pathways.embl.de/ http://www.g-language.org/data/marray/ http://mapman.gabipd.org/web/guest/mapman http://metpa.metabolomics.ca http://www.biocyc.org/ http://genome.tugraz.at/pathwayexplorer/pathwayexplorer_description.shtml http://genome.tugraz.at/pathwayexplorer/pathwayexplorer_description.shtml http://www.g-language.org/pathwayprojector/ http://www.cs.bilkent.edu.tr/~patikaweb/ http://www.reactome.org/skypainter- http://www.wikipathways.org/ procedures that were developed over the past years and highlight key tools and methodologies that had a crucial role in this maturation process (fig. ). in the s, two-dimensional ( d) static graph lay- outs were developed for visualizing networks. topo- logical analysis, layout and clustering were pre- calculated and results were captured in a single static image. clustering analysis was performed to detect cli- ques or highly connected regions within a graph, layout techniques such as fruchterman-reingold [ ] were im- plemented to place nodes in positions where the cross- overs between the edges are minimized and topological analysis was used for detecting important nodes of the network such as hubs or nodes with high betweenness centrality. the typical visual encoding consisted of using arrows for directed graphs, adjusting the thickness of an edge to show the importance of a connection, using the same color for nodes that belong to the same cluster or modifying the node’s size to show its topological fea- tures, such as its neighbor connectivity. as integrative biology and high-throughput techniques advanced over the years, the necessity to move away from static images and add interactivity and navigation for easier data ex- ploration became clearer. bridging between analysis and visualization became necessary, and tools that incorporated both increased the standards in the field. in clustering analysis, for ex- ample, new computational methods such as mcl [ ] and variations [ ], cfinder [ ], mcode [ ], clique [ ] and others were applied to biological networks to find highly connected regions of importance. decaff [ ], swemode [ ] or stm [ ], for example, were developed to predict protein complexes [ ] incorporat- ing graph annotations, whereas others such as dmsp [ ], gfa [ ] and matisse [ ] were focused on gene-expression data. most of these algorithms were command-line-based and only few tools such as jclust [ ], giba [ ], clustermaker [ ] or neat [ ] have been developed to integrate data in visual environments. these aforementioned techniques along with others are thoroughly discussed elsewhere [ , – ]. although most network visualization tools are standa- lone applications, they guarantee efficient data exploration and the manipulation of visualization with mouse- hovering supporting actions. such tools are for example the pajek [ ], osprey [ ], visant [ ] and others. next-generation visualization tools took advantage of standard file formats such as biopax [ , ], sbml [ ], a b fig. citation trends and key player tools in network biology. a citations of network visualization tools based on scopus. b citations of pathway visualization tools based on scopus. the numbers of citations of each tool in are shown after its name pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : psi-mi [ ] and cellml [ ]; modern, more sophisticated layouts such as hive-plots [ ]; and the available web services and data integration techniques to directly retrieve and handle information from public repositories on the fly. functional enrichment of genes using the gene ontology (go) repository [ ] is a typical example. among others, current state-of-the-art tools are the ondex [ ], cytoscape [ ] or gephi [ ], while tools such as ipath [ ], patika [ ], pathvisio [ ] and others [ ] are pathway specific. as biological networks became larger over time, con- sisting of thousands of nodes and connections, the so- called ‘hairball’ effect, where many nodes are densely connected with each other became very difficult to cope with. a partial solution to this was to shift from d rep- resentations to three-dimensional ( d) representations. tools such as arena d [ , ] or biolayout express d [ ] take advantage of d space to show data in a virtual d universe. biolayout express uses whole d space to visualize networks, whereas arena d imple- ments a multilayered concept to present d networks in a stack. although a d network allows immediate visual feedback, a d rendering usually requires the user to interact more with the data in a more explorative mode, but can help reveal interesting features potentially hid- den in a d representation. although it is debatable whether d rendering is better than d visualization, hardware acceleration and performance still need to be taken into account when planning d visualizations (fig. ). tables and present currently freely available net- work and pathway visualization tools and their main characteristics. however, it is not the purpose of this a b blast hits genome browser genome assembly unordered reads aligned reads genome d normal karyotype c e genomic variations f time series t i m e g fig. visualization for genome biology. a timeline of the emergence of relevant technologies and concepts. b a typical normal human karyotype. c visualization of blast hits and alignment of orthologous genes for the human tp gene. d the human tp gene and its annotations visualized by the ucsc genome browser. e visualization of a de novo genome assembly from its dna fragments. f examples of balanced and unbalanced genomic rearrangements. g hypothetical visualization of genomic structural variations across time pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : review to perform a deeper comparative analysis of all available d and d visualization tools, as this is avail- able elsewhere [ , – ]. nevertheless, as network biology is gaining ground over the years, we sought to investigate the impact of the current tools in the field. to accomplish this, we tracked the tools that appeared after year and whose respective articles are indexed by scopus (fig. ). we chose to keep track of the cita- tions of only the first original publication for each tool. although the number of citations is a reasonable indica- tor of popularity, it can sometimes be misleading as sev- eral tool versions appear in different articles that we have not yet tracked. nevertheless, some immediate con- clusions can be reached, such as that cytoscape seems to be by far the biggest player for network visualization, as it comes with more than plugins [ ] imple- mented by an active module community (fig. b). simi- larly, mapman [ ] and reactome skypainter [ ] are the most used tools for pathway visualization (fig. b). over the past years, the data visualization field has become more and more competitive. there is a trend away from standalone applications towards the integration of visualization implementations within web browsers. therefore, libraries and new programming languages have been dedicated to this task (see the final section below). the greater visibility provided by web implementation means that advanced visualization can more easily become available to non-experts and to the broader community. finally, one of the biggest visualization challenges today is to capture the dynamics of networks and the way in which topological properties change over time [ ]. for this, mo- tion or other sophisticated ideas, along with new human- computer interaction (hci) techniques, should be taken into consideration. although serious efforts on this are on the way [ , , ], there are still much to expect in the future as hci techniques and virtual reality (vr) devices (such as oculus rift) become cheaper and more advanced over time (fig. ). table visualization tools for genome alignments tool and references description url abyss explorer [ ] interactive java application that uses a novel graph-based representation to display a sequence assembly and associated metadata http://www.bcgsc.ca/platform/bioinfo/software/ abyss-explorer bamview [ ] genome browser and annotation tool that allows visualization of sequence features, next-generation sequencing (ngs) data and the results of analyses within the context of the sequence, and also its six-frame translation http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/artemis/ dnannotator [ ] annotation web toolkit for regional genomic sequences http://bioapp.psych.uic.edu/dnannotator.htm jvm [ ] java visual mapping tool for ngs reads http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_ downloaddocument/ -c .pdf?sgwid= - - - -p lookseq [ ] web-based visualization of sequences derived from multiple sequencing technologies. low- or high-depth read pileups and easy visualization of putative single nucleotide and structural variation http://lookseq.sourceforge.net magicviewer [ ] visualization of short read alignment, identification of genetic variation and association with annotation information of a reference genome http://bioinformatics.zj.cn/magicviewer/ mapview [ ] alignments of huge-scale single-end and pair-end short reads http://omictools.com/mapview-s .html multipipmaker [ ] computes alignments of similar regions in two dna sequences. the resulting alignments are summarized with a ‘percent identity plot’ (pip) http://pipmaker.bx.psu.edu/pipmaker/ pilelinegui [ ] handling genome position files in ngs studies http://sing.ei.uvigo.es/pileline/pilelinegui.html samtools tview [ ] simple and fast text alignment viewer; ngs compatible http://www.htslib.org/ sewal [ ] uses a locality-sensitive hashing algorithm to enumerate all unique sequences in an entire illumina sequencing run http://www.sourceforge.net/projects/sewal star [ ] a web-based integrated solution to management and visualization of sequencing data http://wanglab.ucsd.edu/star/browser sva [ ] software for annotating and visualizing sequenced human genomes http://www.svaproject.org viewer (igv) [ ] visualization of large heterogeneous datasets, providing a smooth and intuitive user experience at all levels of genome resolution https://www.broadinstitute.org/igv/ zoom lite [ ] ngs data mapping and visualization software http://bioinfor.com/zoom/lite/ pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://www.bcgsc.ca/platform/bioinfo/software/abyss-explorer http://www.bcgsc.ca/platform/bioinfo/software/abyss-explorer http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/artemis/ http://bioapp.psych.uic.edu/dnannotator.htm http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/ -c .pdf?sgwid= - - - -p http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/ -c .pdf?sgwid= - - - -p http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/ -c .pdf?sgwid= - - - -p http://lookseq.sourceforge.net http://bioinformatics.zj.cn/magicviewer/ http://omictools.com/mapview-s .html http://pipmaker.bx.psu.edu/pipmaker/ http://sing.ei.uvigo.es/pileline/pilelinegui.html http://www.htslib.org/ http://www.sourceforge.net/projects/sewal http://wanglab.ucsd.edu/star/browser http://www.svaproject.org https://www.broadinstitute.org/igv/ http://bioinfor.com/zoom/lite/ visualization in genomics there remain many open challenges for advanced visualization for genome assemblies, alignments, polymor- phisms, variations, synteny, single nucleotide polymor- phisms (snps), rearrangements and annotations [ , ]. to better follow progress in the visualization field, we first need to follow the way in which new technologies, ques- tions and trends have been shaped over the years (fig. ). up to the s, local and global pairwise and mul- tiple sequence alignment algorithms such as smith- waterman [ ], needleman-wunsch [ ], fasta [ ] and blast [ ] were the focus of bioinformatics methods development. multiple sequence alignment tools such as the clustalw/clustal x [ ], muscle [ ], t-coffee [ ] and others [ ] used basic visualization schemes, in which sequences were represented as strings placed vertically in stacks. colors were used to visually encode base conservation and to indicate matching, non- matching and similar nucleotides [ , ]. although these tools were successful for small num- bers of nucleotide or protein sequences, a question was raised regarding their applicability to whole-genome se- quencing and comparison. a few years later ( ), the sanger (dideoxy) first generation sequencing, particularly capillary approaches, allowed the sequencing of the first whole human genome, consisting of about billion base pairs and over , human genes [ , ]. shortly after that, second-generation (illumina [ ], roche/ [ ], biosystems/solid [ ]) and third-generation techniques (helicos biosciences [ ], pacific biosciences [ ], oxford nanopore [ ] and complete genomics [ ]) high- throughput sequencing techniques [ – ] allowed the sequencing of a transcriptome, an exome or a whole genome at a much lower cost and within reasonable timeframes. projects such as the genomes project, for com- prehensive human genetic variation analysis [ – ], and the international hapmap project [ – ], for the identification of common genetic variations among people from different countries, are just a few examples of the data explosion that has taken place in the era of comparative genomics, after . such large-scale genomic datasets necessitate powerful tools to link gen- omic data to its source genome and across genomes. therefore, among others [ ], widely used standalone and web-based genome browsers were dedicated to in- formation handling, genome visualization, navigation, exploration and integration with annotations from va- rious repositories. at present, many specialized tools for comparative genomic visualization are available and are widely used. to follow trends in the field, we summarize the tools into four categories: genome alignment visualization tools (table ); genome assembly visualization tools (table ); genome browsers (table ); and tools to directly compare different genomes with each other for efficient detection of snps and genomic variations (table ). following the same approach used for network biology (above), we examine the citation progress of the first article that was published for each tool using the scopus repository (fig. ). consed [ ] and gap [ , ] seem to be the most widely used assembly viewers, while samtools tview [ ] is the favorite tool for genomic assembly visua- lization. in addition, the university of california, santa cruz (ucsc) genome browser [ ], artemis [ ] and ensembl [ , ] seem to be the go-to genome table visualization tools for assemblies tool and references description url archive viewer [ ] web graphical interface to make contigs and trace data changes in the national center for biotechnology information (ncbi) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/traces/assembly/assmbrowser.cgi? cbrowse [ ] sam/bam-based contig web browser for transcriptome assembly visualization and analysis http://bioinfolab.muohio.edu/cbrowse/ consed [ ] assembly finishing package; ngs compatible http://www.phrap.org/ contigscape [ ] a cytoscape plugin facilitating microbial genome gap closing http://sourceforge.net/projects/contigscape/ dnastar lasergene [ ] analysis suite with an assembly package http://www.dnastar.com/ eagleview [ ] an information-rich viewer for genome assemblies with data integration capability http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/software/ biostatistics/eagleview/ gap [ , ] a fully developed set of dna sequence assembly (gap and gap ), editing and analysis tools http://staden.sourceforge.net/ hawkeye [ ] an interactive visual analytics tool for genome assemblies. detection of anomalies in data and visual identification and correction of assembly errors http://amos.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php?title=hawkeye tablet [ ] a lightweight, high-performance graphical viewer for ngs assemblies and alignments http://bioinf.scri.ac.uk/tablet pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/traces/assembly/assmbrowser.cgi? http://bioinfolab.muohio.edu/cbrowse/ http://www.phrap.org/ http://sourceforge.net/projects/contigscape/ http://www.dnastar.com/ http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/software/biostatistics/eagleview/ http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/software/biostatistics/eagleview/ http://staden.sourceforge.net/ http://amos.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php?title=hawkeye http://bioinf.scri.ac.uk/tablet table genome browsers tool and references description url web-based or standalone abrowse [ ] a customizable genome browser framework http://www.abrowse.org/ web-based annoj [ ] a web . application designed for visualizing deep sequencing data and other genome annotation data http://www.annoj.org/ web-based argo java tool for visualizing and manually annotating whole genomes http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/argo/ standalone artemis [ ] browser and annotation tool that allows visualization of sequence features, data and the results of analyses within the context of the sequence, and also its six-frame translation https://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/ artemis/ standalone cgview [ ] static and interactive graphical maps of circular genomes using a circular layout https://www.gview.ca/wiki/gview/ standalone combo [ ] dynamic browser to visualize alignments of whole genomes and their associated annotations http://www.broad.mit.edu/annotation/argo/ standalone ensembl [ , ] annotation, analysis and display of vertebrates and other eukaryotic species http://www.ensembl.org/ web-based family genome browser [ ] visualizing genomes with pedigree information http://mlg.hit.edu.cn/fgb/ web-based gaggle [ ] genome browser within an analysis framework; good microarray support http://gaggle.systemsbiology.net/ standalone gbrowse [ , ] a combination of database and interactive web pages for manipulating and displaying annotations on genomes http://gmod.org/wiki/gbrowse web-based genomap [ ] a circular genome data viewer http://nsato .c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/old/genomap/ genomap.html standalone genome projector [ ] circular genome maps, traditional genome maps, plasmid maps, biochemical pathways maps and dna walks. google api http://www.g-language.org/genomeprojector/ web-based genomeview [ ] designed to visualize and manipulate a multitude of genomics data http://genomeview.org/content/integration standalone genplay [ ] a multipurpose genome analyzer and browser http://www.genplay.net standalone igb [ ] optimized to achieve maximum flexibility and high quality genome visualization http://genoviz.sourceforge.net/ standalone igv [ ] a high-performance visualization tool for interactive exploration of large, integrated genomic datasets http://www.broadinstitute.org/igv/ standalone jbrowse [ ] a fast, embeddable genome browser built completely with javascript and html http://jbrowse.org/ web-based jgi supports live annotation; primary portal for doe joint genomics institute genome projects http://genome.jgi-psf.org/ web-based ncbi genome workbench an integrated application for viewing and analyzing sequence data http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/tools/gbench/ standalone ncbi map viewer [ ] vertically oriented viewer; integrated with ncbi resources and tools http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/ web-based phytozome [ ] a comparative platform for green plant genomics http://www.phytozome.net web-based savant [ ] it was primarily developed for visualizing sequencing data, although it can be used to visualize almost any genome-based sequence, point, interval or continuous dataset http://compbio.cs.toronto.edu/savant standalone scribl [ ] an html canvas-based graphics library for visualizing genomic data over the web http://chmille .github.com/scribl/ web-based the huref browser [ ] a web resource for individual human genomics http://huref.jcvi.org web-based the personal genome browser [ ] visualizing functions of genetic variants http://www.pgbrowser.org/ web-based pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://www.abrowse.org/ http://www.annoj.org/ http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/argo/ https://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/artemis/ https://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/artemis/ https://www.gview.ca/wiki/gview/ http://www.broad.mit.edu/annotation/argo/ http://www.ensembl.org/ http://mlg.hit.edu.cn/fgb/ http://gaggle.systemsbiology.net/ http://gmod.org/wiki/gbrowse http://nsato .c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/old/genomap/genomap.html http://nsato .c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/old/genomap/genomap.html http://www.g-language.org/genomeprojector/ http://genomeview.org/content/integration http://www.genplay.net http://genoviz.sourceforge.net/ http://www.broadinstitute.org/igv/ http://jbrowse.org/ http://genome.jgi-psf.org/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/tools/gbench/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/ http://www.phytozome.net http://compbio.cs.toronto.edu/savant http://chmille .github.com/scribl/ http://huref.jcvi.org http://www.pgbrowser.org/ browsers, while circos [ ], vista [ ] and cbio [ ] are the most widely used tools for comparative genomics. although tremendous progress has been made in gen- omic visualization and very large amounts of money have been invested in such projects, genome browsers [ ] still need to address major problems. one of the biggest challenges is the integration of data in different formats (such as genomic and clinical data) as society enters the personalized medicine era. furthermore, navi- gation at different resolution or granularity levels and smooth scaling are necessary as long as simultaneous comparisons across millions of elements [ ] remains a bottleneck. newer infrastructure and software that allow on-the-fly calculations both in the front end and the back end would definitely be a step forward. finally, similarly to network biology, time-series data visua- lization is one of the great challenges. for example, in a hypothetical scenario in which it is required to follow genomic rearrangements over time during tumor devel- opment, time-series data visualization would be an in- valuable tool. motion integration and visualization using additional dimensions could be possible solutions. over- all, it would be unrealistic to expect an ideal universal genome browser that serves all the possible purposes in the field. visualization and analysis of expression data microarrays [ ] and rna sequencing [ ] are the two main high-throughput techniques for measuring expres- sion levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously. both methods are revolutionary as one can simultan- eously monitor the effects of certain treatments, diseases and developmental stages on gene expression across time (fig. a) and for multiple transcript isoforms. al- though microarrays and rnaseq technologies are com- parable to each other [ ], the latter tends to dominate, especially as sequencing technologies have improved, and there now are robust statistics to model the particu- lar noise characteristics of rnaseq, particularly for low expression [ ]. microarrays are still cheaper and in some contexts may be more convenient as their analysis is still simpler and requires less computing infrastructure. in both cases, a typical analysis procedure is first to normalize experimental and batch differences between samples and then to identify up- and downregulated genes based on a fold-change level when comparing across sam- ples, such as between a healthy and a non-healthy tissue. statistical approaches are used to assess how reliable fold- change measurements are for each transcript of interest by modeling variation across transcripts and experiments. subsequently, functional enrichment is performed to identify pathways and biological processes in which the up- and downregulated genes may be involved. although there are numerous functional enrichment suites [ ], david [ ], panther [ ] and webgestalt [ ] are among the most widely used. when gene expression is measured across many time points or conditions so as to observe, for example, the ex- pression patterns following treatment, various analyses can be taken into consideration. principal component ana- lysis or partitional clustering algorithms such as k-means [ ] can be used to group together genes with similar be- havior patterns. scatter-plotting is the typical visualization to represent such groupings. thus, each point on a plane represents a gene and the closer two genes appear, the more similar they are (fig. b, c). when one wants to categorize genes with similar be- havior patterns across time (fig. d), hierarchical cluster- ing based on expression correlation can be performed. average linkage, complete linkage, single linkage, neigh- bor joining [ ] and upgma [ ] are the most widely used methods. in such approaches, an all-against-all dis- tance or correlation matrix that shows the similarities between each pair of genes is required and genes are placed as leaves in a tree hierarchy. the two most widely used correlation metrics for expression data are the spearman and pearson correlation metrics. a list of tree viewers for hierarchical clustering visualization is pre- sented in table . a more advanced visualization method is combining trees with heatmaps (fig. e): genes are grouped together according to their expression patterns in a tree hierarchy and the heat map is a graphical represen- tation of individual gene-expression values represented as colors. darker colors indicate a higher expression value table genome browsers (continued) ucsc cancer genomics browser [ , ] integration of clinical data http://genome-cancer.ucsc.edu/ web-based ucsc genome browser [ ] rapid linear visualization, examination and querying of the data at many levels http://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hggateway web-based utgb [ ] open-source software for developing personalized genome browsers that work in web browsers http://utgenome.org/ web-based x:map [ ] mappings between genomic features and affymetrix microarrays http://xmap.picr.man.ac.uk/ web-based pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://genome-cancer.ucsc.edu/ http://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hggateway http://utgenome.org/ http://xmap.picr.man.ac.uk/ table visualization tools for comparative genomics tool and references description url web-based or standalone act [ ] a tool for displaying pairwise comparisons between two or more dna sequences http://www.sanger.ac.uk/software/act/ standalone cbio [ ] an open-access resource for interactive exploration of multidimensional cancer genomics datasets http://cbioportal.org web-based cinteny [ ] detection of syntenic regions across multiple genomes and measuring the extent of genome rearrangement using reversal distance as a measure http://cinteny.cchmc.org/ web-based circos [ ] a software package for visualizing data and information. it visualizes data in a circular layout http://mkweb.bcgsc.ca/circos standalone cmap [ ] a browser-based tool for the visual comparison of various maps (sequence, genetic, etc.) from any number of species http://gmod.org/wiki/cmap standalone coge synmap [ ] generates a syntenic dot-plot between two organisms and identifies syntenic regions https://genomevolution.org/coge/synmap.pl web-based combo [ ] dot-plot and linked-track views. integration of annotation in both views http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/ argo/ standalone dhpc [ ] visualization of large-scale genome sequences by mapping sequences into a d using the space-filling function of hilbert-peano mapping http://www.hpcurve.com standalone dnaplotter [ ] a java application for generating circular and linear representations of genomes. makes use of the artemis libraries http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/ dnaplotter/ standalone filoot [ ] a visualization tool for exploring genomic data no url standalone gbrowsesyn [ ] gbrowse-based synteny browser designed to display multiple genomes, with a central reference species compared with two or more additional species http://gmod.org/wiki/gbrowse_syn standalone genomecomp [ ] a tool for summarizing, parsing and visualizing the genome-wide sequence comparison results derived from voluminous blast textual output http://www.mgc.ac.cn/genomecomp/ standalone genomematcher [ ] a dot-plot-based viewer for dna sequence comparison http://tinyurl.com/genomematcher/ web-based genplay multi- genome [ ] a tool to compare and analyze multiple human genomes in a graphical interface http://genplay.einstein.yu.edu standalone ggbio [ ] r library to visualize particular genomic regions and genome-wide overviews http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/ . /bioc/html/ggbio.html standalone gramene [ , ] a comparative genome mapping database for grasses and a community resource for oryza sativa http://ensembl.gramene.org/genome_ browser/index.html web-based hilbertvis [ ] functions to visualize long vectors of integer data by means of hilbert curves http://www.ebi.ac.uk/huber-srv/hilbert/ standalone in-gavsv [ ] integrative genome analysis pipeline (ingap), which uses a bayesian principle to detect snps and small insertion/deletions (indels) http://ingap.sourceforge.net/ standalone meander [ ] hilbert plots to visually discover and explore structural variations in a genome based on read-depth and pair-end information https://sites.google.com/site/meanderviz/ standalone medea [ ] genomic feature densities and genome alignments of circular genomes. comparative genomic visualization with adobe flash http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/ medea/ web-based mizbee [ ] a multiscale synteny browser for exploring conservation relationships in comparative genomics data. using side-by-side linked views, it enables efficient data browsing across a range of scales, from the genome to the gene http://www.cs.utah.edu/~miriah/mizbee web-based music [ ] identifying mutational significance in cancer genomes http://gmt.genome.wustl.edu standalone ngs.plot [ ] quick mining and visualization of ngs data by integrating genomic databases https://github.com/shenlab-sinai/ngsplot standalone pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://www.sanger.ac.uk/software/act/ http://cbioportal.org http://cinteny.cchmc.org/ http://mkweb.bcgsc.ca/circos http://gmod.org/wiki/cmap https://genomevolution.org/coge/synmap.pl http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/argo/ http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/argo/ http://www.hpcurve.com http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/dnaplotter/ http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/dnaplotter/ http://gmod.org/wiki/gbrowse_syn http://www.mgc.ac.cn/genomecomp/ http://tinyurl.com/genomematcher/ http://genplay.einstein.yu.edu http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/ . /bioc/html/ggbio.html http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/ . /bioc/html/ggbio.html http://ensembl.gramene.org/genome_browser/index.html http://ensembl.gramene.org/genome_browser/index.html http://www.ebi.ac.uk/huber-srv/hilbert/ http://ingap.sourceforge.net/ https://sites.google.com/site/meanderviz/ http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/medea/ http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/medea/ http://www.cs.utah.edu/~miriah/mizbee http://gmt.genome.wustl.edu https://github.com/shenlab-sinai/ngsplot and vice versa. an even more complex visualization of a d hierarchical clustering is shown in fig. f, in which genes are clustered based on their expression patterns across several conditions (vertical tree on the left) and conditions are clustered across genes (horizontal tree). the heatmap shows the correlations between gene groups and conditions by allowing the researcher to come to con- clusions about whether a group of genes is affected by a set of conditions or not. heatmaps do, however, have sig- nificant drawbacks with regards to color perception. per- ception of the color of a cell in a heatmap is shaped by the color of the surrounding cells, so two cells with identical color can look very different depending on their position in the heatmap. although rnaseq analysis is still an active field, microarray analysis has matured a lot over the past years and many suites for analyzing such data are currently available (table ). to identify the key players in the field of microarray/rnaseq visualization we followed the citation patterns of the available tools from scopus (fig. ). mega [ ], arb [ ], njplot [ ], dendroscope [ ] and itol [ ] are the most widely used tree viewers to visualize phylogenies and hierar- chical clustering results. multiexperiment viewer [ ], genesis [ ], genepattern [ ] and expander [ ] are advanced suites that can perform various multivari- ate analyses such as the ones discussed in this section. nevertheless, the commercial genespring platform and the entire r/bioconductor framework [ , ] are mostly used in such analyses. concerning the future of multivariate data visualization, new hci techniques and vr devices could allow parallel visualizations, analyses and data integration simultan- eously (fig. g). programming languages and complementary libraries for building visual prototypes although the field of biological data visualization has been active for years, it is still evolving rapidly today, as the complexity and the size of results produced by high-throughput approaches increase. although most of the current software is offered in the form of standalone distributions, a shift towards web visualization is growing. important features of modern visualization tools include: interactivity; interoperability; efficient data exploration; quick visual data querying; smart visual adjustment for different devices with different dimensions and resolu- tions; fast panning; fast zooming in or out; multilayered visualization; visual comparison of data; and smart visual data filtering. as functions and libraries implementing these features for standalone applications become avail- able, similar libraries for web visualizations immediately follow. therefore, in this section we discuss the latest programming languages, libraries and application table visualization tools for comparative genomics (continued) phigs [ ] ideogram-style interactive display of orthologs across > genomes http://phigs.org web-based psat [ ] a web tool to compare genomic neighborhoods of multiple prokaryotic genomes http://www.nwrce.org/psat web-based seevolution [ ] interactive d environment that enables visualization of diverse genome evolution processes http://seevolution.org standalone sybil [ ] comparative genome data, particularly protein and gene clustered data http://sybil.sourceforge.net/ web-based synview [ ] a gbrowse-compatible approach to visualizing comparative genome data http://gmod.org/wiki/synview standalone treat [ ] a bioinformatics tool for variant annotations and visualizations in targeted and exome sequencing data http://ndc.mayo.edu/mayo/research/biostat/ stand-alone-packages.cfm standalone ucsc genome browser [ ] conservation tracks within the popular ucsc genome browser http://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hggateway/ web-based vanno [ ] a visualization-aided variant annotation tool http://cgts.cgu.edu.tw/vanno web-based variant view [ ] features an information-dense visual encoding that provides maximal information at the overview level, in contrast to the extensive navigation required by currently prevalent genome browsers http://www.cs.ubc.ca/labs/imager/tr/ / variantview/ web-based vista [ ] a comprehensive suite of programs and databases for comparative analysis of genomic sequences http://genome.lbl.gov/vista/index.shtml web-based vsv, vista-dot [ , ] three-scale viewer for synteny and dynamic, interactive dot plots for whole-genome dna alignments http://genome.jgi-psf.org/synteny/ web-based pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://phigs.org http://www.nwrce.org/psat http://seevolution.org http://sybil.sourceforge.net/ http://gmod.org/wiki/synview http://ndc.mayo.edu/mayo/research/biostat/stand-alone-packages.cfm http://ndc.mayo.edu/mayo/research/biostat/stand-alone-packages.cfm http://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hggateway/ http://cgts.cgu.edu.tw/vanno http://www.cs.ubc.ca/labs/imager/tr/ /variantview/ http://www.cs.ubc.ca/labs/imager/tr/ /variantview/ http://genome.lbl.gov/vista/index.shtml http://genome.jgi-psf.org/synteny/ program interfaces (apis) that automate and simplify many of the aforementioned features, enabling higher- quality visualization implementations. it is not in the scope of this review to extensively describe all program- ming language possibilities for data visualization; there- fore, we focus on the five languages that are mostly a b c d fig. citation trends and key players in genome biology. a citations of genome alignment visualization tools based on scopus. b citations of genome assembly visualization tools based on scopus. c citations of genome browsers based on scopus. d citations of comparative genomics visualization tools based on scopus. the numbers of citations of each tool in are shown after its name pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : used for high-throughput biological data. nevertheless, table summarizes other languages, along with generic and language-specific libraries (for r, perl and python), that target specific problems and make the implementa- tion of biological data visualization more practical. processing ‘processing’ is a programming language and a develop- ment platform for writing generative, interactive and animated standalone applications. basic shapes such as lines, triangles, rectangles and ellipses, inner/outer color- ing and basic operations such as transformations, trans- lations, scaling and rotations can be implemented in a single line of code and each shape can be drawn within a canvas of a given dimension and a given refresh rate. it is designed for easier implementations of d dynamic visualizations but it also supports d rendering, although not optimized. its core library is now extended by more than other libraries and it is one of the best documented languages in the field. the integrated devel- opment environment allows exporting of executable files for all windows, macos and linux operating systems as well as java applet .jar files. finally, it can be used as an ex- cellent educational tool for computer programming fun- damentals in a visual context. it is free for download, can easily be plugged in a java standalone application, and is fully cooperative with the netbeans and eclipse environ- ments. code examples and tutorials can be found at [ ]. processing.js java applets were an easy way to run standalone applica- tions within web browsers. this technology has now data clustering a b c d time or conditions principal component analysis parallel coordinates time seriesclustered heatmap e f g virtual world fig. multivariate analyses and visualization. a timeline of the emergence of relevant technologies and concepts. b visualization of k-means partitional clustering algorithm. c d visualization of a principal component analysis. d visualization of gene-expression measures across time using parallel coordinates. e visualization of gene-expression clustering across time. f d hierarchical clustering to visualize gene expressions against several time points or conditions. g hypothetical integration of analyses and expression heatmaps and the control of objects by vr devices pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : mainly been abandoned because of security consider- ations. to avoid javascript’s complexity and compensate for applet limitations, processing.js was implemented, as the sister project of the popular processing programming language, to allow interactive web visualization. it is a me- diator between html and processing and is designed to allow visual prototypes, digital arts, interactive animations, educational graphs and so on to run immediately within any html -compatible browser, such as firefox, safari, chrome, opera or internet explorer. no plugins are re- quired and one can code any visualization directly in the processing language, include it in a web page, and let processing.js bridge the two technologies. processing.js brings the best of visual programming to the web, both for processing and web developers. code examples and tutorials can be found at [ ]. d d is the main competitor of processing/processing.js and has gained ground over recent years. it was initially used to generate scalable vector graphics (svg). like proces- sing.js, it is designed for powerful interactive web visuali- zations and it comes with its own javascript-like syntax. it is a javascript library for manipulating document object model objects and a programming interface for html, xml and svg. the idea behind this approach is to load data into a browser and then generate document object model elements based on that data. subsequently, one can table tree viewers and phylogenies tool and references description url arb [ ] a graphically oriented package comprising various tools for sequence database handling and data analysis http://www.arb-home.de/ bio.phylo [ ] a unified toolkit for processing, analyzing and visualizing phylogenetic trees in biopython http://biopython.org dendroscope [ ] software for visualizing phylogenetic trees and rooted networks http://ab.inf.uni-tuebingen.de/software/dendroscope/ ete toolkit [ ] python programming toolkit that assists in the automated manipulation, analysis and visualization of phylogenetic and other types of trees http://etetoolkit.org/ evolview [ ] tool for displaying, managing and customizing phylogenetic trees http://www.evolgenius.info/evolview.html itol [ ] online tool for the display and manipulation of phylogenetic trees http://itol.embl.de/ mega [ ] integrated tool for phylogenetic analysis and visualization http://www.megasoftware.net/ njplot [ ] a tree drawing program able to draw any phylogenetic tree expressed in the newick phylogenetic tree format http://doua.prabi.fr/software/njplot onezoom [ ] committed to heightening awareness about the diversity of life on earth and its evolutionary history http://www.onezoom.org/ paloverde [ ] d visualization of phylogenetic structure of moderately large trees on the scale of – leaf nodes http://loco.biosci.arizona.edu/paloverde/paloverde.html phylodraw [ ] drawing tool for creating phylogenetic trees http://jade.cs.pusan.ac.kr/phylodraw/ phyloexplorer [ ] tool to facilitate assessment and management of phylogenetic tree collections http://www.ncbi.orthomam.univ-montp .fr/phyloexplorer/ phylowidget [ ] program for viewing, editing and publishing phylogenetic trees online http://www.phylowidget.org/ treedyn [ ] treedyn links unique leaf labels to lists of variables/values pairs of annotations, independently of the tree topologies http://www.treedyn.org/ treegraph [ ] a graphical editor for phylogenetic trees that allows many graphical formats for the elements of the tree http://treegraph.bioinfweb.info/ treeq-vista [ ] designed for presenting functional annotations in a phylogenetic context http://genome.lbl.gov/vista/treeqvista/ treevector [ ] web utility to create and integrate phylogenetic trees as scalable vector graphics (svg) files http://supfam.cs.bris.ac.uk/treevector/ treevolution [ ] java tool to support visual analysis of phylogenetic trees http://vis.usal.es/treevolution t-rex [ ] web server dedicated to the reconstruction of phylogenetic trees and reticulation networks and to the inference of horizontal gene transfer events http://www.trex.uqam.ca/ viphy [ ] comparison of multiple phylogenetic trees http://www.gris.tu-darmstadt.de/research/vissearch/projects/viphy/ pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://www.arb-home.de/ http://biopython.org http://ab.inf.uni-tuebingen.de/software/dendroscope/ http://etetoolkit.org/ http://www.evolgenius.info/evolview.html http://itol.embl.de/ http://www.megasoftware.net/ http://doua.prabi.fr/software/njplot http://www.onezoom.org/ http://loco.biosci.arizona.edu/paloverde/paloverde.html http://jade.cs.pusan.ac.kr/phylodraw/ http://www.ncbi.orthomam.univ-montp .fr/phyloexplorer/ http://www.phylowidget.org/ http://www.treedyn.org/ http://treegraph.bioinfweb.info/ http://genome.lbl.gov/vista/treeqvista/ http://supfam.cs.bris.ac.uk/treevector/ http://vis.usal.es/treevolution http://www.trex.uqam.ca/ http://www.gris.tu-darmstadt.de/research/vissearch/projects/viphy/ apply data-driven transformations on the document. this avoids proprietary representation and affords extra- ordinary flexibility. with minimal overhead, d is ex- tremely fast and supports large datasets and dynamic behaviors for interaction and animation. d ’s functional style allows code reuse through a diverse collection of components and plugins. it is extensively documented and code examples can be found at [ ]. table microarray and rnaseq analysis viewers tool and references description url arrayxpath [ ] mapping and visualizing microarray gene-expression data with integrated biological pathway resources using scalable vector graphics http://www.snubi.org/software/arrayxpath/ bicoverlapper [ , ] supports visual analysis of gene expression by means of biclustering http://vis.usal.es/bicoverlapper/ biggests [ ] tool providing an integrated environment for the biclustering analysis of time-series gene-expression data http://tinyurl.com/biggests/ erna [ ] rna data analysis tool for high-throughput rna sequencing experiments https://sourceforge.net/projects/erna/?source=directory expander [ ] a java-based tool for analysis of gene-expression and ngs data http://acgt.cs.tau.ac.il/expander/ expressionprofiler [ ] web-based platform for microarray gene-expression and other functional-genomics-related data analysis http://www.ebi.ac.uk/expressionprofiler genepattern [ ] modular analysis web platform; several visualization modules available http://genepattern.broadinstitute.org/gp/pages/login.jsf genesis [ ] java package of tools to simultaneously visualize and analyze a whole set of gene-expression experiments http://genome.tugraz.at/genesisclient/genesisclient_ description.shtml genevand [ ] linked heatmaps, dendrograms and d/ d scatter plots http://tinyurl.com/genevand/ geworkbench [ ] a java-based open-source platform for integrated genomics. it allows individually developed plugins to be configured into complex bioinformatic applications. currently more than available plugins supporting the visualization and analysis http://wiki.c b .columbia.edu/workbench/index.php/home gitools [ ] analysis and visualization of genomic data using interactive heatmaps http://www.gitools.org hce [ ] linked heat map, profile and scatter plots; systematic exploration http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/hce/ heatmapgenerator [ ] create customized gene-expression heatmaps from rnaseq and microarray data http://sourceforge.net/projects/heatmapgenerator/ heatmapviewer [ ] interactive display of microarray experiments or the outcome of mutational studies and the study of snp-like sequence variants http://dx.doi.org/ . /zenodo. mayday [ ] a graphical user interface that supports the development and integration of existing and new analysis methods. many linked visualizations http://it.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/?page_id= /wp/ multiexperiment viewer [ ] analysis suite. heatmaps, dendrograms, profile and scatter plots http://www.tm .org/ pointcloudxplore [ ] visualization of transcription data in drosophila embryos. multiple views to ease analysis of complex gene-expression data. this type of interaction blends high-dimensional information exploration with interactive, d visualization http://tinyurl.com/pointcloudxplore/ rnaseqbrowser [ ] a genome browser for simultaneous visualization of raw strand specific rnaseq reads and ucsc genome browser custom tracks http://www.australianprostatecentre.org/research/software/ rnaseqbrowser rnaseqviewer [ ] visualization of the various data from the rnaseq analyzing process, for single or multiple samples http://bioinfo.au.tsinghua.edu.cn/software/rnaseqviewer/ timesearcher [ ] interactive querying and exploration of time-series data http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/timesearcher/ trav [ ] visualization and analysis of multiple transcriptome sequencing experiments http://appmibio.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?sec=serv pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://www.snubi.org/software/arrayxpath/ http://vis.usal.es/bicoverlapper/ http://tinyurl.com/biggests/ https://sourceforge.net/projects/erna/?source=directory http://acgt.cs.tau.ac.il/expander/ http://www.ebi.ac.uk/expressionprofiler http://genepattern.broadinstitute.org/gp/pages/login.jsf http://genome.tugraz.at/genesisclient/genesisclient_description.shtml http://genome.tugraz.at/genesisclient/genesisclient_description.shtml http://tinyurl.com/genevand/ http://wiki.c b .columbia.edu/workbench/index.php/home http://www.gitools.org/ http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/hce/ http://sourceforge.net/projects/heatmapgenerator/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /zenodo. http://it.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/?page_id= /wp/ http://www.tm .org/ http://tinyurl.com/pointcloudxplore/ http://www.australianprostatecentre.org/research/software/rnaseqbrowser http://www.australianprostatecentre.org/research/software/rnaseqbrowser http://bioinfo.au.tsinghua.edu.cn/software/rnaseqviewer/ http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/timesearcher/ http://appmibio.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?sec=serv flash adobe flash was once the industry standard for authoring innovative, interactive content. in conjunction with the platform’s programming language, actionscript, flash allows designers to implement dynamic visualization, opening up many possibilities for creativity. some of the most pioneering, best practice visualizations built in flash can be found with online news and media sites, introdu- cing interactivity to supplement and enhance the presen- tation of information. because of the lack of support for flash across apple’s suite of devices and the emergence of competing developments, demanding less computational power, including d and html , this technology is now fading. java d java d is an api, acting as a mediator between opengl and java and enables the creation of standalone d graphics applications and internet-based d applets. it is easy to use and provides high-level functions for creating and manipulating d objects in space and their geometry. programmers initially create a virtual world and then place any d object anywhere in this world. rotation in three axes, zooming in or out and translation of the whole canvas are functions are offered by default, and the hierarchy of the transformation groups define the d transformations that can be applied individually to an object or a set of objects. java d code can be compiled under any of the windows, macos and unix systems. conclusion the future of biological data visualization biological data visualization is a rapidly evolving field. nevertheless, it is still in its infancy. hardware acce- leration, standardized exchangeable file formats, dimen- sionality reduction, visual feature selection, multivariate data analyses, interoperability, d rendering and visua- lization of complex data at different resolutions are areas in which great progress has been achieved. additionally, image processing combined with artificial-intelligence- based pattern recognition, new libraries and program- ming languages for web visualization, interactivity, visual analytics and visual data retrieval, storing and filtering are still ongoing efforts with remarkable advances over the past years [ , , ]. today, many of the current visualization tools serve as front ends for very advanced a b fig. citation trends and tools for gene-expression analysis. a citations of microarray/rnaseq visualization tools based on scopus. b citations of tree viewers based on scopus. the numbers of citations of each tool in are shown after its name pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : table programming languages and libraries to build visual prototype language/library description url adobe edge animated, interactive web content for projects that previously required flash https://creative.adobe.com/products/animate arbor.js efficient, force-directed layout algorithm plus abstractions for graph organization and screen refresh handling http://arborjs.org/ biojs biojs enables a full-featured biological workbench directly in your browser http://biojs.net/ bonsai.js lightweight graphics library with an intuitive graphics api and an svg renderer https://bonsaijs.org/ chart.js object oriented client side graphs. data visualization in six animated, fully customizable chart types http://www.chartjs.org/ cube time-series data, built on mongodb, node and d . real-time visualizations of aggregate metrics https://square.github.io/cube/ cubism d plugin for visualizing time series https://square.github.io/cubism/ cytoscape web easily embed interactive networks in your website http://cytoscapeweb.cytoscape.org/ d friendly charting domain-specific language for d https://github.com/heavysixer/d easeljs api to work with rich graphics and interactivity with html canvas http://www.createjs.com/easeljs ember charts ember.js and d .js based time series, bar, pie and scatter charts that are easy to extend and modify http://addepar.github.io/ envision fast, dynamic and interactive html visualizations http://www.humblesoftware.com/envision flare interactive data visualizations in flash (actionscript) http://flare.prefuse.org/ foamtree tree map visualization with innovative layout algorithms and animations such as voronoi treemaps http://carrotsearch.com/foamtree-overview highcharts.js html /javascript-based line, spline, area, area-spline, column, bar, pie, scatter, angular gauges, area-range, area-spline-range, column-range, bubble, box plot, error bars, funnel, waterfall and polar charts http://www.highcharts.com/ infovis toolkit a comprehensive range of tools for creating interactive data visualizations for the web http://philogb.github.io/jit/ jgrapht a free java graph library that provides mathematical graph-theory objects and algorithms http://jgrapht.org/ kartograph kartograph is a simple and lightweight framework for creating beautiful, interactive vector maps http://kartograph.org/ matplotlib a python d plotting library that produces publication quality figures http://matplotlib.org/ miso interactive storytelling and data visualization content http://misoproject.com/ netadvantage charts with a range of frameworks including asp.net and silverlight. visualization options include bar, bubble, gantt, line, radial, scatter, spline and doughnut charts http://www.infragistics.com/products orange data mining through visual programming or python scripting. components for machine learning. add-ons for bioinformatics and text mining. packed with features for data analytics http://orange.biolab.si/ paper.js a vector graphics scripting framework that runs on top of the html canvas http://paperjs.org/ pivotviewer a silverlight control that makes it easier to interact with massive amounts of data on the web http://www.microsoft.com/silverlight/pivotviewer/ polychart.js a javascript graphing library capable of producing a wide array of graphics fairly easily http://www.polychartjs.com/ prefuse java-based interactive data. data structures for tables, graphs and trees, a host of layout and visual encoding techniques, animation, dynamic queries, integrated search and database connectivity http://prefuse.org/ pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : https://creative.adobe.com/products/animate http://arborjs.org/ http://biojs.net/ https://bonsaijs.org/ http://www.chartjs.org/ https://square.github.io/cube/ https://square.github.io/cubism/ http://cytoscapeweb.cytoscape.org/ https://github.com/heavysixer/d http://www.createjs.com/easeljs http://addepar.github.io/ http://www.humblesoftware.com/envision http://flare.prefuse.org/ http://carrotsearch.com/foamtree-overview http://www.highcharts.com/ http://philogb.github.io/jit/ http://jgrapht.org/ http://kartograph.org/ http://matplotlib.org/ http://misoproject.com/ http://www.infragistics.com/products http://orange.biolab.si/ http://paperjs.org/ http://www.microsoft.com/silverlight/pivotviewer/ http://www.polychartjs.com/ http://prefuse.org/ infrastructures dedicated to data manipulation and have driven significant advances in user interfaces. although the implementation of sophisticated graphical user inter- faces is necessary, the effort to minimize back-end calculations is of great importance. unfortunately, only a limited number of visualization tools today take advantage of libraries designed for parallelization. multi-threading, for example, allows the distribution of computational tasks in terminals over the network, and cuda (available on nvidia graphic cards) allows parallel calculations at multiple graphical processing units. despite the fact that multiple screens, light and laser projectors and other technologies partially solve the space limitation problem, hci techniques are changing the rules of the game and biological data visualization is expected to adjust to these trends in the longer term. d control can be achieved without intermediate devices such as mouse, keyboards or touch screens [ ] in modern perceptual input systems. sony’s eyetoy, playstation eye and artag, for example, use non-spatial computer vision to determine hand gestures. similarly, the nintendo wii and sony move devices support object manipulation in table programming languages and libraries to build visual prototype (continued) prefuse flare visualization and animation for actionscript. from basic charts and graphs to complex interactive graphics. data management, visual encoding, animation and interaction techniques http://flare.prefuse.org/ ractive.js it transforms templates into blueprints for apps that are interactive by default. two-way binding, animations, svg support and more http://www.ractivejs.org/ raphael.js javascript library for vector graphics on the web. to create a specific chart or image. crop and rotate widget http://raphaeljs.com/ rcharts r package to create, customize and publish interactive javascript visualizations from r using a familiar lattice style plotting interface http://rcharts.io/ seaborn a python visualization library based on matplotlib. it provides a high-level interface for drawing attractive statistical graphics http://stanford.edu/~mwaskom/software/seaborn/ shiny a web application framework for r to turn an analysis into interactive web applications. no html, css or javascript knowledge required http://shiny.rstudio.com/ sigma.js a javascript library dedicated to graph drawing. it makes easy to publish networks on web pages and allows developers to integrate network exploration in rich web applications http://sigmajs.org/ three.js a lightweight cross-browser javascript library/api used to create and display animated d computer graphics on a web browser that supports webgl http://threejs.org/ timeline.js visually rich interactive timelines, available in languages http://timeline.knightlab.com/ variance build powerful data visualizations for the web without writing javascript. wide range of visualizations https://variancecharts.com/ vega a visualization grammar, a declarative format for creating, saving and sharing visualization designs. data visualizations in json format and interactive views using either html canvas or svg http://trifacta.github.io/vega/ vida.io a way to build reusable cloud visualizations: clone visualization templates, customize without coding skills and embed or share in the cloud https://vida.io/ vis a data visualization platform designed to assist investigative journalists, activists and others in mapping complex business or crime networks http://vis.occrp.org/ visual sedimentation a javascript library for visualizing streaming data, inspired by the process of physical sedimentation. jquery (to facilitate html and javascript development) and box dweb (for physical world simulation) http://www.visualsedimentation.org/ webgl a javascript api for rendering interactive d computer graphics and d graphics within any compatible web browser without the use of plugins https://www.khronos.org/webgl/ pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://flare.prefuse.org/ http://www.ractivejs.org/ http://raphaeljs.com/ http://rcharts.io/ http://stanford.edu/~mwaskom/software/seaborn/ http://shiny.rstudio.com/ http://sigmajs.org/ http://threejs.org/ http://timeline.knightlab.com/ https://variancecharts.com/ http://trifacta.github.io/vega/ https://vida.io/ http://vis.occrp.org/ http://www.visualsedimentation.org/ https://www.khronos.org/webgl/ d space. these actions are mediated through the detec- tion of the position in space of physical devices held by the user or, even more impressively, through immediate tracking of the human body or parts of the human body. equally impressive is the prospect of ocular tracking, one implementation of which has recently been introduced by the vr startup fove. the fove headset tracks eye move- ment and translates into spatial movement or even other types of action within the simulated d space. the re- cently implemented molecular control toolkit [ ] is a characteristic example of a new api based on the kinect and leap motion devices (which track the human body and human fingers, respectively) to control molecular graphics such as d protein structures. moreover, large screens, tiled arrays or vr environments should be taken into consideration by programmers and designers as they become more and more affordable over time. a great benefit of such technologies is that they allow the re- presentation of complete datasets without the need for algorithms dedicated to dimensionality reduction, which might lead to information loss. vr environments are expected to bring a revolution in biological data visualization as one could integrate meta- bolomics networks and gene expression in virtual worlds, as in metnet d [ ], or create virtual universes of living systems such as a whole cell [ , – ]. a visual repre- sentation of the whole cell with its components in an im- mense environment in which users can visually explore the location of molecules and their interaction in space and time could lead to a better understanding of the bio- logical systems. oculus rift (which promoted the reemergence of vr devices), project morpheus, google cardboard, sony smart eyeglass, htc vive, samsung gear vr, avegant glyph, razer osvr, archos vr head- set and carl zeiss vr one are state-of-the-art commercial devices that offer vr experiences. all of them overlay the user’s eyesight with some kind of screen and aim to replace the field of view with a digital d alternative. between them, those devices use many technologies and new ideas such as the monitoring of the position of the head (allowing for more axes of movement), the substitu- tion of the vr screen with smartphones (thus harnessing efficient modern smartphone processors), eye tracking and projection of images straight onto the retina. approaching the problem from a different angle, google glass, hololens and magic leap offer an augmented real- ity experience (the latter is rumored to achieve that by projecting a digital light field into the user’s eye). aug- mented reality can facilitate the learning process of the biological systems because it builds on exploratory learn- ing. this allows scientists to visualize existing knowledge, whereas the unstructured nature of augmented reality could allow them to construct knowledge themselves by making connections between information and their own experiences or intuition and thus offer novel insights to the studied biological system [ ]. efforts such as the visible cell [ ] and cellmicrocosmos have already begun. the visible cell project aims to inform advanced in silico studies of cell and molecular organization in d using the mammalian cell as a unitary example of an or- dered complex system; the cellmicrocosmos integrative cell modeling and stereoscopic d visualization project is a typical example of the use of d vision. finally, starting from a living entity, the process of digitizing it, visualizing it, placing it in virtual worlds or even recreating it as a physical object using d printing is no longer the realm of science fiction. data visualization and biological data visualization are rapidly developing in parallel with advances in the gaming in- dustry and hci. these efforts are complementary and there are already strong interactions developing between these fields, something that is expected to become more obvious in the future. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions gap was the main writer of the article and the one who was inspired about the topic. dm collected all the necessary information about the tools and their citation trends. np and tt provided fruitful feedback about the recent hci technologies. ae provided information about the latest technological trends in the areas of genomics. ii was the main supervisor of the project. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. funding this work was supported by the european commission fp programs infla-care (ec grant agreement number ), ‘translational potential’ (ec grant agreement number ). author details bioinformatics & computational biology laboratory, division of basic sciences, university of crete, medical school, heraklion, crete, greece. department of biology, university of crete, heraklion, crete, greece. embl - european bioinformatics institute, wellcome trust genome campus, cambridge cb sd, uk. received: may accepted: august references . howe d, 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: – . . hochheiser h, baehrecke eh, mount sm, shneiderman b. dynamic querying for pattern identification in microarray and genomic data. international conference on multimedia and expo , icme ' . . doi: . / icme. . . . dietrich s, wiegand s, liesegang h. trav: a genome context sensitive transcriptome browser. plos one. ; :e . submit your next manuscript to biomed central and take full advantage of: • convenient online submission • thorough peer review • no space constraints or color figure charges • immediate publication on acceptance • inclusion in pubmed, cas, scopus and google scholar • research which is freely available for redistribution submit your manuscript at www.biomedcentral.com/submit pavlopoulos et al. gigascience ( ) : http://dx.doi.org/ . /vast. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /vast. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /icme. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /icme. . 	abstract 	review 	introduction 	network biology visualization 	visualization in genomics 	visualization and analysis of expression data 	programming languages and complementary libraries for building visual prototypes 	processing 	processing.js 	d 	flash 	java d 	conclusion 	the future of biological data visualization 	competing interests 	authors’ contributions 	funding 	author details 	references - - j invest cosmetol vol. , no. , pp. - ( ) http://dx.doi.org/ . /jic. . . . pissn: - original article 빈번하게 일어나고 있으며, 그중 큐비즘 (cubism)은 현대의 미술 과 건축, 패션 분야에서도 발견할 수 있다. 브라질 출신의 미술가인 로메로 브리토 (romero britto)는 큐 비즘에서 영감을 얻어 네오팝 큐비즘이라는 장르를 창시했고 디즈니, 벤틀리, 펩시 등 여러 회사들은 그의 작품으로 디자인 하여 제품을 출시하였다. 건축 분야에서 kim ( )은 큐비즘의 조형성이 러시아의 건축에 어떠한 형태로 영향을 주었는지에 관하여 연구한 바 있으며, 패션 분야의 lee & park ( )은 큐 비즘의 조형적 특성인 기하학적 조형과, 동시성, 투명성, 콜라쥬 를 언급하여 현대패션의 독특하고 개성적인 창의적 근거를 미 술양식에서 찾을 수 있다고 하였다. 이처럼 건축, 패션 등 다양 한 분야에서 큐비즘의 특성이 다양하게 활용되었다. 메이크업 분야에서 큐비즘에 대한 연구를 살펴보면, kang ( )은 피카 소의 큐비즘 이미지가 표현된 아트메이크업에 대하여 연구하였 서 론 . 연구목적 세기의 사람들은 과거와 다른 삶을 살아가고 있다. 세기 의 급격한 과학 분야의 발전과 더불어 문화, 예술 등 분야에서 도 그 전과는 다른 움직임을 보이며, 현대에 이르러서는 여러 분야와 장르, 문화가 혼합된 하이브리드 현상이 일어나게 되었 다. 이 현상은 다양한 변화를 표현하는 개념 중 하나이며, 세 기 문명화 전략의 핵심으로 인식되고 있다 (cho, ). 하이브 리드 현상은 다양한 분야 중에서 특히 미술과의 결합이 가장 큐비즘의 특징을 활용한 메이크업 작품 연구 이 종 애 , 문 윤 경 ,* 성신여자대학교 융합디자인대학원, 성신여자대학교 의류학과 a study on the make-up works applying feature of cubism jong-ae lee and yun-kyeong mun ,* graduate school of convergence design & arts, sungshin women’s university, seoul , korea department of clothing, sungshin women’s university, seoul , korea (received february , ; revised march , ; accepted march , ) this study aims to improve make-up artistry by combining elements of cubism to suggest creative make-up designs. we investigated specialized books, thesis, and online materials about cubism, and classified its painting features and expressional techniques. then, we selected the most influential cubists and created make-up designs inspired by their works. analytic cubism contains various views on one screen, but, using transparency, it is possible to see multiple images despite them overlapping. collages of comprehensive cubism use various materials including different types of paper. picasso and braque - founders of cubism - were selected, and four works from each artist were studied. ambiguities between background and object were shown due to multiview expressions and de-construction/reconstruction of analytic cubism. in comprehensive cubism, colors that disappeared were introduced again along with letters to allow the visual- ization of simplified structures. next, make-up works were created from these analyses. this study was based on cubism’s expressional techniques and most influential artists. future studies can be combined to offer additional concepts combining art and make-up. we expect that this would increase the artistry and originality of make-up. keywords : art make-up, braque, cubism, make-up, picasso journal of investigative cosmetology official journal of korean society for investigative cosmetology available online at http://www.ekst .com * correspondence to: yun-kyeong mun, department of clothing, sungshin woman’s university, seoul , korea. e-mail: munfish@hanmail.net j.-a. lee & y.-k. mun 고, lee ( )는 피카소의 큐비즘적 표현을 아트메이크업과 포 토샵을 이용하여 작품으로 표현하였다. 그러나 kang ( )의 연구는 고찰 논문이었으며, lee ( )의 연구는 작품 논문으로 큐비즘적인 요소는 명확하게 볼 수 있었지만, 큐비즘에 대한 표 현은 메이크업에서보다는 포토샵 작업에서 강하게 볼 수 있었 다. 이처럼 메이크업 분야에서 큐비즘에 대한 연구 중 피카소에 대한 논문은 쉽게 찾아볼 수 있지만 큐비즘에서 빠질 수 없는 브라크와 큐비즘의 특징을 활용하여 실질적인 메이크업으로 표 현한 작품 연구는 찾아보기 어렵다. 또한 메이크업 분야는 예술 과 매우 밀접한 관련이 있는 분야이다. 그러나 일반적으로 예술 성이 강조되기보다는 기술성만 부각되어 있는 것이 현실이다. 따라서 본 연구의 목적은 큐비즘이라는 미술 사조를 메이크 업에 직접 활용하여 메이크업 분야의 예술적 가치 창출과 큐비 즘을 통한 창의적이고 독특한 메이크업 디자인의 가능성을 제 시하고자 하였다. 본 연구의 방법은 큐비즘에 관련된 국내·외 단행본과 선행 논문 및 다양한 문헌을 활용하고 분석하여, 큐비 즘의 대표 작가 인을 선정하고, 작가들의 큐비즘 이미지를 이 용하여 분석적 큐비즘과 종합적 큐비즘의 특징에 따른 작품 가지를 제작하고자 한다. . 이론적 배경 ) 큐비즘의 개념 수 세기 동안 서양회화의 방식인 원근법은 구스타브 쿠르베 (gustave courbet)의 사실주의 회화 이후 인상주의에 이르자 기 존 회화의 방식은 급속도로 붕괴되기 시작했고, 원근법에 의한 회화는 더 이상 의미가 없게 되었으며 (janson, ), 사유하고 해석하여 개념화시킨 회화 공간 그대로를 인정하는 큐비즘이 등장하게 되었다. 큐비즘이란, 년부터 년 사이에 파블 로 피카소 (pablo picasso)와 조르주 브라크 (georges braque)를 주축으로 시작된 미술 운동으로 년 화가 앙리 마티스 (hen- ri matisse)가 살롱도톤 (salon d’automne)에 출품된 브라크의 작품 ‘레스타크의 집들’을 보고 ‘큐브 (cube, 입방체)’라는 단어 를 언급하여 비평하였다 (cox, ). 그 이후 ‘큐비즘’이라고 불 리게 되었고, ‘입체파’ 혹은 ‘입체주의’라고도 불리며, 이러한 큐 비즘 양식을 사용한 작가들을 ‘큐비스트’ (cubist)라 지칭한다. 큐비즘은 원근법적 시각으로 보이는 대상의 모습이 아니라, 여 러 시점에서 관찰된 대상의 여러 모습들을 한 화면에 모두 그 려내는 그림으로, 파편화된 대상의 모습들이 한 화면에 담기게 되는데 이 균질감이 큐비즘 미술의 특징이다 (oh, ). 초기의 큐비즘은 세잔느 풍의 큐비즘이라고 할 만큼 세잔느의 영향을 많이 받았던 시기로 자연은 ‘원, 원통, 원추’라고 정의하였던 세 잔느의 이론을 심화시켜 기하학적 구체, 원통형, 삼각추, 입방체 등으로 응용하여 대상을 정리하였다 (soh, ). ) 큐비즘의 대표 작가 큐비즘의 화가들은 살롱앵데팡당 (salon des independants)전 에 참여한 로베르 들로네 (robert delaunay), 소피아 들로네 (so- pia delaunay), 페르낭 레제 (fernand leger) 등 (im, ) 센 강 변을 중심으로 모인 큐비스트들과 살롱 도톤과 몽마르트의 화 실을 주축으로 한 피카소와 브라크의 모임으로 나눌 수 있지만 본 연구는 큐비즘의 창시자이며, 큐비즘의 발전에 있어서 가장 큰 영향을 준 피카소와 브라크를 대표 작가로 선정하였다. ( ) 파블로 피카소 피카소의 작품 변모 과정은 여러 학자들에 의해 많은 연구가 이뤄졌는데 그중에서도 영국의 작가이자 화가인 롤랜드 펜로즈 (roland penrose)가 단계인 초기 시대 ( ~ ), 청색 시 대 ( ~ ), 장미 시대 ( ~ ), 니그로 시대 ( ~ ), 분석적 큐비즘 시대 ( ~ ), 종합적 큐비즘 시대 ( ~ ), 신고전주의 ( ~ ), 꿈의 분석 시대 ( ~ ), 분노의 시대 ( ~ ), 안티드 발로리스 시대 ( ~ ), 칸느 보브나르그와 무쟁 시대 ( ~ )로 구분한 것 이 일반적으로 받아들여진다 (park, ). 이에 본 연구는 큐비 즘의 발전이 이루어지게 되는 니그로 시대부터 큐비즘의 마지 막인 종합적 큐비즘 시대까지 피카소의 삶과 작품에 대하여 구 분한다. ① 니그로 시대 피카소가 파리의 인류학 박물관에서 아프리카 흑인 미술의 발견과 그들의 춤이나, 탈, 조각 속의 원색적이고 직선적인 표현 기법에 깊은 감명을 받아 (lee, ) 그린 ‘아비뇽의 처녀들’은 매우 실험적인 작품으로 이 작품이 지닌 중요성은 예술적 완벽 성에 있는 것이 아니라 대담하고 충격적인 혁명적 성격에 있다 고 할 수 있다. ‘아비뇽의 처녀들’에서는 화면의 주제를 이루는 인물조차도 해체될 수 있으며 배경이나 다른 대상물과 동등하 게 처리될 수 있으므로 입체의 평면화가 가능해진다. ② 분석적 큐비즘 시대 분석적 큐비즘 시대의 그는 대상을 더 작고 얇게 해체하였으 며, 아직 흑인 미술의 영향을 받았던 때이다. 브라크가 정물과 풍경 작품을 주로 했다면, 피카소는 정물과 풍경뿐만 아니라 인 물 작품도 많이 다루었는데 자신의 첫 번째 연인 페르낭드를 모 델로 하여 그린 작품 ‘페르낭드의 초상’을 보면 얼굴을 가능한 모든 방향에서 관찰하여 수많은 파편으로 구성되어 있는 것을 볼 수 있다 (yun, ). 또한 흑인 미술의 영향으로 ‘아비뇽의 처녀들’과 비슷한 얼굴 형태를 찾아볼 수 있다. 년 피카소 는 자신의 다섯 번째 연인 도라를 모델로 하여 ‘통곡하는 여인’ 을 그리는데 이 작품은 얼굴의 형태와 눈은 정면을 향하고 있 지만 코와 눈은 왼쪽과 오른쪽 측면으로 구성되는 형태까지 다 revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio ardengo soffici's the room of the mannequins: primitivism, classicism and french modernism la sala de los maniquíes de ardengo soffici: primitivismo, clasismo y modernismo fracés mariana aguirre instituto de investigaciones estéticas universidad nacional autónoma de méxico (méxico) aguirre @gmail.com recibido: / / revisado: / / aprobado: / / abstract ardengo soffici’s engagement with african art was mediated by french modernism and led him to articulate a painterly aesthetic at once ‘primitive’ and classical. soffici moved to paris in , and after his return to florence in devoted himself to updating italian art by promoting french modernism. specifically, the artist created a modern style that incorporated these advances as well as elements from the early italian renaissance. this paper analyzes his fresco cycle, the room of the mannequins ( ), which demonstrates his temporary adoption of the parisian scene’s primitivism while recalling the decoration of ancient roman and renaissance villas. while pablo picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon ( ) shattered academic conventions by relying on primitive art’s ‘savage’ nature, in revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio soffici’s murals, the female figures are playful and non-threatening, bringing to mind the pastoral landscapes that informed both henri rousseau and henri matisse’s works. though the italian artist substituted african references in his later work with alusions to tuscan folk paintings, his brief use of the former demonstrates the ways in which non-western references interacted with italian art even in the absence of direct colonial links to their places of origin. finally, this consideration of soffici’s frescoes and writings on primitivism serves as a pre-history of the ways in which art and visual culture under fascism appropriated african sources to legitimize its colonial project by presenting them as inferior to classical culture. keywords: ardengo soffici, primitivism, modernism, cubism, colonialism, pastoral landscape. resumen ardengo soffici y su apropiación del arte africano fue mediado por el modernismo francés, y eventualmente articuló una estética pictórica tanto clásica como ‘primitiva.’ soffici vivió en parís de a , y al volver a florencia, se dedicó a renovar el arte italiano y promover el modernismo francés. en específico, el artista creó un estilo moderno que incorporara estos avances además de elementos del renacimiento italiano. este ensayo analiza sus murales, the room of the mannequins (la sala de los maniquíes, ), los cuales demuestran su adopción temporal del primitivismo parisino al mismo tiempo que recuerda las decoraciones pictóricas de las antiguas villas romanas y renacentistas. mientras que en les demoiselles d’avignon ( ) pablo picasso rompió con el academicismo apoyándose al apoyarse en las cualidades ‘salvajes’ del arte primitivo, en las obras de soffici, las figuras femeninas son lúdicas revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio e inofensivas y se remiten a los paisajes pastorales que influenciaron tanto a henri rousseau como a henri matisse. mientras que el artista italiano sustituyó las referencias africanas en su trabajo con alusiones a la pintura popular en toscana, su breve uso del exotismo demuestra la manera en que referencias no-occidentales interactuaron con el arte italiano a pesar de no contar con vínculos coloniales directos a su lugar de origen. esta consideración de los murales y escritos de soffici en torno al primitivismo funciona como una pre-historia de la apropiación fascista de fuentes africanas para legitimar su proyecto colonial, pues en general eran presentadas como inferiores al clasicismo. palabras clave: modernidad. comunidad. festividad tradicional. given ardengo soffici’s key role in the development of italian art, it is necessary to scrutinize his engagement with exotic primitivism. this was part of his broader primitivism, namely an interest in sources then outside of the canon, such as folk art, the early florentine renaissance, paul cézanne, and henri rousseau. while rooted in his country’s artistic heritage, his interest in these sources was influenced by figures such as guillaume apollinaire and pablo picasso, reflecting his insider knowledge of advanced parisian culture. as such, soffici’s primitivism was a complex blend of modernity and tradition that developed in a unique manner; while many european artists that turned to exotic primitivism did so in order to abandon the conventions upheld by mario richter, la formazione francese di ardengo soffici - , prato ( ). for an analysis of images of africans in italian art and visual culture, see karen pinkus, bodily regimes: italian advertising under fascism, minneapolis , pp. - . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio academic art and its reliance on classicism, soffici blurred this antagonism in several frescoes, only to restore it after world war i. the fresco cycle the room of the mannequins ( ), which he painted to decorate the philosopher giovanni papini’s country house in bulciano, tuscany, includes figures reminiscent of picasso’s african women and inserted itself within the classical practice of decorating villa interiors with pastoral landscapes. these paintings reveal that representations of africans in italian art before and during the war were initially mediated by french modernism and colonialism. for instance, the paintings include a number of formal references to cubism and collage, and the dark-skinned figures recall picasso and andré derain’s primitivist women. when analyzed alonside soffici’s contemporaneous writings about african art and cubism, the frescoes bring to focus italian artists’ complicated response to french modernism. for instance, despite the fact that italy had few colonial holdings at the time, its artists adapted france’s appropriation of non-western sources according to their own concerns. soffici’s visual and written primitivism points to important intersections and divergences between french and italian modernism that have heretofore not been examined in depth. though his early writings on african sculpture centered on its importance for cubism, his nationalist turn led him to abandon this positive appraisal of non-western art in favor of employing italian folk art instead. yet the room of the mannequins belies soffici’s rejection of non-european primitivism in his art criticism, and displays further peculiarities present in the italian approach to non-western art. since they were painted during world war i, these primitivist frescoes allowed soffici to pose the superiority of mediterranean culture over that of germany, as will be seen below. giambattista vico was the first to consider primitivism in relation to classicism, see frances connelly, the sleep of reason: primitivism in modern european art and aesthetics, - , university park . diana spencer, roman landscape: culture and identity, cambridge . see also the pastoral landscape, conference proceedings washington d.c. , ed. by john dixon hunt, hanover and london . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio finally, my analysis of the room of the mannequins points towards the need to examine primitivism in italy after the end of the armed conflict. though in they referenced soffici’s debt to french art rather than italian colonialism in africa, during the late thirties, black bodies and faces appeared in numerous publications, murals and mosaics comissioned by the regime. they were used to highlight the purity of the classical body, and by extension, the superiority of italian civilization and race, and were often tied to the regime’s colonial discourse. due to this, soffici’s primitivist works and writings must not only be read within the context of the artist’s defense of mediterranean culture during world war i, but also in light of his eventual support of fascist colonialism during the late s. italian primitivism and the history of modern art the rise and subsequent erasure or suppression of exotic primitivism in italy has yet to be adequately addressed. specifically, the ways in which non-western sources were processed in italy have to be described on their own terms rather than according to french and/or german art and their respective colonial projects. though ezio bassani’s essay in the museum of modern art’s (moma) catalog for the exhibition “primitivism” in modern art: affinity of the tribal and modern, traced umberto boccioni and carlo carrà’s exposure to both african art and french primitivism, it unfortunately erased soffici’s key role in this phenomenon. the fact that he also denied that primitivism did existed during fascism is also problematic, and has unfortunately precluded a more sustained engagement with italian developments related to this. more recent studies have dealt with this, such as alessandro del puppo’s essays on amedeo modigliani, which are insightful contributions to the field, but mostly focus on the parisian context his career developed in. emily braun’s work on mario sironi’s expressionism does not dwell on his exotic primitivism, which was mediated by german bassani (note ). revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio expressionism. other accounts have focused on primitivism in terms of naïveté and the influence of the italian primitive painters or have only considered the first two decades of the twentieth century. rather than restricting the existence of non-western primitivism in italy to the years leading up to and including world war i, as several of these studies do, i argue in favor of analyzing this phenomenon and the discourse that emerged against it before and during fascism. tellingly, the artists that rejected the exotic sought out similar primordial qualities in native sources such as folk art, the italian primitives, etruscan and romanesque art while retaining formal elements and qualities associated with non- western objects. thus, focusing on soffici’s primitivism is a way to reconsider its reception and development in italy as well as the ways in which it drew upon and diverged from its development in france. beyond arguing for the need to reconstruct and analyze the development of primitivism in italy by focusing on soffici, it is necessary to insert this country within recent debates regarding modernist primitivism. until the mid- s, the art historical discourse on this strand had mostly refused engage with western imperialism and the racist assumptions that sustained it; additionally, most studies written about this topic have centered on the primitivism that arose in countries with substantial colonial holdings. for instance, robert goldwater analyzed this phenomenon as early as , but he neither tied it to colonialism nor considered it beyond a formal approach. moreover, he predominantly relied on french and german examples. in many ways, his reading of non-western art’s effect on modernism cast it as a passive source, as part del puppo; braun. see alessandra borgogelli, raffaella bonzano, francesco cavallini, pierluca nardoni, eds. aspetti del primitivismo in italia, dipartimento delle arti visive, performative, mediali alma mater studiorum – università di bologna, ; and maria grazia messina, le muse d’oltremare, turin xxxx. robert goldwater, primitivism in modern art, new york . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio of “an internal dialectic of liberation from narrative content towards an emphasis on material form.” goldwater’s focus on formal similarities or correspondences between non- western and modern art has since been questioned, most notably in the harsh critical reception of the moma’s aforementioned exhibition. a number of prominent art historians and anthropologists reproached the museum for displaying art from africa and oceania in order to highlight modernism’s formal innovations without analyzing the colonial context that made these sources available, their intended function, or the rise of modernist projects outside of europe. as in goldwater’s reading, the exhibition’s curator, william rubin, admitted no real influence, claiming that modern art’s path towards formal experimentation was merely confirmed by non-western sources, and emphasizing instead an ahistorical relationship between ‘tribal’ and modern art. in order to revise italy’s role within europe’s appropriation of african art, my essay considers soffici’s reconfiguration of french primitivism and traces how he used african references in his frescoes and art criticism. rather than focusing only on formal or stylistic elements, it seeks to demonstrate that his depiction of african women, despite being mediated by french art, responded to italian artistic and political concerns. his representation of these figures as timeless and passive also fits within the european racial discourse that justified colonialism, an example of how artists whose countries were not colonial powers felt entitled to employ these sources according to their needs. in general, this artist diverges from an art historical narrative largely shaped by french art and imperialism, which suggests that a comparative approach to european see fred myers, “‘primitivism,’ anthropology and the category of ‘primitive art,’” in handbook of material culture, chris tilley, susanne kuechler, michael rowlands, webb keane and patricia spyer, eds. sage press, p. . emphasis in the original. for an anthology that includes the most important responses to the museum of modern art’s exhibition on primitivism, see jack flam and miriam deutsch, eds. primitivism and twentieth-century art: a documentary history, berkeley . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio primitivism presents a fuller picture of the variety of ways in which african art was received and reconfigured in this continent. soffici’s art criticism, cubism, and primitivism soffici’s writings about primitivism were more accessible than his frescoes at bulciano, since they appeared in the influential florentine magazines la voce ( - ) and lacerba ( - ), the latter of which he directed alongside papini. these articles were part of his campaign to update italian art after having spent seven years in paris ( - ). while in france, soffici was part of picasso and apollinaire’s circle; though he is now largely forgotten outside of italy due to his allegiance to fascism, he promoted impressionism, post-impressionism, cézanne, rousseau, arthur rimbaud, and cubism in italy before world war i through his paintings, the exhibits he organized, and his art criticism, which often attacked italy’s artistic institutions and their outdated taste. soffici’s role in italy was akin to that of alfred stieglitz or roger fry in their respective countries, since each of them promoted european modernism and engaged with its primitivism during the first two decades of the twentieth century. soffici was in paris when french artists “discovered” african sources at the trocadéro and other venues, and he began to write about this in . his interest in african sculpture and its effects on modern painting was predicated upon his early appreciation of cubism, and he was one of the first european intellectuals to evaluate this movement’s primitivism positively. however, his nationalism and belief in the supremacy of italian culture increased in , and he began to look at local sources, namely, tuscan folk paintings and painted signs as an alternative. thus, his return to african references in in the bulciano frescoes marks his one of his last moments of cosmopolitanism and constitutes an important episode in the reception of cubism and its primitivist tendencies outside of france. revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio even before his harsh denouncement exotic primitivism in his writings in , soffici valued it insofar as it could be inserted into a reading that privileged his country’s art. in the essay “picasso e braque,” published in la voce in and perhaps one of the first accounts of cubism to be published in italy, soffici praised this movement’s reliance on african sculpture while replicating stereotypes regarding its creators. at the same time, this account of cubism considers african art’s importance for the french movement, and more importantly, describes it as an acceptable catalyst for the renewal of european painting. this indirect, or oblique primitivism depended on cubism and its sources, but was ultimately tied to soffici’s attempt to restore italian art’s greatness by looking towards france. according to this article, picasso had turned to african sculpture in his path towards cubism and against impressionism, an approach which soffici did not yet see as a threat to his country’s artistic heritage. rather, he noted that cubism was able to incorporate western and non-western sources in order to return to italian art’s plasticity. the following passage gives african sculpture a central role in this shift: moreover, the decisive step, which would lead our artist [picasso] to a much more advanced field of experiences, was not taken until two years later, that is, when after distancing himself progressively from the impressionists’ vision, he found a more solid foundation for his later research in an art opposite to theirs. this art was the painting and sculpture of the antique egyptians, and of the africans—and perhaps even more natively synthetic—of the savage peoples of southern africa. […] picasso instead […] (unlike gauguin)—even perhaps due to his somewhat moorish origin—after he understood and loved that naïve and great art, simple and expressive, coarse and refined at once, immediately knew how to appropriate its essential virtues, and because these consisted in realistically interpreting nature by deforming its revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio aspects according to a hidden lyrical need in order to intensify its suggestive qualities, applied himself from then on to translate, in his works, the real, by transforming and deforming it, not as his masters had done, but—as each showed him with a particular example—by following his modern soul’s own ways. while referring to their creators as “popoli selvaggi,” soffici linked the sculptures to picasso’s rediscovery of plasticity, a category which he claimed defined italian art as well as making it superior to that of other nations’. he also described african art as primitive and sincere, adjectives he had also applied to cézanne, rousseau and the italian primitives, thus alluding to an expanded primitivism that incorporated both western and non-western sources. in a sense, while many french artists sought primitive art in order to reject academicism, soffici inserted it within a reading that valued cubism’s plastic values and linked this to the italian renaissance. soffici’s attitudes regarding african sculpture certainly reveal a eurocentric bias, but it is important to note that at the time most italian critics, art historians and anthropologists, would have refused to consider such works as art or as source for europeans. indeed, soffici’s reading of this art was more or less in line with those of apollinaire, daniel-henry kahnweiler and carl einstein, who either noted its status as art soffici, (note ). the original text reads: “tuttavia il passo decisivo, quello che doveva condurre il nostro artista in un campo di esperienze molto più avanzate, non fu fatto che, un paio d’anni più tardi, e cioè quando egli, dopo essersi progressivamente allontanato dal modo di vedere degli impressionisti, trovo; in un’arte opposta alla loro un fondamento più fermo alle sue ricerche ulteriori. quest’arte fu la pittura e la scultura degli antichissimi egiziani, e quelle africani—e forse anche più nativamente sintetiche—dei popoli selvaggi dell’africa meridionale. [...] picasso invece [al contrario di gauguin]—fors’anche in grazia della sua origine quasi moresca—una volta arrivato alla comprensione e all’amore di quell’arte ingenua e grande, semplice ed espressiva, grossolana e raffinata ad un tempo, subito seppe appropriarsene le virtù essenziali, e poiché queste consistono insomma nell’interpretar realisticamente la natura deformandone gli aspetti secondo un’occulta necessita lirica, affine d’intensificare la suggestività, egli s’applico d’allora in poi a tradurre, nelle sue opere, il vero trasformandolo e deformandolo, non peraltro al modo che facevano i suoi maestri, ma—com’essi gl’insegnavano ciascuno con un particolare esempio—seguendo i propri moti della sua anima moderna.” ardengo soffici, “picasso e braque”, in: la voce, august . soffici, “paul cézanne”, in: vita d’arte, june ; “henri rousseau”, in la voce, september ; and “un libro su rousseau”, in: la voce, november, . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio or its key role for the development of cubism. one important difference between them and soffici, however, is that the artist claimed that the sculptures had aided the cubist painters to reinstate the renaissance’s plasticity. this dialogue between italian nationalism and primitivism is also present in the frescoes and will be discussed below. before painting these works, however, the artist reconsidered not only the pertinence of african sculpture for the development of italian art, but also that of cubism, a choice consistent with the continental rappel à l’ordre during and after world war i and the concurrent rise of fascism. soffici’s position on african art shifted in response to his views on cubism and his temporary alliance with futurism. this occurred in his magazine lacerba from onwards, and he adopted an increasingly nationalistic perspective that was motivated by his strtegic adherence to marinetti’s movement. in “cubismo e oltre (abecedario),” for example, he minimized the importance of african art; rather than praising primitivism’s role in picasso’s recovery of plasticity, he stressed that the italian renaissance had anticipated it. additionally, he claimed that the futurists were in fact developing ways the most representative texts these authors wrote on african art are the following: guillaume apollinaire, sculptures nègres. photographies précédées d'un avertissement de guillaume apollinaire et d'un exposé de paul guillaume, paris , which was based on “mélanophilie ou mélanomanie”, in: le mercure de france, april ; daniel-henry kahnweiler, “l’arte nègre et le cubisme”, in: présence africaine, march-april , pp. - ; and carl einstein, negerplastik, leipzig . for recent interpretations on einstein, see zeidler, form as revolt: carl einstein and the ground of modern art, ithaca ; carl einstein und die europäische avantegarde, ed. by nicola creighton and andreas kramer, berlin ; and conor joyce, carl einstein in documents: and his collaboration with georges bataille, philadelphia . needless to say, the scholarship on einstein has grown in recent years and it is impossible to list all of them. for a discussion of soffici’s reconsideration of cubism in lacerba, see del puppo, “lacerba” - , bergamo , pp. - . soffici, “cubismo e oltre (abecedario)”, in: lacerba, january . the original text reads: “chi desiderasse nomi celebri di precursori del cubismo, anche senza risalire ai nostri primitivi, ai bizantini, agli egiziani, agli africani, si protrebbero citare quelli di masaccio, del greco, di rembrandt, di tintoretto di tutti quei pittori che nelle loro opere hanno cercato di esprimere—anzichè l’incanto della luminosità iridata, delle linee soavi e diligenti, dell’elegante vaporosità—la sobria sodezza dei corpi e degli oggetti, il peso, la gravitazione delle masse, l’equilibrio dei pani e dei volumi.—la forza del chiaroscuro. (noterò anzi, per incidente, che sotto questo aspetto la migliore arte italiana, il cui merito precipuo consiste appunto in questa sobrietà, sodezza, pesantezza, equilibrio, è d’essenza precisamente cubista—e il cubismo, perciò, specialmente consono alla nostra tradizione. il che hanno capito alcuni critici francesi i quali accusano i cubisti di esotismo).” revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio to expand cubism in order to lead it to its logical conclusion, further demonstrating that his shift towards futurism movement modified his attitude regarding the french art and its primitivism. as such, rather than measuring his primitivism against that of french artists, it is important to consider that his writings about it mediated between his waning appreciating for parisian art and his belief that futurism could lead italian art to return to its lost greatness. while soffici’s articles for lacerba reassessed and relativized the importance of african sources for cubism, his later articulated a clearer rejection of them. his anthology cubismo e futurismo ( ) included a short piece entitled “l’antiarcaismo futurista,” which might have been written upon carrà’s suggestion, who was then still a member of futurism. here, arcaismo refers to artists’ reliance on african art or on art from the past, both of which he dismissed as excessive intellectualism, proposing instead the primitivism of the early italian rennaissance. in this article, soffici rejected african art as well as ancient egyptian art, referring to the preference for them as excessive “refinement, intellectualism, literariness, smug snobbery, decadent mysticism.” by rejecting african sources as archaic and using terms that could likewise be applied to symbolist art, soffici sided with futurism’s scorn for the past and aided this movement to distance itself from cubism and france. this explains the artist’s insistence in relegating african art to a timeless era, a trope that had been prevalent in nineteenth-century anthropology and racial discourse and which continued to be employed well into the twentieth century. ibidem. see soffici, cubismo e futurismo, florence ; and del puppo (note ), p. . soffici (note ), p. . for instance, soffici returned to the primitivism of french symbolist artists, which was untainted by african art’s arcaismo: “[...] non si esce dalla ripetizione e in fondo dall’intellettualismo, ispirandosi ai primitivi dell’egitto o del congo di quel che non si faccia ispirandosi, come facevan puvis de chavannes de maurice denis ai nostri pittori del tre e del quattrocento.” ibidem, p. . the original reads: “raffinatezza, d’intelletualismo, di letterarietà, di sufficienza snobbistica, di misticismo decadente.” see johannes fabian, time and the other: how anthropology makes its object (new york: columbia university press, ). revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio soffici’s pictorial primitivism, picasso, rousseau and matisse picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon ( ), which soffici had seen in paris, was his main source for the exotic primitivism present in the frescoes, especially with respect to the female figures. besides that, they feature references to cubist collage and to works by robert delaunay, marc chagall, and derain, demonstrating his, and by extension, papini’s close ties to the french scene. this synthesis confirms that african art’s influence on french painting was one of many elements that italian artists and intellectuals grappled with after the turn of the century as they moved away from post- impressionism and symbolism, leading towards an indirect primitivism. though it is clear that carrà, boccioni and soffici could have seen firsthand the same african sculptures that artists based in paris adapted in their works, the tuscan artist’s frescoes at bulciano are an instance of cultural mediation. for instance, rather than presenting the women from picasso’s demoiselles as threatening figures, he minimized this aspect by lessening their mask-like features and by placing them within a playful atmosphere recalling classical pastorals. though all the frescoes at bulciano demonstrate the influence of picasso, a portion of them is essentially a mirror image of les demoiselles. an earlier work by soffici, i mendicanti ( ), painted the same year he reviewed cubism’s and african sculpture’s plasticity positively, also recalls picasso’s canvas. in bulciano, however, other than representing nude women, soffici borrowed the crouching figure from demoiselles as well as the left-most one. the dancer in the middle recalls the standing figure on the right side of picasso’s work; her features are not as clearly indebted to african masks, but her skin color signals her racial difference. while i mendicanti see franco russoli, ed. ardengo soffici. l’artista e lo scrittore nella cultura del’ , florence , cited in soffici. immagini e documenti ( - ), ed. by luigi cavallo, florence , p. . russoli identifies the influence of picasso, delaunay, chagall, derain, and van dongen. he sees this combination of cubism and expressionism as similar to that of kirchner, schmidt-rotluff, and even larionov. the crouching figure also resembles derain’s bathers, which were influenced by cézanne’s late bathers. revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio removed most of the exotic primitivism employed by picasso by depicting clothed italian peasants, and in a sense, anticipated his shift towards tuscan folk art, soffici’s frescoes retain a clear african identity without representing the women as dangerous ‘savages.’ soffici’s reliance on rousseau’s naïve style and fantastic jungle scenes likewise tempered picasso’s violent representation of african women. this turn towards rousseau coincided with soffici’s previous art criticism, since he had written about this artist in and for la voce by using terms akin to those with which he praised african art. at papini’s villa, rousseau’s naïveté is evoked throughout the room of the mannequins and by the medium employed to paint the frescoes; for example, the artist chose materials commonly used by imbianchini (house painters or whitewashers) and was aided by papini’s two young daughters, decisions which sought to give the works a sense of informality. at the same time, the medium employed is in keeping with his growing interest in tuscan folk art and painted signs, which eventually replaced exotic primitivism. soffici’s depiction of the landscape and the women within it also incorporated a variant of primitivism tied to the pastoral landscape, a tradition harking back to antiquity that had been recently updated by matisse. despite his lukewarm opinion on this painter, soffici’s frescoes adopted a classical aesthetic reminiscent of several of his seminal post-fauve works. the largest portion of the room of the mannequins resembles the composition and mood of one of matisse’s most important pastorals, joy of life ( - ). while the lines and geometric shapes in the fresco evoke cubism, the see note . see ardengo soffici: vocazione e mestiere, la pittura murale dalla “stanza dei manichini’ all’affresco di fognano, ed. by marco moretti/carlo vanni menichi, pontedera , p. ; and soffici, fine di un mondo: autoritratto d'artista italiano nel quadro del suo tempo: iv. virilità, florence , pp. - . soffici included a landscape by matisse lent to him by bernard berenson at the prima mostra italiana dell’impressionismo, which he organized in . see soffici, “l’impressionismo a firenze”, in: la voce, may , cited in catherine c. bock weiss, henri matisse: a guide to research, london and new york , p. . it is likely that the artist saw matisse’s dance in while in paris, see soffici and giuseppe prezzolini, carteggio. vol i - , ed. by mario richter, rome , p. , letter , paris, february . in this letter soffici mentions the retrospective of matisse’s work at bernheim-june gallery in . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio subject matter in bulciano is clearly pastoral given the presence of figures dancing, tending animals, and lounging. the three standing figures on the left likewise bring to mind matisse’s canvas. soffici’s debt to this artist is also evident in the figures’ flatness and stance, which recall those in dance ( ); in these works, both artists appear to have taken their human figures from archaic red figure vases, yet another source that was associated with primitivism at the time. while looking at rousseau had allowed soffici to avoid the threatening nature of picasso’s demoiselles, his turn to matisse established the room of the mannequins as a modern pastoral, enabling it to function as a refuge from the violence of world war i. primitive and pastoral while pastoral landscapes illustrate peaceful scenes, such representations usually surface at times of chaos and strife. in this particular case, soffici’s frescoes depict a harmonious environment precisely at the beginning of world war i, when french, and by extension, mediterranean culture was being endangered by germany, at least according to the artist. on a personal level, the war had interrupted his exchange with apollinaire, one of the few paris-based intellectuals he continued to value after returning to italy and with whom he had hoped to create an italo-french movement after the armed conflict alongside giorgio de chirico and savinio. this joint effort was john dixon hunt, “introduction: pastorals and pastoralism”, in the pastoral landscape, conference proceedings washington d.c., ed. by hunt, hannover , p. . del puppo (note ), pp. - . see paolo baldacci, de chirico - . la metafisica, milan , p. ff; and richter (note ), pp. . baldacci touches upon this project when he describes savinio and de chirico’s links with apollinaire, soffici and papini but does not explore this within the context of soffici’s career. see also giorgio de chirico, penso all pittura, solo scopo della mia vita. lettere e cartoline ad ardengo soffici - , edited by luigi cavallo (milan: scheiwiller, ). cavallo discusses the relationship between de chirico and soffici but does not explicitly describe their attempt to work with apollinaire after the war or their competing aesthetics with respect to valori plastici. see also, de chirico to ardengo soffici, december (?), in baldacci, de chirico, . the original text reads: “[...] noi infatti dobbiamo essere amici e dobbiamo amarci stimarci ed aiutarci, imperrocché siamo pochi, siamo una pleiade piccola, e ciò che facciamo e ciò che faremo è grande. dopo la guerra noi dovremmo essere più uniti di prima poiché abbiamo i medesimi ideali. [...] dopo la revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio discussed several months after the frescoes had been painted, which demonstrates that in , soffici was thinking about a pan-mediterranean cultural project. thus, these works revisit the exotic primitivism soffici had rejected earlier in and in order to negate the effects of the war, since he included african women as a way to represent a mediterranean arcadia. though there are no clear references to modern italy in the paintings, the allusions to matisse’s pastorals established a link to this country’s classical heritage. as in the pastoral tradition, soffici’s frescoes provided a temporary refuge from the reality that threatened to destroy this idyll. in , the artist mentioned in his autobiography the anxiety that germany and its allies’ threat to france had caused him and papini, noting that after the fresco was completed, they returned to florence in the fall of and went on to advocate in favor of italy’s entrance into the war. indeed, the contemplative mood evoked by both the frescoes and by the villa itself was at once an escape from the war and a reminder of the parisian scene it seemed to threaten. at around the same time, other intellectuals interested in restoring italy’s lost greatness relied on the opposition between mediterranean and nordic europe in their landscapes related to the war. for example, the futurist leader and poet marinetti used typography in order to condemn germanic civilization and promote the expansion of italy towards the balkans; his work operated differently than the frescoes from bulciano, however, since rather than seeking refuge from the chaos of war, he exalted it. moreover, rather than return to the pastoral, the cultural agitator drew on french modernist poetry’s visual experiments in order to represent the war’s violence and confusion. their different approaches to the conflict and to landscapes clearly illustrate that soffici was working within the pastoral tradition and its resurgence in french modern painting. additionally, his blend of exotic primitivism and classicism allowed him guerra insieme a lui (apoll) ed a qualche altro potremo formare un circolo più solido, più forte e più puro di quella specie di riunione ridicola che erano ‘les soirées de paris’” soffici (note ), pp. - . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio to depict an updated pastoral that alluded to the mediterranean cultural project he sought to pursue as well. soffici’s frescoes at bulciano depended on racial difference in order to depict a peaceful atmosphere typical of pastorals, thus creating a distance between the viewer, in this case papini, and the women represented. according to the conventions ruling the pastoral genre since antiquity, the peasants (or ‘natives,’ in this case) depicted are important insofar as their leisurely life in the country provides an escape for the educated viewer. at bulciano, all the figures, whether african or not, allow the ideal viewer to fashion himself as a sophisticated observer, especially since several of them are naked. this nakedness further separates the european viewer/creator from the non-european figures, exalting the difference between self and other. thus, while at first sight it appears that soffici’s work has no clear racial bias, the dark-skinned figures at bulciano are included because they portray uncivilized individuals whose dances were supposed to alleviate the artist and his friend’s anxieties by reminding them of parisian art and their hopes to collaborate with apollinaire. moreover, despite the numerous references to french modernity, the cycle simultaneously evokes a timeless atmosphere, which emphasizes the figures’ racial difference, since in general, non- european cultures were relegated to an earlier temporal and cultural order than the west. as such, the room of the mannequin’s harmonious atmosphere, while rooted in the classical pastoral, depended on the racist attitudes that upheld french colonialism and that made african sources available to artists such as soffici. though soffici’s frescoes processed recent developments in french painting, namely cubism and matisse’s works, an important precursor to this racially charged pastoral can be found in paul gauguin’s paintings, which rejected modern urban life by representing tahitians within colorful, timeless landscapes. these tropical pastorals for an analysis of picasso’s les demoiselles d’avignon from a feminist perspective that also considers colonialism, see anna chave, “new encounters with les demoiselles d'avignon: gender, race, and the origins of cubism”, in: the art bulletin, lxxvi ( ): pp. - . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio were in turn preceded by his idealized representations of religious peasants, usually breton women and children, and constitute one of modern painting’s earliest considerations of the “primitive”. gauguin himself inserted his works within the french classical landscape tradition; much like cézanne and matisse, his works set in brittany and tahiti revisited the ideal landscapes first developed by nicolas poussin and claude lorrain. notably, both matisse and gauguin often relied on non-european “natives” rather than peasants, shepherds, or figures from classical mythology or history in order to reinforce the distance between the idylls represented and their intended viewers. this reveals that soffici’s primitivism was rooted in the tradition of depicting the other within a landscape that arose during the nineteenth century; at the same time, it harked back to the pastoral landscapes painted in baroque italy by french artists, which were in turn indebted to pastorals created during the classical antiquity and the renaissance. despite the fact that soffici’s pastoral frescoes immediate precursors belonged to the french tradition, it is important to consider that they were equally indebted to his identity as a tuscan artist intellectual, which he carefully crafted after his return to italy in and throughout his career. tellingly, the room of the mannequins is not the only example in which soffici and papini relied on “simple” folk to represent an ideal landscape or pastoral. for example, several passages in his proto-fascist novel lemmonio boreo ( ) and in papini’s autobiographical account un uomo finito ( ) relied on tuscany’s countryside and its peasants as settings and supporting characters for their respective protagonists adventures. while both intellectuals were one of the first accounts analysis of gauguin that considers him from a gendered approach is abigail solomon- godeau, “going native: paul gauguin and the invention of primitivist modernism” in the expanded discourse: feminism and art history, n. broude and m. garrard (eds.). new york: harper collins, . more recent scholarship has dealt with other aspects of this, see: elizabeth c. childs, vanishing paradise: art and exoticism in colonial tahiti (berkeley: university of california press, ); patty o'brien, the pacific muse: exotic femininity and the colonial pacific (seattle: university of washington press, ); ruud welten, “paul gauguin and the complexity of the primitivist gaze”, journal of art historiography n. (june ): pp. - .; and ralph hajj, “savage strategies: parisian avant-garde and 'savage' brittany in the definition of paul gauguin”, third text n. (june ): pp. - . soffici, lemmonio boreo, florence . soffici published a revised edition during the rise of fascism, see lemmonio boreo, florence . see also giovanni papini, un uomo finito, florence . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio extremely interested in their region’s countryside and its culture, they did not engage with its peasants or sought to denounce or improve their living conditions. instead, soffici idealized the exploitative sharecropping system prevalent in italy during the nineteenth century, which had survived well into the twentieth century, mezzadria. in the frescoes, african figures substituted the tuscan peasants included in the aforementioned pastoral accounts, and more importantly, functioned similarly, that is, as markers of timelessness and simplicity. once soffici returned to his representation of italian peasants and proposed tuscan folk art as a source, he abandoned non-western primitivism and the depiction of africans. responses to the room of the mannequins although soffici’s frescoes were painted in an informal, lighthearted manner, written responses to this work reveal the intricate manner in which his primitivism operated as well as their respective authors’ attitude towards the african figures. papini himself was the first to write about these frescoes in a prose poem from entitled “la sala dei manichini,” which the blend of primitive and european sources present in the frescos and retaining certain aspects related to the pastoral at the same time as he objectified them. soffici’s choice to depict dark-skinned figures distanced them from european viewers, while papini’s poem further dehumanized them. for instance, the poet referred to these figures as mannequins, which likely led to the frescoes’ title and could be a potential link to de chirico’s works and the widespread rise of humanoids, mannequins and mechanized men in modern art. the metaphysical painter began to depict mannequins in , and eventually, objects such as store mannequins and automatons became common tropes in european art between the wars. this also resonated with marinetti’s novel mafarka le futuriste ( ), whose protagonist was a mechanized papini, “la sala dei manichini”, in: cento pagine di poesie, florence ( ). revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio african man that jointly embodied futurism’s idealization of irrationality, savagery, and technology. finally, he fact that papini refers to them as figures that are not quite human goes hand in hand with soffici’s racist description of african sculptors as “popoli selvaggi” in even as he recognized their creations’ role in the rise of cubism. in his poem, papini erases any sort of temporal or cultural specificity, further relegating these women to a realm outside of european civilization while establishing these works as a pastoral. indeed, he mentions native americans, algerian turks (sic), noah’s rainbow, black women, and graceful natives despite the fact that not all of these figures or elements are present in the the room of the mannequins. through the writer’s description dancing “savages,” this prose poem further confirms that the scene is a pastoral playground for european intellectuals, since it begins and ends with references to an “unmoored soul” who might drown in such exotic places but nonetheless seeks them out in order to flee the middle classes’ “homicidal respectability” by imitating the “black doll that lengthens her bestial sadness along the wall, join the dance, until falling, in the resplandecent epilepsy of this prismatic banquet.” in this passage, papini’s description of a liberating dance unequivocally characterizes the frescoes as an escape, which reinforces their function as a pastoral scene. thus, papini’s poem described soffici’s primitivism as a challenge to the italian bourgeoisie, proposing instead an atmosphere that encourages loss of control through the representation and imitation of african individuals. though papini’s prose poem resonates with several aspects of soffici’s adaptation of picasso’s african women in the years leading up to the great war, later accounts clarify primitivism’s place in italian culture after world war ii. indeed, soffici’s filippo tomasso marinetti, mafarka le futuriste: un roman coloniale, paris . papini (note ), the references are as follows: native americans and algerian turks, p. ; noah’s rainbow and black women, p. ; and graceful natives, p. . ibidem, pp. , . papini refers to an “anima disancorata” that might escape the middle classes’ “omicida rispettabilità” by imitating the “bambola nera che allunga sul muro la sua bestiale tristezza, balla anche te, fino alla caduta, nell’epilessia rutilante di questo banquetto prismatico.” revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio eventual suppression of his non-european sources in his writings regarding the room of the mannequins should be considered in light of his art criticism before and after fascism. though he had considered it as key for cubism, african art and exotic primitivism are all but ignored in his memoirs and accounts written after ; this occurred despite the fact that the artist focused exclusively on his experiences up to and including world war i given that they were untainted by fascism and could help rehabilitate his career after the regime’s fall. soffici’s autobiography, published in , mentions the frescoes but does not acknowledge any direct or indirect engagement with non-western sources or primitivism, referring instead to “sacred representations” as well as greek and etruscan vases. this selective narrative calls to mind art history’s recognition of primitivism as crucial for the formal development of european modernism and its (until recently) concomitant refusal to further explore aspects such as colonialism or even problematize this appropriation. at the same time, this selective erasure suggests the challenges scholars face when exploring elements that are expunged from artists’ careers and/or subsequent autobiographies, as in the case of soffici and carrà’s suppression of their exotic primitivism during and after world war i. despite the fact that soffici omitted his reliance on primitivism in his biographical account of the creation of the room of the mannequins, a third account did recognize its presence within these frescoes. viola paskowszki papini, one the philosopher’s daughters that had helped the artist paint the villa’s walls, described the frescoes in as an “alarming dance” in which a “a dark and unhappy negress” rested near an ox while two men, who resembled lion tamers, observed the females dance like soffici (note ), pp. - . the original text reads: “coprii [sic] il primo muro delle immagini figurate di uomini, donne, animali, piante, secondo il carattere, le forme, lo stile, il colore della mia più recente pittura; copersi la seconda parete di nudi danzanti, un po’ come si vede nelle raffigurazioni sacre e nei vasi greci ed etruschi; copersi la terza di bagnanti, femmine e maschi, in piedi asciugandosi, o sdraiati fra l’erba e i fiori della riva. nei pannelli che restavano, allato alle finestre, dipinsi nell’uno, una danzatrice sola agitante un velo giallo; nell’altro una giovane donna seduta accanto a un banchetto di fruttaliola: e così tutta la stanza fu a posto.” revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio “beasts.” tellingly, paskowszki papini’s allusions to the african figures focus on their skin color and gender, and she likens women to dancing beasts, marking their difference from the peaceful “lion tamers.” unlike her father, she does not see this as a space for freedom, but rather, as a frantic, disorienting scene. her description incorporated common stereotypes regarding african rituals, which were regarded with fear by european colonizers well into the twentieth century. while paskowszki papini emphasizes the african elements within the frescos, soffici's autobiography, published one year before, removes such acknowledgement, rendering hers even more salient. moreover, the philosopher’s daughter relies on common tropes regarding africa while chronicling her childhood, and in a sense, reflects mainstream attitudes regarding non-western populations and colonialism after the end of world war ii. these attitudes also fit shed light on the development of primitivism in italian art, since unlike in france, it did not usually lead to a more nuanced desire to engage with colonized peoples and their art, as in the case of surrealism, for instance. primitive and italian? soffici’s abandonment of cubism seems to have announced the end of italian primitivism, and correspondingly, has precluded a thorough evaluation of its development. despite recent denials that italian primitivism based on exotic sources existed at all, a number of his compatriots continued to rely on african sources and/or modernist primitivism after world war i, both in their writings and works of art. this fraught reliance on exotic elements is typified by the mainly negative reception of the exhibitions of african sculpture and modigliani’s work at the biennale and by this see viola paszkowski papini, la bambina guardava, milan . originally quoted in papini and mario novaro, carteggio, - , ed. by andrea aveto, rome , p. , note . paszkowski papini’s view of these frescoes contrasts with einstein’s interest in african masks and rituals as part of his consideration of african sculpture. see einstein (note ) and joyce cheng, “immanence out of sight: formal rigor and ritual function in carl einstein’s ‘negerplastik’”, in: res, no. / , absconding ( ), pp. - . braun, journal of modern italian studies. revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio artist’s critical fortune in italy after his death in . the artist’s bohemianism and primitive sources were denounced by some critics (including soffici) during the biennale and were further rejected on the occasion of a second monographic exhibition of his works curated by lionello venturi for the edition of the venetian exhibition. the exhibition of african sculptures at the biennale epitomizes this country’s complicated engagement with these sources as well as the exceptional nature of the italian case. the organizers’ background reveals that it was approached from an ethnographic perspective, since carlo anti, an archaeologist, and aldobrandino mocchi, an anthropologist, selected the pieces. previous exhibitions of african sculpture and modern art held in france and the united states, for instance, were usually held by artists or gallery owners such as stieglitz and paul guillaume. additionally, in the biennale’s exhibition’s catalog, anti recognized african sculpture’s role in european art but warned that it should not serve as an inspiration for italian artists, while several of the critics who reviewed the biennale denied the works’ beauty or status as art. indeed, soffici’s abandonment of primitivism and the reception of the biennale have led to a generalized refusal to reconstruct italy’s primitivism and/or anti-primitivism. nevertheless, this strand’s eventual links to fascist colonialism renders the reconsideration of this engagement with non-western art an urgent task. the and biennali established a continuing, if tense, engagement with primitivism, and this strand developed well into the late s. never fully excised from italian culture, the relationship between african culture and modern art found itself at the center of fascist racial discourse, since magazines such as il perseo ( - ?) and see braun, “the faces of modigliani: identity politics under fascism”, in: modern art and the idea of the mediterranean, ed. by vojtěch jirat-wasiutyński, toronto , pp. - ; and dominique jarrassé and maria grazia messina, “introduction”, in: expressionnisme: une construction de l'autre/ espressionismo: una costruzione dell'altro, paris , pp. - . see carlo anti, “mostra di scultura negra”, in: catalogo della xiii esposizione internazionale d’arte della città di venezia, exh. cat. venice , milan , pp. - ; and “scultura negra”, in: dedalo i ( ), pp. - , which preceded the exhibition. others did not consider these works as art, for example, francesco sapori, “la xiii esposizione internazionale d’arte a venezia. introduzione con l’arte negra”, in: emporium, lv ( ), pp. - ; and deccio buffoni, “la xiii biennale di venezia—il ‘palazzo dell’esposizione’”, in: il primato artistico italiano, iv ( ): pp. - . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio la difesa della razza ( - ) denounced the deformation present in primitivist works, noting that it threatened italian culture and racial purity. despite the fact that several of the artists accused of relying on african art and the deformation, elongation and distortion associated with it had created works for the regime and were dedicated fascists, they were blamed for denigrating the italian race. this position was certainly influenced by german initiatives such as the exhibition entartete kunst ( ), but it also built upon the discourse on african art that arose during the biennale. furthermore, its racism resonated with soffici’s writings on african culture, fascist colonialism, and the need to recover rome’s imperial greatness that he published during the mid to late s. thus, whereas in the bulciano frescoes the artists had combined classical and exotic references in order to defend mediterranean culture, he did the opposite once italy launched in its own imperial project. soffici’s primitivism in the bulciano frescoes responded to the cultural and political context determined by the outbreak of world war i. though there are no clear political allusions, the room of the mannequins evoked a pastoral scene as well as picasso’s demoiselles, creating a mediterranean front that attempted to discredit german political and cultural hegemony. this anti-german sentiment was rooted in giorgio vasari’s approach to what he perceived as a decline in art due to the barbarian invasion of rome, a view soffici subscribed to after his return to italy by attacking the symbolist artist franz stuck in his review of the biennale. during the war, the futurists as well as soffici wrote articles against germany and its culture in order to persuade the see for example, anonymous, “le opere di certi modernisti è chiaro che denigrano la razza”, in: perseo, january . the works criticized in this article were by giorgio morandi, carlo carrà, arturo martini, marino marini, lucio fontana and corrado cagli. for a recent consideration of the classical-barbarian dichotomy in art history, see eric michaud, “barbarian invasions and the racialization of art history,” october no. (winter ): - . soffici reviewed the biennale in four separate articles: see soffici, “l’esposizione di venezia,” la voce ( november ); ( november ); ( october ); and ( november ). revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio public to support the entrance of italy into the armed conflict. since the dark-skinned figures were indices of the parisian milieu that both soffici and papini valued, they were part of a pastoral meant to counteract a perceived danger coming from europe itself, not from the african continent. thus, the possibility that germany would invade france led the artist to create a primitive pastoral that did not destabilize the classical, but rather, sought to maintain the superiority of mediterranean europe. during the s and s, soffici reinstated the opposition between the classical and the primitive, and eventually supported the fascist empire. soon after the war ended, the artist repudiated his avant-garde experience in his magazine rete mediterranea ( , itself a clear allusion to the roman empire’s mare nostrum, a notion that fascism recovered as part of its colonial project) and in his retrospective exhibition that same year. he also wrote negatively about the african sculptures and modigliani’s works featured in the biennale, advising artists to leave exotic sources behind. though soffici stopped creating works inflected by exotic primitivism, his writings continued to depend on notions regarding the alleged cultural and racial inferiority of african individuals. in , for example, soffici sailed to libya as part of a group of intellectuals that accompanied mussolini on a tour of this colony. he eagerly chronicled this trip in la gazzetta del popolo and praised the dictator while characterizing the locals as animals and using an orientalizing language to refer to this country as timeless. whereas his earlier primitivism had opposed german imperialism, his depiction of libyans as uncivilized peoples contributed to fascist colonialism. two years later, he made multiple allusions to the roman empire in the conservative magazine il see soffici, “per la guerra,” lacerba ( and september ); and “sulla barbarie tedesca,” lacerba ( november ). soffici, “gli italiani all’esposizione di venezia”, in: il resto del carlino, xxxviii, june , p. . cited in emanuele greco, “l’arte negra all biennale di venezia del . ricostruzione del dibattito critico sulle riviste italiane”, in: annali. arte, musica e spettacolo, xi ( ), p. . soffici wrote several columns about his trip to libya, see “itinerario libico”, in: la gazzetta del popolo, april, may, may, july, august, and september ; and “paesaggio cirenaico”, ibidem, december . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio frontespizio ( - ) while viciously attacking african culture. thus, while in , soffici’s african women relaxed within a classical pastoral to provide himself and papini a momentary escape from the war, once fascism consolidated its empire, his depiction of african individuals went hand in hand with the regime’s racial policies, in which they were to be dominated, segregated, and civilized so as to recover ancient rome’s glory. tellingly, in , soffici blamed the french revolution for the demise of european civilization, since by then, italians no longer needed this country’s mediation in order to access exotic sources, as they had succeeded in creating their own, if short lived, african empire in libya, eritrea, and ethiopia. conclutions in general, art history has not paid attention to the rise and development of primitivism as well as its political implications in countries with few colonial holdings. unfortunately, its first practitioners within the italian milieu provoked the apparent erasure and subsequent disinterest in these sources. soffici was the first to do this, as he recognized and then denied the importance of primitivism for cubism, an operation that is replicated by the relative lack of research on his and other italian artists’ reliance on african sources. nevertheless, throughout the ventennio, artists and scholars did continue to engage with african sources and/or european primitivism. others sought out domestic primitivisms as an alternative, which allowed them to retain certain formal characteristics as well as african art’s ‘sincerity’ and coarseness without directly relying on the exotic. furthermore, italian modernism’s debt to tradition and collaboration with fascism has severely limited its primitivism’s visibility within art history. despite these incomplete art historical narratives, the visual and textual evidence of an italian primitivist turn (in)directly informed by african sources remains. more importantly, it challenges the art historical account that credits european artists with soffici, “mediterranea”, in: il frontespizio, xi ( ), pp. - . ibidem. revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio leading towards an acceptance of non-western artifacts as artistic, not ethnographic objects between the wars. whereas in france avant-garde artists’ appreciation and deployment of these sources led to debates regarding their potential entrance into art museums as early as and , italian artists’ primitivism did not subscribe to this, at least during fascism. besides, while the surrealists organized a counter-exhibition to denounce the exposition international coloniale in , artists associated with futurism created artworks for the regime’s pavilion that drew upon french primitivism in order to promote fascist colonialism. indeed, modernist primitivism became one of the several aesthetics used by the regime; most notably, it appeared in large-scale, public works such as enrico prampolini’s murals for the mostra triennale delle terre italiane d'oltremare in naples. in other words, the use of african sources or representation of africans in modern italian art developed well into late fascism and did not lead to nuanced debates that questioned racism or colonialism, as had occurred in france, and to a lesser degree in the united states and in germany before nazism. soffici’s adoption and subsequent repudiation of primitivism is a notable part of italian modernism, and should lead us to reconsider italy’s eccentric contribution to european primitivism. as i have shown, the artist adapted french primitivism in order to present an alternative to german political and cultural hegemony in his pastoral frescoes at bulciano and later refuted this integration of non-western elements into a pastoral in order to support the fascist regime. more importantly, his later writings on libya and on fascist imperialism prove that italian primitivism survived well into late fascism, revealing the need for a more thorough engagement with the ways in which this country deployed this strand. rweferencias alejandría, c. ( ) el pedagogo. introducción de Ángel castiñeira. traducción y notas de joan sariol díaz. madrid. editorial gredos. biblioteca clásica # . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio alvar, j. ( ) los misterios. religiones “orientales” en el imperio romano. barcelona. editorial crítica. antología de la literatura latina (ss. iii a.c.-ii d.c.) ( ). selección e introducción de j. c. fernández corte y a. moreno hernández. madrid. alianza editorial. clásicos de grecia y roma. antología de la poesía erótica española e hispanoamericana ( ). edición de pedro provencio. madrid. ediciones edaf. biblioteca edaf # . antología de poesía erótica griega. poemas de amor y sexo en gracia. ( ) edición bilingüe y traducción de josé luis calvo martínez. madrid. ediciones cátedra. col. letras universales. archer, r. ( ) misoginia y defensa de las mujeres. antología de textos medievales. madrid. ediciones cátedra / universitat de valècia / instituto de la mujer. aristóteles. ( ) acerca del alma. introducción, traducción y notas de tomás calvo martínez. madrid. editorial gredos. biblioteca clásica gredos # _________. ( ) fragmentos. introducción, traducción y notas de Álvaro vallejo campos. madrid. editorial gredos. biblioteca clásica gredos # epigramas eróticos griegos. antología palatina (libros v y xii) ( ). introducción, traducción y notas de guillermo galán vioque y miguel Á. márquez guerrero. madrid. alianza editorial. el libro de bolsillo. clásicos de grecia y roma. gómez pallares, j. ( ) stvdiosa roma. los géneros literarios de la cultura romana. barcelona. universitat autónoma de barcelona. grimal, p. ( ) el amor en la roma antigua. madrid. paidos. paidós orígenes. la biblia. ( ) traducida, presentada y comentada para las comunidades cristianas de latinoamérica y para los que buscan a dios. madrid. editorial san pablo y editorial verbo divino. larroyo, f. y escobar, e. ( ) introducción a la filosofía de la cultura. méxico. editorial porrúa. revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio mosès, s. ( ) el eros y la ley. lecturas bíblicas. traducción de alejandrina falcón. buenos aires. katz editores. manzano, j. ( ) nietzsche. detective de bajos fondos. méxico. universidad iberoamericana. segunda edición. mead, g. r. s. ( ) apolonio de tyana, filósofo y ocultista reformador del primer siglo de j. c. traducción y prólogo de rafael urbano. méxico. berbera editores. ovidio nasón, p. ( ) amores. arte de amar. sobre la cosmética del rostro femenino. remedios contra el amor. traducción, introducción y notas de vicente cristóbal lópez. madrid. editorial gredos. biblioteca clásica # . propercio. ( ) elegías. versión de rubén bonifaz nuño. méxico. bibliotheca scriptorum graecorum et romanorum mexicana. unam. quintana salazar, e. ( ) “la erótica como punto de apoyo para la comprensión del mundo; o de evasiones y banalidades en el hombre de principios del siglo xxi”. guadalajara. en xipe totek revista trimestral del departamento de filosofía y humanidades, iteso. n. / de septiembre de . - pp. ____________________________. ( ) antología de canciones-baladas románticas en español, escuchadas en la radio en méxico. manuscrito. méxico. santa maría del río, san luis potosí. robert, j. n. ( ) eros romano. sexo y moral en la roma antigua. traducción de eduardo bajo Álvarez. españa. editorial complutense. sánchez ortega, m. e.. ( ) la mujer y la sexualidad en el antiguo régimen. la perspectiva inquisitorial. madrid. ediciones akal. santayana, g. ( ) tres poetas filósofos / diálogos en el limbo. méxico. col. sepan cuantos # . editorial porrúa valbuena, m. ( ) diccionario universal latino-español, compuesto por… madrid. imprenta de don benito cano. obtenido el de agosto de . revista de filosofía y letras departamento de filosofía / departamento de letras issn: - x año xxi. número enero-junio http://books.google.es/books?id=ts ooe quykc&pg=pr &source=gbs_selected _pages&cad= #v=onepage&q&f=false. veyne, p. ( ) la elegía erótica romana. el amor, la poesía y el occidente. traducción de juan josé utrilla. méxico. fce. vives, l. ( ) tratado de alma. madrid. col. austral. espasa calpe. xirau, r. ( ) de ideas y no ideas. cinco ensayos de filosofía contemporánea. méxico. cuadernos de joaquín mortiz. representations of blindness in picasso's blue period representations of blindness in picasso’s blue period james g. ravin, md; jonathan perkins, phd t he spanish painter pablo picasso ( - ) was the most important artist of the th century. it is impossible to consider the development of modern art without him. a unique, highly productive artist who created more than works in more than years of activity, picasso was the most frequently exhibited and critiqued artist of the last century. best known as a painter, he also worked in sculpture, prints, ceramics, and theater design. blindness was a theme that played an important role in the artist’s first distinctive style, known as the blue period. picasso’s earliest work was done in a natu- ralistic manner and gives few hints of the future direction his art would take. while still a teenager, picasso made several vis- its to paris, the capital of the artistic world, where he exhibited paintings and draw- ings at the gallery of ambrose vollard, who represented postimpressionists and younger members of the french avant- garde. the exhibition was a modest finan- cial success and brought him further com- missions. one art critic saw in this show the debut of a “brilliant newcomer,” but wrote that “picasso’s passionate surge for- wards has not yet left him the leisure to forge a personal style.” during his early years picasso developed a strong person- ality and envisioned himself a sort of artist- hero, akin to a nietzschean superman. he had encountered philosophy and art theory a few years earlier but remained a studio artist and never considered abstract think- ing important to the way he worked. he found this type of discussion irrelevant and distracting, and even used the word “blind- ing” to describe such activity. in late his work took a dra- matic turn when he developed his first dis- tinctive style, the nearly monochromatic works of the blue period ( - ). these works are instantly recognizable by their overwhelming use of blue colors and melancholy figures. several oil paintings and a print from this period have blind- ness as a theme. the sad, brooding mood of these works may have been a reaction to the suicide of his close friend and fel- low artist, carlos casagemas ( - ), which followed a failed romance. images of blindness may be traced back to greek antiquity, where the blind poet homer is a familiar figure. in span- ish art and literature, the blind poet evolved into the blind guitarist. blind beggars were a common sight on the streets of spain for centuries. francisco goya ( - ) created several paintings and prints of this subject. picasso painted and engraved works based on the theme of blindness sev- eral times during his blue period. occa- sionally he returned to images of the blind later in his career, such as his depictions from the s of a blind minotaur, an an- cient greek mythological figure who had the head of a bull and the body of a man. pervasive use of blue pigment was not invented by picasso, for there is a long his- tory of working this way. his immediate predecessors in this manner were symbol- ist painters of spain and france, who used blue to emphasize the emotional sensa- tions of sadness and despair. many works in the art nouveau style created toward the end of the th century also have an overwhelming blue tone, with one good example being emile galle’s work in glass entitled blue melancholia. (p ) through- out his career picasso incorporated the methods of other artists into his work. oth- from the section of ophthalmology, medical college of ohio, toledo (dr ravin); and the visual arts program, university of illinois at springfield (dr perkins). special article (reprinted) arch ophthalmol / vol , apr www.archophthalmol.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / ers have put it more sharply—he stole from everyone, from the old masters to his contemporaries. according to francoise gilot, one of his many mis- tresses, picasso said, “when there’s anything to steal, i steal.” the blue works show a particular debt to el greco which is evident in the elon- gated hands and faces. he found working in blue highly compatible with his subject matter—the poor, disabled, and downtrodden. some have suggested the pov- erty-stricken subjects reflect his life- style at the time. picasso was cer- tainly not as rich then as he was to become later, but he was not greatly different financially from the rest of his artistic and literary circle. he had financial support from home and had exhibited successfully by this time. some have suggested he used blue primarily because he could only af- ford cobalt blue paint. this is incor- rect. he could certainly afford to pur- chase whatever paints he wanted. he was still in his youth, testing a tech- nique that proved to be effective for him and that had been explored pre- viously by others. perhaps picasso identified with the unfortunate in- dividuals he painted. his ambiva- lent comments about paris are evi- dent in a letter he wrote that same year to his friend, the poet and art- ist, max jacob: my dear old max, i think about the room on the boulevard voltaire and the om- elets, the beans, and the brie and the fried potatoes. but i also think about those days of misery and that’s very sad. and i remember the spaniards from the rue de seine with disgust. if picasso ever told anyone pre- cisely why blindness was impor- tant to him, we have not been able to find a description. we do know that his father’s vision was deterio- rating from an unknown cause at this time. inevitably, psychoana- lytic approaches have been at- tempted. the psychiatrist carl jung saw “incipient psychic dissocia- tion” and even schizophrenia in pi- casso’s paintings. blindness is a most serious problem for a painter. in a recent, highly acclaimed biography of picasso, richardson noted that pi- casso was at home in barcelona with his parents when he painted some of the blind figures from his blue pe- riod, and that by depicting “the pros- pect of what he most feared in life, was not this a way of protecting him- self against it?” (p ) the closest pi- casso came to discussing blindness is this cryptic quotation from the mid s: “there is in fact only love that matters. whatever it may be. and they should put out the eyes of paint- ers as they do to goldfinches to make them sing better.” roland pen- rose, who recorded these words, also wrote “the allegory of the blind man pursued picasso throughout life as though reproaching him for his unique gift of vision.” these quo- tations give a hint that picasso was confronting and naming his fears but do not clarify the meaning of his por- traits of the blind. picasso’s depictions of the blind are too stylized for us to diagnose precisely the diseases being delin- eated. although the name of the model for la celestine (figure ) is known, we do not know what c a u s e d h e r c o r n e a t o b e c o m e opaque. her white eye contrasts markedly with the blue that domi- nates the rest of this painting. she is the one-eyed procuress de- scribed in the drama of the same name written by fernando de ro- jas (first known edition, ) that is considered second in impor- tance in spanish literature only to cervantes’ don quixote. picasso knew rojas’s story from his adoles- cent years, if not earlier. (p ) the cause of the atrophic orbit of the old guitarist (figure ) also remains obscure. picasso engulfed the region of the eye in a dark blue shadow in his paintings of the blind, a characteristic that can be considered an archetypical figure l. pablo picasso. la celestine, , spanish. oil on canvas, . � . cm. musée picasso, paris, france, estate of pablo picasso. (reprinted) arch ophthalmol / vol , apr www.archophthalmol.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / stylistic feature of the blue period. similarly, we cannot identify a cause for the poor vision of the fig- u r e i n t h e b l i n d m a n ’ s m e a l (figure ). picasso described what he was creating in this work succinctly in a letter: “i am painting a blind man at a table. he holds some bread in his left hand and gropes with his right for a jug of wine.” this is one of his few remarks about works made at the time, but reveals nothing. picasso did not depict figures in great detail, but tended to ideal- ize them in these blue period works. he took the elongated arms, hands, torsos, and heads of el greco and placed them in an early th century setting. some critics have seen a “spiritual inner vision” in the blind figures picasso created in this way. the figures are isolated and do not interact well. other observers have felt this is a reflection of picasso’s own iso- lation at that time. despite nearly a century of critical comment on these works, the full meaning is still unclear. the artist himself did not offer any help in deciphering them. when asked, he responded dismissively, terming the blue and rose period works as pure senti- ment. but we would argue that the blind characters in the blue period paintings were not created simply to make the viewer feel sorry for them. picasso found an intensity of other senses in his depiction of the blind. in the old guitarist and the blind man’s meal different senses appear to be enhanced as compared with the lack of sight. the fact that the fig- ures are blind might, in and of it- self, indicate that other senses are more acute, but picasso empha- sized other senses by elongating forms and was influenced by el greco. in particular, the long, thin hands of the figures in both these works are fundamental to an en- hancement of the senses because they are direct actors in creating mu- sic in the case of the old guitarist, and in touching the food in the blind man’s meal. picasso explored the “power” of blindness in la celes- tine. by depicting an eye with an opaque cornea next to an appar- ently normal eye, picasso juxta- posed vision and blindness. para- doxically, it is the blind eye that draws the gaze of the viewer. the fact that the opaque cornea blocks vi- sion is the very element that at- tracts vision on the part of the viewer. the style of the blue period may be thought of as a kind of meditation on blindness, or at least impaired vision. in these works the artist explores the expressive possi- bilities of a radical reduction of color. picasso surrounded the envi- ronment with a dark blue veil and used flat, simplified backgrounds that threaten to disappear alto- gether. an obscuring of traditional vision is the fundamental expres- sive component of these works. in investigating blindness picasso chose a style that deemphasizes objective sight in favor of a deeper vision. the figures are recognizable as people, which is more than can be said for some paintings from his cubist period. the fractured cubist portraits, which depict individuals from a multitude of directions, con- fuse many museum goers. the pub- lic is interested in the blue period paintings from his youth because of what he created later. early picasso is not as pleasurable to view as im- pressionism, to cite just one ex- ample. some of the reverence for these works comes from the fact that figure . pablo picasso. the old guitarist, / , spanish. oil on panel. . � . cm. the art institute of chicago, chicago, ill, helen birch bartlett memorial collection. figure . pablo picasso, the blind man’s meal, , spanish. oil on canvas. . � . cm. the metropolitan museum of art, new york, ny, mr and mrs ira haupt gift, . (reprinted) arch ophthalmol / vol , apr www.archophthalmol.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / experts say they should be seen, en- joyed, and respected for what pi- casso was to become, the epitome of modernism. the most important art may be difficult to understand, even disturbing, while art that is super- ficially appealing may be overly sac- charine, lack any meaning after the first glance, and remain totally un- important. picasso made evaluating his work difficult. he treated with scorn attempts at analysis and said he just painted what he saw, the things that moved him: when i paint, my object is to show what i have found and not what i am looking for. . . . what one does is what counts and not what one had the intention of doing. . . . there are no concrete or ab- stract forms but only forms which are more or less convincing lies. he denied any evolution in his style even if others separated his work into radically different phases: “when- ever i had something to say, i have said it in a manner in which i have felt it ought to have been said . . . ” since different motives inevitably require dif- ferent methods of expression. this does not imply either evolution or progress, but an adaptation of the idea one wants to express and the means to express that idea. these statements reaffirm the com- mon observation that an artist is in- herently biased when it comes to evaluating and interpreting his own work. picasso actually admitted as much in saying, “the connoisseur of painting gives only bad advice to the painter. for that reason i have given up trying to judge myself.” picasso’s colors and subject mat- ter brightened by the end of as he entered the next major phase of his art, the rose period ( - ). the change to warmer colors and more pleasant themes is linked to the happiness he shared with his first long-term liaison, fernande ol- ivier. the works of the blue and rose periods have certainly achieved criti- cal acceptance, but if picasso had stopped painting at this point, he would be remembered as a second- or third-rank artist who had not reached full artistic maturity. the next phases of his career, particu- larly cubism ( - ) brought pi- casso fame on the international level and made him the single most im- portant figure in th century art. accepted for publication october , . corresponding author and re- prints: james g. ravin, md, re- gency ct, toledo, oh (e-mail: jamesravin@aol.com). references . mcquillan m. picasso. dictionary of art. vol . london, england: macmillan publishing co inc; : . . chipp hb. theories of modern art. berkeley: uni- versity of california press; : . . richardson j. a life of picasso. vol . new york, ny: random house inc; . . cowing e. picasso: style and meaning. london, england: phaidon press; : . . kimmelman m. first steps on the journey from prodigy to picasso. new york times. april , :b , b . . mccully m, ed. a picasso anthology: docu- ments, criticism, reminiscences. london, en- gland: thames & hudson ltd; : . . farrier jl. picasso. paris, france: editions pierre terrail; : . . penrose r. picasso: his life and work. new york, ny: harper; : . . penrose r. picasso, perception, and blindness. museum (paris). ; : . . boggs js. picasso & things. cleveland, ohio: cleveland museum of art; : . . picasso, the early years - [exhibition brochure, unpaginated]. washington, dc: na- tional gallery; . . janson af: history of art. th ed. new york, ny: harry n abrams inc; : . . francis hs. picasso’s “la vie.” cleveland mu- seum art bull. ; : . . peter lj. peter’s quotations: ideas for our time. new york, ny: bantam books; : . (reprinted) arch ophthalmol / vol , apr www.archophthalmol.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / hugues dufourt, la musique spectrale. une révolution épistémologique. hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- submitted on may hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. hugues dufourt, la musique spectrale. une révolution épistémologique. laura zattra to cite this version: laura zattra. hugues dufourt, la musique spectrale. une révolution épistémologique.. twentieth-century music, cambridge university press (cup), , ( ), pp. - . � . /s �. �hal- � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr hugues dufourt, la musique spectrale. une révolution épistémologique (paris: Éditions delatour, ), isbn - - - - (pb). laura zattra spectral music is now more than forty years old. in his preface, french composer and philosopher hugues dufourt defines it thus: spectral music basically represents a change in our ways of thinking music. it is no longer a music based on traditional and well separated categories, such as melody, counterpoint, harmony or timbre. spectral music, on the contrary, is the music of middle categories and hybrid objects. its objects stand at the frontier of two or more dimensions, timbre and harmony, harmonicity and inharmonicity, pitch and noise, rhythm and grain. spectral music is the exploration of continuous transitions between traditionally heterogeneous domains; it creates mixtures and works to breach the thresholds of perception. the music of the end of the last century has irresistibly uncovered colour, as both a predominant and autonomous dimension of its language. we can define it as the art of colour modulation. ( - ) after reading this introductory passage, coming as it does from the person who coined the term “musique spectrale” (in , dufourt wrote the famous manifesto “musique spectrale”), the reader might expect a book that takes stock of the state of this compositional technique / movement, and explores its historical development and main protagonists – a sort of ultimate book on spectral music. in fact, this volume (published in and running to pages) reunites a series of essays composed by dufourt over the course of twenty years and should be read in the light of this consideration. as a collection of old and recent articles dealing with spectral questions, it has another goal: neither musicological, nor merely historical, analytical, phenomenological or auto-biographical. placing himself in the dual role of editor and contributor, dufourt introduces in the preface the underlying themes and motivations: this book […] deals with the structural mutations of ‘serious’ music from the s. it also traces the portraits of illustrious predecessors who initiated music to the irreversible path of modernity and enabled a moulding of the new matrix of the world. the purpose of this book is to outline the history of categories of musical thought in written for the société nationale de radiodiffusion, radio france/société internationale de musique contemporaine, simc, , - . the course of the second half of the twentieth century, and to understand the nature of the relations, during this period, being established between art, science and technology. it has become necessary to disengage the epistemological basis of a production which, too often, confuses theoretical issues and prophecies or burdens itself with scientific myths. ( ) predecessors, categories of musical thoughts, and the bond between art, science and technology – these are the themes discussed at length across sixteen chapters, each of which was originally an article, concert programme note, or conference speech, from the period between and . all the chapters have already been published elsewhere, except for three: the long first one (almost pages) which is also the most recent (written in september ), an article on pierre boulez, and the final chapter, a conference paper presented in at the festival milano musica. although all the chapters are stand-alone pieces and seem arranged in a loosely connected and achronological sequence –– a characteristic which enables the reader to read them in a different order depending on their own specific interest –– the book can nevertheless be seen as a coherent whole, written from an insider’s point of view. scrolling across articles, the book opens with a long disquisition on the specificity of spectral music (la violence de l’art), its historical, aesthetic, technological and epistemological meanings. terms such as the articulation en puissance of movement, quality and masses; sound as energy rather than number; dynamism of transitions rather than montage; form arising from its material – these form the essential vocabulary that reoccurs throughout the book [ ]. the volume continues with single chapters dedicated to stravinsky, schoenberg, boulez, the principles of spectral music, bauhaus & ircam, pierre schaeffer, elites and programmes, computer music, musical space, musical material as genetic source of movement and space, intensity and timbre as carriers of form, gérard grisey, grisey and the meaning of his production, theoretical and philosophical foundations of spectral music, and finally the contradictions and fertility of the spectral model. the long first chapter thus acts as an ‘introduction’ (written in ) to the previously written articles that follow it here. from the second chapter on, the contents are focussed on three main themes: specific composers (predecessors, and the initiator of spectral music, gérard grisey), compositional principles, and dufourt’s philosophical discussion of scientific knowledge and its interconnection with art, in the attempt, as seen above, ‘to disengage the epistemological basis’ ( ). spectral music, therefore, is not strictly the only subject of this book. if stravinsky has ‘a certain tendency to the momentary’ ( ) as depicted by dahlhaus, and discrete scales and simultaneity are his materials, schoenberg’s theory of composition is closely related to his philosophy of religion: ‘for schoenberg, a composer is an inspired spirit, whose poetic power manifests first in the form of an instantaneous synoptic intuition’ ( ). ‘je compose à partir d’une vision d’ensemble’, writes schoenberg, ‘m’attachant ensuite aux details’ – an idea that dufourt summarises as one in which ‘the organized elements of musical writing are wholly integrated in a hierarchy of functions where the whole dominates the parts’. ( ) dufourt’s chapter concludes with adorno’s interpretation of schoenberg’s music and schoenberg’s own ideas on debussy (one of the pivotal figures in the prehistory of spectral music), whose fourth chords and whole-tone scale were responsible for ‘softening the expressive power and, in the long term, eliminating all characterization’, according to the harsh words of the austrian composer’s harmony treatise ( ). the chapter on boulez (published here for the first time, though written back in ) is a discussion of serialist music and its failure: this music, ‘on the assumption of the simultaneous validity of rules all equally restrictive […] failed to conciliate orders of representation that have become irreducibles’ ( ). but here comes the innovative idea embodied in serialism: the abolition of verticality and horizontality, which brings with it interferences, ambiguities, and sensible transitions between distinct orders ( ), all concepts very dear to spectral composers. the next chapter is also about serial music, viewed both as a technique and a doctrine. a small endnote acknowledges fabien lévy for his suggestions on the sections dealing with the relation between music and mathematics. the article titled ‘le bauhaus et l’ircam: deux maisons de la construction au xxe siècle’ (published in in the book einseigner la composition: de schoenberg au multimedia, edited by peter szendy) is divided in two parts: the first is about bauhaus, the second is devoted to ircam, its parallels and differences with the german art school, and the relationship between art, science and technology more generally. a chapter analysing pierre schaeffer, is an effort to read the traité des objets musicaux as a philosophical system. dufourt outlines the dignity of contemplation, the religious vocation of art, the perpetuity of pythaghorism, and the idea of music as a space of ecstasy supposing the exceeding of the rational activity of thought ( ). the next chapter (elites et programmes) addresses adorno’s theories on avant-garde music after , crafted as a symbolic solidary adventure in the mission of social change, culminating in the computer research developed by john chowning and jean-claude risset ( - ). in relation to leibnitz, the chapter ‘la musique sur ordinateur: une sémantique sans sujet?’ discusses the implications of the encounter between computers and music, proceeding to debate the work of perception psychologists james j. gibson, shepard, and bregman, and dedicates six pages fabien lévy is the author of the seminal work le compositeur, son oreille et ses machines à écrire. déconstruire les grammatologies du musical pour mieux les composer, vrin, . to jean-claude risset’s important contribution in this area. computer music, writes dufourt, ‘imposes a code over materials of information. […] its originality […] enhances the nominalist attitude which consists in resorbing the object within its facture, or its mode of constitution […] computer music operates, at the present time [ ], as a semantics without subject.’ ( ) this is also the only chapter completed by a list of bibliographical references divided according to the different domains of computer music: signal processing, computer synthesis, automated composition, etc. with the tenth chapter, dedicated to the idea of acoustic space and written in , the book finally introduces the main theme – spectral music – halfway through the book. it does so transversely, through the introduction of crucial compositional categories. acoustic space is one of these, as it was already investigated by berlioz, debussy and ravel ( ) and then in avant-garde music after . mutations by risset ( ) is a pivotal work in this exploration ( ), followed by tristan murail, gérard grisey, michaël lévinas and dufourt’s own work: the ‘quartet’ is mentioned here for the second time, pages after the beginning of the book ( ). dufourt finally describes here the five principles of spectral music: ) computer makes it possible to compose/decompose sound; ) harmony transforms in timbre; ) form and material become one; ) synthesis and sound processing cannot be separated from research on listening-perception; ) form has a deep bond with structure ( - ). the next chapter (written in ) seems to be a seamless continuation of the previous one, and introduces musical material as a genetic dynamic source of sound and space. ‘l’action spatialisante en musique’ is seen here as a direct consequence of the musical research from the first half of the twentieth century (debussy, in the first instance) and the ‘genetic dynamism of material’ typified by cubism and russian constructivism, later by stockhausen and his gesang der jünglinge and gérard grisey. the concepts of continuum and (physical) space as a simulation of the physical area are introduced. the following two chapters (written respectively in and ) represent a change in dufourt’s style of writing (or perhaps simply the intervention of editors at that time), with chapters now organized by headings and subheadings. the first assesses the concepts of timbre and intensity. dufourt examines the implications of (musical) science and the modelization of timbre; mathews, risset, chowning, pierce, wessel, bregman, mcadams, moorer, moog, arfib are all mentioned quickly here, as well as varèse, messiaen, xenakis, and ligeti, to stress the broad evolution of this investigation. the next chapter is dedicated solely to gérard grisey (first published in the journal musicae scientiae in ) and offers a chain of interpretations (each section is one or two pages long) of grisey’s bergsonism, controversy with serialism, timbre, structure and musical writing, ‘énergétique musicale’, time and synthesis (with acoustic instruments), sounds and shadow-sounds. the subsequent piece is significantly titled ‘the sense of grisey’s work’, a hommage presented by dufourt in milan in . considering grisey’s refusal of patronage and to exploring his repertoire ( ), dufourt sets out to analyse his colleague’s music, returning to some of the notions touched on in the previous chapter, and separating the first phase from the period after espaces acoustiques. in the penultimate chapter (written in ) dufourt debates the theoretical and philosophical bases of spectral music, also entering into questions of technical, mathematical and computer information; he offers for the first time a personal interpretation of grisey’s and murail’s approaches to spectral music as opposed to that of lévinas’ ( - ), writing ‘[t]he philosophy of continuum shared by grisey, murail, lévinas and i, expresses a refusal of any metaphysical theories of music, counting among them the combinatory approach, the contrapuntal spirit, and all varieties of formalism’. ( ) terms such as mixture and ambiguity return repeatedly, as do the names of chowning and risset. the final chapter (written in ), an unpublished paper given at a symposium dedicated to spectral music organized by gianmario borio and alessandro melchiorre, is titled ‘contradictions and fecundity of spectral music’ and is the most personal account found within the book, written in the first person singular. here dufourt narrates the history of the term, presented by him in a document for the société nationale de radiodiffusion radio/france, in ( - ). he reconstructs the early steps he and his colleagues had made, and cites several works. ‘to me, spectral music would not have been possible without the mutation introduced by sound synthesis, with the studies of mathews, pierce, risset, chowning, moorer, grey and many others. with computers, music has changed its scale altogether.’ ( ). and again: ‘spectral music is a discipline of writing, not of applied logic.’ ( ) ‘our references inside itinéraire were neither linguistic nor biological.’ ( ). this chapter thus provides the most appropriate way of closing to the remarkable amount of information displayed in the book. at this point, the reader might wonder why dufourt has not decided to include his ground- breaking article/manifesto ‘musique spectrale’ ( ), republished so many times, in which he devised the term and launched the new movement. the reasons remain mysterious, even though the essay would have helped in tracing a further perspective of spectral music. as set out above, hugues dufourt the editor prefers not to dictate how to read dufourt the contributor. the reader however has other options at his/her disposal: the final index of names. to this extent, the index (although occasionally imprecise) may drive the reader forward to find out much more about the ‘content’ of the book, serving as a ‘fil rouge’ and guide. it is certainly useful to cast a glance at it. philosophers such as adorno and leibnitz leave their mark throughout the entire book ( and entries respectively). arnold schoenberg, pierre boulez and tristan murail, and of course the tutelary composer gérard grisey are all important references, as can be expected. among composers cited throughout the entire book, pierre schaeffer, karlheinz stockhausen and iannis xenakis stand out most prominently. the index also underlines the importance of the research work of john chowning ( entries) and jean claude risset ( entires), whose ambiguity of the short-circuit “harmony-timbre-harmony” is strikingly demonstrated in pieces such stria or mutations), as also of jean-baptiste joseph fourier, hermann von helmholtz, max mathews, stephen mcadams, john pierce, and david wessel. it is with names such as these that the reader can follow the special liaisons spectral music has with technology and psychoacoustic research. this is the basis of the true epistemological revolution to which dufourt refers in the book’s title. as dufourt said during an interview for the italian public broadcasting company rai in , thanks to the use of computer, ‘changing scale, music has changed its language. timbral objects, found for example by risset, are essentially models of knowledge of certain acoustic phaenomena. these are artifices of synthesis that break the frame of perception and overthrow classical categories of music. we must control the internal structure of sound, by means of procedures of sound micro-surgery’. hugues dufourt’s stylistic dictate may at times appear to be convoluted but it is also ravishing. the reader is asked to circumscribe philosophical passages, jumps from poetic, evocative and vivid sentences to mere suggestions, to follow strings of references and quotations only sometimes tied down (when cited, authors are seldom referenced through specific writings), and to abandon him or herself to dufourt’s erudition as well as a prose style that often flows but, from time to time, can also be redundant. in the end, it must be re-emphasized that the title of this book (la musique spectrale. une révolution épistémiologique) is somewhat misleading. dufourt’s book is a journey through his very personal vision and an effort to read the entire contemporary art scene through his own ‘spectral’ spectacles. for that reason, the book should be read in terms of its emic retrospective focus (an insider’s account) and very much as an individual engagement (compositional, philosophical, autobiographical, theoretical) with the community of spectral music composers within the larger scene of avant-garde music. translated from italian. hugues dufourt, interviewed by francesco antonioni intervista, radio suite, rai, november th . the music phase of modern painting the musical phase of modehn painting. the musical phase of modern painting a thesis presented for the diplomainfinear s (honours) in the unipersity of canterbury christchurch new zealand by ,... j. n. mane rg g to ss. cecilia and luke. for the joy of ear and eye, for the be art and brain's delight, li'or the mystic harmony * i! inking sense to sound and sight: "today a synthesis between the worlds of sound and appear- ance seems to be a possibil i ·ty. "--paul klee. * sacraments and other rites, the english hymnal, no. . preface introduction variations on a theme . the interfusion of modern painting and music impressionism in painting and music pos impressionism: 'l he flusical the symbolist decade: c. - fauvism and music guld.sm and music h orpldsm and music li'uturism and music ~xpressionism: painting and music dada coda append bibliography notes on "colour musich ase i iii lj: . . -i- preface. painting and music interest me much. they a.l'e the twin summits of my artistic ambitions. in this thesis, i have tried to render intelligible to myself, in a very elementary way, the relationship between modern painting and musio, and the develornnent of painting towards the condition of music. rrhis is not to deny that other valid parallels may be drawn between music and, say, sculpture, architecture, poetry, or lrinetic art--such relationships do, of course, exis·t--but they do not seem to have been to each other's evolution as painting and music use the past tense advisedly because i cannot discuss tl:~ any semblance of competence developments in the arts of the present day, nor discern in them ·the trends likely to influence the arts of the future. rrhe interfusion of painting and music is a phenomenon of modern art. because the most influential ideas in twentieth century painting and mu-sic have their origins in the period immediately prior to the first world war, i have centralized my area of study there. l'bere the patterns for subsequent developments in modern art were set. my aim has been to touch on the main areas of con- tact between the two arts in those years• -i:i.- not for a moment do i regard this thesis as having, in any way, exhausted the topic. it merely "scratches tbe surface~" so to speak--it is a l»egtnninr;. i shoulo. like to timnk my friends for their interest, encouragement, advice, and practical assistance. '!'o the painters and composers-~musicians alll--whose ideas laid the foundations of this thesis, and whose works sus- tairled me in its darkest moments--my gratitude. j. n. mo -iii- music and painting are, matertally spealdng, very different arts. in the former a temporally presented mode of expression addresses itself to the ear, in the latter a sjlatially presented mode addresses itself to the eye, and they would not appear to admit of any comparison. modern painting interfuses the dimensions of time and space, challenging the traditional distinctions between temporal and spatial arts. a kind of multi-dimensional art results. gauguin and van gogh believed that painting promised to become more like music. it bas. modern painting has entered a "musical" pbase~-for the painter has turned composer and performer, c:md his works owe an obvio~us debt to the sister art. music, in turn, has drawn from the :painter's domain such material as bas considerably enriched the language of sound. in no previous age were they so interdependent, and this assertion is confirmed in the astonishing parallels between them before the first world war, when the notion (._~ ofvrelationship between painting and music was at its zenith. "musicality" in modern painting associated with a tendency towards abstraction. the nearer painting -iv- approaches a pictorial art which makes no specific refer- ence to nature, the more nearly must it align itself with an autonomous and independent system such as music. painting and music have come to share fundamental principles ·of organization. what malres a painting "musical"? a musical painter? so it would seem. a number of musicians and composers have abandoned promising musical careers in order to take up painting--among them ciurlionis, klee, l~'eininger, ussolo, and larry poons. other painters have deemed it necessary to acquire musical skills such painters as these were "musically" committed in their works: music instructed their visual sense and info~med their expression. but not all modern painting could be described as "musical". n ere are musical pictures, just as there are unmusical ones, pictures t[jat are posi.tively hostile to the r l t . f . '' i ( d tl t th . weld e no .on o .. mus c. y · e same "o(en, ·ere s a so music "positively hostile to the whole notion of music, and cohsequently, to the whole notion of modern j)ai.nting.) some pai~ti.ngs which invite musical association are ambiguous and confusing. they may remind us of music, they may not. one cannot hear a painting or see music save in the experience of abnormal sensory agitation. however much synaesthetes would persuade us to tlle contrary, painting is :not music. . anil da silva, otto von simson, roger llinks, man through his art: musi£ (london: e. p. publishing co. ltd., t ), p. -v- the relationship between painting and music is best explained in terms of their qarallel developments, and in order to do this i have looked for corresponding gestures in the two arts. painting arrived at abstractlon by anulogy with music (a useful ally, since music is fundamentally non-representational.) before the first world war (and fo~ a short while after) painters and .o:amposers were attuned to each other in a way that had few precedents in history: a strong bond was cemented between them, and there were a great many areas in which they met. all subsequent developments in painting and music refer, in some way, to the innovations and inventions of the musical phase of modern painting. til~ ligrai\y chapter : .. varinrions on a rrrreme. colours may mutually relate lil<:e musical concords for their pleasantest arrangel:fent; lil<:e those con- cor •. ds mutually proportionate. those words, uttered over two thousand years ago by aris- totle, express the essence of an idea constantly elaborated whenever and wherever it has since manife:la~ed itself. the notion that painting and music are in somevinterrelated is a recurrent theme in the history of painting, but one which has eluded definition until very recent times. numerous tings testify to the fascination which the notion afforded: such a relationship exist, the writers were sure, but there appeared to be little evidence to encourage further investigation., thus, curiously, variations on the same theme occurred again and ain as original consideration, reconstituted and presented accord- ing to the spirit and tenor of the epoch, only to be deferred because they failed to fulfil their initial pro- mise. aristotle, "de sensu", quoted image . - - ~;ome would have it tha.t, of all the arts, mustc ancl architecture make a more convincing·equation. goetlle descril:lctl arch i tee ture as "dmub music", and he quo ted ·wt th approval gtlrres' famous aper~u of arcld.teeture as "frozen music". : . "music", said the famous german philosopber, hegel, "is architecture translated from space into t:lrile....,- for in music, besides the deepest feeling, there is also a vigorous mathematical in tell ig;encf~ • in addition to spatial and temporal considerations, music often resembles arch:i.tecture in the formidable distance f:that separates the ereator and his creation. medieval man constructed lds arclli tecture accord~ ing to musical harmonl.c proportion. rrhe beauties of musical consonance were considered to be an echo of meta- pllysical truth, and visual heanty had to he the mirror of that truth. the proportions, : ; : ; : , were felt to be as pleasing to the eye as the corresponding conso- nances were to the oar. fj. hat is why st. augustine and his pupils considered architecture, the 'rt of geometrical proportion, the sister of music. l. a. willoughby, rrhe homan tic movement in germany: (oxford university press, ), p. . georg wilhelm friedrich hegel, ( - ), quoted in king l)almer's compose music (london: 'l'he english uni- versities press, ), p. . anil de silva, otto von simson, lloger hinks, man through his art: music (london: e. p. publishing co. ltd • , l.~:) , p • • - - the middle ages conoeived the cosmos as a kind of musical universe, a symphony composed of an in- finite variety of individual parts related to one another by the harmony of musical proportion. · if architecture was the visual equivalent of music, painting, sculpture and allied crafts contributed, as com- ponent parts to the unity of the composition. in the fourteenth century, perspective and prehar- mony evolved together out of the basically unperspective and unharmonic world of tlle later !vficldle ages. at the be- ginning of the henaissance there was a radical shift to per- spective and harmony proper. as long as painting had per- sisted in a two-dimensional attitude, music bad been 'linear~ proceeding either in one single unaccompanied line, as in the gregorian chant, or else combining these single lines with other single lines simultaneously in a type of counter- point essentially different from the harmonically based counterpoint of tbe polyphony of the j_,ater ages.. 'rhe painter's increasing confidence in perspective is syn- chronized with the composer's confidence in harmony. in henaissance times musical consonance now formed the basts of ideal proportion in painting. alberti taught that the musical inte ·vals most agreeable to tbe (renais- sance) ear, the octave, fifth and fourth~ correspond to the division of a string in two, in three, or in four-- : ; : ; : . anil de silva, otto von simson, roger llinks, p. . prom whence i conclude that same numbers, by means of which the agreement of sounds affects our ears wi til del igllt, are the very same which please our byes and our :mind.-- these proportions, universally employed in s- sance pai_nting, were known as the , and n. itaph , ( - ), and leonardo da vinci • .;._..__,_, ___ _ . ), were aware of the music relationsllips and macle use of the matios of consonance. lvloreover, l eonardo, who had a passion for music, one of his many accompli ments, wrote wi tb great subtlety on its relations th painting. the s at the time of the transition from the fif·teenth to enth century, venice becmne the nerve centre of the great new movements the mus spirit is giovanni bellini, (c. the field of music. the in siori of rceptible in the later paintings of - ), continued in- creasing significance in the works of his successors. to the list of parallels and influences--musical consonances, perspective and harmony--may now be added the exploration of space in music, hl:lrmony standing to music as spective . cf. music. [l_iapason originally meant octave; later in l''rance, a tuning; fori{, and t,hon the pitch given by tile tun fork; the cooonon name fur the chief flue stop on eng- li j. .e. the o , fifth urtb of music. and the representatton of space stood to pai:lbti:ng. he fact that many venetian painters were so com- patent performers on a variety of musical ins ents points to a lively spi t of co-operation between the two arts • ••• it is hardly a coincidence that the agent for the change in the visnal arts should have been one who, in addition to his own profession as a painter, should have been renowned among his contemporari s as a supremely accomplished musician: giorgione. giorgione sang and played the lute so divinely that he was often.engaged to do so.at the.c~nce ts and other gathe:n.ngs of the venet an nob l ty. the notion of space in music is cxornplifi in the soaring motets of the vene ans andrea ga.bri~li, (c. ~ ), and his nephew and pupil giovanni, ( ~. it is also evident. of course, in the polyphony of the lloman school chief among whose composers were p estrina (c. - ~, and vi ttoria, (c. -:t ). an eme examr>l e of the ex- ploitaion of music and architectural space is the motet, sl)oj!l in al iem by tbe english renaissance composer thomas tall is, (c . - ), which is scored for eight f:i.ve-part choirs, parts in all, in rich polyphony. d c 'l s' iii k e ,.,l. va, von , mson• .. · n s, p. .. jean-louis vau.cloyer, thames and hudson, ) , p. __ ..,...;;;..;;.;...;;...;..;;;;..;;--.--=;;.;;;...;;...;;;.;;;;~ (london: - - two of his finest paintings, the and the , have music as their subject. and the 'gio onesque' painters in their turn introduced this sub- ject into their paintings, not in a spirit of imitation, but in one of communion. the venetian langu of colour lent to these works the illusion of sensations and impressions as fugitive as tbe language of sound.. "colours and sounds be- come ind:ts·tinguishabl e from eaob other in these enchantt"ld paintings. and remarking the musical significance of the venetian t s colour, ,joubert s: ur.rhere are emo tiona so delicate that it would he impossihle to ss them save in "t sound or colour.n jacopo tintoretto, - , in addition to his activities as a painter, was a student of music who h cer·t,ain strument and even invented nmv ones. his penchant for music is confirmed by ari: in the same city of venice and about the same time there lived, as he still does, a painter called jaoopo ti.ntoretto, who has delighted in all the art;s, and patticularly in playing various musicalingrrth gi\ts, :te.g. titian's vaudoyer, p. . ibid. lt giurgio vasari, lives of the most eminent painters, soul tors and architects, vol.viii, new ·&rans. gaston du c .. devere london: philip lee warner, - ), p. o - - tintoretto s contemporary paolo veronese, ( - ),- -continued to depict palaces resembling those of the patricians of venice and to fill them with men and women of high society, invited to listen to some famous quartet, in which he himself might be shown playing the cello, tintoretto the viol, bassano the flute, and titian the double-bass. the interfusion of painting and m~~ic in sixteenth century venice was unique among the countries of europe which were discovering similar relationships along the arts along less unified lines. the quest for ideal proportion which had led renaissance painters to mathematics and philosophy, geo- metry and logic was continued through the classical period of french painting. again painting was related to music., vaudoyer, p. . e.g. as in isolated attempts to equate colours and musical tones. guiseppe arcimboldi, ( - ), a milanese painter, experimented with a system of colour harmony based upon a colour scale analogous to the musical scale. (discussed in "colour music", image . ). - - f~libien, taking poussin as his authority, stated (in the conf,rences de !'academia royale de peinture et de ·paulp- ture pendant l'ann~e ): rrhe soul that loves proportion and equality takes more pleasure in the sounds of instruments and in the accents of voices in which the numbers are whole, and in which ·there is less dissonance. so also the painting of which the whole betuty con- sists in symmetry and fine proportion. o. nicolas poussin, ( / - ), conceived of each class of subject as if it had to be treated in way com- parable to architectural orders or musical modes. like tbe ltenaissance painters in italy he employed musical conso- nances as a means of unifying and rationalizing the arts. le brun ••• said that m. poussin, conforming to the harmonic proportion which musicians observe in their compositions, desired that in his pictures all things should contain recipr~cal harmonies and should conspire to the same end .. charles bouleau, the painter's secret geometr : a study of composition in art london: thames and hudson, ) ' p • • 'b'd ll•t p• . - - during the baroque and llococo periods there was a shift in emphasis from harmony of structure to harmony of colours. classical painters had looked on colour dis- sonances with much disfavour. baroque painters found colour dissonances useful (by analogy with music) to the expression of "busier" ideas, seeking movement where classical painters had sought rest. such changes in taste and fashion are closely paralleled in the arts. the perfect harmonies in music must be rendered in a picture by a perfect sympathy of colours; and the great painter must, just as much as the musician, make a proper use of. dissonances, which are strong oppositions of aroscura and of colours, and, in order to wake up his picture from time to time, fill it with an eable ety that ravishrs, astonishes, and takes the spectator unawares. in eighteenth century france there was a growing attraction for a musical conception of colour, the analogy between colours and tones being drawn with ever-increasing refinement. has not the painter, just like the musician, his treble, alto, tenor and bass, sometimes produced by the gradations of his lights and of his browns, and at other times by the shadings of the colours? we find in music as well as in painting all the colours which are appropriate to t~e description of varied emotions and characters. antoine coypel, ( - ), (see bouleau, p. : . ) ibid. andr~ ernest gr~try, composers on music, - - in germany, too, such metaphor confusion was be- coming common. johann reichardt, kappelmeister to the court of berlin about , spoke of the crescendo and de- crescendo of the mannheim orchestra as giving "a darker or a lighter shade to the whole colouring • in dr. charles burney characterized the mannheim achievement "as new colours--the colours in music having their shades as ii colours like red or blue have them in painting. johann wolfgang von goethe, ( - ) the great german poet and leader of ijihe weimar looked at the relationship between tones and colours objectively. "that a certain relationship exists between the·two has always been felt; this is proved by the fre- quent comparisons we meet with, sometimes as passing allusion, sometimes as circumstantial parallels.") if the word tone, tune, is to be still borrowed from music, and applied to colouring, it might be used in a better sense than hereto:fbre. for it would not be unreasonable to compare a painting of powerful effect with a piece of music in a sharp key; a painting of soft effect with a piece of music in a flat key, while other equiva- lents might be fou'd fof the modifications of these two leading modes. ed. sam morgenstern (london: faber & faber, )., curt sachs, the commonwealth of art (new york: w. w. norton & co. inc., ), p. . 'b'd :.._!_· j. w. von goethe, theory of colours (f'rank cass & co. ltd., ), p. , pars. and . . ibid. p. . , l'qr-, -l -: . .- summarizing the relationship, he said: colour and sound do not admit of being directly compared together in any way, but both are refer- able to a higher formula, both are derivable,al- though each for itself, from this higher law •••• both are general, elementary effects acting according to the general law of separation and tendency to union, of undulation and oscillation, yet acting thus in wholly different ,pr~~'!uces, in different modes, on differ!nt elementary mediums for different senses. owing to the close ties in uermany between painting, music, poetry and philosophy, romantic art became there the expression of the unconscious world, and artists regarded nature as the means of attaining the absolute, of merging the finite in the infinite. philosophy made such union of opposites possible. hegel taught that truth or reality has three aspects revealing itself in dialectical development: thesis, antithesis, and synthesis .. arthur scbopenhauer, ( - ), who held that the will is superior to know- ledge, established a hierarchy of the arts with music as the most perfect. the synthesis of painting and music was a favounite idea of the uomantics. it was postulated by the frflh- romantik poets ludwig rrieclc, ( - ), and noval is, ( ), and the painters philipp otto runge, ( - io)t and caspar david friedrich, ( - ). goethe, pp. - , par. . developed in art by richard wagner. - - colour was for runge the "suprame" art. he discussed the scientific study of tones and colours in correspondence with goethe. during the years - he laid the basis for a more or less scientific approach to colour theory including a good deal on the symbolic meaning of colour., "the analogy between vision and hearing gives great promise of a future union between painting and music or between the tones and colours," he wrote. in france and england (as in germany) a spiritual bond brought artists as writers together. painters and poets tried to express the "music" they felt thin them- selves, and in return composers wrote "landscape" sym- phonies and tried to draw their music closer tp painting and poetry. artists continued to search for an underlying spirit in which they felt all the arts were unified, so much so that by the middle of the nineteentll century richard wagner, ( - ), had a tremendous amount of material from which to fashion his notion of gesamkunstwerk --"a work of art embracing all the arts." german nomanticism is the heritage which succeeded to the expressionist painters and composers, although it is the heritage they most sought to reject. and their tower- ing forefather, wagner, had tremendous impact not only on paul klee, the rrhinldng h:ye, ed. jtlrg spiller, (london: lund humphries, ), p. . - - the cultural life of ti,ermany but also on that of france-- indeed, on the whole of europe--and be was widely admiredo eug~ne delacroix, ( - ), the major painter of the romantic movement in france, equated painting with music. he who wavered between the choice of painting or music as a career, was in a very strong position to note similarities and differences between the two. an accom- plished violinist, he is said to have interpreted mozart, (the composer he admired above any other), brilliantly. he was a close friend of chopin and they corresponded with each other over many years. "painting," be observed resembles music in so many ways. the craft of the painter is the most difficult •f all and it takes longest to learn. like composing, painting requires erudition, but it also requires execution, like playing the violin • •••• if it were only a question of arranging lines and colours to create a visual effect an arabesque would do just as well, but when you add to a com- position already interesting on account of ts sub- ject, an arrangement of lines that heightens the the art of the colourist is evidently in some respects related to mathematics and to music" .--b'audel aire in an essay on delacroix~ (see loclcspeiser, vol. , p. ). the journal of eug~ne delacroix, ed. hubert wel- lington, trans. from the french by lucy norton, (london: phaidon, ), p. . ibid., p. - - the impression, a chiaroscura that grips the imagination and a colour scheme suited to the characters, you have solved a more difficult problem and, moreover, you are moving on a higher plane.. lilte a musician, you are adapt- ing to a simple melody the wealth of harmony and its mut~tions. jean auguste dominique ingres, ( - )p the main prop of a rigid classicism diametrically opposed to the l omanticism of delacroix, had f~~st earned his living as a violinist. he, too, professed a deep admiration for mozart s music, and also that of glucl{, beethoven and "that charming haydn. like delacroix: he adopted a musical attitude in his approach to painting. if i could make musicians of you all, it would be t;o your advantage as painters. all is harmony in nature, a little too mush, or a little less, dis- turbs the scale and strikes a discordant note. one bas to learn to sing true with the pencil or brush, just as witb the voice; correct form is like correct sound. delacroix and ingres drew analogies with music appropriate to the style of their paintings, hence the basic disagreement in the application of the analogies. nelacroix, p. . ingres, letters of the ~reat artists (london: thames and hudson, ), p. . ibid., jean auguste dominique ingres advice on art given to his pupils", p. . - - ingres emphasized "correctness" of form. his is an art of rest--emotion is disciplined, "music" is silenced, there is no movement. delacroix tended more towards a "melodic" conception of "musical" colour. the two extremes co-exist, as they have continued to do in modern art. today, the dialogue between form and colour remains with painting (and music), form alternating with colour in importance to succeeding generations of artists. painting and music evolved intexdependently, yet they remained two distinct and highly specialized streams. but they were destined to converge in the twentjeth century for centuries the notion that painting and music were inter<" related had persisted. now a scientifically informed sensibility would show how and that was so. science would show in how many respects painting and music were similar. and such revelations were to provide the basis for modern art. chapter . - - the interfusion of modern painting and music .. the interfusion of painting and music, essentially a phenomenon of the era of modernism, has its roots in the shifting attitudes of the nineteenth century. rrhe coun- tries of europe were all subject to the same powerful ex- pansionist and industrial drives and to the same threats of war and destruction. in the climate of political, scientific, technolo cal, indus and philosophical ferment, it followed that the arts would reflect the ten- sions of rapid progress. the social$ psychological, and cul·tural shooks were to have far-reaching consequences on the future courses of painting and music. before the first world the most important events in the arts were to take the form of a dialogue between france and liermany. (italy, the u.s.a., and other national schools were to join the discussion much later.) in g.ermany the disintegration of iihe harmonic tradition was already evident in wagner's shifting tonality, and his influence on a younger generation of french composers doomed to eventual extinction romantic declamatory mannerisms. - - the world was opening up rapidlyt and neither painting nor music had yet the means of expressing the shifting patterns of thought or the changing environments. what was called for in each language was a complete re- structuring. science sharpened both the faculties of looking and listening,ofseeing and hearing, and encouraged the analysis of -llbings in terms of their essentials. researches into colour and the invention of photo- graphy, (c. u) contributed to a much greater unders ing about the appearance of objects. colour phenomena were investigated and rationalized in elaborate detail, and ·t e paintings produced from the t s on show, in per- manent chronological record, the benefits of familiarity with the behaviour of colour. such researches increased the painter's confidence in the autonomous power of colour .. photography released the painter from his obligation to record the faces and events of his day and encouraged him to seek a personal" view of the modes, manners, and general aspect of his own time and in this way create a living art' with the realistic aim of being true to nature".. in france realism, as expounded by gustave courbet, ( - ), became a force with considerable impact. science encouraged a return to essentials and that journey first took the painter back to an objective study of nature., - - modern art is an affirmation of the scientific attitude. the results of research with the x-ray and the microscope, the breaking up of the atom, new concepts of time and space, psychological research by men such as freud and jung--all these phenomena challenged the artist. painters and composers subjected their own materials and techniques to the same objective scrutiny discovering therein an infinte variety of new orders and possible com- binations capable of expressing the extraordinary complexity of modern life. every frontier was approached. 'l'he questing mind ranged far outside the boundaries of europe interesting itself in the cultural expressions of very different human societies for very different reasons--partly because of the curiosity about the unknown which s~u•!vst satisfaction in enlightenment, partly because the technological expansion of l!:urope demanded the creation of new markets as outlets for her products. paradoxically, napoleon the third's defeat at the battle of sedan in catapulted france into a new era bright with promise. as far as france was concerned, the ideal of the romantic hero died in "llhat last battle of the franco-i)russian war. a defeated and war-weary country, she set abput resolving the difficulties which must accrue in a country at war: the oppressor must take steps to avoid be- coming the oppressed. - - in spite of germany's continuing superiority in respect of material progress, france made a spectacular economic recovery, her series of international expositions from on was intended to show tbe world that, though no longer a military power, she was now an industrial force of great stnmgtll, at the paris exposition of produqts of almost every country in europe (except germany) and of several in asia, africa, and america were exhibited. for industry- conscious europe the greater interest lay with the con- venience of a single location for fue comparison of techno- logical products. but the additional attractions of national culture--displays of art-objects and performances of music and dance from polynesia, micrones , africa, and the orient--were to acquaint europeans, th exotic cultures and unsettle painters and composers in their visual and aural traditions. of course, popular taste was already being satis- fied by curiosities from japan. with the establishment of trade with japan, (the result of a treaty signed between the united states, great britain and japan in ), curios and artifacts flooded the european market, among these curios the woodcut was immediately appreciated for its artistic merits. many french artists became collectors of works by hokusai and utamaro, and it was not long before the influence of such masters became apparent in the work of french painters. - - the japanese print showed that colour had a value ~art from that of imitating natural appearances and it . so suggested new resources in composition and arrange- ent. painters such as gauguin and toulouse-lautrec must .ave absorbed the lessons of the japanese colour system ntuitively~ as the formalities governing such .n japan were probably quite unknown to them,. attered was that which they saw and felt--the :olour system workedl colour usage what japanese instead of the western method of deriving the spec- colours from the three 'primary' colours (red, yellow, blue), classical japanese painting proposes five primary, or 'parent', coloursq the secondary colours in japanese art thus differ from our secon':"' dary colours, due to the differing initial sub- division. iro no kubarit a cardinal principle of japanese colour harmony, states that a primary or parent colour should never, in a painting$ be placed so that it is contiguous to any of the secondary colours of which it is a component; both colours would lose by such a juxtaposition.. the parent colour, white, should not, for example, be placed next to sky blue, since white is one of the components of sky blue. in answer to the "spectrum" of five colours, japanese music proposes a scale of five tones.. both scale and spectrum are part of a formal universe reminiscent of the european middle ages. in chinese music similar cor- ia"patricia sloane, colour: basic princi:eles and new directions (london: studio vista, n.d.), p. .. b" n e five primary or parent colours are: yellow, ijlue, black, white, and red., - - relations are made between the five basic scale tones and considerations of politics, seasons, elements, colours, directions and planets. chinese pai~ting employs tbe ele- \ '\troduc.eq\ ment of time--a concept first oonsciouslyyinto modern european painting by the cubists--and tbe picture is deliberately composed for one part to be seen at a time, in sequence. in hindu music there exists a correlation between ute musical mode, (or raga), and visual portrayal, colour, architecture, times of day and night .. 'l he possible correspondence between the arts and a certain mysterious relationship between painting and music is not specifically indian, but no-one has gone as as the indian in its comprehension. the sanskrit word sangita signifying music embraces all three notions of vocal and instrumental music and the dance. it is therefore not surpris that it was in india that this garland of miniatures, the uagamala, was born~ in whi~h music, poetry and painting are brought together. laurence e. r. picken, "chinese music", groves dictionar of music and musicians, th. ed., ed. eric blom london: macmillan & co. ltd., : . ). w. g. raffe, hagas and haginis: a key to hindu aesthetics", journal of aesthetics and art criticism, no. , . de silva, von simson, hinks, pp. - . - - the miniature is meant to be a "visualization of the emotiomal and aesthetic experience which the music gives. there were many valuable lessons to be learaed from the painting and music of these far-away lands. the first "students" were the impressionist painters, and the com- posers, debussy and ravel, who absorbed the "externaln effects. more recently, composers such as olivier messiaen and john cage have embraced the philosophies as well, thus fusing the "external" effects with the "internal". but equally as distant as the orient was the folk art of europe--distant in time. composers and painters recognized the dignity of the folk art of their distant past. rrhe culture of exotic societies had tnrown a di r- ent perspect:i. ve on indigenous l~uropean oul tul'e, a result of which was the late flowering of nationalist music in hungary, denmark, norway, czechoslovakia, bobemia russia, finland, moravia, england, spain~ poland, and roumania, to be joined later by national schools in the united states and latin america. in each of these countries composers rediscovered a musical future--in the music of their past. de silva, von simson, hinks, pp. - bartok said:"a genuine peasant melody of our land is a musical exwnple of a musical masterpiece--in miniature-- as a bach fugue or a mozart sonata is a masterpiece in the larger forms. --jo seph machl is, introduction to contem- ~orart music (new york: w. w. norton & co. inc., ), p. • - - the decorative aspects of folk art found their way into painting, too, and the works of matisse and rouault have gained in resonance and expressive power as a result. (although folk art has been more usefully employed, and with greater effect in textile design, interior decorating, fur- nishings, and the other design arts.) in the modern era, painters and composers over- lapped in identical patterns of development, and experienced influences from similar sources as a result of the same events--poli&,ical, scientific and social. in france they rejected the immediate past in order to "satisfy" their national a)lpirations"• absorbing any substitute that would usefully serve that purpose. the first movement of the modern age looked to science, to music, to poetry, in order to rid l"rench art of germanic influence. that movement was impressionism. meanwhile german painting and music continued in grossly inflated versions of romanticism veering tonally (visually and aurally) on the brink of collapse. this bloated romanticism was to surge on into the early years of the twentieth century in the works of uichard strauss, anton bruclrner, mahler, the jugendstil, and in the early worlts of two who were soon to jump from this sh·-'icke~. ship on to new shores--sch~nberg and kandinslcy. - - chapter . impressionism in paiwring and music., briefly, the term impressionism originated with, and broadly applies to, the painters who contributed to a series of ekhibitions in paris between and , all but the first being so described. in a french critic used the word in ridicule of a painting by claude monet, • and thereafter the painters adopted the title in a spirit of defiance. although impressionism in music occurred later than in painting, ;they •were united in their desire to dis- card everything in the romantic tradition that had hardened into academic formula. in seeking to reproduce, by means of a careful analysis of colour, the effect of light upon objects in l; ; . ; as the principle contributors were: claude fo.tionet, l li - auguste renoir, ( - ); alfred sisley, - camille pissarro, ( = ); edgar degas, - and berthe morisott ( - )., monet is regarded leading figure., in , nenoir spoke to wagner of the "impress- ionists in music", probably alluding to wagner's own forest murmurs (see lookspeiser, vol , p. .. ) - - nature, the impressionist painters made use of the latest results in colour chemistryo in order to arrive at an analytical, more scientific approach to painting they sub- stituted the romantic's palette for a simplified palette of seven or eight of~he most brilliant colours nearest to the colours of the spectrum--yellow, orange, vermillion, lal\:e, red, violet, blue and green, with the addition of white. colo,urs were applied relatively freely and juxta- posed so that they fused in the eye of the viewer at a certain remove from the piotureo researches into the response of the retina to colour in optical science inspired in the impressionists a radical shift in attitude to accepted values in painting, resulting in the colour freshness with ich they sub- sequently invested their arto working with an unprecedented spontaneity and freedom, they animated their picture sur- faces with direct statements of high key colour (even in the representation of chadows.) the resulting effect is a kind of luminous flickering haze enveloping ·the subj eots of their s. a close link between impressionism in painting and music exists in their delight in creating luminous atmospheres. although the work of physicists such as the german, hermann helmholtz, ( - ), who conducted exbaus·tive en- quiries into the properties of sound and colour, showed that there was no scientific basis for drawing the sorts of inference that painters and composers were attempting to draw. painters, composers and poets continued to behave as if there were discoverable "inner" relations. - - the notion was rendered more by the in- creasing importance of music in the lives of parisians, since paris was fast becoming the music capi·tal of the world. musical soire'es were the common social ex erience of all artists. in such a musical environment painters were nurtured. degas' father held musical evenings to which musicians and artists came., on this intimate scale dialogues between the arts were established, as dialogues between the art s involved. in those arts, and it \vas natural, under such circumstances, that they should seek the fundamental principles underlying and unifying their arts.. but the impressionist painters remained on the sur- face, so to speak, contenting themselves with the majdng of simple analogies only as colour "orchestration", concern with scales of colour, colour "sono ty , and so on. impressionist painters were particularly intrigued by the possibilities of colour sonority , and the sym- pathetic or antagonistic vibrations of contiguous colours. renoir said:: i arrange my subject as i want it, then ;!;. go ahead and })aint i·t lil(e a child. i want a red to be son- oii ous--to sound like a bell; if it doesn't turn out that way i put on more reds or o·ther colours till i get it. charles edward gauss, the french artists (baltimore: the john hopkins press, ), p<> . - - ... impressici'ism in painting succeeds as "sonorous patches': as camille mauclair wrote, comparing debussy's music to monet's paintings: the landscapes of claude monet are in fact sym- phonies of luminous waves, and the music of mon- sieur debussy, based not on a succession of themes but on the relative value of soun•s in themselves, bears a remarkable resemblance to these pictures. it is im~reasionism consisting as sonorous patches. covering much the same ground in music as the impressionist and pos impressionists in painting~ claude achille debussy, ( - ), was one of the first french composers to point new directions in the art pf sound effecting radical changes in the harmonic and melodic thinking of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. for debussy, (as for the impressionist painters and symbolist poe·ts), art was sensuous rather than intellectual. as did the painters, be experimented with new ways and means of achieving colouristic effects. he sought to express the the shimmerimg effects of light and shade in painting by means of tone colour and chordal structure in music. like monet's paintings, his music is evasive, and is marked by vague, filmy effects, hued with delicate tints rather than solid colours, reflecting the oversensitive mind of the late nineteenth century. lockspeiser, vol. , p• ii• - - debussy was much affected by specific trends in the visual arts. three painters whom he particularly admired were turner, hokusai, and monet, (an admiration for the two former being shared with him by monet.) often com- pared his manner of working with theirs. although he did not ike being called an impressionist, his work tloes re- semble that of the french painters. pointillist lawh of contrast and analysis could also be said to be present in his music .. in their choice of subjects, impressionist painting and music resemble each other. -:~aintings which invite com- parison with debussy's music are: le ( ) by renoir; ( ) by monet; the two paintings of the riverside cafe la ( ); ( - ); and monet's ( - ). the water pieces of debussy which cenvey the spirit of these pictures so spe- cifically are en bateau ( ); ( ); ( ); voiles ( ); and la cath~drale engloutie ( )~ debussy felt that there was an essential di ference between the art of the composer and that of the painter. whereas the play of light, in a painting, can only be rendered in a static manner, as in a series of pictures such as monet's haystacks, ponds, cathedrals, in music, a continuous fluid art, all these effects of light can be combined, although light and colour are nor- mally metaphysical terms in music., ~ uch of the information here presented has been gleaned from the two volumes on debussy's life and work by edward lool{speiser,. - - james mcneill whistler, (: . - ), though not an impressionist, did work along similar lines and was sub- ject to the same sorts of influence as the impressionist painters. a marked influence in his worlr was that of japan ese art: another was music--the former suggesting to him earallels of organisatiq!! with the la·tter.. whistler wrote much on the relationship between painting and music .. nature contains the elements, in colibur and form, of all pictures, as the keyboard contains the notes of all music .. but the artist is born to pick, and choose, and group with science, these elements, that the result may be beautiful--as the musician gathers his note and forms his chords, until he brings forth from chaos glorious harmony. 'ro say to the painter, that nature is to be taken as she i~, is to say to the player, that he may sit on the p ano. (we have since dec i dad that the keyboard does not contain tbe notes of all music. and it is no longer incumbent upon the painter to bring forth glorious harmony. such ideas seem curiously old-fashioned and quaint by com- parison with the impressionists achievements. but whistlers utterances are prophetic and look to the artistic self- determination of modern abstract painting.) james mcne.l.ll whistler, the gentle art of making (ljondon: william heinemann, }, pp· . - - - as music is the poetry of sound, so is painting the poetry of sight, and the subject-matter has nothing to do with the harmony of sound or of colour •••• the great musicians knew this. beethoven and the rest wrote music--simply music; s¥:mphony in this key, concerto or sonata in that. it was whistler's custom to call his paintings "notes", "harmonie~', "symphonies", "arrangements", or nocturnes • in this or that colour--a practice which pre- figured by more than half a century a fashion for musical titles to abstract paintings. such "affectations" found little favour with whist- ' lers contemporaries who, outraged and scandalized, detailed their reactions to his offensive practices in correspon- dences to that nineteenth century forum of opinion, the newspaper. in a celebrated court action whistler success- fully sued john husldn for il)el to the tune of one far- thing. ruskin had declared him a fraud for "flinging a pot of paint in the public's face. whistler was handsomely equipped with a distinctive·- ly knife-edged turn of phrase with which he defended himself against newspaper criticism. one critic carped: in the "symphony in white no. " by mr. whistler there are many dainty varieties of tint, but it is whistl er ., p. ). a dictionary of art and artists, eds. peter and linda murray (penguin, ), p. jl - - not precisely a symphony in white. one lady has a yellowish dress and brown hair and a bit of blue ribbon, the other has a red fan, and there are flowers and green eaves. rrhere is a girl in white on a white sofa, but even this girl has red- dish hair; and of cyurse there is the flesh colour of the complexions. whistler's reply: how pleasing that such profound prattle should in- evitably find its place in print! "not precisely a symphony in white ••• for there is a yellowish dress ••• brown hair etc •.• another with reddish hair ••• and of course there is the flesh colour of the complexions." don dieu! did this wise person expect white hair and chalked faces? and does he then, in his astounding consequence, believe that a symphony in f contains no other notd, but shall bb a con- tinued repetition off, f, f? •••••• fooll nrrhe vast majority of the english folk cannot and will not consider a picture as a picture," he complained. to the vaster public of europe such considerations were not to be tolerated. but disintegration of ingrained artistic habits had set in, (in painting as in music), and the pub- . were . lie's expectat onsvcont nually frustrated. whistler, ~·he 'b'd .!......!__.' 'b'd .!......!__·' p.- ' r· . g gentle art of making enemies, p. - - they saw a ne\v type of subject matter--intimate and per- sonal--replace the overblown allegories of "public" academic painting and treated according to unfamiliar systems of colour and pictorial organisation. impressionism pointed the waj to an art of painting analogous to music--an art of colour composition addressing itself~ as music does, directly to the senses. - - chapter lj:. post-impressionism: the musical phase. making of impressionism "something solid and durable was the particular task which commended itself to c~zanne, gauguin, van gogh and seurat, all of them cursors to the main movements of twentieth century painting. the post-impressionist masters differed con- siderably one from another in temperament, style and thought yet each in his own way, starting from impressionism. and working in isolation, contributed to the new developments in painting. music played an important role in post-impression- ist innovation. both van gogh and gauguin tried to estab- lish colour scales and harmonies directly analogous to music. van gogh even took piano lessons and attempted to learn music in order to see the relationship more clearly. "why do i understand the musician better, why do i see the of his abstractions better? he asked. paul cezanne (ref. peter and jil cla murray, p. ~;jl .) paul cezanne, ( - ); paul gauguin, ( lj: - ); vincent van gogh, ( - ); georges seurat, ( - ). the complete letters of vincent van gogh, vol .. (new york graphic society, ), p. . - - whereas the impressionists had largely contented themselves with the rendition of "external" effects, van gogh and gauguin sought ression ofii e artist's psychic state, wondering at the creative impulses which enshrine themselves in aestbe:ttc products such as painting, poetry and music. music often seems to have more suitable means of giving expression to the fleeting moments of these feelings. both van gogh and gauguin decided that colour more nearly corresponded to the silent music" of their "inner states", and they developed colour as the musioal element in painting. van gogh said: painting as it is now promises to become more subtle--more lilce music and less lilre sculpture --and above all it ~:r.omises • if only it keeps this promise. · gauguin wrote:. think of the musical role which colour will be playing in modern painting from now on. colour, which is vibration just like music, is capable of attaining what is most general and, in its originl, most vague in nature: its internal force. van gogh, vol. , p. . frank popper, origins and development of kinetic (london: studio vista, ), p. . - - in the evolution of painting towards abstraction the analogies of van gogh and gauguin are particularly happy ones, since the (then) materials of music, tones, are not required to refer to extra-musical considerations, and are answerable to the impulses which give them auto- nomous shape and to the response which the whole elicits through aural involvement.. r hus the "raison d ''~tre'' of the musician's abstractions which van gogh had so admired, is lfl revealedvsound-structures through which the composer pro- jects his thoughts and/or feelings .. might not colour be employed similarly to articu- late the painter's elings'l for gauguin and van gogh this demanded trutl to the "inner man" rather than "truth to nature .. colour as a phenomenon was thoroughly in- vestigated. psychology and the physiology of vision, optic and the analysis of light s:tnd colour were detailed in pub- lished works all appearing about the same time.. ilelmhol tz, edmund rood, and blanc continued the discoveries of chevreul, whose work, de la loi du contraste simultan~ des couleurs, (published in ), was reprinted by the state in for the centenary of the birth of the scientist .. de silva, von simson, rinks: "yet a kind of un- heard, unhurrying music, echoes the back- ground of their minds; and they seek to ix it in the still but somehow vibrant shapes of c~rttain works of visual ar·t." (hoger llinks, introduction. ) - - like music, colour was subject to fixed --though different --physical laws, (regard! ess of associative" relationships which it was becoming fashionable to draw.) painting and music employed the same fundamental principles of organi- sation. noting this, charles blanc wrote, (in his gram- maire des arts du dessin) :. "not only can colour, which is under fixed lawst be taught lil{e music but it is easier to learn than drawing whose absolute principles cannot be taught. encouraged by the objectivity of the day, the neo- impressionists produced worl{s which wedded strict, formal composition to carefully controlled colour contrasts. in attempting to define the essentials of painting seurat objectified the qualities of feeling inherent in the painter's materials. gaiety of value i~ the light dominant; of hue, the warm dominant; of line, lines above the horizontal. calmness of value is the equality of dark and light; of hue, of warm and cool; and the hori- zontal for l:j,ne william innes homer, seurat and the science of painting (m.i.t. press, ), p. . neo-impressionists, (also known as ponitillists and divisionists), were georges seurat, ( - ), paul signac, ( - ), henri-edmond cross, ( - ), and maximilian luce, ( - )$ - - sadness of value is the dark dominant; of hue, the oo~l dominant; and of , downward direc- tions. starting from chevreul's law of simultaneous con- trasts , seurat and gauguin constructed harmonies of analogous colours and of contrasts, triads of colours, colour seal es", dissonances, mel so on. gauguin applied these experiments in his paintings and extended them through colour orchestration." but gauguin insisted that there was more to colour phenomana than what was merely observable.. both he and van gogh believed that painting and music were united inter- sensory experience, and that the basis for unity was psy- chological and sl)iri tual. "to judge ainting and music special sensations in nature are neces besides inte ligence and artis c science," wrote gauguin. l hedon, he preferred to keep the areas between paint and music indeterminate. !hus, ••• you may dream fre when you listen to music as well as when you look at painting. ! homer, p .. . ibid., ij• : in the case where the eye sees at the same time two contiguous colours, they will appear as dissimilar as possible, both in their optical composition and the height of their tnne. we have then, at the same time, simultaneous contrast oa colour properly so called, and contrast of tone. jolm rewald, gauguin (london: william heinemann ltd., n.d.), pp. - . - - gauguin's intuitive gropings into the psycho- logical significance of colour and his attempts to formulate laws of colour analogous to laws of music accorded with the investigations of the behaviourial sciences and the physical sciences.. with a foot in each camp, he was uniquely placed to explore the "felt" qualities of colour and the soul's responsiveness to colour cho , (and thus to realize the autonomous expressive power of colour.) colour, being an enigmatic thing in the sensations it gives us, can logically only be used eni matically, every time it is employed, not for drawing but fofgiving the musical sensations which procedd out of its own natury, its own interior, mysterious, enigmatic force. for centuries painters had thought the art in- ferior to art to which they red: music. now the position was quite reversed with gauguin asserting,not the equality of the two arts, but the superiority of painting over music. there is an impression resulting from any certain arrangement of colours, lights, and shadows. it is what is called the music of the picture. even be- fore knowing what the picture represen (as when) you enter a cathedral and find yourself at too great a distance to malhe out the picture--frequent- ly you are seized by this magic accord. here is the true superiority of painting over other forms of art, for this emotion addre ses itself to the most intimate part oftbe · .. gau s s, p. • ibid. - - painting is the most beautiful of all the arts •••• like music, it acts on the soul through the inter- mediary of the senses, the harmonious tones corres- ponding to the harmonies of sounds, but in painting a unity is obtained which is not possible in music, where the accords follow one another~ and the judgement experiences s fatigue if it wants to reunite the end and the beginning. in the main, the ear is an inferior sense to the eye. the hearing can only ,grasp a single sound at a time, whereas the sight takes in everyt~ing and at the same time simplifies at its will. musical equivalents are easily found in painting, yet painting has more than music alone can offer. gauguin and van gogh were consciously "musical" painters in whose wo may be discerned colour as "vibrating'' tones, chords", "orchestration", "melodic colour, colour counterpoint , linear melody and rhythm. there is a wealth of invention in their paintings. they were virtuoso painters. so, too, was c~zarine. gauguin (uewald, pp. - .) of. also leonardo da vinci, paragone (oxford, ), p. : "leonardo tells the story of king 'mathias who on his birthday, when a poet pre- sented him a poem in his honour, and a painter a portrait of his beloved, preferred the paintingt and said to t,he poet: do you not see tbat, in your science there is no proportion created at a (given) instant, but one part is bm rn of the other successively and the next is not born unless the former dies? for this reason i judge your wo of art to be distinctly inferior to the painter's, simply because no harmonic proportion is composed by yours."" - - paul c~zanne, ( - ), shared van gogh and gauguin's delight in music and enthusiasm for wagner's music. but unlike his fellows he was not a consciously ''musical" painter, although in his researches into form and construction the fundamental principles of organization remain the same. lie determined the essentials of form. "everything in nature is based on the sphere, the cone and the cylinder,n be declared. he endeavoured to rpjresent solids by the various geometric planes they offered, to create a kind of architecture out of space, (as in his views of the montagne ste. victoire.) such practices point not only to cubism, but to the parallel creative gesture of stravinsky who combined "planes" of harmony presented simul taneonsly in polytonal and polyrhythmic works. in paul c~zanne, the classic tradition is perpetuated,. numbered among his descendents are, the cubists, the purists, the neo-classicists, and de stijl, and, where th can be found, the musical equivalents (for the efforts of pioneers such as ce'zanne make subsequent developments in all the arts possible.) peter and linda murray, p e . chapter . - :l- the symdolis r decadj!:: c. - . . in direct contrast to tbe realist tendencies of impressionism were the artistic movements of the 's, many of which aligned themselves with symbolism.. an earlier symbolism which flourished between and was the first symbolist movement of the and included gustave moreau, ( - ), odilon hedon, ( - ), and puvis de chavannes, ( li- ), whose directions and achieve- ments were extremely varied. rrheir symbolism came just. be- fore impressionism and ·then the two styles ran concurr:ently giving impetus to the later movement of the ' 's, especially in literature. the formal founder of symbolist theory, and its premier poet, stephana mallarme, ( - ), taugb·t that beauty can best be sensed through words mysteriously suggestive of colour, sound, taste and touch. charles baudelaire had earlier written of an inner relationship among the senses in the poem, correspondances, contained in , a collection of his poems published in : rl he pen uin boolr of french verse, , ed. anthony hartley (great britain: , p. . la nature est un temple ou de vivants piliers laissant parfois sort de confuses paroles; l'homme y passe a travers des forets de symboles qui l'observent avec des regards familiars. comma de lonjs echos qui de loin se confondent dans una t ;;nebreuse et profonde unit-e vaste comme la nuit et comma la clarte, , las parfums, les couleurs et les sons se repondent. ii est des parfums frais comma des chairs d'enfants, doux comme les hautbois, verts comma les prairies, --e"t d autres, oorrompus, riches et triomphants, ayant !'expansion des ohoses infinies, comma i'ambre, le muse, le benjoin et l'encens, qui chantent les transports de l esp:rit et des senso according to symbolist theory reality is not limited to physical matter, but inclu s thought. the mind consciously meditating, steadily unearths the significance underlying outward a pearances & symbol ism is a search for the mysterious meanings, the magic, the hidden in physical things. one of the principle symbolist painters was odilon radon, ( - ), a close friend of mallarm,. his work became known in paris between and and was much admired by the literary symbolists. - - hedon formulated the basic law of symbolism: "nothing can be created in art by the will alone. all art is the result of submission to the unconscious." his younger contemporaries were influenced by contemporary scientific research, but redon recognized that if science and philosophy put "one side of the truth", then this was not the whole truth. at the same time he held that impressionism was exhausted, that the impressionists wereijreal parasites of their subject matter, which they looked at from a single viewpoint, and that they were blind to anything beyond what they saw. what uedon saw beyond the material realities of the world was an underlying relationship be·tween painting and music, and himself as an intermediary between them. "my drawings inspire, and are not to be defined," be said. nrrhey do not determine anything. like music, they take us into the ambiguous world of the indeterminate." they are, be explains, "a kind of metaphor." rl be "musical" element in his paintings is obvious. he described himself as a "peintre symphonique" , and boasted of having been "born on a musical wave. " micbel florisoone, p. . ""h "d ~· klaus berger, odilon uedon (london: weidenfeld & nicolson, ), p. . "b"d • - l~- if an artist's art is the song of his li~e, a melody that may be grave or melanc~oly, i first struck a gay note by using colour. symptomatic of a spiritual restlessness sweeping across l!:urope, symbolism attuned the artistic aspirations of other members of the western cultural community to the mystical and spiritual contentions of the movements in france, the core of influence being centralized in paris. symbolism was essentially a literary movement which influenced, and was in turn influenced by, painting and music. wagner's symbolism exerted a profound influence. that his music dominated the period is confirmed in the tings of van gogh, gau.gu other artists of the period. / , debussy, ma larme, and many the symbolist decade is by a growing spirit of co-operation among artists. music assumed more and more importance in the lives of painters: composers took greater note of specific trends in the visual arts, and there was a lively interchange of ideas. haftmann, vol. berger, p. . berger, p. ' p. t . the purely personal and fantastic side of symbolism which redon developed strongly influenced the nabis. gauguin's advice to them to paint in flat, pure colours prompted maurice denis to utter "one of the great battle- cries of modern art : "remember that a picture, before being a horse, a nude, or some ldnd of anecdote, is essentially a flat surface covered with colours assembled in a certain order. temporarily disillusioned by the materialistic bias of the scientific revolution, many artists turned again, (in their insecurity), to religion. the confidence which science had first inspired now gave way to pessimism. the reappearance of religious art coincided with the revival of medieval ecclesiastical modes and gregorian chant which were cultivated by the newly-founded schola cantorum in paris. during this period gauguin painted his religious works. georges rouault continued the fervour and intensity of neo-catholioism into the twentieth century. other artists looked to exotic or primitive religions, or to mysticism. paul serusier, ( - ), maurice denis, ( - ), pierre bonnarcl ( - ), edouard vuillard, ( - ), paul ranson, \ - ), ker xavier roussel, ( - ). serusier, gauguin's disciple had a fine tenor voice and at one point considered making music his career. (ref. crespelle, p. ). the nabis were encouraged b~ the composers duparc, chausson, debussy and vincent d'indy who were their friends and shared their ideals., & ref. :murray, p. . during the symbolist decade debussy's musical idiom evolved towards a personal impressionistic style. in many ways, the pattern of his development sums up the general artistic progress of the period. just as wagner's music had inspired impressionist and post-impressionist painters and symbolist writers, so wagner proved to be an early model for the young debussy's compositions. brik satie, ( - ), a "cubist composer and musician, wrote: when i first met debussy, he was full of moussorgsky and was very deliberately seeking a way that wasn't very easy for him to find ••• at that time i was writing le fils des 'toiles to a libretto by joseph p ladan, and i explained to debussy that a frenchman bad to free himself from the wagnerian adventure, which wasn't the answer to our national aspirations. i also pointed out that i was in no way anti-wagnerian, but that we should have a music of our own--if possible without any sauerlrrau t. why should we not use the means that claude monet, c zanne, toulouse-lautrec and others had made known? why could we not transrwse these means into music? nothing simpler. first, the influence of wagner; now--like the painters--from the east, a fresh source of musical pos- sibilities. erik satie, debussy , contemporary composers on contemporary ·music (new york: h~ it, l\'•neho.r o.not winsrot\)j p. ,z . at the exposition of , held in paris to cele- brate the centenary of the french revolution, were displays of oriental dancing, music, and artifacts. visual, musical, and literary imaginations were given a tremendous boost by javanese dancers and musicians and by the chinese theatre from cochin, both appearing in europe for the first time. at the exposition debussy heard musicians from java, bali, and indo-china. he was deeply impressed by the charm and possibilities of their music, especially the music of the gamelan--a type of javanese native orchestra--with its in- tricate interplay of percussive rhythms and enchanting in- strumental colours. here was a world of sonority that could be drawn upon to refresh the tired musical convention of europe. inspired by the genus of five steps to the octave which he had heard on the gamelan, debussy de- vised a pentatonic scale and a whole-tone scale in order to free himself from the (apparent) limitations of the western major-minor tonality. by the use of such exotic scales, he enlarged the european musical horizon to embrace the civilizations of the orient. he also adopted gregorian modes. thus, an aspect of his work reaches back into the middle ages. the first tonal ambiguities taking the form of a musical counterpart of impressionism are revealed in the use of the dominant ninth chord or, without its funda- mental, the dimisished seventbo employed, too, in the works of satie, duparc, chausson, and havel. - - the particular property of the chord of the diminished seventh is that it is a pivot, mo(lulating chord which may branch out into one of eight tonalities (four major and four minor). if, however, this chord is not used to modulate into another key but is linked to other seventh chords in the form of a succession, a continuous feeling of suspense is created. the juxtaposition of common chords, each belonging to a different tonality, creates a feeling of rootlessness. tonality, music's law of gravity, was undergoing a quiet transformation. for centuries music had centred around tbe inter- vals of the third and the sixth. debussy's emphasis of the bare intervals of the fourth and fifth was a departure of prime importance for his contemporaries and followers. impressionism released the chord in regard to the movement and goal of music. "gliding" chords became an essential feature of the impressionist style, a suocesslon of "blobs" of sound, like the succession of individual notes in a melody. ' . be harmony is a thickening out of the melody, (as in many an impresslonist painting, the luminous haze is a thickening out of the single line.) the resulting tonal ambiguities create the impression that "we never see anything clearly". lockspeiser, vol. , p. . as ruskin had remarked of turner's paintings. (lockspeiser, vol. , p. .) - - in la catb drale engloutie ( ), a work for piano, the f t chord is sustained by the pedal, creating a sonorous haze against which the succeeding harmonies un- fold. this use of pedal or organ point created an effect prized throughout the classic and romantic eras. the impressionist adopted the device and used it with great imagination, deriving many striking effects from the clash of transient and sustained harmonies. such effects challenged orthodox distinctions between consonance and dis- sonance, directing composers to different forms of tonal reference. a concert devoted entirely to his works was given in the gall of la libre tlie'tique in brussels, (then the main centre of the art nouveau movement), on march . the gall , turned into a tempo concert hall, disj)layed not only the latest canvases of pissarro, heno gauguin, and signac, together with the posters of toulouse- lautrec, but also lliam morris' illuminated books of the kellilscott press, aubrey beardsley's illustrations for oscar wilde's salome, and buckles and bracelets designed by the london guild of handicrafts. debussy's music identified with the avant-garde. e.g. the pentatonic and whole-tone scales. la cath,drale engloutie employs a medieval procedure known as org~~um in which the melody is harmonized in parallel fourths or fifths. this information condensed from lockspeiser, vol.i p• . - - debussy s ( : . ), considered the greatest example of an orchestral impressionist wor r, is said to have been inspired by rrurner' s paintings, which he pro:sably saw in - . the first performance of l took place at the time of the paris autumn salon where fauve paintings were hung for the first time. debussy was not especially attracted to the l 'auves, bnt, possibly because of the powerful impact made by this exhibition, the programme note introducing drew parallels between his tech- nique of orchestration and the approach to primary colours of the fauves. rrhe orchestral effects were procured by means of a "palette of sounds and by skilful brushstrokes designed to conve~ in gradation of rare and brilliant colours the play of light and shade and the ":i of the ever-changing seascape. ".j during the symbolist decade this type of analogy became increasingly more frequent. between and t several studies appeared which attempted to draw con- clusions on the relationship between colours and tones. in describing a picture art critics speak of roaring reds, shrill greens, singing blues, a noisy note o:f yellow and of chromatic narmonies and dis- sonances. a symphony, on the other hand, is described i.n terms belonging to painting: the melodic line is coloured with different hues ••• the three colours of the wind instruments in the ullper registers are harmoniously oombinetl. above is the luminous blue ol the flutes, the bright red just as pissarro and monet had been inspired by turner s paintings when they visited the natif,nal gallery, london, in . - t- of the oboes is in the centre and the warm, brown- ish tints of the clarinet are in the base. - la peinture est, si l'on veut, une musique des couleurs sans mouvement, une mus~que mort mais c est d~jhs une sort de musique. debussy, too, wrote in like manner to describe his own works. of his three nocturnes for viol and orchestra he wrote: the orchestra of the first consists of strings; of the second, flutes, four horns, three trumpets and two harps; of the third, of both these groups. it is an experiment with the different combinations that can be obtained from one colour--like a study of grey in painting. s orchestral work, , he described as the musical equivalent of "grey tones lightly tinged with whi ii lj, october, . lockspeiser, vol. , p. . paul souriau, le symbolism des couleurs", la revue de paris, april, ) (ref. lockspeiser, vol. , p. } lucien j:!,avre, lockspeiser, vol. , p. . ibid. (reminiscent of the influence of photography on impressionist painting.) - - in confusing their terms painters and composers moved closer together: painters discussed colours and forms in terms belonging to music, composers discussed tones and harmonies in terms belonging to painting. both attempted to explore the "felt" qualities of their media through thein· "associative" aspects. such practices reflected the emergence and developments of the new science, psychology, and researches into the phenomena of synaesthesia and chromesthesia. some artists sought syntheses of their media (as wagner had earlier advocated in gesamkunstwerke.) scriabin, sch nberg, and kandinsky tried to combine music? coloured lights, and movement to address all the senses simultaneously. while radical changes were taldng place in the arts the conservative core of artists retai~ed their popularity over the newer experimental artists. composers such as saint-sh.ens and faure in france, mabler and bruckner in germany, and ijeoneavallo and verdi in italy, whose works continued in a h.omantically nationalis~ vein, represent the mainstream of resistance to radical change in european music., although there was still the academic tradition of historical and portrait painting which, like its parallels in music, maintained its hold on established society and culture, the new non-academic art began to malce its pre- seance felt at the turn of the century. it had impact as truth to shifting contemporary values. see appendix. - - the young painters were sensitive to this new atmosphere and nowhere more than in paris which, as a result of the acceptance by the critics of impressionism and its successors, became the art capital of the the world~ in homain rolland was able to write about "the sudden change which is being brought about in music., li'rench art, quietly, is in the act of taking the place of german art. musically, paris became the most important centre in europe to paris, young painters and composers gravitated, from germany, spain,. italy, england, hussia and america. to remain in their own countries was not to be free of the influence of developments in france. european art began to take on an international flavour. at the same time -in other parts of europe, other revoluti.onary groups were formed which were antipathetic to traditional art and sensitive to the exciting possibilities of the dawning twentieth century. but paris was the centre for the earli- est movements. painting could take either of the paths which led to cubism or expressionism: music could twnn to either polytonal i ty or atonality. rl he artistic atmosphere was bristling with possibilities: the fund of artistic ideas was swelling. the destinies of painting and music were t machlis, p. . - - inextricably intertwined. painters, poets, and composers met, too, in "la vie bohemienne", which had arisen in consequence of the artist'~ alienation from society. the bohemian life allowed great freedom of artistic behaviour and practice, but exacted its toll in other respects, in material sacrifice and poverty. still, if, on the one hand, the artist had nothing to lose in identifying with la vie", on the other, .he. had every- thing to gain. the period preceding the first world war was an age of eccentricity. such behaviour disguised quivering sensibilities in innovators such as the poet and playwright, alfred jarry, the composer,erik satie, the l)ainter, henri rousseau, and the poet, guillaume apolli- naire. - chapter . fauvism and music. fauvism, the first movement of the twentieth century to present itself as a united front, had specific affinities with music. most of the fauve painters were musicians and they drew upon their musical experience in order to advance new pictorial ideas. a group of paintings hung together in the autumn salon of were dubbed collectively , the wildness objected to beimg primarily a matter of colour and of its (so-called) "liberation". in the collective impact of their works, the individuals concerned discovered a certain sympathy of purpose: the expressive potential of colour as a means to composition. fauve painters liberated colour from its sub- ordinate role as merely conveying a certain amount of in- formation into the position of an independent force. colour had previously been subservient to the aim of representing some natural effect. gauguin and van gogh had shown that the original contributors were: henri matisse, l i - l, albert marquet, ( ), andr~ derain, - , georges h.ouaul t, ( - ), henri manguin, - , jean puy, ( - ), and othon friesz, - . kaoul dufy, ( - ), braque, ( - ), and metzinger, ( - ), joined with them briefly. - - it could do more than this; that like music, it could appeal directly to the senses, and that it could convey the artist's feelings as well as simply describe an aspect of ·the object seen. it did not necessarily destroy the ex- perience of reality, but on the contrary more actively con- veyed the artist's experience of reality. that the l'i"auves drew analogies between their art and music, follows in consequence of their musical back- grounds. rrheir emotive temj>eram:ants were better attuned to music. braque played both the accordeon and the guitar. vlaminck earned his living as a music teacher until he was thirty, ancl both matisse and dufy l)layed the violin• derain played the organ and the harpsichord. vlaminck was the eldest son of musical parents. s mother, a former conservatoire prize-wi.nner, gave pi.ano lessons; his father taught the violin, was head of tne cho society of chatou, emd choirmaater at the clnuch of saint-merri. vlaminclc described himself as having been "born to music". from my earliest years i ate, slept, and ~olce to the sounds of the violin and the piano ••• jean-paul crespelle, the fauves: history of the (oldbourne press, london}, p. . 'b'd ..!.....!_., ibid. p. . • - - i grew up to the so-lmds of my father s pupils doing their exercises, the carnival of venice, the maiden's prayer, and the sonatinas, scales t and duets yhich were a permanent background to our lives.·· vlaminck's father taught him music, and he earned his living as a violin teacher because there was much money in painting. "didn't think 'l'he dufy household, like the vlaminck's, was always full of music. m. dufy played the organ and was a choir- master, and the other two sons, leon and gaston, were also the organ, the other, a flautist, ~~~~~~~~~' a musical publi- musicians; one played became editor of the cation. raoul dufy said that his early years were cradled by the sea and by music. he himself sang in a church choir and throughout his life he was an ardent concert-goer. braque loved music, and learned to play the flute, the violin and the accordeon from gaston dufy. music has played a large ljart in his worlc: bach or mozart scores appear in many of his pictures. his first private exhibition took place in november , sponsored by apollinaire. in some of the canvases exhibited the artist introduced for the first time in modern painting the musical-instrument theme. crespelle, p. . ibid. - - fauve painters found a common identity in music. as a point of reference, music justified their innovations, and provided them with parallels, which they easily adapted~ and with subject matter. considered as equivalents of the music which formed a background to their lives, fauve paintings are of immense interest., but it is in the prac- tical application in fauve teaching that the role of music becomes apparent. matisse's theories are a "musical" re- finement of the language of painting. an exhibition of moslem art in awoke in matisse a taste for pure tone and a feeling for the arabesque in colour. he was also imt)ressed by gauguin s unbroken sur- faces of vibrating colour, the pure colour of signac and seurat, and the expressive spontaneity of van gogh. in matisse, the influences from these various sources are fused. colour is his art. the relationship of all the tones i have found must result in a living harmony of colours, analogous t~ the harmony of a musical composition. matisse insisted on the importance of composition, the organization of the picture surface and the placement of colours.. "to my mind composition is everything. so it ib haftmann, vol. , p• • - essential to have a clear vision of the whole from the ou set." matisse had little use for the theories of complementaries: as did debussy and ravel, he sought har- mony in dissonance. "one tone is just a colour; two tones are a chord, a life, the latter consideration contribu- ting to the desired "living harmony of colours." here was the essence of colour composition. matisse successfully translated his feeling for music into pictorial equivalents. his paintings t pure colour and are "concertos of colour " full of melodic variations and strongly rhythmical. he translated the musical arabesque on to canvas. his series of r collage compositions, , completed in (when illness and old age were beginning to overtake him),bear eloquent testimony to his musical gifts. escholier, matisse from the life (faber & faber, t ) t p;. . ibid., p. , (dabreuil writing on matisse's teaching methods. the musical arabesque was originally inspired or borrowed from the visual arts. both matisse and delacroix employed the arabesque as a rhythmic, linear surface deco- ration, inspired by islamic or moorish art. both phhyed the violin. did painters such as klee, braque, vlruninck, etc. increase in their feeling for the melodic potential of the drawn line as a result of their abilities with musical instruments of the single melodic line type? it ibvites speculation. ~, - - having established in painting the inde )endence of colour through expressive use, in free arabesques and pictorial surface decoration, fauve ideas spread through the youthful movements of painting in other european countries, (particularly in germany where considerable in- fluence was exerted on the expressionists), and looked to the pure abstraction of orphism in france. the connecting link between fauvism and orphism is expressed in a phrase of othon friesz, the only unmusical fauve. scribed fauve paintings as "orchestrations a phrase used with increasing frequency by describe their art. l''ri esz de- of colour" ' the orphists to perhaps the most touching statement on the relationj ship between painting and music concerns matisse's fear of blindness. in order to meet the affliction, should it ever be visited upon him, matisse took up the violin in and began to study it seriously. it's a fact that i'm afraid i shall lose my sight, and not be able to paint any more. so i thought of something. a blind man must give up painting• but not music. escholier. ibid. - chapter . cubism and music. "after the music of the silk-brush the mu c of the axe. --cocteau. cubism began in , the year of the great c~zanne memorial exhibition in paris. as the discoveries of van gogh, gauguin and late impressionism had stimulated the l~'auves, so the teachings of c~zanne had a radical effect on cubism. whereas the principle concern of the fauves was the investigation of the potential of colour, that of tbe cubists was the sis of form. cubists c ed much further the idea of the unity of the picture surface, and they abandoned the representation of things as tbey appear in order to an account of the whole structure of ob- jects and its position in space. other starting points for cubism are to be found in the influence of negro sculpture (currently intriguing artists in europe) in which forms are reduced to inter- related planes, and the reaction from the pattern-making of l"auvism. in their desire to express structure, the cubists renounced fauve colour and painted in a monochrome. by they had greatly refined the process of analytical dissection of objects. they began by - separating the facets of objects, spreading them out, and blending them with the forms of other objects. these com- binations gave rise to the idea of simultaneity, in which different aspects of an object were represented in juxta- position--simultaneou "so that the partial view of an object can be turned into a mental view with the help of factual data, such as dimensions, ground plans, and pro- files. about the same time that juxtaposed simultaneous views of objects appeared in painting, the concept of time was introduced into the static space of the picture. in the realm of science, three-dimensional space, which can be visu.au. , gave way to the time-space continuum, with time playing the part of the four·t;b (limen ion which cannot be visualized but only expres in mathematl.cal formulae. minowski's mathematical formulation of the dimensions of space-time appeared in i . einstein postulated that space and time were functions of each other. independent!~ painters arrived at an understanding of the functions of space and time in visual art. now painting was stepping into the temporal domain of music. gleizes wrote: i have completed pictures by forcing myself to situate clearly, and in their natural places, the expressions of space and time--the latter being ~o more than a counterpoint or fugue on the former r::raftmann. vo p . .t i o t o <> - - the distinctive feature of cubism, then, is the interpenetration of space and time. giedi.on presents the following definition of cubism: it ews objects relatively: that is, from several points of view, no none of which has exclusive authority. and in so dissecting objects it sees them simultaneously from all sides--f~om above and below, from inside and outside. it goes around and into its objects. thus, to the three dimensions of the renaissance which have held good as constituent facts throughout so many centuries, there is added a fourth one--time. gleizes looked to a period when "the fact of moving around an object to seize from it several successive appear ... ances, which, fused into a single image" would "reconstitute it in ·time," and (would) "no longer malre reasoning people indignant. but to an unwilling public, culjist ideas remained incomprehensible. cubism, (as were the parallel movements in science and music), was up against ignorance and resistance to change. simultaneity, tbe dynamic principle of cubism, orphism and li'uturism, was begotten by modern technological city life. in modern music that principle was applied in sigfried giedion, (london: ), p. . gleizes and metzinger "cubism", modern artists on art, ed. robert l. herbert {englewood cliffs, n. j: prentice::::hall, ), p. . - - ·two fields: tonality and rhythm. composition on more than one tonal plane had been pioneered by such composers as debussy, scriabin, and richard strauss. polytonality, the simultl\l,neous presen- tation of two or more keys, and polyrhy~nn, the simul- taneous presentation of rhythms with different character- istics, were the musical answers to cubism .. igor stravinsl{y, (h. ), (whose achievemnnts are en coillj)el.l'cd th ptcasso's), with po tonality and polyrhy iclioms in which he ll l picasso, he renounced the heen school sound-images would more ne dynamism of modern ife.. ly to devt:lop correspond to consisting of co rlieto me s and stresses make j:o t ambigut ·ties simulta:neou pres ed f of io i.n parallel, but unrelated,keys contrast v ical tension th the ho zontal struggle r metrical domination. insl{y often plays vertical textures and horizontal constructions in oppo tion to each other so that a kind of aggression results. such effects confuse the ear and deny it the reassurance of gravity or location. e.g. strauss' also s"qrach zarathustra combines the keys of c major and b major. scriabin inventecl the so- called "mystic" chord of ascending :fourths (c-f sharp- flat-e-a-d), as a replacement for major and m:i.nor chords. ' he first of bartol{' s f.~urteen bagatelles ( t ) is the first example of two simultaneously sounding melodic pa:rts written in different keys. prokofiev's sarcasmes ( ) also contain bitonal passages. charles ives, ( - ), - the cubists and the polytonal composers fragmented their subject matter and recombined the facets in a way that challenged the validity of time and space as absolute dimensions. 'l!ime as a imi tceo\ factor in painting, spi..'we. as a limit, factor in music, both were jet·tisoned in favour of more mul ti-climensional structures in pain tin€; and music, and both cubism and polytonality attempt to recon- cile the media to these new considerations. bitonality and polytonality became prevalent in french and italian music after t , and between and the possibilities of simultaneity were gradually realizedo. hbythmic simultaneity was achieved in poly- metric and polyrbythmic writing. also experimented with polytonality, quite independently,in his orchestral and piano music before the first world war. s fellow american,, cowell, added to the vocabulary of music with tlle invention of tone-clusters. stravinslry' s famous chord combines the broken triads of c major s arp major--a particularly striking effect sinee keys whose tonics lie a tritone apart have the least number of notes in common. such innovations opened up new prospects for orchestral colour. stravinsky's ( ) is an example. alfredo, ( - ), compos in a polytonal style in notte di maggio ( . :f.l ), and his ano sonatina ( ) has a polytonal minuet and a bitonal inale. darius mij.haudt (b. ), also writes in a polyton style, incorporating into many of his wo jazz elements and folk mu c. e.g. stravinsky's - - hhythm is the mainspring of stravinsky's art and it is significant that bis music has its roots in dance forms. rhythm is one o the main considerations in abstract painting, too, and it is significant that painters in l aris should be associated with the dance. enthusiasm for wagner's music was still maintained in pari at a high level, and both strauss and mahler won a band of french admirers. (the vogue for strauss reached its height in --the year of picasso's en strauss himself conducted performances of in paris.) like wagner, diaghilev similarly proposed to unite the arts of painting, music and the dance~ diagbilev's encouraged a new spi t of i bt •t i coitlaborat· on e ween pa n ers anc composers.· between and : . _, diaghilev, the cl ctor of the ballets husse:s in paris, primarily on russian artists :, stravinsky the composer, and the painters, bakst, benois, larionov, and gontcharova. from on, diaghilev turned more to french and other national composers and painters for their collaboration: (in addition to stravinsl\:y and prokof:ie~, fue composers, sauguet, sa tie, mil haud, poulenc, manuel de palla and hindemi th, and the pain-liers, rrhe contribution of hussian expatriate composers and painters to the development of modern painting and music has been considerable. such artists as stravinsky, sou tine and marc cbagall in france, and kanclinsky, von j awl en sky and mariana werefkin in germany, have done much ~o blend the disparate artistic threads of europe into the lnternational cultural community which succeeded to the national schools. - - picasso, derain, matisse, braquet marie laurencin, gris, utrillo, max ernst, and miro., co-operation among the artists was a positive means of materially synthesizing their arts. in a sense, a spirit of socialism succeeded to, or ra•ther, transformed, the earlier bohemian! sm. one of satie's works will serve to illustrate that spirit of collaboration$ rrhe most important of his worlcs for the stage, , was written for diaghilev, on a s by jean cocteau, with decor and costumes by picasso and choreo by massine. parade ( ) has well been called a "cubist manifesto". the cubist painters broke up the familiar objects of everyday life and reintegrated them in unusual contexts in order to achieve a fresh personal vision. in the same way, satie's music juxtaposed seemingly incompatible elements and recombined them in a formal integration: snappy fragments of music-hall melody and a strict fugato, lyrical phrases and driving ostinato rhythms, simple diatonic harmonies and clangorous polytonal effects. the inclusion in the score of a typewriter, steam whistle, rattle, and similar noisemakers was allied to the "shock-the-bourgeois" mentality of paris during the second decade of our century. what reaches beyond the period is:- t!!e freshness of the montage achieved by satie ••• at the time cocteau was obs&ssed by visual images~ especially the harlequins, pierrots and musical instruments in picasso s painting. as. cocteau recalled later, "my dream was to hear the music of picasso s guitars, and he set about building his ballet around them ••. " --"picasso's theater period, 'rime, august . , , p. . machlis, pp. - . - - during the 's the ballets suedois appeared in paris. on the whole, the dancers and choreography were mediocre, but jean borlin, the company's choreographer, had the good fortune to find some first-rate collaborators amon the musicians, painters, end poets of the day: the group of composers known as , and cocteau, pirandello, jean hugo, de chirico, and fernand leger. leger designed sets for two ballets: la patinoire ( ) honegger, and la creation du monde ( ) by milhaud. another interes·ting parallel between painting and music concerns the introduction and organization of tex- tures, (a consideration of paramount significance in the development of electronic music later in the century.) the first stage of cubism, analytic , concerned with the essentials of form, was followed, in - , by a "syn- thetic phase. "synthetic" cubism endeavoured to convey ibhe idea of raali~y without resorting to illusionism by means of light and shade. reality itself was introduced in the form of a piece of newspaper, cloth, wallpaper, musical manuscript paper, or other material stuck on to the canvas and combined with painting or drawing to provide contrast or comparison. music incorporated natural or mechanically produced sounds with musical tones and harmonies, (e.g. auric, durey, honegger, milhaud$ poulenc, and '.llailleferre. - - satie' s parade and antheil' s ballet me"chanigue.) visual and aural collages emd montages reflect identical aims~ to organize the sights and sounds of technological society into structures that symbolize the values of that societyo the mechanical aspect of the first world war had a profound effect on the cubist, fernand l , ( - ) and resulted in ·t.he dynamic phase of his work after .. in he created the first film without scenario, le~ ballet m~chanigue, for which george antheil, ( - ), wrote music. when he wrote the ballet, antheil was developing a new principle of musical construction, based on rhythm alone. he called it "time-space" and com- pared it with a panvas on which tunes and chords were applied .like colours and shapes. he wrote the ballet originally for an abstract motion picture, but then rewrote it for the concert hall •• the version on this record includes a recording of an airplane engine, two doorbells of different sizes, and four pianos (replacing the original pia.nolas) on which occasional tone clusters are banged with the palm of the hand. the three-part piece, played without a pau~e, has been dubbed a "mectrnistic dance of ife." contrasting planes of sounds, musical and unmusical.,pointed to cacophony. in opposition to the "horizontal i ty of classical and romantic music, "verticality" in the form of textures became the norm. noise, tonal densities and ann m .. lingg, sleeve notes, ballet m~chaniquet us i <> - - nvertical conglomerates of sound--new "colours" which challenged the composer'.s ingenuity and inventiveness. stravinsky's use of such aments gave rise to a texture based on pure colours so limuid that, as diaghilev re- marked, ne could see through it with one's ears." "you have enlarged the boundaries of the perm];ssible in the emvire of sound, said debussy in a letter to stravinsb:y thanking him for his gift of the score of lje sacre du printemps. likewise, in the matter of texture, the cubist had "enlarged the boundaries of the permissible" in the "empire" of vision. f'icasso, braque, and gris were foremost among the cubist constructors of collages. "braques collages •.•••• follow musical rhythms which transcend the object that is represented, whether the theme of the woxk is musical or '% not j another parallel be en painting and nm i.e con- cerns those facets of the two arts which appeal to the diff levels of perception. marc chagall, (b. ), was,for a time, associated with the cubists. his highly individual sensi.bil ty welded together i.n ch symphonic" colour, disparate figments and images of dreams, childhood, machlis, p. . donald mitchell, the language of modern lih:tsic (london: faber & ll""'aber, t ), .p. . popper, p. . - - and fantasy. images of the past and from the present, incongruously juxtarwsed, challenge the authority of time ancl space as absolute dimensions. will be a musician, t he said in his childhood. in his paintings be has ful- filled his own prophecy; they are bathed in a musical effulgence. "now your colours sing, bakst told chagall. cbagall's paintings remind us that all art attempts to fuse proportions of thought and feeling, to find appropriate images for them, in order address the conscious and sub- conscious levels of perception. as a rule, form delimits the aspects of an aesthetic idea and gives it materiality; the internal aspects are "de-coded" through the appects of its ~xpressive elements. it is a dialogue between intellect and feeling, objectivity,and subjectivity, structure and expression, the material and the spiritual, ethos and pathos, and pathos. on the whole, cubism proceeded objectively& its off-shoot, orphism, was to re-apply the notion of musical colour. da silva, von simson, llinks, p. . ibid. (chagall's pai~ting the green violinist was inspired by his uncle who played the violin .. )- - - chapter . orphism and music. throughout the cubist period musical analogies were drawn with increasing frequency. around , sonte of the newer cubists set out to "humanise" strict cubism and to poeticise its subject matter. l'his development, d.esignated orphism by guillaume apollinaire, looked to an absolute painting that would be as independent of nature as music; pictures whose very subject matter would be the spontaneous life of colour, its harmonies and dissonances, and ihe play of its proportions. the primary characteristic of orphist art is the pre-eminence of colour, a radical consequence of gauguin's theory of orchestrated colours, and the investigations of the neo-i:mpressionists and the j:l,auves. orphi sm asserted the primacy of pure colour over form. apollinaire first bestowed his epithet upon the work of robert delaunay, ( - ), because be felt it to be more lyrical and sensuous than the rather austere cubism of the period, and also because he saw it as a form of "peinture pur_e" with analogies to music. thus we are progressing towards an intensely new kind of art, which will be to painting what one bad hitherto imagined music was to pure literature,n he said. haftmann, vol. , p. . golding, p. . orphism which represented it f as a cubist tteresy moved very quicldy towards abstraction. in delaunay, the central figure of orphist painting, arrived at his entirely abstract es, and , in which circular areas of colour inter ... ~~~~~~~~~ penetrate and revolve around one another in harmonies intended to correspond to the abstract harmonies of musical sounds. "colour alone," he said, "is form and subject.n he extended the language of painting to incorporate spatio- temporal elements of dynamism, rhythm and the movement inherent in colour. delaunay tried to represent the exj}erience of time through the portrayal of .. kupka, ( . ), reached abstract colour compositions by way of neo-impressionism, without going through cubism as .uelaunay had done.. kupka and delaunay oped indepe:ndently of each other g yet both arrived at identical conclusions in painting by analo with music. kuplt:a wrote: music is the only art of sound which does not exist in nature and must be almost wholly created. man has created words to articulate his thought. has created writing, the aeroplane and the locomotive. why then should he not create in painting and sculpture, independently of the forms and colours which surround him in the world •••• i believe that i haftmann, vol. , p. . . - - can find something between vision and hearing and that i can produce a figur-e in colours just as bach did in music. in all events, i shall no loyger be satisfied with a slavish copying of nature. with the emergence of such ideas, many felt that painting had become completely "musicalized". in / kupka painted his first abstract work, fugue in lled and blue, (musical titles were fashionable at the time), in which concentric rhythms in blue, red, green and black are ranged on a white groundo the ( ) evolved at the same time as another aspect of the same idea. in the fugu~ kupka basically demonstrated the concept of rotation on a plane; in he attempted to define the rising harmonies of the colour scale and the law of upward and downward thrust.. in he painted his , concentric forms in pure colours without representational reference. in all the works of this period, he deliberately fostered external associations with musiot an art in which he was deeply interested, particularly in bach's structure. popper, p. . john golding, cubism~ a histor and an analysis, ! - (london: thames and hudson, , po . - - by kupka had achieved a "musical" cone on of colour composition. this is demonstrated in his por- trait of a friend, entitled , in which the colour scale ranges from orange to lemon yellow throughout the cture includ the background. another work dating from same year mal{es external reference to music. fhe worlr was originally conce as a landscape. in the upper part of the composition the o gin al preserved~ rro the lower part kupka later added an didactic exposition of the piano keyboard., at the bottom a hand is seen playing the a major chord and tones (as colours) eme from the centre as if to ize the sounds. kupka and delaunay were associated with the , the name of an ibition in , which revived the ideals of renaissance proportion and mu cal consonance. kupka was the forerunner of the who formed a group about .. valensi, the inventor of the theory of mu calism , pursued a path which lay between music and plastic dynamism. why should we not invent pure painting? since the musician works with notes, why should we not accept that colour by its intr io fo oe is capable of expressing a painter's thought? .ludmila vaehtova, hudson, . ), p. . ~.' p .. . golding, p .. . (london: 'l hame s and - - valensi was attracted to the idea that colours and musical tones corresponded in audition coloree, but kupka did not concur with bim in that belief, and would not sign the musicalist manifesto published by valensi in , which declared that "in order to interpret new forms of life the arts must be more musical. valen eventually went over to colour music in order to explore the possibilities of animated colour. his constant dream was the introduction of symphonic musical movement into his plastic works. what valensi intended was that the picture, itself a preliminary and preparatory moment, should be wholly composed in view of its further development in the film; the film was to be the authentic work, the goal and ideal of the artist's effort. certainly it was a symphony that he dreamed of, and he realizes it patiently, image by image, with the techniques of animated drawing. l!,rancis picabia and blane-gatti also joined the musicalists. of picabia, an american critic wrote that "the comparison that pioabia is fondest of making is tbat of pure musio.n picabia, kupka, delaunay, and kandinsky arrived at abstract painting, independently, and by drawing direct relations with music. painting had become non-represent- ational, as music is fundamentally non-representational. vachtova, p• . popper, lh . golding, p• o - - chapter . li'utuiusm and music. "all the new art which is being elaborated in france seems to have hardly held on to a melody and the futurists have come to teach us--by their titles not by ttwir worl{s--that it could be elevate(.( to a symphony"--guillamne apollinaire. in the first venice biennale confronted italian painters with l 'rench, german, austrian and swiss works. such exhibitions as the biennale and the inter- national exposition of decorative arts in turin acquainted the young italian painters with the symbolism, jugendstil, and secessionism of a changing artistic climate. so far the aesthetic pendulum had swung between paris and mu:ilich. now italian painters struggled against their country's acceptance of her inferior position in eurojjean art, and modern ideas took shape in a climate of furious controvers~ in order to join the main stream of modern develop- ments in art, a small group of italian artists, continually varying in composition, formed around ardengo soffici and gino severini in paris. they were visited occasionally by the wealthy and widely travelled poet f. t. marinetti. marianne w'i;j martin, futurist art and rrheory - ( xford: clarendon press, ), po . - - between the years qo and the italians quickly absorbed the phases of modern european art, from the .jugenstil to impressionism and ce'zanne, and on to the cubists, until their pictorial concpptions had attained the general european level. they were particularly attracted to 'the pictorial architecture of cubism, admiring, as soffici expressed it, "the sober consistency of the bodies and objects, tl e weight, the gravitation of the masses, the balance of the planes and volumes." distilling the essences of modernism, the italians paved the way for their country's first important contribution to the art of the twentieth century: futurism. futurism was the italian expression of an art which adopted a contemptuous attitude to the glories of the italian cultural heritage. on li'ebruary , , marinetti launched the first f'uturist manifesto, strategically oh.oosing paris where cultural ferment was at a high pitch. ultra-nationalistic and shockingly aggressive, the manifesto dealt almost entirely with the situation in italy. tbe rhythm of modern life, speed, and the aesthetics of the machine were extolled as heralding a new era for italy. a year later the first manifesto of futurist painting, signed by umberto boccioni, carlo carra, luigi (previous page). among the painters represented were puvis de cbavannes, moreau, h.edon, klimt, and stuck. haftmann, vol. , p. . - - o, giacomo balla, and gino severini was published. this was followed by the ( ), festo dei drammaturghi ( ) drawn up by marinetti, manifesto dei musicisti futuristi ( ) by the composer f'rancesco balilla ) la, and ( ). pratella, (b. ), followed the painter's mani- festo in repeating futu st principles as they applied to the italian music of the time. like the painters, he was fully acquainted th the various trends in his field. discarding the traditional values of consonance and dis- sonance, he advocated tonal, modal~ and rhythmtc change (with which a number of l!:uro an composers were already experimenting$) such ideas were in the r. the technical manifesto establi its final sentence that lhe musician must add. the vower of the mach and the vic- torious reign of electricity to the great central motifs of the musical poem. in s became the central thesis of russolo's daring conception of an art of noiseso russolo studied music, and then painting at the milan academy like many ilainters of ·the twentieth century he was a gifted musician and played the piano, the violin, and the organ. from his musical experimentation emerged considerations which were to provide a different outlook for the future of mu~ic,. he has been called a "forgotten - - master" at a time when "n'o-russolians a la john cage, ' ' varese or schaeffer (music concrete) swell with impudence." in the course of / he refined his ideas into a com- plex system of noisemaking and performances were given on the intonarumori, which he had invented. in his manifesto, the art of noises, were to be found proto-dada ingredientso after the publication of the art of noises russolo neglect- ed painting until , concentrating, rather, on develop- ing an intricate form of musical composition which fore- shadowed the more extreme experiments made before and after ,ihe second world war by composers sucb a.s varese, john cage, morton j:i'el dman, earl brown, and ol ectronic com~~ pose:r'fj. carra explored re ationships amoilf•; lho fh::jn;ws. in his manifesto la pittura dei suoni, rumori, odori he suggested that the artist should live in a creative frenzy, becoming "a vortex of sensations, a pictori.al force, and not a cold, logi.cal intellect ••• painting sounds, noises and colours the way drunlrards sing and vorni t. in be created his dipinto parolibera--festa patriottica, (free- word painting--patriotic celebration), as a visual counter- part to russolo s spirali di rumori intonati, (spirals of intonated noises). the three spirali, performed on the intonarumori in , reflected particular futurist subject martin, p. o 'b'd ]. ]. "' p. . gonvegno d'aeroplani e d'automobili. the painter and sculptor, boccioni, attemted to give his picture surfaces "musical" animation, and to con- cretize flickering motion. ( - ), a painting which marks the starting point of futurist theory in practice, has this "mu cality". rl'he complexity of the composition is comparable, in its counterpoint of rhythms, to the rhythmical experimentation advocated by pratella in his manifesto o ' music., boccioni spoke of the aspirations of the visual arts towards music, selecting michelangelo from among the old masters as the one "who potentially came closest to the state of mind. for him anato tl~ becomes music ••• and the melodic ines of the l/ muscles follow each other according to musical principles, not the law of logical representation, boccioni's works combine rationally discontinuous motifs as in musical com- position, (e.g. his sculpture nello spazio)o of those who saw his sculpture in , perhaps only his admirer~ ferruccio busoni, understood its j)rofound originality and significance when he remarked: "compared to this art •••••• schonberg's tepid lemonade .. " martin, p., .. ..;;;;.;.;,.,.;;;;,.;;;;;., .. is a - - futurists regarded movement, speed, and the simul- taneity of all sensory impressions as the new "absolute of modernity," fusing in painting, objects in motion and environment, and in music, natural sounds, musical tones, and mechanical sounds. "while the impressionists create a picture in order to render a particular moment, and sub- ordinate the life of the picture to this moment, we syn- thesize all moments (time, place, form, colour-tone) and so construct a picture. chapter . expressionism: painrl ing and music o more than any previous movement in germany, ::.;;:.;;:;_..:;:;.;;;;.;:;.:;.;;;;;..;;;.._.;;;.;.=...;:;..;:;=, the second phase of expressionism ( suc- ceeding to die brficke), regarded musical concepts as indlspensible elements in the development of painting. music, the "soul" of expressionist patnting, gave se to detailed "musical" theories of painting which have influenced particular schools of abstract ting in many different parts of the wo d. the germanic tradi on, to which the blaue reiter group was heir, had always held that the s were united in intersensory experience.. at the turn of the century, the experiments of freud in the field of psychology renewed interest in that supposition. psychology was delving into ·the realm of feeling and its conclusions were to revo- lutionize art. artists looked for symbols that would render sible feeling. "how happy i would be if i could give figurative expression to the unconscious feeling that murmurs so softly and sweetly within me, wrote paula modersohn-becker .. haftmann, vol. , p• . - - as did the symbolists, german artists defied the materialistic attitudes of the scientific revolution and aimed to resolve the contradiction between the material and the spiritual. some fulfilled such aspirations in "colour" music --extensions or variations of \vagner' s gesamlmnstwerk. others sought to awal{en imaginative responses in direct translations from one medium to another. whatever the mode, artists tried to express spiritual feeling through the material symbols of their media. at the end of the nineteenth cemltury romanticism was in the final stages of its development. strauss, mahler, and bruckner mark those stages. debussy, scriabin, and the young kandinsky and scb~nberg, edvard munch and the painters of eke, belong to the transitional period where nineteenth and twentieth century ideas merge .. the association of painting and music had been a favourite idea of the ll.omantics. at the turn of the century it "coloured" the imagination of every thinldng painter and composer in germany, (as it had done in france and was so to continue.) august l!:ndell, ( - ), looked to ui art that would ope ·ate "with freely found forms, as music with free tones. see appendix. haftmann, po . - in edvard munch's painting, , called forth which already clearly demonstrates the need for new critical perspectives in order to come to terms with the painters responses to their changing sual environments. r:l he latest catchword today is sonorous" colour. have colours ever before been so sonorous? perhaps this is music rather than painting. "t . he same sorts of analogy attended movements in li'rance, but german painting and music were the products of a rather pantheistic hysteria shrieking out tha joys and agonies of a lonely heart. the feeling of impressionism, pointillism, fauvism, cubism~ orphism and so on loes not appear to pre' ail in german art., .h:ven in groups such as and , pre- eminence is given to the expreasion of the deepest recesses of the human soul: this emphasis tends to isolate artistic personalities. emil nolde, (: . - ), exclaimed: colours, the materials of the painter; colours in their own lives, weeping and laughing, dream and bliss, hot and sacred, like love songs and the erotic, like songs and glorious chorals colours in vibration, pealing lil{e silver bells and clanging like bronze bells, proclaiming ~appiness, passion and love, soul, blood and deatho haftmann, p. . patricia sloane, p. · - - l'hough working in comple; ;.e isolation, scriabin and the lithuanian, ciurlionis, independently, arrived at the same ideas which they expressed through different media. art was for both of them a mystical experience, and their worlrs are mmmorable in their expression of remoteness, heightened emotion, and strange, weird atmospheres--for these are the subjects of their art of the senses. a painter who much interested me--he was }jossibly the most talented member of the russian school at the beginning of the century--was the lithuanian m. k. ciurlionis. i myself bought a picture by llim.". it depicted a row of pyramids, of a pal! nacreous tint, in flight towards a horizon. ciurlionis, ( - ), had an extraordinary synaesthetic gift. he tried to draw serious conclusions between painting and music from the external comparison between coloured and musical tones. as a child he was a musical prodigy. later, on graduating from the warsaw conservatory, he devoted himself to musical composition. suddenly, in , he turned to painting with the aim of painting music in colour compositions which he conceived as symphonic movements. j.lo these he gave such titles as "ocean sona·ta? sun sonata", snake n, and they con- o tain such musical directions as andante, scherzo, etc."' :t.igor stravi.nsky, (london: paber& f aber, t <) ~llaftmann, vol. , p. . - - scriabin's music and ciurlionis' paintings founded no specific schools in germany, but the circle of hussian artists who formed a small colony in munich before the first world war advanced their ideas with enthusiasm. wassily kandinsky, ( - l.~c) ~ went to munich in . with alexei von jawlensky and mariana werefldn he founded the neue ktlnstler verei.nigung from which the blaue ueiter later sprang. the young pianist, composer and writer, thomas von hartmann also joined this group. he was a supporter of scriabin whose "colour" music influenced him in his collaboration with kandinsky as composer in the mul t media project, der gelbe klang. der blaue reiter was a loosely-knit group of like- minded artists. it included franz marc~ august macke, heinrich campendonck, gabrielle munter~ the composer arnold schtlnberg, kandinsky, paul klee, and von jawlensky. the first aue reiter exhi-bition held in munich in : . also included works by tbe two french painters who kandinsky regarded as the cornerposts of modern painting-- delaunay and h.ousseau. the importance of music in the movement is evident in the blaue reiter catalogue ( . ) .. it contained, be sides articles on painting, an essay by hartmann on anarchy in music an article by leonid sabaniev on scriabin s prom,th,e, compositions by schftnberg and his pupils» berg and webern, and other contributions. rrtms, the main agents of change converged in german art. - - kandinsky was greatly impressed by wagner's music. in lohengrin, he said, "it became entirely clear to me that art in general is much more powerful than i had realised and that, on the other hand, painting can develop just as much power as music possesses." he carried mucb further the ideas of scriabin and ciurlionis: as a painter and musician he was well qualified to follow in their traces. from early childhood kandinsky passionately loved colours and he painted already as a little boy. colours mark tl>e e~ents o:f his lifeo araong colouru he distinr;uished the particular musical sound of eaoh-- say musical because kand sky was also a mu sic~an; hf; pl ay~d t~ e ijiano. and the cello, one senses lus mus cal g ft n all lns wo • rmann bahr, viennese mouthpiece for the , looked forward to a public "which no longer asks for the object, but is happy to listen to the music of the oolours." henri ravel said that the "laws of harmony" were the same for painting and music<> kupka, delaunay, and kandinsky were ftrm in tllat co:nvietion. kandinsky, "iteminiscences", modern artists on art, ed. robert l. herbert (englewood cliffs, new jersey: prentice-hall, ), p. . ni:na kandinsky, "some notes on the development of kandinsl{y's painting", 'l'he doeuments of modern art, volo (new york: george wittenborn, ), po o naftmam , vol. t, p• l.~:. kandinsky, "concerning the spiritual in art", qqcuments of modern art, vol. , p• , - - colours mark the events of kandinsky s life. generally speaking, colour directly influences the soul. colour is the l(ftyboard, the eyes are the hammers, the soul is the piano with many strings. rr'he art.ist is the band that plays~ touching one key or anotb~r purposively, to cause vibrations in the soul o · l~'auvism influenced german expressionism in the acceptance of colours as values in themselves. kandinsky believed that colour could be the sole means of artistic expression in painting and need not refer to specific objects in nature; that colours could be regarded as values in painting as tones in music; that (as worringer bad suggested) the introduction. of objects into a painting might interpose serious obstructions between the work of art and the empathy of its viewer. kandinsl{y wanted an art that would address itself directly to the human soul, with- out let or hindrance. he found the means in colour. "colour," he wrote» "itself offers contrapuntal possibilities and, when combined with design, may lead to the great pictorial counteqjoint ••• when otto fischer, spokesman for the neue kunstlervereinigung, wrote in : . , that colour was a "means of expression which appeals directly to the soul. colour is a means to compositi.on,"j he was merely restating, not only matisse' theories, but the kandinsky, p o l.«: a ' . .jhaftmann, vo:i. i, po ., - - beliefs of expressionists such as kandinsky, klee, and the orphists, kupka, delaunay and picabia. "next to music, painting will the second art in- conceivable save in terms of construction, and already eonceivable otherwise today, kandinsjcy declared. "matisse--co lour o l'icasso--form .. pointing toward a great end,. two great signposts now the task was to "obtain the status of rule; to uncover tne e capable of serving as a rule,"' as le corbusier had written (with regard to the ne·w architecture~) "every combination o no a.dvance is }jossible, but i am beginning to feel that there are clef te rules and conditions ich in- t cline me to the use of this or hat dissonance wrote scht.lnberg. ogies with kandinsl{y moved to the realm of pure abstraction in painting. "painting has caught up tb music, and both have a constantly growing tendency to create "absolute" works, that is, completely objective works which, like the works of nature» grow "from themselves" purely according to laws as independent beings .. " l harry no abrams, kandinsky, po . (new yorlc: le corbusier, tt) , p.. (london: faber & faber ( kandinsl<y, po , from scb nberg' s kandinsky, reminiscences, lh .. - - music is found to be the best teaobero for some centu es, with few exceptions, music has been the art which has devoted itself not to the repro- duction of natural phenomena, but to the expression of the artist's soul and to the creation of an autonomous life of musical sound .. a painter who finds no satisfaction in mere representation, however artistic, in his longing to express his internal life, cannot but envy the ease th which music the least material of the arts today, achieves this end. he naturally se to apply the means of music to his own art. and from this results modern desire for rhythm in painting, for mathematical, abstract construction, for repeated notes of colour, for setting colour in motion, and so on. comparison of means among the arts and the learning of one art from another can only be successful when the application of the lesson is fundamental. one uruat learn how ano er uses it method» so at its own means may then be used acco ng the same fundamentrtl inc e , bu its ow.tl mer j ., the st mu not fo t that eacb means ies i~s per ~~plication! anq that it i fo to d scover th s applicat on. kandinsl\:y' s principle cap e of serving as a rule" was e iple of inner necessity. in the blaue reiter catalogue thomas von hartmann appli this ciple to music: "in all art, and in music in particular, every means that derives :from inner necessi is correct., kandinsky p. . grohmann, p ., - - ljili:e the cubists, kandinsky came to recognize the significance of time in painting., i felt that his, (rembrandt's), pictures "last a long time", and explained it to myself that i had first to exhaust one part continuously and then the other. later i understood that this division magic;:\lly produces on the canvas an element which\& ori ina y foreign and inaccessible to painting kan(linslcy's theories are outlined in his .;:;.;;;;;,.;;_,.;;;...a;;..;;;;.;;.;.,;;;;,.-.;;.;.;;.;.;;;;._.;=_;;;;;;;;.;;;;,.,;., a worli: which deals with "musical" construction in painting, (be distinguishes between and construction), symbolic colour, and the ap}jl ioation of inner nece sst ty ., if kandinsky was the symphonist among blaue llei ter painters, paul kl ee, ( t - ll ) • was the intimacy is the l{eynote of his paintings. klee was an outstanding violist and played in a string quartet. there i.s something of the quality of chamber music in his works. klee translated a feeling for the motion and rhythm of music into visual symbols. ingres is said to have created an artistic order out of rest; i should like to create an order from feeling, and, going still further, from motion." "motion is tlle root of all growth ,. kandinsky, p• ,. paul klee, ' . he rphinking eye, ed,. ~m sililler (london: lund hunmhries, ), frontespiece. - - i am going to reach out into the field of music., here the basic structure lies in the beat more or less subconsciously; but it is f t through the sound as a structural framework over which the quanti ties and qualities of the m uiical ideas move~ klea wanted to explore the melodic and rhythmic qualities of line and colour, especially when combined in a kind of visual polyphony ("a line equals a voice ), simple movements strike us as banal., the time element hmst be eliminated., yesterday and tomorrow treated as simul t<.tneous. in music this need was partly met by polyphony. the quintet in don giovanni is closer to us than the epic movement of tristan. mozart and bach are more modern than the nineteenth century. if in music the time fac t:.o jt' en u d /jc ovc come by a step baclc acce·ptabl e to our consciousness a late flowering might still be possible ••• polyphonic painting is superior to music because its time is more spatial., rrhe idea of simultaneity comes out more richly. the re- flection in tho side windows of a moving trrnn car gives an idea of the backward movement i have in mind for nmsico delaunay tries to follow the example ~f a fugue an put the pictorial accent on the t me factor •• o of his fugue in red ( ) he wrote: the repetitive factor characteristic of structures is here the concept of increase or decrease which is repeated at every step. if the naturally klee~ p. . ibido, pp• - . ibid. p p• o - - ordered movements perceived with the ears instead of the eyes is comparable to the movements of natural tones, the artfully ordered movement is reminiscent of the structural division of the tones we find in the musical seale .. by analogy with c kandinslcy and klee arrived at intelligible explanations of the essences of abstractton in painting. ir teachings drew painting ~nd um c very much closer together., "today a synthesis between the worlds of sound and ap~earance seems to be a possibili ,"~ said ee. colours also marked the s of the life of arnold sch nberg ( ), composer, acher wri and nter. in his three properties of of he distinguished tch, colourg and i.ntensi ty, po out of the three, o pi had so far been measured, and that little attempt had been made to measure or :l:n any o ze colour a:ntl intenstty., tie defined pitch as one of the dimensions of timbre ("tone-colour"): "pitch is in fact simply tone-colour measured in one directiono and be imagined a future time !lh: wben music would be constructed from "timbre-melodies.::> n. h stuclcenschmidt, rrwentieth cerr~ury music (london: .\'orld university ijillrary, ), p .. . - he first experimented with timbre in the third of his p. in t . this piece be entitled "summer morning by a lake", adding in brackets the word "colours". sch<inberg's development of the teehnique of composing with twelve tones defunotionalized the chromatic system which he had inherited. schl.jnberg ••• developed the chromatic concept of wagner into a new technique." because the twelve-note discipline of composition establishes no hierarchy of notes,(all notes being equal, there being no prevailing key), the sense of gravity is utterly destroyed. so, too, abs t painting colours are juxtaposed in es jace spiri tuel and float in a sort of suspended weightlessness .. ••• the unity of musi.cal space demands an absolute and uni perception. in this spaoe ••• there is no ansolute down, no right, no t, forward or baclnvard. ry musical co:rlfi ration, every moll:eme,nt of tones to be comrehendecl primarily as a mutual rel ion ol sounds, of ascillato vibrations, appearing at different places and ttmeso ' the imaginative and creative faculty, relations in the material sphere are as independent from directions or planes as material objects are, in their s»here, to our perceptive facultieso tjean papineau-couture, world , p. . chftnberg, (quoted peter music). cf. ernst krenek, wo r d , p • : ••• j u s t as s p o s s an abstraet painting from whichv rer because tbc notions "right", "left","top", and "bottom" are not any longer inherent in the oljject, we can visualize - - this is a very brief account of schhnberg's achievements in the field of sound, but it does serve to illustrate the close parallels in thinking between this great explorer and the other members of ll!he blaue lleiter group: tillle and space are tnterfused; metaphors are con~ fused; techniques are closely paralleled; intentions in the different media are identical; both developed theories which allow their media to function at maximum tension; both later had <:' :i o nnt. ir flueneo inter:u tiot fl,l y. lyonel feininger~ ( - ), an independent exprefjsion:i.st, was the son of german inlfrigrants to am e r i c a who were tw t. h m u s i c i an s • shovrn early a juarked tale.nt for music, he went to germany to study, but in ! he decided to devote himself to ting instead. he wetfl especially notmvortl y, :ln for tiile composi.tiou of a number o:f o ition to his paintings, fugues tl performed in gerntany and sw:i. t:;-;e and he tween and j . music in wllich the notions "earlier", "later", "forward", and "backward" have become similarly irrelevant." .irl '· ee, kandinsh.y, jl'eininge:r and scbubln~:jgg were friends in commono - - chapter . dada. the origins of dada are a little uncertain. in that similar phenomena occurred in different parts of the world at roughly the same time, dada transcended the national hostilities of the f'irst world war in an inter- national wave of protest sustained by the agonies of time. with the first wo d war, artistic(as well as ruling) monarchies collapsed. ll'auv sm, cubism, orphism p ll'u turism, der blaue reiter, all were casual t:i.es of the war, although a great many of r members were fortunate enough to sur- vive it.. but they wnst first pass tli:rough the vo of dada before they attempt to recons empires. ct their swiss dada, the first organized (or shou d one <!:i. :rganized?) group began in at the cabaret vol re in zuri.ch. its found.er, hugo ball, s.aw his cabaret even become a kind of "total art", such as have visualized, in which lectures, readings, musical performances, ballets, and pictures were linked. geo s t lfugnet, the surre ist poet described a typical ceedings on the stage someone thumped lwys and bottles until the audience, nearly cra:t~y, protested. serner~ instead of reciting poems, laid a bouquet at the - - foot of a dressmaker's dummy. a voice from beneath anenormous bat shaped il{e a sugar-loaf declaimed aro's poems. huelsenbecl{ bellowed his poems, while tzara emphfsized the rhythms by banging on a bass drum. at first, dada was a movement involv ainting and poetry only. but the dada revolution soon carried over into architecture, music, typography and articles of day use. dada was deliberately anti-art and anti-sense, aud its anarchic spirit tried to outrage, provoke and scandalize. dada felt that if war made sense, then the world of nonsense was preferable. the dadai s had no eling for the new in art as opposed to the old, yet their world of nonsense gave rise to many consi r :: :tions ch, sub ently ado"()ted and developed, en ched painting, soul pture, music and poetry. products of nonsense greatly enlarged the boundaries of the permissible in the arts. "it is not easy to be non- sensical~" marcel duchamp observed, "because nonsensical things so often turn out to make sense.n the central experience of dada which marked it off from all preceding movements was the notion of chance a piece of nonsense which has turned out to make a great deal of sense. dada concluded that chance must be regarded as a new stimulus to artistic creation. richter said: "marcel duchamp , (penguil)~ - - we were concerned with chance as a mental phenomenon. it was not until later that i dis- covered that psychologists, philosophers and scientists,,were facing thr same intractable problem at the same time. marcel ducbamp believed that chance was an expression of the subconscious personality, "your chance is not the same as my chance, he explained, just as your throw of the dice will ra:rely be the same as mine. ••• duchamp's greatest fol dropping pieces of thread on the canvas and varnishing them where they fell dramatized the importance that chance plays in painting, an seems an extraordinary lucl{y hunch to a generation fam iar th jackson pollock's drip paintings. s arp cut out bits of coloured paper and, with deliberate abandon, tossed tt em on a piece of card- board, threw them around, and finally turned them over and pasted on the cardboard the pattern that tbey formed by chance. chance has come to play an increasingly important part in the arts,; particularly in music$ another important reassessment has been that accorded to the elements of improvisation, and even chance. 'rllis ranges :from the tachiste use of both elements in the work of ,john cage to the much more consciously integrateg and ordered use of it in stockhausen and boulez. hans richter, dada: art and anti-art (ldondon: thames and hudson, ), p. . r 'omldns p. . - - in , marcel duchamp and his sister~,yvonne and eine, drew the notes of the musical scale at random a hat, setting them down in the order drawn. the ting composition, which they called for duchamp, a lighthearted expression of their own , personal chance rather than a purely random creationo champ's heir is john cage, described by stravinslfy as utile unique example of dada in music. liupop's kepes, dada" time , _, p. li'ebruary , , p• )). iain hamilton, the modern comjoser and s world .~~~....;..~~--~~,;;;_;;.;:;._~~....::.:...:;;;:~;..::..--, , john beclrwith and udo kasemets university of toronto s ) t ) ' p. . 'l omkins, p. ) . igor stravinsky, expositions and developments - music played a subservient role, at first, in the dada programme, but later assumerl an l.mportance equal to literature andfue visual arts. from futurism, dada appropriated noise music (or bruitism), one of the most significant contributions to modern music. edgard vad~se, who was associated. with new york ijada, was to find bruit ism a positive source of inspiration. bruitism is the parent of present day electronic music and --~~-~--~~~~ another development of importance to modern music was the tecanique of photomontage, a product of berlin dada ( - ). raoul hausmann said: "we called this process photomontage because it embodied our refusal to play the part of the artist. v'fe regarded ousel ves as engineers, and our work as ccinstruction: we ,;_.......,_ __ ·~ ( .n l•'rench: our wo , a fitter. von marinetti dbernehmen wir den bruitismus, le concert bruitiste ..••.• le bruit, das gerausch, sollte im anfang wohl nichts ter als ein gewaltsamer llin weis auf die bunthei t des lebens sein ~jede bewegung bringt nattlr- lich gerausche hervor. wahrend die zahl--und deshalb. auch die melodie--symbol ist, somit abstrakt it vor- aussetzt~ ist das gertl.usche dert direkte hinwe s auf iie alction. musilr ist so oder so ein harmonisbhe angelegen- hei t, eine kunst, eine atigkei t der verlmnft--brui ti smus ist das leben selbst das man nicht beurteilen lcann. --huelsenbeck. hudo.lf klein, kurt blaukopf, "dada in der musik dada: monographic einer bewegung, eds. willy verkauf, marcel janco, aml hans bolliger, (verlag arthur niggli ag, rreufen au, ), pp• - . hichter, p. . - - montage techniques enable the (electronic) composer to work directly with his medium, superimposing created and natural sounds. the composer, too, is an engineer, a con- structor» creating additively, as does the constructor of collages mnd montages. in terms of parallels o:f organi- sa"t~ion the electronic composer and the vainter !u:we drawn very close. john cage calls the comvoser an "organizer of sound. u dada's characteristics--improvisation, cbance, autolllatism, spontaneity-have opened up a new realm of invention and innovation. a movement which sought to ignor or destroy the world of sense, in a negative gesture of artistic anarchy, deposited a rich sum of experience in the general artistic fund from which subsequent movements painting and music could draw with profit. dada de-insti- tutionalized highly tradtional institutions. while music has been greatly influenced by the discoveries of dada, it was, in part, responsible for those discoveries. many of the dada painters drew parallels between their art and music. ferruccio busoni, with wbom i sometimes discussed my problems by the kaspar escher fountain in front of the zurich railway station, advised me to study the principles of counterpoint, since my experimentation with positj.ve and negative shapes, my "blacl(-and-whi te obsession", showed analogies with contrapuntal theri s he sulgested that i should play through the little preludes md fugues that bach wrote for his fe. this would teach me, john cage, connecticut), p. - - he said» better than any explanation, the spiritual beauty that lay in this ijrinciple •. s~,by chance~ i i came upon the analogy between pa nt ng and mus c. richter's first encounter with the arts took place through music. "as a child, i often used to hide under the piano at my mother's weekly musical evenings and listen, overcome with emotion. richter found that a fellow artist, eggeling, had "arrived at his theory by way of music, and always exvlaine it in musical terms. lle camefrom a very musical family (to this day there is an ".!!!ggeling's music shop" in lund, sweclen where he was born. as his starting-point, ~ggeling had taken the most elementary pictorial element, the line, and he was working on what be called. its "orchestration" (a concept first used -by gauguin in speaking of colour). 'rhis was the interplay of relationships between lines which e had ar anged (as i had done with positive and negative surfaces), in contrapuntal pairs of opposites, within an all-embracing system based on the mutual attraction and repulsion of paired forms. this he called generalbass der mal erei. 'n e drawing that had impressed me so much at our first meeting was, he told me, the product of his systematic use of this generalbass. hiohter, p. . ibid. 'b'd l l • richter and eggeling both turned to films for the solution of the problem--time--which they had encountered in paintingo"i had no intention whatsoever of continuing to make films, but the new dimension t, and tbe possibility of orchestrating time as i had orchestrated form, drew me to tl e f i.lm. more and more. he (h.ichter) remebers that something musical", a "melody of forms and colours", had always haunted him .••• their((hichter and eggeling) purpose was to malre the picture a rhythmical development of formal themes. in thousands of experiments, both artists attempted to build complicated rhythmical sequences out of simple elements. the t~chnique they used to achieve a temporal sequence of movements had already been applied by deiliaunay. rl hey elongated the picture so that it was impossible to take it in at one glance, thus forcing themselves, and the beholder, to read of the individual pictorial elements one after the other, as one reads a message written on a strip ~f paper. a study of chiueseralligraphy soon suggested a better solution--the scroll. as this was unrolled, the formal theme was developed in a period of time comparable *ith that for the unfolding of a fugue in music. in , richter vainted his first scroll-picture, prelude, which was followed by others, many of which bore the title fugue or orchestration.--werner haftmann. the film was one solution to the problem of fusing time and space:. kinetic art was another. science engender- ed both art forms, unique to the twentieth century. p. - ., - like the musicalists, neither richter nor eggeling could resolve the apparent multi-dimensional confusion in their painting. as a result they turned to multi-media art forms. other dadaists explored the realm of the sub- co.nscious mind in surrealist art occasionally, the spiri.t of da,da rises to remind painters and corupo sers of an indi ensible element necessary to artistic creation-- surprise .. - - coda. •trrhe difference be·tween a kandinsky and a doodler, a schtlnberg and a lunatic, was apparent to onll.f a few imaginative and highly trained perceivers in . "--s·travinsky. the interfusion of painting and music reached its peak before the first world \var. in that period the two arts drew level, influencing each other, coinciding in idiomatic parallels of invention and innovation, and se ting patterns of development which have srved them both in the intervening fifty years. in the period of recon- struction following the war, those aspects of cubism, orphism, and ssionist doctrine powerful enough to survive both the onslaughts of war and dada, were turned to positive account. more and more, ·the machine forced i self upon the artistic consciousness, challenging the visual and aural imagination, and insp ing confidence and optimism where there had been suspician amll pessimism. whereas tlle i~omantics had found an inexhaustible source of inspiration in nature, the new painting an~ music turned to the imagery of the city. with the mecnanization of western soci.ety many came to feel that man bad surrendered his soul to forces he neither under- stood nor controlled., rnlb machine became a symbol of power motion and energy; a symbol of what was termed the dehuman izati.on of art. a new confidence in the machine lecl artists to glorify the locomotive, the dynamo, a.nd the tur- - - bine in their music. rl lle new symbols lent themselves to the spirit of objectivity which succeeded the anarchic dada movement. a machine sensibility has informed mucb of the painting and music o : i:he twentieth century since the t 's. darius mi.lhaud wrote musica.l settings :for "descriptions or mach nory taken f:r·om a cat ogue that he had "brought back from an bition of agricultural macl ry. ii t a s e tic unclerstooa had impelled me to compose ese wo , or that tb had been written the r::h:tl!.te irit had i.n th t led compo er s to s :lng of ime , the harvest, or ·ihe "h oughman , or llonegge to o fy.a locimot fernand ij r to e t machj.nery .. was a o · consi ion :ln ng music, a t eel art, to ]hi in t ing, a:n art of e. o~r his painting, ~;;__;;.;;..;;..;;;....;....;_;;;;;.;..;..;;;;;..;.;....;.._..,;,.;,..;_;;..;;;;_~;;;...;;;;_;;_;;;. , du c ll amp r e- marked: "this pic but an o zation o:f kinetic elements--an ssion of time and e through the abstract representation of rnovement. f'ern l~ger, kupka, calder, ldne.tic artists-- ine became necessary to their art. donald ). trans. , new yo - - the interfusion of painting and music the was the result of the application of a scientific after the war painters and com:posers began to explore the possibilities of the of science-- sound-producing machines, light-producing machines, motors, and electronics. electronic music, which came to the fore, shortly after : . , eliminates e performer, and enables composer to :re his audienee directly, as the painter does, thout e intermedi of the interpreter's personality. the principle schools of electro c music are l~'rench ameriean, and gerwan. .phe l"rench eomposers merit parti ar att since tbeir method of compo ing close- ly resembles the photomontage teohni s of rlin in the :t s. from this radio-eng e world eme d pierre scl.lae er to present a concert of noises" from paris in . this was the so-called musi e eonorete, using natural s ou:nds to build mo s by phonograpldc tecuniques--te . s qu ck transferred to t e newly-p ected tape recorder. dougl as jjill>urn, "el eetronic music", il, , p~ l~ o - - pierre boulez, messiaen, and sauguet have produced a few concrete pieces as uy-products of their main activ ties. edgard va:t·~se, i .. uc ferrar, yarlis xenakis, and henry have synthesized natural and musical sounds. (xenakis is an architect as well as a composer, and was one of le corhusierg collaborators.) musique concr~te. recognisable sound-effects in electronic composition offer moments of high- definition information which act as focal points in their co.nt , generating perspactive much as -~he vani~lli:ng p?in·~ an~ the light source function in classical painting. space has come to the foregrou.nd in electroni.c music. edgard varese was one of the f:i .. rst cmnposers to bring the concept to a significant stage of development. iv!:y first physical attem t to give music greater freedom was by the use of sirens in several of my scores, and i think it was these parabolic and hypertjol io trajectories of sound. that made certain writers as far back as gra~p my conception of music as moving in space. ~' varese worked on and off on what might be called a "montage in space", entitled espace, to be simultaneous- ly broadcast from various points of the worldo . j. maconie, "blectronic musi.c", ri'hird stream, :tvlay, , p., . ( u e new dim ens ion of electronic musi o is depth: the new music is polyphonic (not contrpuntal). pop music offers tlle best examples. electronic music shifts the emphasis from structure to process.") ... t j.'.tdgard varese, col!l emporary composers on contem- -: . - is the musical part of a spectacle. of light and sound, presented during the brussels l':xpo- sition. le corbusier was the author of the visual it consisted of moving coloured lights, image projected on the walls of the pavilion, and music. the music was distribu d by louds eakers; there were twen·ty amp- lifier combinations. it was recorded on a track magnetic tape tbat muld be varied in intensity and qual :i ty o the loudspeakers were mounted in groups in what is c led to achieve various effec such as that c pav ion, as vw·ell as comi :l':t'olll cliff d:irectioils. ''or tl e first t e n , d se, "i heard music lito jected we have actually three cltmensions music: zontal, ver c clynandc ing o decreas i shall a fourth, sound jection--that feeli that sound is leaving u.s with no hope of being re ected back, a fe ing to that aroused by beams of light s rth by a powerful searehl igh i'or the ea.r as for the , t~at sense of projection, of a journey into spaeeo var~se s music unfolds in geometric patternr remi- niscent of tbe designs of cubist painting. music , p . ..?. p·: - - stockhausen's for t, hree orchestras stems out of his preoccupation with the spatial dimension in music,. trrrbe spatial aspects of the music are functional .. one finds oneself listening in the midst of several temporal-spatial manifestations which together create a new musical time-space. another aspect of the visn.al arts exists in the idea of i.nterchangeable e:t.ementso inaugurated by stock- hausen in the ( ), in which the order of performance of a number of juxta- posed musical fragments is left to the performer, the genre is the musical eqrdvalent of calder's plastic forms .. of course the analogies with music still continue to be drawn in painting, and probably will so continue. but one or two examples will show that the notions have by now a familiar ring.. 'rhe case for abstraction has long ago been argued to its conclusion. abraham rattner recasts the old theme: in painting i find that the articulative force is colour. colour is to painting what sound is to music. it is not iliimited by the colour we experience in the objective world, but the experiences of our livi.ngness touch the keys and chords of our inner be:i.ng and bring into play that macblis, p. .. hollo h. myers, ed.,, ic ( cal de r & do y ar s , london : t ~ ,---~--:c:---~-..:.~,.;.__;.,;.;.._;;;_;;. -: . - wonderful colour world of our imagination. it is the world of emotions that is expressed by an appropriate technique. ~rhe spectator is free to interpret, according to his sensations, in the same manner that be would react to a sonata •••• the painter had to find his own language in order to communicate his affective condition without having to have recourse to the representative o~t­ side world. by abstract art, he bas brought about the perfe tulli.ty between the "condition" and the work". in fact, i don't describe a condition, but i follow up a condition, and the work com- mun~cates this in the same manner that music might do@ rard schneider. my basic concern in paintin.g is, i bel teve, rhythm --m.ark o bey. ! lle instances of composers wlw turn to patld;ing;, and painters who find nmsio necessary to their particular are still common., ~:hey range from gl.jsta nystroem, a dish composer who practised painting, and whose artistic out- look was influenc by picasso and llraque, to larry poons, whose paintings have been heavily influenced by his musical training. poons started out as a guitar player with a high school llillbilly band, and then studied at tlle new england conservatory o:f ivlusic.. "his earliest painti_ngs allen leepa, , (peter owen ltd., , ), 'b'd • pp• - . were hard-edged and geome c attempts to pre counterrwint in visual terms. t bacb's in the hundred years of modern art that have passed there were many different areas of contact between palnting and music. pai.:nters have tried to sent musi.cal phenomena; composers have attempted to give musical impress- ions of particular paintings (e.g. mussorgsky s .;;;.;.;;;;;;,..;;==~;:;.,;;..==' composed in ! in memory of the painter and a. hartmann to illustrate paintings and desi shown at the h::trtmann !v emoriftl exhibition; by the american, guntber r he pain tor cc 's appeared as a tragic figure ra-~ ~~~::;;;._,.=~.:;::._~,.;;::;;,;:::,.=, (whose and hi.ndemith' s ·theme was approi>riate to thi ies.) there is a visual aspect of music that requires ) mention--musical graphics. gothic and aissance forms of musical notation presented a most attractive addition to the aural oharms of the music. the visual haf:~ ljecome imj)ortant in musical manuscripts ihectronic music scores suggest numerous visual posstbl.lities. musical graphic become, in the words of gytirgy ligeti, "~'~· means., not of conmmnication but of association., pools of ancc , november , :t , p .. lj broadcast ap l , yc, p.m. ':!. ystuckenschmidt, p. . -t john cage produced some ry olo his for c berberian (:t ) is nota l scores. the form coloured curves that leave full to per- :lna.tton. ii supplant of the ear by the eye in nrusioal graphic illustrate a trend served various other fields. according can be ob- the "psycho- visu ism" of sscll atldns the hierarcl y of the senses is such that the ear is qui incapable of reo let alone creating i tj.o formso sing, atkins a sharp between music and com- posit n, ol "musical that tb are con ctions. called sition" is a visual • the ear may be able to dist ish frequencies but it cannot reco se t or depth, struc organi e rms ve i''u thermore t are visu positions. or geome ic relat ns~ ii zon re and more, the graphics of music forced em- selves upon his consciouness, paul klee s d., his use of line shows the influence of musical stravinsl\.y s scores are magnific c. i" .. ramuz. .. , declared he is above all ( all matters and in every sense of he word) a calligrapher .• ~his writ sk 'b'd ~· schmidt, p. . resembled a surgeon's instrument case. bottles of rli:lferent coloured in their ordered h:lerqrchy and eabb had a separate part to play in the order~ ing of his art. nearby were india-rubbers of various kinds and apes anc all sorts of glitter- ing st,eel tmpl ements: rulers, erasers, peu-k.ntves and a roulette instrument for drawing staves in- vented hy strav].nsjry hi.msel:r. one was reminded o:f the definition of st. thomas: beauty is the splen- dour of order. l the lar pages of tb~ score were fill eel with writing with the help of the different coloured inks--blue, green, red, two kinds o:r black (ordinary and chinese) each having its purpose, its meaning, its speoial use: one for tlje notes, another for the tex.t, a th:i.rcl for tbe trans- lation; one for the titles, another for the musical directions; meanwhile the bar tines were ruled and the mistakes oarefully erased. 'l oday the relationship between painting and music ears to have reached an impasse. husical anategy is no longer to justify abstraction in painting: the visual arts are quite capable of prooeeding independently now. abstract painting, originally conceived by analogy with music, has become a vi tal and dynamic foroe in mod.ern art. its innovators have passed into death, and in·to which inspired in them a spirit of collaboration seems to have passed vv-:ith them. ~ric walter white, (john j.;ehmann, : . lx ), p. . - - rd:usical i ty has been absorbed into the tradition of modern art: its sphere of influence has been world-wide. modern art has spanned a century. during the first fifty years, painting and music very (lhickly became nece ·to each other, and evolved interd.ependently. a peak was reached just before the ~irst wo d war. in their breakthrough to abstraction, the ijioneers, l'icabia, kupka, d aunay and kandinslry brought to an exciting climax, the notion of an inner relationship hetr'leen vainting and music. r heirs was the outstanding achievement of the musical ase of modern painting. append 'rllere have been a number of successfu.l at·tempts i;!.t. audio-vis synthesis in the arts-~hallet, opera, drama, happenint!;s, films: all of them employ a variety of formulael all approximate to r's conception of a wo o:f art ertbrac l the arts~ ( gesamlmns twerlc) • de ire to :t'tnd an y is for all e s gave ri. se to a:n art forw which is (? of the more intri ing results of equation o:f lt to ting and music: colour music, the art o:f there bas long sted a de ire to see colours as cifio su equival s of musical tones in a related hierarchy. since few of ~be postulated theories differ~·tiated between colour as pigment and colour as gt.t --two very different considerations--a great deal of con- fusion resulted. a number of highly arbitrary music-colour scales a )peared which, did not, and could not, be uni- versally applied. agreement among the dtifferl;)lnt systems was rare. sir isaac newton related the following prismatic colours and musical tones: red; d orange; e yellow; f green; g blue; a indigo; and b v ol et. : . peter f'el ix ganz, ri tical hemarks of a musician on sound-colour l~elations", p e te , p. . may not tbe barmony ancl discord of colours se from the proportions of the vibrations propagated through the fibres of the optick nerves into the brain; as the harmony and discord of sounds arises from the proportions of the vibrations of the air~ louis bertrand castel, ( - ), a french jesuit priest and music theorist, constructed a clave~in with a colour scale corresponding to that of the diatonic s he considered the chromatic octave of twelve semitones a "circular system of sounds" and produced a matching circular system of colour shades: c blue; d flat/ c sharp blue-green; and then ascending, green, olive, yellow, apricot, orange, red, crimson, agate, violet, and indigo, to arr at next c again with blueo "j.i'or want of knowing how to paint with ears, peo e have presumed to sing with their eyes," growled jean-jacque& housseau, ( - ) "i have seen the famous harpsicho on which music may supposedly be made with colours .. alexan<iler wallace himington, (:t - ), a professor of fine arts at the royal college of art, in completed a colour organ which produced varying h.egrces of luminosity, colour changes and colour combinations"'~~'-ei.ther ir isaac newton, opticks: a treatise of ligh~ (london: ! ), 'l'he 'l'hird book of opticks, p. , query tl:c (facsimile edition by impression anastaltiquc, culture et civilisation, bruxelles, ). ganz, s rgenstern, p. . used to accompany music selections or pe rm colour interplay by itself. he did not believe tlmt actual sound- colour parallels of wave-lengths existed and readi y admitted the arbitrari-ness of his selected pitch-colour scheme. alexander scriabin, ( - ), perceived inner relations among all the senses. he believed that sound, colour, smell, touch and motion were all closely related. his orchestral worlc mysterium, {never completed), was to include a screen with changing colours, and perfumes were to have bee"""" n released as an accompaniment to the music~ his symphonic ,poem, prom~th~e, an attempt to synchronize chorus, orchestra, piano, organ and many-coloured changing lights, would nothahave been jlossib e witholit the parallel scientific and technological developments. rl he score of /./ promethee provides for a a colour organ that was supposed to flash on a screen, colours synchronized with the music. l his new instrument--shal)ed and played like a tone- less piano--would by means of a huge reflector cast the conc~rt hall into the most gorgeous symphony of colours. both scriabin and rimsky-korsakov drew up charts of key-colour relationships. ganz, p. . ai p i ~ ..., "' l \ i (i ~l t i " c re.o j. !.:>rybl.i"" ",:>cr- ~:> n ... onoton!\johl\ ~--c':\'f\e.. \)e "rod\e.tt head, i cz>l ), p ~ s key-;: c major g major d major a major e major n major f sharp major d flat major a flat major e flat major b flat major li' major llimsky-korsakov: white brownish-gold, bright yellow, sunny rosy, clear blue, sapphire, sparkling sombre, dark, blue shot with steel greyish-green dusky, warm grey is iolet dark, gloomy, bluish- grey green scriabin: red orange-rose yellow, brilliant green bluish-white bluish-white bright blue violet purple-violet steel colour with a metallic lustre steel colour with a metallic lustre red. h.imsky-korsakov and scriabin concurred, surprising- ly, more often than not. hachmaninoff disagreed with their key-colour charts in conversation with them. :!_alan p. merriam, r he anthropology of music kandinslry, who considered scriabin one of the most gifted of the y leur <tn oomposers, a~lso invented colour organ kandinslry an tal music- drama, , in :t thomas von hartmann was to have com josed music fort his attempt to synthesize the arts. was a mystery play of the ldnd th so a.rnold ::lch nberg s stage drama, ope , in which the most detailed lighting and colour instructions are scored, employs colour effects intended to he ten io e ects and to promote psychological associations in the viewer. in one scene sch nberg calls for a crescendo both sound and colour, from red through to brown, green and blue- to purple, red, orange, yellow, and f white. with its exact co-ordin ion of colour and music, it is, as robert craft observes, ~•ong the "first operas of e age in which the electricity is actually composed."} tcation of the english composer, cyril scott, (b. ), worked out a scientific analogy between tbe colour spectrum and vibrations of sound and proceeded to compose according to the abalogy. ner gelbe klang was not prepared for production until , a task undertaken by jacques poli and jean barraque, the composer. ~ achl is, p. q ... m tchell, p. . in s arthur bliss completed a colour for full symphony asigned a title colour: : con moto); : (moderato). (vivace); orchestra. each movement is (andante maestoso ma (piu lento); : edward macdowell, ( ), heard a particular colour for each key. colour as popularly api>lied to music is a metaphor. rrone as a vrimary sensation has nothing to do th colour as a primary sensation~ a tone sens ion its pl enomenolgical form is diame cally different from a colour sensation. at times they can arouse the same emotional reactions, linked together by associfl,ti ve processes. but sensory impressions they admit of no comparison@ sobtjnberg and webern experimented with they gave the idea of sound-colour in relation to visual colour, synethe s. rrhe notion of some sort of mystical relationship between sound and colour persists to the present day. olivier messiaen, (b. ), writes: colour: the sounds colour the durations because they are bound to colour by unseen tiesa when i listen to music, and even when i read it, i have an inward vision of marvellous colours--colours i(' .. , .x., hevcsz, (london: longmans, which blend like combinations of notes, and which shift and revolve with the sounds. l!'or example a certain series of cho s may be red touched \vi tb bl ue~-ano ther w'"' be milky white' decorated with ora.nge and cclged tll golfl.·-- another will be green, orange and violet in parallel stripes~-another will be e grey, with reflections of green and viole et another with be entirely v.lo o o e >t,txely red. 'rhere will also be complementary colours, 'simultaneous contrasts' by resonance, colours fading towards white, shaded by black, the chords and timbres of hot or cold colours. dy means of a eyotl--extracted from a small can oactus, it is possible to transform aural sensations into coloured visu sensations. ',vithout going to such long , mof'lt people have th:ls sixth sense--this awareness of corres- pondence between sotuld colouro · ell i reoust the earlier theo es of riabin, ka:ndinslcy, kubin, and lluy sm.ans. d the founder of the art institute of light in new yorlr, never attempted to develop any analog of sound and colour. he promoted (colour music) as a new, independent and expressive form from about on. his colour music is devoid of any aural effects of musical accompaniment. s light-producing instrument, the , was pl ayecl by an ingenious array of levers, switches, pulleys, and gliders. :i.from the programme notes accompanying the recording of messiaen's chronochromie, music 'roday series, no. asd adrian bertrand ein also promoted colour music as an independent art form., he suggested that light and sound as well as other art forms, could, and should be used to create new, integrated, complex, "super art :forms". audio-visual ar·t forms are still in their infancy o fierre schaef r and his paris group are experiment with sound-colour-light-motion-smell synthesis. robert ashley, gordon mumma and associates are pl'esenting worl :s in which electronic sounds and light eff:ects surround the audience., these are taking place in ann arbor's space theater? n~i chi g an u., s o a. anna lockwood describes her as a form of live music concrete" using amplified sounds of glass, wa:ter fo j , and e 'fects invol vi light, c lm and . lit ep oscope. robert rauschenbe ~as assembled an electro c sculpture, e, wbich consists of a connected wagons of carefully arranged " · b out of' sound~ "'" cr es as a co age _ are audito :fou ' tuni. tl l::l , _( akers, series of :f dis- junk which he des- the connecting links tl eir own :i.o the ivf.arsh the notes accompany istcburch, new ze a concert andt july . k"b land so cl ii ,, ' any ters have turned to the film in order to express colours and forms in tenrporal sequences (~}.g. l , eicbter, linr~, the mustcalists). selesrred bi io cl apter :t. . l. a. loughby, (oxford universi . king i)almer, varsities pres alberti, jean-louis vaudoyer, and son, ). andre u:rnest gretry, stern (london: faber j. w. von goethe, ltd. , t ) • j paul lund (london: the engli uni- , chapter v (london: thames (new yorlr: vi. w. ( cass co"' iller, (london: l!. lock eiser, , ( vols.,) (london: c ;: . loane, colour: ( n(l nn: . silva, von simson, hinkso :t ~ jo ma.chlis, (new yo : w. vv. ~ lo :iser, vol. . .. . james :mcneill nbistler, (london: vj limn ., peter and id.rhla ~.: (penguin, . )" lt g chapter : : .. . frank popper, (london: stud . william innes domer, ( m • i • rp • pres s , . john ltewald, (london: william heinemann ltd) leo arc o cta vinci, chapter .. . • ed. lhme )t. klaus be r, nicolsoh, : (london: we enfold and '.verner haft mann, vols. (london: lu )lt • • jcan~llaul crespelle, (london: oldbourne haymond colier, l''aber, :t:) ) o (i•'aber and chapter ., . sigfried giedion, '\ (! i e, 'llime and archi tee ( nudr' j. modern artists on art, ed. robert l. llerbert (~ngle­ wood cliffs, n. jl prentice hall, .) . . donald mitchell, don: faber and l•' anil de silva, otto von simson, roger llinks, through his art: !vlusic (london: e. p. publish ltd.,, . ). co. chapter . . john golding, cubism: j\ histor and an anal sis (london: rl hames and hudson, o .. ludmilla vachtova, hudson, ) • chapter . (london: 'l'hames and lt . marianne we mart.in , futurist art and 'l'heory - ~ {oxford: clarendon pres;; ) .. chapter ., ll .. igor stravinsky, ex-gositions and ljevelorments (london faber and faber, j ). l l ., kandinsky, heminiscences , modern artists on art, ed. llobert l. herbert (englewood cliffs, n. j: (prentice hall, •). l . nina kand:lnslw, "some notes on the development of kandinskj'' s painting", vol. (new york: geo lj: ,. kandinslw, "concerning the spiritual in art", documents of modern art, vol. will grohmann, (new yorlr: harcy . le corbusier, the modular (london: faber and faber, j l•). paul klee, 'l he 'j.'llinldn lund humphries, t ,. h. h. stnclcenscludd t, world university lib , edo jttrg spiller (london (london chapter tt., . . calvin tomkins hans hicllter, and hudson, )lj:. marcel janco, and ilans bolltger, (verlag arthur ni coda., . . john cage, darius vlil haud, gvans, ed. holl ) .. h.ollo h. myers, boyars, london allen leepa, !jtd.' . , . e~ic walter white (john lehmann, (calder and (peter owen t . . . backghound lu~ading constant jjambert, music ho! a study of music in (eb:allton: f,aber and faber, :f y:----·- hoger shattu~k, 'rl~ct~t~t years: 'rbe ~~~ avant-garde n france ~ to world war lnew york: vintage books, b ). , · bernard. s. tviyers, .li:x] _!:_essionism: a generation in revolt (london: rrhames and hudson, ). sir isaac newton, q:pticl\:s: treatise of l .. !ght (london: ). facsimile ~dition by impression anastaltique, culture et civilisation, bruxelles: . ij. homas munro, ('rhe l'ress of ). l::tienne gilson, joim hospers, si ty of north and: (meridian, ) ( uni ver·~ . man rice de sausmarez, v (london: . herbert read, . john 'raslrer howard and james lyons, -·:-"-__..... ____ c (new york: new american library, ~ brewster ghiselin, york: new american aa:ron copeland, new american jjjb (university of (new (new york: r:' ') . . . ian parrott, dennis dobson gyorg;y. ke. pes, co., j ) ) . robert w. lundin, ~~ew york: the ro - . st. alfred j. swan, ). carlton j. hayes, york: liarper and (london: (london: the bodley head ltd (new . l[~or stravinsky and hobert craft, (london: faber . . . . r. g. collingwood, clarendon prens, \vi i am n aunt , ~~ondon: f•'reder ~>tewart macpll orson, w i i am s , l t d • , :t alfr(:~d neumeye:r', ( f' r e -l· i <' e l ] ] -~- __ ill~~ ~ .~ _to, ~ __ , --· (london (ox:l'o ( l.jondon: ol dbourne rrea s, (londou: josepb { f'ren t. ice ia , art . . paul kl ee, r r, j lhelm \iorringer, houtledge a.nd ( york: london: \ •" j • ('t'he university ~. der ueraus gegeben von wassily kandin- sky- t :t o abbihmg;en. dokumentarische neua.sgabe von \laus lan dteit, t. pljier und co. verlag, mttnchen, : . 	contents 	preface 	introduction 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	chapter 	coda 	appendix 	bibliography historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . 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historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: from page to page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both subdoc currentavdoc . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: from page to page mask co-ordinates: left bottom (- . . ) right top ( . . ) points - . . . . subdoc currentavdoc qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: from page to page mask co-ordinates: left bottom ( . . ) right top ( . . ) points . . . . subdoc currentavdoc qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: from page to page mask co-ordinates: left bottom (- . . ) right top ( . . ) points - . . . . subdoc currentavdoc qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: from page to page mask co-ordinates: left bottom ( . . ) right top ( . . ) points . . . . subdoc currentavdoc qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: from page to page mask co-ordinates: left bottom (- . . ) right top ( . . ) points - . . . . subdoc currentavdoc qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . - . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . - . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . - . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . - . . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . - . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . . . - . - . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . . - . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . - . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . . . . . - . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . - . . . - . - . . . - . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc . . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . . . . - . - . . . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: from page to page mask co-ordinates: left bottom (- . - . ) right top ( . . ) points - . - . . . subdoc currentavdoc qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: from page to page mask co-ordinates: left bottom (- . - . ) right top ( . . ) points - . - . . . subdoc currentavdoc qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v addmaskingtape range: current page mask co-ordinates: horizontal, vertical offset - . , - . width . height . points origin: bottom left bl both currentpage currentavdoc - . - . . . 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qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v trimandshift range: current page trim: cut left edge by . points shift: none normalise (advanced option): 'original' d: . a blank . wide no none left . . both currentpage currentavdoc smaller . left qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historyitem_v trimandshift range: current page trim: cut bottom edge by . points shift: none normalise (advanced option): 'original' d: . a blank . wide no none left . . both currentpage currentavdoc smaller . bottom qite_quiteimposingplus quite imposing plus . e quite imposing plus historylist_v qi base microsoft word - art .doc Ştefan neniŢescu, scrieri de istoria artei şi de critică plastică, institutul cultural român, bucarest, résultat de l’attentif travail d’édition d’adina nanu, la parution du choix de chroniques et d’articles sur l’art de Ştefan neniţescu ( – ) – esthéticien, poète, diplomate, collaborateur de nicolae titulescu – peut être considérée un véritable événement éditorial. mais pourtant, Ştefan neniţescu n’est pas un inconnu. son traité d’esthétique a été de nouveau édité en , et andrei pleşu s’est penché sur son activité de critique d’art à ideea europeană dans une étude de référence parue en dans studii şi cercetări de istoria artei. il avait ans lorsqu’il a commencé sa collaboration à ideea europeană par un commentaire sur le dessin de la première page choisi, d’habitude, de l’art universel, ancien et surtout moderne. il continuait ainsi un format de rubrique initié déjà par nae ionescu, entre et (voir nae ionescu, opere, vi, crater, bucureşti, ) dans la publication noua revistă română. À cause de la guerre, la parution de la revue s’interromp, mais la même équipe ayant radulescu motru à sa tête édite dès ideea europeană. c’est ici que neniţescu va avoir sa rubrique bimensuelle notre dessin. l’intention de continuité est évidente. nae ionescu avait publié sous pseudonyme de nombreux profils concis et substantiels d’artistes importants tels que toulouse-lautrec, gauguin, van gogh, rodin, kokoschka, matisse. il est peut-être le premier à parler du cubisme et du dadaïsme dans la presse roumaine. neniţescu continue avec un plus de conséquence à informer le public roumain sur l’art européen, moderne et contemporain surtout, et sur ses problèmes. il a l’intuition de la valeur et sa sélection comprend des artistes des plus problématiques, aujourd’hui célèbres, des impressionnistes jusqu’à picasso, kandinsky, chagall, archipenko, de nouveau kokoschka, des russes, des allemands, ainsi que des thèmes tels que celui de «l’art pour la foule» qui témoignent d’une curiosité et peut-être même d’un attachement pour les idées de gauche. après ces feuilletons qui ont sans aucun doute été une initiation dans les dilemmes de l’art européen de son époque, neniţescu revient à l’art roumain et pendant une décennie il en devient un attentif chroniqueur. un chroniqueur ayant des options claires sur certains artistes qu’il suit attentivement d’une exposition à l’autre, sinon, même d’un ouvrage à l’autre. intéressé par “la cuisine de l’art”, neniţescu fréquente les ateliers, et lie des amitiés avec les artistes. il soutient avec ferveur certains d’entre eux – sabin popp, miliţa petraşcu – pendant toute sa vie. il développe, à l’esprit de l’époque, une critique de configuration, convaincu que la forme est contenu, selon les théoriciens de la pure visualité. avec ce point de départ encré dans les certitudes de la forme en tant que messager de la signification, neniţescu s’implique dans les dilemmes esthétiques du temps, dans le conflit entre comptes rendus le réalisme et l’abstraction, autrement dit, avec ses propres mots, entre nature et concept. il se place sur une ligne moyenne, prétendant à l’artiste une distance par rapport à la nature et son interprétation, sans accepter sa totale négation, telle qu’il la voyait dans le constructivisme. dans la pratique courante de l’acte critique, neniţescu ne voit aucun inconvénient à soutenir un artiste comme sabin popp qui regardait vers l’art byzantin et en même temps vers l’art occidental, en établissant des ponts entre les deux, aussi bien qu’entre l’art sacré et l’art profane, entre des artistes comme marcel iancu et miliţa petraşcu, dont le modernisme était clairement assumé, sans atteindre une implication idéologique radicale, comme dans le cas de maxy ou victor brauner. ce qui d’ailleurs explique la réserve de neniţescu à commenter plus amplement l’exposition d’avant- garde de contimporanul de , qu’il ne mentionne que sommairement dans le final du médaillon dédié à archipenko (ideea europeană, – décembre ), en la recommandant à ceux désireux de mieux comprendre le constructivisme. neniţescu soutient avec le même enthousiasme autant le nouveau classicisme qu’il appelle «classicisme expressif, non anonyme» que les artistes d’avant-garde, orientations que l’histoire de l’art, dès les années jusqu’à présent, n’a pas encore séparées d’une manière tranchante, non seulement par les études écrites, mais aussi par les expositions qu’il a organisées en qualité de conseiller de la galerie activant dans la librairie hasefer où on a pu assister à de nombreuses expositions mémorables par leur non-conformisme. il soutient aussi la nécessité d’un «contrôle artistique», mais, dit-il, «ce n’est pas le courant qui intéresse, mais l’art uniquement. nous choisissons et nous allons choisir des artistes différents et très différents entre eux, mais toujours représentant un certain niveau. ce serait donc la garantie d’un cours artistique. le marché artistique a, lui aussi, ses lois et ses influences sur l’art. chez nous, à cause du mélange trop grand et trop inégale, il est dans un état indéfini, anarchique. c’est à cet état que nous nous opposons, oscar cisek et moi- même, et c’est depuis plus longtemps que nous avons commencé le combat» (p. ). rev. roum. hist. art, série beaux-arts, tome xlvii, p. – , bucarest, en effet, parallèlement, oscar cisek girait la salle grigorescu, rue paris, de la fondation du prince carol. les deux critiques, qui partageaient de nombreuses affinités, ont influencé en bonne mesure, par leurs écrits et par l’organisation d’expositions très sélectives, la structure de l’art roumain de l’entre-deux-guerres, le goût du public et des collectionneurs. les expositions de synthèse sur l’art roumain, organisées par neniţescu en , à l’occasion du congrès de la presse latine, en à l’occasion de la conférence de l’union intereparlementaire, l’exposition d’art roumain de de bruxelles ont établi des hiérarchies en grandes lignes valables jusqu’à présent. après ans de détention, entre et , neniţescu retrouve miraculeusement son souffle et son intérêt pour les préoccupations de jeunesse. sa communication au deuxième colloque international brancusi de bucarest de , inédite, est une analyse digne d’intérêt aujourd’hui encore concernant la sculpture pour les aveugles, œuvre plutôt ignorée par la bibliographie brancusienne. les rencontres avec les artistes ont été pour neniţescu de véritables expériences de vie. c’est pourquoi les souvenirs sur miliţa petraşcu, pallady et catargi, les pages sur sabin popp (il y a sur lui un texte de pages qui n’a pas été publié) sont vifs et pleins de couleurs. adina nanu dresse dans son introduction un portrait émouvant du critique, tandis qu’une chronologie offre de brèves données biographiques. un index de noms propres aurait été utile. le volume paru à l’institut culturel roumain complète la série plus ancienne des restitutions des ouvrages d’historiens, critiques d’art, philosophes ou esthéticiens fameux – sirato, cisek, arghezi, blaga, vianu, aurel broşteanu, alexandru busuioceanu, petru comarnescu, theodor enescu, etc., la plupart, parus avant . la publication de ce volume sera peut-être de bon augure et mènera à l’édition d’autres. ioana vlasiu adriana Şotropa, visuri şi himere. ecouri simboliste în sculptura românească, ed. compania, bucarest, dans son étude, bien documentée, rêves et chimères. echos symbolistes dans la sculpture roumaine, adriana Şotropa réalise une recherche solide dans un domaine encore peu fréquenté par l’histoire de l’art roumain – la sculpture symboliste en roumanie. l’auteur établit un écart judicieux en plaçant le symbolisme dans la sculpture dans les termes de l’influence, des «échos» en tant que partie d’un courant artistique qui s’est amplement manifesté en europe occidentale et en europe centrale et qui a transmis son message vers la zone sud-est européenne. son étude pose également un problème d’ordre méthodologique de la manière dont est tracé le rapport centre-périphérie ; c’est pourquoi établir les coordonnées essentielles du phénomène symboliste en même temps que les modèles exemplaires est un problème important. peut-on discuter d’une génération symboliste dans la sculpture roumaine ? adriana Şotropa continue à s’interroger dans le chapitre dédié à un groupe d’artistes plastiques qui évidemment assument une nouvelle esthétique. Étant donné que la roumanie se trouve à la périphérie du phénomène symboliste et ses institutions ont commencé plus tard leur modernisation, notre pays se situe à côté de la grèce ou la bulgarie. l’identification d’une génération symboliste basée sur l’identification d’une pareille sensibilité au niveau des beaux-arts, aussi bien que sur les opinions des critiques de l’époque, se réalise en tant que reconstruction en partant d’un contexte favorable au symbolisme, mais tenant compte du manque d’intérêt au niveau des études, peu nombreuses, consacrées à ce phénomène. À la place d’une hiérarchie à laquelle elle ne renonce pas totalement, l’auteur, plus sagement, nous propose une géométrie du phénomène. si l’on parle de l’existence d’un représentant capable à incarner entièrement, à une haute tension esthétique, le courant symboliste dans la sculpture, alors on doit mentionner le nom de dimitrie paciurea, auquel adriana Şotropa dédie un chapitre à part, en même temps qu’une monographie de l’œuvre de ce sculpteur, monographie qui se trouvait parmi les projets de l’institut culturel roumain et qui malheureusement n’a pas encore été publiée. À son envergure artistique, on peut ajouter constantin brancusi, qui se détache de la zone de sensibilité symboliste, après une brève étape rodinienne. frederick storck et oscar spaethe constituent un deuxième niveau, les deux sculpteurs d’origine allemande et ayant une sérieuse formation académique, se réjouissent du concours de la maison royale et pénètrent dans une zone de la reconnaissance et de la visibilité publique. mais ce qui tient de la démarche archéologique d’ adriana Şotropa et, peut-être, la partie la plus intéressante de cette étude, sont les sculpteurs qui, par des raisons différentes, sont restés dans l’anonymat : horia boambă, filip marin, alexandru călinescu, sava savargin, anghel chiciu, teodor burcă, alexandru severin. leurs œuvres, en grande partie perdues ou peu nombreuses, ne sont récupérables qu’à travers les reproductions des journaux et des revues de l’époque, aussi bien que leurs noms, certains d’entre eux ayant une gloire éphémère, (comme, par exemple, filip marian) qui gagnent une autre dimension par l’intermède des articles qui leur sont consacrés à l’époque. pratiquement, adriana Şotropa a entrepris une ample activité de recherche visant les dépôts des musées des principales villes du pays, en identifiant également des œuvres - monuments funéraires, certaines d’entre elles retrouvées au cimetière bellu, dans la capitale. sondée à son sommet par dimitrie paciurea et à la périphérie par ce groupe de sculpteurs, la sensibilité symboliste n’apparaît plus diffusément, mais relève une esthétique pareille à une carte de la circulation des idées dans les arts plastiques de la roumanie de cette époque-là. l’intérêt vis-à-vis de dimitrie paciurea est également motivé par le fait que ce sculpteur de sensibilité symboliste constitue l’homologue d’artistes tels que bohumil kafka, stanislav sucharda, frantisek bilek de la république tchèque, boleslas biegas, xavery dunikowski de pologne, ivan mestrovic de croatie, mais confère aussi la note spécifique, un langage propre, une identité au symbolisme roumain dans la sculpture. adriana Şotropa identifie deux grandes directions, celle de l’esthétique rodinienne et celle de l’esthétique munichoise de facture secession qui se trouvent à la base de la formation d’un nouveau goût avec une esthétique de l’intimité et du sentiment et de l’abandon des conventions académistes dans la sculpture. ce qui n’élimine pas d’autres zones d’influence telle que la sculpture d’antoine bourdelle ou aristide maillol, george minne ou medardo rosso, mais la différence se trouve dans le fait d’assumer soit des modèles qui déclinent aussitôt un style, la secession, soit des figures représentatives illustrant une esthétique en soi, comme dans le cas de rodin. il s’agit également d’une manière de mettre en ordre une production ayant un haut niveau de prolixité dans l’absence d’une configuration théorique du phénomène. dans le creuset de la nouvelle sensibilité modelée par l’esthétique rodinienne se réunissent les états d’âme profonds et toute une gamme de sentiments, du désespoir et la douleur jusqu’à l’extase, l’intérêt pour la capacité de symboliser, de transcender la matière plastique, la préférence soit pour l’anonymat exemplaire de l’humanité gouvernée par une destinée implacable, et d’ici, une note tragique de certaines sculptures ou l’intérêt pour les figures des artistes, des personnalités marquées en égale mesure par des turbulences ou par un destin grandiose. ce qui s’en détache surtout c’est la figure du poète ou de l’artiste exemplaire dont la biographie est marquée par le dramatisme survenu de la coïncidence entre sa souffrance et l’acte de la création, ou une maladie ou un narcissisme recomposés sur les coordonnées d’une hypersensibilité exprimée dans l’œuvre d’art, etc. c’est pourquoi des figures comme celles de chopin, balzac (la statue que rodin lui a consacré provoquait un scandale révélateur pour la nouvelle direction dans la sculpture), beethoven, et chez nous, eminescu, s’imposent, souvent, jusqu’à l’obsession, comme dans le cas de dimitrie paciurea, obsédé par le projet non accompli d’un monument public du poète national. une autre dimension concernant le caractère autochtone de l’art intervient également, sur le fonds de la secession chez des sculpteurs ayant une formation académique solide, comme friedrich storck et oscar spaethe, mais qui se laissent influencer par le courant qui unifiait temporairement le goût public en europe. leo bachelin, dans une suite d’articles publiés dans l’indépendance roumaine, parmi lesquels la nationalité dans l’art, article cité par adriana Şotropa, constatait une adaptation de l’art nouveau au spécifique national, en identifiant l’agent catalyseur de la symbiose artistique dans l’art byzantin des fresques sur les murs des églises, dans l’art des maîtres créateurs d’icônes, ou dans les stylisations de l’art populaire. le néo-byzantinisme soutenu aussi par la reine marie trouve son écho dans la sculpture des deux artistes d’origine allemande et du bagage thématique symbolique-décadent, storck extrait des personnages tels que salomée, dans la création duquel le sculpteur se laisse influencer jusqu’à un certain point par l’esthétique rodinienne également, en dépit d’un tempérament autre que celui qui acceptait la sensibilité symboliste. dans rêves et chimères, le dernier mot du titre explicitement dû à paciurea avec sa série de chimères, Şotropa présente l’artiste comme une personnalité «atypique» de l’art roumain, créateur de «nouvelles formes» non seulement dans l’art roumain, mais aussi dans celui européen. la biographie assez pauvre du sculpteur, un solitaire pareil au peintre belge fernand khnopff, un sacerdoce de son art, isolé, distant, mystérieux se confondant avec son œuvre qui ouvre d’une manière visionnaire des voies vers un univers intérieur fantasque exemplairement illustré par ses chimères. dimitrie paciurea est proche des artistes tels que gustave moreau par la thématique, odilon redon par «la force de la suggestion et d’une forme d’ambiguïté visuelle», alfred kubin par le pouvoir de l’angoisse et la pression du sous-conscient, mais également placé dans le contexte d’un intérêt spécial accordé à la monstruosité, en soulignant l’ambiguïté sexuelle qui se trouve au centre de la sensibilité décadente, circonscription destinée à créer, par des similitudes et des différences, la matrice propre de l’art du sculpteur roumain. le chercheur passe en revue les principales études concernant le sculpteur de l’ouvrage déjà invoqué de g. oprescu, méfiant vis-à- vis du symbolisme, jusqu’aux études de ion frunzetti, dimitrie paciurea. studiu monografic ( ), avec le concours de petre oprea, ou la monographie légèrement romancée signée par mircea deac, himera : viaţa şi opera sculptorului paciurea ( ), auxquelles s’ajoutent les contributions de ioana vlasiu et sanda miller, sans que adriana Şotropa mentionne ici ses propres études. correctement répertoriée avec quelques détails documentaires supplémentaires, la carrière de dimitrie paciurea fait place à l’interprétation de l’œuvre avec quelques observations intéressantes issues de la parallèle faite par l’auteur entre paciurea et brancusi dans la première étape de leur création, lorsqu’aucun d’entre eux ne se détache d’une manière définitoire de l’influence du modèle, et ces tensions de la recherche de sa propre dimension artistique deviennent évidentes. un exemple en est celui des sculptures intitulées pareillement par les deux sculpteurs, rugăciunea (la prière), sculptures exposées la même année, . mais les chimères sont la partie de l’œuvre qui met en évidence dimitrie paciurea, et adriana Şotropa vient avec un important matériel documentaire en partant d’une analyse des esquisses et des dessins qui se trouvent dans le dépôt du musée national d’art de roumanie et qui témoignent d’une extension des préoccupations de l’artiste au-delà de la face visible de l’œuvre. en tant qu’hypothèse intéressante est la tentative de rapporter les chimères de paciurea au fonds et aux figures représentatives de la mythologie autochtone du folklore roumain par l’intermède de mihai eminescu qui sélectait l’une de ces figures de la mythologie populaire, «le chien de la terre». d’autre part, en suivant la filière des études de ioana vlasiu, adriana Şotropa rapproche également le sculpteur du contenu et des thèmes de la poésie eminescienne qui joue un rôle significatif, de filtre sensible dans l’œuvre du sculpteur, et quoique la parallèle s’y arrête, la possibilité d’aller plus loin existe, en partant de la polysémie de ce symbole : «les chimères de paciurea, loin de véhiculer un sens précis et univoque, en dépassant les frontières des mythologies, sont ouvertes à d’interprétations nombreuses. l’indétermination de leur sens est également valable dans la sculpture et les dessins. symbole de l’idée, de l’inspiration, incarnation de l’idéal ou du tourment créateur, la chimère est une sorte de muse ou de gardien toujours présent auprès du poète». le livre d’adriana Şotropa réussit à offrir une perspective sur une génération perdue, celle des sculpteurs roumains symbolistes ou influencés par le symbolisme, en complétant un tableau de famille dans lequel sont présents les écrivains et les peintres, mais qui configure également un esprit du temps récupérable seulement par la mise ensemble de toutes les facettes du phénomène artistique. angelo mitchievici roland prŰgel, im zeichen der stadt. avantgarde in rumänien - , böhlau verlag, köln-weimar-wien, . si la littérature d’avant-garde roumaine a fait l’objet de plusieurs ouvrages de synthèse, l’histoire de l’art s’est tenue à l’écart de ce genre d’écrits en préférant plutôt l’investigation dédiée soit à une personnalité, soit à une certaine problématique. cette absence a été cependant compensée par de grandes expositions qui ont proposé un regard synthétique sur l’avant-garde historique et son contexte culturel. À mentionner, la première dans cette série d’expositions bucureşti anii – : între avangardă şi modernism (bucarest – : entre avant-garde et modernisme, galerie artexpo, bucarest, ) a marqué essentiellement le procès de récupération de l’avant-garde après les changements politiques de . son catalogue, qui joint des études sur les étapes successives de l’avant-garde artistique aux articles sur le théâtre, la littérature et la musique avant-gardiste, reste encore un point de départ fiable pour les spécialistes. donc, malgré des intentions précedentes similaires, le livre de ronald prügel im zeichen der stadt. avantgarde in rumänien – [sous le signe citadin. l’avant-garde en roumanie – ] comble une lacune importante dans l’historiographie de l’art à l’époque moderne en roumanie, car il s’agit de la première tentative de présenter d’une manière synthétique la contribution des artistes à l’avant-garde roumaine. l’auteur, né à timişoara en roumanie, a étudié à freiburg et à paris et son activité de recherche, articles et participations aux conférences est connue aux spécialistes roumains de l’avant-garde. sa position à la fois intérieure et extérieure par rapport à la communauté roumaine de recherche, avec sa tradition, son histoire, ses lacunes, est parfois transparente dans la structure de son exposé. conçu initialement comme thèse de doctorat à l’université de freiburg, im zeichen der stadt est principalement destiné aux lecteurs dont l’intérêt pour l’histoire de l’avant-garde doit être soutenu avec des informations sur la scène socio-politique et culturelle de la roumanie moderne. c’est le rôle du premier chapitre et de quelques autres insertions dans le livre. d’un autre côté, les questions qu’il se pose et le projet de présenter l’avant-garde au-delà d’une histoire fermée sur elle-même situent sa démarche dans la proximité d’une nouvelle vague d’études sur le phénomène de l’avant-garde déclanché en roumanie il y a quelques années. un premier stade du processus de remise en valeur de l’avant-garde est déjà surmonté car la nouvelle direction ne se contente plus à ramasser des informations pour établir les bornes chronologiques et factuelles de l’avant-garde, mais se penche avec vigilance sur son contexte culturel et politique. l’avant-garde devient ainsi un nœud dans le réseau imbriqué de la culture roumaine de l’entre deux- guerres dont la configuration est étroitement réglée par des rapports avec les autres tendances de l’époque. il s’agit d’une mise en question des concepts d’avant-garde et de modernisme autant dans le champ littéraire que dans celui des arts, qui ouvre sur une structuration différente de l’histoire culturelle et sur une réfléxion nuancée de la récéption. mentionnons le livre de paul cernat, avangarda românească şi complexul periferiei [l’avant-garde roumaine et le complexe de la périphérie, bucarest, ], qui analyse la position de l’avant-garde littéraire et de ses acteurs en partant de leur présence dans la revue contimporanul pendant les dix années de parution et celui de dan gulea, domni, tovarăşi, camarazi. o evoluţie a avangardei române [messieurs, camarades, copins. le développement de l’avant-garde roumaine, pitesti, ], qui décèle les orientations politiques traversant les activités éditoriales de l’avant-garde tout au long de son histoire d’avant la deuxième guerre mondiale et de son héritage après . d’une manière similaire, l’exposition culorile avangardei. arta în românia – [les couleurs de l’avant-garde. l’art en roumanie entre – , commissaire erwin kessler, musée bruckenthal, sibiu – musée national de l’art, bucarest, ] a milité pour la perméabilité de l’avant-garde et du modernisme et a mis en exergue des rencontres significatives entre deux factions apparemment opposées, avant-garde et traditionalisme. sans disolver totalement cette opposition, ronald prügel examine dans im zeichen der stadt les collisions, les intersections et les coïncidences entre les deux. l’histoire de l’avant-garde roumaine renferme, pour roland prügel, l’ensemble des histoires des artistes qui y ont participé. chacune des deux décennies qui fait l’objet d’étude de son livre circonscrit un stage de l’avant-garde, constructiviste/ cubiste pour les années et surréaliste pour les années . chacune est introduite par un petit chapitre qui s’occupe d’une façon concise des activités communes des groupes artistiques, comme les publications et les expositions. ils précèdent les monographies compréhensives sur m.h. maxy, victor brauner, marcel iancu, corneliu michăilescu, hans matttis-teutsch et jules perahim. victor brauner est le seul artiste discuté également par les deux sections en soulignant son trajet du cubisme et constructivisme au surréalisme. de plus, la carrière de brauner avant la coagulation du premier groupe d’avant-garde en roumanie y est integrée et récontextualisée. la contribution majeure de prügel consiste dans l’identification des sujets tirés de l’ancien testament par brauner pour une série de peintures connues jusqu’ici sous des titres banales. cette perspective « personnalisée » sur l’histoire suppose, à l’encontre de celle axée sur les groupes et les publications – plus ou moins éphémères – , qu’il y a une continuité sans fracture dans l’attitude avant- gardiste en roumanie depuis son début dans les années ’ jusqu’à l’instauration du régime communiste quand naît et tout de suite disparaît le dernier groupe surréaliste. par conséquant, ronald prügel considère l’esprit d’avant-garde plutôt un trait individuel que le résultat d’un effort commun de le définir par la conjuration du travail théorique et de la pratique artistique. la section médiane du livre approche les débats sur la spécificité nationale dans l’art et la littérature qui marquent la modernité roumaine en choisissant quelques études de cas parmi les artistes et les critiques ou historiens d’art situés du côté du traditionalisme. malgré son titre, avant-garde et nation, on est confronté à un chapitre trop autonome pour servir de préambule pour la partie finale sur la récéption de l’avant-garde, tel qu’a sans doute été l’intention de l’auteur, et trop concis pour configurer un thème secondaire du livre. le dernier segment collationne les atittudes des cercles traditionalistes envers l’avant-garde, dont les ressorts associent des motivations esthétiques, politiques, thématiques et éthniques. les imputations remontées vers l’avant-garde, que prügel inclut à la fin de son exposé, ne sont pas inconnues aux spécialistes, d’autant plus qu’elles ne sont pas particulières à l’espace roumain seul, mais c’est la première fois qu’elles sont jointes dans une recherche indépendante. la réception de l’avant-garde est commentée à l’aide de nouveaux documents dénichés dans la presse d’époque. les conclusions attenuent l’opposition nette entre l’avant-garde et la tradition en faisant preuve que celles-ci ont partagé certains intérêts comme celui pour l’art folklorique et que la notion même de tradition n’est pas étrange à l’avant-garde. nous espérons que im zeichen der stadt. avantgarde in rumänien – avec son excellente bibliographie va servir non seulement un public qui n’a pas d’accès direct aux ouvrages en roumain, mais aussi, par une traduction rapprochée, celui de la roumanie. irina cărăbaş ruzsa gyÖrgy, bronzba zàrt áhitat. az orosz fémikonok muvészete és teologiája. ed. pest megyei muzeumok, héritant d’une ancienne tradition iconographique orthodoxe, initialement encrée dans la maîtrise des couvertures métalliques et des émaux, l’art des icônes russes tournées ou estancées reste jusqu’à présent un apanage des collectionneurs, des antiquaires et des experts. longtemps considéré – y compris dans les milieux artistiques et scientifiques russes – un type d’art tardif (du xviiie siècle – début du xxe) et secondaire, descendant de l’icône peinte en tempera sur bois ou des objets de culte réalisés en métaux précieux (or ou argent), l’art des icônes en bronze, airain, cuivre ou laiton n’a pas tenu la tête des affiches des expositions et n’a pas eu un impact sur les artistes européens d’avant-garde comparable à celui d’autres genres de l’art religieux russe. peu nombreuses sont aussi les études monographiques dédiées à ce type spécifique et extrêmement démocratique de l’art orthodoxe. c’est pourquoi la parution de l’album-catalogue du chercheur hongrois ruzsa gyorgy est d’autant plus appréciée. dévotion incorporée en bronze. l’art et la théologie des icônes russes en métal se constitue d’une introduction, six chapitres et planches illustrées en couleurs ; le catalogue contient la description de objets d’art orthodoxe russe réalisés en bronze, en airain et en cuivre – des objets qui se trouvent actuellement dans des collections diverses sur le territoire d’hongrie, y compris dans la collection privée de l’auteur du livre. les objets les plus anciens et, sans doute, les plus précieux de ce catalogue sont les encolpions en bronze datant des xi–xiie siècles, provenus de kiev. il y a ensuite un nombre imposant de croix et de crucifix provenant de divers centres culturels médiévaux russes (iaroslavl, moscou, kostroma, etc.). certains d’entre ces crucifix conservent et nous font connaître le nom de leurs artisans (i.v. kozin, a.n. maloskov, a.i. tchiouvileaiev, v.a. ogorodnikov, d.d. kapoustin, m.i. roukavichnikov, i.n. mnekin, k.g. tchioulkov, k.i. konov, etc.). les icônes en bronze des autres compartiments du catalogue se distinguent autant par la variété des types iconographiques présentés que par la diversité des techniques d’exécution. nous avons ici de petites icônes et des crucifix en cuivre ou en bronze encastrés au cadre d’icônes séparées ou de polyptiques en bois, peints en tempera ; il s’agit d’icônes tournées en métal et émaillées dans la technique champlevé ; nous avons aussi des œuvres réalisées dans la technique des émaux filigranés ; on trouve aussi des exemples d’iconostases portatifs ou de polyptiques estancés, développés sur plusieurs volets, distincts au point de vue thématique. la variété des types iconographiques des œuvres en métal reproduites dans le catalogue est similaire à la variété des types iconographiques attestés dans les icônes russes peintes sur bois. nous trouvons ici les traditionnelles images de saint nicolas (cat. , ) et de la trinité de l’ancien testament (cat. ), nous trouvons les images à cheval de saint georges (cat. ) et des premiers saints-martyrs russes boris et gleb (cat. ) ou de la vierge de tihvin (cat. , ). des témoignages d’une élaboration d’ordre iconographique spécifiquement russe sont les images complexes de la vierge – joie de tous les endoloris (cat. , ) et du sauveur silence béni (cat. ). ce catalogue est utile non seulement aux collectionneurs d’art russe ancien, mais aussi à tous ceux qui s’intéressent à l’iconographie orthodoxe, à l’art byzantin et à ses métamorphoses, dans l’univers que nicolae iorga appelait byzance après byzance. constantin i. ciobanu the research journal of the costume culture vol. , no. pp. ~ , october http://dx.doi.org/ . /rjcc. . . . － － † 교신저자 e-mail : shinmipark@hotmail.com fashion, addressing the new body - the body, fashion and art - shinmi park † theoretical enquire studio (contemporary fashion), research department of visual arts, university of sydney, australia ( . . . 접수일 : . . . 수정완료일 : . . . 게재확정일) abstract the research aim is to analyze the attributes of fashion as an object of art, and to examine its potential and status as an art of body space. this paper explains the relationship between these two disciplines by focusing on the body as the foundation of fashion and art’s concepts, and discusses the intrinsic properties and the approach to the creation of fashion which is expressed through the body. the research begins by analyzing the sociologists thoughts on the body and extracts the characteristics of fashion as a practice of a new art field from the perspective of body creating space. it explains that fashion can most easily transform the body and that this, along with the body itself, possesses the element of creating body space. fashion is a new avenue for understanding the body that not only includes the human figure but also its movement and spirit approached as a creative activity. the paper will show that fashion chosen as an art activity expresses the changeable and ambiguous body and embraces an unlimited potential of creative activity. this expands the creative field by managing both the inner and outer space of the body. historical examination, literature review and overview of development of reference materials will establish the theory. keywords: art, body, fashion, fashioned body, hybrid system, space Ⅰ. introduction fashion and art use each other as m otifs to create works that follow or transform the human body. since ancient greek times the human body has been recognized as a smaller universe and endeavored to discover the secret of beauty through its proportions (choi, ). h owever, the idea of hum an body changes through history and provides opportunities for diverse results through the interaction betw een biological and social elem ents (shilling, ). the disciplines of design and art existed in their own extensive fields, but were altered at different times in the late twentieth century. they are now often discussed under the same heading of creativity. a rtists including painters, sculptors, installation artists and perform ance artists have all received inspiration from the garm ent itself or from the meaning or intrinsic characteristics of the material of the fabric, and the m ovem ent of the garm ent. likew ise, high fashion designers strive to inculcate aesthetic value and philosophical ideas into their works by expanding into the area of performance and installa - tion art. m oreover, the design process has already been guaranteed to have aesthetic value and notional value (k oda, ). since earlier eras fashion and art v ol. , no. shinmi park － － have tried to find an absolute aesthetic that proved their worth at that time. n evertheless, fashion together w ith visual art and architectural spheres traditionally wasn’t classified as a separate field of research (svendsen, ). how ever, debates concerning fashion have recently been placed in the centre of all disciplines and provide new stream s in academ ic publications (svendsen, ). for what reason is the relationship betw een fashion and art constantly debated and w hy is fashion the centre of attention in the field of creation? this is because the tw o disciplines are positioned in the centre of the project of transforming the human body. in other words, the direct relationship with the human body and the social body, and fashion particularly, is the m edium that can m ost easily represent this connection. fashion and art are similar in their intrinsic aspects of restructuring the human body individually or socially to produce new m aterial. these tw o disciplines form the most intim ate relationship w ith the hum an body within the generally classified areas of design. particularly, architecture bases its w ork on the basic ratios of the human body and this has been already debated and proved by many scholars. these theories are basically about the proportion of the hum an body, and architects from the ancient g reek days to the present time find an aesthetic standard in the ratio of the human body. moreover, since architecture was created to benefit hum an beings, the hum an body reflects it. from this basis, researcher has prescribed that archi- tecture, similar to fashion, also comprehends the human body. the hum an body is the m ost significant subject in architecture, fashion and all other fields in art. the reason researcher includes architecture and fashion, and moreover architectural fashion in the discipline of art is because these are also creations made with the hum an body as their foundation. how - ever, these processes of creation result in different forms of creations depending on the aesthetics at the point in time and the approach of the creator. there - fore, although the creation started w ith the body as the subject, the resulting product can be differentiated by the creator by the w ay the body is interpreted. bone, skin and musculature that biologically construct the hum an body and the movement are expressed from this structure. the social circum stances are layered on this to establish the basic m otifs for fashion and art. the artist who creates artificial bodies is indeed tam pering w ith pow erful forces. because the ‘body’is always heavily loaded with sym bolic m eaning, its creation and re-creation should never be approached capriciously (polhemus, ). “fashion is about body: it is produced, prom oted and w orn by bodies (entw istle, , p. ).” this research will un - ravel the relationship betw een these disciplines of the hum an body, which is the foundation of ideas in fashion and art. this research aim is to analyze the attributes of fashion as an object of art, and to exam ine its potential and status as an art of body space. the paper explains the relationship betw een these two disciplines by focusing on the body as the foundation of fashion and art’s concepts, and discusses the intrinsic properties and the approach to the creation of fashion w hich is expressed through the body. from this claim the follow ing questions arise: ( ) w hy did fashion becom e an object of art and how did this affect the idea of body space? ( ) w hat is interpreting the body and how did it affect the body transformed? ( ) what are the naked, nude, clothed and fashioned, and w hat are its characteristics, and what is the role of their relationship? the research begins by analyzing the sociologists' thoughts on the body and extracts the characteristics of fashion as a practice of a new art field from the perspective of body creating space. it explains that fashion can most easily transform the body and that this, along with the body itself, possesses the element of creating body space. fashion is a new avenue for understanding the body that not only includes the human figure but also its movem ent and spirit fashion, addressing the new body 복식문화연구 － － approached as a creative activity. the paper w ill show that fashion chosen as an art activity expresses the changeable and am biguous body and em braces an unlim ited potential of creative activity. this expands the creative field by managing both the inner and outer space of the body. the thinking of cultural theorists is analyzed to derive the characteristics of fashion as a creation of space around the body. the research bases its study on historical examination, literature review, overview of developments and analysis of selected practices of contemporary fashion artists. Ⅱ. fashion and art: project of the body transformed . interpreting the body interpreting the body, that is ‘reading’the body, is the first step in the creative process that involves body as ‘motif’. a person can only create by knowledge of his or her body or through awareness of its change (dolmatoff, ). furthermore, this awareness is never easily described. it varies according to an individual’s perception. it relies on w hat we have previously experienced of the body (svendsen, ). the human body exhibits both its physical and social characteristics; w e can assum e that the creative artist/ designer selects only the physical characteristics of the body to precede w ith his/her w ork and that the act of interpreting the body relates body to his/her experiences. this section will first look at the dis- cussions of body in order to carry on a deeper and m ore thorough research of the body as the motif in creation. collins english dictionary ( ) defines “your ‘body’ is all your physical parts, including your head, arm s, and legs. y ou can also refer to the m ain part of your body, except for your arm s, head, and legs, as your body. y ou can refer to a person’s dead body as a body.” in addition, w ikipedia english dictionary ( ) defines that “w ith regard to living things, a body is the integral physical m aterial of an individual. “bodyoften is used in connection w ith appearance, health issues and death. the study of the w orking of the body is physiology.” this dictionary also defines that “the human body mostly consists of a head, neck, torso, tw o arm s and two legs (‘body’, , from http://en.w ikipedia.org/w iki/body).” the body is defined in the dictionaries as the major elem ent of hum an biology. how ever, in order for humans to survive in society, the ‘social body’carries as im portant a role as the ‘biological body’. h ence, as many creations base their m otif on the body, it is assum ed that this includes both biological and social attributes. the body is subordinated and fitted into the social codes that verify identity and enable commu - nication within or between the groups (michaud, ). from this perspective, sociologist erving g offman in his book behavior in public places ( ) claim ed that the body is an essential elem ent in hum an behavior, and the approach of garm ents, decorations and cosmetics involved in presenting posture, attitude and our identify is called interactive aw areness. as can be seen, the human body as an entity only survives when mental and social functionality is added to the biological functionality. a rgum ents regarding the body have arisen as a significant area of research in sociology from the m id-tw entieth century as can be seen from erving g offm an’s ( ) ‘body in everyday life’ to m ichel freund’s ‘the civilized body,’ bryan s. turner’s ( ) ‘body and social rules,’ foucault’s ( ) ‘disappearing body,’ j. o ’n eil’s ( ) ‘five bodies,’ a . frank’s ( ) ‘body and human behavior’ and chris shilling’s ( ) ‘the body and social.’ since the s the sociology of the body has been recognized as an independent area of research w ithin sociology, and has been actively debated. in contrast, turner’s ( ) ‘the body and society’ and shilling’s ( ) ‘the body and social theory’ focus on what we discussed about the body as a creative m otive. turner began his book the body and society ( ) by illustrating that there is an “obvious and v ol. , no. shinmi park － － prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies.” the body, he said, constitutes flesh and spirit which cannot be separated and the body is a tool for expressing the human self as well as the biological self. turner explained that: “a ny sociology of the body involves a discussion of social control and any discussion of social control must consider the control of women’s bodies by m en under a system of patriarchy. … o ur bodies are a natural environm ent, while also being socially con- structed: the disappearance of this environm ent is also m y disappearance. bodily secretions can not be easily ignored and, for that matter, they can not be easily controlled: this is one source of those persis- tent metaphors relating to the body politic and the human body (turner, , pp. - ).” “w hile the body is an object with specific physio - logical characteristics and thus subject to natural pro- cesses of ageing and decay, it is never just a physical object. as embodied consciousness, the body is drenched w ith sym bolic significance. phenomenology is a critique of behaviorism w hich, in treating the body as an object separate from consciousness, has to em brace, how ever covertly, cartesian dualism. …. in philosophical term s, an individual person in the full sense of the term is a being w ith a body, con- sciousness, continuity, commitment, and responsibility (turner, , p. ). … at the individual level, my body is an environm ent that is experienced as a limit, but my consciousness also involves embodiment (turner, , p. ).” turner clarified how sociology is connected to the relationship betw een the spirit and the body (shilling, ). in addition, he proved that the human spirit is expressed through body, and defined this as the rule of the social body restructured from experience. the biological body is unable to change but the so - cial body has unlim ited potential to transform . ten years after turner’s theory was propounded, another sociologist, chris shilling, re-defined the body in his book the body and social theory ( ) . shilling argued that: “recognizing that the body has becom e a project for many modern persons entails accepting that its appearance, size, shape and even its contents, are potentially open to reconstruction in line with the design of its ow ner. treating the body as a project does not necessarily entail a full-tim e preoccupation w ith its w holesale transformation, although it has the potential to do so. how ever, it does involve indi- viduals being conscious of m essages about a person’s self-identity. in the context, bodies become malleable entities w hich can be shaped and honed by the vigilance and hard w ork of their owner (shilling, , p. ).” by analyzing the naturally constructed approach and the socially constructed approach, shilling asserted that w hile the hum an body transforms to fit into society, it exists as a physical and biological sub - stance during the transformation process. m oreover, he described the body that exists in the trans- formation process as ‘the body as a project.’ h e indicated there are two lim itations caused by the body as a project: “bodies are limited not only in the sense that they unlimitedly die, but their frequent refusal to be m oulded in accordance with our intentions. a nother lim itation in the rise of the body as a project is the w ay in w hich individual images of the desirable body can become harnessed to the perpetuation of pre-existing social inequalities (shilling, , p. ).” the body as a project is guaranteed the flexibility to change despite problem s, as it has been given the indulgence to express an individual unique spirit. the reason behind the body having the value of a fashion, addressing the new body 복식문화연구 － － m otif in art is that the social body is able to constantly be transform ed, and the body project consequently guaranteed its flexibility, as m entioned by turner ( ) and shilling ( ). with the body artificially created from the spirit, the unconscious im itation of the biological body, seen from the creation process, m akes the third object restructured from self-experience, the called ‘social residual.’ there- fore, the body created by different methods exists w ith both biological form and sociological spirit identical to the intrinsic com position of the body. . the body: naked, nude, clothed and fashioned art, along with the nude, is led by the body to persist in expressing a garm ent’s extrem e sense. o ngoing debates regarding the body as the motif in art are focused on the ‘pure body w ith nothing w orn,’ and another on the ‘body as object’ that is w orn by that pure body. if pure body, the so-called ‘biological body’, has been used as an object for art, then this can be classified as the socialized body or <fig. > positions of the social bodies another form of the body that has been used by art. researcher defines a ‘socialized body’ that is formed or adapted by the creator’s m ind as the body that is an object of art, rather than the ‘biological body’. a biological body can only becom e an object of art w hen a creator reproduces it as a social body. in this research, researcher categorizes the social body as ‘naked’, ‘nude’, ‘clothed’ and ‘fashioned’ based on its characteristics and function. these social bodies were given the titles ‘body itself’, ‘body as an object of art’, ‘body to protect body’, ‘the second body’ and ‘body surroundings’ to be the subject for debates. in order to provide detail and clarity to these term inologies, researcher defines the first di- m ension of the social body as the ‘naked body,’ the second as ‘nude,’ the third as the ‘concise social representative of the body’, and ‘fashion embodying the body’ as the fourth. as this research recognizes the social body reinterpreted by the designer/artist as the m otif for art, the first dim ension o f th e nak ed body that exists with no stim ulus is excluded from v ol. , no. shinmi park － － the category of body (see fig. ). there are several argum ents related to the bodies. n aked body holds more m eaning than natural body. h ollander illustrated that naked body is generally not experienced and acknowledged, and this is defined as clothes itself (entwistle, ). in addition, john berger ( ) prescribed that in reproduction of art and m edia, body is w orn from the social custom and system despite the absence of clothes and this is the trait of naked and nude. furtherm ore, lars svendsen ( ) argued that “rather than present clothes, it (the naked body) has been a m atter of presenting an im age in which the m odel’s body has been the bearer of sym bolic values (svendsen, ). “the naked body is anything but value-natural. hence, nothing can be called ‘naked body’. since naked body alw ays exists within the boundary of society, this always has to be w orn (h ollander, , pp. - )”. therefore, if naked body is to be given a m eaning, it can be som ething w ith ‘visible absence’ (h ollander, ; svendsen, ). sociologists generally classified the ‘naked body’ and ‘nude’ as a socialized body based on the fact that it lies within society. how ever, the naked body is differentiated from the nude and is defined as the first dimension of the social body from the perspec- tive that nude is the subject in an artwork. further- m ore, the nude, as the artistically ‘transform ed naked body’ can be defined as the second dimension. the ‘nude’ is conceptually not the same as a naked body, but is a form of dress worn from a m odern cultural point of view (entw istle, ). in other w ords, the nude can be described as the naked body that wears fashion developed by an artist’s spirit. therefore, nudes seen in sculptures, paintings and photos wear the artist’s intentions and hence are social bodies reconstructed by the artist. n ude being the dim ension second body, holds an artistic value as som ething inherent to the artist’s mind, w hich is a characteristic of social body-conception. while fashion generally moves continuously by going forward and then backwards, the central idea of the nude body is proven to be unchangeable and a com m on standard (koda, ). in sculptures or in paintings, this is regarded as the body clothed and conveys an artist’s m eaning (koda, ). in addition, photography benefits from the restricted reproduction of m odern ideas that are worn on a naked body (k oda, ). this is due to the fact that fashion involves the subjective m ind, unlike clothes w hich are an object with the pure function of protecting the body. h egel em phasized that body and clothing are tw o separate areas, but these spheres should always guarantee unrestricted improvem ent of each other’s disciplines (hegel in svendsen, ). although fashion from the beginning was expressed as the relative freedom related to the body figure, the form of body and clothes w ere always within the sam e ‘dialogue’ (svendsen, ). the body and clothes are being discussed concerning their linked relationship, and one thing that is clear is that clothes, the third dim ension of the social body, are the ‘m irror’ of the naked body and are the specific object that can m ost easily represent its biological fact. this is one of the reasons i classify clothes and fashion as another type of social body. the individual activity of w earing clothes is the activity of preparing to becom e a social body as (socially) required, and dress is another significant w ay of learning how an individual can live alongside their body (entwistle & w ilson, ). furthermore, clothes form a part of an individual, but not merely as the outer appearance related to the individual identity as we all possess ways of expressing ourselves through visual form (svendsen, ). the third dimension of the social body of clothes can m ost easily represent the body and we can call this a second skin because it is the object of the concise expression of our spirit. the understanding of dress required in everyday life consists of categories of experience in time and space (entwistle, ). m oreover, time and space dem onstrate the way we derive another form of body from the body or dress, through the collision fashion, addressing the new body 복식문화연구 － － w ith our feelings, relationships and other factors (entwistle, ). the classification of the difference betw een the clad, fashionable beauty, and an artist’s naked m odel or a reappearance of the ‘demimondaine’ was more accentuated not only by the outer appearance, but from the revival of how dress is w orn (k oda, ). clothes displayed by a naked body not only represent a person’s imagination, but also conveys his or her life experiences (hollander, , cited in svendsen, ). h ow clothes are w orn, or how to w ear clothes are differently expressed visually and sensually depending on the consciousness of the host (be it individual or group) of this act. when an artist chooses clothes, as the third dimen - sion of the body, as the m otif of his or her work, this is done as a convenient m aterial to express his or her history and identity to the outside w orld. furthermore, artists try to express their prior experience or spirit rather than clothes form itself, and this is the characteristic of fashion, which is the fourth dimensional of the social body. fashion em braces its surroundings, the spirit and the m ovem ent of body more broadly than mere clothes, or the detailed body. fashion does not im itate the body to protect it, but surrounds the spirit of the body. this m ay or m ay not overtly adhere to the form of clothing. hence fashion, as a motif of artwork, reflects the movement <table > characteristics of the social bodies social bodies classifications socialized bodies : naked body․clothes social bodies as object of art : nude․fashion characteristics dependent body passive body conservative sympathy with customs of the day mirror of social awareness pursuit of collective unconsciousness follows social customs fixable restrictive independent body active body progressive away from customs of the day mirror of self awareness controlling the stream of consciousness seeks to find a negotiation between society and the individual changeable free and surrounds of the body, w hich can revive our spirit. therefore, when an artist uses the body as the m otif, this body departs from the biological body and become a socialized body in any form that possesses the artist’s spirit. social bodies that have been discussed so far can be classified further into ‘socialized body’ and ‘social body as an object of art’. first, ‘socialized body’ includes the first social body, naked body, and the third social body, clothes. second, ‘social body as an object of art’ includes nude, the second social body, and fashion, the fourth social body. socialized bodies of naked body and clothes are dependent bodies and are passive bodies that unconsciously reflect the social environm ent. the w ay w e treat the body is adapted to custom s and rituals of mass society. in addition, there is a strongly conservative charac - teristic that expresses itself by reflecting the social rituals. socialized bodies tend to pursue a collective sociality and are resistant to change, are content with received reality, tending to be fixed and restrained. o n the other hand, social bodies as an object of art that is, nude and fashion, are independent and active bodies that consciously regulate and control the social environm ent. this type of body abolishes customs and strives to find a com prom ise betw een collective social ritual and individual consciousness. body as v ol. , no. shinmi park － － an object of art is already a social body as long as it lies w ithin the society. h ence, although it w as created from an individual intention, it is im possible to exist in denial of all the social frameworks. m ore- over, as art also evaluates its value from the popula- rity of the group called society, the body which is part of this category strives to find the ideal medium betw een the individual and the society. furthermore, it expresses itself by reflecting individual intentions by its strongly progressive characteristics. social bodies such as the nude and fashion in art pursue individual sociality w ith the desire for changeability. therefore, this body seeks freedom of creation (see table ). Ⅲ. fashion, addressing the new body . fashion, creative second skin as for clothes, the biological skin is a tw o-dim en- sional biological surface covering a three-dimensional biological body. in contrast to skin, motif clothes are generally described as the second skin or something that creates another type of skin to m ake a new form. lupton ( ) explained that: “skin is a two-dimensional surface that wraps around the volumes of the body. skin is a multilayered, multi- purpose that shifts from thick to thin, tight to loose, lubricated to dry, across the landscape of the body. skin, a know ledge-gathering device, responds to heat and cold, pleasure and pain. it lacks definitive boun- daries, flowing continuously from the exposed surface of the body to its internal cavities. it is both living and dead, a self-repairing, self-replacing material whose exterior is senseless and inert while its inner layers are flush with nerves, glands and capillaries (lupton, , pp. , , ). …. skin is a bag to hold in the organs and tissues of the body, a living luggage system. contemporary bottle, bags and garments com - bine natural unnatural form s and m aterials, yielding objects that appear ripe w ith potential life (lupton, , p. ).” the discussion on dress as a second skin embarked from marilyn j. horn and lois m. gurel’s publication of the second skin in that illustrated ways to view dress from different aspects. they investigated this issue from perspectives of clothing and culture, dealing with social and psychological aspects of dress, aesthetics and dress, and physical and economic aspects of clothing. also, ted polhem us ( ) explored “how the body, and its second skin of adornm ent and clothing, plays a vital part in our social relation- ship in his book, body style . h e also considered “the social nature of the hum an body and, specifi- cally, the body’s reflected image. … in the course of our lives the m ost im portant relationship any of us ever has is betw een ‘our self’ and ‘our reflection’ (polhem us, , p. ).” the second skin acts as a proxy that represents hum an senses regardless of the form of the clothes that are being created. in other w ords, the second skin reproduces a new body w ith a naked body as the fram e (support). the repro - duction of skin layered on top of bone represents the basic biological hum an appearance and this is the first step in creating a new body, the second skin, conveying the designer’s sense. fashion as the proxy of the body, and as the vehicle for art builds a new form of body starting from the idea of the second skin. clothes are the ideal m ethod of expressing the hum an body reflecting current taste and have been continuously utilized in the life and discipline of art as the tool that produces a new socially determinant form of body. dress has been nam ed as the second skin by social and art scholars and is know n as a m eans that connects humans w ith society. clothes create a new form of body by deconstruction, trans- form ation and reproduction of the body based on the ideal aesthetic standards of an era. in addition, this can be seen not only in practical dress in ordinary life but also in body art that uses the body as a m otif in art. fashion is produced from conscious conside- ration of the body and how it is modified in ordinary fashion, addressing the new body 복식문화연구 － － life (entw istle, ). fashion can create a contemporary form of body, demanded by a period, and can also create a special form of body that contains the designer’s sense of the discourse of art representing the body. g arments during the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries are exam ples of radical m odifications to the body. the corset, farthingale and bustle w ere tools that com - pleted the ideal body desired by those tim es and these were considered to be the ideal appearance of the body (k oda, ) (see figs. , ). m oreover, these structural devices that m odified the standard of the body also changed the biological form of the body (see fig. ). in other words, the second skin, w hich is m ost suitable for incorporating the ideal body form of an era, resulted in directly m odifying the form of the biological body, if only partially. fashion designers in the tw entieth century also ex- tended or reduced parts of the hum an body and produced new standards of body to meet the social requirements. the ‘perfect form ’ w as attem pted by reproducing, expanding or restricting the body’s shape <fig. > (above) ‘the four plaster busts of sunami & costantine m odels’: (below: from left), ‘the middle of c pannier dress’, ‘ s bustle dress’, ‘ s art n ouveau style’ & ‘ s flapper style’. from. k im. ( ). p. <fig. > ‘transformed the body by corset in the victorian age’. from. k im. ( ). p. (m aeder, ). for exam ple, futurism appeared after the early tw entieth century as cubism, no other form could be seen or considered except for the second skin of human or clothing (celant, ). artists w h o w ere in v o lv e d in fu tu rism an d c u b ism u sed clothing as a substitute for the ideas in art as a new form of body that represented the creator’s thoughts. like this, the body was constantly a motif for art and fashion, as a proxy of body it also held its position as a m otif for art by creating the second skin. fashion as a motif in contemporary art is expressed as a new form of second skin by modifying the biological skin itself or by utilizing a third object. in addition, the application of wrinkles or folded material on the surface of biological skin can be an aesthetic standard in the creation of the second skin, and adapting this idea as the motif can create new materials and form s. these efforts led to the developm ent of a new material called latex that is most sim ilar to the biological skin. industrial m aterials such as rubber and vinyl w ere also introduced in order to express the second skin. a rtists use latex, the artificial repro- duction of skin, in order to produce clothes m ost s im ila r in s u r fa c e a n d te x tu re to th e s k in , a n d v ol. , no. shinmi park － － <fig. > ‘o rlan with her self-hybridation series’, . from w w w.artgallery.nsw.gov.au orlan sometimes confirm their self-identity by reproducing a ‘biological skin’ substitute as a second skin. tonita a beyta’s ‘sensate’ is a line of latex undergarm ents - some equipped with built in male and female condoms - that aim to transform the tools of sexual hygiene into alluring fashion objects (lupton, ). m ore extrem ely, under the equality theory of latency- substance, french artist saint o rlan (b. ) first deform ed her own skin in and continues to re-form herself using insets and the production of new skin created from her own body (see fig. ). “orlan began her highly unconventional career at the age of w ith a series of w orks using photographs of her own body, which has become her art ‘medium,’ her primary creative voice. working beyond the limits of body art, in her manifesto on ‘carnal art,’ o rlan w rote that her performances are a self portrait in the classical sense, yet realized through the technology of its time. lying between disfiguration and figuration, it is an inscription in flesh. in , using the operating room as a studio, she underw ent a series of filmed plastic surgery operations to modify her own body-her canvas-including the placing of cheekbone im plants under the skin of her forehead (blistene, ). a ccording to sheltone, “franko b [stellarc] and orlan have used their bodies to question or reject the west’s political and ideological control and <fig. > a lba d’u rbana, ‘the im mortal tailor’, - . from. lupton. ( ). p. <fig. > cindy sherm an, ‘comm e des g arçons’, . from. are et m id e. ( ) p. censorship over them (shelton, ).” likewise, cindy sherm an played w ith the image of self and media identity (see fig. ). furthermore a lba d ’urbana (b. ) created a new form of nude by applying his ow n skin directly to a m edium of clothes (see fig. ). he explained that “in order to realize the clothing of m y ow n skin, i put photographs of m y body into the computer digitally and then processed them, formed them, and cut them so that they fit into the dress- pattern of a suit. thus it w as possible to rem odel the two-dim ensional im age into a three-dim ensional body form in the tradition of the ancient art of tailors. the b o d y b e co m es v irtu a l en tity , a d a ta la n d sc a pe , a digital abstraction (in lupton, , p. ).” lupton ( ) illustrated that “d’u rbana has created a series of garm ents that cover the body w ith photographic im ages of itself. the result is a fragmented, contra- fashion, addressing the new body 복식문화연구 － － dictory visual condition that oscillates between naked and clothed, flatness and dim ensionality (lupton, , p. ).” in addition, matthieu manche used latex as a m aterial to express the second skin as a tool to extend the body (see fig. ). a ccording to m atthieu manche, “latex is similar to the skin, but it is extrem ely artificial. i try to unsettle people’s ex- pectations about skin.” lupton explains that “w hen used to m anufacture condoms or gloves, latex closely follow s the contours of the hum an body. matthieu m anche uses latex to suggest, instead, an elaboration and overflowing of the body. pouches and containers for new grow ths appear across the surfaces of his clothing and furniture, w hile tubes of latex link body parts and entire bodies into new configurations (lupton, , p. ).” a garment is considered as an extension of the skin, as an extension of body in the discipline of art and also in the sphere of fashion, and these artists and designers strive to involve the aesthetics of body in their works. for instance, carla m urry (b. ) and peter a llen (b. ) introduced ‘skinthetic chanel ’ for the fashion brand chanel (see fig. ). “skinthetic is a series of design proposals for ‘im p la n t a n d e x p la n t’ p ro d u c ts th a t m ig h t in th e <fig. > carla m urry & peter allen, ‘skinthetic: chanel ’ from . lupton. ( ), p. future be used to extend consum er branding to the hum an body. h ere a quilted pattern derived from c h a n e l’s b ra n d id e n tity is a p p lie d to th e h u m a n torso. the skin of the garment becom es continuous w ith the skin of the body (lupton, , p. ).” a s can be seen, the second skin creates a new form through the reproduction of biological skin and it also establishes a new standard for body by injecting a new third object. every single image that goes through the repro- duction process in the artist’s senses can be embodied in a second skin with sym bolic m eaning. the second skin is a world of change that has the freedom to transform the hum an body into a m obile, changing form. in addition, clothes are one of the detailed m ethods of designs to express the production of a new skin, and are an extension of the hum an body as well as being a world of sym bolism . the com - prehensive m eaning of fashion as the second skin is such symbolism. therefore, symbolism in fashion does not indicate the general meaning of conservative, collective and passive external symbols that diffe - rentiated the social classes of the pre-tw entieth century era, but is inherent in a new sym bolism, which is personal and active, representing individuality. <fig. > m atthieu m anche, ‘fresh - ’, from . lupton. ( ). pp. - v ol. , no. shinmi park － － w hile the clothes prior to the tw entieth century had the general sym bolic m eans of acknow ledging one’s status and social position, fashion in the tw entieth- first century has becom e a more complex medium of creation. this special feature of fashion as active symbolism provides an opportunity to create a new discipline of art called fashion art under the subject of the reproduction of body seen through a second skin. . fashion into the body space the independent body in art w as subjectively recognized by artists based on the aesthetic standards of the particular time, and as a result they created a body form required by the standards and zeitgeist of the period. fashion most easily reproduces the body in a new space and with a new boundary of the body extended or reduced in space. in modern art this is expressed as fashion art that has grow n out of the unified comm ercial form of garm ents and artists directly working with body. fashion that m oved inside the space of the body has created a new body space and disciplines. fashion as a second skin that possesses indepen- dently the sense of its creator is within the realm of art by the fact that it is created w ith consciousness of the body as its motif. fashion builds up new standards of the body by m odifying and creating new standards for the hum an body at a given tim e, and it creates a body space based on the standard of body form and from its movem ent. the second skin, located in space, exploits the body space, w ith the biological body as the support. movement by itself progresses fashion into a new space: the social body placed in the body space, regardless of it being a simple or a complex movement. fashion exists and creates space around the body space as it lies w ithin the surrounding architectural space. fashion is a very personal object that creates special circum stances for an individual by crossing over complex architecture and body system s. a rchitecture and the body is a system of complex processes of functionality, partial functionality that can be visually identified or not particularly recognized (boyer, ). this produces a subjective body space through the m ovem ent of body responding w ith the body’s senses. furtherm ore, fashion has a binding role that links self-cognition and society, the so-called ‘personal identity.’ fashion is an object of a mutual action between the im age and the concept, and is a com - pound medium that includes the surroundings and space w here fashion is understood. fashion is a m edium that links the body and society and at the sam e tim e is a changeable object that is inherent in a conflicting relationship with the elem ents of extension and reduction of the human body to create body space. in other words, fashion is a m edium that creates a new space around the body and through this, the body is given change ability to extend or reduce its sphere. from m y point of view, fashion that lies between the biological body and architectural space creates the space around the body from the basis of its conflicting nature of extension and reduction. therefore, in this research, body space is not lim ited to the body itself and the space created from extending or reducing the body; the external space produced from the movement of body occurring in architectural space is also included in this category. fashion, which lies w ithin the relationship between the body and space, provides mobility into the lim its of the body and the categories of space based on conflicting approaches to the reduction and the ex- tension of body itself. firstly, ‘fashion creates the internal body space’ by reducing the space between the borders of biological body and fashion, and this space is very lim ited and fixed. secondly, ‘fashion creates the ‘external’ body space by expanding’ the body beyond the borders of the biological body, and through m ovement, it brings this outer space into the extension of body that leads to architecture and the universe. the extension of the body is changeable fashion, addressing the new body 복식문화연구 － － <fig. > the boundary and scope of body space and mobile as it constantly creates new limitless forms through this m ovem ent. the extended body is provided w ith a broader scope in creating space than the reduced body (see fig. ). in order to exam ine the nature of space in detail, attention is given to the g erm an architect jügen joedicke who classified the nature of space based on its boundaries. joedicke divided space into tw o cate - gories of ‘spatial container’and ‘spatial field’ in order to illustrate differences in the treatment of the space. by spatial container, he means the space as a con - tinuum described by a series of w alls. spatial field im plies space that exists around a solid body, and this term is used w hen defining a different type of spatial form (joedicke, ). based on the classifi- cations or joedicke, space regulates distinctive boun- daries according to the nature of the object form ed. this classification used in architecture can be applied in fashion, so that spatial container accounts for ‘the circum stance of the reduced body.’ fashion, as a fixe d fo rm o f sc ulp tu ral o bject, ex ists by fitting a series of m aterials into the body and inserting the body into a spatial container. by contrast, spatial field in fashion terms indicates ‘the circum stance of the extended body.’ this contains the trace of se- quential m ovem ents created from the movement of body. w hile spatial field in architecture is visually recognized as beyond the solidity of walls, spatial field in fashion can be visually recognized, but also can remain as a trace of m ovem ent. recent debates on fashion and space around the body focus on the object of clothing itself to classify these conflicting factors of ‘extension and reduction’, ‘concealm ent and exposure’ and ‘stillness and m ove- m ent’ based on the inner and outer aspects of body. in other words, the central point of the debate is on the relationship betw een clothes and the body rather than the external surroundings, and is focused on elaborating these sim ple conflicting properties. this point of view regulates the boundary betw een the body and fashion from the perspective that fashion is a sculptural garm ent or a fixed object, and is classi- v ol. , no. shinmi park － － fied by the characteristics focused on how the gar- m ent is expressed. this is limited to the creation of a spatial con- tainer, that is, the creation of space around the body through the reduction or construction of the body in <fig. > the ambivalence of body space a narrow sense. it is not sufficient to describe the overall circum stances of body, nam ely the spatial container that a body creates in external space. therefore, from the perspective of fashion being a m ed ium fo r c re a tin g n e w sp ac e , th e se c o nflic ting fashion, addressing the new body 복식문화연구 － － elem ents are sub-classified under the grounds of extension and reduction. thus, the space around the body creates the form of space through the extension and reduction of body based on the artist’s ideas. the primarily selected fram e of body space deter- m ines the detailed m ethod of expressing the object. fashion as a proxy of the body, nam ely an object of art, draw s attention to the creation of space related to the body rather than a concrete method of ex- pression. to sum up, fashion determines the creative method of body space from the artist’s sense and expresses the object through a com pound system , the so-called ‘hybrid system .’ this system is structured w ith con- flicting sub-categories of ‘concealment and exposure’, ‘sim plicity and com plexity’, ‘can be w orn or cannot be worn’, and ‘whether or not it is a form of clothes’, and expresses the space around the body based on the artist/designer’s intention through fashion as a proxy for the body (see fig. ). this produces creations which are m ore than just a sim ple form of clothing but include the body, the proxy of the body and the movement in space. in other w ords, the sub-categories of this system provide an opportunity for fashion to explore the potential of the body and space by crossing over various disciplines of art. furthermore, this com plex m ethod of expression provides the opportunity for fashion to be part of visual art rather than an industrial art. fashion lies w ithin the space of the body and creates the space around the body. Ⅳ. conclusion fashion, as a m otif of artw orks approaches the creative process not only from the form but also from the m ovement and consciousness of the person. from this perspective, fashion becom es the object of artw ork as a proxy of the creator whether it is show n in the form of clothes reproducing the body, or as another form of the body object. fashion im plies the life m ore than w e think. moreover, as debates of m odern art, art production and freedom are alw ays linked w ith one sphere of culture, nam ely fashion (d avis, ). disciplines of art apply and express fashion as a m otif in their w orks as fashion is the direct product of w hat w e experience in life and because fashion is the tool that can m ost easily m odify the body, as the fourth dim ension of the social body. from a personal point of view, fashion as a m otif of art accepts the body as intrinsic to notions of change, and is a comprehensive concept that includes dress and clothes as well as their environm ent, spirit and movement. fashion in a narrow sense can be described as the creation of a new body through a second skin, and in a broader sense, it can be seen as a concept of creativity that produces the new space and spirit of the body through the movement of the body that wears this second skin. fashion can reduce or extend the body form through the creator’s senses and it is a form of new creation that has the indulgence of creating space through m ovem ent of body. in other words, the proposition applied in art signifies the social body that represents the surroundings and intention tow ards the body as reinterpreted from the artist’s point of view . therefore, fashion as a m otif of art is the new current state of the body. this research analyzed the attributes of fashion as an object of art, and examined its potential and status as an art of body space. fashion was an object of the body that w as created for the body. a rtists use fashion as the motif of their w ork because this is the m edium of the body that reproduces their form , and because this can freely create the space around the body. the works of the artists w ho use fashion as their m otif bring the body, its traces and the space around the body as seen from the expansion and reduction of the body through installation, perfor- m ance art and by w earing the clothes of self identity, and architectural fashion that includes the space w here the body lies into the w ork. this research v ol. , no. shinmi park － － illustrates how, fashion determines the creation method of body space from the artist’s sense and expresses the object through a com pound system , the so-called ‘hybrid system .’ this system is structured w ith con- flicting sub-categories of ‘concealment and exposure’, ‘sim plicity and com plexity’, ‘can be w orn or cannot be worn’ and ‘whether or not it is a form of clothes’, and expresses the space around the body based on the creator’s intention through fashion as a proxy for the body. references bbc( ). ‘w ays of seeing’ [based on the bbc television series w ith john berger]. london. berger, j.(ed.)( ). ways of seeing. harmondsworth: penguin. blistene, b.( ). orlan (d. dusinberre, b. blistene, c. buci-g lucksm ann, r d urand, trans.) paris: flamm arion. boyer, m. c.( ) ‘the body in the city: a discourse on cyber science,’ in hauptmann, d.(ed.)( ). the body in architecture. rotterdam: pub - lisher. celant, g .( ). ‘to cut is to think,’ in celant, g. 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(j. irons, trans.), london: reaktion books. the u niversity of birm ingham & collins cobuild ( ). collins cobuild english dictionary. lon - don: h arper collins publishers (o riginal w ork published ). turner, b. s.( ). the body and society. new york: basil blackwell publisher (original w ork published ). w ikipedia d ictionary( ). body. retrieved m ay , , from http://en.wikipedia.org/w iki/body master-v n .pdf letter from the editor nexus network journal – vol. , no. , perspective and optics in the nexus network journal it is almost six centuries since the invention of artificial perspective, a way of seeing that makes space a quantity, and the painter’s art mathematical. this invention did not come to pass sine scientia. alberti was the first to delineate the theory of the technique and leave legible evidence of its science. battista was not the first to use this method, however, because as manetti tells us, it is brunelleschi we should credit with its invention. and yet regarding the precise nature of brunelleschi’s invention, and the circumstances in which it came about, we can be certain only of the mantle of obscurity which shrouds them, which reveals only rough outlines, the hints of answers to our questions. the authors gathered here look back into this history and approach those questions from their own discipline. peering through the mist of time, as if into a stage across the hazy arno, we attempt to recognise the characters and their roles in those first rehearsals of perspective. perhaps a little like alberti’s early fictores, we tease out from that occluded view the formative strands of a method that was to dominate the production of art, and our conception of what it is to see, until the advent of photography and modernism. thus the artist richard talbot, whose ideas are directly informed by his work and experience as an artist, has written “speculations on the origin of perspective”. the paper concerns the history and origins of linear perspective within early renaissance painting. it raises issues relating to geometry, proportion and perspective in the paintings of masaccio and piero della francesca, and also in those of domenico veneziano, uccello and leonardo da vinci. it discusses the nebulous origins of perspective, its relationship to architecture and pictorial space at that time, and ultimately, questions the orthodox history of perspective. györgy darvas, an expert on symmetry, casts his eye over the history of art and, in his “perspective as a symmetry transformation”, argues that brunelleschi’s invention allows paintings to represent reality because they are a particular combination of symmetry transformations. even the distorted appearance of the works of cubism and other forms of modern art owes its ability to represent reality to further operations involving symmetry. marco jaff has followed the clues that suggest the astrolabe was centre stage in the moment of inception of perspective. “from the vault of the heavens” proposes a close connection between the stereographic projections used to map the sky, and the method of perspective projection used by masaccio in the trinità at santa maria novella. “the diminution of the classical column: visual sensibility in antiquity and the renaissance” is the title of my own paper. i look through the eyes of an architect with an interest in history, and try to disentangle some of the particulars of how the renaissance understood certain issues regarding the visual appearance of architecture in antiquity. nexus network journal – vol. , no. , the column and the eye are its subject, and how the outline of the former was adapted to satisfy the latter’s demand for beauty. a designer and educator on the subject of perspective, tomás garcía salgado’s “distance to the perspective plane” retraces the development of the concept of distance as applied to perspective construction, leading us through the ideas of alberti and gauricus, and the implications for a modular system of perspective. other contributions to this special issue address different aspects of perspective as well. in this issue’s geometer’s angle column, mark reynolds offers “perspectiva geometrica”, with step-by-step geometric constructions for perspective layout. in book reviews, michael chapman looks at james ackerman’s origins, imitation, conventions, in which ackerman deals largely with issues pertaining to perspective, and in particular the specific perspective of the critic as observer with a peculiar and individual viewpoint. jin-ho park reviews preston scott cohen’s contested symmetries and other predicaments in architecture, which includes a chapter on the projective perspective that dramatically influenced the early eighteenth century design education at ecole polytechnique. in exhibit reviews, joão pedro xavier recalls the exhibit at the uffizi gallery in florence entitled “nel segno di masaccio. l’invenzione della prospettiva”, from which an important catalog was produced. the issue is completed by a contribution to the didactics section, “a proposed two- semester programme for mathematics in the architecture curriculum” by luisa consiglieri and victor consiglieri. this picks up the thread of discussion concerning the education of the architect that was begun with the round table discussion at nexus in Óbidos (see the nnj vol. , no. , pp. - ). i take this opportunity to express my thanks to kim williams for allowing me to act as editor on this issue, and for her unstinting support and advice in doing so. i am indebted also to each of the authors for the truly stimulating and enriching exchanges i have had with them when discussing their ideas, and i sincerely hope that this will not remain my privilege, but that the discussions will continue and broaden now that the issue sees public light. david a. vila domini, guest editor << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left 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f e d f f e c c e e> >> >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice aesthetic investigations fiction as universal truth author rob van gerwen affiliation university utrecht abstract: perhaps, a work of fiction’s truth is the unfaltering manner in which its details guide the spectator, reader or listener to the coherent whole of the work, and never disappoint their experience, or at least never for long. this view requires us to hold back the inclination to think of truth as short for the correspondence of some representation to something beyond itself, which is the normal way to view truth in real life, in journalism and in science. a work that is true to itself may be said to generate a particularist type of universal knowledge, like aristotle characterised poetry at the expense of history in his poetics. ‘the more specific you are, the more general it’ll be.’ diane arbus , . i. is there truth through fiction? is a splendid question, at least because it is unclear what ‘through’ means here. can we acquire true knowledge by way of literature? knowledge about the world outside the work? this special issue concentrates on literature. literature as an art form, i want to add, not just written texts. it should be quite clear that reports in the papers provide, or at least are meant to provide us with knowledge about the world. to ask whether they actually do involves a critique of how they meet their own aims. ‘fiction’ has a weak and a strong meaning. we often think of fiction as fantasy, something made up with no necessary connection to anything real, hence not true in an everyday sense. yet, in its weak sense the term fiction refers to the ‘made’ character of something. and, since all representations © aesthetic investigations vol , no ( ), i-v fiction as universal truth are made, not found, there is an element of fiction in all of them, not just in the fantasised ones. moreover, it makes sense to ask for the direction of fit of the truth that we are looking for in this special issue. do we mean that the work be true to the world, or to the author? lastly, should our view cover all works of literature? ought we not, rather, gather from the work the type of truth that it procures, and not from the world that it is said to be true about? as works of art, works of literature are not intended to be journalistically true to the world – we do not dismiss a novel as a bad work of art because it is wrong about the world. and if a literary passage happens to be true to the world this still does not make the work a case of journalism; the objective assessment of such a passage’s truth may have no place in a suitable appreciation of the work. no work can claim to be true to the world unless it is checked against the reality it supposedly refers to. nor is a work necessarily true autobiographically. it does not need to truly describe passages in the life of the author – not even if the author alleges that it does – to be true to the author in an aesthetic manner. aesthetically, works of literature may be true to the author in their style, since this is the author’s achievement, and, arguably, their authentic expression. yet, to establish this stylistic truth to the author more than one of their works should be taken into account. one wants to say that said types of truth – to the world and to the author – are contingent on the aesthetic value of the work, which brings us to a third type of truth: truth to the work itself. if the work fails aesthetically for being sloppy, sentimental or grossly incoherent – the work fails its own thrust – it will be hard for the reader to establish any truths in the work, whether they concern the world or the author. with truth to the work i refer to the internal coherence of the work, a sui generis type of literary truth. a work is true to itself when its elements add to the overall meaning of the work, and hardly any of its elements detract from it. and since the overall meaning encompasses all elements of the work, and is whole in itself, it is okay to posit it as the work’s truth, even if it is not true to anything beyond itself – hence its sui generis nature. is the work of fiction plausible as a whole, do passages in it point to each other and ultimately bear fruit in light of the whole text, and so on? in my view, works like picasso’s guernica, tarantino’s pulp fiction, rembrandt’s hendrickje bathing in a stream, bach’s goldberg variations (in certain performances), joyce’s ulysses, beckett’s waiting for godot, jim thompson’s the killer inside me and the grifters are all true in this way, to themselves. for this, nothing in these works must point away from the work itself to the world or the author. so, perhaps, a work of fiction’s truth is the unfaltering manner in which its details guide the spectator, reader or listener to the coherent whole of the work, and never disappoint their experience, or at least never for long. this view requires us to hold back the inclination to think of truth as ii rob van gerwen short for the correspondence of some representation to something beyond itself, which is the normal way to view truth in real life, in journalism and in science. a work that is true to itself may be said to generate a particularist type of universal knowledge, like aristotle understands it in his discussion of the difference between history and poetry: ‘by universal truths are to be understood the kinds of thing a certain type of person will probably or necessarily say or do in a given situation; and this is the aim of poetry, although it gives individual names to its characters.’ (my emphasis, aristotle, po- etics). the notion of a work’s truth to the author is at stake in both contributions to the arts and artists section. patricia anne emison discusses leonardo – whom we have come to admire for his proto-scientific interests – as an artist, a man of imagination, and what is more, an observer. emison concentrates on the figure of the painter and his preferences in real life, using her findings to prompt to the unfinished nature of his drawings and paintings, and bring- ing the opacity of the material to life. leonardo’s use of new materials she compares to the shock that cubism generated in th century. ‘he studied the world more objectively not because he was a scientist ahead of his time but because he didn’t start from the premise of a benevolent god.’ ( , this issue). he worked from observation, too, rather than from a desire for the classics that we typically associate with renaissance art. knowing about the life of a visual artist helps view their works better, at least if what we know about their life is somehow visible in their work. with regard to literature it is harder to notice the author in their text, and this is obviously due to a difference in materials. putting words in a sentence and sentences on a page may be physical but only hardly so. putting visual elements together on a plane and deciding which of their interrelations are to stick to the final work, though, clearly has a physical aspect. and it is that physical aspect that we value when appreciating a work of visual art. paul abramson and tania abramson argue rightly that appreciation is permeable to knowledge, whether this be knowledge about the world or about the artist, or both. in come the works of david wojnarowicz. there is no such thing as an innocent eye. we see what we look for and evidence about wojnarowicz’ life may make us look for certain things in his works – and get to see them. though we may miss out on certain clues in the works, someone may suitably prompt us to them, as wollheim argues in his writings on painting: a suitable spectator is a spectator who is suitably sensitive, suit- ably informed, and, if necessary, suitably prompted. the suitability is in the seeing, not merely in the looking. certain facts may make you look wrongly; thus, in the end, the seeing may overrule the iii fiction as universal truth prompting. referring to an artist’s tragic life is only the first stage. read the abramsons’ effort to see the works of wojnarowicz through wojnarowicz’s own writings as prompting them to the meaning of his art. it is nice to struggle with the assumption that the artist knows best why he made his works the way he did. here, too, the seeing determines the suitability. in all, the work’s truth to itself is reciprocated by the suitable appre- ciative experience. the work gives us its nature and properties, which the appreciator’s sensibility processes. the spectator responds by projecting his views, which, to a point, fall in place with the work, and the measure of their suitability feeds back to the appreciator who . . . and so on. the work’s truth to the work coincides with the suitable appreciator’s judgements’ truth to the work. does that mean that every work matches only one single true inter- pretation? no, it means instead that there are norms of suitability which are assessed in the appreciative experience. to assess these norms appreciators should converse among each other, in the work’s presence. this reciprocity is like sartre understands seeing another person not merely as an object but as a subject who looks back at one: ‘being-seen-by-the-other’ is the truth of ‘seeing-the-other’. we gaze at a work which gazes back at us. yet it can only be said to do so in response to our aesthetic appreciative response to its truth to itself. we near a work’s particularist universal truth by aesthetically engaging with it. editor@aestheticinvestigations.eu notes . according to a certain religious theory, byzantine icons are not made by hand, acheiropoieton, and we think photographs, too, are not made by hand but by a ma- chine (let us ignore photoshop and its ilk), so strictly speaking these should not be treated as fictions, even in the weak sense. we realise, of course, that they do depend on human acts and choices. diane arbus clearly refers to the made character of pho- tographs in the quote preceding this edito- rial. . even though aristotle refers to ‘a certain type of person’, there may be only one in- stance of such a type: the particular indi- vidual described in the work. a larger passage surrounding the quote: ‘the difference between the historian and the poet is not that the one writes in prose and the other in verse [. . . ]. the differ- ence is that the one tells of what has hap- pened, the other of the kinds of things that might happen. for this reason po- etry is more philosophical and more wor- thy of serious attention than history; for while poetry is concerned with universal truths history treats of particular facts. by universal truths are to be understood the kinds of thing a certain type of person will probably or necessarily say or do in a given situation; and this is the aim of po- etry, although it gives individual names to its characters.’ aristotle , chapter . ‘poetic truth and historical truth’, - . . richard wollheim , . . jean-paul sartre , . iv mailto:editor@aestheticinvestigations.eu rob van gerwen references arbus, diane. . revelations. new york: random house. aristotle, horace, longinus. . classical literary criticism. edited by t.s. dorsch. harmondsworth: penguin books. sartre, jean-paul. ( ). being and nothingness. an essay on phe- nomenological ontology. translated by hazel e. barnes. new york and london: routledge. wollheim, richard. . “on pictorial representation.” in richard woll- heim on the art of painting. art as representation and expression, edited by rob van gerwen, – . cambridge, new york: cambridge university press. v 	 cities within cities: journal of art historiography number june cities within cities: australian and new zealand art in the th century rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson the christchurch-born painter raymond mcintyre had been living in england for more than years when in he reviewed australian expatriate artist and art critic edith fry’s second london exhibition of the australian artists in london group. arriving in london in , mcintyre had studied privately with george lambert and with william nicholson and walter sickert at the westminster technical institute. he had exhibited regularly at the goupil gallery from , with the london group from to , and eventually at the royal academy in . these experiences, occurring before, during and after the war, would undoubtedly have attuned him to the questions of expatriatism and national identity at stake in fry’s show. writing of fry’s exhibition in architectural review – an international architecture magazine published in london since , for which he had been a reviewer for more than years – mcintyre began by asking: ‚when is an australian not an australian?‛ he then continued: ‚the most interesting works in the show have obviously been done under the influence and stimulus of european art. certainly the most up-to-date and enterprising of the artists show this influence< we might even say that, in proportion as they cease to be australians, their work becomes more interesting, viewed from the standpoint of modern artistic developments in europe‛. for mcintyre, the australians who have ‚stayed away a long time< have, from any artistic meaning of the word, ceased to be australians‛, and thus he confessed himself ‚surprised to discover that mr harold brodzky is an australian‛. it is possible even that mcintyre and brodzky knew each other (without mcintyre knowing brodzky’s nationality), insofar as both had shown at various times with the london group. certainly, mcintyre was familiar with brodzky’s work, and shared with him a concern for a clean and uncluttered line in the portraits he made. other artists in fry’s shows, some of whom were mentioned by mcintyre in his review, included rupert bunny, charles conder, ethel carrick, bessie davidson, agnes goodsir, roy de maistre, bessie gibson and janet cumbrae-stewart – all of whom had indeed spent time abroad, thus prompting mcintyre’s question of when does an australian artist remain an australian. but the true irony of mcintyre asking this question – a double irony, given that mcintyre was himself a new zealander – is that some of these ‚australians‛ were in fact new zealanders: j.f. scott and dora meeson studied in new zealand, and elioth gruner and septimus power were born there. the authors would like to thank the reviewer of this essay for their suggestions. raymond mcintyre, architectural review, vol. lvii, january/june , . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities scott, for example, was born in dunedin in and studied at the dunedin school of art. he left for paris in , where he studied with jean-joseph benjamin- constant and jean-paul laurens at the académie julian. he was at gallipoli in the first world war with the australian and new zealand army corp, and was later appointed an official australian war artist. meeson was born in melbourne in , but moved to new zealand with her family as a girl. she studied at the canterbury school of art, and exhibited with the canterbury palette club and the canterbury society of arts between and . after returning briefly to australia to study at the national gallery school in melbourne, she left for london to enrol at the slade in . in paris she trained at the académie julian at the same time as scott in . we might say that the conditions and traditions of antipodean expatriatism – even perhaps the forgetting or blurring of that tradition – would also not have been lost on fry. she, after all, had been the curator of two exhibitions in london: australian artists in europe, in at the faculty of arts gallery; and australian art exhibition, the show mcintyre reviewed, at the springs garden gallery in . she was the author of a series of important newspaper articles on the ‚australian‛ expatriates in europe, published in the london and sydney press: ‘australian artists in paris’ ( and ), ‘australians in paris’ ( ), ‘art and artists: the paris salon’ ( ), ‘exiles: the australian artists abroad’ ( ) and ‘retrospect: twelve years from home’ ( ). for the british-australasian she wrote ‘australasian artists in europe’ ( ), and for the british and australian and new zealander she wrote ‘some new arrivals in art’ ( ). she helped found the panton arts club (whose aim was the ‚encouragement of great art and of co-operation between the arts‛) in , the same year she founded the group australian artists in europe. fry moved equally between expatriate artistic and literary circles, painting in for example c.r. allen, novelist and playwright, and penning in an appreciation of the blind new zealand writer for the british annual of literature. this question of just who was an australian or, more precisely, which new zealanders were australian was also the question asked in the lead article of the inaugural issue of art new zealand in . more than years after mcintyre, the same matters of national identity were still being debated in a magazine notable for having abandoned its original title of art in new zealand. (the same logic would apply in australia, where the once-titled art in australia would become art and australia, in what would appear to be a move against the limiting of australian art to that made here.) in the then-director of the auckland city gallery ernest smith’s ‘memories of three new zealand expatriate painters’, he returned godfrey miller, james cook and roland wakelin to new zealand art history, all of them artists who these articles were part of a series written by edith fry between and . they included ‘australian artists in paris’, sydney morning herald, july , and ‘australian artists in paris’, sydney morning herald, march , ; ‘australians in paris’, sydney morning herald, may , ; ‘art and artists: the paris salon’, the daily telegraph, july ; ‘australian art exhibition in london’, daily telegraph, june ; ‘exiles; the australian artists abroad’, sydney morning herald, february , ; ‘retrospect: twelve years from home’, sydney morning herald, july , ; ‘australasian artists in europe’, the british-australasian, september , p - ; and ‘some new arrivals in art’, the british australian and new zealander, july , - . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities up until then had largely been regarded as australian. (miller, who served with the new zealand army at gallipoli, had come to australia in ; cook in ; and wakelin in ). in his article, smith was consciously seeking to provide a pre- history to the experiences of a then-contemporary generation of new zealand artists, such as billy apple, john panting and eric macky (the husband, in fact, of the melbourne painter constance jenkins, both of whom would go on to contribute to the story of australasian art in america). and, of course, smith in was writing in a period when art history was concerned to recover and recuperate hitherto lost or repressed traditions, as seen for instance in the feminist art histories of the s. smith’s anecdotal article is written in testimony to his own personal memories of the three artists and to remind readers of the new journal that these artists were in fact new zealanders and not australians, after their disappearance from the new zealand art histories that were then beginning to be produced. but smith was only scratching the surface of the phenomenon he identified. from our point of view, there is a whole as yet unrecognised history of new zealand art in australia. we have been concerned for some time to write a non-national or what we have called an ‚unaustralian‛ history of australian art. it is a history that begins by raising the very same question as mcintyre as to what defines an australian artist. and our answer, as with smith, is that we should not confine ourselves merely to artists working in this country. this has been to date the default position of all australian art histories, from bernard smith’s canonical australian painting ( ) on. we have argued, however, that we cannot understand australian art without taking into account those australians who did not make art here, and who thereby risked, like miller, cook and wakelin, being excluded from the history of art of the country in which they were born and trained. and in this alternative history we find australian art taking place not just in the usual london and paris, ultimately cities of australian’s colonisation and cultural marginality. we find it as well taking place in the great metropolis of new york, at etaples on the coast of france, in seattle in the north-west of america and in papunya in the central australian desert, all cities that instead speak of australia’s belonging to the rest of the world. in this paper, as the necessary complement to the expatriate story, we want to write a brief history of new zealand art taking place in australia, the immigrant story. this would be part of our more general argument – but one that is always specific, always rooted in historical circumstances, that in a way cannot be generalised – that art is always translocal, metropolitan, caught up in a movement between places. art is never ultimately a matter of countries but always of cities, whether that city be paris or yuendumu; and, more than that, it is always a matter of cities within cities. in latin, we might say that it is always a matter of partes extra partes rather than of genius loci. and in our unaustralian history we reverse the perspective of the usual national histories, which are always written from the inside ernest smith, ‘memories of three new zealand expatriate painters’, art new zealand, no. , august/september , - . see also rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson, ‘a short history of unaustralian art’, in ian north (ed.), visual animals: crossovers, evolution and the new aesthetics, contemporary art centre of south australia, adelaide, , p - ; and rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson, ‘stay, go or come: a history of unaustralian art - ’, australian and new zealand journal of art ( / ), , - . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities out, and write instead from the outside in. we ask not how other places seem from here but how we might appear from other places. and thus to write a history of new zealand art from the point of view of australia is also to write an unnew zealand history of art from the point of view of new zealand. for if from the perspective of australian art history new zealand immigrants to australia are excluded, so from conventional new zealand art history are those new zealand emigrants to australia also rendered invisible. we only have to recall the concluding words to the most recent attempt to write a synoptic history of new zealand art – hamish keith’s the big picture: a history of new zealand art from ( ) – to realise that nationalist new zealand art history is constructed in exactly the same way as the australian. keith writes in the chapter ‘the braided river’: ‚there is no escaping the one simple fact that runs through all of this story. the art made here or influenced by this place is the only art that speaks to us directly about our experience‛. in the space that remains, then, we wish to outline briefly some of the interconnections between australian and new zealand art in the th century. of course, in the th century the art of the two countries was largely the same thing. it is only in the th century with the rise of national histories that the art in the two countries was divided. we have in common a pre-history, with artists moving between the two countries before their respective art histories were written. every artist was in effect a ‚travel‛ artist, having come from somewhere and most often moving on again soon after. it is a condition best described by bernard smith, who shows the two countries’ common roots in his european vision and the south pacific ( ). as smith commentator peter beilharz, writes: ‚australian and new zealand – australasia – were one circuit earlier, even if they now pride themselves as culturally distinct‛. and, against this contemporary sense of cultural distinctiveness, beilharz goes on to call for ‚a renewed sense of the significance of lateral comparison‛. ironically, of course, it would be as much against smith’s own australianist histories that beilharz’s appeal would have to be made. almost as though it were a mythical time before separation, the classic national histories frequently begin with the same artists. but this commonality then needs to be repressed; the fact that the same artist worked in both countries is rarely, if ever, mentioned. we might just point here to four such cases of early artistic cross-over, listing one work painted in australia and the other in new zealand: the english-born augustus earle paints both wentworth falls ( ) and distant view of bay of island ( ); the english-born conrad martens perhaps the great example of this history so far is frenchman jean-claude lesage’s peintres australiens à etaples, a.m.m.e. Éditions, etaples-sur-mer, , a history of australian and new zealand artists at the artist colony of etaples on the northern coast of france. it is in this book that we have another history of australasian art as seen through the eyes of another. we draw on this book throughout what follows. hamish keith, the big picture: a history of new zealand art from , godwit, auckland, , . we take the expression ‚travel artist‛ from the exhibition and catalogue augustus earle: travel artist, national library of australia, . peter beilharz, ‘two new britannias: modernism and modernity across the antipodes’, antipodean modern ach, no. , , and . in this, beilharz would be echoing the words of the australian literary critic nettie palmer, who once wrote: ‚at the beginning of this century, and before that, australia and new zealand knew a good deal more about each other than in the decades that followed‛, meanjin, vol. , no. , , . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities paints both view of the crags above neutral bay ( - ) and kororareka in the bay of islands ( ); the english-born william strutt paints bushrangers on the st kilda road ( ) and on the beach, onehunga ( ); and the viennese-born eugene von guérard paints both kosciusko seen from the victoria border ( ) and milford sound, new zealand ( - ). new zealand art history proper begins (almost like australia’s) with the so- called ‚generation of ‛. we see this generation understood almost as a kind of ‚genesis‛, to use bernard smith’s phrase from australian painting, in michael dunn’s a concise history of new zealand painting ( ); in the survey show, aspects of new zealand art - at the national art gallery in wellington ; and in – arguably the first history to use this date – gordon brown and hamish keith’s an introduction to new zealand painting - ( ). the argument can take the form either of brown and keith’s straightforward declaration that the s marked ‚the beginning of an era in new zealand painting‛, or dunn speaking of von guérard’s milford sound as the first ‚major masterpiece from the new zealand landscape‛; but then, because it was completed in melbourne from initial studies, reserving this accolade for petrus van der velden’s a waterfall in otira gorge ( ), which was painted entirely en plein air on site. petrus van der velden. edward friström. james nairn. girolamo nerli. what is it ultimately that distinguishes this generation of – one dutch, one swedish, one scottish and one italian – from previous new zealand artists? it is the fact that they stay in new zealand. they teach and exhibit in the then-emerging arts societies. in short, they introduce the figure of the professional artist. they are expatriates not travel artists (an expatriatism that is possible only when there is the national). they do not simply make art for consumption back in europe or, like von guérard, complete a picture of new zealand back in australia. they work on the basis that they are creating a tradition in the country of their residence, and indeed their work will significantly inflect that of subsequent generations of artists in new zealand. but what is notable about each of these artists, with the exception of nairn, is that they also work in australia. the case of nerli in melbourne is well known, at least in australian art history; but in fact van der velden works in sydney and friström in brisbane. and here begins the problem of australia’s and new zealand’s bernard smith, ‘genesis - ’, in australian painting - , oxford university press, melbourne, , - . gordon h. brown and hamish keith, an introduction to new zealand painting - , collins, auckland, , . michael dunn, a concise history of new zealand painting, david bateman ltd, auckland, , . dunn is another fascinating example of australia-new zealand interrelations, and indeed the tension between the national and the international in the art historiography of the region. graduating from the canterbury school of art with a degree in painting, dunn then studied at the university of melbourne in the late s under european émigré franz philipp, eventually completing an ma on the topic of new zealand sculpture with the title ‘dependent taste’. although in a concise history we see the connection made between the landscape and national identity, in dunn’s later nerli – an italian painter in the south pacific (auckland university press, ) we have the attempt to think nerli – undoubtedly aided by dunn’s trans-tasman perspective – as belonging exclusively neither to australian nor new zealand art history. it is in the acknowledgements to this book that dunn thanks philipp for suggesting the topic to him. is it too much to see the influence of the cosmopolitan italianist philipp on dunn’s work on nerli and that of bernard smith’s australian painting – for dunn must have encountered the work of smith in melbourne in the late ‘ s – on dunn’s own national histories? rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities invisibility to each other. friström, who lived for some years in brisbane (even marrying an australian woman), is entirely absent from australian art history. van der velden too is absent from smith’s australian painting, despite his earlier south pacific insight. of course, van der velden cannot be absent from brown and keith; but certainly his australian years more or less are – and this despite the fact that he returned to wellington in after some and a half years in sydney, bringing with him, like friström, his australian wife-to-be, called indeed australia. (the van der veldens would even call their daughter melba, after the famous light-operatic diva, who once bought his self-portrait of .) nerli, who arrived in melbourne with his fellow italian ugo catani in , is in smith; but, ‚after a year sojourn in australia, he moved on to dunedin and became one of the first teachers of frances hodgkins‛. at this point he sails out of our narrative, no longer apparently being an australian artist – this after having been a major influence on charles conder, and through him on the entire heidelberg school, said by smith to be the first authentically australian art movement. the presence of nerli’s student, frances hodgkins, in australian art is also largely unacknowledged. beside the reference to her above with regard to nerli, smith remembers her only one other time, in relation to apparently her only one- person exhibitions in this country, in melbourne in and sydney in . in fact, hodgkins showed also in adelaide around the same time, and contributed to the society of women painters in sydney. brown and keith conversely do not mention her years in australia. the two nationalist blindnesses are reciprocal: if smith is not interested in hodgkins insofar as she makes new zealand art in australia, brown and keith are not interested in her insofar as she makes new zealand art in australia. in short, here are the facts (most of these barely represented even in brown and keith): in , hodgkins becomes the first woman teacher of any nationality at the famed parisian atelier school colarossi’s. in , she works and teaches at the french seaside town of concarneau. that same year, she opens the ‘frances hodgkins school of watercolour painting’ at avenue du maine in paris. in , she moves to st ives on the south-west coast of england. from to , she holds summer classes there. from to , she teaches in both france and england. and whom does she teach during this time? amongst many others, the australians ambrose hallen and bessie gibson around at colarossi’s, vida lahey in at st ives, and the new zealanders kate o’connor in at concarneau and maud sherwood in at colarossi’s. thus frances hodgkins is a minor but significant figure in australian art history because of whom she teaches; and because of her australian exhibitions, which embodied, as their advertising suggested, ‚modern french art‛. and it is interesting that when hodgkins fell on hard times in the mid- s, she thought of emigrating from england to australia, ‚doubtless remembering‛, in the words of her biographer eric mccormick, ‚her tour‛. indeed, in she even went so far smith, op. cit., . smith, op. cit., . at footnote smith makes clear his reliance on eric mccormick, hodgkins’ future biographer, for his understanding of hodgkins. the advertisement for hodgkin’s exhibition in sydney is reproduced in e.h. mccormick, portrait of frances hodgkins, auckland university press, auckland, , . ibid, . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities as to book her ticket. she is important to new zealand art history also because of whom she teaches (sherwood, o’connor); but, even more importantly, both new zealand and australian artists come to her in france and england because she is a new zealander (as new zealanders like mcintyre and mina arndt studied with the australian george lambert in london, or as new zealander edith collier studied with australian margaret preston in ireland and england). that is, australian and new zealand artists abroad – as opposed to art historians in australia or new zealand – do not think of themselves as essentially different. in fact, none of the australians hodgkins taught is mentioned in mccormick’s book on her. this is to leave out one extremely significant aspect of hodgkins’ life and work, which is the knowledge of her shared by artists living in australia and new zealand, and more precisely her status as australasian expatriate, the practical example of living and working overseas in another country that she represented for artists living both here and there. we could never do more than gesture here towards the rich history of overlap and interaction between australian and new zealand artists throughout the th century. but as some way of suggesting the work to be done, we list here ten exemplary instances. most of them involve new zealand artists coming to australia as the larger country, but not all of them. there are important instances of australian artists and curators going to live and work in new zealand. and more revealingly still, there are a number of instances of australian and new zealand artists meeting and working together overseas. again, this is telling us that the artists thought of themselves as similar, even if the histories that were being written about them did not. certainly, very few of the stories below have made it into the art histories of either australia or new zealand. they seem to have fallen ‚between the cracks‛, to involve an irrelevant new zealand aspect in an otherwise australian story or an irrelevant australian aspect in an otherwise new zealand story. but, in truth, it is these kind of cross-over incidents, involving artists from the two countries, that constitute the real art histories of both, as mcintrye and ernest smith saw so long ago. this new unaustralian or unnew zealand art history would have to consider: - the new zealander grace joel, who was born in dunedin in , and likely trained with nerli there. certainly, she knew him in her hometown, but ‚possibly also in melbourne where she went to study in - and also later in london, where both painters lived for a time after ‛. joel studied at the national gallery school in melbourne until , before returning home and eventually leaving for europe around . she studied in paris at the académie julian with marcel baschet and françois schommer, then moved to etaples, where she worked beside hodgkins and constance jenkins. as previously mentioned, the french sea-side towns of etaples and concarneau were a work and meeting place for both australians and new zealanders from the late th century on and will become an important military base for the anzacs in world war i. following joel’s death in london in , she will endow her old school in melbourne with a scholarship for painting from the nude. dunn, op. cit., . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities – the new zealander kate o’connor, who will leave her new home town of perth in to go first to london and then to paris, where she would work with hodgkins at her school of water colour painting in . she also studied with rupert bunny at the atelier blanche in , and spent considerable time at concarneau. in other words, australian and new zealand artists were entirely aware of an ongoing expatriate tradition, to which they could attach themselves while overseas. but, equally, for all of their knowledge of their fellow expatriates, they could also on occasions deny them. there is always a complementary nationalist conception of themselves, according to which their meetings and friendships with fellow colonials were seen as trivial or insignificant. and this is the case with o’connor. as janda gooding writes of the relationship between hodgkins, o’connor and the canadian emily carr at concarneau: ‚what is fascinating is that each woman either erased their recollections of the other two artists or deliberately belittled their involvement. carr identified hodgkins as ‘an australian woman whose name i forget’; hodgkins deliberately omitted from her letters any reference to o’connor; and o’connor dismissed hodgkins as ‘an opportunist with astigmatism’‛. – the new zealander roland wakelin, who, having already exhibited with the new zealand academy of fine arts, came to sydney in and studied with ‚the signor‛, the italian-born art teacher antonio dattilo rubbo. in a milieu that included grace cossington smith and norah simpson, wakelin later teamed with fellow datillo-rubbo student roy de maistre, and together they put on colour in art at gayfield shaw’s art salon in . the stories of this exhibition and of simpson’s return from europe with a suitcase of reproductions of the work of french modernism are foundational in the construction of australian art. that a new zealander was so central has been forgotten, and in many ways wakelin’s esteem rose as his nationality receded, thus reproducing the fate of many new zealand artists in australia. – the new zealander rex nan kivell and his well-known redfern gallery in cork street, london, where australian curator alleyne zander was encouraged to recover the lost australian modernist derwent lees – a clear case of both kivell and zander (like edith fry before them) recognising a shared expatriate tradition, and the importance of returning that tradition to its source. kivell will later employ the australian harry tatlock miller as his assistant after the war, and would show the australians sidney nolan and louis james. knighted by the australian government, he would leave his important collection of australian and new zealand colonial art to the australian national library upon his death in . - the new zealander helen stewart, who came to sydney in , having studied at wellington technical college, the london school of art, and at colarossi’s and la grand chaumière in paris. in she returned to london, and like so many australian women worked with iain mcnab at the grosvenor school. again, as so many australian women did, she went on to study with andré lhote in paris, thus joining a line that included grace crowley, anne dangar, eveline syme and dorrit janda gooding, ‘putting distance between us: kathleen o’connor and the luxembourg gardens paintings’, in painted women, lawrence wilson art gallery, perth, , . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities black, as well as her compatriot john weeks. stewart moved amongst these artists in sydney, following her return from europe in . she exhibited with the macquarie galleries (where wakelin had held the inaugural exhibition in ), was a withering critic of art criticism in australia and was at the centre of the so-called colony of new zealand women painters in sydney, a loose group that also included violet bowring, maud sherwood and adele younghusband. she returned finally to wellington in , and from there regularly sent work to sydney for exhibition throughout the s. she subsequently co-founded ‘the thursday group’ and exhibited with the ‘group of nine’ in wellington, where she died in . – the new zealander sydney thompson, who was a student of van der velden before leaving christchurch in , thereafter to spend much of rest of his life in concarneau. indeed, we must ask: was it van der velden who opened thompson’s eyes to the expatriate possibility? in , however, thompson showed at the macquarie galleries in sydney and the new gallery in melbourne, and had his work acquired by both the art gallery of new south wales and the national gallery of victoria. the following year, he held one-person exhibitions in both cities again; and would return to australia, as also did frances hodgkins, as a british artist in the murray fuller exhibition of contemporary art, which toured australia and then new zealand. (this mistaken designation was repeated regularly throughout the s. derwent lees, for instance, appeared as a british artist in alleyne zander’s exhibition of british contemporary art in , and j.w. power was likewise identified as british in basil burdett’s exhibition of french and british modern art in .) thompson was able to work and reside between new zealand and france for decades, exhibiting regularly in both countries as well as in australia. he was the very model of a contemporary artist today. – the new zealander owen merton, who after studying at the christchurch school of art left for london in , before joining hodgkins at her summer school at concarneau in . later he studied at colarossi’s and was a student of percyval tudor-hart at the same time as the dunedin-born painter maud sherwood. merton had met the adelaide painter richard hayley lever while painting at st. ives in and, like hayley lever, he moved in with his family to america, where he remained until . from then until his death in , merton moved between america, france, england, north africa and bermuda. like his friend from adelaide, he found the road to america that went through paris. – the new zealander john weeks, who studied at the elam school of arts in auckland under, amongst others, edward friström, then spent two years at the sydney technical school between and . in he left christchurch for the royal scottish academy, but in he left edinburgh for paris where he began to work with andré lhote, something he would do periodically between visits to the south of france, north africa and italy (weeks was also an orientalist) until . in that year he headed back to auckland where, in , he began a -year teaching career at elam school of art, and in his work he became increasingly concerned with abstraction. this trajectory is, to australian eyes, reminiscent of the careers of, for h. s. (helen stewart), ‘art criticism in australia’, bulletin, april . from the art gallery of nsw press clippings folder, art gallery of nsw research library, sydney. see also margaret pearson, ‘colony of new zealand women painters in sydney’, sydney morning herald, december , . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities example, grace crowley, anne dangar and dorrit black, each of whom as teachers was concerned to pass on their understandings of art gained in europe once back in australia. weeks became, as did these women in australia, a decisive figure in new zealand art, even if, as peter shand has pointed out, ‚the observation in his obituary that he was ‘particularly interested in interpreting the new zealand landscape’ sums up the popular perception of john weeks’ place in new zealand art history, but emphasises the wrong reason for his importance‛. – the new zealander colin mccahon, who during a trip to melbourne in met the australian expatriate painter mary cockburn-mercer, known for once being in the inner circle of cubists and for having attended the famous dinner put on by picasso and friends for henri rousseau in paris in . mccahon hired the now ‚small, elderly woman with a walking stick and crutch‛ to give him painting lessons and, more importantly, to talk to him about art. it is upon his return to new zealand that mccahon embarked on a new cubist phase in his work, which can be seen as leading to his artistic maturity. unlike many examples of australian-new zealand relations, mccahon biographer gordon brown fully acknowledges the influence of cockburn-mercer upon mccahon: ‚although unimportant as a painter, mccahon felt something of the spirit of cubism flowed through cockburn-mercer into his own understanding of what cubism was about‛. – finally, we would have to consider amongst many others the careers of the new zealand avant-garde sculptor and film-maker len lye, who, drawn by the film industry, lived in sydney from to , where his shift to hand-painted animated films featuring ‚primitive‛ imagery from the region was inspired in part by seeing the archive of aboriginal and south pacific art at the mitchell library in sydney; and the prematurely deceased new zealand artist frank weitzel, who was a key contributor to the de maistre-driven burdekin house exhibition in sydney in , which stood at the intersection of modern art and design in australia. weitzel, whose family was politically engaged, anti-conscription (his father was interred as an enemy-alien) and subject to local hostility, originally headed to america, where he studied at the california school of fine arts. on scholarship, weitzel studied next at the new york art students’ league in , and at the kunstakademie in munich in . it was only in that he joined his sister in sydney, and having established himself there he set off again, this time for london where he exhibited with, and knew, jacob epstein, duncan grant and paul and john nash. while preparing for his first one-person exhibition, weitzel contracted tetanus digging for clay for his sculpture and died in . in his work was the subject of a retrospective peter shand, ‘john weeks ( - )’, dictionary of new zealand biography, updated june . url: http//www.dnzb.govt.nz/ gordon h. brown, colin mccahon: artist, reed, wellington, , . coincidentally, weitzel’s sister hedwig (hettie) ross, having been found guilty in of spreading seditious literature in wellington – the australian newspaper the communist – had moved to sydney, where she rose through the central committee of the communist party of australia to become the leader of the militant women’s group, while at the same time she completed her training to become a teacher. working all over new south wales from the late s, she eventually rose to spend more than years on the executive of the teachers federation. from her time at victoria university college in wellington around , the future new zealand prime minister peter fraser remembered her as ‚a wonderfully brilliant student‛. rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities exhibition organised by dorrit black at the modern art centre in sydney. indeed, it was through black that weitzel had come to work with claude flight at the grosvenor school, which led to his embrace of the linocut. weitzel, so briefly in australia, had a considerable impact here amongst our most advanced artists, but he is completely absent from new zealand art histories. all of this would be to leave out such telling new zealand figures in australian art as james r. jackson, maud sherwood, dora meeson, harold cazneaux, frank lynch, dorothy richmond, edwin and mary murray fuller, dorothy thornhill, frances d. ellis, helen crabbe (also known as ‘barc’), gordon mcauslan, eileen mayo and even sydney’s so-called witch of kings cross, rosaleen norton, who was born in new zealand. it would also be to leave out those fewer – and for us this is significant – australian figures who feature in new zealand art. this brief list would include the natural history painter and pacific adventurer ellis rowan, the slade-trained watercolourist and painter eana blyth jeans, the east sydney technical college-trained painter, printmaker and teacher kate coolahan and the gallery director and author of two hundred years of new zealand painting gil docking. to conclude here, however, let us take up one case study in australian-new zealand artistic relationships in a little more detail. the recently published the invention of new zealand art: art and national identity - by francis pound is clearly an attempt to reverse previous histories of new zealand art. the book is an analysis of the nationalist rhetoric that accompanied new zealand art throughout the years under review, in effect arguing that the distinctiveness of new zealand art is not real but the creation or invention of a discourse. moreover, for pound, this nationalist discourse – as for ernest smith some years before – no longer speaks to the situation of such contemporary new zealand artists as michael parakhowai or jenny fraser or the gallerist peter vuletic (his examples), who make and show work with galleries and artists around the world. pound’s book ends in the year , and his concluding chapter is entitled ‘a post-nationalist art’. but what is notable about pound’s book is that, for all of his criticism of the rhetorics of nationalism, he is unable to present a positive alternative; if he ends with a ‚post-national‛ situation for new zealand art, he is precisely unable to write the history of this post-nationalism. indeed, the reader ultimately gets the sense that the book, which was written over a -year period, was originally a nationalist history, and for all of its change of heart along the way cannot get itself beyond a nationalist horizon. we might get a sense both of the limits of pound’s book and of the possibilities another, unnew zealand art history might open up, if we consider the career of one of the artists pound takes up in his ‚post-national‛ chapter, gordon walters. pound – as michael dunn in a concise history of new zealand painting before him – wants to understand walters’ turn towards abstraction as a consequence of his encounter with the art of paris in . this contact was no doubt crucial, but it arose within the wider context of his life and work in sydney and melbourne during the six years between and . however, pound, as dunn, makes no mention of walters’ australian years (as australian art historians do not when writing histories of art in this country), but it was in fact during these years that walters did his first abstract paintings. rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities to offer the briefest summary of events: after studying with the indonesian- born theo schoon at the wellington technical college, walters comes to sydney for the first time in january , and in that month acquired a copy of the catalogue for the museum of modern art’s - juan miró exhibition. he visited melbourne and then returned to wellington in april. he spent july and august with schoon in the south canterbury caves examining maori rock art, and over the christmas period he continued to make drawings and take photographs in the caves with schoon. in june walters held his second exhibition at the coffee shop french maid in wellington, and left again for sydney in december, where he would live until february . during this period he recalled ‚studying rock engravings in the sydney area and bark paintings in the museums of melbourne and sydney‛. walters’ untitled ( ) ‚was partly inspired by australian aboriginal rock paintings‛. of course, walters’ imaginative exploration of the indigenous art of australia and the pacific and his use of the mitchell library is an almost exact replay of len lye’s evolution in the same city in the s. , however, was an important year in the history of abstract art in sydney. in that year grace crowley was appointed to teach abstraction at east sydney technical college – which had previously been sydney technical college and is now the national art school – but handed over her class to ralph balson, who began the first of his years teaching there. tony tuckson considered them his most influential teachers, and they in turn remembered him as their most ‚sincere‛ student. both balson and crowley contributed work that year to contemporary australian art, which opened in june at auckland art gallery, and both artists were central figures in the seminal group exhibition abstract, which opened in october at david jones art gallery in sydney. at this time walters caught up with, for instance, copies of cahiers d’art at the state library and came to know ‚several australian artists, including charles blackman‛. it would be fascinating to learn whom else walters befriended in sydney in . balson? crowley? tuckson? in february walters headed back to wellington, where in november he held his fourth exhibition, this time at the wellington public library. this exhibition, consisting of work mostly done during and after his time in sydney, was his last for years. for michael dunn it either gets a ‚hostile reception‛ or is ‚received with indifference‛. in march walters steams to london, which he uses as a base for his forays onto the continent, in particular to paris, over the following ten months. already familiar with the work of august herbin from the november issue of art d’aujourd’hui, he arrives in paris at a time when geometric painting is in the ascendant. in april galerie denise rené holds the group exhibition espaces nouveaux, which includes the work of victor vasarely, and in june she shows arp gordon walters, ‘notes’, gordon walters, auckland city art gallery, auckland, , . ibid, . daniel thomas, tony tuckson - , art gallery of nsw, sydney, , . ‘chronology’, gordon walters, op. cit., . michael dunn, ‘the enigma of gordon walters’ art’, art in new zealand, march-april , . ‘chronology’, gordon walters, op. cit., . iain buchanan, ‘walters and auguste herbin’, gordon walters: order and intuition, walters publications, auckland, , . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities and sophie taeuber-arp, presumably the show at which walters ‚warmed to *the work of] sophie taeuber-arp, on the whole preferring it to the work of her husband, hans arp‛. in the same month, the th salon des réalités nouvelles opened at the palais des beaux-arts. this was the exhibition in which the srn opened up to artists from around the world, in particular to those from switzerland, holland and america, besides the usual french, germans, scandinavians, italians, belgians and hungarians. in this single exhibition, walters could have seen the work of josef albers, ilya bolotowsky, etienne beothy, max bill, marcelle cahn, jo delahaut, piero dorazio, felix del marle, natalia dumitresco, jean gorin, paul gadegaard, camille greaser, janin, frantisek kupka, gyula kosice, richard paul lohse, george morris, eric olson, pevsner, manlio rho, hilla rebay, mimmo rotella, nicholas schöffer, and auguste herbin, and the australian mary webb. was also the year in paris in which jean dewasne and edgar pillet founded their atelier d’art abstrait in the rue de la grande-chaumière. then, in january , walters returned. not to wellington but to melbourne, and it was there that he completed, for the first time, an abstract painting. in october, he was joined by his friend, the expatriate new zealander george johnson, and through most of the two artists shared a studio in nicholson street, footscray. walters spent more than two and a half years in melbourne, and while little is known of this time it was clearly a productive period for him. ‚the influences i was digesting at the time were those of the artists whose work i had studied in europe, and who were to have a decisive and lasting effect on work. they were arp, in his early reliefs and collages, mondrian, the early vasarely, herbin and capogrossi in particular. on the other hand there was the art of the pacific, new zealand, new guinea (all of it), the marquesas, the austral islands, etc, which i had also studied closely in museums while overseas‛. in all walters was in australia for more than two and half years before he left in august for auckland, where he caught up again with theo schoon, the first time the old friends had seen each other in more than years. in australia he had done his first abstract works and, when ‚he departed from melbourne in august , walters left much of his work behind with the intention of soon returning. instead, he was to remain in new zealand from that time onwards, based in wellington‛. walters’ lost melbourne works remain a tantalising prospect. in walters returned to sydney, where he met bridget riley jenny harper, ‘black, white and ‚op‛: links between gordon walters, bridget riley and victor vasarely’, gordon walters: order and intuition, ibid, . michael dunn, ‘the art of gordon walters’, gordon walters, op. cit., . dunn writes: ‚in paris, he saw exhibitions by french non-figurative painters such as auguste herbin and victor vasarely at the denise rené gallery‛. neither artist, however, held a one-person exhibition in in paris, let alone at galerie denise rené. both, however, did have work in the group exhibition aspects de l’art d’aujourd’hui at rené’s gallery in that year, but this was in january before walters arrived. george johnson, interview with charles nodrum, november . curiously, johnson remembers walters coming to melbourne from hobart, and that he, johnson, had preceded walters in melbourne. if this is the case, walters had perhaps spent time in sydney and then tasmania before moving to melbourne. in july walters made a brief trip to new zealand to see his parents. gordon walters, ‘statements’, september , gordon walters, op. cit., . michael dunn, ‘the art of gordon walters’, gordon walters, op. cit., . rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities as she escorted her touring australian exhibition and made his final trip to that city to view the sydney biennale. let us be very clear here: our point in all of this is not merely a matter of asserting that walters spent time in australia, as though this is significant in and of itself. rather, our point is the much stronger one that we cannot properly understand even the new zealand part of walters’ career – his breakthrough into abstraction – without taking account of the time he spent in australia. and in all kinds of ways, as we have tried to show here, whether it is the experiences of new zealand artists overseas before they return or, indeed, the influence of new zealand artists who remain overseas on the art made in new zealand, we simply cannot restrict new zealand art to that made there or influenced by the country, as keith would have it. new zealand art also takes place elsewhere; its cities always contain other cities. now, pound is undoubtedly right when he says that new zealand art today is ‚post-national‛. it is to admit that the special relationship australia and new zealand once had throughout the th and th centuries is over. today, australia is no longer a privileged destination for new zealand artists, as the closest larger culture. whereas once it was the sydney film industry that drew len lye to sydney, today new zealand filmmakers work all around the world, and make the world and, indeed, other worlds, in new zealand. but if we were going to write the history of this situation, of how new zealand got to be like this, we would start with australia. it was perhaps in australia more than any other place that new zealand art began to move beyond itself. it is only by considering new zealand’s ongoing artistic relationship with a country like australia in the th century that we might understand new zealand’s artistic relationship with the rest of the world in the st century. we might finish our account here by reflecting on the famous story of mccahon in sydney in . he had not been out of new zealand for years and, at the height of his artistic fame and doubtless stressed by the events surrounding his inclusion in the biennale of sydney, in which his work had pride of place, he fled and went on a drinking spree. he walked the streets alone and disoriented for two days, lost in a place that new zealand art history does not see and that does not see new zealand art. by the time of mccahon’s alcohol-fuelled wanderings and memory lapses, so incorporated were new zealand artists in the history of australian art and so unknown were those new zealand artists living in australia by new zealanders that it had been forgotten that both walters’ and mccahon’s old friend theo schoon had been in sydney for years, equally lost. and mccahon himself, walking through the streets of sydney, was the very embodiment of new zealand art in australia: unrecognised, incognito, thought to be just another australian until he was found and rescued. rex butler’s research interests include australian art and art criticism and contemporary art. he is the author of slavoj zizek: live theory ( ), a secret history of australian art ( ), jean baudrillard: defence of the real ( ), and an uncertain smile ( ), as well as editing several books including the universal exception ( ) (with scott stephens), a selection of essays by slavoj zizek, radical revisionism ( ) and what is appropriation? ( ). his current research includes working on a history of "unaustralian" art and the life and work of colin mccahon. rex butler and a.d.s. donaldson cities within cities r.butler@uq.edu.au a. d. s. donaldson is a lecturer in the painting department at the national art school. he studied at the university of sydney, the kunstakademie düsseldorf, the royal danish academy of fine arts, copenhagen and the École des beaux-arts, paris. he is an artist, art historian and curator specializing in the history of australian art in the th century. his current research includes working on a history of "unaustralian" art, and the cultural interrelationship between australia and france since . adsdonaldson@fastmail.fm résumé. duchamp avait rencontré brancusi en , année qui marque le début d’une amitié consignée par l’histoire de l’art. son parcours avait été fixé dans les pages de leur correspondance, conservées au centre georges pompidou. le lecteur est surpris de constater qu’il n’y a que des faits anodins qui soient consignés, tandis que les références aux conceptions artistiques sont presque totalement absentes. toutefois, en lisant les témoignages de duchamp conservés dans les célèbres boîtes (verte et blanche), on se rend compte qu’il partage les conceptions platoniciennes de son ami sculpteur, chose importante, qui nous laisse formuler des suppositions concernant une influence dirigée de brancusi dans la direction duchamp. À son tour, durant l’intervalle – , victor brauner était l’hôte de brancusi dans l’atelier de l’impasse ronsin. c’est ici qu’il a pu rencontrer duchamp, qui s’y rendait fréquemment dans les années . une rencontre qui a certainement eu des retombées sur l’œuvre du futur peintre surréaliste. la preuve en est dans deux de ses toiles, tête et deux boxeurs et passivité courtoise. faut-il s’étonner que le message que duchamp avait mis dans les structures sémantiques de son chef-d’œuvre la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même ou le grand verre y avait été « logé » d’une manière évidente ? mais alors on doit reconnaître que lors de leurs rencontres de chez brancusi, duchamp avait transmis à brauner des informations très précises sur l’iconographie du grand verre, ainsi que sur la quatrième dimension, que le futur peintre surréaliste allait reconvertir dans les trois dimensions de l’espace ordinaire. perçu dans cette perspective, l’atelier de l’impasse ronsin nous semble un lieu où les idées des trois artistes ont pu communiquer d’une manière osmotique. keywords: avant-garde, grand verre, platonism, fourth dimension, influence. marcel duchamp, constantin brancusi, victor brauner : leurs rencontres et leurs retombÉes sur leurs Œuvres* cristian-robert velescu nombreux sont les témoignages qui prouvent l’intérêt de marcel duchamp pour le problème de la quatrième dimension. dès que l’on veut établir une chronologie de ces préoccupations, on s’aperçoit qu’elles correspondent surtout à l’époque de jeunesse de l’artiste, quand celui-ci avait décidé de définitivement renoncer à la peinture. cette coïncidence induit l’idée que duchamp était conscient que la réalité connue comme « quatrième dimension » n’a pas un correspondant dans le monde visible, raison pour laquelle l’intérêt qu’il en manifestait – simultané au refus de la peinture – pourrait être interprété comme attitude iconoclaste. toutefois, en parcourant les différents témoignages, on ne se rend pas exactement compte de ce que duchamp entendait par le syntagme « quatrième dimension ». la cause de cette ambiguïté pourrait être la stratégie assumée par l’artiste dans ses rapports avec la presse et le public. au cours de différentes interviews données sur ce thème, duchamp s’avère réservé, faisant semblant parfois de ne rien comprendre de toute cette question une forme abrégée de cette étude avait été présentée au xxxe congrès du comité international d’histoire de l’art – ciha , sites et territoires de l’histoire de l’art, montréal, – août et publiée en roumain comme chapitre de notre livre victor brauner d’après duchamp, sau drumul pictorului către un suprarealism « bine temperat », bucarest, . rev. roum. hist. art, série beaux-arts, tome l, p. – , bucarest, qui avait tellement agité les esprits de la génération cubiste. en approfondissant les documents, on constate qu’au lieu d’avoir des retombées sur l’œuvre plastique, la quatrième dimension engage plutôt les habiletés scientifiques, voire mathématiques de l’artiste. pour éclaircir ses liens avec les mathématiques, duchamp nous en parle soit avec humour, soit d’une manière humble, nous partageant l’inconsistance de ses compétences en tant que mathématicien . voilà une de ses réponses concernant la quatrième dimension, réponse qu’il donne à l’occasion d’une interview datant de : « ah, oui, c’est aussi un de mes petits péchés, parce que je ne suis pas mathématicien. c’est justement maintenant que je lis un livre sur la quatrième dimension et je me rends compte combien je suis enfantin et naïf quant à cette quatrième dimension, car la simple transcription de ces notices me donne l’illusion que je pourrais avoir une contribution à l’égard de ce sujet. mais à ce moment je me rends compte que je suis un peu trop naïf pour une pareille entreprise » . s’il y a quelque chose de surprenant dans ce témoignage, ce n’est pas la sincérité de duchamp, qui nous parle de ses compétences reistreintes en mathématiques, mais la durée de ces préoccupations. nous savons que lors de leurs entretiens dominicaux à puteaux (fig. ), chez les frères duchamp, les artistes qui s’y rendaient lisaient, vers , les livres et les traités d’henri poincaré, georg friedrich bernhard riemann et nicolaï ivanovich lobachewsky . maintenant nous sommes renseignés qu’en , les mathématiques et la quatrième dimension intéressaient encore duchamp. il est donc possible de découvrir chez lui l’histoire entière du problème, qui traverse sa biographie artistique. le début de cette « histoire » doit être cherché dans les milieux cubistes. après , à la suite du refus du nu descendant un escalier au salon des indépendants (fig. ), dont albert gleizes était responsable , duchamp se sépare des cubistes et dirige sa créativité sur des voies personnelles, qui vont aboutir à la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même (fig. ), œuvre d’une grande complexité, dont l’élaboration comprend une période conceptuelle, amorcée dès , une autre, réservée à l’élaboration effective, comprise entre - , et une dernière, vouée aux aspects plutôt théoriques, renvoyant à la première, celle de l’élaboration mentale. cette dernière période est consacrée à l’élaboration des deux « boîtes », la boîte verte de , et la boîte blanche de , celle-ci étant également connue sous le titre À l’infinitif. les deux « boîtes » peuvent et doivent être interprétées comme des « extensions » théoriques du grand verre , sinon comme des « écrits » qui font partie de l’œuvre- même. compte tenu de l’intervalle considérable qui sépare la réalisation des deux boîtes, on peut conclure que « la quatrième dimension » avait sollicité la créativité de duchamp tout au long de son activité. les préoccupations de duchamp concernant la quatrième dimension ont été documentées quasi-exhaustivement par linda dalrymple henderson . les principales étapes des recherches de l’artiste sur la quatrième dimension y sont analysées avec une extrême rigueur, mais pour avoir une image complète du problème, il est nécessaire de consulter la collection de textes sur marcel duchamp, établie par serge stauffer , ainsi que les témoignages consignés par pierre cabanne . les sources de premier ordre restent quand même les deux boîtes de duchamp, et surtout « la blanche », publiées par michel sanouillet . le plus ancien des témoignages concernant le rapport entre la quatrième dimension et l’œuvre de duchamp semble être celui d’elmer ernest southard. durant un entretien du novembre , l’artiste se hâte à identifier son nu descendant un escalier à la quatrième dimension-même : « eh bien, […] il n’y a aucun sens de clarifier ça. je ne le clarifie pas. finalement, c’est la quatrième dimension » . le caractère sibyllin de la réponse est dû, sans aucun doute, à l’intervalle court qui sépare le moment de l’entretien du moment de la réalisation de la toile. nous croyons donc que les toiles cubistes de duchamp ont « absorbé » la réalité de la quatrième dimension, idée signalée par henderson , et partiellement confirmée par duchamp dans son entretien avec james johnson sweeney, ancien directeur du musée d’art moderne de new york : « je dois au cubisme beaucoup d’idées concernant la décomposition des formes. mais je concevais l’art à une échelle plus vaste. À cette époque il y avait des discussions concernant la quatrième dimension et les géométries non- euclidiennes. mais la plupart des opinions étaient des opinions de dilettantes. metzinger en était très attiré. et malgré tous nos égarements, ces idées nouvelles nous ont aidé à nous libérer du modèle conventionnel de communiquer, de nos platitudes de cafés et d’ateliers » . fig. – les frères duchamp à puteaux. fig. – marcel duchamp, nu déscendant un escalier. fig. – marcel duchamp, le grand verre. en parcourant le témoignage, il devient évident que les débats des peintres cubistes réunis à puteaux ne conduisaient pas nécessairement à une transcription « optique » de la réalité que l’on puisse identifier sous le nom de « quatrième dimension », chose d’ailleurs utopique. ils offraient en revanche une variante spirituelle aux « platitudes de cafés et d’ateliers » de l’époque. il faut donc accepter qu’en commençant avec les cubistes, un commentaire de nature plutôt spirituelle – concernant le rapport visible- intelligible – s’ajoutait à l’œuvre proprement-dite. par les moyens plastiques qui lui étaient spécifiques, l’œuvre cubiste ne parvenait qu’à approximer à l’aide d’une sorte d’allégorie visuelle – devenue d’ailleurs formule stylistique – la réalité impalpable de la quatrième dimension. en dépit de l’effort des cubistes, l’essence- même de la quatrième dimension ne s’ouvrait qu’au raisonnement. À cet égard, le témoignage de duchamp nous semble précieux : « […] paris était alors très divisé, et le quartier de picasso et de braque, montmartre, était très séparé des autres. j’ai eu la chance de le fréquenter un peu à ce moment-là avec princet . princet était un être extraordinaire. c’était un simple professeur de mathématiques dans une école libre, ou quelque chose comme cela, mais il jouait au monsieur qui connaissait la quatrième dimension par cœur ; alors, on l’écoutait. metzinger, qui était intelligent, s’en est servi beaucoup. la quatrième dimension devenait une chose dont on parlait, sans savoir ce que ça voulait dire. encore maintenant d’ailleurs » . en considérant de plus près cet aveu, on se rend compte de la nuance dépréciative qu’il comporte. questionné par pierre cabanne sur ses connaissances mathémati- ques, duchamp répond : « ce qui nous intéressait, à ce moment- là, c’était la quatrième dimension. dans la boîte verte, il y a des tas de notes sur la quatrième dimension. vous rappelez-vous quelqu’un qui s’appelait povolowski ? il était éditeur rue bonaparte. je ne me rappelle pas exactement son nom. il avait écrit des articles dans un journal sur la vulgarisation de la quatrième dimension, pour expliquer qu’il y avait les êtres plats, qui n’ont que deux dimensions, etc. c’était très amusant, même au temps du cubisme avec princet » . en faisant allusion au cubisme et à la quatrième dimension, duchamp semble se rapporter à la préhistoire du problème. le témoignage suivant, dû à robert lebel, complète le précédent : « À distance, le cubisme ne semble pas dépourvu de prétentions scientifiques et son étirement de l’objet en polyèdre étalé pourrait trouver sa justification dans la géométrie non euclidienne. pourtant les cubistes de la première heure se souciaient peu de philosophie ou de science, ainsi que le rappelle avec regret d. h. kahnweiler. leur théoricien en matière avait été princet, employé d’assurances qui s’était fait à bon compte une réputation de mathématicien à montmartre, où l’on était séduit surtout par sa drôlerie et son esprit baroque. c’est ce qu’on appréciait également en lui chez les frères duchamp dont la culture scientifique avait plus de consistance, sans être pour autant dépourvue d’ironie. marcel, pour sa part, avait tiré des ouvrages de lobachewsky et de riemann des conclusions toutes personnelles. contrairement à ce que l’on a parfois avancé, il n’a jamais introduit directement la quatrième dimension dans ses tableaux de , mais il l’a utilisée dans son système à titre d’inconnue. il était parti comme toujours d’une observation très simple : un objet à trois dimensions projette une ombre qui n’en comporte que deux. il en conclut que l’objet à trois dimensions doit être, à son tour, l’ombre d’un autre objet qui en comporte quatre. c’est dans cet esprit qu’il a réalisé graphiquement la mariée dont il a fait la projection lunaire d’une forme invisible » . nous voilà en possession des informations concernant les lectures et la manière « pratique » dont duchamp entendait « visualiser » la quatrième dimension. robert lebel crois qu’elle avait été abordée « à titre d’inconnue ». c’est la manière discrète par laquelle on est informé que la quatrième dimension n’est pas à trouver elle-même dans les structures visuelles du grand verre, mais uniquement sa projection tridimensionnelle, sinon bidimensionnelle. duchamp était parfaitement conscient de cet artifice, sachant qu’un espace quadridimensionnel aurait été une utopie au point de vue plastique: « la mariée est une sorte de mariée mécanique, si vous voulez. elle n’est pas la mariée elle-même, c’est le concept d’une mariée que j’ai dû apporter sur la toile d’une manière ou d’une autre, mais à l’époque c’était plus important que j’avais exprimé tout cela par des mots, par des expressions verbales, avant de le dessiner. ce que le verre représente en réalité, ce n’est pas la copie d’une mariée vêtue de ses meilleurs vêtements, ou quelque chose comme cela, mais il y a des parties du verre que l’on nomme mariée, et d’autres nommées célibataires. en d’autres termes, les célibataires peuvent être perçus en une sorte de forme non-abstraite, ou du moins dans une forme non-détaillée, c’est-à-dire dans une forme qui n’est pas naturelle. la même chose avec la mariée, elle est une mariée inventée par moi (…), un nouvel être humain, mi-robot, mi-quadri- dimensionnel. l’idée de la quatrième dimension était également très importante à cette époque. tout ce qui possède une forme tridimensionnelle, est, dans notre monde, la projection venue d’un monde quadridimensionnel. par exemple, ma mariée serait la projection tridimension- nelle d’une mariée à quatre dimensions. bon! mais si ça passe sur le verre, ça devient plat, et ma mariée est une représentation bidimensionnelle d’une mariée tridimensionnelle, qui est, à la foi, la projection quadridimensionnelle de la mariée sur un monde tridimensionnel » . la même idée est reprise d’une manière plus synthétique dans les « entretiens » consignés par pierre cabanne : « c’était un peu un sophisme, mais enfin, c’était une chose possible. c’est là- dessus que j’ai basé la mariée dans le grand verre, comme étant une projection d’un objet à quatre dimensions » . de ces deux témoignages, il résulte clairement que « visualiser » la quatrième dimension était pure utopie. mais duchamp partageait la conviction que les difficultés de la « représentation quadridimension- nelle » auraient pu être franchies à l’aide du discours théorique, voire sophistique. c’est pourquoi « avant de dessiner », il voulait exprimer « tout cela » – c’est à dire la quatrième dimension – « par des mots », « par des expressions verbales ». il est sous-entendu que duchamp n’espérait pas grand chose du dessin en tant que moyen apte à représenter l’espace à quatre dimensions, car en parlant du grand verre, il nous partage qu’à l’époque de son élaboration il n’avait pas eu l’intention d’apporter sur la toile une mariée quadridimensionnelle en « chair et sang », mais uniquement son « concept » . d’ailleurs, il précise que la mariée avait été apportée sur la toile «d’une manière ou d’une autre », c’est-à-dire dans une forme relative, en créant une sorte de figure allégorique en tant que substitut de la « vraie mariée quadridimensionnelle ». du moment où pour duchamp « les mots » et les « expressions verbales » avaient une importance égale sinon plus grande que celle du signe graphique quant à l’approximation des limites d’un monde à quatre dimensions, il nous semble juste de nous interroger sur les moyens par lesquels l’artiste voulait « apporter sur la toile », c’est-à-dire de « visualiser » son discours théorique . dès le début il avait voulu accompagner son verre d’une documentation écrite, une sorte de catalogue, partie intégrante du verre, où chaque détail aurait dû être expliqué, les mots accompagnant l’image . ses célèbres « boîtes », la « verte » et la « blanche », n’en sont que le reflet tardif. par cette « symbiose » l’artiste espérait-il « actualiser » l’image quadridi- mensionnelle proprement-dite, autrement impossible à « apporter sur la toile » ? peut- être que oui, mais ce qui est certain c’est que forçant les limites du monde quadridimensionel en tant qu’artiste peintre, duchamp ne parvenait pas à se débarasser de ses habitudes visuelles tridimensionnelles. d’ailleurs il avoue cet échec en nous partageant sa stratégie qui l’avait obligé de remplacer la «mariée quadridimensionnelle» par l’ombre que celle-ci projette sur notre monde tridimensionnel. en d’autres termes, duchamp est conscient qu’il n’est pas capable de représenter des séquences d’un monde à quatre dimensions autrement qu’en respectant les conventions de la perception et de la représentation tridimensionnelle, mais en leur « ajoutant » des éclaircissements verbaux. les mots utilisés par duchamp doivent être interprétés comme des vrais « prolongements » de l’image tridimensionnelle qui manifeste la tendance de s’emparer de la quatrième dimension. munis d’une force propulsive, ces « prolongements » semblent franchir la frontière qui sépare le monde visible à trois dimensions du monde invisible à quatre dimensions. afin de s’unir aux « mots trampoline », l’image tridimensionnelle doit subir ses propres avatars, qui la séparent de l’image tridimensionnelle « ordinaire ». cela signifie que les réalités tridimensionnelles représentées par tel ou tel peintre d’une manière traditionnelle ne sont pas toutes obligatoirement des « projections » venues d’un monde à quatre dimensions. même s’il ne nous renseigne pas sur le « statut » de ces « ombres », duchamp induit l’idée que l’artiste qui « opère » avec l’espace à quatre dimensions doit dissocier entre deux catégories d’entités tridimensionnelles: celles qui ne sont que des entités tridimensionnelles ordinaires et d’autres qui s’identifient aux « projections » venues d’un monde à quatre dimensions. un indice qui pourrait nous guider au cours de cette action séparatrice est précisément le faible degré de réalisme qui caractérise ces «ombres » jetées sur notre monde par les entités quadridimensionnelles. c’est pourquoi il est utile de nous rappeler les propos de duchamp sur sa mariée. en parlant de cette œuvre, il indique que : « […] ce que le verre représente en réalité, ce n’est pas la copie d’une mariée vêtue de ses meilleurs vêtements, ou quelque chose comme cela… ». donc, l’artiste précise qu’il ne s’agit pas d’une représentation réaliste, mais bien au contraire. c’est pourquoi il est possible de formuler l’hypothèse selon laquelle duchamp concevait les « ombres » des réalités à quatre dimensions comme des entités tridimensionnelles, crées au point de vue plastique selon les exigences d’un art anti-mimétique, dont le moteur était une « nécessité déformatrice », pour rappeler le célèbre syntagme inventé par paul klee . on peut donc affirmer que la réalité tridimensionnelle à fonction « d’ombre remplaçante » d’une réalité à quatre dimensions se laisse reconnaître chez duchamp par l’anti-mimétisme formel qui la caractérise et par le corpus de pensées qui l’accompagne, dirigeant l’attention du spectateur – sinon sa compréhension – vers les frontières invisibles d’un monde à quatre dimensions. « féru » de mathématiques, après avoir lu lobachevsky, riemann, poincaré, ainsi que le traité élémentaire de géométrie à quatre dimensions d’Élie jouffret , duchamp s’est mis à rédiger les notes préparatoires pour son chef-d’œuvre, la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même ou le grand verre. on a vu que cette œuvre était non conventionnelle non seulement au point de vue technique, substituant à la peinture à l’huile – que duchamp détestait depuis – de nouveaux matériaux, tels le verre, le fil de plomb ou la surface argentée d’un miroir, mais aussi par sa structure, qui comporte deux sections : plastique et « théorique ». comme nous l’avons déjà précisé, cette dernière aurait dû être ajoutée à l’œuvre proprement-dite sous la forme d’un catalogue explicatif. durant l’élaboration du verre, duchamp renonce à son idée, mais il y en revient ultérieurement, en , lorsqu’il publie sa boîte verte, et une seconde fois en , avec sa boîte blanche . si la première des « boîtes » restitue des informations essentielles sur l’iconographie du grand verre, la seconde renseigne sur l’étendue et la profondeur des connaissances mathématiques de duchamp, rapportées à la quatrième dimension. les mots « étendue » et « profondeur » doivent être prises cum granum salis, car il suffit de jeter un coup d’œil dans la boîte blanche pour se rendre compte que les notes que l’artiste y avait mises sont une preuve péremptoire du fait qu’il n’hésitait pas à « sacrifier » ses habiletés mathématiques sur l’autel de ce qu’on indique ordinairement par le syntagme « gai savoir ». contrairement à ce qu’on pourrait croire, ce « maniement » humoristique des concepts et notions mathématiques n’est pas la preuve d’une attitude dadaïste, mais la tentative sincère d’un artiste qui voulait à tout prix matérialiser une utopie. si Élie jouffret affirme que malgré la considérable valeur théorique de la géométrie à n- dimensions, il est impossible de « voir » un corps n-dimensionnel , duchamp s’entête à imaginer le modèle d’un œil apte à « capter » les images surgies d’un monde à quatre dimensions : « cet œil .dimsll peut être figuré ( dmsllmt) par une rétine sphérique fermée qui, à la fois, recevrait l’impression de tous les objets tridmsll. de la surface – cette impression dimsll. de la surface n’est pas un dénombrement (à l’infini) des aspects tridmsll. de la surface. elle est une formule rétinienne synthétisant cette surface » (fig. ). après un tel « tour de force », on n’est nullement surpris de constater que duchamp s’intéressait également à la perception quadridimensionnelle: « une forme dimsl est perçue (?) sous un ∞ d’aspects dimsl qui sont les sections de cette figure dimsl avec le nombre infini d’espaces (à dim.) qui enveloppent cette figure. – autrement dit : on peut tourner autour de la figure dimsl selon les directions de l’étendue. le nombre de positions du percepteur est ∞ mais on peut réduire à un nombre fini ces différentes positions (comme pour les figures régulières à dim.) et alors chaque perception, dans ces différentes positions, est une figure dimsl. l’ensemble de ces perceptions dimsl de la figure dimsl serait la base d’une reconstitution de la figure dimsl » . en parcourant ces notes, on peut aisément se rendre compte que chez duchamp la « perception » quadridimensionnelle se réduit constamment à celle d’une image tridimensionnelle. il est quand même intéressant de remarquer que l’artiste ne s’interroge pas sur les causes profondes qui empêchent toute « visualisation » de la quatrième dimension. il y a dans la boîte blanche certains passages qui glosent sur la nécessité d’une expérience visuelle plus complexe, à laquelle le sens tactile soit associé, afin de « capter », ne fut-ce qu’approximativement, « l’image » quadridi- mensionnelle . voilà pourquoi on peut parler plutôt d’un échec, quant à la représentation d’un espace ou d’un objet à quatre dimensions. pour rendre visibles cet espace et cet objet « d’une manière ou d’une autre » – comme duchamp s’est exprimé lui-même –, il avait imaginé tout un système qui associe à « l’ombre tridimensionnelle » d’une supposée réalité à quatre dimensions le discours théorique fondé sur une interprétation sui generis des connaissances mathématiques acquises après la lecture des travaux de riemann, lobachewsky, poincaré et jouffret . a la différence des auteurs dont les recherches sur duchamp et la quatrième dimension ont précédé les nôtres, nous sommes persuadés qu’à ces tentatives composites qui unissaient la représentation plastique quasi-traditionnelle au langage écrit fondé sur les recherches mathématiques, il faut ajouter les préoccupations philosophiques que l’artiste partageait avec les autres membres du groupe de puteaux. on sait qu’ils lisaient et débattaient les livres d’henri bergson . mais les lectures philosophiques de duchamp étaient plus vastes, même si sa bibliothèque ne nous donne pas des indications précises à cet égard. nous pensons notamment à la philosophie platonicienne, que duchamp aurait dû connaître, en jugeant d’après certaines de ses notes comprises dans les deux « boîtes », mais surtout en considérant les liens qui l’unissaient à constantin brancusi (fig. ), sculpteur dont l’œuvre repose presque entièrement sur des fondements platoniciens . si nous prêtons l’attention nécessaire à la signification du mot « ombre », tel que duchamp l’utilise voulant motiver sa démarche qui a pour but la « visualisation » de la quatrième dimension, certains aspects de la philosophie platonicienne semblent lui venir au secours. ainsi, le « mythe de la grotte » de la république de platon illustre à merveille le rapport établi entre le monde quadridimensionnel invisible et son « ombre » visible jetée sur notre monde matériel. À cet égard, il est utile de nous rappeler les mots de duchamp, déjà cités : « tout ce qui possède une forme tridimensionnelle, est, dans notre monde, la projection venue d’un monde quadri- dimensionnel. par exemple, ma mariée serait la projection tridimensionnelle d’une mariée à quatre dimensions » . fig. – marcel duchamp, rétine sphérique – dessin de la boîte blanche. fig. – duchamp, brancusi, tzara dans l’atelier de l’impasse ronsin (photo brancusi). il faut donc accepter qu’une poétique fondée sur platon soit apte à soutenir un programme de création plastique qui s’appuie sur les mathématiques non euclidiennes. duchamp et brancusi veulent la même chose : rendre visibles des réalités inaccessibles à la vue (fig. ). il est intéressant de nous rappeler que les deux artistes et amis ont été préoccupés constamment de « doubler » leur démarche plastique par un considérable effort théorique, destiné à motiver leur choix stylistique. les « boîtes » de duchamp et les « aphorismes » de brancusi – ceux-ci publiés du vivant de l’artiste – ont un seul et même but : aider le public à comprendre les solutions plastiques choisies, ainsi que la voie par laquelle elles conduisaient vers le message de l’œuvre. par leur côté « écrivain », duchamp et brancusi prenaient soin de divulguer leurs choix stylistique et leurs idées, afin de faciliter au public un juste décodage de l’œuvre. cette stratégie commune devient manifeste si on juxtapose aux assertions de duchamp déjà citées les suivantes, dues à brancusi : « ce sont des imbéciles qui disent mon travail abstrait; ce qu’ils qualifient d’abstrait est le plus réaliste, car ce qui est réel, ce n’est pas la forme extérieure mais l’idée, l’essence des choses » . il y a toutefois une différence entre la manière dont les deux artistes illustrent le rapport établi entre « l’aspect visible » et « l’essence des choses ». tandis que duchamp reste conscient qu’il ne représente que la « projection » d’une réalité invisible, brancusi est persuadé qu’en choisissant la forme abstraite, non- réaliste, il parvient à approximer le contour- même de l’idée invisible. rendre visibles les choses inaccessibles à la vue matérielle semble être son projet majeur et son ambition à la fois. fig. – constantin brancusi, muse endormie (photo brancusi). il est temps maintenant de remarquer une coïncidence surprenante. nous savons que duchamp avait rencontré brancusi en , l’année-même de l’élaboration de certaines des notices comprises dans les deux boîtes, la « verte » et la « blanche ». d’ailleurs, l’ensemble de ces notices avait été rédigé durant l’intervalle - , quand, arrivé à new york, duchamp avait amorcé son œuvre capitale, la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même ou le grand verre. il est donc très probable que visitant brancusi en tant qu’ami, duchamp s’était approprié certains aspects de la poétique du sculpteur, fondée sur la philosophie platonicienne. simultanément il avait essayé « enseigner » à brancusi la quatrième dimension. entrevoyant la coïncidence qui existait entre ses propres convictions et la poétique du sculpteur, il voulait peut-être mettre à la disposition de son ami un instrument théorique, voire mathématique, apte à approfondir et à élargir ses conceptions platoniciennes. les reflets d’une pareille pédagogie sont à trouver dans la bibliothèque de constantin brancusi. en parcourant son inventaire, on constate non sans surprise la présence d’un certain nombre de livres, dont les titres et le contenu illustrent les préoccupations des membres du groupe de puteaux . la liste dressée au centre georges pompidou nous réserve une surprise, en nous renseignant que les pages de certains de ces volumes n’ont été même pas coupées, signe que brancusi ne leur a pas accordé une grande importance. sachant que duchamp rencontrait brancusi depuis , leur amitié se consolidant avec le temps, nous croyons que ces livres que brancusi avait dédaignés, mais qu’il avait quand même gardés dans sa bibliothèque, étaient des cadeaux que duchamp lui avait faits au début de leur amitié. il est intéressant de savoir que l’année de la parution des volumes mentionnés correspond à l’intervalle de l’élaboration des notes préparatoires pour le grand verre . examinant cette partie de la bibliothèque de brancusi, on est tenté de supposer qu’elle représente le reflet d’une certaine pédagogie que duchamp avait exercée sur la personne du sculpteur. l’hypothèse semble être confirmée par un témoignage de l’auteur du grand verre, qui se plaignait lors d’un entretien entre amis que le sculpteur n’était pas sensible aux nouvelles suggestions aptes à reformuler sa pensée et, par extension, sa poétique . mais l’échange d’idées avait un double sens : duchamp enseignait à brancusi la quatrième dimension d’une manière discrète, en lui offrant des livres, s’emparant à la fois du « système platonicien » de son ami, qui rendait visibles les idées platoniciennes. ainsi, duchamp n’était plus obligé de reproduire uniquement « l’ombre » tridimensionnelle des réalités quadridimensionnelles, mais, par l’intermédiaire des idées platoniciennes, ces réalités pouvaient passer directement dans l’œuvre. ce qui signifie que duchamp avait établi un rapport d’équivalence entre les idées platoniciennes et les réalités quadridi- mensionnelles. en jugeant d’après les notes comprises dans les deux « boîtes », nous croyons qu’au moins pour le groupe des célibataires, duchamp agissait en authentique platonicien. en voilà un exemple extrait du chapitre apparence apparition, inclus dans la boîte blanche : « ces couleurs natives dans l’apparition déterminent les couleurs réelles à changements dus à l’éclairage extérieur dans l’apparence par teinture physique. elles se rapportent généralement à des matières. il y a une seule couleur native chocolat qui sert à déterminer tous les chocolats » . la démonstration de duchamp s’appuie sur des notions corrélatives, qui illustrent le rapport dichotomique sur lequel platon avait fondé sa pensée : « couleurs natives » – « couleurs réelles », « apparence » – « apparition » en sont des exemples. tandis que les « couleurs natives » et « l’apparition » correspondent au monde des idées platoniciennes, les « couleurs réelles » et « l’apparence » n’en sont que le faible reflet. en parcourant la fin du fragment cité, il devient clair que « la couleur native chocolat » est l’archétype chromatique de « tous les chocolats ». il est sous-entendu que le mot « archétype » se charge d’une signification platonicienne. deux témoignages consignés par arturo schwarz, offrent des renseignements selon lesquels les célibataires du cimetière des uniformes et livrées ou les moules mâlic (fig. ) se laissent interpréter en tant qu’archétypes platoniciens : « […] les moules mâlic ne sont pas les formes elles-mêmes puisqu’elles sont à l’intérieur, les moules étant plutôt des sortes de catafalques, de cercueils. un cercueil debout pour chaque forme – et il est évident que les cercueils n’ont pas la forme des cadavres qu’ils abritent. pour simplifier les choses, je n’ai pas voulu entrer dans le détail de chaque forme – et mon idée d’utiliser le gaz était bonne car le gaz pouvait prendre la forme de la chose, m’évitant ainsi de le dessiner matériellement ; car l’idée de la chose était plus importante que le dessin même ; et puis le dessin très détaillé d’un agent de police m’aurait pris trop de temps, je serais encore probablement au travail » . la seconde variante du même témoignage, légèrement modifiée, nous offre des arguments d’une plus grande précision quant aux convictions platoniciennes de duchamp : « cette œuvre réalise donc l’idée de formes en soi, les formes étaient à l’intérieur. les moules étaient plutôt une espèce de catafalque ou de cercueil… pour tout simplifier, je n’ai pas voulu détailler de très près ces formes et ce fut une bonne idée d’utiliser le gaz, qui pouvait prendre la forme d’une chose que je n’étais plus obligé de dessiner, car l’idée de la chose était plus importante que son dessin effectif, et le dessin effectif très détaillé d’un policier m’aurait pris trop de temps… » . nous pensons qu’au point de vue platonicien, les deux assertions relatives aux « célibataires » parlent d’elles-mêmes. quand duchamp nous informe que « cette œuvre réalise […] l’idée de formes en soi », il est clair que l’artiste avait en vue non pas la forme que l’on voit, mais bien au contraire, le principe-même de la réalité dite forme, qui se soustrait à toute perception sensorielle. de même que pour la couleur chocolat « il y a une seule couleur native chocolat qui sert à déterminer tous les chocolats », il faut accepter que « la forme en soi » est capable d’engendrer toutes les formes perceptibles. mais si nous nous rappelons que pour l’artiste la forme quadridimensionnelle invisible est une synthèse de touts les aspects de son « ombre tridimensionnelle visible » , aspects qui « enveloppent » la figure quadridimensionnelle comme une sorte d’aura, on parvient à déduire que « la forme en soi » appartient au monde des idées platoniciennes et au « règne quadridimensionnel » à la fois. c’est pourquoi, en parlant d’un duchamp- platonicien, on parle également d’un duchamp préoccupé à rendre visibles l’espace et les réalités quadridimensionnels. en inventant ce que l’on pourrait désigner comme « stratagème de la bière », duchamp n’est plus obligé à contourner matériellement la forme quadridimension- nelle. il lui suffit « d’abriter la forme en soi », de nature quadridimensionnelle, dans une « bière » tridimensionnelle, qui se soustrait à toute perception sensorielle. en prêtant attention aux deux variantes du même témoignage, on peut remarquer que les « uniformes » du cimetière des uniformes et livrées n’étaient pas des uniformes réels au point de vue matériel, mais « l’idée platonicienne d’uniforme », c’est-à-dire la cause ultime de tous les uniformes existant matériellement. duchamp était conscient que « dessiner » ce principe fondateur était une impossibilité. en optant pour la variante réaliste, voire mimétique, l’artiste aurait été obligé à représenter matériellement tous les uniformes qui existent au monde. d’ailleurs, il nous communique avec humour qu’en procédant de la sorte, il aurait été probablement « encore au travail ». duchamp ne craignait donc pas l’effort exigé par la représentation réaliste d’un uniforme, mais uniquement la transposition dans le « règne visible » d’un uniforme-idée invisible, à quatre ou à « n » dimensions. si dessiner cet uniforme- principe était chose impossible, duchamp ne voyait aucun empêchement à le « remplir » avec du gaz, qui aurait pris la forme quadridimensionnelle de cet uniforme. voilà la manière humoristique, genre « gai savoir », qui l’aidait à franchir les frontières séparatrices des mondes tri, quadri, ou n-dimensionnels. la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même avait été créée à new york, durant l’intervalle - . selon duchamp, le chef-d’œuvre est resté « définitivement inachevé » . nous ignorons les causes profondes de ce fait, que l’artiste cherchait à dissimuler en invoquant sa paresse . il est possible qu’à la fin de son travail au verre, duchamp ait soudain réalisé l’échec de son entreprise, voué à la « visualisation » d’un espace et des créatures à quatre dimensions. ou faut- il plutôt combiner l’hypothèse de la paresse avec l’utopie du projet ? ce qui est certain c’est que dans œuvre de victor brauner nous avons pu découvrir deux toiles distinctes au point de vue stylistique, mais qui ensemble reconstituent la majeure partie de l’iconographie et de la signification du grand verre, y compris le « mécanisme érotique », dont le fonctionnement a pour but la « mise à nu » de la mariée. il s’agit de passivité courtoise (fig. ) et de tête et deux boxeurs (fig. ). en considérant attentivement la toile que brauner avait intitulée passivité courtoise, on s’aperçoit que cet œuvre enferme deux images distinctes, mais superposées en profondeur : une première transparente et marquée par la planéité, comme si brauner l’avait peinte sur la surface transparente d’une vitre, et une seconde caractérisée par une construction spatiale plutôt classique, conçue en tridimensionnel, et, par conséquent, offrant au regardeur l’illusion de la profondeur. la première de ces deux images enferme des épures géométriques, semblables jusqu’à l’identité aux neuf moules mâlic de marcel duchamp. examinant ces deux images qui constituent par superposition passivité courtoise, on constate qu’il y a une évidente transition entre les épures mentionnées et la construction anthropomorphe, mi-homme mi-mannequin située au centre même de la toile. par l’iconographie qu’il avait choisie, brauner suggère soit que le principe masculin figuré à l’aide des épures se dissipe dans la multitude des hommes personnalisés, soit que chaque individu mâle est appelé à s’unir à son principe fondateur, c’est-à-dire à l’idée platonicienne de masculinité, pour rejoindre finalement la mariée. celle-ci personnifie pour brauner et pour duchamp le principe féminin même. nous pouvons nous interroger si la ressemblance entre les épures de brauner et les moules mâlic de duchamp n’est pas une simple coïncidence ? si l’on tient compte que dans l’iconographie de passivité courtoise la transition de la figure mâle aux épures est évidente et indubitable, la réponse doit être négative. À cet argument nous ajoutons un second, que l’on découvre en approfondissant l’iconographie de passivité courtoise. nous pensons au détail bien déterminé du « toboggan », que duchamp avait projeté pour son verre, mais qu’il avait éliminé, lorsqu’il avait décidé de laisser son chef-d’œuvre inachevé (fig. ). si chez duchamp le détail manque, même s’il avait été projeté, à brauner, par contre, il est présent. on peut donc conclure non seulement que brauner était au courant de l’iconographie et de la signification du grand verre, mais qu’il connaissait à fond le projet du chef- d’œuvre, que duchamp allait « vulgariser » par l’intermédiaire de la boîte verte, quatre ans après passivité courtoise. même si la rencontre des deux artistes n’est pas documentée pour le début des années trente, nous sommes en possession d’un important témoignage qui au moins nous permet de supposer la voie par laquelle victor brauner aurait pu obtenir des informations concernant l’iconographie du grand verre . le peintre surréaliste d’origine roumaine est arrivé à paris en , où, selon son propre aveu, il avait rencontré man ray (fig. ). or, à l’époque, celui-ci était peut-être la seule personne qui connaissait le tréfonds de la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même, si l’on songe qu’il était ami intime de duchamp et qu’il l’a vu dans son atelier de new york, en élaborant son verre . il faut donc accepter que le « tandem » duchamp-man ray s’est mis dès à faire publicité dans les milieux artistiques à la mariée, et précisément en europe, où le chef-d’œuvre était encore presque inconnu . il est possible qu’à l’époque de son séjour parisien duchamp eut senti que les liens qui l’unissaient à l’original du chef-d’œuvre étaient en train de se rompre, du moment où, en écrivant le juillet à son élève et amie ettie stettheimer, à new york, il affirme : « je ne pense pas repartir en amérique maintenant – plus tard mais quand? je n’ai aucune idée […] » . le zèle missionnaire de l’auteur du grand verre et de man ray ne doit pas surprendre, du moment où duchamp avait procédé de la même manière en , à buenos aires, lorsqu’il avait demandé à henri-martin barzun des œuvres et des livres concernant le cubisme, afin « d’exporter » le mouvement en argentine, à l’aide d’une exposition . quant à victor brauner, il s’est montré très réceptif aux suggestions de man ray, car déjà en il avait élaboré sa toile intitulée tête et deux boxeurs, la première des deux qui reconstituent ensemble la mariée de duchamp, « transposée » dans les matériaux traditionnels de la peinture à l’huile, que l’auteur du grand verre voulait fuir dès . on peut donc se demander pourquoi duchamp avait-il accepté cette « rechute » dans une technique et un espace figuratif qu’il considérait périmés ? nous pensons à la peinture à l’huile et à l’espace tridimensionnel. le mot « vulgarisation » en pourrait être la réponse juste. duchamp voulait, semble-t-il à tout prix, informer les milieux artistiques parisiens sur sa mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même, qu’il avait abandonnée en amérique chez ses amis et mécènes louise et walter arensberg, et ensuite chez katherine s. dreier. fig. – marcel duchamp, le grand verre – détail du « toboggan ». fig. – man ray en . revenant aux problèmes de l’espace plastique, il est sous-entendu que le système de la représentation tridimensionnelle était surtout désirable dans une pareille entreprise de vulgarisation. afin de faciliter la transmission et sans aucun doute la réception des idées contenues dans son chef-d’œuvre, il est à supposer que duchamp voulait les transposer dans un langage accessible au public. en délégant à victor brauner la mission de « refaire » le grand verre dans le tridimensionnel, duchamp était conscient qu’il ne risquait pas grand chose en abandonnant ses ambitions concernant la quatrième dimension, du moment où selon la leçon apprise de princet, il était possible de « visualiser » les réalités quadridimensionnel- les par « l’ombre » tridimensionnelle qu’elles projettent sur notre monde. on peut sans aucun doute se demander pourquoi le « choix » de duchamp s’est arrêté sur victor brauner, pourquoi avait-il décidé de lui déléguer la mission de « reconstituer » par des moyens plastiques plutôt classiques le message de son chef- d’œuvre révolutionnaire? essayons à répondre à cette question en lançant des hypothèses. lorsqu’il avait rencontré man ray dans le « cénacle roumain » qu’il évoque dans son témoignage, victor brauner était très jeune. son esprit était donc réceptif à des suggestions et des idées nouvelles. la seconde raison pour laquelle duchamp aurait « élu » brauner doit être cherchée dans les options avant-gardistes du jeune peintre : il était déjà un adepte du dadaïsme et en train de rejoindre le mouvement surréaliste. or, à part son aversion pour la peinture à l’huile, que les surréalistes pratiquaient de préférence, duchamp appréciait leur art, du moment où il affirme : « le surréalisme s’est emparé au début d’une petite partie du dadaïsme. ultérieurement il est devenu une modalité positive de développement, ayant ses droits à lui, fondés sur le rêve, l’inconscient et la fantaisie. les surréalistes s’intéressaient plutôt à l’esthétique qu’à la vie. en nous rapportant à la peinture, on peut affirmer que le surréalisme manifestait un penchant pour la réhabilitation de l’inconscient. toute la période qui commence avec courbet et delacroix, passant par les impressionnistes, pointillistes, fauves et cubistes, était préoccupée par la perception rétinienne. (…) le visible s’arrêtait dans la zone de la toile et dans celle de l’œil. le grand avantage des surréalistes consistait dans le fait qu’ils ont de nouveau initié au profit du regardeur ainsi qu’à celui du peintre le recours à la substance grise » . en parcourant le témoignage cité ci- dessus, il n’est pas difficile de reconnaître le parcours du jeune victor brauner, qui, sympathisant les dadaïstes, était prêt à adhérer au surréalisme, après avoir épuisé dans son pays natal les expériences expressionnistes et cubistes. en jugeant d’après certains détails de tête et deux boxeurs et passivité courtoise, aidé par man ray, brauner devait avoir approfondi très sérieusement le grand verre, y compris les idées concernant la quatrième dimension, que duchamp n’allait divulguer – on l’a vu – qu’après , avec sa boîte verte d’abord et, quelques décennies plus tard, avec la blanche. le moment coïncide avec celui de la parution du phare de la mariée, première exégèse consacrée par andré breton à la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même . le poète surréaliste doit donc être considéré comme le second et, sans aucun doute, le plus célèbre vulgarisateur du grand verre, car au début des années trente, brauner n’était pas encore parvenu à la notoriété. c’est pourquoi la confiance que duchamp lui avait accordée par l’intermédiaire de man ray ou peut-être lui-même, en personne, nous semble d’autant plus incitante et mystérieuse. il ne faut pas oublier que les avant-gardistes roumains, brauner y compris, et marcel duchamp ou man ray parmi les étrangers, étaient les amis de brancusi, qu’ils fréquentaient assidûment à l’époque. donc, il n’est pas exclus que brauner aurait pu rejoindre duchamp lorsqu’il élaborait tête et deux boxeurs et passivité courtoise, même si les traces d’une pareille rencontre ne sont pas à trouver dans les archives. duchamp et man ray étaient d’ailleurs présents en à paris, l’année du premier voyage de brauner en france. en corroborant les divers témoignages, nous avons pu reconstituer les va-et-vient de duchamp entre new york et paris , pour démontrer que si une rencontre brauner-duchamp n’est pas mentionnée dans les documents pour cet intervalle temporelle, elle aurait été néanmoins possible. seule une pareille circonstance est en mesure d’expliquer la précision avec laquelle brauner maniait les détails iconographiques du grand verre, ainsi que les conceptions de duchamp concernant l’espace tri-, quadri- et pluridimensionnel. le peintre surréaliste semblait être au courant des préoccupations de duchamp, désireux de « construire un œil dimensionnel ». en parcourant une note de la boîte blanche, écrite au dos d’une facture de gaz datée du novembre , nous apprenons que : « une circonférence passe (pour l’œil dimsl se déplaçant au-dessus et au-dessous jusqu’à ce que le rayon visuel soit dans le plan contenant la circonférence) par beaucoup de formes déterminées conventionnellement par les lois de la perspective linéaire. (une sphère pour l’œil dimsl est toujours égale à elle-même quel que soit le point de vue). mais une sphère (pour la perception dimsl se déplaçant dimensionnellement jusqu’à ce que les rayons deviennent les rayons visuels de l’œil dimsl ordinaire) passe par beaucoup de formes depuis sphère dimsl diminuant peu à peu de volume sans diminuer de rayon jusqu’à simple circonférence plane » . la note doit être corroborée à une autre : « dans le continu dimsl, le plan est toujours vu comme une ligne. il n’a plus de développement perspectif. la ligne est vue comme point. développer comment est vu le volume. (définir cette perception d’ensemble). l’objet dimsl vu dans le continu dimsl est perçu d’ensemble (a-t- il un envers et un endroit comme le plan vu dans l’espace?) » . fig. – brauner chez brancusi en (photo brancusi). de ces deux témoignages il résulte que selon duchamp un réductionnisme ayant comme résultat la perception en surface est spécifique à la vue quadridimensionnelle. il est temps maintenant d’examiner encore une fois passivité courtoise, et de nous rappeler que l’image créée par brauner est « décomposable » en deux autres, distinctes au point de vue du régime de la représentation plastique. l’une est plane, l’autre tridimensionnelle, la seconde assumant les règles de la perspective classique, imposées depuis la renaissance. en proposant ces images à une lecture simultanée, victor brauner voulait peut- être suggérer que l’une est destinée à l’œil ordinaire, voué à la perception tridimensionnelle, tandis que l’autre à l’œil et à la vue quadridimensionnelle. leur superposition semble indiquer que le vrai sujet de passivité courtoise est la perméabilité de ces mondes, favorisant le passage de la réalité tridimensionnelle à celle à quatre dimensions et vice versa. les moules mâlic empruntés à duchamp, mais envisagés dans une version plane, ainsi que leur voisinage avec le mannequin tridimensionnel mâle en sont la preuve irréfutable. d’ailleurs, la planéité en tant que moyen expressif avec certaines retombées sur la signification de l’œuvre avait préoccupé victor brauner dès , lorsqu’il a créée tête et deux boxeurs. chronologiquement, c’est la première des deux toiles dont le contenu renvoie à la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même. nous y trouvons deux détails iconographiques qui permettent d’identifier cette tête à la mariée de duchamp. il s’agit du « combat de boxe » (fig. ), placé au centre même de l’image, et du bandeau argenté d’en bas, qui correspond à la « robe de la mariée ». À l’époque où brauner s’intéressait au grand verre, la « robe » existait toujours. le verre s’est cassé en , à new york, à brooklyn museum, à l’occasion de l’international exhibition of modern art, organisée par marcel duchamp au profit de la « société anonyme » (fig. ), dont il était le cofondateur, avec katherine s. dreier, la propriétaire, à ce moment, du chef-d’œuvre. en , l’artiste avait découvert l’endommagement. le verre fut restauré en septembre à west redding, où siégeait la collectionneuse (fig. ). À cette occasion, duchamp avait sacrifié le détail de la robe. sur son état originaire, arturo schwarz nous rapporte : « un autre élément était détruit et dut être refait : le vêtement de la mariée. À l’origine, il était composé de trois bandes de verre parallèles, traversant horizontalement le verre dans toute sa largeur et séparant ainsi le domaine de la mariée de l’appareil célibataire. lors de la réparation, une solide corniche d’acier remplaça le fragile vêtement de verre; toutefois, afin de rappeler la version primitive, trois bandes de verre sortent de la corniche métallique » . tandis que le « combat » avait été projeté par duchamp et ultérieurement exclus de l’iconographie du grand verre, la « robe » était initialement présente, mais « sacrifiée » durant les opérations de restauration que duchamp avait entreprises entre mai et septembre . si tête et deux boxeurs obéit à une vision en surface, c’est parce que duchamp avait conçu sa mariée en tant que « projection » tridimensionnelle d’une mariée quadridimensionnelle. or, nous avons pu constater que, selon duchamp, le passage de la quatrième à la troisième dimension, perceptible par l’œil ordinaire ou anatomique, se fait à l’aide du volume devenu superficie . selon les notices comprises dans la boîte blanche que nous avons citées, ainsi que selon les deux toiles par lesquelles brauner s’attaque au thème de la mariée, on est obligé de constater qu’après les vaines tentatives de duchamp de « capter » visuellement la quatrième dimension, la question d’une vraie « rechute » dans le tridimensionnel se pose. nous sommes certains que duchamp était conscient de cet échec au temps même où il était préoccupé par la « vulgarisation » de sa mariée, en « déléguant » le thème à victor brauner. il est très probable que les résultats du jeune peintre surréaliste n’étaient pas tout à fait satisfaisants pour duchamp. c’est peut-être la raison pour laquelle l’auteur de la mariée avait décidé de reprendre vers la fin de sa vie son thème capital, qu’il avait déclaré dès comme « définitivement inachevé » . pour que le processus de la « chute » soit complet, duchamp avait conçu une « seconde mariée » sous la forme d’une installation déployée dans les trois dimensions de l’espace ordinaire. il s’agit de son œuvre posthume intitulée Étant donnés : . la chute d’eau, . le gaz d’éclairage (fig. ), qu’il avait élaborée en secret durant l’intervalle - . nous devons l’identification d’Étant donnés à la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même aux travaux d’anne d’harnoncourt, en collaboration avec walter hopps et kynaston mcshine, ainsi qu’à ceux d’octavio paz . À juste titre, on peut s’interroger sur les raisons qui avaient déterminé l’artiste à concevoir une seconde variante de sa mariée – une troisième si l’on songe aux toiles de victor brauner – en lui donnant cette fois une expression volumétrique réelle, sans plus passer par l’artifice de la perspective classique, redevable à la renaissance. Étant donnés est une sorte de diorama, qui combine l’objet tridimension- nel à l’image mimétique, suggérant un « continuum » dont la vocation est de remplacer la réalité même. en modelant ou plutôt moulant le corps de la femme sculpteur maria martins, devenue à l’époque de l’élaboration d’Étant donnés sa maîtresse , duchamp voulait peut-être indiquer une nouvelle voie par laquelle la quatrième dimension se laissait conquérir. nous croyons que le rapport d’équivalence quatrième dimension-platonisme qu’on a essayé de mettre en évidence lors de nos interprétations portées sur le grand verre, est à retrouver dans cette dernière œuvre. duchamp était capable de « reconnaître » les ombres tridimensionnelles que les êtres quadridimensionnels projettent sur notre monde dépendant des trois dimensions de l’espace. fig. – victor brauner, tête et deux boxeurs – détail. fig. – marcel duchamp, le grand verre à l’international exhibition of modern art, , brooklyn museum, new york. fig. – duchamp à west redding, chez katherine s. dreier, . faut-t-il conclure que ces « ombres » s’entremêlent aux êtres tridimensionnels ordinaires ? sans aucun doute oui, du moment que par sa transparence le grand verre suggère une pareille cohabitation (fig. ). mais alors, on peut s’interroger sur les principes d’élection qui facilitaient à duchamp le « triage ». il est possible que la réponse réside dans la différence saisissable entre les mots « apparition » et « apparence », que duchamp mentionne dans sa boîte blanche. tandis que « l’apparition » correspond à l’essence des choses, à leur archétype, « l’apparence » est une sorte « d’ombre » de la première . en nous rappelant que le modèle dont duchamp s’était servi afin d’extraire le moule féminin d’Étant donnés était sa maîtresse, nous pensons que l’artiste réussissait à passer de l’apparence à l’apparition en se laissant guider non pas par la pure indifférence, comme il le faisait pour le choix de ses ready-mades, mais, bien au contraire, par le plus ardent des sentiments. celui-ci lui indiquait, semble-t- il avec un maximum de précision, « l’ombre visible » qu’un être quadridimensionnel invisible projetait dans son immédiate proximité. henri poincaré – auquel duchamp renvoie dans sa boîte blanche – avait lui aussi « identifié » ces êtres, qui, selon le mathématicien, étaient « susceptibles de définition précise comme ceux de l’espace ordinaire, […] mais [que] nous ne pouvons en aucune façon représenter » . en guise de conclusion, nous allons affirmer que l’échelle descendante des dimensions de l’espace, correspondant à une « rechute » de quatre à trois dimensions, est le « support matériel » que ces « ombres » revêtent finalement, afin de devenir « œuvre d’art ». le passage de la quatrième dimension aux trois dimensions de l’espace ordinaire est en fait une sorte d’abdication. duchamp l’avait avoué lors d’une interview datant de : « je dirais que j’aime la quatrième dimension comme dimension supplémentaire de notre vie. nous avons connu un mathématicien amateur, princet, avec lequel on avait l’habitude de discuter. voyez-vous, maintenant je ne vis que dans trois dimensions » . il est significatif que le témoignage date de la fin de l’élaboration d’Étant donnés, dernière œuvre créée par duchamp dans un total isolement et en secret. « vous savez, j’ai toujours voulu être mathématicien, mais pour cela je n’ai pas eu jamais assez de substance en moi ». cleve gray, art in america, julliet-août , p. , apud serge stauffer, marcel duchamp, interviews und statemets, stuttgart, , p. ; « bien sûr que j’étais toujours intéressé par les mathématiques, mais pas sérieusement. jamais. je n’avais pas les aptitudes nécessaires pour devenir un mathématicien ». jean- marie drot, pellicule de , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . jeanne siegel, some late thoughts of marcel duchamp, in arts magazine (new york), xliii/ , décembre –janvier , p. – , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . duchamp lui-même s’est exprimé une fois à l’égard des rencontres dominicales de chez ses frères, à puteaux, où on s’entretenait sur « (…) les mathématiques, la quatrième dimension, la philosophie de bergson et beaucoup d’autres thèmes. (…) lui-même avait lu à l’époque lobaschewski et riemann » fragment cité d’un texte que william camfield avait rédigé à la yale university, new haven, connecticut, en , in dieter daniels, duchamp und die anderen, der modellfall einer künstlerischen wirkungsgeschichte in der moderne, cologne, , p. – . « vous vous souvenez que le nu descendant un escalier avait été refusé aux indépendants de . c’est gleizes qui est à l’origine ; la toile avait causé un tel scandale qu’avant l’ouverture il chargea mes frères de me demander de retirer le tableau ». marcel duchamp, entretiens avec pierre cabanne, paris, , p. . le second titre, raccourci de la mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, même. linda dalrymple henderson, marcel duchamp and the new geometries, in the fourth dimensions and non-euclidean geometry, in modern art, princeton, , p. – . du même auteur, voir aussi duchamp in context : science et technology in the large glass and related works, princeton, ( , seconde édition). voir note . voir note . voir marcel duchamp, duchamp du signe – Écrits réunis et présentés par michel sanouillet, paris, , p. – . elmer ernest southard, mll. de l’escalier. in frederick p. gay, open mind – elmer ernest southard, - , chicago, normandie house, , p. - , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . voir l. d. henderson, duchamp’s introduction to n-dimensional and non-euclidean geometry, in art. cit., p. – . james johnson sweeney, eleven europeans in america, in the museum of modern art bulletin, new york, xiii / – , , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . maurice princet. marcel duchamp (pierre cabanne), op. cit., p. . il est intéressant d’observer que duchamp ne se rappelle pas, ou feint de ne pas se rappeler le nom du vulgarisateur de la quatrième dimension qui était gaston pawlowski, auteur du voyage au pays de la quatrième dimension, paru en comoedia à partir de . voir marcel duchamp (pierre cabanne), op. cit., p. . ibidem. robert lebel, sur marcel duchamp, paris, , p. . george heard hamilton, new york et richard hamilton, londre, marcel duchamp speaks, transmis par bbc-third program (série art, anti- art), octobre , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . marcel duchamp (pierre cabanne), op. cit., p. . « […] il y a des parties du verre que l’on nomme mariée, et d’autres nommées célibataires». voilà une formule de duchamp qui nous ramène directement au «nominalisme pictural ». pour ce problème, situé à la limite de l’expression plastique et de ses retombées sur le domaine philologique ainsi que sur celui concernant la philosophie, voir hans belting, der blick hinter duchamps tür – kunst und perspektive bei duchamp. sugimoto. jeff wall, walter könig, cologne, sans date, p. . duchamp avait conçu une sorte de continuum plastique-linguistique, lorsqu’il avait rédigé le suivant fragment de sa boîte verte : « prendre un dictionnaire larousse et copier tous les mots dits “abstraits”, c’est-à-dire qui n’aient pas de référence concrète. composer un signe schématique désignant chacun de ces mots (ce signe peut être composé avec les stoppages étalon). ces signes doivent être considérés comme les lettres du nouvel alphabet. […] cet alphabet ne convient qu’à l’écriture de ce tableau très probablement ». voir marcel duchamp (michel sanouillet), duchamp du signe, paris, , p. . « j’ai voulu donc lui attacher (au grand verre, n.n., c.v.) un livre, ou plutôt un catalogue genre notes “armes et cycles de saint-etienne”, dans lequel chaque détail aurait dû être expliqué et catalogué. » alain jouffroy, conversation avec marcel duchamp (new york, décembre ), in une révolution du regard, paris, gallimard, , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . voir paul klee in jena , der vortrag (paul klee à iéna , la conférence), minerva, jenaer schrifften zur kunstgeschichte, volume , iéna, , p. . dans sa boîte blanche duchamp renvoie expressément à cet auteur et à son ouvrage. voir marcel duchamp (michel sanouillet), op. cit., p. . la boîte blanche avait été conçue après que son auteur a retrouvé, tardivement et accidentellement, ses anciennes notes concernant le grand verre. dans l’introduction à son traité élémentaire de géométrie à quatre dimensions. voir linda dalrymple henderson, art. cit., p. . note de la boîte blanche (À l’infinitif), in marcel duchamp (michel sanouillet), op. cit., p. . ibidem, p. . « une reconnaissance tactile dimsl promenade autour permettra peut-être une reconstruction imaginative des nombreux corps dimsl pouvant porter cette perspective dans le milieu dimsl. » ibidem, p. . ces mathématiciens peuvent être considérés comme les « maîtres » de duchamp en matière de quatrième dimension. voir note . a en croire duchamp, sa bibliothèque n’était pas très vaste : « […] ce pourrait être le premier lautréamont que j’avais eu en ou environ. en tout cas j’aimerais le garder comme un des ou livres qui forment toute ma bibliothèque. » lettre que duchamp envoie le ou décembre à yvonne chastel, in francis m. naumann & hector obalk, affectt marcel – the selected correspondence of marcel duchamp, londre, thames & hudson (sans date), p. . pour ce problème, voir nos travaux brâncuşi iniţiatul (brancusi l’initié), bucureşti, et concepte ale poeticii lui constantin brâncuşi (concepts de la poétique de constantin brancusi), bucarest, , p. – . voir note . brancusi suppose, sans aucun doute, que la « carcasse » visible s’oppose à « l’essence » invisible. brancusi cité par claire g. guilbert, in prisme des arts (paris), / , p. , apud friedrich teja bach, constantin brancusi, metamorphosen plastischer form, cologne, , p. . les réunions dominicales de puteaux, dans la banlieue parisienne, au numéro , rue lemaître, sont à situer entre – . voici la liste quasi complète des participants : guillaume apollinaire, henry le fauconnier, roger de la fresnaye, frank kupka, fernand léger, jean metzinger, maurice raynal, georges ribemont-dessaignes. noms auxquels s’ajoutent ceux d’albert gleizes, alexandre mercereau et henri-martin barzun, trois ex-membres du phalanstère de créteil. francis picabia, lui, n’était à puteaux qu’un hôte occasionnel des frères duchamp. c’est raymond duchamp-villon, jacques villon (gaston Émile duchamp) et marcel duchamp qui y jouaient les amphitryons. on y pouvait croiser aussi jacques nayral et maurice princet – ce dernier le mathématicien amateur du groupe –, ou bien gino severini, signataire en , avec quatre autres peintres italiens – umberto boccioni, carlo dalmazzo carrà, luigi russolo et giacomo balla –, du manifeste des peintres futuristes. la société était complétée par sonia et robert delaunay, andré marc, olivier hourcade, andré salmon, paul fort, roger allard, ainsi que par l’artiste d’origine basque tobeen, de son vrai nom félix Élie bonnet. actif à paris dès , ce dernier avait exposé en à la section d’or et l’année suivante à l’armory show de new york. jean cocteau aussi y était présent, et tancrède de visan, de son vrai nom vincent biétrix, s’y chargeait d’éclaircir aux membres du groupe la philosophie de bergson. guillaume apollinaire, henry le fauconnier, roger de la fresnaye, frank kupka, fernand léger, jean metzinger, maurice raynal, georges ribemont-dessaignes fréquentaient régulièrement les rencontres dominicales de chez les frères duchamp. voir dieter daniels, op. cit., p. . voir doïna lemny, la bibliothèque de brancusi, in l’atelier brancusi, paris, , p. – . henri bergson, matière et mémoire. essais sur la relation du corps à l’esprit, e édition, paris, félix alcan, , p., cm. (collection bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine). les dernières pages ne sont pas coupées; henri bergson, l’Évolution créatrice, e édition, paris, félix alcan, , p., cm. (collection bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine); henri bergson, henri poincaré, ch. gide, le matérialisme actuel, préface paul doumergue, paris, flammarion, , p., cm. (collection bibliothèque de philosophie scientifique); henri poincaré, dernières pensées, paris, flammarion, , p., cm. (collection bibliothèque de philosophie scientifique); henri poincaré, la valeur de la science, paris, flammarion, , p., cm. (collection bibliothèque de philosophie scientifique); henri poincaré, science et méthode, paris, flammarion, , p., cm. (collection bibliothèque de philosophie scientifique); henri poincaré, la science et l’hypothèse, paris, flammarion, , p., cm. (collection bibliothèque de philosophie scientifique). les livres mentionnés sont cités d’après le catalogue édité au centre georges pompidou. voir doïna lemny, art. cit., p. – . À propos de l’obstination de brancusi, anaïs nin nous rapporte : « marcel (duchamp n.n., c.-r.v.) avait pris place auprès de nous et se mit à nous raconter de brancusi. il nous a dit qu’il serait “emprisonné”. il aurait trouvé sa philosophie à laquelle il ne voulait plus renoncer, ni l’abandonner. marcel est d’avis qu’un artiste ne doit pas être prudent, mais ouvert aux changements, aventures, expériences, toujours prêt à se régénérer. » anaïs nin, die tagebucher, ii ( – ), édition et introduction par gunther stuhlmann, munich, deutscher taschenbuch verlag, , p. , apud friedrich teja bach, op. cit., p. . marcel duchamp (michel sanouillet), op. cit., p. . titre que duchamp avait choisi pour le groupe des célibataires, se trouvant sur le panneau inférieur du grand verre. arturo schwarz, la mariée mise à nu par duchamp même, paris, Éditions georges fall, , p. , apud didier ottinger, neuf moules mâlic, in marcel duchamp dans les collections du centre georges pompidou – musée national d’art moderne, paris, , p. . arturo schwarz, marcel duchamp, hachette – fabri, milan, , p. – . « une forme dimsl est perçue (?) sous un ∞ d’aspects dimsl qui sont les sections de cette figure dimsl avec le nombre infini d’espaces (à dim.) qui enveloppent cette figure. » voir note . « au commencement de l’année il décide quand même de laisser le grand verre définitivement inachevé ». dieter daniels, op. cit., p. . pour la « paresse » de duchamp, voir note . les toiles mentionnées se trouvent en roumanie, dans des collections publiques. il ne faut pas exclure la possibilité que brauner ait rencontré marcel duchamp chez brancusi, sachant que durant son premier séjour parisien ( – ) il s’était logé chez brancusi, impasse ronsin (fig. ). « […] et puis je suis parti pour paris. là-bas j’ai travaillé avec robert delaunay et marc chagal. avec ilarie voronca, fundoianu (benjamin fondane n.n., c.-r.v.) et cosma (claude sernet n.n., c.-r.v.) nous avons fondé une sorte de cénacle roumain. d’autres militants modernistes venaient sporadiquement rejoindre notre groupe : man ray, kassàk – avec ce dernier nous avons voulu faire paraître une revue hongroise-roumaine – et encore d’autres. » victor brauner cité par ionel jianu, in o contribuţie la istoria modernismului la noi – ce ne spune un pictor tânăr (une contribution à l’histoire du modernisme chez nous – ce qu’un jeune peintre nous dit), in rampa (bucarest), xiii, no , mars , p. . voir man ray, autoportrait, arles, , p. – . c’est andré breton qui a publié la première exégèse sur le grand verre, intitulée phare de la mariée, mais uniquement en . voir andré breton, phare de la mariée, in minotaure (paris), no , - hiver, p. – , réimprimé in robert lebel, op. cit., p. – . francis m. naumann & hector obalk, op. cit., p. . « j’ai écrit à barzun de me faire envoyer une exposition cubiste pour le mois de mai juin prochain… » lettre que duchamp avait adressée le novembre de buenos aires à carrie, ettie et florine stettheimer. ibidem, p. . selon l’aveu que duchamp avait fait à walter pach dans une lettre datée du avril , la peinture à l’huile semblait l’épouvanter : « je suis très heureux lorsque j’apprends que vous m’avez vendu ces toiles et je vous remercie très sincèrement de votre amitié. mais j’ai peur d’en arriver à avoir besoin de vendre des toiles, en un mot d’être artiste peintre ». les mots sont soulignés par duchamp- même. voir francis m. naumann & hector obalk, op. cit., p. . cette orientation subsiste chez duchamp, avec des accents extrémistes. en voilà une preuve datant de : « mon attitude par rapport à l’art est celle d’un athée envers la religion. je préférerais être fusillé, ou me suicider, ou bien tuer un autre, que de reprendre la peinture ». ***, cubism to cynicism, in time (new york), xxviii/ , août , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . en , une année avant son arrivé en france, en collaboration avec ilarie voronca, victor brauner avait publié à bucarest le numéro unique de la revue d’avant-garde h.p., dont le programme illustre les options dadaïstes des deux rédacteurs, poète et peintre. dorothy norman, two conversations : marcel duchamp and tristan tzara, in the yale universty library gazette (new haven), / – , octobre , p. – , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . voir note . l’intervalle de à est marqué par des voyages successifs de duchamp entre new york et paris. en juillet il revient à paris, où il séjourne jusqu’au commencement de , avant de revenir à new york. en juin , il revient à paris pour huit mois, jusqu’au janvier . en , il est de nouveau à paris, y restant jusqu’en . pour la chronologie des voyages de duchamp entre l’amérique et l’europe, voir marcel duchamp (pierre cabanne), op. cit., p. , , , . voir également andré breton, marcel duchamp, in andré breton, Œuvres complètes, i, paris, gallimard, , p. . aux voyages signalés par pierre cabanne il faut ajouter les deux voyages de duchamp en amérique à l’occasion des deux expositions brancusi qu’il avait organisées à la brummer gallery de new york, en et . simultanément avec la première exposition de chez brummer, duchamp avait installé l’international exhibition of modern art au brooklyn museum, où il avait exposé sa mariée mise à nu par ses célibataires, tout près de la léda de brancusi. marcel duchamp (michel sanouillet), op. cit., p. . ibidem, p. . arturo schwarz, op. cit. ( ), p. . voir les notes et . « j’ai acheté deux grands panneaux de verre et j’ai commencé par le haut, avec la mariée. j’ai travaillé au moins un an à cette partie. puis, en ou , j’ai travaillé à la partie inférieure, les célibataires. cela prenait du temps, car je ne pouvais jamais travailler plus de deux heures par jour. voyez- vous, le verre m’intéressait, mais pas assez pour être désireux de le terminer. je suis paresseux, il ne faut pas l’oublier. de plus, je n’avais nullement l’intention de l’exposer ou de le vendre. je le faisais, voilà tout, c’était ma vie… » marcel duchamp, cité par arturo schwarz in op. cit. ( ), p. . pour cette question voir aussi robert lebel, op. cit., p. . voir également note . musée d’art de philadelphie, don de la cassandra foundation. voir anne d’harnoncourt et walter hopps, Étant donnés: o la chute d’eau. o le gaz d’eclairage: reflections on a new york by marcel duchamp. philadelphia museum of art, . voir aussi anne d’harnoncourt et kynaston mcshine, marcel duchamp, new york: the museum of modern art, philadelphia: philadelphia museum of art, , , p. - et octavio paz, nackte erscheinung – das werk von marcel duchamp, frankfourt, suhrkamp taschenbuch verlag, p. e.s. (titre originaire, apariencia desnuda. la obra de marcel duchamp, ediciónes era s. a., méxico d. f., ). voir l’étude préparatoire intitulée Étant donnés : maria, la chute d’eau et le gaz d’éclairage, in arturo schwarz, the complete works of marcel duchamp, new york, , p. . voir le chapitre apparence et apparition, in marcel duchamp (michel sanouillet), op. cit., p. – e.s. ibidem, p. . henri poincaré, analysis situs ( ), cité in marcel duchamp dans les collections du centre georges pompidou – musée national d’art moderne, paris, , p. . dore ashton, an interview with marcel duchamp, in studio international, londre, clxxi/ , juin , p. – , apud serge stauffer, op. cit., p. . deborah mawer, ed. the cambridge companion to ravel. cambridge: cambridge university press, . xv, pp. isbn (hardcover) all rights reserved © canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : canadian university music review revue de musique des universités canadiennes deborah mawer, ed. the cambridge companion to ravel. cambridge: cambridge university press, . xv, pp. isbn (hardcover) remi chiu volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu chiu, r. ( ). compte rendu de [deborah mawer, ed. the cambridge companion to ravel. cambridge: cambridge university press, . xv, pp. isbn (hardcover)]. canadian university music review / revue de musique des universités canadiennes, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ -v -n -cumr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ cumr/rmuc immediate predecessors and contemporaries, bach has become one voice in a rich historical counterpoint. janette tilley references besseler, heinrich. . funf echte bildnisse johann sebastian backs. kassel: bârenreiter. chafe, eric. . "allegorical music: the 'symbolism' of tonal language in the bach canons". journal of musicology no. : - . kater, michael h. and albrecht riethmuller, eds. . music and nazism: art under tyranny - . laaber, germany: laaber verlag. marissen, michael. . "the theological character of j. s. bach's musical offering" in bach studies , ed. daniel r. melamed. - . cambridge: cambridge university press. moser, hans joachim. . j oh. seb. bach. m. hesse. potter, pamela. . the most german of arts: musicology and society from the weimar republic to the end of hitler's reich. new haven: yale university press. schmid, birgitta maria. . "musikwissenschaft im 'dritten reich'" in die dunkle last: musik und nationalsozialismus, schriften fur musikwissen- schaft und musiktheorie, ed. brunhilde sontag, hans-werner boresch, and detlef gojowy, vol. , - . cologne: bela. wollny, peter, hans-joachim schulze and ulrich leisinger, eds. . bach unter den diktaturen - und - , leipziger beitrâge zur bachforschung, vol. . hildesheim: olms. deborah mawer, ed. the cambridge companion to ravel. cambridge: cam- bridge university press, . xv, pp. isbn (hardcover). published in to mark the th anniversary of ravel's birth, the cam- bridge companion to ravel offers a smorgasbord of current research on the composer's aesthetics, music, and reception history. one of the mandates of the companion is to "broaden the base for ravel studies beyond france" and to "bring in 'new blood' from other related areas" (p. ). to that end, the majority of the contributors are scholars who have established their reputations not in ravel studies, but in neighboring research areas such as debussy, milhaud, satie, bartok, and even webern. each essayist brings a distinct set of expertise to the discussion, which helps to connect ravel to the broader trends in music research, interpretation, and criticism. the book, organized into three parts, contains a total of eleven essays, together with an appendix of a selection of early reviews, some previously untranslated, of ravel's main works. the first part of the companion, entitled "culture and aesthetic," contains three essays that contextualize ravel's aes- thetics through references to various aspects of his biography. the first essay, by barbara kelly, situates ravel within french musical and cultural traditions, / ( ) beginning with his relationship with the conservatoire—the "estab- lishment"—then moving into his connections with other french composers and his place in french aesthetic history, and finishing by looking outwards at the influences of schoenberg and jazz. robert orledge's contribution, "evocations of exoticism," broadens the geographical scope to examine the aesthetics of french musical exoticism and to situate ravel's engagement with diverse cultures within that history. orledge's essay explains how ravel's musical approach to "otherness" is inherently french. deborah mawer provides the last essay of the first section, in which she sympathetically examines claims for a detached objectivity in ravel's music. mawer begins by explicating the idea of "musical objects"—the tolling b-flats in "le gibet," the tritone in la valse, and other such devices that, unlike motives, are fixed and do not engender organic growth—and explores their use in a variety of other works. she also looks at the source of ravel's interest in machinist aesthetics and its manifestation in works such as boléro and l'heure espagnole. mawer is thereby able to draw some thought-provoking parallels between the composer's music and other artistic movements such as symbol- ism, cubism, and italian futurism. the second section of the companion, "musical explorations", further elaborates and substantiates through closer musical analysis some of the thematic kernels offered in the essays of the first section. it makes up the bulk of the companion and includes six analytical essays that examine ravel's oeuvre by genre: piano, chamber, orchestral, ballet, and vocal works. roy howat takes up barbara kelly's discussion of the relationship between ravel and composers such as chabrier and debussy and examines the motivic, harmonic and other idiomatic correspondences among a few piano works by the three composers. likewise, peter kaminsky looks at the exotic aspects of some of ravel's vocal output. this thematic interweaving lends cohesion to the companion and is especially helpful in mitigating against the unfocused eclecticism that often plagues essay anthologies. in her essay in this section, mawer discusses ravel's ballets from a variety of angles: categorization of dance types in daphnis et chloé, the idea of duality in la valse, and a fuller exploration of machine aesthetics in boléro. the aim of mawer's essay is "to aid listening with a score or study prior to a ballet production or concert performance" (p. ). she succeeds, i think, in catering to a dual audience, those interested in a closer analysis of the music as well as those looking for more challenging-than-usual program notes. this is not the case for all the essays in this section, however, as some of them, such as mark devoto's more theoretically based essay "harmony in the chamber music" and michael russ's discussion of ravel's orchestral music, can only be appreciated properly with the additional use of a score. one of the highlights of this section of the book, and indeed of the entire companion, is roy howat's discussion of ravel and the piano. arguing that the strength of ravel's piano works lies in their formal properties, howat analyzes their sophisticated small-scale and large-scale structures. the most cumr/rmuc interesting part of this essay is a discussion of motivic extension in "alborada del gracioso" that recalls howat's earlier work on the golden section in debussy's music. examining the patterning of four basic motives, the author finds a sequence of musical events that follows the fibonacci series. i wish howat had gone a little further and pursued enquiry into the aesthetic signifi- cance of the golden section, but as it is, this section of howat's essay well justifies the companion's mandate for a broadened intellectual base to ravel studies. peter kaminsky devotes a substantial portion of his essay on ravel's vocal music to trois poèmes de stéphane mallarmé and its underlying symbolist aesthetic. he examines ravel's method of "transposing" poetry into music and makes enlightening observations about the correlations between the music and the poetic imagery and form. he takes the word "l'azur," for example, and traces the poetic and musical trajectory organized around its diverse shades of meaning as it recurs in the poem "soupir". richard langham smith's chapter on ravel's operas offers yet another note-worthy perspective on the composer's music. he briefly discusses melanie klein's psychoanalytical interpretation of l'enfant et les sortilèges, focusing primarily on the issue of childhood sadism. langham smith attempts to bring a few of klein's observations to bear on the music itself, an insightful approach that certainly deserves further elaboration. the crosspollination of discourses often produces interesting fruits, and smith's work offers an intrigu- ing glimpse into the possibilities of interdisciplinary scholarship. the third section of the companion contains two essays dealing with issues of performance and reception. in his contribution on performance practice, ronald woodley argues that because musicians who provide us with early recordings of ravel's works were so immersed in the contemporary culture and aesthetics, they offer us a more direct and extremely educational access to ravel's music. woodley begins his analysis with ravel's own piano record- ings, revealing some of the composer's intentions that lie beyond the semiotic limitations of the notated score. amongst other findings he discovers a little legerdemain in the composer's recordings of "toccata" and "le gibet": woodley provides convincing evidence—stylistic nuances and the physical impossibility for ravel to play certain chords unrolled—that robert casadesus ghosted certain recordings that had been sold as authentic ravel performances. woodley also examines the piano recordings of vlado perlemuter and alfred cortot, making valuable observations through inter-performer and cross- chronological comparisons. also included in this essay are brief discussions of the early recordings of the string quartet, introduction et allegro, a few vocal works, the piano concerto in g, and boléro. roger nichols rounds out the companion with a short essay on reception history. he attempts to answer the question why ravel's œuvre—undoubtedly brilliant as it is—has fallen short of being "canonic." are entertaining works of less value than confrontational ones? what can ravel's place in music history tell us about twentieth-century expectations of the "serious" composer? / ( ) one may well take issue with nichols' premise that ravel is not a part of the canon, especially since—and this is perhaps the greatest shortcoming of this essay—nichols does not explain his working definition of "canonic" with much finesse. (besides, wouldn't the inclusion of ravel in the cambridge companion series itself suggest the conferral of a canonic status on the composer?) objection aside, nichol's work does provide some valuable in- sights into ravel's legacy. where the first part of the companion looks at the formative influences of others on ravel, nichols's essay explores the influence of ravel upon others, among them debussy, satie, honegger, poulenc, mes- siaen, as well as composers outside of france such as stravinsky, vaughan williams, and britten. the emergent picture of reception seems to be one of lukewarm ambivalence. ultimately, nichols finds it difficult to pin down ravel, who has been criticised for assiduous conservatism in his handling of form, yet, in the s and s, was considered to be a more "modern" composer than stravinsky! in the conclusion to his essay, nichols wonders whether the twenty-first century will bring a better understanding to the music of ravel. come what may, this companion makes a fine start. remi chiu microsoft word - angeria rigamonti di cuto' published paper.doc this is an author's accepted manuscript of an article published in visual culture in britain, november , copyright taylor & francis, available online at: http://www.tandfonline.com doi: . / . . staging the modernist self: the self-portraits of william orpen angeria rigamonti di cutò independent scholar, london abstract one of the most financially successful and honoured painters of the twentieth century, william orpen’s reputation, now diminished, rests predominantly on his accomplished society portraits and war paintings. yet orpen ( - ) also produced an extensive body of compelling self-portraits, depicting himself in a variety of guises that mark diverse performances of his ‘self’. this neglected area of orpen’s production stands apart from his distinctly official works as the painter of the british establishment and war artist and as such merits attention for its singular engagement with the modernist self. i consider orpen’s self-portraits as the visual equivalent of autobiography and autobiografiction, drawing on modernist literary examples for comparison, with a particular focus on ford madox ford’s the good soldier. i also analyse a range of images to investigate how orpen could engage with, satirize, mask, elaborate and fantasize his identities in these works. while a comparison with historically specific notions of selfhood can illuminate orpen’s visual autobiography, i also consider the role played by his own biography in the questioning and staging of his own identity. consistently characterized by critics as a great draughtsman yet frequently condemned for a lack of intellectual curiosity, i argue that orpen, away from his official status, was intensely engaged in elaborating and examining his identities through self-portraits that also connect with a modernist preoccupation with the very process of creating art. keywords self-portraits, autobiography, identity, modernism, first world war, ford madox ford, ireland orpen through the looking glass william orpen ( – ) spent the greater part of his life studying faces. known predominantly for his prolific society portraits, orpen would also obsessively portray his own face, in a series of compelling and sometimes extravagant self-portraits. yet despite a compulsive and intensely analytical fascination with the representation of his own identities, twenty years after his death orpen was condemned by his nephew, tate director john rothenstein, as intellectually “feeble” and “contemptuous ... towards the life of the mind”. this damning appraisal cemented a recurring tendency to underestimate orpen’s intellectual faculties, a tendency that was arguably aided by orpen’s own self-mocking levity. it was also the case that orpen, as a painter of the establishment, official war artist, kbe and royal academician, occupied a manifestly public territory, one still dominated by edwardian orthodoxies and thus unaccommodating to his more modernist engagement with the self. beginning with an overview of the literature on orpen, i posit his self-representations as a visual equivalent of autobiography, pictorial experiments in the capturing and construction of his composite selves. autobiography had a central if problematic role in all modernisms: while some writers discouraged it in favour of self-effacement and impersonality, others engaged with life-writing in new ways, playing formal games with an increasingly fractured self through parody and the adoption of multiple personae. drawing on literary theory and history, i consider ways in which the modernist self was represented in literature, an approach that can illuminate orpen’s visual “autobiografiction”, a form which merges confession with a fictionalization of the self. within literary modernism lay the idea that the perception and representation of ourselves and others develops out of multiple impressions that succeed one another. in this vein, my assessment of the literary engagement with the modernist self will focus on ford madox ford’s the good soldier, a novel which innovated the rendering of reality through multiple perceptions. i look closely at a selection of orpen’s “autoportraits” to question how he could engage with, satirize, mask and elaborate his identities in these works, as well as negotiate diverse art historical tendencies. i also consider the importance that aspects of orpen’s own biography brought to bear on his persistent self-representation, however, a consideration of literary modernism suggests that his experiments in self-portraiture also engaged with historically specific interests, such as the difficulty in forging a fixed identity and the preoccupation with the very process of creating art. criticism orpen’s self-portraits rarely receive more than cursory appraisal. the sole article devoted to them was written in by the francophile critic frank rutter who, in acknowledging orpen’s penchant for disguise, likened the self-portraits to those of rembrandt. for rutter, orpen was principally intent on exploiting the decorative, formal possibilities of dressing up, thereby using self-portraiture as a convenient means of training. yet orpen undertook a rigorous training from the age of eleven and was known for painting long hours daily throughout his lifetime. moreover, with more society portrait commissions than he could satisfy and considerable wealth as the de facto successor of sargent, there was no economic advantage in indulging a fascination with self-portraiture. rutter’s comparison with the self-portraits of william hogarth and richard wilson also seems misleading and does not take into account orpen’s distinctly more problematic relationship with himself, one that evokes a palpable self-doubt compared with his apparently more self- possessed eighteenth-century predecessors. orpen’s biographer bruce arnold also makes the comparison with rembrandt’s self-portraits, citing both artists’ love of dress-up but, mistakenly i would argue, views orpen’s images as ultimately comic in comparison with the tragedy of rembrandt’s depicted self. arnold also ascribes orpen’s growing interest in self-portraiture to his affair with the powerful evelyn st george, the subject of one of his most glamorous society portraits, yet this interest began long before and continued well after his association with her. rothenstein’s assessment of orpen’s entire oeuvre is a generally damning one that set the tone for much subsequent criticism. rothenstein dwells on orpen’s spectacular material success but notes that he was virtually forgotten some twenty years after his death. (orpen himself predicted, “twenty years after i die nobody will remember me.”) while rothenstein acknowledges orpen’s brilliance as a draughtsman, he starkly condemns his lack of intellectual faculties and portrays a facile, infantilized orpen who progressed through his career on a “golden treadmill”. although rothenstein recognizes in the early orpen a “sinister humour” and the ability to see things from a “queer” “unexpected” angle, he deems the artist’s early work the mirror as rejecting these qualities in favour of a dull assimilation of old masters. if autobiography has been seen as a “a kind of afterword to the author's works; a supplement [...] a text outside of the other texts”, it is indeed the case that orpen's self-portraits are scarcely mentioned by rothenstein. yet i would argue that not only do they engage in significant self-analysis, they also reveal the singular, eerie quality rothenstein saw in the early orpen. there have been occasional acknowledgments of a more singular artistic mind at work than rothenstein credits orpen as having. contemporary critic c.h collins baker recognized a “complex artistic individuality” and a mind “at once satiric, literal and imaginative”, although he too mentions the self-portraits only en passant. konody and dark situated the self-portraits as a “busman’s holiday”, separate to orpen’s “real” oeuvre. more unusually, they rank them among his best work because of their “experimental vein”. later criticism has more readily recognized the complexity of the self-portraits, with kenneth mcconkey noting that they are “acutely problematic”. mcconkey also refers to the tendency of refusing orpen any modernist credentials yet in the case of critics such as rothenstein and stephen spender, this arose out of the narrowest, most francophile, conception of modern art. this was recognized by c.r.w. nevinson, who thought orpen unjustly “condemned by those who think abstraction the only solution”. others still have compared orpen’s interest in self-portraiture to that of picasso, with due consideration for their formal disparities. far from being unaffected by modern developments, in some of the self-portraits orpen revealed a distinct, even formal, interest in modernism, but above all his compulsive rendering of himself resonates with the modernist literary fascination with autobiography. autobiography and autobiografiction “one shouldn’t write one autobiography but ten of them or a hundred because, while we only have one life, we have innumerable ways of recounting that life (to ourselves).” to view orpen’s self-portraiture as the visual equivalent of autobiography seems especially apt in the early twentieth century when a correspondence of text and image was being increasingly advocated. ezra pound described the genesis of poetry writing as a strictly visual practice, “an equation… not in speech, but in little splotches of colour… it was… the beginning for me, of a language in colour”. similarly, t.e. hulme voiced the equivalence of word and image: “each word must be an image seen, not a counter”. literary works explicitly evoked the notion of visual portraiture, with novels such as the picture of dorian grey and a portrait of the artist as a young man being prime examples. joyce’s novel, moreover, underscores the specifically modernist interest in thematicizing the actual process of creating art. as the literary critic max saunders has proposed, modernist autobiography engaged not only with personal and social life, but also with the experience and creation of art. what writers such as conrad, yeats, woolf, ford and proust read was thus just as important in their formation and writing as what they experienced, a process saunders refers to as intertextuality. in addition to the thematicizing of the creation of art, an engagement with the inner self was central to early twentieth-century autobiography and fiction, in contrast with the historicizing approach of nineteenth-century (auto)biography. the german biographer emile ludwig noted this attention on “the personality per se, the personality almost devoid of temporal co-ordinates. […] whereas our fathers asked, “how did the individual harmonize with his world? our first question is ‘does he harmonize with himself’”. this increasing interest in the self illuminates the pervasive fin-de-siècle interest in portraiture that saunders identifies. even if the sense of self was increasingly destabilized and dehistoricized, t.j. clark has argued that such a shift provoked an increase in self-representation rather than its demise, although this process was not without tensions and contradictions. while t.s. eliot advocated “not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality”, the early twentieth century witnessed a growing tendency to engage in formal play with the self in a variety of literary forms. writers adopted parody, masks, fantasy, time travel, personae and even gender masquerades, virginia woolf’s orlando being emblematic in this respect. these drives find correspondences in orpen’s oeuvre, which in its masquerades enacts an engagement with the historiography of art, as well as a preoccupation with personal aspects of his identity. this tendency is at its most ostentatious and jocular in his series of chardin impersonations, in which orpen stages himself as a descendant of the old masters. he adopts chardin’s faintly absurd feminizing bandana, ribbon and spectacles, which drolly reject self- aggrandizement, although in some of these works orpen’s stare displaces levity. references to chardin also located orpen within a modernist “rediscovery” of artists who had passed into virtual oblivion in the nineteenth century. manet and matisse copied chardin, while proust wrote an essay considering, among other works, his self-portraits. as well as referencing, and including himself in, a history of self-portraiture, orpen’s response to the uffizi’s invitation to contribute a self-portrait for the prestigious sala dei pittori, a self-portrait as chardin, suggests his mockery of the sanction of one of art history’s most honoured institutions. in this version it has been observed that orpen’s crooked finger and brush emulate the horned hand of the cuckold, a gesture considered offensive to italians and one that might be deemed curious for a royal academician recording his identity as an artist (impersonating an old master) at the uffizi. the elusiveness of identity and representation if literary works such as orlando and gertrude stein’s everybody’s autobiography dissolved a sense of a stable self and underscored the absurdity of capturing the self at all, in part because of the fallibility of memory, the difficulties of self-representation in visual form present specific problems. jacques derrida’s memoirs of the blind draws attention to the inherent elusiveness of self-portraiture, proposing that an artist could not contemporaneously look at himself and draw his own likeness. drawing is thus blind, an act rooted in memory and anticipation, and the self-portrayed face a recollection of itself, never a direct capturing. moreover, while written forms of autobiography can accommodate changing perceptions of self, such shifts are captured with considerably greater difficulty in a single painted image. in this sense orpen’s visual autobiography should be seen as comprising the entirety of his self-portraiture, each image re-writing a different account of himself. if, as paul valéry said, “once my pen intervenes, i can make whatever i like out of what i was”, one senses that orpen’s self-portraits constitute an attempt to mediate his own identities while also trying to manipulate others’ perceptions of him. “so many views”: ford madox ford’s the good soldier the role of memory that derrida and stein have identified as central to self-representation, and the idea that the perception and representation of ourselves and others develops out of multiple impressions that succeed one another, are central to ford madox ford’s the good soldier ( ). just as orpen occupies an uncertain territory between edwardian orthodoxies and modernism, so too the good soldier inhabits a transitional literary phase. ford has long been regarded (and defined himself) as belonging to literary impressionism, an intermediate stage between nineteenth-century realisms and the radical experiments of fully-fledged modernism. ford stressed the visual qualities of literary impressionism’s approach, again suggesting contemporary correspondences between literature and visual art: “i suppose that impressionism exists to render those queer effects of real life that are like so many views seen through bright glass - though glass so bright that whilst you perceive through it a landscape or a backyard, you are aware that on its surface, it reflects a face of a person behind you. for the whole of life is really like that; we are almost always in one place with our minds somewhere quite other.” ford’s evocation of multiple, mirror-like perspectives which reflect and constitute reality lies at the heart of the modernist fracturing of unity of self and reality. ford explained that in order to represent all aspects of a character as they presented themselves to an observer, “you could not begin at his beginning and work his life chronologically to the end. you must first get him in with a strong impression, and then work backwards and forwards over his past.” the good soldier adopts exactly this technique. the story is narrated by the american john dowell, who recounts the disintegration of the relationships between two couples, himself and his wife, and the philandering “good soldier” edward ashburnham and his wife. dowell, a first-person and highly unreliable narrator, presents a series of varying accounts of events over a nine-year period, recounting an initial impression which is retrospectively modified by later perceptions, elaborated by himself or related to him by other characters. the succeeding impressions become superimposed over one another: “i pieced it together afterwards”. if, as paul armstrong has noted, dowell/ford used language not only to communicate but also as a contrivance to analyse unresolved thoughts and feelings, similarly orpen could be seen as having used his self-portraits not just to perform and communicate his “self” to viewers but also as an attempt at attaining self-understanding and stability. if “to write...is to make the self present to itself by presenting it to others”, orpen could confront and stabilize his identities by representing them visually. the sense of an ever-shifting, fractured succession of multiple narratives which attempt to capture reality is most marked in orpen’s self-portrait with mirrors (figure ). using opposing mirrors to generate a fugue of manifold reflections, it is one of orpen’s most technically ambitious images. the reference to cubist effects is marked and this constitutes the most formally modernist of orpen’s pictures. it is telling that orpen depicts himself in paris, the sacré coeur in montmartre visible from the balcony. orpen had spent a good deal of time in france although he acknowledged never receiving recognition there, but this image suggests that relatively late in life, away from london, he felt freer to experiment with the effects of cubism. orpen presents himself as a painter, ageing, with a lined face and receding hairline. in the four reflections where his face is distinct, each version is different, but not markedly so, there is no dress-up here, but subtly modified versions of himself, the second orpen less frowning, the third red-lipped, almost smiling, the fourth sullen and swollen-faced. for all its european, post-impressionist chromatic vividness, its glassy, angular, receding planes that locate orpen as a twentieth-century painter and that are so distant from the drawing rooms of edwardian london, the tone is bleak, the attempt at gestalt, self-knowledge and self-representation as elusive and disorientating as the infinite mirror reflections. the search for self-identity seems as much about the uncertainty of creating the artwork as it does about personal biography, markers of which are scarce in comparison with other self-portraits. both orpen’s simultaneous self-representations and dowell’s varying accounts of himself and others suggest not only the multiple versions of reality we construct, but also the discrepancy between how people appear to others and to themselves. throughout the good soldier dowell identifies with ashburnham, loving the women he loves and even, by the end of the book, living where he lived, but since ashburnham’s masculinity is undermined by a sentimental, over-emotive streak, dowell alternates his naive hero-worship with a distinct contempt for ashburnham’s weakness. there is a sense that part of his identification with ashburnham rests on dowell’s aspiration to be virile, heroic and english, a nationality that he sees as virtually synonymous with manliness. ashburnham is thus “the english gentleman”; “he was very well built, carried himself well ... he had, in fact, all the virtues that are usually accounted english”; he is “the hero, the athlete, the father of his country, the law-giver”. as a protestant irishman who would adopt england as his home, orpen’s sense of national identity was ambiguous. at times he was customarily flippant in tone, claiming, “i was brought up on ‘the irish question’; but what the irish question was i have no idea. (i wonder if anybody has!)”. when asked to return to ireland during the war, orpen responded, “no, everything i have i owe to england.[...] it was the english who gave me appreciation and money. this is their war and i have enlisted”. orpen thus declares his allegiance to the english who gave him the recognition he craved yet refers to them in the third person, to “their” war. orpen did not often unequivocally assert his irish identity in his self-portraits; when he did, his persona seems particularly stagy, as in the camp celtic revival fantasy, man from aran ( , private collection). his biographer refers to his “stage-irish heart” yet orpen’s drawing “ a dream: i imagine that dublin has seen fit to honour me” ( , reproduced in stories of old ireland and myself) suggests that he was not indifferent to the esteem of his countrymen. there is a sense that he aspired, albeit uneasily, to certain models of english masculinity and authority, akin to those dowell envies in ashburnham. if, as david mellor has suggested, “one route by which the male self could reliably be managed was through the assumption and imitation of authority”, orpen maintained a tension between self-denigration and a showy assumption of manliness in his performances as hunter and jockey. his enactment of the soldier was, however, markedly more ambiguous in its heroism and masculinity. as a jockey and hunter, orpen does not portray his full-length figure, thereby circumventing the problem of his diminutive height, which is exaggerated by the low viewpoint. as a sportsman (figure ), orpen cuts a curious figure. he does not show himself on horseback, glaring at the viewer with the “more direct... hardy...measuring...challenging” look that dowell glimpses in ashburnham. if the brandished whip is a graphic reminder of the sportsman’s power, the feminine shimmery pink and blue silks markedly undermine a normative masculinity. moreover, generally small, the jockey was not the most obviously virile of sportsmen for orpen to impersonate. in these quasi-parodic manly guises, orpen impersonates the role while pointing to, and distancing himself from, the travesty. the dead ptarmigan (c , national gallery of ireland) summons another seminal manifestation of masculinity, the hunter, and here orpen assumes a similarly glowering, sullen-lipped air that seems to dare the viewer to doubt this identity, while also recognizing its absurdity. orpen’s masculine accoutrements are the brandished dead bird and the phallic gun and, as in the jockey, the blustery sky proclaims the virility of the great outdoors. orpen told rutter that this was his favourite self-portrait and in this case stressed, “my picture is not english, it’s irish”. both the jockey and the dead ptarmigan are the height of artifice, orpen, according to friends and biographers, probably never having ridden or fired a gun. moreover, the unconvincing relation between figure and landscape illustrate orpen’s “absurd habit of copying landscapes from a painted backcloth in his studio”. the contrived treatment of the sky underlines the overall artifice of the image, one that orpen presumably sought for its self-dramatizing effects. if the good soldier recounts dowell’s perception of events and people, the novel is also significantly about the realization of himself. as saunders notes, dowell has a fundamentally changing view of himself throughout the novel, early on describing himself as a “sedulous, strained nurse”, a “eunuch”, until the ultimate revelation of his self-identification with ashburnham: “for i can’t conceal from myself the fact that i loved edward ashburnham - and that i love him because he was just myself. if i had had the courage and the virility and possibly also the physique of edward ashburnham i should, i fancy, have done much what he did. he seems to me like a large elder brother who took me out on several excursions and did many dashing things whilst i just watched him robbing the orchards, from a distance.” if, as dowell observes, “it is very difficult to give an all-round impression of any man”, this notion constitutes the central affinity between ford’s novel and orpen’s attempt to present himself, to make the viewer, but particularly himself, see him as he would wish to be seen. orpen’s life writing if orpen’s autobiographical fictions imply a modernist collapsing of a fixed, stable self, his own biography should also be considered in the evolution of his self-consciousness. born of a protestant family in dublin, orpen entered the dublin school of art at the age of eleven and six years later moved to london where he spent three years at the slade school of art, a star pupil. orpen was not only engaged in visual self-representation, he also wrote two autobiographical works. an onlooker in france ( – ) was an account of his time in france during the war, while stories of old ireland and myself ( ) is a faux-naive description of an idealized youth in a whimsical, nostalgic ireland. while the memoir, written as an ageing and ailing man, is almost entirely anecdotal rather than introspective, orpen nonetheless starkly confronts a lifelong complex about his appearance, in marked contrast to the general levity of the memoir. he writes, “at the age of eleven i entered the school of art, dublin, and i at once became an old man, and one of the world’s workers. anyway, i looked on myself as such, and dreamt very few dreams”. orpen underscores the importance of how he views himself rather than subscribing to the fiction of an objective reality. he also confronts his relationship with his own appearance: “my general appearance, and especially my face, have always been a source of depression to me, even from my early days. i remember once, by mistake, overhearing a conversation between my father and my mother about my looks – why it was that i was so ugly and the rest of the children so good looking. it was indeed a question difficult to explain, and i remember creeping away and worrying a lot about the matter. i began to think i was a black blot on the earth, and when i met people on the country roads i always used to cross to the other side to let them pass, and by so doing save them the pain of having a ‘close-up’ view of me. later on i had a great chance of improving my looks, but, alas! it never came off.” orpen goes on to recount his bizarre plan for self-improvement. pupils at the art school practised drawing from the antique, which, according to orpen’s singular vision, made students increasingly take on the appearance of their greco-roman subjects. given an appropriately heroic subject, orpen evokes the quasi-magical transformative power of art: “now my chance would certainly come when i was promoted to draw an antique figure. surely it would be some wonderful apollo or hermes, or perhaps the “fighting gladiator”! then my features would quickly change, my body would develop, i would gradually become pure classical greek.” finally summoned to draw, orpen was presented with a dancing faun, “as ugly as you please”. other than revealing his own mortification, the passages also reveal the importance to orpen of how his looks are perceived by others, so that even within his own family he could become other, a “black blot” marring an otherwise idyllic ménage. identity is thus forged by oneself but also by, and in comparison with, others. moreover, the account of the desire to “improve” by association with ideal figures suggests orpen’s belief in the power of art to transform identity and this is key to reading his visual autobiographies. orpen even made reference to his appearance at the versailles peace conference, which he portrayed. when asked for a memoir to give journalists, orpen said, “the chief thing that impressed me in my youth was my ugliness, just the same then as now, though having lived so long with it it does not hurt quite the same as when i found it out at first”. this response was rejected but it is a testament to orpen’s unconventionality that even in this most solemn and official of contexts he would choose to speak of his “ugliness”. others too commented on his appearance. a fellow student at the slade remarked on “his unkempt brown hair growing low on his forehead, concealing almost two formidable frontal bumps”, while max beerbohm openly mocked orpen’s physique in a caricature of the new english art club artists ( , tate britain). orpen had some objective grounds for physical self-consciousness; at ’ ”, he was very far from reaching the minimum ’ ” height requirement for enlisting. when the ruling was changed in and the minimum height dropped to ’, orpen was able to join up, commemorating the event in a sketch captioned “england’s called her last resources/little orpen’s joined the forces”. throughout his life orpen would refer to himself as “ickle orps” “orpsie boy”, a self-mockery that was generally little appreciated. rothenstein saw it as a “protection against intimacy”, while james laver asked, “can high truth come through the mouth of the comic mask?”. yet nevinson, as a committed modernist before the war, astutely identified an “uncanny shrewdness” in orpen’s self-awareness but recognized that his love of disguise and comic masks would lead to misinterpretation. what seems clear is that orpen needed to paint and draw himself. he had explicitly communicated his urge to express his thoughts and feelings in literary form, writing to his wife, “if only i had the gift of writing – or whatever it is that allows one to put down impressions on paper”. just as some writers aspired to a visual language, orpen may have aspired to forms of written autobiography but lacking the necessary verbal facility performed his self-impressions visually, as though he could secure his own self by compulsively portraying it. me, myself and i orpen began drawing and painting himself early on. the ashmolean self-portrait attributed to him would have been made at only thirteen although, in an example of modernist time-shifts, he also repeatedly portrayed himself as a child when he was in his forties. the recurring presence of the mirror in orpen’s self-portraits and other paintings, suggests an awareness of the mediation of perception, despite the predominantly realistic imprint of his art. as t.j. clark has noted, the presence of a mirror in self-portraiture automatically engenders a “dialectical to-and-fro” in which the self sees itself as unfamiliar and is sceptical about its own existence and unity, scepticism of the self being “one of self-portraiture’s deepest and most ordinary conventions”. derrida observed the distancing effects of the mirror, saying that just as we can never look at our own faces, so too “the naked face...cannot look at itself in a looking glass.” orpen’s self-portraits with mirrors evoke this very elusiveness, the impossibility, of seeing ourselves; far from conjuring up, let alone confirming, identity, the mirror underscores the otherness of the self. the self portrait (figure ) shows orpen looking at himself in a mirror whose frame is visible within the image. one of the most formally modernist of his paintings, it draws graphic attention to the flatness of the picture plane while articulating distinct layers receding into the background. on the surface, glued to the canvas, is a series of ferry tickets, “engaged seat” notices, a personal cheque and a page from orpen's diary. this incorporation of real life objects is of particular interest in , the year in which collage was first used by picasso, although whether orpen was aware of the experiments of braque and picasso is unknown. the superimposed papers create an unyielding, hostile barrier between viewer and image. the “engaged” notices have political connotations, evoking the peintre engagé, yet orpen protested his ignorance of politics. augustus john’s biographer claimed that orpen “cultivated ignorance and pursued superficiality with extreme zeal. there was not a single serious topic of which he could not claim to be unaware.” there is no evidence that orpen was making any claims about his ideological sympathies in this work, yet holroyd’s word “cultivated” suggests the archness of orpen’s affectation of ignorance. it is also noteworthy that orpen’s “engaged” reference, in an image dated october , anticipated picasso’s guitar, sheet music, and wine glass, with its newspaper clipping bearing the headline “la bataille s’est engagé[e]”, dated november (mcnay art museum, san antonio, texas). perhaps orpen refers to his engagement with painting or with the contemplation of himself, holding a highly coloured rag, as if prepared to wipe out the image in this second layer of the painting. orpen scowls as he scrutinizes himself; it is as if his gaze removes the viewer’s visage and replaces it with his own, suggestive of the french verb to stare, “dévisager”, literally to remove the face. he also seems fearful, compressed between the papers that partly obscure him and the black grill that separates him from the background layer of the image whose impressionistic trees merge with the rag and orpen’s claw-like hand. the vivid colour does little to mitigate the sensation of discomfort. konody and dark perceptively saw orpen as “a little afraid of the man who is revealed in his pictures.” in memoirs of the blind derrida identifies fear as the very subject of self-portraiture. while self-representation requires a certain exhibitionism, according to derrida, it also evokes shame and anxiety: “the subject of the self-portrait becomes fear, it makes itself into fear, makes itself afraid”, and here orpen seems unnervingly uncertain, of himself, but also of the direction to pursue in his art. in the portrayal of himself he is tied to the illusionistic realisms of the nineteenth century, yet he has introduced a distinctly modern flattening of the canvas, the application of papier collé and considerable areas of impressionistic brushwork and colour. while many critics refused to credit orpen with any modernist aspirations, and turpin suggests that the slade, under the aegis of henry tonks, had a distinctly anti-modern stance, some of these self-portraits suggest otherwise. self-portraits and the war the great war enabled the enactment of another archetypally heroic identity, the soldier, but again the painter assumed the defensive mask of self-denigration. orpen had a troubled relationship with his wartime experience, habitually seen as one of the prime drivers of a modernist fragmentation of the self. in his wartime autobiography he identifies himself as an “onlooker” and although eventually serving as an official war artist, he never engaged in combat. while carrying out office work after being enlisted he sent a vignette to evelyn st george depicting an irate colonel demanding, “what can you do?”, to which a mortified orpen replies, “nothing, sir, i’m an artist”. the war provided yet another opportunity for feelings of inadequacy. as a teacher, society portraitist, war artist, and later royal academician and kbe, orpen had courted public status yet all the while feeling an outsider, a tension that also marks his wartime self-portraits. p.g. konody and s. dark claimed that despite being traumatized for life by what he saw in france, the war “made him”, but orpen generally continued to be accused of levity. for ezra pound, orpen’s war was “very like peace-life belgravia”. despite accusations of flippancy, orpen began recounting wartime scenes that speak of disturbance and breakdown: “i was all alone… i felt strange. i cannot say even now what i felt. afraid? of what? the sun shone fiercely… so i went and sat on the trunk of a blown-up tree close by, when suddenly i was thrown on the back of my head on the ground. my heavy easel was upset, and one of the skulls went through the canvas.” the image of the skull through the canvas is shocking, unsettling and this malaise colours his major wartime self- portrait ready to start (figure ). always a drinker, orpen became heavily addicted in cassel in and here the bottles and siphon dominate the image, suggesting these are what enable him to be “ready to start”. as a soldier he cuts an absurd figure in a tin hat and piebald bearskin gilet. again a mirror is visible, but here it takes on the appearance of a painting within the painting, underscoring the sense of orpen’s alienation from himself. other than constructing a portrait of the accoutrements of his daily life, the image is also a complex amalgam of strictly painterly matters that are central to orpen’s visual autobiography. the flatness of the plane is again accentuated, with the bands of grey serving as a frame within the image, while the everyday objects seem to hover uncertainly between the room and orpen’s image in the mirror, with the soda siphon encroaching onto the space of the street. colour and pattern are also significant: the black and white fur, the red and white tablecloth and the pink and green wallpaper reminiscent of vuillard’s use of detailed decorative schemes. these highly coloured, feminine patterns also make an incongruous background to the khaki-clad “soldier”. it is worth noting that when orpen does represent himself as a dashing soldier, arguably the only self-portrait where he aspires to an easy, unproblematic glamour (self-portrait, , imperial war museum), he seems like an imposter, as if this masquerade were the most artificial of all. self-portraits as painter orpen acted the part of soldier, hunter, sportsman and dandy about town, as well as depicting himself with a series of female nudes, images in which his persona seems more remote than in the other self portraits. early on he portrayed himself with other painters, so his identity was tested not just as an individual but also as part of a specific social group. but he would also enact the performance of the solo painter, now in costume, now as “himself”. as derrida observes in memoirs of the blind, when viewing a self-portrait of an artist in the act of drawing, it is generally hypothesized that he is depicting himself but this is conjecture, as the artist may well be in the process of drawing someone or something else. orpen also exploited this uncertainty. his self-portrait (figure ) is one of the few to reveal something of what he is drawing and the circle of the convex mirror that frames the finished image is visible within the image, suggesting that orpen was in the process of drawing the self-portrait we are viewing. orpen’s pencil is close to the paper as he frowns at his reflection: this is the moment to which derrida refers when describing the blindness of drawing, the moment when the artist must look up at his reflection before drawing it, thus relying on memory rather than direct perception. conversely, the self-portrait with ‘sowing new seed’ (figure ) shows the artist maintaining the fiction that he is in the process of painting, “something else”. orpen stands in front of his large irish allegory, a manifesto of artistic and sexual liberation for ireland. this is an added twist to his perpetual mediation of perception, for it implies that he is caught in the act of painting by another, unknown, presence. orpen is at his most grimacing here, his fitted white coat and black bonnet giving him a clinical air. while the original painting has an airy, optimistic background, here orpen has added a lurid, self-dramatizing combination of gold and cobalt. instead of the naturalistic hues of the original, ultramarine, verdigris and brilliant scarlet ally this self-portrait with the colours of european modernism. again, a central aspect of orpen’s self-imaging was an exploration of art’s histories. in addition to formal devices, orpen occasionally supplemented his images with inscriptions. these textual addenda enhanced the weapon of self-derision while also suggesting a modernist detachment from the self. this commentary, moreover, echoes the devices of the literary modernist narrator (the good soldier’s john dowell being a case in point) whose observations affect the narrative, thereby modifying its meanings. used in visual art, an author’s annotations can bear upon the narrative of the image itself. a drawing is, wretchedly, inscribed, “a pleasant sight i have just seen while writing”. orpen’s mordant addressing of himself suggests a constant self-awareness so that every moment of his life was an image that could be intercepted and viewed. the two watercolour self-portraits made when orpen was in his late forties give sardonic voice to his fear of ageing: “older again, orpsie boy” ( ) and “orpsie boy you’re not as young as you were, my lad!” ( ). orpen recognized the dramatic force of humour: “the world is a joke, a joke of tremendous significance, and the laughter is no less defensible and indeed no less necessary because there are also occasions for tears and for sighs”, and these annotated works reveal a perpetual tension between humour and angst. modernist self portraiture certainly other artists were also engaged in representing an increasingly indeterminate sense of self in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, yet these figures were generally more strictly located within modernism than within the transitional territory negotiated by orpen. indeed, orpen’s enactments, now reticent, now flamboyant, seem all the more remarkable for an artist operating within the orthodoxies of the edwardian establishment. orpen had none of the tediously “professional” demeanour contemporaries such as lavery and sargent displayed in their self-assured self-portraits, stanley spencer arguably being one of the few british artists engaged in candid self-scrutiny (self portrait, , tate britain). in europe the disintegration of unity was central to the experiments of cubism, yet cubist self-portraits were rare. picasso painted various versions of himself, sometimes echoing self-portraits of earlier artists, although these accounts seem less personal than concerned with his critical investigations of art of the past. bonnard’s cryptic self- portraits which, unlike orpen, portray only his –darkened- head and torso, evoke t.j. clark’s idea that self-portraiture should conjure up an interior dimension beyond the face, something best achieved through the use of shadow: “the shadow is a metaphor for ‘inside’“. the fact that the majority of bonnard’s self-portraits were painted late in life might suggest that these were driven by an impending sense of mortality rather than a continuous probing of identity. the formal distortions of expressionism yielded more confrontational enquiries into the self. for schiele and munch, self-portraiture was a means of unequivocally communicating angst, in comparison with orpen’s palpable yet more guardedly communicated anxieties. schiele’s self-analysis was enacted through his body and unrestrained sexuality; his head, generally so central to self-portraiture, sometimes barely contained at the edge of the image, as if peripheral to his real, frenetically erotic self. certainly the grimace can be seen as a defining component of twentieth- century portraiture in contrast with the poised self-control of earlier self-representations. munch’s self-portraiture seems not so much an exploration of identity as it does a study of victimization and anguish which pervade not only himself but his entire world, whether in the aptly titled self-portrait in hell ( ), bloodied on an operating table or prone on a bed in a mental institution. max beckmann produced hard-edged, tightly compressed self-portraits in which, like orpen, albeit with considerably more formal distortion, he assumed varying personae which often communicated his mental breakdown: musician, urbanite, sailor and nurse. throughout the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries dress-up was adopted as a means of masking or questioning the self, although these performances rarely seem so personal and so much the result of a confusion of self as is the case with orpen. de chirico made overtly classicizing references in his self-portraits, as well as appearing in baroque costume, experiments that have been seen as parodies of historical self-portraiture in the vein of reynolds. these works are ultimately more convincing as manifestations of de chirico’s interest in art historical revivals than as investigations of identity. jean-françois chevrier has noted that the profusion of fin-de-siècle dressing-up in french art, while ostensibly challenging sexual or racial taboos, ultimately constituted “a measured transgression” which merely reinforced the rules it contravened. chevrier has identified pierre loti and toulouse- lautrec as exceptions, for the “pathos” and “pathological dimension” of their obsession, qualities that inform orpen’s self-representations. while chevrier refers principally to lautrec’s more outlandish masquerades (as a choirboy, in women’s clothing or japanese costume), his self-portrait bears comparison with orpen, in particular the self-portrait (figure ). without the self-defensive screen of a costume, lautrec seems more exposed, yet this too is a study of obfuscated revelation and self-doubt, in which he conceals his small stature. lautrec has also assembled a barricade of objects, including the considerable area of black on the left, which obscures and distances him from the viewer, his features barely discernible. while there are formal differences, lautrec and orpen share biographical similarities, principally alcoholism and a lifelong complex about their appearance, that result in a kind of wounded self-consciousness. in the twentieth century, some of the more striking explorations of a sliding self were enacted through photography and photomontage. photographic self-portraiture was sometimes used to communicate political values, with distinctly unequivocal results, as in fortunato depero’s pugilistic self-portrait with punch ( ) which brought to life marinetti’s exaltation of physical aggression. similarly, john heartfield’s self-portrait with police commissioner (c. ) staged the artist as a protagonist of the social confrontation championed by dada. the use of mirrors in photographic self-portraiture could also picture a fragmenting self, as in witkiewicz’s multiple self- portrait in mirrors ( - ), yet despite the multiplicity of viewpoints, the image does not seem to articulate the internal diversity of self that, for example, orpen’s multiple mirror self-portrait presents (figure ). the spectral painted self-portraits of léon spilliaert were among a very few to effectively use mirrored self-representations as an instrument for the de/construction and representation of identity. in these works his reflected or multiple images often assume a separate identity, illustrating t.j. clark’s point that the use of mirrors in self-portraiture produces selves that are strangers to one another. conclusion while various artists explored unresolved identities and the means of representing them, it is challenging to locate such a disquieting array of performances in the self-portraiture of a single artist. much as ford madox ford advocated a succession of non-chronological, multiple impressions to convey an ungraspable, non-fixed sense of identity, so too orpen, through his “so many views” confronted and constructed the story of his “self”. if “the self is a text – it has to be deciphered… the self is a project, something to be built”, orpen devoted much of his life to this project. the use of disguise he employed to this end could represent fantasy selves, but could also screen the viewer from the artist’s “real” self. there is a sense throughout orpen’s visual autobiography of a tension between a desire for self- concealment and self-revelation, evasion and presence, evoking d.w. winnicott’s notion of the true self’s simultaneous need to hide and be discovered. for some viewers, the masquerades never worked and orpen “could never keep his secrets”, for most, a tendency to privilege high seriousness, even within modernism, resulted in a condemnation of orpen’s mordantly comedic bent. if the staging of fantasy selves implied the presence of trauma, it could also offer a means of self-liberation, although one senses that for orpen this was not to be. his final self-portrait, painted in , après le bain, dieppe (figure ), suggests he had finally laid down his mask, perhaps from resignation or as an experiment in the most artificial of fictions, that of spontaneity. other than a matter-of-fact allusion to his profession in the palette, there is no costume, no intricate props or mocking comment. orpen is hatless, his shirt unusually loose and casual, his nose visibly red, his thinning hair in disarray. rather than his usual challenging, sullen stare, here we see a candid, resolute frown, arguably the most unaffected expression of any of the self-portraits. for all his worldly success, orpen died aged fifty-two in a nursing home, estranged from his family. shortly after his death his biographers konody and dark wrote, “orpen was a man who wanted something from life with all the intensity of his vivid personality. i do not believe that he ever quite knew what that something was, but whatever it was, i am quite sure he never found it,” suggesting that orpen’s autobiografictions never resolved his quest. notes j rothenstein, modern english painters: sickert to smith (london: macdonald and jane's, c. ), . konody & dark called orpen’s self-portraiture a “graphic autobiography”, p.g. konody and s. dark, sir william orpen: artist and man (london: seeley service & co. ltd, ), . while little used until the late twentieth century, the term autobiografiction was first coined in a essay by the writer stephen reynolds. m. saunders, ‘autobiografiction: experimental life-writing from the turn of the century to modernism’, literature compass, : ( ), - . f. rutter, orpen’s self-portraits’, strand magazine (london: march ): - . b. arnold, orpen: mirror to an age (london: jonathan cape, ), - . ibid., . rothenstein, modern english painters, - . for more on rothenstein’s criticism of orpen, see l. cotter, ‘william orpen; towards a minor self-portraiture, visual culture in britain, vol. , no. ( ): - . orpen, cited in arnold, orpen mirror to an age, . m. saunders, ‘biography and autobiography’ in cambridge history of twentieth-century english literature, edited by l. marcus and p. nicholls (cambridge: cup, ), . c. h. collins baker, ‘the paintings of william orpen, a.r.a., r.h.a.’, the studio: an illustrated magazine of fine and applied art, , no. ( ): . konody and dark, sir william orpen, . k. mcconkey, ‘william orpen: his contemporaries, critics and biographers’, in pyms gallery, orpen and the edwardian era (london: pyms gallery, ), . ibid., , . c.r.w. nevinson in mcconkey, ‘william orpen: his contemporaries, critics and biographers’, . j. white in v. ryan, william orpen - : a centenary exhibition: november- december (dublin: national gallery of ireland, c. ), . j.b. pontalis, love of beginnings (london: free association books, ), xv. e. pound, ‘vorticism’ ( ), in h. zimes (ed), ezra pound and the visual arts (new york: new directions, ), . t. e. hulme, ‘notes on language and style’, in m. roberts, t.e. hulme (london: faber and faber, ), . m. saunders, ‘”things passed over": ruskin, modernism, and autobiography' in g. cianci; p. nicholls, (eds), ruskin and modernism (basingstoke: palgrave, ), . e. ludwig, from ‘introduction: on historical portraiture ‘, genius and character ( ), in j. l.clifford, ed., biography as an art: selected criticism, - (oxford: oup, ), . m. saunders, self impression: life-writing, autobiografiction, and the forms of modern literature (oxford: oup, ), . hayden white refers to the existence in modernist literature of a ‘hostility towards the historical consciousness’. h. white, ‘the burden of history’, in tropics of discourse: essays in cultural criticism (baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, . t.j. clark, ‘gross david with the swoln cheek: an essay on self-portraiture’ in m. roth (ed) rediscovering history: culture, politics, and the psyche (stanford, ca: stanford university press, ), . t.s. eliot, ‘tradition and the individual talent’ ( ), selected essays (london: faber and faber, ), . orpen also dedicated a section of his art historical survey, an outline of art, to chardin, singling out his democratic credentials and “intense humanity”, and even assumed his costume at a ball at the chelsea arts club. h.o.borowitz, ‘the watteau and chardin of marcel proust’, the bulletin of the cleveland museum of art, vol. , no. (jan., ): the orpen research project, ‘sir william orpen, r.h.a., r.a., the painter; self-portrait with glasses’ http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot_details.aspx?intobjectid= j. derrida, memoirs of the blind, trans. pascale-anne brault and michael naas, (chicago, il and london: university of chicago press, ), , . it is worth noting that orpen also drew self-portraits of himself at various ages from memory rather than simply “capturing” his immediate mirror reflection. rutter, ‘orpen’s self-portraits’, . paul valéry, cited in saunders, self impression, . p. armstrong, the challenge of bewilderment (ithaca, ny: cornell university press, ), . literary impressionism was seen as a distinct phenomenon from visual impressionism, although it could be said to share a transitional status between realism and modernism. ford, cited in m. saunders, ‘reflections on impressionist autobiography: james, conrad and ford’ in k. carabine, & m. saunders, inter-relations: conrad, james, ford, and others (boulder, co: east european monographs; chichester: wiley, ), . f.madox ford, joseph conrad (london: duckworth, ), - . f.madox ford, the good soldier, ( ) in the bodley head madox ford, vol. (london: bodley head, - ), . p. armstrong, ‘obscurity and reflection in the good solider’ in armstrong, the challenge of bewilderment, . ibid. max beerbohm poked fun at orpen’s fascination with the play of reflection and self-reflection in a caricature showing a typically stunted orpen, inscribed: ‘bravura. mr. orpen trying whether it wouldn't be possible to paint, for the uffizi, one mirror's reflection of another's reflection of a soap-bubble's reflection of himself.’ bravura: william orpen, , tate britain. personal communication cited in g. sheringham, ‘the art of james pryde’, the studio (may ): . ford, the good soldier, , , . w.orpen, stories of old ireland and myself (london: williams and norgate, ), . orpen, cited in j. turpin, ‘ william orpen as student and teacher‘, an irish quarterly review, vol. , no. , ( ): . for a reproduction of the man from aran, see cotter, ‘william orpen: towards a minor self-portraiture’, . arnold, orpen mirror to an age, . d. mellor, ‘the watchmen: or notes on the imaginary male self in th century photography’ in j. lingwood, staging the self: self-portrait photography s- s (plymouth: plymouth arts centre, ), . ford, the good soldier, . for a reproduction of the dead ptarmigan, see cotter, ‘william orpen: towards a minor self-portraiture’, . rutter, orpen’s self portraits, . orpen, in turpin, ‘ william orpen as student and teacher‘, . h. carter, ‘art’ (review), the new age , no. ( ), . m. saunders, ford madox ford: a dual life (oxford: oup, ), . ford, the good soldier, , ibid., - . ibid., . orpen, stories of old ireland, , emphasis added. ibid., - . ibid., . ibid., . orpen even depicted himself as a dancing faun in the book. orpen, cited in arnold, orpen: mirror to an age, . s. granger, cited in turpin, ‘ william orpen as student and teacher‘, . orpen, cited in r. upstone, ‘‘‘a sudden growing up’: william orpen and the great war’, in william orpen: an onlooker in france: a critical edition of the artist's war memoirs, ed. r. upstone and a. weight (london: paul holberton, ), . rothenstein, modern english painters, . j. laver, cited in mcconkey, ‘william orpen: his contemporaries, critics and biographers’, . c.r.w. nevinson, cited in mcconkey, ‘william orpen: his contemporaries, critics and biographers’, . orpen, cited in arnold, orpen: mirror to an age, . t.j. clark, ‘gross david with the swoln cheek’, derrida, memoirs of the blind, (emphasis original). m. holroyd, cited in turpin, ‘william orpen as student and teacher‘, . konody and dark, sir william orpen: artist and man, . derrida, memoirs of the blind, (emphasis original). turpin, ‘william orpen as student and teacher‘, . orpen, cited in r. upstone, r.f. foster, d. fraser jenkins, imperial war museum, william orpen: politics, death, sex (london: philip wilson, ), . konody and dark, sir william orpen: artist and man, . konody and dark even claimed that one of orpen’s most celebrated war paintings, the unknown soldier ( ) should be regarded not “as a work of art but as a vital chapter of autobiography” (ibid.), suggesting how deeply a sense of self informed all his work. e. pound, cited in r. upstone, ‘‘‘a sudden growing up”’: william orpen and the great war’, . orpen, an onlooker in france, - . orpen’s inaccessibility in this series of self-portraits makes an interesting contrast to his frank and sexually progressive female nudes. derrida, memoirs of the blind, r. foster, ‘‘‘old ireland and himself”’: william orpen and the conflicts of irish identity’, estudios irlandeses, no. ( ), . w. orpen, self-portrait looking in a mirror, ireland, c. . pen and black ink on writing paper, private collection. both images in private collections. orpen, cited in staging the self, ed. lingwood, . clark, ‘gross david with the swoln cheek’, . for an analysis of photographic self-portraiture which also looks at the increase in deforming facial expression see j.f. chevrier and j. sagne, ‘l’autoportrait comme mise en scène... essai sur ’identité, l’exoticisme et les excès photographiques’, in photographies, n. ( ). classicizing references could be found in other mainstream modernist self-portraiture: degas and van dongen portrayed themselves respectively as homer and neptune. w.chadwick, ‘how do i look’, in mirror, mirror: self-portraits by women artists, ed. liz rideal (london : national portrait gallery, ), . j.f chevrier, ‘the image of the other’, in staging the self, ed. lingwood, . ibid. chevrier also has suggested that masquerades could provide a means of mitigating pain and inadequacy, acting as self- defensive screens. j.f. chevrier, ‘l’autoportrait comme mise en scène: essai sur l’identité, l’exotisme et les excès photographiques’, photographies, volume ( ): , . clark, ‘gross david with the swoln cheek’, . ford, cited in saunders, ‘reflections on impressionist autobiography’, s.sontag, in staging the self’, ed. lingwood, . d.w. winnicott, ‘ego distortion in terms of true and false self,’ ( ) in the maturational process and the facilitating environment: studies in the theory of emotional development (london: hogarth press. ), - . konody and dark, sir william orpen: artist and man, . ibid., . angeria rigamonti di cutò studied history of art and visual culture at the university of oxford. her research interests include twentieth-century british art, european modernism and film. publications include: ‘sombreness, crime and modernity in the art of james pryde’, british art journal, volume xiii, no. , autumn ; ‘staging the modernist self: the self-portraits of william orpen, visual culture in britain, volume , no. , november ; cagliostro rebis: arazzo per il film black magic e i disegni inediti di orson welles, a. pes e a. rigamonti di cutò (eds and exhibition curators), palermo, assessorato ai beni culturali, ; ’leonardo da vinci: painter at the court of milan’ (exhibition review), studio international, . she is currently working on a project on the british social and fashion illustrator francis marshall. the moment camera c o v e r f e a t u r e - / /$ . © ieee computer p u b l i s h e d b y t h e i e e e c o m p u t e r s o c i e t y referred to as qualia in philosophical discussions. somewhere, close to the objective end of the axis but still subjective, lies a point we call a moment. while a quale is by definition both subjective and personal, a moment is subjective but universal. for example, people spend about percent of their waking life with their eyes closed —a person’s normal, resting blink rate being closures per minute, with the average blink lasting one-quarter of a second. yet, when looking at our friends, we universally do not see them as having their eyes closed unless we consciously concen- trate on their blinking. on the other hand, taking a photograph of a friend often surprises us because the picture reveals closed or partially closed eyes, as figure shows. the rather awk- ward expression of half-closed eyes clearly does not cap- ture the moment, because it does not correspond to what we experience when looking at our friend. with the advent of the camera in the mid- th cen- tury, art began to move away from realistic depiction into the more abstract realms of impressionism, cubism, and more pure abstraction. the camera, although capable of capturing instants in time, cannot on its own—except in rare instances—truly record moments. when coupled with computation and a user interface, digital cameras can bring back the ability to capture moments as opposed to just instantaneous snapshots. such computational cameras or computational pho- tography systems can provide a wealth of opportunities for both professional and casual photographers. future cameras will let us “capture the moment,” not just the instant when the shutter opens. the moment camera will gather significantly more data than is needed for a single image. this data, coupled with automated and user-assisted algorithms, will provide powerful new paradigms for image making. michael f. cohen and richard szeliski microsoft research b efore the advent of the camera, artists were tasked with recording events and providing a visual history of their world. although a great deal of early art recorded religious or mythical stories, by the th century, artists in the netherlands began depicting scenes of normal life, typ- ified by pieter bruegel’s paintings (www.ibiblio.org/ wm/paint/auth/bruegel/). although no one believes that all the action depicted in these scenes took place at the same instant, bruegel successfully captured the moment. the moment provides a key concept, both in our arti- cle title and in the preceding sentence. what might we mean by a moment in this context? to illustrate this concept, we can construct an axis that runs from the objective to the subjective, as figure shows. at the objective end, a photograph provides some semblance of an event’s objective visual record. that same visual event evokes a different internal expe- rience in each of us. at the subjective end of the axis, personal experiences of external stimuli are often the moment camera photograph moment qualia universal personal objective subjective figure . a moment. although subjective, a moment lies close enough to the objective axis to represent a shared experience of a scene. august our hypothetical moment camera contains new light-capture modalities that can leverage several recent research developments in com- puter graphics, computer vision, and the subfield at their intersection, image-based rendering. the moment camera when turned on, current digital cameras con- stantly scan the scene they are pointed at, responding to changing lighting conditions by modifying their speed or aperture and setting the focus to adapt to depths in the scene. mean- while, the user points the camera, trying to frame a shot, and waits for that elusive instant to push the but- ton to record the light entering the aperture and landing on the sensor. at that instant, the camera might decide to fire the flash, at which time the total light then land- ing on the sensor during a fixed exposure interval is mapped to a raw image. this image typically receives further processing from a demosaicing algorithm before being compressed into a jpeg image for transfer to the permanent memory medium. imagine a modification in the camera’s underlying func- tionality that keeps it always recording, somewhat like a dv camera in record mode. thus, rather than only record- ing a snapshot, the camera constantly records time slices of imagery. let’s assume one frame every th of a sec- ond or less, depending on the mode. let’s also assume a finite round-robin buffer of perhaps frames, or sec- onds, resulting in a spacetime slab in memory at all times. we can think of this most easily as a short video sequence. we refer to this new device as a moment camera. when coupled with computational photography algo- rithms and an appropriate user interface, this somewhat unremarkable change in functionality provides many new possibilities. to demonstrate the technology today, we simulate the moment camera with either a still cam- era taking multiple photographs in succession, or with a current dv camera at frames per second and, unfortunately, at a significantly lower resolution. moment camera processing steps although the input to the moment camera creates a spacetime slab, the moment’s output typically consists of a single image. thus, the processing primarily selects the color for each output pixel given the set of input images in the spacetime slab. this processing typically includes the following steps: . align or warp the input images so that at any single output pixel, all input pixels represent the same point in the world as best as possible. . for each output pixel, from all input images that map to that pixel, select the best one to use for the output. . adjust the selected pixel’s color to blend seamlessly with its neighbors. the first step, aligning images, is most often done by finding features in the images, then matching features across images to determine transformations for each image and align them in a global space. alternatively, dense correspondence fields can be computed and used to perform the alignment. the second step involves an optimization that, for each pixel, tries to locally make the best selection based on predefined or interactively defined criteria, while globally trying to maintain smoothness. we often refer to the local criteria for selecting any particular pixel as the data cost, while the cost for transitioning from a pixel of one time slice to another as the smoothness cost. in early work, image stacks (http://research.microsoft. com/research/pubs/view.aspx?tr_id= ) relied on the user to make most decisions. more recent applications, including photomontage and seamless image stitching, explore the definition of the data and smoothness costs, either by the user or automatically. to achieve the trade- off between optimizing each pixel individually and cre- ating a seamless result, applications often use graph cut techniques as the optimization method. in the third and final step, the pixel value can be mod- ified either to adjust the virtual exposure or to compen- sate for other differences between images. for example, gradient domain blending modifies pixel values to match across seams while trying to maintain local gradients. , we rely on these three steps in the examples that follow. still camera modes the moment camera can be used in a variety of modes. each mode determines some aspects of the actual capture, but perhaps more importantly, it guides the user interface. we do not describe the details of each ui here because any real-world implementation will require much more thought and experimentation. point and shoot in its simplest mode, from a user’s perspective, the moment camera operates much like a current point-and- shoot camera. the user simply frames the shot and presses a button. however, unlike a current camera, the figure . the blink of an eye. although these two photographs were taken a fraction of a second apart, only the second one captures the moment. computer moment camera records images continuously, not just at the instant the user presses the shutter button. as it records, the camera rapidly varies the exposure times, bracketing the neutral setting. the camera tests multiple points in the scene for focus and records images with varying focus settings. if low light is an issue, the flash can fire during a subset of the exposures. meanwhile, time is inexorably marching forward, so the images vary during the time they are taken. when the user pushes the button, the camera records a slab of spacetime beginning a couple of seconds in the past until perhaps a second or two in the future for further processing. the point-and-shoot moment camera supports several rela- tively simple application scenar- ios, including the following: • wind time backward or for- ward. often the camera misses that fleeting expression at the instant the button push captures the image. selecting a better frame as in figure more accurately captures the moment. • flash/no flash. , low-light situations often lead to very noisy results, as figure a shows. using a flash can reduce the noise, but at the cost of ruining the subtle lighting, as figure b shows. because the space- time slab contains both flash and no-flash images, the high-frequency details from the flash image can be combined with a smoothed version of the no-flash image to obtain a desired low-noise image while main- taining the original lighting, as figure c shows. • expanded depth of field. particularly when taking close-up shots, getting the whole object in focus simul- taneously can be difficult. while the autofocus seeks to find a consensus depth on which to focus, the moment camera records multiple images with differ- ent focus settings. thus, for every pixel location, the slab contains multiple versions of the same point with varying focus, as figure shows. maximizing the focus involves detecting which pixel has the highest local contrast and selecting it, while simultaneously maintaining coherence using a smoothness term in the optimization criterion. high-dynamic-range imagery and tone mapping current digital cameras suffer from limited dynamic range: they cannot image both very bright areas and dark areas in the same exposure. to compensate for this, multiple exposures—bracketed shots—can be merged to get a wider dynamic range. inside a moment camera, this kind of bracketing can be performed auto- matically, taking additional underexposed and overex- posed shots when the camera detects that it is not adequately capturing the full dynamic range in a single shot. global alignment followed by local optic flow can compensate for possible motion in the scene, as figure shows. once a wide-dynamic-range image has been assem- bled, the camera can store it either in an extended dynamic-range image format for further processing or tone-map it back to a displayable -bit gamut. a more intelligent moment camera not only performs this pro- cessing onboard, but also lets the user interactively steer the tone-mapping process by indicating at a high level figure . flash versus no flash. (a) a noisy, no-flash image and (b) a low-noise flash image combine to produce (c) a low-noise image with good lighting. (a) (b) (c) figure . expanded depth of field. the (a) single focal plane image is less detailed than (b) a composite of multiple focal plane images. figure . high-dynamic-range imagery. the moment camera can merge multiple exposures—bracketed shots—to get a wider dynamic range comparable to nondigital film techniques: (a) exposures merged without motion compensation versus (b) those with motion compensation. (a) (b) (a) (b) august which regions should be brighter or darker or more or less saturated. group shot when taking a picture, we often catch a person with their closed eyes. taking a picture of a group of people exponentially increases the difficulty of avoiding this— it becomes almost impossible to capture an instant when everyone is smiling with their eyes open. with an application such as group shot (http:// research.microsoft.com/projects/groupshot/), a user can assemble an ideal group photograph from multiple shots. the user indicates the best instance of each per- son, and the system finds the best jigsaw-puzzle-like regions that it can compose to create a seamless final image, as figure shows. the moment camera can perform this operation in- camera to help ensure the creation of a successful com- posite. while viewing the scene, the user points at each person when they smile and look at the camera. graph cut picks out a region around each selection to cut into the final composite and records a thin spacetime slab for that region. this can be repeated until a successful shot is created. slight time shifts can be made on each region independently to perfect the result. panoramas: widening the field of view we are often confronted with a majestic scene—think of the grand canyon—that will not fit into the view finder. multiple overlapping images can be stitched into a single panoramic image. several applications can now do this after the fact. many problems remain, however, that a moment camera could remedy. the first problem is coverage. without careful plan- ning, we often miss parts of the scene. this happens most often in large sky areas or when the interesting parts of the scene lie at different heights in different directions. the results often have gaps or a snakelike shape rather than being a rectangular panorama. by providing on-the-fly alignment and stitching, the user can literally paint the panorama, examining the cov- erage to ensure capturing the complete scene. at the same time, allowing the exposure to vary between over- lapping frames can create high-dynamic-range panora- mas. using shorter or longer exposures can adjust areas that appear too light or dark. finally, the world usually does not stand still during a panorama’s capture. focusing the graph cut criteria on selecting commonly seen and most likely static pixels can avoid including ghostlike figures in the panorama, as figure on the next page shows. depicting motion while the previous examples purposefully remove transient events to create a consistent still, at times a user might want to explicitly depict motion in a single image. this type of representation dates back to the th century. unless taken under careful conditions, strobo- scopic imagery often results in ghostlike representations of the dynamic elements. stroboscopic-like stills leveraging graph cut, however, we can create stro- boscopic-like images. by specifying in the objective func- tion that we want to retain dynamic elements, as opposed to removing them as in the bottom half of figure , the result resembles figure , which shows a girl swinging across a set of monkey bars. figure . group shot. working with stored images, the user indicates when each person photographed looks best. the system automatically finds the best regions around each selection to compose into a final group shot. computer cliplets a spacetime slab is, by definition, the same as a short video sequence. sometimes, a very short subsequence, or cliplet, can capture the moment, while still allowing the imagination to fill in what happened just before or after the bit of action. just as a still image forces the viewer’s imag- ination to fill in what is left out, such short cliplets serve a similar purpose. these short sequences are best viewed by, for example, holding on the first frame for to seconds, then playing the short sequence and holding again on the final frame. figure provides an example that covers less than one-third of a second. motion loops some types of motion are more stochastic or repetitive. examples range from flowing or rippling water to a person sitting still, breath- ing, and blinking. these motion types are amenable to the creation of looping video tex- tures, which stochastically jump from one frame to a matching frame either forward or backward in time. this work has also been extended to panoramic video textures constructed with video taken from a slowly panning camera. the spacetime slab that the moment camera captures provides the input needed for these kinds of experiences. artistic expression many of our examples use the moment camera to first capture a spacetime slab and then choose portions of time slices from the slab to construct a final output image. the goal has been to create a seamless result that “captures the moment.” however, more artistic tools can easily be created to combine pixels in the slab in interesting ways. in figure , we have modified the selection mechanism to create surprising artistic effects. very simple criteria can be modified in real time to pro- vide a wide variety of expressive results. figure . spacetime slab. about one-third of a second separates these three time slices of the slab. a cliplet that holds on the first frame, plays the intervening frames, then holds on the last, viscerally depicts the moment. figure . panoramic composite. (a) the overlapping images are aligned and blended together, resulting in ghosted figures; (b) graph cut finds regions in each image to stitch together to create a consistent scene. figure . stroboscopic-like images. dynamic scenes can be represented by optimizing for dynamic elements while also maintaining consistency. (a) (b) f uture cameras might haveeven more advanced capa-bilities than those we’ve described. for example, cameras that notice when someone is smiling are already being devel- oped. future cameras could sug- gest better ways to frame a scene and indicate that we should back up or point the camera just a bit higher. cameras might someday even learn our habits and help develop a style of their own based on how we use them. in our own work, we are building a moment camera prototype to continue our research in this promising new area. ■ acknowledgments this work represents a sampling of years of research at microsoft research and the university of washington. our colleagues who helped in this work include aseem agarwala, maneesh agrawala, matthew brown, patrick baudisch, r. alex colburn, brian curless, mira dontcheva, steven drucker, hugues hoppe, daniel lischinski, georg petschnigg, david salesin, drew steedly, kentaro toyama, matt uyttendaele, jue wang, and simon winder. references . “qualia,” the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, m. tye and e.n. zalta, eds.; http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ sum /entries/qualia/. . a. agarwala et al., “interactive digital photomontage,” acm trans. graphics, aug. , pp. - . . m. brown and d. lowe, “recognising panoramas,” proc. int’l conf. computer vision (iccv ), ieee cs press, vol. , oct. , pp. - . . s.b. kang et al., “high dynamic range video,” acm trans. graphics, july , pp. - . . a. eden, m. uyttendaele, and r. szeliski, “seamless image stitching of scenes with large motions and exposure differ- ences,” proc. ieee computer soc. conf. computer vision and pattern recognition (cvpr ), ieee cs press, , pp. - . . y. boykov, o. veksler, and r. zabih, “fast approximate energy minimization via graph cuts,” ieee trans. pattern analysis and machine intelligence, nov. , pp. - . . p. pérez, m. gangnet, and a. blake, “poisson image editing,” acm trans. graphics, july , pp. - . . a. levin et al., “seamless image stitching in the gradient domain,” proc. th european conf. computer vision (eccv ), vol. , springer-verlag, , pp. - . . e. eisemann and f. durand, “flash photography enhance- ment via intrinsic relighting,” acm trans. graphics, vol. , no. , , pp. - . . g. petschnigg et al., “digital photography with flash and no- flash pairs,” acm trans. graphics, aug. , pp. - . . p. debevec, and j. malik, “recovering high dynamic range radiance maps from photographs,” proc. siggraph , acm press, , pp. - . . d lischinski et al., “interactive local adjustment of tonal values,” acm trans. graphics, to appear aug. . . p. baudisch et al., “panoramic viewfinder: providing a real- time preview to help users avoid flaws,” proc. ozchi , acm int’l conf. proc. series, acm press, . . a. schödl et al., “video textures,” computer graphics, july , pp. - . . a. agarwala et al., “panoramic video textures,” acm trans. graphics, july , pp. - . michael f. cohen is a principal researcher for microsoft research. his research interests include image-based ren- dering, animation, camera control, more artistic nonpho- torealistic rendering, linked-figure animation, and compu- tational photography applications. cohen received a phd in computer science from the university of utah. contact him at mcohen@microsoft.com. further publications can be found at www.research.microsoft.com/~cohen. richard szeliski, a principal researcher, leads the interactive visual media group at microsoft research. his research interests include digital and computational photography, video scene analysis, d computer vision, and image-based rendering. szeliski received a phd in computer science from carnegie mellon university. contact him at szeliski@ microsoft.com. august figure . artistic imaging tools. researchers used a single time-lapse slab of clouds drifting across the sky to create these images. (a) an algorithm picked out for each pixel location in the time slice with the highest local contrast. (b) a more complex difference function of multiple time slices creates unusual colors when a channel wraps around to indicate colors above or below . (a) (b) iconic images, symbols, and archetypes: their function in art and science copyright © by the author(s). published here under license by the resilience alliance. westley, f. r., and c. folke. . iconic images, symbols, and archetypes: their function in art and science. ecology and society ( ): . https://doi.org/ . /es- - insight, part of a special feature on reconciling art and science for sustainability iconic images, symbols, and archetypes: their function in art and science frances r. westley , and carl folke , abstract. the relationship between art and science is one of contrasts and commonalities. we look at one commonality between art and science: the central role of iconic images. we argue that iconic images are the touchstone symbols in both art and science and provide similar functions for both. we propose that these iconic images provoke an openness and a receptivity to our deepest emotional capacities and a connection between those and the dynamics of the broader social-ecological systems in which we operate. such iconic images may also act as attractors that provoke the emergence of increasing levels of intellectual and aesthetic self-organization, not only at an individual level, but also in terms of larger social, scientific, or artistic fields. finally, through a combination of this attraction and this connection, iconic images may play a role in transformation. key words: iconic images; reconciling art and science; symbols; transformation introduction the theologian paul tillich once observed that the chief curse of our time is not that we are evil, though often we are, but that we are banal, superficial. the recovery of depth will never come through an act of intellect, unless that intellect is in service to wonder. we can recover depth, however, by opening ourselves to the numinous which nods at us and invites us. we can also use our imaginative power to seize such moments of beckoning and the images which rise spontaneously from them. (hollis : ) the idea of reconciling art and science is an enduring one. without art, science becomes too rational (kahneman ), too routine (kuhn ), and too detached from the broad systemic shifts that are currently affecting our planet (wilson , gould ). without science, artistic productivity can become shallow, purely emotive, or lacking in technique and precision. reconciling art and science, although not easy, can be seen to have many advantages for scientists working on contemporary issues. art can act to give scientific findings much broader appeal and resonance (curtis et al. , vervoot et al. ). it has lessons to teach scientists about how the brain works and perceives (Österblom et al. ). it can stimulate intuitive, creative, and revolutionary approaches to problems (uzzi et al. , scheffer et al. ), and connecting artists and scientists can catalyze an increase in creative approaches in both (root-bernstein , evans and jones ). we will look at one particular arena in which art and science are aligned: the importance and use of iconic imagery and symbols. we use both the terms “icon/iconic” and “symbol/symbolic” to identify the same pictures and objects. we recognize that these terms have different meanings. according to c. s. peirce, an icon is “a sign which is determined by its dynamic object by virtue of its own internal nature … (for example) the sentiment excited by a piece of music as representing what the composer intended” (peirce / : ). in other words, the icon, which could be any production, e.g., a portrait, a diagram, or a photograph, closely resembles, even imitates, its object and is capable of generating a similar response as the real object. a symbol, on the other hand, “is a sign which is determined by its object only in the sense that it will be so interpreted. it thus depends either on a convention, a habit or a natural disposition of its interpretant” (peirce / : ). symbols, unlike icons, do not depend for their impact on resemblance to the real object represented. it is through the interpretation of the viewer that the symbol, e.g., book, theory, person, flag, or animal, draws its power. we interpret this distinction as important, but we will explore how these two kinds of signs can be conflated in both art and science. the two are separated in part by the degree of abstraction: icons, as peirce describes them, being more closely tied to the object they represent, and symbol being sufficiently removed or abstracted from that object to require interpretation. we will argue that certain images, pictures, and artistic or scientific representations initially become “iconic,” in the more popular sense of “widely known and acknowledged especially for distinctive excellence” (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/iconic), precisely because of the way in which the image captures the “truth” or nature of an object, and so is closely related to that object. however, iconic images also are associated with whole schools of thought or practice and hence become symbols, reference points for a continued interpretative debate. it is this process of interpretation, we will argue, that in fact drives the development of fields of thought. it is therefore this latter process, the use of symbols, on which we will mostly focus. in both art and science, throughout history, some images have retained their resonance, being considered masterpieces in art and touchstones in science that shape the public imagination. we think of such iconic paintings as da vinci’s mona lisa or van gogh’s starry night. in the th century, photographic images such as eddie adams’s general nguyen ngoc loan killing viet cong suspect nguyen during the tet offensive, taken in ; charlie cole’s photo of tank man, a man standing in front of a column of tanks in tiananmen square; and arthur sasse’s photo of albert einstein sticking out his tongue have become touchstones, defining public opinion of events and people. in science, the photo blue marble, a shot of the earth from space, is an image that inspired many scientists to engage with environmental issues and sustainability; the image of the double helix and the images of fractals in nature have become reference points of whole fields of exploration. what is the significance of such imagery? how does it function in stimulating artistic and scientific activity? we will treat such images as symbols and draw on the long history of work in social waterloo institute for social innovation and resilience, school for environment, enterprise and development, university of waterloo, stockholm resilience centre, stockholm university, sweden, beijer institute, royal swedish academy of sciences, sweden https://doi.org/ . /es- - https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/viewissue.php?sf= mailto:fwestley@uwaterloo.ca mailto:fwestley@uwaterloo.ca mailto:carl.folke@beijer.kva.se mailto:carl.folke@beijer.kva.se https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/iconic ecology and society ( ): https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / science and philosophy on symbols and their function. in particular, we will draw on jungian psychology and contemporary thinking about complexity theory and archetypes to argue that iconic imagery has an important but often neglected role in both art and science. we propose that these iconic images provoke an openness and a receptivity to our deepest emotional capacities and a connection between those and the dynamics of the broader social-ecological systems in which we operate. such iconic images may also act as attractors that provoke the emergence of increasing levels of intellectual and aesthetic self-organization, not only at an individual level, but also in terms of larger social, scientific, or artistic fields. finally, through a combination of this attraction and this connection, iconic images may play a role in transformation. these three capacities, for connection, for self- organization, and for transformation, have never been more in demand (westley et al. ). the nature of symbols and the symbols of nature many philosophers, linguists, and aestheticians have written about the nature of symbols, few more powerfully and succinctly than the theologian paul tillich ( ). he identifies six aspects that define a symbol. . symbols express the “ultimate”; they “point beyond themselves to something beyond the self ” (tillich : ). take, for example, the double helix. at the time that crick and watson created the model, the only empirical evidence of the structure of dna was in the x-ray defraction images that rosalind franklin had taken. the model (fig. ) that crick created was a coming together and synthesis of franklin’s work and others’ experimental findings regarding dna. it was the embodiment of a theory, one so elegant that it immediately took hold of the imagination. however, it pointed to as many questions as it did answers. similar examples abound in the visual arts, such as the cubist school, whose works disassemble the surface of objects to reveal the kinetic energy underneath (fig. ). in cubism, the objects are analyzed, broken up, and reassembled in an abstracted form, opening up the possibility of multiple viewpoints embedded in a single form. . this leads to the second characteristic of the symbol: “it participates in that to which it points” (tillich : ). again, in the case of the double helix, the model itself became an attractor for further exploration that stimulated an acceleration of work on genetics. similarly, the mandelbrot set (fig. ), with its beautiful images, made what was a mathematical equation concrete and visual and stimulated exploration of the fractals that went far beyond mathematics, influencing social and natural scientists (westley et al. ). iconic images such as cezanne’s paintings of mont sainte-victoire forever changed the perception of the landscape. such images became part of the experience of a three-dimensional form, of a new landscape, so that the image and the reality merge (fig. ). such images also inspired the emergence of cubism, pioneered by artists such as picasso and braque, a visual art form that spread rapidly across the globe. . the third characteristic of a symbol is that “it opens up levels of reality that otherwise are closed for us” (tillich : ). tillich felt this was particularly a quality of the arts: artists create symbols that represent a level of human experience that cannot be reached any other way. through a poem or an iconic image that has symbolic status, we access emotional and spiritual realms, which, tillich argued, “cannot be approached scientifically.” we would agree with the capacity of the arts to reach such a dimension but argue that the iconic images of science, like those of art, point to what david bohm ( ) would call implicate reality, which cannot be directly observed by scientists until it has unfolded in some form. take, for example, leonardo da vinci’s iconic vitruvian man (fig. ), a work of both art and science that hints at a theory of the order underlying form that goes beyond conventional measurement and direct observation. . the symbol’s fourth characteristic is that “it not only opens up dimensions and elements of reality, which otherwise would remain unapproachable, but also unlocks dimensions and elements of our soul that correspond to the dimensions and elements of reality” (tillich : ). this connection between inner and outer world has not been explored as thoroughly in contemporary science as in art. artists throughout time have shared the belief that, as the norwegian artist edvard munch once said, nature is not only all that is visible to the eye, but also includes the inner pictures of the soul. historically, in philosophy, this link was much explored. aristotle argued that the aim of art is to represent not the appearance of things, but their inward significance. the link between the inner motivation and outer-world challenges, like climate change, is reflected in work on transformation, emphasizing shifts in consciousness and awareness, in beliefs, values, and worldviews, thereby challenging the individual to reflect on change itself (o’brien and hochachka ). research has revealed a close connection between inward psychological well-being and exposure to nature, such as proximity to green space, gardens, or forests. happiness and subjective well-being and a sense of meaning and purpose in life become unlocked and enhance imagination and creativity. iconic images of nature, such as trees, have served as power symbols in many cultures and mythologies and still do. the symbolic nature of trees appears and reappears in science and art, exposing our essence to new dimensions and elements. charles darwin used the concept of the tree of life in the context of the theory of evolution. contemporary examples include the construction of visual trees of life based on genome sequences (e.g., hug et al. ) and the use of trees as symbols in films, such as the tree of souls in james cameron’s movie avatar, and within art as a symbol of our embeddedness in the biosphere (fig. ). as expressed by pablo picasso in the s, “there are painters who transform the sun into a yellow spot, but there are others who with the help of their art and their intelligence transform a yellow spot into the sun” (http://www. goodreads.com/author/quotes/ .pablo_picasso). https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / https://www.google.ca/search?q=original++dna+demonstration+model&client=firefox-b-b&dcr= &source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=x&ved= ahukewjlp thypyahuh mkhegiazcq_auicigb&biw= &bih= &dpr= #imgrc= afpk i grzelm https://www.google.ca/search?q=picasso+cubist+woman&client=firefox-b-ab&dcr= &tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx= &fir=yzgs czjrjaygm% a% cyknhp onyxarim% c_&usg=__s xwykditz d_nuq- rvenqbhs % d&sa=x&ved= ahukewjjtk oh pyahvf_omkhwpwc q qeikzaa#imgrc=kxpkg a https://www.google.ca/search?client=firefox-b-ab&dcr= &biw= &bih= &tbm=isch&sa= &ei=_gsvwslplsyfjwty vq&q=mandelbrot+set&oq=mandelbrot&gs_l=psy-ab. . . l . . . . . . . . . . . . . j . . .... ... c. . .psy-ab.. . . . .. i k . https://www.google.ca/search?q=mount+saint+victoire+cezanne&client=firefox-b-ab&dcr= &source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=x&ved= ahukewjjk- wiypyahvk mkhxbhaeeq_auicigb&biw= &bih= #imgrc=knfr qydmtvnpm: https://www.google.ca/search?q=vitruvian+man&client=firefox-b-ab&dcr= &source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=x&ved= ahukewj zq hopyahxk imkhypkdjwq_auicigb&biw= &bih= #imgrc=kddmng agaddum: https://www.stockholmresilience.org/art--science/news-archive/art-and-science/ - - -patterns-of-the-biosphere.html http://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/ .pablo_picasso http://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/ .pablo_picasso ecology and society ( ): https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / . “symbols cannot be produced intentionally”; this is the fifth characteristic (tillich : ). tillich argues that an image becomes a symbol because it appeals to the unconscious part of our being. symbols gain their power because they give expression to the feelings that hold together a human group. in this sense, they are like totems, representing the inner spirit or “collective essence,” the bond that holds a social group together (durkheim [ ]). the most powerful symbols, such as those associated with religions, attract many people and over a long history. others, such as the mandelbrot set and the double helix, express a quest for deeper understanding that may appeal to a subgroup and for a shorter period. in visual art, for example, some paintings are iconic for certain schools of artists, pointing to a new understanding, a new pathway that other artists seek to explore, such as the early impressionist paintings or early minimalist works by artists like malevich and mondrian, and others are iconic for the general public and may endure as iconic images for decades and even centuries, such as da vinci’s mona lisa or munch’s the scream. of course, these iconic images were the intentional products of scientists and artists. however, what tillich means is that only the response of people who engage with and are attracted to or touched by the image makes it a symbol. symbols cannot be consciously designed by the producer. . the sixth and last characteristic of the symbol is a consequence of the fact that “symbols … are like living beings, they grow and they die” (tillich : ). when particular iconic images no longer produce the same emotional response of curiosity, attraction, or intensity, they lose their symbolic power and become empty icons, pointing to a moment in historical time but no longer alive. this may be because, in science or aesthetics, thinking and feeling about a particular subject has evolved and the once iconic symbol no longer has the same capacity to illuminate and intrigue. or it may be that the context has shifted, so that the beliefs that were once embodied by the iconic imagery have lost their credibility. what was once evocative and mysterious becomes a cliché. examples include the loss of significance of landscape portraits with the emergence of photography or the fading of revolutionary symbols when associated political movements and systems fail. the function of iconic images as symbols in art and science in addition to these six characteristics identified for all symbols, we argue that iconic imagery has three important roles or functions in both art and science, ones that are particularly relevant for the interdisciplinary work in sustainability science. these three roles or functions are described subsequently. iconic images are symbols reconnecting us to deeper and broader aspects of our human nature and the natural world underneath these cultural splits, the archetypal imagination seeks, through affectively charged images, to connect us to the flow of energy that is the heart and hum of the cosmos. (hollis : ) for anyone learning to gather wild mushrooms, the process first starts with recognizing a single edible mushroom. with time, however, that mushroom comes to be seen in context, the context of specific environments, for example, dead and degrading trees. we then see an even more detailed pattern particular to each type of mushroom: for example, the oyster mushroom grows on only on dead maple trees. in turn, we recognize the mushroom in the context of a particular type of forest or field and a particular type of dynamic (season or weather conditions). the initial mushroom of our search is intricately linked to these broader interconnections and dynamics, but we only learn to see the “bigger picture” by encountering and attending to one particular mushroom (conforti ). it is there we start to explore and learn. the journey becomes one of curiosity, a search for a deeper or broader reality. this example points to a belief held by many biologists, physicists, and complexity theorists alike that beneath the visible surface of form lies an “implicate order” (bohm ). implicate order is a deeper reality, from which all form emerges. as bohm describes it, in the enfolded [or implicate] order, space and time are no longer the dominant factors determining the relationships of dependence or independence of different elements. rather, an entirely different sort of basic connection of elements is possible, from which our ordinary notions of space and time, along with those of separately existent material particles, are abstracted as forms derived from the deeper order. these ordinary notions in fact appear in what is called the “explicate” or “unfolded” order, which is a special and distinguished form contained within the general totality of all the implicate orders. (bohm :xv) the single mushroom is the explicate or unfolded order of the broader set of conditions that make it manifest. it points to those underlying conditions calling us to apprehend a dynamic of system interactions that lies behind the manifest. for carl gustav jung, the individual human psyche is like the mushroom: what is manifest in personality, in beliefs, and in identity is the surface manifestation of an underlying dynamic, which at its deepest level connects all individuals in a “collective unconscious,” the implicate order of the human species. jung writes that in addition to our immediate consciousness, which is of a thoroughly personal nature and which we believe to be the only empirical psyche (even if we tack on the personal unconscious as an appendix), there exists a second psychic system of a collective, universal, and impersonal nature which is identical in all individuals. this collective unconscious does not develop individually but is inherited. it consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents. (jung / : ) the collective unconscious then is proposed by jung to be the source of emergent order in the human psyche. its first form is the archetype, which jung saw as a “typical mode of apprehension” of responding to and making sense of the world (jung / : ). it is typical in the sense that the pattern of behavior of any species is in part determined by its genetic makeup and phylogeny. just as our physical form is the manifestation of phylogenetic history, so jung argues the archetypes are a manifestation of the social, spiritual, and biological makeup and https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / experience of the human race (lu ). the archetypes, jung argues, are not immediately accessible to the conscious mind: they evidently live and function in the deeper layers of the unconscious, especially in that phylogenetic substratum which i have called the collective unconscious. this localization explains a good deal of their strangeness: they bring into our ephemeral consciousness an unknown psychic life belonging to a remote past. it is the mind of our unknown ancestors, their way of thinking and feeling, their way of experiencing life and the world, gods and men. (jung / : - ) it would not be too much of a stretch to treat the archaic strata and the implicate order as concepts that point to a similar phenomenon: the “ground of being” (huxley , tillich ) from which all order emerges, a concept both mystical (at the heart of many of the world religions), philosophical (plato), and theoretical. it is in this “ground of being” that humans are most closely connected to the reality of being embedded in the biosphere, the thin layer of life on planet earth. it is “the very core of our being as well as the cause and basis of the universe of which we are part, we can no more get away from it than our solar system can get away from the sun round which it resolves and from which it receives everything which keeps it alive and moving” (taimni : - ). this brings us back to iconic images and symbols. just as the single biological form may be treated as the manifestation of implicate order, so symbols, particularly those that endure, are seen by jungians as the visual manifestation of archetypes, processed through the unconscious mind of the individual, into the conscious mind, and then represented in visual form in the world. hence symbols, according to jung, are the manifestation of the collective unconscious, the implicate order of human existence. the greater the appeal and attraction of such symbols, and the longer that attraction endures, the more likely it is that they are connected to the deepest levels of the collective unconscious. it is this unconscious to which a symbol draws our attention, in the same way that the mushroom draws our intention over time to a much broader pattern, or as suggested by hollis: thus, as carriers of the same energy which animates the cosmos, we employ the archetypal imagination as the power of constitutive ordering which makes meaning possible. this “transcendent function,” as jung called it, not only links us with ourselves, bridging the conscious world with the unconscious through the venues of somatic symptom, affect, vision, and dream image, but also links us to superordinate reality through the symbolic powers. (hollis : ) however, symbols, as the previous quote suggests, also bring our attention to the way in which our collective unconscious is in turn intertwined with the broader implicate order of the biosphere of which we as humans are a part and with which we have evolved. at the deepest levels, our own psyches are part and parcel of an energy that infuses all life-forms and the biosphere itself. iconic imagery points us toward these deeper levels. both groups, artists and scientists, are explorers and seekers of this “deeper” meaning. symbols as attractors that stimulate the emergence of new order and understanding in the first nation ojibwa tradition, myths and legends feature archetypal creators, such as “the trickster” (raven/spider/coyote), who act to turn order into disorder. these stories are told in short form to children and, like most myths, point to the unseen and unexpressed meaning as much as to any linear narrative. they have a puzzle- or riddle-like quality. the listener must discover the meaning of the story; it is not delivered or explained. those particularly drawn to the myths and an understanding of those myths can return over and over to the story, seeking to untangle the broader or deeper connections that give a larger meaning to the story. it becomes richer and richer and deeper and deeper. when the individual is successful, an expanded version of the story is told, introducing more paradox, ambiguity, and confusion. this is repeated over and over. when one becomes a master storyteller, or “true storyteller,” a myth first encountered as a child in a version told in five minutes becomes an epic told over several days, but only to those and by those who have penetrated the mystery at the heart of the myth, the rich connections that give order and meaning not just to that particular story, but to an entire cosmology of ojibway culture. in the same way as the symbolic communications that are myths and traditional stories, it can be argued that iconic images become “attractors” that help to organize the emerging understanding of individuals who seek that understanding. there has been considerable interest in recent years in the relationship between jungian psychology and complexity theory (van eenwyk , conforti ) and between human consciousness and complexity concepts such as attractors (friston ). van eenwyk ( ), for example, draws a comparison between symbols and the saddle points of hopf bifurcations (fig. ). the oscillations are created by a movement away from the saddle point into chaos and back again, which van eenwyk terms a process of chaotic cascades (fig. ). order and disorder are held in dynamic tension. this brings us to perhaps the most important discovery about deterministic chaos: that it can actually lead to higher levels of order than existed prior to its onset. in other words, chaos can generate greater complexity within a dynamic. higher levels of sophistication … improve adaptive capacities. astonishing as it may seem, chaos seems to be essential not only for the survival of the organism, but for its development as well. (van eenwyk : ) for jung, this tension is key to psychic development and individuation. we are attracted to symbols as a means of self- organization. like the development of the ojibwa storyteller, the scientist or artist returns to an iconic image in an effort to make sense of data, as a touch point for new explorations. very enduring symbols or iconic images, however, are as puzzling as they are comforting. when we return to them, we see them in a new way, allowed by our experimentation, but a mystery remains, pushing both artists and scientists to further explorations. a succinct example is monet’s repeated paintings of haystacks, both similar and different. photographs from the archipelago outside stockholm, shot from the same point over three decades, depict an environment in continuous flux that still remains (fig. ). https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / https://www.google.com/search?q=images+of+hopf+bifurcation&client=firefox-b-ab&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=x&ved= ahukewigzpxxjp_dahwe imkhtycbuiq al baggebs&biw= &bih= #imgrc= whqpnmundzvlm: http://www.artmatrix.com/cgi/showgal.cgi?ep .gif;emerald-pearl https://www.google.ca/search?q=reflections+on+people+and+the+biosphere&client=firefox-b-ab&dcr= &source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=x&ved= ahukewjwhirdlopyahwe mkhxlydkcq_auicigb&biw= &bih= #imgrc=tw gpp ety gom: ecology and society ( ): https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / in science, again, one thinks of the double helix in genetics, the adaptive cycle in resilience theory (fig. ), or the catastrophe fold in complexity theory, which have stimulated multiple disciplinary and interdisciplinary explorations. the adaptive cycle, for example, has stimulated research in organizations, leadership, innovation, disaster management, and ecosystem management (gunderson and holling , king , westley et al. , walker and westley , hurst ). in summary, an important aspect of symbols, according to eliade ( ), is that they do not seem to draw us through time as much as taking us back to a primordial experience of implicate order that is eternally present. symbols draw us into a sense of time that is diachronic, cutting through the forward momentum of history. eliade ( ) deals with this at length in his discussion of the “eternal return.” in this sense, iconic images act as symbols that orient exploration, providing a “still point in a turning world,” as the poet t. s. eliot ( : ) described it. as such, they become associated with whole bodies of work by individual artists and scientists and by whole paradigms in art and science (kuhn ). iconic images as transformers the concept of transformation can be defined as the action of changing in form, shape, or appearance: metamorphosis. the word is derived from the latin: trans (across, to, or on the farther side of, beyond, over) and formâre (to form). it suggests that to transform means to first lose form or shape and then, on the other side of chaos, to reform into something new: a sea change of nature, form, or function. consistent with the jungian notion of the collective conscious/chaos theory, we would suggest that transformation, whether cultural, ecological, or individual, involves a process of descending into confusion, chaos, or disorder. iconic or symbolic imagery can help facilitate transformation by providing a means to stand “in ordered relationship to this flux” (hollis : ). it provides not only the still point, but also a place of integrity to which we can return from exploration, to begin new explorations. the archetypes are the numinous structural elements of the psyche and possess a certain autonomy and specific energy which enables them to attract, out of the conscious mind, those contents which are best suited to themselves. the symbols act as transformers, their function being to convert libido from a “lower” to a “higher form.” (jung : , ) so, for example, an iconic image, such as the adaptive cycle, allows a scientist to explore more possibilities, to move further from land, using gained experiences for new discoveries, because the iconic image continues to offer a compass, a point of orientation, serving as an attractor around which to self-organize. one may argue that the iconic images of observing planet earth and its biosphere from space serve as a compass, a point of orientation when confronted with chaos and disorder. clearly, and in opposition to mind-sets and worldviews that have emerged during the great acceleration of the industrial era (steffen et al. ), the iconic images of the living planet, of a deep reality, help provide meaning and direction (heise ), as a guide in transforming beliefs and actions to operate in concert with the resilience of the biosphere (folke et al. ). such iconic images are helpful in the search for sustainable pathways in turbulent times on the human-dominated planet subject to climate change and dynamic social-ecological challenges (westley et al. ). however, the capacity to descend into confusion, chaos, or disorder is one that requires a certain disposition in both scientists and artists. part of this is the capacity to trust that images, deriving from processes such as dreams and sudden associations, carry important messages. this is an easier concept for artists to grasp; they are used to intuition and surprise as guides and technique as their servant. for many scientists, however, the sudden inspiration or dream is potentially suspect, an intrusion of unpredictability into a process in which precision, control, and replicability are paramount. however, in the broader exploration, which is science, moments of sudden and breathtaking collapse and reorganization that forever transform the scientist’s understanding of the problem are far from rare. it would appear that moments that transform are rarely arrived at by deliberate and logical reasoning. it also appears that when those transformative insights occur, they often come in the form of images or pictures as opposed to words. but the fact that the unconscious prefers avoiding verbal instructions pretty much altogether—even where they would appear to be quite useful—suggests rather strongly that it doesn’t much like language and even that it doesn’t trust it. (mccarthy ) mccarthy recounts the many occasions when the answer to scientific or mathematical problems comes in the form of images, received in dreams or dreamlike states. “why is the unconscious so loathe to speak to us? why the images, metaphors, pictures? why the dreams, for that matter,” he asks. the answer does not pose a problem for the artist, who feels much more comfortable with the direct use of metaphor and image and sees a kind of truth in synthesis as opposed to analysis (bayles and orland ). it is perhaps harder for the scientist to see in dreams, images, and intuitive leaps a “deeper” understanding, one that undergirds the truth arrived at by pure logic. however, often scientists, like artists, return to and honor those iconic images that express that deeper understanding more profoundly and more efficiently than words or formulas. so we can see the transformative power of images within the individual psyche and work of both artist and scientist. once externalized, however, does the image transform? the difference between the dream that presents itself as a solution to an individual problem in the mind of an individual scientist or artist is that for an image to become iconic, it must stimulate the same experience of revelation, of transformed sensibility in a much larger group. it must also produce a new cascade of action or activity. in this respect, there is some evidence that symbols are moving, that pictures and images are more likely to stimulate emotion than words, and that emotion, in turn, is a key element of motivation and action (mintzberg and westley , hochschild , cialdini ). the more iconic the image, the greater its power to attract multiple interpretations, weaving a wordless link between these. in art and in science, iconic images become a beacon for new schools of thought and practice, which, like kuhn’s paradigms, run their course through time. ultimately, then, iconic imagery is a powerful bridge between art and science and, potentially, points to what the two have in https://www.google.ca/search?q=the+adaptive+cycle&client=firefox-b-ab&dcr= &tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=x&ved= ahukewiqyqpdkypyahvj omkhxr bfwqsaqiqg&biw= &bih= #imgrc=tbzft dvpiqp m: https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / common. in both art and science, there is a search for an underlying truth, an implicate order. in varying degrees, both art and science use imagery that arises from the unconscious as an important signpost, pointing to the implicate order for which they are searching. artists are perhaps more comfortable with the phase of disorder that such a search involves and are perhaps more suspicious of using iconic images as guides for extensive periods of time. artists are at home with not-knowing, we are experts at ignorance. art is not about answers but about questions. the poet, john keats, talked about this as negative capability. samuel taylor coleridge gave us the term “willing suspension of disbelief” which undergirds reception in most art work: novels, movies, theatre. as spectators, we are experts at placing “knowing” on temporary hold. that’s some of what we are cultivating. a willingness to set aside judgments, to cultivate the capacity to abide uncertainties, to engage imagination not hindered by reality. (clark and carpenter : ) scientists, on the other hand, may be more suspicious of the intuitive leap, the image drawn from dreams, but once a breakthrough is represented in an elegant image and widely shared, they are more likely to allow it to act as a guide to thinking and further development of theory and scientific insight. despite these distinctions, iconic images and the role they play in both art and science offer a fertile starting point for dialogue and exploration. collaboration in the art-science interface undoubtedly has the potential to reveal and explore the role of symbols in unlocking dimensions and elements of the human spirit that correspond to the dimensions and elements of the biosphere. such a focus can create space for reflection, thoughtfulness, and meaning. it may help stimulate intuition and create excitement for opening up unclear and unknown dimensions and elements of reality of the complex intertwined world of the st century. responses to this article can be read online at: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/issues/responses. php/ acknowledgments: we would like to acknowledge the south american institute for resilience and sustainability and the rich discussions held there with colleagues angela lieble, diego galifassi, pablo marquet, francisco gazitua, and tone bjordam, among others, during the and workshops on reconciling art and science for transformation. literature cited bayles, d., and t. orland. . fear and art: observations on the perils and rewards of artmaking. the image continuum, santa cruz, california, usa. bohm, d. . wholeness and the implicate order. routledge, abingdon, oxford, uk. cialdini, r. . pre-suasion: a revolutionary way to influence and persuade. simon and schuster, new york, new york, usa. clark, l. b., and s. r. carpenter. . introduction. pages - in imagining resilience: art-science collaboration for sustainability (maldonado, uruguay, - december). south american institute for resilience and sustainability studies, maldonado, uruguay. conforti, m. . field, form, and fate: patterns in mind, nature and psyche. spring journal books, new orleans, louisiana, usa. curtis, d. j., n. reid, and g. ballard. . communicating ecology through art: what scientists think. ecology and society ( ): . http://dx.doi.org/ . /es- - deeley, j. . introducing semiotics: its history and doctrine. indiana university press, bloomington, indiana, usa. durkheim, e. 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http://dx.doi.org/ . % fs - - - https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / 	title 	abstract 	introduction 	the nature of symbols and the symbols of nature 	the function of iconic images as symbols in art and science 	iconic images are symbols reconnecting us to deeper and broader aspects of our human nature and the natural world 	symbols as attractors that stimulate the emergence of new order and understanding 	iconic images as transformers 	responses to this article 	acknowledgments 	literature cited reviews verbs of motion (usually called definite/determinate and indefinite/indeterminate). only minimal attention is paid to stress, and the problem of word order is totally neglected. model sentences too often read like word-for-word translations of english into russian. it is not that sentences like gde vy videli ego vcheraf do not exist in russian, but rather that an excess of such models misleads the student into thinking this is the normal word order in that language. despite these minor objections, the book has much to recommend it. grammar explanations, though traditional, are clear and concise. the inclusion of an extensive body of literary readings adapted from pushkin, tolstoy, chekhov, and zoshchenko must be regarded as a positive asset. clayton l. dawson university of illinois, urbana m o d e r n f i n n i s h p a i n t i n g a n d g r a p h i c a r t . by john boulton smith. new york and washington: praeger publishers, . pp. $ . . m o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e i n f i n l a n d . by asko sdokorpi. new york and washington: praeger publishers, . pp. $ . . john boulton smith asks the question whether or not finnish modern painting and printmaking have an individual cultural identity, and proceeds expertly to trace the effects of romanticism, impressionism, postimpressionism, a r t nouveau, and e x - pressionism on finnish painters who attempted to evoke their own national heritage. painting is a young art in finland. in a state of decline after the reformation, it was not revived until the nineteenth century, when it was relearned from various euro- pean models. abstract art was not accepted until the s, growing commonplace in the s. the year saw finland's severance from sweden and its new guise as an independent grand duchy under russian domination. as in other nordic countries, nationalism grew, and elias lonnrot's publication of finland's national epic, the kalevala, occurred in . the centers for the artistic training of finnish artists in the nineteenth century were, successively, stockholm, dusseldorf, and in the s, paris. the first distinctively finnish painting drew upon the kalevala and used the sinuous style of a r t nouveau. akseli gallen-kallela ( - ) was the most famous exponent of this form. the nationalist movement was greatly strengthened by finland's final independence from russia in , and produced, once again, an interest in the depiction of folk themes. edvard munch's and exhibitions in helsinki helped foster an interest in expressionism. but the finnish quality in finnish painting is apparent in the content, not the style. the most frequently reiterated theme is a strong feeling for nature, both lyrical and melancholy. mr. smith's text is clear, direct, and sympathetic, and his choice of plates arouses interest in a little-known sphere of modern art. in contrast, finland's architecture has a long-standing, unbroken tradition, and its modern architecture is world renowned. asko salokorpi traces the key aspects of modern finnish architecture, which parallels european architecture in general, and discusses the concepts of rationalism, romanticism, internationalism, and nationalism. his presentation is terse, often brilliant, and he makes it clear why "finnish archi- tecture often seems to be an art form rather than a way of building." the influence of art nouveau, cubism, and constructivism and the concept of functionalism are slavic review made clear, and the reasons why finnish architecture did not influence european architecture in general are given. he contrasts the axial symmetry and straight lines of early le corbusier and mies van der rohe with the finnish penchant for asym- metry and sculptural masses—a transformation of functional ism. originally founded on the use of industrial forms and production processes—emphasizing the utilitarian, the uniform, the anonymous, and the mass-produced—factionalism in actuality pro- duced expensive, elitist, isolated works of art. the well-known architecture of alvar aalto was influenced in - by gropius's bauhaus building, which was a freely formed composition. but his s elegant and daring "freeform" constructions were far from bauhaus principles. le corbusier's "five-point plan" had only a limited following in finland. in addition to the work of aalto, the work of thirty-six other architects is evaluated, and the famed town-planning project of tapiola is discussed. continuously enlightening, salokorpi's book has an excellent selection of plates and unusually informative plate notes. both books are concise and intelligent, and smith's book has the virtue of introducing the english-speaking reader to an almost unknown facet of modern art. the extremely small type is the only flaw in these pocket-sized volumes, making the reading unnecessarily strenuous. karl lunde the william paterson college of new jersey ostatnie lata drugiej rzeczypospolitej ( - ). by hanna and tadeusz jedruszczak. warsaw: ksiazka i wiedza, . pp. professor tadeusz jgdruszczak is the director of the institute of military history in warsaw. he is the author of two previous books, polityka polski w sprawie gornego slqska, - (warsaw, ), an excellent study of this complex problem, and pilsudczycy bez pilsudskiego (warsaw, ). his wife, dr. hanna jedruszczak, has published several articles on labor and wages in interwar poland. we can therefore assume that hers was an important contribution to the book under review. the authors attempt to present an overall view of poland in the years - . it is an interesting study and gives the reader a great deal of important information. it should be treated, however, as the authors themselves acknowledge, as only a tentative synthesis. the book is, moreover, directed both to the specialist and to the general reader. the authors admit that while the international situation and thus foreign policy were the dominant problems for poland in these years, they could not always deal adequately with these subjects because of the unsatisfactory state of studies on the interwar period. this helps to explain why their discussion of these two problems constitutes the weakest part of the book. they could, however, have made more extensive use of some recent polish publications, such as henryk batowski's kryzys dyplomatycsny w europie (jesieti -wiosna ) (warsaw, ), marian wojciechowski's stosunki polsko-niemieckie, - (poznan, ) (both cited in the bibliography), and jerzy kozenski's excellent study, czechoslowacja w polskiej polityce zagranicznej w latach - (poznan, ) (not cited). there is much useful information on the economic, social, and political structure of the country. here, however, too much emphasis is placed on the working class, which constituted only a small part of a population, percent of which lived on the land. the polish communist party, which receives a great deal of attention, had fedora: not found 		 not found no such object, datastream, or dissemination. [defaulaccess] no datastream could be returned. either there is no datastream for the digital object "uk-ac-man-scw: " with datastream id of "null " or there are no datastreams that match the specified date/time value of "null " . word clustering for historical newspapers analysis lidia pivovarova jani marjanen elaine zosa university of helsinki firstname.lastname@helsinki.fi abstract this paper is a part of a collaboration be- tween computer scientists and historians aimed at development of novel methods for historical newspapers analysis. we present a case study of ideological terms ending with -ism suffix in nineteenth- century finnish newspapers. we pro- pose a two-step procedure to trace differ- ences in word usages over time: training of diachronic embeddings on several time slices and when clustering embeddings of selected words together with their neigh- bours to obtain historical context. the ob- tained clusters turn out to be useful for his- torical studies. the paper also discusses specific difficulties related to development of historian-oriented tools. introduction big corpora of historical newspapers are now dig- italized and available for automatic processing. newspapers have for long been important sources of information for historians and social scientists but massive digitalization opens the possibility to use advanced statistical and nlp methods for historical newspapers. even though news as a genre have been well-studied in nlp community, switching to historical news imposes additional difficulties for text processing. automatically dig- italized news archives contain much noise related to non-perfect ocr and article separation, as well as less standardised writing practices. many nlp tools, such as pos-taggers and lemmatizers, are optimized to process modern texts and work less well on historical data. at the same time, histori- cal news share most of the properties of the mod- ern news data: they are biased, incomplete, con- troversial and apt to change over time. if historical news are challenging for linguistic analysis, they are even harder for historical stud- ies, since research questions historians are trying to answer are complex and lie far beyond fact discovery. often they are interested in attitudes, stances, viewpoints, and discourse change in gen- eral. these tasks require development of novel methods and instruments that would be oriented specifically at historical research. we present newseye—a research project aimed at development of novel tools and methods for analysis of historical newspapers . the project is a collaboration between digital humanists and computer scientists funded by the european union’s horizon research and innovation programme. this paper focuses on a case study of ideolog- ical terms ending with -ism suffix—such as liber- alism, socialism, or conservatism—in nineteenth century newspapers from finland. these terms, known as isms, are condensed representations of complex notions that played an important role in political discourse in the nineteenth century (and long after that). rhetorical usage of isms in his- torical text has been studied before (kurunmäki and marjanen, b,a; marjanen, ), though as far as we are aware this is the first attempt to apply statistical analysis to trace development of these terms in a diachronic newspaper archive. not all words ending with -ism are ideologi- cal. this suffix could be also used for medical terms and diseases (rheumatism), scientific terms (magnetism), personal traits (cynicism), artistic movements (cubism), religions (baptism) or polit- ical practices related to particular persons (bona- partism). it is not always possible to draw a strict line between ideologies and other categories. https://www.newseye.eu/ moreover, the ideological load of these terms might change over time. we apply a corpus-based analysis to find out how the vocabulary of isms changed in nineteenth century finnish newspapers and how usage of ide- ological isms is different from other words with -ism suffix. we try to implement a robust analysis procedure that would be applicable to other tasks with minimal human intervention. our method consists of two main steps: first, we extract from the corpus all words with suffix -ism, second, we cluster these words and their semantic neighbours in an unsupervised fashion. this procedure does not require a human intervention other than in- terpretation of results and, consequently, is poten- tially applicable to other research questions. data . corpora newspapers in finland were published in two main languages—finnish and swedish. in the be- ginning of the nineteenth century the majority of newspapers were published in swedish, though by the s the finnish and swedish newspapers were printed in almost equal amount. the finnish- and swedish-language press had a different dis- tribution of topics and exposed slightly different political outlook, though contemporaries often re- lied on newspapers in both languages (engman, ). another peculiarity of these data is a cen- sorship accomplished by the russian empire gov- ernment. the censorship was abandoned in , which led to an outburst of socialistic rhetoric in the press, especially in the finnish-language news- papers since they were more likely to have a rural or working-class background. we use a digitalized collection of nineteenth- century finnish newspapers freely available from the national library of finland (pääkkönen et al., ). we use the full swedish and finnish data from to , treating them as two separate corpora. each corpus is split into five double- decades. the total amount of words in both cor- pora is presented in table . in figure we present relative frequencies for the selection of most frequent isms in our data. it can be seen that a proportion of isms are grow- ing over time. the plots demonstrate some differ- ence between the datasets: e.g. patriotism is much more frequent in the swedish dataset. time slice millions of words finnish swedish - . . - . . - . . - . . - . . total . . table : corpus size by double decade. both corpora are lowercased and lemmatized using las, an open-source language-analysis tool (mäkelä, ). las is a meta-analysis tool that provides a wrapper for many existing tools developed for specific tasks and languages. though las supports multiple languages, most efforts were done to process finnish data, includ- ing historical finnish. the output for our swedish data is more noisy. in particular, the swedish las lemmatizer is unable to predict lemma for out- of-vocabulary words, e.g. boulangismen (definite form of ‘boulangism’). thus we applied the addi- tional normalization and convert all words ending with -ismen or -ismens into -ism forms. for all other words we use the las output; implemen- tation of proper swedish lemmatization is beyond the scope of this paper. approach . diachronic embeddings we train continuous embeddings (mikolov et al., ) on each double-decade. we use gensim word vec implementation (řehůřek and sojka, ) using the skip-gram model, with a vector dimensionality of , window size of and a fre- quency threshold of —only lemmas that ap- pear more than times within a double decade are used for training. one hundred is an arbitrary and rather conservative threshold that ensures that each word in a model has reliable amount of con- text and embeddings are trustworthy. on the other hand, we lose some isms because they appear less than times in a double-decade. for instance, patriotism and liberalism appear for the first time in the swedish corpus in and respec- tively, but the corresponding vectors exist in our models starting from - and - respectively. the number of distinct isms in our models is presented in table . https://github.com/jiemakel/las https://github.com/jiemakel/las (a) swedish (b) finnish figure : a selection of the most frequent words ending with suffix -ism/ismi. the x-axis presents relative frequency in items per million. since training word embeddings is a stochastic process, the particular values of vectors do not stay close across runs, though distances between words are quite stable. to ensure that embeddings are stable across time slices, we follow the approach proposed in (kim et al., ): embeddings for t + time slice are initialized with vectors built on t; then training continues using new data. the learning rate value is set to the end learning rate of the previous model, to prevent models from di- verging rapidly. this approach has been previ- ously used in (hengchen et al., ) with slightly different data. . clustering we cluster word embeddings into semantically close groups using affinity propagation cluster- ing technique (frey and dueck, ). the main advantages of affinity propagation are that it de- tects number of clusters automatically and is able to produce clusters of various sizes. finnish time slice ism close cluster select - - - - - - - - - - - swedish time slice ism close cluster select - - - - - table : number of distinct words used on vari- ous steps of the algorithm: ism is a number of dis- tinct words with suffix -ism, close is a number of words, which cosine similarity to at least one ism is higher than . , cluster is a number of clusters that contain at least one ism, select is a number of words in these clusters. affinity propagation has been previously used for various language analysis tasks, including collocation clustering into semantically related classes (kutuzov et al., ) and unsupervised word sense induction (alagić et al., ). both papers pay special attention to fine-tuning of the algorithm and selection of hyper-parameters. we cannot tune the algorithm due to the lack of gold standard, which is typical for exploratory histor- ical research. we use standard implementation from the scikit-learn package (pedregosa et al., ), with default parameters. the procedure works as follows. in the data se- lection step we extract from the corpus all words with a cosine similarity of less than . to any ism. then we perform clustering on this enriched dataset. finally, the clusters are filtered so that only clusters that contain at least one ism word are presented for the qualitative analysis. the number of words used on various steps of analysis is presented in table . it can be seen from the table is that the number isms in the finnish data is much smaller than for the swedish data. in particular in the two double decades there are no finnish ism above the frequency threshold. that could be partially explained by the smaller amount of finnish newspapers but also by the dif- ference between languages. the suffix ismi is not as productive in the finnish language and used mostly with loan words, while swedish more read- ily adopt ism suffix. in many cases swedish words ending with -ism are translated into finnish us- ing native suffixes. for example, swedish katoli- cism is translated into finnish as katolilaisuus. in some cases, two words with same meaning but different endings existed in the same time period, e.g. protestantismi and protestanttisuus or nation- alismi and kansallisuusaate. it can be seen in the table that though . is an arbitrary threshold up to % of words selected using this threshold are filtered out after the clus- tering. the number of selected clusters is gener- ally smaller than the number of words with suffix ism since isms tend to cluster together. results and observations one of the main difficulties for our work is a lack of gold standard annotations. we cannot know in advance how the words should be clustered, es- pecially the most problematic ideological terms, which are the main objects of our study. however, we can make several common-sense assumptions on the expected outcome. for example, it would be reasonable to expect that disease names should not appear in the same cluster with philosophi- cal concepts or that artistic movements should be clustered together. in this section we present sev- eral observations, starting with those that can be considered as “sanity checks” for the clustering. rheumatism in the nineteenth century rheumatism was often mentioned in the medical advertisements. auto- matic advertisement filtering in historical news is not a trivial task since advertisements were less regulated, contained more text and looked simi- lar to other articles. moreover, such filtering is not always necessary since advertisements might pro- vide researchers with valuable insights . we use the entire corpora to build embeddings, and as a consequence rheumatism is one of the most frequent words with suffix -ism in our data, as can be seen in figure (for the swedish data we sum up counts for spelling variants reumatism and rheumatism). table , which shows all clusters from our finnish data that contain words related to rheuma- see for example a recent blog post analyzing gender stereotypes in the nineteenth century drug advertisements: https://www.newseye.eu/blog/news/ british-drug-advertising-in-the- th-century-through-the-prism-of-gender/ https://www.newseye.eu/blog/news/british-drug-advertising-in-the- th-century-through-the-prism-of-gender/ https://www.newseye.eu/blog/news/british-drug-advertising-in-the- th-century-through-the-prism-of-gender/ - - reumatismi ‘rheumatism’ vähäverisyys ‘anaemia’ risatauti ‘lymphadenitis’ veripuute ‘anaemia’ heillou ‘weakness?’ocr luuvalo ‘gout’ nivelreumatismi ‘arthritis’ epämuodostuma ‘deformity’ kohju ‘hernia’ luumalo ‘gout’ocr kroonillinen ‘chronic’ mahatauti ‘gastroenteritis’ mahakatarri ‘gastritis’ iskä ‘?’ latus ‘?’ suolitauti ‘salt deposits’ riisitauti ‘rickets’ hermovaiva ‘nerve ailment’ liikavarvas ‘callus’ verenvähyys ‘anaemia’ ruumisvika ‘body problem’ veritauti ‘blood disease’ kihti ‘gout’ lihavuus ‘obesity’ kaljupäisyys ‘boldness’ verettömyydä ‘verettömyydä’ säilöstystauti ‘canning disease’ heikkohermoisuus ‘neurasthenia’ lihanen ‘obese’ sukupuoli- ‘sex/gender’ocr jalkahiki ‘foot odor’ sappitauti ‘biliary disease’ heitlous ‘weakness’ocr selkäydintauti ‘spinal cord disease’ kivuton ‘painless’ hermoheikkous ‘neurasthenia’ ruokasulatushäiriö ‘digestion problem’ reumatillinen ‘rheumatic’ kalvetustauti ‘anaemia’ vinous ‘skewness’ tautitila ‘disease place’ reumaatillinen ‘rheumatic’ vähäverinen ‘anaemic’ epämuodostua ‘to deform’ hermosairaus ‘neuropathy’ reumatismi ‘rheumatism’ hiustauti ‘hair disease’ jäsensärky ‘limb ache’ hermo ‘nerve’ oxygeno ‘?’ vatsakatar ‘gastritis’ umpitauti ‘constipation’ nuha ‘rhinitis’ hermotautinen ‘neurotic’ topioli ‘?’ kurkkukatarri ‘pharyngitis’ parannuskeino ‘remedy’ hoitokeino ‘cure’ spirosiini ‘spirosin’ lazarol ‘lazarol’ lääkitä ‘to medicate’ kotilääke ‘home medicine’ reumaattinen ‘rheumatic’ hammastauti ‘tooth disease’ rautaliuos ‘iron care’ jäsenkolotus ‘limb ache’ leini ‘rheumatism’ linjamentti ‘ointment’ parannusaine ‘betterment’ vilustuminen ‘cold’ luuvalo ‘gout’ latsaro ‘?’ hengityselimettauti ‘respiratory disease’ table : clusters containing finnish words related to rheumatism. original words are presented in italics together with english translations in quotes. ocr means the word is incorrectly spelled due to ocr errors; “?” means “impossible to translate”—these are mostly fragments of words appearing due to ocr errors. bottom left: an advertisement of a rheumatism medicine from hufvudstadsbladet, . . , no. , p. tism. it can be seen that rheumatism does not inter- fere with other isms: the clusters entirely consist of words related to drugs, medical procedures, dis- eases and other physical conditions, such as bald- ness or obesity. in that sense clusters are rather precise and justify our algorithmic decisions. on the other hand, cluster may be too fine- grained for our needs. in the - double- decade there are two clusters with similar mean- ing: one related to reumatismi ‘rheumatism’, an- other to nivelreumatismi ‘(rheumatoid) arthritis’. very similar results were obtained on the swedish data: reumatism ‘rheumatism’ and ledgngsreuma- tism ‘arthritis’ are split into different clusters even though spelling variants rheumatism and reuma- tism are clustered together. we suggest that the fine-grained clustering does not as such reflect semantic differences, but the differences in distribution come from slightly dif- ferent uses in the newspapers. while there are similarities it seems that rheumatism appears more often in medical advertising whereas the arthritis seems to be more likely to appear in text content with a more ambitious take on educating the pub- lic about medical issues. spiritism in table we present clusters obtained from swedish data that contain the word spiritism. the cluster for the - double decade contains a few words related to this popular practice such as pressensé and kabal though most of its content are names of famous scientists and writers. this might be an error: some of the names might be a person that were discussed in the context of spiritism (as objects to spiritism or as scientific authorities), e.g. aristotle or galileo, and others are words that are similar to these names. in other words, spiritism might be an outlier in this cluster. it might also be the case that spiritism was sometimes used as ’spiritualism’ and darwin and the others were discussed in this context. this would require a further analysis. the clusters for the latter double-decades do not expose such problems and consist mostly of words clearly related to spiritism including some very specific terms, such as transmigration, and more general esoteric concepts, such theosophy or freemasonry. the - cluster might also reflect a contemporary discussion on relations be- tween science and mysticism, since it contains such isms as positivism or darwinism. separatism separatism is a more tricky concept, which un- dergo a noticeable usage change in our datasets as can be seen in table , where we present clusters for swedish separatism. - - - spiritism ‘spiritism’ spiritism ‘spiritism’ teosofi ‘theosophy’ spiritism ‘spiritism’ hypnotism ‘hypnotism’ pressensé ‘presence’ (fr) frimureri ‘freemasonry’ feder ‘?’ andevärld ‘spirit world’ teosofisk ‘theosophic’ pater ‘pater’ voltaire ‘voltaire’ mysterium ‘mystery’ spiritualism ‘spiritualism’ spiritistisk ‘spiritualistic’ telepati ‘telepathy’ darwin ‘darwin’ renan ‘renan’ darwinism ‘darwinism’ positivism ‘positivism’ själavandring ‘transmigration’ zola ‘zola’ newton ‘newton’ buddism ‘buddhism’ darvinism ‘darvinism’ trolleri ‘magic’ journalism ‘journalism’ balzac ‘balzac’ michelet ‘michelet’ vegetarianism ‘vegetarianism’ astrologi ‘astrology’ ockult ‘occult’ astrologisk ‘astrological’ galilei ‘galileo’ corneille ‘corneille’ teosofisk ‘theosophic’ bibelkritik ‘bible criticism’ astrologi ‘astrology’ frimureri ‘freemasonry’ aristoteles ‘aristotle’ kabal ‘cabal’ metafysik ‘metaphysics’ teosofien ‘theosophy’ gondiagnos ‘eye diagnosis’ alkemi ‘alchemy’ oppert ‘oppert’ rousseau ‘rousseau’ darvin ‘darvin’ darvins ‘darvin’ clairvoyance ‘clairvoyance’(fr) proudhon ‘proudhon’ zolas ‘zola’ utvecklingslära ‘evolution’ malthus ‘malthus’ tankeläsning ‘mind reading’ quand ‘when’ (fr) loyson ‘loyson’ själavandring ‘transmigration’ tungomlstalande ‘tongues’ table : clusters containing swedish word spiritism. - - - separatism ‘separatism’ separatism ‘separatism’ rent ‘?’ separatism ‘separatism’ riksid ‘national idea’ocr mysticism ‘mysticism’ naturalism ‘naturalism’ finskhet ‘finnishness’ fennomanins ‘fennomania’ statsid ‘state idea’ocr rikspolitik ‘national policy’ darwinism ‘darwinism’ moral ‘morality’ fennomani ‘fennomania’ svenskhet ‘swedishness’ bourgeoisins ‘bourgeoisie’ byråkratien ‘bureaucracy’ tidsanda ‘zeitgeist’ krass ‘crass’ utopi ‘utopia’ fennomanin ‘fennomania’ vikingaparti ‘viking party’ samhällsopinion ‘social opinion’ materialistisk ‘materialistic’ otro ‘incredible’ språkpolitik ‘language policy’ publicistisk ‘publishing’ sträfvandenas ‘?’ rikskomplex ‘national complex’ rationalistisk ‘rationalistic’ wantro ‘?’ partiagitation ‘party agitation’ partiyra ‘?’ nationalitet- ‘national’ocr santryska ‘true russian’ menniskonaturen ‘human nature’ tidehvarfvets ‘?’ partifanatism ‘party fanaticism’ ämbetsmannavälde ‘officialdom’ materialism ‘materialism’ materialist ‘materialistic’ språkgräl ‘language quarrel’ gränsmärke ‘borderline’ gränsmark ‘borderline’ocr konservatism ‘conservatism’ språkfanatism ‘language fanaticism’ riksenhet ‘national assembly’ idealism ‘idealism’ rationalism ‘rationalism’ språkfråga ‘language question’ samhällskraft ‘social force’ statlighet ‘statehood’ negation ‘negation’ abstraktion ‘abstraction’ spräkfrägan ‘language question’ frihetssträvande ‘freedom-aspiring’ wäldets ‘?’ idealistisk ‘idealistic’ ljusskygghet ‘photophobia’ riksmakt ‘national power’ själfhärskarmakten ‘?’ table : swedish clusters containing word separatism - - separatismi ‘separatism’ ruotsi-kiihkoinen ‘svekoman’ ruotsinmielinen ‘swedish-minded’ separatismi ‘separatism’ ruotsalaisuus ‘swedishness’ viikinki ‘viking’ ruotsi-mielinen ‘swedish-minded’ nationalismi ‘nationalism’ natsionalismi ‘nationalism’ fennomaani ‘fennoman’ epäkansallinen ‘anti-national’ viikingit ‘vikings’ opportunismi ‘opportunism’ natfionalismi ‘nationalism’ocr separatisti ‘separatist’ ruotsikko ‘swedish’(person) miikinki ‘viking’ocr pöppö ‘?’ eristäytyminen ‘isolation’ kansalliskiihko ‘nationalism’ miikingit ‘vikings’ocr suomimielinen ‘finnish-minded’ ruotsi-mielisyys ‘swedish-mindedness’ intelligens ‘intelligence’ länsieurooppalainen ‘western-european’ wiitinki ‘viking’ocr wiilinki ‘viking’ocr miitinki ‘viking’ocr ruotsimielinen ‘swedish-minded’ rotutaistelu ‘race fight’ vapaamielisyy ‘liberalism’ocr suomi-kiihkoinen ‘fennoman’ fennoman ‘fennoman’ henkiheimolainen ‘soul mate’ sanomalehdistö! ‘press’ antipatia ‘antipathy’ dagbladilainen ‘member of the dagblad circle’ miiking ‘viking’ocr fennomani ‘fennoman’ kansallinenviha ‘national anger’ kiihkokansallisuus ‘nationalism’ wiiking ‘viking’ocr fennomaaninen ‘fennoman’ ruotsikiihkoisuus ‘svekomania’ eristäytyä ‘self-isolate’ liittolaisuus ‘alliance’ wiilinli ‘viking’ocr miikinkilehti ‘vikings’ newspaper’ocr suomenmielinen ‘finnish-minded’ocr vihamieli-syy ‘hostility’ocr kansallinenylpeys ‘national pride’ miikinkiläinen ‘vikingish’ocr ruolsinmielinen ‘swedish-minded’ ruotsiliihloinen ‘svekoman’ocr kielipolitiikka ‘language policy’ herranenluokka ‘?’ miikingilehti ‘vikings’ newspaper’ocr epälansallinen ‘anti-national’ocr kansallinenliike ‘national movement’ table : finnish clusters containing word separatismi most of the words in the - cluster are religious, philosophical or scientific notions, thus we can assume that the cluster presents a religious context of separatism. the - cluster con- tains completely different set of words, includ- ing reference to specific political entities, such as fennomans movement and contains rather emo- tional expressions, such as agitation or fanaticism. these words are related to a contemporary dis- cussion about national identity and national lan- guage. the - cluster is again different from the previous two and contains more general political lexis. thus, we can suggest that at the beginning the notion of separatism had mostly re- ligious meaning, when it was adopted by a limited number of liberals and finally spread into a more general political discourse. the finnish clusters for separatismi, presented in table , are quite similar to swedish. the main difference is that in the - the word is mentioned less than times and as a conse- quence excluded from our models. but the - and - finnish clusters follow the same pattern: the former contains quite specific references, while the latter consists of more gen- eral political words. the change in the distribution of separatism seems to be related to a change in the dominant context in which it was discussed (from religious context to a political context). this also entails some degree of semantic change. this contextual and semantic shift could be to some extent visible from changes in the near- est neighbours of separatism presented in fig- ure a. however, nearest neighbours produce a more vague overview: for example, religious isms, such as pietism, are presented among near- est neighbours of separatism in - . simi- larly, the overlap between finnish clusters, shown in table , and nearest neighbours of separatismi, presented in figure is very limited. (a) swedish (b) finnish figure : tsne plot word separatism and its near- est neighbours across time slices. this can be explained by the nature of the clus- tering procedure: each word can be among the nearest neighbours for any number of other words while affinity propagation assign a word to ex- actly one cluster so that socialism and katolicism are separated in clusters of their own. the differ- ence between outputs demonstrates an added value of the clustering, which selects only one word split among many possibilities provided by em- beddings. at the same time, this also means loss of information, especially for polysemous words. conclusion and further work we presented our ongoing work aimed at the im- plementation of tools facilitating historical studies of newspaper archives. we proposed an unsuper- vised procedure to trace differences in word usage over time. the procedure consists of two major steps: training of diachronic embeddings and then clustering embeddings of selected words together with their neighbours to obtain historical context. in this paper we applied this procedure to a group of words ending with suffix -ism. the method allowed us to distinguish ideological terms, such as socialism from other words with the same suffix, such as disease names or scien- tific terms. this promising result suggests that it is worthy to further elaborate the proposed method. at this stage of the work we are unable to draw any clear conclusions related to usage of isms in the nineteenth century in finland. clusters that contain ideological words are the most problem- atic for the interpretation, which is not surprising given complex nature of the underlying concepts. nevertheless, we consider the obtained clusters useful for historical studies since they provide a re- searcher with a condensed representation of word usages in a large corpus. this is a novel way to look at historical data, which might be espe- cially useful in combination with other tools such as named entity recognition or topic modelling. further improvements of the method should in- clude both parts, namely embeddings and cluster- ing. we plan to try building continuous word em- beddings (dubossarsky et al., ; gillani and levy, ; rosenfeld and erk, ; yao et al., ) that would allow us to investigate grad- ual semantic shifts rather than split data into dis- crete time slices. improvement of clustering might include fine-tuning of the algorithm parameters, though this is quite hard to do without manually annotated data. thus, our main focus would be in finding other applications for the proposed proce- dure that would be meaningful from a historical research point of view and easily assessed at the same time. we will also continue development of complex instruments for historical news analysis that would utilize clustering techniques together with other automatic text analysis methods. acknowledgements we are grateful to simon hengchen and mark granroth-wilding for the help with data prepara- tion. this work has been supported by the euro- pean unions horizon research and innova- tion programme under grants (newseye) and (embeddia). references domagoj alagić, jan šnajder, and sebastian padó. . leveraging lexical substitutes for unsuper- vised word sense induction. in thirty-second aaai conference on artificial intelligence. haim dubossarsky, simon hengchen, nina tah- masebi, and dominik schlechtweg. . time-out: temporal referencing for robust modeling of lexical semantic change. in the th annual meeting of the association for computational linguistics (acl). max engman. . språkfrågan: finlandssven- skhetens uppkomst - . svenska litter- atursällskapet i finland. brendan j frey and delbert dueck. . clustering by passing messages between data points. science ( ): – . nabeel gillani and roger levy. . simple dynamic word embeddings for mapping perceptions in the public sphere. in naacl hlt . page . simon hengchen, ruben ros, and jani marjanen. . a data-driven approach to the changing vo- cabulary of the nation in english, dutch, swedish and finnish newspapers, - . in in pro- ceedings of the digital humanities (dh) conference , utrecht, the netherlands. yoon kim, yi-i chiu, kentaro hanaki, darshan hegde, and slav petrov. . temporal analysis of lan- guage through neural language models. acl page . jussi kurunmäki and jani marjanen. a. isms, ideologies and setting the agenda for public de- bate. journal of political ideologies ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . . . jussi kurunmäki and jani marjanen. b. a rhetori- cal view of isms: an introduction. journal of polit- ical ideologies ( ): – . andrey kutuzov, elizaveta kuzmenko, and lidia pivo- varova. . clustering of russian adjective-noun constructions using word embeddings. in proceed- ings of the th workshop on balto-slavic natural language processing. pages – . eetu mäkelä. . las: an integrated language anal- ysis tool for multiple languages. the journal of open source software . jani marjanen. . ism concepts in science and poli- tics. contributions to the history of concepts ( ). tomas mikolov, kai chen, greg s corrado, and jeffrey dean. . efficient estimation of word represen- tations in vector space. in nips. tuula pääkkönen, jukka kervinen, asko nivala, kimmo kettunen, and eetu mäkelä. . export- ing finnish digitized historical newspaper contents for offline use. d-lib magazine ( / ). f. pedregosa, g. varoquaux, a. gramfort, v. michel, b. thirion, o. grisel, m. blondel, p. pretten- hofer, r. weiss, v. dubourg, j. vanderplas, a. pas- sos, d. cournapeau, m. brucher, m. perrot, and e. duchesnay. . scikit-learn: machine learning in python. journal of machine learning research : – . radim řehůřek and petr sojka. . software frame- work for topic modelling with large corpora. in pro- ceedings of the lrec workshop on new chal- lenges for nlp frameworks. elra, valletta, malta, pages – . alex rosenfeld and katrin erk. . deep neural models of semantic shift. in proceedings of the conference of the north american chapter of the association for computational linguistics: human language technologies, volume (long papers). pages – . zijun yao, yifan sun, weicong ding, nikhil rao, and hui xiong. . dynamic word embeddings for evolving semantic discovery. in the th acm in- ternational conference on web search and data mining. https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . kocaman_sengul uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi the journal of international social research cilt: sayı: volume: issue: ağustos august www.sosyalarastirmalar.com issn: - doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /jisr. . destins d’expatries et de depressifs posterite du theatre dit de l’absurde sengül kocaman• résumé célébrés de leur vivant par un noyau dur d'admirateurs même s’ils ont dû, dans le même temps, subir les remontrances de nombreux critiques, arthur adamov et eugène ionesco ont été deux piliers de ce courant baptisé par martin esslin "théâtre de l'absurde", et dans lequel il incluait également des auteurs comme beckett, arrabal et genet. il semble qu'avec le temps, ce courant théâtral soit quelque peu passé de mode. on notera que trois de ses plus principaux protagonistes : beckett, ionesco et adamov avaient en commun leur expatriation pour la france. les deux derniers connaîtront même une déchéance similaire à travers l'abus de l'alcool. ce parallélisme dans leur destinée nous a semblé intéressant à évoquer ici, tout en opérant un rapide survol du parcours d'arthur adamov depuis le théâtre dit de l'absurde jusqu’à des engagements plus prononcés autour des réalités politiques et sociales de son temps, notamment à travers une de ses dernières pièces : la politique des restes. mots-clés: absurde, alcool, exil, politique, racisme, suicide, théâtre. abstract arthur adamov and eugene ionesco were two pillars - those authors had been celebrated in their lifetime by a hard core of admirers, having in the same time to face much criticism.- of the literary movement called "theatre of the absurd" by the publicist martin esslin who included also in that movement authors like beckett, arrabal and genet. it seems that with the distance the group has gone out of fashion. one can notice that three of its principal protagonists: beckett, ionesco and adamov had in common their expatriation to france. both adamov and ionesco would even experiment a similar forfeiture through the abuse of alcohol. this parallelism in their fate seemed to us interesting to be evoked here, giving us the possibility to overfly the career of arthur adamov since the so-called theatre of the absurd upon more pronounced commitments around the political and social realities of the times, in particularthrough one of his last plays : the sceavengers. keywords: absurd, alcohol, exile, politics, racism, suicide, theater. dans une présentation de l’œuvre d’arthur adamov, pierre mélèse insiste sur le relatif déclin de l’image de cet auteur d’origine russe exilé avec sa famille en france. beckett, ionesco, adamov. de la « troïka » qui, dans les années , donna naissance à ce que martin esslin a nommé le théâtre de l'absurde, seuls les deux premiers ont conquis la célébrité. si adamov est resté en arrière, ce n'est pas par déficience; de à , cet écrivain-né n'a cessé de produire : multiples articles, traductions, adaptations radiophoniques, livres de souvenirs, et surtout une œuvre dramatique considérable. néanmoins aucune de ses pièces n'a rencontré le succès de en attendant godot ou de la cantatrice chauve, malgré leur puissant intérêt et l'excellence de leur mise en scène confiée aux réalisateurs les plus originaux ; aucune d'entre elles n'a dépassé un nombre restreint de représentations ; sauf le ping-pong et paolo paoli, aucune n'a été reprise, sinon, paradoxalement, à l'étranger. ces demi-succès — ou demi-échecs — ont profondément affecté arthur adamov, conscient de son incapacité à communiquer au public le fruit de ses réflexions sur la nature humaine et sur la société. son nom et son œuvre ne sont pourtant pas inconnus de ceux pour qui le théâtre doit être autre chose que banales intrigues ou pur divertissement. une meilleure connaissance de ses pièces, si originales dans leur conception et leur réalisation, ne peut qu'accroître sa réputation et contribuer à lui donner le rang qu'il mérite parmi les auteurs dramatiques de son temps. (mélèse, : ) avec le recul, on peut se demander si ce déclin concerne le seul adamov. ce qui précède montre, du coup, à quel point il peut s’avérer intéressant d’étudier la destinée d’un certain nombre de théories intellectuelles ou d’écoles artistiques autrefois prisées par la critique voire par le grand public, mais aussi d’artistes et de personnalités jouissant, naguère, d’une grande réputation. nous connaissons, tous, des artistes ou des créateurs ayant connu leur heure de gloire à une certaine époque, et qui ont sombré dans l’oubli après leur mort, ce qui fait que, souvent, on se pose à leur propos ce genre de question : « mais au fait, qu’est devenue l’œuvre d’un tel ou d’une telle ? ». • assist. prof. dr., dicle Üniversitesi, ziya gökalp eğitim fakültesi yabancı diller bölümü. uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: ağustos the journal of international social research volume: issue: august - - prenons, par exemple, cette fameuse école dite du « théâtre de l’absurde », dénomination que l’on doit à l’essayiste martin esslin. ce dernier tentait ainsi de caractériser les principales tendances d’un mouvement littéraire qu’il avait lui-même inventé, sans même se préoccuper de l’avis de ses supposés protagonistes, ces derniers n’ayant jamais manifesté quelque tentation de se regrouper au sein d’un collectif artistique, contrairement à ce qui a pu se passer en d’autres occasions, dans d’autres disciplines, comme en peinture, par exemple, avec le cubisme, l’impressionnisme, etc. pour m. esslin, les traditions anciennes que le théâtre de l’absurde utilise en combinaisons nouvelles et variées, pourraient sans doute être classées dans les catégories suivantes : le théâtre « pur », les clowneries, les nonsense, et la littérature de rêve ». esslin, (martin, : ) or, le moins qu’on puisse dire, est que les animateurs de ce supposé « théâtre de l’absurde », soit n’ont jamais expressément déclaré appartenir à ce cénacle (cf. beckett), soit ont plus ou moins ouvertement pris leurs distances avec cette appellation (cf. ionesco, adamov), voire ont changé de trajectoire au cours de leur carrière littéraire (cf. adamov). À propos d’adamov, f. lefebvre souligne que l'œuvre dramatique de cet auteur a, selon la majorité des critiques qui l'ont étudiée, suivi trois orientations. proche, au début de sa carrière, de ce que l'on nomme le « théâtre de l'absurde », partisan d'un théâtre métaphysique, non situé, adamov se tourne, au milieu des années , vers un théâtre politique avant de tenter de concilier ses deux modes d'écriture antérieurs dans un théâtre qui cherche à saisir les rapports entre vie individuelle et vie collective. À l'image de la vie de l'auteur, la dramaturgie adamovienne est marquée par la noirceur des thèmes qui la traversent. cet aspect sombre semble pourtant contrebalancé par le rire qui éclot malgré tout face aux pièces d'adamov. (lefevbre, : https://dumas.ccsd.cnrs.fr/dumas- ) beckett, ionesco et adamov ont en tout cas un point commun : l’expatriation vers la france, respectivement depuis l’irlande, la roumanie et la russie. par ailleurs, les deux derniers ont en commun d’avoir traversé de profondes dépressions, adamov ayant finalement opté pour le suicide. le but de cette étude est particulièrement tourné vers la trajectoire créatrice d’arthur adamov, un des présumés protagonistes du théâtre de l’absurde, courant littéraire dont nous tenterons de voir, dans un premier temps, ce qu’il a pu avoir de pertinent, notamment à travers un de ses plus illustres représentants : eugène ionesco, avant de revenir plus précisément sur les connections éventuelles entre adamov et ionesco, notamment à travers leurs prises de position autour de l’intrusion du fait politique au théâtre. i. À l’exemple d’eugène ionesco, que reste-t-il, de nos jours, du fameux théâtre de l’absurde ? mais y a-t-il seulement eu un théâtre de l’absurde ? je n'écris pas du théâtre pour raconter une histoire. le théâtre ne peut être épique…, puisqu'il est dramatique. pour moi, une pièce de théâtre ne consiste pas dans la description du déroulement de cette histoire : ce serait faire un roman ou du cinéma. (ionesco, : ) il se peut que l’essayiste martin esslin ait pêché par excès d’enthousiasme, mais aussi, de conformisme, en inventant une théorie théâtrale in abstracto, sans tenir le moindre compte de l’avis des principaux intéressés, lesquels se sont vus intégrés, sans leur consentement, dans un courant littéraire plus ou moins bien défini. le fait est qu’on n’a jamais entendu ni lu quelque déclaration de samuel beckett, au travers de laquelle il aurait affirmé son appartenance à ce mouvement. il est arrivé à d’autres protagonistes de se prononcer à ce sujet. la société française des auteurs et compositeurs dramatiques présente en ces termes l’œuvre de ionesco : « (…) élu académicien en , eugène ionesco connut à la fin de sa vie la consécration d'être le premier auteur à être publié de son vivant dans la prestigieuse bibliothèque de la pléiade. largement enseigné, l'auteur est aujourd'hui presque un "classique". a l'école, il est souvent répertorié au rayon "théâtre de l'absurde", en compagnie de beckett et adamov, bien qu'il préférât lui-même l'expression "théâtre de dérision ». (société des auteurs et compositeurs dramatiques, http://www.sacd.fr/hommage-a-eugene-ionesco- - - - - - . . .html) le fait est que lorsqu’il était interrogé sur sa filiation avec l’école dite absurde, ionesco semblait ne pas être trop sûr de la définition de ce mot, comme dans cet entretien avec c. bonnefoy. claude bonnefoy il y a une dizaine d'années, pour désigner le nouveau théâtre, les critiques choisirent l'expression "théâtre de l'absurde". sous ce titre, martin esslin a réuni une série d'essais sur des auteurs aussi divers que beckett, adamov, tardieu, genet, al bec, günter grass et vous-même. avez-vous l'impression d'être apparenté à tous ces auteurs ou bien vous sentez-vous différent d'eux ? uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: ağustos the journal of international social research volume: issue: august - - eugène ionesco j'espère que nous sommes tous différents les uns des autres. je crois aussi que nous nous ressemblons, et que parmi les auteurs dits de l'absurde on pourrait mettre aussi les très grands : shakespeare, sophocle et eschyle, aussi tchékhov, aussi pirandello et o'neil, tous les auteurs du monde, grands et petits. l'absurde est une notion très imprécise. l'absurde est peut-être l'incompréhension de quelque chose, des lois du monde, il naît du conflit de ma volonté avec une volonté universelle ; il naît aussi du conflit entre moi et' moi-même, entre -mes diverses volontés, impulsions contradictoires : à la fois je veux vivre et je veux mourir, ou plutôt, je porte en moi un vers la mort, un vers la vie, eros et thanatos ; amour et haine, amour et destruction, c’est une opposition assez importante, n'est-ce pas pour me donner l'impression d'absurde, comment bâtir une logique à partir de là, même "dialectique" ?(...) claude bonnefoy le caractère absurde de votre théâtre ne provient-il pas d'une part de l'étonnement devant le monde dont vous m'avez parlé au cours de nos premiers entretiens, d'autre part d'un souci de traduire la réalité brute, le comportement des hommes dans le quotidien sans chercher à expliquer ou à justifier cette réalité, ce comportement ? eugène ionesco je préfère à l’expression "absurde" celle d’insolite. il arrive que le monde semble être vidé de toute expression, de tout contenu. il arrive qu’on le regarde comme si l’on naissait à ce moment-là et alors il nous apparaît étonnant et inexplicable. […] mais ce qui est absurde ou plutôt ce qui est insolite, c’est d’abord le donné, la réalité. je me rends compte que j’emploie le mot absurde pour exprimer des notions très différentes. il y a plusieurs sortes de choses ou de faits « absurdes ». parfois, j’appelle absurde ce que je ne comprends pas, parce que c’est moi-même qui ne peut comprendre ou parce que c’est la chose qui est essentiellement incompréhensible, impénétrable, fermée… (ionesco, : ) il se trouve simplement que ionesco s’est souvent contredit, allant même jusqu’à revendiquer la paternité, en tout cas, le « leadership », de ce même courant théâtral. c’est ainsi qu’il en a beaucoup voulu aux critiques, qui ont semblé vouloir le priver du titre de chef de file du théâtre de l’absurde. d'ailleurs, beckett n'est pas ce qu'on appelle un "membre" de la famille de "l'absurde" : son humour provient d'ailleurs, appartient à une autre tradition, un autre folklore, irlandais. (…) en disant que beckett est le promoteur du théâtre de l'absurde, en cachant que c'était moi, les journalistes et historiens littéraires amateurs commettent une désinformation dont je suis victime, et qui est calculée. parce que je ne leur plais pas! pourquoi ? parce que je n'étais pas communiste, au temps où il était malséant de ne pas l'être. ils ne m'ont pas pardonné d'avoir été anticommuniste avant eux. c'était une impertinence. ceci m'a été confirmé par marcabru, arrabal et d'autres... en plus, dans la première édition du théâtre de l'absurde, martin esslin me donnait, comme de juste, la place principale et inaugurale du mouvement. après il a fait, dans les éditions suivantes (et je rage !) un amalgame, il ne met plus mon nom que perdu au milieu (ou vers la fin) d'une quantité d'auteurs de cette avant-garde et qui ont ainsi l'air de me précéder, non pas de me succéder. il évite de dater. l'ordre est faux. (ionesco, eugène, : - ) on a, donc, compris que la notion de « théâtre de l’absurde », inventée par martin esslin dans son laboratoire, avait quelque difficulté à prendre forme, de l’avis des protagonistes eux-mêmes. et, dans ces conditions, comment aurait-elle pu se maintenir dans le temps, après la disparition de ses supposés promoteurs ? dans sa biographie d'eugène ionesco, andré le gall confie que, dans france-soir, paul gordeaux se livre, le mars , à un exercice de prévision assez avisé : "dans quelques années, on verra l'entrée au répertoire de la comédie française… du répertoire de m. eugène ionesco (reçu alors depuis sous la coupole)"… le calendrier se révèlera un peu différent, mais c'était tout de même bien vu. l'anticipation n'aurait pas déplu à ionesco si elle n'avait été ornée de cette notation : "la cantatrice chauve ne fait presque plus figure de théâtre d'avant-garde et encore moins d'antithéâtre." qu'on le mette au nombre des classiques, soit, qu'on l'évince du site de l'avant-garde, c'est une chose à laquelle ionesco ne se résignera jamais facilement. dans la quête intermittente ( ), il revendiquera encore sa qualité d'"auteur d'avant-garde" et son antériorité en la matière. classique, oui, il entend l'être…(le gall, : ) et pourtant, les choses ont très vite évolué défavorablement, ainsi que ionesco se l’avouait à lui- même : on a repris, au théâtre, ma pièce amédée. pas beaucoup de monde. ne plairais-je plus ?(…) au téléphone, lorsqu'on me demande mon nom, je le dis clairement, à la standardiste. c'est affreux quand elle me demande de l'épeler. (…) avant, il n'y a pas longtemps, pas longtemps du tout, il y a seulement deux ans, la téléphoniste répondait : « comme l'écrivain ? » « oui », répondais-je à mon tour. ou parfois : « oui, c'est moi-même. » (ionesco, : ) uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: ağustos the journal of international social research volume: issue: august - - dans ces conditions, on comprend que celui qui se voyait volontiers dans la peau de chef de file de l’école dite du théâtre de l’absurde ait fini par détester et abandonner le théâtre, lui préférant désormais la peinture, et ce, malgré son admission à l’académie française. quand n'ai-je plus aimé le théâtre ? À partir du moment où, devenant un peu lucide, acquérant de l'esprit critique, j'ai pris conscience des ficelles, des grosses ficelles du théâtre, c'est-à-dire à partir du moment où j'ai perdu toute naïveté. quels sont les monstres sacrés du théâtre qui pourraient nous la restituer ? et au nom de quelle magie valable aurait-il le droit de prétendre nous envoûter ? il n'y a plus de magie; il n'y a plus de sacré : aucune raison, aucune justification n'est suffisante pour le faire renaître en nous. (ionesco, : ) voilà ionesco devenu alcoolique et dépressif, état de déchéance que a. le gall décrit en ces termes ionesco lui-même : "je ne reviendrai certainement plus jamais dans cette clinique". ionesco est irrité de se trouver là. "comment ai-je pu perdre mon temps ici... seule mon angoisse prospère et se développe... angoisse insoutenable, proprement insoutenable... le soir tombe. et ça recommence. l'ivresse n'arrange rien." (le gall, : - ) finalement, l’homme entré en fanfare, comme auteur de théâtre, à l’académie française, consécration suprême pour un écrivain de langue française, finira sa vie comme peintre, à vrai dire en repartant de zéro, ce qui rappelle ses débuts d’auteur totalement inexpérimenté du temps de la cantatrice chauve ! elle (la dépression) peut m'empêcher de peindre : j'ai peur de ne plus pouvoir peindre. oui, c'est cette peur qui risque de m'enterrer, encore vivant, pour si peu de temps encore vivant. la couleur, ô ma vie, couleurs, mes paroles dernières, couleurs, les personnages de ce monde, couleurs, mes témoins, mes univers, couleurs, existences, couleurs vivantes, accompagnez-moi, aidez-moi, vivez pour que je sois, couleurs, vous, figures vivantes, signes de la vie, parures. (ionesco, : ) fort curieusement, la trajectoire d’arthur adamov présente d’étranges similitudes avec celle d’eugène ionesco : origine étrangère, arrivée en france, adoption rapide par le milieu littéraire, publication des œuvres chez les plus grands éditeurs (cf. gallimard), et pourtant, un sentiment d’échec conduisant à la dépression, à l’alcoolisme, voire au suicide. ii. arthur adamov, alter ego d’eugène ionesco ? « je regardais le monde à vol d’oiseau, ce qui me permettait de créer des personnages presque interchangeables, toujours pareils à eux-mêmes, en un mot des marionnettes. » (adamov, : ) les auteurs français ayant eu les honneurs des éditions gallimard ne sont pas légion, et en règle générale ils constituent un cénacle plutôt huppé, c’est-à-dire prestigieux. le fait est que tant ionesco que adamov ont vu leur théâtre édité chez gallimard. et pourtant ! l’importance d’arthur adamov comme auteur de théâtre, traducteur et adaptateur, nous est rappelée par n. vedres, qui présente en ces termes la parution du deuxième volume de son théâtre chez gallimard. le théâtre complet d’arthur adamov paraît chez gallimard et le deuxième volume vient de sortir. qui est arthur adamov ? eh bien, arthur adamov est quelqu’un qui a déjà un grand nom dans le théâtre d’aujourd’hui, dans ce qu’on appelle à torts ou à raison le théâtre d’avant-garde. certains d’entre vous connaissent les pièces d’adamov, connaissent adamov lui-même puisqu’il est venu ici parler de sa pièce, le ping-pong, il y a quelques mois, et, je me souviens qu’à ce moment-là, il est arrivé une chose assez drôle ; adamov était venu, il avait parlé du ping-pong… adamov a une tête très caractéristique ; si vous le voyez n’importe où, même au fond d’une sombre forêt, vous vous dites tout de suite : cet homme-là ne peut être qu’un peintre ou un écrivain. (…) adamov a écrit déjà beaucoup de pièces ; presque toutes ont été représentées ; il y en a une ou deux d’inédites dans ce volume de son théâtre, et il a fait précéder le second volume d’une préface. en général, je ne lis pas les préfaces ; je ne conseille même pas toujours aux gens de lire les préfaces. mais si le volume du théâtre d’adamov vous tombe entre les mains, lisez la préface du second volume, et vous verrez comment adamov s’explique très simplement, très clairement et d’une façon à la fois sensible, modeste, ambitieuse aussi à d’autres moments sur ce qu’est son propos sur ce qu’il attend du théâtre qu’il veut faire et ce qu’il espère faire encore. les préfaces, d’ailleurs, de pièces de théâtre sont tout de même des choses qu’il faut lire, évidemment ; on peut se référer à la préface de cromwell, à beaucoup d’autres préfaces. les romanciers, dans leurs préfaces, souvent donnent presque de fausses indications sur ce qu’ils ont voulu faire : vous lisez la préface et ensuite, vous lisez le roman et vous n’êtes plus d’accord avec la préface. pour les hommes de théâtre, il y a une interrogation sur soi-même dans la préface qui est généralement, pour le lecteur, un document très utile. (nicole vedres, adamov, chronique, in babelio, http://www.babelio.com/auteur/arthur-adamov/ /videos) en évoquant, plus haut, l’éventualité qu’adamov ait été l’alter ego de ionesco, nous voulons simplement noter quelques convergences déjà ébauchées, comme l’expatriation, le choix du théâtre après uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: ağustos the journal of international social research volume: issue: august - - d’autres activités, et la dépression finale. bien entendu, adamov n’aura pas connu la gloire d’une admission à l’académie française et sera resté un auteur de second plan. une autre raison de rapprocher les deux auteurs réside dans la citation d’adamov introduisant cette section, où il est question de personnages interchangeables. ce critère constitue, en effet, l’une des caractéristiques que d’aucuns attribuent au théâtre dit de l’absurde, ce dernier étant censé récuser les récits linéaires et construits sur une base classique. c’est ionesco qui admet ne pas écrire du théâtre pour raconter une histoire. rappelons que, dans la cantatrice chauve, de son propre aveu, « c'est parce que je ne trouvais pas une autre fin, que nous décidâmes de ne pas finir la pièce, et de la recommencer. pour marquer le caractère interchangeable des personnages, j'eus simplement l'idée de remplacer, dans le recommencement, les smith par les martin. ». (ionesco, eugène, : - ) mais, contrairement à ionesco, qui demeurera éloigné de toute sphère politique, adamov va très vite s’engager, ce qu’il a fait, du reste, très tôt, manifestant à paris, alors qu’il n’avait pas vingt ans (août ), pour les italiens sacco et vanzetti, avant de se rapprocher, plus tard, du parti communiste, ce qui va avoir une influence sur sa production théâtrale. arzu kunt relève, comme d’autres avant lui, le virage entamé par adamov dans sa conception du théâtre, lequel va devenir de plus en plus tourné vers les questions sociales et politiques, loin des histoires sans queue ni tête et des personnages interchangeables. prenant ainsi quelque recul vis-à-vis du langage et des dispositifs scéniques traditionnels, adamov ne tarde pas à faire une volte-face décisive dans son cheminement dramaturgique axé sur la dénonciation d’un univers absurde, tout en étant jusqu’à présent membre inséparable du trio appelé «dramaturges de l’absurde». ainsi, dans sa deuxième phase, il fait preuve d’une divergence nette face à ces derniers. rappelons qu’il avait catégoriquement et résolument décrié ses œuvres situées dans la lignée absurde tout en précisant être « passé d’un théâtre situé dans l’éternel à un théâtre situé dans un temps donné ». (…) ainsi, à partir du ping-pong, adamov propose un théâtre beaucoup plus engagé, comparé à ses pièces antérieures. il fonde un discours sur son engagement politico-social dans son œuvre, où il traite de situations ancrées dans un temps et lieu bien définis. de plus, à partir de paolo paoli il tâche de situer son action dans des époques précises de l’histoire et, pour ce faire, il passe des mois et des mois entiers dans les bibliothèques parisiennes afin de restituer dans leur propre logique et langage les événements qui le préoccupent. (kunt, : - ) c’est ainsi que p. mélèse rappelle quelques prises de position d’adamov après son éloignement du supposé théâtre de l’absurde, et à l’opposé de la conception d’eugène ionesco : « le théâtre doit donc être politique, et résolument moderne ; il me semble que l'on a beaucoup à gagner, et très peu à perdre en situant l'action - même si celle-ci n'est pas strictement historique - dans les temps modernes... le dépaysement, bien sûr... mais un léger recul dans le temps, la transplantation en d'autres lieux, le seul grossissement de quelques faits bien réels, une certaine façon de distribuer la lumière sur ces faits peuvent provoquer ce glissement nécessaire, que l'on appellera, si l'on veut, poésie. » « en tout cas, il faut se méfier des événements situés dans un passé lointain, où toutes les "mesquineries "s'effacent et sur lesquels tombe "la lumière de la légende". (mélèse, : ) c’est ce virage politique qui marque la différence fondamentale entre deux personnalités comme ionesco et adamov, le premier ayant toujours été allergique à tout type d’engagement politique, en tout cas dans son théâtre, ce qui lui a toujours fait détester l’œuvre de brecht, par exemple. le fait est que ionesco et adamov, bien qu’ "exilés" l’un et l’autre, n’ont pas du tout connu le même cheminement, celui d’adamov ayant été bien plus dramatique, ainsi que le relate a. asso, ( : - ) qui souligne que l'expérience de la xénophobie est fondatrice dans l'histoire d'arthur adamov. issu d'une riche famille arménienne du caucase qui détient une grande partie des puits de pétrole de la caspienne, il est témoin dès sa petite enfance de massacres à bakou, de même qu'en , deux mois avant le déclenchement de la première guerre mondiale, toute la famille en possession de passeports russes quitte la transcaucasie et s'installe successivement en allemagne, en suisse et en france en . de ces dix années d'exil au cours desquelles il prend conscience de sa condition d'étranger, arthur adamov garde un souvenir amer. À genève, "dans le sale ghetto arménien », il fait l'expérience de la xénophobie poussée jusqu'à l'outrecuidance" : "on nous nomme macaques, on nous accuse de manger le pain suisse". lorsque la deuxième guerre mondiale éclate, il se trouve en france. c'est le temps des rafles, dont le souvenir resurgit dans son théâtre… le mai , adamov est arrêté pour avoir tenu des « propos hostiles au gouvernement de vichy » et incarcéré dans le camp d'argelès dont il donne une description dans l'homme et l'enfant : uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: ağustos the journal of international social research volume: issue: august - - autour d’un fossé où s'entassent des restes de légumes avariés, des êtres aux trois quart nus, déchaînés, édentés, se pressent, se battent presque. (adamov, : ) c'est adamov qui déclarait, lui-même : je crois qu'il est impossible d'éloigner la politique, je avis qu'elle fait partie de la vie aussi bien que l'amour fait partie de la vie ou que la névrose fait partie de la vie. on n'y peut rien, il ne s'agit pas d'un jugement de valeur, il s'agit d'une constatation des faits. (adamov, paroles, arthur adamov par lui-même, cha pitre « c ritique: l e deuxième adamov, entretien avec lucien attoun, imec, feuillet d . https: //www.fran ceculture.fr/personne-lucien- attoun.html) dans ces conditions, on ne s'étonnera pas que les questions politiques rattrapent le dramaturge qu'est adamov, et ce, d'autant plus que son parcours personnel restera ponctué de prises de positions multiples, notamment contre le pouvoir gaulliste, durant les événements d'algérie, ainsi que lors des échauffourées parisiennes du printemps . s'agissant des retombées de la guerre en algérie, adamov écrit : les algériens de paris descendent dans la rue, déploient le drapeau vert et blanc. la riposte policière ne se fait pas attendre. le soir même de la manifestation une centaine d'algériens sont noyés, on retrouve les cadavres, mais la morgue n'ouvrira pas ses portes. (adamov, : ) c'est ce qui fait dire à m.-c. hubert que chez adamov, le mal est partout. l'histoire collective, qui vient doubler le drame individuel, est celle d'une vaste persécution. le héros, cerné de toutes parts, doit subir la souffrance qui lui vient de ses proches et celle que lui inflige une société répressive, solidement structurée par les forces de l'ordre. (hubert, : ) une pièce d'arthur adamov va nous permettre d'illustrer précisément son obsession pour l'intrusion du collectif dans les destins individuels : c'est la politique des restes, et à ce propos, adamov précise qu'il a écrit la pièce en partant d'une observation clinique du docteur minkowski : la peur de tout ce qui traîne par terre, mégots, fétus de paille, détritus. le malade s'imagine contraint d'avaler tous ces restes et au docteur qui lui demande quel nom il donnerait à sa maladie il répond : la politique des restes. la pièce est transportée en afrique du sud, ou encore en amérique du nord, en milieu raciste. adamov estime, par ailleurs, qu'il s'agit d'une pièce courte réussie. je peux écrire, cela ne va donc pas "trop mal pour l'instant. mais je bois déjà énormément, l'angoisse est donc toujours là, tenace. (adamov, : ) dans les faits, la politique des restes semble bien plus s'inspirer des etats-unis de l'époque de la ségrégation raciale que de l'afrique du sud. il se trouve qu'adamov connaissait les etats-unis pour s'y être rendu, mais pas l'afrique du sud. son premier contact avec la civilisation américaine date de , alors qu'il était invité à new york pour la création « off broadway » du ping-pong. par ailleurs, la scénographie de la pièce fait beaucoup penser à l'agencement des tribunaux américains, ainsi que le suggère adamov lui-même dans sa présentation. une salle d'audience, austère, haute de plafond.(…) au fond, sur une estrade, le tribunal. sur l'estrade, le président, petit, trapu, revêtu de la toge traditionnelle. les autres magistrats sont, eux, en tenue civile, de préférence vêtus de tweed clair, comme dans les procès américains, et, comme dans ces procès aussi, ils marcheront et fumeront même, à l'occasion. (adamov, : ) un homme blanc est accusé de meurtre sur la personne d'un de ses employés. compte tenu du contexte de la société en question, ainsi que des déclarations de l'accusé lui-même, la suspicion de meurtre raciste est très forte. l'avocat général fait succinctement l'exposé des faits : mr. johnny brown, industriel connu, est accusé d'avoir tué de plusieurs balles de revolver un ouvrier noir de sa fabrique, au domicile de celui-ci, ce que l'accusé reconnaît avec franchise ; la seule circonstance atténuante ajoute l'avocat général, eût pu résider dans l'irresponsabilité de l'accusé, ce qu'il ne peut admettre. vient ensuite l'audition des témoins, d'abord un maçon qui habite en face de la victime et qui a tout vu de sa fenêtre. le deuxième témoin au procès est le docteur perkins, psychiatre, dans la clinique duquel l'accusé a fait un séjour, et qui, le jugeant délivré de ses obsessions, lui a rendu la liberté. par une nouvelle scène sur le podium, le public apprend que johnnie a été rendu à la vie publique malgré les souhaits de son frère qui a même offert de l'argent au médecin pour qu'il le garde indéfiniment à la clinique : il s'avère, en effet, que le frère et la femme de johnnie veulent se débarrasser de ce dernier pour régner seuls sur la firme et, sans doute aussi, pour des raisons sentimentales. outre le règlement de comptes familial, une des sources du délire de johnnie délirer, ce sont tous ces déchets, cheveux, bacilles, acides… traînant partout, et qu'il uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: ağustos the journal of international social research volume: issue: august - - soupçonne ses ennemis, notamment les "nègres"' de vouloir lui introduire dans le ventre, un jour, ce qui nous ramène au cas clinique traité par le docteur minkowski et va justifier le titre de la pièce. une originalité de la politique des restes va consister en la présence dans l'enceinte du tribunal d'un podium sur lequel vont régulièrement apparaître tom guiness, le noir assassiné, en train de balayer chez lui, johnnie brown, l'accusé, qui doit quitter sa place pour monter sur le podium. c'est ainsi que le public va pouvoir assister à la scène qui s'est passée entre les deux hommes, conclue par le meurtre. il est généralement admis que cette pièce ne manifeste pas de grande originalité, ayant pu être inspirée de l'exception et la règle, de bertolt brecht, où il était déjà question d'un patron acquitté du meurtre d'un de ses ouvriers. À cette question strictement sociale et politique, adamov a greffé une affaire familiale, l'accusé suspectant son épouse de le tromper avec son propre frère, et ce, dans le but de le dépouiller de son entreprise. arrive le réquisitoire de l'avocat général. pour lui, l'affaire "s'apparente à un crime passionnel". aussi requiert-il sept ans de détention criminelle, avec sursis. comme signe que la conjoncture n'était pas forcément très reluisante pour adamov, cette "pièce courte réussie", de l'avis de son propre auteur, est publiée en ; puis elle est représentée l'année suivante, non pas en france mais à londres, sous le titre de the scavengers (les eboueurs). mais ce n'est qu'en octobre que le metteur en scène josé valverde la montera au théâtre gérard-philipe de saint-denis, lui donnant un caractère social plus accentué par le fait de projections intercalées entre les scènes, montrant l'horreur et la misère des quartiers noirs des grandes villes des etats-unis et celles aussi des bidonvilles des environs de paris. comme ionesco, adamov va connaître à son tour un puissant sentiment d'échec ayant découlé sur un fort penchant pour l'alcool qui le conduira au suicide. il se trouve que la postérité de ces deux auteurs s'est considérablement émoussée avec le temps, même si, pour sa part, le théâtre de la huchette, à paris, poursuit la présentation quotidienne de la cantatrice chauve. le fait est qu'en france, de nos jours, hormis samuel beckett, l'ecole dite du théâtre de l'absurde ne semble plus intéresser grand monde. a. kunt note que, très souvent les pièces adamoviennes restent incomprises par le lecteur-spectateur ne pouvant situer et trouver d’unité dans cette dramaturgie en constante métamorphose, qui lui échappe toujours. comment ne pas percevoir dans cet aveu la profonde détresse et déception d’un écrivain qui n’a pas eu la réputation qu’il mérite ? « la création de la politique des restes en france, la reprise du ping-pong, si elles avaient eu lieu, l’une et l’autre, il y a plusieurs années déjà, je ne serais pas, j’en suis sûr, arrivé à cet état de dépression où, pour oublier l’injustice, je buvais sans même plus savoir quoi, touchant les genoux des filles, à tâtons. » (kunt, arzu, : ) "je buvais sans même plus savoir quoi…" voilà qui vient nous rappeler les affres que cet autre "grand" du théâtre de l'absurde a endurés lui aussi, et quasiment pour les mêmes raisons, ce que traduit fort bien ce long passage de l'ouvrage que a. gall a consacré à eugène ionesco, et qui nous servira de conclusion, où il est abondamment question de pulsions suicidaires, à ceci près que, contrairement à adamov, ionesco n'a jamais eu la force de passer à l'acte. dans ses cahiers, cioran note le avril : « e. me téléphone... il est heures du matin, et il me dit qu'il n'en peut plus ; qu'il ne peut sortir de ses crises de dépression et il me demande comment je fais pour vivre . » c'est aussi la question que se pose cioran : « ... je m'admire de pouvoir continuer», concède cioran, sobrement. mais lui, il ne boit pas : «j'ai dit à e. que l'alcool était diabolique, que tant qu'il s'y adonnera, il ne pourra sortir de l'enfer. » ce avril , cioran rapporte : « il avait une voix rauque, convaincante, déchirante au possible. sa gloire malsaine, absurde, mauvaise, n'a fait qu'aggraver son état et ses problèmes. elle a le visage de la malédiction. » le avril, ionesco lui téléphone d'un hôtel de zurich. il l'appelle à minuit exactement. « il pleure, il soupire, il miaule presque, me dit avoir bu dans la soirée une bouteille de whisky, et qu'il est au bord du suicide ; qu'il a peur . » ionesco demande à cioran qu'il vienne le voir à zurich. cioran insiste pour que ionesco revienne à paris afin que ses amis puissent aller le visiter. « nous parlons toujours des mêmes choses, je le supplie de cesser de boire... » il me dit qu'il ne peut pas ; « qu'il a essayé et qu'il sait qu'il ne peut y arriver ». retourné par cette conversation, cioran dort mal. « ce matin, à heures, il téléphone de nouveau : il est beaucoup mieux. » moins pathétique, mais toujours aussi sérieux, le dialogue n'en est pas moins chargé d'anxiété : « ne bois pas, si tu en ressens l'envie prends un catéchisme, dis quelque prière. » c'est comme si cioran se sentait poussé dans ses derniers retranchements, comme si l'inquiétude fraternelle lui suggérait les remèdes ultimes. « il me dit qu'il ne pouvait plus le faire, qu'il avait essayé dans le passé mais que maintenant cela lui était impossible. et il recommence ses plaintes, ses récriminations. » on ne le joue plus en uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: ağustos the journal of international social research volume: issue: august - - allemagne, etc. « je lui ai dit que tout cela n'avait aucune importance, et que ses problèmes (gloire, amour, etc.) il ne peut pas les résoudre par l'alcool ». cioran juge que sa gloire est un poison pour ionesco, une drogue « dont il ne connaît que les inconvénients, dont il ne tire aucun plaisir réel : une torture, une punition, une véritable agonie, mais dont il ne pourrait pas se passer. » ionesco, suicidaire, mais que la peur retiendrait de passer à l'acte, « détresse sans nom comparable à celle de marilyn monroe, vedette elle aussi », portrait d'eugène ionesco au milieu des années soixante ? mise en scène de ionesco par soi-même pour émouvoir son confident diurne et nocturne ? mais cioran le trouve convaincant. sa panique n'est pas feinte. le dramaturge planétaire l'a réellement bouleversé. transcription très approximative de ce que se sont dit les deux roumains ? interprétation par cioran ? manière pour lui de s'accommoder de l'obscurité relative qui enveloppe son propre nom alors que celui de ionesco est universellement connu ? mais cioran aussi est assez convaincant dans ce passage des cahiers. il ne prend pas la pose. il s'efforce même de combattre l'effet dévastateur de ses propres paradoxes littéraires et philosophiques. « e. me téléphone deux fois par jour de zurich. le matin il me promet de ne pas boire, le soir, il est soûl et me parle de suicide. et moi, qui en ai fait l'apologie, je m'emploie à l'en détourner. » quant aux bavardages de ionesco, ils ont un air de déjà-vu : « j'aurais dû rester un petit fonctionnaire modeste, ne s'occupant que de sa femme et de sa fille, j'aurais été infiniment plus heureux. » (le gall, : - ) conclusion de beckett, ionesco et adamov, on peut dire que ces trois auteurs avaient un point commun notable: l'expatriation vers la france. le premier fut le seul à connaître l’abscolue consécration scellée par le prix nobel de littérature. quant aux deux autres, ils ont manifesté une forte tendance à l’autodestruction, qui a culminé dans l'abus de l’alcool. ils ont surtout connu de profondes dépressions, adamov ayant opté pour le suicide et ionesco y ayant souvent pensé. dans cet article, notre but était de retracer la trajectoire créatrice d’adamov en faisant ressortir un certain parallélisme avec le parcours de ionesco, ce dernier s’étant finalement distancé de l’école dite du théâtre de l’absurde, après s’être longtemps revendiqué, sans succès, comme le véritable précurseur du mouvement, son dépit l’ayant finalement conduit à répudier le théâtre lui- même, ce genre littéraire qui aura pourtant fait sa gloire. quant à adamov, il semble que ses difficultés aient été d’un ordre bassement matériel : n’ayant pas connu la gloire d’une admission à l’académie française, ni même d’une forte reconnaissance par la critique, il a dû se contenter du statut d’un auteur de second plan, voire d’un paria, en raison de prises de positions politiques qui lui ont valu une certaine disgrâce, dans une france gaulliste où de paisibles manifestants contre les événements d’algérie pouvaient se retrouver noyés dans la seine. pour comble de malchance, il semble évident que des pièces aux relents politiques, comme la politique des restes, aient pâti de la comparaison avec l’oeuvre de cet illustre devancier que fut bertolt brecht. bibliographie adamov, arthur ( ). la politique des restes (théâtre iii), paris : gallimard adamov, arthur ( ). ici et maintenant, paris : gallimard. adamov, arthur ( ). l'homme et l'enfant, souvenirs, journal, paris: gallimard. adamov, arthur, paroles, arthur adamov par lui-même, chapitre « critique: le deuxième adamov, entretien avec lucien attoun, imec, feuillet d . https://www.franceculture.fr/personne-lucien-attoun.html asso, annick ( ). ‘’arthur adamov et la dénonciation des politiques raciales’’, onirisme et engagement chez arthur adamov, sous la direction de marie-claude hubert et michel bertrand, publications de l'université de provence. esslin, martin ( ). théâtre de l’absurde, paris: buchet-chastel. ionesco, eugène ( ). notes et contre-notes, paris: gallimard. ionesco, eugène ( ) entre la vie et le rêve, entretiens avec claude bonnefoy, paris: belfond. ionesco, eugène ( ). la quête intermittente, paris: gallimard. kunt, arzu, ( ). ‘’arthur adamov ou la chanson du mal aimé’’, synergies, turquie, n° . lefebvre, fanny ( ). l'éclat de rire ou le suicide ? comique, humour, ironie dans le théâtre d'arthur adamov à travers la politique des restes, sainte europe et m. le modéré . littératures. mémoire de master ii. uppa - université de pau et des pays de l'adour. crphll - centre de recherche en poétique, histoire littéraire et linguistique. uppa - université de pau et des pays de l'adour : ea . le gall, andré ( ). ionesco, paris : flammarion. marie-claude hubert ( ). langage et corps fantasmé dans le théâtre des années cinquante, beckett, ionesco, adamov, paris : josé corti. melese, pierre ( ). arthur adamov, paris : seghers. nicole vedres, ‘’adamov, chronique’’, babelio, http://www.babelio.com/auteur/arthur-adamov/ /videos. société des auteurs et compositeurs dramatiques, [en ligne] http://www.sacd.fr/hommage-a-eugene-ionesco- - - - - - . . .html uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: ağustos the journal of international social research volume: issue: august - - microsoft word - cad_ _ __ - computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc special issue: cad in the arts guest editor: carlo h. séquin, university of california, berkeley real-time generation of digital bas-reliefs jens kerber , art tevs , alexander belyaev , rhaleb zayer and hans-peter seidel mpi informatik, saarbrücken, germany heriot-watt university, edinburgh, uk inria, nancy, france abstract bas-relief is a form of sculpture where carved or chiseled forms protrude partially and shallowly from the background. occupying an intermediate place between painting and full d sculpture, bas-relief sculpture exploits properties of human visual perception in order to maintain perceptually salient d information. in this paper, we present two methods for automatic bas-relief generation from d digital shapes. both methods are inspired by techniques developed for high dynamic range image compression and have the bilateral filter as the main ingredient. we demonstrate that the methods are capable of preserving fine shape features and achieving good compression without compromising the quality of surface details. for artists, bas-relief generation starts from managing the viewer's point of view and compositing the scene. therefore we strive in our work to streamline this process by focusing on easy and intuitive user interaction which is paramount to artistic applications. our algorithms allow for real time computation thanks to our implementation on graphics hardware. besides interactive production of stills, this work offers the possibility for generating bas-relief animations. last but not least, we explore the generation of artistic reliefs that mimic cubism in painting. keywords: bas-relief, range compression, feature enhancement, bilateral filtering. doi: . /cadaps. . - introduction . problem setting, challenges, and our contribution similarly to paintings, the underlying medium for bas-reliefs is inherently two dimensional. the artistic importance of a bas-relief sculpture lies in conveying a volumetric projection of the design shapes into the viewer's space as if they detach themselves from the two dimensional background, as illustrated in fig. left. bas-relief artists manage to suggest this visual spatial extension of the scene in depth through the combination of composition, perspective, and shading. this suggestive power of bas-relief computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc has been recognized since antiquity and most civilizations used it as a form of decoration. nowadays bas-relief remains indispensable to several modern applications e.g. coinage and packaging. it continues to thrive into the digital age where it is suitable for virtual shape decoration and computer art. research on digital bas-reliefs is concerned with the automatic generation of artistically relevant bas-reliefs from d input scenes. the key ingredient in this process consists of compressing the so- called height field (also known as depth map or range image) which is a . d description of the scene that encodes distance information on a d regular grid. unfortunately, straightforward re-scaling of the height field fades perceptually salient shape features. therefore a sophisticated and intelligent depth compression procedure is required to achieve plausible and impressive results. fig. : (left) two different examples of real-world artistic bas-reliefs. (right) a digital bas-relief of the thai-statue generated with our gradient domain method and a tilted view on it, to illustrate its flatness. computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc many of the existing bas-relief generation techniques [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ] differ mainly in the compression step. many of these methods can achieve results of impressive quality but often the number of user-specified parameters involved and computational complexity makes them labor intensive. additionally, the fine features of surfaces often get lost throughout the compression process. the primary goal of this work is to address the problem of fine features by tailoring a filtering technique that achieves significant compression without compromising the quality of surface details. we present two solutions to this problem, the first operates in the range domain and the second works in the gradient domain. both methods take advantage of bilateral filtering. our approaches are conceptually fairly simple and can be easily implemented on graphics hardware. certainly, the compression step is a fundamental step to the bas-relief generation process as it should preserve the richness of details and the visibility of important features in the flattened result. nevertheless, it is worthwhile to note that from an artistic vantage point, the design process of bas- reliefs starts much earlier at the level of scene compositing and managing the viewer's point of view which are equally important for achieving the desired design goals. so far, this problem has been studied less, and digital artists have to go through lengthy iteration cycles involving all these steps before they can get satisfactory results. in order to streamline this pipeline, we developed an artistic tool that features real time semi-automatic bas-relief generation with only a small number of intuitive yet artistically relevant control parameters. besides the interactive design of stills, our method is the first one capable of generating bas-relief animations in real time. in the current setup, animation related aspects such as frame coherence are directly inherited from the d animation. our experiments suggest that this solution is sufficient in practice. to further explore the artistic possibilities of digital compositing, we investigate the impact of multiple perspectives on the bas-relief generation. for this purpose, we study the problem of merging different perspectives into one single scene, an intriguing style pioneered by cubist painters such as picasso. . related work although a bas-relief is a very flat sculptural representation, it suggests showing a fully extended d scene. the depth effect is achieved by a combination of shading and shadowing which is similar to the original conditions. this phenomenon of human perception was investigated in [ ]. if the vantage point differs too much from an orthogonal view, then the illusion will be revealed. the existence of this so called bas-relief ambiguity becomes a challenge in other disciplines like machine vision. in this research area, the task is to estimate a model’s shape by recording it from several viewpoints using a regular camera. due to the bas-relief ambiguity, this estimation is not unique in general, unless a user makes prior assumptions about the shading properties of the object’s surface [ ], [ ]. the first achievements in automatic relief generation were made by [ ]. the authors use perspective foreshortening which keeps closer objects more salient than objects situated further away. their compression step consists of simple linear re-scaling. although this work has addressed the main aspects of relief generation, the visibility of fine structural details suffers for the benefit of rough surface features. more recent works in this field developed techniques that achieve depth compression without losing visually important information. most of the recent work can be regarded as variants of tone mapping approaches [ ] which aim to compress the very large luminance interval of high dynamic range images so that they can be displayed on regular monitors without losing contrast impression. however, modifying these techniques to fit the needs of a geometric compression task is far from straightforward, because one has to deal with problems like foreground-background-transition and self-occlusions. the algorithm proposed in [ ] works with a saliency measure and an appropriate enhancement procedure. they rely on differential coordinates, and the final relief is achieved by a diffusion process. the methods described in [ ] and [ ] operate in the gradient domain. in [ ] the authors extract high frequency signals from the gradient by applying a gaussian filter. this technique is not entirely capable of preserving the sharpness of surface features and the results appear to be exaggerated. in contrast to this, a silhouette respecting diffusion filter is applied in [ ]. more artistic freedom is added by allowing a user to individually boost a number of different frequencies such that their presence in the outcome is enhanced or decreased. the results are impressive but their method computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc requires tuning a lot of parameters. in the latter two cases a sparse system of linear equations has to be solved in order to reassemble the result from its manipulated gradient field. the method recently presented in [ ] adapts a histogram based contrast enhancement technique applied directly to the height field. gradient information is only used additionally. the results are very pleasing but unfortunately the method is time consuming. bas-reliefs can be used as templates for real world applications like engraving, embossing and milling, or serve as input for further applications in computer art [ ] and virtual shape decoration [ ]. . paper organization the rest of this paper is organized as follows. in sections and , we describe in detail the algorithms of our range and gradient domain approaches to bas-relief generation, respectively. the range domain technique is an extension of our earlier work [ ] which is summarized by the description of the gradient method. artistic applications to merging multiple perspectives are presented in section and a description of our interactive bas relief application and its performance are given in section . finally the various generated bas-reliefs are compared to each other in section . range domain approach to bas-relief generation fig. : bas-relief of the armadillo model obtained with our range domain approach (left) along with the original depth map (right top) and the bas-relief height field (right bottom); note the different interval ranges. computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc . preprocessing starting from the d depth map i (i)  d of the input scene, we extract a binary background mask b by checking it against a default background value  . this mask is further used to normalize the scene by bringing its height values into the interval , r   in the following manner. b(i)  , if i (i)   , otherwise    i (i)  b(i)(i (i)  min(i )) r  max(i ) . decomposition and enhancement bilateral filtering - in the current depth map, self-occlusions and large discontinuities on the surface are reflected as edges. although, these edges are not visible from an orthogonal vantage point they cover a huge amount of the entire initial depth range, and therefore offer a high compression potential. as these edges contain important information about the depth order of the different patches, preserving this information during the compression process is essential for inferring a more plastic impression to the resulting bas-relief. in our approach, we compress the spatial extent of the height field by extracting a partly linear base image which encodes the coarse structure of the underlying shape. for this purpose, we use a bilateral filter that permits edge-preserving smoothing to extract the base layer of the shape. the filtering process is done by convolution with the product of two gaussian kernels. one of them weighs the spatial distance of pixels in a local neighborhood, whereas the other one penalizes deviations in the depth values of the entries. by extending the standard bilateral filter by a binary mask, we can guarantee that the value for background pixels is zero by default and that they do not influence the computation of foreground patches. bf( x, m )(i)  m (i) g s (i  j )g r jx  ( x(i)  x( j)) m ( j) x( j ) dj g s (i  j )g r jx  ( x(i)  x ( j)) m ( j) dj ibase  bf(i , b) idetail  i  ibase here, g k stands for a gaussian kernel with appropriate standard deviation. this equation contains two user defined parameters, namely  s and  r . with the help of  s , an artist can control how much the surroundings of a pixel can influence its entry. small values for  r lead to a large number of iso-levels in ibase , whereas a higher tolerance leads to coarser details which may remain in idetail . in practice,  r is chosen as a fractional amount of r . for further details about bilateral filtering, we refer to [ ]. laplacian-like diffusion - in a bas-relief representation, the viewer's visual experience is enhanced through the subtle elevation and depth implied by the ridges and valleys of the shape. those are the areas in which the curvature reaches local extrema. in order to better capture these important features, we note that the detail layer, which we gained from the prior step, contains information about the constitution of the object’s surface. this information itself consists of low and high frequency components. thus we further split the detail layer into a coarse and a fine layer. for this purpose, we opted for a laplacian-like diffusion. the laplacian operator is widely used for image denoising because entries with a high curvature are smoothed more strongly. since background pixels must not have any influence on the computation of the laplacian at the foreground, we have to pay special attention for the pixels at the boundary of the scene. in addition we have to suppress the influence of the edges separating the foreground and background and those corresponding to the computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc foreground self-occlusions. one simple remedy is to use a modified laplacian     / (   ) where  stands for the gradient. one can see that the factor / (   ) restricts the influence of these edges. in a discrete representation, the smoothing process reads as follows:  ( x, m )(i)  m (i) m (n)x(n)  x(i) nn (i )  m (n) nn (i )   x(i) icoarse  it   idetail it t   it   %(it , b)     ifine  i detail  icoarse here n (i) stands for the four direct neighbors of pixel i in the x and y directions. in case that all neighbors belong to the foreground, the numerator in the equation is identical to the standard laplacian expression. here, we are given two more parameters that influence the computation. the first parameter is the time step size  which controls how fast the diffusion reaches a steady state. it should not be larger than one quarter of the pixel spacing because otherwise the approximation would become unstable. smaller values lead to more accurate but slower approximation. another user control is given by the number of diffusion iterations. this affects how strong the smoothing will actually be. unsharp masking - now that the fine layer contains the high-frequency small-scale features of the surface, we will further boost their influence relative to the low frequency details in the coarse layer. at the same time we rescale the base layer linearly such that the importance of the detail layer is further enhanced. this results in a new height field with adjusted weights for the different layers. higher values for both enhancement parameters imply that more details will remain perceivable in the relief r . for     the result would be the same as a linear rescaling of the input height field. r   i base  icoarse   ifine . post-processing the intermediate result is now normalized like it was done with the input depth map, because the boundaries of the range interval might have changed drastically. we also measure the spatial extent that we achieved so far. then, we linearly rescale the result either to the desired compression ratio or to the allowed depth range. r(i)  b(i)(r(i)  min(r)) r  max(r)   rdesired r basrelief    r the spatial extent of this final result has now dropped to the user defined height. thanks to the enhancement of the smaller features, they remain perceivable in the bas-relief. gradient domain approach to bas-relief generation in the previous section, we capitalize on the fact that surface discontinuities can be regarded as edges in the depth map. in the current approach, the guiding idea is that in the gradient domain, surface ridges are the edges of the gradient field. since the initial and final normalization of height values are independent of the method, the pre- and post-processing steps required by our gradient domain computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc approach are identical to the ones described in the previous section. therefore we will omit them here and directly delve into the details of our compression approach. fig. : bas-relief of the xyzrgb thai-statue obtained through the gradient domain approach (left) along with the original depth map (right top) and the bas-relief height field (right bottom); note the different interval ranges. starting from the normalized height field i and the background mask b (obtained after pre- processing). we first compute the gradient images i x and i y of i . i x  i x i y  i y in general, this gradient field exhibits high jumps at boundary regions and its occlusions areas, therefore a special treatment is need to avoid this singular behavior. detecting issues - as the background values are generally very different from the foreground entries, the outlines of the scene objects will have rather large gradients. we can detect these silhouettes by computing a binary image s with the help of the background mask gradients which have lengths equal to one when a pixel belongs to an affected area. the gradient information at those positions is set to zero. in order to keep this exposition concise we use the notation k  x, y  from now on. computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc  bk  b k si  , if bk (i)  , otherwise    i k  i k os here the  operator stands for component-wise multiplication. in general, the resulting shape also exhibits self-occlusions and large jumps on its surface which would negatively affect the quality of the result. on the one hand, they would keep the depth interval size artificially high; on the other hand large features would drastically impair the visibility of smaller details. therefore, we rely on an outlier detection to locate gradient entries that differ largely from the other ones. those positions are stored in an outlier mask o which is employed to set corresponding entries to zero similarly to the previous step. , ( ) ( ) , k k k k k if i i t o i otherwise i i o           here, k represents the mean value, and  k stands for the standard deviation of all foreground pixels in i k . note that o covers outliers from both dimensions. the tolerance parameter t allows controlling the strictness of this criterion. unsharp masking - thus far, we have generated continuous gradient images without jumps or discontinuities at the boundary and on the surface. in order to enhance the relative importance of high frequency details we need to decompose the surface signals. as we are operating in the gradient domain, bilateral filtering is a candidate of choice. its edge preserving properties translates to ridge preservation as ridges are naturally the edges of the gradient field. in this way, the filtering preserves the sharpness of details. in contrast, a regular blurring would wash out details. during bilateral filtering we disregard all pixels that have been detected previously as singularities. coarse fine coarse ( , ) k k k k k m b s o i bf i m i i i       we now compute the new gradient components rk of the final relief by boosting the high-frequency small-scale details relative to the coarse ones, where the amount of enhancement is controlled by a user defined parameter  . rk  ifinek   icoarsek reconstruction - we now have to reconstruct a height field, given the new gradients. in order to return from the gradient domain to the spatial domain, we first compute the laplacian r by adding the second derivatives in both dimensions. r  rx x  ry y the computation of a function, given its laplacian, is known as a poisson problem, and it amounts to solving a sparse system of linear equations, see e.g. [ , ]. at this stage we proceed as in the post- processing in the previous section. computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc artistic applications the simple setup of a single object or several non-overlapping objects is generally satisfactory for standard bas-relief applications. in some special situations, (e.g. conveying movement, storytelling, complex scenes...) much more artistic freedom is required. in such cases, the scenes can be composed in a d modeling program or simply by assembling a number of depth maps with the help of an image editing tool. in order to study this problem we explore the use of multiple perspectives within a single scene. in painting, this is known as cubism. our goal then is to generate cubism-like bas-reliefs. in this setting, the viewer should get the impression of watching this object from different viewpoints simultaneously. the technical challenge here lies in the fact that height fields stemming from different views may exhibit large differences in their depth interval range. these differences would be reflected in large jumps along the areas where two or more elements overlap. the windfall of our gradient domain approach is that the outlier detection finds these transitions automatically throughout the pipeline without the need for further processing steps. the only remaining challenge is that setting those areas to zero results in a flat transition which emphasizes the impression of having distinct scene elements, and this would definitely impair the desired impression. a simple remedy consists of slightly modifying the gradient domain approach to produce seamless results which maintain the cubism illusion. for this purpose, we proceed by filling all pixels that have at least one detected outlier in their direct surrounding with meaningful values before the reconstruction step. we construct an additional transition mask t which marks affected entries. after that, we use gaussian filtering with a large support to fill these pixels. for this smoothing we ignore other masked pixels, of course. f          t (i)  , if o  f(i)  , otherwise    rk (i)  g s (i  j) m ( j) rk ( j ) dj jrk  gs (i  j) m ( j) dj jrk  for all i s.t. t(i)  in fig. we illustrate the problem and the effect that this step has on the result. this example of the david head was achieved by first capturing two depth maps from different perspectives ( degrees apart) and later arranging them in an image editing tool by using two different layers and exploiting transparency. as the color coding shows, the depth interval length is very different where the perspective changes (fig. a). if the outliers are not removed a seam remains visible (fig. b), unless a smoothing is applied to the problematic regions (fig. c). one can also combine very different models with largely varying spatial extensions into one geometric collage, and the modified algorithm will automatically produce a bas-relief sculpture without nasty transition areas. nevertheless, a meaningful creation of the input is mandatory for generating visually pleasing results; this depends on the skill of the user in arranging the different perspectives or objects. as an example, we arranged three different models, namely the lion-vase, the caesar head and the bunny model, with the help of a d modeling tool (fig. f). we want to stress that the head and the vase do not touch in d. the caesar model is simply placed right in front of it without editing any of the meshes. finally the bunny is simply translated such that it appears to be situated on the top of the vase in this fixed perspective. the result shows that the described method nicely blends together the outlines of different models with different depth ranges and thus supports the impression of watching a continuous scene. computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc fig. : (a) a color coded height field of the input; zoom on the result without (b) and after using (c) additional smoothing; (d) full size result and a tilted view which demonstrates its flatness; (e) another multi perspective effect on the david head; (f) a collage consisting of three different objects without any disturbing transitions. an artistic tool . implementation as a general remark, in most of previous work the depth map capture and the processing pipeline are not connected. this led to static applications, which require tedious work from the user to generate aesthetically pleasing results. every time the user decides to use a different pose of the model, he is required to capture and store new height fields as well as tweak the appropriate parameter values by trial and error. in our framework, we capitalize on the highly parallel nature of our method and exploit the properties of modern graphics hardware. this allowed us to devise an opengl application that implements the full algorithmic pipeline of our techniques. besides increasing the performance, this approach offers direct access to the z-buffer data which can be directly used for further processing. in this way, we avoid the overhead of reading the depth data back to the cpu or writing it to a file as input for another application. in our implementation all intermediate results are stored as floating- point textures, such that the whole pipeline remains on the gpu. this results in a single application that achieves real time performance and allows the user to seamlessly control meaningful parameters as well as transform objects in the scene. as a direct result of this performance boost, bas-reliefs of animated scenes can be generated with our method. computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc . user interface we build a graphical user interface on top of the hardware implementation of both presented algorithms which allows setting the input parameters in meaningful ranges with the help of sliders. we provide a viewing interface with two different modes. in the first mode, an artist can import a mesh or a height field and switch between orthogonal or perspective projection. the scene can then either be transformed until the desired pose is reached or it can be constantly rotated around an arbitrary axis. the second mode displays the acquired new height field after the bas-relief computation of the current view of the input, achieved by the selected method. the effect of changing parameters is visible without delay. in this way, the whole process of bas-relief generation becomes truly interactive. we can export the generated bas-relief as a d height matrix or in the form of a d mesh. fig. shows several screen shots of our user interface. fig. : (top) the chinese lion-dog model in our viewer, followed by three color coded bas-reliefs (green to red) achieved with three different parameter settings; (bottom) four final height maps in gray scale of a dancing robot sequence; in both cases the displayed results were produced with the range domain approach. . performance for the gradient method, we considered it best to include nvidia cuda . as it allows for an elegant solution of the poisson equation via fast fourier transformation. the transfer from opengl textures into cuda space is the main bottleneck of the pipeline, as it consumes more than % of the overall computation time. we are confident that this problem will be addressed in future hardware. the computation of the average values and standard deviation for outlier removal are achieved via mip- mapping. given the current limitations of graphics hardware, we can only achieve single precision. moreover, as we rely on textures we need to consider the available graphics memory as a limited resource. at the moment, this restricts us to reliefs of a resolution up to x . in any case, the performance is independent of the scene complexity. in the range domain approach it depends on the number of laplace iterations, but since we need fewer textures and no texture transfer is necessary, the range domain pipeline is much faster and can handle higher resolutions. for scenes with a resolution of x pixels the gradient domain approach achieves fps whereas the computations in the range domain reach fps when laplacian iterations are applied. the performance was measured using an nvidia geforce ultra with mb of memory in an amd , ghz dual opteron with gb ram and pci express. as we rely on bilateral filtering in both approaches, the overall performance could be further enhanced by using bilateral filters that work with fast gauss transform, as for instance the variant presented in [ ], for which the authors publicly provided the cuda code recently. our initial tests suggest an improvement of the runtime by up to %. computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc results and discussion fig. : an ornament bas relief (left) generated with the range domain method. the bas relief of the malaysia statue (right) is generated with the gradient domain approach. for visualization purposes, the bas-reliefs are represented as triangle meshes that contain the same number of vertices as there are pixels in the depth map. each vertex is displaced in the z-direction according to its entry in the bas-relief height field. in all of our experiments, the models were compressed in a way that the depth range is equal to . % of their largest dimension (x or y). all results presented here contain a slightly elevated silhouette mainly due to the final normalization step. figures , and show typical results of our approach. the range domain method emphasizes the step between the armadillo's jaw and the breast (fig. left). the muscles and the fangs are well reproduced and the overlapping parts of the ears support the plastic impression. the example of the ornament (fig. left) illustrates that this algorithm is able to preserve the correct depth order. the third example shows the socle of a thai statue (fig. left) compressed with the gradient domain technique. sharp small features and high frequency details like the dragon scales and the teeth are well preserved. the cavities on the proboscis of the elephant as well as the relief on the pillar inside of the model are faithfully reproduced. the bas-relief of the malaysian statue (fig. right) correctly carries the facial expression as well as detailed geometric features such as the jewelry and garment wrinkles. inspection of the color coded height maps before and after the compression reveals that our processing steps are well justified and contribute effectively towards achieving the desired design goals. we were kindly provided with two reliefs created by the authors of [ ] which we use for comparison. as we do not have access to a current implementation of their work, we tried our best to reproduce the same pose and scene conditions to ensure a fair comparison. fig. compares our results to the ones from [ ]. on both models, their results convey a more plastic and life-like impression. for the castle it becomes obvious that the range domain approach produces the better result in comparison with the gradient method. this is due to the fact that the model does not exhibit much high frequency structures but instead consists of large steps which are better reproduced because they are covered in the base layer as illustrated by the crosses on the entrance roof. in contrast, the eye-ball computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc of the dragon is reproduced more faithfully in the gradient domain method and does not appear as flat as it does in the range domain result. fig. : (left) outcomes of the range domain method, (middle) bas-reliefs achieved with the gradient approach, (right) results of the technique of weyrich et al. the range domain method offers three layers which can be re-weighted; it is very fast and produces good results especially when coarser structures should be preserved. keeping large features leads to a more plastic impression but wastes a lot of depth and impairs the visibility of small details when higher compression ratios should be achieved. the gradient technique only allows re-weighting of two different frequency bands, it is slightly slower but requires less user intervention and it keeps a sharp and faithful impression of small details for an arbitrary compression ratio since coarser features only play a minor role. finally it also allows the production of seamless collages and cubism like bas-reliefs. so the decision between the two techniques should be driven by the constitution of the scene and the desired depth range. the approach from [ ] gives the opportunity to use an arbitrary number of frequency levels. this allows distinguishing between very small details and noise. this level of control, however, comes at the price of long computation times and the necessity for laborious re-iterations during design. conclusion we presented two real-time semi-automatic cad tools intended to support professional artists and enthusiasts in creating bas-relief artworks from virtual scenes. the tools are capable of producing perceptually plausible digital bas-reliefs. in addition, we demonstrated how to use our approach for generating cubism like bas-relief scenes. the whole framework is intuitive and easy to implement and use. computer-aided design & applications, ( ), , - © cad solutions, llc acknowledgments we would like to thank the stanford d scanning repository, google d warehouse, the xyz rgb inc. and aim@shape for providing the models used throughout this paper. special thanks to tim weyrich and jia deng for granting access to their results. we thank kun xu and the graphics and geometric computing group at tsinghua university for providing the robot d animation sequence. references [ ] adams, a.; gelfand, n.; dolson, j.; levoy, m.: gaussian kd-trees for fast high-dimensional filtering, acm transactions on graphics, ( ), , - . [ ] alldrin, n.; mallick, s.; kriegman, d.: resolving the generalized bas-relief ambiguity by entropy minimization, ieee conf. on computer vision and pattern recognition, . [ ] belhumeur, p. n.; kriegman, d. j.; yuille, a. l.: the bas-relief ambiguity, international journal of computer vision, ( ), , - . [ ] cignoni, p.; montani, c.; scopigno, r.: automatic generation of bas- and high-reliefs, journal of graphics tools, ( ), , - . [ ] debevec, p.; reinhard, e.: high-dynamic-range imaging: theory and applications, siggraph course # , http://www.siggraph.org/s /main.php?f=conference&p=courses&s= [ ] kerber, j.; belyaev, a.; seidel, h.-p.: feature preserving depth compression of range images, proceedings of the rd spring conference on computer graphics, , - . [ ] kerber, j.; tevs, a.; zayer, r.; belyaev, a.; seidel h.-p.: feature sensitive bas relief generation, ieee international conference on shape modeling and applications proceedings, , - . [ ] paris, s.; kornprobst, p.; tumblin, j.; durand, f.: a gentle introduction to bilateral filtering and its applications, ieee cvpr tutorial, http://people.csail.mit.edu/sparis/bf_course/ [ ] pasko, a. a.; savchenko, v.; sourin, a.: synthetic carving using implicit surface primitives, computer-aided design, ( ), , - . [ ] policarpo, f.; oliveira, m. m.; comba, j. l. d.: real-time relief mapping on arbitrary polygonal surfaces, acm siggraph , , - . [ ] song, w.; belyaev, a.; seidel, h.-p.: automatic generation of bas-reliefs from d shapes, proceedings of the ieee international conference on shape modeling and applications, , - . [ ] sun, x.; rosin, p. l.; martin, r. r.; langbein, f. c.: bas-relief generation using adaptive histogram equalisation, ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, ( ), , - . [ ] tan, p.; mallick, s. p.; quan, l.; kriegman, d.; zickler, t.: isotropy, reciprocity and the generalized bas-relief ambiguity, ieee conf. on computer vision and pattern recognition, . [ ] weyrich, t.; deng, j.; barnes, c.; rusinkiewicz, s.; finkelstein a.: digital bas-relief from d scenes, acm transactions on graphics, ( ), . response to the round table on why did we choose to industrialize? montreal – all rights reserved © the canadian historical association / la société historique du canada, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : journal of the canadian historical association revue de la société historique du canada response to the round table on why did we choose to industrialize? montreal – robert c.h. sweeny volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) the canadian historical association / la société historique du canada issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer cet article sweeny, r. c. ( ). response to the round table on why did we choose to industrialize? montreal – . journal of the canadian historical association / revue de la société historique du canada, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar résumé de l'article l’auteur robert c.h. sweeny répond aux commentaires de son livre récompensé, why did we choose to industrialize? montreal – . https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/jcha/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/jcha/ -v -n -jcha / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/jcha/ macdonald panel: robert c.h. sweeny’s why did we choose to industrialize? montrÉal, - response to the round table on why did we choose to industrialize? montreal – robert c.h. sweeny abstract author robert c.h. sweeny responds to comments on his award-winning book, why did we choose to industrialize? montreal – . résumé l’auteur robert c.h. sweeny répond aux commentaires de son livre récompensé, why did we choose to industrialize? montreal – . thank you everyone for your comments, they are greatly appre- ciated. i will address the three criticisms common to all four commentaries before responding to ian mckay’s more pointed criticisms. kate mcpherson emphasizes the importance of the unusual form of the book to a critical understanding of its contents. the parallel she draws to “breaking the fourth wall” in fi lm, when an actor such as ryan gosling in the big short speaks directly to the audience, is revealing and one i had not thought of. the narrative structure of the book, as both bettina bradbury and magda fahrni underscore, is provided not by its ostensible sub- ject matter, but rather by my own many-decade-long journey of discovery. i was able to propose a qualitatively new answer to why we chose to industrialise, because i started from the recognition that we are all in history. we are all engaged in conversations between our troubled present and our myriad pasts. i structured the book to emphasize this relationship because of the urgency of this particular conversation: i believe understanding why we chose to industrialise is vital to our species even having a future. journal of the cha | revue de la shc the unity of form and content does not, however, derive from this urgency; it stems from my epistemological stance. my approach places a self-refl ective awareness of these con- versations between present and past at the heart of historical theory and method. building on john berger’s insight that if we can see the present clearly enough, we will know what ques- tions to ask of the past, i attribute an epistemological centrality to those very questions. if our questions engage the historical processes that gave rise to a particular source, what i call its his- torical logic, then we can use the evidence it contains to test our explanations of change. if not, then this evidence should best be used for descriptive purposes. this source-based distinction between explanation and description, and its dialectical relationship to the questions we ask is as fundamental to the book’s discourse of proof as it is foreign to all our discipline’s accepted ways of knowing. it also highlights the temporally relative nature of knowledge, what walter benjamin called the “now of knowability.” there are issues in the past which are clearer to us now precisely because of the character of our present. it is neo-liberalism, the silently killing mantra of our time, that allows us to grasp more fully the rupture liberalism caused when it really was new. fully recognizing our being in history is a humbling process. very little in academic life teaches us to be humble, and so it is perhaps not surprising that it took a privileged, petit-bourgeois, alienated male intellectual like myself so long to understand the error of our ways. decades ago kate and bettina were all too often on the receiving end of my arrogant certainties, so i am especially grateful to both for the generosity of spirit that ani- mates their critical engagements with my more recent work. they are also quite correct in stressing the incomplete nature of my conversion. there is much more i should have done on social reproduction and, perhaps, would have done had i understood the importance of intersectionality earlier. my journey of discovery was lived fi rmly in the present, hence the importance of those moments when, as kate observed, i broke the fourth wall. here form served content by frankly macdonald panel: robert c.h. sweeny’s why did we choose to industrialize? montrÉal, - assessing how my being in history impeded not only answering key questions, but understanding the very nature of processes i thought i knew well. undoubtedly, younger readers will face their own differing issues and debates, but i hope this didactic aspect of the relationship between form and content will reso- nate across generations as it speaks to people working on quite different topics. the acuity of magda’s synthesis, as well as the engagement by other younger scholars with the work support me in this hope. i turn now to the question of choice, who makes it and what does it mean? the fi rst-person plural in my title refers to our spe- cies. we have been on this planet for more than , years, but we only chose to industrialise during the past . it was a momentous decision on a par with choosing to develop settled agriculture. it has fundamentally changed the planet, usher- ing in the anthropocene. when the issue is so large, how can one talk about choice and who can be said to have made those choices? as gilles lauzon, who shared considerable parts of the journey with me, observed: “ce n’est pas comme si monsieur et madame untel ont chosi de le faire assis autour de leur table de cuisine.” indeed, it is the very scale of the processes involved that fuels both ian’s ridicule and magda’s scepticism. my answer, not surprisingly, involves both form and con- tent. what i thought to be the most innovative formal aspect of the book was noted by magda. i systematically use the specifi c to explain the general. the experiences of tens of thousands of people in montréal during the second quarter of the nineteenth century are used to understand the circumstances and choices faced by millions of people in the handful of north atlantic soci- eties that fi rst industrialised and by billions around the world since then. i chose this form precisely because it challenged the supra-human scale ian clearly prefers. i did so for both ethical (more on that later) and practical reasons; i consider supra-hu- man explanations of causality as simply beyond our ken. we are in all fi elds of knowledge in the very early stages of understanding how the world works. given our woefully inad- equate knowledge of the past — when we know so little about journal of the cha | revue de la shc either pre-modern or non-european societies, or about women, racialized minorities, working people, youth and the elderly in our own, let alone the rest of nature — we require humility not hubris before the vastness of our ignorance. by the mid- s, i had concluded our best guide to understanding the past lay in fully recognizing the dialectic of agency and constraint. i want to be clear here. i am not saying there are no larger processes at work or that the dialectic of agency and constrain explains everything. indeed, i am saying exactly the opposite. not only can we not explain everything; we actually know so very little about that which we should be able to explain. this sad state of affairs stems from our discipline’s singular failure to develop the necessary theoretical and methodological tools to engage in anything other than bourgeois history. hence, the need for new forms to allow us to explore content anew, starting with what we can explain: the interaction between the day-to-day choices people make in light of existing constraints, created by and through past choices, and how their choices cre- ate both new opportunities and new constraints for themselves and others. in asking specifi cally why we chose to industrialise in mon- tréal, there are numerous processes constituted by this dialectic of agency and constraint that are outside our view plane, but important and, i believe, fundamental processes are revealed. two of these processes stressed in the book are the fundamen- tal shift in the millennium-old gender balance of the household economy and the reconceptualization of our relationship with the rest of nature. i trace the change in the relative values of moveable and immoveable property back to the widespread use of unfree labour to produce commodities in the early-modern world. this “root cause” is not, however, the subject of this book, because what i argue is fundamental to understanding our choice to industrialise is how and why we reacted to those changed val- ues in such a way that we undermined the political economy of household production while transforming our relationship to the rest of nature. macdonald panel: robert c.h. sweeny’s why did we choose to industrialize? montrÉal, - nothing supra-human required a devaluing of women’s labour simply because the value of movable property declined relative to immovable property, yet in accordance with the values of a moral economy that is how people chose to respond. simi- larly, nothing supra-human required either a sea-change in how people thought of socially-acquired rights to property or forced them to treat real property as a commodity to be exchanged rather than as something held in stewardship for future genera- tions. nevertheless, i demonstrate that in the space of little over a generation, these fundamental transformations are visible in and through the choices montrealers made in how they lived their lives. there is nothing to suggest in my book that i consider these changes to be the result of either isolated individual choice, or that differing people in this society faced similar constraints, let alone that everyone made the same choices. i always stress the social nature of these historical processes and the systemic inequality that marked this conquered colony of settlement. i do so, however, in a manner that never loses sight of the active role people of all social classes and conditions played in the making of their own histories. i did not privilege national, ethnic, or linguistic identities in understanding these complex histories, precisely because these identities are being shaped through their choices. for example, i argue it was their experience in this conquered colony of set- tlement that resulted in some people thinking of themselves for the fi rst time as british. furthermore, it was the presumed nat- uralness of such national identities, so effectively mobilized by both church and state, that i was interested in understanding historically. i wrote the draft of this manuscript in bolivia over a three- month period in . bolivia is one of only two majority indigenous countries left in the americas and evo morales, its fi rst indigenous president, was mid-way through his fi rst term. we chose to go there because i wanted, while writing, to be reminded every day that i was talking about a european colony of settlement with a complex history and the challenge this consti- journal of the cha | revue de la shc tutes in the present. i am glad, and somewhat encouraged, to see that eight years on all four critics think i should have done more. i agree and a more salient example of our being in history would be diffi cult to imagine. recent work on the mohawk, abenaki, and wendat communities of lower canada has revealed quali- tatively new aspects of the important roles they played. more signifi cantly, however, as i discuss in the opening of my chapter on historical epistemology to which bettina referred, as histo- rians trained in a euro-centric worldview, we all have much to learn from indigenous conceptions of time and space. when i was asked for advice on who should be invited to this round table, i had only one specifi c request: ian mckay. he has not disappointed, but i must admit to being overwhelmed by his commentary. naively, i had assumed he would respond to the carefully worded critique of his liberal order framework, which occupies a quarter of my conclusion, but of which he says not a word. i have addressed certain elements of ian’s critique of my title already, but two remain: “ – ” and “industrial- ize.” the period covered stretches from the publication of the fi rst city directory in british north america to the tory’s torch- ing the canadian parliament; that is from the fi rst commercial attempt to reconceptualise the city as a modern, bourgeois space by thomas doige in to spectacularly dramatic proof of the collective failure to achieve a stable bourgeois civic order by the spring and summer of . through a detailed examination of this specifi c time and place, i argue, we can see how people thought of themselves, their relationships to each other and to the rest of nature changed. these changes were so fundamental they made industrialisation possible. i did not then go on to study industrialisation, instead i leapt forward thirty years to to test the validity of my analysis of late pre-industrial montréal. were the characteristic patterns of this now industrialised city consistent with the radically different understanding of what industrialisation would mean for people that had emerged from my earlier analysis of the choices made? specifi cally, i asked: was the society more polarized? had occu- macdonald panel: robert c.h. sweeny’s why did we choose to industrialize? montrÉal, - pational segregation increased? was the society more secular? had opportunities for individuals increased? ian is right. there is a broad consensus in the historiography and this is precisely what i was attempting to overturn. ever since friedrich engels’ classic study of manchester in the s, people have consistently argued that industrialisation created a polarized society segregated along class lines that nevertheless offered greater opportunities for individual advancement because it was more secular. for montréal, i found the opposite to be true on all four points. in arriving at these answers, i deliber- ately restricted myself to descriptive evidence from the standard sources used by mainstream historiography, because i did not want my refutation of established wisdom to be dependent upon people accepting my novel distinction between phenomenal and epiphenomenal evidence. i wanted it to be clear that historically understanding the past depends on the questions we ask in the present. ian cites approvingly my comparative historiographical essay from that contrasted newfoundland as the fi rst capi- talist society with the last feudal society: the new french colony of settlement known as canada. i assume it was my use of a struc- turalist shorthand to defi ne these contrasting modes — capitalist appropriation of surplus value created by waged labour vs feudal appropriation of surplus through extra-economic means — that explains his approbation. in any case, what ian does not discuss is, i think, even more revealing. in both societies, i argued, it was the choices that working people made that resulted in new- foundland reverting to a much older, household-based form of production within which they would eventually develop com- munity-based controls to prevent resource depletion, while in québec their choices led to one of the earliest democracies in the americas, with equitable town/country relations and eventually a singularly decentralized form of capitalism. this idea of history, wherein the interplay of agency and constraint over time tends to undo structuralist expectations, is problematic for ian precisely because he accords such a primacy to social relations of production. here lies the nub of our con- journal of the cha | revue de la shc trasting understandings of historical materialism. the point at contention is both historical and ethical. to consider ideas as second order phenomena that merely sanction existing social relations and forces of production is to be caught in an economistic prism that denies us the possibility of historically understanding modes of production. for this epis- temological stance presumes the autonomy accorded economic processes in mature capitalism to be operative in earlier modes, but no previous mode accorded anything like the autonomy — indeed often blind faith — to economic processes that char- acterises capitalism. if we cannot understand earlier modes, then we are unlikely to be able to see what makes capitalism different, let alone engage in the urgent intellectual work of conceiving viable alternatives. furthermore, a structuralist epistemology impedes histori- cal understandings of how capitalism itself works. the primacy structuralism accords to production fl owed from a discovery marx made concerning the economy of nineteenth-century brit- ain: the appropriation of surplus value created in production by waged workers had become key to capital accumulation. this variation on ricardo’s labour theory of value privileged certain types of social relations, while relegating others to secondary roles when not ignoring them altogether. the informal econ- omy, unpaid labour, reproduction, and our relationship with the rest of nature when considered were reduced to a merely linear, derivative role: new social relations of production required new relations of reproduction and as result we transformed our rela- tions with the natural world. as problematic as this structuralist vision is for our under- standing the past, its greatest danger concerns our ability to conceive a different future. repeatedly, when engaged in the building of an alternative mode of production to capitalism, according such primacy to the social relations of production has resulted in revolutionary regimes taking the fateful step to con- clude that by dramatically changing social relations they could transform the whole of society. this way of conceiving historical change resulted in some of the greatest crimes against humanity macdonald panel: robert c.h. sweeny’s why did we choose to industrialize? montrÉal, - of the twentieth century. this is the ethical issue that divides us. to advocate historical materialism while failing to think through the theoretical implications of this horrifi c legacy is, however unwittingly, to sanction it. thus, my questioning of structuralism was based on the growing realisation of how much this approach could never ade- quately explain and upon some diffi cult ethical refl ection, but it was also rooted in history. my study of the creation of a market in real estate in montréal in the second quarter of the nineteenth century revealed that the unprecedented autonomy accorded to economics by liberalism allowed for the fi rst time the labour-free creation of value by and through markets. this discovery led me to the heretical conclusion that what distinguishes capitalism from all previous modes of production is not the labour theory value, but the possibility of large-scale value creation that actu- ally required no labour at all. in the s, when i was fi rst introduced to marxism by george rudé, i lived in a commune in downtown montreal. the triplex was sold out from under us for $ , ; it is currently evaluated at $ . million. there have, of course, been some ren- ovations, but nothing that justifi es this -fold increase in the value of the property. neo-liberal capitalism has resulted in an even greater growth in world fi nancial markets, from $ bil- lion annually under bretton woods to in excess of a quadrillion dollars (that is a followed by fi fteen zeros) today. now, one could attribute this to the metabolism of capital, or one could do the necessary work to establish who made what decisions where, when, and why. and, more importantly, ask how and why have we changed our own lives so that this unprecedented growth in systemic inequality now appears normal. i know which approach i prefer, and i thank my colleagues for their criticisms that will help me do this vital work even more effectively. *** journal of the cha | revue de la shc robert c.h. sweeny is an honourary research professor at the memorial university, and co-director of the historical gis project montréal, l’avenir du passé (map). his book, why did we choose to industrialize? montreal, – ( ) is the winner of the governor general’s history award for scholarly research and the sir john a. macdonald prize of the canadian historical association for the most signifi cant contri- bution to our understanding of the canadian past.” robert c.h. sweeny est professeur-chercheur honoraire de l’université memorial et co-directeur du projet historique sig, « montréal, l’avenir du passé » (map). son ouvrage, why did we choose to industrialize? montreal, – ( ), a rem- porté en le prix d’histoire du gouverneur général pour la recherche savante, et le prix sir john a. macdonald de la société historique du canada pour la contribution la plus signifi cative à notre compréhension du passé canadien. endnotes robert c.h. sweeny, “what difference does a mode make? a compari- son of two seventeenth-century colonies: canada and newfoundland,” william and mary quarterly, d series ( , ), april , . e.p. thompson, the poverty of theory: or an orrery of errors (london: merlin press, ; reprinted ). the context of this quotation is a discussion of the cubism of braque and picasso, and it may be the author misspeaks — that he rather meant to say, “defi nitively, fi nally and conclusively represent reality.” can picasso’s guernica be said to proceed on the basis of the impossibility of representing the sufferings of the spanish civil war? yet, this has the feeling to me of a non sequitur. the state cruelties which sweeny rightly condemns were often justifi ed with highly voluntarist and irrational arguments, and among many of their victims were those who sought to counsel communist regimes to respect the social-struc- tural complexity and ambiguities of the societies in which they had emerged. how, exactly, does drawing upon the ideas of gramsci negate or deny the sufferings of the victims of stalinism? yet, to take the example of global climate change: does a working framework (contestable, fallible, a work in progress, etc.) that suggests macdonald panel: robert c.h. sweeny’s why did we choose to industrialize? montrÉal, - patterns of resource exploitation characteristic of industrial capitalism, commit anyone to a belief in “supra-human processes?” thus, here we fi nd a “capitalism” endowed with the capacity of being “remarkably good at creating inequality” (p. ) and a “neo-liberal- ism” with the capacity to deny “the importance of both time and place” (p. ) — personifi cations of structures which, even as forgivable short-cuts, seem question-begging. sweeny refers to “qualitative evidence vs quantitative evidence, phe- nomenal evidence vs epiphenomenal evidence, men vs women, popular classes vs dominant classes, pre-industrial society vs industrial society, revolutionary path vs non-revolutionary path, internal economy vs external economy, moral economy vs liberal economy, informal econ- omy vs formal economy, cubism vs perspective, analytical vs narrative, invisible lines of property vs visible lines of segregation, and, underpin- ning the entire work, bourgeois history vs historical materialism” (p. ). see le liberté du pauvre: crime et pauvreté au xixe siècle montréal, de la fi n du xcviie-siècle à (montréal: vlb Éditeur, ), now available in english translation by peter feldstein as the pauper’s freedom: crime and poverty in nineteenth-century quebec (montreal & kingston: mcgill- queen’s university press, ). the brenner thesis is not explicitly discussed in the text itself, but it is mentioned in the bibliography. see p. , for the claim that marx argues in capital that the “revolution- ary path” — i.e., artisans rising to become capitalists — is the “democratic path.” it is striking that holland and portugal are omitted. see gerald tulchinsky, the river barons: montreal businessmen and the growth of industry and transportation, – (toronto: university of toronto press, ). “i found this [the ‘lazy history’ of ‘essentialist reasoning’] approach deeply repugnant and so i categorically refused to carry out any ethnic or linguistic analysis of my data,” . granted that two left historians in canada might record completely different itineraries, i was struck by the almost complete absence here of any discussion of the naylor-teeple thesis, a grand hypothesis from the s about canadian capitalism’s supposedly permanent mercantile bias that all loyal members of my own dalhousie school were sworn to oppose, and which one would have thought would have impinged dir- ectly on sweeny’s own emergent sense of a marxist’s historical agenda. jean-marie fecteau, un nouvel ordre des choses: la pauvreté, le crime, l’État au québec, de la fi n du xviiie siècle à (outremont, vlb Éditeur, coll. “Études québécoises,” ). journal of the cha | revue de la shc on these parish registers, see, e.g., allan greer, the people of new france (toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. − . it is interesting to contrast the use of the “we” in the title of robert sweeny’s book to the use of the “we” in patrice groulx’s fascinating book on the mythology surrounding dollard des ormeaux. in groulx’s book, the “we” refers explicitly to non-indigenous people in québec, and probably more specifi cally to quebeckers of french-canadian descendance. patrice groulx, pièges de la mémoire. dollard des ormeaux, les amérindiens et nous (hull: Éditions vents d’ouest, ). for one example among many, see andrée lévesque, “essai d’égo-his- toire,” the canadian historical review , no. (mars ): − . see the description of this project here: http://www.celat.ulaval.ca/ cycle-de-conferences-les-historiennes-par-eux-memes/ geoff eley, a crooked line: from cultural history to the history of society (ann arbor: university of michigan press, ); william h. sewell, logics of history: social theory and social transformation (chicago: univer- sity of chicago press, ). see also brian young, patrician families and the making of quebec: the taschereaus and mccords (montreal; kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ), p. . we might think here of the classic works of each of these three histor- ians: dechêne, habitants et marchands de montréal au dix-septième siècle (paris: plon, ); e. p. thompson, the making of the english working class (harmondsworth: penguin, ); george rudé, the crowd in the french revolution (oxford: clarendon press, ). it is interesting to read why did we choose to industrialize? in parallel with sherry olson’s and patricia thornton’s own take on nineteenth-century montreal, peopling the north american city: montreal, – (mont- real; kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ). eveyln fox-keller, a feeling for the organism: the life and work of bar- bara mcclintock san francisco : w.h. freeman, c , and sara ahmed, the cultural politics of emotion new york : routledge, . deborah jones, women’s studies int. quart., , vol. , pp. . sara howdle, personal communication, york university, , and dan rueck, “commons, enclosure, and resistance in kahnawa´:ke mohawk territory, – ” the canadian historical review, , (september, ): - . marilyn waring, if women counted: a new feminist economics francisco, ca: harper & row, publishers, c . john berger, ways of seeing (london: bbc publications, ), . brian gettler, «en espèce ou en nature? les présents, l’imprévoyance et l’évolution idéologique de la politique indienne pendant la première moitié du xixe siècle. » revue d’histoire de l’amérique française, , ( ) - . daniel rück et eve-marie lampron, « où tout le monde macdonald panel: robert c.h. sweeny’s why did we choose to industrialize? montrÉal, - est propriétaire et où personne ne l’est » : droits d’usage et gestion fon- cière à kahnawake, - . » revue d’histoire de l’amérique française , - , ( ) - . isabelle bouchard. « des systèmes politiques en quête de légitimité: terres « seigneuriales », pouvoirs et enjeux locaux dans les communautés autochtones de la vallée du saint-laurent ». thèse de doctorat en histoire, université du québec à montréal, . “unless we fundamentally change how we make our living, and with that the ideologies that sanction those ways of living, these phenom- ena [climate change and thermonuclear war] cannot be meaningfully addressed, let alone transformed.” this is why the transition from feudalism to capitalism is such a touch- stone in not just my book (pp. - , - , - ) but my whole œuvre. indeed, the article comparing early modern newfoundland and canada that ian liked was an important part of this intellectual journey, as was my article in sociologie et sociétés explaining why the revolu- tionary path led to democracy and my later analyses of how this affected the nature of capital markets in canada. none of which, i might add, owed anything to brenner. soviet collectivisation caused the death of between two and three mil- lion people in the ukraine alone and china’s great leap forward is now reliably estimated to have cost the lives of thirty million people, while i doubt we will ever know the proportionally much greater cost wrought by the khmer rouge’s failed transformation of cambodia. this is a title research article the design of spatial sequence based on the user experience and the virtual reality in interactive environments jing zhao ,* st school of computer software, tianjin university, yaguan road , jinnan district, tianjin, china abstract the paper explores the design of spatial sequence on the basis of the user experience and the virtual reality technology in interaction environments. first, for people’s physiological and psychological feelings in the process of experiencing the space, the paper analyses the thought about five senses and the abstract thought from the thought field. then it analyses the balance of the psychological field and physical field, and emotional experience. after that, the paper puts forward how to control spatial sequence from three points: the experience design of perception, the experience design of touring route and the experience design of speed. finally, the paper presents a new method for designing spatial sequence. the research results could be widely used in environmental design, game design, animation design, film and television, and other design and innovation fields. keywords: user experience, virtual reality, interactive environment, spatial sequence, design. received on september , accepted on december , published on january copyright © jing zhao, licensed to eai. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unlimited use, distribution and reproduction in any medium so long as the original work is properly cited. doi: . /eai. - - . *corresponding author. email:zhaojingliz@ .com . introduction spatial design of interaction environments cannot lack of controlling the spatial sequence, it gives the space life, happiness and energy. the sequence and the sense of movement in environmental space mainly comes from the spatial relationship between each element. the organization and formation of space are divided into two domains: material and spiritual domains. the former one is based on the natural conditions and artificial landscape space design, affected by natural, history and culture factors, aesthetic ideas, implementation technologies, etc. the latter one is the psychological aspect which is based on users’ feelings of the space and recreates the space again. it not only contains subjective emotions of people, but also contains objective environmental space where the people are in. the service object in spatial design is the person. so the design should exploit fully humans’ physiological and psychological feelings in the process of experience. the external environmental stimuli could lead to some physiological and psychological reactions, which come from user’s experience behaviour. people feel the environment through their experience and need the help of physical and mental feelings and observations of the environment. at the same time, the environmental space itself is the place where experience behaviours act. the user experience can also drive the change of space sequence. the involvement of the virtual reality technology increases timeless and incorporeal properties on the basis of the traditional environmental space design. the space which is created by this way itself has more abundant connotations and information, and thus it can convey more meanings of the space to people. in turn, it promotes the arrival of the new design method and improves the eai endorsed transactions on creative technologies eai endorsed transactions on creative technologies - | volume | issue | e http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / jing zhao design of spatial sequence in interaction environments. this paper analyses and puts forward a new method for designing the spatial sequence, which is based on the user experience and virtual reality technology. . theoretical foundation of the user experience in the design of spatial sequence . . thought field first, the thought about five senses. five senses includes vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. rudolf arnheim refers the relationship among thought, perception and creation in art and visual perception [ ]. the creative visual perception accounts for % in the five senses. today, the usage of virtual reality and augmented reality technology not only brings technology innovation to the space creation, but also presents a new thought and innovative way by five senses to convey information. at the same time, the current development of virtual reality technology focuses on the research and development of five senses experience and interactive equipment. through five senses, media, behaviors of thinking, the observation of things around, cognitive and analysis method are affected. traditional way of people’s experience, distances, habits can only mobilize humans one or two cognitive modes, while the thought about five senses leads a new thinking view and creates a new experience way. in addition, the traditional design form is confined to one-way transmission, users cannot participate and the design’s attraction decreases. the usage of virtual reality technology has high immersion, interactivity and perceptual characteristics, and enhances the user experience feelings. second, the abstract thought. by using unconventional thoughts to design in an opposite direction, which makes the perspective multidimensional and makes the object in a two-dimensional plane to present the characteristics of stereoscopic effect. such as cubism style, it extends the observation point from fixed and single angle to more angles and breaks the conventionality of the traditional perspective science’s observation. it makes the same object’s front view, side view, back view and other views in one plane. picasso's painting, les demoiselles d'avignon, uses geometry to describe the object and makes geometric space of the background form a whole space. nowadays, this visual presentation surpasses a single form and has been confirmed as humans’ objective visual perception. the real environment which people can observe is based on the vision that can be apperceived from multiple dimensions, then on the basis of model processing. finally, it gets a stereo image. the space concept and the time dimension of this thought just reflects the characteristics of the spatial design. . psychological field first, the balance between psychological field and physical field. people’s judgment of new things is based on their experience and subjective forecast, and on the basis of the current situation and experience association, then makes inferences jointly. when personal experience and objective reality is not unified, psychological suggestion would use wrong image in current image perception. visual illusion is produced. they are also a set of corresponding concepts in gestalt psychology: psychological field and physical field. the former one is people's perception of reality, the latter one is perceived reality. gestalt psychology has confirmed that when people are facing no order creative raw material, people would sort them according to their own preferences. this suggests that visual art behaviour is not objective behavior which is based on the subjective vision. it is different from the photograph which could represent their original state objectively and be accepted passively. it gets the innovation of visual illusion through visual stimulation, subjective deviation and experience projection. in the design of spatial sequence, using the contradiction between two concepts with the destination can achieve amazing visual effect. second, emotional experience. in addition to having a certain entertainment value, every environmental design should meet the affective demand of audience and take the task of their self-identity. as many avant-garde and experimental animation works, they transcend the traditional and mainstream art forms. the visual center focuses on non-mainstream form, seeking the audience emotional appeal. kandinsky discusses the image, color and other visual symbols deeply. he believes that only with emotions, artists and audiences can move on together. persist in a certain form would be into a dead end inevitably. only let feelings express unlimitedly, work could obtain infinite freedom. because the former one would be confined itself to the existence of the substance, the latter one follows the spirit. as one form of the experience design, environmental design needs to meet the demand of people's sensory and emotional experience, which also makes users understand the value of the design for humans’ psychology by the works. the mastery of spatial sequence . experience design of perception based on the above thought about five senses, the experience in communication of the spatial design has remarkable effect. nowadays, with the development and application of sensor technology, sensory interaction is becoming more and more common. at the same time, perception mode has changed from one or two into the combination of multiple modes. especially with the development and extensive usage of virtual reality eai endorsed transactions on creative technologies - | volume | issue | e the design of spatial sequence based on the user experience and the virtual reality in interactive environments technology, many interactive perceptions don't need to rely on the objective existence of a variety of sensory stimulations. it could be replaced by the digital virtual interactive perception. spatial design changes into virtual experience and real material experience changes into virtual experience. different designs and experience have the same experience effect with the true stimulus in the human’s psychology. on the basis of this technique, as people's growing demand for space interaction, the design of spatial sequence needs to break the traditional fixed and default mode. the introduction of multi-sensory experience control mechanism would realize the comprehensive perception and experience of five senses. in the process of design, techniques and devices should be introduced appropriately, such as sensors, data transmission, program process, feedback mechanism and many other various technologies and ideas. through the color, lighting, sound, smell, touch and many other ways, it could stimulate the willingness of people's exploration, attract people to interact with the environmental space, create atmosphere of the space and strengthen people's immersive experience [ ]. in addition, the corresponding behavior change and psychological change could also be produced by conditional reflex when people are facing different spatial sequence, which reacts on the space. at the moment, changes of people’s experience are collected by the sensor of the space and be converted into the data which is handled by the program. finally, it is transmitted to the display equipment, form the final interaction effect and feedback to people. as that cycle repeats, the spatial sequence could be changed in the interactive process between users and the space freely, producing positive achievement of "human-computer interaction" (figure ). figure . the process of human-computer interaction for example, the design of space installation, displaced resonance by john fillwalk (usa, ), consists of sixteen sculpture forms, networked in a responsive grid controlling light and sound, based on visitor proximities. full-range internal loudspeakers drive sound through the sculptures. a computer system using an infrared camera, tracks the movement of visitors and responds by controlling the distribution of sound to the tubes, while also controlling led lighting associated with the sculptural forms. the prototyping process included both physical and virtual models to design and build both the form and the interaction. the physical prototypes were interpreted in a virtual model, investigating the spatial interaction of the structure with an avatar-where the sculpture interacted with avatar proximity and presence. the interactive functionality was scripted in the virtual world and again modeled in the sensored version in physical reality. after several virtual iterations, the form was recently re-interpreted and fabricated to have a physical form and be interacted with in a public context [ ]. another example is the design of china national film museum’s atrium space. it is with the help of controlling colors by user experience. in the design, there are a large number of film montage processing techniques. using black as the space’s main color to create serious and introverted space atmosphere, interspersed with stained glasses. exhibition area, expo area, cinema area, service area, these four different functional spaces are represented by red, green, blue, yellow, respectively. there is an area of interactive experience on the central ring wall. people could receive different information of buildings through changes of space colors and interactive mechanism. the color of the wall could be different according to the requirement of the exhibition and the performance. bill seaman and todd berreth (usa), design an outdoor architecture named a china many senses (vr) ( ). the work explores aspects of programmed mechanic creativity via a generative emergent computational system and draws on an extensive database of specific models, video materials, digital stills, audio materials, and textual materials that are combined and recombined in an ongoing intelligent manner, via authored proprietary code (written in c++/opengl/open frameworks). the image of the art work is put into the real space by using three projectors at the same time and presents different architectural spaces [ ]. . experience design of touring route the design process of spatial experience also need to rely on a certain touring route to implement and complete. route control is divided into behavior route control and technological route control generally. behavior route can be interpreted as "path" simply. in the progress of designing the spatial sequence, behavior route design is the main route to complete experience process for users, but it is not the only route. designers can design multiple routes for users to choose according to different interactive plots of landscapes. then different effects of landscape spatial experience could be realized. at the same time, the sense of mystery and attraction in space exploration can also be increased. eai endorsed transactions on creative technologies - | volume | issue | e jing zhao technological route control could be understood as a technology media for users to complete their experience process. different media of the technology directly affects the effect of user experience and the result. for instance, when you visit a city square, you can walk, or by bike, or by sightseeing car. and the selection of these technical application modes affects the selection of subsequent experience routes directly, which means people’s experience of the landscape would be different and the experience of the space by different technological routes would be different. in the experience of the environmental space supported by the virtual reality technology, people could obtain completely different feelings of the immersion experience, because technical equipment (naked-eye stereoscopic display, multi-channel stereoscopic projection, headpiece and digital glove, etc.) they choose are totally different. take choosing naked- eye stereoscopic display as an example, although it is easy to operate relatively, the access to getting immersive feeling is the lowest. relying on digital headpiece and digital glove, and even joined with the trajectory gyroscope and other external devices can improve immersive feelings to the top. the technology development has already could support this experience design of the space, but due to the expensive price of equipment, the technology is still mainly used in the virtual museum visiting. the parc de la villette is a typical case which uses the route design to change user experience. the route system of the park is the representative work which the designer pays tribute to the film art. the whole route be made up of long corridors, avenues and theme gardens. the theme garden route is also called film walking way. this path is like a roll of film. the road itself is a track, scenes consist of theme gardens are video tracks, theme gardens are connected by film walking way. there are several intersections which are introduced by trees and avenues in the whole route, which breaks the sequence of linear combination and forms the "editing" effect that is used in film editing. therefore, when people are walking on the film walking way, they could choose different paths and feel different versions of the theme gardens’ series: they could visit every garden along the trail, could also skip one theme garden directly into the next topic by an avenue, and could come back quickly to the starting point through the circular avenue. for another example, the spatial design of one square in italy named it tree is a playful interactive installation. at the top of the tree, there are ultrasonic sensor installations which could be used to measure the position of the human body. and the outcome transmits to the led lighting system through open source microprocessors to control lights of it tree [ ]. when people walk among them, the tree will be lighted. people's behavior and the touring route can affect the light effect of the forest [ ]. . experience design of speed in the design of spatial sequence, speed control is one of the important factors that affect users’ experience. speed factor in space generally consists of two parts: one part is the sequence of the space, another part is the speed of people’s visiting and playing in it. the overall effect by two parts directly forms the overall sequence of the space. controlling the sequence of environmental space could be with the help of the following means: the change and the transition of visual elements, the intensity of the sound, ups and downs of spatial form, speed transformation of light and darkness and feedback’s frequency of people’s interaction, etc. [ ]. by controlling these elements, the control and the setting of the environmental spatial sequence could be realized. conveying information of the space and decorating the space are more effective. finally, make people involved in the interaction space actively and visit according to the designer's design idea. in the process of designing people’s visiting speed, there also has are some problems. when a person experiences the sequence of the same space repeatedly, he would form a corresponding feeling of the experience generally and be used to it. if the feeling and the sequence of the space remain the same or don’t change significantly, people would feel tired. the attraction of the environmental space decreases. for this phenomenon, designers could strengthen greater control of the sequence in the design of space. the model of time and space about people’s sense of the experience could be introduced in the progress of the design. the design of the environmental space’s organization is according to users’ whole feelings of space. from the aspect of space, people’s overall feelings is not a sum of their feelings of each space. the overall feelings should be more than the sum of the each part. from the aspect of time, people’s overall feelings is equal to the sum of persistent feelings and instant feelings about all the space. this is due to human feeling of new space would be affected by the feeling of existing space, then they would have instant feeling (figure ). therefore, users’ overall feelings should be more than the sum of the each part. and instant feeling is the key to leading people to visit in the space and designer can set appropriate visual stimulation in a short time to increase people’s instant feelings [ ]. figure .the model of time and space about people’s sense of the experience with speeding up the sequence of space, the continuity of spatial sequence strengthened gradually. the distant view is relatively stable and the nearby view is blurred. for example, the advertisement in subway appears eai endorsed transactions on creative technologies - | volume | issue | e continuously, which is easy to make the audience be tired of watching. so the sequence and the content in subway’s space should be changed in accordance with the certain sequence. the speed of changing scenes should be in charge of the speed of the passengers’ movement. by the combination of the real scene and the virtual scene, the speed of changing scenes is controlled and it brings passengers immersive experience. people would experience fresh feelings constantly. conclusion the creation concept, space design and daily life all emphasize user experience and user centered design. the cognition and understanding of spatial sequence could help designers design space in interactive environment better. through the experience of environmental space, people could obtain different interesting feelings from the space to meet their emotional appeals. at the same time, combining with the concept of virtual reality, designers introduce corresponding control mechanism for the sequence of experience and produce different design solutions [ ]. by combining with other elements of spatial design, the comprehensive construction of environmental space would be realized and give people immersive, interactive and diverse experience. references [ ] arnheim, r. ( ) art and visual perception: a psychology of the creative eye, st ed. (berkeley and los angeles: university of california press). [ ] psarra, s. ( ) architecture and narrative: the formation of space and cultural meaning, st ed. (london: routledge). [ ] armstrong, k.m. ( ) re-imagining static utopias: unraveling the bat/human problem. in art and science: thesis collection of the rd art & science international symposium, china, (beijing: china architecture and building press), – . [ ] vision union, http://www.visionunion.com [ ] environment, ecology and economic, http://www.ela.cn [ ] martgot, l. ( ) digital currents: art in the electronic age, st ed. (new york: routledge). [ ] nasar, j.l. ( ) the effect of sign complexity and coherence on the perceived quality of retail scenes. journal of the american planning association ( ): - . [ ] liu, b.y., zhang, t. ( ) landscape space sequence organization based on visual sense 基于视觉感受的景观 空间序列组织. chinese landscape architecture ( ): - . [ ] koutsabasis, p., vosinakis. s., malisova. k., paparounas, n. ( ) on the value of virtual worlds for collaborative design. design studies ( ): - . eai endorsed transactions on creative technologies - | volume | issue | e the design of spatial sequence based on the user experience and the virtual reality in interactive environments request a copy of the document 	 malmö university 	 library 	 contact 	 help 	 login 	 malmö university electronic publishing muep ›request a copy of the document utskrift från malmö universitet - mau.se request a copy of the document dspace repository javascript is disabled for your browser. some features of this site may not work without it. request a copy of the document users of this system, can login to view this document. login this file is access restricted. this is probably due to an embargo imposed by the publisher. enter the following information to request a personal copy of the document from the responsible person. the effect of illustration on improving text comprehension in dyslexic adults 	 name: 	 your e-mail address: this email address is used for sending the document. 	 files: files all files (of this document) in restricted access. only the requested file. 	 message: 	 	 search search this collection browse 	 all contents 	 communities & collections 	 by date 	 authors 	 titles 	 subjects 	 contributors 	 this collection 	 by date 	 authors 	 titles 	 subjects 	 contributors my account 	 login   malmÖ university · contact · help   the journal of somaesthetics no. , the journal of somaesthetics no. , page - representation and visual politics of the extreme body zhou xian abstract: the beautiful human body has perennially occupied a central space in art. both art and aesthetics maintain the beauty of the human body as the focal point of artistic expression and philosophical thought. however, modern art has thoroughly overturned the idea of the beautiful body and the aesthetic principles of its expression, creating a completely new form of representing the body—the extreme body. the extreme body has become a mainstream image eagerly embraced by modern artists. transgressed representations, visual discomfort, and the body becoming a goal in and of itself, has dramatically altered the paradigm of the body in modern art. keywords: body, beautiful body, extreme body, modern art, aesthetics. art is always tied to the human beings residing at the heart of artistic expression. therefore, the human body has always been a center of expression in terms of visual art. especially today, a highly developed visual culture has already pushed the body to the forefront of the cultural stage; not only does aesthetic and art theory deal heavily with the body, but philosophy, sociology, literature, history, and anthropology all consider questions of the body. some sociologists feel that “the rise of a body society” necessitates that all important political and spiritual questions be explained through the body. sociologists have suggested an assortment of different body forms to consider, such as the “five bodies” proposed by o’neill: the world’s body, social bodies, the body politic, consumer bodies, and medical bodies. shilling proposes yet another method of categorization: classical bodies, contemporary bodies, working bodies, sporting bodies, musical bodies, sociable john o’neill, five bodies: re-figuring relationships (london: sage, ). zhou xian politics of the extreme body the journal of somaesthetics no. , politics of the extreme body bodies, and technological bodies. the body has also become a popular topic in the field of aesthetics. richard shusterman goes so far as to suggest a branch of aesthetics called “somaesthetics.” he writes: for the moment, we can briefly describe somaesthetics as concerned with the critical study and meliorative cultivation of how we experience and use the living body (or soma) as a site of sensory appreciation (aesthesis) and creative self-fashioning. somaesthetics is thus a discipline that comprises both theory and practice (the latter clearly implied in its idea of meliorative cultivation). the term “soma” indicates a living, feeling, sentient body rather than a mere physical body that could be devoid of life and sensation, while the “aesthetic” in somaesthetics has the dual role of emphasizing the soma’s perceptual role (whose embodied intentionality contradicts the body/mind dichotomy) and its aesthetic uses both in stylizing one’s self and in appreciating the aesthetic qualities of other selves and things. shusterman’s statement focuses on the significance of the body in aesthetics, which has positive implications for contemporary body studies. in my opinion, using the body as an approach to the examination of art can be a unique and productive perspective. through the body, we can see the evolution of various methods of artistic representation and their paradigms, gain a better sense of the development of artistic thought on the human body through different historical periods, and even gain a deeper understanding of different artists’ unique views on the body. this paper attempts to combine visual culture, social theory, and aesthetics into a “fusion of horizons.” it will examine the evolution of paradigms of artistic representation regarding the body from traditional art to modernist art, and then proceed to analyze how the body, as a cultural issue, has changed along with society. the presentation of the body: from beauty to extreme by using the divide between traditional and modern, we can separate art’s long history into the two general categories of “traditional” and “modern” art, where “modern” primarily refers to “modernism.” the art of these two periods have markedly different paradigms in their depictions of the body. here, i use roman jakobson’s concept of “the dominant” to define the difference in paradigm of the chris shilling, body in culture, technology and society (london: sage, ). richard shusterman, body consciousness: a philosophy of mindfulness and somaesthetics (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), . the journal of somaesthetics no. , zhou xian body between traditional and modernist art. as a champion of russian formalism, jakobson defines the “concept of the dominant” as the “focusing component of a work of art: it rules, determines, and transforms the remaining components. it is the dominant which guarantees the integrity of the structure.” the dominant “specifies the work.” he further notes the historical significance of the “concept of the dominant” and suggests that changes in the dominant determine the changes in artistic style during different periods. jakobson argues that a dominant is “not only in the poetic work of an individual artist and not only in the poetic canon, the set of norms of a given poetic school, but also in the art of a particular epoch, viewed as a particular whole.” for example, during the renaissance, the “visual arts” were dominant and accordingly shaped the poetry of the period. on the other hand, “romantic poetry oriented itself toward music: its verse is musically focused; its verse intonation imitates musical melody.” examining different paradigms of the body in the history of art from this perspective, it is not difficult to see that traditional and modernist art each has its own body forms. considering art history from the perspective of the dominant, we have reason to believe that beauty is the dominant in traditional art’s representation and paradigm of the body, and beauty is naturally the core category of traditional aesthetics. other categories of aesthetics (such as the sublime, the ugly, the grotesque) clearly fall below the beautiful in terms of significance. thus it can be said that traditional art and aesthetics keep the beautiful body at the center of its artistic representation and thought; the beautiful body is thus the dominant in traditional art. for example, in traditional chinese painting, there is much discourse on the creation of beauty including a great deal of methods, rules, and theories regarding the depiction of human bodies. there is a large body of classical chinese paintings of people from buddhist images to court ladies to monarchs to scholars. examples such as gu hongzhong’s night revels of han xizai, wu daozi’s presentation of buddha, zhou fang’s court ladies adorning their hair with flowers, and the cave paintings at dunhuang have many features modeled after the ideal of buddhist saints and fairies. in the west, the traditional paradigm of human beauty is rooted in models of the nude. due to western scientific and rational enquiry, there are numerous experiments and studies of human body-beauty: from the proportion in ancient greece, through the renaissance application of the golden ratio to human figures, roman jakobson, poetry of grammar and grammar of poetry (the hague: mouton, ), . ibid., . the traditional art and classical art mentioned here reflects a broad concept of periodization referring to the art before the mid-nineteenth century whereas art following this period will be referred to as modernist art. the journal of somaesthetics no. , politics of the extreme body to contemporary scientific aesthetic studies and experiments on face-beauty. throughout the history of western art, artists have not only been enamored with the beauty of the real human body but have pursued even further a kind of ideal beauty. kenneth clark writes that the concept of beauty, from the ancient greek tradition to the renaissance down to the modern era, is a myth as well as a model. he says: “it is no accident that the formalized body of the ‘perfect man’ became the supreme symbol of european belief.” if one but looks at western art history, one sees that the beautiful body is the most basic subject of western painting and sculpture. from greek sculptures such as hermes and the infant dionysus or the venus de milo; to the works of the three renaissance masters such as da vinci’s mona lisa and the virgin of the rocks, michaelangelo’s creation of adam and david, and raphael’s three graces and sistine madonna; to the period of neoclassicism and formalism with works such as ingres’ the source and la grande odalisque as well as courbet’s the source and woman with a parrot—it is not difficult to find the expression of and the quest for the ideal of human beauty running through these works. since the mid-nineteenth century, however, with the rise of modernism, representation of the body in art has radically shifted. the “first principle” of art, expressing the beauty of the body, was challenged and paradigms of the human form underwent dramatic changes. modernist artists started experimenting with new paradigms of the body: the strange, the alien, the vague and revolutionary body. this was a completely new image of the body and the evolution of this style continues to this day. if we wish to encapsulate this concept in one word, we can call it the “extreme body.” this is a form of the body that is not beautiful, opposed to beauty, and overturns beauty. abandoning the beautiful body for the extreme body has become the dominant of modernist representations of the body, becoming deeply and widely distributed among different fields such as painting, sculpture, installation art, and performance art. although ugly and grotesque bodies existed long before modernist art, the latter has made the extreme body its dominant, and the extreme body has now become the basic form of representing the body. a traditional style dominated by beauty has been gradually replaced by a radical, modernist style in which the concept of the unbeautiful and anti-beautiful is the mainstream. this trend is consistent with the general trend of modern art that rejects and disdains beauty. nevertheless, one point that must be especially noted is that the extreme body is not ugly; unbeautiful and anti-beautiful do not mean ugly. some scholars of aesthetics like to divide beauty and ugliness into binary opposites kenneth clark, the nude: a study in ideal form (new york: doubleday anchor, ), . see wendy steiner, venus in exile: the rejection of beauty in th-century art (new york: free, ). the journal of somaesthetics no. , zhou xian to explain art, but this approach is problematic when one attempts to explain the historical shifts in styles of depicting the body. one cannot simplistically say that traditional art has the beautiful body as its dominant while modernist art has the ugly body as its dominant. the extreme body and its meanings are more complex than that of the ugly body; it is also different from the aesthetic categories of the grotesque and the absurd. as new artistic discourse developed to explain modern art’s creation of the extreme body image, modernist aesthetics has surpassed traditional aesthetics on a central paradigm by transitioning to a more open, varied, and complex interpretation. iconology of the extreme body the extreme body is a concept difficult to define; inherent in its definition is a bias toward a certain body type in modernist art. although the image of the body in modernist art is varied and complex, one finds that this body image abandons traditional art’s method of representing the beautiful body, overturns the aesthetic principles of traditional visual art, and portrays a body with which we are not familiar. the spanish philosopher josé ortega y gasset discovered after the first world war that there was a tendency toward “dehumanization” among the neo-art in western countries. in ortega y gasset’s writings on the “dehumanization,” he notes that contemporary youths can fall in love with the mona lisa but not picasso’s girl before a mirror. what exactly is the great change that has taken place here? from the mona lisa to the girl before a mirror one can see the transition from the humanized to the dehumanized in the representation of the body. according to ortega y gasset, dehumanization works through distortion and abstraction, turning what is familiar into that which is strange, turning the human body into an unrecognizable entity. he writes: “by divesting them of their aspect of ‘lived’ realty the artist has blown up the bridge and burned the ships that could have taken us back to our daily world. he leaves us locked up in an abstruse universe, surrounded by objects with which human dealings are inconceivable, and thus compels us to improvise other forms of intercourse completely distinct from our ordinary ways with things. we must invent unheard-of gestures to fit those singular figures.” the extreme body in modernist art is, to a certain degree, a “dehumanization” of the body. of course, this dehumanization is not merely the abstraction and distortion noted by ortega y gasset but is much more complex. if we must define josé ortega y gasset, “the dehumanization of art,” in criticism: the major texts, ed. walter j. bate (new york: harcourt brace jovanovich, ), . the journal of somaesthetics no. , politics of the extreme body the extreme body, then we can say that it is a kind of unfamiliar, strange, deviant, and novel representation of the body. here it would be helpful to consider what jean-françois lyotard said concerning the avant-garde. he wrote: “modern painters discover that they have to form images that photography cannot present … avant-garde paintings escape ex hypothesi from the aesthetics of the beautiful, its works do not call for the ‘common sense’ of a shared pleasure. these works appear to the public of taste to be ‘monsters’, ‘formless’ objects, purely ‘negative’ entities.” an overall survey of modernist art will find a varied range of extreme body types. from perspective of iconology, i can summarize them into at least the few kinds of extreme body representation paradigms outlined below. the strange body the strange body is clearly a form of the dehumanized body. it deviates from the human figure or hints at the human form, but is completely different from a regular body. examples of this include salvador dalí’s soft construction with boiled beans (premonition of civil war) in which heads and arms relocate and recombine in a fantastical way (fig. ); francis bacon’s painting with its monstrous, phantom-like human shape; and willem de kooning’s woman i, a painting that is shocking to viewers. . salvador dali. soft construction with boiled beans (premonition of civil war). . philadelphia museum of art. jean-francois lyotard, the inhuman: reflections on time (stanford: stanford university press, ), - . the journal of somaesthetics no. , zhou xian the strange body either departs from the human form or dramatically alters and rearranges it. it deliberately exaggerates certain body parts or dismantles them into bizarre, new, fragmentary arrangements. the strange body wavers between the human and the inhuman, giving people an entirely new construct of the human body. the tension clearly contained therein gives the body a “negative” and “explosive” visual effect. the appearance of various kinds of strange bodies in modernist art has taken experiments in body image to great heights. to some extent, these experiments delve into the frailty of the human body, revealing two aspect of the body. first, the body’s complex relationship with society serves as a symbol. the body cannot withstand the harsh blows of a great society and the powers of nature; its weakness is readily apparent. second, the strange body reveals various hidden desires of the body, even its dark side. in bacon’s painting, for instance, the blood-stained figure and the butchered animal in the background comprise a relationship that betokens the darkness which drives man to start wars and destroy lives. the strange body poses an antithesis to beauty. it shows through form and style a rejection of all rules. the beautiful body is an embodiment of rules and standards. whether adhering to the golden ratio or some other principle, representation of the beautiful body is based on the rules. the strange body, however, represents a different path, reacting against every rule and standard of beauty. in this respect, it is somewhat akin to kant’s analysis of the sublime as the formless. if one considers the beautiful body as leaning toward a standard pattern of beauty, then one could say that the strange body is formless, thus retaining limitless possibilities of form. from this perspective, the legitimization of the strange body in the art world can be seen as a sort of liberation of artistic expression. because of this we encounter all kinds of experiments and innovations in the representation of the body in modernist art where it can be said that nothing is too bizarre. on matters of composition, the paradigm of representing the strange body is often a combination of elements with characteristics; it combines unrelated elements of an image in fantastical ways, thereby creating a unique and strange figure form. this is especially prominent in dalí’s premonition of civil war (fig. ). chimerical arms and bodies assemble together with a face contorted in pain, the kleiner points out that “painting by british artist francis bacon ( – ) is an indictment of humanity and a reflection of war’s butchery. the painting is a compelling and revolting image of a powerful, stocky man with a gaping mouth and a vivid red stain on his upper lip, as if he were a carnivore devouring the raw meat sitting on the railing surrounding him. …‘[a]n attempt to remake the violence of reality itself,’ as bacon often described his art, based on what he referred to as ‘the brutality of fact’.” see fred s. kleiner, gardner’s art through the ages (boston: wadsworth, ), . see immanuel kant, critique of judgment (new york: hafner, ), - . the journal of somaesthetics no. , politics of the extreme body resulting image bursting with imagination, giving viewers a strong visual assault. the deformed body if the strange body is a complete overturning of the body’s image, then the deformed body is a transformation of it, with the exaggeration of regular human features into abnormal features as its primary characteristic. although deformation as an artistic technique existed before, as seen in el greco’s many religious paintings featuring elongated figures, it was only after the post-impressionists (van gogh, cézanne) that modernist art saw the widespread, deliberate use of deformation. later, art historians would say, “there is a tendency toward deformation in modern art which is essentially negative. the artist deforms an object not in order to reveal it but to deny the normal and to disappoint expectations.” deformation of the body has great allure for artists because it is a bold exploration and experiment of the plasticity of the human form. there are many convincing examples of this, including amedeo modigliani’s reclining nude, which stretches the human figure beyond normal proportions, creating a peculiar image (fig. ). . amedeo modigliani: reclining nude. . the metropolitan of art. some art historians have pointed out that in the neoclassical painter jean auguste karsten harries, meaning of modern art (evanston: northwestern university press, ), . the journal of somaesthetics no. , zhou xian dominique ingres’s la grande odalisque, he elongates the figure to express the graceful slenderness of the female back and was castigated for violating the principles of realistic portrayal. in modigliani’s rendering of the deformed figure, however, there is another interpretation, the interpretation of body deformation as a new method of representation. because deformation had become the new aesthetic principle in modernist art, not only would it avoid criticism but would receive significant attention from artists and critics alike. alberto giacometti’s man pointing is even more dramatic, elongating the body completely out of proportion. the lanky, emaciated figure is extremely symbolic, producing a vivid example of the existentialist view of contemporary life. while modigliani’s and giacometti’s portrayal of the human figure is a deformation toward the vertical and slender, picasso’s women running on the beach exaggerates in the opposite direction, horizontally stretching the human figure, making it thick and solid. awkward and thick bodies and limbs run blindly along the beach, illustrating the body’s inexhaustible energy. attempting to interpret these deformed bodies, one can sense complex internal meanings. perhaps giacometti’s and picasso’s completely opposite representations of the body can be seen as a sort of symbol of modern human existence. giacometti’s long, thin bodies represent the weak, lonely state of modern man while picasso’s robust images are a parable of the obesity epidemic brought by modern consumer lifestyles. in my opinion, deformation of body is not so much a change in the state of the subject as it is a shift in the way the artist observes the body. in the early th century, the french painter maurice denis proposed the theory of “double deformation” of artistic expression. he believed that there existed two kinds of deformation in modern art: subjective deformation of nature seen through a temperament and objective deformation to make their imagination comply with the eternal laws of decor. in reality both these kinds of deformation comply with artists’ perceptions of humans. deformation signifies that the traditional concept of expressing the body as it originally is has become ineffective. replacing the traditional are various new ways of looking at the body. modern art’s exploration of body deformation shows an imagination of the body’s possibilities. just as einstein’s theory of relativity shows that space and time can be bent, so can any body in the experimental space of modernism become deformed in previously unimaginable ways. through deformation, artists express the body’s most minute and intricate meanings. maurice denis, “subjective and objective deformation,” in theories of modern art: a source book by artists and critics, eds. herschel b. chipp and peter h. selz (berkeley: university of california press, ), . the journal of somaesthetics no. , politics of the extreme body the abstract body abstract art is one of the great inventions of modernism. both european abstract artists (such as kandinsky, malevich, and picasso) and american abstract artists (such as pollock and de kooning) represent modernist art’s tremendous change in methods of visual representation. in clement greenberg’s opinion as summarized by timothy quiqley, “modernism reasserts the two-dimensionality of the picture surface. it forces the viewer to see the painting first as a painted surface, and only later as a picture.” in other words, modernist painting returns to the two-dimensional flatness of the picture surface through abstraction, allowing the art to be criticized for itself. abstract art traces its origins to the post-impressionist painter paul cézanne’s abstract landscapes, and later developed into the abstract treatment of the human figure in the cubism of georges braque and pablo picasso. abstract techniques have thoroughly changed the world with which we are familiar, with abstract bodies becoming a hallmark of modern art. cubism turns the human figure into an abstract conglomeration of geometric shapes, changing the concrete and identifiable into the unrecognizable and abstract, thus “dehumanizing” the familiar people and objects of daily life. picasso’s three musicians features no concrete human figures but rather creates new bodies from various geometric shapes. paul klee’s brother and sister uses a group of intersecting lines to form two connected images (fig. ). ( http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf ) clement greenberg, “modernist painting,” in art in theory - : an anthology of changing ideas, eds. charles harrison and paul wood (oxford: blackwell, ), - . http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf http://timothyquigley.net/vcs/greenberg-mp_sum.pdf the journal of somaesthetics no. , zhou xian .paul klee. brother and sister. . braque’s female figure reduces the human body into even simpler geometric shapes and lines. abstract art is a method of observing and representing the body. its appearance stems from deep social and cultural reasons. some art historians believe that abstract art is uniquely modern in the sense that it represents the particular acceptances and rejections of men living under the conditions of modern the journal of somaesthetics no. , politics of the extreme body times. according to a popular view, modernism is a movement that pursues the autonomy of art, so abstract art and the flatness of painting are the inevitable result of such a pursuit, which is to say that de-emphasizing the people and objects one sees in daily life can give prominence to artistic media, form, and style. simply stated, this downplays what is expressed to emphasize how it is expressed. i think, however, in terms of the artistic representation of the body, there seems to be even more complex reasons behind abstract art. making the body artistically abstract gives artists the chance to bid farewell to traditional, imitative renderings of the body and provides a new path of exploring the body as artistic expressions of the subject. in abstract art, the human body can be changed and transformed. as abstract depictions of the body hide the familiar, it recreates an unfamiliar body; as it remolds viewers’ visual understanding, it manifests the oft-ignored features of the normal body. furthermore, the abstract body reveals artists’ rich imaginations as well as how they have visually transformed the concrete world. this transformation of the body reflects the deep influence of machine age science and technology on art, and also serves as a metaphor for external societal forces molding the body, signifying how disciplining the body is not only possible but also realistic. various contemporary societal powers collude with body knowledge, disciplining diverse body types into a mechanical, cold, stiff image, into the type of body society needs, what michel foucault called the “docile body.” interestingly, while cubism enjoyed its height from to , some people ascribe its abrupt conclusion to the effects of world war i. the use of new weapons and technology inflicted unprecedented damage on mankind, destroying artists’ awe for technology and machines in but a moment, extinguishing the desire to geometrize the abstract body. thus, cubism, which employed abstract imagery as its basic technique, met its end. through the above three types of extreme bodies, we have discussed how this modernist invention has undermined the traditional beautiful body, its principles of expression, and concepts, as well as how modernist artists bursting with imagination are wildly experimenting the extreme body. in short, the human body in modernist art is like an opened pandora’s box; to many modernist artists, only representations of the extreme body have allure. robert motherwell, “what abstract art means to me,” in theories of modern art, ed. herschell b. chipp, (berkeley: university of california press, ), . see clement greenberg, “modernist painting,” charles harrison and paul wood, eds., art in theory - (oxford: blackwell, ). see geoff dyer, ed., john berger: selected essays (london: bloomsbury, ), - . the journal of somaesthetics no. , zhou xian the visual politics of representation of the extreme body as the dominant of modernist art, the extreme body thoroughly transformed the state of the body in art. at the very least, the extreme body has posed a serious challenge to aesthetics in the three following ways. first, the appearance of the extreme body was a type of “transgressed representation.” for many centuries, the beautiful body historically occupied a key space in chinese and western art, developing many aesthetic principles and paradigms of representation. the beautiful body was an idol revered and adored in art. the extreme body favored in modernist art, to some extent, fostered a movement of fierce “de-idolization”; as it abandoned the principles of the beautiful body, it created a series of transgressed representations of the extreme body. as noted earlier, representation of the extreme body has no form and is formless. it is an overturning of all rules (especially the rules of classical beauty). lack of rules and opposition to rules are its rule, for this is what makes possible the creation of various kinds of extraordinary bodies. in classical paintings, perspectives and body positions must be formulaic and structured to achieve the standard of perfection; as seen in chinese paintings of courtly ladies or western paintings of nude goddesses, these must all follow a prescribed pattern of production. modernist art, on the other hand, radically transforms the shape of the human body, imposing no limits on the body’s shape, lines, tones, or poses, but rather tends toward the strange, dramatic, and extreme. not only has the principle of beautiful bodies been broken, but even more principles of classical beauty have lost their influence. in terms of visual perspective, portrait art typically uses either an eye level or low angle. a level view conveys a sense of equality and intimacy while a low angle view reflects a reverent or even awed perspective. in modernist art, however, even these principles of perspective have been overturned, making all kinds of visual angles and relationships possible. not only is modernist western art like this, but chinese contemporary art is also this way. for example, in the contemporary chinese artist mao yan’s my poet, the perspective is that of one looking down at the subject, a view not often seen in traditional portraiture. from the angle of social relationships, looking down when examining the subject conveys a feeling of condescension for the artist or viewer. it distances the viewer from the subject of the portrait, emphasizing the superiority of the artist and viewer while placing the subject in a passive state of being looked at, judged, and diminished. another example is the contemporary chinese artist yue minjun’s repetitive large-mouthed, laughing man, which completely goes against the rules of portraiture. somewhere the journal of somaesthetics no. , politics of the extreme body between poster, advertisement, and portrait the same limitlessly repeatable image is structurally arranged, creating a startling visual effect on viewers. clearly, the body in modernist and contemporary art has broken away from traditional principles of aesthetic expression. their creation now adopts the philosophy of “anything goes.” second, representation of the extreme body has led to “visual discomfort” (or “visual offense”). while the former characteristic concentrates on the relationship between the artist and the representation of the body, the latter focuses on the relation between the representation of the extreme body and viewers’ visual psychology. as the representation of deviant bodies discards the beautiful figure, it leads to the appearance of various forms of the extreme body. when viewers look at the extreme body, they feel a sense of strangeness, novelty, and alienation. also present might be a feeling of “visual discomfort,” “visual unpleasantness,” or even “visual offense.” this is completely different from the experience of viewing classical paintings of body beauty. when admiring the splendid masterpieces of the human figure, the viewer often sinks into contemplation, forgetting oneself before the beautiful object, the distance between viewer and artwork seemingly vanished. viewing the extreme bodies of modernist art, by contrast, is often joyless, accompanied by a feeling of rejection and despair. in the words of walter benjamin, the visual effect of the extreme body is “shock” in which viewers are not drawn to the artwork but rather distanced from it. the beautiful body allows the viewer to forget the self while the extreme body strengthens the viewer’s sense of self along with a sense of visual shock. therefore we can conclude that the beautiful figure represents the characteristic of normalcy, without revealing the peculiarity or inner meaning of the body discovered by and interesting to the artist. today, artists are captivated by the idiosyncratic and extreme representations of the body. from an aesthetic perspective, the beautiful body and its expressions allow viewers to forget themselves in delight while immersing in the artwork while the visual discomfort, joylessness, and even offensiveness of the extreme body stirs one’s emotions and stimulates introspection. in this regard, the ability of the extreme body to visually shock and touch people is perhaps more deeply penetrating and thought-provoking than the visual longing induced by the beautiful body, just as we try to diagnose our symptoms when our bodies are feeling ill but tend to ignore our bodies when we are feeling fine. it is the extreme body and its representation that distinguishes the hidden and turns viewers from the familiar and uninteresting to that which shocks the senses. contemporary chinese artist zhang xiaogang, the journal of somaesthetics no. , zhou xian when explaining his works, writes: what looks like a drawing of a photograph is actually a deliberate “hand-drawn ‘sense of deviation’ to create a feeling of illusory, detached coldness and distance.” it is precisely this sense of “coldness” and “distance” that pushes people to reflect upon the bodily issues they usually ignore. lastly, the extreme body makes the body the ultimate goal of artistic representation. in traditional art, the beautiful body often serves as a utilitarian symbol through which established concepts and ideals of beauty are conveyed, thus making it difficult to prevent the beautiful from becoming typical and common. modernist art strives for an unbeautiful and anti-beautiful image, leading to a deep shift that turns the body from a means into an end in and of itself. here, it is helpful to borrow a saying of jacques derrida which states, “[a]s if with the help of a new optical device one could finally see sight, could not only view the natural landscape, the city, the bridge, and the abyss, but could ‘view’ viewing.” what derrida means is that, with the help of some device, we could not only see an object, but we could see sight itself. similarly we can say here that the beautiful body, because it pleases viewers and allows them to submerge themselves in a state of static admiration, easily eliminates viewers’ desire to reflect and probe their thoughts. the extreme body, by contrast, often creates a sense of discomfort and distance for the viewer, using unconventional or even extreme methods to illustrate the body, thus distinguishing the body’s essence and stimulating viewers’ thoughts and questions. in other words, the commonly occurring beautiful body obstructs viewers’ contemplations about the body itself whereas the extreme body, like a kind of device that allows one to view viewing itself, lets viewers see “the body itself.” if the beautiful body is meant to evoke people’s admiration, reverence, and yearning, then the extreme body is meant to help people reflect, explore, and question. therefore, unlike traditional artists who hold the body in sacred reverence, modernist artists view the body as an object that needs reconstruction and deformation to push the limits; this passes through the beautiful body’s outward appearance to directly reach the body’s most basic level. perhaps we have reason to say that the beautiful body is self-explanatory, clear, and natural while the extreme body is always a formless, obscure, unknown, and uncertain world of possibility. it is precisely this characteristic uncertainty that draws artists to explore this direction. thus, unlike the categorical, stiff, and standardized beautiful body; the extreme body tends toward diversity and singularity, thereby approaching the huang zhuan and zhang xiaogang, “experience, identity, and cultural judgments—an interview.” accessed februry , . <http://www.china .com/show_hdr.php?xname=ppddmv &dname= p q &xpos= > jacques derrida, eyes of the university: right to philosophy (stanford: stanford university press, ), . the journal of somaesthetics no. , politics of the extreme body authenticity of the body which—along with identifying markers such as gender, ethnicity, and class—reflects different ways to look at the body. endnotes photo credits: salvador dalí, gala-salvador dali foundation/billedkunst.dk  ( ), metropolitan of art ( ), permission free ( ). contact: zhou xian zhouxian@nju.edu.cn http://billedkunst.dk/ http://billedkunst.dk/ http://billedkunst.dk/ 	h.rb heju b 	h.gjdgxs 	h.gjdgxs 	h.gjdgxs 	introduction to the journal of somaesthetics 	introduction to issue number : 	olafur eliasson 	interdisciplinary approaches and 	stelarc 	on the body as an artistic material 	pan gonkai 	somaesthetics and its consequences in contemporary art 	throwing the body into the fight: 	the body as an instrument in political art 	metaphysics, corporeality and visuality: 	a developmental and comparative review of the discourses on chinese ink painting 	representation and visual politics of the extreme body 	embodied creation and perception in olafur eliasson’s and carsten höller’s projects. webmd - better information. better health. 		 skip to main content 	 coronavirus update 	 check your symptoms 	 find a doctor 	 find a dentist 	 					connect to care 				 	 					find lowest drug prices 				 	 health a-z health a-z health a-z common conditions 	 add/adhd 	 allergies 	 arthritis 	 cancer 	 coronavirus (covid- ) 	 depression 	 diabetes 	 eye health 	 heart disease 	 lung disease 	 orthopedics 	 pain management 	 sexual conditions 	 skin problems 	 sleep disorders 	 view all resources 	 symptom checker 	 webmd blogs 	 podcasts 	 newsletters 	 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caribbean studies issn: - iec.ics@upr.edu instituto de estudios del caribe puerto rico barreras del río, petra reseña de "romare bearden: the caribbean dimension" de sally price and richard price caribbean studies, vol. , núm. , julio-diciembre, , pp. - instituto de estudios del caribe san juan, puerto rico available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id= how to cite complete issue more information about this article journal's homepage in redalyc.org scientific information system network of scientific journals from latin america, the caribbean, spain and portugal non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative http://www.redalyc.org/revista.oa?id= http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id= http://www.redalyc.org/comocitar.oa?id= http://www.redalyc.org/fasciculo.oa?id= &numero= http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id= http://www.redalyc.org/revista.oa?id= http://www.redalyc.org caribbean studies vol. , no. (july - december ) howard johnson came increasingly to rely on the west indies federation as a bulwark against communism. as parker points out: “washington, for its part, integrated the wif into its security plans. besides bolstering the hemi- sphere perimeter, the wif also made a statement to the third world: that the west could be treated to sponsor ‘progressive’ decolonization” (p. ). however, the west indies federation collapsed soon after its establishment, carrying with its demise the american hopes of creating a “counter-model” for regional progress. this volume is a model of meticulous and insightful scholarship. it is a major addition to the historical literature on decolonization, on the british caribbean and on u.s. foreign policy in general. references fraser, cary. . ambivalent anti-colonialism: the united states and the gen- esis of west indian independence, - . santa barbara, ca: praeger. harrod, jeffrey. . trade union foreign policy: a study of british and american trade union in jamaica. london: macmillan. sally price and richard price. . romare bearden: the caribbean dimension. philadelphia: university of pennsyl- vania press. pp. isbn: - - - - . petra barreras del río art critic and historian petrabarreras@gmail.com romare bearden: the caribbean dimension is a handsome art publication in big format that straddles fields of study such as cultural criticism, art history and anthropology. in a concise preface, the distinguished team of caribbean scholars sally price and richard price state their intentions. first, to introduce to a larger audience a group of little known watercolors created in the caribbean by american artist romare bearden, ( - ), and to present the context in which they were produced. secondly, to propose that bearden’s caribbean artistic output, from until his death in , spearheads a transformation that grants a new critical assessment of his later production regardless of its medium, where it was created or the audience it was intended for. bearden’s work, rooted within the modernist tradition and the reseñas de libros • books reviews • comptes rendus vol. , no. (july - december ) caribbean studies african american heritage—of both, the rural south and harlem—has received well deserved recognition since the s. he had retrospectives at the museum of modern art in new york, ( ), the mint museum of art in north carolina, ( ), and the detroit institute of the arts, ( ), as well as posthumous retrospectives at the studio museum in harlem ( ), and the national gallery of art in washington, dc ( ). in october of , a national touring exhibition of his work will open at the mint museum sponsored by the national endowment of the arts that granted the project one of only five american masterpieces grants awarded to museums nationwide in . such recognition notwithstanding, the prices find, in reviewing bearden’s bibliography, that there is a void in scholarship regarding the aspect of the artist’s production that is the subject of this book. why this blind spot? they put forward two convincing reasons. although unfounded, there is a perception that watercolor is a facile medium and a minor genre within the fine arts. keenly aware of cultural hierarchies, they also cite the apathy in the united states for the art produced in the caribbean. they describe such pattern as the “american difficulty with accepting the caribbean as a site of serious culture” (p. ). the well honed team of anthropologists is up for the challenge to fill the void. the main focus of their research and publications for over years has been the caribbean region, where they continue to live and work for the better part of each year. their proficiency as researchers and writers, their knowledge of the cultures in the area and their professional and personal connections in the islands are formidable. just as powerful is the couples’ passion for the subject at hand. generous access to the holdings of the romare bearden founda- tion granted the authors a splendid variety and wealth of sources. these, which are meticulously listed in their notes, include: artwork, correspon- dence, journal notations, tape-recorded interviews, texts authored by bearden and art historical studies. in addition, they conducted interviews with many of bearden’s friends, associates and collectors in st. martin and the united states. with their usual skill, the writers bring into play a great many sources throughout the book. these are employed very effectively to anchor the first two chapters, “romare bearden: a life in art” and “a painter’s mind.” in these chapters they lay out the groundwork for several lines of discussion that re-emerge throughout the book. there is an attempt to understand and describe this artist’s creative process which was far from naive. bearden was an intellectual who lived through the harlem renaissance, received a college education, attended art schools and trav- eled to paris, the first time, with the gi bill in . he co-authored the painter’s mind: a study of the relations of structure and space in painting caribbean studies vol. , no. (july - december ) petra barreras del río ( ), an erudite book on the techniques of painting that embraces areas as diverse and complex as byzantine and renaissance art, dutch and chinese painting, cubism and abstraction. the following chapters, the prices devote to the analysis of the caribbean watercolors in their context and to comparisons with other media within bearden’s oeuvre such as painting and collage. they incorporate sound art historical research cannons. the authors became familiar with the extensive bibliography on bearden, they consulted specialists on the subject and they scrutinized the artwork to look for evidence to support their contention that the artist’s caribbean produc- tion has a significant effect on his final creative output as a whole. they argue well by underscoring the similarities among his later works and the caribbean watercolors. they carry this out by using over excellent illustrations, primarily in color. no doubt the authors accomplish what they set out to do with this publication. as they have often done, the prices use a narrower topic to consider questions larger in scope. two of the final chapters, “going to the edge: rituals of the obeah” and “don’t stop the carnival,” are devoted to bearden’s representations of important ceremonial aspects of the afri- can diaspora in the caribbean. they take advantage of some of the same sources and other informants to examine these two ritualistic traditions bringing to bear pertinent aspects of european mythologies. they add valuable insights to the discussion on the essential role of the spiritual and the celebratory in afro-caribbean continuance. romare bearden: the caribbean dimension also offers a glimpse at an intellectual and artistic milieu that is rarely represented – that of african american and afro-caribbean art historians, scholars, art- ists, musicians, writers, intellectuals, gallery owners, museum directors and collectors. the prices broach issues such as the complex role of an african american intellectual/artist, the abundance and significance of african american and afro-caribbean sources and the hierarchical structures and racism that pervade cultural production. it is refreshing when the deviate from standard english whether using other variations themselves or citing from bearden’s close friend and intellectual partner albert murray or from nobel prize writer derek walcott. the prices quote most extensively from romare bearden himself. in the preface they introduce a segment from an interview that explains the artist’s vital relationship with the caribbean: “art will go where energy is. i find a great deal of energy in the caribbean… it’s like a volcano there, there is something underneath that still smothers.” without ques- tion, it is the “smothering underneath” (p. ) that stirs sally price and richard price to continue to produce fine scholarship on the caribbean as a region. d structure analysis: architecture as an expression of the ties between geometry and philosophy tamara bellone , luigi mussio ; chiara porporato diati, politecnico di torino, torino, italy , tamara.bellone@polito.it/chiara.porporato@gmail.com dica, politecnico di milano, milano, italy, luigi.mussio@polimi.it commission ii key words: euclidean geometry, projective geometry, non euclidean geometries, mathematics and philosophy, mathematics and architecture, philosophy of architecture. abstract: in recent decades many geomatics-based methods have been created to reconstruct and visualize objects, and these include digital photogrammetry, lidar, remote sensing and hybrid techniques. the methods used to process such data are the result of research straddling the fields of geomatics and computer vision, and employ techniques arising from approaches of analytical, geometric and statistical nature. one of the most fascinating fields of application concerns architecture, which, moreover, has always depended on mathematics generally and, more specifically, on geometry. throughout history the link between geometry and architecture has been strong and while architects have used mathematics to construct their buildings, geometry has always been the essential tool allowing them to choose spatial shapes which are aesthetically appropriate. historically, mathematics and philosophy have been interrelated; many philosophers of the past were also mathematicians. the link between philosophy and architecture is twofold: on the one hand, philosophers have discussed what architecture is, on the other, philosophy has contributed to the development of architecture. we will deal with the ties between architecture, geometry and philosophy over the centuries. although there are artistic suggestions that go beyond time and space, and there are genial precursors, we can identify, in principle, some epochs: the ancient era, the modern era, and finally the contemporary epoch, from the crisis of positivistic sciences to globalisation. . introduction architecture, geometry and philosophy are connected by some interrelations. indeed, throughout history the link between geometry and architecture has been strong and while architects have used mathematics to construct their buildings, geometry has always been the essential tool allowing them to choose spatial shapes which are aesthetically appropriate. the link between art and mathematics is recognizable in the works of painters and architects throughout history. historically, mathematics and philosophy have been interrelated; many philosophers of the past were also mathematicians. plato went as far as saying that without mathematics there would be no philosophy as mathematics was a precondition for its birth. the truth of mathematics is not guaranteed by an external authority: mathematics introduces a universality free from mythological and religious assumptions, because it depends on rational and refutable demonstrations (badiou, ). descartes introduced mathematical reasoning, but also the reductio ad absurdum into philosophy, while spinoza's texts resemble mathematical proofs, and leibniz invented infinitesimal calculus. kant also believed that mathematics was indispensable to philosophy, and his conception of mathematics is of the a priori type. the link between philosophy and architecture is twofold: on the one hand, philosophers have discussed what architecture is, on the other, philosophy has contributed to the development of architecture an important stage in the relationship between philosophy and architecture opens with the publication of kant's critique of judgment. previously, the only architectural theorists in the west had been vitruvius and leon battista alberti. currently, the philosophy of architecture is a branch of the philosophy of the arts dealing with aesthetics, semantics and the relationship between architecture and culture. below, we will deal with the relationship between architecture, geometry and philosophy over the centuries. although there are artistic suggestions that go beyond time and place, and there are genial precursors, we can identify, in principle, some specific epochs:  the ancient era is characterized by euclidean geometry, the birth of western philosophy, and proportion and harmony in architecture, obtained through the golden ratio amongst other mathematical approaches. this period goes up to and includes the romanesque.  the construction of perspective and projective geometry, rationalistic philosophy linked to the birth of modern science, characterize the second architectural period (modern era), whose styles range from gothic to baroque, through the renaissance. during this period, the structure, often hidden, of the building takes on great importance (odifreddi, ); indeed, many architects are also mathematicians.  the departure from euclidean geometry, initiated by the development of projective geometry, continued from the mid-eighteenth century, with a reflection on the logical foundations of geometry, which led to the analysis of euclid's fifth postulate (stewart, ). non-euclidean geometries, topology, the discovery of n-dimensional space, on the one hand, and the crisis of positivism and the sciences, along with the theory of relativity on the other, had an overwhelming impact on art and architecture in the third epoch.  nowadays, mathematics is everywhere, innovative media are based on binary language and on more and more innovative algorithms, but there is no link between mathematics and philosophy (badiou, ).on the contrary, mathematics and computing are linked to contemporary art ( computer art), and are an important part of architectural projects. the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. mailto:luigi.mussio@polimi.it . from antiquity to the renaissance: the golden ratio the pythagoreans believed that the universe was founded on numbers. the main empirical support to pythagorean concepts came from music: there is a connection between harmonic sounds and numerical ratios. if a string produces a note of a certain tone, a mid-length string produces a very harmonious note, called an octave. but one of pythagoras' followers, hippasus of metapontum, proved that the diagonal of a unitary square cannot be expressed in an exact fraction: the discovery of irrational numbers was devastating for the pythagoreans. a solid is regular (platonic) if it has equal rectangular polygon faces, positioned in the same way in the vertices. the pythagoreans associated solids (tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosahedron) to the four primary elements (earth, air, water, fire) and quintessence. euclid proved that there are no other regular solids. the dodecahedron and icosahedron call the pentagonal; if we inscribe a five-pointed star in the pentagon, the relationship between the star's side and the pentagon side is an irrational number: , … remember that we denote the golden number by φ (in honour of fidias). if a segment ab is divided into two parts, such as : ab:ac=ac:cb, point c divides the segment in the so called golden ratio. the number ab/ac is the golden number. where ab is equal to , φ is . . indeed: thus, euclid studied regular solids in order to study irrational numbers. since antiquity this proportion has been considered a symbol of the harmony and beauty of the universe, and kepler, indeed, came to believe that the order of the universe was based precisely on divine proportions: "i am convinced that this geometric proportion served from the idea to the creator, when he introduced the continuous generation of shapes similar to each other.” johannes kepler ( - ) was very interested in the golden ratio. he wrote, "geometry has two great treasures: one is the theorem of pythagoras, the other the division of a line into mean and extreme ratios, that is , the golden mean. the first way may be compared to a measure of gold, the second to a precious jewel." indeed, kepler's triangle (figure ) combines these two mathematical concepts—the pythagorean theorem and the golden ratio. kepler first demonstrated that this triangle is characterised by a ratio between short side and hypotenuse equal to the golden ratio. fig. kepler’s triangle a golden ratio pyramid is based on a triangle whose three sides represent the mathematical relationship that defines the golden ratio. the golden section and architecture have a long historical relationship: the ancient egyptians and ancient greeks incorporated this and other mathematical relationships, such as the : : triangle, into the design of monuments including the great pyramid and the parthenon. the cheops pyramid has the following dimensions: height of about . m, the other cathetus of . m (the side of the square is . m): the hypotenuse is therefore , m if we give the minor cathetus a value of , we obtain the following ratio: . : : . ; since the square root of . is . , we can deduce that in the construction of the cheops pyramid the golden section was applied (figure ). in fact, the angle between the base and the cathetus of a : : rectangular triangle is ¾, that means a % slope ( °): actually cheops pyramid has a ° slope. fig. cheops pyramid pre-columbian stepped pyramids (figure ) also have square base, while guimar (in tenerife) pyramids have a rectangular base, as do ziggurats (figure ). the golden ratio, for the very reason that it is seen as an ideal of beauty and harmony, is also found in many classical greek sculptures, such as the doryphoros by polykleitos. homer knows hybris (ύβρις): at the beginning of the iliad, achilles shows a deathly anger, as agamemnon has taken for himself, with arrogance and violence, his prey, briseid. nemesis is the punishment for hybris; the opposite of hybris is the sense of limits (the sense of limits is well known also in politics, as in the case of solon). the sense of limits is clearly linked to harmony, symmetry and proportion. ancient egyptians and greeks had a long-lasting intercourse: pythagoras discovered in egypt his measuring techniques: thus, geometry and numbers were associated from the beginnings of history. fig. el castillo pyramid, chichen itza, mexico numbers were matched to divinities (the egyptian god thot, or prometheus, uranus,…), so that geometry had, at certain times, a sacred value (zellini, ). the greeks thought of celestial movements as precise and perfect, but also said that perfection is not of our world, which is inexact and ruled by “more-or-less” situations (koyré, ). similarly, in the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=pythagorean% theorem&item_type=topic https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=hypotenuse&item_type=topic morality: mathematical approximations to an irrational number resemble excess and deficiency in our moral life (zellini, ). fig. ur ziggurat, iraq in contrast, the association of the material world of forms and the abstract world of numbers may be the origin of the link between natural sciences and mathematics, which in turn is the basis of newton’s physics in the th century (capra, mattei, ). however, art is an access to the world of exactness and perfection, since art evokes cosmic order. golden rectangles are observable on the façade of the parthenon (figure ). in the parthenon, the overall height is the golden section of the width of the front part; thus, the facade has the size of a golden rectangle. this golden ratio is repeated several times between different elements of the front, for example, between the overall height and the height of the entablature. fig. the parthenon, athens it might indeed appear that constructions designed using the golden ratio are based on an aesthetic archetype: puerta del sol near la paz, for example, is based on golden rectangles (figure ). in , gustav fechner ( - ), the inventor of psychometry, performed a statistical test on a number of people without any artistic background, asking them to choose one of a number of rectangles: the most frequent choice was a golden rectangle. fig. puerta del sol, teotihuacan, bolivia the “most beautiful relation” (according to plato’s timaeus) is also present in the theatre at epidaurus (figure ), built by polykleitos the younger. the stage is surrounded by a first group of steps; thereafter a double-step space, a second group of steps is present; the ratio / , which is to say . , as / is to say . . fig. theatre at epidaurus also, in a regular pentagon, some φ ratios are present: two diagonals without a common vertex are mutually bisected into golden proportions. in a regular pentagon, too, the diagonal and one side have a golden ratio. diagonals of a regular pentagon, cross in the shape of a five- vertex star, plus a smaller pentagon. the procedure can be iterated indefinitely, as proved by hippasus of metapontum. military engineers have generally used a pentagon (figure ) in the design of fortresses (see also the pentagon at washington, dc). even in several, important paintings, an underlying pentagonal and five-pointed star structure may be discerned. fig. the design of the citadel of turin indeed, euclidean geometry informed architectural styles right up to the romanesque period. the sectio aurea was of great interest during the renaissance, from leon battista alberti to leonardo da vinci to: one charming example (figure ) of such is sant’ andrea church in mantua (leon battista alberti, ). the most important architectural theory treatise is “de architectura” by vitruvius, according to whom the architect must know philosophy in order to be motivated not only for practical purposes but also for aesthetics. the architect must build taking into account stability (firmitas), utility (utilitas) and beauty (venustas). the idea of vitruvius, and later of leon battista alberti and others, is that beauty, born of proportion and symmetry, is the result of an underlying ideal reality in which there is regularity and order. the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. fig. sant’ andrea, mantua (alberti, ) . the modern era: the birth of the infinite thomas aquinas says that a thing is beautiful not because it is pleasing but because it is beautiful in itself. each thing is beautiful in so far as it manifests: wholeness (integritas), harmony (consonantia) and radiance (claritas) (haldane, ). panofsky proposes a parallel between the gothic cathedral and scholastic philosophy: both aspire to totality, articulation and coherence. the expressive architectural form, typical of the gothic style, reflects and is built thanks to a precise mental habit, articulated according to the principles of scholastic philosophy (panofsky, ). renaissance artists invented perspective, in order to more realistically represent the three dimensions on a flat surface. the construction of perspective remains within the domain of euclidean geometry. brunelleschi and leon battista alberti (de pictura, ) simplified human vision by imagining that the artist saw the scene from a single eye. the relation of parallelism is not maintained, in fact if we are the center of a road we see that the edges, in parallel relatives, meet in a single point, on the horizon: the core of the technique lies in the vanishing point placed at infinity. central perspective is often considered natural and immediate. according to erwin panofsky (panofsky, ), however, space as conceived by brunelleschi and alberti is mathematical and rational, preceding the analytic geometry of descartes and the copernican revolution: perspective is a symbolic construction (this concept was introduced by cassirer). the artists who painted the orthodox icons could never have invented perspective, as they had to place christ in a spiritual and unrealistic space. in this regard, we compare three paintings on the same theme, the crucifixion of christ: an orthodox icon, a renaissance painting and a painting by chagall, which deliberately returns to anti-perspective (figures , and ). in ancient times the purpose of natural philosophy was to understand nature in order to live in harmony, while from the seventeenth century onwards the philosophy of nature turned into the science of nature and its purpose became to use science to use nature, not to understand it: the world was res extensa, while man was outside nature, res cogitans. copernicus, tiho brahe, cardano are referable to the artistic renaissance, but the new science (galileo, kepler, descartes, harvey, huygens, ...) does not have the same vision of the baroque. indeed the ambiguity, illusion, emotionality and sensoriality inherent in baroque, do not coincide with the values of the new science: clarity, truth, rationality some artists began to introduce ambiguity between constructed space and perceived space, starting with anamorphosis. generally, architects and painters of the th century used, particularly for ceiling frescos, a series of vanishing points in order to limit the paradoxical effects of perspective. some innovators, such as niceron, maignan and andrea del pozzo, used a unique, central viewpoint which resulted in significant distortion at the edges. fig. the crucifixion, ( th century), at ohrid fig. the crucifixion, raphael ( ) fig. the white crucifixion, chagall ( ) the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. moreover, the quadrature, which developed from the sixteenth century onwards, together with the studies on perspective, created the illusion of spaces different and broader than the real: there are numerous 'fake' vaults in baroque churches (figure ). baroque architecture is linked to the projective geometry and mathematics of the time. in the meantime, in fact, a new type of geometry, later called projective, had developed from the studies of the architect desargues. this new geometry does not negate the presuppositions of euclidean geometry, but it extends its boundaries: in fact it allows us to represent the infinite through the improper points. fig. false dome, sant’ignazio di loyola, rome (andrea pozzo, ) projective geometry rediscovered conics, baroque architects used them in an innovative way compared to the ancient greeks. moreover, the design of these structures was made easier by the introduction of descriptive geometry, which permitted the design of the volumes. desargues was an architect and a mathematician, he wrote an essay on the results of taking plane sections of a cone” (brouillon proiect d’une atteinte aux evenemens des rencontres du cone avec un plan). shapes and sizes change according to the plane of incidence that cuts the cone of the projection, but certain properties remain the same throughout such changes, or remain invariant under the transformation, and it is these properties that desargues studied. conic sections, including parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, and circles, can be obtained by continuously varying the inclination of the plane that makes the section, which means that they may be transformed into one another by suitable projections and are therefore continuously derivable from each other (figure ). space is considered to be that which enables such transformations. in other terms, perspective produces a series of corresponding shapes which are very different from the originals. nonetheless, they share some proportional properties based on the involution relation. the dissimilitude between the projected objects and their originals appertains to the relative positions of the eye (or the vertex of a cone) and the projection plane (debuiche, ). according to leibniz, each monad expresses the world from its own particular point of view. he often refers to the transformations of projective geometry, which he had learned directly from desargues. even leibniz, like many other thinkers of the seventeenth century, tries to find a solution to the problem inherited by descartes on the relationship between res cogitans (spirituality) and res extensa (materiality): leibniz will find a solution to the question diametrically opposed to that of hobbes, arguing that there is only res cogitans: the only existing reality, for the german thinker, ends up being the spiritual reality and what we commonly call "matter" is nothing but a secondary manifestation of res cogitans. fig. conics if the monads are representations of reality, they must necessarily also be perceptions of reality, that is, ways of grasping what in reality takes place. each monad, as we said, has perception (because it represents) of the universe from a single point of view, but the monad that counts most of all (god) collects in itself all the infinite points of view on the universe. appearances, on the other hand, are perceptions endowed with self-awareness. man is endowed with it, but also many other animals: for leibniz there is not that clear distinction between man and animal asserted by descartes. in other words, those who have apperceptions not only represent the world, but also have the awareness of perceiving it. for newton, in contrast, first there is space and time, and then, later, other things: and moreover it is impossible to imagine bodies without resorting to space. space for the english thinker ends up being a sort of container in which all things and subjects are perceived, a container that was born before and that would continue to exist even if there were no longer things and subjects that occupy it. for leibniz, however, before space and time there are things, which he calls monads, and space and time are simply relations that are established between the same: they are the material monads that establish reciprocal relationships giving life to space; in the same way, time is the succession of states of the monads. caramuel and guarini were mathematicians as well as architects (and ecclesiastics). juan caramuel y lobkowitz ( - ) traveled across europe ending up, as a punishment, in vigevano. he is considered one of the forerunners of binary calculation and the inventor of oblique architecture, he adhered to the philosophical probabilism, according to which conscience could prevail, in certain cases, over religious doctrine. caramuel's concept is distant from that of bacon and descartes: for him the world is not mechanistic, but complex and full of interactions and connections. the façade of the cathedral of vigevano (figure )is oblique and strongly offset from the axis of the cathedral and also from the axis of the square, and it opens onto the square like a stage. gradually, we have passed from circular designs to the oval and then to elliptical ones: how then could we not think of kepler's celestial geometries? in contrast, guarini supports the thesis that all the arts depend on mathematics and philosophy: these sciences deal with relationships between objects and with their proportions; his mathematical-philosophical treatise placita philosophica reveals the influence of descartes' thought. the works of guarini are completely imbued with the aspirations of the baroque style, for example, the structure of guarini's chapel of the holy shroud dome (figure ) consists of parts, the main cone in turn consists of six levels the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. of triangles, tapering upwards, so as to obtain an illusion of greater height. fig. the cathedral of vigevano, th century fig. the chapel of the holy shroud, turin (guarini, ) moreover, the famous colonnade of st. peter's square by bernini (figure ) reflects, in a certain sense, the principles of caramuel's oblique architecture. fig. colonnade of st. peter's square what appears to be seen from one particular viewpoint, at the center of the hemicycle, gradually transforms as the observer proceeds towards the large portico: the columns swell, the bases and capitols are deformed, the pillars become oblique, above all in the areas on the margins, just like in the horrors of the artists who apply anamorphosis. (figures a and b). the first anamorphosis depicts saint francis of paula in prayer, under a tree: this image can be seen from the end of the corridor. if you stand directly in front of the fresco, the figure of the saint is deformed, while a marine landscape appears beneath him. fig. a fresco at trinità dei monti convent, rome fig. b fresco at trinità dei monti convent, rome thanks to the rhythmic succession of concave and convex wavy parts and to the adoption of innovative and unusual designs, the baroque buildings give the illusion that a fantasy world is opening up before the onlooker. (figures and ). fig. sant’ivo alla sapienza, rome (borromini, ) fig. san carlo alle quattro fontane, rome (borromini, ) the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. . from crisis of knowledge, to globalization euler, had noticed that a surface in a three-dimensional space, described by an equation, could also be studied if a pair of coordinates, u(x,y,z) and v(x,y,z) upon the surface were to be associated: for instance, latitude and longitude upon a spherical surface. gauss, for his part, initiated “intrinsic” investigation of surfaces. thus, in euclidean space, a surface may be studied both “from outside”, by its equation, and “intrinsically”, having its local metrics described as intrinsic coordinates by a differential (borzacchini, ). in this respect, gauss anticipated hyperbolic and elliptical geometries (lobačevsky and riemann). it is easy to see that all triangles upon a sphere (i.e. the earth, more or less...) have angles whose global amplitude is over °. also, all geodesics meet at two points only. in this case, we can say that curvature is positive. moreover, in the said geometry, parallels are quite absent. in contrast, for hyperbolic geometry, total amplitude of inner angles for triangles is less than ° and the curvature is described as negative: in this case, the number of parallels at a single point to a given geodesic is unlimited (figure ). in an approach to the mathematical problem seeking a unitary understanding of different geometrical theories, as suggested by klein, new developments in geometry also raise a philosophical question: what is the connection between geometry and the real world? cayley shows reciprocal connections between euclidean and projective geometry, and it is due to him that, to this day, that the distinction is made between “elliptic” and “hyperbolic” non-euclidean geometries, with normal euclidean geometry defined as parabolic, seen as a transitional case. all the aforementioned geometries may be taken to be special cases (or sub-geometries) of projective geometry, which proves independent from the euclidean postulate of parallel lines (stewart, ). the curve perception of straight lines depends on the physiology of the eye: the retina is curved. our eye experiences all three geometries euclidean, spherical and hyperbolic (odifreddi, ). fig. geodesics on different surfaces for poincaré too, mathematics has a dual nature, on one side it shares a border with philosophy, and on the other with physics. newton returns to democritus' idea that space is an empty container, in which bodies move freely, until they encounter forces acting on them. before newton, the idea of a space as an entity separate from objects was not accepted, it was about extensive objects, that being was not separate from space, space was the extension, a prerogative of being (the res extensa of descartes). in fact, aristotle, himself, was already asking how, if there is nothing between one substance and another, space exists, if indeed it does. the philosophical issue was overshadowed by the success of newtonian physics, which allows great practical results, but nonetheless remained in the background. and einstein, initially influenced by mach, reflected on the problem of being and non-being. furthermore, it was said that newton's absolute space could be the gravitational field. the world no longer consists of particles in space, gravitational fields and magnetic fields, but only with particles and fields, it is not necessary to hypothesize absolute space. the gravitational field is therefore not within space, but it is space itself. space is not a rigid container, but it bends, twists, is flexible. the sun folds space around: the earth then moves straight into a tilting space (rovelli, ). not only does space spin, but time too: einstein feels that time runs faster higher up and slower, nearer the earth. the story of the two twins is well-known: the one who lived in the mountains is a little older than the other one who lived at sea level. for kant, mathematics is universal not because it relates to reality, but because it relates to the universal cognitive structure, kant's thesis is not similar to that of wittgenstein, for whom mathematics is only one of the possible languages (he was interested in many different topics, e.g. architecture, indeed he built a house for his sister as shown in figure ): for kant mathematics is a transcendental type of formalism. fig. wittgenstein’s house, (engelmann and wittgenstein, ) the kantian doctrine of space and time did not arise from psychological considerations, but mathematical and physical ones. space and time are forms, that is, their reality is not that of things, but of conditions, of a priori presuppositions for all our empirical knowledge: space and time are objective without being absolute. there is a great difference in the philosophy of architecture before and after kant. according to kant’s critique of judgment ( ), architecture like any other form of art, is considered an expression of abstract aesthetic ideas, and not merely a result of the pursuit of utility and beauty as it had been for vitruvius. indeed, for kant the aesthetic judgment differs little from theoretical and moral judgments: all are “a priori”. the concept of space and time, as forms of intuition- said cassirer- does not require any change, in the perspective of the theory of relativity, provided that we continue to interpret them as conditions of every possible intuition. heisenberg says: "... at the heart of the question, there is always kant's antinomy, as i have already said, so, on the one hand, it is very difficult to imagine that matter can be subdivided indefinitely, and on the other. it is equally difficult to think that this subdivision finds at a certain point, abruptly, an end. ultimately, antinomy was born, as we now know, from the erroneous application of our intuition to the situations of the microscopic world. the greatest influence on the physics and chemistry in the last century has undoubtedly been exerted by democritus' atomic theory; it allows for an intuitive description of chemical processes at the microscopic the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. level. atoms can be compared to the point masses of newtonian mechanics and such a comparison leads to a satisfactory statistical heat theory. in fact, the atoms of the chemists were, at the time, not considered pointy masses, but small planetary systems; the atomic nucleus was composed of protons and neutrons, but it was thought that electrons, protons and possibly even neutrons could be considered as real atoms in the sense of the last indivisible bricks of matter. the atomic representation of democritus thus became, for the last hundred years, an integral part of a physicist's general materialistic framework; it was easily understandable and rather intuitive, and also determined the scientific thinking of those physicists who did not want to have anything to do with philosophy. at this point, i would like to justify my hypothesis that in today's elementary physics, good physics is unknowingly ruined by bad philosophy. use of a language that derives from traditional philosophy is inevitable. one wonders: ‘what is the proton? can the electron be subdivided or not? how light is simple or composed?’ and so on. but all these questions are wrong, because the "split" or "consist of" expressions have largely lost their meaning. we should therefore adapt our problems, our language and our thoughts, that is our natural philosophy, to this new situation created by the experiments. but this is unfortunately very difficult. thus, in the physics of particles, there are constantly misunderstood false questions and incorrect representations. [...] if we want to compare the knowledge of current particle physics to some previous philosophy, this could only be platonic philosophy; in fact, the particles of today's physics, as the theory teaches, are representations of symmetry groups, and are thus comparable to the symmetrical bodies of platonic doctrine.” note that the first signs of the twentieth-century revolution in art and architecture were, on the one hand, the impressionists and their precursors (divisionists, macchaioli, symbolists, ...), on the other hand the art nouveau (modernism, jugendstil) and the catalan school of gaudì (figure ). quadratic surfaces and catenary curves have been present in modern architecture only since gaudì. fig. casa batllò, barcelona ( ) the most famous exponent of the modern movement was le corbusier, according to whom architecture had to be human- friendly. indeed, le corbusier reawakened the interest in human proportions and vitruvian rules, he created the modulor (from module, unit of measure and or, golden section). the the high court of justice (figure ) is a mix of traditions and modernism. fig. the high court of justice, chandigarh ( - ) the exploration undertaken by the so-called avant-gardes (expressionism, abstractionism, cubism, etc.) began in with les demoiselles d'avignon by pablo picasso (figure ), and influenced all the arts, architecture above all. both non-euclidean geometry and the theory of relativity are at the root of cubism. cubist painting introduces a fourth dimension: time; in point of fact, one picture can have simultaneously different viewpoints, permitting analysis at different times (figure ). the einstein astronomic observatory at potsdam ( - ) is convex and concave in its surfaces, with many openings. (figure ). fig. les demoiselles d’avignon, (picasso, ) fig. dora mar au chat (picasso, ) the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. fig. einstein astronomic observatory, potsdam after october , despite its highly critical situation, with civil war and famine all around, the soviet union displayed a sudden flowering of artistic trends: actually, anatolij lunačarskij as the minister of culture, granted great freedom to artists. consequently, two trends emerged: pure, abstract art represented by kandinsky and malevich. (figure ), and a more realistic art, linked to social needs (tatlin, rodchenko), known as constructivism. the most representative result is the design for a monument to the rd international ( - ) by tatlin, which was however cancelled for economic reasons: it should have been a steel skew structure, able to support a mobile glass cover (figure ). lissitzky conceived the idea of building a cluster of horizontal skyscrapers in moscow (figure ), but this idea was never realized. fig. cow and violin (malevich, ) fig. the monument to the third international (tatlin) fig. horizontal skyscraper ( ) after , an authoritarian political trend suffocated constructivism, and in , soviet architecture returned to classicism, a typical effect of reactionary involution (montanari, ). globalized society has lost touch with the strong views of the previous two centuries. in the nineteen-eighties, derrida thought that the time had come, to take care of hidden aspects, even in architecture (deconstructivism). so, new buildings began to appear, far removed from old rules, as a superimposition of diverse volumes, which appear as interpretable in different ways. the deconstructivistic architecture exhibition at new york ( ) shows plans by frank o. gehry (figure ), peter eisenman. danile libeskind, zaha hadid (figure ), bernard tschumi, rem koolhas and the coop himmelbau from wien. they all pay due attention to the russian experiences of the twenties. fig. dancing house, prague (gehry, ) it should also be noted that figures in these buildings are derived from fractal geometry, as well as from non-euclidean geometries, as in the architectural realizations of gehry and libeskind (figures and ). notice that this part of mathematics goes beyond the traditional one (composed of algebra and geometry) and moves towards abstract contents, as presented by topology. in this context, mathematical analysis enlarges its field of interest, just as art and architecture assume non- conventional aspects. the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. fig. cristal hall, baku (hadid, ) fig. centre for brain health, las vegas ( gehry, ) fig. royal ontario museum, toronto (libeskind, ) . conclusion the aim of this paper is to emphasize the link between sciences and humanities, recognizing that a unified culture persisted until the end of the th century and the beginning of the th . an important demonstration of this is given by architects and physicians, who studied mathematics and physics at the time, at the école preparatoire, before entering their proper universities. unfortunately, after this period the situation changed, particularly in italy, where those studying mathematics and philosophy, like peano, enriques, etc., became marginal in the diffusion of culture. another aspect deals with the connections among architecture, mathematics and philosophy, as studied mainly in continental europe. such connections can represent attempts towards a theory which interprets modern architectural realisations through mathematical and philosophical ideas. obviously, these are only attempts, but culture develops one step at a time, overcoming its errors, as stated by engels in antiduring (engels, ). a new proposal could be a philosophy of geodesy and geomatics. indeed, since geodetic and geomatics contents are becoming more and more immaterial, it is conceivable that geodesy and geomatics, besides having close relations with mathematics and physics, can meet human sciences. references badiou, a., . elogio delle matematiche. mimesis, milano-udine. borzacchini, l., . storia e fondamenti della matematica. www.dm.uniba.it/members capra, f. and mattei, u., . ecologia del diritto. aboca edizioni, sansepolcro (arezzo). cassirer, e., . i problemi filosofici della teoria della relatività. mimesis, milano-udine. debuiche, v., leibniz’s manuscripts on perspective. th international conference of the european society for the history of science, nov , athens, greece. dellapiana, e. and montanari, g. ( ). una storia dell’architettura contemporanea. utet, novara. gombrich, e.h., . la storia dell’arte. einaudi, torino engels, f., . antiduring. editori riuniti, roma. holdane, j., . form, meaning and value: a history of the philosophy of architecture. the journal of architecture. vol. ( ), pp - . koyré, a., . dal mondo del pressappoco all’universo della precisione. einaudi, torino. odifreddi, p., . una via di fuga. mondadori, milano. panofsky, e., . la prospettiva come forma simbolica ed altri scritti. feltrinelli, milano. panofsky, e., . gothic architecture and scholasticims. abscondita, milano. rovelli, c., . sette brevi lezioni di fisica. adelphi, milano. rovelli, c., . l’ordine del tempo. adelphi, milano. sala, n. and cappellato, g., . viaggio matematico nell’arte e nell’architettura. franco angeli, milano. stewart, i., . numeri incredibili. bollati boringhieri, torino. zellini, p., . la matematica degli dei e gli algoritmi degli uomini. adelphi, milano. zoja, l., . storia dell’arroganza, moretti e vitali, bergamo. the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , th intl. workshop d-arch “ d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures”, – february , bergamo, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. https://doi.org/ . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. untitled picasso's science and charity: paternalism versus humanism in medical practice the harvard community has made this article openly available. please share how this access benefits you. your story matters citation katz, joel t., and shahram khoshbin. . “picasso's science and charity: paternalism versus humanism in medical practice.” open forum infectious diseases ( ): ofw . doi: . /ofid/ofw . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ofid/ofw . published version doi: . /ofid/ofw citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos: terms of use this article was downloaded from harvard university’s dash repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to other posted material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#laa http://osc.hul.harvard.edu/dash/open-access-feedback?handle=&title=picasso's% science% and% charity:% paternalism% versus% humanism% in% medical% practice&community= / &collection= / &owningcollection / &harvardauthors=e d bb de d c d &department http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos: http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#laa http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#laa http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- :hul.instrepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#laa open forum infectious diseases p e r s p e c t i v e picasso’s science and charity: paternalism versus humanism in medical practice joel t. katz and shahram khoshbin division of infectious diseases and department of neurology, brigham and women’s hospital, harvard medical school, boston, massachusetts keywords. art and medicine; history of doctor patient relationship; infectious diseases; picasso. to those familiar only with pablo picasso’s ( – ) groundbreaking modernism for which he is renown, his early realistic paintings may seem surprising. born in the mediterranean harbor of málaga, “pablito” (as picasso was called by his fam- ily) was raised in tight quarters by an in- corrigibly optimistic and good humored mother and an unoriginal painter father who “had a twofold problem: the inclina- tion to be an artist but not the gifts, and the temperament of a gentleman of leisure but not the means.” (john richardson. a life of picasso: the prodigy, – , volume i. alfred a. knopf, ny. ( ) p. .) the product of a difficult birth at which he was nearly given up for dead (normal mailer. portrait of picasso as a young man. the atlantic monthly press, ny. ( ) p. .), young pablito—appar- ently spoiled in demeanor and fussed over by indulgent sisters and aunts—is reported to have begun drawing before he could speak. he became an artistic prodigy and master, and his ability to render the figure quickly surpassed his father‘s and then all of his art school contemporaries’, many of whom were a decade or more his senior (figure ). two of picasso’s most important early influences were physicians, who likely played a role in his choice of early subject matter. his paternal uncle, dr. salvador ruiz, was a respected physician, including to an augustine convent, who financed both his brother’s (picasso’s father) and picasso’s art training. at age , picasso en- tered art school at the instituto da guarda, where the director, dr. ramon perez cou- teles, also a physician, recognized his uni- que talents and became both a role model and patron—the first to commission and purchase works by picasso. picasso’s science and charity (cover, – ) is the middle of similarly themed paintings produced during a pro- tracted cholera epidemic in his hometown (from which of his sisters apparently died in infancy) and in the immediate wake of his beloved younger sister conchita’s death from diphtheria at age in (richardson. p. ). the other disease- themed paintings in the series are the sick woman ( ) and last moments ( ). during this period, the first glimmers of sci- ence’s promise to alter the course of disease were at the center of public and picasso’s at- tention. discoveries in the preceding decade showed significant progress against some of the most feared scourges, including diph- theria, at the time pictured on sir william osler’s personal bookplate cartoon as the boldest pathogen in the foreground, unde- terred by science and hygiene (https:// profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/resource metadata/gfbbcj). the diphtheria bacteria was identified in and grown in culture in ; antitoxin was discovered in , shown to be effective in animals in and in humans in , and mass produced for wide use in . tragically, although diphtheria antitoxin was available to weal- thy urban spanish families, it could not be secured in time to save conchita, and sub- sequently the family could not afford to give her a proper burial. picasso’s deep sad- ness, which he later reported inspired him to pursue his passion for art (ibid. p. .), is captured in his inscription accompany- ing a later print: “at the end of the road death waits for everyone, even though the rich go in carriages and the poor on foot.” (ibid. p. .) drawing on picasso’s artistic predeces- sors, science and charity extends a motif depicting the authoritative and dispassion- ate medical doctor, contrasted in this case to a nun exuding empathy and tenderness, and the patient is positioned squarely be- tween the extremes. the physician coldly monitors the pulse (see another example of this common physician-patient motif at http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/ art/ ), while the nun attends to the patient’s sustenance and family needs and offers a reassuring gaze. this posture of scientific authority and distance reinforced professional prestige in the public eye at a time when there were few or no effective treatments available. picasso’s father sat as the model for the physician. the paint- ing was exhibited at the exposición provin- cial de málaga (receiving the coveted gold medal) and exposición general de bellas artes in madrid (honorable mention)— an extraordinary feat for a -year-old student (marilyn mccully. picasso: the early years, – . national gallery of art, washington ( ) p. .). picasso gave the painting to his uncle salvador, who likely recognized it as homage to received january ; accepted march . correspondence: j. t. katz, brigham and women’s hospital, boston, massachusetts (jkatz@partners.org). open forum infectious diseases® © the author . published by oxford university press on behalf of the infectious diseases society of america. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivs licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /), which permits non-commercial reproduction and distribution of thework,inanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisnotaltered ortransformedinanyway,andthattheworkisproperlycited.for commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup. com. doi: . /ofid/ofw perspective • ofid • https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/resourcemetadata/gfbbcj https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/resourcemetadata/gfbbcj https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/resourcemetadata/gfbbcj https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/resourcemetadata/gfbbcj http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/ http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/ http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/ mailto:jkatz@partners.org http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / himself. soon after producing science and charity, his family pooled their re- sources together to send him to madrid, where the scope of his artistic influences and possibilities for attention increased dramatically. a skilled draftsman, picasso aban- doned academic techniques in favor of pioneering contemporary methods (eg, cubism, abstract painting, printmaking, and ceramics) for which he is so closely identified. throughout all phases of his career, picasso recognized the power of symbolism and metaphor to stimulate the imagination of his audience. the metaphorical distance portrayed so skillfully by picasso between doctor and patient—authority and afflicted—was pro- moted by medical organizations as a valued attribute of the profession that, through the th century, increasingly became a source of public debate and professional tension. dr. francis weld peabody—near his own death in —famously bucked the estab- lishment tide, writing that “the secret of the care of the patient is in caring for the patient.” (peabody fw. the care of the pa- tient. jama. ; ( ): – .) the debate is not resolved. the modern physician must ( ) balance authority and compassion, ( ) simultaneously accept their evolving role as interprofessional team members, and ( ) master the emerg- ing conflicts between electronic medical records and attentive care. perhaps the modern version of science and charity might have the nun at bedside and the physician at a distance scrambling over a computer keyboard—the newest tool of professional mastery, authority, and distance. figure . pablo picasso, “science and charity”, . oil on canvas. × cm. museu picasso; barcelona, spain. available at: http://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/science-and-charity- . hyperlink . max brödel, “the saint – johns hopkins hospital”, . available at: https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ resourcemetadata/gfbbcj [public domain]. hyperlink . thomas couture, “the illness of pierrot”, . chalk on paper, study for oil painting of the same title. × cm. harvard art museum; cambridge, ma. available at: http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/ . • ofid • perspective http://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/science-and-charity- http://www.wikiart.org/en/pablo-picasso/science-and-charity- https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/resourcemetadata/gfbbcj https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/resourcemetadata/gfbbcj https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/resourcemetadata/gfbbcj http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/ http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/ perceptual d rendering based on principles of analytical cubism computers & graphics ( ) – contents lists available at sciverse sciencedirect computers & graphics - http://d $arti n corr e-m journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cag technical section perceptual d rendering based on principles of analytical cubism$ sami arpa n, abdullah bulbul, tolga capin, bulent ozguc bilkent university, turkey a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received october received in revised form june accepted june available online june keywords: cubism non-photorealistic rendering art computer graphics /$ - see front matter & elsevier ltd. a x.doi.org/ . /j.cag. . . cle was recommended for publication by j. c esponding author. tel.: þ . ail address: msamiarpa@gmail.com (s. arpa). a b s t r a c t cubism, pioneered by pablo picasso and georges braque, was a breakthrough in art, influencing artists to abandon existing traditions. in this paper, we present a novel approach for cubist rendering of d synthetic environments. rather than merely imitating cubist paintings, we apply the main principles of analytical cubism to d graphics rendering. in this respect, we develop a new cubist camera providing an extended view, and a perceptually based spatial imprecision technique that keeps the important regions of the scene within a certain area of the output. additionally, several methods to provide a painterly style are applied. we demonstrate the effectiveness of our extending view method by comparing the visible face counts in the images rendered by the cubist camera model and the traditional perspective camera. besides, we give an overall discussion of final results and apply user tests in which users compare our results very well with analytical cubist paintings but not synthetic cubist paintings. & elsevier ltd. all rights reserved. . introduction establishing a sense of realism in computer graphics has, until recently, been the main concern. with the realism goal nearly achieved, however, non-photorealistic and artistic rendering techniques [ – ] have started to garner more attention. cubism, pioneered by pablo picasso and georges braque, was a breakthrough in art, influencing artists to abandon existing traditions. it led to the emergence of modern art during a period of crisis that ‘‘the modern artist was heir to a tradition that had come to identify an object with its pictorial projection’’ [ ]. in cubist paintings, we can perceive a multi-perspective projection of objects which creates ambiguity for overall composition. differently than traditional one point perspective, artists show essential information of the content as much as possible by using multiple viewpoints. cubism has its own evolution between and . although philosophy behind remains the same, its style has changed through these years. two main periods of cubism are analytical cubism and synthetic cubism. analytical cubism covers the work of picasso and braque from until and mostly deals with the geometry of this new multi-view projection technique. on the other hand, during synthetic cubism period artists worked on new materials and combined them on canvas. the philosophy and technique of cubism influenced not only artists, but also scholars and scientists from different disciplines. for example, various multi-perspective camera approaches have been introduced in the computer graphics field. most of proposed ll rights reserved. ollomosse methods provide a larger view of the scene than traditional perspective view using one camera or multiple camera models. although radical spatial imprecision, clearly exhibited in all cubist paintings, has been addressed by several image based methods; for d, a comprehensive model giving solution for both multi- perspective view and spatial imprecision has not been proposed. in this paper, we describe a rendering method that uses principles of analytical cubism when generating images from synthetic d content (fig. ) by defining a flexible camera model ensuring expanded views with applied spatial imprecision. we also present a discussion of final outputs together with user evaluation results to validate the effectiveness of our approach. the contributions of this paper are as follows: � a cubist camera model to render synthetic d scenes. the proposed camera model enables multiple viewpoints with cubist-style faceting technique on a large and flexible camera surface. all viewpoints adjust their view angle (i.e. each facet adjusts its view- orientation) automatically to render important parts of the scene. � a perceptually based spatial imprecision technique. perceptually important parts of the d content are kept visible on the rendered image with this technique. the usage of perception techniques empowers artistic rendering approaches to bring artist’s insight to the output. � several methods to provide a painterly effect. a border enhance- ment method, gradient mapping, and color transferring tech- niques are used to enhance artistic quality. the paper is organized as follows: first, in section , we discuss previous studies related to cubism, multi-perspective imaging, and artistic rendering. then, we briefly explain cubism and its principles in section , before giving the details of our approach in www.elsevier.com/locate/cag www.elsevier.com/locate/cag dx.doi.org/ . /j.cag. . . dx.doi.org/ . /j.cag. . . dx.doi.org/ . /j.cag. . . mailto:msamiarpa@gmail.com dx.doi.org/ . /j.cag. . . fig. . left: perspective view; middle-left: cylindrical cubist camera view without perceptual spatial imprecision; middle-right: line map of applied spatial imprecision; right: final output of our result with applied perceptual spatial imprecision and artistic effects. s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – section . section presents a detailed discussion of final outputs, and section concludes the paper. . related work cubism as a movement breaking down traditional methods in art has inspired several works in computer graphics and imaging. much of that has sought ways to introduce the principles used in cubist paintings, such as multi-perspective to computer rendering. multi-perspective rendering and non-linear projection. inspired by cubism’s multiple-viewpoints approach, several multi-perspective techniques have been proposed [ ]. most of these methods deal with a single camera combining multiple viewpoints. glassner [ , ] introduced an approach suited to ray tracing, in which rays are defined with nurbs surfaces. löffelmann and gröller [ ] suggested an extended camera model that produces artistic effects by retaining the overall scene with ray tracing. the general linear camera (glc) model described by yu and mcmillan [ ] generalizes linear cameras defined by a four dimen- sional ray space imposed by two planes, offering ray modeling flexibility. a camera model is constructed with three given rays, which allows implementing multi-perspective and non-pinhole cam- era models [ ]. another non-pinhole camera model, proposed by popescu et al. [ ], integrates several regions of interest in a d scene to render a single layer in a feed-forward fashion. taguchi et al. [ ] presented geometric modeling of multi-perspective images captured using axial-cone cameras. these approaches involve multi-perspec- tive cameras with different viewpoints and ray groups. a flexible projection framework with a single camera, pro- posed by brosz et al. [ ], can model nonlinear projections with parametric representation of the viewing volume. the multi-perspective approach has also been widely used for designing algorithms for panoramas. wood et al. [ ] proposed a background panorama construction technique for the usage in traditional cel animations. similarly, rademacher and bishop [ ] presented a method to create a single image from multiple projection points. more recently, interest has shifted to composite projections generated by the results of two or more cameras [ ]. the main difficulty of composite projections is the occlusion of multiple projections from different view angles. agrawala et al. [ ] devel- oped an interactive system attaching local cameras to a three dimensional space to generate multiprojection images of the scene by blending the results of the different angles. likewise, coleman and singh [ ] described a framework for the interactive authoring of projections obtained from linear perspective cameras. a number of studies have addressed the multi-perspective approach in image space. among these, collomosse and hall [ ] and agarwala et al. [ ] proposed algorithms to combine the images rendered from different camera positions in various styles. cubism and artistic rendering. apart from the works using cubist principles to develop new camera models, a number of studies aspire to render cubist-style paintings. in a prior work, klein et al. [ ] presented a method to create outputs evoking cubist and futurist paintings by using a space-time data cube from video. along with using different view angles for the same content, their method also considers imprecision of object parts and a painterly style to enhance the similarity of their outputs to cubist paintings. later, they general- ized their methods to a set of npr tools for video processing [ ]. collomosse and hall [ ] proposed a method to generate cubist-style outputs from images. as with video cubes, they use a series of images of the content as input to produce angular geometry in cubist art. the images are segmented with image- saliency maps, and segments from different viewpoints are combined. the final composition is rendered with color and brush effects. however, collomosse and hall’s work is image based and application of view-independent projection principle of cubism is dependent on the manually provided input images. influenced by the artistic styles of kandinsky and matisse, song et al. [ ] automatically produce highly abstract images using geometric shapes. a source image is segmented in different level of sizes and a variety of simple shapes are fitted to each segment. with a classifier, they automatically choose the seg- ments which best represents the source image. the whole process creates an abstract form of the source image. . analytical cubism and properties to create cubist imagery in order to develop an accurate computational model repre- senting analytical cubism and its rules, it is necessary to under- stand its concepts. to that end, we analyzed the works of pablo picasso and georges braque, given their pioneering role in analytical cubism. although their paintings look like composi- tions of random shapes, the facets are ambiguous pieces of the content viewed from different angles, allowing a perspective that is not possible in a traditional projection. the main motivation behind cubist paintings is the desire to show that originality does not necessarily mean pictorial quality with a realistic perspective and unity [ ]. unconventional dimensions in the view and disharmony between object parts follow two major principles applied in cubist paintings: � view-independent projection: in cubist paintings, radical dis- continuities are emphasized through the manipulation of perspective, and artists exhibit a remarkable freedom from the point of view-dependency [ ]. instead of using a single viewpoint, multiple projections of a scene from different viewpoints are combined in a single projection. thus, viewers can see more features of the content than in a linear perspec- tive view. this multi-perspective approach has influenced s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – research efforts in computer graphics, as presented in the previous section. � spatial imprecision: the radical approach that artists use to combine projections of independent viewpoints into one reveals this principle of cubism. artists do not place importance on the continuity of projections in the final composite image, as in some of the multi-perspective rendering works mentioned in the previous section. rather, they aim to keep all projections dis- jointed to some degree. this method creates extreme spatial imprecision in cubist paintings but does not cause the loss of object perception because key features of the subjects such as eyes and nose remain visible [ ]. different projections are painted into geometric shapes commonly in the style of quadrilaterals espe- cially in the works of picasso and braque. in order to increase the effect of disharmony between different view projections, chiar- oscuro – use of light and shadow – is also manipulated [ ]. these two main principles do not specifically show how to create cubist imagery with specific rules. in surveying a range of cubist images, we derive a list of properties that are satisfied by existing artwork. these properties help to achieve view-indepen- dent projection and spatial imprecision. faceting: the dialectic between space and objects lead the evolution of cubism. picasso and braque developed the technique of faceting to create volumes and a tangible space on canvas. faceting, which refers to creating different view facets of the space and content, is the core of analytical cubism and a very significant parameter to achieve both view-independent projec- tion and spatial imprecision. while facets create a complex structure of planes, each of them represent an independent viewing volume going in different directions. in our proposed algorithm, we compare different faceting techniques for their similarity to existing cubist artwork. the following observations guide in determining the accurate faceting method: � facets help relating space and object. the degree of this relation changes in cubist paintings. some artwork (nude, pablo picasso, - ) have more legible relations, while some others (the point of ile de la cité, pablo picasso, ) exhibit indistinguishable levels. � the size of facets are smaller in salient parts of paintings. for instance, the facets forming face and clarinet in the clarinet player (pablo picasso, ) are smaller than other surround- ing facets. � facets are commonly composed of vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines. � facet contours are bold and help viewers follow the form. � the shapes of facets are not random, but are formed in relation with figures. ambiguity: cubist paintings present as much essential infor- mation as possible, simultaneously visible, about the objects on the canvas, which is not possible with one-point traditional fig. . cubist render perspective [ ]. the eye is not used to this kind of view- independent projection. hence, this process of re-creating visual reality causes ambiguity. while doing this, some unimportant parts of the object not giving any essential information are discarded. the amount of ambiguity depends on eccentricity of viewpoints. in the painting portrait of wilhelm uhde (pablo picasso, ), viewpoints of facets are not so much disjointed which decreases ambiguity and makes the object more legible. on the other hand, the portuguese (georges braque, ) exhibits a radical view-independency which creates total abstraction. as a matter of fact, the amount of ambiguity varies in cubist paintings. in our model, ambiguity is a variable, between and , to determine wideness of the overall camera surface enabling to choose viewpoints on it for each facet. increasing the value of ambiguity property gives a larger area of direction to choose viewpoints and a way to increase ambiguity of the whole composition. discontinuity: discontinuity is another remarkable parameter for cubist paintings. spatial imprecision is achieved by discontinuity between adjacent facets. on the other hand, the amount of disconti- nuity is not the same for all cubist paintings. for instance, adjacent facets in the table (georges braque, ) form nearly a continuous structure, which makes the objects less ambiguous and more legible [ ]. on the contrary, violin and palette (georges braque, – ) breaks the form by means of discontinuity. the level of discontinuity is represented with a variable in our model. increasing discontinuity means increasing spatial imprecision for the overall composition. practically, this variable limits the amount of view orientation for each facet from their initial direction. if discontinuity is chosen as zero, each facet keeps its initial direction, and in that way adjacent facets complete a continuous form. in our approach, we propose algorithms to apply these cubist principles, using the properties discussed. first, our camera model allows covering a larger view than a traditional pictorial projec- tion to establish a flexible ground for selection of multiple view- points and generation of ambiguity. next, we offer a saliency- based spatial imprecision method to break up the unity of the composition into facets, which show essential information of the content, and create discontinuity. . cubist rendering approach . . overview we have developed our cubist rendering system according to the principles given in the previous section. fig. shows an overview of the proposed method. our initial camera models provide a continuous expanded view of the content from a single camera position. in the second step, we apply a faceting algorithm to create different viewpoint areas and a perceptual imprecision technique to break up overall unity of the view. finally, painterly ing framework. s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – effects are applied to manipulate chiaroscuro and enhance the image’s artistic appeal. . . extending view the first stage of our method applies the first major principle of cubism, view-independent projection, explained in section . for this purpose, we use a multi-perspective projection method that focuses on a certain object space while showing the objects in that space in more detail. this projection method can be seen as the opposite of perspective projection, as rays converge at a focal point instead of spreading to the scene when applied to a ray tracing system. in this method, each ray has its own viewpoint conforming well with the view-independent projection principle. we define two types of cubist cameras, both having the same underlying idea. the first camera type is the spherical cubist camera, where rays originate from a spherical surface and point to the center of the sphere (fig. , left). this camera is capable of showing an object from all sides conforming to the view-inde- pendent projection principle of cubism. a spherical cubist camera can be defined by camera position cp, camera size s, and convergence angles ax and ay. if ax and ay are both , the camera surrounds all the object. a ray at screen position ðx,yÞ, where x,ya½� : , : � (ð : , : Þ being the top right corner), can be calculated for the spherical cubist camera as follows: mx ¼rotation matrix on u ! axis by x=ax, my ¼rotation matrix on h ! axis by y=ay, fig. . left: spherical cubist camera frustum and sample output (convergence angle: angle: ). table comparison of the camera models. (angle denotes the convergence cameras. in the upper figure sc stands spherical cubist camera.) ort per per camera type angle number of visible faces sphere ( f) spherical cubist . % % % perspective . % . % . % orthogonal n/a % raydirectionðx,yÞ ������������! ¼ðmymxðcd ! Þ t Þ t , rayoriginðx,yÞ ����������! ¼ cp ! �s � raydirection ��������! , ð Þ where u ! and h ! are the up and horizontal directions of the camera, and cd ! is the camera direction. the convergence angle of the cubist camera has a significant role on the ambiguity of the resulting output. a higher convergence angle results in a more ambiguous rendering result, therefore the convergence angle is used as the ambiguity variable in our model. several d models, such as a standing human model, have a vertical elongated shape. a cylindrical camera surface could surround this type of models better than a spherical one. thus, we define a second type of camera, cylindrical cubist camera (fig. , right). the rays originating from the cylindrical camera surface converge to a vertical line instead of a single point as opposed to the spherical camera. both of these camera types have advantages over each other: the spherical camera surrounds the scene both horizontally and vertically, while the cylindrical camera extends the view plane only in horizontal axis. according to the scene, either one of those camera types could be chosen. both these camera models keep the linearity of the rays with non-linear camera surfaces, and this causes non-linear warps on the output. to evaluate how these camera models depict a scene in more detail, we compared them against a regular perspective camera by counting the number of visible faces for each of the projection types. a large number of visible faces means that a large portion of the scene details is visible in the rendered image. table shows the result of this comparison. to compare the camera models ); right: cylindrical cubist camera frustum and sample output (convergence angle for the cubist camera and field of view for perspective sc sc bunny ( k) venus ( k) . % . % . % . % . % . % . % . % . % . % . % . % . % . % fig. . left: one point from each numbered area is randomly selected; middle: the selected points are connected to form a quadrilateral; right: the resulting facet. fig. . left: constant; middle-left: voronoi; middle-right: patch; right: segment. s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – with d models of different natures, we used a simple sphere model, the stanford bunny, for a model of average detail, as well as a more detailed venus model. the figures at the top of the table show the rendering results for the stanford bunny with each type of experimented cases. as shown in this table, the cubist camera is capable of showing notably more faces than the perspective and orthographic cameras. a user study for the perception of the cubist camera’s ambiguity is given in appendix a. . . perceptual spatial imprecision as evident from the results in the previous section, our cubist camera enables view-independency to a great extent. the flawless continuity and homogeneity also exhibited by this camera are not associated with analytical cubist paintings, however, it lays the groundwork for choosing multiple viewpoints showing essential information of the objects. in this section, we introduce methods for breaking up the overall unity of this camera surface into view facets and achieving discontinuity by using a perceptual impreci- sion method. . . . faceting as discussed in section , faceting is the most characteristic style of analytical cubism. facets represent different viewpoints and engage space with the figures, which creates a tangible composition as a whole. we compare four different faceting techniques to segment the main view generated with the cubist camera into multiple viewpoints. the rules on faceting indicated in section guide to determine the most effective method among them. the first strategy (constant) uses constant filters to create facets. we have created such filters by extracting facet contours from sample analytical cubist paintings. in fig. —left, le guitariste (pablo picasso) is used to create the filter image. although this strategy is very convenient with respect to shape similarities to cubist paintings, it has the problems of scalability and flexibility. hence, we present other algorithms for creation of filters dynamically for any scale. the second strategy (voronoi) uses voronoi diagrams to create facets dynamically (fig. , middle-left) similar to prior work on image-based cubist rendering methods [ ]. the method accepts a number of facets k as input and randomly chooses k points on the empty filter image, which is created with the same resolution as the output image. to prevent regional accumulations of points, we use a grid system. for a grid with m cells, random k/m points are chosen for each cell. thereafter, each pixel on the image is assigned to the point that has the shortest euclidean distance from it. the third strategy (patch) proposes a method with the advan- tages of dynamic facet generation and similarity to the analytical structure of cubist paintings (fig. , middle-right). in this strategy, a number of convex quadrilaterals possibly occluding each other are painted on the filter image. the number of facets (np) and parameter a defining approximate edge length of a facet are given for this strategy. edge lengths change between a and a. fig. shows a single facet generation. increasing np or a results in facets that occlude each other more. to control this occlusion rate, we define another parameter (rocc) which could be used to define a value indirectly. rocc determines the approximate rate of the total occluded area of the facets to the total visible area in the resulting image. when this parameter is used a is calculated as follows: a¼ ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi w � h � rocc np s , ð Þ where w and h stand for the width and height of the final image. we empirically select np as and rocc as in most cases. the constant is for compensating the difference between the expected area of a random facet and the smallest possible facet. all facets are generated in succession. to avoid empty regions in the filter image, center points, shown in fig. , are selected randomly from the pixels that have not yet been assigned to facet. creating facets regardless of the structure of objects is the main problem of these three techniques. nevertheless, it is very clear that facets help the eye to follow the form and they are not independent from the content in cubist paintings [ ]. our final technique (segment) enables creating facets in relation with the objects in space (fig. , right). to achieve this, we applied a similar segmentation procedure described by song et al. [ ]. the technique includes the following operations: . segmentation: by using multiscale normalized algorithm by cour et al. [ ] we segment pre-rendered output (fig. , a) in three different levels of detail. large (level , fig. , c), medium (level , fig. , d) and small (level , fig. , e) size segments are obtained with different values of parameter n, which is a parameter to indicate the number of cuts. each segment of each level is a candidate to be a facet for the final filter image. . segment selection: the decision of selecting a segment for the final filter image is determined based on the average saliency fig. . a: cubist camera view without spatial imprecision; b: saliency map; c: segmentation result for level , n¼ , selection threshold¼ . ; d: segmentation result for level , n¼ , selection threshold¼ . ; e: segmentation result for level , n¼ , selection threshold¼ . ; f: final filter. s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – value of each segment. saliency shows visually significant areas of the content. refer to section . . for detailed explanation of saliency calculation. by using the saliency map of pre-rendered content (fig. , b), which includes saliency value for each pixel, average saliency value for each segment is calculated. besides, we determine a selection threshold for each level. if the saliency value of a segment is larger than a selection threshold, it is chosen as a facet. the value of this threshold is the highest for level and smallest for level . in this way, smaller segments have lower chance to be chosen as a facet. this decision is related with facet distribution in cubist paintings: smaller facets are included in high detail and contain important parts of the objects. therefore, we select smaller facets for only highly salient parts, which are assumed as visually significant. . overlapping facets and ordering: we also use the average saliency value for decision of occluding facets, and order them. the facet with the highest saliency value is selected as the frontier facet, since it tends to show more essential information. fig. . left-top: saliency map along with the calculated facet and saliency centers. . lighter pixels indicate more salient parts. yellow dots are facet centers and red dots are saliency centers; middle-top: the result without spatial imprecision applied; right-top: the result with spatial imprecision applied; bottom: shift of view from facet center to saliency center for a specific facet. (for interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) shape fitting: lastly a shape of quadrilateral is calculated for each facet as its final form. instead of using a complex shape fitting algorithm, we used a simple method to define segments boldly and keep ambiguity to a level. left-most, right-most, upper-most and bottom-most pixels of the segment are deter- mined as vertices of its quadrilateral for each segment (fig. , f). our final strategy significantly satisfies most of the cubism rules discussed in section . we also verify this issue by compar- ing the proposed four techniques with a user study, which is explained in appendix a. . . . spatial imprecision using mesh saliency the extreme spatial imprecision applied to cubist paintings does not cause absolute loss of object perception. in most of picasso and braque’s paintings, the subject, in some of which is a person and a musical instrument, is still perceivable, although it does not abruptly stimulate our visual perception since it has been divided into pieces morphologically resulting from multiple viewpoints and creates ambiguity. nevertheless, because key features such as eyes, guitar strings, and noses are preserved, we perceive the content fairly quickly. rendering of these particular features of other parts notwith- standing creates the problem of selection. indeed, in cognitive science, searching for the significant attributes of objects that captures our attention is essential work [ ]. thus, our method makes use of mesh saliency, proposed by lee et al. [ ], which is a perceptual approach to determine salient parts of a d object. mesh saliency is based on the center-surround mechanism of the human visual system, which is basically related to the attentive interest on central regions that are different from their surround- ings. in d, this mechanism is employed by calculating the difference of mean-curvature properties in the central and sur- rounding regions to determine the salient parts of d mesh models. we refer the readers to the study of lee et al. [ ] for the details of this saliency computation method. although this method does not consider the semantic properties of objects such as nose and eyes, these important regions could be identified by this model since they have significantly different geometric properties compared to their surroundings, as seen in fig. , left. after saliency values for each input model are calculated, our renderer decides which rays to cast for each pixel by considering the saliency orientation of each facet. our facet-specific spatial imprecision technique includes the following sequence of opera- tions (fig. ): . construct the saliency map: this map is generated by a ray casting-based rendering operation, in which vertex saliencies are used as the material attributes. each pixel of the saliency map (fig. , left) is calculated by casting the rays for this pixel and computing the average saliency values of the intersected faces. . calculate facet and saliency centers: all rays belonging to a facet must undergo the same operation to accomplish regional shifting. hence, a facet center (fc) and a saliency center (sc) are calculated for each facet to determine the amount of shifting (fig. , left). the facet center is the geometric center of the facet. as facets are generated and a facet id for each pixel is assigned with the operations indicated in the previous section, s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – facet centers are calculated with the following formula: fc ¼ p f a f f pos f , ð Þ where f is the set of all pixels in a facet and fpos is the position of pixel f. similarly, saliency centers for each facet are calcu- lated as follows: sc ¼ p f a f f posf slc f , ð Þ where, fslc denotes the saliency of pixel f. note that, set f could also be extended to cover the neighboring pixels outside the facet, so that, in addition to the interior of a facet, exterior salient parts close to this facet could be considered while calculating the saliency center. the additional pixels to con- sider could be adjusted with a threshold indicating the neighborhood size. increasing this threshold decreases the continuity among facets in the final image by enabling the saliency centers to be further away from the facet centers. additionally, a facet orientation threshold could be used to limit the maximum distance between fc and sc to avoid extreme levels of re-orientation. if the distance between fc and sc exceeds this threshold sc is repositioned such that its distance to fc becomes the specified threshold. a smaller facet orientation threshold results in output images with less dis- continuity. facet orientation threshold is referred as disconti- nuity parameter to control the level of discontinuity between adjacent facets as explained in section in detail. . fig. . left: neighborhood circle for a given pixel; right: sample border enhancements. orient the view from facet center to saliency center: in this step, rays belonging to a facet are re-oriented such that the facet shows the most salient parts at the center. additionally, this step enables perspective view while keeping the rendered size of the content inside the facet (see fig. ). initially, the ray originating from the facet center (rfc) is redirected to the point that the ray originating from the saliency center (rsc) intersects with the d scene. then, the new focal point becomes the value of the modified ray at focal distance and all rays belonging to the facet are redirected to this new focal point as shown in fig. , middle. this modification is sufficient for the facet to show the salient parts at the center; besides, further operations are necessary for a perspective view. let dai be the average intersection distance of the rays in this facet (excluding the rays that do not intersect). rotating rays around their values at distance dai enables keeping the rendered size of the shown region. each ray is modified as follows: fðx,yÞ ���! ¼oðx,yÞ ���! þdðx,yÞ ���! � dai, fig. . left: initial state of the rays in a facet; middle: rays are re-oriented towa o ðx,yÞ ����! ¼ o ðx,yÞ ����! �ðdf�dai�aÞþoðpcÞ ���! �ðdaiþaÞ df , d ðx,yÞ ����! ¼ fðx,yÞ ���! �o ðx,yÞ ����! , ð Þ where df is the focal distance, fðx,yÞ stands for the fixed point of rotation for the ray of pixel (x,y), and oðx,yÞ and dðx,yÞ stand for the origin and direction of this ray respectively. o ðx,yÞ and d ðx,yÞ denote the modified (new) values of ray origin and direction. here a is a term to control the perspective effect. if a is , then the facet is rendered orthographically and increasing alpha increases the perspective. to select alpha according to a given field of view (fov ) angle, the following formula could be used: a¼ df � dai � tan fov ðx,yÞ�pc ymax�ymin � � oðx,yÞ�oðpcÞ , ð Þ where ymax and ymin are the maximum and minimum y values of the whole image (not only the facet). note that the field of view for a facet is significantly small compared to the whole image, and the perspective and orthographics views do not differ considerably. thus, alpha could be taken as zero for simplicity. . . painterly effects besides extending the view and spatial imprecision, our system also provides a process of basic painterly effects to apply the style of some cubist paintings in terms of colors and strokes. picasso and braque’s style was to boldly define facet borders. our filter image is composed of pixels, each of which keeps only a facet id to define its owner facet. we apply a pixel neighborhood operation to detect facet edges and enhance them. for a pixel in the output image, its proximity to an edge is calculated by checking its neighborhood circle, shown in fig. . if any pixel on rds the salient area; right: rays are modified for perspective view. s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – the circle has a different facet id than the originating pixel, the pixels lying on the line between that pixel and the origin are checked until facet id is the same with the origin. in this manner, the closest distance to an edge is found and used for darkening the pixels of the output image with a polynomial interpolation as they get closer to a facet edge. pcolor ¼pcolorn mdþ ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pdmd p md ,pd a ,md , ð Þ where pcolor stands for rgb color value for pixel p, pd stands for smallest distance of p from a facet border and md defines the maximum distance for the effect. a similar effect for enhancing facet borders is used for enhancing foreground–background discrimination. in this case, instead of proximity to facet borders, the proximity of background pixels to the foreground are calculated and used to alter the color of the background pixels such that object silhouettes become more visible. by conceiving picasso and braque’s color palettes, we also applied a simple color quantization. picasso and braque com- monly used a limited number of colours; fine details were composed through a difference in luminance rather than hue. we use a painting from each artist as a reference image for color transfer. the pixels of the initially rendered output and the given cubist painting are sorted according to luminance values. corre- sponding color value for each pixel is found with one-to-one linear mapping. fig. shows sample outputs with le guitariste fig. . gradien fig. . top: ambiguity is increased from left to right. b fig. . left: three horses, perspective projection; middle: three horses without spa faceting¼segment. (pablo picasso, ) and fig. , middle-left contains a result using woman with a guitar (georges braque, ). another feature of picasso and braque’s paintings is the gradient overlays appearing on the corners or edges of some facets. hence, we also create a gradient map for the corner of randomly chosen facets during rendering and apply this gradient map to the output. fig. shows several sample gradient mapping results. . results and discussion measuring the quality of cubist outputs is not easy, even for art specialists, since cubism is an art movement which is evaluated as a disruption to excessive usage of technique for pictorial quality in art. furthermore, as an npr method, cubist rendering is challen- ging to evaluate objectively—hertzmann [ ] argues that experi- ments provide evidence but not proof that the npr method works. cubism comes forward with its philosophy of multi-perspective rendering and radical discontinuities rather than a specific pictorial style. therefore the main focus of this work has been the proper application of principles and properties of analytical cubism, rather than imitating cubist paintings. in this direction, we present a comparison of our results (figs. – ) with real cubist paintings, and the opinions of art critics about final results. we also performed five user studies (appendix a) to observe the responses t mapping. ottom: discontinuity is increased from left to right. tial imprecision; right: venus with a cello, ambiguity¼ , discontinuity¼ , s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – of viewers in comparison with cubist properties and real analytical cubist paintings, to guide our discussion. . . ambiguity and discontinuity parameters our current system suggests several interesting uses with ambiguity and discontinuity parameters. as mentioned earlier, the ambiguity parameter controls the convergence angle of the camera surface and the discontinuity parameter limits the sal- iency based orientation of each facet. changing these two para- meters varies the amount of ambiguity and discontinuity exhibited on the outputs. modifying the ambiguity in the cubist outputs change the legibility of the content and its relation with the space. as indicated in section , some of cubist paintings such as ma joile (pablo picasso, ) have more ambiguous forms than others like portrait of wilhelm uhde. when the two paintings are compared, it can be inferred that ma joile shows more information of the content by increasing the eccentricity of the viewpoints from the center. on the other hand, the content in ma joile is less legible since manipulation of traditional perspective is extreme. the ambiguity parameter in our system works with a similar idea. increasing the ambiguity value causes the increase of conver- gence angle and the amount of eccentricity of viewpoints from the center (fig. ). similarly, the amount of discontinuity between adjacent facets vary in cubist paintings. when braque’s well known painting violin and palette is compared with another cubist painting the table, there is significant difference in continuity of facets. our saliency based spatial imprecision method enables creating dis- continuity of adjacent facets. in order to obtain a variety of discontinuity results as in cubist paintings, the amount of dis- continuity is controlled with a discontinuity parameter. this parameter limits view orientation freedom within each facet, fig. . left: man, ambiguity¼ , discontinuity¼ , faceting¼segment; mid- dle: venus with a cello, ambiguity¼ , discontinuity¼ , faceting¼segment; right: venus with a cello, ambiguity¼ , discontinuity¼ , faceting¼segment. fig. . statue of liberty, faceting¼patch, from left to right: ambiguity¼ , ambiguity¼ . (for interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, th and provides flexibility to choose different discontinuity values for each output (fig. ). although there is no clear evidence that cubist painters created ambiguity and discontinuity in their paintings with the exact same ideas we used in our system, these two parameters cause similar variety of ambiguity and discontinuity exhibited in the cubist paintings. accordingly, our user studies (user study i and user study iii in appendix a) also support the idea that these parameters vary ambiguity and discontinuity on the outputs. . . faceting and artistic style faceting is one of the strongest visual characteristics of analytical cubist paintings. several observations on the usage of faceting for real cubist paintings are given in section . we have compared four different faceting techniques (fig. ), and selected the most efficient approach as the segment faceting method, as described in section . . . segment faceting technique obeys most of these observations, and therefore reinforces the impres- sion of cubist style for the viewers. user study ii (appendix a) provides a survey on the comparison of these techniques. on the other hand, the segment faceting technique still does not satisfy all properties of analytical cubist style. in real cubist paintings, all facet contours are not boldly defined and fusion of particular facets can be observed. cubist painters choose some facets to be fused in order to support overall composition. usage of merely convex quadrilaterals as facet shapes is another problem of our method. although cubist painters most frequently applied convex quadrilaterals, some painters also used other shapes such as undefined curves, and convex and concave hulls to enhance the borders of the objects. . . camera surface our extending view approach enlarges the view by enabling a flexible camera surface. compared to perspective and ortho- graphic cameras, the proposed camera models increase the number of face counts rendered as indicated in table . the number of rendered faces is a significant parameter to control the level of ambiguity and the results of user study iii in appendix a support this claim. this is one of the most important benefits of the proposed camera surfaces. it provides a large surface to select multiple view facets and control the level of ambiguity. fig. , top shows five results of venus model with different convergence angle values. the leftmost result has convergence angle, which has a similar result to perspective camera in comparison with the number of face counts rendered. however, the results get more ambiguous as convergence angle is increased from left to right. the correlation of ambiguity with cubist paintings is explained in sections and . . with braque colors (ambiguity¼ ), with picasso colors (ambiguity¼ ), e reader is referred to the web version of this article.) s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – alternatively, a conventional camera for each facet, similar to singh’s [ ] multi-perspective camera model, could be used instead of spherical and cylindrical camera surfaces. as a matter of fact, this model is advantageous to our model in terms of its flexibility for positioning each camera independently. our current model limits the position of each view facet to given camera surface. however, singh’s method does not give a solution for positioning so many different viewpoints in accordance with cubist paintings in d space. it is clear that cubist painters positioned their viewpoints in a spatial relationship not in a random fashion, although their method of building this relation- ships is not evident. hence, it is required to have some kind of relationship for the positions of so many viewpoints to create an overall composition and our method provides a simple relation- ship by fitting each view facet to a flexible camera surface. a similar problem exists for selection of view direction of each facet independently. it is known that cubist painters aim to show more essential parts of the contents [ ]. by using this idea, we have proposed a novel method to adjust view directions auto- matically as mentioned in section . . . the greater deformation occurring on the output is one of the other disadvantages of our camera surface. on the other hand, this deformation does not completely contradict with the style of analytical cubist paintings. early analytical cubist paintings, such as large nude (georges braque, ) and three women (pablo picasso, ), exhibit very similar non-linear warps to those that occur in our results, although, in the following periods of analytical cubism (i.e. braque’s violin and pitcher, and picasso’s portrait of ambroise vollard), forms have been emphasized with more linear projections. there is actually no common approach of cubist painters for the usage of non-linear or linear effects, when the whole analytical cubism period is considered. therefore, we provide an option to decrease the greater deformation occurring on the output. this deformation may be avoided spatially by enabling non-deformed perspective view for each facet by chan- ging the term a in eq. ( ), as explained in section . . . . . the opinions of art critics we consulted several faculty members of a fine arts depart- ment on a few outputs of our model. we asked their opinions on what these outputs capture and what they fail to in the context of analytical cubism. all of them noted that first impression of cubism is strongly achieved. visual characteristics of cubism stand out with application of multi-perspective rendering and spatial imprecision techniques. one main critique about the proposed camera model from a scholar was the continuity of the image between some adjacent facets. the complexity of facet relationships is required to be balanced while breaking up overall unity into facets. although the facets show objects’ parts from different view angles, they are not positioned in a random fashion. when we increase the convergence angle of the camera and threshold for the view orientation of the facet, disconti- nuities between adjacent facets also increase. on the other hand, global position of object parts give the feeling of random placement. for instance, the feet of the female model could appear on the top, near head. we commonly rendered the best results with to of convergence angle (ambiguity), and pixels of facet orientation threshold (discontinuity) for the outputs of � pixels. another successful aspect of the outputs indicated by critics was ambiguity created on overall composition. it takes time to recognize the objects like in cubist paintings, but object informa- tion is still not lost and overall composition is not vague. some scholars remarked on the contradiction of pictorial quality within some facets with cubism. differently than our results, in most of the cubist paintings, the content in a facet is not strongly defined because of painterly style. abstraction of the content is various on the cubist paintings since each artist has a different brush technique. therefore, the main focus of this work is applying the common principles present in all analytical cubist paintings rather than brush effects varying for each artist or painting. repeated shapes were indicated as a problem for some of the outputs. when we increase the convergence angle of the camera, the amount of repeated shapes increase as orientation of each facet is decided independently than adjacent facets. decreasing the convergence angle reduces repeated shapes but the feeling of multi-perspective rendering decreases. our main motivation for not discarding all repeated shapes is that some cubist paintings also having them. for instance, in the lady with a guitar (lyubov sergeyevna popova, ) there are repeated parts of the guitar as in some of our results. . . limitations creating skilled algorithms that can compete with human artists is extremely difficult. reconstructing an art movement or artistic style imposes limitations on the capturing of style and insight of artists. in order to derive a computational model of an artistic style, analysis of common techniques used on the paint- ings is the base requirement. however, a common computational analysis method does not exist which necessitates looking for a consensus of art critics on cubist paintings. although the cubist principles could be clearly described, the painterly style is various and changes from artist to artist. for instance, the contours of facets on our outputs are sharper and regular than cubist paint- ings of picasso and braque. we create facets in a simple relation with the content while cubist artists have created some facets by aligning them with silhouette of the content. in this way, they have used contours in different styles to create certain local harmonies. other limitations are listed below: � our system depends on d models to create cubist imagery. � the proposed camera is limited to analytical cubism and the results do not exhibit similarities with other periods of cubism. � the overall system proposes a common approach to create cubist paintings, which does not allow the user to make local adjustments to the paintings. � although segment faceting method is the preferred one, it takes a long process to create corresponding facets for a scene. a more efficient faceting method is required to create cubist animations. . conclusion we have presented a novel cubist rendering approach for d synthetic environments. to this end, the main principles of cubism are applied to generate cubist outputs. the proposed camera model manipulates perspective to expand the view of the scene to be projected. besides, a perceptual spatial imprecision method is used to break up overall unity into facets while retaining perceptually important parts in the visible areas. several painterly effects have been performed to enhance visual qualities. to evaluate the effect of the developed cubist camera on extend- ing the view, we measured the number of visible faces in the rendered images and compared them with the perspective case. the proposed cubist camera model is capable of showing significantly more faces than the traditional perspective camera model. as demonstrated in the user studies, the proposed properties are found to be effective and the final images are highly ranked as similar to analytical cubist paintings by the majority of the subjects. although the results are promising, the artistic effects can be further developed by conceiving the brush techniques of picasso s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – and braque’s cubist paintings and integrating them to the current framework. in addition to the cubist rendering of static computer graphics scenes, we used the proposed algorithm to generate cubist animations in which camera and scene objects are ani- mated while the used facets are static. developing a more sophisticated cubist animation system, which takes the time dimension into account and animates facets, can be a direction of future work. acknowledgments this work is supported by the scientific and technical research council of turkey (tubitak, project number: e ). the authors would like to thank gaye c- ulcuoğlu, ercan sağlam, dominique tezgör-kassab, agnieszka srokosz, adam pekalski and dilek kaya from bilkent university faculty of art, design and architecture for their invaluable comments and suggestions, and all subjects who participated in the user studies. appendix a. user studies to further evaluate the success of our study we performed five user studies. in the user studies, we evaluated the efficiency of spatial imprecision with discontinuity parameter, faceting and ambiguity. in addition, we performed two user studies, where we compared our method’s results with actual cubist paintings. to ensure realistic evaluation of parameters side by side, the subjects were required not to have an advanced knowledge of cubism. we performed our user studies with graduate-level computer engineering students. the same subjects ( female, male), whose average age was . , participated in all user studies. we used printed material, which included analytical cubist paintings, synthetic cubist paintings, some other paintings having similar style to cubism, our results, and the outputs of other computer generated cubist results. the content of each card, their parameters and codes referred in user studies are given in table a . we applied four different methods of user studies, which are forced choices, matching, card sorting and pile sorting. for forced choices, a number of pairs were given to the subjects, and they were forced to choose one by considering the given question. for the matching study, the subjects were forced to find a match for a given card from the given list. in card sorting and pile sorting, subjects were required to arrange given cards towards given references and task. user study i: spatial imprecision and discontinuity. this study evaluated the efficiency and success of spatial imprecision method. there are three parts of this study: . forced choices number of cards: (a –a , a –a , a –a , a –a , a –a , a –a ) definition: we showed six pairs of our results to compare random spatial imprecision with saliency-based spatial impre- cision technique. each pair includes one random and one saliency-based result of the same content with the same amount of discontinuity value. question: which image in each pair gives more essential information about the content for each given pair? results: saliency based spatial imprecision: . % random spatial imprecision: . % results show that our saliency based method increases the visibility of significant visual information. the goal of the saliency based method is to orient the focus of facets to essential parts of the content. we can also use a random orientation method to create discontinuity. on the other hand, the random method does not guarantee showing essential parts of the objects as the results indicate. . card sorting number of cards: (a –a –a –a , a –a –a –a ) definition: we showed two lists of our results to verify the discontinuity variable, which controls spatial imprecision. each list includes four results of the same content with different discontinuity values. task: sort given two series by considering the discontinuity between patches. the least discontinuous one should be in first order. results: st list: a ¼ . , a ¼ . , a ¼ . , a ¼ . nd list: a ¼ . , a ¼ . , a ¼ . , a ¼ . the results show the average order of each card, and they verify expected sorting. it shows that as we increase the discontinuity variable, the impression of discontinuity was also observed by the viewers. . matching number of cards: (a –a –a –a , e , e ) definition: we showed a list of our results, to compare the degree of discontinuity in our work with real cubist paintings. the list includes four results, two of them with lower dis- continuity values and the other two with higher values, to be matched with the given two cubist painting. base paintings were the table which has more continuous forms, and violin and palette having sharp discontinuities. task: match the given base paintings with one of the paintings in the list, by considering their way of showing the content in terms of discontinuities. you can match both of the two reference paintings with the same painting in the list. results: lower discontinuity (a , a ): %, the table higher discontinuity (a , a ): %, violin and palette as we expected, most of the subjects selected one of results having lower discontinuity to be matched with the table (e ) and higher discontinuity with violin and palette (e ). this shows that the degree of discontinuity in our method corre- lates with the discontinuity of given cubist paintings. user study ii: faceting we present four different methods of faceting in our approach. in this user study, we evaluated their similarity to cubist paintings. . card sorting number of cards: (c –c –c –c , c –c –c –c , e –e – e –e ) definition: we showed two lists of four different outputs with the same content having a different faceting technique. we also provided a list of four cubist paintings as references. task: sort given lists by considering their similarities to reference paintings. first derive an overall style of composition from reference paintings and make your sorting accordingly. put the most similar one in first order. results: st list: c ¼ . , c ¼ . , c ¼ . , c ¼ . nd list: c ¼ . , c ¼ . , c ¼ . , c ¼ . the results show the average order of each card. voronoi segmentation, also used in earlier cubist rendering methods, was selected as the most dissimilar one to given cubist paintings. although our final faceting technique, which satis- fies most of faceting rules about cubism we discussed, was sorted in first order, the difference with the other two techniques is not significant. table a list of pictures used in user studies. ambiguity variable (convergence angle), discontinuity variable (spatial imprecision limit) and faceting technique are indicated for our results. s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – user study iii: ambiguity. . card sorting number of cards: (d –d –d –d –d , d –d –d –d –d ) definition: we showed two lists of our results to verify the ambiguity variable, which increases the camera surface. each list includes four results of the same content with different ambiguity values. task: sort given two series by considering overall ambiguity of paintings. the least ambiguous one should be in first order. results: st list: d ¼ . , d ¼ . , d ¼ . , d ¼ . , d ¼ . nd list: d ¼ . , d ¼ . , d ¼ . , d ¼ . , d ¼ . the results show the average order of each card. the study results shows that as we increase the ambiguity vari- able, which means increasing camera surface in our table a correlation table of given cards in user study v. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e s. arpa et al. / computers & graphics ( ) – model, the impression of ambiguity was also observed by the viewers. . matching number of cards: (d –d –d –d , e , e ) definition: we showed a list of our results to compare the degree of ambiguity in our work with real cubist paintings. the list includes four results, two of them with lower ambiguity values and other two with higher values, to be matched with given two cubist paintings. reference paintings were guitar player (e ), which has more ambiguous forms, and wilhelm uhde (e ), having more legible forms. task: match given reference paintings with either one of the paintings in the list by considering their way of showing the content in terms of ambiguity. you can match both of two reference paintings with the same painting in the list. results: lower ambiguity (d , d ): %, wilhelm uhde higher ambiguity (d , d ): %, guitar player as we expected, most of the viewers chose one of the results having higher ambiguity to be matched with guitar player and lower ones with wilhelm uhde. thus, the amount of ambiguity in our model has a correspondence with the given cubist paintings. user study iv: ranking. . card sorting number of cards: (e , e , e –e –e –e –e –e –e –e – e –e ) definition: we showed a list of ten paintings, which includes two real analytical cubist paintings (e , e ), two synthetic cubist paintings (e , ), one painting of kandinsky (e ), one painting of cezanne (e ), two outputs of our model (e , e ), one output of collomosse and hall’s method [ ] (e ) and one output of klein et al.’s method [ ] (e ). we also gave two analytical cubist paintings (e , e ) as references for the task. the goal was to compare the performance of our method with real cubist paintings and other methods in terms of their similarity to cubist style. we used grayscale versions of all outputs to prevent color-based biases. task: sort the given list by considering their similarity in terms of pictorial style to given reference paintings. the most similar one should be in first order. results: list: e ¼ . , e ¼ . , e ¼ . , e ¼ . , e ¼ . , e ¼ . , e ¼ . , e ¼ . , e ¼ . , e ¼ . results show the average order of each card. e , e , e and e have a significant ranking difference with other cards. these are two analytical cubist paintings and our results. our method, compared with other cubist rendering methods, demonstrated a better ranking. although collomosse and hall’s method satisfies most of the cubist properties, the faceting technique used in our algorithm provides a better application of cubist principles than the voronoi method used in that technique. this ranking also shows that synthetic cubist paintings have a sharp difference of style compared to analytical cubism as we asserted. we used kandinsky’s paint- ing, since his paintings have similar shape structures with analytical cubism but they do not have any view-independent projection principle. on the other hand, cezanne’s painting has similar concepts with analytical cubism but its pictorial style is significantly different. as a matter of fact, neither of the paintings of kandinsky and cezanne were found similar to analytical cubist paintings in the results. user study v: similarities. . pile sorting number of cards: (e ...e ) definition: we showed a list of cards to make another compar- ison with other outputs and paintings. the list includes the same cards of user study iv with four additional analytical cubist paintings. task: form four groups of sixteen cards. each group should have four cards. consider similarities of overall approach and composition of paintings, and not color and the content. results: correlation table (table a ) shows the number of occurrences (n.o.o) of each card with other cards in the same group. results of this study verify results of user study iv. for instance, n.o.o of e , which is an analytical cubist painting, with other analytical cubist paintings is . n.o.o of e , our result, with other analytical cubist painting is . this value is for e , collomosse and hall’s method, for e , klein’s method, for e , a synthetic cubist painting of picasso. average n.o.o of an analytical cubist painting with other analytical cubist paintings is , and it is . for our results. this shows that our results have similar values with real analytical cubist paintings. references [ ] gooch b, gooch a. non-photorealistic rendering. ak peters ltd; . 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[ ] singh k. a fresh perspective. in: graphics interface; . p. – . dx.doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://doi.acm.org/ . / . 	perceptual d rendering based on principles of analytical cubism 	introduction 	related work 	analytical cubism and properties to create cubist imagery 	cubist rendering approach 	overview 	extending view 	perceptual spatial imprecision 	faceting 	spatial imprecision using mesh saliency 	painterly effects 	results and discussion 	ambiguity and discontinuity parameters 	faceting and artistic style 	camera surface 	the opinions of art critics 	limitations 	conclusion 	acknowledgments 	user studies 	references peripheral circulations, transient centralities: the international geography of the avant-gardes in the interwar period ( – ) hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- submitted on jan hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. peripheral circulations, transient centralities: the international geography of the avant-gardes in the interwar period ( – ) béatrice joyeux-prunel to cite this version: béatrice joyeux-prunel. peripheral circulations, transient centralities: the international geogra- phy of the avant-gardes in the interwar period ( – ). visual resources, taylor & francis (routledge), , pp. - . �hal- � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr peripheral circulations, transient centralities. the international geography of the avant-gardes in the interwar period ( – ) béatrice joyeux-prunel this paper questions the common historiography about the avant-gardes in the interwar period, in which paris is often considered the international avant-garde capital city, with surrealism as its perfect model. it starts with the idea that the history of the avant-gardes (artists and artists’ groups who considered themselves or who were considered innovative), could be studied as “a social field”, but also an international field structured by mobility. it focuses on the circulation of avant-garde artists and their works, as well as the social, economical, financial, geopolitical and colonial bases of these circulations, to understand how some groups, artists, stories and centers managed to establish themselves better than others. contrary to the regular narrative based on parisian domination, a circulatory approach highlights that paris isolated itself from avant-gardes in the s, unlike the opening of germany and central europe, and that the surrealists themselves were not so international until . looking at social groups, at their movements and circulation, as well as the various strategies deployed and the underlying geopolitical positions taken by artists after , it shows that from , the parisian scene, and the surrealist movement in particular, very slowly became a new focus for new artistic generations. paris only became a global centre of avant-garde circulation after and surrealism then gradually became the focus of international artists’ careers. in this process, artists coming from the peripheries of europe and the americas, cultural transfers and resemanticization processes played a central role. keywords: modern art history; twentieth century; central europe; latin america; spain; paris; transnational art history; modernism; canon; surrealism; centers and peripheries; avant-gardes; cultural transfers; circulation of art in the common historiography of the avant-gardes in the interwar period, paris is often considered to be the international avant-garde capital, with surrealism as its perfect model. this parisian centrality in the s and s is supposed to have declined in the s and vanished in the s, a narrative that continues to the benefit of new york. according to the majority of books and articles which never question this idea, with the exile of the leaders of the surrealist movement in - , modernity left paris and europe with new york subsequently becoming the new world capital of modernism . this canon is questionable. it is based on the assumption that history was guided by a principle of progress and systematic negation, and that this progression took place in one single location. it introduces aesthetics as monoliths, whereas, in reality, artists would go from one movement to another. in other joyeux-prunel words, it naturalizes “isms” which actually took several years to gain recognition. it also justifies the international domination of a small parisian elite who are seen as the model of cultural, ethical, and political progress in the history of modern art and culture. this canon produces an incomplete history: it omits avant-gardes born in remote areas, the so-called “peripheries” of modern art history, or those who were not part of canonical groups, such as the abstracts of the s. the history is even more incomplete in regard to those who were considered outside the avant-garde. finally, the idea of a parisian centrality in the history of modernism before is a prerequisite for the idea that new york “stole” modernism from paris after the s – an interpretation of the global history of art that relies almost exclusively on sources from new york. according to this assumption, europe invented nothing new after the s. neither did anywhere else, in particular, the eastern side of the iron curtain and latin america, not to mention the african, asian or austral no man’s land. a new historiography denies this canon, and demands better recognition for the artistic peripheries. some might even claim the superiority of these peripheries over european and us avant-gardes, especially the avant-gardes of latin america. however, whether we choose this canon or its opposite, the map in the background remains binary: a center and its peripheries. an axiological analytical grid is also used to characterize the avant-garde: political and social commitment, moral emancipation, new aesthetic and artistic propositions, social and political intelligence of the political and gendered power games of the time, political engagement, etc. this grid has favoured the historiography of surrealism and dada since the s and the s. it conceals the economic and social spread of the groups that were considered to be the vanguard which was supported by a real, solid international and sustainable market; a dynamic, international artistic press; an elitist, financial, industrial and often colonialist social stance. for example: why did surrealist artists live so comfortably during the great depression, while their abstract peers were starving? it is interesting to re-examine how this canon, which is both celebrated and defended today, has established itself and established a certain geopolitics that has much to answer for. to start with, one can ask how might the mobility of the avant-gardes have led to the victory of paris and surrealism in art history? international mobility was a means for artists to negotiate their esthetic affiliations in order to claim their place in the art world; this had repercussions on individual, collective, local and global scales. this paper thus starts with the idea that the history of the avant-gardes could be studied as “a social field”, but a field structured by mobility. this field has always been international despite the interference of national, local, and regional forces on the one hand, and despite the diversity of political and economic issues on the other, which can be contradictory. by focusing on the circulation of avant-garde artists and their works, as well as the social, economical, financial, geopolitical and colonial bases of these circulations, and on the cultural transfers and resemanticizations that took place in the circulation, we can understand how some groups, artists, stories and centers managed to establish themselves better than others. contrary to the regular narrative based on parisian domination, a circulatory approach highlights the isolation of paris in the s. it demonstrates that the french capital isolated itself from avant-gardes, unlike germany and central europe wich were more open, and confirms that the surrealists themselves were not so international until . looking at social groups, at their movements and circulation, as well as the various strategies deployed by artists and their underlying peripheral circulations, transient centralities geopolitical positions it also shows how the parisian scene, and the surrealist movement in particular, slowly became the focus for new artistic generations after . paris became a global centre of avant-garde circulation only after . in this process, the role of artists from the peripheries of europe and the americas was central, especially for the progressive domination of surrealism in international artists’ careers. the international avant-gardes in the s: a relative centrality of paris the international field of the avant-gardes can be reconstituted through tracking the global circulation of artists and their art. a collective study of artists’ biographies and trajectories, an analysis of their references and preferences, and an exhaustive cartography of the foundation of modernist journals in the s brings into question the idea of a parisian centrality. the results of the distant, geographic global approach have been published elsewhere, based on prosopographic and cartographic indicators applied to comparable sets of sources, mainly journals, exhibition catalogues and artists’ biographies taken from the s. this paper will focus instead on a complementary approach, that of the middle-scale and micro-scale level. artists’ movements and parisian disappointment after in the aftermath of the – war, the idea of the centrality of paris was entrenched among the european avant-gardes. the avant-garde artists who had left paris in returned or came from all over the world, including piet mondrian ( – ) from the netherlands, joan miró ( – ) from catalonia, tarsila do amaral ( – ) from brazil, joaquín torres garcía ( – ) from uruguay, max ernst ( – ) from germany, man ray ( – ) from the usa. their aim was to learn up-to-date modern art, to become avant- garde artists, and to gain renown. they were inspired by one model: pablo picasso ( – ) who became the most well-known artist from the avant-garde in europe from . but from , more and more artists became disillusioned, especially foreigners who faced too many obstacles in paris. in february mondrian decided to stop painting. miró, marginalized from the parisian art scene, joined other artists who were revolted by cubism and its narrowness, – this included andré masson ( – ), Élie lascaux ( – ), and jean dubuffet ( – ) among others. painters lived in a serious crisis of generational renewal in paris, like writers. among newcomers, the parisian dada group experienced this crisis when they were about to fight for the etiquette of “surrealism” after . from – , the turmoil was at its peak: young poet andré breton ( – ) announced that he would not write anymore; his friend paul Éluard ( – ) disappeared; dubuffet gave up painting and returned to the family wine trade near bordeaux; in mondrian, discouraged because he had to paint flowers to survive (figure ), decided to give up painting and return to his homeland. his friends managed to make him change his mind after organizing a “mondrianlotterie” in holland to gather money for the penniless painter. some left paris altogether such as the dutch painter theo van doesburg ( – ), the russian sculptor alexander archipenko ( – ), the mexican painter diego rivera ( – ), and his uruguyayan colleague torres garcía. please insert figure here mondrian, flower joyeux-prunel in the early s, it had been possible for parisian artists to have an international career with the help of critics, poets, and dealers, but without fully depending on them. yet now the main parisians linked to the international scene were either dead, such as the poet and art critic guillaume apollinaire ( – ), in exile (art dealers daniel henry kahnweiler ( – ) and wilhelm uhde ( – ), artists robert delaunay ( – ) and marcel duchamp ( – )), or were dedicated to furthering their own careers. germany, which had been the main international channel and outlet for parisian modernism in the s and s, was an inaccessible country after the war. henceforth, parisian artists had to take their first steps in new galleries which were rarely open to innovation and preferred a “classic” modernity, and they had to settle for their limited international network. art dealers were looking for tame modern art, like the conservative fauvism of andré derain ( – ), the worldly colours of kees van dongen ( – ), or the consolidated cubism of georges braque ( – ). the marketplace also started to favor “primitivism” and “naïve art”. innovation did not sell. artists who had money would pay for the right to exhibit, in particular in montparnasse. it was better to be rich such as the brazilian tarsila do amaral, who could adapt to the new fashions and pictorial trends of the period thanks to the profits of her family plantations. the social spaces of the literary or national community, such as restaurants and small galleries, were accessible to artists without money, but rarely helped them sell. many preferred to return home, to the so-called peripheries, where markets were already established.this was the case for berlin, brussels, barcelona, mexico, and buenos aires, and soon for an increasing number of metropolises. many former foreign cubists, who remained in paris, gave up fine arts for architecture, interior design and the decorative arts, cinema, sets, photography, and graphic design. from , the circulation of european avant-gardes was no longer centered on paris. people would travel to discover which places were most suitable to establish themselves. the abstract painter theo van doesburg's circulation was evidence of this trend (figure ). by , after months of travel and artistic encounters in europe, van doesburg wrote to his friend piet mondrian: “in paris everything is completely dead (…) for me it is certain that the new cultural zone is the north”. many artists, such as van doesburg, went to germany, oscillating between weimar and berlin. from to , van doesburg frequently returned to weimar and the bauhaus, where debate was alive. van doesburg settled there in his own studio, established a course, attracted students and followers and recruited contributors for the magazine de stijl. after , his international activism became more oriented toward berlin, hannover and central europe. with the soviet persecution of the avant-gardes, there were more and more russians in berlin from – and constructivist gatherings and groups were dynamic. however, it was also a time of constant mobility, according to the opportunities presented. the circulation of alexander archipenko illustrates this transitional situation. the russian sculptor arrived in paris in , he joined the cubist network and his career became internationalized from onwards. however after , his most interesting exhibitions took place outside paris. in , archipenko went to berlin where he opened a school, got married, and found help and support from critics, dealers, and artists. he was popular even in hungary and croatia. peripheral circulations, transient centralities however, in archipenko sailed to new york, where he settled permanently. he declared upon his arrival: america is the only country not jaded and rent by war. it is the land where the great art of the future will be produced. america fires my imagination more than any other country and embodies more of that flexibility, that yeastiness, which means life and vitality and movement. thanks to the extensive network of art collector katherine dreier ( – ), archipenko set up a school in manhattan. he was not the only one who no longer needed paris; neither did duchamp, rivera, nor van doesburg and many others. many artists decided to go where artistic innovation was thriving. they would travel more frequently between weimar, berlin, and the capitals of central europe, which were more open to abstract innovation than paris. these cities offered an alternative and social model to that which dominated paris: whereas the parisian market was focused on unique works and signatures, the new european cities formed an integrated chain of schools (such as the bauhaus and its hungarian equivalent), workshops, and shops, which led to orders of architectural designs and decorations. the work was then collective. the aim was to pass on, serve, and make oneself understood. please insert figure here (map of van doesburg’s circulation) the dynamism of the peripheries outside paris, the so-called peripheries were likely to be more open to new groups and innovative artists than the parisian little modernist milieu. indeed, the geography of the european vanguardist nebula in the interwar period, with its careers, rivalries, and networks, is very polycentric, as shown by the successive cartographies which correspond to the creation of modernist journals in the s. for paris, innovative activity remained important but was not predominant. whereas the avant-garde journals related to the dadaist vogue were buried in paris in , they abounded in cologne, hanover, zurich and berlin, and in cracow, munich, vienna, prague and zagreb. the persistent creation of new journals in the so-called peripheries until the end of the s occurs in parallel with the social and commercial setting of avant-gardism in these different places, despite the arrival of conservative regimes in many cases. even in brazil, a market started for artistic innovation. in paris, on the contrary, avant-gardism became banal. the dadaists repeated in their correspondence and their journals: the audience is tired, it doesn’t expect anything. the parisian artistic circle, with certain exclusions, did not even seem to have the desire to be avant-garde anymore, except from some new titles: esprit nouveau, led by amédée ozenfant ( – ) and charles-edouard jeanneret (le corbusier, – ), the founders of the purism movement. as for the future surrealists (better known as dadaist or as the groupe de littérature), they were and considered themselves primarily a literary movement. an analysis of the content of international modernist magazines’ and their geopolitics confirms the isolation of parisian groups and the non-parisian orientation of peripheral journals’ references and contributors. the list of the most shared contributors and most joyeux-prunel reproduced artists by the central european reviews does not show a domination of references coming from paris. the pool of reproduced artists is aesthetically and geographically varied, from the bauhaus to the dutch neoplacticist avant-garde, from cubism and purism to russian suprematism, to dada, and to the german “new objectivity”. the careers of the most cited artists in central european journals led sometimes to paris, but more often to berlin, weimar, and even moscow. among the parisians, those who were most mentioned by central european journals were fernand léger ( – ), archipenko, and also russian-born painter louis marcoussis ( – ). these artists were actually leaving the parisian scene to go abroad, because of insufficient exposure in paris. moreover, on this international map, the french scene was isolated along with surrealism. the parisian movement most closely linked to the international avant-garde were the purists. some described their journal, esprit nouveau, as “the cosmopolitan body well appreciated by the people of montparnasse and widespread in the bolshevik friendly circles from all over the world” . esprit nouveau indeed depended on an international readership. its publishers were willing to expand with an american version in . however, the purists were marginalized in paris. maybe their interest in foreign art and architecture was too strong in the xenophobic context of parisian modern art. almost every issue featured a special article on a foreign country – mostly towards the east, as can be seen from the section untlitled « à l’étranger », which included articles on hungary (no. , ), russia (no. ), rumania (no. ), latvia (no. ), and germany (no. ) – and exposed a list of partner- journals disseminated all over europe (figure ). insert figure here (page of esprit nouveau) as for the surrealists, until they were still obsessed with literary and political strategies, hence their weak international exposure (except from the french-speaking parts of belgium after ). for the international avant-gardes, germany was quickly considered the most dynamic region: the industrial and fine arts held the promise of a revolution, which would be formal, social, and political and also provide a potential marketplace. germany also opened institutions dedicated to the transmission of vanguard knowledge. in ludwig hirschfeld mack ( – ), a former student of the bauhaus, discussed the matter with parisian painter fernand léger: france, which was democratic for a long time, came out victorious from the war, and the avant-garde movement was born there; so why couldn’t the french open an institution as strong as the bauhaus, hirschfeld mack wondered. léger’s answer was that the chauvinism and the reactionary spirit of a country intoxicated by its victory, led to a situation which could not be favorable to innovation. léger also highlighted how much the french avant-gardes envied the german situation. some, from picasso to miró, would keep on working within the traditional paris- centered system, which was organized by a mercantile society which liked collecting and was convinced of the high value of easel paintings. they had the support of art journals which praised “the love of art” (such as the magazine l’amour de l’art); their ultimate goal would be a place in a museum. others would turn towards a second international field, where values, institutional and industrial support, and artists’ ambitions were very different from what was known in paris. this other field was polycentric, led by circles which were considered “peripheral”. artists became members of a group and the group mattered more than the artist peripheral circulations, transient centralities him/herself. artists were to serve the people. the aim was also to nurture future generations of artists, through the creation of workshops, the organization of conferences, exhibitions, and showing-rooms. from until , visual artists who did not come from paris and who wanted to hold a position as avant-gardes clearly increased the value of the transnational space of constructivism. works, texts, and receptions: the appeal of the peripheries the non-centrality of paris is confirmed by the study of works and aesthetics, where we can see the importance of references coming from “the peripheries” of the modernist europe. around , artists based in berlin, weimar, cologne, prague, vienna, budapest, milan, but also barcelona drew their inspiration from de chirico’s pittura metafisica, italian futurism, geometrical abstraction, the bauhaus, russian constructivist art reproductions seen in various reviews, and the constructivist iconography of “the machine age”, and even from the german new objectivity. they did not need parisian cubism anymore, and fauvism even less. in paris, plastic arts were not innovative, unlike the literary, musical or decorative arts. the parisian inner circle remained very self-centered, as can be seen from modern journals of that time. indeed with the exception of le corbusier’s journal, esprit nouveau, these journals were very patriotic, hostile to german arts, jealous of italian artists, rarely interested in russian arts, and ignorant of foreign arts. in spain, even salvador dalí ( – ), then a vanguardist in training, living between madrid and barcelona, was influenced as much by valori plastici and new objectivity as he was inspired by picasso. in paris, despite the international exhibition of decorative arts held in , innovative artists struggled to gain recognition. in , the closing of the review esprit nouveau deprived the abstracts of a forum. in the french capital, constructivist art exhibitions remained few. they were organized by small unestablished galleries and were not well received, eventhough the art market was expanding. in paris, only a few painters were welcomed by andré breton and his surrealist group and this was only after ,when they had managed to carve out a place for themselves in the right galleries. as for central european artists, kristztina passuth’s book on the central european avant-gardes ends with a litany of names of those who tried to be part of the parisian life without any success: the hungarians lajos kassák ( – ) and béla uitz ( – ); the romanians marcel janco ( – ), and ion vinea ( – ); the polish henryk berlewi ( – ); the croatians ljubomir micić ( – ) and virgil poljanski ( – ). the xenophobic atmosphere of that time also fostered the isolation of foreigners in paris. the art market disliked cubism and abstract forms. many former cubists, even among the french, ended up adopting naturalist, figurative trends, which was the case with the hungarian sculptor józsef csáky ( – ), the russian-born painter léopold survage ( – ), and the former cubist painter jean lurçat ( – ), and even for fernand léger, le corbusier and their purist colleague ozenfant. the foreign abstract artists who stayed in paris tried to join forces: in , van doesburg met the uruguayan painter joaquín torres garcía for that reason and together they founded cercle & carré. they could only gather artists who were not well established in the parisian market. french (or french-speaking) abstract artists who stayed with them in paris were outnumbered and very young like michel seuphor ( – ). by it was too joyeux-prunel late for abstraction. neither cercle & carré nor the subsequent abstract group abstraction- création had the appeal of surrealism that had suddenly become the most interesting vanguardist position in the international field of modernism. the victory of surrealism and paris: cultural transfers, resemanticizations, and social adaptations in art histories, the birth of surrealism is often set in . however in everyone claimed to be a “surréaliste” in literary paris. andré breton and his friends had to fight, in both senses of the word, to confiscate the label until . moreover, barely any artist held any interest in surrealism until . the movement was primarily a literary one, and it was seen as an extremely demanding label, which only a few plastic artists were willing to be affiliated to. when artists joined surrealism, which was the case of joan miró and max ernst, it was a matter of chance, or it could even be by default or failure. these artists did not want to be associated too long with the surrealists. however, with the help of the surrealist writers, miró and ernst were able to gain acceptance into the most selective networks of paris and both painters benefited from the growth of the art market after . the combined influence of entrance to an elite social network and a buoyant art market trigged an interest in surrealism among some artists. salvador dalí’s dazzling career also contributed especially during the great depression, after . salvador dalí, from the pittura metafisica to surrealism the trajectory ofo dalí’s career can be seen as an accelerated version of the history of art. in the catalogue raisonné of his works, we can see him, although always late, moving from impressionism to futurism, then to cubism before embracing purism. in , he was still admiring “the great french impressionists, manet, degas, renoir”. he realized only around that impressionism, fauvism, and the cubism of cézanne had become outmoded. in , he gained admission to the academy of madrid and joined the residencia de estudiantes, where luis buñuel ( – ) and federico garcía lorca ( – ) led a small group of young modern artists and writers. but at the academy, dalí painted his cubo- futuristworks in secret. he would read the french communist newspaper l’humanité, and would walk around with esprit nouveau and valori plastici tucked under his arm because it looked good. in madrid, the literary avant-garde gathered under the banner of the ultra movement. among its leaders, the poet gillermo de torre ( – ), “our equivalent of marinetti”, as dali would later say. the ultraists admired marinetti’s futurism, its centrifugal and dynamic compositions and praised a constructivist-type art (iron towers, aeroplanes, and transatlantic liners). this was far removed from the parisian version of modernity. indeed, whereas freudian ideas were making their way into spain, surrealism when it started to be known was considered a literary group, without any proper plastic art proposals. in – dalí was still swaying from one style to another: cubist still lives, venus inspired by the neo-classical french painter jean-dominique ingres ( – ), portraits reminiscent of those from the german new objectivity , italian pittura metafisica inspired by giorgio de chirico ( – )... having ended up leaving the academy, dalí gradually planned to become famous, encouraged by his friends buñuel and lorca. he came to paris in april peripheral circulations, transient centralities , visited picasso, and realized that classicism was old-fashioned. right after his trip to paris, he imported elements from miró’s style into his own paintings. however, dalí did not cross the line towards surrealism. he would still borrow from a range of artistic styles: new objectivity, cubism, jean arp’s ( – ) and mirós’ abstract forms, de chirico, “machine age” and ocean liners, architectures from le corbusier, and picasso, as in his composition avec trois personnages (acadèmia neocubista) (figure ). in , he reproached garcía lorca for forgetting to mention airplanes in his poetry. in march , he signed an eclectic “anti-artistic manifesto”, reminiscent of futurism and dada. dalí read la révolution surréaliste as well. he analyzed its reproductions, especially those by yves tanguy ( – ): skies on desert lands, levitating objects, smoke, ectoplasmic shapes, phallic fingers. he later admitted “i snitched everything from uncle yves” , but at that time he snitched from every modern trend in europe. he also began to add to all of these a proper libidinal and scatological repertoire including flying breasts, severed arms, putrefying asses, “apparels” and gadgets, allusions to masturbation and sodomy. in barcelona, the colleagues of l’amic de les arts saw dalí as “the archetypal anti-surrealist”. they were hostile to the parisian surrealists whom they saw as a “small and sterile group" and as "sad lovers of scandal for scandal sake [sic].” dalí also underlined his “clear distance between [himself] and surrealism” . insert figure , dalí, acadèmia neocubista when joan miró came back to catalonia during the summer of and paid a visit to dalí with his gallery owner pierre loeb ( – ), dalí’s ambitions to gain recognition increased. the young painter was suddenly contaminated by a mimetic desire oriented towards paris: his desire for fame was positively influenced by new mediators and models he did not know before. dalí wrote to lorca: [miró] thinks i am much better than all the young painters in paris. he wrote to me to tell me that i have everything needed to make a great success. as you may know, he was financially very successful over there. this is where everything happened: miró promised him a “great career […] in paris” – according to dalí. indeed, miró’s dealer pierre loeb advised dalí not to sway from one trend to another. in his articles for spanish journals, dalí started then to endorse surrealism, as if he was hoping to be co-opted by the group. the turning point happened when his painting dialogue sur la plage was refused from the autumn show in in barcelona, and when the art dealer josep dalmau ( – ) stopped supporting dalí because he was worried about having to close for gross indecency. at this time dalí referred to himself as a surrealist for the first time on barcelonese scene. for dalí, becoming a surrealist was part of an international strategy: “my main goal is to contribute to the extinction of the artistic phenomenon and gain international prestige”, he said to the spanish press. around , allegiance to surrealism suddenly seemed to be a quicker way to achieve “international prestige” than through abstract art or cubism. things had changed on the international market. the surrealists had become famous (or infamous), albeit disturbing. a couple of other artists were starting to take the same direction, such as the joyeux-prunel romanian painter victor brauner ( – ) who was also gradually turning towards surrealism and setting aside constructivism. in march , during a trip to paris, dalí confirmed his official conversion to surrealism. he came for the filming of un chien andalou, – we know the rest of the story. with this scandal, dalí simultaneously joined the surrealist network, the worldly circles of lovers of novelties, and the same mercantile network as miró. in the new art dealer camille goemans ( – ) offered him a contract. the surrealist adoption of dalí was not as easy as it seemed. dalí indulged in outrageous behaviour and his work was disgustingly provocative; even breton disliked it. but dalí was impressive and gaining attention, and he succeeded in turning the “demoralizing project” of surrealism into reality. papers would talk about it. the public reacted. when he rallied the movement he renewed immediately surrealism which had been in crisis for many years. dalí’s paintings broadened the horizons of the “pictorial automatism”, which were not very conclusive. they shed light on occult obsessions. they were easy to understand and mysterious at the same time. indeed, he used figurative representation, which was very neat and detailed, along with compositions mixing objects and hybrid bodies, which were both dreamlike and disturbing. they made a lasting impression. dalí was immediately noticed by the great art lovers. charles and marie laure de noailles ( – and – ) bought the most shocking painting from dalí, le jeu lugubre (private collection). it was the beginning of an unexpected career, which was very profitable for the surrealist group. indeed, in december , the journal la revolution surréaliste published the “second manifesto” after months of inactivity and internal crisis. the surrealist machine was at work again. the dubbing of surrealism by the international cream of the crop dalí was able to survive the economic crisis in the s, thanks to the support of patrons who had started to be interested in surrealism around . the noailles paid him well for a new movie, l’Âge d’or (the golden age). dalí managed to live comfortably during the great depression due to the “zodiaque group”, which was founded in by rich aristocrats, real estate owners, and owners or shareholders (or heirs) of oil companies, who were not really affected by the crisis. the parisian cosmopolitan aristocracy’s support for avant-garde plastic arts was not new. since the war, avant-garde music, dance, haute-couture, painting and literature, had found their place in this circle, populated by people who loved masked balls, beautiful decorations, collecting, and who competed to achieve greater social distinction. until , those same patrons had preferred matisse, derain or russian fauvist artists. then they had turned shortly to the art déco style. they would buy carpets, tapestries and hangings made in algeria for low prices after works by georges-henri rouault ( – ), henri matisse ( – ), lurçat, léger, and le corbusier – and, after , after miró. in theory, the surrealist artists condemned the ideas and aristocratic practices of this circle, as well as the capitalist and colonial sources of their wealth. however some members or former members were very well received, like the writer rené crevel ( – ). when miró and ernst agreed to design the ballet set of romeo and juliet for diaghilev, louis aragon ( – ) and andré breton protested. but they themselves had been depending on the funding of the fashion designer jacques doucet ( – ). they also made a good living from their sales of manuscripts to charles and marie laure de noailles, and from their peripheral circulations, transient centralities own brokering activities. the haute couture also enhanced surrealist paintings since . the maison norine of brussels, for example, introduced max ernst’s paintings in their catalogue of summer . dalí remembered his trip to paris in , when miró told him: you have to get yourself a tailor-made tuxedo. we will have to go out in the worldly circles. […] when i had my tuxedo, miró took me for dinner at the duchess de dato’s. (…) among the numerous guests, i can only remember the countess of cuevas de vera, who was to become a great friend of mine. the countess’s grand father was john d. rockefeller ( – ), the founder of the standard oil company, then the richest man in the world, and probably the most unbridled capitalist. some of ernsts’ or miró’s works could also be found at prestigious collectors’ houses. those collections were exhibited in dealers’s galleries, which could foster a mimetic process among collectors. in spring for instance, the german dealer alfred flechtheim ( – ) exhibited max ernst in berlin and düsseldorf. known as the specialist of cubism, who had no interest for other aesthetics, flechtheim still justified why he had chosen to exhibit ernst whose painting was so different: currently the most famous private collections of paris possess works from the painter of cologne […] : [you can find his artworks in the] private collections of alphonse kann, count de beaumont, viscount de noailles, baron napoleon gourgaud, raoul la roche, kelekian, jacques doucet, [in] all those who collect picasso’s and other great cubists’ works, who also added some of paul klee’s art pieces, [and also in the collection of] felix fénéon who discovered seurat […]. soon surrealism became a way of life, which was not exclusive to artists. for example, the noailles were filmed by man ray in their villa (mystères du château de dé, ), with their heads covered with silk tights, exhibiting their prowess as athletes, and with intermittent extracts of poems between these images. at dinner parties held at the noailles’, people would talk like the surrealists, with twisted, even “slimy” vocabulary. after the scandal of l’Âge d’or (the golden age), the surrealists understood that they could obtain their strongest support from the “beau-monde”, meaning the social elite. the dalínian internationalization of surrealism whereas in the s the parisian reference had not been central to painters working outside french-speaking countries, at the beginning of the s however, it became useful to refer to paris in order to define oneself as avant-garde in the local context; and with a reference to and reverence for surrealism. this new state of affairs was due to various reasons, both negative and positive. on the one hand, futurist and constructivist references were becoming outmoded in europe. on the social and economic front, constructivism had lost its momentum as its figureheads became joyeux-prunel ever more integrated into professional structures as teachers, designers, architects, etc. referring to the bauhaus was also less subversive than it had been earlier. croatian vanguardist leader ljubomir micić ( – ), for instance, who had championed a nationalist version of constructivism until the end of the s and had to realize his marginalization with the crisis of european constructivism, claimed a parisian affiliation when he published his novel chevaliers de montparnasse in . moreover, political factors added to the general disaffection felt among young constructivist artists throughout europe. very often, modernists had fled from conservative or protofascist regimes, especially in germany and central europe. a positive reason for the new parisian appeal was that it soon became very intriguing and useful to call oneself “surrealist”, especially outside france. the surrealist soon became a marker of parisian approval, justifying the questioning of a local equilibrium. following dalí and brauner who had joined surrealism in , artists that were formerly cubists or constructivists began to call themselves surrealists in other countries in the early s. in belgrade, marko ristić ( – ) declared himself to be surrealist in . in , a surrealist exhibition was organized in prague. and on the same year, argentinian artist antonio berni ( – ) organized an exhibition of surrealist paintings and collages in buenos aires . berni had jumped, suddenly in , from a quite conventional style of modern painting with postcubist inspiration (for instance in his post- matierist nudes and in a – naturaleza muerta con guitarra, prívate collection) and from an art drawing from the german new objectivity and de chirico (for instance toledo y el religioso o el fraile, , private collection), to making pictures of cut-off or ripped out bodies, and paintings of murderers. in he also added, to his bleeding torsos and trepanned skulls, the evident dalinian limestone petrification of the body (figure ). around , surrealism won the symbolic competition among international avant-gardes: artists from south america to central europe to japan to south america started their vanguardist carreer as surrealists. insert figure here : antonio berni’, landru transnational crossed legitimization processes: essential peripheries more often, these non-parisian surrealists were dalinian surrealists, a phenomenon that cannot be observed in paris. this gap in the international map of surrealism triggered a global diffusion that had not been possible before, due to breton’s authoritarism and to the group’s dissensions – as i shall investigate in this last section. despite breton’s attempt to define a surrealist painting, a claim he reassessed with the publication of le surréalisme et la peinture in , the so-called “surrealist artists” in paris stood in defiance of breton’s version of surrealism. they preferred indeed not to be labeled surrealists, and exhibited in many different places on the parisian scene, not hesitating to exhibit with abstract or figurative painters. furthermore, claiming to be a surrealist was easier outside parisas no one would check if breton had approved the label or not. the surrealist label instantly gave rise to local scandal hence its attractiveness outside france. reciprocally, foreign self-proclaimed surrealist artists gradually became more useful to the parisian surrealists as they could help them conquer new marketplaces and because the parisian surrealists themselves needed wider foreign legitimization. peripheral circulations, transient centralities the case of spanish Óscar domínguez ( – ) is very telling. in , the painter went back to the canaries from montparnasse where he had been well integrated in the École de paris. he organized a surrealist exhibition in santa cruz in tenerife, independently from the parisian surrealists who did not know him. if at the time he lived in montparnasse, Óscar domínguez had introduced himself to the surrealists, as a “montparno” they would have rejected him, manu militari. when he had painted in montparnasse his work represented everything the surrealists had dismissed – young, well-dressed people playing cards in parisian restaurants, in flashy citrus-inspired colors with cezannesque faces (los jugadores de cartas, , private collection); or musicians playing geometric instruments, (los musicos, , private collection) (figure ). his work exuded a sort of inferiority complex, as if the necessary painting of parisian subjects and the writing of “paris” in capital letters under his own signature on top of the canvas, had been necessary to add value to his weak postcubist painting. at that time domínguez had probably no other way to associate himself with the successful École de paris. he was among the sort of painters andré breton had disparaged since in his articles “le surréalisme et la peinture” for la révolution surréaliste, which had been published as a book in . at the end of the s he was still part of what breton called “the continuous scandal of cezanism, of neo-academism or machine age [machinisme]”. but dalí’s example was inspiring. having organized a local surrealist exhibition in tenerife, and having found a real audience with his dalí-like deliquescent paintings (such as the melting piano, , private collection, or the half-donkey surmounted by a melting female body in l’épingle de sûreté, , figure ), in domínguez felt confident enough to make contact with the surrealists. andré breton gladly designated him a surrealist and agreed to open a second, official surrealist exhibition in santa cruz. in may breton himself came to tenerife and underlined the “poetic communion” that linked him to his “dear Óscar domínguez”. afterwards, domínguez came back to paris where he was now part of the elite surrealist group. in the wake of the tenerife exhibition, breton understood that he had to put in place a systematic internationalization strategy if he wanted to control the spread of the surrealist label. that was the beginning of his systematic planning of international surrealist exhibitions and lectures all over europe. insert figure and figure when it comes to plastic arts and styles, an interesting gap can be noted between paris and abroad. in paris, surrealism would praise “the return of automatism” – as breton and his associates had finally agreed since – to define a “surrealist painting”. but abroad, things were different: “dalinism” was the trend. why dalinism? already in , in spain, a critic explained that part of the catalan youth who was amazed by the instant success of their compatriot, had turned into “dalinism”: what is tragic in the question is the influence salvador dalí is starting to have, not upon himself, but upon other creatures. today, there are youths who turn to dalínism and play at surrealism. the results are terrible. so far all the imitations in the style and design of j.v. foix we read, were a calamity. young theorists, when they talk about art, cannot but copy dalí’s "putrefactions." everyone who wants is younger. and now, above all, to reach the dalí joyeux-prunel painting style or the literary style of foix, a preparation is needed that does not require four days. these young catalan painters had understood, despite the critic’s dismissal, that dalinism enabled one to efficiently convert an academic career into an avant-garde one. to paint as dalí indeed, one needed to be trained in the most traditional techniques of representation. but four days could be sufficient after four years of academic training. in paris, the situation was totally different. dalinism as a new pictorial practice remained rare. neither ernst, nor miró, nor magritte and even less tanguy wanted to imitate the unbearable dalí. the “anxiety of influence” which is so characteristic of the avant- gardes was strong in paris since everyone knew everyone. abroad, on the contrary, it was not shameful to imitate dalí. and it was easy. reproductions of dalí’s works circulated and the dalínian style was very easy to imitate for a good technician: soft objects, blue skies and deserts, telluric shapes, scatology, photographic realism and smooth fractures. above all, using the dalinian style enabled one to gain instant recognition as a surrealist, which had become synonymous with avant-garde, just as visual perversion meant immediate public scandal. it also enabled one to recycle academic skills. dalínian peripheral reconversions, parisian adaptation in the international avant-garde, then, the production of surrealist figurative paintings increased substantially, from the so-called peripheries to the so-called parisian center whose vanguardist leaders could no longer control what was happening. many paintings became extremely detailed, and landscaped were built in a classical way, under a theatrical spotlight and with obsessing objects, as artist could see in dalí’s artworks and their reproductions . art historian josé vovelle made an inventory and counted “dalinian” plastic works produced by spanish, dutch and swedish artists over the peak growth period between – . as her inventory was made at the beginning of the s, much more could be counted today, very probably. in vovelle’s sample, % of works were produced between – . for spanish artists who remained in the country, the peak of growth occurred between – . for spanish people who emigrated, the peak occurred between – . for dutch artists it occurred between – ; for danish and swedish people between – . the dalinian period for the japanese was spread between – . . this internationalization was confirmed by the increasing numbers of foreign visitors coming to dalí in paris during the artistic season and in his village cadaqués during easter and the summer. dalínism became a selling trend – the dalínian flag among the world of fashion and cosmopolitan aristocracy was envied, between paris and new york, from the trustees’ evenings at moma, to elsa schiaparelli’s fashion shows. dalí’s international influence demonstrated a divergence of logic between the parisian and the international field of modernism. it was not andré breton’s original parisian movement that gained influence. this soon became a problem for breton. beyond a probable jealousy, the internationalization of dalínism, which was the main factor for the internationalization of surrealism, revealed the fragility of the central position of the parisian group and its dependence upon its “peripheries”. dalí’s repeated pranks, escapades, and peripheral circulations, transient centralities gaffes, his pro-fascist declarations, and his refusal to even consider complying with the group’s discipline, would oblige breton to exclude him. however, neither in february (surrealist trial against dalí) nor the following years, the group could not decide whether to exclude dali. dalí’s international reputation counted too much – and he was the main figurehead in the so-called “peripheries” of the parisian movement, that is to say everywhere outside paris. whereas in paris his position-taking was dismissed and being deliberately controversial, he was praised abroad. at the end of the s, dalí had become the most visible agent of surrealism, and stood internationally as the movement’s representative. dalí’s famous declaration in sums up this point: “the difference between the surrealists and me, is that i am a surrealist.” nothing seemed to scare dalí, even antifascism, however much breton and his friends relied on the clear moral superiority of this political position. in the following years, breton could not stop the growing tension between dali's statements in support of hitler and his central vanguardist position in the international artistic field. the painter was officially expelled from the parisian movement in january . the symbolic victory of surrealism and paris notwithstanding these contradictions, parisian surrealism won the symbolic battle of the international avant-garde. in paris, the surrealists were galvanized by dalí’s contribution. in , in a letter written to abstract painter theo van doesburg, his colleague joaquín torres garcía expressed the desire to “do something” against surrealism: “we have to take a clear stance against surrealism […] what we need is an organization that actually does something…” indeed surrealism was doing something; it even made other avant-gardes think they weren’t doing anything. by trying to unite against the domination of surrealism, the geometrical abstracts confirmed their marginalization in paris and the international peripheries. everywhere in europe, people started to leave the abstract movement and by , the movement abstraction-creation became a distant memory. the abstract artists were cleared from the landscape, which could also be seen in the press at the time. dalí described the situation in a very cruel way in his memoirs, backdating the destruction process of the abstract movement to : in only one single night [after un chien andalou], ten post-war years of pseudo-intellectual avant-gardism [were destroyed]. this horrible thing that used to be called abstract art or non-figurative art fell apart under our feet. it was wounded to death and couldn’t stand up on its feet anymore after seeing the eye of a young girl being cut in half by a razor, at the beginning of our movie. there was no more room for m. mondrian’s small maniac diamonds in paris. of course, artistic circulations and imitations, and dalí’s impact were not the sole factors for surrealism’s victory in paris. after , the redistribution of the french cultural joyeux-prunel field according to political affinities had a favorable impact on the preservation of the surrealist purity. it contributed to strengthen their parisian domination. to be against the surrealists, was to be pro-fascist. from this point on, the avant-garde, the social elite, money and left-wing politics were closely linked. in , for instance, it could be difficult to justify the link between the sale of paul Éluard’s and breton’s collections, and the colonial exhibition. surrealists were known as the leaders of “the colonial counter-exhibition”, but their private collections contained “primitive objects” bought at low prices, which the surrealists sold and contributed to the promotion of however, from the presence of these objects in the market was considered normal. in a letter to his dealer written in , miró admitted that: andré breton loved a pastel very much. i thought it was politically judicious to be in good terms with him, because surrealists became official key figures in paris. [my dealer] pierre agreed with me, so i offered breton this pastel. internationally, the recognition of surrealism by international museums came at the expense of the abstract movement. in , the works of the surrealists were exhibited at the brussels palais des beaux-arts, in the united states, and in the kunsthaus of zurich. in zurich, the exhibition was entitled abstrakte malerei und plastik: hans arp, max ernst, alberto giacometti, josé gonzalez, juan miró; not a single abstract geometric painter was represented, suggesting that geometrical abstraction had no importance in the international artistic field of the time. with the fantastic art, dada, and surrealism exhibition held at the museum of modern art in new york in , surrealism became part of history. it was then known as the movement which followed dada directly, as if dada had not had also abstract and constructivist offspring. this genealogy was scientifically introduced. it ensured the legitimating process of the surrealist story. as for geometrical abstraction, it disappeared a long time from art history: few art historians have been interested in writing on abstraction- creation, and no museum dedicated proper exhibitions to it, except in and . when max ernst painted his l’ange du foyer (le triomphe du surréalisme) in , surrealism had indeed won the competitive battle of symbolic domination over the international avant-garde field (figure ) with no barriers on the horizon and no obstacles in sight, the parisian surrealists could henceforth forget the peripheral and very recent origin of their international ascendency. insert figure here conclusion the centre-periphery approach, which is so essential to the canonical narrative of avant- garde art in the th century, is based on dubious but common methodologies that dominate our discipline: the monograph, nationalism and ethnocentrism, and evolutionist formalism. other methods can afford decentred and more historically complex narratives. combining global, circulatory, and local scales, we can study the history of artistic centralities in the interwar period outside the myth of paris as a moveable feast (ernest hemingway) where the most innovative forms of creation were supposed to take place. a global, transnational peripheral circulations, transient centralities history of modern art in the s, which begins by measuring, comparing, and charting objects of study at a global and horizontal level, before looking at the transnational/ translocal circulation of artworks and artists, and finally analyzing the works and texts themselves, leads to the conclusion that there was a general disenchantment vis-à-vis paris among international innovative artists until the end of the s. not only was the constructivist transnational field more attractive, but also artists could find real markets for modern art and applied arts locally. after , growing disinterest in constructivism gained artistic networks in countries where this tendency had reached a peak of recognition and professionalization. in addition, conservative and fascist tendencies discouraged many artists from staying in their home- country. gradually, peripheral artists got interested in parisian surrealism which had remained until then an exclusively french-speaking literary movement. in the context of the great depression, dalí’s success in paris and abroad triggered soon more interest in surrealism. whereas in , a majority of european artists still sought to place themselves amongst the avant-garde by way of cubism, futurism, or constructivist practices, by , surrealism had replaced these currents to become a sure-fire route to the avant-garde. but artists sought to imitate the catalan dalí more than any other. they followed a spaniard, not a parisian. this reversal in symbolic and geocultural fortunes points to various phenomena linked to international circulation and a series of fascinating processes of resemanticization, wherein the ‘periphery’ manipulated the ‘centre’ and the losers of the past but close history of modern art asserted themselves as the victors of the avant-garde. the internationalization of dalinism generalized an interesting social and aesthetical process which was not expected in the s: formerly academic artists from the ‘peripheries’ could suddenly transition overnight to members of the avant-garde and therefore to the ‘centre’, and all this without a gradual conversion or the blessing of avant-garde leaders. this was a symbolic revolution that represented nothing less than the revenge of the provinces and of the petit-bourgeois, a revolution that proved that desires for aesthetic quick recognition and local efficient scandal could carry just as much weight in the aesthetic arena as sophisiticated artistic theories and practices. here was a revolution that was fuelled by everything but the monocentric ideology and the canon of the avant-garde. this work has received support of transfers (laboratoire d’excellence, program “investissements d’avenir” anr- -idex- - psl* and anr- -labx- ). bÉatrice joyeux-prunel is maître de conferences in modern and contemporary art at the ecole normale supérieure in paris / université paris sciences lettres, with an habilitation à diriger les recherches – an equivalent of professor in modern and contemporary art history. she teaches and works on the history of nineteenth and twentieth century art, the global history of the avant-gardes, the visual culture of petroleum, and the digital turn in the humanities with a special focus on social, global, quantitative, and digital approaches. joyeux- prunel has founded and manages artl@s since (www.artlas.ens.fr). amongst her publications, the books: nul n’est prophète en son pays ? l’internationalisation de la peinture des avant-gardes parisiennes, – (paris: nicolas chaudun/ musée d’orsay, – prix du musée d’orsay); l’art et la mesure : histoire de l’art et et méthodes quantitatives, http://www.artlas.ens.fr/ joyeux-prunel sources, outils, bonnes pratiques (paris: editions rue d’ulm, ); thomas dacosta kaufmann, catherine dossin, and béatrice joyeux-prunel, ed., circulations in the global history of art (new york: routledge, ). more recently she published a pocket-book transnational and social reassessment of modern art history – les avant-gardes artistiques. une histoire transnationale – vol. : – (paris: gallimard, folio histoire series, ); vol. : – (paris: gallimard, folio histoire, ); vol. : – (paris, gallimard, folio histoire, forthcoming ). very representative, and often quoted to endorse this idea, is the book written by martica sawin, surrealism in exile and the beginning of the new york school (cambridge, mass.: mit press, ). see, anna boschetti, ismes. du réalisme au postmodernisme (paris : cnrs Éditions, coll. « culture & société », ). irving sandler, the triumph of american painting: a history of abstract expressionism (new york: harper and row, ), and serge guilbaut, how new york stole the idea of modern art: abstract expressionism, freedom, and the cold war, translated by arthur goldhammer (chicago: university of chicago press, ). james elkins, ed., is art history global? (new york; london: routlegdge, ); kitty zijlmans and wilfried van damme, world art studies: exploring concepts and approaches (amsterdam: valiz, ). mari carmen ramírez and héctor olea, eds., inverted utopias: avant-garde art in latin america (new haven: yale university press, ). the social field is defined, after pierre bourdieu, as a relatively autonomous sector of the social world, a site of constant negotiation and conflict driven by its own logics, hierarchies, values, legitimization and reproduction processes. pierre bourdieu, the rules of art: genesis and structure of the literary field, trans. susan emanuel (stanford: stanford university press, ). original version : les règles de l’art : genèse et structure du champ littéraire (paris : le seuil, ). béatrice joyeux-prunel, géopolitique des avant-gardes artistiques – . thèse d’habilitation à diriger les recherches, paris, sciences po, ; and béatrice joyeux-prunel, “provincializing paris. the center-periphery narrative of modern art in light of quantitative and transnational approaches,” artl@s bulletin, , n. ( ): article ; http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/artlas/vol /iss / /. béatrice joyeux-prunel, “¿exponer al cubista sin cubismo? de cómo kahnweiler llegó a convencer a alemania —e incluso al mundo entero— del aura de picasso mediante su pedagogía expositiva ( – )”, picasso. registros alemanes (exh. cat. malagá: picasso museum (fall )), – . piet mondrian, letter to theo van doesburg, februrary , quoted by susanne deicher, piet mondrian: protestantismus und modernität (berlin: reimer, ), . norbert bandier, sociologie du surréalisme (paris : la dispute, ). susanne deicher, piet mondrian. protestantismus und modernität (berlin: reimer, ), . béatrice joyeux-prunel, les avant-gardes artistiques – . une histoire transnationale (paris : gallimard, , folio histoire series n. ). see also catherine dossin and béatrice joyeux-prunel, “the german century. towards a geopolitical art history”, in: thomas da costa kaufmann, catherine dossin, and béatrice joyeux-prunel, http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/artlas/vol /iss / / peripheral circulations, transient centralities eds., circulations. writing the global history of a globalized art (new york: routledge, ), – . see kenneth silver, esprit de corps: the art of the parisian avant-garde and the first world war, – (princeton, n.j.: princeton university press, ). correspondência mário de andrade & tarsila do amaral, (são paulo: edusp, ); and tarsila viajante / viajera, exhibition catalogue são paulo, pinacoteca, secretaria de estado da cultura, governo do estado de são paulo, january– march , buenos aires, museo de arte latinoamericano de buenos aires, march– june , regina texeira de barros ed. (c mara brasileira do livro, malba, fundación costantini, ). béatrice joyeux-prunel, géopolitique des avant-gardes artistiques – . see also béatrice joyeux-prunel, les avant-gardes artistiques. une histoire transnationale “À paris tout est totalement mort, [...] c’est pour moi un fait certain que la nouvelle zone de culture est le nord.” théo van doesburg, letter to a friend. michel seuphor, piet mondrian (paris: séguier, ), . he took part in the collective exhibition in (august-september) in london (“exhibition of french art – ,” mansard gallery, heal & son, ltd., london ) ; personal touring exhibition in geneva, dresden, munich, düsseldorf, and new york (november –december : “tournée de l’exposition de sculptures, sculpto-peintures, peintures, dessins de alexandre archipenko”), before a personal exhibition in the russian pavilion of the venice biennale . art critic theodor däubler wrote several texts on archipenko who exhibited at fritz gurlitt’s gallery in berlin, and with other german artists such as lyonel feininger in frankfurt am main in may . his architectonic art found echoes in the works of central european sculptors, such as katarzyna kobro. the first issue of the constructivist journal ma, edited by lászló moholy- nagy after his arrival at the committee of the hungarian vanguardist journal was dedicated to archipenko (ma, n. , vienna ). archipenko’s works were displayed at the zenit exhibition in zagreb and in belgrade ( ). see krisztina passuth, les avant-gardes de l’europe centrale – (paris: flammarion, ), and . donald h. karshan, ed., archipenko: international visionary, (washington: published for the national collection of fine arts by smithsonian institution press, ), . detailed research presented in béatrice joyeux-prunel, “provincializing paris...”. see for instance francis picabia’s and andré breton’s letters to tristan tzara, in michel sanouillet ed., dada à paris, revised and reedited by anne sanouillet (paris: Éditions du cnrs, ). this is the result of a study of modernist magazines available in the centre pompidou library, concentrating on three important years, -– . see béatrice joyeux- prunel, “provincializing paris…” camille mauclair, l’architecture va-t-elle mourir ? (paris : Éditions de la nouvelle revue critique, n. d.) . quoted in yves chevrefils desbiolles, les revues d’art à paris - (paris : ent’revues, ), . macel, otakar, “l’esprit nouveau à prague”, in stanislaus von moos, ed., l’esprit nouveau. le corbusier und die industrie – (berlin : w. ernst und sohn, ) – , and jean-louis cohen, “avant-gardes et revues d’architecture en russie, – ”, revue de l’art, n. , , – . the plan to send fernand léger to establish contacts was not fulfilled and the american edition project was abandoned. mardges bacon, le corbusier in america: travels in the land of the timid (cambridge, mass.; the mit press, ). joyeux-prunel ludwig hirschfeld-mack, the bauhaus. an introductory survey (croydon: victoria, longmans green, ), – , quoted by igor naoumovitch golomchtok, l’art totalitaire: union soviétique, iiie reich, italie fasciste, chine (translated from the english by michèle levy-bram. paris : carré, ), . marie-aline prat, peinture et avant-garde au seuil des années (lausanne: l’Âge d’homme, ). such as the galleries povolozky, viscontin, galerie d’art contemporain, le sacre du printemps, marck… on this xenophoby see l'École de paris – , exh. cat., sophie krebs ed., paris, musée d'art moderne de la ville de paris, (paris: réunion des musées nationaux, ). félix marcilhac, józsef csáky: du cubisme historique à la figuration réaliste : catalogue raisonné des sculptures (paris: Éditions de l’amateur, ). on this naturalist shift see romy golan, modernity and nostalgia: art and politics in france between the wars (new haven and london: yale university press, ). see cercle et carré and the international spirit of abstract art, exh. cat. athens, georgia, georgia museum of art, university of georgia, october – january (athens, georgia: georgia museum of art, university of georgia, ). http://www.salvador-dali.org/cataleg_raonat/ salvador dalí, letter to his uncle anselm domènech, summer , quoted in ian gibson, the shameful life of salvador dali (new york: w.w. norton, ), . dalí, personnage à la fenêtre, , madrid, museo national centro de arte reina sofia. ian gibson, the shameful life of salvador dalí, . dalí, nature morte (invitation au sommeil), , present whereabouts unknown. salvador dalí, académie néo-cubiste, , museo de montserrat, montserrat. specialists have recognized an inspiration from picasso’s atelier à la tête de plâtre ( ) that dalí saw in picasso’s studio while visiting the parisian painter in spring . but one has also to point out the constructivist and post-cubist inspirations of the painting, which also includes a clear reference to jean arp’s arbitrary color shapes. ian gibson, the shameful life of salvador dalí, . the final list of referencial personalities (a theoretical obligation for a manifesto) is the following: picasso, gris, ozenfant, de chirico, miró, lipchitz, brancusi, arp, le corbusier, reverdy, tzara, Éluard, aragon, desnos, maritain, raynal, zervos, breton, cocteau, stravinsky, garcía lorca. ian gibson, the shameful life of salvador dalí, . guash dans l’amic de les arts, october , quoted in ian gibson, the shameful life of salvador dalí, . l’amic de les arts, quoted in ian gibson, the shameful life of salvador dalí, . see rené girard, mimesis and theory: essays on literature and criticism, – , robert doran ed. (stanford: stanford university press, ). for instance, in december , the “collection of our nowadays paintings, which belong to serge lifar”, which included works from miro, was shown in the madeleine quarter. introduction written by jean cocteau. miró to dalí, november , in joan miró – : la naissance du monde, exh. cat. paris, centre pompidou, march– june , agnès de la beaumelle ed. (paris : centre pompidou, ), . interview for estampa, november , quoted in ian gibson, the shameful life of salvador dalí, http://www.salvador-dali.org/cataleg_raonat/ peripheral circulations, transient centralities the most detailed history of surrealism is gérard durozoi, histoire du mouvement surréaliste (paris: hazan, ). in marie laure de noailles boughtmax ernst’s painting monument aux oiseaux just after completion. see laurence benaïm, marie laure de noailles : la vicomtesse du bizarre (paris: grasset, ), . see luis bu uel, l’ ge d’or : correspondance luis u uel-charles de noailles : lettres et documents, – , jean-michel bourhous and nathalie schoeller eds., cahiers du musée national d’art moderne (paris: centre georges pompidou, ), . see marijke verhaar, salvador dalí et le mécénat du zodiaque, unpublished doctoral thesis (utrecht university, ). the noailles first commissioned de stijl’s artists to design the interior of their house villa saint-bernard ; then, they commissioned a renewed interior for their private parisian mansion, place des États-unis, from jean-michel frank. dominique paulvé, marie cuttoli: myrbor et l’invention de la tapisserie moderne (paris: norma, ). louis aragon and andré breton, “protestation,” la révolution surréaliste n. (june ), . shane maree dunworth, the de noailles as collectors and patrons, unpublished phd thesis (london: courtauld institute of art, ), ; malcolm gee, dealers, critics, and collectors of modern painting: aspects of the parisian art market between and (new york: garland publishings, ); béatrice joyeux-prunel, les avant-gardes artistiques – . une histoire transnationale. “l’envol.” un remarquable ensemble-sport, créé par norine. psyché, august , brussels, photograph by robert de smet. bibliothèque royale de belgique. in the background, a max ernst painting, forêt, is displayed behind the fashion model ( ). translated from the french, salvador dalí, la vie secrète de salvador dalí, salvador, michel déon ed. (paris: la table ronde, ), . “actuellement les collections privées les plus célèbres de paris possèdent des œuvres du peintre de cologne [...], celles d’alphonse kann, du comte de beaumont, du vicomte de noailles, du baron napoléon gourgaud, de raoul la roche, kélékian, jacques doucet, tous ceux qui collectionnent picasso et les autres grands cubistes, auxquels ils ont joint paul klee, félix fénéon qui découvrit seurat [...].” quoted in werner spies, max ernst: les collages, inventaires et contradictions, translated from the german by eliane kaufholz (paris: gallimard, ), (note ). lioubomir mitsitch [sic], les chevaliers de montparnasse (paris: aux arènes de lutèce, ). this exhibition is not well known. i thank gabriela francone for introducing me to the work of antonio berni. andré breton, le surréalisme et la peinture, avec photogravures d’après max ernst, giorgio de chirico, joan miró, georges braque, arp [sic], francis picabia, pablo picasso, man ray, andré masson, yves tanguy, paris, libr. gallimard, (new edition paris: gallimard folio essais, ) ; english translation by simon watson taylor, surrealism and painting (london: macdonald and co., ). on this question see béatrice joyeux-prunel, les avant-gardes artistiques – . une histoire transnationale . andré breton, le surréalisme et la peinture, avec photogravures d’après max ernst, giorgio de chirico, joan miró, georges braque, arp [sic], francis picabia, pablo picasso, man ray, andré masson, yves tanguy (paris: librairie gallimard, ; new edition paris: gallimard, coll. folio essais n° , ). joyeux-prunel andré breton, “le surréalisme et la peinture », la révolution surréaliste n ° , year , march , . « le scandale continu du cézannisme, du néo-académisme ou du machinisme ». la part du jeu et du rêve: scar dom ngue et le surréalisme, – (exhibition catalogue, marseille, musée cantini, june - october ; paris: paris, hazan, ). andré breton, talk at the circulo de amistad xiv abril, tenerife, may . manuscript p. . archive andré breton. the planning can be found in breton’s archive: andré breton, “projet de cycle de conférences – l'heure nous paraît venue d'interrompre en public… », june . http://www.andrebreton.fr/work/ . “el tràgic de la question és la influència que salvador dalí comença de tenir, no damunt d’ell mateix, sinó damunt d’altres criatures. avui hi ha xicots que passen el dalinisme i juguen a surrealism. els resultants són terribles. fins ara totes les imitacions a l’estil i la concepció de j. v. foix que hem llegit, eren una calamitat. els teoritzadors joves quan parlen d’art, d’en dalí només saben copier-ne les “putrefaccions”. de jove n’és tothom que vol. i, sobretot, que per arribar a l’estil pictòric de dalí o a l’estil literari de foix cal una preparació que no s’adquireix amb quatre dies.” xxx, « dalinisme », la nova revista, vol. vii, n° , april , . harold bloom, the anxiety of influence: a theory of poetry (london, new york: oxford university press, ; nd ed. ). josé vovelle, “une europe surréaliste: dalinisme et daliniens”, in l’europe surréaliste, contributions au colloque de strasbourg (septembre ), henri béhar ed. (lausanne: l’Âge d’homme : mélusine: cahiers de recherches sur le surréalisme, n. , ), - . see some fashion pictures made by photographer cecil beaton ( - ), for instance his “models wearing wool suits by elsa schiaparelli with salvador dalí-inspired bureau-like pockets”. vogue (us edition), september . dictionnaire général du surréalisme et de ses environs, adam biro and rené passeron ed. (paris: presses universitaires de france ; fribourg: office du livre, ),  . “il faut absolument que nous prenions contre-position [...] ce qu’il nous faut est un groupement qui fait quelque chose…”. letter, undated, archives of the torrès family, quoted by marie-aline prat, peinture et avant-garde au seuil des années (lausanne: l’Âge d’homme, , and note ). salvador dalí, la vie secrète de salvador dalí, . sophie cazaumayou, objets d’océanie. regards sur le marché de l’art primitif en france (paris: l’harmattan, ), – . sophie leclercq, “the surrealist appropriation of the ’indigeneous’ art”, arts et sociétés, november . http://www.artsetsocietes.org/a/a-leclercq.html miró to pierre matisse, barcelona, december (joan miró la naissance du monde, – , ). abstrakte malerei und plastik: hans arp, max ernst, alberto giacometti, josé gonzalez, juan miró, october– november . abstraction-création, - , exh. cat. münster, westfälisches landesmuseum für kunst und kulturgeschichte, landschaftsverband westfalen-lippe, münster, april– june , and musée d'art moderne de la ville de paris, june– september (münster:westfälisches landesmuseum für kunst und kulturgeschichte des landschaftverbandes-lippe, ); cercle et carré and the international spirit of abstraction (georgia museum of art, ). ernest hemingway, a moveable feast (new york : c. scribner's sons, ). http://www.andrebreton.fr/work/ http://www.artsetsocietes.org/a/a-leclercq.html peripheral circulations, transient centralities to quote the late piotr piotrowski in his introduction to in the shadow of yalta. art and the avant-garde in eastern europe, – (london: reaktion books, ). deconstructivism: richness or chaos to postmodern architecture  cao xin (correspondence)  shuiyunjv@qq.com  + this article is published under the terms of the creative commons attribution license . author(s) retain the copyright of this article. publication rights with alkhaer publications. published at: http://www.ijsciences.com/pub/issue/ - / doi: . /ijsci. ; online issn: - ; print issn: - deconstructivism: richness or chaos to postmodern architecture olivier clement gatwaza , xin cao  school of landscape architecture, beijing forestry university, qinghua east road beijing, china abstract: in this paper, we examine the involvement of deconstructivism in the evolvement of postmodern architecture and ascertain its public acceptance dimensions as it progressively conquers postmodern architecture. to achieve this, we used internet search engines such as google, yahoo, wikipedia and web of science, we also used knowledge repositories such as google scholar and the world’s largest travel site tripadvisor to gather information and data about origin, evolution, characteristics and relationship between postmodernism and deconstructivism. we’ve based our judgment on concepts from famous architects, political leaders and public opinion to access the suitability of architectural style. the result of this research shows that postmodernism architecture buildings have an average . % of visitor’s satisfaction ranking; while deconstructivism architecture buildings when taken alone, a decrease of % in visitor’s satisfaction ranking is perceived. in addition, strong comments against the upcoming architectural style confirm that deconstructivism still has ingredients to endorse in order to impose its trajectory towards the top of modern architecture. being a piece of a globalized world, deconstructivism architecture in the most of the cases tends to disregard the history and culture of its location which compromise its innovative, complexity and ingenious character, bringing down its original taste. keywords: architectural style, building, chaos, postmodernism introduction . research background its first examples being generally cited as being from the s, postmodern architecture began as an international style and continues to influence present day’s architecture (central intelligence agency, ). after a number of architectural styles in different parts of the world and in different periods: aegean, greek, roman, medieval, renaissance, baroque, neoclassical, early and late modern architecture, a new tendency became obvious as some architects started to distance themselves from modern functionalism which they think as boring, and which of the public considered unsympathetic and even hostile. these architects turned their views into the past, quoting past features of various structures and combining them together to create a new concept. the postmodernism assisted the coming back of columns and other components of pre-modern designs, sometimes adopting classical greek and roman (but not simply recreating them as it was done before in neoclassical architecture but adapting them by using other technological means such as cantilevers). while postmodernism went back in the past to grab the ancient conceptions that modernism had avoided, deconstructivism also excluded the postmodern acceptance of such ancient references, as well as the concept of ornament as decoration. in addition to disagreements, a defining document for deconstructivism and postmodernism was robert venturi’s “complexity and contraction in architecture” ( ). it debates against the purity, clarity and simplicity of modernism. during the late in architecture evolved the idea of deconstructivism from postmodernism. the concept came to the world's attention when a group of innovative architects - peter eisenman, frank gehry, zaha hadid, rem koolhaas, daniel libeskind, coop himmelbau, and bernard tschumi - featured in an exhibition titled deconstructivist architecture at the museum of modern art in new york. since that time, its heritage has invaded the field of contemporary architecture and is expanding today all over the world in the impressive buildings designed by the likes of zaha hadid, frank gehry and oma to name but a few (design curial, ). . research problem deconstructivism is an improvement of postmodern architecture that came out to the global attention in the late s. it is characterized by concepts of fragmentation, non-rectilinear shapes which serve to distort and dislocate some of the elements of http://www.ijsciences.com/pub/issue/ - / http://www.ijsciences.com/pub/issue/ - / http://www.moma.org/ deconstructivism: richness or chaos to postmodern architecture http://www.ijsciences.com volume – august ( ) architecture, such as structure and envelope and an interest in handling ideas of a structure’s surface or skin. the visual appearance outcome of buildings that show the many deconstructivism “styles” is characterized by a encouraging unpredictability and a well organized chaos. important proceedings in the early history of the deconstructivism movement include the parc de la villette architectural design competition especially the entry from jacques derrida and peter eisenman (derrida & eisenman, ) and bernard tschumi’s winning entry, the museum of modern art’s exhibition in new york about deconstructivist architecture, organized by philip johnson and mark wigley, and the opening of the wexner center for the arts in columbus in , designed by peter eisenman, the new york exhibition featured works by frank gehry, rem koolhaas, daniel libeskind, peter eisenman, zaha hadid, coop himmelbau, and bernard tschumi. since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term (saylor academy, ). nonetheless, the term has held and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general tendency within contemporary architecture. originally, some of the architects known as deconstructivist were inspired by ideas of the french philosopher jacques derrida. eisenman developed a private liaisons with derrida, but even so his methodology to architectural design was developed long before he became a deconstructivist. his point is that deconstructivism should be perceived as an extension of his interest in deep-seated formalism. some disciples of deconstructivism were on the other hand influenced by the previous experimentation and geometric inequities of russian constructivism. there are supplementary references in the th -century deconstructivism movements: the modernism/postmodernism interplay, minimalism, cubism, expressionism and contemporary art. the effort in deconstructivism gradual evolution is to move architecture away from what its practitioners see as the constricting “rules” of modernism such as “form follows function”, “purity of form”, and “truth to materials”. even though deconstructivism architects criticized postmodernists of incompetence and qualified their designs as incoherent or arbitraries (venturi, ), deconstruction on its turn also became not everybody’s preference and was enormously controversial all along years, due largely to a mixture of its adherents making extremely confrontational claims and its critics having trouble appreciative the often very difficult writings of derrida and his followers. strong critics against deconstructivism architecture continued to be heard from the four sides of the globe until recently when some of the global high level political leaders called for an end to the construction of “weird architecture” in the country (arch daily, ). the blames on deconstructivism architecture came to confirm that though it attempted to bring improvements to postmodern architecture, it is still far from being a perfect and ideal architecture style. in this paper, our concern is to know the relative level of its public acceptance compared to the postmodern architecture. we also wish to know some reasons that make a so complex and creative architectural style not to get onto everybody’s admiration. . research objective the new technology and new tools in architecture show a strong connection between deconstructivism and modernity. during this contemporary period cad (computer-aided design) is a new tool that modernized architects work in most aspects of architecture, mainly the particular nature of deconstructivism makes the use of informatics particularly relevant. though computer has brought the designing of complex shapes up to the higher stage and much easier, not everything that looks abnormal is “deconstructivist”. computer aided design is currently a crucial three-dimensional modeling and animation (virtual and physical) assists in the conception of very complex spaces, in addition the ability to link computer models to manufacturing jigs (cam: computer-aided manufacturing) permits the mass construction of subtly different modular elements to be accomplished at reasonable costs. in retrospect many early deconstructivist accomplishments seem to have been conceived with the aid of a computer (computer-aided design), but were not; zaha hadid’s sketches for instance. another example, gehry is noted for creating many physical models as well as computer prototypes as part of his design process. on the other hand deconstructivism in contemporary architecture attitudes is in opposition to the ordered rationality of modernism. its relationship with postmodernism is also decidedly opposite. even though postmodernist and emerging deconstructivist architects published theories alongside each other in the journal ‘oppositions’ (published - ), that journal’s tendency marked the foundation of a significant breakdown between the two movements. deconstructivism took a argumentative stance vis-a-vis much of architecture and architectural history, wanting to disjoin, dissociate and disassemble architecture (tschumi, ). while postmodernism returned to include often ingeniously or ironically the historical references that modernism had excluded, deconstructivism rejects the postmodern acceptance of such positions. it also rejects the idea of ornament as an after-thought or decoration. in addition to oppositions, another text that separated deconstructivism from the fray of modernism and http://www.ijsciences.com/ deconstructivism: richness or chaos to postmodern architecture http://www.ijsciences.com volume – august ( ) postmodernism was the publication of robert venturi’s complexity and contradiction in architecture ( ). a defining point for both postmodernism and for deconstructivism, complexity and contradiction argues against the purity, clarity and simplicity of modernism. with its publication, functionalism and rationalism, the two main branches of modernism were overturned as paradigms according to postmodernist and deconstructivist readings, with differing readings. the postmodern reading of venturi (who was himself a postmodernist) was that ornament and historical allusion added richness to architecture that modernism had foregone. some postmodern architects endeavored to reapply ornaments even to economical and minimal buildings, an effort best illustrated by venturi’s concept of “the decorated shed” rationalism of design was dismissed but the functionalism of the building was still somewhat intact. this is close to the thesis of venturi’s next major work (venturi, ). that signs and ornament can be applied to a pragmatic architecture, and instill the philosophic complexities of semiology. deconstructivism architecture is based in part on the theory of post-structuralist philosopher jacques derrida, the movement is characterized by fragmentation, an interest in manipulating the surface or skin of a built structure, and non-rectilinear shapes which appear to distort and dislocate elements of architecture, such as structure and envelope. a strong relationship (father-son relationship) exist between postmodernism and deconstructivism and strong points of divergence. the seemingly one in two styles which progress on the same historical period when technology has brought enough tools to create any form of design ought use them to generate spotless designs. the objective of this research is to bring our contribution to the perfection of today’s architecture. methodology . literature review “it is ironic that the work of coop himmelblau, and of other deconstructive architects, often turns out to demand far more structural ingenuity than works developed with a “rational” approach to structure” (adrian forty, ) a top list (design curial, ) of the most important works from postmodernism was established by a postmodernism’s famous chroniclers charles jencks. the list was submitted to undergo a popularity test using a travel site tripadvisor. the site was chosen thanks to its enormous capacity of supplying numerical information about the views of travelers who visited a given point of interest & landmark, sight & landmark, nature & parks, ancient ruins, hiking trails, accommodation, restaurant and outdoor activity. it is able to show the reviewer highlights, visitor rating (excellent, very good, average, pool and terrible) and gives a popularity index to determine overall traveler satisfaction. the site reaches million unique monthly visitors and more than million reviews and opinions covering more than . million accommodations, restaurants and attractions. on the other hand a top list of iconic deconstructivism architecture building established by design curial magazine in march was also taken to undergo the same appreciation test using a travel site tripadvisor. in both cases, the site was visited on november th , . . statistical analysis of data the data collected were analyzed using statistical procedures in order to get the idea of the average level of acceptance or rejection of the deconstructivism architecture by the population. there is one central formula that is used to answer questions pertaining to an average. this formula can be manipulated in many different ways, enabling us to create different iterations on mean problems the following is the mathematical formula for the arithmetic mean (a fancy name for the average). am= 𝑛 ∗ ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑛 𝑖= = 𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝑎 +…+𝑎𝑛) ( . ) am=arithmetic mean (or average) n= the number of terms (e.g., the number of items or numbers being averaged) 𝑎𝑖 =the value of each individual item in the list of numbers being averaged the following is the formula for the arithmetic mean, stated in a more readable and understandable form: am= s n ( . ) am= arithmetic mean (or average) n= the number of terms (e.g., the number of items or numbers being averaged) s= the sum of the numbers in the set of interest (e.g., the sum of the numbers being averaged) results and discussions . data processing and results charles jencks, one postmodernism’s famous chronicler said that since the turn of the millennium, the movement has experienced an unlikely rebirth, and chose the of the most important works from postmodernist architecture’s second wave: http://www.ijsciences.com/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jacques_derrida http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jacques_derrida deconstructivism: richness or chaos to postmodern architecture http://www.ijsciences.com volume – august ( ) . caixa forum, madrid, by herzog & de meuron . the beijing olympic stadium a.k.a the bird's nest, - , by herzog & de meuron, designed with the artist ai wei wei. . ravensbourne college by foreign office architects . serpentine galleries pavilion, , by toyo ito's and cecil balmond . the gherkhin, by norman foster . the new guggenheim, bilbao, by frank gehry . memorial to the murdered jews of europe, berlin, by peter eisenman . the school of slavonic & east european studies, london, by alan short . santa caterina market, barcelona, by embt . cctv, beijing, by rem koolhaas table : visitor’s review on charles jencks’s list of the most important works from postmodernist architecture n o building name total number of comments number of positive comments number of negative comments percentage of approval (%) . caixa forum, madrid . the beijing olympic stadium . ravensbourne - - - - . serpentine galleries pavilion - - - - . the gherkhin, by norman foster . the new guggenheim, bilbao, by frank gehry . memorial to the murdered jews of europe, berlin . the school of slavonic & east european studies - - - - . santa caterina market . cctv, beijing design curial magazine also published a list of iconic deconstructivism architecture buildings: . vitra design museum , by frank gehry . ufa-cinema center , by coop himmeln . central library , by oma . jewish museum, berlin , by daniel libeskind . vitra fire station , by zaha hadid . cctv headquarters , by oma . parc de la villette - , by bernard tschumi & architects . wexner center for the arts , by peter eisenman http://www.ijsciences.com/ deconstructivism: richness or chaos to postmodern architecture http://www.ijsciences.com volume – august ( ) table : visitor’s review on design curial magazine’s list of the iconic deconstructivism architecture building n o building name location total number of comments number of positive comments number of negative comments percentage of approval (%) . vitra design museum , by frank gehry weil am rhein, germany . ufa-cinema center , by coop himmeln dresden . central library , by oma seattle . jewish museum, berlin , by daniel libeskind berlin, germany . vitra fire station , by zaha hadid weil am rhein, germany - - - - . cctv headquarters , by oma beijing, china . parc de la villette - , by bernard tschumi & architects paris, france . wexner center for the arts , by peter eisenman ohio, usa wishing to make a comparison between postmodernism architecture and deconstructivism architecture popularity, we have compared the average percentages of the two tables. applying the formula ( . ) to the table to get the arithmetic mean, we get the following: arithmetic mean for table am = *( + + + + + + ) = . applying the same formula ( . ) to the table to get the arithmetic mean, we get the following: arithmetic mean for table am = *( + + + + + + ) = . from the results above we get the following average percentages: for postmodernism architecture: . % of visitor’s satisfaction for deconstructivism architecture: . % of visitor’s satisfaction . discussions by analyzing the table , we notice that some of postmodernism architecture buildings have characteristics of deconstructivism. this has nothing abnormal since deconstructivism is a development of postmodern architecture. due to the fact that deconstructivism is an architectural movement that encourages radical freedom of form and the open manifestation of complexity in a building rather than strict attention to functional concerns and conventional design elements (as right angles or grids), makes it being able to create new designs with an incredible creativity. a . % visitor’s satisfaction ranking shows clearly that postmodernism designs (including its deconstructivism wing) are highly welcomed by spectators. nevertheless, it is clear that it is not to everyone’s taste. when deconstruction architecture is put sidewise from postmodernism architecture as it was done on the table , a decrease in satisfaction percentages is noticed. a . % visitor’s satisfaction ranking shows clearly that deconstructivism architecture has already gained the hearts of the majority of spectators; nevertheless, a decrease of % visitor’s satisfaction compared to postmodernism architecture shows that the style still has a number of features to improve so as to please everyone’s sense. moreover, looking at the comments strength against http://www.ijsciences.com/ deconstructivism: richness or chaos to postmodern architecture http://www.ijsciences.com volume – august ( ) the style, architects should think twice before adopting constructivism architecture. . challenges our research was only limited to the most famous pieces of postmodernism and deconstructivism which seemingly are already the most successful cases of the two architectural styles. this needs to be considered in the future development of this subject. some buildings of the list above are not tourist attraction and could not get visitor’s satisfaction ranking and comments. that reason made us only use the available data ( building on each list). concluding remarks an architectural element must stand in place and in time linked to the given region and location. sometimes deconstructivism architecture have done nothing to do with the set up region’s history or culture. being pieces of a globalized world they only represent a form’s aesthetic without remembering the history and culture of the place where they are built. another phenomenon to mention is that they are normally built on places where ancient buildings are demolished. a combination of the above phenomena brings a repulsion sense to the public who sees and judges the fruits of architecture. the buildings have to fit with the style of the region by being humble, sensible and elegant towards traditional values. the problem becomes even more complicated when the building represents the national most interests. on the other hand, the new buildings shouldn’t be rise near historical sites to completely break the traditional thousand year old architectural style of the public buildings. it shouldn’t look like a burj dubai next to the egyptian pyramids. declarations . competing interests the author declares no financial or non-financial competing interests. . acknowledgements the research was done as part of the msc program ( - ) in the school of landscape architecture, beijing forestry university, people’s republic of china. the author would like to express deep appreciations for the chinese scholarship council and rwanda education board for granting the scholarship. references . “rank order-area”. the world factbook. ( ). central intelligence agency. cia from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/rankorder/ rank.html. . deconstructivist architecture-eight iconic buildings. ( ). design curial. from http://www.designcurial.com/news/deconstructivist- architecture-eight-iconic-buildings- / retrieved on th november, . . deconstructivism. ( ). saylor academy. from http://www.saylor.org/site/wp- content/uploads/ / /deconstructivism.pdf . why china's president says "no more weird buildings", ( ). arch daily. from: http://www.archdaily.com/ /why-china-s-president- says-no-more-weird-buildings/ retrieved on th january, . . venturi, r. ( ). complexity and contradiction in architecture. new york: the museum of modern art press. . derrida, j. & eisenman, p. ( ). chora l works. monacelli press. isbn - - - . . tschumi, bernard ( ). architecture and disjunction. the mit press. cambridge. isbn - - - . venturi, robert ( ). learning from las vegas (with d. scott brown and s. izenour), cambridge ma, , revised . isbn - - -x . forty, a. words and buildings: a vocabulary of modern architecture. new york: thames & hudson, p. . post-modernism resurgent: ten buildings that made a difference ( ). design curial. from http://www.designcurial.com/news/post-modernism- resurgent-ten-buildings-that-made-a- difference-by-charles- jencks- / retrieved on th november, . western architecture timeline. ( ). essential humanities. retrieved from http://www.essential- humanities.net/art-overview/western-architecture-timeline/ . jane jacobs ( ). the death and life of great american cities. new york. modern library. isbn - - - - . wujiang mei, huang peijuan ( ). english scientific paper writing. beijing：renmin university of china press. isbn - - - - http://www.ijsciences.com/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ picasso: (in)human face edinburgh research explorer picasso: (in)human face citation for published version: cox, n , 'picasso: (in)human face', angelaki: journal of theoretical humanities, vol. , no. , pp. - . <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / x. . #.ud- pmcdbk> link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: peer reviewed version published in: angelaki: journal of theoretical humanities publisher rights statement: © neil cox, . cox, n. ( ). picasso: (in)human face. angelaki, ( ), - general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the edinburgh research explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the university of edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that edinburgh research explorer content complies with uk legislation. if you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. download date: . apr. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / x. . #.ud- pmcdbk https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/picasso-inhuman-face( d d - f - e -ae - a ).html neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page picasso: (in)human face the inhuman in human beings: that is what the face is from the start. in the history of the visual arts there are few projects interrogating the face to rival picasso’s. one context for this enterprise is, perhaps, its dialogue with the ubiquitous phenomenon of photographic portraiture, and another is the growing discourse in picasso’s lifetime of the prehistoric, ontologically grounding, origins of art. the largest collection of pictures showing faces made by a single artist only occurs, in other words, when art’s role in portraiture seems definitively to have been consigned to the past, and when the project of the artistic representation of the human was subject to renewed anthropological speculation. alongside, and as if in answer to, the advent of a photographic pantheon of errant human appearances, prehistoric art seemed to make visible the origin and the destiny of ‘the human’ as a question of the human face. this essay is in part an inevitably highly selective survey of picasso’s representations of the face (it does not have the space, for example, to discuss picasso’s first forays in the deformation of the face during , when he worked on les demoiselles d’avignon, the ambitious and discomfiting work now in the museum of modern art, new york, and nor does it attend to important representations of faces in sculpture). instead, with the help of an essay on vernacular portrait photography by georges bataille published in , it seeks to set picasso representations to work as a questioning not only of the face, but also of the category of the human. bataille is recruited again later, when the appearance of prehistory is brought to bear on the picasso’s imagery of the human face. the claim is that there is a relationship between picasso’s works and a crisis in the notion of a continuous human history. ‘the face’ in picasso? men do not forgive us for tackling the human face. gilles deleuze and félix guattari, a thousand plateaus: capitalism and schizophrenia, trans. brian massumi (london: athlone press ) . i should like to thank chris townsend for the invitation and for his patience and jeff byrne of the department of philosophy at the university of essex for the chance to present my work to a very helpful audience of phd students. i owe thanks, as ever, to dana macfarlane for her comments on the text. one writer in an exhibition catalogue of links ‘picasso’s unique achievement’ to the inaugural role that modern figurative art seemed to have in the questioning of and quest for the human. ‘it may be… that the return to the human figure is not only a question of method: it could be a reflection of the human quest - man again in search of man.’ k.j geirlandt, ‘figuration and disfiguration’, the human figure since picasso, exh.cat., gent: stadsbestuur van gent, museum voor schone kuntsen, july - october , xlvii. picasso c. recorded in genevieve laporte, un amour secret de picasso (monaco: editions du rocher ) . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page it is important, first, to note that talking about picasso’s representations of the face is by no means a straightforward task. trivially, in writing on the visual arts the conventional designation of ‘head’ or ‘bust’ is applied to many representations that we might want to look at as ‘faces’ (head of a woman, bust of a man, and so on). perhaps more importantly, when dealing with picasso, faces are of course also central to portraiture, where the face is an identity, a personality fashioned as a public image. so thinking of some of picasso’s works of art as representations of the face is always a constructive act in relation to the assumptions embedded in the language of art history, one that raises the question as to when, and under what circumstances, a head, or a bust, or indeed a portrait, becomes for us ‘a face’. to turn the question around, we could also ask in what way a face manages to be a face without being tied to the mien of a particular historical individual? or (and this is an important question since it throws into relief picasso’s particular achievement), without being identified with some notional image of a social group or ‘type’? many faces represented in the history of european art, faces that are not intended as portraits of individuals in the history of art, reproduce just such ‘genre’ ideologies (the same can be said of much of the photographic archive). picasso’s faces, for all kinds of interesting reasons, do not. if thinking of a generalised face in picasso seems to pull us away from the imperatives of portraiture (while raising the interesting question as to what his non- portraits represent), in recent years the traffic has sometimes been in the other direction: pictures that were once thought of generically as representations of (mere) faces have been re-inscribed as portraits, the consequence of an ever more effective sleuthing out of picasso’s life history. an epoch-making event in this process was the exhibition picasso and portraiture, held at the museum of modern art, new york. in the same institution exhibited a picture called woman with pears (museum of modern art, new york); in it became woman with pears (fernande), the brackets signalling that the identification of the subject as picasso’s then partner fernande olivier was circumstantial, generally known but not hitherto given in the official title. the change of title is in its way perfectly reasonable – but ‘fernande’ is, to use picasso’s words that appear in the epigraph to this essay, an ‘abstract idea of reality’ that now stands between us and the painting as a depiction of the face as a pictorial reality. ‘(fernande)’ is the inscription of a ‘real person’ guaranteeing the factual drama of the painting as portrait. of course, there are plenty of examples of works by picasso that set out to be portraits, and were called as such from the outset. in many cases these paintings or drawings (most are in one of these two mediums) bear superficial resemblance to the great tradition of portraiture in european art, ‘superficial’ in the sense that they display their credentials as updated old masters rather too ostentatiously. so, for a recent exhibition in london got called renaissance faces in recognition of the ambiguous status of many early paintings as portraits or types, but also perhaps acknowledging the oscillation between looking at portraits as historical record and as the expression of (historical) ideas of the face. see renaissance faces: van eyck to titian, london, national gallery, october - january . picasso and portraiture, ed. william rubin, (new york: museum of modern art, ) alfred h barr, picasso: forty years of his art (new york: museum of modern art ) , and picasso and portraiture, . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page example, the impressive portrait of olga khokhlova (fig. ) imitates the work of ingres. according to the standard picasso narrative, this same olga went through many different visual manifestations in subsequent years, however, to the point where, as even the exhibition catalogue acknowledged, the question of portraiture seems to become redundant. woman with a hat ( , centre georges pompidou) just about gets to be subtitled ‘(olga)’, as does even the ossified seated bather ( , museum of modern art), but repose ( , collection steven cohen) remains a nameless monster. this is not to say that such monsters have not elsewhere got to be more or less seen as olga, but that once we get to works such as face of late (fig. ), the identification rests on a version of the pathetic fallacy, where what is interpreted as a feeling of horror – expressed in its recent re-titling as the scream by its present owners (the metropolitan museum of art, new york) - seems so oppressive that it is not only assumed to have a basis in the ‘reality’ of picasso’s failing relationship with his wife, a basis that is more or less indexical, but to reflect the notional psychic state of the artist at the time it was painted. the image of truth? is it reality that creates reality / or the abstract idea of reality which provokes it and makes it appear. the powerful presence of such fantastic deformations as those evident in the scream, and their uncertain relationship to any kind of model of portraiture, prompt such questions over the nature of their truth. picasso himself, in various interviews and reported conversations, often spoke of the way in which representations can be said to embody or reveal the truth. the word ‘truth’ was important to picasso when paired with the word ‘lie’; the dialectical relationship between these two potent words could even be said to constitute picasso’s theory of art. ‘we all know art is not truth’, he remarked in (when in his early forties and by then a supremely successful artist), ‘art is a lie that makes us realize the truth, at least the truth as it is given to us to understand.’ importantly, in this theory, truth is something that artists make, not something given in reality that is faithfully copied in artistic representations. he explained this with reference to previous instances of what are often called different styles; his theory of art thus also constitutes a sketchy history of the visual arts: from the painters of the origins, the primitives, whose work is obviously different from nature, down to those artists who, like david, ingres and even bouguereau, believed in painting nature as it is, art has always been art and not nature. and from the point of view of art there are no concrete or abstract forms, only forms that are more or less convincing lies. that those lies are see picasso and portraiture, , , respectively. unusually, the title repose was - with obvious bitter irony - given by picasso undated note by picasso, picasso: collected writings, ed. marie-laure bernadac and christine piot (london: aurum press, ) . the topic ‘picasso and truth’ was recently treated by t j clark in his mellon lectures at the national gallery of art, washington. ‘picasso speaks’, statement publishsed by marius de zayas in , reprinted in dore ashton, picasso on art (new york: viking penguin ) . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page necessary to our mental selves is beyond any doubt, as it is through them that we form our aesthetic point of view of life. the natural motif, something that seems to exist so incontrovertibly, is produced by art alone. but in picasso’s case the creation of an image of nature results not in a single distilled style repeated in every work but a long, notionally endless series of depictions, each apparently expressing a wildly different reality from the previous one. if there could be said to be a programmatic purpose to this wilful heterogeneity, it is to underline the absence of an objective standard of truth for art: if i pursue a truth on my canvas, i can paint a hundred canvases with this same truth. which one, then, is the truth? and what is truth – the thing that acts as my model, or what i am painting? no, it’s like in everything else. truth does not exist. picasso goes a step further here: the absence of objective truth is not merely a matter for the domain of art. it’s like in everything else. truth does not exist. in this light, i want to argue, picasso’s faces insist that the most powerful ‘truth’ of all is the ‘lie’ that is humanity, of a commonality, a shareable experience that could also be a confirmation of the self. at the same time, picasso thinks, all artistic representations of human faces in the history of art, including his own, give rise to some lie ‘necessary to our mental selves’, a particular humanist truth to live by, something so compelling that it produces our very sense of ‘humanity’. ‘picasso speaks’ . it is likely that, even at this point, the word ‘primitives’ here refers to italian artists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, rather than to non- western ‘art’, for which the term only became current later on. it is also possible, given the reference to ‘painters of the origins’, that picasso is imagining some primordial style of painting equivalent to, for example, the assyrian sculpture that he had seen in the louvre, or that he was aware of the paintings in altamira, northern spain, discovered in but only accepted as genuinely ‘prehistoric’ (and now thought to be from around years bce) some twenty years later. picasso reported by hélène parmelin, ashton . picasso scholars might object at this point that my argument is far away from the artist’s own frequently-voiced commitment to a biographical reading of his work, and indeed to its ‘humanity’. a key passage might be the famous statement to the photographer brassaï in : ‘why do you think i date everything i do? because it is not sufficient to know an artist’s works – it is necessary to know when he did them, why, under what circumstances… someday there will undoubtedly be a science – it may be called the science of man – which will seek to learn more about man in general through the study of creative man. i often think about such a science, and i want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. that’s why i put a date on everything i do.’ (brassai, conversations with picasso, trans. jane marie todd (london: chicago up ) . as i have argued elsewhere, there is, however, no simple way of reading this statement, heavily inflected with ideas drawn from the new discipline of ethnography, which points away from the personal toward ‘man’. another objection to the tenor of my argument might be that picasso frequently makes statements that seem to appeal to an essentialist notion of humanity, including, for example, the wonderful passage where he also questions the nature of the face: i seek nothing… i merely set about putting as much humanity as possible neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page but what ‘aesthetic point of view of life’ is inaugurated, then, by what one hostile critic called picasso’s ‘monstrous, inhuman’ faces? portrait as a dream the distinctive ambiguity of the notion of portraiture in picasso’s art rests on the fact that although many of his works can be said to depart from the faces of known individuals they were almost never commissioned; moreover, once the process of representation gets underway, wild metaphors take over from disciplined or humble analogies. this is not to say that picasso ever let go of the particularities of a face, but that some feature or other, or combination of features and manners, becomes the motor for a chain of imaginative transformations on terms dictated by painting and caricature, and by the modes of, for example, gothic horror or burlesque. one important critical reflection on the question of picasso as a portraitist was inspired by his contribution to the salon d’automne of , which comprised paintings and sculptures, most of which were made during the occupation (the salon became into my pictures. too bad if that offends some idolaters of the conventional human effigy. besides, they need only look at themselves a little more carefully in the mirror… what is a face when you get right down to it? its photograph? its make-up? or the face as its was represented by this or that painter? what is in front of it? inside? behind? and all the rest? doesn’t everyone see it in his own way? there are very few distortions. daumier and lautrec saw the face differently from ingres and renoir, that’s all. i see it like this… [picasso, cited in anatole jakovsky, ‘midis avec picasso’, arts de france, paris no. , , , , translated in picasso, tradition and avant-garde, exh.cat. (madrid: museu nacional del prado.museo nacional centro de arte reina sofia, june- september ) ]. although this passage reinforces what i have argued above regarding the constructive role of art in shaping truths, it certainly also seems to insist on an underlying humanism and on a playful rather than a profound process of pictorial improvisation. my argument in this essay does not, in the end, seek to prove an intentional anti-humanism that would, in that case, fly in the face of picasso’s own belief in ‘humanity’. on the one hand, i would argue, as i do in this essay, that the constant re-inscription of the face generates meanings that exceed the self-understandings of the artist. on the other hand, i think that picasso’s own statements stand themselves in need of careful interpretation, even bracketing, made as they were in response to certain questions and at certain moments in his career, in order to defend or assert certain critical readings, and coming down to us in the form of unreliable recollections by third parties. the frequency with which the discourse of ‘truth and lie’ recurs in these recorded conversations seems to me to justify, at least, taking it seriously as a kind of theory that, if we need one, can frame picasso’s art as a whole. for some excellent considerations that relate to some of these issues, see david lomas, the haunted self: surrealism, psychoanalysis, subjectivity (london: yale ), especially chapter . see also neil cox, the picasso book (london: tate ), chapters and . the critic was raymond cogniat. see picasso in conversation with andré warnod in , in ashton . one notable but disastrous example of a commissioned (group) portrait is that of the soler family ( , musée des beaux-arts de liège). the four famous portraits of dealers from - were not commissions as such, but were instead attempts to court favour. neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page known as the ‘salon de la libération’ thanks to the expulsion of the nazis from paris only a few months before). the exhibition was the focus of considerable attack, much of it of a crude and reactionary nature, warranting the policing of the displays in order to protect the work from destruction by angry (conservative-minded) students. confronted by the array of painted faces on display, a sympathetic georges limbour argued that while ‘artists are giving up portrait painting, which has become an unpopular genre… picasso, has restored its expressive importance and at the same time given it new meaning.’ what limbour meant by the word ‘portrait’ here is contextualised by a childhood memory that the paintings prompt him to recall. he and his friends found joy and wickedness in the distorted reflections of their faces produced in a mirrored ball that was a garden ornament. crucially, and here is a resonance with picasso’s own theorisation of , these ‘deformations… showed us the way to a distant enchanted region where we again wore our true faces, restored and purified.’ (a ‘lie’ here produces a ‘truth’.) for limbour, picasso’s ‘portraits’ provoke a similar sense of wonder, even if ‘the dream through which he sees human faces’ produces a much more resourceful set of reflections than a distorting mirror, representations that open up the face like a flower, putting profile and full face into play, mingling humour with ‘legitimate anger’ by planting bizarre still life confections (‘a bit of garden, a fish, even a fork and spoon’) atop women’s hats, or by adding an animal snout to a woman’s face. limbour obviously had ‘portraits’, such as the absurd seated woman with a fish hat ( april , stedelijk museum, amsterdam) on his mind, where picasso’s long established pictorial device of doubling profile and frontal views of the face is in evidence. one way of interpreting limbour’s wonder at the multifarious revelations of such ‘portraits’, and his own anecdote of the fascination of the face seen distorted as a way of returning to the ‘true’ face, is to look at robert doisneau’s well-known photograph of policemen and members of the public standing before some of the works during the salon in a marvellous photographic contrivance capturing the reverberations between picasso’s pictorial faces and those of his contemporaries (fig. ). of course, the comic effect here is partly the result of the unifying effect of monochrome over the heavy colours and textures of picasso’s canvases. the compression of space allows the head of a painted man to press against the semi-profile of the central officer, while the unfolded skull of the woman in an armchair (fig. ) gets parodied in the de-doubled profile made of two women on the right. but what really matters is the sense of looking at faces, and at a pictorial language, caught in the reality of the human face in , with all its certainties, privations, secrets, compromises and histories of thwarted desire. it is the photographic juxtaposition that makes this visible, and this is a clue to the significance of photography in making the human face into a question. photo –the inhuman face notwithstanding his resistance to the notion of reality, picasso’s depictions of faces thus manifestly belong to the era of the ostensibly realist media of photography and film. as limbour suggested, the widespread abandonment of portraiture was something picasso seemed to defy; it was of course a commonplace that photography had supplanted the portrait artist. yet photography is in play in picasso’s depictions of georges limbour, ‘picasso au salon d’automne’, translated in marilyn mccully (ed.), a picasso anthology: documents, criticism, reminiscences (london: arts council of great britain ) - , this reference . limbour . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page the human face in numerous ways: beyond picasso’s own sustained engagement with photography as a method for recording his work and as a medium in its own right, the camera was a source of revelations of the nature and history of the human face, and photography a visual idiom to be incorporated and reinvented in painting. picasso’s work of the late s and the s interrogates the strangeness, the alien nature of the human face rendered visible in the juxtapositions in doisneau’s comic photograph. what makes doisneau’s comedy possible is the fact that, in turn, picasso’s project was at least in part mounted under the pressure of a vast accumulated archive of banal vernacular photographs and portrait photography of politicians, writers or actors made for consumption in the popular press. during his lifetime picasso assembled a vast collection of postcards, newspapers and old portrait photographs, many of which became the pretext for his works. in the latter category, for example, around - picasso made ostentatiously leaden line drawings from nineteenth-century cartes de visites (calling cards featuring a studio photograph of the subject) in his possession. some of the sitters for these photographs are notable historical individuals, but most, although always identified by name, exist merely as forgotten minor figures of their generation. picasso’s drawings render them even less substantial, somewhat ghostly, painfully awkward in their gestures. a more violent recuperation of ephemeral cartes de visites occurred years later in georges bataille’s short text ‘figure humaine’, which addresses the fate of the human face, and of the dignity of the human form, in the wake of such forms of photography. written in for the journal documents, it parades yesteryear’s fashionable appearances, fin-de-siècle fantasy portraits and provincial wedding photography (fig. ) under the rubric of absurdity. ‘figure humaine’ was written as a longer piece in the style of the ‘critical dictionary’ section of the journal, which featured freely interpreted entries for a notionally endless pseudo-encyclopaedia, vehicles for cultural critique initially dreamt up for the journal by founding editor carl einstein. its principle argument is that, for prior generations, or for those living in cultures where a belief in a supernatural realm remains vivid, the image of one’s ancestors was the subject of vague nostalgia or a terrorising fantasy, images that permitted europeans to live life according to a combination of high ideals (of ancestral lineage and dignity) and freely expressed desires (of fear, desire etc.). with the advent of photography, however, it becomes impossible to sustain any presupposition of ancestral dignity, or of the progress of civilisation. the sight in photographs of dead predecessors parading their erotic fantasies or their social status is said by bataille to provoke in his own generation both laughter and a lurking sense of horror. laughter works to diffuse the appalling aspect of the sight of these for picasso as a collector of photos and postcards see laurence madeleine, les archives de picasso: “on est ce que l’on garde!” (paris: réunion des musées nationaux, ) and for picasso as a photographic practitioner and for his use of photography as a direct source for paintings see anne baldassari, picasso and photography: the dark mirror (houston: the musuem of fine arts ) for examples, see baldassari - . georges bataille, ‘human face’ translated by annette michelson, in alastair brotchie (ed.), encyclopaedia acephalica (london: atlas press ) - . clearly a literal translation of the title is ‘human figure’, but i think that the content justifies the standard interpretation. neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page ancestors, but cannot prevent them from haunting every action or feeling of the living. the wedding photograph is chosen deliberately in order to undermine its primary intention as a testament of a social rite, as an assertion of the orderly procession of the generations: bataille’s target is, in fact, the very idea of ‘human nature’: if… we acknowledge the presence of an acute perturbation in, let us say, the state of the human mind represented by the sort of provincial wedding photographed twenty-five years ago, then we place ourselves outside established rules in so far as a real negation of human nature is herein implied. belief in the existence of this nature presupposes the permanence of certain salient qualities, and, in general, a way of being, in relation to which the group represented in these photographs is monstrous, not aberrant. where does bataille detect monstrosity in such an ordinary provincial scene? benjamin noys has argued convincingly that whereas the photograph seeks to present the ‘safe passage of one generation to the next represented by the bridal pair and their families’, the crux is in the repressive violence necessary to produce the social order of which the photograph is an instance, and the irruptive and destructive violence that is repressed therein. bataille’s focus becomes the bride and groom, seen now as ‘the parents of a wild and apocalyptic rebellion’, as ‘monsters breeding incompatibles.’ but in addition to this narrative of social organisation and the disorderly forces that work against it both within one generation and then in the delinquent process of breeding and raising the next, there is a further visual dimension to bataille’s argument that can illuminate picasso’s faces. for bataille the procession of faces in old photographs exposes ‘the absence of a common measure… which is, in a way, one aspect of a general disproportion obtaining between man and nature’, a disproportion that, in turn, bataille maps onto a gulf that, he believes, separates the supposedly congruent conceptions of an ‘irreducible self’ and the ‘intelligible universe’, a gulf bridged only in metaphors. the visual moves follow: the faces in vernacular photographs appear to confirm this sense of metaphysical disproportion; their countenances and postures strive for a physical transformation, a striving that is in its means nonetheless visibly outmoded. this striving belongs to an effort to ‘regain, at last, a human face’, regain it, that is, after the procession of european centuries where the mismatch between the ideal of the human self and of aberrant natural appearances was permitted (presumably thanks to the absence of the technology to render this mismatch visible) to have ‘free rein’. it is, in other words, the bizarrely flirtatious or pompous facial expressions, the corsets, the frockcoats, the awkward personal carriage of the generation who saw themselves, for the first time, in and through portrait photography that later expose their campaign brotchie . benjamin noys, bataille: a critical introduction (london: pluto press ) . noys observes in passing that bataille reads this photograph to the limit of the frame, by which he means that the whole organisation of the image becomes the expression of the repressive violence that provides for the idea of a human nature as the basis for a civilised society. brotchie . brotchie . in an argument familiar from his other texts of the period, bataille goes on to elaborate this gulf in opposition to a hegelian notion of contradiction. neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page for humanity in the form of a human appearance, rendering it from the standpoint of the present both comically dated and - a typically bataillean thought - erotically sordid. picasso had a number of photographic wedding portraits in his collection, again often in the form of cartes de visites with their stiff poses meant to impress or sentimental gestures meant to melt hearts. by , in the context of picasso’s growing relationship with some surrealist poets and artists, the notion of the embracing couple had become something vaguely monstrous (the kiss, , musée picasso), a sense of decorum overcome for the couple by animal groping and a fantastic intermingling of features. by the time bataille published his essay, picasso’s dismembering of the face was in full swing. his own collection of old wedding photographs could now be seen bataille’s way, as appalling manifestations of grotesque and aberrant discontinuities in the history of the human face. perhaps the vision of the human face as only the site of a series of monstrous differences informed picasso’s own attitude to his pantheon of faces and heads, something evident in his installation of the paris retrospective exhibition at the galeries georges petit (fig. ). some authors have seen these photographs as evidence of picasso’s stylistic heterogeneity and of a gambit against any reading of the work as one of progressive development from naturalism to forms of expressionism or abstraction. in the context of the discourse of documents, however, they can appear symptoms of disorder in the universe, of a lack of any continuity among so many different manifestations of the face, not simply within picasso’s art, but in the appearance of the human itself. but although it is perhaps plausible to claim that bataille’s text, or the many other texts in documents that addressed human appearance, had a direct impact on the direction of picasso’s art (one, in the model of ‘influence’, that would have to be consciously registered), this is not what matters here. rather, as a contemporary figuring of the crisis in human figuring, albeit in the medium of cultural criticism rather than artistic representation, i want to suggest that bataille’s approach to the manifestation of the ‘human’ in portrait photography renders visible two important expressive themes in picasso’s human faces: the juxtaposition of ‘bourgeois’ domestic interiors with grotesquely deformed visages and the evocation of animal features or behaviours in human expressions or actions, something that another of bataille’s essays of the period further develops. the motif of a figure, usually a woman, seated in an armchair preoccupied picasso from as early as (e.g. woman brotchie - . see elizabeth cowling, picasso, style and meaning (london: phaidon ) - and christopher green, picasso: architecture and vertigo (london: yale university press ) - . they are talking about another photograph of the same show, but the points can be made in both cases, and both feature juxtaposed heads and bodies in wildly different styles. it is worth noting that bataille’s ‘human face’ is only one of a number of interventions in the journal that insist upon aberrant human appearances. for discussion of some other texts, including bataille’s ‘the deviations of nature’ and ralph von koenigswald’s ‘heads and skulls’, see simon baker, ‘human figures’ and michael richardson, ‘heads’ in dawn ades and simon baker (eds) undercover surrealism, georges bataille and documents (london: hayward ) - . . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page with a fan, , the state hermitage museum, st petersburg), and was the subject of many variations during the years of picasso’s deep involvement with the practice we call cubism. during the period just before the first world war, picasso made a number of highly coloured paintings where the semi-abstract planar forms of a seated figure appear against schematic decorative elements recalling the bourgeois living room. in card player (fig. ) the face of the ambiguously-gendered figure is constructed using a vocabulary that picasso recycled in many drawings and paintings, where the features are rendered schematically using forms recalling the hands of a clock set against layered and tilting planes and simple linear marks as signs for ears and the outline of the head. in this example, picasso lovingly paints a tress of brown hair to one side, and deploys a similar box of tricks in painting what seems to be the wooden surface of the high-backed chair in which the figure sits. but what is of special interest here is the grey-green decorative painted panel and wainscoting on either side of the figure, for these carefully rendered elements, albeit folding inwards under the gravitational pull of the cubist creature at centre, play out a contrast that picasso would turn to greater expressive effect some time after the war. the turning of what was at first perhaps a visual game between the complexities of cubism and decorative patterns into a disturbed or violent contrast seems to have been mediated, in a way that is difficult to unravel, by a series of classicising portraits of picasso’s first wife olga khoklova that are tied to photography. the ingresesque portrait of olga of spring mentioned above (fig. ) is in fact based on a photograph of her sitting, loosely holding a fan, in a upholstered low chair; the dense floral patterning on the chair, the dress and the fan contrast with the stark isolation of the face. the juxtaposition of bourgeois self-presentation with the vacant introversion of the countenance here is perhaps no more than an accident of the ingresque mode in which picasso worked. but a comparison with the photograph shows both the act of censorship that picasso performed on the surrounding objects (including decidedly un-classical african sculptures), and how he modified the face in the direction of melancholy. what the photograph permits picasso to ‘see’, in other words, is both a figure of the nineteenth-century bourgeois order of humanity and an image of alienated, disturbed subjectivity. later in the s picasso begins to render this figure as if an emanation of the monstrously inhuman face that bataille found in wedding photographs, this time pinioned or imprisoned in a domestic interior. the process is initiated in part by efforts to describe the face as a doubled or split entity. in works such as seated woman of (fig. ), the motif of the warped wainscoting reappears, but the figure is no longer made out of an ironic cubist vocabulary of painted planes. instead a linear tracery is blocked in to form a graphic sign of great complexity, in which the features of the face turn in on themselves and change orientation, while the mass of the head is, metaphorically, peeled outwards and flattened in conformity with the picture surface. these are the beginnings of the face made out of profile and frontal views mentioned by limbour and so familiar as an invention of picasso. in one sense this doubled face is a visual conceit that picasso had been exploring since the beginnings of his cubism, one signalling the artistic for examples, see neil cox, picasso’s ‘toys for adults’: cubism as surrealism, (edinburgh: national galleries of scotland/university of edinburgh ) it is impossible to survey all the cubist variations in this idea, but it is important to note that picasso played on the theme as much in representations of male as female figures (e.g. the major work man with a pipe, , art institute of chicago). neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page fantasy of the full possession of the three-dimensional object in the two-dimensional representational idiom of painting, and especially of such a magical possession of the body and the face. yet it is also an expressive mapping of the face in terms of the monstrous, as is evident in the violence done to the face in paintings of the summer of that depend on the new vocabulary even if it is here downplayed. one variant now in the musée picasso, paris (fig. ), once again reinforces the strong connection between the monstrous and the bourgeois home. here the figure seems to sit before a balcony (perhaps the armchair’s tracery also suggests that it is an outdoor metal one), but merges with the vestige of a decorative moulding that could recall a picture frame as much as wainscoting (it ‘frames’ two abstract breasts). the face here is subject to wilful reorganisation along a vertical axis, a conceit developed in a whole series of paintings and drawings in the following years. a work known as la demoiselle (head) of early (fig. ) shows a face turned into an irregular slab with three strands of black hair to one side and a mass of foliage-like hair on the other. the three strands hang from a point representing the nose (in the form of two fine dots), while a horrible zip of a mouth runs up the centre, topped by two eyes, one light, one dark. but once again, this figure is seen seated (note the chair post to the right) in a wallpapered room, and sports a bright red striped blouse. the oppressive sense of scale again might be thought to reflect the close-up claustrophobia of film stills, but it also relates to picasso contemporary work on a monument to the poet guillaume apollinaire, work that led to imaginary monuments of a vast scale including a monument modelled on the face in la demoiselle. (this is a typical example of picasso’s to and fro between the insistent two-dimensionality of painting and the idea of sculpture: a reinvention of the human form driven by painting gives rise to sculptural imagery.) caught somewhere between the sculpturally monumental and the trenchantly two-dimensional face are some painted geometricised monsters (e.g. woman in a red armchair, early , musée picasso, paris, figure in an armchair, may , sintra museum of modern art, the berardo collection, lisbon). the de-doubled face that emerged around fed another embodied fiction: of the face sundered to become a kissing couple. a number of paintings made in the first half of pursue this idea (e.g. the kiss, august , musée picasso, paris). here the splitting of the head takes the form of another vast stone monument resting as if on some desert or beach and seen against the sky, while other variants place the head in a domestic space. the activity of kissing, the dynamic of the kiss, is in many of picasso’s representations allowed to crunch and fold back the human face and to reveal its animal mouth and groping tongue. a painting of (the kiss, january , musée picasso, paris) shows a couple whose noses, apparently emerging from the bed sheets, interlock promiscuously while their two mouths merge to form a single set of upper and lower teeth. the rolling eyes of the (male) figure recall those of the drooling ‘hero’ played by pierre batcheff in one scene of un chien andalou, the scandalous surrealist film of . this pictorial fantasy is discussed in leo steinberg, ‘the algerian women and picasso at large’, in other criteria: confrontations with twentieth-century art (london: oxford university press ) - . monument, head of a woman, (private collection). for story of the monument, see peter read, picasso & apollinaire, the persistence of memory (berkeley: university of california press ). neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page limbour’s short review of touches, of course, on depictions of the human face made animal. one example of what he might have meant is a painting like bust of a woman ( july , private collection) featuring something like a dog’s snout in place of a nose, with a distended head to match. he may not have known another remarkable work, the porcine woman in a grey armchair (fig. ), a painting of grim malice from poisson d’avril day, . the palette and the blocky structure of the body recall several of picasso’s woman-in-an armchair compositions of , but the inversion of the snout, the deformed head and displaced features reflect variants of hysterical women depicted from around to the end of the s. this animal imagery came into its own when picasso worked on guernica (museo nacional centro de arte reina sofia, madrid) during may , for here the central thematic idea of the merging of bullfight imagery with scenes of women expressing rage, terror and despair led to an exchange of representational ideas between animal and human subjects. so the horse, disembowelled and speared, emits a silent cry from its gaping jaw, jabbing its knife-like tongue into space. similarly on the left, a woman turns her head skyward and opens her mouth wide to the heavens, poking the same knife-tongue into the blackness. for bataille, in his critical dictionary entry ‘mouth’ published in documents in , the sight of the human head rocked back so that the mouth lines up with the column of the spine was a symptom of fundamental animality provoked by extremely intense affective experience: ire, searing pain or mortal danger. this irruption of animal instincts liberates powerful physical impulses, a purgation that bataille contrasts with ‘the narrow constipation of a strictly human attitude, the magisterial look at the face with a closed mouth, as beautiful as a safe.’ there are picasso paintings in both modes: of uncontrollable animal emission and of tightly sealed mouths as symptoms of inner anguish. of the former type, alongside the armchair women discussed above, are the series known as the ‘weeping women’, made in as preparation for and subsequent reflection upon guernica. to be sure, most of the time picasso does not show the head tipped back in conformity with bataille’s architecture of animality, but the series pursues the idea of the face contorted beyond all dignity, uncontrollably shaken. some paintings and drawings light on a medieval image of mourning: a woman biting her handkerchief, tearing at it in anguish as if to strain her teeth from out of their sockets. it is a motif that occurs in the best known and highly elaborated work of the series, the weeping woman now in the collection of tate, but a more violent expression of the idea appears, for example, in a work on paper of a few days later now in the fogg art museum (fig. ). the putrid colours here embody the anguish, while the construction of the face is effected bust of a woman is reproduced in christian zervos’s volume catalogue (z.xiii. ). in both cases it is sometimes claimed that the hybridisation resulted from a malicious merging of the muzzle of picasso’s afghan hound with the face of dora maar, his main companion (see, for example, the entry on bust of a woman in elizabeth cowling and john golding, picasso: sculptor/painter [london: tate ] , or, perhaps, his semi-secret lover and mother of his child, marie-thérèse walter, a claim made for woman in a grey armchair in the analysis offered in a catalogue entry on the painting in madrid , . in fact, neither ‘portrait’ identity is much help in considering the achievement of woman in a grey armchair. brotchie neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page using devices that the artist has developed over many variants: a vast, bony nose that is an extension of the twisted brow; nostrils that are part animal snout; eyes swaying in sinking boats from which the tears spill, becoming simultaneously the metaphor of two teaspoons gouging out the orbits. the tate painting combines these images with the claustrophobic bourgeois interior found in earlier depictions of armchair women. in transposing the image of the weeping woman from the context of mass destruction to the corner of some parlour, the painting suggests an anguish coming less from mortal danger than inner anguish. the tight-lipped containment of despair that bataille identified with the ‘narrow constipation of the strictly human attitude’, visible perhaps in works as diverse as the portrait of olga khoklova (fig. ) and the hövikodden seated woman in an armchair (fig. ), begins to crack open as the woman’s face contorts, perhaps a prelude to uncontrollable quaking and a sky-bound animal yell. if it is true that picasso made faces expressing both the animal and the ‘strictly human’ attitudes, it will nevertheless have become clear that in this context this bataillean distinction is more heuristic, allowing us to grasp dimensions or (literally) aspects of these representations, than reflective of hard and fast distinctions neatly enshrined in ‘opposing’ works. and this relates to that other bataillean idea: of the fundamentally inhuman, monstrous or aberrant appearance of each human face when seen against another, a kind of infinite asymmetry and disproportion, and of the horror evident even in the calmest bourgeois face. bataille, of course, made that claim in the (sepia, or fading) light of old photographs, and in doing so he was insisting on the shock produced by the visibility in photographs of a layer of human history, that of the previous generation, which before photography could be recollected as an ideal and at the same time, in early modernity, readily overcome in a notion of social progress. now this monstrous zoo could not be so easily forgotten. photography in this way produced for bataille a problem of the human as a historical phenomenon. this in turn led him to question, with the aid of anthropology and palaeontology, what moment in history, or outside it, could function as the origin, and the presence, of the human face. in the beginning…the (in)human face sometime towards the end of the second world war, picasso showed andré malraux a host of ‘portraits’ of the kind that featured in the salon d’automne. ‘similarities!... we all love prehistoric paintings, but no one resembles them!’ picasso is supposed to have said. thanks to dora maar, we have various photographs of picasso’s attic studio in the rue des grands augustins during the war years that give an impression, perhaps, of the kind of scene that malraux saw (fig. ), a horde of human faces jostling together in the shadows in search of a common identity. picasso’s remark was meant to suggest, no doubt, that malraux should disregard any temptation to search for resemblance in picasso’s ‘portraits’. it was also made in the light of the recent discovery of the cave paintings at lascaux that malraux was among the first officials of the new french government to visit not long before he came to picasso’s studio. these images and their dark grotto functioned in the years after the war as a constant point of reference for discussion of the sight and the site of the origins of art. according to malraux, cited in picasso and portraiture . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page lascaux was widely acknowledged to be the finest ensemble of parietal art from the prehistoric era yet discovered. its principle and first interpreter was a priest by training, the abbé henri breuil, but in philosophical circles it was bataille who took an intense interest in the art of the caves, and who published numerous articles and a book on the subject, returning again to it in two subsequent books, l’erotisme published in and les larmes d’eros published in , the year before his death. in discussing the art of lascaux bataille sought to expose the contemporary conundrum not simply of the origin of art, but of the origin of humanity. a crucial essay is ‘the passage from animal to man’ published in critique in . here bataille argues that prehistoric art allows us to glimpse the origin of art and of man in the same moment, but he goes on to complicate what at first thus sounds like a reassuring picture, for, he says, in these paintings ‘we can finally gauge what we still are’. there is a paradox in the cave paintings, which represent animals with such apparent realism but offer very few representations of human beings: what these admirable frescoes proclaim with a youthful vigour is not only that the man who painted them ceased being an animal by painting them but that he stopped being an animal by giving the animal, and not himself, a poetic image that seduces us and seems sovereign. bataille notes that when human beings are represented in cave paintings, it is often as a hybrid, with an animal head, as in the famous man-bison from the cave at les trois- frères, and, turning to the famous figure dubbed by breuil a sorcerer or god, bataille takes issue with the reading of the significance of such strange cave representations. breuil imagined as ‘the spirit controlling the multiplication of game and hunting expeditions’. for bataille, such interpretations, besides being extremely speculative, impute a set of utilitarian motives to the representation of monstrous figures. he opposes to this the fundamental claim that this ‘dream creature negates human life.’ bataille’s point is that hybrids, while certainly privileged beings that dominate the animal world in the overall representational schemas in which they appear, nevertheless show men refusing ‘destiny that determines them: they overflow into savagery’, he writes, ‘the night of animality.’ bataille imagines the first humans as victims of powerful emotions of confusion in the face of their reasoning and calculating capacities. just as modern humanity, in its moment of technological and rational excess, is powerfully affected by feelings of deep pessimism; so the first humans were disturbed by their own reasoning and attempted in their art to resist and at the same time express their separation from the animal. and in developing this argument we sense bataille’s debt to and difference with the philosophy of heidegger, for it is in the refusal of the category of the thing, fundamental to western european technological reasoning, that bataille finds the basis of early man’s refusal of his destiny, and in this refusal his emergence in human being. bataille reads the majestic representations of bulls and aurochs on the walls of lascaux not as sympathetic magic designed to ensure a successful hunt, but as acts of atonement in advance for treating the animal as a thing. early man found magnificence and beauty georges bataille, ‘the passage from animal to man’, in bataille, the cradle of humanity: prehistoric art and culture (london: mit ) - . cradle of humanity . cradle of humanity - . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page in the animals that he was tragically destined to reduce to things, but in his own human appearance he found only something hilarious, ridiculous. all of this leads bataille to a conclusion directed at the crisis of modernity. if, in his view, humanity has throughout its subsequent history dedicated itself to the cult of reason that is expressed in the cult of things, at the origin of man the situation was very different. early man refused his own image, and in so doing refused to embrace his destiny as ‘a creator of a world of durable things.’ bataille believes that today man can again grasp the reasons why the first men could have wished to refuse their destiny. today’s man suspects the inanity of the edifice he has founded, he knows he knows nothing, and, as his ancestors concealed their features with animal masks, he summons the night of truth wherein the world that has ordained his pretension will cease being clear and distinct. such ideas were developed by bataille in his lascaux book, and particularly in his numerous discussions there and elsewhere of the strange scene in the shaft at lascaux, the so-called scene of the fallen man. bataille was fascinated by the juxtaposition of an elaborate representation of a disembowelled bull alongside an ithyphallic stick man, a broken spear, and a strange object comprising a bird on a stick, and he re-thought its meaning over and over again. in his last book, the tears of eros, he posed it simply as an enigma of the co-presence of fundamental human experiences: of eroticism and of death. and with a cataclysmic sense of historical entropy, bataille divided the book into two parts: ‘the beginning’ (the birth of eros) or, in other words, prehistoric art, and ‘the end’ - everything from antiquity to the present day. bataille’s lascaux book brought interesting comment from critic and philosopher maurice blanchot. he argued in that bataille’s reading of prehistoric art expressed a double transgression, of the rules of nature, which thus produces the human world of work, and of the rules that govern the world of work, in an effort to return to nature. this second transgression is for blanchot the human act, and he therefore concludes that humanity has a double origin, or a point of origin that cannot be fixed, a non-origin. in a subtle and sensitive reading, suzanne guerlac reinstates the act of visual representation in this problem of origins: for her bataille’s argument rests on a theory of communication through art and the transfiguring effect of resemblance. at the sight of the paintings on the walls of lascaux a temporal leap of communication across millennia overwhelms the modern visitor. the representations produce in us, so bataille thinks, a catastrophic performance of the same act of transfiguration of the other: the human beast becomes the human being, so the origin of art performs at the cradle of humanity for a discussion that forms some of the background to my paper, see douglas smith, ‘beyond the cave: lascaux and the prehistoric in post-war french culture’, french studies, vol lviii, no , , - , this reference suzanne guerlac, ‘bataille in theory: afterimages (lascaux)’ diacritics, vol , no , (georges bataille: an occasion for misunderstanding, summer, ) - . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page same time the origin of man. the temporal dimension is central, if figuration performs the enduring survival of an address made by aurignacian man to human being of the future, the performance of this destiny in the present collapses linear time. in this reading, for bataille, lascaux can function as the origin of both man and art since the contrast between the striking realism of the animals and the grotesqueness of the humans represented show a play with resemblance, an act of figuration that permits the animal to stand for man, and where the pictures produced have no purpose or use other than to make such a transfiguration possible. for guerlac, it is the moment when the animals – the human beasts – in the paintings come to resemble us, come to stand in their majesty for us, that we grasp our origin and our end as ‘divine animals’. again, the crucial point is that the contrastingly formless figuration of the humans in the paintings makes apparent, as a communicative act, a negation of the magic of resemblance that aurignacian man had created: a deliberate deformation, rather than a failure to form, an act of interdiction that is fundamentally dependent on the act of transfiguration evident in the realism of the painted animals. ‘what seems fundamental’ bataille writes in another essay, ‘is the rejection of our face’. all of the paintings by picasso discussed in this essay predate bataille’s mature writing on lascaux, though as we have seen picasso knew of lascaux, and certainly of altamira, and indeed he had two plaster casts of the so-called venus of lespugue in his collection. moreover, and again quite obviously, picasso’s faces were made millennia after the foundational act of deformation evident in the fallen men or hybrid sorcerers of lascaux and les trois-frères. yet bataille’s essays on prehistoric art speak theoretically for a powerful sense of the sudden presence of the origin of humanity in the context of the crisis of the human played out as representation in vernacular photography and as historical phenomenon in the vile inhumanity of the second world war. it has been suggested above that picasso’s ‘strictly human’ portraits and monstrous faces interrogate the lack of any meaningful definition of the human in the twentieth century. they do so in part through their display of deforming agony in the bourgeois interior (recalling the stuffed sofas, potted plants and hats of vernacular portrait photography), and by their animalisation of the human face (undermining the humanism of the classical ideal). picasso’s ‘dream creatures’ negate the ideal of human life, for, like the images of man in prehistoric paintings, ‘no one resembles them.’ yet this imputation of animality to the face needs to be considered again in the dim light of lascaux, and of the origin of art and the human in the play of figuration between the deformation of the image of man and the transfiguration of the image of the animal. there is no question of course of claiming that picasso repeats, in the moment when the palaeolithic ‘origin’ appears, the sacred and original act of art by conjuring hybrid ands monsters alongside sublime human form, notwithstanding the fact that the classical ideal and the monstrous operate in tandem from the s onwards. instead, picasso’s animality, and his deformations of the face, need to be read as confrontations with the loss of clarity, the loss of distinction, that bataille later associates with the shock of the ‘origin’, and with the summoning, in modernity, of ‘the night of truth’. ‘the cradle of humanity’ in cradle of humanity . neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page bataille here adapts the hegelian ‘night of the world’ to his own purposes. in hegel’s famous jena-manuscripts description of the inward state, the imagination where representations appear: man is this night, this empty nothing, which holds everything in its simplicity – a kingdom of endless representations, images… this is night, nature’s inner, which here exists – pure self, - phantasmagorical representations are surrounded by night, here shoots a bloody head, - there another white figure suddenly comes forward, and disappears just as suddenly- one catches a glimpse of this night when one looks others in the eyes – into a night which would be frightful, - here hangs over against one the night of the world. if this ‘night of the world’ is made by bataille into ‘the night of truth’ or ‘the night of animality’, it is to show that the cataclysmic presence of the origin of art and of the human as inhuman (animal) throws the modern subject back into the ‘frightful’ absence of clarity that modernity had promised to overcome. the ‘night of truth’ is peopled instead by the ‘phantasmagorical representations’ of the human, the animal and the object world deprived of certainties and of the distinct appearance of a fixed and exploitable reality. notwithstanding the lightening strike of the origin, the communicative gesture of aurignacian man, this return of human indistinctness in modernity is no redemption. perhaps, in this context, the faces that process in picasso’s art are best seen as representational ‘lies’, phantasms haunting ‘the night of truth’, flickering in a modern imagination traumatised by blanchot’s ‘world of work’ or by the horrible outcomes of untrammelled instrumental reason. these faces process before us like so many hybrid animal-men in the torchlight of an ice-age cave, revealing, through their deliberate refusal of an essential human face, ‘what we still are’, which is to say what we have never been before: ‘still’ present at our origin. thus, the ‘aesthetic point of view’ they inaugurate is of that moment where the inhuman appears, once again and for the first time, refracted in anguished human eyes. faciality? the epigraph to this essay was meant to signal that the whole argument could be re- inscribed in the terms set out in a chapter of a thousand plateaus, the one headed ‘year zero: faciality’, and that considers ‘the face’, as opposed to the mere features of the human head, as a kind of ground, an inauguration, of both signification and subjectivity. if the face for deleuze and guattari is an abstract machine, characterised in binary terms as a blank surface the ‘skin’ and infinitely deep holes ‘the eyes’. and if this face-machine attains an apogee in the face of christ, it is as an image of imperialism, of a merciless sovereignty, an apotropaic face enforcing the space where the binary system can function without remainder, it is social production; it is a ‘white-man face’. faciality is despotic, authoritarian. the year zero of cited in jennifer ann bates, hegel’s theory of the imagination, (new york: suny press ) . deleuze and guattari, ‘year zero: faciality’, a thousand plateaus - . my colleague margaret iversen suggested that there might be a connection between this text and my topic. the import of ‘faciality’ in a thousand plateaus was made apparent to me in a conference paper given by anne sauvegnargues in lyon. neil cox – picasso: (in)human face@ / / page faciality is the birth of christ: it is at this point that all prior alternative figurings of meaning, in their heterogeneity, are suppressed. over against this face-machine, deleuze and guattari set the ‘destiny’ of human beings: ‘to escape the face, to dismantle the face and facializations.’ and they conceive of this project in terms of our modern relationship to the moment human of origin and to the polyvocal humanities that the face of christ suppressed. an escape entails from faciality demands not a ‘return to animality’ but the pursuit of ‘quite spiritual and special becomings-animal.’ the familiar rhetoric of ‘deterritorialization’ that deleuze and guattari deploy in their development of these claims is in part about the reordering of the face through metaphors, the remaking of it according to analogies with landscape. but, drawing upon works of literature, they also institute new ‘schizoid’ deterritorializations of the face, where heads can become ‘probes’ giving rise to ‘rhizomic’ or multiple pathways out of the authoritarian binary system. primitive inhumanity, prefacial inhumanity, has all the polyvocality of a semiotic in which the head is a part of the body, a body that is already deterritorialized relatively and plugged into becomings spiritual/animal. beyond the face lies an altogether different inhumanity: no longer that of the primitive head, but of ‘probe heads’; here cutting edges of derritorialization become operative and lines of deterritorialization positive and absolute, forming strange new becomings, new polyvocalities. can this not stand too as a description of picasso’s inhuman faces? faces shocked out of the binary system, out of the bourgeois ordering of faciality, by the reappearance of ‘prefacial inhumanity’ in lascaux, and probing with so many deterritorializations of the face for those ‘strange new becomings’? a thousand plateaus . deleuze and guattari also tackle the question of masks, non-western and, metaphorically speaking, contemporary (their discussions of ‘primitive’ cultures are, i think, highly questionable). decades before them georges limbour, the critic of the salon, wrote a remarkable piece in documents (vol ii, no. , ) on the question of the mask in modernity: the mask of which he speaks is just the mask of the ‘white man’, something blank, imperious, invisible and rank. this is, perhaps, just one example of the profound debt owed by post-structuralism to surrealism. (see georges limbour, ‘aeschylus, carnival, and the civilized’, trans. dominic faccini, october (spring ), - edinburgh research explorer picasso and truth, from cubism to guernica citation for published version: cox, n , 'picasso and truth, from cubism to guernica', burlington magazine, vol. , no. , pp. - . link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: publisher's pdf, also known as version of record published in: burlington magazine publisher rights statement: cox, n. ( ). picasso and truth, from cubism to guernica. burlington magazine, clvi, - . general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the edinburgh research explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the university of edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that edinburgh research explorer content complies with uk legislation. if you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. download date: . apr. https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/picasso-and-truth-from-cubism-to-guernica(eeb a - - be -a ae-e c e ae).html robert willis ( – ) and the foundation of architectural history. volume , the history of the university of cambridge: text and studies. by alexandrina buchanan. pp. incl. numerous col. + b. & w. ills. (boydell press, cambridge university library, ), £ . isbn – – – – . reviewed by chris miele on page of this meticulous, well-crafted intellectual biography we find the exact date of the invention of architectural history: th september . it was then that robert willis, the cambridge university polymath, presented a paper on canterbury at the cathedral, the first of his admired ‘cathedral series’. and so, alex buchanan, writes, was born ‘the first book ever to be defined by its author as an “architectural history”’. buch anan is not one to speculate. what she says in this book she says only on the basis of the most careful consideration of all relevant sources, and then only after the proposition and every source relating to it has been thor- oughly turned over. buchanan’s temper and method are at one with her subject. if willis had anything to say about the matter, then this is the intellectual biography he would have wanted. but the question that constantly came back to the present reviewer was whether what willis wrote really was ‘architectural history’, even if he himself named it so. willis was more of a building archaeologist than a his torian. the world he analysed was hermetic: here is this physical evidence in one part of a medieval church, here that in another, finally a third from a different place altogether. put them together with whatever reliable manuscript source he could find (and there are not many) and so conclude the date of the building, what influenced it and what it influenced. it was only when willis looked at medieval monastic remains that he went beyond the world of features, style and fabric to think about how physical evidence could illuminate social or cultural history. even then, when analysing the plan of st gall or castle acre priory, he dealt with strictly functional relationships and how ‘they shaped’, buchanan writes, ‘the arrangement of surviving buildings’. even here all things find their way back to the physical character- istics and the site. this was the approach he adopted in his posthumous four-volume opus (jointly written with his nephew, j.w. clark), the architectural history of the univer- sity of cambridge of . this book more than any other secured willis’s reputation by sheer dint of the number of influential people who read for degrees there and so explored willis and clark. willis matured at a time when the historical study of buildings was seen as a branch of inductive science. the rigour he brought to his scholarship was born of an interest in mechanics and mathematics. in that sense his contribution mirrors that of william whewell, the other cambridge polymath. his architectural notes on german churches pioneered the structural explanation of goth- ic. the pointed arch, the style’s defining feature, had evolved, whewell thought, from the construction of rib vaulting, a german specialism. that teutonic myth was shattered in the s, when bit by bit the centrality of french gothic came to be accepted by english scholars. whewell ( – ) was willis’s near contemporary but, unlike willis, his contribution to arch - itectural his tory was a youthful dalliance. whewell went on to make a name for him- self as a physicist and philosopher of science, and therein lies his principal contribution to the culture of nineteenth-century science. buchanan carefully charts the interchange between science and historical study. along the way she takes the reader to surprising places. willis, it turns out, investigated the operations of chess-playing automata and car- ried out early research into acoustics and the ‘mechanism of the larynx’. that empirical mindset collided with an antiquarian tradi- tion that was, as often as not, intellectually thin or just muddled. like whewell, willis defined a new way of looking at things by resorting to foreign examples, in his case ital- ian gothic which forms the basis of his remarks on the architecture of the middle ages of . it is interesting – and buchanan does not mention this – that both these scientifi- cally minded, numerate men relied on a ‘data set’ outside the united kingdom. perhaps there was too much cultural baggage associat- ed with the cherished historical scene at home. continental study freed their minds. willis refined his method on the amateur society lecture circuit, delivering a series of papers at various conferences organised by the british archaeological association. these were major cultural events, reported in the local press, attended by local dignitaries. willis led large crowds around the country’s great medieval sites, and to make himself heard he often had to stand on a chair. he carried his audience with him by lively ges- tures and ‘that striking bodily activity which was so characteristic of the man, and for the display of which his lectures gave so many opportunities’. that was how the great his - torian, and one time architectural historian e.a. freeman described willis in his obit - uary. that image, of ‘sparkling and witty performance [. . .] particularly popular with his female listeners’ (as buchanan writes), is at odds with the tone of what buchanan accepts was the often ‘drily academic’ style of his publications. one of the products of buchanan’s tremendous research is the picture she is able to paint of the world of victorian amateur archaeologists, their struggles to assert their authority, secure reputations and gain status. to the best of my knowledge no other study of this period even comes close to describing this network. what of willis’s legacy, which buchanan handles in two thousand words? this is probably sufficient, but therein lies the quiet tragedy of this great intellectual. willis is sometimes likened to pevsner who relied on his predecessor’s cathedral series for his own marvellous entries in the buildings of england. in fact, the two were very different writers, pevsner quirky but also with a critical edge, willis a man sticking strictly to the facts and avoiding aesthetics. it is telling that at a time when architecture stimulated the literary imagination, from ruskin to trollope, willis set his mind on the evidence as had no one before. in another country, in germany or france, willis would have been an academic art historian and through the university net- work have created a new discipline. instead he had to rely on a network of enthusiastic amateurs working through local societies and guidebooks. thus it is fitting that any study of willis can only be an intellectual biography. there is no personal archive, regrettably because clearly willis had charm and wit in person if not in his writings. we can be sure, beyond all reasonable doubt, that there is no personal information lurking out there, for if there was, buchanan would have discovered it. picasso and truth, from cubism to guernica. (the a.w. mellon lectures in the fine arts, bollingen series xxxv: ). by t.j. clark. pp. incl. col. + b. & w. ills. (princeton university press, princeton nj, ), £ . . isbn – – – – . reviewed by neil cox suppose that truth is a work by picasso. such a thought experiment raises the highest hopes about the nature of the artist’s achieve- ment in a particular work, but it also opens the question of truth itself, both philosophically and in terms of contemporary culture. ‘the question of truth’ implies the unravelling of the values of moral philosophy and epis - temology, and is as much about a need for ‘untruths’ as it is about the function of the desire for truth, as well as for a distinction between good and evil, in western culture. to recast the understanding of picasso’s art against this extra-moral questioning is, i think, the ambition of t.j. clark’s dazzling and sometimes troubling book. divided into six ‘lectures’, each with a single-word title, it retains the lyric feel and intensity of live performance that char - acterised the mellon lectures upon which it is based. the ‘introduction’ has to do a huge amount of work. for a start it sets out the author’s stall in very broad-brushed terms vis-à-vis the existing scholarship on the artist. no one is named, but the target is a hagiographic and biographically focused b o o k s t h e b u r l i n g t o n m a g a z i n e • c l v i • a u g u s t br.aug.pg.proof.corrs_layout / / : page literature dismissed as apotropaic, an ideo- logical machine designed to protect us from exposure to the destabilising force of picasso as truth. of course, clark grants that the autobiographical question must in some way be at the centre of the artist’s project; the question is who the ‘i’ that ‘writes’ might be? arthur rimbaud’s dictum ‘je est un autre’, favoured by picasso, is a touchstone in clark’s negotiation of the problem. this kind of argument has been made before. what is different about clark’s approach is his insistence that, first, ‘the way to partic - ularity in art is via absolute aesthetic general- ity’ – here he means to insist on art, to hang onto the notion of sensuously embodied ideas – and, secondly, that what picasso’s ‘autobiographical’ project does is question the last remaining ‘universal’ left to our cul- ture – the ‘fiction of subjectivity’ (pp. – ). the first of these points underpins the value placed in the book on the sustained inter - rogation of single works; the truth (or ‘untruth’) will be got out of them no matter how long it takes, and no matter how many dialectical turns or ambivalences need to be embraced. the second opens up the broader historical argument: that picasso’s art tarries with the world of the bourgeois, the nine- teenth-century form of subjectivity that spread across all things and shaped them in its image. the art-historical politics of this argument have to do with the fact that only for a brief period in his career – the moment of cubism, as john berger once memorably called it – can picasso count as a modernist, as a future-oriented artist willing to give up the humanist body of the classical tradition, the notion of the individual artist-genius, and the spaces and time of bourgeois culture. in clark’s farewell to an idea of , it was cubism between and – and maybe even only in – that functioned as the zenith of modernism and as the leitmotif of the book. in picasso and truth, intense pes- simism over the twentieth-century landscape of destruction and pogroms leads clark to treat the ‘retrogressive’ tendency in modern art, everything from chagall to de chirico to kahlo, as now almost preferable to year-zero radicalism, collectivism, abstraction and agit- prop, tainted as the latter are for him with complicity with dictatorships and tyrannies. the book thus offers an ethical defence of picasso’s apparently a-political and ‘retrogres- sive’ post-cubist eroticism and mythopoeic universe. no matter how joyful or ludicrous the paintings become, clark insists that we shall hear bass notes: of the crisis of the bour- geois order and, negatively, of the horrors of the century. in making this stick, the focus is on the conjuring of space in picasso’s paintings. in one sense space here is that of the bourgeoisie: it is about things and about private life, about possessions and possession, closeness and domesticity; above all the centrality of space in the discussion is meant to signify a particular kind of world view that is a bed- room, a dining room, a hotel room. there is a real gain here; by attending to the room as the form of space being disturbed in picasso’s art, clark wants to overturn our habitual ways of looking at major works: the peculiarly anthropomorphic character of the mandolin and guitar (fig. ) is read in the end as a kind of sardonic play in relation to the great tra - dition of still life and interiors in, for example, dutch art; eyeing the fragments of blue sky in the three dancers ( ; tate) brackets out repetitious readings of paroxysmal violence and makes the meeting of the monstrous and the mundane stand for a full exteriorisation of passions and values; stage-like space in guernica ( ; museum of modern art, new york) is brought to life in a discussion of the painting’s grounded ‘gigantism’. there is much more to say along these lines in praise of the original readings of various works by the artist, even if the whole sometimes provokes. one peculiarity is clark’s hostility to surrealism (especially noticeable in the ‘monster’ and ‘monument’ lectures; lectures and ); much of picasso’s interwar achievement arguably makes best sense against a surrealist discourse that is itself profoundly concerned with crises of truth, of the bourgeois subject, and of polit- ical modernism. it is after all for these reasons that walter benjamin, whose thinking to my mind often stalks the pages of picasso and truth (he is mentioned here and there), found in surrealism potent, dangerous cul- tural politics and a reframing of historical consciousness. but such art-historical cavilling misses the real challenge: what of that title, and the looming philosophical presence in the book: friedrich nietzsche? there have been numer- ous attempts in the past to associate nietzsche with picasso, but clark’s engagement is con- siderably richer and more sustained. this is a departure for him too – none of his previous books has been so explicitly marked by philos- ophy. nietzsche functions as a guide or a provocateur at certain moments in the argu- ment, and clark draws freely on texts from what nietzsche specialists call early, middle and late periods. for previous scholars, niet- zschean interpretations of picasso revolved around his formation in the wagnerism of the barcelona period – that and his own niet- zschean-sounding discourse of truth and false- hood (‘art is a lie that makes us realise truth’, ‘truth is a lie’, etc.). clark largely eschews this frame. instead, nietzsche functions as the prophet of the modernity that picasso repre- sents, one where the will to truth has faltered, where the pathological introjection or inter- nalising of instincts is to be overcome, one where art in its ‘untruth’ both reflects and confronts life-denying nihilism. the argument about space in painting is about the twilight of the idol of certainty; the drama of clark’s book is to show how picasso’s loyalty to a world of things in rooms is made to coexist or merge with a world of pure spaces and structures, and beyond this – perhaps as a result – to make monstrosity and disorder in the everyday. in this book nietzsche thus represents a profound voice somehow adequate to picasso’s remark- able painted worlds. to make a philosophical text illuminate painting so evocatively, to such wonderful degrees, is a signal achievement. the political despair and the will to confron - tation with the amoral that motivate the equa- tion nietzsche/picasso could itself, perhaps, be subjected to a kind of genealogical testing. what is the choice of nietzsche as guide meant to produce for our sense not only of picasso from the perspective of the present moment, but of a critical history of culture today? we should not miss the decision to make nietzsche central – not marx, not benjamin, not freud, not adorno. what all- too-human need is fulfilled by the compelling force of nietzsche as cultural origin? ‘suppose that truth is a woman’; f. nietzsche: beyond good and evil, eds. r.-p. horstman and j. norman, transl. j. norman, cambridge , p. . the mellon lectures remain available as pod- casts at www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/audio-video/ mellon. html. books a u g u s t • c l v i • t h e b u r l i n g t o n m a g a z i n e . mandolin and guitar, by pablo picasso. . canvas, . by . cm. (solomon r. guggenheim museum, new york). br.aug.pg.proof.corrs_layout / / : page notably by r. krauss: ‘in the name of picasso’, october (spring ), pp. – . for early examples, see m. rosenthal: ‘the niet- zschean character of picasso’s early development’, arts / ( ), pp. – ; and j.m. nash: ‘the nature of cubism: a study in conflicting explanations’, art history / ( ), pp. – . d. ashton, ed.: picasso on art: a selection of views, new york , pp. – . this argument is first made with reference to wittgenstein rather than nietzsche, but its end point is a nietzschean situation. at least some of what clark argues could have been productively related to or contrasted with christopher green’s important book picasso: architecture and vertigo (london ), driven as it is by similar conceptual oppositions. publications received miscellaneous family, culture and society in the diary of constantijn huygens jr, secretary to stadholder-king william of orange. by rudolf dekker. pp. incl. col. + b. & w. ills. (brill, leiden and boston, ), € . isbn – – – – . constantijn huygens the younger ( – ) kept a diary between and . it has much in common with that of his contemporary samuel pepys and yet is much less well known and little used by historians and art historians. it certainly deserves far more attention, and in this short account of the diary, rudolf dekker, who heads the centre for the study of egodocuments and history in amsterdam, stresses its importance and its breadth of interest. huygens was, of course, the son of a famous father. constantijn the elder had been secretary to three successive orange stadholders and was a remarkable humanist, poet, musician and scholar. his second son was the great sci- entist and astronomer christiaan huygens. constantijn the younger followed his father into the service of the orange family and, most importantly, was secretary to william iii during the glorious revolution. he accompanied the stadholder-king on the invasion of england and was at his right hand during his first years as king. for art historians the prime interest of huygens’s diary will be the references to art, particularly as william iii’s status as patron and connoisseur has never been entirely clear. in huygens’s account william comes across as seriously interested in art. huygens tells us that, as he marched with his army towards london from the landing at brixham, william iii took the time (despite a heavy cold) to visit wilton and admire the van dycks. once in london, king and secretary viewed the paintings in the royal collection and spent time discussing and rearranging them. on rd may william sent for huygens: ‘this after- noon i was with the king, who talked to me about paintings, and in particular about van dyck’s “king on horseback”, which he had removed from the gallery. he thought it had been put in the chamber behind his cabinet, here at hampton court, and he wanted to show it to me, but it wasn’t there’. the queen also asked his advice, on one occasion about a suitable restorer for mantegna’s triumphs of caesar. huygens also played a significant part in the building and rebuilding of palaces in the netherlands. on th october he records: ‘the king called for me to see a design by marot for the upper hall here at het loo’. huygens was considered to be a connoisseur by his contemporaries at court. he formed his own collection of prints, drawings and paintings and advised others. he notes his purchases in the diary and comments on the taste of others. he went with adriaan van gent, a member of the states general, to a shop in fleet street where van gent’s purchases were described succinctly by huygens as ‘rubbish’. huygens also formed a remarkable library – in the cat- alogue of the sale, published by the leiden booksellers van der aa after his death, , books are listed – and in his chapter ‘the bibliotheca zuylichemiana’ (zuilichem was the family estate in gelderland), dekker discusses its extraordinary range. the diary gives a fascinating picture of life at the court, which dekker introduces in chapters on ‘quacks and witch- es’, ‘gossip and sex’, ‘servants and maids’ and ‘the court as a microcosm’. he has done a great service in drawing attention to this valuable source for the study of the netherlands and england in the second half of the seven teenth century, and, more particularly, the court of william and mary. an english translation of the diary would, of course, increase its accessibility. christopher brown found sculpture and photography from surrealism to contem- porary art. edited by anna dezeuze and julia kelly. pp. incl. b. & w. ills. (ashgate publishing, farnham, ), £ . isbn – – – – . in minotaur published a set of six photographs of items of discarded minutiae of urban life – a rolled up bus ticket, a gob of toothpaste etc. although these items differed from any existing understanding of sculpture, in that they were neither intentional nor preserved, they were dignified with the description, ‘involuntary sculpture’. their continuing presence has, however, been secured in the form of photogra- phy, and this set of images by brassaï forms the central reference point for this collection of essays that explore the diverse legacies of surrealism, knowingly or other- wise, adopted by contemporary artists, in terms of the accidental, the impermanent and the role of photography in giving substance to their work. the photographic trace of a work or an ‘act’ of art is never neutral, and tensions between the pretence of its function as objective document and its capacity to make things strange emerge from within most of these case studies. anna dezeuze examines the photographic record by richard wentworth of the ingenious impromptu solutions that people come up with to solve everyday problems such as propping open a window through processes of fiddling or bricolage – but remains aware of the artist’s ambivalence about the status of his photo - graphs. the example of allan kaprow’s happenings is revealed by martha buskirk as a minefield of curatorial conflicts and paradoxes when events, conceived in flux, yet recorded in photographs, are restaged. mike kelley’s practice was notable for its proliferation of media, but, john c. welchman’s richly analytical study argues for the centrality of black-and-white photography to his thinking, precisely in terms of its ambiguity of material, scale and reference and the psychic nuances of media imagery derived from the recent past. other contributions give greater focus to the orig - inal issues of surrealism, and julia kelly notes the dada artists’ interest in the inventors’ fair in paris which preceded breton’s concentration on the unconscious properties of the flea-market discoveries. she also points out the argument of the nineteenth-century anthropologist henry balfour that the origins of art could be found in suggestive natural forms, such as the mandrake root – memorably explored in man ray‘s photograph aeneas carrying his father. steven harris argues how hans arp’s use of plaster as the basis of his ‘concrete’ forms was intended to maintain its ‘involuntary’ nature. valuable contributions also come from simon baker, linking breton’s understand- ing of photography to the work of melissa mcgill; margaret iverson, who applies a semiotic approach to the ‘involuntary’ in photography and reflects on the photographic strategies of christian boltanski; samantha lackey on the close-up in avant-garde film; and carrie lambert-beatty on terry fox’s children’s tapes ( ). robert radford a history of chromolithography: printed colour for all. by michael twyman. pp. incl. col. ills. (british library, london, and oak knoll press, newcastle, ), £ . for members of the printing historical society copies are available at £ . isbn – – – – (british library); – – – – (oak knoll press). ‘i am aware’, michael twyman states in his preface to this new book, ‘that i am merely scratching the surface of an enormous subject’. this ‘scratch’ has resulted in a bible of pages and over eight hundred illustrations. deeply rooted in the ephemera tradition at the department of typography and graphic com- munication at reading university, twyman has devoted his life to the history of a technique that was developed in the nineteenth century, flourished in the second half of that century, and started its decline in the first decades of the twentieth. to art historians lithography is known by the many artists who used the technique as a printmaking tool, culminating in the coloured posters of the first half of the twentieth century. but art historians tend to neglect all commercial work, even if the poster industry was part of that. the production of these colourful and well-collected items was in no way different from the commercial practice of the day, as twyman points out in his chapter on ‘the chromolithographic artists’. printing historians are for the most part interested in letterpress and typography, rather than illustration. book historians deal with the history of the book as a phenomenological object, publishing and the book trade. twyman starts off his bible with the development of colour printing in general, as old as printing itself. lithography proved to be the best technique for printing in colour, although technical demands, such as registration and transparency of the inks had to be solved before the technique could develop into the vast industry that arose from it. the development, from the end of the nineteenth century, of photomechanical methods of reproduction, falls outside the scope of this book. chromolithography had to give way to three- and four-colour reproduction from screened negatives, first in relief printing, then in offset and gravure – common practices today. it is hard to understand the craftsmanship of the ‘chromiste’, the man determining the number of colours to be used, and the order in which they had to be printed to yield the intended result. we can hardly imagine the skill with which such a person could analyse colours of a work of art, by pure instinct and experience, and render them faithfully in the final result by using twelve, sixteen or whatever amount of colours were superimposed. anyone familiar with the arundel society’s huge chromolithographic reproductions will be astonished by the fact that colours were not sep arated using filters and photography, but by experience alone. all methods used in chromolithography – and there were many – are here extensively treated and well illustrated in a way we can all understand. inevitably there is some overlap with twyman’s ear- lier writings on lithography. his lithography – ( ), is now outdated by further research, but the publication of his panizzi lectures, held in (breaking the mould: the first hundred years of lithography, published by the british library in ), heralded the book here under review. it is very well produced, designed and typeset by rob banham, who deserves full credit for the successful organisation of such a wealth of material. the volume opens easily, and, remarkably, the reproductions of original wood-engravings, like those of printing presses, taken from the original catalogue, are reproduced in line, not in halftone. the typography is clear, set in two columns, and the numerous footnotes – in three columns – leave no doubts about the origin of the information in the text. finally, a list of terms, an excellent index as well as a comprehensive bibliography complete the book. johan de zoete books t h e b u r l i n g t o n m a g a z i n e • c l v i • a u g u s t br.aug.pg.proof.corrs_layout / / : page cetin_ayhan_sarikayhaersan - - uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi the journal of international social research cilt: sayı: volume: issue: nisan april www.sosyalarastirmalar.com issn: - modernist sÜreÇte tuval resmine malzemeyle mÜdahale intervention to the canvas painting in the modernist process ayhan Çetin• ersan sarikahya** Öz . yüzyıl başında resim sanatının geleneksel yöntemleri terk ederek yeni bir yol haritası çizdiği görülür. yeni çağ olarak adlandırılan çağ, endüstri çağıdır. empresyonist süreçle başlayan doğanın birebir taklidinin terk edilmesi olgusu, ardından kübizm’de nesnenin parçalanmasına kadar dayanır. modern çağın yeni arayışları tuvali bir nesne olarak algılar ve tuvali malzeme ile birleştirir. malzeme ile birleşen tuvalde yeni anlatım olanakları ortaya çıkar. ardından üç boyutlu malzemenin tuvale olan müdahalesiyle resim sanatının mekana açılma fikri gündeme gelir. kolaj ve asemblajın tuvalle olan ilişkisi sonucu tuval yüzeyinin asılı bulunduğu duvardan sıyrılarak mekana olan müdahalesine neden olur. kübizmle başlayan bu süreç, günümüz enstalasyonlarına kadar dayanan etkilerini sürdürmeye devam eder. araştırmanın ilk bölümünde tuval resminin kübizm döneminde nesneyi parçalaması ve malzemeyi tuvale taşıması sonucu, tuvalin başlıbaşına bir nesne olma durumu irdelenecek, ardından üç boyutlu nesnenin müdahalesiyle tuval resminin mekana açılma ile ilgili girişimleri araştırılacaktır. tuval resminin sınırlarından kurtularak yeni anlatım olanaklarının önünü açması ile ilgili kısaca bilgi verilecektir. tuvalin malzemeyle olan diyaloğunda giriştiği bu zorlu süreç, başlıca görsel örnekler sunularak incelenecektir. anahtar kelimeler: kübizm, dadaizm, mekan, malzeme abstract it’s seen that the painting art at the beginning of the . century left the traditional methods and began to draw anew road map. the age which is called new age is the industry age. the fact that abandonment about totally imitation of nature which begins with the impressionist process, and then tends to the division of the object in cubism. the new finds of the modern era sees canvases an object and combines them with material. the new possibilities emerge on canvas which was combined with material. then with the intervention of the three-dimensional material to the canvas opens the idea of opening up the space of painting art. this process, which started with cubism, continues to carry on with the effects that are based on today's installations. in the first part of the study, as a result of the shredding images and carrying the objects on the canvas in cubism period, it will be examined the autonomy of the canvas, and then the intervention of the three dimensional object will be investigated. shortly, information will be given on how to get rid of canvas picture boundaries and open up new possibilities of expression. this tough process, which is being undertaken in the dialogue with the canvas material, will be reviewed by presenting the main visual examples. shortly, information will be given on how to get rid of canvas picture boundaries and open up new possibilities of expression. this tough process, which is being undertaken in the dialogue with the canvas material, will be reviewed by presenting the main visual examples. keywords: cubism, dadaism, space, material. gİrİŞ sanatın . yüzyıl öncesi zaman dilimine bakıldığında toplumsal yapı ve gelişmelerin etkisiyle birlikte doğayı taklit etme yolunda sürekli bir gelişme içinde olduğu görülür. ancak . yüzyıl sonlarına doğru bu durumun bir tıkanma noktasına geldiği ve doğanın sanatla tam manasıyla temsil edilemeyeceği düşünülmeye başlar. endüstri devriminin de etkisiyle yenilik arayışlarına yönelmeye başlayan sanatçılar sanattaki geleneksel yöntemleri zorlamaya başlarlar. bu uğurda verilen ilk mücadele empresyonist dönemde ortaya çıkmıştır. doğanın mükemmelliyetçi taklidi yolunda verilen mücadele son bulur. ardından kübizm, dadaizm ve sürrealizmle birlikte tuval resminin duvara asılan bir süslemeden ibaret olmadığının ayırdına varılır. giotto’dan miras kalan tek bakış noktası kübist resimlerde kırılmaya başlar. bu doğrultuda kübist resimde formun sınırları zorlanır, biçimler parçalanır ve tek bakışlı perspektif anlayışı reddedilir. nesnenin paröalanması sonucu doğanın taklidi olarak bilinen geleneksel resim yöntemleri de yavaş yavaş terk edilmeye başlanır. i. kÜbİzm’de malzeme kübizm bir nevi varlık karşısında yasasını beraber getirdiği bir devrimi ifade eder. daha önce insan ile doğa arasındaki ilgiyi kuran izlenim şimdi yerini yeni bir ilgi biçimine bırakır. nesnelerin özünü • yrd. doç., trakya Üniversitesi güzel sanatlar fakültesi. ** yrd. doç. dr., trakya Üniversitesi güzel sanatlar fakültesi. - - kavramak için kübist sanatçılar varlığı göründüğü gibi değil, düşündüğü gibi kavrar. (tunalı, : ) bunun doğal bir sonucu olarak da deforme olmuş ve parçalanmaya yüz tutmuş biçimler karşımıza çıkar. malzemenin tuva yüzeyi üzerinde boya ile yapılan imitasyonundan, malzemenin kendisinin kullanımı kübist süreçte ortaya çıkan bir tavırdır. bu tavırla birlikte izleyiciyi resmi yalnızca insan elinden çıkma bir nesne, renklerle biçimlerin tuval üstünde dağılımı niteliğiyle görmeye itme yolundaki girişimlerin en köktencisi ve en tutarlısı gerçekleşmiş olur. (gombrich, : ) böylece geleneksel boyama yöntemleri ile elde edilen doğanın birebir ve mükemmelliyetçi taklidi de son bulur. picasso’nun ilk kolajı olarak kabul edilen ‘sandalye hasırıyla natürmort’ adlı eserinde hasır yanılsaması yerine döşeme bezi parçasını koyması, tuvale yanılsama yerine gerçek malzemenin girmiş olmasını sağlar. (resim- ) burada asıl amaç perspektif, malzeme yapısı ve gölgelemeye ilişkin bütün teknik becerileri harekete geçirmek değil, bunları çözüme bağlanması olanaksız bir çatışkı konumuna getirmektir. bu bilinçli çelişkileri esere odaklandığımızda açıkça görürüz. Örneğin nesnelerde kullanılan ışık kaynağının belirsizliği ve basık hacim ile iletilmek istenen şey, yaratılmak istenenin bir yanılsama değil de bir tablo olduğunu bize açıkça göstermektir. tuvaldeki nesnenin parçalanarak tuvale tamamen yabancı bir malzemenin monte edilmesiyle de tuval nesnesinin varlığı ortaya konmuştur. resim- pablo picasso, ‘sandalye hasırıyla natürmort’, kübist resimle birlikte malzemenin resme girişi, tuvalin olanaklarını arttırmış ve tuval nesnesinin sadece bir yanılsamadan ibaret olmadığının fark edilmesini sağlamıştır. malzemenin tuval ile buluşması sonucu bu döneme kadar olan tuvalin iki boyutlu formunun karşısında durma fikri kırılmış, tuval nesnesine olan bakışın önden yana kayması sağlanmıştır. malzeme ile ortaya çıkan kabartma etkisi sonucu tuval yüzeyinin iki boyutluluğunun dışına çıkılması fikrini doğurmuştur. bunların yanı sıra tuvale giren malzeme sonucu sanatın kusursuz yaratıcısı sayılan el yeteneğinin fonksiyonu da ortadan kaldırılmıştır. böylece kübizm, tuval yüzeyine getirdiği yenilikçi ve öncü tavrıyla günümüz resim sanatının önünü açacak olan ilk adımları atmış olur. kübist resimle birlikte mazlemenin tuvale bulaşması sonucu nesnenin parçalanarak anatomisinin ortaya çıkarılması ile kavram ressamlığı fikri ortaya çıkmıştır. kübistler empresyronistlerin kavramlardan yoksun olan duyumculuğunu yüzeysel olduğu için bir türlü körlük olarak görürler. bunu kant da destekler. ‘duyulardan yoksun kavramlar boş, kavramlardan yoksun duyular da kördür’. (İpşiroğlu, : ) bu bağlamda kübistlerin diğer büyük ustası juan gris de çivi kavramı olmadan bir çivi bile yapamam diyerek kant’ın teorisini desteklemiştir. bu olgu bizi platonun mağara benzetmesine geri götürür. mağara dışındaki dünyadan habersiz olan mağara insanlarının gördükleri, mağaranın kapısından içeri sızan ışıkla dışarıdaki nesnelerin mağaranın duvarına yansıyan görüntüleridir. mağaradan dışarıya adım atabilen, dışarıdaki idealar dünyasıyla karşılaşır ve içeridekinin bir gölge olduğunun ayırdına varabilir. juan gris de naturalist sanatçıyı gölgelerin ressamı olarak görür ve kendisini bir kavram ressamı olarak ilan eder. sanatçının tuvallerinde kullandığı malzemenin başında gazete ve yazılı broşür sayfaları gelir. kolajlarında kullandığı yazılı kağıt parçalarının metinleri, anlamlarının dışında resimsel yüzeyde bir form olarak açığa çıkar. - - dolayısıyla seyirci metinlerdeki anlamdan ziyade metinlerin içeriklerinden sıyrılmış salt formuna odaklanır. (resim- ) resim- juan gris, natürmort, ii. ÜÇ boyutlu nesne İle mÜdahale . yüzyılın başında resim sanatının malzemeyle olan flörtü tuvalin gerçek nesnelerle buluşmasını ve tuvalin yüzeyinin dışına çıkılarak varolduğu mekanla ilişkiye girmesini sağlamıştır. kübizmi izleyen süreçte malzeme kullanımının sınırlarını zorlayan dada ile karşılaşırız. geleneksel olana, düzene ve savaşı doğuran tüm olgulara karşı bir tutumla ortaya çıkan tavırda bir yıkım gerçekleştirilmek istenir. varolana karşı duyulan nefret için sanat ve dolayısı ile kübist ressamların kazandırmış olduğu yüzey malzeme ilişkisine başvurulur. bununla da yetinmeyip, iki boyutlu malzemenin yanına üç boyutlu malzemeyi alternativ olarak sunulur. dada’nın kolaj sanatçısı olarak ünlenen ismi kurt schwitters, hurda montajları tuval yüzeyine yapıştırmakla yetinmeyip kolajı üç boyutlu malzemelere taşımıştır. ’de hanover’de merz adını verdiği bir seri oluşturan sanatçı, kırık tahta parçaları, biletler gibi atık malzemelerden kolajlar oluşturmuştur. yine hanover’de yılında yapımına başladığı ve yıl boyunca süren merzbau adlı eseri, kolajın düzlemden üçüncü boyuta geçişinin sıradışı örneğidir. (resim- - ) bu eserinde nesne bulunduğu mekanın içine sızıp nesnenin etrafında gezinme olanağı sunar. - - resim- kurt schwitters, merz serisi resim- kurt schwitters merz sütunu, - her şeyin bir sanat malzemesi olabileceği fikrini öne süren schwitters, sanatın malzeme kullanımı ile birlikte en saf halini yakalayabileceğini iddia etmiştir. schwitters’in atık malzemeyi kullanımı, savaşa yol açan herşeyden nefret eden dadist tutumun yanında yer alarak, savaşın çöpleri ile oluşturulan kurgularla tekrar savaşa karşı olduğunun mesajını verir. atık malzemenin kullanımı kübistlerin de aşina olduğu bir şeydir. ancak schwitters’in çöpleri kolaja ve asemblaja dönüştürmesi, kübist tavırdan farklı olarak tuvale üç boyutlu malzemelerin girişini sağlar. böylece tuvale yapışan malzeme, varolduğu ortamdan soyutlanarak tuvalin yeni nesnesi haline gelir. Üç boyutlu malzemenin tuvalle buluşmasının bir diğer sıradışı örneğini de schwitters’in etkisinde kalmış olan robert rauschenberg’in eserlerinde görürüz. soyut dışavurumculuk ile pop sanatı arasında köprü vazifesi görmüş olan rauschenberg, zaman zaman sanat ile hayat arasındaki aralıkta çalışmak istediğini ifade etmiş ve gündelik nesnelerle sanatsal nesnelerin ayırımını sorgulayacak eserler vermiştir. rauschenberg, araba lastiği, tenis topu, doldurulmuş keçi gibi nesneleri bir değişikliğe uğratmadan, dışavurumcu bir üslupla boyamış ve tuvalle buluşturmuştur. böylece nesnenin gerçeklik arayışı serüveninde kübist kolajla nesnenin kendisine açılan süreç, üç boyutlu nesne müdahaleleriyle resmin üçüncü boyuta, daha doğrusu konumladığı mekana olan müdahalesi başlamıştır. rauschenberg kübistlerden devraldığı tuvali bir nesne gibi görme fikrini resmi bulunduğu mekana açarak geliştirir. İki boyutlu yüzey olarak bilinen geleneksel resim anlayışının sınırlarını iki ve üç boyutlu malzemeyle genişletir. duchamp’dan miras - - alınan hazır nesne rauschenberg’de farklı bir yaklaşımla ele alınır. sanat tarihinde devrim yaratan sanat nedir sorusuna duchamp, herşeyin sanat olduğu yanıtını verirken, rauschenberg ise sanatın herşeyde olduğu yanıtını vermiştir. duchamp eserlerinde objenin gerçek formunu kullanırken, rauschenberg obje ile yeni bir sentez yaratmıştır. ‘rauschenberg, içsel bir konuşmanın merkezinde, saf ve organize olmuş bir resim düşüncesi yerine, dünyanın sürekli ilişkilerinin bir örneği olan sanat yapıtını öngörüyordu. sanat yapıtının, nedensel olarak, bir parçasının diğeriyle ilişkisi olmayan bir yığın olarak anlaşılabileceği düşüncesi buradan çıkar. rauschenberg’in combine resimleri, ipek baskıları, dağınıklığın ilişkiselliğini ortaya çıkarır, rastlantısal formların akışını gösterirler.’ (alloway, : ) rauschenberg’in sanatında rastgele gibi duran geröek nesneler, o’nun sanatının gizli disipilinini barındırmaktadır. dağınık gibi görünen düzenlemenin ardında, dağınıklığın sistematiğini duyar gibiyiz. bu anlamda sanatçının combine adını verdiği serilerilerine göz atmalıyız. rauschenberg’in combine serilerinden bilinen en iyi örneği şüphesiz ‘yatak’ isimi eseridir. sanatçı bu yapıtında yatağının düzenlenmemiş dağınık halini bir tuval yüzeyi gibi algılamış ve yine tuval gibi duvara monte etmiştir. böylece gündelik hayatta kullanılan bir nesnenin tuval gibi bir resim yüzeyi yada tuval nesnesinin yerini alabileceği fikri ortaya atılmıştır. rauschenberg “combines” (bileşik resimleri) serisinde ( - ) iki boyutlu kolaj denemelerini yeni bir bakış açısıyla geliştirerek üç boyutlu asemblajlara taşır. buluntu objeleri boya, kalem ve kullandığı diğer objeler yardımıyla birleştirerek tuval yüzeyine yerleştirir. İki boyutlu resme üçüncü boyutu üç boyutlu nesnelerle yansıtarak sanat yapıtını gerçek hayatın formuna yaklaştırmıştır. bu eserlerinde resim ve heykeli surreal etkilerle yaptığı denemelerle birleştirerek braque ve picasso’nun kolajlarını farklı bir aşamaya getirmiştir. (cima, : ) resim- robert rauschenberg, monogram, dada ve pop art sanatını takip eden süreçte tuval resmiyle malzemeyi buluşturan bir diğer önemli sanatçılar da minimalistlerdir. frank stella, tuvallerini mekana taşımadan duvarda şekillendirir. İki buçuk boyutlu tuval olarak adlandırdığı resim ile yüksek rölyef arasında bir yerlerde duran bu eserlerinde daha çok boyalı metal parçalarını tuvale ek bir malzeme olarak kullanır. stella’nın zaman zaman yüksek rölyeften de kurtulduğu ve eseri duvardan bağımsız hale soktuğu mekana müdahale eden işleri de olmuştur. ancak stella’ya gore yaptıklarının tamamı resimsel bir deneyim olarak kalır. stella’nın eserleri her ne kadar heykel sanatına yaklaşsa da kendisi ısrarla bunları heykel olarak tanımlamadığını vurgular. Çünkü tuvalin malzemeyle olan ilişkisinde stella’nın tüm derdi resimsel olanın tüm olanaklarını genişletmektir. kübist tavrın tuvale monte ettiği malzeme ile başlangıcını bulan tablo nesne düşüncesi, stella’nın eserlerinde en üst düzeye erişir ve böylece tuval resmi tek başına bir nesne olmanın ötesinde bir yere geçerek resmin boyutlarını aşar ve mekana yayılır. stella’nın eserlerinin mekanla ilişkisi diğer sanatçılar için malzemenin deneysel yönünü keşfetmeleri yönünde yeni ufuklar açar. - - resim- frank stella, ‘gobba zoppa collotorto’, sonuÇ kübist tavırla birlikte nesnelerin görüntüsünün bütünlüğü terkedilip parçalandıkça, kendiliğinden br montaj gerekliliği gündeme gelmiştir.kesip parçalama işleminin özellikle dadaistlerle birlikte gündeme geldiğini biliriz. tahta, ip, cam, gazete, metal gibi malzemelerle girişilen nesneyi paramparça ederek dağıtma fikri, tasvir sorununu ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik tavırlardır. kübistleri görüntü gerçeğinden ilk uzaklaşanlar olarak sayarsak, dadistleri de tasvir sanatını ilk inkar edenler olarak kabul edebiliriz. tuvale giren malzeme ile birlikte nesnenin tasviri yerine bizzat kendisinin temsil edilmesi önerilmiştir.nesnelerin optik görüntüleri ile değil, kendi varlıkları ile devreye sokulmuş olması, somut sanat adı verilen yeni olgunun oluşmasını sağlamıştır.İlk başta iki boyutlu montaj ile başlayan ve zamanla üç boyutlu nesnelerin montajıyla devam eden süreç, ister istemez tuval resmiyle heykelin kesişmesini sağlamıştır. bu olgu da sergilenen nesnenin bulunduğu mekanla ilişkisini ortaya koyar. tuval resminin boyut ve mekan kaygıları taşıması sonucu, tuvalin bir nesne olarak galeri mekanına açılma düşüncesi, resim sanatının diğer disiplinlerle, özellikle de heykel sanatıyla olan ilişkisini gündeme getirmiştir. resim sanatının bilinen geleneksel tuval boyama yöntemlerinin sınırlarını aşması, günümüz sanatının geleneksel genel geçer doğruları yadsımasının başlıca etkeni olmuştur. bu doğrultuda resim sanatının eski yöntemleri terk ederek yeni anlatım olanaklarını ortaya atması kübizm’le başlamıştır. araştırmanın başında da değinildiği gibi kübizm bir değişimi ifade eden dönem olarak, . yüzyıl sanatının devrimci ruhunun başlıca tetikleyicisi olmuştur. sadece eski geleneksel yöntemleri terk etmekle kalmamış, aynı zamanda sanatın ulaşılamaz olarak algılanan üstün yaratısını da terketmiştir. tuvalin kolajla ve asemblajla yeniden kurgulanması, yeni olanakların ve yeni malzemelerin gündeme gelmesine ve resim yüzeyinin sınırlarının bulanıklaşmaya başlamasına neden olmuştur. tuvale bulaşan malzeme sonucu, artık geriye dönüşü olmayan bir yolculuk başlamıştır. gerçek mekan dahil olmak üzere tuvale yabancı olan diğer tüm nesnelerin yaratıcı sürece dahil edilmesi mümkün kılınmıştır. bu andan itibaren tuvale monte edilen, hatta tuvalden kopup mekana yayılan nesnelerle ortaya çıkarılan yaratıların hiçbir kurala ve sınıra bağlı kalması düşünülemez. kaynakÇa alloway, lawrence ( ). american pop art, newyork: macmillan pub. cima, g. ( ). shifting perpectives: combining shepard and rauschenberg, newyork: theatre journal. İpŞİroĞlu, nazan, mazhar ( ). sanatta devrim, İstanbul: hayalbaz kitap sanat kuramları. gombrich, ernst ( ). sanat ve yanısama. Çev. ahmet cemal, İstanbul: remzi kitabevi. germaner, s.emra ( ). sonrası sanat- akımlar, eğilimler, gruplar, sanatçılar, İstanbul: kabalcı yayınevi. lynton, norbert ( ). modern sanatın Öyküsü, İstanbul: remzi kitabevi. tunali, İsmail ( ). felsefenin işığında modern resim, İstanbul: maz matbaacılık turanİ, adnan ( ). Çağdaş sanat felsefesi, İstanbul: remzi kitabevi. yilmaz, mehmet ( ). sanatçıları okumak ya da hayali söyleşiler, ankara: Ütopya yayınevi. journal of art historiography number december felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky peter gillgren […] the hallmark of the new type of researcher is not the eye for the ‘all-encompassing whole’ nor the eye for the ‘comprehensive context’ (which mediocrity has claimed for itself) but rather the capacity to be at home in the marginal domains. walter benjamin, ‘rigorous study of art’, . figure friedrich feigl, portrait of felix horb, . oil on canvas. stockholm university art collections. (photo christian saltas.) felix horb is one of the lesser-known art historians of the vienna school. he never held a permanent position within the academy and his publications are few. his main contributions to the art historical field are his studies on architectural representation in late medieval painting, presented in his unpublished dissertation of and in the publications das innenraumbild (the inner-room image) from and cavallinis haus der madonna (cavallini’s house of the madonna) from . he also published a book on a painting by vincent sellaer and one single, odd article. felix horb, ‘duccios und giottos architekturbild und seine vorgeschichte’, stockholm university library, mag hum . [vienna, ]; das innenraumbild des späten mittelalters. seine entstehungsgeschichte, zürich and leipzig: max niehans verlag, ; cavallinis haus der madonna, gothenburg: wettergren & kerners förlag, ; peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky horb’s method could be called constructivist. it was founded in alois riegl’s and especially max dvořák’s early works, but there are connections also with the new vienna school and hans sedlmayr. furthermore, horb’s studies are in direct dialogue with erwin panofsky and the warburg school. horb was born in and grew up in prague. his older brother max horb ( – ) was an expressionist painter who belonged to the circle of max brod and frans kafka. stockholm university owns a portrait of felix horb, dated , which was painted by friedrich feigl, another member of the group (fig. ). felix horb’s elder sister gabriele ( – ) was politically active and married to karl heller, one of the founders of the social democratic party in czechoslovakia. heller was a member of the czech parliament between and . another sister, valerie ( – ), was a translator and participated in the publication of a book on anti-semitism at the anarchist press of michael kácha in . in horb went to vienna, to study art history, archaeology and philosophy. when he arrived, max dvořák had recently been appointed professor. dvořák’s principal work up to that date was das rätsel der kunst der brüder van eyck (the enigma of the art of the brothers van eyck). he was at the time still heavily influenced by riegl, not least das holländische gruppenporträt (the dutch group ‘kunstdenkmäler herausgeben von ernst garger’, konsthistorisk tidskrift, vol. xx, , – ; zu vincent sellaers eklektizismus, stockholm: kungl. vittterhets historie och antikvitetsakademien, . sten karling, ‘felix horb in memoriam’, konsthistorisk tidskrift, vol. xxvii, , – , is the only publication on felix horb. the best source for biographical information about him and his relatives is the documentation on police interrogations that took place from his arrival in sweden in until he received swedish citizenship in , statens utlänningskommission , felix horb. riksarkivet, stockholm. i am currently working on the intellectual biography of horb, to be published by the royal swedish academy of letters, history and antiquities. nicholas sawicki, ‘the critic as patron and mediator. max brod, modern art, and jewish identity in early twentieth-century prague', images, vol. , , – , with further references. sten karling, the stockholm university collection of paintings, stockholm, , (no. ); on feigl, see also sawicki and harald christoph tesan, ‘feigl, friedrich’, allgemeines künstlerlexikon. die bildenden künstler aller zeiten und völker, vol. xxxvii, munich, , – . statens utlänningskommission, centrala dossiéer – , f b: , gabriele heller. riksarkivet, stockholm. statens flyktingnämnd, personaler rörande flyktingunderstöd, akt , valerie horb. riksarkivet, stockholm; valerie horb et al., weltgericht über den judenhass. eine internationale rundfrage über das wesen des antisemitismus, prague: michael kácha verlag, . felix horb, philosophischen fakultät – nationalien, – . sign: – . archiv des universität wien, vienna. max dvořák, das rätsel der kunst der brüder van eyck, munich: r. piper & co. verlag, [ ]. peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky portrait). the methodology is exacting, with detailed analyses of related, individual works of art. the ‘enigma’ to be solved by dvořák was the unexpected advances in painting, shown by the van eyck brothers in the s, explained by the author as resulting from an integration of italian renaissance art with a north european tradition. the first part of the study is dedicated to the differentiation between the hands of hubert and jan in the ghent altarpiece. the following part outlines the earlier history of netherlandish painting, from the mid-fourteenth century until the time of the van eycks. the method is historic-genetic and dvořák tries to understand the gradual developments leading up to jan van eyck’s breakthrough; the causal links (kausalverbindungen) and development chains (entwicklungsketten) of the individual works of art. in his later period dvořák became more expressionistic. the lectures on italian renaissance artists held during – are far less detailed and less methodologically oriented. the first, on giotto, begins with a contrast–comparison between a fresco in the arena chapel and a relief by giovanni pisano, instead of a historic-genetic analysis. the purpose is not to understand the historical development but to establish the spiritual meaning of the individual artist’s work. the art historical problems to be resolved are not foregrounded, as before. dvořák died in and the lectures were published posthumously by his students. some of his later essays were printed under the well-known title kunstgeschichte als geistesgeschichte (art history as a history of the spirit). according to hans sedlmayr it was felix horb who came up with the telling title that has since then come to represent dvořák’s later scholarship. horb’s studies were interrupted for almost five years by the – war, just as he had begun working on his thesis. the original topic was ‘der architekturbild bei giotto und duccio’ (the architectural image in giotto and duccio) and was probably given to him by dvořák. in the book on the van eyck brothers dvořák had touched upon the matter, claiming that the italian renaissance had its origin in the recuperation of certain antique motifs in late thirteenth-century art, such as landscapes and architecture. some early drafts for horb’s dissertation deal specifically with the art of duccio and giotto, much in the style of the late max alois riegl, das holländische gruppenporträt, vienna: druck und verlag Österreichischen staatsdruckerei, [ ]. dvořák, das rätsel, – . the historic-genetic method was elaborated by another of horb’s teachers, hans tietze, methode der kunstgeschichte. ein versuch, leipzig: e. a. seeman verlag, and defended again by dvořák in an essay from , ‘Über die dringedsten methodischen erfordernisse der erzeihung zur kunstgeschichtlichen forschung’, wiener jahrbuch für kunstgeschichte, vol. xxvii, [ / ], – . max dvořák, geschichte der italienischen kunst im zeitalter der renaissance. akademische vorlesungen, munich: r. piper & co. verlag, . max dvořák, kunstgeschichte als geistesgeschichte. studien zur abendländischen kunstentwicklung, munich: r. piper & co. verlag, ; hans sedlmayr, kunst und warheit. zur theorie und methode der kunstgeschichte, hamburg: rowhohlt, , . felix horb. kunsthistorisches institut wien, vienna. dvořák, das rätsel, – . peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky dvořák. the intention is to establish the ‘spiritual personalities’ of the two artists. horb begins with a contrast–comparison between duccio’s christ entering jerusalem and a byzantine mosaic with the same subject. the purpose is not to establish a historic-genetic relationship but, as in the late dvořák, to bring out the psycho- phenomenological content of the artist’s work. when horb’s thesis was delivered to julius schlosser almost ten years later, in january , the title had been changed to die vorgeschichte der duccios und giottos architekturbild (the pre-history of duccio’s and giotto’s architectural image). from a reference in the text to ‘my unforgettable teacher’ it can be assumed that it was written after dvořák’s death, most of it probably in . the style of writing and the whole approach to the problem has changed. already the first sentences can be read as a critique of the abandoned method: two possibilities to restrict the work: you limit yourself to the architectural image of duccio and giotto, deal with the individual paintings, examine their relation to each other and come to an understanding of the development of the artist’s work in relation these representations. to restrict the topic in such a way would, in our opinion, be a fatal mistake. much would remain unexplained that can only be understood in the context of the greater historical development. instead of restricting himself to the two artists, horb is now focused on the specific art historical problem: the development of architectural representations in late thirteenth- and early fourteenth-century italian painting. all comparisons between works of art are made in order to explain historic-genetic sequences, rather than for contrast. he follows the motif all the way back to the hellenic-roman tradition, where he finds two principal types of architectural representations, interiors (interiören) and inner rooms (innenräume). the first type is sometimes called box-space (kastenraum), because the figures are placed in a kind of box or ‘doll’s house’ (fig. ). the inner room, on the other hand, is characterized by its openness bound with the volume of the delivered thesis, horb, ‘duccios und giottos architekturbild und seine vorgeschichte’. in his last will, horb donated his books and papers to what is today stockholm university library; bouppteckning efter felix horb. stadsarkivet, stockholm. rigorosenakt des felix horb, / : . sign: phil. rig. akt. pn. , fol. . archiv des universität wien. horb, ‘duccios und giottos architekturbild und seine vorgeschichte’; ‘zwei möglichkeiten, die arbeit zu begrenzen: man beschränkt sich auf das architekturbild duccio’s und giotto’s, beschäftigt sich mit den einzelnen gemälden, prüft ihr verhalten zu einander und kommt dadurch zur erkenntnis einer entwicklung im werke der künstler innerhalb des in frage stehenden darstellungsgebietes. den umfang so zu bestimmen, wäre nach unserer meinung ein verhängnisvoller fehler. denn es bliebe dann sehr vieles unerklärt, dass nur im grossen entwicklungsgeschichtlichen zusammenhange erklärt werden kann.’ peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky figure unknown artist, chorego with actors, c. ad. mosaic. museo nazionale, naples (the poets house). figure unknown artist, architectural phantasy, c. ad. museo nazionale, naples. (from fausto & felice niccolini, le case ed i monumenti di pompei disegnati e descritti, vol. i, naples ) and it flourishes especially in the pompeian fourth style, where different architectural motifs are combined in a fanciful manner (fig. ). horb calls these constructions prop-architecture (stützenarchitektur). the architectural compositions are based on differently connected, free-standing columns, usually without walls, supporting flat roofs, segmented arches and/or pediments. the outside as well as the inside of the buildings are displayed simultaneously. horb follows the motifs and their different variations into the early middle ages, in book manuscripts and the mosaics in, for example, ravenna. after that, the motifs disappear altogether and are not seen again until the mid-thirteenth century. it was joseph garber’s studies that had made horb aware of the importance of the wall paintings at san lorenzo fuori le mura and san paolo fuori le mura in rome. garber finished his dissertation on the topic for dvořák in and published it in . horb had a copy of the book with a personal dedication in his library. following up on a few paragraphs in dvořák’s book on the van eyck brothers, garber showed that the early christian wall paintings of the old roman basilicas became important models for artists in late thirteenth-century rome, pointing at similarities between iconographic programmes and at the classicizing style of pietro cavallini. what horb noted was that the prop-architecture of the pompeian style made a reappearance in the same churches and at same time (fig. ). he dated the paintings at san lorenzo to the s, followed by the works of cavallini in san paolo, then the works in old saint peter’s and finally cavallini’s mosaics in santa maria in trastevere, documented to . in the birth of the virgin of the latter church, the prop-architecture has been stabilized with stronger walls julius schlosser, ‘die wiener schule der kunstgeschichte’, mitteilungen des Österreichischen instituts für geschichtsforschung, vol. xiii: , , . joseph garber, wirkungen der frühchristlichen gemäldezykeln der alten peters- und paulus- basiliken in rom, berlin–vienna: verlag von julius bard, ; horb’s copy is now at stockholm university library, mag. hum. . . peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky and is characterized by more pronounced realism (fig. ). it is as if the two late antique types had been combined. the development was carried further in assisi by the so-called isaak master and the master of the saint francis cycle (figs and ). in the arena chapel giotto reused cavallini’s architectural backdrops, for example in the birth of the virgin (fig. ). giotto’s figures are better integrated with the architecture, but the simultaneous display of the outside and inside remains the same. with giotto, the circle is completed, so that the antique box-space almost seems to be reappearing (fig. ). still, a curious aspect is that the exterior is always accounted for, even though it is relegated to the very margins. figure unknown artist, life of saint lawrence, – . fresco. san lorenzo fuori le mura, rome. (from joseph wilpert, die römischen mosaiken und malereien, vol. ii, freiburg .) figure pietro cavallini, birth of maria, . mosaic. santa maria in trastevere, rome. figure isaak master, isaak rejecting esau, c. . fresco. san francesco, upper church, assisi. figure master of the saint francis cycle, miracle of the crucifix, c. . fresco. san francesco, upper church, assisi. peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky figure giotto, birth of the virgin, . fresco. arena chapel, padua. figure giotto, christ disputing the doctors, . fresco. arena chapel, padua. clearly, much of horb’s work was inspired by dvořák’s scholarship, both in historical outline and historic-genetic methodology. there were some differences, though. first of all, the style of writing is much dryer, without any poetic claims whatsoever. in horb there are no elaborations on peripheral matters, no pleasant excursions beyond dealing with the facts of the given art historical problem. another difference is that horb does not analyse styles as much as single motifs. he never discusses the style of a period, an artist or a particular painting. the architectural constructions have been singled out and he deals solely with their typologies. this gives the whole presentation a constructivist approach that is close to the new vienna school and the work of hans sedlmayr. sedlmayr completed his dissertation in the same year as horb. at the time horb was the older and more experience art historian, whereas sedlmayr had switched from architectural studies to art history as late as . horb was well versed in the tradition of the vienna school – he had read the early dvořák, riegl and franz wickhoff. sedlmayr wrote his dissertation on fischer von erlach and in his first publication on the architect in he was dealing with similar historic- genetic aspects as horb, trying to detect the architect’s italian sources. if anything, this study is more conventional than horb’s, with its biographical outline and catalogue of attributed works. after finishing his dissertation horb found work at krystall-verlag and became editor of the belvedere journal in the s. this is where sedlmayr published some of his first articles; and horb also made efforts to advance his career in other ways. in a correspondence with fritz saxl in he tried to persuade him to publish sedlmayr’s work on borromini in the warburg series. it was too long for the belvedere, he explained, and could not be published in the schlosser, ‘die wiener schule’, . the studies on sedlmayr are growing steadily; maria mannig, hans sedlmayrs kunstgeschichte. eine kritische studie, vienna, , with further references. hans sedlmayr, fischer von erlach der Ältere, munich: r. piper & co. verlag, . hans sedlmayr, ‘gestaltetes sehen’, belvedere, , – , as well as other studies. letters from felix horb to fritz saxl, – . warburg archive, london. peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky wiener jahrbuch because of a conflict. horb describes the author as ‘unusually talented’ and an ‘excellent speaker’. however, saxl declined, both to publish the article and to have sedlmayr as a guest in hamburg, arguing that his work was too remote from the interests of the warburg institute. it is not difficult to understand horb’s support for, and fascination with, sedlmayr’s study on borromini. they seem to have shared an understanding of images as functions rather than styles. sedlmayr would talk of them as machines, where the art historical problem was to understand the different elements and how they functioned together. in order to do so the genetics of the image had to be discovered, just as horb had done with the architectural backdrops in giotto’s art. in a well-known essay from sedlmayr proposed a movement towards a more rigorous study of art. differentiating between two different kinds of art history he promoted the primacy of a scholarship founded strictly on the visual appearance of artworks, as opposed to the history of culture. sedlmayr hoped for an art history that ‘can investigate the properties of works and their internal organization and structure … classify works according to their natural groups and establish genetic connections among works on the basis of their properties [and] … arrive at an understanding of the historical events whose products it is studying and of the forces at work behind these events’. these were issues that truly interested horb, not least the strict focus on the visual aspects of artworks. there are no texts whatsoever on the architectural backdrops of giotto’s paintings, making them an ideal test case for such a rigorous study of art. when it came to the field of psychology they did differ, though. horb had no interest in the study of psychological types or gestalt psychology. he was content with the concept of kunstwollen, sometimes formwollen, bringing dynamics to the historical situation. perhaps like schlosser, he saw the danger of psychology turning into mythology in the hands of some younger vienna scholars. in the s, with the rise of fascism and the upcoming war, horb and sedlmayr came to diverge even further. sedlmayr, a catholic, was a racist and an early member of the nazi party. in his later publications on fisher von erlach he distanced himself from previous methodological approaches and in a preface to the borromini book published in , he deplored his own constructivist tendencies of the s. horb’s book das innenraumbild from is even more constructivist than the thesis of . hans sedlmayr, ‘the architecture of borromini’, journal of art historiography, vol. xiv, [ ], – . sedlmayr, ‘gestaltetes sehen’, ; sedlmayr, ‘the architecture of borromini’, . hans sedlmayr, ‘toward a rigorous study of art’, the vienna school reader, ed. and trans. christopher wood, new york: zone books, [ ], . schlosser, ‘die wiener schule’, . mannig, hans sedlmayrs kunstgeschichte, with further references; especially illuminating is evonne levy, ‘sedlmayr and schapiro correspond, – ’, wiener jahrbuch für kunstgeschichte, vol. lix, , – . hans sedlmayr, ‘introduction to the new edition [of the architecture of borromini]’, journal of art historiography, vol. xiv, [ ], . peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky with the german annexation of austria in horb had to flee vienna, where he had lived and worked for almost thirty years. thanks to his sister gabriele and brother-in-law karl heller he was helped by the workers’ movement refugee association to go to sweden in november . together with them and his sister valerie he settled in stockholm, where after some years he achieved a position as a curator of paintings at the berg institute for art history, today part of stockholm university. he stayed there until his death in june . with his nearness to the social democratic party, admiration of his brother’s avant-garde painting and as a secularized jew, it does not seem likely that horb very much enjoyed sedlmayr’s later developments. it is surprising, therefore, and suggests a profound relationship dating back to the s, that sedlmayr travelled to stockholm to meet horb in . from a couple of letters, we learn that they discussed sedlmayr’s verlust der mitte from . horb’s only comment in relation to the book is cryptic, focusing on the method rather than the results. probably it is meant to clarify something from their discussions, when horb explains that the method should be ‘an opportunity to learn about and to think through the specific theme’. sedlmayr’s ‘method of critical form’, launched in verlust der mitte, was perhaps not so much a method for ‘thinking things through’ as for a certain selectivism and it was heavily debated at the time. sedlmayr’s idea was that the most radical works of art are best suited to represent the dreams and the subconsciousness of an era. critics claimed that with such a spectacular selection of artworks it is only logical that the common-sense, middle-ground – der mitte – must appear as altogether missing. a lack of historic- genetic background is no doubt paradigmatic for such works of art, which most probably was seen as a problem by felix horb. horb had just completed his dissertation in when erwin panofsky’s essay die perspective als symbolische form (perspective as symbolic form) appeared for the first time. it deals with similar issues and materials as horb but with a very different approach. panofsky begins his investigation with a discussion of definitions and theories of perspective, from antiquity and into the early modern period. where horb exclusively analyses specific works of art and their genetics, panofsky understands the history of ideas as being all-important and fundamental. while panofsky seldom gives individual works of art more than a sentence horb will give them at least half a page. horb is careful in sorting out problems of letter from felix horb to workers’ movement refugee association, november . arbetarrörelsens arkiv, stockholm. letter from felix horb to hans sedlmayr, june , stockholm university archive, sten karling collection, tavelsamlingens korrespondens; ‘der methodische teil bedeutet für mich eine über das konkrete thema gehende belehrende gelegenheit, mit- und nachzudenken.’ hans sedlmayr, verlust der mitte. der bildende kunst des . und . jahrhunderts als symptom und symbol der zeit, salzburg: otto müller verlag, [ ], – ; for a severe criticism, see werner hofmann, ‘zu einer theorie der kunstgeschichte’, zeitschrift für kunstgeschichte, vol. : , , – . erwin panofsky, perspektive as symbolic form, trans. christopher wood, new york: zone books, [ / ]. peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky restorations, dating and copying while panofsky shows no such concern and displays a self-confidence that is foreign to horb. panofsky’s well-known hypothesis is that antiquity had knowledge enough to produce spatial representations similar to modern perspective, but lacked the single-point central perspective of the renaissance period, where the room is seen with one eye from a particular point of view and is spread out on a flat image surface. basically, it was giotto who conceived of this new symbolic form by combining the flatness of gothic art with the materiality of particular byzantine motifs. figure unknown artist, scenes from the story of joseph (old testament) with pharaoh’s dream (left), c. . mosaic. baptistry, florence. when horb resumed his studies again in the s he added a critique of panofsky’s essay. a central issue is a series of mosaics in the florentine baptistry from around , representing, among other things, pharaoh’s dream (fig. ). according to panofsky, the architectural construction is a typical byzantine form that was later elaborated by giotto. horb does not agree: panofsky is exaggerating the influence of byzantine art on italian artists of the period and he does not realize the important influence of late antiquity upon thirteenth-century art. the sleeping pharaoh is reclining under a structure of the same type as the prop-architecture in san lorenzo fuori le mura from s and as developed by cavallini, jacopo torriti and others in the following decades. the very abstract logic of panofsky is learned and impressive but, according to horb, not founded in the logic of the actual, historical situation. understanding the development of the motif means ending up in rome, not in the baptistry of florence. with a clear aim at panofsky’s theoretical foundation, he writes: if we were presented with the late medieval inner-room image of the early trecento in one stroke, that is, without any pre-history, then one could understand this sudden appearance as the result of a pure thought-process … beside the fact that the suggested train of thought rests on a completely panofsky, perspective as symbolic form, – and (note ). peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky unrealistic and excessively abstract foundation, it is refuted because it is countered by the actual development of late medieval architectural space and inner-room representations and because a knowledge of this development gives a better understanding of their fundament. while panofsky understood the renaissance perspective as a realization of abstract ideas and ideals, horb explained it as a gradual development of already existing visual forms that took place from the late thirteenth century onwards. their different views on cubism are telling. for panofsky the style of modern painting represents a cultural shift comparable to the one that took place during fall of the roman empire. horb is more down to earth, noting that, despite the efforts of cubism, the image concept developed by the renaissance is still the dominant one. the importance of photography and film all through the twentieth century seems to support horb’s view. in panofsky visited stockholm and held a series of lectures at gripsholm castle. the theme was ‘the renaissance problem in the history of art’ and one of the lectures dealt specifically with the relation between thirteenth- century painting and antiquity. panofsky also made a visit to the berg collection of paintings in stockholm. correspondence between panofsky and horb informs us that they discussed the latter’s opinion on the matter. horb writes: ‘i am very pleased to know that you, highly honoured professor, after going over the literature, found my thesis … to be correct.’ panofsky in turn writes to horb that he recently has had the opportunity ‘to make some propaganda for your writings’. a young phd student is working on the problem of representational space in giotto. panofsky has put horb’s publications in her hand – publications that naturally were ‘as unknown to her as they had been to me’, he writes. panofsky’s lectures at gripsholm were not published until , when horb was no longer alive. the author refers generously to horb and embraces the idea horb, das innenraumbild, ; ‘wären wir mit einen schlage, also ohne vorgeschichte, das spätmittelalterliche innenraumbild zu anfang des trecento da, dann können man diesem plötzlichen erscheinen einen reinen denkvorgang zugrunde legen … abgesehen davon, daß der angenommen gedankengang nur für einer seite vollständig wandlosen in ihrem allzu abstrakten charakter verdächtige interpretation abgelehnt werden, weil sie durch die entwicklung der spätmittelalterlichen darstellung des nur-architektonischen raumes zum innenraumbild widerlegt wird und weil gerade die kenntnis dieser entwicklung volle klarheit über die verhaltensweise schafft, auf der jenes beruht.’ panofsky, perspective as symbolic form, . horb, das innenraumbild, – . gregor paulsson, ‘editor’s preface’, in erwin panofsky, renaissance and renascences, stockholm: almqvist & wiksell, [ ], viii. letter from felix horb to erwin panofsky, october , smithsonian institution, archives of american art, the erwin panofsky papers. washington dc; ‘es its mir ein sehr angenehmes bewusstsein, dass sie, sehr verehrter herr professor, nach vorläufigen lektüre, meine these … als richtig angesehen haben.’ letter from erwin panofsky to felix horb, december . smithsonian institution, archives of american art, the erwin panofsky papers. washington dc. peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky that antique art had an influence upon late thirteenth-century artists. still, he sticks to his model from die perspective als symbolische form, where the merging of gothic and byzantine styles are essential for the emergence of the new art. cavallini’s name has been added to the list of painters who were responsible for the changes, but no individual work of art by him is mentioned or discussed. pharaoh’s dream in florence is once again given as an example of a purely byzantine art, notwithstanding horb’s observation that the architectural structure is a result of the rediscovery of late antique imagery. basically, panofsky has not changed his mind and in direct response to horb he writes that ‘the undeniable influence of late antique and early christian art on jacopo torriti, cavallini and giotto is, i think, only one aspect, however important, rather than the cause of this process’. for panofsky the renaissance was a unified, cultural and intellectual phenomenon that cannot seriously have made a return to another era. for horb the problem was all about the evidence of images and he did not exclude the possibility that an antique motif may have had just as big an impact on a later period as contemporary cultural circumstances or abstract ideas could have had. visual representations are carriers of their own truth and internal logic. they have their own traditions. horb’s legacy as an art historian is slight compared to figures such as dvořák, sedlmayr and panofsky. the results of his work have not gone altogether unnoticed, though. the idea of a late thirteenth-century proto-renaissance in rome is today accepted by most well-informed scholars. for example, richard krautheimer writes in his standard book on rome in the middle ages that cavallini and other artists turned to late antique models ‘for credible space, achieved by placing into depth figures and architectural props’. giotto scholars, on the other hand, have been reluctant to adopt this point of view. still, the historical implications do not seem to have been the most important issues for horb. it was the method. like so much else that was done and achieved within the vienna school it had to carry a heavy weight. horb was a scholar who believed strongly in the systematization of visual representations and the possibility of building solid links between individual works of art. with his rigid and constructivist approach he evaded the lure of dichotomic simplifications and crude generalizations about styles, nations or races that haunt so many of his contemporaries’ texts. the grand narratives of the giants may be ever so fascinating. clarifications, corrections and subtle objections are quietly pencilled in the margins. peter gillgren is anders zorn professor of art history at stockholm university. he is the author of several books and articles on renaissance and baroque art, as well erwin panofsky, renaissance and renascences in western art, stockholm: almqvist & wiksell, [ ], . panofsky, renaissance and renascences, . richard krautheimer, rome. profile of a city, – , princeton nj: princeton university press, , . the cambridge companion to the art of giotto, eds anne derbes and mark sandona, new york: cambridge university press, , , , – . peter gillgren felix horb: notes in the margins of max dvořák, hans sedlmayr and erwin panofsky as on the theories and methods of art history. his major publications in english are siting federico barocci and the renaissance aesthetic (ashgate ) and siting michelangelo: spectatorship, site specificity and soundscape (nordic academic press ). peter.gillgren@arthistory.su.se this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution- noncommercial . international license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / 	peter gillgren accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland “ ‘the more subtle inquisitor:’ arthur machen as early reviewer of dubliners for grant richards” christine ferguson, university of stirling the torturous publication history of dubliners is now well known to joyce scholars, having received its most extensive and nuanced explication by clare hutton. in her masterful account of the collection’s vexed transit from heinemann through to grant richards, maunsel & co. and then back to richards again, she challenges the critical mythology which positions richards in as a cowardly, irascible or careless publisher beholden to the squeamish moral sensitivities of his printer.i the new, more complex picture she paints of dubliners’ early reception at grant richards and maunsel and co. points instead to the role of multiple actors and material factors in shaping the fate of the work. a letter in the vodrey collection of arthur machen papers at princeton university dramatically expands our understanding of the early richards-joyce negotiations even further by revealing for the first time an additional, and hitherto unacknowledged reader, of the dubliners manuscript for richards: the welsh gothic writer and mystic arthur machen. the unlikely pairing of these two figures from seemingly opposite ends of the early twentieth-century literary spectrum— one a cosmopolitan pioneer renowned for his radical aesthetic innovation, the other a reactionary popular fiction writer best known for his stevensonian pastiches and jingoistic ghost stories— can transform our understanding, not only of dubliners’ publication history, but of the literary affinities and networks which connected popular and vanguard artists in the early modernist era.ii born in caerleon in , machen migrated to london in the early eighteen- eighties to launch his literary career. after a few failed experiments in reviving eclipsed literary styles, and a brief stint as cataloguer with the occult publisher george redway, he gained fame— or at least notoriety— with a series of sensational early- accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland nineties horror stories, most notably the great god pan ( ), published in john lane’s keynotes series. condemned by some of its contemporary critics for its decadence and perceived obscenity— the westminster review dubbed it “an incoherent nightmare of sex”— the novella borrowed the fragmented narrative style of stevenson’s the strange case of doctor jekyll and mister hyde ( ) to describe the life of the beautiful but unspeakably evil helen vaughan. iii born out of coercive sexual union between a victimized street girl and the pagan deity pan, she grows up to unleash a wave of suicidal destruction amongst london’s aristocratic men. although one of machen’s more commercially successful stories, the great god pan was by no means his favorite, and he bitterly resented the financial pressures that induced him to continue pumping out works in this vein, such as ’s the three impostors, for the rest of the decade “to recook that cabbage which was already boiled to death,” he laments in his autobiography things near and far, was “a kind of agony.”iv in , he completed the garden of avallaunius, the ambitious semi- autobiographical symbolist künstlerroman that he hoped would launch a new phase in his literary career and which many of his admirers then and since have regarded as his greatest accomplishment.v the manuscript was that year offered to and rejected by grant richards, who, despite his admiration for the novel, cautioned against publication lest it break with the established machen horror brand;vi later richards relented and published the book under its new title, the hill of dreams, in . these experiences align machen and joyce in a number of compelling and unexpected ways at the fin de siècle: both were writers of celtic origins at work on autobiographically-inspired artist novels, ambivalent about literary commercialization, and due to experience considerable setbacks in their dealings with an appreciative if financially cautious grant richards. accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland despite the hill of dreams’s initial rejection, machen continued to correspond and work with richards in the first years of the twentieth century, publishing with the house his critical study of the western romance tradition, hieroglyphics ( ), and in a new compilation of his eighteen-nineties gothic tales, the house of souls. machen was somewhat cynical about the latter enterprise, only consenting to the publication in deference to the dire financial exigencies that sadly daunted his entire post-victorian career. “my only object, you know, [in] complying with your desire re: these books and stories,” he writes in an early letter to richards, “is to get a little money. otherwise the whole lot should have stayed in oblivion so far as i am concerned.”vii this penury may well have compelled him to take on the manuscript blurbing and reviewing work for richards that the vodrey collection evidences. the archive contains two letters from machen written in response to reviewing requests from richards. in one, machen turns a job down, saying of the unidentified manuscript, “i am very sorry; but i cannot think of anything today about the book. i am sure you will concoct a much better paragraph than i could.”viii in the other, he offers a brief but rapturous review of what he refers to as joyce’s “irish stories.”ix machen’s readiness to turn down vetting requests for manuscripts that did not inspire him makes his enthusiasm for dubliners all the more significant. the letter containing machen’s report to richards is undated, but seems, through its reference to a recent, vituperative review of machen’s the house of souls in the manchester guardian, to have been published in mid-to late july .x this timing positions it at a particularly crucial point in joyce’s increasingly fraught negotiations with richards. joyce had sent the original manuscript of dubliners, containing twelve of the collection’s ultimately fifteen stories, to richards in late november ;xi on the of february , richards wrote to accept, identifying accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland himself and some as yet unnamed others as readers, and indicating his willingness to publish even though he doubted its profitability: “i do not see that it has any of those selling qualities for which a publisher has naturally to look […] however, i admire it so much myself, and it has been so much admired by one or two other people who have read it, that we are willing to take the risk of its publication […].”xii in late april, richards developed cold feet after his printer refused to publish the newly added “two gallants.”xiii over the next few months, he wrote to joyce requesting new changes both to this and other stories before finally retracting his acceptance on september th, despite joyce’s concession to a number of revision requests.xiv what version of the manuscript did machen see, and what, if any, impact did his recommendation have on richards’s final decision in the autumn of ? as machen makes no specific reference to the two stories added later in , “two gallants” and “a little cloud”— “the dead” wasn’t completed until (jjii )— he could have received the manuscript early in the year, a possibility further suggested by the fact that richards identifies only filson young as external reader to joyce in his letter of may th. regardless of when richards decided to enlist machen, it is clear that his quest for the welshman’s opinion represents his caution about the manuscript and desire to enlist a diverse group of readers for this attractive but potentially risky publishing venture. machen’s s succinct but unequivocally positive response to dubliners openly acknowledges the potentially actionable nature of its sexual references. fascinatingly, the story that seemed to him most problematic in this respect was not either of the ones rejected by the printer— “two gallants” and “counterparts”— but rather the one identified by joyce himself as the more scandalous tale, “an encounter.” “the printer denounces two gallants and counterparts,” joyce had written to richards on accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland may th, but “[t]he more subtle inquisitor will denounce an encounter, the enormity of which a printer cannot see because he is, as i have said, a plain blunt man […]” (letters ii ). the “enormity” to which joyce refers, is, of course, the implied act of public masturbation performed by the “queer old josser” that the story’s two schoolboy protagonists witness when they play truant from school (d ). machen identified the suggestion right away. in its entirety, his letter reads: my dearest richards, i have read the irish stories with very great interest. they are undoubtedly very good, and very original, and i think the author ought to be encouraged most heartily to devote himself to literary work. it is so refreshing to read work which is utterly free from the loathsome tricks and fakes of book manufacturing, of the stale literary pastry which forms the stock-in-trade of most of our writers. it is a pity that one of the best of the tales— “an encounter” is (i should think) just over the line of the printable. many of the others, excellent as they are, would be better, perhaps, if there were a little more “story” in them. but the total impression of lower-middle-class life in dublin that one gets from the whole book is wonderful. i hope the “house of souls” is doing decently. the “manchester guardian” man seems cross! i shall be glad to hear what you think of the sample chapter of the possible new book which i sent in. if you decree its existence i must, i think, write first a parody of a well-known hymn— earth hath many a noble city manchester doth all excel— i am going out of town from monday to saturday next. yours, arthur machen the new book of his own to which machen refers here is almost definitely the secret glory ( ), a savage indictment of the public school system cum modern grail story which depicts the spiritually adept schoolboy ambrose meyrick’s entrustment with, and eventually martyrdom for, the sangréal.xv thus, even while himself occupied with a fantastical tale about the mystical regeneration of the world through a lost mythological object, machen was able to recognize the brilliance of joyce’s accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland symbolic-realist meditations on the lives and psychological sufferings of dublin’s petit bourgeois. perhaps this appreciation was no contradiction. despite his frequent blasts against literary realism, machen was himself fascinated by mundane experience and its potential to evoke moments of spiritual ecstasy.xvi the latter function forms the basis of the novella that is undoubtedly his masterpiece, “a fragment of life.” serialized in his friend a.e. waite’s horlick’s magazine in , and then revised for inclusion in the house of souls, it tells the story of edward darnell, a clerk living in shepherd’s bush clerk who, in between shopping for stoves with his wife and negotiating servant problems, experiences epiphanic visions of an ancient, pagan landscape that lies beyond the bricks and mortar of modern london. the narrative closes with a fragment from darnell’s manuscript account of his erotic, mystical union with this fantastical ur-space: so i awoke from a dream of a london suburb, of daily labour, of weary, useless little things; and as my eyes were opened i saw that i was in an ancient wood, where a clear well rose from grey film and vapour beneath a misty, glimmering heat. and a form came towards me from the hidden places of the wood, and my love and i were united by the well.xvii machen’s fictional epiphanies, although, as nick freeman has argued, less secular and fleeting than their counterparts in the canonical modernist works of joyce, mansfield, and woolf, nonetheless share their faith in the ability of everyday urban experience to not only accommodate but also to catalyze sudden moments of intense emotional, aesthetic, and even spiritual revelation.xviii having only recently completed the revisions of “a fragment of life” when he read the dubliners manuscript, machen may have recognized ‘araby”’s unnamed boy protagonist or “a painful case”’s james duffy as more tragic and less mystically elect versions of his own darnell. accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland machen’s enthusiasm for the early dubliners can help us rethink his own frequently asserted anti-modernism. throughout the latter half of his increasingly fraught and obscure literary career, the writer was routinely curmudgeonly in his assessment of the modernist avant garde, complaining, for example, in his essay collection dog and duck about, cubism, vorticism, post-impressionism; verse that doesn’t scant and doesn’t rhyme. [n]ovels that make one think of stupid post-mortem or a dull dissection: this is what we have in place of tennyson, swinburne, rossetti, dickens, thackeray, the pre-raphaelities, and the great illustrators of that despised age, the wood-engravers whose work has become to us miraculous.xix similarly, in a letter to his correspondent munson havers from the same year, he remarks “as to modern writers of fiction; i know very little about them. when i do read a modern novel, i often make two reflections. firstly, ‘how very clever’; secondly, ‘and yet this can never last’.”xx nostalgic literary reactionary as he may in these instances position himself to be, machen would have known at the time of writing these statements that he had himself been present at, and helped to encourage, the launch of one of the most important careers in literary modernism. admittedly, it seems unlikely that machen would have been as encouraging and positive about ulysses ( ) as he was for the more narratively conventionally dubliners; nonetheless, both joyce texts share what was for machen the considerable virtue of rejecting the didactic, empirical tendencies of the earnest late victorian social novels that he had lambasted in hieroglyphics and elsewhere. machen’s response to dubliners constitutes a previously unknown and highly suggestive episode in the publishing history of the short story collection which could and should elicit investigation into further affinities and identifications between these two writers in the early years of the twentieth century. machen and joyce, after all, shared far more than just a publisher in this period. both writers were independently accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland pioneering an epiphanic narrative style rooted in the short story form; both too would see their early careers shaped, and even stalled, by accusations of immorality as they tried to move beyond the constrictions of the surrounding literary marketplace in their as yet inexplicit but nonetheless potent allusions to the deviations and perversities of sexual life.xxi above all, machen and joyce were linked by a mutual commitment to probing the intensity of the unseen worlds that lay beneath the surfaces of social convention and rational thought, one that marks them as fellow travellers despite their radically different conceptions of the nature of these spaces, choices of literary technique for expressing them, and positions with europe’s anglophone literary sphere. accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland bibliography arthur machen to grant richards, january , c , letters to grant richards, - , vodrey collection of arthur machen papers, princeton university library. arthur machen to grant richards, n.d. [circa july ], c , letters to grant richards, - , vodrey collection of arthur machen papers, princeton university library ellman, richard. james joyce. oxford: oxford university press, . ellman, richard, ed. letters of james joyce ii. new york: the viking press, . freeman, nick. “arthur machen: ecstasy and epiphany.” literature and theology. . ( ): - . gekle, william francis. arthur machen: weaver of fantasy. millbrook, ny: round table press, . hutton, clare. “chapters of moral history: failing to publish dubliners.” the papers of the bibliographical society of america. . (december ): - . joyce, james. dubliners, ed. robert scholes in consultation with richard ellman. new york: viking press, . machen, arthur. “the bowmen.” london evening news. ( september ): . “a fragment of life.” the white people and other stories, ed. s.t. joshi. london: penguin, . the great god pan: and the inmost light. london: john lane, . hieroglyphics. london: grant richards, . the house of souls. london: grant richards, . “the poor victorians.” dog and duck. new york: alfred a knopf, . things near and far. london: martin secker, . the three impostors; or, the transmutations. london: john lane, . “new novels.” manchester guardian. july : . the philistine. the new fiction (a protest against sex mania) and other papers. london: westminster gazette office, . reynolds, aidan and william charlton. arthur machen. oxford: caerlaen books, . accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland richards, grant. author hunting by an old literary sportsman: memories of years spent mainly in publishing, - . london: hamish hamilton, . memories of a misspent youth: - . london: william heinemann, . scholes, robert. “grant richards to james joyce.” studies in bibliography. ( ): - . starrett, vincent. arthur machen: a novelist of ecstasy and sin. chicago: walter m. hill, . sweetser, wesley d. arthur machen. london: arthur machen society, . valentine, mark. arthur machen. bridgend: seren, . vechten, carl van. peter whiffle: his life and works. new york: alfred a knopf, . bibliography i clare hutton, “chapters of moral history: failing to publish dubliners,” the papers of the bibliographical society of america , no. (december ): . ii for examples of machen’s stevensonian style, see the great god pan and the inmost light ( ) and the three impostors ( ); of his patriotic world war ghost stories, see “the bowmen” ( ). iii the philistine, the new fiction (a protest against sex mania) and other papers (london: westminster gazette office, ): . iv arthur machen, things near and far (london: martin secker, ), . v vincent starrett, arthur machen: a novelist of ecstasy and sin (chicago: walter m. hill, ): ; carl van vechten, peter whiffle: his life and works (new york: alfred a knopf, ): ; wesley d. sweetser, arthur machen (london: arthur machen society, ): ; mark valentine, arthur machen (bridgend: seren, ): . vi things near and far, . vii arthur machen to grant richards, january , c , letters to grant richards, - , vodrey collection of arthur machen papers, princeton university library. accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland viii arthur machen to grant richards, january , , letters to grant richards, - , vodrey collection of arthur machen papers, princeton university library. at the time of writing, i have only had access to the machen side of this correspondence; the grant richards archive at the university of illinois urbana- champaign may indicate further evidence of these arrangements. richards’s two autobiographies, memories of a misspent youth, - ( ) and author hunting by an old literary sportsman: memories of years spent mainly in publishing, - , have almost as little to say about machen as they do about joyce (who is not mentioned in either); as such, it is difficult to assess from these the full extent of the two men’s working relationship. ix arthur machen to grant richards, n.d. [circa july ], c , letters to grant richards, - , vodrey collection of arthur machen papers, princeton university library: . x “new novels,” manchester guardian ( july ): . the review critiques what it views as the arrogance of machen’s preface, negatively contrasts his work to maeterlinck’s,and accuses his fiction of cultivating physical disgust instead of the numinous mystery for which it aims. xi robert scholes, “grant richards to james joyce,” studies in bibliography ( ): . the original dubliners comprised “the sisters,” “an encounter,” “araby,” “the boarding house,” “after the race,” eveline,” “the clay,” “counterparts,” “a painful case,” “ivy day in the committee room,” “a mother,” and “grace”; “two gallants,” “a little cloud,” and “the dead” were yet to come. xii grant richards to james joyce, february , in robert scholes, “grant richards to james joyce,” studies in bibliography ( ): . xiii hutton, “chapters of moral history,” . attributed by joyce to a sense of bourgeois puritanical outrage, the printer’s objections may in fact, as hutton argues, have had more to do with his fear of prosecution under the obscene publications bill. xiv grants richards to james joyce, september , in scholes, . xv aidan reynolds and william charlton, arthur machen (oxford: caermaen books, ): . although started in , the secret glory did not see print until when it was finally published by martin secker. accepted for publication in dublin james joyce journal published by james joyce research centre and national library of ireland xvi machen’s most sustained critique of realism comes in hieroglyphics, in which he repeatedly elevates the romance tradition over the realist and identifies as “the enemy” as those “who maintain that fine literature is a faithful reflection of life, and think that jane austen touched the point of literary supremacy” ( ). xvii arthur machen, “a fragment of life,” in the white people and other stories, ed. s.t. joshi. (london: penguin, ): . xviii nick freeman, “arthur machen: ecstasy and epiphany,” literature and theology . ( ), . xix arthur machen, “the poor victorians,” dog and duck (new york: alfred a knopf, ), . xx arthur machen to munson havers, , in a few letters from arthur machen, (cleveland: the rowfant club, ), . xxi william francis gekle, arthur machen: weaver of fantasy (millbrook, ny: round table press, ), . in addition to the controversy around the great god pan, machen has also caused a stir with his short story “a double return,” in which a man returns home from a painting trip in cornwall to discover that his wife has the night before been visited by, and presumably taken to her bedroom, a lookalike rival who she took for him. the st james gazette, original publisher of the tale, dropped machen from their contributor list following the furor. [pdf] what paint can tell us: a fractal analysis of neurological changes in seven artists | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /neu corpus id: what paint can tell us: a fractal analysis of neurological changes in seven artists @article{forsythe whatpc, title={what paint can tell us: a fractal analysis of neurological changes in seven artists}, author={a. forsythe and t. williams and r. reilly}, journal={neuropsychology}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ – } } 	a. forsythe, t. williams, r. reilly 	published 	psychology, medicine 	neuropsychology objective: the notion that artistic capability increases with dementia is both novel and largely unsupported by available literature. recent research has suggested an emergence of artistic capabilities to be a by-product of involuntary behaviour seen with dementia, as opposed to a progression in original thinking (de souza, et al., ). a far more complementary explanation comes from hannemann ( ), who suggests that art offers an outlet for dementia patients to refine and sharpen their… expand view on wolters kluwer mural.maynoothuniversity.ie save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations results citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper 	 figure 	 table 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure view all figures & tables 	dementia 	neurodegenerative disorders 	nervous system disorder 	linguistics 	index 	body of uterus 	aging 	mental suffering paper mentions blog post can paint strokes help identify alzheimer’s? psypost january blog post paintings reveal signs of alzheimer’s and parkinson’s in famous artists quarksdaily december blog post paintings reveal signs of alzheimer's and parkinson's in famous artists slashdot december news article famous artworks showed early signs of disease: study health medicinet december news article famous artworks showed early signs of disease, say study the malay mail online december news article can paint strokes help identify alzheimer’s? health medicinet december blog post paintings reveal early signs of cognitive decline, claims study science news, comment and analysis | theguardian.com december citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency painting in neurology 	b. piechowski-jóźwiak, j. bogousslavsky 	psychology 	 save alert research feed a complex story: universal preference vs. individual differences shaping aesthetic response to fractals patterns 	n. street, alexandra forsythe, r. reilly, r. taylor, m. helmy 	psychology, medicine 	front. hum. neurosci. 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed parkinson’s disease and changes in the appreciation of art: a comparison of aesthetic and formal evaluations of paintings between pd patients and healthy controls 	jon o. lauring, matthew pelowski, eva specker, t. ishizu, r. kupers 	psychology, medicine 	brain and cognition 	 	pdf save alert research feed a shared fractal aesthetic across development 	kelly e. robles, nicole a. liaw, r. p. taylor, d. baldwin, m. sereno 	computer science 	 	pdf save alert research feed statistical image properties in works from the prinzhorn collection of artists with schizophrenia 	gudrun maria henemann, a. brachmann, c. redies 	art, medicine 	front. psychiatry 	 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed why would parkinson’s disease lead to sudden changes in creativity, motivation, or style with visual art?: a review of case evidence and new neurobiological, contextual, and genetic hypotheses 	jon o. lauring, t. ishizu, hana h. kutlikova, felix dörflinger, matthew pelowski 	psychology, medicine 	neuroscience & biobehavioral reviews 	 	 save alert research feed the implications of fractal fluency for biophilic architecture 	r. p. taylor, arthur juliani, a. bies, c. boydston, b. spehar, m. e. serenob 	computer science 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed a healthy dose of chaos: using fractal frameworks for engineering higher-fidelity biomedical systems. 	a. korolj, h. wu, m. radisic 	medicine 	biomaterials 	 	 	 save alert research feed neurodegenerative diseases and changes in artistic expression 	m. filippi, noemi piramide, sarasso elisabetta, f. agosta 	psychology 	 save alert research feed analysis on artist neuropsychology and art creation 	yaqi huang 	psychology, medicine 	translational neuroscience 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency changes in painting styles of two artists with alzheimer's disease. 	b. buren, b. bromberger, daniel c. potts, b. miller, a. chatterjee 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed biophilic fractals and the visual journey of organic screen-savers. 	r. taylor, j. sprott 	psychology, medicine 	nonlinear dynamics, psychology, and life sciences 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed a complex story: universal preference vs. individual differences shaping aesthetic response to fractals patterns 	n. street, alexandra forsythe, r. reilly, r. taylor, m. helmy 	psychology, medicine 	front. hum. neurosci. 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed lifeworks: art movements 	s. pinker 	medicine 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed memory and the creation of art: the syndrome, as in de kooning, of 'creating in the midst of dementia'. 	c. espinel 	psychology, medicine 	frontiers of neurology and neuroscience 	 	 save alert research feed creativity with dementia patients 	beat ted hannemann 	psychology, medicine 	gerontology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed the assessment of art attributes 	a. chatterjee, page widick, rebecca sternschein, w. b. smith, b. bromberger 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed frontal lobe neurology and the creative mind 	l. c. de souza, h. guimarães, + authors e. volle 	psychology, medicine 	front. psychol. 	 	 	 save alert research feed predicting beauty: fractal dimension and visual complexity in art. 	a. forsythe, m. nadal, n. sheehy, c. j. cela-conde, m. sawey 	psychology, medicine 	british journal of psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed dementia with lewy bodies and the neurobehavioral decline of mervyn peake. 	d. sahlas 	psychology, medicine 	archives of neurology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures, tables, and topics 	paper mentions 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators blog posts, news articles and tweet counts and ids sourced by altmetric.com terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue . 이준혁- wban 환경에서 효율적인 라우팅을 위한 차원 좌표 주소할당 기법의 적용.hwp journal of digital contents society vol. no. dec. (pp. - ) http://dx.doi.org/ . /dcs. . . . 디지털 미디어예술에서의 삼학 김의나*, 김태은** 요 약 인간은 오랫동안 이미지를 만들어왔습니다. 황토, 숯, 적철광을 염료로 사용한 구석기 시대의 동굴벽 화로부터 마야 같은 d툴을 이용한 현 시대의 디지털 영상까지 오랜 역사만큼 다양한 방법으로 만들어 졌습니다. 그리고 그 사회를 구분하는 것은 인간과 기술의 발달입니다. 기술, 인간, 예술 이 세 가지를 알아야 시대성을 가진 이미지를 만들 수 있습니다. 그래서 중세에 수도사들이 학생들에게 가르쳤던 트 리비움(trivium) 삼학을 가져와 디지털 시대의 삼학이라고 주제를 정했습니다. 본 논문은 기술, 인간, 예 술을 실제 애니메이션에 적용해보면서 이론적 논의 가치를 확인해 보도록 하겠습니다. 키워드 : 디지털 영상, 기술, 인간, 예술, 시대성, 에니메이션 the trivium of the digital media art eui na kim*, tae eun kim** abstract mankind has long made images. from cave paintings in the old stone age when the dye was red clay, charcoal, or red iron ore to the modern digital images on the bases of d tools like maya, images have been made through various methods. the basis of society’s classification is the development of human beings and technologies. when we are familiar with three elements— technology, human, and art—we are able to create an image suitable for the trend of the times. as a consequence, we brought the trivium that had been taught by the monks in the middle age to set our subject to the trivium of the digital age. in this paper, we are going to put technology, human, and art into actual animation to check its theoretical discussion value. keywords : digital imaging, technology, human beings, art, trend of the times, animation . introduction an image can convey the thoughts of its maker while also embodying the state of technology of the time. artists often apply the ※ corresponding author : eui na kim received : september , revised : december , accepted : december , * namseoul university, department of multimedia tel: + - - - , fax: + - - - email: eu @hotmail.com ** namseoul university, department of multimedia latest technologies to create images that reflect current viewpoints and technical trends. to begin with, we are going to associate the past image with the trend of the times and apply the pattern to the present age to figure out what kind of image the present age is seeking. the first images created by humans are thought to be mural paintings. the mural paintings of lascaux cave (bc , to bc , ) in the southern part of france are credited with triggering the primitive image era. at that time, our ancestors supposed that "the more mural paintings we draw, the more likely we can have the animal alive." the journal of digital contents society vol. no. (dec. ) paintings functioned not for visual pleasure but as magical and incantatory elements and means to achieve wealth. man has evolved to call these images art. drawings and paintings are now largely enjoyed as a form of expression in the western culture. before the middle age, people placed high values on drawings that exactly reproduced a scene (regeneration). such appreciation for the replication of nature in the form of images regressed duringthe middle age when christianity was the dominant religion. it was believed that god said, "all is not as it seems." during the renaissance movement, however, development of perspective and chiaroscuro, as well as a focus, on human form and anatomy reignited interest for realism in fine art and "regeneration" retook its position as the main topic of the art world. the invention of photography at the turn of the th century changed the art world. paintings were not as accurate as photos in terms of shape or color regeneration and as such, painting were deprived of their identity of "regeneration". this shock made the art world turn its back from realism. painters started to deconstruct what they saw. the world dismantled into basic shapes (cubism), liberating colors (fauvism), and even distorting the space instead. it was through deconstructionism that fine art regained its identity. [ ] photography began stretching its hand to impact people’s daily lives. at first, they innovated the art itself, saying nothing of the landscape or portrait which had been traditionally performed by the art. as photography techniques improved, "aura" in art slowly collapsed. aura refers to the atmosphere emanated by an original artwork that confers its uniqueness in time and space, often associated with religious images and objects. the ease of reproducing images en mass via photography democratized fine art, especially religious objects and images. the camera, the next runner of the painting, got down to recreating all the existing contents by way of a new medium, called the movie. all contents including the bible, novel, ghost story, cartoon, folktale, fable, and play were recreated as a movie, a vehicle which reached its heyday in the th century. [ ] photography and film went through another transformation when digitalization techniques were developed at the turn of the st century. although analog film can capture near perfect "regenerations" they are hard to handle. digital photography and film can be artificial manipulated. in fact, the period has come when we are able to express all the images in our imagination through digital film. images evolve with advancements in technology. in the primitive times, a magician drew mural paintings; in the middle age, a painter drew paintings; and in the industrial revolution period, a photographer shot photos. who, then, will make images in the digital age? that person is a programmer. he or she is not confined to simply program computer languages but can merge technology with art through creating digital images. technology, art and human are termed the trivium of the digital age. [ ] in the middle age, trivium referred to subjects in medieval universities: dialetic, grammar, and rhetoric. marshall mcluhan, a media philosopher, said that the trivium is a subject that changes at every age which represents it. the goals of this study is to determineif technology, art, and human represents the current society. if so, can one create images which make people feel good. . discussion . technology the core technologies in the digital age are the trivium of the digital media art the pixel and vector. a man must use pixels and vectors to express what he imagines in an image. glue and scissors were used for editing analog objects. they were extremely coarse units when compared with the extremely exquisite particles called atoms, microunits used in the analog period. as a result, the viewer notices the manipulation techniques while watching the screen, thereby destroying the continuity of the object viewed. on the contrary, the image in the digital age is the pixel. the pixel allows a man to express whatever he imagines. therefore, he must be familiar with the smallest digital units in order to program contents. as a way of using the pixel, we used the software maya, a d tool. using maya, we modeled and rigged alien pupu whom we imagined. (figure ) rigged character the alien in figure is pupu, a rigged character. pupu moves in combination with its skeleton but rigging is necessary to give shape to the movement, while the controllers at each part are used for animation production. prior to skeleton fabrication, we analyzedthe shape, structure, and specific movement of the character to determine how the skeleton will be structured and how it may be controlled. we motion tested our design to compose a precise skeleton, along with rigging and controlling on the basis of a more realistic movement analysis, in order to express the desired movement. first, we made joints and bones using the minimum unit of the skeleton. second, we bound them so that the skeleton can transform the object. we put the character object and the skeleton together using smooth binding and we modified the weight using a paint skin weight tool so that the object can be naturally transformed. here, the smooth bind function was adopted to allow smooth transformation of the object by the skeleton. blend shape was applied to the characterso that personality and emotion can be naturally expressed and transmitted. meanwhile, graphical user interface (gui) was composed for look control. gui improves convenience and enables a delicate look to be displayed. finally, the main controller was made to control the movement, rotation, and size of the character. . human being humans are able to pass judgment quickly. as such, if a product is to appeal to people it must elicit a good feeling in a short amount of time. accordingly, we must figure out what characteristics people unconsciously like or hate and apply the characteristics to the image as early as possible. in addition, we did not want to simply rely on intuition but aimed to study how well the personal mind and intellectual system can be handled. journal of digital contents society vol. no. (dec. ) (figure ) uncanny valley robot engineer, mori masahiro, believes that robots should be made in human form to elicit joy/happiness/a smile in the simplest manner. people tend to feel a sense of kinship and comfort toward an object if they feel that it is similar to them. however, when the object becomes too similar to them, the degree of good feeling dramatically drops to a point called the uncanny valley. of course, the degree of good feeling again surges past the uncanny valley but such point is difficult to achieve using robotics (?). judging from this, it may be effective to perform a design on the st peak just before the uncanny valley. this concept may be applied to animation. we created a model on the st peak rather than the nd peak past the uncanny valley. [ ] . sympathy: theoretical discussion and application social interactions and the ability to sympathize are important human characteristics. people often seek to confirm the good feelings of others. furthermore, they are able to enhance good feelings by receiving the same information and sympathizing with each other. a good example of this is during the incident called "truce on christmas eve" which occurred at the beginning of world war i on december , in flanders, france. german and british established unofficial truce to collect and bury those killed in action. a number of soldier on opposite sides of the conflict walked toward each other, shook hands, shared cigarettes and biscuits, and laughed at the absurd war. this incident teaches us about the power of sympathy. tens of thousands of people put away their nation, ideology, or class and made peace during the terrible war out of sympathy even though the peace was sustained for only a couple of hours. . art technology has its limit, including the limit of the pixel. other factors contribute to these limitations including the limits of the technique of our team members, our d modeling devices, and our storytelling. art can overcoming such limits. early fine arts had been monopolized by noblemen. however, after the industrial revolution technological advances allowed replication and duplication of fine arts and images which allowed popularization of art. considering such, technology makes art plentiful while art mitigates the limit of technology. . conclusion the pixel is important for it is the basic unit that allows artists to create an image. its flexibility enables us to venture into new artistic realms. although modern techniques allow artists to create near perfect replica images, the new technologies also enableartists to bring their imaginations to life through image manipulation. because digital images can be rapidly replicated and sold to the masses, it is important to understand how the public recognizes and understands the trivium of the digital media art superficiality and apply that knowledgeto the image. finally, we must make use of design to engage the customer on an emotional level. in conclusion, images of the future cannot simply refer to the art or the technology but must refer to a combination of technology, humanity, and art to be an appealing and desired product. (figure ) disappearing pupu references [ ] jin, jung kwon, “the story of western art history," humanist publication, pp. - , july . [ ] beiner, ronald, “walter benjamin's philosophy of hi story,” political theory, vol. , no. , aug. . [ ] flusser, vilem, "lob der oberflächlichkeit," bollman n vlg, koln, sep. . [ ] mori, masahiro, “bukumi no tani genshō: 不気味の 谷現象," kosei publishing company, pp. - , dece mber, . [ ] bussi, c. a. "virtual reality-based investigation of four cognitive theories for navigation," unpublished doctoral dissertation, virginia polytechnic institute and state university, blacksburg, va, . [ ] ko, eung-nam, hong, sung-ryong. "a web based error manager for societal security service," korea digital contents of society, vol. , no , . [ ] kulkarni, s.d.; minor, m.a.; deaver, m.w.; pardyja k, e.r.; hollerbach, j.m "design, sensing, and contr ol of a scaled wind tunnel for atmospheric displa y, mechatronics," ieee/as journal of digital conte nts society on, vol. , no. , pp. - , nov. . 김 의 나 년: 미국 디자인아트센터대학 (학사) 년: 미국 디자인아트센터대학 (석사) 년～ 년: 미국 소니 픽쳐스 엔터테인먼트 년～현 재: 남서울대학교 멀티미디어학과 조교수 관심분야: 멀티미디어, 영화편집, 그래픽디자인, 사진, 영상, 에니메이션 등 김 태 은 년: 중앙대학교 전기공학과 졸 업 (공학사) 년: 중앙대학교 전자공학괴 졸 업(공학석사) 년: 중앙대학교 전자공학과 졸업(공학박사) 년: 삼성전자 휴먼 테크 논문 대상은상수상 년: 영상처리관련 건의 특허취득확정 년～ 년: 한국재단참여연구원 년～현 재: 남서울대학교 멀티미디어학과 교수 관심분야: 멀티미디어시스템, 영상인식, 증강현실, 웹 d처리기술 등 the politics of modernity: céline and french literature between the wars sebastian veg centre de recherches sur les arts et le langage, paris philippe roussin, misère de la littérature, terreur de l’histoire. céline et la littérature contemporaine. nrf essays. paris: gallimard, . pp. philippe roussin’s study of céline and french literature of the s is as ambitious in scope as in volume. its readings of céline in the context of the literary and political debates of the prewar years, reasserting the cen- tral importance of his political pamphlets in defining his understanding of literature, shed considerable new light on the author of journey to the end of the night. while this is no slight accomplishment, the book’s real object of study, as laid out in the preface, is not so much céline as modernity itself, “the turnaround by which literature decided to take as its object the very substance of politics in a democratic order: ordinary life and its riddles, the common world and the conflicts between its shared values” ( )� and, generally, the ideology of literature in the s. roussin draws on an impressive amount of sources quoted at length, mainly reflections by writers, intellectuals, and politicians on the respec- tive status of literature and politics within the context of rising national- ism and communism. his hypothesis is that, as democratic politics gained ground in the s, the “great writer” removed from the world, as theo- rized by the avant-gardes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen- turies, came under increasing criticism; on the contrary, writers advocated . all translations from french sources are my own. poetics today : (fall ) doi . / - © by porter institute for poetics and semiotics poetics today : taking ordinary life as the subject of literature so that common people and their language would find a place in it. céline’s use of slang (argot) should be read within this context of literature resorting to the shared language of democratic politics, with an aim to creating some sort of national commu- nity. but by asserting the pragmatic position and power of literature within and above the political arena, so runs the argument, céline in the s came to define writing as an act of absolute authority, indeed of terror. he rejected not only the avant-garde writer figure removed from the world, but also the “commonplaces of democracy,” using slang not so much to transcribe the world and create commonality as to attack the status quo of reality and to bestow upon the writer a new type of exceptionality allow- ing him or her to reshape the world. on this basis, roussin argues that the break between the modernist avant-gardes of the s and the “mass art” of the s should be reassessed: literature in the s sometimes reformulated its claim to exceptional powers within the democratic arena rather than renouncing it, claiming authority no longer on the basis of the separation between the writer and the masses, but of the authenticity of the language they used (for example, argot), which reflected the essence of the common people and the nation. this shift from the “misery of litera- ture,” left powerless by its detachment from the world by the avant-gardes, to the “terror of history,” in which literature asserts its absolute authority to write and make history, is what defines the ideology of writing in the s. the book follows a roughly chronological order, moving back and forth between céline’s writings and the intellectual context. the first part, fol- lowing a trend in recent scholarship, investigates the role of céline’s iden- tity as a doctor and a hygienist and generally the legitimacy that he claims for his writing on the basis of this status. quoting mayakovsky’s asser- tion that “the streets are our brushes, the squares are our palettes,” rous- sin begins by situating céline within the shift away from the nineteenth- century genius figure, which is replaced by a variety of types, from the bourgeois “gentleman of letters” to the writer as inventor (in surrealism) or engineer (in constructivism). céline always thought of himself as a doctor, an outsider to literature, who in the s fictionalized the same subject matter he had written about in his hygienist pamphlets in the s. but whereas his medical discourse of hygienism represented a form of utopia, literature focused on the decay and disenchantment of urban modernity, taking as its subject the community of outcasts or untouchables whom the doctor-writer purports to speak for by virtue of his “pastoral power” (foucault). the second and third parts of the book focus on céline and the question veg • céline and french literature between the wars of language. while adorno and the frankfurt school famously attacked mass culture and entertainment, particularly cinema, as “kitsch” compro- mised with capitalism, a clear trend existed among french (and franco- phone) writers of the s and s in favor of popular language and cul- ture. breaking with valéry’s rejection of “ordinary language,” cendrars, giono, queneau, or ramuz sought to reintegrate literature within the com- munity by writing “spoken” or even “vernacular” language, as they some- times called it. this trend was in some cases accompanied by a preference for the “purity” of popular language and criticism of the overly normative or universal character of classical french. céline clearly asserted his iden- tification with preclassical rabelais, who attempted to “democratize the language,” while classical writing was contaminated by latin and other “foreign” influences, as in what he termed proust’s “fussy franco-yiddish, absolutely outside all french tradition” (in “propos sur rabelais”; quoted on ). roussin here makes a convincing case for the central position of anti- semitism (as it had developed in the nineteenth century) in céline’s idea of literature ( ) as the ideal of a racially pure language steeped in popular culture, excluding foreign influence (faulkner and joyce) and transnational categorizations such as the proletariat. therefore, writing in slang was not a conciliatory gesture for céline but, rather, the full expression of the social conflicts and hatred obscured by the bourgeois lies of literature and culture produced by the “internationalized elite.” his use of slang is con- flictual, denying the existence of a common language and history among the readers, rejecting the possibility of objectively representing reality, and asserting instead the power of language to attack reality, of bestowing on literature “the force of continuous, unlimited, almost mystic abuse” ( ). drawing on denis hollier’s seminal analysis of “authoritarian speech acts” in fiction of the s (hollier ), roussin concludes that céline’s form of realism and use of language are primarily designed to take possession of his reader, who is left powerless as the author persuasively whispers into his or her ear. the fourth and fifth parts of the book deal with what roussin calls the “politics of terror.” while arguing that neither céline nor artaud were pre- pared to defend artists and the specificities of the cultural sphere against totalitarian politics, he nonetheless contrasts their responses to the rise of totalitarian politics. on the one hand, céline plunged into the debate by publishing the pamphlet bagatelles pour un massacre, wholeheartedly defend- ing the higher importance of politics over literature and art. artaud, at the same time, chose to retreat to the asylum of rodez, thus effectively avoid- ing to take sides. roussin’s reading of bagatelles stresses its claim to authen- ticity and its use of argot as a justification for saying “everything,” to the poetics today : applause of the intellectual elite who, like andré gide, praised its style and “sincerity.” showing how céline used medical metaphors and hygienist rhetoric to legitimize his biological anti-semitism, he leaves no doubt as to the close connection between céline’s understanding of literature and his political convictions.� céline tellingly again highlighted his status as a doc- tor when replying to accusations of collaboration after the war, dismissing his pamphlets as “merely literature,” just as the narrator saves himself at the end of rigodoon by posing as a doctor who has saved a group of children with down syndrome. the conclusion of the book brings out some of its most interesting aspects but also reveals shortcomings in some of the theoretical conclu- sions it draws (or sometimes omits to draw) from a mass of sometimes con- flicting empirical evidence. by situating céline in the context of changing views of literature, roussin has made a significant contribution to an over- all understanding of his work that includes his anti-semitic pamphlets, medical writings, and socially critical fiction. breaking both with a mainly intertextual reading of céline (bellosta and godard ) and the many studies focusing either on his politics or his fiction but insufficiently connecting the two, roussin conveys a sense of coherence and stimulating readings of individual works. zooming out to the larger literary landscape, he distinguishes between two conflicting versions of modernism in french literature: while paul- han (and others like queneau) defended the rhetorical nature of literature, which firmly anchors it in common discourse, valéry affirmed the inde- pendence of art by rejecting all common, democratic forms of language in favor of a poetic utopia that was ultimately intransitive, not written to be read, at least not by ordinary readers. blanchot took this view one step fur- ther by defining literature as an amoral antidiscourse (“hors loi”), paving the way for barthes’s view of literature as a nonalienated form of language, developed in leçon ( ). a clearer distinction is perhaps necessary at this point between céline’s individual writing and prevailing views of litera- ture: céline represents a paradox in that, while purporting to place com- mon language at the center of his work, he in fact reasserts the absolute authority of his own discourse by virtue of its “authenticity.” roussin subtly underlines that, in the underlying tension between poetics and rhetoric which in his view structures modernism, céline’s authenticity is a form of “rhetoric” rather than of “poetics.” in this respect, the strategic impor- tance of this notion of “rhetoric” in linking céline’s literary values and his . roussin seems to have omitted an interesting study on céline’s racism by pierre birn- baum ( ), who situates céline in the context of other theorists of biological racism. veg • céline and french literature between the wars politics could perhaps have been underlined more clearly, as well as his originality in “importing” the absolute authority of the avant-garde writer into the democratic arena of fiction written in common language and about common people. this re-creation of antidemocratic ideas within a democratic context certainly deserves further study. how then is one to situate céline’s exact position between the avant- garde and the “return to order” of s realism? this question is in fact part of a larger controversy on the politics of modernism, recently rekindled by antoine compagnon’s les antimodernes ( ). in a famous indictment of modernist art, eric hobsbawm ( ) held that the early- twentieth-century avant-garde artists’ (he cites picasso, braque, and cubism in general) failure to renounce their status as genius creators and come to terms with democratic modernity led to the irreversible disap- pearance of art as such within the consumer society. hobsbawm attributes this failure to the artists’ choice of expressing revolt against the world by rejecting representation, thereby alienating their audience. uri eisenzweig ( ) makes a similarly interesting argument in favor of the intrinsic rela- tionship between modernism and anarchism, linking mallarmé’s intran- sitive writing and interest for “intransitive” politics, as best expressed by bomb-throwing anarchist terrorism. the paradoxical nature of céline’s both democratic and antidemocratic fiction should probably be seen in the light of these ambiguities, and roussin might have underlined more force- fully that, as suggested by hobsbawm, the disturbing affinities between the affirmed exceptionality of literature and antidemocratic thought, which roussin traces back to valéry (and which continue to resonate in barthes and blanchot), contradict the notion that there is any intrinsic connection between aesthetic modernity and democratic politics. nevertheless, roussin’s central opposition between “rhetoric” and “poetics,” while useful and stimulating, is perhaps somewhat simplified. although evidence to the contrary is quoted in the course of the study (for example, – , on william carlos williams), the symmetry of his con- clusion suggests that “democratic” forms of writing are somehow less mod- ernistic, while the avant-gardes are not democratic: “terror, the mode in which literature operated under early modernism, as a result of the separa- tion between the poetic and the rhetorical, highlights the tension between the exceptionality of literature and the common discourse of democracy” ( ). roussin’s analysis of williams and george orwell ( ff.) could be generalized on a theoretical level: not all writers who defined themselves as modernists, in the sense that they believed in the power of language, used this power in the service of an antidemocratic ideology. moving out- side the french context, arnold weinstein ( ) has shown convincingly poetics today : how american modernism, epitomized in scott fitzgerald’s great gatsby, endorsed fiction’s absolute power of creation (unlimited by morals, aes- thetics, or ideology) as part and parcel of the “american dream.” one hopes that roussin’s careful readings of several american writers in this study will lead him to engage in a full-scale discussion of weinstein’s cen- tral contention that in american literature, in particular its “three mod- ernists” fitzgerald, faulkner, and ernest hemingway, the exceptionality of literary discourse and fiction does not set it apart from the world but, on the contrary, shapes a central belief in freedom of writing and of making the self that is germane to american democracy. jean-pierre morel ( ) presents another side of this debate in his study on modernist writers and the comintern. he criticizes the canonical nar- rative of modernism that associates it with left-wing ideology, arguing that “modernists” were usually noncommunist left-wing writers like alfred döblin, typically condemned by the comintern in the name of socialist realism in the s.� this condemnation reveals an ambiguity of mod- ernism itself: in morel’s view, communist writers and critics, from the late s, associated the avant-gardes exclusively with technical modernity, implicitly denying the connection between modernism and a full realiza- tion of the autonomy of art. by overemphasizing the superficial resem- blance between technical modernity (cinema and its montage techniques, abstract photography) and literary modernism, communist writers and critics were able to reject the avant-garde (and its democratic aspirations) as “formalistic” and endorse an antimodernist aesthetics of realism. this discussion is relevant to roussin’s conclusion insofar as morel argues that there is no canonical definition of modernism, it diffracts into a variety of individual writers questioning, in different ways, the legitimacy of litera- ture in a new historical context associated with the “era of revolutions” and the rise of popular demand to exercise power in government (morel : – ). for example, döblin’s use of the “common language” of democracy, indeed of berlin slang in berlin alexanderplatz, was neither authoritarian nor formalistic, no more than his engagement with democ- racy is relevant to “rhetoric” rather than “poetics.” situating céline and french modernism within this broader european and american context could perhaps lead to a more nuanced rendering of the complex relations between modernism and democracy as a whole. . these attacks began at the behest of the journal die linkskurve in berlin in and were amplified during the congress of the russian association of proletarian writers held in kharkov in (the projected russian translation of berlin alexanderplatz was suspended). the first congress of soviet writers in pronounced its final condemnation of avant- garde writers by officially adopting socialist realism (morel : – ). veg • céline and french literature between the wars references barthes, roland leçon (paris: seuil). bellosta, marie-christine céline ou l’art de la contradiction: lecture de voyage au bout de la nuit (paris: presses univer- sitaires de france). birnbaum, pierre “la france aux français!” histoire des haines nationalistes (paris: seuil). compagnon, antoine les antimodernes (paris: gallimard). eisenzweig, uri fictions de l’anarchisme (paris: christian bourgois). godard, henri poétique de céline (paris: gallimard). hobsbawm, eric behind the times: the decline and fall of the twentieth-century avant-gardes (london: thames and hudson). hollier, denis les dépossédés. bataille, caillois, leiris, malraux, sartre (paris: minuit); english transla- tion: absent without leave: french literature under the threat of war, translated by catherine porter (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ). morel, jean-pierre le roman insupportable (paris: gallimard). weinstein, arnold nobody’s home: speech, self, and place in american fiction from hawthorne to delillo (new york: oxford university press). lessons from venice: authenticity, emotions, and icts intervalla: vol. , issn: - copyright © (baron). licensed under the creative commons attribution noncommercial no derivatives (by-nc-nd/ . ). lessons from venice: authenticity, emotions, and icts naomi s. baron american university abstract since the emergence of modern artificial intelligence research in the s, scholars have striven to model the ways in which humans think, speak, move, and emote. a presumed measure of success is the degree to which computer-driven programs or mechanical constructs can reproduce (that is, simulate) behaviors of their human counterparts. with the development of robotic pets, comparable measures have been considered. the goal of simulation is based upon an assumption regarding the extent to which humans seek authenticity, more generally, in the representations they encounter. by “representation” we mean everything from an audio recording of a musical performance, to an architectural reproduction of an original edifice, to a sculpture depicting a person, to a robotic pet. this essay argues that authenticity in representation is not always a desired goal. as a result, as we think about the extent to which the robots of today (and tomorrow) are capable of expressing emotion and other behaviors that are judged to be life-like, it behooves us to consider the degree to which users of robots are actually seeking verisimilitude. key words: artificial intelligence, authenticity, emotion, icts, representation, simulation baron lessons from venice 	
   opening prelude: sounds and sights of venice chiesa di san vidal stands in venice, near the accademia bridge over the grand canal. though no longer a functioning church, it is home to performances by a talented and vivacious chamber orchestra, interpreti veneziani, which specializes in playing music by baroque composers. the group has recorded a number of cds, making it possible to enjoy their music anywhere in the world. yet however good the quality of the recordings, attending a live concert is a radically different aesthetic experience: the dynamics of the interaction between members of the group, their nuanced gestures, and the emotion on their faces render these performances “authentic” in a way that cannot be captured on an audio soundtrack. the issue of authenticity also comes into play with a better-known venice landmark: the campanile di san marco, the . meter bell tower that stands adjacent to the basilica di san marco. the original campanile, completed by , collapsed in , but was faithfully rebuilt in . authentic? not literally, but the very best that could be done, even incorporating pieces from the original structure. far less faithful is the version of the campanile that is part of the venetian hotel in las vegas, which opened in . a bit like the buildings in the national pavilions at walt disney world, the venetian hotel complex (including the campanile) is more intended to give the flavor of venice than to offer verisimilitude. judging from the commercial success of the hotel, it would appear that guests are not put off by the lack of authenticity. what do issues of authenticity in venetian music or architecture have to do with information and communication technologies (icts)? the answer is personal. a spring visit to venice inspired me to think about issues of authenticity in preparation for the summer workshop on social robots and emotions, hosted by franklin college of switzerland. the central question of this essay is: how important is authenticity when we are using icts, particularly as social robots? we will argue that just as in the venetian examples – as well as in a host of other auditory, linguistic, or visual contexts – strict authenticity is often less relevant than filling particular aesthetic or interactive functions. the question of authenticity to what extent does an artifact such as a musical recording, a building, a piece of art, or an artificial intelligence program constitute a “genuine” rendering of an original? this question contains two parts. the first concerns the extent to which the rendering is faithful. however, the second involves the degree to which the beholder (or the user) takes authenticity as a desirable goal. both parts of this question have long and complex histories. in the world of art, for example, the desire for authentic renderings has been dominant in some societies, and in some historical periods, but not in others. or consider authenticity in lay use of digital media. in contemporary times, with the growth of blogs and citizen journalism, there are those whose writing seems to imply that representation of the “truth” (e.g., in news accounts or commentaries) can itself be relative (manjoo, ), leading the comedian stephen colbert to introduce the notion of “truthiness,” meaning “the quality of preferring concepts or facts one wishes to be true, rather than concepts or facts known to be true” (american dialect society, ). there is a vast literature on authenticity. among the best-known studies are walter benjamin’s “the work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction” (benjamin, ) and susan sontag’s on photography ( ) and regarding the pain of others ( ). but there are hundreds of others, including philosophical discussions (e.g., adorno, ), explorations of authenticity in the political arena (e.g., murtola & fleming, ), reflections on relevant moral issues (e.g., trilling, ), books on authority and consumerism (e.g., gilmore & pine, ), and examinations of baron lessons from venice 	
   cultural authenticity (e.g., orvell, ), including in the tourist industry (e.g., wang, ). this essay does not attempt to survey the field. rather, it focuses on issues of authenticity in the domains of artificial intelligence and icts, leading to consideration of the role of authenticity in using social robots. authenticity and artificial intelligence since , when the term “artificial intelligence” was coined at a conference held at dartmouth college, scientists and lay people alike have wrestled with the question of what it would mean for a software program (or a mechanical device operated by such a program) to have intellectual capacities equivalent to those of a human (e.g., mccorduck, ). a few years earlier, faced with the question of whether computers could think, alan turing ( ) had proposed a test: could a machine engage in conversation with a human such that the dialogue was indistinguishable from conversation between humans? in , hugh loebner established an annual competition in which contestants are invited to test their programs against a panel of judges. interestingly, there is also a prize for the human contestant best able to convince the judges of his or her humanness (christian, ). looking more broadly at developments in the field of artificial intelligence, we have witnessed profound advances in what programs (and machines running those programs) can do. natural language processing programs now broker millions (if not billions) of telephone inquires a day. google has prototyped a car that can drive itself (markoff, ). and onscreen avatars are being engineered to express emotions (ortiz et al., ; paiva et al., ). traditionally, a fundamental question in ai has been whether the artifacts created are designed to emulate or simulate human behavior: has the goal been to perform cognitive or motor operations in the same way that humans do (emulation) or, instead, to yield the same results as found in human action, regardless of the path followed to get there (simulation, which is a comparatively simpler task)? our issue, however, is a different one: are users of the fruits of ai actually looking for replicas of human behavior (however achieved)? the theme of the workshop that generated papers in this volume is the expression of emotion by social robots – ai-driven machines that are explicitly designed to interact with people (in contrast, for example, to industrial robots). therefore, our ultimate question here is whether human users are looking for their social robots to express emotion that closely simulates that of humans (or, in the case of robotic pets, animals). authenticity and icts over the past twenty years, interest in these issues has expanded from the computer science-based discipline of ai to the growing field of new media studies, a syncretic conglomerate of research generated by sociologists, communication specialists, and linguists – to name but some of the contributing disciplines. the term icts is now widely used to refer to devices (typically computers and mobile phones, but potentially avatars on screens or robotic pets whose communicative powers may be non-verbal) that convey information or enable interaction between two or more entities. conventionally, interlocutors using icts are humans (e.g., two friends exchanging text messages). however, as we have just implied from our examples, one or more of the entities might be a computer program (e.g., a natural language processing program) or a program-driven machine. underlying this essay are four interrelated questions: § how does body-to-body (fortunati, ) expression of emotion compare with that produced by mediated emotional expression (e.g., via musical recordings, robots, online avatars, or text messages)? 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  see http://www.loebner.net/prizef/loebner-prize.html baron lessons from venice 	
   § how similar are issues concerning authenticity using icts to issues involving other realms of communication (e.g., face-to-face conversations) or visual representation (e.g., paintings, the las vegas venetian hotel)? § how adaptive are we in dealing with representational limitations? § to what extent does authenticity in icts matter? we begin by looking at authenticity issues in the domains of communication and of visual representation. from there, we move to considering the implications of practices in these domains for understanding how to think about emotion and authenticity when using icts. authenticity issues authenticity in communication ask a beginning student of linguistics to define what a language is, and you will likely hear it is a system of communication. true, but we also know that people are not always straightforward about communicating with one another. we speak of someone maintaining a poker face or a stiff upper lip. what’s more, people sometimes lie. in the case of virtual communication via an ict, authenticity can also be an issue. on facebook, for example, american teenagers and young adults commonly “stage” their profiles with photographs or text that may not depict the individual you know from day-to-day encounters. in the words of one participant in a study i conducted on social networking, her facebook page was “me on my best day” (baron, , see chapter ). similarly, text messages sent via mobile phone may be missing in face-to-face authenticity, and not simply because they lack facial and vocal cues. in cross- cultural research i conducted on university students’ use of mobile phones, one japanese student complained that “communication through keitai mail [the japanese equivalent of texting] [can] trick people’s minds as if they were engaged in real communication” (baron, ). for this student, “real” communication implied shared physical space and devotion of one’s full attention to the interlocutor. some studies of electronically-mediated communication (emc) have concluded that written emc cannot substitute for face-to-face interaction. norman nie, for example, has asserted that while “e-mail is a way to stay in touch, … you can’t share a coffee or a beer with someone … or give them a hug” (nie & erbring, , p. ). at the same time, though, virtual communication often becomes acceptable – that is, authenticity is not a necessary desideratum – when there is no face-to- face alternative. a relevant example is soldiers in distant lands skyping their families back home. in thinking about levels of authenticity in communication – and the extent to which users seek such authenticity – we need to keep in mind that the domestication process for any form of non-face-to-face communication tends to be gradual. though the telegraph was first introduced in , it would take several decades before the general public felt at ease sharing personal information with the telegraphers who needed to encode and decode messages (marvin, , p. ). in the case of landline telephones, there was also a long lead time before arbiters of etiquette deemed it appropriate to engage in certain types of communication (such as issuing an invitation) on the telephone rather than in writing (hall, , pp. - ). because email, im, and texting are still relatively new forms of communication, it may be too soon to determine what social conventions – including requirements for authenticity – we demand of them. early arguments regarding the need for emoticons when sending email are a case in point (baron, ). when email began to proliferate in the s – first in academic research settings and then among the larger public – it was commonly argued that because the medium lacked the vocal and visual cues of face-to-face communication, email messages were highly prone to being baron lessons from venice 	
   misunderstood. therefore, it was assumed necessary to add emoticons to clarify meaning. however, as email (followed by other written forms of ecm such as im, texting, blogs, and now twitter) became increasingly domesticated, users began realizing that bare text could stand on its own. in fact, there is a potpourri of evidence that too much authenticity in communication can be unwelcome. movie theatres discovered that patrons were uninterested in having their olfactory senses stimulated by adding smell-o-vision to accompany the image onscreen. long before the development of icts, people often chose to write a letter rather than hold a face-to-face or telephone conversation, even if the interlocutors had the physical opportunity to communicate in one of these ways. their reasons ran the gamut from wanting time to plan what they were going to say, to coping with shyness, to avoiding confrontation. while media platforms such as skype make it possible to hear and even see one’s interlocutor, users commonly choose to reduce the level of communication authenticity by ignoring one or more of these channels. i may be willing to have you hear my voice, but not see me (since i’m in my night clothes). or i may opt to use only written communication, since i intentionally go by the initials of my first and middle names (e.g., j.k.) and don’t want to reveal my gender through speaking. authenticity in visual representation when talking about authenticity in visual representation, the case of art naturally comes to mind. in thinking about art prior to the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (with the coming of such movements as impressionism, cubism, and surrealism), it’s understandable to suppose that the artist’s goal was accurate rendition of the subject being depicted. while such a goal might be unreachable if the subject were, say, a mythological figure or an angel, it was presumably attainable for historical personages, especially who were contemporaries of the artist. but in fact literal rendition has not always been the artist’s aim. consider sculptures depicting alexander the great. what did alexander actually look like? we don’t know for sure from the statuary, since fifth and fourth century bc greek (and later hellenistic) art tended to idealize representations of important figures – in alexander’s case, depicting him in part as a god (dunstan, , p. ). or take rembrandt’s “the company of frans banning cocq and willem van ruytenburch,” commonly known as “the night watch.” rembrandt had been commissioned to paint the members of a company of civic militia guards. however, upon seeing the finished production, the group refused to pay because many of their faces couldn’t be seen clearly. rembrandt was perfectly capable of rendering faces with photographic accuracy. but such was not his personal aim in doing the painting. in fact, photography itself is an excellent case in point. with the development of photography by the mid-nineteenth century, the art world (at least in the west) puzzled over what the role of painting would now be, since a photograph could transparently render authentic images – or so it was thought. yet as any contemporary photographer knows, a photograph is a malleable representation. in creating an image, the photographer can select from a range of apertures and shutter speeds, not to mention time of day and angle at which the subject is captured. in the production phase, images can be brightened or softened, colors changed, and real-life blemishes magically removed. why do we retouch photographs? largely for the same reason that college students stage facebook pages to present themselves “on their best day.” that is, we manipulate images to make them look the way we wish to appear to others, and the resulting images are not always “authentic.” beyond the realm of art, we can think about accuracy of visual representation in the world of robots and computers more generally. consider three examples. 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  http://www.wired.com/table_of_malcontents/ / /a_brief_history/	
  	
   baron lessons from venice 	
   the first comes from sherry turkle, whose recent work examines attitudes regarding our relationship with real, animate objects as opposed to their mechanical representations. in november , turkle took her daughter rebecca, then aged , to an exhibit on charles darwin at the american museum of natural history in new york. two giant tortoises had been brought from the galapagos islands, where darwin had done some of his groundbreaking research contributing to his work on evolution. turkle writes: one tortoise was hidden from view; the other rested in its cage, utterly still. rebecca inspected the visible tortoise thoughtfully for a while and then said matter-of-factly, “they could have used a robot.” … she said she thought it was a shame to bring a turtle all this way … when it was just going to sit there in the museum, doing nothing. rebecca was both concerned for the imprisoned turtle and unmoved by its authenticity. (turkle, , p. ) would it have been preferable for the museum to have used robotic replacements and saved the actual tortoises the long journey? there may be a generational divide in rendering judgment here. museums (and exhibit curators) are dedicated to sharing with the public, wherever possible, genuine artifacts. by contrast, younger museum-goers have been raised on animatronics and computer games, where authenticity is typically less valued than the quality of an adventure. the second example is paro, a robotic baby harp seal. designed in japan, paro was first exhibited to the public in and became commercially available in . outfitted with sensors for touch, light, sound, temperature, and posture, it was created for therapeutic use in hospitals and extended-care facilities. according to the manufacturer, paro can reduce patient stress and improve the socialization of patients with each other and with caregivers. 	
   the idea of using pets therapeutically is hardly new. cats and dogs have played this role for centuries (e.g., for people who live alone), and have been strategically introduced into nursing homes and centers for senior citizens. as for paro, it’s hardly feasible to use a real-life baby harp seal in this way. does paro perform as it’s designed to? clinical evidence suggests it does (wada et al., ). to these reports i add my own. in may , i was fortunate to attend the aichi province (japan) international expo, at which paro was on display. petting paro, and watching it respond by changing its body orientation and facial expression, i immediately bonded. in fact, my family had to pull me away so the next person in line could get a turn. did i look for authenticity in paro? hardly. a real baby seal would not have been nearly as soft to the touch, or nearly as socially responsive. the last example is computer avatars, specifically those created in second life. designed by linden labs and opened to the public in , second life can be thought of as a cross between a massive online role-playing game and an online digital world. the platform allows individuals to craft their own avatars, which can then interact with other avatars in virtual space. users decide what appearance their avatars assume and then how those avatars move about. in many cases, users create essentially caricatures of their “real” selves (think of renditions of public figures appearing in political cartoons). other times, users endow their avatars with wished-for characteristics (e.g., changed physical endowments, hair color, age, or gender). some of those changes can even prove medically therapeutic. for example, people with motor disabilities now create avatars that can walk, dance, and even fly. there is evidence that fashioning such imagined selves can prove socially and psychologically beneficial (laouris, ). authentic? no. but that’s the whole point. 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   see http://www.parorobots.com baron lessons from venice 	
   when does authenticity matter? a central theme emerging from our discussion of authenticity in representation is that our perceived need for authenticity fluctuates. variables may include technological possibility and historical attitudes, along with cultural practices and personal preference. consider the primitive graphics that were available on the apple ii (back in the late s) and compare them with the stunning graphics on apple’s macbook pro “retina screen.” the two technologies seem eons apart. yet thirty-some years ago, excited apple ii users took enormous pleasure in playing games in which the characters were essentially drawn with lego-like pixels. user demands have shifted with technological development. but it’s important to remember that users can be happily content with quite inauthentic representation when that’s what is available. availability is not the only variable shaping attitudes towards authenticity. compare leonardo da vinci’s “last supper,” which is highly “realistic,” with salvador dali’s painting of the same name – which is not. is da vinci’s work more “authentic”? since neither artist was present at the (presumed) historical event, some degree of artistic license is to be expected regardless. but more to the point is that over years separate the two paintings. fifteenth and twentieth century artists (and audiences) had very different experiences and sensibilities. if one measure of artistic success is the impact a work has on a viewer, and verisimilitude may be less valued in the modern world than in the renaissance, we cannot assume that representational authenticity is a universal goal. cultural and individual preferences can also play a role in shaping attitudes towards authenticity. think about approaches to the kind of food we grow. the united states and europe have adopted different stances regarding food they are willing to cultivate, sell, and eat. where the us government has supported genetically-modified foods, much of europe has refused to accept such “inauthentic” produce. or go back to those apple ii graphics. while many enthusiasts took the crudeness of the images in their stride, others who were equally infatuated with computers complained that manufacturers had to do better. humans versus machines let us bring the discussion back now to the theme of this volume: social robots. as technological constructs such as robots and avatars are progressively successful at simulating at least some characteristics of human beings (or their pet counterparts), we need to ask how precise – how authentic – we want that simulation to be. going hand in glove with that question is another: are there traits that will continue to separate humans from machines, no matter how much authenticity we might desire? consider ibm’s computer program named watson, built to compete against human contestants on the american television quiz show “jeopardy” (baker, ). in the spring of , watson took on the two top winners in jeopardy’s history. watson won. did we care that watson “spoke” through a synthesized voice and was visually represented by an animated globe-like avatar? did we care that watson expressed no emotions? or did we only care that watson bested his human competitors? judging from the press surrounding the event, the only thing that mattered was winning. there has been growing discussion in recent years over whether the turing test will ever be passed by a computer (that is, passing for a human in conversation). in a review of brian christian’s book the most human human ( ) in which christian chronicles his attempt to convince judges in the annual loebner competition that he is indeed human, adam gopnik wrote: how competitors fare in the turing tests is more about the style of the response than about the substance. human intelligence expressed in sentences doesn’t have only attributes and baron lessons from venice 	
   attainments; it has affect. our stance, our emotional tone, is a surer sign that it’s us back there than the ability to answer skill-testing questions. we interrupt, infer, guess, exclaim, ignore. and, at a deeper level, we express a “meta-attitude” about what we’re saying and doing even as we say and do it. (gopnik, , p. ) gopnik continued: empathy and sympathy, jokes and wordplay, are as necessary to intelligence as pure reason: [a] poker-playing program breaks down because it can’t put itself in the mind of the guy across the table. (p. ) christian understood the need to “humanize” his performance at the loebner competition through just such linguistic subtleties as empathy and wordplay. over time, computers may or may not be able to achieve these linguistic talents. what is equally unclear is whether we are even looking for such linguistic nuance from our machines. relinquishing demands for authenticity thinking about the evolution of modern communication technologies over the past half-century, we can identify a growing list of circumstances in which we have been willing to relinquish a desire for authenticity in exchange for efficiency. start with telephone calls to service providers such as doctors’ offices or insurance companies. despite an amount of personal grumbling, most of us have come to accept the phone trees and voice recognition systems that “answer” our calls in lieu of a live human being. or think about purchasing airline tickets. gone are the days (for most of us) when we casually call up an airline to book a ticket. now, we dutifully go online, either to scope out the best price or to avoid the added fee for talking with a human agent. in the realm of visual representation, we have made similar adjustments with regard to authenticity. for many official transactions, a scanned (or faxed) signature rather than an original is now deemed legally acceptable. in the book (and newspaper and magazine) world, online digital editions are rapidly gaining over printed versions of text. while the future of digital versus print publication remains uncertain, we are seeing traditional readers who cherish books making their peace with, even embracing, kindles, nooks, and ipads because of convenience and pricing advantages. now add in the social dimension: paro is selling, as are other robotic pets. people are, in growing numbers, willing to lavish their affections on mechanical pets that they know aren’t “real.” finale: returning to venice some situations call for more authenticity than others. as a final example, we return to venice, this time to the famous horses that adorn basilica di san marco. during the fourth crusade, a set of four bronze horses – part of a greco-roman triumphal quadriga (a sculpture of a chariot drawn by four horses abreast) – was looted from the hippodrome in constantinople and taken to venice in . originally housed in the arsenale, the horses were moved to the outside of the basilica about fifty years later, where they proudly stood over the central façade for the next years. however, in the s, to protect the originals from weather and pollution, the originals were moved inside and replaced with replicas. the originals are now part of a basilica museum. while the originals are exquisite, the replicas are excellent facsimiles. and we probably all agree that the replacement is both esthetically and practically satisfactory. baron lessons from venice 	
   just as with the horses of san marco, we need to acknowledge that authenticity in communication isn’t always a sine qua non for such communication to be successful. what is more, criteria for “success” are themselves not absolute. before we rush to judgment over avatars whose emotions aren’t “real” enough or the possibility – or impossibility – of sharing a beer (albeit virtually) via a mediated technology, we need to figure out what emotional authenticity we are actually seeking from our icts. references adorno, t. ( ). the jargon of authenticity. evanston, il: northwestern university press. american dialect society ( ). truthiness voted word of the year. retrieved from http://www.americandialect.org/truthiness_voted_ _word_of_the_year (last accessed on october , ) baker, s. ( ). final jeopardy: man versus machine and the quest to know everything. boston: houghton mifflin harcourt. baron, n. s. ( ). always on: language in an online and mobile world. new york: oxford. baron, n. s. ( ). the myth of impoverished signal: dispelling the spoken language fallacy for emoticons in online communication. in j. vincent & l. fortunati (eds.), electronic emotion: the mediation of emotion via information and communication technologies (pp. - ). oxford: peter lang. baron, n. s. ( ). concerns about mobile phones: a cross-national study. first monday, ( ). retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/ / (last accessed on october , ) benjamin, w. ( ). illuminations. h. arendt (ed.), h. zohn (trans.). new york: harcourt, brace & world. christian, b. ( ). the most human human: what talking with computers teaches us about what it means to be alive. new york: doubleday. dunstan, w. ( ). ancient rome. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield. fortunati, l. ( ). is body-to-body communication still the prototype? the information society, , - . gilmore, j. h., & pine ii, b. j. ( ). authenticity: what consumers really want. boston: harvard business school press. gopnik, a. ( , april ). get smart: how will we know when machines are more intelligent than we are? new yorker, - . hall, f. h. ( ). good form for all occasions. new york: harper and brothers. laouris, y. ( ). web d challenges on the socialization and integration of people with activity limitations. proceedings of uahci ’ : th international conference on universal access in human- computer interaction. part iii: applications and services (pp. - ). berlin: springer-verlag, manjoo, f. ( ). true enough: learning to live in a post-fact society. hoboken, nj: wiley. markoff, j. ( , october ). good cars drive themselves, in traffic. new york times. retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /science/ google.html?pagewanted=all (last accessed on october , ) marvin, c. ( ). when old technologies were new. new york: oxford. mccorduck, p. ( ). machines who think ( nd ed.). natick, ma: ak peters. murtola, a. m., & fleming, p. ( ). the business of truth: authenticity, capitalism and the crisis of everyday life. ephemera: theory & politics in organization, ( ), - . baron lessons from venice 	
   nie, n., & erbring, l. ( ). internet and society: a preliminary report. stanford institute for the quantitative study of society, february . ortiz, a., oyarzun, d., del puy carretero, m., posada, j., linaza, m. t., & garay-vitoria, n. ( ). analyzing emotional interaction through avatars: a generic architecture. eminds, ( ). retrieved from http://www.researchgate.net/publication/ _analysing_emotional_interaction (last accessed on november , ) orvell, m. ( ). the real thing: imitation and authenticity in american culture, - . chapel hill, nc: university of north carolina press. paiva, a., prada, r., & picard, r. (eds.). ( ). affective computing and intelligent interaction. lecture notes in computer science . berlin: springer verlag. sontag, s. ( ). on photography. new york: farrar, straus and giroux. sontag, s. ( ). regarding the pain of others. new york: farrar, straus and giroux. trilling, l. ( ). sincerity and authenticity. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. turing, a. ( ). computing machinery and intelligence, mind, lix( ), - . turkle, s. ( ). alone together: why we expect more from technology and less from each other. new york: basic books. wada, k., shibata, t., musha, t., & kimura, s. ( july/august). robot therapy for elders affected by dementia. ieee engineering in medicine and biology magazine, - . wang, n. ( ). rethinking authenticity in tourism experience. annals of tourism research, ( ), - . biography naomi s. baron is professor of linguistics and executive director of the center for teaching, research, and learning at american university in washington, dc. a former guggenheim fellow and swedish fulbright fellow, she is the author of seven books, including alphabet to email: how written english evolved and where it's heading (routledge, ) and always on: language in an online and mobile world (oxford, ). her book always on won the english-speaking union's duke of edinburgh english language book award for . presently she is studying the relationship between reading in print versus reading onscreen. yang–baxter equations, computational methods and applications axioms , , - ; doi: . /axioms open access axioms issn - www.mdpi.com/journal/axioms article yang–baxter equations, computational methods and applications florin f. nichita simion stoilow institute of mathematics of the romanian academy, calea grivitei street, bucharest, romania; e-mail: florin.nichita@imar.ro; tel.: + - - - ; fax: + - - - academic editor: angel garrido received: august / accepted: september / published: october abstract: computational methods are an important tool for solving the yang–baxter equations (in small dimensions), for classifying (unifying) structures and for solving related problems. this paper is an account of some of the latest developments on the yang–baxter equation, its set-theoretical version and its applications. we construct new set-theoretical solutions for the yang–baxter equation. unification theories and other results are proposed or proven. keywords: yang–baxter equation; computational methods; universal gate; non-associative structures; associative algebras; jordan algebras; lie algebras msc classifications: t ; t ; b ; b ; c ; c ; d ; d ; l ; r ; m ; m ; n ; n ; p ; r . introduction the current paper is an extension of [ ], a paper based on a presentation at the inase (institute for natural sciences and engineering) conference in barcelona. our interaction with the participants and some earlier proceedings of inase influenced the development of it. computational methods were an important tool for solving the yang–baxter equation and yang–baxter system, in dimension two, in the papers [ , ], where the authors used the grobner basis. the discovery of the yang–baxter equation ([ ]) in theoretical physics and statistical mechanics (see [ – ]) has led to many applications in these fields and in quantum groups, quantum computing, axioms , knot theory, braided categories, the analysis of integrable systems, quantum mechanics, etc. (see [ ]). the interest in this equation is growing, as new properties of it are found and its solutions are not classified yet (see also [ , ]). one of the striking properties of this equation is its unifying feature (see, for example, [ – ]). another unification of non-associative structures was recently obtained using the so-called ujla structures ([ , , ]), which could be seen as structures that comprise the information encapsulated in associative algebras, lie algebras and jordan algebras. these unifications have similarities with the properties of quantum computers, whose quantum gates can execute many operations at the same time (a classical gate executes just one operation at a time). several jordan structures have applications in quantum group theory, and exceptional jordan algebras have played an important role in recent fundamental physical theories, namely in the theory of super-strings (see [ ]). the quantum computer can be used to solve large computational problems from number theory and optimization. an example is shor’s algorithm, a quantum algorithm that determines quickly and effectively the prime factors of a big number. with enough qubii, such a computer could use shor’s algorithm to break the algorithms’ encryption used today. the organization of our paper is as follows. in the next section, we give some preliminaries on the yang–baxter equation, and we explain its importance for constructing quantum gates and obtaining link invariants. section deals with the set-theoretical yang–baxter equation. new solutions for it are presented. section deals with transcendental numbers, computational methods and some applications. in section , we discuss algorithms and interpretations of the yang–baxter equation in computer science. section is about unification theories for non-associative algebras and their connections with the previous sections. a conclusions section ends our paper. . yang–baxter equations the yang–baxter equation first appeared in theoretical physics, in a paper by the nobel laureate c.n. yang and in statistical mechanics in r.j. baxter’s work. it has applications in many areas of physics, informatics and mathematics. many scientists have used computer calculations or the axioms of various algebraic structures in order to solve this equation, but the full classification of its solutions remains an open problem (see [ , , , – ]). in this paper, tensor products are defined over the field k. for v a k-space, we denote by τ : v ⊗v → v ⊗v the twist map defined by τ(v ⊗w) = w ⊗ v and by i : v → v the identity map of the space v ; for r : v ⊗ v → v ⊗ v a k-linear map, let r = r⊗ i, r = i ⊗r, r = (i ⊗ τ)(r⊗ i)(i ⊗ τ). definition . . a yang–baxter operator is k-linear map r : v ⊗v → v ⊗v , which is invertible, and it satisfies the braid condition (sometimes called the yang–baxter equation): r ◦r ◦r = r ◦r ◦r ( ) if r satisfies equation ( ), then both r◦τ and τ◦r satisfy the quantum yang–baxter equation (qybe): r ◦r ◦r = r ◦r ◦r ( ) axioms , therefore, equations ( ) and ( ) are equivalent. for a to be a (unitary) associative k-algebra and α,β,γ ∈ k, the authors of [ ] defined the k-linear map raα,β,γ : a⊗a → a⊗a, a⊗ b → αab⊗ + β ⊗ab−γa⊗ b ( ) which is a yang–baxter operator if and only if one of the following cases holds: (i) α = γ = , β = ; (ii) β = γ = , α = ; (iii) α = β = , γ = . an interesting property of equation ( ) can be visualized in knot theory, where the link invariant associated with raα,β,γ is the alexander polynomial (cf. [ , ]). for (l, [, ]) a lie super-algebra over k, z ∈ z(l) = {z ∈ l : [z,x] = ∀ x ∈ l}, |z| = and α ∈ k, the authors of the papers [ ] and [ ] defined the following yang–baxter operator: φlα : l⊗l −→ l⊗l, x⊗y → α[x,y] ⊗z + (− )|x||y|y ⊗x ( ) this construction could lead to interesting “bozonization” constructions, a technique often used in constructing (super) quantum groups. for example, the frt (faddeev-reshetikhin-takhtajan) algebras associated with φlα for a lie algebra and a lie super-algebra might be related via such a construction. remark . . in dimension two, raα,β,α gives a universal quantum gate (see [ ]):  −   ( ) which, according to [ ], is related to the cnot (controlled not) gate: cnot =     ( ) remark . . the author of the paper [ ] obtains the abstract controlled-not by a composition of a comonoid and a monoid. that formula could be related to the well-known yang–baxter operator a⊗ b → ∑ a ⊗a b and leads us to the open problem of comparing this operator to equation ( ). remark . . the matrix equation ( ) can be interpreted as a sum of the yang–baxter operators i and −i, using the techniques of [ ]. . the set-theoretical yang–baxter equation definition . . for an arbitrary set x, the map s : x×x → x×x, is a solution for the set-theoretical yang–baxter equation if: s ◦s ◦s = s ◦s ◦s ( ) (here s = s × i, s = i ×s, etc.) axioms , there are many examples of solutions for equation ( ): from “brace” structures, from relations on sets, etc., and they are related to other interesting structures (see, for example, [ , – ]). however, this equation is not completely solved yet. next, we present some explicit solutions for equation ( ); we extend some constructions from [ ], and then, we give new constructions of solutions for equation ( ). we consider a three-dimensional euclidean space and a point p(a,b,c) of it. the symmetry of the point p(a,b,c) about the origin is defined as follows: so(a,b,c) = (−a, −b, −c). the symmetries of the point p(a,b,c) about the axes ox, oy, oz are defined as follows: sox(a,b,c) = (a, −b, −c), soy (a,b,c) = ( −a, b, −c), soz(a,b,c) = ( −a, −b, c). the symmetries of the point p(a,b,c) about the planes xoy, xoz, y oz are defined as follows: sxoy (a,b,c) = (a, b, −c), sxoz(a,b,c) = (a, −b, c), sy oz(a,b,c) = ( −a, b, c). the above symmetries with the identity map form a group: {i,sox,soy ,soz,sxoy ,sxoz,sy oz,so}, which contains a subgroup isomorphic with klein’s group: {i,sox,soy ,soz}. one could check the following instances of the yang–baxter equation: sxoy ◦sxoz ◦sy oz = sy oz ◦sxoz ◦sxoy , sox ◦soy ◦soz = soz ◦soy ◦sox. theorem . . the following is a two-parameter family of solutions for the set-theoretical braid condition: s : r×r → r×r, (x,y) → (yα, xβy −αβ) ∀α,β ∈ n∗ proof. we observe that the map (x,y) → (xmyn,xpyq) is a solution for the set-theoretical braid condition if and only if the following relations hold: mnq = , mpq = , mq = m q, m + mnp = m, q + npq = q. we leave the analysis of this system of non-linear equations as a computational problem, and we pick just the above solution of this system. another approach to study this theorem might be by using the properties of generalized means from [ ]. � theorem . . the following is a two-parameter family of solutions for the set-theoretical braid condition: r : c×c → c×c, (z,w) → (αw, βz + ( −αβ)w) ∀α,β ∈ c proof. one way to prove this theorem is to follow the steps of the above proof. � axioms , remark . . another way to prove theorem . is to relate it to theorem . . thus, in some cases, the exponential function, f : c → c, z → ez, is a morphism of the above solutions for ( ): (f×f)◦r = s ◦ (f ×f) . further approaches could be by using computational methods, and extended results for dieudonne modules (see [ ]) are expected. other examples of solutions for equation ( ) will be given in the section , and they will be related to informatics. . transcendental numbers and applications the following identity, containing the transcendental numbers e and π, is well known (see more details about transcendental numbers in [ ]): eiπ + = . ( ) let j be the following matrix (for α ∈ r∗):  α i i i αi   ( ) then, similar to equation ( ), the following formula holds: eπ j + i = j, i , ∈m (c) for x ∈ c, let r(x) = cos xi + sin xj = exj : (c × c)⊗ → (c × c)⊗ . it satisfies the colored yang–baxter equation: r (x) ◦r (x + y) ◦r (y) = r (y) ◦r (x + y) ◦r (x) ∀ x,y ∈ c . ( ) furthermore, r(x) = exj is a solution for the following differential matrix equation: y ′ = jy ( ) which is related, for example, to [ ]. the combination of the properties equations ( ) and ( ), has applications in computing the hamiltonian of many body systems in physics. computational methods could be employed for finding matrices j with these properties in higher dimensions. the presentation [ ] was related to the following formula with transcendental numbers:∫ +∞ −∞ e −x dx = √ π . thus, the experimental results presented at that time were related to the gauss bell function. next, we solve an open problem proposed in [ ]. this theorem, which is related to the transcendental numbers e and π, was solved, using computational methods, thanks to an observation of dr. mihai cipu. axioms , theorem . . ∑n k < (n+ n )n ∀n ∈ n∗. proof. we evaluate the first three values for the above expressions: n= .( ) n= . . n= . ( ) . ... the inequality is true in these cases, and we will use the following inequality: ∑n k < π < . ∀n ≥ , in order to finish our proof. the above inequality is a consequence of the basel problem: ∑∞ k = π . (a new proof for this identity was recently given in [ ].) note also that the sequence in the right-hand side is increasing. the last step of the proof is shown below. n= . ( ) . ... n= ... . ( ) ∞ . ... . ... � other recent problems relating e and π are listed below. numerical and experimental results are very important for studying them. | e −z + ez̄ |> π ∀z ∈ c ,∫ b a e−x dx < ee π ( eπa − eπb ) , ∀ a,b ∈ r, a ≤ b, x + e > πx ∀x ∈ r; the last inequality holds because ∆ = π − e = − , ... < . we conjecture that e−π = , ... is a transcendental number. theorem . and numerical results could give a partial answer for this problem. the geometrical interpretation of the formula π < e could be stated as: “the length of the circle with diameter π is almost equal (and less) to the perimeter of a square with edges of length e”. �� �� �� �� the area of the above circle is greater than the area of the square, because π > e . open problems: for an arbitrary convex closed curve, we consider the largest diameter (d). (it can be found by considering the center of mass of a body, which corresponds to the domain inside the given curve.) (i) the equation: x − l x + a = ( ) axioms , and its implications are not completely understood. for example, if the given curve is an ellipse, solving this equation in terms of the semi-axes of the ellipse is an unsolved problem. (ii) we conjecture that the following system of equations is an inverse of equation ( ). we consider two functions with second order derivatives, such that: f : [ ,d] → r, f ≥ , f ′′ ≤ , g : [ ,d] → r, g ≤ , g′′ ≥ ,∫ d √ + (f ′(x)) + √ + (g(x)′) dx = l , ∫ d f(x) −g(x) dx = a . remark . . graphics for arbitrary closed convex curves related to the above open problems could be represented using graphing calculators and computers. thus, some numerical (experimental) results can be obtained. this direction seems to be a challenging one for computer scientists, and it has applications for representations similar to those from [ ]. remark . . the equation xi = ix for x ∈ r∗+ , has no solutions (see [ ]). at this moment, we do not have convincing numerical/experimental results for solving the following generalization of the above equation: zi = iz z ∈ c∗ . . the yang–baxter equations in informatics the yang–baxter equation represents some kind of compatibility condition in logic. more explicitly, let us consider three logical sentences p, q, r, and let us suppose that if all of them are true, then the conclusion a could be drawn, and if p, q, r are all false, then the conclusion c can be drawn. modeling this situation by the map r, defined by (p, q) → (p′ = p ∨ q, q′ = p ∧ q), helps us to comprise our analysis: we can apply r to the pair (p, q), then to (q′, r) and, finally, to (p′, q′′). the yang–baxter equation guarantees that the order in which we start this analysis is not important; more explicitly, in this case, it states that ( (p′)′, q′′′, r′) = ( p′, q′′′, (r′)′) . in other words, the map (p, q) → (p∨ q, p∧ q) is a solution for equation ( ). the sorting of numbers (see, for example, [ , ]) is an important problem in informatics, and the yang–baxter equation is related to it. the following “bubble sort” algorithm is related to the right-hand side of equation ( ). int m, aux; m=l; while (m) { for (int i= ; i≤l- ; i++) if (s[l-i] ≥ s[l+ -i]) { aux = s[l+ -i]; s[l+ -i] = s[l-i]; s[l-i] = aux; } m - -; axioms , } the maipart of another sorting algorithm, related to the left-hand side of ( ), is given below (see [ ]). if (s[i]≥s[j]) { aux=s[i]; s[i]=s[j]; s[j]=aux; } ordering three numbers is related to a common solution of equations ( ) and ( ): r(a,b) = (min(a,b),max(a,b)). in a similar manner, one can find the greatest common divisor and the least common multiple of three numbers, using another common solution of equations ( ) and ( ): r′(a,b) = (gcd(a,b), lcm(a,b)). since r and r′ can be extended to braidings in certain monoidal categories, we obtain interpretations for the cases when we deal with more numbers. the “divide et impera” algorithm for finding the maximum/minimum (or the greatest common divisor/least common multiple) of a sequence of numbers could be related to yang–baxter systems and to the gluing procedure from [ ]. . non-associative algebras and their unifications the main non-associative structures are lie algebras and jordan algebras. arguable less known, jordan algebras have applications in physics, differential geometry, ring geometries, quantum groups, analysis, biology, etc. (see [ , , ]). formulas ( ) and ( ) lead to the unification of associative algebras and lie (super-)algebras in the framework of yang–baxter structures (see [ , ]). for the invertible elements of a jordan algebra, one can associate a symmetric space and, after that, a yang–baxter operator. thus, the yang–baxter equation can be thought of as a unifying equation. another unification for these structures will be presented below. definition . . for the vector space v, let η : v ⊗v → v, η(a⊗b) = ab, be a linear map that satisfies: (ab)c + (bc)a + (ca)b = a(bc) + b(ca) + c(ab), ( ) (a b)a = a (ba), (ab)a = a(ba ), (ba )a = (ba)a , a (ab) = a(a b) ( ) ∀ a,b,c ∈ v . then, (v,η) is called a “ujla structure”. remark . . the ujla structures unify jordan algebras, lie algebras and (non-unital) associative algebras; results for ujla structures could be “decoded” in the properties of jordan algebras, lie algebras or (non-unital) associative algebras. this unification resembles the properties of quantum computers. axioms , remark . . the ujla structures unify in a natural manner the above-mentioned non-associative structures. thus, if (a, θ), where θ : a ⊗ a → a, θ(a ⊗ b) = ab, is a (non-unital) associative algebra, then we define (a, θ′), where θ′(a⊗ b) = αab + βba, for α, β ∈ k. if α = and β = , then (a, θ′) is a jordan algebra. if α = and β = − , then (a, θ′) is a lie algebra. if α = and β = , then (a, θ′) is the opposite algebra of (a, θ), and if α = and β = , then (a, θ′) is the algebra (a, θ). if we put no restrictions on α and β, then (v, θ) is a ujla structure. theorem . . for v a k-space, f : v → k a k-map, α, β ∈ k, and e ∈ v , such that f(e) = , the following structures can be associated: (i) (v,m,e), a unital associative algebra, where m(v ⊗w) = f(v)w + vf(w) −f(v)f(w)e; (ii) (v, [, ]), a lie algebra, where [v, w] = f(v)w −vf(w); (iii) (v, µ), a jordan algebra, where µ(v ⊗w) = f(v)w + vf(w); (iv) (v,mα,β), a ujla structure, where mα,β(v ⊗w) = αf(v)w + βvf(w). proof. (i) the proof is direct. we denote by “ · ” the operation m, in order to simplify our presentation. we observe that “ · ” is commutative. we first prove that e is the unity of our algebra: x · e = f(x)e + f(e)x−f(e)f(x)e = x = e ·x. next, we prove the associativity of “ · ”: (x · y) · z = f(x)f(y)z + f(x)f(z)y − f(x)f(y)f(z)e + f(x)f(y)z + xf(y)f(z) −f(x)f(y)f(z)e−f(x)f(y)z; x · (y ·z) = f(x)f(y)z + f(x)yf(z) −f(x)f(y)f(z)e + xf(y)f(z) −f(x)f(y)f(z)e. it follows that (x ·y) ·z = x · (y ·z). (ii) in this case (x ·y) ·z = f(x)f(z)y −f(y)f(z)x; (y ·z) ·x = f(y)f(x)z −f(z)f(x)y; (z ·x) ·y = f(z)f(y)x−f(x)f(y)z. the jacobi identity is verified. we leave cases (iii) and (iv) to be proven by the reader. � remark . . the above theorem produces new examples of non-associative structures, and it finds common information encapsulated in these non-associative structures. theorem . . let (v,η) be a ujla structure, and α, β ∈ k. then, (v,η′), η′(a⊗ b) = αab + βba is a ujla structure. remark . . the classification of ujla structures is an open problem, and it is more difficult than the problem of classifying associative algebras (which is an open problem for higher dimensions). theorem . . let v be a vector space over the field k, and p,q ∈ k. for f,g : v → v , we define m(f ⊗g) = f ∗g = f ∗p,q g = pf ◦g + qg ◦f : v → v . then: (i) (endk(v ), ∗p,q) is a ujla structure ∀p,q ∈ k. (ii) for φ : endk(v ) → endk(v ⊗v ) a morphism of ujla structures (i.e., φ(f∗g) = φ(f)∗φ(g) ), w = {f : v → v |f ◦m = m ◦φ(f)} is a sub-ujla structure of the structure defined in (i). in other words, f ∗g ∈ w, ∀f,g ∈ w . axioms , . conclusions and further implications surveying topics from abstract algebra to computational methods and from computer science to number theory, the current paper relates these subjects by unifying theories and the celebrated yang–baxter equation. we present new results (theorems . , . , . , . , . and . ), and we propose several open problems and new interpretations. unifying the main non-associative structures, the ujla structures are structures that resemble the properties of quantum computers. quantum computers could help in solving hard problems in number theory and optimization theory, because they have large computational power. for example, such a computer could use shor’s algorithm to break the algorithms’ encryption. from some solutions of the yang–baxter equation, one could construct abstract universal gates from quantum computing. we explained how this equation is related to computer programming; we studied problems about transcendental numbers; and we used computational methods in order to solve problems related to these topics. related to equation ( ), there is a long-standing open problem. the following system of equations, obtained in [ ] and extended in [ ], is not completely classified: (β(v,w) −γ(v,w))(α(u,v)β(u,w) −α(u,w)β(u,v)) +(α(u,v) −γ(u,v))(α(v,w)β(u,w) −α(u,w)β(v,w)) = ( ) β(v,w)(β(u,v) −γ(u,v))(α(u,w) −γ(u,w)) +(α(v,w) −γ(v,w))(β(u,w)γ(u,v) −β(u,v)γ(u,w)) = ( ) α(u,v)β(v,w)(α(u,w) −γ(u,w)) + α(v,w)γ(u,w)(γ(u,v) −α(u,v)) +γ(v,w)(α(u,v)γ(u,w) −α(u,w)γ(u,v)) = ( ) α(u,v)β(v,w)(β(u,w) −γ(u,w)) + β(v,w)γ(u,w)(γ(u,v) −β(u,v)) +γ(v,w)(β(u,v)γ(u,w) −β(u,w)γ(u,v)) = ( ) α(u,v)(α(v,w) −γ(v,w))(β(u,w) −γ(u,w)) +(β(u,v) −γ(u,v))(α(u,w)γ(v,w) −α(v,w)γ(u,w)) = ( ) from the transdisciplinary (see [ , ]) point of view and 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. muftah, m.a.; albagul, a.m.; faraj, a.m. automatic paint mixing process using labview. available online: http://inase.org/library/ /books/bypaper/mcsi/mcsi- .pdf (accessed on october ). . adjeroh, d.; nan, f. suffix-sorting via shannon-fano-elias codes. algorithms, , , – . . iordanescu, r. jordan structures in geometry and physics with an appendix on jordan structures in analysis; editura academiei publishing house: bucharest, romania, . . iordanescu, r. romanian contributions to the study of jordan structures and their applications. mitt. humboldt clubs rum. , , – . . iordanescu, r. the associativity in present mathematics and present physics. in on form and patern; vasilescu, c., ed.; editura academiei publishing house: bucharest, romania, ; pp. – . . nichita, f.f. lie algebras and yang–baxter equations. bull. transilvania univ. brasov. ser. iii math. infor. phys. , , – . . nicolescu, b. manifesto of transdisciplinarity; state university of new york (suny) press: new york, ny, usa, . . nichita, f.f. on models for transdisciplinarity. transdiscipl. j. eng. sci. , , . c© by the author; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). 	introduction 	yang–baxter equations 	the set-theoretical yang–baxter equation 	transcendental numbers and applications 	the yang–baxter equations in informatics 	non-associative algebras and their unifications 	conclusions and further implications dnaism: exploring genomic datasets on the web with horizon charts. rio deiros et al. bmc bioinformatics ( ) : doi . /s - - - software open access dnaism: exploring genomic datasets on the web with horizon charts david rio deiros *, richard a. gibbs , and jeffrey rogers , abstract background: computational biologists daily face the need to explore massive amounts of genomic data. new visualization techniques can help researchers navigate and understand these big data. horizon charts are a relatively new visualization method that, under the right circumstances, maximizes data density without losing graphical perception. results: horizon charts have been successfully applied to understand multi-metric time series data. we have adapted an existing javascript library (cubism) that implements horizon charts for the time series domain so that it works effectively with genomic datasets. we call this new library dnaism. conclusions: horizon charts can be an effective visual tool to explore complex and large genomic datasets. researchers can use our library to leverage these techniques to extract additional insights from their own datasets. keywords: bioinformatics, genomics, sequencing, javascript, web, visualization background sharing and communicating about large and intricate datasets produced by high throughput sequencing can be a challenging task. visual channels are an effective way to explore data. however, the accelerating increase in data quantity is pushing the limits of current approaches for representing these datasets visually without sacrific- ing accuracy or graphical perception. overall data volume is growing: both the amount of data per study and the number of subjects. thus, more effective visualization techniques are needed to understand the most challenging genomic sequencing datasets. horizon charts [ , ] have proved to be an effective [ ] visualization approach when working with multi-metric time series encoded data. in high throughput sequencing, bed format files are extremely widely-used for captur- ing values associated with genomic coordinates. in time series, metrics are monitored over time, however, bed files use genomic coordinates. we have adapted a time series javascript library to the genomic domain. we call our new library dnaism. *correspondence: driodeiros@gmail.com human genome sequencing center, baylor college of medicine, one baylor plaza, houston, usa full list of author information is available at the end of the article state of the art we are not aware of any implementation of horizon charts within the domain of genomics research or clinical genetics. in the context of web-based genome browsers [ , ], these tools use traditional line charts (http://goo. gl/krtmsj) to visually represent the variables of interest [additional file : figure s ]. for cases (rather common) in which the number of variables we are interested in is high, the effectiveness of this traditional mechanism declines significantly, forcing the user to load or display multi- ple tracks on different pages. horizon charts will help researchers deal with this common task and scenario, as the visual technique minimizes the visual space necessary to view large amounts of data without losing graphical perception fig. . future development and enhancement of genome browsers should see horizon charts as one flexible and efficient answer to the challenges faced when displaying large amounts of data. in the appropriate circumstances, this approach will provide significant benefits to browser developers. greater effectiveness in the display of data will in turn help researchers explore that information more efficiently and conveniently. © rio deiros et al. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - -x&domain=pdf mailto: driodeiros@gmail.com http://goo.gl/krtmsj http://goo.gl/krtmsj http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / rio deiros et al. bmc bioinformatics ( ) : page of fig. horizon charts emerge from applying a set of changes to traditional line graphs (a). we start by coloring the underlying area of the line graph, using different hues for positive and negative values. next, we divide the graph into bands and apply a gradient of color that increases along with the quantitative value of the variable we are investigating (b). in the next step, negative values are flipped over the baseline (c), effectively reducing the required vertical space by two fold. in a final step, bands are collapsed making all of them start at the baseline and providing another level of space reduction (d). we used this technique to rapidly identify problematic samples when performing quality control on large scale sequencing results. you can see the read depth across whole genome sequences from rhesus macaque samples ( x coverage) for genomic region chr : . m- . m (e). there are regions consistently underrepresented across all the samples and sample has low coverage across the whole genomic region. note that the variable we are exploring in this example, read depth, does not contain negative values. therefore, only green hues appear in (e) implementation contrary to time series data, in genomic datasets, the variable under study (x-axis) is associated with chromoso- mal coordinates instead of timestamps. we have modified an existing time series data visualization library (based on d [ ]) called cubism to support genome coordinate data. this makes dnaism a flexible and effective tool to explore multi-sample genomic datasets using horizon charts. to visualize genomic datasets, we have modified most of the software components of the original cubism library (http://drio.github.io/dnaism). the two major compo- nents are ‘context’ and ‘source’. the ‘context’ component performs several functions. most importantly, it defines the region of the genome we want to explore. this compo- nent also specifies, in pixels, how much vertical space we have available for the visualization. the ‘source’ compo- nent parses the genomic raw data and generates the data points necessary for visualization. our library provides two sources: ‘bedfile’ and ‘bedserver’. once the sources are created we can use the metric component to instantiate metrics associated with specific samples. finally, the hori- zon component encapsulates the functionality necessary to create the visual elements. one of the crucial features of dnaism is the ability to efficiently parse and load the genomic data for visualiza- tion. we have provided two alternatives via the bedfile and the bedserver sources. a bedfile is a simple solu- tion that loads all the genomic information in memory and returns the relevant data when queried. however, this approach is not adequate for larger datasets, espe- cially those involving multi-sample data. to handle such cases, the bedserver source can be used. a bedserver is a dedicated server that implements a restful api interface. the client’s code running in the browser can send queries to this server to obtain the data of inter- est. the server uses pre-indexed [ ] data to speed up random access and returns only the necessary informa- tion for the visualization back to the client. hence, this approach becomes much more scalable even with large sized genomic data sets. we have implemented bedserver as a python package (https://github.com/drio/bedserver) although we expect users will create their own sources and backends to interact with the specific details of their environments. the source code of our library (and the original cubism) has a decoupled interface that facilitates the extension of this library to new data sources. dnaism is data agnostic. as a result, users can create new sources to capture their specific backend peculiarities. reproducibility we consider in this section the two main aspects of repro- ducibility: first the ability of the software to generate the same results given the same input sets, and second the requirements for our users to install and use our software, that is the ability of new users to reproduce and exploit the capabilities we intend. http://drio.github.io/dnaism https://github.com/drio/bedserver rio deiros et al. bmc bioinformatics ( ) : page of the main goals of our library are to visually encode data points that capture the value of some variable under study for a series of genomic locations and to display those values on a computer screen. this makes valida- tion rather simple. we can inspect a small area of the genome and check the actual data points displayed against our input files. once the interesting patterns and behav- ior are discovered in the datasets, the user can proceed to manually confirm the results by looking back at the raw data. since our contribution is released as a library, the user must write some minimal code to interact with the library. this additional user-provided code is small but requires a basic understanding of the technologies that are used within the web ecosystem: html, css and javascript. in addition, since the library relies on d js for render- ing, an understanding of this technology is necessary [ ]. that being said, the examples and interface docu- mentation should help users to start using the library quickly. once they are familiar with the examples, they can spend a bit of time exploring further into the details of how the code translates in pixel rendering, although that is not necessary to fully exploit the benefits of dnaism. there is no installation required since this is a javascript library. the library code is included within the web appli- cation that uses dnaism and the functionality is exposed via an object in the first level namespace object called dnaism. results and discussion the main function of dnaism is to expose the power of horizon charts while abstracting the inner details. expos- ing the functionality as a library provides flexibility to the user to allow them to incorporate these visualiza- tion techniques within their projects. we believe that this technology is ideal for developing visualizations that will help the community to better understand their genomic datasets. we are not aware of any other tools that use horizon charts to explore the genomic data. the library is intended for exploring genomic data. it is ideal for aiding quality control on genomic datasets by visualizing different encoded metrics, typically in bed format. in the future, we will be adding new sources to allow the users to load data from different types of backend ser- vices. we want to extend the library to make it easier to use, especially for the users that are not well-versed with web ecosystem. conclusion we introduce a powerful visualization technique previ- ously used in the time series data domain. this visual tool facilitates the identification of similarities or abnormali- ties in patterns across multi-sample datasets. in addition, this approach helps to explore and visualize high density datasets more effectively, thereby helping the researchers to understand their data more easily. our library keeps the effective and elegant interface of the original, while allowing users to leverage its power for genomic data. by providing a library, we maintain flexi- bility regarding how researchers can use these resources. users can build full applications or use the library within their existing ones. the companion lightweight server will facilitate the exploration of large genomic datasets without affecting user experience, by using indexed datasets. alternatively, users can create their own data sources to reflect the details of their own environments. availability and requirements project name: dnaism. project home page: http://drio.github.io/dnaism (main site). source code: https://github.com/drio/dnaism. operating system(s): platform independent. programming language: javascript. other requirements: modern browser. license: apache . . additional file additional file : figure s . ucsc genome browser displaying multiple tracks. (kb pdf) competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions drd conceptualized, designed and implemented the modifications of the original library and drafted the manuscript. jr provided input regarding user applications and edited the manuscript. all authors contributed in discussions and approved the final draft of the manuscript. acknowledgements we want to thank mike bostock for his remarkable contributions both with d and cubism. the authors also thank muthuswamy raveendran, r., alan harris and gloria fawcett for helpful comments. this work was supported by nih grant u -hg to rag. author details human genome sequencing center, baylor college of medicine, one baylor plaza, houston, usa. department of molecular and human genetics, baylor college of medicine, one baylor plaza, houston, usa. received: march accepted: january references . few s. time on the horizon. visual business intelligence newsletter. . http://www.perceptualedge.com/articles/visual_business_intelligence/ time_on_the_horizon.pdf. . saito t, miyamura hn, yamamoto m, saito h, hoshiya y, kaseda t. two-tone pseudo coloring: compact visualization for one-dimensional http://drio.github.io/dnaism https://github.com/drio/dnaism http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.perceptualedge.com/articles/visual_business_intelligence/time_on_the_horizon.pdf http://www.perceptualedge.com/articles/visual_business_intelligence/time_on_the_horizon.pdf rio deiros et al. bmc bioinformatics ( ) : page of data. in: proceedings of the proceedings of the ieee symposium on information visualization. infovis ’ . washington, dc, usa: ieee computer society; . p. . http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/ abstractauthors.jsp?arnumber= . . heer j, kong n, agrawala m. sizing the horizon: the effects of chart size and layering on the graphical perception of time series visualizations. in: proceedings of the sigchi conference on human factors in computing systems. association for computing machinery; . p. – . . wang j, kong l, gao g, luo j. a brief introduction to web-based genome browsers. brief bioinformatics. ; ( ): – . . kuhn rm, haussler d, kent wj. the ucsc genome browser and associated tools. brief bioinformatics. ; :bbs . . bostock m, ogievetsky v, heer j. d data-driven documents. ieee trans vis comput graph. ; ( ): – . . li h. tabix: fast retrieval of sequence features from generic tab-delimited files. bioinformatics. ; ( ): – . . wang r, perez-riverol y, hermjakob h, vizcaíno ja. open source libraries and frameworks for biological data visualisation: a guide for developers. proteomics. ; ( ): – . • we accept pre-submission inquiries • our selector tool helps you to find the most relevant journal • we provide round the clock customer support • convenient online submission • thorough peer review • inclusion in pubmed and all major indexing services • maximum visibility for your research submit your manuscript at www.biomedcentral.com/submit submit your next manuscript to biomed central and we will help you at every step: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/abstractauthors.jsp?arnumber= http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/abstractauthors.jsp?arnumber= 	abstract 	background 	results 	conclusions 	keywords 	background 	state of the art 	implementation 	reproducibility 	results and discussion 	conclusion 	availability and requirements 	additional file 	additional file 	competing interests 	authors' contributions 	acknowledgements 	author details 	references cubist.dvi ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month cubist style rendering from photographs j. p. collomosse and p. m. hall abstract— the contribution of this paper is a novel non- photorealistic rendering (npr) technique, influenced by the style of cubist art. specifically we are motivated by artists such as picasso and braque, who produced art work by composing elements of a scene taken from multiple points of view; para- doxically such compositions convey a sense of motion without assuming temporal dependence between views. our method ac- cepts a set of two-dimensional images as input, and produces a cubist style painting with minimal user interaction. we use salient features identified within the image set, such as eyes, noses and mouths as compositional elements; we believe the use of such features to be a unique contribution to npr. before composing features into a final image we geometrically distort them to produce the more angular forms common in cubist art. finally we render the composition to give a painterly effect, us- ing an automatic algorithm. this paper describes our method, illustrating the application of our algorithm with a gallery of images. we conclude with a critical appraisal and suggest the use of “high-level” features is of interest to npr. keywords— non-photorealistic rendering, cubism, salient features. i. introduction we present a novel method of non-photorealistic render- ing (npr), which draws upon techniques from both the graphics and the vision communities to produce stylised compositions reminiscent of cubist art. we are influenced by artists such as picasso and braque, who produced art work by composing elements of a scene taken from multi- ple points of view. paradoxically the cubist style conveys a sense of motion without assuming temporal dependence between views. our motivation is to render motion from two- dimensional ( d) images, such as photographs. the cubist approach is especially interesting, as it requires the iden- tification of salient features within images to produce an abstract composition. by salient feature we mean an im- age region containing an object of interest, such as an eye or nose; a composition made from elements of low salience would tend to be uninteresting. to the best of our knowl- edge, “high level” salient features have not been used pre- viously to produce non-photorealistic renderings. an at- tempt to emulate cubist art provides a useful contribution to npr, not only because it produces pleasing renderings, but also because it forces us to study salience, with poten- tially wider benefits. we therefore set out to investigate whether aesthetically pleasing art, reminiscent of the cubist style, could be syn- thesised. specifically we were interested in achieving a suit- ably high degree of automation. we considered the follow- ing specific questions: j. p. collomosse and p. m. hall are with the department of com- puter science, university of bath, bath, england. email: {jpc | pmh}@cs.bath.ac.uk • how is salience to be defined so that it operates over a wide class of input images? • how should salient features be selected from amongst many images, and how should the selected features be com- posed into a single image? • how should the angular geometry common in cubist art be reproduced? • how should the final composition be rendered to produce a painted appearance? resolution of the first two questions provides the basic mechanism by which a cubist-like image can be formed; resolution of latter two questions enhances aesthetic qual- ity. our method accepts one or more d images as input. salient features within each image are then identified us- ing statistical analysis. this can produce disconnected features, which requires correction; in our case by mini- mal user interaction. these features are geometrically dis- torted. a subset is then selected and composited, ensuring that non-selected features do not inadvertently appear in the final composition – näive composition allows this to happen. the composition process is stochastic, and a new image may be produced on each new run of the method. in rendering a painting from the final composition our paint- ing algorithm treats brush strokes in a novel way, so that salient features are not obscured. the remainder of the paper is organised as follows. in the next section we explain our research in the context of related literature. we then give a detailed explanation of our algorithm in section iii, illustrating our approach with a gallery of images in section iv. we conclude the paper in section v with a critical appraisal, and discuss the di- rection of future work. ii. related work non-photorealistic rendering (npr) is an area of increas- ing interest within the field of computer graphics, and many techniques have been developed to render both d and d source data for the purposes of both aesthetics and visual- isation. we restrict our attention to the subset of methods developed to synthesise drawing and painting techniques, which we refer to as “artificial drawing” [ ]. many artificial drawing techniques exist, capable of emu- lating a wide variety of artistic media such as ‘pen-and-ink’, charcoal, and paint. we briefly summarise the field in or- der to illustrate the context of our work, and direct the ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month reader to a number of more detailed literature surveys [ ], [ ], including a siggraph course [ ], and a more recent text [ ]. the majority of early artificial drawing techniques con- centrate upon the simulation of traditional artistic media. pen-and-ink is perhaps the most thoroughly researched, and a number of methods have been proposed that allow the interactive rendering of surfaces through hatching [ ], [ ], [ ], texturing [ ], and stippling [ ]. techniques for the interactive illustration of both d surfaces [ ], [ ], [ ] and d canvas [ ], [ ] have been developed; other systems allow the virtual engraving and sculpture of more exotic media such as wood [ ]. physical simulations of sticky paint [ ], watercolour washes and glazes [ ], and a variety of artists brushes [ ], [ ], [ ] have been used to create impressive artwork in interactive digital environ- ments. whilst painting is of interest to us when rendering the final composition, we are more concerned with the for- mation of novel images through composition of features. a multitude of methods have more recently been de- veloped to automate the placement of hatches [ ], [ ] and strokes [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]. these contrast with ear- lier work such as that of haeberli [ ], whose paint sys- tems allowed a user to, for example, interactively generate impressionist style “paintings” through a labour intensive process. in a similar fashion, sketch rendering systems were initially developed as interactive tools [ ] but were later ad- vanced toward greater automation [ ], [ ]; some methods are now capable of rendering in real-time [ ], [ ]. many techniques address automation through implementation of simplified artistic heuristics, basing decisions upon image processing operations. most of such systems are guided by local edge information [ ], [ ], or local statistical mea- sures such as variance [ ]. in some systems interaction is augmented by automation [ ], [ ]. our method also relies on a combination of user interaction and vision techniques to assist the rendering process, but bases decisions upon the global ’salience’, or importance, of image pixels as well as using gradient criteria. the techniques described all share the similarity that they are concerned with emulating the use of artistic me- dia such as canvas or brush, to create a natural or ‘hand- painted’ effect; in an image processing sense, they operate at a low level. we argue that a higher level of abstraction is necessary to synthesise the compositions common in cu- bism. in our research we address the issue of media, but distinguish between the synthesis of a cubist-style compo- sition and the rendering of that composition. we concen- trate upon the emulation of a style rather than an artistic medium, using the high level salient features within an im- age. in particular, we are concerned with the construction of novel image through composition of high-level features, rather than the rendering of an existing photograph with, for example, painted strokes. whilst there has been significant development of artifi- cial drawing methods, the majority of these are concerned with rendering static scenes. litwinowicz [ ], and later hertzmann [ ], extended haeberli’s work [ ] to produce temporally coherent animations – treating each frame as a separate rendering, but preserving stroke information to enhance temporal coherence. our aim is different; to render motion in a single two-dimensional image. stro- hotte approaches this issue using streak-lines and similar marks [ ]. we approach the problem from the point of view of cubism; using angular forms and multiple view- point composition to convey a sense of time and motion in our work [ ]. the portrayal of motion in an abstract manner is cur- rently under-studied. an empirical study [ ] suggests that superimposing several frames of animation at specific in- tervals can affect perception of time. a set of interactive tools [ ] recently proposed by klein et al allows a user to paint with ‘stroke-solids’ to produce npr video; this in- teractive system can yield output ostensibly similar to ear- lier stages of our work, but differs greatly in both level of interaction and abstraction (we construct compositions us- ing identified high-level features rather that allowing a user to interactively subdivide blocks of video). the literature remains sparse concerning techniques for two-dimensional rendering of motion, and the synthesis of abstract artistic styles. iii. cubist style images from photographs in this section we present our rendering algorithm. our method accepts a set of d source images, and produces a single d image rendered in the cubist style. we initially register all source images so that objects of interest, such as faces, fall upon one another when we com- posit. we threshold upon colour to partition foreground from background, and translate images so that first mo- ments of foreground are coincident. finally we clip the im- ages to a uniform width and height. this step creates cor- respondence between source images on a one-to-one basis: pixels at the same (i,j) location in any image correspond. the remaining algorithm stages are of greater interest, and we describe each of them in turn in the following subsec- tions. a. identifying salient features we wish to find a set of salient features amongst the registered images. these images should be unrestricted in terms of their subject (for example, a face or guitar). in addition, we want our salient features to be relatively “high-level”, that is they correspond to recognisable ob- jects, such as noses or eyes. this implies we need a defini- tion of salience that is both general and powerful; such a definition does not currently exist in the computer vision literature, or elsewhere. however, we can make progress by choosing a definition of salience that is sufficiently general ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month for our needs, and allow user interaction to provide power where it is needed. we locate salient features within a single image by mod- ifying a technique due to walker et al [ ], who observe that salient pixels are uncommon in an image. the basic technique is to model the statistical distribution of a set of measures associated with each pixel, and to isolate the outliers of this distribution. the pixels corresponding to these outliers are regarded as salient. to compute these measures, ~x, over each pixel we convolve the image with a set of origin-centred d gaussian derivative filters. specifically we use first and second order directional derivatives: ∂g(x,y; σ)/∂x, ∂g(x,y; σ)/∂y, ∂ g(x,y; σ)/∂x , ∂ g(x,y; σ)/∂y , and ∂ g(x,y; σ)/∂x∂y. these filters smooth the image be- fore computing the derivative; they respond well to edge and other signals of characteristic scale σ, but as figure shows, our method is more general than edge detection. we filter using octave intervals of σ, as such intervals contain approximately equal spectral power. in our implementa- tion we use σ values of , , and ; thus with each pixel we associate a vector ~x of = × components. for an image of m pixels we will have m vectors ~x ∈ <n, where for us n = . we assume these points are gaussian dis- tributed, which we represent using an eigenmodel [ ]; a simple and convenient model that works acceptably well in practice. the eigenmodel provides a sample mean µ; a set of eigenvectors each a column in orthonormal matrix u; each eigenvector has a corresponding eigenvalue along the diagonal of Λ. an eigenmodel allows us to compute the squared mahalanobis distance of any point ~x ∈<n: d (~x) = (~x−µ)tuΛut (~x−µ) ( ) the mahalanobis distance provides a convenient way of deciding which sample points are salient; we use a simple threshold, d (~x) > , empirically chosen to give reasonable results. notice that because we look for statistical outliers we can record pixels in flat regions as being salient, if such regions are rare; a more general method than using vari- ance magnitude [ ]. in practice salient pixels tend to form spatially coher- ent clusters, which tend to be associated with interesting objects in the image, including conceptually high level fea- tures such as eyes (figure ). however, our method is gen- eral purpose, and therefore has no specific model of eyes, or indeed or any other high level feature. it is therefore not surprising that what a human regards as a salient feature may be represented by a set of disconnected salient clusters. given that the general segmentation problem, including perceptual grouping, remains unsolved we have two choices: either to specialise the detection of salient regions to spe- cific classes of source images, such as faces or houses; or to allow the user to group the clusters into features. we adopt the latter approach for its power and simplicity: powerful fig. . top: an illusory circle, edge detected, and salience mapped; showing salience mapping can “pick out” the circle where edge de- tection fails. middle: a typical source image (left) and corresponding salience map (right); lighter pixels are more salient. below: the dif- ferential convolution kernels, at one σ value, used to create measures ~x. because we rely on human vision, and simple not only to implement but also to use. we allow the user to point to clusters in order to group them, and compute the convex hull [ ] of each group. we identify a salient feature as all pixels within the convex hull (each cluster is included in at most one feature, and a cluster need not be included in any feature). this mode of interaction is much simpler for the user than having to identify salient features from images ab initio; that is with no computer assistance. fea- ture grouping is also likely to be consistent between source images, because our salience measure provides an objective foundation to the grouping. the union of the salient features identified in each source image forms the set of salient features we require, which we call f. in addition to grouping clusters into features, the user may also label the features. these labels partition the set of all salient features f into equivalence classes, such as “eyes”, providing a useful degree of high-level informa- tion (these classes represent a simple model of the object in the picture). we make use of f, and associated equiva- lence classes, throughout the remaining three stages of our algorithm. b. geometric distortion we now wish to distort the identified features, in f, to produce the more angular forms common in cubist art. our approach is to construct a continuous vector field v over each source image, which is a sum of the contributions made by distorting the set of all features f ⊆f belonging to that image. that is, we define a vector-valued distortion function ~g : < → < , so that for every point u ∈ < , we ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month fig. . four stages of a geometric warp where α′ = . . from left to right: (a) the source and target superquadrics, fitted about a salient feature; (b) the continuous forward vector field; (c) the mesh of quadrilaterals (mapped pixel areas); (d) the final distorted image. have ~g(u) = u +v(u) where v (u) = ∑ φ∈f ~dφ (u) ( ) to define a particular distortion function ~dφ(.) we fit a superquadric about the perimeter of feature φ, then trans- form that fitted superquadric to another of differing order; thus specifying a distortion vector field ~dφ(< ). we now describe the details of this process. the superquadric class of functions may be represented in cartesian form by the equation (x a ) α + (y b ) α = r α ( ) where a and b are normalised constants (a + b = ) which influence the horizontal and vertical extent of the superquadric respectively, and r is an overall scaling fac- tor. we observe that ( ) reduces to the general equation for a closed elliptic curve when α = , toward a rectangular form as α → , and toward a four-pointed star as α →∞. we use a parametric form of ( ) determined by an angle θ about the origin, by which we correlate points on the perimeter of one superquadric with those on another. x = r cos θ ( |cos θ/a| α + |sin θ/b| α ) α ( ) y = r sin θ ( |cos θ/a| α + |sin θ/b| α ) α ( ) we calculate the distortion for a given feature by fitting a general superquadric of order α, and warping it to a tar- get superquadric of new order α′. features whose forms differ from this target superquadric are therefore distorted to a greater degree than features that already approximate its shape; thus each feature boundary converges toward the geometric form specified by α′. typically we choose α′ < to accentuate curves into sharp angles. the ini- tial superquadric is fitted about the bounding pixels of the feature using a -dimensional optimisation technique de- scribed by rosin [ ]. we find this method suitable for our purpose due to its relatively high tolerance to noise. recall the distortion function dφ(.); we wish to produce a displacement vector v for a given point u = (ux, uy). we first calculate the points of intersection of line ~ou and the two superquadric curves specified by α and α′, where o is the origin of both superquadrics (these origins are coincident). we derive the intersections by substituting a value for θ = atan(uy/ux) into equations ( ) and ( ). we denote these intersection points by β and β′ respectively (see figure ). the vector β′ −β describes the maximum distortion in direction θ. we scale this vector by passing the distance (in superquadric radii) of point u from the origin, through a non-linear transfer function t (.). so, for a single feature φ: dφ(u) = t ( |u − o| |β − o| ) (β′ −β) ( ) the ideal characteristics of t (x) are a rapid approach to unity as x → , and a slow convergence to zero as x →∞. the rise from zero at the origin to unity at the superquadric boundary maintains internal continuity, ensuring a topo- logically smooth mapping within the superquadric. con- vergence to zero beyond unit radius mitigates against no- ticeable distortion to surrounding areas of the image that do not constitute part of the feature. the poisson distri- bution function (equation ) is a suitable t , where Γ(.) is the gamma function [ ] and λ is a scaling constant. t (x) = λxe λ Γ(x) ( ) y x β β α feature o u α θ fig. . the fitted and target superquadrics, described by α and α′ respectively. intersection with line ~ou is calculated using angle θ. ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month recall from equation ( ) that we sum the individual vec- tor fields of each feature belonging to a specific source im- age, to construct the overall vector field for that image. with this field defined, we sample those points correspond- ing to the corners of every pixel in the source image, and so generate their new locations in a target image. this results in a mesh of quadrilaterals, such as that in fig- ure c. mapping each pixel area from the original bounded quadrilateral to the target bounded quadrilateral yields the distorted image. the distortion process is repeated for each source image, to produce a set of distorted images. at this stage we also warp the bounding polygon vertices of each feature, so that we can identify the distorted salient features f ′. for rea- sons of artistic acumen, we may wish to use different values of α′ for each equivalence class (as mentioned in section i). for example, we may wish to make eyes appear more an- gular, but leave ears to be rather more rounded. we draw attention to issues relating to the implementa- tion of our method; specifically that the feature distortion stage can be relatively expensive to compute. this bot- tleneck can be reduced by: (a) precomputing the transfer function t (.) at suitably small discrete intervals, and inter- polating between these at run-time; (b) using a fast but less accurate method of integrating distorted pixel areas such as bilinear interpolation. in both cases we observe that the spatial quantisation induced later by the painterly render- ing stage mitigates against any artifacts that may result. c. generation of composition we now describe the process by which the distorted salient features are selected from f′ and composited into a target image. specifically we wish to produce a compo- sition in which: • salient features are distributed evenly, and in similar pro- portion to the equivalence classes of the original image set. • features do not overlap each other. • the space between selected salient features is filled with some suitable non-salient texture. • non-salient regions are “broken up” adding interest to the composition, but without imposing structure that might divert the viewer’s gaze from salient regions. a subset of the distorted salient features f ′ are first selected via a stochastic process. these chosen features are then composited, and an intermediary composition pro- duced by colouring uncomposited pixels with some suitable non-salient texture. large, non-salient regions are then fragmented to produce the final composition. c. selection and composition we first describe the process by which a subset of dis- torted salient features in f′ are selected. we begin by as- sociating a scalar with every feature; specifically the area fig. . features selected from the set f′ via the stochastic process of section iii-c. (outlined in yellow). notice that the number of facial parts has a natural balance despite our method having no model of faces; yet we still allow two mouths to be included. pixels not yet composited are later coloured with some suitable non-salient texture. of the feature weighted by the fractional size of the equiva- lence class to which it belongs. we treat each scalar as an interval, and concatenate intervals to form a range. this range is then normalised to span the unit interval. we choose a random number from a uniform distribution over [ , ], which falls in a particular interval, and hence iden- tifies the corresponding feature. features of larger area from larger equivalence classes tend to be selected in pref- erence to others, which is a desirable bias in our stochastic process. the selected feature is removed from further con- sideration, and included in a set c, which is initially empty. this selected feature may intersect features in other im- ages, by which we mean at a least one pixel (i,j) in the selected feature may also be in some other feature in some other image (recall the registration process aligns pixels to correspond on a one-to-one basis). any features that in- tersect the selected feature are also removed from further consideration, but are not placed in the set c. this process is biased toward producing a set c contain- ing features whose equivalence classes are similar in pro- portion to the original source images. for example, if the original subject has two eyes and a nose, the algorithm will be biased toward producing a composition also containing two eyes and a nose, but deviation is possible, see figure . the second step of our process is concerned with the composition of the chosen features in c to produce the fi- nal image. we begin this step by copying all chosen fea- tures into a target plane, producing a result such as fig- ure . in order to complete the composition we must de- termine which image pixels have not yet been composited, and colour them with some suitable non-salient texture. an initial approach might be to compute a distance transform [ ] for each non-composited pixel, which deter- mines its distance to the nearest feature. the correspond- ing pixel in the distorted source image containing this near- est feature is used to colour the uncomposited pixel. this produces similar results to a voronoi diagram, except that we seed each voronoi segment with a region rather than a point. unfortunately this initial approach is unsatisfac- ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month - use pixels from image x - use pixels from x or y (arbitrary) - use pixels from image x - use pixels from x or y (arbitrary) - use pixels from image y - use pixels from image x - use pixels from image y - use pixels from image y - use pixels from image x a b c d e b - chosen feature from image y a - chosen feature from image x c,d,e - unchosen features from x or y. fig. . (a) potential intersections between features (top); (b) fi- nal compositions without (left) and with (right) the second stage of processing. tory: under some circumstances regions may be partially textured by unchosen salient features, and images such as figure b may result. to mitigate against partial mouths and similar unappealing artifacts requires greater sophisti- cation, which we introduce by performing a second set of intersection tests. we copy each of the unchosen features onto the image plane, and test for intersection with each of the chosen fea- tures c. if an unchosen feature u intersects with a chosen feature c, we say that ‘c holds influence over u’. uncho- sen features can not hold influence over other features. by examining all features, we build a matrix detailing which features hold influence over each other. if an unchosen fea- ture u is influenced by exactly one chosen feature c, we extend feature c to cover that influenced area. we fill this area by copying pixels from corresponding positions in the distorted image from which c originates. where an un- chosen feature is influenced by several chosen features, we arbitrarily choose one of these chosen features to extend over the unchosen one (figure a, region ). however, we do not encroach upon other chosen regions to do this – and it may be necessary to subdivide unchosen feature areas (figure a, regions , and ). only one case remains: when two unchosen features intersect, which are influenced by features from two or more differing source images (fig- ure a, region ). in this case we arbitrarily choose between those features, and copy pixels from the corresponding dis- torted source image in the manner discussed. we now perform the previously described distance trans- form procedure on those pixels not yet assigned, to produce our abstract composition. c. finer segmentation the composition produced at this stage (figure a, left) is often composed of pieces larger than those typically fig. . (a) composition after application of steps in section iii-c. exhibiting large non-salient segments (left) and a uniquely coloured finer segmentation (right) (b) results of finer segmentation and shad- ing of non-salient areas in the composition. found in the cubist paintings. we wish to further seg- ment non-salient regions to visually ’break up’ uninterest- ing parts of the image, whilst avoiding the imposition of a structure upon those areas. we initially form a binary mask of each non-salient seg- ment using information from the previous distance trans- form stage of section iii-c. , and calculate the area of each segment. we then average the area of the chosen salient features c, to produce a desired ’segment size’ for the composition. each non-salient segment is fragmented into n pieces, where n is the integer rounded ratio of that segment’s area to the desired segment size of the compo- sition. to perform the segmentation we produce a dense point cloud of random samples within the binary mask of each non-salient segment. expectation maximisation [ ] is used to fit n gaussians to this point cloud. we then calcu- late the gaussian centre to which each pixel within a given mask is closest; a voronoi diagram is thereby constructed, the boundaries of which subdivide the non-salient segment being processed into multiple non-salient fragments. each of the non-salient fragments must now be shaded to break up the composition. we choose a point, or ’epi- centre’ along each fragment’s boundary, and decrease the luminosity of pixels within that fragment proportional to their distance from the epicentre (see figure ). the re- sult is a modified intensity gradient across each fragment, simulating light cast over a fragment’s surface. ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month in practice it is desirable that no two adjacent fragments have an intensity gradient of similar direction imposed upon them; doing so induces a noticeable regular structure in non-salient areas, which can divert the viewer’s atten- tion from the more interesting salient features elsewhere in the composition. placement of the epicentre at a random location upon the boundary produces too broad a range of possible gradient directions, causing shading to appear as noise. we therefore restrict shading to a minimal set of directions, calculated in the following manner. a region adjacency graph [ ] is constructed over the en- tire composition; each non-salient fragment corresponds to a node in the graph with vertices connecting segments ad- jacent in the composition. we then assign a code or ‘colour’ to each node in the graph, such that two directly connected nodes do not share the same colour. graph colouring is well-studied problem in computer science, and an mini- mal colour solution is known to be np-hard to compute. we therefore use a heuristic based approximation which is guaranteed to return a colouring in p-time, but which may not be minimal in the number of colours used (see appendix for details). the result is that each fragment is assigned an integer coding in the interval [ , t], where t is the total number of colours used by our approximating algorithm to encode the graph. the result of one such colouring is visualised in fig- ure a. the epicentre of each fragment is placed at the intersection of the fragment’s boundary and a ray projected from the centroid of the fragment at angle θ from vertical (figure ), where θ is determined by: θ = π ( segment code t ) ( ) this expression guarantees placement of the epicentre at one of t finite radial positions about the boundary of the segment, as the segment coding is an integer value. the introduction of additional segmentation, and there- fore edge artifacts, into non-salient areas of the composition can have the undesired effect of diverting a viewer’s gaze from salient features present in the picture. we mitigate non−salient fragment (colour ) non−salient fragment (colour ) θ epicentre contours equidistant from epicentre θ epicentre θ template: fig. . the geometry of two adjacent non-salient fragments, and a single template determining the location of the epicentre within a fragment. the epicentre of a fragment of colour i lies at the intersec- tion of that fragment’s boundary and the ith template spoke. against this effect in two ways. first, we convolve the non- salient regions of the image with a low-pass filter kernel such as a gaussian. this has the effect of smoothing sharp edges between fragments, but conserving the more grad- ual intensity differential over each non-salient fragment’s surface. this also proves advantageous in that the jagged edges of lines partitioning fragments are smoothed. sec- ond, we use a variation upon histogram equalisation [ ] to boost contrast within the foreground of the composi- tion (determined during image registration), causing fea- tures such as eyes or noses to ’stand out’ from the soft- ened segmentation boundaries. specifically, we calculate the transfer function between the luminosities of the source and equalised compositions. for each pixel in the compo- sition we then interpolate between these luminosities pro- portional to that pixel’s salience; thus contrast is boosted in more salient areas of the composition. this produces a final composition such as that of fig- ure b. we draw attention to the fact that major segmen- tation lines (produced by the steps of section iii-c. ) and salient features remain unaffected by this final segmenta- tion of the composition. d. image rendering the final stage of our algorithm is concerned with creat- ing a painterly effect on the generated composition. we use a novel painting technique adapted from earlier work [ ], [ ], to which there are two sub-stages: colour quantising, and brush stroke generation. the latter sub-stage makes use of our salience measure to ensure that lower salience strokes, do not encroach upon higher salience regions. this mitigates against loss of detail in the final painting. the rendering process is both entirely automatic and determin- istic, deriving stroke parameters from the composition im- age to produce the painting. the colour quantising step should be performed prior to composition, but is described here to be alongside our other rendering components. we use variance minimisa- tion quantisation [ ], to reduce the colour depth of three independent areas within the image: the distorted salient features (f′); the foreground of each distorted image; and the background of each distorted image. distinction be- tween foreground and background is made by thresholding upon a simple characteristic property of the image, such as hue or intensity (as was performed during image registra- tion). our motivation to quantise follows the observation that an artist typically paints with a restricted palette, and often approximates colours as a feature of the cubist style [ ]. we allow a level of control over this effect by differentiating the level of quantisation over the various im- age components, and have found that heavy quantisation of the features and foreground, contrasted by a lesser de- gree of background quantisation can produce aesthetically pleasing effects. ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month at this stage we optionally introduce false colour to the image. artists such as braque and gris often painted in this manner, contrasting shades of brown or grey with yel- lows or blues to pick out image highlights. we use a look- up table based upon a transfer function, which generates a hue and saturation for a given intensity, calculated from the original input colour. typically we define this function by specifying several hue and saturation values at various intensities, and interpolate between these values to produce a spectrum of false colour to populate the look-up table. the second step of the rendering process concerns the generation of “painted” brush strokes. we use the compo- sition produced thus far as a reference image (in a man- ner similar to haeberli [ ]), and sample at regular spa- tial intervals to produce three dimensional brush strokes; inverted cones with superquadric cross-section. these strokes are shaded according to the reference image at the point of sampling. each stroke is z-buffered and the re- sult is projected orthogonally onto the ( d) image plane to generate the final image (figure a). there are seven parameters to each stroke; a, b, r, α (see equation ), colour j(c), orientation angle θ and height h. each of these parameters is automatically set. parame- ter α determines the form of the stroke, and is preset by the user. low values (< ) of α create cross-sections of a rectangular form, giving the image a chiselled effect, whilst higher values of α produce jagged brush styles. function j(c) transforms, or ‘jitters’, the stroke colour c by some small, uniformly distributed random quantity, limited by a user defined amplitude ². by increasing ², impressionist re- sults similar to haeberli’s [ ] can be produced, and some interesting effects can be created by blending the styles of cubism and impressionism. further brush styles can also be produced by texturing the base of each cone with an intensity displacement map, cut at a random position from a sheet of texture. in particular, we find that this process greatly enhances the natural, ‘hand-painted’ look of the re- sulting image. the remaining five stroke parameters (a, b, r, θ, and h) are calculated by an automated process which we now describe. stroke height h is proportional to image salience at the point of sampling. we use the technique explained in sec- tion iii-a to construct a salience map of the reference im- age. higher salience image pixels tend to correspond to the features and detail within the image, and so produce strokes of greater height that rise above the canopy of lower salience strokes in the z-buffer. in effect, the least salient strokes are laid down first, much as an artist might use a wash to generate wide expanses of colour in an image, and fill in the details later; the strokes are laid down in an implicit order. without this sensitivity to salience, the rendering procedure can obscure regions of high salience with strokes of lower salience, causing loss of detail (see figure b). salient region superquadric strokes z x h ra rb θ image plane stroke partially obscured fig. . (a) strokes take the form of inverted cones with superquadric cross-section, and are z-buffered (top) to produce the final image; (b) strokes applied with (left) and without (right) salience adaptation. we make the qualitative observation that salient detail is conserved with salience adaptation. we also derive gradient information from the reference image, by convolving the intensity image with a gaussian derivative of first order. the scale of the base of the cone r is set inversely proportional to the magnitude of the gra- dient. this causes small, definite strokes to be painted in the vicinity of image edges, corresponding to the detail in the image. larger strokes are used to shade non-edge ar- eas. again, this mimics the manner in which an artist may paint large strokes to colour areas, and sharply define the edges of an image. in many images such detailed areas also tend to be salient. hence our method tends to draw low, fat cones in regions of low salience, and tall, narrow cones in regions of high salience. stroke orientation θ is set using the gradient orientation, the larger axis of the superquadric being aligned tangen- tially. however in areas where the edge magnitude is low, orientation derived in this manner becomes less reliable. we therefore vary the eccentricity of the superquadric (a, b) in relation to magnitude of the edge gradient at the po- sition sampled. if the gradient is low, then a ≈ b, and orientation becomes less important as the superquadric is not greatly expressed in either horizontal or vertical direc- tions. where the edge gradient is high, then a > b and the superquadric stretches out along the edge. one emer- gent property of this approach is that strokes along an edge ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month fig. . a gallery of images illustrating the application of our rendering algorithm. tend to merge. this, combined with the colour quantisa- tion performed earlier, causes edge highlights to appear as though produced by fewer, longer strokes. this is typical of the manner in which an artist might manually render such highlights, and adds aesthetic quality to the image. iv. gallery of images we present the results of applying our algorithm to three image sets; a portrait, a guitar, and a nude. these subjects were popular choices for artists of the cubist period, and we use them to demonstrate the processes of composition, distortion, and painting respectively. the original source image sets were captured using a digital video camera, and are given in figure a. fig- ure b presents the results of processing the portrait images; salient features were the ears, eyes, nose and mouth. fig- ures b and b were created by successive runs of the algo- rithm, using identical distortion parameters; the stochastic nature of feature selection produces varying compositions in the same visual style. figure b demonstrates the con- sequence of relaxing the constraints which maintain propor- tion between equivalence classes during composition; equiv- alence classes are no longer proportionally represented. in figure b we demonstrate the results of applying the his- togram equalisation described in section iii-c. to the composition background. this can produce a sharper con- trast within salient areas of the background (such as the hair or jumper), and may be artistically preferable to some. ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month the nude has been rendered with minimal distortion; salient features were the eyes, nose, mouth, chest and arm. false colour has been introduced to figure c , using the complementary colours of blue and orange to contrast high- light and shadow. many abstract artists also make use of complementary colour pairs in this manner. finer frag- mentation of non-salient regions was not performed when generating this result. paintings produced from the guitar images are presented in figure d; salient features were the hole, neck, bridge and chair arms. figures d , d , and d are identical compositions rendered with different distortion and paint- ing parameters. the values of distortion parameter α′ for each of the renderings is . , , and respectively. notice how the hole in the guitar changes shape, from rectangular to star-like. by changing only these parameters, a varied range of styles are produced. the finer segmentation of non-salient regions was not performed on these renderings, to allow clear demonstration of distortion effects. v. discussion and conclusions we have shown that cubist-like art can be produced by computer, almost entirely automatically. input images are unrestricted in content, we have demonstrated our work with portraits, nudes, and still-life — chosen to reflect typ- ical subject matter of the cubists themselves. the compo- sition of each output image is stochastically decided, and so a potentially original rendering is possible with each new pass over the same input set. distortion and final painting is wholly deterministic, except for a “jitter” the amplitude of which can be set to zero. the thrust of our work was motivated by an artistic genre, rather than a particular technique. cubism was cho- sen because it forced us to think carefully about grouping and high-level feature composition, and allowed us to pro- duce novel images that depict motion in a still image, an area which is as yet under-researched. a wide variety of professional artists (from traditional painters to computer animators) judge our output to be of high aesthetic quality. indeed, some professional artists have advised us already on output, and are keen work on related future projects with us. such judgements are important, given the ab- sence of any specific ground truth. our definitions of salience and high-level features, are the key technical contributions. we correlate salience with rarity, which we have found to be general, but requires in- teraction for grouping. a more restrictive definition may remove the need for interaction, at the cost of general- ity. for example statistical cluster-based grouping might permit automatic segmentation of compact features, but cope poorly with elongated features. typically interactive grouping takes less than one minute of user time, and so we are content with our method for the time being at least. while our specific salience definition is new to computer graphics, others have recognised the value of some kind of importance measure [ ] within artificial drawing, and in this sense we continue a trend. our use of high-level features, by which we mean eyes, mouths (in general any identifiable object or sub-part of an object) is arguably more unique. the use of such high-level features is the sin- gle most important element of our work; without them we would not be able to produce our novel cubist-like com- positions, nor could we render preferentially. in this work ’preferential rendering’ means boosting the contrast of eye regions, for example, but it is easy to imagine other work in which preferential treatment of important areas is desir- able. specific elements of our method can no doubt be im- proved upon. whilst the algorithm may, in principal, han- dle an arbitrary number of source images, we assume that the foreground and background of those images have dis- tinct colour signatures allowing us to perform registration. although a more sophisticated registration method may be required for heavily cluttered scenes, we note that our salience measure is able to isolate objects of interest even in the presence of substantial clutter (figure ). salient features are currently selected for composition based upon a set of constraints, one of which ensures that features do not intersect. since the shape of features may change dur- ing geometric distortion, it follows that distortion must oc- cur prior to the selection stage. an interesting alternative might be to combine the distortion and selection stages; features could be distorted to conceal artifacts such as par- tial mouths (figure b) rather than colouring such artifacts with non-salient texture (as in section iii-c. ). we might seek to improve composition by enforcing straight-line boundaries between segments, as the cubists once did, whereas now they can appear curved. one way to do this would a linear discriminant analysis [ ], but the additional algorithmic complexity is unattractive to us. we could consider undertaking a compositional analysis in order to more aesthetically place our high level features, and progress yet further toward emulating cubism; we be- lieve such an analysis is a considerable challenge that is not necessary to demonstrate the synthesis of cubist-like renderings are possible. we might revisit the way in which we apply paint, so that it appears more in the tradition of a particular artist, but there is no compelling reason to fo- cus our work in such a way at this stage: the manipulation of high-level features is the only necessary step to produc- ing images that can be classified as “cubist” or, at least, “cubist influenced”. we believe that the most productive avenues for future research will not be in incremental re- finements that make our images tend ever closer toward traditional cubism, rather the best avenues to follow will be those exploring alternative uses for high-level features. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank nanomation ltd. for early discussions, and the anonymous reviewers for their ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month constructive comments. this work was supported by ep- src grant gr/m . references [ ] p. hall, “non-photorealistic rendering by q–mapping,” com- puter graphics forum, vol. , no. , pp. – , . 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[ ] g. j. chaitin, m. a. auslander, a. k. chandra, j. cocke, m. e. hopkins, and p. w. markstein, “register allocation via colour- ing,” computer languages, vol. , pp. – , . appendix we give details of the p-time approximation used to colour our region adjacency graph in section iii-c. the algorithm is guaranteed to return a graph where no two di- rectly connected nodes are assigned the same colour. the algorithm may use a greater total number of colours than the minimum possible solution. the algorithm trades ac- curacy for speed of execution; a precise solution is known to be np-hard. however, the heuristics implicit in this approximation have been empirically shown to guide the algorithm toward a close approximation to the minimum colouring. in our application, adjacency graphs are often encoded using eight or fewer colours. the algorithm origi- nates in machine-language compilation literature, where a limited set of registers are allocated to potential larger set of program variables using a graph colouring approach [ ]. require: graph g of n nodes denoted by gi [ ≤ i ≤ n] : integer maxcols ← n : integer mincols ← ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics, vol. xx, no. y, month : for totalcols = mincols to maxcols do : graph w ← g : ordered list l ←∅ : repeat : r ← index of node wr with greatest count of immediate neighbours, that count not exceeding totalcols− : if r = ∅ then : remove node r from graph w : add node r to list l : end if : until w == ∅‖r == ∅ : if w == ∅ then : define empty sets ci where [ ≤ i ≤ totalcols] : for idx = n to do : for i = to totalcols do : if gidx is not a direct neighbour of any nodes in ci then : ci ← ci ∪gidx : end if : end for : end for : end if : end for the algorithm terminates with all members of ci being assigned some colour i, such that two directly connected nodes do not share the same i. the algorithm operates by repeatedly ’loosening’ the graph; each iteration of the inner repeat loop eliminating the colourable node with high- est connectivity. this is the heuristic that guides the al- gorithm, and seems intuitively correct. were we to pursue the consequences of eliminating each node at each iteration of the inner repeat loop, one branch of the resulting deci- sion tree would terminate at a minimal solution. however this would produce a combinatorial search of all possible colourings. john collomosse received the b.sc. in computer science from the university of bath in , and is currently a doc- toral student at the same institution. his research focuses upon the applica- tion of computer vision to the prob- lem of image based non-photorealistic rendering. he is a student mem- ber of the bmva and eurographics uk. peter hall is a lecturer (assistant professor) in the department of com- puter science, university of bath, he was appointed in . his first degree is in physics with astrophysics; and his ph.d. is in scientific visualisation. concurrent with his ph.d. he worked in medical imaging. his interests in the vi- sual arts and in seeing combine to pro- duce research interests in the intersec- tion of computer vision and computer graphics. he holds subsidiary interests in computer learning using statistical methods, with special emphasis on incremental learning methods. current work includes on-line modelling walking motions, perceptually based texture classification, content based video indexing, and methods for learning to draw based on machine vision. . introduction architectural design starts from the conception of the architect’s thinking. it is completed through the representation by which it is materialized, and through the orderly unfolding of construction by which the subject is realized in reality. the process of accepting the subject in the design process is performed through the interactive relationship between representation and perception (hewitt, ). the represented subject is made into an image as it satisfies the particular criterion required by the era. the method of recognizing and representing space is determined by the method which the era believes to be right. in particular, the modern representation of space after the renaissance, represented by perspective method and analytical geometrical coordinate system took its place as the tradition of the modern western visual system and governed our senses as it became recognized as a scientific and rational visual system. after the modern era, representation method of different form than the perspective method which was the center of architectural visual representation noticeably appears during the two cultural transition periods in the th centur y. one of those was the beginning of modernism in the s and the other was when postmodernism substituted modernism in the s (goldschmidt and porter, ). modernists in the s made innovation in terms of the visual representation with collage, photographs, and abstract composition. with the influence of postmodernism in the s, architectural graphic images come to exist differently to modernism, in the form of depicting diversity and multifaceted- ness. in particular, in the formality of post-structuralism, the representation method developed more, focusing more on the interpretation and explanation on the design concept through images rather than proving the objective substantive considered important in traditional architectural drawing. the new architectural thinking of the s and s created a request for a new visual representation form. the avant-garde architects of the time created and experimented with their own unique drawing methods and making them into a series. such conceptual drawings were not generalized or mass produced, but were introduced internationally through architecture magazines or exhibitions (kipnis, ). starting from deconstructivist architecture exhibition at new york museum of modern art in , perfect acts of architecture exhibition of jointly planned by new york museum of modern art and waxner center for arts is focusing on the role of architectural drawing having cultural values as public art. the six drawing series drawn by rem koolhaas, peter eisenman, bernard tschumi, daniel ribeskind, and thom mayne presents a new architectural image by depicting complex expressions of various visual representation methods. this study seeks to analyze how the architect’s drawing method a study on the visual representation of design presented in ‘perfect acts of architecture’ exhibition of ho-jeong kim associate professor, department of architecture, dankook university, korea http://dx.doi.org/ . /aikar. . . . abstract throughout the history of architecture, sometimes the main focus of design was determined by a particular visual representation method, and other times a particular form of visual representation method was required by perception of a particular architectural issue or an architectural form or idea. that is why the visual representation method of architects becomes an important means of reading the flow of idea and thinking behind architecture. this study is an investigation on the relation between architectural thinking and visual representation method expressed through the conceptual drawings by avant-garde architects of the s and s, a period of the emergence of postmodernism. rather than proving the objective reality regarded important by traditional architectural drawing, attempts are made to express the design concept in which the project has its base. such interpretation and explanation regarding the concept become the main interest of the drawing. it is not that the architecture itself was not expressed in the contents, but it may not be the main subject of expression in the drawing. the value of architectural drawing recovers its value as an art work in itself, as a means of communication, and as an important conceptual tool in the design process. it can be seen that the visual representation method in postmodern architectural drawings is breaking free of the traditional objective depiction of matter and is changing and developing as a design tool of the architect. keywords: architectural design representation, visual representation method, conceptual drawing, postmodern visual culture architectural research, vol. , no. (june ). pp. - issn - corresponding author : ho-jeong kim, associate professor department of architecture, dankook university , jukjeon-ro, suji-gu, yongin-si, gyeonggi-do, - , korea tel: + e-mail: hojeong_kim@dankook.ac.kr ©copyright architectural institute of korea. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc/ . /) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ho-jeong kim changed with the method of recognizing architectural issues t hrough architectural drawings, t he most univers al form of representation method presenting architectural thinking. through the interpretation of the visual representation method of the new architectural design, the research is conducted to investigate the relation between architectural thinking and visual representation method with focus on the conceptual drawings presented in perfect acts of architecture exhibition curated by jeffry kipnis in . . changes in visual culture and visual representation of postmodernism in the cultural theory of postmodernism, form is seen not as a secondary derivative regarding the exterior substance but a more fundamental categor y. therefore culture is not represented by social reality and subject but rather emphasizes that social content is created by representation/symbols/culture (ryan, ). the attitude of postmodernism determines the form, representation and rhetoric, which act as the parameters of subject and material world, as the core area of theory and practice rather than metaphysical identity. it became the background to the attitude of recognizing the experimental exploration on the creative visual representation method of architectural design at an equivalent position as the design of the architecture itself. furthermore, in the culture of postmodernism, duplication of i mage s t h rou g h ma ss me d i a i s c onside re d a ge ne r a l i z e d phenomenon. jean baudrillard defines such generalized duplication as “simulation”. duplicated images are reproduced even without the original, and make “hyper-reality” which is a state of a spectacle more realistic than the reality. baudrillard points out the simulation and the hyper-reality made by the simulation as the characteristics of a postmodern society (baudrillard, ). photographs or i mage s are c ont i nuou sly and re p e ate d ly pro duc e d t h rou g h newspapers, advertisements, movies and tv to change the bodily recognition of the observer. the modern man comes to live in the relationship of images or symbols, depending on visual and senses. self-duplication, independence of images and the reality, which are characteristics of modern visual culture, come to take an important part of the discussion of postmodernism. discussion regarding visual images and their representation is philosophically connected to the post-constructivism. from the point of view of post-constructivists such as jacques derrida, michel foucault, and jean-francois lyotard, there is no objective approach arriving at the reality, the truth and the knowledge. therefore the problem of representation is merely a construct of humans. in particular, they criticize and deconstruct the concept of abs olutism in terms of phi los ophy. wit h regard to ar t t he y recognize the works as structuralized network of symbols rather than a privileged interest in the author (lee, ). the viewer may view the work differently to what the author intended it to be, and a pre dominant inter pre t ation forcing a p ar tic u l ar me t ho d of understanding is guarded against. such perception denies the attitude of representing matter in a particular method from a particular viewpoint in the visual system such as the perspective. in particular, the vanishing point of the perspective emphasizes the existence of the player which observes and judges the subject, and requires the existence of an absolute player as a prerequisite. on the other hand, multiple viewpoints and the deconstruction of the perspective composing the subject recognized by the player mean that centrality and uniformity are deconstructed. a ls o in terms of t he visual representation of architectural design, as an attempt to overcome t h e l i m i t o f m a i n l y perspective customar y v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t at i o n method of the past there comes to exist an effort t o s e e k f r e e d o m a n d expand the territor y of arch ite c tu r a l d r aw i ng using collage, axonometry, s up e r i mp o s it i o n , a n d juxtaposition. architects with interest in such conceptual drawing are architects such as james stirling and aldo rossi coming under the categor y of historicistic postmodernism and dealing with narrative contents in terms of memories, nostalgia and place regarding the past, and architects such as koolhaas, tschumi, eisenman, libeskind, and mayne who can be discussed on the discourse about post-constructivism (goldschmidt and porter, ). i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e economic recession in the s became a factor for causing the architects to seek experiment regarding v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t at i o n rather than construction of archite c ture. in t he e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e academia, architects come to face many influences of philosophy, cinematic t h e o r i e s , l i n g u i s t i c s , l it e r a r y c r it i c i s m a n d s o c i a l i d e o l o g i e s , and such environment caused the appearance of paper architecture, the product of conceptual thinking. architectural images which appeared in many magazines and exhibitions in the s and s realized the new role of images, and existed as part of the p ostmo dern culture and t hink ing which communicates with the public through mass media. such conceptual drawings come to appear as a means of revealing postmodern ideas, and develop into resistance against abstractness and functionalism of modernism. seen from the viewpoint of the existing architectural drawing, customary rules are not followed, the limits are experimented, and new suggestions are made regarding graphic means of architecture. he re, r at h e r t h an pro v i ng t h e o bj e c t i ve re a l it y re g ard e d important by traditional architectural drawing, attempts are made to express the design concept in which the project has its base. such interpretation and explanation regarding the concept figure . collage architecture , libeskind, figure . collage architecture, libeskind, a study on the visual representation of design presented in ‘perfect acts of architecture’ exhibition of become the main interest of the drawing. the value of architectural drawing recovers its value as an art work in itself, as a means of communication, and as an important conceptual tool in the design process. . characteristics of visual representation method of exhibition drawing . exodus, rem koolhaas, koolhaas, who received the influence of situationism in his youthful years, left experimental works such as berlin wall as architecture and exodus during his years at aa school in the early s. in these works and the city of captive glove of depicting the complex culture of manhattan, a collage of the abstract and the real f o r m s t h e m a i n . t h e axonometric drawings expressed in watercolor shown in the entries to design competitions in the late s to the early s inherit the aesthetics of constructivism and de stijl. exodus is composed of a total of pages of various methods including drawing, watercolor and collage. koolhaas reveals that this work is the criticism against the optimism of unrealistic architecture of the s and its naivete. the bird’s eye view perspective made of a collage which appears at the very beginning of exodus is of a composition very similar to the new new york drawing of super studio of italy announced in , and shows various appearances of the space surrounded by walls placed on a mega-structure and grid, in stark contrast to other parts of the city. although it is a suggestion regarding berlin, the collage uses parts of london, and in order to seek the metropolitan life, the center part of london was deleted. the mega-structure composed of a wall that cuts the city in half from the east to the west is named ‘the strip’, and the mega-structure is composed of ten squares all named differently. figure . exodus, koolhaas, in each page, text is also provided with the visual image to have the characteristics of a kind of a story board, and this also relates to the experience of koolhaas who worked as a journalist and a script writer. in turn, exodus is a metropolitan programmatic script regarding berlin, and it focuses on suggesting a new program for the city rather than a pursuit for architectural form (kipnis, ). in order to express such, it is composed in three new methods, which are satirical expression of traditional architectural drawing, various forms of collage using many different colors and images, and text or script form. as a pursuit of freedom in terms of architectural representation method, the collage, the storyboard and the script came to be more commonly used than in the past. . house , peter eisenman, eisenman's work is an application of the linguistic model of the linguist noam chomsky. chomsky l ays down t hat t he deep structure of language in cartesian linguistics enables the speaker to make limitless numbers of new sentences by utilizing limited vo c abu l ar y, and t hat what enables t his is transformationa l- generative grammar. eisenman, obtaining an inspiration from c h o m s k y ' s l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y, c a m e t o s e e k t h e d e s i r e f o r autonomous architecture free from the obligations of function, comfort and context (kipnis, ). in a series of residential house design starting from , he frees architectural elements such as walls, columns, and stairs from their original structural utility, converts them with a constant rule of creation and treats them as a sign. eisenman argues that such design focused on the process of metamorphosis may reduce the existence of the architect, therefore makes an autonomous and self-criticizing architecture. figure . house , eisenman, eisenman presents the process of design in the axonometric form, and his axonometric is not a fixed architectural representation which merely shows the inter-relationship of space, but becomes a sentence structure for a semantic factor and a continuous record showing the whole process of metamorphosis. the resulting product of design is not the initial image that the architect had for the work but a result of strict processes per stage. this is totally different to the traditional method of design by which the work develops towards the initially anticipated image, and the result of the work comes to an end when there is no more stage of design or when there is an end suggested by the direction accumulated by previous stages. in t he b o ok hous e of c ards which contains t he details of eisenman’s series of house projects, eisenman aligns different shape manipulations and results of morphosis by placing on the vertical figure . the city of captive glove, koolhaas, ho-jeong kim axis regular hexahedrons with the same volume in three different styles of cube (v ), four surfaces (p ), and lines (l ), placing on the horizontal axis a series of cubes (v ~v ) converted from the default regular hexahedron, and corresponding them like a matrix (eisenman, ). it appears as though the final design is selected from resulting products of various metamorphoses, and such attitude towards design shows an attitude close to serialism in terms of creation of design. . the manhattan transcript, bernard tschumi, - the architectural idea of tschumi has its basis in cinematic montage, and tschumi defines architecture as a ‘place to reveal an event’. the text and photographs which act as the narrator in the manhattan transcript exist as ‘foreshadow of the reality’ (tschmi, ). cinematic shooting techniques such as framing, sequencing, jump cut, and tracking shot, make the event, space and movement to permeate each other. tschumi's work which newly evaluates the role of architectural drawing aligns continuous scenes following the flow of time using a cinematic story board method. figure . the manhattan transcript, tschumi, - in the manhattan transcript, tschumi suggests that architecture exists in the overlap of three separated states of space (composition of physical space), movement (movement of the body in the space), and event (program, function, use). the content of the script is a narration of an event which could happen in manhattan. episode : ‘the park’ reveals a murder at central park, episode : ‘the street’ records the movement of a person who wanders through a violent and sexual event at nd street, episode : ‘the tower’ depicts a twisting and turning fall from a high-rise building in manhattan, and episode : ‘the block’ describes five events which happen in different courtyards in a block in the city central. each episode composes of three parts of photograph, traditional arch ite c tu r a l pl an , and mot i on d i a g r am . wh i l e e x pre ss i ng event, space and movement, the three factors of architecture are arranged in a row and the new relationships between them were investigated. the method such that the photograph expresses the event, the architectural plan the space, and the motion diagram the movement is equally used in the entirety of the manhattan transcript, although there are varying levels of size and complexity. here, the transcript interprets reality in an architectural way, thus although it is also expressed in drawings, it does not present or express re ality. howe ver it do es exist as a to ol to re ve al t he combined character of space and event, movement and event. tschumi suggests that the meaning of architecture lies not in its wholeness and integration but in a subjective alignment of many non-continuous events. the exploration on architectural s e qu e n c e t h rou g h the manhattan transcript is expressed in methods such as movement, insertion, and c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d c o m e s t o s i g n i f i c a nt l y i n f lu e n c e t h e w o r k o n parc de la villete. in the plan for parc de la villete, ts c h u m i d e p i c t e d t h e tr ansformative pro cess of folly with continuous frames of montage and movement of film. . micromegas, and chamber works, daniel libeskind, and respectively. libeskind explained his drawing works as attempts to treat arch ite c tu re i n ‘ana ly t ic , i nte r pre t at ive, s y mb ol ic and non - representational way’, and explained that they are the results of a work that discovers the theory of themselves (libeskind, ). while emphasizing the symbolism rather than objectivity provided by drawings, libeskind points out that drawing is not merely a technical subsidiary cooperating in the completion of architecture, but has the tradition of symbolic expression exceeding mere deliverance of objective information. micromegas of is a series composing of pages drawn in pencil, and the original drawing is expressed so lightly that the observer must come close to the screen to be able to comprehend the forms. starting from his interest in geometry, lineal factors which can be said to be the characteristic in libeskind’s architecture appear repeatedly, and in each drawing, matters drawn in the axonometric and is ometric forms f ill the whole s creen. the p ersp ective metho d is not us ed but due to the dif ference in figure . transformational diagrams of house , eisenman, figure . follies of parc de la villete, tschumi, - a study on the visual representation of design presented in ‘perfect acts of architecture’ exhibition of density in terms of screen composition and directions o f m a t t e r d r a w n w i t h p r o j e c t i o n m e t h o d , a visually multi-focal space is made as in cubism paintings. t h e s p a c e s s h o w n i n t he d r aw i ngs c r a sh i nto e a ch other and present a limitlessly spreading continuous space. here, the lines without any particular meaning which libeskind seeks to convey meet complexly and show an inherent rule of creation w h i c h t h e y a r e m a k i n g . moreover, it is difficult to take them in one glance and it cannot but be read as they are enlarged as you approach closer, because such lines are expressed very lightly. libeskind sought a multi-opinionate meaning and ambiguousness of being read through the viewer's movements and observation while eliminating the objectivity and rationality, and clarity which traditional architectural drawing sought to achieve. in chamber works, each drawing is composed of a number of lines instead of a projection of the object drawn in detail, and thus eliminates the presenting space or form. instead of a detailed form, using density and composition of lines, it leads an ambiguous spatial interpretation. in each drawing, there are no factors which make form or space, and there remains only thin lines which seem like traces of space. figure . chamber works, libeskind, . sixth street house, thom mayne, - mayne seeks to explore the process of architectural production through a series of drawings which record from the initial stages of project design, and he recognizes that such process is a chance to develop a new architectural system (mayne, ). most of the drawings appearing in the early works of mayne take the method of producing by folding various plans and expanding the -dimensional plan into a -dimensional. objects of mechanical image depicted in the axonometric style are the main subjects of design in each work, and by showing -dimensional contents o f p l a n , e l e v at i o n , c r o s s - s e c t i o n , a n d v a r i o u s o b j e c t s d e p i c t e d i n axonometrics of different scales, the drawing expresses the inter-relationship b e tween objec ts and shap es in t he internal spaces of the architecture with multiple viewpoints. in sixth street house, while traditional or t hogr aphic me t ho ds such as t he elevation and the cross-section are drawn parallel to the main axis in the plan, all elevations and the cross-sections are drawn in a constant angle to the axis of the plan. subsequently, also in case of the main cross-section, as it shows the appearance of being cut by the face w hich me e ts wit h t he ele vation, it maximizes the view of the interior. this is showing the relationship between various factors of the inside of the building, and means that the plan no longer is subordinate to the geometric shape of the building (kipnis, ). in each drawing, objects of scale expanded with plan, elevation and cross-section are drawn in in axonometric style, and these objects are the main subject of spatial composition. through a series of drawings, mayne shows the individual characteristics of eleven objects which are the components of the house he designed, and this is an example of the part being expanded and being considered more important than the whole in terms of architecture. while emphasizing this part than the whole, mayne sought to match the architectural concept and architectural representations in order that his intentions are seen in the architectural drawings. figure . six street house, mayne, - . the meaning of architectural thinking seen through the visual representational method of exhibition drawing . architecture as narrative avant-garde architects of late- s and early- s have the attitude that architecture is a social instrument which directly faces society and that it can be freed from existing architectural rule or role, while they pondered on the identity of architecture (brayer, figure . micromegas, libeskind, figure . kate mantilini restaurant, mayne, ho-jeong kim ). on foundation of such architectural thinking, the role of architecture, as a new narrative style which explains the language of architecture in an easy way and which puts representation in the equal or superior to reality, came to take form. this is a part of the attempt to make a new multi-dimensional and combinational place, and it has the same context as the perspective stating that architecture itself has meaning as art. in postmodernism, art is not understood as copy or representation of the real world but as a type of component, and weight is placed on fiction rather than fact, creation rather than existence, and process rather than result. nelson goodman defines postmodernism as ‘transition to the only truth, to the justice in a fixed and discovered world, to the diversity of conflicting interpretations, or to a world currently in creation’ (kim, ). unlike the contents of representation focused on architectural space, avant-garde architects, who attempted to bring architecture clos e to t he territor y of nar r ative ar t b orrowing p op ar t or surrealism art, regarded as important the effective expressive methodolog y of the intention put for ward by the architect. in the categor y of architecture as such narrative art, archigram also performs a serialized project, and much as super-studio, the production work of the actual composed of the combination of the abstract and the reality, collage with maps, and the reality composed of various types through that collage. also, like ufo or gianni petta, developing a further step, there comes to be narrative actions to express the architecture itself or the relationship between the architecture and another subject as some performance (brayer, ). out of exhibition drawings, the narrative character in terms of the architecture of koolhaas or that of tschumi is clearly revealed. koolhaas utilized the method in which fragments of different things were narrated continuously, and tschumi the techniques of other genres outside of architecture such as movies or novels. such various attempts in the s with a narrative characteristic were carried out under the intention of attempting to develop the architectural project with shared scenarios with individual appropriation as the default. . the non-representational character of architectural work if the modern society was homogeneous and representational, the contemporary society implies the concepts of diversity and non- representation. what led the fundamental creative factor in the architectural thinking of modernism was representational way of thinking. to represent means to set the existing in front of yourself and make it a subject for yourself. on the other hand, the concept of non-representation is a broad concept which breaks away from the dominance of homogeneity of the modern era and has difference and diversity as its fundamental attitude of perception. avant-garde architects of the s tried to depend not on intuition but on merely formal logical composition in order to understand the world with human will. they are leaning on the essence of non-representational grounds as a machine which discovers and recognizes the difference continuously produced through formality and organizes it itself (jung, ). the non-representational character of radical architecture is shown in all areas of form, program and space. the morphological amusement presented in drawing works is something that has transcended the category of what was determined as architecture in the past. various shapes merely suggested with possibility of various interpretations are left open and considered as a process of design exploration rather than as the final shape itself. architecture comes to exist as a dynamic frame which is able to embrace change, and the relationships and circumstances may change depending on the observer’s viewpoint. program seeks an eventful space as a place of undecided and diverse occurrences, and the undecidedness allowing for change depending on surrounding circumstances and factors is emphasized. the space of undecided program is an open space, and is a non-representational space able to embrace diversity. in the architecture of tschumi, libeskind and eisenman, there is no meaning in relationship between program and shape, and representation is carried out with focus on development of the design process and architectural thinking. the decentralized spatial comp osition shows characteristics lacking particular h i e r archy, c e nte r, a x i s or f l ow of move me nt , and i s a non - h i e r arch i c a l c omp o s it i on . b y e l i m i n at i ng su b ord i n ate and hierarchical relationship, and removing representational meaning and relationship in plane and cross-section, a space which is limitlessly produced depending on the observation and perception of the observer reacting to platonic shape is created. this is not to induce confusion but acts as a tool to provide the user of various experiences, and is a neutral space which induces discovery of space and new experience by the user himself. . un-decidedness of open structure in the open structure, centrality is not given to any particular factor or part in terms of program or form, and shape puts its meaning in proceeding to an open system rather than be limited by particular rule or process. such open system is not restrained to the rules of the past but aims at open architecture rather than architecture of traditional category. open structure in exhibition drawings means making architecture an open concept which is not restrained by rules as well as un-decidedness of program. already in europe in the s, groups including team , archigram, or a rch i z o om cl ai me d i nde te r m i n i sm to s ome e x te nt w it h adjustability through integration in the design process, and the discussion on un-decidedness of program was became full-fledged in delirious new york by koolhaas, with tschumi’s the manhattan tr ans cript providing t he st ar ting p oint (z aer a-polo, ). koolhaas asserts that deterministic program must ceaselessly be changed, and that lifestyle cannot be adjusted by fixed program of architecture. in the manhattan transcript, tschumi abandons the fixed prerequisite and style between type of building and program, and borrows the concepts of direct action and happening. he even suggests a method to intentionally cause collisions between programs (moon, ). such attitude is of the view that program being decided only by some particular method means that it cannot respond to future changes, and means that it cannot apply to the values of voluntariness and coincidence recognized in postmodern philosophy. the time of imagination made by voluntary program can be read as opening of the amusement space which only becomes a place in the relationship with oneself. an empty space is a space with limitless possibilities while in that state, and is reflected as a space with multi-layered meaning. in the spaces of eisenman, tschumi and libeskind, signs of such amusement space are seen. in that of mayne, there is visual amusement in the shape of the space rather a study on the visual representation of design presented in ‘perfect acts of architecture’ exhibition of than program. mechanical objects occupying the space and the non-particular spatial fragments made between the objects and the background are well shown in his drawings. drawing methods like tracing, rotation, projection, and reduction are not merely techniques of drawing but are integrated into the design concept of the architecture, and become an important starting point for spatial dynamic. the relationship between object and space changes limitlessly depending on the viewpoint and angle, and is folded to produce a ‘formless’ state. . deconstruction of the perspective and the space of collage in exhibition drawings, the architects who were under the influence of post-constructivism transcend the general universality of visual representation by intentionally eliminating the traditional method of perspective and expressing multi-viewpoint space and passing time with collage or montage techniques. in collage, the subjective of the author intervenes to cause deconstruction and transformation of the subject, and utilizes techniques like superimposition, juxtaposition, scaling, and interpenetration. such collage technique can be easily obser ved in exodus, the manhattan transcript, micromegas, and sixth street house. the part that the architects want to emphasize and compare to other parts is overly enlarged and compared with other parts, and sometimes the medium of photograph is borrowed actively as a part of the drawing. in case of micromegas, in terms of material, it is a line technique of single material unlike collage, but it has the same context as collage in that it is a combination of limitless subjects. mayne’s work can be seen as another example of collage composition method by which different scales are juxtaposed and exist together in one drawing. while the perspective system requires the gaze of a prerogative player, deconstruction of perspective means that the uniformity and centrality of the prerogative gaze is deconstructed. through such, multiple viewpoints are combined to compose and create new forms, and at the same time become the subject of being divided into multiple views. sigfried gideon argues that modern/ perspective space was created in the renaissance period when the linear perspective system was discovered, and the modern space was dismantled after cubism which deconstructed the perspectival space (lee, ). it means that the tradition of perspective took on that much big role in the pre-perspective space, the formulative and the sculptural space changing into the modern space. the new application and transformation starting from the baroque, and the subsequent deconstruction of the perspective has the same context as the art of postmodernism which denies absolute truth and considering voluntariness and flexibility as important. . criticism on the meaning of representation through serialism d econstr uc tion of t he tr aditiona l re pres ent ationa l mo del connects not only to deconstruction of the perspective but also to the methodolog y called serialism made to produce various alternatives and results through repetition. serialism is deciding permutation, combination, frequency, repetition, and relationship between particular limited numerical factors and using them in creative work. serialism, which started as one of songwriting methods in music in the s, became more mature in theory or actual in the s, and from the s, it was frequently presented through visual art exhibitions. even in the exhibition drawings, a disposition of serialism is strong in the works of eisenman, tschumi, and libeskind. serialism is commonly inherent in constructivism and post- constrctivism, and fol lowing t he arguments of derrid a and deleuz that repetition is not the repeating of the same thing but a dynamic process which affirms the difference, john hejduk and eisenman used the gap between origin, copy, form and idea as the tool for destroying separation (bae and lee, ). architects who used serialism as an active design methodology are actively and repeatedly making drawings in order to create a creative alternative rather than a mere representation of the final result of a work. eisenman reveals that his house series is a work that attempts to free architecture from the strong pull of metaphysics, and that he tried to present repetition and continuity. as such, the metamorphosis through repetition can be seen in other painting fields of this time, and the combination made by repetition of image, change in color and difference in size are clearly shown in the works of artists like andy warhol, jasper johns, and sol lewitt. there were critics who criticize that serial art is nothing more than thoughtless multiplication, but derrida and deleuz stress that repetition is important in terms of representation and continuous seriality is an important method in revealing and destroying the limit of representation. however, serialism in architecture does not repeat its components but does not apply repeated rules as much as music, and has a stronger formality. there are differences in the extent and the method, but serialism represented by repetition and continuity is without a doubt a shared discussion of the times between many architects, artists, songwriters and dancers of the time. . conclusion the represented subject is always imagified if it satisfies the particular threshold required by the times, and the method which the architect wants to show or believes to be right is considered important. the following is a summing up of the characteristics and meaning of visual representation of architectural design shown in the conceptual drawings of postmodern architecture in the s and s. first, architectural drawing previously recognized as the tool of design analysis or merely spatial representation came to not only represent the final product but take its place as a tool of design process. this is related to the time and cultural background of postmodernism; postmodernism praises self-reflective and self-conscious representation, deliberateness of representation, exposure of problems of fiction, and to process rather than the result. in terms of architecture, such influence surfaces as interest in the design process, and such examples can be seen in eisenman's house series drawings, libeskind's micromegas and chamber works drawings. secondly, the subject of visual representation in architectural d r a w i n g d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s r e s e a r c h w a s n o t a n o b j e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t o f d e s i g n b u t a s u b j e c t i v e repres entation on t he ide a and concept of design. spati al ly, conceptual drawings make spaces of many interpretations by reflecting the architectural spaces of postmodernism described as having no sense of direction, irrational and contradicting. the drawings in exodus, the manhattan transcript, and sixth street ho-jeong kim house are intricate techniques to depict architectural ideas. thirdly, drawing expressions of postmodern architecture show characteristics of collage, a style of cubism, and due to such, the centrality of the player shown by the traditional perspective space was broken free of and deconstructed. as shown in libeskind's micromegas and mayne’s sixth street house, many viewpoints lo ok ing at t he architec tur a l fac tors, sp ace or change due to movement of space exist together in one drawing, and such fusion of plan prioritizes the deliver y of the whole image or spatial experience rather than accurate delivery of information. fourthly, in postmodern architectural drawing which received the influence of post-constructivism, the genre of drawing, which passively provided the visual side of subjects in exchange for simple objectivity for architecture, is being treated at the same level as architecture. it is even making a relationship of antagonism between architecture and drawing in an open system, and the flagrant rhetoric and reputation of drawing is even creating a situation in which architecture is read as an illustration of drawing. in such conceptual drawings of postmodern architecture, nothing is fixed and nothing is final, and discussion on meaning and interpretation is open. architects reject making the real and the constructive, in exchange for making a fictional real. the sole reality of the designed building is rejected, and the diversity of the real is an important part of postmodern philosophy. therefore, there is no representation on the objective side of the architecture, only various methods. references ac k e r m a n , j. a n d ju n g , w. 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( ) c o n t e m p o r a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d n o n - representation, seoul: acanet kahn, a. ( ) representations and misrepresentations: on architectural theory, journal of architectural education, vol. , no. , pp. - . kipnis, j. ( ) perfect acts of architecture, new york: moma. k i m , d. ( ) mo d e r n i s m a n d po s t mo d e r n i s m , s e o u l : hyunamsa. lee, j. k. (eds.) ( ) territories of cultural politics, s eoul: geurinbi. libeskind, d. ( ) end space-space of encounter. new york: universe publishing. mayne, t. ( ) thom mayne six street house. cambradge: harvard gsd. moon, e. ( ) research on surface properties of architectural design plans after deconstructivism, korea interior architecture association essays no. , april. pe r e z - g o m e z , a . a n d pe l l e t i e r, l . ( ) a r c h i t e c t u r a l representation and perspective hinge. cambridge: mit press. pierce, james smith. architectural drawings and the intent of the architect. art journal, vol. , no. (autumn, ), pp. - . ryan, m. ( ) politics and culture after postmodernism, seoul: galmuri. tschmi. b. ( ) spaces and events. in the exhibition catalogue the discourse of events, london: architectural associations. zaera-polo, a. ( ), a world full of holes, el croquis / . (received april , /accepted may , ) langford, martha, ed. .narratives unfolding: national art histories in an unfinished world. montreal & kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press. all rights reserved ©, greg davies ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : material culture review revue de la culture matérielle langford, martha, ed. .narratives unfolding: national art histories in an unfinished world. montreal & kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press. greg davies volume , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) cape breton university press issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu davies, g. ( ). compte rendu de [langford, martha, ed. .narratives unfolding: national art histories in an unfinished world. montreal & kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press.] material culture review / revue de la culture matérielle, . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/mcr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/mcr/ -v -mcr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/mcr/ material culture review (spring ) book reviews comptes rendu de livres within the field of western art history, national identities have long played an important role in the forging of a central narrative focused on the development of art from the early civiliza- tions of the mediterranean world to medieval, renaissance, and modern europe, and america. today, this conventional narrative—which has also generated the idea of the heroic male figure (michelangelo and picasso being but two exam- ples) as a visionary and pioneer in the arts—is routinely called into question. yet it is only thirty years since my introduction to western art history began with a revised edition of h. w. janson’s history of art; a volume which had then only just set out to include a few women artists as a concession to the demands for a changing canon. new approaches to global art history, largely informed by critical theory and interdisciplinary methodologies, have since done much to critique the monolithic, meta-narrative of western art history. yet still, the foundations of the field remain troublesome. evidence of this resonates in the recent controversy surrounding the brooklyn museum’s decision to hire a white curator to oversee its african art department, or the mixed responses to the national gallery of canada’s harmonized exhibits of indigenous and canadian art, presented in the wake of calls to decolonize our cultural institutions. the complex social and cultural concerns which inevitably surface in these situations draw upon a fundamental and ethical question within the very discipline which empowers our art galleries and museums: to whom does this art belong? those of us who are authorized to write and interpret its history are the custodians and curators of our public collections; the individuals entrusted with the power to determine what is seen, and in which context it is (re)presented. but from whence comes our authority? narratives unfolding: national art histories in an unfinished world ultimately tackles this question by critically exploring, as editor martha langford notes, “the legitimacy and function” of national art histories in our time. i should begin by noting that this is an ambitious project from the outset given the immense scope of the topic and the range of material from which the authors draw. both the editor and the book’s contributors should be commended for their efforts in seeking to meet this ambition. the introduction, written by langford, of- fers a particularly useful summary of the global historiography of the field in order to set the stage for the critical essays that follow. students of both art and art history will appreciate this guide to the principal authors and texts which have been especially influential in the development of art history, both western and global. those who teach or mentor within the field will likely value the author’s organized presentation and thoroughness of thought, particularly in those greg davies review of langford, martha, ed. . narratives unfolding: national art histories in an unfinished world. montreal & kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press. pp. , b/w and colour photographs, index, notes and bibliography. isbn - - - - , $ . . revue de la culture matérielle (printemps ) instances where the text might be introduced into course design. the fifteen essays which follow cover a diverse range of subjects as one would expect of a volume dealing with global, national art histories, though there are notable absences here. discussions on national art histories in south america, china, russia, australia or east asia (martin beattie’s essay treating the fourteenth annual indian society of oriental art exhibition, being an exception) would be welcome. the geographic distribution of subjects offered does overlap, at times, as in the case of two essays ad- dressing national art histories in israel / palestine and four essays casting a lens on canada. yet this overlap offers a welcome advantage here, present- ing multiple perspectives on related subjects in a text in which diverse voices are essential. a number of essays offer particularly nu- anced discussions on the complexities of voice and agency in states where national identity seeks to marginalize, suppress or silence ‘other- ness.’ this is touched upon with sensitivity in ceren Özpınar’s “playing out the ‘differences’ in turkish art-historical narratives,” which examines the critical reception of armenian, kurdish and women artists in modern turkey. using specific examples to illustrate the point, Özpınar articulates the struggle between nation- alist factors as reflected in the art and art criticism produced within turkey from the s to the present day. the discussion touches upon issues that resonate through other essays such as carla taunton’s “embodying sovereignty: indigenous women’s performance art in canada.” noting that “indigenous women’s performance art must be understood as belonging to a living archive that mobilizes indigenous sovereignty, and con- nects to a transnational indigenous art history,” taunton draws attention to the place of these performance works as acts of decolonization and sites of resistance. in this respect alone, they cannot be subsumed under a narrative of western, or canadian, art history. t h e bro a d e r s u bj e c t of n at i on a l a r t histories is occasionally addressed through case studies of specific works or exhibitions. martin beattie’s previously-mentioned essay, “problems of translation: lyonel feininger and gaganendranath tagore at the fourteenth annual indian society of oriental art exhibition, kolkata, india,” is one such example. here, the author challenges the historical trope of european epicentrism in the narrative of modern art innovations. drawing upon homi bhabha’s hybridity theory, beattie explores the issue of translation and the resulting “third space” which ultimately subverts the authority of the “original.” placing a lens on the largely undocumented, exhibition mentioned in the title, beattie points to feininger and tagore as two, outside translators of the parisian avant-garde who saw alternative, subversive possibilities for cubism. fionna barber’s “race, irishness, and art history: margaret clarke’s bath time at the crèche ( ), motherhood, and the matter of whiteness,” similarly focuses on a single, unusual painting and a corollary oil study, both of which appear to address issues of racial and gender identity in s ireland. the text opens discussion on a topic of importance, though the author’s em- phasis on the use of visual imagination in the interpretation of the work remains somewhat problematic as a methodological practice. in the end, the speculative reading of the painting, which promises valuable insight into social mat- ters of significance, still begs further evidence and confirmation of the artist’s viewpoint. collectively, these fifteen essays open a door on a broad subject in need of much more inten- sive discussion. while focused in some areas, the perspectives offered are both stimulating and essential. for educators, arts administrators, and general readers with a critical interest in the history of art—especially western art history and its influence in the world today—this volume will provide valuable understanding and insight into some of the issues at stake. investigation of high and low art from the perspective of pragmatism philosophy ble at sciencedirect pacific science review b: humanities and social sciences ( ) e contents lists availa h o s t e d by pacific science review b: humanities and social sciences journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/pacific-science- review-b-humanities-and-social-sciences/ investigation of high and low art from the perspective of pragmatism philosophy zohreh shariatinia science and research university, department of art philosophy, islamic republic of iran a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received june accepted september available online november keywords: high art low art rationalism pragmatism mass e-mail address: zohre.shariatinia@gmail.com. peer review under responsibility of far eastern university, dalian university of technology, kokushik http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.psrb. . . - /copyright © , far eastern federal univ b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-n a b s t r a c t categorization and groupings of concepts have always existed in history, and this has resulted in the emergence of binaries. in most categories of binaries, the first expressed case is more positive and more valuable than the second concept, e.g., day versus night. in this paper, high art versus low art and the philosophy of rationalism within the philosophy of pragmatism are studied. society in general is composed of two elements: a majority and a minority. the minority group is considered educated and privileged. fine art as well as rationalist approaches are deemed to belong to them. in contrast, the majority or the public does not benefit from such knowledge. specifically, popular art and philosophy that is empiricist or pragmatic belongs to them. however, the question is whether this classification is based on social classes or humankind, irrespective of one's place in society. this is the question that this article attempts to answer. copyright © , far eastern federal university, kangnam university, dalian university of technology, kokushikan university. production and hosting by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). . introduction the creation of major cities has caused aesthetic trans- formations in assessing the status and function of art. in fact, ur- banization has created new kinds of art known as popular art. from the perspective of sociology, there are two types of art in society: one is for the elite, and the other is popular art. in terms of sociology, there are two different periods in the investigation of art. in the first period, attention to art and artistic issues were related to social issues. in fact, at the beginning of the creation of the science of sociology, the cultural and economic elites of society were separated. they were able to take advantage of both wants and basic necessities and could use their spare time pro- ducing artwork and other art, which were circulated among the small group of elites. this small group gave art standards, and if anyone wanted to join the elite, they would have to follow these standards in their artwork. the sociology of art defines the art of this period by the elite. valuation entails the production and properties of art. in fact, it is true that only elites considered art, but other members of the art society were not deprived, because an federal university, kangnam an university. ersity, kangnam university, dalian c-nd license (http://creativecomm interest in art and beauty is innate in every human being. therefore, people within their own culture produced artwork in their com- munities, and the issues were tied to their everyday life. in the first period of society, community groups and public property were divided by boundaries. in contrast, in the contem- porary era, the high level of well-being and economic development have caused a number of middle class and lower caste elite to reach the middle class. public education has led to growth, and even lower middle-class families can benefit from the gift of literacy. literacy has led to considerable progress. those not named elites, lower middle classes and the producers and creators of works of art have joined this group. in the community, groups do not face boundaries because people are closer together in terms of social status. and most of the artists and public elites are located in the middle of these two extremes. the argument in this article that fine art has always belonged to the elites and that low art has belonged to the group deemed to be of the commons will be examined from a pragmatic perspective. . high art and low art in nineteenth century europe, the economic problems caused a crisis in the arts, because artists had to sell their work on the market. however, in contrast to the direction of economic devel- opment, some created works that were more complex and university of technology, kokushikan university. production and hosting by elsevier ons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / mailto:zohre.shariatinia@gmail.com http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.psrb. . . &domain=pdf www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.journals.elsevier.com/pacific-science-review-b-humanities-and-social-sciences/ http://www.journals.elsevier.com/pacific-science-review-b-humanities-and-social-sciences/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.psrb. . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.psrb. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.psrb. . . z. shariatinia / pacific science review b: humanities and social sciences ( ) e incomprehensible to the public. then, schools such as impres- sionism and cubism emerged. however, the formation of these schools was so rapid that it separated the arts from more people. thus, the audience and artists had a severed relationship. the un- derstanding of art was in crisis. however, people developed in- terests towards educational works, entertainment, newspaper stories, television programs, radio, photography and cinema. in contrast, those artists with avant-garde characteristics had little audience. they categorized the arts into two types, high and low, placing themselves at high status. however, the fact is that fine art was so distant, and so much of people's lives could not play a role in it. in fact, art is considered by society to be a formative role in society. when society is not able to appreciate good art, it is certain that it will disappear, and the role of local developmental is to foster individual talents and insight. some scholars consider the idea of art as classified into two categories, high art and low art, due to enlightenment. this means that they consider only work that have aesthetic features as genuinely artistic. however, are there really structural differences between high art and low art? is the distinction between high culture and low culture is revealed? such distinctions call on more scheme-specific marxist philosophers of the frankfurt school, including benjamin and adorno . among the thinkers of the twentieth century, the mass art defenders are susan sontag and shusterman and their opponents are dwight mcdonald , greenberg and collingwood . enlightenment thinking has emphasized the autonomy of art and artists from external interests. that is, the original art cannot be derived from popular culture, because art is an original product of individual genius. therefore, it is natural that artistic thinkers never consider satisfying the people, like the arts, educational or enter- tainment applications created under the names of low/mass/pop- ular art. the inferiority of art depends on the social and not the individuality of the artist. collingwood calls popular art an ironic mode of the “entertainment industry” that actually is not art but an illusion. more marxist thinkers like collingwood have denounced popular art. dwight mcdonald called it “mass art” instead of pop- ular art, which implies the lowest amount of intelligence in the audience is needed to get the message of this artwork. the emer- gence of the masses in the higher social power is the reality of modern life, and the man who is in the masses does not constitute any criteria to distinguish himself from others. in contrast, people who carry large tasks and assignments on their shoulders feel they do not have any specific expectations and their life is the same (ortegaei gasset, , pp. e ). adorno treats art as an event that involves no confirmation and its value is breaking habits. art in the treatment of adorno does not reflect the confirmation of available faces; rather, it always speaks of forms of better understanding (heidari, , p. ). adorno's analysis uses criticisms and comments and philosophical works in the internal relations and relations between subjectivity and the social world to increase and expand the commodification of culture and art, which eventually leads to a culture industry. the main purpose of art for adorno is to create a social-critical perspective; the goal of art should be free from social and political and economic ties (fisher and andrew, , p. ). in his view, the culture in- dustry is the result of an alienated society. the involvement and transformation of cultural products are a step in the direction of bourgeois culture. the aim to promote political doctrines loses its authenticity. as one of the potential features, because art is a rev- olutionary product platform and entails social and cultural re- lations, it follows the passive stance of consumer awareness (nozari and ali, , pp. e ). however, in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, the mechanical reproduction of art made it possible for much larger audiences to enjoy works of art. in fact, mechanical reproduction in the form of photography and cinema changed the reaction of the masses to art. walter benjamin took a different view than adorno. he knew that art has the power and value to take steps leading to the masses. benjamin stated that new forms of mass art, such as photography and film, could lead to awareness, because there is independence in the actor camera, eliminating the halo cast and critical distance, which can be seen as liberation (fisher and andrew, , pp. e ). many thinkers of the s came to support popular art, and aesthetic values were insignificant. however, in the meantime, some of the public's compassion was to interpret works of art. in this case, it is true that public art is lower than high art, but for those in society who had been deprived of the education necessary to understand high art, it is enjoyable and has cultural satisfaction. this view was criticized by shousterman, because in the underlying subtext, it endorses the criticism of modernist thinkers. in the s, thinkers in the social approach distinguished folk art and high and popular art, to meet the desires and prejudices of popular art with the power of the people, which gives a special vision to society and formulates and creates certain social attitudes. some thinkers (claus carroll , stanley cowell and david naotis ) argued about the distinction between high art and popular art based on a social approach. undoubtedly, there is no intrinsic feature in high art that reveals the distinction between the two. carroll considers the distinction between fine art and popular art as the difference between social classes. he considers popular and mass art as having the same meaning. some criticize work that reaches the mass production of popular art, especially now that all art is reproducible. popular art is perceived based on its value to the public. thus, most of the representation of the aesthetic is based on the concept of community. the best way to assess these arts is in the works. whereas the formal aspects of art are used to assess the fine arts, practices and potential end result should also be studied. indeed, this view is a lower vision, where public art is consid- ered as operational and high art is distinct from life. throughout history, many high arts were unlike tradition and were consistent with common beliefs and social revolution against the status quo. therefore, high art in absolute terms cannot be separated from community. . . the introduction of pragmatism american pragmatism is a philosophy that came to the public's notice in the s. in general, the philosophy of pragmatism made philosophical thought simple and accessible to everyone. the term pragmatism is derived from the greek word pragma, meaning action. the term was first introduced to philosophy in by pierce, who stated that our beliefs are rules for action and to developed a concept that it is necessary only to determine that this concept is to create, how to work. this means that the behaviour is unique to us (james, , p. ). pierce's aesthetic contribution is clearly through his semiotics, which had a considerable impact on the theories of the twentieth century (shousterman, , p. ). in fact, pierce established the prin- ciple of pragmatism. the principle of pragmatism is that all facts influence our actions. the pragmatism ahead of any conflict should consider the question of which is correct for any of the parties in any particular empirical reality. in this way, difference is created. in addition, if conflict makes no difference to this debate, it is unrealistic, and disputes of practice testing many conflicts in the history of philosophy become meaningless. the same approach can be called pragmatism, or empiricism, which is also radical, pragmatism with the abstract to the concrete and practice, z. shariatinia / pacific science review b: humanities and social sciences ( ) e in fact, having the power. to a rational mind, the philosophy of pragmatism about the truth being beneficial and satisfactory in practice is intolerable. pragmatists pay attention to facts and truth and objectivity when they are acting. however, for rationalists, it is actually quite abstract. the most satisfying feature of pragmatism is its proximity to the facts. pragmatism is fascinated with facts, so empiricism-oriented material prejudice occurs due to it (james, , pp. e ). according to william james, pragmatism is intermediate be- tween rationalism and empiricism. because it has no prejudice or dogma inhibitors and the solid law of reason and welcomes any new hypothesis or theory, we will consider it from the point of privilege to religious rationalism and empiricism. rationalism considers the planet, heaven and empiricism in external senses, whereas pragmatism wants to preserve everything, including logic and senses, and take into account the most personal experiences. . . comparison of pragmatism and rationalism currently, in all aspects of life and in the philosophy of ra- tionalists and empiricist, there are dipoles. in general, for the position of these two intellectual professions, it can be said that empiricist prefers experience facts and the rationalist prefers abstract facts. however, the truth is that rationalism and empiricism are both dual, which means that they will never spend time only on attaining a correct understanding. this method cannot be used to emphasize that one school of thought suggests a method of their own. in the course of history, describing these two orientations, words using reasoning are obvious and there are more positive things for the rational. rationalists are single-winged and empiri- cism is pluralist, because their understanding starts from the components and the components are tuned. rationalists are always closer to religion and empiricists are called materialists. rational- ists are idealist and graceful, whereas empiricists are skeptics and rationalists are dogmatic. over the last two centuries, progress in science has reduced the spread of materials as a result of the growing importance of the human sense of naturalism. in fact, nature is established, which means it is the man who should adapt themselves to it. in this age of idealist philosophers, adherents of the theory of evolution have emerged. non-radical pragmatism philosophy is simple and natu- ral. this philosophy accepts the theory of evolution and confirms that aesthetic pleasure is based on evolutionary heritage, through the interaction with the physical and social, cultural and human experiences are shaped (shousterman, , p. ). however, it lacks action and a triumphant tone and therefore lacks prestige and credibility (james, , pp. e ). pragmatists argue that humans are social creatures. every hu- man being is an image of himself as a result of his social envi- ronment. they are pluralists and believe that the future is also in a fragmented landscape of every human being. no one can see the entire universe, but each perspective adds something to the overall picture, pragmatists consider the possibility of error, as well as their beliefs. absolutisms relies only on abstraction and does not have any experience. however, mere intellectual abstractions cannot be concluded if even to understand god, the absolute need of creatures. its philosophy is that what people need today is a philosophy not just to think. the relationship with the real world and human life is finite (james, , p. ). in fact, both empiricist and rationalist philosophies have draw- backs. the philosophy of empiricism in many audiences is inhuman and a kind of pagan and rationalist philosophy. the religious calling cannot establish contact with real life. rationalism is a professional tool system and the system must be closed, whereas the world we live in today is wide open. the philosophy of pragmatism is for professionals who can subject the human mind to religion (not in the case of absolute idealists) and reality (not in the sense of skepticism and cynicism materialists). in other words, this philosophy can be regarded as a rationalist philosophy and at the same time as an empiricist philosophy, rich for maintaining contact with reality (james, , p. ). in fact, a pragmatic approach is the best way to solve the never- ending conflicts of metaphysics, because, each concept is inter- preted by its practical consequences and only if there is a difference between the two sides do they quarrel. we find it practical for considering serious conflict. . reality from the perspective of pragmatism reality, in the philosophy of pragmatism, is what has guided us. in fact, it is the concept that could do the work in our lives. ratio- nalists constantly address theoretical truth, whereas pragmatism are against any idea of what the question asks and just imagine what impact this will have in practical life. why does pragmatism seek to empirically assess the truth? an image of pragmatism is based on a true event, process or event. in this line of intellectual truth and correctness, the direct relationship between utility is two way. reality not only describe the philosophy of pragmatism but also indicates the means guiding the processes described in this quality are all united, following the experience made. in contrast, given that pre-existing radical thinking is fixed, any process does not accept. the absolute truth of the philosophy of pragmatism is something no other experience can change. it says that the very ideal can be almost impossible to achieve, because many facts that are considered eternal. we must be prepared one day to actually know what tomorrow is for us to prove that wrong. in fact, in today's world, everything is relative and absolute. chiller argued that the truth is what is useful and dewey considered satisfaction and benefit the truth. . . humanism, in pragmatism the philosophy of pragmatism, the single truth and other matters such as language and law are not preset principles, but they give life to the process and in fact all the names of an abstract human product. this is why schiller humanism is called, and the fact is that we are human products and what the world knows is known and ductile. the fact of human beliefs about reality and the first part of reality is a human emotion. emotions cannot be true or false, because they are just senses. the second component is the relationship between feelings and facts. the third component is in minds. it is certain that people feel out of reach, but each person has felt more involved in the conclusion that it is in his hands. human exposure at any moment with a new sensory reality without default (previous memories) can be affected by the sen- sory reality. in fact, there is no reality independent of human thought and belief in the reality that is only possible in the human concept (james, , p. ). we help our ancestors and beliefs that have been made in the field of new experiences ahead. certain ideas that we look at and what to pay attention to, we do so to determine the practical and feasible things, which in turn identify what we experience and the result of human creativity (james, , p. ). the world we understand and we experience is constant, independent and immutable, but it is also the product of human choice (shousterman, , p. ). pragmatic understanding suggests z. shariatinia / pacific science review b: humanities and social sciences ( ) e that we change our life and the world is always waiting and is changed by man. such a role for human dignity and responsibility is as a sentient being would do. the rationalism reality is ready, eternal and perfect, whereas in terms of pragmatism, it is being built and is looking forward to the future realization (james, , p. ). in fact, we are faced with a world that is unfinished. . . aesthetics in pragmatism aesthetics pragmatism was established with the book “art as experience” by john dewey, , who was born in . from the perspective of pragmatism, the element of experience is important. aesthetics pragmatism, on the margins of traditional arts and the people who have always been ignored, there is an emphasis on the high arts. the emphasis is on collective concept of art for the first time this century, with the attention of bakhtin. bakhtin conceptu- alizes everyday life and their margins, and the emphasis is philos- ophy. in dewey's terms, it fulfils the role art plays to humans. with regard to experience, energy and human mobility are in line with goals to increase. dewey believed in the aesthetic experience (which is based on public social instincts) (shousterman, , p. ) and its perception of human relations to reform and strengthen. in fact, dewey's attempt to express his aesthetic theories had nothing to do with aesthetic analysis and a positive spirit and the aesthetics of modern analytics and insight because he knows and sought recovery from the romantic gibberish connection with the aesthetic experience in daily life. the interaction of organism and the environment is dewey's art (shousterman et al., , p. ). dewey believed that what human value are the human needs to meet growth and a life providing a consistent world. dewey's value of art, rather than a specific purpose, knows the satisfaction of living (shousterman et al., , p. ). the aesthetics of pragmatism is in the communication arts with the usual functions of life because they know the root cause of beauty in daily life functions. this view is in contrast to kant's theory of impartiality and the purposes of the work of art. prag- matists argue that resorting to such theories associated with discrete and experimental artwork of human society is hollow, and they seek to establish continuity between the aesthetic experience of life and part of the effort to crush the notion of high arts (in the modern conception) (shousterman et al., , p. ). in this thought, what matters is not the ultimate experience. one of the characteristics of aesthetics pragmatism is natu- ralism. dewey believes that it is important to understand the basic functions and vital aesthetics. according to him, there is no space between the artist, art and audience because they all live under the shadow of the living. the beauty of classical art is apart from its practical position and in an environment that puts it in relationship with human achievements. artwork in the beauty of the classical domain is transferred, but expects pragmatism of thinkers, who are busy trying to communicate between works of art and human ex- periences, because every work that is created is experienced, whether individual or collectively. dewey perceives a pleasant experience in everyday life in experiencing the beauty of knowl- edge, following the artist's early experience, not a trace at a museum or exhibition. . . assessment of high art and low art from the perspective of the philosophy of pragmatism the verisimilitude of the twentieth century (modern realism, pop art, hyper realism) does not represent reality, because the photograph was taken before this responsibility. what distin- guishes realism from the realism of the nineteenth century is the evolution of knowledge. in the twentieth century, dominant phil- osophical principles, knowledge, experience, knowledge can be obtained. this suggests that a pragmatic approach in philosophy and life is fruitful. such an approach has always had its fans. pragmatics interact with their environment. their experiences are limited in terms of the sensory experience and include pleasure, pain, anger and trying. pragmatism is not only a tool for addressing academic philosophy or abstract philosophical issues but also a means to address the problems of the people. according to some critics, pragmatism passes from philosophy to sociology because it eliminates the traditional boundaries between the strands. william james' pragmatism is believed to resolve contradictory philosophies. its approach is a philosophical system, and in fact, a way of life, and it resists against anything that is transcendent. the analytic aesthetics, the modern tradition and romance, defend the values and the autonomy of art through a one-off concept of art with the concept of high art (and great and its greatness). dewey laments the elitist tradition and discusses the “concept museum of art” and the “dumb concept of beautiful art” (shousterman et al., , p. ). with the categorization and placementof art in the high position, that no one can establish a relationship with it not only makes the art of human life unnoticed but also undermines the aesthetic quality of people's lives. indeed, according to dewey, with elitism in contemporary fine art, art is separated from the body of its social and aesthetic chasm between life experience and the experience of art. susan sontag, in an article entitled “a new culture and sensitivity,” criticized any notion of the separation of the transition between life and art, life and scientific thinking and so forth (shayganfar, , p. ). she insists on the inseparability of all aspects of modern life and understands art as life. in terms of the philosophy of pragma- tism, an object is important in terms of its aesthetics, function and role in a dynamic experience. it is simply not pragmatic aesthetic curiosity in the past, but there is a promising future for any aesthetic experiences that one can imagine (shousterman et al., , p. ). . conclusion the separation of art and public elites is the product of a socially, economically and politically bipolar society. the society that gov- erns the minority uses all facilities, whereas the majority of impoverished oligarchs are unable to promote their own artistic expression. the new sociology asserts that society recognizes the art and artist as one who accepts his work in the community as art. the gap between art and the public properties of the polarity of society can be reduced by strengthening the middle class of this gap. in contemporary art, there is no clear boundary between high and low art, and none of the works are owned by the people, culture or specific country; however, with art, in the global village, attempts to break boundaries and separation occur (whether discriminatory or based on geography). as such, the masses could perceive popular art as a fine, revolutionary and liberating awareness. in contrast, the so-called fine art exhibition is formed only in the economy, or vice versa. finally, it can be stated that works of art have such bound- aries in the current climate. the pragmatic look to contemporary art seems very important, because the pragmatic aesthetics are not separate concepts; rather, philosophical and practical benefits of life can be found (shousterman, , pp. e ). currently, arts are not assessed like nietzsche, heidegger, schopenhauer, kant and others. the philosophical evaluation and philosophical pragmatism simply look at the aspects of arts that can be explained. pragmatism is a method in modern philosophy that acknowledges the impossibility of proving some aspects due to their use in human life. z. shariatinia / pacific science review b: humanities and social sciences ( ) e references fisher, andrew, john, . art high versus low art. in: gaut, b., lopes, d. (eds.), routledge companion to aesthetics, second ed. routledge press, london, pp. e . heidari, ahmadali, . theory of critical school frankfurt : negative art in the theodor adorno's ideas, art research center, no. , pp. e . james, william, . “pragmatism”, translation karim rashidians. publishers of academic and cultural. nozari, ali, hossein, . ideas of theodor adorno in art aesthetistics. j. acad. arts , e . ortegaei gasset, jose, . “phenomenon the congestion mass display”, trans- lation hossein bashiriyeh, favorite texts from modernism until the post modernism. ney publication, pp. p e . shayganfar, . traditional confrontation of two metaphysics, two culture and two art », beautiful understand, no. , pp. e . shousterman, richard, dewey, john, . “pragmatism”, aesthetics encyclopedia, effort brace gatt, lewis, translation group from translators. publishers academy of art, pp. e . shousterman, richard, october . the pragmatist aesthetics of william james. br. j. aesthet. ( ), e . further reading dewey, john, . art to as experience», translation zainab saber, information wisdom and philosophy, no. , pp. e . fisher, j.e., . high art and low art. in: aesthetics encyclopedia, effort of brace gatt ,lewis, translation group from translators. publishers academy of art, pp. e . nowtic, david, . “pubic art aesthetics”, translation mehdi saatchi, no. , pp. e . rorty, richard, . “the results of pragmatism”, twentieth century philosophy, writing the jean lacoste, translation reza davari ardakani, publishers the, pp e . zeimaran, muhammad, . walter benjamin and reversal of the sanctity of metaphysical in art. j. acad. arts , e . zeimaran, muhammad, . thought: philosophy and fourth impact (theoretical to teachings the walter benjamin), pp. e . the rudaki, no. . http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref 	investigation of high and low art from the perspective of pragmatism philosophy 	 . introduction 	 . high art and low art 	 . . the introduction of pragmatism 	 . . comparison of pragmatism and rationalism 	 . reality from the perspective of pragmatism 	 . . humanism, in pragmatism 	 . . aesthetics in pragmatism 	 . . assessment of high art and low art from the perspective of the philosophy of pragmatism 	 . conclusion 	references 	further reading sex, wine and statelessness: apollinaire’s verse without borders in ‘vendémiaire’ bories, a-s sex, wine and statelessness: apollinaire’s verse without borders in ‘vendémiaire’. modern languages open, ( ): pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /mlo.v i . articles – french and francophone sex, wine and statelessness: apollinaire’s verse without borders in ‘vendémiaire’ anne-sophie bories universität basel, ch as.bories@gmail.com guillaume apollinaire is a perfect stateless european. originally a subject of the russian empire, born wilhelm kostrowicky in rome to a finland-born, polish-italian single mother, later becoming a prominent french poet and a soldier and even- tually being granted much-desired french nationality, his biography reads like a novel. his -line poem ‘vendémiaire’ (alcools, ) is titled after the french revolutionary calendar’s windy month of grape harvest, and as such centres on wine. in this ‘chanson de paris’, a personified paris’ thirst for wine is met by the enthusiastic response of multiple towns and rivers, their water changed to wine, offering themselves to the capital in an orgy-like feast. this glorification of apollinaire’s adoptive city mixes sexual double meanings with religious refer- ences, founding a half-parodic new religion. it also touches on the poet’s own painful strangeness, which leads him to dream of a liberated, borderless world of ‘universelle ivrognerie’, in which a godlike poet creates the world anew from primordial wine, and which also links to issues of national and cultural identities. this exceptionally dense poem, in which several meanings, tones and verse forms overlap, provides an exemplary specimen of apollinaire’s daring versification, which bears an important role in the construction and circulation of meaning, and is foundational to his prominence as a modernist poet. its disorienting blending of old alexandrines with free verse places apollinaire both within and without a metrical tradition that he enjoys and transgresses. ultimately, rather than a world without borders, apollinaire offers the image of a world full of borders, and the exhilara- tion comes not from their abolition but from crossing them. the poet’s orphic power overrules boundaries, alters the world order: rivers of wine flow up towards paris; a new religion allows him to create the world anew, and to gear it towards poetry, with a form of verse described as ‘tordu’, deliberately and richly imperfect. guillaume apollinaire is a perfect stateless european poet (boschetti ). born in rome in to a finland-born, polish-italian single mother, he was originally a subject of the russian empire, and was eventually granted much-desired french nationality in , after he enlisted in the army and fought in the first world war. his biography (campa ; décaudin ) reads like a novel, complete with a mysterious birth, a gambling, penniless, aristocrat mother, occasional trouble with the police and extensive travels throughout europe, during which he invariably fell in love and was mostly rejected. his poetry is informed by his geographical and https://doi.org/ . /mlo.v i . mailto:as.bories@gmail.com bories: sex, wine and statelessnessart.  , page  of amorous wanderings, and by the collision of his catholic upbringing with his hostility towards limits and limitations, be they national borders or social and sexual norms. apollinaire is one of the most prominent poets of french modernity. his departure from academic forms, his inclusion of everyday topics, the polyphony of his poetry, bound to the cubist movement, on the subject of which he was a major authority, are mirrored in his versification. apollinaire’s playful free verse is strongly reminiscent of the alexandrine, and this kinship oversteps the border between free and strict verse. the sheer diversity of his poetry, which was the focus of criticism in (duhamel ), is a founding stone of his poetics. apollinaire does not attack old forms so much as he attacks the separation of forms, of subjects, of tones. this is illustrated by the first line of alcools, ‘À la fin tu es las de ce monde ancien’ (‘zone’): the desire for novelty stems from a weariness, not a dislike, of old forms. this ambivalence is expressed in the choice for this very line of an alexandrine, the most characteristically traditional metre, giving way to unexpected free verse from the second line. alcools ( ) is a deeply european collection, with almost every poem referring to apollinaire’s intertwined travels and love stories throughout europe. the last one is the - line ‘vendémiaire’ ( ), the title of which sets wine as the primary theme. the poem fea- tures an overheard ‘chanson de paris’ ( ), in which a personified paris expresses its thirst for wine and for european towns, to which in turn a number of rivers and towns reply, offering themselves to the ever-thirstier capital in an orgy-like feast, until eventually, the devouring capital drinks up the entire universe. this exhilarated glorification of apollinaire’s adoptive city mixes sexual double meanings with religious references, in an effort to found a half- parodic new religion (burgos, debon and décaudin, – ). instead of apollinaire’s own painful statelessness, the ‘chanson de paris’ portrays a liberated pan-europeanism, ultimately opening onto the ‘universelle ivrognerie’ ( ) in which a godlike poet creates the world anew from primordial wine. this is an exceptionally rich poem, overcrowded even, with multiple and overlapping meanings, tones and verse forms making it difficult for the reader to follow (read ). such depth and complexity exemplifies several of the creative liberties taken by apollinaire (alexandre ; campa ; décaudin , ), with versification playing an important role in the construction and circulation of meaning (bobillot). crossing of borders one is tempted to trace some of apollinaire’s scorn for limits and limitations back to his unusual upbringing. wilhelm albert włodzimierz apolinary kostrowicki was already well accustomed to crossing borders, geographical or otherwise, before he became guillaume apollinaire. his extensive travels throughout europe, and the associated heartbreaks, would prove an important source of inspiration and provide the subjects of nearly all of the poems in alcools. his mother, angelica kostrowicka, deserted in rome by her own unstable father, relied on the generosity of protectors in and around the vatican to provide for herself, wilhelm and her second son albert. there is no certainty as to who fathered the boys, who like their mother were raised in italian and polish, and like her lived a nomadic, tumultuous childhood, from italy to monaco in , through france and to paris in . in monaco, angelica changed her name to olga, and appeared in police reports as a prostitute, where she was described as having an ‘extremely violent nature’ (campa , ). indeed, she was nearly deported after a bottle fight with another woman on a café terrace. as the family moved from one rental room to the next, often gravitating around casinos, the brothers were raised in strict catholic piety, enrolled in private schools, yet sometimes entirely left to their own devices. they spent a long summer in stavelot, belgium, in , during which wilhelm fell in love with ‘mareye’ (maria dubois) and her quaint walloon language before leaving in a hurry, instructed by their mother to flee the hotel before dawn in order to skip the bill. belgium inspired in wilhelm many poems gathered as stavelot in the posthumous collection bories: sex, wine and statelessness art.  , page  of le guetteur mélancolique. after the family settled in paris, wilhelm became a private tutor for a wealthy family, and accompanied them on a tour of germany and the rhineland, using the opportunity to visit prague and vienna as well, between and , this time falling in love with the english governess, annie playden. this trip can be credited for the inclusion of german folklore and the recurring figure of lorelei in rhénanes. he would later go to london to unsuccessfully try and win playden’s heart, in and , writing london-inspired poems such as ‘l’émigrant de landor road’ and ‘la chanson du mal aimé’ (alcools) and striking up a lasting friendship with the albanian intellectual faik bey konitza. the poet’s unconventional upbringing, travels throughout europe – and the love stories attached to them – together with his multilingualism and multiculturalism had a profound influence on his work, which regularly overlaps religious fervour and sexual obsession and is, like him, utterly european despite his pressing desire for ‘un pays, une race, un passeport en règle’ (giladi). his poetry is rooted in more than one place, such as with ‘zone’, set in an undefined elsewhere, or ‘vendémiaire’, spanning multiple european towns and rivers. apollinaire often uses various european myths (campa and read; geyer; naliwajek) as themes, amalgamat- ing them in a hybrid cultural system far from the neoclassic insistence on the rejection of german influences and promotion of a latin heritage, and readily identifies with the figure of orpheus (apollinaire ; décaudin ) who can walk across the ultimate frontier. later, the poet would combine the french versions of two of his given names and become guillaume apollinaire, calling for the protection of the god of music and poetry, and crossing over to a french identity – he who so desperately wanted to become french. to his family, he remained wilhelm, to others mostly kostro. his friends nicknamed him the ‘bouc-en-train’, a portmanteau word combining the boute-en-train (joker), and the horny bouc (billy-goat) (fongaro ), and his fellow soldiers replaced the unpronounceable birthname with the more eloquent transposition ‘cointreau-whisky’ (cornille ). apollinaire’s writings and sense of humour, his drawing too, with a keen eye for grimaces, are readily outrageous and radically modern, sharing in the cubist appetite for dislocations and disruption (debon and read. his contributions to pornography, both as an author, with the dark and oddly comical novel les onze mille verges, and as a publisher, exhuming texts such as those of the marquis de sade from the national library’s enfer collection ( ; ; delon), though a marginal part of his activities, are another of his transgressions, pointing to his dionysian vision of sexual- ity, far from the apollonian patronage. indeed, apollinaire’s writing typically overlaps and hybridises multiple voices and tones, combining irony with ingenuity. apollinaire wrote ‘vendémiaire’ between and – the poem’s swollen rivers are no doubt inspired by the great flood of paris – at a time when he was becoming quite a prom- inent figure within parisian artistic and literary society (campa , – ). this period was also an upsetting one: wrongfully accused of being involved in the theft of the mona lisa, apollinaire had been imprisoned for six days in september (campa , – ). being essentially stateless – although the word had not yet fully entered the european vocabulary – he worried about deportation. this short stay in prison resulted in the writing of ‘À la santé’, a group of six poems within alcools ( – ), but ‘vendémiaire’ also seems to convey something of the young man’s fear and raises the issue of his strangeness (clancier) through the staging of his dreamy enthusiasm and of his fantasised pan-european belonging (ernst and geyer). in a time of rising nationalism, this universalist attitude is is one that is risky and difficult to manage for a foreign poet. the neoclassicals of his time were quick to denounce avant-garde artists as suspiciously cosmopolitan and unpatriotic. as a journalist and a defender of cubism in particular, apollinaire opted to promote cubism as essentially latin, or at least parisian, and thus defensible. his inclusion of german folklore in his work highlights his fundamental disagreement with pan-latinism, but the focus on paris is part of his efforts to ‘récupér[er] le discours nationaliste et panlatiniste tout en l’inversant’ (giladi). bories: sex, wine and statelessnessart.  , page  of the borders of free verse apollinaire is one of the pioneers of free verse (décaudin ; murat , ; delbreil and purnelle). amongst other features, he infuses the form with an apparent disregard for the distinction between free and strict verse, as well as between natural prosody and regular versification. in calligrammes, he transgresses the very body of the verse, using it as a physical sketching line. in la maison des morts (alcools ), he bridges the gap between prose and poetry by cutting up his own prose tale l’obituaire. in alcools, the dropping of all punctua- tion abolishes the neat syntactic borders of sentences, giving priority to the prosodic rhythm of the verse (décaudin ). although his poems promote a fluid association of formal and informal tones, recordings show that when reading his own poems aloud apollinaire inter- preted strict verse following the traditional rules of french versification, whilst his renderings of free verse were closer to standard french pronunciation rules (purnelle), demonstrating an acute awareness of the divide between the two. this finding conflicts with the use apollinaire makes of rhythm and periodicity within his poems. indeed, the near-metrical construction of his free verse, although it does not fit the strict rules of french verse language, is also in contradiction with standard french pronunciation; it is a subtle and precise mix of strict verse and prose, blurring this generally accepted divide. to achieve his canny overlapping of rhythms, apollinaire relies heavily on the metrical knowledge of readers of francophone poetry, on their learnt urge to look for familiar metres and rhythmical structures, and particu- larly on the influence of the alexandrine. the most canonical french verse is without a doubt the + alexandrine metre, with its remarkably stable structure: twelve syllables, distributed in two groups of six syllables each, a caesura separating the two units – the hemistichs – such that one should be able to mark a pause between them (gouvard – ). this line of ‘vendémiaire’, for instance, is a regular alexandrine: ‘hommes de l’avenir — souvenez-vous de moi’ ( ), whilst a subsequent one, in which the caesura runs between the verb and its clitic negation, is a dissonant alexandrine: ‘et que la grèce n’a — pas connue ni l’orient’ ( ). furthermore, an essential attribute of verse is that a line needs to be paired with at least one other line of the same metre, for it is this sameness, this periodicity of syllable groups, that produces the metric value. this necessity is in reality greatly diminished in the case of the alexandrine. to understand french free verse in its specificity, one must keep in mind that a french reader is likely to be heavily influ- enced by his or her training and prior readings, and would therefore be inclined to detect an alexandrine rhythm beneath lines approximating twelve syllables. a metrically exact + is such an unmistakably familiar metre that it can be identified as such even in the absence of a metrical context, as is the case in another poem from alcools, the one-line ‘chantre’ ( ): ‘et l’unique cordeau — des trompettes marines’. in fact, a metrically exact + is acknowledged as a verse line even in the absence of a poetic context, as with this surprisingly classical line which used to be painted onto the doors of the paris metro: ‘le train ne peut partir — que les portes fermées’. the specific influence of the alexandrine on french versification plays a fundamental role in the emergence of free verse, as the alexandrine rhythm is almost always either avoided or evoked, but can hardly be ignored. this intrinsic presence of the tradition of versifica- tion means that the french free verse poets, unavoidably constrained by their relationship with the traditional metres (and, in particular, the alexandrine) cannot actually compose their poems without the shadow of this restraint. some poets succeeded in disregarding the alexandrine, and produced a free verse not haunted by it, at least apparently. this is the case of valery larbaud, whose free verse appears to progressively liberate itself from the double hyphens added by me to signal the location of the caesura. bories: sex, wine and statelessness art.  , page  of alexandrine’s influence, neither mentioning nor avoiding the conspicuous metre. this effort towards a more universal versification is part of a deliberate refusal to submit to a national cultural heritage. yet upon closer inspection, larbaud’s ostensibly international free verse – although an exemplary specimen of the form – can be shown to avoid subtle signals associ- ated with traditional french versification, such as well-defined syntactic groups of six syllables at the beginning of lines, in a purposeful effort towards a ‘blocage des schèmes métriques’ (murat , ). apollinaire’s versification is also bound to traditional metres, and to the alexandrine in particular, with efforts to always very nearly miss it revealing its influence. in addition to metre, another prominent aspect of french poetry is the use of a distinct language. verse language (‘langue des vers’) refers to the set of rules defining how metric syllables are counted in french versification. these rules, which include the prohibition of hiatuses, mostly apply to atonic /e/’s, some of which are counted as metric syllables and some not, depending on their phonetic environment, and to diphthongs, counted either as one syllable (synaeresis) or two (dieresis), depending on the word’s etymology and morphol- ogy. thus, many syllables are counted as metric syllables within verse language that would otherwise be muted by standard pronunciation, lending a particular tempo to french verse. this linguistic specificity works as a signal of verse for a french-speaking audience, and more broadly, plays an important role as a genre marker. moreover, as is the case with any cultur- ally specific practice, mastery of it can be taken as a sign of one’s belonging. apollinaire’s lines force the dropping or maintaining of syllables by suggesting strict metres, displaying a freedom that comes from a complete impregnation with this language-specific aspect of french verse. apollinaire, by playfully transgressing both metre and verse language, indeed by hijacking verse language to distort metrics, exhibits a conspicuous mastery of this daunting cultural acquisition. significantly, the opening and closing poems of alcools, ‘zone’ and ‘vendémiaire’ respectively, both make a particularly visible display of this mastery-transgression stance. these two unusually long poems are evocations of epic poetry, with references to historical remembrance (‘hommes de l’avenir souvenez-vous de moi’, alcools ), the use of epithets (‘c’est ferdine la fausse ou léa l’attentive’, alcools ), alexandrines, some very exact, the archaic feel of imperfect rhymes and the frequent use of a simple couplet rhyme scheme. and, simultaneously, adding to the floating narrating voice and sense of time, they set the tone for a bold dislocation of traditional verse, with inconsistent rhyming, unexpected syl- lable counts (‘À la fin tu es las de ce monde anci-en’, alcools ) or the collision of strict alexandrines not just with free verse but with lines closely approximating the alexandrine metre, a destabilising proximity. in ‘vendémiaire’, as apollinaire takes advantage of the national metrical situation, the ver- sification constantly slips from strict alexandrines to free verse, back and forth until the two become closely blended. one is unsure whether to call this versification free verse, for it does not fit the expectation of free verse as non-metrical. the syllable counts are all but random. if a free verse is ‘uncounted, unrhymed, without caesura’ (roubaud ), then this is clearly not the case of ‘vendémiaire’. moreover, the actual syllable counts are very often approximate, deliberately undecidable. alongside many + alexandrines, a typical line in ‘vendémiaire’ might have something in the range of twelve syllables, but reducible to a + count by bend- ing the rules of syllable counting, such as in ‘que le mystère clôt comme une porte la maison’ ( ). with fourteen syllables according to verse language (‘que le mystère clôt comme une porte la maison’), or eleven according to standard pronunciation (‘*que le mystèr’ clôt comme un’ port’ la maison’), this line approximates twelve syllables. the first six (‘que le mystère clôt’) are a well-defined syntactical unit, quite naturally followed by a caesura, guarantee- ing a remarkable kinship with the alexandrine. the remainder of the line can be reduced bories: sex, wine and statelessnessart.  , page  of to a six-syllable hemistich by switching to the rules of standard pronunciation for syllable counting, thus applying a different set of rules to each half of the line. this contrasting and contradictory metrical structure, far from being accidental, is typical of apollinaire’s playful versification, and offers a clear case of its staged and carefully proportioned instability. more ambiguous are the many lines that begin with a hemistich-like six-syllable segment, carrying on with a syllable count close to twelve – thus vividly bringing the alexandrine to mind – but which no amount of twisting can reduce to twelve syllables, such as the six-, then seven-, syl- lable groups of: ‘nous voici ô paris — nos maisons nos habitants’ ( ). this layered play on dissonance also expresses the complexity of an ambivalent desire for the stability and safety which derive from a sense of belonging, alongside a resistance to national recuperation. simply put, the free verse of ‘vendémiaire’ is a vacillating one, unequivocally yet loosely attached to the alexandrine, just tightly enough to clearly evoke the classical metre, but not so tightly that it would approximate actual strict verse. this oscillation highlights the tension between verse language – used by strict french verse – and standard language, which nor- mally obeys a separate set of rules, and exemplifies what roman jakobson would later describe as the violence exerted by poetry upon the language ( ). the reader of ‘vendémiaire’ sees themselves time and again torn between two opposite urges: to yield to the alexandrine’s metrical properties, forcing the lines into the familiar mould, or to choose and enforce a sin- gle rule – that of verse language or that of standard language – for the keeping or dropping of syllables. this double – or triple – movement subtly yet boldly undermines the separation between strict and free verse, introducing a distance and weaving irony within the fabric of the poem. apollinaire’s propensity to blur the limits of versification is in keeping with his talent for the mixing of subjects and tones. his darker and more anxious themes are readily paired with comic tricks, whilst sincere exaltations are mixed with parody. this sys- tematic and joyous blending is closely connected with versification choices, and is a typical trait of apollinaire’s style, perpetuated by some of his many heirs (alexandre ), notably raymond queneau (bories , ). apollinaire systematically mixes old and new tech- niques in his versification (décaudin ; bobillot) and ‘vendémiaire’ is no exception. one example is the use of assonances, or imperfect rhymes, which bring a distinctive medieval tone (gouvard), but without the expected regular rhyme patterns, leaving the long poem without stanzas, lacking in structure, as if limping. furthermore, in the absence of punctuation, the reader is required to supply a syntactic structure for the text, and is most likely to rely for this on a prosody dictated by the versifica- tion. thus, as one often stumbles upon verse lines whose likely metrical rhythm is incompatible with the prosody of natural language, the versification’s ambiguity is used to layer and enrich the meaning, adding to its depth. one example is ‘l’océan châtre peu à peu l’ancien continent’ ( ). here the reader, encountering a rather long line without knowing its syllable count, is unwittingly brought to assume that it constitutes a twelve-syllable alexandrine. thus, seeking a + metre, one naturally expects a syntactic break after the sixth syllable and initially forms the sentence ‘l’océan châtre peu’, only to find the phrase ‘peu à peu’ spanning the hypoth- esised caesura, to produce ‘l’océan châtre peu à peu’, a very different sentence. besides this metrical kinship with the alexandrine, ‘vendémiaire’ is a self-declared ‘chan- son’ ( ). of course, one can suspect that this is a chanson à boire, a drinking song, with the entire text being dominated by wine, and the initial ‘chanson de paris’ ( ) eventually becom- ing ‘chants d’universelle ivrognerie’ ( ). yet one cannot but notice the almost complete absence of sung verse. the closest traces of what french versification might traditionally admit as sung verse are two instances of six-syllable verse, three of seven-syllable verse and three eight-syllable lines. but there is one true feature of song to be found in the versification of ‘vendémiaire’, and it lies rather in its very inconsistency. sung verse is strongly constrained by the melody, which can balance out some discrepancies in the syllable count. apollinaire bories: sex, wine and statelessness art.  , page  of selects this tenuous song trait – the greater tolerance towards imperfect syllable count – for its understated powers of evocation. rather than choosing his metres from the repertoire of song traditions, he takes advantage of his reader’s familiarity with the flexibility of sung verse to create a vacillating impression of song. all these formal choices made by apollinaire – the blending of old with new, the playful disappointing of the reader’s expectations, the stacking of incompatible meanings, the trans- gression of generic and stylistic norms – belong to the more general trend of ‘découpage et discontinuité’ that makes him a prominent modernist poet and possibly the ‘précurseur des cubistes’ (oster-stierle) towards and beyond a ‘universelle ivrognerie’ ‘vendémiaire’ conjures up a stateless man’s fantasy: a world without borders (boschetti). the many references to geographical borders are mostly fluid, quite literally, starting with the atlantic ocean and the mediterranean sea. the island of sicily (an unexpected inclusion here) serves as a border too, somewhere between italy and the sea. the many rivers – rhône, rhin, moselle, saône and the seine – miraculously carry wine rather than water, and throw themselves into paris’ welcoming arms, acting as links rather than as limits. in this free trav- eller’s world, the geographical milestones are cities, listed by order of closeness: paris first, at the centre, then rennes, quimper, vannes, lyon, koblenz and rome, whilst countries are stubbornly absent, states negated. only france is named, and not individually, but rather as part of a sequence: ‘villes de france et d’europe et du monde’ ( ). the metaphor of rivers as wine spreads to the cities of europe (‘venez toutes couler’), as if one fluidity freed the cities, rivers and peoples of europe from national borders and from cultural conventions. meanwhile, the very idea of singular countries is voided, replaced by the fluid belonging of a ‘universelle’ communion. transgressions in the poem go beyond the drunkenness and the border crossing; they affect the very texture of language, exemplifying apollinaire’s particular ‘ambiguous expressiveness’ (mathews ). sexual double meanings are ubiquitous. with five instances of ‘mains’ ( , , , , ), two of ‘doigts’ ( , ), two of ‘face’ ( , ), one of ‘bouches’ ( ), ‘lèvres’ ( ), ‘corps’ ( ) and ‘caresse’ ( ), with ‘mains innombrables’ ( ) and ‘ouvriers nus’ ( ) to conjure up the image of either an orgy or a brothel. alongside the versification, apollinaire takes advantage of the graphic – and to a lesser extent phonetic – similarity between ‘villes’ and ‘filles’. this playful pun allows an artful proliferation and blurring of meanings, and partici- pates in the systematic blending of sacred and profane, so typical of alcools and particularly visible in ‘vendémiaire’ through the blasphemous sanctification of sex. et les villes du nord répondirent gaiement ( + ) ô paris nous voici boissons vivantes ( + ) les viriles cités où dégoisent et chantent ( + ) les métalliques saints de nos saintes usines ( + ) nos cheminées à ciel ouvert engrossent les nuées ( + ) ( – ) the double meaning starts with ‘les villes du nord’ ( ); the prosopopoeia and the spelling together suggest an alternative reading, ‘les filles du nord’. from this point on, two paral- lel interpretations coexist. particularly in the plural form, ‘filles’ can mean not just girls but prostitutes, or ‘filles de joie’, hence their cheerful submissiveness: ‘ô paris nous voici’ ( ). the metallic ‘saints’ ( ) are also the homophonic seins, and their superposition with the idea of sanctity adds to the double meaning. the chimneys obviously echo the word ‘viriles’ ( ) just above, and on this very point, metrical pressure is applied to isolate ‘ciel’. two + bories: sex, wine and statelessnessart.  , page  of alexandrines and a + decasyllable are followed by a slightly longer fourteen-syllable line, free verse so to speak, but free verse under a lot of contextual pressure: ‘nos cheminées à ciel ouvert engrossent les nuées’ ( ). lulled by the preceding three lines, and in the absence of punctuation, one unwittingly expects another six-syllable hemistich-like group to start the fourth line, with a pause after ‘nos cheminées à ciel’, blocking the phrase ‘à ciel ouvert’ and offering ‘cheminées à ciel’ which hardly means anything per se. in highlighting the ‘ciel’, apollinaire stresses its ambiguity, as it is simultaneously the sky above the northern industrial towns, the more religious meaning of ‘ciel’ as heavens and maybe even – as would suggest the nearby density of sexual double meanings – the canopy above a bed: the ‘ciel de lit’. again, polysemy reflects a central aspect of the poem and of apollinaire’s poetics: the tight association of sacred and profane themes. this polysemy is reinforced by a canny appeal to metrical habits and expectations. under this canopy or within this sacred sky, clouds are being impregnated by chimneys and are explicitly compared with a more mythological cloud, similarly impregnated by ixion after zeus gave it the shape of hera. the ‘ciel’ goes on appear- ing several times throughout the poem, reactivating its initial insinuation. the double mean- ing of ‘villes du nord’/‘*filles du nord’ extends to the ‘villes du midi’ ( ), until eventually there are ‘villes […] par centaines’ ( ) responding to paris’ mesmerising song. this brings together two separate ideas: of a transnational communion and of an orgy, with the many towns shipping their wine to paris understood as communicants at one or as sexual partners, again fusing the religious and sexual themes with a more political positioning. at the poem’s halfway point, as bodies are being shared (‘partagez-vous nos corps’: ), the mediterranean sea ‘se retire’ ( ) and there follows a ‘râle infini’ ( ). soon after, ‘le détroit avait changé de face’ ( ), in an equivocal and obscure segment. not only are sexual double meanings used alongside pious themes, but they carry an obvious biblical subtext, with images of the last supper or of the crossing of the red sea – a biblical image of migrants – weaving a mystical component into the wine and sex themes of the poem. double meanings are everywhere, yet utterly lack consistency. one example is the accumulation of first-person pronouns. one ‘je’ ( , , , , , , , , , , ) might be the narrator or paris; most of the cities mentioned have their own ‘nous’ ( , , , , ), as do the rivers ( , , ). the very word ‘ville’ is partly homophonic with the poet’s first name wilhelm and seems to oscillate between an image of self, in the voice of paris, and an image of otherness carried by the numerous ‘villes’ that are also ‘filles’. the almost farcical orgy suggested seems to come to a predictable climaxing moment, at least judging by the versification. indeed, when plotting all the verse lengths in the poem (figure ), we see very clearly how it is overwhelmingly dominated by twelve-syllable lines, but with meaningful disruptions. throughout the poem, the near continuity of the alexandrine metre, with the sense of order it carries, is punctually interrupted (although never truly threatened) by other verse lengths, including by a number of near-alexandrines. this matches the slippery progression of mean- ing, tripping up the reader throughout the poem. yet towards the end, from line to line , after the sexual theme has reached its peak, this dominance of the alexandrines is tempo- rarily abolished, replaced by an explosive diversity of verse lengths, from six to seventeen, with only three alexandrines out of seventeen lines. staging a sudden and brief disorientation, this moment of metric discrepancy in ‘vendémiaire’ features a disparate list of mixed elements, whether religious (‘crucifix’, ‘vin pur’, ‘adorations’, ‘douleur divine’), military (‘armées rangées en bataille’, ‘actions’, ‘mouvements’), natural (‘forêts’, ‘lacustres’, ‘fleurs’, ‘végétation’) or amo- rous (‘au bord des yeux de celle que j’aime tant’, ‘bouches’, ‘accouplements’). it also dwells on the hopelessness that comes with endings: ‘tout ce que je ne sais pas dire | tout ce que je ne connaîtrai jamais’, ‘je vous ai bu et ne fus pas désaltéré’, ‘je connus dès lors quelle saveur a l’univers’, ‘je suis ivre d’avoir bu tout l’univers’. and in the final lines of the poem, as the bories: sex, wine and statelessness art.  , page  of versification settles down in a postcoital or hungover tiredness, a new ‘je’ we can only assume to be the poet erupts: ‘écoutez-moi je suis le gosier de paris’ ( ). a new religion repeatedly throughout the poem, wine is both described as ‘pur’ ( , , ) and associ- ated with sex, or incorporated in a religious theme with ‘anges’ ( ), ‘saints’ ( , ), ‘divines paroles’ ( ) to mention but a few. this holy wine points to quite an unorthodox eucharist, occasionally countered by mentions of rome which generally assumes the role of an out- lier against paris’ exuberance. a sign of apollinaire’s ambivalence, rome’s role within the poem is initially that of a killjoy: ‘et j’entendis soudain ta voix impérieuse | ô rome | maudire d’un seul coup mes anciennes pensées’ ( – ). the ‘impérieuse’ italian city is reminiscent of apollinaire’s colourful and ferocious mother, and curses the poet’s probably impure ‘anci- ennes pensées’. throughout the poem, and although caesuras are often threatened by inter- nal enjambments, apollinaire generally avoids excessive enjambments between lines, with two noteworthy exceptions, both of them in the line group featuring rome: ‘macèrent dans le vin que je t’offre et qui a’ ( ) and ‘une autre liberté végétale dont tu’ ( ). rome here is placed in opposition to paris and other cities, carrying wine but not joining in the feast, markedly set apart from the rest of the world. it is as though the city where wilhelm grew up, the language he first spoke, were not to be simply thrown in with the rest of the world. this relative puritanism might be a reaction to the poet’s family history and a reference to a time – the kostrowicky family left rome when wilhelm was seven – when he was still unaware of his mother’s activities: it was thus a time and place of innocent piety. moreover, the exclusion of rome from the secular communion proposed by apollinaire marks a detach- ment from catholicism, parallel to the creation of a new and blasphemous piousness. eventually, paris becomes sacred too, ‘parce que c’est dans toi que dieu peut devenir’ ( ), but the new religion displayed in the poem is of a peculiar nature: the vertical axis plots verse lengths and the horizontal axis plots all lines in ‘vendémiaire’, from to . i obtained the data for this figure as part of a research project funded by the swiss national science foundation: ‘métrique et vers libre’. in this figure, the verse lengths are measured according to the likely metrical choices encouraged by the poet – a useful measure for apollinaire or for Émile verhaeren for instance – even though my data also include verse lengths measured according to the verse language or according to standard pronunciation. figure : verse lengths for every line in ‘vendémiaire’. le ng th (a cc or di ng to v er se la ng ua ge ) lines bories: sex, wine and statelessnessart.  , page  of mais nous liquides mains jointes pour la prière nous menons vers le sel les eaux aventurières et la ville entre nous comme entre des ciseaux ne reflète en dormant nul feu dans ses deux eaux dont quelque sifflement lointain parfois s’élance troublant dans leur sommeil les filles de coblence ( – ) the two followers speaking here are the rhine and moselle rivers, rivers of wine apparently, and their mission has more to do with affairs (‘aventurières’) than with piety. the image of the town held between them as between scissors, a rather accurate representation of the topography of koblenz where the rhine splits into two rivers, rhine and moselle, combines with the ‘trouble’ experienced at night by the ‘filles de coblence’, to conjure up the image of two legs holding on to a body. once the theme combining religion, wine and sex is well established, the poet becomes entrusted with a godlike mission. he must create the world afresh, from the sacred wine: ‘l’univers tout entier concentré dans ce vin’ ( ). this is followed by the enumeration of crea- tions to fill the world, including several sexual double meanings, such as ‘hommes à genoux’ ( ), kneeling for prayer or for oral sex, followed by the ‘fer’ (‘iron’ or ‘sword’, ). within the enumeration of the poet’s fanciful genesis is a reference to versification. the ingredients are: six and six, to make + alexandrines; single units, to unexpectedly add or subtract counted syllables; and kilos of twisted paper. but, in truth, is it the paper that is twisted or the verse? tous les noms six par six les nombres un à un des kilos de papier tordus comme des flammes et ceux-là qui sauront blanchir nos ossements les bons vers immortels qui s’ennuient patiemment ( – ) thus, just before he gets to taste the sacred wine himself, apollinaire has seen to the creation of a flexible set of versification instruments, bringing together the ‘papier tordu’ of free verse and the ‘bons vers immortels’, the old alexandrines, rooting himself in the french poetic tradition whilst allowing himself to wander away from its rules and expectations. the reli- gion he pretends to found brings together poetry, pleasure and freedom (burgos, debon and décaudin ). ultimately, the ambivalent versification of ‘vendémiaire’ is quite representative of alcools as a whole. apollinaire chooses to harness the reader’s familiarity with versification and use it as a powerful tool to trip us up. taking this play on expectations to the limit between free and strict verse confers a vacillating movement upon his lines, one that is encountered fre- quently throughout the collection. the reader is continuously kept on edge, unsure about the rhythm or even the meanings, and can never truly anticipate the metre of the next line or ascertain the syntax of a verse. and this could perhaps be how the poet becomes godlike, by escaping predictability. he takes advantage of this unstable versification to address personal issues of instability and insecurity in a somewhat mischievous manner. this insecurity and the exaltation of the adopted language and culture is also likely to be a reaction to wilhelm’s fear of being deported. ‘vendémiaire’ is a touching exhibit of apollinaire’s attachment both to paris and to multiculturalism, of his excitement when faced with such a liberating city. it is a poem of systematic ambiguity with double versification, double meanings and ambigu- ous syntax – a delicate balancing act, hovering on the border. exaltation and worry cohabit bories: sex, wine and statelessness art.  , page  of in a form of irony, just as do the two possible readings of his versification in a calculated dissonance. one can choose to see here a loosened use of the familiar, traditional, lulling alexandrine, or to find only chaos in the accumulation of near-alexandrines, of dissonant lines, in the lack of a strong and stable rule. obviously, both readings should be considered simultaneously, as the purposeful hesitation is meant to create a superposition of the two rhythms in the reader’s mind, linked to the poem’s polyphony, its overcrowding of actions and discourses. rather than a world without borders, apollinaire offers the image of a world full of bor- ders, and the exhilaration comes not from their abolition but from crossing them. to stage his new religion, apollinaire agglomerates various myths. these matter immensely to him, as they bring together european cultures and turn his wealth of sometimes obscure knowledge into something fresh and relatable, a voice of his own. the stateless immigrant has mastered his adoptive country’s cultural norms so well that he can actually offer a subtle play on their transgression, producing a poetry that hovers on the border between free and strict verse. apollinaire’s fascination with orpheus is well known. here, paris’ song is able not only to arouse but to hypnotise and physically move a vast world. the poet’s orphic song overrules borders and boundaries. the world’s order is altered: rivers flow up 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Étude métrique et prosodique.’ textyles, , pp. – . print. doi: https://doi.org/ . /textyles. read, peter. apollinaire et les mamelles de tirésias: la revanche d’Éros. rennes: presses universitaires de rennes, . print. roubaud, jacques. la vieillesse d’alexandre, essai sur quelques États récents du vers français ( ). paris: ivrea, . print. https://doi.org/ . /caief. . https://journals.openedition.org/contextes/ https://journals.openedition.org/contextes/ https://doi.org/ . /textyles. bories: sex, wine and statelessness art.  , page  of how to cite this article: bories, a-s sex, wine and statelessness: apollinaire’s verse without borders in ‘vendémiaire’. modern languages open, ( ): pp. – . doi: https://doi. org/ . /mlo.v i . published: november copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access modern languages open is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by liverpool university press. https://doi.org/ . /mlo.v i . https://doi.org/ . /mlo.v i . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / 	crossing of borders 	the borders of free verse 	towards and beyond a ‘universelle ivrognerie’ 	a new religion 	references 	figure research article spatial (artistic) networks: from deconstructing integer-functions to visual arts ernesto estrada and puri pereira-ramos department of mathematics & statistics, university of strathclyde, richmond street, glasgow g hq, uk perart studio, murgas , a coruna, spain correspondence should be addressed to ernesto estrada; ernesto.estrada@strath.ac.uk received september ; accepted december ; published january academic editor: gerard olivar-tost copyright © ernesto estrada and puri pereira-ramos. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. deconstructivism is an aesthetically appealing architectonic style. here, we identify some general characteristics of this style, such as decomposition of the whole into parts, superposition of layers, and conservation of the memory of the whole. using these attributes, we propose a method to deconstruct functions based on integers. using this integer-function deconstruction we generate spatial networks which display a few artistic attributes such as (i) biomorphic shapes, (ii) symmetry, and (iii) beauty. in building these networks, the deconstructed integer-functions are used as the coordinates of the nodes in a unit square, which are then joined according to a given connection radius like in random geometric graphs (rggs). some graph-theoretic invariants of these networks are calculated and compared with the classical rggs. we then show how these networks inspire an artist to create artistic compositions using mixed techniques on canvas and on paper. finally, we call for avoiding that the applicability of (network) sciences should not go in detriment of curiosity-driven, and aesthetic-driven, researches. we claim that the aesthetic of network research, and not only its applicability, would be an attractor for new minds to this field. . introduction there are multiple connections between networks and the visual arts. the study of graph drawing is an old topic in computer sciences and one of its main goals is the repre- sentation of networks in aesthetically appealing ways [ , ]. in modern network theory, there have been extraordinary advances in the visualization of giant complex networks, which can be considered as pieces of art by themselves [ ]. a different direction is the use of networks as an artistic mean of expression. the artistic work of tomás saraceno is an example of this kind of symbiosis where the author has used spider webs to create a universe of expressions [ ]. other artists melt networks into evocative images of the real-world to produce artistic designs. this is the case of the artist j. k. rofling who has produced many of these symbiotic images [ ]. some examples of the work of j. k. rofling are illustrated in figure . here, we explore a different approach to connect net- works and the visual arts. essentially, we start from the con- struction of spatial networks based on simple rules, namely, the location of points in a unit square. however, the coor- dinates of these points are generated by a mathematical transformation of integer numbers that generates artistic patterns on the plane. the inspiration for such transformation of integers and functions based on them comes from the “poststructuralist” school of philosophy and literary criticism known as deconstruction. this school started in the late after the influential book de la grammatologie ( ) by the french philosopher derrida [ ]. this school of philo- sophical thinking influenced any areas of intellectual and creative activity including novels, poetry, architecture, the fine arts, and music. in architecture in particular, the term “deconstructivism” was adopted since the end of the s [ ]. according to derrida this architectural style “is not simply the technique of an architect who knows how to deconstruct what has been constructed but a probing which touches upon the technique itself, upon the authority of the architec- tural metaphor and thereby constitutes its own architectural rhetoric” (cited by hoteit in [ ]). hindawi complexity volume , article id , pages https://doi.org/ . / / http://orcid.org/ - - - https://doi.org/ . / / complexity (a) (b) figure : two of the works produced by j. k. rofling and taken from [ ] with permission of the artist. (a) the trand. (b) the guys. (a) (b) figure : (a) city of capitals in moscow ibc, russia. (b) diagram of city of culture of galicia, santiago de compostela, spain, by peter eisenman. we do not pretend here to make a complete analysis of the deconstructivism in architecture but mainly of having a basic idea of its principles to be applied beyond its original fron- tiers. we then notice that the architectural deconstructivism looks initially as a fragmentation of the buildings which lack any visual logic. however, the deconstructing work accounts not only for this fragmentation but also for keeping a “memory” of the original composition in such a way that it “remembers” what it was in the beginning, that is, a building. in the city of capitals in moscow ibc, russia, which is illustrated in figure (a), the building is deconstructed into its unit block, that is, a cube, which is them “multiplied” to create again a tower with a different shape as the traditional ones. another characteristic of deconstructivism is that the whole work must superimpose elements in such a way that “the design is produced, and the idea follows as its result.” as described by hoteit [ ] one of these examples is the city of culture of galicia, santiago de compostela, spain, designed by eisenman. according to hoteit [ ] “eisenman was mostly known for using the superimposition of layers.” in his creation of the city of culture of galicia “eisenman determined the following four local traces: the downtown’s historical street grid; the typography of a hill; the abstract cartesian grid; and the symbol of the city of santiago, which is the scallop shell. then, he superimposed these four abstracted traces to create an imaginary site condition, which became a real site for his project” (see also [ ]). this idea is illustrated in figure (b). the connection with mathematical ideas here is evident. the superposition of layers can be imitated by the sum of parts and the compositional part can be obtained by multiplying the deconstructed parts such that we can recover certain “memory” from the original object. there are of course several ways of imitating these two characteristics of deconstructivism, but we have selected these two for the sake of mathematical convenience. this idea attempts to follow the existing line of connection between mathematical objects and complexity visual arts. this includes among others knots [ , ], mosaics and tiles [ , ], fourier series [ ], topological tori [ ], and fractal curves [ ], all of which produce artistic patterns of undoubtful beauty by themselves. it can also be argued that some works in the cubism move- ment show elements of deconstruction. indeed, analytic cub- ism is seen as an influential stream for deconstructivism via the work of frank gehry. analytical cubism includes impor- tant paints by picasso, braque, metzinger, and others [ , ]. here, again, the principles of fragmenting, integrating, and superimposing are relevant in the analysis of these works [ ]. focusing only on these three principles to understand decon- struction is a clear oversimplification. however, we consider them here as the angular stone for what we will consider in the current work. here, we are concerned with a formula- tion of deconstruction principles in mathematics. . deconstructing integer-based functions formulating deconstructivist principles for the whole of mathematics is a too ambitious project for a single paper. instead, we focus here on integers and functions of integers. then, the question is how to deconstruct an integer? the first idea should be to consider the individual digits of an integer as its building blocks. that is, for an integer 𝑥 written in a given base 𝑏, it is represented by 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑏𝑛+𝑎 𝑏𝑛− +𝑎 𝑏𝑛− + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +𝑎𝑛− 𝑏+𝑎𝑛, ( ) where 𝑎𝑖 ∈ z are nonnegative integers, which can be con- sidered as the building blocks of 𝑥. for instance, the building blocks of𝑥 = are , , , and . here the “whole” is repre- sented by the integer, which in architecture should be the tower. the blocks are the digits forming that whole, like the cubes in the tower. now, we should proceed to the “superposition of layers” part. here, we simply consider the function that sums the digits of the integer 𝑥 in the base 𝑏 [ ]: 𝑆𝑏 (𝑥) = 𝑛 ∑ 𝑖= 𝑎𝑖 = ⌊log 𝑏 𝑥⌋ ∑ 𝑘= 𝑏𝑘 (𝑥 mod 𝑏𝑘+ −𝑥 mod 𝑏𝑘). ( ) for instance, for 𝑥 = , the integration will produce 𝑆 (𝑥) = . these sequences for different bases 𝑏 are stored in the on-line encyclopaedia of integer sequences [ , ]; for instance, a is the sequence for 𝑏 = . in order to complete the deconstruction of the integer we need the “recovery of the memory” of the original object. that is, we consider the product of the integer 𝑥 by 𝑆 (𝑥) as the final deconstruction of the integer 𝑥 [ ]: 𝑥𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑛 ∑ 𝑖= 𝑎𝑖. ( ) in this way, we have that a given integer is first dismem- bered into its digits; then the digits are superimposed to each other as the different layers of the integer using the digit-sum function. finally, we “recover” the memory of the original number by multiplying the integer by its digit-sum. hereafter, we consider only the base 𝑏 = ; thus 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑏. using this approach, the deconstructed integers “remember” something about their original numbers. for instance, ̂ = , ̂ = , ̂ = , ̂ = , ̂ = , ̂ = , and ̂ = (see sequence a in [ ]). however, it does not mean that 𝑥𝑏 is different for each integer. for instance, ̂ = ̂ = . let us now extend this approach to any function based on integers. let𝑓(𝑥)be a function of the number𝑥, for example, sin(𝑥). then, the sum of digit-functions 𝑓(𝑥) : z → r as the function defined on the integers, such that 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑓(𝑎 )+𝑓(𝑎 )+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +𝑓(𝑎𝑛))𝑓(𝑥) . ( ) for negative integers −𝑥, if the function 𝑓(−𝑥) exists, we define 𝑓(−𝑥) = (𝑓(𝑎 )+𝑓(𝑎 )+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +𝑓(𝑎𝑛))𝑓(−𝑥). ( ) we then consider the plot of pairs of functions 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑔(𝑡) for the integers 𝑡 ≤ 𝑛/ such that 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡). ( ) if the functions 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑔(𝑡) are also defined for negative arguments we obtain the corresponding transforms for −𝑛/ ≤ 𝑡. we are going to use these functions to build spatial networks as described in the next section. . building spatial networks in this section, we define our strategy for building spatial graphs based on the deconstruction of integer-functions. this strategy is based on the random geometric graphs (rggs). thus, we first explain the way in which rggs are built. the rgg is defined by distributing uniformly and independently 𝑛points in the unit𝑑-dimensional cube[ , ]𝑑 [ ]. hereafter we consider only the -dimensional case. then, two points are connected by an edge if their euclidean distance is at most 𝑅, which is a given fixed number known as the connection radius. that is, we create a disk of radius𝑅centered at each node, and every node inside that disk is connected to the central node as illustrated in figure . a few important structural parameters of rggs have been determined analytically in the literature (see, e.g., [ ]). now, let us consider the process 𝑇 that generates 𝑛 points in the unit square according to the transforms of integer- functions defined in the previous section. for instance, let us consider − ≤ 𝑡 ≤ and make the following trans- formation. transform (𝑇 ). 𝑥 = �̂�, 𝑦 = { { { ŝin𝑡, 𝑡 ≤ −ŝin𝑡, 𝑡 > . ( ) complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure : illustration of a rgg created with nodes embedded into a unit square where the nodes are connected if they are at a eu- clidean distance smaller than or equal to 𝑅 = . . notice that we consider the trigonometric functions of the numbers in degrees not in radians. for instance, sin𝑡 means “sine of 𝑡 degrees.” then, we plot every point on the unit square according to its coordinates (𝑥,𝑦) defined before as illustrated in figure (a). using the approach to construct rggs described before we construct the network for a given value of 𝑅. that is, after placing the points in the unit square we center a disk of radius 𝑅 on each point and connect to it every other point which is inside the corresponding disk. here we will use radii which guarantee the connectivity of the graph—the study of the connectivity of these graphs is beyond the scope of the current work. for instance, in figure (b) we illustrate the network created by using 𝑅 = . . . spatial (artistic) networks it is straightforward to realize that the previously obtained spatial graph (figure (b)) displays a few artistic attributes: (i) biomorphic shape, that is, suggestive in shape of a living organism (a butterfly in this case); (ii) symmetry; and (iii) beauty, just to mention three. the appearance of a biomorphic shape here is just by chance and we have selected in this work only those transforms of integer-functions which produce artistically appealing shapes. however, it must be emphasized that both—beauty and interpretation of shapes—are on the eyes of the beholder, and different observers can see different things in these and other spatial networks created from integer-functions. here we coin the name spatial “artistic” networks (sans) for the spatial networks created using the previously described method. let us now consider other alternatives to the integer- function deconstruction to see which artistic objects we can obtain. artistic composition is the result of artist cre- ativity and it includes a series of general rules that can be implemented computationally. here,wemainly follow a hand- made compositional creation in order to glue series of inte- ger-function transforms into single art works. for instance, let us consider the following parametric equations. transform (𝑇 ). 𝑥 = �̂�, 𝑦 = ĉos𝑡+ �̂� ⋅ ŝin𝑡. ( ) the resulting network for 𝑅 = . with 𝑛 = points is illustrated in figure where we have used − ≤ 𝑡 ≤ and the nodes are colored according to their closeness centrality. transform (𝑇 ). another example is obtained by transform- ing the astroid curve using the integer-digit transform. first, let us remind the reader that the astroid is the curve: 𝑥 = cos (𝑡) and 𝑦 = sin (𝑡). then, we make the transformation of the coordinates as explained before, such that we have 𝑥 = (ĉos𝑡) , 𝑦 = (ŝin𝑡) . ( ) the corresponding san is illustrated in figure , where we have used again − ≤ 𝑡 ≤ and the nodes are colored according to their closeness centrality. transform (𝑇 ). the involute of the circle—𝑥 = cos𝑡 + 𝑡sin𝑡;𝑦 = sin𝑡−𝑡cos𝑡—can also be transformed accordingly for − ≤ 𝑡 ≤ such that we obtain the following parametric equations: 𝑥 = ŝin𝑡− 𝑡 ĉos𝑡, 𝑦 = −ĉos𝑡− �̂� ŝin𝑡, ( ) which produce the network illustrated in figure . transform (𝑇 ). finally, we obtain the integer-function transformation of the cardioid curve, such that 𝑥 = ĉos𝑡+ ĉos( 𝑡), 𝑦 = ĉos𝑡− ŝin( 𝑡), ( ) where ĉos( 𝑡) = (cos( 𝑎 )+ cos( 𝑎 )+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + cos( 𝑎𝑛))cos( 𝑡) ŝin( 𝑡) = (sin( 𝑎 )+ sin( 𝑎 )+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + sin( 𝑎𝑛))sin( 𝑡) , ( ) with 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑏𝑛+𝑎 𝑏𝑛− +𝑎 𝑏𝑛− + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅+𝑎𝑛− 𝑏+𝑎𝑛 represented in the decimal basis 𝑏 = . the spatial graph based on this transformation is illustrated in figure where we have used − ≤ 𝑡 ≤ . complexity − . . − − × (a) (b) figure : illustration of the process to build a spatial network based on integer-function deconstruction. (a) distribution of the points obtained from the transform 𝑇 on a square. (b) construction of the spatial graph using a connection radius 𝑅 = . with 𝑛 = , points and coloring the nodes according to their closeness centrality. figure : spatial network constructed from the distribution of points in a unit square according to the transform𝑇 using a connec- tion radius 𝑅 = . with 𝑛 = points and coloring the nodes according to their closeness centrality. . network invariants of sans here we consider a few invariants of the networks con- structed by using the five transformations previously studied and compare them with the same invariants for the analogous rgg. that is, we construct rggs with the same number of nodes and connection radius than the sans created by the previously defined transforms. these invariants are as figure : spatial network constructed from the distribution of points in a unit square according to the transform𝑇 using a connec- tion radius 𝑅 = . with 𝑛 = points and coloring the nodes according to their closeness centrality. follows: the number of nodes 𝑛, the number of edges 𝑚, the edge density𝛿, the maximum degree𝑘max, the average watts- strogatz clustering coefficient 𝐶, the global transitivity index 𝐶, average shortest path distance 𝑑, network diameter 𝑑max, and the degree assortativity𝑟(for definitions and meaning see [ ]). in table , we give the values of these graph-theoretic invariants for the sans and rggs studied here. complexity table : graph-theoretic invariants of the spatial “artistic” networks described in section . 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 san rgg san rgg san rgg san rgg san rgg 𝑅 . . . . . 𝑛 , , , , , 𝑚 , , , , , , , , , , 𝛿 . . . . . . . . . . 𝑘max 𝐶 . . . . . . . . . . 𝐶 . . . . . . . . . . 𝑑 . . . . . . . . . . 𝑑max 𝑟 . . . . . . . . . . figure : spatial network constructed from the distribution of points in a unit square according to the transform𝑇 using a connec- tion radius 𝑅 = . with 𝑛 = points and coloring the nodes according to their closeness centrality. in general, the graph-theoretic properties of sans are relatively similar to those of the rggs. however, there are some differences, particularly for the maximum degree and maximum distance. that is, the sans always have significantly larger 𝑘max and 𝑑max than the corresponding rggs. these two parameters are larger in the sans as a con- sequence of the higher concentration of points in the center of the figure in relation to their peripheries. this situation is avoided in the rgg due to the random and homogeneous distributions of the points in the unit square. the similarities in terms of clustering coefficients and assortativity—notice that all networks are degree assortative—between sans and rggs are remarkable. we, however, are not claiming any application of these graphs for solving problems in the real- world, apart from being a source of artistic inspiration. then, the analysis of these properties is mostly a curiosity-driven one and not the search for useful properties of these graphs. in the next section, we explore how these networks inspire some art. figure : spatial network constructed from the distribution of points in a unit square according to the transform𝑇 using a connec- tion radius 𝑅 = . with 𝑛 = , points and coloring the nodes according to their closeness centrality. . artistic inspiration science is sometimes seen as a dry and cold activity, such that it is not able to inspire those which are not involved in it. in earlier definitions of the humanities as “the branches of polite learning, especially the ancient classics and literature of aesthetics, as distinguishes from informational or utilitarian values” the sciences are marginalized as “informational but unaesthetic, that is, as useful but grubby” [ ]. many efforts are currently done for attracting the attention of the general public to the beauty of scientific discoveries. in mathematical sciences, for instance, there are initiatives, such as bridges [ , ], which bring together mathematicians and artists to produce artistic works from, or inspired by, mathematics. the journal of humanistic mathematics [ ] has also been launched to fill the gap between the humanities and math- ematics. complexity (a) (b) (c) (d) figure : photograph of four artistic works of artist puri pereira. (a) “butterfly # ” painted in acrylic, ink, and watercolor on paper of dimensions × . cm. (b) “fire on water” painted in acrylic on canvas of dimensions . × cm. (c) “butterfly # ” painted in acrylic on canvas of dimensions . × cm. (d) “birds” painted in ink, watercolor, and acrylic on paper of dimensions × . cm. in this part of our work, we present a few snapshots of what an artist can bring from the visual images produced by the sans obtained from the integer-functions deconstruc- tion presented here. that is, the sans previously described have been the source of artistic inspiration for the production of purely aesthetic works outside the constraints of (network) sciences. the results are illustrated in figure . . on the artistic value of (network) sciences network sciences have an important impact on our under- standing of nature and modern society. its practical impor- tance has been documented in many papers in the last few years. but network science is also driven by aesthetic criteria. sometimes it is the mathematical beauty of the equations describing the structure of, or the dynamics on, the networks. sometimes it is the beauty of the embedding of the network into certain space that produces outstanding visualizations. other times it is the result of the application of network theory to a particular problem that produces an aesthetic feeling due to the beauty of the findings or what is unexpected of the connections found. then, the importance of the applications of networks to solve practical problems should not hide its inherent beauty. the applicability of (network) sciences should not go in detriment of curiosity-driven, and aesthetic-driven, researches. we should find a compromise between application-driven and curiosity-driven researches. abraham flexner [ ]—who was a founder of the institute of complexity advanced studies in princeton and its director from to —stressed that “institutions of learning should be devoted to the cultivation of curiosity and the less they are deflected by considerations of immediacy of application, the more likely they are to contribute not only to human welfare but to the equally important satisfaction of intellectual interest which may indeed be said to have become the ruling passion of intellectual life in modern times.” obviously, there are many pressing problems in modern society that we are aimed to solve using network methods and approaches, and we should never forget our social responsibility. but our institutions should not forget either that as flexner remarked “a poem, a symphony, a painting, a mathematical truth, a new scientific fact, all bear in themselves all the justification that universities, colleges, and institutes of research need or require” [ ]. thus, we should be reminded that (network) science has a humanistic side, which is as important as the many applications that it has found. forgetting this side of it—its beauty and capacity of surprising—is similar to tear a wing to a bird. we all know that birds with only one wing cannot fly. . conclusions the spatial artistic networks (sans) created here are the product of a curiosity-driven process more than of any prac- tical necessity or real-world application. thus, the value of these networks does not reside in their usefulness as a math- ematical tool for modeling reality but as a source of inspira- tion of artistic work as well as attractive objects per se. we do not discard, however, that such networks can find some appli- cations for modeling spatial processes in the real-world, due to their similarities with rggs as well as by the fact that the points here are not randomly distributed in space but by using well-defined mathematical rules. the type of high- density core and very sparse periphery reminds one with the situation frequently found in many spatial networks like cities. many chemistry students have been motivated to their subject by the beauty of the representations of the molecular structure. in physics, a similar situation exists when we consider the aesthetic of cosmic landscapes and the structure of the universe. mathematicians always claim to be seduced by the beauty of mathematical equations. can we attract students into network sciences by appealing to the aesthetic beauty of networks? the only way to know it is by trying. we hope that the current work contributes to this goal, either by attracting curious minds to the field or by inspiring other re- searchers in the field to explore the beauty of networks per se. conflicts of interest the authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. references [ ] h. c. purchase, r. f. cohen, and m. james, “validating graph drawing aesthetics,” in international symposium on graph drawing, vol. of lecture notes in computer science, pp. – , springer, berlin, heidelberg, . 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[ ] a. flexner, the usefulness of useless knowledge, harper’s mag- azine, . http://tomassaraceno.com/ https://www.jkrofling.com/ http://www.archnewsnow.com/features/feature .htm http://oeis.org http://www.bridgesmathart.org/ http://scholarship.claremont.edu/jhm/ hindawi www.hindawi.com volume mathematics journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume mathematical problems in engineering applied mathematics journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume probability and statistics hindawi www.hindawi.com volume journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume mathematical physics advances in complex analysis journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume optimization journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume hindawi www.hindawi.com volume engineering mathematics international journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume operations research advances in journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume function spaces abstract and applied analysis hindawi www.hindawi.com volume international journal of mathematics and 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https://www.hindawi.com/journals/amp/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jca/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jopti/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijem/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/aor/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jfs/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/aaa/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijmms/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ana/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ddns/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijde/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ads/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijanal/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijsa/ https://www.hindawi.com/ https://www.hindawi.com/ 복식문화연구 the research journal of the costume culture 제 권제 호, ( . ), pp. ～ － － 이 논문은 년 순천대학교 학술연구비 공모과제로 연구되었음. † 교신저자 e-mail : ksy @sunchon.ac.kr 현대패션에 수 된 콜라주의 표현기법에 관한 연구 김 선 † 순천대학교 패션디자인학과 study on collage techniques applied to contemporary fashion sun young kim † dept. of fashion design, sunchon national university ( . . . 접수일 : . . . 수정완료일 : . . . 게재확정일) abstract this study focuses on the application of collage techniques to contemporary fashion and intends to show that collage techniques have a significant influence on contemporary fashion, leading to a more creative design aesthetic through the combination of fashion and art. the author carried out an empirical analysis focusing on domestic and global fashion collections from s/s to f/w, fashion publications, and internet data, along with a literature review. as a result, the papier-collé approach, as represented by cubism, showed a creative surface effect through the texture of the paper itself by applying real paper and other materials directly to the clothing items. second, dadaist ready-made expressed a distortion of the material and freedom of expression by creating a collage with ready-made fashion items and daily necessities. third, a photomontage expressed unique images by printing various images of photos that contrasted in perspective. in addition to this, beauty in dissonance and a new sense of space by a collage of disparate material. fourth, décalcomanie was expressed by printing methods, giving a stable image of the symmetry of the perfect landscape as well as the unintended effect of coincidence in abstract images and particular textures. fifth, assemblage as the representative collage technique of pop art introduced the overall object itself or modified form by combining it with fashion to express three-dimensional aggregate structures. keywords: papier collé(파피에 콜레), ready made(레디메이드), photo montage(포토몽타주), décalcomanie(데 칼코마니), assemblage(앗상블라주) Ⅰ. introduction 오늘날 문화, 예술 및 사회전반에 걸친 모든 역간의 장르와 경계 초월의 경향은 각 분야에 대한 인식을 새롭게 하며, 독창적인 이미지의 결과물을 표현하게 한다. 특히 패션에 향을 주는 많은 요소 들 가운데 가장 향력을 미친 것은 예술양식으로 각 미술양식에서 나타난 색채와 형태, 기법 등 패 션과 불가분의 관계를 맺고 적극적인 교류를 통하 여 보다 창조적이고 개성적인 표현을 나타내왔다. 다양한 미술양식 중 콜라주(collage)는 신문지․ 헝겊․벽지․인쇄물, 또는 일상생활에서 취한 물건 등을 화판이나 캔버스에 붙여 만드는 미술기법을 현대패션에 수용된 콜라주의 표현기법에 관한 연구 복식문화연구 － － 지칭하는 것으로, 이는 일루전의 미학을 극복하기 위한 새로운 조형탐구 기법의 하나라 할 수 있다. 콜라주는 현대미술에서 입체파 화가들에 의해 화 면에 이질적인 오브제를 부착하는 것으로 처음 시 도되었고, 이후 다다이즘, 초현실주의, 팝아트 등의 미술사를 거치면서 보다 입체적이고 실험적인 시 도들이 이루어졌다. 즉, 파피에 콜레(paper collé), 레 디메이드(ready m ade), 포토몽타주(photo m ontage), 프로타주(frottage), 데칼코마니(d écalcomanie), 앗상 블라주(a ssem blage) 등 여러 표현기법, 소재, 조형 의지에 따라 평면적인 회화를 삼차원의 세계로 끌 어올리면서 다양하게 전개되었다. 특히 불연속적인 각 재료의 단편화된 부분을 조 합하여 하나의 작품을 구성하게 되는 콜라주의 특 성은 모든 문화적 가치가 다원화되고 상대화되어 어떠한 가치도 지배적이거나 우월한 것이 될 수 없 고, 모든 가치가 단편화된 조합으로 나타나 하나의 문화를 형성하는 현대사회의 상황과도 유사하다고 할 수 있겠다. 이러한 콜라주 기법은 포스트모던의 현대사회에서 다양한 문화현상과 유사한 특성을 나타내며, 미술뿐만 아니라 패션에 이르기까지 그 의미나 표현이 확대되어 나타나고 있다. 그러나 콜 라주에 관한 선행연구(jung, ; k im, ; lee, ; oh & park, ; shim , ; son & k im, )는 콜라주기법을 활용한 디자인 개발에 관한 연구나 헤어 및 메이크업에 활용된 연구, 미술사조 에 있어 콜라주 기법의 변천에 관한 연구, 그리고 예술 사조나 디자이너의 작품 연구에서 있어 단편 적으로만 언급되었고, 포토몽타주, 데칼코마니, 프 로타주, 앗상블라주 등 각 콜라주의 기법 하나만을 주제로 한 연구 등이 진행되어 다양한 콜라주 기법 전체를 포괄할 수 있는 연구는 미흡한 실정이다. 따라서 본 연구는 현대미술사조에 따라 다양하 게 변화되는 콜라주기법의 특성을 고찰하여 콜라 주기법에 대한 체계적인 정립과 이해의 폭을 넓히 고, 이를 근거로 각 미술사조의 콜라주 특성이 반 된 현대패션에서의 사례분석을 통해 조형적 연 관성을 탐구함과 동시에 패션디자인에서 예술과의 접목을 통한 창조적 발상 및 디자인 전개에 도움이 되고자 하는데 연구목적을 두었다. 연구방법은 관 련 문헌 및 선행연구를 중심으로 콜라주의 개념과 현대미술양식에 나타난 콜라주의 전개 및 기법을 문헌고찰하 으며, 현대패션에 표현된 콜라주 관련 자료의 실증적 분석을 위해 s/s부터 s/s까 지의 v ogue, fashion new s, mode & mode, g ap 등 국내외 패션컬렉션에 발표된 작품사진과 인터넷자 료 등을 분석하 다. Ⅱ. background 본 장에서는 콜라주의 개념과 각 미술사조에 따 른 콜라주의 변천과정 및 기법의 이해를 바탕으로 고찰함으로써 각 콜라주기법에 대한 특성과 콜라 주가 활용된 패션디자인 분석을 위한 이론적 틀을 제시하고자 하 다. . the concept of collage 콜라주란 불어로 ‘풀로 붙이다’는 동사 ‘coller’ 에서 유래된 말로, 본래 풀칠, 바르기 따위의 의미 으나, 전용되어 화면에 인쇄물, 천, 쇠붙이, 나무 젓가락, 모래, 나뭇잎 등 여러 가지 것을 붙여서 구 성하는 회화기법을 가리킨다(m onthly art, ). 콜라주는 대상을 해체, 분석하여 논리적으로 재 구성함으로써 화면의 실재감을 주는 기법으로 실 제의 재료를 겹쳐 구성하고 혼합하는 것에 의한 비 원근법적 공간으로 이러한 실제 부착은 화면에서 독립된 실재로서의 존재성을 획득한다(yu, ). 따라서 작품들은 차원적 회화보다 부조조각처럼 표현되어지는데, 이 기법은 중세부터 세기 말까 지 공예, 대중 예술 작가들의 장식적인 공예품 등 에서 찾아볼 수 있으나, 창조적 예술가들에 의해 미 술사적 가치를 지니게 되어 조형 표현의 수단이 된 것은 세기 초 입체주의 화가들에 이르러서이다. 입체파 화가들에 의해 화면의 재질감을 높이기 위해 세밀히 그려져야 할 부분에 종이나 헝겊을 사 용하여 붙임으로써 시도된 콜라주는 현대미술사에 있어 다다이즘, 초현실주의, 팝아트 등의 미술사를 거치면서 소재나 조형의지에 따라 다양하게 전개 되어 왔고, 각각의 미술양식에 있어 파피에 콜레, 레디메이드, 포토몽타주, 데칼코마니, 프로타주, 앗 상블라주 등 여러 기법을 통해 표현되어졌다. 즉, 조 형적으로 콜라주는 지금까지 손으로 그린다는 전 제 권 제 호 김 선 － － 통적인 방식을 배제하고, 여러 가지 형태의 이물질 들을 화면에 포함시킴으로써 현대미술에 커다란 변혁과 전환을 가져왔으며(yu, ), 의미를 창출 하고자 하는 의도를 내포할 수도 혹은 별다른 의미 없는 어떤 독창적인 전체성을 표현하기 위한 행위 일 수도 있는 것으로(sung & kim , ) 광범위하 고 개성적인 방법을 통해 이질적인 요소들을 결합 하는 모든 것이라는 가능성을 나타내고 있다. . deployment and techniques of collage in contemporary art ) cubism 현대미술에 있어서 최초의 콜라주기법의 도입은 화면위에 붙여지는 여러 가지 재료 중 종잇조각을 사용한 파피에 콜레에서 비롯된 것으로 년경 braque와 picasso에 의해 시도된 콜라주는 활자가 찍힌 종이, 나뭇결문양 또는 대리석 문양의 종잇조 각을 화면의 한 부분에 붙이는 것으로 시작하여, 그 후에는 화면에 재질감을 나타내기 위해 그림의 일부분에 신문지, 성냥, 트럼프, 악보, 티켓 같은 인 쇄물을 붙여서 확대시키기에 이르렀다(lee, ). 입체주의 콜라주 형식은 사물들의 성질들을 나타 내는 선과 면들이 콜라주된 재료를 가로질러 그려 지기도 하고, 서로 분리되어 나타나기도 하는데, 이 는 화면의 구조에 대한 새로운 조형탐구이며, 입체 적 물체가 조형수단으로서 회화나 조각에 부속되 어 표현되게 한 것이다(son & kim , ). 년 picasso는〈fig. 〉과 같이 콜라주 기법 을 통해 그림에 구체적인 물체를 도입함으로써 사 물을 그대로 보고 그리는 재현 이상의 생생한 사실 감을 보여주었으며, braque 역시 평면에서의 입체 감을 부정하고, 사물이 가지는 본질 자체를 평면에 표현한다는 측면에서 그림을 그린 화면에 나무판 자를 붙이고 활자를 그대로 오려 넣는 파피에 콜레 기법을 시작하여 회화의 기본개념에 혁신을 일으 켰다(k im , ). 이와 같이 파피에 콜레는 공간적 깊이나 색채의 특징, 물체의 질감을 강조해 줌으로써 화면에서 잃 어버린 구체적인 이미지를 회복시킴과 아울러 더 욱 풍부한 조형성을 창조하게 하 는데, 입체파 화 가들은 현실적인 물질을 직접 화면에 가져옴으로 써 화면에서 잃어버린 현실적 이미지를 회복한다 는 의도와 그에 못지않은 표현의 풍부한 효과(o h, )를 기대할 수 있었다. ) dadaism 다다이즘의 허무적이고 반 예술적인 태도는 종 래의 예술개념을 부정하고 정신의 자유를 주장하 게 되는데, 다다의 정신을 표현하는 하나의 방법으 로 물체를 붙이는 콜라주 기법을 매우 자유스럽고 무제한적으로 사용하 다(kim , ). 이들은 콜라 주 재료에 있어서 전통적인 회화의 개념에서는 예 술외적인 역에서 여겨졌던 폐품, 즉 실 꾸러미, 모발, 철사, 모래 등을 캔버스에 붙이거나 신문잡지 의 인쇄물과 사진 그리고 실용적인 용도를 가진 기 성품 등을 도입하 다(jung, ). 즉, 입체주의의 물체가 조형수단으로서 회화나 조각에 부속되어지 고 있는 반면, 다다의 콜라주는 극도의 물질감을 이루는 단계를 표현해 나갔다. 다다이즘의 대표적인 콜라주 기법인 레디메이드 는 일상용품을 낮선 장소에 배치시켜 원래의 유용 성을 박탈함으로써 최초의 목적을 벗어나 새로운 의미를 창출하도록(a n, ) 한 미적개념으로 프 랑스 화가인 d uchamp에 의해 창조되었다. duchamp 은 년 그의 작품〈bicycle〉에서 전혀 손대지 않은 자전거 바퀴와 의자를 작가의 의도대로 선택 하여 이 기성 실용품에 서명하여 그대로 출품함으 로써 자신의 시공간적 차원의 운동을 표현하 다 (k im, ). 즉, 다다이스트들은 전통적인 회화의 도구를 버리고 일상생활 속에서 흔히 발견되는 비 개성적인 기성제품들을 심미적 감각의 작용을 배 제하여 시각적인 무관심 상태에서 선택하여 서명 하거나 도발적인 제목을 붙여 창조함으로써 예술 가의 선택에 의해 산업적 오브제를 예술적 오브제 로 승화시켰다(oh & park, ). 또 다다이스트들은 새로운 이상적인 이미지를 끌어내고 새로운 통일성을 창조할 목적에서 사진 을 소재로서 활용하 다. 이들은 의도적으로 포스 터, 삐라, 정치적인 선전 책자 등 인쇄매체를 통해 얻은 이미지를 배합하고 왜곡하여 모든 전달 수법 의 이미지를 창조했으며, 이로써 회화에서 채색과 현대패션에 수용된 콜라주의 표현기법에 관한 연구 복식문화연구 － － 드로잉의 필요성을 제거하게 된다(son & kim, ). 포토몽타주의 발명자인 raul h ausman은 포토몽타 주의 특수한 시각적 요소가 다양한 용도의 예술적 소재임을 발견하고, 오려낸 사진 이미지로 만들어 진 겹쳐진 이미지를 통해 사진의 기록적인 진실과 환상적인 세계를 결합할 수 있게 하 다(fig. ). 즉, 포토몽타주는 매스미디어를 통해 모든 재료를 제공해 함으로써 가장 전통적인 예술개념을 무시 한 행위이며, 전통적 의미의 콜라주 개념을 확산시 킨 것이라 할 수 있다(choi, ). ) surrealism 초현실주의는 비합리적인 세계를 과감하게 인간 의 이성으로부터 해방시키려한 것이 그 근본이념 이었으며, 일상생활의 사물들이 지닌 성격과 형태 들을 환치시키거나 자동기술법에 의하여 콜라주함 으로써 의외의 환상이나 경이로운 우연적 사건을 표현하 다. 따라서 이들은 까닭 없이 모든 것을 부정하기보다는 근본적인 동기와 언어적인 혹은 시 각적인 착시성과 연관하여 전개되었는 데, 초현실 주의 콜라주는 현실, 전위, 프로타주, 데칼코마니의 효과와 자동화에서 발생되는 탈일상성의 방법으로 전개되며 표현되었다(jung, ). 프로타주 기법은 ernst에 의해 창안된 것으로 초 현실주의의 자동기술법에 대한 그의 개인적 반응 으로 콜라주 기법을 발전시킨 탁본형식의 기법이다 (shim, ). 프로타주란 ‘마찰’이라는 의미의 프랑 스어 ‘frotter’에서 기원한 것으로 목재, 나뭇잎, 올 이 굵은 천 등 재질감 있는 표면 위에 종이를 놓고 문질러 독특한 효과를 얻는 기법으로, 수동적인 제 작과정 때문에 잠재의식의 역에 보다 깊게 관련 을 맺는다. 그의 프로타주 기법의 특성은 예술창작 에 객관적으로 제외된 것과 의식의 조정에 의하여 발생하 으며, 프로타주를 발견한 이후 보다 표현 적이며 공상적인 방향으로 작품을 하게 되는데(kim, ), 이것은 곧 차원적인 세계를 통하여 비현실 적인 세계까지 나타내는 환상적인 회화를 보여주 고 있는 것이다(fig. ). 또 ernst는 년 o scar d omingues가 발견한 자 유연상을 위한 수동적인 방법의 데칼코마니기법을 받아들여 이를 더욱 발전시키게 되는데(shim, ), 데칼코마니는 종이 위에 잉크방울이나 물감을 떨 어뜨린 후 마르기 전에 접거나 다른 종이를 붙 다 떼면 접혀진 부분이나 다른 종이에 똑같은 대칭무 늬가 찍히게 되는 전사기법이다(an, ). 이 기법 은 연상적인 우연의 효과를 나타내고, 그것이 다른 이미지로 바뀔 때 환각을 가로지르는 방법으로 정 신분석학적 통찰력을 초월해서 기법의 우연성을 탐구함으로써 매혹적인 형태와 질감을 획득하게 하 다(son & kim , ). 즉, 이것은 초현실주의 의 콜라주에서 인간의 잠재의식과 무의식, 꿈, 환상 의 세계를 추구하기 위한 방향으로 전개되어 표현 된 것으로 서로 화합할 수 없는 것을 화합하여, 그 사이에 일어나는 우연한 효과에 의해 비유나 상징 을 내세워 보는 자의 연상 작용에 강하게 호소하는 것 이었다(oh & park, ). ) pop art 팝아트의 작가들은 일상생활에 범람하는 기성이 미지나 일상적으로 흘러넘치는 상에서 소재를 취 했는데, 이는 현대문명에 대한 절망이나 염증이 동 기로 되어 표현한 다다와는 달리 오히려 상업 문화를 그들 회화적 주제의 무한한 원천으로 보았다(kim, ). 이에 따라 팝아트 콜라주는 테크놀로지나 매스미디에서 대중 속에 있는 조형적 요소를 몽타 주하여 작품 속에 짜 맞추는 형태로 콜라주에 새로 운 오브제를 등장시켜 앗상블라주 형태로 나타났다. 앗상블라주는 주로 주변의 잡동사니나 일상적 오 브제들을 한 화면에 집성시키거나 일상적 오브제 들을 한 화면에 집성시키거나 입체적으로 조립하 는 것으로 평면적 성격의 콜라주에 입체성을 부과 시킨 형태이다. 따라서 콜라주나 파피에 콜레보다 포괄적인 의미를 가지게 되며, 집합과 병치, 구성과 절단 등과 같은 기교들로 표현되기도 한다(monthly art, ). 즉, 오브제 창작이 아닌 오브제 집합의 의미에 가까운 주로 삼차원적 형태의 콜라주라 할 수 있는데, 이것은 picasso나 d uchamp의 레디메이 드에서 그 전신을 찾아 볼 수 있으며, 년대 이 후 팝아트에서 발전된 기법이다(oh & park, ). 앗상블라주는 우선적으로 오브제의 크기와 형태, 재 질감, 색채 등과 관련을 가지며, 그 특성은 그것을 생산하는 방법 즉 자르기, 찢기, 태우기, 꿰매기, 톱 제 권 제 호 김 선 － － <fig. > picasso, . from k im. ( ). p. . <fig. > raul h ausm an, . from raul. ( ). p. . <fig. > ernst, . from ernst. ( ). http:// blog.daum .net <fig. > richard hamilton, . from choi. ( ). http:// cafe.daum .net 질하기, 압축시키기, 못질하기, 용접(k im , ) 등 에 의해서 결정된다. 팝아트 작가 jeam dine은 옷가지, 샤워기 등을 캔 버스에 부착시키고, 여기에 자유분방한 붓 자국으로 분위기를 형성하기도 하 고(jung, ), richard h am ilton은〈fig. 〉에서와 같이 현대 대중사회의 일면을 콜라주로 표현한 작품을 통해 팝아트 특성 을 구체적으로 나타냈으며, robert rauschenberg는 신문과 잡지사진을 실크스크린 인쇄물과 결합하여 미국 역사와 대중문화를 혼합한 이미지를 창조해 내었고(“collage”, ), 또 사진이미지들을 직접 문질러 복사하거나 다양한 기성이미지들을 조합하 고 또 삼차원적인 오브제를 회화의 부속물로 붙이 는 콤바인 페인팅(com bine painting)으로 콜라주를 발전시키기도 하 다. 이와 같이 팝아트에서 오브제가 갖고 있는 일상 성을 회화의 소재로 끌어들 다는 것을 회화를 일 루전화에서 해방시켜 직접적인 현실을 사물화 하 여 얻어진 보편성과 무명성을 강조하기 위한 것이 라 할 수 있으며(jung, ), 이러한 콜라주 개념은 정크아트(junk art)나 해프닝(h appening) 등 현대미 술의 표현적 기법에 다양하게 활용되었다. Ⅲ. the techniques of collage applied to contemporary fashion 현대패션에 나타난 콜라주 기법은 복식에 사용 되는 소재의 왜곡으로 설명될 수 있으며, 새롭고 실 험적인 소재의 도입으로 인해 의외성과 부조화를 유발시키는 동시에 부조적인 형태로 조형성을 강 조하게 되고, 또 패션을 통해 현대 물질문명의 리 얼리티를 그대로 제시하는 의미를 갖는다. 패션과 관련한 콜라주의 선행연구에 있어 콜라 주기법을 이용한 니트 디자인 연구를 수행한 kim ( )은 콜라주 기법을 응용한 현대의상을 동일 소재의 결합, 이질 소재의 결합, 포토몽타주로 구분 하 으며, 현대패션과 헤어장식에서 콜라주의 표현 양식을 연구한 son and k im ( )은 입체주의, 다 다이즘, 초현실주의의 콜라주로 구분하 고, 패션 디자인 발상을 위한 콜라주 활용에 관한 연구를 수 행한 lee( )는 다원성과 탈구조성, 상대성의 구 현으로 구분하 으며, o h and park( )은 현대메 이크업에 나타난 콜라주의 형태 및 표현 특성에 관 한 연구에서 종이, 패브릭, 인조보석과 같은 소재적 인 측면과 구상적, 기하학, 추상적, 무형태의 형태 적 측면으로 구분한 바 있다. 그러나 이상의 연구 들은 각 미술사조별로 특징을 나타내는 콜라주기 법에 대한 분류나 연관관계가 아닌 패션이나 헤어, 또는 메이크업에서의 콜라주기법만을, 또는 문화현 상과 연관하여 콜라주를 해석하고 진행한 것이다. 또한 포토몽타주나 레디메이드, 앗상블라주 등 단 일 콜라주 기법에 관한 연구의 경우, 미술사에 관 련된 연구이거나 패션디자인과 관련된 경우 콜라 주의 다양한 기법이 아닌 단일 기법에 관한 연구로 콜라주 기법 전체를 포괄할 수 있는데 한계를 나타 낸다고 할 수 있다. s/s부터 s/s까지의 패션컬렉션에 발표 된 작품사진과 인터넷자료 등을 분석한 결과, 현대 현대패션에 수용된 콜라주의 표현기법에 관한 연구 복식문화연구 － － 패션에 나타난 콜라주의 표현은 종이나 일상사물 과 같은 이질적인 소재의 사용이라는 재료적인 측 면과 프린트된 사진을 이용하거나 데칼코마니와 같은 콜라주의 표현기법적인 측면을 통해 그 조형 적 양식을 나타냈다. 이에 본 장에서는 선행연구와 앞서 고찰한 현대 미술사조의 콜라주기법에 근거 하여 현대패션에 나타난 콜라주의 표현기법을 파 피에 콜레, 레디메이드, 앗상블라주와 같은 이질적 인 소재의 사용이라는 재료적인 측면과 포토몽타 주와 데칼코마니와 같은 표현기법적인 측면으로 구분하여 고찰하 고, 현대미술에서의 콜라주 기법 이 현대패션에 수용됨에 있어 어떠한 특성을 나타 내는지 그 연관성을 중심으로 분석하여 선행연구 와의 차별성을 두었다. 파피에 콜레, 레디메이드, 앗상블라주 모두 기존의 의복 소재가 아닌 이질적 인 소재의 사용이라는 점에 있어 공통적인 요소이 나 각 재료나 조형적 형태에 있어 차이를 두고 있 으므로 미술사조에 근거한 고유의 단어를 사용하 여 구분하 으며, 프로타주의 경우 실제 작품이 아 닌 사진자료에 근거하여 그 재질감의 표현을 정확 하게 분석하는데 한계가 있어 제외하 다. . use of foreign materials ) papier collé picasso와 braque 등 입체주의자들에 의해 시도 <fig. > john g alliano, f/w. from john. ( ). http://www.style.com <fig. > o n aura tout vu, s/s. from on aura tout vu. ( b). p. . <fig. > russell sage, f/w . from russell. ( ). http://www.style.com <fig. > m artin m argiela, f/w . from m artin. ( ). p. . 된 파피에 콜레는 평면적 회화에서 현실적 사물을 가미하여 화면의 새로운 해석을 가능하게 했는데, barr는 그의 저서에서 입체주의를 언급하면서 화면 에 다른 재료를 붙여서 사용하는 것을 콜라주라고 한정하고, 이 가운데서 종잇조각을 사용하는 경우 를 파피에 콜레라고 불렀다. 이때의 종이는 종이 위에 그려진 이미지의 가치보다는 종이 자체의 질 감과 색채가 조형적 가치로서, 그 기능을 가질 때 파피에 콜레라고 정의할 수 있다고 하 다(a lfred, ). 이러한 기법은 현대패션에 있어 종이를 직 접 붙이거나 신문지, 트럼프 등 각종 인쇄물을 의 복의 소재로 이용하여 콜라주함으로써 종이의 재 질적 표면감을 느낄 수 있도록 하거나, 종이의 색 채를 의복의 색으로 그대로 전이시킴으로써 파피 에 콜레의 조형적 가치를 나타냈다. 입체주의자들이 표현한 파피에 콜레가 화면에 새로운 공간을 만들어냈다는 점에서 의의가 있듯 이〈fig. 〉는 마치 종이인형의 옷과 같이 종이로 된 옷으로 인체를 가려 평면적인 회화에 실제 인간 의 몸이라는 현실적인 오브제를 가미하여 새로운 공간감과 조형성을 느끼게 한 것이다. 종이라는 소 재는 입체파 화가들의 파피에 콜레부터 시작하여 기존의 회화 개념을 파괴시키는 일종의 수단으로 다양하게 활용되었지만, 사실상 종이는 현대소비사 회에서 일상적으로 소비되는 물품 중 하나로 종이 의 형태와 종류, 표현방법에 따라 현대패션에서도 제 권 제 호 김 선 － － 다양하게 활용되었다.〈fig. 〉은 드레스 위에 낙서 된 수백 장의 포스트잇을 콜라주한 것으로 부조적 인 조형미와 함께 일시적이고 순간적인 현대사회 의 일면을 나타내고 있으며,〈fig. 〉은 파운드와 파운드의 실제 지폐를 서로 콜라주하여 하나의 화면을 구성한 것으로 실제 지폐라는 인쇄물은 지 폐가 갖고 있는 고유의 문양과 색상으로 의복위에 하나의 문양으로 표현되며, 또 인간의 몸 위에서 재구성되어 새로운 공간을 형성하 다.〈fig. 〉은 각종 인쇄물을 가늘게 잘라 서로 엮고 콜라주하여 구성된 재킷으로 지면을 구성한 화려한 컬러와 질 감은 분해되어 다시 재구성됨으로써 재킷을 구성 하는 디자인 요소로 새롭게 구성되었다. 이와 같이 파피에 콜레는 회화에서 재료의 한계 성을 극복하고 새로운 공간을 구성하 듯이, 현대 패션에 있어서도 이와 유사한 조형적 가치를 나타 냈다. 즉, 실제 종이를 이용하거나 각종 인쇄물을 옷 위에 콜라주함으로써 종이 자체의 질감을 부각 시켜 독창적인 조형성을 나타냄과 동시에 패션 소 재에 대한 고정관념을 탈피한 새로운 시각을 갖게 하 다. 또, 입체파 화가들이 현실적인 물질을 화면 에 이입시켜 현실적인 이미지를 나타냈듯이 포스 트잇이나 실제 지폐를 의복의 표면 위로 가져옴으 로써 현대 물질사회의 한 단면을 풍자적으로 표현 하 다는 점에서 그 조형적 연관성을 찾을 수 있다. ) ready made 전통의 가치, 이성의 우위, 예술의 형식을 부정 한 다다의 콜라주기법 중 하나인 레디메이드는 전 통적인 예술의 개념을 부정하기 위해 사용되었으 며, 기성오브제를 등장시켜 생활과 직접적인 연관 을 갖고 우연적이면서도 행동적인 모습으로 등장 시켜 극도의 물질적 이미지를 표현한다고 하겠다. 이러한 레디메이드의 기법은 현대패션에 있어서 다양한 기성용품들을 콜라주하여 소재의 왜곡을 나타냄과 동시에 유희적이고 현대사회의 물질적 이미지를 또 다른 이미지의 오브제로 전환시켜 표 현함으로써 레디메이드라는 콜라주의 조형적 가치 를 나타냈다. 〈fig. 〉는 다양한 단추를 콜라주하여 의복의 아 이템으로 전환시킨 것이다. 의복의 여밈 도구인 단 추는 그 본래의 용도 대신 재킷과 팬츠를 구성하는 중요수단으로 활용되어 위치 전환된 레디메이드의 한 기법을 나타냈다. 이는 원래의 목적을 벗어난 기성오브제를 그대로 사용하여 의상을 장식하고 구성하는 하나의 직접적인 도구로 표현하여 인체 라는 하나의 화폭에 물질적인 이미지를 보다 강조 하게 한다.〈fig. 〉 역시 블랙 선글라스의 렌즈만 을 원피스 위에 콜라주하여 선글라스라는 기성오 브제의 의미는 사라진 채 렌즈는 의상을 장식하는 하나의 도구로 표현되고 있으며, 무작위로 놓인 렌 즈의 배열은 우연이라는 상황을 연출하여 보다 추 상적인 이미지를 갖게 한다. 〈fig. 〉은 martin margiela의 작품으로 다양한 형 태와 색상의 머리빗을 콜라주한 원피스이다. martin m argiela는 머리빗뿐만 아니라 볼펜 뚜껑을 콜라주 한 재킷, 플라멩코에 사용되는 부채를 콜라주한 볼레로, 다양한 색상의 스트로를 콜라주하여 재킷 의 표면에 하나의 문양으로 전환시키는 등 기성오 브제를 활용하여 독특한 작품을 선보이기도 했다. 이는 일상적 오브제가 패션디자이너에 의해 하나 의 예술적 소재로 위치 전환함으로써 또 다른 예 술품으로 변형되어 표현된 것이라 하겠다. 또한 일상생활 속에서 흔히 발견되는 기성오브제들을 본래의 용도나 심미적 감각의 작용은 배제한 채 그대로 사용하여 패션 소재에 대한 종래의 개념을 부정하고, 소재 표현의 자유로움을 나타낸 것이라 할 수 있다. 이러한 일상용품 외에도 다양한 패션의 아이템 들 역시 하나의 오브제로 전환되어 나타났는데, 새 로운 의복의 형태를 구성하는 대신 이미 완성된 넥 타이나 스카프를 여러 겹 콜라주하여 원피스나 드 레스로 전환시키기도 하고, 또〈fig. 〉와 같이 드 레스 위에 기성 완제품의 갓난아이 옷을 그대로 콜 라주하여 유희적인 이미지를 표현하기도 하 다. 이와 같이 현대패션에 있어 레디메이드는 다양 한 일상용품의 형태를 변형하지 않고 그대로 옷 위 에 콜라주하거나 이미 완성된 패션의 여러 아이템 을 콜라주함으로써 자유로운 소재표현의 의지를 나 타냈다. 이는 다다이스트들이 일상용품을 낮선 장 소에 배치시켜 고유의 유용성을 박탈하고, 사물 고 유의 목적성을 탈피하여 새로운 의미를 나타낸 것 현대패션에 수용된 콜라주의 표현기법에 관한 연구 복식문화연구 － － <fig. > jean paul gaultier, s/s. from jean. ( ). http://w w w.style.com <fig. > cheap & chic, f/w. from cheap & chic. ( ). http://www.style.com <fig. > martin margiela, s/s. from martin. ( ). p. . <fig. > dupre santarbarbara, s/s. from dupre. ( ). p. . 과 같이 의복 위에 콜라주된 일상용품들 역시 그 고유의 기능적 특성은 배제된 채 의복 위에서 부조 적인 특성의 장식적인 이미지를 나타내는 하나의 오브제로 재탄생하여 나타남으로써 독특한 재질감 을 나타냈다. 그러나 다양한 오브제의 혼합적인 사 용을 통해 극도의 물질감을 나타낸 다다이스트들 의 콜라주는 현대패션에 있어 하나의 의복 아이템 에 단일한 오브제를 사용하고, 또 다른 디테일 없 이 넓은 면적에 오브제를 배치함으로써 오브제의 고유형태를 부각시키고, 의복의 장식적인 디테일을 위한 하나의 수단으로 전환하고 있다는데 차이를 나타낸다고 할 수 있다. 또 사용된 제품은 예술적 인 맥락에서 위치 전환되어 본래 용도 대신 또 다 른 예술적 오브제로 승화됨과 동시에 의외성의 효 과로 극도의 물질적 이미지보다는 유희적인 이미 지를 나타낸다고 할 수 있다. ) assemblage william c. seitz는 “앗상블라주란 칠하고 본뜨 고 새기기보다는 주로 끌어 모으는 것을 의미하며, 전체이건 부분이건 앗상블라주를 구성하는 요소들 은 미술의 소재로 여겨지지 않았던 가공되지 않은 자연 또는 인공의 소재, 사물 단편조각 등이다”라 고 하 다(a nderson, / ). 이러한 앗상블라 주는 그 자체로 독특한 기교로서, 회화나 조각뿐만 아니라 섬유예술을 포함한 현대패션에서도 기존의 모든 오브제들을 통해 삼차원의 집합적 유대관계 를 이루게 한다고 할 수 있다. 자연물이든 인공물이든 우리 일상생활 주변에 흔히 접할 수 있는 사물들은 새로운 예술작품을 위 한 무한한 소재로 패션에 있어서도 독창적인 이미 지를 표현하도록 한다. 현대패션에 나타난 앗상블 라주의 경우 의복의 소재로 여겨지지 않았던 모든 오브제들의 입체적인 콜라주를 통해 장식적인 효 과와 함께 소재의 왜곡, 그리고 보다 풍부한 표현 성을 전달해준다.〈fig. 〉은 스커트 위에 어린아 이들의 인형을 앗상블라주하여 스커트의 연속적인 형태를 만들어낸 것으로 키덜트적인 이미지를 나 타낸다. 유아적인 소품인 인형은 본래의 용도가 아 닌 길게 확장된 길이로 형태의 왜곡을 통해 스커트 의 일부분으로 흡수되어 장식의 효과뿐만 아니라 의복으로 동일시되어 표현되었다. 반면,〈fig. 〉 와 같이 일상에서 쉽게 접할 수 있는 캐릭터 인형 들은 집적이라는 앗상블라주의 기교를 나타내듯 서로 겹겹이 콜라주 되어 인형의 집합체와 같은 입 체적인 스커트의 형태를 나타내기도 하 고,〈fig. 〉는 실제 쥐와 흡사한 쥐 형상의 장난감 인형을 옷 위에 콜라주하여 기괴하고 혐오스러운 그로테 스크한 이미지를 표현한 것이다. 또,〈fig. 〉과 같이 다양한 크기와 디자인의 손 목시계, 시계의 원판, 리본, 끈 등 잡다한 소재들을 동시에 콜라주하여 키치적인 특성을 나타내기도 하 고, 모피와 레이스 등 혼성적인 소재의 원피스 위 에 플라스틱 원판, 구슬, 끈, 유리 등 각종 이질적 제 권 제 호 김 선 － － <fig. > dupre s antarbarba ra, f/w . from d upre. ( ). p. . <fig. > d & g , s/s. from d&g. ( ). http://www. style.com <fig. > gareth pugh, s/s. from gareth. ( ). http://www.style. com <fig. > o n aura tout vu, s/s. from o n aura. tout vu. ( ). p. . <fig. > fred sathal, s/s. from fred. ( ). p. . <fig. > o n aura tout vu, s /s. from on aura tout vu. ( a). p. . <fig. > g areth pugh, s /s. from g areth. ( ). http:// www.style.com 이고 잡다한 소재를 층층이 콜라주한〈fig. 〉은 입체적인 콜라주를 통해 장식적인 효과를 나타내 기도 하 다. 반면,〈fig. 〉은 현대 정보통신 문 화를 대표하는 모바일 폰을 의상 위뿐만 아니라 인 체 위까지 콜라주하여 현대물질문명의 이기와 단 면을 풍자적으로 나타냈으며,〈fig. 〉와 같이 일 상용품이 아닌 공업용품이나 버려진 고철, 플라스 틱, 비닐, 폐품 등을 이용해 콜라주함으로써 정크아 트의 이미지나 기계화된 현대사회의 한 단면을 그 로테스크하게 표현하기도 하 다. 이와 같이 현대패션에 수용된 앗상블라주는 대 량생산된 기성 오브제들이 그대로 도입되거나 부 속품 또는 절단되고 변형된 형태로 나타나기도 하 면서 집합과 집적이라는 앗상블라주의 독특한 기 교를 통해 표현되었다. 이는 팝아트에서 나타나는 앗상블라주와 유사하지만, 일상생활 속에 모든 기 성 오브제들을 자르고, 찢고, 압축시키고 용접하는 등의 오브제 집합이 아닌 단순히 소비적인 기성용 품의 집적을 통해 키치적인 장식성의 이미지를 나 타내거나 의복의 조형적 형태를 불확실적이고 변 형된 형태로 나타나게 하 다. 즉, 현대사회의 일상 속에서 접할 수 있는 기존의 모든 오브제를 의상이 라는 공간위에 콜라주하여 각 오브제가 가지고 있 는 일상성을 패션에 접합시키고, 입체적인 인체 공 간 위에서 보다 강조된 하나의 삼차원적인 집합적 구조물로 표현됨으로써 입체적 조형성을 부각시키 고 개성적인 패션이미지를 나타냈다. . photo montage 다다이스트들이 사용한 포토몽타주 기법은 인쇄 매체와 매스미디어의 모든 이미지들을 통해 이를 배합하고 왜곡하여 기록적인 진실과 환상적인 세 계와의 결합을 표현한 것이라 할 수 있다. 일반적 으로 패션에 포토몽타주 기법을 활용할 경우 잡지, 사진, 카탈로그, 신문, 책의 삽화 등 주로 인쇄물의 이미지를 주로 활용하여 다다이스트들이 활용한 포토몽타주와 유사점을 나타내나, 의복이라는 특성 상 오려붙이거나 찢어 붙이는 방법을 사용하기보 다는 원단에 프린트하여 나타나게 된다. 〈fig. 〉은 네덜란드 아티스트 tim roeloffls의 작품이 프린트 된 원피스 위에 다양한 이미지를 합 성하고, 또 부조적인 콜라주를 통해 포토몽타주의 기법을 나타낸 것이고,〈fig. 〉은 다양한 잡지 표 지의 사진을 포토몽타주 기법을 사용하여 프린팅 하고, 또 잡지의 형태를 그대로 살려 다시 콜라주 하여 보다 입체적인 이미지를 표현한 것이다.〈fig. 〉는 원피스 위에 수많은 사람들의 사진을 눈을 가린 채 짜깁기 하듯 콜라주하고 ‘made in people’ 이라는 글귀의 타이포그래피를 다시 재조합해 복 합적인 이미지를 나타낸 포토몽타주로 서로를 가 현대패션에 수용된 콜라주의 표현기법에 관한 연구 복식문화연구 － － <fig. > versace, f/w. from v ersace. ( ). http:// w w w .style.com <fig. > seredin & vasiliev, s/s. from seredin & v asiliev. ( ). p. . <fig. > castelbajac, s/s . from castelbajac. ( ). h ttp:// w ww .style.com <fig. > a rkadius, s /s. from a rkadius. ( ). http://www.style.com <fig. > a rkadius, s/s. f rom a rkadius. ( ). http://www.style.com <fig. > p hilip tracy, s/s. f rom philip. ( ). http:// w w w.style.com 장하고 익명성으로 살아가는 현대인의 이미지를 표현한 것이다. 반면, 재조합된 사진이나 드로잉 된 이미지는 우연에 의한 추상적인 이미지를 나타냄 과 동시에 구조적이고 원근법적인 대비로 인해 부 조적인 효과를 나타내는 하나의 문양으로 의복 공 간 위에서 시선을 집중시키기도 한다. 또,〈fig. 〉은 사진을 형상화하여 프린트한 티 셔츠 위에 실을 콜라주하고, 각각의 실 끝에 알파 벳을 매달아 공간감을 부여하고 있으며,〈fig. 〉 는 평면적인 화폭 속에 얼굴부분만을 파낸 후 모델 의 얼굴을 화면 속 하나의 부분으로 입시키고, 그 주변은 의복의 실제 재료를 콜라주 시켜 현실적 이면서 복합적인 포토몽타주 기법으로 조형적인 효과를 강조한 것이다.〈fig. 〉는 유명모델 나오 미 캠벨의 얼굴사진에 캠벨스프 깡통을 콜라주하 고, 이를 실제 나오미 캠벨의 헤어장식으로 이용하 여 포토몽타주의 콜라주 형태를 이용하여 풍자적 이면서 유머러스한 이미지를 전달한다. 이와 같이 포토몽타주 기법은 현대패션에 있어 신문이나 잡지 등 인쇄매체에서 오려낸 사진이미 지들의 합성과 인쇄된 문자와의 자유로운 조합으 로 복합적인 이미지를 표현하거나, 또는 드로잉 된 이미지 위에 이질적인 소재를 다시 콜라주하여 부 조적인 조형미와 함께 다양한 이미지를 나타내 다 다이스트들의 포토몽타주와 유사하면서도 상이한 면을 나타냈다. 오려낸 사진의 이미지로 만들어지 고 겹쳐진 이미지를 통해 포토몽타주의 표현을 나 타낸 다다이즘과는 달리 프린트를 통해 의복에 있 어 하나의 문양과 같이 표현되었으며, 기타 이질적 인 소재의 조합을 통해 입체적인 효과를 강조하기 도 하고, 의복을 착용한 모델을 직접 작품에 개입 시켜 포토몽타주의 개념을 확산 시키는 등 구조적 인 측면에서의 대조, 질감의 대비 등 우연의 원리 에 따라 모순되고 이질적인 이미지들을 함께 조합 시킴으로써 인체 위 의복 공간에서 독특한 조형미 를 형성하 다. . décalcomanie 초현실주의의 콜라주기법인 데칼코마니는 아무 도 예측할 수 없는 우연의 결과로 추상적이면서도 환상적인 이미지를 연출하게 한다. 이 연상적인 우 연의 효과는 다른 이미지로 바뀔 때 환각을 가로지 르는 방법으로 식물은 동물로 건축의 형상은 동상 으로 바뀌어서 그것이 어떤 때는 식물 또는 사람의 부분이나 전체의 모양을 이루면서 화면의 구체적 인 상으로 표현되기도 한다(son & kim , ). 이러한 기법은 현대패션에 있어 대부분 프린트를 통해 하나의 문양으로 표현되는데, 의도되지 않은 우연의 효과는 다양한 연상 작용을 유도하게 하여 초현실주의 데칼코마니 기법과 유사한 조형미를 제 권 제 호 김 선 － － 연출하게 한다. 〈fig. 〉은 미래의 붕괴된 생태계를 경고하는 메시지를 담은 a lexander mcqueen의 작품으로 데 칼코마니 기법의 디지털프린트를 통해 표현한 것 이다. 바다 생태계와 파충류의 표면과도 같은 이미 지를 연상시키는 몽환적인 프린트는 화려한 비즈 의 콜라주와 함께 미래적인 하이테크의 이미지까 지도 갖게 하 다.〈fig. 〉은 블랙과 화이트의 모 노톤으로 마치 인체 내부의 골격을 연상시키는 추 상적인 이미지를 나타낸 것이고,〈fig. 〉은 데칼 코마니 기법을 통해 마름모꼴의 기하학적인 형상 을 나타내고, 여기에 다시 둥근 비즈를 콜라주하여 그 형상의 내부를 채움으로써 마치 데칼코마니기 법의 프린트인 것처럼 착시를 갖게 한 것이다. 이와 같이 데칼코마니기법을 활용한 패션디자인 의 경우, 초현실주의의 콜라주기법에서와 같이 경 이롭고 환상적인 이미지로 보는 자에게 강한 연상 적 효과를 불러일으키며, 좌우대칭의 완벽한 구도 로 안정적인 이미지를 주지만, 의도하지 않은 우연 의 효과에 따른 다양한 이미지와 독특한 질감의 효 과, 그리고 이질적인 소재의 콜라주를 더해 보다 추상적인 형태감을 나타냈다. 현대미술에 있어 화면의 재인식을 위한 하나의 기법으로 일차원적인 평면에서 이차원 혹은 삼차 <fig. > alexander m cqeen, s/s. from alexander. ( ). http:// ww w .style.com <fig. > narciso rodrigez, s/s. from n arciso. ( ). http://www.style. com <fig. > m arni, s/s. from m arni. ( ). http:// w ww .style.com 원적인 조형미를 나타낸 콜라주기법은 현대패션에 수용됨에 있어 기존 의복에 사용되던 소재 이상의 이질적인 소재의 사용, 다양한 소재와 프린트에 의 한 문양으로의 활용, 각종 오브제의 부착에 따른 형태미의 변화 등 패션디자인의 조형적 각 요소에 변화를 가져와 패션이라는 공간구성에 다양한 변 화를 나타냈다. 이상에서 고찰한 현대미술사조에 따른 콜라주기법과 현대패션에 수용 콜라주기법에 관해 정리하면〈table 〉과 같다. Ⅳ. conclusion 회화에 있어 다양한 재료를 이용하여 화면을 구 성하는 기법인 콜라주는 다양한 활용에 의해 그 역이 확장되고, 다른 예술 역뿐만 아니라 현대패 션에서도 다양한 표현기법을 통해 새로운 조형미 를 나타냈다. 본 연구는 현대패션에 수용된 콜라주 의 표현기법을 분석한 것으로, 이를 위해 세기 현 대미술의 여러 양식에 걸쳐 표현된 콜라주 기법을 고찰하고, 여기에서 도출된 콜라주의 표현기법에 근거하여 현대패션에 나타난 콜라주의 표현기법을 파피에 콜레, 레디메이드, 앗상블라주와 같은 이질 적인 소재의 사용이라는 재료적인 측면과 포토몽 타주와 데칼코마니와 같은 표현기법적인 측면으로 구분하여 고찰하 고, 연구 결과는 다음과 같다. 이질적 소재의 사용이라는 재료적인 측면에 있 어 첫째, 입체주의의 대표적인 콜라주 기법인 파피 에 콜레는 재료의 한계성을 극복하고, 공간적 깊이 나 색채의 특징, 물체의 질감을 강조해 줌으로써 화 면에 새로운 공간을 만들어 냈다는 점에서 의의가 있다. 이는 현대패션에 있어서도 실제 종이를 이용 하거나 각종 인쇄물을 옷 위에 콜라주함으로써 종 이 자체의 질감을 부각시켜 독창적인 표면효과를 나타냈다. 둘째, 다다이즘의 콜라주 기법은 극도의 물질성을 이루는 형태로 입체주의와 구분되는 데, 대 표적인 콜라주 기법인 레디메이드는 전통적인 회화 의 도구를 버리고 일상생활 속에서 흔히 발견되는 비개성적인 기성제품들을 그대로 사용함으로써 산 업적 오브제를 예술적 오브제로 승화시켰다. 이러 한 레디메이드의 기법은 현대패션에 있어서 단추, 머리빗, 볼펜 뚜껑, 선글라스의 렌즈 등 다양한 일 현대패션에 수용된 콜라주의 표현기법에 관한 연구 복식문화연구 － － <table > collage techniques found in arts trend & accepted in modern fashion collage techniques found in arts trend cubism papier collé -attachment of printed materials such as newspaper, musical score and ticket onto part of a picture. -stress on spatial depth, features in color and feel of material; addition of a new spatial sense on canvas. dadaism ready made -gluing the daily necessaries on canvas. -high lighting the material property extremely and sublimating the industrial objet into artful one. photo montage -utilization of print media image including poster, flier and political brochure. -dissemination of collage concept in terms of traditional sense. surrealism décalcomanie -expression of fantastic material feel obtained accidentally from a technique by which applying ink or dyestuff on a sheet of paper and then folding it or pressing onto another surface of paper. pop art assemblage -putting together the objets found in daily routine life or the ready-made products onto one single canvas or making the three-dimensional compositions via cubic setup process. ↓ collage techniques accepted in modern fashion papier collé use of foreign materials -application of post-it, paper money, various kinds of paper or printed materials onto clothes. -creating the spatial sense through composing a clothing-like shape with paper; making some clothing pattern by putting a variety of papers on clothes with emphasis on special feels. ready made use of foreign materials -adding and attaching the diverse daily necessaries and clothes to clothing as decorative element. -giving the unexpected effects and humoristic images through sublimation into decorative objets instead of originally intended usage. photo montage integration of print technique -realization of patterns by printing out different photo & print media images. -combined application of drawings and foreign materials; integration of figuratively unique beauty and extended montage concept by making the wearers involved in art works directly. décalcomanie integration of print technique & use of foreign materials -expression of abstract and geometrical pattern by integrating the print technique. -realizing the stabilized image with a right-left symmetrical format & stress on accidentally unique surface feel; providing the abstract sense of shape via integrating the collage combined with foreign materials. assemblage use of foreign materials - -dimensional collages by integrating all the objets not considered as clothing material. -sort of kitsch and grotesque decoration effect, distortive denotation from material, and -dimensional figurativeness. 상용품이나 이미 완성된 넥타이, 스카프 등 패션의 아이템들을 콜라주하여 소재의 왜곡과 표현의 자 유를 나타냈으며, 또 사용된 제품은 예술적인 맥락 에서 위치 전환되어 본래 용도 대신 또 다른 예술 적 오브제로 승화되었다. 셋째, 팝아트의 대표적인 콜라주인 앗상블라주는 주변의 잡동사니나 일상적 오브제들을 한 화면에 집성시키거나 입체적으로 조립하는 것으로 오브제 창작이 아닌 오브제 집합 제 권 제 호 김 선 － － 의 의미에 가까운 주로 삼차원적 형태의 콜라주라 할 수 있다. 집합과 집적이라는 앗상블라주의 독특 한 기교는 현대패션에 있어 모든 오브제들을 그대 로 도입하거나 또는 변형된 형태로 의상 위에 콜라 주하여 각 오브제가 가지고 있는 일상성을 패션에 접합시키고, 하나의 삼차원적인 집합적 구조물로 표현하여 충격적인 의외의 효과나 유머러스함을 나 타내는 등 패션의 이미지를 보다 풍부하게 하 다. 또 표현기법적인 측면에 있어 다다이즘의 콜라 주기법 중 하나인 포토몽타주는 신문, 잡지 등 인 쇄매체에서 오려낸 사진의 이미지와 인쇄된 문자 를 사용한 것으로 새로운 이상적인 이미지와 통일 성을 위해 콜라주의 개념을 보다 확산시킨 것이다. 이러한 기법은 현대패션에 있어 다양한 이미지의 사진을 형상화하여 프린트하여 구조적이고 원근법 적인 대비로 인해 부조적인 효과를 나타내는 하나 의 문양으로 독특한 이미지를 나타냈고, 또 그 위 에 다시 이질적인 소재를 콜라주하여 부조적인 조 형미와 새로운 공간감을 나타냈다. 초현실주의 콜라주는 현실, 전위, 프로타주, 데 칼코마니의 효과와 자동화에서 발생되는 탈일상성 의 방법으로 전개되며 표현되는데, 특히 데칼코마 니는 우연의 효과와 그것이 다른 이미지로 바뀔 때 환각을 가로지르는 방법으로 매혹적인 형태와 질 감을 표현하 다. 이러한 기법을 활용한 패션디자 인의 경우 프린트를 통해 주로 표현되며 좌우대칭 의 완벽한 구도로 안정적인 이미지와 함께 의도하 지 않은 우연의 효과에 따른 추상적 이미지와 독특 한 질감의 효과를 나타냈으며, 또 이질적인 소재의 콜라주를 더해 보다 입체적인 추상공간을 형성하 다. 이와 같이 화면의 재인식을 위한 기법으로 탄생 된 콜라주는 다양한 기법을 통해 그 역이 확장되 고, 패션에까지 적용되어 미술사조에서 나타난 다 양한 조형적 특성을 그대로 반 하기도 하고, 또 상이한 측면을 나타내면서 상호복합적인 연관성을 나타내고 있다. 움직이는 인체라는 차원적 공간을 바탕으로 표현되는 현대패션에서의 콜라주 기법들 은 패션에서 연상되는 고정관념의 틀을 새롭게 하 며, 미술양식에 나타난 기법이나 재료적인 측면에 서도 보다 광범위한 혁신을 나타내고 있음을 알 수 있었다. 특히 이질적인 각 요소들 간의 부조화를 독창적인 조화로 전환시키고, 다원적인 의미와 탈 구조적인 조형미를 표현함으로써 고정관념을 뛰어 넘는 새로운 가능성을 제시하 다. 패션소재 뿐만 아니라 우리가 일상에서 접할 수 있는 모든 오브제 는 디자이너의 창조성을 자극하여 새로운 패션의 흐름을 유도하기도 하고, 다양한 예술양식의 기법 활용은 패션에 무한한 가능성을 제공하게 한다. 따 라서 콜라주 기법뿐만 아니라 모든 사물과 다양한 장르에 대한 열린 시각으로 패션디자인을 전개하 여 보다 독창적인 디자인 개발로 활용될 수 있기를 바란다. references alexander, m.( , february ). style.com. retrieved february , , from http://w ww .style.com / fashionshows/complete/s rtw-amcqueen a lfred, h . b.( ). c ubism & abstract art. new york: the m useum of modern a rt. a n, y . h .( ). dictionary of m odern art. seoul: mijinsa. a nderson, h . h .( ). h istory of m odern art (y . c. lee et al, trans.). seoul: international art design. 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a g ^ ^ z x ^ g _ (a <, fr/r^&n x l e r^vr-h u s r<? r~ lr <^->s\ mr> degree: / v ^ c ^ fh-ojj<^<f sht^"<r.f y e a r : ^o^h • department of s cj^c?t> / od^ /v the university of british columbia vancouver, b c canada grad.ubc.ca/forms/?formld=ths page of i i last updated: -jul- a b s t r a c t le corbusier was both artist and architect and the symbiosis between these dual roles contributed to his ability to think and create plastically. in order to understand the symbiotic nature of art and architecture in le corbusier's designs, a case study of the chapel of n tre-dame-du-haut at ronchamp ( - ), france, is presented that examines the influences and intellectual beliefs that contributed to the architect's works. to appreciate the symbiosis of art and architecture, as it is evidenced in this chapel built in the aftermath of world war ii, it is also necessary to understand le corbusier's earlier experiences in these two endeavours. a literature review of the writings of critics and commentators central to our understanding of le corbusier's development and architectural philosophy illuminates the beliefs and experiences that contributed to his design ideals. le corbusier's sketches are considered, from his early drawings while studying with his mentor, l'eplattanier, between and , to his individual sketchbooks, which date from , and other media contemporaneous with the chapel's construction during the s, to ascertain the genesis of the design aesthetic that contributed to the plastic values of architectural projects such as ronchamp. t a b l e of c o n t e n t s abstract i i table of contents i i i list of figures v i acknowledgements v i i c h a p t e r i introduction . introduction . statement o f purpose . definition of terms . . art . . synthesis . . collaboration . . symbiosis . . other terminology . methodology . . statement of methodology . . limitations of the research c h a p t e r ii literature review . related research . . review of selected writings and their relevance to the research question . . . function of art in architecture . . . function of art in le corbusier's architecture . . . other writings . implications of the selected writings for proposed study c h a p t e r iii sources and viewpoints . introduction . sketchbooks . . sketchbooks . . forms from nature . . the outline of the modulor . . folkloric influences . . the symbology of the hand . purism . . history/inception of purism . . explanation of concepts behind purism . . how concepts of purism are manifested in le corbusier's paintings and architecture . . significance of purism to the symbiosis of art and architecture . writings and other works . . writings by le corbusier . . other works by le corbusier . . conclusion about le corbusier's attitudes toward art in architectural production . contemporary debates - c i a m , other . . to s . . post c h a p t e r i v looking at ronchamp: a case study . introduction to the case study . evidence o f intent at ronchamp . . the architectural programme . . . requirements of the commission . . . role of the roman catholic church and its adherents . . . purpose of le corbusier's design programme . theories about ronchamp . . criticisms about ronchamp . . importance of the design to ideas about the symbiosis of art and architecture . relevance of the case study to the research question c h a p t e r v conclusion bibliography figures f i g u r e s figure : pilgrimage chapel, west wall figure : madonna, west wall figure : pilgrimage chapel, west wall figure : second-storey exit, north wall figure : madonna, west wall figure : north entrance figure : second-storey exit, north wall figure : aperture, south wall figure : aperture, south wall figure : south entrance mural (detail) figure : apertures, south wall figure : apertures, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s i am grateful to my thesis advisor, dr. sherry m c k a y , for her wise counsel and to dr. jerzy wojtowicz, director of the master of advanced studies in architecture programme, for his support of my research. i would also like to thank the many professors who directed me in my studies and, in particular, sandy hirschen and linda brock of the university of british columbia school of architecture, who encouraged me to study architecture. finally, i would like to thank my family and friends for their support. v i i c h a p t e r i i n t r o d u c t i o n . introduction le corbusier ( - ) is considered by some to be the greatest architect of the th century. less publicly well known, although many have written about it, is his unwavering commitment to and prodigious production of art. le corbusier generated an impressive body of paintings, murals, ceramics and sketches, among other media. examining his evolution as an artist provides significant insight into his architectural interests. le corbusier was not unusual for his era in being occupied with questions of the interdisciplinary relationship between art and architecture, however, he is significant for his pursuit of multiple media, including architecture, as integrally symbiotic. other significant architects of the period, including those of the bauhaus, considered art to be preparatory to, but not a necessary requirement or concommitent parallel of, architecture. it is apparent that le corbusier's interests — be they number or geometry, beauty or utility, engineering or painting - were not defined by specific media, as this laudatio from cambridge university reveals: " . . .he believes with pythagoras that number, and with plato that geometry underlies the harmony o f the universe and the beauty of objects and with cicero that utility is the mother of dignity. he is also akin to leonardo, in that he observes the principles of the engineer while applying to them the eye of a painter and sculptor, and to those who are seeking the famous 'divine proportion' he has proposed the standard he calls 'modulor'...." - this diversity of approaches is appreciable within the context of his travels, exposure to readings about art, politics and nature, and his own explorations with, first, decorative arts, then purism and abstraction in painting. his early journeys abroad echoed the struggle between art nouveau and the modernist ethos of architects such as auguste perret and peter behrens. similarly, the visionary aspects of his late career were evocative of the bold experimentation familiar to t h century art and architecture. le corbusier's understanding of the interdependency of art and architecture, as evidenced in projects such as the chapel of n tre-dame-du-haut (hereafter referred to as ronchamp), distinguishes his architecture from that of many other modernists. where the ' joanna drew and susan ferieger brades, "preface and acknowledgements," le corbusier: architect of the century, catalogue of exhibit, hayward gallery, london, march- june (london: arts council of great britain and fondation le corbusier, ) . his collection includes over canvases, , drawings, each engraved works and collages, enamels, tapestries and sculptures. architecture is the design and construction of human-built environments and structures that respond to the physical, emotional, social, cultural and other needs of its users. w i l l y boesiger and hans girsberger, le corbusier - (berlin: birkhauser, ) . bauhaus sought to establish architecture as primary, uniting the creative arts in the service of architecture in a manner that blurred the distinction between fine and applied arts, le corbusier, it w i l l be argued, sought to exploit the symbiotic nature o f art and architecture, recognizing them as co-adjuncts within the design process. rather than an architecture of unification in which the fine arts were incorporated into a single form, as the bauhaus advocated, le corbusier valued art as distinct from architecture, yet correlative in its ability to explicate the architectural premise. . statement of purpose the thesis w i l l examine the proposition that le corbusier's art making and architecture are symbiotic or interdependent. it w i l l concentrate on le corbusier's personal explorations in art and sculpture from the first decade of the t h century to the s, focusing on the ronchamp chapel as a case study. le corbusier's writings and art production, as well as the interpretations of art critics and associates, w i l l be reviewed and his influencers and architectural projects considered in pursuit of an understanding of the significance of his art production in relation to his architecture. the thesis w i l l consider the importance of ronchamp within the context of various descriptions, such as denise pauly's argument that the chapel is a "total work of art" and peter childs' suggestion that the chapel is distinguished by a "self-referential attention to form," in support of the contention that the concept of art and architecture as independent but symbiotic forms was integral to le corbusier's design aesthetic. chapter ii examines selected writings about le corbusier's involvement with art making and architecture, and about the function and efficacy of ronchamp, for the purpose of determining what contemporary thinkers, including architects and critics of the period leading up to ronchamp, considered to be the function of art in architecture and, more particularly, its purpose in le corbusier's architecture. the literature review concludes with an analysis of the implications of the selected writings for the proposed study. chapter iii considers source materials and viewpoints relevant to an understanding of the symbiosis of art and architecture, particularly as expressed by the architect himself. the chapter explores le corbusier's sketchbooks to daniele pauly, le corbusier: the chapel at ronchamp (paris: fondation le corbusier, ) . gain an understanding of their significance to the thematic development of commissions such as ronchamp. it traces le corbusier's development as an artist and architect by examining his association with art movements such as purism, including with such french artists as amedee ozenfant and fernand leger. le corbusier's use of forms from nature, his conceptual views on the modulor, his interest in folklore and the symbology of the hand motif that appears throughout his work and at ronchamp are considered to gain an understanding of major themes in his art and architecture. the chapter also contextualizes this largely le corbusier-derived material by examining other points of view about what was more commonly referred to as the synthesis of art and architecture. contempary debates, between and the s and post- , including the c i a m (congr 'es internationaux d'architecture moderne) and the bauhaus, are discussed. the chapter further investigates le corbusier's attitude toward the relationship of art to architectural production. chapter i v is a case study of ronchamp chapel, which seeks to illustrate how the interplay o f art and architecture achieve symbiosis within le corbusier's work. ronchamp will be examined as an example of the expression of le corbusier's beliefs about this interdependent relationship. the chapter w i l l consider the evidence about the intent of ronchamp, including the specifications and constraints of the architectural programme — as apparent in the requirements of the commission — and the role of the catholic church in debates about the synthesis of art and architecture. the purpose of le corbusier's design programme w i l l be reviewed in the context of the importance of the design to ideas about the synthesis of art and architecture. the conclusion, chapter v , summarizes the research and findings of the thesis in support of the proposition that the appropriation o f art to ronchamp is the consequence of le corbusier's understanding of its relationship to architecture. the conclusion reveals the continuity and divergence in le corbusier's writings as they relate through time and to,the architectural programme at ronchamp. the context for the chapel is compared to le corbusier's key writings, towards a new architecture, l'esprit nouveau and other relevant works. "art had to be about art before it could be about the world: either form before content, or form as content." peter childs, modernism: the new critical idiom (london: routledge, ) . . definition of terms in order to comprehend the body of work, it is necessary to define various terms and their meaning within the context of this thesis. . . . a r t the use of the term modernism refers to an ideology that underlies modern art, architecture and design: a manner of aesthetic value that favors the present day in reaction to past idioms, such as academic or classical art, and that engages in a critical examination of inauthentic ("the idealized, the sentimental, the euphemistic in our culture") modalities. modern art, which refers to painting and sculpture, is generally considered to have emerged in the mid- nineteenth century as a consequence of the availability of new materials and techniques. the modern movement is understood as a "succession of avant-garde (western) styles in art and architecture." john a . walker's description of modernism as ".. .art which takes itself as subject matter, emphasis on medium, process, and technique, 'honest' use of materials, foregrounding of devices" w i l l be adopted for the purposes of this thesis. the distinction w i l l be made between fine art, which comprises painting, sculpture, printmaking and architecture and is defined as art that functions to create aesthetic expression, and applied art, which is art used in the design or decoration of an object that remains subservient to the object's function. le corbusier traversed a spectrum of fine art movements from art nouveau to modernism, ultimately rejecting the application of art to architecture in any manner that might be construed as dishonest by virtue of being merely decorative. charles harrison, "modernism," critical terms for art history, eds. robert s. nelson and richard schiff, n d ed. (chicago and london: the university o f chicago press, ) . edward lucie-smith, the thames and hudson dictionary of art terms (london: thames and hudson ltd, ) . john a . walker, glossary of art. architecture and design since : terms and labels describing styles and groups derived from the vocabulary of artists and critics (london: clive bingley ltd, ) . ralph mayer, a dictionary o f art terms and techniques (new york: thomas y . crowell company, ) , . . . synthesis synthesis refers to a combining of parts into a whole." in the context of this discussion of art and architecture, when used with reference to le corbusier, synthesis means to integrate fine art (painting, sculpture, ceramics, tapestries), other media, such as electronic music, and architecture for the purpose of balancing humankind's emotional or spiritual needs with its cerebral or functional needs. this distinction is sympathetic to the aims of c i a m , of which le corbusier was a leading figure, and by which synthesis is taken to mean to achieve a "reintegration" or alliance of the plastic arts (architecture, painting, sculpture) for the purpose of ensuring that, through this alliance, architectural expression satisfies society's emotional needs in a manner that is " i n tune with" the spirit of the age. . . collaboration collaboration is distinguished from synthesis and symbiosis as the process of two or more artists or architects working together for the purpose of expression and creation. while the term is relatively insignificant to the thesis, other than in the context of le corbusier's collaboration with ozenfant and leger during his purist period, it is important to establish its parameters, as opposed to other seemingly correspondent terms. . . symbiosis symbiosis means to be interdependent and to derive benefit from a mutual relationship. for the purpose of this thesis, the form of symbiosis known as "mutualism" w i l l be assumed. therefore, to suggest that art and architecture are symbiotic is to suggest that they derive meaning from their mutual association and that architecture is in itself art, just as art contributes to the overall aesthetic value of architecture. it w i l l be argued that le corbusier practiced an architecture that assumed that the fine arts, and more particularly painting, sculpture, murals and tapestries, were symbiotic. this thesis w i l l contend that le corbusier's architecture transgressed synthesis, with the consequence that certain of his architectural pieces became interdependent upon painting, sculpture and/or other fine arts for their realization, acquiring characteristics of fine art that had the effect that the architecture would not have been possible ' f . g . and h . w . fowler, eds., pocket oxford dictionary, revised t h ed. (oxford: oxford university press, ) . sigfried giedion, "our attitude towards problems of aesthetics," ed. s. a . giedion, a decade of new architecture (zurich: editions girsberger, ) . fowler . without the art co-existing in the service of the architecture. this is distinct from a synthesis of the arts, in which the art is part o f the whole (as in part of the total effect by virtue of being applied to or included in the architecture) but does not, in itself, become a necessary constituent in order for the architecture to succeed. . . other terminology other terms specific to this thesis include anonymous production, which refers to machine-produced objects of everyday use, such as vases and bottles, and objets a reaction poetique, by which le corbusier references objects from nature, such as shells or bones. references to primitive art or architecture in le corbusier's work, and in this thesis, mean folkloric designs produced by cultures external to the european or western tradition, as witnessed during his journey to the east. a s defined by mark antliff and patricia leighten, "primitivism" in relation to western art and, in particular, modernism, refers to: " . . .an act on the part of artists and writers seeking to celebrate features of the art and culture o f peoples deemed 'primitive' and to appropriate their supposed simplicity and authenticity to the project of transforming western art." it is acknowledged that aspects of this interpretation are generally out of favor in modern art history, as they assume that western art and architecture are a victory of creativity over the irrational, in contrast to other cultures in which "cultural production is related to material needs or instinctual drives." abstraction refers to art in which the portrayal of real objects is non-primary or omitted in place of an aesthetic that comprises a formal configuration of shapes, lines and colors. while le corbusier practiced a representational style of art during his purist period, elements of abstraction are present in his paintings and he is generally considered to be among those architects who were receptive to abstract art. le corbusier's work is abstract in that is replaces details with primary shapes and forms, as opposed to non-representational, in which images are non-recognizable. mayer refers to this as "the art of peoples who adhere to a traditional pattern of life, without evolving socially or artistically over the generations." mayer . mark antliff and patricia leighten, "primitive," critical terms for art history, eds. robert s. nelson and richard shiff, n d ed. (chicago and london: the university of chicago press, ) . antliff and leighton, "primitive," . mayer . . methodology . . . statement of methodology although other critics have written about le corbusier's interest in the synthesis of art and architecture, including its manifestation at ronchamp (daniele pauly, stanislaus von moos, christopher green, stephen gardiner), this thesis w i l l be distinguished by the assumption that the co-relationship between art and architecture in le corbusier's work is symbiotic in nature. the thesis posits that in order for le corbusier to reach beyond functionalism in his architecture, it was necessary for the architect's work to achieve a symbiotic state with art. questions considered in the course of the research were as follows: • can it be shown that le corbusier's art making and ideas about fine and decorative art influenced his architecture? • what other artists, architects and critics were influential within the same period in advocating for a synthesis o f the arts and architecture? • if it is assumed that there is a co-relationship, then, using ronchamp as a case study, in what ways are le corbusier's art and architecture mutually influential or symbiotic? • why did le corbusier consider achieving a symbiosis between art and architecture to be necessary to his practice? • why is an appreciation of the symbiotic nature of le corbusier's art and architecture important to an understanding of t h century architecture? the research contributes to the general understanding of le corbusier's design aesthetic by examining the architect's beliefs about the symbiosis of art and architecture in general and in his work in particular. the thesis does not involve quantitative research, but rather references current scholarship about le corbusier's design aesthetic, within the analytical context of le corbusier's own writings and practices as they refer to the intention of the co-existence of art within his architecture. the study has practical application for architects with an interest in the integration of art and architecture. it w i l l also be of interest to students of art history and architectural theory. the scope of the thesis is those theories, concepts and experiences that enjoined to characterize the symbiotic response within le corbusier's work, with emphasis on ronchamp as an example o f this response. a s a considerable body of work already exists on le corbusier and on ronchamp, and the architect himself was a prolific diarist and writer, it was possible to draw upon on these sources as research materials and as evidence to support the proposition. the thesis consists of secondary research in the form of an analysis of the works of other critics writing about le corbusier, his art and architecture, as well as a review of contemporary thinking about art and architecture during the early and mid-twentieth century. the thesis incorporates art and architectural historical knowledge about the influences, training and experiences that contributed to le corbusier's development as an artist and architect. the architect's and others' drawings related to ronchamp and its site are given a brief, but focused, examination. these texts also enable an appreciation of the development of what have been referred to as the three stages of le corbusier's architectural career. primary research consists of a tour of ronchamp chapel by the writer to gain an appreciation o f the context and impact of the project, including the writer's photographic record of the chapel (figures). a s well, a review of le corbusier's sketchbooks was undertaken to trace the development of relevant concepts and theories about art and architecture. le corbusier's own writings were considered in determining the factors that contributed to his understanding of the role of art within architecture. . . . limitations of the research the thesis concentrates on english language translations of le corbusier's texts and the work of other critics, artists and architects. it does not examine source material in the original french or other languages. while the thesis examines le corbusier's career from his early training in l a chaux-de-fonds to the completion of ronchamp in - , the review of significant architectural pieces is limited to those that contribute to the thesis' premise about the symbiosis of art and architecture. as a consequence, although the thesis defense includes a review of major milestones in the architect's career as a method of providing context for the case study, major works such as v i l l a savoye, unite de habitation at marseilles and the architect's urban planning projects are only referenced where such references are relevant to the immediate topic. similarly, the thesis does not consider, in any comprehensive manner, the influence of factors such as le corbusier's interest in rationalism, communism, social planning experiments or other historical developments during the time span of his career, unless such examination is necessary to support the proposition. hence, rather than a social historiographical approach to the subject matter, the thesis assumes a broader art historical and art theoretical context. this approach is intended to focus upon existing sources, including the architect's own descriptions, to determine whether there is evidence of an intent to express art and architecture as symbiotic within le corbusier's work. further, while investigations of a synthesis of art and architecture in le corbusier's work are existent, this thesis brings together aspects of the architect's total body of art production in support of the premise that his investigations transgress synthesis and approximate symbiosis. this distinction is perhaps most evident in contrasting the phillips pavilion ( ), in which ideas of art and architecture are integrated, through the use of sound, images, design and color, but function autonomously, with ronchamp chapel, in which the art and architecture are interdependent, functioning in a mutually subordinate relationship. it establishes a basis for further explorations into the significance of le corbusier's art making to his architectural aesthetic. c h a p t e r ii l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w . related research the literature review w i l l examine selected writings about the function of art within architecture, and more particularly in le corbusier's architecture, in support of the proposition that art and architecture are mutually interdependent. other literature relevant to art and architectural history w i l l be considered where they contribute to the overall arguments presented in the thesis. issues relevant to the proposition include the common understanding among critics of the meaning and purpose of a synthesis of art and architecture; other explanations of the impetus for the development of le corbusier's design programme at ronchamp that challenge the contention the chapel epitomizes the symbosis of art and architecture; and theories about le corbusier's pursuit of a formal language of architecture that suggest that ronchamp was the outcome of the architect's research interests, rather than an innovation in the integration of art and architecture. in order to establish the parameters of the literature review, it is important to identify those documents that w i l l not figure significantly or at all in the review and the rationale for omitting them. since the literature review is limited to selected writings that are specifically relevant to the research question, it w i l l include those major critics who contribute to the component issues of the symbiosis of art and architecture or contribute in some other contextual manner to the understanding of the hypothesis. documents that contribute to the general appreciation of the design epoch, such as those on cubism by the authors bois ( ), childs ( ), fry ( ), metzinger ( ), picasso ( ), poggi ( ), and readings on t h century thought on the synthesis of art and architecture, including those by belcher ( ), dougherty ( ), giovanni ( ), powys ( ), rosenberg ( ), sonstroem ( ) and v a n brunt ( ), are peripheral to the hypothesis and, as such, function as background reading, but do not necessarily contribute substantively to the premise of the thesis. publications of a general nature, such as janson and janson ( ) and norberg-schulz ( ), and articles on specific topics, such as purdy ( ), tafuri ( ), turner ( ) and walden ( ), have been consulted primarily for the purposes of gaining a broad understanding of the context of ' century art and architecture, with the consequence that they do not figure in the thesis in any substantive manner. a number of art dictionaries have also been reviewed with similar intent and w i l l not be detailed in this literature review. a s well, collections of le corbusier's thoughts, such as by guiton ( ), that do not contain critical analysis have been utilized as primary source material, but excluded from the literature review as their discussion would be irrelevant to the intent. some more specific documents have been consulted for the purposes of providing a social historiological perspective to the thesis. while this scholarship - including anson ( ), barrie ( ), dahinden ( ), jackson ( ) and sovik ( ) - does not contribute particularly substantively to the thesis, it does inform the appreciation of various aspects of the social environment in which ronchamp was positioned. while pertinent documents related to purism are reviewed in this section, scholarship related to le corbusier's associates, fernand leger and amedee ozenfant, although referenced at length in the bibliography but less so in the thesis, is not included, as it is relevant only for the purposes of illuminating le corbusier's thought in relationship to the purist movement. for this reason, these documents, which include buck ( ), de francia ( , ), golding ( ), herbert ( ), k u h ( ), richards ( ), verdet ( ), as well as leger's and ozenfant's own writings, are not considered in the literature review. however, relevant criticism on documents, such as those by brooks ( ), turner ( ) and sekler ( ), that detail le corbusier's training and early career is incorporated as appropriate. scholarship that contributes to an appreciation of le corbusier's design aesthetic, but is less generally related to the hypothesis, such as that of wittkower ( ); publications that contain limited primary or secondary research, including darling ( ) and pawley ( ); or publications that focus almost exclusively on the physical form, such as baker ( ) and boesiger and girsberger ( ), are omitted as redundant for the purposes of the literature review. . . review of selected writings and their relevance to the research question charles-edouard jeanneret was born in in the swiss watchmaking town of l a chaux-de-fonds. he assumed the name le corbusier in to distinguish his work as an architect from his work as a painter, for which he continued to use jeanneret. le corbusier began his career as an apprentice watchcase engraver, graduating to the local industrial art school at the age of twelve. he was simultaneously enrolled in evening courses at the ecole d'art, where he transferred to the full-time, four-year program in . though not yet , le corbusier was advised by his drawing teacher, charles l'eplattanier, to study architecture, sculpture and mural painting. le corbusier switched to architecture in his fourth year as a consequence of his inability to continue in engraving because o f his ailing eyesight. l'eplattanier was influential in le corbusier's choice of architecture - it was he who initiated the cours superieur d'art et decoration at the ecole d'art in october , which le corbusier attended. le corbusier obtained his first architectural commission, the v i l l a fallet, in november , while enrolled in the cours superieur. he also undertook the design of a music room at the v i l l a matthey-doret ( - ) and, in , with his fellow students, redesigned and built the interior of the protestant chapelle independante. while it would be possible to dwell at length on le corbusier's pre-ronchamp career, it is sufficient for this thesis to note those events that are significant to le corbusier's development as an artist and an architect. they include his various travels between and , during which he witnessed the vernacular architecture of the mediterranean and the splendor of the acropolis; brief apprenticeships with leading modernist architects august perret ( ) and peter behrens ( ), during which time he became familiar with the use of reinforced concrete in construction; and his parting with l'eplattanier, his initial teacher and mentor, to pursue an architectural career in paris. le corbusier's increasing obsession with painting is apparent by his involvement, with ozenfant from through and with leger between and , in purism, possibly inspired by the fact le corbusier had few commissions between and ; the most notable of these being a workers' housing project at troyes in and the maison citrohan ( ). le corbusier's involvement with regional syndicalism during the s is important to understanding his aim of achieving an ideal society through his architecture and his belief in a bureaucratic, business, scientific and cultural elite that would, "through beneficient acts," fulfill his dream of cities of skyscrapers. this theme is not pursued in this thesis, as it is extraneous to the argument. the volume of le in le corbusier, we find traces o f l'eplattanier. l'eplattanier had studied painting, sculpture and architecture at the ecole des arts decoratifs and ecole des beaux arts in paris. a s le corbusier was to do, l'eplattanier travelled broadly after leaving school. as le corbusier's almost exclusive teacher of decorative design and ornamental composition, l'eplattanier shaped his student largely in his own image. corbusier's architectural work between his purist buildings of the s and pre-ronchamp is presented throughout the thesis, as it is pertinent to the topic. a s le corbusier's break with purism in the late s, urban planning experiments during the s and s and resolution of the relationship of man to nature during the s as a consequence of his pursuit of the objets d reaction poetique all contributed to the design aesthetic he evolved with ronchamp, they are referenced in the body of this thesis. the literature review considers evidence presented by other scholars and critics important to an understanding of ronchamp within the context of two major themes: the function of art in architecture and the function o f art in le corbusier's architecture. other writings of significance are discussed where they contribute to the hypothesis. the literature review is deliberately limited to those issues involved in the examination of symbiosis in le corbusier's art and architecture and is not intended to cover the broad range of interests le corbusier pursued prior to his involvement with ronchamp, the case study that is the subject of this study. . . . function of art in architecture the dilemma o f modernist architecture is what constitutes art, which, then, determines how art functions within the context of architecture. central among critics who wrestled with this definition is architecture professor joseph hudnut, who, writing from a humanist perspective in his treatise, "the post-modern house," argues that space, texture, structure and light are the eloquent elements of a new art, in contrast to the stiff formalism of architectural styles that merely punched holes in walls to emit light. at a preliminary glance, hudnut agrees with le corbusier, in that the latter was also concerned with dematerialization as a necessary element of the transparency of the window wall or "walls of light." however, hudnut considers painting and sculpture to be "harmonious accessories," while deriding the conformity made possible through industrial processes of standardization - the escape from the control of art arising from the inculcation of the individual to mass culture. while hudnut was writing about domestic architecture, his point of view that technique has insufficient utility as an expressive element and that progress is not to art as art is to emotion has significance for ronchamp because it encapsulates the concept that the art is in the poesis, not the technique. this is contradictory to the premise of this thesis, which argues that art and architecture, as a s cited in beatriz colomina, "where are we?" architecture and cubism, eds. eve blau and nancy j. troy (cambridge: the m i t press, ) . joseph hudnut, "the post-modern house," architecture culture - . ed. joan ockman (new york: r i z z o l i international publications, ) . evidenced in ronchamp, are mutually influential, however, hudnut does capture the disillusionment le corbusier is known to have experienced, post-purism, with the beneficience of the machine culture as an arbiter of architecture. christopher green, in a variety of works, including "the objet a reaction poetique, the figure and eroticism in painting" ( ), notes the architect's tendency to group objects in a sculptural way in paintings such as l a cheminee ( ), which supports the contention that le corbusier transferred his ability to think plastically to his architecture. green also notes that, while the architect shared an interest with leger in objets a reaction poetique, le corbusier ascribed a deeper meaning to their significance in the individual's response to the "merest natural fragment." green believes the groundwork for the synthesis of the arts was laid between and , with le corbusier's painting exhibitions (boston, london, paris and lyons) and pieces such as unite d'habitation, marseilles, as well as the subsequent ronchamp and chandigarh commissions, which represented the exploration of a new relationship between himself and nature and his art and design work. further, green presupposes le corbusier's secretive pursuit of his painting, which he was able to separate from the commercialism of his architectural career, allowed him to explore his interior responses to nature. although this viewpoint is engaging and the earlier date corresponds with le corbusier's first purist commissions, it seems apparent that the architect was already engaged in this endeavor as early as his first swiss villas. green agrees that ronchamp is analogous to sculpture and comments, in "the architect as artist" ( ), that the handling of space was pivotal to his appreciation of architecture as art. green further suggests that art was le corbusier's point of contact between "the sublime chaos of nature and the structure of human concepts, between sensation and idea," or as green expresses it, the divergence between "the free manipulation of form and the rational analysis of function and structure." green differs from this writer in ascribing the concept of synthesis to le corbusier's work, while this paper w i l l argue for a symbiotic interpretation of projects such as ronchamp. christopher green, "the objet a reaction poetique, the figure and eroticism in painting," le corbusier: architect of the century, exhibition catalogue, eds. michael raeburn and victoria wilson (london: arts council of great britain and authors, ) . green, "the objet" . christopher green, "the architect as artist," le corbusier: architect of the century. eds. michael raeburn and victoria wilson, exhibition catalogue (london: arts council of great britain and authors, ) . green, "the architect as artist" . sigfried giedion, commenting on the q a m bridgewater questionnaire on "the impact of contemporary conditions upon architectural expression" ("our attitude towards problems of aesthetics," ), summarizes the dilemma of art's function within architecture by referencing sculptor barbara hepworth, who advocates for collaboration between architects and sculptors. while giedion's remarks are made within the context of presenting the questionnaire to c i a m ' s membership, they warrant consideration since they represent giedion's beliefs about the efficacy of painting and sculpture in invigorating architecture, such as when he comments on the inadvisability o f divorcing architecture from urban planning and its sister arts. this commentary is consistent with le corbusier's own thinking during the s. what is interesting about this discourse is giedion's discomfort with rationalism, quite unlike le corbusier's references, during his purist period, to the primacy of the machine object in art and architecture. giedion sees the demise of rationalism as the turning point in the reclamation of aesthetics as an architectural value. it is in this appreciation of the consequence of art as a function of architecture, and as an expression of the contemporary mood, that giedion's work is relevant to this thesis, although, like green, giedion references a synthesis o f the arts, as opposed to their mutual interdependence, as this paper w i l l posit is present in ronchamp. beatriz colomina, in "where are we?" ( ), suggests another possibility, which is that architects are overly concerned with the inclusion of art in architecture - more particularly of cubist art which, despite the protests of critics such as v o n moos or peter collins, she suggests is so firmly associated with the domestic box that it has become part of the folklore of modern architecture history. colomina positions her argument in the context of cubism, suggesting that references to cubism in architecture generally relate to le corbusier's work (such as the v i l l a stein-de monzie). while she concedes that modernism and cubism share principles manifest in their urban experience, she argues it is the client who fosters architecture as art by commissioning it thusly. she points out that many of le corbusier's clients, such as raoul le roche, were art collectors and that, for them, modern architecture functioned "as a 'frame' for cubist and purist paintings," although colomina does comment that l e corbusier found the v i l l a l a roche ( ) too picturesque and, hence, perhaps too cubist. further, colomina argues that because modernist architecture was deliberately disorienting, it was akin to the cinema - in constant motion, characterized by seemingly weightless picture (glass) walls reminiscent of a movie screen that display an array of moving images viewed from the inside out and as an exterior image captured upon the glass. following colomina's thought, it must giedion, "our attitude" . be then, that by modernizing the painting's frame (the architecture), the purists positioned architecture as the corollary of other media, including art. this would be consistent with ronchamp i f one considers it to be what pauly refers to as a total work of art, in contrast with architecture as independent from art. this thesis argues that because art and architecture are symbiotic at ronchamp, they are corollaries, rather than art an accessory to architecture. polish q a m member helena syrkus, in advocating for the adoption of le corbusier's athens charter at the seventh annual c i a m meeting, argues in the article, "art belongs to the people," that art must be populist, responsive to human needs and uplifting. syrkus condemned his machine for living and the eclecticism o f academics (gropius seems a likely target) who dismiss the spirit of the past. thus, she chastised c i a m for making a "fetish" of the raw bones of construction, rather than dressing it in "fine muscles and a lovely skin." her comments are prescient in that they predate le corbusier's organic period, although it is well accepted that le corbusier's comment about a machine for living were misinterpreted. ronchamp is consistent with this new aesthetic, in that the interdependence of the art and architecture achieve a populist appeal that seemingly responds to the spiritual aspirations of the chapel's adherents. bruno reichlin's "jeanneret-le corbusier, painter-architect" ( ) posits that le corbusier's purist architecture was characterized by a multiplicity of readings engendered by the shared outlines familiar to his paintings of the same period. reichlin's treatise is useful to an appreciation of purism, in that he addresses the manner in which le corbusier combines vertical and frontal space to achieve perspectival illusions that are disruptive of the reassuring "spatial constructs" familiar to representational art, which le corbusier criticized as providing merely "an accidential view of objects." he suggests le corbusier used similarly antiperspectival devices, such a horizontal strips of windows, in his architecture to fracture the centrality of the space. this has meaning for ronchamp, since le corbusier made similar use of ambiguous space (spatial interference) to establish the structure's non-linearity, such as in the use of the concave south wall to establish a collection receptacle for pilgrims on the exterior and to establish a light tapestry on the interior. further, reichlin argues it is the apprehension of the whole, the plan libre, c o l o m i n a , . helena syrkus, "art belongs to the people," architecture culture: - : a documentary anthology, ed. joan ockman (new york: r i z z o l i international publications, ) . bruno reichlin, "jeanneret-le corbusier, painter-architect," architecture and cubism, eds. eve blau and nancy j. troy (cambridge: the m i t press, ) . that is necessary to comprehend le corbusier's architecture. this supports the thesis' central argument that ronchamp must be understood in terms of a symbiotic relationship between art and architecture. . . . function of art in le corbusier's architecture those critics who comment about the function of art in le corbusier's architecture display a diverse array of opinions about the motivations for ronchamp, however, they generally coalesce around the belief that the chapel represents a synthesis of art with architecture. remarking, in "mannerism and modern architecture" ( ), on le corbusier's rationalist leanings, c o l i n rowe suggests that le corbusier constructed mathematics and geometry as a counterpoint to the beaux arts and the theory of the s, but that his ambiguity is evident in his description of the eternal values of architecture based on platonic principles, contrasted to the significance of the architect's intervention through "the masterly, correct, and magnificent play o f masses brought together in light." his point that le corbusier is incapable of delineating a reaction to sensation is well taken, as this deficiency contributes to the viewer's sense o f ambiguity surrounding the purpose o f and response to buildings such as ronchamp. daniele pauly, writing in "the chapel of ronchamp as an example of le corbusier's creative process" ( ) and carlo cresti, author of le corbusier ( ), concur that ronchamp is the outcome of le corbusier's research, while cresti argues that even le corbusier's purist architecture possessed "plastic-formal 'turbulences'." cresti intimates that analyses that suggest ronchamp's plasticism is a destructive manifestation of mannered formalism, an argument perhaps directed at stirling, are flawed because they neglect the possibility that the architecture may be a resolution of the quest for "interconnecting and modulated relationships" among the components of his vocabulary. this text supports the thesis that the elements of ronchamp are arranged in the particular manner they are because of their symbiotic function. reichlin, "jeanneret" . le corbusier as cited in c o l i n rowe, "mannerism and modern architecture," the rationalists: theory and design in the modern movement, ed. dennis sharp (london: architectural press, ) . carlo cresti, le corbusier (london: the hamlyn publishing group limited, ) . cresti . pauly's contribution to the research on ronchamp is to establish the chapel as a temple for the synthesis of the arts - the outcome o f le corbusier's research into fundamental concerns about the plastic arts and the "logical conclusion" to his previous forms, consistent with other organic architecture of the s. this latter argument is weakened by the lack of significant discussion of comparative pieces, although she infers that his s still-life paintings were the stimulus for his interest in organic forms. although implied, because she has not made specific reference to the concept, it is not clear whether pauly's references to ronchamp as a total work of art are consistent with the concept of gesamtkunstwerk, which can be traced to the german romantics and the wiener werkstatte (vienna workshops) of josef hoffmann ( - ) and koloman moser ( - ) and which posited that all of the arts could be unified in the design to embrace every aspect of the building or environment. regardless of whether that is the case, pauly's argument about the chapel representing le corbusier's effort to achieve a synthesis o f the arts, while valid within its own context, is distinct from this thesis' contention that the structure is symbiotic. irrespective of that distinction, the writer of this paper supports her contention that ronchamp represents the translation of poetic elements into the "architectural oeuvre." further, pauly's suggestion that ronchamp's unstructured forms represent the irrationality of the religious and spiritual realms seems plausible. like cresti, pauly considers ronchamp to be multi-valenced, borrowing from the architect's store of references, personal memories and the language of technology, such as airplane wings and dams. although her arguments support the argument developed in this thesis that the design is essentially intuitive, she notes that le corbusier researched the site, its importance as a place of pilgrimage, the significance of the holy v i r g i n to the structure, catholic ritual and religious art before formulating the final plan. her proposition, developed through a reading of le corbusier's writings, that the architect internalized visual imagery witnessed during his personal and business travels, transcribing those images onto his art and architecture, as in the impressions of diffused/restrained light he brought to the design from his trip to the algerian desert, is consistent with the themes presented in this thesis. pauly also draws allusions between ronchamp and his sculptural pieces, such as ozon, while comparing the blocks of color in the south windows to mondrian-like mark making. while pauly is more sympathetic to the poetic aspects o f ronchamp than other writers, her suppositions are well supported by references to primary source materials and, as such, are accepted as generally valid within the context of architectural scholarship. this thesis pauly, le corbusier . daniele pauly, "the chapel of ronchamp as an example of le corbusier's creative process," l e corbusier. ed. h . allen brooks, trans. stephen sartarelli (princeton: princeton university press, ) . extends her insights by suggesting that ronchamp is representative of the symbiotic nature of le corbusier's late architecture - that the art is integral to the architecture and that the piece functions as a consequence of the interdependence of the art and architecture, rather than the art functioning as a constituent of the whole. robert jordan (le corbusier. ) presents a different explanation for ronchamp, which is that it is a timeless architecture that, rather than being based on folkloric references, represents the combination of various modern techniques. jordan remarks on the "almost primaeval" nature of the structure and considers it primarily peasant architecture by virtue of its isolation. jordan compares ronchamp to a sculpture, as do, among others, pauly and frampton, but notes that the structure distills all of the religions and architectures (referencing particularly the greek, roman and byzantine) with which le corbusier was familiar. jordan's observations are consistent with those o f pauly and those other commentators who are influenced by the poetic quality of the building, however, he dismisses the suggestion that ronchamp's design was solely influenced by folkloric architecture. this observation is useful in that it broadens the scope of the argument, consistent with the contention in this thesis that while the folkloric influence is apparent, the design is primarily a sculpted form. stanislaus von m o o s ' commentary is probably the most closely aligned with the argument put forward in this thesis. like the writer, he is impressed by the multifarious influences that were available to inform ronchamp. v o n moos argues that, as is the case on those occasions in which le corbusier's forms seem inappropriate to the task, the forms were developed fairly independently of the purpose that they serve. it is conceivable that his approach to the artistry of the endeavor overrode the functionalist programme - the pessac workers' houses come to mind, developed in the spirit of social reform but inappropriate to the pragmatic needs of the occupants. while von moos also traces the form to le corbusier's african travels, he suggests that since the architect begins from a stance free of prejudices about religious architecture - this being his first realized religious commission - or about the shared function requiring a design similar to other chapels, ronchamp can be positioned with le corbusier's other secular work. v o n moos argues that, as there is no language of forms consistent with established social functions, cultural meanings or "institutionalized traditions," this accounts for the uniqueness of the form. he suggests le corbusier rejected the clean lines of the international style for the violent masses of raw concrete, which, as in unite d'habitation, marseilles, assumed the proportions of a monumental sculpture. v o n moos refers to le corbusier's stanislaus von moos, le corbusier: elements of a synthesis (cambridge: m i t , ) . article, "unity," in which he states his intention to achieve consonance among "the various manifestations of creativity" while enabling architecture, painting and sculpture to remain autonomous, as evidence le corbusier was striving for a synthesis o f the arts. further, von moos suggests that painting mediated between le corbusier's public and private lives, serving as a integral accompanient to the exploration of the subconscious and that his abandonment of purist principles in the s led to the cognition that art was an "intuitive dialogue" with nature. v o n m o o s ' arguments seem the most considered of those speculations about le corbusier's motivations with ronchamp and about the mediation of his painting and sculpture with his architecture. while the current thesis concurs with von m o o s ' viewpoint, it furthers the discourse by suggesting that ronchamp extends the concept of consonance to one in which the art and architecture are essentially integral, preferencing the concept of symbiosis to von m o o s ' synthesis. the other critic who w i l l be examined in this literature review is stephen gardiner (le corbusier. ), although the writer is of the opinion that this document reflects inadequate scholarship due to the paucity of the references. gardiner argues that le corbusier was an enigma in that while he thought in visual images, like a painter or sculptor, because he was simultaneously an engineer (sic) and a painter, he was able to re-invent architecture. it is his opinion that l e corbusier's buildings are, consequently, autobiographical. gardiner argues that le corbusier's rediscovery of classical principles and an intense curiousity about "the inexhaustible domain of nature" inspired le corbusier to engage in the pursuit of an indigenous architecture specific to place and location. ronchamp is consistent with this theme by virtue o f responding to the constraints and possibilities of the sense of place - it is influenced by regional architecture and building materials, as seen in the use of water spouts similar to those of venasque's church, while embracing forms from nature for its context. forms from nature, such as tree trunks to enclose the view, are adapted as a source of architectural innovation, enabling the architecture to assume any shape that meets its aesthetic and pragmatic objectives, much as v i l l a savoye exposes le corbusier's desire for fresh air and sunlight by integrating its exterior passages (sun terrace, entrance) with the v o n moos . v o n moos . v o n moos . stephen gardiner, le corbusier (london: w m collins & sons co ltd, ) . gardiner . gardiner . interior (ribbon windows that encompass the idyllic view). thus, he suggests, ronchamp's walls intimate the "softness, roundness and changing contours of nature." gardiner concludes that the sexualized forms of female nude bathers find their correspondence in le corbusier's architecture and it would seem that le corbusier's own references to male and female architecture support this proposition. gardiner argues that le corbusier was constrained by the cube and the machine until he was able to comprehend their meaning, which enabled him to be freed of their influence. he also suggests, like frampton, that le corbusier's late period architecture, such as ronchamp, is influenced by the folk architecture - the "irregular jumble" of greek village life - and by the complexity of classical greek design that belies the "simplicity of the natural frame." the concept of nature as frame is endemic in his suggestion that le corbusier personified the architecture by enabling it to be commanded by the landscape that, because it was harmonious with the design, "enlarged" its magnificence. this is a more complete explanation of the concept of the acoustical landscape than revealed in some other literature. although the thesis won't particularly explore the concept of personification, it is a plausible contention that le corbusier assigned human-like attributes to the landscape and architecture, a suggestion supported by pauly when she remarks about the chapel's towers as listening ears. a brief mention w i l l be made of charles jencks' le corbusier and the tragic v i e w of architecture ( ), which suggests that le corbusier's post-wwii aesthetic considered architecture to be sculpture in plastic means. jencks refers to the architect's oeuvre complete ( - ), in which le corbusier comments on his desire to use polychromy and the contrast between crudity and finesse to stimulate reaction, as evidence of his intent. jencks references the "violently sculptural" qualities of unite d'habitation, marseilles, as le corbusier's departure from the idealistic, flattened plane of the international style. in a similar manner, jencks suggests ronchamp represents le corbusier's realization of ineffable space. however, he is critical about what he refers to as le corbusier's fiction regarding ineffable space and visual acoustics. the writer of this paper agrees with jencks that, in the case of ronchamp, le corbusier may have developed the form, then worked out the inter-relationships that corresponded with the concept of ineffable space. this is consistent with jencks' comment that le corbusier strove to develop gardiner - . gardiner . le corbusier describes unite d'habitation's (marseilles) external pillars as: " . . . l i k e the strong curvaceous thights of a woman". a s cited in h . w . janson and anthony janson, history of art: the western tradition (upper saddle river, n . j . : pearson education, ) . gardiner . gardiner - . . • . new architectural languages throughout his career, beginning with his concerns with geometric forms from nature during the period of his swiss villas at la-chaux-de-fonds to his involvement in purism in the s, his concerns with urban planning in the s and s and his evolution of a brutalist form at ronchamp in the s. in this context, it would seem more probable that le corbusier's concern with the vocabulary of architecture might lead him to evolve the form, then determine the syntax that suited the form. . . . other writings kenneth frampton, writing in le corbusier ( ), asks whether the purist villa, which preoccupied le corbusier with questions of standards and universality, was an industrial product or "a hand-crafted artifact," made to resemble the "naked, polished steel" appearance of the machine product, but finished in an artisan's stucco. this dilemma is most troublesome in structures such as the v i l l a stein de monzie and the v i l l a savoye and reiterates the essential compromise: the divergence between le corbusier's commentary and his achievements. further, while frampton agrees that the ronchamp's form is related to the whitewashed tradition of mediterranean vernacular architecture, he argues that the chapel, and the pavilion des temps nouveaux, are the transformation of the nomadic tent and the hebrew temple in the wilderness. the temple, which represents the sacred, is translated into the "secular inverted tent" of the pavilion, which frampton refers to as the profane, then re-created as ronchamp, which acts as a metaphor for the return of the tent to its sacred state. thus, the design can be seen as a response to spiritual concerns or the manipulation of the spiritual within the pretext of a new brutalist idiom, rather than a tectonic response to the objets a reaction poetique. frampton traces the "profound change" evident in le corbusier's post-purist phase of the s, as evidenced by such paintings as composition avec une poire ( ) in which he combines object-types with organic elements (objets a reaction poetique) such as driftwood and shells, to the influence of leger. frampton suggests le corbusier and leger were equally engaged in the recording of "organic forms eroded by nature and time." further, he posits charles jencks, le corbusier and the tragic v i e w of architecture (london: allen lane, ) . kenneth frampton, le corbusier (london: thames and hudson, ) . frampton . frampton . that le corbusier's post-purist paintings served as the inspiration for a "myriad of otherwise unimaginable formal- cum-methaphorical devices" in his architecture. frampton also considers le corbusier's involvement with greek architect/musician iannis xenakis, who worked for le corbusier between and , to be significant of his "growing preoccupation" with the concept of creating a total work of art, which frampton suggests he achieved with the philips pavilion ( ). during the lapse between the pavilion des temps nouveaux in and the philips pavilion, le corbusier underwent a tectonic transformation, evidenced by the inclusion of design devices such as the double curvature used at ronchamp and again at the philips pavilion. rather than a reference to his theories about objets a reaction poetique (le corbusier suggested he was inspired by a shell he found on a new york beach), frampton sees the "complex curvature" of ronchamp's roof as an extension of the architect's "hyperbolic space-frames" from his liege and san francisco exhibition pavilions. that le corbusier employed a common aeroplane modelling techique to create a wire model of ronchamp suggests to frampton an aerodynamic reference, which serves to support pauly's comments about the roof as resembling an aeroplane w i n g . frampton also suggests a marine metaphor - the roof as the hull of a ship, keel positioned in the centre, this being a tectonic reference to the "ancient conjunction of church and ship." frampton argues that the "oscillation between the nautical and the aeronautical" is part of an intrinsic pattern in le corbusier's work, which shifts between the aquatic origin of all life and the ultimate transformation of this aqueous state into the aerial, a methamorphosis paralleled in the diurnal cycle of evaporation and condensation le corbusier witnessed during his flights over the rainforests of latin a m e r i c a . this interpretation of le corbusier's work, particularly with regard to the references to the symbolism of marine life and the aerial, which would be well served by further scrutiny to determine their efficacy, is among the more intriguing in the literature. while the thesis w i l l not particularly explore many of the concepts presented by frampton, they bear referencing in that they broaden the appreciation of the breadth of interests that may have contributed to ronchamp's design aesthetic. frampton . a s cited in frampton . frampton . frampton . the other writer who is central to the discussion of ronchamp is james stirling, whose commentary, "ronchamp: le corbusier's chapel and the crisis of rationalism," ( ), disdains ronchamp as having little intellectual meaning, stimuli or analytical context, beyond its obvious visual appeal to local residents, which stirling suggests may be more indicative of pride of place than of any achievement by le corbusier. while stirling concedes ronchamp is likely "the most plastic building" in modern architectural history, he criticizes the diverse styles that emerged in the s and s as originating from an effort to fuse art nouveau and late t h century engineering. stirling raises an interesting point about the paramountcy of the site in many of le corbusier's works, notably as seen in ronchamp's primacy at the point of four horizons, but also noting the use of pilotis to elevate the form where the siting is insubstantial. he compares the subdued lighting to baroque churches, where no one element dominates as a result of the diffusion of light, however, reflects that european architects sought inspiration from folk art and that this tendency, as far as le corbusier is concerned, may be the result of the stockpiling of his vocabulary "with plastic elements and objets trouves of considerable picturesqueness." stirling is critical of whether architecture such as ronchamp, that appears to draw on folkloric elements, contributes to the progression of the modern movement or whether the project is simply a "mannered piece" of what he terms conscious imperfectionism. this is the most critical o f the writings on ronchamp and possesses some privileged credibility because of stirling's pre-eminent role in british modernist architecture. the supposition that le corbusier's architecture has stalemated by virtue of the use of stored imagery is weak, however, in that the visual pretext is predominant in many architects' work and ronchamp represents a departure from le corbusier's design idiom of the s and s. . implications of the selected writings for proposed study this thesis w i l l reference the major writings discussed in the literature review as they are appropriate to the context of this paper. while many of the writings are supportive of the point of view of this paper, the thesis w i l l explore the concept that le corbusier's art and architecture, as seen at ronchamp, are actually symbiotic, in that they are mutually interdependent, as opposed to the concept that his art and architecture exist in a state of synthesis, which infers a combining of singular components into a cohesive whole, as so many of the authors reviewed assert. james stirling, "ronchamp: le corbusier's chapel and the crisis of rationalism ( )," le corbusier in perspective, ed. peter serenyi (englewood cliffs, n j : prentice-hall, inc., ) . stirling, "ronchamp" . stirling, "ronchamp" . stirling, "ronchamp" . c h a p t e r iii s o u r c e s a n d v i e w p o i n t s . introduction in his art making, le corbusier found the expression of the "pure creation of the spirit" that enabled him to innovate in his architecture. le corbusier was involved in some of the major avant-garde art movements o f the early t h century. he participated in professional debates about the synthesis of art and architecture that, along with his own research, refined his perspective on the relationship of art to architectural production. besides his personal sketchbooks, of which two volumes of the four-volume series w i l l be considered here, he was involved in such media as painting, sculpture and ceramics and in the founding of purism ( - ), a movement that influenced both his painting and his architecture. these various pursuits contributed to le corbusier's understanding of the inter- relatedness, or symbiosis, of art and architecture, as opposed to the mere synthesis o f art and architecture. . sketchbooks . . . sketchbooks in towards a new architecture ( ; ), le corbusier touches upon the concept of architecture as art, as it contrasts with the practical: "the relationships between [primary shapes] have not necessarily any reference to what is practical or descriptive....by the use of raw materials and starting from conditions more or less utilitarian, you have established certain relationships which have aroused my emotions. this is architecture." to understand this idea of architecture as a vehicle for art, and art as the creative impetus for architecture, it is necessary to examine the first two volumes of le corbusier's sketchbooks, compiled between - and between - . "art is this pure creation of the spirit which shows us, at certain heights, the summit of the creation to which man is capable of attaining." le corbusier, towards a new architecture, trans. frederick etchells (oxford: the butterworth architecture, ) - . a s cited in frampton . le corbusier produced a series of sketchbooks throughout his life and from them one can trace his development as an artist and the stimulus for some of his major projects. the sketchbooks comprise a documentary of people, landscapes (urban and rural), structures and designed objects and forms from nature, which l e corbusier observed during his personal travels and while employed on various architectural commissions. they include his comments on imagery and events he witnessed, the beginning outlines of the modulor (an architectural dimensioning system which le corbusier developed in the s and s), design explorations into areas that interested him, such as the symbology of the open hand, as well as sketches of human bestiary, drawings of the female form and abstracted imagery. the sketches, which in the first two sketchbooks number over , , vary from pencil drawings to pen and ink sketches and some acrylic paintings. the sketchbooks are inconsistently numbered, as le corbusier dated many of his sketches some significant time after they were generated. thus, they are not as reliable as would be preferred, although the publications remain significant evidence of his design interests, influences and research. the sketchbooks are widely considered to be among the most important documentary evidence of le corbusier's development within the modern movement. besides this obvious utility, they contribute to social historiography by recording the progression o f le corbusier's architectural and artistic interests. francoise franclieu comments that the late s (and i might add the s) were "decisive" to le corbusier's artistic development. those concepts embodied in the sketchbooks that re-emerge in his architecture are, arguably, representative of design problems that le corbusier worked through in the course of resolving his ideas about what w i l l become the symbiosis of art and architecture. four specific themes found in the sketchbooks w i l l be discussed in terms of the insight they give to le corbusier's practice of a symbiosis of art and architecture. the themes are forms from nature, the modulor, folklore and the symbology of the open hand. references to "figure" in this section pertain to drawings in mary patricia m a y sekler, the early drawings of charles-edouard jeanneret (le corbusier) - (new y o r k and london: garland publishing, inc., ). material from le corbusier's sketchbooks is referenced in the footnotes. this period was distinguished by the emergence of le corbusier's objets a reaction poetique. fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks. v o l . , - , ed. francoise franclieu (london: thames and hudson, ) . . . forms f r o m nature one reason for proposing that le corbusier's sketchbooks are relevant to his architecture is that they show the progression of the architect's interest in natural forms and the organic. specific to his grounding in john ruskin and owen jones and his fascination with taine's voyage en italie - le corbusier used his travels to explore nature as a source for fine art - the architect exhibited an intense interest in the forms o f organic objects, such as shells, roots and crystals, and in physical laws, such as erosion. he incorporated these concepts in the pavilion de l'esprit nouveau ( ), the precursor for his objet a reaction poetique, as well as his sculptures of the s and projects such as ronchamp. le corbusier's vision of organic forms as objects to be integrated into his art and architecture, including his early post-purism designs of - and his carnets (notebooks) during the s, inspired him to conduct exploratory studies that ranged from the simple articulation of forms to research into their organization and order for the purpose of understanding their poetic content. further inspired by surrealism, le corbusier was able to integrate these organic forms with his purist principles during the s, establishing a series of graphic and pictorial works dissimilar to his earlier designs. with this appreciation, the gap between the stylistic phases in le corbusier's sketchbooks and the genesis of his organic architecture are not problematic - they are consistent with the architect's changing design aesthetic. the biomorphic, organic forms of his late career are presaged in his ongoing dialogues between nature and machine-made objects. the impetus for the adoption o f organic forms is present in the changes in le corbusier's expressive form that began to evolve around , with the incorporation of objets a reaction poetique into his art and architecture. nature figures prominently in le corbusier's early sketches. although some of his community plans (the unite d' habitation projects or the contemporary city of three million inhabitants) might be criticized for separating humans from the exterior (when compared to other contemporaneous models, such as the garden city), le corbusier had an enduring appreciation of the place of nature within the human landscape. projects such as the unite d'habitation at marseilles and ronchamp chapel, which are sited in a manner that positions the occupants within the landscape, expose the relevance of nature to his design aesthetic. le corbusier's earliest drawings, which predate his sketchbooks and reflect his readings of owen jones and john ruskin, illustrate his experience o f the landscape around l a chaux-de-fonds, but also motifs copied from ruskin's and jones' nature studies. they are consistent a pencil and watercolor sketch illustrates this: the enframed flowers and natural grasses bear resemblance to a chapter heading in ruskin's modern painters ( ). the use of enframement itself is peculiar to late nineteenth- with the teachings of his mentor l'eplattanier, but also a childhood spent studying nature: " . . . have learned how the flowers were, inside and out, the form and colour of birds. i understood how a tree grows and why it keeps its balance even in the midst of a storm. the tree, friend of man, symbol of all organic creation; the trees, image of a total construction.. . . " thus, the evidence from his sketchbooks and other documents suggests that the biomorphic organicism of his late architecture is a response to his research into building forms, as well as this appreciation of the juxtaposition of "sun, space and greenery" within the architectural programme. b y imitating and copying nature, le corbusier subsumed nature as an art form whose integration was essential to the architectural event. ,: subsequent sketches demonstrate an increasing abstraction and much of his earlier work is omitted. several sketches show nature treated as isolated objects - still-lifes - for the formal exploration of volume, silhouette and form. the influence of readings such as henry provensal's l'art de demain is apparent in his drawings, which progressed from complex representational studies made during the early years of his training at l a chaux-de-fonds, at which time he began independent studies in decorative art and showed an interest in art nouveau, to an economical simplicity consistent with his interest in geometric forms. this diverse portfolio is seen in le corbusier's shift from the ornate sgraffiti of the jura landscape motifs, like the sapin that decorate v i l l a fallet ( - ), to the sparse modernity of purist structures like v i l l a savoye ( ), which embrace nature through devices such as roof gardens and ribbon windows that embrace fresh air and sunlight, exposing the occupant to 'the idyllic w o r l d ' . " ensuing projects, such as ronchamp chapel, reveal his interest in nature through forms such as the roof, influenced by a shell le corbusier retrieved from a new york beach. these approaches illustrate that le corbusier acquired inspiration for many of his design forms from the shapes and relationships he derived from nature. century graphics and art nouveau. sekler comments that this design, which appears to be "a straightforward sketch of material from his surroundings" closely resembles the chapter heading from part vii, " o f cloud beauty," in modern painters. sekler also traces his use of enframement to ruskin's the elements of drawing. sekler - . ruskin suggested in the elements o f drawing use o f a frame "through which one could see what one could 'legitimately' take into the picture." sekler . le corbusier as cited in gardiner - . " a natural form inspires a composition, which is then re-created as an artifact." fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks. v o l . , . remarks to columbia university students, m a y . sketches and , sketchbook cio. also , , - , - , sketchbook b . paul venable turner, the education of le corbusier (new york: garland publishing inc., ) . v i l l a fallet was likely inspired by jones' the grammar o f ornament, which allowed l e corbusier to translate forms from nature into decorative surfaces for his swiss villas. le corbusier's preliminary watercolors for v i l l a fallet ( ) and the decorative panels on the villa's exterior illustrate how the architect incorporated these repeat horizontal patterns drawn from nature into his architecture. arts council of great britain - . . . the outline of the m o d u l o r the earliest outlines of the modulor found in le corbusier's sketchbooks are important to his conceptual ideas about art and architecture because he based many o f his designs on a regulating system similar to that used in classical architecture; le corbusier developed the modulor, which he perfected between and and of which he made extensive use at such diverse projects as unite d'habitation in marseilles, ronchamp chapel, the monastery at the convent of l a tourette, and chandigarh, as a device to resolve plastic problems. the modulor is described as "a measuring tool based on the human body and mathematics." inspired by the golden section, but also influenced by similar endeavors by artists such as michelangelo and vitruvius, as well as his own research, the modulor is meant to serve as a guide in ensuring that architecture responds to human proportions, while achieving balance and harmony. le corbusier's six-foot figure of a man with an upraised arm is mathematically sectioned to enable architects to determine the human proportions necessary to order and clarify the design, indicative of the evolution o f le corbusier's interest in traces regulateurs and his grille desproportions of to , developed under the auspices o f a s c o r a l (assemblee de constructeurs pour une renovation architecturale), and o f his familiarity with matila ghyka's publication, le nombre d ' o r . le corbusier frequently includes modulor-like figures in his drawings, seemingly to establish proportion, as in his gallery and day care centre from . subsequent allusions to the modulor are evident in sketches that contrast the dimension of volumes compared to the human body. franclieu relates le corbusier's notations in a sketch of a human figure on a porch to his interest in measurements: "this sketch reveals the architect's search for vernacular or pseudovernacular architecture as a confirmation of the correctness of his dimensions and his ideas on an 'efficient height for the home'." sketches from again show this preoccupation and refer to the dimensions and , which are similar to those that w i l l be proposed in the modulor. the modulor reappears in le corbusier's rio sketchbooks, balancing a peasant's baskets with his crayfish-like arm from . the idea of measurement is also evident when le corbusier juxtaposes a standing man with the outstretched limbs of a tree in a franclieu suggests sketches , in which le corbusier refers to the numbers . and . , and "pre-figure" the architect's efforts to relate architecture to the ideal human figure. fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks. v o l . , . le corbusier, the modulor and (cambridge: harvard university press, ) . le corbusier, the modulor and . sketches and , sketchbook d . sketch , notebook b . fondation l e corbusier, sketchbooks. v o l . , . sketches to , sketchbook c . sketch , sketchbook c . sketch of uncertain origins. a series of drawings, completed while crossing the atlantic on the vernon s. hood steamship, detail the modulor's refinement by illustrating the progressive design process. these sketches pre-date the modulor's public presentation in , le corbusier's defence of it in and the first published articles about the modulor, which appeared in . le corbusier's cap martin sketches between and also reference the modulor and the upraised modulor arm appears in a pencil crayon sketch of his sculpture, l'enfant est l a . a series of drawings stimulated by a visit to his cabinet-maker at ajaccio in further reference the modulor, as do a series of human bestiary sketches. what is important about these sketches, and the many other calculations that appear throughout his sketchbooks, is that they represent the development of the modulor as a poetic device that enabled le corbusier to recombine the organic with the mechanical by translating natural proportions into a mathematical formula for use in his art and architecture. they are significant to ronchamp as its design is predicated on the mathematical proportions of the modular, imbuing the concept of symbosis with mathematical rigor. . . f o l k l o r i c influences a third influence in le corbusier's sketchbooks is his concern for folkloric traditions. through folklore, le corbusier was able to blend the premise of modern architecture with his interest in natural, organic forms and his own ideas about the spiritual. le corbusier argued that folklore was essential to reconciling the modern condition with the material and spiritual. le corbusier juxtaposed modern skyscrapers with native, child-bearing women, indolent musicians, solitary adventurers on donkey back, and peasant women bearing their wares across a forbidding desert or posed against the land and sea. b y contrasting his intrigue with folkloric design with the streamlined aesthetic of the jazz age - aircraft and steamships, the "magnificent moving structures of the modern era" - le corbusier was able to introduce the primitive hut into the modernist idiom. this technique revealed his concern sketch , sketchbook d . sketch - , notebook d . sketches to , to and to , sketchbook e , , as well as sketch in sketchbook f . the pencil crayon is sketch , sketchbook h . sketches and to , sketchbook f , and sketches to , sketchbook h . . le corbusier, le corbusier talks with students (new york: princeton architectural press, ) . sketch , sketchbook b ; sketches , , , , , and , sketchbook b ; and sketches , and , sketchbook b , and sketch , sketchbook c i , as well as sketch , sketchbook b . sketches and , sketchbook c , . a s cited in fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks, v o l . , . about the shallowness - "the emptiness, uneasiness, indifference" and flirtation - of the pre-war period, compared to the simple whitewashed, hand-hewn vernacular architecture he witnessed during his travels through the balkans and africa and which re-emerged in the undulating beton brut surfaces of his s architecture. gardiner remarks on this interest in the folkloric when he compares the "accidental casualness" o f ronchamp to the folk architecture of greek island villages. although frampton argued that modern culture was fatal to the "authenticity" of vernacular cultures, projects like ronchamp embody a primitivism, in both their form and "decoration" that bridges the vernacular and modernism. while the technique of beton brut was not endemic to the region nor was its vernacular nature sympathetic to the aims of innovation - causing le corbusier to suggest the use of paris-trained technicians for its application - ronchamp was fashioned by individual craftsman using available technology and materials indigenous to the site. its whitewashed form acts as an "x-ray" upon its surroundings, consistent with its function as a pilgrimage chapel, much as the whitewashed peasant's hut would have dominated the rural landscape amid the verdant imagery of the greek village. thus, by referencing folkloric tradition, le corbusier was able to advance his architecture from modernist form to a style that was sympathetic to the rural, isolated landscape and the humble (grotto-like) sanctity of a place of meditation. . . the symbology of the h a n d the concept of the open hand was a continuous motif in le corbusier's art and architecture and is, in itself, an integrative element in this discourse. the motif first appears in le corbusier's paintings as a disjunctive element, as in les lignes de la main ( ). le corbusier's sketches of - frequently exhibit disproportionately oversized hands, as in femme couchee, cordage et bateau a la porte ouverte ( ). sekler traces the familiar motif from chandigarh to , while le corbusier references it in his publication, modulor . and incorporates the imagery into a sketch of a medal bearing his image and sketches from . the open hand sculpture, as it fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks. v o l . , . gardiner . frampton . also see sketch , sketchbook b , from . sekler as cited in sunand prasad, "le corbusier in india," in architect of the century, eds. michael raeburn and victoria wilson, exhibition catalogue (london: arts council of great britain and authors, ) . also, sketches and to , sketchbook d . fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks. v o l . , . appears at chandigarh, is evident in his sketchbooks of november . while various interpretations of the sculpture have been preferred (franclieu, prasad), le corbusier's notes indicate it was meant to represent peace and reconciliation: " a t the moment when the modern world gushes forward in unlimited intellectual and material riches, one has to open the hand to receive and to give." the rotation of the chandigarh sculpture in the wind "indicated symbologically the direction of the wind (the contingent state)." the symbol appears again in loose association with l e corbusier's modulor calculations, as it does in the architect's sketches for a pivoting sculpture to be executed by savina and a series of charcoals of claw-like hands, dating to the same period, seemingly inspired by the modular. what can be suggested by the repetitiveness of the open hand motif is a concern with the hand as a symbol for communication, as is his corresponding use of the ear as imagery for listening. thus, we see le corbusier's intuitive appreciation of art as a means of interpreting the symbolism of the architecture, as well as of the sculptural element as an architectural tangible. b y incorporating the open hand motif into his artwork for ronchamp, le corbusier alluded to the context of the architecture as a means of communication between the worshipper and the divine. while these interests - forms from nature, the appearance of the open hand motif and the modular and the influence of the folkloric - may seem disparate, they singly and severally contribute to the symbiotic discourse between art and architecture, as evidenced at ronchamp. franclieu suggests the open hand "was born spontaneously in paris as the expression of the return to harmony among men...." fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks. v o l . , - . prasad notes le corbusier uses hand imagery in his painting "hand and flint," ferme radieuse ( ) and a memorial to valliant-couturier ( ). prasad . le corbusier as cited in prasad . le corbusier as cited in prasad . sketches , sketchbook f ( ), and , sketchbook f ( ), respectively. sketches to , sketchbook g ; and sketches to , sketchbook h . franclieu refers to these latter sketches as studies on the bull theme, for a "human bestiary." fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks, v o l . , . sketches to , , to and to , sketchbook f . sketch , sketchbook d ", . . p urism . . history/inception of purism besides his personal sketchbooks, le corbusier advanced his interest in art making while articulating many o f his beliefs about architecture through his involvement in the post-cubist art movement, purism. purism refers to the artwork produced by le corbusier and his associate, french artist amedee ozenfant, between and , along with the work of their colleague, artist fernand leger, between and . the movement was influenced by the analytic cubism of georges braques and pablo picasso, and the geometricism of de stijl, as well as characterized by elements of french classicism, and defined by the industrial wares of the machine aesthetic. purism stimulated the development of an international style of architecture, which emerged in europe between and and that valued functionalism and the fourth dimension (movement) as its precepts. susan b a l l comments that piet mondrian, theo v a n doesburg, ozenfant and le corbusier shared a desire to "uncover the changing laws governing nature and reveal this order by means of a universal plastic language." for le corbusier, this new language was purism and it refined his concepts about the relationship of art to architecture. le corbusier articulated the principles of purism, which he came to as a result o f his association with ozenfant, whom he met in paris at the age of , in two pivotal documents - the december article, "notes on cubism," in l'elan. and the manifesto, apres le cubisme. ozenfant and le corbusier represented themselves as cubism's heirs and purism as an alternative to non-objectivity, dada, and surrealism, intended to extract a contemporary style appropriate to the modern period via mechanical selection. in purism, le corbusier found expression for his belief that mechanical production and the "aesthetic criteria of modern design" were inextricably linked. the architect was able to abandon the decorative tradition of french architecture and to define concepts that would become central to his architecture: standardization, the object-type and classicism reduced to its geometric elements. the transition from the handcrafted style of his swiss villas to the streamlined pavilion de l'esprit nouveau ( ) demarcated le corbusier's mid-career aesthetic - the rejection of the pre-first world war irrational, intuitive, self-indulgent abandonment of cubism in place of an art and architecture that emphasized logic, order and discipline. susan l . b a l l , ozenfant and purism: the evolution of the style - . n d ed. (ann arbor: u m i research press, ) . . . explanation of concepts behind purism like analytic cubism, purism combined fragmented objects within an unconventional, ambiguous perspective. however, whereas analytic cubism was characterized by a multi-faceted, fragmented perspective, purism was based on the placement of standardized objects in an orderly and precise manner on a regulating line. this approach enabled three-dimensional objects to be portrayed in a flattened, two-dimensional perspective consistent with purist principles of standardization, mechanical selection and the constancy of the modern and the eternal. dunnett comments that le corbusier was instrumental in advancing an artistic language, inspired by cubism, of "pure plane, volume, and space," particular to the machine a g e . fry suggests that purism attempted to retain the structural aspects of cubism, while advancing or exploiting the medium's potentially rigorous structuralism. the result was a cubism stripped of its essential "spatial and formal tension, wit, and ambiguity: (making purism) a sort of heretical, calvinist cubism." in considering purism as a vehicle for le corbusier's ideas about art and architecture, it is necessary to appreciate that le corbusier considered industry, rather than the individual artist, to be the stylist of the modern era and purism to be the reforming influence that would admit architecture to this modernity. b y discarding the decorative, picturesque features of cubism that, while consistent with a restless, pre-war society, were extraneous to the post-war period, le corbusier was able to establish a relationship between art, industrial objects, and "modern thinking." recombining the universal or standardized geometric forms of industrial wares, which the purists referred to as "object-types," enabled le corbusier and ozenfant to portray the beauty and anonymity of the machine aesthetic. b y imbuing object-types with human qualities, as an extension of the human limb, the purists infused them with an immediacy consistent with their functional nature. further, since ozenfant and le corbusier considered the classical french tradition, characterized by order, economy, clarity of conception and language, to have been interrupted by synthetic cubism, purism also provided the vehicle to re-introduce classicism into painting and architecture. the objects ozenfant and le corbusier chose for their subject matter were typically french and classically detailed, enabling purist paintings to mimic both the "classical overtones" and "contemporary associations" of cubist paintings. in this way, purist design could be anonymous and its use of standard types - mechanical selection is defined as "an impersonal cultural parallel to darwin's theory of natural selection." mark antliff and patricia leighten, cubism and culture (london: thames and hudson, ) . le corbusier, the decorative art of today, trans. james i. dunnett (london: the architectural press, ) ix. edward f. fry, cubism (london: thames and hudson, ) . christopher green, art in france: - (new haven: yale university press, ) . abstraction, forms, systems, classicism and proportion - could align modernist architecture with a "machine-age classicism." to understand this concept of classicism applied to industry, one must acknowledge the neo-platonic allusions in le corbusier's purist designs; although le corbusier was familiar with plato only through the teachings and writings of others, purism associated itself with an ideal of pure geometric primary forms "perfected, or purified, over time by the process o f mechanical selection." ozenfant and le corbusier believed primary elements - the cube, sphere, cylinder, cone, pyramid, triangle, square, circle and straight and curved lines - were the keys to a composition, since they carried within them the "geometrical constants" that underlay the natural order. the emphasis on geometrical forms is explained in apres le cubisme: as nature translated into "pure plastic equivalents." in order for this geometric vocabulary to have "contemporary relevance," it was necessary for the purists, and other avant-garde groups, to locate it within the "perfection, order, harmony, and collectivity" of the machine i d i o m . le corbusier and ozenfant distinguished between mechanical selection - man-made objects, identified by the laws of selection as being economical in style, functional in application and orderly in execution, like the machine - and mechanical production - the mass production of industrial wares made possible by the machine. the object-type was the product o f mechanical selection: those objects necessary for the completion of the individual, defined by industrial design wares like bottles, jugs and vases that functioned as an extension o f the hand, and that were identifiable by their invariable and stable form. thus, purism's vocabulary consisted of "banal and familiar objects" that were typically standardized, utilitarian and factory made, while other, plastic elements were subordinated to what b a l l refers to as "the epitome of the universal transmutable language of purism." b a l l . a s evidenced by his comment on the programme for the pavilion de pesprit nouveau: " . . .to illustrate how, by virtue of the selective principle...industry creates pure forms; and to stress the intrinsic value of this pure form of art...." nancy j. troy, modernism and the decorative arts in france: art nouveau to l e corbusier (new haven: yale university press, ) . b a l l . b a l l . b a l l . ozenfant and le corbusier elaborated on non-mimesis thusly: "nature, when she is beautiful, is beautiful only in proportion to art; beautiful nature is only beautiful insofar as she touches the geometric animal in us." a s cited in b a l l . l'esprit nouveau establishes the aesthetic doctrine of industrialization as "...efficiency in everything - and no efficiency without purity of idea and of technique." b a l l . b a l l . form. le corbusier and ozenfant believed purism's task was to "perceive, retain and express the invariant" of its object-type. in this manner, then, the order and functionalism of the object's structure - qualities related to efficiency such as proportional harmony - were established as the "locus of its quality," whereas the decorative or remarkable elements were disregarded. purist elements in painting were to be an "equivalent" of the object - euclidean geometric solids ordered along a series of regulating lines to create harmony and constancy.' in a similar manner, purist architecture was analogous with the object-type - manufactured objects because they were devised to respond to constancy needs (what green refers to as "the constant human need for order"), and architecture because it was created to respond to human needs. thus, for le corbusier and ozenfant, the relationship of the machine to man was one o f mutualism: machines made possible the perfection o f the modern factory, just as its products were the offspring of the machine. the machine was, thus, a creator of modern life. similarly, the proportions of nature were a generator of classical geometry, since it comprised geometry's necessary constituents, such as the sphere, cube, prism and cone. thus, the purists' juxtapositioning of modern objects within the classical context of greek architecture and the decorative arts allowed them to claim an historical association with universal and constant laws, while assuming an evolutionary, modernist stance. . . how concepts of purism are manifested in le corbusier's paintings and architecture within their spatially constrained, yet evocative, reference point, purist paintings had a "calm exactitude." purist art was to be a medium for contemplation that, as is evident in le corbusier's nature morte a la pile d'assiettes ( ), the viewer and artist were to discern the object-type's "permanent, underlying structure...rather than its ephemeral, outward form." troy . the flattened planes of purism and "perspectival distortion" are acceptable in the effort to represent a -d object in a -d plane. b a l l . troy, decorative . troy. decorative . "les traces regulateurs" describes regulating lines as a geometric device used to correct proportional relationships in purist art and architecture. christopher green, "purist painting: principles and processes," in le corbusier: architect of the century (london: arts council of great britain, ) . the machine aesthetic was a response to constancy needs, according to green. christopher green, "purism," concepts of modern art: from fauvism to post-modernism. rd ed., ed. nikos stangos (london: thames and hudson, ) . the french predilection for geometry contributed to efforts to impose "the rigor o f a classical ordering system" on cubism: " b y the end of we see in paris a literary and artistic style marked by both cubism and futurism which was rapidly moving towards a neo-platonically motivated classicism, a classical revival." b a l l . emphasized: "...the importance of intellect, the unimportance of individuals, the value of precision." although their subject matter was reminiscent of a cubist still life, purist paintings were set apart by "the clarity of their arrangement, the sobriety of their treatment, the manner in which each object is presented not as an individual item of great complexity but as an example of a class of simple and identical things." in this manner, purist paintings were like object-types; since their constrained vocabulary depended upon the depiction o f "equivalents" - as opposed to the cubist emphasis on deformation, purist paintings consisted of spatially-flattened compositions of recognizable, machine-produced wares alluded to through interlocking contours, the repetition and predictability of which emulated machine production. the fixed and constant response to the purist painting recognized a universal timelessness, made possible by the incorporation of primary forms that satisfied the human need for order, as apparent in the plastic form of paintings such as l a bouteille de vin orange ( ) and nature more pale a la lanterne ( ). the purists' emphasis on mass production was revolutionary for le corbusier's architecture, as evident in such projects as the ozenfant studio and house ( ); pavilion de l'esprit nouveau, designed for the international exposition of decorative and industrial arts ( ); and v i l l a savoye ( - ). purism distanced the architect from the influence of schure, who assumed a worldview that considered the true aim of art to be "the expression.. .of spiritual forms," and provensal, who considered the role of the artist to be to discover and reveal spiritual truths. rather, le corbusier's purist architecture was influenced by the opposition between "the disciplined or free manipulation of form and the rational analysis of function and structure." purist principles of standardization and universality were expressed in his architecture as an "ordered arrangement, noble prisms, seen in light" and illuminated by measure or scale. his purist paintings allowed le corbusier to articulate the significance of such concepts as the use of regulating lines and classical geometry in his architecture, consistent with prevailing french concerns about social order in what troy suggests was a fashionable response to pre-war attitudes about the " u green, "purism," . troy. decorative . turner , . "...behind the resolution of these oppositions in built form lay, as le corbusier saw it, the testing-ground of art and ultimately of drawing, the private area in which he could work through his relationship with nature with unrivaled immediacy." christopher green, "purist painting: principles and processes," le corbusier: architect of the century, eds. michael raeburn and victoria wilson, exhibition catalogue (london: arts council of great britain, ) . " le corbusier, towards - . decorative arts." indeed, green suggests the core of purism was the alliance between painting and architecture, as apparent in one of le corbusier's first purist buildings, the ozenfant studio. b a l l comments that the purist painting provided le corbusier "with a visual language of precise geometric forms which were both timelessly universal and temporally pertinent to the machine age," as apparent in comparisons of le corbusier's schematic drawings and elevations of the v i l l a stein and the v i l l a savoye with his and ozenfant's purist paintings.' his research into standards and types culminated in a vocabulary of object-types - she cites the pilotis, roof garden, free plan, free facade, ribbon window, ramp or bridge, double-height space, scissor and spiral staircase — for his architecture that were consistent with the concept of the use of standardized elements for his purist paintings. l e corbusier published this manifesto, on the five points of architecture, in . le corbusier's pursuit o f an archetypal form of architecture based on innovations such as the plan libre, as characterized by projects such as the maison cook ( ) that "attempted to synthesize the cultural range o f the purist sensibility," coincided with his disaffection with ozenfant around . thus, le corbusier evolved the theoretical typologies of purism, devised in collaboration with ozenfant through the medium of painting, into an international style of architecture that established him at the forefront of the modern movement, along with more prominent architects such as walter gropius and frank l l o y d wright, during a period of personal introspection and renewal. his consequent expressive/organic forms, achieved through the introduction of the concept of objets 'a reaction poetique, were representative of the stylistic change culminating from the abandonment of his partnership with ozenfant. le corbusier's way of thinking about architecture, society and the world was structured around the way he understood the relationship between himself and nature. green refers to le corbusier's "willingness to exploit the coming together of the geometric and the natural confrontationally," in recognition that the mechanical and natural (primitive) were singular elements and that, by coupling humans with nature rather than setting them against it, the manufactured and natural could assume equal dominance without either being compromised." b y incorporating nature, in its primal state, into the architecture, nature was able to respond to the design, acting upon and with it. this dual interest in the natural and the manufactured was found outside aesthetic avant-garde theory; swiss artist eugene grasset ( - ), whom le corbusier admired, encouraged architects and decorators to study geometric troy, decorative . green, "the architect" . b a l l - . frampton . green, "the architect" . figures to determine the principles of harmony central to nature as co-existent with those principles indigent to ornament. for le corbusier, the occupation of space by art, architecture and nature were analogous and essential to the expression of aesthetic emotion: "the flower, the plant, the tree, the mountain, all these are upright, living in an environment...we look, moved by so much unity commanding so much space; and then we measure what we see." like nature, le corbusier considered the process of creating a painting, sculpture or architecture to be transformative; "(le corbusier considered)...the surroundings, both immediate and more distant.. .(to be) stirred and shaken, dominated or caressed by it (nature)," just as he acknowledged the imprint of the environment on art. thus, by , le corbusier apparently saw himself as "a geometrician acting on nature," his purist architecture a series of object-types conceived through the devices of geometry and regulating lines, in harmony with the order of nature - what green refers to as the device of modeling the "sculptural interior" through the admission of light through "geometric, prismatic volumes." . . significance of purism to the symbiosis of art and architecture if we consider, then, the importance of purism to le corbusier's aesthetic, it is that he was able to establish guiding principles that enabled him to rationalize the basis for his painting and architecture. his interest in classical greek art and architecture allowed for their incorporation into his purist architecture. his pursuit of standardization and regulating lines enabled him to abandon the excesses of the decorative tradition in order to define a presumed universal style of architecture that valued the play of light and space within an economical mass made possible by new technologies. b y placing both his painting and his architecture on a series of regulating lines, le corbusier was able to refine ideas about proportion, rhythm and harmony, consistent with classical geometry. he was also able to advance his beliefs about constancy and order, as they applied to the relationship between the man-made and natural. in this manner, le corbusier was able to apprehend the mutualism inherent to the mechanical and nature, as well as to art and architecture. through the integration of the natural with the man-made, le corbusier achieved a concordance between his art and architecture: the distinctions between nature as a design form and architecture were reduced by the device of bringing the exterior into the interior through such elements as ribbon windows and roof grasset as cited in green, "the architect" . le corbusier, the modulor and . le corbusier, the modulor and . green, "the architect" . peter blake, the master builders: le corbusier. mies van der rohe. frank ljovd wright, nd ed. (toronto: terraces. similarly, the use of shared devices such as flattened perspective, frontality and containment blurred distinctions between le corbusier's painting and architecture. thus, concepts le corbusier held about painting came also to dominate his architecture, enabling the coincidence of these media in projects such as ronchamp. . writings and other works . . writings by le corbusier besides le corbusier's engagement with art movements such as purism, in order to gain an understanding of the concept of symbiosis as it relates to his work, it is useful to consider the theories and ideas le corbusier articulated in his writings. some of le corbusier's earliest philosophies about art and architecture are delineated in his diary, a . journey to the east, which chronicles his travels through the balkans, turkey, greece and italy between and (le corbusier also visited vienna, paris and germany during this period). le corbusier collaborated with ozenfant between and on the writing of l'esprit nouveau. a periodical that illuminated their ideas about purism, and apres le cubisme. the manifesto of the purist movement. he produced four books of his own during this period that consisted of extracted and recombined excerpts on his ideas about art and architecture taken from l'esprit nouveau: l'art decoratif d'auiourdi ( ), vers une architecture ( ), urbanisme ( ) and l a peinture moderne ( ). he expounded his theories about measurement in the modulor i and ii ( - ). le corbusier also provided retrospectives of his work in various publications, such as m v work ( ), corbusier ( ), le corbusier: early works ( ) and complete architectural works ( - ). aside from these texts, he authored a number of books on city planning, which are not germane to this discussion. o f immediate concern in his writings, as previously referenced in the discourse on his sketchbooks and as apparent in the journey to the east, is le corbusier's fascination with the instinctual, yet abstract aspects of the "naive" folk art of hungarian and serbian peasants. le corbusier considered peasants - "these men who do not reason" - to george j: m c l e o d limited, ) . green, "the architect" . "first and foremost among these men who do not reason is the instinctive appreciation for the organic line, born from the correlation between the most utilitarian line and that which encloses the most expansive volume - thus the most beautiful." le corbusier, journey to the east, ed. and trans. ivan zaknic (cambridge: m i t press, ) . have an instinctual understanding of the beauty of the organic line and contrasted the "simple-minded' potter, "whose fingers unconsciously obey the rules of an age-old tradition," with the jaded draftsman of the modern factory, whose disturbingly fantastic forms are but "foolish whines." in "aesthetic sensuality," vital geometric forms and evocative color of the peasant art - which he considered to rival the work of v a n gogh and cezanne - le corbusier found support for his ideas about a universal system of dimensioning that would enable him to achieve the ideal proportion. when le corbusier commented on the beaux-art influence of bucharest architecture, the "decorative power" of the whitewashed, peasant rooms of turnovo, or his quest to replicate the proportions, unity and clarity of "a little country cottage," he was arguing for a minimalist (architectural) language that would enable architects to expose their public to the poetic context of architecture. a further design source for le corbusier lie in the decorative aspect that people and objects recalled for him when silhouetted against the virgin forms of the simple, whitewashed forms of folkloric architecture. journey to the east references the whitewashed walls of monasteries and hotels, the whitewashed earth, even the white sun or the interplay of light and color between sky and building - symbols that reappear throughout his architecture. a s an illustration, his diaries reveal his dismay at the comparably feeble efforts of modern architecture when compared to the precision of the "silent sanctuaries" of the whitewashed turkish mosques. concomittantly, le corbusier praised the incalculability of the geometry, materials and color of mount athos in achieving the expression of the absolutes of nature. le corbusier elaborated on this concern about the integrity of the pure surface in his commentary on his travels to the orient, wherein he described the whitewashed houses as an "x-ray of beauty...an assize court sitting in permanent judgment. imperfections and visual deceits were quickly exposed by the whitewash." le corbusier's text when the cathedrals were white continued this theme: " ...'the house of the people', where they discussed mysteries, morality, religious, c i v i l affairs or intrigue was entirely white...we must get that image into our hearts." clearly, these forms established an aesthetic that is apparent in both le corbusier's late purist works and in his new brutalism experiments. b y establishing the primacy of proportion and rhythm in folkloric tradition, le corbusier was able to use the perceptual insights he gained from his travels to affect le corbusier, journey . le corbusier, journey - . le corbusier. journey . le corbusier. journey . le corbusier, journey , , . jencks, tragic . l e corbusier as cited in jencks, tragic . the course of his architecture, as we see in this comment: "wouldn't it take me a lifetime of labor to harness these simple and eternal forces, fraught with the uncertainty of ever attaining the proportions, unity, and clarity worthy of even a little country cottage built in accordance with the invaluable laws of age-old tradition?" exclusive of this passion for folkloric traditions, many of le corbusier's later writings from the purist period, prior to his debut at the exposition des arts decoratifs, also speak to the rejection o f decorative arts in favor o f the machine aesthetic. this is significant to an understanding of the symbiosis of art and architecture because purist painting, doctrine, and practice, as we have seen in this thesis, forced le corbusier to rethink his earlier endeavors as a decorator and to find a new vocabulary to express his idea that architecture, like art, was a question of emotive form organized according to constants. the contradiction between le corbusier's early enthusiasm for the decorative arts and the lessons of paris and germany was patent in the contrast between the architect's attitude towards art as a decorative element in his interior design work at l a chaux-de-fonds ( - ), in which he responded to the demands of his clientele by emulating early restoration, empire, louis x v i and directoire styles, and his purist period. two key texts trace this change of posture. in l'art decoratif d'auiourd'hui ( ), le corbusier concluded that "the naked man" had no need for trinkets, fetishes or collectibles, but, rather, was seized with an intellectual curiosity that caused him to question history. he argued that the availability of new means of production would stimulate new needs, with universal solutions, while the subsequent collapse of the "hierarchical" decorative tradition would usher in an era of egalitarianism in design. in confronting the paradox of making decorative art of simple tools that were the byproduct of good taste characterized by choice, suitability, proportion, and harmony, le corbusier posited that the geometry o f the piece was the essence of its design and that the realization of concepts such as harmony and proportion imbued a painting or a work of architecture with its spirit. thus, the utility of rational perfection and precise formulation, as he termed it, represented the realization of the modern spirit in painting and architecture - everyday, utilitarian works of perfection and lasting value that were the outcome of the vigorous pursuit of innovation, or what le corbusier described as "clean, concise, brief, economical, intense, essential" design. le corbusier's intense dislike of the decorative arts after included a critical appraisal of anything that was un-modern. this criticism extended to le corbusier, journey . le corbusier, decorative , . l e corbusier, decorative . denouncing the practice of decorating objects in order to disguise poor quality and manufacturing faults, which he considered to be an example of the perversion of decoration, contrasted with the harmony o f convenience and utility. in l'art decoratif d'auiourd'hui it is apparent that le corbusier found refuge in the precision and constancy of machine art, likening it to the decisive moment that inspired such works as the parthenon. in his mind, beauty was to be achieved by the attainment of order and unity - through the organization of "all those things which excite and satisfy our visual senses to the fullest degree" - while the act of creation was lauded as the source of spiritual attainment. measure or scale was considered to be the foundation of the poetic moment in architecture. since the advent of the machine order created an imbalance in society between the contemporary and the ancient, progressive painting and architecture, by virtue of being true to their age, appreciated the urgency of the need to respond. thus, just as le corbusier's architecture during the s and s was the product of principles and laws defined by purist painting. that being so, the abandonment of the decorative arts was necessary to enable the advent of a modern architecture: " the hour of architecture sounds, now that art awaits the spiritual expression of our age in material form, now that decorative art can no longer be considered acceptable within the framework of contemporary aspiration." these ideas engendered the transformation in le corbusier's painting and architecture made possible by purism, as can be seen in his comments of about the death of the french decorative tradition: "glitter is going under. the hour of proportion has arrived.... decoration is dead and the spirit of architecture is asserting itself." ' l'art decoratif d'adiourd'hui and subsequent writings articulate le corbusier's belief that architecture was a mindful construct "which gives material form to the sum consciousness of its age." his association with ozenfant and purism acted as a clarifying moment in his architecture, enabling him to position architectural sensation as the outcome o f human reaction to geometric form. b y also clarifying his reaction to decorative arts, le corbusier was able to adopt a unique, modern linguistic idiom in both his painting and architecture. as green argues, le le corbusier, decorative xxiv. le corbusier, towards . le corbusier was intolerant of the "dead spirit" of decorative arts that threatened to hinder the progress of modernist architecture: "these sanctuaries stifling with elegancies, or on the other hand with the follies of "peasant art," are an offence. we have acquired a taste for fresh air and clear daylight." le corbusier, towards . le corbusier, decorative xxv. le corbusier, decorative . his derision is evident: "what a hodgepodge of antiquated ideas occupies most of our intellectual pursuits. our practical and effective actions are weak and uncertain because we have petrified, like lot's wife, for having looked too long behind us." le corbusier, journey . corbusier's subsequent paintings of the late s expressed a more "homogeneous view" of man and nature, utilizing the abstracted collages of constructivism, coupled with purist geometry and object-types, to address the harmony between the man-made and natural forms. this shift is also evident in his architecture: green points out that le corbusier achieved a symbiosis between natural and synthetic materials, combining the use of natural elements such as rough stone with manufactured elements such as reinforced concrete. this, again, supports green's hypothesis about a transition in le corbusier's painting and architecture, through his purist period, from man-made objects (representative of man) confronting nature to their unification: nature as a device that acts "both with and against architecture." the other text of note is towards a new architecture, in which le corbusier remarks that decoration is the "essential overplus" of the simple peasant, while proportion is the equivalent for the cultivated man, who is excited by the relationships created by the satisfaction of the mind through the achievement of unity and economy and o f the senses through the employment of geometric volumes, such as the cube and sphere. in this context, in which architecture is governed by standards, art (painting, literature, music), in comparison, is freed from utilitarian motives. a work of art has a "unity of aim," established by a clearly-defined statement that is without ambiguity, so that the harmony of the work is immediately apparent and moves the viewer, just as a work of nature might. le corbusier considered this clear statement that accepted the work of art or nature as a unique character to be a "pure creation of the mind." this concept, while evident in painting and music, was absent from modern architecture, which he considered to be mere construction, as opposed to the achievement of poetic emotion, which he believed to be architecture's true a i m . thus, works of decorative art should be beautiful tools created by industry and defined by choice, suitability, harmony and proportion, as distinguished from art (painting, sculpture, architecture), which encompassed the realms of emotion and passion. in this manner, he rejected art as a decorative application to architecture, as in the beaux-art tradition, while admitting the pure forms of the modernist painter or sculptor to the architectural ensemble, such as in leger's "murals" for the pavillion de 'esprit nouveau ( ): "the hour of le corbusier, decorative green, "the architect" . le corbusier, towards . le corbusier, towards . le corbusier, decorative. . architecture sounds, now that art awaits from the spirit of our age its definition in material form, now that decorative art can no longer be considered compatible with the framework of contemporary thought." besides his general concern with the role of art in architectural production, a consistent theme for le corbusier in towards a new architecture was innovation. le corbusier argued against the strict utilitarianism o f architecture, advancing the notion that architecture was a harmonizing influence, "a pure creation o f the spirit." a s such, the arrangement of the forms relied on an "appreciable rhythm;" the "destruction of form" by the inclusion of the utility of doors and windows was to be alleviated by the use of the artist's devices to "accentuate" the form. a s l'art decoratif d'auiourd'hui had done, towards a new architecture enabled l e corbusier to articulate his belief that the new era, defined by cubism and "later researches," represented the struggle to replace the follies of decoration, or its opposite, "peasant art," with "fresh air and clear daylight." commenting on the belief that the machine age marked the birth of a new inventiveness that would stimulate a correspondingly new architecture, towards a new architecture declared that architecture was "a thing of art, a phenomenon of the emotions, lying outside questions of construction and beyond them;" it was up to the artist to "animate" functionality so that the forms and shapes provoked plastic emotion. if architecture was to be provocative, then it must be sensory - the elements should be arrayed so as to excite and move the viewer. conversely, beauty could be understood, le corbusier suggested, as the mating of geometry with creativity in the same way engineers "satisfied our eyes" with their geometry and mathematics. it follows that le corbusier considered the primary forms to be the most beautiful - "the very nature of the plastic arts" - while the complex geometry of gothic architecture earned his disdain. rather, the "geometrical solution" that le corbusier referred to might constitute itself in the rectangle, as it did at the v i l l a savoye, or allow for the organic form of ronchamp. le corbusier considered architecture to consist of plastic forms that "work physiologically" to stimulate the senses and reveal the harmony between the physical and emotional realms - architecture as the plastic expression o f the poetic moment. towards a new architecture explained this concept of the resonance between art and architecture le corbusier. decorative . le corbusier. towards . l e corbusier postulated a possible definition of harmony as: "...a moment o f congruence with the axis that lies within us and therefore with the laws governing the universe, a return to an underlying order. this could explain why the appearance of certain objects gives us a sense of satisfaction - a satisfaction experienced, time and again, by everyone." le corbusier, towards, as cited in jacques guiton, ed., the ideas of le corbusier on architecture and modern planning, trans, by margaret guiton (new york: g . braziller, ) . as an emotive force as follows, exemplifying the poetic approach to architecture that distinguished le corbusier's design aesthetic: "one uses stone, wood, cement, and turns them into houses or palaces; that's construction. it calls for skill. but, suddenly, you touch my heart; you make me feel good. i am happy. i say: it's beautiful. this is architecture. it is art....you have not only adapted raw materials to the functional requirements o f a project but also, transcending these requirements, have established relationships that stir my emotions. that is architecture." thus, le corbusier considered the architectural work to be effective only when it coincided with recognized, admired and accepted universal laws and when the elements were arranged in a manner that attained the most visual impact by acting on the senses. this vision is also apparent in his comparison of the relationship of the rhythm of graduated light to the grandiosity of emotion that the architecture evokes: " y o u are enthralled by a sensorial rhythm (light and volume) and by an able use of scale and measure, into a world of its own which tells you what it set out to tell you. what emotion, what faith!"' le corbusier's language was expressive of the sense that his architecture was ordered by his art; in referring to architecture as "noble prisms, seen in light" or commenting that "architecture only exists when there is a poetic emotion," le corbusier set out his manifesto that architecture is the natural progression of the artistic process. le corbusier alluded to this by suggesting that the architect is a purveyor of emotion, beauty and order. his interest in art and architecture as co-existent was symbolic of a shift from a socio-political view of architecture to one that was concerned with symbolism and aesthetics. a s le corbusier became increasingly intrigued with the possibility of a synthesis of the arts in the mid- s, he advocated for collaboration between architects and the plastic arts. his comments in the edition of l'architecture d'auiourd'hui. concerning the porte maillot exhibition projects and the inclusion of this topic on the agendas of both the ci a m congress and the founding meeting of group espace, a paris-based association of artists and architects, are evidence of his increasing interest in a synthesis of the arts or, in its more sophisticated iteration, symbiosis. this development is consistent with his treatise, "ineffable space," in which, tracing his remarks to avant-garde painting, le corbusier argued that architecture, sculpture and painting are dependent on space, which "releases" the aesthetic emotion. the effect of a work of art on the environment is a "phenomenon of accordance" - thus, the victory of proportion (on the bones of the work, as well as the artist's intent) represented the achievement of the fourth dimension, the intuitive leap shaped by the artist's le corbusier, towards as cited in guiton, ideas - . le corbusier, towards . le corbusier as cited in b a l l .. collective wisdom. le corbusier referred to this as the miracle of ineffable space, "the consummation of plastic emotion," and intimated that the time (he was writing in ) was right for a synthesis (which this thesis w i l l argue approaches symbiosis in certain of his projects) of architecture, painting and sculpture after a decade of separation. ' this devotion to "espace indicible" is considered to represent the transition from the mannered rationalism of le corbusier's early/mid career to the synthetic, plastic expressions of his late career, symbolized by ronchamp, unite d'habitation (marseilles) and chandigarh. le corbusier also articulated key concepts about architecture as art in documents such as his article, "ineffable space," which initially appeared in l'architecture d'auiourd'hui and was republished in the modulor ( ) and modulor ( ). these moments of clarity enabled le corbusier to reconcile the duality of the poetic, plastic moment with the rationalism of geometry. in "ineffable space," le corbusier suggested that art was the means for modern man to transgress the fourth dimension (movement) or what joan ockman refers to as "an all-encompassing release from real time and space." a s architecture, sculpture and painting are dependent on the space they occupy, they "act" on their surroundings, even as their environment "brings its weight to bear on the place where there is a work o f art." the "phenomenon o f concordance" is the consequence o f the achievement o f proportion by a process of intuition on the part of the artist, architect or sculptor and of comprehension by the privileged few who appreciate its significance. this miracle of ineffable space was what le corbusier referred to as "the consummation of plastic emotion." a t the time he wrote "ineffable space," in the mid- s, le corbusier considered the fine arts to be progressing towards what he termed a synthesis, but what it seems apparent was actually a symbiosis in projects such as ronchamp, made possible through a concordance of time and events. having experienced a lifetime of involvement in architecture, painting and sculpture, le corbusier felt that this progression righted the "unfortunate disassociation" experienced within the fine arts for the better part of a century. le corbusier, "ineffable space," architecture culture: - : a documentary anthology, ed. john ockman (new york: r i z z o l i international publications, ) . le corbusier commented in that the search for harmony opened his mind to the "fourth dimension," which he defined as the "moment of limitless escape evoked by an exceptionally just consonance o f the plastic means employed," through the practice of architecture, sculpture and painting. le corbusier, "ineffable space" . le corbusier, "ineffable space" . ockman refers to this as "the poetic transcendence of his late realizations." joan ockman, ed., architecture culture: - : a documentary anthology (new york: r i z z o l i international publications, ) . le corbusier, "ineffable space" . le corbusier, "ineffable space" . le corbusier, "ineffable space" . the other aspect that must be considered in understanding le corbusier's aesthetic was his belief that architecture was equivalent to a living organism. he contrasted the development of a building to a bubble: "this bubble is perfect and harmonious i f the breath has been evenly distributed and regulated from the inside." the argument that "the exterior is the result of an interior" proceeded from le corbusier's insistence that, in order to be distinguishable from "mere construction," architecture must have an a i m . green comments that le corbusier believed that how space was handled - including the space within the building and its response to the space o f its setting - was the key to architecture as art. synthesis existed in the "forms" of art and architecture, while separateness prevailed in the practices of art and architectural design - art was "a 'free' process of exploration and invention." this emphasis on the graphics of the painting or architectural design explains why many of le corbusier's paintings subjugate the subject to the design. consistent with his belief that nature was the source of all design, le corbusier approached architecture from the perspective of the creator: "everything in life is in essence biological. the biology of a plan or section is as necessary and obvious as that of a creation of nature. the introduction of the word "biology" illuminates all research in the fields of building. living, working, cultivating body and mind, moving from place to place, are parallel processes to those of the blood, nervous and respiratory systems." le corbusier's interest in the biological origin of nature predates purism. however, because he appreciated the potential of everyday objects from nature and human biology as design elements, le corbusier placed emphasis on studying natural organisms as a source of architectural inspiration. drawing from nature represented not only a method of learning architecture, but of acquiring grace, flexibility, precision and serene perfection: "...i would like architects - not just students - to pick up a pencil and draw a plant, a leaf, the spirit of a tree, the harmony of a sea shell, formations of clouds, the complex '"" le corbusier, towards . le corbusier, towards , . green, "the architect" . green, "the architect" . a s le corbusier commented: "but where does sculpture begin, where does painting commence, where does architecture start? (....) within the very body of the plastic event, everything forms a whole: sculpture, painting, architecture, volumes...and polychromy, in other words, materials, quantities, specific consistencies, assembled into relationships that arouse our emotions." a s cited in pauly, le corbusier . jordan argues that le corbusier obscured his subject to give emphasis to the form and colour of his paintings, just as the cubists did. "the real theme of the painting must always be a violent explosion of form and colour to which any literary image, any 'subject', must always be strictly subordinate." robert furneaux jordan, le corbusier (london: j. m . dent and sons ltd., ) . le corbusier, m y work . letter from le corbusier to m r . martienssen in johannesberg, dated september , as cited in guiton, ideas . play of waves spreading out on a beach, so as to discover different expressions of an inner force." this practice, he believed, would enable the architect to see beyond sensation and to be uplifted into a state of conscious delight and harmony with the universal laws that controlled people's actions, "in which we can use our full powers of recollection, reason, and creation." further, as le corbusier articulated in precisions sur un etat present de l'architecture et de l'urbanisme, he considered simplicity to be integral to art: "great art - we must never tire of repeating this - is produced by simple means.. ..simplicity, which results from judgment and choices, is a sign of mastery. it gives, through a clearly perceptible play of forms, the means of expressing a state of mind, of revealing a spiritual system. it is like an affirmation, a path leading from confusion to clear geometric statements." similarly, modenature - the "interplay of light and shades" which sets the tone of the architectural piece - was also considered to be essential to the completed piece, since it required the architect to cast aside his (her) persona as engineer in favor of plastic artist or sculptor. le corbusier considered the parthenon to be the supreme example of modenature: "here stands the purest testimony to the physiology of sensation and to the mathematical speculation that supports it; we are transported by its sensuality, ravished by its intelligence; we reach the axis of harmony." a s towards a new architecture substantiates, for le corbusier, the process of creating was an inner experience, while perception was sequential, a series of "visual events." if le corbusier's conclusion that simplicity is integral to art is correlated to his concern about the economical forms of folkloric traditions, it is apparent that the "aesthetic spirituality" of architecture apparent in ronchamp is the product of the complex interplay of his theories about the primacy of geometry, the intransigent character of light and volume, the effect of architecture as an emotive force and the phenomenon of accordance that results from the interaction of art and architecture as generators of visual and emotional impact within the environment. architecture is, thus, instinctual - the mastery of simple and eternal forces - as well as a function of the contemporary context; l'architecture d'audiourd'hui, numero special, , , as cited in guiton, ideas . le corbusier in towards, as cited in guiton, ideas . le corbusier, precisions sur un etat present de l'architecture et de 'urbanisme, as cited in guiton, ideas - . he elaborates on simplicity: "simplicity synthesizes. a ragged agglomeration of cubes is an accidental event, but a synthesis is an intellectual act." le corbusier, precisions, as cited in guiton, ideas . "'modenature' is the acid test of the architect; it leaves him no alternative: to be or not to be a plastic artist." le corbusier, towards, as cited in guiton, ideas . le corbusier, towards, as cited in guiton, ideas . le corbusier, towards, as cited in guiton, ideas . while le corbusier subjugated this concept during his purist period, his subsequent pursuit of forms from nature support the suggestion that the essence of his work was innately intuitive, even as it responded to the conditions of the architectural environment. . . other w o r k s by l e corbusier besides his paintings and architecture, le corbusier also engaged in other aspects of art production, among them his sculptures, ceramics, tapestries and murals o f post-ww ii. in the context o f modernism, the ambiguities o f mural painting, from the three-dimensionality of the form to the challenges created by the expansiveness o f the "canvas," lent the medium to the abstract form. with the acknowledgement that art was as important an architectural element as lighting or color, it was appropriate that le corbusier would attempt to engage in this art form as an extension of his painting. this experimentation was equally consistent with the work of other avant-garde painters of the s: the november , de stijl exhibition by theo van doesburg and cor van eesteren caused le corbusier's associate, artist fernand leger, to comment that the artist and architect must mutually resolve the social functions of buildings by considering the walls as a component in the entire architectural equation. this is particularly relevant since, as a modernist, le corbusier might well have been accused of going to the extreme in stripping buildings of their decoration. that he transcended modernism might be, in part, attributed to the influence o f leger, for whom the exclusivity of modernism was "socially dangerous." leger appealed to architects like le corbusier to employ artists to enliven the "dead surfaces" of their designs by engaging in a "contract" with the wall to transform it from architectural skeleton to art piece. thus, just as modern architecture "freed the wall" from art nouveau, leger believed murals relieved the "cheerless soberness" of public architecture. this emphasis on murals as an architectural element was consistent with le corbusier's interest in the wall as a two-dimensional element within a three-dimensional space. the architectural composition was a setting for modern man and the mural an element within the pictorial space, like a painting, but freed from the confines of its frame. that le corbusier was aware of and participated in the contemporary practice of employing murals as an architectural tangible is apparent by virtue of his familiarity with leger's murals at sites like n tre-dame-de-toute- grace ( ), the m i l a n triennale ( ) and the united nations general assembly hall ( ), as well as henri matisse's work at the chapel of the rosary at vence, france. b y abandoning the predictability of purism for a new art inspired by the cinema, modernism and advertising, le corbusier was able to assimilate their vocabulary of devices such as outlining and free form to establish poster-like, anthropomorphic works that had no basis in either geometry or the machine age. (albeit, beatriz columina argues all three of these elements were a part of le corbusier's purist aesthetic.) regardless of whether these shapes represented the contrast between nature and the mechanical, as k u h suggests, or are an expression of rationalism, they represent a departure for le corbusier and evidence of the significance of his art production to his ideas about architecture, as seen at projects like ronchamp chapel. certainly, le corbusier's large-scale tapestry-murals of the late s - or "mural nomade" as he called them - re-articulated the ambiguity between architecture as art and art as architecture, just as his polychromatic ceramics demonstrated his interest in the sculptural premise of architecture. . . conclusions about le corbusier's attitudes toward art in architectural production in considering le corbusier's texts as a whole, certain themes concerning his attitude towards "art as decoration" compared to "architecture as art" and "architecture as primary" become apparent. we have seen that le corbusier's attitude about art as a decorative application to architecture was informed by owen jones' grammar of ornament ( ), in which jones proposed that ornament should be based on geometrical constructions. although his early career was marked by an interest in what brooks refers to as decoration, light and pattern, more so than three-dimensional architecture, le corbusier was disdainful of much of the architecture he encountered during his travels, in particular, vienna's " sanitary" secessionist architecture, which killed his "purely plastic conception of architecture." his contempt for movements that reached backwards to long-dead styles and institutions was apparent in his denigration of styles as being inconsequential to great architecture, which employed man's faculties by its abstraction and affected the emotions through its physical properties of mass and surface illuminated by light. b y discarding the "the old clothes of a past age" that left architecture in a diseased state that confused art with mere decoration, le corbusier was able to respond to the machine age in a manner that supported the new order, surpassing the employment of devices such as chandeliers, wallpaper and faux-stucco stone, that he lectured were impertinent to the modern age, with the clean, efficient geometrical constructs. ' " b r o o k s . le corbusier, towards . le corbusier, towards - , . peter sereyni notes that le corbusier's period of most intensive exploration, between and , occurred in the company of other painters, sculptors, poets and musicians - " a world which had nothing to do with propriety, conventionality, and established order, qualities which one usually associates with the world of architecture." this sociological approach aids in the understanding of le corbusier's sense of architecture as art form. informed by the simple, folkloric architecture of his travels, readings of other architects and architectural critics including hippolyte taine's voyage en italie. which inspired in him an appreciation of the "sublime beauty of nature," as well as his own research into concepts about the integration of man, spirit and nature, le corbusier considered architecture to be poetic device. le corbusier remained sympathetic to taine's suggestion that the symmetry of forms in architecture excite and imitate relations that are particular to the realm of nature and, as such, attempts to disengage works of nature from the complexity and laws under which they operate to convey abstract concepts in a manner the common person can understand. turner points out that le corbusier seldom referred to the buildings he witnessed in his voyage in structural terms. rather they were described as geometric forms, an interweaving with music and other forms of art, much as provensal proposed, in the pursuit of the divine "idea." thus, these researchs and readings informed le corbusier's thinking about the transendence of architecture from the mundane. further, as has been alluded to, le corbusier's ideas about architecture as art are apparent in his appreciation of the "romantic view" of art and architecture, inspired by the "sobriety," technical skill and organization o f german architecture, much the same as the readings of hermman muthesius influenced his interest in the simple forms of american grain elevators and the functionalism of bridges and railway stations. also significant to le corbusier's belief in architecture's higher purpose - the integration of spirit and mind through "innate plastic forms" - was the modulating influence of author and artist artist charles-albert cingria, who sensitized him to the formality and "brutality" of an architecture founded on utilitarianism. cingria re-emphasized for le corbusier the importance of spiritual meditation and of an artistic elite characterized by refinement and sensitivity, what turner refers to as "an elegant classicism set in an unspoiled mountain landscape." turner reflects on the essential difference between le corbusier and other prominent architects when he comments: "to viollet-le-duc or perret, architecture would be peter sereyni, "le corbusier, fourier, and the monastery of ema ( )," le corbusier in perspective, ed. peter sereyni (englewood cliffs, n j : prentice-hall, inc., ) . turner suggests le corbusier was so taken with the symbolism of geometric forms, particularly circles and squares, and the naive purity of the white forms he discovered that he imbued them with metaphorical significance. turner . hippolyte taine, essay xiii: a philosophy of art (new york: leypoldt and holt, ). <http://www.worldwideschool.org/librarv/books/lit/essavs/the unseen world.> turner . http://www.worldwideschool.org/librarv/books/lit/essavs/the% unseen% world. basically the patient empirical solution of problems by a rational and economic application of the materials and techniques at hand, but to jeanneret it is a solitary search for truth...which when found then allows one to "create" and thus be an a r t i s t . " thus, since le corbusier thought of art as poetry that evoked sensation via a harmonious union with universal laws, he equated art with the joy of creation and, by so doing, placed architectural production within the realm of art. finally, le corbusier's beliefs about architecture as primary was characterized by his acquaintance with the "diapason" of social phenomenon that enabled him to grasp the concreteness of the architect's task - to "adjust one's nascent dream to the countless elements which must ultimately accept its products as useful."' i b y turning from the teachings of the academies - "the burdensome accumulations of vague, pedantic and dangerous teachings" - le corbusier was able to promote architecture as the achievement of functional, efficient, healthy and pure structures determined by the spirit of the age. this approach of striving to find new and innovative responses to architectural concerns, stimulated by modern technologies, was characterized by devices such as the sashless window, to which he attached great architectural significance, and by the searching among vernacular architecture for "human houses" inspired by principles of efficiency, economy, lyricism and intelligence. manifestos such as his five points of architecture supported his belief that academicism in architecture denied the revolutionary nature of the creative act, inspired by "faith, courage, imitation, enthusiasm, curiosity and the joy of discovery." the influence of the machine in replacing the lyricism of local habit in architecture enabled the architect to transcend the role of a stylist to become a planner, an organizer of building systems, who articulated the design based on the requirements of the architectural programme. this approach elevated the role of the architect to one of the professional, consistent with le corbusier's beliefs about architects as noble spirits. the sources and viewpoints le corbusier consulted and adopted during his career were central to his design aesthetic. his early training, purist experiments, concepts about principles such as universal laws and nature compared to geometry, involvement in collectivist notions of urban planning, participation in the c i a m dialogues turner . turner . le corbusier, decorative . le corbusier, "twentieth-century living and twentieth-century building," the rationalists: theory and design in the modern movement, ed. dennis sharp (london: architectural press, ) . le corbusier, "twentieth-century" . le corbusier, "twentieth-century" . and continuing research into building principles mediated his response to architecture. they informed later projects such as ronchamp, while providing a rationale central to his desire to attain order and reason even in the face of the irrationality of the creative process. . contempary debates - c i a m , other . . to s to appreciate the environment in which le corbusier's major architectural pieces emerged, it is also important to be aware that, contemporaneous to his design commissions, le corbusier was involved with other prominent architects in a vigorous debate about the nature of art and architecture and, in particular, about the place of ornamentation, painting and sculpture within architecture. examining contemporary thought about this debate illuminates the context in which le corbusier's own ideas about the symbiosis between art and architecture emerged. what is significant about the immediate post- period is the rejection, by many architects, of the unadorned, functional, modernist, period form, with its abandonment of traditional styles. c. and a . williams-ellis commented on this sentiment, arguing that ornament was to architecture as simplicity was to the structure: "no architect living in a vigorous epoch would forgo the use o f ornament any more than he would forgo the use o f simplicity." frank l l o y d wright ( to ) considered form and function to be synonymous and ornamentation to be a realization of the nature of the structure to be adorned. although applied ornament as a form of spatial expression was not among his techniques, mies van der rohe ( - ), writing in , referred to building art as neither the achievement of functionalism nor formalism, but rather "the spatial expression of spiritual decisions." the movement to which le corbusier's design aesthetic is most frequently compared - the bauhaus, represented by the bauhaus school of art, design and architecture, located in weimar and then dessau, germany, between and and founded by architect walter gropius - also deserves cursory reference. gropius described the c. and a . williams-ellis, the pleasures of architecture (london: jonathon cape ltd., ) . ockman, architecture culture . bauhaus as a response to the technological environment in which modernist architecture emerged. he envisioned the architect as re-integrating basic human needs with industry: " m y belief is that.. .our disoriented society badly needs participation in the arts as an essential counterpart of science in order to stop its atomistic effect on us." artistic design was to be integral to life, rather than "art for art's sake." thus, the bauhaus combined technical training with instruction in volume, color and composition on the premise that: "what we preached in practice was the common citizenship of all forms of creative work, and their logical interdependence on one another in the modern w o r l d . " while the bauhaus was primarily an establishment for research and exploration into building systems, the problem of integrating art into architecture was approached as an element in the total design activity. gropius describes this as "saving the mass-product and the home from mechanical anarchy and.. .restoring them to purpose, sense and life" so that art became a constituent part of everyday l i f e . b y relieving architects of the constraints o f individual labour and imbuing them with "an objective knowledge o f optical facts" (such as proportion and colour) and of old and new forms and technologies, gropius believed it was possible for architects to invent new orders that would advance their architecture beyond traditional styles. he articulated this way of seeing as "the mutual tension between the subconscious and conscious faculties of our existence...(that) fluctuates between reality and illusion" and contributes to artistic creation. gropius shared many of le corbusier's design concerns - standardization, the search for efficiency - however, the emphasis on art as an antidote to industry through encouraging the integration of the abstract arts and architecture brings his thoughts closest to those articulated by many architects of the period. for these architects and the bauhaus, architecture was primary, but informed by the processes of art (the emphasis on design principles such as form and colour). ronchamp illustrates that, for le corbusier, the art is integral to the architecture to the extent that the architecture is art and the architecture could not respond to the demands of the form without the art. gropius considered the new architecture to be a new spatial vision made possible by the intellectual and technological achievements of the age. walter gropius, the new architecture and the bauhaus (boston: charles t. brantford company, n.d.) . walter gropius, scope of total architecture (london: george allen & unwin ltd, ) . "our ambition was to rouse the creative artist from his other-worldliness and reintegrate him into the workaday world of realities; and at the same time to broaden and humanize the rigid, almost exclusively material, mind of the business man." gropius, new . gropius, new . gropius, scope . gropius, scope , . gropius, scope . a n y examination of le corbusier's attitude toward the relationship of art to architectural production is incomplete without consideration of how he arrived at his beliefs and those documents and individuals that influenced him. le corbusier's conservative introduction to art and architecture, consistent with the thinking o f the ecole des beaux- arts and traditional french academies, is evident in his early drawings and swiss villas, although he also experimented with new forms, such as art nouveau. le corbusier's career emerged during an era of innovation, made possible by the availability of new materials such as reinforced concrete, steel and iron, and by his exposure to leading modernist architects, including peter behrens and auguste perret, whose b rue franklin ( ) and garage ponthieu ( ) were among the first forms to exploit aesthetically reinforced concrete frame construction. although his s and s projects were generally modernist - emphasizing function, utility and honesty in materials while employing modern materials and technology - le corbusier's appreciation o f the relationship of art to architectural production was demonstrated in the use of devices such as polychromy and curvature, as well as elements such as rooftop terraces that offset the rationalism of his designs by juxtaposing them with nature. le corbusier's swiss upbringing, his studies at l a chaux-de-fonds' ecole d'art, his readings of the works of provensal, callignon, ruskin and shure and his brief internships with perret and behrens contributed to an evolving appreciation of the relationships between humans, nature, art and architecture. some of these influences can be traced to such readings as french architect henri provensal's tome, l'art de demain, which urged artists to engage in the discovery and application of universal laws by exposing the essential forms of nature and to pursue unity and harmony through new and universal art forms such as the cube, which he considered to be "the most perfect and universal, and thus the most expressive of ideal reality." turner suggests that provensal's assertion that architecture took its inspiration from mineral forms stimulated le corbusier's interest in the correlation between the structure of crystals and structural supports. similarly, provensal's concern for primary forms was manifested in le corbusier's belief that architecture was "first of all an abstract, sculptural activity, which ought to employ primary volumes because they are purer and more ideal." a s turner comments: "the idealistic assumption that there exist perfect formal principles or ideas, which can ultimately be discovered and embodied by the artist, was probably the most fundamental influence of provensal on jeanneret. a l l of the more specific turner . turner , . turner . influences - such as the preference for "cubic" forms and the definition of architecture as (an abstracted form comprised of) the play of volumes under light - are corollaries, in provensal's aesthetic, of this idealistic assumption." this concern with principles and ideals is seen in le corbusier's purist designs and in manifestos such as his five principles of architecture. o f similar influence was mvthlogie figuree de la grece, by maxime callignon, which le corbusier acquired in and which intimated the existence of classical norms that architects might use to resolve artistic problems. also significant was his reading of les grands inities. by edouard schure, given to le corbusier by l'eplattanier in and which compared pythagorean mythology to a mathematic system of divine members. schure's text, as well as l'eplattanier's belief in local forms (such as the lotus in egypt and the acanthus in greece) as the inspiration for art, may have inspired le corbusier's journey to the east, which acted as the stimulus for many of his philosophical musings. le corbusier's writings during this period indicate that he was also influenced by the decorative artists lalique and galle and the architect guimard; he considered galle requisite reading for architects and appears to have adopted lalique's sinuous art nouveau style for his watchcase designs while still an engraver in l a chaux-de- fonds. other influences during this early period of his career were john ruskin, with his concern about the correlation between art and architecture; owen jones, who employed the decorative tradition within the architectural idiom; and the art nouveau designer eugene grosset (also referred to as grasset). nietzsche's thus spake zarathustra ( - ), like l'art de demain. contributed to le corbusier's understanding of the architect as a spiritual, noble hero, "seeking out ideal principles and absolute truth" while pursuing the "art of tomorrow," as perret had taught h i m . jencks refers to this as the concept of "...the 'superman' struggling among men and the necessity that he destroy conventional wisdom before he can realize his revolutionary ideas." le corbusier's ideas about beauty, harmony and unity, as well as his search for generalization, universality and absolute formal truths, in both art and architecture, can be attributed to this period of introspection, as can his interest in decoration, the elements o f the modulor and his heroic projects, such as his palace of the soviets ( ) in moscow. turner . turner . turner . turner . jencks, tragic . thus, le corbusier's perception of the role of art in architectural production was that of the complex interlocutory between technology and the aesthetic demands of the form. this dynamic was manifested in his machinist pieces between the s and the s, concluding with his pivotal cite de refuge ( ). . . post the discourse about the relationship of art - more particularly ornament - and architecture continued to dominant architectural thought during the s through s. a series of dialogues referred to as the c i a m (congres internationaux d'architecture moderne) discourses, and ongoing debate among architects about the role of the allied arts in architecture, are significant in understanding the environment in which le corbusier's interest in symbiosis between the arts evolved. the formation of c i a m in by, among others, le corbusier; giedion; members of the swiss werkbund; and gabriel guerrekian, signaled the recognition of the influence of the modernist movement on contemporary architecture. c i a m was intended to advance the cause of new architecture in an era of neo- classicism. the efforts of mies van der rohe and gropius to "cleanse" modern architecture of expressionism and similar influences were as decisive to c i a m ' s foundation as was the involvement of mart stam and hans schmidt, who represented a collective of avant-garde architects intent on creating an international corps of architects. the "convergence" of factors that contributed to the formation of c i a m was coincident with a movement to promote "the new architecture" to political interests and to solidify a form of architecture that was modern in its social and economic aims; giedion believed gropius, van der rohe, le corbusier, oud, v a n eeasteren, mart stam and hans schmidt would participate in the effort to define modern architecture. this objective of linking specific "formal and technical strategies" for the purposes of achieving social transformation serves to explain some of the motivation for le corbusier's participation in c i a m . that le corbusier considered c i a m to be an agent of social change that could intervene in the physical environment "for the common good" was, to some extent, realized; le corbusier's proposal for a charter of habitat to replace the athens charter received a hearing at c i a m in . similar efforts to position c i a m on questions of aesthetics in giedion defined c i a m ' s mandate as: "a) to formulate the contemporary program of architecture, b) to advocate the idea o f modern architecture, c). to forcefully introduce this idea into technical, economic and social circles, d). to see to the resolution of architectural problems." as cited in eric mumford, the c i a m discourse on urbanism. - (cambridge, mass.: the m i t press, ) . mumford. c i a m . mumford. c i a m . architecture and on what q a m considered to be a synthesis between architecture and the arts were inconclusive, although le corbusier reportedly was pleased with giedion's suggestion that art should be a "preoccupation" for c i a m members. mumford remarks that giedion's and j. m . richards' "report on the plastic arts" to q a m (february ), intended to determine how artists and architects could collaborate on a synthesis of the arts and whether such a collaboration would be acceptable to the public, was inconclusive, exposing the "confusion and underlying political conflicts behind c i a m ' s effort to explicitly address aesthetic questions," although there was some discussion that public places would be most appropriate.to these efforts. conversely, giedion points out that the c i a m bridgewater conference applauded the re-integration of the plastic arts and the evolution of a corresponding clarity about contemporary artistic expression. c i a m ' s statement of aims included the desire to "enlarge and enrich the aesthetic language of architecture in order to provide a contemporary means whereby people's emotional needs can find expression in the design of their environment." the tone of the c i a m discussions of is evident in the concerns expressed by the m a r s group of england about "the emotional reactions of the common man to modern art, and especially to architecture," as well as j. m richards' contributions to the question of whether architects should design according to their own consciousness or popular taste. in "contemporary architecture and the common m a n " (ca. ), richards asks how architecture should account for public taste so as to create a bond with those who view it. this desire to humanize architecture by re-introducing the common man as its benefactor, rather than aspiring to elitism - "an art of the kind that is appreciated only by connoisseurs" - recognizes architecture's function as an interpreter of modern technology in a visual form. giedion expressed this as the need to "take into account those qualities in buildings that have, at the present moment, a symbolic or emotional significance for ordinary people, so that architecture shall remain an art in whose adventures they can share." giedion acknowledged the interest in the aesthetic but argued that, with the expiry of rationalism, architecture must resume its collaborative nature. the th c i a m congress acknowledged the desirability of a "synthesis" of the plastic arts and called for the concerted participation of artists, sculptors and architects. the bridgewater congress further considered the question of the meaning of art in the modern mumford, c i a m . giedion. decade . " j n e s e c o n c j n o i e s s alarming problem was the fact that close contact between the architect and planner, painter and sculptor, has been lost for a century and a half. is it possible that they will ever again be able to work together from the outset, as was usual in other periods...." giedion, decade . giedion, decade . period and how artists and architects could interact with public buildings. among the issues the bridgewater participants debated was the "impact of the sister arts" (architecture, painting and sculpture), including whether and how they might collaborate, at what stage, how to overcome the "difficulties" caused by their separation and when the painter or sculptor might take precedence over the architect. coincident with this interest in a collaboration between the arts, the conclusion of the second world war brought to the forefront concerns about architecture's populist appeal, characterized by comparisons between modernism and social realism. " giedion emphasized the importance of collaboration between architects, painters and sculptors to stimulate a modern "optical vision." a treatise, "nine points on monumentality" ( ), commissioned by the american abstract artists and expounding upon the writings of giedion, josep luis sert and leger, opened this discussion. giedion's advocacy for monumentality, which already had support among many swiss architects, was countered by those architects who promoted a return to traditional technique and the village plan as an idealized model of social collectivism. this new empiricism was widely considered a suitable postscript to classicism. while it is not necessary to explore the concept of monumentality for the purposes of this thesis, it is appropriate to note that the post-war environment stimulated a re-examination of the role of art in architecture, both as supplemental and as integral to the design process. other important voices who emerged in the s to critique the concern about modernism and the synthesis of art and architecture included lewis mumford who, writing in , commented that while some critics considered the "inclination" to incorporate subjective design elements into modern design to be a rejection of functionalism, yet the impulse to "play with the 'feeling' elements in design - with colour, texture, even painting and sculpture" was irrepressible. mathew nowicki suggested the shift that occurred during the s acknowledged that architecture is representational, rejecting the "functional exactitude" that emerged in response to the "new taste for purity and simplicity of form" engendered by cezanne and synthetic cubism (although ironically it is this synthetic cubism giedion, decade . giedion points out that prominent sculptor barbara hepworth was among those who considered architects to have failed to achieve unity with painters and sculptors. giedion, decade . the bridgewater questionnaire. giedion, decade - . j. m . richards argued that modern architecture held little interest for the masses. le corbusier's "open hand" sculpture at chandigarh and the monument paul vaillant couturier are representative of the interest in monumentality. mumford, c i a m . lewis mumford, "the skyline [bay region style]," joan ockman, ed. architecture culture: - : a documentary anthology (new york: r i z z o l i international publications, ) . that le corbusier rejected in the s). nowicki considered the emergence of the modulor to be an indication that architecture had evolved from quantitative to qualitative - he suggested the modulor was the vehicle to achieve this, a "measure of beauty" rather than "functional" space or time that acknowledged that the essence of architectural invention was paramount to the pace of its attainment. attendant in this was a surety that although form might change through a process of individual discovery, the "object" of architecture remained the same. the decoration of the structure, rather than form, represented an era of what nowicki deemed functional flexibility. j.j.p. oud argued modernism was deficient due to its creation of a functionalism that is aesthetically arbitrary, rather than acknowledging architecture as an expressive medium. joseph hudnut pointed to the detachment of architecture from the expressive idea as evidence of the ineloquence of modernism. if architecture is space patterned after a person's spirit, besides being expedient, economical and functional, it must also be art, whereas painting and sculpture are accessories to architecture. reyner banham, in contributing further to this discussion, notes the white machine-aesthetic style not only wasn't inherent in the "technical and economic realities" of the s and s, it was a reaction to c u b i s m . to position le corbusier within this environment of reconciliation and reconsideration, it is necessary to appreciate that the architect spent the post-ww ii period atoning for his collaboration with the vichy regime between to , a collaboration that resulted in his appointment to the vichy reconstruction commission, the publication of his "destin de paris" radiant city manifesto for the reconstruction of paris in and the completion of his athens charter, finally published in . although abandoned by the vichy government in early , le corbusier attempted to re-establish his ties with pro-vichy government officials by publishing his own version of the c i a m doctrines through the newly-founded a s c o r a l (assemblee de constructeurs pour une renovation nowicki argues architecture became "idealized" and "dematerialized." the structural challenges in modernism bowed to "functional exactitude" so that buildings became obsolete once they were no longer functional. matthew nowicki, "origins and trends in modern architecture," architecture culture - : a documentary anthology, ed. joan ockman (new york: rizzoli international publications, ) - . nowicki, "origins" . "art tends not only to discover the truth, but to exaggerate and finally to distort it. it may be that in this distortion lies the essence of art." nowicki, "origins" . "one could say with some exaggeration: it (modernist architecture) is the bass to the music but not its essence." j.j.p. oud, " m r . oud replies," architecture culture - : a documentary anthology, ed. joan ockman (new york: r i z z o l i international publications, ) . oud's s shell building was criticized by architectural record as peasant art. despite the freedom modernism gave architecture to model and direct space, it was deficient in a vocabulary to achieve the idea of form. hudnut, "post-modern," . banham calls it "an applied style, transferred from post-cubist painting under the pressure o f fashion." reyner banham, the new brutalism: ethic or aesthetic (new york: reinhold publishing corporation, ) . architecturale). during this period, he also published l a maison des hommes and sur les quatres routes ( ), both reconstruction-oriented documents, followed by les trois etablissements humain ( ) and maniere de penser l'urbanisme ( ). in spite of his obvious interest in reconstruction, other than his unite projects, le corbusier's role in post-war reconstruction was limited and his involvement with c i a m marred by his criticism of the work of the swiss faction. le corbusier concluded the immediate post-war period leading up to the ronchamp commission bitterly in agreement with other leading thinkers about the relevance of the synthesis of art with architecture, but disappointed with his participation in the design for the united nations headquarters in spring and with his proposal for a new society led by a super race of technocrats, scientists and experts discredited. le corbusier believed this strategy would enable the continuation of c i a m in a post-war environment. mumford. c i a m . c h a p t e r iv l o o k i n g a t r o n c h a m p : a c a s e s t u d y . introduction to the case study illustrative of le corbusier's interest in the symbiosis between art and architecture (or the concept of mutualism, as symbiosis is defined for the purposes of this thesis) is his roman catholic pilgrimage chapel at ronchamp, in northeastern france. while the project can be viewed in isolation, some critics, gardiner included, consider it to be the logical outcome of all of le corbusier's experiences: "there are the memories of the greek island villages which the architect saw in his early travels; the scattering of openings on sunny white backgrounds coincides with the rough irregular imagery of french peasant architecture; there is the ghost of the classical past in the single clean statement of the sculptural object on the top of a hill; there is a freedom of nature and the painter in the interlocking, overlapping, sweeping walls of the superb plan." extrapolating from gardiner's interpretation and within the context o f the hypothesis that le corbusier's art and architecture are mutually influential, the case study w i l l examine both the essentialism of symbiosis for le corbusier and the contribution o f critical writings and theories about ronchamp to the understanding of the project's significance to this question of the intent of the design. the architectural programme w i l l be discussed to gain an understanding of the influence of the requirements of the commission on the design, the role of the roman catholic church and the architect's design purpose. the case study w i l l conclude by considering the importance of the design to ideas about the symbiosis of art and architecture. . evidence of intent at ronchamp . . the architectural programme a s might be expected of a religious commission of a post-war roman catholic chapel, the architectural programme at ronchamp embraces premises of sanctuary, pilgrimage and humility. le corbusier was able to enjoin these concepts because of his appreciation of the sacredness of the site and of the place of the roman catholic church within the circumstances of modernism. . . . requirements of the commission le corbusier was approached to design ronchamp in by the besancon commission d'art sacre of the roman catholic church. the timing of the commission is significant in that ronchamp represents a post-ww ii reconstruction effort. the liberation of france, one of the few remaining great powers in europe, engendered a sense of rebirth, evidenced by reforms introduced by a short-lived coalition government of socialists, communists and republicans and a re-industrialization, particularly as it affected the building of housing and essential community services, such as schools and hospitals. although france experienced a difficult period of post-wwii reconstruction and modernization, this climate of redevelopment was a stimulus for innovation. ronchamp embraced the spirit of renaissance, as well as the renewal of spirit and faith through the reconstruction of cultural and religious institutions such as the roman catholic church. the siting of ronchamp is peculiar to the commission, in that it encompasses diverse concepts of religious sanctuary dating to the t h century; the relationship of the site to military defence by virtue of its history as a roman fortress and its positioning along a prominent invasion route; the role of catholicism as a rival to the calvinist and lutheran beliefs of the shared landscape's swiss and german inhabitants; the site as a location of pagan worship as a former sun temple; as well its significance as a place of miracles and pilgrimage. importantly for le corbusier, the site faces north to the voges foothills, east to the mining town o f belfort, west to the langres plateau and south to the jura mountains, enclosing the four horizons and presenting an aspect not unlike his much-admired acropolis. for le corbusier's purposes, the site and chapel were themselves symbiotic elements. gardiner - . address by ambassador francois bujon de l'estang to the french institute alliance francaise, "france and the united states: seen through each other's eyes," new york, november , , accessed october , <http://www.info-firance-usa.org/news/statmnts/ /be .asp>. frampton . http://www.info-firance-usa.org/news/statmnts/ /be % .asp significant to the commission is the chapel's relevance as a pilgrimage site, since that constraint affects the conceptual programme. we know that le corbusier referenced the site as one of pilgrimage on specific festival days, but also of daily pilgrimage for the chapel's adherents and admirers. this acknowledgement was translated into the subsequent design through a number of subtle, yet ritualized devices. pilgrimage sites - whether associated with patron saints, as places of worship to petition god (such as to seek penitence, express gratitude through festivals or to attain solitude or spiritual growth) or as healing places dedicated to the virgin mary, such as lourdes and fatima - involve an individual test of faith, typically comprising an arduous and lengthy journey that the architecture frequently recreates as ritual. the pilgrimage may consist of successive stages of spiritual preparation and separation from everyday life and experiences, coupled with ritualized behaviors and dress that create a "bridge between the pilgrim's old life and the hoped-for healing cure or spiritual transformation." this pathway to the church, whether ritualized or secular, is typically engendered in the site and building design, contributing to the experience of arrival and revelation. upon arrival, the pilgrim might pass through a series of obstacles or directional devices, such as gates or labyrinths, or a series of rites, such as praying at the stations of the cross, to attain the place of meditation; the return to society is in the form of a transformed spirit. le corbusier expressed the pilgrim's extended journey by situating the approach to the chapel along a pathway that obscures the view of the chapel and in proximity to a concrete abutment that must be breached to reach the grassy approach to the concave south wall, which serves to collect worshippers and redirect them to the outdoor chapel and pulpit in the chapel's east face. thus, by addressing the complexity of the access, le corbusier demonstrated his understanding of long-held traditions of pilgrimage church architecture. besides its religious function, the site has constraints of a more practical, physical nature. setting aside, for the interim, arguments that the design is "a visual echo of the landscape," the volumetric proportions of ronchamp were necessitated by the requirement for the extensive use of reinforced concrete and rough rubble. the programme was constrained by a lack of road access to convey building materials to the site, as well as by a specification of the bescancon commission that salvaged material should be used for the construction, both as a measure of economy and as evidence of the humbleness of the chapel's materials. this accounted for the use of a concrete shell, with rubble from the former chapel, ruined during the second world war, serving as f i l l which, with the exception of the " a n internalized world was created in which the pilgrim's journey is re-created in the architectural setting - the spiritual path and place." thomas barrie, spiritual paths and sacred space: myth, ritual, and meaning in architecture (boston and london: shambhala publications, inc., ) . south fall, is sprayed with gunnite coated masonry, the thickness and "curvilinear plan-form" contributing to the structure's stability. le corbusier admitted the chapel walls were rendered "deliberately heavy" in order to exploit the f i l l , while allowing for a frame of reinforced concrete columns, sited within the walls and on which the roof balances; the separation of the roof from the walls is intended to permit a thin slice of natural light to illuminate the chapel interior. the south wall itself is formed from piers, beams and joists united by a skin of sprayed concrete, while the chapel floor is cement paving, the towers masonry and the domes sprayed concrete. acknowledging the constraints of the church's requirements, the limited budget (consisting generally o f a war grant and funds raised by the parishioners) and the difficulty of transporting materials to the isolated site, there is another explanation for the choice of reinforced concrete: le corbusier's exploration of organic form could scarcely have been achieved in anything but a porous material "kneaded and shaped into the mould of the design" - what pauly refers to as le corbusier's realization of his "language of plasticity." . . . role of the roman catholic church and its adherents the unique circumstances of post-war europe, with its concern for renewal and renaissance, and the liberalism of particular factions of the roman catholic church are further integral to the innovation of ronchamp. the mediator dei encyclical, proclaimed by pope pius xii in , encouraged the employment of modern art and architecture in church buildings. m c k a y suggests the mediator dei was inspired by the pope's interest in "aesthetics, function, modernity, and the humanist traditions with regard to man's contributions to church ritual." the encyclical addressed issues of functionalism, spatial arrangements, construction materials and meditative space that converged with le corbusier's beliefs and the desire of certain avant-garde roman catholic priests - represented, for ronchamp's purposes, by prominent members of the lyons chapter of the dominican order - to stimulate a renewed interest in the church by engaging modern artists and architects in their design, as apparent at churches at audincourt, assy and vence. barrie . the library of contemporary architects, le corbusier (london: thames and hudson ltd., ) . pauly, le corbusier . frances sherry m c k a y , " a study of le corbusier's notre-dame-du-haut, ronchamp as a twentieth-century pilgrimage chapel," m a thesis, university of british columbia, vancouver, october , . l'art sacre editor father alain couturier, also an artist and among le corbusier's supporters on the failed l a sainte- baume commission ( ), was responsible for encouraging the besancon commission for sacred art to engage le corbusier for the ronchamp commission and for mediating the relationship between the church hierarchy and many other contemporary artists, among them henri matisse, leger and marc chagall. couturier, a member of the parisian dominican order, was responsible for the creation of the unites des artistes modernes in , intended to establish religious art as a preoccupation for a generation of artists and craftspeople, through which he first met le corbusier. over two decades later, couturier referred to january , , the date a diocesan committee approved the design for ronchamp, as symbolic of the renewal of christian art. nevertheless, le corbusier was sufficiently sympathetic to ledeur's entreaties about the significance of the pilgrimage site and its physical possibilities, as well as those of father regamy, who advocated for a "living art" of pure forms, to assume the commission and set aside his initial objections about the futility of designing for a "dead institution" (the church). m c k a y observes that whereas ledeur established only functional parameters for the architect, regamy "expressed his ideals in terms such as harmony, proportion, an attendance to line and rhythm, powerful and beautiful volumes and masses, and in ingenious distribution of light and shadow." thus, while ledeur and le corbusier shared an interest in beauty, truth and "spiritual architecture" that enabled ledeur to secure le corbusier's commitment by assuring him he would retain artistic integrity over the project, in accepting the commission, le corbusier was also responding to a concern shared with regamy for the possibilities of the architectural programme, which he exploited to "create a place of silence, of prayer, of peace and of internal j o y . " similarly, couturier's faith in le corbusier extended to an appreciation of his "sacred essence." le corbusier related architecture and sculpture to the attainment of ineffable space, "which le corbusier equated with the experience of the miracle of faith...." - the aforementioned consummation of plastic emotion." couturier's personal correspondence with le corbusier purported that it was not the tenor of the artist's religious commitment mckay. . instructions from canon lucien to le corbusier. frampton . m c k a y . t i m benton, "the sacred and the search for myths," le corbusier: architect of the century, exhibition catalogue, eds. michael raeburn and victoria wilson (london: arts council of great britain and authors, ) . m c k a y . that was significant to the revival of sacred art, but rather the moment of artistic inspiration: "to set off this renaissance, this resurrection, it is safer to turn to geniuses without faith than believers without talent." quite beside this, le corbusier's interest in monastic life uniquely positioned him to undertake ronchamp; elements of the design are reminiscent of the private cells of the monasteries he visited, evidenced in ronchamp in the private altars, and o f the pervasiveness of their silent, meditative spaces, replicated at ronchamp in the primaeval, hollow (cave-like) interior. perhaps le corbusier alluded to the monastic quality o f the project in his design manifesto, textes et dessins pour ronchamp ( ), when he commented that: "the interior is also sculpture in the round (hollow), the four walls, the ceiling, the floor, everything is pressed into service in a disarming simplicity." hence, le corbusier was able to parlay the exquisite isolation of the site and of the chapel's meditative function into stimuli for the innovative design, while, through his research, by his separation of the congregation from the altar and the incorporation of objects such as the candlebra, rail and image of the diety to delineate the distinction between the sacred and the secular, also responding to roman catholic tradition. . . . purpose of le corbusier's design programme irrespective of the requirements of the commission, le corbusier's design programme was essentially intuitive, while informed by considerations of the integral nature of art and architecture, the "visual acoustics" of the landscape and the pragmatic requirements of a roman catholic meditation and pilgrimage chapel. ronchamp refers back to the greek: the chapel towers echo the serapeum at hadrian's v i l l a , which le corbusier saw in , while he credits his experiences in greek villages to the systematic approach to design as a "coherent intellectual system" that employs geometry to explicate the proportion of the form to his experiences. ronchamp owes much to the acropolis - its siting on the apex of the four horizons, its towers and whiteness: " a s one looks at those three white towers one remembers that forty years earlier le corbusier had lived for a time in athos and filled a sketch book m i r i a m rosen, "sacre bleu," february , compuserve, accessed august , <http://cssvc.travel. travelandleisure.compuserve.com/invoke.cfm?obiectid=ff - c - b- c d a bc >. le corbusier, the chapel at ronchamp (oxford: praeger, ) n.p. le corbusier, l'art decoratif d'auiourd'hui as cited in guiton, ideas . http://cssvc.travel.% travelandleisure.compuserve.com/invoke.cfm?obiectid=ff - c - b- c d a bc http://cssvc.travel.% travelandleisure.compuserve.com/invoke.cfm?obiectid=ff - c - b- c d a bc with these little greek churches." further, le corbusier was taken with the possibilities implicit in the duality of designing a small chapel meant to serve thousands of pilgrims, as he alluded to ca. while standing on the apex o f m t . athos, when he compared the chapel of the virgin to "the unleavened bread of an ineffable communion" for the pilgrims. further allusions have been made to resemblances to the church o f s. maria in rome. the concept of the "great form," as symbolized by the parthenon and the church of s. maria, is itself amplified by ronchamp's splendid isolation and domineering presence. perhaps le corbusier was recalling the monasteries of karies, perched "like eagles' eyries" on the rock faces: "the virgin has her altar on the great mountain consecrated entirely to her praise." le corbusier envisioned the design during his first glimpse of the site on m a y , . the ensuing sketches are prescient of the final design. a pair of clay models from september , produced four months after his initial june site visit, bring to mind le corbusier's polychromed sculptures, ozon ( ) and ubu ( ). fortunately, le corbusier's sketchbooks document the thought process for ronchamp. there are references to early influences: ronchamp seems foreshadowed by a sketch ( ) of a belfry; while le corbusier made no comment about this particular sketch, the resemblance is apparent. several acropolis-like sketches further demonstrate his appreciation for classical architecture and symbolism, while, interestingly, le corbusier's sketchbooks also expose a more complex appreciation of christianity and fellowship than were previously evident in his writings. his preliminary impressions are contained in sketches to (d ) of summer . the drawings are made from the paris-basel train and show a shapeless, but domineering structure that gazes in all directions. sketch captures the basic shape of ronchamp's roof and outdoor pulpit. sketchbook e l of february chronicles the ultimate design: this series illustrates the punctured south wall and voluminous altar, along with ronchamp's swayback roof ( ), culminating in a sketch that anticipates the final design. this drawing allowed le corbusier to play with an intimidating cross figure ( , drawn from his memories of his initial june , site visit) and to scoop out the west facade, as well as the floor plan ( ); le corbusier seemed to recognize, in these designs, that i l jordan, le corbusier . le corbusier, journey ; benton, "the sacred" . darling is among commentators who have pointed out that the chapel commands the brow of the h i l l . elizabeth darling, le corbusier (london: carlton books limited, ) . le corbusier, journey . franclieu agrees. fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks, v o l . , . "(the) modern world having lost contact with or the memory of its deeper realities, would welcome the teachings of a new jesus who is strong, simple and human." fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks, notation , v o l . , . the vast south wall would be in regular shadow because of the voluminous roof ( ). a february , drawing contemplates a double tower - conventional for the west facade of gothic churches, but also reminiscent of the grain elevators or nuclear cooling towers le corbusier admired. the twin tower re-emerges in sketch , where the volume o f the south-facing roof is also apparent. the ovoid roofscape, as seen from the west horizon, is further revealed in his preliminary sketches ( ). le corbusier was able to refine the shape in these sketches, as well as determining the water runoff channel for the roof ( - ): sketches and elaborated on the catch basin and rock f i l l . his sketchbooks also illustrate his attention to the north balcony, while the roof is likened to a ski jump noticed while flying over crete on february , - the "ski jump" effect is apparent in sketches - . through his initial sketches, le corbusier also clarified the cavern-like interior, with its pulpit and deep-set south windows ( ), and anticipated the colored "transparencies" o f the south windows. these simple sketches belie the mastery of ronchamp. franclieu sees them as illustrative of le corbusier's creative process; they represent visual cues to his • design pretext. a primary consideration in the design is also le corbusier's choice of the situational context, which he believed exploited the daunting views. in what geoffrey baker refers to as "the confrontation between movement and the building," le corbusier utilized the oblique axis of the site to display the chapel entrance and outdoor assembly area. the downward incline of the roof drags the eye towards the main entrance, where its abrupt intersection with the main tower "creates a dynamic tension at the point o f cleavage." further, by tilting the chapel along its transverse axis, the architect drew movement along a longitudinal line that bisected the hilltop site. baker refers to this longitudinal aspect as the secondary zone. the concave "acoustical" south face "arrests the observer's viewpoint, directing them to the main entrance, bulwarked by the larger chapel tower." the denseness of the south wall, what baker calls a "sawtooth" plan, with its painted glass display of spectacular, oddly-shaped glazed windows, conversely anticipates the necessity to separate visitors from the meditative pilgrimage zone defined by the east le corbusier frequently refrained from sketching his designs until he had worked through the creative problem. fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks, v o l . , . "when i am given a task, i am in the habit of tucking it away in my memory, that is, of not allowing any sketch to be done for several months....then one day, a spontaneous initiative of the inner being takes place, everything falls into place; one takes a pencil, a bit of charcoal, some colored pencils (color is the key to the process) and one gives birth right there on the paper: the idea comes forth, the child comes forth, it has come into the world, it is born." le corbusier, textes et dessins pour ronchamp (paris: forces vives, ) as cited in fondation le corbusier, sketchbooks. v o l . , . geoffrey h . baker, le corbusier: a n analysis of form (berkshire: van nostrand reinhold (u.k.) co. ltd., ) i l . baker . baker - . wall. baker comments that: "the south wall therefore draws in the visitor with its curvature, yet acts as a barrier to be penetrated as a result o f the sloping wall." just as the convex nature of the northern and western walls separates the pilgrimage area from the functional zones, baker comments that le corbusier, seemingly instinctively, creates another bisection between the location o f the secondary entrance and the eastern exit by obscuring them by means of the oblique thrust of the south w a l l . o f further significance to the siting is a concept le corbusier refers to as the "visual acoustics" of the french landscape. le corbusier considered the chapel a "land of acoustic sculpture," or an "acoustic plastic work," like the dichotomy of the positive-negative form that ("the outside is always an inside") that both projects into and is projected upon the surfaces around i t . le corbusier believed acoustic forms were the outcome of the action of a work of architecture or sculpture on its surroundings. b y collaborating with edgar varese to produce a musical programme intended to be broadcast from a distinct, metal bell tower, thus supplementing the landscape with electronic music, le corbusier hoped to acknowledge the weight of sound and events on the design, creating a consequent "concordance" between the site and sculpture - what he expressed as the idea of architecture as a "veritable manifestation of acoustics in plastic form." le corbusier explained this phenomenon as follows: "...the work (architecture, statue or painting) acts on its surroundings: waves, cries, or clamour (the parthenon on the acropolis) flashing out like radiating rays (....); both in the immediate vicinity and further afield these shake, dominate or caress the site (....)." although le corbusier did not fully achieve his envisioned acoustical program, a free-standing set of bells provides a visibly acoustical element, beyond that expressed by what he refers to as the radiation of the form upon the inexpressible space. a s le corbusier exhibited in his purist works, ronchamp's design presumed that proportion would transport architecture beyond the physical form to a state of innate sensation: le corbusier compared proportion to a key that comprises the unifying force in architectural design. what defines the esthetics of the design is the individual, who ensures the architectural event is immortal; architectural sensations are, thus, the result of the human response to s baker . baker . pauly, le corbusier . ' pauly, le corbusier . a s cited in pauly, le corbusier . le corbusier, the modulor and . geometric forms. in this manner, while ronchamp's proportion, site and the architect's creativity all contributed to the defining experience, it was the individual response that ensures the architecture's endurance. further, the "concrete or abstract" elements in an architectural composition should be tempered by the architect's intention, since intention determines the architecture's efficacy. this precept assumes validity i f one accepts le corbusier's statement that architecture is an irrefutable event: "it occurs in certain moments of creation when the mind, preoccupied with the strength and practical convenience of a work, is suddenly uplifted by a higher intention....and sets out to express the lyric powers that animate and delight us....this higher intention defines architecture." the proportions, as consistent with the architect's intention, determine the grandeur of the piece, since the greatness is in the intention, not the dimensions. a further dominant feature of ronchamp is the "reverse-curved asymmetrical roof," supported by reinforced concrete columns above masonry walls. files and from the fondation le corbusier show the architect's preliminary sketches for the roof, while sketchbook h elaborates on this detail. frampton comments that the concrete roof shell "cantilevers its heavy form outwards on the southern and eastern elevations and ingeniously contrives to conceal itself behind whitewashed walls to the north and west." while le corbusier compared the "inverted shell" roof to the curved canvas philips pavilion roof, it has been variously described as a crab's shell by the architect and a ship's hull, a petrified tent or a distorted plane wing by critics; frampton points to similiarities between the liege and san francisco exhibition pavilions, with their hyperbolic space frames. le corbusier insisted the resolution of the roof form was a response to the site: "thick walls and a crab's shell to give curves to a static plan. i'll provide the crab's shell; we w i l l lay it on the foolishly but usefully thick walls...." benton interprets the form somewhat more symbolically: "this evocative form was both a structural paradigm - strong enough to carry his weight - and a visual symbol of enclosure." his reference to the roofs structural proportions is consistent with the doctrine of new brutalism. it is known that le corbusier continually searched for new and evolving architectural forms, hence, his transition from austerity to an assemblage of "contrasted" construction "esthetics thus contains a factor that makes a work immortal and ensures that these w i l l always be immortal works. that factor is the individual." le corbusier, une maison - un palais as cited in guiton, ideas . " y o u have to select the proper techniques, choose materials, fulfill a program, etc., but the end result of all these efforts hinges solely on the quality of the intention." le corbusier, entretien avec les etudiants des ecoles d'architecture as cited in guiton, ideas . le corbusier, when the cathedrals were white, as cited in guiton, ideas . le corbusier, when the cathedrals were white, as cited in guiton, ideas . frampton . frampton . le corbusier, "creation ronchamp," fondation le corbusier file as cited in pauly, le corbusier . materials; frampton suggests ronchamp's shell roof and the barrel-vaulted megaron at cherchell are representative of this research. conversely, unite d'habitation ( - ), maison jaoul ( - ) and chandigarh ( - ) exhibit the architect's transition to brutalism. further, frampton argues that le corbusier's break from purism, with the mandrot ( ) and errazuriz ( ) houses, coincided with the abandonment of his faith in the beneficience of a machine-age culture and that his subsequent architecture exposed his sympathies both for surrealism and for a mediterranean peasant vernacular, evident in such projects as ronchamp, but also the cap martin house ( ) and maison jaoul and sarabhai house (both ). this may also explain the unusualness proportions of the roof form. the brutalist conceptualism of the windows in ronchamp's south wall supports frampton's argument; although the choice of building material influenced their volume, their placement within the deep-set indentures was made possible by the plasticity of the beton brut. the windows serve to relieve the unrelenting reinforced concrete surface, through their varied size and shapes, ranging from inches to feet according to the depth of their enclosure, emitting an irregular pattern of light that defines the interior. the use of tinted glass creates a movable art that traverses the length of the chapel's floors and walls as the qualities of the natural light changes with the time o f day, a subdued essence replicated in the clerestory window that encompasses the roofline. in some regard, the south windows are similar to the "periscope" nature of the three towers: "...it is through the medium of light that the interior space is understood." the interior space must also be understood in terms of le corbusier's use of polychromy. pauly suggests that le corbusier considered polychromy to be necessary to the perception of white; by engaging large blocks of color in the windows, l e corbusier was able to "confer space," creating an additional spatial dimension and, in combination with the light emitted by the windows, defining the project's "architectural locus." le corbusier saw "good walls" as white, while murals functioned to create the illusion of space and arrest the isolated, rectilinear surfaces. thus, the pop art contextualism of the colored windows - a hand, a janus moon and written text that, like the advertising icons he referenced in his paintings, are seemingly reminscent of l e g e r - and of the other artistic elements of the architecture, such as the enameled south door or the primary colors of the recess that houses the holy v i r g i n effigy, benton - . frampton - . frampton . . baker . pauly, le corbusier . relieve the harsh surface of the sculptural form. the emphasis le corbusier placed on polychromy is further evident in the side chapel, where the "bloodied" surfaces and sacristy recede into the forms. le corbusier seems to acknowledge this effect by commenting that " i n architecture, polychromy...seizes hold of the whole wall and gives it an extra quality, be it the power of blood...." another explanation for the uniqueness of the graphic imagery is proposed by jencks, who suggests le corbusier chose this vivid polychromy as an expression of his rebellion towards social ideals - the tragic hero juxtaposed against the conservatism of mainstream religion through the inherent conflict between his ideals and societal norms. while this explanation may have some relevance, it is apparent that le corbusier's design was respectful of roman catholic tradition. various elements of ronchamp are representative of the liturgy: the choice of red (the blood of christ) for the chapel walls, the symbology of the window graphics (as an example the recognition of the virgin mary as a mediator between humans and christ), the spiritual drama at the close of the pilgrim's journey represented by the design. however, many of the design elements are also personal, such as the reflections o f nature by use of images of the clouds, moon and animals or the use of the hand on the enameled door, and the overall presentation is unique to le corbusier's innate sense of the rhythm of the proportion and scale of architecture. if the purpose of the architectural programme was merely to create function and adornment, that could have been achieved without the intervention o f the artist. it is the appreciation of the poesis particular to le corbusier that is responsible for the chapel's success as an architectural set piece. . theories about ronchamp examining critiques about ronchamp places the project within the context of experiments in new brutalism and the rejection of modernism. some have suggested the project is expressionist or that it is the precursor to post- modernism. neither explanation is satisfactory, although, like many of le corbusier's projects, ronchamp is both innovative and visionary, preceding in that it precedes similarly bold experiments in church architecture that are evoking what pauly considers to be the christian concept of sacrifice, but also the imagery o f betrayal. pauly, le corbusier . pauly, le corbusier . m c k a y . situated in the s and s (st. john's abbey, - ; manhattan church of christ, ). rather, these critiques provide support for the premise that the concept of symbiosis was instrumental to the design. . . criticisms about ronchamp many references have been made to the sculptural quality of ronchamp; not the least of these by jordan, who calls the chapel a wonder of three-dimensionality, like some "marvellous piece of abstract sculpture." elizabeth darling suggests that, just as le corbusier's painting helped him to find a new visual language for his architecture, concrete's raw, visceral quality allowed him to produce the sculptural forms apparent in ronchamp. pauly credits ronchamp with incorporating diverse elements "within (a) sculptural ensemble" - she attributes the integrative nature o f ronchamp to le corbusier's research into forms and notes the similarity to the organicism of his post- still life paintings, with their contextual responsiveness to acoustics. jencks suggests the "antiphonal balance is so exact" that ronchamp is a rationally perfected sculpture. in contrast to these allusions to the sculptural form, james stirling, perhaps the most vocal of ronchamp's critics, refers to the "idioms of popular art and folk architecture" as an explanation for the building's picturesque aspect. green finds a correlation between the immediacy of le corbusier's late architectural projects, like ronchamp, and his sculptures, tapestries and enamels, compared to the precision of his paintings. he argues that, as le corbusier's artwork advanced, progressing from painting through sculpture and tapestries, his architecture became increasingly art-like and sculptural. he notes: "for le corbusier himself, the handling of space was the key to architecture as art: the handling of the space within, and o f the building as a response to the space of its setting." beginning from this reference point, as le corbusier's general preoccupations with design aesthetics evolved, along with available technologies, his work became increasingly symbiotic and interior (inner focused). green contends that l e corbusier's art and architecture assumed a metaphoric quality during the s, but his architecture became more jordan, le corbusier . darling, le corbusier . pauly, le corbusier . jencks, tragic . stirling, "ronchamp" . green, "the architect" "immediate" as it matured. he suggests that le corbusier transformed his objets a reaction poetique into his uzon works and that the polychromatic sculptures that evolved from those forms, as re-interpreted through new stimuli, were translated into the "functional sculpture" of ronchamp: "the late buildings, with their raw concrete and rough finishes, are not simply sculptural, they are also, visibly, huge built sketches, public structures with the impact of private ideas developed in the act of drawing under concentrated pressures, at speed." gardiner concurs that le corbusier's late s and s paintings explored concepts central to the evolution of his architectural style, including the employment of shapes and lines to create continuous spaces. gardiner sees savina's ear sculptures in ronchamp's light shafts, while the strict dimensions of the modulor establish the free form shape. if indeed, le corbusier "processed" his everyday observations through his paintings and transferred those to sculpture and architecture, ronchamp is, as gardiner suggests, no less familiar than villas l a roche, stein and savoye, framed by the site and the echoes of nature as opposed to the omnipresent cube of his earlier works, and wrapped, like a christo installation, in the rough skin of his plastic material, concrete. in comparing ronchamp's form to the villas stein or savoye, gardiner notes that le corbusier carried through the exterior into the interior, enabling the whole of the architectural piece to be conceived as a single element. a s is the case with v i l l a savoye, ronchamp's form envelopes the viewer: " y o u are in the sculpture, in the monastic whiteness o f the block of stone that he excavated and shaped, the interior of which, a moment ago, you saw from below, in the field....little remains of the cube....inside and outside sculpture are one...." gardiner considers this aspect - the whiteness of ronchamp, which he traces to le corbusier's travels to the mediterranean and m ' z a b in algeria ( ) - to be a visually aesthetic "bond" with le corbusier's purist style, establishing a unifying element for any combination of shapes, sizes and objects. guiton suggests ronchamp's organicism is a response to the dubious character (porous and calcinated) of the fill and that the form was essential to stabilize the material requirements of the commission. the sculptural quality of the green, "the architect" - . green, "the architect" . gardiner . gardiner . gardiner . gardiner . the virgin in the window at ronchamp is a literal translation of this effect, as are the concave windows, of exposing the acute dimension by opening up the design to integrate the inside and outside as one. gardiner . gardiner . guiton - . design illuminates the essence of the stone from which ronchamp, like a sculpture, was created, exposing "what shapes and spaces could be revealed by the cutting away of unnecessary bits." pauly also references le corbusier's extensive studies of mozabite architecture, in particular, his interest in light transmission and the distribution of window openings in the dense walls of the algerian forms that, as at ronchamp, provide a diffused, yet restrained, environment. however, although she acknowledges similarities between what le corbusier refers to as the honesty and directness of the white forms of mozabite and ronchamp, pauly argues that any resemblance is referential, rather than direct, consistent with a creative process that is reliant on a search for architectural sources, as was central to le corbusier's design process. pauly's assertion that the conceptual theme is defined at the start of his creative process is important i f one accepts the intuitive nature of ronchamp's design. while pauly refers to ronchamp as a total work of art, supporting the integral sculptural context, she suggests the design established "an implicit bond with the past" by incorporating elements from certain roman churches, such as the sacred atmosphere, the bulk of the volumes and weight of the walls, the splayed windows and diffused lighting. jencks sees influences on ronchamp in le corbusier's interest in a "rational, complex approach to art," evidenced by his emphasis on regulating lines, murals and the concept of ineffable space. he suggests ronchamp's curvilinear forms were rationally determined, plastically inter-related variants of the straight line and right angle. he considers ronchamp's sculptural qualities to be a response to le corbusier's post-war aesthetic - "tough and realistic, towards the poverty of reconstruction" and predominated by an emphasis on the primitive, sensual and aggressive: architecture as "sculpture in a new plastic language." le corbusier was able to achieve this effect because the imperfect medium of beton brut was uniquely suited to his new aesthetic; like the human landscape: "the defects shout at one from all parts of the structural." jencks agrees with those critics who attribute le corbusier's experiments in new brutalism to his folkloric interests, the vernacular forms of which, one might argue, further contribute to the sense that the piece is sculptural. a s gardiner . pauly, creative process . for the purposes of this thesis, creative process means the process of defining the problem, discovering potentially relevant experiences through research or drawing, engaging in intuitive thinking, illuminating the idea and verifying the resolution through revision or editing. michael delahunt, "creative process," , artlex art dictionary, accessed august , <http://wwww.artlex.com>. pauly, creative process . jencks, tragic . jencks, tragic . jencks, tragic . jencks, tragic http://wwww.artlex.com evidence, he refers to le corbusier's statement of : "...the business of architecture is to establish emotional relationships by means of brutal materials." jencks argues that by the mid-thirties le corbusier had adopted brutalism as a reaction to "a rediscovery of natural orders, primitive societies and a sexual relation with women unconstrained by conventional etiquette, sophistication or snobbism." frampton also remarks upon the similarity of ronchamp to le corbusier's s architecture to the essential form of the pavilion des temps nouveaux ( ) . one is further reminded of the integration of the de mandrot house with its site. beyond its seeming correspondence with sculptural pieces, one must also consider ronchamp within the context of le corbusier's interest in the relationship of art to nature. while some (nikolaus pevsner among them) consider the design to be irrational architecture, v o n moos argues that the chapel is symbolic of the "atavistic mysticism of nature." green comments that the merger of art and architecture in le corbusier's boston, london, paris and lyons exhibitions, and the "sculptural" architecture of the marseilles unite, ronchamp and the capital of chandigarh, with its deeply felt "acoustical" responsiveness to splendid natural settings, were the outcome of le corbusier's mature understanding of the relationship between himself, nature and design. pauly suggests that ronchamp is both a product of the architectural technique available to le corbusier and a poesis, "a platform for lyricism" as embodied in the poetic moment. she argues that the "poetic moment" is omnipresent in his work because le corbusier considered architecture to be a "matter of plastic emotion" that works on the senses and creates a "consonance" with the universe (nature). in this manner, ronchamp's form can be seen as a response to the site, in that the four horizons to which the structure is oriented suggested to the architect an acoustic response "in the realm of forms." the religious symbolism is further significant to an appreciation of the design o f ronchamp and here architectural critics have divergent views. jordan considers the chapel's religious symbolism to be complex, yet reductivist: le corbusier commented that ronchamp represented, " a few scattered symbols, a few written words telling the praises " jencks, tragic . ' jencks, tragic . frampton - . v o n moos . , s green, "the architect " . > pauly, le corbusier . > le corbusier as cited in pauly, le corbusier . le corbusier as cited in pauly, creative process . of the v i r g i n . " frampton sees le corbusier's interest in electronic broadcasts as an allusion to the medieval belfry. the three light cowls, each of which harbors a chapel, represent the trinity (father, son and h o l y ghost); he argues this symbolism is also apparent in the hollow cylinder and two pyramids of the concrete cistern that collects rainwater from the roof. he sees the inside/outside northwest balcony as a symbol for the sun's diurnal passage: " a l l in all, inside and out, the chapel celebrates the ascent and descent of the sun together with the waxing and waning of the seasons, integrated into the life cycle and the rhythmic order of nature." b y shifting between the aquatic origin of life "and the ultimate transformation of this aqueous state into the aerial," frampton argues that ronchamp articulates the duality between air and water - as "paralleled in the diurnal cycle of evaporation and condensation" - thematic to le corbusier's architecture. he further interprets the form as a "subtle transposition" of the structure and form of the pavilion des temps nouveaux, itself inspired by the hebrew temple in the wilderness illustrated in towards a new architecture. pauly argues that the unstructured forms represent the irrationality of the religious and spiritual realms; ronchamp acts as an exploratory vessel for the plastic arts within the religious form. she suggests that by questioning traditional chapel design and the concept of the church as a "place of elevation," ronchamp established itself as a unique manifesto within contemporary religious architecture. a further explanation for the commission is posited by benton, who suggests le corbusier's search for ideas premised on metaphysical and moral assumptions acted as a "substitute" for religious faith, arguing that his sympathy for religious life and explorations into a personal poetics, through documents such as the "poeme de tangle droit," "le modulor" and the "poeme electronique," contributed to a mythology that enabled le corbusier to approach religious commissions with an innate appreciation of their complexity. le corbusier's involvement with projects such as l a sainte-baume ( - ) and his prescient sketches of the serapeum at hadrian's v i l l a are indicative of a cautious intrigue with questions of spirituality. benton suggests that le corbusier associated ideas about beauty and truth with an "idealist world-view" that was spiritual, yet agnostic, while simultaneously struggling with "the innate, intuitive idea of a supreme being" that allowed him to combine concepts of the individual with the universal jordan, le corbusier . frampton . frampton . frampton . frampton . pauly, le corbusier - . pauly. le corbusier . benton, "the sacred" . in his religious architecture. he suggests le corbusier's abstracted vocabulary at ronchamp is the reflection of his contempt for the events of the second world war, as evidenced in his disregard for representational painting in favor of his beastiary series of paintings, sculptures and drawings, which included ozon opus i ( ). these "new," "unexpected" and "unknown" objects were translated in his architecture at ronchamp, just as his objets 'a reaction poetique (shells, bones, pieces of wood) of were source material for his sacred architecture. whether these critics believed that ronchamp was le corbusier's response to the relationship of art to the natural and human domains, or a reaction to his objets a reaction poetique, the argument for symbiosis seems apparent, as the discussion of the architect's intent for the architectural programme supports. the consistent emphasis on the sculptural basis of the design, while refuted by stirling, is appropriate to the question of symbiosis, since it infers a potential for irrationality. if, as green suggests, ronchamp is akin to le corbusier's sculptures and paintings, therefore, it might be argued that, in its innate apprehension of the spiritual function of the architecture, ronchamp replicates the inner focused striving to achieve comprehension through the expressive means specific to a work of art. to carry green's analogy further, ronchamp is the sculpture, while the elements of the piece - among them the windows, enameled door, altar pieces and polychromy — are essential to its comprehension as a place of meditation and spirituality, similar to the sanctity of the darkness of the cave. this differs significantly from the concept of synthesis, in which each part of the work comprises the whole, but in which none of the parts are necessarily essential. in this manner, then, the clerestory windows can be understood as central to the experience of spiritual meditation, since they remove the parishioner from the everyday environment, emitting only that light essential for spiritual illumination, symbolizing perhaps the passage from the darkness of the questioning and non-comprehending mind to the light of spiritual awareness, represented by the south windows, which function as an allusion to the four seasons and to the redemptive quality of the light as it passes through the diurnal cycle. thus, like the pilgrim, as the light of ronchamp traverses its diurnal cycle, the parishioner travels along a path from the redemption-seeking spirit to the cleansed soul. it might, then, also be argued that the themes of light and darkness represent the duality of righteousness versus the confused state of sin, alluding to the chrisitian concept whereby the experience of sin informs that which is good. further, the symbology of the art pieces, from the open hand which infers the christian concept of giving and receiving, to the janus moon that functions as a gateway, perhaps to spiritual enlightenment, growth and renewal as the conclusion of the pilgrim's journay, transcend synthesis because they are essential to the architect's ability to respond to the functional requirements of the commission, rather than a representation of creativity or adornment. in the achievement of symbiosis, le corbusier contributes to t h century design syntax the appreciation that architecture is a function of emotion. this distinguishes symbiosis from the concept of synthesis, wherein the art is a constituent of the architecture, but not primary to it. . . importance of the design to ideas about the symbiosis of art and architecture le corbusier has frequently credited painting as the source of his architectural inspiration and, hence, the emphasis in this thesis on looking back to his art training, involvement in purism and his sketchbooks as definitive moments in the development of painting, sculpture and murals as elements in le corbusier's design vocabulary. these explorations position the experimentation evident at ronchamp; although le corbusier could have chosen a more traditional approach to the chapel's design, his is strikingly innovative in the appreciation of art as integral to the architecture, in contrast to art as applied decoration. a n examination of the architect's statements within the context of this paper reveals that besides his preoccupation with standardization, dimension and geometry - the tools of building design - a consistent theme for le corbusier was the interdependency of art and architecture. to appreciate this, we might look to alfred h . barr, who proposed that t h century architecture was influenced by painting and sculpture in reaction to the "feeble academic mimicry" of the revivalists and the nihilism of the functionalists; le corbusier was familiar with or involved in many of the major art movements - cubism, purism, de stijl, constructivism - and advocated for the rejection of academic art in favor of a non-mimetic art. le corbusier was privileged to work with behrens and perret, who advanced the use of ferro-concrete, which became le corbusier's canvas. he is also acknowledged as one of the new group of post- w w i architects (gropius, oud, van der rohe and le corbusier) who valued the work of abstract artists. henry- russell hitchcock argues that le corbusier's adoption of an aesthetic appropriate to the machine age and "the smooth, flat, rendered surfaces" of his s architecture (such as the ozenfant studio and v i l l a savoye) are evidence that le corbusier moved beyond the building system to an architectural style that valued the inclusion of the art element. this comment, by extension, remains pertinent to his post-purist works. le corbusier, m y work . art, as referenced in the case study, refers to manmade products involving manual facility. henry-russell hitchcock, painting toward architecture (new york: duell, sloan and pearce, ) . "...his houses were visually organized with all the perfection of his purist paintings." hitchcock, painting , . the informalism of le corbusier's late architecture appears to have been intended to achieve a fusion between art and architecture. there is evidence that he strove to surpass the metaphoric character his artwork assumed during the s - with the inclusion of objets a reaction poetique and his experimentation with the translation of his drawings and paintings into polychromatic sculptures - to new forms, as apparent at ronchamp. le corbusier's clay maquettes for ronchamp evolved around the same time that joseph savina was modelling the architect's drawings into sculptures, while the chapel's development also coincided with le corbusier's paris exhibition, one of four exhibitions between and in which he endeavored to demonstrate the synthesis between art and architecture. his concern with symbiosis is evident not only in the use of art as application (such as on the windows on the south wall), but in the architect's use of reinforced concrete to reveal the plastic event. the fluid quality of beton brut enabled le corbusier to explore the sculptural context, what jordan calls an evolution from the cube to the crystal, just as gaudi's designs appear to be shaped by hand from clay. le corbusier himself remarked on this in the modulor: "the chapel at ronchamp w i l l perhaps show, when it is finished in the spring of , that architecture is not a matter of pillars but of plastic events. these are not ruled by scholarly or academic formulae: they are free and innumerable." " hence, like many of his buildings of the s, ronchamp has few straight lines: the downward curving ceiling creates an illusion of size, while the roof itself rises six inches above the walls on concrete pillars hidden in the onerous south wall, feet thick at points. le corbusier leaves visual cues in ronchamp that remind the viewer of v i l l a savoye, but also of his evolution from the machine-like precision of his paintings of the early s to, as frampton has remarked upon, the "voluptuous" lines of the female form in his later sketchbooks. v o n moos comments on some of the motifs evident at ronchamp. o f particular interest are the sharply articulated stairwell or ramp and curved walls, which von moos refers to as sculptural articulations that "accompany, paraphrase, and contradict the rectilinear geometry (of le corbusier's characteristic rectangles and cubes), charging them with tension." further, le corbusier's appreciation of the window as a vehicle for light, rather than air transmission (in ronchamp windows are used as what von moos terms an "instrument of sculptural dramatization") is also noted, as is the employment of a female architecture of undulating surfaces. the "dramatization of the roof as "...that, before anything else, his buildings should be accepted or rejected as works of art." green, "the architect" . l e corbusier, the modulor and . "his drawings were like research notes of ideas perceived in the world about him, records for the 'store house' of particular observation that would someday lead to something of importance." gardiner - . an autonomous form," by the establishment of a tension between the interior and exterior through narrow clerestory windows situated between the roof and walls, is also remarked upon. v o n moos notes that le corbusier recreates the clerestory effect of the serapeum he visited in by employing periscope-like light shafts to illuminate the side chapels, a device that enabled him to recapture the effect of light upon the walls of a cavern and to "compose" with light. ronchamp is a traditional form in terms of design standards. configured according to the dimensions of the modulor, the design is influenced by the choice of building materials. it adopts many of the characteristics of typical church architecture, such as the multi-height nave, reminiscent of cathedrals (acknowledging that the sense o f height is also a deliberate effort to make the exterior appear larger than the very small interior) and the concept of diffused light borrowed from baroque churches, both in the nave by use of the clerestory window and in the chapels by way of the periscope-like towers. the water-spout is adaptive to the site requirements, as one might expect, and the siting and size of the church are logical to the footprint of the landscape. although ronchamp contradicts le corbusier's search for universal absolutes - unlike v i l l a savoye, which he suggested could be re-created anywhere in the world, ronchamp is site specific - the design solution is appropriate to the commission requirements. le corbusier is known to have researched aspects of roman catholic ritual in developing the chapel. what evidence exists then that ronchamp represents the symbiosis of art and architecture? in arguing that ronchamp represents a symbiosis, as opposed to a synthesis of art and architecture, the argument is made that the art is not merely applied decoration nor that any effort is particularly made at ronchamp to bring together elements of fine art for the purpose of achieving synthesis. rather, it is argued that the architecture of ronchamp is the art and that the art. is integral to the architecture in that it enables the architect to achieve the requirements of the commission for a modernist piece of art/architecture. thus, the art on the windows or the ceramics on the south entrance are not merely adjuncts to the architecture, but support the function of the architecture in providing a meditative, religious space. the siting of the project upon the landscape is as conducive to the artistry of ronchamp as the treatment of the beton brut is in its adaptation as a sculptural device that corresponds to the listening and reflective qualities of the chapel's intent. this distinction appropriates symbiosis as the mutual interdependence of the elements in enabling the architect to achieve the purpose of the commission, as opposed to synthesis as the bringing together of v o n moos , . v o n moos . individual elements to form a whole, any element of which could be eliminated without disturbing the completeness of the composition. a s evidence, we have le corbusier's writings, in which he makes reference to the importance of his own art to his architectural process, as well as that of various critics and commentators, who advance the premise that le corbusier's intent was to create a "temple" for the synthesis of art and architecture. these interpretations, while sympathetic to his writings and approximating the premise for pieces such as ronchamp, fail to account for the essentialism of his art to his later architecture. secondly, we see the evolution of le corbusier's architecture, in tandem with his art, from the tentative swiss villas of his youth, decorated with motifs from nature, to the purist boxes that exhibit the initial evidence of architecture as a work of modern art - pavilion de l'esprit nouveau ( ), the ozenfant house and studio ( ), v i l l a savoye ( - ), the v i l l a stein and house at weissenhof (both ) - followed by projects such as unite d'habitation, marseilles ( - ), which incorporate art directly into the design. although these developments responded to the unique nature of his clients' design preferences and their architecture is more representative of the application of art to architecture than of the integration of art with architecture, they exhibit the intent that architecture is more than a functional box. we further see his involvement with greek musician-architect iannis xenakis, between and , who encouraged le corbusier to couple visual art with music, culminating in the philips pavilion ( ) at the brussels world exhibition, with its electronic score by varese and "kinetic" light and art display, which some argue more completely achieved his vision o f a total work of art. this project builds upon the concept of symbiosis in that it incorporates art as the pretext for the architecture. further, although this project post-dates ronchamp, it is indicative of the environment in which ronchamp was incubated. it is apparent, from his sketchbooks and drawings, that the initial design for ronchamp was intuitive, which suggests that le corbusier adopted the form, then adapted it to the site requirements. although le corbusier might have chosen to apply the art at ronchamp as decoration - assuming that the architecture was primary - the design, arguably, assumes a sense of mutual interdependence, or symbiosis, in which each artistic and architectural element is reliant on the other in order to support the whole. this is apparent in the manner in which the concave wall supports the shell-like roof, which enables the integration of concepts about objets a reaction poetique, while the imagery of the south window wall integrates religious motifs with those on the platform dias. looking at there are other obvious similarities between the two projects: frampton points out le corbusier employed variations of the double curvature - whether through catenary suspension in the pavilion des temps nouveaux or the hyperbolic space frames of his exhibition pavilions - he used this concept at ronchamp, just as he copied ronchamp's pivoting entry door from his pavilion des temps nouveaux. frampton . ronchamp, then, it would be difficult to conclude that the final product is appropriate to the traditional requirements o f a religious commission; rather, it was the support of the dominican order in providing le corbusier with the freedom to design at w i l l and le corbusier's appreciation of the integral nature of art and architecture that appears to be responsible for the achievement of this symbiotic piece. . relevance of the case study to the research question the suggestion that the basis for the development of an architectural form is painting or art may imply that the techonology or functional programme are secondary concerns. a more appropriate conclusion in the case o f an architectural work such as ronchamp is that the technology and programme supported the integration of the architecture as art and that the artwork, in this context, was dependent on the form for its interpretative value. in order for ronchamp to succeed within its architectural programme, it was necessary for le corbusier to apprehend the interdependencies o f the site, technology and artistic programme, however, it is specific to his genius that he achieved, in the process, a symbiotic resolution to the design problem. although le corbusier entertained a general preoccupation with design aesthetics, as evidenced in his substantive writings, at ronchamp the viewer sees le corbusier's design work as an evolution of both the architect's understanding of the plastic fact and of the concepts he first expressed in towards a new architecture. while the opportunity to create his own parthenon, one free of constraints, enabled him to recover some of his wounded pride over the failure of saint-baume, it conversely gave expression to le corbusier's beliefs about the integral nature of the symbiotic relationship between art and architecture. gardiner suggests ronchamp is, itself, cavernous, recalling sainte-baume and le thoronet on the crown of a h i l l . gardiner . c h a p t e r v c o n c l u s i o n to be symbiotic is to have a relationship of dependency. to suggest art and architecture are symbiotic seems obvious, yet the instances of its deliberateness are isolated. le corbusier was one of the most prolific of the artist- architects to emerge in the early th century; gropius and wright also come to mind. irrespective of this, le corbusier's artistic production is not particularly well known and exhibitions of his work have been infrequent. le corbusier was not acknowledged to be a great painter; unlike leger or picasso, he was not immediately adept at art- making. significantly, it is his involvement with art-making that both distinguishes him from his contemporaries and establishes the accomplished architectural surfaces for which he is known. it seems capricious to argue unite d'habitation at marseilles, the corbusier centre and ronchamp aren't the outcome of his experiments in art-making or to point to the philips pavilion without acknowledging his interest in multimedia. consistent with his individualism, le corbusier intuited much of the motivations for his own work for us, albeit with some lack of clarity or perhaps distortion of the events and people involved. nevertheless, his many works are ambitious and ronchamp reveals the relationship of the sculptor to his form. modernists believed architecture could create a new order between humans and form. their architecture evolved from this comprehension that design could reflect the excitement of the moment of possibility. le corbusier stood on the edge of the international style; like gropius, he was an innovator. le corbusier, who approached architecture from the viewpoint of artist, seized upon the innovations of the early th century as his manifesto. l'esprit nouveau and towards a new architecture integrated the new architecture with painting, sculpture, music, literature and the social sciences; pawley suggests le corbusier's architectural themes are to be found in the pages of these influential publications. his design style evolved as he matured but, unlike some, his was an abrupt series of departures, from his stark purist buildings to the integrative surfaces of the philips pavilion and ronchamp. several "many o f le corbusier's later projects, particularly his houses, are to be seen clearly in the illustrations of promenade decks on liners, 'cubist' automobiles and biplane aircraft which crowd its pages." martin pawley, le corbusier (london: thames and hudson, ) . themes are emergent in his life's work: the decoration of the swiss villas and his interior designs give way to the cubic forms of his pessac project and the organicism of ronchamp. there is little doubt ronchamp is le corbusier's premiere integrative work of art. the architect himself comments about the symbiosis of architecture with art at ronchamp: "architecture is form, volumes, color, acoustics, music." ronchamp is all of these; like the philips pavilion it is experimental, like many of le corbusier's works, timeless. pauly notes that, with ronchamp, le corbusier was able to "draw forth from a constructed work (architecture) presences engendering emotion, which are essential to the poetic phenomenon." le corbusier expresses this sentiment in his own writings: "the architect, by his arrangements of forms, realizes an order which is a pure creation of his spirit;by forms and shapes, he affects our senses to an acute degree, and provokes plastic emotions...he determines the various movements o f our heart and of our understanding; it is then that we experience the sense of beauty." although ronchamp is removed from the mechanical objectivism that dominated the experiences of architects and artists in the early th century, le corbusier's appreciation of the design is formulated on a grounding in mechanical selection. arguably, le corbusier makes the shift from the rigid geometricism of purism to the organicism of ronchamp as a consequence of his new appreciation of the relationship of nature to humans, through his involvement in c i a m and as a consequence of his disillusionment with machine architecture. although his interest in natural systems contributes to this ability to relate the order of things to design, as is evidenced in his interest in the structural dynamics of the crystal, le corbusier is able to incorporate art-making into ronchamp only because he evolves as an artist who suppresses the functionalism of his architecture to enable the manipulation of the light, shade, contour and profile. le corbusier's sketchbooks are evidence that the architect was not a particularly gifted artist, but that he was able to achieve a symbiotic relationship between his art and architecture. in his sketchbooks, we see the compendium le corbusier drew upon to model his chapel: his urban planning manifestos, intrigue with blake suggests ronchamp's curved masses represented a mystery "as reminiscent o f the catacombs or the massive stone monasteries of the middle ages as it was of some dimly understood spatial concepts of today and tomorrow." blake as cited in pawley, le corbusier . le corbusier as cited in pauly, le corbusier . pauly advances the concept of a total work of art. le corbusier suggests the poetic phenomenon derives from "the combined presence of architecture, painting and sculpture, inextricably linked by harmony, discipline and intensity." pauly, le corbusier . le corbusier as cited in pauly, le corbusier . the feminine, concern with primitive cultures and involvement in mural making and sculpture. these concerns are given form in his drawings, paintings and notations, but more particularly in his writings and in his final works. le corbusier comments on ronchamp, suggesting that forms "make a noise and are silent; some speaking, others listening...." a s noted, ronchamp is the culmination of his research into forms, his involvement with art-making through his purist period to the sculptures and murals of his later years, his understanding of the relationship of humans and nature to art; and his association with other designers through c i a m , and like leger. the design evolved because the architect was freed from the restrictions of the commission to exhibit his own hand with the design, although riot without some opposition. it is the triumph to reconcile the disappointment of the united nations building - the rare architectural project that arrests the site and seizes the beauty of the form, formalizing le corbusier's intention to explicate art and architecture in a symbiotic manner that 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" l e corbusierr's modulor ( )." ed. peter sereyni. le corbusier in perspective. englewood cliffs, n j : prentice-hall, inc., . - . zevi, bruno. "constitution of the organic architecture in rome." architecture culture: - : a documentary anthology. ed. joan ockman. new york: rizzoli international publications, . - . figure : pilgrimage chapel, west wall figure : madonna, west wall — mm figure : pilgrimage chapel, west wall figure : second-storey exit, north wall figure : north entrance figure : aperture, south wall figure : aperture, south wall figure : south entrance mural (detail) figure : apertures, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall list of figures i figure : pilgrimage chapel, west wall figure : madonna, west wall figure : pilgrimage chapel, west wall f figure : second-storey exit, north wall figure : north entrance ure : second-storey exit, north wall figure : aperture, south wall figure : aperture, south wall figure : south entrance mural (detail) figure : apertures, south wall figure : apertures, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall ure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall figure : roofscape, south wall 	 this is an accepted manuscript of an article published by taylor & francis in word & image on jan , available online: doi.org/ . / . . “why would it not think of its typographic form already from its birth!”: a genetic approach to the typography of aaro hellaakoski’s “kesien kesä” veijo pulkkinen in his posthumously published memoir of his literary career runon historiaa ( ) (history of the poem), aaro hellaakoski ( – ) reminisces that his explorations into ancient egyptian and oriental art and modern french and italian poetry and painting — especially cubism and futurism — paved the way for his typographically experimental collection of poetry jääpeili ( ) (ice mirror). unfortunately, he does not comment on the actual typography of the work. the few words on typography concern the idea of using typography as a means of poetic expression: haaveilin kokonaan uudesta tyylistä, joka käyttäisi hyväkseen painoasunkin teknillisiä mahdollisuuksia, saadakseen sielunilmeen värähdyksen kiinni sanaan. onhan runo nykyisin painotuote. miksei se jo syntyessään ajattelisi typograafista muotoansa! (i was dreaming of a completely new style that would take advantage of the technical possibilities of typography to catch a quiver of an inner expression in the word. after all, a poem is a print product nowadays. why would it not think of its typographic form already from its birth!) hellaakoski’s remarks are interesting since besides implying that typography has become an intrinsic part of poetry, he also seems to think that the visual aspect has a crucial role in the genesis of the poem: typography is something that has to be taken into account already at the beginning of the composing of a poem. if the meaning of a visual poem is a product of the interplay between the linguistic text and its visual rendering, typographic variance in the various genetic stages can affect the interpretation of the poem as much as textual variance. in this article i will take my cue from hellaakoski’s idea and examine how a poem “thinks” about its typography through its genesis. my example from jääpeili is “kesien kesä” (the summer of summers) (figure ). the fact that the manuscript, proofs, and published versions of the poem show a considerable amount of typographic variance but almost no textual variance at all makes “kesien kesä” an excellent case for examining the impact of typographic variance on the interpretation of the poem. the only textual variants are two misplaced question marks in the first proof of the poem (see figure ). my approach is influenced by french genetic criticism (critique génétique), a branch of literary criticism focusing on the study of manuscripts. although genetic criticism is mainly concerned with modern literary manuscripts, its methods can also benefit other fields such as the study of archeology, music and visual arts. the object of genetic criticism is the creative writing 	 process that can be traced from the various genetic stages manifested by diverse manuscript documents. in the following pages, i intend to apply a genetic approach to the analysis and interpretation of visual poetry. by studying the manuscript, proofs, and published versions of “kesien kesä”, i will trace the genetic process where hellaakoski strives to create a typographic layout for his poem. the study of visual poetry often focuses solely on the iconicity of the poem, i.e. the interplay between expressive typography and the linguistic text, leaving the genetic documents and the processes they witness with little or no attention. this is, of course, understandable if the genetic material has perished. but if there exist notes, sketches, drafts, manuscripts, and proofs, etc. a genetic approach to typography can enrich our understanding of the poetics and the interpretation of visual poetry as it brings a temporal dimension to the relationship between text and its visual rendering. the following examination of the manuscript, proofs, and published versions of “kesien kesä” shows how hellaakoski tries out various typographical means to structure and articulate the thematic content of the poem. it not only demonstrates how important the visual side of the poem was for hellaakoski, but opens up new interpretations of the iconicity of “kesien kesä” that would not be possible by concentrating only on the finished and fixed end product. jääpeili and the avant-garde thanks to such finland-swedish poets as edith södergran ( – ), elmer diktonius ( – ), and gunnar björling ( – ) who wrote in swedish, the second national language, finland was in the vanguard of scandinavian modernism in the s and s. however, the only finnish-language poet that could be compared to the finland- swedish modernists was aaro hellaakoski, especially on account of his collection of poetry jääpeili. in the search for a renewed poetic expression, hellaakoski mixed avant-gardist poetical devices such as free verse, parallel stanzas, colloquial language, and experimental typography with more traditional means. nevertheless, the contemporary finnish-language discussion about literary modernism in the latter half of the s revolved around a literary group called the tulenkantajat (the torch bearers). the tulenkantajat consisted of a group of young poets who attacked the older generation of authors and their literary values. apart from their boasting and self promotion, their actual contribution to modernism consisted mainly in presenting international modernist movements and cultural phenomena. in their actual literary products modernist features were mostly restricted to rather shallow images of automobiles, trains, airplanes, neon-light advertisements, speed, and so on. 	 figure . aaro hellaakoski, “summer of summers” ( ). translation by v. p. hellaakoski represented one of the few mid-generation authors who had brought expressionism into finnish literature in the s. publicly, hellaakoski tried to keep at a neutral distance from the polemics between the young and the old. hellaakoski has rightly been described as a lone wolf, but this does not mean that his aesthetics and poetry were not affected by his contemporaries. the tulenkantajat had a sort of negative influence on jääpeili. some of the published and unpublished poems of the collection are directed towards the tulenkantajat, ridiculing and parodying their poetry and conception of modernism. the modernist pamphlet odkonst och bildkonst ( ) (literary art and pictorial art) by the swedish poet pär lagerkvist ( – ) had a more positive influence on hellaakoski. in it, lagerkvist proposed that swedish literature should be renewed by taking its cue from the theoretical principles of cubist and expressionist painting and the literature of ancient and primitive cultures. according to lagerkvist, expressionism and cubism strove to purify painting from all foreign elements that disrupted the composition of the work and the artist’s imagination. the same principle of media purity was inherent in primitive art, which shows how the purification and simplification of expression is achieved in practice. modern authors should study ancient literature such as the bible, the quran, the avesta, the poetic edda, and kalevala to learn how to purify their literary expression by simplifying, distilling, and avoiding realistic representation. hellaakoski’s reminiscence of the writing of jääpeili, quoted at the beginning of this article, is like a textbook example of how to modernize literature according to lagerkvist. hellaakoski 	 mentions that he had been reading french modernist poetry and had discussed with his brother-in-law, the reputed sculptor wäinö aaltonen ( – ), the possibilities of futurism and cubism. hellaakoski also refers indirectly to his essays on egyptian and oriental sculpture “vieraitten kulttuurien plastiikka” ( ) (the plasticism of foreign cultures) and modernist painting “kubismista klassisismiin” ( ) (from cubism to classicism). he does not mention any ancient literature, but by reading jääpeili it becomes evident that hellaakoski also draws from the oldest sources of finnish literature. there are, for example, allusions to and almost direct quotations from the collection of finnish folk poetry kanteletar and old finnish translations of the bible and hymnals. another unmentioned source of inspiration for jääpeili is the history of the book and the book as an aesthetic object. like many of the more prominent figures of visual poetry, hellaakoski reacted to the development of printing technology in the nineteenth century. he admired the hand-set, hand-pressed, and hand-bound books of the earlier centuries and complained about the inferior quality of modern books caused by the mechanization of the printing press. the illustration of books that became increasingly common through the development of lithography and other reproduction methods was also a nuisance to hellaakoski. in his essay, “kirjojen ulkoasusta ja koristamisesta” ( ) (on the layout and decoration of books), hellaakoski argues that illustration ruins the reception of the work by violating the free imagination of the reader. a fine book or a deluxe edition does not need illustration to be aesthetically pleasing. in hellaakoski’s opinion, books should only be decorated by pure typographic means, i.e. by the design of the text area and the careful selection of size, paper, ink, type, and typographic ornaments. hellaakoski advises contemporary book designers to take their cue from old books from the hand-press era. if it is absolutely necessary to have some kind of illustration, it should be as unrealistic as possible: for example, rough woodcuts that look more like abstract ornaments than illustrations of the text. it might perhaps come as a surprise that the author of a typographically experimental work such as jääpeili was so strongly against the illustration of literary works. however, the ideal of pure typography is very much in accordance with hellaakoski’s aesthetics, which is characterized by a similar concept of media purity put forward by lagerkvist. moreover, the concept of media purity can be seen as the guiding principle in the typographic poetics of jääpeili. although there are some more or less obvious typographic allusions to the visual poetry of f. t. marinetti and guillaume apollinaire in jääpeili, its poetics is essentially different from theirs. in their urge to transgress the boundaries between literature and visual art, marinetti and apollinaire frequently resorted to photographically engraved plates when the medium of conventional typography restricted their expression. in contrast, hellaakoski worked within the constraints of letterpress typography and is in this respect more akin to such poets as stéphane mallarmé and ilya zdanevich. for example, hellaakoski never infringes the so-called quadrature principle of letterpress typography, i.e. he never asks the typesetter to set text in curved lines or other forms that are against the nature of types and other typesetting material, which are mostly angular-shaped objects. the typographical devices that hellaakoski uses in jääpeili can be divided into two main categories. the first is the use of the page’s white space. it can be further divided into two subcategories: horizontal and vertical spacing. the former includes indentation and letter 	 spacing. the latter concerns stanza breaks or so-called blank lines. the second category is the use of type that can be divided into the choosing of typeface and type size. the most remarkable feature of jääpeili as a typographically experimental work is that the body text of the four sections of the collection is set in different typefaces. to my knowledge, this is quite an original idea. the manuscript of jääpeili is handwritten. it was a habit of hellaakoski to use the proofing process as a genetic stage of his writing. however, one publisher once forbade hellaakoski to revise the proofs although they had previously agreed upon the matter. this unpleasant surprise was the reason why hellaakoski bought his first typewriter in in order to deliver his poems to the print house in a more finished state. from a technical perspective, a typewriter is a rather restrictive typographical device since it has only one typeface and type size. this is perhaps the reason why typewriters were rarely used in early twentieth-century visual poetry, e. e. cummings being one of the most notable exceptions. according to willard bohn, it was not until the s that the typewriter became more commonly used in visual poetry, especially by the concretists and letterists. in the manuscript of jääpeili hellaakoski has marked the text with digits that refer to the numbered typefaces in the type specimen book of the printing house, kirjakenäyte kustannusosakeyhtiö otavan kirjapainosta ( ) (type specimen from the otava publishing company’s print house). this facilitates significantly the identifying of the typefaces of jääpeili. the first section is set with a sans serif typeface called lapidar (cast by the genzch & heyse type foundry). the second section is printed with a roman typeface called sorbonne (h. berthold). the third section is set with roman italics that in the type specimen book bear only the generic name ranskalainen kursiivi (french italics) (j. g. schelter & giesecke). this typeface is also used for typographic contrast in the other three sections. in the third section, the passages with typographic contrast are set with sorbonne. the last section of jääpeili is set in a black letter typeface, also gen- erically named fraktuura (fraktur) (monotype corporation). by setting the body text in different typefaces of letterforms, hellaakoski uses the historical, national, religious, and aesthetic connotations of typefaces to enhance the thematic content of the sections. take, for example, the typeface of the last section. as in germany, many finns considered fraktur to be a national typeface. it was not until the early s that roman typefaces became more commonly used than fraktur. especially before the s almost all finnish literature was printed in fraktur, whereas roman typefaces were reserved for swedish and foreign-language literature. roman had an academic and upper class status whereas fraktur was the letterform of the common people. religious literature in particular was printed in fraktur, which makes it the perfect embodiment for the last section of jääpeili that is characterized by a vanitas vanitatum theme. the flight of the swallows “kesien kesä” is a remembrance of a past summer condensed into a series of visual and aural sensations: the quivering of trees, the singing of birds, the movement of a curtain, the 	 flight of swallows in the sky, and the sound of a distant airplane. however, the speaker of the poem is not experiencing all of these sensations at the present moment. the first line and the last two stanzas are in the present tense, but the lines in between are written in the past tense. as such, the poem thematizes the interplay between past and present, tradition and modernism, that characterizes the poetics of jääpeili. “kesien kesä” can be interpreted as a form of reflection on a process of idealization as it builds a temporal interplay or tension between the past, the present, memory, and the senses. although the present sensations may seem to be only a pale reflection of the summer of summers, they have a crucial role in evoking the ideal summer, and thus enabling the speaker of the poem to keep his memory alive. the poem itself is a sort of memory trace. it has been noted that hellaakoski used to refer to the summer of as “the summer of summers”. it was special to hellaakoski for many reasons: his doctoral thesis on geology had just been approved, and it was the first time in years that he had the possibility of spending a holiday in the countryside with his wife and daughter. moreover, most of the poems in jääpeili were written during that summer, including “kesien kesä”. as a memory, the poem’s dealing with the senses inevitably reflects its own character as a piece of writing. writing has been associated with memory at least since plato’s phaedrus. it is thus not so hard to see a metapoetic level at work in “kesien kesä”. in this respect, the synesthetic expression of the flight of the swallows that draws a glittering tune in the sky (lines – ) is particularly interesting. synesthesia is a phenomenon in which sensations from one sense modality are triggered by another sense modality. synesthetes may, for example, experience sounds, numbers, or letters in color. aristotle was familiar with this sense-related metaphor as a literary device, and it is well known, for example, from charles baudelaire’s “correspondances”. the traditional divisions of art are usually based on the medial qualities and constraints of art forms, which are determined by different sense modalities. in this respect, synesthesia has been related to modernist and avant-garde art, which tends to transgress the boundaries between art forms. an interesting example that links with “kesien kesä” is the painting flight of the swallows ( ) by the italian futurist giaccomo balla. the painting is one of his famous experiments depicting speed and physical movement in painting. taking their cue from cinematography, balla and other futurists wished to free painting from the fixed spatial moment by representing dynamic and temporal sensations on a two-dimensional medium. in “kesien kesä” the physical movement of the birds elicits a mixture of aural and visual sensation of a glittering tune. with this synesthetic metaphor, the linguistic code of “kesien kesä” draws our attention to the iconicity of the page, or, to be precise, to the interplay between the verbal, aural (the tune) and visual (glittering) properties of the poem. here, almost at the center of the poem, “kesien kesä” “thinks” of its typography already at the level of its linguistic code. an interesting detail is the birds that are described as “dots.” the finnish word “pilkku” (pl. pilkut) is a dot, spot, or speck, but it is also the word for the comma. thus the text seems to allude to its almost complete absence of punctuation (the poem contains only four question marks). punctuation is normally invisible in the sense that 	 it does not catch our attention when it functions as it is expected to do. the same is true for typography. the often-repeated maxim is that good typography is invisible, i.e. when it does not divert the attention of the reader from the content of the text. it is their unorthodox use that makes the black marks jump out from the white page. it is a well- known feature of modernist poetry to transfer the function of punctuation to the spatial organization of the text. thus, the flight of the swallows not only refers to the missing punctuation but also to the role of typography and the use of the white space of the page in visual poetry. at first glance, the synesthetic metaphor of the flight of the swallows seems to be in contradiction with hellaakoski’s aesthetics of media purity, especially if we associate it with avant-gardist tendencies to transgress the boundaries between different art forms. but if we keep in mind his statement that poetry is also a print product as well as a linguistic and aural form of art, the synesthetic metaphor of “kesien kesä” underlines the proper medial qualities of poetry rather than questions them. if poetry is both aural and visual, leaving one or the other out would not fully embrace its medial nature. however, the visual aspect of poetry should not be confused with pictorial art. as the synesthetic metaphor of the flight of the swallows across the sky seems to suggest, the visual medium of poetry is strictly restricted to the role of typography. the sensations depicted in “kesien kesä” offer an opportune analogue to genetic criticism as a field of study. all of these sensations, except the flight of swallows, represent their object in an indirect way. the speaker of the poem wonders whether the quivering of trees represented day and whether the singing birds represented night. the movement of the curtain revealed the wind and the invisible airplane is recognized by its distant voice. in the semiotics of charles s. peirce, this mode of representation is reserved for indexical signs. according to peirce, an index is: a sign, or representation, which refers to its object not so much because of any similarity or analogy with it, nor because it is associated with general characters which that object happens to possess, as because it is in dynamical (including spatial) connection both with the individual object, on the one hand, and with the senses or memory of the person for whom it serves as a sign, on the other hand. in other words, an index is not an icon that resembles its object like a portrait, for example. neither is it a symbol, such as a word or a number that refers to its object solely by convention, rule, or habit. an index is a sign that has a contiguous, temporally and spatially determined relation to its object, for instance, the causal relation between fire and smoke. the object of the sign does not have to be actually present. it can be a memory, like in hellaakoski’s poem. as such, the index is a trace of a bygone event. in this sense, the index can also be considered to define genetic criticism. as a field of study, genetic criticism is concerned with the reconstruction of a past process. the relation between the surviving genetic documents and the genetic process is indexical. the documents provide the material, i.e. diverse sensory traces that enable the researcher to interpret the past process as if evoking a memory. 	 to approach the typography of a visual poem from a genetic perspective, we have to be able to distinguish it from its material manifestation in a particular document. this does not mean that we should not be concerned with the singularity of the material document. quite the contrary, it is upon the material traces of these documents that we base our interpretations of the genesis. this interplay between the material and more abstract dimension of typography can be demonstrated with the help of the manuscript of “kesien kesä”. it is a holograph manuscript written with a pen on a ruled sheet of paper (figure ). as a material object, the manuscript is an index of its author’s past presence, for the writing on the document is actually produced by the hand of the author. as a linguistic message or text, the manuscript is a symbolic sign. besides the text of the poem, the manuscript contains additional pencil markings and writing. these inscriptions are symbolic descriptions of the typography of the poem concerning typefaces and type sizes. the spatial organization of the text is demonstrated by iconic means. these are the verbal and graphic directions for the realization of the typography of the poem. obviously, a holograph manuscript is not a typographic object materially. nevertheless, the manuscript of “kesien kesä” represents the first stage of the typography of the poem, that is, typography in a more abstract state of becoming. [figure . aaro hellaakoski, “kesien kesä” ( ). manuscript. helsinki, literary archives of the finnish literature society, sks (scan sks). only available on the final published version.] the manuscript of “kesien kesä” has actually served as the printer’s copy for two different publications of the poem. “kesien kesä” was first published in july in a magazine called aitta (granary) together with another poem called “sade” (rain) (figure ). in november, both poems were published again in jääpeili, and we can thus separate two different sets of symbolic descriptions for the typography of “kesien kesä” in the manuscript. for example, the second line from the top of the page says “kaksi runoa” (two poems), which is the title under which the poems were published in aitta. the title has been crossed out since it became obsolete in jääpeili, where the poems were placed in different sections. on the top of the page is an underlined note to the typesetter: “huom! — ladontamalli liitteessä” (nb — the type- setting model is in the appendix). the note is presumably directed to the typesetter of jääpeili, given that it is not crossed out. unfortunately, this typesetting model has not survived. although the hypotheses about the missing document are for the most part only projected elements from later genetic stages, it should be taken into account in the reconstruction of the genesis of the poem’s typography. there are reasons to believe that the typesetting model was a more or less modified clipping of “kesien kesä” from the aitta magazine. first, hellaakoski used such typesetting models for other poems in jääpeili although these were not clippings from magazines, but models cut and pasted made from the sheets of the first proof. second, the typographic layout of the first proof of “kesien kesä” differs considerably from the manuscript, especially concerning the use of white space (figure ). in contrast, the typographic realization of “kesien kesä” in the first magazine publication of the poem is quite faithful to the manuscript, which indicates that the lost typesetting model was a modified version. 	 figure . aaro hellaakoski, “kaksi runoa,” aitta (july ) (scan v. p.). [figure . aaro hellaakoski, “kesien kesä” ( ). first proof. helsinki, the literary archives of the finnish literature society, sks (scan sks). only available on the final published version.] typography in context george bornstein has pointed out that the other contents of a publication are often a relevant part of the bibliographic code of a poem. the bibliographical code is a concept coined by jerome j. mcgann to stress the significance of the sociohistorical context and material means of production of a work, such as the binding of a book, its quality of ink and paper, its typography, etc. “kesien kesä” shows that besides the other contents the overall typographic style of the publication pro- vides significant information for the interpretation of the poem. if we wish to understand the changes that took place between the two typographic versions of “kesien kesä” published during hellaakoski’s lifetime, we have to extend our examination to the overall typographic design of aitta and jääpeili. in this section, i will explore the typographical variance of “kesien kesä” in the aitta version and first proof of jääpeili. among the manuscripts of jääpeili there are two copies of the first proof. the first copy does not contain any additional markings, but the other includes hellaakoski’s pencil correc- tions. to save space, i have included only a picture of the latter (see figure ). for the 	 moment, i will focus only on the printed features of the first proof and suspend the examination of the pencil corrections to the next section of this article, as they represent a later genetic stage. the aitta and first proof versions of the poem differ in both their use of type and the white space of the page. besides the normal line spacing or so-called leading, there is no vertical spacing in the manuscript or aitta versions. instead of the normal blank lines between stanzas, the stanzas have been separated by different degrees of indentation. the indentation in aitta matches the graphic or iconic directions of the manuscript. there are three different degrees of indents, which i have termed single, double, and triple indent. being aligned to the left margin, lines , , and – have no indent. the single indent is reserved for the last four lines. the double indent occurs in lines , , and lines – . lines and are the only ones with a triple indent. a notable difference between the aitta version and the first proof is the blank line between lines and . this break was probably introduced in the missing typesetting model since it is not indicated in the manuscript. as to the indentation, there are still three different degrees of indents in the first proof. the unintended and single indent lines are the same as in the manuscript and aitta. however, lines – have shifted from double to triple indents. this shift was perhaps triggered by the change in the type size of lines – , or vice versa. whatever the truth, we have to take the use of type into consideration if we wish to gain a grasp of the changes in the use of white space and their impact on the interpretation of the poem. in aitta “kesien kesä” is set in two typefaces: the body text is a sans serif typeface and the typographic contrast is created with roman italics. in the first proof, the body text is printed with roman capitals. lower-case roman and roman italics are used for typographic contrast. all of these three roman types of the first proof are actually different typefaces, i.e. they belong to different font families. when a text reappears in another publication, it is quite natural that the typeface changes, since it is usually determined by the typographic style of the publication. visual poetry, however, is a special case, where typography can be considered an essential part of the work. there are reasons to believe that hellaakoski was responsible for the choice of the typefaces of the aitta version of “kesien kesä”. it differs remarkably from the typographic style of aitta, especially with its use of the sans serif typeface. in finland in , sans serif was still considered suitable only for job printing. this can also be seen in the aitta issue in question, where sans serif is only used in a couple of advertisements. the body text of the magazine is set in a roman typeface, italics are used for contrast and many of the titles are hand-lettered. the attitudes towards sans serif changed drastically a few years later, when the modernist style of the new typography arrived in the early s. moreover, aitta magazine was printed and published by the same company, kustannusosakeyhtiö otava, that published jääpeili. it is the overall typographic design of jääpeili that explains the use of capitals in the first proof of “kesien kesä”. as mentioned earlier, jääpeili is divided into four different sections and the body text of each section is set in different typefaces. the sans serif used in the aitta version is actually the same lapidar that the first section of jääpeili is set in. the second section where “kesien kesä” is situated is set in roman. as the first proofs of jääpeili show, 	 hellaakoski initially planned to print the second section with roman capitals. this typeface, too, bears a generic name: kapiteeli (capitals) (monotype corporation). “kesien kesä” was eventually set in capitals in the first proof like the rest of the second section. as for the type size, there is an overall decrease from the aitta to the jääpeili version of “kesien kesä.” this has to do with the change of format from a magazine (page size . x . cm) to a collection of poetry ( . x . cm). although there are two poems fitted on the same page in aitta, they are still printed with a larger type size. the body text changes from corpus to petit and the contrasted lines from petit to nonpareil. knowing this overall change in the type size from one format to another we can put it aside and focus on the variance between these versions in the corresponding relation of type sizes of the body text and the contrasted lines. the first proof introduces such a type size variant contrasting the italicized lines with the body text. these are the same lines whose indentation changed in the first proof. in aitta, the type size of these lines is the same, but in the first proof the italics are printed with a smaller size than the body text. i will proceed to analyze these changes and their impact on the poem’s interpretation in the next section. font variance: analysis and interpretation the changes in the typefaces and sizes in “kesien kesä” have a significant impact on the visual structure of the poem. like rhymes and alliteration, typographic contrast can associate and juxtapose lines and words with each other. to help analyze the variance of the typographic contrast between the versions of “kesien kesä,” i have ordered the lines of the poem according to the different fonts, i.e. the different combinations of typeface and type size. i have emboldened the same type sizes and italicized the same typefaces that appear in different fonts in order to highlight the typographic associations between the lines of the poem. in this way, the lines in the aitta version of “kesien kesä” can be divided into three different fonts (table ). the first font is a combination or synthesis of fonts and . it shares the same typeface with font , but not its type size. font has a different typeface, but its type size is the same as font . fonts and are antitheses. they do not have a common typeface or type size. it is the first font that relates them to each other and ties the lines of the poem together visually. although the first proof has one typeface more than the aitta version, it does not have more fonts (table ). table . fonts of the aitta version of “kesien kesä”. . corpus + sans serif ( – , , – ) . corpus + italics ( – ) . petit + sans serif ( , , – ) 	 table . fonts of the first proof of “kesien kesä”. . petit + capitals ( – , , – ) . nonpareil + roman ( , , – ) . nonpareil + italics ( – ) interestingly, the use of type in the first proof is almost an inversion of the aitta version. in the proof, the first font is dissociated from fonts and , whereas in aitta the first font was associated with both of them. the only connection rests now between fonts and . in this sense, the addition of a typeface has resulted in a more incoherent visual structure. the associations between the lines run in opposite directions in these two versions of the poem. in aitta, lines – , , and – are associated with the rest of the poem by their typeface or type size, but in the first proof they are separated by the use of type. these typographic changes influence the interpretation of the poem as an interplay between memory and past and present sensations. the first half of the poem, which is mostly written in the past tense, can be understood as the realm of memory, whereas the rest of the poem is written in the present tense and thus represents the present. from this perspective, lines and on the past side are of special interest since they are visually connected with the present side of the poem by their matching type size in both versions (lines – in aitta, and – in the first proof). in aitta, these lines are set with the same sans serif typeface as the body text. only the type size is smaller. this can be interpreted as an iconic representation of quantitative difference between the past and present sensations. typeface can be considered the qualitative and primary property of a font, whereas the type size is a quantitative and secondary property. it is thus the typeface that defines the identity of the font. in this perspective, the temporal difference between past and present sensations can be interpreted as a mere quantitative difference. these curious lines are like shadows on the curtain or voices that echo the same tone (typeface), only with less volume (type size). thus the typography of aitta builds a bridge between past and present sensations, as if they were in interplay evoking and intensifying the significance of both temporal dimensions. in the first proof, this bridge between the past and the present and between memories and sensations is broken down by the use of type and typographic space. stanza breaks have much latent iconic potential that can be thematized in the interpretation of the text. the stanza break divides the poem spatially into two distinct parts in the first proof of “kesien kesä”. situated above line it looks as if the blank line is meant to be an iconic representation of “the side of a white curtain” that separates the past from the present. the past is further estranged from the present by the dissociation of font and the rest of the poem. the typographic contrast between the body text and lines and is steeper than in aitta. printed in a different typeface and size they differ both qualitatively and quantitatively from the body text of the first proof. in the manuscript and aitta, lines and had their own indent, whereas in the first proof they share it with lines – . lines and are thus also spatially more connected to the present than in the former versions. it looks as if these interrogative lines are cutting through the white curtain between the present and 	 the past, leaving holes shaped like question marks. they are like arrows or knives that penetrate into the realm of the memory. instead of connecting the past and the present, the iconic typography of these lines seems to question the representative value of the past sensations. waving the curtain: iconicity revealed i will now turn to hellaakoski’s pencil corrections on the first proof. besides the correction of the misplaced question mark in line , all of these marks concern the spacing of the text. in line he directs the typesetter to narrow the spaces around and between the question marks. another instance of horizontal spacing is found on the last four lines, which have been circled. the abbreviation “harv.” translates into english as “space out”. the arrow under the last line shows the direction where the lines should extend. there are also markings indicating vertical spacing. the word “riviväliä” (line spacing) between lines and , and and , indicates that a blank line should be added. the corrections to the first proof of “kesien kesä” do not indicate any changes in the typeface. however, there is a note on the title page of the second section on the first proof of jääpeili that all capitals are to be reset with corpus size sorbonne. this means that the typeface of the body text of the entire second section, including “kesien kesä”, is going to be changed. [figure . aaro hellaakoski, “kesien kesä” ( ). second proof. helsinki, the literary archives of the finnish literature society, sks (scan sks). only available on the final published version.] the second proof shows how these changes in type and spacing were realized by the typesetter (figure ). at this stage, the bibliographic code is very close to the first edition of jääpeili. the only difference is the left alignment of the first line. the alignment was corrected in the third proof of the poem, which is practically identical to the first edition. the most striking difference between the second proof and the earlier versions is probably the added stanza breaks dividing the poem into four distinct stanzas. on the one hand, these white spaces complicate the visual structure of the poem and it emphasizes the disconnectedness of the depicted sensations. on the other hand, these breaks could be interpreted as an elaboration of the icon of the white curtain. the latent iconicity of stanza breaks can thus be thematized through a genetic interpretation where they are associated with the production process of the poem’s typographic design. the curtain simply does not separate the past from the present, but waves between the different sensations registering their movement from one temporal domain to another. it seems as if hellaakoski tried to balance the complexity created by the blank lines by reducing the number of typefaces and indents. from the perspective of typefaces, the number of different fonts remains the same as in the earlier versions (table ). 	 table . fonts of the second proof of “kesien kesä”. . petit + roman ( – , , – ) . nonpareil + roman ( , , – ) . nonpareil + italics ( – ) the second proof is a step backwards to the aitta version of the poem. obviously, the typeface of the body text is different in these versions, but a similarity lies in the fact that the typographical contrast between the body text and lines and is based only on type size. thus hellaakoski restores the bridge between the past and the present and the temporal interplay of sensations that was broken down in the first proof by resetting the body text of the second section of jääpeili in lower-case roman typeface. as to the type sizes, hellaakoski keeps the smaller size for the four lines in italic that were introduced in the first proof. the same type size strengthens the connection between the last eight lines, which are written in the present tense but printed with two different typefaces. it supports the idea of the two coexisting realms of sensory experience that intercept each other in lines to . somewhat surprisingly, the indentation changes quite remarkably in the second proof, although there were no indications of this in hellaakoski’s corrections to the first proof. the changes to the second proof reduce the number of indents and, thus, simplify the visual structure of the poem. the non- indented lines are again the same as in the earlier versions. the most remarkable change is the shift of the last four lines to the same single indent as in lines and . in the earlier version the last four lines had their own indent as a sort of landmark of the present. when the last stanza is distinguished from the other stanzas not only by the blank line but also by letter spacing, it is the indentation that keeps it connected with the poem. with the same indentation as lines and the last stanza is now visually associated with the past and thus takes part in the temporal interplay of the poem. the indent of lines , , and – is the same in the first and second proof with the proviso that the lines are not perfectly aligned with each other in the second proof. i think this is probably an accidental rather than an intentional design because the difference is so small that it does not really create any contrast. in the first proof, the alignment of these lines is exact. moreover, there was no indication that these lines should be changed. the indentation of the second proof gives the poem a coherent and somewhat logical structure. all the separate stanzas are indented differently: the second stanza is aligned to the left margin, the third stanza has a double indent and the last stanza has a single indent. however, the first stanza includes all of these horizontal variations: lines and are associated with the second stanza, lines and with the last stanza, and lines and with the third stanza. as such, it sums up the different summery sensations represented by the separate stanzas under a common denominator, which, of course, is the first line of the poem: “the summer of summers”. the genetic examination of the typography of “kesien kesä” reveals a multiphase process where hellaakoski strove to achieve a satisfactory visual rendering for his poem. the process could be described as a trial-and-error method. although typography in a state of becoming is a more 	 abstract entity, the process itself is characteristically material: hellaakoski needed to try out different typographic layouts and execute them in a material, visible form to judge whether they worked or not. in particular, the use of white space that does not convert easily into a symbolic description occupies hellaakoski in the proof stage of the work’s genesis. the various genetic stages offer a context for the interpretation of the poem. they form a series of alternative renderings — a sort of paradigmatic axis — of the visual layout of “kesien kesä” that produces meaning through their differences. the genetic approach to typographically experimental poetry can thus enable new interpretations. like some modernist painter advancing from a figurative embryo towards more abstract forms, the later stages of a genetic process of a typographically experimental poem may conceal earlier, more iconic features of its visual layout. the choice to hide or omit is as important as the choice to keep, as it provides us with information about the aesthetic and poetical “thinking” of the poem. in this sense the genesis of a poem forms the roots of its poetics as practical writing. acknowledgments this work was supported by the academy of finland (project number ); the finnish cultural foundation (grant number ); and the finnish literature society, sks. notes . aaro hellaakoski, runon historiaa (helsinki: wsoy, ); jääpeili (helsinki: otava, ). . hellaakoski, runon, , . translated by v. p. . the typographic arrangement of my rough translation of “kesien kesä” is an interpretation based on the version printed in the first edition of jääpeili. for want of the original typefaces i have had to settle with gill sans light in the title and garamond in the body text, where it is used in both the roman and italic. . the manuscript and proofs of “kesien kesä” are deposited in the literary archives of the finnish literature society, sks. . see, for example, word & image ( ) a special issue devoted to genetic criticism; genesis ( ) a special issue devoted to architecture; genesis ( ) a special issue devoted to cinema; william kinderman and joseph e. jones, eds., genetic criticism and the creative process: essays from music, literature, and theater (rochester: university of rochester press, ). . for a more theoretically elaborated account of this genetic approach to the study of typography, see veijo pulkkinen, “a genetic and semiotic approach to the bibliographical code exemplified by the typography of aaro hellaakoski’s ‘dolce far niente’,” variants ( ): – . . fredrik herzberg, vesa haapala and janna kantola, “the finland- swedish avant-garde moments,” in a cultural history of the avant-garde in the nordic countries – , ed. hubert van den berg, irmeli hautamäki, benedikt hjartarson, torben jelsbak, rikard schönström, per stounbjerg, tania Ørum and dorthe aagesen (amsterdam: rodopi, ), – , here – . . kai laitinen, suomen kirjallisuuden historia (helsinki: otava, ), ; markku envall, “the period of independence , – ,” trans. ritva poom, in histories of scandinavian literature, vols, ed. patricia conroy, eric johannsson, harald naess, sven h. rossel and george c. schoolfield (lincoln and london: university of nebraska press, – ), vol. iv: a history of finland’s literature, ed. george c. schoolfield ( ), – , here – ; satu grüntahl, “vapautuva runokieli,” in suomen kirjallisuushistoria, vols, ed. yrjö varpio, (helsinki: suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, ), vol. ii: järkiuskosta vaistojen kapinaan, ed. lea rojola, – , here ; hertzberg, haapala and kantola, “the finland-swedish avant-garde moments,” . 	 . envall, “the period of independence , – ,” ; hertzberg, haapala and kantola, “the finland- swedish avant-garde moments,” – . . pertti lassila, uuden aikakauden runous: ekspressionistinen tematiikka - ja -luvun suomenkielisessä lyriikassa (helsinki: otava, ), , . . aulimaija viljanen has found a well-thumbed copy of ordkonst och bildkonst in hellaakoski’s library (“nykyaikaa etsimässä apollinairesta paavolaiseen,” kirjallisuudentutkijain seuran vuosikirja ( ): – , here . . pär lagerkvist, ordkonst och bildkonst (stockholm: bröderna lagerström, ), , – , – , – ; rikard schönström, “pär lagerkvist’s literary art and pictorial art,” in a cultural history of the avant-garde in the nordic countries – , ed. hubert van den berg, irmeli hautamäki, benedikt hjartarson, torben jelsbak, rikard schönström, per stounbjerg, tania Ørum and dorthe aagesen (amsterdam: rodopi, ), – . . aaro hellaakoski, “vieraitten kulttuurien plastiikka,” aika ( ): – ; “kubismista klassisismiin,” in taiteilijaseuran joulualbumi (helsinki: suomen taiteilijaseura, ), – . . elias lönnrot, kanteletar: taikka suomen kansan vanhoja lauluja ja virsiä (helsinki: suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, ); keijo holsti, “‘hauen laulu’ — yhteyksiä ja tulkintaa,” kirjallisuudentutkijain seuran vuosikirja (helsinki: suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, ): – , here . . for the relation between nineteenth-century print technology and visual poetry see, for example, alain- marie bassy, “forme littéraire et forme graphique: les schématogrammes d’apollinaire,” scolies: cahiers de recherche de l’école normale supérieure – ( – ): – , here – ; david cundy, “marinetti and italian futurist typography,” art journal , no. , futurism (winter ): – , here ; edward kasinec and robert davis, “russian book arts on the eve of world war one: the new york public library collections,” journal of decorative and propaganda arts (autumn ): – , here – ; jean-gérard lapacherie, “typographic characters: tension between text and drawing,” anna lehmann trans., yale french studies , boundaries: writing & drawing ( ): – , here ; linda goddard, “mallarmé, picasso and the aesthetic of the newspaper,” word and image , no. (october– december ): – , here, – ; johanna drucker, “book production of russian avant-garde books – ,” journal of artists books (fall, ): – . . aaro hellaakoski, “kirjojen ulkoasusta ja koristamisesta,” iltalehti (march , ). the essay was republished in aaro hellaakoski, kuuntelua: esseitä teoksista ja tekijöistä (helsinki: wsoy, ), – . . the concept of media purity also detemined hellaakoski’s view of painting. for example, in his essay “kubismista klassisismiin” hellaakoski states that the cubist collage transgressed the medium of painting because it did not settle for applying paint on a canvas with a brush (“kubismista,” – ). . for example, the poem “sade” (rain) is obviously influenced by apollinaire’s “il pleut” (it’s raining) not only by its title, but also by its use of diagonally ascending letters to represent rain (see figure ). . cundy, “marinetti,” ; willard bohn, the aesthetics of visual poetry – (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), , – ; john j. white, literary futurism: aspects of the first avant garde (oxford: clarendon press, ), – ; johanna drucker, the visible word: experimental typography and modern art, – (chicago: chicago university press, ), , – , . . drucker, the visible, ; “book,” – . . k. malmström, kirjapainotaidon oppikirja, latomis-osa (helsinki: otava, ), ; lauri hendell and v. a. vuorio, kirja ja kirjapainotaito (helsinki: otava, ), ; drucker, “book,” . . hellaakoski, runon, . . bohn, the aesthetics, . . kirjakenäyte kustannusosakeyhtiö otavan kirjapainosta (helsinki: otava, ). the type specimen book is held in the archives of otava publishing company. . yrjö a. jäntti, kirjapainotaidon historia (helsinki: wsoy, ), – ; karl-rudolf gardberg, kirjapainotaito suomessa, vols, trans. eino nivanka (helsinki: helsingin graafillinen klubi, – ), vol. iii: turun palosta vuoteen ( ), – ; sirkka havu, “suomalaisen kirjan tyylihistoriaa,” in kirja suomessa: kirjan juhlavuoden na ! yttely kansallismuseossa . .– . . , ed. esko häkli (helsinki: helsingin yliopiston kirjasto, ), – , here . . unto kupiainen, aaro hellaakoski: ihminen ja runoilija (helsinki: wsoy, ), – . 	 . yi-fu tuan, “sign and metaphor,” annals of the association of american geographers ( ): – , here – ; crétien van campen, “artistic and psychological experiments with synesthesia,” leonardo ( ): – , here ; sean allen-hermanson and jennifer matey, “synesthesia,” in internet encyclopedia of philosophy, http://www.iep.utm.edu/synesthe/ (accessed october , ). . van campen, “artistic,” . . edward aiken, “the cinema and italian futurist painting,” art journal ( ): – , here . . anne toner, “introduction,” visible language ( ): – , here . . paul c. gutjahr and. megan l. benton, “introduction: reading the invisible,” in illuminating letters: typography and literary interpretation, ed. paul c. gutjahr and megan l. benton (amherst and boston: university of massachusetts press, ), – , here – . . r. a. york, “mallarmé and apollinaire: the unpunctuated text,” visible language ( ): – , here, . . charles s. peirce, collected papers of charles sanders peirce, vols, ed. charles hartshorne, paul weiss and arthur w. burks (cambridge: cambridge university press, – ), : . . ibid., : , : . see also james jakób liszka, a general introduction to the semeiotic of charles sanders peirce (indianapolis: indiana university press, ), – . . daniel ferrer, “le matériel et le virtuel: du paradigme indiciaire à la logique des mondes possibles,” in pourquoi la critique génétique? méthodes, théories, ed. michel contat and daniel ferrer (paris: cnrs Éditions, ), – , here – ; “the open space of the draft page: james joyce and modern manuscripts,” in the iconic page in manuscript, print, and digital culture, ed. george bornstein and theresa tinkle (ann arbor: university of michigan press, ), – , here . . aaro hellaakoski, “kaksi runoa,” aitta (july ): . . for a discussion about missing documents of genetic stages, see daniel ferrer, “the interaction of verbal and pictorial elements in the genesis of eugène delacroix’s sultan of morocco,” word & image , no. (april–june ): – , here . . for a fascinating instance of hellaakoski’s cut and paste method, see an examination of “dolce far niente” in pulkkinen, “a genetic.” . bornstein, material modernism: the politics of the page, , – . . jerome j. mcgann, textual condition (princeton: princeton university press, ), – , – . . armas pajatti, “painotuotantomme ulkoasun vaiheita vuosisatamme aikana,” in suomen kirjapainotaidon historiaa – , ed. einari teräskivi and olavi suominen (helsinki: helsingin graafillinen klubi, ), – , here – ; markus itkonen, kadonneet kirjaintyypit: suomalainen kirjainmuotoilu – (helsinki: rps-yhtiöt, ), – . . according to robert bringhurst, the concept of font designated the unit of a typeface and type size in metal type typography. the elements of typographic style. version . (vancouver: hartley & marks, ), . . max nanny, “iconicity in literature,” word & image (july– september ): – , here – . . to save space i have not included pictures of the third proof and first edition versions of “kesien kesä” because of the minimal amount of variance between them and the second proof of the poem. copyright © korean stroke society this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. pissn: - • eissn: - http://j-stroke.org changes in painting style by poststroke mania eunjoo rhee, connie hong, young eun kim, byung-chul lee department of neurology, hallym university sacred heart hospital, hallym university college of medicine, anyang, korea letter to the editor dear sir: post stroke neuropsychiatric syndrome is common. many patients after stroke experience depression, cognitive impair- ment, personality change, psychosis, apathy, and anxiety. ma- nia can also be a consequence of stroke but is not common. “mania” is described as a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at least week in the diagnostic and statistical manual of men- tal disorder-v. mania seems to be observed more frequently with the right side brain lesions. here, we report a professional artist whose painting style dramatically changed with manic illness from a recent stroke. informed consent for this report was obtained. a -year-old korean man who had worked in russia as a professional painter visited the emergency room due to a sud- den onset of dysarthria and left side weakness, which were not- ed when he woke up in the morning. he did not have any other vascular risk factors except for smoking. on neurologic exami- nation, dysarthria, left facial palsy and left hemiparesis (motor grade iv/iv) were observed. left side sensory change and sensory extinction were noted, but prosopagnosia was not ob- served. with ophthalmologic examination, corrected visual acuity was . / . on near card test, visual field defect was not observed on manual test and achromatognosia was not noted. the brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed a territorial ischemic lesion with proximal occlusion of the inferior divi- sion of the right middle cerebral artery (figure a). cardio- embolic source was not found on the transthoracic echocar- diogram, transesophageal echocardiogram and holter moni- toring. an antiplatelet drug and statin were prescribed. when he visited our outpatient clinic weeks after the symp- tom onset, although his neurological deficits were much im- proved, he became very erratic, aggressive, talkative, hyperen- ergetic, and lost the desire to sleep with an increased goal di- rected activities such as staying up all night and continuously drawing art pieces consisting of a human face. furthermore, his wife noted that his style of painting was absolutely trans- formed. we compared the paintings he drew after his stroke with some of his paintings from russia on his website before the stroke (figure b, c). his previous artwork showed complementary and subtle color schemes, with well-defined heads and figures using sharp lines. the paintings were ordered with an austere simplicity. on the other hands, his new artwork showed a drastic change in the artistic style. the drawings are complex, disrupted and dis- organized with splattering of words and phrases (in more than one language). use of color became broader and more overt. after starting carbamazepine mg twice daily as a mood stabilizer, his mood slightly improved; however, he was still talkative, and his paintings were still awkward, complex and disorganized. here, we reported the case of a professional painter who showed changes in his artistic style and behavior after an isch- emic stroke. there have been several case reports that showed how stroke influenced professional artists. , however, mood change after stroke was not essential for a change in the artistic style. particularly, some painters had difficulty painting land- scapes and large figures because the right-hemisphere stroke commonly results in visuospatial neglect. in our case, we do not know exactly whether the change in his artistic style was caused by the poststroke mania or the stoke lesion itself affect- ing his creativity or executive function. nevertheless, an in- triguing point of this case is that his mood was clearly reflected journal of stroke ; ( ): - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jos. . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /jos. . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - rhee, et al. changes in painting style by poststroke mania http://dx.doi.org/ . /jos. . http://j-stroke.org in his artistic work, although his neurologic deficit was mini- mal. in his work sentences written in korean or chinese char- acters may denote an expressive form of pressured speech in mania. therefore, it could be postulated that his transformed artistic pattern is due to his affective problem. the clinical profile of mania after stroke is similar to that of primary mania. the majority of stroke patients ( %) present elevated mood as the first symptom followed by an increased rate or amount of speech ( %), reduction of sleep ( %), and agitation ( %). in this case, the mood of the painter was similar to primary mania, even though he did not have any prior psychiatric illness nor family history. a previous func- tional imaging study found significantly reduced functional activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and amygdala in mania patients. likewise, poststroke mania may be related to dysfunction in the ventral limbic pathway. in this case, the mri findings showed the involvement of the inferior tempo- ral lobe including the amygdala. dysregulation of this pathway may explain the alteration in his mood, and the subsequent change in painting style in this patient. moreover frontotem- poral lesion can cause disinhibition of parietal lobe, and the disinhibition can be a cause of secondary mania as a result. although the unexpected color and visual pattern in the pre- vious work might reflect his artistic style like cubism, the col- or and visual pattern like the faces changed in his work after the stroke. the contribution of the inferolateral temporal cor- tex to the recognition of color and visual patterns should be considered. acknowledgements we thank the patient described for allowing us to share his medical details and paintings. references . hackett ml, kohler s, o’brien jt, mead ge. neuropsychiat- ric outcomes of stroke. lancet neurol ; : - . . koreki a, takahata k, tabuchi h, kato m. increased left ante- rior insular and inferior prefrontal activity in post-stroke ma- nia. bmc neurol ; : . . cosgrove ve, suppes t. informing dsm- : biological bound- aries between bipolar i disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia. bmc med ; : . . santos co, caeiro l, ferro jm, figueira ml. mania and stroke: a systematic review. cerebrovasc dis ; : - . . bazner h, hennerici mg. painting after right-hemisphere stroke - case studies of professional artists. front neurol neuro- sci ; : - . . annoni jm, devuyst g, carota a, bruggimann l, bogousslavsky figure . (a) brain mri. diffusion weighted image shows restriction in the right inferotemporal lobe including the amygdala. (b) the painting style be- fore the stroke. the works are complementary and show subtle color schemes, with well-defined heads and figures using sharp lines; b drawn in , b in . (c) new art work after the right inferotemporal lobe infarction courtesy of the patient himself. a b b c http://dx.doi.org/ . /jos. . vol. / no. / january http://j-stroke.org j. changes in artistic style after minor posterior stroke. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : - . . strakowski sm, eliassen jc, lamy m, cerullo ma, allendor- fer jb, madore m, et al. functional magnetic resonance imag- ing brain activation in bipolar mania: evidence for disruption of the ventrolateral prefrontal-amygdala emotional pathway. biol psychiatry ; : - . correspondence: byung-chul lee department of neurology, hallym university sacred heart hospital, hallym university college of medicine, gwanpyeong-ro beon-gil, dongan-gu, anyang , korea tel: + - - - , fax: + - - - e-mail: ssbrain@hallym.ac.kr received: august , revised: september , accepted: october , the authors declare that they have no financial or other conflicts of interest in relation to this research and its publication. here and there, now and then: four views of a long-distance teleworker’s ‘workplace’ thomas erickson ibm t. j. watson research center introduction for the last eight years i’ve worked as a long-distance teleworker from my home in minneapolis, first for apple computer in california, and then for ibm in new york. in this essay i offer reflections on the nature of my workplace(s), in the hope that they may provide grist for those concerned with providing technological and organizational support for remote workers. obviously this is a highly personal and particular account. nevertheless, i believe that such reflections on personal experience have an important role to play in informing the ways in which the meaning of ‘the workplace’ is changing under the impact of new technologies. as such, this essay fits into a tradition of examinations of ways in which particular workplaces are shaped by technologies, ranging from a wide variety of studies carried out in the ethnographic tradition (e.g. [ , ]) to more personal, reflective accounts (e.g. [ , ]). in this essay, i work from the macro level to the micro level. i begin with the organization for which i work, and take up the complexities which emerge when i try to answer the question “where do you work?” while one might think that at least saying where one works is a relatively simple matter, i suggest that this isn’t so. next i focus on group workplaces. in particular, i look at the meeting room, and describe an unusual experience attending a meeting via speaker phone. on the basis of this example, i suggest that while places are obviously important, something that is also important — and much more difficult to support — is the way in which collective interaction changes over time within a workplace. third, i focus in on my personal workplace in my home office. i note that much of my daily activity can be viewed as movement through a trajectory of places, each which provides a different configuration of resources for collective interaction. i conclude with a discussion of my personal experiences with loops, an online environment under development by my work group, that blends elements of group and personal workplaces. the organization as workplace whenever someone asks me where i work, i feel a slight hesitation as i decide what to say. even though i’ve answered the question many, many times, it is interesting to observe how many different answers can be appropriate. these differences suggest that the notion of ‘workplace’ does many different types of ‘work’ for its user, forms of work that vary across social and institutional contexts. where do i work? i work at ibm, a gigantic corporation worldwide in scope, with offices in virtually every major city, and most of the world’s nations. (this is the answer i give to most strangers who are trying, in the most general way, to determine where i fit in their worldviews.) where do i work? i work out of my home in minneapolis. (this is what i say to people who know i work at ibm, and that ibm doesn’t have a research lab in minnesota; it reminds them that the “at” in “working at” can be problematic.) where do i work? i work with a group of people who are located at the watson labs in new york. (even though this is one of the places i don’t frequently inhabit, this is the answer i give ibm colleagues, because it helps them understand what i do and which social networks and management hierarchies i am likely to be part of.) where do i work? my employer, ibm, has an answer different from any of the above. in the corporate database i appear in the chicago directory, though i do not in fact work there: i am listed in the chicago directory because chicago is the closest city to minneapolis that has its own directory (the minneapolis sales office is too small to merit its own). a closer examination of my entry shows that i do in fact work in minneapolis, but in the downtown sales office, to which i have never been. this would be an amusing fiction, except that corporate attorneys sporadically send mail to that address, to the bewilderment of the minneapolis mail room personnel who don’t know of me. at one point, i tried to change this, thinking that it would be good if the database entry corresponded to reality, showing me to be “at” watson. after some effort the change was made, and i was moved (conceptually) to new york and to watson. all was well until i noticed that my payroll taxes were being withheld for new york. it turns out that the database has a single field that is used to determine both ‘where’ i work for corporate purposes, and where i live for tax purposes, thus reifying an incorrect assumption about my life. where do i work? as far as the government is concerned, i work in minnesota since i reside there over percent of the time. i found this dilemma — whether to run afoul of the government and tax authorities, or whether to be a bit inaccessible to the corporate lawyers — easy to resolve. so now, as far as the corporate ontology is concerned, i am listed in the chicago directory as working out of the minneapolis sales office, where i’ve never been, so that my taxes can be properly withheld for minnesota for my work with people in new york. only my phone and email information is correct. this perspective on workplace feels like something in the cubist style. group workplaces: meetings i now shift my focus from the macro view of the organization as a whole to what is, perhaps, the canonical interactive state of the organization: the meeting. meetings are the lifeblood of the organization, and the rationale for much of the travel by organization members, as well as the focus of much energy among those collocated. for similar reasons, the use of technology to support meetings among remote participants has been the subject of intense interest among both technologists and practitioners. in what follows, i suggest that the common understanding of what a meeting is a bit too narrow, at least in the ways that it has been used to design and deploy technology for meeting support. the following account, recorded not long after the event, describes a meeting i attended several years ago. although its circumstances were unusual, i suggest that what this story reveals is typical of most meetings. i ‘attended’ a special meeting with about two dozen people. i was attending via speaker phone; all the other attendees were together in the meeting room. because it was a relatively large meeting, the meeting was run formally. it had a moderator who called the meeting to order, established an agenda, and guided the meeting through the agenda to its conclusion. as a consequence of the size and structure of the meeting, the amount of time that anyone was able to speak was limited, the result being that nobody got to say everything they wanted. after about two hours the meeting approached its scheduled end, and the moderator prepared to bring the meeting to a close. at this point, as an experienced remote attendee, i would normally speak up and say ‘thanks for calling’, and then everyone would chorus ‘good bye’ and i’d hang up. or the moderator would initiate this exchange, and the same thing would happen. however, this time, i missed my chance to jump in, the moderator forgot about me, and the meeting ended with me still ‘there’ on the speaker phone. what happened next was fascinating. when the meeting ‘ended’, everyone burst into conversation. after all, the participants had been saving up things to say for two hours. i had an especially nice vantage point because the meeting’s speaker phone was quite sophisticated — it had directional microphones that would home in on the person speaking. it had apparently not been designed to cope with multiple simultaneous conversations, and it was shifting from one conversation to another every few seconds. i was getting a snatch of conversation here, and a snatch there — it was like having an out of the body experience at a cocktail party. interestingly enough, because i knew all the people and issues, i could actually guess at a lot of what was going on, even though i heard only a few seconds of each conversation: people were arranging private meetings, clarifying positions, apologizing, consoling, etc. it struck me that this “after- meeting” part of the meeting was incredibly productive — a lot of “conversation potential” had been built up during the meeting, and only now was it being realized. there are two points to make here. the first point has to do with the issue of what a meeting really is, and when it actually begins and ends. i suggest that it may be more fruitful to take a larger view of what a meeting is, to look at it as an extended group interaction which has several phases of interaction that vary in their degree of structure and formality. that is, while it was important that people came together in a particular place, and while it was useful that that place provided a particular configuration of resources (a table, whiteboard, private room, speaker phone, etc.), it seems to me that what was more important was the interactive trajectory of the meeting. that is, temporally and spatially, a series of phases happened: • people converged on the meeting room; perhaps some participants encountered one another on the way or outside the room and paused to chat in the hall. • those who arrived before the meeting started found themselves in a room with others with a few minutes to pass. perhaps they engaged in casual conversation, such as introducing themselves to those they hadn’t met, or catching up with acquaintances; or perhaps they informally prepared for the meeting, chatting about the proposed agenda or goals, or floating ideas that they intend to put forward in the meeting proper. •at some point the meeting ‘starts.’ in addition to this being the point where remote participants are normally ‘brought in,’ it is, more generally, the point at which constraints on collective behavior come more strongly into play. that is, people are now discouraged from having side conversations with one another; a moderator controls the floor, allotting turns to speakers and moving through a publicly displayed agenda; and so on. these, and other constraints, are what aid the group in making progress on its collective business. • at some point the meeting ‘ends.’ remote participants are ‘disconnected,’ and the collocated participants depart more gradually, perhaps lingering in the room to take advantage of the relaxation of interaction constraints to talk with one another, and to have semi-private discussions about what occurred. • the participants disperse. those headed in the same direction may walk together, chatting as they proceed; others may grab coffee or lunch with a colleague, availing themselves of an opportunity for a private chat. finally, once they return to their individual offices, they may fill in neighboring colleagues regarding what happened. it seems to me that it is this entire trajectory — a gradual coalescence, a period of constrained, semi-formal public interaction, and then a relaxation of constraints and a transition to more private interactions — that is important in making the meeting useful. that is, for the face to face participants, the meeting accomplishes both its formal objectives, but also provides a fertile venue for informal meetings, opportunistic information exchange, and below- the-official-radar exploratory conversations. this occurs because the meeting is held in a spatial environment that comprises not just the meeting room, but the surrounding hallways and other resources. it is the movement within this workplace, over time, that contributes to shifts in the interactive possibilities available to the collocated participants. the remote participants, on the other hand, are unable — or at least handicapped — in their ability to participate. they are stuck, unable to move around either within the meeting room, or beyond, and thus can’t take advantage of the informal, more private interactions that occur on the meeting’s temporal and spatial boundaries. this brings us to the second point, which is that neither the technology used to support the meeting, nor — at least in my experience — the work practices that have grown up around supporting remote attendance at meetings, acknowledge this more extended notion of meeting. for me, and for anyone who attends meetings via phone or other forms of digital mediation, meetings take on a digital — that is, an on/off — quality. one moment everyone is ‘there’, the next moment, everyone has vanished. i typically miss the gradual gathering of people in the meeting room (typically people wait to start the call until the meeting is ready to ‘start’), and i miss the conversation afterwards, whether it be the synchronous burst of multiple conversations that occurred in this case, or the more usual semi-private chats that occur as people leave their seats, or find themselves headed in the same direction through the hallways. some of these problems can be addressed by altering work practices. collocated colleagues can, in fact, call up remote participants before the meeting starts so that they can participate, at least partially, in the coalescence phase. similarly, remote participants can call others privately after the meeting to discuss its events. however, note that this lacks the ease of engaging someone in a face to face conversation; it is not just a matter of it being less work — it also has a social component. often the ability to feign casualness or to pretend that one has no agenda is important in engaging in the negotiations of which daily life is comprised [ ]. such pretenses are more difficult to maintain if one must begin by placing a phone call. regardless of how clever people are in adapting their work practices, the crux of the matter is that today’s meeting support technologies are tuned to supporting public, group interactions. when the interactions shift to smaller scale, opportunistic, semi-private interactions, remote participants (if they are even ‘present’) are unable to engage in the subtle signaling involved in ‘recruiting’ participants into an impromptu subgroup (e.g. [ ]). even if, somehow, remote participants were able to recruit a group of conversants, neither speaker phones nor video conferencing technology lend themselves to supporting a semi-private conversation. with current meeting support technologies, the remote participant’s only option for participating is speaking to the entire room. i suggest that any new conception of the workplace needs to account for situations like this. that is, while “place” is of clear importance in supporting work, i suggest that the notion of interaction trajectories, sequential changes in the forms of collective interaction over time, is of equal importance. these shifts in interaction genres are modulated both via social convention, and by movement within the workplace which shifts the physical and social resources for collective interaction. and it is not just that different interactions should be supported; rather, what is important is sequences of interactions, where one type of interaction prepares the ground for another that follows it. while it is clearly a challenging task, it does not seem impossible to think in terms of designing meeting support technologies that might adapt to an interaction trajectory that ranged from private or semi-private conversation to public interaction and back. personal workplaces: the office it might be assumed that as a teleworker who works out of his home, i work primarily in one place. that is not the case. i do travel to new york once or twice a month, which means that i work ( ) in the airport, ( ) in the airplane, ( ) in the hotel where i stay, ( ) in my private office, and ( ) in the shared space that serves as a studio and lab for my group. however, even if we bracket off travel, i still work in many places at home, exhibiting behavior that bellotti and bly [ ] refer to as “local mobility.” they observed, in a study of workers in a design consultancy, that employees were often not at their desks, but were instead frequently on the move — at a co- worker’s desk, in a meeting, in the model shop, or at the copier — pulled by the demands of collaboration or the availability of a scarce, centralized resource. like the workers bellotti and bly studied, i too am frequently on the move; unlike them, my mobility is driven as much by an impulse to seek solitude for individual work as it is by the pull of collaboration. whereas the need for scarce resources and collaboration pulled bellotti and bly’s workers away from their desks, it is primarily those needs that pull me to my desk when i am remote. my desk is my communications nexus, where phone, fax, email and a variety of other computer- mediated channels converge; and the adjacent drawers, bookshelves and files provide nearly all the physical resources i need. even as it provides resources, my desk is a source of interruptions, with phone calls, email streams, and online chat providing distractions from focused activity. thus, i often find i seek out other places, either elsewhere in my house (the sunroom or front porch) or in nearby cafés, where i can retreat to work in solitude on tasks such as reading, editing and writing. one consequence of this is that i organize my work activities with different places in mind. typically, i ‘save up’ particular tasks for certain situations and environments. thus, i often ‘schedule’ tasks like reading papers, editing or reviewing manuscripts, or organizing email for situations in which i am out of contact — for example, when i am in a cafe. other tasks, such as conversations about particular projects with co-workers, though they can in principle be done remotely, i tend to ‘save up’ for face-to-face interactions when i travel to new york. i also try to schedule activities that don’t fit into the customary definition of a task. for example, when i worked at apple, i used to schedule time on my infrequent visits to cupertino to wander around the halls, the goal being to have chance encounters and opportunistic conversations. finally, in an echo of my earlier remarks about interaction trajectories, i often schedule sequences of activities: for example, i may schedule the task of reading a colleague’s paper for the plane trip to new york, in preparation for a meeting with her which, in turn, is in preparation for a larger meeting. my movements from place to place are a complex blend of responding to communicative or collaborative pulls — e.g. phone meetings that require me to be present at my desk — and personal efforts to seek solitary time or a change of scene. in a sense, i am trying to achieve, by movement through and around my home, the sorts of interaction trajectories that i described in the previous section. thus, first thing in the morning i go to my office and check email, to see if the day’s structure has been altered; then i may move out of range of the desk — to the front porch or a café — to accomplish some solitary tasks before my colleagues are active (i am an early riser); mid-morning finds me at my desk, because that is when many of my co-workers are present and active in the shared online workspace that my work group uses as a meeting place for both casual and focused interaction. and so on. from my point of view, the vision of a “ubicomp” world, where i can have equal access to communicative resources wherever i am, is actually not very attractive. while i like the idea of not being too far away from such resources, i like, as well, the ability to ‘step out,’ or to be unavailable, and i structure my day, in part, to ensure that such workplaces are available to me. virtual workplaces in addition to physical places, i also spend time in a virtual workplace. this is an online chat-like environment for workgroups known as babble ([ , ]) or, in its new incarnation, loops. here i shall refer to loops, since it is now the environment in daily use by my work group; however, most of the usage phenomena described here originated in babble and have only been empirically documented in that context. i have not continued this practice. i knew a much larger set of people at apple, having worked on site for five years before becoming a remote (whereas, at ibm, i was a teleworker from day one). also, most apple employees were centrally located, whereas at ibm, the smaller number of people i know are distributed across several buildings. loops has been in daily use for about the last month, as of this writing. three features distinguish loops from chat systems. first, in loops, conversation persists: comments typed by participants stay around forever, so that loops supports both synchronous chat, and asynchronous discussion. second, loops uses a “social proxy,” a minimalist graphical representation that shows the presence and level of activity of participants. the social proxy (figure ) consists of a large circle that represents a room or conversation, and small colored dots called “marbles” that represent participants. participants whose marbles are shown inside the circle are in the same room; those whose marbles are outside the circle are logged on but are in other rooms. finally, when a participant is active in loops (meaning that they type a comment, or interact with the user interface in other ways), their marble moves to the center of the circle; it gradually drifts out to the periphery as they do nothing. so, in loops, a conversation with several active participants is depicted as a cluster of dots at the center of the circle (as in the two marbles at the center of the circle in figure ). the third feature that distinguishes loops from chat systems also distinguishes it from babble: loops allows users to edit and display static text in ‘bulletin boards’ and ‘tabs’ in each room; these are used to provide individual and collective resources such as personal or group schedules, announcements, to do lists, and so on. loops serves as a virtual workplace in which workgroup members ‘hang out’ and engage in interactions that range from social chat to work-oriented discussions. typically, group members log on to loops soon after they arrive at work. over several years of usage (first of babble, now of loops), a custom has arisen of saying ‘good morning’ and engaging in social talk and banter. thereafter, conversation may segue into work-oriented talk such as discussions of upcoming events, questions directed to individuals, and efforts to coordinate activity such as verifying phone meeting times. in addition to such exchanges, which tend to be synchronous or semi- synchronous, people also contribute to asynchronous conversations going on in (usually) more topic focused rooms (e.g. comments on bugs and general design issues for loops are reported in the “bugs and issues” room). figure . the loops interface with participants; actively participating in the current conversation; participant in a different conversation. besides serving as a gathering place, users have also created individual ‘offices’ in loops. offices serve as places where their ‘owners’ can post personal information such as schedules, urls, to do lists, and where others may leave notes, or find such information. as has been noted in other virtual places (e.g. schiano’s study of lambdamoo [ ]), members may spend considerable time by themselves in their personal offices. in my case, spending time in my online loops office (versus more populated areas) mirrors my reasons for moving about my physical workplace: an effort to modulate my availability and the number of interruptions i receive. while anyone can enter my office to speak with me, or use other loops communication channels, the design of loops (which uses background sounds and visual cues to signal activity in the current room) means that incidental interruptions are less likely to occur in less populated rooms. closing remarks in this essay, i’ve discussed some of complexities of the notion of “workplace” as they appear from the viewpoint of a teleworker. i’ve looked at “workplace” from four perspectives. at the organizational level, it is clear that the notion of where one ‘actually’ works can shift quite radically, depending on the needs and aims of the different institutions that have a stake in the work. it feels to me as though i am embroiled in a sort of ‘corporate cubism’, so that ‘where’ i work consists of a number of contradictory perspectives that need to be resolved relative to the audience to which i am speaking. at present, institutions do not seem equipped to cope with the complexities of remote or mobile workers. in working with groups, i am struck by the importance of shifts in, and sequences of, styles of collective interaction. this is something that physical workplaces, such as the meeting room and its surrounding spatial environment, excel at supporting. we are accustomed to using physical spaces, and the social norms and behaviors associated with those spaces, to modulate our interaction styles. this is something that today’s meeting support technologies are quite bad at, typically being confined to a single place in a single space, and often tuned to supporting either public or private interactions, and lacking the ability to move along the continuum of public-private interaction that physical space supports. at the personal level, it is interesting to note the degree to which i am locally mobile [ ], and that, contrary to the collocated employees that bellotti and bly studied, it is the need for collaboration that pulls me to my desk, and the desire for solitary, uninterrupted time that pulls me away. whereas physical, group workplaces support interaction trajectories within their bounds, i tend to move about and beyond my workplace in performing my interaction trajectories. finally, i describe the virtual workplace under development by my group. although it is by no means as flexible and powerful as a physical workplace, it is interesting to see that the same theme — that of moving about to modulate ones availability to collective intereraction — is still present. in the long run, it is not clear to me how useful the notion of “workplace,” as a singular spatial entity, really is. it seems to me that the activities of teleworkers, ordinary workers who travel a lot, and even collocated workers who exhibit local mobility, are shaped as much, if not more, by the paths they traverse and the corresponding shifts in the possibilities for collective interaction, than by any particular location. references [ ] adler, a. and henderson, a. a room of our own: experiences from a direct ffice-share. human factors in computing systems: the proceedings of chi’ . boston, ma: acm press, . 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[ ] goffman, e. behavior in public places: notes on the social organization of gatherings. new york: the free press, . [ ] goffman, e. interaction ritual: essays on face to face behavior. new york: doubleday, . [ ] heath, c. and luff, p. technology in action. cambridge: cambridge university press, . [ ] luff, p., hindmarsh, j. and heath, c. (editors). workplace studies: recovering work practice and informing systems design. cambridge: cambridge university press, . [ ] schiano, d.j. and white, s. the first noble truth of cyberspace: people are people (even when they moo). human factors in computing systems: the proceedings of chi’ . new york: acm press, . local luminous infrared galaxies: spatially resolved mid-infrared observations with spitzer/irs available online at www.sciencedirect.com www.elsevier.com/locate/asr advances in space research ( ) – local luminous infrared galaxies: spatially resolved mid-infrared observations with spitzer/irs q almudena alonso-herrero a,b,*, miguel pereira-santaella a, george h. rieke b, luis colina a, charles w. engelbracht b, pablo g. pérez-gonzález b,c, tanio dı́az-santos a, , j.-d.t. smith d a instituto de estructura de la materia, csic, serrano , e- , madrid, spain b steward observatory, university of arizona, n. cherry avenue, tucson, az , usa c departamento de astrofı́sica, facultad de cc. fı́sicas, universidad complutense de madrid, avenida complutense s/n, e- , madrid, spain d ritter astrophysical research center, university of toledo, west bancroft street, toledo, oh , usa received april ; received in revised form august ; accepted august abstract luminous infrared (ir) galaxies (lirgs, lir ¼ – l�) are an important cosmological class of galaxies as they are the main contributors to the co-moving star formation rate density of the universe at z ¼ . in this paper we present a guaranteed time observation (gto) spitzer infrared spectrograph (irs) program aimed to obtain spectral mapping of a sample of local ðd < mpcÞ lirgs. the data cubes map, at least, the central arcsec � arcsec to arcsec � arcsec regions of the galaxies, and use all four irs mod- ules covering the full – lm spectral range. the final goal of this project is to characterize fully the mid-ir properties of local lirgs as a first step to understanding their more distant counterparts. in this paper we present the first results of this gto program. the irs spectral mapping data allow us to build spectral maps of the bright mid-ir emission lines (e.g., [ne ii] : lm, [ne iii] : lm, [s iii] : lm;h at lm), continuum, the . and : lm polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) features, and the : lm silicate feature, as well as to extract d spectra for regions of interest in each galaxy. the irs data are used to obtain spatially resolved mea- surements of the extinction using the : lm silicate feature, and to trace star forming regions using the neon lines and the pah features. we also investigate a number of active galactic nuclei (agn) indicators, including the presence of high excitation emission lines and a strong dust continuum emission at around lm. we finally use the integrated spitzer/irs spectra as templates of local lirgs. we dis- cuss several possible uses for these templates, including the calibration of the star formation rate of ir-bright galaxies at high redshift. we also predict the intensities of the brightest mid-ir emission lines for lirgs as a function of redshift, and compare them with the expected sensitivities of future space ir missions. � cospar. published by elsevier ltd. all rights reserved. keywords: galaxies: evolution; galaxies: nuclei; galaxies: seyfert; galaxies: structure; infrared: galaxies - /$ . � cospar. published by elsevier ltd. all rights rese doi: . /j.asr. . . q based on observations obtained with the spitzer space telescope, which is operated by the jet propulsion laboratory, california institute of technology, under nasa contract . * corresponding author. address: instituto de estructura de la materia, csic, serrano , e- , madrid, spain. tel.: + . e-mail address: aalonso@damir.iem.csic.es (a. alonso-herrero). present address: university of crete, department of physics, p.o. box , gr- , heraklion, greece. . introduction the importance of infrared (ir) bright galaxies has been increasingly appreciated since their discovery more than years ago (rieke and low, ), and the detection of large numbers by iras (soifer et al., ). although the ultra- luminous infrared galaxies (ulirgs, with ir luminosities – lm;lir ¼ – l�) get much of the attention because they are so dramatic, luminous infrared galaxies (lirgs, lir ¼ – l�) are much more common, rved. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.asr. . . mailto:aalonso@damir.iem.csic.es a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – accounting for � % of the local ir background compared with < % for the ulirgs (lagache et al., ). they are of intrinsic interest because they provide insight to star for- mation and nuclear activity under extreme conditions and should also include former ulirgs where the star forma- tion is dying off (see murphy et al., ). they take part in the controversy over the formation of agn and its relation to star formation and high levels of ir emission (see review by sanders and mirabel, ). local lirgs may also be prototypes for forming galax- ies at high redshift (lagache et al., ). deep spitzer detections at lm are dominated by lirgs and uli- rgs. lirgs are the main contributors to the co-moving star formation rate (sfr) density in the z � – range (elbaz et al., ; le floc’h et al., ; pérez-gonzález et al., ; caputi et al., ), and contribute nearly % of the cosmic ir background at z � (lagache et al., ). moreover, the mid-ir spectra of high redshift ðz � Þ very luminous ir galaxies ðlir > l�Þ are more similar to those of local starbursts and lirgs (see e.g., farrah et al., ; rigby et al., ; alonso-herrero et al., ) than those of local ulirgs. this may just reflect the fact that at high-z star-formation was taking place over a few kiloparsec scales rather than in very com- pact (< kpc) regions as is the case for local ulirgs (e.g., soifer et al., ). much of our knowledge of the mid-ir spectroscopic properties of local ir-bright galaxies comes from iso (e.g., genzel et al., ; rigopoulou et al., ; tran et al., ) and early results (armus et al., , ) table the sample of local lirgs mapped with the irs. galaxy name iras name vhel ðkm s� ( ) ( ) ( ) ngc irasf - ngc irasf - ngc * irasf - arp ** irasf + eso -g irasf - ngc irasf - zw . irasf + – irasf - ic /ic *** irasf - / ngc irasf + ngc irasf - ic irasf - ngc irasf + ngc irasf + notes. column ( ): galaxy name. *ngc is a merger system with two nucle component) and ngc (western component). ***only ic was obs sanders et al. ( ). column ( ): heliocentric velocity from ned. h ¼ km s� mpc� . column ( ): – lm ir luminosity taken from san et al., for details). *the ir luminosity is for the system arp = ic + “sy” = seyfert, “composite” = intermediate between liner and h ii (see alon available. *the classifications for arp are: nuclear region of ic , or sou sy . the references for the nuclear class are given by alonso-herrero et al. ( marı́n et al. ( ), and ngc and ngc , which are reported by a with the infrared spectrograph (irs, houck et al., ) on spitzer. however, the majority of the iso works focused on samples of local ir-bright galaxies or starburst galaxies, and only include a few luminous lirgs (log lir ’ : l�, see e.g., genzel et al., ; verma et al., ). the majority of the recent spitzer results are concentrating on ulirgs (e.g., armus et al., ; farrah et al., ), starburst galaxies (brandl et al., ), and nearby star-forming galaxies (dale et al., ; smith et al., a). recently, armus et al. ( ) have presented the great observatories all-sky lirg survey (goals) project which combines multiwavelength data, including spitzer, of over low-redshift ðz < : Þ lirgs. in this paper we summarize the goals and present the first results of a spitzer/irs program intended to obtain mid-ir ð – lmÞ spectral mapping of a representative sample of fourteen local lirgs (table ) selected from the volume-limited sample of alonso-herrero et al. ( a). it is only by quantifying the integrated spectro- scopic properties of a representative sample of local lirgs that we can interpret measurements at z � , which apply to the integrated galaxy. the final goal of this project is to characterize fully the mid-ir properties of local lirgs as a first step to understanding their more distant counter- parts. the complete results from this lirg program will be presented in a number of forthcoming papers (pereira-santaella et al., a,b in preparation). the paper is organized as follows. section presents the sam- ple, observations and data reduction. section character- izes the obscuration of lirgs and section discusses dist log lir spect. Þ (mpc) ðl�Þ class ( ) ( ) ( ) . . – . . : h ii . . h ii . . h ii, sy . . h ii . . sy . . : h ii . . h ii . . : h ii (both) . . composite . . sy/l . . h ii . . composite . . h ii i, refered to as north and south. **arp is composed of ic (eastern erved in spectral mapping mode. column ( ): iras denomination from column ( ): distance taken from sanders et al. ( ) assuming ders et al. ( ), where the suffix “:” means large uncertainty (see sanders ngc . column ( ): nuclear activity class from optical spectroscopy. so-herrero et al., b), “h ii” = h ii region-like, “–” = no classification rce a, is h ii-like, and the nuclear region of ngc , or source b , is a a), except for the nuclear region of ngc which is from garcı́a- lonso-herrero et al. ( b). table irs observing parameters. module step perp step par t cycles perp points pars points (s) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) sl . ( ) – – sl . ( ) – – ll . ( ) – – ll . ( ) – – sh . ( ) . ( ) lh . ( ) – – notes. column ( ): irs module. column ( ): size of the step along the direction perpendicular to the slit in arcseconds. column ( ): number of steps in the perpendicular direction for the arcsec � arcsec maps, and for the arcsec � arcsec in brackets. column ( ): size of the step along the direction parallel to the slit in arcseconds. column ( ): number of steps in the parallel direction. column ( ): duration of the ramp in seconds. column ( ): number of cycles. a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – the agn and star formation properties of the sample. sec- tion presents the integrated mid-ir spectra and their potential use for studies of ir-bright galaxies at high-z. finally section gives a summary of this work. . sample, spitzer/irs spectral mapping observations, and data reduction the galaxies chosen for this study are taken from a rep- resentative and volume-limited sample of lirgs originally drawn from the iras revised bright galaxy sample (sanders et al., ) for paa imaging (using a narrow- band filter) with nicmos on the hst (alonso-herrero et al., a). hence both the nicmos sample and the sub-sample selected for irs observations are restricted in redshift ðd < mpcÞ. for this irs program we chose lir- gs in this sample with extended paa and mid-ir emission (alonso-herrero et al., a and dı́az-santos et al., a) so we could map out most of the ir emission of these galaxies. this is important for comparison with ir-selected high-z galaxies where the entire galaxy is encompassed in the irs slit. as can be seen from table , the irs sample covers well the range of ir luminosity of lirgs (see sanders et al., ), and the nuclear activity classes of lirgs. for this sample, � % are classified as agn, if we include compos- ite objects, that is, nuclei classified as intermediate between h ii and liner using optical line ratios (see alonso-herre- ro et al., b). this fraction is similar to that found for lirgs by veilleux et al. ( ). the ir luminosities of this sample imply sfrs of between and m� yr � , using the kennicutt ( ) prescription. in alonso-herrero et al. ( ) we recently presented a detailed study of arp . we obtained irs mapping observations of the lirg sample using all four modules: short-high (sh; : – : lm), long-high (lh; : – : lm), short-low (sl ; : – : lm and sl ; : – : lm) and long-low (ll ; : – lm and ll ; : – : lm). the plate scales are . , . , . , and . arcsec per pixel for the sl, sh, lh, and ll modules, respectively. the irs high spec- tral resolution data (sh and lh modules) have r � , whereas the low resolution spectra (sl and ll) have r � – . the majority of the observations were obtained in cycle and cycle as part of a spitzer guaranteed time observa- tion (gto) program (p.i.: g.h. rieke, programs id and id ), except for the low spectral resolution obser- vations (sl and ll modules) of arp , which were part of a different gto program (p.i.: j.r. houck, program id ) observed in cycle . we used the irs spectral mapping capability, which involves moving the telescope perpendicular to the long axis of the slit with a step of one-half the slit width until the appropriate region is covered. since in most cases the sl (length of arcsec) and ll (length of arcsec) slits are longer than the extent of the galaxies, we did not obtain separate background observations. for the lh module we obtained dedicated background observations in staring mode (one single slit) at a region about arcmin away from the galaxy. we did not observe backgrounds for the sh module, except for those galaxies observed in cycle (ngc , ngc , and ngc ). we mapped approximately at least the central arcsec � arcsec to arcsec � arcsec regions of the galaxies (before rotation). the sizes of the maps were chosen to cover a large fraction of the mid-ir emission of these galaxies. for the typical distances of our lirgs, the irs maps cover the central � – kpc, depending on the galaxy and the irs module. table summarizes the spitzer/irs observing parameters used for our gto program. we processed the data using the spitzer irs pipeline version s . for the sl and ll modules, and s . for the sh and lh modules. the data cubes were assembled using cubism (the cube builder for irs spectra maps, smith et al., b) from the individual basic calibrated data (bcd) spectral images. full error cubes are also built alongside the data cubes by standard error propagation, using, for the input uncertainty, the bcd-level uncertainty estimates produced by the irs pipeline from deviations of the fitted ramp slope fits for each pixel. these uncertainties are used to provide error estimates for the extracted spec- tra, and for the line and continuum maps (see smith et al., b for full details). the angular resolutions (fwhm) of the data cubes are � arcsec, and � arcsec for the sl and sh modules, respectively (see pereira-santaella et al., a). for the distances of our galaxies, these correspond to physical scales of between � : kpc for the nearest objects to � kpc for the most distant ones. we extracted nuclear d spectra for all the irs modules using cubism with the smallest ( � pixel) possible extrac- tion apertures from the data cubes before rotation. we also extracted d low-resolution (sl + ll) spectra covering approximately the extent of each system to be representa- tive of the mid-ir properties of the lirgs (see section ). a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – full details on the observations, data reduction, and the construction of the data cubes, and spectral maps will be given by pereira-santaella et al. ( a). . characterizing the obscuration of lirgs with the : m silicate feature lirgs, ulirgs and ir-bright galaxies are known to contain highly obscured regions (av ’ � mag, see e.g., veilleux et al., ; genzel et al., ; alonso-herrero et al., a; spoon et al., , ; roussel et al., ; sirocky et al., ), and are usually coincident with the nucleus. in addition to the “traditional” values derived using hydrogen recombination lines (e.g., ha=hb; paa=ha), we can derive the distribution of the extinction using our spa- tially resolved maps of the depth of the : lm absorption feature. the apparent strength of the : lm silicate feature is defined as ssi ¼ ln fobsð : lmÞ=fcontð : lmÞ, where fcontð : lmÞ is the local continuum and fobsð : lmÞ is the observed flux density of the feature. negative values of the apparent strength of the feature mean that the feature is observed in absorption, whereas positive values mean that the feature is in emission. we used a method similar to that outlined by spoon et al. ( ) for sources dominated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (pah) emission, to fit the local continuum as a power law with pivot wavelengths at . and lm. we extracted spectra with pixel � pixel apertures, by moving pixel by pixel along fig. . irs spectral maps of the continuum emission at : lm (left panels) a lirgs in our sample from the sl data cubes. for arp we mark the position (the western component), as well as region c, an actively star forming re rotated so the orientation is north up, east to the left. columns and rows until the entire field of view was covered. we built the spectral maps of the silicate feature by measur- ing it on the individual d spectra. assuming an extinction law and a dust geometry the silicate strength can be con- verted into a visual extinction. for comparison we also con- structed maps of the : lm continuum, that is, of the mean flux of a bandpass covering the spectral range of : – : lm. fig. shows the spectral maps of the apparent strength of the : lm silicate feature for two systems in our sample with very different behaviors, together with the maps of the : lm continuum. arp is the most luminous system in our sample (table ). it is a pair interacting galaxies com- posed of ic and ngc , whose nuclear regions are refered to as source a and source b , respectively. as can be seen from fig. , this system shows a large range of val- ues of the silicate feature. the region with the deepest sili- cate feature (ssi �� : , see alonso-herrero et al., for more details) is arp -a and has a value comparable to the typical values of ulirgs (see armus et al., ; spoon et al., , and also next section). the implied extinction for arp -a is av � mag for a foreground screen of dust (assuming av =ssi ¼ : ; rieke and lebofsky, ), in agreement with previous works (see e.g., gallais et al., ; alonso-herrero et al., ). we note, however, that the measured silicate strength offers only a lower limit to the true extinction (e.g., levenson et al., ; sirocky et al., ). for arp -b , we measured s si �� : , which is in the range observed for seyfert nd the apparent depth of the : lm silicate feature (right panels) of two s of the two nuclei: a for ic (the eastern component) and b for ngc gion. for ic we mark the nuclear region as n. the maps have been a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – galaxies (shi et al., ; hao et al., ). the values of the apparent depth of the silicate feature throughout the rest of this system are relatively moderate and similar to the values measured in other starburst galaxies (brandl et al., ; spoon et al., ). the other galaxy shown in fig. is ic , a spiral gal- axy with a moderate ir luminosity (table ). the apparent depth of the silicate feature in the nuclear region is ssi �� : , whereas in the circumnuclear regions the sili- cate feature is shallower indicating a lower extinction. this behavior is seen in a large fraction of the lirgs in our sample (see pereira-santaella et al., a). the nuclear values of the apparent depth of the silicate feature for the galaxies in our sample can be seen in fig. . for the distances of our galaxies the sl nuclear extraction apertures probe regions with physical sizes of between . and . kpc, depending on the galaxy. as can be seen from fig. the apparent depths of the silicate features of the majority of the lirg nuclei are moderate ðssi � � : to � : Þ, and intermediate between those observed in starburst galaxies (brandl et al., ) and ulirgs (spoon et al., ). using the rieke and lebofsky ( ) extinction law and assuming a foreground screen of dust, the observed apparent depths translate into typical nuclear extinctions of av � – mag. for the most a b c a b c arp −a arp −b ngc (s) . . . . . µm pah ew(µm) − . − . − . − . − . − . − . − . − . . s s i ngc ngc ngc eso −g ngc zw . iras − ic ngc ngc ic ngc ngc arp fig. . diagram of the ew of the : lm pah feature versus the apparent depth of the : lm silicate feature for the nuclei of the galaxies in our sample. these quantities were measured from sl spectra extracted with : arcsec � : arcsec apertures centered at the nuclei of the galaxies. the different regions in this diagram are taken from spoon et al. ( ). region a is occupied by agn and it is characterized by low ew of the pah feature and a weak silicate feature. region c has moderate silicate feature in absorption to nearly-zero and high ew of the pah, and it is mostly occupied by starburst galaxies. region b is intermediate between the previous two, and it is occupied by galaxies with both agn and star formation. most ulirgs in the spoon et al. ( ) sample fall in region b and region a. the a (very deep silicate feature and low ew of the : lm pah feature), b and c regions of spoon et al. ( ) are not shown in this figure. obscured nuclei in our sample: arp -a, the southern nucleus of ngc , and zw . , the nuclear extinc- tions are in excess of av � mag (assuming a foreground screen of dust). . the agn and star formation properties of lirgs . . identifying agn in the mid-ir composite (agn + starburst) spectra are observed in local lirgs, and high-z ir-bright galaxies (see e.g., yan et al., , ; dey et al., ). all our lirgs except for ngc have a nuclear activity class derived from optical spectroscopy (see table ); three galaxies have a seyfert classification, two are classified as composite, and the rest have an h ii-like classification. to compare with these results, there are a number of mid-ir diagnostics that can be used to test for the presence of an agn and to determine its contribution to the observed luminosity of the system, as well as to identify highly obscured agn. agn usually show high excitation lines. in the mid-ir the brightest high excitation lines are [ne v] : lm and [o iv] : lm (e.g., genzel et al., ; sturm et al., ; meléndez et al., ). the large excitation potentials of the [ne v] : lm and the [o iv] : lm lines ( . and . ev, respectively, see alexander et al., ) make it unlikely that they are excited by star-formation. moreover, the [o iv] : lm line appears to be a good tracer of the agn intrinsic luminosity (meléndez et al., ; dia- mond-stanic et al., ; rigby et al., ). we note how- ever that these high excitation emission lines are not always detected in relatively bright agn (e.g., weedman et al., ). ir-bright liners also show the [o iv] : lm emission line, but their mid-ir spectral energy distribu- tions are more similar to those of starburst galaxies (sturm et al., ). moreover, faint extended [o iv] : lm line emission has been detected in some starburst galaxies, indi- cating that it can also be associated with star formation (lutz et al., ). fig. (upper panel) shows the sh nuclear spectra of the three nuclei in our sample classified as seyfert. the [ne v] : lm emission line is not detected in arp - b (nuclear region of ngc ), and the upper limit is consistent with that measured by verma et al. ( ). in both ngc and ngc the [ne v] : lm line is clearly detected. this may be explained in terms of the lower bolometric luminosity of the agn in arp -b when compared to the agns in ngc and ngc (levenson et al., , ), as the [ne v] : lm appears to be a good indicator of the agn bolometric lumi- nosity (dasyra et al., ). the [ne v] : lm line was not detected in any of the two composite nuclei. the [o iv] : lm line is detected in all the seyfert nuclei in our sample. in the case of composite nuclei (fig. , lower panel), the [o iv] : lm emission line is very faint in ngc , but it is clearly detected in ngc . the latter galaxy contains a large number of bright fig. . upper panel: rest-frame sh spectra of the three nuclei in our sample classified as seyfert galaxies. the spectra were extracted with square apertures of : arcsec � : arcsec in size. the ½ne v� : lm emission line is clearly detected in ngc and ngc , but not in arp -b . lower panel: rest-frame lh spectra of the two nuclei in our sample classified as composite (intermediate between liner and h ii) from optical spectroscopy (alonso-herrero et al., b). the spectra were extracted with square apertures of : arcsec � : arcsec in size. the ½o iv� : lm emission line is clearly detected in ngc , but it is very faint in the nuclear region of ngc (see inset). we also mark in the two panels the positions of other bright mid-ir fine structure lines, as well as molecular hydrogen lines. we measured the ew of the : lm pah feature by fitting the local continuum between . and : lm and integrating the feature between . and : lm. we calculated the ew by dividing the pah flux by the fitted local continuum at : lm. a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – h ii regions within the central (� : arcsec � : arcsec, the lh extraction aperture) nuclear region (see alonso-herrero et al., a, b), and the observed [ne ii] : lm/[o iv] : lm line ratio ð� Þ is similar to, although slightly lower than, those observed in star- forming galaxies in our sample (pereira-santaella et al., b). thus, it is not clear what fraction, if any, of the observed [o iv] : lm line emission is produced by the active nucleus in this galaxy. the possibility that faint [o iv] : lm line emission can also be produced by intense on-going star formation is further confirmed because this line is detected in all the nuclei in our sample classified as h ii from optical spectroscopy (see pereira- santaella et al., b). indeed, for the h ii-like nuclei in our sample of lirgs, we measured line ratios of [ne ii] : lm/[o iv] : lm � , which are well explained by star formation (see e.g., genzel et al., ; dale et al., ). an alternative way to identify agn is to use diagnostic diagrams such as that of the equivalent width (ew) of the : lm pah feature feature versus the apparent depth of the : lm silicate feature put forward by spoon et al. ( ). fig. shows such a diagram for the nuclear regions of our sample of lirgs. for the distances of our galaxies the sl extraction apertures probe regions with physical sizes of between . and . kpc, depending on the galaxy. the three seyfert nuclei in our sample (arp -b , ngc , and ngc ) are located in the b region of this diagram, between the region occupied by agn and that occupied by starburst galaxies, that is, the regions a and c, respectively (see spoon et al., for details). this is in agreement with previous results showing the com- posite (agn + star formation) nature of these nuclear regions (see gonzález-delgado et al., ; garcı́a-marı́n et al., ; alonso-herrero et al., a,b, ; bedregal et al., and references therein). note also the : lm pah feature in their nuclear spectra (see fig. , upper panel), clearly indicating the presence of star formation. the majority of the nuclei in our sample classified as h ii or composite are located in the c starburst region, while only a few nuclear regions (i.e., ngc , arp -a, ngc (s), zw . , and ngc ) lie in one of the regions occupied by ulirgs (the b region, see fig. ). there are no examples in our sample of lirg nuclei with very deep silicate features ðssi < � : Þ and low ew ð< : lmÞ of the : lm pah feature, that is, the a region also occupied by ulirgs (spoon et al., ). we can use a diagnostic method similar to that of nar- dini et al. ( ) to quantify the relative strengths of agn and starbursts in nuclei with both. this method is based on the close similarity of the rest-frame � lm spectra of the high (approximately solar or supersolar, see bernard- salas et al., ) metallicity low-z starbursts observed by brandl et al. ( ). thus, any excess in the � lm spec- tral region can be attributed to continuum emission from hot dust. nardini et al. ( ) interpreted this hot dust component as an indication for the presence of an agn. for our estimate we used two different templates, the star- burst template of brandl et al. ( ) and the star-forming ulirg template of nardini et al. ( ). fig. shows an example of this method applied to source b in arp , the nuclear region of ngc . while we did not detect the high excitation [ne v] : lm line in this nucleus, the agn is clearly identified via the presence of a strong dust component. this strong dust component is even detected at shorter wavelengths – lm (see alonso-herrero et al., ; soifer et al., ). we estimated that the agn in arp -b accounts for � – % of the observed fig. . rest-frame – lm spectrum (thick black line) of arp -b (see fig. ) observed with the sl module and extracted with a : arcsec � : arcsec aperture. the observed spectrum is normalized at lm. the observed spectrum is modeled (thin green line) as the sum of two components: an agn continuum (dotted-dashed red line), and a starburst component (dotted blue line) using the brandl et al. ( ) template. this method is similar to that of nardini et al. ( ). this figure has been adapted from a similar figure presented by alonso-herrero et al. ( ). (for interpretation of color mentioned in this figure legend the reader is referred to the web version of the article.) a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – emission at lm (see alonso-herrero et al., ) within a : arcsec � : arcsec aperture. the critical densities are : � cm� and : � cm� for [ne iii] : lm and [ne ii] : lm, respectively. . . star formation properties . . . fine structure emission lines mid-ir fine structure emission lines can be used to probe the star formation processes in galaxies, with the added advantage that they are less affected by extinction than optical (e.g., ha) and near-ir (e.g., paa; brc) emission lines. in particular, the [ne ii] : lm line (roche et al., ; dı́az-santos et al., b), or alternatively the sum of the [ne ii] : lm and the [ne iii] : lm emission lines, for very young stellar populations, appear to be good tracers of the ionizing stars (ho and keto, and refer- ences therein). moreover, because the [ne iii] : lm/ [ne ii] : lm line ratio is sensitive to the hardness of the radiation field, it can be used as an indicator of the age of the stellar population. we note however, that this ratio also depends on the metallicity, nebular density and ionization parameter (see e.g., thornley et al., ; martı́n-hernández et al., ; rigby and rieke, ; snijders et al., ). we find that in general the brightest mid-ir emission lines, [ne ii] : lm, [ne iii] : lm, and [s iii] : lm, have an overall morphology similar to that of ha and paa (see alonso-herrero et al., and pereira-santaella et al., a). fig. shows an example for one of the lir- gs in our sample: ngc . there is [ne ii] : lm line emission arising from the nuclear region as well as in h ii regions as traced by regions of high surface brightness ha emission in the spiral arms. as found by alonso-herre- ro et al. ( ) for arp , the [ne iii] : lm line emis- sion of ngc seems to have a better morphological correspondence with the hydrogen recombination line emission (e.g., the h ii regions west and south of the nucleus). another fundamental difference is that the [ne ii] : lm emission line is dominated by the nuclear emission, while the ha map shows that the nucleus and extra-nuclear regions have a similar brightnesses. this indi- cates that the ha nuclear emission is suffering from signif- icant extinction in the optical. the observed apparent depth (s si ¼� : , see fig. ) of the : lm feature implies av � mag, while the extinction derived from opti- cal and near-ir hydrogen recombination lines is av � mag (veilleux et al., ; alonso-herrero et al., a). we also show in fig. the sh map of the observed [ne iii] : lm/[ne ii] : lm line ratio for ngc . this ratio ranges from . to approximately . for ngc , which is similar to the range observed in the majority of the star-forming lirgs ð� : – : Þ in our sample (see pereira-santaella et al., a) and other high-metallicity starburst galaxies (see thornley et al., ; verma et al., ; brandl et al., ). in our non-agn lirgs, the lowest values of this ratio are generally coincident with the nuclear regions, whereas the largest values are associ- ated with extra-nuclear h ii regions and regions of diffuse low surface brightness ha or paa emission (see fig. , and also alonso-herrero et al., ). the relatively low values of this ratio in most of the nuclear regions of lirgs could be explained in terms of density effects, as for a given age the ratio decreases for increasing densities; the effect is most noticeable at high densities (nh > cm� , see snij- ders et al., ). other effects include the presence of rel- atively evolved starbursts (see discussions by thornley et al., and alonso-herrero et al., ) and metallicity effects (see verma et al., ; snijders et al., ). alter- natively, the youngest stars may still be embedded in ultra- compact h ii regions where the extinction is very high and the ionized gas is at densities exceeding the critical densities of the neon lines (see rigby and rieke, ). higher [ne iii] : lm/[ne ii] : lm line ratios are seen at increasing galactocentric distances and in regions of diffuse ionized gas in lirgs (see alonso-herrero et al., for arp ), and also in other galaxies: ngc (devost et al., ), m (beirão et al., ), and ngc (rand et al., ). these high ratios may also be related to the mechanisms responsible for the increased optical line ratios (e.g., [s ii]kk , /ha, see a review by haffner et al., ) in regions of diffuse emission, although current models are not able to repro- duce the observed [ne iii] : lm/[ne ii] : lm line ratios (see binette et al., ). . . . pah feature emission the mid-ir spectral range contains a large number of pah features, with the most prominent ones being at . , . , . and : lm. high metallicity star forming galaxies fig. . the upper panels are the observed irs sh spectral maps of the ½ne ii� : lm (left) and ½ne iii� : lm (right) emission lines, both displayed in a square root scale. for these two emission line maps, we only plot pixels with line peak detections p r above the continuum, where r is the standard deviation of the continuum fit. the lower left panel is the continuum-subtracted ha map of ngc from hattori et al. ( ) shown in a square root scale. the lower right panel is the sh observed (not corrected for extinction) map of the ½ne iii� : lm=½ne ii� : lm line ratio, with the ha contours (in a linear scale) superimposed. only pixels with line peak p r detections in both emission lines are used to construct line ratio map. the irs maps have been rotated so the orientation is north up, east to the left. fig. . irs sl observed (not corrected for extinction) spectral maps of the : lm (left) and the : lm pah features in ngc , shown in a square root scale. the contours are the ha emission as in fig. . for both maps, we only plot pixels above r. the irs maps have been rotated so the orientation is north up, east to the left. a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – are known to show bright pah features, while the pah emission is faint in low-metallicity galaxies (see e.g., roche et al., ; madden et al., ; engelbracht et al., ; smith et al., a; ?; calzetti et al., ). the good corre- lation between the integrated pah emission and the ir luminosity of high metallicity star-forming galaxies and ulirgs indicates that the pah emission is tracing the star formation activity at least on large scales (brandl et al., ; smith et al., a; farrah et al., ). all the lirgs in our sample show bright : and : lm pah emission over the field of view mapped with the irs. the overall morphologies of the pah maps are similar to those of the mid-ir fine structure lines and hydrogen recombination lines (see figs. and ), although we are limited by the physical scales of a few kpc probed by the irs spectral mapping observations. this indicates that, at least to first order, the pah features are tracing the star formation activity of lirgs. indeed, peeters et al. ( ) showed that although pahs may trace b stars better than o stars, the integrated pah emission of galaxies appears to be a good overall tracer of the star formation rate. on smaller scales (tens-hundreds of parsecs), however, pah emission can stem from sites with no evidence for on-going massive star formation (tacconi-garman et al., ; dı́az-santos et al., b). theoretical models predict that the relative strengths of the different pah features depend on the properties of the dust grains and the charging conditions, as well as the star- light intensity (draine and li., ). in particular, neutral pahs are expected to show large : – : lm ratios, whereas ionized pahs have smaller ratios. the spatially resolved maps of the : lm= : lm pah ratio show vari- ations within galaxies on scales of a few kiloparsecs. in some galaxies these variations in the observed pah ratios can be readily attributed to the effects of the extinction (see also rigopoulou et al., ; brandl et al., ; beirão a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – et al., ), as is the case for arp -a (see alonso-her- rero et al., and fig. ) and other galaxies in the sam- ple. we find however, that in other lirgs there is no correlation between the observed : lm= : lm pah ratio and the apparent depth of the : lm silicate feature, and it is possible that the variations of this ratio may be showing variations in the physical conditions within galax- ies, and from galaxy to galaxy. in a forthcoming paper, pereira-santaella et al. ( a), we will discuss fully this subject for our sample of lirgs. fig. . comparison of the low spectral-resolution sl spectra of the integrated emission of arp (black line) with the average template of local starbursts (red line) of brandl et al. ( ), the average spectrum of pah-dominated local ulirgs (the c class of spoon et al., , see also fig. , green line), and the average spectrum and corresponding r dispersion of high-z ir-bright galaxies (blue line and shaded blue area) from the farrah et al. ( ) sample. the ir ð – lmÞ luminosity range of the galaxies included in this high-z template is � � to � l�. the spectra have been scaled to match the peak of the : lm pah feature. this figure has been adapted from alonso-herrero et al. ( ). (for interpretation of color mentioned in this figure legend the reader is referred to the web version of the article.) . integrated mid-ir spectra of lirgs since the irs maps cover all or nearly all of the mid-ir emitting regions in these galaxies, we combined the full sl + ll data cubes into single mid-ir spectra for each galaxy. we show a few examples covering the full range of ir luminosities of the integrated mid-ir spectra in our sample in fig. , as an illustration of the variety of spectral shapes. the spectra have been normalized at lm for an easy comparison with the typical mid-ir spectra of ulirgs presented by armus et al. ( , their fig. , lower panel). it is clear from fig. that the inte- grated spectra of the majority of lirgs do not show the deep silicate features characteristic of ulirgs (see also fig. ), and are quite similar to the mid-ir spectra of local starburst galaxies (fig. ). it is also apparent that there is no clear relation between the ir luminosity and the apparent depth of the silicate feature. for instance, the integrated spectrum of zw . shows the deepest silicate feature, whereas the most luminous system in our sample, arp , has an apparent depth of the silicate feature of s si �� : (compare with the apparent depth of arp -a, see fig. ). in what follows, we describe a few examples of the potential applications of these kinds of templates. fig. . integrated low resolution (matched sl + ll) d spectra of six lirgs lm. we mark the positions of the brightest mid-ir emission lines (dotted lin and lm pah complexes (dashed lines). . . comparison with ir-bright galaxies at high-z one of the most surprising results obtained with very sensitive irs observations is that a large fraction of ir- selected galaxies at high-z are classified as ulirgs in terms of their ir luminosities, but their mid-ir spectra are more similar to those of local star-forming galaxies (e.g., yan et al., ; farrah et al., ; rigby et al., ). specifically, high-z ulirgs show strong pah fea- tures and moderate depths of the : lm silicate feature, while their local counterparts tend to show very deep silicate features and moderate to low equivalent widths of in our sample spanning the full range of ir luminosity and normalized at es), as well as the : and : lm pah features and the : ; : ; : lm, a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – the pahs (e.g., spoon et al., ; armus et al., ; far- rah et al., ). in alonso-herrero et al. ( ) we showed that the inte- grated spectrum of one of the galaxies in our sample: arp , and the average spectrum of the farrah et al. ( ) high-z ulirgs are remarkably similar (see fig. ). one of the favored explanations for the observed mid-ir spectra of high-z ulirgs is that star formation is diffuse and extended, or distributed in multiple dusty star-forming regions spread over several kiloparsecs (farrah et al., ; rigby et al., ). a similar behavior is found for the mid- ir spectra of submillimeter galaxies, which are again inter- preted as arising from regions with sizes of a few kilopar- secs (see menéndez-delmestre et al., ). this is reminiscent of arp , where the star formation is spread across at least – kpc (see soifer et al., ; gallais et al., ; alonso-herrero et al., ), with a large fraction taking place in regions of moderate mid-ir optical depths (fig. , upper panel). the majority of the local lirgs in the representative sample of alonso-herrero et al. ( a) behave in this manner, that is, the mid-ir emission is more extended (a few kpc, alonso-herrero et al., b; dı́az-santos et al., a) than the highly embedded nuclear regions on sub-kiloparsec scales typical of local ulirgs (soifer et al., ). in arp , it is only the nuclear region of ic (arp -a) that shows some of the typical mid-ir characteristics of ulirgs (see fig. ), that is, very compact and embedded star formation resulting in a deep silicate feature and moderate ew of the pahs. arp then may be a local counterpart of the star formation processes taking place in high-z ir-bright galax- ies (see also charmandaris et al., ), albeit with a lower ir luminosity and possibly higher metallicity. . . star formation rates for ir galaxies observations at lm with the multiband imaging photometer for spitzer (mips, rieke et al., ) have proven to be extremely successful in identifying high-z ir bright galaxies. one of the main problems faced by these high-z studies is to determine accurate sfrs for dusty gal- axies where uv and optical sfr indicators can be severely affected by extinction effects. moreover, because of the variety of spectral energy distributions (seds) of these ir bright galaxies, and the current lack of sensitive obser- vations at k > lm, one has to make assumptions about the ir seds (e.g., use theoretical templates) to convert the observed monochromatic ir luminosities into total ir luminosities. in a recent paper, rieke et al. ( ), we used the observed mid-ir spectra of some of the local lirgs dis- cussed here, as well as of starburst galaxies (from brandl et al., ) and ulirgs (from rigopoulou et al., and armus et al., ), together with uv, optical and near-ir photometry to construct average templates cover- ing the range in ir luminosities of : log lirðl�Þ . the main criteria for the selected galaxies were that: ( ) they have good high quality data covering the full electro- magnetic spectrum, from the uv to submillimeter wave- lengths, and ( ) they are only powered by star formation. these templates were then used to determine the relation between the observed mid-ir flux density and the sfr as a function of the redshift of the galaxy. these predic- tions were computed for a number of different mid and far-ir filters, with wavelengths between and lm, of mips on spitzer, pacs (poglitsch et al., ) on her- schel, and miri (wright et al., ) on the james webb space telescope (jwst). we refer the reader to rieke et al. ( ) for full details. . . prospects for future space ir missions another interesting application of the integrated mid-ir spectra of local lirgs is to make predictions for future mid and far-ir missions of the detectability of bright mid-ir fine structure emission lines for high-z lirgs, again to take advantage of the reduced extinction for these dusty objects. this is of particular interest because a large fraction of high-z ir-selected galaxies, submillimeter galax- ies and massive galaxies as well as active galaxies appear to be powered by both agn and star formation activity (e.g., polletta et al., ; yan et al., ; daddi et al., ; pope et al., a,b; dey et al., ; alonso-herrero et al., ; ramos almeida et al., ). since so far these results have been mostly based on the observed seds and/ or low spectral resolution irs spectroscopy, disentangling the agn and star formation contributions can be chal- lenging. future ir missions will have the sensitivity and spectral resolution to detect mid-ir emission lines from high-z galaxies. as an illustration, we have simulated their detectability for three ir instruments using the current predicted sensitivities: pacs (poglitsch et al., ) on herschel, miri (gillian wright, , private communica- tion) on the jwst, and spica (swinyard et al., ). we have chosen three lirgs in our sample to cover a range of ir luminosities as well as different mechanisms contributing to the ir emission. arp has an ir lumi- nosity close to the ulirg limit and contains regions of intense star formation as well as at least one low-luminosity (l � kev ¼ : � erg s� , ballo et al., ) obscured agn. ngc has an intermediate ir luminosity and hosts a compton-thick agn (observed luminosity l � kev ¼ : � erg s� and estimated intrinsic agn luminosity l � kev � erg s� , levenson et al., ) and star formation in the nuclear region and spread throughout the galaxy. ic is a moderately luminous ir system and appears to be only powered by star forma- tion. for all these three galaxies we measured the fluxes of the brightest fine structure emission lines from the inte- grated sh and lh spectra (see pereira-santaella et al., a,b). we computed the bra fluxes from the extinc- tion-corrected paa fluxes reported by alonso-herrero et al. ( a), assuming case b recombination. these fluxes a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – were measured over regions with sizes similar to those mapped with the irs. in fig. we present the results for the detectability ( r, h integration time) of the brightest mid-ir emission lines of lirgs as a function of redshift and the three ir instru- ments. the simulations assumed that the line emission is unresolved, and thus, for the majority of the lines the detectability is an upper limit as the line emission is expected to be extended in most cases. the tracers of star formation (i.e., bra, [ne ii] : lm and [ne iii] : lm) in lirgs will be detected with miri and spica out to redshift of z � . these lines have the advantage of both a reduced extinction and a relatively straightforward inter- pretation in terms of the current sfr. the [ne v] : lm line, which provides definite evidence for the presence of an agn, will be detected out to z � : with miri and spica for compton-thick agn hosted by lirgs and fig. . predictions as a function of redshift of the detectability ð rÞ of bra, bright mid-ir fine structure lines and the brightest molecular hydrogen line (h s( )) in lirgs for future ir missions for h integration time. the predicted sensitivity curves are from wright et al. ( ) for jwst/miri (dotted-dashed line), from swinyard et al. ( ) for spica (dashed line) and from poglitsch et al. ( ) for herschel/ pacs (dotted line). we simulated the following emission lines: bra at : lm, [s iv] : lm, [ne ii] : lm, [ne v] : lm, [ne iii] : lm, h s( ) at lm, [s iii] : lm, [o iv] : lm, [s iii] : lm, and [si ii] : lm. we assumed h ¼ km s� mpc� , x m ¼ : , and xk ¼ : for these simulations. the simulations are for the integrated line fluxes of three lirgs in our sample: arp with lir � � l�, ngc with lir � � l�, and ic with lir � � l�. other types galaxies (e.g., x-ray selected agn). finally other bright mid-ir lines such as the [s iii] : lm, [s iii] : lm, and [si ii] : lm lines and the lm h s( ) transition. the latter is a good tracer of the warm molecular gas in the ism, and will be easily detected out to at least z � : with spica. . conclusions we presented a gto spitzer/irs program aimed to obtain mid-ir ð – lmÞ spectral mapping of a sample of local lirgs covering at least the central arcsec � arcsec to arcsec � arcsec regions. we used all four irs modules: sl, ll, sh, and lh. we con- structed spectral maps of the bright mid-ir emission lines (e.g., [ne ii] : lm, [ne iii] : lm, [s iii] : lm;h at lm), continuum, the . and : lm pah features, and the : lm silicate feature. the physical scales resolved by the short-wavelength module maps (sl and sh) are between � : kpc for the nearest objects to � kpc for the most distant lirgs in our sample. we also extracted d spectra of regions of interest in each galaxy. the main goal of this paper is to describe the goals and present the first results of this spitzer/irs gto program. for a large fraction of the lirgs in our sample, the regions with the deepest : lm silicate feature are coinci- dent with the nuclei of the galaxies. the nuclear values of the apparent depth of the silicate feature are moderate (mostly between s si �� : to ssi �� : ), and thus are intermediate between the heavily absorbed nuclei of uli- rgs and the relatively shallow silicate features of starburst galaxies. only three nuclei, zw . , arp -a and ngc (s), have deep silicate features ðs si < � Þ. since all but one nuclei have a nuclear activity classifica- tion from optical spectroscopy, we applied a number of diagnostics to test for the presence of an agn. in particu- lar we looked for the high excitation [ne v] : lm and [o iv] : lm emission lines and the presence of a strong dust continuum emission at lm. we found that for the three nuclei classified as seyfert the mid-ir diagnostics gave a consistent classification. we detected [o iv] : lm emission in most of the lirg nuclei classified as h ii-like or composite (intermediate between liner and h ii) from optical spectroscopy, as well as in the seyfert nuclei. we determined, however, that the large observed [ne ii] : lm/[o iv] : lm line ratios ð� Þ of h ii- like nuclei are consistent with being produced by star for- mation processes rather than by an agn. the morphologies of [ne ii] : lm, [ne iii] : lm and the pah features (at . and : lm) of lirgs are similar to those of hydrogen recombination lines, on the scales probed by the irs data – a few kiloparsecs. this indicates that the integrated [ne ii]+[ne iii] emission, as well as the pah emission trace well the star formation activity in this kind of galaxies. we finally used the integrated spitzer/irs spectra as templates of local lirgs. we showed that the integrated a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – spectra of local lirgs and in particular that of arp , are similar to those of high-z ulirgs. this adds support to the scenario where star-formation in high-z ir-bright galaxies is spread over several kiloparsecs, rather than in the highly embedded compact (< kpc) nuclear regions of local ulirgs. among the different applications of these templates, we used them to predict the intensities of the brightest mid-ir emission lines for lirgs as a function of redshift and compare them with the expected sensitivi- ties of future space ir missions. the brightest mid-ir emission lines of lirgs will be detected out to z � , and may be used to constrain better the agn and star-for- mation properties of ir-bright galaxies. the authors would like to thank takashi hattori, mac- arena garcı́a-marı́n, bernhard brandl, vassilis charmand- aris, lee armus, guido risaliti, henrik spoon, john moustakas, and duncan farrah for their help and enlight- ening discussions, as well as miwa block for producing some of the data cubes. we are grateful to two anonymous referees for their constructive comments on the paper. this work was supported by nasa through contract issued by jpl/california institute of technology. a.a.-h., m.p.-s., l.c., and t.d.-s. acknowledge support from the spanish plan nacional del espacio through grant esp - -c - . a.a.-h. also acknowledges sup- port from the spanish ministry of science and innovation through grant proyecto intramural especial i . this research has made use of the nasa/ipac extra- galactic database (ned), which is operated by the jet pro- pulsion 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d., kunze, d., spoon, h.w.w., thornley, m.d. a&a , l – l , . madden, s.c., galliano, f., jones, a.p., sauvage, m. a&a , – , . martı́n-hernández, n.l., peeters, e., morisset, c., et al. a&a , – , . meléndez, m., kraemer, s.b., armentrout, b.k., et al. apj , – , . a. alonso-herrero et al. / advances in space research ( ) – menéndez-delmestre, k., blain, a.w., smail, i., alexander, d.m., chapman, s.c., armus, l., frayer, d., ivison, r.j., teplitz, h. apj , – , . murphy jr., t.w., soifer, b.t., matthews, k., armus, l. apj , – , . nardini, e., risaliti, g., salvati, m., sani, e., imanishi, m., marconi, a., maiolino, r. mnras , l –l , . peeters, e., spoon, h.w.w., tielens, a.g.g.m. apj , – , . pereira-santaella, m., alonso-herrero, a., rieke, g.h., colina, l., dı́ıaz- santos, t., pérez-gonzález, p.g., smith, j.-d.t., engelbracht, c.w. apjs, submitted for publication, a. pereira-santaella, m., alonso-herrero, a., rieke, g.h., colina, l., et al., in preparation, b. pérez-gonzález, p.g., rieke, g.h., egami, e., et al. apj , – , . poglitsch, a., waelkens, c., bauer, o.h., et al. spie , , . polletta, m.c., wilkes, b.j., siana, b., et al. apj , – , . pope, a., brussmann, r.s., dey, a., et al. apj , – , a. pope, a., chary, r.-r., alexander, d.m., et al. apj , – , b. ramos almeida, c., rodrı́guez-espinosa, j.m., barro, g., gallego, j., pérez-gonzález, p.g. aj , – , . rand, r.j., wood, k., benjamin, r.a. apj , – , . rieke, g.h., low, f.j. apj , l –l , . rieke, g.h., lebofsky, m.j. apj , – , . rieke, g.h., young, e.t., engelbracht, c.w., et al. apjs , – , . rieke, g.h., alonso-herrero, a., weiner, b.j., pérez-gonzález, p.g., blaylock, m., donley, j.l., marcillac, d. apj , – , . rigby, j.r., rieke, g.h. apj , – , . rigby, j.r., marcillac, d., egami, e., et al. apj , – , . rigby, j.r., diamond-stanic, a.m., aniano, g. apj , – , . rigopoulou, d., spoon, h.w.w., genzel, r., lutz, d., moorwood, a.f.m., tran, q.d. aj , – , . roche, p.f., aitken, d.k., smith, c.h., ward, m.j. mnras , – , . roussel, h., helou, g., smith, j.d., et al. apj , – , . sanders, d.b., mirabel, f.i. ara&a , , . sanders, d.b., mazzarella, j.m., kim, d.-c., surace, j.a., soifer, b.t. aj , – , . shi, y., rieke, g.h., hines, d.c., gorjian, v., werner, m.w., cleary, k., low, f.j., smith, p.s., bouwman, j. apj , – , . sirocky, m.m., levenson, n.a., elitzur, m., spoon, h.w.w., armus, l. apj , – , . smith, j.d.t., draine, b.t., dale, d.a., et al. apj , – , a. smith, j.d.t., armus, l., dale, d.a., et al. pasp , – , b. snijders, l., kewley, l.j., van der werf, p.p. apj , – , . soifer, b.t., sanders, d.b., madore, b., et al. apj , – , . soifer, b.t., neugebauer, g., matthews, k., et al. aj , – , . soifer, b.t., neugebauer, g., matthews, k., et al. aj , – , . spoon, h.w.w., marshall, j.a., houck, j.r., et al. apj , l –l , . spoon, h.w.w., keane, j.v., tielens, a.g.g.m., lutz, d., moorwood, a.f.m. a&a , l –l , . spoon, h.w.w., koornneef, j., moorwood, a.f.m., lutz, d., tielens, a.g.g.m. a&a , – , . sturm, e., lutz, d., verma, a., et al. a&a , – , . sturm, e., rupke, d., contursi, a., et al. apj , l –l , . swinyard, b., nakagawa, t., merken, p., et al. exa , – , . tacconi-garman, l.e., sturm, e., lehnert, m., lutz, d., davies, r.i., moorwood, a.f.m. a&a , – , . thornley, m.d., schreiber, n., lutz, d., et al. apj , – , . tran, q.d., lutz, d., genzel, d., et al. apj , – , . veilleux, s., kim, d.-c., sanders, d.b., mazzarella, j.m., soifer, b.t. apjs , – , . verma, a., lutz, d., sturm, e., et al. a&a , – , . weedman, d.w., hao, l., higdon, s.j.u., et al. apj , – , . wright, g.s., rieke, g.h., colina, l., et al. spie , – , . wu, y., charmandaris, v., hao, l., brandl, b.r., bernard-salas, j., spoon, h.w.w., houck, j.r. apj , – , . yan, l., chary, r., armus, l., et al. apj , – , . yan, l., sajinna, a., fadda, d., et al. apj , – , . 	local luminous infrared galaxies: spatially resolved mid-infrared observations with spitzer/irs 	introduction 	sample, spitzer/irs spectral mapping observations, and data reduction 	characterizing the obscuration of lirgs with the . \hskip . em \rmu {\rm m} silicate feature 	the agn and star formation properties of lirgs 	identifying agn in the mid-ir 	star formation properties 	fine structure emission lines 	pah feature emission 	integrated mid-ir spectra of lirgs 	comparison with ir-bright galaxies at high-z 	star formation rates for ir galaxies 	prospects for future space ir missions 	conclusions 	references .indd practical neurology © blackwell publishing ltd art and neurology how ne disease artist’s w figure giorgio de chirico. lithograph from calligrammes. ( ) © dacs o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://p n .b m j.co m / p ra ct n e u ro l: first p u b lish e d a s . /j. - . . .x o n d e ce m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://pn.bmj.com/ december © blackwell publishing ltd introduction a great deal has been written about the relation- ship between art and disease. apart from the de- piction of diseases in works of art, a subject often generating considerable debate, there is also the problem of how disease can infl uence what an artist paints, and particularly how it is painted. this has been much researched with regard to psychiatric conditions (macgregor ; jami- son ) and eye disease (trevor-roper ), as well as to various disabling conditions (sand- blom ; emery ). here, however, i will focus on some neurological conditions that have affl icted various artists and how these af- fected their work. migraine several artists have suffered with migraine includ- ing the british artists sarah raphael ( – ) and j.j. ignatius brennan (b. ). but the best known example is the italian surrealist painter georgio de chirico ( – ) (fuller & gale ). all three artists depicted the zigzag motifs characteristic of fortifi cation spectra and this is well illustrated for example in chirico’s litho- graph from calligrammes of (fig. ). intracranial tumours percy wyndham lewis ( – ), an english alan e. h. emery green college, oxford, uk ox hg practical neurology, , , – eurological e can affect an work artist who founded vorticism (a variety of cu- bism) in the early part of the last century, de- veloped a pituitary tumour that he refused to have removed and which eventually resulted in blindness and ultimately his death (farrington ). early in the course of the disease when he could still see, but with some diffi culty, he had to hold his face close up to the canvas when paint- ing. he nevertheless produced at the time a very fi ne portrait of t. s. eliot (fig. ). multiple sclerosis although a relatively common disorder, there appears to be only one well-documented case of the disease in a professional artist. this was peter mackarell, an english artist who suffered from the disease during the last years of his life and who died in . how it affected his art is graphically illustrated in his book (mackarell ). at fi rst his left hand became paralysed so he trained himself to paint with his right hand. particularly revealing is a series of paintings de- picting the development and later recovery of a right central scotoma (fig. ). motor neuron disease once motor neuron disease (mnd) has pro- gressed it would generally be very diffi cult for an artist to continue to paint. but some have, and o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://p n .b m j.co m / p ra ct n e u ro l: first p u b lish e d a s . /j. - . . .x o n d e ce m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://pn.bmj.com/ practical neurology © blackwell publishing ltd a good example is john paterson, a scottish art- ist who graduated from the glasgow school of art in . in he was diagnosed as having a combination of mnd and an apparently as- sociated chronic infl ammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. his earlier paintings refl ected his love of the countryside. however as the dis- ease progressed his work became particularly revealing in his personal relationships (fig. ) and there is an understandable neglect of detail. with his family he founded the dochas fund (‘dochas’ is gaelic for hope), a charity to raise funds for research into mnd and related disor- ders. he died in . parkinsonism salvador dali ( – ) was certainly eccentric in his behaviour (critchley ) and also suf- fered from mild depression throughout most of his life. however in later years he also devel- oped parkinsonism like his father before him. it is very diffi cult to assess how this might have been refl ected in his later work. to the casual figure percy wyndham lewis. portrait of t. s. eliot. ©wyndham lewis and the estate of the late mrs g a wyndham lewis by kind permission of the wyndham lewis memorial trust (a registered charity). figure peter mackarell. self portrait – recovering from a right central scotoma. reproduced from depictions of an odyssey ( ) corsham, uk: national society for education in art & design (nsead), , with permission. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://p n .b m j.co m / p ra ct n e u ro l: first p u b lish e d a s . /j. - . . .x o n d e ce m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://pn.bmj.com/ december © blackwell publishing ltd observer, he continued to depict rather uncon- ventional themes throughout his life. a severe tremor would of course have precluded any seri- ous artistic endeavours. cerebrovascular disease a hemiplegia resulting from a stroke might cause a painter to learn to paint with his other hand. the result, if unacceptable to the artist, might well generate considerable frustration. such frustration and anger is well illustrated in the blinded samson ( ) painted by the ger- man artist lovis corinth ( – ) when he was slowly recovering from a stroke (fig. ). however, the results of a stroke are some- times more revealingly displayed in how an art- ist depicts subjects. this is well illustrated in the phenomenon of ‘hemineglect’, where there is de- fective representation of subjects on one side of a painting with subjects on the other side being normally represented (vigouroux et al. ). hemineglect occurs in around % of patients with acute right hemisphere strokes (the right pa- figure john paterson. space in between reproduced by kind permission of the dochas fund. figure lovis corinth. the blinded samson ( ). reproduced by kind permission of the staatliche museen, berlin. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://p n .b m j.co m / p ra ct n e u ro l: first p u b lish e d a s . /j. - . . .x o n d e ce m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://pn.bmj.com/ practical neurology © blackwell publishing ltd centred on how disease affected perception and image representation. but as anthony storr has argued, in severe mental illness creativity, rather than being enhanced in some way, is often sig- nifi cantly impaired (storr ). in recent years there have also been several reports of the effects of various dementias on the work of artists. mervyn peake ( – ), a brilliant english artist and writer, suffered from a chronic neurodegenerative disease, probably dementia with lewy bodies (sahlas ). his illness began in his forties and he was confi ned to hospital for the last years of his life. his cog- nitive decline was associated with a tremor and with visual hallucinations that he portrayed in several sketches and which often depicted ex- pressions of fear and apprehension. though he was investigated at various centres, including the national hospital, queen square, london, no defi nitive diagnosis was ever made. at the time there were no imaging techniques avail- able, nor any brain pathology. more recently the dutch–american ab- stract expressionist painter willem de kooning ( – ) developed a dementia in his sixties but continued to paint throughout the rest of his life (espinel ). as the disease advanced his art became progressively more abstract and diffi cult to understand yet continued to attract the attention of critics. interestingly another recent professional art- ist, but whose premorbid work was more con- ventional, developed frontotemporal dementia rietal areas being particularly involved in space perception) with failure to represent objects on the left side (halligan & marshall ). it can occur in those without visual fi eld defects. several artists have suffered right hemisphere strokes with subsequent hemineglect of varying degrees and duration including lovis corinth ( – ), otto dix ( – ) and anton räderscheidt ( – ). as recovery from a stroke occurs so may impairment due to hemineglect (fig. ). a related condition is simultanagnosia: the patient appears to pay attention to only part of an image with an inability to perceive the en- tire visual scene. it results from unilateral or bi- lateral damage to the posterior parietal cortex. the phenomenon has been described in several patients including recently a professional art- ist who suffered from a basilar artery embolic stroke (smith et al. ). prior to the stroke she painted scenes entirely from memory. but following her stroke her paintings revealed se- lective attention only to certain areas with an in- ability to perceive the overall meaning of a fi gure or scene. detailed studies, including imaging, of artists with this condition could be very instruc- tive in helping our understanding of how we in- terpret visual memories. dementia much has been written about the effects on ar- tistic endeavours of psychiatric illnesses as well as drugs and alcohol (for example critchley ; post ). most of these studies have figure left hemineglect after stroke. vigouroux et al. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://p n .b m j.co m / p ra ct n e u ro l: first p u b lish e d a s . /j. - . . .x o n d e ce m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://pn.bmj.com/ december © blackwell publishing ltd (mell et al. ). as the disease progressed language and executive skills declined but her paintings became freer and more original sug- gesting that language is not required for certain types of visual creativity. finally, the progressive effect of alzheimer’s disease on the work of a contemporary art- ist, william utermohlen, has been graphically displayed. he was diagnosed with the disease in and created a number of self-portraits over the last few years (crutch et al. ). these demonstrate very clearly the changes in his self perception (fig. ). because of the progressive nature of demen- tia, the neurologist has an opportunity to study how the disease affects an artist’s work over time and to correlate such changes with the results of neuroimaging. in this way it affords a unique way of studying how detailed changes in perception can be linked to localized cerebral functions. conclusions apart from psychiatric illnesses, which have been much studied in the past, a number of artists have been affl icted by certain neurological disorders including migraine, intracranial tumours, multi- ple sclerosis, motor neuron disease, parkinsonism, cerebrovascular disease, and various dementias. all of these conditions have, in various ways, af- fected their work. in the case of the dementias, correlating such changes over time with the re- sults of neuroimaging could help throw more light on our understanding of the relationships between cognitive and visual pathways. references critchley emr ( ) hallucinations and their impact on art. carnegie press, preston. critchley emr ( ) art and reality. journal of the his- tory of the neurosciences, , – . crutch sj, isaacs r & rossor mn ( ) some workmen can blame their tools: artistic change in an individual with alzheimer’s disease. lancet, , – . emery aeh ( ) medicine, artists and their art. jour- nal of the royal college of physicians, , – . espinel ch ( ) de kooning’s late colours and forms: dementia, creativity and the healing power of art. lan- cet, , – . farrington j ( ) wyndham lewis. lund humphries, london. fuller gn & gale mv ( ) migraine aura as artistic inspiration. british medical journal, , – . halligan pw & marshall jc ( ) the art of visual ne- glect. lancet, , – . jamison kr ( ) touched with fire. macmillan, new york. macgregor jm ( ) the discovery of the art of the insane. princeton university press, princeton. mackarell p ( ) depictions of an odyssey. national. society for education in art and design (nsead), corsham, uk. mell jc, howard sm & miller bl ( ) art and the brain: the infl uence of frontotemporal dementia on an accomplished artist. neurology, , – . post f ( ) creativity and psychopathology: a study of world famous men. british journal of psychiatry, , – . sahlas dj ( ) dementia with lewy bodies and the neurobehavioral decline of mervyn peake. archives of neurology, , – . sandblom p ( ) creativity and disease. marion bo- yars, new york, london. smith ws, mindelzun re & miller b ( ) simultan- agnosia through the eyes of an artist. neurology, , – . storr a ( ). churchill’s black dog and other phe- nomena of the human mind. collins, london. trevor-roper p ( ) the world through blunted sight. allen lane. penguin press, london. vigouroux ra, bonnefoi b & khalil r ( ) [réalisa- tions picturales chez un artiste peintre présentant une héminégligence gauche.] revue neurological (paris), , – . figure william utermohlen. series of self-portraits. painted at age (a), (b), (c), (d), pencil drawing at (e), and abstract self-portrait at (f). in crutch et al. , reproduced by kind permission of the lancet. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://p n .b m j.co m / p ra ct n e u ro l: first p u b lish e d a s . /j. - . . .x o n d e ce m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://pn.bmj.com/ april politecnico di torino repository istituzionale the common evolution of geometry and architecture from a geodetic point of view / bellone, tamara; fiermonte, francesco; mussio, luigi. - in: international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences. - issn - . - elettronico. - xlii- /w ( ), pp. - . ((intervento presentato al convegno geores international congress - geomatica e conservazione tenutosi a florence, italy nel – may . original the common evolution of geometry and architecture from a geodetic point of view publisher: published doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - terms of use: openaccess publisher copyright (article begins on next page) this article is made available under terms and conditions as specified in the corresponding bibliographic description in the repository availability: this version is available at: / since: - - t : : z international society for photogrammetry and remote sensing the common evolution of geometry and architecture from a geodetic point of view tamara bellone*. francesco fiermonte**, luigi mussio*** *diati, politecnico di torino, turin, italy **d.ist, politecnico di torino, turin, italy ***dica, politecnico di milano, milan, italy keywords: architecture, euclidean and non-euclidean geometries, projective geometry abstract: throughout history the link between geometry and architecture has been strong and while architects have used mathematics to construct their buildings, geometry has always been the essential tool allowing them to choose spatial shapes which are aesthetically appropriate. sometimes it is geometry which drives architectural choices, but at other times it is architectural innovation which facilitates the emergence of new ideas in geometry. among the best known types of geometry (euclidean, projective, analytical, topology, descriptive, fractal,…) those most frequently employed in architectural design are:  euclidean geometry  projective geometry  the non-euclidean geometries. entire architectural periods are linked to specific types of geometry. euclidean geometry, for example, was the basis for architectural styles from antiquity through to the romanesque period. perspective and projective geometry, for their part, were important from the gothic period through the renaissance and into the baroque and neo-classical eras, while non-euclidean geometries characterize modern architecture. . introduction for centuries geometry was effectively euclidean geometry: it was thought to be the one real geometry, representing space in a realistic way and, thus, no other geometry was believed possible. (stewart, ). when global navigation began, the natural, roughly spherical geometry of the earth's surface was revealed (stewart, ). on a sphere, geodesics will necessarily meet: in this geometry parallel lines are absent. however, hyperbolic geometry was developed (in the th century) before elliptic geometry, and in the former there are infinite lines parallel to a given line at a given point. today there are a variety of non-euclidean geometries, corresponding to curved surfaces. the general theory of relativity demonstrated that in the vicinity of bodies of great mass such as stars, space-time is not flat but, rather, curved. there is another type of geometry, called projective geometry, the development of which was based the perspective techniques used by painters and architects. if we are on a euclidean plane between two parallel lines, we see that these meet on the horizon: the horizon is not part of the plane but is a "line at infinity". sometimes it is geometry which drives architectural choices, but at other times it is architectural innovation which facilitates the emergence of new ideas in geometry: in any case, throughout history the link between geometry and architecture has been strong. entire architectural periods are linked to specific types of geometry. euclidean geometry is the basis for architectural styles from antiquity through to the romanesque period. perspective and projective geometry, for their part, were important from the gothic period through the renaissance and into the baroque and neo-classical eras, while non-euclidean geometries characterize modern architecture. . from antiquity to renaissance from antiquity through to the renaissance, architects defined the proportions and the symmetry of their buildings, and the relationship with the environment by means of geometrical solutions. flooding of the nile symbolized the annual return of chaos, geometry, used to restore the boundaries, was perhaps seen as restoring order on earth: geometry acquired a kind of sacredness. a golden ratio pyramid is based on a triangle whose three sides represent the mathematical relationship that defines the golden ratio. this triangle is known as a kepler triangle, where φ is . (fig. ). fig. the kepler triangle the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , geomatics & restoration – conservation of cultural heritage in the digital era, – may , florence, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kepler_triangle recall that we denote by φ (in honor of fidia) the golden number. if a segment ab is divided into two parts, such as : ab:ac=ac:cb the point c divides the segment in the so called golden ratio. the number ab/ac is the golden number. in the case ab was equal to , φ is . . indeed: 𝑥 = 𝑥 − ( ) 𝑥 = + √ ≅ . leonardo pisano, fibonacci ( - ), discovers a series of particular numbers: the first two terms of the sequence are and . all other terms are the sum of the two terms which precede them. a remarkable feature of these numbers is that the relationship between any fibonacci number and the one immediately preceding it tends to φ as n tends to infinity. “ do the wonderful arrangement of the petals of a rose, the harmonious cycle of certain shells, the breeding of rabbits and fibonacci's sequence have something in common?.. behind these very disparate realities there always hides the same irrational number commonly indicated by the greek letter φ (phi) . a proportion discovered by the pythagoreans, calculated by euclid and called by luca pacioli divina proportione” (mario livio, the golden section) . a logarithmic spiral where the constant relationship between the consecutive beams is equal to φ is called”golden” (fig. ). fig. the golden spiral while some scholars assert that aesthetics did not exist in ancient greece, it is well known that the greeks' architectural works adhered to well-defined standards. art was any object whose creation derived from the technical skills or expertise of a craftsman and which recreated an order evoking the order of nature (koσμος). the dimensions of an object of beauty are determined by the relationships between its component parts. the golden ratio was introduced by the pythagoreans as the ratio between the diagonal and the side of the regular pentagon. the symbol of the pentagonal star was the sign of the pythagoreans, for whom it represented love and beauty, health and balance (corbalan, ). temples represent the quintessence of greek architecture, and euclidean geometry was the canon defining the proportions of the component parts of these buildings. harmonic ratios derived from the study of this type of geometry, in turn, linked to musical intervals musical intervals. thus, greek architecture considers ratios to be bound up with mathematics, philosophy and music. this tradition is based upon the idea expounded by pythagoras and by plato that numerical proportions and symmetries are the pillars holding up the world. greek architects also used the sectio aurea (the golden ratio) since proportions could not be free, but had, rather, to align with the cosmic order. golden rectangles are observable on the façade of the parthenon (fig. ). in parthenon the overall height is the golden section of the width of the front part; then the facade has the size of a golden rectangle. this golden ratio is repeated several times between different elements of the front, for example, between the overall height and the height of which is located the entablature. fig. the parthenon (athens, v century b.c.) in any case, the argument that the architecture of the famous monument was based on the golden section appears unprovable, as it is, moreover, for all the buildings of antiquity. it might indeed appear that constructions designed using the golden ratio are based on an innate human sense of the aesthetic: puerta del sol near la paz, for example, is based on golden rectangles (fig. ) fig. puerta del sol (tiahunaco, uncertain age) thales calculated the height of the great pyramid of cheops, demonstrating that the real height of the pyramid and his pole were in equal proportion to their shadows: this is, at one and the same time, a classical indirect measurement and a basic theorem of euclidean geometry. harmony engendered by proportions and symmetry is also observed and celebrated in vitruvius’s “de architectura”. vitruvius describes the three limits of architecture: firmitas, utilitas, venustas (solidity, utility, beauty respectively. geometry the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , geomatics & restoration – conservation of cultural heritage in the digital era, – may , florence, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - is involved both in visible and structural characters (venustas and firmitas) fig. the great pyramid of cheops ( b.c.) geometry is involved both in visible and structural characters (venustas and firmitas) euclidean geometry informed architectural styles up to the romanesque period. sectio aurea was of great interest during the renaissance, from leonardo da vinci to leon battista alberti: one charming example of such is the malatestian temple at rimini (l.b. alberti, - ) (fig. ). fig. the malatestian temple (rimini, ) the holy family by michelangelo is organized according to the pentagonal star (fig. ). basic thought of pythagoreans is that the number is substance of reality: mathematical measurement (μετρου) is adequate for comprehension of the order in the world. for pythagoras, numbers exist in the space: so, no contradiction takes palec between mathematics and geometry. also, at the end of plato’s research, the science of metrology is formalized as the key of knowledge. this is worth even for man and his behaviour, also related to intercourse with other men and with his own activity, both mental and social. fig. the holy family (michelangelo, - ) . perspective and projective geometry as early as , alberti wrote the first book about the new technique of perspective, the “de pictura”. if some scholars assert that this principle is quite obvious, since the retinal image is in perspective, it is a different matter when discussing vision: phidias made statues which, in order to be coherently proportioned atop a column, had to be altered in form. columns closer to the observer seem narrower than those further away, and one famous correction of perspective is to be seen in the inward-slanting columns of the parthenon. it is interesting to compare two paintings depicting the annunciation, with (fig. ) and without (fig. ) the use of perspective. fig. annunciation (andrej rublev, ) the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , geomatics & restoration – conservation of cultural heritage in the digital era, – may , florence, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - fig. annunciation (leonardo da vinci, - ) in this context, the way to acquire a correct perspective is shown by a comparison between a flat byzantine representation (fig. ) and an attempt to draw the perspective in gothic pictures (fig. ). fig. the port of classis (sant’apollinare nuovo, ravenna, vi century) fig. joachim and anne’s meeting (giotto, scrovegni chapel, padua, - ) euclid's optics had already determined that objects create a cone of rays converging in the observer's pupil. perspective was concerned with the intersection of cone and plane of representation perspective conceives of the world from the viewpoint of a “seeing eye”, that is an individual who is free to represent the world beyond mere religious dogmas: the relationship between individualism and perspective is an important one. the painting the ideal city (fig. ), is a precise central projection. the author is unknown, possibly of th century. some scholars think of leon battista alberti as the author of the painting. the only vanishing point is at the portal of the temple fig. the ideal city (anonymous, ) in architecture, a solid perspective gives the beholder the illusion of a greater depth than is real. one clear example is the apse of saint mary by saint satyrus church in milan by bramante (fig. ). although the artist had at his disposal a depth of only cm, he gave the building a monumental impact through the optical illusion provided by an apparent barrel vault. fig. saint satyrus church (milan, ) perspective was a renaissance invention, but the basic idea of projection is much older and stemmed from the need to represent the earth on a plane. both the greeks (hipparchus, ptolemy) and the persians (al biruni, the astronomer and mathematician who discovered the earth's radius by indirect measurements, different from those of eratosthenes, whose work was, nonetheless, known to him), were able to project the globe on a plane and to detect single points using coordinates (latitude and longitude). the arabs indeed imported into europe indian, arabic, and persian ideas, not to mention ones from the greek tradition, in the fields of mathematics, cartography and geography,. ptolemy’s world map is a polar stereographic conformal projection which was in use until explorations from marco polo through to columbus led first to its modification, and later to its abandonment (mercator, ). generally, architects and painters of the th century used, particularly for ceiling frescos, a series of vanishing points in order to limit the paradoxical effects of perspective. some innovators, such as niceron, maignan and andrea del pozzo, used a unique, central viewpoint which resulted in significant distortion at the edges. in the convent of trinità dei monti, images of saints which are clearly visible from a precise, lateral viewpoint (fig. .), dissolve as one comes closer to the center of painting (fig. ). in , niceron wrote “de perspectiva curiosa”, a treatise on anamorphosis. the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , geomatics & restoration – conservation of cultural heritage in the digital era, – may , florence, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - fig. st. francis from paola - normal view (maignan, trinità dei monti rome, ) fig. st. francis from paola - anamorphic view (maignan, trinità dei monti rome, ) the invention of perspective, together with cartographic and anamorphic experimentation, also inspired projective geometry. desargues, a lyonnais painter, architect and mathematician, broadens perspective, increasing the use of vanishing points (points at infinity). he believed that a geometrical entity could be distorted continuously: when one moves one of the foci of an ellipse to infinity, a parabola is obtained. subsequently, baroque architecture would express ideas of infinite time and space, in step with the philosophical views of giordano bruno. according to desargues:  two points identify one and only one straight line  two straight identify one and only one point the consequence is that there are no parallel lines and the conical are indistinguishable. (odifreddi, ). projective geometry is concerned with the study of the properties of figures, with respect to a series of transformations, defined as projective, obtained by operations of projection and section that can alter the metric properties, but not the projective ones the baroque is constantly in search of free and open surfaces, elliptical and in constant transformation. guarini, in the chapel of the holy shroud (end of xvii century) creates optical effects and continuous geometric transformations (fig. ); in the san lorenzo church (also in turin), he brings together convex and concave surfaces (fig. ). during his stay in paris, guarini studied infinitesimal calculus and the theories of desargues; many scholars suppose that in the domes of guarini projective geometry is a theoretical basis. fig. chapel of the holy shroud (guarini, turin, ) fig. san lorenzo church (guarini, turin, - ) borromini shapes undulating architraves, skewed arches and oblique forms (fig. ). fig. sant’ivo alla sapienza (borromini, rome - ) the colonnade of piazza san pietro (by bernini), which is straight to the eye of the observer at the center of the piazza, appears continuously transformed as the closer up he comes with the columns seemingly oblique (fig. ) the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , geomatics & restoration – conservation of cultural heritage in the digital era, – may , florence, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - fig. view of st. peter’s square (piranesi, ) since the advent of computer vision a few decades ago, projective geometry has been arousing renewed interest. in fact, any understanding of how images are formed depends on an analysis of the process by which a (three-dimensional) scene is projected onto a (two-dimensional) plane. in a very concise terms, the process can be divided into two distinct parts, one being essentially geometric and while the other radiometric ):  the determination of the image point position;  the determination of the resulting image point brightness. thus, the first phase itself of the process is dependent on concepts and methods of projective geometry. in particular, projective transformations of the plane shape the geometric distortions, which are present when an object is represented in a flat image (captured by a sensor, such as a digital camera, however arranged in d space). some properties of the object, then, are retained in the passage from object to image (such as collinearity), while others are not (for example, parallelism is not preserved, at least not generally). therefore, projective geometry models image formation and favours its mathematical representation, adapted to the calculation, i.e. by introducing algebra into geometry, to describe geometric entities in terms of coordinates and other algebraic entities. . non-euclidean geometries perception of parallelism is shaky, perhaps a cultural issue, while perspective vision is perhaps a symbolic form (panofsky): the time is ripe to abandon the euclidean space in science and the arts. it is interesting to compare the paintings of van gogh or cézanne that represent what the artists see, with perspective drawings of the same scene: the effect is of alienation. (fig. ). the curve perception of straight lines depends on the physiology of the eye: the retina is curved. our eye knows all three geometries euclidean, spherical and hyperbolic (odifreddi, ). topographic work for the duchy of hanover caused gauss to deal with geodetic triangles and theoretical geodesy, and thus to anticipate hyperbolic and elliptical geometries (lobačevsky and riemann). it is easy to see that all triangles upon a sphere (i.e. the earth, more or less...) have angles whose global amplitude is over °. also, all geodesics meet at two points only. in this case we can say that curvature is positive. moreover, in the said geometry, parallels are quite absent. fig. le café de nuit (van gogh, ) on the contrary, for hyperbolic geometry, total amplitude of inner angles for triangles is less than ° and the curvature is said negative: in this case, the number of parallels at a single point to a given geodesic is unlimited. above a spherical surface, when a triangle is enlarged, also the width of inner angles increase (positive curvature); the opposite happens on hyperbolic surfaces (negative curvature). on a flat surface the amplitude doesn’t change. (o’shea, ). the earth continues to appear flat in restricted areas, i.e. the sphere can appear, in small scale, euclidean (fig. ) fig. the montréal biosphère (fueller, ) a forewarning of later artistic revolutions was the dissolution of classical geometric forms led by the macchiaioli and the early impressionists (fig. and fig. ) . fig. il caffé michelangiolo (ceccioni, ) the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , geomatics & restoration – conservation of cultural heritage in the digital era, – may , florence, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/montr%c %a al_biosph%c %a re fig. the red jacket (zandomenghi, ) both non-euclidean geometry and the theory of relativity are at the basis of cubism. cubist painting introduces a fourth dimension: time; in point of fact, one picture can have simultaneously different viewpoints, permitting analysis at different times (fig. ). fig. portait of dora maar (picasso, ) the idea of watching an object from all viewpoints has to do with going beyond the third dimension, objects are broken and re-assembled as well as being displayed in a broader context. non-euclidean geometries are present in the work of artists like picasso and malevich (fig. ), and in architectural constructivism and deconstructivism. the theory of relativity concludes that the three geometries euclidean, hyperbolic and elliptic can be successfully apply in different areas. fig. the woodcutter (malevich, ) shukhov, architect, engineer and mathematician, devised, like gaudi (fig. ) double-curvature structures, hyperboloids of revolution, based on non-euclidean geometry. fig. casa milà (barcelona, - ) the hyperboloid tower (fig. ) built by shukhov for the nizhny novgorod exhibition ( ) was the prototype for many industrial buildings, and perhaps it was thanks to this that he had some influence on russian constructivism. indeed, constructivism encouraged the use of industrial materials and of shapes derived from technical processes. fig. the shukhov tower ( - ) constructivism created buildings and monuments which broke the rules of compositional unity. vladimir tatlin, artist and architect, projected a tower in honor of the third international, that was never built (fig ). in a period of reaction , soviet architecture returned to neo-classicism. in the nineteen-eighties, some architects declared themselves deconstructivists, in reference to derrida and deconstructionism, on the one hand, and, on the other, to russian constructivism - destroyer of euclidean geometry based upon harmony and proportion - which they sought to infuriate and supplant. the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , geomatics & restoration – conservation of cultural heritage in the digital era, – may , florence, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - fig tower of third international (petrograd, - ) walls of buildings slope and open out, and the buildings themselves are out of place in their locations: cuts, fragmentations and asymmetry are their main characteristics. one important representation is the guggenheim museum in bilbao, by frank gehry ( ) (fig. ). fig. guggenheim museum (bilbao, ) frank owen gehry and le corbusier are two symbols in modern architecture. le corbusier, in his times, is impressed by the cubistic rationalism (he was a personal friend of some of most important painters of this art movement). the golden number entered in the architecture of le corbusier, as in the villa savoye (fig .), or in la ville radieuse in marseille, although in the course of times a noticeable evolution is to be seen in his many works (zeri, ) (fig. ) frank o.gehry is an eclectic personality; a special feature in his work is avoiding forms and shapes of euclidean geometry and perspective, with special preference for what appears as disharmonic and asymmetric (zeri, ) (fig. ). fig. villa savoye (poissy, - ) fig. chapelle notre dame du haut (ronchamp, ) fig. dancing house (prague, ) references corbalan, f., . la sezione aurea. rba, milano livio, m., . la sezione aurea. mondadori, milano odifreddi, p., . una via di fuga. mondadori, milano o’shea, d., . la congettura di poincaré. rizzoli, milano. stewart, i., . numeri incredibili, bollati boringhieri, torino urgelles, j.g., . quando le rette diventano curve. rba, milano zevi, b., . architettura della modernità. newton compton, roma the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , geomatics & restoration – conservation of cultural heritage in the digital era, – may , florence, italy this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - shibboleth authentication request if your browser does not continue automatically, click close-ups close-ups adam phillips history workshop journal, issue , spring , pp. - (article) published by oxford university press for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ close-ups by adam phillips o’hara: which reminds me: some of your detractors say that you’re merely fashionable. barthelme: well, the mere has always been a useful category. donald barthelme: ‘the art of fiction lxvi’, paris review , in freud’s remembering, repeating, and working through, published in but written just before the outbreak of war, he wrote that a certain kind of patient, ‘does not remember anything of what he has forgotten and repressed, but acts it out. he reproduces it not as a memory but as an action; he repeats it, without, of course, knowing that he is repeating it’. we repeat in action, freud suggests, what we are unable or unwilling to remember. it is not merely that we fail to construct a historical distance from this past that we repeat; it is that we have not noticed, to all intents and purposes, that such a distance exists. it is as though whatever it is that makes some- thing a memory has not happened. but also, freud intimates, there is some- thing about remembering that can put a stop to the past as prescriptive. it is precisely the acknowledgement of historical distance – the construction in language of the past as proximate rather than immediate – that is the modern individual’s most difficult task. the patients freud invented, one could say, were living in the past but not living in history. freud was struck by the fact that modern individuals resisted having a history. they preferred, often at exorbitant personal cost, to go on repeating themselves; as though there was an uncanny sense in the which the personal past – the traumatic personal past – never changed: was itself being actively preserved like an (unconscious) archive. where there is repetition, freud says, there was repression; and where there was repression, there was trauma. repetition is the sign of trauma; our reiterations, our mannerisms, link us to our losses, to our buried conflicts. when freud says that the patient repeats as an action what he cannot remember, we should remember that writing is itself an action, and that genre is itself a form of repetition that easily obscures its own history, the conflicts it was born out of, the problems which made it feel like a solution. freud is inviting us to distinguish between something he calls remembering, which is presumably veracious and potentially transforma- tive, and something called an action, a repeated action in which the so- called patient – like an actor with a script, or a figure in a dream – unwittingly performs something from his past. that he knows he is repeat- ing something, but that he doesn’t know he is repeating something from the history workshop journal issue © history workshop journal dbh (ds) / / : am page chf past means that unwittingly he is living in the present as if it were the past (though it is not an ‘as if’ to him). the patient who repetitively re-enacts something from the past clearly has no distance from it, because for him there is no it from which he could take his distance. freud is alerting us to the idea that there is nothing that the individual defends himself against more than the construction of distance from the traumatic past. what freud refers to as remembering here is a making of links to the past – linking involving a prior separating out; and what freud is calling psychoanalytic treatment here is a therapeutic technique that makes the past memorable rather than spellbinding. that makes the past into history, into something that one can consider the advantages and disadvantages of knowing about. so freud’s question is: what stops the past becoming available as memory, what is it about the distancing that makes memory possible that the indi- vidual cannot bear? what would it mean to have – what kind of sentences would follow on from having – some distance from one’s own past? the psychoanalyst, one could say, is trying to help the so-called patient become the historian of himself. there is, freud can’t help but notice, a resistance to history making; and the resistance makes itself known in the ways people tell their histories. * * * bill schwarz, in an essay titled ‘already the past’, reminds us that ‘history and memory are not the same’, and that ‘historiography and memory are not the same’; even though ‘historians are not wrong in seeing the enormity of the impact of memory on historiography’. all these nots are in the service of promoting a contemporary historiography, ‘troubled by the realm of subjective time’, attentive to the preoccupations of the great modernist writers, of whom freud is one. indeed, in the example given above, the patient who cannot remember is living entirely in the realm of subjective time, with freud as his historian (even if the whole notion of subjective time is as perplexing, in its way, as the notion of a private language). freud is describing the immediacy of something called the past that is mediating (or not) something called the present. freud has a distance, apparently, that the patient does not have; freud becomes the historian of how this patient has been unable to have a history. freud is preoccupied by the immediacy of the past – or rather, its being insufficiently mediated by language – and the resistances to history, by the ways people have, at once, too much and too little distance from their past, and most notably, from their childhoods: the patient is always the failed historian of his own life. but by the same token freud is tempting us to wonder what it would be to be the successful historians of our own lives. in what would this success consist, and what would be its benefit? and what, if anything, has this got to do with histori- ography in which, until relatively recently, personal memory has only played a bit part? and in which, in r. g. collingwood’s definition, ‘evidence is a collective name for things which singly are called documents, close-ups dbh (ds) / / : am page and a document is a thing existing here and now, of such a kind that the historian, by thinking about it, can get answers to the questions he asks about past events’; psychoanalysis as a therapy is, of course, merely hearsay; though it is about history, and it produces documents of psycho- analytic theory that may be of historical interest. freud’s writing may be merely a footnote, an afterthought, to nietzsche’s on the advantages and disadvantages of history for life ( ), with the figure of the psychoana- lyst speaking up for the advantages of history – of personal, remembered history – for life. but in psychoanalysis, as perhaps part of the modern history of historiography, the idea of historical distance, to paraphrase mark phillips, has always been a term of art. indeed, it is inconceivable without the figures of distantiation. consideration of the word identification alone in historiography and psychoanalytic theory would, i imagine, reveal considerable areas of overlap. psychoanalysis, like historiography, is about the re-presentation of the significance of events; and about what makes such capacities as we have for representation problematic. the paradox of freud’s patient is that by re-enacting rather than remem- bering, by collapsing the present back into the past, he keeps the past at a distance. freud, in other words, is referring to two forms of distancing. there is the distancing of memory – more akin to collingwood’s documents as evidence – in which there is space for reflection. by thinking about the memories the patient might get answers to the questions he asks about the past. and as memories, again like documents, they can pass into the public realm, and be available for shared consideration. but in the distancing of repeated re-enactment the only evidence is the repeated action, and the disavowal that this is evidence of something that could be called the past; the only evidence of the past is repetition itself, but as evidence this only exists for the psychoanalyst. the repeated actions would be like a set of more or less identical documents with just the word history written on them. the patient who compulsively repeats in this way has very little to reflect upon, other than the fact that he keeps repeating himself. he is living in that infinite distance from the past that is no-memory. only by describing repeated actions as a defence against memory is the distance between the past and the present constructed. repetition is the sign of traumatic history that must not or cannot be remembered as such; wherever there is repeti- tion in the freudian individual’s life there is, there has had to be, a break- down in the making of history. freud adds repeated action to the stock of available evidence of the past. distancing – the mapping, in language and/or symptoms, of time on to space – is a prerequisite for psychic survival. and the personal past – re-presenting itself as dream, as screen-memory, as symptom or slip, as desire or repeated action – from a psychoanalytic point of view comes, as mark phillips says history writing should come, ‘as a family of related genres, rather than (as customarily) a simple unitary one’. freud finds that for his modern individual personal history can only be inscribed in these hybrid genres. and indeed that the method required for history workshop journal dbh (ds) / / : am page the treatment of personal history problems was itself a hybrid of the methods proposed for historiography by collingwood and wilhelm dilthey; a hybrid of what phillips calls ‘the grand narratives of scientific reason’ and the reading of ‘every type of human activity as belonging to its own expressive context’. psychoanalysis, as both theory and practice is, in phillips’s phrase about modern historiography, ‘a . . . tension between abstraction and immediacy’. in the attempt to combine the sciences of nature and the sciences of culture that freud called psychoanalysis the analyst oscillates – in his quest for a therapeutic oral history – between what phillips refers to as empa- thetic imagination, and a more detached sense of the so-called patient as, in dilthey’s words, ‘a structure governed by laws’. and what freud discov- ers, among other things, are the myriad ways in which the patient keeps himself at a distance. when it comes to memory and desire – the recon- struction of his own history – the modern individual, in freud’s descrip- tion, is a distancing machine. the patient, as freud sees him, is always working on his ignorance. so when phillips says, à propos of dilthey and the hermeneutic tradition, that ‘it is the strangeness or opacity of the historical record that produces the need for a leap of understanding’ this would be an accurate description of the psychoanalyst in relation to the patient, and of the patient in relation to himself. the modern individual that freud describes has an investment, so to speak, in maintaining the strangeness and opacity of his historical record of himself. freud’s thera- peutic method of free-association then is itself a disillusionment with, a suspicion of, previous forms of oral historical narrative. personal history shows through only when narrative coherence is not required. indeed in the light of mark phillips’s paper one might see freud’s work as one site in which the constructing of historical distance – at the level of the indi- vidual – is being studied. that, at least, personal history is all about, for freud, the regulation of distance in language; and psychoanalysis, as a body of writing, is a kind of phenomenological account of what freud’s modern individual subject needs to keep his distance from. psychoanalysis is a close-up on distancing techniques akin, perhaps, to picasso’s close-up on faces, as described by david hockney. ‘on the whole we don’t see close up’, hockney writes. the only people you ever really see close up are the ones you are in bed with. when your face is close to, moving around, features move to different places, the shapes change, you see double, and so on. the closer things are to you the more difficult it is to locate their exact position – they don’t really have an exact position. in genuine close-up, if you look at a face very close to, the subject is far more distorted, similar to the way picasso would have treated a face. so one of the important things that picasso was getting at – in cubism as in his later work – was an intimate form of seeing. close-ups dbh (ds) / / : am page ‘the closer things are to you’, hockney writes, ‘the more difficult it is to locate their exact position – they don’t really have an exact position.’ the closer you get to your internal delirium in free-association, freud says, or in a dream, things – call them historical events – don’t really have an exact position. indeed the need for things to have an exact position – the deter- mined commitment to a definitive historical narrative – would itself be a sign of internal conflict, of repression at work. it is clearly of interest that we describe the face close up as ‘distorted’. as mark phillips’s paper indi- cates, our normative assumptions about distance are unusually difficult to discern; and yet, at the same time, distance, and linguistic strategies of distantiation, must be something about which we are most sensitive. certainly all of psychoanalysis revolves around separation from object of need, and proximity to the forbidden object of desire. distance from and distance for are the building blocks of the micro-historical enquiry that is psychoanalysis. if, as phillips says, ‘historicism rests upon a dogmatic relationship to history which it seems unable to examine’ freud’s work must be a symptom, a working through, of precisely this problem. the psychoanalytic patient that freud invented is, in his view, suffering from a dogmatic relationship to his own history that he is unable to examine. the question is whether psychoanalysis has been able to avoid having a dogmatic relationship to both its own history, and the histories of the individuals it has treated. freud’s work certainly makes one wonder – as does phillips’s paper – what it would be to have an undogmatic relationship to history, or whether all we can do is to examine the dogmas. in psychoanalysis dogma about distance is called phobia; but one could redescribe all of freud’s diagnostic categories – hysteria, obsessionality, paranoia and so on – as the modern individual’s repertoire of distancing techniques; with each group having its own kind of dogma about its own history, and its own characteristic inability to examine this history (its own preferred historiography, as it were). and as documents of micro-history it is always interesting to read psychoanalytic case-histories for the ways in which the writer constructs his distance from the patient: the ways in which the clinician as writer keeps his distance from his own history and the history of the so-called patient. the historiography of the case-history – of what freud refers to in the case of dora as, ‘the patient’s inability to give an ordered history of their life’, and the doctor’s ability or otherwise to construct what he considers to be an ordered history – would clearly be one way to consider how, in phillips’s words, ‘historicism protected history itself from deeper enquiry’. because the questions philips is asking in his paper are about writing as distantiation. and he is not merely saying that distance is inevitable in the writing of history – in the sense that all writing is by defi- nition after the event and therefore always an after-effect of the event; but rather that this fact serves to obscure the ways in which we are construct- ing this historical distance, and with animating intentions. it is as though history workshop journal dbh (ds) / / : am page distance is so taken for granted in the writing of history that the writing effects, the rhetorical strategies and the deployed vocabularies that serve to create a sense of proximity and distance, are obscured by their prevalence. the difficulty, as phillips shows so compellingly in his society and sentiment, is in describing what these rhetorical strategies of history writing are under pressure from at any given time; what phillips calls there, ‘the impact of new understandings of society on conventional definitions of historical know- ledge’. and this becomes both a question of what constitutes historical evidence, and of the contemporary pertinence of historical knowledge and enquiry; of the advantages and disadvantages of history. phillips describes the historians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as being preoccu- pied by their negative ideals, by working out what kind of writing history- writing was trying not to be (not like the novel, not like journalism, not like classical models of historiography, and so on). it is a question too of working out the impact of commerce, of a culture of commerce, on inher- ited forms of historiography. and this is done by making distance a term of art. ‘just because assumptions about distance lie close to the core of history’s methods and purposes’, phillips concludes society and sentiment, ‘these assumptions have seldom been brought to the surface, and have more often been the subject of dogmas than questions’. this, of course, is not worlds apart from the psychoanalytic assumption that making something conscious is a way of turning dogma back into its constitutive conflict. but by way of conclusion i want to rephrase phillips’s ‘assumptions about distance’ as ‘assumptions about closeness’, and to suggest that there is a peculiar difficulty about historicizing too-closeness; the idea of being too close bringing with it the question of too close for what? for freud’s patients one could say, for example, that they were too close to the traumas of their childhood, or too close to their forbidden desires to have something that we might call a personal history. that too-close is one of the ways we describe both the experience of intimacy and the experience of trauma. there is an interesting moment in society and sentiment when phillips comments on hume’s remarks about clarendon ‘hurrying’ through the king’s death in his history of the rebellion. hume’s ‘remarks do stand’, phillips writes, as an important recognition that historical distance is itself a product of history. hume clearly saw that clarendon did not freely and individually choose his stance in relation to the regicide; rather he shared with his readers a proximity to the event that made a sentimental representation of charles’s death unthinkable. by the same token hume knew that the passing of the pain of the events had meanwhile opened up for his readers as much as for himself possibilities for finding a new meaning. distance from pain makes redescription possible; hume saw that claren- don’s proximity, and his loyalties, narrowed his narrative options. the close-ups dbh (ds) / / : am page regicide could barely be put into words or dwelt upon by clarendon. hume’s distance – what phillips calls the ‘passing of the pain of events’ – makes the killing of the king available for multiple perspectives. ‘proxim- ity to the event’, phillips writes, ‘made a sentimental representation of charles’s death unthinkable’; too close means there is an excess, a too- much of something, that hampers representation, what phillips refers to as ‘possibilities for finding new meaning’. too much closeness means too much of something – call it feeling, though it could be called various things – means too little of something else, call it meaning, or simply words. language (and therefore) history, hume and phillips imply, come into their own at a distance. but the problem might also be how to historicize this very experience of too closeness; and it is noticeable that in his own account phillips has recourse to the language of psychology. there appears to be little distance between hume on clarendon, phillips on hume on claren- don and w. g. sebald on the bombing of dresden: the death by fire within a few hours of an entire city, with all its build- ings and trees, its inhabitants, its domestic pets, its fixtures and fittings of every kind, must inevitably have led to overload, to paralysis of the capacity to think and feel in those who succeeded in escaping. the accounts of individual eye witnesses, therefore, are of only qualified value, and need to be supplemented by what a synoptic and artificial view reveals. what sebald refers to as a synoptic and artificial view is the view from a distance that only historians of the event can have. the paradox he presents – not unlike freud’s – is that the survivors of a catastrophe, of what we might call a trauma, do not have a history; there is a history, but not for them; because they are too close, and unlike picasso studying the faces of the people he is in bed with, they can make nothing of their experience. when it comes to traumatic events – or to certain kinds of event – it is not merely a question of what kind of distance is preferable, but of what kind of distance is possible. to be choosing one’s genre is already to be at a sufficient distance. it would be worth wondering, in phillips’s words, what ‘prescriptive views of distance are . . . so embedded in our disciplinary codes’ such that a historical account of devastation can sound plausible to us as readers. there is clearly, for example, a preference for coherent, intelligible narra- tive about events that rendered people vague, incoherent, numbed and hurried. ‘the terms in which history congratulates itself on its difference from memory’, phillips writes, ‘are remarkably ahistorical and (thankfully) no more than half true.’ if history is not as different from memory as it looks; or if we were to model the writing of history on the workings of memory, as the great modernist experiments in writing were prompting us to do, then the coherence and intelligibility of historical narrative, which is history workshop journal dbh (ds) / / : am page itself inevitably and tendentiously distancing, would be radically disfigured. freud’s method of free-association assumed that the coherent account a person can give of their history is, by definition, a defensive account; that a modern person distances themselves from their history through narrative coherence and plausibility. a good story is a bad history. the question is, then, how to historicize too-closeness. notes and references sigmund freud, standard edition of the complete psychological works, vol. xii, p. . bill schwarz, ‘already the past: memory and historical time’, in regimes of memory, ed. susannah radstone and katharine hodgkin, routledge studies in memory and narrative, london, . r. g. collingwood, the idea of history, oxford, , p. . mark salber phillips, society and sentiment: genres of historical writing in britain, princeton, , p. . david hockney, picasso, new york, , pp. – . freud, standard edition, vol. , p. . phillips, society and sentiment, p. . phillips, society and sentiment, p. . phillips, society and sentiment, p. . w. g. sebald, on the natural history of destruction, london, , p. . close-ups dbh (ds) / / : am page microsoft word - Özlem gÜrpinar.docx © ulakbilge. bu makale creative commons attribution (cc by-nc-nd) . lisansı ile yayımlanmaktadır. ÇaĞdaŞ sanatta nesnelerİn tİcarİleŞtİrİlmesİ sorunsali: jeff koons ÖrneĞİ Özlem gÜrpinar araştırma görevlisi, ardahan Üniversitesi, güzel sanatlar fakültesi, resim bölümü, ozlemgurpinar(at)ardahan.edu.tr orcid id: - - - gürpınar, Özlem. “Çağdaş sanatta nesnelerin ticarileştirilmesi sorunsalı: jeff koons Örneği”. ulakbilge, ( temmuz): s. – . doi: . /ulakbilge- - - Öz sanat, dönemsel gelişmelerle aynı doğrultuda ilerlemekte ve değişmektedir. sanatçılar, sanat eserlerinde endüstriyel- teknolojik ve gündelik üretim malzemelerini kullanarak meta ve kitsch gibi kavramları sanatın alanına almışlardır. bununla birlikte sanatın maddi açıdan kullanılmasının yolu da açılmıştır. kübizmle kolajın ve gündelik malzemelerin yavaş yavaş sanata girişi, dada ile hazır nesnenin kullanımı, fütürizmle makine ve hızın varlığının vurgulanması, ilerleyen dönemlerde sanat yapıtının tuvalden uzaklaşacağının belirtisidir. Özellikle avangard bir akım olan dada, sanatın özerkliğini ve sanat eserinin varlığını ticari anlamda sorgulamaya itmiştir. . yüzyılın ikinci yarısından sonra sanayinin gelişmesi ile ortaya çıkan pop art’ın, seri üretim objelerini sanat yapıtı olarak sunması ve teknolojiyle birlikte gelişen kinetik art, pop art gibi akımların teknolojiyi kullanması sanatın kapsamını genişletmiştir. Çağdaş sanat içerisinde sanat yapıtının bariz şekilde ticarileştirilmesi, sanat toplumu içerisinde tartışmalara sebep olmuştur. yukarda bahsedilen gelişmeler çağdaş sanatta ifade alanının özgürleşmesine sebep olurken, jeff koons gibi sanatçılar da yaptığı işlerdeki sanat simsarlğı nedeniyle eleştirel noktada yerini almaktadır. araştırmanın amacı, koons’un sanat pratiklerini nasıl ticari bir araca dönüştürdüğünü incelemektir. makalede; sanat yapıtı olarak sunulan bayağı nesnelerin yani, tüketim objelerinin kullanılması ve sanatçıların bunları kullanarak maddi bir kâr elde etmesi irdelenmiştir. tüketim faktörü ve seri üretim sanat yapıtına aşılanmış ve estetik algı arka plana itilerek sanat-meta ilişkisi ön plana çıkarılmıştır. bu sorunsallar, sanatçılar üzerinden ifade edilmeye çalışılmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: tüketim, çağdaş sanat, seri üretim, kitsch, sanat-meta ilişkisi makale bilgisi geliş: mart düzeltme: nisan kabul: mayıs gürpınar, Özlem. “Çağdaş sanatta nesnelerin ticarileştirilmesi sorunsalı: jeff koons Örneği”. ulakbilge, ( temmuz): s. - . doi: . /ulakbilge- - - giriş ’li yıllarda postmodernist sanat anlayışıyla birlikte seri üretim, popüler kültür ve kapitalist yaklaşımlar göze çarpmaktadır. Çağdaş sanatta bu kavramların örnekleri açıkça görülmektedir. sanatta ihracat yapılır gibi üretilen tüketim ürünleri, markalaşmış sanatçılar tarafından yerli popüler kültürle birleştirilerek evrensel kültür haline gelmektedir. sanatta herkesçe bilinen nesnelerin kullanımı, kitsch ve bayağı kavramlarının ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmuştur. kitsch kavramı, zevksiz, ticarileşmiş nesneler için kullanılır. greenberg’e göre, “kitsch’in batı endüstriyalizminin başka bir kitlesel ürünü olarak bir sömürgeden turlayıp yerli kültürleri kovacağını ve böylece dünyanın ilk evrensel kültürü haline geleceğini öngörür” (artun, : ). artık üretim nesneleri kendi benliğinden soyutlanarak sanatın hem objesi hem de içeriği haline gelmektedir. sanayinin güçlenmesi, basın yayın organlarının yaygınlaşması ve hayatın güçlü bir döneme geçmesiyle yaşam pratikleri değişmiştir. bu yeni yaşam pratikleri popüler kültürü ortaya çıkarmıştır. Özellikle amerika ve avrupa bu kültürün iki merkezidir. teknolojik imkânların ve endüstriyel çağın gelişimi kullan-at popüler kültür nesnelerinin ve kitsch kavramının aynı bağlam içerisinde gelişmesine katkı sağlayıp, alt ve üst kültürün keskin çizgisini yumuşatmıştır. bir zamanlar anti-estetik duruşları nedeniyle eleştirilen ticari ürünler, şimdi sanatçılar tarafından övgülerle karşılanmıştır. klasik dönemde sanatta kullanılan kültürel kodlar reddedilirken sanatın bu yeni popüler anti-estetik biçimlerin temsili objesi, popüler ikonların ticari değerleri konusunda bir geçiş basamağı sağlamıştır. artık bu ticari nesneler toplumsal ikonlardır. o yüzden bu makalede koons’un, sanatı nasıl ticari bir metafora dönüştürdüğü incelenmektedir. drucker’in bakışıyla, “bugün son derece gelişmiş bir sembolik etkinlik olarak güzel sanatlar, tüketimin ve gösterişin güdümündeki kitle kültürüne daha güçlü bir destek sağlar” (artun, : ). tüketim kültürü ve sanat birbirine eklemlenmiştir ve bu iki kavram birbirlerini beslemektedir. ticari objeler; statü, imge, ikon ve beklenti anlamı içermektedir. böylece tüketim, kültürel bir olaydır. sanat mecrası, tüketim piyasasının değerine hizmet eden bir araca dönüşerek afiş veya reklamdan farkı kalmamaktadır. Şöyle ki bazı sanatçılar, kendi reklamlarını veya eserlerinin reklamını yapmaktan öteye gidememektedir. koons’un ticarileşmiş sanatı sanatın tüketim ve kültür piyasasındaki aktif rolü incelenecek olursa; toplumdaki tüketim çılgınlığını sanata taşıyan koons, tüketim estetiğinin sanat bağlamı içerisinde nasıl statüleştiğini gösteren başlıca sanatçılardandır. popüler kültürün ve tüketim kültürünün özellikle ’lerden sonra hızlı bir şekilde yaşam şartlarını değiştirmesi ve bununla birlikte sanatın metalaşması, sanatın tüketim nesnesi haline dönüşmesi, teknolojik ve kapitalist gelişmelerle yarışması sanatın hem betimsel yapısını hem de içeriğini değiştirmektedir. sanatta bu durum andy warhol’la başlar. Örneğin; çorba tenekeleriyle yaptığı seriler, üretim sürecinin sanattaki avangardıdır. warhol eleştirmenlerinden pek çoğu, çorba konservelerinin sanatçının çağdaş sanata en önemli katkısı olduğunu, konserve konsepti bir kez raftan galeri duvarına çıkınca, “bir reklamın bir daha asla aynı şekilde görülemeyeceği”ni öne sürmüşlerdir. Çorba konserveleri, metalaştırma denen sanatsal kavramın başlangıcını oluşturmuştur (thompson, : ). warhol, amerikan kültürünü markalaştırmış biri olarak tanınırken aynı zamanda bu süreçte kendisi de markalaşmıştır. koons ise bu kültür kodlarını çevirerek hem biçimsel yapı hem de düşünce yapısı olarak hızlı bir şekilde sanatı ticaret aracına dönüştürmüştür. duchamp gibi o da hazır nesneleri kullanmıştır ancak aralarında ciddi farklılıklar gözlenmektedir. koons da duchamp gibi anti-estetik sanat formları üretme peşindedir. duchamp pisuar eserine imza atarak imzasının nesneden daha değerli olduğunu göstermiştir. koons’un ise hiçbir eserinde imzası yoktur. toplum için fayda içeren tüketim ürünü olan elektrik süpürgesi, pleksiglasla oluşturulmuş kutunun içerisine konulmuştur. yanlarına da floresan ışığı yerleştirilmiştir. (resim .) bu ürünlerde parmak izi dahi yoktur ve sanatçı kimliğini yansıtmaktan kaçınmıştır. kutsanmış bir toplum ikonu kadar titizdir. balon köpek, pembe panter gibi tüm işleri, andy warhol ve duchamp’tan alınan mantığın sentezlenmiş halidir. koons’un ticari kültürü işlerine taşıması, bu nesneleri daha popüler noktaya getirmiştir (fineberg, : ). gürpınar, Özlem. “Çağdaş sanatta nesnelerin ticarileştirilmesi sorunsalı: jeff koons Örneği”. ulakbilge, ( temmuz): s. - . doi: . /ulakbilge- - - resim . jeff koons, yeni hoover convertible’lar, yeni shelton wet/dry’lar, - , galonluk iki katlı vitrin, akrilik, floresan ışıklar, . x . x . cm resim . marcel duchamp, pisuar, , cm x cm x cm koons, özellikle seri üretim içerisinde olan nesneleri kullanarak eşsiz sanat eseri fikri yerine heykel fikrini ortaya koymaktadır. süslü, dikkat çeken ve sanatta kitsch olarak nitelendirilen objeler, birer sanat eserine ve aynı zamanda sanatsal meta durumuna evrilmektedir. orta alt beğeni sınıfından tasnif edilebilecek veya anti-estetik gürpınar, Özlem. “Çağdaş sanatta nesnelerin ticarileştirilmesi sorunsalı: jeff koons Örneği”. ulakbilge, ( temmuz): s. - . doi: . /ulakbilge- - - olarak nitelenebilecek bu formlar, sanat ortamından öte ticari bir değer olarak sunulmaktadırlar. “koons, çalışmalarını, burjuvayı eğitmek amacıyla gerçekleştirdiğini ifade eder. sanatçıya göre bu grup gelecekteki aristokrasiyi oluşturacaktır” (Şahiner, : ). koons’un sanat alımlayıcılarının tamamını burjuva oluşturur. estetik taleplerine karşılık vermek yerine anti-estetik yapıya sahip eserleri burjuvaya kabul ettirmeyi başarmıştır. borsacı kimliği neyin nasıl pazarlanacağı konusunda bütün incelikleri ona sağlamaktadır. yine sanatçı genel olarak doğallıktan uzak, yapmacık gibi kavramları göstermek için formlarda yoğun olarak süslemeye giderek rokoko’ya gönderme de bulunmuştur. rokoko’ya atıfta bulunmasının nedeni soğuk, duygusuz bir içeriğe sahip olmasının yanı sıra altın varaklı sütunların bulunduğu, pahalı eşyaların kullanıldığı şaşaalı bir dönem olmasıdır. bayağı nesneleri kullanması tüketim olgusuna ne kadar bağlı olduğunu göstermektedir. resim . jeff koons, balon köpek, - , palazzo garassi, venedik, transparan boya kaplama yüksek oranda krom içeren paslanmaz çelik, . x . x . m koons’un yaptığı işler kitsch ürünler olarak nitelendirilmektedir. ancak çağdaş sanatta bazı sanat toplulukları içerisinde kitsch, kötü sanat olarak algılanmamaya başlamaktadır. “Şunu itiraf etmek zorundayız, basketbol topları ve elektrikli süpürgeler bize kischin olumsuzlanması gibi görünmüyor. sanat yapıtı olarak da görünmüyor” (kulka, : ). resim . jeff koons, jeff-ilona, gürpınar, Özlem. “Çağdaş sanatta nesnelerin ticarileştirilmesi sorunsalı: jeff koons Örneği”. ulakbilge, ( temmuz): s. - . doi: . /ulakbilge- - - amerikalı koons’un, çalışmaları barok’tan rokoko’ya ve andy warhol’a kadar birçok sanatçıdan ve dönemden izler taşır. sanatçıyı bu kadar günümüzde pahalı yapan sanatsal değeri midir yoksa dili midir? koons, işlerini ve tüketim piyasasını jean baudrillarda’ın “simulakr” kavramı içerisinde ilişkilendirir. baudrillard’a göre: “her şey ağırlığını yitirdi, artık devasa bir simulakr’dan başka bir şey yok... bu, artık göndermesi ya da referansı olmayan ve gerçekteki varlık alanına asla götürülemeyecek olan gerçek-dışı bir simulakr’dan başka bir şey değildir” (Şahiner, : ). gerçekten de sanat bakımından hiçbir geleneğin anlamı kalmamıştır. resim . jeff koons, pempe panter, koons’un simülasyonlarla oluşturmuş olduğu düzenekleri, eserlerinin sanat ve meta etkisi altında yapıldığını açıkça seyirciye hissettirmektedir. seri üretim nesnelerinin sanat olup olmadığı düşüncesi ve nesnenin konumu sanata dair sanatsal yargıları nasıl etkiler? sorularını sormaya mecbur kılmaktadır. kapitalist ürünlerin sergilenmesi ve müze bağlamı içerisinde değer kazanması, kullanım değerinin yine kapitalist sistem içerisinde sanata entegre edilmesi tüketim sorunsalını bir kez daha ortaya çıkarmaktadır. koons, seri üretim nesnelerini sil baştan şekillendirmektedir ve sıradan olana fazladan değer kazandırması sanatçının piyasa değeriyle paralel doğrultuda ilerlediğini göstermektedir. aslında biçilen değer esere değil, sanatçıya biçilmektedir. “koons uzun süre önce benjamin’in de ön gördüğü şeyi yapar: kültürel olanın sanatın kaybolan aurasını meta ve starların “düzmece büyüsüyle” kapatması gerekir” (foster, : ). seri metaları kendi sanatına mal etmesi, yüksek sanatın ve meta kültürünün aurasını temsil etmektedir. sanatın nasıl sanat piyasasına dönüştürdüğünü warhol şu şekilde özetliyor: piyasa sanatı, sanat’ın ardından gelen aşamadır. ben bu işe ticari sanatçı olarak başladım ve piyasa sanatçısı olarak bitirmek istiyorum. adına ister “sanat” densin ister başka bir şey, bu işi yaptıktan sonra piyasa sanatına yöneldim. sanatçı İşadamı ya da İşadamı sanatçı olmak istedim. piyasada iyi iş yapmak sanatın en büyüleyici yönü. hippi döneminde insanlar piyasa düşüncesinden uzaklaşmışlar, “para kötüdür” ve “Çalışmak kötüdür” gibi şeyler söylemeye başlamışlardı. oysaki para kazanmak sanattır, piyasada iyi iş yapmaksa en iyi sanattır (kuspit, : ). koons da warhol gibi sanata ticari bir sanatçı olarak başlamıştır. koons’un popüler olmasının nedeni: kitsch ve komik nesnelerle basit ifade şekillerini kullanarak herkese fikrini aktarabilmesidir. bunlara yönelme sebebi sanatçının yaşam tarzıdır. koons ’de porno yıldızı la cicciolina ile evlenmiş ve sonrasında da boşanmıştır. mesela, made in heaven adlı eseri la cicciolina ve kendisiyle alakalıdır. boşanma sonrasında çocuğun velayeti gürpınar, Özlem. “Çağdaş sanatta nesnelerin ticarileştirilmesi sorunsalı: jeff koons Örneği”. ulakbilge, ( temmuz): s. - . doi: . /ulakbilge- - - annesine verilmesinden dolayı koons büyük üzüntü yaşar. sanatçının bu üzüntüsü ise sanat eserlerine yansımış ve bundan ötürü obje olarak çocuğunun eşyalarını kullanmıştır. sanatçının tüketim ürünlerini eserlerinde kullanması tıpkı pop art da olduğu gibi burada da amerikan kültürünü yansıtmaktadır. dolayısıyla sanat aracılığıyla popüler olmak, para kazanmak gibi düşünceler öne çıkmaktadır. Çağdaş sanatta piyasa ürünlerinin pazara sunulması, sunulan şeyin ilk ortaya çıkışından daha önemli bir hale gelmektedir. Çağdaş sanat dönemindeki eserlerin yüksek fiyatlara satılmasında yapılan işin özelliği ve fikri önemli değildir; önemli olan sanatçının ünü ve geçmişteki statüsüdür. tabi izleyici koons’un işlerini kendine göre yorumlaması, kendi yaşantısıyla ilişkilendirip anlamlandırması, sanatçının sanat yapıtını oluştururken düşüncesini değiştirmemektedir. koons’un yapmış olduğu işlerin küçük versiyonu olsa evimizde bir rafa koyup aksesuar olarak sergileyecek kadar işlerin kitsch bir yapıya sahip olması, kapitalist ürünlere ne kadar bağlı olduğunu göstermektedir. koons sanat yapıtına dönüştürdüğü bayağı işlerini kapitalist yaklaşıma tepki olarak sunmamış ve eserlerine düşünce fikri işlememiştir. koons için kendisinin ve eserlerinin sanat pazarında yer alması yeterlidir. eserlerdeki ticari düşünce mantığı, sanat eserlerinin sanatsal amacından uzaklaştırmaktadır. Çünkü araya maddiyat girince sanatın seyri değişmektedir. Çağdaş sanatta eserin pazar piyasasında önemli bir noktaya gelmesi ve sanat toplumu içerisinde tanınması önemli bir konumdur. Şöyle ki, koons eserlerini yüksek fiyata satabiliyorsa bu onun dâhiliğini göstermektedir; bunu inkâr etmemek lazım. buradaki sorun, sunulan eserin yüksek fiyatlara satılması değil, kitsch nesnelerin sanat yapıtı olarak kullanıldığında hiçbir düşünceye yerleştirilmemesi ve sadece sanat tacirlerine sunulup, yüksek miktarlara alıcı bulmasıdır. böylece çağdaş sanatta, sanat yapıtlarının değerini içerik ve biçim değil, yapıtın yüksek fiyata satılması belirlemiştir. sonuç piyasa sanatı içerisinde sanatçı ve sanat yapıtının anlayışı tamamen farklı bir şekilde konumlanmıştır. kapital anlayış, sanatı artık bayağılaştırıp yönünü alım-satım ilişkisine çevirmiştir. teknoloji-endüstri çağının oluşturduğu kapital dünyada; sanat ile sanatçı arasındaki değer yok olmuş, artık sanat, sanat tacirlerinin aktif rol oynadığı pazarda yerini almıştır. sanatta sanatçının el yeteneğinden ziyade girişimci ruhu, fikri ön plana çıkmaktadır. Çünkü çağdaş sanatta yapıtın el yeteneği ile yapılması değil, sanatçının popüler olması ve eserin piyasada ne kadara satıldığı önemlidir. dahi, girişimci ruha sahip olan koons’un kapitalist sanat dünya görüşü anlatılarak sanat yapıtlarında sanat ruhunun nasıl sömürüldüğü ve kitsch objelerle ruhsuz bir forma nasıl dönüştürüldüğü gösterilmiştir. hem modern sanatta hem de çağdaş sanatta bazı vazgeçilmez kavramlar vardır: öz, biriciklik, sahihlik ve özgünlük. bu kavramları sanat yapıtından ayırmamak gerekmektedir. ayrılırsa sanat yapıtı tehlike içerisine girerek tartışma ortamı yaratır. koons bunları es geçerek sanat dünyasında ikileme yol açmaktadır. kapital dünya, sanatçının malzeme ve özgürlüğünü genişletmesine rağmen sanatın niyetini değiştirmektedir. kapital piyasada, üretim için üretim, pahalı sanat sanattır anlayışı ön plandadır. artık sanatın içeriği ve biçimi kapital anlayışla kaplanmış, sanatçılarda kendilerini pazarlayarak birbirleriyle yarış içerisine girmişlerdir. artık her şey sanattı, sanat olmayan; ön plana çıkamamış, popüler kültürün içinde yer edinemeyen şeylerdir. kültürel toplum ve sanat toplumu kapital ürünlerden, anlayışlardan kopamaz bir hale gelmiştir. kapitalizm tüm alanlarda kendine hizmet eden bir kavramdır. sanatta da sanatın, sanat olarak gelişmesine imkân vermez. kapital mantık, sanat ve sanatçı piyasasının sermaye açısından gelişmesi için yönlendirir. bir bakıma parasal fon desteği görevi görür. kapitalizmin olduğu bir yerde sanatsal bir durumun yaşanması söz konusu olmamaktadır. sonuç olarak; sanat ve sanatçı kapitalizme boyun eğmiş ve kapitalizm, sanatı araç olarak kullanarak sermayesini elde etmiştir. koons gibi bu durum içerisinde olan sanatçılar, sanat yapıtlarını metalaştırırken kendilerini de metalaştırırlar. artık bir sanat yapıtının kendisi zihinlerde kalmamakta ne kadar yüksek fiyatlara satıldığı zihinlerde kalmaktadır. bu yüzden, sanat yapıtının iyi veya kötü olması hiçbir anlam ifade etmemektedir. gürpınar, Özlem. “Çağdaş sanatta nesnelerin ticarileştirilmesi sorunsalı: jeff koons Örneği”. ulakbilge, ( temmuz): s. - . doi: . /ulakbilge- - - kaynaklar artun, ali. Çağdaş sanatın Örgütlenmesi. İstanbul: İletişim yayınları. . fineberg, jonathan. ’tan günümüze sanat. Çev: atay s.-eskier. İzmir: karakalem kitabevi yayınları. . fischer, ernst. sanatın gerekliliği.Çev: cevat Çapan. İstanbul, sözcükler yayınları. . foster, hal. gerçeğin geri dönüşü. İstanbul: ayrıntı yayınları. . kulka, thomas. kitch ve sanat. İstanbul:altıkırkbeş yayın. . kuspit, donald. sanatın sonu. İstanbul: metis yayıncılık. . thompson , don. sanat mezat. İstanbul: İletişim yayınları. . Şahiner, rıfat. sanatta postmodern kırılmalar. ankara: Ütopya yayınevi. . görsel kaynaklar resim -http://www.jeffkoons.com/artwork/the-new/new-hoover-convertibles-new-shelton-wetdrys- -gallon-doubledecker, aralık . resim - https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/marcel-duchamp- , ağustos . resim - https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/ /, ocak . resim - https://www.wikiart.org/en/jeff-koons/bourgeois-bust-jeff-and-ilona, ocak . resim - http://aydanizlenimler.blogspot.com/ / /jeff-koons-painter-sculptor.html, ocak . gürpınar, Özlem. “Çağdaş sanatta nesnelerin ticarileştirilmesi sorunsalı: jeff koons Örneği”. ulakbilge, ( temmuz): s. - . doi: . /ulakbilge- - - problematic commercialization of objects in contemporary art: jeff koons example Özlem gÜrpinar abstract art progresses and changes in line with the periodical developments. therefore, art constitutes the logic according to the political, cultural and economic characteristics of the era. the artists took the concepts of meta and kitsch into the field of art by using industrial-technological and daily production materials in their works of art. however, the way of using art from a financial point of view was also opened. the gradual introduction of cubism and collage and everyday materials into art, the use of ready-made objects with dada, the emphasis on the existence of machinery and speed with futurism is an indication that the artwork will move away from the canvas. dada, which is an avant-garde movement in particular, has pushed the autonomy of art and the existence of the artwork to question the commercial sense. pop art, which emerged with the development of industry after the second half of the th century, presented the mass production objects as artwork and the use of technology such as kinetic art and pop art, which developed with technology, expanded the scope of art. the apparent commercialization of the work of art in contemporary art has caused controversy within the art community. while the aforementioned developments lead to the freedom of expression in contemporary art, artists such as jeff koons are at the critical point due to the art representation in their works. the aim of the research is to examine how koons has transformed art practices into a commercial tool. in the article; the use of the objects of consumption, the objects of consumption, which are presented as works of art, and the artists making a profit by using them are examined. consumption factor and mass production were imbued in the artwork and aesthetic perception was pushed to the background and the relationship between art and commodity was brought to the fore. these problems are tried to be expressed through artists. keywords: consumption, contemporary art, mass production, kitsch, art-meta relation : interdisciplinary studies in the long nineteenth century 	 	login | register 	home 	about 	 live 	articles 	issues 	contact 	 start submission 	 account 	login 	 register 	 issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – this issue of explores the contribution of women as collectors from the mid-nineteenth century to the aftermath of the first world war, paying particular attention to the cosmopolitan transfer of artworks, ideas, and expertise between britain, france, and the united states. the authors reflect on women’s role in acquiring, displaying, and donating works of art, often in ways that crossed national borders or that subvert gendered assumptions about taste. beyond its value as a form of personal expression, the articles reflect on how far collecting provided women with a public platform in the late nineteenth century, enabling them to shape the contents of cultural institutions and promote new types of inquiry. but the articles also cast light on the archival and methodological reasons why women’s crucial contributions in this domain have so often been obscured. the idea for this issue originated with the study days organized in to celebrate the philanthropy of lady wallace, who gifted the collections of the hertford family to the nation. cover image: detail of william rothenstein, the browning readers, , oil on canvas, × . cm, cartwright hall art gallery, bradford. editors: tom stammers (guest editor) introduction women collectors and cultural philanthropy, c. – tom stammers - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – article ‘life was a spectacle for her’: lady dorothy nevill as art collector, political hostess, and cultural philanthropist caroline mccaffrey-howarth - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – beyond the bowes museum: the social and material worlds of alphonsine bowes de saint-amand lindsay macnaughton - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – french taste in victorian england: the collection of yolande lyne-stephens laure-aline griffith-jones - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – unmasking an enigma: who was lady wallace and what did she achieve? suzanne higgott - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – more than mere ornaments: female visitors to sir richard wallace’s art collection helen c. jones - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – new collections for new women: collecting and commissioning portraits at the early women’s university colleges imogen tedbury - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – ellen tanner’s persia: a museum legacy rediscovered catrin jones - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – the artistic patronage and transatlantic connections of florence blumenthal rebecca tilles - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – a woman of no importance?: elizabeth workman’s collection of impressionist and post-impressionist art in context frances fowle - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – afterword afterword kate hill - - issue • • women collectors: taste, legacy, and cultural philanthropy c. – created by potrace . , written by peter selinger - | - | published by open library of humanities | 	privacy policy 	sitemap 	contact 	login < c ccbdc bfeb dc f b ebb b b aec d c c c d b afb d c d b fa b c c e e > journal of the korea academia-industrial cooperation society vol. , no. pp. - , http://dx.doi.org/ . /kais. . . . 현대물리학의 패러다임과 건축 디자인의 개념 변화 이승용 * 목원대학교 건축학부 the changes of architectural design concept by the paradigm of modern physics seung-yong lee * division of architecture, mokwon university 요 약 물리학의 이론들은 사회 현상을 바라보는 관점과 접한 관계가 있다. 이 이론들은 건축에도 영향을 주었다. 본 연구에서는 물리학의 사고가 건축 디자인에 영향을 준 내용을 고찰하고, 상호 연관성을 확인하고자 한다. 연구 내 용을 보면 입자 중심의 사고인 고전물리학은 세기 초반의 건축에서 균질공간으로 나타나고, 건축의 특징은 절대 공 간 속에서 장소와 관계없이 기하학적이고 건물에 제한된 내용으로 이해하고 세워졌다. 반면 현대 건축은 현대물리학 의 장이론과 양자역학, 그리고 상대성 이론 등의 사고와 관계가 있다. 따라서 건축을 바라보는 관점이 영역성, 상호성 및 시간성 등으로 이해하게 되었으며, 이것의 영향으로 다양하고 비정형 등의 내용으로 건축이 세워지고 있다. 연구 를 통해 건축과 물리학의 사고는 상호 연관이 있으며, 현대건축의 디자인에 나타나는 건축적 사고는 현대물리학의 이 론에서 보여 지고 있는 패러다임 내용이 적용된 것을 알 수 있다. abstract by the theories of the physics, the phenomena in the world are understood. and also these theories gave the influence to design the architecture. in this research, the contents which the thought of the physics gives a influence a building design is considered, and try to suggest the interrelation between the physics and architectural design. as the result, the architectural design on the influence of classical physics is based on the homogeneous space and the design focus on the style or form of the building with a geometry plan which is not concerned of the place. on the other hand, contemporary architectural design is based on the thought of the modern physics. by this concepts, the architecture is understood as the area contain the conditions of the circumstance and by interaction between buildings and the environment and by various viewpoints like cubism. and the architecture which is settled recently is shown of the diversity and atypical form. key words : physics, homogeneous, modern physics, area, interaction, various viewpoint *교신저자 : 이승용(sylee@mokwon.ac.kr) 접수일 년 월 일 수정일 년 월 일 게재확정일 년 월 일 . 서론 근대건축에 있어 고전물리학의 영향은 지대하였다. 년대 까지는 균질공간이 출현했고 그 결과 데카르 트, 뉴턴의 사고방식처럼, 건축에서 의미의 상징이었던 장식이 급격히 사라져 버리고 보편적이고 균질한 건축개 념이 나타나게 되었다. 또한 건축과 도시 등을 이해하는 경향이 전체에서 부분으로 해체되어 감을 볼 수 있다. 어 느 부분을 보더라도 변하는 것이 없기 때문에 결국 그 부 분을 설명하는 것이 전체를 설명하는 것과 같다는 것이 다.[ ] 이와 같이 세기의 근대건축은 고전물리학에서의 세계관에 의한 나타난 많은 환상을 보여주었다. 따라서 서구의 기능과 미학의 기준을 가지고 건물을 이해하는 과정에서 인간중심 및 건물 중심의 사고를 바탕으로 하 는 이원론적 사고가 지배적이었으며, 전체적인 의미에서 건축설계가 이루어지지 않고 건물이 주변과 분리되어 중 심적인 역할을 하는 의미로 건축행위가 이루어져 왔다. 그러나 세기에 들어와 고전물리학의 시각은 현대물 한국산학기술학회논문지 제 권 제 호, 리학에 의해 대치되고 있다. 또 하나의 과학혁명이 일어 나고 있는 것이다. 이것은 패러다임의 전환을 의미한다. 뉴턴의 물리학이 아인슈타인의 물리학에 의해 대치된 사 실은 같은 자연 현상에 대한 인간의 관점이 변했다는 것 이다. 이것은 아이슈타인의 상대성 이론이 뉴턴의 역학보 다 더 많은 현상을 포괄적으로 설명해 주고 있기 때문이 고, 그러한 사실은 그 이론이 자연 현상을 보다 더 정확 히 표상해 주기 때문이라고 보아야 할 것이다.[ ] 물리학에서 사고의 관점이 변한 것과 같이 건축을 이 해하는 관점도 변하고 있다. 특히 과학에서 나타난 시공 간 개념은 예술계 및 건축가에게도 영향을 미쳐 건축에 서도 이러한 시공간 개념이 나타난다.[ ] 그리고 현대건 축에서 나타나는 다양한 모습은 현대물리학의 시공간 개 념과 무관하다고 할 수 없다, 이것은 시대정신 하에 나타 나는 일련의 현상들이다. 본 연구에서는 현대 물리학의 시공간 개념을 고찰하고 이 개념이 현대 건축 디자인에 적용된 내용을 고찰하여 현대 건축에서 디자인의 방향을 정립하고자 한다. 연구방법은 현대물리학의 시공간 개념을 물리학의 사 고 변화의 연구를 통해 살펴보고, 이러한 현대물리학의 개념을 기초로 한 건축에서의 관점을 고찰한다. 그리고 이 개념이 건축에 적용된 내용을 사례를 통해 살펴본다. . 물리학의 변천과 특성 . 근대과학의 출현 서양철학은 기원전 세기경 그리스에서 시작된 것으 로 보고 있다. 초기의 철학은 다양한 학문분과를 통틀어 일컫는 개념이었다. 따라서 당시의 철학에서는 자연과학 의 물음에 관하여 논의하였다. 플라톤은 이데아론을 통해 세계를 설명하고, 자연현상을 기하학적 원리로 설명할 수 있음을 보여주었다. 아리스토텔레스는 세계의 사물들이 질료와 형상으로 연결된 것으로 보고 자연현상을 탐구했 으며 우주와 운동을 체계적으로 설명했다. 그러나 중세는 기독교의 가치에 의해 지배받게 되었고 신앙을 뒷받침해주는 도구로 변질되었다. 이후 르네상스 시대에 인간의 이성이 다시 복권되면서 새로운 진리관이 등장하였고, 이것은 천문학을 비롯한 과학에 영향을 끼치 게 되었다. 근대과학은 코페르니쿠스에서 시작된다. 그가 제시한 지동설은 획기적인 인식의 전환을 가져왔다. 코페르니쿠 스를 비롯하여 관찰을 통해 증명하려고 했던 갈릴레이와 당시의 수많은 과학자들은 과학을 발전시켰다. 새로운 과 학이론들은 진리에 도달하기 위한 과학적 방법으로 경험 적 방법과 이성적 방법을 채택하게 되었다. 베이컨은 관 찰과 실험의 방법인 경험론이라고 주장하였고, 데카르트 는 추론과 연역의 방법인 합리론이라고 주장했다. 이러한 이성에 대한 믿음이 이후의 근대적인 발전의 초석이 되 었다고 볼 수 있다. . 고전물리학의 특징 이러한 물리학의 발전은 뉴턴에 의해 완성되었다. 갈 릴레이 이후 실험에 의한 검증 등의 방법을 통해 근대적 인 새로운 자연 인식의 방법을 수립하였으며, 뉴턴은 대 자연 전체를 요약하고 보편화 할 수 있는 단순한 수식을 찾는데 성공하였다. 뉴턴의 우주는 정확한 수학 법칙에 따라 작용하고 있는 하나의 거대한 기계적 조직이었고, 그 속에서 발생하고 있는 물리적 현상과는 관계가 없는 빈 그릇인 절대 공간이며, 이 절대 공간과 절대 시간 속 에서 움직이는 요소들은 물질의 입자들이다. 그리고 모든 물리적 현상은 상호 인력, 즉 중력에 의해 야기되는 입자 의 운동으로 환원된다. 이것으로 우주대자연은 텅 빈 공 간 속에서 규칙적으로 운동을 하는 돌덩어리 별들의 구 조물로 변모했다. 뉴턴의 운동법칙은 ‘힘’의 논리가 중심이 된다. 힘이란 운동 상태를 변화하게 하는 원인이며, 이때 힘은 상호간 에 접촉에 의해 작용하고 있다는 것이 전제로 되어 있다. 실제로 기계적인 힘의 작용은 모두 접촉에 의해 전달된 다. 또한 이것은 물체가 정지해 있다면 외부로부터 어떤 원인에 의해 움직여지지 않는 한 결코 저절로는 움직이 는 일이 없다는 것을 의미한다. 이상의 내용을 통해 뉴턴 의 법칙에서의 관점이 물질과 물질의 접촉에 의해서만 힘이 전달된다는 것을 알 수 있으며, 물질과 물질사이의 공간에 대해서는 비어있고 물리현상에 직접적으로 작용 을 하지 않는다고 보았다. . 현대물리학의 특성 . . 뉴턴물리학의 한계 세기 말에 이르러 뉴턴의 역학은 자연 현상의 기본 적 이론으로서의 역할을 상실하게 되었다. 맥스웰 (maxwell)의 전기 역학과 전기력의 발견으로 한 물체가 다른 물체에 특정한 작용을 일으키는 일회적 힘 말고, 모 든 공간에 전체적으로 퍼져 있는 ‘힘의 장(field of force)' 이라는 새 개념이 도입되었다. 즉 ‘장’이 구체적으로 존 재하는 물리적 실체라는 것은 뉴턴 물리학의 기본적인 사고방식과 대치되는 개념인 것이다.[ ] 현대물리학의 패러다임과 건축 디자인의 개념 변화 . . 현대물리학의 이론 고찰 ) 장이론 공간의 어떤 영역에 걸쳐 분포해 있는 물리량을 통틀 어 생각하는 것이 장이다. 물리학에서의 장은 시공간 내 에서 관찰 가능한 어떤 양의 연속적인 분포로 정의 될 수 있다. 이러한 장은 입자에 관하여 새로운 개념을 제시하 였다. 공간이 더 이상 비어있지 않으며, 입자들과 공간 사 이의 뚜렷한 구별은 사라지고 진공은 아주 중요한 역학 적 양으로서 인정받게 되었다. 입자의 개념이 사라지고 에너지의 개념이 들어오고, 에너지의 상태가 전체적으로 상호관계를 가지고 작용하는 전체의 장으로서의 현상을 파악하는 장이론이 성립되었다. 장이론은 상대성이론과 양자역학과 결합되어 발전하 게 된다. 여기서 양자장 즉 양자 또는 입자들의 형태를 취할 수 있는 장의 개념이 성립한다. 양자장은 근본적으 로 물리적 실체로 여겨지며 공간의 어디에나 존재하는 연속적인 매체로 여겨진다. 소립자들은 단지 그 장의 국 부적인 응결에 불과하다.[ ] ) 양자역학 아원자적 단계에서 고전 물리학의 견고한 물체는 파동 과 같은 확률 모형들로 분해되며, 궁극적으로 이러한 모 형들은 상호 연관의 확률을 나타낸다. 원자 물리학에 있 어서 관찰의 과정을 주의 깊게 분석해 본다면 아원자적 입자는 독립된 실체로서의 의미를 지니고 있는 것이 아 니라, 실험의 준비와 그 다음의 측정 사이에 있는 상호 연관으로서만 단지 이해될 수 있다. 물질을 뚫고 들어가 보면 볼수록 자연은 어떤 독립된 기본적인 구성체를 보 여 주지 않고 오히려 전체의 여러 부분들 사이에 있는 복 잡한 그물(망)의 관계로서 나타난다. 이러한 관계들은 그 본질적인 면에서 관찰자를 포함한다. 그리하여 현대물리 학에서 우주는 본질적으로 항상 관찰자를 포함하는 역동 적이며 불가분의 전체로서 체험된다.[ ] ) 상대성 이론 아인슈타인이 만든 특수상대성이론과 일반상대성이론 을 통틀어 상대성이론이라 부른다. 상대성이론은 자연법 칙이 관성계에 대해 불변하고, 시간과 공간이 관측자에 따라 상대적이라는 이론이다. 년 발표된 특수상대성이론에서는 시간 간격의 측 정은 그 측정을 행하는 기준틀에 따라 다를 수 있다고 한 다. 어떤 기준틀에서 동시에 일어난 사건이 관찰자의 운 동 상태에 따라 다르다. 년 발표된 일반상대성이론 은 상대방에 대해 서로 가속도 운동하는 기준틀로 확장 하여 설명한다. 일반상대성 원리에 의하면 시공간이 중력 에 의해 변화된다. 중력이 강한 곳의 시간은 중력이 약한 곳에 있는 시간보다 느리다. 이와 같이 물리학은 현상을 이해하는 방법을 제시하였 다. 현대물리학은 장이론과 양자역학 그리고 상대성 이론 을 통해 새로운 관점을 제시하였으며, 이것은 사회 전반 적인 시각에 영향을 주었다. 공간이 의미가 있으며, 관찰 상황에 따라 이해되어야 하며, 또한 상대성 이론에 의하 여 아원자적 소립자는 공간성과 시간성을 갖고 있는 역 동적인 모형으로 이해하였다. . 현대물리학에 의한 공간의 관점 변화 . 고전물리학에서의 시공간개념 현재까지도 일상적인 경험을 쉽게 도상화하기에 매우 유용한 유클리드 기하학은 공간의 성격에 대한 최초의 체계적인 정리이다. 데모크리토스와 아리스토텔레스는 공간은 무한한 것, 시간은 영원하고 지속적이고도 균일한 흐름 속에 있다 고 보았다. 중세에 와서도 공간은 무한한 것이라는 믿음이 지속되 었다. 근세는 역학의 성과에 기초한 과학적인 공간 개념 이 대두되었다. 갈릴레이는 임의의 관성계 속에서 일어나 는 공간과 시간의 균질성을 확립하였다. 이후 데카르트는 공간과 물질을 동일시하는 주장을 펼쳤다. 뉴턴은 공간과 시간은 객관적으로 실재하는 것이며 절 대적 구조를 지닌 것이라고 파악하였다. 따라서 공간은 물질과는 아무런 관련이 없고, 물질의 성질에도 속하지 않는 것으로 물 체계의 운동이 진행되는 무한하고 균질 적인 그릇이며, 어떠한 물리적 성질 없이 유클리드 기하 학적인 성격만을 갖는 것이다. 시간에 대해서는 일정하고 순수한 지속으로서 물질세계와는 독립적으로 존재할 뿐 만 아니라 일차원적이며 연속적이며 전체 우주를 통해 균일성과 비가역성을 지니는 것이라고 보았다. 이 시기의 주된 믿음이었던 물질세계가 입자로 이루어 져 있다는 기본 전제하에서 뉴턴은 시간과 공간이 서로 독립적인 실재로서 물질과는 아무런 관련을 맺지 않는다 고 보았던 것이다. . 현대물리학에서의 시공간개념 . . 장이론과 시공간개념 장개념의 도입으로 입자와 공간이 구별되지 않는다. 그리고 공간은 어떠한 성격이 담겨져 있는 것이며 실체 한국산학기술학회논문지 제 권 제 호, 인 것이다. 입자는 이러한 성격이 응결되어 있는 것이고, 공간은 그 성격이 산란되어 퍼져있는 곳이다. 그리고 이 입자와 공간은 입자장으로 통일된다. 즉 일반적으로 비어 있고 물체와는 별개의 것으로 이해가 되어 온 공간이 물 체와 함께 고려되어 장으로 하나가 되는 것이다. 이와 같은 응결과 산란으로 구성되어 있는 입자장에서 공간은 장으로서 입자를 중심으로 등위면을 구성하며 퍼 지는 영역적 특성이 있다. 그리고 그 영역은 입자의 성격 을 가지고 있으며 입자의 크기와 세기에 비례해서 규정 된다.[ ] . . 양자역학과 시공간개념 고전물리학에서는 결과물이 그 자체에 내재되어 있는 특성이 표출되는 것으로 어느 곳, 어떠한 상황에서도 주 변 및 환경과 관계없이 일정하다고 이해하였다. 양자역학 에서는 현상 또는 사물의 이해가 준비과정과 관찰 상황 으로 이루어지며, 준비과정과 관찰 상황이 다르면 그 결 과도 다르게 이해된다. 결국 현상 또는 사물은 하나로 고 정되지 않고 다양하며, 그 다양성은 각각의 상호 연결로 구성되는 것이다. 따라서 양자역학에서의 공간은 주변 환 경과 상호 연결되어 있는 것으로서 공간의 특징은 다양 성과 관계성으로 이해된다. 한편 이러한 공간의 구조는 망구조로 이해할 수 있으 며 새로운 결과물을 구현해 나가는 과정에서 도입할 수 있는 공간 형상이다. . . 상대성 이론과 시공간개념 일반상대성 이론에서 공간개념은 균질한 공간 속에 물 질이 떠다니는 것이 아니라, 공간 자체가 유동성이 있다 는 것과 공간에 차이가 있다는 점이다. 그 공간은 일종의 구부러진 공간으로서 유한한 공간이다. 중력장 개념에서 이미 유클리드 기하학의 한계가 나타났고, 물질과 공간, 시간과의 관계에 대한 견해에 있어서 비유클리드 기하학 과 상대성 이론에 의해 세계에 대한 기본적인 인식이 바 뀌었다. 비유클리드 기하학에서는 지구의 존재에 의해 공 간자체가 구부러져 있다는 기하학적인 표현이 되며, 동시 에 시간의 왜곡에도 영향을 미친다. 그리하여 물체는 주 위 시공의 왜곡을 야기하고, 그 왜곡은 물체의 운동을 규 정하는 시공과 물질의 역동적인 기하학에 존재한다는 사 실을 알게 된다. 물체가 절대적인 형상을 가지고 있지 않으며, 시공간 속에서 역동적으로 변화하고 있다는 것과 보는 장소에 따라 사물은 다르게 나타난다는 것을 의미하게 되었다. 그리고 디자인 작업에 있어서도 이전에 보여 지지 않았 고, 생각하지 않았던 것에 관하여 보고 생각하게 되었다. 이상에 살펴본 것과 같이 현대물리학에서 논의되고 이 론에 의해 현상을 바라보는 시각이 변화하였다. 이것을 정리하면 다음의 표와 같다. [표 ] 현대물리학에서의 공간개념 특성 [table ] the characteristic of space in modern physics 이론 내용 특성 비고 장이론 공간과 사물의 구분되지 않음 입자장에 의한 영역 일체성,영역성 양자 역학 상호 연결된 과정에서의 현상 이해 관계로 조직되어있 는 망구조 다양성,상호성 상대성 이론 관찰자의 위치, 시간에 따라 사물의 모습은 다양함 비유클리드 기하학 구조 시간성,장소성 . 건축에 현대물리학의 공간개념 적용 . 건축의 관점 변화 세기 전반의 서구의 건축 개념은 이성적 사고가 지 배적이었다. 기능과 합리성을 필두로 하여 절대공간과 보 편적이고 균질한 건축개념이 나타나게 되었다. 이것은 기 하학적 공간을 만들고, 국제적인 건축과 균질한 공간을 주장하게 되었다. 현대물리학에서 논의되는 공간개념으로 건축을 이해 하는 방식도 변하였다. 장이론을 통해 건축은 건축물은 주변 공간과 분리하지 않고 영역으로 이해하게 되었다. 양자역학에서 건축물을 주변의 환경 및 건축물 등과 상 호 연계되어 있으며 이에 따라 건축을 상황에 의해 연계 한 다양한 모습을 이해하게 되었다. 또한 상대성이론에서 보여 지는 시공간의 개념에 의하여 공간도 물체와 같은 변형이 되며, 이것은 곧 역동적인 형상을 이끌어내었다. 이러한 과학으로부터의 새로운 시각은 디자인에서도 새로운 시각을 이끌어냈으며, 일부 현대건축의 동향에서 표현되고 있다.[ ] . 건축에서의 현대물리학 공간개념 적용 . . 연속적인 장으로서 데이터스케이프 mvrdv는 현대도시를 메타시티(metacity)로 보았다. 현대물리학의 패러다임과 건축 디자인의 개념 변화 [그림 ] 휘트니미술관 증축 [fig. ] whitney museum extension 더욱 확장되고 네트워크로 연결되는 메타시티의 특성은 연속적이며 거대한 연결체로서 통계적 기술에 기반을 둔 숫자와 데이터만이 파악할 수 있게 한다고 말하고, 데이 터를 이미지화하는 작업을 하였다. 이와 같이 현대도시에서 발견할 수 있는 현상들은 숨 겨진 논리를 가지고 있음을 전제로 하고 건축을 제약하 는 요소들을 수치나 정보로 파악하고, 이러한 논리적 배 경인 데이터가 만들어내는 데이터스케이프(datascape)로 이해한다.[ ] 데이터스케이프에서 데이터는 건축 이외에 인문․사 회적 요소들 모두를 포함하며, 건축 또는 도시계획 등 형 상화되어 나타나는 것 이면에는 이러한 요소들의 작용이 큰 비중을 차지하고 있는 것이다. 이러한 데이터가 형상 화하는 데이터스케이프는 데이터들과 이것들의 연속적인 장, 즉 네트워크라 할 수 있다.[ ] [그림 ] villa vpro : 공간조직체 [fig. ] villa vpro : spatial organization . . 양자역학과 리좀적 구조 양자역학의 불확 정성 원리는 렘 콜 하스의 중요한 건축 적 개념으로 나타난 다. 이질적인 각각의 프로그램을 병치하 거나 가변적으로 설 정하여 각각의 정보 들의 변화에 따라 비선형적방식으로 형태발생이 일어나 는 방식을 택했는데, 이것은 불확정성으 로 현실의 유동성에 따라 혼돈 속에서 비가역적 과정으로 형태가 발생되는 진화적 과정을 표현하게 된다. 콜하스의 작품에서 이러한 불확정성 원리에서 형태가 형성되는 과 정이 표현되는 것이 리좀(rhizome)적 구조라 할 수 있다. 이것은 중심이 없이 다양한 방향으로 열리고, 접속되는 항이 변함에 따라 가변적으로 변하는 가변적 시스템을 의미한다. 그러므로 리좀은 무한한 연결과 다양한 차이들 의 생성을 만드는 구조이다. 이 개념을 기반으로 하여 콜 하스는 하나의 건물 내에 무수히 많은 방식의 동선과 이 동방식을 리좀의 형태와 같이 무작위적으로 연결시킨다. 이러한 구성은 우선적으로 고려되는 것이 외형의 형태보 다 행위의 흐름과 이에 따른 각각의 독립적인 순환체계 등 하나의 공간 속에 다양한 요소와 기능을 담는다. 그리 고 외부형태의 디자인은 내부의 다양한 프로그램을 감싸 는 기본적 외피로서 역할을 하며, 더불어 외피에 일련의 흥미를 더해주는 작업을 꾸준히 시도한다.[ ] . . 상대성 개념과 역동적 건축 상대성 이론의 공간개념을 통해 어떠한 이미지를 하나 의 단일한 시점에서 해방되어 다양한 시점을 보고자 한 다. 그렇게 함으로서 그 대상자의 다양성을 이해한다. 대 상자는 지각과는 상관없이 변하고 있는 것이다. 또한 이 것은 차원의 캔버스에 고정되어 그려진 그림이 아니라 컴퓨터로 양산된 비물질화 된 정보이다.[ ] 건축가들은 역동적인 유영의 시간과 공간이 건축물의 실체라고 생각 하게 되었으며, 이러한 이미지 창출은 건축표면에 사용되 는 재료의 선택에 의하여 나타나게 된다. 특히 게리는 노 출된 기둥, 칠해지지 않은 벽체들, 쉽게 철거 가능한 얼기 설기 얽힌 철망들을 가지고 마치 건축공사가 끝나지 않 은 것처럼 외관을 구성하고 있다. 이것은 견고하게 고정 되어 있는 실재의 안정성을 해체하여 건축의 움직임을 부여하는 시도라고 할 수 있다. . 결론 현대물리학은 현상을 이해하는 시각에 많은 영향을 주 었으며, 그 공간개념은 현대건축의 디자인 개념을 정립하 고 설계에 적용하는데 있어 중요한 역할을 하였다. 물리학의 장이론을 통해 건축물과 주변 환경을 포함하 는 영역으로 이해하는 것과 이에 따른 데이터스케이프의 네트워크로서 장을 적용하였다. 양자역학의 불확정성의 원리에서 건축의 이해 및 설계는 과정 중심적 디자인으 로 전환되었다고 할 수 있다. 상대성 개념을 통해 장소와 시간에 따른 공간과 건축물의 변화율을 고려하게 되었다. 또한 이러한 공간개념을 구현하는데 있어서 산업 기술의 발전이 큰 기여를 했다고 할 수 있다. 즉 컴퓨터의 활용 한국산학기술학회논문지 제 권 제 호, 이 단순히 도면을 그리기 위한 작업에 그치지 않고 사고 를 표현하는데 있어서도 큰 역할을 하게 되었으며, 이에 병행해서 현대의 건축시공 기술과 장비 등의 발전도 병 행해서 이루어졌다. 이와 같은 현대물리학의 공간개념을 응용한 건축 디자 인 개념은 기존의 건축 디자인 개념에서 고려하지 않았 던 새로운 사고 과정을 제안하였으며, 이러한 건축 공간 개념이 구체적인 건축물로 실현되었다. 그러나 물리학의 사고를 건축적으로 적용하는데 있어 논리 전개가 자의적 인 부분이 있으며, 또한 구현을 위하여 시공의 기술적 측 면이 보완되어야 할 과제가 있다. references [ ] kim, byung yoon, jin, kyung don, "dialogue between contemporary architecture and physics", pp. - , spacetime, . [ ] park, yimoon, "what is the philosophy of science, pp ～ , minumsa, . [ ] lee, yeon kyung, “a study on s. giedion’s view of time in modern architecture in his book, space, time and architecture”, yonsei univ. master's thesis, pp. ～ , . [ ] kim, jaehee, "stroll in the new science", pp ～ , gimmyoung publisher, . [ ] research council for new sciece, the movement of new science, pumyangsa, p , . [ ] f. capra, "the tao of physics", lee, sungbum translation, p , pumyangsa, . [ ] kim, sung woo, lee, seung yong, the possibility of architectural field concept and the understanding of field in architecture based on field theory, journal of the architectural institute of korea, pp - , . . [ ] lee, seung yong, the possibility of application of the architectural field concept to the design of the contemporary architecture, journal of the architectural institute of korea, p , . . [ ] park, young-kyung, a study on analyzing the space of villa vpro used datascape design strategy, journal of the korean institute of interior design, p , , . [ ] song, jin uk, a study on architecture method of program organization in the contemporary architecture, the professional graduate school of techno design of kookmin university, p , . [ ] kim, wongap, "the architecture of rem koolhass", spacetime, . [ ] jung, inha, "contemporary architecture and non-representation", acanet, p , . 이 승 용(seung-yong lee) [정회원] • 년 월 : 연세대학교 연세대 학원 건축공학과 (공학석사) • 년 월 : 연세대학교 연세대 학원 건축공학과 (공학박사) • 년 월 ~ 년 월 : 건 양대학교 건축공학과 교수 • 년 월 ~ 현재 : 목원대학 교 건축학부 교수 <관심분야> 건축계획, 건축설계 << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /preserve /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile () /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa ef a fc c a c f f fdb c ad d cf a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef ef c a f c f f e a f ad c cea c a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c b c b e e c c b f b c e e e e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f b b f d b e e f f d e e a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f e d f e c e d f f f d e f f e e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e d f e c e d d e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f e d c e d e f f b f e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea fa b f f e f c b f f e e b cea b fdd c d e c b af c c d d ea f bf e e f f d eb fc d b e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec b c a d cd d d b b d bc f ad c ae c d c c ace d c c b c c c c d f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken voor kwaliteitsafdrukken op desktopprinters en proofers. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f b f b c e f b c c f f e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f c d d f b f f f f e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f f d f b d e a c b f f e c f a f e e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f b c b e e c b f f b f b e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents for quality printing on desktop printers and proofers. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /noconversion /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /na /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure true /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles true /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /na /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /leaveuntagged /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice _ - ________±èÇöÈñ.hwp 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구* an experimental study investigating the retrieval effectiveness of a video retrieval system using tag query expansion 김 현 희(hyun-hee kim)** 목 차 . 서 론 . 연구의 배경과 목 . 연구 문제, 가설 방법 . 선행 연구 . 폭소노미 기반 탐색 . 질의 확장 . 비디오 자료의 태그 분석 . 태그의 특성 색인어로서의 가치 . 태그 구조화 작업 . 논의 . 실험 설계 . 표본 비디오 . 실험시스템 설계 . 피조사자와 설문지 . 실험 차 . 데이터 분석 . 질의 확장이 비디오의 검색 효율성에 미치는 향 . 논의 . 결 론 록 본 연구는 폭소노미가 비디오 자료를 색인하고 라우징 하는데 얼마나 유용한지 살펴본 후, 동등어, 동의어 련어를 활용한 질의 확장을 통해서 수행되는 폭소노미 태그 통제가 비디오 검색에 얼마나 효율 인지 조사해 보았다. 이를 해서, 태그들을 태그 간의 동등 연 계에 기 하여 클러스터링하고 이러한 정보를 질의 확장에 용시킨 실험 시스템을 설계, 구 하고 이러한 제안된 시스템이 정보검색 과정에서 폭소노미의 효율성을 얼마나 개선시킬 수 있는지에 해서 실험을 통해서 확인해 보았다. 실험 결과, 질의 확장을 통해서 태그 통제를 한 제안된 시스템은 태그 통제를 하지 않은 시스템과 비교하여, 재 율은 증가하 으나 정확률은 차이가 없는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구 결과는 폭소노미를 디지털 비디오 도서 의 소셜 메타데이터로 용하기 한 하나의 방안이 될 것으로 생각된다. abstract this study designed a pilot system in which queries can be expanded through a tag ontology where equivalent, synonymous, or related tags are bound together, in order to improve the retrieval effectiveness of videos. we evaluated the proposed pilot system by comparing it to a tag-based system without tag control, in terms of recall and precision rates. our study results showed that the mean recall rate in the structured folksonomy-based system was statistically higher than that in the tag-based system. on the other hand, the mean precision rate in the structured folksonomy-based system was not statistically higher than that in the tag-based system. the result of this study can be utilized as a guide on how to effectively use tags as social metadata of digital video libraries. 키워드: 텍사노미, 폭소노미, 태그, 비디오, 질의 확장, 시맨틱 검색 structured folksonomy, relevance judgment, recall, precision, tag gardening * ** 이 논문은 년도 정부재원(교육과학기술부 인문사회연구역량강화사업비)으로 한국학술진흥재단의 지원을 받아 연구되었음(krf- - a-h ). 본 내용은 한국문헌정보학회 창립 주년 기념 국제학술 회( 년 월 일)에서 발표한 것을 정리한 것임. 명지 학교 문헌정보학과 교수(kimhh@mju.ac.kr) 논문 수일자: 년 월 일 최 심사일자: 년 월 일 게재확정일자: 년 월 일 한국문헌정보학회지, ( ): - , . [doi: . /kslis. . . . ] 한국문헌정보학회지 제 권 제 호 . 서 론 . 연구의 배경과 목 통제어휘와 텍사노미는 용어간의 계를 정 의하는 분류시스템으로 정의된다. 텍사노미는 용어간의 계층 는 연 계를 설정하는 문가에 의해서 설계된 통제 기호나 어휘의 집합인 통제 어휘로 정의된다(smith ). 이러한 통제어휘나 텍사노미의 특성 하나는 인 요소가 개입된다는 이다. 를 들어서, 도서 은 어떠한 주제의 자료라도 수집하여 정 리할 수 있어야 하는데 정보 문가들이 모든 지식의 분야에서 문가가 되어 색인하는 것이 어려운 것이 실이다(steele ). 이러한 문 제 은 분류 시스템이 디지털 도서 과 웹에 용될 때 더 커지는데 이는 방 한 데이터의 양 때문이다. 다른 문제 은 통제어휘 는 텍사노미는 정보 문가에 의해서 설계되기 때 문에 이용자 어휘와 일치하지 않는 경우들이 생겨날 수 있다는 이다. 최근, 이용자들은 웹에서 스스로 컨텐츠를 구축하기 시작하 다. 즉, 이용자들은 문헌들을 축 하고 이러한 문헌들이 검색될 수 있도록 그들의 키워드(웹 . 에서는 태그로 지칭됨)로 태깅하기 해서 소셜 소 트웨어를 사용하기 시작하 다. 이러한 색인 과정은 소셜 태깅이 라 부르고 한 랫폼에서 사용된 태그의 집합 은 폭소노미로 지칭된다(weller ). 자원에 한 메타데이터 생성 작업이 문 인 활동에 서 이용자에 의한 공유된 의사소통 활동으로 변화하는 것은 요한 발 이며 이러한 변화는 미래 시스템 개발을 해서 연구되어야 할 분 야로 생각된다(mathes ). 폭소노미는 비용 효과 면에서 유리하고 비디오와 같이 텍스트 기반 메타데이터를 컨텐 츠에 포함하고 있지 않는 멀티미디어 자료인 경우에 특히 유용하며 한 이용자 어휘를 반 할 수 있다는 이 장 으로 언 되고 있다. heymann et al.( ), yi( ), geisler and burns( ), sharma and elidrisi( ) 등 을 포함한 많은 연구들은 폭소노미가 컨텐츠를 색인하고 검색하는데 효율 인 방법으로 사용 될 수 있고 앞에서 언 한 텍사노미와 련된 문제를 해결하는 안이 된다고 주장하고 있다. 구체 으로, heymann 등은 소셜 태그를 웹 검색 질의를 확 시키는 자원으로 사용할 수 있 는지 연구하 는데 소셜 태그가 웹 검색에 유용 하게 용될 수 있음을 확인하 다. yi는 잠 재 의미 색인 방법(latent semantic indexing method)을 사용한 정보 검색 모델의 맥락에서 소셜 태그의 색인 가치를 평가하 다. 그의 연 구 결과는 태그된 자원의 ddc-기반 분류를 해서 색인어로서의 소셜 태그의 사용 가능성을 보여 주었다. 한편, geisler와 burns는 유투 태그가 특히 검색에 부가 가치를 제공하고 있 는데, 이는 태그의 %가 서명이나 기술과 같 은 다른 메타데이터에 나타나지 않기 때문이라 고 하 다. sharma와 elidrisi는 유투 비디오 를 비디오 태그를 이용하여 미리 정의된 카테 고리에 따라서 분류했는데 분류의 정확성은 %로 나타났다. 이들은 이러한 연구 결과를 기반으로 하여 비디오 태그가 메타데이터로 사 용될 수 있다고 제안하고 있다. 이와 같이 기존 연구들이 폭소노미가 색인 어로서 유용하게 사용될 수 있다고 제안하고 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구 있지만 여 히 이를 정보 검색에 효율 으로 용하기 해서는 해결해야 할 몇 가지 문제 들이 있다. 표 으로, 폭소노미-기반 근 은 텍사노미와 달리 태그들을 태그간의 계 를 드러내지 못하는 평면 인 구조로 보여 다(matusiak ). 즉, 폭소노미는 어휘 통제 를 하고 있지 않으며 이로 인해서 동의어는 함 께 모아지지 않고, 동음이의어는 구별되지 않 는다. 이는 검색 효율성의 하를 가져다 수 있다. 따라서, 폭소노미의 특성을 그 로 유지시 키면서 이를 텍사노미의 질 높은 구조 시맨 틱과 결합시키는 하나의 방안으로 태그간의 계를 기술한 온톨로지를 이용해서 폭소노미 를 구조화하는 것을 생각해 볼 수 있다. 용어 (태그)간의 계는 크게 두 가지, 동치 계 (paradigmatic relationship)와 통합 계 (syntagmatic relationship)가 있다. 동치 계는 계층 계, 동등 계 는 연 계와 같 은 언어 객체의 클래스들을 정의하는 유사성 계를 의미한다. 반면에 통합 계는 언어 단 ( , 단어, 구 등)가 다른 언어 단 들 과 차례로 함께 출 한다는 때문에 형성되 는 계를 의미한다. 이러한 온톨로지에 기반 한 구조화된 폭소노미는 태그 생성 시 태그 추 천 방식을 통해서 태그 품질을 리하는 측면 으로 활용될 수 있고, 질의를 확장하여 검색 결 과를 확장할 때에도 이용될 수 있다. 본 연구의 목 은 태그들을 태그 간의 동등 연 계에 기 하여 구성한 온톨로지를 통해서 구조화한 후 이를 태그 질의 확장에 용한 구조화된 폭소노미 기반 시스템을 설계, 구 하고 이러한 제안된 시스템이 정보검색 과 정에서 폭소노미의 효율성을 얼마나 개선시킬 수 있는지 테스트해 보았다. 아울러, 비디오 태 그의 색인어로서의 가치를 분석해 보고 비디오 태그들을 태그 간의 동등 연 계에 기 하여 어느 정도 구조화시킬 수 있는지 조사해 보았다. . 연구 문제, 가설 방법 본 연구는 크게 세 개의 연구문제와 두 개의 연구 가설을 갖고 있다. 다음은 이들을 설명하 면서 동시에 각 연구 문제 가설을 검증하기 해서 사용한 연구 방법들을 설명한다. . . 연구 문제 과 첫 번째 연구 문제는 비디오 자료에 할당된 태그의 특성 색인어로서의 가치는 어느 정도 인가이다. 이를 해서 총 개의 카테고리와 개의 하 카테고리로 구분한 태그 카테고리 임워크를 이용하고, 비디오 태그의 분석 결과 를 이미지 자료의 태그 분석 결과와 비교해 보 고자 한다. 두 번째 연구 문제는 비디오 태그들 을 태그 간의 동등 연 계에 기 하여 어 느 정도 구조화시킬 수 있는지 조사해 보고자 한다. 이를 해서 구체 으로 태그간의 동등 계를 악하기 해서는 워드넷(wordnet) . 의 동의어를 이용하 고, 태그간의 연 계를 악하기 해서는 리커의 련어 태그 데이 터베이스를 사용하 다. . . 연구 문제 세 번째 연구 문제는 동의어와 련어에 의 한 질의 확장이 비디오의 검색 효율성(재 율 한국문헌정보학회지 제 권 제 호 과 정확률)에 어떤 향을 미칠 것인가이다. 선 행 연구들을 살펴보면, 통제어를 사용한 질의 확장이 재 율을 증진시키지만 정확률을 감소 시킨다는 연구가 있고(greenberg ), 복 수개의 시소러스를 사용한 질의 확장이 질의 확장을 하지 않는 경우와 비교하여 정확 률이 높아진다는 연구 결과도 있다(mandala, tokunaga & tanoka ). 이러한 연구들은 부분 텍사노미를 기반으로 한 연구이기 때문 에 그 결과를 폭소노미 검색에 그 로 용하 기에는 어려움이 있다. 김 희와 김용호( ) 는 이미지 자료에 해 태그 구조화를 통한 질 의 확장을 한 경우와 질의 확장을 하지 않 은 경우를 비교한 경우, 질의 확장을 한 경우가 하지 않은 경우 보다 재 율과 정확률이 모두 통계 으로 더 높게 나타났다. 따라서 폭소노 미 검색 환경에서 실험을 한 앞의 연구 결과에 기 하여 다음과 같은 가설을 구축하 다. ∙가설 : 동의어와 련어에 의한 질의 확 장을 통해서 태그 통제를 한 구조화한 폭 소노미 기반 시스템이 태그 통제를 하지 않은 태그 기반 시스템보다 평균 재 율이 더 높을 것이다. ∙가설 : 동의어와 련어에 의한 질의 확 장을 통해서 태그 통제를 한 구조화한 폭 소노미 기반 시스템이 태그 통제를 하지 않은 태그 기반 시스템보다 평균 정 확률이 더 높을 것이다. 두 개의 연구 가설들을 검증하기 해서 두 개의 비디오 검색 시스템, 즉 질의 확장을 할 수 있고, 라우징 단계에서 텍스트 기반 메타데이 터를 보여주는 폭소노미 기반 시스템 질의 확장을 하지 않고, 텍스트 기반 메타데이터를 보여주는 태그 기반 시스템을 구 하 다. 이 시스템들의 구성을 해서 유투 의 술 건 축 분야의 개의 비디오를 샘 자료로 이용 하 다. 두 시스템간의 검색 효율성(재 율과 정확률)을 비교, 평가하기 해서 개의 질문과 m 학의 학부 학생들로 구성된 명의 피조사 자들을 이용하 고, 평가 결과의 통계 분석을 해서 spss 통계 패키지를 활용하 다. . 선행 연구 . 폭소노미 기반 탐색 kolbitsch( )는 furnas et al.( )의 연구 결과에 기 하여 시스템 이용자들이 동일 한 객체에 해서 매우 다양한 태그들을 부여 한다고 주장하고 있다. 를 들어서 동일한 객 체에 해서 두 명의 이용자가 태깅을 할 때, 이용자 a는 이용자 b에게 명확하지 않은 표 을 이용할 수 있고 그 반 의 경우도 일어날 수 있다. 이는 언어 문제를 야기시킨다. 그는 이와 같은 리커의 언어 문제를 해결하기 해서, 리커 질의를 워드넷으로 확장한, wordflickr 시스템을 제안하 다. 제안된 시스템과 리커 의 검색 결과를 비교하는 비공식 인 실험을 하 다. 질 평가 결과는 wordflickr가 리 커보다 뛰어나고, wordflickr의 검색 결과 가장 높은 빈도의 태그들이 의미 으로 리커 의 검색결과보다 이용자의 기 질문에 더 가 까운 것으로 나타났다. 이 연구는 리커 보다 wordflickr가 검색 효율 측면에서 더 우수하 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구 다고 실험을 통해서 증명하지는 못했다. 유사 한 연구로, laniado et al( b)는 의미 으 로 질의를 확장하기 해서 딜리셔스의 폭소노 미를 워드넷과 결합하 다. hayman( )은 시소러스에 의해 통제될 수 있는 폭소노미 모델을 소개하 다. 이 모델 은 이용자가 문서를 태깅할 때 참조할 수 있도 록 시소러스를 제공한다. 이러한 근 방식은 자칫 소셜 태깅의 자유와 편리함을 잃어버릴 우려가 있어 보인다. morrison( )은 소셜 북마크 웹 사이트에서의 폭소노미의 검색 기능 을 검색 엔진 주제 디 토리와 재 율과 정 확률 측면에서 비교하 다. 비교 결과, 검색 엔 진이 가장 높은 재 율과 정확률을 나타냈고, 폭소노미의 검색 기능도 기 이상으로 높게 나타났다. 체 으로 디 토리는 폭소노미 보 다 정확률은 높았으나 재 율은 비슷했다. 이 연구는 폭소노미 기반 검색 환경에 합한 새 로운 탐색 로직과 기술의 개발이 필요하다고 제안하 다. melenhorst et al.( )은 검색 과정에 한 소셜 태그, 문 메타데이터, 자동으로 생성 되는 메타데이터의 기여도를 조사했다. 이 연 구를 해서 명의 피조사자들이 총 개 비디오들을 태깅하도록 하 다. 한 명의 다른 피조사자들이 개 질문에 답할 수 있도 록 비디오 자료를 검색하도록 하 다. 검색 결 과, 소셜 태그가 문 메타데이터나 자동으로 생성되는 메타데이터와 거의 동등한 검색 결과 를 보여 주었다. siersdorfer et al.( )은 겹 치거나 복된 비디오 형식에서 유투 가 높은 복성을 보여 다고 하 다. 따라서, 이들을 컨텐츠 복을 이용하여 자동 으로 풍부한 비 디오 태그를 얻기 한 태그 확장 방안들을 제 안하 다. 김 희 외( )는 이미지 자료에 해 태그 통제를 통한 질의 확장을 할 수 있는 구조화된 폭소노미 시스템을 제안하 다. 이 연구는 키 피디아, 워드넷 리커 련 태그들은 동등 어, 동의어, 련어 태그를 선택하기 해 사용 하 다. 실험 결과는 제안된 구조화된 폭소노미 시스템의 재 율과 정확률이 통제되지 않은 태 그기반 시스템보다 통계 으로 더 높게 나타났 다. 한 이들은 리커 이미지에 할당된 태그 를 개 하 카테고리로 분류하 다. 분류 결 과, 그룹명, 사진술 등을 기술한 메타데이터요 소( . %)가 가장 높게 나타났고, 그 다음으로 장소( . %), 객체( . %), 주제( . %) 순으로 나타났다. . 질의 확장 mandala, tokunaga tanoka( )는 세 가지 다른 유형의 시소러스의 결합으로 질의 확장을 수행하 다. wordnet, 동시 출 기반 (co-occurrence-based) 시소러스, 심어-수 식어(head-modifier) 계를 기반으로 한 시 소러스가 그것이다. 여기서, 심어-수식어 계는 네 개의 구문 계, 즉, 주어-동사, 동 사-목 어, 형용사-명사, 그리고 명사-명사 계를 포함한다. 확장된 용어에는 기 질의 에 있는 단어들과 비교하여 유사성에 따라서 가 치가 부여되었다. 이 연구 결과, 세 시소러 스의 결합을 통한 질의 확장은 질의 확장을 하지 않았을 경우 는 오직 한 시소러스만 포함했을 경우보다 더 좋은 평균 정확률을 보 한국문헌정보학회지 제 권 제 호 여주었다. greenberg( )는 boolean 정보 시 스템(the dialog system)을 통해 검색된 abi/ inform 데이터베이스에서 proquest의 통제어 휘를 사용한 질의 확장을 한 여러 시소러스 계들의 효과를 조사하 다. 이 연구는 동의 어와 의어의 이용이 정확률을 조 감소시키 면서 재 율을 증가시키는 반면, 련어와 의어의 이용은 정확률에서 상당한 감소를 가져 다 주었지만 상 으로 재 율을 증가시켰다 고 밝혔다. manning( )은 질의 확장이 일 반 으로 재 율을 향상시킨다고 보고하고 있 다. 이러한 연구들은 부분 통 인 색인을 기반으로 한 연구이기 때문에 그 결과를 폭소 노미 검색에 그 로 용하기에는 어려움이 있 다. 김 희와 김용호( )는 이미지 자료에 해 태그 구조화를 통한 질의 확장을 한 경우 와 질의 확장을 하지 경우와 비교한 경우, 질의 확장을 한 경우가 하지 않은 경우 보다 재 율과 정확률이 모두 통계 으로 더 높게 나 타났다. 선행연구들은 폭소노미가 이용자의 요구와 기 틀에 합한 방식으로 컨텐츠를 주석하 고 검색하는 효율 인 방법이라고 주장하고 있다. 하지만, 이러한 연구들은 폭소노미 태그 가 비디오 자료의 검색에 얼마나 잘 용될 수 있는지 더 나아가 질의 확장과 같은 태그 가드 닝(tag gardening) )이 검색 효율성 향상에 어 떤 향을 미치는지에 한 구체 인 연구 결 과는 거의 없는 편이다. 따라서, 본 연구는 태그 간의 계를 분석하여 질의를 확장할 수 있는 구조화된 폭소노미 기반 시스템을 설계, 구 하고 이러한 제안된 시스템이 정보검색 과정에 서 폭소노미의 효율성을 얼마나 개선시킬 수 있는지에 해서 조사해 보고자 한다. . 비디오 자료의 태그 분석 태그의 특성 색인어로서의 가치(연구 문 제 )와 비디오 자료의 태그 구조화 작업(연구 문제 )을 분석한 결과는 다음과 같다. . 태그의 특성 색인어로서의 가치 . . 태그 분포 패턴 이미지, 비디오와 같은 멀티미디어 자료에 부 여된 태그들은 텍스트 기반 자료에 할당된 태그 와 조 다른 성격을 지니고 있는 것으로 악 되었다(ménard ). 즉, 멀티미디어 자료에 부여되는 태그의 카테고리는 panofsky( ) 가 이미지에 한 사람들의 이해 수 을 설명하 기 해서 사용한 ‘ 도상학(기술)’, ‘도상학(분 석)’ ‘도상해석학(해석)’의 세 단계를 포함하 여 멀티미디어 자료와 련된 제작자, 소장 장 소 등과 같은 메타데이터(isness) 개인 정보 카테고리로 구분된다는 이다. 즉, 기술 단계 에서는 멀티미디어 자료의 기본 이며 자연 인 특징( , 색상, 모양)이 인지되며, 분석 단계 에서는, 멀티미디어가 무엇에 한 것인가를 찰하는 단계이며 멀티미디어 속의 객체, 사건 등이 인지된다. 해석 수 은 이미지가 갖는 고 유의 의미를 악하는 단계이다. <표 >은 태 ) governor( )에 의해서 만들어진 용어로 재는 폭소노미 태그를 좀 더 생산 이고 효과 으로 사용하기 해서 태그를 편집하고 조직하는 과정을 기술하기 해서 사용된다. 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구 카테고리 하 카테고리 빈도(%) 기 술 색상 ( . ) 질감/재료 ( . ) 모양/구성 ( . ) 숫자 ( . ) 텍스트 ( . ) 합계 ( . ) 분 석 사람/지 ( . ) 사건/활동 ( . ) 객체 ( . ) 공간(장소) ( . ) 시간 ( . ) 씬(장면) ( . ) 합계 ( . ) 해 석 추상 ( . ) 분 기/감정 ( . ) 주제 ( . ) 기능 ( . ) 합계 ( . ) 메타 데이터 메타데이터요소 ( . ) 합계 ( . ) 개인 정보 사 인 정보 ( . ) 합계 ( . ) 총 합 계 ( . ) <표 > 태그 분포 패턴 그들을 총 개의 카테고리와 개의 하 카테 고리로 구분한 것이다. . . 태그 분석 기 샘 비디오 개 비디오에 부여된 총 , 개의 태그(복합어: ( . %), 단일어: , ( . %))를 분석하 다. 태그 분석은 총 세 사 람이 했다. 문헌정보학과 학원생 두 명과 박 사 연구원 한 명이 수행했다. 태깅 분석 기 을 숙지한 후, 처음에는 태그 분석을 두 명의 연구 자가 하 는데 두 연구자간의 분석 결과의 상 계수는 r= . 로 높게 나타났다. 그런 다음 박사 연구원을 포함한 세 명의 연구자들은 논 의를 통해서 두 연구자간에 일치하는 않은 태 그들에 해서 최종 으로 합의를 이끌어내어 분류 작업을 진행하 다. 태그 분석에서는 다음과 같은 분석 가이드를 정하 다. 태그는 이용자가 입력한 형태 그 로 분석하 다. 를 들어서, 이용자가 “new york”이라고 복합어 형태로 입력했으면 그 로 분석하 다. 복합어 “new york”에는 분석 카테고리에 있는 공간(장소) 서 카테고리를 부여하 다. 한 “new”와 “york”를 각각 입 력했다면 이를 두 개의 단일어로 처리하 다. 한국문헌정보학회지 제 권 제 호 복합어나 단일어의 카테고리와 서 카테고리 를 할당할 때 분명치 않는 것은 비디오의 요약 문, 다른 태그들, 댓 등을 참조하여 해당 비디 오에 맞는 카테고리로 분류하고자 하 다. 를 들어서, “new”와 “york”이라는 각각의 단 일어가 한 비디오에 함께 출 하고 해당 비디 오가 뉴욕에 한 주제를 언 했다면, “new” 과 “york” 단어 모두에 공간(장소) 서 카테 고리를 부여하 다. 한편 “new”라는 단어가 “york”이라는 단어 없이 단독으로 출 하고 다른 태그, “jersey”, “oleans” 등과 함께 해 당 출 하면서 지역을 언 했으면 역시 공간 (장소) 서 카테고리를 부여하 다. 다른 경 우로 “new”가 “university of new south wales” 학을 지칭한 경우에는 “new”에 객 체 서 카테고리가 할당되었다. 본 샘 자료에 는 없지만 비디오가 뉴욕커에 한 주제를 다 루면서 “new”과 “yorker”라는 단어가 함께 부여된 경우라면 이 두 단어에는 사람/지 의 서 카테고리가 할당될 것이며, “new”가 “새 로운” 의미로 사용되었다면 해석 카테고리에 있는 추상 서 카테고리가 할당될 것이다. 다음 단계는 두 개 이상의 분류 카테고리가 겹치는 경우는 다음과 같은 기 을 용하 다. 주로 비디오의 체 인 주제와 사건/활동, 추 상 인 개념, 장소, 객체 등과 겹치는 경우가 많 이 발생하 다. 이 경우는 이용자들의 사건/활 동, 객체 등의 인식과 추상 인 개념을 우선 으로 분석하고자 주제를 제외한 각 하 카테 고리의 분류를 우선시했다. 첫째, 주제와 사건/ 활동이 겹치는 경우가 많이 생겨났다. 를 들 어, ddc 분류표의 ‘ ’에 속해 있는 “춤”, “dance” 등을 주제로 볼 것인가, 아니면 사건/ 활동으로 볼 것인가 하는 문제이다. 이 경우에는 사건/활동을 우선시하여 태깅하 다. 둘째, 주 제와 추상 인 개념이 겹치는 경우도 생겨났다. 를 들어, ddc 분류표의 ‘ ’에 속해있는 “빈 곤”, “poverty”의 경우에는 추상 인 개념을 우 선시하여 태깅하 다. 셋째, 주제와 객체가 겹치 는 경우가 있었다. 를 들어, ddc 분류표의 ‘ ’에 해당하는 “교회(건물)”, “church”의 경 우에는 객체를 우선시 하 다. 이외에 다의어와 품사가 여러 개인 단어는 해당 비디오의 내용을 악하여 합한 하 카테고리로 분류하도록 하 다. 끝으로, 앞의 단계들을 통해서 분석 결 과가 명확하지 않는 경우에는 복수개의 하 카 테고리들을 부여하도록 하 다(김민경 ). 분석 결과, 분석 카테고리( . %)가 가장 높았고, 그 다음으로 해석( . %), 메타데이 터( . %) 순으로 나타났다. 한 가장 자주 사용되는 하 카테고리는 주제( . %)이고, 그 다음은 객체( . %), 메타데이터요소( . %), 사람/지 ( . %), 공간(장소)( . %) 순으로 나타났다. 이와 같이 주제는 물론 비디오 속의 객체, 사람 공간 인식을 폭소노미로 보완할 수 있음을 확인할 수 있어서 폭소노미가 색인 어로서의 가치가 있는 것으로 나타났다. . 태그 구조화 작업 태그 구조화 작업은 크게 두 가지, 즉 워드넷 . 단어와 유투 태그와의 매칭을 분석하 고, 그 다음으로 리커 태그와 유투 태그와 의 매칭을 조사하 다. 첫째, 워드넷 단어와 , 개의 태그 빈도 가 두 개 이상인 개 )의 유투 태그간의 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구 복도를 단어를 기 으로 분석한 결과, 유투 태그들의 개( . %)가 워드넷 단어와 일치 하 다. 이러한 일치율은 cattuto et al.( ) 의 연구 결과 보다 다소 낮은 편이다. 그들은 딜리셔스에 있는 가장 인기 있는 , 개 태그 . %가 워드넷에 포함되어 있다고 보고하 다. 일치되면 그 다음 작업으로 수작업으로 워드넷 동의어(synonyms) 항목을 체크한 후 유투 태그와 의미 으로 가장 가까운 워드넷 동의어를 최 세 개까지 선택하도록 하 다. 이와 같이 일치율이 낮은 것은 복합어의 통일 되지 않은 여러 형태의 사용이나 검색을 고려 하지 않고 개인 인 정보 리를 하여 태그 를 부여하는 습 때문으로 분석되기도 하 다 (peters ). 둘째, 개의 유투 태그와 리커 태그와 의 복도를 조사하 다. 조사 결과, 유투 태 그의 개( . %)가 리커 태그와 일치하 다. 복되지 않은 부분의 경우 어 이외의 외국어로 된 태그들이었다. 그 다음 단계로 복된 경우에 리커 태그가 련어 태그들을 갖는 경우를 체크한 결과 개( . %)의 리커 태그가 련어 태그들을 포함하고 있었다. 이와 같이 부분의 리커 태그들은 련어 개(핵심 련어 와 비핵심 련어 개)를 포함하고 있었다. . 논의 비디오 자료에 할당된 태그들을 분석한 결 과, 자주 사용되는 하 카테고리는 주제, 객체, 메타데이터요소, 사람/지 , 공간(장소) 순으 로 나타나 주제는 물론 비디오 속의 객체, 사람 공간 인식을 폭소노미로 보완할 수 있음을 확인할 수 있었다. 이러한 분석 결과를 이미지 태그를 분석한 김 희 외( )의 연구 결과 즉, 메타데이터요소( . %)가 가장 높게 나타 났고 그 다음으로 장소( . %), 객체( . %), 주제( . %) 순으로 나타난 것과 비교해 볼 때, 비디오 태그들이 이미지 태그들 보다 색인 문가가 할당한 색인어에 더 가까운 것으로 보 인다. 이러한 결과는 heckner, neubauer wolff( )가 주장한 내용 즉, 유투 의 비디 오들은 범 하게 태깅되는데, 이는 유투 이 용자들이 태깅을 하는 이유는 개인 수집물을 리하기 해서 보다는 가능한 많은 사람들이 그 들이 등록한 비디오들을 검색하고 라우징할 수 있도록 하기 해서라는 주장과 일치한다. 선행 연구에서 지 한 것처럼 태그들을 살펴 본 결과, 태그간의 계층 구조를 보여주지 못 하고, 단복수의 구분이 없으며, 동의어는 물론 동등어 통제가 되어 있지 않다는 것이 문제 으로 나타났다. 태그 구조화 작업에서는 리 커 태그와 유투 태그와의 복도( . %)는 매우 높게 나왔다. 그러나, 워드넷을 통한 질 의 확장이 좋은 검색 결과를 산출할지라도, 모 든 질의(태그)가 확장될 수 없는 문제가 생겨 날 수 있는 이다. 따라서 태그와 텍사노미 용 어와의 일치율을 높이기 해서 태그의 어간 사용, 여러 복합어 패턴을 하나의 일 성 있는 ) 출 빈도가 인 태그들을 분석한 결과, 어 이외의 외국어들로 된 태그, 철자가 틀린 태그 등이 많았고 색인어 로서의 비용 효과 면에서 효용성이 낮아서 제외시켰다. 개의 태그 복합어는 개( . %)이었고, 단일어 는 개( . %)이었다. 한국문헌정보학회지 제 권 제 호 형식으로 환시키기 한 방안이 필요해 보인 다(yi and chan ). . 실험 설계 다음은 연구문제 에서 나온 두 개의 연구 가설들( . . 참조)을 검증하기 해서, 실험 시스템들을 구 하고, 명의 피조사자들을 상으로 실험을 실시하 다. 다음은 실험 시스 템에 사용된 표본 비디오, 시스템 설계, 피조사 자와 설문지 실험 차에 해서 기술한다. . 표본 비디오 샘 자료로 비디오를 선정한 이유는 태그들 이 제한된 텍스트 메타데이터를 갖는 비디오 자료에 좀 더 다양한 근 을 제공하는데 매 우 유용하게 사용될 수 있다고 생각되었기 때 문이다. 한 술과 건축 분야에 한 비디오 로 샘 비디오의 주제를 제한하 는데 이는 도서 에서 활용할 수 있는 학술 이면서 다양 한 해석이 가능한 주제로 생각되었기 때문이 다. 술 분야 자료는 ‘ 술’ 는 ‘art’를 검색 어로 하여 검색된 결과 에서 태그가 개 이 상 부여된 개의 비디오들을 일차 으로 선 정하 다. 그리고 건축 분야 자료는 ‘건축’ 는 ‘architecture'를 검색어로 하여 동일한 기 으 로 개 비디오들을 선정하 다. 이로써 샘 비디오의 수는 개로 하 는데 질의가 개로 구성된 실험 환경에게 최소한 개의 샘 자 료가 필요하다고 생각되었기 때문이다. . 실험시스템 설계 본 연구에서는 제안한 구조화된 폭소노미 기 반 시스템을 구 하고 이 시스템의 평가를 해서 질의 확장 기능이 없는 태그 기반 시스템 도 함께 구성하 다. . . 구조화된 폭소노미 기반 시스템 제안한 폭소노미 기반 시스템은 태그 선택과 라우징을 해서 카테고리 알 벳순 태그 일들을 구축하 고, 질의 확장을 해서는 동등의, 동의어 련어 일들을 구성하 다. 다음은 이러한 일들이 어떻게 구성되었 는지 상세히 설명하고 아울러 인터페이스에 해서 상술한다. ( ) 태그 라우징 선택: 카테고리 알 벳순 태그 일 태그를 라우징하거나 선택하기 해 사용 될 두 개의 태그 일(카테고리와 알 벳 태그 일)을 만들었다. 선정된 개 비디오에 부여 된 총 , 개 태그들 태그가 무 짧아서 의 미가 없거나 제 외국어로 해석이 불가능한 개를 제외한 , 개를 데이터베이스로 구축하 다. 이들 태그들을 분석하여 복된 태그들을 통합하여 총 , 개의 유니크한 태그로 압축시 켰다. 각 비디오의 평균 태그 수는 . 개로 나 타났다. , 개의 태그 에서 출 빈도가 개 이상인 개의 태그들을 이용하여 두 개의 태 그 일들을 구성하 다. 먼 , 카테고리 태그 일의 개의 태그들은 김 희 외( )에 의해 개발된 분류법(categorization)에 기 하 여 개의 하 카테고리별로 분류하 다. 알 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구 벳순 태그 일의 태그들은 단순히 알 벳순으 로 배열하여 구성하 다. ( ) 태그 질의 확장: 동등어, 동의어 련어 일 ① 질의 확장 과정 질의 확장은 크게 두 단계로 구분하 다. 첫 번째 단계는 자동으로 질의를 확장하는 단계이 다. 즉, 단수/복수, 다양한 형태의 복합어 등 동 등 계에 있는 단어들로 확장하는 단계로 이 때는 동등어 일을 이용한다. 두 번째 단계는 동의어나 련어 태그 옵션, 는 두 개의 옵션 모두를 선택할 수 있는 단계로 동의어 련 어 일을 이용한다. 를 들어서, 이용자는 제 안된 시스템으로 질의를 제시한다. 그런 다음 시스템은 입력된 질의를 동등어 태그 일을 사용하여 자동 으로 확장한다. 한 이용자는 질의를 더 확장하기 해서 동의어나 련어 태그 옵션, 는 두 개의 옵션 모두를 선택할 수 있다. ② 동등어, 동의어 련어 일 질의 확장을 해서 총 세 종류의 용어 일 을 구성하 다. 먼 키피디아 일반 사 을 이용하여 단수/복수, 다양한 형태의 복합어, 어 이외의 외국어로 표 되는 것 등의 동등 어들을 클러스터링한 동등어 태그 일을 구성 하 다. 그런 다음, 동의어 태그 일을 만들기 해 워드넷을 사용했다. 워드넷은 린스턴 학에 의해 개발된 어를 한 가장 큰 어휘 데이터베이스이다. 워드넷은 명사, 동사, 형용 사, 부사를 인지(cognitive) 동의어로 분류하고, 인지(cognitive) 동의어 간에 개념 의미 계 와 어휘 계를 제공한다(fellbaum ). 마지막으로 련어 태그 일을 만들기 해서, 리커 련 태그들을 사용하 다. 이는 태그 의 동시 출 (co-occurrence) 빈도에 기 하 여 생성된다(specia and motta ). 유투 비디오 자료에 리커의 련 태그들을 사용한 이유는 리커 태그의 동시 출 패턴이 유투 태그의 동시 출 패턴과 유사하다고 가정 했기 때문이다. <표 >는 동등어, 동의어 련어 태그 일의 일부를 보여 다. 각 태그는 최 개의 동등어, 개의 동의어, 그리고 개의 련어로 구성된다. 태그수를 ~ 개로 제한한 이유는 다음과 같다. 리커의 핵심 련어는 개이므 로 이를 기 으로 하여 동의어와 련어의 최 개수를 개로 제한하 다. 동등어는 모두 포 함시키는 것이 좋을 듯하여 사 에 태그들을 분석한 결과 최 개까지 동등어를 포함하고 있었기 때문이다. 의미 으로 연결된 워드넷 동의어 태그와 동시 출 빈도에 기 하여 연 결된 리커 련어 태그간의 복도를 체크해 보았다. 련어의 약 . %는 동의어와 동등하 거나 유사한 것으로 나타났다. 를 들어서, “building”은 “architecture”의 동의어이자 련어로 나타났다. 이외에 “real”은 축구 으 로 지칭되는 복합어 “real madrid”로 인하여 “madrid”와 련어로 연결되고, “fashion”은 복합어 “fashion model” 때문에 “model”의 련어로 분류된다. 이와 같이, 많은 태그들은 복합어로 인하여 련되어지고 있다. 이외에, garden/flower, water/sea 등과 같은 몇몇 태 그들은 연 계로 련되고 있었다. 반면에, “award”와 “cubism”과 같이 한국문헌정보학회지 제 권 제 호 련이 없어 보이는 단어들도 련어로 간주되어 좀 더 자세한 정보를 얻기 해서 리커 련 어 태그 데이터베이스를 분석해 보았다. 앞에서 언 한 것처럼, 리커의 태그들을 분석한 결과, 많은 이용자들이 리커의 그룹명을 태그로 등 록하는 경우가 많았는데 “cubism award”도 그 룹명 하나로 나타났다. 따라서 이용자들이 태그를 등록할 때 복합어로 하지 않고 단일어 인 “cubism”, “award”를 각각 따로 등록했기 때문에 이 두 태그간의 동시 출 빈도가 높게 나와서 련어로 연결되어 있는 것으로 분석되 었다. 따라서 그러한 그룹명을 갖고 있지 않은 유투 에 용하기 해서는 리커 그룹명과 련된 련어 태그들을 삭제하거나 질의 확장 시 이용자가 불필요한 련어는 제거시키는 단 계를 추가한다면 이 문제를 좀 더 완화시킬 것 으로 생각된다. 한 리커에서 그룹명을 태 그로 입력시 그룹명 목록을 보여주고 선택하여 입력하도록 하면 그룹명과 련된 복합어 문제 도 해결될 수 있을 것으로 보인다(표 참조). ( ) 인터페이스 설계 이용자가 시스템으로 질의를 제시할 수 있는 html 인터페이스를 설계하 다. 제안된 시 스템의 인터페이스를 살펴보면, 이용자는 질의 를 구성하기 해서 “알 벳순 태그 목록”이나 “카테고리 태그 목록”에서 태그를 선택하거나 직 질의를 입력할 수 있다(그림 참조). 그 런 다음, 입력된 질의는 동등어 태그 일을 사 용하여 자동 으로 확장된다. 를 들어, <그림 >에서처럼, 이용자가 질의어로 “art”를 입력 하면, 그 후 질의는 자동 으로 “art or arts or arte or 아트”로 변환되고, 동의어와 련어 목 록은 참조를 해서 화면에 디스 이 된다. 다음으로, 이용자는 질의를 더 확장하기 해 서 동의어 태그 옵션, 련어 태그 옵션, 는 이 두 개의 옵션을 동시에 선택할 수 있다. 만약 사용자가 동의어 태그 옵션을 선택한다면, 질 의는 “art or arts or arte or 아트 or artwork or fine art”로 변환된다. 시스템은 이용자가 블 리언 연산자 “or” 는 “and”를 사용해서 두 검 색 용어를 결합하도록 허용한다. 검색 결과의 화면은 <그림 >에서 처럼 비디오 코드 번호, 어 한국어 제목들, 태그들, 하이퍼링크 이미 지(image)를 포함하는 개의 필드를 보여 다. 하이퍼링크 이미지는 이용자가 메타데이 터뿐만 아니라 비디오를 체크할 수 있는 곳인 유투 사이트로 연결할 수 있도록 허용한다. 동등어 태그 동의어 태그 련어 태그 architecture 建筑, 建築 building, edifice building, city, sky art arts, arte, 아트 artwork, fine art blue, black, color award - prize, symbol flickr, cubism. soe fashion - manner, mode, style girl, portrait, model garden - yard, grounds flower, flowers, macro real - actual, true madrid, spain, palacio water - liquid sea, blue, lake <표 > 동등어, 동의어 련어 태그 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구 <그림 > 구조화된 폭소노미 기반 시스템의 인터페이스 <그림 > 검색 결과 <그림 > 태그 기반 시스템 인터페이스 즉, 이용자가 비디오 제목, 기술, 업로드된 태그 와 댓 , 할당된 카테고리 등과 같은 메타데이 터를 라우징하거나 는 비디오클립의 일부 를 들음으로써 그 비디오가 한 것인지 단할 수 있다. 검색 결과를 디스 이 하기 해서 특정한 질의 등 알고리즘을 사용하지 않고 검색 결과를 코드 순서 로 출력하여 보여 주었다. . . 태그 기반 시스템 태그 기반 시스템은 키워드의 완 일치 는 부분일치를 허용한다(그림 참조). 태그 기반 시스템은 질의를 구성하기 해서 이용자로 하 여 키워드를 바로 입력하거나 알 벳순 태그 일로부터 태그를 선택하도록 하며, 질의 확 장은 허용하지 않는다. 검색 결과의 출력 형식 은 <그림 >와 같이 개의 필드를 보여 다. 한국문헌정보학회지 제 권 제 호 . 피조사자와 설문지 m 학에서 명의 피조사자들을 모집하 다. 문헌정보학을 공하는 학부 학생으로, 성 별 는 학년 차이를 없애기 해서 피조사자 들을 두 그룹(a와 b)으로 균등하게 나 었다. 따라서, a와 b 그룹은 명의 피조사자를 포 함한다. 한 개의 검색 질의를 구성하여 사용 하 다(표 참조). . 실험 차 두 개 시스템을 검색하는 방법을 설명한 후, 그룹 a의 명과 그룹 b의 명에게 각각 개 의 질의를 주고 구조화된 폭소노미 기반 태 그 기반 시스템을 이용하여 질의에 답하도록 요청하 다. 실험은 m 학교 컴퓨터실에서 수 행되었다. 명의 참가자들에게 분 내에 개 의 질의에 답하도록 했다. 피조사자들은 각 질 문에 한 합 비디오(들)로 생각되는 비디오 코드(들)를 어 내도록 하 고, 이 자료에 기 하여 각 질문에 한 재 율과 정확률을 계 산하 다(총 개 사례, 명의 피조사자 × 개의 질의). . 데이터 분석 . 질의 확장이 비디오의 검색 효율성에 미치는 향 가설 검증을 해서, 두 그룹의 재 율과 정 확률의 평균 표 편차 분석, t-검증을 수행 하 다. 테스트에 한 유의확률 수 (p) 는 sig는 . 이다. spss가 데이터 분석을 해 사용되었다. <표 >는 두 그룹에 한 재 율과 번호 질문( 합 비디오 코드) 이슬람(islam)의 건축물(architecture)에 한 모든 비디오들을 찾아서 비디오 번호들을 기술하시오( , , ) 버마(burma)에 한 모든 비디오들을 찾아서 비디오 번호들을 기술하시오( , , ) 집 는 집 내부를 리모델링(remodeling) 는 페인 하는 방법에 해서 설명하는 모든 비디오들을 찾아서 비디오 번호들을 기술하시오( , , , ) 뉴욕(ny)과 련된(건축, 여행 등) 비디오들을 찾아서 비디오 번호들을 기술하시오( , , , , , , , , , , ) 사람 얼굴을 그리는 방법(draw)에 해서 설명하고 있는 모든 비디오들을 찾아서 비디오 번호들을 기술하시오( , , , , ) 는 과거 고 유럽(europe) 건축물에 한 모든 비디오들을 찾아서 비디오 번호들을 기술하시오( 국, 랑스, 로마, 그리스, 러시아 등 유럽 륙에 있는 모두 나라 포함함)( , , , , , , , , , , , ) 도서 건물(architecture)을 설명하는 부분을 담고 있는 비디오의 번호를 기술하시오(하나)( ). 술(art)과 건축(architecture)간의 계에 해서 기술하는 비디오를 찾아서 그 번호를 기술하시오(하나)( ) 수채화(watercolour)에 한 모든 비디오들을 찾아서 비디오 번호들을 기술하시오( , ) <표 > 검색 질의 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구 시스템 측정 재 율과 정확률의 평균(표 편차) t-values(p-values) 폭소노미 시스템(n= ) 태그 시스템(n= ) 폭소노미 vs. 태그 정확률 . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) 재 율 . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) <표 > t-검증 결과 정확률의 평균값과 t-검증 결과에 한 통계값 을 기술한 것이다. 두 그룹간의 재 율과 정확률이 통계 으로 차이가 있는지 확인하기 해서 t-검증을 수행 하 다. 분석 결과, <표 >에서 볼 수 있듯이, 구 조화된 폭소노미 기반 시스템의 재 율( . ) 이 태그 기반 검색 시스템의 재 율( . )과 비 교하여 통계 으로 유의미한 차이를 보 기 때 문에 가설 은 증명되었다. 그러나, 구조화된 폭 소노미 기반 시스템의 정확률( . )이 태그 기 반 검색 시스템의 정확률( . )과 비교하여 통 계 으로 유의미한 차이를 보이지 않았기 때문 에 가설 는 기각되었다. . 논의 질의 확장을 통해서 태그 통제를 한 시스템은 태그 통제를 하지 않은 시스템과 비교하여, 재 율은 증가하 으나( . → . ), 정확률 은 통계 으로 차이가 없어서( . → . ), 가 설 은 검증되었으나 가설 는 기각되었다. 이 와 같이 동등어, 동의어 련어에 기 한 질 의 확장과 같은 태그 가드닝은 재 율을 높여 주는 효과가 있음을 확인하 다. 그러나 이미 지 연구 결과(김 희 외 )와 달리 정확률 에는 차이가 없는 것으로 나타났다. 이미지의 경우 검색 결과에서 합 이미지를 선택하는 과정이 비디오 보다 훨씬 쉬운 것이 정확률을 높인 이유의 하나로 생각해 볼 수 있다. 다시 말해서 차 검색 결과에서 한 장으로 되어 있는 이미지를 직 확인해 볼 수 있기 때문에 합 하지 않은 이미지를 가려내는 가능성이 훨씬 높을 수 있다는 의미이다. 그러나 비디오의 경 우는 비디오 체 클립을 모두 보기 어려운 상 황인데다 비디오의 내용을 일부 확인한다 해도 어로 되어 있기 때문에 비디오의 의미 악 이 더 어려웠을 것으로 단된다. 따라서, 본 연구에서는 정확률을 높이는 두 가지 방안을 제안한다. 첫째, 효율 인 멀티미 디어 자료의 검색을 해서 라우징 단계에서 텍스트 기반 메타데이터 는 서로게이트 뿐만 아니라 멀티미디어 기반 서로게이트를 제시하 는 방안이다. 다시 말해서, 비디오와 같은 멀티 미디어 자료를 검색하고 라우징하기 해서 태그를 포함한 텍스트 기반 메타데이터만을 사 용하는 것은 한계가 있다는 이다. 이용자들 이 비디오 속의 객체, 인물을 태그로 기술하는 경우가 많아서 비디오 속의 구체 인 내용 즉, 객체, 사람 공간 인식을 폭소노미로 보완할 수는 있지만 이용자들은 비주얼 서로게이트와 같은 멀티미디어 서로게이트를 확인하고서 비 디오의 내용을 좀 더 정확하게 악할 수 있을 것이다. 둘째, 합성 등 알고리즘을 사용하는 방 한국문헌정보학회지 제 권 제 호 안이다. 폭소노미 내에서 자료를 한 등 가 능성은 세 가지, 즉 태그, 동(collaboration) 이용자 역으로 집 될 수 있다(peters & stock ). 본 연구의 경우에는 이용자가 지 정하는 유투 카테고리와 태그 유형을 고려하 여, 탐색 결과를 유투 의 카테고리( , 교육, 과학 기술 등)에 따라서 배열한다. 그런 다 음 각 카테고리에 검색된 비디오들을 태그 유 형 즉, 질의에 있는 태그를 갖는 비디오(들)은 제일 먼 배열되고 그 다음으로 질의에 있는 태그의 동의어, 련어 등을 갖는 비디오(들) 을 배열시키는 방안이다. 이때, 비디오 검색 결 과의 등 화를 좀 더 효율 으로 하기 해서 mandala, tokunaga tanoka( )의 연 구에서처럼 확장된 태그에 기 질의에 있는 태그들과 비교하여 유사성에 따라서 가 치를 부여할 수 있는 방안을 생각해 볼 수 있다. 끝으로, 본 연구에서는 태그 확장을 해서 의미 으로 연 된 동의어와 태그간의 동시 출 빈도에 기 한 련어를 사용하 다. 본 연구 의 분석 결과를 살펴보면 련어의 약 . %는 동의어와 동등하거나 유사한 것으로 나타났다. 한 동시 출 빈도에 기 하여 추출한 많은 련어 태그들이 동일한 복합어의 일부분인 것으 로 나타났고, 일부 태그들은 연 계에 의해서 련되기도 한다. peters와 weller( )는 동 시 출 빈도에 의해서 기 하여 클러스터링된 태그들은 의어, 하 어와 같은 계층 계에 의해서 서로 련되기도 한다고 제안하고 있다. 이와 같이 일부 기존 연구들이 동시 출 빈 도에 련된 태그들의 특성을 부분 으로 제시 하고 있지만 체 인 패턴을 제시하지 못하고 있다. laniado et al( a)은 동시 출 빈도 에 기반을 둔 련된 태그에 한 링크와 태그 클러스터와 같은 특징은 매우 유용하지만 련 정보를 항상 발견할 수 없다고 주장하 다. 왜 냐하면 이 태그들을 조직화하기 해서 의미 인 기 을 사용하지 않았기 때문이다. 이용자 가 그들의 검색 목 에 따라서 용어를 히 사용할 수 있도록 하기 해서 의미 인 련 어와 동시 출 빈도에 기 하여 구성한 용어 간의 계를 기존의 연구 결과에 기 하여 좀 더 체계 으로 분석할 필요가 있어 보인다. . 결 론 본 연구는 비디오 자료에 할당된 태그의 특 성 색인어로서의 가치는 어느 정도인지 살 펴본 후, 텍사노미의 시맨틱 정보에 기 한 비 디오 자료의 태그 구조화 작업이 어느 정도 가 능한지 조사해 보았다. 그 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 유투 비디오의 태그들을 분석한 결 과, 가장 자주 사용되는 하 카테고리는 주제 ( . %)이고, 그 다음은 객체( . %), 메타데 이터요소( . %), 사람/지 ( . %) 순으로 나타나 주제는 물론 비디오 속의 객체, 사람 공간 인식을 폭소노미로 보완할 수 있음을 확 인할 수 있어서 폭소노미 태그가 색인어로서 가치가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 워드넷의 단어와 유투 태그와의 복 도를 분석한 결과, 유투 태그들의 약 . %가 워드넷의 단어와 일치하 다. 이때 문제는 워 드넷을 통한 질의 확장이 좋은 검색 결과를 산 출할지라도, 모든 질의(태그)가 확장될 수 없 는 문제가 생겨날 수 있는 이다. 따라서, 태그 태그 질의 확장 기능에 기반한 비디오 검색 시스템의 효율성에 한 실험 연구 와 텍사노미 용어간의 일치율을 높이기 한 방안들에 한 연구가 필요해 보인다. 한, 실험을 통해서 동의어, 련어 등에 의 한 질의 확장이 비디오의 검색 효율성(재 율 과 정확률)에 어떤 향을 미치는지 조사해 보 았다. 실험 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 질의 확장을 통해서 태그 통제를 한 시 스템은 태그 통제를 하지 않은 시스템과 비교하여, 재 율은 증가하 으나( . → . ), 정확률은 통계 으로 차이가 없어서( . → . ), 가설 은 검증되었으나 가설 는 기각되 었다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 정확률을 증진시 키는 두 가지 방안, 즉 라우징 단계에서 멀티 미디어 기반 서로게이트를 사용하는 방안과 검 색 결과를 디스 이할 때 합성 등 알고 리즘의 사용을 제안하 다. 끝으로 본 연구 결과는 시스템 설계자 는 사서가 폭소노미 태깅 시스템을 구 하는 것 뿐만 아니라 태그들을 디지털 비디오 도서 의 소셜 메타데이터로 효율 으로 활용하는데 하 나의 지침이 될 것으로 생각된다. 참 고 문 헌 [ ] 김민경. . 폭소노미를 활용한 이미지 검색의 효율성 개선 방안에 한 연구 . 석사학 논문. 명지 학교 학원, 문헌정보학과. 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[ ] seung-hee han. . “thesaurus updating using collective intelligence: based on wikipedia encyclopedia." journal of the korea society for information management, ( ): - . michelangelo, leibniz and the serpentine figure final author‟s version. first published in: deleuze studies, ( ), - . contact the author at: vantuinen@gmail.com michelangelo, leibniz and the serpentine figure sjoerd van tuinen, department of philosophy, erasmus university rotterdam abstract in his lectures from , deleuze draws an analogy between michelangelo‟s figures and leibnizian substances by claiming that neither are essences but rather sources of modifications or manners of being. the best way to explore this analogy, i argue, is by focusing on michelangelo‟s preference for serpentine shapes. by putting key passages from the logic of sensation, the fold: leibniz and the baroque and what is philosophy? in resonance with the leibnizian accounts of corporeal aggregates and possible worlds on the one hand and art history on the other, i will try to develop a deleuzian concept for the typically mannerist ideal of the serpentine figure. although deleuze usually prefers to speak in musical terms of refrains and counterpoints by which various blocs of sensation resonate with each other, in the visual arts it is the serpentine figure that renders visible sensory becoming as a rhythmic counter-positioning of possible worlds within a single body without organs. keywords: michelangelo, serpentine figure, possible worlds, composition, sensation, mannerism mailto:vantuinen@gmail.com i. michelangelo and leibniz leibnizian philosophy, deleuze argues in his lectures from , gives us the key to a problem in painting, under the form: what is mannerism? he draws an analogy between the figures of michelangelo and leibniz‟s doctrine of substances by claiming that neither are essences but rather sources of modifications or manners of being: in some way, when one thinks of painting that is called mannerist, leibniz‟s entire philosophy is without doubt mannerist par excellence. already with michelangelo one finds traces of a first and profound mannerism. a mannered posture of michelangelo is not an essence. it is rather the source of a modification, the source of a manner of being. (deleuze ) similarly, in the fold: leibniz and the baroque, deleuze argues that monads are not aristotelian or cartesian essences but individuations of an inessential and ante- predicative world. since each monad envelops this infinite world according to its unique manner, leibniz can be said to have introduced mannerism in philosophy: „essentialism makes a classic of descartes, while leibniz‟s thought appears to be a profound mannerism. classicism needs a solid and constant attribute for substance, but mannerism is fluid, and the spontaneity of manners replaces the essentiality of the attribute‟ (deleuze : ). surprisingly, however, michelangelo does not feature in the fold. the only book in which deleuze refers to michelangelo is francis bacon: the logic of sensation. there he argues that „it was with michelangelo, with mannerism, that the figure or the pictorial fact was born in its pure state‟ (deleuze : ; cf. deleuze : ). both michelangelo and bacon can be qualified as mannerist in so far as they escape from classical figuration through the „extraction or isolation‟ of the „figural‟. just as a modern painter must liberate himself from the clichés imposed on the image by visual culture (i.e. photography), mannerism strives to relieve the figure of its representative role and places it in an entirely different, spiritual register of sensation, which deleuze describes as „a properly pictorial atheism‟ (deleuze : ; deleuze and guattari : ; cf. ambrose ). moreover, this anti-classical liberation of spirituality implies a typically modernist tendency towards deformation and abstraction and a heavy emphasis on medium specificity or material facticity. as deleuze writes of the jarring juxtapositions of bodies in michelangelo‟s doni tondo (also known as the holy family, ): the forms may be figurative, and there may still be narrative relations between the characters – but all these connections disappear in favour of a „matter of fact‟ or a properly pictorial (or sculptural) ligature, which no longer tells a story and no longer represents anything but its own movement, and which makes these apparently arbitrary elements coagulate in a single continuous flow. (deleuze : ) or as he puts it earlier on, „it is as if the organisms were caught up in a whirling or serpentine movement that gives them a single “body” or unites them in a single “fact,” apart from any figurative or narrative connection‟ (deleuze : – ). this article combines the aforementioned passages and explores in detail deleuze‟s analogy between the michelangelesque figure and the leibnizian monad. at the centre of the argument is the reference to the typically mannerist figura serpentinata. michelangelo held that the secret of beauty lies in the alternation of convex and concave forms, where the radius „jumps‟ from inside to outside and vice versa, since in this way the figure becomes capable of rendering visible movement. deleuze refers to the art historian luciano bellosi (deleuze : n. ), who argues that the doni tondo is michelangelo‟s first mannerist painting in so far as it breaks with leonardo‟s classicist conception of the unity of composition: the movement of their inter-connecting arms forms a spiral that has something „serpentine‟ about it ... to get this spiral effect, michelangelo twists the figures and makes their bodies bend in a movement that is difficult and complicated. ... it is this quality of unease, unnaturalness, eccentricity and ambiguity that particularly characterises the mannerist mentality. (bellosi : – ) in addition, for deleuze the serpentine figure also has a complex philosophical genealogy that can be traced back to the uncoiled serpent of nietzsche‟s eternal return and to the ontogenetic, „sinuous outline (serpentement)‟ in ravaisson, bergson and merleau-ponty. however, by taking the leibnizian subtext in deleuze and guattari‟s account of art as the composition of blocs of sensation in what is philosophy? as my starting point, i argue that it is first of all through leibniz‟s theory of corporeal aggregates that we can grasp the meaning of the serpentine figure as an expression of sensory becoming. this choice is further legitimated by the fact that the mannerist unease or disquiet, as mentioned by bellosi, lies not only at the core of michelangelo‟s work, but, as deleuze emphasises, also constitutes the dynamic element or background (fond) of leibnizian philosophy (deleuze : ). ii. composition in what is philosophy? deleuze and guattari argue that, whereas philosophy puts forward concepts, art makes blocs of affects and percepts stand up on their own. this difference coincides with the duality between form of expression and matter of expression: conceptual becoming is heterogeneity grasped in an absolute form; sensory becoming is otherness caught up in a matter of expression. the monument does not actualise the virtual event but incorporates or embodies it: it gives it a body, a life, a universe. ... these universes are neither virtual or actual; they are possibles. (deleuze and guattari : ) whereas in a thousand plateaus artistic and philosophical creation are still approached similarly, deleuze says that it was only with the fold ( ), hence with leibniz, that he was able to „see better‟ what this distinction between concepts and figures amounts to (deleuze : ). as he argues in this book, structured around the allegory of a two- storey baroque house, a form of expression is produced in a process of actualisation whereas a material is made expressive in a process of realisation. the two processes are irreducible to each other, in so far as actualisation relates to the reality of the virtual, whereas realisation relates to the existence of a possible world or universe, „the possible as aesthetic category‟ (deleuze and guattari : ). this distinction can help us to get a better grasp on the relation between sensation and physical bodies. in terms of leibniz, the difference between the actualisation of the world in the appetitions and perceptions of individual souls and the realisation of the world in bodily interaction is not a difference between two kinds of substances, but between two ways of distributing the world, between the soul taken as a monad in itself and the body taken as a composite of several monads. a soul is an eternal individual unity whereas matter is a continuously varying multiplicity, an aggregation of aggregations ad infinitum. since, for leibniz, „that what is not truly one being is not truly one being either‟ (to arnauld, april , ag ), it follows that matter or extension does not exist. he thus subscribes to the idealist conviction that the extended world exists only in monadic perception. however, leibniz simultaneously says that no soul, except god‟s, can exist without a body, since the body that belongs to it is precisely what connects it with the rest of the world: each distinct simple substance or monad, which makes up the center of a composite substance (an animal, for example) and is the principle of its unity, is surrounded by a mass composed of an infinity of other monads, which constitute the body belonging to this central monad, through whose affections the monad represents the things outside it. („principles of nature and grace‟, § , ag ) the external world is made up of what leibniz calls „secondary matter‟. in terms of the monadology, secondary matter is an infinitely divisible masse brute, made up of an unformed flux of monads chaotically traversing all kinds of interactions and compositions, its indistinct collectivities corresponding to the variability of the unconscious flux of perception („disquiet‟ or „confused murmuring‟) that is virtually included in every monad and that is the condition of all perception, action and thought („new essays‟, preface, ag ). if the soul is nonetheless capable of extracting distinct perceptions from this insensible flux, this is because it possesses a mediating body or „primary matter‟ capable of selecting and organising disparate individuals into the unity corresponding to its „point of view‟. for leibniz the soul is the „foundation‟ or „form‟ of this organic composition, whilst the other monads that participate in it are merely its „requisites‟ or „material‟. in fact, matter is present only through the organic body by which extensive phenomena are „realised‟ and otherwise remains fully abstract and ideal. matter does not „exist‟, although in it is realised something that deleuze calls „presence‟: „the pure presence of the body becomes visible at the same time that the eye becomes the destined organ of this presence‟ (deleuze : ). for leibniz this means that, in order for a phenomenon to be real – or, „well-founded‟ – there must correspond to each of the soul‟s clear and distinct perceptions a fully evolved organ composed of other monads, such that a perfect „resemblance‟ between form and content is guaranteed. in deleuze‟s reading, there is an „almost schizophrenic tension‟ (deleuze : ) between the idealist leibniz and the realist leibniz. there is a tension, for example, between the claim that god chose a certain world expressed by the individuals that populate it and the claim that each „windowless‟ monad freely draws its perceptions from the folds of its own infinite background. for it implies that, if an actual soul is free to hallucinate about other possible worlds, it must be able to perceive other possible phenomena than those chosen by god which also strive to existence. on the level of actualisation, however, leibniz is necessitated to exclude the reality of the possible, since it is precisely god‟s choice in bringing into existence this one actual world expressed in individual essences that guarantees the well-foundedness of the phenomenon. it is only on the level of realisation – where de jure harmony depends on a de facto organic perspective or union of body and soul – that leibniz allows, either within the organic body or at least open to it, more reality than the soul can express by itself. here the infinitely divisible continuum of secondary or anorganic flux matter is not restricted by god‟s choice of the actual world and encompasses multiple possible worlds. even if the law of pre-established harmony guarantees that the moral order of individual souls and the natural order of composite bodies fuse on a shared plane of composition, the actual does not therefore constitute the real, which must itself be realised in „accidental‟, inter- monadic or inter-essential relations. hence we see why the bodies in which hallucinations can be realised are not necessarily individual or essential and therefore do not necessarily exist. this is deleuze‟s point in relation to the baroque, the „paradigm‟ of which he claims to be mannerist (deleuze : , – , ): the essence of the baroque entails neither falling into nor emerging from illusion but rather realizing something in illusion itself, or of tying it to a spiritual presence that endows its spaces and fragments with a collective unity. ... the baroque artists know well that hallucination does not feign presence, but that presence is hallucinatory. (deleuze : ) since the process of realisation does not bear on the virtual but on the possible, a body of sensation or matter of fact is always potentially a non-individual and abstract „monument‟ for the presence of another possible world within the actual world. iii. the serpentine figure according to deleuze, „including possible worlds in the plane of immanence, even in this very sketchy way, makes expressionism the counterpart of constructionism‟ (deleuze : ; cf. deleuze and guattari : – ). following leibniz‟s distinction between appetition and perception, he says that a possible world is embodied in a compound of affects and percepts (deleuze and guattari : ). affects and percepts, however, are not the same as affections or perceptions, because they are not reducible to an individual form or soul whose lived organic experience they are. already for leibniz, a body can possess a „plastic‟ consistency without being individual, since although organs are the perceptual-affective requirement of the development of the life of the individual monad to which a body belongs, the reverse is not the case. other material compositions expressing other, non-subjective and hence monstrous or other-worldly sensations are always possible. only reasonable monads have a so-called „substantializing bond (vinculum substantiale)‟ attached to them by which, like a „judgment of god‟, the organic compositions are morally bound to their unchanging foundations, whereas bodies belonging to animal souls are subject to the continuous transformations of „the matter-flow as pure productivity‟ (deleuze and guattari : ), that is, they can always be developed into different possible worlds or folded into different and potentially mutant animals and thus into new composites of sensation (leibniz, „new system‟, ag – ; „monadology‟ § , ag ). each sensation thus „exists in its possible universe without the concept necessarily existing in its absolute form‟ (deleuze and guattari : ). spinoza‟s observation is valid for leibniz as well: we do not yet know what sensations a body is capable of. „even when they are nonliving, or rather inorganic, things have a lived experience because they are percepts and affects‟ (deleuze and guattari : , translation modified). hence deleuze‟s claims, firstly, that blocs of sensation possess the autonomous and inorganic life of „nonhuman landscapes‟ and „nonhuman becomings‟ by which „we become universes‟ (deleuze and guattari : ), and, secondly, that the model of all art is a sensory becoming-animal, in other words, an animation – or „animalization‟ (deleuze : ) – of matter in non-human and non-individual ways. if, moreover, perception is no longer necessarily subjective, then neither can it be reduced to an objective state of affairs. rather, there is the unity of eye and matter in the becoming of the pictorial fact. sensation refers not only to primary matter or content- matter, but also to the „immense agitation‟ (deleuze : ) of the secondary or flux matter of which it is composed and in which it is expressed. the body, detached from the individual soul and dispersed in flux, becomes a „zone of objective indiscernibility or indeterminability‟ (deleuze : ) and with it the well-founded phenomenon gives way to deformation. whereas classical representation, as deleuze says in the logic of sensation, „takes the accident into an optical organization that makes it something well founded (a phenomenon) or a “manifestation” of essence‟ (deleuze : ), the mannered postures of michelangelo‟s deformed bodies are not fixed individual forms of content, but deform the very object form of human perception and representation governing over sensation, such that forms become „accidental forms‟ (deleuze : ) or forms of expression and thus sources of endless modifications or modulations. hence the singular „athleticism‟ of mannerist figures: „what makes deformation a destiny is that the body has a necessary relationship with the material structure: not only does the material structure curl around it, but the body must return to the material structure and dissipate into it‟ (deleuze : ). this deformation is reflected by the expressions of swooning, drunkenness, dizziness and vertigo employed by leibniz to describe what occurs when accidental and essential aspects get confused. as becomes clear from a passage of his „new system on nature‟ that is particularly dear to deleuze, this confusion is also exemplary of the mannerist or baroque unease characteristic of leibniz‟s philosophy: „after i established these things, i thought i was entering the port; but when i began to meditate about the union of soul and body, i felt as if i were thrown again into the open sea‟ (ag ). if classicism needs a solid and constant attribute for substance or body belonging to the soul, the fluidity of mannerism that replaces the essentiality of the attribute therefore lies precisely in this indiscernibility between primary and secondary matter or between content matter and flux matter. now it is this objective indeterminability which deleuze refers to both with the michelangelesque ideal of the figura serpentinata and artaud‟s concept of a body without organs – that is, not bodies stripped of organs, but bodies upon which organic figures are distributed in the form of multiplicities (deleuze and guattari : ). leibniz says that although nature is not an organism and hence not everything is organic, organs are everywhere „clothed with‟ or „enfolded in‟ („new system‟, ag – ) the texture of secondary matter, for reason of which „each part of matter can be thought of as a garden full of plants or as a pond full of fish‟ („monadology‟, § , ag ). it follows that each organ is only a fold away from infinity, caught up in an abstract flux of entwined bodies, each of which already contains the germ of another possible world. similarly, a serpentine figure such as the rape of the sabine virgins ( – ) by giambologna, a student of michelangelo, renders the pictorial fact in such a way that it constantly escapes from itself and dissipates in multiple becomings. in the history of art, it was perhaps michelangelo who made us grasp the existence of such a fact most forcefully. what we call „fact‟ is first of all the fact that several forms may actually be included in one and the same figure, indissolubly, caught up in a kind of serpentine, like so many necessary accidents continually mounting on top of one another. ... certainly there is still an organic representation, but even more profoundly, we witness the revelation of the body beneath the organism, which makes organisms and their elements crack or swell, imposes a spasm on them, and puts them into relation with forces. (deleuze : ) put differently, the serpentine figure folds – in an „unnatural‟ way – one bloc of sensation into another, „folds over folds‟ (deleuze : ), within a single body without organs. in a thousand plateaus or what is philosophy?, deleuze and guattari prefer to speak in musical terms of relations of counterpoint by which various blocs of sensation resonate with each other, but their equivalent in the visual arts is the rhythmic contrapposto of material figures in a serpentine composition in which „universes are linked together or separated on their lines of flight, so that the plane may be single at the same time as universes are irreducibly multiple‟ (deleuze and guattari : ). for what the serpentine figure renders visible – from the queerly elongated limbs or contrived and unstable spatial relationships in mannerist works of art to the modernist „shattering of lived perceptions into a sort of cubism‟ (deleuze and guattari : ) – is sensory becoming as a rhythmic counter-positioning of possible worlds on a single plane of composition or fractal line of infinite inflection. references ambrose, darren c. ( ) „triptychs, eternity and the spirituality of the body‟, deleuze studies, : , pp. – . bellosi, luciano ( ) michelangelo: painting, trans. g. webb, london: thames and hudson. clements, robert j. ( ) michelangelo’s theory of art, new york: new york university press. deleuze, gilles ( ) seminar on leibniz, . . , available at: http://www.webdeleuze.com deleuze, gilles ( ) the fold: leibniz and the baroque, trans. tom conley, minneapolis: university of minnesota press. deleuze, gilles ( ) negotiations: – , trans. martin. joughin, new york: columbia university press. deleuze, gilles ( ) francis bacon: the logic of sensation, trans. d. w. smith, london and new york: continuum. deleuze, gilles ( ) two regimes of madness: texts and interviews – , trans. ames hodges and mike taormina, new york: semiotext(e). deleuze, gilles and guattari, félix ( ) a thousand plateaus, trans. brian massumi, minneapolis: university of minnesota press. deleuze, gilles and guattari, félix ( ) what is philosophy?, trans. hugh tomlinson and graham burchell, london and new york: verso. hammond, matthew ( ) „capacity or plasticity: so just what is a body?‟, in s. van tuinen and n. mcdonnell, eds., deleuze and the fold: a critical reader, basingstoke: palgrave macmillan, pp. – . leibniz, gottfried wilhelm ( – ) die philosophischen schriften, ed. c. j. gerhardt, berlin and hildesheim: georg olms. (gp) leibniz, gottfried wilhelm ( ) philosophical essays, ed. and trans. r. ariew and d. garber, indianapolis: hackett. (ag) tolnay, charles de ( ) the art and thought of michelangelo, trans. n. buranelli, new york: pantheon books and toronto: random house. tuinen, sjoerd van ( ) „pris dans une sorte de serpentin. le concept de maniérisme de deleuze entre bacon et le baroque‟, in p.-l. chénier, d. giroux and r. lemieux, eds., gilles deleuze. nouvelles lectures, nouvelles écritures, québec: presses de l‟université laval, pp. – . notes even if deleuze never systematically developed a concept of mannerism in the way he did for expressionism and the baroque, his aesthetics is profoundly mannerist. in „deleuze‟s concept of mannerism‟ (forthcoming) i provide an overview of the main components of deleuze‟s concept of mannerism, which includes aesthetic, but also logical, ethical and stylistic aspects. for alois riegl‟s similar observation with regard to michelangelo‟s medici tombs, see also vlad ionescu‟s contribution to this forum. for a differentiation of mannerism from the baroque, see van tuinen . for a more elaborate account of the plasticity of the body in leibniz, see hammond . here we see how deleuze‟s concept of the presence of the possible is also related to a bergsonian concept of fabulation: „bergson analyzes fabulation as a visionary faculty very different from the imagination and that consists in creating gods and giants, “semi- personal powers or effective presences”. it is exercised first of all in religions, but it is freely developed in art and literature‟ (deleuze and guattari : ). just as michelangelo relied on the power of his artistic mind to improve nature instead of merely imitating it, for example to extract from the „alpine and living stone‟ of a carrara mountain top the colossus that is hermetically confined in it and that will „outlive its maker‟ (cited in clements : , – ), deleuze and guattari argue that „percepts can be telescopic or microscopic, giving characters and landscapes giant dimensions as if they were swollen by a life that no living perception can attain‟, such that we may say that „all fabulation is the fabrication of giants‟ (deleuze and guattari : ). interestingly, art historian charles de tolnay, although not mentioned by deleuze, arrives at a stunningly similar conclusion: „from michelangelo‟s works emerges the fact that he had a profound knowledge of anatomy. but he was not interested in anatomy as a science per se – as was leonardo. rather it was for him, as was perspective, an auxiliary science, a means to a fundamental knowledge of the structure of the human body, which the artist wanted to re-create in his works, not by copying this or that model, but by grasping the meaning of the human body in its original beauty and in the rhythmic power of its abundant life. ... even michelangelo‟s “theoretical” studies of the human body are purely plastic. obviously he was never able to regard the skeleton as a system which could be detached from the whole, when it was a question of representing the living body. only the unity of the plastic bodily form existed for him, a unity in which the muscles and bones merely indicate the inner powers and tensions of the substance which they shape from within. they are not a hidden structure inside the body; on the contrary, bones and muscles are forces, and need the body‟s substance in order to manifest themselves. away from the complexus of the body they have no life. the blood stream flows these superhuman forms, and michelangelo seizes its rhythm – a truly dynamic conception‟ (tolnay : ). a perceptual grouping hierarchy for appearance-based d object recognition | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /cviu. . corpus id: a perceptual grouping hierarchy for appearance-based d object recognition @article{salgian apg, title={a perceptual grouping hierarchy for appearance-based d object recognition}, author={a. salgian and r. nelson}, journal={comput. vis. image underst.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	a. salgian, r. nelson 	published 	computer science, mathematics 	comput. vis. image underst. in this paper we consider the problem of d object recognition and the role that perceptual grouping processes must play. in particular, we argue that reliance on a single level of perceptual grouping is inadequate, since it is responsible for the specific weaknesses of several well-known recognition techniques. instead, recognition must use a hierarchy of perceptual grouping processes. we describe an appearance-based system that uses four distinct levels of perceptual grouping to represent d… expand view via publisher save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influential citations background citations methods citations results citations view all figures and topics from this paper 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 d single-object recognition 	outline of object recognition 	xslt/muenchian grouping citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency perceptual grouping of line features in -d space: a model-based framework 	i. k. park, kyoung mu lee, s. lee 	mathematics, computer science 	pattern recognit. 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed improving appearance-based object recognition in cluttered backgrounds 	a. salgian, r. nelson 	computer science 	proceedings th international conference on pattern recognition. icpr- 	 	 	view excerpt, cites methods save alert research feed object detection by a multiprimitive preattentive approach of the perceptual organization 	p. vasseur, e. m. mouaddib, c. pégard, a. dupuis 	computer science 	 	 	highly influenced 	view excerpts, cites background and methods save alert research feed appearance-based object recognition using multiple views 	a. salgian, r. nelson 	computer science 	proceedings of the ieee computer society conference on computer vision and pattern recognition. cvpr 	 	 save alert research feed managing processes of perceptual organization for emerging geometrical objects 	a. kasinski, t. piascik 	computer science 	smc conference proceedings. ieee international conference on systems, man and cybernetics. 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edelman, h. h. bulthoff 	computer science 	[proceedings ] ijcnn international joint conference on neural networks 	 	 save alert research feed combining greyvalue invariants with local constraints for object recognition 	c. schmid, r. mohr 	computer science 	proceedings cvpr ieee computer society conference on computer vision and pattern recognition 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue miranda, | miranda revue pluridisciplinaire du monde anglophone / multidisciplinary peer-reviewed journal on the english- speaking world  | mapping gender. old images ; new figures wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre essai romain fohr electronic version url: http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ doi: . /miranda. issn: - publisher université toulouse - jean jaurès electronic reference romain fohr, “wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre”, miranda [online], | , online since february , connection on february . url: http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ ; doi: https://doi.org/ . /miranda. this text was automatically generated on february . miranda is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives . international license. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/miranda/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre essai romain fohr “i’ve always felt [beckett] was close to my own work.” robert wilson mettre en écho les œuvres de samuel beckett avec celles de robert wilson (né en  ) peut paraître quelque peu forcé. en effet, les deux artistes ne se sont pas de la même génération, et ils ne se sont rencontrés qu’à deux reprises : après la représentation de a letter for queen victoria (texte de r. wilson, c. knowles, s. brecht, c. lubar musique a. loyd, m. galasso costume lumière et scénographie f. kolo) au théâtre des variétés à paris en  , puis lors d’un dîner.  néanmoins l’étude comparée de la première pièce avec un seul comédien du prix nobel de littérature irlandais la dernière bande et l’œuvre du metteur en scène plasticien texan fait émerger de nombreuses options esthétiques communes tant au niveau de l’écriture scénique, des intentions dramaturgiques, de la réalisation chorégraphique, musicale, lumineuse, ou bien des accessoires et des costumes, jusqu’à la réalisation sur le plateau, à la radio et à la télévision. le dramaturge francophone eugene ionesco évoquait déjà ce possible rapprochement lors d’un entretien au belgrade literary gazette du   septembre   :  i could only state a fact : beckett has succeeded in creating a few minutes of silence on the stage, while robert wilson was able to bring about silence that lasted four hours. he has surpassed beckett in this: wilson being richer and more complex with his silence on the stage. (…) wilson has gone farther than beckett (…) (ionesco).  détailler cette intuition sera au cœur de ma contribution. cinquante ans de recherche ramènent wilson vers ce monologue testamentaire dont il semble vouloir prolonger l’existence en dépit des difficultés et des incompréhensions. est-il possible d’aller plus loin que beckett ? est-il possible d’aller au-delà de l’existence ?  après avoir « résisté » plus de trente ans, wilson met en scène oh les beaux jours en  avec l’actrice italienne adriani asti dans le rôle de winnie à spoletto. ce spectacle ne wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre miranda, | rencontrera pas un grand retentissement. il n’a été représenté que rarement. en  , wilson fait le portrait photographique et pictural de l’actrice hollywoodienne winona ryder à partir de l’espace scénique d’oh les beaux jours. ainsi, il rend un hommage explicite à la femme immobile de beckett.  À soixante-dix ans, l’âge du personnage krapp dans la dernière bande, wilson y totalise sa réflexion artistique sur les différents artisanats de l’art dramatique qu’il affectionne. après hamlet a monologue en  , wilson s’engage physiquement sur le plateau comme à ses débuts. il revient sur scène pour nous faire partager son amour de beckett, mais aussi nous psalmodier sa compréhension du théâtre. il dialogue avec la salle après l’ouverture du rideau noir. comme dans eleutheria, wilson s’arrête près de la rampe, regarde le public, veut parler, cherche ses mots, embarrassé. le testament sonore de krapp   rejoindrait-il   celui   de   wilson ?   il   s’approprie   personnellement   l’œuvre,   et s’appuie sur les éléments biographiques, conceptuels et artistiques de l’auteur du xxème siècle. wilson ensemence l’« arbre mort » beckettien au siècle passé (sorte de premier acte d’en attendant godot), pour nous faire découvrir un acte second où l’arbre a fleuri de nouvelles feuilles au xxième siècle, sorte de métaphore filée de l’écriture scénique. je concentrerai mon étude sur la dernière bande de beckett mis en scène par wilson. dans un premier temps, je mettrai en écho le silence sonore chez beckett et wilson ; dans une deuxième partie, j’aborderai les liens des deux artistes sur le thème de la lumière   et   de   l’obscurité ;   enfin   dans   une   troisième   partie,   je   montrerai le prolongement des travaux beckettien par wilson sur l’immobilité et le mouvement.  wilson et beckett n’aiment pas le naturalisme, ils travaillent sur le silence et l’humour. cette   méfiance   vis-à-vis   du   théâtre   réaliste,   ornementale   et   figuratif   nécessite   un traitement émotionnelle du son, rejetant un texte bavard et psychologique lié à un son naturalisme. beckett institue la « boîte noire » en cadre dramatique qui place l’écoute au   premier   plan.   influencé   par   le   peintre   précurseur   du   cubisme   cézanne, l’expressionniste abstrait américain barnett newman, wilson aime à dire que beckett est   lumière.   ils   renouvèlent   l’écriture   théâtrale,   et   expérimentent   ou   radicalisent certains   aspects   du   théâtre   depuis   l’après-guerre.   cet   expressionisme   apparaît   dès l’ouverture de la dernière bande mis en scène et interprété par wilson. en s’appuyant sur le texte de beckett, et l’expérience de cette mémorable nuit de mars, au bout de la jetée, dans la rafale, inoubliable où tout lui est devenu clair. wilson crée un prologue sonore   digne   d’un   opéra   futuriste.   il   permet   de   relier   la   vie   de   beckett   avec   cette représentation   mis   en   scène   par   wilson.   le   moment   charnière   dans   l’écriture   de beckett est souligné par wilson dans un geste poétique, souvent inaudible pour le spectateur   qui   s’interroge   sur   cette   introduction   de   vingt-et-une   minutes.   beckett évoque deux tempêtes : intérieure puisque son écriture va désormais va se tourner vers un   amenuisement   du   mot   et   vers   la   langue   française,   et   extérieure   puisqu’il   vit physiquement une tempête au bord de la mer en irlande. wilson reproduit sur scène ce moment. cette expérience cathartique trouve aussi un écho dans le titre du spectacle i was sitting on my patio this guy appeared i thought i was hallucinating ( ). comme chez arthur   rimbaud,   cette   nuit   d’hallucinations/illuminations   réapparaît.   ce bouleversement de la langue, wilson le comprend puisqu’il a, dès ces débuts, basé ses livrets à partir de la langue de knowles, diagnostiqué autiste. l’autisme est un trouble de   la   communication   verbale   et   non   verbale.   le   langage   apparaît   pour   beckett   et wilson   comme   un   lien   physique,   et   non   intellectuel.   comme   beckett   se   plonge   à l’intérieur de la langue après la révolution surréaliste, wilson compose des textes qui se wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre miranda, | murmurent   et   vont   vers   le   silence.   l’écriture   se   fragmente   et   accentue   la   non- hiérarchisation. ce choix du retranchement, de l’appauvrissement de la langue, de la soustraction, plutôt que de l’addition correspond aux choix initial de wilson pour sa première   création   avec   knowles   :   le regard du sourd  ( ).   comme   le   lecteur d’eleutheria, le spectateur observe deux endroits éloignés l’un de l’autre dans l’espace réel. ce silence n’est pas lié à l’angoisse humaine, mais plutôt à une lenteur étudiée, à des silences ponctués, parsemé d’effets comiques (un goutte-à-goutte qui scande le temps, un infime chant d’oiseau, la résonnance des pas sur le sol d’un personnage invisible). wilson fait retentir le silence beckettien. la pluie d’une nuit d’orage devient une symphonie de sons qui éclatent. cette musique assourdissante s’arrête pour laisser place   au   silence,   à   la   pensée,   au   rêve,   à   la   voix   de   wilson   grimé   en   beckett.   le spectateur découvre la synthèse de beckett et wilson, voire au profil du clown blanc buster keaton aux prises avec lui-même dans film réalisé par beckett en  . wilson « superpose » la sonorité de la pièce de beckett avec son unique film muet.  un compositeur de musique relie les deux hommes dans le temps. il s’agit de philip glass qui compose pour beckett les musiques de mercier et camier, fin de partie, cascando, comédie, compagnie, et pour wilson toutes ses musiques depuis  einstein on the beach ( ). le son projeté dans le silence est ponctué de façon minimale et abstraite, il souligne le manque. les œuvres composées pour beckett et wilson sont comparables car   elles   ont   le   désir   d’en   finir   avec   l’œuvre   et   se   heurte   sans   fin   au   besoin   de s’exprimer. glass contribue à la déterritorialisation de la langue. avec glass, beckett et wilson composent un théâtre de l’image acoustique. l’image remplace l’agissement et le bruissement de la conversation. wilson joue ainsi avec le microphone comme avec un partenaire machine. sans être mentionnée dans le programme, la voix de tom waits fait résonner la ballade now the day is over (hymne de sabine baring-gould composé en )   au   cours   de   la   présentation.   cette   apparition   vocale   traduit   l’univers fantomatique beckettien.  toutes les sources sonores (musique, voix enregistrée, voix filtrée dans le microphone, bruitage, chant enregistré) permettent de structurer une bande passante. la machine sonore, qui apparaît sous la forme d’un magnétophone dans la dernière bande, indique un morcellement du temps. krapp écoute, accélère, déconstruit la parole dans le temps. les répétitions du texte modifient la perception de l’auditeur qui traduit par d’autres mots   ce   qu’il   entend.   ne   serait   pas   une   métaphore   de   la   répétition   de   théâtre ? l’auditeur/spectateur visualise une spatialisation de la géographie mentale et de son mode de fonctionnement. tandis que le texte souligne l’immobilité, voire la virtualité de krapp, peut-être déjà mort, l’intériorisation du conflit dramatique mène l’auteur à inventer   une   sorte   de   gestuelle   purement   vocale,   renforcée   par   la   présence   des personnages   fantomatiques.   le   visage   se   confond   avec   la   « bobine »,   les   deux synonymes traduisent le masque de l’acteur. wilson ne se penche-t-il pas sur la bobine ronde   lorsqu’il   évoque   l’être   aimé ?   le   son   organique   répond   au   son   enregistré,   le vivant se confond avec la mort.  beckett et wilson ont un autre point de convergence fondamental. le rapport entre la lumière, le blanc, le vide et le noir, l’obscurité, le plein. tous deux morcellent l’espace théâtral et les parties du corps humain (main-visage). la lueur crépusculaire de beckett et wilson éclaire l’état crépusculaire de krapp/beckett/wilson. en effet, une confusion visuelle s’opère entre le personnage, l’auteur, et l’interprète sur la scène. wilson est maquillé en blanc, avec du gris qui creuse son visage. ses cheveux blanchis sont dressés wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre miranda, | en   l’air.   wilson   superpose   son   image   avec   celle   de   beckett.   cette   superposition volontaire est rendu possible grâce à cette lumière subtile et ciselé. qui salue à la fin de la   représentation :   krapp,   beckett,   ou   wilson   ?   ce   trouble   du   regard   permet   de confondre la part de fiction et de réel. en lumière, krapp, beckett et wilson revivent leur   passé   idéalisé,   alors   que   dans   la   zone   obscure   se   trouve   le   monde   quotidien avilissant.  wilson peine à se déplacer dans l’ombre du plateau, et virevolte lors de ses entrées dans le couloir de lumière en diagonale ou lors des saluts. le même corps se traine dans la contrainte ou peine à soulever le registre de krapp, puis s’envole dans un pas de danse maîtrisé.   ce   dualisme   lumière   et   ténèbres,   noir   et   blanc   (thème   récurrent   dans   la dernière bande avec la suite abondante d’images : bianca traduction de blanc en italien, kedar anagramme de dark, puis « balle noir » et « petit chien blanc ») plonge le public dans une hallucination permanente. beckett conçoit les éclairages comme étant des couleurs symphoniques semblables à la musique des mots. comme l’éclairage, les notes blanches et noires s’organisent sur la partition. tous deux jouent avec le vivant et le mort, ces voix survivent dans l’obscurité pour renaître. la lumière devient l’élément concret de cette plénitude de l’épuisement du sens, du rien. la tension entre lumière et obscurité   traduit   la   tension   dramatique   entre   la   scène   éclairée   et   la   salle   obscure. beckett évoque « l’équinoxe » qui est le moment d’équilibre entre le jour et la nuit pour dessiner une hyper vision. l’espace géométrique, mathématique, symétrique, équilibré, harmonieux du prologue se découpe en éclats lumineux comme les pixels d’une image de vidéo. l’image se situe au croisement de l’espace et du temps, de l’espace cadré et du temps allongé, de la lumière et de l’obscurité. wilson peint l’indestructible association jusqu’au dernier soupir de la tempête et de la nuit avec la lumière de l’entendement et le feu. le jeu du corps et des objets crée de la couleur, de la forme et de la lumière, et de l’ombre. le rapport entre immobilité et mouvement des corps jalonnent les œuvres de deux artistes. beckett dissocie le texte dramatique et la gestuelle de l’acteur. il travaille à séparer   la   voix   et   le   geste.   c’est   pourquoi   un   théâtre   sans   corps   naîtra   dans   ses créations radiophoniques. quant aux pièces pour la télévision, elles deviennent une structure didascalique purement gestuelle. wilson réalise ce type d’expérience avec ces « portraits vidéo » où les stars hollywoodiennes deviennent des icônes silencieuses sur écran. le moindre mouvement est magnifié comme au temps du cinéma muet. comment montrer la situation simple de l’homme qui occupe un temps qui ne s’écoule plus et qui dialogue mentalement avec des personnes absentes ? tous deux envisagent un lieu d’expression plastique qui accueille le mouvement sculpté afin de s’extraire du réel.  ce   corps-machine   et   maternel   devient   l’extension   d’un   autre   corps   qui   serait   le magnétophone de krapp, ou la caméra au cinéma. les mécanismes de la lenteur et de la répétition,   mais   aussi   le   décentrement   de   l’action,   l’inexpressivité   du   jeu   et l’insignifiance de l’intrigue creusent le vide du temps et la vacance du désir. l’image fixe remplace l’agissement et le bruissement la conversation du théâtre au vingtième siècle. « rien ne s’oppose pas à « tout » mais contient « tout ». il ne se passe pas rien, il se passe le rien, une exaltation du vide, un vide plein et positif.  beckett et wilson relie leur théâtre à l’art oriental japonais. takahashi yasunari écrit en   : « beckett a du descendre dans les profondeurs de la conscience moderne du moi, où elle menace de devenir solipsisme, autisme, schizophrénie » (yasunari  ). wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre miranda, | nous   retrouvons   ici   l’autisme   évoqué   tout   à   l’heure   avec   wilson.   la   chorégraphie discrète du visage, l’art précis et mécanique du mouvement, la musicalité du texte de théâtre traditionnel japonais résonnent avec leurs travaux. le nô et le kyogen qui se jouent alternativement dans une même journée. wilson traîne les pieds en chausson et chaussettes   rouges   dans   un   glissement   typique   du   nô.   les   acteurs   jouent   plus lentement chez wilson, pour permettre de mieux voir les choses. l’immobilité n’est pas la négation du mouvement mais sa négativité, son envers, sa temporalité déguisé en éternité. beckett et wilson étirent le temps dans son éternité. ce micro-cinétisme des corps, cette « immobilité vive » selon l’expression de roland barthes, ralentit le temps. beckett et wilson créent une unité de temps propre. l’influence du rythme ralenti de la danse (i. duncan, m. graham, g. balanchine, j. robbins) et ses méthodes polyphonique et   intuitive   structurent   les   images   qui   s’enchevêtrent   comme   une   symphonie.   le spectateur   ne   peut   discerner   de   réponse   mais   plutôt   un   questionnement.   l’attente devient l’essentiel de la condition humaine dans l’univers. a   l’origine,   la dernière bande  devait   être   une   simple   lecture   en   marge   de   la représentation d’oh les beaux jours au théâtre de l’athénée louis jouvet à paris. l’écho de   la   tempête   au   début   de   la   pièce   y   apparaît   déjà   avec   un   éclair   blanc   en   néon suspendu au-dessus de winnie qui strie le fond de scène bleu. cette mise en scène de la dernière bande portée par wilson est devenue l’une de ses créations emblématiques qui met en relation l’artiste américain et beckett. seul en scène, wilson se travestit en beckett pour une farce théâtrale proche d’un numéro de cirque ou de music-hall. beckett et wilson repensent : l’espace crânien, le temps, le personnage (dédoublé), le corps   (amputé),   le   langage.   ils   repositionnent   le   spectateur   qui   doit   choisir   dans l’intertextualité lié au son, au mouvement, au rythme, à la respiration et au silence.  le lecteur de l’œuvre beckettienne, qui oscille entre le visible et l’audible, se trouve dans la boîte crânienne de krapp en proie à une méditation sur le temps comme le personnage de descartes dans whoroscope. cette exploration du temps et de sa durée exprime le désespoir d’être capable de découvrir le sens de l’existence. einstein a conçu l’élasticité du temps ; beckett et wilson pense que l’homme est le moteur du temps. le mouvement du temps a éclairé l’œuvre sonore et lumineuse de beckett. l’avant-garde dramatique rejoint ainsi l’avant-garde de plateau.  bibliography ionesco, eugene. entretien par vladimir predic. belgrade literary gazette belgrade.  september . takahashi, yasunari. « qu’est-ce qui arrive ? beckett et le nô : comparaisons structurales ».  cahiers renault-barrault   (octobre  ) :  - . wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre miranda, | abstracts on the occasion of the international conference “staging beckett and contemporary theatre and performance of cultures” in april   at the university of reading (england) in the presence of biographers s.e. gontarski and w. knowlson, romain fohr discusses the link between the world of samuel beckett and robert wilson who met in france. frédéric maurin makes reference to these links in his work on robert wilson: romain fohr relies on maurin’s intuitions by going back to krapp's last tape, directed and performed by the american artist for many years. À   l’occasion   du   colloque   international   « staging   beckett   and   contemporary   theatre   and performance   cultures »   d’avril     à   l’université   de   reading   (angleterre)   en   présence   des biographes s. e. gontarski et w. knowlson, romain fohr aborde le lien entre les univers de samuel   beckett   et   robert   wilson   qui   s’étaient   rencontrés   en   france.   frédéric   maurin   y   fait référence   dans   son   ouvrage   sur   robert   wilson :   romain   fohr   prolonge   ses   intuitions   en s’appuyant sur  krapp’s last tape mis en scène et interprété par l’artiste américain depuis de nombreuses années.  index keywords: samuel beckett, robert wilson, krapp’s last tape, aesthetics, actor, american theater, watermill center, director, experimentation, monologue, nô theater, opera, politics, portraits, spectator, strictness, tour, visual artist mots-clés: samuel beckett, robert wilson, krapp’s last tape, watermill center, comédien, esthétique exigence, expérimentation, metteur en scène, monologue, portraits, spectateur, théâtre américain, théâtre nô, opéra, plasticien, politique, tournée subjects: theater authors romain fohr université de picardie jules verne-amiens docteur wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre miranda, | 	wilson/beckett : voir sa vie dans une œuvre on jumping genes and other things: interview with fred gage, adler professor at the salk institute: embo reports: vol , no 	skip to article content 	skip to article information hstud_ ( ) .indb la crucifixion transportÉe. l’exemple de l’art contemporain hongrois ( - ) rÉgis ladous professeur d’histoire. université jean moulin lyon iii e-mail : regis@ladous.net comme dans d’autres régions de l’europe, un nouvel art religieux s’est développé au seuil du xxe siècle en hongrie, un art religieux, plus exactement au thème re- ligieux, qui se situe en dehors des commandes et de la surveillance de l’Église. adoptant les styles de l’époque, expressionnistes, cubistes, surréalistes, ces oeuvres posent la question du rapport entre le sacré et le profane, dans le contexte politique complexe échangeant qui fut celui de la hongrie pendant cette période. mots-clefs : peinture hongroise contemporaine, art religieux, christianisme, crucifi xion depuis la fi n du xixe siècle un grand nombre d’artistes ont peint, dessiné, gravé, sculpté des crucifi xions en dehors des commandes d’eglise et de toute forme d’encadrement religieux. depuis le christ jaune de gauguin ( ), le christ vert de maurice denis ( ), le christ à la lande de charles filiger ( ), le christ tourmenté par les démons de james ensor ( ) ou le golgotha d’edvard munch ( ), ces crucifi xions ont transporté le principal symbole chrétien loin de son terreau d’origine et l’ont replanté en terre séculière, avec tout ce que cela suppose de changement de style et de sens. du côté de budapest, on pourrait citer à titre d’exemple jó zsef rippl-ró nai, le « nabi hongrois », l’ami de gauguin et de maurice denis. sa tapisserie de la naissance et de la mort du christ montre comment il a su intégrer de manière très personnelle les recherches postimpres- sionnistes tout en réinterprétant l’héritage des préraphaélites anglais mais aussi de l’art médiéval et populaire magyar. avec ses aplats de couleurs pures et cette très savante naïveté de la perspective qui met en valeur le crucifi é et les saintes femmes sur un mode méditatif et poétique, la crucifi xion de rippl-ró nai se dé- gage de l’aliénation académique comme de la reproduction sans fi n des épigones de raphaël. s’agit-il pour autant d’une œuvre sécularisée ? oui, parce qu’elle ne s’inscrit pas dans les codes et canons ecclésiastiques de l’époque ; en , elle était irrecevable dans un lieu de culte. mais pourquoi rippl-ró nai et tant d’autres avec ou après lui ont-ils fi guré le christ crucifi é s’ils ne songeaient pas à soutenir la prière, illustrer la prédication hstud ( ) , – doi: . / . . . . hungarian studies / ( ) - /$ © akadémiai kiadó, budapest hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : rÉgis ladous ou orner la liturgie ? la sécularisation de la croix est importante du point de vue artistique, il est peu de peintres qui ne l’ait pratiquée. mais ses causes ne sont pas toujours simples ni explicites. À qui veut les débrouiller, la hongrie offre une belle série d’œuvres de premier plan mais encore trop peu connues en france, en dépit d’importantes expositions comme celle qui a été consacrée aux fauves hongrois à dijon au printemps de . la période choisie correspond à la grande vague de sécularisation des motifs religieux, mais en s’arrêtant aux années , pour garder du recul. avec deux grandes guerres, un traité de paix calamiteux et trois régimes politiques très contrastés, la hongrie fournit tout ce qu’il faut pour vérifi er le lien – ou l’absence de lien – entre les tumultes du monde et les dérives iconiques du crucifi é. rippl-ró nai jó zsef, krisztus szü leté se é s halá la . la croix sans l’espérance a. grünewald revisité beaucoup d’artistes contemporains ont été fascinés par les représentations an- ciennes du corps souffrant ; le retable d’issenheim de matthias grünewald en constitue une sorte d’archétype ou « d’horizon insurpassable ». la crucifi xion chrétienne, depuis très longtemps, et la crucifi xion sécularisée depuis un siècle ont ceci de commun qu’elles veulent montrer la destinée humaine dans ce qu’elle a d’essentiel, et le montrer par l’image d’un corps torturé, mort ou ago- nisant. mais si la crucifi xion chrétienne représente une dramaturgie où la mort sacrifi cielle annonce la résurrection, la crucifi xion sécularisée sert assez souvent à illustrer la tragédie de la souffrance absurde où, sous un ciel vide, le dernier mot appartient à la mort. tragédie universelle, souffrance liée à la condition même de l’homme. on peut la dépeindre sans la situer dans une époque où un pays précis. d’où la possibilité de recourir au symbole de la croix qui devient, hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : la crucifixion transportÉe par un renversement de sens, la métaphore de la souffrance sans espoir. ces crucifi xions subverties sont souvent simplifi ées (disparition des stigmates et de la couronne d’épines) et dépeuplée : plus de larrons, plus de bourreaux, plus de foule : le christ est seul avec sa mère désespérée. ou bien la crucifi xion est très peuplée, mais la violence de la croix contraste cruellement avec l’indifférence de la foule. la simplifi cation tragique est illustrée de manière saisissante par le christ en croix ( ) de ró bert beré ny, où marie, une ombre noire tordue au pied de la croix, embrasse les genoux de son fi ls mort. disparus les larrons, les bour- reaux, les disciples. dans un paysage de cauchemar, un christ souffrant, très grünewald, se trouve écartelé, les bras distendus, la cage thoracique hypertro- phiée, la tête effondrée. mais ce qui à la fi n du xve siècle ou au début du xvie signifi ait l’incarnation du sauveur et sa souffrance rédemptrice se réduit ici à une double violence : violence des couleurs, violence de la composition, pour représenter une solitude à deux, le fi ls et sa mère abandonnés des hommes et de dieu. beré ny ró bert, krisztus a kereszten avec son golgotha de , lajos gulá csy illustre bien la tragédie peuplée. le christ crucifi é, auréolé, fi gure d’icône entre les deux larrons, est rejeté au second plan. au pied de la croix, comme chez berény, la silhouette noire de marie. la mère et son fi ls sont abandonnés par la foule qui, au premier plan, s’écoule en tournant le dos aux suppliciés. la scène est à rapprocher du golgotha de ká lmá n istó kovits (gravure publié en dans la revue nyugat) et celui de bé la ká dá r (c. ), où des cavaliers vont et viennent (et, chez ká dá r, des personnages nus) en toute indifférence (ou autonomie, si l’on veut) par rapport au crucifi é. encore plus tragique que chez berény, l’homme qui souffre est seul dans la foule. non seulement le ciel est vide mais les hommes sont cruels. hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : rÉgis ladous gulácsy lajos, golgotha b. le massacre des innocents il en va autrement quand il s’agit d’exprimer non pas la souffrance en général, celle à laquelle tout homme est voué, mais plus précisément la violence de l’his- toire, la violence que l’homme infl ige à l’homme : injustices de toutes sortes subies individuellement ou collectivement, et, surtout, les malheurs de la guerre, la torture et les massacres. s’il est toujours possible de symboliser ces fl éaux de manière intemporelle, il arrive aussi qu’ils soient situés par des détails précis. dans l’entre-deux-guerres, il était fréquent d’associer à la croix la hongrie mu- tilée par le traité de trianon. tantôt elle est représentée par une femme crucifi ée, vêtue d’une longue robe et coiffée de la couronne de saint etienne ; tantôt c’est une carte de hongrie qui est clouée sur la croix et couronnée d’épines. ce n’est pas de ce côté qu’il faut chercher des oeuvres d’art. l’extermination des juifs de hongrie, en - , a au contraire inspiré des peintures et dessins inou- bliables qui font de la crucifi xion le symbole absolu de la souffrance innocente et de l’humanité persécutée, torturée, exterminée. ná ndor szú dy, peintre mais aussi pasteur protestant à budapest, a représenté l’irruption du mal dans le monde avec d’autant plus de force que dans ses ta- bleaux le mal ne pèse pas, il danse. son archange gabriel apeuré, son christ difforme ou son centurion-squelette peuvent être interprétés comme une manière chrétienne d’illustrer le texte biblique par un alliage très personnel d’expressio- nisme et de surréalisme. il en va autrement de sa représentation de la shoah, une hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : la crucifixion transportÉe suite de tableaux exposée en où szú dy recourt au symbole de la crucifi xion. il ne s’agit pas de donner une signifi cation chrétienne à l’extermination. face au mystère d’iniquité, il ne saurait être question de sacrifi ce rédempteur ni d’espé- rance de la résurrection. szú dy ne représente pas le christ en juif, mais le juif sous les apparences du christ. il s’agit bien ici de la croix sans résurrection, sous un ciel vide creusé par un astre dont on ne sait trop s’il est un soleil qui se dé- compose ou une lune cancéreuse. dans À la manière de caïn le juif martyrisé est grotesque : ses bourreaux lui ont tout pris, y compris son humanité. nous sommes dans un monde sans rédemption possible. quant à la mise en situation dans le temps et dans l’espace, elle est sans équivoque : le juif est crucifi é sur un champ de bataille, une étoile jaune sert de titulus, et le soldat est hongrois. Á mos imre rajza des peintres et dessinateurs juifs ont repris la symbolique de la crucifi xion. dans la croix offensée, tibor jankay, qui a pu s’évader du train qui l’emmenait à auschwitz, a représenté les déportés, gardés par des soldats empanachés, qui défi lent devant le christ crucifi é dont le visage se détourne et le titulus s’effondre. imre Á mos, le chagall hongrois, n’a pu s’évader du train ; il a disparu dans la nuit et le brouillard à la fi n de ou au début de . en mai il a réa- lisé dans l’urgence et la certitude d’appartenir à un peuple perdu une série de dessins, intitulée szolnoki vázlatkönyv (le carnet de dessins de szolnok) où il ne représente pas directement l’extermination mais la symbolise par des scènes de l’apocalypse de saint jean et la mort du christ sur la croix. comme dans certains tableaux de szú dy, c’est vers un ciel vide où les astres meurent et tombent que le hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : rÉgis ladous crucifi é tend sa face. pour symboliser ce que la condition humaine a de tragique, la crucifi xion n’a pas attendu la shoah. mais c’est bien avec la shoah qu’elle est devenue l’un des emblèmes du génocide. et cela suffi rait presque à expliquer le succès du thème de à nos jours. szú dy ná ndor, káin ú tja . la polysémie d’un symbole fort a. le sacré surréaliste presque. parce qu’il s’agit tout de même d’une amputation sémantique, de la ré- duction monosémique d’un symbole fort qui s’est caractérisé longtemps, comme tous les symboles forts, par sa polysémie. pendant une quinzaine de siècles, c’est- à-dire pendant toute la période où sa signifi cation est restée exclusivement reli- gieuse, la crucifi xion a porté simultanément deux sens différents et complémen- taires, au moins : la mort bien entendu, mais aussi la vie sous la forme chrétienne de la résurrection. la sécularisation du thème n’a pas effacé cette ambivalence. on la retrouve dans toute une série d’œuvres contemporaines, et d’abord chez les surréalistes. non pour des motifs théologiques, évidemment, mais parce que beaucoup de surréalistes s’intéressent d’une part aux grands mythes dans la me- sure où ils expriment la nature irrationnelle de l’homme, et d’autre part à la no- tion de sacré, un sacré sans transcendance mais qui manifeste l’hétérogénéité du monde et la possibilité de rencontres entre des univers différents. c’est ainsi que la polysémie fondamentale de la croix est bien suggérée par une gouache sur papier rehaussée d’or réalisée au pochoir à exemplaires par auré l berná th en : la croisée des chemins (keresztú t). berná th était athée, ce qui ne veut pas dire que toute dimension religieuse soit exclue de cette œuvre. berná th s’est en effet inspiré d’un tableau peint un an auparavant par son ami já nos schadl, un christ dans une spirale. schadl, lui, était croyant, et il a hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : la crucifixion transportÉe repris avec cette spirale une thématique chrétienne : celle du christ cosmique, qui existe depuis l’origine de la création et emplit l’univers qu’il résumera à la fi n des temps. d’autre part, la spirale peut aussi bien se refermer (la mort) que s’ouvrir (la résurrection et la vie). de l’ambivalence de la spirale de schadl, berná th a retenu la polysémie de la croix qu’il suggère par métaphores : le par- tage du tableau entre un champ noir et un champ blanc ; la croix comme croisée de chemins, lieu de passage ; l’ombre d’un christ médiéval, un christ crucifi é, souffrant ; le dédoublement de ce christ noir sur fond blanc par un christ blanc qui passe du champ clair au fond noir ; et ce christ blanc est auréolé, les bras non plus crucifi és mais ouverts. s’agit-il d’une résurrection ? sans doute pas, mais de l’exploitation très réfl échie de la surabondance sémantique d’un symbole qui déborde de sens et que l’on ne saurait réduire à une agonie sous un ciel vide. ici il y a du sacré parce qu’il y a la rencontre de deux univers différents et la pos- sibilité d’un passage de l’un à l’autre. ce n’est pas encore de la transcendance, mais ça peut y conduire. schadl já nos, christ berná th auré l, keresztú t parmi d’autres exemples de crucifi xion surréaliste et polysémique, il faut citer le crucifi x ii de dezső korniss ( ), où un christ blanc sans visage s’étire sur une croix aux bras étagés comme les branches d’un arbre. cette croix rappelle le fameux cèdre solitaire de tivadar csontvá ry ( ). l’identifi cation de la croix à un arbre est une très ancienne métaphore qui rappelle que cette potence n’a vraiment de sens que si elle est vivante et source de vie. quant à lajos vajda, compagnon de korniss et adepte du « surréalisme constructif », il s’est attaché à manifester la présence active du sacré dans le profane. ses maisons avec un hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : rÉgis ladous crucifi x à szentendre ( ) montrent un crucifi é immense, renversé, qui plane sur la ville, la démonte et la réorganise dans un ailleurs fi guré par un vaste ciel bleu. attentif à toutes les formes de l’art populaire, vajda est de ceux qui balisent le retour des icônes traditionnelles dans l’art contemporain. vajda lajos, szentendrei házak feszülettel b. le christ paysan menyhé rt tó th n’est pas un peintre solitaire, il a même vécu dans l’une de ces colonies d’artistes qui caractérisent l’histoire culturelle de la hongrie moderne. mais après avoir fi ni ses études à l’académie des beaux-arts de budapest, il est retourné dans son village, gagnant sa vie en travaillant la terre, en repeignant les maisons et en peignant des tableaux. son art n’a rien de folklorique ni de naïf ; il n’en n’est pas moins puissamment enraciné. il a peint plusieurs crucifi xions. celle qu’il a intitulée corpus ( ) est bien une icône, ses rutilances dorées créent une distance et écartent la mort. le corps du christ est droit, hiératique ; la tête du christ est droite, son visage serait indiscernable s’il n’était percé de deux yeux clairs grands ouverts. on retrouve là une fi gure ancienne, le christ triom- phant, souverain, cosmique, victorieux de la mort et rédempteur des mondes. deux ans auparavant, menyhé rt tó th a peint un grand christ pentocrator avec, inscrit dans le tableau, le verset de saint jean ( , ) : « je suis la voie, la vérité et la vie ». pas solitaire mais franc-tireur, tó th a travaillé loin de toute régulation ecclésiastique, son corpus serait impossible dans une église. en dépit du retour du sacré, nous restons dans un art sécularisé dont l’objectif n’est pas cultuel mais culturel. tó th préfi gure un courant artistique durable qui s’épanouit après guerre et s’attache à sauver la culture populaire en réinventant les principales expressions, à commencer par le paraszt krisztus (le christ paysan) et le plé hkrisztus, le christ d’étain, ce que les anglais appellent le roadside crucifi x, le crucifi x au hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : la crucifixion transportÉe bord des carrefours, des routes et des chemins, abrité des intempéries par un auvent métallique. il faudrait citer ici margit ková cs mais aussi piroska szántó, qui a rejoint en , à szentendre, le groupe des jeunes artistes réunis autour de dezső korniss et lajos vajda. dans les années soixante, elle s’alarma de la disparition rapide de la folk culture. son magyar krisztus de , dûment re- couvert de l’auvent métallique, rappelle le christ triomphant de menyhé rt tó th avec ses yeux grands ouverts, ses bras horizontaux. mais il est simple, si simple, le visage apaisé, le regard attentif. au pied de ce christ familier, bon gardien des âmes et de leurs espérances, marie n’est plus une forme noire fi gée dans le dé- sespoir, mais une fi gure médiatrice et recueillie. la même année, piroska szántó peignit deux autres christs paysans, le crucifi x d’izbeg (izbé gi feszü let) et le crucifi x aux corbeaux (varjak é s feszü let), ornés de fl eurs ou de gerbes offertes par les fi dèles. tó th menyhé rt, corpus szántó piroska, magyar krisztus kovács margit, crucifi x de la décennie suivante il faut citer győ ző somogyi, une personnalité aty- pique, aussi indépendante que menyhé rt tó th. ordonné prêtre à esztergom il fut curé de paroisse jusqu’en , quand il rompit et choisit de réinvestir son sacerdoce dans l’art. son le corp de csobá nc (ca. ) est situé, enraciné dans un terroir: il se détache sur l’une des collines qui bordent le lac balaton. il est sanglant mais paisible et nimbé de vives couleurs qui nous promettent qu’il ressu- scitera le troisième jour ; la croix est toute rouge, la couronne d’épines est verte, le christ est nimbé d’or, la vigne pousse à ses pieds et la colline est bleue. ces vigueurs picturales effrayèrent ; elles étaient dignes d’un fauve ou d’un nabi, et tournèrent par la suite à un expressionisme violent. aucun prêtre, aucun évêque, aucune commission d’art sacré ne fi t jamais appel à győ ző somogyi pour orner une église. et son art resta aussi séculier que celui de menyhé rt tó th. hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : rÉgis ladous somogyi győ ző , csobá nci korpusz c. du retour du sacré à sa réinvention : le cas bé la kondor l’intérêt des christ paysans est double. d’abord ils rendent la crucifi xion à sa polysémie fondamentale, image de mort, image de vie. d’autre part il n’est pas impossible qu’ils contribuent un jour à combler le fossé entre l’art moderne et l’art d’église. le risque est qu’à force de récupérer plus que de réinventer, cer- tains artistes ne donnent dans le pastiche, l’archéologisme, le folklore. le risque existe. parmi ceux qui l’ont évité, béla kondor se signale par une symbolique à la fois très personnelle et très intelligible. vrai dissident, artiste reconnu mais incontrôlable, mort jeune en , kondor a compris et exploré les ambivalences du sacré. l’un des nombreux anges qui peuplent son œuvre joue de la harpe, un autre tient un couteau entre ses dents. les anges ne sont pas gentils, ils ne sont pas méchants, ils sont les signes annonciateurs d’une rencontre. engelsz józsef, paraszt krisztus hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : la crucifixion transportÉe un article du hungarian quarterly rapproche kondor de lajos vajda dans une volonté commune d’intégrer le sacré dans le quotidien (forgács, ). pour le surréaliste vajda, le sacré n’est pas un motif, n’est pas un ornement, n’est pas un élément du décor, mais la rencontre du monde des hommes et du monde des dieux. et c’est bien cette rencontre qu’il veut rendre visible en utilisant le sym- bole commun de la religion chrétienne, comme ce grand crucifi x renversé planant sur les maisons de szentendre. mais chez vajda le sacré reste du domaine de la différence, de l’hétérogénéité. avec les crucifi és de kondor, on passe très clairement de l’hétérogénéité sur- réaliste à la transcendance chrétienne, à ce que le christianisme appelle l’incar- nation dont la croix est l’expression la plus dramatique. dramatique mais non tragique, car la violence de la scène s’ouvre sur une espérance. d’où les teintes chaudes, cette gamme de rouges que béla kondor utilise dans son christ paysan de , cette couleur de sang qui est à la fois celle de la mort et celle de la vie. les bras et les mains du christ sont démesurées : chez kondor, la main est la marque de l’humain, tandis que l’aile est le symbole du divin. pour manifester de manière intelligible ce qui constitue le sacré, c’est-à-dire la rencontre de l’hu- main et du divin, kondor associe la main et l’aile, l’ange et le crucifi é dans son pléhkrisztus, son christ d’étain de : l’ange, ailes déployées, nous présente le crucifi é et nous en révèle ainsi la nature divine. cette fresque ensoleillée d’or et d’orange évoque une vieille église de campagne, si ce n’est qu’à l’arrière-plan, dans la grande plaine rouge sombre, un tracteur s’est échoué. kondor préfère les anges aux tracteurs. il n’a jamais orné aucune église. il a obtenu des prix mais n’a reçu que deux commandes, en et . des commandes profanes avec des motifs religieux. kondor bé la, pléhkrisztus kondor bé la, krisztus a kereszten hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : rÉgis ladous . pour conclure a. la circulation entre le profane et le sacré des artistes comme gizella dömötör, já nos schadl, menyhé rt tó th, győ ző so- mogyi ou bé la kondor s’affi rmaient chrétiens. ils ont si bien bousculé les tradi- tions et réinventé la fi gure du christ que leurs œuvres n’ont pas trouvé de place dans les lieux de culte. mais d’autres peintres ont lancé des passerelles, ils ont su infuser un peu de l’art profane dans l’art d’eglise. le premier a tout de même servi de laboratoire au second, en s’adaptant aux exigences propres des lieux de culte qui doivent être lisibles et consensuels. les plus importants de ces pas- seurs sont peut-être vilmos aba-nová k ( - ) et pá l molná r ( - ). vilmos aba-nová k a peint en , alors qu’il fréquentait la colonie d’artistes de nagybánya, un golgotha en clair-obscur, dense et mouvementé, une grande dramaturgie sacrée avec, au premier plan, le christ portant sa croix et, au centre du tableau, les saintes femmes qui se lamentent. après avoir séjourné à l’acadé- mie hongroise de rome, aba-nová k a réalisé des fresques pour plusieurs églises, dont celles de já szszentandrá s ( ) et de városmajor à budapest ( ). pour pá l molná r le christianisme était à la fois un humanisme, une philosophie et une éthique. en tant qu’artiste, il voulait proclamer « la sainte trinité de la beauté, de la vérité et de la bonté ». son oeuvre profane abonde en sujets religieux. il les traite comme un fra angelico qui serait passé par le cubisme, l’expressionisme et le surréalisme. il a aussi peint des fresques dans une trentaine de lieux de culte, dont l’église paroissiale de la cité à budapest ( ), l’église saint-elisabeth de szombathely ( ) et l’église de józsefváros à budapest ( ). borsos mikló s, feltá madá s hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : la crucifixion transportÉe b. quel rapport au politique ? pá l molná r travailla toute sa vie, y compris durant les années les plus dures de la république populaire. il semble diffi cile d’établir un lien direct entre les drames de l’histoire hongroise et les aventures de la crucifi xion. que l’on considère celle- ci comme une dramaturgie sacrée ou une tragédie humaine, l’intérêt qu’elle suscite transcende les clivages politiques. ró bert beré ny, ká roly kernstock et sá ndor bortnyik ont été des membres actifs de la république des conseils de , et gyula derkovits a adhéré à la fi n de au parti communiste autrichien. piroska szánto s’est fait expulser de l’académie des beaux-arts de budapest pour ses activités gauchistes et a adhéré en au groupe des artistes socialistes. après la deuxième guerre mondiale, un sculpteur comme jenő keré nyi réalisa des statues de héros du travail, d’ouvriers de choc et d’offi ciers soviétiques avant de produire un saint jean baptiste debout devant la croix ( ), un moïse pré- sentant les dix commandements ( ) et un golgotha massif mais solidement construit ( ). il semble qu’il faille en venir à bé la kondor pour trouver un lien explicite entre les icônes de la transcendance et cette exigence politique, humaine et métaphysique que l’on appelle la liberté. kondor a été un véritable dissident. il n’y en a pas tant que cela dans l’histoire mondiale des arts visuels. liste des fi gures fig. : rippl-ró nai jó zsef, krisztus szü leté se é s halá la [naissance et mort du christ], tapisserie, × cm, magyar iparművészeti múzeum, budapest, - . fig. : beré ny ró bert, krisztus a kereszten [le christ sur la croix], × cm, magyar nemzeti galé ria, budapest, . fig. : gulácsy lajos, golgota, huile sur toile, × cm, coll. privée, budapest, . fig. : Á mos imre (dessin n° ) fig. : szú dy ná ndor, káin ú tja [À la maniè re de caï n], ., huile sur toile, × cm, sá rospatak, coll. du collège réformé, . fig. : schadl já nos, krisztus, huile sur toile, × cm, coll. privée, . fig. : berná th auré l, keresztú t [croisé e des chemins], encre, gouache, or sur papier, × mm, coll. privé e, . fig. : tó th menyhé rt, corpus, ca. fig. : szántó piroska, magyar krisztus [christ hongrois], huile sur toile, × cm, ferenczy mú zeum, szentendre, . fig. : kovács margit, crucifi x, terre cuite peinte à l’engobe, cm, ferenczy múzeum, szent- endre, . fig. : somogyi győ ző , csobá nci korpusz [le corps de csobánc], × cm, ca. . fig. : engelsz józsef, paraszt krisztus [christ paysan], ca. . fig. : vajda lajos, szentendrei házak feszülettel [maisons de szentendre avec crucifi x], tempera, papier, montage, × cm, ferenczy múzeum, szentendre, . fig. : kondor bé la, pléhkrisztus [christ paysans], huile sur toile, × cm, magyar nemzeti galeria, budapest, . hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : rÉgis ladous fig. : kondor bé la, krisztus a kereszten [christ en croix], huile et crayons de couleur sur bois, × cm, magyar nemzeti galéria, budapest, . fig. : borsos mikló s, feltá madá s [résurrection], crayon et encre, coll. privée, . references forgács, Éva. . « hands and constructs—the art of béla kondor » in: hungarian quarterly, vol. xlvii n° , pp. – . notes krisztus szü leté se é s halá la, iparművészeti múzeum, budapest, - . magyar nemzeti galéria, budapest. de lajos gulá csy on peut voir dans la collection deá k à la galerie municipale de szé kesfehé rvá r un autre golgota, une esquisse au crayon de , qui constitue peut-être l’expression la plus simple d’un désespoir absolu. il s’agit de la sixième œuvre de son portfolio graphik. l’une des plus importantes céramistes du xxe siècle. son crucifi x de , conservé au musée ferenczy de szentendre, illustre bien sa volonté de sauvegarder l’art populaire hongrois. forgács, Éva. . « hands and constructs—the art of béla kondor » in: hungarian quar- terly, vol. xlvii n° , pp. – . la légende de la bienheureuse marguerite pour la margitsziget – l’Île marguerite - de buda- pest ; et la procession des saints dans la ville, qui aurait dû être un mural à la mexicaine mais a fi ni au kiscelli mú zeum de budapest. cf. sa crucifi xion ( ) très construite, cubiste, qui se trouve à la magyar nemzeti galéria de budapest. il faudrait citer aussi la céramiste margit ková cs, qui a réalisé un décor mural pour l’église szent imre de győr. cf. ses pèlerins d’emmaüs, sa dernière cène ( ), sa mise au tombeau ( - ), sa descente de croix ( ). cf. sa mise au tombeau ( ). cf. son christ mort ( ), sa dernière cène ( ), sa lamentation sur la mort du christ ( ). sur l’utilisation par kondor des images religieuses comme métaphore de la liberté, cf. Éva forgács, « hands and constructs » opus cité. hstud_ ( ) .indb hstud_ ( ) .indb . . . : : . . . : : learning from cubism to understand the reality of hemodynamics letter open access learning from cubism to understand the reality of hemodynamics jason stankiewicz* , maniraj jeyaraju and michael t. mccurdy cubism, a school of thought departing from histor- ical artistic movements, synthesized multiple differ- ent viewpoints from varying distances and angles to create a summative and more complete depiction of a single object [ ]. although every unique perspec- tive of a single object may be true, judging the true nature of that object in the absence of other per- spectives yields an incomplete understanding of it. in that light, we read with interest the article by scheuzger and colleagues entitled sublingual micro- circulation does not reflect red blood cell transfusion thresholds in the intensive care unit—a prospective observational study in the intensive care unit [ ]. landmark studies in critical care [ ] have primarily focused on macrocirculatory parameters (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac output) while ignoring patients’ microcirculatory parameters. this myopic view of the reality of hemodynamics is certainly im- portant but unfortunately incomplete because it ig- nores the intricacies of the similarly relevant microcirculation. though the authors nicely highlight the complex microcirculatory response to red blood cell (rbc) administration in critically ill patients, they failed to report certain pertinent macrocircula- tory parameters that may have significantly limited their ability to interpret the impact of rbc adminis- tration on the microcirculation. this ironic omission missed an opportunity to depart from the unidimen- sional circulatory assessment offered by most other circulatory studies, thus simply providing a different view of the true nature of hemodynamics. for example, the authors observed that pre- transfusion microcirculation parameters (i.e., micro- circulatory flow index, proportion of perfused ves- sels) significantly impacted individuals’ post- transfusion microcirculatory response. what remains unclear, however, is how other macrocirculatory pa- rameters affected microcirculatory ones. perhaps, those patients whose microcirculation responded fa- vorably to rbc administration were simply on the ascending portion of the frank-starling curve. re- gardless, the provision of both complete macrocircu- latory (i.e., estimates of preload responsiveness) and microcirculatory data in tandem would facilitate greater insight into the relationship of these hemodynamic findings. we congratulate the authors and embrace the need to study the microcirculation as a means to more deeply understand the multifaceted hemodynamic el- ements impacting the ability to successfully resusci- tate patients. however, we must learn from the deficits of several prior macrocirculatory studies and instead assume a more holistic approach for how hemodynamic data in future studies are reported. evaluating resuscitative markers in isolation will lead us down a frustrated path yielding an incomplete understanding about the multidimensional reality of hemodynamics. © the author(s). open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's creative commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article's creative commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. * correspondence: jstankiewicz@som.umaryland.edu this comment refers to the article available at https://doi.org/ . / s - - - . department of pulmonary and critical care, university of maryland school of medicine, s. paca street, nd floor, baltimore, md , usa stankiewicz et al. critical care ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / mailto:jstankiewicz@som.umaryland.edu https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - authors' response albert einstein, cubism and the “theory of everything” siegemund m, knobel dt, scheuzger j, gebhard c. dear editor, we are honored that stankiewicz and colleagues linked our article about the sublingual microcirculatory blood flow response to transfusions with the art and philosophy movement of cubism. in cubism and science [ ], the author suggests a correspondence between cu- bism and the theory of relativity, which was later denied in a response letter by albert einstein [ ]. although we agree with stankiewicz et al. that consideration of all as- pects of micro- and macrocirculation would have given a more comprehensive, but not reasonable, cubistic picture, we think that this would neither have generated a complete understanding of the effects of blood transfusions on circu- lation nor a change in transfusion habits. our primary goal was to question the common approach to utilize blood transfusions solely on arbitrarily determined hemoglobin concentrations, an unidimensional approach most certainly in contrast to cubism. the effect of preload responsiveness on the microcirculation has been shown nicely in septic shock [ ], but we apprehend that preload responsiveness is rarely tested before blood transfusions. einstein wrote in his response letter: “both (art and science) attempt to as- semble from parts a whole which by itself is indistinct – in such a way the resulting order creates distinctness and clar- ity… in science, the principle of order which creates units is achieved though logical connection while, in art, the principle of order is anchored in the unconscious.” in this sense, we did not aim to find a theory of everything, but we wanted to add another part to the understanding of the ef- fects of blood transfusions in shock and to oppose the ab- stract pointillism of transfusion thresholds. acknowledgements not applicable authors’ contributions each author has contributed to the development of this manuscript equally. the authors read and approved the final manuscript. funding not applicable availability of data and materials not applicable ethics approval and consent to participate not applicable consent for publication not applicable competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. received: may accepted: june references . laporte pm. cubism and science. j aesthet art critic. ; ( ): – . . scheuzger j, zehnder a, meier v, yeginsoy d, flükiger j, siegemund m. sublingual microcirculation does not reflect red blood cell transfusion thresholds in the intensive care unit-a prospective observational study in the intensive care unit. crit care. ; ( ): . . the promise investigators, mouncey pr, osborn tm, et al. trial of early, goal- direct resuscitation for septic shock. n engl j med. ; ( ): – . . laporte pm. cubism and relativity with a letter of albert einstein. leonardo. ; ( ): – . . pottecher j, deruddre s, teboul jl, georger jf, laplace c, benhamou d, vicaut e, duranteau j. both passive leg raising and intravascular volume expansion improve sublingual microcirculatory perfusion in severe sepsis and septic shock. intensive care med. ; : – . publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. stankiewicz et al. critical care ( ) : page of 	authors' response 	albert einstein, cubism and the “theory of everything” 	acknowledgements 	authors’ contributions 	funding 	availability of data and materials 	ethics approval and consent to participate 	consent for publication 	competing interests 	references 	publisher’s note civil engineering and architecture ( ): - , http://www.hrpub.org doi: . /cea. . aesthetics of modern architecture: a semiological survey on the aesthetic contribution of modern architecture hourakhsh ahmad nia*, rokhsaneh rahbarianyazd department of architecture, faculty of architecture, alanya hamd emin paşa university, turkey received november , ; revised january , ; accepted february , copyright© by authors, all rights reserved. authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the creative commons attribution license . international license abstract starting from the industrial revolution, continuous technical progress in modern architecture introduced new dimensions to the traditional methods of construction. thus, modern architecture had a tremendous effect in introducing new approaches to the aesthetic understanding of the built environment. in addition, there are a lot of criticism on the philosophy of modern architecture and the idea of machine age architecture led to the lack of sense of place and cultural detachment. this study aimed to assess the existing gap in literature by using a qualitative assessment of literature on modern architecture and stylistic classification of architectural movements in the modern era. overall, the study concludes that ignoring cultural values and its semiological references in architectural design are the most important aesthetic factor that led to the failure of modern architecture. keywords modern architecture, aesthetic contribution, semiological survey, stylistic classification . introduction the birth of modern architecture was perceived to begin with the th century along with the industrial revolution and the concomitant introduction of mass production which stirred a general detestation of historicism, interest in functionalist planning, the use of modern building materials and existing new technologies (ali, ; arenibafo, ). considering this fact, modern architecture is characterized by simple rectilinear shapes, plain undecorated walls, bald facades and often times, dull colors using simple elementary shapes, lines, and forms as basis for design. modern architecture is celebrated for architectural milestone because it provided the template that easily detached from the historical umbilical cord and permanently changing the traditional and future course of architectural discuss. all of these brought along with it, radical urban changes (owing to the new technologies), which further affected radical aesthetic changes and a new concept of the construction (amiri, ). apart from positive contributions of modern architecture, it can be seen that there are many criticisms on modern architecture. the first of these was robert venturi in his book: “complexity and contradiction in architecture” revealed that the modern architecture of the s according to nesbitt ( ) “had been reduced to formulaic repetition of canonical works of the modern movement, to technological utopias, and to expressionist fantasies”. robert venturi’s maxim that “less is bore” was a bold declaration premised of a pluralistic and multi-dimensional approach that redirected from the reductivist school of the modern movement. according to tadao ando, modern architecture is an attempt to solve real life problems by numbers and measurable standards (ando, : ) and as a result, the “make-up” and mythical aspects of architecture are ignored. hence, ando considers that most often than none, the products of modern architecture have no stories to tell, but are simply purely functional and without messages that stirs our fascination. it just exists without provoking the audience (ando, ). against this backdrop, norberg-schulz argued that from ab-initio, modern architecture was not meant to have a regional character but sought to be an “international” language (norberg-schulz, : ). this led to the problem of “loss of place”, loss of the character of places and overall loss of place identity. considering the above-which somehow reveals the non-aesthetic quality of modern architecture, this study by qualitative assessment of literature on the philosophy of modern architecture, aimed to examine the main indicators shaping the aesthetic quality civil engineering and architecture ( ): - , of modern architecture and to classify them into specific aesthetic characteristics. these specific characteristics are highlighted as architectural styles of modern architecture. . materials and methods . . modern architecture as a style as earlier stated, modernist architecture (or simply stated- modernism) emerged in the early- th century as answer to enormous changes in both society and technology. it was associated with functionalist rationalism, the abhorrence of ornaments, analytical viewpoints and a rational use of materials. it took roots in europe and in particular, the german school of architecture- the bauhaus. the bauhaus made important contributions, such as “less is more” (frampton, ) in the evolution modern architecture. the school was however brought under strong nazi persecution and as a result, immigrated to the united states. consequent upon which modern architecture also travelled along with it. in the united states, the influence of modern architecture became more legible and it was renamed “the international style”. the international style projected similar characteristics to the modern movement such as beige and clinical white colored buildings, weightlessness, disdain of ornamentation and the rejection of tradition (salvo, ; jaff et all, ). modern architecture simply defined is the abstraction of basic forms, shapes and lines to create clean and simple undecorated rectilinear forms. needless saying that its aesthetic language is conveyed by fundamentally simple geometric forms such as rectangles and squares. the maxims: ‘form follows function’, ‘fitness for purpose’ are all inextricably interwoven with modern architecture. thus, modern architecture is primarily concerned with the functionality of spaces and its form derives from this. several architects have their own maxims defining their philosophy of architecture. the following table illustrates the famous maxims (and their period in time) peculiar to certain famous architects. as can be seen, the most noticeable buildings of modern architecture which are mentioned in table are the results of developments in technologies and have developed its own specific aesthetic characteristics. this study, by qualitative analysis of the philosophy of modern architecture and critical analysis of existing literature, illustrates the main aesthetic characteristics of the modern architecture. main protagonist often associated with the development of high modernism were walter gropius, le corbusier and ludwig mies van der rohe and adolf loos. . . . walter gropius and the beginning of modern architecture in germany, modernism is akin to the bauhaus. the bauhaus was founded by walter gropius in . it sought to integrate scholarship (pure arts) with crafts and this brought new insights to art training (aziz amen, ). gropius was a visionary and his aim was to harmonize technology and arts consequent upon which he trained a new generation of designers and architects to reject historicism and accept the new dogma – the modern movement. in the overall, gropius largely re-discovered the tenets of modern architecture which developed into the international style (frampton and futagawa, ). the suspended glass wall provided a clear case in point. instead of being set back from the supporting columns of the building, it was suspended outside the columns enabling a lucid display its non-structural function. . . . le corbusier's and the notion of machine aesthetics le corbusier’s popular maxim, ‘the house is a machine for living’ showed that machine aesthetic is an important concept for functionality, standardization and rationalism that altogether underpinned the idea of modern architecture (le corbusier, ). this maxim meant that a house is conceptually analogous to a machine and as such, should be built the same way a machine (such as a car) was fabricated. this led to the notion of standardization, implying the production of standardized prototypes for construction. edward jeanerette (as le corbusier was also called) further extended this idea to city scale (evenson, ). the idea also led to the introduction of logic, scholarship and systemic reasoning as the basis for architectural designs and further provided ways that systematize the relationship between man and the living space. ‘the key modern principle for le corbusier was function, and this is where the machine metaphor is so important’ (le corbusier, ). to state it succinctly in summing-up, le corbusier’s emphasis if anything was that standardization is the key to architecture fulfilling its functions. . . mies van der rohe a major actor in the realization of the international style was mies van der rohe. along with walter gropius and le corbusier in the early s, he reinforced the notion of the international style as the core movement of modern architecture. mies advocated the minimalist architecture through the minimal use of space, curtain wall, columns and beams and sparing use of industrial materials. he metaphorically denoted that the rigid columns and beams are bones while the cladding is the skin; thus his well-known maxim: "skin-and-bones". mies’s encouraged maximum flexibility of spatial layout, which according to him represents maximum spatial utility. his steel-and-glass aesthetic became a template for modern architecture for decades even after his death. meanwhile, his designs have always expressed practical aesthetic- a beauty that serves its inhabitants. aesthetics of modern architecture: a semiological survey on the aesthetic contribution of modern architecture table . famous maxims in modern architecture that affected the development of modern aesthetics theoretician motto name of the building designed based on this theory architect date of construction adolf loos - “ornamentations is crime.” steiner house adolf loos louis sullivan - “form follows function.” bauhaus school walter gropius le corbusier - “a house is a machine for living in.” villa savoye le corbusier - mies van der rohe - “less is more.” glass house philip johnson “god is in the details.” seagram building mies van der rohe frank lloyd wright - “an idea is salvation by imagination” falling water frank lloyd wright - table . aesthetic characteristics, implementing ideas and philosophy of modern architecture implementing ideas philosophy architectural characteristic -standardization of architecture. -rational order. -machine age aesthetics. -scientific and logical reasoning. -architectural system for human well-being. -structural possibilities. -open plan design. - large windows and open floor plans. -simple shapes. - standardization -need for mass housing. -five points of architecture. -pre-fabrication -simplified forms -functional forms -based on kant’s theory of form. -abstraction -clean aesthetic -box-like building. -cubic volume, a flat roof. -clean lines. -functionality and open floor plan. -functional design -transparency -uses and benefits of glass - dom-ino house -rejection of traditional styles. -ornamentation is crime. -simple forms with no ornamentations. - rectangular forms. -horizontal and vertical lines. -juxtapose against the horizontal elements. -materials in good distinct planes. - materials give a intense effect. -low, horizontal massing. -horizontal planes -flat roofs -concrete -highlighting the honesty of materials. -stained and exposed materials. -open column free spaces. -domino houses -maximize the entry of light into a building. - ciam approaches . -increasing the quality of life. -the necessity of using natural light in design. -promote human comfort and health. -large glass windows from ceiling to floor. -façade steel frame construction. -five points of architecture. -fully glazed exterior walls. civil engineering and architecture ( ): - , . . . adolf loos and the notion of crime for ornamentation adolf loos, in published his seminal essay “ornament and crime” where he justified this assertion and advanced that architecture should renounce ornamentation. loos argued that ornamentations in buildings served the purpose of selfish and childish entertainment. he observed that owing to mass production, in certain countries, ornament no longer serves its cultural function, and should therefore not be seen as an expression of culture. . . chronological and stylistic classification of modern architecture . . . early modern architecture from aesthetic point of view, modern architecture would be classified to two main eras which are: a) early modern architecture and b) high modern architecture. moreover, modern architecture in its nascent stage, which was about the th century, was a number of buildings with similar characteristics. primarily this was the simplification of form and the total abhorrence of the ornament. by the s these characteristics had consolidated as the international style. this study classifies the aesthetic tendencies in early modern architecture into the following three categories: a. technical rationalism or rationalist tendencies: b. architectural formalism or formalism tendencies: c. functional tendencies: . . . . the technical rationalism rationalism is the notion that the structure determines the form. it is the philosophy that the material of construction bespeaks architectural expression. the school accepts and promotes the employment of science theory, technology and techniques in architecture (nia and rahbarianyazd, ) while it rejects excessive décor. rational architects used the philosophy of rene descartes -the father of modern philosophy ( - ) - and highlighted ideal proportions and geometric forms. the architecture of Étienne-louis boullée ( – ) and claude nicholas ledoux ( – ) characterize the enlightenment rationalism, with their pure approaches to design such as including spheres, squares, geometric forms, and cylinders (ianca, & georgescu, ). . . . . the formalism referencing his “theory of forms” and in particular his synthesis of eidos , it can be recalled that formalism started with plato, and with immanuel kant’s definition of the “aesthetic judgment” and his formulation regarding the sovereignty of the aesthetic object and self-sufficiency. kant’s epistemology has impacted german formalism, and roundabout, russian formalism (ianca, s & georgescu, ). within the framework of this formalism, the shape of the building became germane to modern aesthetic. foremost amongst the formalist styles in early modern era and their aesthetic language are shown in the table below: plato uses eidos in some methodically different ways, sometimes meaning extension of a form and sometimes meaning form. aesthetics of modern architecture: a semiological survey on the aesthetic contribution of modern architecture table . aesthetic characteristics of the foremost styles of formalism tendencies in early modern era aims/ ideas aesthetic characteristics arts and crafts movement - -reaction to undesirable aesthetic concerns of the industrial revolution. - preserve individual craftsmanship, decorative arts -built of natural materials. -historicizing elements such as steep roofs, prominent chimneys, cross gables, and exposed-beam ceilings. beaux arts architecture - -classicism, classical revival -eclectic form of neoclassicism. - imposing scale and classical principles. -characterized by formal design, order, symmetry, grandiosity - elaborate ornamentation. -triangular pediments. art nouveau - - rejects academic traditions and historicism. - spread over artistic designs to everyday objects. -supported the use of exterior decoration. -flowing curves based on natural forms, asymmetric. -classic ornamentations - mosaics stained glass and japanese motifs. gothic revival neo-gothic - -powerful sense of height. - scholarly approach to the revival of past styles. -create an experience of the inspiring. - sense of transcendent greatness. -strong vertical lines. -ribbed vaulting. -use of steep gables. expressionism - -protest against the academic architecture. -function follow form. -express feelings of the viewer, inner sensitivities. -included abstraction. -alteration of form for an emotional effect. -the reduction of realism to symbolic. -stylistic expression of inner experience. futurism - -highlighted the aesthetics of speed, technology and change. - the elements of entirely new mechanical world. - anti-historicism. -long dynamic lines, suggesting speed, motion, urgency and lyricism. -rejected the traditional aesthetics. -glorify life based machine and motion. constructivism - - aesthetic and decorative function of structure. -instill the avant-garde in everyday life. - universal harmony - unification of art and life -materials of steel and glass and its futuristic philosophy. -sense of presence and scale. -application of d cubism to non-objective and abstract elements. -neoplastic aesthetic. de stijl - -supporting primary colors and the purity of geometrical shape. - the idea of a universal language. - expressed utopian ideal of spiritual order. -using pure geometric form to achieve pure abstraction. -being based on the principles of "cubism". -consists of the three primary colors (yellow, red and blue). - the three primary values (white, black and gray). - vertical and horizontal lines, asymmetry, geometric forms. -long rectangular windows, and free-floating outer walls, flat roofs. art deco - - reaction to the sensuousness and flowing lines of the previous of art nouveau and beaux-arts styles. -zig-zags, strong lines, repeating geometric patterns and symbolism. -symmetry, simple composition, rectilinear rather than curvilinear shapes, and lavish ornamentation. -stucco, concrete block, glazed brick, smooth-faced stone. art moderne machine age architecture - - represents the last phase of art deco - became the prevalent style of commercial, public, and domestic architecture. - machine aesthetic focused on mass production. -glass blocks for windows and aluminum or stainless steel. - asymmetrical facades, flat roof and horizontal emphasis. -minimal decoration and speed and movement. - corner windows, rounded edges, curved canopies. civil engineering and architecture ( ): - , . . . . functionalism striving for balance between buildings aesthetic and functionality came to forefront with viollet-le-duc in the in the second half of th century. this was followed up by l. sullivan, whose aphorism "the form follows the function” became peculiar with principles of functionalism in the early modern era. functionalism brings to mind the selflessness of the space (mostly in office and industrial buildings) in which case, a space dedicated to a particular function can be reversed and used otherwise. in other words, the space becomes multi-functional. its main aesthetic features are typically a reflection of the novel technologies available for construction and execution and the availability of new construction materials which include glass, concrete, plastics, aluminum and steel for the purpose. in modern period, due to the essence of the era, three main "schools" of functionalist architecture which are the “bauhaus school” and “chicago school” and prier school have been highlighted. . . . . . bauhaus, school bauhaus, a school of arts and craft, was pioneered by walter gropius in germany. the school, which was founded in , believed in the unity of arts, attempted to harmonize crafts with pure arts and stood for a synthesis of the arts, ranging from the furniture details to the level of urban organization (periton, ; saletnik & schuldenfrei, ; siebenbrodt, ). bauhaus forerun standardization by initiating prefabricated elements for building, and thereby redefined the aesthetics of industrial product and mass production. influenced by the art philosophy, the school favors buildings innately endowed with sculptural presence; howbeit in addition, it sets function before the form. modern buildings designed in the bauhaus are light structured, constructed in glass, steel and concrete with stained glass facades. . . . . . chicago's school following the chicago fire of , which left most of the urban core area ruined, the need for extensive rebuilding while at the same time adopting a much higher fire safety precaution became imperative. this is especially important because at that point in time, the population of chicago was rapidly tending to a million. the rising costs of real estate and the introduction of elevators in chicago following the urban renewal had also encouraged vertical building construction which impacted emphasis on vertical aesthetic since then. . . . . . prairie school the protagonists of the prairie school were john ruskin, william morris amongst others. the school emerged as the result of growing sympathy with the design aesthetics and ideals of the arts and crafts movement which began in the late th century in england. the prairie school detested the current wave of mass production in industrial assembly lines and justified this by claiming that it dehumanized workers and that the process created inferior materials. they reacted by devoting themselves to handcrafting and the craftsman societies (koning and eizenberg, ). the emphasis of the prairie school is the following:  horizontal expansion of the building as opposed to vertical. prairie houses were typically two-story buildings with single-story wings. they emphasized horizontality using ribbon windows, suppressed, heavy-set chimneys, gently sloping roofs, and overhangs and horizontal lines. the following table illustrates the main aesthetic characteristics of functionalism schools of modern architecture. table . three main schools developed based on the notion of functionalism. basic ideas main concerns architectural characteristics chicago school - -pioneer in the expansion of modern architecture. -emphasized on the vertical aesthetic. - invention of elevators had encouraged vertical building construction. - aesthetic implication of steel and iron. -high rise buildings. - much severer degree of fire safety. bauhaus school - -embraced the aesthetic theory of functionalism. - fears about art's loss of purpose in society. -"form follows function." -the aesthetics of machine. - simple forms - order, regularity, and the sense of space, rather than mass predominated. -free-plan interiors. -use of concrete, glass and steel; stark white cubes. prairie school - - sympathy with the ideals and design aesthetics of the arts and crafts movement. - against the new assembly line, mass production. -emphasis on horizontal lines. -low proportions. -gently sloping roofs and sheltering overhangs. -visual expression of natural materials. -the emphasis is on the horizontal expansion of the building. -generally two-story building. -the idea of abandoning small, boxy rooms in favor of a more open, integrated interior space. - suppressed, heavy-set chimneys, ribbon windows, overhangs and gently sloping roofs. aesthetics of modern architecture: a semiological survey on the aesthetic contribution of modern architecture . . . late modernism - further assessment of the aesthetic nature of modern architecture revealed another important classification which has been described as late modern or late modernism. late modern architecture was most fashionable between the period after world war ii to early s. although, its ideals are rectangular forms just as the modern movement, nonetheless, late modern architects conceive that buildings are not merely simple set of volumes, but masterpiece of sculptural articulations. this is acceptable even when these sculptural forms are simply the result of structural engineering innovations. this study classifies the aesthetic characteristics of late modern architecture in four main categories which are international style, organic architecture, brutalism and minimalism. . . . . the international style ( - ) the international style was a reaction against the historicist styles and art nouveau of the th and th centuries. it is a clean break from tradition. as it has already been mentioned, the style came to limelight in the united states amid the nazi prejudice in germany and the bauhaus initiated the ideas that culminated it. in the us, the style was associated with upscale buildings. characteristic of the international style is the emphasis on austerity, clean lines, clinical white colors, bald facades and total rejection of ornaments. the hallmark of the style is its emphasis on volumes rather than mass, so much so that it portrays an aura of lightness and weightlessness using thin curtain walls, open plan spaces, machine aesthetics, up-to-minute innovations in building technology, prefabrications, and the honest use of materials (nia, h., & suleiman, colquhoun, ). the style supports that buildings should be designed to be rational and scientific in their organization which dictated the search for honesty, economy and utility that meets society’s new needs while at the same time appealing to the aesthetic taste. glass and steel, in combination with usually less visible reinforced concrete, are the characteristic materials of construction. conventionally, roofs are flat and construction is normally of steel frame or reinforced concrete tactically hidden to portray light weight thin fabrication which remained its highpoint. . . . . brutalism brutalism was an architectural movement that aimed to redress the modern movement. it was also a reaction against the modern movement claiming that its scale is frivolous and as a result does not serve the purpose for architecture. it also suggested that modern movement is deficient in its utilitarian functions. reyner banham, an architectural critic, was first to coin out the term “brutalism” to express concern over this in his publication “the new brutalism: ethic or aesthetic?” consequently, the movement defined its high points with grandeur, monumentality and heroism and advanced that the modern movement should embrace it (lozanovskam, ). although, reyner banham expressed scholarly concern, the french architect, le corbusier demonstrated the praxis. thus, the idea began in france. brutalism is an architectural philosophy that advocated for a more formal expression where function and materials were honest and exposed. its strong points are massive use of concrete and repeated angles. according to royal institute of british architects (riba), the foremost aesthetic characteristic of brutalist buildings are:  unusual shapes  heavy looking materials  relatively small windows  massive forms  rough unfinished surfaces. while a high point of the brutalist movement on one hand is the continuous repetition of architectural features to generate modules of activity areas which are distinctly recognizable, on the other, concrete is used with immaculate honesty and in its unaffected form. these are a far departure from the earlier delicate and flowery elite beaux-arts architectural style. indeed, the facades of casted concrete were retained without cosmetic coatings. building materials comprise gabions, glass, brick, steel, and rough-hewn stone. it is imperative here to point out that not all buildings exhibiting an exposed concrete exterior are brutalist. they may belong to one of a range of architectural styles including the international style, constructivism, postmodernism, expressionism and de-constructivism. . . . . organic architecture ( onward) organic architecture is a philosophy that a building and its environment are altogether one and the same. frank lloyd wright developed the philosophy of organic architecture to conceptualize the notion that a building evolves from its natural environment. despite this, it is further expected that there must be harmony between all the parts of the building and that the building must altogether constitute a united whole. the highpoints of organic architecture are reflected in the fact that the building is an organism and as such every part of the building – from the fenestrations to the walls, the space to the furniture that fill it – must be true and systemically related to each other. in this way, organic architecture reflects the symbiotic ordering systems of nature (wright, ). from wright’s perspective, organic architecture is a mimic of the nature around us in buildings. wright asserted that buildings should correspond to time and place and should intricately interweave with its site so much so that the building should “grow naturally” from the site. this aside, wright was also convinced that all the parts of the building must relate in tandem constituting as a result, an organism. he asserted the use of natural design elements such as water, plants, spacious interiors, natural lighting, and natural building materials to epitomize organic architecture (zevi, ). contrariwise, buildings according to this view should discountenance artificial lighting and building materials. within this ideological framework, colour choices are also civil engineering and architecture ( ): - , considered imperative and are usually yellows, oranges, and browns reflecting the environment. wrights ideology of design has crystalized over the years as “organic” and has been identified as such. some of the highpoints of this ideology are the following:  using natural colors.  providing a place for natural greenery.  one integrating dominant form.  revealing the nature of materials.  the idea that a building should grow from its site.  opening up spaces. overall, from aesthetic point of view, the term organic architecture typifies a symbiotic association between the building and environment. the building cannot be detached from the environment from which it “grows”, while the building itself relates with itself in organized rhythm and relationships. . . . . minimalism ( s- s) minimalism commenced following the aftermath of post–world war ii western arts. it was most conspicuous with american visual arts of the s and early s. this notwithstanding, de stijl and traditional japanese design were generally accepted as forerunners of the minimalist movement. in architecture, minimalism is a reductive ideology preying on modernism. it has also been seen as a reactionary ideology pinning against abstract expressionism and a transition to post-minimal arts. minimalist architecture is an attempt to strip-off all “non-essentials” until simplicity is achieved (cerver, ). this does not necessarily mean the total absence of ornamentation but it indicated a condition where nothing else can be removed to improve the quality of design (bertoni, ). within this ideology, design elements project the sense of simplicity. typically, open-plan spatial arrangements, harmonious colors, basic geometric shapes, elements without decoration, natural textures, clean finishes, neat and straight components, large windows and satisfying negative spaces, flat or nearly flat roofs, simple materials, repetitions are used to achieve simplicity. minimalist architects are not exclusively concerned with the physical aesthetic qualities of the buildings but with spiritual aesthetic and the invisible as well. they do so by hearing from the building and paying attention to space, details, nature, people and materials (bertoni, ). the following table illustrates the main aesthetic characteristics of four main styles in the late modern architecture. table . four main categories of the late modern architecture. idea major characteristic architectural characteristics international style -response against historicist styles of the th and th centuries. -optimum use of technology and modern materials. - curtain walls of glass or prefabricated parts. - rational organization of a plan. -open interior spaces. -volume (usually rectangular) -clear articulation of the grid frame. - precise regularity of a modular pattern. -rectilinear forms. - glass and steel. organic architecture - promotes harmony between natural world and human habitation. -building should develop out of its natural surroundings. -be inspired by nature and be sustainable, healthy, conserving, and diverse. -exist in the "continuous present" and "begin again". -prairie school style of creating residential homes. -harmony with the nature. -horizontal lines. -"grow out of the site". brutalism -to reveal the basic nature of its construction. - exposure of the building's functions. - to redirect modern architecture toward a more monumental form. - associated with a collective utopian ideology. -rough unfinished surfaces -unusual shapes -heavy-looking materials -massive forms - extensive use of raw concrete. -concrete are made to reveal the basic nature of its construction. -repeated modular elements. - specific functional zones. - usually formed with repeated modular elements. - nclude brick, glass, steel, rough-hewn stone, rough-hewn stone and gabions. - relatively small windows. minimalism -response against abstract expressionism. -simplicity convey the ideas of freedom. - traditional japanese design and de stijl are predecessors. -basic geometric shapes. -natural textures, open-plan spatial arrangements, clean finishes. -simplicity in form and function. -uncomplicated cladding and wall finishes. -clean, open, light-filled spaces. -simple detailing devoid of decoration - simple materials and large windows. -harmonious colours, flat or nearly flat roofs. aesthetics of modern architecture: a semiological survey on the aesthetic contribution of modern architecture . discussion throughout the history of modern architecture, there were some fluctuations on aesthetic understanding and the philosophy of aesthetic construction. these resulted in different views in the aesthetic understanding of modern architecture which has led to different architectural styles. as was earlier clarified, modern architecture, by the ideas it conveyed in its major philosophies such as the house is a machine for living, form follows function and ornamentations is crime aimed at benefiting from the technological assets resulting from the industrial revolution. this is in spite of the fact that modern architecture derived its negative reputation by rejecting traditional styles. this study also highlighted some architectural styles of the modern era such as the arts and crafts movement, beaux arts architecture, art nouveau and the gothic revival which seems to logically adopt modern technologies in such a way that their local authenticity can still be seen. as soon as futurism and expressionism emerged as architectural methods of construction, it became obvious that this was a significant milestone in the aesthetic understanding of the modern architecture. distortion of form for an emotional effect (which was the expressionism philosophy of design and the futurism emphasis on the beauty of speed and technology) opened new vistas in the history of modern architecture. thereafter, famous architects (depending on the era) such as le corbusier, walter gropious, adolf loos and mies van der rohe have followed the same ideology. the rationalist, formalism and functionalist tendencies were three main factors which were developed from the modernism philosophy of construction. the study revealed that between - there was another milestone landmarking the history of modern architecture;which was late modernism. this era, which began after the second world war, can be classified from an aesthetic point of vew into four main styles. apart from international style which was the continous logical development of bauhaus functionalist ideology, the other architectural styles were brutalism, organic architecture and minimalism; all of which attempted to develop specific aesthetic language to fit modernistic buildings. overall, figure below illustrates the chronological development of aesthetic progress in modern architecture. figure . chronological development of aesthetic progress in modern architecture civil engineering and architecture ( ): - , there have also been several attempts to justify the logic of modernistic ideology from the architectural points of view. this study however revealed that apart from logical aesthetic applications, there were many other factors which led to its failure. as was previously stated, removing ornamentation and conceiving architecture as machine for living was the main and preliminary factor why people’s aesthetic curiosity were never satisfied. in this regard, charles jencks pointed out that the destruction of the notorious pruitt-igoe on july , was in fact “death of modern architecture”. the building was designed premising on the ideals of ciam (congress internationaux d’ architecture moderne). it epitomizes the beliefs of modern architecture in which “good form was to lead to good context (jencks, ; guzer and abdi, ). pruitt-igoe was destroyed owing to vandalization and ultimate rejection by users. in fact, despite enormous spending for maintenance and restoration, the problems with it persisted. taking its destruction event as a symbol, charles jencks asserted the death of modernism and the beginning of a new period as post-modern era. aesthetic characteristics of postmodernism are other notions that need to be considered for future study. . conclusions the study revealed that progressive capitalism and the technological process constitutes the two major reasons for the emergence of modern architecture. the study further revealed that the emerging industrialization and the concomitant machine technology brought along with it new possibilities in construction, and in the advancement of new materials, logic and standardization to redirect the course of architectural aesthetics. thus, it has been put forward that, such attributes as function, standard, efficiency, and self-referential designs are the highpoints of modern architecture. it also became clearer from this study that one of the main purposes of modern architecture was to set the criteria for architecture based on performance and function to achieve comfort, hygiene, quality of life and health. this study concludes that the le corbusier's maxim: “the house is a machine for living” promoted utility, efficiency, economy, accuracy, functionality, technology, and enhanced the love for simple building aesthetics. the study also revealed that the adoption of standardization in modern architecture is significant because it enhanced order, planning and became a foundation for reviewing architectural designs scientifically. it is therefore obvious that it is the foothold upon which good architecture had emerged. considering this fact, it was highlighted that the major factor which led to the failure of modern architecture was its relegation of cultural references. ignoring cultural values and its in st. louis, missouri symbolic ornamentation for the machine as the standardized method for architectural designing, resulted in the lack of sense of place and lack of place attachment. these have been considered the most important non-aesthetic factor in the failure of modern architecture. overall, this study points out that the interrelation between the quality of life in the modern era and modern architecture is an area that needs further studies to answer the question on why modern architecture failed to improve the aesthetic quality of life aside from its own unique approaches. acknowledgements this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. conflict of interests the authors declare no conflict of interest. references [ ] ali, f. 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( ). towards an organic architecture. london: faber and faber. 	 . introduction 	 . materials and methods 	 . discussion 	 . conclusions 	acknowledgements 	conflict of interests 	references notes on cubism* carl einstein translated and introduced by charles w. haxthausen carl einstein's writing on modern art is to a large extent defined by his encounter with cubism. although not mentioned by name, cubism informed his early theoretical essay "totality" (a draft of the first section of the text was originally titled "picasso"), and his negro sculpture ( ). yet not until did he publish a fully developed account of cubist painting, in the first edition of his art of the twentieth century. "notes on cubism" ( ), written for documents, offers a condensed version of that interpretation, now embedded within the broader approach to the changing functions of images that characterized "methodological aphorisms" ( ). among early interpretations of cubism, only einstein's, from his initial essays of to his georges braque of , can be justly compared with daniel-henry kahnweiler's the rise of cubism ( ) in its probing, nuanced analysis and intellec- tual substance. yet the two germans offer essentially antithetical interpretations of this art. for kahnweiler the fundamental problem facing cubist painting was a strictly aesthetic one that had emerged with impressionism: the conflict between illusionistic representation and an increasingly autonomous pictorial structure. in the first phase of cubist painting, braque and picasso attempted to reconcile this conflict by adapting objects to the painting surface through extreme distor- tions of form. yet this discrepancy between the beholder's memory images and the distorted objects he encountered in the pictorial representation was deeply disturbing. in , writes kahnweiler, braque and picasso found a solution to this conflict; they eliminated perplexing deformations of the motif by adopting a nonillusionistic schematic rendering of the object's position in space, supplemented by the inclusion of "real details" (lettering, clay pipes, etc.), integrated into the structural whole. these details, augmented by the painting's title, were "a stimulus * "notes sur le cubisme," documents , no. ( ), pp. - . . carl einstein, die kunst des . jahrhunderts (berlin: propylaen-verlag, ), pp. - . october , winter , pp. - . ? october magazine, ltd. and massachusetts institute of technology. "notes on cubism" ( fannei & walz verlag, berlin. pablo picasso. man with a guitar. - . ? estate of pablo picasso/ artists rights society (ars), new york. courtesy philadelphia museum of art. october which carries with it memory images. combining the 'real' stimulus and the scheme of forms, these images construct the finished object in the mind." in the end, kahnweiler relates the process to the kantian synthesis described in the first critique, in which differing representations in the mind are reconciled in their diversity in a single act of cognition. and, ultimately, the painting is reconciled with the known, familiar world as given. einstein, by contrast, locates the origins of the cubist project not merely within a problematic of painting but within a larger epistemological crisis: "a skepticism concerning the identity of objects." for him there is no conflict between representation and structure, for the cubist's brief is not the representation of objects, but a pictorial figuration of visual (and mental) process. moreover, for einstein the conflict between memory images and cubist form, so troubling to kahnweiler, marks a salutary historic break with the past. in asserting that the cubists "undermined memory, in which ideas [notions] are reconciled with one another," he seems to be pointedly contradicting kahnweiler's interpretation. and for good measure he declares, "their greatest achievement is their destruction of mnemonic images." purged of memory images, the viewer now experiences the object not as something that exists apart, but as a function of his own vision, his own cognitive processes. the painting is an autonomous totality, unverifiable vis-a- vis reality. it becomes "the distinguishing sign of the visually active human being, constructing his own universe and refusing to be the slave of given forms." it is clear that there exists an abyss between art history and the scientific study of art, and that both disciplines have become altogether dubious. when art history wishes to be more than a calendar, it quite naively borrows ill-founded judgments and ideas. within these ideas the individual works melt into generali- ties without contours, and the concrete deed dissolves into a sort of vague aestheticism; on the other hand, a thousand anecdotes and dates of art history do not touch at all upon technical questions of the work of art or on the forms themselves. ultimately one ends up with an anecdotal psychology that transforms the history of art into a novel. as for that pedantic method that consists of pictorial description, we wish to point out that the structure of language is such that it breaks up the synchronic power of the picture and that the heterogeneity of words destroys the overall impression. a psychological method presents other difficulties. in the first place we know of none that is without problems, none that succeeds in defining its object. psychoanalysis itself has never pretended to constitute the totality of a method, and psychologists who have previously attempted to create a psychology have . daniel-henry kahnweiler, the rise of cubism, trans. henry aronson (new york: wittenborn, schultz, inc., ), pp. , - . notes on cubism constructed their object in such a way that what was properly psychological was dissipated. in any case, psychology remains incapable of mastering something as complex as the work of art, conditioned as it is by a psychological polarity-on the one hand the genesis of the work, on the other the beholder-considering that the psychological, in contrast to quantitative physics, allows for entirely contradictory effects. there remains a no less formidable phenomenon: the act of judgment and its terminology. ideas change as rapidly as fleas change humans. in the first place one would have to write the history of aesthetic judgments to bring some order into this museum of arbitrary terminologies, and begin to discern the foundations of these ideas and these judgments, in order ultimately to determine whether a hierarchy of such values exists at all. in general we believe that a painting, which is a concrete realization, disappears in the act of criticism because it serves as a mere pretext for generalized formulas whenever someone wishes to endow a risky opinion with a universal value by the trick of generalization. the result is nothing more than a witty paraphrase, thanks to which the work of art is neatly inserted into its cultural context, where it disappears as a mere symptom, losing its technical specificity. and then there is the lyrical paraphrase, that revenge of failed poets- let us call them errand boys of poetry. the main problem remains the difference between these two categories, that of the picture and that of language. to unhinge the world of objects is to call into question the guarantees of our existence. the naive person believes that the appearance of the human figure is the most trustworthy experience that a human being can have of himself; he dares not doubt this certainty, although he suspects the presence of inner experiences. he imagines that in contrast to this abyss of inner experience the immediate experience of his own body constitutes the most reliable biological unit. his body, the instrument of all spatial experience, seems to him such an infallible machine that he uses it to represent what is most durable and vital: his gods and his dead. in the past, it was the custom to worship images, images that were the doubles of gods and the deceased, and in this way one strengthened one's belief in a world that seemed all the more certain for being so little subject to proof. the mortal human body became the sign for the immortals. from a eugenic stand- point these idealized archetypes broke all the records, and the optimism of the breeders was glorified from the parthenon to the postcard. someday someone should point out the banality, eroticism, and optimism that underlie the academic aesthetic.... everything problematic was countered with an as yet uncorrupted entity, the human figure. what servile optimism and what solace for the ugly and the losers who were thus able to identify with a gigolo who pulls a thorn out of a god's foot, or with a fat dryad! the possibility of duplicating things calmed those who feared death. the world of pictorial doubles fulfilled a longing for eternity. weakened aesthetically in order to reinforce the stability of reality, images proved more secure and october durable than human beings. tautology was insurance against death, and the certainty of things was confirmed by images. one practiced an ancestor cult with objects; still lifes-symbols for the joys of ownership-immortalized dead turkeys, grapes, and asparagus.... eternity, what a fraud! one put one's trust in conventional objects, those comfortable signals, familiar in their effects. pictorial positivism, biological indolence. reality was hypertrophied; one grafted onto it the gonads of evolution, jammed it with an optimistic teleology that was nothing more than an ersatz metaphysics. around a new sentiment began to gather strength: the indifference of pictorial technicians vis-a-vis the motif evolved into a skepticism concerning the identity of objects. sentimental people could easily suspect a pessimism at work here.... reality began a death struggle, and at the same time there was an interest in archaic, mythic, and tectonic epochs. a long-prepared dualism between form and object now became manifest: the real was rejected as a criterion for the image; this was the end of that optimistic unity of reality and image. the image was no longer an allegory, no longer a fiction of another reality. the rights of reality were therefore drastically curtailed, and in this sense one can speak of the lethal power of the work of art. a tangled reality disintegrates when confronted with unmediated facts; one could speak of an asceticism analogous to that of the mystics, of a retreat into the regions of autonomous vision. history is not unitary: different generations create different value systems that are rooted in their respective presents. one can discern a shift of axis in the course of history. the models that up until now were considered classical (polykleitos or myron, for example) today look like the virtuosos of a degenerate classicism and the end of a grand tradition, just as socrates no longer looks like the initiator of philosophy but rather like the culmination of the great age of mythic antiquity. characteristic of mythic epochs is the sense for grand construc- tion and tectonic forms, a hierarchy of forms that later disappeared with the use of tactile details and pictorial equivalents. frontality and surfaces dominate. in these periods important sculptural motifs were invented: the columnar male figure, for example, the sun menhir, or the crouching egyptian figure whose head is a sphere resting on the cube of the body. parallelism and the repetition of forms are used in relief. it is always the archaic epochs in which we see this practice. the paintings of the paleolithic era, for example, display a richer repertory of forms than those of the neolithic period. yet we are struck by a powerful dictatorship over objects; the architectural sense is dominant, as if one wanted to defend oneself against irrational forces and avoid the cruel hold of objects. we do not wish to conceal that there is a negative side to the taste for the primitives. sometimes, out of fatigue, one looks for quick and easy solutions and wants to simplify the historical heritage. one produces generalized forms into which the spectator automatically projects the details. we are familiar with these so-called visual revolts that operate with second-rate means and we are not notes on cubism ignoring the misunderstandings provoked by false contemporaneity. is there any- one who does not claim to be an heir of paul cezanne or georges seurat? but often one emphasizes only the technical nuances, instead of recognizing that these painters mark the advent of grand decorative composition. too frequently a new synthesis has been proclaimed when it was solely a matter of decorative arrangement. it is necessary to distinguish clearly between autonomous vision and deformation. as an example of deformation we cite the metaphorical variations in which two different representations become conflated. when a naturalistic representation is schematized to the point that the model assumes the role of commentary on the stylization, it is rather a matter of an abbreviation with the goal of idealizing the model by means of a facile schema. in caricature and the grotesque, stylization operates in a fashion hostile to the object; two different modes of being are conjoined here. in caricature, it is judgment that is predominant. in any case, deformation presupposes a naturalistic orientation and is generally a compensa- tion for a pedantic puritanism that adores wax figures. here we have reproduced some examples of cubism from its first period, which is called analytical cubism. instead of presenting the result of an observa- tion, the painter presents the result of a visual process that is not interrupted by objects. he is not content with an abbreviated rendering that would eliminate the refracted parts. the motif is a function of human vision; it is subordinated to the conditions of the painting. the decisive factor is volume, which is not identical to mass, because volume is a totalization of discontinuous optical movements. thus the conventional continuum of the body is ruptured.... for far too long volume has been confused with mass, and this has led to tactile interpretations in painting. an antipictorial experience was transposed onto a planar surface, and tactility was suggested by the modeling of light and shadow. there is, however, another manner of representing volume: the planar and simultaneous figuration of optical movements. it is characteristic of cubism that it should have passed through different stages of formation: first the simple deformation, then the analysis and destruction of the motif, and finally the realization of diverse syntheses. this indicates the depth of the problem that it posed, one of such magnitude that for a given painter any one of these moments could seem to constitute the whole of the problem. here we are dealing with only a part of the road traveled, analytical cubism, the period in which we see less the analysis of the exterior motif than the dissociation of pictorial ideas. the principal challenge was to represent volume as a planar phenomenon even as one showed the plastic movements in all their richness. from a biological standpoint volume and depth constitute the strongest, the most elemental sensation. it is in space that we project our action and our energy; without it, the existence of objects seems impossible. the task lies in condensing these spatial experiences in such a way that they are repeatable and are concentrated in a planar unity less complex than that of our body. q o ak-m o g oe: < < :. u z notes on cubism around painters began to be dissatisfied with purely pictorial solutions. a crisis of color erupted. this is, as in the time of giotto, the dawn of a new attempt at the conquest of space and the expansion of visual consciousness. the artists of the renaissance had discovered what they called nature, and individualization of the motif was the essence of their art. that is why, in the late baroque, one moved toward ever greater tactile illusion until a purist like domenichino separated painting from this misalliance with sculpture. the cubists first eliminated the conventional motif, which is situated at the periphery of visual processes. now the motif is no longer an objective thing separate from the spectator; rather, the thing seen participates in his activity as he configures it according to the sequence of his subjective optical perceptions. as stable signs of our actions, objects are precious. we treasure resemblance as a guarantee of life. the world as tautology. one duplicates creation, which is regarded as perfect. the astonishment wrought by miracles, the sensation of gaps, the multisensory experience of objects-all this disappears for the sake of a reassuring repetition. a bit of positive theology is eternalized by reproduction, and the need for identity is satisfied because everywhere one finds the identity that one sought within oneself. yet we pay for this tendency toward reproduction by diminishing creation. it was the cubists who undermined the object forever identical with itself; in other words they undermined memory, in which ideas are reconciled with one another. their greatest achievement is their destruction of mnemonic images. tautology conveys the illusion of the immortality of things, and it is by means of descriptive images that one has sought to avoid the annihilation of the world through forgetting. the cubist painters separated the image from the object, eliminated memory and turned the motif into a simultaneous and planar figuration of representations of volume. the sensations of a table as such cannot be rendered, but only our own sensations, and a table represented in a picture makes sense only if the sum of a complex of tangled sensations called table is subordinated to the technical demands of the picture. the mnemonic legacy of objects had to be destroyed, forgotten; thus the image became not the fiction of another reality but a reality with its own conditions. here we do not wish to interpret the work of the great impressionists, whose efforts are assessed by critics in excessively naturalistic terms, while in truth it was the impressionists who revealed the primacy of the planar surface and rendered objects as symptoms of a subordinate phenomenon: light. at another time we will show that it is important to separate these masters from the literature of naturalism with its limited contemporary relevance. in this sketch we can give only an outline of the situation in . at some other time we will describe the agony of space and the different phases of its renewal. suffice it to mention that cezanne was the first to show the predominance october of volume over color, he who told joachim gasquet: "only the volumes are important!" a great visual discontent became apparent around . fixed objects had already been fragmented by the chromatic analysis of the impressionists. now one went further, and realized that the defined object is the result of a complex tangle of experiences and is, ultimately, a myth; in other words, one could open up objects as one opens a box, and break them down in order to select those elements that are important for the painting. similarly, in a novel or a play, time is cut up arbitrarily, and this category of literary time has nothing to do with actual time; take, for example, the dramatic catastrophes where qualitative and contrasting temporalities cross like the contrasting forms of a painting. one could almost call the drama the annihilation of real time. the first condition of cubist painting is the surface. one no longer works between two imaginary layers that traverse the canvas. now the totalization of the picture is achieved by its unverifiability, by the fact that the beholder does not leave the reality of the painting and that the artist's vision is not interrupted by comparative observation. the viewer isolates himself and forgets. this is a fatal process, and it is the observer who is in charge, not the motif. this process could be called ascetic. the painter selects the decisive moments of an experi- ence that occurs in two dimensions-he eliminates the tactile elements and creates an independent form that is separate from other phenomena. he renders a pictorial construction whose parts balance each other out without recourse to object associations. temporal notions of movement are transformed into a static simultaneity in which the primordial elements of contrasting movements are condensed. these movements are divided into different formal fields in which the figure is dissociated and broken up. instead of presenting, as one did previously, a group of different objective movements, one creates a group of subjective optical movements. light and color are employed in a tectonic sense, to support the construction. volume is expressed by the simultaneous contrast of differently situated parts, or rather by rendering certain parts as situated on several axes simultane- ously. the painter deploys planes that intersect, what we call transparency of planes. the figure is broken up. partial motifs are shattered or repeated, depending on their importance for the composition. it was not the cube that was important; one chose simple constructive elements that made possible a unitary sequence of forms and contained the principal directions. the method we are describing here is that of analytical cubism ca. . while the impressionist dissociated forms by means of color, the cubist does so tectonically. the notion of space was enriched, even as one used simple elements that allowed for variations and clear contrasts. we see here on the one hand a complication of space and on the other a simplification of means. the mnemonic dimension (i.e., that which is conceived only over time) is integrated by means of dynamic presentations, thanks to the planar dissociation, and by showing the braque. man with a guitar. - . ? artists rights society (ars), new york/adagp, paris. digital image ? the museum of modern art/licensed by scala/art resource, ny october multiplicity of the axes of the figures. the cubist does not imitate volume, but instead renders its autonomous equivalent; and the totality seems to us still stronger, due to what has been said of the separated parts. this simultaneity has allowed the incorporation of optical acts into the work that had remained unconscious until now. one chooses views along several axes, and it is thus that the tension between movements and formal fields is reinforced. the condition of such simultaneity is a quickness immeasurable in time that resembles the rapid, synthetic force of dreams. such quickness is possible only because one is not distracted by the motif, and because the objective tendency dwells at the periphery, yet does remain present, for the pictorial forms are directed toward the subjugation of nature. one final, important point: these imaginative paintings present a completely invented structure. because of a certain geometric quality of the figurative elements, this painting has been considered rationalistic, but this reproach can be easily repudiated, for it is precisely in mythic periods that we almost always find a tectonic art, and the tectonic has never been a means of mimetic representation. it would be more accurate to say that since the figure has become functional and has been humanized. we observe a sort of animism of form, except that now the vitalizing forces no longer come from spirits but from human beings them- selves. artists no longer work from an image of the gods but from their own conceptions. consequently we regard tectonic forms, precisely because they are not measurable, to be the most human, for they are the distinguishing sign of the visually active human being, constructing his own universe and refusing to be the slave of given forms. department of astronomy, u.va. skip to main content search form search department of astronomy 	 	 academics 	 uva bridge to the doctorate program in astronomy 	 diversity, equity, and inclusion 	 research 	 diversity equity and inclusion 	 instrumentation laboratory 	 ph.d. dissertations ( -present) 	 virginia institute of theoretical astronomy 	 outreach 	 diversity equity and inclusion 	 observatory public night program 	 friends of the mccormick observatory 	 dark skies, bright kids 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hamilton and vita professor of astronomy and associate dean for academic affairs in the college and graduate school of arts and sciences, was recently named as a fellow of the american astronomical society.   john was cited “for pioneering work in computational astrophysics and its application to studies of accretion disks and jets.” more information here: https://aas.org/grants-and-prizes/aas-fellows 	read more about astronomer john hawley named aas fellow professor ilse cleeves wins award for research professor ilse cleeves has recieved the research excellence award by the university of virginia research achievement awards committee. each year up to three researchers are selected across uva for this honor through a nomination process and a rigorous review by a multi-disciplinary awards committee. this award recognizes faculty members who have generated sufficient volume of scholarship of high quality and are emerging in their fields as leaders and acknowledged as such by their peers. 	read more about professor ilse cleeves wins award for research uva graduate, dr. jake turner, detects possible exoplanet radio emission by monitoring the cosmos with a radio telescope array, an international team of scientists has detected radio bursts emanating from the constellation boötes –  that could be the first radio emission collected from a planet beyond our solar system. 	read more about uva graduate, dr. jake turner, detects possible exoplanet radio emission nitya kallivayalil’s research featured in quanta magazine nitya kallivayalil’s research was featured in a quanta magazine article entitled “the new history of the milky way”, which explores the outsize influence of the large magellanic cloud on our own galaxy.   https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-new-history-of-the-milky-way- /   image by gilbert vancell 	read more about nitya kallivayalil’s research featured in quanta magazine mark whittle awarded a jefferson scholars foundation award for excellence in teaching thanks to the generosity of an anonymous donor, in the jefferson scholars foundation began recognizing university faculty who have demonstrated both excellence in teaching and exceeding care for their students. this award honors those teachers in our community who have gone the extra mile in fulfilling their vocation without regard for their own advancement. this year, mark whittle was nominated and has been designated as a recipient. professor whittle has been in the astronomy department since and his research interests include active galaxies and cosmology. 	read more about mark whittle awarded a jefferson scholars foundation award for excellence in teaching astronomer ilse cleeves recognized among women leaders in ‘stem d’ astronomy's ilse cleeves has won the prestigious johnson & johnson women in stem d (wistem d) scholars award. the johnson & johnson program seeks to “fuel development of future female stem d leaders and feed the stem d talent pipeline by awarding and sponsoring women at 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investigations fiction as universal truth author rob van gerwen affiliation university utrecht ‘the more specific you are, the more general it’ll be.’ diane arbus , . i. is there truth through fiction? is a splendid question, at least because it is unclear what ‘through’ means here. can we acquire true knowledge by way of literature? knowledge about the world outside the work? this special issue concentrates on literature. literature as an art form, i want to add, not just written texts. it should be quite clear that reports in the papers provide, or at least are meant to provide us with knowledge about the world. to ask whether they actually do involves a critique of how they meet their own aims. ‘fiction’ has a weak and a strong meaning. we often think of fiction as fantasy, something made up with no necessary connection to anything real, hence not true in an everyday sense. yet, in its weak sense the term fiction refers to the ‘made’ character of something. and, since all representations are made, not found, there is an element of fiction in all of them, not just in the fantasised ones. moreover, it makes sense to ask for the direction of fit of the truth that we are looking for in this special issue. do we mean that the work be true to the world, or to the author? lastly, should our view cover all works of literature? ought we not, rather, gather from the work the type of truth that it procures, and not from the world that it is said to be true about? as works of art, works of literature are not intended to be journalistically true to the world – we do not dismiss a novel as a bad work of art because it is wrong about the world. and if a literary passage happens to be true c© aesthetic investigations vol , no ( ), i-v fiction as universal truth to the world this still does not make the work a case of journalism; the objective assessment of such a passage’s truth may have no place in a suitable appreciation of the work. no work can claim to be true to the world unless it is checked against the reality it supposedly refers to. nor is a work necessarily true autobiographically. it does not need to truly describe passages in the life of the author – not even if the author alleges that it does – to be true to the author in an aesthetic manner. aesthetically, works of literature may be true to the author in their style, since this is the author’s achievement, and, arguably, their authentic expression. yet, to establish this stylistic truth to the author more than one of their works should be taken into account. one wants to say that said types of truth – to the world and to the author – are contingent on the aesthetic value of the work, which brings us to a third type of truth: truth to the work itself. if the work fails aesthetically for being sloppy, sentimental or grossly incoherent – the work fails its own thrust – it will be hard for the reader to establish any truths in the work, whether they concern the world or the author. with truth to the work i refer to the internal coherence of the work, a sui generis type of literary truth. a work is true to itself when its elements add to the overall meaning of the work, and hardly any of its elements detract from it. and since the overall meaning encompasses all elements of the work, and is whole in itself, it is okay to posit it as the work’s truth, even if it is not true to anything beyond itself – hence its sui generis nature. is the work of fiction plausible as a whole, do passages in it point to each other and ultimately bear fruit in light of the whole text, and so on? in my view, works like picasso’s guernica, tarantino’s pulp fiction, rembrandt’s hendrickje bathing in a stream, bach’s goldberg variations (in certain performances), joyce’s ulysses, beckett’s waiting for godot, jim thompson’s the killer inside me and the grifters are all true in this way, to themselves. for this, nothing in these works must point away from the work itself to the world or the author. so, perhaps, a work of fiction’s truth is the unfaltering manner in which its details guide the spectator, reader or listener to the coherent whole of the work, and never disappoint their experience, or at least never for long. this view requires us to hold back the inclination to think of truth as short for the correspondence of some representation to something beyond itself, which is the normal way to view truth in real life, in journalism and in science. a work that is true to itself may be said to generate a particularist type of universal knowledge, like aristotle understands it in his discussion of the difference between history and poetry: ‘by universal truths are to be understood the kinds of thing a cer- tain type of person will probably or necessarily say or do in a given situation; and this is the aim of poetry, although it gives individ- ual names to its characters.’ (my emphasis, aristotle, poetics). ii rob van gerwen the notion of a work’s truth to the author is at stake in both contributions to the arts and artists section. patricia anne emison discusses leonardo – whom we have come to admire for his proto-scientific interests – as an artist, a man of imagination, and what is more, an observer. emison concentrates on the figure of the painter and his preferences in real life, using her findings to prompt to the unfinished nature of his drawings and paintings, and bring- ing the opacity of the material to life. leonardo’s use of new materials she compares to the shock that cubism generated in th century. ‘he studied the world more objectively not because he was a scientist ahead of his time but because he didn’t start from the premise of a benevolent god.’ ( , this issue). he worked from observation, too, rather than from a desire for the classics that we typically associate with renaissance art. knowing about the life of a visual artist helps view their works better, at least if what we know about their life is somehow visible in their work. with regard to literature it is harder to notice the author in their text, and this is obviously due to a difference in materials. putting words in a sentence and sentences on a page may be physical but only hardly so. putting visual elements together on a plane and deciding which of their interrelations are to stick to the final work, though, clearly has a physical aspect. and it is that physical aspect that we value when appreciating a work of visual art. paul abramson and tania abramson argue rightly that appreciation is permeable to knowledge, whether this be knowledge about the world or about the artist, or both. in come the works of david wojnarowicz. there is no such thing as an innocent eye. we see what we look for and evidence about wojnarowicz’ life may make us look for certain things in his works – and get to see them. though we may miss out on certain clues in the works, someone may suitably prompt us to them, as wollheim argues in his writings on painting: a suitable spectator is a spectator who is suitably sensitive, suit- ably informed, and, if necessary, suitably prompted. the suitability is in the seeing, not merely in the looking. certain facts may make you look wrongly; thus, in the end, the seeing may overrule the prompting. referring to an artist’s tragic life is only the first stage. read the abramsons’ effort to see the works of wojnarowicz through wojnarowicz’s own writings as prompting them to the meaning of his art. it is nice to struggle with the assumption that the artist knows best why he made his works the way he did. here, too, the seeing determines the suitability. in all, the work’s truth to itself is reciprocated by the suitable appre- ciative experience. the work gives us its nature and properties, which the appreciator’s sensibility processes. the spectator responds by projecting his views, which, to a point, fall in place with the work, and the measure of their suitability feeds back to the appreciator who . . . and so on. the work’s truth to the work coincides with the suitable appreciator’s judgements’ truth to the iii fiction as universal truth work. does that mean that every work matches only one single true inter- pretation? no, it means instead that there are norms of suitability which are assessed in the appreciative experience. to assess these norms appreciators should converse among each other, in the work’s presence. this reciprocity is like sartre understands seeing another person not merely as an object but as a subject who looks back at one: ‘being-seen-by-the-other’ is the truth of ‘seeing-the-other’. we gaze at a work which gazes back at us. yet it can only be said to do so in response to our aesthetic appreciative response to its truth to itself. we near a work’s particularist universal truth by aesthetically engaging with it. editor@aestheticinvestigations.eu notes . according to a certain religious theory, byzantine icons are not made by hand, acheiropoieton, and we think photographs, too, are not made by hand but by a ma- chine (let us ignore photoshop and its ilk), so strictly speaking these should not be treated as fictions, even in the weak sense. we realise, of course, that they do depend on human acts and choices. diane arbus clearly refers to the made character of pho- tographs in the quote preceding this edito- rial. . even though aristotle refers to ‘a certain type of person’, there may be only one in- stance of such a type: the particular indi- vidual described in the work. a larger passage surrounding the quote: ‘the difference between the historian and the poet is not that the one writes in prose and the other in verse [. . . ]. the differ- ence is that the one tells of what has hap- pened, the other of the kinds of things that might happen. for this reason po- etry is more philosophical and more wor- thy of serious attention than history; for while poetry is concerned with universal truths history treats of particular facts. by universal truths are to be understood the kinds of thing a certain type of person will probably or necessarily say or do in a given situation; and this is the aim of po- etry, although it gives individual names to its characters.’ aristotle , chapter . ‘poetic truth and historical truth’, - . . wollheim , . . jean-paul sartre , . references arbus, diane. . revelations. new york: random house. aristotle, horace, longinus. . classical literary criticism. edited by t.s. dorsch. harmondsworth: penguin books. sartre, jean-paul. ( ). being and nothingness. an essay on phe- nomenological ontology. translated by hazel e. barnes. new york and london: routledge. iv mailto:editor@aestheticinvestigations.eu rob van gerwen wollheim, richard. . “on pictorial representation.” in richard woll- heim on the art of painting. art as representation and expression, edited by rob van gerwen, – . cambridge, new york: cambridge university press. v 	 unframe malevich!: ineffability and sublimity in suprematism unframe malevich!: ineffability and sublimity in suprematism author(s): branislav jakovljevic reviewed work(s): source: art journal, vol. , no. (autumn, ), pp. - published by: college art association stable url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/ . accessed: / / : your use of the jstor archive indicates your acceptance of the terms & conditions of use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp jstor is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. we use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. for more information about jstor, please contact support@jstor.org. college art association is collaborating with jstor to digitize, preserve and extend access to art journal. http://www.jstor.org http://www.jstor.org/action/showpublisher?publishercode=caa http://www.jstor.org/stable/ ?origin=jstor-pdf http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp branislav jakovijevic unframe malevich!: ineffability and sublimity in suprematism the blank malevich is on a roll, and everything suggests that the resurging interest in his work has just reached its high point. it began in russia, where over the past decade the art historians caught up with their own past with commendable quickness and rigor: the publication of kazimir malevich's complete writings in five volumes under the editorship of aleksandra shatskikh is certainly a groundbreaking achieve- ment, and yevgenia petrova's work on malevich's legacy in the stacks of the russian museum in leningrad is no less significant.' in france, the pub- lication of andrei nakov's catalogue raisonn of malevich was followed by the major exhibition staged at the mus e d'art moderne de laville de paris. at the same time in lisbon and madrid there was an attempt to approach the master of suprematism from a different angle with an exhibition dedicated to malevich and cinema. in - , malevich rolled westward as the exhibition kazimir malevich: suprematism moved from the deutsche guggenheim in berlin to newyork on the way to the menil collection in houston, texas. unfortunately, outside of russia the renewal of interest in malevich's visual work has not been accompa- nied by a comparable reconsideration of his theories (the notable exception is the iberian show). as a result, suprematism, one of the most decisive attacks on convention in the history of modern painting, is receiving conventional museum presentations. however, a turn to its original theoretical premises reveals suprematism's resilience to aesthetization. malevich painted black square in i . he immediately presented this work as a breakthrough and a milestone in his artistic career as well as in the history of art in general. it seems to have had the power of a revelation. in what now looks like a masterly stroke of avant-garde self-mystification, he reported that he could not sleep, eat, or drink for an entire week after he finished the painting. over the following twenty years, he repeated the black square three times in the same tech- nique (oil on canvas), and then whenever and wherever he could: in his litho- graphed books, on the buttons his vitebsk students carried on their lapels and sleeves, and appended to his signature. in , he painted white on white. another milestone; another breakthrough-from polychrome to monochrome-white suprematism. if black square was a revelation, then white square was the ultimate act of painting-and the herald of its end. his first solo exhibition, which opened in march in moscow, was a suprematist tour de force; one room after another was covered with nonobjective paintings, and, according to numerous witness accounts, the last room contained empty canvases. it was part of a much broad- er renunciation of painting, which in itself served as a declaration of the end of art. then, in a sudden return to easel painting, between and , he pro- duced a series of "post-impressionist" works, which he backdated to the period between io and , thus forging a development parallel to suprematism. to this series belongs the painting female figure, which features the outline of a woman reduced to basic geometrical forms. atypically for this series, most rec- ognizable for the faceless human shapes in open fields, painted in bright colors, i. kazimir malevich, sobranie sochinenii v pyati tomakh, ed. aleksandra shatskikh (moscow: gilea, - ). four volumes have been pub- lished so far. translations from these volumes that appear with this article are by branislav jakovljevic. yevgenia petrova, kazimir malevich in the russian museum (st. petersburg: palace editions, ). . andrei nakov, kazimir malewicz: catalogue raisonn (paris: adam biro, ). . malevich e o cinema/malevich y el cine was organized by margarita tupitsyn for the funda?do centro cultural de belem, lisbon (may - august , ) and the fundacion la caixa, madrid (november , -january , ). the significance of the exhibition goes far beyond the iberian peninsula. it was accompanied by tupitsyn's very engaging book/catalogue malevich and film, published in english (new haven: yale university press, ). . the exhibition, organized by matthew drutt, chief curator of the menil collection, was shown in berlin january -april , , in new york may -september , , and in houston october , -january i i, . recent exhibitions of malevich's work in berlin, paris, and new york have been marked by highly publicized discoveries of works that were either unknown or deemed lost. the discoveries come from the collection of nikolai khardziev, a pas- sionate collector, critic, and one-time friend of many protagonists of the russian avant-garde of the s and s. khardziev's life story reads like a nabokov tale. see tim golden's, "a murky trail behind rediscovered works by malevich," new york times, march , . . aleksandra shatskikh, vitebski: zhizn iskusstva, -i (moscow: yaziki russkoi kulturi, ), - . . elena basner, "malevich's paintings in the collection of the russian museum (the matter of the artist's creative evolution)," in malevich at the russian museum, ed. yevgenia petrova (st. petersburg, russia: state russian museum, ), . i art journal kazimir malevich. suprematism: female figure, - . oil on canvas. / x / in. ( x cm). state russian museum, st. petersburg. fall kazimir malevich. four squares, . oil on canvas. / x '/ in. ( . x . cm).a. n. radischev state art museum, saratov. the figure in this painting is dark and almost monochromatic: head, torso, and feet are painted in black, and skirt in dark green. on closer inspection, two addi- tional, much smaller figures in similarly frontal posture seem to be painted in white on the white field that surrounds the black-and-green skirted figure. black square and female figure mark the beginning and the end of the exhibition kazimir malevich: suprematism. they are prefaced by a selection of malevich's pre- black square works and appended by another post-suprematist figure. the centerpiece of suprematism, white on white, is missing from the show. this lack points to two significant aspects of malevich's work. first, for suprematism, concepts are just as important as paint and canvas. second, the very accident of the implication rather than inclusion of white on white in the exhibition calls attention to the evolution of the notion of white as one of the central developments of suprematism. i will start with the latter. there is a machine at work in black square, a mechanism that turns the purely nonobjective painting into a figurative one. that machine is pow- ered by the hierarchical ordering of foreground and background. this simple partition reveals itself as the figurative minimum: there is no ground without figure and significa- tion. even in the most empathically nonfigurative paintings, white comes to signify the neutral background, the "space" in which geometric forms seem to float. malevich was keenly aware of the stubborn persistence of signification. the abolition of figuration in painting does not automatically annihilate the object. abstraction comes only halfway to full nonobjectivity. absolute nonobjec- tivity requires not only the removal of mimetic or even abstract forms, but the radical restructuring of the painting's content. suprematist revolution is not con- cerned with the question of style in art, but with art's status in relation to other human activities. at the beginning of the theoretical elaboration of his work, in the tract from cubism and futurism to suprematism:the new realism in painting, malevich asks that "forms must be given life and the right to individual exis- tence." in the ensuing years, plagued by the war and revolution, this insistence that "a painted surface is a real, living form" was transformed into the idea of "art as such," a nonutilitarian activity that is directly opposed to the "practical culture" of religion and science and to science's "bizarre logic" of productivity for the sake of more efficient destruction. if in black square white appears as a passe-partout, this illusion is radically chal- . kazimir malevich, essays on art / - , vol. i, trans. xenia glowacki-prus and arnold mcmillin (copenhagen: borgen, ), . . ibid., . . malevich, sobranie sochinenii v pyati tomakh, vol. , . fall kazimir malevich. suprematism of the mind (suprematism of the spirit), . oil on panel. / x ?/ in. ( . x . cm). stedelijk museum,amsterdam/ nstituut collectie, rijswijk. lenged in the series of monochrome-black suprematist paintings that ensued after the week of insomnia and starvation: plane in rotation, black cross, and elongated plane. the definite emancipation of white from its supporting role comes in four squares. here, the square-shaped canvas is simply checkered into two black and two white sections. the black squares are not surrounded or supported by a white field, but instead placed next to the white squares. by rearranging the white and black areas in such manner, white emerges from the background to occupy the same status as black. in four squares there is no distinction between the planes of painting. there is no back- or foreground.'~ with this canvas malevich firmly establishes the suprematist space as the flat surface of the painting from which all residue of illusion has been removed. already in the "colored" period of suprematism, white becomes fully integrated into the solid surface of the painting. in monochrome- white suprematism this idea is advanced even further. instead of the neutral supporter of forms, white becomes an active partici- pant in the continuous foreground of the suprematist canvas. in the guggenheim exhibition, this surfacing of the white is very aptly suggested by the positioning of suprematism of the mind (suprematism of the spirit), in which a white square is inserted in the center of a suprematist cross, at the very border between polychrome and mono- chrome-white suprematism. this slight departure from chronological order has the potential to alter significantly the under- standing of suprematist painting (white planes in dissolution), suprematism (construction in dissolu- tion), and, ultimately, suprematism: female figure. malevich's exploration of the properties of white is not limited to canvas. undoubt- edly, the notion of whiteness is one of the strongest currents that ties together his painting and writing. this pronounced lin- guistic tendency extends to all of malevich's suprematism. we can even assert that there are two sides to suprematism, verbal and visual, and they together form a unique philosophical-artistic system of thought. the relation between suprematism of word and suprematism of image is still insufficiently explored. in his catalogue essay "malevich, painting, and writing: on the development of a suprematist philosophy," jean-claude marcad points to the genealogy of malevich's recognition of "the importance of white," which he traces back to the leader of the italian futurists, filippo . malevich was not isolated in his questioning of the idea of background in painting. this problem was addressed in other corners of the russian avant-garde. for an excellent, albeit brief, discus- sion of reversal of planes in the work of pavel filonov, see vladimir podoroga, "the eunuch of the soul: positions of reading and the world of platonov," south atlantic quarterly , no. (spring ). art journal tomasso marinetti, and to the bard of the french symbolists, stephane mallarmei." proposing such a lineage is daring, considering malevich's close ties with the leading poets of russian futurism and the high level of autonomy achieved by the symbolist poets of the russian "silver age." marcad draws a thick white line across the literary map of the european continent. the real chal- lenge of this proposition is that it forms something of a photographic negative. for, after all, here we are dealing with writing, with tracings of black on white. in his essay "marinetti et malevitch," marcad points to the prominence of the imagery of black and white and light and darkness in marinetti's early futurist documents, providing an example from the pamphlet let's murder the moonshine: "we teach the plunge into shadowy death under the white, staring eye of the ideal."' the plunge, the black death, and the white ideal would be mere exaggerations of the futurist pompous rhetoric were it not for the "mallarmean legacy" that marcad perceptively recognizes in them. all of these elements are already present in mallarme's last complete poem, "dice thrown never will annul chance": the poem's narrative is centered on the "master" hesitating to roll dice with the same hand with which he once navigated a ship. here, how- ever, the fateful plunge is presented in a different form. and it is the form, the layout of the text and the use of typography, that becomes as evocative as the words themselves. mallarmei juxtaposes the obscure narrative of the poem with the drama of the actual writing: solitary distraught feather unless a midnight toque encounters or grazes it and immobilizes on the crumpled velvet by a somber guffaw this rigid whiteness ridiculous in opposition to the sky too much so not to mark in the slightest detail whoever bitter prince of the reef wears it as an heroic headdress irresistible but contained by his small virile reason in a lighting flash the "distraught feather" is both the feather that falls softly through the empty space and the poet's quill that rhythmically taps and scratches on the page. the "rigid whiteness" belongs both to the sea that reflects an empty sky and to the blankness of the page between the words penned in black ink. in her excel- lent essay "the poetics of'black on white': st~phane mallarmb's un coup de des," kathleen staudt observes that in mallarm 's poem "the materiality of the text" i i. jean-claude marcad , "malevich, painting, and writing: on the development of suprematist philosophy," in kazimir malevich: suprematism, ed. matthew drutt (new york: solomon r. guggenheim foundation, ), . . for their rejection of marinetti, see vladimir markov, russian futurism: a history (berkeley: university of california press, ), chap. . . jean-claude marcad , "marinetti et malivitch," in pres nce de f. t. marinetti (paris: l'age d'homme, ), . marinetti, filippo tommaso, let's murder the moonshine: selected writings, trans. r. w. flint and arthur a. coppotelli (los angeles: sun and moon press, ), . . stephane mallarme, collected poems, trans. henry weinfield (berkeley: university of cali- fornia press, ), . fall seems "more immediate than the events of the narrative," so much so that this very materiality invades the process of the production of meaning. mallarme makes silence speak and blank page signify. his mise en page, as staudt contends, "allows us to see the whiteness of the page 'swallowing up' the text's effort to explain the master's gesture, just as the sea will swallow the ship after the dice are rolled." i the stillness of the sea surface after the catastrophe parallels the emptiness of the white page at the end of the poem. if there is a "mallarmian legacy," it is the one that pursues the limit of language, searching for the point at which the last drop of ink sinks into the whiteness of the page. it is precisely this limit that dora vallier finds in malevich's white square, when she writes that "by abstraction he had touched the limit allowed by painting. he had made it visible. his white painting overhangs the precipice where paint- ing ceases to exist."' suggesting an analogy between language and painting,' vallier goes on to propose the possibility of a painterly ineffable: "to malevich the obstacle is nothing less than the ineffable, the inexpressible-in short, the irreducible kernel of art, the 'nothing' which engenders the all."' white, accord- ing to marcadei and vallier, represents the very limit of the expressible, the silence beyond language and blankness beyond image. beyond and behind. it never ceases to figure as a background and support. furthermore, both marcad and vallier seem to suggest that poetry somehow precedes painting, whereas in malevich's case everything suggests the opposite order of things. there is a text in malevich's manuscript archive that could easily fit marcadi's and vallier's schema of the painterly-linguistic ineffable. it is a short, undated statement, somewhere between an aphorism and a poem, penned at the top of a blank notebook page. it reads: the end of music silence ' the main body of malevich's writing, however, is not nearly as cryptic and sparse. between and , that is, in the extremely fruitful period of his close association with the russian avant-garde groups that eventually resulted in the emergence of suprematism, malevich wrote poetry and manifesto-like prose. he composed his central theoretical statement, the massive manuscript suprematism: world as nonobjectivity or eternal rest, in a single creative outburst during his short sojourn in vitebsk (i - ). on the one hand, his departure from moscow to the provincial town that became one of the most vibrant artistic centers in the young soviet republic came shortly after his passage through the final, white phase of painterly suprematism. on the other hand, the duties at the teaching post he took at the vitebsk school of art, together with the genuine enthusiasm of his students at the unovis studio, incited him to engage in rigorous theoreti- cal elaboration of nonobjectivity. in the article "on pure act," published in the spring of in the sole issue of unovis's almanach, malevich announced his departure from painting into the sphere of pure thought. he wrote that the "destruction of the object" in painting reveals the "idea of pure creation" that is deeply embedded in art. consequently, the "painter turns to the pure act." the assertion malevich made later that same year in the pamphlet suprematism: drawings that "it seems that one cannot attain with the brush what can be attained with a pen" is not a confession of painter's disbelief in the expressive . kathleen henderson staudt, "the poetics of 'black on white': stephane mallarm 's un coup de d s," in ineffability: naming the unnamable from dante to beckett, ed. peter s. hawkins and anne holland schotter (new york: ams press, ), . . dora vallier, abstract art, trans. jonathan griffin (new york: orion press, ), ; italics in the original. . vallier elaborates this analogy in her essay "malevitch et le module linguistique en peinture," critique (paris, march ): - . this argument for the structural analogy between lan- guage and painting is based on the premise that color, not form, is the main producer of meaning. relying on optics and perception, vallier estab- lishes a parallel between vowels in language and pure colors in painting. in this schema, black and white (and gray as their admixture) correspond to consonants. from this argument it is easy to extrapolate that white and black as "noncolors" mark the limits of visual language. . vallier, abstract art, . . kazimir malevich, poeziya (moscow, russia: epifania, ), . . shatskikh, vitebsk, . art journal possibilities of the visual arts, but a profession of a deep conviction in the power of thought." if the "pure act" is thought, then white square is not the limit of the expressible, but the threshold of thinking. the ease with which malevich moves between painting and writing comes from his rigorous pursuit of the idea of nonobjectivity. black square, white square, and the blank canvas are not different kinds of the painterly ineffable; they are concepts before anything else. what they revealed to malevich is the limitlessness of thought and the supreme autonomy of the "pure act" from all means of expression. in suprematism:world as nonobjectivity or eternal rest malevich focuses on the notion of nonobjectivity as the "absence of difference."" simply put, the suprematist "annihilation of the object" does not result in a universal nothing- ness, but in an all-encompassing unity. malevich's "nothing" is the nothing of fullness, not of emptiness. it is very much in line with the platonic idea from parmenides that "the one is all things, and also nothing, both in relation to itself and to other things." in malevich's system, white stands for the absolute unity and fullness of nonobjectivity. he elaborates on that idea in his vitebsk manuscript: i approach nonobjectivity as monochrome-white suprematism by replacing the goal of objective goods with nonobjectivity. no one will find in it a compensation-not a giving god, nor prayers, nor objects, nor master, nor servant-all that for which society now lives. from nonobjective suprema- tism are eliminated "how to serve," "how to pray," "how to build," "what to achieve" of objective goods. they are not to be found there, and as they appeared they will disappear, and disappear they can, since in essence they are not of natural being. ... i speak of monochrome-white suprematism and further develop my thought. under monochrome-white suprematism i understand the new nonobjective action of man outside any culture, out- side of the boundaries of practical or any other tasks or achievements, found outside all laws of movement.' clearly, malevich de-aestheticizes color and transforms it into a pure theo- retical concept. he does that by all means necessary: not stopping at his own, often penetrating ideas, he incorporates into his writing fragments of thinly disguised philosophical systems, engages in laconic interpretations of artistic styles, develops grand metaphors, plays with neologisms, comments on the poli- tics of the day, and prophesizes. his students and associates from vitebsk remem- ber him referring to black square as a "holy infant, who came into the god's world to save it from painting." if black square is a holy infant, then the white square is the harbinger of the monochrome-white suprematist world that "thinks the pure man, or an entire humanity in pursuit of that system. each such man will be called white as a pure sense." black and white squares are not geometrical symbols for the body, but complex intersections of the conceptual and the con- crete that support and feed off each other. for malevich, there is not an aspect of the painting that is conceptually insignificant. in that sense, it is interesting that black square and female figure, as the opening and closing statements of the guggenheim exhibition, thematize the idea of the ground. the cracking and splintering surface of the black square reveals the fragments of an earlier painting that was painted over: indeed, it is the end of (a) painting. malevich . malevich, essays on art - , . . malevich, sobranie sochinenii v pyati tomakh, vol. , s . . plato, the republic and other works, trans. b. jowett (new york: anchor books, ), . . malevich, sobranie sochinenii v pyati tomakh, vol. , . . shatskikh, vitebsk, . . ibid., . . for visible-luminescence photography of this painting, see malevich at the russian museum, . the two white figures are discernable in the reproduction supplied in the guggenheim exhibi- tion catalogue and even more so in kazimir malevich: zhivopis, teoriya, ed. a. shatskikh and a. sarabyanov (moscow: iskusstvo, ), - , figs. - . . sophie lissitsky-kiippers, el lissitsky: life, letters, texts (london: thames and hudson, ), - . fall backdated female figure to i , and there also he covered two out of three figures with the coat of white paint. they are clearly visible to the naked eye, without the help of cracks or visible-luminescence photography. it is one of the best examples of malevich's white painting and an attempt to bring together the suprematist concept of white into figurative painting. furthermore, it can be seen as a testimony of malevich's discovery of limitlessness within the canvas. what, then, happens on its outer limits? the edge often, in the work of the disciples, the master's ideas are disclosed with superior clarity. using the benefit of the second remove, i would like to see what el lissitsky and daniil kharms have to say about malevich. although lissitsky was a junior instructor at the vitebsk art school, he, like many young apprentices, fell under the spell of malevich's suprematist teachings. his enthusiasm for suprematism did not recede after he left vitebsk. during his stay in berlin in he published a booklet entitled suprematist tale of two squares, which he conceived two years earlier, during his affiliation with malevich's unovis. in ten plates with sparse suprematist designs and very little text, lissitsky manages to relate a story that retains the basic elements of a conventional narrative. the first and only suprematist tale for children speaks of a red square and a black square that approach the planet earth, on which rages a "black storm"; they hit the earth, everything falls apart, and out of this catastrophe emerges a new order: red is established over black. the basic features of the "suprematist tale" are easily discern- able. first, lissitsky casts the square, that fundamental suprematist form, as the story's protagonist. to carry the narra- tive, the suprematist hero, originally empty of sense, is gradually charged with semantic content to the point of becoming a quasi-linguistic sign. second, the narrative structure is achieved though precise sequencing of images. as in his poster beat the whites with the red wedge ( ), lissitsky organizes nonfigurative el lissitsky. suprematist tale of two squares: "crash-and everything flies apart." published in berlin, . @ artists rights society (ars), newyork/vg bild-kunst, bonn. art journal forms into a diagram of conflict and the ultimate victory of an ideologically charged "red." whereas the poster captures only the moment of collision, in the tale it evolves into an entire narrative. finally, in the tale there is a clear dis- tinction between center and periphery. the two squares are projectiles that fly though space and strike their target with great accuracy. this strong presence of the goal gives the entire narrative a sense of purpose and orientation. further- more, once the earthly "black storm" has been hit and destroyed, a new order emerges in which, foreshadowing the heroic pattern of social realism, the red square stands on the shoulders of the black one. the second example comes from the pen of daniil ivanovich kharms, the founding member of the leningrad avant-garde group oberiu (association for real art), which in december of approached malevich, then the head of the institute of artistic culture, to propose the collaboration between the oberiu and malevich's studio. shortly thereafter, the institute was closed down, kharms was arrested and exiled, and the oberiu ceased its activities. in kharms's manuscript archive there is a short tract entitled a treatise more or less according to a synopsis by emersen [sic]. the tract is about the ordering of things and, more precisely, the nature of connections between the members of a series. the first section of the tract, "on gifts," opens with the assertion that there are "per- fect" and "imperfect" gifts. the example of the latter class would be an object for everyday use, such as an inkwell. the former class is quite extraordinary, and the example devised by kharms strongly resembles malevich's suprematist forms: "a stick, for instance, to the end of which has been attached a wooden sphere and to the other end a wooden cube. such a stick can be held in the hand or, if one puts it down, then it doesn't matter at all where. such a stick has no use for any- thing else." in the second section, "the correct way of surrounding oneself with objects," kharms explains his reasoning behind the classification of perfect and imperfect gifts. essentially, the perfection of an object ("gift") is the func- tion of its utility: it is not inherent in the object, but emerges from relations that the object establishes with other objects and persons. kharms imagines a naked man who decides to move into a new apartment: "if he starts with a chair then he'll need a desk to go with the chair, and a lamp for the desk, then a bed, a blanket, bed sheets, a chest of drawers, underclothes, clothes, a wardrobe, then a room in which to put it all, etc." this is an incorrect way of surrounding oneself with objects because "one object clings to another." the perfect gift disrupts the chain of utility. the main characteristic of perfect gifts is that they establish disjunctive series. there is a curious reverse proportionality between el lissitsky and daniil kharms. on the one hand, the book for children suprematist tale of two squares can be seen as an exception in lissitsky's main body of work in architecture, design, typography, and photography. on the other hand, if we take into consideration that kharms made a (meager) living as a children's writer, then his "mature" writings are anomalous. on the one hand, in lissitsky's tale textuality has been imposed upon a nonverbal content; on the other hand, while being a piece of writing, kharms's tract argues against the basic laws of textuality. ' whereas lissitsky invests the suprematist square with meaning and utilitarian purpose, meaninglessness and uselessness are the key properties of the kharmsian disjunc- tive series. whereas lissitsky sacrifices the suprematist idea of groundlessness to . daniil kharms, "traktat bolee ili menee po konspektu emersena," in sborische druzei ostavlen- nikh sudboyu, vol. , ed. vladimir sazhin (st. petersburg, russia: akademicheskaya, ), - . english trans. matvei yankelevich in emergency gazette (march , ), . . ibid. . the complementarity does not end here: lissitsky used a pseudonymous first name, while kharms used a pseudonymous second name; lissitsky was associated with malevich in the early s, kharms in the late s. fall the propagandistic effectiveness of the "suprematist tale," kharms in effect elabo- rates on it: a perfect gift is an absolutely autonomous object, a thing as such, and in its own thingness it neither receives nor provides ground or support. the kharmsian disjunctive series, in which every member is both a source and an end, rests on the suprematist idea of disorientation, which lissitsky radically abolishes by devising a teleological narrative. lissitsky strips the suprematist forms of indeterminacy; kharms transfers it to everyday objects. lissitsky left the vitebsk art school as early as , in great part because of his disagreements with malevich; kharms parted from malevich as he was lying in state by reciting his poem "on kazimir malevich's death." so, what do we learn from the disciples? first, that the suprematist forms do not tolerate the constraints of textual structural features, such as linearity, syntax, or semantics. second, that while suprematism is inseparable from spatial- ity, its proper space is not the illusionist space of the painting, but the concrete space that surrounds it. finally, that it is precisely because of his insistence on "art as such" that malevich had to renegotiate and redefine the relation between the painting and the environment that surrounds it. the region of this intense negotiation is the painting's border. close scrutiny of the extant photographic documentation of malevich's works from the period - reveals an intrigu- ing and largely neglected fact: suprematist canvases are left unframed. this absence of frames from suprematist paintings is hardly accidental. it can be traced from malevich's first public display of suprematist works in the show o. o last futurist exhibition, to his solo exhibitions in berlin ( ) and moscow ( ), to the paintings around his deathbed in his leningrad apartment ( ). in the first of these exhibitions, black square, famously positioned in the corner of the gallery room, seems to lack even the thin molding that borders the same composition hung above the dead painter's head twenty years later. molding, customarily used to distribute pressure on the canvas equally and prevent it from tearing, is the only frame that can be found on suprematist works during malevich'slifetime. interestingly, while his backdated "post-impressionist" works feature often elaborate frames, the suprematist paintings, presumably from the same period, remain bare and frameless. the question of the frame is certainly not extra-aesthetic or extraphilosophical when it comes to malevich's suprematism. meyer schapiro suggests in his essay "on some problems in the semiotics of visual art" that the frame that completely surrounds an image ("a homoge- nous enclosure like a city wall") appears relatively recently in the history of art, and with the emergence of perspective painting in the renaissance it changes from an external border to a windowlike "framing and focusing device placed between the observer and the image." the frame has the effect of quotation marks: it hints that the image does not fully belong to the place it occupies. the skilled hand of an artist and the mathematically precise laws of perspective have transported the image from elsewhere, and it is to that nonexistent elsewhere that the image properly belongs. the picture is floated by the frame. this home- lessness is the price the picture has to pay for its own coherence. as long as the image represents an illusory but coherent elsewhere, the painting's actual surroundings remain irrelevant. however, the frame does more than equip the painting with a "framing and focusing device." it furnishes the picture with a . the fate of paintings becomes much more observable in exhibitions than in catalogues. so at the guggenheim we find that the painting pictorial realism of a peasant woman in two dimensions, called red square is placed in a thick black frame, which is no less constraining than lissitsky's narrative. . meyer schapiro, theory and philosophy of art: style, artist, and society; selected papers (new york: george braziller, ), . art journal kazimir malevich. black square, - . oil on plaster. / x / x / in. ( . x . x . cm). musee national d'art moderne, centre georges pompidou, paris. permanent and ambulatory milieu. as the painting's environment in its own right, the frame always threatens to declare independence and secede from the painting it is supposed to guard. the result is not an empty frame, but the baroque frame full of itself: an elaborate, wide, ornamental frame, exaggerated to such an extent that its former host becomes no more than one of its details, albeit positioned in the privileged, central position. or, conversely, the painting is deprived of the convenience of its traveling companion and is exposed to milieux of all sorts. schapiro rightly points to the "frameless modern picture" as the prime example of this juxtaposition of painting with its environment: "if the painting once receded within the framed space, the canvas now stands out from the wall as an object in its own right, with a tangibly painted surface, whether of abstract themes or with a representation that is predominantly flat and shows the activity of the artist in the pronounced lines and strokes or the high arbitrariness of the selected forms and colors." indeed, malevich was not the only modernist painter who exhibited frame- less pictures. what sets him apart, however, are the purposiveness and selective- ness with which he leaves certain of his works unframed, as well as the relation between that absence and the painting's content (or lack thereof). in order to address the framelessness of suprematist paintings, we can start from schapiro's provisory list from the fragment we just read. first, malevich's canvases indeed "stand out from the wall," and the paramount significance of that standing will become clear shortly. as far as the second point goes, there is a great difference between malevich's nonobjectivity and other modernist "abstract themes." even though he had learned a great deal from cubism, malevich is not stopping at the intervention in the painterly space. unlike vasily kandinsky and piet mondrian, he is not trying to capture the essence of the object or its inner vibration. he never referred to his paintings as abstract, but instead as "nonobjective." further- more, both "traces of the artist's activity" and the "arbitrariness of forms and colors" are far from being the decisive properties of the stark and impersonal minimalism of suprematist paintings. malevich saw black square as the simplest possible declaration of nonobjectivity. the first nonobjective painting is not only without objects: it is also without objective. there is nothing in that picture. it is a tabula rasa. that can be said in the following way as well: everything is out- side that picture. black square and white square, those paradigmatic statements of suprematism, have no inside. by being pure lack, these frameless pictures are themselves like frames. what malevich discovered upon completing his first suprematist painting is that nonobjectivity is uncontainable. the tabula rasa has indeed turned the tables. it made obvious that the frame does not protect the painting from its milieu, but the other way around. by framing the picture in, the world frames itself out. the notion of lack i just invoked comes from the arsenal of deconstruction. jacques derrida is at his best in his meditations on margins, on blanks, on that which is purely supplemental and therefore indispensable: on writing, on recep- tacle, and, of course, on frame. writing in the double margin-metaphorically, of kant's critique of aesthetic judgment and, literally, of his own work in which mar- ginal blankness is made to penetrate the text (and the other way around)-slowly and deliberately he nails one point after another: that "parergon stands out [se detache] both from the ergon (the work) and the milieu," that it is "only added . ibid., . fall kazimir malevich. black square, . oil on canvas. x ' in. ( . x . cm). state tretiakov gallery, moscow. on by virtue of an internal lack in the system to which it is added"; further, he calls attention to materiality of parerga, to their thickness, color, and the very stuff of their making. " however, of special interest for us is the notion of lack as it appears in his exploration of kant's ideas of natural and made objects. there are two kinds of uselessness: that of a natural thing, a flower cut off from the plant, and the artificial object, a gadget, that is damaged and therefore cut off from its purpose. these are two different kinds of cut: "the gadget remains incom- plete because a concept can fill it up. this tulip is complete from the first because the concept cannot fill it in." the central import of that which kharms called "the perfect gift" is in the notion of the pure cut, which derrida identifies with the lack of negativity, therefore signification, therefore "concept" or meaning, and, ultimately, sense. derrida cuts off his reading with a series of disturbing questions: "how could productions of art appear to us as finalities with- out end? as nonsignifying? cut off from their goal?" an abstract painting can sustain the frame; a nonobjective painting, not. as in the perspectival painting, so in abstract, frame designates an open- ing, a space of signification. the era- sure of the frame, the pure cut, is a closure of space and a foreclosure of meaning. unlike his contemporaries who were also investigating the non- metaphorical limits of art, malevich did not rely on the readymade or on chance procedures. in comparison with them, he appears as an epistemologist of the canvas. in his primary suprematist research, he insists on a certain purity of painterly materials: oil on canvas, rarely on board, pencil on paper, lithography. the most significant departure from this painterly orthodoxy is his shift from canvas to blocks made of plaster or wood. his black square in oil on plaster is a tectonic painting. it is a plateau that protrudes from the wall. in it, the frame has been reversed into a cut. in that way, malevich redefines the relation between the space of the painting and the surrounding space. instead of a quasi-linguistic juxtaposition established by the figure of dif- ference (parergon that is neither the ergon nor milieu), he introduces a disjunctive series that progresses in all directions. the cut, the razor-thin line that stands where the thick frame once was, does not separate the inside from the outside but opens up the interior of the painting. the cut is an opening, a passage, a connection. at the same time, it encloses and defines. if we return to decon- struction's armory, we will find another powerful tool: the hinge as that which . jacques derrida, the truth in painting, trans. geoff bennington and lan mcleod (chicago: university of chicago press, ) , , , and passim. . ibid., . . ibid., . art journal fall kazimir malevich. gota, , recon- structed . plaster. / x / x / in. ( x . x . cm). mushe national d'art moderne, centre georges pompidou, paris. inside from the outside but opens up the interior of the painting. the cut is an opening, a passage, a connection. at the same time, it encloses and defines. if we return to decon- struction's armory, we will find another powerful tool: the hinge as that which separates and joins at the same time, and as such is related to spacing which "is always the unperceived, the nonpresent, and the nonconscious. as such, if one can still use that expression in a nonphenomenological way.. ." ,, one would hope that, indeed, one can still with great effort look past the thick framing and talk about art as such in malevich's sense. black square hinges on the gallery wall. in his maximalist way, malevich makes the entire universe hinge on it. the abolition of frame results in the proliferation of edges. from black square in oil on plaster there is but one short step to malevich's architectons, such as gota. considered in relation to the suprematist painting that precedes it, an architecton is not a three-dimensional object that closes upon itself, that conceals an interior and gathers around a center of gravity, but instead it opens up through its edges. it is all edge, the space in continuous unfolding. a frameless suprematist canvas and an architecton are not aesthetic objects but points of great conceptual density. if malevich's ultimate disregard of the boundaries between different species of thought removes the possibility of any "painterly ineffable" from his works, then it also removes the sublime that always lurks behind the edges of geometrical abstract paintings. for one thing, consider the relative unimportance of the size of malevich's works. for another, the category of the sublime went out the window of malevich's studio together with the category of the beautiful (was he mourning beauty in the weeklong deprivation of food, drink, and sleep?). finally, for him infinity is not an effect produced by the optical device of the interrupted grid. his paintings cannot be filled up by any concept, including the concept of infinity. for malevich, infinity is the endless unfolding of edges that proceeds right here, in front of you, in anything conceived as a finality without end, or as an architecton, or as a perfect gift. branislav jakovljevic specializes in modernist and avant-garde art, with special focus on the russian and eastern european avant-gardes. he is an assistant professor in the department of theatre arts and dance, university of minnesota, minneapolis. his articles have been published in the united states (the drama review, paj, theater) and abroad (yugoslavia, spain, england). his current research is focused on the investigation of art (performance, painting, architecture) in relation to the notion of the event. . jacques derrida, of grammatology, trans. gayatari chakravorty spivak (baltimore: johns hopkins university press, ), ; italics in the original. . see rosalind krauss's essay "grids," in the originality of the avant-garde and other modernist myths (cambridge, mass.: mit press, ). art journal 	article contents 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	issue table of contents 	art journal, vol. , no. (autumn, ), pp. - 	front matter [pp. - ] 	in this issue: art and risk [p. ] 	the road to dystopia: the paintings of antonia eiriz [pp. - ] 	unframe malevich!: ineffability and sublimity in suprematism [pp. - ] 	artist project 	netherzone: a psychogeographical farce [pp. - ] 	other solutions [pp. - ] 	a parallax practice: a conversation with elizabeth diller and ricardo scofidio [pp. - ] 	ana mendieta and carl andre: duet of leaf and stone [pp. - ] 	reviews 	review: the evans file [pp. - ] 	review: manet through rose-colored glasses [pp. - ] 	review: the irony of signs [pp. - ] 	review: split definitive [pp. - ] 	review: snapshots of japan [pp. - ] 	back matter [pp. - ] westminsterresearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/westminsterresearch infinite horizons : le corbusier, the pavillon de l’esprit nouveau dioramas and the science of visual distance difford, r.j. this is an accepted manuscript of an article published by taylor & francis in the journal of architecture, ( ), pp. - . the final definitive version is available online: https://dx.doi.org/ . / . . © taylor & francis the westminsterresearch online digital archive at the university of westminster aims to make the research output of the university available to a wider audience. copyright and moral rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the url of westminsterresearch: ((http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). in case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail repository@westminster.ac.uk https://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/ repository@westminster.ac.uk a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - richard difford school of architecture and the built environment, university of westminster infinite horizons : le corbusier, the pavillon de l’esprit nouveau dioramas and the science of visual distance. abstract: the pavillon de l’esprit nouveau was a building central to the development of le corbusier’s architecture and key to the role played by painting in his work. significantly, as a prototype living space and as a setting for purist art, it not only established le corbusier’s vision for contemporary architecture and urbanism, it also served as a demonstration of principles developed in collaboration with amédée ozenfant through their joint editorship of l’esprit nouveau. in the pages of the journal are numerous references to the nature of visual sensation and to the science of vision, but to what extent do the paintings and other material displayed in the pavilion reflect these ideas? concentrating primarily on the panoramic images of the city displayed in the pavilion’s dioramas and on the contrasting nature of le corbusier’s paintings at this time, this paper considers the influence of nineteenth- century science and visual culture on his work. introduction the pavillon de l’esprit nouveau, designed by le corbusier in for the paris based international exposition of modern decorative and industrial arts, was primarily an architectural prototype (figs. , ). envisaged as “a house for everybody” the pavilion was to be imagined as one dwelling in a series of much larger blocks. but although described by le corbusier in some detail, these apartments (known as the immeubles- villas) were also likewise just one component of two more extensive urban plans. accordingly, the pavilion itself provided a backdrop both for a number of drawings and images, including a painting by le corbusier himself and also two panoramic cityscapes, painted by le corbusier and installed in purpose built displays. described as ‘dioramas’, these installations are testament to the effort made by le corbusier to reconcile representation and the scientific analysis of visual experience. importantly, they also describe the urban context in which the immeubles-villas were intended to sit (figs. , ). constructed as an annex to the main pavilion, the exhibition space containing the two dioramas served to illustrate le corbusier’s urban plans as panoramic views: one of the plan voisin (a proposal for the redesign of central paris) and another of the more generic ville contemporaine (a contemporary city of three million inhabitants) (figs. , ). taking its name from the periodical founded by le corbusier and ozenfant, the pavillon de l’esprit nouveau not only therefore provided an all encompassing picture of the “new spirit” and life in a modern city, it also represented a critique of the historic centre within which the exposition was based. extending from the dome des invalides along the banks of the seine and across to the petit-palais the exhibition, for the most part, took full advantage of its location. yet it was also an area just north and east of this site that le corbusier singled out for demolition in the voisin plan (fig. ): in our walks through this maze of streets we are enraptured by their picturesqueness, so redolent of the past. but tuberculosis, demoralization, misery and shame are doing the devil’s work among them. le corbusier’s now familiar scheme, proposed the demolition and redevelopment of six hundred acres of central paris. a major portion of the plan envisaged a commercial district of high-rise offices, occupying an area from the place de la république to the rue du louvre, and from the gare de l’est to the rue de rivoli. whilst to the west, a residential zone would extend from the rue des pyramides to the circus on the champs Élysées, and a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - from the gare saint-lazare south towards the tuileries. some sense of the streets targeted by le corbusier, can be gleaned from the work of one of nineteenth-century paris’ most accomplished panorama artists, pierre prévost. from as early as , a panorama of paris (as viewed from the tuileries) had been on display in a rotunda somewhere in the vicinity of the boulevard des capucines. the portion of prévost’s panorama illustrated here is taken from the preliminary drawing for a later work (exhibited in ). but still roughly one hundred years before le corbusier’s plan, this section of the painting nevertheless roughly correspond to the view depicted in le corbusier’s diorama of the voisin plan and gives some indication of the terrain across which le corbusier’s plan was intended to cut (figs. , ). displayed alongside the plan voisin was the contemporary city of three-million inhabitants, and although not specifically referring to any particular location, this plan also to some extent had its origins in the vicinity of the pavilion. initially exhibited in at the salon d’automne, its first public airing had been just a short distance from where the pavilion now stood. a broader but equally uncompromising scheme, the ville contemporaine had also been displayed as a diorama in this earlier exhibition where it had, according to le corbusier, caused some dismay. assuming a notional level site, the planned city is shown extending over a wide area with the business and residential centres (later adapted for the paris plan), flanked by industrial areas and suburban “garden cities”, all separated from the centre and from industry by a large protective zone of woods and fields. the proposals were clearly radical and ambitious but in terms of their presentation, the panoramic images displayed of these schemes were also nonetheless reminiscent of earlier paris panoramas. and although much disparaged, these visions of the city have proved to be amongst the most significant urban images of the twentieth- century. indeed, there is considerably more that might be said both of the origins of le corbusier’s notions of the city and of the merits (or otherwise) of these proposals, but my concern here is not primarily with the content of these schemes, or even with the ideas of industrial production promoted by the pavilion, but rather with the visual experience associated with these images. in this context the devices employed by le corbusier to make his propositions visible and his tendency, in one way or another, to work through the medium of painting both prove significant. and it is precisely because the aim of the pavilion was to embody the ideas and qualities it promotes, that an analysis of the devices employed here by le corbusier prove revealing, particularly with regard to the role of painting and of pictorial representations. the most explicit examples of this are, of course, his images of the city, including some of the more conventional perspective views, but as already indicated the pavilion also provided the context for the display of a number of other works. amongst the paintings on display was one by le corbusier now known simply as the still life from the pavillon de l’esprit nouveau (fig. ). composed of a number of superimposed elements, it makes for a dense and object-filled space – a far cry from the openness and order of le corbusier’s panoramic perspectives, perhaps even suggesting something of the chaos his city plan sought to eliminate. by contrast, although supposedly not lacking in activity or speed, his city with its elevated roadways has a kind of stillness and quiet. it is as if the scene is viewed from behind glass or perhaps more accurately as if from a great distance. the elements of the city in le corbusier’s plan have been pulled apart and organised in distinct and separate zones. likewise, the position from which all this is viewed is also one of separation. often elevated and removed, the viewer in le corbusier’s perspectives is drawn back to a vantage point from which the entire scene can be viewed (fig. ). but for le corbusier the restrictive means of conventional perspective were clearly not sufficient to capture the sublime qualities of urban landscape he envisaged: i wish it were possible for the reader, by an effort of imagination, to conceive what such a vertical city would be like; imagine all this junk, which till now has lain spread out over a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - the soil like a dry crust, cleaned off and carted away and replaced by immense clear crystals of glass, rising to a height of over feet; each at a good distance from the next and all standing with their bases set among trees. so although there are several architectural precedents for his city plans, it was also therefore to the spectacle of the panorama that le corbusier turned. in some panoramas and dioramas reminiscent of the nineteenth-century examples did still exist, notably as museum and exhibition displays. indeed, the word, ‘diorama’ is now perhaps most commonly associated with exhibits such as those containing zoological specimens in natural history museums. its literal meaning, however, derived from the greek dia- meaning ‘through’ and –horama (that which is seen) implies the sense in which such displays often constitute an expanded scene, as if as a view out from the museum interior, to an imagined landscape beyond. this definition also holds true for the visual spectacle to which the word was originally applied. to a nineteenth-century audience, ‘diorama’ would primarily have meant the large scenic paintings and mechanical effects orchestrated by louis daguerre. as such, the diorama at this time was typical of a drive to master and control visual experience, a defining feature of the mechanised world that le corbusier’s generation would later inherit, and to which they would turn for inspiration. the aim of daguerre’s diorama was to construct a highly compelling and realistic experience and to replicate as closely as possible the impression produced by real-world locations. visitors to the diorama were thereby transported to distant places and picturesque views, or rather; it was as if the places were brought to them. it was, as one contemporary commentator explained, “not a vain representation” but “reality itself.” significantly, it was the illusion of depth that many viewers found most convincing. largely, however, by the early years of the twentieth century the diorama had given way to other kinds of entertainment. nevertheless, there is much, even in some of the more extreme later nineteenth-century examples that characterises the spirit of the machine and the qualities of view that are central to le corbusier’s vision of the city. but for le corbusier in , the challenge was to present an experience that could not simply be reproduced. the two dioramas were intended to assist visitors with what le corbusier clearly believed to the difficult task of imagining such a radical new scheme, or more precisely, of appreciating its visual qualities. the images in their original context were displayed on the curved surfaces inside the diorama and were viewed from the centre of the rotunda through wide openings, essentially forming windows into each of the enclosed display areas. with the images presented in this way, le corbusier’s claim was to be able to “objectify” or “to make evident to the eye” a new and as yet unfamiliar vision of the city. somewhat awkwardly attached to the main body of the pavilion, everything about the dioramas speaks of their purpose as devices to simulate a particular kind of visual experience (fig. ). indeed, the pavilion as a whole can be seen as a demonstration predicated on bringing le corbusier’s vision to life. i have used two kinds of argument: first, those essentially human ones which start from the mind or the heart or the physiology of our sensations as a basis; secondly, historical and statistical arguments. but although to some extent integrated with the rectilinear form of the villa-flats, the dream-like spaces created by the dioramas are clearly set apart. the purpose of the diorama was not as prototype, but to simulate a visual experience; to capture something of the breathtaking grandeur of the scheme. its claim upon the “physiology of our sensations” is not therefore like the domestic interior, a physical reality, but instead as a representation that by carefully manipulated viewing conditions, is made as tangible and as close to real experience as possible. the role of the diorama was, of course, to illustrate le corbusier’s plans for the city but was also to conjure up the context in which the apartment was envisaged and the setting which was otherwise absent from the scenario le corbusier had a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - contrived to present. the dioramas then, although not exactly in a literal sense views from the window, are nevertheless constructed such that they appear to extend out onto the wide vistas of the proposed contemporary city (fig. ). the vantage point in le corbusier’s images is clearly higher than even the highest storey of the immeubles-villas but in the dioramas visitors were transported to a position from which they could look out over le corbusier’s creation. in the case of the voisin plan, the scene described is one in which the grand palais and pavilion site itself might well have featured. for the pavilion of the esprit nouveau at the international exhibition of decorative art held in paris, and in which the “voisin” plan was on view, i painted a panorama whose aim was to make evident to the eye this new conception, so unfamiliar to us as yet. the panorama was most carefully executed and showed paris as it is to-day, from notre-dame to the Étoile, including those monuments which are our imperishable heritage. behind it rose the new city. in this sense, the relatively closed nature and interior focus of the pavilion can be seen as turning its back on the current city outside in order to replace it with a new vision based on le corbusier’s rationalising plan. in the case of the dioramas, the existing city, which surrounds the pavilion and which is the subject of le corbusier’s criticism, is explicitly shut out in favour of the artificially simulated alternative. a similar condition was to be found in many eighteenth-century panoramas, which rather than display alternative locations, often depicted the city in which they were actually located. indeed prévost’s views of paris from the tuileries were typical of this desire to present the city back to itself. it has been suggested that in the nineteenth century this was in part a reaction to the loss of legibility in the newly industrialised city, and a desire to get above the street and see the city as a whole. le corbusier’s interest in this kind of view was also clearly in the potential for presenting the large-scale order of his plan, but as with nineteenth-century panoramas, there is also a sense that this vantage point is associated with mastery over the city and of collective space. significantly early panoramas, although not the kind of radical reinvention of the city that le corbusier proposes, were nevertheless also to some extent idealised views which brought the countryside into the town, emphasising the surrounding countryside and green spaces within the city: panoramas are the expression of a new feeling about life. the citizen, whose supremacy over the countryside has been claimed a thousand times in the course of the century, has attempted to bring the countryside into the town. in panoramas, the town takes on the same dimensions as the landscape… the problem with proximity that there is a marked difference between le corbusier’s dioramas and the selection of still-life paintings displayed alongside is almost too obvious to warrant remark. the two kinds of painting seemingly serve very different purposes. one is supposedly an exploration of purist philosophy and art, the other, simply a vehicle through which to represent, as compellingly as possible, a proposal for the rational planning of cities. however, le corbusier’s reliance on perspective for the illustration of his city plans inevitably creates a somewhat uneasy relationship between his theoretical ideas and the practical techniques he employs, especially given that representation is allied so closely with architecture in his accounts of painting. published in , le purisme was one of a number of essays in which amédée ozenfant and charles-Édouard jeanneret (soon to be known as le corbusier) set out their vision for an art born of universal laws. for painting, this meant harnessing the logic and natural order that underpins human perception, and particularly, those mechanisms that determine our experience of pictorial space. purism, they claim, will “address itself above all to the universal properties of the senses and the mind.” accordingly, an important a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - feature of their paintings and of le corbusier’s architecture at this time is therefore the manner in which the experience of depth is controlled and manipulated in representation, in physical space, and in the various cases of slippage between the two. a painted composition, we are told, is the relation of “purified” architectural elements and that we should think of the painting “not as a surface, but as a space.” it is not surprising then that comparisons made with painting have in one way or another formed the basis for numerous accounts of le corbusier’s architecture. one of the more notable of which was colin rowe and robert slutzky’s essay, transparency: literal and phenomenal, published in . their analysis, which calls upon paintings such as juan gris’ still life of , hinges on the ambiguities of figure and ground, (or of proximity and distance) as addressed by gestalt psychology. derived from györgy kepes’ language of vision, “phenomenal transparency”, is defined as the organising principle for a space characterised by the kind of fluctuating readings found in cubism. but whilst there are many compelling similarities between cubism and the spatial qualities found in le corbusier’s architecture, it is important also to recognise that cubism was the critical target for many of ozenfant and jeanneret’s early publications. the first of these, entitled après le cubisme (published in ) accuses cubism of being too dependent on ornament, composed as they describe it, “like carpets.” at once appropriating and refining those aspects of cubism that they sought to make their own, ozenfant and le corbusier also criticise its lack of discipline and hierarchy. cubism, they suggest, offers “visual ravishment” but a superior art (namely purism), would come as a result of organising these raw sensations. in january of , a series of paintings by ozenfant and le corbusier were exhibited at the galerie druet in paris. typical of their work at this time these early paintings (all of which were still life) already indicated a close relationship between purist painting and architecture (fig. ). they also included many of the spatial qualities that are now associated with le corbusier’s architecture and which exploit the mechanisms by which we perceive spatial depth within the work. so what then should we make of the distinction between the panoramic scenes of the city and these tightly controlled architectural compositions? as previously observed, le corbusier’s contribution to the paintings on display, still life from the pavillon de l’esprit nouveau (fig. ), offers perhaps the most striking contrast to the highly ordered and expansive perspectival space of the city dioramas. almost devoid of any hint of perspective, its dense structure of overlapping profiles describes a space in which elements sit parallel with the surface of the painting. space opens up, not by virtue of perspectival recession but in the slippage between planes that appear to extend orthogonally forward and back. ordinary perspective with its theoretical rigor only gives an accidental view of objects: the one which an eye, having never before seen the object, would see if placed in the precise visual angle of this perspective, always a particular and hence an incomplete angle. a painting constructed with exact perspective appeals nearly exclusively to sensations of a secondary order and is consequently deprived of what could be universal and durable. for ozenfant and le corbusier, painting was about giving order to sensation, or as rosalind krauss puts it, "wresting an object from the matrix of sense data." and although differences in approach were already beginning to emerge, both artists at this time represent the objects of still life as sharp-edged contours; layered planes suspended in a somewhat unstable visual space. bruno reichlin notes how the "objects seem to float, compressed and driven out towards the viewer", forcing, as he describes it, “the viewer to become cross-eyed in order to decipher the overall effect." this is a technique that knowingly plays on the mechanisms that determine our sense of depth, and which capitalises on a certain kind of knowledge and understanding of vision. thanks to rowe and slutzky, a number of these spatial qualities (which can also frequently be found a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - elsewhere in early twentieth-century art) have come to be associated with gestalt psychology, and although subject to criticism on the basis of their understanding of the psychology, rowe and slutzky’s essay offers a valuable insight into some of the qualities explored by this discipline and which can be used to discuss le corbusier’s manipulation of space. but it is not perhaps to gestalt psychology but rather to the work of earlier nineteenth-century scientists that we should look – particularly concerning the role of physiology and optics in determining the nature of aesthetic experience. le corbusier and ozenfant’s desire to employ the conclusions (and perhaps even the methodology) of experimental psychology was clearly articulated from the outset. the introduction to the first edition of l’esprit nouveau describes their intention to find a scientific basis for painting and architecture but this intention is expressed more in terms of the physiological conditioning of aesthetic experience than as gestalt order. somewhat later in they were to also to publish (again in l’esprit nouveau) a more extensive account of the “formation de l’optique moderne” ; and tellingly in two separate articles one by le corbusier, the other by ozenfant, were published in a special issue of the journal de psychologie normale et pathologique. it is also interesting to note that in the early s, at the time when the galerie druet paintings and the ville contemporaine were conceived, le corbusier was reputedly suffering from problems with his vision. the condition, which caused the loss of sight in his left eye, would no doubt have given him reason to ponder the role played by stereopsis in vision. it is also conceivable that this experience had an impact on his attitude towards questions of space and representation. it has, for example, been suggested that being deprived of binocular vision at this time caused le corbusier to foreshorten the perspective in his representations of the city – bringing the vanishing point nearer than it might actually appear. but even discounting the fact that perspective is always a monocular view, it is not in any case in distance vision that the effects of this condition would be felt. in an analysis of the representational devices employed by le corbusier in the pavillon de l’esprit nouveau, it may therefore be necessary to distinguish between the sensations experienced when gazing towards a distant horizon (as might be experienced in the diorama) as opposed to the immediate proximity of still life. before the nineteenth century, the study of space perception had been based primarily on philosophical investigation but as the nineteenth century progressed experimental devices and methods, borrowed from the physical sciences, began to be employed in the examination of visual space. by the turn of the century an experimental approach to the study of vision, explored through the physiology and optics of the eye and through the closely related discipline of psychophysics, would contribute to the foundation of what we now know today as psychology. in vision, the complex interplay of cues through which we gauge our sense of space had, of course, been the subject of study for many centuries but with the nineteenth century came a uniquely instrumental approach, and with it, a multitude of new discoveries – including the significance of binocular vision. at this time, devices such as the stereoscope, invented by charles wheatstone in the s, provided the opportunity to explore vision through the analysis and controlled manipulation of specific viewing conditions. significantly with regard to painting wheatstone’s account of his experiments with stereopsis is primarily directed towards the inadequacy of conventional two-dimensional representation. central to wheatstone’s analysis is the gradually varying set of conditions surrounding the experience of vision from close proximity to the far distance. in many situations these sensations contribute significantly to our perception of visual space. as wheatstone points out, when we direct our eyes towards a near object, a very different image is formed on the retina of each eye. with increased distance, however, the disparity between the views from the left and right eye decreases until, when looking into the far distance our eyes become parallel and the two images become identical (fig. ). it is from this varying disparity that wheatstone derived the nature of stereopsis, and to some extent redefined our understanding of vision. and it was thus, by changing the way vision a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - and perception were understood, that scientific accounts of this kind contributed to a shift in artistic practice and, as the nineteenth-century diorama exemplifies, made perception itself the subject of artistic exploration. to sustain the illusion, daguerre’s diorama, like earlier panoramas, was contrived to eliminate those factors which might draw attention to the reality of the painted surface, and as with le corbusier’s later reinterpretation, the architecture is an integral part of the spectacle (fig. ). in this, as in other respects, the illusion was primarily maintained by controlling the limits within which the picture could be viewed. in each case, the spectators were held in a position sufficiently removed from the painting as to make it difficult to judge their distance from the painted surface. by creating distance between the viewer and the canvas daguerre also (no doubt unwittingly) ensured that the viewer’s eyes were directed almost as if in a distant gaze. in this regard the effects of binocular vision to some extent contribute in the nature of the experience. the majority of diorama paintings depicted a distant scene (often of spectacular swiss landscapes) and in viewing such a scene, both in the painting as in reality, the effects of stereopsis will be minimal. here, both the distance suggested by perspective, the physiological, and the psychological aspects of vision are all more or less in accord. the same cannot be said of looking at a conventional depiction of an object at close proximity. indeed, the implications of this fact for the sense of depth and therefore for the realism experienced in painting, contributed significantly to charles wheatstone’s discovery of stereopsis and form an important part of his argument for the role of binocular vision. wheatstone’s contributions to the physiology of vision, actually begins with a reference to the diorama: when an object is viewed at so great a distance that the optic axes of both eyes are sensibly parallel when directed towards it, the perspective projections of it, seen by each eye separately, and the appearance to the two eyes is precisely the same as when the object is seen by one eye only. there is, in such case, no difference between the visual appearance of an object in relief and its perspective projection on a plane surface; and hence pictorial representations of distant objects, when those circumstances which would prevent or disturb the illusion are carefully excluded, may be rendered such perfect resemblances of the object they are intended to represent as to be mistaken for them; the diorama is an instance of this. but this similarity no longer exists when the object is placed so near the eyes that to view it the optic axes must converge; under these conditions a different perspective projection is seen by each eye, and these perspectives are more dissimilar as the convergence of the optic axes becomes greater. the problem is one both of distance and proximity. visitors to early panoramas apparently reported a sense of dizziness, which is understood to have been caused by the relatively small diameter of the drum – presumably at least in part as a result of the extreme disparity between what seemed to be a distant scene and the binocular effects of a surface located just a short distance away. as panoramas increased in size, this unpleasant sensation diminished. equally, however, the lack of solidity made it very difficult to make convincing representations of foreground elements and in many cases panoramas were designed with real three-dimensional objects introduced to provide the necessary relief at close proximity. this, so called, “false terrain” served both to obscure the lower edge of the painting and counteract its apparent flatness. on one well documented occasion, in which daguerre borrowed this technique for his paris diorama, parts of an actual chalet with a barn, outhouses and even a live goat, were imported to form something like a stage set in front of the seating platform. the diorama painting in question was the valley of chamonix, one of a number of popular alpine scenes. all of this was, of course, fifty or so years before le corbusier was even born, but the legacy of daguerre’s diorama evidently lived on. coincidentally, the scene daguerre depicted was one with which le corbusier would have been familiar, growing up not so very far away, across the swiss border in chaux-de-fonds. indeed, stanislaus von moos a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - has speculated that this landscape may have informed the sensibilities of the young charles-Édouard jeanneret and exerted their influence in his preference for wide horizons. certainly, many of the issues concerning the viewing condition relevant to daguerre’s diorama (and indeed the nineteenth-century panorama) were also important to le corbusier in designing his own scenic displays. in its format, the esprit nouveau diorama was perhaps rather more like a panorama than daguerre’s dynamic paintings. for example, unlike daguerre’s canvas, the painted surface in le corbusier’s diorama is curved. similarly, the framed opening, like the canopy of the panorama, prevents the edges of the painting from being seen without actually containing the image. but although the esprit nouveau pavilion displays depart in a number of ways from their nineteenth-century predecessor, ultimately the pavilion shares just as much with daguerre’s device as with the fully immersive environment of the panorama. le corbusier’s painting does not extend all around and although each view certainly encompasses a wide angle, it is nevertheless limited to a particular viewing direction. in the panorama, the railing served to limit the visitor’s viewing angle only vertically, but here the view is carefully restricted horizontally as well. the curved flanking walls bulge out into the space and ensure that wherever the viewer stands along the length of the rail, the curve of the wall prevents the right or left hand edges of the painting from being seen. combining aspects of both panorama and diorama, it is the framing of le corbusier’s images that is most significant. uniquely in the esprit nouveau diorama, this is a window opening through which the viewer looks out to the painted space beyond. the nature of the experience that le corbusier sought to construct is perhaps most explicit in his drawings for the earlier salon d’automne installation – several versions of which are preserved in the archives of the fondation le corbusier (figs. , ). this diorama, as previously indicated, was designed to exhibit le corbusier’s scheme for the ville contemporaine and it was the painting from this installation that was later displayed in the esprit nouveau pavilion. the drawings show the zone intended for the observer, flanked by enclosing walls. this intermediate space creates a tangible sense of depth, defining a foreground against which the view beyond can be measured. it therefore functions in this respect somewhat like the panorama’s “false terrain”, providing a solid focus for vision at close proximity in contrast to the stereoscopically distant landscape. the painted scene was not exactly at infinity, but the separation was perhaps sufficient to make the experience that much more convincing. this added sense of depth and extension is derived both from parallax and from the stereoscopic separation of the frame from the image. in one of le corbusier’s drawings, we can see evidence of him exploring the way the changing position of the observer will alter the visible limits of the painting beyond (fig. ). like this separation, the difference in view afforded by the left and right eye is also most significant at close proximity and where there is the greatest distance between the foreground and background. early in his account of binocular vision, charles wheatstone cites an observation (made first by leonardo da vinci), which relates directly to the difference between binocular and monocular vision. it is impossible leonardo records, that a picture “copying outlines, shade, light and colour with the highest perfection can appear to possess the same relief as that which appears in an object in nature, unless this natural object is looked at over the long distance and with a single eye.” the explanation offered by leonardo hinges on the slightly different perspectives provided by each eye in binocular vision (fig. ): …let the eyes be a and b, looking at an object c, with the converging central axes if the eyes as ac and bc, which converge on the object at the point o. the other axes, lateral to the central one, see the space gd behind the object, and the eye a sees all the space fd, and the eye b sees all the space ge. hence the two eyes see behind the object and all the space fe. on this account, this object c acts as if transparent, by the definition of transparency, according to which nothing behind it is concealed. this cannot happen with someone who looks at an object with one eye… a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - in leonardo’s observations, we can begin to identify the significance of the physical separation found in le corbusier’s dioramas, between the frame and the painting beyond. leonardo’s text also offers some possible explanations for the very different nature of le corbusier’s still-life paintings. in particular, with regard to the depiction of objects at close proximity and in their sacrifice of perspective in favour of a kind of transparency or overlapping of separate views. not to be confused with “phenomenal transparency” as defined by colin rowe and robert slutzky, this is potentially a form of transparency originating in our experience of stereoscopic vision. le corbusier’s paintings are not, of course, a literal overlay of stereoscopic image pairs. neither leonardo’s observations on vision and painting, nor wheatstone’s discoveries regarding stereopsis, are likely to have so literally shaped le corbusier’s work. nevertheless, like leonardo, le corbusier’s approach to painting appears to be grounded in the experience of vision. in their essay après le cubisme, le corbusier and ozenfant emphasise their view that art should not attempt to represent the ideas of science but that artists should instead use science to inform their understanding of nature and of the senses. thus, whilst much about early twentieth-century art is about radical reinvention, the scientifically minded positivist tendency, evident in the work of artists such as ozenfant and le corbusier was also reliant on a visual culture derived from discoveries made in nineteenth-century science. similarly seeking absolutes, the claim made in the name of purism, is that through scientific principles, it too can harness the natural laws that dominate our senses and determine aesthetic sensibilities. so although by the s many of the more significant advances made in the science of vision were already over eighty years old, they may nevertheless have contributed significantly to le corbusier and ozenfant’s thinking. this influence is evident both directly, in their appropriation of ideas derived from the science of vision, and indirectly through the legacy of nineteenth-century art. in l’elan, a periodical founded by ozenfant during the first world war, he cites ingres, cézanne and seurat as artists who sought the essential properties of the visible. and when in october , le corbusier and ozenfant together began publishing l’esprit nouveau, concern with the science of vision remained a dominant theme. seeing represented in le purisme, le corbusier and ozenfant lament the tendency of perspective to record an “accidental” view of the object depicted. “our concept of an object”, they claim, comes from “knowledge acquired by the experience of our senses.” perspective, conversely, is the view the eye would see if placed in a particular position, observing the object from a particular “visual angle”. the eye should instead, they say, be confronted with an impression of the whole scene. read in this context le corbusier’s dioramas inevitably present some difficulty. they can certainly be said to depict the whole scene but they are also fairly typical examples of linear perspective. the character of such a space is thus not only that typical of linear perspective but also potentially reinforces a fixed and essentially frontal point of view. le corbusier’s decision to adopt perspective in the representations of his architecture was no doubt to some extent simply a question of expediency and there is, after all, no reason to expect his response to the requirements of architectural drawing to be consistent with his approach to painting. but in the case of the dioramas, more significance may perhaps be attached to the means by which these images were presented. not necessarily in the use of perspective itself but in the particular visual conditions created by a space designed to accommodate these images. the insight provided by wheatstone into the nature of binocular vision begins to suggest that, at least with regard to the distant view, perspective and sensory experience might be intuitively understood by le corbusier to be in accord. whilst depictions of objects at close proximity might demand a complex interplay of profiles in order to capture the visual sense, for the distant a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - cityscape the single perspective viewpoint may, on the other hand, be considered a suitable substitute for the real scene. given the particular context in which le corbusier’s panoramic paintings are presented it is possible then to imagine the physical disposition of viewer, framed opening and perspective scene as if as a model of conventional perspective; one in which the picture is itself understood to be a window and the observer one who looks in towards objects within its space. in a frequently quoted passage of text by alberti, for example, the limits of the view defined by a rectangle in the drawing surface is compared to that of an open window, through which the subject to be painted is seen. and yet, whilst emphasising the sense in which the painting is something to be seen through, in alberti’s account there is also considerable importance placed on the position of the plane in which the imaginary window sits. described as the “intersection”, this is the surface that intervenes between the viewer and the scene, and upon which the perspective view is captured. as such, the position of the viewer in relation to this plane is crucial to the construction of a perspective scene. but tempting as it is, to compare the physical frame in le corbusier’s diorama with the notional window in alberti’s model of perspective, it is clear that the relationship between viewer and frame in le corbusier’s diorama is in fact one step removed from that between observer and painting in conventional perspective. the intersection in alberti’s account is after all, not actually a plane through which we look, but rather a surface on which the linear traces of the scene beyond are captured and held. the equivalent in le corbusier’s diorama is not therefore the framed opening at all but rather the curved painted surface beyond (fig. ). far from being a window the diorama paintings as represented in le corbusier’s working drawings are clearly the point at which the spectator’s view is terminated. perspective in this context is set against the depthless quality of a surface that fills the observer’s view. le corbusier’s own knowledge of perspective was no doubt derived from his early education at the art school in le chaux-de-fonds where texts such as john ruskin’s elements of perspective may well have shaped his practical application of this technique. and for ruskin, as for le corbusier, truth in painting lay in the optical functions of the eye – much of ruskin’s writing on perspective is concerned with the practical mastery of techniques that facilitate a replication of the visual field. indeed, like a number of earlier commentators including the french perspectivist sébastien le clerc, he dismissed binocular vision as an obstacle to correct perspective, yet from the outset draws attention to the difference in view afforded by each eye. ruskin’s example, like that of alberti, is a window but he is careful to point out that an image traced on the glass will appear in different positions if viewed with the left and right eye (fig. ). in separating the frame from the image le corbusier’s diorama, although produced using conventional perspective, might therefore be understood to explicitly acknowledge the full extent of vision; from the material relief of the foreground to the distant image. there is a sense perhaps in which the image can be read as extending beyond the arbitrary rectangle and the fixed viewing angle to which le corbusier and ozenfant objected. significantly, the vantage point is also some considerable distance away from the depicted city, a feature particularly evident in the diorama of the voisin plan, in which indeterminate parkland dominates the foreground, emphasising the city and horizon beyond. the opening provides a frame, but significantly, by its forward position, this serves to imply that the space behind extends in all directions beyond the frame. by emphasising the expansive nature of the view, the observer is encouraged to look not into the painting, but out from the edge of the frame towards the distant scene. under conditions such as these, the eyes would normally remain parallel, focussed at infinity and thereby relaxed into an almost vacant stare. here, however, although the tendency would undoubtedly have been to draw the eye to the horizon, the expectation of distance might well have seemed at odds with the relative proximity of the image surface. distant perhaps, but also close enough to create something of the sense of dizziness experienced in early panoramas. on the face of it the situation when looking at the objects featured in still life could not be more different. here opposing viewpoints construct a complex aggregate of a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - images, the separation facilitating an almost paradoxical condition in which the rules of occlusion are seemingly confounded by binocular disparity. yet the two sets of conditions are, in fact, just the opposite ends of a gradually shifting scale extending from infinity to close at hand. as such, the visual experience constructed in the dioramas is no less a reflection on the nature of vision and experience than the apparently more challenging space depicted in le corbusier’s other paintings at this time. each is, however, characterised by the uniquely different kinds of experiences to be found in vision. and so whilst as far as le corbusier’s interest in scientific principles is concerned, it would be foolish to claim that his paintings were the result of a rigorous application of science, his work may nevertheless be characterised by a tendency (borne out by the dioramas) to bring visual experience to account; to harness the “physiology of sensations”. in this sense, it is not in fact scientific understanding that is represented but those aspects of visual perception that it reveals. a notes and references: le corbusier, l’art decorative d’aujourd’hui (paris, ). “on sundays we often gathered at the summit of the highest mountain. peaks and gently sloping banks; pastures, herds of large animals, infinite horizons, flights of crows. we prepared for the future.” cited in stanislaus von moos, le corbusier: elements of a synthesis (cambridge, mass.: mit press, ), p. . le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, trans. frederick etchells (new york: dover, ), p. n. . originally, urbanisme (paris: les Éditions g.crès cie, ). see also, carol s. eliel, l’esprit nouveau: purism in paris, - (los angeles: los angeles county museum of art/harry n. abrams, ), pp. - and mary mcleod, urbanism and utopia: le corbusier, from regional syndicalism to vichy. princeton university phd thesis ( ), p. . le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, pp. - . most of the paintings displayed in the pavilion are still in existence. the notable exception seems to be the large diorama paintings, which, according to the fondation le corbusier exist only as photographs. the pavilion itself was, of course, demolished soon after the exposition closed and although a reconstruction has been built in bologna, this no longer contains the reproductions of the panoramic images installed for its opening. see, giuliano gresleri, l’esprit nouveau. parigi- bologna: costruzione e ricostruzione di un prototipo dell’architettura moderna (milan: electa, ). for information on the planning and organisation of the exposition see, kenneth silver, esprit de corps: the art of the parisian avant-garde and the first world war (princeton: princeton university press, ), pp. - . see also, carol s. eliel, “purism in paris, - ” in carol s. eliel (ed.), l’esprit nouveau: purism in paris, pp. - . w. boesiger and o. stonorov (eds.), le corbusier et pierre jeanneret: Œuvre complète - (zurich: les Éditions d’architecture, ), pp. - ; pp. - . the plan voisin takes it name from aircraft manufacturer gabriel voisin, whose company donated , francs to the construction of the pavilion. see, le corbusier, the decorative art of today, “preface to the edition” (london: architectural press, ), p. xiv. see also nancy troy, modernism and decorative arts in france: art nouveau to le corbusier, (new haven: yale university press, ), p. . amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret (eds.), l’esprit nouveau (paris: Éditions de l’esprit nouveau, - ). ”about a dozen articles reflecting the forthcoming ‘international exhibition of the decorative arts’ had appeared in l’esprit nouveau during ”, le corbusier, the decorative art of today, p.xiii. for an account of the origins of l’esprit nouveau, see carol s. eliel, “purism in paris”, pp. - . completion of the pavilion also marked an end to the periodical and to le corbusier’s collaboration with ozenfant. see kenneth silver, esprit de corps, pp. - . le corbusier, the decorative art of today, p.xiii-xv. see also, le corbusier, the city of to- morrow and its planning, p. . on other issues concerning the siting of the exposition, see tag gronberg, “making up the modern city: modernity on display at the international exposition” in carol s. eliel (ed.), l’esprit nouveau: purism in paris, p. . a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, p. . le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, p. - . see also, norma evenson, le corbusier: the machine and the grand design (london: studio vista, ), pp. - . bernard comment, the panorama, (london: reaktion books, ), pp. - . pierre prévost, preliminary drawing of paris in for the panorama of paris exhibited in vienna, . collection galerie j.kugel, paris. the pavilion was located on a small site directly alongside the grand palais. see, kenneth silver, esprit de corps, p. . the awkward nature of the site has often be attributed to corbusier’s acrimonious relationship with the exposition organisers. see carol s. eliel, “purism in paris”, p. . le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, pp. - . see also, w. boesiger and o. stonorov (eds.), Œuvre complète - , pp. - . some years earlier in fernand léger had also made an image of the city. léger’s painting is clearly not a proposition, but rather reflects, perhaps celebrates, the city as a complex and disjointed space. fragments of buildings, signage and other structures crowd in. there are glimpses of more distant elements, but the city as depicted here is enveloping and distant views are always partly occluded by objects in the intervening space. fernand léger, the city, . see, carol s. eliel, “purism in paris”, p. . a discussion of the sense of separation and quiet implied by corbusier’s proposals can be found in, simon richards, le corbusier and the concept of self, (new haven: yale university press, ), pp - . le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, p. . precedents for le corbusier’s urban planning include tony garnier’s “cité industrielle” ( ) and auguste perret’s “tower-city” ( ). see stanislaus von moos, le corbusier: elements of a synthesis, pp. - . stephan oettermann, the panorama: history of a mass medium. trans. deborah lucas schneider (new york: zone books, ), p. . stephen parcell, “the metaphoric architecture of the diorama”, alberto pérez-gómez and stephen parcell (eds.), chora : intervals in the philosophy of architecture (montréal: mcgill- queen’s university press, ), p. . helmut and alison gernsheim, l. j. m. daguerre: the history of the diorama and the daguerreotype (london: secker & warburg, ), pp. - . jonathan crary, techniques of the observer: on vision and modernity in the nineteenth-century (cambridge, mass.: mit press, ), pp. - . the mirror of literature ( october ). cited in helmut and alison gernsheim, l. j. m. daguerre, p. . see also, stephan oettermann, the panorama, p. . le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, p. . see also, tag gronberg, “making up the modern city”, p. . le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, p. (emphasis added). le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, p. . bernard comment, the panorama, pp. - . walter benjamin, paris, capitale du xixe siècle : le livre des passages, (paris : cerf, ). translated in bernard comment, the panorama, p. . “a painting is an association of purified, related and architectured elements.”, amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, “purism”, trans., robert l. herbert (ed.), modern artists on art (new york: dover, ) p. - . see kenneth silver, esprit de corps, pp. - . also, carol s. eliel, “purism in paris”, p. . amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, “le purisme”, l’esprit nouveau , ( ), pp. - . trans., robert l. herbert (ed.), “purism”, modern artists on art, p. . amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, “purism”, pp. - . colin rowe and robert slutzky, “transparency: literal & phenomenal [part ]”, perspecta ( ). republished in, transparency (basel: birkhäuser verlag, ). györgy kepes, language of vision (chicago: p.theobald, ). amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, après le cubisme (paris: edition des commentaires, ). trans. john goodman, “after cubism” in, carol s. eliel (ed.), l’esprit nouveau: purism in paris, pp. - . carol s. eliel (ed.), l’esprit nouveau: purism in paris, p. . “a painting is an association of purified, related and architectured elements.”, amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, “purism”, p. - . see kenneth silver, esprit de corps, pp. - . also, carol s. eliel, “purism in paris”, p. ; - . a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, “purism”, p. . rosalind krauss, “léger, le corbusier and purism”, artforum, / (april ), p. . bruno reichlin, “jeanneret – le corbusier, painter – architect”, eve blau and nancy troy, architecture and cubism (cambridge mass.: mit press, ), pp. - . colin rowe and robert slutzky, “transparency: literal & phenomenal [part ].” see also, yve- alain bois, “cubistic, cubic, and cubist” in eve blau and nancy troy, architecture and cubism, pp. - . for the origins of gestalt psychology, see amongst others, edward reed, james. j. gibson and the psychology of perception (new haven: yale university press, ), pp. - and nicholas wade, the art and science of visual illusions (london: routledge and kegan paul, ), pp. - . for a critique of rowe and slutzky’s essay see, rosemarie haag bletter, “opaque transparency”, oppositions , (summer ), pp. - . l’esprit nouveau, ( ). see, judi loach, “le corbusier and the creative use of mathematics”, british journal for the history of science, / , (june ), p. . ozenfant and jeanneret, “formation de l’optique moderne”, l’esprit nouveau, / ( ). see jean-louis cohen’s introduction to john goodman’s translation of vers une architecture, towards an architecture (london : frances lincoln, ), pp. - . journal de psychologie normale et pathologique, , (paris: ). see reyner banham, theory and design in the first machine age (london: butterworth, ), pp. - . le corbusier’s partial blindness is recorded in a letter to william ritter: “i am a cyclops in spite of myself, a nasty joke. and for this very reason things are quite complicated for me. you get used to it: it’s been going on for two years.” ( th april ). cited in nicholas fox weber, le corbusier: a life (new york: alfred a. knopf, ), p. . see also, joseph masheck, review of an exhibition of le corbusier’s paintings at the denise rené gallery in new york, . artforum / (april ), p. . this remark is attributed to architectural historian vincent scully. cited by nicholas fox weber in le corbusier: a life, p. . undoubtedly the most comprehensive account of vision as studied through the physiology and optics of the eye is hermann von helmholtz’s three volume treatise on physiological optics which offers an encyclopaedic documentation of the scientific understanding of vision in the nineteenth- century. hermann von helmholtz, treatise on physiological optics. vols. trans. and ed. james southall. (wisconsin: optical society of america, - ). originally, (leipzig: voiss, - ). the closely related discipline of psychophysics originates in the work of gustav fechner. fechner’s approach, which used the measurement of stimulus to gauge sensation, offered a way to bypass some of the uncertainty concerning the nature of the unconscious and claimed to provide quantifiable measures for sensation and experience. fechner’s ideas also formed the basis for the work by charles henry, (director of the laboratory of physiology and sensation at the sorbonne), whose attempts to quantify and measure universal responses to visual stimuli relate directly to purism's search for a visual language based on absolute constants, and were actually featured in a series of articles in l’esprit nouveau. gustav fechner, elemente der psychophysik, (leipzig: breitkopf & härtel, ). see also, william braham, modern color/modern architecture: amédée ozenfant and the genealogy of color in modern architecture, (aldershot: ashgate pub. co., ), pp. - ; jonathan crary, techniques of the observer, pp. - and nicholas wade, a natural history of vision, (cambridge mass.: mit press, ), pp. - . charles wheatstone, “contributions to the physiology of vision – part the first. on some remarkable, and hitherto unobserved phenomena of binocular vision”, philosophical transactions of the royal society, ( ), pp. - . republished in, the scientific papers of sir charles wheatstone (london: physical society of london, ), pp. - . all subsequent page references given here relate to this later publication. it is now generally recognised that wheatstone was the first to realise the full significance of binocular vision, but this is an issue that has been the subject of considerable debate. see, nicholas wade, brewster and wheatstone on vision (london: academic press, ), pp. - . also, nicholas wade, a natural history of vision, pp. - . william braham, modern color /modern architecture , p. . louis daguerre, an historical and descriptive account of the various processes of the daguerreotype and the diorama ( ). trans. (new york: winter house, ). charles wheatstone, “contributions to the physiology of vision – part the first.”, p. . stephan oettermann, the panorama, p. , . l. j. m. daguerre, the valley of chamonix, ( ). see, helmut and alison gernsheim, l. j. m. daguerre, p. . also stephan oettermann, the panorama, p. . a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - stanislaus von moos, le corbusier: elements of a synthesis, pp. - ; p. . von moos, describes the enthusiasm corbusier’s father had for mountain climbing and corbusier’s childhood walks in the alpine landscape. see also, le corbusier, the decorative art of today, p. . diorama d’une ville contemporaine, salon d’automne, . in particular three drawings all from indicate the sequential refinement of le corbusier’s design for the diorama. in these drawings corbusier appears to be exploring the relationship between the viewer and the depicted scene. various lines of sight have been drawn and the position, extent and curvature of the display wall are gradually adjusted. some marginal sketches also clearly emphasise the window-like manner in which the view is intended to be framed. the final form of the diorama is almost identical in dimension to that employed in the esprit nouveau pavilion. fondation le corbusier catalogue nos. . ; . and . . see, h. allen brooks (ed.), le corbusier archive, vol. : early buildings and projects, - , (new york: garland publishing/paris: fondation le corbusier). charles wheatstone, “contributions to the physiology of vision – part the first.”, pp. - . various editions of leonardo da vinci’s trattato della pittura would have been available to wheatstone, but he cites a translation, presumably, pierre françois giffart (ed.), a treatise of painting, (london: senex; w.taylor, ). the quotation used here is however taken from a recent translation by martin kemp and margaret walker. martin kemp (ed.), leonardo on painting (new haven: yale university press, ), pp. - . it is worth noting that the word used by leonardo is “relievo” which kemp notes is literally translated as relief or modelling, but is also used to refer to the three-dimensionality of objects. see kemp, leonardo on painting, p. . wheatstone also refers to robert smith’s compleat system of opticks (cambridge: cornelius crownfield/robert dodsley, ), which contains extensive references to leonardo and to questions of binocular vision. martin kemp (ed.), leonardo on painting, p. . amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, “after cubism”, pp. - . amédée ozenfant, “notes sur le cubisme”, l’elan ( st december, ). cited in, carol s. eliel (ed.), l’esprit nouveau: purism in paris, - , p. . the same artists are cited by ozenfant and corbusier in après le cubisme, “after cubism” p. . l’esprit nouveau (paris: Éditions de l’esprit nouveau, - , twenty-eight issues. articles relating to psychology and sensation include: victor basch, “l’esthétique nouvelle et la science de l’art”, no. ( ) and charles henry, “la lumière, la couleur, et le form”, nos. - ( ). in the pages of the journal there are frequent references to the nature of sensation and to the great nineteenth-century physiologists such as wilhelm wundt and hermann von helmholtz – but most notably, the psychophysics of gustav fechner. see also, william braham, modern color/modern architecture , pp. - . amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, “le purisme”, p. . amédée ozenfant and charles-edouard jeanneret, “le purisme”, p. . the two photographs of the ville contemporaine panorama (fig. ), show different parts of the painting viewed from slightly different angles. this may be responsible for the impression that the painting has been constructed using curvilinear perspective. however, based on the relation of the drawing to the edge of the paper, it is equally likely that the projection used was entirely conventional. it is interesting to note that a separate illustration depicting a similar view, published in urbanisme, did include curvilinear distortion but it is conceivable that this was either an attempt to capture the curvature of the diorama in the drawing for publication, or was simply inspired by photographs such as these. le corbusier, the city of to-morrow and its planning, pp. - . since the diorama paintings reputedly no longer exist it is difficult to be certain which construction was used but even if one of the diorama paintings were in fact executed with some curvilinear distortion, this would not have changed the directional nature of the perspective view. rosemarie haag bletter, “opaque transparency”, oppositions , (summer ), p. . leon battista alberti, de pictura, ( ). trans. cecil grayson, on painting, (london: penguin, ), p. . see also, svetlana alpers, the art of describing: dutch art in the seventeenth century (chicago: university of chicago press, ), pp. - . also, robin evans, the projective cast: architecture and its three geometries (camb. mass.: mit press, ), pp. - . alberti’s notion of the intersection is considered with respect to binocular vision by penelope haralambidou in “the stereoscopic veil”, architectural research quarterly / ( ), pp. - . john ruskin, the elements of perspective (london: smith, elder & co, ). le corbusier’s education is outlined in stanislaus von moos, le corbusier: elements of a synthesis, pp. - . le a f ef a e c f def cbdf f bfff cc f - corbusier himself describes the significance of ruskin on his education as an artist in the decorative art of today, pp. - . for an account of ruskin’s attitude towards vision and optics see, martin kemp, the science of art, pp. - . kemp also discusses ruskin’s understanding of perspective. martin kemp, the science of art: optical themes in western art from brunelleschi to seurat (new haven: yale university press, ), pp. - . ruskin’s elements of perspective was written at a time when the stereoscope was at the height of its popularity and there can be little doubt that ruskin was aware of its role in vision, even if he chose not to see its use as appropriate to art. john ruskin, the elements of perspective, p. . sébastien le clerc, discours touchant de point de vue, dans lequel il est prouvé que les choses qu’on voit distinctement, ne sont vues que d’un oeil, . a similar argument is made by svetlana alpers, in relation to seventeenth-century dutch depictions of architectural space and landscape. svetlana alpers, the art of describing, pp. - ; p. - . on the subject of attention and binocular vision, see, jonathan crary, suspensions of perception: attention, spectacle and modern culture (camb. mass.: mit press, ), pp. - . stephan oettermann, the panorama, p. . proceedings of the workshop on language technology for digital historical archives with a special focus on central-, (south-)eastern europe, middle east and north africa proceedings of the workshop on language technology for digital historical archives with a special focus on central-, (south-)eastern europe, middle east and north africa, pages – varna, bulagria,september , . c� ranlp https://doi.org/ . /v /p word clustering for historical newspapers analysis lidia pivovarova jani marjanen elaine zosa university of helsinki firstname.lastname@helsinki.fi abstract this paper is a part of a collaboration be- tween computer scientists and historians aimed at development of novel methods for historical newspapers analysis. we present a case study of ideological terms ending with -ism suffix in nineteenth- century finnish newspapers. we pro- pose a two-step procedure to trace differ- ences in word usages over time: training of diachronic embeddings on several time slices and when clustering embeddings of selected words together with their neigh- bours to obtain historical context. the ob- tained clusters turn out to be useful for his- torical studies. the paper also discusses specific difficulties related to development of historian-oriented tools. introduction big corpora of historical newspapers are now dig- italized and available for automatic processing. newspapers have for long been important sources of information for historians and social scientists but massive digitalization opens the possibility to use advanced statistical and nlp methods for historical newspapers. even though news as a genre have been well-studied in nlp community, switching to historical news imposes additional difficulties for text processing. automatically dig- italized news archives contain much noise related to non-perfect ocr and article separation, as well as less standardised writing practices. many nlp tools, such as pos-taggers and lemmatizers, are optimized to process modern texts and work less well on historical data. at the same time, histori- cal news share most of the properties of the mod- ern news data: they are biased, incomplete, con- troversial and apt to change over time. if historical news are challenging for linguistic analysis, they are even harder for historical stud- ies, since research questions historians are trying to answer are complex and lie far beyond fact discovery. often they are interested in attitudes, stances, viewpoints, and discourse change in gen- eral. these tasks require development of novel methods and instruments that would be oriented specifically at historical research. we present newseye—a research project aimed at development of novel tools and methods for analysis of historical newspapers . the project is a collaboration between digital humanists and computer scientists funded by the european union’s horizon research and innovation programme. this paper focuses on a case study of ideolog- ical terms ending with -ism suffix—such as liber- alism, socialism, or conservatism—in nineteenth century newspapers from finland. these terms, known as isms, are condensed representations of complex notions that played an important role in political discourse in the nineteenth century (and long after that). rhetorical usage of isms in his- torical text has been studied before (kurunmäki and marjanen, b,a; marjanen, ), though as far as we are aware this is the first attempt to apply statistical analysis to trace development of these terms in a diachronic newspaper archive. not all words ending with -ism are ideologi- cal. this suffix could be also used for medical terms and diseases (rheumatism), scientific terms (magnetism), personal traits (cynicism), artistic movements (cubism), religions (baptism) or polit- ical practices related to particular persons (bona- partism). it is not always possible to draw a strict line between ideologies and other categories. https://www.newseye.eu/ https://doi.org/ . /v /p moreover, the ideological load of these terms might change over time. we apply a corpus-based analysis to find out how the vocabulary of isms changed in nineteenth century finnish newspapers and how usage of ide- ological isms is different from other words with -ism suffix. we try to implement a robust analysis procedure that would be applicable to other tasks with minimal human intervention. our method consists of two main steps: first, we extract from the corpus all words with suffix -ism, second, we cluster these words and their semantic neighbours in an unsupervised fashion. this procedure does not require a human intervention other than in- terpretation of results and, consequently, is poten- tially applicable to other research questions. data . corpora newspapers in finland were published in two main languages—finnish and swedish. in the be- ginning of the nineteenth century the majority of newspapers were published in swedish, though by the s the finnish and swedish newspapers were printed in almost equal amount. the finnish- and swedish-language press had a different dis- tribution of topics and exposed slightly different political outlook, though contemporaries often re- lied on newspapers in both languages (engman, ). another peculiarity of these data is a cen- sorship accomplished by the russian empire gov- ernment. the censorship was abandoned in , which led to an outburst of socialistic rhetoric in the press, especially in the finnish-language news- papers since they were more likely to have a rural or working-class background. we use a digitalized collection of nineteenth- century finnish newspapers freely available from the national library of finland (pääkkönen et al., ). we use the full swedish and finnish data from to , treating them as two separate corpora. each corpus is split into five double- decades. the total amount of words in both cor- pora is presented in table . in figure we present relative frequencies for the selection of most frequent isms in our data. it can be seen that a proportion of isms are grow- ing over time. the plots demonstrate some differ- ence between the datasets: e.g. patriotism is much more frequent in the swedish dataset. time slice millions of words finnish swedish - . . - . . - . . - . . - . . total . . table : corpus size by double decade. both corpora are lowercased and lemmatized using las, an open-source language-analysis tool (mäkelä, ). las is a meta-analysis tool that provides a wrapper for many existing tools developed for specific tasks and languages. though las supports multiple languages, most efforts were done to process finnish data, includ- ing historical finnish. the output for our swedish data is more noisy. in particular, the swedish las lemmatizer is unable to predict lemma for out- of-vocabulary words, e.g. boulangismen (definite form of ‘boulangism’). thus we applied the addi- tional normalization and convert all words ending with -ismen or -ismens into -ism forms. for all other words we use the las output; implemen- tation of proper swedish lemmatization is beyond the scope of this paper. approach . diachronic embeddings we train continuous embeddings (mikolov et al., ) on each double-decade. we use gensim word vec implementation (řehůřek and sojka, ) using the skip-gram model, with a vector dimensionality of , window size of and a fre- quency threshold of —only lemmas that ap- pear more than times within a double decade are used for training. one hundred is an arbitrary and rather conservative threshold that ensures that each word in a model has reliable amount of con- text and embeddings are trustworthy. on the other hand, we lose some isms because they appear less than times in a double-decade. for instance, patriotism and liberalism appear for the first time in the swedish corpus in and respec- tively, but the corresponding vectors exist in our models starting from - and - respectively. the number of distinct isms in our models is presented in table . https://github.com/jiemakel/las (a) swedish (b) finnish figure : a selection of the most frequent words ending with suffix -ism/ismi. the x-axis presents relative frequency in items per million. since training word embeddings is a stochastic process, the particular values of vectors do not stay close across runs, though distances between words are quite stable. to ensure that embeddings are stable across time slices, we follow the approach proposed in (kim et al., ): embeddings for t + time slice are initialized with vectors built on t; then training continues using new data. the learning rate value is set to the end learning rate of the previous model, to prevent models from di- verging rapidly. this approach has been previ- ously used in (hengchen et al., ) with slightly different data. . clustering we cluster word embeddings into semantically close groups using affinity propagation cluster- ing technique (frey and dueck, ). the main advantages of affinity propagation are that it de- tects number of clusters automatically and is able to produce clusters of various sizes. finnish time slice ism close cluster select - - - - - - - - - - - swedish time slice ism close cluster select - - - - - table : number of distinct words used on vari- ous steps of the algorithm: ism is a number of dis- tinct words with suffix -ism, close is a number of words, which cosine similarity to at least one ism is higher than . , cluster is a number of clusters that contain at least one ism, select is a number of words in these clusters. affinity propagation has been previously used for various language analysis tasks, including collocation clustering into semantically related classes (kutuzov et al., ) and unsupervised word sense induction (alagić et al., ). both papers pay special attention to fine-tuning of the algorithm and selection of hyper-parameters. we cannot tune the algorithm due to the lack of gold standard, which is typical for exploratory histor- ical research. we use standard implementation from the scikit-learn package (pedregosa et al., ), with default parameters. the procedure works as follows. in the data se- lection step we extract from the corpus all words with a cosine similarity of less than . to any ism. then we perform clustering on this enriched dataset. finally, the clusters are filtered so that only clusters that contain at least one ism word are presented for the qualitative analysis. the number of words used on various steps of analysis is presented in table . it can be seen from the table is that the number isms in the finnish data is much smaller than for the swedish data. in particular in the two double decades there are no finnish ism above the frequency threshold. that could be partially explained by the smaller amount of finnish newspapers but also by the dif- ference between languages. the suffix ismi is not as productive in the finnish language and used mostly with loan words, while swedish more read- ily adopt ism suffix. in many cases swedish words ending with -ism are translated into finnish us- ing native suffixes. for example, swedish katoli- cism is translated into finnish as katolilaisuus. in some cases, two words with same meaning but different endings existed in the same time period, e.g. protestantismi and protestanttisuus or nation- alismi and kansallisuusaate. it can be seen in the table that though . is an arbitrary threshold up to % of words selected using this threshold are filtered out after the clus- tering. the number of selected clusters is gener- ally smaller than the number of words with suffix ism since isms tend to cluster together. results and observations one of the main difficulties for our work is a lack of gold standard annotations. we cannot know in advance how the words should be clustered, es- pecially the most problematic ideological terms, which are the main objects of our study. however, we can make several common-sense assumptions on the expected outcome. for example, it would be reasonable to expect that disease names should not appear in the same cluster with philosophi- cal concepts or that artistic movements should be clustered together. in this section we present sev- eral observations, starting with those that can be considered as “sanity checks” for the clustering. rheumatism in the nineteenth century rheumatism was often mentioned in the medical advertisements. auto- matic advertisement filtering in historical news is not a trivial task since advertisements were less regulated, contained more text and looked simi- lar to other articles. moreover, such filtering is not always necessary since advertisements might pro- vide researchers with valuable insights . we use the entire corpora to build embeddings, and as a consequence rheumatism is one of the most frequent words with suffix -ism in our data, as can be seen in figure (for the swedish data we sum up counts for spelling variants reumatism and rheumatism). table , which shows all clusters from our finnish data that contain words related to rheuma- see for example a recent blog post analyzing gender stereotypes in the nineteenth century drug advertisements: https://www.newseye.eu/blog/news/ british-drug-advertising-in-the- th-century-through-the-prism-of-gender/ - - reumatismi ‘rheumatism’ vähäverisyys ‘anaemia’ risatauti ‘lymphadenitis’ veripuute ‘anaemia’ heillou ‘weakness?’ocr luuvalo ‘gout’ nivelreumatismi ‘arthritis’ epämuodostuma ‘deformity’ kohju ‘hernia’ luumalo ‘gout’ocr kroonillinen ‘chronic’ mahatauti ‘gastroenteritis’ mahakatarri ‘gastritis’ iskä ‘?’ latus ‘?’ suolitauti ‘salt deposits’ riisitauti ‘rickets’ hermovaiva ‘nerve ailment’ liikavarvas ‘callus’ verenvähyys ‘anaemia’ ruumisvika ‘body problem’ veritauti ‘blood disease’ kihti ‘gout’ lihavuus ‘obesity’ kaljupäisyys ‘boldness’ verettömyydä ‘verettömyydä’ säilöstystauti ‘canning disease’ heikkohermoisuus ‘neurasthenia’ lihanen ‘obese’ sukupuoli- ‘sex/gender’ocr jalkahiki ‘foot odor’ sappitauti ‘biliary disease’ heitlous ‘weakness’ocr selkäydintauti ‘spinal cord disease’ kivuton ‘painless’ hermoheikkous ‘neurasthenia’ ruokasulatushäiriö ‘digestion problem’ reumatillinen ‘rheumatic’ kalvetustauti ‘anaemia’ vinous ‘skewness’ tautitila ‘disease place’ reumaatillinen ‘rheumatic’ vähäverinen ‘anaemic’ epämuodostua ‘to deform’ hermosairaus ‘neuropathy’ reumatismi ‘rheumatism’ hiustauti ‘hair disease’ jäsensärky ‘limb ache’ hermo ‘nerve’ oxygeno ‘?’ vatsakatar ‘gastritis’ umpitauti ‘constipation’ nuha ‘rhinitis’ hermotautinen ‘neurotic’ topioli ‘?’ kurkkukatarri ‘pharyngitis’ parannuskeino ‘remedy’ hoitokeino ‘cure’ spirosiini ‘spirosin’ lazarol ‘lazarol’ lääkitä ‘to medicate’ kotilääke ‘home medicine’ reumaattinen ‘rheumatic’ hammastauti ‘tooth disease’ rautaliuos ‘iron care’ jäsenkolotus ‘limb ache’ leini ‘rheumatism’ linjamentti ‘ointment’ parannusaine ‘betterment’ vilustuminen ‘cold’ luuvalo ‘gout’ latsaro ‘?’ hengityselimettauti ‘respiratory disease’ table : clusters containing finnish words related to rheumatism. original words are presented in italics together with english translations in quotes. ocr means the word is incorrectly spelled due to ocr errors; “?” means “impossible to translate”—these are mostly fragments of words appearing due to ocr errors. bottom left: an advertisement of a rheumatism medicine from hufvudstadsbladet, . . , no. , p. tism. it can be seen that rheumatism does not inter- fere with other isms: the clusters entirely consist of words related to drugs, medical procedures, dis- eases and other physical conditions, such as bald- ness or obesity. in that sense clusters are rather precise and justify our algorithmic decisions. on the other hand, cluster may be too fine- grained for our needs. in the - double- decade there are two clusters with similar mean- ing: one related to reumatismi ‘rheumatism’, an- other to nivelreumatismi ‘(rheumatoid) arthritis’. very similar results were obtained on the swedish data: reumatism ‘rheumatism’ and ledgngsreuma- tism ‘arthritis’ are split into different clusters even though spelling variants rheumatism and reuma- tism are clustered together. we suggest that the fine-grained clustering does not as such reflect semantic differences, but the differences in distribution come from slightly dif- ferent uses in the newspapers. while there are similarities it seems that rheumatism appears more often in medical advertising whereas the arthritis seems to be more likely to appear in text content with a more ambitious take on educating the pub- lic about medical issues. spiritism in table we present clusters obtained from swedish data that contain the word spiritism. the cluster for the - double decade contains a few words related to this popular practice such as pressensé and kabal though most of its content are names of famous scientists and writers. this might be an error: some of the names might be a person that were discussed in the context of spiritism (as objects to spiritism or as scientific authorities), e.g. aristotle or galileo, and others are words that are similar to these names. in other words, spiritism might be an outlier in this cluster. it might also be the case that spiritism was sometimes used as ’spiritualism’ and darwin and the others were discussed in this context. this would require a further analysis. the clusters for the latter double-decades do not expose such problems and consist mostly of words clearly related to spiritism including some very specific terms, such as transmigration, and more general esoteric concepts, such theosophy or freemasonry. the - cluster might also reflect a contemporary discussion on relations be- tween science and mysticism, since it contains such isms as positivism or darwinism. separatism separatism is a more tricky concept, which un- dergo a noticeable usage change in our datasets as can be seen in table , where we present clusters for swedish separatism. - - - spiritism ‘spiritism’ spiritism ‘spiritism’ teosofi ‘theosophy’ spiritism ‘spiritism’ hypnotism ‘hypnotism’ pressensé ‘presence’ (fr) frimureri ‘freemasonry’ feder ‘?’ andevärld ‘spirit world’ teosofisk ‘theosophic’ pater ‘pater’ voltaire ‘voltaire’ mysterium ‘mystery’ spiritualism ‘spiritualism’ spiritistisk ‘spiritualistic’ telepati ‘telepathy’ darwin ‘darwin’ renan ‘renan’ darwinism ‘darwinism’ positivism ‘positivism’ själavandring ‘transmigration’ zola ‘zola’ newton ‘newton’ buddism ‘buddhism’ darvinism ‘darvinism’ trolleri ‘magic’ journalism ‘journalism’ balzac ‘balzac’ michelet ‘michelet’ vegetarianism ‘vegetarianism’ astrologi ‘astrology’ ockult ‘occult’ astrologisk ‘astrological’ galilei ‘galileo’ corneille ‘corneille’ teosofisk ‘theosophic’ bibelkritik ‘bible criticism’ astrologi ‘astrology’ frimureri ‘freemasonry’ aristoteles ‘aristotle’ kabal ‘cabal’ metafysik ‘metaphysics’ teosofien ‘theosophy’ gondiagnos ‘eye diagnosis’ alkemi ‘alchemy’ oppert ‘oppert’ rousseau ‘rousseau’ darvin ‘darvin’ darvins ‘darvin’ clairvoyance ‘clairvoyance’(fr) proudhon ‘proudhon’ zolas ‘zola’ utvecklingslära ‘evolution’ malthus ‘malthus’ tankeläsning ‘mind reading’ quand ‘when’ (fr) loyson ‘loyson’ själavandring ‘transmigration’ tungomlstalande ‘tongues’ table : clusters containing swedish word spiritism. - - - separatism ‘separatism’ separatism ‘separatism’ rent ‘?’ separatism ‘separatism’ riksid ‘national idea’ocr mysticism ‘mysticism’ naturalism ‘naturalism’ finskhet ‘finnishness’ fennomanins ‘fennomania’ statsid ‘state idea’ocr rikspolitik ‘national policy’ darwinism ‘darwinism’ moral ‘morality’ fennomani ‘fennomania’ svenskhet ‘swedishness’ bourgeoisins ‘bourgeoisie’ byråkratien ‘bureaucracy’ tidsanda ‘zeitgeist’ krass ‘crass’ utopi ‘utopia’ fennomanin ‘fennomania’ vikingaparti ‘viking party’ samhällsopinion ‘social opinion’ materialistisk ‘materialistic’ otro ‘incredible’ språkpolitik ‘language policy’ publicistisk ‘publishing’ sträfvandenas ‘?’ rikskomplex ‘national complex’ rationalistisk ‘rationalistic’ wantro ‘?’ partiagitation ‘party agitation’ partiyra ‘?’ nationalitet- ‘national’ocr santryska ‘true russian’ menniskonaturen ‘human nature’ tidehvarfvets ‘?’ partifanatism ‘party fanaticism’ ämbetsmannavälde ‘officialdom’ materialism ‘materialism’ materialist ‘materialistic’ språkgräl ‘language quarrel’ gränsmärke ‘borderline’ gränsmark ‘borderline’ocr konservatism ‘conservatism’ språkfanatism ‘language fanaticism’ riksenhet ‘national assembly’ idealism ‘idealism’ rationalism ‘rationalism’ språkfråga ‘language question’ samhällskraft ‘social force’ statlighet ‘statehood’ negation ‘negation’ abstraktion ‘abstraction’ spräkfrägan ‘language question’ frihetssträvande ‘freedom-aspiring’ wäldets ‘?’ idealistisk ‘idealistic’ ljusskygghet ‘photophobia’ riksmakt ‘national power’ själfhärskarmakten ‘?’ table : swedish clusters containing word separatism - - separatismi ‘separatism’ ruotsi-kiihkoinen ‘svekoman’ ruotsinmielinen ‘swedish-minded’ separatismi ‘separatism’ ruotsalaisuus ‘swedishness’ viikinki ‘viking’ ruotsi-mielinen ‘swedish-minded’ nationalismi ‘nationalism’ natsionalismi ‘nationalism’ fennomaani ‘fennoman’ epäkansallinen ‘anti-national’ viikingit ‘vikings’ opportunismi ‘opportunism’ natfionalismi ‘nationalism’ocr separatisti ‘separatist’ ruotsikko ‘swedish’(person) miikinki ‘viking’ocr pöppö ‘?’ eristäytyminen ‘isolation’ kansalliskiihko ‘nationalism’ miikingit ‘vikings’ocr suomimielinen ‘finnish-minded’ ruotsi-mielisyys ‘swedish-mindedness’ intelligens ‘intelligence’ länsieurooppalainen ‘western-european’ wiitinki ‘viking’ocr wiilinki ‘viking’ocr miitinki ‘viking’ocr ruotsimielinen ‘swedish-minded’ rotutaistelu ‘race fight’ vapaamielisyy ‘liberalism’ocr suomi-kiihkoinen ‘fennoman’ fennoman ‘fennoman’ henkiheimolainen ‘soul mate’ sanomalehdistö! ‘press’ antipatia ‘antipathy’ dagbladilainen ‘member of the dagblad circle’ miiking ‘viking’ocr fennomani ‘fennoman’ kansallinenviha ‘national anger’ kiihkokansallisuus ‘nationalism’ wiiking ‘viking’ocr fennomaaninen ‘fennoman’ ruotsikiihkoisuus ‘svekomania’ eristäytyä ‘self-isolate’ liittolaisuus ‘alliance’ wiilinli ‘viking’ocr miikinkilehti ‘vikings’ newspaper’ocr suomenmielinen ‘finnish-minded’ocr vihamieli-syy ‘hostility’ocr kansallinenylpeys ‘national pride’ miikinkiläinen ‘vikingish’ocr ruolsinmielinen ‘swedish-minded’ ruotsiliihloinen ‘svekoman’ocr kielipolitiikka ‘language policy’ herranenluokka ‘?’ miikingilehti ‘vikings’ newspaper’ocr epälansallinen ‘anti-national’ocr kansallinenliike ‘national movement’ table : finnish clusters containing word separatismi most of the words in the - cluster are religious, philosophical or scientific notions, thus we can assume that the cluster presents a religious context of separatism. the - cluster con- tains completely different set of words, includ- ing reference to specific political entities, such as fennomans movement and contains rather emo- tional expressions, such as agitation or fanaticism. these words are related to a contemporary dis- cussion about national identity and national lan- guage. the - cluster is again different from the previous two and contains more general political lexis. thus, we can suggest that at the beginning the notion of separatism had mostly re- ligious meaning, when it was adopted by a limited number of liberals and finally spread into a more general political discourse. the finnish clusters for separatismi, presented in table , are quite similar to swedish. the main difference is that in the - the word is mentioned less than times and as a conse- quence excluded from our models. but the - and - finnish clusters follow the same pattern: the former contains quite specific references, while the latter consists of more gen- eral political words. the change in the distribution of separatism seems to be related to a change in the dominant context in which it was discussed (from religious context to a political context). this also entails some degree of semantic change. this contextual and semantic shift could be to some extent visible from changes in the near- est neighbours of separatism presented in fig- ure a. however, nearest neighbours produce a more vague overview: for example, religious isms, such as pietism, are presented among near- est neighbours of separatism in - . simi- larly, the overlap between finnish clusters, shown in table , and nearest neighbours of separatismi, presented in figure is very limited. (a) swedish (b) finnish figure : tsne plot word separatism and its near- est neighbours across time slices. this can be explained by the nature of the clus- tering procedure: each word can be among the nearest neighbours for any number of other words while affinity propagation assign a word to ex- actly one cluster so that socialism and katolicism are separated in clusters of their own. the differ- ence between outputs demonstrates an added value of the clustering, which selects only one word split among many possibilities provided by em- beddings. at the same time, this also means loss of information, especially for polysemous words. conclusion and further work we presented our ongoing work aimed at the im- plementation of tools facilitating historical studies of newspaper archives. we proposed an unsuper- vised procedure to trace differences in word usage over time. the procedure consists of two major steps: training of diachronic embeddings and then clustering embeddings of selected words together with their neighbours to obtain historical context. in this paper we applied this procedure to a group of words ending with suffix -ism. the method allowed us to distinguish ideological terms, such as socialism from other words with the same suffix, such as disease names or scien- tific terms. this promising result suggests that it is worthy to further elaborate the proposed method. at this stage of the work we are unable to draw any clear conclusions related to usage of isms in the nineteenth century in finland. clusters that contain ideological words are the most problem- atic for the interpretation, which is not surprising given complex nature of the underlying concepts. nevertheless, we consider the obtained clusters useful for historical studies since they provide a re- searcher with a condensed representation of word usages in a large corpus. this is a novel way to look at historical data, which might be espe- cially useful in combination with other tools such as named entity recognition or topic modelling. further improvements of the method should in- clude both parts, namely embeddings and cluster- ing. we plan to try building continuous word em- beddings (dubossarsky et al., ; gillani and levy, ; rosenfeld and erk, ; yao et al., ) that would allow us to investigate grad- ual semantic shifts rather than split data into dis- crete time slices. improvement of clustering might include fine-tuning of the algorithm parameters, though this is quite hard to do without manually annotated data. thus, our main focus would be in finding other applications for the proposed proce- dure that would be meaningful from a historical research point of view and easily assessed at the same time. we will also continue development of complex instruments for historical news analysis that would utilize clustering techniques together with other automatic text analysis methods. acknowledgements we are grateful to simon hengchen and mark granroth-wilding for the help with data prepara- tion. this work has been supported by the euro- pean unions horizon research and innova- tion programme under grants (newseye) and (embeddia). references domagoj alagić, jan šnajder, and sebastian padó. . leveraging lexical substitutes for unsuper- vised word sense induction. in thirty-second aaai conference on artificial intelligence. haim dubossarsky, simon hengchen, nina tah- masebi, and dominik schlechtweg. . time-out: temporal referencing for robust modeling of lexical semantic change. in the th annual meeting of the association for computational linguistics (acl). max engman. . språkfrågan: finlandssven- skhetens uppkomst - . svenska litter- atursällskapet i finland. brendan j frey and delbert dueck. . clustering by passing messages between data points. science ( ): – . nabeel gillani and roger levy. . simple dynamic word embeddings for mapping perceptions in the public sphere. in naacl hlt . page . simon hengchen, ruben ros, and jani marjanen. . a data-driven 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. ism concepts in science and poli- tics. contributions to the history of concepts ( ). tomas mikolov, kai chen, greg s corrado, and jeffrey dean. . efficient estimation of word represen- tations in vector space. in nips. tuula pääkkönen, jukka kervinen, asko nivala, kimmo kettunen, and eetu mäkelä. . export- ing finnish digitized historical newspaper contents for offline use. d-lib magazine ( / ). f. pedregosa, g. varoquaux, a. gramfort, v. michel, b. thirion, o. grisel, m. blondel, p. pretten- hofer, r. weiss, v. dubourg, j. vanderplas, a. pas- sos, d. cournapeau, m. brucher, m. perrot, and e. duchesnay. . scikit-learn: machine learning in python. journal of machine learning research : – . radim řehůřek and petr sojka. . software frame- work for topic modelling with large corpora. in pro- ceedings of the lrec workshop on new chal- lenges for nlp frameworks. elra, valletta, malta, pages – . alex rosenfeld and katrin erk. . deep neural models of semantic shift. in proceedings of the conference of the north american chapter of the association for computational linguistics: human language technologies, volume (long papers). pages – . zijun yao, yifan sun, weicong ding, nikhil rao, and hui xiong. . dynamic word embeddings for evolving semantic discovery. in the th acm in- ternational conference on web search and data mining. tradition and innovation in contemporary american visual art procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com - © beijing forum. published by elsevier ltd. doi: . /j.sbspro. . . selected papers of beijing forum tradition and innovation in contemporary american visual art david carrier champney family professor, case western reserve university/cleveland institute of art a twenty-minute talk with slides left/right identified thus in bold typeface in the s, many fashionable american critics argued that the best new contemporary art broke radically with the past. they believed that what they called postmodern culture drastically changed styles of communication and everyday life experience. after this decisive break with the past, so they claimed, only entirely new art forms could be intellectually challenging. these postmodernists believed that the best new art broke dramatically with modernist tradition. postmodernism was not just what came after modernism but an entirely new sensibility. now in the twenty-first century we can see that this way of thinking is wrong. today, as in the past, the very best art builds upon tradition. why, then, did influential commentators adopt this way of thinking about tradition and innovation? here a philosophical perspective is essential. champions of postmodernism were frequently inspired by the american marxist literary critic fredric jameson. he argued that a very radical transformation in the very nature of everyday experience was taking place. more recently champions of his postmodernist way of thinking note that the web, email, and digital image reproduction change drastically how we write, viewimages, and handle information. and of course our ipods use revolutionary new technologies. jameson supported his analysis by comparing paintings by vincent van gogh’s and andy warhol. slide: van gogh slide: warhol the dutch artist shows a shoe, an intensely expressive object taken from the working life of a peasant, warhol, by contrast, presents fashionable commodities with no concern for inner feeling. in postmodern art, van gogh’s concern with spiritual depth is no longer possible. arguing that traditional painting was dead, the postmodernists said that refusing to respond to new technologies was aesthetically and politically reactionary. these claims have not withstood the test of time. warhol’s fascination with mass media, with image appropriations, and with banal themes from everyday life has been immensely suggestive for very many artists.he was the most influential artist of the late twentieth century. but warhol worked within a long tradition in which high art borrows from popular culture. compare, for example, his use of pop materials with the newsprint in picasso’s collage. slide: warhol slide picasso nothing is taken away from his greatness by identifying how he extends the concerns of his precursors. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / david carrier / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – arthur danto, our most distinguished philosophical critic, has argued that in one way warhol’s art does radically break with the past. before warhol, visual art was defined as representation or at least, after the birth of abstract painting, as a form of expression. slide: poussin slide: kandinsky poussin’s picture is a work of art because depicts the romans. and kandinsky’s non-representational painting is art because it expresses feelings. but warhol demonstrated that any object whatsoever set in the right context was visual art. slide: warhol, brillo box danto’s key example, brillo box, made in , is visually indistinguishable from the brillo boxes then found in american grocery stores. warhol’s object is art because in the gallery it inspires reflection on aesthetic theory. in the store, that same object would be just a container for brillo pads. like the postmodernists, danto thinks that something dramatic happened in the late twentieth�century. jameson and the postmodernists offered a sociological analysis. because the structures of everyday life changed, they argued that art too should change. danto offers a philosophical argument. warhol discovered the nature of visual art and that so the practice of artists changed drastically. in the s danto added a second point to this ontological analysis. once warhol discovered that a brillo box, that banal everyday object, could when set in the museum be art, then the history of art had ended. brillo box marks the end of that history. after , very exciting new works of art continued to be made but no longer is there progress in that tradition. no longer does art define its identify in relation to an historical narrative. traditional western art history tells a story in which giotto leads to leonardo and on towards the present. slide: giotto slide: leonardo clement greenberg, the most important modernist critic, argued that this old master tradition goes straight towards abstraction. monet flattened the traditional picture space, and so soon we saw the shallow illusionistic picture plane of abstract expressionists like robert motherwell. slide: monet slide: motherwell but in our post-historical era such stories in which earlier paintings lead to late ones can no longer plausibly be told about contemporary art. now that tradition is ended. around hegel argued that the history of art has ended. hegel’s claim was correct, danto argues, only this date for the end of this history was much too early. in arguing against jameson’s way of thinking, danto appeals to another marxist idea. marx and engels imagined a future communist utopia in which we hunt, fish, rear cattle and write criticism without being forced into the limiting roles of hunter, fisherman, herdsman and critic. after modernism, artists can have this freedom because in our post-historical era they escape from historical conflicts. no longer struggling to be part of a narrative history, artists engage in a form of play. danto’s philosophical argument does not tell our post-historical artists how to proceed. indeed danto himself has emphasized that there are no direct connections between his abstract aesthetic and the value judgments made in his criticism. but his analysis does suggest how to understand the role of tradition in contemporary art. nowadays artists can employ styles from all periods and every culture without seeking to take the historical development of art further. the irish-american abstract artist sean scully has most interestingly responded to this post-historical situation. scully, who is greatly admired by danto, was born in and moved to new york city in . from matisse scully learned the expressive power of large-scale all-over patterns. slide: matisse mondrian showed him the importance of geometrical abstraction based upon horizontals and verticals. david carrier / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – slide: mondrian and rothko taught him about the spiritual power of stark juxtapositions of intense fields of color. slide: rothko but identifying its sources does not tell all that much about scully’s own paintings, which look very distinctive. slide: scully, early s slide: scully: s like matisse, scully is a sensuous painter who is much influenced by the patterns discovered in islamic morocco. but unlike the frenchman he is often involved in presenting conflicts. with their very varied colors, scully’s large pictures appear unlike mondrian’s austere small-scale compositions. and compared to rothko, whose later art mostly presents tragic feelings, scully’s painting has a very wide expressive range. the biggest difference between scully and his precursors lies in their relationship to art history. matisse started as a belated post-impressionist and then did something radically new. mondrian rejected figuration to make extremely pure abstractions. and rothko’s sublime pictures advanced beyond figurative tradition. building upon this tradition, scully makes abstract paintings that employ the rhythms of contemporary urban life. our cities are filled with repeated architectural forms. and classical and popular music uses rhythms. in our cities we watch diverse lives unfolding, everything happening to everyone everywhere all at once. early modernists like manet depicted the rhythms of urban life. slide: manet scully shows such repetitions in his paintings, doing abstractly for our urban life what figurative cityscape artists did for their cities. slide: scully he extends the concerns of matisse, mondrian and rothiko and the other american abstract expressionism. according to the postmodernists, painting like scully’s is not really possible. after the radical break with modernist tradition, interesting art needed to find entirely new styles of visual thinking. but according to danto, once we acknowledge that art’s history has no direction, then no one way of making art is the preordained way to proceed. everything is possible—scully’s reworking of abstract expressionist tradition, the image appropriations of warhol’s heirs, and everything else. if you wish to make figurative pictures or bronze sculptures, then that too is allowed. you can do anything knowing that history in no way restricts your freedom. no one can tell you in advance how good your art will be. when scully was very young one of his key influences was van vogh’s chair. slide: van gogh, chair admiring its direct physical presence, he wanted to make art with such power. slide: scully for the followers of warhol, that ambition makes no sense. for them replicating van gogh’s spirituality cannot be a legitimate artistic goal. scully, who does not admire warhol, wants to make paintings that can stand alongside chair. however much he wants to continue the abstract expressionist tradition, scully knows that working in his fashion is merely one choice, not historically inevitable. in our post-historical era the relationship between tradition and innovation has changed radically. danto describes the post-historical art world. scully shows how an artist can respond to that novel situation. working entirely independently, philosopher and artist thus reveal the implications of what happens after david carrier / procedia social and behavioral sciences ( ) – modernism. scully knows that making his expressive abstractions is merely one option for a post-historical artist. and so what adds authentic intensity to his art and makes it worthy of admiration, is this sustained struggle to pursue tradition in an era skeptical about such ways of thinking. preparing this lecture, i asked myself how to best present danto’s aesthetic theory and scully’s art here in china. danto has extremely wide-ranging intellectual interests. one of his books deals with asian philosophy. but he has not focused sustained attention on chinese art. scully is much celebrated and widely collected in europe, australia and japan. but because his tradition is very distant from china’s, i expect that chinese art critics will think his paintings exotic imports. when in i had the honor of lecturing at the national academy of art, hangzhou, i got some ideas relevant to this dilemma. very quickly the chinese students understood the concerns of warhol. when i discussed danto’s account of brillo box, a student killed some flies and, holding them, asked, “is this a work of art?” i was impressed—i thought that he had immediately grasped danto’s view of pop art. we discussed precedents for this use of chance in european and chinese art. then i pointed to some discarded cartons and asked whether they could be seen as art. the chinese students certainly understood the analogy with warhol’s brillo box. but when i discussed abstract expressionism, explaining the importance of jackson pollock was more difficult. scully’s art may seem alien, but danto’s hegelian aesthetic deals with concerns familiar in china. in europe the birth of abstraction depended upon a dialectical response to the perfection of realism. once in the nineteenth-century illusionism was perfected, european artists turned to other goals. in modernism tradition manet, cubism and abstract expressionism gradually moved away from naturalism towards abstraction. slide: manet slide: jackson pollock mimesis, the central concern of european art from giotto’s time onward into the nineteenth-century, was rejected. to my western eye, the obsessive fascination with brushwork allows traditional chinese painting to hover between figuration and abstraction. slide: chinese painting and so there was little incentive to move onward to pure abstraction. that earlier visit to china sparked my interest in universal histories of art. how is it possible, i wondered, to write a history that looks outside europe? china has a long highly complex essentially self-sufficient tradition. and so it is not obvious how to relate that history to the story of european art. western museums aspire to collect art from all cultures. painting from europe is presented in an historical narrative. but because china has an independent history, it is not clear how to display its art. dealing with tradition and innovation in the museum requires identifying both changes and continuities. walking through the metropolitan in new york for example, you see how european painting of the fourteenth-century leads towards modernism. and when you go across to the galleries of asian art, you observe the parallel histories of chinese and korean painting and pottery. danto’s aesthetic describes the logic of this post-historical museum. the history of art is closed we can display art from all cultures. balancing tradition and innovation is a central concern for the museum. there need be no break between the galleries devoted to older and contemporary art. scully’s perspective on tradition is exemplary, for it shows how a contemporary painter can extend the achievement of modernism. had scully merely pursued engagement with tradition without taking notice of contemporary art, at most he would have been a magnificent eccentric. by responding to the post-historical culture, he has taken note of the contemporary museum on his own chosen artistic terms. my forthcoming book on the art museum discusses these topics in full detail. one of the people to whom that publication is dedicated is professor ding ning, who has helped me to learn about chinese art. and so this seems the right place to acknowledge that generous support. thank you! microsoft word - a. benarous abstract—this paper reports a case study on how a conceptual and analytical thinking approach was used in art and design department at multimedia university (malaysia) in addressing the issues of one nation and its impact in the society through artworks. the art project was designed for students to increase the know-how and develop creative thinking in design and communication. goals of the design project were: ( ) to develop creative thinking in design and communication, ( ) to increase student understanding on the process of problem solving for design work, and ( ) to use design elements and principles to generate interest, attention and emotional responses. an exhibition entitled "one nation" was showcased to local and international viewers consisting of the general public, professionals, academics, artists and students. findings indicate that the project supported several visual art standards, as well as generated awareness in the society. this project may be of interest to current and future art educators and others interested in the potential of utilizing global issues as content for art, community and environment studies for the purpose of educational art. keywords—conceptual and analytical thinking, visual arts, communication, art & design. i. introduction his paper reports a case study on how students from art and design department from multimedia university utilized visual arts as a vehicle of communication in getting their message across to the audience. the students are required to design a poster to portray the one nation concept – dreams, visions and voices. the design should create an everlasting impact and emphasize provocative and visionary works that are original in their use of the medium and emphasizes innovative works that challenge the use of principles and elements of design besides portraying a strong message to its audiences. one of the important criteria or limitation is that the design work must associate with numbers, alphabets, shapes or combination of them. the final poster format are adhered to the international standards organization (iso) poster size format (ao) in either landscape or portrait orientation. the students are required to design in two-dimensional ( d) format only. a member of the lecturing team who initiated the exhibition explained that “one nation originated as an idea to promote tolerance, togetherness and peace amongst people. students were first to study significant quotations from famous individuals, then visualized the selected quotations using perumal, v. is with the faculty of creative multimedia, multimedia university, cyberjaya, selangor, malaysia (phone: + ; fax: + ; e-mail: pvimala@mmu.edu.my). sharji, e. a. is with the faculty of creative multimedia, multimedia university, cyberjaya, selangor, malaysia (phone: + ; fax: + ; email: elyna@mmu.edu.my). typography combined with relevant images into compositions for posters; they worked the compositions on computers and later printed them in ao size posters”. according to [ ], “the word nation is singular in a sense; it usually connoted a political idea of a country or a government used to govern people or the citizens. there were even political parties using one nation as their parties’ names – one nation, a nationalist party in australia; one nation, a defunct party in israel; one nation, a defunct far-right party in the united kingdom; one nation, a secular non-profit organization in the u.s.a. that advocates american religious pluralism; etceteras”. the objectives of the project are: a. to develop creative thinking in design and communication. b. to understand the process of problem solving for design work. c. to use design elements and principles for attention and emotional responses. ii. literature review a. visual arts according to [ ], a good definition of art would be that art is a primarily visual medium that is used to express ideas about our human experience and the world around us. art can be grouped into four areas of function, visual form, content and aesthetics. art functions based on the following, it promotes spiritual and physical well-being, it reflects customs and humanities, it communicates thoughts, ideas and emotions, it gives us pictures of deities and art also serves the dead by commemorating them. art glorifies the power of rulers, it celebrates war and conquest, and peace, and it is also a means for protesting political and social injustice and promotes cohesion within a social group. art records the likenesses of individuals and their context, art educates us about ourselves and lastly, art entertains [ ]. thus by measuring its function, one can denote whether it is successful or not in conveying the intended message. another attribute of art is visual form which includes the material it is made of, its formal elements such as line, shape, colour, texture, mass, volume, space and so on and the overall composition of the size, balance and such. visual form is manipulated in an art work to assist in its function and to add to its appeal. content is associated with art in terms of the ideas and messages communicated through the art’s imagery, the surrounding where it is displayed, its symbolic meaning, the customs, beliefs and value of culture and the text that is incorporated with the writings of the work. visual arts as a vehicle of communication perumal, v. and sharji, e. a t world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/visual-arts-as-a-vehicle-of-communication/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / the last factor associated is aesthetics, which is actually an experience. it comes from the branch of philosophy that deals with art, its sources, forms and effects on individuals and cultures. creativity in art allows us to originate and causes some objects to come into being, it is tied with artistic expression and innovation and following certain precedents. art can be grouped into various categories such as fine art, popular culture, craft or style which is in fact very much influenced by geographic boundaries, disciplines or humanistic themes. media is classified into traditional media where it is used in drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture and craft-making. as knowledge and technology progressed, non-traditional media emerged for newly developed disciplines, including mixed media, video and film, digital imaging and performance. thus media can be defined as the actual material substance used to create an artwork while disciplines are the various branches of art making for example painting or video. technology-based media includes photography, film and video while digital media involves the computer-based storage of still or moving images as digital information, with or without sound. thus, all kinds of existing imagery can be scanned to become digital information and easily manipulated while the outputs can be printed on hard copy, displayed on computer monitors, or projected onto a screen. b. creative thinking in design and communication sight and vision is vital and important in human communication and cultural as an expression or language. there is a need to explain further on the literal and metaphorical centrality of vision and the visuals [ ]. he further states that the substance of visual and the different ways that artists and designers have thought about it and relate to the market, public and audiences. the different types and form, which are developed over time and place construct and communicate different identities. as mentioned by [ ], visual perceptions will lead to greater creative thinking and higher value judgments, thus, conceptual knowledge is and indispensable ingredient of creativity. correct method and application of creative thinking in design entails knowledge and identity. one of the methods of creative thinking requires exploring of ideas either visually or verbally. this is because as stated by [ ], learning to draw is more to do with thinking in a ney way than anything else. a more creative way would be the minimum requirement of basic recognition and survival, but also the proportions, angles and relationships. in order to have a method, one should translate imaginatively a thing, situation, or idea into an equivalent graphic output, two-dimension or three-dimension; a complex translation into a new form. to help achieve this, a number of formulas and conventions have been invented, such as geometric perspective and some pragmatic like cubism. thus it is dependent on the method adopted and varies to transform reality and ideas into vital and imaginative visual equivalents. c. conceptual & analytical thinking approach reference [ ] argues that some form of intention and representation, made occurring phenomenon more meaningful and provides a clue to the identity of the visual in visual culture. while philosophical and religious traditions underline our everyday habits of thoughts, they are heavily depended on visual metaphors, allegories and images that describe and explain life’s meaning. the definition of visual arts, culture and experience will lead to what is seen and the sense that is made out of what is seen may be defined and conceptualized. approaches concentrate on formal elements, expressions and reflection. reference [ ] relates visual arts to sight and visually literate that requires some process of learning. images recorded and then relate to the mind and translated back into forms of visual content describes the whole process that is referred to as visual perception. this is and ability to use imagery, to perceive objects in space, to use and comprehend graphic language such as maps, blueprints, drawings and diagrams, this leads to the ability to see visual order, to recognise beauty, symbols, excellence and expression. iii. design process in order to create the poster design, students are required to adhere to the design process in producing their artwork. the process of creating the artwork involves three steps: i) step : background research and precedent studies the students are required to choose a quote by a prominent figure or leader. then, they are required to gather information on the whole concept and illustrate the quote that has been chosen. next, students have to find related visuals that could be used as references by searching for examples of style or look that they think are appropriate for their design work. the students are also required to organize the flow of thoughts with illustrated diagram on the information that they had gathered and show how the chosen quote relates to the whole concept. ii) step : concept and design development in this step, students are required to find related visuals (drawings, photographs and etc) that could be used to visualize the chosen quote. next, in idea and design development, students need to analyze and develop their idea based on the visuals that they have gathered. after that, they are required to produce at least difference composition studies before choosing a final design. students are allowed to explore different ways of developing the design. iii) step : final design and presentation the final poster design must be framed (poster framing) with high quality printing. the final poster format must adhered to the international standards organization (iso) poster size format (ao) in either landscape or portrait orientation. students are required to design in two- dimensional ( d) format only. world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/visual-arts-as-a-vehicle-of-communication/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / iv. findings & discussion a. review and exhibition an exhibition entitled "one nation" was showcased to local and international viewers consisting of the general public, professionals, academics, artists and students. the exhibition challenges students to explore new creative avenues and refine their skills to the highest levels and serves as an inspiration to improve further. the exhibition is a selection of some posters, on the theme or title of one nation, created by arts and design students. the class which exhibited the posters was composed of students of various nationalities. there were bangladeshis, chinese, indians, indonesians, iranians, iraqis, nigerians, saudi arabians, etceteras as well as malaysians. fig. “one nation” poster design by a malaysian student reference [ ] noted that “it is interesting to note that, though the students came from various backgrounds and places, its difficult to discover these ‘national identities’ (of where they came from) as almost all images addressed or represented were issues of universal and global concerns. perhaps these reflected the one nation (or one world) projected by the teaching team”. the exhibition was a success and received numerous positive feedbacks from the public, academics and art practitioners. it was also an achievement among the students intrinsically as one of the students whose work was exhibited said, “it was one of our best experience in faculty of creative multimedia (fcm) and hope it’s not the last. all this comes back to our lecturers’ efforts. we all really owe them a lot. we promise to keep up this good work”. another students quoted: “i would like to thank our dear dean for his support and also for all of our lectures in foundation. we have learned a lot from you and it was a very special year for us. everybody did a great job and we are proud to be fcm students”. fig. “one nation” poster design by an iranian student fig. “one nation” poster design by indonesian student “the posters on display were laden with both surface beauty and underpinning meanings. there were popular or famous images and quotations of carlos santana, che guevara, helen keller, john lennon, kofi annan, mahatma ghandi, martin luther king jr., and etceteras. there were colours, lines, shapes and all the design principles the students proved they understood poster as a media form” [ ]. v. conclusion as a conclusion, the exhibition "one nation" which was showcased to local and international viewers consisting of the general public, professionals, academics, artists and students received positive feedbacks on how visual arts act as a vehicle of communication in addressing the issues of one nation and world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/visual-arts-as-a-vehicle-of-communication/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / its impact in the society through artworks. the exhibition was open for public viewing for a month at the university’s gallery. findings indicate that the project supported several visual art standards, as well as generated awareness in the society. this kind of project may be of interest to current and future art educators and others interested in the potential of utilizing global issues as content for art, community and environment studies for the purpose of educational art. acknowledgment the authors would like to acknowledge the outstanding contributions of the foundation staff, faculty of creative multimedia, multimedia university and students who assisted the authors. references [ ] barnard, m. ( ). art, design and visual culture. st. martin’s press, inc. new york. [ ] cornia, i. e. ( ). art is elementary. teaching visual thinking through art concepts. gibbs smith. usa. [ ] ibrahim, t. ( ). one nation or one world? : an exhibition of posters, alpha (foundation) year, faculty of creative multimedia, multimedia university. [ ] lazzari, m. & schlesier, d. ( ). exploring art, a global, thematic approach. [ ] micklewright, k. ( ). drawing. laurence king publishing ltd. london. uk. world academy of science, engineering and technology international journal of humanities and social sciences vol: , no: , international scholarly and scientific research & innovation ( ) scholar.waset.org/ - / in te rn at io na l s ci en ce i nd ex , h um an it ie s an d s oc ia l s ci en ce s v ol : , n o: , w as et .o rg /p ub li ca ti on / http://waset.org/publication/visual-arts-as-a-vehicle-of-communication/ http://scholar.waset.org/ - / the ‘great divide’: how the arts contribute to science and science education view point the ‘great divide’: how the arts contribute to science and science education martin braund & michael j. reiss # the author(s) abstract in recent years, there has been a rapid growth in interest about the relationship between the arts and the sciences. this article explores this developing relationship and the suggestion that science and science learning are not complete without the arts. we see three levels at which the arts might improve the teaching and learning of science. the first is at a macro-level, concerned with ways in which subjects (including the arts and sciences) are structured and options for studying them provided and packaged. the second is at the meso-level, guiding approaches constructing science curricula that engage learners through using sts (science, technology and society) contexts. the third is at the micro-level, of pedagogical practices in science and teaching that can be drawn from the arts. the drivers of steam (science, technology, arts, engineering and mathematics) add new dimensions to the nature of science in the twenty-first century and make science likely to diverge even more rapidly from school science unless new pedagogies, including those from the arts, help close the gap. the result could be a more authentic and engaging school science, one more relevant to the needs of the twenty-first century. résumé les dernières années ont marqué un intérêt grandissant pour les liens entre les arts et les sciences. cet article propose d’analyser ces liens en développement, ainsi que l’idée que les sciences et l’apprentissage scientifique ne sont pas complets sans les arts. nous distinguons trois niveaux où les arts sont susceptibles d’améliorer l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des sciences. le premier, le niveau macro, s’intéresse aux façons dont les sujets scolaires (y compris les arts plastiques et les sciences) sont structurés, et comment les différentes options pour les étudier sont proposées et présentées. le deuxième niveau, intermédiaire, guide des approches visant à la construction de curriculums scientifiques qui stimulent l’intérêt des apprenants par le biais de contextes sts (sciences, technologies et société). le troisième, soit le niveau micro, se penche sur des pratiques pédagogiques en sciences et en enseignement qui sont dérivées des arts. les facteurs qui influencent les sciences, les technologies, les arts, l’ingénierie et les mathématiques ajoutent de nouvelles dimensions à la nature des sciences au ième siècle et augmentent le risque que les can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. https://doi.org/ . /s - - - m. braund (*) department of research, faculty of education, cape peninsula university of technology, mowbray campus, highbury rd, po box , cape town , south africa e-mail: martin.braund@york.ac.uk m. j. reiss ucl institute of education, university college london, bedford way, london wc h al, uk e-mail: m.reiss@ucl.ac.uk http://orcid.org/ - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf sciences se démarquent encore plus rapidement des sciences en milieu scolaire, à moins que de nouvelles pédagogies, y compris celles qui proviennent des arts, ne contribuent à réduire cet écart. le résultat de telles pédagogies pourrait déboucher sur des programmes de sciences à l’école plus authentiques et plus motivants, et aussi plus pertinents compte tenu des besoins du ième siècle. keywords curriculum . policy development . science-arts collaboration in recent years, there has been considerable growth in the literature devoted to relationships between the arts and the sciences. a development and application of this is evidenced in the moves in several countries to consider a steam curriculum instead of a stem one—in other words, adding ‘arts’ to ‘science, technology, engineering and mathematics’ (marshall, ; lunn & noble, ; colucci-gray, burnard, cooke, davies, gray, & trowsdale, ; harris & de bruin, ; skorton & bear, ). this comes at a time of continuing unease about the effectiveness of science education and trends in low youth engagement with science (archer, dewitt, osborne, dillon, willis & wong, ; schmidt, burroughs & cogan, ; royal society, ). this article, while not a formal review, explores the developing relationship between the arts and sciences and the suggestion that the enterprise of science and of learning it increasingly benefit from the arts and that science and science learning at all ages are consequently less complete. the questions we address are: & what might the arts provide that would make the sciences more complete? & in a world where many young people turn from learning science and involvement in it, what can we learn and take from the arts that might improve the teaching and learning of science? as will become clear, we understand the arts as including more than the visual arts; we also refer to ‘the sciences’, to make a parallel with ‘the arts’ apparent and to acknowledge that science includes a range of disciplines. we start by providing a brief historical overview, so as to contextualise contemporary issues on which we subsequently focus. our particular interest is in the science education provided by primary and secondary schooling and our main intention in this article is to present the argument that the current way science is perceived and adapted for science education has substantial shortcomings for contemporary science education. science and art in culture and civilisation art seems to be as old as cognate human existence. it is commonly recognised that art, in expressive visual form, dates as far back as the late palaeolithic (about , bce). figurines, beads and decorative art on functional objects such as handles, implements and simple vessels for food and water are evident from mesolithic to neolithic times and later, with the first emergence of pottery (preziosi, ). with refinements in hieroglyphics and the advent of written languages, art in storytelling and illustrated texts evolved, often simultaneously, alongside the extraordinary visual art of civilisations across africa, arabia, the eastern mediterranean, central and southern america, australasia and polynesia-micronesia. with the development of language, new literary art forms of poetry, fiction and theatre became possible. it seems that humans across their diaspora simultaneously advanced their art as an essential part of progressive civilisation. today, the arts can be considered to include the visual arts (including drawing, painting, sculpture, filmmaking, architecture, photography ceramics), literature (poetry, drama, prose fiction) and the performing arts (theatre, dance and music). can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. as far as the earliest manifestations of ‘science’ in culture are concerned, these are more difficult to pin down. partly this concerns the word ‘science’, which only came into common use (at least as we now understand it) in the early nineteenth century (heidegger & grene, ). this is not to say that science as a distinct activity did not exist in prehistory. observations and calculations of, for example, the earth’s precession around its axis and the solar year and lunar month are known from mesopotamian and babylonian carved tablets of around years bce (steele, ). in modern times, historians and philosophers have come to a consensus that sees science as a body of empirical, theoretical and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by people (‘scientists’) who emphasise observation, explanation and prediction of real-world phenomena (whitehead, ). as such, modern empirical science is a development of what was called ‘natural philosophy’ from the time of aristotle through to the eighteenth-century enlightenment and nineteenth-century origins of modern science. stemming from baconian beliefs of inductivism and empiricism, scientific ‘methods’ were considered to be fundamental to modern (empirical) science, especially of the physical and biological kind. thus, the enterprise of doing science (and to some extent of learning it) has often been (and still is) presented as a progressive narrative in which true theories replaced false beliefs (bereiter, ). alternative, expansive interpretations of science, such as those of thomas kuhn, portray science in more nuanced, terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes, considered by traditional ‘baconists’ to be outside science (kuhn, ). unfortunately, for many school students, the more restricted view of science founded on baconian traditions has often led to perceptions of science as a fact-driven enterprise divorced from the culture in which it exists and serves. these views have prevailed in the history of education in science (driver, leach, millar & scott, ). at the same time, as we discuss below, there are, thankfully, many examples of teachers attempting to introduce students to a more creative and engaging experience of science (e.g. mcgregor, wilson, bird & frodsham, ). our own view is that it remains the case that one of the great strengths of science (which we take to mean the natural sciences—principally biology, chemistry, physics and earth sciences) is that science does seek for reliable knowledge that has a substantial underpinning objectivity—so that, for example, chemical reactions undertaken in the same environmental conditions proceed independently of who is observing them. we are very well aware of arguments within science and the philosophy of science about the ways in which observers affect what is observed (schrödinger’s cat, quantum entanglement, etc.) but our argument does not rely on any particular resolution of such issues. the arts and science: how science might be made more complete by the arts we use the word ‘complete’ in the phrase ‘science might be made more complete by the arts’ with two emphases. first, we make the claim for science, independently of education. let us be clear that we do not mean there is an absolute requirement for the arts in order for science to exist or proceed. science seems to have done quite well in recent times without much overt recourse to the arts. there are, however, subtle and more covert ways in which the arts and the sciences co-exist and are (or should be) interdependent. some of these are seen in the personal lives of scientists. root-bernstein et al. ( ) showed that nobel prize winners and members of the national academy of sciences and the royal society were more likely than other scientists, or even the population at large, to have hobbies or abilities in the arts. secondly, we make the claim with reference to the successful teaching of science. we now put forward four main premises in our argument that science is made more complete by its relationship with the arts. we use these to lead to a fifth premise, establishing a case for the arts to enhance the ways in which science courses and teaching methods might change to make science learning more authentic and engaging. can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. . the subject boundaries premise: divisions between curriculum areas (school subjects) run counter to the life experiences of learners of all ages. . the cognitive premise: the work of science needs creative as well as critical thinking to allow discourses that empower and fuel discovery and innovation and allow risk-taking. . the neuroscience premise: thinking in science is stimulated by artistic activity. . the collaborative, economic premise: collaboration between arts and sciences and vice versa is at the heart of the modern economy. . the pedagogical premise: the final justification is embedded in science education: organising curricula to accommodate science and arts and drawing on pedagogy normally associated with the arts offer fruitful ways to engage learners in school science and help them learn and to help prevent young people turning away from science. we now consider key aspects of these five premises in more detail. our focus is on the teaching and learning of science, so we spend less time on the aspects of these premises that are more to do with science than with science education—which is particularly the case for premise four. however, we feel that for the argument about teaching and learning to hold, and to change how science is typically taught in schools, it is important that educators believe they are still being true to science. cultural and subject boundaries it has been suggested that the subject disciplines of the curriculum have evolved structures and character- istics that create boundaries between them and that this limits cross-disciplinary collaboration (phelan, davidson & cao, ). indeed, goldberg ( ) argues that the panic that the launch of sputnik in caused among us government not only, as is widely acknowledged, gave rise to a new drive to improve the teaching of science and mathematics in schools but also meant that education, instead of being seen as a way of cultivating an engaged member of society, became the vehicle for discrete subject expertise. dillon ( ) sees disciplinary borders favouring a utilitarian view of knowledge and creativity, often under- valuing disciplines, including the creative and performing arts, not directly associated with the primary means of economic production. subject discipline boundaries, generally strengthened by an accountability and performance culture embedded in school systems, often mitigate against a more open agenda and epistemology where collaboration and creativity contribute to investigative and problem-solving ap- proaches (breimer, johnson, harkness & koehler, ; colucci-gray et al., ; harris & de bruin, ). science relies on creative as well as critical thinking often science is seen as concerning mainly ‘critical’ rather than ‘creative’ thinking. this is largely because critical thinking is perceived as a set of vertically operated cognitive skills used for decision-making in complex but logical situations, or for solving ‘ill-structured’ problems (kuhn, ). critical thinking is valued as a meta-cognitive tool to strengthen assertions and enhance domain-specific understanding in science. this particular understanding of the nature of assertions as judgements coincides with essential components of the nature of science (see, for instance, abd-el-khalick, lederman, bell & schwartz, ) as science relies on logic in empirically testing competing claims to assess the strength of evidence- supporting claims. this all seems very logical and appropriate for science but there are many cases where leaps in scientific discovery and innovation would not have happened using critical thinking alone. a possible example is neils bohr’s model for the atom that in paved the way for one of the great leaps forward in science: quantum physics. bohr needed a new way of conceptualising the atom to allow for the erratic behaviour of electrons, stepping beyond the classic planetary model of electrons orbiting a nucleus in a planar ellipse. it can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. has been argued that his model of atomic structure was stimulated by contemporaneous changes in literature and the arts, such as cubism (clarke, ). bohr maintained that the form electron paths took depended on how you looked at them. their very nature was a consequence of our observations. this meant that electrons were not like little planets at all. instead, they were like one of picasso or braque’s deconstructed pictures, a blur of brushstrokes that only made sense once you stared at it for long enough. we are not claiming that without cubism, bohr’s theory would not have arisen. the important point is that the existence of new ways of looking at the world in the arts opens up spaces in which new thoughts about how the physical world works are more likely. there are now an increasing number of initiatives that use such approaches. for example, the university of california davis art fusion programme was co-founded by entomologist/artist diane ullman of the university of california davis department of entomology and nematology and the ceramicist donna billick back in , building on an undergraduate course, ‘art, science and the world of insects’, that they initiated in (garvey, ). the programme has been described as transformational as its innovative approach has helped facilitate learning in both formal and informal settings and has helped engage members of the local community as well as students and academic staff. similarly, the nsf art of science projects have funded a number of activities that intersect art and science. for example, susan eriksson, geologist and artist, uses metal, wood and minerals to create unique pieces that are often inspired by the geological world. eriksson notes that scientific concepts are used when she creates her art. for instance, quantitative skills are used to divide tonal systems, while her metalwork incorporates various chemistry principles (national science foundation, ). many people think that doing science involves closely following a series of steps, with little room for creativity and inspiration. in fact, many scientists, like bohr and in the examples above, recognise that creative thinking is one of the most important skills they have—whether that creativity is used to come up with an alternative hypothesis, to devise a new way of testing an idea, or to look at old data in a new light. creativity is critical to science and sits alongside criticality; it does not replace it. the brain and ‘scientific’ and ‘artistic’ thinking the third premise in support of our argument for the arts ‘in and for’ science comes from neuroscience and some of what is known about human brain function. there have been claims for some time that the arts can contribute to the general development of cognitive abilities (deasey, ). early claims for brain- associated arts- and science-based thinking were based on presumptions about brain differentiation. it was suggested that the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex control different physical and cognitive functions (sperry, ; hermann, ). analytical and sequential reasoning (useful in math- ematics and science) was said to be associated with left brain function while the right side was seen to deal with interpersonal, imaginative and emotional thinking (herrmann, ; mcgilchrist, ). this led to a simplistic view that arts learning is associated with ‘right brain’ thinking science and mathematics with ‘left brain’ thinking. consequently, some educators such as dorothy heathcote advocated arts-derived pedagogy arguing right-brained activity such as drama could lead to a ‘left-handed’ way of knowing and thus benefit scientific, logical-mathematical reasoning (wagner, ). however, recent brain biology has challenged ideas of separated brain functions. in a review of the field, morris ( ) points out that most cognitive scientists favour a ‘whole brain’ view, acknowledging that activities drawing on as wide a range of stimulation as possible inevitably improve brain function, especially for higher order activity and critical thinking (see also howard-jones, ). the point we wish to suggest here is that artistic activities may stimulate the brain in ways that might not be engaged by traditional science activities. there are now a number of initiatives that explore the implications of the arts for neuroscience, including fusion, a group that meets every four weeks in edinburgh (edinburgh neuroscience, ). for example, fusion artist michele marcoux explores the fragmentary nature of identity, memory and perception, providing new insights into the work of scientists. can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. before leaving this third premise in support of the arts for science, it is worth mentioning the work of the dana foundation in the usa. this organisation supports a number of research studies on brain functioning. work using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) has shown benefits in cognitive reasoning for those who have been involved in music training (moreno, ), dance (cross & ticini, ) and drama/ theatre (hough & hough, ). a collaborative and economic perspective a new steam age driving economic development in modern science and technology is emerging making disciplinary subject boundaries of schools seem rather out of date. the ‘capital’ of art and science (i.e. the broad accumulations of knowledge and skills that contribute to and are fundamental to the enterprise of the arts and the sciences) is made greater by closer collaboration between them. in the business world, art- science collaborations have led to large-scale investment and smaller scale innovation. a country-wide approach placing the arts firmly within the stem agenda in the usa has been stimulated in a movement championed by the rhode island school of design (risd), now adopted by institutions, corporations and individuals throughout the usa (risd, ). the initiative’s key aims are to help hire artists and designers to drive technological innovation and promote possibilities for integration of arts with science and technology subjects across all phases of education. examples of collaborations involving the risd steam initiative include design students working alongside marine ecologists and oceanographers to conserve coastal sites and nature-lab interns making animated films to teach about marine ecosystems and work with universities in germany to design and test advanced solar-powered vehicles. other us examples include the stanford art + science programme (stanford arts, ), the hiring of artists to solve problems in government agencies (los angeles county arts commission, ), collaborations between the worlds of fashion and science (office of communications, ) and janet echelman’s monumental, fluidly- moving sculptures that respond to environmental forces, including wind, water and sunlight (echelman, ). in the uk, there is a collaborative network called the ‘knowledge quarter’, a rapidly growing partnership of over academic, cultural, research, scientific and media organisations. the hub of the network is europe’s largest bioscience laboratory, the crick institute in london. this collaboration draws on unique expertise and knowledge in the arts and sciences from conservation of the world’s earliest books and manuscripts (at the british library) to fashion and creative designs at central st martin’s college, all in touch with researchers at the crick institute (knowledge quarter, ). the possibilities thrown up by art-science collaborations have resulted in new applications of science and technology in product design and use. the fashion industry has been quick to take advantage. figure shows an example of a dress devised by london-based, techno-fashion house cutecircuit. the dress has thousands of micro leds sewn into the fabric, allowing a garment to change colours and patterns. these ‘smart textiles’ have the potential to evolve into even more dramatic creations, especially with advance- ments in nanotechnology. one already classic piece is the ‘kinetic dress’. this victorian-style evening dress has sensors in the fabric which communicate to the electroluminescent embroidery when the wearer is moving. the faster the movement, the brighter the embroidery, translating kinetic movement into colour and pattern design. collaborations like this serve to increase the economic and knowledge capital of both art and science. a report on sciart, wellcome trust’s -year scheme to stimulate art-science links in the uk, found artistic outcomes from ten case studies evidenced widespread dissemination to sizeable audiences and an unusual longevity of audience and professional interest (glinkowski & bamford, ). it seems that contribution to scientific capital is not so much a shift or development in scientific processes or outcomes, but rather that scientists’ involvement with artists encouraged speculative approaches to research and being more prepared to take risks. can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. how science education benefits from the arts and how the arts make a contribution to ‘better’ (more authentic and engaging) science education for the hundred years or more of compulsory schooling in the developed nations, there has been an almost constant concern that students are less enthusiastic about learning science than other subjects and that decreasing numbers of young people want to pursue science into higher education or as a career. a meta- analysis of research for the royal society vision report shows these attitudes have hardly shifted over the last ten years in the uk in spite of huge investment in improving science teaching in schools, teacher training and professional development (bennett, braund & sharpe, ). in the usa, similar concerns over the quality and depth of science education to interest and engage students, particularly from disad- vantaged backgrounds, have been noted (e.g. schmidt, burroughs & cogan, ). the relevance of science education (rose) project carried out surveys of -year-old students in countries and found that, while students in all countries see the importance of science, in many this does not translate into liking for school science as a subject, particularly for girls (sjøberg & schreiner, ). so, our questions remain what might the arts provide that would make the sciences more complete and what can we learn and take from the arts that might improve the teaching and learning of science? we can envisage consequences that the arts might have on science, for science and in science. our interest is particularly in science education and we see three levels at which the arts might improve teaching and learning of science. the first is at a macro-level, concerned with ways in which subjects (including the arts and sciences) are structured and options for studying them provided and packaged. the second is at the meso-level, guiding approaches to the construction of science curricula and schemes of work that engage learners, for example through using sts (science, technology and society) contexts. the third is at the micro-level, of pedagogical practices in science and teaching that can be drawn from the arts. these three levels are not entirely distinct—in particular, the meso-level overlaps at one pole with the macro-level and at the other with the micro-level. however, the three levels provide a useful heuristic. in the second half of this article, we consider each of these levels, paying the most attention to the third one—arts practices in and for science teaching. the arts and sciences at the macro-level: curriculum provision countries vary greatly in the extent students specialise early or are required to learn a broad and balanced range of subjects until the end of compulsory schooling. it is not uncommon for students to be pushed fig. eiza gonzález wearing a cutecircuit dress by edgar meritano © cutecircuit, used with permission can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. towards a specialism in the arts and humanities or the sciences and mathematics, though few countries specialise to the extent that england does where most students take only three subjects from the age of . in the last ten years or so, to broaden and diversify science in schools and link it to technology, engineering and mathematics, there has been a push in the uk, the us and some asian countries towards the concept of stem – science, technology, engineering and mathematics. while there is some sense in taking a lead from wider communities of modern economies that link these disciplines needed for development, evidence of how stem has impacted the occurrence and effects of collaboration and interdisciplinary work in schools is unconvincing (archer et al., ; colucci-gray et al., ), despite the widely acknowledged benefits of interdisciplinary approaches (cf. the work of leonardo da vinci). too often, the concept of stem seems remote and poorly understood by teachers. for example, in the uk, the royal society commissioned a series of meta-analyses of research as part of its stem vision report, one of which considered to what extent the stem concept was embedded and had made differences in schools (howes, kaneva, swanson & williams, ). in one section of their report the authors cite research studies showing that: stem remains a misleading curriculum concept: it is not an integrated reality in high schools anywhere in the world that we know of, and stem integration is not well understood by teachers. in many projects, the focus is on science and maths, leaving out engineering and technology. (howes et al., : ) the aspires (young people’s science and career aspirations - ) project found stem subjects were viewed by students as lacking creativity and unrelated to images or aspirations that they had for themselves (archer et al., ). drawing on the arts to reinvigorate science education might provide the sorts of post-human education advocated by quinn ( ) and alluded to by philosophers such as biesta ( ), one where individuals play a part in knowing about themselves as part of a greater whole, rather than being seen as subservient participants in an epistemology valuing information and knowledge as superior to the individual. an example of ‘macro’ integration can be seen in a us-originated project calling for stem to integrate with arts into a ‘steam’ curriculum (see www.steamedu.com). this has been picked up by the south korean government which has instituted an associated curriculum and teacher training programme (baek et al., ). the steam rationale explicitly draws on a formula of smart technology with ‘cool design’, once promoted by the late steve jobs. it may be that a steam curriculum appeals to the agenda of ‘pacific rim’ countries that value an innovation-based reform of education for a competitive knowledge economy. in the pyramid diagram provided by steam education (fig. ), steam educators promote the idea of ‘life-long holistic teaching’ as a more progressive and ‘functional’ alternative to conventional integration or multidisciplinary views of stem and arts (a). the idea is to work in a transdisciplinary way, avoiding artificial combinations (or separations) of subject disciplines. steam educators promote a more progressive alternative to conventional integration or multidisciplin- ary views of stem and arts (a) that retain separate identities and traditional subject disciplines with associated content-related structures (e.g. high tech high, ). rather than taking a problem or topic and using it to focus teaching in subject time or through a multidisciplinary approach that can produce artificial connections between subject content, a steam approach constantly reiterates the importance of a local, relevant problem to solve, drawing in the arts and humanities as well as stem content as a natural consequence of researching and communicating solutions. for example, herro and quigley ( ) describe steam teaching using the context of a local housing development adjacent to a school. stem content included sound insulation, geological and geophysical data and the mathematics of cost impact and design. the arts (visual and communication) and humanities (social sciences) were used to explain human dimensions of aesthetic design and in communicating students’ views of developers’ proposals. according to howes and colleagues, such a steam approach for schools might have attractions for arts-led work can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. http://www.steamedu.com with learners who are not apparently predisposed towards or interested in stem, but who might thereby maintain contact with stem in some form: rather than seeing such students as having leaked from a stem ‘pipeline’, perhaps we should see them as travelling by a different route, to a later rendezvous. (howes et al., : ) arts and sciences at the meso-level: engaging learners through arts-related sts contexts at the ‘meso’ level, we consider ways in which places of learning operationalise the curriculum in terms of the courses, schemes of work and textbooks used to teach science. although institutions might espouse an educational stance valuing creativity, even one that alludes to integration between the arts and the sciences, it is often the case that aspirations are ‘thwarted by mandated, all-time consuming packaged programs’ (manley, : ). craft ( ) sees a curriculum controlled by assessment regimes limiting schemes that include creative approaches because they are seen as time-consuming and less likely to ‘deliver’ against assessment targets. in response to the perceived problems of students’ disaffection with science and claims that science teaching is boring and irrelevant, science educators and teachers have turned towards course design that sets science in contexts relevant to the real world (e.g. gilbert, bulte & pilot, ). in the usa and some other countries, the term science-technology-society is broadly synonymous with a context-based approach and so this definition, provided by aikenhead, is helpful: fig. a framework for steam education © yakman, g. ( ), used with permission can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. sts approaches… emphasise links between science, technology and society by means of … a technological artefact, process or expertise; the interactions between technology and society; a societal issue related to science or technology; social science content that sheds light on a societal issue related to science and technology; a philosophical, historical, or social issue within the scientific or technological community. (aikenhead : - ) given the arguments made above for closer links between stem and the arts, and examples of how science now draws on and is complemented by arts-related activity, it seems opportune to include steam examples that provide the ‘technological artefacts’, ‘processes’ and ‘interactions’ of aikenhead’s definition for sts. if sts approaches better engage students already signed up to science courses, then including arts applications of science, such as in fashion, film, music, dance and theatre, has the potential to draw in more of those who did not choose science courses in the first place, or for people to re-engage with science learning at a later date. in cultures where the contribution of indigenous knowledge systems is important to science education, recourse to the arts has currency for students’ wider involvement in science learning and for addressing curriculum development in post- colonial contexts, where the contributions of indigenous cultures are taken respectfully and equitably (e.g. alsop & bencze, ). furthermore, it is increasingly appropriate to refer to arts-related stse (science, technology, society and environment) contexts, since stse has become more important in science education (e.g. pedretti & nazir, ) and as the arts have engaged more substantively with environmental issues (o’brien, ). arts in science teaching at the micro-level: pedagogical practises drawing on the arts unesco’s decade of educational effort ( – ) centred on interdisciplinary reform rather than on subject-focussed change. central to its resolution was an emphasis on holistic teaching practices encouraging uses of multiple methods of instruction, for example, writing, art, drama and debate (unesco, ). there is nothing radically new in using such methods to help explain science and make it more accessible to those studying science. the methods of creative writing, poetry, physical model making and visual approaches including painting and drawing, drama and role-play have been part of a few science teachers’ repertoires for some time (e.g. goldberg, ). we suspect, though, that as science education (and all education for that matter) has moved towards more examination-oriented and standard- driven accountability, these methods have become rarer. those teachers who are ‘committed believers’ in these approaches might continue to use them, but even they are under continuing pressure in a time- constrained system that values evidence of achievement in a restricted core of subjects, examined for a narrow set of linguistic and mathematical skills, over outcomes concerned with holistic development of learners. this is despite the widespread acknowledgement that in the twenty-first century, a greater range of skills are necessary (deming & noray, ). in primary schools, in many countries, the primary teacher has been seen as both expert and champion of subject integration. because they typically teach all subjects, the idea of integrating science, and using contexts and methods from the arts and humanities to teach science content, seems more natural. but even these teachers can be under pressure to restrict holistic teaching and learning. in england, these pressures were manifest in critiques of integration from the so-called new right, culminating in a report on the curriculum by alexander, rose and woodhead ( ). they claimed that subject content outcomes were submerged, weak and at a low level in topic work which at the time was typically cross-curricular. since then, the curriculum pressures on science and the arts in english primary schools have increased to the extent that these subjects, along with others, are often downgraded and squeezed into short-afternoon slots can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. after the main business of the day (teaching of ‘literacy’ and ‘numeracy’) has occupied the morning’s work (cf. access art, , for a response to the pressures on curriculum time for art). but why should we claim that methods and approaches from the arts offer possibilities for better learning in science? to begin to answer this question, it helps to look at some of the ways in which science is structured and communicated. science uses symbolic and semiotic systems of representations and employs specific but different meanings for everyday words making it often seem like ‘learning a foreign language’ (bleicher, tobin & mcrobbie, ). science teachers employ mathematical, chemistry and physics symbols and these communication modes can create significant subject-specific barriers to student learning that do not occur in other school subjects (wellington & osborne, ). thus, communication through a variety of visual, spoken and alternative written language modes (alternatives to written, expository texts), drawn from the arts, offers ways of breaking down the barriers that students find hard to cross. in the university of california irvine school of medicine, medical students used masterpieces by van gogh, rembrandt, kandinsky and da vinci to improve observation and pattern recognition skills in clinical situations (shapiro, rucker & beck, ). an additional (and unexpected) outcome was that medical students following the fine arts programme developed better skills in emotional recognition, cultivation of empathy, identification of story and narrative and awareness of multiple perspectives. more routinely, perhaps, there are documented examples of painting and drawing being used in expressive modes for school students to develop and communicate scientific ideas in creative ways. figure comes from a california art-chemistry project. in a workshop on ‘hydrogen fuel-cell cars’, students discussed the basic workings of a fuel cell and then designed their own ‘car of the future’ (halpine, ). in a similar vein, fig. , showing an insectivorous plant with its feeding and reproductive adaptations, was drawn by a high-school student after studying original letters of charles darwin (stafford, ). the picture shows evidence of integration between artistic creativity and scientific writing. in her edited work, drawing for science education, phyllis katz brings together a large number of international examples of how drawings are being used in science education (katz, ). perhaps these artistic activities work because they tap into the visual thinking of learners. it is often said that today’s young people inhabit a multimodal world dominated by television, video games, computers, tablets, films and so on. it has also been claimed that visual thinking translates into problem-solving ability. visual thinkers literally ‘see’ their answers to problems, enabling them to build entire information systems using their imaginations (gangwer, ). an appreciation of structures, processes and concepts can be enhanced by d representations. in many primary school classrooms, around the world, one sees food web mobiles and papier-mâché planets hanging from ceilings. in secondary school chemistry lessons, one might see molecular models made from plasticine and cocktail sticks, and in biology lessons, plant cells made from plastic bags and wallpaper paste. part of the appeal of art approaches, such as those described so far, is that they offer alternatives to the usual modes of science teaching. begoray and stinner ( ) argue that the science classroom is dominated by expository text, representing the dominance in science lessons of comparison, description, sequencing, listing, cause and effect and problem solution. they claim that, as narrative text is more common in the life experience of learners (from films, novels and oral story telling) and is less abstract than expository text in organising knowledge, its use in science lessons can lead to better empathy with science and more effective cognitive learning. one method from the arts, perhaps above others, stands out in this regard of narrative alternatives providing the benefits of visualisation: drama. forms of drama (scripted plays, role-play, movement, mime and dance) make science ideas, theories and processes, at varying degrees of complexity and abstraction, more comprehensible to students through their more active involvement in the reconstruction processes, necessary in a constructivist approach to learning (braund, ). additionally, drama in science models ways in which scientists develop and validate theories and provides a productive platform for debating the social, political and cultural dimensions of science, that help give science a human face, especially for students sceptical of its worth (Ødegaard, ). can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. among drama strategies to enhance science learning, role-plays of the physical kind, where students portray molecules, components of biological cells or model processes such as energy or behaviour of electrons in circuits, offer particular advantage. according to scott, mortimer and ametller ( ), rationalising ideas between learners’ conceptions of the world and canonical science requires differentiation between, and integration of, these two ways of explaining and seeing the world. to achieve integration of ideas requires making the less visible (molecules, electrons, cell components) and abstract ideas (energy, fig. an example of an h o car designed by a third-grade student during a workshop on hydrogen fuel cells halpine, s. m. ( : ) fig. an insectivorous plant drawn by a high-school student after studying original letters of charles darwin. stafford, s. ( ) in c. j. boulter, m. j. reiss & d. l. sanders (eds), darwin-inspired learning, - , rotterdam: sense publishers can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. photosynthesis, entropy) comprehensible to students without obstructions embodied in the symbolic and sometimes obtuse language of science used to communicate these ideas that we referred to earlier. this is why science teachers often use metaphors and analogies to help students access ideas, explanations and theory (aubusson, harrison & ritchie, ). for example, analogues such as the hot water system of a house or ski lift have been used to explain current, voltage and resistance in electrical circuits. a criticism of these approaches is that the analogues themselves may not be fully understood or using them could foster development of problematic alternative conceptions for the target concepts being taught (harrison & treagust, ). it is here that the use of physical role-plays offers an alternative, still drawing on analogues for learning, but through physical interactions that more closely involve learners with the content being taught (braund, ). one cautionary note here is that any analogy, whether arts- or non-arts-derived, communicates only a partial reality. the skill of the teacher is required to provide cognitive space, through discussion, allowing learners to critique whatever analogous model or method is used so that its successes in promoting understanding and its limitations as a version of scientific reality are clear (braund, : ). the arts pedagogies described in this section, and others, including poetry (pollack & korol, ), creative writing and music (crowther, ), offer the science teacher an enhanced pedagogical toolkit to help students learn science. a tradition in science teaching has been to use practical work to help students access ideas and teach concepts, but this has been criticised for being too focussed on practising and performing rehearsed routines and procedures rather than on ensuring that students understand what is going on (hodson ; abrahams & reiss, ). it is, however, possible that approaches derived from the arts have a place to play to enhance practical work. for example, warner and anderson ( ) studied different classes that were investigating the biology of snails, through observation and experi- ment, with and without a prelude of role-plays involving students as expert zoologists. they noticed better accuracy in writing and increased levels of anatomical knowledge for students who had taken part in the role-plays. conclusions—towards a more authentic and engaging science education using the arts we have argued that in considering the contribution that the arts might make to the sciences, particularly in terms of teaching the sciences, it is useful to envisage the contribution as potentially operating at three levels: the macro-level (the ways in which subjects, not only the arts and sciences, are structured and options for studying them provided), the meso-level (guiding the construction of science curricula and schemes of work) and the micro-level (pedagogical practices that can be drawn from the arts when teaching science). it is not, we contend, the case that all three levels must simultaneously exist for improvements to be made. for example, one can envisage a single (albeit passionate and determined) science teacher making changes to their teaching (i.e. at the micro-level) without any corresponding changes at the meso- or macro-levels. nevertheless, it seems reasonable to presume that if appropriate changes are made at two of the levels, ideally all three, the benefits are likely to be correspondingly greater. in arguing for the contributions that the arts might make to science and science education, we are not claiming there should be full integration nor that the epistemology or ontology of the arts and sciences are the same. as literary critic george steiner ( ) once claimed, the intentions, procedures and products of the arts and science have never been the same. art does not proceed from a less complete and less satisfactory representation of the world to a better one; the paintings of giotto are not less worthy than those of degas or pollock. science, though (like the arts) culturally and socially bound, is different and proceeds by empiricism, testing out and establishing better representations of the world. today’s views of the universe and its origins are more complete (though never wholly complete) than those of aristotle, ptolemy, copernicus, galileo, newton or einstein. our main intention in this article has been to show that the current way science is perceived and adapted for science education has substantial shortcomings for the science education of the twenty-first century (see can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. california alliance for arts education ( ) for examples of how many of our arguments apply to school mathematics as well as to school science). an arts-informed view is helpful here. in , theatre director and theorist peter brook gave a series of lectures collectively entitled the empty space (brook, ). brook’s phrase ‘the empty space’ was used metaphorically to critique the state of theatre in britain, as he saw it being staid and stuck with methods of communication and presentation that had changed little over the previous years. audiences were turning away from theatre and so brook envisioned and pioneered more enlightened ways of presenting and communicating through drama. his ideas revolutionised theatre in britain and beyond for generations. brook’s concerns for the late twentieth-century theatre echo those of science educators today in many countries who recognise the lack of enthusiasm of students for science and the reducing likelihood that they will choose further study of science or science-related careers (millar & osborne, ; sjøberg & schreiner, ). in brook’s terms, then, the trick for science educators is to turn increasingly away from the ‘dead hand’ of traditional, non-interactive methods such as book and board work (and even some versions of practical work) to see what gains can be made from employing strategies involving more collaborative learning effort and innovation from students (braund, : ). it is our contention that drawing on the arts for inspiration and new approaches will help. the argument here is not only that the arts can engage and inspire students; it is that using the arts as a language to help learners understand scientific concepts can be a powerful way of enabling such learning. in an article we wrote over ten years ago (braund & reiss, ), we proposed an evolutionary model for science and science education, accounting for changes in science that have broadened its scope and spheres of operation (for example, to encompass science done in other places than traditional laboratories). we argued that these changes in science were generally not paralleled by advances in science teaching methods and that greater attention needed to be paid in school science education both to changes in how science is viewed and to the potential of out-of-laboratory learning. such attention would also help lead to a shift in school science from ‘transmission learning’ to ‘constructivist learning’. our model thus indicated increasing divergence between science as practised in the real world and science as represented in schools, and we argued that such divergence was unhelpful for science students. it is our contention that the model gains when extra dimensions of the contribution of the arts to science and of arts-based pedagogy to science teaching are added (see fig. ). we call the model a ‘mark ii’, the text the nature of science the nature of learning divergence of school science from science authentic and engaging school science relevant to the needs of the st century incorporating steam school science at the start of the th century transmission learning science is a body of received knowledge that can be passed on to learners who are seen as passive recipients capable of recreating the ways in which knowledge and theory were discovered and elucidated constructivist learning learning science involves the personal construction of meaning through interaction with science knowledge and theory in contexts that have relevance to learners’ lives classic, th/ thcentury science knowledge grows from theories tested by specialists mainly through experimentation in laboratories modern collaborative, multi-disciplinary science knowledge grows through expansion of theories drawing on a wide range of inputs, experiences and technologies in a variety of places steam art and creativity add new dimensions and possibilities to science new pedagogies more attuned to learners and drawing on the arts fig. towards a more authentic and engaging school science (drawing on steam): an evolutionary model (mark ii) can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. in bold upper case italics in fig. and the dotted and hashed arrowed lines being additions to the version. the drivers of steam add new dimensions to the nature of science in the twenty-first century but additionally make science likely to diverge even more rapidly from school science unless new pedagogies, including those from the arts, help close the gap, drawing the nature of learning science closer to the changing nature of science in the real world (shown by the dotted and dashed arrowed lines). the result could be a more authentic and engaging school science, one more relevant to the needs of the twenty-first century. we acknowledge that the addition of the boxes at the right-hand side of fig. , building on our five premises, places additional demands on teachers. not all science teachers will welcome the new pedagogies for which we have argued in this article. we also acknowledge that there are some students who may not welcome these new approaches either. nevertheless, we argue for these new approaches for two main reasons. the first is that they present students with a more authentic vision of science. in this sense, we feel that steam can be understood as being a contemporary enhancement of stem. were we historians or philosophers of science, this reason would have been the sole one on which our argument rested. however, we are both science educators and while we wish to remain true to developments in science, as indicated above, our main intention, as also indicated above, is to provide a better science education for students. this is our second reason—we contend that these new pedagogies, with associated shifts in content, can help many students to engage in science when they would otherwise have not done so and can help them to learn science better. we need our science students not to lose their creativity. for people to be educated in the twenty-first century, they need to study both the arts and the sciences throughout their schooling. people talk about literacy as if it means only to be educated and proficient in using the language we speak, but there are other literacies especially of steam that are equally part of what it is to be educated. today’s and tomorrow’s citizens need both the arts and sciences to equip them with the criticality and creativity of mind and the aesthetic and emotional capacities essential for being rounded and cognate humans. compliance with ethical standards conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references abd-el-khalick, f., lederman, n. g., bell, r. l., & schwartz, r. s. 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( ).what is the point of steam? a brief overview. available at https://steamedu.com/downloads-and- resources. accessed october . publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. can. j. sci. math. techn. educ. http://roseproject.no/network/countries/norway/eng/nor-sjoberg-schreiner-overview- .pdf https://arts.stanford.edu/for-faculty/art-science/ http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ / / e.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ / / e.pdf https://steamedu.com/downloads-and-resources https://steamedu.com/downloads-and-resources 	the ‘great divide’: how the arts contribute to science and science education 	abstract 	abstract 	science and art in culture and civilisation 	the arts and science: how science might be made more complete by the arts 	cultural and subject boundaries 	science relies on creative as well as critical thinking 	the brain and ‘scientific’ and ‘artistic’ thinking 	a collaborative and economic perspective 	how science education benefits from the arts and how the arts make a contribution to ‘better’ (more authentic and engaging) science education 	the arts and sciences at the macro-level: curriculum provision 	arts and sciences at the meso-level: engaging learners through arts-related sts contexts 	arts in science teaching at the micro-level: pedagogical practises drawing on the arts 	conclusions—towards a more authentic and engaging science education using the arts 	references .오장환( - ).hwp http://dx.doi.org/ . /jkiid. . . . journal of the korean institute of interior design vol. no. serial no. _ . 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 러시아 보편주의 종교사상과 근대 창조성-예술에 관한 연구 * ) - 범재신론의 종교철학과 관련된 오리엔탈리즘, 보편주의, 프뢰벨주의의 공통된 의미를 중심으로 - a study on russian religious thoughts of universalism and modern creativity-art - focused on common meanings of orientalism, universalism and froebelianism related to religious philosophy of panentheism - author 오장환 oh, zhang-huan / 정회원, 부경대학교 건축학과 교수, 공학박사 abstract in the russian ‘spirituality’ which played an important role in realization of ‘abstraction’ in modern arts, the three elements of universalism - oriental thoughts, universal ideas, and froebelian influence - can be found with no difficulty. more notable is the fact that, along with theosophy, the emergence of modern existential thoughts such as bergson, schopenhauer, nietzsche is a new search and a new recognition of nature and human as views of panentheism and humanism, essentially of humane and divine. therefore, it goes without saying that the thoughts constituting the suprematism or constructivism in russia are, in a word, implicit in the existential humanistic ideas of panpneumatism or panentheism that is explained as the nature of russian religious ideas. furthermore, which is not only suprematist‘s metaphysical principle but also the expression of universal thoughts; interestingly, which is closely akin to several oriental mystic ideas including taoist thoughts, as well as the contents of universalism including mystic christianity, by extension, which ideas and principles have a remarkable resemblance with thoughts and principles of froebel. keywords 러시아의 정신성, 보편주의, 범재신론, 프뢰벨, 휴머니즘, 실존주의, 근대성 russian spirituality, universalism, panentheism, froebel, humanism, existentialism, modernity . 서론 러시아 절대주의는 세기 초에 등장한 여러 아방가르 드 예술단체들 중에서 근대 새로운 예술의 창출에 핵심 적 역할을 했다는 것은 주지의 사실이다. 이러한 추상의 근대성 예술을 이해하기 위해 근대 아방가드 예술가들의 정신적 특성 혹은 그들의 종교철학적 신념에 대한 고찰 은 불가피한 것처럼 보이는데, 왜냐하면 러시아 절대주 의의 창시자인 말레비치와 추상의 아버지라 불리는 칸딘 스키 등의 근대 아방가르드의 핵심적 인물들은 자신들의 창조성과 관련하여 그들의 종교철학사상을 분명히 드러 냈기 때문이다. 더욱이 그러한 그들의 종교철학적 신념 은 세기말 세계종교회의와 같은 근대 보편주의운동으 로 나타난 새로운 신학사상의 등장과 불가분의 관계에 있었음에도 불구하고, 이에 대한 연구는 현재에 이르기 까지 만족스럽지 않기 때문이다. 근대 러시아 아방가르 드 예술이 러시아혁명과 불가분의 관계에 있었고, 그러 * 이 논문은 부경대학교 자율창의학술연구비( 년)에 의하여 연구되었음. 한 근대 러시아의 정신성이 흔히 ‘유물론’으로 불렸지만, 상대적으로 크게 인식된 정치적 이데올로기의 충돌과 갈 등으로 인해 그것은 종종 협의의 의미로 치우쳐 인식되 었다. ) 따라서 j. 스투켄베르크가 주장했듯이, ) 근대 러 시아 아방가르드들의 실존주의적 범재신론의 정신성을 그리고 ‘정신적 유물론’ 내지 ‘인간적 유물론’을 근대 창 조성-예술 )과 근대 예술가의 자유의지와 더불어 고찰하 ) 예를 들어, “민족주의 사회주의자들은 힘으로의 철학적 의지와 권 력으로의 정치적 의지를 구별하는데 실패했다”고 말하고 있다. a. kostka & i. wohlfarth ed., nietzsche and “an architecture of our minds”, getty research institute publication, , p.x, foreword. ) 물질은 정신이고, 물질적인 것은 정신적인 것이다. 따라서 유물론 은 물질적인 것일 뿐만 아니라 정신적인 것이고, 그래서 우리가 우리의 주제를 정신적 유물론으로 채택하는 것이 당연하다는 것은 분명하다. john h. stuckenberg, the final science, or spiritual materialism, funk & wagnalls, , pp. , - ) 이 용어는 미학에서 근대예술을 고전예술과 구분하기 위하여 사용 된 용어인데, w. 타타르키빅츠는 “간단히 말해 예술의 이해에는 양극이 있다고 할 수 있는데, 말하자면 ‘완전성-예술’과 ‘창조성-예 술’이다. 전자는 고전주의의 특징적인 해석이고 후자는 낭만주의적 해석이다. 예술을 창조로 보는 해석은 낭만주의 이전, 즉 루소 이 전에는 등장하지 않았다.”라고 했다. w. tatarkiewicz, a history 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 는 것은 근대 새로운 창조성의 근원과 추상의 근대성 예 술에 대한 이해를 넓히는데 의의 있는 일일 것이다. 본 연구는 정치적 이데올로기에 대한 담론을 벗어나 근대 아방가르드 예술가들의 새로운 창조성을 이끌어 낸 정신적 근원으로서, 근대 실존적 ‘창조적’ 인간에 대한 종교철학적 신념인 ‘범재신론’이라 불리는 러시아 아방가 르드들의 정신성에 주목하여 그 상관관계를 밝히고자 한 다. 이러한 목적을 위해 본 연구에서는 근대 실존주의 범재신론 사상이 내포된, 즉 근대 예술적 자유-의지의 구현에 중요한 역할을 한 ) 보편주의 종교철학사상을 중 심으로 러시아 근대 아방가르드 예술가들의 정신성과 근 대 창조성의 근원에 대해 탐구하고자 한다. 이론적 고찰 의 대상으로는 근대 미학과 불가분에 있는 오리엔탈리 즘 )과 러시아의 범재신론의 보편주의와 더불어 그 시각 적 재현의 영역에서 그 표현을 가능하게 한 프뢰벨의 영 향 )을 실존주의적 의미에서 조명하고자 한다. . 러시아의 보편주의 정신성 . . 러시아 정신성의 동양적 특성 v. 마르코프는 년 주장하기를, “고대의 사람들과 동양 사람들은 우리들의 과학적 합리성을 알지 못했다. 이들은 감정과 상상이 논리를 지배하는 어린이들이었 다. 그리고 이들은 본능적으로 미의 세계를 관통했던 그리고 사실주의 혹은 자연에 대한 과학적 탐구에 의해 타락될 수 없는 천진난만한, 더럽혀지지 않은 어린이들 이었다. 동양의 ‘재잘거림’에 대한 우리의 깐깐한 냉담 과 그것에 대한 오해는 심히 공격적이다. 근대 유럽은 그 천진난만함과 비논리적인 미를 이해하지 못한다.” ) of six ideas: an essay in aesthetics, 손효주譯, 미술문화, , p. ) 러시아의 근대 아방가르드 예술가들에서 보이는 ‘휴머티니라는 종 교’라 불리는 근대 실존적 인간의 새로운 정신성의 특징은, 이후 논의할 베르디야에프의 설명에서 이해할 수 있듯이, 범재신론의 사상이라 불리는 근대 실존주의 신학 혹은 종교철학의 주요한 흐 름의 특징들과 일치하는 것이다. 이에 관해 선행된 총론적 연구, 오장환, 근대 창조성-예술과 예술적 자유의지에 미친 종교철학의 영향, 한국실내디자인학회논문집( . )와 각론적 고찰, 오장환, 바 우하우스 창조성-예술 교육의 낭만적 정신성에 관한 연구, 한국실 내디자인학회논문집( . )을 참조할 것. ) 이에 관해서는, ‘근대지향’의 서양예술에서 오리엔탈리즘의 의미에 관한 연구, 대한건축학회논문집 ( . )를 참조할 것. ) 이에 관해서는, 근대예술의 ‘순수성’ 탐구와 프뢰벨 교육의 영향에 관한 연구, 대한건축학회지회연합논문집( . )과 근대 ‘생성’의 미 학과 그 형태-공간 표현에 관한 연구( . ) 등을 참조할 것. ) john e. bowlt, trans. and ed., russian art of the avant-garde: theory and criticism - , the viking press, , p. . 에서 v. markov, the principles of the new art, 재인용. 쉐프첸코도 주장하기를, “그렇다. 우리는 아시아이고, 이를 자랑스 러워하는데, 왜냐하면 “아시아는 국가들의 요람”기 때문이며, 우리 피의 반은 타타르인이고, 그리고 우리는 도래할 동양을 모든 문화 의 모든 예술의 근원이자 요람이라고 묘사하기 때문이다. 즉 예술 라고 했다. 의미심장하게도, 이것은 f. l. 라이트를 떠 올리게 만드는데, 라이트는 “구박사는 아시아 사람들은 러시아를 동양과 서양 사이를 잇는 연결고리로서 여긴 다고 말했다. 러시아 사람들은 그들의 동양적 유산 때 문에 인간적인 개념이나 화려한 정신에 있어 더 부유하 다. 나의 오랜 중국 현자인 구흥밍(辜鴻銘)이 러시아 사 람들이 동양과 서양을 연결한다고 말했던 것처럼, 나 또한 그렇게 생각한다.” )고 주장했다. 러시아 사상에 대한 n. 베르디야에프의 설명은 이러한 맥락에서 주목할 필요가 있는데, 그는 말하기를, “러시아 사람들은 극도로 양극화된 국민들인데, 그들은 모순의 복합체이다. 이러한 양극성과 일관성 없음에 대해, 러시 아 국민들은 오로지 유대인들과 비교될 수 있다. 그리고 정확하게 이들 두 국민들에게서 세상을 바꾸려는 듯한 (메시아의) 활발한 의식이 존재한다는 것은 단지 우연의 문제가 아니다. 러시아의 영혼은 러시아에서 세계 역사 의 두 가지 줄기, 동양과 서양이 서로 밀치고 영향을 주 었다는 사실에 기인할 것이다. 러시아 사람들은 순수하 게 유럽인들이 아니고, 순수하게 아시아적이지도 않다. 러시아는 세계의 완전한 부분, 하나의 거대한 동-서양이 다. 러시아는 두 세계들을 통일한다. 그리고 러시아의 영 혼 내에서 두 가지 원리는 늘 충돌하고 있다” )고 했다. 사실, 당시 많은 아방가르드 예술가들은 동양과 서양 사 이의 사상적 융합이라는 창조성-예술을 향한 어떤 종교 적 관념이 자리 잡고 있었는데, 특히 보편주의와 관련한 이러한 시각적 표현들은, 몬드리안과 말레비치 등과 같 이, 네덜란드 신-조형주의와 러시아 절대주의(혹은 구성 주의)라 불리는 아방가르드들의 작품에서 가장 두드러지 게 나타났다. 여기서 의미심장한 것은, a. 쉐프첸코가 단 적으로 “우리의 문화 전체는 아시아적인 것” )이라고 했 던 것처럼, 그리고 신지학의 경우처럼, ) 동양은 그들의 근대성의 탐구의 과정과 불가분의 관계로서 이들 아방가 르드 예술가들의 사상적 배경으로서 존재해 왔다. 베르디야에프는 다시 설명하기를, “니체의 영향이 있 었는데, 그의 영향은 러시아 르네상스에 미친 가장 강력 한 서구 영향이었다. 그러나 니체에 있어 수용되었던 것 에서 우리의 아시아적 근원은 그 전체성에 있어서 분명한 것이다. 신-원시주의는 서양의 형태와 같지 않은데, 그래서 우리는 솔직히 선언한다. 아시아는 우리에게 그 모든 문화의 깊이를, 그 모든 원 시성을 주었고, 유럽은 이것을 그 자신의 문명의 어떤 모양으로 보 완해왔다. 따라서 신-원시주의는 동양의 퓨전과 서양의 형태들로 부터 형성되었다. 이제, 우리는 그러한 요소들로 돌아가 그것에 우 리 학교를 기초시킬 것이다.”라고 했다. ibid., p. . 에서 a. shevchenko, neoprimitivism: its theory, its potentials, its achievement, . 재인용 ) frank lloyd wright, an autobiography, horizon press, , pp. , ) nicolas berdyaev, the russian idea, the centenary press, , pp. - ) john e. bowlt, op. cit., p. . 에서 a shevchenko ( ) 재인용. ) 이에 관해서는, 오장환( . ), op. cit., p. , 주 을 참조할 것. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 은 그들이 서양에 있어서 그에 대해 기술했던 대부분의 것은, 생물 철학에 대한 그의 관련성이 아니라, 귀족적 인종과 문화에 대한 투쟁이 아니라, 권력에의 의지가 아 니라, 종교적 주제였다. 니체는 신비주의자이자 예언자로 서 받아들여졌다. 러시아 상징주의는 프랑스와는 아주 다른 것이었다. 상징주의자들의 시는 예술의 경계를 초 월한 것이었고, 이것이 아주 러시아적인 특성이었다. 소 위 ‘데카당스’라 불리는 시기와 우리들 사이에 미학주의 는 빠르게 종말을 고했지만, 그러나 정신적 질서에 대한 추구를, 그리고 신비주의를 가리키는 상징주의로의 변환 이 일어났다.” ) 독일 물리학자이자 신지자인 f. 바더 또 한 “러시아에서 동양과 서양 사이에 중개자를 보았다” ) 는 설명과, v. 마르코프가 “그러한 특성들을 인간이 파 악하면 할수록, 신성은 더 친근한 것이 되고, 어떤 종류 의 종교의 실현은 더 가까워진다. 두 반구 모두의 다른 사람들에 의해 고대로부터 창조된 세상의 아름다움은, 그것이 지금까지 사람들에게 그 자체로 드러났던 것처 럼, 신성의 반영이자 표현이다” )라는 주장처럼, 따라서 여기서 주목해야 할 것은 바로 그 종교적 특성이다. . . 범재신론의 보편주의 종교철학사상 신지학을 포함하여 베르그송, 쇼펜하우어, 니체 등의 새로운 사상의 출현은 실존주의, 혹은 실존적 범재신론 (내재신론)의 자연에 대한 새로운 인식, 그리고 본질적으 로 인간성과 신성에 대한 근대 실존주의적 인간의 새로 운 이해이자 탐구였다. 칸딘스키와 마찬가지로, v. 마르 코프는 “따라서 자유로운 창조는 절대적 자유가 아니고 우리들의 내적 세계의 순수한 울림이다. 자유로운 창조 는 단순한 바람으로서가 아니라, 인간 영혼의 창조적 필 요를 만족시키는 수단들 중 하나로서 예술가에게 내재된 것이다.” )라고 했다. 이러한 맥락에서, v. 페트소프는 ‘관념이 아니라 인민, not ideas but people’이라는 주제 로 말하기를, “예술과 산업의 방법을 묶는 문제는 해결 될 수 있는데, 즉 논리적이고 추상적 방법에서가 아니라 교육적이고 진화론적 방법에서 해결될 수 있다” )고 했 다. 사실, 이러한 주장은 의미심장한 것인데, 왜냐하면 ‘눈에 보이는 대로 그리지 말 것’을 가르쳤던 프뢰벨과 바우하우스를 떠올리게 만들기 때문이다. 더욱이, 이러한 맥락에서, o. 로자노바의 설명은 ‘눈에 보이는 대로’ 그 리지 말 것을 가르친 프뢰벨의 교훈을 떠올리게 만드는 주목할 만한 것이다. 그는 년 말하기를, “자연은 예 ) nicolas berdyaev, op. cit., p. ) ibid., p. ) john e. bowlt, op. cit., p. 에서 v. markov, the principles of the new art, . 재인용 ) ibid., p. 에서 v. markov ( ) 재인용 ) ibid., p. 에서 v. pertsov, at the junction of art and production, . 재인용 술가들을 노예로 만들었다. 오로지 지금만이 예술가들은 자연을 그대로 모사하지 않음으로써 그리고 자연에 대한 원시적 개념을 모든 근대 창조적 사고의, 즉 예술가가 보는 것+예술가가 아는 것+예술가가 기억하는 것 등의 심리학에 의해 복잡해진 개념들에 종속시킴으로써 그림 을 아주 의식적으로 창조하게 된다고” ) 했다. 한마디로, 당시 ‘추상으로의 돌진’ 혹은 ‘내부로 향한 돌 진’을 하던 아방가르드들은 ‘어는 정도는 철학자’와 같은 사색을, 그것도 동서양을 아우르는 종교적 성찰을 통해 근대 새로운 인간의 신성의 창조성을 드러내고자 분투했 던 것처럼 보인다. 말하자면, 말레비치는 <검정 사각형, black square>을 제작했을 때까지, 그리고 그 언어적 불 꽃과 함께, 그는 러시아 상징주의자들의 세기와 세기 초 독일 이데올로기에 대한 재해석으로부터 시작하여 니 체와 월터 휘트먼을 거쳐 베르그송의 동시대 철학에까지 걸치는 방대하고, 분간할 수 없는 분량의 철학적이고 사 색적인 문학에 영향 받았다. ) “말레비치에게 개인적으로 무엇보다 가장 중요한 것은 h. p. 블라바츠키의 헌신적 추종자 p. 우스펜스키였다” )라는 설명처럼, 이러한 보편 사상에 대한 탐구에 있어 신지학은 중요한 역할을 했다. 우스펜스키는 주장하기를, “기독교 신학과 기독교 도덕성 의 관점에서 보면, 심미적인 것과 종교적 무아의 경지(황 홀경)의 혼재는 이해할 수 없는 것이다. 그러나 동양에서 이 둘은 완전한 조화를 이루며 공존했다” )라고 했는데, 단적으로, 그가 피력하고자 했던 것은 과거 기존의 ‘정통’ 기독교에 맞선 ) 절대자에 대한 새로운 인식인 동시에 그 대 새로운 인간에 대한 새로운 자각이었다. 그것은 오컬 트적, 낭만적, 그리고 동양적 관념들이었지만, 또한 그것 은 바로 서양의 비의적 신비주의 전통들이었다. “그 순환 은 필연적으로 그것이 시작된 같은 점에서 끝난다. 그리 고 분리된 존재들의 “삶”은, 출생과 함께 시작되며, 죽음 에서 끝나야만 하는데, 그것은 출발점으로의 회귀(return to the point of departure)이다.” )라는 우스펜스키의 주 ) ibid., pp. - . 에서 olga rozanova, the base of the new creation and the reasons why it is misunderstood, . 재인용 ) john golding, op. cit., p. ) ibid. ) p. d. ouspensky, tertium organum: the third canon of thought - a key to the enigmas of the world, nicholas bessaraboff and claude bragdon trans. & intro., kegan paul, , p. ) 이러한 주장들은 당시 기존의 기독교 교리와 상반되는 것이라는 측면에서 보면 블라바츠키가 신지학을 창설한 목적과 똑같은 것이 다. 실제, 블라바츠키는 그녀의 대표적 저서에서 말하기를, “일반 적인 종교적 믿음에 대한 분석인, 이 책은 특히 자유사상의 주요 한 반대자인 [과거의] 신학적 기독교사상에 맞서 겨냥된 것이다.” 라고 그 목적이 인간의 자유의지이고 휴머니티에 있다는 것을 분 명히 했다. h. p. blavatsky, isis unveiled: a master-key to the mysteries of ancient and modern science and theology, vol ., trow’s printing & bookbinding co., , p.iv.. ) p. d. ouspensky, op. cit., p. . 의미심장하게도, 그는 이러한 사 상을 동양사상과 더불어 설명했다. ibid., pp. , 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 장은 그러한 사상을 단적으로 보여주고 있다. 이러한 맥락에서, 비-유클리드와 n-차원의 기하학이라 는 이러한 이론들에 더하여, 러시아 철학자이자 신비주 의자인 우스펜스키는 영향력 있고 폭넓게 읽혀진 논문, <터티움 오르가눔, tertium organum>( 년)을 기술 했는데, 여기서 그는 초-공간 철학사상, 즉 보다 과학적 저술들에 대한 정신적 보충을 상술했다. ) 요약하면, “무 한에 대한 감각은 시작 이전의 최초이고 가장 엄청난 시 도이다. 무(nothing)가 존재한다! 단지 무한성만이, 만물 의 지속적이고 연속적인 분리와 분해만이 있을 뿐이 다” )라고 했는데, 이것은 무(無)에 대한 감각을 강조한 것이었다. 한마디로, 우스펜스키의 사상은 눈에 보이는 차원을 넘은 무한(無限)에 대한 감각이었는데, 이는 라이 트가 자신의 ‘유기적’ 원리에서 가장 강조했던 종교철학 적 내용과 같은 것이고, 달리 말하면, 그것은 특히 낭만 주의 시대로부터 현대에 이르기까지 지배적 사고였던 근 대 ‘생성’(becoming)의 철학적 사유로, 시간 독트린이라 불리는 근대 철학의 핵심적 내용이다. <그림 > 말레비치의 ‘white on white’와 그의 입방체 무덤 말하자면, 다이나미즘에 대한 절대주의자들의 관념은 부분적으로 미래파에서 성장했지만, 그것은 또한 상대성 물리학, 비-유클리드 기하학에 대한 이론적 저술들, 그리 고 차원에 대한 철학적 담론들에서 나타난 시간과 공간 에 대한 일반적 관심과 밀접하게 관련되어 있었는데, 놀 랄 것도 없이, 그러한 설명들 모두가 불교, 혹은 힌두교 적 색채를 띤 것으로 설명되기도 하고, 또한 도가사상과 도 일치하는 것이기도 하다. ) l. 힐베르자이머가 주목 했던 것처럼, 실제 말레비치는 플라톤과 마찬가지로 “실 체라는 감각적 인식의 장벽을 파괴했고,” ) 그는 자신의 예술에서 근본적으로 무(無)의 세계를 전달하고자 했고, ) gail h. roman & virginia h. marquardt ed., op. cit., p. . 에서 m. dabrowski, ‘malevich and mondrian: nonobjective form as the expression of the “absolute”.’ 재인용. ) p. d. ouspensky, op. cit., p. ) 오우스펜스키는 도가의 도(道)의 원리와 노자와 장자의 사상을 포 함하여 동양사상을 설명하고 있었다. 주목할 것은 그의 책 마지막 에 ‘새로운 휴머니티의 탄생, birth of the new humanity’라는 제 목으로 휴머니티 사상을 강조하는 것을 잊지 않았다. ) gail h. roman & virginia h. marquardt ed., op. cit., p. . 에서 ludwig hilberseimer, “introduction to kazimir malevich,” in malevich, the non-objective world, . 재인용 그의 환원주의 회화, <흰색 위의 흰색, white on white>[그림. ]이라는 그의 아이콘을 통해 이를 구현시 켰다. ) 우스펜스키는 신비주의 보편 사상을 플로티누스, 마이스터 에크하르트와 뵈메의 사상은 물론이고, 동양사 상과 칸트, 피히테, 셸링, 헤겔로부터 니체, 쇼펜하우어와 같은 서양의 근대 지성들과 더불어, 아인슈타인과 같은 현대 물리학과도 연관시켜 설명하고 있는데, 이러한 철 학적 내용 모두는 근대 ‘생성’의 보편주의 사상으로 요약 되는 것들이다. 여기서 분명하게 인식해야 할 것은 이 새로운 시간-공간의 사상이 과학자들은 물론, 예술가들 에게도 커다란 영향을 미쳤다는 드러난 사실에도 주목해 야 하지만, 튜체프가 “러시아는 지적 과정에 의해 이해 될 수 없다” )는 주장처럼, 이러한 시간-공간의 개념이 결코 이성적 사고만으로 이루어진 것이 아니라는 사실이 다. 오히려 그와는 정반대로, “낭만주의자들이 과학에 반 드시 적대적이지 않았다는 점에 주목하는 것이 중요하 다” )라는 지적처럼, 이성 그 이면에 놓여있는, 흔히 ‘비 이성적’이라고 치부되는 낭만적, 신비적, 동양적 사고는 ‘초이성적’인 것으로서 결코 이성적 사고를 방해하지 않 아왔다는 사실을 파악하는 것 또한 필수적인 것이다. 한마디로, 말레비치는 완전한 비-대상의(nonobjective) 형태를 전개시키는 것에 초점을 맞추었는데, 즉 새로운 비 -형상적(nonfigurative) 세계, 보다 높은 직관의 세계라는 “제로(zero)” 점을, 이를 정방형, 장방형, 원, 십자 형태라 는 기초적 기하학적 형태들을 통해 표현하였다. ) 형태를 구축하는 그의 방법은 파편이 아닌, 완전한 기하학적 형태 들을 가지고 구성 조직을 시작하는 것으로부터 시작하였 고, 그리고 그의 형태들은, 그 배열에 의해, 동적인 것이 되었다. ) 예를 들어, <흰 바탕 위의 검정 사각형, black square on white ground>은 말레비치의 절대주의 통사 론의 형태적 어휘와 밑바탕에 깔린 목적을 전형적으로 보 여주고 있으며, 검정색 사각형은 그림의 평평한 표면을 확 고하게 만들었을 뿐만 아니라 흰색 바탕에 대립된 그 병 치를 통해 다이나미즘의 감각을 전달했는데, ) 여기서 주 목할 것은, 이 검정색 변형 평면은 가장 지고한 정신적 질서의 상징으로 상승되어, 말레비치가 “직관적 이성의 창 조”, “새로운 예술의 얼굴”, “예술에 있어 순수 창조의 첫 단계”라고 불렀던 창조의 근본을 재현했다는 ) 사실이다. 말레비치의 조형성과 관련하여 j. 골딩은 “ 차원 개념 ) ibid. 에서 m. dabrowski 재인용 ) nicolas berdyaev, op. cit., p. .에서 재인용 ) franklin l. baumer, modern european thought: continuity and change in ideas, - , macmillan, , p. ) gail h. roman & virginia h. marquardt ed., op. cit., p. ) ibid., p. ) ibid., p. 에서 m. dabrowski, ‘malevich and mondrian: nonobjective form as the expression of the “absolute”.’ 재인용 ) ibid. 에서 k. malevich, "from cubism and futurism to suprematism," in malevich, essays on art, : . 재인용 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 은 특히 미국 건축가인 c. 브래그돈에 의해서 대중적 관 심을 끌었고, 신지학에 강하게 영향 받은 그의 저서, <사각형 인간, man the square>은 년 출판되었다. 그리고 말레비치의 친한 친구이자, 구성-화가인 m. 마테 우신은 그에게 년 처음 발간되어 널리 알려진 h. 힌 톤의 논문 < 차원, the fourth dimension>을 소개하였 다.” )라고 설명하였는데, 여기서 흥미로운 것은, 신지학 의 영향을 언급하면서 이를 영국의 수학자 힌톤(c. h. hinton, - )와 연결시켰다는 사실인데, 실제, 이 것은 범재신론과 관련하여서 아주 의미심장한 것이다. 왜냐하면, 힌톤은 헤켈의 경우처럼 범재신론 사상을 지 닌 근대 실존주의자였기 때문이다. 힌톤은 주장하기를, “일상적 물리적 존재를 초월하는 물리적 존재가 있다는 것이 분명하게 되었다. 그리고 사 람들은 관찰하는 올바른 방향이 물질로부터 이탈하여 정 신적 존재로 향하는 것이 아니라, 보다 높은 차원의 물 질에 대한 개념들, 따라서 우리와의 관계가 정신적 직관 (intuitions)으로서 이해된 그러한 물질적 존재들에 대한 발견을 향하는 것이라는 생각을 하게 되었다. 따라서 ‘물 질적’이란 간단히 말해 ‘지적인 것에 의해 파악되는 것, 알게 되거나 친숙해진 것’을 의미한다. 이러한 방식으로, 모든 유기체에는 두 가지 부분들이 있는데, 즉 물질적 부분과 에테르 부분이다. 물체가 될 것은 곧 지나가고 또 다른 물체와 구별할 수 없게 되고, 에테르체 (aethereal body)가 남게 된다. ) 이제, 우리가 우리의 관 심을 그 물체에 향한다면, 우리는 성장, 소멸, 그리고 죽 음의 현상들, 즉 존재하는 동안 동떨어져 있다가 결국 죽음에 이르러 물질이라는 공동의 저장소로 합쳐지는 살 아있는 존재의 오고 감이라는 현상들을 보게 될 것이다. 상당부분, 이러한 의식은 극단의 정점에 이르게 되고, 종 교적 이해가 된다. 그러나 그것은 직관적인 것일 뿐이다. 그 느낌은 확실한 것임이 아주 분명하다. 그러나 그것은 이성에 의해 우리에게 설명될 수 있는 것이 아니다. 그 렇게 이러한 모든 개념들은 그 방법인데, 그 방법으로 이제 우리는 우주라는 위대한 존재를 이해한다. 지고의 것 이전에 휴머니티보다 더한 것이 있다고 말할 수조차 없다. 그리고 우리가 형성시키는 어떤 개념도 이제 인간 드라마를 표현의 유일의 가능 모드로서 이용해야만 한 다. 이제, 휴머니티에 대한 지식을 얻기 위해, 우리는 많 은 개별적인 것들을 느껴야만 한다” )고 했다. 한마디로, 힌톤 또한 세기의 전환기에 새로이 나타날 예술의 ‘정신성'을 주창했던 주목할 만한 인물이었는데, ) john golding, op. cit., p. ) 이러한 사상은 서양의 근대 과학 이전에 도가사상에서 말하는 기 (氣)에 해당하는 것이기도 하다. ) charles h. hinton, a new era of thought, swan sonnenschein & co., , pp.xiv, , , , , 그는 주장하기를, “우리의 목적을 위해, 예술가가 무의식 적으로 처리하는 색채와 형태라는 교묘한 처리가 의식적 인 힘이 되어야만 한다는 것은 필수적인 것이다. 즉각적 아름다움의 어떤 희생에서건, 정신적 회화 예술은 우리 의 보다 무의식적인 예술 이면에 존재해야만 한다는 것 은 필수적이다.” )라고 했다. 더 나아가, 그는 “강한 종교 적 기초를 지닌, 이것은 해롭게 작용하지 않을 것인데, 왜냐하면 삶의 규칙이 종교에 의해 놓이는 것처럼 충분 할 것이기 때문이다. 그러나 많은 사람들은 이러한 규칙 들을 신의 의지의 절대적 지시로서 받아들이지 않고, 그 저 선한 사람의 규칙으로 받아들인다. 우리가 신의 의지 가 존재하는 것으로서의 종교적 계율을 단념해야만 한다 는 것은 진실된 것이다. 하지만 그 때 우리는 신의 의지 가 종교적 계율에서 부분적으로 그 자체를 드러내고 있 고 그리고 내적 정신으로서 보다 충분히 그리고 보다 분 명하게 된다는 것을 배우게 될 것이다. 그 때 휴머니티 가 신비스런 자극으로 어떤 일시적 선보다 더 신성하고 지고한 것이 됨을 느끼는 그러한 본능은 정당화되거나 혹은 이루어질 것이다. 거기에는 두 가지 경향이 있는데, 하나는 종교적 이해의 직접적인 함양이고, 또 다른 하나 는 모든 것을 이성으로 축소하는 것이다. 그것이 단지 우주 전체를 조망하는 이성적 경향의 주창자들을 위한 것만은 아닐 것인데, 우리가 알기에 이성적 주창자들이 위압적으로 종교라는 보다 높은 부분들을 다루기 이전의 부분에 불과한 것이 아니다. 그리고 우리 안에서 보다 높은 생명의 내재성을 느끼는 사람들은 실체의 보다 넓 은 영역에 대한 이러한 조망에서 필요로 할 것이고, 결 국 그들은 우리에게 우리가 이미 알고 있는 것을 말하게 될 것” )이라고 내재성의 범재신론과 실존주의 휴머니티 사상에 대해 강조하고 있다. . 러시아 실존주의와 창조성-예술 . . 프뢰벨 사상과 예술-교육의 영향 범재신론의 종교철학사상과 관련하여, 다시 주목해야 할 것은 프뢰벨의 영향이다. 왜냐하면 ‘범재신론’ 용어의 등장과 관련하여 ) 프뢰벨 사상의 영향이 필수불가결한 고찰의 대상이기 때문이고, 더욱이 그러한 신성의 내재성 에 대한 가르침과 더불어 그러한 실존적 인간의 자유의지 에 의해 새로운 예술적 표현, 즉 관념적 이념을 시각적 대상 재현의 영역에서 표현하도록 가르침을 주었던 것은 바로 프뢰벨이었기 때문이다. 사실, 힌톤과 관련하여서도, 비록 그가 프뢰벨을 직접 언급하지 않았지만, 그러나, 그 ) ibid., p. ) ibid., pp. , , ) 이에 관한 내용은, 오장환( . ), op. cit., p. 참조할 것. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 는 자기-암시와 같은 묘한 힌트를 던지고 있다는 것에 주 목할 필요가 있다. 왜냐하면, 프뢰벨이라는 말은 없지 만, ) 흥미롭게도 힌톤은 그의 서문에서 “유치원 입방체” 라는 언급을 통해 그의 마음속에 있는 유치원의 존재를 무의식적으로 드러냈다. 그는 설명하기를, “이러한 방법으 로 우리는 입방체들의 블록(the block of cubes)에 대한 지식을 얻게 된다.” )라고 하면서, “나는 입방체들로 이루 어진 하나의 블록을 만들었고 그 각각의 입방체에 이름을 붙였다.” )라고 설명하고 있는 것은 그의 범재신론 사상 과 관련하여서도 매우 의미심장한 것이기 때문이다. 이러 한 맥락에서, 그 시대의 가장 위대한 예술가들 중 한 사 람인 카지미르 말레비치는, 그가 거의 대별되지 않는 두 가지 흰색 톤으로 그렸던 ‘흰색 위의 흰 정방형’에서, 거 의 무(nothingness)였던 단순화와 환원(reduction)을 목표 로 하였던 것처럼 보이는데, ) 아마도, 말레비치의 사물의 근원인 무(無)로의 복귀라는 관념은, 말하자면, 더 형이상 학적이고 보다 종교적인 의미들은 힌톤 이전에 이미 프뢰 벨을 통해 신비주의적인 러시아의 사상과 통합될 수 있었 을 것이다. 왜냐하면, 당시의 과학사상과 교육사상의 경중 을 논할 필요는 없다고 하더라도, 그러한 종교 철학적 의 미들의 시각적 재현의 문제와 관련하여 분명, 프뢰벨은 힌톤보다 앞서 널리 영향을 미쳤기 때문이다. “이러한 절 대주의 구성들 속에서, 말레비치는 한 기하학적 형태들의 개념 위에 기초한 새로운 회화적 어휘를 소개했을 뿐만 아니라, 영적 질서라는 보편적 진리를 나르는 표현을 발 견하려고 힘썼다” )라는 설명처럼, 분명 그와 같은 종교 적 신념으로서의 보편사상을 수학적 원리로, 그리고 ‘겉모 습 이면에 숨겨진 것을 그리는’ 비형상적 표현으로 보다 일찍이 말레비치가 배웠던 것은 프뢰벨로부터였다. 년 프뢰벨이 죽고 난 후, 유치원은 유럽과 유럽의 식민지, 미국, 아시아 등 대부분의 나라에 성공적으로 보 급되었고, 러시아 또한 년 혁명 전, 러시아 사람들의 삶에서도 노동 계급에게 더 나은 공평한 세계를 약속하 는 마르크스주의와 함께 굳게 자리 잡았다. ) n. 브로스 터만도 설명하기를, “추상 예술의 첫 승리자들 중 한 사 람인 w. 칸딘스키도 또한 어린 시절 플로렌스에서 살 때 시각적인 미적 언어로 은물을 접하게 되면서 유치원 에서의 색깔, 기하학 도형의 절대적 마력에 마음을 빼앗 ) charles h. hinton, op. cit., p.vii, preface. 피아제가 말한 ‘논리-이 전(pre-logical)’ 단계인 살 이전에 마음에 각인된 이미지는 말년 까지 드러나지 않을 수 있고, 따라서 프뢰벨의 영향은 단지 간과되 었던 것처럼 보인다. n. brosterman, inventing kindergarten, harry n. abrams, , p. , note ) charles h. hinton, op. cit., p. ) ibid., p. ) l. hilberseimer, mies van der rohe, paul theobald and co., , p. ) gail h. roman & virginia h. marquardt ed., op. cit., p. ) norman brosterman, op. cit., p. 긴 사람이었고,” ) j. 볼트가 “오컬티즘, 정신주의, 일원 론, ‘새로운’ 기독교, 신지학과 가장 넓은 의미에 있어서 의 종교” )에 관심을 가졌던 칸딘스키의 행위들과 그러 한 용어들과의 관련성은 직접적인 것이다. )라고 언급했 던 것처럼, 칸딘스키는 이러한 러시아 신비적 사상을 가 장 잘 보여주는 예들 중 하나일 것인데, 단적으로 말해, 칸딘스키 또한 바우하우스의 또 다른 인물들, w. 그로피 우스, j. 이텐, j. 알베르스, p. 클레와 마찬가지로 프뢰벨 의 영향을 받은 인물이었다. ) 이러한 맥락에서, 알프레드 바아의 추상미술의 두 가 지 독특한 전통에 대한 정의는 주목할 만한 것인데, 즉 “하나는 선구적인 추상 표현주의자는 이지적이기 보다 직관적이고 감정적이고, 기하학적이기 보다 생체 묘사적 이었으며, 고전적이고 구조적인 것보다 자발적이고 비이 성적인 것을 찬양한다는 것이고, 또 다른 하나이자 더 중요한 흐름은 결정계 기하학의 논리적 변형에 바탕을 둔 것이다.” ) 중요한 것은, 바아가 언급한 결정계 기하 학이란 분명 입체파에서 특징을 이야기한 것이었지만, 그러한 추상 예술을 이끈 보다 근원적 배경은 분명 결정 학(crystallography)으로 변형된 바이스교수의 저술에 의 해 영향 받은 프뢰벨이다. 왜냐하면, 프뢰벨 사상은 바아 가 말한 첫 번째 흐름을 포함하면서도 가장 비이성적이 고 가장 신비적 형이상학적인 것으로서 두 번째 흐름을 동시에 모두 지닌 것이었기 때문이다. 엘 리시츠키의 경우에도, 신비주의적 사상은 동일한 역할을 하였던 것처럼 보이며, 우주의 실체로서 다이나 미즘은 새로운 예술의 과학적이고 예술적인 실체가 되었 다. ) 실제, 리시츠키는 그러한 사상을 <두 개의 사각형 에 대하여, about squares>[그림. ]라는 제목의 간략 한 도해집을 통해 이러한 절대주의 혹은 구성주의 관념 을 설명하고 있다. 그는 책의 맨 첫 장에 “모든 어린이 들에게”라고 했는데, 여기서 주목해야 할 의미심장한 것 은, 여기서 쓰인 ‘어린이들’이라는 단어는 키릴문자의 p (우리의 로마문자의 r)로 시작하는데, 그것은 그 자체로 아득히 먼 곳으로부터 흘러 들어오는 연속되는 에너지와 같다는 ) 내용이다. 즉, 이러한 내용은 ‘유출’의 개념이며 ) ibid., p. ) maurice tuchman ed., the spiritual in art: abstract painting - , abbeville press, , p. . 에서 v. kandinsky, “kuda idet 'novoe' iskusstvo” (within the “new” art), odesskie novosti (odessa news), february , . 재인용. ) ibid., j. e. bowlt, ‘esoteric culture and russian society’ 재인용. ) 이에 관해서는 norman brosterman, op. cit. 그리고 mark dudek, kindergarten architecture: space for the imagination (spon press, ) 참조할 것. ) n. brosterman, op. cit., p. . 에서 a. h. barr, jr., cubism and abstract art, new york: museum of modern art, , p. . 재 인용 ) patricia railing, more about two squares, artists bookworks, , p. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 서양의 오컬트적 관념이다. 따라서 이러한 절대주의 혹 은 구성주의의 밑바탕을 이루는 사상은 러시아 종교사상 의 특징으로서 설명된 범정기설(汎精氣說) 혹은 범재신 론(혹은 내재신론)의 실존주의적 특징을 나타내는 것이 고, 뿐만 아니라 이것은 절대주의의 형이상학적 원리이 자 보편주의 사상의 한 표현으로, 이러한 사상과 원리들 은 프뢰벨 사상과 원리와도 같다는 사실이다. <그림 > 엘 리츠스키의 ‘두 개의 정방형에 대하여’ . . 러시아 실존주의 휴머니즘 사상 이러한 맥락에서, 예를 들어, 엘 리시츠키의 ‘프로운 (proun)’에서의 ‘근원으로서의’ 사각형과 더불어 <새로운 인간, new man>[그림. ]이라는 작품에서 나타난 ‘붉은’ 사각형은 보편적 정신 혹은 개별자의 내재된 신성을 표현 한 것처럼 보인다. 말하자면, 그것은 “우리가 지금 생각하 는 우주의 모습을 보통 예상했던 우주의 모습과 비교할 때, 가장 인상적인 변화는 아인슈타인이 공간과 시간을 재배열한 것이 아니라, 우리가 아주 확고하다고 간주하는 모든 것들이 조그만 조각으로 해체되어 허공 속을 둥둥 떠다닌다.” )라는 사상의 표현이었다. 아무튼 물질개념은 공간개념과 시간개념보다도 더 철저하게 “볼셰비키화”되 었다. ) 여기서 주목할 것은 지식계급의 사상에서의 변화 로, 좌익 지식계급의 전통적 세계관은 흔들렸다는 것이다. ) ibid., p. . <두 개의 사각형에 대하여, about ■>는 정확히 모든 이들에 대한 호소였고, 이것은 우리들을 공간으로 나아가게 하는 에너지의 폭발(a burst of energy)이다. 여기서, 엘 리시츠키 는 “모든 어린이들에게”라고 시작하면서 말하기를: . “여기 두 개 의 정방형이 있다” [검정색-보편적 정신, 적색-개별적 물질], . “먼 곳으로부터 지구로 날아오고 …” [유출이론], . “그리고… 그들은 검정 불안을 보고 있다” [변화의 과정], . “부서뜨리고 … 모든 것 들은 흩어졌다” [보편적 정신의 물질화], . “그리고 그 검정 위에 빨강은 분명하게 정착했다” [보편적 정신 위에(혹은 내재된) 물질 화된 개별자], . “여기서 그것은 끝이 난다”라고 설명하고 있다. ) franklin l. baumer, op. cit., p. . 에서 a. s. eddington, the nature of the physical world ( ), p. . 재인용 ) ibid., 세기 초에 강하고도 빈번하게 격렬한 충돌이 전통적인 지식계급의 마음의 편협성에 맞서 르네상스의 사람들에 의해 벌어졌는데, 즉 창조를 위한 자유라는 명목으로 그 리고 그 정신이라는 명목으로 벌어진 충돌이었다. 그러나 모든 측면에서 유물론, 실증주의, 공리주의에 대한 승리를 이룩하는 것은 필수적이었는데, 이로부터 좌경화된 지식 계급은 그 자체를 자유롭게 할 수 없었다는 ) 것이다. 중 요한 것은, 휴머니즘과 인도주의(humanitarianism)의 구별 하는 것이고, 즉, ‘러시아 사람들이 이해했던 것은 기독교 사상의 휴머니즘(christian humanism)’이다. 한마디로, 러 시아 무신론, 허무주의, 유물론은 종교적 색채를 얻었고, 노동하는 대중에 속한 러시아 사람들은, 그들이 정통성을 버렸을 때조차도, 계속해서 신을 그리고 신성한 진리를 추구했고, 그리고 삶의 의미에 대한 탐구를 계속했다. 유 물론은 종교적 신앙에 대한 문제였고, 그 반대자들은 사 람들의 해방에 대한 적들로서 취급되었다. ) <그림 > 엘 리츠스키의 ‘새로운 인간’과 ‘프로운’( ) 결론적으로, 러시아 사람들이 이해했던 것은 기독교 휴머니즘이었다. 그것은 정확하게 말해 의문에 대한, 즉 종교적, 도덕적 그리고 사회적 의문에 대한 감정을 가졌 던 러시아 사상이었다. 그것은 금욕적이고도 종말론적인 의문이었다. 슈펭글러는 그가 러시아는 ‘고대에 맞서는 종말론적 반란’이라고 했을 때 러시아를 아주 절실하게 그리고 아주 잘 묘사하였다. ) 달리 말하자면, 공산주의 는 하나의 범재신론의 보편적 종교 철학적 관념으로, 그 래서, 유물론은 종교적 신앙에 대한 문제였고, 그 반대자 들은 사람들의 해방에 대한 적들로서 취급되었지만, 그 럼에도 불구하고, 일반적으로 강하게 인식된 공산주의는 극단적이고 왜곡된 이데올로기, 즉 사회적, 정치적, 경제 적 형태를 취한 것이었다. ) 즉, 기독교 사상은 어떤 비 ) nicolas berdyaev, op. cit., p. ) ibid., pp. , ) ibid., pp. - ) “러시아 공산주의는 러시아 메시아 신앙 관념의 왜곡이며, 그것은 서양의 부르주아적 어둠을 계몽할 운명 지워진 동양으로부터의 빛 을 주장한다. 공산주의 안에는 그 자체의 진실과 그 자체의 거짓 이 있다. 그 진실이란 사회적 진실, 인간의 그리고 국민들의 형제 애의 가능성의 구현, 계급 탄압이고, 반면 그 거짓은 그 정신적 기 초에 놓여있는데, 그것은 비인간화로, 개별적 인간의 가치에 대한 부정으로, 인간 사고의 축소로 귀결된다.” ibid., p. 한국실내디자인학회논문집 제 권 호 통권 호 _ . 굴한 정신에서 이해되고 해석되었다. ) 궁극적으로, 미학 적 의식은 변천했고 보다 커다란 중요성이 예술에 부가 되기 시작했다. ) 주지하는 것이지만, 구성주의 조각이나 파피에 콜레에서, 말레비치는 자신의 예술에서 극단적인 환원, 즉 비대상적 재현을 실험하였고, 결국 전혀 자연 세상에 존재하지 않는 현실에 준거하지 않는 이미지들을 구성해냈는데, 말레비치에 의하면, ‘절대적’ 창조의 본질 은 색상, 형태, 그리고 질감이라는 조형적 수단들 속에서 발견되는 것이었다. 그러나 “[과거에] 이러한 본질은 늘 주제에 의해 파괴되어왔다” )고 했다. 분명한 것은, 우리 는 아방가르드의 예술을 그 시대의 신비주의 가르침에 대한 회화적 대응으로서 여기는 것을 경계해야만 한다. 하지만 그럼에도 불구하고, 이러한 관념들을 긁어모으지 않았다면, 이러한 신비적 자극들이 없었다면, 칸딘스키, 말레비치, 마티우신과 같은 예술가들이 그들이 이룬 혹 은 그들의 추상을 미래 세계와 연결시켰던 혁신을 창조 했다는 것은 거의 있을 것 같지 않다. 그들에게, 그림을 그리는 것은 신앙심과 다름없었다는 ) 사실이다. . 결론 러시아에서 시작된 근대 추상 예술의 창조성을 종교사 상이라는 근원적 차원에서 접근, 이해하는 것은 분명 근 대성 전체에 대한 담론의 이해에 있어서, 그리고 더 나 아가 근대 새로운 인간의 실존주의적 투쟁의 과정에서 그러한 관념적 형이상학이 어떻게 시각적 재현의 영역에 서 새로운 표현으로 나타나게 되었는가를 고찰하는 것은 근대 창조성-예술에 대한 이해의 지평을 여는데 핵심적 요소이다. 분명, 러시아 아방가르드 예술가들은 그들의 철학 사상을 가장 잘 표현하는 조형적 구성요소들 가운 데에서 그 상관성을 탐구하기 시작했으며, 기하학적 원 리들은 예술가들의 주관성과 개입을 제거하고, 그리고 보편적 법칙들에 속한 새로운 구성을 만드는데 최상의 해결책을 제공했다. 즉, 러시아 절대주의와 네덜란드 신- 조형주의는 이러한 이상에 헌신한 가장 근원적이고 진보 적인 운동들이었다. ) 비록 러시아 사상이 ‘유물론’이라 고 불렸고 그 정치적 의미로 인해, 그래서 일반적으로, 이것은 종종 협의의 의미로만 인식되거나 오도되기도 하 였지만, 근대 러시아 아방가르드들에게 채색된 그 사상 ) ibid., p. ) ibid., p. ) gail h. roman & virginia h. marquardt ed., op. cit., p. . 에서 malevich, “from cubism and futurism to suprematism,” in malevich, essays on art, : . 재인용 ) maurice tuchman ed., op. cit., p. ) gail h. roman & virginia h. marquardt ed., op. cit., pp. - . 에서 m. dabrowski, ‘malevich and mondrian: nonobjective form as the expression of the “absolute”.’ 재인용 은 ‘정신적’ 관념에만 치우치지도 ‘물질주의적’ 실재에만 우선하지도 않은, 그 두 가지 가치 모두를 동시에 아우 르는 전일적인 ) 사상이었다. 그러한 특징은 라이트의 ‘유기적’ 사상의 유물적 특성과도 다르지 않은 것이었는 데, 한마디로, 근대성을 향한 탐구에서 물질과 정신, 신 과 인간에 대한 이원론의 극복은 모든 아방가르드들의 공통적 과제였다. 한마디로, 러시아 아방가르드에게서 나 타난 실존주의 휴머니티의 정신성이란 바로 근대 새로운 인간이 갖게 된 실존적 자아의 자유의지에 대한 강한 종 교철학적 신념이었고, 새로운 창조성의 예술은 그러한 신념의 표출이자 표현이었다. 근대 추상의 재현과 관련된 이러한 러시아의 정신성에 대한 혹은 종교철학적 사상에 대한 탐구는 당시 몬드리 안과 같은 신지학협회의 일원이었고 또한 러시아 아방가 르드와 같은 유물론자였던 반 되스부르크의 경우처럼, 상반된 것의 통일에 대한 사상과 보편자의 관념-조형 스 타일(ideo-plastic style)을 표현했던 신조형주의(혹은 데 스틸)와도 밀접하게 연관된 내용들이다. 이에 관한 연구 는 향후의 과제로 남겨두고자 한다. 참고문헌 . el lissitzky, about squares, artists bookworks, . charles h. hinton, a new era of thought, swan sonnenschein & co., . gail h. roman & virginia h. marquardt ed., the avant-garde frontier: the russia meets the west, - , the university press of florida, . john e. bowlt, trans. and ed., russian art of the avant-garde: theory and criticism - , the viking press, . john golding, paths to the absolute: mondrian, malevich, kandinsky, pollock, newman, rothko and still, thames & hudson, . john h. stuckenberg, the final science, or spiritual materialism, funk & wagnalls, . maurice tuchman ed., the spiritual in art: abstract painting - , abbeville press, . nicolas berdyaev, the russian idea, the centenary press, . p. d. ouspensky, tertium organum: the third canon of thought, nicholas bessaraboff and claude bragdon trans. & intro., kegan paul, . victor margolin, the struggle for utopia: rodchenko, lissitzky, moholy-nagy - , the university of chicago press, [논문접수 : . . ] [ 차 심사 : . . ] [ 차 심사 : . . ] [ 차 심사 : . . ] [게재확정 : . . ] ) “이원론은 역설적으로 일원론과 결합되었다” nicolas berdyaev, op. cit., p. . 이원론의 극복, 혹은 정신적 유물론에 대해서는, a. lovejoy, revolt against dualism: inquiry concerning the existence of idea (the open court publishing co., ); 실존 적 자아와 유물론에 대해서는, a. petrunkevich, the freedom of will: a study in materialism ( ); l. buchner, last words on materialism (watts & co., ) 볼 것. c o n t a c t : a j o u r n a l f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y m u s i c ( - ) http://contactjournal.gold.ac.uk citation � casken, john. . ‘a case of mistaken identity’. contact, . pp. - . issn - . http://contactjournal.gold.ac.uk a case of -mistaken identity in an article for the new mus ic journal begins his 'categorie s of judgement in modern music' with an attempt a t placing .the term innova tion' in some kind of perspective ••••• "in more stab le artistic when the danger of stagnation were so often in evidence the true innova tion had generally to work its elf through against a hostile e stablishment a nd a hos tile · in an extreme innovatory period like our own, innovation a s such can even become a. kind of establish- ment, and receive a constant critical ac colade .. tippett does not really justify the implications of such phrases as ••••• stable artistic period ••••• dangers of stagnation ••••• innovation ••.••• and these are open to discussion. if we search for a stable artistic period, then we would probably arrive at the eighteenth, century, its music, its painting and itl architec- ture. the introduction of renaissance features into architecture of the tudor period was done quite slowly until we had an established, '"stable" english renaissance. after up to and including the death of haydn, music had gradually absorbed new ideas until there was a "stable" classical period. innovation then unknown. the working out of . lines and forms as an objective art allowed emotion as a secondary element, _and here the word "stable" can, i think, be replaced by word "complete". perhaps a complete work of art is stagnant. as soon as romantic ideas came in the visual arts and in music, we do see an unstabilized artistic period, probably greater in its lasting effects than the revolution. the uprooting of · convention, the completely musical being replaced by the dramatic inner man, the search for novel effects in the visual arts (e.g. works by john turner and john nash) - all created disturbances which were to grow out of all recognition and give birth to the avant-garde •••• itself a logical conclusion from the age of beethoven, turner and william blake. the 'novel effects' throughout the roma ntic period were often mistaken for innovation, when in actua l fact they we re merely questions, searchings, and experiments with new means of expression. all romantics have searched for a personal means of expression, and in searching , they have exposed their connections with the past and their relation to the present. from tippett s remarks, we might expect, in our own totally non-stable period, a virile, non-stagnant art. he regards innovation as something to be got rid of soon as possible, in order to concentrate on more serious matters, yet in taking this stand he doesn't connect stagnation and innova- tion. many works of art today illustrate that just as completeness can lead to stagnation, so can the over-excitement and enthusiasm of the artist, mis- t akenly called innovation. - - true innovation in our own period belongs to very few figures, debussy and stravinsky being the first; impressionism and cubism in the visual arts may be as innovatory movements, yet both had their forerunners, and indeed cubism can be seen to be an outcome of impressionism. such movements as de stijl and dadaism can be called innovatory, but in the overall picture , how important are thes e they of course provide an essential link between one main source and another. similarly how important are composers such as ravel, milhaud, hindemith, dallapiccola, britten and so on? this , of course, is it doesn't matter how 'important' a composer is. we are exposed in this progressive society (which to the achievements of tech- nologists and scientists, and we have come to expect constant ne.wness in the arts, again mistakenly called innovation. i think michael tippett's point, t at qur period is extremely innovatory, is misleading., certain parts of society expect an enamelled stnll every time they go out shopping, as it were, _and this puts a great,strain on the artist. under this strain, he strives for newness or innovation, usually failing. a search for innovation will, i feel, in stagnation. true innovation does not exist today and if we look for this, then we must turn to composers of two previous periods in the twentieth century. debussy, stravinsky, schoenl:arg and varese are the figt.l+'es in the first in the we have messiaen, john cage and stockhausen. all these artists were (and are) huge sources of energy and they revitalised con- servative, eastablished trends. artists following in their footsteps do not innovate at as tippett would have us believe, but carry out ideas stemm- ing the main sources, creating new works-of art conditione?d by their own lives and experiences. certainly the period of art after the second world war is very unstabie. the over-activity of tc?day s artist is leading nowhere, not that it should, but as a result, i think that we are beginning to stag- 'nate, just as society is in its desire for extremes-. ;on the other. hand, the results of improvisation, and electronic music are very l:lberating indeed; but does this mean that these two forms are the only cure for stagnation? (this all depends on whe.ther .i am correct in seeing imminent stagnation) .. the opened up bythe;l above forms are endless; (and to a certain extent electronic music), not unlike an operatic nria, crystallises in one set period.of time an irreplaceable, unrepeqtable n _oment. sureiy the value of this could never involve a question of _stagnation. the very immediacy of musical is surely necessary for a demanding audience, and the spontaneity of inventioj:j. of a group of musi- cal people is a priceless as a (notated) haydn string quartet. disease sets in when these liberating influences are treated in a' dilletante manner with assumed innovation. the role of the artist in today's society can be rescued, i feel, if it is regarded with some respect for tradition. even stockhausen as much as admits this, and stagnation can be cured by forgetting innovation and developing a traditon liberated by the true innovators. when tippett says that innovation can become establishment (tradition) •• • • does he mean that the avant-garde is not a period of art but an approach to art? john casken. amedeo modigliani rev bras psiquiatr. ; :i - - © elsevier editora ltda. cover note official journal of the brazilian psychiatric associationpsychiatry revista brasileira de psiquiatria amedeo modigliani italy, / france, self-portrait, oil paint; x . cm in livorno, florence and venice, modigliani participated in art courses with established scholars and traditional impression- ists. poor health forced him to travel constantly throughout italy. at the age of , in venice, he cultivated a taste for the work of italian painters and the sculptor tino de camaino ( - ). he arrived in paris in and dedicated himself to sculpture, before leaving it later in . joins the colarossi academy. in he saw cézanne’s paintings at a posthumous and intellectuals that cheered paris life back then, he was “a mixture of cynicism and tenderness”, created “from alcohol, drugs and misery”, as described jean cocteau. in he established himself near the workshop operated by brancusi, whose sculpture interested him as much as the lines synthesis found in african images. in , the polish poet zborowsky became his marchand modigliani became a founding member of the important group known as the “paris school”. his aesthetic is closer to that of gauguin and toulouse lautrec than to the style of cubism that he encountered while traveling in paris. however, it is undeniable that he assimilated some of the lessons of cubism related to pictorial surface planing the use of abrupt cuts. it is precisely these attributes that allowed him to overcome the deforming quality of expres- sionism. his singular expressionism involves the moder- ate application of cubist space to a nostalgic universe, together with a sense of perspective similar to gauguin’s and a melancholy that is reminiscent of metaphysical painting. all of these characteristics are visible in this self-portrait, the oval facial lines and transparent eyes that are particular to his work are present together with a discrete constructive will expressed without excessive lines to create a lyricism with a archaic resonance. sônia salztein goldberg published in perfil de um acervo / museu de arte contemporânea da universidade de são paulo (organization and essay of aracy amaral. são paulo: techint, ). amedeo modigliani itália, / frança, autorretrato, Óleo s/ tela; x , cm frequenta em livorno, florença e veneza cursos de arte com velhos professores acadêmicos ou de tradição impressionista. um precário estado de saúde obriga-o a constantes viagens pela itália. aos anos, em veneza, atraem-no os pintores italianos e o escultor tino de camaino ( - ). chega a paris em , disposto a dedicar-se à escultura, a qual aban- donará em , inscreve-se na academia colarossi. em toma contato com a pintura de cézanne, em retrospectiva póstuma. faz parte do grupo de artistas e intelectuais que animava a vida parisiense de então, ele mesmo “uma mistura de cinismo e ternura”, gerada “no álcool, nas drogas e na próximo ao ateliê de brancusi, cuja escultura lhe interessa africanas. em o poeta polonês zborowsky torna-se seu marchand e importante estimulador de sua obra. genericamente como “escola de paris”. sua visualidade está mais próxima a gauguin e toulouse lautrec do que às experi- ências radicais consumadas pelo cubismo à mesma época em que se instala em paris. no entanto é inegável que tenha assi- milado algumas de suas lições, no aplainamento da superfície pictórica e em certos recortes abruptos com que a articula – e é justamente esse dado que o faz superar os procedimentos deformantes do expressionismo. seu expressionismo singular é então a absorção moderada do espaço cubista para um universo nostálgico à la gauguin, trespassado ainda de uma melancolia que o refere à pintura metafísica. esses registros estão todos condensados neste autorretrato, rosto oval inclinado, olhos estranhamente vazados tão característicos de sua obra, aliando uma discreta vontade construtiva expressa na economia de linhas a um acento lírico de ressonância arcaizante. sônia salztein goldberg texto publicado originalmente no livro contemporânea da universidade de são paulo (organização editorial e ensaio de aracy amaral. são paulo: techint, ). este é um artigo open access sob a licença de cc by-nc-nd. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / fascinacije teorijom / fascinated by theory | art+media Članak je primljen: . decembar . revidirana verzija: . januar . prihvaćena verzija: . januar . udc: . . buhloh b. ; . milica ivić studentkinja doktorskih studija grupa za teoriju umetnosti i medija, interdisciplinarne studije univerziteta umetnosti u beogradu ivic.milica@gmail.com benjamin buhloh. recepcija nasleđa avangarde apstrakt: ovaj se rad bavi jednim od najrelevantnijih aspekata teorijskog i kritičkog rada kritičara i istoričara umetnosti benjamina buhloha. pored toga što je jedan od kourednika časopisa okto- bar i profesor moderne umetnosti na univerzitetu harvard, buhloh je ključni svedok fenomena koji su od suštinskog značaja za savremeni razvoj umetnosti. on je posvedočio trenutak nji- hovog nastajanja izbliza ili na najznačajnijim mestima njihovog uticaja na ostatak sveta. inter- pretirao je istorijske avangardne i neo-avangardne pokrete sa posebnom pažnjom, u nameri da definiše kriterijume (istorijske, ideološke i estetičke) za razlikovanje evropske i američke neo- avangarde. njegova geopolitička biografija, njegov uvid u relacije umetnosti i politike u poslerat- noj nemačkoj, kao i rezultati njegovog istraživanja avangardi jesu predmet ovog teksta. ključne reči: istorija umetnosti, avangarda, neoavangarda, industrija kulture, političko; benjamin buhloh (benjamin h. d. buchloh) je jedan od kourednika časopisa „oktobar“ (october) i profesor moderne umetnosti na katedri za istoriju umetnosti i arhitekture na uni- verzitetu harvard. do sada je već predavao na univerzitetu kolumbija, kao i na masačusets insti- tutu za tehnologiju. njegov kritičarski i teorijski rad izuzetan je uvid u tokove i struje savremene umetnosti. sa posebnom pažnjom je interpetirao istorijske avangardne i neoavangardne pokrete tokom duge istorije . veka. u svojim esejima se bavi pokušajem da ustanovi kriterijume (istori- jske, ideološke i estetičke) za razlikovanje evropske i američke neoavangarde. Časopis oktobar su osnovale . godine u njujorku rozalind kraus i anet majklson. njegov naziv referira na ejzejnštanov film koji postavlja ton intelektualnog, politički angažovanog pisanja koje je bilo obeležje ovog časopisa. Časopis je značajan zbog uvođenja francuske poststrukturalističke teorije na akademsku scenu engle- skog govornog područja i postao je glavno uporište interpretacije postmoderne umetnosti. buhloh postaje član uredničkog odbora časopisa . godine. za buhloha je oktobar prostor otpora, izvan institucionalnih kompro- misa na koje su drugi časopisi morali da pristanu u periodu industrijalizacije sfere akademske avangarde. buhloh vidi oktobar kao model otpora koji je morao da nastane zbog toga što artforum više nije ono što je bio šezdesetih godina. art+media | Časopis za studije umetnosti i medija / journal of art and media studies broj , decembar od mnogobrojnih mogućih načina za predstavljanje vrlo raznolikih problematika kojima se buhloh u svojoj praksi bavio i još uvek se bavi, ovde je izdvojeno nekoliko vrlo dominantnih i karakterističnih, ali opet ograničenih u odnosu na raspon celokupnog opusa. metodologija za ovakav prikaz uslovljena je glavnim izabranim izvorima za proučavanje, ali je i suštinski inherent- na buhlohovom radu u polju umetničke kritike. ona je zasnovana na mešavini njegovih biograf- skih (i šire istorijskih, prostornih i vremenskih) odrednica i ključnih umetničkih i političkih ideja i koncepata u istoriji . veka. geopolitika njegove biografije, prostorno-temporalna izmeštanja, konteksti koji se menjaju, ali ostavljaju svoje tragove, ukršteni su sa stalnom revizijom sopstvenih pozicija. teorijski rad benjamina buhloha biće predstavljen iz perspektive obimnog intervjua o političkom potencijalu umetnosti od – . godine, koji su vodili Žan-fransoa Ševrije (jean-françois chevrier) i ketrin dejvid (catherine david) . intervju je objavljen u monumen- talnoj knjizi koja je bila prateći deo izložbe documenta x . godine u kaselu, kao antologija tekstova i vizuelnih materijala o razvoju zapadne kulturne i kritičke teorije od . godine. govoreći o svom životu, buhloh je ukazao na karakteristične trenutke u kojima je stupao u kon- takt sa markističkim misliocima, poststrukturalistima ili američkom kritikom i kako je, samopre- ispitivanjem svog rada u polju umetničke kritike koji je započeo šezdesetih godina u nemačkoj, pratio i važne pojave umetničkih pravaca, umetnika, grupa, kao i novih umetničkih tehnika, kao što je tenhika foto-montaže i prisvajanja. njegova intelektualna biografija kao da predstavlja sažet kurs o kontradikcijama i previranjima umetničkih praksi i pozicija od šezdesetih godina . veka do danas. ona prolazi kroz najvažnija pitanja istorije savremene umetnosti (odnos prema muzejima, prema recepciji nasleđa avangarde...), osvešćujući tokove kojima se kretalo mišljenje o savremenoj umetnosti, mogućim sagledivim razlikama između nemačke kulture, i šire, evrop- ske i američke kulture. uporedno sazrevanje buhlohovih teorijskih pozicija i onoga što zovemo posleratnom umetnošću, omogućava nam da pratimo promene u njenoj percepciji, zablude i preterani optimizam koji je bio moguć u pojedinim fazama nastajanja. geopolitička biografija buhloh je već tokom prvih godina studija u kelnu došao u kontakt sa savremenim kulturnim i umetničkim praksama, pratio performanse fluksusa, prisustvovao fluxus fluxorum festivalu u dizeldorfu na kojem su bila izvedena dela kejdža (john cage), brehta (bertold brecht), bojsa (joseph beuys) i paika (nam june paik). on je svedok trenutka kada se novi realisti pojavljuju u berlinu, svedok trenutka kada pop-art dolazi u berlin . godine. sve pojave koje podrazume- vamo kao temeljne tačke razvoja savremene umetnosti, on je sagledavao u trenutku kada su nas- tajale, tamo gde su nastajale ili na mestima gde se prelamao njihov uticaj na ostali deo sveta, na primer na evropu. u keln je ponovo došao . godine, posle dve godine provedene u londonu. u tom periodu prvi put odlazi u ameriku, organizuje izložbe dana grahama (dan graham), gerharda rihtera (gerhard richter) i marsela brudersa (marcel broodthaers). od . do . godine predaje istoriju savremene umetnosti u dizeldorfu, gde počinje da uređuje časopis inter- funtionen. Žan fransoa Ševrije je kustos, istoričar i kritičar umetnosti, profesor istorije savremene umetnosti na École na- tionale supérieure des beaux-arts u parizu. ketrin dejvid je kustoskinja i teoretičarka savremene umetnosti. bila je kustoskinja muzeja moderne umetnosti georges pompidou u parizu i kustos mnogih izložbi, kao i umetnički direktor documenta x u kaselu . godine. catherine david,“ – : the political potential of art”, pol(e)itics, documenta x – the book, kassel, cantz, , – i – . ovim tehnikama buhloh se bavi u eseju allegorical procedures: appropriation and montage in contemporary art iz . godine, koji je važan i zbog toga što je tu prvi put pisao o novoj generaciji ženskih umetnica, konačno prepoznajući njihovu ključnu ulogu za period osamdesetih godina . veka. fascinacije teorijom / fascinated by theory | art+media sa otkrićem američke kritike, buhloh otkriva ograničenja savremene evropske estetičke misli. godine . konačno odlazi iz nemačke u novi škotski koledž u istočnoj kanadi, univerzitet okrenut konceptualnoj umetnosti, koja je u trenutku kada buhloh tamo dolazi već na zalasku. ono što ga je opredelilo da napusti nemačku jeste jačanje desničarskih tendencija i naivno verovanje o sličnostima između kulture i umetnosti amerike i kanade. pored toga, najvažnije kritike, kao i umetničke prakse koje su ga interesovale dolazile su iz amerike. u tom trenutku, kasnih sedam- desetih godina, naročito iz perspektive posleratne nemačke, činilo se da je umetnička proizvod- nja u americi (pre svega pop-art, fluksus, minimalizam i konceptualna umetnost), kao i diskursi istorije umetnosti i kritike o umetnosti . veka i savremenoj umetnosti (klement grinberg / clement greenberg/ i rozalind kraus /rosalind e. krauss/), već prisvojila model posttradicio- nalne formacije identiteta. u los anđeles odlazi . godine da predaje istoriju savremene umetnosti na kalifornijs- kom institutu umetnosti, na odseku za umetnost „posle ateljea“ (post-studio), gde je postojalo interesovanje za konceptualnu umetnost. period kasnih sedamdesetih i kasnih osamdesetih je period regresivnog talasa, nove hegemonije slikarstva, koji dovodi buhloha u položaj otpora, opozicije ali, kako i sam priznaje, bez načina da pruži neka druga sredstva za borbu. prva stvar koju je uradio . godine, kada se preselio u njujork, bilo je specijalno izdanje časopisa okto- bar o brudersu. za njega je to bio pokušaj motivisan željom da se ponovo poveže sa evropskim nasleđem koje je ostalo nepoznato u americi, kao i da se razvije retrospektivna kritika koncep- tualne umetnosti kroz brudersov rad. od tada do danas živi i radi na istočnoj američkoj obali. posleratna nemačka – umetnost i politika ako govorimo o teorijskim pozicijama sa kojih pristupa istoriji umetnosti, važno je da za buhloha evropa, kao tvorac narativa modernizma, ostaje prostor u kojem se ovaj narativ čuva, koji suštinski omogućava dvosmislenost u pozicioniranju prema njemu, dvosmislenost koja je u americi nemoguća zbog toga što je njena verzija modernizma krajnje pojednostavljena. na početku buhlohovog uzbudljivog gepolitičkog kretanja u svetu umetnosti . veka, on se suočava sa situacijom u kojoj je u nemačkoj politizacija u vizuelnim umetnostima bila nemoguća, koliko i promišljanje fašističke prošlosti. sa druge strane, u pozorišnoj umetnosti i književnosti postojao je element politizacije u delima pitera vajsa (peter weiss), gintera grasa (gunter grass), hajnriha bela (heinrich böll). iako u tom trenutku, sredinom šezdesetih godina, rihter već radi na svom atlasu , koji će se pojaviti znatno kasnije kao projekat umetničkog promišljanja uslova pamćenja, očigledan je različit položaj ovih umetničkih disciplina u odnosu na pitanje političkog. jedno od mogućih objašnjenja za buhloha leži u činjenici da su se plastične umetnosti bavile objektom, koji je bio važan element tržišta. stepen identifikacije sa potrošačkom groznicom koja je pratila američki model čini deo nemačkog posleratnog projekta, koji se sastojao u tome da se omogući prostor za identifikaciju sa nečim osim sa sopstvenom istorijom. to se ogledalo u potiskivanju vajmarske avangardne kulture, u sprečavanju bilo kog pokušaja da se ponovo ispita istorija fašizma i konačno u preoblikovanju zemlje prema internacionalnom modelu potrošnje. u skladu sa situacijom u posleratnoj nemačkoj, buhloh postavlja pitanje odnosa između politike i umetnosti u potpunosti nezavisno od nadrealizma. za razliku od toga, u francuskoj kulturi je nadrealizam bio trenutak u kojem su umetnost i politika mogle da se sukobe. buhlo- hov skepticizam prema nadrealizmu potiče, sa jedne strane, iz anti-frojdizma koji je obeležio benjamin h.d. buchloh (ed), broodthaers − writtings, interviews, photographs, london–cambridge ma, the mit press, . atlas gerharda rihtera je jedan od nekoliko, po strukturi sličnih projekata, koje su izveli evropski umetnici od ranih do sredine šezdesetih godina, koji se odlikuju formalnim postupcima sakupljanja pronađenih ili intenciona- lno proizvedenih fotografija u manje ili više regularnim koordinatnim sistemima. art+media | Časopis za studije umetnosti i medija / journal of art and media studies broj , decembar posleratnu nemačku, sa druge strane, iz skepticizma ili kritičke pozicije prema slikarstvu koji je obeležio buhlohove estetičke intrese tokom šezdesetih, kao i to što je nadrealizam isuviše brzo postao eksploatisan u reklamnoj industriji. kompleksnije objašenjenje zanemarivanja nadreal- izma leži u tome što je buhloh političko sagledavao u vezi sa preobražajem vlasništva nad sred- stvima za proizvodnju, nad proizvodnim odnosima, a ne sa preobražajem nesvesnog. za njega je umetničko delo zasnovano na modelu komunikacije, veoma kompleksne i kontradiktorne ko- munikacije između otpora i opozicije, negativne kritike, a ne na modelu libidinalne intervencije ili intervencije u podsvesnim strukurama formiranja subjekta. ako se uzme u obzir i kritika nad- realizma, kakva je deborova (guy debord) ili birenova (daniel buren), dolazi se do zaključka da ona nije bila toliko neuobičajna tokom šezdesetih. sa druge strane, buhloh je bio posvećen proučavanju ruskog formalizma i sovjetske umetnosti, pa je minimalizam promišljao kroz recep- ciju ruske avangarde. buhloh smatra da su postojala dva puta za mišljenje o umetnosti i politici: ili nadrealizam ili sovjetska avangarda. prednost nadrealizma bila je tome što je omogućio da iskustvo mita postane dostupno u individualnoj formi nesvesnog i sna. u vajmarskom kontekstu, mit je postao ekvivalent fašističkoj kulturi i u tome leži objašnjenje zbog čega je pristup nad- realizmu bio onemogućen u svim onim kulturama koje su prošle kroz, ili bile blizu fašizmu ili staljinističkom totalitarizmu u . veku. posle rata je postalo jasno da će prostorom nesvesnog zavladati industrija kulture. avangarda i neoavangarda kao što naslov njegove zbirke eseja neo-avantgarde and culture industry. essays on euro- pean and american art from to sugeriše, buhloh vidi odnos između međusobno isključujućih sila umetničke produkcije i industrije kulture kao krajnje suprotstavljen, ali tako da još uvek može da prati njihove neprekidne interakcije. ova zbirka od devetnaest eseja obuhvata najznačajnija pitanja kojima se buhloh bavi tokom celokupne svoje karijere istoričara i kritičara umetnosti, kao i najznačajnije figure i pojave evropske i američke umetnosti u periodu od . do . godine, uključujući novi realizam (nouveau réalisme) u francuskoj, posleratnu nemačku umetnost, američki fluksus i pop-art, minimalizam i postminimalističku umetnost, kao i evrop- sku i američku konceptualnu umetnost. važna opsesija njegovog rada jeste pokušaj da se razjasne kompleksni i stalno promenljivi odnosi između perioda istorijske avangarde od – . godine i neoavangarde tokom peri- oda rekonstrukcije u njujorku i posleratnoj evropi od do . godine. u predgovoru buhloh kaže da mu je nedostajao teorijski okvir u trenutku kada je pisao ove eseje. kada retrospe- ktivno sagleda nedostatak tog teorijskog okvira, vidi ga u formi pitanja: „kako su različite struk- ture javnog iskustva, od buržoaske javne sfere u opadanju (sa očajničkim pokušajima za njeno spasenje i oživljavanje) u delima umetnika kao što je anri matis (henri matiss) do avangardnih catherine david,“ – : the political potential of art”..., op. cit. . „istorijska avangarda je nadstilski pojam koji označava radikalne, ekscesne, kritičke, eksperimentalne, proje- ktivne i intermedijske pokrete od sredine xix do kraja tridesetih godina xx veka. ona je nadstilski pojam koji je skup različitih slučajeva, pokreta i škola. za bukloha je možda najvažnija njena hronološka pozicija kao nečega što dolazi pre rata jer njega zanimaju kontinuiteti, mogućnosti da se se uspostavi komunikacija sa nasleđem posle drugog svetskog rata.“ miško Šuvaković, pojmovnik teorije umetnosti, beograd, orion art, , . „peter birger je odredio avangardu kao istorijski završen projekat, specifičan za rani xx vek. on neoavangardu, tumači kao institucionalizaciju izvornih avangardističkih namera, a to je samo jedan od mogućih interpretacija ovog fenomena. moglo bi se reći da je bukloh bliži određenju neoavangarde kao specifičnog i relativno autonom- nog skupa pokreta i individualnih učinaka od . do . godine koji tvore složenu sliku zamisli i projekata modernosti.“ miško Šuvaković, pojmovnik teorije umetnosti, beograd, orion art, , . fascinacije teorijom / fascinated by theory | art+media pokušaja džona hartfilda (john hartfield) da konstruiše proletersku javnu sferu u nastajanju, dramatično uticale na koncepciju i recepciju umetnosti u predratnom i posleratnom periodu?“ iz perspektive teorijskog okvira jirgena habermasa (jürgen habermas), za buhloha postaje nužno da pokuša da opiše javnu sferu umetnika (kao što je vorhol /andy warhol/) u trenutku kada kulturna industrija i spektakl u velikoj meri napadaju nekada relativno autonomne prostore, institucije i prakse neo-avangardne kulture i počinju da ih kontrolišu. levica je tradicionalno ovakav prostor i prakse neo-avangarde određivala kao iskvarene, komercijalne, kontaminirane i saučesničke. „nemačka nova levica je šezdesetih godina optuživala neoavangardnu kulturalnu proizvodnju da nije mnogo više od proizvoda interesa tržišta i da nema drugu funkciju osim da opremi muzeje i domove luksuznim potrošačkim objektima i pruži legimitimitet posleratnom neokapitalizmu. bilo koja kulturna proizvodnja se smatrala reakcionarnom, afirmativnom po definiciji (na primer vorhol), i konstitutivnim delom sistema. to je pozicija koju je u tom trenut- ku zastupao neko kao gi debor i koja je našla izraz u knjizi petera birgera (peter bürger) teorija avangarde . godine. birgerova knjiga je u potpunosti neupućena u savremenu umetničku praksu i u ovom smislu podseća na lukačevo falsifikovanje modernosti (...)“ nova levica je zapravo izjednačavala neoavangardu i neokapitalizam, a tu poziciju je zastupao i buhloh do . godine. u svom kasnijem kritičarskom radu, buhloh teži da se distancira od tog isuviše udobnog stava levice i da dijalektiku međusobno isključujućih sila umetničke proiz- vodnje i industrije kulture posmatra u stalnoj interakciji. buhloh eksplicitno poistovećuje rad petera birgera sa novom levicom i u njegovom odbijan- ju da prepozna relevantnost posleratnih praksi vidi uzrok prezrivog odnosa prema savremenoj kulturnoj proizvodnji i duboke sumnje u njenu legitimnost, iako je tokom šezdesetih godina i sam buhloh odbacivao neoavangardu kao buržoaski oblik lepe umetnosti i rekonstrukciju elitne buržoaske kulture. buhloh zaključuje da je jedna od velikih birgerovih zabluda bila posma- tranje neoavangarde u edipalnom odnosu prema roditeljskoj poziciji istorijskih avangardi i ne- priznavanje njene specifičnosti i legitimnosti. druga velika zabluda, koju buhloh priznaje da je donekle delio sa birgerom, bila je pretpostavka da bi „(…) kriterijumi za estetsko prosuđivanje morali da budu uvek povezani, ako ne sa modelima potpuno instrumentalizovane političke efi- kasnosti, onda bar sa obaveznim modusom kritičke negativnosti.“ i tada i sada buhloh tvr- di da je jedna od beskonačnih funkcija estetskih struktura zapravo da omoguće bar trenutnu i konkretnu iluziju univerzalno dostupnog ukidanja moći (suspension of power). estetske struk- ture razaraju svaki oblik dominacije u bilo kojoj formi da je upisana u kodove i konvencije (bilo da su to lingvističke, vizuelne, reprezentacione ili bihejvioralne strukture socijalne interakcije). proučavajući rad nemačkog umetnika gerharda rihtera, buhloh se usredsredio na kapacitet es- tetskog da konstruiše mnemoničko iskustvo kao jedan od nekoliko činova otpora totalitarizmu spektakularizacije. sa druge strane, on nastoji da tumači odnos između evropskog nasleđa i posledica njegove američke recepcije. za apstraktni ekspresionizam, koji se javlja četrdesetih godina . veka u am- erici, kaže, da je u mnogo aspekata, logičan razvoj direktnog prenošenja slikarskog nadrealizma na ovu novu teritoriju. u tom smislu, pozivajući se na strogo birgerovo razlikovanje istorijskih avangardi i neoavangardi, buhloh kaže da ovaj pokret ne bi ni mogao da se okarakteriše kao benjamin buchloh, neo-avantgarde and culture industry, essays on european and american art from to , cambridge ma, the mit press, , xxi. catherine david, “ – : the political potential of art”..., op. cit. . benjamin buchloh, neo-avantgarde and culture industry..., op. cit. xxiv. ibid. xxiv. ibid. xxv. art+media | Časopis za studije umetnosti i medija / journal of art and media studies broj , decembar stvarno neoavangardan, zbog toga što samo ponavlja ključne paradigme istorijske avangarde. za razliku od birgera, buhloh postavlja tezu da se tek sa usponom konceptualne umetnosti oko . godine, što kulminira sredinom sedamdesetih, suočavamo sa odvajanjem umetnika od nasleđa istorijskih avangardi. sa konceptualnom umetnošću ustanovljena je radikalno drugačija osnova za kritičke intevencije u diskurzivnim i institucionalnim okvirima koji određuju proizvodnju i recepciju savremene umetnosti. pošto je pratio razvoj i domete konceptualne umetnosti, buhloh postaje svedok njenih iluzija, kraja i povratka figuralnog, objekta, što se čini da ne može lako da prežali. u eseju conceptual art – : from the aesthetic of administration to the critique of institutions , buhloh priznaje da su „(...) prosvetiteljski trijumf konceptualne umetnosti, njena transformacija publike i distribucije, njeno ukidanje statusa objekta i forme robe – bili pre svega kratkog daha, i da su skoro odmah ustupili mesto povratku utvara uklonjenih slikarskih i vajar- skih paradigmi prošlosti, kako bi mimetički režim, koji je konceptualna umetnost navodno bila poremetila, ponovo bio uspostavljen sa obnovljenom snagom.” tipičan bukolohov doprinos recepciji avangardnog nasleđa u sad-a ogleda se u tekstu from faktura to factography , objavljenom u jesen . godine u časopisu oktobar, u odeljku histori- cal materialism. u osnovi, u ovom radu buhloh se bavi promenom koja se dogodila u sovjetskoj avangardi u vezi sa slikovnom koncepcijom koja je zasnovana na pojmu faktura (shvaćenom kao tekstura) i njenom transformacijom u ono što on naziva faktografijom (factography), zasnova- nom na mehaničkom i dokumentarnom kvalitetu fotografije. buhloh ukazuje da se promena paradigme dogodila . godine sa foto-muralom koji je proslavljao godišnjicu revolucije, a čiji su autori bili lisicki i klucis (el lissitsky, gustav klutsis), napravljenim za pressa exhibition u kelnu. odbijajući uobičajenu teoriju o viktimizaciji avangarde (kroz ideju umetnika koji je prinuđen da stavi svoju umetnost u službu države), buhloh je pokazao svojevoljno učestvovanje ovih umetnika u proizvodnji sovjetske propagande čak i tokom staljinovog režima. zapravo, ovim tekstom buhloh je odlučio da uputi oštar izazov američkom okviru za recep- ciju sovjetske avangarde, na koju je presudno uticao prvi direktor muzeja moderne umetnosti alfred bar (alfred barr). za razliku od buhloha koji je sa evropskog tla došao u ameriku, bar je . godine otputovao u sovjetski savez da se upozna sa dostignućima avangarde. u ovom tekstu on odlučno osporava način na koji je alfred bar učinio sve što je mogao da istorijski negira ili umanji činjenicu sa kolikim su žarom predstavnici konstruktivizma prihvatili svoj politički angažman, što mu je omogućilo da osmisli i izveze depolitizovani internacionalistički diskurs o savremenoj umetnosti. ono što se kasnije pokazalo jeste da je takav koncept bio potreban interesima liberalnog modela društva u borbi za kulturalnu hegemoniju tokom hladnog rata. ali, pored faktora koji su doprineli uobličavanju istoriografskog okvira za diskusiju, buhlohov tekst pokazuje da je politički žar, koji se prvobitno pokazao kroz produktivističke i faktograf- ske hipoteze, zapravo bio u skladu sa prevazilaženjem utvrđenih okvira nasleđenih od institucija umetnosti. u suprotnosti sa stavom akademske, istoriografske, umetničke i političke tradicije, ovo prevazilaženje nije vodilo napuštanju eksperimentalnih procesa koji su se razvili tokom cf. benjamin buchloh, “figures of authority, ciphers of regression – notes on the return of representation in europian painting”, october, no. , , – benjamin buchloh, “conceptual art – : from the aesthetic of administration to the critique of institu- tions”, october, vol. , , – . ibid. . benjamin buchloh,“from faktura to factography”, october, vol. , – . iako se u poseti rodčenku suočio sa činjenicom da je on prestao da slika još . godine, bar zaključuje da mora da pronađe slikare ako je to moguće, u čemu ne uspeva ni u susretu sa lisickim. ipak, na spektakularnoj izložbi cubism and abstract art . godine, koja je bila rezultat barovog putovanja u sovjetski savez, nije bilo tragova njegovog susreta sa produktivizmom o kome govori u svojim dnevnicima sa putovanja. cf. ibid. . fascinacije teorijom / fascinated by theory | art+media stadijuma autonomnog razvoja avangardne vizuelne umetnosti, književnosti i pozorišta, već ih je produbilo. produktivistička i faktografska iskustva su pokazala da politizacija umetnosti u smeru ka industrijskoj proizvodnji i društvenom aktivizmu ne uništava kompleksnost hipoteze, tenhičkih i formalnih alata avangardne umetničke prakse. buhloh tvrdi da je već tokom ranih dvadesetih godina u sovjetskoj rusiji postojala opšta svest među umetnicima i teoretičarima da učestvuju u konačnoj transformaciji modernističke estetike, time što neopozivo menjaju uslove proizvodnje i recepcije umetnosti nasleđene iz buržoaskog društva i njegovih institucija. buhloh zapravo otkriva ono što je posredstvom barovog prikaza sovjetske avangarde ostalo nevidljivo. on eksplicitno kaže da je posledica barovog delovanja bila upravo to što je produk- tivizam ostao potpuno nepoznat američkoj akademskoj i umetničkoj svesti do šezdesetih godina . veka. ovaj kompleksan tekst, koji je samo deo buhlohovih napora ka osvetljavanju recepcije evropskih avangardi, doprineo je daljim obimnim istraživanjima američkih istoričara i kritičara umetnosti u oblasti evropskih avangardi. njegov utemeljivački rad je bio preduslov za buduće projekte , a njegov uticaj je toliki da je postavio nove neupitne okvire za razumevanje avangard- nog nasleđa. radikalno osporavajući dotadašnji institucionalni okvir, on uspostavlja novi. buhloh danas posmatrano danas, važan problem u vezi sa buhlohovom teorijskom pozicijom leži u uveren- ju da umetničke prakse moraju da se bore protiv podleganja moćima kulture spektakla, konven- cijama percepcije i komunikacije koje ukidaju bilo koju vrstu otpora, kao i u ideji da je odbrana od univerzalizacije kao kontrole u ponovnom pojavljivanju koncepcije umetnosti kao negativne teologije, sekularizovanog iskustva sakralnog, kao mogućnosti za legitimisanje bilo koje vrste umetničke prakse uopšte. buhloh i dalje začudno ne odobrava prisvajanje i fuziju avangardnog, čak anarhističkog nasleđa, od strane visoko kapitalističke potrošačke mašinerije. kao grešku u svojoj karijeri umetničkog kritičara, buhloh navodi tradicionalnu ambiciju kritičarki i kritičara da konstruišu veličinu, kada govori o tome kako mu je žao što o nekim ev- ropskim umetnicima nije dovoljno pisao i tako učinio da budu prihvaćeni u americi, dok su neki drugi isuviše precenjeni (jozef bojs i iv klajn). sada shvata da to ima za cilj obezbeđivanje kriteri- juma i normi za prijem u hegemoni kanon i želi da se distancira od toga, jer je razumeo da je upravo to korak ka institucionalizaciji i kontroli kulturalnih praksi. druga stvar jeste primetno odsustvo ženskih autora, do kojeg je došlo nesvesnim potčinjavanjem patrijarhalnom poretku i ostalim pozicijama moći koje često upravlju konvencionalnim odnosima umetnik-kritičar i umetnik-kustos. ostaje činjenica da je buhloh danas jedan od najuticajnih istoričara umetnosti, čiji rad pokriva period od šezdesetih godina . veka do danas. u tom povlašćenom položaju leži mogućnost da sagleda i prati pojave na umetničkoj sceni u njihovom nastajanju i retrospektivno procenjuje nji- hove domete u širokom geopolitičkom rasponu od istočne i zapadne nemačke, sa njihovim raz- likama, i šireg područja evrope do severne amerike. važnost buhlohovih istorijsko-kritičarskih uvida leži u otvaranju mogućnosti da evropa posle drugog svetskog rata upozna svoju predratnu prošlost, a da se posleratna umetnost razumeva u odnosu na tradiciju na koju neizbežno referira, bez obzira da li stupa u odnose njene radikalne negacije ili retrogradnog potvrđivanja. cf. margarita tupitsyn, the soviet photograph – , new haven, yale university press, . benjamin buchloh, neo-avantgarde and culture industry..., op. cit. xxviii. ibid. xxix. art+media | Časopis za studije umetnosti i medija / journal of art and media studies broj , decembar literatura: − michelson, annette, rosalind krauss, douglas crimp, joan copjec (eds.), october – the first decade, – , cambridge ma, the mit press, . − buchloh, h. d. benjamin (ed.), broodthaers – writtings, interviews, photographs, lon- don–cambridge ma, the mit press, . − buchloh, benjamin, “conceptual art – : from the aesthetic of administration to the critique of institutions”, october, vol. , – . − buchloh, benjamin, “figures of authority, ciphers of regression – notes on the return of representation in europian painting”, october, vol. , , – . − buchloh, benjamin, “from detail to fragment: décollage affichiste”, october no. , , – . − buchloh, benjamin, “from faktura to factography”, october, vol. , , – . − buchloh, benjamin, “gerhard richter’s atlas: the anomic archive”, october, vol. , , – . − buchloh, benjamin (ed.), gerhard richter, cambridge ma, the mit press, . − buchloh, benjamin (ed.), modernism and modernity: the vancouver conference papers, press of the nova scotia college of art & design, . − buchloh, benjamin, neo-avantgarde and culture industry. essays on european and american art from to , cambridge ma, the mit press, . − buchloh, benjamin, “theories of art after minimalism and pop”, u: hal foster (ed.), dis- cussions in contemporary culture, seattle, bay press, , – . − buchloh, benjamin, catherine david, jean-francois chevrier, “ – : the political potential of art”, pol(e)itics, documenta x – the book, kassel, cantz, , – i – . − foster, hal, roslaind krauss, yves-alain bois, benjamin h. d. buchloh (eds.), art since : modernism, antimodernism, postmodernism, london, thames and hudson, . − krauss, rosalind, annete michelson, yves-alain bois, benjamin h. d. buchloh, hal foster, dennis hollier, sylvia kolbowski (eds.), october. the second decade, – , cambridge ma, . − Šuvaković, miško, pojmovnik teorije umetnosti, beograd, orion art, . benjamin buchloh. reception of avant-garde heritage summary: this work deals with some of the most important aspects of the theoretical and critical work of art historian benjamin h. d. buchloh. beside being co-editor of october and professor of modern art at harvard university, he is the key withness to all the phenomena we find essential to the contemporary art development. he withnessed the moment of their emergence from up close or from the key places of their influence on the rest of the world. he interpreted historical avant-garde and neo-avantgarde movements with special attention, in an attempt to define cri- teria (historical, ideological, and esthetical) for distinguishing between european and american neo-avantgarde. his geopolitical biography, his insight into the relation between art and politics in the afterwar germany, as well as the results of his research of the avantgards were presented in the essay. keywords: art history, avant-garde, neoavantgarde, culture industry, political;